1 
 
 WEBSTER'S AMERICAN 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
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 EDITORIAL STAFF 
 
 OHARLE S HIGGINS, Managins Editok AMKRicANrzKD Encyclopedia Brittanica 
 Assisted by a large corps of specialists and e.xperts, including Associate 
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 is revised up to the latest date. 
 
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 Copyright 1 909 
 
 DEBOWER-CHAPLINECO. 
 
A 
 
 ABBE 
 
 i. 
 
 A, the first letter in almost all alpha- 
 bets. Most modern languages, as 
 French, Italian, German, have only one 
 sound for a, namely, the sound which is 
 heard in father pronounced short or 
 long; in English this letter is made to 
 represent seven sounds, as in the words 
 father, mat, mate, mare, many, ball, 
 what, besides being used in such digraphs 
 as ea in heat, oa in boat. — A, in music, 
 is the sixth note in the diatonic scale of 
 C, and stands when in perfect tune 
 
 latter note in the ratio of f to 1. The 
 
 second string of the violin is tuned to 
 this note. 
 
 A I, a symbol attached to vessels of 
 the highest class, A referring to the hull 
 of the vessel, while 1 intimates the 
 sufficiency of the rigging and whole 
 equipment. 
 
 AA (a), the name of a great many 
 streams of central and northern Europe. 
 
 AACHEN i&'hen). See Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle. 
 
 AALBORG (ol'bor/i), a seaport of 
 Denmark, on the Liimfiord, see of a 
 bishop, with a considerable trade, ship- 
 building, fishing, etc. Pop. 31,457. 
 
 AAR (ar), the name of several Euro- 
 pean rivers, of which the chief (160 miles 
 long) is a tributary of the Rhine, next to 
 it and the Rhone the longest river in 
 Switzerland. It has its origin from the 
 upper and lower glaciers of the Aar in 
 the Bernese Alps. On it are Interlaken, 
 Thun, Bern, Solothurn, and Aarau, to 
 which, as to the canton of Aargau, it 
 gives its name. 
 
 at the long-continued absence of Moses, 
 he complied with their request in making 
 a golden calf, and thus became involved 
 with them in the guilt of gross idolatry. 
 The office of high-priest, which he first 
 filled, was made hereditary in his family. 
 He died at Mount Hor at the age of 123, 
 and was succeeded by his son Eleazar. 
 
 AARON’S ROD. See Goldenrod and 
 Mullein. 
 
 AB, the eleventh month of the Jew- 
 ish civil, the fifth of the ecclesiastical, 
 year — ^part of July and part of August. 
 
 AB'ACA, or Manila Hemp, a strong 
 fiber yielded by the leaf-stalks of a kind 
 of plantain which grows in the Indian 
 Archipelago, and is cultivated in the 
 Philippines. The outer fibers of the 
 leaf-stalks are made into strong and 
 durable ropes, the inner into various 
 fine fabrics. 
 
 AB'ACO, Great and Little, two 
 islands of the Bahamas group. 
 
 AB'ACUS, a Latin term applied to an 
 apparatus used in elementary schools 
 for facilitating arithmetical operations, 
 consisting of a number of parallel cords 
 or wires, upon which balls or beads are 
 
 Aard-vark. 
 
 AARD-VARK (ard'vark), a burrow- 
 ing insectivorous animal of South Africa, 
 having affinities with the ant-eaters and 
 armadillos. Called also ground-hog and 
 Cape pig. 
 
 AARDWOLF (ard'wulf), a carnivo- 
 rohs burrowing animal of South Africa, 
 allied to the hyenas and civets. Feeds 
 on carrion, small mammals, insects, etc. 
 
 AARGAU (ar'gou), or ARGOVIE (ar- 
 go-ve), a northern canton of Switzer- 
 land; area, 543 square miles; hilly, well 
 wooded, abundantly watered by the Aar 
 and its tributaries, and well cultivated. 
 It formed part of the canton Bern till 
 1798. Pop. 206,498, of whom more than 
 half are Protestants. German is almost 
 universally spoken. Capital, Aarau. 
 
 AARON (a'ron), of the tribe of Levi, 
 eldest son of Amram and Jochebed, and 
 brother and assistant of Moses. At 
 Sinai, when the people became impatient 
 
 P. E.— 1 
 
 Abacus. 
 
 Doric capital — a. the abacus. 
 
 strung, the uppermost wire being appro- 
 priated to units, the next to tens, etc. — 
 In classic architecture it denotes the 
 tablet forming the upper member of a 
 column, and supporting the entablature. 
 In Gothic architecture the upper mem- 
 ber of a column from which the arch 
 
 springs. 
 
 ABAD'DON, the name given in Rev. 
 ix. 11 as that of the angel of the bot- 
 tomless pit, otherwise called Apollyon. 
 
 ABALONE (ab-a-16'ne), a name in 
 California for a species of ear-shell that 
 furnishes mother-of-pearl. 
 
 ABAN'DONMENT, a term in criminal 
 law. Abandonment is the intentional 
 exposure or desertion of a dependent per- 
 son by one who is under a legal duty of 
 protecting and maintaining him. A 
 parent or a guardian of the person of a 
 young child is guilty of a misdemeanor 
 at common law if the child is physically 
 injured in consequence of the abandon- 
 ment; while if death results therefrom 
 the abandoning parent or guardian is 
 guilty of murder. 
 
 ABA'RIM, mountain range of eastern 
 Palestine, including Nebo, on which 
 Moses died. 
 
 ABATEMENT, in law, has various 
 significations. Abatement of nuisances 
 is the remedy allowed to a person irq^ 
 by a public or private nuisance, 
 destroying or removing it himself. A 
 plea in abatement is brought forward by 
 a defendant when he wishes to defeat 
 or quash a particular action on some 
 formal or technical ground. Abatement, 
 in mercantile law, is an allowance, 
 deduction, or discount made for prompt 
 payment or other reason. 
 
 AB' ATIS, ABATTIS, in military affairs, 
 a mass of trees cut down and laid with 
 their branches turned toward the enemy 
 in such a way as to form a defense for 
 troops stationed behind them. 
 
 ABATTOIR (ab-at-war'), a French 
 term for a slaughter-house, now angli- 
 cized since the estatdishment of the cel- 
 ebrated abattoirs o||raris, instituted by 
 Napoleon in 1807, a^ brought to c(>m- 
 pletion in 1818. Such public slaughter- 
 houses, provided with every sort of con- 
 venience, kept admirably clean, and with 
 a plentiful supply of water, are now to 
 be found in many large towns. ] 
 
 1 ABBA, a Semitic word equivalent to 
 “Father,” which, being applied in the 
 Eastern Church .to monks, superiors of j 
 monks, and other ecclesiastics, gave ] 
 rise to the word abbot. In the Syriac i 
 and Coptic Churches it is given to the 
 bishops. 
 
 ABBAS I., the Great, shah or king of 
 Persia, born in 1557, obtained the throne 
 in 1586, and at his death in 1628 his 
 dominions stretched from the Tigris to 
 the Indus. He is looked upon by the 
 Persians as their greatest sovereign. 
 
 ABBASSIDES (ab'as-sidz), the name 
 of an Arabian dynasty which supplanted 
 the Ommiades. It traced its desceirt**.^ 
 from Abbas (born 566, died 652), uncle 
 of Mohammed, and furnished thirty- 
 seven caliphs to Bagdad between 749 
 and 1258. Harun al Rashid was a mem- 
 ber of this dynasty. See Caliphs. 
 
 ABBE (ab-a), the French word for 
 abbot, was, before the French revolu- 
 tion, the common title of all who had 
 studied theology either with a view to 
 becoming ordained clergymen, or merely 
 in the hope of obtaining some appoint- 
 ment or benefice, to which such study 
 was considered a preliminary requisite. 
 
 AB'BE, Cleveland, American astrono- 
 mer and meteorologist, born in New 
 York City 1838. He graduated in 1857 
 at the Free Academy (now the College 
 of the City of New York), and studied 
 astronomy at Ann Arbor and at Cam- 
 bridge. From 1868 to 1873 he was 
 director of the Cincinnati Observatorj^, 
 where he inaugurated a system of daily 
 weather forecasts based upon simul- 
 taneous meteorological observations re- 
 ported by telegraph. In December, 
 1870, Professor Abbe was called b 
 Washington to prepare the offi 
 weather predictions and storm wa, 
 ings, and was appointed professor^ 
 meteorology in the Weather Bur 
 To him is due the initiation in 
 1879, of the movement towar 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF 
 ILUNOIS LIBRARY 
 AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN 
 
ABBEOKUTA 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 
 introduction of the present system of 
 standard time and hourly meridians. 
 Li January, 1873, he prepared the first 
 official Monthly Weather Review, which 
 has continued under his editorship. 
 He is professor of meteorology in 
 Columbian University, Washington, 
 
 K ’cr on meteorology in Johns Hop- 
 Iniversity, Baltimore, and a mem- 
 xlie National Academy of Sciences. 
 BEOKU'TA, a town of West 
 Africa, in the Lagos Protectorate, on 
 the Ogun river 45 miles n. of Lagos, 
 composed of scattered lines of mud 
 houses, surrounded by a mud wall. It 
 is connected with Lagos by a railway. 
 Pop. 100,000 to 150,000. 
 
 Ab'BEY, a monastery or religious com- 
 munity of the highest class, governed 
 by an abbot, assisted generally by a 
 jprior, sub-prior, and other subordinate 
 ^functionaries ; or, in the case of a female 
 
 subject is the “Search for the Holy 
 Grail.” He was commissioned to 
 paint the scene of the coronation of 
 King Edward VII. 
 
 AB'BOT, the head of an abbey (see 
 Abbey), the lady of similar rank being 
 called abbess. An abbess, however, was 
 not, like the abbot, allowed to exercise 
 the spiritual functions of the priest- 
 hood, such as preaching, confessing, etc.; 
 nor did abbesses ever succeed in freeing 
 themselves from the control of their 
 diocesan bishop. In the early age of 
 monastic institutions (say 300-600 
 A.D.) the monks were not priests, but 
 simply laymen who retired from the 
 world to live in common, and the abbot 
 was also a layman. In the course of 
 time the abbots were usually ordained, 
 and when an abbey was directly 
 attached to a cathedral the bishop was 
 also abbot. At first the abbeys were 
 
 community, superintended by an abbess. 
 An abbey invariably included a church. 
 A priory differed from an abbey only 
 being scarcely so extensive an estab- 
 '^ishment, and was governed by a prior. 
 Some priories sprang originally from 
 the more important abbeys, and re- 
 mained under the jurisdiction of the 
 abbots; but subsequently any real 
 distinction between abbeys and priories 
 was lost. The greater abbeys formed 
 most complete and extensive establish- 
 ments, including not only the church 
 and other buildings devoted to the 
 monastic life and its daily requirements, 
 such as the refectory or eating-room, 
 the dormitories or sleeping-rooms, the 
 ^ rpom for social intercourse, the school 
 for novices, the scribes’ cells, Ubrary, 
 and so on; but also workshops, store- 
 houses, mills, cattle and poultry sheds, 
 dwellings for artisans, laborers, and 
 other servants, infirmary, guest-house, 
 etc. 
 
 ABBEY, Edwin Austin, American 
 figure painter. He was born in Phila- 
 I delphia, April 1, 1852. He studied at 
 y the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine 
 ' .\rts, and afterward worked in New 
 'York until 1883, when he removed to 
 Epgland. In painting he has produced 
 iitmortant canvases, dealing with sub- 
 jects taken from Shakespeare and from 
 romantic story. One of his most im- 
 portant works decorates the delivery 
 room of the Boston Public Library. Its 
 
 more remarkable for their numbers than 
 for their magnitude, but latterly many 
 of them were large and richly endowed, 
 and the heads of such establishments 
 became personages of no small influence 
 and power, more especially after the 
 abbots succeeded (by the eleventh 
 century) in freeing themselves from the 
 jurisdiction of the bishop of their 
 dioce.'ie. 
 
 AB'BOTSFORD, the country-seat of 
 Sir Walter Scott, on the south bank of 
 the Tweed, in Roxburghshire, 3 miles 
 from Melrose, in the midst of picturesque 
 scenery, forming an extensive and 
 irregular pile in the Scottish baronial 
 style of architecture. 
 
 ABBOTT, Emma (Emma Abbott 
 Wetherell), an American soprano, born 
 1849 in Chicago, 111. She studied in 
 Milan under San Giovanni and in Paris 
 under Wartel and Albert James. She 
 made her debut at Covent Garden, 
 London. For three years thereafter she 
 made an operatic and concert tour of 
 England and Ireland under the direc- 
 tion of Colonel Mapleson. Subsequently 
 she returned to the United States, 
 where she sang with the Abbott and Hess 
 Opera Company, and later with the 
 English opera company long known by 
 her name. She died in 1891. 
 
 ABBOTT, Jacob, a popular juvenile 
 writer, born at Hallowdl, Me., 1803. 
 From 1825 to 1829 he was professor of 
 mathematics and natural philosophy at 
 
 Amherst. In 1839 he moved to Farm- 
 ington. He died October 31, 1879. 
 Abbott published more than two 
 hundred volumes, the most noteworthy 
 of which are The Rollo Books (28 
 volumes), The Franconia Stories (10 vol- 
 umes), The Rainbow and Lucky Series 
 (5 volumes), a number of juvenile 
 histories, written in collaboration with 
 his brother, and a series of histories of 
 America. 
 
 ABBOTT, John Stephens Cabot, an 
 American historian, a brother of Jacob 
 Abbott, was born at Brunswick, Me., 
 1805, and graduated at Bowdoin College 
 in 1825. He died at Fairhaven, Conn., 
 June 17, 1887. His most noteworthy 
 books are The French Revolution, The 
 History of Napoleon Bonaparte, Napo- 
 leon at St. Helena, The History of Na- 
 poleon the Third, The History of the 
 Civil War in America, and the History 
 of Frederick II., Called Frederick the 
 Great. 
 
 ABBOTT, Lyman, D.D. An Ameri- 
 can Congregational clergyman and edi- 
 tor, born at Roxbury, Mass., in 1835, 
 son of Jacob Abbott. He graduated at 
 the New York University in 1853. 
 From 1869 he was successively one of 
 the editors of Harper’s Magazine, and 
 the principal editor of the illustrated 
 Christian Weekly. He succeeded Henry 
 Ward Beecher as pastor of Plymouth 
 Church, Brooklyn, in 1888, but resigned 
 in May, 1899, and has since devoted 
 himself entirely to literary work. 
 
 Lyman Abbott. 
 
 ABBREVIA'TIONS, devices used in 
 writing and printing to save time and 
 space: consisting usually of curtail- 
 ments effected in words and syllables 
 by the removal of some letters, often of 
 the whole of the letters except the first. 
 The following is a list of the more im- 
 portant : — f 
 
 A.B., artium baccalaureus, bachelor of 
 arts; able seaman. 
 
 Abp., archbishop 
 
 A.C., ante Christum, before Christ. 
 
 Ac., acre. 
 
 Acc., %, or acct., account. 
 
ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 A.D., anno Domini, in the year of our 
 Lord : used also as if equivalent to 
 “after Christ,” or “of the Christian era.” 
 
 A.D.C., aide-de-camp. 
 
 .^t. or JEtat., cetatis (anno), in the year 
 of his age. 
 
 A.H., anno Hejirce, in the year of the 
 Hegira. 
 
 A M., ante meridiem, forenoon; anno 
 mundi, in the year of the world; artium 
 magister, master of arts. 
 
 Anon., anonymous. 
 
 A.R.A., associate of Royal Academy 
 (London). 
 
 A.R.S.A., associate of the Royal 
 Scottish Academy. 
 
 A.U.C , ab urbe conditb,, from the 
 building of Rome (753 b.c.). 
 
 A. V., authorized version. 
 
 B. A., bachelor of arts. 
 
 Bart, or Bt., baronet. 
 
 B.C., before Christ. 
 
 B.C.L., bachelor of civil law. 
 
 B.D., bachelor of divinity. 
 
 B.L., bachelor of law. 
 
 B.M., bachelor of medicine. 
 
 Bp,, bishop. 
 
 B.S., bachelor of surgery. 
 
 B.Sc., bachelor of science. 
 
 B. V., blessed Virgin. 
 
 C. , cap., or chap., chapter. 
 
 C.A., chartered accountant. 
 
 Cantab., Cantabrigiensis, of Cambridge 
 Cantuar., Cantuariensis, of Canter- 
 bury. 
 
 C.B., companion of the Bath. 
 
 C.D.V., carte de visite. 
 
 C.E., civil engineer. 
 
 Cf., confer, compare., 
 
 C.I., order of the^rown of India. 
 
 C.I.E., companion of the Indian 
 Empire. 
 
 C.J., chief justice. 
 
 C.M., chirurgice magister, master in 
 surgery ; common meter. 
 
 C.M.G. companion of the order of 
 St. Michael and St. George. 
 
 Co., company or county. 
 
 C.O.D., cash on delivery. 
 
 Cr., creditor. 
 
 Crim. con., criminal conversation. 
 
 C. S., civil service, clerk to the signet. 
 ■ C.S.I., companion of the Star of India. 
 
 Ct., Connecticut. 
 
 Curt., current, the present month. 
 Cwt., hundredweight. 
 
 d. , denarius, penny or pence. 
 
 D. C., District of Columbia. 
 
 D.C.L., doctor of civil law. 
 
 D.D., doctor of divinity. 
 
 Del., delineavit, drew it. 
 
 D.F., defender of the faith. 
 
 D.G., Dei gratia, by the grace of God. 
 
 D.L.j deputy lieutenant. 
 
 D. Litt., doctor litterarum, doctor of 
 letters. 
 
 Do., ditto, the same. 
 
 D.O.M., Deo Optimo Maximo, to God, 
 the best and greatest. 
 
 Dr., doctor, also debtor. 
 
 D.Sc., doctor of science. 
 
 D. V., Deo volente, God willing. 
 
 Dwt., pennyweight. 
 
 E. , east. 
 
 Ebor., Eboracensis, of York. 
 
 E.C., established church. 
 
 E.E., errors excepted. 
 
 e. g., exempli gratia, for example. 
 
 E.I., East Indies. 
 
 Etc. or &c., et cetera, and the rest. 
 Ext., executor. 
 
 F. or Fahr., Fahrenheit's thermom- 
 eter. 
 
 F.A.S., fellow of the Antiquarian 
 Society. 
 
 F.C., Free Church. 
 
 F.D., fidei defensor, defender of the 
 faith. 
 
 Fee., fecit, he made or did it. 
 
 F.G.S., fellow of the Geological So- 
 ciety. 
 
 F.H.S., fellow of the Horticultural 
 Society. 
 
 FI., flourished. 
 
 Fla., Florida. 
 
 F.L.S., fellow of the Linnsean Society. 
 
 F.M., field-marshal. 
 
 F.O.B., free on board (goods de- 
 livered). 
 
 F.R.A.S., fellow of the Royal Astro- 
 nomical (or Asiatic) Society. 
 
 F.R.C.P., fellow of the Royal College 
 of Physicians. 
 
 F.R.C.S., fellow of the Royal College 
 of Surgeons. 
 
 F.R.G.S., fellow of the Royal Geo- 
 graphical Society. 
 
 F.R.S., fellow of the Royal Society. 
 
 F.R.S.E., fellow of the Royal Society 
 of Edinburgh. 
 
 F.S.A., fellow of the Society of Arts 
 or Antiquaries. 
 
 F.S.S., fellow of the Statistical So- 
 ciety. 
 
 Ft., foot or feet. 
 
 F. Z.S., fellow of the Zoological So- 
 ciety. 
 
 Ga., Georgia. 
 
 Gal., gallon. 
 
 G. C.B., grand cross of the Bath. 
 
 G.C.M.G,, grand cross of St. Michael 
 
 and St. George. 
 
 G.C.S.I., grand commander of the 
 Star of India. 
 
 G. P.O., gerferal post-office. 
 
 H. B.M., his or her Britannic majesty. 
 
 H.E.I.C.S., honorable East India Com- 
 pany’s service. 
 
 Hhd., hogshead. 
 
 his or her imperial highness. 
 
 H.M.S., his or her majesty’s ship. 
 
 Hon., honorable. 
 
 H.R., house of representatives. 
 
 H.R.H., his (her) royal highness. 
 
 H. S.H., his (her) serene highness. 
 
 la. , Iowa. 
 
 lb. or Ibid., ibidem, in the same place. 
 
 Id., idem, the same. 
 
 i.e., id est, that is. 
 
 I. H.S., Jesus hominum salvator, Jesus 
 the Savior of men: originally it was 
 IHX., the first three letters of iHSora 
 (lesous), Jesus. 
 
 Incog., incognito, unknown. 
 
 Inf., infra, below. 
 
 I.N.R.I., lesus Nazarenus Rex ludoeo- 
 rum, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the 
 Jews. 
 
 Inst., instant, or of this month; 
 institute. 
 
 I. O.U., I owe you. 
 
 J. P., justice of the peace. 
 
 Jr., junior. 
 
 J. U.D., jwn's utriusque doctor,, doctor 
 both of the civil and the canon law. 
 
 K. C., king’s counsel. 
 
 K.C.B., knight commander of the 
 Bath. 
 
 K.C.M.G., knight commander of St. 
 Michael and St. George. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 K.C.S.I., knight commander of the 
 Star of India. 
 
 K.G., knight of the Garter. 
 
 K.G.C.B. knight grand cross of the 
 Bath. 
 
 K.P., knight of St. Patrick. 
 
 K. T., knight of the Thistle. 
 
 Kt. or Knt., knight. 
 
 Ky., Kentucky. 
 
 L. ,1., or £, pounds sterling. 
 
 L.A., literate in arts. 
 
 La., Louisiana. 
 
 Lat., latitude. 
 
 Lb. or lb., libra, a pound (weight). 
 L.C.J., lord chief-justice. 
 
 Ldp., lordship. 
 
 L.D.S., licentiate in dental surgery. 
 Lit. D., doctor of literature. 
 
 L.L., Low Latin. 
 
 L.L.A., lady literate in arts. 
 
 LL.B., legum baccalaureus, bachelor of 
 laws. 
 
 LL.D., legum doctor, doctor of laws 
 (that is, the civil and the canon law). 
 LL.M., master of laws. 
 
 Lon. or Long., longitude. 
 
 L.R.C.P., licentiate Royal College of 
 Physicians. 
 
 L.R.C.S., licentiate of the Royal Col- 
 lege of Surgeons. 
 
 L.S.A., licentiate of the Society of 
 Apothecaries. 
 
 L. S.D., libree, solidi, denarii, pounds, 
 shillings, pence. 
 
 M. A., master of arts. 
 
 Mass., Massachusetts. 
 
 M.B., medicinoe baccalaureus, bachelor 
 of medicine. 
 
 M.C., member of Congress; master 
 in surgery. 
 
 M.D., medicines doctor, doctor of medi- 
 cine. 
 
 Md., Maryland. 
 
 Me., Maine. 
 
 M.E., raining engineer; Methodist 
 Episcopal. 
 
 Messrs., messieurs, gentlemen. 
 M.F.H., master of fox-hounds. 
 M.I.C.E., member of the Institution of 
 Civil Engineers. 
 
 Mile., mademoiselle. 
 
 Mme., madame. 
 
 Mo., Missouri. 
 
 M.P., member of Parliament. 
 M.R.C.S., member of the Royal Col- 
 lege of Surgeons. 
 
 M.R.C.V.S., member of the Royal Col- 
 lege of Veterinary Surgeons. 
 
 M. R.I.A., member of the Royal Irish 
 Academy. 
 
 MS., manuscript; MSS., manuscripts. 
 Mus. D., musicce doctor, doctor of 
 music. 
 
 N. , north. 
 
 N.B.,notabene, take notice; also 
 North Britain, New Brunswick. 
 
 N.C., North Carolina. 
 
 N.D., no date. 
 
 Nem. con., nemine contradicente, one 
 contradicting, unanimously. 
 
 N.H., New Hampshire. 
 
 N.J., New Jersey. 
 
 No., numero, number. 
 
 N.P., notary public. 
 
 N.S., new style. Nova Scotia 
 N.S.W., New South Wales. 
 
 N.T., New Testament. 
 
 N.Y., New York. 
 
 N. Z., New Zealand. 
 
 O. , Ohio. 
 
 Ob., obiit, died. 
 
ABDERA 
 
 ABERCROxMBlE 
 
 0 S., old s^le. 
 
 O. T., Old Tjestament. 
 
 Oxon., Oxoniensis, of Oxford. 
 
 Oz., ounce or ounces. 
 
 Pa., Pennsylvania. 
 
 P. C., privy-councilor. 
 
 P,E., Protestant Episcopal. 
 
 Per cent., per centum, by the hundred. 
 Ph.D., philosophice doctor, doctor of 
 philosophy. 
 
 Pinx., pinxit, painted it. 
 
 P.M., post meridiem, afternoon. 
 
 P.O., post-office. 
 
 P.0.0. , post-office order. 
 
 P.P., parish priest. 
 
 Pp., pages. 
 
 P.P.C., pour prendre congi,, to take 
 leave. 
 
 Prox., proximo (mense), next month. 
 
 P. S., postscript. 
 
 Q, , question; queen. 
 
 Q.C., queen’s counsel. 
 
 Q.E.D., quod erat demonstrandum, 
 which was to be demonstrated. 
 
 Q.E.F., quod erat faciendum, which 
 was to be done. 
 
 Qu., query. 
 
 Quant, suff., quantum sufficit, as much 
 as is needful. 
 
 Q. V., quod vide, which see. 
 
 R. , rex, regina, king, queen. 
 
 R.A., royal academician; royal artil- 
 lery. 
 
 R.A.M., Royal Academy of Music. 
 
 R.C., Roman Catholic. 
 
 R.E., royal engineers. 
 
 Rev., reverend. 
 
 R.H.A., Royal Hibernian Academi- 
 cian. 
 
 R.I., Rhode Island. 
 
 R.I.P., requiescat in pace, may he rest 
 in peace. 
 
 R.M., royal marines. 
 
 R.N., royal navy. 
 
 R.S.A., royal Scottish academician. 
 R.S.V.P., repondez, s’il vous plait, 
 reply, if you please. 
 
 Rt. Hon., right honorable. 
 
 Rt. Wpful., right worshipful. 
 
 R. V., revised version. 
 
 S. , South. 
 
 S. or St., saint. 
 
 S.C., South Carolina. 
 
 Sc., scilicet, namely, viz. 
 
 S.J., Society of Jesus (Jesuits). 
 S.P.C.K., Society for Promoting Chris- 
 tian Knowledge. 
 
 S.P.Q.R., senatus populusque Ro- 
 manus, the senate and people of Rome. 
 
 S.S.C., solicitor before the supreme 
 courts. 
 
 St., saint, street. 
 
 S.T.D., sacrce theologioe doctor, doctor 
 of divinity. 
 
 S. T.P., sacrce theologies professor, pro- 
 fessor of divinity. 
 
 T. C.D., Trinity College, Dublin. 
 
 Ult., ultimo, last. 
 
 U. P., United Presbyterian. 
 
 U.S., United States. 
 
 U.S.A., United States of America. 
 
 U. S.N., United States navy. 
 y.fVide, see; also versus, against. 
 Va., Virginia. 
 
 V. C., Victoria Ci’oss. 
 
 Viz., videlicet, to wit, or namely. 
 
 V.P., vice-president. 
 
 V. S., veterinary surgeon. 
 
 Vt., Vermont. 
 
 W. , west. 
 
 W.I., West Indies. 
 
 W.S., writer to the signet. 
 
 Xmas, Christmas. 
 
 In LL.D., LL.B., etc., the letter is 
 doubled, according to the Roman 
 system, to show that the abbreviation 
 represents a plural noun. 
 
 ABDE'RA, an ancient Greek city on 
 the Thracian coast, the birthplace of 
 Democritus (the laughing philosopher), 
 Anaxarchus, and Protagoras. Its in- 
 habitants were proverbial for stupidity. 
 
 ABDICA'TION, properly the volun- 
 tary, but sometimes also the involuntary 
 resignation of an office or dignity, and 
 more especially that of sovereign power. 
 
 ABDO'MEN, in man, the belly, or 
 lower cavity of the trunk, separated from 
 the upper cavity or thorax by the dia- 
 phragm or midriff, and bounded below 
 by the bones of the pelvis. It contains 
 
 the viscera belonging to the digestive 
 and urinary systems. What are called 
 the abdominal regions will be under- 
 stood from the accompanying cut, in 
 which 1 Ls the epigastric region, 2 the 
 umbilical, 3 the pubic, 4 4 the right and 
 left hypochondriac, 5 5 the right and left 
 lumbar, 6 6 right and left iliac. The 
 name is given to the corresponding por- 
 tion of the body in other animals. In 
 insects it comprises the whole body be- 
 hind the thorax, usually consisting of a 
 series of rings. 
 
 ABDOMTNAL FISHES, a group of 
 the soft-finned fishes, having fins upon 
 the abdomen, and comprising the her- 
 ring, pike, salmon, carp, etc. 
 
 ABDUC'TION, a legal term, generally 
 applied to denote the offense of carrying 
 off a female, either forcibly or by fraudu- 
 lent representations. Such a delin- 
 quency with regard to a man is styled 
 kidnapping. There are various de- 
 scriptions of abduction recognized in 
 criminal jurisprudence, such as that of 
 a child, of an heiress, or of a wife. 
 
 AB'DUL-HAMTD, Sultan of Turkey, 
 born in 1842, succeeded his brother 
 Murad V., who was deposed on proof 
 of his insanity in 1876. 
 
 ABECEDA'RIAN, a term formed from 
 the first four letters of the alphabet, and 
 ^plied to the followers of Storch, a 
 German Anabaptist, in the_ sixteenth 
 century, because they rejected all 
 worldly knowledge, even the learning 
 of the alphabet. 
 
 ABECK'ETT, Gilbert Abbot, Eng- 
 lish writer, born near London, in 1811. 
 He wrote Comic History of England, 
 Comic History of Rome, and Comic 
 Blackstone, and between fifty and sixty 
 plays, some of which still keep the stage. 
 He died in 1856. 
 
 A BECKETT j Thomas. See Beckett. 
 
 ABEL, properly Hebei, the second 
 son of Adam. He was a shephei'd, and 
 was slain by his brother Cain from 
 jealousy because his sacrifice was 
 accepted, while Cain’s was rejected 
 Several of the fathers, among others 
 SS. Chrysostom and Augustin, regard 
 him as a type of Christ. 
 
 ABELARD (ab'e-lard), or ABAILARD, 
 Peter, a celebrated scholastic teacher, 
 born near Nantes in Brittany, in 1079. 
 He made extraordinary progress with 
 his studies, and, ultimately eclipsing his 
 teachers, he opened a school of scholastic 
 philosophy near Paris, which attracted 
 crowds of students from the neighbor- 
 ing city. His success in the fiery de- 
 bates which were then the fashion in the 
 schools made him many enemies, among 
 whom was Guillaume de Champeaux, 
 his former teacher, chief of the cathe- 
 dral school of Notre-Dame, and the 
 most advanced of the Realists. Abelard 
 succeeded his adversary in this school 
 (in 1113), and under him were trained 
 many men who afterward rose to 
 eminence, among them;being the future 
 Pope Celestin II., Peter Lombard, and 
 Arnold of Brescia. While he was at 
 the height of his popularity, and in 
 his fortieth year, he became infatuated 
 with a passion for Heloise — then only 
 eighteen years of age — niece of Fulbert, 
 a canon of Paris. Obtaining a home in 
 Fulbert’s house under the pretext of 
 teaching Heloise philosophy, their inter- 
 course at length became apparent, and 
 Abelard, who had retired to Brittany, 
 was followed by Heloise, who there gave 
 birth to a son. A private marriage took 
 place, and Heloise returned to her 
 uncle’s house, but, refusing to make 
 public her marriage (as hkely to spoil 
 Abelard’s career), she was subjected to 
 severe treatment at the hands of her 
 uncle. To save her from this Abelard 
 carried her off and placed her in a con- 
 vent at Argenteuil, a proceeding which 
 so incensed Fulbert that he hired ruffians, 
 who broke into Abelard’s chamber and 
 subjected him to a shameful mutilation. 
 Abelard, filled with grief and shame, 
 became a monk n the abbey of St. 
 Denis, and Heloise took the veil. Abe- 
 lard ddd not long survive, dying at St. 
 Marcel, near ChMon-sur-S^ne, 1142. 
 Heloise, who had become abbess of the 
 Paraclete, had him buried there, where 
 she herself was afterward laid by his 
 side. 
 
 ABELE (a-beP), a name of the white 
 poplar. 
 
 A'BELITE, ABE'LIAN, a member of a 
 religious sect in Africa which arose in 
 the fourth century after Christ. They 
 married, but Uved in continence, after 
 the manner, as they maintained, of 
 Abel, and attempted to keep up the 
 sect by adopting the children of others. 
 
 ABELMOS'CHUS (-mos'kus), a genus 
 of tropical plants of the mallow family. 
 One species yields edible pods and also 
 a valuable fiber. The fruit, called okra 
 or ochra, is used in soups. 
 
 AB'ERCROMBIE, John, M.D., a 
 Scottish writer on medical and moral 
 science, and an eminent physician, born 
 in Aberdeen, 1781, died at Edinburgh 
 in 1844. He graduated at the university 
 of Edinburgh in 1803, and subsequently 
 
ABERDEEN 
 
 ABRUZZI 
 
 pursued his studies in London, returning 
 to Edinburgh in 1804, where he ac- 
 quired an extensive practice as a physi- 
 cian. He is known from his Inquiries 
 concerning the Intellectual Powers and 
 his Philosophy of the Moral Feelings. 
 
 ABERDEEN', a university city, and 
 royal, municipal, and parliamentary 
 burgh of Scotland, cap. of the county of 
 same name, mainly on the north bank 
 of the Dee at its entrance into the Ger- 
 man Ocean, and between this river and 
 the Don, with a part also on the south 
 bank of the Dee, while the municipal 
 limits include the adjacent Woodside. 
 There are docks 34 acres in area, an 
 extensive tidal harbor and basin, and a 
 graving-dock. The shipping trade is 
 extensive. The industries embrace 
 wool, cotton, jute, linen, combs, soap, 
 preserved provisions, chemicals, paper, 
 shipbuilding, and especially the cutting 
 : nd polishing of granite. The fishing 
 industry is of great importance. Pop. 
 (1901), 153,100. — The County of Aber- 
 deen forms the northeastern portion of 
 licotlaud, and is bounded on the east 
 ; nd north by the North Sea. Area, 
 1,251,451 acres. It is divided into six 
 districts (Mar, Formartine, Buchan, 
 Alford, Garioch, and Strathbogie), and 
 is generally hilly, there being in the 
 southwest some of the highest moun- 
 tains in Scotland, as Ben Macdhui 
 (4295 feet), Cairntoul (4245), Cairngorm 
 (4090), Lochnagar, etc. Pop. 304,420. 
 
 ABERRATION, in astronomy, the 
 difference between the true and the 
 observed position of a heavenly body, 
 the result of the combined effect of the 
 motion of light and the motion of the 
 eye of the observer caused by the 
 annual or diurnal motion of the earth; 
 or of the motion of light and that of the 
 body from, which the light proceeds. 
 When the auxiliary cause is the annual 
 revolution of the earth round the sun 
 it is called annual aberration, in conse- 
 quence of which a fixed star may appear 
 as much as 20"'4 from its true position; 
 when the auxiliary cause is the diurnal 
 rotation of the earth on its axis it is 
 called diurnal aberration, which amounts 
 at the greatest to 0"’3; and when the 
 auxiliary cause is the motion of the 
 body from which the light proceeds it 
 is called planetary aberration. 
 
 A'BIB, the first month of the Jewish 
 ecclesiastical year, and the seventh of 
 the civil year, corresponding to the 
 latter part of March and the first of 
 April. Also colled Nisan. 
 
 ABIOGENESIS (a-bi-o-jen'e-us), the 
 doctrine or hypothesis that living mat- 
 ter may be produced from non-living; 
 spontaneous generation. 
 
 * ABJURA'TION, Oath of, an oath 
 which by an English act passed in 1701 
 had to be taken by all holders of public 
 offices, clergymen, teachers, members 
 of the universities, and lawyers, ad- 
 juring and renouncing the exiled Stuarts: 
 superseded in 1858 by a more compre- 
 hensive oath, declaring allegiance to 
 the present royal family. — Abjuration 
 of the realm was an. oath that a person 
 guilty of felony, and who had taken 
 sanctuary, might take to go into exile, 
 and not return on pain of death. 
 
 AB'LATIVE, a term applied to a case 
 of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns In 
 / 
 
 Latin, Sanskrit, and some other lan- 
 guages ; originally given to the case in 
 Latin because separation from (ab, from, 
 latus, taken) was considered to be one 
 of the chief ideas expressed by the case. 
 
 ABOLI'TIONISTS, the name by which 
 those opponents of slavery were desig- 
 nated who were the most intense in their 
 desire to secure the immediate emanci- 
 pation of the blacks. Although dis- 
 credited in many quarters, the aboli- 
 tionists were in the end successful, from 
 one point of view, in making slavery a 
 national issue and in hastening the time 
 of final decision as to its continuance. 
 
 ABOMA'SUM, ABOMA'SUS, the fourth 
 stomach of ruminating animals, next 
 the omasum or third stomach. 
 
 ABORIG'INES (ab-o-rij'i-nez), the 
 name given in general to the earliest 
 known inhabitants of a country, those 
 who are supposed to have inhabited the 
 land from the beginning [The singular 
 of the word is Aboriginal, or sometimes 
 Aborigine.] 
 
 ABOR'TION, in medicine, the ex- 
 pulsion of the foetus before it is capable 
 of independent existence. This may 
 take place at any period of pregnancy 
 before the completion of the twenty- 
 eighth week. A child born after that 
 time is said to be premature. Abortion 
 may be the result of the general debility 
 or ill health of the mother, of a plethoric 
 constitution, of special affections of the 
 uterus, of severe exertions, sudden 
 shocks, etc. Various medicinal sub- 
 stances, generally violent emmena- 
 gogues or drastic medicines, are believed 
 to have the effect of provoking abortion, 
 and are sometimes resorted to for this 
 purpose. Attempts to procure abortion 
 are punishable by law in all civilized 
 states. The term is applied in botany 
 to denote the suppression by non- 
 development of one or more of the parts 
 of a flower, which consists normally 
 of four whorls — namely, calyx, corolla, 
 stamens, and pistil. 
 
 ABOUKIR (a-bb-ker'), a small village 
 on the Egyptian coast, 10 miles east of 
 Alexandria. In Aboukir Bay took place 
 the naval battle in which Nelson anni- 
 hilated a French fleet on the night of 1st 
 and 2d August, 1798, thus totally de- 
 stroying the naval power of France in 
 the Mediterranean. 
 
 ABOUT (a-bo), Edmond Francois Val- 
 entin, a French novelist and miscellan- 
 eous writer, born in 1828, died in 1885. 
 
 ABRACADAB'RA, a word of eastern 
 origin used in incantations. When 
 written on paper so as to form a triangle, 
 the first line containing the word in full, 
 the one below it omitting the last letter, 
 and so on each time until only one letter 
 remained, and worn as an amulet it was 
 supposed to be an antidote against 
 certain diseases. 
 
 ABRACADABRA 
 ABRACADABR 
 ABRACADAB 
 ABRACADA 
 A B R A C A D 
 A B R A C A 
 A B R A C 
 A B R A 
 A B R 
 A B 
 A 
 
 A'BRAHAM, originally ABRAM, the 
 reatest of the Hebrew patriarchs, was 
 orn at Ur in Chaldea in 2153 b.c. 
 according to Hales, in 1996 b.c. accord- 
 ing to Ussher, while Bunsen says he lived 
 2850 B.c. He migrated, accompanied 
 by his wife Sarah and his nephew Lot, 
 to Canaan, where he led a nomadic life, 
 which extended over 175 years. His 
 two sons Isaac and Ishmael were the 
 progenitors of the Jews and Arabs 
 respectively. 
 
 ABRAHAM, Heights or Plains of. 
 See Quebec. 
 
 ABRAX'AS (or ABRASAX) STONES, 
 the name given to stones or gems found 
 in Syria, Egypt, and elsewhere, cut into 
 almost every variety of shape, but 
 generally having a human trunk and 
 arms, with a cock’s head, two serpents’ 
 tails for the legs, etc., and the word 
 Abraxas or Abrasax in Greek characters 
 engraved upon them. They appear to 
 have been first used by the Gnostic sect. 
 
 ABRIDG'MENT. In the law of copy- 
 right an abridgment is deemed a new 
 work, and is not an infringement of the 
 copyright. An abridgment is distin- 
 guished in the law of copyright from a 
 compilation. The former is a con- 
 densation of the substance, while the 
 latter is a reproduction in part, at 
 least, of the language of the copy- 
 righted article, and is held to be an 
 infringement. 
 
 ABROGA'TION, the repealing of a 
 law by a competent authority. 
 
 ABRO'MA, a genus of small trees, 
 natives of India, Java, etc., one species 
 of which has a bark yielding a strong 
 white fiber, from which good cordage is 
 made. 
 
 ABRUPT', in botany, terminating 
 suddenly, as if a part were cut short off. 
 
 AB'RUS, a genus of plants, one species 
 of which has round brilliant scarlet 
 seeds, used to make necklaces and 
 rosaries. Its root is sweetish and 
 mucilaginous, and is used as a sub- 
 stitute for licorice. The seeds yield 
 a strong poison. 
 
 ABRUZZI (a-brut'se), a division of 
 Italy on the Adriatic, between Umbria 
 and the Marches on the north, and 
 Apulia on the south. It is united with 
 Molise to form a compartimento, com- 
 prising the four provinces of Aquila 
 degli Abruzzi, Campobasso, Chieti, and 
 Teramo. The seacoast of about 80 
 miles does not possess a single harbor. 
 The interior is rugged and mountainous, 
 being traversed throughout by the Apen- 
 nines. The lower parts consist of fertile 
 plains and valleys, yielding corn, wine, 
 oil, almonds, saffron, etc. ; area, 6380 sq. 
 miles; pop. 1,441,551'. 
 
 ABRUZZI, Prince Luigi Amadeo of 
 Savoy-Aosta, Duke of the, an Italian 
 traveler and arctic explorer, son of ex- 
 King Amadeus of Spain, was born in 
 Madrid in 1873, and studied at the naval 
 college in Leghorn. In 1897 he attracted 
 attention by making the first ascent of 
 Mount St. Elias. On June 12, 1899, he 
 set out on his voyage toward the north 
 pole, his plan being to leave his ship, 
 the Stella Polare, in harbor, and send 
 northward a series of sledge expeditions. 
 He spent one winter in the Bay of 
 Teplitz, and would have remained a 
 Second had not a serious Injury to 
 
ABSALOM 
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 the vessel compelled his return. While 
 repairs were being made, one of his 
 sledge partie^ under the immediate 
 direction of Captain Umberto Cagni, 
 attained the latitude of 86° 33', 239.15 
 statute miles from the pole. His explo- 
 rations determined the northern bound- 
 ary of Franz-Josef Land and the non- 
 existence of Peterman’s Land. 
 
 AB'SALOM, the third son of King 
 David, whose romantic career makes 
 him a prominent figure in Old Testa- 
 ment history. 
 
 ABSCOND'ING, the act of leaving 
 the state or concealing oneself therein 
 for a fraudulent purpose, such as 
 hindering, delaying, or defrauding one’s 
 creditors. It is not a common-law 
 offense for one to go beyond the 
 boundaries of his country, nor to treat 
 his house as his castle, that is, as a 
 place into which an officer has no right 
 to break in order to senwe civil process. 
 But if a debtor went abroad or locked 
 himself in his house to avoid the service 
 of legal process, or if he was about to 
 do either with like intent, the creditor 
 was entitled, upon resorting to the 
 proper proceedings, to seize his prop- 
 erty. 
 
 AB'SCESS, any collection of purulent 
 matter or pus formed in some tissue or 
 organ of the body, and confined within 
 some circumscribed area, of varying 
 size, but always painful and often 
 dangerous. 
 
 ABSENTEE', the name which has 
 been given to a person who possesses 
 property in one country, and resides 
 and spends his income in another. This 
 practice is especially prevalent among 
 Irish land-owners, and many political 
 economists have ascribed much of the 
 poverty and discontent in Ireland to 
 absenteeism. 
 
 ABSINXHE, a liqueur or aromatised 
 spirit, prepared by pounding the leaves 
 and flowering tops of various species of 
 wormwood, with angelica root, sweet 
 flag root, the leaves of dittany of Crete, 
 star-anise fruit, and other aromatics, 
 and macerating these in alcohol. After 
 soaking for about eight days the com- 
 pound is distilled, yielding an emerald- 
 colored liquor, to which a proportion of 
 an essential-oil, usually that of anise, is 
 added. The chief seat of the manufac- 
 ture is in the canton of Neufchatel, in 
 Switzerland, although absinthe distil- 
 leries are scattered generally throughout 
 Switzerland and France. The liqueur 
 is chiefly consumed in France, but there 
 is also a considerable export trade to 
 the United States of America- "When 
 taken habitually or in excess, its effects 
 are very pernicious. It is a favorite 
 drink of the Parisians. 
 
 AB'SOLUTE, in a general sense, 
 loosed or freed from all limitations or 
 conditions. In politics, an absolute 
 monarchy is that form of government 
 in which the ruler is unlimited or un- 
 controlled by constitutional checks. In 
 modern metaphysics the Absolute rep- 
 resents the unconditioned, infinite, and 
 self-existent. 
 
 ABSOLU'TION, remission of a pen- 
 itent’s sins in the name of God. It is 
 commonly maintained that dowm to the 
 twelfth century the priests used only 
 what is called the precatory formula, 
 
 “May God or Christ absolve thee,” 
 which is still the form in the Greek 
 Church; w’hereas the Eoman Catholic 
 uses the expression “I absolve thee,” 
 thus regarding the forgiveness of sins 
 as in the power of the priest (the indic- 
 ative form). This theory of absolution 
 w'as confirmed by the Council of Trent. 
 The passages of Scripture on wdiich the 
 Roman Catholic Church founds in lay- 
 ing dow'n its doctrine of absolution are 
 such as Matt. xvi. 19 ;xviii. 18 ; John xx. 
 23. Among Protestants absolution prop- 
 erly means a sentence by w'hich a per- 
 son w'ho stands excommunicated is re- 
 leased from that punishment. 
 
 ABSOR'BENTS, the system of mi- 
 nute vessels by which the nutritive ele- 
 ments of food and other matters are 
 carried into the circulation of vertebrate 
 animals. The vessels consist of two 
 different sets, called respectively lac- 
 teals and lymphatics. The former arise 
 from the digestive tract, the latter from 
 the tissues generally, both joining a 
 common trunk which ultimately enters 
 the blood-veseel system. Absorbents in 
 medicines are substances such as chalk, 
 charcoal, etc., that absorb or suck up 
 excessive secretion of fluid or gas. 
 
 ABSORP'TION, in physiology, one 
 of the vital functions by which the ma- 
 terials of nutrition and growdh are ab- 
 sorbed and conveyed to the organs of 
 plants and animals. In vertebrate an- 
 imals this is done by the lymphatics 
 and lacteals, in plants chiefly by the 
 roots. See Absorbents. 
 
 ABUSE' OF PROC'ESS, the w rong- 
 ful employment of a regular judicial 
 proceeding. Courts of justice, refuse 
 to lend themselves to the abuse of their 
 procedure, and may, accordingly, stay 
 or dismiss actions and strike out de- 
 fenses which are manifestly frivolous or 
 vexatious. 
 
 AB'STRACT OF TUTLE, a state- 
 ment in writing of the successive con- 
 veyances through which a person claims 
 to ow’n a parcel of land. A perfect ab- 
 stract should furnish a complete history 
 of the title sought to be transferred, 
 showing the origin and nature of the 
 vendor’s interest, all incumbrances and 
 other interests, such as mortgages, 
 easements, judgments, trusts, etc., 
 w'hich affect his title. In the United 
 States the public records of conveyances 
 are the principal source of information 
 upon which the maker of the Abstract 
 t)rocG6(is» 
 
 AB'sfiNENCE. Nee Fasting, Tem- 
 perance. 
 
 ABSTRAC'TION, the operation of 
 the mind by which it disregards part of 
 what is presented to its observation in 
 order to concentrate its attention on 
 the remainder. It is the foundation of 
 the operation of generalization, by 
 w'hich we arrive at general conceptions. 
 In order, for example, to form the con- 
 ception of a horse, we disregard the 
 color and other peculiarities of the par- 
 ticular horses observed by us, and at- 
 tend only to those qualities wliich all 
 horses have in common. In rising to 
 the conception of an animal we disre- 
 gard still more qualities, and attend 
 only to those which all animals have in 
 common w'ith one another. 
 
 ABSURDUMjReduotio ad, a mode 
 
 of demonstrating the truth of a propo- 
 sition, by showing that its contradictory 
 leads to an absurdity. It is much em- 
 ployed by Euclid. 
 
 ABT, FRANZ, born in Prussian Sax- 
 ony, December 22, 1819 ; died March 31, 
 1865. He was educated at Leipzig and 
 became professor of music at Bernburg, 
 Zurich and Woisbaden. He wTote the 
 music of over tw'o hundred popular songs. 
 
 ABU'TILON, a genus of plants, some- 
 times called Indian mallow^s, inhabiting 
 the East Indies, Australia, Brazil, 
 Siberia, etc. Several of them yield a val- 
 uable hemp-like fiber. One, a trouble- 
 some weed in the Middle United States, 
 has been recommended for cultivation. 
 
 ABU-BEKR, or Father of the Virgin, 
 the father-in-law and first successor of 
 Mohammed. His right to the succession 
 was unsuccessfully contested by Ali, 
 Mohammed’s son-in-law, and a schism 
 took place, which divided the Moham- 
 medans into the two great sects of Sun- 
 nites and Shiites, the former maintain- 
 ing the validity of Abu-Bekr’s and the 
 latter that of All’s claim. 
 
 ABUT'MENT, the part of a bridge 
 which receives and resists the lateral 
 outward thrust of an arch ; the masonry, 
 rock, or other solid materials from which 
 an arch springs. 
 
 ABY'DOS (1), an ancient city of Asia 
 Minor, on the Hellespont, at the nar- 
 rowest part of the strait, opposite 
 Sestos. Leander, say ancient writers, 
 swam nightly from Abydos to Sestos to 
 see his loved Hero — a feat in swimming 
 accomplished also by Lord Byron. — (2), 
 an ancient city of Upper Egypt, about 
 6 miles west of the Nile, now represented 
 only by ruins of temples, tombs, etc. It 
 was celebrated as the burying-place of 
 the god Osiris, and its oldest temple w'as 
 dedicated to him. Here, in 1818, w’as 
 discovered the famous Abydos Tablet, 
 now in the British Museum, and con- 
 taining a list of the predecessors of 
 Rameses the Great, which was supple- 
 mented by the discovery of a similar 
 historical tablet in 1864. 
 
 ABYSSIN'IA, a country of eastern 
 Africa, which, roughly speaking, may 
 be said to extend from lat. 8° to 16° n. 
 and Ion. 35° to 41° e.; having Nubia on 
 the n.w., the Soudan on the w., the Red 
 Sea littoral and the Danakil territory 
 on the e., and the country of the Gallas 
 on the s. ; total area about 1 20,000 sq. m. ; 
 chief divisions Tigr6, Amhara, and Shoa. 
 It is as a whole an elevated region, with 
 a general slope to the northwest. The 
 mountains in various parts of the coun- 
 try rise to 12,000 and 13,000 feet, while 
 some of the peaks are over 15,000 feet 
 (Ras Dashan being 15,160), and are 
 always covered with snow. The prin- 
 cipal rivers belong to the Nile basin, the 
 chief being the impetuous Tacazz6 (“the 
 Terrible”), in the north, and the Abai in 
 the south, the latter being really the 
 upper portion of the Blue Nile. The 
 principal lake is Lake Tzana or Dembea 
 (from which issues the Abai), upward 
 of 6000 feet above the sea, having a 
 length of about 45 and a breadth of 35 
 miles. Round this lake lies a fertile 
 plain, emphatically called the granary 
 of the country. — According to elevation 
 there are several zones of vegetation. 
 Within the lowest belt, which reaches 
 
ACACIA 
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 an elevation of 4800 feet, cotton, wild 
 indigo, acacias, ebony, baobabs, sugar- 
 canes, coffee-trees, date-palms, etc., 
 flourish, while the larger animals are 
 lions, panthers, elephants, rhinoceroses. 
 
 Abyssinian priest. 
 
 hippopotamuses, jackals, hyenas, bears, 
 numerous antelopes, monkeys, and 
 crocodiles. The middle zone, rising to 
 9000 feet, produces the grains, grasses, 
 and fruits of southern Europe, the 
 orange, vine, peach, apricot, the bam- 
 boo, sycamore-tree, etc. The principal 
 grains are millet, barley, wheat, maize, 
 and teff, the latter a small seed, a favor- 
 ite breadstuff of the Abyssinians. Two, 
 and in some places three, crops are 
 obtained in one year. All the domestic 
 animals of Europe, except swine, are 
 known. There is a variety of ox with 
 immense horns. The highest zone, 
 reaching to 14,000 feet, has but little 
 wood, and generally scanty vegetation, 
 the hardier corn-plants only being 
 grown; but oxen, goats, and long- 
 wooled sheep find abundant pasture. — 
 The climate is as various as the surface, 
 but as a whole is temperate and agree- 
 able; in some of the valleys the heat is 
 often excessive, while on the mountains 
 the weather is cold. In certain of the 
 
 Abyssinian cbiet and soldiers. 
 
 lower districts malaria prevails. — The 
 chief mineral products are sulphur, iron, 
 copper, coal, and salt, the latter serving 
 to some extent as money. — There has 
 been a great intermixture of races in 
 
 Abyssinia. What may be considered 
 the Abyssinians proper seem to have a 
 blood-relationship with the Bedouin 
 Arabs. The complexion varies from 
 very dark through different shades of 
 brown and copper to olive. The figure 
 is usually symmetrical. Other races are 
 the black Gallas from the south; the 
 Falashas, who claim descent from Abra- 
 ham, and retain many Jewish character- 
 istics; the Agows, Gongas, etc. The 
 great majority of the people profess 
 Christianity, belonging, like the Copts, 
 to the sect of the Monophysites. Their 
 religion consists chiefly in the perform- 
 ance of empty ceremonies, and gross 
 superstition as well as ignorance pre- 
 vails. The head of the church is called 
 the Abuna (“our father”), and is conse- 
 crated by the Coptic patriarch of Alex- 
 andria. Geez or Ethiopian is the 
 language of their sacred books; it has 
 long ago ceased to be spoken. The 
 chief spoken language is the Amharic; 
 in it some books have been published. 
 Mohammedanism appears to be gaining 
 ground in Abyssinia, and in respect of 
 morality the Moslems stand higher than 
 the Christians. A corrupt form of 
 Judaism is professed by the Falashas. — 
 The bulk of the people are devoted to 
 agriculture and cattle-breeding. The 
 trade and manufactures are of small 
 importance. A good deal of common 
 cotton cloth and some finer woven 
 fabrics are produced. Leather is pre- 
 pared to some extent, silver filagree 
 work is produced, and there are manu- 
 factures of common articles of iron and 
 brass, coarse black pottery, etc. The 
 foreign trade is carried on through Zeila 
 (British) and Djibouti (French) on the 
 Gulf of Aden, and Massowa on the Red 
 Sea (Italian), exports being hides, coffee, 
 wax, gum, ivory, etc., imports textile 
 fabrics, firearms, tobacco, etc. The 
 Abyssinians were converted to Chris- 
 tianity in the fourth century, by some 
 missionaries from Alexandria. The 
 title King of Kings was assumed by 
 Johannes in 1881. Advantage was 
 taken of the troubled state of Abyssinia 
 by the Egyptians, who annexed Mas- 
 sowa and the region adjacent, Abyssinia 
 having been thus shut out from the sea. 
 Hostilities were repeatedly carried on 
 between Johannes and the Egyptians. 
 Latterly the Italians gained and hold 
 possession of Massowa and other terri- 
 tory. Johannes died in 1889, and was 
 succeeded by Menelek II., who admitted 
 of an Italian protectorate over Abys- 
 sinia; but quarrels and hostilities broke 
 out, the Italians were defeated, and 
 their protectorate ceased. The popula- 
 tion is estimated at about 3,500,000. 
 
 ACA'CIA, a genus of plants, consist- 
 ing of trees or shrubs with compound 
 pinnate leaves and small leaflets, grow- 
 ing in Africa, Arabia, the East Indies, 
 Australia, etc. The flowers, usually 
 small, are arranged in spikes or globular 
 heads at the axils of the leaves near the 
 extremity of the branches. Several of 
 the species yield gum-arabic and other 
 gums; some have astringent barks and 
 pods, used in tanning. An Indian species 
 yields the valuable astringent called 
 catechu; another, the wattle-tree of 
 Australia, from 15 to 30 feet in height, 
 1 is the most beautiful and useful of the 
 
 species found there. Its bark contains 
 a large percentage of tannin, and is 
 hence exported. Some species yield 
 valuable timber; some are cultivated 
 for the beauty of their flowers. 
 
 Acacia. 
 
 ACAD'EMY, an association for the 
 promotion of literature, science, or art; 
 established sometimes by government, 
 sometimes by the voluntary union of 
 private individuals. The name Acad- 
 emy was first applied to the philosoph- 
 ical school of Plato, from the place w'here 
 he used to teach, a grove or garden at 
 Athens which was said to have belonged 
 originally to the hero Academus. Acad- 
 emies devote themselves either to the 
 cultivation of science generally or to 
 the promotion of a particular branch of 
 study, as antiquities, language, or the 
 fine arts. The most celebrated institu- 
 tions bearing the name of academies, 
 and designed for the encouragement of 
 science, antiquities, and language re- 
 spectively, are the French Academic 
 des Sciences (founded by Colbert in 1666) , 
 Acad4mie des Inscriptions founded by 
 Colbert in 1663), and Acad4mie Fran- 
 5 aise (founded by Richelieu in 1635), 
 all of which are now merged in the 
 National Institute. The oldest of the 
 academies instituted for the improve- 
 ment of language is the Italian Acca- 
 demia della Crusca (now the Floren- 
 tine Academy), formed in 1582, and 
 chiefly celebrated for the compilation 
 of an excellent dictionary of the Italian 
 language, and for the publication of 
 several carefully prepared editions of 
 ancient Italian poets. In Britain the 
 name of academy, in the more dignified 
 sense of the term, is confined almost 
 exclusively to certain institutions for 
 the promotion of the fine arts, such as 
 the Royal Academy of Arts and the 
 Royal Scottish Academy. The Royal 
 Academy of Arts (usually called simply 
 the Royal .'Vcademy) was founded in Lon- 
 don in 1768, “for the purpose of culti- 
 vating and improving the arts of paint- 
 ing, sculpture, and architecture.” The 
 number of academicians is now limited 
 to forty-two, among whom are two 
 
ACADIA 
 
 ACCOLADE 
 
 engravers. In the United States there 
 are hundreds of institutions, more or 
 less noted, known as academies, as the 
 American Academy of Political and So- 
 cial Science, the New York Academy of 
 Design, the Chicago Academy of Sci- 
 ences, etc. 
 
 ACA'DIA, the name formerly given 
 to Nova Scotia. It received its first 
 colonists from France in 1604, being 
 then a possession of that country, but 
 it passed to Britain, by the Peace of 
 Utrecht, in 1713. In 1756, 18,000 of 
 the French inhabitants were forcibly 
 removed from their homes on account 
 of their hostility to the British, an inci- 
 dent on which is based Longfellow’s 
 Evangeline. 
 
 ACALE'PHA, a nettle, from their 
 stinging properties, a term formerly 
 used to denote the Medusae or jelly- 
 fishes and their allies. 
 
 ACANTHOP'TERI, ACANTHOP- 
 TERYGII, a group of fishes, distin- 
 guished by the fact that at least the 
 
 Spines of acanthopteri. 
 
 first rays in each fin exist in the form 
 of stiff spines; it includes the perch, 
 mullet, mackerel, gurnard, wrasse, etc. 
 
 ACANTHUS, a genus of herbaceous 
 plants or shrubs, mostly tropical, two 
 species of which are characterized by 
 large white flowers and deeply indented 
 
 Acanthus of Corinthian capital. 
 
 shining leaves. — In architecture the 
 name is given to a kind of foliage decora- 
 tion said to have been suggested by this 
 plant, and much employed in Roman 
 and later styles. 
 
 ACAR'IDA, a division of the Arach- 
 nida, including the mites, ticks, and 
 water-mites. See Mite. 
 
 ACARNA'NIA, the most westerly por- 
 tion of northern Greece, together with 
 ^tolia now forming a nomarchy with a 
 pop. of 138,444. The Acarnanians of 
 ancient times were behind the other 
 Greeks in civilization, living by robbery 
 and piracy. 
 
 ACCA'DIANS, the primitive inhab- 
 itants of Babylonia, who had descended 
 from the mountainous region of Elam 
 on the east, and to whom the Assyrians 
 ascribed the origin of Chaldean civiliza- 
 tion and writing^, 
 
 ACCELERA'TION, the Increase of 
 velocity which a body acquires when 
 
 continually acted upon by a force in the 
 direction of its motion. A body falling 
 from a height is one of the most common 
 instances of acceleration. — Acceleration 
 of the Moon, the increase of the moon’s 
 mean angular velocity about the earth, 
 the moon now moving rather faster than 
 in ancient times. This phenomenon has 
 not been fully explained, but it is known 
 to be partly owing to the slow process of 
 diminution which the eccentricity of the 
 earth’s orbit is undergoing, and from 
 which there results a slight diminution 
 of the sun’s influence on the moon’s mo- 
 tions. — Diurnal Acceleration of the Fixed 
 Stars, the apparent greater diurnal mo- 
 tion of the stars than of the sun, arising 
 from the fact that the sun’s apparent 
 yearly motion takes place in a direction 
 contrary to that of his apparent daily 
 motion. The stars thus seem each day 
 to anticipate the sun by nearly 3 minutes 
 56 seconds of mean time. 
 
 AC'CENT, a term used in several 
 senses. In English it commonly denotes 
 superior stress or force of voice upon 
 certain syllables of words, which dis- 
 tinguishes them from the other syllables. 
 Many English words, as as'pi-ra"tion, 
 have two accents, a secondary and 
 primary, the latter being the fuller or 
 stronger. Some words, as in-com'pre- 
 hen'-si-bil"i-ty. have two secondary 
 or subordinate accents. When the full 
 accent falls on a vowel, that vowel has 
 its long sound, as in vo'cal; but when 
 it falls on a consonant, the preceding 
 vowel is short, as in hab'it. This kind 
 of accent alone regulates English verse 
 as contrasted with Latin or Greek verse, 
 in which the meter depended on quantity 
 or length of syllables. In books on elo- 
 cution three marks or accents are gener- 
 ally made use of, the first or acute (') 
 showing when the voice is to be raised, 
 the second or grave (^), when it is to be 
 depressed, and the third or circumflex 
 C) when the vowel is to be uttered with 
 an undulating sound. In some lan- 
 guages there is no such distinct accent as 
 in English (or German), and this seems 
 to be now the case with French. ( — ) In 
 music, accent is the stress or emphasis 
 laid upon certain notes of a bar. The 
 first note of a bar has the strongest 
 accent, but weaker accents are given 
 to the first notes of subordinate parts of 
 the bars, as to the third, fifth, and 
 seventh in a bar of eight quavers. 
 
 ACCEPT'ANCE, in law, the act by 
 which a person binds himself to pay a 
 bill of exchange drawn upon him. No 
 acceptance is valid unless made in 
 writing on the bill, but an acceptance 
 may be either absolute or conditional, 
 that is, stipulating some alteration in 
 the amount or date of payment, or 
 some condition to be fulfilled previous 
 to payment. 
 
 AC'CESS, right of, the right of a 
 private individual owning land on the 
 shore of a body of water, to the free use 
 of the shore, or the free access to the 
 shore. 
 
 ACCES'SARY, or ACCES'SORY, in 
 law, a person guilty of an offence by 
 connivance or participation, either be- 
 fore or after the act committed, as by 
 command, advice, concealment, etc. 
 An accessary before the fact is one who 
 procures or counsel* another to commit 
 
 a crime, and is not present at its com- 
 mission; an accessary after the fact is 
 one who, knowing a felony to have been 
 committed, gives assistance of any kind 
 to the felon so as to hinder him from 
 being apprehended, tried, or suffering 
 punishment. An accessary before the 
 fact may be tried and punished in all 
 respects as if he were the principal. 
 In high treason, all who participate 
 are regarded as principals. 
 
 AC'CIDENT, in law, an occurrence in 
 which a person is hurt or harmed by 
 another without intent or while law- 
 fully engaged under proper precautions 
 for the protection of others. 
 
 ACCIDENTALS, notes introduced in 
 the course of a piece of music in a dif- 
 ferent key from that in which the 
 passage they occur is principally written. 
 They are represented by the sign of a 
 sharp, flat, or natural immediately 
 before the note which is to be raised or 
 lowered. 
 
 ACCIDENT INSURANCE, insurance 
 protecting one against injury, disable- 
 ment, or death from accident. It does 
 not protect from injuries arising from 
 quarrels, or intentionally inflicted in- 
 jury, but only from such harm as comes 
 from violence and is purely accidental, 
 that is, when the harm is not due to 
 lack of precaution. 
 
 ACCIPTTRES (ak-sip'i-trez), the name 
 given by Linnaeus and Cuvier to the 
 
 Head and foot Head and foot Head and foot 
 of the of peregrine of American 
 osprey. falcon. sparrow-hawk. 
 
 rapacious birds now usually called Rap- 
 tores, which see. 
 
 ACCLIMATIZATION, the process of 
 accustoming plants or animals to live 
 and propagate in a chmate different 
 from that to which they are indigenous, 
 or the change which the constitution of 
 an animal or plant undergoes under new 
 climatic conditions, in the direction of 
 adaptation to those conditions. The 
 systematic study of acclimatization has 
 only been entered upon in very recent 
 times, and the little progress that has 
 been made in it has been more in the 
 direction of formulating anticipative, if 
 not arbitrary hypotheses, than of actual 
 discovery and acquisition of facts. The 
 term is sometimes applied to the case 
 of animals or plants taking readily to a 
 new country with a climate and other 
 and other circumstances similar to 
 what they have left, such as European 
 animals and plants in America and New 
 Zealand : but this is more properly 
 naturalization than acclimatization. 
 
 ACCOLADE (ak-o-lad'), the ceremony 
 used in conferring knighthood, anciently 
 consisting either in the embrace given by 
 the person who conferred the honor of 
 knighthood or in a light blow on the 
 neck or the cheek, latterly consisting 
 
ACCOMMODATION BILL 
 
 ACLINIC LINE 
 
 in the ceremony of striking the candidate 
 with a naked sword. 
 
 ACCOMMODA'TION BILL, a bill of 
 exchange drawn and accepted to raise 
 money on, and not given, like a genuine 
 bill of exchange, in payment of a debt, 
 but merely intended to accommodate 
 the drawer : colloquially called a kite. 
 
 ACCOMMODATION LADDER, a light 
 ladder hung over the side of a ship at 
 the gangway to facilitate ascending 
 from, or descending to, boats. 
 
 ACCOM'PANIMENT, in music, is that 
 part of music which serves for the sup- 
 port of the principal melody (solo or 
 obligato part). This can be executed 
 either by many instruments, by a few, 
 or by a single one. 
 
 ACCOM'PLICE, an aider or abettor 
 of crime, punishable either as principal 
 or second in the crime. Intent to com- 
 mit crime is of course understood. 
 Testimony given by accomplices against 
 other participators in the crime is 
 usually regarded with suspicion and 
 must be corroborated by other testi- 
 mony or circumstances before it is 
 regarded as convincing. 
 
 ACCOR'DION, a keyed musical wind- 
 instrument similar to the concertina, 
 being in the form of a small box, con- 
 taining a number of metallic reeds fixed 
 at one of their extremities, the sides of 
 the box forming a folding apparatus 
 which acts as a bellows to supply the 
 wind, and thus set the reeds in vibration, 
 and produce the notes both of melody 
 and harmony. 
 
 ACCOUNf'ANT, one who keeps ac- 
 counts; in the United States usually 
 a bookkeeper. In other countries the 
 term is used to designate an expert 
 bookkeeper who inspects the accounts 
 of banks, business houses, and other 
 institutions at regular intervals. 
 
 AC'CRA, a British settlement in 
 Africa, in a swampy situation, cap. of 
 Gold Coast, about 75 miles east of 
 Cape Coast Castle. Exports gold-dust, 
 ivory, gums, palm-oil; imports cottons, 
 cutlery, etc. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 ACCU'MULATOR, a name applied to 
 a kind of electric battery by means of 
 which electric energy can be stored and 
 rendered portable. In the usual form 
 each battery forms a cylindrical leaden 
 vessel, containing alternate sheets of 
 metallic lead and minium wrapped in 
 felt and rolled into a spiral wetted with 
 acidulated water. On being charged 
 with electricity the energy may be pre- 
 served till required for use. 
 
 ACCU'SATIVE CASE, in Latin and 
 some other languages, the term applied 
 to the case which designates the object 
 to which the action of any verb is 
 immediately directed, corresponding, 
 generally speaking, to the objective in 
 English. 
 
 A'CER, the genus of plants to which 
 belong the maples. 
 
 ACETAB'ULUM, an anatomical term 
 applied to any cup-like cavity, as that 
 of a bone to receive the protuberant end 
 of another bone, the cavity, for instance, 
 that receives the end of the thigh-bone. 
 
 ACETATES (as'e-tats), salts of acetic 
 acid. The acetates of most commercial 
 or manufacturing importance are those 
 of aluminium and iron, which are used 
 in calico printing; of copper, which as 
 
 verdigris is used as a color; and of lead, 
 best known as sugar of lead. The 
 acetates of potassium, sodium, and 
 ammonium, of iron, zinc, and lead, and 
 acetate of morphia, are employed in 
 medicine. 
 
 ACET'IC ACID, an acid produced 
 by the oxidation of common alcohol, and 
 of many other organic substances. Pure 
 acetic acid has a very sour taste and 
 pungent smell, burns the skin, and is 
 poisonous. From freezing at ordinary 
 temperatures (58° or 59°) it is known 
 as glacial acetic acid. Vinegar is simply 
 dilute acetic acid. Acetic acid is largely 
 used in the arts, in medicine, and for 
 domestic purposes. See Vinegar. 
 
 ACETTC ETHERS, compounds con- 
 sisting of acetates of alcohol radicals. 
 Common acetic ether is a colorless, 
 volatile fluid, and is a flavoring con- 
 stituent in many wines. It is made 
 artificially by distilling a mixture of 
 alcohol, oil of vitriol, and acetate of 
 potash. 
 
 ACET'YLENE, a highly inflammable 
 hydrocarbon gas which can be simply 
 made with calcic carbide and water, 
 and is now coming into use as an 
 illuminant. 
 
 AC&®'ANS, one of the four races 
 into which the ancient Greeks were 
 divided. In early times they inhabited 
 a part of northern Greece and of the 
 Peloponnesus. They are represented 
 by Homer as a brave and warlike people, 
 and so distinguished were they that he 
 usually calls the Greeks in general 
 Achseans. Achaia with Elis now forms 
 a nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece. 
 Pop. 181,632. 
 
 ACHARD (ah-art), Franz Karl, a Ger- 
 man chemist, born 1753, died 1821- prin- 
 cipally known by his invention (1789- 
 1800) of a process for manufacturing 
 sugar from beet-root. 
 
 ACHEEN', or ATCHIN, a native state 
 of Sumatra, with capital of same name, 
 in the northwestern extremity of the 
 island, now nominally under Dutch 
 administration. Though largely moun- 
 tainous, it has also undulating tracts and 
 low fertile plains. By treaty with 
 Britain the Dutch were prevented from 
 extending their territory in Sumatra by 
 conquest; but, this obstacle being 
 removed, in 1871 they proceeded to 
 occupy Acheen. It was not till 1879, 
 however, after a great waste of blood 
 and trea.sure, that they obtained a 
 general recognition of their authority. 
 But they have not been able to establish 
 it firmly, and in 1885 were forced to 
 evacuate part of the Acheenese territory, 
 with considerable loss in men and guns. 
 In the seventeenth century Acheen 
 was a powerful state, and carried on 
 hostihties successfully against the Por- 
 tuguse, but its influence decreased with 
 the increase of the Dutch power. The 
 principal exports are rice and pepper. 
 Area, 19,000 sq. miles; pop. 600,000. 
 
 ACHILLES (a-kil'-ez), a Greek legen- 
 dary herm the chief character in Homer’s 
 Iliad. His father was Peleus, ruler of 
 Phthia in Thessaly, his mother the sea- 
 goddess Thetis, In discussions on the 
 origin of the Homeric poems the term 
 AchiUeid is often applied to those books 
 (i. viii. and xi.-xxii.) of the Iliad in 
 which Achilles is prominent, and which 
 
 some suppose to have formed the 
 original nucleus of the poem. 
 
 ACHIMENES (a-kim'e-nez), a genus 
 of tropical American plants, with scaly 
 underground tubers, now cultivated in 
 European greenhouses on account of 
 their ornamental character. 
 
 ACHLAMYDEOUS (ak-la-mid'i-us), in 
 botany, wanting the floral envelopes, 
 that is, having neither calyx nor corolla, 
 as the willow. 
 
 ACHOR (a'kor) , a disease of infants, 
 in which the head, the face, and often 
 the neck and breast become incrusted 
 with thin, yellowish or greenish scabs, 
 arising from minute, whitish pustules, 
 which discharge a viscid fluid. 
 
 ACHROMAT'IC, in optics, trans- 
 mitting colorless light, that is, not 
 decomposed into the primary colors, 
 though having passed through a re- 
 fracting medium. A single convex lens 
 does not give an image free from the 
 prismatic colors, because the rays of 
 different color making up white light 
 are not equally refrangible, and thus do 
 not all come to a focus together, the 
 violet, for instance, being nearest the 
 lens, the red farthest off. If such a lens 
 of crown-glass, however, is combined 
 with a concave lens of flint-glass — the 
 curvatures of both being properly ad- 
 justed — as the two materials have some- 
 what different optical properties, the 
 latter will neutralize the chromatic 
 aberration of the former, and a satis- 
 factory image will be produced. Tele- 
 scopes, microscopes, etc., in which the 
 glasses are thus composed are called 
 achromatic. 
 
 ACID, a name popularly applied to a 
 number of compounds, solid, liquid, and 
 gaseous, having more or less the qual- 
 ities of vinegar (itself a diluted form of 
 acetic acid), the general properties as- 
 signed to them being a tart, sour taste, 
 the power of changing vegetable blues 
 into reds, of decomposing chalk and 
 marble with effervescence, and of being 
 in various degrees neutralized by alka- 
 lies. 
 
 ACIERAGE (a'se-er-aj), a process by 
 which an engraved copper-plate or an 
 electrotype from an engraved plate of 
 steel or copper has a film of iron de- 
 posited over its surface by electricity in 
 order to protect the engraving from 
 wear in printing. By this means an 
 electrotype of a fine engraving which, 
 if printed directly from the copper, would 
 not yield 500 good impressions, can be 
 made to yield 3^000 or more; and w'hou 
 the film of iron becomes so woi-n as to 
 reveal any part of the copper, it may be 
 removed and a fresh coating deposited 
 so that 20,000 good impressions may 
 be obtained. 
 
 ACIPENSER (as-i-pen'ser), the genus 
 of cartilaginous ganoid fishes to which 
 the sturgeon belongs. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT, an admission, 
 either in writing or by word of mouth, 
 by a person that he owes a debt which, 
 otherwise, might be covered by the 
 statute of limitations. It is also used 
 to designate an act by which one asserts 
 that a document, statement, or other 
 instrument is his own. 
 
 ACLINTC LINE, the magnetic equa- 
 tor, an irregular curve in the neighbor- 
 hood of the terrestrial equator, where 
 
ACNE 
 
 ACTIUM 
 
 the magnetic needle balances itself hori- 
 zontally, having no dip. 
 
 ACNE (ak'ne^ a skin disease, consist- 
 ing of small hard pimples, usually on 
 the face, caused by congestion of the 
 follicles of the skin. 
 
 ACOLYTES (ak'o-lits), in the ancient 
 Latin and Greek Churches, persons of 
 ecclesiastical rank next in order below 
 the sub-deacons, whose office it was to 
 attend to the officiating priest. The name 
 is still retained in the Roman Church. 
 
 ACONCAGUA (a-kan-ka'gwa), a pro- 
 vince, a river, and a mountain of Chile. 
 The peak of Aconcagua, whose summit 
 is just within the Argentine Republic, 
 rises to the height of 22,860 feet, and 
 is probably the highest mountain of 
 the western hemisphere. Area of prov., 
 6224 sq. miles. Pop. 153,049. 
 
 AC'ONITE, a genus of hardy her- 
 baceous plants, represented by the well- 
 known wolf’s-bane or monk’s-hood, and 
 remarkable for their poisonous proper- 
 ties and medicinal qualities, being used 
 internally as well as externally in rheu- 
 matism, gout, neuralgia, etc. 
 
 ACON'ITINE, an alkaloid extracted 
 from monk’s-hood and some other 
 species of aconite; used medicinally, 
 though a virulent poison, 
 
 ACONQUIJA (a-kon-ke'/iS,), a range 
 of mountains in the Argentine Republic; 
 the name also of a single peak, 17,000 
 feet high. 
 
 A'CORN, the fruit of the different 
 kinds of oak. The acom-cups of one 
 species are brought from the Levant 
 under the name of valonia, and used in 
 tanning. 
 
 ACOTYLE'DONS, plants not furnished 
 with cotyledons or seed-lobes. They 
 include ferns, mosses, seaweeds, etc., 
 and are also called flowerless plants or 
 cryptogams. 
 
 ACOUSTICS (a-kou'stiks), the science 
 of sound. It teaches the cause, nature, 
 and phenomena of such vibrations of 
 elastic bodies as affect the organ of 
 hearing; the manner in which sound 
 is produced, its transmission through 
 air and other media, the doctrine of 
 reflected sound or echoes, the proper- 
 ties and effects of different sounds, 
 including musical sounds or notes, 
 and the structure and action of the 
 organ of hearing, etc. The propa- 
 gation of. sound is analogous to that 
 of light, both being due to vibrations 
 which produce successive waves, and 
 Newton was the first to show that its 
 propagation through any medium de- 
 pended upon the elasticity of that 
 medium. Regarding the intensity, re- 
 flection, and refraction of sound, much 
 the same rules apply as in light. In 
 ordinary cases of hearing the vibrating 
 medium is air, but all substances capable 
 of vibrating may be employed to propa- 
 gate and convey sound. When a bell is 
 struck its vibrations are communicated 
 to the particles of air surrounding it, 
 and from these to particles outside them, 
 until they reach the ear of the listener. 
 The intensity of sound varies inversely 
 as the square of the distance of the body 
 sounding from the ear. Sound travels 
 through the air at the rate of about 1090 
 feet per second; through water at the 
 rate of about 4700 feet. Sounds may be 
 musical or non-musical, A musical 
 
 sound is caused by a regular series of 
 exactly similar pulses succeeding each 
 other at precisely equal intervals of 
 time. If these conditions are not ful- 
 filled the sound is a noise. Musical 
 sounds are comparatively simple, and 
 are combined to give pleasing sensations 
 according to easy numerical relations. 
 The loudness of a note depends on the 
 degree to which it affects the ear; the 
 pitch of a note depends on the number 
 of vibrations to the second which pro- 
 duce the note; the timber, quality or 
 character of a note depends on the body 
 or bodies whose vibrations produce the 
 sound, and is due to the form of the 
 paths of vibrating particles. The gamut 
 is a series of eight notes, which are called 
 by the names Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, 
 Si, Doj, and the numbers of vibrations 
 which produce these notes are respec- 
 tively proportional to 24, 27, 30, 32, 36, 
 40, 45, 48. The numerical value of the 
 interval between any two notes is given 
 by dividing one of the above numbers 
 corresponding to the higher note by the 
 munber corresponding to lower note. 
 The intervals from Do to each of the 
 others are called a second, a minor third, 
 a fourth, a fifth, a sixth, a seventh, and 
 an octave respectively. The interval 
 from La to D 02 is a minor third. An in- 
 terval of I is a major tone; V- is a minor 
 tone ; is called a limma. The proper- 
 ties of sound were mathematically in- 
 vestigated by Bacon and Galileo, but it 
 remained for Newton, Lagrange, Euler, 
 Laplace, Helmholtz, etc., to bring the 
 science to its present state. 
 
 ACRE, a standard measure of land, 
 consists of 4840 square yards, divided 
 into 4 roods. 
 
 ACRE (a'ker), a seaport of Syria, in 
 Northern Palestine, on the Bay of Acre, 
 early a place of great strength and im- 
 portance. Taken from the S^aracens un- 
 der Saladin in 1191 by Richard I. of En- 
 gland and Philip of France; bravely 
 defended by the Turks assisted by Sir 
 Sidney Smith in 1799 against Napoleon; 
 in 1832, taken by Ibrahim Pasha; in 
 1840, bombarded by a British, Austrian, 
 and Turkish fleet, and restored to the 
 Sultan of Turkey. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 ACROBAT, one who performs on the 
 trapeze, horizontal bar, or other appara- 
 tus, or who, without appliances of any 
 kind, is. capable of performing expert 
 gymnastics. Acrobats and acrobatism 
 are very ancient. They were known, in 
 a limited way, to the Greeks and the 
 Romans and were familiar during the 
 middle ages. Rope walking was a 
 favorite act of acrobats and rope walk- 
 ers are pictured on the walls of the 
 excavated houses at Pompeii. 
 
 ACROCORIN'THUS, a steep rock in 
 Greece, nearly 1900 feet high, over- 
 hanging ancient Corinth, and on which 
 stood the acropolis or citadel, the sacred 
 fountain of Pirene being also here. This 
 natural fortress has proved itself of 
 importance in the modern history of 
 Greece. 
 
 AC'ROGENS, a term applied to the 
 ferns, mosses, and lichens (cryptogams), 
 as growing by extension upwards, in 
 contradistinction to endogens and ex- 
 ogens. 
 
 ACROP'OLIS, the 'citadel or chief 
 place of a Grecian city, usually on an 
 
 eminence commanding the town. That 
 of Athens contained some of the finest 
 buildings in the world, such as the 
 Parthenon, Erechtheum, etc. 
 
 ACROS'TIC, a poem of which the first 
 or last, or certain other letters of the 
 line, taken in order, form some name, 
 motto, or sentence. A poem of which 
 both first and last letters are thus 
 arranged is called a double acrostic. In 
 Hebrew poetry, the term is given to a 
 poem of which the initial letters of the 
 lines or stanzas were made to run over 
 the letters of the alphabet in their order, 
 as in Psalm cxix. 
 
 ACT, in special senses ; (1) In dramatic 
 poetry, one of the principal divisions of 
 a drama, in which a definite and coher- 
 ent portion of the plot is represented; 
 generally subdivided into smaller por- 
 tions called scenes. The Greek dramas 
 were not divided into acts. The dictum 
 that a drama should consist of five acts 
 was first formally laid down by Horace, 
 and is generally adhered to by modern 
 dramatists in tragedy. In comedy no 
 such distinction is observed. — (2) Some- 
 thing formally done by a legislative or 
 judicial body; a statute or law passed. — 
 (3) In universities, a thesis maintained 
 in public by a candidate for a degree. 
 See Act of God, of Parliament, of Settle- 
 ment, etc. 
 
 ACT.iE'ON, in Greek mythology, a 
 great hunter, turned into a stag by 
 Artemis (Diana) for looking on her when 
 she was bathing, and torn to pieces by 
 his own dogs. 
 
 ACTA SANCTORUM, a name applied 
 to all collections of accounts of ancient 
 martyrs and saints, both of the Greel^ 
 and Roman Churches, more particularly 
 to the valuable collection begun by 
 John Bolland, a Jesuit of Antwerp, in 
 1643, and which, being continued by 
 other divines of the same order (Bol- 
 landists), now extends to sixty volumes, 
 the lives following each other in the 
 order of the calendar. 
 
 ACTIN'IA, the genus of animals to 
 which the typical sea-anemones belong. 
 See Sea-anemone. 
 
 ACTINISM, the property of those 
 rays of light which produce chemical 
 changes, as in photography, in contra- 
 distinction to the light rays and heat 
 rays. The actinic property or force be- 
 gins among the green rays, is strongest 
 in the violet rays, and extends a long 
 way beyond the visible spectrum. 
 
 ACTINOM'ETER, an instrument for 
 measuring the intensity of the sun’s 
 actinic rays. See Actinism. 
 
 ACTINOZO'A (lit. ray-animals), a 
 class of animals including sea -anemones, 
 corals, etc., all having rayed tentacles 
 round the mouth. 
 
 ACTION, the mode of seeking redress 
 at law for any wrong, injury, or depriva- 
 tion. Actions are divided into civil and 
 criminal, the former again being divided 
 into real, personal, and mixed. 
 
 ACTIUM, a promontory on the west- 
 ern coast of northern Greece, not far 
 from the entrance of the Ambracian 
 Gulf (Gulf of Arta), now called La 
 Punta, memorable on account of the 
 naval victory gained here by Octavianus 
 (afterward the Emperor Augustus) 
 over Antony and Cleopatra, September 
 2, B.c. 31, in sight of their armies, en- 
 
ACT OP GOD 
 
 ADAMS 
 
 camped on the opposite shores of the 
 Ambracian Gulf. Soon after the be- 
 ginning of the battle Cleopatra fled with 
 sixty Egyptian ships, and Antony basely 
 followed her, and fled with her to Egypt. 
 The deserted fleet was not overcome 
 without making a brave resistance. 
 Antony’s land forces soon went over to 
 the enemy, and the Roman world fell to 
 Octavius. 
 
 ACT OF GOD, a legal term defined as 
 “a direct, violent, sudden, and irresisti- 
 ble act of nature, which could not, by 
 any reasonable cause, have been fore- 
 seen or resisted.” No one can be legally 
 called upon to make good loss so arising. 
 
 ACT OF PARLIAMENT, a law or 
 statute proceeding from the parliament 
 of the United Kingdom passed in both 
 houses, and having received the royal 
 assent. Before it is passed it is a bill 
 and not an act. Acts are either public 
 or private, the former affecting the 
 whole community, the latter only special 
 persons and private concerns. The 
 Avhole body of public acts constitutes 
 the statute law. An act of parliament 
 can only be altered or repealed by the 
 authority of parliament. 
 
 ACT OF SETTLEMENT, an act passed 
 by the English parliament in 1700, by 
 which the succession to the throne cf the 
 three kingdoms, in the event of King 
 William and Queen Anne dying without 
 issue, was settled on the Princess Sophia, 
 electress of Hanover, and the heirs of her 
 body being Protestants. The Princess 
 Sophia was the youngest daughter of 
 Ehzabeth, queen of Bohemia, daughter 
 of James I. By this act George I., son 
 of the Princess Sophia, succeeded to the 
 crown on the death of Queen Anne. 
 
 ACT OF TOLERATION, an act of 
 parliament passed in 1689, by which 
 Protestant dissenters from the Church 
 of England, on condition of their taking 
 the oaths of supremacy and allegiance, 
 and repudiating the doctrine of tran- 
 substantiation, were relieved from the 
 restrictions under which they had for- 
 merly lain with regard to the exercise of 
 their religion according to their own 
 forms. 
 
 ACT OF UNIFORMITY, an English 
 act passed in 1662, enjoining upon all 
 ministers to use the Book of Common 
 Prayer on pain of forfeiture of their liv- 
 ings. See Nonconformists. 
 
 ACTOR, one who represents some 
 part or character on the stage. Actresses 
 were unknown to the Greeks and 
 Romans in the earliest times, men or 
 boys always performing the female 
 parts. They appeared under the Roman 
 empire, however. Charles II. first en- 
 couraged the public appearance of 
 actresses in England; in Shakespeare’s 
 time there were none. See Drama. 
 
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, one of the 
 books of the New Testament, written 
 in Greek by St. Luke, probably in a.d. 
 63 or 64. It embraces a period of about 
 thirty years, beginning immediately 
 after the resurrection, and extending to 
 the second year of the imprisonment of 
 St. Paul in Rome. Very little informa- 
 tion is given regarding any of the apos- 
 tles, excepting St. Peter and St. Paul, 
 and the accounts of them are far from 
 being complete. 
 
 AC'TUARY, an accountant whose 
 business is to make the necessary 
 computations with regard to a basis for 
 life assurance, annuities, reversions, etc. 
 
 ACU'LEUS, in botany, a prickle, or 
 sharp-pointed process of the epidermis, 
 as distinguished from a thorn or spine, 
 which is of a woody nature. 
 
 ACUPRES'SURE, a means of arrest- 
 ing bleeding from a cut artery intro- 
 duced by Sir James Simpson in 1859, 
 and consisting in compressing the 
 artery above the orifice, that is, on 
 the side nearest the heart, with the 
 middle of a needle introduced through 
 
 T h 
 
 ACUPUNCTURE, a surgical opera- 
 tion, consisting in the insertion of nee- 
 dles into certain parts of the body for 
 alleviating pain, or for the cure of differ- 
 ent speeies of rheumatism, neuralgia, 
 eye diseases, etc. It is easily performed, 
 gives little pain, causes neither bleeding 
 nor inflammation, and seems at times of 
 surprising efficacy. 
 
 ADAGIO (a-da'jo), a musical term, ex- 
 pressing a slow time, slower than an- 
 dante and less so than largo. 
 
 ADAIR, John, American statesman 
 and soldier, born in South Carohna in 
 1759, died 1840. He lived many years 
 in Kentucky, took part in the Indian 
 wars toward the end of the 17th century, 
 was a member of the Kentucky conven- 
 tion of 1792, and was a U. S. senator 
 from 1805 to 1806. He was governor 
 of Kentucky from 1820 to 1824, and a 
 member of congress from 1831 to 1832. 
 He was present at the Battle of New 
 Orleans, where he commanded the Ken- 
 tucky troops. 
 
 ADAM and EVE, the names given in 
 Scripture to our first parents, an account 
 of whom and their immediate descend- 
 ants is given in the early chapters of 
 Genesis. Cain, Abel, and Seth are all 
 their sons that are mentioned by name ; 
 but we are told that they had other sons, 
 as well as daughters, and that Adam 
 finally died at the age of 930 years. 
 There are numerous Rabbinical addi- 
 tions to the Scripture narrative, of an 
 extravagant character, such as the 
 myth of Adam having a wife before Eve, 
 named Lilith, who became the mother 
 of giants and evil spirits. Other legends 
 or inventions are contained in the 
 Koran. 
 
 ADAM DE LA HALE, an early French 
 writer and musician; born 1240, died 
 1287. His Jeu de Robin et de Marion 
 may be regarded as the first comic opera 
 ever written. 
 
 AD'AMANT, an old name for the 
 diamond; also used in a vague way to 
 imply a substance of impenetrable hard- 
 
 IlCSS • 
 
 ADAMANTINE SPAR, a name of the 
 mineral corundum or of a brownish 
 variety of it. 
 
 AD'AMITES, a name of sects or 
 religious bodies that have appeared at 
 various times: so called because both 
 men and women were said to appear 
 naked in their assemblies, either to 
 imitate Adam in the state of innocence 
 or to prove the control which they pos- 
 sessed over their passions. 
 
 ADAMS Alvin, AmericAn business 
 man and capitalist, founder of the 
 Adams Express Company. He was a 
 
 native of Andover, Vt.'; bom in 1804 
 and died in 1877. 
 
 ADAMS, Charles Baker, American 
 scientist, born at Dorchester, Mass., in 
 1814, graduated at Amherst, became 
 professor of natural history at Middle- 
 bury College, Vt., in 1838, and in 1847 
 to his death in 1853 was professor of 
 zoology and astronomy at Amherst. 
 
 ADAMS, Charles Fallen, American 
 poet, author of Leedle Yawcob Strauss 
 and Other Poems (1878), and Dialect 
 Ballads. He was born at Dorchester, 
 Vt., in 1842, and served on the Union 
 side in the civil war. 
 
 ADAMS, Charles Francis, American 
 statesman, son of President John 
 Quincy Adams, born at Boston in 1807, 
 died 1886. He studied law with Daniel 
 Webster, but did not practice, preferring 
 
 Charles P. Adams. 
 
 literary work and the study of diplo- 
 macy and history. From 1841 to 1846 
 he was a member of the Massachusetts 
 legislature, and 1848 became the editor 
 of the famous Boston Whig. Having 
 been chairman of the Free Soil conven- 
 tion in 1848 he was nominated for vice- 
 president, and after several years of 
 retirement in literary work he entered 
 congress in 1858. In 1861 he was made 
 American minister to England. On his 
 return in 1868 he was elected to the 
 presidency of Harvard, went to Geneva 
 in 1871 to settle the Alabama claims, 
 and on his return retired into private 
 life for the purpose of completing his 
 work of editing the writings of John 
 Quincy Adams. 
 
 ADAMS, Charles Francis, Jr., Ameri- 
 can author and financier, born in Bos- 
 ton in 1835. Having served in the civil 
 war, he entered the railroad business, 
 was president of the Southern Pacific 
 railroad (1884 to 1890), and from 1893 
 to 1895 he was chairman of the Massa- 
 chusetts Park Commission. He is the 
 author of several works on railroad 
 growth and management. 
 
 ADAMS, Charles Kendall, American 
 historian and educator, born at Derby, 
 Vt., in 1835, died in 1902. In 1861 he 
 was graduated at the University of 
 
ADAMS 
 
 ADDA 
 
 Michigan, where he taught until 1867. 
 He was president of Cornell University 
 from 1885 to 1892, in which latter year 
 he became president of the University 
 of Wisconsin. He is the author of 
 numerous works dealing with European 
 and American history. 
 
 ADAMS, Henry, American author 
 and historian, son of Charles Francis 
 Adams, born at Boston in 1838 and 
 graduated at Harvard in 1858. He was 
 engaged for many years on his nine- 
 volume work. History of the United 
 States from 1801 to 1817. He is also 
 the author of several important his- 
 torical monographs. 
 
 ADAMS, Herbert Baxter, American 
 historian and educator, born at Am- 
 herst in 1850, died 1901. He was asso- 
 ciate professor of history at Johns Hop- 
 kins University and wrote a series of 
 monographs on American history of 
 great value. 
 
 ADAMS, Isaac, an American inventor, 
 born at Rochester, N. H., in 1803. He 
 invented the printing-press named for 
 him. He died in 1883. 
 
 ADAMS, John, second president of 
 the United States, was born at Brain- 
 tree (now Quincy), Mass., 19th October, 
 1735. He was educated at Harvard 
 University, ano adopted the law as a 
 
 
 profession. On 13th May, 1776, he 
 seconded the motion for a declaration 
 of independence proposed by Lee of 
 Virginia, and was appointed a mem- 
 ber of committee to draw it up. The 
 declaration was actually drawn up by 
 Jefferson, but it was Adams who fought 
 it through congress. In 1778 he went to 
 France on a special mission, and for nine 
 years resided abroad as representative 
 of his country in France, Holland, and 
 England. After taking part in the 
 peace negotiations he was appointed, in 
 1785, the first ambassador of the United 
 States to the court of St. James. He 
 was recalled in 1788, and the following 
 year elected vice-president of the re- 
 public under Washington. In 1792 he 
 was reelected vice-president, and at the 
 following election in 1797 he became 
 
 president in succession to Washington. 
 His term of office proved a stormy one, 
 which broke up and dissolved the fed- 
 eralist party. His reelection in 1801 
 was again opposed by the efforts of 
 Hamilton, which ended in effecting the 
 return of the republican candidate 
 Jefferson. Thus it happened that when 
 Adams retired from office his influence 
 and popularity with both parties were 
 at an end, and he sunk at once into the 
 obscurity of private life. He had the 
 consolation, however, of living to see 
 his son president. He died 4th July, 
 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the 
 declaration of independence, and on the 
 same day as Jefferson. 
 
 ADAMS, John Couch, English astron- 
 omer, born 1819, died 1892, studied at 
 Cambridge, and was senior wrangler in 
 1843. His investigations into the irreg- 
 ularities in the motion of the planet 
 Uranus led him to the conclusion that 
 they must be caused by another more 
 distant planet, and the results of his 
 labors were communicated in Septem- 
 ber and October, 1845, to Professor 
 Challis and Airy the astronomer royal. 
 The French astronomer Leverrier had 
 by this time been engaged in the same 
 line of research, and had come to sub- 
 stantially the same results, which, being 
 published in 1846, led to the actual dis- 
 covery of the planet Neptune by Galle 
 of Berlin. In 1858 Adams was ap- 
 pointed Lowndean professor of astron- 
 omy and geometry at Cambridge. 
 
 ADAMS, John Quincy, sixth president 
 of the United States, son of John Adams, 
 second president, was born 11th July, 
 1767. Accompanying his father to 
 Europe he received part cf his education 
 there, but graduated at Harvard in 
 1788. Having adopted the legal pro- 
 fession, in 1791, he was admitted to the 
 bar. In 1794 Washington appointed 
 him minister to the Hague. He after- 
 ward was sent to Berlin, and also on 
 a mission to Sweden. In 1798 he re- 
 ceived a commission to negotiate a 
 treaty of commerce with Sweden. On 
 the accession of Jefferson to the pres- 
 idency in 1801 he was recalled. The 
 federalist party had sufficient influence 
 in Massachusetts to elect him to the 
 senate in 1803. In 1809 he went as am- 
 bassador to Russia. He assisted in 
 negotiating the peace of 1814 with Eng- 
 land, and was afterward appointed 
 resident minister at London. Under 
 Monroe as president he was sercetary of 
 state, and at the expiration of Monroe’s 
 double term of office he succeeded him 
 in the presidency (1825). He was not 
 very successful as president, and at the 
 end of his term (1829) he was not re- 
 elected. In 1831 he was returned to 
 congress by Massachusetts, and con- 
 tinued to represent this state till his 
 death, his efforts being now chiefly on 
 behalf of the abolitionist party. He 
 died 21st February, 1848. 
 
 ADAMS, Maude, an American actress, 
 born at Salt Lake City in 1872. Miss 
 Adams has appeared with great success 
 as Lady Babbie in the Little Minister, 
 in Rostand’s I’Aiglon, and in other 
 prominent productions. 
 
 ADAMS, Samuel, an American states- 
 man, second cousin of President John 
 Adams, was born in Boston, Sept. 27, 
 
 1722, and was educated at Harvard 
 College. He was one of the signers of 
 the declaration of 1776, which he labored 
 most indefatigably to bring forward. 
 He sat in congress eight years, in 1789 
 -94 was lieutenant-governor of Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1794-97 governor, when he 
 retired from public life. He died Oct. 
 2, 1803. 
 
 ADAMS, William Taylor, an Ameri- 
 can author who, under the pen name 
 of “Oliver Optic,” is one of the best 
 known and most popular of American 
 juvenile story tellers. He was born at 
 Medway, Mass., 1822, and began the 
 publication of his stories in 1853. He 
 died in 1897. 
 
 ADAM’S APPLE, the popular name 
 of the prominence seen in the front of 
 the throat in man, and which is formed 
 by the portion of the larynx known as 
 the thyroid cartilage. It is much smaller 
 and less visible in females than in male.-', 
 and is so named from the idle notion 
 that it was caused by a piece of the for- 
 bidden fruit having stuck in Adam’s 
 throat. 
 
 ADAM’S PEAK, one of the highest 
 mountains in Ceylon, 45 m. east-south- 
 east of Colombo, conical, isolated, and 
 7420 feet high. On the top, a rocky area 
 of 64 feet by 45, is a hollow in the rock 
 5 feet long bearing a rude resemblance 
 to a human foot, which the Brahmans 
 
 2 .. 
 
 believe to be the footprint of SWa, the 
 Buddhists that of Buddha, the Moham- 
 medans that of Adam. Devotees of all 
 creeds here meet and present their offer- 
 ings (chiefly rhododendron flowers) to 
 the sacred footprint. The ascent is very 
 steep, and toward the summit is 
 assisted by steps cut and iron chains 
 riveted in the rock. 
 
 A'DAR, the twelfth month of the He- 
 brew sacred and sixth of the civil year, 
 answering to part of February and part 
 of March. 
 
 ADDA (ancient Addua)^ a river of 
 north Italy, which, descending from 
 the Rhtetian Alps, falls into Lake Como, 
 and leaving this joins the Po, after a 
 course of about 170 miles. 
 
 ADDA, a species of lizard, more com- 
 monly called skink. 
 
ADDAX 
 
 ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS 
 
 AD'DAX, a species of antelope of the 
 size of a large ass, with much of its 
 make. The horns of the male are about 
 4 feet long, beautifully twisted into a 
 wide-sweeping spiral of two turns and 
 
 Head of Add ax. 
 
 a half, with the points directed out- 
 ward. It has tufts of hair on the fore- 
 head and throat, and large broad hoofs. 
 It inhabits the sandy regions of Nubia 
 and Kordofan, and is also found in 
 Caffraria. 
 
 ADDER, a name often applied to the 
 common viper, as well as to other kinds 
 of venomous serpents. See Viper. 
 
 ADDER’S-TONGUE, a species of fern, 
 whose spores are produced on a spike, 
 supposed to resemble a serpent’s tongue. 
 
 ADDER’S- WORT, name of snake- 
 weed or bistort, from its supposed virtue 
 in curing the bite of serpents. 
 
 ADDICKS, John Edward, American 
 
 E olitician, capitalist, and promoter, 
 orn in Philadelphia in 1841. In 1884 
 he began the organization of gas com- 
 panies in Boston and elsewhere, and in 
 1895 he was a candidate for United 
 States senator from Delaware. De- 
 feated at that time, he prevented the 
 election of his opponent. The vacancy 
 was not filled before the expiration of 
 the term of the other senator, so that 
 Delaware was for a time^without repre- 
 sentation. 
 
 AD'DINGTON, Henry, Viscount Sid- 
 mouth; born 1757, died 1844. Entered 
 parliament, 1783, as a warm supporter 
 of Pitt. Was elected speaker of the 
 House of Commons, 1789, and in 1801 
 invited by the king to form an adminis- 
 tration, chiefly signalized by the conclu- 
 sion of the Peace of Amiens. 
 
 AD'DISON, Joseph, an eminent Eng- 
 lish essayist, son of the Rev. Lancelot 
 Addison, afterward dean of Litchfield, 
 born at Milston, Wiltshire, 1st May, 
 1672, died 17th June, 1719. He was 
 educated at the Charterhouse, where he 
 became acquainted with Steele, and 
 afterward at Oxford. He held a fellow- 
 ship from 1697 till 1711, and gained 
 much praise for his Latin poetry and 
 other contributions to classical liter- 
 ature. He secured as his earliest patron 
 the poet Dryden, who inserted some of 
 his verses in his Miscellanies in 1693. A 
 translation of the fourth Georgic, with 
 the exception of the story of Aristaeus, 
 by Addison, appeared in the same collec- 
 tion in 1694, and he subsequently trans- 
 lated for it two and a half books of Ovid. 
 Dryden also prefixed his prose essay on 
 Virgil’s Georgies to his own translation 
 of that poem, which appeared in 1697. 
 He contribute a number of papers to 
 the Tatler, either wholly by himself or 
 
 in coniunction with Steele, thus found- 
 ing the new literary School of the Essay- 
 ists. For the Spectator he wrote 274 
 papers all signed by one of the four let- 
 ters C. L. L. 0. His tragedy of Cato 
 was translated into French, Italian, 
 German and Latin. Of his style as 
 a writer so much has been said that 
 nothing remains to say but to quote the 
 dictum of Johnson, “Whoever wishes to 
 attain an English style, familiar but 
 not coarse, and elegant but not osten- 
 tatious, must give his days and nights 
 to the volumes of Addison.” 
 
 ADDISON’S DISEASE (from Dr. Ad- 
 dison, Guy’s Hospital, London, who 
 traced the disease to its source), a fatal 
 disease, the seat of which is the two 
 glandular bodies placed one at the front 
 of the upper part of each kidney, and 
 called supra-renal capsules. It is char- 
 acterized by anaemia or bloodlessness, 
 extreme prostration, and the brownish 
 or olive-green color of the skin. Death 
 usually results from weakness, and com- 
 monly within a year. 
 
 ADDUC'TOR, a muscle which draws 
 one part of the body toward another: 
 applied in zoology to one of the muscles 
 which bring together the valves of the 
 shell of the bivalve molluscs. 
 
 ADE, George, an American humorist 
 and playwright. He was born at Kent- 
 land, Ind., in 1866, graduated at Purdue 
 university in 1887, and was for many 
 years a writer for Chicago newspapers. 
 His first work of note was his Fables in 
 Slang, which ran through a long series 
 of publications, and disclosed a power 
 of satire rare in American literature. Mr. 
 Ade more recently has written a large 
 number of comedies and comic opera 
 libretti which have been very popular. 
 
 ADEE, Alvey Augustus, American 
 diplomat born at Astoria, N. Y., in 
 1842. He was secretary of legation at 
 Madrid in 1870 and in 1878 chief of the 
 diplomatic bureau at Washington. 
 From 1882 to 1886 he was third 
 assistant secretary of state and served 
 as acting secretary of state in 1900. 
 
 ADELAIDE (ad'e-lad), the capital of 
 South Australia, 6 miles east from Port 
 Adelaide (on St. Vincent Gulf), its port, 
 with which it is united by railway, 
 founded in 1837, and named after the 
 queen of William IV. Situated on a 
 large plain, it is built nearly in the form 
 of a square, with the streets at right 
 angles, and is divided into North and 
 South Adelaide, separated by the river 
 Torrens, which is crossed by several 
 bridges, and by means of a dam is 
 converted into a fine sheet of water. 
 Adelaide is connected by railway with 
 Melbourne, and is the terminus of the 
 overland telegraph to Port Darwin. 
 It has a large trade. Pop. (inch sub- 
 urbs), about 165,000. 
 
 ADELUNG (ad'e-lung), Johann Chris- 
 toph, a German philologist; born 1732, 
 died 1806. In 1759 he was appointed 
 professor in the Protestant academy at 
 Erfurt, and two years after removed to 
 Leipzig, whsre he applie(^ himself to 
 the works by which he made so great 
 a name, particularly his German dic- 
 tionary, Grammatisch-kritisohes W6rt- 
 erbuch der hochdoutschen Mundart 
 (Leipzig, 1774-86), and his Mithridates, 
 a work on general philology. In 1787 ho 
 
 was appointed librarian of the public 
 library in Dresden — an office which he 
 held till his death. 
 
 A'DEN, a seaport town and territory 
 belonging to Britain, on the southwest 
 coast of Arabia, in a dry and barren 
 district, the town being almost entirely 
 closed in by an amphitheater of rocks, 
 and possessing an admirable harbor. 
 Occupying an important military posi- 
 tion, Aden is strongly fortified and 
 permanently garrisoned. It is of im- 
 portance also as a coaling station for 
 steamers, and carries on a great amount 
 of commerce, forming an entrepot and 
 place of transshipment for goods valued 
 at $20,000,000 a year. The peninsula 
 on which it stands somewhat resembles 
 the rock of Gibraltar, and could be 
 rendered as formidable. The total area 
 of the settlement is 70 square miles. 
 It is attached to the Bombay Presidency. 
 Pop. 43,974. 
 
 ADENANTHE'RA, a genus of trees 
 and shrubs, natives of the East Indies 
 and Ceylon. A. pavonina is on6 of the 
 largest and handsomest trees of India, 
 and yields hard solid timber called red 
 sandalwood. The bright scarlet seeds, 
 from their equality in weight (each, 4 
 
 f rains), are used by goldsmiths in the 
 last as weights. 
 
 ADENITIS, in medicine, inflamma- 
 tion of one or more of the lymphatic 
 glands 
 
 ADHESION, the tendency of two 
 bodies to stick together when put in 
 close contact, or the mutual attraction of 
 their surfaces; distinguished from co- 
 hesion, which denotes the mutual 
 attraction between the particles of a 
 homogeneous body. Adhesion may 
 exist between two solids, between a 
 solid and a fluid, or between two fluids. 
 A plate of glass or of polished metal 
 laid on the surface of water and attached 
 to one arm of a balance will support 
 much more than its own weight in the 
 opposite scale from the force of adhe- 
 sion between the water and the plate. 
 From the same force arises the tendency 
 of most liquids, when gently poured 
 from a jar, to run down the exterior 
 of a vessel or along any other surface 
 they meet. 
 
 ADIAN'TUM, a genus of ferns; the 
 maidenhair fern. 
 
 ADTPOSE TISSUE, the cellular tissue 
 containing the oily or fatty matter of 
 the body. It underlies the skin, sur- 
 
 Addipose tissue. 
 
 rounds the large vessels and nerves, 
 invests the kidneys, etc., and some- 
 times accumulates in large masses. 
 
 ADIRON DACK MOUNTAINS, in the 
 U. States, a group belonging to the 
 
ADIT 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLAND 
 
 Appalachian chain extendig from then 
 n.e. corner of the state of New York 
 to near its center. The scenery is wild 
 and grand, diversified by numerous 
 beautiful lakes, and the whole region 
 is a favorite resort of sportsmen and 
 tourists. 
 
 ADTT, a more or less horizontal 
 opening, giving access to the shaft of a 
 mine, it is made to slope gradually 
 from the farthest point in the interior 
 to the mouth, and by means of it the 
 rincipal drainage is usually carried on. 
 ee Mine. 
 
 AD'JECTIVE, in grammar, a word 
 used to denote some quality in the noun 
 or substantive to which it is accessory. 
 The adjective is indeclinable in English 
 (but has degrees of comparison), and 
 generally precedes the noun, while 
 in most other European languages it 
 follows the inflections of t^he sub- 
 stantive, and is more commonly placed 
 after it, though in German it precedes 
 it, as in English. 
 
 AJUDICA'TION, in English law, is 
 the decree of the court in bankruptcy 
 declaring a person bankrupt. 
 
 ADJUST'MENT, in marine insurance, 
 is the settling of the amount of the loss 
 which the insurer is entitled under a 
 particular policy to recover, and if the 
 policy is subscribed by more than one 
 underwriter, of the amounts which 
 the underwriters respectively are liable 
 to pay. 
 
 AD'JUTANT, an oflScer appointed to j 
 each regiment or battalion, whose duty 
 is to assist the commander. He is 
 charged with instruction in drill, and 
 all the interior discipline, duties, and 
 efficiency of the corps. He has the 
 charge of all documents and corre- 
 spondence, and is the channel of com- 
 munication for all orders. 
 
 ADJUTANT-BIRD, a large grallatorial 
 or wading bird of the stork family, 
 native of the warmer parts of India, 
 where it is known as Hurgila or Argala. 
 It stands about five feet high, has an 
 
 enormous bill, nearly bare head and 
 neck, and a pouch hanging from the 
 under part of the neck. It is one of the 
 most voracious carnivorous birds known, 
 and in India, from its devouring ajl sorts 
 of carrion and noxious animals, is pro- 
 tected by law. From underneath the 
 wings are obtained those light downy 
 
 feathers known as marabou feathers, 
 from the name of an allied species of 
 bird inhabiting western Africa, and also 
 producing them. 
 
 ADJUTANT-GENERAL is the chief 
 staff-officer of an army, charged with 
 the execution of all orders relating to 
 the recruitment, equipment, and effi- 
 ciency of the troops, and who distributes 
 to them the orders of the day. 
 
 ADLER, Felix, founder of the Society 
 for Ethical culture, American reformer 
 and lecturer, born in Germany Aug. 13, 
 1851. He came to the United States in 
 1857, accompanying his father, who was 
 
 Prof. Felix Adler. 
 
 called to the pulpit of the Temple 
 Emanuel at New York. Dr. Adler 
 was educated at Columbia College and 
 at Heidelberg, where he received the 
 degree of Ph.D. in 1873. When he or- 
 ganized the Society for Ethical Culture 
 he was professor of Hebrew and Oriental 
 Literature at Cornell University. 
 
 ADMINISTRA'TION, in politics, the 
 executive power or body, the ministry 
 or cabinet. 
 
 ADMINTSTRATOR, in law, the per- 
 son to whom the goods of a man dying 
 intestate are committed by the proper 
 authority, and who is bound to account 
 when required. 
 
 AD'MIRAL, the commander of a 
 sqadron or fleet of war ships, or of the 
 whole naval force of a country. The 
 office of admiral varies in its functions 
 and grades in different countries. 
 
 In the United States Navy the grades 
 of admiral, vice-admiral, and rear- 
 admiral were established by act of 
 congress, primarily for the purpose of 
 conferring exceptional distinction upon 
 the great naval commander, Captain 
 David Glasgow Farragut. The lowest 
 of these grades, that of rear-admiral, 
 was established in 1862, as was also that 
 of commodore; though the latter had 
 previously existed as a courtesy title 
 without authority of law. The number 
 of rear-admirals on the active list was 
 limited to nine.. In 1864 the President 
 was authorized to appoint one of the 
 
 rear-admirals a vice-admiral. Under 
 the laws. Captain Farragut became 
 the first commodore, first rear-admiral, 
 and first vice-admiral. In 1899 the 
 number of rear-admirals was increased 
 to eighteen and.the grade of commodore 
 on the active list abolished. The act of 
 1899 fixed the pay of flag officers as 
 follows: Admiral, 813,500 at sea or on 
 shore; senior nine rear-admirals, $7500 
 while at sea, or on shore duty beyond 
 seas, and $6375 while on shore duty; 
 junior nine rear-admirals, $5500 while 
 at sea, or on shore duty beyond seas, 
 and $4675 while on shore duty. The 
 pay of officers on the retired list is 
 seventy-five per centum of their active 
 pay at time of retirement. The number 
 in 1902 on this list was forty-three. 
 The flag of the admiral is a rectangular 
 blue flag with four white stars, and is 
 flown at the main; that of the vice- 
 admiral, flown at the fore, is a similar 
 flag, with three stars. The flag of a 
 rear-admiral, flown at the mizzen, is 
 similar in shape, has two stars, and is 
 usually blue in color, but in case two 
 or more rear-admirals are in company 
 the senior flies a blue flag, the second 
 in rank a red flag, and the junior a 
 white flag. 
 
 AD'MIRALTY, that department of 
 the government of a country that is at 
 the head of its nav^l service. In Britain 
 the lords commissioners of the admiralty 
 were formerly seven, but are now five in 
 number, with the addition of a civil lord, 
 at the head being of first lord, and four 
 others being naval lords. The first lord 
 is always a member of the cabinet, and 
 it is he who principally exercises the 
 powers of the department. 
 
 ADMIRALTY CHARTS are charts 
 issued by the hydrographic department 
 of the admiralty of Britain; they are 
 prepared by specially appointed sur- 
 veyors and draughtsmen, and, besides 
 being supplied to every ship in the fleet, 
 are sold to the general public at prices 
 much less than their cost. In connection 
 with these charts there are published 
 books of sailing directions, lists of 
 lights, etc. The navigating charts are 
 generally on the scale of half an inch to 
 a mile, and show all the dangers of the 
 coasts with sufficient distinctness to 
 enable the seaman to avoid them; the 
 charts of larger size exhibit all the 
 intricacies of the coast. 
 
 ADMIRALTY COURT, a court which 
 takes cognizance of civil and criminal 
 causes of a maritime nature, including 
 captures in war made, and offenses 
 committed, on the high seas, and has 
 to do with many matters connected 
 with maritime affairs. In England 
 the admiralty court was once held be- 
 fore the lord high admiral, and at a 
 later period was presided over by his 
 deputy or the deputy of the lords com- 
 missioners. It now forms a branch of the 
 probate, divorce, and admiralty division 
 of the High Court of Justice. There is 
 a separate Irish admiralty court. In 
 Scotland admiralty cases are now 
 prosecuted in the Court of Session, 
 or in the sheriff court. In the United 
 States admiralty cases are taken up in 
 the first instance by the district courts. 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLAND, an island 
 belonging to the United States off the 
 
ADMIRALTY ISLANDS 
 
 ADULTERATION 
 
 northwest coast of North America, 80 
 or 90 miles long and about 20 broad, 
 covered with fine timber and inhabited 
 by Sioux Indians. 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a cluster of 
 islands, north of New Guinea, in Bis- 
 marck Archipelago, now belonging to 
 Germany. The largest is about 60 miles 
 in len^h; the rest are much smaller. 
 
 AD'NATTE, in botany, applied to a 
 part growing attached to another and 
 principal part by its whole length, as 
 stipules adnated to the leaf-stalk. 
 
 ADOBE (a-do'ba), the Spanish name 
 for a brick made of loamy earth, con- 
 taining about two-thirds fine sand and 
 one-third clayey dust, sun-dried; in com- 
 mon use for building in Mexico, Texas, 
 and Central America. 
 
 ADOLPHUS OF NASSAU, elected Em- 
 peror of Germany, 1292. In 1298 the 
 college of electors transferred the crown 
 to Albert of Austria, but, Adolphus re- 
 fusing to abdicate, a war ensued, in 
 which he fell, after a heroic resistance, 
 July 2, 1298. 
 
 ADONAI (ad'o-ni), a name of Good 
 among the Jews. See Jehovah. 
 
 ADO'NIS, a mythological personage, 
 originally a deity of the Phoenicians, but 
 borrowed into Greek mythology. He 
 was represented as being a great favorite 
 of Aphrodite (Venus), who accompanied 
 him when engaged in hunting, of which 
 he was very fond. He received a mortal 
 wound from the tusk of a wild boar, and 
 when the goddess hurried to his assist- 
 ance she found him lifeless, whereupon 
 she caused his blood to give rise to the 
 anemone. The worship of Adonis, which 
 arose in Phoenicia, latterly was widely 
 spread round the Mediterranean. The 
 name Adonis is akin to the Hebrew 
 Adonai, Lord. 
 
 ADOP'TION, the admission of a 
 stranger by birth to the privileges of a 
 child. Among the ancient Greeks and 
 Romans, and also some modern na- 
 tions, adoption is placed under legal 
 regulation. In many of the states adop- 
 tion is regulated by law. 
 
 ADRIAN, the name of six popes. The 
 first, a Roman, ruled from 772 to 795; 
 a contemporary and friend of Charle- 
 magne. He expended vast sums in 
 rebuilding the walls and restoring the 
 aqueducts of Rome. — ADRIAN II., a 
 Roman, was elected pope in 867, at the 
 age of seventy-five years. He died in 
 872, in the midst of conflicts with the 
 Greek Church. — ADRIAN III., a Roman, 
 elected 884, was pope for one year and 
 four months only. He was the first pope 
 that changed his name on the occasion 
 of his exaltation. — ADRIAN IV , orig- 
 inally named Nicolas Breakspear, the 
 only Englishman that ever occupied the 
 papal chair, was born about 1100, and 
 died 1159. He issued the famous bull 
 (1158) granting the sovereignty of Ire- 
 land, on condition of the payment of 
 Peter’s pence, to Henry II. — ADRIAN 
 V , of Genoa, settled, as legate of the 
 pope, the dispute between King Henry 
 111. of England and his nobles, in favor 
 of the former; but died a month after his 
 election to the papal chair (1276). — 
 ADRIAN VI., born at Utrecht in 1459, 
 was elected to the papal chair, January 
 9, 1522. He tried to reform abuses in 
 the church, but opposed the zeal of 
 
 Luther with reproaches and threats, and 
 even attempted to excite Erasmus and 
 Zuinglius against him. Died 1523, after 
 a reign of one year and a half. 
 
 A'DRIAN, a town of the United 
 States, in Michigan, 70 miles w.s.w. of 
 Detroit. Its extensive water-power is 
 employed in works of various kinds. 
 Pop. 10,000. 
 
 A'DRIAN, Publius iElius Hadrianus 
 See Hadrian. 
 
 ADRIANO'PLE, an important city of 
 Turkey in Europe. Adrianople received 
 its present name from the Roman em- 
 peror Adrian (Hadrian). In 1361 it was 
 taken by Amurath I., and was the resi- 
 dence of the Turkish sovereigns till the 
 conquest' of Constantinople in 1453. In 
 1829 it was taken by the Russians, and 
 here was then concluded the peace of 
 Adrianople, by which Russia received 
 important accessions of territory in the 
 Caucasus and on the coast of the Black 
 Sea. The Russians occupied it also in 
 1878. Pop. 60,000. 
 
 ADRIAN’S (or HADRIAN’S) WALL. 
 See Roman Walls. 
 
 ADRIAT'IC SEA, or GULF OF VEN- 
 ICE, an arm of the Mediterranean, 
 stretching in a northwesterly direction 
 from the Straits of Otranto, between 
 Italy and the Turkish and Austrian 
 dominions. I^ength, about 480 miles; 
 average breadth, about 100; area, about 
 60,000 square miles. The rivers which 
 it receives, particularly the Po, its prin- 
 cipal feeder, have produced, and are 
 still producing, great geological changes 
 in its basin by their alluvial deposits. 
 Hence Adria, between the Po and the 
 Adige, which gives the sea its name, 
 though once a flourishii^ seaport, is 
 now 17 miles inland. The principal 
 trading ports on the Italian side are 
 Brindisi, Bari, Ancona, Sinigaglia, and 
 Venice; on the east side Ragusa, Fiume, 
 Pirano, Pola, and Trieste. 
 
 ADULA'RIA, a very pure, limpid, 
 translucent variety of the common fel- 
 spar, called by lapidaries moonstone, on 
 account of the play of light exhibited by 
 the arrangement of its crystalline struc- 
 ture. It is found on the Alps, but the 
 best specimens are brought from Ceylon. 
 
 ADUL'LAM, Cave of, a cave to which 
 David fled when persecuted by Saul, 
 and whither he was followed by “every 
 one who was in distress, in debt, or dis- 
 contented” (1 Sam. xxii. 1, 2). 
 
 ADULTEl^'TION, a term not only 
 applied in its proper sense to the fraud- 
 ulent mixture of articles of commerce, 
 food, drink, drugs, seeds, etc., with 
 noxious or inferior ingredients, but also 
 by magistrates and analysts to acciden- 
 tal impurity, and even in some cases to 
 actual substitution. The chief objects 
 of adulteration are to increase the weight 
 or volume of the article, to give a color 
 which either makes a good article more 
 pleasing to the eye or else disguises an 
 inferior one, to substitute a cheaper 
 form of the article, or the ^me sub- 
 stance from which the strength has been 
 extracted, or to give it a false strength. 
 — Among the adulterations which are 
 practiced for the purpose of fraudulently 
 increasing the weight or volume of an 
 article are the following : Bread is adul- 
 terated with alum or sulphate of copper, 
 which gives solidity to the gluten of 
 
 damaged or inferior flour; with chalk or 
 carbonate of soda to correct the acidity 
 of such flour; and with boiled rice or 
 potatoes, which enables the bread to 
 carry more water, and thus to produce 
 a larger number of loaves from a given 
 quantity of flour. Wheat flour is adul- 
 terated with other inferior flours, as the 
 flour from rice, bean, Indian-corn, pota- 
 to, and with sulphate of lime, alum, etc. 
 Milk is usually adulterated with water. 
 The adulterations generally present in 
 butter consist of an undue proportion of 
 salt and water, lard, tallow, and other 
 fats ; when of poor quality it is frequent- 
 ly colored with a little annatto, and, at 
 times, with the j'uice of carrots. Genuine 
 butter should not contain less than 80 
 per cent of butter-fat. Cheese is also 
 colored with annatto and other sub- 
 stances. Tea is adulterated (chiefly in 
 China) with sand, iron-filings, chalk, 
 gypsum, China clay, exhausted tea 
 leaves, and the leaves of the sycamore, 
 horse-chestnut, and plum, while color 
 and weight are added by black-lead, in- 
 digo, Prussian-blue (one of the deleteri- 
 ous ingredients used by the Chinese in 
 converting the lowest qualities of black 
 into green teas), gum, turmeric, soap- 
 stone, catechu, and other substances. 
 Coffee is mingled with chicory, roasted 
 wheat, roasted beans, acorns, mangel- 
 wurzel, rye-flour, and colored with 
 burned sugar and other materials 
 Chicory is adulterated with different 
 flours, as rye, wheat, beans, etc., and 
 colored with ferruginous earths, burned 
 sugar, Venetian red, etc. Cocoa and 
 chocolate are mixed with the cheaper 
 kinds of arrow-root, animal matter, 
 corn, sago, tapioca, etc. Sugar (moist) 
 may be adulterated to some extent with 
 sand and flour. Tobacco is mixed with 
 sugar and treacle, aloes, licorice, oil, 
 alum, etc., and such leaves as rhubarb, 
 chicory, cabbage, burdock, coltsfoot, 
 besides excess of salt and water. Snuffs 
 are adulterated ■wdth carbonate of am- 
 monia, glass, sand, coloring matter, etc. 
 Confections are adulterated with flour 
 and sulphate of lime. Preserved vege- 
 tables are kept green and poisoned by 
 salts of copper. The acridity of mustard 
 is commonly reduced by flour, and the 
 color of the compound is improved bv 
 turmeric. Pepper is adulterated with 
 linseed-meal, flour, mustard husks, etc. 
 Color is given to pickles by salts of cop- 
 per, acetate of copper, etc. Ale is adul- 
 terated with common salt, grains of 
 paradise, quassia, and other bitters, 
 sulphate of iron, alum, etc. Porter and 
 stout are mixed with sugar, treacle, salt, 
 and an excess of water. Brandy is 
 diluted with water, and burned sugar 
 is added to improve the color; some- 
 times bad whisky is flavored and colored 
 so as to resemble brandy, and sold under 
 its name. Gin is mixed with excess of 
 water, and flavoring matters of various 
 kinds, with alum and tartar, are added. 
 Rum is diluted with water, and the 
 flavor and color are kept up by the addi- 
 tion of cayenne and burned sugar. For 
 champagne gooseberry and other in- 
 ferior wines are often substituted. Port 
 is manufactured from red Cape and 
 other inferior wines, the body, flavor, 
 strength, and color being produced by 
 gum-dragon, the washings of brandy 
 
ADULTERY 
 
 ^ON 
 
 casks, and a preparation of German 
 bilberries. Cheap brown sherry is mixed 
 wdth Cape and other low-priced brandies 
 and is flavored with the washings of 
 brandy casks, sugar-candy, and bitter 
 almonds. Pale sherries are produced 
 by gypsum, by a process called plaster- 
 ing, which removes the natural acids as 
 well as the color of the wine. Other 
 wines are adulterated with elderberry, 
 logwood. Brazil-wood, cudbear, red 
 beetroot, etc., for color; with lime or 
 carbonate of lime, carbonate of soda, 
 carbonate of potash, and litharge, to 
 correct acidity; with catechu, sloe- 
 leaves, and oak-bark for astringency; 
 wdth sulphate of lime and alum for re- 
 moving color; with cane-sugar for giving 
 sweetness and body; wdth alcohol for 
 fortifying; and with ether, especially 
 acetic ether, for giving bouquet and 
 flavor. — Medicines, such as jalap, opium, 
 rhubarb, chinchona bark, scammony, 
 aloes, sarsaparilla, squills, etc., are 
 mixed with various foreign substances. 
 Castor-oil has been adulterated with 
 other oils; and inferior oils are often 
 mixed wdth cod-liver oil. Cantharides 
 are often mixed wdth golden-beetle and 
 also artifically-colored glass. — The adul- 
 teration of seeds is largely practised 
 also, the seed which forms the adulter- 
 ant being of course of the most worth- 
 less kind that can be had. Thus turnip- 
 seed is mixed with rape, wild mustard, 
 or charlock, which are steamed and 
 kiln-dried to destroy their vitality, so 
 as to evade detection in the progress of 
 grow’th; old and useless turnip-seed is 
 also used fraudulently mixed with fresh 
 seeds. Clover is also much mixed with 
 plantain and mere weeds. 
 
 ADUL'TERY, the voluntary sexual 
 intercourse of a married person with any 
 other than the offender’s husband or 
 wnfe; when committed between two 
 married persons, the offense is called 
 double, and when between a married 
 and a single person, single adultery. The 
 Mosaic, Greek, and early Roman law 
 only recognized the offense when a 
 married wmman was the offender. By 
 the Jewish law it w'as punished with 
 death. A man can obtain a dissolution 
 of his marriage on the ground of his 
 wife’s adultery, and a wife can obtain a 
 judicial separation on the ground of her 
 husband’s adultery, or a dissolution of 
 the marriage if the offense is coupled 
 with cruelty, desertion, or bigamy. In 
 the United States the punishment of 
 adultery has varied materially at dif- 
 ferent times. It is, however, very sel- 
 dom punished criminally. 
 
 AD VALO'REM, a term applied to 
 customs or duties levied according to 
 the worth of the goods, as sworn to by 
 the owner, and not according to num- 
 ber, w’eight, measure, etc. 
 
 ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE AS- 
 SOCIATIONS, organizations to encour- 
 age scientific research in all of its 
 departments. The most prominent 
 associations for the advancement of 
 science are those of the United States, 
 Great Bi'itain, and France. Those of the 
 tw'o last mentioned countries are now 
 consolidated and occasionally hold in- 
 ternational meetings, the first of which 
 took place at Paris in 1900. The Ameri- 
 can Association for the Advancement of 
 
 Science, now one of the most noted 
 scientific societies of America, was 
 founded in 1847 as an outgrowth of the 
 association of American geologists and 
 naturalists. The association is organ- 
 ized in ten sections, each of which holds 
 its own convention at the annual meet- 
 ing of the association during the sum- 
 mer. The sections embrace the follow- 
 ing departments of science: A, mathe- 
 matics and astronomy; B, physics; C, 
 chemistry; D, mechanical science and 
 engineering ; "E, geology and geography ; 
 F, zoology ; G, botany ; H, anthropology 
 and experimental medicine. The asso- 
 ciation also serves as a center for the 
 meeting of a number of important 
 special scientific societies which have 
 become connected with it. The asso- 
 ciation publishes annually a volume of 
 proceedings, and in 1901 became affili- 
 ated wdth the journal Science, making 
 it the semi-official organ of the society. 
 The membership of the society is about 
 3,000. The British Association for the 
 Advancement of Science was founded 
 in the city of York in 1831, under the 
 leadership of David Brewster and with 
 the cooperation of many of the most 
 prominent men of the time. The annual 
 meetings of the association are held for 
 a week each summer, and consist mainly 
 of papers read > Tore the several sec- 
 tions of the society and of conferences 
 following them. 
 
 AD'VENT, the name applied to the 
 holy season which occupies the four or, 
 according to the Greek Church, six 
 Aveeks preceding Christmas, and which 
 forms the first portion of the ecclesias- 
 tical year, as observed by the Angli- 
 can, the R. Catholic and the Greek 
 Church. 
 
 AD'VENTISTS, a small religious sect 
 of the United States, who believe in the 
 speedy coming of Christ, and generally 
 practice adult immersion. — There is also 
 a sect called Seventh-day Adventists, who 
 hold that the coming of Christ is at hand, 
 and maintain that the Sabbath is still 
 the seventh day of the week. 
 
 AD'VERB, one of the parts of speech 
 used to limit or qualify the signification 
 of an adjective, verb, or other adverb; 
 as, very cold, naturally brave, much 
 more clearly, readily agreed. Adverbs 
 may be classified as folio v/s : 1 , adverbs 
 of time, as, now, then, never, etc. ; 2, of 
 place, as, here, there, where, etc. ; 3, of 
 degree, as, very, much, nearly, almost, 
 etc. ; 4, of affirmation, negation, or doubt, 
 as, yes, no, certainly, perhaps, etc. ; 5, of 
 manner, as, well, badly, clearly, etc. 
 
 ADVER'TISEMENT, a notice given to 
 individuals or the public of some fact, 
 the announcement of which may affect 
 either the interest of the advertiser or 
 that of the parties addressed. The 
 vehicle employed is generally special 
 bills or placards and notices inserted in 
 new'spapers and periodicals, and the 
 profit derivable from advertisements 
 forms the main support of the news- 
 er press. 
 
 D'VOCATE, a lawyer authorized to 
 plead the cause of his clients before a 
 court of law. It is only in Scotland that 
 this word seems to denote a distinct 
 class belonging to the legal profession, 
 the advocates of Scotland oeing the 
 pleadwe before the supreme courts. 
 
 ADVOCA'TUS DIAB'OLI (Devil’s ad- 
 vocate), in the Roman Catholic Church, 
 a functionary who, when a deceased per- 
 son is proposed for canonization, brings 
 forward and insists upon all the weak 
 points of the character and life of the 
 deceased, endeavoring to show that he 
 is not wmrthy of sainthood. The oppo- 
 site side is taken by the Advocatus Dei, 
 God’s advocate. 
 
 ADZ, a cutting instrument used for 
 chipping the suiface of timber, some- 
 what of a mattock shape, and having a 
 blade of steel forming a portion of a 
 cylindrical surface, with a cutting edge 
 at right angles to the length of the 
 handle. 
 
 .^GAG'RUS, a wild species of ibex 
 found in troops on the Caucasus, and 
 many Asiatic mountains, believed to be 
 the original source of at least one variety 
 of the domestic goat. 
 
 .^GEAN SEA (e-je'an), that part of the 
 Mediterranean which washes the eastern 
 shores of Greece, the southern coast of 
 Turkey, and the western coast of A,sia 
 Minor. See Archipelago. 
 
 .^'GILOPS, a genus of grasses, very 
 closely allied to wheat, and somewhat 
 remarkable from the alleged fact that 
 by cultivation one of the species be- 
 comes a kind of wheat. 
 
 jEGINA (e-ji'na), a Greek island in the 
 Gulf of iEgina, south of Athens, trian- 
 gular in form; area about 32 square 
 miles; pop. 8200. 
 
 .®GIS (e'jis), the shield of Zeus, ac- 
 cording to Homer, but according to later 
 writers and artists a metal cuirass or 
 breastplate, in which was set the head of 
 the Gorgon Medusa, and with which 
 Athena (Minerva) is often figured as 
 being protected. 
 
 .ffiNE'AS, the hero of Virgil’s ZEneid, 
 a Trojan, who, according to Homer, was, 
 next to Hector, the bravest of the war- 
 riors of Troy. His son, .^Eneas Sylvius, 
 was the ancestor of the kings of Alba 
 Longa, and of Romulus and Remus, the 
 founders of the city of Rome. 
 
 yEOLIAN HARP, or ZEOLUS’ HARP, 
 a musical instrument, generally con- 
 sisting of a box of thin fibrous wood, to 
 which are attached from eight to fifteen 
 fine catgut strings or wires, stretched on 
 low bridges at each end, and tuned in 
 unison. Its length is made to correspond 
 with the size of the window or other 
 aperture in which it is intended to be 
 placed. When the wind blow’s athwart 
 the strings it produces very beautiful 
 sounds, sweetly mingling all the har- 
 monic tones, and swelling or diminish- 
 ing according to the strength or weak- 
 ness of the blast. 
 
 .®OLIANS, one of the four races into 
 w'hich the ancient Greeks w'ere diAuded, 
 originally inhabiting the district of 
 .iEolis, in Thessaly, from which they 
 spread over other parts of Greece. 
 
 .iE'OLUS, in Greek mythology, the 
 god of the winds, which he kept con- 
 fined in a cave in the ^Eolian Islands, 
 releasing them when he wished or was 
 commanded by the superior gods. 
 
 .^'ON, a Greek word signifying life, 
 an age, and sometimes eternity, but used 
 by the Gnostics to express spirits or 
 powers that had eihanated from the 
 Suprem# Mind before the beginning of 
 tame. 
 
^PYORNIS 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 ^PYOR'NIS, a genus of gigantic 
 birds whose remains have been found 
 in Madagascar, where it is supposed to 
 have lived perhaps not longer than 200 
 years ago. It had three toes, and is 
 classed with the cursorial birds (ostrich, 
 etc.). Its eggs measured 14 inches in 
 length, being about six times the bulk 
 of those of the ostrich. The bird which 
 laid them may well have been the roc of 
 Eastern tradition. 
 
 A'ERATED BREAD, bread which re- 
 ceives its sponginess or porosity from 
 carbonic acid supplied artificially, and 
 not produced by the fermentation 
 caused by leaven or yeast. 
 
 A'ERATED WATERS, waters im- 
 pregnated with carbonic acid gas, and 
 forming effervescing beverages. Some 
 mineral waters are naturally aerated, 
 as Vichy, Apollinaris, Rosbach, etc.; 
 others, especially such as are used for 
 medicinal purposes, are frequently aer- 
 ated to render them more palatable and 
 exhilarating. Water simply aerated, 
 or aerated and flavored with lemonade 
 or fruit syrups, is largely used, especially 
 in summer, as a refreshing beverage. 
 There are numerous varieties of appara- 
 tus for manufacturing aerated waters. 
 
 AERODYNAM'ICS, a branch of physi- 
 cal science, which treats of the prop- 
 erties and motions of elastic fluids (air, 
 gases), and of the appliances by which 
 these are exemplified. This subject is 
 often explained in connection with 
 hydrodynamics. 
 
 AEROE, or ARROE (ar'eu-e), an 
 island of Denmark, in the Little Belt, 
 15 miles long by 5 broad, with 12.000 
 inhabitants. Though hilly, it is very 
 fertile. 
 
 A'EROLITE, a meteoric stone, me- 
 teorite, or shooting-star. See Meteoric 
 Stones. 
 
 AERONAUT'ICS. See Airships. 
 
 AEROSTATIC PRESS, a simple con- 
 trivance for rendering the pressure of the 
 atmosphere available for extracting 
 the coloring matter from dye-w'oods and 
 similar purposes 
 
 AEROSTAT'ICS, that branch of phys- 
 ics which treats of the weight, pressure, 
 and equilibrium of air and gases. See 
 Air, Air-pump, Barometer, Gas, etc. 
 
 .®SCHINES (gs'ki-nez), a celebrated 
 Athenian orator, the rival and oppo- 
 nent of Demosthenes, w'as born 390 b.c. 
 and died in 314. Three of his orations 
 are extant. 
 
 .^SCHYLUS (es'ki-lus), the first in 
 time of the three great tragic poets of 
 Greece, born at Eleusis, in Attica, b.c 
 525, died in Sicily 456. Before he gained 
 distinction as a dramatist he had highly 
 distinguished himself at the battle of 
 Marathon (490), as he afterward did at 
 Artemisium, Salamis, and Platsea. •< He 
 first gained the prize for tragedy in b.c. 
 484. The Persians, the earliest of his 
 extant pieces, foi-med part of a trilogy 
 which gained the prize in b.c. 472. 
 In B.c. '468 he was defeated by Sopho- 
 cles, and then is said to have gone to 
 the court of Hiero, king of Syracuse. 
 Ailschylus may be called the creator of 
 Greek tragedy, both from the splendor 
 of his dramatic writings, and from the 
 scenic improvements and accessories he 
 introduced. Till his time only one actor 
 had appeared on the stage at a time, 
 ^ ^—2 
 
 and by bringing on a second he was 
 really the founder of dramatic dialogue. 
 
 .®SCULA'PIUS, the god of medicine 
 among the Greeks and latterly adopted 
 by the Romans, usually said to have 
 been a son of Apollo. He was wor- 
 shiped in particular at Epidaurus, in 
 Peloponnesus, where a temple with a 
 grove was dedicated to him. 
 
 .ffiS'CULUS, the genus of plants to 
 which belongs the horse-chestnut. 
 
 jE'SOP, the Greek fabulist, is said to 
 have been a contemporary of Croesus and 
 Solon, and thus probably lived about 
 the middle of the sixth century b.c. 
 But so little is known of his life that his 
 existence has been called in question. 
 He is said to have been originally a 
 slave, and to have received his freedom 
 from a Samian master, ladmon. No 
 works of .iEsop are extant, and it is 
 doubtful whether he ever wrote any. 
 The supposition is that his fables were 
 delivered orally and perpetuated by rep- 
 etition. Such fables are spoken of both 
 by Aristophanes and Plato. 
 
 iESTHET'ICS, the philosophy of the 
 beautiful; the name given to the 
 branch of philosophy or of science 
 which is concerned with that class of 
 emotions, or with those attributes, real 
 or apparent, of objects generally com- 
 prehended under the term beauty, and 
 other related expressions. The term 
 aesthetics first received this application 
 from Baumgarten (1714-1762), a Ger- 
 man philosopher, who was the first 
 writer to treat systematically on the 
 subject, though the beautiful had 
 received attention at the hands of 
 philosophers from early times. 
 
 .^STIVA'TION, a botanical term 
 applied to the arrangement of the parts 
 of a flower in the flower-bud previous to 
 the opening of the bud. — The term is 
 also applied to the summer sleep of 
 animals. See Dormant State. 
 
 .^'THRIOSCOPE, an instrument for 
 measuring radiation toward a clear sky, 
 consisting of a metallic cup with a 
 highly-polished interior of paraboloidal 
 shape, in the focus of which is placed one 
 bulb of a differential thermometer, the 
 other being outside. The inside bulb at 
 once begins to radiate heat when exposed 
 to a clear sky, and the extent to which 
 this takes place is shown by the scale 
 of the thermometer. The aethrioscope 
 also indicates the presence of invisible 
 aqueous vapor in the atmosphere, 
 radiation being less than when the air 
 is dry. 
 
 .®T'NA. See Etna. 
 
 AFFIDA'VIT, a written statement of 
 facts upon oath or affirmation. Affi- 
 davits are generally made use of when 
 evidence is to be laid before a judge or 
 a court, while evidence brought before 
 a jury is delivered orally. The person 
 making the affidavit signs his name at 
 the bottom of it, and swears that the 
 statements contained in it are true. 
 The affidavit may be sworn to in open 
 court, or before a magistrate or other 
 duly qualified person. 
 
 AFFIN'ITY, in chemistry, the force 
 by which unlike kinds of matter com- 
 bine so intimately that the properties 
 of the constituents are lost, and a com- 
 pound with new properties is produced. 
 Of the force itself we know little or 
 
 nothing. It is not the same under all 
 conditions, being very much modified 
 by circumstances, especially temper- 
 ature. The usual effect of increase of 
 temperature is to diminish affinity and 
 ultimately to cause the separation of a 
 compound into its constituents; and 
 there is probably for every compound 
 a temperature above which it could 
 not exist but would be broken up. 
 Where two elements combine to form 
 a compound heat is almost always 
 evolved, and the amount evolved serves 
 as a measure of the affinity. In order 
 that chemical affinity may come into 
 play it is necessary that the substances 
 should be in contact, and usually one 
 of them at least is a fluid or a gas. 
 The results produced by chemical com- 
 bination are endlessly varied. Color, 
 taste, and smell are changed, destroyed, 
 or created; harmless constituents pro- 
 duce strong poisons, strong poisons pro- 
 duce harmless compounds. 
 
 AFFINITY, in law, is that degree of 
 connection which subsists between one 
 of two married persons and the blood 
 relations of the other. It is no real 
 kindred (consanguinty). A person can- 
 not, by legal succession, receive an 
 inheritance from a I'elation by affinity; 
 neither does it extend to the nearest 
 relations of husband and wife so as to 
 create a mutual relation between them. 
 The degrees of affinity are computed 
 in the same way as those of consanguin- 
 ity or blood. All legal impediments 
 arising from affinity cease upon the 
 death of the husband or wife, excepting 
 those which relate to the marriage of 
 the survivor. 
 
 AFFIRMA'TION, a solemn declara- 
 tion by Quakers and others, who object 
 to taking an oath, in confirmation of 
 their testimony in courts of law, or 
 of their statements on other occasions 
 on which the sanction of an oath is 
 required of other persons. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN (af-gan'i-stan), that 
 is, the land of the Afghans, a country 
 in Asia, bounded on the east by the 
 N. W. Frontier Prov., etc., on the south 
 by Beluchistan, on the west by the 
 Persian province of Khorasan, and on 
 the north by Bokhara and Russian 
 Turkestan. Recently the boundary 
 from the Oxus to the Persian frontier 
 was surveyed and marked off by a 
 Russian and British commission; farther 
 east to the Chinese frontier it was settled 
 in 1895. The area may be set down at 
 about 280,000 sq. mi^. The popula- 
 tion is estimated at between 4,000,000 
 and 5,000,000. Afghanistan consists 
 chiefly of lofty, bare, uninhabited table- 
 lands, sandy barren plains, ranges of 
 snow-covered mountains, offsets of the 
 Hindu Kush or the Himalayas, and 
 deep ravines and valleys. Many of the 
 last are well watered and very fertile, 
 but about four-fifths of the whole sur- 
 face is rocky, mountainous, and unpro- 
 ductive. There are numerou.? practica- 
 ble avenues of communication between 
 Afghanistan and India, among the most 
 extensively used being the famous 
 Khyber Pass, by which the river Cabul 
 enters the Pupjab; the Gomul Pass, also 
 leading to the Punjab; and the Bolan 
 Pass on the south, through which the 
 rout© passes to Bind. Of the rivers the 
 
AfllICA 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 largest is the Helmund, which flows in 
 a south-westerly direction more than 
 400 miles, till it enters the Hamoon or 
 Seistan swamp. Next in importance 
 are the Cabul in the northeast, which 
 
 Afghans. 
 
 drains to the Indus, and the Hari Rud 
 in the northwest, which, like other 
 Afghan streams, loses itself in the sand. 
 The climate is extremely cold in the 
 higher, and intensely hot in the lower 
 regions, yet on the whole it is salubrious. 
 The most common trees are pines, oaks, 
 birch, and walnut. In the valleys 
 fruits, in the greatest variety and abun- 
 dance, grow wild. The principal crops 
 are wheat, forming the staple food of the 
 people; barley, rice, and maize. Other 
 crops are tobacco, sugar-cane, and cot- 
 ton. The chief domestic animals are the 
 dromedary, the horse, ass, and mule, the 
 ox, sheep uith large fine fleeces and 
 enormous fat tails, and goats; of wild 
 animals there are the tiger, bears, leop- 
 ards, wolves, ]ackal, hyena, foxes, etc. 
 The chief towns are Cabul (the capital), 
 Kandahar, Ghuzni, and Herat. The 
 inhabitants belong to different races, 
 but the Afghans proper form the great 
 mass of the people. They are allied in 
 blood to the Persians, and are divided 
 into a number of tribes, among which 
 the Duranis and Ghiljis are the most 
 important. The Afghans are bold, 
 hardj% and warlike, fond of freedom and 
 resolute in maintaining it, but of a rest- 
 less, turbulent temper, and much given 
 to plunder. Tribal dissensions are con- 
 stantly in existence, and seldom or 
 never do all the Afghans pay allegiance 
 to the nominal ruler of their country. 
 Their language is distinct from the Per- 
 sian, though it contains a great number 
 of Persian words, and is written, like 
 the Persian, with the Arabic characters. 
 In religion they are Mohammedans of 
 the Sunnite sect. The history of 
 Afghanistan is mainly modern. The 
 British have attempted to control the 
 country and its ruler, called the Ameer, 
 since 1839. The present Ameer is 
 friendly to Britain, but he has been 
 round very difficult to restrain from 
 intrigues witli Russia. He is virtually 
 autocrat of his domains. 
 
 AF'RICA, one of the three great 
 divisions of the Old 'World, and the 
 
 second in extent of the five principal 
 continents of the globe, forming a vast 
 peninsula joined to Asia by the Isthmus 
 of Suez. It is of a compact form, with 
 few important projections or indenta- 
 tions, and having therefore a very small 
 extent of coast-line (about 16,000 miles, 
 or much less than that of Europe) in 
 proportion to its area. This continent 
 extends from 37° 20' n. lat. to 34° 50' 
 s. lat., and the extreme points. Cape 
 Blanco and Cape Agulhas, are nearly 
 5000 miles apart. From west to east, 
 between Cape Verde, Ion. 70° 34' w., and 
 Cape Guardafui, Ion. 51° 16' e., the dis- 
 tance is about 4600 miles. The area is 
 estimated at 11,500,000 square miles, 
 or more than three times that of Europe. 
 The islands belonging to Africa are not 
 numerous, and, except Madagascar, 
 none of them are large. They include 
 Madeira, the Canaries, Cape Verde Is- 
 lands, Fernando Po, Prince’s Island, 
 St. Thomas, Ascension, St. Helena, 
 Mauritius, Bourbon, the Comoros, So- 
 cotra, etc. 
 
 The most striking feature of northern 
 Africa is the immense tract known as the 
 Sahara or Great Desert, which is in- 
 closed on the north by the Atlas Moun- 
 tains (greatest height, 12,000 to 13,000 
 feet), tne plateau of Barbary and that 
 of Barca, on the east by the mountains 
 along the west coast of the Red Sea, on 
 the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and on 
 the south by the Soudan. The Soudan, 
 which lies to the south of the Sahara, 
 and separates it from the more elevated 
 plateau of southern Africa, forms a belt 
 of pastoral country across Africa, and 
 includes the countries on the Niger, 
 around Lake Tchad (or Chad), and east- 
 ward to the elevated region of Abys- 
 sinia. Southern Africa as a whole is 
 much more fertile and well watered than 
 northern Africa, though it also has a 
 desert tract of considerable extent (the 
 Kalahari Desert). 
 
 The Nile is the only great river of 
 Africa which flows to the Mediterranean. 
 It receives its waters primarily from the 
 great lake Victoria Nyanza, which lies 
 under the equator, and in its upper 
 course is led by tributary streams of 
 great size, but for the last 1200 miles of 
 its course it has not a single affluent. 
 It drains an area of more than 1,000,000 
 square miles. The Indian Ocean re- 
 ceives numerous rivers; but the only 
 great river of South Africa which enters 
 that ocean is the Zambesi, the fourth in 
 size of the continent, and having in its 
 course the Victoria Falls, one of the 
 greatest waterfalls in the world In 
 southern Africa also, but flowing west- 
 ward and entering the Atlantic, is the 
 Congo, which takes origin from a series 
 of lakes and marshes in the interior, is 
 fed by great tributaries, and is the first 
 in volume of all the African rivers, 
 carrying to the ocean more water than 
 the Mississippi. Unlike most of the 
 African rivers, the mouth of the Congo 
 forms an estuary. Of the other Atlantic 
 rivers, the Senegal, the Gambia, and the 
 Niger are the largest, the last being 
 third among African streams. 
 
 With the exception of Lake Tchad 
 there are no great lakes in the northern 
 division of Africa, whereas in the num- 
 ber and magnificence of its lakes the ' 
 
 southern division almost rivals North 
 America. Here are the Victoria and 
 Albert Nyanza, Lakes Tanganyika, 
 Nyassa, Shirwa, Bangweolo, Moero, and 
 other lakes. Of these the Victoria and 
 Albert belong to the basin of the Nile; 
 Tanganyika, Bangweolo, and Moero to 
 that of the Congo ; Nyassa, by its affluent 
 the Shir4, to the Zambesi. Lake Tchad 
 on the borders of the northern desert 
 region, and Lake Ngami on the bor- 
 ders of the southern, have a remark- 
 able resemblance in position, and in the 
 fact that both are drained by streams 
 that lose themselves in the sand. 
 
 The climate of Africa is mainly' in- 
 fluenced by the fact that it lies almost 
 entirely within the tropics. In the 
 equatorial belt, both north and south, 
 rain is abundant and vegetation very 
 luxuriant, dense tropical forests prevail- 
 ing for about 10° on either side of the 
 line. To the north and south of the 
 equatorial belt the rainfall diminishes, 
 and the forest region is succeeded by an 
 open pastoral and agricultural country. 
 This is followed by the rainless regions 
 of the Sahara on the north and the 
 Kalahari Desert on the south, extending 
 beyond the tropics, and bordering on 
 the agricultural and pastoral countries 
 of the north and south coasts, which lie 
 entirely in the temperate zone. The low 
 coast regions of Africa are almost every- 
 where unhealthful, the Atlantic coast 
 within the tropics being the most fatal 
 region to Europeans. 
 
 Among mineral productions may be 
 mentioned gold, which is found in the 
 rivers of western Africa (hence the name 
 Gold Coast), and in southern Africa, 
 most abundantly in the Transvaal; 
 diamonds have been found in large 
 numbers in recent years in the south; 
 iron, copper, lead, tin, and coal are also 
 found. — Among plants are the baobab, 
 the date-palm (important as a food plant 
 in the north), the doum-palm, the oil- 
 palm, the wax-palm, the shea-butter 
 tree, trees yielding caoutchouc, the 
 papyrus, the castor-oil plant, indigo, 
 the coffee-plant, heaths with beautiful 
 flowers, aloes, etc. Among cultivated 
 plants are wheat, maize, millet, and 
 other grains, cotton, coffee, cassava, 
 ground-nut, yam, banana, tobacco, 
 various fruits, etc. As regards both 
 plants and animals, northern Africa, 
 adjoining the Mediterranean, is dis- 
 tinguished from the rest of Africa in its 
 great agreement with southern Europe. — 
 Among the most characteristic African 
 animals are the lion, hyena, jackal, 
 gorilla, chimpanzee, baboon, African 
 elephant (never domesticated, yielding 
 much ivory to trade), hippopotamus, 
 rhinoceros, giraffe, zebra, quagga, ante- 
 lopes in great variety and immense num- 
 bers. — Among birds are the ostrich, the 
 secretary-bird or serpent-eater, the 
 honey-guide cuckoo, sacred ibis, guinea 
 fowl. — The reptiles include the crocodile, 
 chameleon, and serpents of various 
 kinds, some of them very venomous. — 
 Among insects are locusts, scorpions, 
 the tsetse-fly whose bite is so fatal to 
 cattle, and white-ants. 
 
 The great races of which the popula- 
 tion of Africa mainly consists are the 
 Hamites, the Semites, the Negroes, and 
 the Bantus. To the Semitic stock be- 
 
AGAMEMNON 
 
 AGATE 
 
 long the Arabs, who form a considerable 
 portion of the population in Egypt and 
 along the north coast, while a portion of 
 the inhabitants of Abyssinia are of the 
 same race (though the blood is con- 
 siderably mixed). The Hamites are 
 represented by the Copts of Egypt, tlie 
 Berbers, Kabyles, etc., of northern 
 Africa, and the SomMi, Danflkil, etc., of 
 eastern Africa. The Negro races occupy a 
 vast territory in the Soudan and cen- 
 tral Africa, while the Bantus occupy 
 the greater part of southern Africa from 
 a short distance north of the equator, 
 and include the Kaffres, Bechuanas, 
 Swahili, and allied races. In the ex- 
 treme southwest are the Hottentots and 
 Bushmen (the latter a dwarfish race), 
 distinct from the other races as well as, 
 probably, from each other. In Mada- 
 gascar there is a large Malay element. 
 To these may be added the Fulahs on 
 the Niger and the Nubians on the Nile 
 and elsewhere, who are of a brownish 
 color, and are often regarded as dis- 
 tinct from the other races, though some- 
 times classed with the Negroes. In 
 religion a great proportion of the in- 
 habitants are heathens of the lowest 
 type ; Mohammedanism numbers a large 
 number of adherents in North Africa, 
 and is rapidly spreading in the Soudan ; 
 Christianity prevails only among the 
 Copts, the Abyssinians, and the natives 
 of Madagascar, the latter having been 
 converted in recent times. Elsewhere 
 the missionaries seem to have made but 
 little progress. Over great part of the 
 continent civilization is at a low ebb, 
 yet in some parts the natives have 
 shown considerable skill in agriculture 
 and various mechanical arts, as in weav- 
 ing and metal working. Of African 
 trade two features are the caravans that 
 traverse great distances, and the trade 
 in slaves that still widely prevails, and 
 is accompanied by an immense amount 
 of bloodshed. Among articles exported 
 from Africa are palm-oil, diamonds, 
 ivory, ostrich feathers, wool, cotton, 
 gold, esparto, caoutchouc, etc. The 
 population is estimated at 170,000,000. 
 Of these a small number are of European 
 origin — French in Algeria, British and 
 Dutch at the southern extremity. 
 
 Great areas in Africa have recently 
 been apportioned among European 
 powers as protectorates or spheres of 
 influence. Among states still more or 
 less independent are Morocco, Abys- 
 sinia, Bornu, Waday, Bagirmi, Liberia. 
 To Britain belong the Cape Colony, 
 Natal, and the recently independent 
 Orange River Colony and Transvaal, 
 with Rhodesia, etc., farther north, a 
 region in eastern Africa extending from 
 the sea to Lake Victoria and the head- 
 waters of the Nile, Sierra Leone; and 
 other settlements on the west coast, 
 Mauritius, etc.; to France belong Algeria 
 and Tunis, Senegambia, part of Sahara, 
 territory north of the Lower Congo, 
 Madagascar, etc. ; the Portuguese possess 
 Angola on the west coast and Mozam- 
 bique on the east; Germany has con- 
 siderable tracts on the east, the south- 
 west and the western coasts; to Turkey 
 nominally belong Egypt, Barca, and 
 Tripoli; Italy has a territory on the Red 
 Sea, and part of Somaliland; Spain has 
 a part of the coast of the Sahara; the 
 
 Congo Free State is under the king of 
 Belgium ; Zanzibar is now a British pro- 
 tectorate. 
 
 Africa has an ancient history and was 
 colonized by the Greeks and the Ro- 
 mans. Modern exploration began with 
 Mungo Park in 1795 and has continued 
 down to present times through the 
 labors of Lander, Overweg, Barth, 
 Speke, Livingstone, and Stanley. 
 
 AGAMEM'NON, in Greek mythology, 
 son of Atreus, King of Mycenae and 
 Argos, brother of Menelaus, and com- 
 mander of the allied Greeks at the siege 
 of Troy. Returning home after the fall 
 of Troy, he was treacherously assassin- 
 ated by his wife, Clytemnestra, and 
 her paramour, .^gisthus. He was 
 the father of Orestes, Iphigenia, and 
 Electra. 
 
 AGAMOGENESIS (-jen'e-sis), the pro- 
 duction of young without the congress 
 of the sexes, one of the phenomena of 
 alternate generation. See Generation. 
 
 AGANIPPE (-nip'e), a fountain on 
 Mount Helicon, in Greece, sacred to the 
 Muses, which had the property of in- 
 spiring with poetic fire whomever drank 
 of it. 
 
 AGAPE (ag'a-pe), in ecclesiastical his- 
 tory, the love-feast or feast of charity, 
 in use among the primitive Christians, 
 when a liberal contribution was made 
 by the rich to feed the poor. 
 
 AGAPEMONE (ag-a-pem'o-ne), the 
 name of a singular conventual establish- 
 ment which has existed at Spaxton, near 
 Bridgewater, Somersetshire, since 1859, 
 the originator of it being a certain Henry 
 James Prince, at one time a clergyman 
 of the Church of England, who called 
 himself the Witness of the First Resur- 
 rection. The life spent by the inmates 
 appears to be a sort of religious epicure- 
 anism. 
 
 A'GAR-A'GAR, a dried seaweed of 
 the Asiatic Archipelago, much used in 
 the East for soups and jellies, and also 
 by the paper and silk manufacturers of 
 eastern Asia as an ingredient in some 
 classes of their goods. 
 
 AGAR'IC, a large and important 
 genus of fungi,- characterized by having 
 a fleshy cap or pileus, and a number of 
 radiating plates or gills on which are 
 produced the naked spores. The ma- 
 jority of this species are furnished with 
 stems, but some are attached to the 
 objects on which they grow by their 
 pileus. Over a thousand species are 
 known, and are arranged in five sections 
 according as the color of their spores is 
 white, pink, brown, purple, or black. 
 Many of the species are edible, like the 
 common mushroom, and supply a 
 delicious article of food, while others 
 are deleterious and even poisonous. 
 
 AGARIC MINERAL, or MOUNTAIN- 
 MEAL, one of the purest of the native 
 carbonates of lime, found chiefly in the 
 clefts of rocks and at the bottom of 
 some lakes in a loose or semi-indurated 
 form resembling a fungus. The name 
 is also applied to a stone of loose con- 
 sistence found in Tuscany, of which 
 bricks may be made so light as to float 
 in water, and of which the ancients are 
 supposed to have made their floating 
 
 bricks. It is a hydrated silicate of mag- 
 nesium, mixed with lime, alumina, and 
 a small quantity of iron. 
 
 AGASSIZ (ag'as-e), Louis John Ru- 
 dolph, an eminent naturalist, born 1807, 
 died 1873, son of a Swiss Protestant 
 clergyman at Metiers, near the eastern 
 extremity of the Lake of NeufchS,tel. 
 
 L. Agassiz. 
 
 His attention was first specially directed 
 to ichthyology by being called on to de- 
 scribe the Brazilian fishes brought to 
 Europe from Brazil by Martius and Spix. 
 His researches led him to propose a new 
 classification of fishes, which he di-vided 
 into four classes, distinguished by the 
 characters of the skin, as ganoids, 
 placoids, cycloids, and ctenoids. His 
 system has not been generally adopted, 
 but the names of his classes have been 
 used as useful terms. In 1836 he began 
 the study of glaciers, and in 1840 he 
 published his Etudes sur les Glaciers, in 
 1847 his Syst^me Glaciaire. From 1838 
 he had been professor of natural history 
 at Neufchitel, when in 1846 pressing 
 solicitations and 'attractive offers in- 
 duced him to settle in America, where 
 he was connected as a teacher first with 
 Harvard University, Cambridge, and 
 latterly -with Cornell University as well 
 as Harvard. After his arrival in Amer- 
 ica he engaged in various investigations 
 and explorations, and published numer- 
 ous works. In 1865-66 he made zoolog- 
 ical excursions and investigations in 
 Brazil, which were productive of most 
 valuable results. Agassiz held views on 
 many important points in science differ- 
 ent from those which prevailed among 
 the scientific men of the day, and in 
 particular he strongly opposed the 
 evolution theory. 
 
 AGASSIZ (ag'a-se). Mount, an extinct 
 volcano in Arizona, U. S., 10,000 feet 
 in height; a place of summer resort, 
 near the Great Cafion of the Colorado. 
 
 AG' ATE, a siliceous semi-pellucid 
 compound mineral, consisting of bands 
 or layers of various colors blended to- 
 gether, the base generally being chal- 
 cedony, and this mixed with variable 
 proportions of jasper, amethyst, quartz, 
 opal, heliotrope, and carnelian. The 
 varying manner in which these materials 
 
AGATHARCHUS 
 
 AGNOSTICS 
 
 are arranged causes the agate when 
 polished to assume some characteristic 
 appearances, and thus certain varieties 
 are "distinguished, as the ribbon agate, 
 the fortification agate, the zone agate, 
 the star agate, the moss agate, the 
 clouded agate, etc. 
 
 AGATHAR'CHUS, a Gieek painter, 
 native of Samos, the first to apply the 
 rules of perspective to theatrical scene- 
 painting; flourished about 480 b.c. 
 
 AGATHOCLES (a-gath'o-klez), a Sici- 
 lian Greek, one of the boldest adventur- 
 ers of antiquity, born 361 B.c. By his 
 ability and energy, and being entirely 
 unscrupulous, he raised himself from 
 the position of a potter to that of sov- 
 ereign of Syracuse and master of Sicily. 
 Wars with the Carthaginians were the 
 chief events of his life. He died (was 
 poisoned) at the age of seventy-two, or, 
 as some say, ninety-five. 
 
 AGAVE (a-ga've), a genus of plants 
 (which includes the daffodil and nar- 
 cissus), popularly known as American 
 aloes. They are generally large, and 
 have a massive tuft of fleshy leaves with 
 
 American aloe. 
 
 a spiny apex. They live for many years 
 — ten to seventy, according to treat- 
 ment — before flowering. When this 
 takes place the tall flowering stem 
 springs from the center of the tuft of 
 leaves, and grows very rapidly until it 
 reaches a height of 15, 20, or even 40 
 feet, bearing toward the end a large 
 number of flowers. The best-known 
 species, is the common American aloe, 
 introduced into Europe 1561, and now 
 extensively grown in the warmer parts 
 of the continent as well as in Asia 
 (India in particular). This and other 
 species yield various important prod- 
 ucts. The sap when fermented yields 
 a beverage resembling cider, called by 
 the Mexicans pulque. The leaves are 
 used for feeding cattle; the fibers of the 
 leaves (called pita, sisal hemp, or hene- 
 quen) are formed into thread, cord, and 
 ropes ; an extract from the leaves is used 
 as a substitute for soap; slices of the 
 withered flower-stem are used as razor- 
 strops. 
 
 AGE, a period of time representing 
 the whole or a part of the duration of 
 
 any individual thing or being, but used 
 more specifically in a variety of senses. 
 In law age is applied to the periods of 
 life when men and women are enabled 
 to do that which before, for want of 
 years and consequently of judgment, 
 they could not legally do. Full age in 
 male or female is twenty-one years, 
 which age is completed on the day pre- 
 ceding the anniversary of a person’s 
 birth, who till that time is an infant, 
 and so styled in law. 
 
 The term is also applied to designate 
 the successive epochs or stages of civili- 
 zation in history or mythology. Hesiod 
 speaks of five distinct ages: 1. The 
 golden or Saturnian age, a patriarchal 
 and peaceful age. 2. The silver age, 
 licentious and wicked. 3. The brazen 
 age, violent, savage, and warlike. 4. 
 The heroic age, which seemed an approx- 
 imation to a better state of things. 5. 
 The iron age, when justice and honor 
 had left the earth. The term is also 
 used in such expressions as the dark 
 ages, the middle ages, the Elizabethan 
 age, etc. 
 
 The Archaeological Ages or Periods 
 are three — the Stone Age, the Bronze 
 Age, and the Iron Age — these names 
 being given in accordance with the ma- 
 terials chiefly employed for weapons, 
 implements, etc., during the particular 
 period. The Stone Age of Europe has 
 been subdivided into two — the Palaeo- 
 lithic or earlier, and Neolithic or later. 
 The word age in this sense has no refer- 
 ence to the lapse of time, but simply 
 denotes the stage at which a people has 
 arrived in its progress toward civiliza- 
 tion; thus there are races still in their 
 stone age. 
 
 AGENT, one who acts for another. 
 In law, an agent is always supposed to 
 be acting by authority from his prin- 
 cipal, and the relation is held to imply 
 a contract between the two. Briefly 
 the law as to agents may be stated as 
 follows ; A principal is liable for all the 
 acts of his agent as if these acts had 
 been done by himself, whether these 
 acts be authorized or not. But, if the 
 .third party enters into a contract with 
 the agent under the agent’s own name, 
 the principal is not held liable, unless 
 the acts of the agent be included under 
 the scope of the authority received 
 from the principal. 
 
 AGERATUM (a-jer'a-tum), a genus 
 of composite plants of the warmer parts 
 of America, one species of which is a 
 well-known flower-border annual with 
 dense lavender-blue heads. 
 
 AGESILAUS (a-j'es-i-la'us), a king of 
 Sparta, born in 442 b.c., and elevated 
 to the throne after the death of his 
 brother Agis II. He acquired renown 
 by his exploits against the Persians, 
 Thebans, and Athenians. Though a 
 vigorous ruler, and almost adored by 
 his soldiers, he was of small stature and 
 lame from his birth. He died in Egypt 
 in the winter of 361-360 b.c. Xeno- 
 phon, Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos 
 are among his biographers. 
 
 AGGLOM'ERATE, in geology, a col- 
 lective name for masses consisting of 
 angular fragments ejected from vol- 
 canoes. 'When the mass consists of 
 fragments worn and rounded by water 
 it is called a conglomerate. 
 
 A". 
 
 AG'GREGATE, a term applied in 
 
 geology to rocks composed of several 
 different mineral constituents capable 
 of being separated by mechanical means, 
 as granite, where the quartz, felspar, 
 and mica can be separated mechani- 
 cally. In botany it is applied to flowers 
 composed of many small florets having 
 a common undivided receptacle, the 
 anthers being distinct and separate, the 
 florets commonly standing on stalks, 
 and each having a partial calyx. 
 
 AGINCOURT (a-zhan-kor), a village 
 of northern France, department Pas 
 de Calais, famous for the battle of 
 October 25, 1415, between the French 
 and English. Henry V., king of Eng- 
 land, eager to conquer France, landed 
 at Harfleur, took the place by storm, 
 and wished to march through Picardy 
 to Calais, but was met by a French 
 army under the ’Constable d’ Albert. 
 The English numbered about 15,000 
 men, while the French numbers are 
 variously stated at from 50,000 to 
 150,000. The confined nature and soft- 
 ness of the ground were to the disad- 
 vantage of the French, who were drawn 
 up in three columns unnecessarily deep. 
 The English archers attacked the first 
 division in front and in flank, and soon 
 threw them into disorder. The second 
 division fled on the fall of the Due 
 d’Alen^on, who was struck down by 
 Henry himself, and the third division 
 fled without striking a blow. Of the 
 French 10,000 were k^illed, including the 
 Constable d’ Albert, with six dukes and 
 princes. The English lost 1600 men 
 killed, among them the Duke of York, 
 Henry’s uncle. After the battle the 
 English continued their march to Calais. 
 
 AGIO (a'ji-o), the difference between ^ 
 the real and the nominal value of money, 
 as between paper money and actual 
 coin ; an Italian term originally. 
 
 AG'NATES, in the civil law relations 
 on the male side, in opposition to cog- 
 nates, relations on the female side. 
 
 AGNES, St., a saint, who, according 
 to the story, suffered martyrdom be- 
 cause she steadfastly refused to marry 
 the son of the prefect of Rome, and ad- 
 hered to her religion in spite of repeated 
 temptations and threats, a.d. 303. She 
 was first led to the stake, but as the 
 flames did not injure her she was be- 
 headed. Her festival is celebrated on 
 the 21st of January. 
 
 AGNES, St., the most southerly of the 
 Scilly Islands. A lighthouse was erected 
 here as early as 1680; another on the 
 Wolf Rock near the island was com- 
 pleted in 1858. 
 
 AG'NI, the Hindu god of fire, one of 
 the eight guardians of the world, and 
 especially the lord of the southeast 
 quarter. He is celebrated in many of the 
 hymns of the Rig Veda. He is often 
 represented as of a red or flame color, 
 and rides on a ram or a goat. He is still 
 worshiped as the personification of fire. 
 
 AGNOSTICS (ag-nos'tiks), a modern 
 term applied to those who disclaim any 
 knowledge of God or of the origin of the 
 universe, holding that the mind of man 
 is limited to a knowledge of phenomena 
 and of what is relative, and that; there- 
 fore, the infinite, the absolute, and the 
 unconditioned, being beyond all experi- 
 ence, are consequently beyond its range. 
 
AGNUS CAST US 
 
 AGRIPPINA 
 
 AGNUS CASTUS, a shrub, a native of 
 the Mediterranean countries, with white 
 flowers and acrid, aromatic fruits. It had 
 anciently the imagined virtue of pre- 
 serving chastity — hence the term castus. 
 
 AGNUS DEI (de'i), a term applied to 
 Christ in John i. 29, and in the Roman 
 Catholic liturgy a prayer beginning with 
 the words “Agnus Dei,” generally sung 
 before the communion. The term is also 
 
 commonly given to a medal, or more 
 fi'equently a cake of wax, consecrated by 
 the pope, stamped with the figure of a 
 lamb supporting the banner of the cross ; 
 supposed to possess great virtues, such 
 as preserving those who carry it in faith 
 from accidents, etc. 
 
 AGONTC LINE, in terrestrial mag- 
 netism a name applied to the line which 
 joins all the places on the earth’s, surface 
 at which the needle of the compass 
 points due north and south, without 
 any declination. This line, which 
 varies from time to time, at present 
 passes through S. America and N. 
 America to the Magnetic North Pole, 
 thence to the White Sea, south through 
 the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, and 
 Australia to the Southern Magnetic 
 Pole. 
 
 AGOUARA (a-gu-a'ra), a name given 
 to the crab-eating racoon of S. America. 
 
 AGOUTA (a-go'ta), an insectivorous 
 mammal peculiar to Hayti, of the tanrec 
 family, somewhat larger than a rat. It 
 has the tail devoid of hair and covered 
 with scales, the eyes small, and an elon- 
 gated nose like the shrews. Another 
 species belongs to Cuba. 
 
 AGRA (a'gra), a city of India, in the 
 United Provinces, on the right bank of 
 the Jumna, 841 miles by rail from Cal- 
 cutta. It has various interesting struc- 
 tures, among which are the imperial 
 palace, a mass of buildings erected by 
 several emperors; the Moti Mas j id or 
 Pearl Mosque; the mosque called the 
 Jama Masjid (a cenotaph of white mar- 
 ble); and, above all, the Taj Mahal, a 
 mausoleum of the seventeenth century, 
 built by the Emperor Shah Jehan to his 
 favorite queen, of white marble, adorned 
 throughout with exquisite mosaics. 
 Agra has a trade in grain, sugar, etc., 
 and some manufactures, including beau- 
 tiful inlaid mosaics. It was founded in 
 1566 by the Emperor Akbar, and was 
 a residence of the following emperors 
 for over a century. Pop. 188,022. The 
 Agra division has an area of 10,139 sq. 
 miles, and a pop. of 5,248,121. 
 
 AGRAM, or ZAGRAB, a city in the 
 Austrian Empire, capital of the prov. 
 Croatia and Slavonia, near the river 
 Save; contains the residence of the ban 
 or governor of Croatia and Slavonia, 
 government buildings, cathedral (being 
 the see of a Roman Catholic archbishop), 
 university, theater, etc.; carries on 
 an active trade, and manufactures to- 
 bacco, leather, and linens. Pop. 
 61,002. 
 
 AGRARIAN LAWS, laws enacted in 
 ancient Rome for the division of the 
 public lands, that is, the lands belonging 
 to the state. As the territory of Rome 
 increased the public land increased, the 
 land of conquered peoples being always 
 regarded as the property of the con- 
 queror. The right to the use of this 
 public land belonged originally only to 
 the patricians or ruling class, but 
 latterly the claims of the plebeians on 
 it were also admitted, though they were 
 often unfairly treated in the sharing of 
 it. Hence arose much discontent among 
 the plebeians, and various remedial laws 
 were passed with more or less success. 
 Indeed an equitable adjustment of the 
 land question between the aristocracy 
 and the common people was never 
 attained. 
 
 AGRIC'OLA, Cneius Julius, lived 
 from A.D. 37 to 93, a Roman consul 
 under the Emperor Vespasian, and 
 governor in Britain, the greater part of 
 which he reduced to the dominion of 
 Rome; distinguished as a statesman 
 and general. His life, written by his 
 son-in-law, the historian Tacitus, gives 
 the best extant account of Britain in 
 the early part of the period of the Ro- 
 man rule. 
 
 AGRIC'OLA, Georg, born in Saxony 
 1490, died at Chemnitz 1555, German 
 physician and mineralogist. Though 
 tinged with the superstitions of his age, 
 he made the first successful attempt to 
 reduce mineralogy to a science, and 
 introduced many improvements in the 
 art of mining. 
 
 AG'RICULTURE is the art of culti- 
 vating the ground, more especially with 
 the plow and in large areas or fields, in 
 order to raise grain and other crops for 
 man and beast; including the art of 
 preparing the soil, sowing and planting 
 seeds, removing tbe crops, and also the 
 raising and feeding of cattle or other 
 live stock. This art is the basis of all 
 other arts, and in all countries coeval 
 with the first dawn of civilization. At 
 how remote a period it must have been 
 successfully practiced in Egypt, Meso- 
 potamia, and China we have no means of 
 knowing. Egypt was renowned as a 
 corn country in the time of the Jewish 
 patriarchs, who themselves were keepers 
 of flocks and herds rather than tillers 
 of the soil. Naturally little is known of 
 the methods and details of agriculture 
 in early times. Among the ancient 
 Greeks the implements of agriculture 
 were very few and simple. Cato, the 
 censor, who was celebrated as a states- 
 man, orator, and general, derived his 
 highest honors from having written 
 a voluminous work on agriculture. 
 
 The Romans introduced their agri- 
 cultural knowledge among the Britons, 
 and during the most flourishing period 
 of the Roman occupation large quanti- 
 
 ties of corn were exported from Britain 
 to the Continent. 
 
 The first English treatise on hus- 
 bandry and the best of the early works 
 on the subject was published in the reign 
 of Henry VIII. (in 1534), by Sir A. Fitz- 
 herbert, judge of the Common Pleas. 
 
 The American colonists received their 
 agricultural methods from the English, 
 but the United States has, during the 
 last half century, outstripped the world 
 in the art of agriculture. The govern- 
 ment has vastly increased the efficiency 
 of the American farmer by the establish- 
 ment of experiment stations, of which 
 there are now scores supported at a 
 large annual outlay. They employ 
 over 1,000 persons in administration 
 and inquiry, and issue annual re 
 ports and bulletins. With fe\r < .xcep- 
 tions, they are departments ch’ tlie ag- 
 ricultural colleges established under 
 the land-grant act (Morrill Act) of 1862, 
 and are independent of each other as 
 regards the planning and conduct of 
 their operations. They are united in a 
 national system through the Association 
 of American Agricultural Colleges and 
 Experiment Stations and the Office of 
 Experiment Stations in the United 
 States Department of Agriculture. This 
 summarizes the accounts of the work of 
 the stations and kindred institutions 
 throughout the world in the periodical 
 known as the Experiment Station Rec- 
 ord, and gives popular r^sum^s of their 
 investigations in the Farmers’ Bulletins 
 series of the department, under the 
 general title of Experiment Station 
 Work. It also directly manages the 
 stations in Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto 
 Rico. 
 
 AGRIGENTUM (-jen'tum), an an- 
 cient Greek city of Sicily (the modern 
 G/rgre^Ui) , founded about 580 b. c., and 
 long one of the most important places 
 on the island. Extensive ruins of splen- 
 did temples and public buildings yet 
 attest its ancient magnificence. 
 
 AG'RIMONY, a genus of plants, con- 
 sisting of slender perennial herbs found 
 in temperate regions. Common agri- 
 mony, was formerly of much repute as 
 a medicine in England. Its leaves and 
 root-stock are astringent, and the latter 
 yields a yellow dj;e. 
 
 AGRIP'PA, Cornelius Henry, born in 
 1486, at Cologne, he devoted himself to 
 science, and became famous as a magi- 
 cian and alchemist, and was involved in 
 disputes with the church. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Herod. See Herod Agrippa. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius, a Ro- 
 man statesman and general, the son-in- 
 law of Augustus; born b.c. 63, died 
 B.c. 12. He was pi'aetor in b.c. 41 ; con- 
 sul in 37, 28, and 27 ; tedile in 33 ; and 
 tribune from 18 till his death. He com- 
 manded the fleet of Augustus in the 
 battle of Actium. To him Rome is in- 
 debted for three of her principal aque- 
 ducts, the Pantheon, and several other 
 works of public use and ornament. 
 
 AGRIPPI'NA, the name of several 
 Roman ladiesT 1. The youngest daugh- 
 ter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and 
 wife of C. Germanicus; a heroic woman 
 adorned with great virtues. Tiberius, 
 who hated her for her virtues and popu- 
 larity, banished her to the island of 
 Pandataria, where she starved herself 
 
AGROSTIS 
 
 AINSWORTH 
 
 to death in a.d. 33. — 2. A daughter of 
 the last mentioned, and the mother of 
 Nero, by Domitius Ahenobarbus. Her 
 third husband was her uncle, the Em- 
 peror Claudius, whom she subsequently 
 poisoned to secure the government of the 
 empire through her son Nero. After 
 ruling a few years in her son’s name he 
 became tired of her ascendency, and 
 caused her to be assassinated (a.d. 60). 
 
 AGROS'TIS, a genus of grasses, con- 
 sisting of many species, and valuable 
 as pasture-grasses. The bent-grasses 
 belong to the genus. 
 
 AGUA (ag'wa), an active volcano of 
 Central America, in Guatemala, rising 
 to the height of 15,000 feet. It has 
 twice destroyed the old city of Guate- 
 mala, in its immediate vicinity. 
 
 AGUARDIENTE (a-gwar-de-en'te), a 
 popular spirituous beverage of Spain 
 and Portugal, a kind of coarse brandy, 
 made from red wine, from the refuse of 
 the grapes left in the wine-press, etc., 
 generally flavored with anise; also a 
 Mexican alcoholic drink distilled from 
 the fermented juice of the agave. 
 
 AGUAS CALIENTES (ag'was ka-le- 
 en'tas), a town 270 miles n.w. of Mexico, 
 capital of the state of its own name, 
 named from the thermal springs near 
 it; has manufactures of cottons and a 
 considerable trade. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 AGUE (a'gu), a kind of fever, which 
 may be followed by serious conse- 
 quences, but generally is more trouble- 
 some than dangerous. According to the 
 length of the interval between one 
 febrile paroxysm and another, agues are 
 denominated quotidian when they occur 
 once in twenty-four hours, tertian when 
 they come on every forty-eight hours, 
 quartan when they visit the patient 
 once in seventy-two hours. Ague arises 
 from marsh miasmata, a temperature 
 above 60° being, however, apparently 
 required to produce it. To cure the 
 disease and prevent the recurrence, 
 quinine and various other bitter and 
 astringent drugs are given with com- 
 plete success in the majority of 
 
 CB>S6S 
 
 AGUESSEAU (a-ges-6), Henri Fran- 
 cois d’, a distinguished French jurist and 
 statesman, born at Limoges in 1668; 
 was in 1690 advocate-general at Paris, 
 and at the age of thirty-two procureur- 
 gdnCTal of the parliament. He risked 
 disgrace with Louis XIV. by success- 
 fully opposing the famous papal bull 
 Unigenitus. He was made chancellor 
 in 1717. He died in 1751. 
 
 AGUILAR (a-gi-lar'), Grace, an Eng- 
 lish writer, born at Hackney 1816, died 
 at Frankfort 1847. 
 
 AGUINALDO (a-ge-nal'do), Emilio, a 
 Filipino chief who led the natives of the 
 Philippine Islands in the insurrections 
 against Spain and the United States. 
 Aguinaldo received a good education 
 from the Dominican friars and was mayor 
 of Cavite Viejo when the insurrection of 
 1896 broke out. After the defeat of the 
 Spanish power and the sale of the 
 islands to the United States, Aguinaldo 
 held out for the independence of the 
 Filipinos and led the native army against 
 the Americans. He was captured 
 March 23, 1901 by General Frederick 
 Funston and took the oath of allegiance 
 a few days subsequently. 
 
 AGULHAS (ft-guPyas), Cape, a prom- 
 ontory, forming the most southern 
 extremity of Africa, about 90 miles 
 southeast of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 rising to 455 feet above the sea, with 
 a lighthouse. 
 
 A'HAB, the seventh king of Israel 
 succeeded his father Omir 928 b.c., and 
 reigned twenty years. At the instiga- 
 tion of his wife Jezebel he erected a tem- 
 ple to Baal, and became a cruel perse- 
 cutor of the true prophets. He was 
 killed by an arrow at the siege of 
 Ramoth-Gilead. 
 
 AHASUE'RUS, in Scripture history, 
 a king of Persia, probably the same as 
 Xerxes, the husband of Esther, to whom 
 the Scriptures ascribe a singular deliver- 
 ance of the Jews from extirpation. — 
 Ahasuerus is also a Scripture name for 
 Cambyses, the son of Cyrus (Ezra iv. 6), 
 and for Astyages, king of the Medes 
 (Dan. ix. 1). 
 
 A'HAZ, the twelfth king of Judah, 
 succeeded his father Jotham, 742 b.c. 
 Forsaking the true religion he gave him- 
 self up completely to idolatry, and plun- 
 dered the temple to obtain presents for 
 Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria. 
 
 AHAZI'AH: 1. Son of Ahab and 
 Jezebel, and eighth king of Israel, died 
 from a fall through a lattice in his palace 
 at Samaria after reigning two years 
 (b.c. 896, 895). — 2. Fifth king of Judah, 
 and nephew of the above. He reigned 
 but one year, and was slain (b.c. 884) 
 by Jehu. 
 
 AHMEDABAD, or AHMADABAD 
 
 (a-mad-a-bad), a town of India, presi- 
 dency of Bombay, in district of its own 
 name, on the left bank of the Sabarmati, 
 310 miles north of Bombay. Pop. 185,- 
 889. — Area of dist. 3949 sq. m.; pop. 
 795,094. 
 
 AHMEDNAG'AR, a town of India, 
 presidency of Bombay, in district of its 
 own name, of commonplace appearance, 
 surrounded by an earthen wall. Pop. 
 (including military), 42,032. — Area of 
 dist. 6645 sq. m.; pop. 837,774. 
 
 AHMED SHAH, born 1724, died 1773, 
 founder of the Durflni dynasty in 
 Afghanistan. On the assassination of 
 Nadir he proclaimed himself shah, and 
 set about subduing the provinces sur- 
 rounding his realm. Among his first 
 acts was the securing of the famed Koh- 
 i-noor diamond, which had fallen into 
 the hands of his predecessor. He 
 crossed the Indus in 1748, and his con- 
 quests in northern India culminated in 
 the defeat of the Mahrattas at Panipat 
 (6th Jan. 1761). Affairs in his own 
 country necessitated his withdrawal 
 from India, but he extended his empire 
 vastly in other directions far beyond 
 the limits of modern Afghanistan. He 
 was succeeded by his son Timur. 
 
 AID, a subsidy paid in ancient feudal 
 times by vassals to their lords on certain 
 occasions, the chief of which were; 
 when their lord was taken prisoner and 
 required to be ransomed, when his 
 eldest son was to be made a knight, and 
 when his eldest daughter was to be 
 married and required a dowry. From 
 the Norman Conquest to the fourteenth 
 century the collecting of aids by the 
 crown was one of the forms of taxation, 
 being latterly regulated by parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 AIDE-DE-CAMP (ad-d6-kan), a mili- 
 tary officer who conveys the orders of 
 a general to the various divisions of the 
 army on the field of battle, and at other 
 times acts as his secretary and general 
 confidential agent. 
 
 AIDIN (a-i-denO, or GUZEL HISSAR, 
 a town in Asiatic Turkey, about 60 miles 
 southeast of Smyrna. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 AIGRETTE', a term used to denote 
 the feathery crown attached to the seeds 
 of various plants, such as the thistle, 
 dandelion, etc. — It is also applied to any 
 head-dress in the form of a plume, 
 whether composed of feathers, flowers, 
 or precious stones. 
 
 AI'KIN, John, M.D., an English mis- 
 cellaneous writer, born 1747, died 1822. 
 His General Biographical Dictionary 
 was begun in 1799 and finished in 1815. 
 He was editor of the Monthly Magazine 
 from 1796 till 1806. 
 
 AI'KIN, Lucy, daughter of tlm pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1781, and died 1864. 
 In 1818 appeared her Memoirs of the 
 Court of Queen Elizabeth, a very pop- 
 ular work. She afterward produced 
 similar works on the reigns of James I. 
 (1822) and Charles I. (1833), and a Life 
 of Addison (1843). 
 
 AILAN'TO, Ailanthus, a large and 
 handsome tree, with pinnate leaves one 
 or two feet long, is a native of China, 
 but has been introduced into Europe 
 and North America, where it is in favor 
 for its elegant foliage. A species of silk- 
 worm, the ailanthus silkworm feeds on 
 its leaves, and the material produced, 
 though wanting the fineness and gloss of 
 mulberry silk, is produced at less cost, 
 and is more durable. The wood is hard, 
 heavy, glossy, and susceptible of a fine 
 polish. 
 
 AIN (an), a southeastern frontier 
 department of France, mountainous in 
 the east (ridges of the Jura), flat or un- 
 dulating in the west, divided into two 
 nearly equal parts by the river Ain, a 
 tributary of the Rhone; area, 2239 
 square miles. Capital, Bourg. Pop. 
 364,408. 
 
 AINMILLER (in'mil-er). Max Eman- 
 uel, a German artist who may be re- 
 garded as the restorer of the art of glass- 
 painting; born 1807, died 1870. As in- 
 spector of the state institute of glass- 
 painting at Munich he raised this art to 
 a high degree of perfection by the new 
 or improved processes introduced by 
 him. 
 
 AINOS (i'noz), the native name of an 
 uncivilized race of people inhabiting the 
 Japanese island of Yesso, as also Sag- 
 halien, and the Kurile Islands, and be- 
 lieved to be the aboriginal inhabitants 
 of Japan. They do not average over 5 
 feet in height, but are strong and active. 
 They are very hairy, wear matted 
 beards, and have black hair which they 
 allow to grow till it falls over their 
 shoulders. Their complexion is dark 
 brown, approaching to black. They 
 worship the sun and moon, and pay 
 reverence to the bear. They support 
 themselves by hunting and fishing. 
 
 AINSWORTH, WilUam Harrison, an 
 English novelist; born 1805, died 1882. 
 He was the son of a Manchester solicitor 
 and intended for the profession of law, 
 but devoted himself to literature. He 
 wrote Rookwood (1834), Jack Sheppard 
 
AIR 
 
 AIR-PUMP 
 
 (1839), and about forty other novels, 
 including Guy Fawkes, Tower of London, 
 Windsor Castle, Lancashire Witches, 
 Flitch of Bacon, etc. 
 
 AIR, the gaseous substance of which 
 our atmosphere consists, being a me- 
 chanical mixture of 79.19 per cent by 
 measure of nitrogen and 20.81 per cent 
 of oxygen. The latter is absolutely 
 essential to animal life, while the pur- 
 pose chiefly served by the nitrogen 
 appears to be to dilute the oxygen. 
 Oxygen is more soluble in water than 
 nitrogen, and hence the air dissolved in 
 water contains about 10 per cent more 
 oxygen than atmospheric air. The 
 oxygen therefore available for those 
 animals which breathe by gills is some- 
 what less diluted with nitrogen, but it 
 is very much diluted with water. For 
 the various properties and phenomena 
 connected with air see such articles as 
 Atmosphere, Airpump, Barometer, Com- 
 bustion, Respiration, etc. 
 
 AIR, in music, a continuous melody, 
 in which some lyric subject or passion is 
 expressed. The lyric melody of a single 
 voice, accompanied by instruments, is 
 its proper form of composition. Thus 
 we find it in the higher order of musical 
 works; as in cantatas, oratorios, operas, 
 and also independently in concertos. — 
 Air is also the name .often given to the 
 upper or most prominent part in a con- 
 certed piece, and is thus equivalent to 
 treble, soprano, etc. 
 
 AIR BEDS AND CUSHIONS, often 
 used by the sick and invalids, are com- 
 posed of india-rubber or of cloth made 
 air-tight by a solution of india-rubber, 
 and when required for use filled with air, 
 which thus supplies the place of the 
 usual stuffing materials. They tend to 
 prevent bed-sores from continuous lying 
 in one position. They are also cheap 
 and easily transported, as the bed or 
 cushion, when not in use, can be packed 
 in small compass, to be again inflated 
 with air when wanted. 
 
 A I R-B LADDER. See Swimming- 
 bladder. 
 
 AIR-BRAKE, an American invention 
 used on railroads in the United States. 
 It consists of an automatic device by 
 which air, stored on the train, is applied 
 to the work of pressing the brake on all 
 wheels. The air-brake was invented in 
 1869 by George Westinghouse, Jr., who 
 has improved it to a high state of per- 
 fection. The very high passenger train 
 speeds of recent years led Mr. Westing- 
 house, in 1897, to place on the market a 
 high-speed brake. This brake is de- 
 signed to use very high air-pressure 
 when the brake is applied with the train 
 at full speed, which pressure is gradually 
 reduced by an automatic reducing valve 
 on the brake cylinder as the speed 
 diminishes. This brake has not been 
 extensively used. Tests made with the 
 regular high-speed brake attached to a 
 fifty-car train showed the following 
 among other results; Emergency stop 
 of train running at 40 miles per hour 
 made in about 675 feet, in 20 seconds; 
 breaking the train in two at a speed of 
 from 20 to 25 miles per hour, the two 
 sections stopped at distances of from 
 32 feet to 180 feet apart; applying 
 brakes with train standing to show rapid- 
 ity of action, all brakes applied within 
 
 two seconds; comparison of emergency 
 air-brake stop and hand-brake stop at 
 20 miles per hour; air-brake stop in 158 
 to 194 feet, hand-brake stop in 1000 feet 
 to 1720 feet; service stop test to deter- 
 mine time of release of brakes, all 
 brakes released in four seconds. Several 
 forms of air-brake besides the Westing- 
 house have been employed to some ex- 
 tent in America, but they are exactly 
 similar in their principles of operation. 
 
 AIR-CELLS, cavities in the cellular 
 tissue of the stems and leaves of plants 
 which contain air only, the juices of the 
 plants being contained in separate ves- 
 sels. They are largest and most numer- 
 ous in aquatic plants, the gigantic leaves 
 of which are buoyed up on the surface of 
 the water by their means. — The minute 
 cells in the lungs of animals are also 
 called air-cells. There are also air-cells in 
 the bodies of birds. They are connected 
 with the respiratory system, and are 
 situated in the cavity of the thorax and 
 abdomen, and sometimes extend into 
 the bones. They are most fully devel- 
 oped in birds of powerful and rapid 
 flight, such as the albatross. 
 
 AIR-ENGINE, an engine in which air 
 heated, and so expanded, or compressed 
 air is used as the motive power. A 
 great many engines of the former kind 
 have been invented, some of which have 
 been found to work pretty well where 
 no great power is required. They may 
 be said to be essentially similar in con- 
 struction to the steam-engine, though 
 of course the expansibility of air by 
 heat is small compared with the expan- 
 sion that takes place when water is con- 
 verted into steam. Engines working by 
 compressed air have been found very 
 useful in mining, tunneling, etc., and 
 the compressed air may be conveyed to 
 its destination by means of pipes. In 
 such cases the waste air serves for venti- 
 lation and for reducing the oppressive 
 heat. 
 
 AIR-GUN, an instrument for the pro- 
 jection of bullets by means of condensed 
 air, generally either in the form of an 
 ordinary gun, or of a pretty stout walk- 
 ing-stick, and about the same length. 
 A quantity of air being compressed into 
 the air-chamber by means of a condens- 
 ing syringe, the bullet is put in its place 
 in front of this chamber, and is pro- 
 pelled by the expansive force of a cer- 
 tain quantity of the compressed air, 
 which is liberated on pressing the trigger. 
 
 AIR-PLANTS, or EPIPHYTES, are 
 plants that grow upon other plants or 
 trees, apparently without receiving any 
 nutriment otherwise than from the air. 
 The name is restricted to flowering 
 plants (mosses or lichens being excluded) 
 and is suitably applied to many species 
 of orchids. The conditions necessary to 
 the growth of such plants are excessive 
 heat and moisture, and hence their chief 
 localities are the damp and shady tropi- 
 cal forests of Africa, Asia, and America. 
 They are particularly abundant in Java 
 and tropical America. 
 
 AIR-PUMP, an apparatus by means 
 of which air or other gas may be re- 
 moved from an inclosed space; or for 
 compressing air within an inclosed 
 space. An ordinary suction-pump for 
 water is on the same principle as the 
 air-pump; indeed, before water reaches 
 
 the top of the pipe the air has been 
 pumped out by the same machinery 
 which pumps the water. An ordinary 
 suction-pump consists essentially of a 
 cylinder or barrel, having a valve open- 
 
 Flg. 1, air-pump (sectional view). 
 
 ing from the pipe through which water 
 is to rise and a valve opening into the 
 outlet pipe, and a piston fitted to work 
 in the cylinder (the outlet valve may be 
 in the piston). (See Pump.) The 
 arrangement of parts in an air-pump is 
 quite similar. The barrel of an air- 
 pump fills with the air which expands 
 from the receiver (that is, the vessel 
 from which the air is being pumped), 
 and consequently the quantity of air 
 expelled at each stroke is less as the 
 exhaustion proceeds, the air getting 
 more and more rarefied. Suppose that 
 the receiver (so called because it receives 
 objects to be experimented on) is ex- 
 actly as large as the barrel; by the first 
 stroke there is just half the air removed, 
 by the second there is one-fourth, by the 
 third there is an eighth, and so on. Sup- 
 pose the barrel is J of the receiver as to 
 volume. On raising the piston the air 
 which filled the receiver now fills both 
 barrel and receiver, so that { is removed 
 at the first stroke, i of the remaining f is 
 removed at the second stroke — that is 
 Y’j, and i of at the third stroke, and 
 so on. Fig. 1 represents the essential 
 parts of a good air-pump in section, e 
 is the receiver, f is a mercurial pres- 
 sure-gauge, which indicates the extent 
 of exhaustion; r is a cock by means of 
 which air may be readmitted to the re- 
 ceiver or by means of which the re- 
 ceiver may be shut off from the pump- 
 
 Fig. 2, air-pump. 
 
 barrel, s is the inlet valve of the bar- 
 rel; and, inasmuch as the tension of the 
 air in the receiver after some strokes 
 would not be sufficient to lift a valve, 
 this valve is opened by means of the rod 
 
AIRSHIP AND FLYING MACHINE 
 
 AIRSHIP AND FLYING MACHINE 
 
 which passes up through the piston. 
 The outlet valve s is kept down by a 
 light spiral spring; it opens when, on the 
 space diminishing in the barrel by the 
 descent of the piston, the contained air 
 has a sufficient pressure. Fig. 2 shows 
 a similar pump in perspective (a double- 
 barreled pump) ; p is the plate on which 
 the receiver is placed, h the pressure- 
 gauge, R the readmission cock. The 
 pi'essure-gauge is merely a siphon barom- 
 eter inclosed in a bell-shaped vessel of 
 glass communicating with the receiver. 
 This barometer consists of a bent tube 
 containing mercury, one end being 
 closed, the other open. As the air is 
 exhausted the smaller is the difference 
 between the height of the mercury in the 
 two branches of the tube, and a com- 
 plete vacuum would be indicated if the 
 mercury stood at the same level in both. 
 — Ajr-pumps for compressing air are 
 constructed on the same principle but 
 act the reverse way. — Many interesting 
 experiments may be made with the air- 
 pump. If an animal is placed beneath 
 the receiver, and the air exhausted, it 
 dies almost immediately; a lighted can- 
 dle under the exhausted receiver im- 
 mediately goes out. Air is thus shown 
 to be necessary to animal life and to 
 combustion. A bell, suspended from a 
 silken thread beneath the exhausted 
 receiver, on being struck cannot be 
 heard. If the bell be in one receiver 
 from which the air is not exhausted, but 
 which is within an exhausted receiver, 
 it still cannot be heard. Air is there- 
 fore necessary to the production and to 
 the transmission of sound. A shriveled 
 apple placed beneath an exhausted re- 
 ceiver becomes as plump as if quite 
 fresh, being thus shown to be full of 
 elastic air. The air-pump was invented 
 by Otto von Guericke, burgomaster of 
 Magdeburg, about the year 1654. 
 
 AIRSHIP and FLYING MACHINE, 
 vehicles for navigating the atmospheric 
 air, the first being buoyed up by bal- 
 loons filled with gas, hydrogen prefer- 
 ably ; the second being constructed on 
 the principles of a bird’s wing. The 
 earliest successful balloon was that 
 made by the brothers Etienne and Jo- 
 seph Montgolfier, in France, who in 1782 
 succeeded in causing a silk bag of 50 
 cubic feet to rise to the ceiling of a 
 room, and in 1783, in the presence of an 
 immense crowd, a balloon 35 feet in 
 diameter rose to a height of 1500 feet. All 
 successful attempts at aerial navigation 
 until 1907-8 were balloons. The gases 
 employed being either hydrogen or or- 
 dinary coal gas. The former when pure 
 is between 14 and 15 times lighter than 
 atmospheric air and the latter generally 
 about 2 1-2 times lighter. According to 
 the principles of Archimides bodies im- 
 mersed in a fluid are buoyed upwards 
 with a force equivalent to the weight 
 of the fluid displaced by them. If their 
 own weight is not sufficient to counter- 
 balance this force, that is if they are 
 lighter than this fluid they rise upward 
 with a force equal to the difference be- 
 tween the weight of the displaced fluid 
 and their own weight. Thus the balloon 
 rises in the air in the same way that a 
 cork rises in the water. Thus for in- 
 stance if a balloon occupies as much 
 space as 1000 pounds of air, but weighs 
 
 itself 600 pounds, it will be impelled up- 
 wards with a force of 400 pounds. 
 
 Balloons are made of silk or cotton, 
 the pieces sewn together and all of it 
 varnished to prevent the escape of gas. 
 A network of cord extends over the 
 varnished cloth supporting a hoop from 
 which a car is suspended by 6 or more 
 strong ropes about 4 feet long. Inside 
 the car are sand bags for ballast and the 
 grappling iron tied to the end of a long 
 rope for anchoring the balloon at the 
 end of the descent. At the top of the 
 balloon there is a valve made of wood 
 from one to three feet in diameter. 
 This is kept closed by a spring but is 
 opened or closed by a rope running 
 down into the car. When the balloon- 
 ist wishes to ascend he throws some 
 of the ballast over the side of the car. 
 If he wishes to descend he opens the 
 valve and the place of the escaping gas 
 is taken by air whose heavier weight 
 increases the weight of the balloon. 
 Later balloons have been provided with 
 steering apparatus by which the direc- 
 tion of their flight can be regulated at 
 will and not be left to wind. 
 
 It is said that as early as 1306 success- 
 ful balloon ascents were made by the 
 
 BaUoou above the clouds. 
 
 Chinese, but the first European bal- 
 loonist was Guszman v'ho made the as- 
 cent at Lisbon in 1709, using heated air. 
 The first hydrogen balloon was made 
 by Black of Edinburg in 1767. Various 
 experiments were made in Paris by the 
 Mongolfiers, and in May, 1783, a balloon 
 was sent up 100 ft. carrying a cage with 
 a sheep, a cock and a duck. These 
 were the first aerial travellers. Nov. 
 21, 1783, Pilatre des Rosieros with the 
 Marquis d’ Arlands were the first hu- 
 man passengers in a balloon, remain- 
 ing in the air 25 minutes. 
 
 The highest balloon ascent recorded 
 was one of seven miles made from 
 Wolverhampton, Eng. Sept. 5, 1862, by 
 Glazier and Coxwell. At this great 
 height the cold was intense, the ther- 
 mometer standing at 12 F. The barom- 
 eter fell 7 inches, as compared with 29 
 at the surface of the earth. When the 
 balloon was 29,000 feet high, Glaisher 
 
 became insensible, and remained so for 
 seven minutes. Coxwell at this height 
 had mounted into the ring to adjust the 
 valve-line, when his hands became 
 frozen, and he had to open the valve by 
 seizing the line with his teeth. He too 
 was nearly insensible. Up to the height 
 of 5 miles the aeronauts experienced no 
 difficulty in breathing, except when 
 some exertion was made. Perfect still- 
 ness and silence reigns six miles above 
 the earth but a railway train in motion 
 can be heard at a height of 4 miles. 
 
 The development of the balloon has 
 been chiefly for its utilization in war. 
 Balloon corps are attached to the armies 
 of the leading nations. They were first 
 used in France in 1794 for the purpose 
 of observing the enemy. During the 
 siege of Paris, 1870-71, the balloon was 
 extensively employed. For military 
 purposes attempts have been made to 
 construct dirigible balloons. The first 
 notable dirigible flight was that of 
 Renaud in 1884 when in a cigar shaped 
 balloon with a powerful motor and a 
 front screw he traversed an oblong 
 course of 6 miles in 23 minutes. Notable 
 successes in dirigible balloons have 
 been since achieved by Santos Dumont, 
 Count de la Vaux, Count Almirigo and 
 Lebaudy, — the latter made a successful 
 flight of more than 80 miles in 1906. At 
 the race of the American Federation of 
 Aero Clubs, held at Chicago, July 4, ’08, 
 Dr. F. D. Fielding’s balloon, traveled 
 895 miles, landing at West Shefford, 
 Quebec, 
 
 Attempts to imitate the flight of birds 
 by mechanical contrivances antedate 
 the balloon by several hundred years. 
 The first properly authenticated account 
 of an artificial wing was given by Borelli 
 in 1670, and his investigations and ex- 
 periments furnished the principal basis 
 for experiments until 1867. In this year 
 Professor J. B. Pettigrew, an English 
 scientist, published the results of an 
 elaborate and careful series of studies 
 made by him upon the flight of birds, 
 which wrought a revolution in the con- 
 struction of flying machines. For thirty 
 years, however, inventors struggled 
 without absolute success. 
 
 The first aeroplane types of flying 
 machines were designed by Maxim and 
 Langley in 1891 to ’96. The work of in- 
 ventors and scientists along the line of 
 motor-driven, flying machines has 
 shown steady progress. The motors 
 have been made stronger and lighter, 
 problems of rising and alighting safely 
 solved, and additional scientific know'- 
 edge of aerial conditions has been gained- 
 The general and most popular design is 
 that of the simple aeroplane, supportt d 
 by air, through wfliich it is propelled by 
 detached force. There were many ex- 
 periments along these lines and those 
 of 1907 were notable, but not until 1908 
 could it be fairly said that the flying by 
 means of machines heavier than the at- 
 mosphere had become an accomplished 
 fact. The experiments in that direction 
 in former years were completely eclip- 
 sed in 1908 by Wilbur and Orville 
 Wright, Henry Farman, and Leon Del- 
 agrange and others working on both 
 sides of the Atlantic. For a time France 
 appeared to lead in aviation, but that 
 was because the Americans worked more 
 
AIRSHIP AND FLYING MACHINE 
 
 AIRSHIP AND FLYING MACHINE 
 
 or less in secret while the exploits of the 
 Frenchmen were widely advertised. At 
 the close of the year it wUs generally 
 acknowledged that the Wright brothers 
 of Dayton, O., were far in the lead of all 
 
 In 1907 and the preceding two or 
 three years, considerable progress was 
 made in the direction of constructing 
 dirigible balloons, and one of the most 
 successful types of these was the Zeppe- 
 lin airship in Germany. This was fur- 
 ther developed in 1908, and all records 
 for performances by craft in which gas is 
 the sustaining power were broken. The 
 most remarkable was that in which the 
 airship was destroyed. Count Zeppelin 
 started from the waters of Lake Con- 
 stance at 6 :15 a. m. Aug. 4, in an attempt 
 to make the longest flight on record for 
 a dirigible balloon. He passed over the 
 city of Constance and kept to the west 
 until Basel, on the Swiss frontier, was 
 'passed. Then he sailed north-west to 
 Mulhausen and thence northeasterly 
 along the Rhine valley, passing over 
 Strassburg and other cities and continu- 
 ing until 6 o’clock in the evening when 
 a landing was made on an island in the 
 Rhine, near Oppenheim, Germany. One 
 of the motors was out of order and a 
 stop had to be made for repairs. At 
 10:15p. m. the flight was resumed until 
 Mayence was reached. After encircling 
 the city the airship was turned in the 
 direction of home. All went well until 
 Echterdingen, five miles south of Stutt- 
 gart, was reached, about 8 a. m. on the 
 5th. Here it became necessary to make 
 another descent owing to the fusing of 
 the metal in which the piston of the 
 forward motor ran and also because of 
 the escape of gas caused by an ascent of 
 6,000 feet in the air while maneuvering. 
 The landing was safely made and the 
 necessary repairs were being made when 
 at 3 o’clock in the afternoon a storm, 
 arose, tore the balloon from its moorings 
 and drove it some fifty yards. Here the 
 rear end of the fabric drooped and in a 
 moment smoke and flames were seen to 
 burst out from one end to the other, 
 followed almost immediately by an ex- 
 plosion which brought the motors and 
 framework crashing to the ground. 
 Four of the crew were injured, but 
 Count Zeppelin escaped being hurt. 
 The craft, which was the fourth con- 
 structed by Count Zeppelin, was com- 
 pletely destroyed. It was 443 feet long 
 with a diameter of about 45 feet. The 
 balloon part was separated into sixteen 
 separate interior compartments for the 
 inflating gas. The bow tapered to a 
 blunt point, while at the stern were the 
 rudders and frames used in steering. 
 Underneath were suspended two inde- 
 pendent platforms, each carrying a 
 motor capable of developing 140 horse 
 power. The outer part of the airship 
 consisted of a rigid envelope of alumi- 
 num, this among other things making it 
 distinct from any other craft of the 
 kind constructed. It had made many 
 successful trips in the vicinity of Lake 
 Constance and had carried as many as 
 sixteen passengers at one time. 
 
 The other dirigible air ships of the 
 balloon type that attracted attention in 
 1908 were the Parseval in Germany, the 
 Republic (La Rcpublique) in France 
 
 and the Baldwin in the United States. 
 These, though differing in detail, are 
 similar in principle, the lifting power 
 in each being a balloon of the usual 
 materials and the motive power a gas 
 engine working in a suspended frame. 
 The Parseval, named after its inventor. 
 Major Von Parseval, made a trip from 
 Berlin, Sept. 15, lasting 11 hours and 15 
 minutes, at a height of about 1,500 feet 
 and at a speed of about 25 miles an hour. 
 The balloon is 157 feet long and 26 feet 
 in diameter, and its gas capacity is 
 3,270 cubic yards. It is tube-shaped 
 with rounded ends. The car, which is 
 about 20 feet in length, is suspended so 
 as to swing backward and forward in 
 its plane parallel to the gas bag, not 
 being rigidly fastened to it. The pro- 
 peller, 14 feet in diameter, is situated 
 just above the car. 
 
 The dirigible balloon made by Capt. 
 Thomas A. Baldwin, and accepted by 
 the war department of the United 
 States, is 84 feet long, with a maximum 
 diameter of 18 feet and a minimum di- 
 ameter of 16 feet, and a capacity of 
 18,000 cubic feet of gas. The suspended 
 frame is 66 feet in length and the 12 
 foot propeller makes 450 revolutions 
 per minute, driving the airship at the 
 rate of about 20 miles an hour. The 
 engine is of twenty horse-power. The 
 ship is raised or lowered by means of 
 box-kite planes at the forward end. 
 
 The Wright aeroplane, which won the 
 honors of the year both in Europe and 
 America, is what is called a biplane, 
 the surfaces of which are parallel, ex- 
 actly one above the other and slightly 
 concave on the lower surface. They are 
 made of cloth stretched on a frame- 
 work of spruce. They are 40 feet long 
 and 6 ^ feet wide, giving a total area of 
 260 square feet. The distance between 
 the planes is 6 feet. In front is a hori- 
 zontal biplane rudder for regulating 
 the height of flight, at the back a verti- 
 cal biplane rudder for steering. The 
 total length of the machine is 33 feet. 
 Between the planes is a four-cylinder 
 water-cooled twenty-flve horse-power 
 motor, designed by the Wright broth- 
 ers. On its right is a radiator with flat 
 copper tubes and on its left sit the pilot 
 and passenger. The motor drives two 
 wooden propellers 10 feet in diameter 
 by means of crossed chains. The pro- 
 pellers revolve in opposite directions 
 and are geared down in the ratio of 33 
 to 9. The total weight of the aeroplane 
 with one man on board is about 1,000 
 pounds. The motor in working order 
 weighs 200 pounds. 
 
 The method of operation is apparent- 
 ly very simple. The most interesting 
 feature consists in the “working” of 
 the extreme under part of the wings, 
 whereby the flight of a bird is imitated 
 and perfect lateral stability is secured. 
 The rudder which regulates the hori- 
 zontal balance has to be used almost 
 continually. In order to make a flight 
 a wooden rail about 72 feet long is laid 
 on the ground. The aeroplane rests 
 upon wooden “skates” and has two 
 rollers in front. On the rail runs a lit- 
 tle car upon which the aeroplane rests 
 and the rollers on the rail. When the 
 screws begin to revolve the machine 
 
 flies rapidly along the rail and at its 
 extremity rises into the air by the help 
 of the horizontal rudder When there 
 is a wind the rail alone is sufficient. In 
 calm weather the aeroplane is launched 
 as by a catapult, by means of a weight 
 of 1,500 pounds, which falls from the 
 top of a pillar 18 feet high and pulls 
 upon ropes passing through pulleys. 
 
 The French rights in the Wright pat- 
 ents were sold in October, 1908, to a 
 syndicate headed by Lazare Weiller for 
 .$100,000. The tests in France were made 
 in the vicinity of Le Mans by Wilbur 
 Wright, while those in the United States 
 by Orville Wright took place at Fort My- 
 er, Va., under the supervision of army 
 officers. 
 
 Next after the Wright aeroplane, that 
 invented by Henry Farman of Paris 
 was the most successful, with that con- 
 structed by Leon Delagrange, also of 
 Paris, a close third. The Farman ma- 
 chine consists of two superimposed 
 aero surfaces, each about 33 feet long 
 by 6)^ feet wide and set 5 feet apart. 
 The framework of the ship is of 
 wood and steel tubing, and the covering 
 of the aerosurfaces rubber. The body 
 for carrying motor and other machinery 
 and the aeronaut is covered with can- 
 vas and is 15 feet long, 2)4 feet wide. 
 The motor is of the petrol Antoinette 
 type and the propeller, which is 7^ feet 
 in diameter, is of aluminum sheeting. 
 It makes 1,050 revolutions per minute. 
 The machine is mounted on bicycle 
 wheels and starts by running alon^he 
 ground under its own power until luted 
 by the planes. In alighting the power 
 is simply shut off and the machine al- 
 lowed to glide toward the ground. The 
 whole contrivance weighs about 1,600 
 pounds. The Delagrange aeroplane is 
 similar in most respects to the Farman 
 machine, the latter being practically 
 only an improved model of the former. 
 
 AEROPLANE RECORDS 
 Sept 12, 1908 — Orville Wright remained 
 in air 74 minutes 24 seconds at Fort 
 Myer, Va. ; also remained in air 9 
 minutes seconds with one passen- 
 ger accompanying him ; distance 5.88 
 miles. 
 
 Sept. 16, 1908 — Wilbur Wright, 26 miles, 
 in 39 minutes 18f seconds, at Le 
 Mans, France. 
 
 Sept. 17, 1908 — Orville Wright badly in- 
 jured and Lieut. Thomas E. Selfridge 
 killed in aeroplane accident at Fort 
 Myer, Va, 
 
 Sept, 21, 1908 — Wilbur Wright, about 
 61 miles, in 1 hour 31 minutes 51 sec- 
 onds, at Le Mans, France; eclipsing 
 all previous records. 
 
 Oct. 2, 1908 — Henry Farman, 40 kilo- 
 meters, in 44 minutes 32 seconds at 
 Paris, France ; claimed as speed 
 record. 
 
 Oct. 6, 1908 — Wilbur Wright, with pas- 
 senger, remains in air 1 hour 4 min- 
 utes 26 seconds, at Le Mans, France. 
 Oct 30, 1908 — Henry Farman flies from 
 Mourmelon to Rheims, in France, 20 
 miles in 20 minutes, at height of 120 
 to 150 feet. 
 
 December 31, 1908 — Wilbur Wright 
 breaks all previous aeroplane records 
 at Le Mans, France, with a flight of 
 
AISLE 
 
 AKKAS 
 
 two hours and nine minutes, thereby 
 winning the Micheiin cup. 
 
 July 25, 1909. — Louis Bleriot flies 
 across the English Channel from 
 Calais to Dover in his monoplane in 
 less than thirty minutes. 
 
 July 27, 1909. — Orville Wright makes 
 a new world’s record for an aeroplane 
 carrying one passenger in his endur- 
 ance test flight at Fort Myer, remain- 
 ing in the air 1 hour, 12 minutes, and 
 36 seconds. 
 
 July 30, 1909. — The Wright brothers 
 successfully complete their aeroplane 
 tests for the Government, the 10-mile 
 straightaway flight, with turn, being 
 made at a speed of more than 42 miles 
 an hour. 
 
 July 31, 1909. — The dirigible balloon 
 Zeppelin II sails from Friedrichshaven 
 to Frankfort, a distance of 220 miles, at 
 an average speed of 21 miles an hour. 
 The Wright aeroplane is formally 
 recognized at Washington as the arm 
 of the aeroplane corps of the United 
 States Army. 
 
 Aug. 29, 1909. — Latham at Reims 
 reached a height of 505 feet. Glenn 
 H. Curtiss, American, traveled eigh- 
 teen miles in 25 minutes, 49 seconds. 
 
 The year 1909 saw Louis Bleriot’s 
 daring flight across the English Chan- 
 nel. At sunrise on the morning of 
 July 25 M. Bleriot started from the 
 high cliffs near Calais in a monoplane 
 that he had just tested by a trial trip 
 of nine miles. In ten minutes he could 
 not be seen from the French shore, and 
 the torpedo boat that started several 
 miles in advance of him was soon 
 passed. As he came within sight of 
 the English shore he found that the 
 southwest wind had carried him a few 
 miles out of his course. He turned 
 into the wind and went up the coast 
 until he came to an opening in the 
 cliffs near Dover. Here he made a 
 safe landing, although an abrupt drop 
 from a height of sixty-five feet was 
 caused by a strong wind. The news 
 was greeted in Paris with wild en- 
 thusiasm and everywhere appeared the 
 statement that “ England is no longer 
 an island.” The fact that longer and 
 faster flights have been made by an 
 aeroplane over the land does not be- 
 little the daring venture of M. Bleriot. 
 It requires nerve to start from a cliff 
 several hundred feet high to cross 
 an arm of the sea twenty-five miles 
 wide with the rescue boat several 
 miles behind. The time for the trip 
 was 37 minutes and the speed about 
 40 miles an hour. It was a distinct 
 achievement for the monoplane type 
 of aeroplane. This particular machine, 
 both designed and built by M. Bleriot, 
 was twenty-six feet wide, the smallest 
 that he has used. M. Bleriot also has 
 the honor of being the only aviator 
 who has driven an aeroplane carrying 
 three people. 
 
 AISLE (il), in architecture, one of the 
 lateral divisions of a church in the 
 direction of its length, separated from 
 the central portion or nave by piers or 
 pillars. There may be one aisle or 
 more on each side of the nave. The 
 catliedrals at Antwerp and Paris have 
 seven aisles in all. The nave is some- 
 times called the central aisle. See 
 Cathedral. 
 
 AISNE (an), a northeastern frontier 
 dep artment of France; area, 2838 sq. 
 miles. It is an undulating, well-culti- 
 vated, and well-wooded region, chiefly 
 watered by the Oise in the north, its 
 tributary the Aisne in the center, and 
 the Marne in the south. It contains the 
 important towns of St. Quentin, Laon 
 (the capital), Soissons, and Chateau 
 Thierry. Pop. 555,925. 
 
 AIVA'LI, or KIDONIA, a seaport of 
 Asiatic Turkey, on the Gulf of Adramyti, 
 66 miles north by west of Smyrna, carry- 
 ing on an extensive commerce in olive- 
 oil, soap, cotton, etc. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (aks-la-sha-pel), 
 a city of Rhenish Prussia, 38 miles west 
 by south of Cologne. The most import- 
 ant building is the cathedral, the oldest 
 portion of which, often called the nave, 
 was erected in the time of Charles the 
 Great (Charlemagne) as the palace 
 chapel about 796. Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 with the adjoining Burtscheid, which 
 may be considered a suburb, is a place 
 of great commerce and manufacturing 
 industry, the chief productions being 
 woolen yarns and cloths, needles, 
 machinery, cards (for the woolen manu- 
 facture), railway and other carriages, 
 cigars, chemicals, silk goods, hosiery, 
 glass, soap, etc. A considerable por- 
 tion of its importance and prosperity 
 arises from the influx of vistors to its 
 springs and baths, there being a num- 
 ber of warm sulphur springs here, and 
 several chalybeate springs, with ample 
 accommodation for strangers. Thirty- 
 seven German emperors and eleven 
 empresses have been crowned in it, and 
 the imperial insignia were preserved 
 here till 1795, when they were carried 
 to Vienna. Pop. 135,245. — Congress 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle, a congress held in 
 1818, by which the army of the allies in 
 France was withdrawn after France 
 had paid the contribution imposed at 
 the peace of 1815, and independence 
 restored to France. — A treaty of peace 
 concluded at this city. May 2, 1668, as 
 a result of the Triple Alliance, put an 
 end to the war carried on against Spain 
 by Louis XIV. in 1667, after the death 
 of his father-in-law Philip IV., in sup- 
 port of his claims to a great part of the 
 Spanish Netherlands, which he urged 
 in the name of his queen, the infanta 
 Maria Theresa. By this France ob- 
 tained Lille, Cliarleroi, Douai, Tournia, 
 Oudenarde, etc. The second peace of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, October 18, 1748, ter- 
 minated the Austrian war of succession. 
 
 AJACCIO (a-yach'6), the capital of 
 Corsica, on the southwest coast of the 
 island, on a tongue of land projecting 
 into the Gulf of Ajaccio, the birthplace 
 of Napoleon and the seat of a bishop, 
 with coral and sardine fisheries, and a 
 considerable trade. Pop. 20,946. 
 
 A'JAX, the name of two Grecian 
 chiefs who fought against Troy, the 
 one being son of Olleus, the other son 
 of Telamon. The latter was from Salamis, 
 and sailed with twelve ships to Troy, 
 where he is represented by Homer as the 
 boldest and handsomest of the Greeks, 
 after Achilles. On the death of Achilles, 
 when his arms, which Ajax claimed, 
 were awarded to Ulysses, he became 
 insane and killed himself. This is the 
 subject to Sophocles’s tragedy Ajiix. 
 
 AJMEER', AJMIR, or AJMER, a 
 
 British commissionership in India, Raj- 
 putana, divided into the two districts 
 of Ajmeer and Mairwara; area, 2711 sq. 
 miles. Pop. 476,912. — Ajmeer, the cap- 
 ital, an ancient city, a favorite residence 
 of the Mogul emperors, is 279 miles s.w. 
 of Delhi, at the foot of Taragarh Hill 
 (2853 feet), on which is a fort. Pop. 
 73,839. 
 
 AJOWAN', an umbelliferous plant 
 cultivated in India, Persia, and Egypt, 
 the seeds of which are used in cookery 
 and in medicine, having carminative 
 properties. 
 
 AKAROID RESIN, a resin obtained 
 from some of the grass-trees of Australia, 
 used in varnishes. 
 
 AK'BAR, a Mogul emperor, the great- 
 est Asiatic prince of modern times. He 
 was born at Amerkote, in Sind, in 1542, 
 succeeded his father, Humayun, at the 
 age of thirteen, and governed first under 
 the guardianship of his minister, Beyram, 
 but took the chief power into his own 
 hands in 1560. He fought with dis- 
 tinguished valor against his foreign 
 foes and rebellious subjects, conquering 
 all his enemies, and extending the limits 
 of the empire farther than they had ever 
 been before, although on his accession 
 they embraced only a small part of the 
 former Mogul Empire. He died in 1605. 
 His mausoleum at Secundra, near Agra, 
 is a fine example of Mohammedan archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 AKEE', a tree much esteemed for its 
 fruit. The leaves are somewhat simi- 
 lar to those of the ash; the flowers are 
 small and white, and produced in 
 branched spikes. The fruit is lobed and 
 ribbed, of a dull orange color, and con- 
 tains several large black seeds, embedded 
 in a succulent and slightly bitter arillus 
 of a pale straw color, which is eaten 
 when cooked. The akee is a native of 
 Guinea, whence it was carried to the 
 West Indies by Captain Bligh in 1793. 
 
 A KEMPIS, Thomas. See Thomas ^ 
 Kempis. 
 
 AKHUND OF SWAT, The, a noted 
 Mohammedan dervish and saint who 
 exerted a considerable influence on the 
 Ameer of Afghanistan during the 
 Turko-Russian war of 1877. The 
 akhund caused no end of anxiety to the 
 
 Akka-African tribe. 
 
 British government, although he was 
 generally friendly to that power. He 
 died in 1878. 
 
 AKKAS, a dwarfish race of central 
 Africa, dwelling in scattered settle- 
 ments to the northwest of Lake Albert 
 
AKMOLINSK 
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 Nyanza, about lat. 3° n., Ion. 29® e. 
 Their height averages about 4^ feet; 
 they are of a brownish or coffee color; 
 head large, jaws projecting (or prog- 
 nathous), ears large, hands small. They 
 are timid and suspicious, and live almost 
 entirely by the chase, being exceedingly 
 skilful with the bow and arrow. 
 
 AKMOLINSK', a Russian province 
 in central Asia, largely consisting of 
 steppes and wastes. Capital, Omsk. 
 Area about 210,000 sq. m. Pop. 678,957. 
 
 AK'RON, a town of the United States, 
 in Ohio, 100 miles n.e. of Columbus, on 
 an elevated site. Being furnished with 
 ample water-power by the Little Cuya- 
 hoga, it possesses large flour-mills, 
 woolen factories, manufactures of iron 
 oods, etc. In the vicinity extensive 
 eds of mineral paint are worked. 
 Pop. 45,000. 
 
 AKSU, a town of Chinese Turkestan, 
 260 miles northeast of Yarkand at the 
 southern base of the Thian-shan moun- 
 tains. It was formerly the capital of a 
 separate khanate ; in 1867 it became a 
 part of the state of Eastern Turkestan 
 under Yakub Beg, but was conouered 
 again by China in 1867. It is celebrated 
 for its manufactures of cotton cloth 
 and saddlery, and is much resorted to 
 by caravans as a entrepot of commerce 
 between Russia Tartary and China. 
 
 AKYAB, a town of Burmah, the 
 chief seaport of Aracan, is situated on 
 the eastern side of the island of the 
 same name at the mouth of the Kula- 
 ban river 190 miles east of Calcutta. In 
 1826, being then a mere fishing village, 
 it was chosen for the chief station of 
 the province and now is a great rice 
 port, a well built place with broad and 
 regular streets, good public buildings 
 and a high school. Savage island with 
 a light house, shelters the harbor. Pop. 
 40,000. Island of the same name has 
 population of 450,000. 
 
 ALABAMA (al-a-ba'ma), a Gulf State 
 bounded on the north by Tennessee, on 
 the south by Florida and the Gulf of 
 Mexico, on the east by Georgia, and on 
 the west by Mississippi. Its length is 
 330 miles, average breadth 164, and area 
 60,722 square miles. It ranks twenty- 
 seventh in size among the states. The 
 Alleghany range stretches into the 
 northern portion of the state, but the 
 elevation is nowhere great. The Alaba- 
 ma is the chief river of the state. It is 
 formed by the junction of the Coosa and 
 
 the Talapoosa, which unite about 10 
 miles above the city of Montgomery. 
 Forty-five miles above Mobile the Ala- 
 bama is joined by the Tombigbee, and 
 from that point is known as the Mobile 
 River. It is navigable from Mobile to 
 \Vetumpka,on the Coosa, some460mile3. 
 The Tombigbee is navigable to Colum- 
 bus, and the Black Warrior, one of its 
 chief tributaries, to Tuscaloosa. The 
 Tennessee fiows through the northern 
 portion of the state, and the Chattahoo- 
 chee forms part of its eastern boundary. 
 The climate of Alabama is semi-tropical. 
 The temperature ranges from 82° to 18° 
 Fahr. in winter, and in summer from 
 105° to 60° ; the mean temperature for 
 the year being a little over 60°. 
 
 Alabama possesses a rich soil of varied 
 character, and produces corn and cotton 
 in abundance. Wheat, oats and hay also 
 form important articles of agricultural 
 production. The State is heavily tim- 
 bered, especially in the southern tier of 
 counties. 
 
 Shipments of cotton are made from 
 Mobile, and through Savannah, Ga., 
 New Orleans and Charleston, S. C. Rice 
 and sugar cane, sweet potatoes, and all 
 kinds of vegetables and fruits are abun- 
 dant, and some tobacco is grown in the 
 north. There is an abundant rainfall, 
 aggregating fifty to fifty-four inches per 
 annum, and well distributed throughout 
 the seasons. Much attention is given to 
 stock-raising. 
 
 The abundant mineral resources of 
 Alabama have been developed wonder- 
 fully during the last decade. Coal is 
 found in vast deposits, side by side with 
 beds of limestone and iron ore of enor- 
 mous extent. In the valleys of the 
 Tennessee and upper Alabama rivers, 
 the enterprising cities Birmingham, 
 Besemer, Sheffield, Roanoke, Hunts- 
 ville, Decatur and others rank with the 
 most energetic mining and manufactur- 
 ingcitiesof the North. It isclaimed that 
 pig iron can be manufactured more 
 [cheaply in Alabama than anywhere else 
 in the Unio,. There are large manu- 
 factures of cotton good^, and many 
 varied industries have been introduced. 
 The railway system has been rapidly 
 extended since the war. In 1907 there 
 were 2,985 miles of completed railroad. 
 
 The population of Alabama, 1,262,606 
 in 1880, increased 19.4 per cent, during 
 the decade, and the census of 1890 re- 
 turns it at 1,513,107. It is now, 1909, es- 
 timated by the Governor of the state to be 
 2,100,000. There are over half a million 
 colored people in the State. The chief 
 towns are Montgomery, the capital, 
 Mobile, Birmingham, Bessemer, Annis- 
 ton, and Huntsville. Mobile is the only 
 seaport. 
 
 There is a good school system, supple- 
 mented by State-aided universities, and 
 normal and training schools. In the 
 larger cities there are separate school 
 districts. 
 
 Alabama was first visited by De Soto 
 in 1540, and takes its name from the very 
 powerful nation of Indians that were 
 at that time found occupying it. Among 
 these were the Alibamas, the Choctaws, 
 the Chickasaws, the Cherokees, and the 
 Apalaches. In 1702 the French settled 
 at Biloxi, founded Mobile in 1711, and 
 for many years were discouraged by 
 
 disease and famine. In 1763 Alabama 
 was added to Illinois territory and 
 passed through various vicissitudes of 
 Indian wars, claims from different 
 countries and neighboring states, until 
 in 1817 it was formed into a territory 
 and two years later admitted into the 
 Union. Early in 1861 an ordinance of 
 secession was adopted, and Montgomery 
 was made the temporary capital of the 
 Confederacy. The State was the theater 
 of war in 1862, and in 1864 Mobile was 
 the scene of a naval battle, and her forts 
 were silenced by Farragut. In 1865 
 Mobile, Selma, and Montgomery were 
 taken by Federal troops, and a provi- 
 sional governor was appointed by Presi- 
 dent Johnson later in that year. In 1868 
 a new constitution was adopted, and 
 the State was readmitted to representa- 
 tion in congress. 
 
 On July 14, 1868, military rule ceased, 
 and on November 16, 1870, the State 
 ratified the fifteenth amendment to the 
 Federal constitution. For a decade af- 
 ter the Civil War, Alabama suffered 
 from maladministration. Party spirit 
 ran very high, and elections were bit- 
 terly contested. The dishonesty of 
 officials and the extravagant railway 
 policy they pursued brought the State 
 andthechief towns into serious financial 
 difficulties. With the reorganization of 
 the public debt in 1876 began an era of 
 quiet and prosperity. Since 1874 Ala- 
 bama has been invariably Democratic. 
 In 1901 a constitutional convention 
 changed the organic law in such a man- 
 ner as to insure political supremacy to 
 the white population, 
 
 ALABAMA, a river of the United 
 States, in the State of Alabama, formed 
 by the junction of the Coosa and the 
 Tallapoosa. After a course of 300 miles 
 it joins the Tombigbee and assumes the 
 name of the Mobile. 
 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS. See Alabama, 
 The. 
 
 ALABAMA, The, a ship built at Birk- 
 enhead, England, to act as a privateer 
 in the service of the Confederate States 
 of North America during the civil war 
 begun in 1861. Before she was launched 
 her destination was made known to the 
 British government, but owing to some 
 legal formalities the orders given for her 
 detention did not reach Liverpool till 
 the day after she had left that port (29th 
 July, 1862). She received her arma- 
 ment and stores at the Azores, and en- 
 tered on her destructive career, captur- 
 ing and burning merchant vessels, till 
 she was sunk in a fight with the Federal 
 war steamer Kearsarge, off Cherbourg, 
 19th June, 1864. As early as the winter 
 of 1862 the United States government 
 declared that they held themselves 
 entitled at a suitable period to demand 
 full compensation from Britain for the 
 damages inflicted on American property 
 by the Alabama and several other 
 cruisers that had been built, supplied, 
 or recruited in British ports or waters. 
 After a long series of negotiations it was 
 agreed to submit the final settlement of 
 the question to a court of arbitration, 
 consisting of representatives of Britain, 
 and the United States, and of three 
 other members, appointed by the King 
 of Italy, the President of Switzerland, 
 and the Emperor of Brazil. This court 
 
ALABASTER 
 
 ALBACETE 
 
 met at Geneva, 17th December, 1871, 
 and a decree was given in September, 
 1872, that Britain was liable to the 
 United States in damages to the amount 
 of 15,500,000 dollars. After all awards 
 were made to private claimants about 
 8,000,000 dollars still remain unclaimed. 
 
 ALABASTER, a name applied to a 
 granular variety of gypsum or hydrated 
 sulphate of lime. It has a fine granular 
 texture, is usually of a pure white color, 
 and is so soft that it can be scratched 
 with the nail. It is found in many parts 
 of Europe; in great abundance and of 
 peculiarly excellent quality in Tuscany. 
 
 ALAMEDA (a'la-ma'da), a city in 
 Alameda county, California, six miles 
 across the bay from San Francisco, on 
 the Southern Pacific Railroad. Its 
 growth has been rapid since 1870. Pop. 
 19,124. 
 
 AL'AMO, a fort in Bexar county, 
 Texas, U. S., celebrated for the resist- 
 ance its occupants (140 Texans) made 
 to a Mexican force of 4000 from 23d 
 February to 6th March, 1836. At the 
 latter date only six Texans remained 
 alive, and on their surrendering they 
 were slaughtered by the Mexicans. 
 
 ALAND (o'land) ISLANDS, a numer- 
 ous group of islands and islets, about 
 eighty of which are inhabited, belong- 
 ing to Russia, situated in the Baltic Sea, 
 near the mouth of the Gulf of Finland; 
 area, 468 square miles. The principal 
 island, Aland, distant about 30 miles 
 from the Swedish coast, is 18 miles long 
 and about 14 broad. It has a harbor 
 capable of containing the whole Russian 
 fleet. The fortress of Bomarsund, here 
 situated, was destroyed by an Anglo- 
 French force in August, 1854. The in- 
 habitants, who are of Swedish extrac- 
 tion, employ themselves mostly in fish- 
 ing. The islands were ceded by Sweden 
 to Russia in 1809. Pop. 18,000. 
 
 ALA'NI, or ALANS, one of the war- 
 like tribes which migrated from Asia 
 westward at the time of the decline of 
 the Roman empire. They are first met 
 with in the region of the Caucasus, 
 where Pompey fought with them. From 
 this center they spread over the south 
 of modern Russia to the confines of the 
 Roman empire. About the middle of 
 the fifth century they joined the Van- 
 dals, among whom they become lost to 
 history. 
 
 ALARM, in military language, a sig- 
 nal, given by beat of drum, bugle-call, 
 or firing of a gun, to apprise a camp or 
 garrison of a surprise intended or 
 actually made by the enemy. A place, 
 called the alarm-post, is generally ap- 
 pointed at which the troops are to 
 assemble when an alarm is given. — 
 Alarm is also the name given to several 
 contrivances in which electricity is made 
 use of, as a fire-alarm, by which intelli- 
 gence is at once conveyed to the proper 
 quarter when a fire breaks out; a bur- 
 glar-alarm, an arrangement of wires and 
 a battery in a house intended to set a 
 bell or bells ringing should a burglar 
 attempt to gain entrance. 
 
 ALARM-CLOCK, one which can be 
 set so as to ring loudly at a. certain hour 
 to wake from sleep or excite attention. 
 
 ALASKA, the largest of the territories 
 of the United States, comprising a vast 
 part of the northwest of the North 
 
 American continent. It wag purchaged 
 in 1867 from Russia for $7,200,000. 
 Its area is 577,400 square miles, includ- 
 ing not only an enormous tract of main- 
 land, but Prince of Wales Island, the 
 .Alexander Archipelago, the Kadiak 
 Islands, the Aleutian Islands, Pribyloff, 
 and St. Lawrence Island in Bering 
 Strait. Its coast line is longer than that 
 of the Atlantic seaboard of the United 
 States. The principal river is the Yukon, 
 which rises in British Columbia less 
 than 200 miles n.n.e. of Sitka, strikes a 
 broad arc of a circle more than 2,000 
 miles long, and enters Bering Sea on the 
 s. side of Norton Sound through an ex- 
 tensive delta. At 600 miles from the 
 coast it is over a mile wide, and the 
 volume of its water is so great as to 
 freshen the water 10 miles off shore from 
 its principal mouth. The next largest 
 river is the Kuskokwim, which rises on 
 the northern slopes of the Alaskan range 
 of mountains to the eastward of the 
 meridian of 150° w., and empties into 
 Kuskokwim Bay, Bering Sea, in about 
 lat. 60° n. Like the following, it is but 
 little known. Next in order of size are 
 the Colville, flowing into the Arctic 
 Ocean e. of Point Barrow; the Copper, 
 flowing southward from the Alaska 
 Mountains, and emptying into the Bay 
 of Alaska in about Ion. 145° w.; the 
 Suschitno, and several Arctic streams. 
 The Rocky Mountains turn westward 
 in about lat. 63° n. and pass into the 
 Alaska Mountains, a range which runs 
 first w., then s.w., and is finally pro- 
 longed into the peninsula of Alaska and 
 the Aleutian Islands, the peaks in the 
 two latter being often volcanic. This 
 range apparently culminates in Mt. 
 Wrangel, in about Ion. 145° w., lat. 
 62° 30' n. ; height, 17,500 feet. Near the 
 coast is a less continuous range, which 
 culminates in Mt. Logan (lat. 60° 30' n.), 
 altitude 19,500 feet, thus overtopping 
 Mt. Elias (18,100 feet), which is situated 
 at the point where the U. S. boundary 
 makes a turn from westward to north- 
 ward, and which was long regarded as 
 the highest peak north of Mexico. 
 Among these coast mountains is Mt. 
 Cook (in British territory), 15,750 feet, 
 and Mt. Fairweather (U.S.), 15,500 feet. 
 Glaciers are frequent among these moun- 
 tains, and one from Mt. Elias dips its 
 nose into salt water at Icy Bay. 
 
 The population for the whole Terri- 
 tory in 1880 was 33,426, of whom 17,617 
 were Eskimos, 11,478 Indians, 2,145 
 Aleuts, 1756 half-breeds, and 430 
 whites. In 1890 the census enumera- 
 tion (necessarily largely an estimate), 
 gave 4416 whites, 82 blacks, 1568 half- 
 breeds, 13,735 natives not Eskimos, 
 2125 Chinese, 8400 Eskimos; total, 
 30,326. The census (1900) gives a total 
 population of 63,592. Pop., (1908), 
 130,000. 
 
 'The coast of this part of America was 
 discovered by a Russian expedition 
 under Bering in 1741. Settlements were 
 gradually made, and the coast was at one 
 time claimed as far s. as San Francisco. 
 In 1799 the Territory was granted to a 
 Russo-American fur company by the 
 Emperor Paul VIII., and the charter 
 was renewed in 1839. New Archangel, 
 now Sitka, was the principal settlement. 
 The privileges of the company expired 
 
 in 1863, and the Territory was purchased 
 by the U. S. in 1867. Portions of the 
 Territory were soon after e.xplored by 
 employees of tSe Russo-American Tele- 
 graph Company in surveying a route for 
 an overland telegraph line to Europe. 
 Explorations of the coast have since 
 been continued by the Coast and 
 Geodetic Survey. The Yukon has been 
 explored by Dali and Schwatka, and 
 Mt. Elias by several parties, the most 
 successful of which nns that of Russell 
 in 1891. From Sept. 8, 1881, to Aug. 29, 
 1883, a well-equipped meteorological 
 station of the U.S. Signal Service was 
 kept at Point Barrow. In 1884 a dis- 
 trict government was created by Con- 
 gress, with a governor and a district 
 court. The latter sits alternately at 
 Sitka and Wrangel. The laws are those 
 of Oregon. Sitka is the capital and has 
 a land-office. The farming of the 
 Pribylof or Fur Seal islands in Bering 
 Sea was at first granted to the Alaska 
 Commercial Company at a rental 
 amounting to about $300,000 annually. 
 On the expiration of their lease in 1890, 
 the right was acquired by the North 
 American Commercial Company. 
 
 A treaty was signed by the Secretary 
 of State and the British Ambassador in 
 Washington on Jan. 30, 1897, providing 
 for the demarcation of so much of the 
 boundary between Alaska and Canada 
 as lies along the 141st meridian. The 
 joint high commission appointed to at- 
 tempt the settlement of all qiiosticns 
 at issue between the U. S. and Canada 
 made its award in 1903. 
 
 Alaska is rich in mineral wealth, has 
 immense forests, and its fishing and 
 sealing industries are enormous. Its 
 most valuable exports are furs of seals, 
 bears, foxes, otters, martens, beavers, 
 and other animals. The salmon dis- 
 trict has an output of 300,000 cases 
 yearly. Gold is mined extensively in 
 the Klondike district and valuable 
 placer mines have been worked nearer 
 the coast. The Sitka district is the 
 most desirable for permanent residence. 
 It has abundant forests and the climate 
 is mild and the rainfall heavy. 
 
 ALAU'DA, a genus of insessorial birds, 
 which includes the larks. See Lark. 
 
 A'LAVA, a hilly province in the north 
 of Spain, one of the three Basque prov- 
 inces; area, 1207 sq. m.; covered by 
 branches of the Pyrenees, the moun- 
 tains being clothed with oak, chestnut, 
 and other timber, and the valleys yield- 
 ing grain, vegetables, and abundance of 
 fruits, 'riiere are iron and copper mines, 
 and inexhaustible salt springs. Capital, 
 Vittoria. Pop. 93,538. 
 
 ALB, a clerical vestment worn by 
 priests while officiating in the more 
 solemn functions of divine service. It 
 is a long robe of white linen reaching 
 to the feet, bound round the waist by a 
 cincture, and fitting more closely to the 
 body than the surplice. 
 
 ALBA, Duke of. See Alva. 
 
 ALBACETE (al-ba-tha'ta), a towm in 
 southern Spain, capital of the province 
 of the same name, 106 miles n.n.w. of 
 Cartagena, with a considerable trade, 
 both direct and transit, and manufac- 
 tures of knives, daggers, etc. Pop. 21,- 
 637. — The province has an area of 6170 
 .sq. m., and a pop. of 237,877. 
 
ALBAN 
 
 ALBERT 
 
 ALBAN, St., the trp.ditionnry proto- 
 martyr of Britain, who flourished in the 
 tliird century, was, it is said, converted 
 from Paganism by a confessor whom he 
 had saved from his persecutors, and, re- 
 fusing to sacrifice to the gods, was ex- 
 ecuted outside of the city of Verulamium 
 (St. Albans) in 285 or 305. 
 
 ALBANI (al-ba'ne), Francesco, a 
 famous Italian painter, born at Bologna 
 in 1578, died in 1660. Among the best 
 known of his compositions are the Sleep- 
 ing Venus, Diana in the Bath, Danae 
 Reclining, Galatea on the Sea, Europe 
 on the Bull. 
 
 ALBA'NIA, an extensive region in 
 the southwest of Turkey in Europe, 
 stretching along the coast of the Adriatic 
 for about 290 miles, and having a 
 breadth varying from about 90 to 
 about 50 miles. The boundary on the 
 east is formed by a range of mountains, 
 and the country is composed of at least 
 nine ridges of hills, of which six are in 
 lower or southern Albania (ancient 
 Epirus) and the remainder in central and 
 upper or northern Albania. There are no 
 large rivers, and in summer many of the 
 streams are completely dry. The Drin 
 or Drino is the largest. The most 
 beautiful lake is that of Ochrida, 20 
 miles long, 8 broad at the widest part. 
 The Lake of Scutari, in upper Albania, 
 is the largest. Among trees Albania has 
 many species of oak, the poplar, hazel, 
 plane, chestnut, cypress, and laurel. 
 The vine flourishes, together with the 
 orange, almond, fig, mulberry, and 
 citron; maize, wheat, and barley are 
 cultivated. Its fauna comprises bears, 
 wolves, and chamois; sheep, goats, 
 horses, asses, and mules are plentiful. 
 The chief exports are live stock, wool, 
 hides, timber, oil, salt-fish, cheese, and 
 tobacco. The chief ports are Prevesa, 
 Avlona, and Durazzo. The population, 
 about 1,400,000, consists chiefly of 
 Albanians or Arnauts, or, as they call 
 themselves, Skipetars (mountaineers), 
 with a certain number of Greeks and 
 Turks. The Albanians are distinct in 
 race and language from the surrounding 
 peoples. They are only half civilized. 
 
 Albanian peasantry. 
 
 are divided into a number of clans, and 
 bloody feuds are still common among 
 them. They belong partly to the Greek, 
 partly to the Roman Catholic Church, 
 but the great majority are Moham- 
 
 medans. Though their country became 
 a province of the Turkish dominions in 
 the fifteenth century, they still maintain 
 a certain degree of independence, which 
 the Porte has never found it possible to 
 overcome. 
 
 AL'BANY, the original Celtic name 
 probably at first applied to the whole of 
 Britain, but latterly re.stricted to the 
 Highlands of Scotland. 
 
 AL'BANY, a city of the United States, 
 capital of the State of New York on the 
 west bank of the Hudson, 132 miles 
 north of New York City, from and to 
 which steamboats run daily. The Erie 
 Canal and the numerous railway lines 
 centering here from all directions greatly 
 contribute to the growth and prosperity 
 of the city, which carries on an extensive 
 trade. It is a great mart for timber, 
 and has foundries, breweries, tanneries, 
 etc. Albany was settled by the Dutch 
 in 1610-14, and the older houses are in 
 the Dutch style, with the gable-ends 
 to the streets. There is a university, 
 an observatory, and a state library with 
 90,000 volumes. The principal public 
 edifices are the capitol or state-house, 
 the state-hall for the public offices, a 
 state arsenal, and numerous religious 
 edifices. Pop. (1908), 98,537. 
 
 W andering albatros. 
 
 AL'BATROS, a large marine swim- 
 ming bird of several species, of which the 
 wandering albatros is the best known. 
 The bill is straight and strong, the upper 
 mandible hooked at the point and the 
 lower one truncated; there are three 
 webbed toes on each foot. The upper 
 part of the body is of a grayish brown, 
 and the belly white. It is the largest sea- 
 bird known, some measuring 17^ feet 
 from tip to tip of their expanded wings. 
 They abound at the Cape of Good Hope 
 and in other parts of the southern seas, 
 and in Bering’s Straits, and have been 
 known to accompany ships for whole 
 days without ever resting on the waves. 
 From this habit the bird is regarded 
 with feelings of attachment and super- 
 stitious awe by sailors, it being reckoned 
 unlucky to kill one. Coleridge has 
 availed himself of this feeling in his 
 Ancient Mariner. The albatros is met 
 with at great distances from the land, 
 settling down on the waves at night 
 to sleep. It is exceedingly voracious, 
 whenever food is abundant gorging to 
 such a degree as to be unable to fly or 
 swim.* It feeds on fish, carrion, fish- 
 
 spawn, oceanic mollusca, and other 
 small marine animals. Its voice is a 
 harsh, disagreeable cry. Its nest is a 
 heap of earth; its eggs are larger than 
 those of a goose. 
 
 ALBERONI, Cardinal Giulio (ju'li-o 
 Al-ba-ro'ne), born in 1664 in north Italy, 
 and educated for the church. The Duke 
 of Parma sent him as his minister to 
 Madrid, where be gained the affection 
 of Philip V. He rose by cunning and 
 intrigue to the station of prime-minister, 
 became a cardinal, was all-powerful in 
 Spain after the year 1715, and endeav- 
 ored to restore it to its ancient splendor. 
 He died at Rome in 1752. 
 
 AL'BERT I., Duke of Austria, and 
 afterward Emperor of Germany, son 
 of Rodolph of Hapsburg, was born in 
 1248. On the death of his father in 
 1292 he claimed the empire, but his 
 arrogant conduct drove the electors to 
 choose Adolphus of Nassau emperor. 
 Adolphus, after a reign of six years, 
 having lost the regard of all the princes 
 of the empire Albert was elected to 
 succeed him. Pope Boniface VIII., 
 however, refused to acknowledge him. 
 as emperor, .\lbert formed an alliance 
 with Philip le Bel of France, and offered 
 so determined and successful a resist- 
 ance to the papal authority that Boni- 
 face was induced to withdraw his 
 opposition, on condition that Albert 
 would break with his French ally. He 
 was assassinated, at Aix-la-Chapelle in 
 1298, by his nephew, John, Duke of 
 Suabia, whose inheritance he had seized 
 upon, in 1308. 
 
 ALBERT, first Duke of Prussia, and 
 last grand-master of the Teutonic 
 Order, was born in 1490; died in 1568. 
 
 ALBERT, Prince, Albert-Francis-Au- 
 gustus-Charles-Emmanuel, Prince of 
 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and Prince Consort 
 of England, second son of Ernest I., 
 Duke of Saxe-Coburg, was born at the 
 Rosenau, a castle near Coburg, on 26th 
 .August, 1819. In 1837 he entered the 
 University of Bonn, where he devoted 
 himself to the studies of political and 
 natural science, history, philosophy, 
 etc., as well as to those of music and 
 painting. On leaving the university he 
 
 Albert, Prince Consort. 
 
 made a tour through the chief cities 
 of Italy with Baron Stockmar. On the 
 10th Feb. 1840, he married his cousin. 
 Queen Victoria of England. An allow- 
 ance of $150,000 a year was settled upon 
 
 
ALBERTA 
 
 ALCIBIADES 
 
 the prince, who was naturalized by act of 
 Parliament, received the title of Royal 
 Highness by patent, was made a field- 
 marshal, a Knight of the Garter, of the 
 Bath, etc. Other honors wei’e subse- 
 quently bestowed upon him, the chief of 
 which was the title of Prince Consort 
 (1857). His foreign birth at first 
 caused him to be regarded with some 
 suspicion, but his unfailing tact and gen- 
 uine ability were not long in gaining 
 their due recognition. His services 
 to the cause of science and art were 
 very important; he presided over the 
 commission appointed in 1841 to con- 
 sider the best means of rebuilding the 
 houses of parliament, and the great 
 exhibition of 1851 owed much of its 
 success to his activity, knowledge, and 
 judgment. The amendment of the 
 Articles of War in 1844 which ultimately 
 put an' end to dueling was due to his 
 suggestion. He died of typhoid fever 
 on December 14, 1861, after a short 
 illness. 
 
 ALBER'TA, since 1905 one of the 
 provinces of Canada, having Assiniboia 
 and Saskatchewan on the east, British 
 Columbia on the west, the United 
 States on the south, and Athabasca on 
 the north ; area, 253,540 sq. miles ; pop. 
 75,000. It is afertile, grassyregion, with 
 trees in the river valleys ; coal is abund- 
 ant and gold is found near Edmonton. 
 The capital is Edmonton. 
 
 ALBERT NYAR'ZA, a lake of Africa, 
 one of the head-waters of the Nile, lying 
 (approximately) between lat. 2° 30' and 
 1° 10' n., and with its northeast ex- 
 tremity in about Ion. 28° e.; general 
 direction from northeast to southwest, 
 surface about 2500 feet above sea-level. 
 It is surrounded by precipitous cliffs, 
 and bounded on the west and south- 
 west by great ranges of mountains. 
 It abounds with fish, and its shores are 
 infested with crocodiles and hippopot- 
 amuses. It receives the VictorC. Nile 
 from the Victoria Nyanza, and the 
 White Nile issues from its northern 
 extremity. 
 
 ALBIGENSES (al-bi-jen'sez), a sect 
 which spread widely in the south of 
 France and elsewhere about the twelfth 
 century, and which differed in doctrine 
 and practice from the Roman Catholic 
 Church, by which they were subjected tc 
 severe persecution. 
 
 ALBINOS (al-bi'noz), the name given 
 to those persons from whose skin, hair, 
 and eyes, in consequence of some defect 
 in their organization, the dark coloring 
 matter is absent. The skin of albinos, 
 therefore, whether they belong to the 
 white, Indian, or negro races, is of a 
 uniform pale milky color, their hair is 
 white, while the iris of their eyes is pale 
 rose color, and the pupil intensely red, 
 the absence of the dark pigment allowing 
 the multitude of blood-vessels in these 
 parts of the eye to be seen. For the 
 same reason their eyes are not well suit- 
 ed to endure the bright light of day, and 
 they see best in shade or by moonlight. 
 The peculiarity of albinism or leucop- 
 athy is always born with the individual, 
 and is not confined to the human race, 
 having been observed also in horses, 
 rabbits, rats, mice, etc., birds (white 
 crows or blackbirds are not particularly 
 uncommon), and fishes. 
 
 AL'BION, the earliest name by which 
 the island of Great Britain was known, 
 employed by Aristotle, and in poetry 
 still used for Great Britain. The same 
 word as Albany, Albyn. 
 
 AL'BITE, or SODA-FELSPAR, a 
 mineral, a kind of felspar, usually of a 
 white color, to which property it owes 
 it name, but occasionally bluish, grayish, 
 gieenish, or reddish white. 
 
 AL'BOIN, King of the Lombards, 
 succeeded his father Audoin in 561, and 
 reigned in Noricum and Pannonia. 
 After a victorious career in Italy he 
 was slain at Verona, in 573 or 574, by an 
 assassin, instigated by his wife Rosa- 
 mond, whose hatred he had incurred by 
 sending her, in one of his fits of intoxi- 
 cation, a cup wrought from the skull 
 of her father, and forcing her to drink 
 from it. 
 
 ALBRET, Jeanne d’ (zhan dal-bra). 
 Queen of Navarre, wife of Antoine de 
 Bourbon and mother of Henri IV. of 
 France, a zealous supporter of the re- 
 formed religion, which she established 
 in her kingdom; born 1528, died 
 (probably poisoned) 1572, shortly be- 
 fore the massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 AL'BUM, a name now generally given 
 to a blank book for the reception of 
 pieces of poetry, autographs, engravings, 
 photographs, etc. 
 
 ALBU'MEN, or ALBUMIN, a sub- 
 stance, or rather group of substances, so 
 named from the Latin for the white of 
 an egg, which is one of its most abundant 
 known forms. It may be taken as the 
 type of the protein compounds or the 
 nitrogenous class of foodstuffs. One 
 variety enters largely into the com- 
 position of the animal fluids and solids, 
 is coagulable by heat at and above 160°, 
 and is composed of carbon, hydrogen, 
 nitrogen, and oxygen, with a little sul- 
 hur. It abounds in the serum of the 
 lood, the vitreous and crystalline 
 humors o^ the eye, the fluid of dropsy, 
 the substance called coagulable lymph, 
 in nutritive matters, the juice of flesh, 
 etc. The blood contains about 7 per 
 cent of albumen. Another variety 
 called vegetable albumen exists in most 
 vegetable juices and many seeds, and 
 has nearly the same composition and 
 properties as egg albumen. When 
 albumen coagulates in any fluid it 
 readily incloses any substances that 
 may be suspended in the fluid. Hence 
 it is used to clarify syrupy liquors. In 
 cookery white of eggs is employed for 
 clarifying, but in large operations like 
 sugar-refining the serum of blood is 
 used. From its being coagulable by 
 various salts, and especially by corrosive 
 sublimate, with which it forms an 
 insoluble compound, white of egg is a 
 convenient antidote in cases of poison- 
 ing by that substance. With lime it 
 forms a cement to mend broken ware. 
 
 In botany the name albumen is given 
 to the farinaceous matter which sur- 
 rounds the embryo, the term in this 
 case having no reference to chemical 
 composition. It constitutes the meat 
 of the cocoanut, the flour or meal of 
 cereals, the ro' sted part of coffee, 
 etc. 
 
 ALBUMINU-RIA, a condition in which 
 the urine contains albumen, evidencing 
 a diseased state of the kidneys. 
 
 ALBUR'NUM, the soft white sub- 
 stance which, in trees, is found between 
 the liber or inner bark and the wood, 
 and, in progress of time acquiring 
 solidity, becomes itself the wood. A 
 new layer of wood, or rather of albur- 
 num, is added annually to the tree in 
 every part just under the bark. 
 
 ALCALDE (Spanish; al-kal-da), or 
 ALCAIDE (Portuguese; al-ki'da), the 
 name of a magistrate in the Spanish and 
 Portuguese towns, to whom the admin- 
 istration of justice and the regulation of 
 the police is committed. His office 
 nearly corresponds to that of juctice of 
 the peace. The name and the office are 
 of Moorish origin. 
 
 ALCES'TIS, in Greek mythology, 
 wife of Admetus, king of Thessaly. Her 
 husband was ill, and, according to an 
 oracle, would die unless some one made 
 a vow to meet death in his stead. This 
 was secretly done by Alcestis, and 
 Admetus recovered. After her decease 
 Hercules brought her back from the 
 infernal regions. 
 
 AL'CHEMY, or ALCHYMY, the art 
 which in former times occupied the 
 place of and paved the way for the 
 modern science of chemistry (as astrol- 
 ogy did for astronomy), but whose aims 
 were not scientific, being confined solely 
 to the discovery of the means of indef- 
 initely prolonging human life, and of 
 transmuting the baser metals into gold 
 and silver. Among the alchemists it 
 was generally thought necessary to 
 find a substance which, containing the 
 orignal principle of all matter, should 
 possess the power of dissolving all sub- 
 stances into their elements. This 
 general solvent, or menstruum univer- 
 sale, which at the same time was to 
 possess the power of removing all the 
 seeds of disease out of the human body 
 and renewing life, was called the philoso- 
 pher’s stone, and its pretended posses- 
 sors were known as adepts. Alchemy 
 flourished chiefly in the middle ages, 
 though how old might be such notions 
 as those by which the alchemists were 
 inspired it is difficult to say. When 
 more rational principles of chemistry 
 and philosophy began to be diffused and 
 to shed light on chemical phenomena, 
 the rage for alchemy gradually de- 
 creased. It is still impossible to assert 
 anything with certainty about the 
 transmutation of metals. Modern chem- 
 istry, indeed, places metals in the class 
 of elements, and denies the possibility 
 of changing an inferior metal into gold. 
 But hitherto chemistry has not suc- 
 ceeded in unfolding the principles by 
 which metals are formed and the laws of 
 their production, or in aiding or imitat- 
 ing this process of nature. 
 
 ALCIBI'ADES (-dez), an Athenian of 
 high family and of great abilities, but of 
 no principle, was born at Athens in 
 b.c.450, being the son of Cleinias, and a 
 relative of Pericles, who also was his 
 guardian. He acquired great popu- 
 larity by his liberality in providing for 
 the amusements of the people, and 
 after the death of Cleon attained a 
 political ascendency which left him no 
 rival but Nicias. Thus he played an 
 important part in the long-continued 
 Peloponnesian war. In 415 he advo- 
 cated the expedition against Sicily, and 
 
ALCO 
 
 ALDEN 
 
 (vas chosen one of the leaders, but before 
 the expedition sailed he was charged 
 with profaning and divulging the 
 Eleusinian mysteries, and mutilating 
 the busts of Hermes, which were set up 
 in public all through Athens. Rather 
 than stand his trial he went over to 
 Sparta, divulged the plans of the 
 Athenians, and assisted the Spartans 
 to defeat them. He soon left Sparta and 
 took refuge with the Persian satrap 
 Tissaphernes, ingratiating himself by 
 his affectation of Persian manners, as 
 he had previously done at Sparta by a 
 similar affectation of Spartan simplic- 
 ity. He now began to intrigue for his 
 return to Athens, offering to bring 
 Tissaphernes over to the Athenian 
 alliance, and latterly he was recalled 
 and his banishment canceled. He, 
 however, remained abroad for some 
 years in command of the Athenian 
 forces, gained several victories, and 
 took Chalcedon and Byzantium. In 
 B.c. 407 he returned to Athens, but in 
 406, the fleet which he commanded 
 having suffered a severe defeat, he was 
 deprived of his command. He once 
 more went over to the Persians, taking 
 refuge with the satrap Pharnabazus of 
 Phrygia, and here he was assassinated 
 in B.c. 404. 
 
 ALCO, a small variety of dog, with a 
 small head and large pendulous ears, 
 found wild in Mexico and Peru, and 
 also domesticated. 
 
 AL'COHOL, the purely spirituous or 
 intoxicating part of all liquids that have 
 undergone vinous fermentation, ex- 
 tracted by distillation — a limpid color- 
 less liquid, of an agreeable smell and a 
 strong pungent taste. When brandy, 
 whisky, and other spirituous liquors, 
 themselves distilled from cruder mate- 
 rials, are again distilled, highly volatile 
 alcohol is the first product to pass off. 
 The alcohol thus obtained contains 
 much extraneous matter, including a 
 proportion of water, from the first as 
 high as 20 or 25 per cent, and increasing 
 greatly as the process continues. Char- 
 coal and carbonate of soda put in the 
 brandy or other liquor partly retain 
 the fusel-oil and acetic acid it contains. 
 The product thus obtained by dis- 
 tillation is called rectified spirits or 
 spirits of wine, and contains from 55 to 
 85 per cent of alcohol, the rest being 
 water. By distilling rectified spirits 
 over carbonate of potassium, powdered 
 quicklime, or chloride of calcium, the 
 greater part of the water is retained, 
 and nearly pure alcohol passes over. 
 It is only, however, by very prolonged 
 digestion with desiccating agents and 
 subsequent distillation that the last 
 traces of water can be removed. The 
 specific gravity of alcohol varies with 
 its purity, decreasing as the quantity 
 of water it contains decreases. This 
 property is a convenient test of the 
 alcoholic strength of liquors that con- 
 tain only alchohol and water; but, on 
 account of the condensation that in- 
 variably takes place on the mixture of 
 these two liquids, it can be applied only 
 in connection with special tables of 
 reference, or by means of an instrument 
 specially adapted for the purpose. (See 
 Alcoholometer.) By simple distillation 
 the specific gravity of alcohol can 
 
 scarcely be reduced below *825 at 60* 
 Fahr.; by rectification over chloride 
 of calcium it may be reduced to '794; 
 as it usually occurs it is about '820. 
 Alcohol is composed of carbon, hydro- 
 gen, and oxygen, in the proportions 
 expressed by the formula C 2 H 6 O. 
 Under a barometric pressure of 29 '5 
 inches it boils at 173° Fahr. (78°'4 C.); 
 in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump 
 it boils at ordinary temperatures. Its 
 congelation has been effected only in 
 recent times at the low temperature of 
 
 Alcyonarla. 
 
 1, Sea-fan. 2. Sea-pen. 3. Cornuldria rugosa. 
 
 -203° Fahr. Its very low freezing-point 
 renders it valuable for use in ther- 
 mometers for very low temperatures. 
 Alcohol is extremely inflammable, and 
 burns with a pale-blue flame, scarcely 
 visible in bright daylight. It occasions 
 no carbonaceous deposit upon sub- 
 stances held over it, and the products 
 of its combustion are carbonic acid and 
 water. The steady and uniform heat 
 which it gives during combustion makes 
 it a valuable material for lamps. It dis- 
 solves the vegetable acids, the volatile 
 oils, the resins, tan, and extractive 
 matter, and many of the soaps; the 
 greater number of the fixed oils are 
 taken up by it in small quantities only, 
 but some are dissolved largely. When 
 alcohol is submitted to distillation with 
 certain acids a peculiar compound is 
 formed, called ether. It is alcohol 
 which gives all intoxicating liquors the 
 property whence they are so called. 
 Alcohol acts strongly on the nervous 
 system, and though in small doses it is 
 stimulating and exhilarating, in large 
 doses it acts as a poison. In medicine 
 it is often of great service. 
 
 The name alcohol is also applied in 
 chemistry to a large group of com- 
 pounds of carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen, whose chemical properties are 
 analogous to that of common or ethylic 
 alcohol. 
 
 AL'COHOLISM, a morbid condition 
 of the body (especially of the nervous 
 system) brought on by the immoderate 
 use of alcoholic liquors. 
 
 ALCOHOLOM'ETER, an instrument 
 constructed on the priilciple of the 
 hydrometer, to determine from the 
 specific gravity of spirituous liquors the 
 percentage of alcohol they contain, the 
 scale marking directly the required 
 proportion. If the liquor contain any- 
 thing besides water and alcohol, pre- 
 vious distillation is necessary. 
 
 ALCO'RAR. See Koran. 
 
 AL'COTT, Louisa May, a distin- 
 guished American authoress, born in 
 1833. She has written a number of 
 books chiefly intended for the young: 
 Little Women, An Old-fashioned Girl, 
 Little Men, Jack and Gill, etc. Died in 
 1888. 
 
 AL'COVE, a recess in a room, usually 
 separated from the rest of the room by 
 columns, a balustrade, or by curtains, 
 and often containing a bed or seats. 
 
 ALCYONA'RIA, animals forming a 
 great division of the class Actinozoa. 
 (See Sea-anemone.) These animals are 
 nearly all composite, and the individual 
 polyps have mostly eight tentacles. 
 They include the organ-pipe corals, sea- 
 pens, fan-corals, etc., as also the red 
 coral of commerce. The polyps essen- 
 tially resemble those of the genus Alcyo- 
 nium in structure, and in the number and 
 arrangement of the tentacles. 
 
 ALCYO'NIUM,a genus of animals, one 
 familiar species of which, dredged 
 around the British coasts, is named 
 “Dead-Men s Fingers,” or “Cow’s Paps,” 
 from its lobed or digitate appearance. 
 It grows attached to stones, shells, and 
 and other objects. It consists of a 
 mass of little polyps, each polyp possess- 
 ing eight little fringed tentacles disposed 
 around a central mouth. The Alcyoni- 
 um forms the type of the Alcyonaria. 
 
 ALDEB'ARAN, a star of the first 
 magnitude, forming the eye of the con- 
 stellation Taurus or the Bull, the 
 brightest of the five stars known to the 
 Greeks as the Hyades. Spectrum 
 analysis has shown it to contain anti- 
 mony, bismuth, iron, mercury, hydro- 
 gen, sodium, calcium, etc. 
 
 AL'DEHYDE, the oxidation product 
 of an alcohol intermediate between it 
 and its acid. Common aldehyde is 
 derived from spirit of wine by oxidation, 
 and is a colorless, limpid, volatile, and 
 inflammable liquid, with a peculiar 
 ethereal odor, which is suffocating when 
 strong; specific gravity, 0'79. It oxi- 
 dizes in air, and is converted into acetic 
 acid. It rapidly decomposes oxide of 
 silver, depositing a brilliant film of 
 metallic silver; hence it is used in silver- 
 ing curved glass surfaces. 
 
 ALDEN, Henry Mills, an American 
 author born at Mt. Tabor, Vt., in 1836. 
 He was a classmate of James A. Garfield 
 in the class of 1857 at Williams College. 
 He has been editor of flarper’s Weekly 
 and Harper’s Monthy, and is noted for 
 his contributions to the criticism of 
 Greek literature. He has also published 
 volumes of essays, poems, and prose 
 poems. 
 
 ALDEN, Mrs. Isabella McDonald, an 
 American author. She was born at 
 Rochester, N. Y., in 1841, and early in 
 her career became widely known 
 through her juvenile stories currently 
 known as the Pansy Books. Her works 
 have been translated into several foreign 
 languages. 
 
 ALDEN, John, an early American 
 settler, one of the Pilgrim Fathers. He 
 helped to repair the Mayflower, sailed 
 in her, and signed the compact. He 
 settled at Duxbury, Mass., and married 
 Priscilla Mullens. Alden outlived all the 
 other signers of the compact and has 
 been immortalized by Longfellow in his 
 I poem. The Courtship of Miles Standish. 
 
ALDER 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 ALDER (^I'der), a genus of plants, 
 consisting of trees and shrubs inhabiting 
 the temperate and colder regions of the 
 globe. Common alder is a tree which 
 grows in wet situations in Europe, Asia, 
 and the United States. Its wood, light 
 and soft and of a reddish color, is used 
 for a variety of purposes, and is well 
 adapted for work which is to be kept 
 constantly in water. The roots and 
 knots furnish a beautifully-veined wood 
 well suited for cabinet work. The bark 
 is used in tanning and leather dressing, 
 and by fishermen for staining their nets. 
 This and the young twigs are sometimes 
 employed in dyeing, and yield different 
 shades of yellow and red. With the 
 addition of copperas it yields a black 
 dye. 
 
 AL'DERMAN, in the United States a 
 representative of a ward or district 
 in the legislative department of a town 
 or city. In some cities aldermen hold 
 separate courts and have the power of 
 a magistrate to a limited extent. 
 
 AL'DERNEY, an island belonging to 
 Britain off the coast of Normandy. The 
 coast is bold and rocky, the interior is 
 fertile. About a third of the island is 
 occupied by grass lands; and the 
 Alderney cows, a small-sized but hand- 
 some breed, are famous for the richness 
 of their milk. The climate is mild and 
 healthful. The French language still pre- 
 vails among the inhabitants, but all 
 understand and many speak English. 
 — The Race of Alderney is the strait 
 between the coast of France and this 
 island. Pop. 2062. 
 
 ALDERSHOT (al'der-), a town and 
 military station in England, the latter 
 having given rise to the former. The 
 number of troops usually maintained at 
 Aldershot is about 7000. The town is 
 in the neighborhood of the barracks, 
 immediately beyond the government 
 ground, and in Hampshire. Pop. 
 (including military), 30,974. 
 
 AL'DINE EDITIONS, the name given 
 to the works which proceeded from the 
 press of Aldus Manutius and his family 
 at Venice (1490-1597). (See Manutius.) 
 Recommended by their value, as well 
 as by a splendid exterior, they have 
 gained the respect of scholars and the 
 attention of book-collectors. Many of 
 them are the first printed editions 
 of Greek and Latin classics. Others are 
 texts of the modern Italian authors. 
 These editions are of importance in the 
 hiktory of printing. Aldus had nine 
 kinds of Greek type, and no one before 
 him printed so much and so beautifully 
 in this language. Of the Latin char- 
 acter he procured fourteen kinds of 
 type. 
 
 AL'DRICH, Thomas Bailey, American 
 poet and writer of prose tales, born at 
 Portsmouth, N. H., Nov. 11, 1836. He 
 was early engaged in commercial occupa- 
 tions, but abandoned them for jounal- 
 ism, and v^fas the editor of several publi- 
 cations, including the Atlantic Monthly. 
 His works comprise The Bells, Ballad 
 of Ruby Bell, Cloth of Gold, Prudence 
 Palfrey, etc. He died in 1907. 
 
 ALE and BEER, well-known and 
 extensively used fermented liquors, the 
 principle of which is extracted from 
 several sorts of grain, but most com- 
 
 monly from barley, after it has under- 
 gone the process termed malting. Beer 
 is a more general term than ale, being 
 often used for any kind of fermented 
 malt liquor, including porter, though 
 it is also used in a more special significa- 
 tion. See Brewing. 
 
 ALEMBERT (i-lan-bar), Jean le 
 Rond d’, a French mathematician and 
 philosopher, born in Paris in 1717, and 
 died there in 1783. He was the illegti- 
 imate son of Madame de Tencin, and 
 was exposed at the Church of St. Jean 
 le Rond (hence his name) soon after 
 birth. He was brought up by the wife 
 of a poor glazier, and with her he lived 
 for more than forty years. His parents 
 never publicly acknowledged him, but 
 his father settled upon him an income 
 of 1200 livres. He showed much quick- 
 ness in learning, entered the College 
 Mazarin at the age of twelve, and studied 
 mathematics with enthusiasm and suc- 
 cess. Having left college he studied law 
 and became an advocate, but did not 
 cease to occupy himself with mathe- 
 matics. A pamphlet on the motion of 
 solid bodies in a fluid, and another on the 
 integral calculus, which he laid before 
 the Academy of Sciences in 1739 and 
 1740, showed him in so favorable a 
 light that the Academy received him in 
 1741 into the number of its members. 
 He soon after published his famous 
 work on dynamics, Trait6 de Dyna- 
 mique (1743); and that on fluids, Trait6 
 des Fluides. He also took a part in the 
 investigations which completed the 
 discoveries of Newton respecting the 
 motion of fhe heavenly bodies, and 
 published at intervals various important 
 astronomical dissertations, as well as on 
 other subjects. He also took part, 
 with Diderot and others, in the cele- 
 brated Encycloptidie, for which he 
 wrote the Discours P'-^liminaire, as 
 
 T. B. Aldrich. 
 
 well as many philosophical and almost 
 all the mathematical articles. 
 
 ALEMTEJO (a-lan-ta'zho), the largest 
 province of Portugal, and the most 
 southern except Algarve; area, 10,255 
 sq. miles; pop. 413,531. The capital 
 is Evora. 
 
 ALENCON (a-lan-s6n), a town of 
 France, capital of department Orne, and 
 formerly of the Duchy of Alen^on, on 
 the right bank of the Sarthe, 105 miles 
 west by south of Paris; well built. 
 Alen9on was long famed for its point- 
 lace, called “point d’Alen^on.” Pop. 
 17,237. — Alengon, originally a county, 
 later a dukedom, became united with 
 the crown in 1221, and was given by 
 Louis XI. as an appanage to his fifth 
 son, with whom the branch of the 
 Alen^on Valois commenced. The first 
 duke of ihe name lost his life at the 
 battle of Agincourt in 1415; another, 
 called Charles IV., married the cele- 
 brated Margaret ^ of Valois, sister of 
 Francis I. ^ He coinmanded the left wing 
 of the French army at the battle of ^ 
 Pavia, where, instead of supporting the ' 
 king at a critical moment, he fled at the 
 head of his troops, the consequence of 
 which was the loss of the battle and the , 
 capture of the king. ' ; 
 
 Aleppo. 
 
 ALEP'PO, a city of Asiatic Turkey, 
 in northern Syria, on the river Koik, in 
 a fine plain 60 miles southeast of Alex- 
 andretta, which is its port, and 195 . 
 miles n.n.e. of Damascus. Pop, 100,000. 
 
 ALETSCH'-GLACIER, the greatest 
 glacier in Switzerland, canton Valais, a 
 prolongation of the immense mass of 
 glaciers connected with the Jungfrau, 
 the Aletschhorn (14,000 ft.), and other 
 peaks; about 15 miles long. 
 
 ALEUROM'ETER, an instrument for 
 indicating the bread-making qualities 
 of wheaten flour. The indications 
 depend upon the expansion of the gluten 
 contained in a given quantity of flour 
 when freed of its starch by pulverization 
 and repeated washings with water. 
 
 ALEUTIAN ISLANDS, a chain of 
 about eighty small islands belonging 
 to the United States, separating the ' 
 Sea of Kamtchatka from the northern 
 part of the Pacific Ocean, and extending 
 nearly 1000 miles from east to west 
 between Ion. 172° e. and 163° w.; tot: 1 
 area, 6391 square miles; pop. 1220. 
 They are of volcanic formation, and in a 
 number of them there are volcanoes 
 still in activity. The natives belong to 
 the same stock with those of Kamt- 
 chatka. 
 
 ALE'WIFE, a fish of the same genus 
 as the shad, growing to the length of 
 12 inches, and taken in great quantities 
 in the mouths of the rivers of New Eng- 
 land, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, 
 being salted and exported. J 
 
 ALEXANDER, surnamed the Great, 
 was the son of Philip of Macedon and his 
 queen Olympias, and was born at Pella, { 
 
 [ 
 
 f 
 
ALEXANDER 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 B.c. 356. In youth he had Aristotle as 
 instructor, and he early displayed un- 
 common abilities. The victory of 
 Chaeronea in 338, which brought Greece 
 entirely under Macedonia, was mainly 
 decided by his efforts. Philip having 
 been assassinated, b.c. 336, Alexander, 
 not yet twenty years of age, ascended 
 the throne. His father had been pre- 
 [j paring an expedition against the Persians 
 * and Alexander determined to carry it 
 out; but before doing so he had to 
 chastise the barbarian tribes on the 
 . frontiers of Macedon as well as quell a 
 ? rising in Greece, in which he took and 
 destroyed Thebes, put 6000 of the 
 inhabitants to the sword, and carried 
 30,000 into captivity. His first encoun- 
 ter with the Persian forces (assisted by 
 i Greek mercenaries) was at the small 
 river Granicus, where he gained a com- 
 plete victory. Most of the cities of 
 Asia Minor now opened their gates to 
 the victor, and Alexander restored 
 democracy in all the Greek cities. In 
 passing through Gordium he cut the 
 Gordian knot, on which it was believed 
 
 Coin of Alexander the Great. 
 
 ^ the fate of Asia depended, and then eon- 
 quered Lycia, Ionia, Caria, Pamphylia, 
 ^ and Cappadocia. A sickness, caused by 
 bathing in the Cydnus (b.c. 333), 
 checked his course; but scarcely was 
 ' he restored to health when he continued 
 , his onward course, and this same year 
 • defeated the Persian emperor Darius 
 L and his army of 500,000 or 600,000 men 
 : (including 50,000 Greek mercenaries), 
 near Issus (inner angle of the Gulf of 
 . Alexandretta). Alexander did not pur- 
 ( sue Darius, but proceeded southward, 
 ^ and secured all the towns along the 
 i Mediterranean Sea, though he did not 
 f get possession of Tyre (taken 332 b.c.) 
 
 . without a siege of seven months. Pales- 
 a tine aqd Egypt now fell before him, and 
 J in the latter he founded Alexandria, 
 f which oecame one of the first cities of 
 [ ancient times. On his return Alexander 
 marched against Darius, who had 
 collected an immense army in Assyria 
 and rejected the proposals of his rival 
 for peace. A battle was fought at 
 Gaugamela, about 50 miles from Arbela, 
 B.c. 331, and, notwithstanding the 
 immense numerical superiority of his 
 enemy, Alexander (who had but 40,000 
 men and 7000 horse) gained a complete 
 victory. Babylon and Susa opened their 
 gates to the conqueror, who marched 
 toward Persepolis, the capital of Persia, 
 and entered it in triumph. Continuing 
 his progress he subdued Bessus, and 
 advanced to the Jaxartes, the extreme 
 eastern limit of the empire, but did not 
 fully subdue the whole of this region 
 till 328, some fortresses holding out 
 with great tenacity. In one of these he 
 
 P. E— 3 
 
 took prisoner the beautiful Roxana, 
 daughter of Oxyartes, a nobleman of 
 Sogdiana, and having fallen in love with 
 her he married her. Alexander now 
 formed the idea of conquering India, 
 then scarcely known even by name. 
 He passed tlie Indus (b.c. 326), marched 
 toward the Hydaspes (Jhelum), at the 
 passage of which he conquered a king 
 named Porus in a bloody battle, and 
 advanced victoriously through the 
 northwest of India, and intended to 
 proceed as far as the Ganges, when the 
 murmurs of his army compelled him to 
 return. On the Hydaspes he built a 
 fleet, in which he sent a part of his army 
 down the river, while the rest proceeded 
 along the banks. By the Hydaspes he 
 reached the Acesines (Chenab), and thus 
 the Indus, down which he sailed to the 
 sea. Nearchus, his admiral, sailed hence 
 to the Persian Gulf, while Alexander 
 directed his march by land to Babylon, 
 losing a great part of his troops in the 
 desert through which he had to pass. 
 In Susa he married Statira, the eldest 
 daughter of Darius, and rewarded those 
 of his Macedonians who had married 
 Persian women, because it was his 
 intention to unite the two nations as 
 closely as possible. At Opis, on the 
 Tigris, a mutiny arose among his 
 Macedonians (in 324), who thought he 
 showed too much favor to the Asiatics; 
 by firmness and policy he succeeded in 
 quelling this rising, and sent home 
 10,000 veterans with rich rewards. 
 Soon after, his favorite horse, Buceph- 
 alus, died at Ecbatana, and Alexander’s 
 grief was unbounded. The favorite was 
 royally buried at Babylon, and here 
 Alexander was engaged in extensive 
 plans for the future, when he became 
 suddenly sick, after a banquet, and 
 died in a few days (323 b.c.), in his 
 thirty-third year, after a reign of twelve 
 years and eight months. His body was 
 after a time conveyed to Egypt with 
 great splendor by his general Ptolemy. 
 He left behind him an immense empire, 
 which was divided among his chief 
 generals, and became the scene of 
 continual wars. The reign of Alexander 
 constitutes an important period in the 
 history of humanity. His career was 
 not merely a series of empty conquests, 
 but was attended with the most im- 
 portant results. The language, and 
 much of the civilization of Greece, 
 followed in his track; large additions 
 were made to the sciences of geography, 
 natural history, etc. ; a road was opened 
 to India; and the products of the 
 farthest east were introduced into 
 Europe. Greek kingdoms, under his 
 generals and their successors, continued 
 to exist in Asia for centuries. 
 
 ALEXANDER, the name of eight 
 popes, the earliest of whom, Alexander 
 
 1., is said to have reigned from 109 to 
 119. The most famous (or infamous) 
 is ALEXANDER VI. (Borgia), who was 
 born at Valencia, in Spain, in 1431, and 
 died in 1503. When he was only twenty- 
 five years of age his uncle. Pope Calixtus 
 
 111., made him a cardinal, and shortly 
 afterward appointed him to the digni- 
 fied and lucrative office of vice-chan- 
 cellor. By bribery he prepared his 
 way to tire papal throne, which he 
 attained in 1492, after the death of 
 
 Innocent VIII. Both the authority and 
 revenues of the popes being at this time 
 much impaired, he set himself to reduce 
 the power of the Italian princes, and 
 seize upon their possessions for the 
 benefit of his own family. To effect 
 this end he is said not to have scrupled 
 to use the vilest means, including 
 poison and assassination. His policy, 
 foreign as well as domestic, was faithless 
 and base, and his private life was stained 
 by sensuality. He understood how to 
 extract immense sums of money from 
 all Christian countries under various 
 pretexts. He sold indulgences, and set 
 aside, in favor of himself, the wills of 
 several cardinals. His excesses roused 
 against him the powerful eloquence of 
 Savonarola, who, by pen and pulpit, 
 urged his deposition, but had to meet 
 his death at the stake in 1498. Not 
 long after his election Alexander had 
 the honor of deciding the dispute be- 
 tween the kings of Portugal and Castile 
 concerning their respective claims to 
 the foreign countides recently dis- 
 covered. His son, Cesare Borgia, and 
 his daughter, Lucrezia, are equally noto- 
 rious with himself. 
 
 ALEXANDER, the name of three 
 Scottish kings. ALEXANDER I., a son 
 of Malcolm Canmore and Margaret of 
 England, succeeded his brother Edgar 
 in 1107, and governed with great ability 
 till his death in 1124.— ALEXANDER II, 
 was born in 1198, and succeeded his 
 father William the Lion in 1214. He 
 died in 1248 at Kerrera, an island op- 
 posite Oban, when on an expedition in 
 which he hoped to wrest the Hebrides 
 from Norway. He was succeeded by his 
 son, ALEXANDER III., a boy of eight, 
 who in 1251 married Margaret, eldest 
 daughter of Henry III. of England. 
 Like his father he was eager to bring the 
 Hebrides under his sway, and this he 
 was enabled to accomplish in a few 
 years after the defeat of the Norse King 
 Haco at Largs, in 1263. The mainland 
 and islands of Scotland were now under 
 one sovereign, though Orkney and Shet- 
 land still belonged to Norway. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., Emperor of Russia, 
 son of Paul I. and Maria, daughter of 
 Prince Eugene of Wiirtemberg, was born 
 in 1777, and died in 1825. On the 
 assassination of his father, in 1801, 
 Alexander ascended the throne, and 
 one of his first acts was to conclude 
 peace with Britain, against which his 
 predecessor had declared war. In 1803 
 he offered his services as mediator 
 between England and France, and two 
 years later a convention was entered 
 into between Russia, England, Austria, 
 and Sweden for the purpose of resisting 
 the encroachments of France on the 
 territories of independent states. He 
 was present at the battle of Austerlitz 
 (1805), when the combined armies of 
 Russia and Austria were defeated by 
 Napoleon. In the succeeding campaign 
 the Russians were again beaten at Eylau 
 (8th February, 1807) and Friedland 
 (14th June), the result of which was an . 
 interview, between Alexander and Na- 
 poleon, and the treaty at Tilsit. The 
 Russian emperor now for a time iden- 
 tified himself with the Napoleonic 
 schemes, and soon obtained possession 
 of Finland and an extended territory 
 
ALEXANDER II 
 
 ALEXANDRINE 
 
 on the Danube. The French alliance, 
 however, he found to be too oppressive, 
 and his having separated himself from 
 Napoleon led to the disastrous French 
 invasion of 1812. In 1813 he published 
 a manifesto which served as the basis 
 of the coalition of the other European 
 powers against France, which was 
 followed by the capture of Paris 
 (in 1814), the abdication of Napoleon 
 and the restoration of the Bourbons, 
 and the utter overthrow of Napoleon 
 the following year. After Waterloo, 
 Alexander, accompanied by the Em- 
 peror of Austria and the King of 
 Prussia, made his second entrance into 
 Paris, where they concluded the treaty 
 known as the Holy Alliance. The 
 remaining part of his reign was chiefly 
 taken up in measures of internal reform, 
 including the gradual abolition of 
 serfdom, and the promotion of educa- 
 tion, agriculture, commerce, and manu- 
 factures, as well as literature and the 
 fine arts. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., Emperor of Russia, 
 was born April 29, 1818, and succeeded 
 his father Nicholas in 1855, before the 
 end of the Crimean war. After peace 
 was concluded the new emperor set 
 about effecting reforms in the empire, 
 the greatest of all being the emancipa- 
 tion of the serfs in 1861, a measure 
 which gave freedom, on certain con- 
 ditions, to 22,000,000 of human beings 
 who were previously in a state little 
 removed from that of slavery. Under 
 him, too, representative assemblies hr 
 the provinces were introduced, and he 
 also did much to improve education, 
 and to reorganize the judicial system. 
 During his reign the Russian dominions 
 in central Asia were extended, a piece 
 of territory south of the Caucasus, 
 formerly belonging to Turkey, was 
 acquired, and a part of Bessarabia, 
 belonging since the Crimean war to 
 Turkey in Europe, but previously to 
 Russia, was restored to the latter power. 
 The latter additions resulted from the 
 Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78. He 
 was killed by an explosive missile flung 
 at him (by a Nihilist it is supposed) in 
 a street in St. Petersburg, 13tli March, 
 1881. He was succeeded by his second 
 son Alexander HI., his eldest son having 
 died in youth. Alexander Ill’s policy 
 was reactionary, He died in 1894. 
 
 ALEXANDER SEVE'RUS, a Roman 
 emperor, born in 205, died 235 a.d. 
 He was raised to the imperial dignity 
 in 222 A.D. by the praetorian guards, 
 after they had put his cousin the 
 emperor Heliogabalus to death. When 
 on an expedition into Gaul to repress 
 an incursion of the Germans, he was 
 murdered with his mother in an insur- 
 rection of his troops, headed by the 
 brutal Maximin, who succeeded him 
 as emperor. 
 
 ALEXANDERS, an umbelliferous 
 biennial plant, a native of Britain, 
 formerly cultivated for its leafstalks, 
 which, having a pleasant aromatic 
 flavor, were blanched and used instead 
 of celery — a vegetable that has taken 
 its place. 
 
 ALEXAN'DRIA, an ancient city and 
 seaport in Egypt, at the northwest 
 an^e of the Nile delta, on a ridge of 
 
 land between the eea and Lake Mareotis. 
 Founded by, and named in honor of, 
 Alexander the Great, in b.c. 332, and 
 the center of commerce between the 
 east and west, as well as of Greek 
 learning and civilization, with a popu- 
 lation at one time of perhaps 1,000,000. 
 It was especially celebrated for its great 
 library, and its famous lighthouse, one 
 of the wonders of the world, standing 
 upon the httle island of Pharos, which 
 was connected with the city by a mole. 
 Under Roman rule it was the second 
 city of the empire, and when Con- 
 stantinople became the capital of the 
 east it still remained the chief center 
 of trade; but it received a blow from 
 which it never recovered when captured 
 by Amru, general of Caliph Omar in 641, 
 after a siege of fourteen months. Its 
 ruin was finally completed by the dis- 
 covery of the passage to India by the 
 Cape of Good Hope, which opened up a 
 new route for the Asiatic trade. See Al- 
 exandrian Library, Alexandrian School. 
 — Modern Alexandria stands partly 
 on what was formerly the island of 
 Pharos, partly on the peninsula which 
 now connects it with the mainland and 
 has been formed by the accumulation of 
 
 soil, and partly on the mainland. 
 Alexandria has two ports, on the east 
 and west respectively of the isthmus of 
 the Pharos peninsula, the latter having 
 a breakwater over 3000 yards in length, 
 with fine quays and suitable railway 
 and other accommodation. The trade 
 of Alexandria is large and varied, the 
 exports being cotton, beans, peas, rice, 
 wheat, etc.; the imports chiefly manu- 
 factured goods. At the beginning of the 
 century Alexandria was an insignificant 
 place of 5000 or 6000 inhabitants. 
 The origin of its more recent career of 
 prosperity it owes to Mohammed Ali. 
 In 1882 the insurrection of Arabi Pasha 
 and the massacre of Europeans led to 
 the intervention of the British, and the 
 bombardment of the forts by the British 
 fleet in July. When the British entered 
 the city they found the finest parts of 
 it sacked and in flames, but the damage 
 has been repaired. Pop. 319,766. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, a town and port of 
 the United States, in Virginia, on the 
 right bank of the Potomac (which is of 
 sufficient depth for large vessels), 7 miles 
 miles south of Washington, with straight 
 and spacious streets ; carries on a consid- 
 erable trade, chiefly in flour. Pop. 
 16,589. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY, the larg- 
 est and most famous of all the ancient 
 collections of books, founded by Ptolemy 
 Soter (died 283 b.c.), king of Egypt, 
 
 and greatly enlarged by succeeding 
 Ptolemies. At its most flourishing 
 period it is said to have numbered 
 700,000 volumes, accommodated in 
 two different buildings, one of them 
 being the Serapeion, or temple of 
 Jupiter Serapis. The other collection 
 was burned during Julius Caesar’s siege 
 of the city, but the Serapeion library 
 existed to the time of the Emperor 
 Theodosius the Great, when, at the 
 general destruction of the heathen tem- 
 ples, the splendid temple of Jupiter 
 Serapis was gutted (a.d. 391) by a 
 fanatical crowd of Christians, and its 
 literary treasures destroyed or scattered. 
 A library was again accumulated, but 
 was burned by the Arabs when they 
 captured the city under the caliph Omar 
 in 641. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL or AGE, 
 
 the school or period of Greek literature 
 and learning that existed at Alexandria 
 in Egypt during the three hundred 
 years that the rule of the Ptolemies 
 lasted (323-30 B.c.), and continued 
 under the Roman supremacy. Ptolemy 
 Soter founded the famous library of 
 Alexandria (see above), and his son, 
 Philadelphus, established a kind of 
 academy of sciences and arts. Among 
 the grammarians and critics were 
 Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristophanes, 
 Aristarchus, and Zoilus, proverbial as 
 a captious critic. Their merit is to 
 have collected, edited, and preserved 
 the existing monuments of Greek 
 literature. To the poets belong Apol- 
 lonius, Lycophron, Aratus, Nicander, 
 Euphorion, Callimachus, Theocritus, 
 Philetas, etc. Among those who pur- 
 sued mathematics, physics, and as- 
 tronomy, was Euclid, the father of 
 scientific geometry; Archimedes, great 
 in physics and mechanics; Apollonius 
 of Perga, whose work on conic sections 
 still exists; Nicomachus, the first 
 scientific arithmetician; and (under 
 the Romans) the astronomer and geog- 
 rapher Ptolemy. Alexandria also was 
 distinguished in philosophical specu- 
 lation, and it was here that the New 
 Platonic school was established at the 
 close of the second century after Christ 
 by Ammonius of Alexandria (about 
 193 A.D.), whose disciples were Plotinus 
 and Origen. The principal Gnostic sys- 
 tems also had their origin in Alex- 
 andria. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN VERSION, or CODEX 
 ALEXANDRINUS, a manuscript in the 
 British Museum, of great importance 
 in Biblical criticism, written on parch- 
 ment with uncial letters, and belonging 
 probably to the latter half of the sixth 
 century. It contains the whole Greek 
 Bible (the Old Testament being accord- 
 ing to the Septuagint), together with 
 the letters of Bishop Clement of Rome, 
 but it wants parts of Matthew, John, 
 and Second Corinthians. The Patriarch 
 of Constantinople, who in 1628 sent this 
 manuscript as a present to Charles I., 
 said he had received it from Egypt 
 (whence its name). 
 
 ALEXANDRINE, in prosody, the 
 name given, from an old French poem on 
 Alexander the Great, to a species of 
 verse, which consists of six iambic feet, 
 or twelve syllables, the pause being, 
 in correct Alexandrines, always on the 
 
ALEXIS MICHAILOVITCH 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 sixth syllable; for example, the second 
 of the following verses : 
 
 A needless Alexandrine ends the song. 
 
 That, like a wounded snake, drags Its slow 
 length along. 
 
 In English Drayton’s Polyolbion is 
 written in this measure, and the con- 
 cluding line of the Spenserian stanza is 
 an Alexandrine. The French in their 
 epics and dramas are confined to this 
 verse, which for this reason is called by 
 them the heroic. 
 
 ALEXIS MICHAI'LOVITCH (son of 
 Michael), second Russian czar of the 
 line of llomanof (the present dynasty), 
 born in 1629, succeeded his father 
 Michael Feodorovitch in 1645, and died 
 in 1676. He did much for the internal 
 administration and for the enlarge- 
 ment of the empire; reconquered Little 
 Russia from Poland, and carried his 
 authority to the extreme east of 
 Siberia. He was father of Peter the 
 Great. 
 
 ALEXIS PETRO'VITCH, eldest son 
 of Peter the Great, was born in Moscow, 
 1690, and died in 1718. He opposed the 
 innovations introduced by his father, 
 who on this account disinherited him 
 by a ukase in 1718, and when he dis- 
 covered that Alexis was paving the 
 way to succeed to the crown he had his 
 son tried and condemned to death. This 
 affected the latter so much that he died 
 in a few days, leaving a son, afterward 
 the emperor Peter II. 
 
 ALEXIUS COMNE'NUS, Byzantine 
 Emperor, was born in 1048, and died in 
 1118. He was a nephew of Isaac the 
 first empei'or of the Comneni, and 
 attained the throne in 1081, at a time 
 when the empire was menaced from 
 various sides, especially by the Turks 
 and the Normans. From these dangers, 
 as well as Horn later (caused by the 
 first Crusade, the Normans, and the 
 Turks), he managed to extricate him- 
 self by policy or warlike measures, and 
 maintained his position till the age of 
 seventy, during a reign of thirty-seven 
 years. 
 
 AL'FA, a name for esparto grass or a 
 variety of it, largely obtained from 
 Algeria. 
 
 ALFAL'FA, a prolific forage plant 
 similar to lucerne, largely grown in 
 California, etc. 
 
 AL'FENID, an alloy of nickel plated 
 with silver, used for spoons, forks, 
 candlesticks, tea services, etc. 
 
 ALFIERI (al-fe-a're), Vittorio, Count, 
 Italian poet, was born at Asti in 1749, 
 and died in 1803. After extensive 
 European travels he began to write, 
 and his first play, Cleopatra (1775), 
 being received with general applause he 
 determined to devote all his efforts to 
 attaining a position among writers of 
 dramatic poetry. He died at Florence 
 and was buried in the church of 
 Santa Croce, between Macchiavelli 
 * and Michael Angelo, where a beautiful 
 monument by Canova covers his re- 
 mains. His tragedies are full of lofty 
 and patriotic sentiments, but the lan- 
 guage is stiff and without poetic grace, 
 and the plots poor. Nevertheless he is 
 considered the first tragic writer of 
 
 Italy, and has served as a model for I 
 his successors. j 
 
 ALFON'SO. See Alphonso. 
 
 AL'FORD, Henry, D.D., Dean of 
 Canterbury, an English poet, scholar, 
 and miscellaneous writer, was bom in 
 London in 1810. After attending vari- 
 ous schools he entered Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, in 1827, graduated B.A. 
 in 1832, was elected fellow in 1834, 
 and next year became vicar of Wymes- 
 wold, Leicestershire. In 1842 he was 
 appointed examiner in logic and moral 
 philosophy to the University of London, 
 and held the appointment till 1857. 
 He early began the great work of his 
 life, his edition of the Greek Testament 
 with commentary, which occupied him 
 for twenty years, the first volume being 
 published in 1849, the fourth and last 
 in 1861. In 1853 he was transferred to 
 Quebec Chapel, London, and in 1857 he 
 was appointed Dean of Canterbury. He 
 died in 1871. 
 
 AL'FRED (oi-iEL'FRED) the Great, 
 King of England, one of the most 
 illustrious rulers on record, was born at 
 Wantage, in Berkshire, a.d. 849, his 
 father being Ethelwolf, son of Egbert, 
 king of the West Saxons. He succeeded 
 his brother Ethelred in 872, at a time 
 when the Danes, or Northmen, had ex- 
 tended their conquests widely over the 
 country, and they had completely over- 
 run the kingdom of the West Saxons by 
 878. Alfred was obliged to flee in dis- 
 guise, and stayed for some time with one 
 of his own neat-herds. At length he 
 gathered a small force, and, having 
 fortified himself on the Isle of Athelney, 
 formed by the confluence of the’ rivers 
 Parret and Tone, amid the marshes of 
 Somerset, he was able to make frequent 
 sallies against the enemy. It was 
 during his abode here that he went, if 
 the story is true, disguised as a harper 
 into the camp of King Guthrum (or 
 Guthorm), and, having ascertained 
 that the Danes felt themselves secure, 
 hastened back to his troops, led them 
 against the enemy, and gained such a 
 decided victory that fourteen days 
 afterward the Danes begged for peace. 
 This battle took place in May, 878, near 
 Edington, in Wiltshire. Alfred allowed 
 the Danes who were already in the coun- 
 try to remain, on condition that they 
 gave hostages, took a solemn oath to 
 quit Wessex, and embraced Christian- 
 ity. Their king, Guthrum, was baptized, 
 with thirty of his followers, and ever 
 afterward remained faithful to Alfred. 
 They received that portion of the east 
 of England now occupied by the coun- 
 ties of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridge, 
 as a place of residence. The few years 
 of tranquillity (886-893) which followed 
 were employed by Alfred in rebuilding 
 the towns that had suffered most during 
 the war, particularly London; in train- 
 ing his people in arms, and no less 
 in agriculture; in improving the navy- 
 in systematizing the laws and internal 
 administration; and in literary labors 
 and the advancement of learning. These 
 peaceful labors were interrupted, about 
 894, by an invasion of the i^orthmen, 
 who, after a struggle of three years, 
 were finally driven out. Alfred died in 
 901. He had married, in 868, Alswith 
 or Ealhswith, the daughter of a Mercian 
 
 nobleman, and left two sons: Edward, 
 who succeeded him, and Ethelwerd, who 
 died in 922. 
 
 AhGJE (al'jg), a nat. order of crypto- 
 gamic or thallogenous plants, found for 
 the most part in the sea and fresh water, 
 and comprising seaweeds, etc. The 
 higher forms have stems bearing leaf- 
 like expansions, and they are often 
 attached to the rocks by roots, which, 
 however, do not derive nutriment from 
 the rocks. A stem, however, is most 
 frequently absent. The plants are 
 nourished through their whole surface 
 by the medium in which they live. They 
 vary in size from the microscopic 
 diatoms to forms whose stems resemble 
 those of forest trees, and whose fronds 
 rival the leaves of the palm. They are 
 entirely composed of cellular tissue, and 
 many are edible and nutritious, as 
 carrageen or Irish-moss, dulse, etc. 
 Kelp, iodine, and bromine are products 
 of various species. The Algae are also 
 valuable as manure. 
 
 ALGAROBILL'A, the seed-pods of 
 one or two South American trees, valu- 
 able as containing much tannin. 
 
 AL'GAROT, a violently purgative and 
 emetic white powder, precipitated from 
 chloride of antimony in water; for- 
 merly used in medicine. 
 
 ALGARVE (5,1-gar'va), a maritime 
 province of Portugal occupying the 
 southern portion of the kingdom; 
 mountainous but with some fertile 
 tracts. Area, 2099 sq. miles; pop. 254,851. 
 
 AL'GEBRA, a kind of generalized 
 arithmetic, in which numbers or quanti- 
 ties and operations, often also the 
 results of operations, are represented 
 by symbols. Thus the expression 
 xy + cz + dy^ denotes that a number 
 represented by x is to be multiplied by a 
 number represented by y, a number c 
 multiplied by a number z, a number d 
 by a number y multiplied by itself 
 (or squared), and the sum taken of these 
 three products. So the equation (as it 
 is called) x^-7x + 12 = 0 expresses 
 the fact that if a certain number x is 
 multiplied by itself, and this result 
 made less by seven times the number 
 and greater by twelve, the result is 0. 
 In this case x must either be 3 or 4 to 
 produce the given result; but such an 
 equation (or formula) as {a + b) (a - b) 
 = - b^ is always true whatever values 
 
 may be assigned to a and b. Algebra 
 is an invaluable instrument in intricate 
 calculations of all kinds, and enables 
 operations to be performed and results 
 obtained that by arithmetic would be 
 impossible, and its scope is still being 
 extended. 
 
 The beginnings of algebraic method 
 are to be found in Diophantus, a Greek 
 of the fourth century of our era, but it 
 was the Arabians that introduced 
 algebra to Europe, and from them it 
 received its name. The first Arabian 
 treatise on algebra was published in the 
 reign of the great Kaliph A1 Mamun 
 (813-833) by Mohammed Ben Musa. In 
 1202 Leonardo Fibonacci of Pisa, who 
 had traveled and studied in the East, 
 published a work treating of algebra as 
 then understood in the Arabian school. 
 From this time to the discovery of 
 printing considerable attention was 
 given to algebra^ and the work of Ben 
 
ALGER 
 
 ALGIN 
 
 Musa and another Arabian treatise, 
 called the Rule of Algebra, were trans- 
 lated into Italian. The first printed 
 work treating on algebra (.also on arith- 
 metic, etc.) appeared at Venice in 1494, 
 the author being a monk called Luca 
 Pacioli da Bergo. Rapid progress now 
 began to be made, and among the names 
 of those to whom advances are to be 
 attributed are Tartaglia and Cardan. 
 About the middle of the sixteenth 
 century the German Stifel introduced 
 the signs +, \/, and Recorde the 
 
 sign = . Recorde wrote the first Eng- 
 lish work on algebra. Francois Vieta, 
 a French mathematician (1.540-1603), 
 first adopted the method which has led 
 to so great an extension of modern 
 algebra, by being the first who used 
 general symbols for known quantities 
 as well as for unknown. It was he also 
 who first made the application of 
 algebra to geometry. Albert Girard 
 extended the theory of equations by 
 the supposition of imaginary quantities. 
 The Eiigli.shman Harriot, early in the 
 seventeenth century, discovered nega- 
 tive roots, and established the equality 
 between the number of roots and the 
 units in the degree of the equation. lie 
 also invented the signs < >, and 
 Oughthred that of X. Descartes, 
 though not the first to' apply algebra 
 to geometry, has, by the extent and 
 importance of his applications, com- 
 monly acquired the credit of being so. 
 The same discoveries have also been 
 attributed to him as to Harriot, and 
 their respective claims have caused 
 much controversy. He obtained by 
 means of algebra the definition and 
 description of curves. Since his time 
 Algebra has been applied so widely in 
 geometry and higher mathematics that 
 we need only mention the names of 
 Fermat, Wallis, Newton, Leibnitz, De 
 Moivre, MacLaurin, Taylor, Euler, 
 D’Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace, Fourier, 
 Poisson, Gauss, Honer, De Morgan, 
 Sylvester, Cayley. Boole, Jevons, and 
 others have applied the algebraic 
 methods not only to formal logic but to 
 political economy. 
 
 ALGER, Horatio, an American au- 
 thor, writer of juvenile books, born at 
 Revere, Mass. , 1834, died inl899. He was 
 graduated from Harvard in 1852, and, 
 after studying divinity, became pastor 
 of a Unitarian church at Brewster, 
 Mass. Mr. Alger published over 70 
 stories, of which nearly 1,000,000 copies 
 have been sold. 
 
 ALGER, Russell Alexander, American 
 soldier and statesman, born at La- 
 fayette, Ohio, in 1836. Admitted to the 
 bar in 1859, he enlisted as a volunteer 
 in the Union army at the outbreak 
 of the civil war, and rose from the 
 ranks to be major-general. After the 
 war he grew rich as a lumber merchant 
 in Michigan ; was governor of Michigan 
 from 1885 to 1886, commander of theG. 
 A. R. in 1889, and secretary of war in 
 President McKinley’s Cabinet. He was 
 appointed Senator in 1892, and elected 
 in 1903 for term expiring in 1907. He 
 died in 1907. 
 
 ALGE RIA, a French colony in North 
 Africa, having on the north the Mediter- 
 ranean, on the east Tunis, on the west 
 Morocco, and on the south (where the 
 
 boundary is ill-defined) the Desert of 
 Sahara; area, 122,878 sq. miles, or, 
 including the Algerian Sahara, 257,000. 
 The country is divided into three 
 departments — Algiers, Oran, and Con- 
 stantine. The coast-line is about 550 
 miles in length, steep and rocky, and 
 though the indentations are numerous 
 the harbors are much exposed to the 
 north wind. The country is traversed 
 by the Atlas Mountains, two chains of 
 which — the Great Atlas, bordering on 
 the Sahara, and the Little, or Maritime 
 Atlas, between it and the sea — run 
 parallel to the coast, the former attain- 
 ing a height of 7000 feet. The intervals 
 are filled with lower ranges, and numer- 
 ous transverse ranges connect the prin- 
 cipal ones and run from them to the 
 coast, forming elevated tablelands 
 and inclosed valleys. The rivers are 
 numerous, but many of them are mere 
 torrents rising in the mountains near 
 the coast. The Shelif is much the largest. 
 
 The chief products of cultivation are 
 wheat, barley, and oats, tobacco, cotton, 
 wine, silk, and dates. Among wild 
 animals are the lion, panther, hyena, 
 and jackal; the domestic quadrupeds 
 include the horse, the mule, cattle, 
 sheep, and pigs (introduced by the 
 French). Algeria possesses valuable 
 minerals, including iron, copper, lead, 
 sulphur, zinc, antimony, marble (white 
 and red), phosphate, and lithographic 
 stone. 
 
 The two principal native races in- 
 habiting Algeria are Arabs and Berbers. 
 The former are mostly nomads, dwell- 
 ing in tents and wandering from place 
 to place, though a large number of them 
 are settled in the Tell, where they carry 
 on agriculture and have formed nu- 
 merous villages. The Berbers, here 
 called Kabyles, are the original in- 
 habitants of the territory and still form 
 a considerable part of the population. 
 They speak the Berber language, but use 
 Arabic characters in writing. The 
 Jews form a small but influential part 
 of the population. Various other races 
 also exist. Except the Jews all the 
 native races are Mohammedans. There 
 are now a considerable number of 
 French and other colonists, provision 
 being made for granting them conces- 
 sions of land on certain conditions. 
 There are over 260,000 colonists of 
 French origin in Algeria, and over 
 200,000 colonist natives of other Eu- 
 ropean countries (chiefly Spaniards and 
 Italians). Algeria is governed by a 
 governor-general, who is assisted by a 
 council appointed by the French govern- 
 ment. The settled portion of the 
 country, in the three departments of 
 Algiers, Constantine, and Oran, is 
 treated much as if it were a part of 
 France, and each department sends 
 two deputies and one senator to the 
 French chambers. The rest of the terri- 
 tory is under military rule. The colony 
 costs France a considerable sum every 
 year. Pop. of Algeria proper in 1901, 
 4,739,331 ;of the Algerian Sahara, 60,000. 
 
 The country now called Algeria was 
 known to the Romans as Numidia. 
 It flourished greatly under their rule, 
 and e;.rly received the Christian religion. 
 It wrs conquered by the Vandals in 
 430-431 A.D., and recovered by Beli- 
 
 sarius for the Byzantine Empire in 
 533-534. About the middle of the 
 seventh century it was overrun by the 
 Saracens. The town of Algiers was 
 founded about 935 by Yussef Ibn 
 Zeiri, and the country was subsequently 
 ruled by his successors and the dynasties 
 of the Almoravides and Almohades. 
 The depredations of the Algerian pirates 
 were a continual source of irritation to 
 the Christian powers, who sent a long 
 series of expeditions against them. For 
 instance in 1815 a United States fleet 
 defeated an Algerian one and forced the 
 dey to agree to a peace in v.'hich he 
 recognized the American flag as invio- 
 lable. 
 
 At last the French determined on 
 more vigorous measures, and in 1830 
 sent a force of over 40,000 men against 
 the country. Algiers was speedily oc- 
 cupied, the dey retired, and the country 
 was without a government, but resist- 
 ance was organized by Abd-el-Kader, 
 an Arab chief whom the emergency had 
 raised up. 
 
 This and subsequent efforts failed, 
 and the country became a French 
 province, with a French general for 
 governor. 
 
 ALGIERS (al'jerz), a city and seaport 
 on the Mediterranean, capital of Algeria, 
 on the Bay of Algiers, partly on the 
 slope of a hill facing the sea. The old 
 town, which is the higher, is oriental 
 
 Principal mosque, Algiers. 
 
 in appearance, with narrow, crooked 
 streets, and houses that are strong, 
 prison-like edifices. The modern French 
 town, which occupies the lower slope 
 and spreads along the shore, is hand- 
 somely built, with broad streets and 
 elegant squares. The climate of Algiers, 
 though extremely variable, makes it 
 a very desirable winter residence for 
 invalids and others from colder regions. 
 Though warm, it is bracing and tonic, 
 and not of a relaxing character. There 
 is a considerable rainfall (average 29 in.), 
 but the dry air and absorbent soil pre- 
 vent it from being disagreeable. The 
 winter months resemble a bright, sunny 
 American autumn, while the heat of 
 summer is not so intense as that of 
 Egypt. The sirocco or desert wind is 
 troublesome, however, during summer, 
 but in the winter it is merely a pleasant, 
 warm, dry breeze. Hailstorms are not 
 infrequent, but frost and snow in Algiers 
 are so rare as to be almost unknown. 
 Pop. 97,400. 
 
 ALGIN, a viscous, gummy substance 
 obtained from certain seaweeds. It 
 can be utilized for all purposes where 
 starch or gum is required; used in 
 
ALCOA BAY 
 
 ALIMENT 
 
 cookery for soups and jellies; in an 
 insoluble form it can be cut, turned, 
 and polished, like horn or vulcanite. 
 
 ALGO'A BATi^ a bay on the south 
 coast of Cape Colony, 425 miles east 
 from the Cape of Good Hope, the only 
 place of shelter on this coast for vessels 
 during the prevailing northwest gales. 
 The usual anchorage is off Port Eliza- 
 beth, on its west coast, now a place of 
 large and increasing trade. 
 
 ALGOL', a star in the constellation 
 Perseus (head of Medusa), remarkable 
 as a variable star, changing in brightness 
 from the second to the fifth magnitude. 
 
 ALGO'MA, a district of Canada, on 
 the north side of Lake Superior, forming 
 the northwest portion of Ontario, rich 
 in silver, copper, iron, etc. 
 
 ALGON'QUINS, a family of North 
 American Indians, formerly spread over 
 a great extent of territory, and still 
 forming a large proportion of the 
 Indians of Canada. They consisted of 
 four groups, namely: (1) the eastern 
 group, comprising the Massachusetts, 
 Narragansets, Mohicans, Delawares, and 
 other tribes ; (2) the northeastern 
 
 group, consisting of the Abenakis, etc.; 
 
 (3) the western group, made up of the 
 Shawnees, Miamis, Illinois, etc.; and 
 
 (4) the northwestern group, including 
 the Chippewas or Ojibbewas, the largest 
 of all the tribes. 
 
 ALHAM'BRA, a famous group of 
 buildings in Spain, forming the citadel of 
 Granada when that city was one of the 
 principal seats of the empire of the Moors 
 in Spain, situated on a height, surround- 
 
 Alliarabra— Moorish ornament. 
 
 ed by a wall flanked by many towers, 
 and having a circuit of 2J miles. Within 
 the circuit of the walls are two churches, 
 a number of mean houses, and some 
 straggling gardens, besides the palace 
 of Charles V. and the celebrated Moorish 
 palace which is often distinctively 
 spoken of as the Alhambra. This build- 
 ing, to which the celebrity of the site is 
 entirely due, was the royal palace of the 
 kings of Granada. The greater part 
 of the present building belongs to the 
 first half of the 14th century. It con- 
 sists mainly of buildings surrounding 
 two oblong courts, the one called the 
 Court of the Fishpond (or of the 
 Myrtles), 138 by 74 feet, lying north and 
 south; the other, called the Court of 
 the Lions, from a fountain ornamented 
 with twelve lions in marble, 115 by 66 
 feet, lying east and west, described as 
 being, with the apartments that sur- 
 round it, “the gem of Arabian art in 
 Spain, its most beautiful and most per- 
 
 fect example.” Its design is elaborate, 
 exhibiting a profusion of exquisite de- 
 tail gorgeous in coloring, but the small- 
 ness of its size deprives it of the element 
 of majesty. The peristyle or portico 
 on each side is supported by 128 pillars 
 of white marble, 11 feet high, sometimes 
 placed singly and sometimes in groups. 
 Two pavilions project into the court at 
 each end, the domed roof of one having 
 been lately restored. Some of the finest 
 chambers of the Alhambra open into 
 this court, and near the entrance a 
 museum of Moorish remains has been 
 formed. The prevalence of stucco or 
 plaster ornamentation is one of the 
 features of the Alhambra, which be- 
 comes especially remarkable in the 
 beautiful honeycomb stalactitical pen- 
 dentives which the ceilings exhibit. 
 Arabesques and geometrical designs 
 with interwoven inscriptions are present 
 in the richest profusion. 
 
 AL'IAS, a word often used in judicial 
 proceedings in connection with the 
 different names that persons have 
 assumed, most likely for prudential 
 reasons, at different times, and in order 
 to conceal identity, as Joseph Smith 
 alias Thomas Jones. 
 
 AL'IBI, a defense in criminal proce- 
 dure, by which the accused endeavors 
 to prove that when the alleged crime 
 was committed he was present in a 
 different place. 
 
 ALICANTE (a-le-kan'ta), a fortified 
 town and Mediterranean seaport in 
 Spain, capital of the province of the 
 same name, picturesquely situated part- 
 ly on the slope of a hill, partly on the 
 plain at the foot, about 80 miles south 
 by west of Valencia. The principal 
 manufactures are cotton, linen, and ci- 
 gars, one cigar manufactory employing 
 above 3000 women The chief export 
 is wine, which largely goes to England. 
 Pop. 50,142. — The province is very fruit- 
 ful and well cultivated, producing wine, 
 silk, fruits, etc. The wine is of a dark 
 color, and is heavy and sweet. Area, 
 2098 sq. miles. Pop. 470,149. 
 
 ALICE MAUD MARY, Princess, 
 second daughter of Queen Victoria, 
 Duchess of Saxony, and Grand Duchess 
 of Hesse-Darmstadt, born 1843, died 
 1878. In 1862 she married Frederick 
 William Louis of Hesse, nephew of the 
 grand duke, whom he succeeded in 1877. 
 
 A'LIEN, in relation to any country, a 
 person born out of the jurisdiction of 
 the country, and not having acquired 
 the full rights of a citizen of it. The 
 position of aliens depends upon the laws 
 of the respective countries, but generally 
 speaking aliens owe a local allegiance, 
 and are bound equally with natives to 
 obey all general rules for the preser- 
 vation of order which do not relate 
 specially to citizens. In the United 
 States the position of aliens as regards 
 acquisition and holding of real prop- 
 erty differs somewhat in the different 
 states, though in recent times the dis- 
 abilities of aliens have been removed in 
 most of them. Personal property they 
 can take, hold, and dispose of like native 
 citizens. Individual states have no 
 jurisdiction on the subject of naturali- 
 zation, though they may pass laws ad- 
 mitting aliens to any privilege short 
 ' of citizenship. A naturalized citizen 
 
 is not eligible to election as president 
 or vice-president of the United States, 
 and cannot serve as senator until after 
 nine years’ citizenship, nor as a member 
 of the house of representatives until 
 after seven years’ citizenship. Five 
 years’ residence in the United States and 
 one year’s permanent residence in the 
 particular state where the application 
 is made are necessary for the attain- 
 ment of citizenship. 
 
 ALIGARH (a-le-gar'), a fort and 
 town in India, in the United Provinces, 
 on the East Indian railway, 84 miles 
 southeast of Delhi. The fort, which 
 had been skilfully strengthened by 
 French engineers in the service of the 
 Mahrattas, was taken by storm after 
 a desperate resistance in 1803 by the 
 British forces under Lord Lake, when 
 the whole district was added to the 
 British possessions. Pop. 70,127.— The 
 district has an area of 1954 square 
 miles, and a population of 1,203,047. 
 
 ALIGNMENT (a-lin'ment), a military 
 term, signifying the act of adjusting 
 to a straight line or in regular straight 
 lines, or the state of being so adjusted. 
 
 AL'IMENT, food, a term which in- 
 cludes everything, solid or liquid, 
 serving as nutriment for the bodily 
 system. Aliments are of the most 
 diverse character, but all of them must 
 contain nutritious matter of some kind, 
 which, being extracted by the act of 
 digestion, enters the blood, and effects 
 by assimilation the repair of the body. 
 Alimentary matter, therefore, must be' 
 similar to animal substance, or trans- 
 mutable into such. All alimentary 
 substances must, therefore, be composed 
 in a greater or lesser degree of soluble 
 parts, which easily lose their peculiar 
 qualities in the process of digestion, 
 and correspond to the elements of the 
 body. The articles used as food by 
 man do not consist entirely of nutritious 
 substances, but with few exceptions 
 are compounds of various nutritious 
 with indigestible and accordingly innu- 
 tritions substances. The only nitro- 
 genous aliments are albuminous sub- 
 stances, and these are contained largely 
 in animal food (flesh, eggs, milk, 
 cheese). The principal non-nitrogenous 
 substance obtained as food from ani- 
 mals is fat. Sugar is so obtained in 
 smaller quantities (in milk). While 
 some vegetable substances also cou 
 tain much albumen, very many of their 
 are rich in starch. Among vegetable 
 substances the richest in albumen are 
 the legumes (peas, beans, and lentils), 
 and following them come the cereals 
 (wheat, oats, etc.). Sugar, water, and 
 salts may pass without any change 
 into the circulatory system; but al- 
 buminous substances cannot do so 
 without first being rendered soluble 
 and capable of absorption (in the 
 stomach and intestines) ; starch must 
 be converted into sugar and fat emulsi- 
 fied (chiefly by the action of the pan- 
 creatic juice). One of the objects of 
 cooking is to make our food more sus- 
 ceptible of the operation of the digestive 
 fluids. 
 
 The relative importance of the various 
 nutritious substances that are taken 
 into the system and enter the blood 
 depends upon their chemical coneti- 
 
ALIMENTARY CANAL 
 
 ALLAHABAD 
 
 tution. The albuminous substances are 
 the most indispensable, inasmuch as 
 they form the material by which the 
 constant waste of the body is repaired. 
 But a part of the operation of albu- 
 minous nutriments may be performed 
 equally well, and at less cost, by non- 
 nitrogenous substances, that part being 
 the maintenance of the temperature of 
 the body. As is well known, the tem- 
 perature of warm-blooded animals is 
 considerably higher than the ordinary 
 temperature of the surrounding air, 
 in man about 98° Fahr., and the uni- 
 formity of this temperature is main- 
 tained by the heat which is set free by 
 the chemical processes (of oxidation) 
 which go' on within the body. Now 
 these processes take place as well with 
 non-nitrogenous as with nitrogenous sub- 
 stances. The former are even prefera- 
 ble to the latter for the keeping up of 
 these processes; by oxidation they yield 
 larger quantities of heat with less labor 
 to the body, and they are hence called 
 the heat-givers. The best heat-giver is 
 fat. Albuminous matters are not only 
 the tissue-formers of the body; they also 
 supply the vehicle for the oxygen, 
 inasmuch as it is of such matters that 
 the blood corpuscles are formed. The 
 more red blood corpuscles an animal 
 possesses, the more oxygen can it take 
 into its system, and the more easily and 
 rapidly can it carry on the process of 
 oxidation and develop heat. Now 
 only a part of the heat so developed 
 passes away into the environment of 
 the animal; another part is trans- 
 formed within the body (in the muscles) 
 into mechanical work. Hence it follows 
 that the non-nitrogenous articles of 
 food produce not merely heat but also 
 work, but only with the assistance of 
 albuminous matters, which, on the 
 one hand, compose the working ma- 
 chine, and, on the other hand, convey 
 the oxygen necessary for oxidation. 
 See Dietetics, Digestion, Adulteration, 
 
 ALIMENTARY CANAL, a common 
 name given to the oesophagus, stomach, 
 and intestines of animals. See Intes- 
 tine, Stomach. 
 
 AL'IMONY, in law, the allowance to 
 which a woman is entitled while a 
 matrimonial suit is pending between 
 her and her husband, or after a legal 
 separation from her husband, not occa- 
 sioned by adultery or elopement on 
 her part. 
 
 ALTQUOT PART is such part of a 
 number as will divide and measure it 
 exactly without any remainder. For 
 instance, 2 is an aliquot part of 4, 3 of 12, 
 and 4 of 20. 
 
 ALISMA'CE.®, the water-plantain 
 family, the members of which are her- 
 baceous, annual, or perennial. They 
 are floating or marsh plants, and many 
 have edible fleshy rhizomes. They are 
 found in all countries, but especially 
 in Europe and North America, where 
 their rather brilliant flowers adorn the 
 pools and streams. 
 
 ALTSON, Sir Archibald, lawyer and 
 writer of history, was born in Shropshire 
 in 1792, and died in 18G7, near Glasgow. 
 He was made a baronet in 1852. His 
 chief work — The History of Europe, 
 from 1789 to 1815 — was first issued in 
 
 ten vols. 1833-42, the narrative being 
 subsequently brought down to 1852, the 
 beginning of the second French Empire. 
 This work displays industry and re- 
 search, and is generally accurate, but 
 not very readable. Its popularity, how- 
 ever, has been immense, and it has been 
 translated into French, German, Arabic, 
 Hindustani, etc. 
 
 His son. General Sm Archibald Alison, 
 born in 1826, entered the army in 1846, 
 and served in the Crimea, in India 
 during the mutiny, and in the Ashantee 
 expedition of 1873-4. In Egypt, in 
 1882, he led the Highland Brigade at 
 the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, and in 1882-3 
 remained in command of the army of 
 occupation. He retired from the army 
 in 1893. 
 
 ALIZ'ARINE, a substance contained 
 in the madder root, and largely used 
 in dyeing reds of various shades. It 
 forms yellowish-red prismatic crystals, 
 nearly insoluble in cold, but dissolved 
 to a small extent by boiling water, and 
 readily soluble in alcohol and ether. 
 It possesses exceedingly strong tinctorial 
 powers. 
 
 AL'KALI, a term first used to desig- 
 nate the soluble part of the ashes 
 of plants, especially of seaweed. Now 
 the term is applied to various classes 
 of bodies having the following prop- 
 erties in common: (1) solubility in 
 water; (2) the power of neutralizing 
 acids, and forming salts with them; 
 (3) the property of corroding animal and 
 vegetable substances,; (4) the property 
 of altering the tint of many coloring 
 matters — thus, they turn litmus, red- 
 dened by an acid, into blue; turmeric, 
 brown ; and syrup of violets and infusion 
 of red cabbages, green. The alkalies 
 are hydrates, or water in which half 
 the hydrogen is replaced by a metal or 
 compound radical. In its restricted 
 and common sense the term is applied 
 to four substances only: hydrate of 
 potassium (potash), hydrate of sodium 
 (soda), hydrate of lithium (lithia), and 
 hydrate of ammonium (an aqueous 
 solution of ammonia). In a more 
 general sense it is applied to the hydrates 
 of the so-called alkaline earths (baryta, 
 strontia, and lime), and to a large 
 number of organic substances, both 
 natural and artificial, described under 
 Alkaloid. — Volatile alkaU is a name for 
 ammonia. 
 
 ALKALIM'ETER, an instrument for 
 ascertaining the quantity of free alkali 
 in any impure specimen, as in the pot- 
 ashes of commerce. These, besides the 
 carbonate of potash, of which they 
 principally consist, usually contain a 
 portion of foreign salts, as sulphate and 
 chloride of potassium, and as the true 
 worth of the substance, or price for 
 which it ought to sell, depends entirely 
 on the quantity of carbonate, it is of 
 importance to be able to measure it 
 accurately by some easy process. This 
 process depends on the neutralization 
 of the alkali by an acid of known 
 strength, the point of neutralization be- 
 ing determined by the fact that neutral 
 liquids are without action on either red 
 or blue litmus solution. The alkalimeter 
 is merely a graduated tube furnished 
 with a stop-cock at the lower extremity, 
 from which the standard acid is dropped ' 
 
 into water in which a certain quantity 
 of the substance is dissolved. The 
 quantity required to produce neutrali- 
 zation being noted, the strength of the 
 liquid tested is easily arrived at. A 
 process of neutrahzation, exactly the 
 same in principle, may be employed 
 to test the strength of acids by alkalies, 
 the one process being called alkalimetry, 
 the other acidimetry. 
 
 AL'KALOID, a term applied to a class 
 of nitrogenized compounds having cer- 
 tain alkaline properties, found in living 
 plants, and containing their active prin- 
 ciples, usually in combination with 
 organic acids. Their names generally 
 end in ine, as morphine, quinine, aconi- 
 tine, caffeine, etc. Most alkaloids occur 
 in plants, but some are formed by 
 decomposition. Their alkaline character 
 depends on the nitrogen they contain. 
 Most natural alkaloids contain carbon, 
 hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, but the 
 greater number of artificial ones want 
 the oxygen. The only property com- 
 mon to all alkaloids is that of combining 
 with acids to form salts, and some 
 exhibit an alkaline reaction with colors. 
 Alkaloids form what is termed the 
 organic bases of plants. Although 
 formed originally within the plant, it 
 has been found possible to prepare 
 several of these alkaloids by purely 
 artificial means. 
 
 AL'KANET, a dyeing drug, the bark of 
 the root of a plant with downy and 
 spear-shaped leaves, and clusters of 
 small purple or reddish flowers. The 
 plant is sometimes cultivated in Britain, 
 but most of the alkanet of commerce is 
 imported from the Levant or from 
 southern France. It imparts a fine 
 deep-red color to all unctuous sub- 
 stances, and is used for coloring oils, 
 plasters, lip-salve, confections, etc.; 
 also in compositions for rubbing and 
 giving color to mahogany furniture, and 
 to color spurious port-wine. 
 
 ALKAR'SIN, an extremely poisonous 
 liquid containing kakodyle, together 
 with oxidation products of this sub- 
 stance, and formerly known as Cadet’s 
 fuming liquor, characterized by its in- 
 supportable smell and high degree of 
 spontaneous combustibility when ex- 
 posed to air. 
 
 ALKO'RAN. See Koran. 
 
 ALLA BREVE (bra'va), a musical 
 direction expressing that a breve is to 
 be played as fast as a semibreve, a semi- 
 breve as fast as a minim, and so on. 
 
 AL'LAH, in Arabic, the name of God, 
 a word of kindred origin with the He' 
 brew word Elohim. Allah Akbar (God 
 is great) is a Mohammedan war-cry. 
 
 ALLAHABAD', an ancient city of 
 India, capital of the United Provinces, 
 on the wedge of land formed by the 
 Jumna and the Ganges. Allahabad is 
 one of the chief resorts of Hindu pil- 
 grims, who have their sins washed 
 away by bathing in the waters of the 
 sacred rivers Ganges and Jumna at 
 their junction; and is also the scene of 
 a great fair in December and January. 
 Pop. 172,032. — The division of Alla- 
 habad contains the districts of Cawnpur, 
 Futtehpur, Hamirpur, Banda, Jaunpur, 
 and Allahabad; area, 17,265 square 
 miles; pop. 5,535,803. — The district 
 contains an area of 2852 square miles. 
 
ALLAMANDA 
 
 ALLIGATOR 
 
 about five-sixths being under cultiva- 
 tion. Pop. 1,487,904. 
 
 ALLAMAN'DA, a genus of American 
 tropical plants with large yellow or 
 violet flowers, some of them met with in 
 European greenhouses. A. cathartica has 
 strong emetic and purgative properties. 
 
 ALLAN, David, a Scottish painter, 
 born 1744, died 1796. His illustrations 
 of the Gentle Shepherd, the Cotter’s 
 Saturday Night, and other sketches of 
 rustic life and manners in Scotland, 
 obtained for him the name of the 
 “Scottish Hogarth.” 
 
 ALLAN, Sir William, a distinguished 
 Scottish artist, born in 1782, died in 
 1850. In 1814 he publicly exhibited his 
 pictures, one of which (Circassian Cap- 
 tive.s) made his reputation. He now 
 turned his attention to historical paint- 
 ing and battle scenes, among them be- 
 ing two pictures of the Battle of Water- 
 loo, the one from the British, the other 
 from the French position, and delineat- 
 ing the actual scene and the incidents 
 therein taking place at the moment 
 chosen for the representation. One of 
 these Waterloo pictures was purchased 
 by the Duke of Wellington. In 1835 he 
 became R.A., in 1838 president of the 
 Scottish Academy, in 1842 he was 
 knighted. 
 
 ALLAN'TOIS, a structure appearing 
 during the early development of verte- 
 brate animals — Reptiles, Birds, and 
 Mammalia. It is largely made up of 
 blood-vessels, and, especially in birds, 
 attains a large size. It forms the inner 
 lining to the shell, and may thus be 
 viewed as the surface by means of which 
 the respiration of the embryo is carried 
 on. In Mammalia the allantois is not 
 so largely developed as in Birds, and it 
 enters largel3'’ into the formation of the 
 placenta. 
 
 ALLEGHANY (al-le-ga'ni), a river of 
 Pennsylvania and New York, which 
 unites with the Monongahela at Pitts- 
 burg to form the Ohio ; navigable nearly 
 200 miles above Pittsburg. 
 
 ALLEGHANY MOUNTAINS, a name 
 sometimes used as synonymous with 
 Appalachians, but also often restricted 
 to the portion of those mountains that 
 traverses the states of Virginia, Mary- 
 land, and Pennsylvania from- south- 
 west to northeast, and consists of a 
 series of parallel ridges for the most part 
 wooded to the summit, and with some 
 fertile valleys between. Their mean 
 elevation is about 2500 feet; but in Vir- 
 ginia they rise to over 4000. 
 
 ALLEGHENY (al-le-gen'i), a city of 
 the United States, in Pennsylvania, on 
 the river Alleghany, opposite Pitts- 
 burg, of which it may be considered 
 virtually to be a suburb, and with which 
 it is' connected by six bridges. The 
 principal industries are connected with 
 iron and machinery. Pop. 160,000. 
 
 ALLE'GLANCE, the obedience which 
 every subject or citizen owes to the gov- 
 ernment of his country. It used to be 
 the doctrine of the English law that 
 natural-bom subjects owe an allegiance 
 which is intrinsic and perpetual, and 
 which cannot be divested by any act of 
 their own; but this is no longer the case. 
 Aliens owe a temporary or local alle- 
 giance to the government under which 
 they for the time reside, 
 
 AL'LEGORY, a figurative representa- 
 tion in which the signs (words or forms) 
 signify something besides their literal or 
 direct meaning. In rhetoric allegory is 
 often but a continued simile. Parables 
 and fables are a species of allegory. 
 Sometimes long works are throughout 
 allegorical, as Spenser’s Faerie Queene 
 and Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progre.ss. "When 
 an allegory ^s thus continued it is indis- 
 pensable to its success that not only the 
 allegorical meaning should be appro- 
 priate, but that the story should have 
 an interest of its own in the direct mean- 
 ing apart from the allegorical significa- 
 tion. Allegory is often made use of in 
 painting and sculpture as well as in 
 literature. 
 
 ALLEGRO (al-la'gro), a musical term 
 expressing a more or less quick rate of 
 movement, or a piece of music or move- 
 ment in lively time. Allegro moderate, 
 moderately quick; allegro maestoso, 
 quick but with dignity; allegro assai 
 and allegro molto, very quick; allegro 
 con brio or con fuoco, with fire and 
 energy; allegrissimo, with the utmost 
 rapidity. 
 
 ALLELUIA. See Halleluia. 
 
 ALLEN, Charles Herbert, American 
 statesman, born at Lowell, Mass., in 
 1848. He was successively member of 
 the Massachusetts legislature, of the 
 state senate, and of the 49th and 50th 
 congresses. In 1898 he became assistant 
 secretary of the Navy, and 1900-1 was 
 the first civil governor of Porto Rico. 
 
 ALLEN, Ethan, an American revo- 
 lutionary partisan and general; born 
 1737, died 1789. He surprised and 
 
 Ethan Allen. 
 
 captured Ticonderoga Fort (1775); at- 
 tacked Montreal, and was captured and 
 sent to England, being exchange(#‘'in 
 1778. 
 
 ALLEN, James Lane, an American 
 novelist, born in Kentucky in 1849, 
 graduated from Transylvania Uni- 
 versity, and former educator. In 1886 
 he began to publish novels dealing with 
 various social and religious topics. 
 Among these may be mentioned Flute 
 and Violin, The Blue Grass Region, 
 John Gray, The Kentucky Cardinal, 
 and The Reign of Law. His works 
 show considerable power ^f style. 
 
 ALLEN, Viola, an American actress, 
 born in 1867. She made her debut in 
 Esmeralda at the Madison Square 
 Theater in New York in 1882. She 
 subsequently played in the companies 
 of McCullough, Salvini, Barrett, Jeffer- 
 son, Florence, and others, but her 
 chief success was in the role of Glory 
 Quayle in Hall Caine’s Christian. 
 
 ALLEN, 'William, cardinal, an Eng- 
 lish Roman Catholic of the time of 
 
 Queen Elizabeth, a strenuous opponent 
 of Protestantism and supporter of the 
 claims of Philip II. to the English 
 throne; born 1532, died 1594. It was by 
 his efforts that the English college for 
 Catholics at Douay was established. 
 He was made cardinal in 1587. 
 
 ALLEN, William, D.D., American 
 clergyman and author; born 1784, died 
 1868. He was president of Bowdoin 
 College 1820-1839; author of American 
 Biographical and Historical Dictionary. 
 
 ALLEN, Zechariah, an American 
 inventor, born in Providence, R. I., in 
 1795, died in 1882. He invented the 
 first hot-air furnace for heating dwell- 
 ings, calculated the power of Niagara 
 Falls, and invented the cut-off valve 
 for steam engines. 
 
 ALLENTOWN, a tovm in Pennsyl- 
 vania, on the Lehigh river, 8 miles above 
 its Junction with the Delaware. It has 
 an important trade in coal and iron ore, 
 with large blast-furnaces, rolling-mills, 
 etc. Pop. 40,000. 
 
 ALLIA'CEOUS PLANTS, plants be- 
 longing to the genus to which the onion, 
 leek, garlic, shallot, etc., belong, or to 
 other allied genera, and distinguished 
 by a certain peculiar pungent smell and 
 taste. 
 
 ALLI'ANCE, a league between two 
 or more powers. Alliances are divided 
 into offensive and defensive. The 
 former are for the purpose of attacking 
 a common enemy, and the latter for 
 mutual defense. An alliance often 
 unites both of these conditions. Offen- 
 sive alliances, of course, are usually 
 directed against some particular enemy ; 
 defensive alhan'ces against any one from 
 whom an attack may come. 
 
 ALLIANCE, Holy. See Holy Alliance. 
 
 AL'LIBONE, Samuel Austin, LL.D., 
 American author; born 1816, died 1889. 
 He compiled a most useful Critical 
 Dictionary of English Literature and 
 British and American Authors. 
 
 ALLIER (al-le-a), a central depart- 
 ment of France, intersected by the river 
 Allier, and partly bounded by the Loire ; 
 surface diversified by offsets of the 
 Cevennes and other ranges, rising in 
 the south to over 4000 feet, and in 
 general richly wooded. It has exten- 
 sive beds of coal as well as other min- 
 erals; mineral waters at Vichy, Bour- 
 bon, L’Archambault, etc. Area, 2822 sq. 
 miles. Capital, Moulins. Pop. 424,582. 
 
 AL'LIGATOR, a genus of reptiles, 
 differing from the true crocodiles in 
 having a shorter and flatter head, in 
 having cavities or pits in the upper Jaw, 
 into which the long canine teeth of the 
 under Jaw fit, and in having the feet 
 much less webbed. Their habits are less 
 perfectly aquatic. They are confined to 
 the warmer parts of America, where 
 they frequent swamps and marshes, and 
 may be seen basking on the dry ground 
 during the day in the heat of the sun. 
 They are most active during the night, 
 when they make a loud bellowing. The 
 largest of these animals grow to the 
 length of 18 or 20 feet. They are cov- 
 ered by a dense armor of horny scales, 
 impenetrable to a rifle-ball, and have a 
 huge mouth, armed with strong, conical 
 teeth. They swim with wonderful 
 celerity, impelled by their long, later- 
 ally-compressed, and powerful tails. On 
 
ALLIGATOR-APPLE 
 
 ALMA-TADEMA 
 
 land their motions are proportionally 
 slow and embarrassed because of the 
 length and unwieldiness of their bodies 
 and the shortness of their limbs. They 
 live on fish, and any small animals or 
 carrion, and sometimes catch pigs on 
 
 Group of . 
 
 the shore, or dogs which are swimming. 
 They even sometimes make man their 
 prey. In winter they burrow in the 
 mud of swamps and marshes, lying 
 torpid till the warm weather. The 
 female lays a great number of eggs, 
 which are deposited in the sand or mud, 
 and left to he hatched by the heat of the 
 sun, but the mother alligator is very 
 attentive to her young. The most 
 fierce and dangerous species is that 
 found in the southern parts of the 
 United States, having the snout a little 
 turned up, slightly resembling that of 
 the pike. The alligators of South 
 America are there very often called 
 Caymans. 
 
 ALLIGATOR- APPLE, a fruit allied to 
 the custard-apple, growing in marshy 
 districts in Jamaica, little eaten on 
 account of its narcotic properties. 
 
 ALLIGATOR-PEAR, an evergreen tree 
 with a fruit resembling a large pear, 
 
 1 to 2 lbs. in weight, with a firm marrow- 
 like pulp of a delicate flavor ; called also 
 avocado-pear, or subaltern’s butter. It 
 is a native of tropical America and the 
 West Indies. 
 
 ALLISON, William Boyd, an Ameri- 
 can statesman born at Perry, Ohio, edu- 
 cated at Western Reserve College, and 
 removed as a lawyer to Iowa in 1857. 
 He was member of congress from 1863 
 to 1871, and has been U. S. senator 
 since 1872. He originated the Bland- 
 Allison act of 1878, was member of the 
 Brussels Conference of 1892, and in 
 the national republican convention of 
 1880 figured as a candidate for the pres- 
 idency. He died in 1908. 
 
 ALLITERA'TION, the repetition of 
 the same letter at the beginning of two 
 or more words immediately succeeding 
 each other, or at short intervals; as, 
 many men many minds ; death defies the 
 doctor; apt alliteration’s artful aid; puffs, 
 powders, patches, bibles, billet-doux. 
 
 AL'LIUM, a genus of plants containing 
 numerous well-known species of pot- 
 herbs. They are umbelliferous, and 
 mostly perennial, herbaceous plants, but 
 a few are biennial. Among them are 
 garlic, onion, leek, chive, shallot. 
 
 ALLOCU'TION, an address, a term 
 particularly applied to certain addresses 
 
 on important occasions made by the 
 pope to the cardinals. 
 
 ALLOP'ATHY, the name applied by 
 homoeopathists to systems of medicine 
 other than their own; Hahnemann’s 
 principle being that “like cures like,’’ he 
 
 Alligators. 
 
 called his own system homoeopathy, 
 and other systems allopathy. See 
 Homoeopathy. 
 
 ALLOT'ROPY, a term used to express 
 the fact that one and the same element 
 may exist in different forms, differing 
 widely in external physical properties. 
 Thus, carbon occurs as the diamond, 
 and as charcoal and plumbago, and is 
 therefore regarded as a substance sub- 
 ject to allotropy. 
 
 ALLOY', a substance produced by 
 melting together two or more metals, 
 sometimes a definite chemical com- 
 pound, but more generally merely a 
 mechanical mixture. Most metals mix 
 together in all proportions, but others 
 unite only in definite proportions, and 
 form true chemical compounds. Others 
 again resist combination, and when 
 fused together form not a homogeneous 
 mixture, but a conglomerate of distinct 
 masses. The changes produced in their 
 physical properties by the combination 
 of metals are very various. Their hard- 
 ness is in general increased, their mallea- 
 bility and ductility impaired. The color 
 of an alloy may be scarcely different 
 from that of one of its components, or 
 it may show traces of neither of two. 
 Its specific gravity is sometimes less 
 than the mean of that of its component 
 metals. Alloys are always more fusible 
 than the metal most difficult to melt 
 that enters into their composition, and 
 generally even more so than the most 
 easily melted one. Newton’s fusible 
 metal, composed of three parts of tin, 
 two or five parts of lead, and five or 
 eight parts of bismuth, melts at tem- 
 peratures varying from 198° to 210° F. 
 (and therefore in boiling water); its 
 components fuse respectively at the tem- 
 peratures 442°, 600°, and 478° F. 
 Sometimes each metal retains its own 
 fusing-point. With few exceptions 
 metals are not much used in a pure 
 state. Gold coins contain 8J per cent 
 alloy; silver coins, 7i per cent. Printers’ 
 types are made from an alloy of lead and 
 antimony; brass and a numerous list of 
 other alloys are formed from copper and 
 zinc ; bronze from copper and tin. 
 
 ALL SAINTS’ DAY, a festival of the 
 Christian Church, instituted in 835, and 
 
 celebrated on the 1st of November in 
 honor of the saints in general. 
 
 ALL SOULS’ DAY, a festival of the 
 Roman Catholic Church, instituted in 
 998, and observed on the 2d of Novem- 
 ber for the relief of souls in purgatory. 
 
 ALLSPICE (al'spis), or PIMENTA, is 
 the dried berry of a West Indian species 
 of myrtle, a beautiful tree with white 
 and fragrant aromatic flowers and 
 leaves of a deep shining green. It is 
 employed in cookery, also in medicine as 
 an agreeable aromatic, and forms the 
 basis of a distilled water, a spirit, and 
 an essential oil. 
 
 ALLU'VIUM, deposits of soil collected 
 by the action of water, such as are 
 found in valleys and plains, consisting 
 of loam, clay, gravel, etc., washed down 
 from the higher grounds. Great altera- 
 tions are often produced by alluvium — 
 deltas and whole islands being often 
 formed by this cause. Much of the rich 
 land along the banks of rivers is alluvial 
 in its origin. 
 
 AL'MADEN, a place in California, 
 about 60 m. s.e. of San Francisco, with 
 rich quicksilver mines, the product of 
 which has been largely employed in 
 gold and silver mining. 
 
 AL'MA MA'TER, a term familiarly 
 applied to their own university by those 
 who have had a university education. 
 
 AL-MAMUN (ma-mon'), a caliph of 
 the Abasside dynasty, son of Harun-al- 
 Rashid, born 786, died 833. Under him 
 Bagdad became a great center of art 
 and science. 
 
 AL'MANAC, a calendar, in which are 
 set down the rising and setting of the 
 sun, the phases of the moon, the most 
 remarkable positions and phenomena 
 of the heavenly bodies, for every month 
 and day of the year; also the several 
 fasts and feasts to be observed in the 
 church and state, etc., and often much 
 miscellaneous information likely to be 
 useful to the public. The term is of 
 Arabic origin, but the Arabs were not 
 the first to use almanacs, which indeed 
 existed from remote ages. In England 
 they are known from the fourteenth 
 century, there being several English 
 almanacs of this century existing in 
 MS. They became generally used in 
 Europe within a short time after the 
 invention of printing; and they were 
 very early remarkable, as some are still, 
 for the mixture of truth and falsehood 
 which they contained. Almanacs, from 
 their periodical character, and the fre- 
 quency with which they are referred to, 
 are now more and more used as vehicles 
 for conveying statistical and other useful 
 information, some being intended for 
 the inhabitants of a particular country 
 or district, others for a particular class 
 or party. Some of the almanacs that 
 are regularly published every year are 
 extremely useful, and are indeed almost 
 indispensable to men engaged in official, 
 mercantile, literary, or professional 
 business. 
 
 ALMA - TAD'EMA, Sir Lawrence, 
 Dutch painter, born in 1836, resident 
 since 1870 in England, where he is a 
 naturalized subj'ect. In 1876 he was 
 elected an associate of the Royal Acad- 
 emy, in 1879 an academician. He re- 
 ceived the honor of knighthood in 1899. 
 He is especially celebrated for his 
 
ALMERIA 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 pictures of ancient Roman, Greek, and 
 Egyptian life, which are painted with 
 great realism and archaeological cor- 
 rsctncss* 
 
 ALMERIA (al-ma-re'a), a fortified 
 seaport of southern Spain, capital of 
 province Almeria, near the mouth of a 
 river and on the gulf of same name. The 
 province, which has an area of 3300 sq. 
 miles, is generally mountainous, and 
 rich in minerals. Pop. of town, 47,326; 
 of province, 359,013. 
 
 ALMOND (a'mund), the fruit of the 
 almond-tree, which grows usually to 
 the height of 20 feet, and is akin to the 
 peach, nectarine, etc. It has beautiful 
 pinkish flowers that appear before the 
 
 Almond. 
 
 leaves, which are oval, pointed, and 
 delicately serrated. It is a native of 
 Africa and Asia. The fruit is a drupe, 
 ovoid, and with downy outer surface; 
 the fleshy covering is tough and fibrous ; 
 it covers the compressed wrinkled stone 
 inclosing the seed or almond within it. 
 There are two varieties, one sweet and 
 the other bitter. The chief kinds of 
 sweet almonds are the Valencian, 
 Jordan, and Malaga. They contain 
 a bland fixed oil, consisting chiefly of 
 olein. Bitter almonds come from 
 Mogador, and besides a fixed oil they 
 contain a substance called emulsin, 
 and also a bitter crystalline substanee 
 called amygdalin, which, acting on the 
 emulsin, produces prussic acid, whence 
 the aroma of bitter almonds when mixed 
 with water. Almond-oil, a bland fixed 
 oil, is expressed from the kernels of 
 either sweet or bitter almonds, and is 
 used by perfumers and in medicine. 
 A poisonous essential oil is obtained 
 from bitter almonds, which is used for 
 flavoring by cooks and confectioners, 
 also by perfumers and in medicine. The 
 name almond, with a qualifying word 
 prefixed, is also given to the seeds of 
 other species of plants; thus, Java al- 
 monds are the kernels of Canarium 
 commune. 
 
 AL'MONER, an oflBcer of a religious 
 establishm.ent to whom belonged the 
 distribution of alms. The grand almoner 
 (^and aumonier) of France was the 
 highest ecclesiastical dignitary in that 
 kingdom before the revolution. The 
 lord almoner, or lord high almoner, of 
 England, is generally a bishop, whose 
 office is well-nigh a sinecure. He dis- 
 tributes the sovereign’s doles to the poor 
 on Maundy Thursday. 
 
 AL'MUG (or AL'GUM) TREE, names 
 which occur in 1 Ki. x. 11, 12 and 2 Chr. 
 ii. 8, and ix. 10, 11, as the names of trees 
 
 of which the wood was used for pillars in 
 the temple and the king’s house, for 
 harps and psalteries, etc. They are 
 said in one passage to be hewn in 
 Lebanon, in another to be brought from 
 Ophir. They have been identified by 
 critics with the red sandalwood of India. 
 Some of them may possibly have been 
 transplanted to Lebanon by the Phoeni- 
 cians. 
 
 ALOE (al'6), the name of a number of 
 plants belonging to the genus Alo6, 
 some of which are not more than a few 
 inches, while others are 30 feet and 
 upward in height; natives of Africa 
 and other hot regions; leaves fleshy, 
 thick, and more or less spinous at the 
 edges or extremity; flowers with a tubu- 
 lar corolla. Some of the larger kinds are 
 of great use, the fibrous parts of the 
 leaves being made into cordage, fishing 
 nets and lines, cloth, etc. The inspis- 
 sated juice of several species is used in 
 medicine, under the name of aloes, 
 forming a bitter purgative. The Ameri- 
 can aloe (see Agave) is a different plant 
 altogether. 
 
 ALOES-WOOD, the inner portion of 
 the trunk of forest trees found in trop- 
 ical Asia, and yielding a fragrant res- 
 inous substance, which, as well as the 
 wood, is burned for its perfume. 
 
 ALPAC'A, a ruminant mammal of the 
 camel tribe, a native of the Andes, 
 especially of the mountains of Chile and 
 Peru, and so closely allied to the llama 
 that by some it is regarded rather as a 
 smaller variety than a distinct species. 
 It has been domesticated, and remains 
 also in a wild state. In form and size 
 it approaches the sheep, but has a 
 longer neck. It is valued chiefly for its 
 long, soft, and silky wool, which is 
 straighter than that of the sheep, and 
 very strong, and is woven into fabrics 
 of great beauty, used for shawls, cloth- 
 ing for warm climates, coat-linings, and 
 umbrellas, and known by the same name. 
 Its flesh is pleasant and wholesome. 
 
 ALPENHORN, a long, nearly straight 
 horn, curving slightly, and widening to- 
 ward its extremity, used in the Alps to 
 convey signals, or notice of something. 
 
 ALPENSTOCK, a strong tall stick shod 
 with iron, pointed at the end so as to 
 take hold in, and give support on, ice and 
 other dangerous places in climbing the 
 Alps and other high mountains. 
 
 ALPE'NA, a city and the county seat 
 of Alpena Co., Mich., 110 miles north of 
 Bay City, on Thunder Bay, and the 
 Detroit and Mackinaw Railroad. Pop 
 13,100. 
 
 ALPES (alp), the iiame of three depart- 
 ments in the southeast of France, all 
 more or less covered by the Alps or 
 their offshoots: Basses-Alpes (bas-alp) 
 has mountains rising t(^a height of 8000 
 to 10,000 feet, is drained by the Durance 
 and its tributaries, and is the most thinly 
 peopled department in France; area, 
 2685 miles; capital, Digne. Pop. 129,494. 
 — Hautes-Alpes (6t-Alp), mostly formed 
 out of ancient Dauphin6, traversed by 
 the Cottian and Dauphin^ Alps (high- 
 est summits 12,000 ft.), drained chiefly 
 by the Durance and its tributaries It 
 is the lowest department in France in 
 point of absolute population; area, 
 2158 miles; capital. Gap; pop. 122,924. — 
 Alpes-Maritimes (alp-ma-ri-tem) has the 
 
 Mediterranean on the south, and mainly 
 consists of the territory of Nice, ceded 
 to France by Italy in 1860. The greater 
 part of the surface is covered by the 
 Maritime Alps ; the principal river is the 
 Var. It produces in the south cereals, 
 vines, olives, oranges, citrons, and other 
 fruits; and there are manufactories of 
 perfumes, liquors, soap, etc., and valua^ 
 ble fisheries. It is a favorite resort for 
 invalids. Area, 1482 square miles? cap- 
 ital, Nice; pop. 293,213. 
 
 AL'PHA and O'MEGA, the first and 
 last letters of the Greek alphabet, some- 
 
 Alpaca. 
 
 times used to signify the beginning and 
 the end, or the first and the last of any- 
 thing; also as a symbol of the Divine 
 Being. They were also formerly the 
 symbol of Christianity, and engraved 
 accordingly on the tombs of the ancient 
 Christians. 
 
 AL'PHABET (from Alpha and Beta, 
 the two first letters of the Greek alpha- 
 bet), the series of characters used in 
 writing a language, and intended to 
 represent the sounds of which it con- 
 sists. The English alphabet, like most 
 of those of modern Europe, is derived 
 directly from the Latin, the Latin from 
 the ancient Greek, and that from the 
 Phoenician, which again is believed to 
 have had its origin in the Egyptian 
 hieroglyphics, the Hebrew alphabet also 
 having the same origin. The names 
 of the letters in Phoenician and Hebrew 
 must have been almost the same, for 
 the Greek names, which, with the letters, 
 were borrowed from the former, differ 
 little from the Hebrew. By means 
 of the names we may trace the process 
 by which the Egyptian characters were 
 transformed into letters by the Phoe- 
 nicians. Some Egyptian character 
 would, by its form, recall the idea of a 
 house, for example, in Phoenician or 
 Hebrew beth. This character would 
 subsequently come to be used wherever 
 the sound b occured. Its form might be 
 afterward simplified, or even completely 
 modified, but the name would still 
 remain, as beth still continued the He- 
 brew name for b, and beta the Greek. 
 Our letter m, which in Hebrew was 
 called mim, water, has still a consider- 
 able resemblance to the zigzag, wavy 
 line which had been chosen to repre- 
 sent water, as in the zodiacal symbol 
 for Aquarius. The letter o, of which 
 the Hebrew name means eye, no doubt 
 originally intended to represent that 
 
ALPHONiSO 
 
 ALTAI MOUNTAINS 
 
 ®rgan. While the ancient Greek alpha- 
 bet gave rise to the ordinary Greek 
 alphabet and the Latin, the Greek 
 alphabet of later times furnished ele- 
 ments for the Coptic, the Gothic, and 
 the old Slavic alphabets, The Latin 
 characters are now employed by a great 
 many nations, such as the Italians, the 
 French, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the 
 English, the Dutch, the German, the 
 Hungarian, the Polish, etc., each nation 
 having introduced such modifications or 
 additions as are necessary to express the 
 sound of the language peculiar to it. 
 The Greek alphabet originally possessed 
 only sixteen letters, though the Phceni- 
 cian had twenty-two. The original 
 Latin alphabet, as it is found in the old- 
 est inscriptions consisted of twenty-one 
 letters; namely, the vowels a, e, i, o,and 
 u, (v) and the consonants b, c, d, f, h, k, 
 1, m, n, p, q,r, s, t, x, z. The Anglo-Saxon 
 alphabet had two characters for the 
 digraph th , which were unfortunately 
 not retained in later English ; it had 
 also the character ae. It wanted j, v, y 
 (consonant), and z. The German alpha- 
 bet consists of the .same letters as the 
 English, but the sounds of some of them 
 are different. Anciently certain char- 
 acters called Eunic were made use of by 
 the Teutonic nations, to which some 
 would attribute an origin independent 
 of the Greek and Latin alphabets. 
 While the alphabets of the west of 
 Europe are derived from the Latin, the 
 Russian, which is very complete, is 
 based on the Greek, with some charac- 
 ters borrowed from the Armenian, etc. 
 Among Asiatic alphabets, the Arabian 
 (ultimately of Phoenician origin) has 
 played a part analogous to that of the 
 Latin in Europe, the conquests of Mo- 
 hammedanism having imposed it on the 
 Persian, the Turkish, the Hindustani, 
 etc. The Sanskrit or Devanagari alpha- 
 bet is one of the most remarkable alpha- 
 bets of the world. As now used it has 
 fourteen characters for the vowels and 
 diphthongs, and thirty-three for the 
 consonants, besides two other symbols. 
 Our alphabet is a very imperfect instru- 
 ment for what it has to perform, being 
 both defective and redundant. An 
 alphabet is not essential to the writing 
 of a language, since ideograms or sym- 
 bols may be used instead, as in Chinese. 
 
 ALPHON'SO, the name of a number 
 of kings of Spain and Portugal. Alphon- 
 so I. was the son of Henry of Burgun- 
 dy. He conquered Portugal and was 
 recognized by the Pope. The present 
 King of Spain is Alphonso XIII., born 
 May 17, 1886, six months after the death 
 of his father, married 1906, to Princess 
 Victoria of England. In 1907 an heir to 
 the throne was born. 
 
 ALPIEE WARBLER, a European 
 bird of the same genus as the hedg.e- 
 sparrow. 
 
 ALPS, the highest and most exten- 
 sive system of mountains in Europe, in- 
 cluded between lat. 44° and 48° n., and 
 Ion. 6° and 18° e., covering a great part 
 of Northern Italy, several departments 
 of France, nearly the whole of Switzer- 
 land, and a large part of Austria, while 
 its extensive ramifications connect it 
 with nearly all the mountain systems of 
 Europe. The culminating peak is Mont 
 Blanc, 15,781 feet high, though the 
 
 true center ii the St. Gothard, or the 
 mountain mass to which it belongs, and 
 from whose slopes flow, either directly 
 or by affluents the great rivers of cen- 
 tral Europe, the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, 
 and Po. Round the northern frontier 
 of Italy the Alps form a remarkable 
 barrier, shutting it off at all points fi'om 
 the main land of Europe, so that, as a 
 rule, it can only be approached from 
 France, Gei’many, or Switzerland, 
 through high and difficult passes. In 
 the west this barrier approaches close to 
 the Mediteri’anean coast, and near Nice 
 there is left a free passage into the 
 Italian peninsula between the moun- 
 tains and the sea. From this point east- 
 ward the chain proceeds along the coast 
 till it forms a junction with the Apen- 
 nines. In the opposite direction it pro- 
 ceeds northwest, and afterward north 
 to Mont Blanc, on the boundaries of 
 France and Italy; it then turns north- 
 east and runs generally in this direction 
 to the Gross Glockner, in central Tyrol, 
 between the rivers Draveandthe Salza, 
 where it divides into two branches, the 
 northern proceeding northeast toward 
 Vienna, the southern toward the Balkan 
 Peninsula. The principal valleys of the 
 Alps run mostly in a direction nearly 
 parallel with the principal ranges, and 
 therefore east and west. The transverse 
 valleys are commonly shorter, and fre- 
 quently lead up through a narrow gorge 
 to a depression in the main ridge be- 
 tween two adjacent peaks. These are 
 the passes or cols, which may usually be 
 found by tracing a stream which 
 descends from the mountains up to its 
 source. 
 
 The Alps are very rich in lakes and 
 streams. Among the chief of the form- 
 er are the lakes of Geneva, Constance, 
 Zurich, Thun, Brienz, on the north 
 side; on the south Maggiore, Como, 
 Lugano, Garda, etc. The drainage is 
 carried to the North Sea by the Rhine, 
 to the Mediterranean by the Rhone, to 
 the Adriatic by the Po, to the Black 
 Sea by the Danube. 
 
 In the lower valleys of the Alps the 
 mean temperature ranges from 50° to 
 60°. Half way up the Alps it averages 
 about 32° — a height which, in the 
 snowy regions, it never reaches. But 
 even where the temperature is lowest 
 the solar radiation produced by the 
 rocks and snow is often so great as to 
 raise the photometer to 120° and even 
 higher. The exhilarating and invigor- 
 ating nature of the climate in the upper 
 regions during the summer has been 
 acknowledged by all. 
 
 In respect to vegetation the Alps have 
 been divided into six zones, depending 
 on height modifled by exposure and 
 local circumstances. The first is the 
 olive region. This tree flourishes better 
 on sheltered slopes of the mountains 
 than on the plains of northern Italy. 
 The vine, which bears greater winter 
 cold, distinguishes the second zone. On 
 slopes exposed to the sun it flourishes to 
 a considerable height. The third is 
 called the mountainous region. Cereals 
 and deciduous trees form the distin- 
 guishing features of its vegetation. 
 The mean temperature, about equals 
 that of Great Britain, but the extremes 
 are greater. The fourth region is the 
 
 sub-Alpine or coniferous. Here are vast 
 forests of pines of various species. Most 
 of the Alpine villages are in the two last 
 regions. On the northern slopes pines 
 grow to 6,000, and on the southern 
 slopes to 7,000 feet above the level of 
 the sea. This is also the region of the 
 lower or permanent pastures where the 
 flocks are fed in winter. The fifth is the 
 pasture region, the term alp being used 
 in the local sense of high pasture 
 grounds. It extends from the upper- 
 most limit of trees to the region of per- 
 petual snow. Here there are shrubs, 
 rhododendrons, junipers, bilberries, and 
 dwarf willows, etc. The sixth zone is the 
 region of perpetual snow. The line of 
 snow varies, according to seasons and 
 localities from 8,000 to 9,500 feet, but 
 the line is not continuous, being often 
 broken in upon. Few flowering plants 
 extend above 10,000 feet, but they have 
 been found as high as 12,000 feet. 
 
 At this great elevation are found the 
 wild goat and the chamois. In summer 
 the high mountain pastures are covered 
 with large flocks of cattle, sheep, and 
 goats, which are in winter removed to 
 a lower and warmer level. The marmot, 
 and white or Alpine hare, inhabit both 
 the snowy and the woody regions. 
 Lower down are found the wild-cat, fox, 
 lynx, bear and wolf ; the last two are 
 now extremely rare. The vulture, 
 eagle, and other birds of prey frequent 
 the highest elevations, the ptarmigan 
 seeks its food and shelter among the 
 diminutive plants that border upon the 
 snow-line. Excellent trout and other 
 fish are found ; but the most elevated 
 lakes are, from their low temperature, 
 entirely destitute of fish. 
 
 ALSACE (al-sas), before the French 
 revolution a province of France, on the 
 Rhine, afterward constituting the 
 French departments of Haut- and Bas- 
 Rhin, and subsequently to the Franco- 
 Prussian war of 1870-71 reunited to Ger- 
 many, and incorporated in the province 
 of Elsass-Lothringen (Alsace-Lorraine) . 
 Alsace is generally a level country 
 though there are several ranges of low 
 hills richly wooded. The principal river 
 is the 111. Corn, flax, tobacco, grapes, 
 and other fruits are grown. Area, 
 3,198 sq. miles; pop. 1,074,626. The in- 
 habitants mostly speak German, and 
 are of German race. Strasburg is the 
 chief city. The chief productions are 
 wine, hemp, flax, tobacco, madder, 
 copper, iron, etc. 
 
 ALSACE-LORRAINE, a province 
 of Germany, on the east of France, 
 partly bounded by the Rhine ; area, 
 6,600 sq. miles, of which Alsace occupies 
 3,198 and Lorraine 2,402. The three chief 
 towns are Strasburg, Mahlhausen, and 
 Metz. Pop. 1,719,470, of whom 1,310,- 
 450 are Catholics and 372,078 Protest- 
 ants. 
 
 ALTAI MOUNTAINS (al'ti), an im- 
 portant Asiatic system on the borders 
 of Siberia and Mongolia, partly in Rus- 
 sian and partly in Chinese territory, be- 
 tween lat. 46° and 53° n., Ion. 83° and 91° 
 e. , but having great eastern extensions. 
 The Russian portion is comprised in the 
 governments of Tomsk and -Semipala- 
 tinsk, the Chinese in Dsungaria. The 
 rivers of this region, which are large and 
 numerous, are mostly head-waters of 
 
ALTAK 
 
 ALVARADO 
 
 the Obi and Irtish. The area covered 
 by perpetual snow is very considerable, 
 and glaciers occupy a wide exi'^ni. The 
 Altai is exceecijigl^ 'dch tn minerals, 
 including gol.>, sil^-ar, copper, and iron. 
 The name Altai mean.; g hd mountain.” 
 The inhabitants aie chiefly Russians 
 and Kalmuks. The chief town .Bar- 
 naul. 
 
 ALTAR (al'tar), any pile or structure 
 raised above the groun ' c t receiving 
 sacrifices to so. e divinity. The Greek 
 and Roman altars were various in form, 
 and often highly orna mental ; in temples 
 they were usually placed before the 
 statue of the god. In the Jewish cere- 
 monial the altar held an important place, 
 and was associated with many of the 
 most significant rites of religion. Two 
 altars were erected in the tabernacle i:i 
 the wilderness, and the same number in 
 the temple, according to instructions 
 given to Moses in Mt. Sinai. These 
 were called the altar of burni-offering 
 and the altar of incense. In some sec- 
 tions of the Christian church the com- 
 munion-table, or table on which the 
 eucharist is placed, is called an altar. 
 In the primitive church it was a table of 
 wood, but sub.seq”.ently stone and metal 
 were introduced, with rich ornaments, 
 sculpture, and painting. After the in- 
 troduction of Gothic art the altar fre- 
 quently became a lofty and most elabo- 
 rate structure. 
 
 ALTAZTMUTH, a vertical circle with 
 a telescope so arranged as to be capable 
 of being turned round horizontally to 
 any point of the compass, and so differ- 
 ing from a transit-circle, which is fixed 
 in the mei'idian. The altazimuth is 
 brought to bear upon objects by motions 
 affecting their altitude and azimuth. 
 
 AL'TENBURG, a town of Germany, 
 capital of Saxe-Altenburg, 23 miles 
 south of Leipzig. It has some fine streets | 
 and many handsome edifices, including 
 a splendid palace; manufactures of ci- 
 gars, woolen yarn, gloves, hats, musical 
 instruments, glass, brushes, etc. Pop. 
 37,110. 
 
 ALTERATIVES (al'-), medicines, as 
 mercury, iodine, etc., which, adminis- 
 tered in small doses, gradually induce a 
 change in the habit or constitution, and 
 imperceptibly alter disordered secretions 
 and actions, and restore healthy func- 
 tions without producing any sensible 
 evacuation by perspiration, purging, or 
 vomiting. 
 
 ALTER EGO, a second self, one who 
 represents another in every respect. 
 
 ALTER'NATE, in botany, placed on 
 opposite sides of an axis at a different 
 level, as leaves. — Alternate generation, 
 the reproduction of young not resem- 
 bhng their parents, but their grand- 
 parents, continuously, as in the jelly- 
 fishes, etc. See Generation, Alternate. 
 
 ALTH.iE'A, a genus of plants. See 
 Hollyhock and Marshmallow. 
 
 AL'TITUDE, in mathematics the per- 
 pendicular height of the vertex or apex 
 of a plane figure or solid above the base. 
 In astronomy it is the vertical height of 
 any point or body above the horizon. It 
 is measured or estimated by the angle 
 subtended between the object and the 
 plane of the horizon, and may be either 
 true or apparent. The apparent altitude 
 is that which is obtained immediately 
 
 from observation ; the true altitude, that 
 which results from correcting the appar- 
 ent altitude, by making allowance for 
 parallax refraction, etc I 
 
 ALTO, n music, the highest singing 
 voice, of a male ; ult, t.ie lowest of a boy j 
 or a woman, being ii the latter the same 
 as contralto. The alto, or counter- 
 tenor, is not a natural voice, but i de- 
 velopment of the falsett . It is almost 
 confined to English singers, and the only 
 music written for it i^ by English com- 
 posers. It is especially used in cathedral 
 compositions and glees. 
 
 AL'TON, a town in Illinois, on the 
 Mississippi near the mouth of the Miss- 
 ouri, with a state penitentiary, several 
 mills and manufactories, and in the 
 neighborhood limestone and coal. Pop. I 
 17,000. 
 
 AL'TONA, an important commercial | 
 city in the Prussian province of Schles- 
 wig-Holstein, on the right bank of the 
 Elbe, adjoining Hamburg, with which 
 it virtually forms one city. It is a free 
 port, and its commerce, both inland and 
 foreign, is large, being quite identified 
 with that of Hamburg. Pop. 161,507. 
 
 ALTOO'NA, a town in Pennsylvania, 
 at the eastern base of the Alleghanies, 
 244 miles west of Philadelphia, with 
 large machine-shops and locomotive fac- 
 tories. Pop. 45,000. 
 
 ALTRUISM, a term first employed 
 by the French philosopher Comte, to sig- 
 nify devotion to others or to humanity; 
 the opposite of selfishness or egoism. 
 
 AL'UM, a well-known crystalline, 
 astringent substance with a sweetish 
 taste, a double sulphate of potassium and 
 aluminium with a certain quantity of 
 water of crystallization. It crystallizes 
 in regular octahedrons. Its solution 
 reddens vegetable blues. Exposed to 
 heat its water of crystallization is driven 
 off, and it becomes light and spongy -with 
 slightly corrosive properties, and is used 
 as a caustic under the name of burnt 
 alum. Common alum is strictly potash 
 alum ; other two varieties are soda alum 
 and ammonia alum, both similar in 
 properties. The importance of alum 
 in the arts is very great, and its annual 
 consumption is immense. It is em- 
 ployed to increase the hardness of tallow, 
 to remove greasiness from printers’ 
 cushions and blocks in calico manufac- 
 tories; in dyeing it is Largely used ao a 
 mordant. It is also largely used in the 
 composition of crayons, in tannery, and in 
 medicine (as an astringent and styptic). 
 Wood and paper are dipped in c, solution 
 of alum to render them less combustible. 
 
 ALU'MINA, the single oxide of the 
 metal aluminium. As found native it is 
 called corundum, when crystallized ruby 
 or sapphire, when amorphous emery. It 
 is next to the diamorid in hardness. In 
 combination with silica it is one of the 
 most widely distributed of substances, as 
 it enters in large quantity into the com- 
 position of granite, traps, slates, schists, 
 clays, loams, and other rocks. The por- 
 celain clays and kaolins contain about 
 half their weight of this earth, to which 
 they owe their most valuable properties. 
 It has a strong affinity for coloring 
 matters, which causes it to be employed 
 in the preparation of the colors called 
 lakes in dyeing and calico-printing. It 
 combines with the acids and forms 
 
 ’ numerou.s salts, the most important of 
 which are the sulphate and acetate, the 
 latter of extensive use as a mordant. 
 
 ALUMINTUM, a metal discovered in 
 1827, but nowhere found native, though 
 as the base of alumina (which see) it is 
 abundantly di.stributed. The mineral 
 cryolite — a fluoride of aluminium and 
 sodium — which is brought from Green- 
 land, is one of the chief sources of alu- 
 minium. It is a shining white metal, of 
 a color between silver and platinum, very 
 light, weighing less than glass, and 
 about one-fourth of silver, not liable to 
 tarnish nor undergo oxidation in the air, 
 very ductile and malleable, and remark- 
 ably sonorous. It forms several useful 
 alloys with iron and copper; one of the 
 latter (aluminium gold) much resembles 
 gold, and is made into cheap trinkets. 
 Another, known as aluminium bronze, 
 posse.sses great hardness aind tenacity. 
 Spoons, tea and coffee pots, dish-covers, 
 mu-sical and mathematical instruments, 
 trinkets, etc., are made of aluminium. 
 
 ALUM-ROOT, the name given in 
 America to two plants on account of the 
 remarkable astringency of their roots, 
 which are used for medical purposes. 
 
 ALUM-SLATE, a ‘ slaty rock from 
 which much alum is prepared; color 
 grayish, bluish, or iron-black; often 
 possessed of a glossy or shining luster; 
 chiefly composed of clay (silicate of 
 alumina), with variable proportions of 
 sulphide of iron (iron-pyrites), lime, 
 bitumen, and magnesia. 
 
 ALUM-STONE, a mineral of a grayish 
 or yellowish-white color, approaching 
 to earthy in its composition, from which 
 (in .Italy) is obtained a very pure alum 
 by simply subjecting it to roasting and 
 lixiviation. 
 
 AL'VA, or AL'BA, Ferdinand Alvarez, 
 Duke of, Spanish statesman and general 
 under Charle: V. and Philip II.; was 
 born in 1508; early embraced the mili- 
 tary career, and fought in the wars of 
 Charles V. in France, Italy, Africa, 
 Hungary, and Germany. He is more 
 especially remembered for his bloody and 
 'tyrannical government of the Nether- 
 lands (1567-73), which had revolted, and 
 which he was commissioned by Philip 
 II. to reduce to entire subjection to 
 Spain. Hopeless of finally subduing 
 the country he asked to be recalled, and 
 accordingly, in December, 1573, Alva 
 left the country, in which, as he himself 
 boasted, he had executed 18,000 men. 
 He was received with distinction in 
 Madrid, but did not long enjoy his former 
 credit. He had the honor, however, be- 
 fore his death (which took place in 1582) 
 of reducing all Portugal to subjection to 
 his sovereign. It is said of him that 
 during sixty years of warfare he never 
 lost a battle and was never taken by 
 surprise. 
 
 ALVARADO (al-va-ra'do), Pedro de, 
 one of the Spanish “conquistadors,” was 
 born toward the end of the 15th century, 
 and died in 1541. Having crossed the 
 Atlantic he was associated (1519) with 
 Cortez in ids e.xpedition to conquer Mex- 
 ico; and was intrusted with important 
 operations. In July, 1520, during the 
 disastrous retreat from the capital after 
 the death of Montezuma, the perilous 
 command of the rear-guard was assigned 
 to Alvarado. On his return to Spain he 
 
ALWAR 
 
 ambassador 
 
 Was feceived with honor by Charles V., 
 who made him governor of Guatemala, 
 which he had himself conquered. To 
 this was subsequently added Honduras. 
 He continued to add to the Spanish 
 dominions in America till his death. 
 
 ALWAR (al-war'), a state of north- 
 western Hindustan, in Rajputana; area, 
 3024 square miles. This semi-independ- 
 ent state has as its ruler a rajah with a 
 revenue of about $1,000,000; military 
 force, about 5000 infantry and 2000 
 cavalry. Pop. 828,888. — Alwar, the cap- 
 ital, is situated at the base of a rocky 
 hill crowned by a fort, 80 miles s.s.w. 
 of Delhi, surrounded by a moat and 
 rampart, and poorly built, but with fine 
 surroundings; contains the rajah’s pal- 
 ace and a few other good buildings. 
 Pop. 56,771. 
 
 AMADE'US, Duke of Aosta, second 
 son of Victor Emanuel of Italy, and 
 brother of the present king, was born 
 in 1845, and was chosen by the Cortes 
 King of Spain in 1870, Queen Isabella 
 having had to leave the country in 1868. 
 He abdicated in 1873 and returned to 
 Italy. He died in 1890. 
 
 AMAL'FI, a seaport in southern Italy 
 on the gulf of Salerno, 23 miles from 
 Naples, the seat of a bishop, a place of 
 
 The Cathedral, Amalfi. 
 
 great commercial importance in the 
 middle ages, enjoying a republican con- 
 stitution of its own. Pop. 11,242. 
 
 AMAL'EKITES, a Semitic race oc- 
 cupying the peninsula between Egypt 
 and Palestine, named after a grandson 
 of Esau. They were denounced by 
 Moses for their hostility to the Israelites 
 during their jouimey through the wilder- 
 ness, and they seem to have been all but 
 exterminated by Saul and David. 
 
 AMAL'GAM, a name applied to the 
 alloys of mercury with the other metals. 
 One of them is the amalgam of mercury 
 with tin, which is used to silver looking- 
 glasses. Mercury unites very readily 
 with gold and silver at ordinary tem- 
 peratures, and advantage is taken of 
 this to separate them from their ores, the 
 process being called amalgamation. 
 The mercury being properly applied 
 dissolves and combines with the pre-l 
 
 cious metal and separates it from the 
 waste matters, and is itself easily driven 
 off by heat. 
 
 AMARAPURA (a-ma-ra-p6'ra), a de- 
 serted city, once the capital of the Bur- 
 mese Empire, on the left bank of the 
 Irawaddy, quite close to Mandalay. The 
 population in 1800 was 175,000. 
 
 north of east ; length including windings 
 between 3000 and 4000 miles: area of 
 drainage basin 2,300,000 sq. miles. It 
 enters the Atlantic under the equator 
 by a mouth 200 miles wide, divided into 
 two principal and several smaller arms 
 by the large island Marajo, and a num- 
 ber of smaller islands. In its upper 
 
 AMARYLLIDA'CE.®, an order of 
 monocotyledonous plants, generally 
 bulbous, occasionally with a tall, cylin- 
 drical, woody stem; with a highly 
 colored flower, six stamens, and an 
 inferior three-celled ovary; natives of 
 Europe and most of the warmer parts 
 of the world. The order includes the 
 snowdrop, the snowflake, the daffodil, 
 the belladonna-lily (belonging to the 
 typical genus Amaryllis), the so-called 
 Guernsey-lily (probably a native of 
 Japan), the Brunsvigias, the blood- 
 flowers (Haemanthus) of the Cape of 
 Good Hope, different species of Narcis- 
 sus, Agave (American aloe), etc. 
 
 AMATEUR, any person who pur- 
 sues an art, science, or other work not 
 for money or other material considera- 
 tion but for the pure love of the thing 
 itself. In sports the definition of an 
 amateur is made by the rules of the 
 Amateur Athletic union; and this defini- 
 tion may be regarded as the type for 
 sports of all kinds. According to the 
 rules of competition nobody is eligible 
 who in any manner has received com- 
 pensation of any kind for his work, or 
 who has competed with a professional, 
 or who has in any way realized money 
 through any connection with sport 
 itself, such as the sale of prizes, etc. 
 In certain sports, such as golf, the lines 
 are not so closely drawn, so that playing 
 with a professional does not constitute 
 one a professional. The rules of ama- 
 teurism in cycling were for years a 
 mere form, as every large manufacturer 
 had his own racers on the track. 
 
 AMAURO'SIS, a species of blindness, 
 caused by disease of the nerves of vision. 
 The most frequent causes are a long- 
 continued direction of the eye on 
 minute objects, long exposure to a 
 bright light, to the fire of a forge, to 
 snow, or irritating gases, overfulness of 
 blood, disease of the brain, etc. If 
 taken in time it may be cured or miti- 
 gated; but confirmed amaurosis is 
 usually incurable. 
 
 AMAZON, AMAZONS, a river of 
 South America, the largest in the world, 
 formed by a great number of sources 
 which rise in the Andes ; general course 
 
 course navigation is interrupted by 
 rapids, but from its mouth upward for 
 a distance of 3300 miles (mostly in 
 Brazil) there is no obstruction. From 
 the sea to the Rio Negro, 750 miles in a 
 straight line, the depth is nowhere less 
 than 30 fathoms; up to the junction 
 of the Ucayale there is depth sufficient 
 for the largest vessels. The Amazonian 
 water system affords some 50,000 miles 
 of river suitable for navigation. The 
 rapidity of the river is considerable, es- 
 pecially during the rainy season (January 
 to June), when it is subject to floods; but 
 there is no great fall in its course. The 
 tides reach up as far ns 400 miles from 
 its mouth. The singular phenomenon of 
 the bore, or as it is called on the Amazon 
 the pororoca, occurs at the mouth of 
 the river at springtides on a grand scale. 
 The river swarms with alligators, turtles, 
 and a great variety of fish. The country 
 through which it flows is extremely 
 fertile, and is mostly covered with im- 
 mense forests; it must at some future 
 time support a numerous population, 
 and be the theater of a busy commerce. 
 Steamers and other craft ply on the 
 river, the chief center of trade being Para, 
 at its mouth. 
 
 AMAZ'ONAS, the largest state of 
 Brazil, traversed by the Amazon and 
 its tributaries; area, 753,000 sq. miles; 
 pop. 148,000. 
 
 AMAZONS, according to an ancient 
 Greek tradition, the name of a com- 
 munity of women, who permitted no 
 men to reside among them, fought under 
 the conduct of a queen, and long con- 
 stituted a formidable state. They 
 were said to burn off the right breast 
 that it might not impede them in the use 
 of the bow. 
 
 AMBA'LA, a town of India, in the 
 Punjab. The military cantonment is 
 several miles distant. Total pop. 78,638. 
 
 AMBAS'SADOR, a minister of the 
 highest rank, emploj'ed by one prince or 
 state at the court of another to manage 
 the public concerns, or support the 
 interests of his own prince or state, and 
 representing the power and dignity of 
 his sovereign or state. Ambassadors 
 are ordinary when they reside perma- 
 
AMBER 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 nently at a foreign court, or extraor- 
 dinary when they are sent on a special 
 occasion. When ambassadors extraor- 
 dinary have full powers, as of conclud- 
 ing peace, making treaties, and the like, 
 they are called plenipotentiaries. Am- 
 bassadors are often called simply min- 
 isters. Envoys are ministers employed 
 on special occasions, and are of less 
 dignity than ambassadors. The term 
 ambassador, however, is also used in a 
 more general sense for any diplomatic 
 agent or minister. An ambassador and 
 his suite are not amenable to the laws 
 of the country in which they are residing. 
 
 AM'BER, a semi-mineral substance 
 of resinous composition, a sort of fossil 
 resin, the produce of extinct Coniferoe. 
 It is usually of yellow or reddish-brown 
 color; brittle; yields easily to the knife ; 
 is translucent, and possessed of a resi- 
 nous luster. Specific gravity, 1‘065. 
 It burns with a yellow flame, emitting 
 a pungent aromatic smoke, and leaving 
 a light carbonaceous residue, which is 
 employed as the basis of the flnest black 
 varnishes. By friction it becomes 
 strongly electric. It is found in masses 
 from the size of coarse sand to that of a 
 man’s head, and occurs in beds of bitu- 
 minous wood situated upon the shores of 
 the Baltic and Adriatic Seas; also in 
 Poland, France, Italy, and Demark. 
 It is often washed up on the Prussian 
 shores of the Baltic, and is also obtained 
 by fishing for it with nets. Sometimes 
 it is found-on the east coast of Britain, in 
 gravel pits round London, also in the 
 United States. 
 
 AM'BERGRIS, a substance derived 
 from the intestines of the sperm-whale, 
 and found floating or on the shore; 
 yellowish or blackish white; very light; 
 melts at 140°, and is entirely dissipated 
 on red-hot coals; is soluble in ether, 
 volatile oils, and partially in alcohol, 
 and is chiefly composed of a peculiar 
 fatty substance. Its odor is very agree- 
 able, and hence it is used as a perfume. 
 
 AMBIDEX'TROUS, having the faculty 
 of using the left hand as effectively as 
 the right. 
 
 AMBLYOP'SIS, a genus of blind 
 fishes, containing only one species, found 
 in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. 
 
 AMBOY'NA, AMBOINA, or APON, 
 one of the Molucca Islands in the In- 
 dian Archipelago, close to the large 
 island of Ceram; area, about 280 sq. 
 miles. Its surface is generally hilly or 
 mountainous, its general aspect beauti- 
 ful, and its climate on the whole salu- 
 brious, but it is not infrequently visited 
 by earthquakes. It affords a variety of 
 useful trees, including the cocoanut 
 and sago palms. Cloves and nutmegs 
 are the staple productions. The soil in 
 the valleys and along the shores is very 
 fertile, but a large portion remains un- 
 cultivated. The natives are mostly of 
 Malayan race. The capital, also called 
 Amboyna, is situated on the Bay of 
 Amboyna, and is well built and de- 
 fended by a citadel. The streets are 
 planted on each side with rows of fruit- 
 trees. It is a free port. Pop. 10,500. 
 
 AM'BROSE, Saint, a celebrated father 
 of the church; born in a.d. 333 or 334, 
 probably at Treves, where hLs father 
 was prefect; died in 397. His kind- 
 ness and wisdom gained him the es- 
 
 teem and love of the people, and in 
 374 he was unanimously called to the 
 bishopric of Milan, though not yet 
 baptized. His writings, which are 
 numerous, show that his theological 
 knowledge extended little beyond an 
 acquaintance with the works of the 
 Greek fathers. He wrote Latin hymns, 
 but the Te Deum Laudamus, which has 
 been ascribed to him, was written a 
 century later. He introduced the Am- 
 brosian Chant, a mode of singing more 
 monotonous than the Gregorian which 
 superseded it. He also compiled a form 
 of ritual known by his name. 
 
 AMBRO'SIA, in Greek mythology the 
 food of the gods, as nectar was their 
 drink. 
 
 AM'BULANCE, a hospital establish- 
 ment which accompanies an army in its 
 movements in the field for the purpose 
 of providing assistance and surgical 
 treatment to the soldiers wounded in 
 battle. The name is often given to one 
 of the carts, wagons, or litters used to 
 transfer the wounded from the spot 
 where they fell to the hospital. One 
 form of ambulance wagon is a strong 
 but light vehicle with an upright frame, 
 from which two stretchers are slung 
 from the top for the accommodation of 
 those most severely wounded; seats 
 before and behind are provided for those 
 suffering from less serious wounds. 
 The hospital chests, containing surgical 
 instruments, bandages, splints, etc., are 
 placed in the bottom of the wagon 
 or lashed to its under surfaces. A 
 thorough ambulance system in connec- 
 tion with armies in the field is of quite 
 recent introduction. A training in 
 ambulance work is now being recog- 
 nized as of importance beyond the field 
 of military affairs, and as being of the 
 utmost service wherever serious acci- 
 dents are likely to happen, as, for 
 instance, in large cities and in connection 
 with large industrial establishments. 
 
 AM'BUSH, a term of strategy used 
 to designate the act of hiding and 
 taking the enemy by surprise. An 
 ambush may be large or small, involv- 
 ing only a few men or an entire army. 
 It was this method of warfare which 
 was used almost exclusively by the 
 Boers in their recent war with England 
 in South Africa. 
 
 AMEN (a-men'), a Hebrew word, 
 signifying “verily,” “truly,” transferred 
 from the religious language of the Jews 
 to that of the Christians, and used at 
 the end of prayers as equivalent to 
 “so be it,” “may this be granted.” 
 
 AMEND'MENT, a proposal brought 
 forward in a meeting of some public or 
 other body, either in order to get an 
 alteration introduced on some proposal 
 already before the meeting, or entirely 
 to overturn such proposal. In parlia- 
 ment an amendment denotes an altera- 
 tion made in the original draught of a 
 bill while it is passing through the 
 houses. Amendments may be made so 
 as totally to alter the nature of the 
 proposition ; and this is a way of getting 
 rid of a proposition, by making it bear 
 a sense different from what was in- 
 tended by the movers, who are thus 
 compelled to abandon it. 
 
 AMENOTHIS (or AMENHOTEP) III., 
 a king of ancient Egypt about 1500 
 
 B.C. ; warred successfully against Syrians 
 and Ethiopians, built magnificent tem- 
 ples and palaces at Thebes, where the 
 so-called Memnon statue is a statute of 
 this king. 
 
 AMENORRHCE'A, absence or sus- 
 pension of menstruation. The former 
 may arise from general debility or from 
 defective development, the latter from 
 e.xposure to cold, from attacks of fever 
 or other ailment, violent excitement, etc. 
 
 AMENTA'CEiE, an order of plants 
 having their flowers arranged in amenta 
 or catkins; now broken up into several 
 orders, the chief of which are the birch, 
 the willow, the liquidambar, the plane, 
 the nut. 
 
 AMEN'TUM, in botany, that kind of 
 inflorescence which is commonly known 
 as a catkin (as in the birch or willow), 
 consisting of unisexual apetalous flow- 
 ers in the axil of scales or bracts. 
 
 AMERTCA, or the NEW WORLD, 
 the largest of the great divisions of the 
 globe except Asia, is washed on the 
 west by the Pacific, on the east by the 
 Atlantic, on the north by the Arctic 
 Ocean, on the south tapers to a point. 
 On the northwest it approaches within 
 about 50 miles of Asia, while on the 
 northeast the island of Greenland ap- 
 proaches within 370 miles of the Euro- 
 pean island Iceland; but in the south 
 the distance between the American 
 mainland and Europe or Africa is very 
 great. America as a whole forms the 
 two triangular continents of North and 
 South America, united by the narrow 
 Isthmus of Panama, and having an 
 entire length of about 10,000 miles; a 
 maximum breadth (in North .\merica) 
 of 3500 miles; a coast line of 44,000 
 miles; and a total area, including the 
 islands, of nearly 16,000,000, of which 
 N. America contains about 9,000,000 
 sq. miles. South America is more com- 
 pact in form than N. America, in this 
 respect resembling Africa, while N. 
 America more resembles Europe. Be- 
 tween the two on the east side is the 
 great basin which comprises the Gulf 
 of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the 
 West India Islands. Like Europe also 
 N. America possesses numerous islands, 
 while those of S. America are less im- 
 portant and confined almost to the 
 southern extremity. 
 
 Three-fourths of the area of America 
 is comparatively flat, and this portion 
 of the surface is bounded on the west 
 by lofty mountain systems which 
 stretch continuously from north to 
 south between the extremities of the 
 continent, generally at no great dis- 
 tance from the west shore. In North 
 America the Rocky Mountains, a broad 
 series of masses partly consisting of 
 plateaux, form the most important por- 
 tion of the elevated surface, being con- 
 tinued southward in the mountains and 
 tableland of Mexico and the ranges of 
 Central America. Separated by depres- 
 sions from the Rocky Mountains proper, 
 and running close to and parallel with 
 the western coast, are several lofty 
 ranges (Sierra Nevada, Cascade Moun- 
 tains, etc.). Near the eastern coast, and 
 forming an isolated mass, are the Appa- 
 lachians, a system of much inferior 
 magnitude. The loftiest mountains in 
 N. America are Mount Logan (19,514 
 
AMERICA 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 ft.), Mount St. Elias (18,017), both in 
 N. W. Canada; and Popocatepetl (18,- 
 000 ft.). The depression of the Isthmus 
 of Panama (about 260 ft.) forms a 
 natural separation between the systems 
 of the north and the south. In S. Amer- 
 ica the Andes form a system of greater 
 elevation but less breadth than the 
 Rocky Mountains, and consist of a 
 series of ranges (cordilleras) closely 
 following the line of the west coast 
 from the Isthmus of Panama to Cape 
 Horn. The highest summits seem to be 
 Aconcagua (22,860 ft.), Sorata or Illampu 
 (21,484), and Sahama (21,054). Vol- 
 canoes are numerous. Isolated moun- 
 tain groups of minor importance are the 
 highlands of Venezuela and of Brazil, 
 the latter near the eastern coast, reach- 
 ing a height of 10,000 feet. 
 
 The fertile lowlands which lie to the 
 east of the Rocky Mountains and the 
 Andes form a depression extending 
 through both continents from the north- 
 ern to the southern oceans. They have 
 somewhat different features and differ- 
 ent names in different portions; in N. 
 America are prairies and savannahs, 
 in S. America llanos, selvas and pam- 
 pas. 
 
 Through these low grounds flow the 
 numerous great rivers which form so 
 characteristic a feature of America. 
 The principal are the Mackenzie, Copper- 
 mine, and Great Fish rivers, entering 
 the Northern Ocean; the Churchill, 
 Nelson, Severn, and Albany, entering 
 Hudson's Bay; the St. Lawrence, enter- 
 ing the Atlantic; Mississippi and Rio 
 del Norte, entering the Gulf of Mexico 
 (all these being in N. America) ; tli« Mag- 
 dalena, Orinoco, Amazon, Paranahiba, 
 Rio de la Plata, Colorado, and Rio 
 Negro, entering the Atlantic (all in S. 
 America); and the Yukon, Fraser, Co- 
 lumbia, San Joaquin, Sacramento, and 
 Colorado, entering the Pacific. The 
 rivers which flow into the Pacific, how- 
 ever, owing to the fact that the great 
 backbone of the continent, the Rocky 
 Mountains and the Andes, lies so near 
 the west coast, are of comparatively 
 little importance, in S. America being 
 all quite small. Sometimes rivers 
 traversing the same plains, and nearly 
 on the same levels, open communica- 
 tions with each other, a remarkable in- 
 stance being the Cassiquiari in S. Amer- 
 ica, which, branching oft’ from the Rio 
 Negro and joining the Orinoco, forms a 
 kind of natural canal, uniting the basins 
 of the Orinoco and the Amazon. The 
 Amazon or Maranon in S. America, the 
 largest river in the world, has a course 
 of about 3500 miles, and a basin of 
 2,300,000 square miles; the Mississippi- 
 Missouri, the largest river of North 
 America, runs a longer course than the 
 Amazon, but the area of its basin is not 
 nearly so great. North America has the 
 most extensive group of lakes in the 
 world — Lakes Superior, Michigan, Hu- 
 ron, Erie, and Ontario, which through 
 the St. Lawrence send their drainage to 
 the Atlantic. Thus by means of lakes 
 and rivers the interior of both N. and S. 
 America is opened up and made acces- 
 sible. 
 
 ■With regard to climate N. America 
 naturally differs very much from S. 
 America, and has more resemblance to 
 
 the continents of Europe and Asia 
 (regarded as a whole). In N. America, 
 as in the older continent, the eastern 
 parts are colder than the western, and 
 hence the towns on the Atlantic coast 
 have a winter temperature about 10° 
 lower than those in corresponding lati- 
 tudes of Europe. The winter tempera- 
 ture of the geater part of N. America is 
 indeed severe, though the intense cold 
 is less felt on account of the dryness of 
 the air. There is no regular season of 
 rainfall unless in the south. Although 
 two-thirds of S. America lies within the 
 tropics the heat is not so great as might 
 be expected, owing to the prevailing 
 winds, the influences of the Andes, and 
 other causes. The highest temperature 
 experienced is probably not more than 
 100° in the shade; at Rio de Janeiro the 
 mean is about 74°, at Lima 72°. Over 
 a great part of S. America there is a 
 wet and dry season, varying in different 
 regions ; on the upper Amazon the rains 
 last for ten months, being caused by the 
 prevailing easterly winds bringing mois- 
 ture from the Atlantic, which is con- 
 densed on the eastern slopes of the 
 Andes. In each of the Americas there 
 is a region in which little or no rain falls ; 
 in N. America it extends over a part of 
 the United States and northern Mexico, 
 in S. America over a part of the coast 
 region of Peru and Chile. 
 
 America is rich in valuable minerals. 
 It has supplied the world with immense 
 quantities of gold and silver, which it 
 still yields in no small amount, especially 
 in the United States. It possesses inex- 
 haustible stores of coal (U. States), with 
 iron, copper, lead, tin, mercury, etc. 
 Petroleum may be called one of its 
 specialties, its petroleum wells having 
 caused whole towns to spring into exist- 
 ence. Diamonds and other precious 
 stones are found. 
 
 As regards vegetation America may 
 be called a region of forests and verdure, 
 vast tracts being covered by the grassy 
 prairies, llanos, and pampas where the 
 forests fail. In N. America the forests 
 have been largely made use of by man; 
 in S. America vast areas are covered with 
 forests, which as yet are traversed only 
 by the uncivilized Indian. In the north 
 is the region of pines and firs; farther 
 south come the deciduous trees, as the 
 oak, beech, maple, elm, chestnut, etc. 
 Then follow the evergreen forests of the 
 tropical regions. The useful timber 
 trees are very numerous; among the 
 most characteristic of America are 
 mahogany and other ornamental woods, 
 and various dyewoods. In the tropical 
 parts are numerous palms, cacti in 
 great variety, and various species of the 
 agave or American aloe. In the virgin 
 forests of S. America the trees are often 
 bound together into an impenetrable 
 ihass of vegetation by vai-ious kinds of 
 climbing and twining plants. Among 
 useful plants belonging to the American 
 continent are maize, the potato, cacao, 
 tobacco, cinchona, vanilla, Paraguay 
 tea, etc. The most important plants 
 introduced are wheat, rice, and other 
 grains, sugar-cane, coffee, and cotton, 
 with various fruits and vegetables. The 
 vine is native to the continent, and both 
 the American and introduced varieties 
 are now largely cultivated. 
 
 The animals of America include, 
 among carnivora, the jaguar or Ameri- 
 can tiger, found only in S. America ; the 
 puma or American lion, found mostly 
 in S. America; the grizzly bear of N. 
 America, fully as powerful an animal as 
 either; the black bear, the skunk, the 
 raccoon, the American or prairie wolf, 
 several species of fox, etc. The rodents 
 are represented by the beaver, the por- 
 cupine, and squirrels of several species; 
 the marsupials by the opossum. Among 
 ruminants are the bison, or, as it is com- 
 monly called, the buffalo, the moose or 
 elk, the 'Virginian stag, the musk-ox; 
 and in S. America the llama (which 
 takes the place of the camel of the Old 
 ’World), the alpaca, and the vicuna. 
 Other animals most distinctive of S. 
 America are sloths, fitted to live only in 
 its dense and boundless forests; ant- 
 eaters and armadillos; monkeys with 
 prehensile tails, in this and other respects 
 differing from those of the Old World; 
 the condor among the heights of the 
 Andes, the nandu, rhea or three-toed 
 ostrich, beautiful parrots and humming- 
 birds. Among American reptiles are 
 the boa-constrictor, the rattlesnake, the 
 alligator or cayman, the iguana and 
 other large lizards, large frogs and toads. 
 The domestic animals of America, 
 horses, cattle, and sheep, are of foreign 
 origin. The electrical eel exists in the 
 tropical waters. 
 
 The population of America consists 
 partly of an aboriginal race or races, 
 partly of immigrants or their descend- 
 ants. The aboriginal inhabitants are 
 the American Indians or red men, being 
 generally of a brownish-red color, and 
 now forming a very small portion of 
 the total population, especially in N. 
 America, where the white population 
 has almost exterminated them. These 
 people are divided into branches, some 
 of which have displayed a considerable 
 aptitude for civilization. When the 
 Europeans became acquainted with the 
 New World, Mexico, Central and part of 
 S. America were inhabited by popula- 
 tions which had made great advances 
 in many things that pertain to civilized 
 life, dwelling in large and well-built cities 
 under a settled form of government, and 
 practicing agriculture and the mechan- 
 ical arts. Ever since the discovery of 
 America at the close of the 15th 
 century Europeans of all nations have 
 crowded into it; and the comparatively 
 feeble native races have rapidly dimin- 
 ished, or lost their distinctive features 
 by intermixtures with whites, and also 
 with negroes brought from Africa to 
 work as slaves. These mixed races are 
 distinguished by a variety of names, as 
 Mestizos, Mulattoes, Zambos, etc. In 
 North America the white population is 
 mainly of British origin, though to a 
 considerable extent it also consists of 
 Germans, Scandinavians, etc., and the 
 descendants of such. In Central and 
 South America the prevailing white 
 nationality is the Spanish and Portu- 
 
 f uese. In the extreme North are the 
 Eskimos — a scattered and stunted race 
 closely allied to some of the peoples of 
 northern Asia. That the aboriginal 
 inhabitants of America passed over 
 from Asia is tolerably certain, but when 
 and from what part we do not know. 
 
 « 
 
AMERICAN INDIANS 
 
 AMERICANISM 
 
 The total population of the New World 
 was estimated in 1900 at 135,000,000, 
 of which perhaps 85,000,000 were whites, 
 26,000,000 mixed races, 13,000,000 
 negroes, and 11,000,000 Indians. As 
 regards religion the bulk of the popula- 
 tion of N. America is Protestant; of 
 Central and S. America the religion is 
 almost exclusively Roman Catholic. 
 Several milliOiis of the Indians are 
 heathens. — The independent states of 
 America are all republican in form of 
 government, Brazil having become a 
 republic in 1889. See North America, 
 Central America, South America, West 
 Indies, etc. 
 
 The merit of first unlocking the 
 American continent to modern Europe 
 belongs to the Genoese navigator Chris- 
 topher Columbus, who discovered, in 
 October, 1492, one of the Bahamas, and 
 named it San Salvador. Europeans, 
 however, had on different former occa- 
 sions discovered the American coasts, 
 and the coasts of Massachusetts and 
 Rhode Island were visited by Northmen 
 and named Vinland in the year 1000. 
 Still these discoveries had no influence 
 on the enterprise of Columbus, and can- 
 not detract in the least from his merit; 
 they were forgotten, and had never been 
 made known to the inhabitants of the 
 rest of Europe. Though Columbus was 
 the first of his time who set foot on the 
 New World, it has taken its name not 
 from him, but from Amerigo Vespucci. 
 The mainland was first seen in 1497 by 
 Sebastian Cabot, who sailed under the 
 patronage of Henry VII. of England. 
 For further particulars of discovery see 
 North Amei’ica and South America. 
 
 The known history of America hardly 
 goes beyond the period of its discovery 
 by Columbus; but it possesses many 
 monuments of antiquity that might take 
 us many centuries backward, could we 
 learn anything of their origin or of those 
 by whom they were produced. Among 
 such antiquities are great earthworks in 
 the form of mounds, or of raised inclo- 
 sures, crowning the tops of hills, river 
 peninsulas, etc., and no doubt serving 
 for defense. They inclose considerable 
 areas, are surrounded by an exterior 
 ditch, and by ramparts which are com- 
 posed of mingled earth and stones, and 
 are often of great extent in proportion to 
 the area inclosed. They are always sup- 
 plied either naturally or artificially with 
 water, and give other indications of hav- 
 ing been provided for a siege. Barrows 
 and tumuli containing human bones, 
 and which bear indications of having 
 been used both as places of sepulture and 
 as temples, are also numerous. They 
 are in geometrical forms; circles, squares, 
 parallelograms, etc. A mound on the 
 plain of Cahokia in Illinois, opposite 
 the city of St. Louis, is 700 feet long, 
 500 feet broad, and 90 feet high. 
 Another class of earth mounds represent 
 gigantic animal forms in bas-relief on the 
 ground. One is a man with two heads, 
 the body 50 feet long and 25 feet broad 
 across the breast; another represents a 
 serpent 1000 feet in length, with grace- 
 ful curves. The monuments of Mexico, 
 Central America, and Peru are of a more 
 advanced state of civilization, approach 
 nearer to the historical period, ana make 
 the lo.ss of authentic information more 
 
 severely felt. Here there are numerous 
 ruined towns with most elaborate sculp- 
 tures, lofty pyramidal structures serving 
 as temples or forts, statues, picture 
 writing, hieroglyphics, roads, aque- 
 ducts, bridges, etc. Some remarkable 
 prehistoric remains discovered in recent 
 years are what are known as the abodes 
 of the "cliff-dwellers.” These consist 
 of habitations constructed on terraces 
 and in caves high up the steep sides of 
 canons in Colorado and other parts of 
 the western states of N. America. Some 
 of these buildings are several stories 
 high. See also Mexico, Peru, etc. 
 AMERICAN INDIANS. See Indians. 
 AMERICANISM, a term, phra.se, or 
 idiom peculiar to the English language 
 as spoken in America, and not forming 
 part of the language as spoken in Eng- 
 land. The following is a list of a few 
 of the more noteworthy Americanisms: 
 Approbate, to approve. 
 
 Around or round, about or near. To 
 hang around is to loiter about a place. 
 Backwoods, the partially cleared forest 
 regions in the western states. 
 
 Bee, an assemblage of persons to unite 
 their labors for the benefit of an in- 
 dividual or family, or to carry out a 
 joint scheme. 
 
 Bogus, false, counterfeit. 
 
 Boss, an employer or superintendent of 
 laborers, a leader. 
 
 Bug, a coleopterous insect, or what in 
 England is called a beetle. 
 
 Buggy, a four-wheeled vehicle. 
 
 Bulldoze, to ; to intimidate voters. 
 Bunkum or buncombe, a speech made 
 solely to please a constituency; talk 
 for talking’s sake, and in an inflated 
 style. 
 
 Bureau, a chest of drawers; a dressing- 
 table surmounted by a mirror. 
 Calculate, to suppose, to believe, to think. 
 Camp-meeting, a meeting held in the 
 fields or woods for religious purposes, 
 and where the assemblage encamp 
 and remain several days. 
 
 Cane-brake, a thicket of canes. 
 
 Car, a carriage or wagon of a railway 
 train. The Englishman “travels by 
 rail” or “takes the train”; but the 
 American takes or goes by the cars. 
 Carpet-bagger, a needy political adven- 
 turer who carries all his earthly goods 
 in a carpet-bag. 
 
 Caucus, a private meeting of the leading 
 politicians of a party to agree upon the 
 plans to be pursued in an approaching 
 election. 
 
 Chalk: a long chalk means a great dis- 
 tance, a good deal. 
 
 Chunk, a short thick piece of wood or any 
 other material. 
 
 Clever, good-natured, obliging. 
 
 Cocktail, a stimulating drink made of 
 brandy or gin mixed with sugar, and 
 a very little water. 
 
 Corn, maize; in England, wheat, or 
 grain in general. 
 
 Corn-husking, or corn-shucking, an 
 occasion on which a farmer invites 
 his neighbors to assist him in stripping 
 the husks from his Indian corn. 
 Cowhide, a whip made of twisted strips 
 of rawhide. 
 
 Creek, a small river or brook; not, as in 
 England, a small arm of the sea. 
 Cunning, small and pretty, nice, as it 
 was such a cunning baby. 
 
 Dander: to get one’s dander raised, to 
 have one’s dander up, is to have been 
 worked into a passion. 
 
 Dead-heads, people who have free ad- 
 mission to entertainments, or who 
 have the use of public conveyances, 
 or the like, free of charge. 
 
 Depot, a railway station. 
 
 Down east, in or into the New England 
 States. A down-easter is a New Eng- 
 lander. 
 
 Drummer, a bagman or commercial 
 traveler. 
 
 Dry goods, a general term for such 
 articles as are sold by linen-drapers, 
 haberdashers, hosiers, etc. 
 
 Dutch, the German language. — Dutch- 
 man, a German. 
 
 Fix, to; to put in order, to prepare, to 
 adjust. To fix the hair, the table, the 
 fire, is to dress the hair, lay the table, 
 make up the fire. 
 
 Fixings, arrangements, dress, embellish- 
 ments, luggage, furniture, garnishings 
 of any kind. 
 
 Gerrymander, to arrange political divi- 
 sions so that in an election one party 
 may obtain an advantage over its 
 opponent, even though the latter may 
 possess a majority of votes in the state; 
 from the deviser of such a scheme, 
 named Gerry, governor of Massa- 
 chusetts. 
 
 Given name, a Christian name. 
 
 Grit, courage, spirit, mettle. 
 
 Guess, to ; to believe, to suppose, to think, 
 to fancy; also used emphatically, as 
 “Joe, will you liquor up?” “I guess 
 I will.” 
 
 Gulch, a deep abrupt ravine, caused by 
 the action of water. 
 
 Happen in, to; to happen to come in or 
 call. 
 
 Help, a servant. 
 
 High-falutin, inflated speech, bombast. 
 
 Hoe-cake, a cake of Indian meal baked 
 on a hoe or before the fire. 
 
 Indian summer, the short season of 
 pleasant weather usually occurring 
 about the middle of November. 
 
 Johnny Cake, a cake made of Indian 
 corn meal mixed with milk or water 
 and sometimes a little stewed pump- 
 kin; the term is also applied to a New 
 Englander. 
 
 Julep, a drink composed of brandy or 
 whisky with sugar, pounded ice, and 
 some sprigs of mint. 
 
 Loafer, a lounger, a vagabond. 
 
 Log-rolling, the assembly of several 
 parties of wood-cutters to help one of 
 them in rolling their logs to the river 
 after they are felled and trimmed; 
 also employed in politics to signify 
 a like system of mutual cooperation. 
 
 Lot, a piece or division of land, an allot- 
 ment. 
 
 Lumber, timber sawed and split for use; 
 as beams, joists, planks, staves, hoops, 
 etc. 
 
 Lynch law, an irregular species of justice 
 executed by the populace or a mob, 
 without legal authority or trail. 
 
 Mail letters, to; to post letters. 
 
 Make tracks, to; to run away. 
 
 Mitten ; to get the mitten is to meet with 
 a refusal. 
 
 Mizzle, to; to abscond, or run away. 
 
 Mush, a kind of hasty-pudding. 
 
 Muss, a state of confusion, 
 
AMERIGO VESPUCCI 
 
 AMMON 
 
 Notions, a term applied to every variety 
 of small wares. 
 
 One-horse : a one-horse thing is a thing 
 of no value or importance, a mean and 
 trifling thing. 
 
 Picaninny, a negro child. 
 
 Pile, a quantity of money. 
 
 Amerigo Vespucci. 
 
 Planks, in a political sense, are the 
 several principles which appertain 
 to a party; platform is the collection 
 of such principles. 
 
 Reckon, to ; to suppose, to think. 
 
 Rile, to; to irritate, to drive into a 
 passion. 
 
 Rock, a stone of any size; a pebble; as 
 to throw rocks at a dog. 
 
 Rooster, the common domestic cock. 
 
 Scalawag, a scamp, a scapegrace. 
 
 Shanty, a mean structure such as squat- 
 ters erect ; a temporary hut. 
 
 Skedaddle, to; to run away; a word 
 introduced during the civil war. 
 
 Skidoo, to get out. 
 
 Smart, often used in the sense of con- 
 siderable, a good deal, as a smart 
 chance. 
 
 Soft sawder, flattering, coaxing talk. 
 
 Span of horses, two horses as nearly as 
 possible alike, harnessed side by side. 
 
 Spread-eagle style, a compound of exag- 
 geration, bombast, mixed metaphor, 
 etc. 
 
 Spry, active. 
 
 Stampede, the sudden flight of a crowd 
 or numoer. 
 
 Store, a shop, as a bookstore, a grocery 
 store. 
 
 Strike oil, to ; to come upon petroleum : 
 hence to make a lucky hit, especially 
 financially. 
 
 Stump speech, a bombastic speech cal- 
 culated to please the popular ear, such 
 speeches in newly-settled districts 
 being often delivered from stumps 
 of trees. 
 
 Sun-up, sunset, sunrise. 
 
 Tall, great, fine (used by Shakespeare 
 pretty much in the same sense) ; tall 
 talk is extravagant talk. 
 
 Ticket ; to vote the straight ticket is to 
 vote for all the men or measures your 
 party wishes. 
 
 Truck, the small produce of gardens; 
 truck patch, a plot in which the 
 smaller fruits and vegetables are 
 raised. 
 
 Ugly, ill-tempei-ed, vicious. 
 
 Vamose, to; to run off (from the Span- 
 ish vamos, let us go). 
 
 Wilt, to; to fade, to decay, to droop, to 
 
 wither. 
 
 AMERIGO VESPUCCI (a-mer-e'go 
 ves-pu'tche), a maritime discoverer, after 
 whom America has been named; born, 
 1451, at Florence, died, 1512, at Seville. 
 In 1499 he coasted along the continent 
 of America for several hundred leagues, 
 and the publication of his narrative, 
 while the prior discovery of Columbus 
 was yet comparatively a secret, led to 
 the giving of his name to the new con- 
 tinent. 
 
 AMES, Fisher, an American orator and 
 congressman, born at Dedham, Mass., 
 April 9, 1758. His efforts in favor of 
 the Federal constitution in the Massa- 
 chusetts convention of 1788 resulted in 
 his election to congress, where he served 
 for eight years. In his later years he 
 served in the Massachusetts council, 
 delivered a eulogy on Washington before 
 the legislature, and produced a number 
 of essays. In 1804 he declined the 
 presidency of Harvard. He died July 
 4, 1808. 
 
 AMES, Nathan P., an American 
 manufacturer, bom in Massachusetts in 
 1803, died 1847. He was the owner of 
 extensive cutlery and bronze works. 
 
 
 and cast a number of well-known public 
 monuments. 
 
 AMES, Oaks, an American shovel 
 manufacturer, railroad capitalist, and 
 western pioneer. He was one of the 
 builders of the Southern Pacific rail- 
 road, was a member of congress from 
 Massachusetts, and filled other public 
 offices. Mr. Ames was born in 1804, 
 and died in 1873. 
 
 AMES, Oliver, American statesman, 
 son of Oaks Ames. He was born in 
 Massachusetts in 1831, died in 1895. 
 He succeeded to his father’s immense 
 weath. In 1886 he was elected governor 
 of Massachusetts, and was twice re- 
 elected. 
 
 AMETAB'OLA, a division of insects, 
 including only the apterous or wingless 
 insects, as lice, spring-tails, etc., which 
 do not undergo any metamorphosis, but 
 which escape from the egg nearly under 
 the same form which they preserve 
 through life. 
 
 AM'ETHYST, a violet-blue or purple 
 variety of quartz, generally occurring 
 crystallized in hexahedral prisms or 
 pyramids, also in rolled fragments, com- 
 posed of imperfect prismatic cystals. 
 It is wrought into various articles of 
 jewelry. The oriental amethyst is a 
 rare violet-colored gem, a variety of 
 alumina or corundum, of much brilliance 
 and beauty. 
 
 AMHERST (am'erst), a seaport of 
 Lower Burmah, 31 miles south of 
 Moulmein, a health resort of Europeans. 
 Pop. 5000. — The district of Amherst 
 has an area of 15,189 sq. miles; pop. 
 301,086. 
 
 AMHERST, Jeffery, Lord, born 1717, 
 died 1797; distinguished British gen- 
 eral who fought at Dettingen and 
 Fontenoy, and commanded in America, 
 where he took Louisburg, Ticonderoga, 
 and Quebec, and restored the British 
 prestige in Canada. He was raised to the 
 peerage, became commander-in-chief, 
 and ultimately field-marshal. 
 
 AMHERST, William Pitt, first earl, 
 nephew of the above; Governor-general 
 of India, 1823; prosecuted the first 
 Burmese war, and suppressed the Bar- 
 rackpore mutiny. Born 1773, died 1857. 
 
 AMICE (am'is), an oblong piece of 
 linen with an embroidered apparel 
 sewed upon it, worn under the alb by 
 priests of the R. Cath. Church when 
 engaged in the service of the mass. 
 
 AMIENS (a-me-an), a town of France, 
 capital of the department of Somme, 
 on the railway from Boulogne to Paris. 
 Having water communication with the 
 sea by the Somme, which is navigable 
 for small vessels, it has a large trade and 
 numerous important manufactures, es- 
 pecially cottons and woolens. It was 
 taken by the Germans in 1870. Pop. 
 90,038. — The Peace of Amiens, con- 
 cluded between Great Britain, France, 
 Spain, and the Batavian Republic, 
 March 27, 1802, put an end for a time 
 to the great war which had lasted since , 
 1793. 
 
 AMMERGAU (&m'er-gou), a district 
 in Upper Bavaria, having its center in . 
 the villages of Ober and Unter Ammer- 
 gau. The former village is famous on 
 account of the Passion Play which is 
 performed there, at intervals usually 
 of ten years. 
 
 Ammon. 
 
 AM'MON, an ancient Egyptian diety, 
 one of the cliief gods of the country, 
 identified by the Greeks with their 
 supreme god Zeus, while the Romans 
 regarded him as the representative of 
 
AMMONIA 
 
 AMPHIPODA 
 
 Jupiter; represented r.s a ram, as a 
 human being with a ram’s head, or 
 simply with the horns of a ram. There 
 was a celebrated temple of Ammon in 
 the Oasis of Siwah in the Libyan desert. 
 
 AMMO'NIA, an alkaline substance, 
 which differs from the other alkalies by 
 being gaseous, and is hence sometimes 
 called the volatile alkali. It is a color- 
 less pungent gas, composed of nitrogen 
 and hydrogen. It was first procured in 
 that state by Priestley, who termed it 
 alkaline air. He obtained it from sal- 
 ammoniac by the action of lime, by 
 which method it is yet generally pre- 
 ared. It is used for many purposes, 
 oth in medicine and scientific chem- 
 istry; not, however, in the gaseous state, 
 but frequently in solution in water, 
 under the names of liquid ammonia, 
 aqueous ammonia, or spirits of harts- 
 horn. It may be procured naturally 
 from putrescent animal substances; 
 artificially it is chiefly got from the dis- 
 tillation of coal and of refuse animal 
 substances, such as bones, clippings and 
 shavings of horn, hoof, etc. It may also 
 be obtained from vegetable matter 
 when nitrogen is one of its elements. 
 Sal-ammoniac is the chloride of am- 
 monium. 
 
 AMMONI'ACUM, a gum-resinous ex- 
 udation from an umbelliferous plant. 
 It has a fetid smell, is inflammable, 
 soluble in water and spirit of wine; 
 used as an antispasmodic, stimulant, 
 and expectorant in chronic catarrh, 
 bronchitic affections, and asthma; also 
 used for plasters. 
 
 AM'MONITE, a fossil Cephalopod, 
 belonging to the genus Ammonites, 
 allied to the Nautilus, having a many- 
 chambered shell, in shape like the 
 
 Ammonites. 
 
 curved horns on the ancient statues of 
 Jupiter Ammon; characteristic of the 
 Trias, Lias, and Oolite formations, and 
 sometimes found in immense numbers 
 and of great size. 
 
 AM'MONITES, a Semitic race fre- 
 quently mentioned in Scripture, de- 
 scended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot 
 (Gen. xix. 38), often spoken of in con- 
 junction with the Moabites. A preda- 
 tory and Bedouin race, they inhabited 
 the desert country east of Gad, their 
 chief city being Rabbath-Ammon (Phil- 
 adelphia). Wars between the Israelites 
 and the Ammonites were frequent ; 
 they were overcome by Jephthah, Saul, 
 David, Uzziah, Jotham, etc. They 
 appear to have existed as a distinct 
 people in the time of Justin Martyr, but 
 nave subsequently become merged in 
 the aggregate of nameless Arab tribes. 
 
 AMMO'NIUM, the name given to the 
 hypothetical base of ammonia, analo- 
 gous to a metal as potassium. It has 
 not been isolated, but it is believed to 
 exist in an amalgam with mercury. 
 
 P. E.— 4 
 
 AMMUNITION, military stores gen- 
 erally; in modern u.sage confined to the 
 articles used in the discharge of firearms 
 and ordnance of all kinds, as powder, 
 balls, shells, various kinds of shot, etc. 
 
 AM'NESTY, the releasing of a number 
 of persons who have been guilty of 
 political offenses from the consequence 
 of these offenses. 
 
 AMCE'BA, a microscopic genus of 
 rhizopodous Protozoa, common in fresh- 
 water ponds and ditches. It exists as a 
 mass of protoplasm, and pushes its body 
 
 Amceba, or fresh-water proteus, showing 
 some of the shapes which It assumes. 
 
 out into finger-like processes or pseudo- 
 podia, and by means of these moves 
 about or grasps particles of food. There 
 is no distinct mouth, and food is en- 
 gulfed within any portion of the soft sar- 
 code body. Reproduction takes place 
 by fission, or by a single pseudopodium 
 detaching itself from the parent body 
 and devmoping into a separate amoeba. 
 
 AMONTILLA'DO, a dry kind of sherry 
 wine of a light color, highly esteemed. 
 
 AMOO-DARIA, a Russian territory 
 of central Asia, on the east of the Amoo 
 and southeast of the Sea of Aral; area, 
 40,000 sq. miles; pop. 220,000. 
 
 AMOOR'jorAMUR', one of the largest 
 rivers of eastern Asia, formed by the 
 junction of the rivers Shilka and Argun; 
 flows first in a southeastern and then in 
 a northeastern directly till it falls into 
 an arm of the Sea of Okhotsk, opposite 
 the island of Saghalien, after a course of 
 1500 miles. It forms, for a large portion 
 of its course, part of the boundary-line 
 between the Russian and the Chinese 
 dominions, and is navigable throughout 
 for four months in the year. — Amoor 
 Territory. In 1858 Russia acquired 
 from China the territory on the left 
 bank of the Upper and Middle Amoor, 
 together with that on both banks of the 
 Lower Amoor. The western portion of 
 the territory was organized as a separate 
 province, with the name of the Amoor 
 (area, 173,559 sq. miles; pop. 87,700). 
 The eastern portion was joined to the 
 Maritime Province of eastern Siberia. 
 
 AM'ORITES, a powerful Canaanitish 
 tribe at the time of the occupation of the 
 country by the Israelites; occupied the 
 whole of Gilead and Bashan, and formed 
 two powerful kingdoms — a northern, 
 under Og, who is called king of Bashan ; 
 and a southern, under Sihon, called king 
 of the Amorites; first attacked and over- 
 thrown by Joshua; subsequently sub- 
 dued, and made tributary or driven to 
 mingle with the Philistines and other 
 remnants of the Canaanitish nations. 
 
 AMORPHOUS ROCKS or MINERALS, 
 those having no regular structure, or 
 
 without crystallization, even in the 
 minutest particles. 
 
 AMORPHOZO'A, a term applied to 
 some of the lower groups of animals, as 
 the sponges and their allies, which have 
 no regular symmetrical structure. 
 
 AMOY', an important Chinese tra- 
 ding port, on asmall island off the south- 
 east coast opposite Formosa; has a safe 
 and commodious harbor, and its mer- 
 chants are among the wealthiest and 
 most enterprising in China; one of the 
 five ports opened to British commerce 
 in 1843, now open to all countries. Pop. 
 95,600. 
 
 AMPERE (an-par), Andr4-Marie, a 
 celebrated French mathematician and 
 philosopher, founder of the science of 
 electrodynamics, born at Lyons in 1775, 
 died at Marseilles in 1836. Wiat is 
 known as Ampere’s Theory is that mag- 
 netism consists in the existence of elec- 
 tric currents circulating round the par- 
 ticles of magnetic bodies, being in differ- 
 ent directions round different particles 
 when the bodies are unmagnetized, but 
 all in the same direction when they are 
 magnetized. 
 
 AMPHIB'IA, a class of vertebrate ani- 
 rnals, which in their early life breathe by 
 gills or branchiae, and afterward partly 
 or entirely by lungs. The Frog, breath- 
 ing in its tadpole state by gills and after- 
 ward throwing off these organs and 
 breathing entirely by lungs in its adult 
 state, is an example of the latter phase 
 of amphibian existence. The Proteus of 
 the underground caves of central 
 Europe exemplifies forms in which 
 the gills of early life are retained 
 throughout life, and in which lungs 
 are developed in addition to the gills. 
 A second character of this group con- 
 sists in the presence of two occipital 
 “condyles,” or processes by means of 
 
 Amphipoda. — 1, Shore-jumper: 2, Portion 
 showing the respiratory organs a a a. 
 
 which the skull articulates with the 
 spine or vertebral column; Reptiles 
 possessing one condyle only. The class 
 is divided into four orders; the Ophio- 
 morpha (or serpentiform), represented 
 by the Blind-worms, in which limbs are 
 wanting and the body is snake-hke; the 
 Urodela or “Tailed” Amphibians, in- 
 cluding the Newts, Proteus, Siren, etc."; 
 the Anoura, or Tailless Amphibia, repre- 
 sented by the Frogs and Toads; and the 
 Labyrinthodontia, which includes the 
 extinct forms known as Labyrintho- 
 dons. 
 
 AMPHI'ON, in Greek mythology, son 
 of Zeus and Antiope, and husband of 
 Niobe; had miraculous skill in music, 
 being taught by Mercury, oi’, according 
 to others, by Apollo. In poetic legend 
 he is said to have availed himself of his 
 skill when building the walls of Thebes — 
 the stones moving and arranging them- 
 selves in proper position at the sound 
 of his lyre. 
 
 AMPHIP'ODA, an order of sessile- 
 eyed crustaceans, with feet directed 
 
AMPHIPROSTYLE 
 
 AMYL 
 
 partly forward and partly backward. 
 Many species are found in springs and 
 rivulets, others in salt water. The sand- 
 hopper and shore-jumper are examples. 
 
 AMPHIP'ROSTYLE, in architecture, 
 said of a structure having the form of an 
 ancient (Jreek or Roman oblong rec- 
 tangular temple, with a prostyle or 
 portico on each of its ends or fronts, but 
 with no columns on its sides or flanks. 
 
 AMPHISB.$'NA, a genus of serpenti- 
 form, limbless, lacertilian reptiles; body 
 cylindrical, destitute of scales, and 
 divided into numerous annular seg- 
 ments; the tail obtuse, and scarcely to 
 be distinguished from the head, whence 
 the belief that it moved equally well 
 with either end foremost. There are 
 several species, found in tropical Amer- 
 ica. They feed on ants and earthworms, 
 and were formerly, but erroneously, 
 deemed poisonous. 
 
 AMPHITHE'ATER, an ancient Ro- 
 man edifice of an oval form without a 
 roof, having a central area (the arena) 
 encompassed with rows of seats, rising 
 higher as they receded from the center, 
 on which people used to sit to view the 
 combats of gladiators and of wild beasts, 
 and other sports. The Colosseum at 
 Rome is the largest of all the ancient 
 amphitheaters, being capable of con- 
 taining from 50,000 to 80,000 persons. 
 That at Verona is one of the best ex- 
 amples remaining. Its dimensions are 
 502 feet by 401, and 98 feet high. The 
 name means “both-ways theater,” or 
 ‘‘theater all round,” the theater form- 
 ing only a semicircular edifice. 
 
 AMPHITRI'TE, in Greek mythology, 
 daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, or of 
 Nereus and Doris, and wife of Poseidon 
 (or Neptune), represented as drawn in a 
 chariot of shells by Tritons, with a tri- 
 dent in her hand. 
 
 AMPHIU'MA, a genus of amphibians 
 which frequent the lakes and stagnant 
 waters of North America. The adults 
 retain the clefts at which the gills of the 
 tadpole projected. 
 
 AM'PHORA, a vesSel used by the 
 Greeks and Romans for holding liquids ; 
 commonly tall and narrow, with two 
 handles and a pointed end which fitted 
 
 into a stand or was stuck in the ground 
 to enable them to stand upright; used 
 also as a cinerary urn, and as a liquid 
 measure. 
 
 AM'PLITUDE, in astronomy, the dis- 
 tance of any celestial body (when re- 
 ferred by a secondary circle to the hori- 
 zon) from the east or west points. 
 
 AMPUL'LA, in antiquity, a vessel 
 bellying out like a jug, that contained 
 
 unguents for the bath ; also a vessel for 
 drinking at table. The ampulla has 
 also been employed for ceremonial pur- 
 poses, such as holding the oil or chrism 
 used in various church rites and for 
 
 Another canal, the North Holland Canal 
 (46 m. long, 20 ft. deep), connects 
 Amsterdam with the Helder. Between 
 the harbor and the Zuider-zee the Y is 
 now crossed by a great dam in which are 
 
 Amsterdam— Scene on the Amstel. 
 
 anointing monarehs at their coronation. 
 The ampulla of the English sovereigns 
 now in use is an eagle, weighing about 
 10 oz., of the purest chased gold, which 
 passed through various hands to the 
 Princ0 
 
 AMPUTATION, in surgery, that oper- 
 ation by which a member is separate 
 from the body according to the rules of 
 the science. 
 
 AM'RITSIR, or AMRITSAR, a flour- 
 ishing commercial town of Hindu- 
 stan, capital of a district of the same 
 name, in the Punjab, the principal place 
 of the religious worship of the Sikhs. 
 It has considerable manufactures of 
 shawls and silks ; and receives its name 
 from the sacred pond constructed by 
 Ram Das, the apostle of the Sikhs, in 
 which the Sikhs and other Plindus im- 
 merse themselves that they may be 
 purified from all sin. Pop. 162,429. — 
 The district of Amritsir has an area of 
 1601 miles. Pop. 992,697. 
 
 AM'STERDAM, one of the chief com- 
 merical cities of Europe, capital of Hol- 
 land (but not the residence of the king), 
 situated at the confluence of the Amstel 
 with the Y or Ij (pronounced as eye), an 
 arm of the Zuider-zee. On account of 
 the lowness of the site of the city the 
 greater part of it is built on piles. It is 
 divided by numerous canals into about 
 90 islands, which are connected by 
 nearly 300 bridges. Many of the streets 
 have a canal in the middle with broad 
 brick-paved quays on either side, planted 
 with rows of trees; the houses are gen- 
 ally of brick, many of them six or seven 
 stories high, with pointed gables turned 
 to the streets. Among its numerous 
 industries may be mentioned as a spe- 
 cialty the cutting and polishing of dia- 
 monds. The harbor, formed by the Y, 
 lies along the whole of the north side of 
 the city, and is surrounded by various 
 docks and basins. The trade is very 
 great, being much facilitated by the 
 great ship-canal (15 m. long, 22-26 ft. 
 deep, constructed 1865-76) which con- 
 nects the Y directly with the North Sea. 
 
 locks to admit vessels and regulate the 
 amount of water in the North Sea Canal. 
 During the 17th and 18th centuries 
 Amsterdam was one of the wealthiest 
 and most flourishing cities in the world. 
 Its forced alliance with France ruined 
 its trade, but since 1813 its commerce 
 has revived. Pop. 520,602. 
 
 AMSTERDAM, a town of New York 
 state, U. S., on the Mohawk river, 33 
 miles ”n.w. of Albany; a busy manufac- 
 turing town. Pop. 23,000. 
 
 AM'ULET, a piece of stone, metal, etc., 
 marked with certain figures or charac- 
 ters, which people in some countries 
 wear about them, superstitiously deem- 
 ing them a protection against diseases 
 and enchantments. 
 
 AMUR'. See Amoor. 
 
 eNCLiSH MILES 
 
 AMYG'DALOID, a term applied to an 
 igneous rock, especially trap, containing 
 round or almond-shaped vesicles or 
 cavities partly or wholly filled with 
 crystalline nodules of various minerals, 
 particularly calcareous spar, quartz, 
 agate, zeolite, chlorite, etc. 
 
 AM'YL, in chemistry,- a hypothetic 
 radical believed to exist in many com- 
 pounds, especially the fusel-oil series. 
 
AMYLENE 
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 and having the formula CjHn. — Amyl 
 Nitrite, or Nitrite of Amyl, an amber- 
 colored fluid, smelling and tasting like 
 essence of pears, which has been em- 
 ployed as an anaesthetic and also in 
 relieving cardiac distress, as in angina 
 pectoris. 
 
 AM'YLENE, an ethereal liquid with 
 an aromatic odor, prepared from fusel- 
 oil. It possesses anaesthetic properties, 
 and has been tried as a substitute for 
 chloroform, but is very dangerous. 
 
 AMYL'IC ALCOHOL, one of the prod- 
 ucts of the fermentation of grain, etc., 
 commonly known by the name of fusel- 
 oil (which see). 
 
 AMYRIDA'CE.®, a natural order of 
 plants, consisting of tropical trees or 
 shrubs, the leaves, bark, and fruit of 
 which abound in fragrant resinous and 
 balsamic juices. Myrrh, frankincense, 
 and the gum-elemi of commerce are 
 among their products. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS, a name given to a 
 Christian sect by their adversaries, be- 
 cause, as they obj'ected to infant bap- 
 tism, they rebaptized those who joined 
 their body. The founder of the sect 
 appears to have been Nicolas Storch, 
 a disciple of Luther’s, who seems to 
 have aimed also at the reorganization 
 of society based on civil and political 
 equality. The application of the term 
 Anabaptist to the general body of 
 Baptists throughout the world is unwar- 
 ranted, because these sects have nothing 
 in common with the bodies which sprung 
 up in various countries of Europe during 
 the Reformation, except the practice of 
 adult baptism. The Baptists them- 
 selves repudiate the name Anabaptist, 
 as they claim to baptize according to 
 the original institution of the rite, and 
 never repeat baptism in the case of those 
 who in their opinion have been so 
 baptized. 
 
 ANAB'ASIS, the Greek title of Xeno- 
 phon’s celebrated account of the expedi- 
 tion of Cyrus the Younger against his 
 brother Artaxerxes, king of Persia. 
 The title is also given to Arrian’s work 
 which records the campaigns of Alex- 
 ander the Great. 
 
 AN'ABLEPS, a genus of fishes of the 
 perch family, found in the rivers of 
 Guiana, consisting of but one species, 
 remarkable for a peculiar structure of 
 
 Anableps. 
 
 the eyes, in which there is a division of 
 the iris and cornea, by transverse liga- 
 ments forming two pupils, and making 
 the whole eye appear double. The 
 young are brought forth alive. 
 
 ANACANTHI'NI, an order of osseous 
 fishes, including the cod, plaice, etc., 
 with spineless fins, cycloid or ctenoid 
 scales, the ventral fins either absent or 
 below the pectorals, and ductless swim- 
 bladder. 
 
 ANACH'RONISM, an error of chronol- 
 ogy by which things are represented 
 as coexisting which did not coexist; 
 applied also to anything foreign to or 
 out of keeping with a specified time. 
 
 Thus it is an anachronism when Shake- 
 speare, in Troilus and Cressida, makes 
 Hector quote Aristotle. 
 
 ANACON'DA, the popular name of 
 two of the largest species of the serpent 
 tribe, viz., a Ceylonese species of the 
 genus Python, said to have been met 
 with 33 feet long; and a native of 
 tropical America, allied to the boa-con- 
 strictor, and the largest of the serpent 
 tribe, attaining the length of 40 feet. 
 They frequent swamps and rivers, are 
 destitute of poison fangs, and kill their 
 victims by constriction. 
 
 ANACONDA, a city and county seat 
 of Deer Lodge Co., Mont., 27 miles west 
 by north of Butte, on the Northern 
 Pacific, the Great Northern, and the 
 Butte, Anaconda and Pacific railroads. 
 The city is noted for its great copper- 
 smelting works, which are among the 
 largest in the world, having a daily 
 capacity of some 5500 tons of ore. 
 Railroad shops, foundries, machine 
 shops, and brick works further repre- 
 sent the industrial interests. Pop. 
 12 , 000 . 
 
 AN.®'MIA, a medical term applied to 
 an unhealthy condition of the body, in 
 which there is a diminution of the red 
 corpuscles which the blood should con- 
 tain. The principal symptoms are pale- 
 ness and general want of color in the 
 skin, languor, emaciation, want of appe- 
 tite, fainting, palpitation, etc. 
 
 ANjESTHET'ICS, medical agents em- 
 ployed for the removal of pain, especially 
 in surgical operations, by suspending 
 sensibility either locally or generally. 
 Various agents have been employed for 
 both of these purposes from the earliest 
 times, but the scientific use of anaes- 
 thetics may be said to date from 1800, 
 when Sir Humphry Davy made e.xpcri- 
 ments on the anaesthetic properties of 
 nitrous oxide, and recommended its use 
 in surgery. In 1818 Faraday established 
 the anaesthetic properties of sulphuric 
 ether, but this agent made no advance 
 beyond the region of experiment, till 
 1844, when Dr. Wells, a dentist of 
 Hartford, Connecticut, applied the 
 inhalation of sulphuric ether in the 
 extraction of teeth, but owing to some 
 misadventure did not persevere with 
 it. The example was followed in 1846 
 by Dr. Morton, a Boston dentist, who 
 also extended the use of ether to other 
 surgical operations. The practice was 
 soon after introduced into England by 
 Mr. Liston, and a London dentist, 
 Mr. Robinson. A few weeks later Sir 
 James Simpson made the first applica- 
 tion of ether in a case of midwifery. 
 This was early in 1847. Toward the end 
 of the same year Simpson had his 
 attention called to the anaesthetic 
 efficacy of chloroform, and announced 
 it as a superior agent to ether. This 
 agent has since been the most exten- 
 sively used anaesthetic, though the use 
 of ether still largely prevails in the 
 United States. In their general effects 
 ether and chloroform are very similar; 
 but the latter tends to enfeeble the 
 action of the heart more readily than 
 the former. For this reason great 
 caution has to be used in administering 
 chloroform where there is weak heart 
 action from disease. Local anaesthesia 
 is produced by isolating the part of the 
 
 body to be operated upon, and produc- 
 ing insensibility of the nerves in that 
 locality. Dr. Richardson’s method is 
 to apply the spray of ether, which, by 
 its rapid evaporation, chills and freezes 
 the tissues and produces complete 
 anaesthesia. This mode of treatment, 
 besides its use in minor surgical oper- 
 ations, has recently begun to have 
 important remedial applications. A 
 valuable local anaesthetic now emplojmd 
 is cocaine. 
 
 AN'AGRAM, the transposition of the 
 letters of a word or words so as to form 
 a new word or phrase, a connection in 
 meaning being frequently preserved; 
 thus, evil, vile; Horatio Nelson, Honor 
 est a Nilo (honor is from the Nile). 
 
 AN'ALOGUE, in comparative anat- 
 omy, an organ in one species or group 
 having the same function as an organ 
 of different structure in another species 
 or group, as the wing of a bird and that 
 of an insect, both serving for flight. 
 Organs in different animals having a 
 similar anatomical structure, develop- 
 ment, and relative position, independent 
 of function or form, such as the arm 
 of a man and the wing of a bird, are 
 termed homologues. 
 
 ANAL'OGY is the mode of reason- 
 ing from resemblance to resemblance. 
 When we find on attentive examination 
 resemblances in objects apparently 
 diverse, and in which at first no such 
 resemblances Avere discovered, a pre- 
 sumption arises that other resemblances 
 may be found by further examination 
 in these or other objects likewise 
 apparently diverse. It is on the belief 
 in a unity in nature that all inferences 
 from analogy rest. The general infer- 
 ence from analogy is ahvays perfectly 
 valid. Wherever there is resemblance, 
 similarity or identity of cause somewhere 
 may be justly inferred; but to infer 
 the particular cause without particular 
 proof is always to reason falsely. Anal- 
 ogy is of great use and constant applica- 
 tion in science, in philosophy, and in the 
 common business of life. 
 
 ANAL'YSIS, the resolution of an 
 object, whether of the senses or the intel- 
 lect, into its component elements. In 
 philosophy it is the mode of resolving a 
 compound idea into its simple parts, in 
 order to consider them more distinctly, 
 and arrive at a more precise knowledge 
 of the whole. It is opposed to synthesis, 
 by which we combine and class our per- 
 ceptions, and contrive expressions for 
 our thoughts, so as to represent their 
 several divisions, classes, and relations. 
 
 Analysis, in mathematics, is, in the 
 widest sense, the expression and develop- 
 ment of the functions of quantities by 
 calculation; in a narrower sense the 
 resolving of problems by algebraic 
 equations. The analysis of the ancients 
 wa§ exhibited only in geometiy, and 
 made use only of geometrical assistance, 
 whereby it is distinguished from the 
 analysis of the moderns, which extends 
 to all measurable objects, and expresses 
 in equations the mutual dependence of 
 magnitudes. Analysis is divided into 
 lower and higher, the lower comprising, 
 besides arithmetic and algebra, the doc- 
 trines of functions, of series, combina- 
 tions, logarithms, and curves, the higher 
 comprising the differential and in- 
 
ANAM 
 
 ANAXIMENES 
 
 tegral calculus, and the calculus of 
 variations. 
 
 In chemistry, analysis is the process of 
 decomposing a compound substance 
 with a view to determine either (a) what 
 elements it contains (qualitative analy- 
 sis), or (b) how much of each element is 
 present (quantitative analysis). Thus 
 by the first process we learn that water 
 is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, 
 and by the second that it consists of one 
 part of hydrogen by weight to eight parts 
 of oxygen. 
 
 ANAM', a country of Asia occupying 
 the e. side of the Southeastern or Indo- 
 Chinese Peninsula, along the China Sea, 
 having a length of about 850 miles, with 
 a breadth varying from over 400 miles 
 in the n. to 100 in the middle. It is 
 composed of three parts: Tonquin in 
 the n.; Cochin-China in the s.; and the 
 territory of the Laos tribes, s.w. of Ton- 
 quin (together, area, 170,000 square 
 miles, pop. 15,000,000, 9,000,000 being 
 in Tonquin). 
 
 AN' ANAS. See Pineapple. 
 
 AN'ARCHISTS, a revoluntionary sect 
 or body setting forth as the social ideal 
 the extreme form of individual freedom, 
 and holding that all government is in- 
 jurious and immoral, that the destruc- 
 tion of every social form now existing 
 must be the first step to the creation of 
 a new world. Their recognition as an 
 independent sect may be dated from the 
 secession of Bakunin and his followers 
 from the Social Democrats at the con- 
 gress of the Hague in 1872, since which 
 tney have maintained an active propa- 
 
 f anda. Their principal journals have 
 een La Revolte (Paris), the Freiheit 
 (New York), Liberty (Boston), and the 
 Anarchist (London). The congress at 
 London in 1881 decided that all means 
 were justifiable as against the organized 
 forces of modern society. 
 
 Much disputation arises from the con- 
 fusion of anarchists with nihilists and 
 with socialists. On the other hand, 
 philosophical anarchism is confounded 
 with revolutionary anarchism. Anar- 
 chists of the latter type have during the 
 past 25 years assassinated, or attempted 
 to assassinate, numerous rulers or heads 
 of government, but in eveiy case they 
 have paid the death penalty for the deed. 
 The most notable anarchistic demonstra- 
 tion was that of the Haymarket Square 
 riot of Chicago on May 4, 1886, in which 
 7 policemen were killed and 60 wounded. 
 Philosophical anarchism does not coun- 
 tenance the use of violence, but holds 
 that human society will eventually 
 evolve into a state in which there will be 
 no need of any kind of government. Its 
 foremost apostle was Herbert Spencer. 
 
 ANARTHROP'ODA, one of the two 
 great divisions (the Arthropoda being 
 the other) of the Annulosa, or ringed 
 animals, in which there are no articulated 
 appendages. It includes the leeches, 
 earthworms, tubeworms, etc. 
 
 A'NAS, a genus of web-footed birds, 
 containing the true ducks. 
 
 ANATH'EMA, originally a gift hung 
 up in a temple and dedicated to some 
 god, a votive offering; but it gradually 
 came to be used for expulsion, curse. 
 The Roman Catholic Church pronounces 
 the sentence of anathema against heretics, 
 schismatics, and all who wilfully pursue 
 
 a course of conduct condemned by the 
 church. The subject of the anathema 
 is declared an outcast from the church, 
 all the failthful are forbidden to associate 
 with him, and utter destruction is 
 denounced against him, both body and 
 soul. 
 
 ANAT'ID.®, a family of swimming 
 birds, including the ducks, swans, geese, 
 etc. 
 
 ANAT'OMY, in the literal sense, 
 means simply a cutting up, but is now 
 generally applied both to the art of dis- 
 secting or artificially separating the 
 different parts of an organized body 
 (vegetable or animal) with a view to 
 discover their situation, structure, and 
 economy ; and to the science which treats 
 of the internal structure of organized 
 bodies. The branch which treats of the 
 structure of plants is called vegetable 
 anatomy or phytotomy, and that which 
 treats of the structure of animals animal 
 anatomy or zootomy, a special branch 
 of the latter being human anatomy or 
 anthropotomy. Comparative anatomy 
 is the science which compares the 
 anatomy of different classes or species 
 of animals, as that of man with quad- 
 rupeds, or that of quadrupeds with 
 fishes; while special anatomy treats of 
 the construction, form, and structure of 
 parts in a single animal. The special 
 anatomy of an animal may be studied 
 from various standpoints: with relation 
 to the succession of forms which it 
 exhibits from its first stage to its adult 
 foim (developmental or embryotical 
 anl^tomy), with reference to the general 
 properties and structure of the tissues or 
 textures (general anatomy, histology), 
 with reference to the changes in structure 
 of organs or parts produced by disease 
 and congenital malformations (morbid 
 or pathological anatomy), or with refer- 
 ence to the function, use, or purpose 
 performed by the organs or parts (teleo- 
 logical or physiological anatomy). Ac- 
 cordii^ to the parts of the body described 
 the different divisions of human anatomy 
 receive different names; as, osteology, 
 the description of the bones; myology, 
 of the muscles; desmology, of the liga- 
 ments and sinews ; splanchnology, of the 
 viscera or internal organs, in which are 
 reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intes- 
 tines, the liver, spleen, kidneys, bladder, 
 pancreas, etc. Angiology describes the 
 vessels through which the liquids in the 
 body are conducted, including the blood- 
 vessels, which are divided into arteries 
 and veins, and the lymphatic vessels, 
 some of which absorb matters from the 
 bowels, while others are distributed 
 through the whole body, collecting 
 juices from the tissues and carrying 
 them back into the blood. Neurology 
 describes the system of the nerves and 
 of the brain; dermatology treats of the 
 skin. 
 
 Among the ancient writers or author- 
 ities on human anatomy may be men- 
 tioned Hippocrates the younger (460- 
 377 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 b.c.), 
 Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alex- 
 andria (fl. about 300 B.C.), Celsus (53 
 B.C.-37 A.D.), and Galen of Pergamus 
 (140-200), the most celebrated of all 
 the ancient authorities on the science. 
 From his time till the revival of learn- 
 ing in Europe in the 14th century 
 
 anatomy was checked in its progress. 
 In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, 
 first publicly performed dissection, and 
 published a System of Anatomy, which 
 was a text-book in the schools of Italy 
 for about 200 years. In the 16th cen- 
 tury Fallopio of Padua, Eustachi of 
 Venice, Vesalius of Brussels, Varoli of 
 Bologna, and many others, enriched 
 anatomy with new discoveries. In the 
 17th century Harvey discovered the 
 circulation of the blood, Asellius dis- 
 covered the manner in which the nutri- 
 tious part of the food is conveyed into 
 the circulation, while the lymphatic sys- 
 tem was detected and described by the 
 Dane T. Bartoline. Among the renowned 
 anatomists of later times we can only 
 mention Malpighi, Boerhaave, William 
 and John Hunter, the younger Meckel, 
 Bichat, Rosenmiiller, Quain, Sir A. 
 Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Cams, Joh. Muller, 
 Hackel, Gegenbaur, Owen, and Huxley. 
 
 ANAXAG'ORAS, an ancient Greek 
 philosopher of the Ionic school, born at 
 Clazomenae, in Ionia, probably about 
 500 B.c. When only about twenty 
 years of age he settled at Athens, and 
 soon gained a high reputation, and 
 gathered round him a circle of renowned 
 pupils, including Pericles, Euripides, 
 Socrates, etc. At the age of fifty he was 
 publicly charged with impiety and con- 
 demned to death, but the sentence was 
 commuted to perpetual banishment. 
 He thereupon went to Lampsacus, where 
 he died about 428. Anaxagoras be- 
 longed to the atomic school of Ionic 
 philosophers. He held that there was 
 an infinite number of different kinds of 
 elementary atoms, and that these, in 
 themselves motionless and originally 
 existing in a state of chaos, were put in 
 motion by an eternal, immaterial,’ 
 spiritual, elementary being. Nous (In- 
 telligence), from which motion the 
 world was produced. The stars were, 
 according to him, of earthy materials; 
 the sun a glowing mass, about as large 
 as the Peloponnesus ; the earth was fiat ; 
 the moon a dark, inhabitable body, re- 
 ceiving its light from the sun; the comets 
 wandering stars. 
 
 ANAXIMAN'DER, an ancient Greek 
 (Ionic) philosopher, was born at Miletus 
 in 611 B.C., and died 547. The funda- 
 mental principle of his philosophy is 
 that the source of all things is an unde- 
 fined substance infinite in quantity. 
 The firmament is composed of heat and 
 cold, the stars of air and fire. The sun 
 occupies the highest place in the heavens, 
 has a circumference twenty-eight times 
 larger than the earth, and resembles a 
 cylinder, from which streams of fire 
 issue. The moon is likewise a cylinder, 
 nineteen times larger than the earth. 
 The earth has the shape of a cylinder, 
 and is placed in the midst of the uni- 
 verse, where it remains suspended. 
 Anaximander occupied himself a great 
 deal with mathematics and geography. 
 To him is credited the invention of 
 geographical maps and the first applica- 
 tion of the gnomon or style fixed on a 
 horizontal plane to determine the sol- 
 stices and equinoxes. 
 
 ANAXIMENES (an-aks-im'e-nez) OP 
 MILETUS, an ancient Greek philoso- 
 pher, according to whom air was the 
 first principle of all things. Finite things 
 
 
AJ^CHOU 
 
 AMd69 
 
 were formed from the infinite air by 
 compression and rarefaction produced 
 by eternally existent motion; and heat 
 and cold resulted from varying degrees 
 of density of the primal element. He 
 flourished about 550 b.c. 
 
 AN'CHOR, an implement for holding 
 a ship or other vessel at rest in the water. 
 In ancient times large stones or crooked 
 pieces of wood heavily weighted with 
 metal were used for this purpose. The 
 
 anchor now used is of iron, formed with 
 a strong shank, at one extremity of 
 which is the crown, from which branch 
 out two arms, terminating in broad 
 palms or flukes, the sharp extremity of 
 which is the peak or bill; at the other 
 end of the shank is the stock (fixed at 
 right angles to the plane of the arms), 
 behind which is the ring, to which a 
 cable can be attached. The principal 
 use of the stock is to cause the arms to 
 fall so as one of the flukes shall enter the 
 ground. 
 
 AN'CHORITES, in the early church 
 a class of religious persons who generally 
 passed their lives in cells, from which 
 they never removed. Their habitations 
 were, in many instances, entirely sepa- 
 rated from the abodes of other men, 
 sometimes in the depth of wildernesses, 
 in pits or caverns ; at other times several 
 of these individuals fixed their habita- 
 tions in the vicinity of each other, but 
 they always lived personally separate. 
 The continual prevalence of bloody 
 wars, civil commotions, and persecu- 
 tions at the beginning of the Christian 
 era must have made retirement and 
 religious meditation agreeable to men 
 of quiet and contemplative minds. This 
 spirit, however, as might have been 
 expected, soon led to fanatical excesses ; 
 many anchorites went without proper 
 clothing, wore heavy chains, and we 
 find at the close of the 4th century 
 Simeon Stylites passing thirty years on 
 the top of a column without ever de- 
 scending from it, and finally dying there. 
 In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity 
 became blended with the Grecian philos- 
 ophy and strongly tinged with the 
 peculiar notions of the East, the anchor- 
 ites were most numerous; in Europe 
 there were comparatively few, and on 
 the development and establishment of 
 the monastic system they completely 
 disappeared. 
 
 ANCHOVY (an-cho'vi), a small fish 
 of the Herring family. The common 
 anchovy, so esteemed for its rich and 
 peculiar flavor, is not much larger than 
 the middle finger. It is caught in vast 
 numbers in the Mediterranean, and fre- 
 quently on the coasts of France, Hol- 
 land, and the south of England, and 
 pickled for exportation. A favorite 
 sauce is made by pounding the pickled 
 fish in water, simmering for a short 
 time, adding a little cayenne pepper, 
 and straining the whole through a hair- 
 sieve. 
 
 ANCO'NA, a seaport of Italy, capital 
 of the province of the same name, on the 
 Adriatic, 130 miles n.e. of Rome, with 
 harbor works begun by Trajan, who 
 built the ancient mole or quay. A 
 triumphal arch of white marble, erected 
 in honor of Traj'an, stands on the mole. 
 The harbor, once the finest on the coast, 
 has been recently improved; Ancona is 
 now a station of the Italian fleet, and 
 the commerce is increasing. The town 
 is indifferently built, but has some re- 
 markable edifices; among others, the 
 cathedral. There is a colossal statue of 
 Count Cavour. Pop. 56,825. — The prov- 
 ince has an area of 740 square miles, and 
 a population of 302,460. 
 
 ANDALU'SIA, a large and fertile dis- 
 trict in the south of Spain, bounded n. 
 by Estramadura and New Castile, e. by 
 Murcia, s. by the Mediterranean Sea, 
 and w. by Portugal and the Atlantic; 
 area, about 33,650 sq. miles, including 
 the modern provinces of Seville, Huelva, 
 Cadiz, Jaen, Cordova, Granada, Al- 
 meria, and Malaga. It is traversed 
 throughout its whole extent by ranges 
 of mountains, the loftiest being the 
 Sierra Nevada, many summits of which 
 are covered with perpetual snow (Mula- 
 hacen is 11,678 feet). Minerals abound, 
 and several mines have been opened by 
 English companies, especially in the 
 province of Huelva, where the Tharsis 
 and Rio Tinto copper-mines are situ- 
 ated. The principal river is the Guadal- 
 quivir. The vine, myrtle, olive, palm, 
 banana, carob, etc., grow abundantly 
 in the valley of the Guadalquivir. 
 Wheat, maize, barley, and many vari- 
 eties of fruit grow almost spontane- 
 ously; besides which honey, silk, and 
 cochineal form important articles of 
 culture. The horses and mules are the 
 best in the Peninsula; the bulls are 
 sought for bull-fighting over all Spain; 
 sheep are reared in vast numbers. 
 Agriculture is in a backward state, and 
 the manufactures are by no means 
 extensive. The Andalusians are de- 
 scended in part from the Moors, of 
 whom they still preserve decided char- 
 acteristics. Pop. 3,282,448. 
 
 AN'DAMANS, a chain of islands on 
 the east side of the Bay of Bengal, the 
 principal being the North, Middle, 
 South, and Little Andamans. Middle 
 Andaman is about 60 miles long, and 
 15 or 16 miles broad; North and 
 South Andaman are each about 50 miles 
 long. The inhabitants are about 
 10,000 in number, and are mostly in a 
 state of nature, living almost naked in 
 the rudest habitations. They are small, 
 generally much less than 5 feet, well- 
 formed, and active, skilful archers and 
 canoeists, and excellefit swimmers and 
 divers. These islands have been used 
 since 1858 as a penal settlement by the 
 Indian government, the settlement 
 being at Port Blair, on South Anadman. 
 
 ANDANTE (an-dan'ta), in music, 
 denotes a movement somewhat slow, 
 graceful, distinct, and soothing. The 
 word is also applied substantively to 
 that part of a sonata or symphony 
 having a movement of this character. 
 
 AN'DERSEN, Hans Christian, a Da- 
 nish novelist, poet, and writer of fairy 
 tales, was born of poor parents at 
 Odense, 2d April, 1805. In 1835 ap 
 
 peared the first volume of his t’airy 
 Tales, of which successive volumes con- 
 tinued to be published year by year at 
 Christmas, and which have been the 
 most popular and wide-spread of his 
 works. He died 4th August, 1875, 
 having had the pleasure of seeing many 
 of his works translated into most of 
 the European languages. 
 
 ANDERSEN, Mary Antoinette, an 
 American actress, born at Sacramento, 
 Cal., in 1859, but reared in Kentucky. 
 Educated in convents of the Roman 
 Catholic Church, of which church she 
 is a devout member. She made her., 
 debut as Juliet at Louisville in 1875.' 
 Her first visit to the East was made in 
 1877, and her success there was im- 
 mediate. In 1884-5 she visited London 
 and was well received. Her principal 
 roles were Rosalind in As You Like It, 
 Julia in The Hunchback, Meg Merri- 
 lies, Perdita in Winter’s Tale, Evadne, 
 and Juliet. In 1890 she was married, to 
 Antonio Navarro de Viana and has since 
 her marriage resided in England. 
 
 AN'DERS^ON, a city and railroad 
 center, the county seat of Madison Co., 
 Ind., 36 miles northeast of Indianapolis, 
 on the west fork of the White River, 
 and the Chic^o and Southeastern, 
 the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and 
 St. Louis, and other railroads. An 
 abundant supply of natural gas pro- 
 motes the manufacturing industries, 
 which include iron, steel, glass, wire 
 nails, strawboards, tiles, etc. The city 
 is the center of an extensive system of 
 interurban electric railways. Near the 
 city are the historic mounds of the so- 
 called “mound builders.” Pop. 23,000. 
 
 ANDERSON, Rasmus Bjorn, an Amer- 
 ican author and diplomat, born in 
 Wisconsin in 1846. From 1875 to 1883 
 he taught Scandinavian languages and 
 literature in the University of Wis- 
 consin and from 1885 to 1889 was 
 U. S. minister to Denmark. He has 
 published several works on Scandi- 
 navian subjects. 
 
 ANDERSON, Robert, a Scotch author, 
 born in 1750, died 1830. His prin- 
 cipal work is a comprehensive com- 
 pilation of the British poets. 
 
 ANDES (an'dez), or, as they are called 
 in Spanish South America, Cordilleras 
 de los Andes, or simply Cordilleras, a 
 range of mountains stretching along the 
 whole of the west coast of South Amer- 
 ica, from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of 
 Panama and the Caribbean Sea. In ab- 
 solute length (4500 miles) no single 
 chain of mountains approaches the 
 Andes, and only a certain number of 
 the higher peaks of the Himalayan 
 chain rise higher above the sea-level; 
 which peak is the highest of all is not 
 yet settled. Several main sections of 
 this huge chain are distinguishable. 
 The Southern Andes present a lofty 
 main chain, with a minor chain running 
 parallel to it on the east, reaching from 
 Tierra del Fuego and the Straits of 
 Magellan, northward to about lat. 28° s., 
 and rising in Aconcagua to a height of 
 22,860 feet. North of this is the double 
 chain of the Central Andes, inclosing 
 the wide and lofty plateaux of Bolivia 
 and Peru, which lie at an elevation of 
 more than 12,000 feet above the sea. 
 The mountain system is here at its 
 
ANDIRON 
 
 ANDROMEDA 
 
 broadest, being about 500 miles across. 
 Here are also several very lofty peaks, as 
 Illampu or Sorata (21,484 feet), Sahama 
 (21,054), Illimani (21,024). Farther 
 north the outer and inner ranges draw 
 closer together, and in Ecuador, there 
 is but a single system of elevated masses, 
 generally described as forming two 
 parallel chains. In this section are 
 crowded together a number of lofty 
 peaks, most of them volcanoes, either 
 extinct or active. Of the latter class are 
 Pichincha (15,918 feet), with a crater 
 2500 feet deep; Tunguragua (16,685 
 ^et); Sangay (17,460 feet); and 
 Xotopaxi (19,550 feet). The loftiest 
 summit here appears to be Chimborazo 
 (20,581 feet); others are Antisana 
 (19,260 feet) and Cayambe (19,200 feet). 
 Northward of this section the Andes 
 break into three distinct ranges, the 
 eastraost running northeastward into 
 Venezuela, the westmost running north- 
 westward to the Isthmus of Panama. 
 In the central range is the volcano of 
 Tolima (17,660 feet). The western 
 slope of the Andes is generally exceed- 
 ingly steep, the eastern much less so, 
 the mountains sinking gradually to the 
 plains. The whole range gives evidence 
 of volcanic action, but it consists almost 
 entirely of sedimentary rocks. Thus 
 mountains may be found rising to the 
 height of over 20,000 feet, and fossilif- 
 erous to their summits (as Illimani and 
 Sorata or Illampu). There are about 
 thirty volcanoes in a state of activity. 
 The loftiest of these burning mountains 
 seems to be Gualateiri, in Peru (21,960 
 feet). The heights of the others vary 
 from 13,000 to 20,000 feet. All the 
 districts of the Andes system have 
 suffered severely from earthquakes, 
 towns having been either destroyed or 
 greatly injured by these visitations. 
 Peaks crowned with perpetual snow are 
 seen all along the range, and glaciers 
 are also met with, more especially 
 from Aconcagua southward. The 
 passes are generally at a great height, 
 the most important being from 10,000 
 to 15,000 feet. Railways have been con- 
 structed to cross the chain at a similar 
 elevation. The Andes are extremely 
 rich in the precious metals, gold, silver, 
 copper, platinum, mercury, and tin all 
 being wrought: lead and iron are also 
 found. The llama and its congeners — 
 the guanaco, vicuna, and alpaca — are 
 characteristic of the Andes. Among 
 birds, the condor is the most remarkable. 
 The vegetation necessarily varies much 
 according to elevation, latitude, rain- 
 fall, etc., but generally is rich and varied. 
 Except in the south and north little 
 rain falls on the western side of the 
 range, and in the center there is a con- 
 siderable desert area. On the east side 
 the rainfall is heavy in the equatorial 
 regions, but in the south is very scanty 
 or altogether deficient. From the 
 Andes rise two of the largest water sys- 
 tems of the world — the Amazon and 
 its affluents, and the La Plata and its 
 affluents. Besides which, in the north, 
 from its slopes flow the Magdalena to 
 the Caribbean Sea, and some tributaries 
 to the Orinoco. The mountain chain 
 pressing so close upon the Pacific 
 Ocean, no streams of importance flow 
 from its western slopes. The number 
 
 of lakes is not great; the largest and 
 most important ii that of Titicaca on 
 the Bolivian plateau. In the Andes 
 are towns at a greater elevation than 
 anywhere else in the world, the high- 
 est being the silver mining town of 
 Cerro de Pasco (14,270 feet), the next 
 being Potosi. 
 
 ANDIRON (and'i-ern), a horizontal 
 iron bar raised on short legs, with an 
 upright standard at one end, used to 
 support pieces of wood when burning 
 in an open hearth, one andiron being 
 placed on each side of the hearth. 
 
 AN'DOVER, a town in Massachusetts, 
 25 miles n.n.w. of Boston, chiefly 
 remarkable for its literary institutions — 
 Phillip’s Academy, founded in 1778; 
 the Andover Theological Seminary, 
 founded in 1807; and a female academy 
 founded in 1829. Pop. 6142. 
 
 ANDRASSY (S,n-dra'she), Count Ju- 
 lius, Hungarian statesman, born 1823; 
 took part in the revolution of 1848, was 
 condemned to death, but escaped and 
 went into exile; appointed premier when 
 self-government was restored to Hun- 
 gary in 1867; became imperial minis- 
 ter for foreign affairs in 1871 ; retired 
 from public life 1879; died 1890. 
 
 ANDRE (an'dra). Major John, ad- 
 jutant-general in the British army dur- 
 ing the American revolutionary war. 
 Employed to negotiate the defection of 
 the American general Arnold, and the 
 delivery of the works at West Point, he 
 
 Major Aiidr6. 
 
 was apprehended in disguise, September 
 23, 1780, within the American lines; 
 declared a spy from the enemy, and 
 hanged Oct. 2, 1780. His remains were 
 taken to England in 1821 and interred 
 in Westminster Abbey, where a monu- 
 ment has been erected to his memory. 
 
 AN 'DREW, John Albion, governor of 
 Massachusetts during the civil war. He 
 was born in Maine in 1818, and became 
 a lawyer in Boston. Having been 
 elected governor in 1860, he perfected a 
 state militia, so that when the war broke 
 out Massachusetts was entirely prepared 
 for the call. He retired in 1866, after 
 being reelected for each succeeding term, 
 and he died in 1867. 
 
 AN'DREW, St., brother of St. Peter, 
 and the first disciple whom Christ chose. 
 He is said to have preached in Scythia, 
 in Thrace and Asia Minor, and in 
 Achaia (Greece), and according to tra- 
 dition he was crucified at Patrjs, now 
 Patra^ in Achaia, on a cross of the form 
 X. Hence such a cross is now known 
 as a St. Andrew’s cross. The Russians 
 
 revere him as the apostle who brought 
 the gospel to them; the Scots, as the 
 patron saint of their country. The day 
 dedicated to him is the 30th of Novem- 
 ber. The Russian order of St. Andrew, 
 the highest of the empire, was instituted 
 by Peter the Great in 1698. For the 
 Scottish Knights of St. Andrew or the 
 Thistle, see Thistle. 
 
 ANDREWS, Elisha Benjamin, an 
 educator and present chancellor of the 
 University of Nebraska. Born in New 
 Hampshire, in 1844, be fought on the 
 Union side during the civil war. He was 
 educated at Brown University and at 
 Newton Theological Institution, and, 
 after teaching in numerous schools, 
 Cornell University among them, he 
 became president of Brown in 1889. In 
 1898 he resigned because of the hostility 
 he aroused by his advocacy of free silver, 
 and, after two years’ service as superin- 
 tendent of schools in Chicago, he was 
 appointed to the chancellorship of the 
 University of Nebraska. He is the 
 author of several text-books. 
 
 AN'DREWS, St., an ancient city and 
 parliamentary burgh in Fifeshire, Scot- 
 land, 31 miles northeast from Edin- 
 burgh ; was erected into a royal burgh by 
 David I. in 1140, and after having been 
 an episcopal, became an archiepiscopal 
 see in 1472, and was for long the ecclesi- 
 astical capital of Scotland. The cathe- 
 dral, now in ruins, was begun about 
 1160, and took 157 years to finish. 
 The old castle, founded about 1200, and 
 rebuilt in the 14th century, is also an 
 almost shapeless ruin. In it James III. 
 was born and Cardinal Beaton assassi- 
 nated, and in front of it George Wishart 
 was burned. The University of St. 
 Andrews, the oldest of the Scotch uni- 
 versities, founded in 1411, consists of 
 the united colleges of St. Salvator and 
 St. Leonard and the college of St. Mary, 
 both at St. Andrews, and embraces also 
 University College, Dundee. In 1579 
 the colleges of St. Salvator and St. 
 Leonard were restricted to the teaching 
 of arts and medicine, and that of St. 
 Mary to theology. In 1747 the two 
 former colleges were united by act of 
 parliament. University College, Dun- 
 dee, was founded in 1880. Pop. 7621. 
 
 AN'DREWS, William Draper, an 
 American inventor, born in Massachu- 
 setts in 1818, died in 1896. He invented 
 the centrifugal pump in 1844, and sub- 
 sequently improved upon it, securing 
 numerous patents, from which he de- 
 rived a large revenue. 
 
 AN'DRIA, a town of South Italj', 
 province of Bari, with a fine cathedral, 
 founded in 1046; the church of Sant’ 
 Agostino, with a beautiful pointed 
 Gothic portal; a college; manufactures of 
 majolica, and a good trade. Pop. 37,192. 
 
 ANDROMACHE (an-drom'aMce), in 
 Greek mythology, wife of Hector, one of 
 the most attractive female characters of 
 Homer’s Iliad. The passage describing 
 her parting with Hector when he was 
 setting out to his last battle is w'ell 
 known and much admired. Euripides 
 and Racine have made her the chief 
 character of tragedies. 
 
 ANDROM'EDA, in Greek mythology, 
 daughter of the Ethiopian king Cepheus 
 and of Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia having 
 boasted that her daughter surpassed the 
 
ANDRONICUS 
 
 ANGLE 
 
 Nereids, if not Hera (Juno) herself, in 
 beauty, the offended goddesses prevailed 
 on their father, Poseidon (Neptune), to 
 afflict the country with a horrid sea- 
 monster, which threatened universal 
 destruction. To appease the offended 
 god, Andromeda was chained to a rock, 
 but was rescued by Perseus; and after 
 death was changed into a constellation. 
 
 ANDRONI'CUS, the name of four 
 emperors of Constantinople; ANDRONI- 
 CUS L, Comnenus, born 1110, murdered 
 1185.— ANDRONICUS II., Palaeologus, 
 born 1258, died 1332. His reign is cel- 
 ebrated for the invasion of the Turks. 
 —ANDRONICUS III., Palaeologus the 
 Younger, born 1296, died 1341. — AN- 
 DRONICUS IV., Palaeologus, reigned 
 in the absence of John IV. In 1373 he 
 gave way to his brother Manuel, and died 
 a monk. 
 
 ANDROS ISLANDS, a group of isles 
 belonging to the Bahamas, lying south- 
 west of New Providence, not far from 
 the east entrance to the Gulf of Florida. 
 The passages through them are danger- 
 ous. 
 
 AN'ECDOTE, originally some particu- 
 lar relative to a subject not noticed in 
 previous works on that subj'ect; now 
 any particular or detached incident or 
 fact of an interesting nature; a single 
 passage of private life. 
 
 ANELEC'TRODE, the positive pole 
 of a galvanic battery. 
 
 ANEMOM'ETER, an instrument for 
 measuring the force and velocity of the 
 wind. This force is usually measured 
 by the pressure of the wind upon a 
 square plate attached to one end of a 
 
 Anemometer. 
 
 spiral spring (with its axis horizontal), 
 which yields more or less according to 
 the force of the wind, and transmits its 
 motion to a pencil which leaves a trace 
 upon paper moved by clockwork. For 
 indicating the velocity of the wind, the 
 instrument which has yielded the best 
 results consists of four hemispherical 
 cups A attached to the ends of equal 
 horizontal arms, forming a horizontal 
 cross which turns freely about a vertical 
 axis B, which is strengthened and sup- 
 ported at C. By means of an endless 
 screw D carried by the axis a train of 
 wheel-work is set in motion; and the 
 indication is given by a hand which 
 moves round a dial; or in some instru- 
 ments by several hands moving round 
 different dials like those of a gas- 
 meter. It is found that the center of 
 each cup moves with a velocity which is 
 almost exactly one-third of that of the 
 wind. There are various other forms 
 of instruments, one of which is portable, 
 and is especially intended for measuring 
 the velocity of currents of air passing 
 through mines, and the ventilating 
 spaces of hospitals and other public 
 buildings. The direction of the wind 
 
 as indicated by a vane can also be made 
 to leave a continuous record by various 
 contrivances; one of the most common 
 being a pinion carried by the shaft of a 
 vane, and driving a rack which carries 
 a pencil. 
 
 ANEM'ONE, wind-flower, a genus of 
 plants belonging to the Buttercup family, 
 containing many species, found in tem- 
 perate regions. 
 
 ANEM'ONE, Sea. See Sea-anemone. 
 
 ANEROID BAROMETER. See Ba- 
 rometer. 
 
 AN'EURISM, the dilatation or expan- 
 sion of some part of an artery. Aneur- 
 isms arise partly from the too violent 
 motion of the blood, and partly from 
 degenerative changes occurring in the 
 coats of the artery diminishing their 
 elasticity. They are therefore more 
 frequent in the great branches; in par- 
 ticular, in the vicinity of the heart, in the 
 arch of the aorta, and in the extremities, 
 where the arteries are exposed to fre- 
 quent injuries by stretching, violent 
 bodily exertions, thrusts, falls, and con- 
 tusions. An internal aneurism may 
 burst and cause death. 
 
 ANGEL, one of those spiritual intel- 
 ligences who are regarded as dwelling in 
 heaven and employed as the ministers 
 or agents of God. To these the name 
 of good angels is sometimes given, to 
 distinguish them from bad angels, who 
 were originally created to crccupy the 
 same blissful abode, but lost it by rebel- 
 lion. Scripture frequently speaks of 
 angels, but with great reserve, Michael 
 and Gabriel alone being mentioned by 
 name in the canonical books, while 
 Raphael is mentioned in the Apocrypha. 
 The angels are represented in Scripture 
 as in the most elevated state of intel- 
 ligence, purity, and bliss, ever doing the 
 will of God so perfectly that we can seek 
 for nothing higher or better than to aim 
 at being like them. There are indica- 
 tions of a diversity of rank and power 
 among them, and something like angelic 
 orders. They are represented as fre- 
 quently taking part in communications 
 made from heaven to earth, as directly 
 and actively ministering to the good of 
 believers, and shielding or delivering 
 them from evils incident to their earthly 
 lot. That every person has a good and 
 a bad angel attendant on him was an 
 early belief, and is held to some extent 
 yet. Roman Catholics show a certain 
 veneration or worship to angels, and beg 
 their prayers and their kind offices; 
 Protestants consider this unlawful. 
 
 ANGEL-FISH, a fish nearly allied to 
 the sharks, very ugly and voracious, 
 preying on other fish. It is from 6 to 8 
 feet long, and takes its name from its 
 pectoral fins, which are very large, ex- 
 tending horizontally like wings when 
 spread. This fish connects the rays 
 with the sharks, but it differs from both 
 in having its mouth placed at the ex- 
 tremity of the head. It is common on 
 the south coasts of Britain, and is also 
 called Monk-fish and Fiddle-fish. 
 
 ANGELICO (An-jel'i-koL Fra, the 
 common appellation of Fra Giovanni da 
 Fiesole, one of the most celebrated of the 
 early Italian painters. Born 1387, he 
 entered the Dominican order in 1407, 
 and was employed by Cosmo de Medici 
 in painting the monastery of St. Mark 
 
 and the church of St. Annunziata with 
 frescos. These pictures gained him so 
 much celebrity that Nicholas V. in- 
 vited him to Rome, to ornament his 
 private chapel in the Vatican, and 
 offered him the archbishopric of Flor- 
 ence, which was declined. He died at 
 Rome 1455. 
 
 ANGELO (an'je-lo), Michael. See 
 Buonarotti. 
 
 AN'GELUS, in the Rom. Cath. Church, 
 a short form of prayer in honor of the 
 incarnation, consisting mainly of versicles 
 and responses, the angelic salutation 
 three times repeated, and a collect, so 
 named from the word with which it 
 commences, “Angelus Domini” (Angel 
 of the Lord). Hence, also, the bell 
 tolled in the morning, at noon, and in the 
 evening to indicate the time when the 
 angelus is to be recited. 
 
 ANGER, an emotion of an aggressive, 
 destructive, or vindictive character 
 against the thing or person causing it. 
 According to Bain the emotion is pleas- 
 ant (except where it is introduced by 
 too great a shock, or where the con- 
 sciousness of moral obliquity counter- 
 acts the pleasantness) and develops by 
 an expansion — both mental and physical 
 — of the individual. As the agent of 
 justice, the angered person acquires an 
 amount of self-esteem, which is reflected 
 in a tendency to muscular activity, deep- 
 ened respiration, and aggressive pos- 
 tures. On the other hand, when anger 
 is complicated by the emotions of fear, 
 hatred, envy, or jealousy, or when it 
 is baffled, it acquires a different char- 
 acter. It then becomes unpleasantly 
 toned, is accompanied by choking and 
 stuffiness, trembling and weakness, and 
 a loss of muscular force. But even in 
 anger which is intrinsically unpleasant, 
 a successful termination of the attempt 
 to injure the object of the emotion 
 brings a moment of satisfaction and 
 pleasure, as in the humiliation of a 
 rival. 
 
 ANGERS (an-zha), a town and river- 
 port of France, capital of the depart- 
 ment of Maine-et-Loire, and formerly of 
 the province of Anjou, on the banks of 
 the Maine, 5J miles from the Loire, 150 
 miles southwest of Paris. In the neigh- 
 borhood are immense slate quarries. 
 Pop. 82,966. 
 
 ANGINA PECTORIS (an-ji'na pek'to- 
 ris), or HEART-SPASM, a disease char- 
 acterized by an extremely acute con- 
 striction, felt generally in the lower part 
 of the sternum, and extending along the 
 whole side of the chest and into the cor- 
 responding arm, a sense of suffocation, 
 faintness, and apprehension of approach- 
 ing death: seldom experienced by any 
 but those with organic heart-disease. 
 The disease rarely occurs before middle 
 age and is more frequent in men than in 
 women. Those liable to attack must 
 lead a quiet, temperate life, avoiding all 
 scenes which would unduly rouse their 
 emotions. The first attack is occasion- 
 ally fatal, but usually death occurs as 
 the result of repeated seizures. The 
 paroxism may be relieved by opiates, or 
 the inhalation, under due precaution, of 
 anaesthetic vapors. 
 
 ANGLE, the point where two lines 
 meet, or the meeting of two lines in a 
 point. A plane rectilineal angle is 
 
An6leK, 
 
 ANILISM 
 
 formed by two straight lines which meet 
 each other, but are not in the same 
 straight line; it may be considered the 
 degree of opening or divergence of the 
 two straight lines which thus meet 
 each other. A right angle is an angle 
 formed by a straight line falling on an- 
 other perpendicularly, or an angle 
 which is measured by an arc of 90 
 degrees. When a straight line, as A B 
 (fig. 1), standing on another straight line 
 C D, makes the two angles ABC and 
 
 A B D equal to each other, each of 
 these angles is called a right angle. 
 An acute angle is that which is less than 
 a right angle, as E B C. An obtuse 
 angle is that which is greater than a 
 right angle, as E B D. Acute and obtuse 
 angles are both called oblique, in oppo- 
 sition to right angles. Exterior or 
 external angles, the angles of any rec- 
 tilineal figure without it, made by pro- 
 ducing the sides ; thus, if the sides A B, 
 B C, C A of the triangle ABC (fig. 2) be 
 produced to the points F D E, the 
 angles CBF, ACD, BAE are called 
 exterior or external angles. A solid 
 angle is that which is made by more than 
 two plane angles meeting in one point 
 and not lying in the same plane, as 
 the angle of a cube. A spherical angle 
 is an angle on the surface of a sphere, 
 contained between the arcs of two 
 great circles which intersect each other. 
 
 ANGLER, also from its habits and 
 appearance called Fishing-frog and Sea- 
 devil, a remarkable fish often found on 
 the British coasts. It is from 3 to 5 
 feet long; the head is very wide, de- 
 pressed, with protuberances, and bear- 
 ing long separate movable tendrils ; the 
 mouth is capacious, and armed with 
 formidable teeth. Its voracity is 
 extreme, and it is said to lie concealed in 
 the mud, and attract the smaller fishes 
 within its reach by gently waving the 
 filamentous appendages on its head. 
 
 ANGLES, a Low German tribe who 
 in the earliest historical period had 
 their seats in the district about Angeln, 
 in the duchy of Sleswig, and who in the 
 5th century and subsequently crossed 
 over to Britain along with bands of 
 Saxons and Jutes (and probably Frisians 
 also), and colonized a great part of 
 what from them has received the name 
 of England, as well as a portion of the 
 Lowlands of Scotland. The Angles 
 formed the largest body among the 
 Germanic settlers in Britain, and 
 founded the three kingdoms of East 
 Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. 
 
 Anglesey (ang'gl-sc), an island and 
 county of North Wales, in the Irish Sea, 
 separated from the mainland by the 
 Menai Strait; 20 miles long and 17 
 miles broad; area, 193,511 acres. Tlie 
 Menai Strait is crossed by a magnificent 
 suspension. bridge, 580 feet between the 
 piers and 100 feet above high-water 
 
 mark, and also by the great Britannia 
 Tubular Railway Bridge. Pop. 50,590. 
 
 ANGLICAN CHURCH, a term which 
 strictly embraces only the Church of 
 England and the Protestant episcopal 
 churches in Ireland, Scotland, and the 
 colonies, but is sometimes used to in- 
 clude also the episcopal churches of the 
 United States. The doctrines of the 
 Anglican Church are laid down in the 
 Thirty-nine Articles, and its ritual is 
 contained in the Book of Common 
 Prayer. Within the body there is room 
 for considerable latitude of belief and 
 doctrine, and three sections are some- 
 times spoken of by the names of the 
 High Church, Low Church, and Broad 
 Church. 
 
 ANGLING, the art of catching fish 
 with a hook or angl6 baited with worms, 
 small fish, flies, etc. 
 
 ANGLOMA'inA, the manner which 
 affects to imitate the English. Anglo- 
 mania has been common in Europe 
 many times during the past three or 
 four centuries. It was raging in France 
 previously to the revolution, and has 
 been very fashionable in Germany. 
 In the United States Anglomania has 
 had its exemplars from time out of 
 mind Today, especially in Boston 
 and New York, and in less degree in the 
 cities of the middle west and west, an 
 English manner and English accent are 
 regarded as the very best form. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXONS, the name common- 
 ly given to the nation or people formed 
 by the amalgamation of the Angles, 
 Saxons, and Jutes, who settled in 
 Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries 
 after Christ, the Anglo-Saxons being 
 simply the English people of the earlier 
 period of English history. The tribes 
 who were thus the ancestors of the bulk 
 of the English-speaking nationalities 
 came from north Germany, where they 
 inhabited the parts about the mouths 
 of the Elbe and Weser, and the first 
 body of them who gained a footing in 
 Britain are said to have landed in 449, 
 and to have been led by Hengist and 
 Horsa. From the preponderance of the 
 Angles the whole country came to be 
 called Engla-land, that is, the land of 
 the Angles or English. 
 
 ANGO'LA, a Portuguese territory in 
 western Africa, south of the Congo, the 
 name being applied sometimes to the 
 whole Portuguese territory here from 
 about lat. 6° s. tolat. 17° s. (area, 300,- 
 000 sq. m.; pop. 2,000,000). The prin- 
 cipal town is the seaport of St. Paul de 
 Luanda, which was long the great Por- 
 tuguese slave-mart. Exports ivory, 
 palm-oil, coffee, hides, gum, wax, etc. 
 Pop. 600,000. 
 
 ANGO'RA, a town in the interior of 
 Asiatic Turkey, 215 miles e.s.e. of Con- 
 stantinople. All the animals of this 
 region are long-haired, especially the 
 goats (see Goat), sheep, and cats. 
 This hair forms an important export 
 as well as the fabric called camlet here 
 manufactured from it; other exports 
 being goats’ skins, dye-stuffs, gums, 
 honey and wax, etc. A railway con- 
 nects it with Skutari. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 ANGORA CAT, the large and long- 
 haired white variety of the common 
 cat, said to belong originally to An- 
 gora. 
 
 ANGORA GOAT, a Variety of the Com- 
 mon goat with long silky hair. See 
 Goat. 
 
 ANGOSTURA BARK, the aromatic 
 bitter medicinal bark obtained chiefly 
 
 from a tree of 10 to 20 feet high, grow- 
 ing in the northern regions of South 
 America. The bark is valuable as a 
 tonic and febrifuge, and is also used for 
 a kind of bitters. 
 
 ANGOULEME (an-go-lam), an ancient 
 town of western France, capital of dep. 
 Charente, on the Charente, 60 miles 
 n.n.e. of Bordeaux, on the summit of a 
 rocky hill. There are manufactures of 
 paper, woolens, linens, distilleries, sugar- 
 works, tanneries, etc. Pop. 34,647. 
 
 AN'HALT, a duchy of North Ger- 
 many, lying partly in the plains of the 
 Middle Elbe, and partly in the valleys 
 and uplands of the Lower Harz, and 
 almost entirely surrounded by Prussia; 
 area, 906 sq. miles; pop. 316,027, almost 
 all Protestants. The chief towns are 
 Dessau, Bernburg, Ksthen, and Zerbst. 
 
 ANTLINE, a substance which has 
 recently become of great importance, 
 as being the basis of a number of bril- 
 liant and durable dyes. It is found in 
 small quantities in coal tar, but the 
 aniline of commerce is obtained from 
 benzene or benzole, a constituent of 
 coal-tar, consisting of hydrogen and 
 carbon. Benzene, when acted on by 
 nitric acid, produces nitrobenzene; 
 and this substance again, when treated 
 with nascent hydrogen, generally pro- 
 duced by the action of acetic acid upon 
 iron-filings or scraps, produces aniline. 
 It is a colorless oily liquid, somewhat 
 heavier than water, with a peculiar 
 vinous smell, and a burning taste. When 
 acted on by arsenious acid, bichromate 
 of potassium, stannic chloride, etc., 
 aniline produces a great variety of 
 compounds, many of which are pos- 
 sessed of very beautiful colors, and are 
 known by the names of aniline purple, 
 aniline green, roseine, violine, bleu de 
 Paris, magenta, etc. 
 
 ANTLISM, aniline poisoning, a name 
 given to the aggregate of symptoms 
 which often show themselves in those 
 employed in aniline works, resulting 
 from the inhalation of aniline vapors. 
 It may be either acute or chronic. In 
 a slight attack of the former kind, the 
 lips, cheeks, and ears become of a bluish 
 color, and the person’s walk may be 
 unsteady; in severe cases there is loss 
 of consciousness. Chronic anilism is 
 accompanied by derangement of the 
 digestive organs and of the nervous 
 
ANIMAL 
 
 ANNA COMNENA 
 
 system, headaches, eruptions on the 
 skin, muscular weakness, etc. 
 
 ANIMAL, an organized and sentient 
 living being. Life in the earlier periods 
 of natural history was attributed almost 
 exclusively to animals. With the prog- 
 ress of science, however, it was extended 
 to plants. In the case of the higher 
 animals and plants there is no difficulty 
 in assigning the individual to one of 
 the two great kingdoms of organic 
 nature, but in their lowest manifesta- 
 tions the vegetable and animal king- 
 doms are brought into such immediate 
 contact that it becomes almost impossi- 
 ble to assign them precise limits and 
 to say with certainty where the one 
 begins and the other ends. From form 
 no absolute distinction can be fixed 
 between animals and plants. Many 
 animals, such as the sea-shrubs, sea- 
 mats, etc., so resemble plants in exter- 
 nal appearance that they were, and 
 even yet popularly are, looked upon 
 as such. With regard to internal struc- 
 ture no line of demarkation can be laid 
 down, all plants and animals being, in 
 this respect, fundamentally similar; 
 that is, alike composed of molecular, 
 cellular, and fibrous tissues. Neither 
 are the chemical characters of animal 
 and vegetable substances more distinct. 
 Animals contain in their tissues and 
 fluids a larger proportion of nitrogen 
 than plants, while plants are richer 
 in carbonaceous compounds than the 
 former. In some animals, moreover, 
 substances almost exclusively confined 
 to plants are found. Thus the outer 
 wall of Sea-squirts contains cellulose, a 
 substance largely found in plant-tissues; 
 while chlorophyll, the coloring-matter 
 of plants, occurs in Hydria and many 
 other lower animals. Power of motion, 
 again, though broadly distinctive of 
 animals, cannot be said to be absolutely 
 characteristic of them. Thus many 
 animals, as oysters, sponges, corals, etc., 
 in their mature condition are rooted 
 or fixed, while the embryos of many 
 plants, together with numerous fully 
 developed forms, are endowed with 
 locomotive power by means of vibratile, 
 hair-like processes called cilia. The 
 distinctive points between animals and 
 plants which are most to be relied on 
 are those derived from the nature and 
 mode of assimilation of the food. 
 Plants feed on inorganic matters, con- 
 sisting of water, ammonia, carbonic 
 acid, and mineral matters. They can 
 only take in food which is presented to 
 them in a liquid or gaseous state. The 
 exceptions to these rules are found 
 chiefly in the case of plants which live 
 parasitically on other plants or on ani- 
 mals, in which cases the plant may be 
 said to feed on organic matters, repre- 
 sented by the juices of their hosts. 
 Animals, on the contrary, require organ- 
 ized matters for food. They feed either 
 upon plants or upon other animals. 
 But even carnivorous animals can be 
 shown to be dependent upon plants for 
 subsistence; since the animals upon 
 which Carnivora prey are in their turn 
 supported by plants. Animals, further, 
 can subsist on solid food in addition to 
 liquids and gases; but many animals 
 (such as the Tapeworms) live by the 
 mere imbibition of fluids which are 
 
 absorbed by their tissues, such forms 
 possessing no distinct digestive system. 
 Animals require a due supply of oxygen 
 gas for their sustenance, this gas being 
 used in respiration. Plants, on the con- 
 trary, require carbonic acid. The ani- 
 mal exhales or gives out carbonic acid 
 as the part result of its tissue-waste, 
 while the plant taking in this gas is 
 enabled to decompose it into its con- 
 stituent carbon and oxygen. The plant 
 retains the former for the uses of its 
 economy, and liberates the oxygen, 
 which is thus restored to the atmos- 
 phere for the use of the animal. Ani- 
 mals receive their food into the interior 
 of their bodies, and assimilation takes 
 place in their internal surfaces. Plants, 
 on the other hand, receive their food 
 into their external surfaces, and assimi- 
 lation is effected in the external parts 
 as are exemplified in the leaf-surfaces 
 under the influence of sunlight. All 
 animals possess a certain amount of 
 heat or temperature which is necessary 
 for the performance of vital action. 
 The only classes of animals in which a 
 constantly-elevated temperature is kept 
 up are birds and mammals. The bodily 
 heat of the former varies from 100° F. 
 to 112° F., and of the latter from 96° F. 
 to 104° F. The mean or average heat 
 of the human body is about 99° F., and 
 it never falls much below this in health. 
 Below birds animals are named “cold- 
 blooded,” this term meaning in its 
 strictly physiological sense that their 
 temperature is usually that of the 
 medium in which they live, and that it 
 varies with that of the surrounding 
 medium. ‘]||farm-blooded” animals, on 
 the contrar^ do not exhibit such varia- 
 tions, but mostly retain their normal 
 temperature in any atmosphere. The 
 cause of the evolution of heat in the 
 animal body is referred to the union 
 (by a process resembling ordinary com- 
 bustion) of the carbon and hydrogen 
 of the system with the oxygen taken in 
 from the air in the process of respira- 
 tion. 
 
 ANIMAL CHEMISTRY, the depart- 
 ment of organic chemistry which in- 
 vestigates the composition of the fluids 
 and the solids of animals, and the chem- 
 ical action that takes place in animal 
 bodies. There are four elements, some- 
 times distinctively named organic ele- 
 ments, which are invariably found in 
 living bodies, viz., carbon, hydrogen, 
 oxygen, and nitrogen. To these may 
 be added, as frequent constituents of 
 the human body, sulphur, phosphorus, 
 lime, sodium, potassium, chlorine, and 
 iron. The four organic elements are 
 found in all the fluids and solids of the 
 body. Sulphur occurs in blood and in 
 many of the secretions. Phosphorus is 
 also common, being found in nerves, 
 in the teeth, and in fluids. Chlorine 
 occurs almost universally throughout 
 the body; lime is found in bone, in the 
 teeth, and in the secretions; iron oecurs 
 in the blood, in urine, and in bile; and 
 sodium, like chlorine, is of almost uni- 
 versal occurence. Potassium occurs in 
 muscles, in nerves, and in the blood- 
 corpuscles. Minute quantities of cop- 
 per, silicon, manganese, lead, and 
 lithium are also found in the human 
 body. The compounds formed in the 
 
 human organism are divisible into the 
 organic and inorganic. The most fre- 
 quent of the latter is water, of which 
 two-thirds (by weight) of the body are 
 composed. The organic compounds 
 may, like the foods from which they are 
 formed, be divided into the nitrogenous 
 and non-nitrogenous. Of the former 
 the chief are albumen (found in blood, 
 lymph, and chyle), casein (found in 
 milk), myosin (in muscle), gelatin (ob- 
 tained from bone), and others. The 
 non-nitrogenous compounds are repre- 
 sented by organic acids, such as formic, 
 acetic, butyric, stearic, etc.; by animal 
 starches, sugar; and by fats and oils, as 
 stearin and olein. 
 
 ANIMALCULE (an-i-mal'kul), a gen- 
 eral name given to many forms of ani- 
 mal life from their minute size. 
 
 ANIMAL HEAT. See Animal. 
 
 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. See Mes- 
 merism. 
 
 ANIMALS, Cruelty to. See Cruelty. 
 
 ANIMAL WORSHIP, a practice found 
 to prevail, or to have prevailed, in the 
 most widely distant parts of the world, 
 both the Old and the New, but nov'here 
 to such an amazing extent as in ancient 
 Egypt, notwithstanding its high civiliza- 
 tion. I^parly all the more important 
 animals found in the country were re- 
 garded as sacred in some part of Egypt, 
 and the degree of reverence paid to them 
 was such that throughout Egypt the 
 killing of a hawk or an ibis, whether 
 voluntary or not, was punished with 
 death. The worship, however, was not, 
 except in a few instances, paid to them 
 as actual deities. The animals were 
 merely regarded as sacred to the deities, 
 and the worship paid to them was 
 symbolical. 
 
 ANISE (an'is), an annual plant, a 
 native of the Levant, and cultivated in 
 Spain, France, Italy, Malta, etc., 
 whence the fruit, popularly called 
 aniseed, is imported. This fruit is 
 ovate, with ten narrow ribs, between 
 which are oil-vessels. It has an aro- 
 matic smell, and is largely employed 
 to flavor liquors (aniseed or anisette), 
 sweetmeats, etc. 
 
 ANISEED. See Anise. 
 
 ANJOU (an-zho), an ancient province 
 of France, now forming the department 
 of Maine-et-Loire, and parts of the 
 departments of Indre-et-Loire, May- 
 enne, and Sarthe; area, about 3000 sq. 
 miles. 
 
 ANKLE. See Foot. 
 
 ANKYLO'SIS, or ANCHYLO'SIS, stiff- 
 ness of the joints caused by a more or 
 less complete coalescence of the bones 
 through ossification, often the result of 
 inflammation or injury. False anky- 
 losis is stiffness of a joint when the dis- 
 ease is not in the joint itself, but in the 
 tendinous and muscular parts by which 
 it is surrounded. 
 
 ANNA COMNE'NA, daughter of Alex- 
 ius Comnenus I., Byzantine emperor. 
 She was born 1083, and died 1148. 
 After her father’s death she endeavored 
 to secure the succession to her husband, 
 Nicephorus Briennius, but was baffled 
 by his want of energy and ambition. 
 She wrote (in Greek) a life of her father 
 Alexius, which, in the midst of much 
 fulsome panegyric, contains some valu- 
 able and interesting information. She 
 
ANNA IVANOVNA 
 
 ANNUITY 
 
 forms a character in Sir Walter Scott’s 
 Count Robert of Paris. 
 
 ANNA IVANOV'NA, Empress of Rus- 
 sia; born in 1693, the daughter of 
 Ivan, the elder half-brother of Peter 
 the Great. She was married in 1710 
 to the Duke of Courland, in the follow- 
 ing year was left a widow, and in 1730 
 ascended the throne of the czars on the 
 condition proposed by the senate, that 
 she would limit the absolute power of 
 the czars, and do nothing without the 
 advice of the council composed of the 
 leading members of the Russian aristoc- 
 racy. But no sooner had she ascended 
 the throne than she declared her promise 
 null, and proclaimed herself autocrat of 
 all the Russias. She chose as her 
 favorite Ernest John von Biren or 
 Biron, who was soon all-powerful in 
 Russia, and ruled with great severity. 
 Several of the leading nobles were 
 executed, and many thousand men 
 exiled to Siberia. In 1737 Anna forced 
 the Courlanders to choose Biren as their 
 duke, and nominated him at her death 
 regent of the empire during the minority 
 of Prince Ivan (of Brunswick). Anna 
 died in 1740. 
 
 AN'NALS, a history of events in 
 chronological order, each event being 
 recorded under the year in which it 
 occurred. 
 
 ANNAM'. See Anam. 
 
 ANNAP'OLIS, the capital of Mary- 
 land, on the Severn, near its mouth in 
 Chesapeake Bay. It contains a college 
 
 State Capitol, Annapolis, Md. 
 
 (St. John’s), a statehouse, and the 
 United States naval academy. Pop. 
 9000. 
 
 ANN ARBOR, a town in Michigan, 
 on the Huron river, about 40 miles west 
 of Detroit ; the seat of the state univer- 
 sity, has flour-mills, and manufactures 
 of woolens, iron, and agricultural imple- 
 ments. Pop. 16,000. 
 
 ANNE, Queen of Great Britain and 
 Ireland, was born at Twickenham, near 
 London, 6th February, 1664. She was 
 the second daughter of James II., then 
 Duke of York, and Anne, his wife, 
 daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. 
 After the death of William III. in 1702 
 she ascended the English throne. Her 
 character was essentially weak, and she 
 was governed first by Marlborough and 
 his wife, and afterward by Mrs. Mas- 
 
 ham. Most of the principal events of her 
 reign are connected with the war of the 
 Spanish Succession. The only impor- 
 tant acquisition that England made by 
 it was Gibraltar, which was captured in 
 1704, Another very important event 
 
 Queen Anne. 
 
 of this reign was the union of England 
 and Scotland under the name of Great 
 Britain, which was accomplished in 
 1707. She seems to have long cherished 
 the wish of securing the succession to 
 her brother James, but this was frus- 
 trated by the internal dissensions of the 
 cabinet. Grieved at the disappoint- 
 ment of her secret wishes, she fell into 
 a state of weakness and lethargy, and 
 died, July 20, 1714. The reign of Anne 
 was distinguished not only by the 
 brilliant successes of the British arms, 
 but also on account of the number of 
 admirable and excellent writers who 
 flourished at this time, among whom 
 were Pope, Swift, and Addison. 
 
 ANNE (of Austria), daughter of 
 Philip III. of Spain, was born at Madrid 
 in 1602, and in 1615 was married to 
 Louis XIII. of France. Richelieu, fear- 
 ing the influence of her foreign connec- 
 tions, did everything he could to humble 
 her. In 1643 her husband died, and 
 she was left regent, but placed under 
 the control of a council. But the parlia- 
 ment overthrew this arrangement, and 
 intrusted her with full sovereign rights 
 during the minority of her son Louis 
 XIV. She, however, brought upon her- 
 self the hatred of the nobles by her 
 boundless confidence in Cardinal Maz- 
 arin, and was forced to flee from Paris 
 during the wars of the Fronde. She 
 ultimately quelled all opposition, and 
 was able in 1661 to transmit to her son 
 unimpaired the royal autnority. She 
 spent the remainder of her life in retire- 
 ment, and died January 20, 1666. 
 
 ANNEALING (an-el'ing), a process to 
 which inany articles of metal and glass 
 are subjected after making, in order to 
 render them more tenacious, and which 
 consists in heating them and allowing 
 them to cool slowly. When the metals 
 are worked by the hammer, or rolled 
 into plates, or drawn into wire, they 
 acquire a certain amount of brittleness, 
 which destroys their usefulness, and has 
 to be remedied by annealing. The tem- 
 pering of steel is one kind of annealing. 
 Annealing is particularly employed in 
 glass-houses, and consists in putting the 
 glass vessels, as soon as they are formed 
 and while they are yet hot, into a fur- 
 nace or oven, in which they are sufifered 
 
 to cool gradually. The toughness is 
 greatly increased by cooling the articles 
 in oil. 
 
 ANNEXATION, the act of a state in 
 acquiring territory, near or remote, 
 whether independent or belonging to 
 another power. It has been recently 
 decided by the Supreme Court of the 
 United States, in the so-called insular 
 cases (1901), that Porto Rico remained 
 foreign territory, notwithstanding the 
 destruction of the Spanish sovereignty 
 and government and the occupation of 
 the island by the military forces of 
 the United States until the ratification 
 of the treaty of peace with Spain in 
 1898, and that it was this act which 
 extended the sovereignty of the United 
 States over that island. Where the 
 transfer of title is not acquiesced in by 
 the former sovereign, there must be an 
 effective occupation and a virtually 
 complete destruction of the previously 
 existing authority. But the annexation 
 may be complete notwithstanding the 
 active or passive opposition of the 
 inhabitants of the territory affected. 
 
 AN'NUAL, in botany, a plant that 
 springs from seed, grows up, produces 
 seed, and then dies, all within a single 
 year or season. 
 
 AN'NUAL, in literature, the name 
 given to a class of publications which 
 at one time enjoyed an immense yearly 
 circulation, and were distinguished by 
 great magnificence both of binding and 
 illustration, which rendered them much 
 sought after as Christmas and New 
 Year presents. Their contents were 
 chiefly prose tales and ballads, lyrics, 
 and other poetry. 
 
 ANNU'ITY, a sum of money paid 
 annually to a person, and continuing 
 either a certain number of years, or for 
 an uncertain period, to be determined 
 by a particular event, as the death of 
 the recipient or annuitant, or thai of 
 the party liable to pay the annuity; 
 or the annuity may be perpetual. The 
 payments are made at the end of each 
 year, or semi-annually, or at other 
 periods. An annuity is usually raised 
 by the present payment of a certain 
 sum as a consideration whereby the 
 party making the payment, or some 
 other person named by him, becomes 
 entitled to an annuity, and the rules 
 and principles by which this present 
 value is to be computed have been the 
 subjects of careful investigation. The 
 present value of a perpetual annuity is 
 evidently a sum of money that will 
 yield an interest equal to the annuity, 
 and payable at the same periods; and 
 an annuity of this description, payable 
 quarterly, will evidently be of greater 
 value than one of the same amount 
 payable annually, since the annuitant 
 has the additional advantage of the 
 interest on three of the quarterly pay- 
 ments until the expiration of the year. 
 In other words, it requires a greater 
 present capital to be put at interest to 
 yield a given sum per annum, payable 
 quarterly, than to yield the same annual 
 sum payable at the end of each year 
 The present value of an annuity for a 
 limited period is a sum which, if put at 
 interest, will at the end of that period 
 give an amount equal to the sum of all 
 the payments of the annuity and inter- 
 
ANNUNCIATION 
 
 ANTARCTIC 
 
 est; and, accordingly, if it be proposed 
 to invest a certain sum of money in the 
 purchase of an annuity for a given 
 number of years the comparative value 
 of the two may be precisely estimated, 
 the rate of interest being given. 
 
 ANNUNCIATION^ the declaration of 
 the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary 
 informing her that she was to become 
 the mother of our Lord. — Annunciation 
 or Lady Day is a feast of the R. C. church 
 in honor of the annunciation, celebrated 
 on the 25th of March. — There are two 
 orders of nuns of the Annunciation, one 
 originally French, founded in 1501 by 
 Joanna of Valois, the other Italian, 
 founded in 1604 by Maria Vittoria 
 Fornari of Genoa. 
 
 AN'ODE, the positive pole of the 
 voltaic current, being that part of the 
 surface of a decomposing body which 
 the electric current enters: opposed to 
 cathode, the way by which it departs. 
 
 AN'ODYNE, a medicine, such as an 
 opiate or narcotic, which allays pain. 
 
 ANOINTING, rubbing the body or 
 some part of it with oil, often perfumed. 
 From time immemorial the nations of 
 the East have been in the habit of 
 anointing themselves for the sake of 
 health and beauty. The Greeks and 
 Romans anointed themselves after the 
 bath. Wrestlers anointed themselves 
 in order to render it more difficult for 
 their antagonists to get hold of them. 
 In Egypt it seems to have been common 
 to anoint the head of guests when they 
 entered the house where they were to 
 be entertained, as shown in the cut. In 
 the Mosaic law a sacred character was 
 attached' to the anointing of the gar- 
 ments of the priests and things belong- 
 ing to the ceremonial of worship. The 
 Jewish priests and kings were anointed 
 when inducted into office, and were 
 called the anointed of the Lord, to show 
 that their persons were sacred and their 
 ofiice from God. In the Old Testament 
 
 Egyptian anointing a guest. 
 
 also the prophecies respecting the 
 Redeemer style him Messias, that is, the 
 Anointed, which is also the meaning of 
 his Greek name Christ. The custom of 
 anointing still exists in the Roman 
 Catholic Church in the ordination of 
 priests and the confirmation of be- 
 lievers and the sacrament of extreme 
 unction. The ceremony is also fre- 
 quently a part of the coronation of 
 kings. 
 
 ANOM'ALY, in astronomy, the angle 
 which a line drawn from a planet to the 
 6un has passed through since the planet 
 
 was last at its perihelion or nearest 
 distance to the sun. The anomalistic 
 year is the interval between two suc- 
 cessive times at which the earth is in 
 perihelion, or 365 days 6 hours 13 min- 
 utes 45 seconds. In consequence of the 
 advance of the earth’s perihelion among 
 the stars in the same direction as the 
 earth’s motion and of the precession of 
 
 the equinoxes, which carries the equi- 
 noxes back in the opposite direction 
 to the earth’s motion, the anomalistic 
 year is longer than the sidereal year, 
 and still longer than the tropical or 
 common year. 
 
 ANON'YMOUS, literally, “without 
 name,’’ applied to anything which is the 
 work of a person whose name is unknown 
 or who keeps his name secret. Pseu- 
 donym is a term used for an assumed 
 name. The knowledge of the anony- 
 mous and pseudonymous literature is 
 indispensable to the bibliographer, and 
 large dictionaries given the titles and 
 writers of such works have been pub- 
 lished. 
 
 ANSO'NIA, a city in New Haven Co., 
 Conn., 12 miles west by north of New 
 Haven, on the Naugatuck river, and on 
 the Berkshire and Nangatuck divisions 
 of the New York, New Haven and 
 Hartford Railroad. Ansonia is noted 
 as a manufacturing center, the products 
 including heavy machinery, rollers for 
 paper-making and wheat-milling, cop- 
 per, brass, and wire goods, electrical 
 appliances, clocks, etc. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 ANSPACH (an'spag). See Ansbach. 
 
 ANT, the common name of insects of 
 various genera found in most temperate 
 and tropical regions. They are small but 
 powerful insects, and have long been 
 noted for their remarkable intelligence 
 and interesting habits. They live in 
 communities regulated by definite laws, 
 each member of the society bearing a 
 well-defined and separate part in the 
 work of the colony. Each community 
 consists of males; of females much 
 larger than the males; and of barren 
 females, otherwise called neuters, work- 
 ers, or nurses. The neuters are wingless, 
 and the males and females only acquire 
 I wings for their “nuptial flight,’’ after 
 
 which the males perish, and the few 
 females which escape the pursuit of 
 their numerous enemies divest them- 
 selves of their wings, and either return 
 to established nests, or become the 
 foundresses of new colonies. The 
 neuters perform all the labors of the 
 ant-hill or abode of the community; 
 they excavate the galleries, procure’ 
 
 food, and feed the larvae or young ants» 
 which are destitute of organs of motion. 
 In fine weather they carefully convey 
 them to the surface for the benefit of the 
 sun’s heat, and as attentively carry 
 them to a place of safety either when 
 bad weather is threatened or the ant- 
 hill is disturbed. In like manner they 
 watch over the safety of the nymphs 
 or pupae about to acquire their perfect 
 growth. Some communities possess a 
 special type of neuters, known as “sol- 
 diers,’’ from the duties that specially 
 fall upon them, and from their powerful 
 biting jaws. There is a verj' consider- 
 able variety in the materials, size, and 
 form of ant-hills, or nests, according to 
 the peculiar nature or instinct of the 
 species. 
 
 ANTAL'KALI, a substance which 
 neutralizes an alkali, and is used medic- 
 inally to counteract an alkaline tendency 
 in the system. All true acids have this 
 power. 
 
 ANTANANARI'VO (an-tan-an-a-re'v6), 
 the capital of Madagascar, situated in 
 the central province of Imdrina. Antan- 
 anarivo is the residence of the French 
 governor of Madagascar, and there is a 
 strong French garrison. It has manu- 
 factures of metal work, cutlery, silk, 
 etc. Pop. about 100,000. 
 
 ANTARCTIC (ant-iirk'tik), relating 
 to the southern pole or to the region 
 near it. The Antarctic Circle is a circle 
 parallel to the equator and distant from 
 the south pole 23° 28', marking the 
 area within which the sun does not set 
 when on the tropic of Capricorn. The 
 I Antarctic Circle has been arbitrarily 
 fixed on as the limits of the Antarctic 
 Ocean, it being the average limit of the 
 pack-ice; but the name is often ex- 
 I tended to embrace a much wider area. 
 I The lands in or near the .Vntarctio 
 
ANT-EATER 
 
 ANTICHRIST 
 
 Circle are but imperfectly known, the 
 work of exploration having been hither- 
 to baffled by what seems an insur- 
 mountable ice-barrier. Sir James Ross 
 in 1841-42, discovered Victoria Land 
 (extending to about 79° s. hit.), with its 
 volcanoes Erebus (12,400 ft. ) and Ter- 
 ror (10,900 ft.). The South Shetland Is- 
 lands, Enderby Land, Graham’s Land, 
 etc., have also been discovered in lliis 
 ocean. Oapt. Scott in 1902 reached 82° 
 17' which is 632 miles from the pole. 
 
 ANT-EATER, a name given to mam- 
 mals of various genera that prey chiefly 
 on ants. The head is remarkably elon- 
 gated, the jaws destitute of teeth, and 
 the mouth furnished with a long, ex- 
 tensile tongue covered with glutinous 
 saliva, by the aid of which the animals 
 secure their insect prey. The eyes are 
 particularly small, the ears short and 
 round, and the legs, especially the an- 
 terior, very robust, and furnished with 
 long, compressed, acute nails, admirably 
 adapted for breaking into the ant-hills. 
 The most remarkahle species is the 
 ant-bear, a native of the warmer parts 
 of South America. It is from 4 to 5 feet 
 in length from the tip of the muzzle to 
 the origin of the black bushy tail, 
 which is about two feet long. The body 
 is covered with long hair, particularly 
 along the neck and fock. It is a harm- 
 
 Ant-bear. 
 
 less and solitary animal, and spends 
 most of its time in sleep. Some are 
 adapted for climbing trees in quest of 
 the insects on which they feed, having 
 prehensile tails. All are natives of South 
 America. 
 
 ANTECE'DENT, in grammar, the 
 noun to which a relative or other pro- 
 noun refers; as, Solomon was the prince 
 who built the temple, where the word 
 prince is the antecedent of who — In 
 logic, that member of a hypothetical or 
 conditional proposition which contains 
 the condition, and which is introduced 
 by if or some equivalent word or words ; 
 as, if the sun is fixed, the earth must 
 move. Here the first and conditional 
 proposition is the antecedent, the second 
 the consequent. 
 
 ANTEDILU'VIAN, before the flood or 
 deluge of Noah’s time; relating to what 
 happened before the deluge. In geology 
 the term has been applied to organisms, 
 traces of which are found in a fossil state 
 in formations preceding the Diluvial, 
 particularly to extinct animals such as 
 the paleotherium, the mastodon, etc. 
 
 AN'TELOPE, the name given to the 
 members of a large family of Ruminant 
 Ungulata or. Hoofed Mammalia, closely 
 resembling the Deer in general appear- 
 ance, but essentially different in nature 
 from the latter animals. They are in- 
 cluded with the Sheep and Oxen in the 
 
 family of the Cavicornia or “Hollow- 
 horned” Ruminants. Their horns, un- 
 like those of the Deer, are not deciduous, 
 but are permanent; are never branched, 
 but are often twisted spirally, and may 
 be borne by both sexes. They are found 
 in greatest number and variety in 
 Africa. Well-known species are the 
 chamois (European), the gazelle, the 
 addax, the eland, the koodoo, the gnu, 
 the springbok, the sasin or Indian ante- 
 lope, and the prongbuck of America. 
 
 ANTEN'N.®, the name given to the 
 movable jointed organs of touch and 
 hearing attached to the heads of insects. 
 
 1, 1, Filiform Antenn® of Cucujo Firefly of 
 Brazil. 2, Denticulate Antenna; 3, Bipinnate; 
 4, Lamelllcorn; 5, Clavate; 6, Geniculate; 7, 
 Antenna and Antennule of Crustacean. 
 
 myriapods, etc., and commonly called 
 horns or feelers. They present a very 
 great variety of forms. 
 
 AN'THEM, originally a hymn sung 
 in alternate parts; in modern usage, a 
 sacred tune or piece of music set to 
 words taken from the Psalms or other 
 parts of the Scriptures, first- introduced 
 into church service in Elizabeth’s reign ; 
 a developed motet. The anthem may 
 be for one, two, or any number of voices, 
 but seldom exceeds five parts, and may 
 or may not have an organ accompani- 
 ment written for it. 
 
 ANTHE'MION, an ornament or orna- 
 mental series used in Greek and Roman 
 decoration, which is derived from floral 
 forms, more especially the honeysuckle. 
 
 It was much used for the ornamentation 
 of friezes and interiors, for the decora- 
 tion of fictile vases, the borders of 
 
 /iT'OCC^Q 
 
 ANTHOL'OGY, the name given to 
 several collections of short poems which 
 have come down from antiquity. 
 
 AN'THONY, St., the founder of 
 monastic institutions; born near Her- 
 aclea, in Upper Egypt, a.d. 251. Giv- 
 ing up all his property, he retired to the 
 desert, where he was followed by a num- 
 ber of disciples, who thus formed the 
 first community of monks. He died at 
 the age of 105. — St. Anthony’s Fire, a 
 name given to erysipelas. 
 
 ANTHONY, Susan B., the founder of 
 the woman suffrage movement in the 
 United States. She was born in Massa- 
 chusetts in 1820, partook in the aboli- 
 tionist movement, and in 1868 founded 
 The Revolution, a journal advocating 
 woman’s rights. She voted at the elec- 
 tion of 1872 and was arrested and fined. 
 She wrote several tracts and books, 
 principally on woman’s rights. 
 
 ANTHRACITE, glance or blind coal, 
 a non-bituminous coal of a shining 
 luster, approaching to metallic, and 
 which burns without smoke, with a 
 weak or no flame, and with intense heat. 
 It consists of, on an average, 90 per cent 
 carbon, 3 hydrogen, and 5 ashes. It 
 has some of the properties of coke or 
 charcoal, and, like that substance, repre- 
 sents an extreme metamorphism of coal 
 under the influence of heat or of vol- 
 canic disturbance. It is found in Eng- 
 land, Scotland, and Ireland, and in 
 large quantities in the United States, 
 chiefly in Pennsylvania. 
 
 ANTHRAX, a fatal disease- to which 
 cattle, horses, sheep, and other animals 
 are subject, always associated with the 
 presence of an extremely minute micro- 
 organism in the blood. It frequently 
 assumes an epizootic form, and extends 
 over large districts, affecting all classes 
 of animals which are exposed to the 
 exciting causes. It is also called splenic 
 fever, and is communicable to man, 
 appearing as. carbuncle, malignant pus- 
 tule, or wool-sorter’s disease. 
 
 ANTHROPOL'OGY, the science of 
 man and mankind, including the study 
 of man’s place in nature, that is, of the 
 measure of his agreement with and 
 divergence from other animals; of his 
 physical structure and psychological 
 nature, together with the extent to 
 which these act and react on each other ; 
 and of the various tribes of men, deter- 
 mining how these may have been pro- 
 duced or modified by external condi- 
 tions, and consequently taking account 
 also of the advance or retrogression of 
 the human race. It puts under contri- 
 bution all sciences which have man for 
 their object, as archaeology, compara- 
 tive anatomy, physiology, psychology, 
 climatology, etc. See Ethnology. 
 
 ANTHROPOMOR'PHISM, the repre- 
 sentation or conception of the Deity 
 under a human form, or with human 
 attributes and affections. Anthropo- 
 morphism is founded in the natural 
 inaptitude of the human mind for con- 
 ceiving spiritual things except through 
 sensuous images, and in its consequent 
 tendency to accept such expressions as 
 those of Scripture when it speaks of the 
 eye, the ear, and the hand of God, of 
 his seeing and hearing, of his remember- 
 ing and forgetting, of his making man 
 in his own image, etc., in a too literal 
 
 S6II1S6. 
 
 ANTHROPOPH'AGI, the name given 
 to those individuals or tribes by whom 
 human flesh is eaten : man-eaters, canni- 
 bals. The Caribs are said to have been 
 cannibals at the time of the Spanish 
 conquest of America, and the word 
 “cannibal” is derived from their name. 
 
 ANTICHRIST, a word occurring in 
 the first and second epistles of St. John, 
 and nowhere else in Scripture, in pas- 
 sages having an evident reference to a 
 
ANTICLINAL LINE OR AXIS 
 
 ANTIOCH 
 
 personage real or symbolical mentioned 
 or alluded to in various other passages 
 both of the Old and New Testaments. 
 In every age the church has held through 
 all its sects some definite expectation of 
 a formidable adversary of truth and 
 righteousness prefigured under this 
 name. Thus Roman Catholics have 
 found Antichrist in heresy, and Prot- 
 estants in Romanism. In one point the 
 
 a a 
 
 a, a, a, Anticlinal line, b, b, Synclinal line. 
 
 sects have generally been agreed, namely 
 in regarding the various intimations on 
 this subject in the Old and New Testa- 
 ments as a homogeneous declaration or 
 warning, inspired by the spirit of proph- 
 ecy, of clanger to the true religion from 
 some disaffection and revolt organized 
 in the latter days by Satan. Most mod- 
 ern critics take a different view of the 
 matter. They do not regard the various 
 Scriptural writers who have dealt with 
 this subject as having had any common 
 inspiration or design. They believe that 
 each writer from his own point of view, 
 guided by mere human sagacity, gives 
 expression in his predictions to his own 
 individual apprehensions, or narrates 
 as prediction what he already knows. 
 It is the near political horizon which 
 suggests the danger, or contemporary 
 history the substance of the prophecy; 
 thus the Antichrist of Daniel is Anti- 
 ochus Epiphanes, that of St. John Nero, 
 that of St. Paul some adversary of 
 Christianity about to appear in the time 
 of the Emperor Claudius. 
 
 ANTICLI'NAL LINE OR AXIS, in 
 geology, the ridge of a wave-like curve 
 made by a series of superimposed strata, 
 the strata dipping from it on either side 
 as from the ridge of a house : a synclinal 
 line runs along the trough of such a 
 wave. 
 
 ANTICOS'TI, an island of Canada, in 
 the mouth of the St. Lawrence, 125 
 miles long by 30 miles broad. The in- 
 terior is mountainous and wooded, but 
 there is much good land, and it is well 
 adapted for agriculture. The fisheries 
 are valuable. The population is scanty, 
 however. 
 
 AN'TIDOTE, a medicine to counter- 
 act the effects of poison. 
 
 ANTIETAM (an-te'tam), a small 
 stream in the United States which falls 
 into the Potomac about 50 miles n.w. 
 of Washington; scene of an indecisive 
 battle between the Federal and Con- 
 federate armies, 17th Sept., 1862. 
 
 AN'TI-FED'ERALISTS, a certain po- 
 litical party in the United States. 
 The Federalists believed in a national 
 system of government, while the Anti- 
 Federalists believed in a decentralized 
 and strictly federal system of govern- 
 ment. The Federalists had the advan- 
 tages of possessing a positive program 
 and of gaining the first two points in 
 the conflict when the national constitu- 
 tion was adopted and when they com- 
 mitted the national government to the 
 exercise of such extensive powers as 
 
 the creation of a national bank. The 
 Anti-Federalists were thus merely a 
 party of political opposition to the party 
 in power. When, however, the Feder- 
 alists, in the Alien and Sedition Acts, 
 seemed to encroach both upon the 
 liberty of the individual and upon the 
 j’urisdiction of the States, the opposi- 
 tion of the Anti-Federalists became 
 acute and their fundamental proposi- 
 tions were stated in the Virginia and 
 Kentucky Resolutions. This crisis re- 
 sulted in the triumph of the Anti- 
 Federalists under the leardership of 
 Jefferson in the election of 1800; but 
 soon thei’eafter the leaders of the party 
 began to abandon its original creed of 
 the strict interpretation of the constitu- 
 tion and the narrow limitation of the 
 powers of the national government. 
 The first step in this direction was the 
 purchase of Louisiana ; and when finally 
 the Federalists party was driven en- 
 tirely out of existence, its character- 
 istic principles remained effective as the 
 chief principle of the Anti-Federalist 
 party. 
 
 ANTIFRICTION METAL, a name 
 given to various alloys of tin, zinc, 
 copper, antimony, lead, etc., which 
 oppose little resistance to motion, with 
 great resistance to the effects of friction, 
 so far as concerns the wearing away of 
 the surfaces of contact. 
 
 ANTIGONE (an-tig'o-ne), in Greek 
 mythology, the daughter of QSdipus and 
 Jocasta, celebrated for her devotion to 
 her father and to her brother Polynices, 
 for burying whom against the decree of 
 King Creon she suffered death. 
 
 ANTIGUA (an-te'ga), one of the Brit- 
 ish West Indies, the most important of 
 the Leeward group; 28 miles long, 20 
 broad; area, 108 square miles. Discov- 
 ered by Columbus, 1493. Its shores are 
 
 high and rocky ; the surface is varied and 
 fertile. The capital, St. John, the resi- 
 dence of the governor of the Leeward 
 Islands, stands on the shore of a well- 
 sheltered harbor in the north-west part 
 of the island. The staple articles of ex- 
 port are sugar, molasses, and rum. 
 Pop. (including Barbuda), 56,175. 
 
 ANTILLES (aii-til'ez), another name 
 for the West Indian Islands. 
 
 ANTIMACASS'AR, a covering for 
 chairs, sofas, couches, etc., made of 
 
 open cotton or wasted work, to pre- 
 serve them from being soiled, as by the 
 oil applied to the hair. 
 
 ANTI-MONOPOLY PARTY, a political 
 party organized^ at Chicago May 14, 
 1884, with Benjamin F. Butler as its 
 candidate for president. Its demands 
 were an interstate commerce law, an 
 income tax, free trade, and legalized 
 labor unionism. It was afterward 
 merged with the Greenback and Popu- 
 list parties. 
 
 AN'TIMONY, a brittle metal of a 
 bluish-white or silver-white color and a 
 crystalline or laminated structure. It 
 melts at 842° F., and burns with a 
 bluish-white flame. The mineral called 
 stibnite, or antimony-glance, is a tri- 
 sulphide, and is the chief ore from which 
 the metal is obtained. It is found in 
 many places, including France, Spain, 
 Hungary, Italy, Canada, Australia, and 
 Borneo. The metal, or, as it was for- 
 merly called, the regulus of antimony, 
 does not rust or tarnish when exposed 
 to the air. When alloyed with other 
 metals it hardens them, and is there- 
 fore used in the manufacture of alloys, 
 such as Britannia-metal, type-metal, 
 and pewter. In bells it renders the 
 sound more clear; it renders tin more 
 white and sonorous as well as harder, 
 and gives to printing types more firm- 
 ness and smoothness. The salts of 
 antimony are very poisonous. The 
 protoxide is the active base of tartar 
 emetic and James’s powder, and is 
 justly regarded as a most valuable 
 remedy in many diseases. — Yellow anti- 
 mony is a preparation of antimony of a 
 deep yellow color, used in enamel and 
 porcelain painting. It is of various 
 tints, and the brilliancy of the brighter 
 hues is not affected by foul air. 
 
 ANTIN'OMY, the opposition of one 
 
 law of rule to another law or rule; in 
 the Kantian philosophy, that natural 
 contradiction which results from the law 
 of reason, when, passing the limits of 
 experience, we seek to conceive the com- 
 plex of external phenomena, or nature, 
 as a world or cosmos. 
 
 ANTIOCH (an'ti-ok), a famous city 
 of ancient times, the capital of the 
 Greek kings of Syria, on the left bank 
 of the Orontes, about 21 miles from the 
 sea, in a beautiful and fertile plain; 
 
 St. John, Antigua. 
 
ANTIOCHUS 
 
 ANTISPASMODIC 
 
 founded by Seleucus Nicator in 300 B.c., 
 and named after hig father Antiochus. 
 In Roman times it was the seat of the 
 Syrian governors, and the center of a 
 widely-extended commerce. It was 
 called the “Queen of the East” and 
 “The Beautiful.” Antioch is frequently 
 mentioned in the New Testament, and 
 it was here that the disciples of our 
 Savior were first called Christians 
 (Acts xi. 26). There was another An- 
 tioch, in Pisidia, at which Paul preached 
 on his first missionary journey. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS (an-ti'o-kus), a name of 
 several Grajco-Syrian kings of the 
 dynasty of the Seleucidae. ANTIOCHUS 
 I., called (“savior”), was son of Seleucus, 
 general of Alexander the Great, and 
 founder of the dynasty. He was born 
 about B.c. 324. During the greater 
 part of his reign he was engaged in a 
 protracted struggle with the Gauls who 
 had crossed from Europe, and by whom 
 he was killed in battle b.c. 261. — ANTI- 
 OCHUS II., surnamed Theos (godl, 
 succeeded his father, was murdered in 
 
 was assigned to Antipater, who suc- 
 ceeded in establishing the Macedonian 
 rule in Greece on a firm footing. He 
 died in b.c. 317 at an advanced age. 
 
 ANTIP'ATHY, a special dislike exhib- 
 ited by individuals to particular objects 
 or persons, usually resulting from phys- 
 ical or nervous organization. An antip- 
 athy is often an unaccountable repug- 
 nance to what people in general regard 
 with no particular dislike, as certain 
 sounds, smells, articles of food, etc., and 
 it may be manifested by fainting or 
 extreme discomfort. 
 
 ANTIPODES (an-tip'o-dez), the name 
 given relatively to people or places on 
 opposite sides of the earth, so situated 
 that a line drawn from one to the other 
 passes through the center of the earth 
 and forms a true diameter. The longi- 
 tudes of two such places differ by 180°. 
 The difference in their time is about 
 twelve hours, and their seasons are re- 
 versed. 
 
 AN'TIPOPE, the name applied to 
 those who at different periods have pro- 
 
 and the like, and more especially to the 
 works of Grecian and Roman antiquity. 
 
 ANTI-RENTISM, a movement organ- 
 ized to uproot a kind of feudalism 
 existing in certain counties in New York. 
 It lasted from 1839 to 1847, during 
 which time there were many evictions. 
 The - system of feudal tenures was 
 broken up in 1846 by the insertion in 
 the new constitution of New York of 
 a clause abolishing all feudal tenures 
 and limiting agricultural leases to 
 twelve years. 
 
 ANTIRRHINUM (an-ti-ri'num), a ge- 
 nus of annual or perennial plants, com- 
 monly known as snapdragon, on account 
 of the peculiarity of the blossoms, which, 
 by pressing between the finger and 
 thumb, may be made to open and shut 
 like a mouth. They all produce showy 
 flowers, and are much cultivated in 
 gardens. 
 
 ANTI-SEMITISM, a term describing 
 SL movement in Russia, France, Austria, 
 Germany, and other countries in Europe, 
 by which it is sought to limit the influ- 
 ence of the Jews and otherwise harass 
 them. In Germany the leaders of the 
 movement have been among the most 
 eminent of German scholars. 
 
 Since its organization in Germany 
 the Anti-Semitic Party has been organ- 
 ized in Russia, Austria, Greece, and 
 Holland. As the Jews in Russia are to a 
 great extent kept out of the ordinary 
 trades, many of them have resorted to 
 the business of money lending, and by 
 means of mortgages placed to secure 
 loans they have obtained control of small 
 landed properties. This fact, coupled 
 with religious prejudice, caused the 
 Anti-Semitic movement in Russia, about 
 twenty years ago, to assume a most 
 violent form. Laws preventing them 
 from entering professions and from, 
 living in places other than towns and 
 hamlets were vigorously enforced. In 
 some cities, where a majority of the 
 people were Jews, they were expelled 
 without warning. The fierce perse- 
 cution to which the Jews have been 
 subjected in Russia and Roumania has 
 caused an emigration on a vast scale to 
 the United States. 
 
 ANTISEPTIC, an agent by which the 
 putrefaction of vegetable or animal 
 matters is prevented or arrested. There 
 are a great number of substances having 
 this preservative property, among which 
 are salt, alcohol, vegetable charcoal, 
 creosote, corrosive sublimate, tannic 
 acid, sulphurous acid, sulphuric ether, 
 chloroform, arsenic, wood-spirit, aloes, 
 camphor, benzine, aniline, etc. The 
 packing of fish in ice, and the curing 
 of herring and other fish with salt, are 
 familiar antiseptic processes. The dif- 
 ferent antiseptics act in different ways. 
 The term is applied in a specific man- 
 ner to that mode of treatment in sur- 
 gery by which air is excluded from 
 wounds, or allowed access only through 
 substances capable of destroying the 
 germs in the atmosphere, on whose 
 presence suppuration is assumed to 
 depend. 
 
 ANTISPASMODTC, a medicine proper 
 for the cure of spasms and convulsions; 
 such belong largely to the class of ethers, 
 as sulphuric ether, chloric ether, nitric 
 ether, etc. 
 
 Medal of Antiochus Epiphanes. 
 
 B.c. 246 by Laodice, his wife, whom he 
 had put away to marry Berenice, 
 daughter of Ptolemy. —ANTIOCHUS 
 III., surnamed the Great, grandson of the 
 preceding, was born b.c. 242, succeeded 
 in B.c. 223. Antiochus gained an im- 
 portant adviser in Hannibal, who had 
 fled for refuge to his court; but he lost 
 the opportunity of an invasion of Italy 
 while the Romans were engaged in war 
 with the Gauls, of which the Cartha- 
 ginian urged him to avail himself. The 
 Romans defeated him by sea and land, 
 and he was finally overthrown by Scipio 
 at Mount Sipylus, in Asia Minor, B.c. 
 190. He was killed while plundering 
 a temple in Elymais to procure money 
 to pay the Romans. — ANTIOCHUS IV., 
 called Epiphanes, youngest son of the 
 above, is chiefly remarkable for his 
 attempt to extirpate the Jewish religion, 
 and to establish in its place the poly- 
 theism of the Greeks. This led to the 
 insurrection of the Maccabees, by which 
 the Jews ultimately recovered their 
 independence. He died B.c. 164. 
 
 ANTIOQUIA (an-te-6-ke'ft), a town of 
 S. America, in Colombia, on the river 
 Cauca; founded in 1542. Pop. 10,000. 
 It gives name to a department of the 
 republic; area, 22,316 sq. miles; pop. 
 464,887. Capital, Medellin. 
 
 ANTIP'ATER, a general and friend of 
 Philm of Macedon, father of Alexander 
 the Cireat. On the death of Alexander, 
 in 323 B.C., the regency of Macedonia 
 
 duced a schism in the Roman Catholic 
 Church by opposing the authority of the 
 pope, under the pretense that they were 
 themselves popes. The Roman Church 
 cannot admit that there ever existed two 
 popes; but the fact is, that in several 
 cases both competitors for the papal 
 chair (sometimes there were three or 
 even four) were equally popes; that 
 is to say, the claims of all were equally 
 good. Each was frequently supported 
 by whole nations, and the schism was 
 nothing but the struggle of political in- 
 tGr0sts 
 
 ANTIPY'RIN, a drug obtained from 
 coal-tar products, valuable in reducing 
 fever and in relieving pain, being much 
 used in nervous headache and neural- 
 gia. 
 
 ANTIQUARIES, those devoted to the 
 study of ancient times through their 
 relics, as old places of sepulcher, remains 
 of ancient habitations, early monu- 
 ments, implements or weapons, statues, 
 coins, medals, paintings. Inscriptions, 
 books, and manuscripts, with the view 
 of arriving at a knowledge of the rela- 
 tions, modes of living, habits, and 
 general condition of the people who 
 created or employed them. Societies 
 or associations of antiquaries have been 
 formed in all countries of European 
 civilization. 
 
 ANTIQUES (an-teks'), a term specifi- 
 cally applied to the remains of ancient 
 art, as statues, paintings, vases, cameos, 
 
 
ANTISTHENES 
 
 anHoniub 
 
 ANTISTHENES (an-tis'the-nez), a 
 Greek philosopher and the founder of 
 the ichool of Cynics, born at Athens 
 about B.c. 444. He was first a disciple 
 of Gorgias and then of Socrates, at whose 
 death he was present. His philosophy 
 was a one-sided development of the 
 Socratic teaching. He held virtue to 
 consist in complete self-denial and in 
 
 Marie Antoinette. 
 
 disregard of riches, honor, or pleasure 
 of every kind. He himself lived as a 
 beggar. He died in Athens at an ad- 
 vanced age. 
 
 ANTITOXIN, a substance secreted in 
 the blood of animals which counteracts 
 the effects of the toxin, or toxins 
 (poisonous substances), produced in the 
 animal by the germs which find their 
 way into the body and multiply there. 
 Natural antitoxins make the body 
 immune to germ diseases, but although 
 it has been impossible as yet to manu- 
 facture these substances except in the 
 animal body, this method has been 
 found quite efficatious in the treatment 
 of disease. The germs of diphtheria, for 
 example, are injected into a mule or a 
 horse. The animal becomes infected, 
 but recovers. On its recovery a second 
 injection is given, and so on until 
 further injections have no effect. The 
 animal is then “immune.” Serum 
 taken from the body of the immunized 
 animal is then injected into a human 
 patient suffering with the disease, and 
 recovery quickly follows. This art 
 is called serum therapy, and it is be- 
 lieved that almost all germ diseases will 
 eventually be conquered by it. 
 
 ANTITRINITA'RIANS, all who do not 
 receive the doctrine of the divine Trin- 
 ity, or the existence of three persons in 
 the Godhead; especially applied to 
 those who oppose such a doctrine on 
 ^philosophical grounds, as contrasted 
 with Unitarians, who reject the doctrine 
 as not warranted by Scripture. 
 
 ANT-LION, the larva of an insect 
 which in its perfect state greatly resem- 
 
 bles a dragon-fly ; curious on account of 
 its ingenious method of catching the in- 
 sects — chiefly ants — on which it feeds. 
 It digs a funnel-shaped hole in the driest 
 and finest sand it can find, and, when 
 the pit is deep enough, and the sides are 
 quite smooth and sloping, it buries 
 itself at the bottom with only its formid- 
 able mandibles projecting, and waits 
 till some luckless insect stumbles over 
 the edge, when it is immediately seized, 
 its juices sucked, and the dead body 
 jerked from the hole. 
 
 ANTOINETTE (in-twa-net), Marie 
 (Marie Antoinette Joseph Jeanne de 
 Lorraine), Archduchess of Austria and 
 Queen of France, the youngest daughter 
 of the Emperor Francis I. and of Maria 
 Theresa, was born at Vienna, 2d Novem- 
 ber, 1755; executed at Paris, 16th Oct. 
 1793. She was married at the age of 
 fifteen to the Dauphin, afterward Louis 
 XVI., but her manners were ill-suited to 
 the French court, and she made many 
 enemies among the highest families by 
 her contempt for its ceremonies, which 
 excited her ridicule. The freedom of 
 her manners, indeed, even after she be- 
 came queen, was a cause of scandal. 
 The extraordinary affair of the diamond 
 necklace, in which the Cardinal Louis 
 de Rohan, the great quack Cagliostro, 
 and a certain Countess de Lamotte were 
 the chief actors, tarnished her name, 
 and added force to the calumnies against 
 her. Though it was proved in the 
 examination which she demanded that 
 she had never ordered the necklace, 
 her enemies succeeded in casting a 
 stigma on her, and the credulous people 
 laid every public disaster to her charge. 
 There is no doubt she had great influ- 
 ence over the king, and that she con- 
 stantly opposed all measures of reform. 
 The enthusiastic reception given her at 
 the guards’ ball at Versaines on 1st Oc- 
 tober, 1789, raised the general indigna- 
 tion to the highest pitch, and was fol- 
 lowed in a few days by the insurrection 
 of women, and the attack on Versailles. 
 When practically prisoners in the Tuile- 
 ries it was she who advised the flight 
 of the royal family in June, 1791, which 
 ended in their capture and return. ()n 
 10th August, 1792, she heard her hus- 
 band’s deposition pronounced by the 
 Legislative Assembly, and accompanied 
 him to the prison in the Temple, where 
 she displayed the magnanimity of a 
 heroine and the patient endurance of a 
 martyr. In January, 1793, she parted 
 with her husband, who had been con- 
 demned by the Convention; in August 
 she was removed to the Conciergerie ; 
 and in October she was charged before 
 the revolutionary tribunal with having 
 dissipated the finances, exhausted the 
 treasury, corresponded with the foreign 
 enemies of France, and favored the 
 domestic foes of the country. She 
 defended herself with firmness, decision, 
 and indignation ; and hea rd the sentence 
 of death pronounced with perfect calm- 
 ness — a calmness which did not forsake 
 her when the sentence was carried out 
 the following morning. Her son, eight 
 years of age, died shortly afterward, as 
 was generally believed by poison, and 
 her daughter was suffered to quit France, 
 and afterward married her cousin the 
 Duke of Angouleme. 
 
 ANTONI'NUS, Marcus Aurelius. See 
 Aurelius. 
 
 ANTONI'NUS PIUS, Titus Aurelius 
 Fulvus, Roman emperor, was born at 
 Lavinium, near Rome, a.d. 86, died a.d. 
 161. In A.D. 120 he became consul, and 
 he was one of the four persons of con- 
 sular rank among whom Hadrian 
 divided the supreme administration of 
 Italy. He then went as proconsul to 
 Asia, and after his return to Rome 
 became more and more the object of 
 Hadrian’s confidence. In a.d. 138 he 
 was selected by that emperor as his 
 successor, and the same year he ascended 
 the throne. The persecutions of the 
 Christians he speedily abolished. He 
 
 Coin ot Antoninus Pius. 
 
 carried on but a few wars. In Britain 
 he extended the Roman dominion, and 
 by raising a new wall put a stop to the 
 invasions of the Piets and Scots. The 
 senate gave him the surname Pius, that 
 is, dutiful or showing filial affection, be- 
 cause to keep alive the memory of 
 Hadrian he had built a temple in his 
 honor. He was succeeded by Marcus 
 Aurelius, his adopted son. 
 
 ANTO'NIUS, Marcus (Mark Antony), 
 Roman triumvir, born 83 b.c., was 
 connected with the family of C®sar by 
 his mother. Debauchery and prod- 
 igality marked his youth. To escape 
 his creditors he went to Greece in 58, 
 and from thence followed the consul 
 Gabinius on a campaign in Syria as 
 commander of the cavalry. He served 
 in Gaul under Caesar in 52 and 51. 
 In 50 he returned to Rome to support 
 the interests of Caesar against the aristb- 
 cratical party headed by Pompey, and 
 was appointed tribune. When war 
 broke out between Caesar and Pompey, 
 Antony led reinforcements to Caesar 
 in Greece, and in the battle of Pharsalia 
 he commanded the left wing. He alter- 
 ward returned to Rome with the ap- 
 pointment of master of the horse and 
 governor of Italy (47). In b.c. 44 he 
 became Caesar’s colleague in the consul- 
 ship. Soon after Caesar was assassinat- 
 ed, and Antony would have shared the 
 same fate had not Brutus stood up in 
 his behalf. Antony, by the reading of 
 Caesar’s will, and by the oration which 
 he delivered over his body, excited the 
 people to anger and revenge, and the 
 murderers were obliged to flee. After 
 several quarrels and reconciliations 
 with Octavianus, Caesar’s heir (see 
 Augustus), Antony departed to Cisalpine 
 Gaul, which province had been con- 
 ferred upon him against the will of the 
 senate. But Cicero thundered against 
 him in his famous Philippics ; the sen- 
 ate declared him a public enemy, and 
 
ANTONY 
 
 Apennines 
 
 intrusted the conduct of the war against 
 him to Octavianus and the consuls 
 Hirtius and Pansa. After a campaign 
 of varied fortunes Antony fled with his 
 troops over the Alps. Here he was 
 joined by Lepidus, who commanded in 
 Gaul, and through whose mediation 
 Antony and Octavianus were again rec- 
 onciled. It was agreed that the Roman 
 world should be divided among the 
 three conspirators, who were called 
 triumvirs. Antony was to take Gaul; 
 Lepidus, Spain ; and Octavianus, Africa 
 and Sicily. They decided upon the 
 proscription of their mutual enemies, 
 each giving up his friends to the others, 
 the most celebrated of the victims being 
 Cicero the orator. Antony and Octavi- 
 anus departed in 42 for Macedonia, 
 where the united forces of their enemies, 
 Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful 
 army, which was, however, speedily de- 
 feated at Philippi. Antony next visited 
 Athens, and thence proceeded to Asia. 
 In Cilicia he ordered Cleopatra, queen 
 of Egypt, to apologize for her inso- 
 lent behavior to the triumviri. She ap- 
 peared in person, and her charms 
 fettered him forever. He followed her 
 to Alexandria, where he bestowed not 
 even a thought upon the affairs of the 
 world, till he was aroused by a report 
 that hostilities had commenced in Italy 
 between his own relatives and Octavia- 
 nus. A short war followed, which was 
 decided in favor of Octavianus before 
 the arrival of Antony in Italy. A recon- 
 ciliation was effected, which was sealed 
 by the marriage of Antony with Octavia, 
 he sister of Octavianus. A new division 
 of the Roman dominions was now made 
 fin 40), by which Antony obtained the 
 east, Octavianus the west. After his 
 return to Asia Antony gave himself up 
 entirely to Cleopatra, assuming the 
 style of an Eastern despot, and so 
 alienating many of his adherents and 
 embittering public opinion against him 
 at Rome. At length war was declared 
 at Rome against the Queen of Egypt, 
 and Antony was deprived of his consul- 
 ship and government. Each party 
 assembled its forces, and Antony lost, 
 in the naval battle at Actium (b.c. 31), 
 the dominion of the world. He followed 
 Cleopatra to Alexandria, and on the 
 arrival of Octavianus his fleet and 
 cavalry deserted, and his infantry 
 was defeated. Deceived by a false re- 
 port which Cleopatra had disseminated 
 of her death, he fell upon his own sword 
 (B.c. 30). 
 
 ANTONY, Mark. See Antonius, Mar- 
 cus. 
 
 AN'TRIM, a county of Ireland, prov- 
 ince of Ulster, in the northeast of the 
 island; area, 762,080 acres, of which 
 about a third are arable. The eastern 
 and nothern districts are comparatively 
 mountainous, with tracts of heath and 
 bog, but no part rises to a great height. 
 The principal towns are Belfast, Bally- 
 mena, and Larne. Pop. 461,240. — The 
 town of Antrim, at the north end of 
 Lough Neagh, is a small place with a 
 pop. of 1385. 
 
 ^NT'WERP, the chief port of Bel- 
 gium, and the capital of a province of 
 the same name, on the Scheldt, about 
 50 miles from the open sea. The cathe- 
 dral, with a spire 409 feet high, one of the 
 
 largest and most beautiful specimens of 
 Gothic architecture in Belgium, con- 
 tains Rubens’s celebrated masterpieces, 
 the Descent from the Cross, the Eleva- 
 tion of the Cross, and The Assumption. 
 The other churches of note are St. 
 .Tames’s, St. Andrew’s, and St. Paul’s, 
 all enriched with paintings by Rubens, 
 
 Antwerp cathedral, from the egg market. 
 
 Vandyck, and other masters. Antwerp 
 is mentioned as early as the 8th cen- 
 tury, and in the 11th and 12th it had at- 
 tained a high degree of prosperity. In 
 the 16th century it is said to have had 
 a pop. of 200,000. The wars between 
 the Netherlands and Spain greatly in- 
 jured its commerce, which was almost 
 ruined by the closing of the navigation 
 of the Scheldt in accordance with the 
 peace of Westphalia (1648). It was only 
 in the 19th century that its prosperity 
 revived. — Pop. 282,000. The province 
 consists of a fertile plain 1100 sq. miles 
 in area, and has a pop. of 825,156. 
 
 A'NUS, the opening at the lower or 
 posterior extremity of the alimentary 
 canal through which the excrement or 
 waste products of digestion are ex- 
 pelled. 
 
 AN'VIL, an instrument on which 
 pieces of metal are laid for the purpose 
 of being hammered. The common 
 smith’s anvil is generally made of seven 
 pieces; namely, the core or body; the 
 four corners for the purpose of enlarging 
 its base; the projecting end, which con- 
 tains a square hole for the reception of a 
 set or chisel to cut off pieces of iron ; and 
 the beak or conical end, used for turn- 
 ing pieces of iron into a circular form, 
 etc. These pieces are each separately 
 welded to the core and hammered so as 
 to form a regular surface with the whole. 
 When the anvil has received its due form 
 it is faced with steel, and is then tem- 
 pered in cold water. The smith’s anvil 
 is generally placed loose upon a wooden 
 block. The anvil for heavy operations, 
 such as the forging of ordnance and 
 shafting, consists of a huge iron block 
 deeply embedded, and resting on piles 
 of masonry. 
 
 AORTA, in anatomy, the great artery 
 or trunk of the arterial system, proceed- 
 ing from the left ventricle of the heart. 
 
 and giving origin to all the arteries ex- 
 cept the pulmonary. It first rises to- 
 ward the top of the breast-bone, when 
 it is called the ascending aortaj; then 
 makes a great curve, called the trans- 
 verse or great arch of the aorta, whence 
 it gives off branches to the head and 
 upper extremities ; thence proceeding 
 toward the lower extremities, under the 
 name of the descending aorta, it gives 
 off branches to the trunk; and finally 
 divides into the two iliacs, which supply 
 the pelvis and lower extremities. 
 
 APACHES (a-pa'chez), a warlike race 
 of Indians inhabiting the more unsettled 
 parts of the United States adjoining 
 Mexico, and also the north of Mexico. 
 They live chiefly on horseback, support 
 themselves by the chase and plunder, 
 and they still maintain their independ- 
 ence and hostility to the whites. 
 
 AP'ANAGE, an allowance which the 
 younger princes of a reigning house in 
 some European countries receive from 
 the revenues of the country, generally 
 together with a grant of public domains, 
 that they may be enabled to live in a 
 manner becoming their rank. 
 
 APARTMENT HOUSES, houses built 
 to accommodate a number of families 
 each in its own set of rooms, which form 
 a separate dwelling with an entrance of 
 its own. The term is chiefly used in 
 America, where such dwellings are of 
 comparatively recent introduction. In 
 New York, Chicago, and other Ameri- 
 can cities there are now great blocks of 
 such houses, which provide excellent and 
 commodious dwellings at a lower rent 
 than if each were a separate building. 
 
 APE, a common name of a number of 
 quadrumanous animals inhabiting the 
 Old World (Asia and the Asiatic islands, 
 and Africa), and including a variety of 
 species. The word ape was formerly 
 applied indiscriminately to all quad- 
 rumanous mammals; but it is now 
 limited to the anthropoid or man-like 
 monkeys. The family includes the 
 chimpanzee, gorilla, orang-outang, etc., 
 and has been divided into three genera, 
 Troglodytes, Simla, and Hylobates. See 
 Chimpanzee, Gibbon, Gorilla, Orang, etc. 
 
 AP'ENNINES, a prolongation of the 
 Alps, forming the “backbone of Italy.” 
 Beginning at Savona, on the Gulf of 
 Genoa, the Apennines traverse the whole 
 of the peninsula and also cross over into 
 Sicily, the Strait of Messina being re- 
 garded merely as a gap in the chain. 
 The average height of the mountains 
 composing the range is about 4000 feet, 
 and nowhere do they reach the limits of 
 perpetual snow, though some summits 
 exceed 9000 feet in height. Monte 
 Corno, called also Gran Sasso d’ Italia 
 (Great Rock of Italy), which rises among 
 the mountains of the Abruzzi, is the 
 loftiest of the chain, rising to the height 
 of 9541 feet, Monte Majella (9151) being 
 next. Monte Gargano, which juts out 
 into the Adriatic from the ankle of 
 Italy, is a mountainous mass upward 
 of 5000 feet high, completely separated 
 from the main chain. On the Adriatic 
 side the mountains descend more ab- 
 ruptly to the sea than on the western or 
 Mediterranean side, and the streams are 
 comparatively short and rapid. On the 
 western side are the valleys of the Arno, 
 Tiber, Garigliano, and Volturno, the 
 
APERIENT 
 
 APOLLO 
 
 largest rivers that rise iu the Apennines, 
 and the only ones of importance in the 
 peninsular portion of Italy. They con- 
 sist almost entirely of limestone rocks, 
 and are exceedingly rich in the finest 
 marbles. On the south slopes volcanic 
 masses are not uncommon. Mount 
 Vesuvius, the only active volcano on 
 the continent of Europe, is an instance. 
 The lower slopes are well clothed with 
 vegetation, the summits are sterile and 
 bare. , 
 
 APE'RIENT, a medicine which, in 
 moderate doses, gently but completely 
 opens the bowels: examples, castor-oil, 
 Epsom salts, senna, etc. 
 
 APHA'SIA, in pathology, a symptom 
 of certain morbid conditions of the 
 nervous system, in which the patient 
 loses the power of expressing ideas by 
 means of words, or loses the appropriate 
 use of words, the vocal organs the while 
 remaining intact and the intelligence 
 sound. There is sometimes an entire 
 loss of words as connected with ideas, 
 and sometimes only the loss of a few. 
 In one form of the disease, called 
 aphemia, the patient can think and 
 write, but cannot speak; in another, 
 called agraphia, he can think and speak, 
 but cannot express his ideas in writing. 
 In a great majority of cases, where post- 
 mortem examinations have been made, 
 morbid changes have been found in the 
 left frontal convolution of the brain. 
 
 APHE'LION, that part of the orbit of 
 the earth or any other planet in which 
 it is at the point remotest from the sun. 
 
 APHO'NIA, in pathology, the greater 
 or less impairment, or the complete loss 
 of the power of emitting vocal sound. 
 The slightest and less permanent forms 
 often arise from extreme nervousness, 
 fright, and hysteria. Slight forms of 
 structural aphonia are of a catarrhal 
 nature, resulting from more or less con- 
 gestion and tumefaction of the mucous 
 and submucous tissues of the larynx 
 and adjoining parts. Severer cases are 
 frequently occasioned by serious in- 
 filtration into the submucous tissue, 
 with or without inflammation of the 
 mucous membrane of the larynx and 
 of its vicinity. The voice may also be 
 affected in different degrees by inflam- 
 matory affections of the fauces and 
 tonsils; by tumors in these situations; 
 by morbid growths pressing on or im- 
 plicating the larynx or trachea; by 
 aneurisms; and most frequently by 
 chronic laryngitis and its consequences, 
 especially thickening, ulceration, etc. 
 
 APH'ORISM, a brief, sententious say- 
 ing, in which a comprehensive meaning 
 is involved, as “Familiarity breeds con- 
 tempt” ; “Necessity has no law.” 
 
 APHRODITE (af-ro-di'te), the god- 
 dess of love among the Greeks; usually 
 regarded as equivalent to the Roman 
 Venus. A festival called Aphrodisia 
 was celebrated to her in various parts 
 of Greece, but especially in Cyprus. 
 See Venus. 
 
 APHTHAE (af'the), a disease occurring 
 especially in infants, but occasionally 
 seen in old persons, and consisting of 
 small white ulcers upon the tongue, 
 gums, inside of the lips, and palate, 
 resembling particles of curdled milk: 
 commonly called thrush or milk- 
 thrush. 
 
 A'PIA, the chief place and trading 
 center of the Samoa Islands, on the 
 north side of the island of Upolu. 
 
 A'PIOS, a genus of leguminous climb- 
 ing plants producing edible tubers on 
 underground shoots. An American 
 species has been used as a substitute 
 for the potato, but its tubers, though 
 numerous, are small. 
 
 A'PIS, a bull to which divine honors 
 were paid by the ancient Egyptians, 
 who regarded him as a symbol of Osiris. 
 At Memphis he had a splendid residence, 
 containing extensive walks and courts 
 
 for his entertainment, and he was waited 
 upon by a large train of priests, who 
 looked upon his every movement as 
 oracular. He was not suffered to live 
 beyond twenty-five years, being secretly 
 killed by the priests and thrown into a 
 sacred well. Another bull, character- 
 ized by certain marks, as a black color, 
 a triangle of white on the forehead, a 
 white crescent-shaped spot on the right 
 side, etc., was selected in his place. His 
 birthday was annually celebrated, and 
 his death was a season of public mourn- 
 ing. 
 
 A'PIUM, a genus of umbelliferous 
 plants, including celery. 
 
 APLANAT'IC, in optics, a term 
 specifically applied to reflectors, lenses, 
 and combinations of them, capable of 
 transmitting light without spherical 
 aberration. An aplanatic lens is a lens 
 constructed of different media to correct 
 the effects of the unequal refrangibility 
 of the different rays. 
 
 APOC'ALYPSE, the name frequently 
 given to the last book of the Nev/ Testa- 
 ment, in the English version called The 
 Revelation of St. John the Divine. It 
 is generally believed that the Apoca- 
 lypse was written by the apostle John 
 in his old age (95-97 a.d.) in the Isle of 
 Patmos, whither he had been banished 
 by the Roman Emperor Domitian. 
 Anciently its genuineness was main- 
 tained by Justin Martyr, Irenseus, 
 Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and 
 many others; while it was doubted by 
 Dionysius of Alexandria, Cyril of Jeru- 
 salem, Chrysostom, and, nearer our 
 own times, by Luther and a majority of 
 the eminent German commentators. 
 The Apocalypse has been explained 
 differently by almost every writer who 
 has ventured to interpret it, and has 
 furnished all sorts of sects and fanatics 
 with quotations to support their creeds 
 or pretensions. The modern interpret- 
 ers may be divided into three schools 
 — namely, the historical school, who 
 hold that the prophecy embraces the 
 whole history of the church and its foes 
 
 from the time of its writing to the end 
 of the world; the Praeterists, who hold 
 that the whole or nearly the whole of 
 the prophecy has been already fulfilled, 
 and that it refers chiefly to the triumph 
 of Christianity over Paganism and 
 Judaism; and the Futurists, who throw 
 the whole prophecy, except the first 
 three chapters, forward upon a time not 
 yet reached by the church — a period of 
 no very long duration, which is immedi- 
 ately to precede Christ’s second coming. 
 
 APOCALYPTIC NUMBER, the mystic 
 number 666 found in Rev. xiii. 18. As 
 early as the 2d century ecclesiastical 
 writers found that the name Antichrist 
 was indicated by the Greek characters 
 expressive of this number. By Irenseus 
 the word Lateinos was found in the 
 letters of the number, and the Roman 
 empire was therefore considered to be 
 Antichrist. Protestants generally be- 
 lieve it has reference to the Papacy, 
 and, on the other hand. Catholics con- 
 nect it with Protestantism. 
 
 APOCAR'POUS, in botany, a term 
 applied to such fruits as are the produce 
 of a single flower, and are formed of one 
 carpel, or a number of carpels free and 
 separate from each other. 
 
 APOC'RYPHA, a term applied in the 
 earliest churches to various sacred or 
 professedly inspired writings, sometimes 
 given to those whose authors were 
 unknown, sometimes to those with a 
 hidden meaning, and sometimes to those 
 considered objectionable. The term is 
 specially applied to the fourteen un- 
 dermentioned books which were writ- 
 ten during the two centuries preceding 
 the birth of Christ: the first and second 
 Books of Esdras, Tobit, Judith, the rest 
 of the .Book of Esther, the Wisdom of 
 Solomon, the Wisdom of Jesus the son 
 of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus, Baruch the 
 Prophet, the Song of the Three Children, 
 Susanna and the Elders, Bel and the 
 Dragon, the Prayer of Manasses, and 
 the first and second Books of Macca- 
 bees. 
 
 AP'OGEE (-je), that point in the orbit 
 of the moon or a planet where it is at 
 its greatest distance from the earth; 
 properly this particular part of the 
 moon’s orbit. 
 
 APOLLINA'RIS WATER, a natural 
 aerated water, belonging to the class of 
 acidulated soda waters, and derived 
 from the Apollinarisbrunnen, a spring 
 in the valley of the Ahr, near the Rhine, 
 in Rhenish Prussia, forming a highly 
 esteemed beverage. 
 
 APOL'LO, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and 
 Leto (Latona), who, being persecuted by 
 the jealousy of Hera (Juno), after tedious 
 wanderings and nine days’ labor, was 
 delivered of him and his twin sister, 
 Artemis (Diana), on the island of Delos. 
 Skilled in the use of the bow, he slew the 
 serpent Python on the fifth day after 
 his birth ; afterward, with his sister 
 Artemis, he killed the children of Niobe. 
 He aided Zeus in the war with the 
 Titans and the giants. He destroyed 
 the Cyclopes, because they forged the 
 thunderbolts with which Zeus killed 
 his son and favorite Asklepios (.®scu' 
 lapius). According to some traditions 
 he invented the lyre, though this is 
 generally ascribed to Hermes (Mercury). 
 Apollo was originally the sun-god; and 
 
 P. E.— 5 
 
APOLOGUE 
 
 APPARENT 
 
 though in Homer he appears distinct 
 from Helios (the sun), yet his real 
 nature is hinted at even here by the 
 epithet Phoebus, that is, the radiant or 
 beaming. In later times the view was 
 almost universal that Apollo and Helios 
 were identical. From being the god of 
 light and purity in a physical sense he 
 
 Apollo, from a bas-relief at Rome. 
 
 gradually became the god of moral 
 and spiritual light and purity, the 
 source of all intellectual, social, and 
 political progress. He thus came to be 
 regarded as the god of song and proph- 
 ecy, the god that wards off and heals 
 bodily suffering and disease, the insti- 
 tutor and guardian of civil and political 
 order, and the founder of cities. His 
 worship was introduced at Rome at an 
 early period, probably in the time of the 
 Tarquins. Among the ancient statues 
 of Apollo that have come down to us, 
 the most remarkable is the one called 
 the Apollo Belvidere, from the Belvidere 
 Gallery in the Vatican at Rome. This 
 statue was found in the ruins of An- 
 tium in 1503, and was purchased by 
 Pope Julian II. It is now supposed to 
 be a copy of a Greek statue of the third 
 century b.c., and dates probably from 
 the reign of Nero. 
 
 APOLOGUE (ap'o-log), a story or 
 relation of fictitious events intended to 
 convey some useful truths It differs 
 from a parable in that the latter is drawn 
 from events that pass among mankind, 
 whereas the apologue may be founded 
 on supposed actions of brutes or inani- 
 mate things. iEsop’s fables are good 
 examples of apologues. 
 
 APOL'OGY, a term at one time ap- 
 plied to a defense of one who is accused, 
 or of certain doctrines called in question. 
 Of this nature are the Apologies of 
 Socrates, attributed respectively to Plato 
 and Xenophon. The name passed over 
 to Christian authors, who gave the name 
 of apologies to the writings which were 
 designed to defend Christianity against 
 the attacks and accusations of its 
 enemies, particularly the pagan philoso- 
 
 f )her3, and to justify its professors be- 
 ore the emperors. Of this sort were 
 those by Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, 
 Tertullian, Tatian, and others. 
 
 APOPHTHEGM (ap'o-them), a short 
 pithy sentence or maxim. Julius Caesar 
 wrote a collection of them, and we have 
 a collection by Lord Bacon. 
 
 AP'OPLEXY, abolition or sudden 
 diminution of sensation and voluntary 
 inotion, from suspension of the func- 
 tions of the cerebrum, resulting from 
 congestion or rupture of the blood- 
 vessels of the brain and resulting pres- 
 sure on this organ. In a complete 
 apoplexy the person falls suddenly, is 
 unable to move his limbs or to speak, 
 gives no proof of. seeing, hearing, or 
 feeling, and the breathing is stertorous 
 or snoring, like that of a person in deep 
 sleep. The premonitory symptoms of 
 this dangerous disease are drowsiness, 
 giddiness, dulness of hearing, frequent 
 yawning, disordered vision, noise in the 
 ears, vertigo, etc. It is most frequent 
 between the ages of fifty and seventy. 
 A large head, short neck, full chest, 
 sanguine and plethoric constitution, and 
 corpulency are generally considered 
 signs of predisposition to it; but the 
 state of the heart’s action, with a ple- 
 thoric condition of the -vascular system, 
 has a more marked infiuence. Out of 
 63 cases carefully investigated only 10 
 were fat and plethoric, 23 being thin, 
 and the rest of ordinary habit. Among 
 the common predisposing causes are 
 long and intense thought, continued 
 anxiety, habitual indulgence of the 
 temper and passions, sedentary and 
 luxurious living, sexual indulgence, 
 intoxication, etc. More or less complete 
 repovery from a first and second attack 
 is common, but a third is almost in- 
 variably fatal. 
 
 APOS'TASY, a renunciation of opin- 
 ions or practices and the adoption of 
 contrary ones, usually applied to renun- 
 ciation of religious opinions. It is al- 
 ways an expression of reproach. What 
 one party calls apostasy is termed by 
 the other conversion. Catholics, also, 
 call those persons apostates who for- 
 sake a religious order or renounce their 
 religious vows without a lawful dis- 
 pensation. 
 
 A POSTERIO'RI. See A priori. 
 
 APOS'TLES, the twelve men whom 
 Jesus selected to attend him during his 
 ministry, and to promulgate his religion. 
 Their names were as follows: Simon 
 Peter, and Andrew his brother; James, 
 and John his brother, sons of Zebedee; 
 Philip; Bartholomew; Thomas; Mat- 
 thew; James, the son of Alpheus; Leb- 
 beus his brother, called Judas or Jude; 
 Simon, the Canaanite; and Judas 
 Iscariot. To these were subsequently 
 added Matthias (chosen by lot in place of 
 Judas Iscariot) and Paul. The Bible 
 gives the name of apostle to Barnabas 
 also, who accompanied Paul on his mis- 
 sions (Acts xiv. 14). In a wider sense 
 those preachers who first taught Chris- 
 tianity in heathen countries are some- 
 times termed apostles; for example, St. 
 Denis, the apostle of the Gauls; St. 
 Boniface, the apostle of Germany; 
 St. Augustin, the apostle of England; 
 Francis Xavier, the apostle of the 
 Indies; Adalbert of Prague, apostle of 
 Prussia Proper. During the life of the 
 Savior the apostles more than once 
 showed a misunderstanding of the 
 object of his mission, and during his 
 sufferings evinced little courage and 
 firmness of friendship for their great and 
 benevolent Teacher. After his death 
 they received the Holy Ghost on the 
 
 day of Pentecost, that they might be 
 enabled to fulfil the important duties 
 for which they had been chosen. Their 
 subsequent history is only imperfectly 
 known. According to one interpreta- 
 tion of Matthew xvi. 18 Christ seems to 
 appoint St Peter the first of the apos- 
 tles ; and the pope claims supreme 
 authority from the power which Christ 
 thus gave to St. Peter, of whom all the 
 popes, according to the Catholic dogma, 
 are successors in an uninterrupted line. 
 
 APOSTLES’ CREED, a well-known 
 formula or declaration of Christian 
 belief, formerly believed to be the work 
 of the apostles themselves, but it can 
 only he traced to the 4th century. See 
 Creed. 
 
 APOS'TROPHE, a rhetorical figure by 
 which the orator changes the course of 
 his speech, and makes a short impas- 
 sioned address to one absent as if he 
 were present, or to things without life 
 and sense as if they had life and sense. 
 The same term is also applied to a 
 comma when used to contract a word, or 
 to mark the possessive case, as in 
 “John’s book.” 
 
 APOTH'ECARY, in a general sense, 
 one who keeps a shop or laboratory for 
 preparing, compounding, and vending 
 medicines, and for the making up of 
 medical prescriptions. 
 
 APOTHEO'SIS, a solemnity among 
 the ancients by which a mortal was 
 raised to the rank of the gods. 
 
 APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS (ap-pa- 
 la'chi-an), also called Alleghanies, a vast 
 mountain range in N. America extend- 
 ing for 1300 miles from Cape Gasp6, on 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence, s.w. to Ala- 
 bama. The system has been divided 
 into three great sections: the northern 
 (including the Adirondacks, the Green 
 Mountains, the White Mountains, etc.), 
 from Cape Gasp4 to New York; the cen- 
 tral (including a large portion of the 
 Blue Ridge, the Alleghanies proper, and 
 numerous lesser ranges), from New York 
 to the valley of the New River; and the 
 southern (including the continuation of 
 the Blue Ridge, the Black Mountains, 
 the Smoky Mountains, etc.), from the 
 New River southward. The chain con- 
 sists of several ranges generally parallel 
 to each other, the altitude of the indi- 
 vidual mountains increasing on ap- 
 proaching the south. The highest peaks 
 rise over 6600 feet (not one at ail ap- 
 proaching the snow-level), but the mean 
 height is about 2500 feet. Lake Cham- 
 plain is the only lake of great importance 
 in the system, but numerous rivers of 
 considerable size take their rise here. 
 Magnetite, hematite, and other iron ores 
 occur in great abundance, and the coal- 
 measures are among the most extensive 
 in the world. Gold, silver, lead, and 
 copper are also found, but not in paying 
 q^uantities, while marble, limestone, fire- 
 may, gypsum, and salt abound. The 
 forests covering many of the ranges 
 yield large quantities of valuable timber, 
 such as sugar-maple, white birch, beech, I 
 ash, oak, cherry tree, white poplar, white 
 and yellow pine, etc., while they form 
 the haunts of large numbers of bears, 
 panthers, wild cats, and wolves. 
 
 APPANAGE. See Apanage. 
 
 APPAR'ENT, among mathematicians 
 and astronomers, applied to things as 
 
APPARITION 
 
 APPLE 
 
 fhey appear to the eye, in distinction 
 from what they really are. Thus they 
 speak of apparent motion, magnitude, 
 cfistance, height, etc. The apparent 
 magnitude of a heavenly body is the 
 an^e subtended at the spectator’s eye 
 by the diameter of that ' 'ody, and this, 
 of course, depends on the distance as 
 well as the real magnitude of the body ; 
 apparent motion is the motion a body 
 seems to have in consequence of our own 
 motion, as the motion of the sun from 
 east to west, etc. 
 
 APPARI'TION, according to a belief 
 held by some, a disembodied spirit man- 
 ifesting itself to mortal sight ; according 
 to the common theory an illusion invol- 
 untarily generated, by means of which 
 figures or forms, not present to the 
 actual sense, are nevertheless depic- 
 tured with a vividness and intensity 
 sufificient to create a temporary belief of 
 their reality. Such illusions are now 
 generally held to result from an ovei-- 
 excited brain, a strong imagination, or 
 some bodily malady. In perfect health 
 the mind not only possesses a control 
 over its powers, but the impressions of 
 the external objects alone occupy its 
 attention, and the play of imagination 
 is consequently checked, except in sleep, 
 when its operations are relatively more 
 feeble and faint. But in the unhealthy 
 state of the mind, when its attention is 
 partly withdrawn from the contempla- 
 tion of external objects, the impressions 
 of its own creation, or rather reproduc- 
 tion, will either overpower or combine 
 themselves with the impressions of ex- 
 ternal objects, and thus generate illu- 
 sions which in the one case appear alone, 
 while in the other they are seen pro- 
 jected among those external objects to 
 which the eyeball is directed. This 
 theory explains satisfactorily a large 
 majority of the stories of apparitions; 
 still there are some which it seems in- 
 sufficient to account for. In recent 
 times, though the belief in ghosts of the 
 old and orthodox class may be said to 
 have almost died out, a new and kindred 
 faith has arisen, that of Spiritualism. 
 
 APPEAL', in legal phraseology, the 
 removal of a cause from an inferior tri- 
 bunal to a superior, in order that the 
 latter may revise, and if it seem needful 
 reverse or amend, the decision of the 
 former. 
 
 APPENDICI'TIS, an inflammation of 
 the vermiform appendix. The V. appen- 
 dix is found in all except a very few 
 mammals, and varies in size from a mere 
 rudiment to a large and very useful part 
 of the intestine. It is smallest in flesh- 
 eating animals, and in man is from three 
 to six inches long, with a diameter about 
 that of an ordinary lead pencil or less. 
 It comes off the csecum, or blind gut, of 
 the large intestine and, in man, has no 
 function whatsoever. As it opens upon 
 the intestine, it sometimes receives for- 
 eign substances, including bacteria, the 
 irritation from which sets up inflamma- 
 tion which is often followed by suppura- 
 tion and perforation, necessitating an 
 operation by which it is removed. 
 Appendicectomy (the operation) is now 
 commonplace and safe. Typical symp- 
 toms of appendicitis are pain in the 
 region (right side of the abdomen below 
 the navel), fever, constipation, and 
 
 pain on pressure. These four symptoms 
 usually accompany the disease. Early 
 operation has saved thousands of lives 
 which otherwise would have been lost 
 through inflammation of the appendix. 
 
 Large intestine, showing the appendix. 
 
 Autopsies show that, two-thirds of the 
 human race are afflicted with appen- 
 dicitis. The disease is comparatively 
 rare in persons past middle life. 
 
 AP'PETITE, in its widest sense, means 
 the natural desire for gratification, either 
 of the body or the mind; but is generally 
 applied to the recurrent and intermit- 
 tent desire for food. A healthy appetite 
 is favored by work, exercise, plain liv- 
 ing, and cheerfulness; absence of this 
 feeling, or defective appetitq, indi- 
 cates diseased action of the stomach, 
 or of the nervous system or circula- 
 tion, or it may result from vicious habits. 
 Depraved appetite, or a desire for un- 
 natural food, as chalk, ashes, dirt, 
 soap, etc., depends often in the case of 
 children on vicious tastes or habits; in 
 grown up persons it may be symptomatic 
 of dyspepsia, pregnancy, or chlorosis. 
 Insatiable or canine appetite or voracity 
 when it occurs in childhood is gener- 
 ally symptomatic of worms; in adults 
 common causes are pregnancy, vi- 
 cious habits, and indigestion caused 
 by stomach complaints or gluttony, 
 when the gnawing pfcins of disease are 
 mistaken for hunger. 
 
 Construction of the Applan W ay. 
 
 APPIAN WAY, the oldest and most 
 renowned Roman road, was constructed 
 during the censorship of Appius Clau- 
 
 dius Caecus (b.c. 313-310). It was built 
 with large square stones on a raised 
 platform, and was made direct from the 
 ates of Rome to Capua, in Campania, 
 t was afterward extended through 
 Samnium and Apulia to Brundusium, 
 the modern Brindisi. It was partially 
 restored by Pius VI., and in 18.50-53 it 
 Was excavated by order of Pius IX. as 
 far as the eleventh milestone from Rome. 
 
 APPIUS CLAUDIUS, surnamed Csecus, 
 or the blind, an ancient Roman, elected 
 censor b.c. 312, which office he held 
 four years. While in this position he 
 made every effort to weaken the power 
 of the plebs, and constructed the road 
 and aqueduct named after him. He 
 was subsequently twice consul, and 
 once dictator. In his old age he became 
 blind, but in b.c. 280 he made a famous 
 speech in which he induced the senate 
 to reject the terms of peace fixed by 
 Pyrrhus. He is the ’earliest Roman 
 writer of prose and verse whose name 
 we know. 
 
 APPIUS CLAUDIUS CRASSUS, one 
 of the Roman decemvirs, appointed b.c. 
 451 to draw up a new code of laws. 
 He and his colleagues plotted to retain 
 their power permanently, and at the 
 expiry of their year of office refused to 
 give up their authority. The people 
 were incensed against them, and the 
 following circumstances led to their 
 overthrow. Appius Claudius had con- 
 ceived an evil passion for Virginia, the 
 daughter of Lucius Virginius, then ab- 
 sent with the army in the war with the 
 .iEqui and Sabines. At the instigation of 
 Appius, Marcus Claudius, one of his 
 clients, claimed Virginia as the daughter 
 of one of his own female slaves, and the 
 decemvir, acting as judge, decided that 
 in the meantime she should remain in 
 the custody of the claimant. Virginius, 
 hastily summoned from the army, ap- 
 peared with his daughter next day in 
 the forum, and appealed to the people; 
 but Appius Claudius again adjudged 
 her to Marcus Claudius. Unable to 
 rescue his daughter, the unhappy father 
 stabbed her to the heart. The decemvirs 
 were deposed by the indignant people 
 B.c. 449, and Appius Claudius died in 
 prison or was strangled. 
 
 APPLE, the fruit of a well-known tree 
 of the nat. order RosaceaB, or the tree 
 itself. The apple belongs to the tem- 
 perate regions of the globe, over which 
 it is almost universally spread and 
 cultivated. The tree attains a mod- 
 erate height, with spreading branches; 
 the leaf is ovate; and the flowers are 
 produced from the wood of the former 
 year, but more generally from very 
 short shoots or spurs from wood of two 
 years’ growth. The original of all the 
 varieties of the cultivated apple is the 
 wild crab, which has a small and ex- 
 tremely sour fruit, and is a native of 
 most of the countries of Europe. The 
 apple was probably introduced into 
 Britain by the Romans. To the facility 
 of multiplying varieties by grafting is 
 to be ascribed the amazing extension 
 of the sorts of apples. Many of the more 
 marked varieties are known by general 
 names, as pippins, codlins, rennets, etc. 
 Apples for the table are characterized 
 by a firm juicy pulp, a sweetish acid 
 flavor, regular form, and beautiful 
 
APPLE OF DISCORD 
 
 APTERYX 
 
 coloring; those for cooking by the prop- 
 erty of forming by the aid of heat into 
 a pulpy mass of equal consistency, as 
 also by their large size and keeping 
 properties'; apples for cider must have a 
 considerable degree of astringency, with 
 richness of juice. The propagation of 
 apple-trees is accomplished by seeds, 
 cuttings, suckers, layers, budding, or 
 grafting, the last being almost the uni- 
 versal practice. The tree thrives best 
 in a rich deep loam or marshy clay, but 
 will thrive in any soil provided it is not 
 too wet or too dry. The wood of the 
 apple-tree or the common crab is hard, 
 close-grained, and often richly colored, 
 and is suitable for turning and cabinet 
 work. The fermented juice of the crab 
 is employed in cookery and medicine. 
 
 APPLE OF DISCOPI), according to 
 the story in the Greek mythology, the 
 golden apple thrown into an assembly 
 of the gods by the goddess of discord 
 (Eris), bearing the inscription “for the 
 fairest.” Aphrodite (Venus), Hera 
 (Juno), and Pallas (Minerva) became 
 competitors for it, and its adjudication 
 to the first by Paris so inflamed the 
 jealousy and hatred of Hera to all of the 
 Trojan race (to which Paris belonged) 
 
 Apricot. 
 
 that she did not cease her machinations 
 till Troy was destroyed. 
 
 APPLE OF SODOM, a fruit described 
 by old writers as externally of fair 
 appearance, but turning to ashes when 
 plucked ; probably the fruit of Solanum 
 sodomeum. 
 
 AP'PLETON, a city and the county 
 seat of Outagamie Co., Wis., 100 miles 
 n.w. of Milwaukee, on the Chicago and 
 Northwestern, and Chicago, Milwaukee, 
 and St. Paul railroads. It is situated 
 on the falls of the Fox river, which by 
 a series of dams is navigable for steam- 
 boats, and, with a fall of about fifty 
 feet, supplies extensive water power for 
 various manufactures, of which paper is 
 the most important. Pop. 17,185. 
 
 APPOGGIATURA (5,p-poj-a-t6'ra), in 
 music, a small additional note of em- 
 bellishment preceding the note to which 
 it is attached, and taking away from 
 the principal note a portion of its time. 
 
 APPOINT'MENT, a term in English 
 law signifying the exercise of some 
 power, reserved in a conveyance or 
 settlement, of burdening, selling, or 
 otherwise disposing of the lands or 
 
 property conveyed. Such a reserved 
 power is termed a power of appointment. 
 
 APPOMATTOX COURT-HOUSE, a 
 village in Virginia, 20 miles e. of 
 Lynchburg. Here, on 9th April, 1865, 
 Gen. Lee surrendered to Gen. Grant, 
 and thus virtually concluded the civil 
 war. 
 
 APPORTIONMENT, the process by 
 which congress, after each census, fixes 
 the number of representatives to which 
 the various states of the union are en- 
 titled. The first a pportionment was fixed 
 by the constitution, every 30,000 popu- 
 lation being entitled to a representa- 
 tive. The number grew with each 
 decade until now, with 45 states in the 
 union, instead of 13, each constituency 
 has 193,175 population, with a total of 
 386 representatives. 
 
 APPOSITION, in grammar, the rela- 
 tion in which one or more nouns or sub- 
 stantive phrases or clauses stand to a 
 noun or pronoun, which they explain 
 or characterize without being predicated 
 of it, and with which they agree in case ; 
 as Cicero, the orator, lived in the first 
 century before Christ; the opinion, that 
 a severe winter is generally followed by 
 a good summer, is a vulgar error. 
 
 APPRAIS'ER, a person employed to 
 value property, and duly licensed to do 
 so by license taken out every year. The 
 valuation must be duly set down in 
 writing, and there is a certain fixed scale 
 of charges for the appraiser’s services. 
 
 APPREHEN'SION, the seizing of a 
 person as a criminal whether taken in 
 the act or on suspicion, and with or 
 without a warrant, a warrant being 
 necessary when the person apprehend- 
 ing is not present at the commission of 
 the offense. See Arrest. 
 
 APPRENTICE, one bound by in- 
 denture to serve some particular indi- 
 vidual or company of individuals for a 
 specified time, in order to be instructed 
 in some art, science, or trade. 
 
 APPROPRIATION, the act of desig- 
 nating a certain sum of money, or of 
 other property, for a specific use, as 
 an appropriation for the army, navy, 
 police, etc. In the United States the 
 constitution provides that “no money 
 shall be drawn from the treasury but 
 in consequence of appropriations made 
 by law.” 
 
 APPROXIMATION, a term used in 
 mathematics to signify a continual 
 approach to a quantity required, when 
 no process is known for arriving at it 
 exactly. Although, by such an approxi- 
 mation, the exact value of a quantity 
 cannot be discovered, yet, in practice, 
 it may be found sufficiently correct; 
 thus the diagonal of a square, whose 
 sides are represented by unity, is \/ 2, 
 the exact value of which quantity can- 
 not be obtained; but its approximate 
 value may be substituted in the nicest 
 calculations. 
 
 A'PRICOT, a fruit of the plum genus 
 which was introduced into Europe from 
 Asia more than three centuries before 
 Christ, and into England in the first 
 half of the 16th century. It is a na- 
 tive of Armenia and other parts of 
 Asia and also of Africa. The apricot is 
 a low tree, of rather crooked growth, 
 with somewhat heart-shaped leaves and 
 sessile flowers. The fruit is sweet, more 
 
 or less juicy, of a yellowish color, about 
 the size of the peach, and resembling 
 it in delicacy of flavor. The wmod is 
 coarsely grained and soft. Apricot- 
 trees are chiefly raised aganist walls, 
 and are propagated by budding and 
 grafting. 
 
 APRIES (a'pri-ez), Pharaoh-Hophra 
 of Scripture, the eighth king of the 
 twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He 
 succeeded his father Psamuthius in 590 
 or 588 B.c. The Jews under Zedekiah 
 revolted against their Babylonia,- op- 
 pressors and allied themselves with 
 Apries, who was, however, unable to 
 raise the siege of Jerusalem, which was 
 taken by Nebuchadnezzar. A still more 
 unfortunate expedition against Cyrene 
 brought about revolt in his army, in 
 endeavoring to suppress which Apries 
 was defeated and slain about b.c. 569. 
 
 A'PRIL, the fourth month of the year. 
 The strange custom of making fools on 
 the 1st of April by sending people upon 
 errands and expeditions which end in 
 disappointment, and raise a laugh at 
 the expense of the person sent, has been 
 connected with the miracle plays of the 
 middle ages, in which the Savior was 
 represented as having been sent, at this 
 period of the year, from Annas to 
 Caiaphas and from Pilate to Herod. 
 
 A PRIO'RI (“from what goes be- 
 fore”), a phrase applied to a mode of 
 reasoning by which we proceed from 
 general principles or notions to partic- 
 ular cases, as opposed to a posteriori 
 
 Apteryx. 
 
 (“from what comes after”) reasoning, 
 by which we proceed from knowledge pre- 
 viously acquired. Mathematical proofs 
 are of the a priori kind; the conclusions 
 of experimental science are a posteriori. 
 It is also a term applied to knowledge 
 independent of all experience. 
 
 AP'SIS, pi. AP'SIDES or APSI'DES, 
 in astron. one of the two points of the 
 orbit of a heavenly body situated at the 
 extremities of the major axis of the 
 ellipse formed by the orbit, one of the 
 points being that at which the body is 
 at its greatest and the other that at 
 which it is at its least distance from its 
 primary. In regard to the earth and 
 the other planets, these two points 
 correspond to the aphelion and peri- 
 helion; and in regard to the moon they 
 correspond to the apogee and perigee. 
 The line of the apsides has a slow for- 
 ward angular motion in the plane of the 
 planet’s orbit, being retrograde only in 
 Venus. This in the earth’s orbit pro- 
 duces the anomalistic year. See Anom- 
 aly. 
 
 APTERYX, a nearly extinct genus of 
 cursorial birds, distinguished from the 
 
APULEIUS 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 ostriches by having three toes with a 
 rudimentary hallux, which forms a 
 spur. They are natives of the South 
 Island of New Zealand; are totally wing- 
 less and tailless, with feathers resem- 
 bling hairs; about the size of a small 
 goose ; with long beak some- thing like 
 that of a curfew. They are entirely 
 nocturnal, feeding on insects, worms, 
 and seeds. 
 
 APULEIUS, or APPULEIUS (ap-u- 
 le'us), author of the celebrated satirical 
 romance in Latin called the Golden Ass, 
 born at Madaura, in Numidia, in the 
 early part of the 2d century a.d.; the 
 time of his death unknown. 
 
 APU'LIA, a department or division 
 in the southeast of Italy, on the Adri- 
 atic, composed of the provinces of 
 Foggia, Bari, and Lecce; area, 8539 sq. 
 miles; pop. 1,949,423. 
 
 A'QUA, a word much used in phar- 
 macy and old chemistry. — Aqua fortis 
 ( = strong water), a weak and impure 
 nitric acid. It has the power of eating 
 into steel and copper, and hence is used 
 by engravers, etchers, etc. — Aqua ma- 
 rina, a fine variety of beryl. See Aqua- 
 marine. — Aqua regia, or aqua regalis 
 ( = royal water), a mixture of nitric 
 and hydrochloric acids, with the power 
 of dissolving gold and other noble 
 metals. — Aqua Tofana, a poisonous 
 fluid made about the middle of the 
 17th century by an Italian woman 
 Tofana or' Toffania, who is said to have 
 procured the death of no fewer than 600 
 individuals by means of it. It con- 
 sisted chiefly, it is supposed, of a solu- 
 tion of crystallized arsenic. — Aqua 
 vitse ( = water of life), or siijiply aqua, 
 a name familiarly applied to the whisky 
 of Scotland, corresponding in meaning 
 with the usquebaugh of Ireland, the 
 eau de vie (brandy) of the French. 
 
 AQUA FORTIS. See above article. 
 
 A'QUAMARINE', a nafne given to 
 some of the finest varieties of beryl of a 
 sea-green or blue color. Varieties of 
 topaz are also so called. 
 
 AQUA'RIUM, a vessel or series of 
 vessels constructed wholly or partly of 
 glass and containing salt or fresh water 
 in which are kept living specimens of 
 marine or fresh-water animals along 
 with aquatic plants. 
 
 AQUARIUS, the Water-bearer; a sign 
 in the zodiac which the sun enters about 
 the 21st of January: so called from the 
 rains which prevail at that season in 
 Italy and the East. 
 
 AQUATINT, a method of etching on 
 copper by which a beautiful effect is 
 produced, resembling a fine drawing in 
 sepia or Indian ink. The special char- 
 acter of the effect is the result of sprink- 
 ling finely powdered resin or mastic 
 over the plate, and causing this to ad- 
 here by heat, the design being previously 
 etched, or being now traced out. The 
 nitric acid (aqua fortis) acts only in the 
 interstices between the particles of resin 
 or mastic, thus giving a slightly gran- 
 ular appearance. 
 
 A'QUEDUCT, an artificial channel or 
 conduit for the conveyance of water from 
 one place to another: more particularly 
 applied to structures for conveying 
 water from distant sources for the sup- 
 ■ ply of large cities. Aqueducts were 
 extensively used by the Romans and. 
 
 many of them still remain in different 
 places on the Continent of Europe, 
 some being still in use. The Pont du 
 Card in the south of France, 14 miles 
 from NIsmes, is still nearly perfect, and 
 is a grand monument of the Roman oc- 
 cupation of this country. The ancient 
 aqueducts were constructed of stone or 
 brick, sometimes tunneled through hills, 
 and carried over valleys and rivers on 
 arches. The Pont du Gard is built of great 
 blocks of stone; its height is 160 feet; 
 length of the highest arcade, 882 feet. 
 The aqueduct at Segovia, originally 
 built by the Romans, has in some parts 
 two tiers of arcades 100 feet high, is 
 2921 feet in length, and is one of the 
 most admired works of antiquity. One 
 of the most remarkable aqueducts of 
 modern times is that constructed by 
 Louis XIV. for conveying the waters of 
 the Eure to Versailles. The extensive 
 application of metal pipes has rendered 
 the construction of aqueducts of the 
 old type unnecessary; but what may be 
 called aqueduct bridges are still fre- 
 quently constructed in connection with 
 water-works for the supply of towns, 
 and where canals exist canal aqueducts 
 are common, since the water in a canal 
 must be kept on a perfect level. In the 
 United States there are some important 
 aqueducts, as the Croton, about 40J 
 miles long, bringing water to New York. 
 
 A'QUEOUS HUMOR, the limpid 
 watery fluid which fills the space be- 
 tween the cornea and the crystalline 
 lens in the eye. 
 
 AQUEOUS ROCKS, mechanically 
 formed rocks, composed of matter 
 deposited by water. Called also sedi- 
 mentary or stratified rocks. See Geol- 
 ogy. 
 
 AQUIFOLIA'CEiE, a nat. order of 
 plants; the holly tribe. The species con- 
 sist of trees and shrubs, and the order 
 includes the common holly and the 
 Paraguayan tea tree. 
 
 AQUILA (ak'we-la), a town in Italy, 
 capital of the province of Aquila, 55 
 miles northeast of Rome. Pop. 14,720. 
 — The province has an area of 2509 sq. 
 miles, a population of 371,332. 
 
 AQUINAS (a-kwi'nas), St. Thomas, a 
 celebrated scholastic divine, born about 
 1227, died in 1274; descended from the 
 counts of Aquino, in the Kingdom of the 
 Two Sicilies. He was educated at the 
 Benedictine monastery of Monte Casino, 
 and at the University of Naples, where 
 he studied for six years. In 1257 l\e 
 received the degree of doctor from the 
 Sorbonne, and began to lecture on 
 theology, rapidly acquiring the* highest 
 reputation. In 1263 he had been 
 offered the archbishopric of Naples by 
 Clement IV., but refused the offer. He 
 died on his way to Lyons to attend a 
 general council for the purpose of unit- 
 mg the Greek and Latin Churches. 
 
 ARABESQUE (ar'a-besk), a species 
 of ornamentation for enriching flat sur- 
 faces, often consisting of fanciful figures, 
 human or animal, combined with floral 
 forms. There may be said to be thi-ee 
 periods and distinctive varieties of 
 arabesque; (a) the Roman or Graeco- 
 Roman, introduced into Rome from the 
 East when pure art was declining; (b) 
 the Arabesque of the Moors as seen in 
 the Alhambra, introduced by them into 
 
 Europe in the middle ages; (c) Modem 
 Arabesque, which took its rise in Italy 
 in the Renaissance period of art. The 
 arabesques of the Moors, who are pro- 
 hibited by their religion from repre- 
 
 Renaissance Arabesque. 
 
 senting animal forms, consist essentially 
 of complicated ornamental designs based 
 on the suggestion of plant-growth, com- 
 bined with extremely complex geomet- 
 rical forms. 
 
 ARA'BI PASHA, Egyptian soldier and 
 revolutionary leader, born 1837. In 
 Sept., 1881, he headed a military revolt, 
 and was for a time virtually dictator of 
 Egypt. Britain interfered, and after 
 a short campaign, beginning with the 
 bombardment of Alexandria and end- 
 ing with the defeat of Arabi and his 
 army at Tel-el-Kebir, he surrendered, 
 and was banished to Ceylon. 
 
 ARA'BIA, a vast peninsula in the s.w. 
 of Asia, bounded on the n. by the great 
 Syro-Babylonian plain, n.e. by the 
 Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, s. 
 or s.e. by the Indian Ocean, and s.w. 
 by the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez. Its 
 length from n.w. to s.e. is about 1800 
 miles, its mean breadth about 600 
 miles, it area rather over 1,000,000 sq. 
 miles, its pop. probably not more than 
 6,000,000. Roughly described, it ex- 
 hibits a central tableland surrounded 
 by a series of deserts, with numerous 
 scattered oases, while around this is a 
 line of mountains parallel to and ap- 
 proaching the coasts, and with a narrow 
 rim of low grounds between them and 
 the sea. In its general features Arabia 
 resembles the Sahara, of which it may 
 be considered a continuation. Like the 
 Sahara it has its wastes of loose sand, 
 its stretches of bare rocks and stones, 
 its mountains devoid of vegetation, its 
 oases with their wells and streams, their 
 palm-groves and cultivated fields — 
 islands of green amid the surround- 
 ing desolation. Rivers proper there 
 are none. The chief towns are Mecca, 
 the birthplace of Mohammed; Medina, 
 the place to which he fled from Mecca 
 (a.d. 622), and where he is buried; 
 Hodeida, a seaport exporting Mocha 
 coffee; Aden, on the s.w. coast, a 
 strongly fortified garrison belonging 
 to Britain; Sana, the capital of Yemen; 
 and Muscat, the capital of Oman, a 
 busy port with a safe anchorage. The 
 chief towns of the interior are Hail, the 
 residence of the emir of northern Nejd; 
 Oneizah, under the same ruler; and 
 Riad, capital of southern Nejd. The 
 most flourishing portions of Arabia are 
 in Oman, Hadramaut, and Nejd. In the 
 two former are localities with numerous 
 towns and villages and settled indus- 
 trious populations like that of Hin- 
 dustan or Europe. 
 
 The climate of Arabia in general is 
 marked by extreme heat and dryness. 
 The date-palm furnishes the staple 
 article of food; the cereals are wheat, 
 
ARABIAN NIGHTS 
 
 ARARAT 
 
 Bedouin Arabs. — 1. 2, Of tbe Jordan. 3, Of the Hauran, 4, 5, Of the Desert. 
 
 barley, maize, and millet; various sorts 
 of fruit flourish; coffee and many aro- 
 matic plants and substances, such as 
 gum-arabic, benzoin, mastic, balsam, 
 aloes, myrrh, frankincense, etc., are 
 produced. There are also cultivated in 
 different parts of the peninsula, accord- 
 ing to the soil and climate, beans, rice, 
 lentils, tobacco, melons, saffron, colo- 
 cynth, poppies, olives, etc. Sheep, 
 goats, oxen, the horse, the camel, ass, 
 and mule supply man’s domestic and 
 personal wants. Among wild animals 
 are gazelles, ostriches, the lion, panther, 
 hyena, jackal, etc. Among mineral 
 products are saltpeter, mineral pitch, 
 petroleum, salt, sulphur, and several 
 precious stones, as the carnelian, agate, 
 and onyx. 
 
 The Arabs, as a race, are of middle 
 stature, of a powerful though slender 
 build, and have a skin of a more or less 
 brownish color; in towns and the up- 
 lands often almost white. Their fea- 
 
 the nominal submission of the tribes 
 inhabiting the rest of Arabia. The sub- 
 jection of Hejaz has continued down to 
 the present day; but Yemen achieved 
 its independence in the 17th century, 
 and maintained it till 1871, when the 
 territorj^ again fell into the hands of 
 the Turks. In 1839 Aden was occupied 
 by the British. Oman early became 
 virtually independent of the caliphs, 
 and grew into a well-organized king- 
 dom. In 1507 its capital, Maskat or 
 Muscat, was occupied by the Portu- 
 guese, who were not driven out till 1659. 
 The Wahabis appeared toward the end 
 of the 18th century, and took an im- 
 portant part in the political affairs of 
 Arabia, but their progre.ss was inter- 
 rupted by Mohammed Ali, pasha of 
 Egypt, and they suffered a complete 
 defeat by Ibrahim Pasha. He ex- 
 tended his power over most of the 
 country, but the events of 1840 in Syria 
 compelled him to renounce all claims to 
 
 tures are well cut, the nose straight, the 
 forehead high. They are naturally 
 active, intelligent, and courteous; and 
 their character is marked by temper- 
 ance, bravery, and hospitality. The 
 first religion of the Arabs, the worship 
 of the stars, was supplanted by the 
 doctrines of Mohammedanism, which 
 succeeded rapidly in establishing itself 
 throughout Arabia. 
 
 The history of the Arabs previous to< 
 Mohammed is obscure. The earliest 
 inhabitants are belived to have been of 
 the Semitic race. Jews in great num- 
 bers migrated into Arabia after the 
 destruction of Jerusalem, and, making 
 numerous proselytes, indirectly favored 
 the introduction of the doctrines of 
 Mohammed. With his advent the 
 Arabians uprose and united for the pur- 
 po.se of extending the new creed; and 
 under the caliphs — the successors of 
 Mohammed — they attained great power, 
 and founded large and powerful king- 
 doms in three continents. (See Caliphs.) 
 On tlie fall of the caliphate of Bagdad 
 in 1258 the decline set in, and on the 
 expulsion of the Moors from Spain the 
 foreign rule of the Arabs came to an 
 end. In the 16th century Turkey sub- 
 jected Hejaz and Yemen, and received 
 
 Arabia. The Hejaz thus again became 
 subject to Turkish sway. Turkey has 
 since extended its rule not only over 
 Yemen, but also over the district of 
 El-Hasa on the Persian Gulf. 
 
 ARABIAN NIGHTS; or, THE THOU- 
 SAND AND ONE NIGHTS, a celebrated 
 collection of Eastern tales, long current 
 in the East, and supposed to have been 
 derived by the Arabians from India, 
 Ithrough the medium of Persia. They 
 were first introduced into Europe in the 
 beginning of the ISth century by means 
 of the French translation of Antoine 
 Galland. Of some of them no original 
 MS. is known to exist; they were taken 
 down by Galland from the oral com- 
 munication of a Syrian friend. The 
 story which connects the tales of the 
 Thousand and One Nights is as follows ; 
 The Sultan Shahriyar, exasperated by 
 the faithlessness of his bride, made 
 a law that every one of his future wives 
 should be put to death the morning 
 after marriage. At length one of them, 
 Shahrazad, the generous daughter of 
 the grand-vizier, succeeded in abolish- 
 ing the cruel custom. By the charm of 
 her stories the fair narrator induced the 
 sultan to defer her excution ever3’' day 
 till the dawn of another, by breaking 
 
 off in the middle of an interesting tale 
 which she had begun to relate. In the 
 form we possess them these tales belong 
 to a comparatively late period, though 
 the exact date of their composition is 
 not known. Lane, who published a 
 translation of a number of the tales, 
 with valuable notes, is of opinion that 
 they took their present form some time 
 between 1475 and 1525. Two complete 
 English translations have recently teen 
 printed, giving many passages that 
 previous translators had omitted on the 
 score of morality or decency. 
 
 ARABIC FIGURES, the characters 
 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0; of Indian origin, 
 introduced into Europe by the Moors. 
 They did not come into general use till 
 after the invention of printing. 
 
 AR'ACK, a spirituous liquor manu- 
 factured in the East Indies from a great 
 variety of substances. It is often dis- 
 tilled from fermented rice, or it may be 
 distilled from the juice of the cocoanut 
 and other palms. Pure arack is clear 
 and transparent, with a yellowish or 
 straw color, and a peculiar but agree- 
 able taste and smell ; it contains at least 
 52 to 54 per cent of alcohol. 
 
 AR'AGO, Dominique Francois, a 
 French physicist, born in 1786; died at 
 Paris in 1853. After studying in the 
 Polytechnic School at Paris, he was 
 appointed a secretary of the Bureau des 
 Longitudes. In 1809 he was elected to 
 the Academy of Sciences, and appointed 
 a professor of the Polytechnic School. 
 He distinguished himself by his re- 
 searches in the polarization of light, 
 galvanism, magnetism, astronomy, etc. 
 His discovery of the magnetic proper- 
 erties of substances devoid of iron, 
 made known to the Academy of Sciences 
 in 1824, procured him the Copley medal 
 of the Royal Society of London in 1825. 
 A further consideration of the same sub- 
 ject led to the equally remarkable dis- 
 covery of the production of magnetism 
 by electricity. 
 
 ARAGON', Kingdom of, a former 
 province or kingdom of Spain, now 
 divided into the three provinces of 
 Teruel, Huesca, and Saragossa; bounded 
 on the n. by the Pyrenees, n.w. by Na- 
 varre, w. by Castile, s. by Valencia, and 
 e. by Catalonia; length about 190 miles, 
 average breadth 90 miles; area, 14,726 
 sq. miles. It was governed by its own 
 monarchs until the union with Castile 
 on the marriage of Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella (1469). Pop. 909,261. 
 
 A'RAM, Eugene, a self-taught scholar 
 whose unhappy fate has been made the 
 subject of a ballad b}'^ Hood and a 
 romance by Lord Lytton, was born in 
 Yorkshire, 1704, executed for murder, 
 1759. 
 
 ARAP'AHOES, a tribe of American 
 Indians located near the head-waters of 
 the Arkansas and Platte rivers, not now 
 of any importance. 
 
 AR'ARAT, a celebrated mountain in 
 Armenia, forming the point of contact 
 of Russia with Turkey and Persia ; an 
 isolated volcanic mass showing two 
 separate cones known as the Great and 
 Little Ararat, resting on a common base 
 and separated by a deep intervening 
 depression. The elevations are: Great 
 Ararat, 16,916 feet; Little .Vrarat, 12,- 
 840 feet ; the connecting ridge, S7S0 feet 
 
ARBITRATION 
 
 ARCHBISHOP 
 
 Vegetation extends to 14,200 feet, which 
 marks the snow-line. According to tra- 
 dition Mount Ararat was the resting- 
 
 E ’ > of the ark when the waters of the 
 abated. 
 
 ARBITRATION, the process by which 
 a dispute over property, or other dispute, 
 is settled without recourse to law, by 
 judges selected and agreed upon by the 
 disputants. The history of arbitration 
 is quite old, and this method of settling 
 disputes is really older than legal forms 
 which are an outgrowth of it. In medie- 
 val times international disputes were 
 arbitrated by the pope of Rome, and the 
 Vatican still is regarded, by Roman 
 Catholic powers, as a permanent court 
 of arbitration. Among the numerous 
 cases more recently decided by arbitra- 
 tion are those of the Alabama claims 
 (1871), of the Samoan dispute between 
 Great Britain, Germany, and the United 
 States in 1889, of the Delagoa Bay 
 dispute and the Bering Sea dispute in 
 in 1892, and of the Alaskan boundary 
 dispute in 1897. 
 
 ARBOR DAY, a holiday, general in 
 the United States, used for the planting 
 of trees by school children. The day 
 usually falls in early May. Its purpose 
 is the encouragement of the idea of 
 reforesting the country. 
 
 AR'BORICULTURE includes the cul- 
 ture of trees and shrubs, as well as all 
 that pertains to the preparation of the 
 soil, the sowing of the seeds, and the 
 treatment of the plants in their young 
 state, the preparation of the land previ- 
 ous to their final transplantation, their 
 just adaptation to soil and situation, 
 their relative growth and progress to 
 maturity, their management during 
 growth, and the proper season and 
 period for felling them. 
 
 ARBOR VITAS, the name of several 
 coniferous trees allied to the cypress, 
 with flattened branchlets, and small 
 imbricated or scale-like leaves. The 
 common Arbor Vitae is a native of North 
 America, where it grows to the height 
 of 40 or 50 feet. The young twigs have 
 an agreeable balsamic smell. The Chi- 
 nese Arbor Vitae, common in Britain, 
 yields a resin which was formerly 
 thought to have medicinal virtues. 
 
 AR'BUTUS, a genus of plants belong- 
 ing to the Ericaceae, or heath order, and 
 comprising a number of small trees and 
 shrubs, natives chiefly of Europe and 
 N. America. 
 
 ARC, a portion of a curve line, espe- 
 cially of a circle. It is by means of 
 circular arcs that all angles are measured. 
 — Electric or Voltaic arc, the luminous 
 arch of intense brightness and exces- 
 sively high temperature which is formed 
 by an electric current in crossing over 
 the interval of space between the carbon 
 points of an electric lamp. See Arc- 
 light. 
 
 ARC, Jeanne d’. See Joan of Arc. 
 ARCADE, a series of arches supported 
 on piers or pillars, used generally as a 
 screen and support of a roof, or of the 
 wall of a building, and having beneaih 
 the covered part an ambulatory as 
 round a cloister, or a foot-path with 
 shops or dwellings, as frequently seen 
 in old Italian towns. Sometimes a 
 porch or other prominent part of an 
 
 important building is treated with 
 arcades, as in the illustration. 
 
 ARCA'DIA, the central and most 
 mountainous partion of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, the inhabitants of which in ancient 
 
 Arcade. 
 
 times were celebrated for simplicity of 
 character and manners. Their occupa- 
 tion was almost entirely pastoral, and 
 thus the country came to be regarded 
 as typical of rural simplicity and happi- 
 ness. At the present day Arcadia forms 
 a nomarchy of the Kingdom of Greece. 
 Area, 2028 sq. miles; pop. 148,600. 
 
 ARCH, a structure composed of sepa- 
 rate pieces, such as stones or bricks. 
 
 a. Abutments. i, Impost. p. Piers. 
 
 V, Voussoirs or arch-stones. k. Keystone. 
 
 S, Springers. In. Intrados. Ex. Extrados. 
 
 having the shape of truncated wedges, 
 arranged on a curved line, so as to retain 
 their position by mutual pressure. 
 
 ARCH.ffiAN (ar-ke'an) ROCKS, the 
 oldest rocks of the earth’s crust, crystal- 
 line in character, and embracing gran- 
 ite, syenite, gneiss, mica-schist, etc., all 
 devoid of fossil remains. These rocks 
 underlie and are distinctly separate from 
 the stratified and fossiliferous forma- 
 tions, which indeed have chiefly taken 
 origin from them. 
 
 ARCHAEOL'OGY, the aoience which 
 takes cognizance of the history of nations 
 and peoples as evinced by the remains, 
 architectural, implemental, or otherwise, 
 which belong to the earlier epoch of 
 their existence. In a more extended 
 
 sense the term embraces every branch 
 of knowledge which bears on the origin, 
 religion, laws, language, science, arts, 
 and literature of ancient peoples. It is 
 to a great extent s 3 Tionymou$ with pre- 
 historic annals, as a large if not the prin- 
 cipal part of its field of study extends 
 over those periods in the history of the 
 human race in regard to which we pos- 
 sess almost no information derivable 
 from written records. Archaeology 
 divides the primeval period of the 
 human race, more especially as ex- 
 hibited by remains found in Europe, 
 into the stone, the bronze, and the iron 
 age, these names being given in accord- 
 ance with the materials employed for 
 weapons, implements, etc. , during the 
 articular period. The stone age has 
 een subdivided into the palaeolithic 
 and neolithic, the former being that 
 older period, in which the stone imple- 
 ments were not polished as they are in 
 the latter and more recent period The 
 bronze age, which admits of a similar 
 subdivision, is that in which implements 
 were of copper or bronze. In this age 
 the dead were burned and their ashes 
 deposited in urps or stone chests, 
 covered with conical mounds of earth 
 or cairns of stones. Gold and amber 
 ornaments appear in this age. The iron 
 age is that in which implements, etc., of 
 iron begin to appear, although stone 
 and bronze implements are found along 
 with them. The word age in this sense 
 (as explained under Age) simply denotes 
 the stage at which a people has arrived. 
 The phrase stone age, therefore, merely 
 marks the period before the use of 
 bronze, the bronze age that before the 
 employment of iron, among any specific 
 people. 
 
 ARCHANGEL (ark-an'jel), an angel 
 of superior or of the highest rank. The 
 only archangel mentioned by name in 
 Scripture is Michael in the Epistle of 
 Jude. 
 
 ARCHANGEL (ark-an'jel), a seaport, 
 capital of the Russian government of 
 same name, on the right bank of the 
 northern Dwina, about 20 miles above 
 its mouth in the White Sea. The port 
 is closed for six months by ice. Arch- 
 angel, founded in 1584, was long the 
 only port which Russia possessed. Pop. 
 19,540. — The province has an area of 
 331,490 sq. miles; pop. 311,673. 
 
 ARCHBISHOP (arch-), a chief bishop, 
 or bishop over other bishops ; a metropoli- 
 tan prelate. The establishment of this 
 dignity is to be traced up to an early 
 period of Christianity, when the bishops 
 and inferior clergy met in the capitals 
 to deliberate on spiritual affairs, and the 
 bishop of the city where the meeting 
 was held presided. In England there 
 are two (Protestant) archbishops— those 
 of Canterbury and York; the former 
 styled Primate of all England, the latter 
 Primate of England. The Archbishop 
 of Canterbury is the first p>eer of the 
 realm, having precedence before all 
 great officers of tne crown and all dukes 
 not of royal birth. He crowns the 
 sovereign, and when he Is invwted with 
 his arcnbishopric he is said to be en- 
 throned. He can grant spedal licenses 
 to marry at any time or place, and can 
 confer degrees otherwise to be obtained 
 only from the universitie.s. 
 
ARCHDEACON 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHDEACON (arch-), an ecclesiasti- 
 cal dignitary next in rank below a bishop, 
 having a certain jurisdiction over a part 
 of the diocese. From two to four arch- 
 deacons are appointed by the bishops, 
 under whom they perform their duties, 
 and they hold courts which decide cases 
 subject to an appeal to the bishop. 
 
 ARCHER-FISH, a name given to a 
 scaly-finned fish, about 6 inches long, 
 inhabiting the seas around Java, which 
 
 Archer-fish. 
 
 has the faculty of shooting drops of 
 water to the distance of 3 or 4 feet at 
 insects, thereby causing them to fall 
 into the water, when it seizes and de- 
 vours them. The soft, and even the 
 spiny portion of their dorsal fins are so 
 covered with scales as to be scarcely dis- 
 tinguishable from the rest of the body. 
 
 ARCH'ERY, the art of shooting with 
 a bow and arrow. The use of these 
 weapons in war and the chase dates from 
 the earliest antiquity. Ishmael, we learn 
 from Gen. xxi., “became an archer.” 
 
 Cressy, Poitiers, and Agincourt, gained 
 against apparently overwhelming odds, 
 may be ascribed to the bowmen. Arch- 
 ery disappeared gradually as firearms 
 came into use, and as an instrument of 
 war or the chase the bow is now con- 
 fined to the most savage tribes of both 
 hemispheres. But, though the bow has 
 been long abandoned among civilized 
 nations as a military weapon, it is still 
 cherished as an instrument of healthful 
 recreation, encouraged by archery clubs 
 or societies. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES (ar-ki-me'dez), a cele- 
 brated ancient Greek physicist and 
 geometrician, born at Syracuse, in 
 Sicily, about 287 b.c. He devoted him- 
 self entirely to science, and enriched 
 mathematics with discoveries of the 
 highest importance, upon which the 
 moderns have founded their admeasure- 
 ments of curvilinear surface and solids. 
 Archimedes is the only one among the 
 ancients who has left us anything satis- 
 factory on the theory of mechanics and 
 on hydrostatics. He first taught the 
 hydrostatic principle to which his name 
 is attached, “that a body immersed 
 in a fluid loses as much in weight as the 
 weight of an equal volume of the fluid,” 
 and determined by means of it that an 
 artist had fraudulently added too much 
 alloy to a crown which King Hiero had 
 ordered to be made of pure gold. He 
 discovered the solution of this problem 
 while bathing; and it is said to have 
 caused him so much joy that he hastened 
 home from the bath undressed, and 
 crying out. Eureka! Eureka! “I have 
 found it, I have found it!” Practical 
 mechanics also received a great deal of 
 attention from Archimedes, who boasted 
 that if he had a fulcrum or standpoint he 
 could move the world. He is the in- 
 ventor of the compound pulley, prob- 
 ably of the endless screw, the archi- 
 medean screw, etc. During the siege of 
 Syracuse by the Romans he is said to 
 have constructed many wonderful ma- 
 chines with which he repelled their 
 
 Assyrian archer. Egyptian archer, with arrow heads and stone- 
 
 tipped reed arrow. 
 
 The Egyptians, Assyrians, Persiahs, Par- 
 thians, excelled in the use of the bow; 
 and, while the Greeks and Romans 
 themselves made little use of it, they 
 employed foreign archers as mercenaries. 
 Coming to much more recent times, we 
 find the Swiss famous as archers, but 
 they generally used the arbalist or cross- 
 bow, and were no match for their Eng- 
 lish rivals, who preferred the long-bow. 
 (See Bow.) The English victories of 
 
 attacks, and he is stated to have set 
 on fire their fleet by burning-glasses! 
 At the moment when the Romans 
 gained possession of the city by assault 
 (212 B.c.) tradition relates that Archi- 
 medes was slain while sitting in the 
 market-place contemplating some math- 
 ematical figures which he had drawn in 
 the sand. 
 
 ARCHIPEL'AGO,a term originally ap- 
 plied to the iEgean, the sea lying be- 
 
 tween Greece and Asia Minor, then to 
 the numerous islands situated therein, 
 and latterly to any cluster of islands. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, in a general sense, 
 is the art of designing and constructing 
 houses, bridges, and other buildings for 
 the purposes of civil life ; or, in a more 
 limited but very common sense, that 
 branch of the fine arts which has for 
 its object the production of edifices not 
 only convenient for their special pur- 
 pose, but characterized by unity, 
 beauty, and often grandeur. — The first 
 habitations of man were such as nature 
 afforded, or cost little labor to the 
 occupant — caves, huts, and tents. But 
 as soon as men rose in civilization and 
 formed settled societies they began to 
 build more commodious and comfortable 
 habitations. The Egyptians are the 
 most ancient nation known to us among 
 whom architecture had attained the 
 character of a fine art. Other ancient 
 peoples among whom it had made 
 great progress were the Babylonians, 
 whose most celebrated buildings were 
 temples, palaces, and hanging-gardens; 
 the Assyrians, whose capital, Nineveh, 
 was rich in splendid buildings; the 
 Phoenicians, whose cities, Sidon, Tyre, 
 etc., were adorned with equal mag- 
 nificence; and the Israelites, whose 
 temple was a wonder of architecture. 
 But comparatively few acrhitectural 
 monuments of these latter nations 
 have remained till our day. 
 
 This is not the case with the archi- 
 tecture of Egypt, however, of which we 
 possess ample remains in the shape of 
 pyramids, temples, sepulchers, obelisks, 
 etc. Egyptian chronology is far from 
 certain, but the greatest of the archi- 
 tectural monuments of the country, 
 the pyramids of Ghizeh, are at least as 
 old as 2800 or 2700 b.c. 
 
 The earliest architectural remains of 
 Greece are of unknown antiquity, and 
 consist of massive walls built of huge 
 blocks of stone. In historic times the 
 Greeks developed an architecture of 
 noble simplicity and dignity. This style 
 is of modern origin compared with that 
 of Egypt, and the earliest remains give 
 indications that it was in part derived 
 from the Egyptian. It is considered to 
 have attained its greatest perfection 
 in the age of Pericles, or about 460-430 
 B.c. The great masters of this period 
 were Phidias, Ictinus, Callicrates, etc. 
 All the extant buildings are more or less 
 in ruins. The most remarkable public 
 edifices of the Greelcs were temples, of 
 which the most famous is the Parthenon 
 at Athens. Their theaters were semi- 
 circular on one side and square on the 
 other, the semicircular part being 
 usually excavated in the side of some 
 convenient hill. This part, the audi- 
 torium, was filled with concentric seats, 
 and might be capable of containing 
 20,000 spectators. A number exist in 
 Greece, Sicily, and Asia Minor, and 
 elsewhere. The Romans became ac- 
 quainted with the architecture of the 
 Greeks soon after 200 b.c., but it was 
 not till about two centuries later that 
 the architecture of Rome attained 
 (under Augustus) its greatest perfection. 
 Among the great works now erected 
 were temples, aqueducts, amphitheaters, 
 magnificent villas, triumphal arches. 
 
 
ARC-LIGHT 
 
 ARCTIC 
 
 .monumental pillars, etc. The amphi- 
 theater differed from the theater in 
 being a completely circular or rather 
 elliptical building, filled on all sides 
 with ascending seats for spectators and 
 leaving only the central space, called 
 che arena, for the combatants and 
 
 public shows. The Colosseum is a stu- 
 penduos structure of this kind. The 
 thermae, or baths, were vast structures 
 in which multitudes of people could 
 bathe at once. Magnificent tombs were 
 often built by the wealthy. Remains 
 of jjrivate residences are numerous, and 
 the excavations at Pompeii in particular 
 have thrown great light on the internal 
 arrangements of the Roman dwelling- 
 house. 
 
 In Constantinople, after its virtual 
 separation from the Western Empire, 
 arose a style of art and architecture 
 which was practiced by the Greek 
 Church during the whole of the middle 
 ages. This is called the Byzantine 
 style. The church of St. Sophia at Con- 
 stantinople, built by Justinian (reigned 
 527-565), offers the most typical speci- 
 men of the style, of which the funda- 
 mental principle was an application of 
 the Roman arch, the dome being the 
 most striking feature of the building. 
 In the most typical examples the dome 
 or cupola rests on four pendentives. 
 
 After the dismemberment of the 
 Roman Empire the beautiful works of 
 ancient architecture were almost entire- 
 ly destroyed by the Goths, Vandals, and 
 other barbarians in Italy, Greece, Asia, 
 Spain, and Africa; or what was spared 
 by them was ruined by the fanaticism of 
 the Christians. A new style of archi- 
 tecture now arose, two forms of which 
 
 man Romanesque flourished, especially 
 in Normandy and England, from the 
 11th to the middle of the 13th century. 
 The semicircular arch is the most char- 
 acteristic feature of this style. With 
 the Lombard Romanesque were com- 
 bined Byzantine features, and buildings 
 in the pure Byzantine style were also 
 erected in Italy, as the Church of St. 
 Mark at Venice. 
 
 The Germans'were unacquainted with 
 architecture until the time of Charle- 
 magne (or Charles the Great, 742-814). 
 He introduced into Germany the Byzan- 
 tine and Romanesque styles. After- 
 ward the Moorish or Arabian style 
 had some influence upon that of the 
 western nations, and thus originated the 
 mixed style which maintained itself 
 till the middle of the 13th century. 
 
 The rise of the Renaissance style in 
 Italy is the greatest event in the history 
 of architecture after the introduction 
 of the Gothic style. The Gothic style 
 had been introduced into the country 
 
 
 
 Grecian Doric— Temple of Jupiter at Olympia. 
 
 and extensively employed, but had 
 never been thoroughly naturalized. The 
 Renaissance is a revival of the classic 
 style based on the study of the ancient, 
 models; and, having practically com- 
 menced in Florence about the beginning 
 of the 15th century, it soon spread 
 with great rapidity over Italy and the 
 greater part of Europe. The most 
 illustrious architects of this early period 
 of the style were Brunelleschi, who 
 built at Florence the dome of the cathe- 
 dral, the Pitti Palace, etc., besides 
 many edifices at Milan, Pisa, Pesaro, 
 and Mantua; Alberti, who wrote an 
 important work on architecture, and 
 
 building in this style of architecture in 
 Britain is St. Paul’s, London, the work 
 of Sir Christopher Wren. 
 
 Within the past 17 years American 
 architects (notably W. L. B. Jenney, of 
 Chicago) invented a new method of 
 
 Romanesque— Cathedral of Worms. 
 
 construction for large private and public 
 buildings, called “steel construction.” 
 This consists of erecting a skeleton of 
 steel beams and joists, all securely 
 riveted together, forming a great united 
 steel cage, around which are placed solid 
 casings of fire-proof tiles. This fire- 
 proof skeleton is then enclosed within 
 walls and the interior finish added. 
 Steel buildings of this kind are fire-proof, 
 tornado-proof, and earthquake-proof. 
 
 ARC-LIGHT, that species of the 
 electric light in which the illuminating 
 source is the current of electricity pass- 
 ing between two sticks of carbon kept 
 
 Arc-light: carbons magnified. 
 
 Egyptian— Front of Temple of Isis at Phil®. 
 
 the Lombard and the Norman Roman- 
 esque, form important phases of art. 
 The Lombard prevailed in north Italy 
 and south Germany from the 8th or 9th 
 to the 13th century (though the Lombard 
 rule came to an end in 774); the Nor- 
 
 erected many admired churches; Bra- 
 mante, who began the building of St. 
 Peter’s, Rome, and Michael Angelo, who 
 erected its magnificent dome. On St. 
 Peter’s were also employed Raphael, 
 Peruzzi and San Gallo, The noblest 
 
 a short distance apart, one of them 
 being in connection with the positive, 
 th§ other with the negative terminal of 
 a battery or dynamo. 
 
 AR'COT, two districts and a town~of 
 India, within the Presidency of Madras. 
 North Arcot is an inland district with 
 an area of 7256 sq. miles. The country 
 is partly flat and partly mountainous, 
 where intersected by the Eastern Ghd,ts. 
 Pop. 1,817,814. — South Arcot lies on the 
 Bay of Bengal, and has two seaports, 
 Cuddalor and Porto Novo. Pop. 1,814,- 
 738. — The town Arcot is in North Arcot, 
 on the Palar, about 70 miles w. by s. 
 of Madras. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 ARCTIC (ark'tik), an epithet given 
 to the north pole from the proximity of 
 the constellation of the Bear, in Greek 
 called arktos. The Arctic Circle is an 
 I imaginary circle on the globe, parallel 
 
ARCTIC OCEAN 
 
 ARGENTINE RERUBLiC 
 
 to the equator, and 23° 28' distant from 
 the north pole. This and its opposite, 
 the Antartio, are called the two polar 
 011*0106 
 
 ARCTIC OCEAN, that part of the 
 water surface of the earth which sur- 
 rounds the north pole, and washes the 
 northern shores of Europe, Asia, and 
 America ; its southern boundary roughly 
 coinciding with the Arctic Circle (lat. 
 66° 32' n.). It incloses many large 
 islands, and contains large bays and 
 gulfs which deeply indent the northern 
 shores of the three continents. Its 
 great characteristic is ice, which is 
 nearly constant everywhere. 
 
 ARCTIC REGIONS, the regions round 
 the north pole, and extending from the 
 pole on all sides to the Arctic Circle in 
 lat. 66° 32' n. The Arctic or North Polar 
 Circle just touches the northern head- 
 lands of Iceland, cuts off the southern 
 and narrowest portion of Greenland, 
 crosses Fox’s Strait north of Hudson’s 
 Bay, whence it goes over the American 
 continent to Bering’s Strait. Thence 
 it runs to Obdorsk at the mouth of the 
 Obi, then crossing northern Russia, the 
 White Sea, and the Scandinavian Penin- 
 sula, returns to Iceland. Though much 
 skill and heroism have been developed 
 in the exploration of this portion of the 
 earth, there is still an area round the 
 pole estimated at 2,500,000 sq. miles, 
 which is a blank to geographers. Many 
 have adopted the behef in the existence 
 of an open polar sea about the north 
 ole. But this belief is not supported 
 y any positive evidence. Valuable 
 minerals, fossils, etc., have been dis- 
 covered within the Arctic regions. In 
 the archipelago north of the American 
 continent excellent coal frequently 
 occurs. The mineral cryolite is mined 
 in Greenland. Fossil ivory is obtained 
 in islands at the mouth of the Lena. In 
 Scandinavia, parts of Siberia, and north- 
 west America, the forest region extends 
 within the Arctic Circle. The most 
 characteristic of the natives of the Arctic 
 regions are the Eskimos. The most 
 notable animals are the white-bear, the 
 musk-ox, the reindeer, and the whale- 
 bone whale. Fur-bearing animals are 
 numerous. The most intense cold ever 
 registered in those regions was 74° below 
 zero Fahr. The aurora borealis is a 
 brilliant phenomenon of Arctic nights. 
 See Polar Exnloration. 
 
 ARCTU'RUS, a fixed star of the first 
 magnitude in the constellation of Bootes, 
 and thought by some to be the nearest 
 to our system of any of the fixed stars. 
 It is one of the stars observed to have a 
 motion of its own, and is a noticeable 
 object in the northern heavens. 
 
 ARDECHE(ar-dash'),a department in 
 the south of France (Languedoc), on the 
 west side of the Rhone, taking its name 
 from the river Ard^che, which rises 
 within it, and falls into the Rhone after 
 a course of 46 miles; area, 2134 sq. 
 miles. It is generally of a mountainous 
 character, and contains the culminating 
 point of the Cevennes. Silk and wine 
 are produced. Annonay Is the principal 
 town, but Privas is the capital. Pop. 
 353 564. 
 
 ARDENNES (hr-den'), a frontier de- 
 partment in the northeast of France; 
 area, 2020 .'aq. miles, partly consisting 
 
 of the Forest of Ardennes. Chief towns, 
 Mdzi5res (the capital), Rocrol, and 
 Sedan. Pop. 315,589. 
 
 A'REA, the superficial content of any 
 figure or space, the quantity of surface 
 it contains in terms of any unit. See 
 Mensuration. 
 
 ARE'NA, the inclosed space in the 
 central part of the Roman amphi- 
 theaters, in which took place the com- 
 bats of gladiators or wild beasts. It 
 w'as usually covered with sand or saw- 
 dust to prevent the gladiators from 
 slipping, and to absorb the blood. 
 
 ARE'OLAR TISSUE, an assemblage 
 of fibers and laminae pervading every 
 part of the animal structure, and con- 
 nected with each other so as to form 
 innumerable small cavities, by means 
 of which the various organs and parts 
 of organs are connected together; called 
 also Cellular Tissue and Connective 
 Tissue. — In botany the term is some- 
 times applied to the non-vascular sub- 
 stance, composed entirely of untrans- 
 formed cells, which forms the soft sub- 
 stance of plants. 
 
 AREOM'ETER, an instrument for 
 measuring the specific gravity of liquids; 
 a hydrometer (which see). 
 
 AREQUIPA (&-ra-ke'ph), a city of 
 Peru, 200 miles south of Cuzco, situated 
 in a fertile valley, 7850 feet above sea- 
 level. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 ARES (a'rez). See Mars. 
 
 AREZZO (^i-ret's6), a city of central 
 Italy, capital of a province of the same 
 name in Tuscany, near the confluence 
 of the Chiana with the Arno. It is the 
 birthplace of Miecenas, Petrarch, Pietro 
 Aretino, Redi, and Vasari. Pop. 44,350. 
 — The province of Arezzo contains 1276 
 sq. miles and 272,359 inhabitants. 
 
 AR'GAND LAMP, a lamp named after 
 its inventor, Aim6 Argand, a Swiss 
 chemist and physician (born 1755, died 
 1803), the distinctive feature of which 
 is a burner forming a ring or hollow 
 cylinder covered by a chimney, so that 
 tire flame receives a current of air both 
 on the inside and on the outside. 
 
 ARGEMONE (hr-jem'o-ne), a small 
 genus of ornamental American plants 
 of the poppy order. From the seeds is 
 obtained an oil very useful to painters. 
 
 AR'GENTINE REPUBLIC, formerly 
 called the United Provinces of La Plata, 
 a vast country of South America, the 
 extreme length of which is 2300 miles, 
 and the average breadth a little over 
 500 miles, the total area exceeding 
 1,200,000 sq. mites. It is bounded on 
 the n. by Bolivia; on the e. by Paraguay, 
 Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; on 
 the s. by the Antartic Ocean; and on the 
 w. by the Andes. It comprises four 
 great natural divisions: (1) the Andine 
 region, containing the provinces of 
 Mendoza, San Jaun, Riojaj Catamarca, 
 Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy; (2) the 
 Pampas, containing the provinces of 
 Santiago, Santa F6, Cordova, San Luis, 
 and Buenos Ayres; with the territories 
 Formosa, Pampa, and Chaco; (3) the 
 Argentine Mesopotamia, between the 
 rivers Parana and Uruguay, containing 
 the provinces of Entre Rios and Corri- 
 entes, and the territory Misiones; (4) 
 Patagonia, including the eastern half of 
 Tierra del Fuego. With the exception 
 of the n.w., where lateral branches of 
 
 the Andes run into the plain for 150 or 
 200 miles, and the province of Entre 
 Rios, which is hilly, the characteristic 
 feature of the country is the great 
 monotonous and level plains called 
 “pampas.” In the north these plains 
 are partly forest-covered, but all the 
 central and southern parts present vast 
 treeless tracts, which afford pasture to 
 immense herds of horses, oxen, and 
 sheep, and are varied in some places by 
 brackish swamps, in others by salt 
 steppes. The great water-course of the 
 country is the Parana, having a length 
 of fully 2000 miles from its source in 
 the mountains of Goyaz, Brazil, to its 
 junction with the Uruguay, where 
 begins the estuary of La Plata. The 
 Parana is formed by the union of the 
 Upper Paranu and Paraguay rivers, 
 near |he n.e. corner of the state. Im- 
 portant tributaries are the Pilcomayo, 
 the Vermejo, and the Salado. The 
 Parana, Paraguay, and Uruguay are 
 valuable for internal navigation. Many 
 of the streams which tend eastward 
 terminate in marshes and salt lakes, 
 some of which are rather extensive. 
 Not connected with the La Plata system 
 are the Colorado and the Rio Negro, 
 the latter formerly the southern bound- 
 ary of the state, separating it from 
 Patagonia. The source of the Negro is 
 Lake Nahuel Huapi, in Patagonia (area, 
 1200 sq. miles), in the midst of mag- 
 nificent scenery. The level portions of 
 the country are mostly of tertiary 
 formation, and the river and coast 
 regions consist mainly of alluvial soil 
 of great fertility. In the pampas clay 
 have been found the fossil remains of 
 extinct Mammaha, some of them of 
 colossal size. 
 
 European grains and fruits, including 
 the vine, have been successfully intro- 
 duced, and are cultivated to some 
 extent in most parts of the republic, 
 but the great wealth of the state lies 
 in its countless herds of cattle and horses 
 and flocks of sheep, which are pastured 
 on the pampas, and which multiply 
 there very rapidly. Gold, silver, nickel, 
 copper, tin, lead, and iron, besides 
 marble, jasper, precious stones, and 
 bitumen, are found in the mountainous 
 districts of the n.w., while petroleum 
 wells have been discovered on the Rio 
 Vermejo; but the development of this 
 mineral wealth has hitherto been greatly 
 retarded by the want of proper means of 
 transport. As a whole there are not 
 extensive forests in the state except in 
 the region of the Gran Chaco (which 
 extends also into Bolivia), where there 
 is known to be 60,000 square miles of 
 timber. Thousands of square miles are 
 covered with thistles, which grow to a 
 great height in their season. Cacti also 
 form great thickets. Peach and apple 
 trees are abundant in some districts. 
 The native fauna includes the puma, 
 the jaguar, the tapir, the llama, the 
 alpaca, the vicufla, armadillos, the rhea 
 or nandu, a species of ostrich, etc. "The 
 climate is agreeable and healthful, 97° 
 being about the highest temperature 
 experienced. The rainfall is very scanty 
 in some districts, and is nowhere very 
 large. 
 
 The river La Plata was discovered in 
 1512 by the Spanish navigator Juan 
 
AKGONAUT 
 
 ARIL 
 
 Diaz de Solis, and the La Plata territory 
 had been brought into the possession of 
 Spain by tJie end of the 16th century. 
 In 1810 the territory cast off the Span- 
 ish rule, and in 1816 the ind^endence 
 of the United States of the Rio de la 
 Plata was formally declared, but it was 
 long before a settled government was 
 established. The present constitution 
 dates from 1853, being subsequently 
 modified. The executive power is 
 vested in a president — elected by the 
 representatives of the fourteen provinces 
 for a term of six years. A national con- 
 gress of two chambers — a senate and a 
 house of deputies — wields the legisla- 
 tive authority, and the republic is mak- 
 ing rapid advances in social and politi- 
 cal life. The national revenue for 1901 
 amounted to about $65,000,000, while 
 the expenditure amounted to fully $70,- 
 000,000; the public debt is about $390,- 
 000,000. There are about 11,000 miles 
 of railway opened. The external com- 
 merce is important, the chief exports 
 being wool, skins and hides, live animals, 
 mutton, tallow, bones, corn, and flax. 
 The imports are chiefly manufactured 
 goods. The trade is largely with Brit- 
 ain and France, and is inci'easing 
 rapidly, the exports having advanced 
 from $45,000,000 in 1876 to $150,000,- 
 000 in 1901. The imports are over 
 $100,000,000 annually. Buenos Ayres 
 is the capital. Other towns are Cor- 
 dova, Rosario, La Plata, Tucuman, Men- 
 doza, and Corrientes. The population 
 of the republic, which is rapidly in- 
 creasing by immigration, w'as, in 1895, 
 4,092,990; of the capital, 690,000. 
 
 AR'GONAUT, a molluscous animal 
 belonging to the dibranchiate or two- 
 gilled cuttlefishes, distinguished bj the 
 females possessing a single-chambered 
 external shell, not organically connected 
 
 Argonaut. 
 
 with the body of the animal. The males 
 have no shell and are of much smaller 
 size than the females. The shell is 
 fragile, translucent, and boat-like in 
 shape; it serves as the receptacle of the 
 ova or eggs of the female, which sits 
 in it with the respiratory tube or “fun- 
 nel” turned toward the carina or “keel.” 
 This famed mollusc swims only by eject- 
 ing water from its funnel, and it can 
 crawl in a reversed position, carrying 
 its shell over its back like a snail. The 
 argonaut, or paper-nautilus, must be 
 carefully distinguished from the pearly- 
 nautilus or nautilus proper. 
 
 ARGONAUTS, in the legendary his- 
 tory of Greece, those heroes who per- 
 formed a hazardous voyage to Colchis, 
 a far-distant country at the eastern 
 
 extremity of the Euxine (Black Sea), 
 with Jason in the ship Argo, for the pur- 
 pose of securing a golden fleece, which 
 was preserved suspended upon a tree, 
 and under the guardianship of a sleep- 
 less dragon. By the aid of Medea, 
 daughter of the king of Colchis, Jason 
 was enabled to seize the fleece, and, 
 after many strange adventures, to reach 
 his home at lolcos in Thessaly. Among 
 the Argonauts were Hercules, Castor 
 and Pollux, Orpheus and Theseus. 
 
 ARGO-NAVIS, the southern constel- 
 lation of the Ship, containing 9 clusters, 
 
 3 nebulce, 13 double and 540 single stars, 
 of which about 64 are visible. 
 
 AR'GOS, a town of Greece, in the 
 northeast of the Peloponnesus, between 
 the gulfs of jEgina and Naiiplia or 
 Argos. This town and the surrounding 
 territory of Argolis were famous from 
 the legendary period of Greek history 
 onward, the territory containing, be- 
 sides Argos, Mycenaj, where Agamem- 
 non ruled, with a kind of sovereignty, 
 over all the Peloponnesus. Argolis 
 forms a nomarchy of the Kingdom of 
 Greece; pop. 80,695. The capital is 
 Nauplia. 
 
 AR'GUMENT, a term sometimes used 
 as synonymous with the subject of a 
 discourse, but more frequently appro- 
 priated to any kind of method employed 
 for the purpose of confuting or at least 
 silencing an opponent. 
 
 AR'GUS, in Greek mythology, a 
 fabulous being, said to have had a hun- 
 dred eyes, placed by Juno to guard lo. 
 Hence “argus-eyed,” applied to one who 
 is exceedingly watchful. 
 
 ARGUS-PHEASANT, a large, beauti- 
 ful, and very singular species of pheas- 
 ant, found native in the southeast of 
 Asia, more especially in Sumatra and 
 some of the other islands. The males 
 measure from 5 to 6 feet from the tip 
 of the beak to the extremity of the tail, 
 which has two greatly elongated central 
 feathers. The plumage is exceedingly 
 beautiful, the secondary quills of the 
 wings, which are longer than the pri- 
 mary feathers, being each adorned with a 
 series of ocellated or eye-like spots 
 (whence the name — see Argus) of bril- 
 liant metallic hues. The general body 
 plumage is brown. 
 
 ARGYLE, or ARGYLL (ar-giF), an 
 extensive county' in the southwest of 
 the Highlands of Scotland, consisting 
 partly of mainland and partly of islands 
 belonging to the Hebifides group. On 
 the land side the mainland is bounded 
 north by Inverness; east by Perth and 
 Dumbarton; eslewhere surrounded by 
 the Firth of Clyde and its connections 
 and the sea; area, 3255 square miles (or 
 over 2,000,000 acres), of which the 
 islands comprise about 1000 square miles. 
 The county is exceedingly mountainous, 
 the chief summits being Bidean-nam- 
 Bian (3766 ft.), Ben Laoigh (3708 ft.), 
 Ben Cruachan (3611 ft.),Benmore, in Mull 
 (3185 ft.), the Paps of Jura (2565 ft.), 
 and Ben Arthur or the Cobbler (2891 ft.). 
 There are several lakes, the principal of 
 which is Loch Awe. The chief minerals 
 are slate, marble, limestone, and granite. 
 County town, Inveraray; others, Camp- 
 beltown, Oban, and Dunoon. Pop. 
 (1901), 73,665. 
 
 ARGYLL, CAMPBELLS OF, a historic 
 Scottish family, raised to the peerage in 
 the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of 
 LochoAV, in 1445. The more eminent 
 rneinbers are: (1) Archibald, 2d Earl, 
 killed at the battle of Flodden, 1513. — 
 Archibald, 5th Earl, who was the means 
 of averting a collusion between the Re- 
 formers and the French troops in 15.59; 
 died 1575. — Archibald, 8th Earl and 
 Marquis, l)orn 1598; created a marquis 
 by Charles I. At the Restoration he 
 was committed to the Tower, and after- 
 ward sent to Scotland, where he was 
 tried for high treason, and beheaded in 
 1661. — Archibald, 9th Earl, son of the 
 preceding, was excludeil from the gen- 
 eral pardon by Cromwell in 1654; be- 
 headed in 1685. — Archibald, 10th Earl 
 and 1st Duke, died 1703; took an active 
 part in the Revolution of 1688-89, which 
 placed William and Mary on the throne. 
 — John, 2d Duke and Duke of Green- 
 wich, born 1678, died 1743 ; served under 
 Marlborough, and a.ssisted at the sieges 
 of Lisle and Ghent. He was long a sup- 
 porter of Walpole, but his political ca- 
 reer was full of intrigue. He is the 
 Duke of Argyll in Scott’s Heart of Mid- 
 lothian. — George Douglas Campbell, 
 K.T., K.G., etc., 8th Duke (of U. King- 
 dom, 1892), was born in 1823. In 1852 
 he became lord privy seal under Lord 
 Aberdeen, and again under Lord Palm- 
 erston in 1859 ; postmaster-general in 
 1860; secretary for India from 1868 to 
 1874; again lord privy seal in 1880, but 
 retired, being unable to agree with his 
 colleagues on their Irish policy. He 
 died in 1900. His eldest son, the Mar- 
 quis of Lome, married the Princess 
 Louise, daughter of Queen Victoria, in 
 1871. See Lome, Marquis of. 
 
 ARIA, in music. See Air. 
 
 ARIADNE (a-ri-ad'ne), in Greek myth- 
 ology, a daughter of Minos, King of 
 Crete. She gave Theseus a clue of 
 thread to conduct him out of the laby- 
 rinth after his defeat of the Minotaur. 
 Theseus abandoned her on the Isle of 
 Naxos, where she was found by Bacchus, 
 who married her. 
 
 ARIEGE (a-re-azh), a mountainous 
 department of France, on the northern 
 slopes of the Pyrenees, comprising the 
 ancient countship of Foix and parts of 
 Languedoc and Gascony. Area, 1890 
 sq. miles; pop. 219,641. 
 
 A'RIEL, the name of several person- 
 ages mentioned in the Old 'Jfestament; 
 in the demonology of the later Jews ^ 
 spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare’s 
 Tempest, Ariel was the “tricksy spirit” 
 whom Prospero had in his service. 
 
 ARIES (a'ri-ez), the Ram, a northern 
 constellation of 156 stars, of v/hich fifty 
 are visible. It is the first of the twelve 
 signs in the zodiac, which the sun enters 
 at the vernal equinox, about the 21st of 
 March. The first point in Aries is that 
 where the equator cuts the ecliptic in 
 the ascending node, and fi'om which the 
 right ascensions of heavenly bodies are 
 reckoned on the equator, and their 
 longitudes upon the ecliptic. Owing to 
 the precession of the equinoxes the sign 
 Aries no longer corresponds with the 
 constellation Aries, which it did 2000 
 years ago. 
 
 AR'IL, APJL'LUS, in some plants, 
 as in the nutmeg, an extra covering of 
 
AKISTARCHUS 
 
 ARIZONA 
 
 the seed, outside of the true seed-coats, 
 proceeding from the placenta, partially i 
 investing the seed, and falling off : 
 spontaneously. It is either succulent 
 or cartilaginous, colored, elastic, rough, 
 or knotted. In the nutmeg it is known 
 as mace. 
 
 ARISTARCHUS (ar-is-tar'kus) an 
 ancient Greek astronomer belonging to 
 Samos, flourished between 280 and 264 
 B.C., and first asserted the revolution of 
 the earth about the sun ; also regarded 
 as the inventor of the sun-dial. 
 
 ARISTIDES (ar-is-ti'dez), a states- 
 man of ancient Greece, for his strict 
 integrity surnamed the Just. He was 
 one of the ten generals of the Athenians 
 when they fought with the Persians at 
 Marathon, n.c. 490. Next year he was 
 eponymous archon, and in this office 
 enjoyed such popularity that he excited 
 the jealousy of Themistocles, who suc- 
 ceeded in procuring his banishment by 
 the ostracism (about 483). Three years 
 after, when Xerxes invaded Greece with 
 a large army, the Athenians hastened to 
 recall him, and Themistocles now ad- 
 mitted him to his confidence and coun- 
 cils. In the battle of Platsea (479) he 
 commanded the Athenians, and had a 
 great share in gaining the victory. To 
 defray the expenses of tlie Persian war 
 he persuaded the Greeks to impose a 
 tax, which should be paid into the hands 
 of an officer appointed by the states 
 collectively, and deposited at Delos. 
 The confidence which was felt in his 
 integrity appeared in their intrusting 
 him with the office of apportioning the 
 contribution. He died at an advanced 
 age anout b.c. 468, so poor that he was 
 buried at the public expense. 
 
 ARISTOC'RACY, a form of govern- 
 ment by which the wealthy and noble, 
 or any small privileged class, rules over 
 the rest of the citizens; now mostly 
 applied to the nobility or chief persons 
 in a state. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES (-tof'a-nez), the 
 greatest comic poet of ancient Greece, 
 born at Athens prdbably about the year 
 444 B.C.; died not later than b.c. 380. 
 Little is known of his life. 
 
 AR'ISTOTLE, a distinguished philos- 
 opher and naturalist of a.ncient Greece, 
 the founder of the Peripatetic school of 
 philosophy, was born in 384 b.c. at 
 Stagira, in Macedonia, died at Chalcis, 
 B.c. 322. His father, Nicomachus, was 
 physician to Amyntas II., king of Mace- 
 donia, and claimed to be descended 
 from .iEsculapius. Aristotle had lost 
 his parents before he came, at about 
 the age of seventeen, to Athens to study 
 in the school of Plato. With that philoso- 
 pher he remained for twenty years, be- 
 came preeminent among his pupils, 
 and was known as the “Intellect of the 
 School.” Upon the death of Plato, 
 348 B.C., he took up his residence at 
 Atarneus, in Mysia, on the invitation 
 of his former pupil Hermeias, the ruler 
 of that city, on whose assassination by 
 the Persians, 343 b.c., he fled to Mity- 
 lene with his wife Pythia, the niece of 
 Hermeias. During his residence at 
 Mitylene he received an invitation from 
 Philip of Macedon to superintend the 
 education of his son Alexander, then in 
 his fourteenth year. This relationship 
 between the great philosopher and the 
 
 future conqueror continued for five or 
 six years, during which the prince was 
 instructed in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, 
 logic, ethics, and politics, and in those 
 branches of physics which had even 
 then made some considerable progress. 
 On Alexander succeeding to the throne 
 Aristotle continued to live with him as 
 his friend and councilor till he set out 
 on his Asiatic campaign (334 b.c.). He 
 returned to Athens and established his 
 school in the Lyceum, a gymnasium at- 
 tached to the temple of Apollo Lyceius, 
 which was assigned to him by the state. 
 He delivered his lectures in the wooded 
 walks of the Lyceum while walking up 
 and down with his pupils. From the 
 action itself, or more probably from the 
 name of the walks (peripatoi), his school 
 was called Peripatetic. Pupils gathered 
 to him from all parts of Greece, and his 
 school became by far the most popular 
 in Athens. It was during the time of 
 his teaching at Athens that Aristotle 
 is believed to have composed the great 
 bulk of his works. On the death of 
 Alexander a revolution occurred in 
 Athens hostile to the Macedonian in- 
 terests with which Aristotle was identi- 
 fied. He therefore retired to Chalcis, 
 where he soon after died. According 
 to Strabo he bequeathed all his works 
 to Theophrastus, who, with other dis- 
 ciples of Aristotle, amended and con- 
 tinued them. They afterward passed 
 through various hands, till, about 50 
 B.C., Andronicus of Rhodes put the 
 various fragments together and classi- 
 fied them according to a systematic 
 arrangement. Many of the books bear- 
 ing his name are spurious, others are of 
 doubtful genuineness. 
 
 ARITH'METIC is primarily the 
 science of numbers. As opposed to 
 algebra it is the practical part of the 
 science. Although the processes of 
 arithmetical operations are often highly 
 complicated, they all resolve themselves 
 into the repetition of four primary oper- 
 ations; addition, subtraction, multipli- 
 cation, and division. Of these the two 
 latter are only complex forms of the two 
 former, and subtraction again is merely 
 a reversal of the process of addition. 
 Little or nothing is known as to the 
 origin and invention of arithmetic. 
 Some elementary conception of- it is in 
 all probability coeval with the first 
 dawn of human intelligence. In conse- 
 quence of their rude methods of numera- 
 tion, the science made but small advance 
 among the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, 
 and Romans, and it was not until the 
 introduction of the decimal scale of 
 notation and the Arabic, or rather 
 Indian, numerals into Europe that any 
 great progress can be traced. In this 
 scale of notation every number is ex- 
 pressed by means of the ten digits, 1,2, 
 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, by giving each digit 
 a local as well as its proper or natural 
 value. The value of every digit increases 
 in a tenfold proportion from the right 
 toward the left; the distance of any 
 figure from the right indicating the 
 power of 10, and the digit itself the 
 number of those powers intended to be 
 : expressed: thus 3464 = 3000 -f 400 + 
 60 + 4 = 3 X 103 -h 4 X 102 + 6 X 10 
 1+4. The earliest arithmetical signs 
 I ' appear to have been hieroglyphical, but 
 
 the Eygptian hieroglyphics Were too 
 diffuse to be of any arithmetical value. 
 The units were successive strokes to the 
 number required, the ten an open circle, 
 the hundred a curled palm-leaf, the 
 thousand a lotus flower, ten tliousand c. 
 bent finger. The letters of the alphabet 
 afforded a convenient mode of repre- 
 senting figures, and were used accord- 
 ingly by the Chaldeans, Hebrews, and 
 Greeks. The first nine letters of the 
 Hebrew alphabet represented the units, 
 the second nine tens, the remaining 
 four together with five repeated with 
 additional marks, hundreds; the same 
 succession of letters with added points 
 was repeated for thousands, tens of 
 thousands, and hundreds of thousands. 
 The Greeks followed the same system 
 up to tens of thousands. They wrote 
 the different classes of numbers in 
 succession as we do, and they transferred 
 operations performed on units to num- 
 bers in higher places; but the use of 
 different signs for the different ranks 
 clearly shows a want of full perception 
 of the value of place as such. They 
 adopted the letter M as a sign for 10,000 
 and by combining this marx with their 
 other numerals they could note numbers 
 as high as 100,000,000. The Roman 
 numerals which are still used in marking 
 dates or numbering chapters were almost 
 useless for purposes of computation. 
 From one to four were represented by 
 vertical strokes |, ||, |I|, ll||, five by 
 V, ten by X, fifty by L, one hundred 
 by C, afterward C, fi''^® hundred by D* 
 a thousand by [Vli These signs were 
 derived from each other according to 
 particular rules, thus V was the half of 
 X, A being also used; L was likewise 
 the half of C. IVl was artistically written 
 IVI and do, and lo, afterward D, be- 
 came five hundred. ccl represented 
 5000, ccloo 10,000, looo 50,000, ccclooo 
 100,000. They were also compounded 
 by addition and subtraction, thus |V 
 stood for four, VI for six, XXX for 
 thirty, XL for forty, LX for sixty. 
 Arithmetic is divided into abstract and 
 practical ; the former comprehends nota- 
 tion, numeration, addition, subtraction, 
 multiplication, division, measures and 
 multiples, fractions, powers and roots: 
 the latter treats of the combinations 
 and practical applications of these and 
 the so-called rules, such as reduction, 
 compound addition, subtraction, multi- 
 plication, and division, proportion, 
 interest, profit and loss, etc. Another 
 division is integral and fractional arith- 
 metic, the former treating of integers, 
 or whole numbers, and the latter of 
 fractions. Decimal fractions were in- 
 vented in the 16th century, and loga- 
 rithms, embodying the last great ad- 
 vance in the science, in the 17th century. 
 
 ARIZO'NA, a territory of the United 
 States bounded by Utah,, Mexico, New 
 Mexico, California, and Nevdda, in lati- 
 tudes 31° 20' and 37° n. and longi- 
 tudes 109° 3' and 114° 54' w. It has an 
 area of 113,020 sq. miles and a popula- 
 tion (1908) of 200,000. It is believed 
 that the countr}^ now called Arizona, 
 was formerly inhabited by a powerful 
 race who built cities, constructed forts, 
 and were civilized in a high degree. 
 The first white men to explore this 
 region were Marco de Nizan and his 
 
ARK 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 companions, Spanish missionaries. Sub- 
 sequent expeditions and settlement were 
 discouraged by the Apaches, who have, 
 until the present time, been a source of 
 trouble to the white inhabitants. In 
 1848 Arizona, together with New 
 Mexico, became part of the United 
 
 States, by the Gadsden purchase. On 
 Feb. 24, 1813, it became a territory. 
 In 1907 it was admitted with Okla- 
 homa as the state of Oklahoma. 
 
 The territory is, in its southwestern 
 part, of low elevation, and its northeast- 
 ern portion consists of a high plateau. 
 In the south are numerous high mountain 
 peaks, many of them (Thomas, Ord, 
 Bill Williams, and others) 10,000 feet 
 high and higher. The northern table- 
 
 Marble canon, Colorado river. 
 
 land at places is 8000 feet in altitude. 
 The Colorado is the principal river, and 
 its canon reaches its most picturesque 
 state in Arizona. The climate is mild, 
 very dry, and very healthful, varying 
 in temperature from excessive heat to a 
 mean of 45°. The rainfall is from five 
 to twenty inches yearly in various parts 
 of the territory. 
 
 Owing to the lack of irrigation Arizona 
 has been very backward in agriculture. 
 The principal industries are stock-rais- 
 ing, alfalfa, wheat, and barley. Figs, 
 raisin-grapes and nuts of excellent 
 quality are grown, and cotton could be 
 raised with adequate irrigation. The 
 mineral resources of Arizona are prob- 
 ably richer than those of any other 
 state or territory in the Union, but their 
 development has been held back by 
 poor and scanty transportation facilities. 
 Copper (263,200,000 pounds in 1906), 
 gold ($2,747,100 in 1906), and silver 
 ($2,099,822 in 1906) are the chief mining 
 products. Rich deposits of platinum, 
 gypsum, mercury, salt, iron, nickel, 
 tin, and precious stones abound. 
 
 Arizona has a total of 1881 miles of 
 railway, eight national banks, and a 
 good educational system. 
 
 ARK, the name applied in our trans- 
 lation of the Bible to the boat or floating 
 edifice in which Noah resided during the 
 flood or deluge; to the floating vessel of 
 bulrushes in which the infant Moses was 
 laid ; and to the ark of the covenant, 
 which was one of the most important 
 partsof the furniture of the tabernacle, 
 which the Israelites constructed in the 
 wilderness, and afterwards of the tem- 
 ple built by Solomon at Jerusalem. A 
 description of it is to be found in Exo- 
 dus XXV., in the command given to 
 Moses for its construction ; and also in 
 Exodus xxxvii, from which it appears 
 it was a chest of shittim-wood, over- 
 laid with gold within and without, 
 two cubits and a half in length, one 
 cubit and a half in breadth and in height 
 — that is, according to the common 
 estimate of the length of the cubit, 
 three feet nine inches in length, and 
 two feet three inches in breadth and 
 height — the lid being formed entirely 
 of pure gold, with a crown or raised 
 border of pure gold round about. 
 Within the ark was deposited the 
 “ testimony,” consisting of “the two 
 tables of the law,” i. e., the stone tab- 
 lets upon which the ten command- 
 ments were inscribed. The golden lid 
 of the ark was called the mercy-seat or 
 propitiatory, and above it were tlie cheru- 
 bims, made of the same piece of gold 
 with it, and between them was the 
 place of the manifestation of the Divine 
 presence. 
 
 ARKANSAS (aUkan-sa), one of the 
 South Central states, bounded on the 
 north by Missouri, by Louisiana on the 
 south, the Mississippi river on the east, 
 and by the Indian Territory and Texas 
 on the west. It has an area of 53,850 
 sq. miles, a population (1906) of 1,750,- 
 000, and ranks twenty-third in size 
 among the states. 
 
 The climate is, on the whole, delight- 
 ful. The annual mean rainfall varies 
 from 50 to 63 inches, the winters are 
 mild, with light snowfall, and the sum- 
 mers are long. Arkansas takes its 
 name from the Indians found there by 
 the first explorers, who were French. 
 In 1685 settlements were made in the 
 southern and eastern parts, Arkansas 
 then being a part of the general territory 
 of Louisiana. In 1812 it became a part 
 of Missouri Territory, then Arkansas 
 Territory, and in 1836 it was admitted 
 into the Union. The state seceded from 
 
 the Union in 1861, but the people were 
 fairly divided on the subject of secession, 
 and with the taking of Little Rock in 
 1863 the confederate power failed. The 
 state has generally voted the democratic 
 ticket in national elections. 
 
 Although the mineral resources of 
 Arkansas are varied they are not highly 
 developed. The principal product is 
 that of whetstones, the quality of which 
 has made them famous. They are 
 obtained from the mountains in the 
 vicinity of Little Rock. These moun- 
 tains are part of the Ozark range. The 
 principal rivers are the Arkansas, the 
 White, the Red, and the Black. 
 These streams are fairly navigable, but 
 lack of transportation facilities in gen- 
 eral has cramped the development of 
 the mining industry in Arkansas. The 
 mineral products include zinc, man- 
 ganese, iron, lead, and copper; marble, 
 whet and hone stones, rock-crystal, 
 paints, niter-earths, kaolin, granite, 
 freestone, limestone, marls, greensand, 
 marly limestones, grindstones, and 
 slate. Of coal, anthracite and lignite, 
 there are abundant supplies. A great 
 number of mineral and thermal springs 
 occur in various parts of the state, the 
 most remarkable and most frequented 
 groups lying to the south of the Ar- 
 kansas in Hot Springs county. The heat 
 of several attains 146° or 148° Fahr. 
 There is a great variety of soil in Ar- 
 kansas. Along the river “bottoms” 
 the alluvium is dark, rich, and deep, 
 and yields excellent crops. The chief 
 crops cultivated are corn, wheat, cotton, 
 and tobacco, as well as apples and 
 other fruits. The trees and shrubs most 
 frequently occurring are poplars, oaks, 
 pines, sweet-gum, sycamore, black lo- 
 cust, ash, elm, hickory, dogvs'ood, elder, 
 palma-christi, black spice, pawpaw, 
 mockernut, wild vine, etc. The fauna 
 of Arkansas includes the buffalo, eland, 
 red-deer, beaver, otter, hare, raccoon, 
 wild turkey, goose and quail, as well as 
 bears and wolves among the mountains. 
 The climate of the lower districts is de- 
 cidedly unhealthy, largely on account 
 of the lack of wholesome water; but in 
 the upper regions it is quite salubrious. 
 The material interests of the State 
 are enjoying a high degree of prosper- 
 ity- The products of the lumber and 
 mining industries, have annually in- 
 creased in volume, to meet the con- 
 stantly growing demand there for 
 
ARKANSAS RIVBR 
 
 ARMADILLO 
 
 throughout the State and in other por- 
 tions of the Southwest. 
 
 There is a total of 4,532 miles of rail- 
 road in the State, owned and maintained 
 by the St. Louis, Arkansas and Texas; 
 Iron Mountain ; Little Rock and Fort 
 Smith, and other roads and their 
 branches. 
 
 The school system is well managed 
 and sustained. It is under the direction 
 of a state superintendent and subordi- 
 nate officials. In addition to the school 
 houses distributed throughout the var- 
 ious school districts in the state, a Nor- 
 mal school is conducted at Pine Bluff 
 and an industrial university atFayette- 
 ville. The curriculum of the latter 
 embraces agriculture and mechanical 
 courses, besides the regular classical 
 and scientific departments. The State 
 also maintains schools for the|blind, 
 and deaf and dumb, and has at ])resent 
 a total of about 1,200,000 acres of State 
 lands of various descriptions remain- 
 ing unsold. 
 
 The population by decades is as fol- 
 lows: 1820, 14,000; 1830, 30,000; 1840, 
 97,000; 1850, 209.000 ; 1860. 435,000 ; 1870, 
 484,000; 1880, 802,000; 1890, 1,128,000; 
 1908, 1,440,0(0. In 1820 Arkansas ranked 
 twenty-sixth in order of population, 
 and has since varied but. little from 
 this position, being twenty-fifth in 19( 0. 
 The state ranks tenth in respect to ne- 
 gro population, the rate of increase for 
 this class being greater than it is for 
 the whites. In 1880 they numbered 
 210,000 ; in 1900, 366,000. In 19l,9 Little 
 Rock, the capital, had a population of 
 60,000; Pine Bluff, 11,147 ; Fort Smith, 
 10,903; Hot Springs, 9,412. The state 
 has invariably been Democratic. 
 
 ARKANSAS CITY, a rapidly grow- 
 ing city in the southern portion of Cow- 
 ley county, Kansas, is situated at the 
 junction of the M’alnut and Arkansas 
 rivers. The Atchison, Topeka and Santa 
 Fe, Missouri Pacific, and St. Louis and 
 San Francispo roads pass through the 
 city and afford abundant facilities for 
 shippers and travelers. It contains 
 commercial and manufacturing enter- 
 prises in large number, many of the 
 latter being operated by water power, 
 of which an abundance is available. 
 The city is lighted by gas and elec- 
 tricity, provided with water-works and 
 is progressive. Population, 8,354. 
 
 ARKANSAS (ar-kan'sas) RIVER, the 
 second largest affluent of the Mississippi, 
 the Missouri ranking first. It rises in 
 central Colorado, flows through Kansas, 
 Oklahoma and Indian Territories, and 
 empties into the Mississippi. It is 2000 
 miles long and navigable for about 600 
 miles from its mouth. 
 
 ARK'WRIGHT, Sir Richard, famous 
 for his inventions in cotton-spinning, 
 was born at Preston, in Lancashire, in 
 1732; died 1792. Wflen about thirty- 
 five years of age he gave himself up 
 exclusively to the subject of inventions 
 for spinning cotton. The thread spun 
 by Hargreaves’s jenny could not be used 
 except as .yi^eft,” being destitute of the 
 firmness or hardness required in the 
 longitudinal threads or warp. But 
 Arkwright supplied this deficiency by 
 the invention of the spinning-frame, 
 which spins a vast number of threads 
 of any degree of fineness and hardness, 
 
 leaving the operator merely to feed the 
 machine with cotton and to join the 
 threads when they happen to break. 
 His invention introduced the system 
 of spinning by rollers, the carding, or 
 roving as it is technically termed (that 
 is, the soft, loose strip of cotton), passing 
 through one pair of rollers, and being 
 received by a second pair, which are 
 made to revolve with (as the ease may 
 be) three, four, or five times the velocity 
 of the first pair. By this contrivance 
 the roving is drawn out into a thread of 
 the desired degree of tenuity and hard- 
 ness. Having made several additional 
 discoveries and improvements in the 
 processes of carding, roving, and spin- 
 ning, he took out a fresh patent for the 
 whole in 1775, and thus completed a 
 series of the most ingenious, and com- 
 plicated maehipery. Notwithstanding 
 a series of lawsuits in defense of his 
 
 Sir Richard Arkwright. 
 
 patent rights, and the destruction of his 
 property by mobs, he amassed a large 
 fortune. He was knighted by George 
 III. in 1786. 
 
 ARLES, a town of southern France, 
 dep. Bouches du Rhone, 17 miles south- 
 east of Nismes. It was an important 
 town at the time of Csesar’s invasion, 
 and under the later emperors it became 
 one of the most flourishing towns on 
 the further side of the Alps. It still 
 possesses numerous ancient remains, of 
 which the most conspicuous are those 
 of a Roman amphitheatre, which ac- 
 commodated 24,000 spectators. Pop. 
 16,247. 
 
 ARM, the upper limb in man, con- 
 nected with the thorax or chest b}'- 
 means of the scapula or shoulder-blade, 
 and the clavicle or collar-bone. It con- 
 sists of three bones, the arm-bone (hu- 
 merus), and the two bones of the fore- 
 arm (radius and ulna), and it is con- 
 nected with the bones of the hand by 
 the carpus or wrist. The head or upper 
 end of the arm-bone fits into the hollow 
 called the glenoid cavity of the scapula, 
 so as to form a joint of the ball-and- 
 socket kind, allowing great freedom of 
 movement to the limb. The lower end 
 of the humerus is broadened out by a 
 projection on both the outer and inner 
 sides (the outer and inner condyles), 
 and has a pulley-like surface for articu- 
 lating with the fore-arm to form the 
 elbow-joint. This joint somewhat re- 
 sembles a hinge, allowing of movement 
 only in oire direction. The ulna is the 
 inner of the two bones of the fore-arm. 
 
 1 It is largest at the upper end, whei’e 
 
 it has two processes, the coronoid and 
 the olecranon, with a dec;> groove be- 
 tween to receive the humerus. The 
 radius — the outer of the two bones — is 
 small at the upper and expanded at the 
 lower end, where it forms part of the 
 
 wrist-joint. The muscles of the upper 
 arm are either flexors or extensors, the 
 former serving to bend the arm, the 
 latter to straighten it by means of the 
 elbow-joint. The main flexor is the 
 biceps, the large muscle which may be 
 seen standing out in front of the arm 
 when a weight is raised. The chief 
 opposing muscle of the biceps is the 
 triceps. The muscles of the fore-arm 
 are, besides flexors and extensors, pro- 
 nators and supinators, the former turn- 
 ing the hand palm downward, the latter 
 turning it upward. The same funda- 
 mental pi'"' of structure exists in the 
 limbs of all vertebrate animals. 
 
 ARMA'DA, the Spanish name for any 
 large naval force ; usually applied to the 
 Spanish fleet the Invincible Armada, 
 intended to act against England a.d. 
 1588. It consisted of 130 great war 
 vessels, and carried 19,295 marines, 
 8460 sailors, 2088 slaves, and 2630 
 cannons. 
 
 ARMADIL'LO, an edentate mammal 
 peculiar to South Amei’ica, consisting of 
 various species, belonging to a family 
 intermediate between the sloths and 
 ant-eaters. They are covered with a 
 hard bony shell, divided into belts, com- 
 posed of small separate plates like a 
 coat of mail, flexible everywhere except 
 on the forehead, shoulders, and harmches, 
 where it is not movable. The belts 
 are connected by a membrane, which 
 
 Yellow-footeiJ armadillo. 
 
 enables the animal to roll itself up 
 like a hedgehog. These animals bur- 
 row in the earth, where they lie 
 during the daytime, seldom going 
 abroad except at night. They are of 
 different sizes; the largest being 3 feet 
 
ARMAGEDDON 
 
 ARMOR PLATE 
 
 in length without the tail, and the 
 smallest only 10 inches. They subsist 
 chiefly on fruits and roots, sometimes 
 on insects and flesh. They are inoffen- 
 sive. and their flesh is esteemed good 
 fooa. — There is a genus of isopodous 
 Crustacea called Armadillo, consisting 
 of animals allied to the wood-lice, capa- 
 ble of rolling themselves into a ball. 
 
 ARMAGEDDON (-ged'don), the great 
 battlefield of the Old Testament, where 
 the chief conflicts took place between 
 the Israelites and their enemies — the 
 tableland of Esdraelon in Galilee and 
 Samaria, in the center of which stood 
 the town Megiddo, on the site of the 
 modern Lejjun: used figuratively in the 
 Apocalypse to signify the place of “the 
 battle of the great day of God.” 
 
 ARMAGH (ir-ma'), a county of Ire- 
 land, in the province of Ulster; sur- 
 rounded by Monaghan, Tyrone, Lough 
 Neagh, Down, and Lowth; area, 328,- 
 086 acres, of which about a half is under 
 tillage. Pop. 125,238. — The county 
 town, Armagh, is situated partly on a 
 hill, about half a mile from the Callan. 
 It is the see of an archbishop of the 
 Protestant-Episcopal Church, who is 
 primate of all Ireland, and is a place of 
 great antiquity. Pop. 8303. 
 
 AR'MATURE, a term applied to the 
 piece of soft iron which is placed across 
 the poles of permanent or electro- 
 magnets for the purpose of receiving 
 and concentrating the attractive force. 
 In the case of permanent magnets it is 
 also important for preserving their 
 magnetism when not in use, and 
 hence it is sometimes termed the 
 keeper. It produces this effect in 
 virtue of the well-known law of induc- 
 tion, by which the armature, when 
 placed near or across the poles of the 
 magnet, is itself converted into a tem- 
 porary magnet with reversed poles, and 
 these, reacting upon the permanent 
 magnet, keep its particles in a state of 
 constant magnetic tension, or, in other 
 words, in that constrained position 
 which is supposed to constitute mag- 
 netism. A horseshoe magnet should 
 therefore never be laid aside without 
 its armature; and in the case of straight 
 bar-magnets two should be placed 
 parallel to each other, with their poles 
 reversed, and a keeper or armature 
 across them at both ends. The term is 
 also applied to the core and coil of the 
 electromagnet, which revolves before 
 the poles of the permanent magnet in 
 the magneto-electric machine. 
 
 ARMED NEUTRALITY, the condition 
 of affairs when a nation assumes a 
 threatening position, and maintains an 
 armed force to repel any aggression on 
 the part of belligerent nations between 
 which it is neutral. The term is applied 
 in history to a coalition entered into by 
 the northern powers in 1780 and again 
 in 1800. 
 
 ARMED SHIP, a ship which is taken 
 into the service of a government for a 
 particular occasion, and armed like a 
 ship of war. 
 
 ARME'NIA. a mountainous country 
 of western Asia, not now politically 
 existing, but of great historical interest 
 as the original seat of one of the oldest 
 civilized peoples in the world. It is now 
 shared between Turkey, Persia, and 
 
 Russia. It has an area of about 137,000 
 square miles, and is intersected by the 
 Euphrates, which divides it into the 
 ancient divisions, Armenia Major and 
 Armenia Minor. The country is an ele- 
 vated plateau, inclosed on several sides 
 by the ranges of Taurus and Anti- 
 Taurus, and partly occupied by other 
 mountains, the loftiest of which is 
 Ararat. Several important rivers take 
 their rise in Armenia, namely, the Kur 
 or Cyrus, and its tributary the Aras 
 or Araxes, flowing east to the Caspian 
 Sea; the Halys or Kizil-Irmak, flowing 
 north to the Black Sea; and the Tigris 
 and Euphrates, which flow into the Per- 
 sian Gulf. The chief lakes are Van and 
 Urumiyah. The climate is rather severe. 
 The soil is on the whole productive, 
 though in many places it would be quite 
 ban-en were it not for the great care 
 taken to irrigate it. Wheat, barley, to- 
 bacco, hemp, grapes, and cotton are 
 raised; and in some of the valleys apri- 
 cots, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts 
 are grown. The inhabitants are chiefly 
 of the genuine Armenian stock, a branch 
 of the Aryan or Indo-European race; 
 but besides them, in consequence of the 
 repeated subjugation of the country, 
 various other races have obtained a 
 footing. The total number of Arme- 
 nians is estimated at 2,000,000, of whom 
 probably one-half are in Armenia. The 
 remainder, like the Jews, are scattered 
 over various countries, and are generally 
 engaged in commercial pursuits. They 
 everywhere retain, however, their dis- 
 tinct nationality. Many thousands of 
 them in Armenia have recently been 
 massacred by the Turks. 
 
 Little is known of the early history of 
 Armenia, but it was a separate state as 
 early as the 8th century b.c., when it 
 became subject to Assyria, as it also did 
 subsequently to the Medes and the Per- 
 sians. It was conquered by Alexander 
 the Great in 325 b.c., but regained its 
 independence about 190 b.c. Its king 
 Tigranes, son-in-law of the celebrated 
 Mithridates, was defeated by the Ro- 
 mans under Lucullus and Pompey aoout 
 69-66 B.C., but was left on the throne. 
 Since then its fortunes have been 
 various under the Romans, Parthians, 
 Byzantine emperors, Persians, Sara- 
 cens, Turks, etc. A considerable por- 
 tion of it has been acquired by Russia 
 in the 19th century, part of this in 1878. 
 
 The Armenians received Christianity 
 as early as the 2d century. During the 
 Monophysitic disputes they held with 
 those who rejected the twofold na- 
 ture of Christ, and being dissatisfied 
 with the decisions of the Council of 
 Chalcedon (451) they separated from 
 the Greek Church in 536. The popes 
 have at different times attempted to 
 gain them over to the Roman Catholic 
 faith, but have not been able to unite 
 them permanently and generally with 
 the Roman Church. There are, how- 
 ever. small numbers here and there of 
 United Armenians, who acknowledge 
 the spiritual supremacy of the pope, 
 agree in their doctrines with the Cath- 
 olics, but retain their peculiar cere- 
 monies and discipline. But the far 
 greater part are yet Monophysites, and 
 have remained faithful to their old 
 religion and worship). Their doctrine 
 
 differs from the orthodox chiefly in their 
 admitting only one nature in Christ, 
 and believing the Holy Spirit to pro- 
 ceed from the Father alone. Their 
 sacraments are seven in number. They 
 adore saints and their images, but do 
 not believe in purgatory. Their hier- 
 archy differs little from that of the 
 Greeks. The Catholicus, or head of the 
 church, has his seat at Etchmiadzin, a 
 monastery near Erivan, the capital of 
 Russian Armenia, on Mount Ararat. 
 
 The Armenian language belongs to 
 the Indo-European family of languages, 
 and is most closely connected with the 
 Iranic group. "The Old Armenian or 
 Haikan language, which is still the 
 literary and ecclesiastical language, is 
 distinguished from the new Armenian, 
 the ordinary spoken language, which 
 contains a large intermixture of Persian 
 and Turkish dements. The most flour- 
 ishing period of Armenian literature ex- 
 tended from the 4th to the 14th cen- 
 tury. It then declined, but a revival 
 began in the 17th century, and at the 
 present day wherever any extensive 
 community of Armenians have settled 
 they have set up a printing-press. The 
 Armenian Bible, translated from the 
 Septuagint by Isaac or Sahak, the 
 patriarch, early in the 5th century, is 
 a model of the classic style. 
 
 ARMINTANS, a sect or party of Chris- 
 tians, so called from James Arminius or 
 Harmensen, a Protestant divine of Ley- 
 den, who died in 1609. The Arminian 
 doctrines are: (1) Conditional election 
 and reprobation, in opposition to abso- 
 lute predestination. (2) Universal re- 
 demption, or that the atonement was 
 made by Christ for all mankind, though 
 none but believers can be partakers of 
 the benefit. (3) That man, in order to 
 exercise true faith, must be regenerated 
 and renewed by the operation of the 
 Holy Spirit, which is the gift of God; 
 but that this grace is not irresistible and 
 may be lost, so that men may relapse 
 from a state of grace and die in their 
 sins. 
 
 AR'MISTICE, a temporary suspension 
 of hostilities between two belligerent 
 powers or two armies by mutual agree- 
 ment, often concluded for only a few 
 hours to bury the slain, remove the 
 wounded, and exchange prisoners, as 
 also sometimes to allow of a parley be- 
 tween the opposing generals. A general 
 armistice is usualfy the preliminary of 
 a peace. 
 
 ARMOR PLATE, steel plate used to 
 protect vessels of war against the pro- 
 jectiles of an enemy. Although the 
 idea is comparatively old, it was first 
 brought into practical use by the 
 engineer John Ericson, in the Monitor, 
 which fought the iron-clad Merrimac 
 during the war of emancipation. The 
 object of having a hard face to armor 
 is to break up projectiles by shock, or 
 so to strain or deform them as to reduce 
 their penetration. It is particularly 
 effective on oblique impact (i.e. where 
 the projectile strikes at an angle with 
 the plate). To combine hardness with 
 toughness was the aim of armor makers 
 for a quarter of a century, and success 
 was not obtained until the advent of 
 nickel steel. Had not the improvement 
 of projectiles and guns kept pace with 
 
ARMS, COAT OF 
 
 ARMS AND ARMOR 
 
 the development of armor, ships could 
 now be made invulnerable; but both 
 have improved so that the relation of 
 guns and armor is now less favorable to 
 the latter than at almost an:/ time in its ' 
 history. Nevertheless, armor is abso- 
 lutely indispensable to the protection 
 of ships and their crews against all 
 classes of gunfire. The power of good 
 Harvey nickel-steel armor to resist pene- 
 tration is about equal to that of double' 
 the thickness of wrought iron, and the 
 resisting power of Krupp armor is 10 to 
 15 per cent greater. These figures are 
 for attack by ordinary armor-piercing 
 projectiles. Projectiles of this type 
 which are fitted with soft caps pene- 
 trate about as deeply in Krupp as in 
 Harvey armor, and the gain by the use 
 of caps is equal to a reduction in thick- 
 ness of 8 to 10 per cent in Harvey 
 armor and 15 to 20 in Krupp — that is 
 to say, a capped projectile will perforate 
 a Harvey plate 8 to 10 per cent thicker, 
 or a Krupp plate 15 to 20 per cent 
 thicker, than will a projectile not pro- 
 vided with a cap. 
 
 ARMS, COAT OF, or ARMORIAL 
 BEARINGS, a collective name for the 
 devices borne on shields, on banners, 
 etc., as marks of dignity and distinction, 
 and, in the case of family and feudal 
 arms, descending from father to son. 
 They were first employed by the Cru- 
 saders, and became hereditary in fami- 
 lies at the close of the 12th century. 
 They took their rise from the knights 
 painting their banners or shields each 
 with a figure or figures proper to him- 
 self, to enable him to be distinguished 
 in battle when clad in armor. See 
 Heraldry. 
 
 ARMS and ARMOR. The former 
 term is applied to weapons of offense, 
 the latter to the various articles of defen- 
 sive covering used in war and military 
 exercises, especially before the intro- 
 
 A, Bascinet. 
 
 B, Jewelled orle round the 
 bascinet. 
 
 C, Gorget, or gorgiere of 
 plate. 
 
 D, Pauldrons. 
 
 B, Breastplate-cuirass, 
 p, Rere-braces. 
 
 G, Coudes or elbow-plates. 
 
 H, Gauntlets. 
 
 I, Vambrace. 
 
 J, Skirt of taces. 
 
 K, Military belt or cingu- 
 lum richly jewelled. 
 
 L, Tuilles or tuillets. 
 
 M, Cuisses. 
 
 Ni Genouilleres or knee- 
 pieces. 
 
 o, Jamhes. 
 
 p, Spur-straps. 
 
 Q, Sollerets. 
 
 E, Misericorde or dagger, 
 s, Sword, suspended by a 
 
 transverse belt. 
 
 Armor, from the effigy of Sir Richard Peyton, 
 in Tong Church, Shropshire. 
 
 duction of gunpowder. Weapons of 
 offense are divisible into two distinct 
 sections: firearms, and arms used with- 
 out gunpowder or other explosive sub- 
 stance. The first arms of offense would 
 probably be wooden clubs, then would 
 follow wooden weapons made more 
 
 deadly bjr means of stone or bone, stone 
 axes, slings, bows and arrows with 
 heads of flint or bone, and afterward 
 various weapons of bronze. Subse- 
 quently a variety of arms of iron and 
 steel were introduced, which comprised 
 
 Allecret (light-plate) armor, A.D., 1540. 
 
 the sword, javelin, pike, spear or lance, 
 dagger, ax, mace, chariot scythe, etc.; 
 with a rude artillery consisting of cata- 
 pults, ballistae, and battering-rams. 
 From the descriptions of Homer we 
 know that almost all the Grecian armor, 
 defensive and offensive, in his time was 
 of bronze; though iron was sometimes 
 
 Roman cuirass. Greek armor. 
 
 used. The lance, spear,’ and javelin 
 were the principal weapons of this age 
 among the Greeks. The bow is not often 
 mentioned. Among ancient nations the 
 Egyptians seem to have been most ac- 
 customed to the use of the bow, which 
 was the principal weapon of the Egyp- 
 tian infantry. Peculiar to the Egyptians 
 was a defensive weapon intended to 
 catch and break the sword of the enemy. 
 With the Assyrians the bow was a 
 favorite weapon ; but with them lances, 
 spears, and javelins were in more com- 
 mon use than with the Egyptians. 
 Most of the large engines of war, chariots 
 with scythes projecting at each side 
 from the axle, catapults, and ballistse. 
 
 , seem to have been of Assyrian origin. 
 During the historical age of Greece the 
 characteristic weapon was a heavy spear 
 from 21 to 24 feet in length. The sword 
 used by the Greeks was short, and was 
 worn on the right side. The Roman 
 sword was from 22 to 24 inches in length, 
 straight, two-edged, and obtusely point- 
 ed, and as by the Greeks was worn on 
 the right side. It was used principally 
 
 as a stabbing weapon. It was originally 
 of bronze. The most characteristic 
 weapon of the Roman legionary soldier, 
 however, was the pilum, which was a 
 kind of pike or javelin, some 6 feet or 
 more in length. The pilum was some- 
 times used at close-quarters, but more 
 commonly it was thrown. The favorite 
 weapons of the ancient Germanic races 
 Wete the battle-a^ the lance or _dart> 
 and the sWotd. The WeapohS of th4 
 Anglo-Saxons wete speats. axes, swords, 
 knives, ahd maceS Or cllibs; The Nor- 
 mans had, siihiiar Weapons, and Were 
 well furnished With archers and cavalry. 
 The cross-bow. Was a eompatatiyely 
 late invention introduced by the Nof- 
 filans. Gunpowder was not used in 
 Europe to discharge projectiles till the 
 beginning of the 14th century. Cannon 
 are first mentioned in England in 1338, 
 and there seems to be no doubt that they 
 were used by the English at the siege 
 of Cambrai in 1339. The projectiles 
 first used for cannon were of stone. 
 Hand firearms date from the 15th cen- 
 tury. At fii'st they required two men 
 to serve them, and it was necessary to 
 rest the muzzle on a stand in aiming and 
 firing. The first improvement was the 
 invention of the match-lock, about 
 1476; this was followed by the wheel- 
 lock; and about the middle of the 17th 
 century by the flint-lock, which was 
 in universal use until it was super- 
 
 Roman cuirass— Chain armor. 
 
 Scale armor. 
 
 seded by the percussion-lock, the in- 
 vention of a Scotch clergyman early 
 in the 19th century. The needle-gun 
 dates from 1827. The only important 
 weapon not a firearm that has been 
 invented since the introduction of gun- 
 powder is the bayonet, which is be- 
 lieved to have been invented about 
 1650. See Cannon, Musket, Rifle, etc. 
 
 Some kind of defensive covering was 
 probably of almost as early invention 
 as weapons of offense. The principal 
 pieces of defensive armor used by the 
 ancients were shields, helmets, cuirasses, 
 and greaves. In the earliest ages of 
 Greece the shield is described as of im- 
 mense size, but in the time of the Pelop- 
 onnesian war (about b.c. 420) it was 
 much smaller. The Romans had two 
 jorts of shields: the scutum, a large 
 oblong rectangular highly convex shield, 
 carried by the legionaries; and the 
 parma, a small round or oval flat shield, 
 carried by the light-armed troops and 
 the cavalry. In the declining days of 
 Rome the shields became larger and 
 more varied in form. The helmet was 
 
ARMOUR 
 
 ARNHEM 
 
 a characteristic Wecf! of armor among 
 the Assyrians, Grepks. Etrjtiseans, and 
 Romans. Like ail Othfet body atrnor 
 it was usually made of ferohze. 
 helmet of the historical age Of GreeCfe 
 was distinguished by its lofty Ofest . The 
 Roman helmet in the time of the early 
 emperors fitted close to the head, and 
 had a neckguard and hinged cheek- 
 pieces fastened under the chin, and a 
 small bar across the face for a visor. 
 
 Horse-armor of Maximilian I, of Germany. 
 a, Chamfron. 6, Manefaire. c, Poitrinal, poltrel 
 or breastplate, d, Croupiere or 
 buttock-piece. 
 
 Both Greeks and Romans wore cuirasses, 
 at one time of bronze, but latterly of 
 flexible materials, Greaves for the legs 
 were worn by both, but among the Ro- 
 mans usually on one leg. The ancient 
 Germans had large shields of plaited 
 osier covered with leather, afterward 
 their shields were small, bound with iron, 
 and studded with bosses. The Anglo- 
 Saxons had round or oval shields of 
 wood, covered with leather, and having 
 a boss in the center; and they had also 
 corselets, or coats of mail, strengthened 
 with iron rings. The Normans were 
 well protected by mail; their shields 
 were somewhat triangular in shape, 
 their helmets conical. In Europe 
 generally metal armor was used from 
 the 10th to the 18th century, and at 
 first consisted of a tunic made of iron 
 rings firmly sewed flat upon strong cloth 
 or leather. The rings were afterward 
 interlinked one with another so as to 
 forrn a garment of themselves, called 
 chain-mail. Great variety is found in 
 the pattern of the armor, and in some 
 cases small pieces of metal were used 
 instead of rings, forming what is called 
 scale-armor. A suit of armor consisting 
 of larger pieces of metal, called plate- 
 armor, was now introduced, and the 
 whole body came to be incased in a 
 heavy metal covering. The various 
 forms of ring or scale armor were gradu- 
 ally superseded by the plate-armor, 
 which continued to be worn until long 
 after the introduction of firearms and 
 field-artillery. 
 
 ARMOUR, Philip Danforth, an Amer- 
 ican merchant, born at Stockbridge 
 N. Y., 1832, died in 1901. He received 
 a public school education, and traveled 
 as a youth to California, but settled 
 in Milwaukee in 18.52. In 1863 he 
 founded the house of Armour, Plank- 
 ington & Co., packers, the offices of 
 which were removed to Chicago in 
 1870, where the house was soon reor- 
 ganized as Armour & Co. Mr. Armour 
 was not only a good business man, but 
 a philanthropist as well. He founded 
 the Armour Institute of Technology 
 P. E. — 6 
 
 at Chicago, and the Affffowr Mission 
 in the same city at an expense ©I $2,- 
 600,000. 
 
 ARMSTRONG, William George, Lord', 
 engineer and mechanical inventor, born 
 at NeWeastle-on-Tyne, 10th Nov., 1810. 
 He Was ftain'ed as a solicitor, and prac- 
 ticed as such sortie time, though his 
 tastes scarcely /ay in that direction. 
 Aftiong his early iny^th'tions were the 
 hydro-electric machine, a ^werful ap- 
 paratus for producing frictiWal electric- 
 ity, and the hydraulic crane. Its 1847 
 the Elswick works, near Newcastle, were 
 established for the manufacture of his 
 cranes and other heavy iron machinery, 
 and these works are now amcmg the 
 most extensive of their kind. Here the 
 first rifled ordnance gun which bears 
 his name was made in 1854. His im- 
 provements in the manufacture of guns 
 and shells led to his being appointed 
 engineer of rifled ordnance under gov- 
 ernment, and he was knighted in 1858. 
 This appointment came to an end in 
 1868, since which time his ordnance has 
 taken a prominent place in the arma- 
 ments of different countries. He was 
 raised to the peerage as Baron Arm- 
 strong in 1887. He died in 1901. 
 
 ARMSTRONG GUN, a kind of cannon, 
 so called from its inventor, made of 
 wought-iron, principally of spirally- 
 coiled bars, so disposed as to bring the 
 metal into the most favorable position 
 for the strain to which it is to be exposed, 
 and occasionally having an inner tube 
 or core of steel, rifled with numerous 
 shallow grooves. The size of these 
 guns ranges from the smallest field- 
 piece to pieces of the highest caliber. 
 The projectile is coated with lead, and 
 inserted into a chamber behind the bore. 
 This the explosion drives forward, com- 
 pressing its soft coating into the grooves, 
 so as to give it a rotary motion, and 
 at the same time obviate windage. 
 Both breech-loading and muzzle-loading 
 Armstrong guns have been made. 
 
 ARMY, an organized body of drilled 
 and disciplined men, furnished with 
 weapons of offense and defense, for the 
 protection of a state against external 
 attack, for making war on foreign states 
 or other enemies, and for the preserva- 
 tion of order within the state itself. 
 
 War in savage communities is carried 
 on by armies of the comparatively crude 
 organization, and the ancient army was 
 a succession of mere lines of men, 
 shoulder to shoulder, the cavalry being 
 organized on virtually the same plan. 
 The introduction of the Macedonian 
 phalan.x by Philip and its use by Alex- 
 ander the Great was the first step to- 
 ward the modern mobile regiment. 
 The phalanx was ground to powder by 
 the Roman legion which superceded it, 
 and the legion itself was brought to 
 perfection by its subdivision into cen- 
 turies, each with a captain, or centurion. 
 This is the modern company, and the 
 modern regiment is substantially the 
 same thing as the Roman legion. 
 
 An army, in the modern sense, has 
 four branches, each with its separate 
 function, yet each of which may be 
 brought into coordination with the 
 others. These branches are the in- 
 fantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineer 
 corps. A fifth and sixth branch, that 
 
 is, hospital corps and signal corps, are 
 not fighting branches proper. 
 
 The unit of infantry is the battalion, 
 consisting of about 1000 men, divided 
 into companies of say 250 each. Three 
 or foTiiir oattalions go to make a regi- 
 ment, and three regiments, in the 
 United States, comprise a brigade.. 
 Certain European countries make use: 
 of a mounted infantry, particularly 
 Great Britain, and others have recently 
 organized infantry bodies for the use: 
 of machine and automatic guns which: 
 cannot properly be classified with 
 artillery. 
 
 In the United States army the unit 
 of cavalry is the squadron of 150' 
 mounted men armed with sabers. The: 
 squadron is subdivided into four troops,, 
 each of 100 men, when complete. A 
 regiment of cavalry consists of thre& 
 squadrons, the brigade consists of three, 
 regiments. 
 
 The unit of artillery is, in the Unitedl 
 States army, a battery. The field' 
 battery has 175 men and 250 horses,, 
 the horse battery has 165 men and 235’ 
 horses. Normally the battery has 6' 
 guns, but the tendency is toward a re- 
 duction of this number. It is believed. 
 that four guns will be the number 
 which will constitute the battery of the 
 United States army in the future. A 
 battalion of artillery consists of three 
 or four batteries, and the artillery regi- 
 ment of three or four battalions. 
 
 These various units combine to- 
 gether into larger units, such as the 
 division consisting of two brigades, and 
 the army corps, which consists of two 
 divisions of infantry, one regiment of field 
 artillery, and other services. In the 
 United States the army corps is com- 
 posed of three divisions, several regi- 
 ments of cavalry, and artillery. 
 
 The engineer corps is organized into: 
 battalions of four companies each, the 
 latter into regiments of two battalions 
 each, including a balloon section. The 
 organization of the engineer corps is 
 substantially the same as that of the 
 infantry. 
 
 The army of the United States has 
 a signal corps which operates the field 
 telegraph, the military balloons, wire- 
 less telegraphy, and the old-fashioned 
 signaling by flag, torch, heliograph, etc. 
 An army corps carries one company of 
 signal corps, numbering 175 men. 
 
 The medical department of the army 
 includes the hospital corps, the sur- 
 geons taking the rank of officers accord- 
 ing to grade. 
 
 ARMY SCHOOLS. See Military 
 Schools. 
 
 ARMY WORM, the very destructive 
 larva of a moth, so called from its habit 
 of marching in compact bodies of enor- 
 mous number, devouring almost every 
 green thing it meets. It is about 
 inches long, greenish in color, with 
 black stripes, and is found in various 
 parts of the world, but is particularly 
 destructive in North America. 
 
 ARN'HEM, or ARNHEIM, a town in 
 Holland, prov. of Gelderland, 18 miles 
 southwest of Zutphen, on the right 
 bank of the Rhine. In 1795 it was 
 stormed by the French, who were driven 
 from it by the Prussians in 1813. Pop. 
 57,498. 
 
ARNICA 
 
 ARSENAL 
 
 AR'NICA, a genus of plants, consist- 
 ing of some twelve species, one of which 
 is found in central Europe, leopard’s 
 bane or mountain tobacco, but is not a 
 native of Britain. It has a perennial 
 root, a stem about 2 feet high, bearing 
 on the summit flowers of a dark golden 
 yellow. In every part of the plant there 
 is an acrid resin and a volatile oil, and 
 in the flowers an acrid bitter principle 
 called arnicin. The root contains also 
 a considerable quantity of tannin. A 
 tincture of it is employed as an external 
 application to wounds and bruises. 
 
 AR'NOLD, Benedict, a general in the 
 American army during the war of in- 
 dependence, who rendered his name 
 infamous by his attempt to betray the 
 strong fortre.ss of West Point, with all 
 
 the arms and immense stores which 
 were there deposited, into the hands of 
 the British. The project failed through 
 the capture of Major Andrd, when 
 Arnold made his escape to the British 
 lines. He received a commission as 
 major-general in the British army, and 
 took part in several marauding expe- 
 ditions. He subsequently settled in the 
 West Indies, and ultimately went to 
 London, where he died in 1801, aged 61. 
 
 AR'NOLD, Edwin, K.C.I.E., poet, 
 Sanskrit scholar, and journalist, horn 
 1832. Educated at Oxford, where he 
 took the Newdigate prize for a poem 
 entitled The Feast of Belshazzar. He 
 is author of Poems, narrative and lyr- 
 ical, numerous translations from the 
 Greek and Sanskrit ; The Light of Asia, 
 a poem presenting the life and teaching 
 of Gautama, the founder of Buddhism. 
 Died 1904. 
 
 AR'NOLD, Matthew, English critic, 
 essayist, and poet, was born at Laleham, 
 near Staines, 1822, being a son of Dr. 
 Arnold, of Rugby. He was educated 
 at Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford, and 
 became a Fellow of Oriel College. He 
 received the degree of LL.D. from both 
 Oxford and Edinburgh, and lectured in 
 Britain and in America. He died in 
 1888. 
 
 AR'NOLD, Thomas, head-master of 
 Rugby School, and professor of modern 
 history in the University of Oxford, 
 born at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, in 
 1795 , died 1842. Not only did Rugby 
 
 School become crowded beyond any 
 former precedent, but the superiority of 
 Dr. Arnold’s system became so generally 
 recognized that it may be justl 3 ’’ said to 
 have done much for the general im- 
 movement of the public schools of 
 England. 
 
 ARNSBERG (krnz'berA), a town in 
 Prussia, prov. of Westphalia, capital of 
 the government of same name on the 
 Ruhr. Pop. 8488. — The government of 
 Arnsberg has an area of 2972 square 
 miles, and a population of 1,851,319. 
 
 ARO'MA, the distinctive fragrance 
 exhaled from spices, plants, etc., gen- 
 erally an agreeable odor, a sweet smell. 
 
 AROMAT'ICS, drugs, or other sub- 
 stances which yield a fragrant smell, 
 and often a warm pungent taste, as 
 calamus, ginger, cinnamon, cassia, laven- 
 der, rosemary, laurel, nutmegs, carda- 
 moms, pepper, pimento, cloves, vanilla, 
 saffron. Some of them are used medi- 
 cinally as tonics, stimulants, etc. 
 
 AROMATIC VINEGAR, a very vola- 
 tile and powerful perfume made by 
 adding the essential oils of lavender, 
 cloves, etc., and often camphor, to crys- 
 tallizable acetic acid. It is a powerful 
 excitant in fainting, languor, and head- 
 ache. 
 
 ARPEGGIO (ar-pej'6), the distinct 
 sound of the notes of an instrumental 
 chord; the striking the notes of a chord 
 in rapid succession, as in the manner of 
 touching the harp instead of playing 
 them simultaneously. 
 
 AR'QUEBUS, a hand-gun ; a species 
 of fire-arm resembling a musket ancient- 
 ly used. It was fired from a forked rest, 
 and sometimes cocked by a wheel, and 
 carried a ball that weighed nearly two 
 ounces. A larger kind used in fortresses 
 carried a heavier shot. 
 
 AR'RAH, a town of British India, in 
 Shahabad district, Bengal, rendered 
 famous during the mutiny of 1857 by 
 the heroic resistance of a body of twenty 
 civilians and fifty Sikhs, cooped up 
 within a detached house, to a force of 
 3000 sepoys, who were ultimately 
 routed and overthrown by the arrival of 
 a small European reinforcement. Pop. 
 46,905. 
 
 ARRAIGNMENT (ar-ran'-), the act of 
 calling or setting a prisoner at the bar 
 of a court to plead guilty or not guilty 
 to the matter charged in an indictment 
 or information. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT, in music, the adap- 
 tation of a composition to voices or 
 instruments for which it was not origi- 
 nally written ; also, a piece so adapted. 
 
 ARREST' is the apprehending or re- 
 straining of one’s person, which, in 
 civil cases, can take place legally only 
 by process in execution of the command 
 of some court or officers of justice; but 
 in criminal cases any man may arrest 
 without warrant or precept, and every 
 person is liable to arrest without dis- 
 tinction, but no man is to be arrested 
 unless charged with such a crime as will 
 at least justify holding him to bail when 
 taken. Magna Charta and the Habeas 
 Corpus Act are the two great statutes 
 for securing the libertj' of the subject 
 against unlawful arrests and suits. 
 
 ARREST OF JUDGMENT, in law, the 
 staying or stopping of a judgment after 
 verdict, for causes assigned. Courts 
 
 have power to arrest judgment for in- 
 trinsic causes appearing upon the face of 
 the record; as when the declaration 
 varies from the original writ; when the 
 verdict differs materially from the plead- 
 ings; or when the case laid in the decla- 
 ration is not sufficient in point of law 
 to found an action upon. 
 
 ARRONDISSEMENT (a-r6n-des-man), 
 in France an administrative district, 
 the subdivision of a department, or of 
 the quarters of some of the larger cities. 
 
 ARROWHEAD, a genus of aquatic 
 plants found in all parts of the world 
 within the torrid and temperate zones, 
 distinguished by possessing barren and 
 fertile flowers, with a three-leaved 
 calyx and three colored petals. 
 
 ARROW-ROOT, a starch largely used 
 for food and for other purposes. Arrow- 
 root proper is obtained from the 
 rhizomes or rootstocks of several species 
 of plants, and perhaps owes its name 
 
 Arrow-root plant, a. a. Rhizomes. 
 
 to the scales which cover the rhizome, 
 which have some resemblance to the 
 point of an arrow. Some, however sup- 
 pose that the name is due to the fact 
 of the fresh roots being used as an 
 application against wounds inflicted by 
 poisoned arrows, and others say that 
 arrow is a corruption of ara, the Indian 
 name of the plant. The species from 
 which arrow-root is most commonlj' ob- 
 tained is called the arrow-root plant. 
 Brazilian arrow-root, or tapioca meal, 
 is got from the large fleshy root, after 
 the poisonous juice has been got rid of; 
 East Indian arrow-root, from the large 
 root-stalks; Chinese arrow-root, from 
 the creeping rhizomes; English arrow - 
 root, from the potato; and Oswego 
 arrow-root, from Indian corn. 
 
 ARROWSMITH, Aaron, a distin- 
 guished English chartographer, born 
 1750, died 1823; he raised the execution 
 of maps to a perfection it had never 
 before attained. His nephew, John, 
 born 1790, died 1873, was no less dis- 
 tinguished in the same field. 
 
 AR'SENAL, a royal or public maga- 
 zine or place appointed for the making, 
 repairing, keeping, and issuing of mili- 
 tary stores. An arsenal of the first class 
 should include factories for guns and 
 gun-carriages, small-arms, small-arms 
 ammunition, harness, saddlerj", tents, 
 and powder; a laborator 3 ^ and large 
 store-houses. In arsenals of the second 
 class workshops take tlie place of the 
 . factories. 
 
ARSENIC 
 
 ARTHUR 
 
 AR'SENIC, a metallic element of very 
 common occurrence, being found in 
 combination with many of the metals 
 in a variety of minerals. It is of a dark- 
 gray color, and readily tarnishes on 
 exposure to the air, first changing to 
 yellow, and finally to black. In hard- 
 ness it equals copper; it is extremely 
 brittle, and very volatile, beginning to 
 sublime before it melts. It burns with 
 a blue flame, and emits a smell of garlic. 
 Its specific gravity is 5’ 76. It forms 
 alloys with most of the metals. Com- 
 bined with sulphur it forms orpiment 
 and realgar, which are the yellow and 
 red sulphides of arsenic. Orpiment is 
 the true arsenicum of the ancients. 
 With oxygen arsenic forms two com- 
 pounds, the more important of which 
 is arsenious oxide or arsenic trioxide 
 (AS 2 O 3 ), which is the white arsenic, or 
 simply arsenic of the shops. It is 
 usually seen in white, glassy, translu- 
 cent masses, and is obtained by sub- 
 limation from several ores containing 
 arsenic in combination with metals, 
 particularly from arsenical pyrites. 
 Of all substances arsenic is that which 
 has most frequently occasioned death 
 by poisoning, both by accident and 
 design. The best remedies against the 
 effects of arsenic on the stomach are 
 hydrated sesquioxide of iron or gelatin- 
 ous hydrate of magnesia, or a mixture 
 of both, with copious draughts of bland 
 liquids of a mucilaginous consistence, 
 which serve to procure its complete 
 ejection from the stomach. Oils and 
 fats generally, milk, albumen, wheat- 
 flour, oatmeal, sugar or syrup, have all 
 proved useful in counteracting its effect. 
 Like many other virulent poisons it is a 
 safe and useful medicine, especially in 
 skin diseases, when judiciously em 
 ployed. It is used as a flux for glass, 
 and also for forming pigments. The 
 arsenite of copper and a double arsenite 
 and acetate of copper are largely used 
 by painters; they are also used to color 
 paper-hangings for rooms, a practice not 
 unaccompanied with considerable dan- 
 ger, especially if flock-papers are used or 
 if the room is a confined one. Arsenic 
 has been too frequently used to give that 
 bright green often seen in colored con- 
 fectionery, and to produce a green dye 
 for articles of dress and artificial flowers. 
 
 AR'SON, in English law, the malicious 
 burning of a dwelling-house or outhouse 
 of another man, which by the common 
 law is felony, and which, if any person 
 is therein, is capital. Also, the wilful 
 setting fire to any church, chapel, ware- 
 house, mill, barn, agricultural produce, 
 ship, coal-mine, and the like. 
 
 ART, in its most extended sense, as 
 distinguished from nature on the one 
 hand and from science on the other, has 
 been defined as every regulated opera- 
 tion or dexterity by which organized 
 beings pursue ends which they knew 
 beforehand, together with the rules and 
 the result of every such operation or 
 dexterity. In this wide sense it em- 
 braces what are usually called the useful 
 arts. In a narrower and purelj' aesthetic 
 sense it designates what is more specif- 
 ically termed the fine arts, as architec- 
 ture, sculpture, painting, music, and 
 poetry. The useful arts have their 
 origin in positive practical needs, and 
 
 restrict themselves to satisfying them. 
 The fine arts minister to the sentiment 
 of taste through the medium of the 
 beautiful in form, color, rhythm, or 
 harmony. See Painting, Sculpture, 
 etc. — In the middle ages it was common 
 to give certain branches of study the 
 name of arts. See Arts. 
 
 AR'TEMUS WARD. See Bro\vne, 
 Charles Farrar. 
 
 AR'TERIES, the system of cylindrical 
 vessels or tubes, membranous, elastic, 
 and pulsatile, which convey the blood 
 from the heart to all parts of the body, 
 by ramifications which as they proceed 
 diminish in size and increase in number, 
 and terminate in minute capillaries 
 uniting the ends of the arteries with the 
 beginnings of the veins. There are two 
 principal arteries or arterial trunks : the 
 aorta, which rises from the left ven- 
 tricle of the heart and ramifies through 
 the whole body, sending off great 
 branches to the head, neck, and upper 
 limbs and downward to the lower limbs, 
 etc.; and the pulmonary artery, which 
 conveys venous blood from the right 
 ventricle to the lungs, to be purified 
 in the process of respiration. 
 
 ARTERIOT'OMY, the opening or cut- 
 ting of an artery for the purpose of 
 blood-letting, as, for instance, to re- 
 lieve pressure of the brain ir apoplexy. 
 
 ARTE'SIAN WELLS, so called from 
 the French province of Artois, where 
 they appear to have been first used on 
 an extensive scale, are perpendicular 
 borings into the ground through which 
 water rises to the surface of the soil, pro- 
 ducing a constant flow or stream, the 
 ultimate sources of supply being higher 
 than the mouth of the boring, and the 
 water thus rising by the well-known 
 law. They are generally sunk in valley 
 plains and districts where the lower per- 
 vious strata are bent into basin-shaped 
 curves. The rain falling on the outcrops 
 of these saturates the whole porous bed, 
 so that when the bore reaches it the 
 water by hydraulic pressure rushes up 
 toward the level of the highest portion 
 of the strata. The supply is sometimes 
 so abundant as to be used extensively 
 as a moving power, and in arid regions 
 for fertilizing the groimd, to which pur- 
 pose artesian springs have been applied 
 from a very remote period. Thus many 
 artesian wells have been sunk in the 
 Algerian Sahara which have proved an 
 immense boon to the district. The 
 water of most of these is potable, but 
 a few are a little saline, though not to 
 such an extent as to influence vegeta- 
 tion. The hollows in which London and 
 Paris lie are both perforated in many 
 places by borings of this nature. 
 One of the most celebrated artesian 
 wells is that of Crenelle near Paris, 1798 
 feet deep, completed in 1841, after eight 
 years’ woi k. An artesian well at Buda- 
 pest has a depth of 3182 feet; another 
 at St. Louis, Mo., is 3843 feet deep. As 
 the temperature of water from great 
 depths i.s invariably higher than that 
 at the surface, artesian wells have been 
 made to supply warm water for heating 
 manufactories, greenhouses, hospitals, 
 fishponds, etc. Petroleum wells are 
 generally of the same technical descrip- 
 tion. Artesian wells are now made with 
 larger diameters than formerly, and al- 
 
 together their construction has been 
 rendered much more easy in modem 
 times. See Boring. 
 
 AR'THUR, Chester Alan, the twenty- 
 first president of the United States. He 
 was born at Fairfield, Vt., Oct. 5, 1830, 
 and died at New York Nov. 1^ 1886. 
 After taking his degree at Union College, 
 in 1848, Mr. Arthur taught in various 
 schools for a number of years, studying 
 law meanwhile, and when the civil war 
 broke out he was quite prominent in 
 politics. An earnest abolitionist, he sided 
 with the republican party, or, rather, 
 was one of the founders and original 
 members of that party. Soon after the 
 beginning of the war Mr. Arthur was 
 entrusted by Ceneral Morgan with the 
 armament and commissariat of the 
 
 Chester A. Arthur. 
 
 New York troops — a duty in which he 
 displayed such ability that he was soon 
 promoted to the positions of engineer-in- 
 chief, inspector-general, and quarter- 
 master general. From 1871 to 1878 he 
 was collector of the port of the city of 
 New York, and when during the can- 
 vass for the next election the republican 
 party was split Mr. Arthur adopted the 
 “Stalwart” side. In the convention 
 that followed Crant was a strong candi- 
 date, but the anti-Stalwarts defeated 
 him and nominated Carfield. Not 
 desiring to cause disaffection at the 
 polls Mr. Arthur was placed on the 
 ticket as candidate for vice-president. 
 Garfield was assassinated and Mr. 
 Arthur succeeded to the presidency on 
 Sept. 19, 1881. Althougn there were 
 some misgivings as to his course, Mr. 
 Arthur made an acceptable president. 
 His administration was not marked by 
 any particular event of importance and 
 he was unsuccessful in his candidacy 
 for nomination before the succeeding 
 convention. 
 
 AR'THUR, Julia, an American actress, 
 born at Hamilton, Ont., in 1869. She 
 studied the stage abroad and her first 
 American successes were with A. M. 
 Palmer’s companies. She has played 
 in The Black Masque, Becket, A Lady 
 of Quality, and other plays. She re- 
 tired in 1900. 
 
 AR'THUR, King, >n ancient British 
 hero of the 6th century, son of Uther 
 Pendragon and the Princess Igerna, 
 wife of Gorlois, duke of Cornwall. He 
 married Guinevere or Ginevra; estab- 
 
ARTHUR 
 
 ASCETICS 
 
 lished the famous order of the Round 
 Table; and reigned, surrounded by a 
 splendid court, twelve years in peace. 
 After this, as the poets relate, he con- 
 quered Denmark, Norway, and France, 
 slew the giants of Spain, and went to 
 Rome. From thence he is said to have 
 hastened home on account of the faith- 
 lessness of his wife, and Modred, his 
 nephew, who had stirred up his subjects 
 to rebellion. He subdued the rebels, 
 but died in consequence of his wounds, 
 on the island of Avalon. The story of 
 Arthur is supposed to have some founda- 
 tion in fact, it is generally believed that 
 Arthur was one of the last great Celtic 
 chiefs who led his countrymen from the 
 west of England to resist the settlement 
 of the Saxons in the country. But many 
 authorities regard him as a leader of the 
 Cymry of Cumbria and Strath-Clyde 
 against the Saxon invaders of the east 
 coast and the Piets and Scots north of 
 the Forth and the Clyde. 
 
 AR'THUR, Timothy Shay, an Ameri- 
 can writer born in New York in 1809, 
 died in 1885. He is principally known 
 for his story Ten Nights in a Bar room. 
 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATION. See 
 Polar Exploration. 
 
 ARTICHOKE, a well-known plant, 
 somewhat resembling a thistle, with 
 large divided prickly leaves. The erect 
 flower-stem terminates in a large round 
 head of numerous imbricated oval spiny 
 scales which surround the flowers. The 
 fleshy bases of the scales with the large 
 receptacle are the parts that are 
 eaten. 
 
 ARTICLE, in grammar, a part of 
 speech used before nouns to limit or 
 define their application. In English a 
 or an is usually called the indefinite 
 article (the latter form being used be- 
 fore a vowel sound), and the, the definite 
 article, but they are also described as 
 adjectives. An was originally the same 
 as one, and the as that. In Latin there 
 were no articles, and Greek has only the 
 definite article. 
 
 ARTICLES, The Thirty-nine, of the 
 Church of England, a statement of the 
 particular points of doctrine, thirty- 
 nine in number, maintained by the 
 English Church; first promulgated by a 
 convocation held in London in 1562-63, 
 and confirmed by royal authority; 
 founded on and superseding an older 
 code issued in the reign of Edward VI. 
 They were ratified anew in 1604 and 
 1628. All candidates for ordination 
 must subscribe these articles. This 
 formulary is now accepted by the Epis- 
 copal Churches of Scotland, Ireland, 
 and America. 
 
 ARTICULA'TA, the third great sec- 
 tion of the animal kingdom according 
 to the arrangement of Cuvier, including 
 all the invertebrates with the external 
 skeleton forming a series of rings artic- 
 ulated together and enveloping the 
 body, distinct respiratory organs, and 
 an internal ganglionated nervous sys- 
 tem along the middle line of the body. 
 They are divided into five classes, viz. 
 Crustacea, Arachnida, Insecta, Myri- 
 apoda, and Annelida. The first four 
 classes are now commonly placed to- 
 gether under the name of Arthropoda, 
 and the whole are sometimes called 
 Arthrozoa. 
 
 ARTICULA'TION, in anatomy a joint; 
 the joining or juncture of the bones. 
 This is of three kinds; (1) a movable 
 connection, such as the ball-and-socket 
 joint; (2) immovable connection, as by 
 suture, or junction by serrated margins; 
 (3) union by means of another sub- 
 stance, by a cartilage, tendon, or liga- 
 ment. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL LIMBS, legs or arms of 
 wood, cork, or other material, made 
 to replace the natural members which 
 have been lost by disease or accident. 
 Tlie art of making artificial limbs is 
 almost as old as history. Legs of 
 bronze, ivory, and wood have been 
 found on skeletons exhumed from 
 tombs which date back to the fourth 
 century before Christ. Artificial hands, 
 feet and limbs were eommon during the 
 middle ages. The earliest American 
 invention in this line was the leg 
 patented in 1846 by B. F. Palmer, 
 which at once superseded all others of 
 its kind. Other Americans followed 
 Palmer, and the most serviceable legs 
 and arms manufactured today are those 
 made from American patents. The 
 arm is usually mounted with a rubber 
 hand, which is often of immense service 
 to the wearer. Artificial legs consist of 
 a hollow sheath or bucket, accurately 
 fitting the stump and provided with a 
 “pin” to reach the ground. This struc- 
 ture is fitted with a rubber foot, and, 
 simple as the structure may appear, it 
 admirably supplies the place of the 
 natural member. 
 
 ARTIL'LERY, all sorts of great guns, 
 cannon, or ordnance, mortars, howit- 
 zers, machine-guns, etc., together with 
 all the apparatus and stores thereto 
 belonging, which are taken into the 
 field, or used for besieging and defend- 
 ing fortified places. The improvements 
 and alterations in artillery and pro- 
 jectiles have of late years been extra- 
 ordinary, there being in the British 
 service alone over 100 patterns of 
 modern guns. Of these the largest is 
 the 111-ton gun intended for ships and 
 fortresses, the next largest being the 
 100-ton gun for land service, and the 
 80-ton gun for land and sea service. 
 The most important modern improve- 
 ments in artillery, besides the increase 
 in size, is the general adoption of rifled 
 ordnance, breech-loaders, and machine- 
 guns. See Cannon, and other articles. — 
 The name Park of Artillery is given 
 to the entire train of artillery accom- 
 panying a military force, w'ith the 
 apparatus, ammunition, etc., as well 
 as the battalion appointed for its serv- 
 ice and defense. 
 
 ARTILLERY COMPANY, the Ancient 
 and Honorable, of Boston, a historical 
 company of artillery, the oldest mili- 
 tary company of America, dating to 
 1637. Its functions today are social. 
 
 ARTILLERY CORPS, the entire artil- 
 lery branch of the United States army. 
 It consists of a commanding chief, 14 
 colonels, 13 lieutenant-colonels, 39 
 majors, 195 captains, 48 sergeants, 31 
 batteries field, and 126 batteries coast 
 artillery. Total, 18,920 men and 651 
 officers. 
 
 ARTILLERY SCHOOL, a military 
 school of the United States at Fort 
 Monroe, Va., for the teaching of 
 
 the theory and practice of artillery 
 work. 
 
 ARTIODAC'TYLA, a section of the 
 Ungulata or hoofed mammals, compris- 
 ing all those in which the number of the 
 toes is even (two or four), including the 
 ruminants, such as the ox, sheep, deer, 
 etc., and also a number of non-rumi- 
 nating animals, as the hippopotamus 
 and the pig. 
 
 ARTS, the name given to certain 
 branches of study in the middle ages, 
 originally called the “liberal arts” to 
 distinguish them from the “servile arts” 
 or mechanical occupations. These arts 
 were usually given as grammar, dia- 
 lectics, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, 
 geometry, and astronomy. Hence orig- 
 inated the terms “art classes,” “de- 
 grees in arts,” “Master of Arts,” etc., 
 still in corpmon use in universities, the 
 faculty of arts being distinguished from 
 those of divinity, law, medicine, or 
 sci6nc© 
 
 ARTSTUDENTS’ LEAGUE, an Amer- 
 ican art society with a membership of 
 1000 and headquarters at New A'ork. 
 It was an offshoot from the academy of 
 design, and was founded in 1878. A fee 
 of $30 to $70 is charged, and tlie mem- 
 ber is instructed by competent teachers. 
 Scholarships and prizes are awarded 
 annually. 
 
 ASAFETTDA, ASAFGETIDA, a fetid 
 inspissated sap from central Asia. It 
 is used in medicine as an anti-spasmodic, 
 and in cases of flatulency, in hysteric 
 paroxysms, and other nervous affec- 
 tions. Notwithstanding its very dis- 
 agreeable odor it is used as a seasoning 
 in the East, and sometimes in Europe. 
 An inferior sort is the product of certain 
 species of Ferula. 
 
 ASBESTOS, ASBESTUS, a remarkable 
 and highly useful mineral, a fibrous 
 variety of several members of the horn- 
 blende family, composed of separable 
 filaments, with a silky luster. The fibers 
 are sometimes delicate, flexible, and 
 elastic; at other times stiff and brittle. 
 It is incombustible, and anciently was 
 wrought into a soft, flexible cloth, which 
 was used as a shroud for dead bodies. 
 In modern times it has been manufac- 
 tured into incombustible cloth, gloves, 
 felt, paper, etc.; is employed in gas- 
 stoves; is much used as a covering to 
 steam boilers and pipes; is mixed with 
 metallic pigments, and used as a paint 
 on wooden structures, roofs, partitions, 
 etc., to render them fire-proof, and is 
 employed in Amrious other ways, the 
 manufacture having recently greatly 
 developed. Some A'arieties are compact 
 and take a fine polish, others are loose, 
 like flax or silky wool. 
 
 ASCENSION, Right, of a star, in 
 astronomy, the arc of the equator inter- 
 cepted between the first point of Aries 
 and that point of the equator which 
 comes to the meridian at the same in- 
 stant with the star. 
 
 ASCENSION DAY, the day on which 
 the ascension of the Savior is com- 
 memorated, often called Holy Thursday, 
 a movable feast, always falling on the 
 Thursday but one before Whitsuntide. 
 
 ASCETTCS, a name given in ancient 
 times to those Christians who devoted 
 themselves to severe exercises of piety 
 and strove to distinguish themselves 
 
ASCOLI 
 
 ASIA 
 
 from the world by abstinence from 
 sensual enjoyments and by voluntary 
 penances. Ascetics and asceticism have 
 played an important part in the 
 Christian church, but the principle of 
 striving after a higher and more spiritual 
 life by subduing the animal appetites 
 and passions has no necessary connec- 
 tion with Christianity. Thus there were 
 ascetics among the Jews previous to 
 Christ, and asceticism was inculcated 
 by the Stoics, while in its most extreme 
 form it may still be seen among the 
 Brahmas and Buddhists. Monasticism 
 was but one phase of asceticism. 
 
 AS'COLI, or ASCOLI PICENO, capital 
 of the province of the same name, on the 
 Tronto, 14 miles above its embouchure 
 in the Adriatic. Pop. 11,199. — The 
 province has an area of 809 sq. miles, a 
 pop. of 222,146. 
 
 ASH, a genus of deciduous trees hav- 
 ing imperfect flowers and a seed-vessel 
 prolonged into a thin wing at the apex. 
 There are many varieties of it, as the 
 weeping-a.sh, the curled-leaved ash, the 
 entire-leaved ash, etc. Among Ameri- 
 can species are the white ash, with 
 lighter bark and leaves ; the red or black 
 ash, with a brown bark; the black ash, 
 the blue ash, the green ash, etc. They 
 are all valuable trees. The mountain- 
 ash or rowan belongs to a different order. 
 
 ASH, ASHES, the incombustible resi- 
 due of organic bodies (animal or vegeta- 
 ble) remaining after combustion; in com- 
 mon usage, any incombustible residue 
 of bodies used as fuel; as a commercial 
 term, the word generally means the 
 ashes of vegetable substances, from 
 which are extracted the alkaline matters 
 called potash, pearl-ash, kelp, barilla, 
 etc. 
 
 ASHANTEE', a kingdom of western 
 Africa, in the interior of the Gold Coast, 
 and to the north of the river Prah, with 
 an area of about 70,000 sq. miles. It is 
 in great part hilly, well-watered, and 
 covered with dense tropical vegetation. 
 The country round the towns, however, 
 is carefully cultivated. The crops are 
 chiefly rice, maize, millet, sugar-cane, 
 and yams, the last forming the staple 
 vegetable food of the natives. The 
 domestic animals are cows, horses of 
 small size, goats, and a species of hairy 
 sheep. The larger wild animals are the 
 elephant, rhinoceros, giraffe, buffalo, 
 lion, hippopotamus, etc. Birds of all 
 kinds are numerous, and crocodiles and 
 other reptiles abound. Gold is abundant, 
 being found either in the form of dust 
 or in nuggets. The Ashantees are war- 
 like and ferocious, with a love of shed- 
 ding blood amounting to a passion, 
 human sacrifices being formerly com- 
 mon. Polygamy is practiced by them 
 to an enormous extent. They make 
 excellent cotton cloths, articles in gold, 
 and good earthenware, tan leather, and 
 make sword-blades of superior work- 
 manship. The government is a mon- 
 archy, and is now carried on under 
 British supervision, Ashantee having 
 become a protectorate of Britain in 
 1896. The chief town is Coomassie, 
 said to have from 70,000 to 100,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 ASHEVILLE (ash'vil), a city and 
 county seat of Buncombe Co., N. C., 
 262 miles by rail northeast of Atlanta, 
 
 Ga.; at the junction of the Swanna- 
 noa and the French Broad rivers and on 
 the Southern Railway. It is finely 
 situated, at an elevation of 2300 feet 
 in a mountainous region, and is widely 
 celebrated as a health resort, both 
 summer and winter. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 ASH'BURTON, Alexander Baring, 
 Lord, a British statesman and financier, 
 born 1774, died 1848. After serving in 
 parliament for many years he was 
 raised to the peerage in 1835, after being 
 a member of Peel’s government (1834-- 
 35). 
 
 ASH'BURTON TREATY, a treaty con- 
 cluded at Washington, 1842, by Alex- 
 ander Baring, Lord Ashburton, and the 
 President of the United States; it 
 defined the boundaries between the 
 States and Canada, etc. 
 
 ASH'ES. See Ash. 
 
 ASH 'LAND, a city and county seat of 
 Ashland Co., Wis., 185 miles northeast 
 of Saint Paul, Minn., on Chequamegon 
 Bay, one of the finest harboi’s on Lake 
 Superior. Steamers connect it with lake 
 ports, and it is on the Wisconsin Central, 
 the Chicago, Saint Paul, Minneapolis, 
 and Omaha, the Northern Pacific, and 
 the Chicago and Northwestern railroads. 
 Ashland is one of the most important 
 ports on the Great Lakes, the point from 
 which the product of the iron mines of 
 the Gogebic Range is shipped. Lumber, 
 brown-stone, and the principal manu- 
 factured products also constitute exten- 
 sive shipments. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 ASHLEY, Lord. See Shaftesbury, 
 First Earl of. 
 
 ASHTABU'LA, a city in Ashtabula 
 Co., Ohio, on a river of the same name, 
 3 miles from Lake Erie, and 54 miles east 
 by north of Cleveland, on the Lake 
 Shore and Michigan Southern, the New 
 York, Chicago, and St. Louis, and the 
 Pittsburg, Youngstown, and Ashtabula 
 railroads. Pop. 14,000. 
 
 ASH- WEDNESDAY, the first day of 
 Lent, so called from a custom in the 
 Western Church of sprinkling ashes that 
 day on the heads of penitents, then ad- 
 mitted to penance. The period at which 
 the fast of Ash-Wednesday was insti- 
 tuted is uncertain. In the R. Catholic 
 Church the ashes are now strewn on the 
 heads of all the clergy and people pres- 
 ent. In the Anglican Church Ash- 
 Wednesday is regarded as an important 
 fast day. 
 
 ASIA, the largest of the great divisions 
 of the earth; length, from the extreme 
 southwestern point of Arabia, at the 
 strait of Babel-Mandeb, to the'fextreme 
 northeastern point of Siberia — East 
 Cape, or Cape Vostochni, in Bering’s 
 strait — 6900 miles; breadth, from Cape 
 Chelyuskin, in northern Siberia, to Cape 
 Romania, the southern extremity of the 
 Malay Peninsula, 5300 miles; area esti- 
 mated at 17,296,000 square miles, about 
 a third of all the land of the earth’s sur- 
 face. On three sides, n., e., and s., the 
 ocean forms its natural boundary, while 
 in the w. the frontier is marked mainly 
 by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, 
 Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, the Black 
 Sea, the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal, 
 and the Red Sea. Thei’e is no proper 
 separation between Asia and Europe, 
 the latter being really a great peninsula 
 of the former. Asia, though not so ir- 
 
 regular in shape as Europe, is broken in 
 the s. by three great peninsulas, Arabia, 
 Hindustan, and Farther inaia, while 
 the east coast presents peninsular pro- 
 jections and islands, forming a series of 
 sheltered seas and bays, the principal 
 peninsulas being Kamtchatka and 
 Corea. The principal islands are those 
 forming the Malay or Asiatic Archi- 
 pelago, which stretch round in a wide 
 curve on the s.e. of the continent. Be- 
 sides the larger islands — Sumatra, Java, 
 Borneo, Celebes, Mindanao, and Luzon 
 (in the Philippine group) — there are 
 countless smaller islands grouped round 
 these. Other islands are Ceylon, in the 
 s. of India; the Japanese islands and 
 Sakhalin on the east of the continent; 
 Formosa, s.e. of China; Cyprus, s. of 
 Asia Minor ; and New Siberia and Wran- 
 gell Land, in the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 The mountain systems of Asia are of 
 great extent, and their culminating 
 points are the highest in the world. The 
 greatest of all is the Himalayan system, 
 which lies mainly between Ion. 70° and 
 100° e. and lat. 28° and 37° n. It ex- 
 tends, roughly speaking, from northwest 
 to southeast, its total length being about 
 1500 miles, forming the northern barrier 
 of Hindustan. The loftiest summits are 
 Mount Everest, 29,002 feet high, God- 
 win-Austen, 28,265, and Kanchinjinga, 
 28,156. The principal passes, which 
 rise to the height of 18,000 to 20,000 
 feet, are the highest in the world. A 
 second great mountain system of cen- 
 tral Asia, connected with the north- 
 western extremity of the Himalayan 
 system by the elevated region of Pamir 
 (about Ion. 70°-75° e., lat. 37°-40° n.), 
 is the Thian-Shan system, which runs 
 northeastward for a distance of 1200 
 miles. In this direction the Altai, 
 Sayan, and other ranges continue the 
 line of elevations to the northeastern 
 coast. A northwestern continuation of 
 the Himalayas is the Hindu Kush, and 
 farther westward a connection may be 
 traced between the Himalayan mass 
 and the Elburz range (18,460 feet), south 
 of the Caspian, and thence to the moun- 
 tains of Kurdistan, Armenia, and Asia 
 Minor. 
 
 There are vast plateaux and elevated 
 valley regions connected with the great 
 central mountain systems, but Targe 
 portions of the continent are low and 
 flat. Of the deserts of Asia the largest 
 is that of Gobi (Ion. 90°-120° e., lat. 40°- 
 48° n.), large portions of which are 
 covered with nothing but sand or dis- 
 play a sui'face of bare rock. An almost 
 continuous desert region may also be 
 traced from the desert of North Africa 
 through Arabia (which is largely occu- 
 pied by bare deserts), Persia, and Balu- 
 chistan to the Indus. 
 
 Some of the largest rivers of Asia flow 
 northward to the Artie Ocean — the Obi, 
 the Yenisei, and the Lena. The Hoang- 
 Ho and Yang-tse, and the Amoor, are 
 the chief of those which flow into the 
 Pacific. The Ganges, Brahmaputra, 
 Irawaddy, and Indus empty into the 
 Indian Ocean. The Persian Gulf re- 
 ceives the united waters of the Eu- 
 phrates and the Tigris. There are sev- 
 eral systems of inTand drainage, large 
 rivers falling into lakes which have no 
 outlet. The largest lake of Asia (partly 
 
ASIA 
 
 ASIA 
 
 also European) is the Caspian Sea, which 
 receives the Kur from the Caucasus 
 (with its tributary the Aras from Ar- 
 menia), and the Sefid Rud and other 
 streams from Persia (besides the Volga 
 from European Russia, and the Ural, 
 which is partly European, partly 
 Asiatic). The Caspian lies in the center 
 of a great depression, being 83 feet 
 below the level of the Sea of Azof. East 
 from the Caspian is the Sea of Aral, 
 which, like the Caspian, has no outlet, 
 and is fed by the rivers Amoo Daria 
 (Oxus) and Syr Daria. Still farther 
 east, to the north of the Thian-Sban 
 Mountains, and fed by the Hi and other 
 streams, is Lake Balkash, also without 
 an outlet, and very salt. Other lakes 
 having no communication with the 
 ocean are Lob Nor, in the desert of Gobi, 
 receiving the river Tarim, and the Dead 
 Sea, far below the level of the Mediter- 
 ranean, and fed by the Jordan. The 
 chief freshwater lake is Lake Baikal, in 
 the south of Siberia, between Ion. 104° 
 and 110° e., a mountain lake from which 
 the Yenisei draws a portion of its waters. 
 
 .\ctive volcanoes are only met with in 
 the extreme east (Kamtchatka) and in 
 the Eastern Archipelago. From the 
 remotest times Asia has been celebrated 
 for its mineral wealth. In the Altai and 
 Ural Mountains gold, iron, lead, and 
 platinum are found; in India and other 
 parts rubies, diamonds, and other gems 
 are, or have been, procured; salt in 
 central Asia; coal in China, India, 
 central Asia, etc.; petroleum in the dis- 
 tricts about the Caspian and in Burmah; 
 bitumen in Syria; while silver, copper, 
 sulphur, etc., are found in various parts. 
 
 Every variety of climate may be ex- 
 perienced in Asia, but as a whole it is 
 marked by extremes of heat and cold 
 and by great dryness, this in particular 
 being the case with vast regions in the 
 center of the continent and distant 
 from the sea. 
 
 The plants and animals of northern 
 and western Asia generally resemble 
 those of similar latitudes in Europe 
 (which is really a prolongation of the 
 .A.siatic continent), differing more in 
 species than in genera. The principal 
 mountain trees are the pine, larch, and 
 birch ; the willow, alder, and poplar are 
 found in lower grounds. In the central 
 region European species reach as far 
 as the western and central Himalayas, 
 but are rare in the eastern. They are 
 here met by Chinese and Japanese 
 forms. The lower slopes of the Hima- 
 layas are clothed almost exclusively with 
 tropical forms. Higher up, between 
 4000 and 10,000 feet, are found all the 
 types of trees and plants that belong 
 to the temperate zone, there being ex- 
 tensive forests of conifers. Here is the 
 native home of the deodar cedar. The 
 southeastern region, including India, 
 the eastern Peninsula, and China, with 
 the islands, contains a vast variety of 
 plants useful to man and having here 
 their original habitat, such as the sugar- 
 cane, rice, cotton, and indigo; pepper, 
 cinnamon, cassia, clove, nutmeg, and 
 cardamoms; banana, cocoanut, areca, 
 and sago palms; the mango and many 
 other fruits; with plants producing a 
 vast number of drugs, caoutchouc, and 
 gutta-percha. The forests of India and 
 
 the Malay Peninsula contain oak, teak, 
 sM, and other timber woods, besides 
 bomboos, palms, sandalwood, etc. The 
 almyra palm is characteristic of 
 outhern India; while the talipot palm 
 flourishes on the western coast of Hin- 
 dustan, Ceylon, and the Malay Penin- 
 sula. The cultivated plants of India and 
 China include wheat, barley, rice, maize, 
 millet, sorghum, tea, coffee, indigo, 
 cotton, jute, opium, tobacco, etc. In 
 north China and the Japanese Islands 
 large numbers of deciduous trees occur, 
 such as oaks, maples, limes, walnuts, 
 poplars, and willows, the genera being 
 European, but the individual species 
 Asiatic. Among cultivated plants are 
 wheat, and in favorable situations rice, 
 cotton, the vine, etc. Coffee, rice, 
 maize, etc., are extensively grown in 
 some of the islands of the .Asiatic Archi- 
 pelago. In Arabia and the warmer 
 valleys of Persia, Afghanistan, and 
 Beluchistan, aromatic shrubs are abun- 
 dant. Over large jjarts of these regions 
 the date-palm flourishes and affords a 
 valuable article of food. Gum-produc- 
 ing acacias are, with the date-palm, the 
 commonest trees in Arabia. African 
 forms are found extending from the 
 Sahara along the desert region of Asia. 
 
 Nearly all the mammals of Europe 
 occur in northern Asia, with numerous 
 additions to the species. Central Asia 
 is the native land of the horse, the ass, 
 the ox, the sheep, and the goat. Both 
 varieties of the camel, the single and the 
 double humped, are Asiatic. To the 
 inhabitants of Tibet and the higher 
 plateaux of the Himalayas the yak is 
 what the reindeer is to the tribes of the 
 Siberian plain, almost their sole wealth 
 and support. The elephant, of a dif- 
 ferent species from that of Africa, is 
 a native of tropical Asia. The Asiatic 
 lion, which inhabits Arabia, Persia, 
 Asia Minor, Beluchistan, and some 
 parts of India, is smaller than the Afri- 
 can species. Bears are found in all parts, 
 the white bear in the far north, and 
 other species in the more temperate 
 and tropical parts. The tiger is the 
 most characteristic of the larger Asiatic 
 Carnivora. It extends from Armenia 
 across the entire continent, being absent, 
 however, from the greater portion of 
 Siberia and from the high tableland 
 of Tibet; it extends also into Sumatra 
 Java, and Bali. In southeastern Asia 
 and the islands we find the rhinoceros, 
 buffalo, ox, deer, squirrels, porcupines, 
 etc. In birds nearly every order is repre- 
 sented. Among the most interesting 
 forms are the hornbills, the peacock, the 
 Impey pheasant, the tragopan or horned 
 pheasant, and other gallinaceous birds, 
 the pheasant family being very char- 
 acteristic of southeastern Asia. It was 
 from Asia that the common domestic 
 fowl was introduced into Europe. The 
 tropical parts of Asia abound in mon- 
 keys, of which the species are numerous. 
 Some are tailed, others, such as the 
 orang, are tailless, but none have pre- 
 hensile tails like the American monkeys. 
 In the Malay Archipelago marsupial 
 animals, so characteristic of Australia, 
 first occur in the Moluccas and Celebes, 
 while various mammals common in the 
 western part of the Archipelago are 
 absent. A similar transition toward 
 
 the Australian type takes place in the 
 species of birds. Of marine mammals 
 the dugong is peculiar to the Indian 
 Ocean; in the Ganges is found a peculiar 
 species of dolphin. At the head of the 
 reptiles stands the Gangetic crocodile, 
 frequenting the Ganges and other large 
 rivers. Among the serpents are the 
 cobra da capello, one of the most deadly 
 snakes in existence; there are also large 
 boas and pythons besides sea and fresh- 
 water snakes. The seas and rivers pro- 
 duce a great variety of fish. The Sal- 
 monidae are found in the rivers flowing 
 into the Arctic Ocean. Two rather re- 
 markable fishes are the climbing perch 
 and the archer-fish. The well-known 
 goldfish is a native of China. 
 
 Asia is mainly peopled by races be- 
 longing to two great ethnographic types, 
 the Caucasic or fair type, and the Mon- 
 golic or yellow. To the former belong 
 the Aryan or Indo-European, and the 
 Semitic races, both of which mainly 
 inhabit the southwest of the continent; 
 to the latter belong the Malays and 
 Indo-Chinese in the s.e., as well as the 
 Mongolians proper (Chinese, etc.), occu- 
 pying nearly all tlie rest of the con- 
 tinent. To these may be added certain 
 races of doubtful affinities, as the Dra- 
 vidians of southern India, the Cin- 
 galese of Ceylon, the Ainos of Yesso, 
 and some negro-like tribes called Ne- 
 gritos, which inhabit Malacca and the 
 interior of several of the islands of the 
 Eastern Archipelago. The total popu- 
 lation is estimated at about 800,000,- 
 000, or more than half that of the whole 
 world. The chief independent states 
 are the Chinese Empire (pop. 360,250,- 
 000), Japan (pop. 40,000,000), Siam 
 (pop. 6,000,000), Afghanistan (5,000,- 
 000), Beluchistan, Persia (pop. 7,000,- 
 000), and the Arabian states (3,000,- 
 000). The most important of the 
 religions of Asia are the Brahmanism 
 of India, the creeds of Buddha, Con- 
 fucius, and Lao-tse in China, and the 
 various forms of Mohammedanism in 
 Arabia, Persia, India, etc. Probably 
 more than a half of the whole popula- 
 tion profess some form of Buddhism. 
 Several native Christian sects are found 
 in India, Armenia, Kurdistan, and Syria. 
 
 Asia is generally regarded as the 
 cradle of the human race. It possesses 
 the oldest historical documents, and 
 next to the immediately contiguous 
 kingdom of Egypt the oldest historical 
 monuments in the world. At present 
 the forms of government in Asia range 
 from the primitive rule of the nomad 
 sheik to the despotism of China. India 
 has been brought by Britain directly 
 under European influence, and Japan 
 is freely modeling her institutions on 
 those of the West. 
 
 ASIA, Central, a designation loosely 
 given to the regions in the center of 
 Asia east of the Caspian, also called 
 Turkestan, and formerly Tartary. The 
 eastern portion belongs to China, the 
 western now to Russia. Russian Cen- 
 tral Asia comprises the Kirghiz Steppe 
 (Uralsk, Turgai, AkinoUnsk, Semipala- 
 tinsk, etc.), and what is now the gov- 
 ernment-general of Turkestan, besides 
 the territory of the TurkomaoJS, or 
 Transcaspia and Merv. Russia ^has 
 thus absorbed the old khanate of Kho- 
 
ASIA MINOR 
 
 ASSAULT AND BATTERY 
 
 kanci and part of Bokhara and Khiva, 
 and controls the vassal territories of 
 Bokhara and Khiva, the southern 
 boundary being the Persian and Afghan 
 frontiers. 
 
 ASIA MINOR, the most westerly por- 
 tion of Asi^ being the peninsula lying 
 west of the Upper Euphrates, and form- 
 ing part of Asiatic Turkey. It forms 
 an extensive plateau, with lofty moun- 
 tains rising above it, the most extensive 
 ranges being the Taurus and Anti- 
 Taurus, which border it on the south 
 and southeast, and rise to over 10,000 
 feet. There are numerous salt and 
 fresh-water lakes. The chief rivers are 
 the Kizil-Irmak (Halys), Sakaria (San- 
 
 f arius), entering the Black Sea; and the 
 arabat (Hermus) and Menderes (Mse- 
 ander), entering the .lEgean. The coast 
 regions are generally fertile, and have a 
 genial climate; the interior is largely 
 arid and dreary. Valuable forests and 
 fruit-trees abound. Smyrna is the chief 
 town. Anatolia is an equivalent 
 name. 
 
 ASP, a species of viper found in 
 Egypt, resembling the cobra da capello 
 or spectacle-serpent of the East Indies, 
 and having a very venomous bite. 
 
 Asp, from ancient Egyptian monument. 
 
 When approached or disturbed it ele- 
 vates its head and body, swells out its 
 neck, and appears to stand erect to 
 attack the agressor. Hence the ancient 
 Egyptians believed that the asps were 
 guardians of the spots they inhabited, 
 and the figure of this reptile was adopted 
 as an emblem of the protecting genius 
 of the world. 
 
 ASPAR'AGUS, a plant, the young 
 shoots of which, cut as they are emerg- 
 ing from the ground, are a favorite 
 culinary vegetable. The plants should 
 remain three years in the ground before 
 they are cut; after which, for several 
 years, they will continue to afford a 
 regular annual supply. The beds are 
 protected by straw or litter in winter. 
 Its diuretic properties are ascribed to 
 the presence of a crystalline substance 
 found also in the potato, lettuce, etc. 
 
 ASPA'SIA, a celebrated lady of 
 ancient Greece, was born at Miletus, 
 in Ionia, but passed a great part of her 
 life at Athens, where her house was the 
 general resort of the most distinguished 
 men in Greece. She won the affection 
 of Pericles, who united himself to As- 
 
 S asia as closely as was permitted by 
 le Athenian law, which declared 
 marriage with a foreign woman illegal. 
 .In 432-1 B.c. she was accused of Im- 
 piety, and was only saved from con- 
 demnation by the eloquence and tears 
 of Pericles. She had a son by Pericles, 
 
 who was legitimated (b.c. 430) by a 
 special decree of the people. 
 
 ASPHALTj ASPHAL'TUM, the most 
 common variety of bitumen ; also called 
 mineral pitch. Asphalt is a compact, 
 glossy, brittle, black or brown mineral, 
 which breaks with a polished fracture, 
 melts easily with a strong pitchy odor 
 when heated, and when pure burns with- 
 out leaving any ashes. It is found in 
 the earth in many parts of Asia, Europe, 
 and America, and in a soft or liquid 
 state on the surface of the Dead Sea, 
 which from this circumstance was called 
 Asphaltites. It is of organic origin, the 
 asphalt of the great Pitch Lake of 
 Trinidad being derived from bitumi- 
 nous shales, containing vegetable re- 
 mains in the process of transformation. 
 Asphalt is produced artificially in mak- 
 ing coal-gas. During the process much 
 tarry matter is evolved and collected 
 in retorts. If this be distilled, naphtha 
 and other volatile matters escape, and 
 asphalt is left behind. It is sometimes 
 called Jew’s Pitch. 
 
 ASPHYX'IA, literally, the state of a 
 living animal in which no pulsation can 
 be perceived, but the term is more par- 
 ticularly applied to a suspension of the 
 vital functions from causes hindering 
 respiration. The normal accompani- 
 ments of death from asphyxia are dark 
 fluid blood, a congested brain and ex- 
 ceedingly congested lungs, the general 
 engorgement of the viscera, and an ab- 
 sence of blood from the left cavities of 
 the heart while the right cavities and 
 pulmonary artery are gorged. The 
 restoration of asphyxiated persons has 
 been successfully accomplished at long 
 periods after apparent death. The 
 attempt should be made to maintain the 
 heat of the body and to secure the infla- 
 tion of the lungs as in the case of the 
 apparently drowned. 
 
 AS'PINWALL. See Colon. 
 
 AS'PIRATE, a name given to any 
 sound like our h, to the letter h itself, 
 or to any mark of aspiration. 
 
 ASS, a species of the horse genus, 
 supposed by Darwin to have sprung 
 from the wild variety found in Abyssinia, 
 by some writers to be a descendant of 
 the wild ass, inhabiting the mountain- 
 ous deserts of Tartary, etc., and by 
 others to have descended from the 
 kiang of southwestern Asia. Both in 
 color and size the ass is exceedingly 
 variable, ranging from dark gray and 
 reddish brown to white, and from the 
 size of a Newfoundland dog in North 
 India to that of a good-sized horse. In 
 the southwestern countries of Asia and 
 in Egypt, in some districts of southern 
 Europe, as in Spain, and in Kentucky 
 and Peru, great attention has been paid 
 to selection and interbreeding, with a 
 result no less remarkable than in the 
 case of the horse. The male ass is 
 mature at two years of age, the female 
 still earlier. The she-ass carries her 
 young eleven months. The teeth of 
 the young ass follow the same order of 
 appearance and renewal as those of the 
 horse. The life of the ass does not 
 usually exceed thirty years. It is in 
 general much healthier than the horse, 
 and is maintained in this condition by a 
 smaller quantity and coarser quality 
 of food; it is superior to the horse in its 
 
 ability to carry heavy burdens over the 
 most precipitous roads, and is in no re- 
 spect its inferior in intelligence, despite 
 the reputation for stupidity which it has 
 borne from very ancient times. The 
 skin is used as parchment to cover 
 drums, etc., and in the East is made into 
 shagreen. The hybrid offspring of the 
 horse and the female ass is the hinny, 
 that of the ass and the mare is the mule; 
 but the latter is by far the larger and 
 more useful animal. Asses’ milk, long 
 celebrated for its sanative qualities, 
 more closely resembles' that of a woman, 
 than any other. It is very similar in 
 taste, and throws up an equally fluid 
 cream, which is not convertible into 
 butter. 
 
 ASSAM', a chief commissionership or 
 province of British India, on the north- 
 east border of Bengal, bounded on the 
 north by the Himalayas, on the east and 
 south mainly by Burmah; area, 49,004 
 sq. miles. Pop. 6,126,343, 3,429,459 
 of whom are Hindus, 1,581,317 Moham- 
 
 Assamese. 
 
 medans, 35,969 Christians, 8911 Budd- 
 hists, the rest being chiefly, hill tribes 
 of aboriginal faiths. 
 
 AS'SAPAN, the fiying-squirrel of N. 
 America, an elegant little animal with 
 folds of skin along its sides which enable 
 it to take leaps of 40 or 50 yards. 
 
 ASSASSINA'TION, an act by which 
 life is taken in a treacherous or unex- 
 pected manner, usually for the further- 
 ance of a political or social purpose. 
 The term is not customarily applied to 
 murder accomplished for purely per- 
 sonal reasons in the manner of assassina- 
 tion, but rather to the murder of some 
 public official or important person. The 
 term “spadassin,” used during the 
 French revolution, is of kindred origin 
 and meaning. 
 
 ASSASS'INS, an Asiatic order or 
 society having the practice of assassina- 
 tion as its most distinctive feature, 
 founded by Hassan Ben Sabbah, a dai 
 or missionary of the heterodox Moham- 
 medan sect the Ismaelites. 
 
 ASSAULT AND BATTERY, in law, 
 an attempt or offer, with force and 
 violence, to do a corporal hurt to 
 another, as by striking at him mth or 
 without a weapon. If a person lift 
 up or stretch forth his arm and offer 
 to strike another, or menace any one 
 with any staff or weapon, it is an as- 
 sault in law. Assault, therefore, does 
 not necessarily imply a hitting or blow. 
 
ASSAYING 
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 because in trespass for assault and 
 battery a man may be found guilty of 
 the assault and acquitted of the battery. 
 But every battery includes an assault. 
 
 ASSAYING, the estimation of the 
 amount of pure metal, and especially of 
 the precious metals, in an ore or alloy. 
 In the case of silver the assay is either 
 by the dry or by the wet process. The 
 dry process is called cupellation from 
 the use of a small and very porous cup, 
 called a cupel, formed of well-burned 
 and finely-ground bone-ash made into 
 a paste with water. The cupel, being 
 thoroughly dried, is placed in a fire-clay 
 oven about the size of a drain-tile, with 
 a flat sole and arched roof, and with 
 slits at the sides to admit air. This 
 oven, called a muffle, is set in a furnace, 
 and when it is at a red heat the assay, 
 consisting of a small weighed portion of 
 the alloy wrapped in sheet-lead, is laid 
 upon the cupel. The heat causes the 
 lead to volatilize or combine with the 
 other metals, and to sink with them into 
 the cupel, leaving a bright globule of 
 pure metallic silver, which gives the 
 amount of silver in the alloy operated 
 on. In the wet process the alloy is dis- 
 solved in nitric acid, and to the solution 
 are added measured quantities of a 
 solution of common salt of known 
 strength, which precipitates chloride of 
 silver. The operation is concluded when 
 no further precipitate is obtained on the 
 addition of the salt solution, and the 
 quantity of silver is calculated from 
 the amount of salt solution used. An 
 alloy of gold is first cupelled with lead as 
 above, with the addition of three parts 
 of silver for every one of gold. After 
 the cupellation is finished the alloy of 
 gold and silver is beaten and rolled out 
 into a thin plate, which is curled up by 
 the fingers into a little spiral or cornet. 
 This is put into a flask with nitric acid, 
 which dissolves away the silver and 
 leaves the cornet dark and brittle. After 
 washing with water the cornet is boiled 
 with stronger nitric acid to remove the 
 last traces of silver, well washed, and 
 then allowed to drop into a small 
 crucible, in which it is heated, and then 
 it is weighed. The assay of gold, there- 
 fore, consists of two parts: cupellation, 
 by which inferior metals (except silver) 
 are removed; and quartation, by which 
 the added silver and any silver originally 
 present are got rid of. The quantity of 
 silver added has to be regulated to about 
 three times that of the gold. If it be 
 more the cornet breaks up, if it be less 
 the gold protects small quantities of 
 the silver from the action of the acid, 
 Wherw, as in some gold manufactured 
 articles, these methods of assay cannot 
 be applied, a streak is drawn with the 
 article upon a touchstone consisting of 
 coarse-grained Lydian quartz saturated 
 with bituminous matter, or of black 
 basalt. The practiced assayer will 
 detect approximately the richness of 
 the gold from the color of the streak, 
 which may be further subjected to an 
 acid test. 
 
 ASSAY OFFICE, a laboratory con- 
 ducted by the United States govern- 
 ment for the valuation of ^Id and silver 
 deposited for coinage. The principal 
 mints have assay offices attached to 
 them, and there is an assay office at 
 
 Seattle, Wash. The largest in the 
 
 country is that at New York. 
 
 AS'SEGAI, a spear used as a weapon 
 among the Kaffirs of S. Africa, made of 
 hard wood tipped with iron, and used 
 for throwing or thrusting. 
 
 ASSESS'OR, a person appointed to 
 ascertain and fix the amount of taxes, 
 rates, etc.; or a person who sits along 
 with the judges in certain courts, and 
 assists them with his professional 
 knowledge. 
 
 AS'SETS, property or goods available 
 for the payment of a bankrupt or de- 
 ceased person’s obligations. Assets are 
 personal or real, the former comprising 
 all goods, chattels, etc., devolving upon 
 the executor as saleable to discharge 
 debts and legacies. In commerce and 
 bankruptcy the term is often used as the 
 antithesis of “liabilities,” to designate 
 the stock in trade and entire property 
 of an individual or an association. 
 
 ASSIGNEE', a person appointed by 
 another to transact some business, or 
 exercise some particular privilege or 
 power. Formerly the persons appointed 
 under a commission of bankruptcy, to 
 manage the estate of the bankrupt on 
 behalf of the creditors, were so called, 
 but now trustees. 
 
 ASSIGN'MENT is a transfer by deed 
 of any property, or right, title, or inter- 
 est, in property, real or personal. As- 
 signments are usually given for leases, 
 mortgages, and funded property. 
 
 ASSINIBOI'A, the smallest of the four 
 districts into which a portion of the 
 northwestern territories of Canada was 
 divided in 1882. It lies immediately to 
 the west of Manitoba, with Saskatche- 
 wan and Alberta as its northern and 
 western boundaries. It is intersected 
 by the Saskatchewan (south branch) 
 and the Qu’Appelle river, and contains 
 much good wheat land. Some coal is 
 mined. Area, 89,535 sq. miles. Pop. 
 67,385. Capital, Regina, on the Cana- 
 dian Pacific Railway, which intersects 
 the district. 
 
 ASSINIBOINE, a river of Canada, 
 which flows through Manitoba and joins 
 the Red river at Winnipeg, about 40 
 miles above the entrance of the latter 
 into Lake Winnipeg, after a somewhat 
 circuitous course of about 500 miles 
 from the west and northwest. Steamers 
 ply on it for over 300 miles. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, the term 
 used in psychology to comprise the con- 
 ditions under which one idea is able to 
 recall another to consciousness. Psy- 
 chologists have been disposed to classify 
 these conditions under two general 
 heads: the law of contiguity, and the 
 law of association. The first states the 
 fact that actions, sensations, emotions, 
 and ideas, which have occurred together, 
 or in close succession, tend to suggest 
 each other when any one of them is 
 afterward presented to the mind. The 
 second indicates that present actions, 
 sensations, emotions, or ideas tend to 
 recall their like from among previous 
 experiences. Other laws have at times 
 been enunciated, but they are reducible 
 to these; thus, the “law of contrast or 
 contrariety” is properly a case of con- 
 tiguity. On their physical side the 
 principles of association correspond 
 with the physiological facts of re- 
 
 excitatioft of the same flcfvous centers, 
 and in this respect they have played an 
 important part in the endeavor to place 
 psychology upon a basis of positive 
 science. The laws of association, taken 
 in connection with the law of relativity, 
 are held by many to be a complete 
 exposition of the phenomena of intellect. 
 
 ASSUMP'SIT, in English law, an 
 action to recover compensation for the 
 non-performance of a parole promise; 
 that is, a promise not contained in a 
 deed under seal. Assumpsits are of 
 two kinds, express and implied. The 
 former are where the contracts are 
 actually made in word or writing; the 
 latter are such as the law implies from 
 the justice of the case; e.g. employment 
 to do work implies a promise to pay. 
 
 ASSUMPTION, the ecclesiastical fes- 
 tival celebrating the miraculous ascent 
 into heaven of the Virgin Mary’s body 
 as well as her soul, kept on the 15th of 
 August. The legend first appeared in 
 the 3d or 4th century, and the festival 
 was instituted some three centuries later. 
 
 ASSURANCE. See Insurance. 
 
 ASSYR'IA, an ancient monarchy in 
 Asia, intersected by the upper course 
 of the Tigris, and having the Armenian 
 mountains on the north and Babylonia 
 on the south; area, probablj’^ about 
 100,000 sq. miles; surface partly moun- 
 tainous, hilly, or undulating, partly a 
 portion of the fertile Mesopotamian 
 
 Assyrian soldiers. 
 
 plain. The numerous remains of ancient 
 habitations show how thickly this vast 
 flat must have once been peopled; now, 
 for the most part, it is a mere wilder- 
 ness. The chief cities of Assyria in the 
 days of its prosperity were Nineveh, the 
 site of which is marked by mounds 
 opposite Mosul (Nebi Yunus and Koy- 
 unjik), Calah or Kalakh (the modern 
 Nimrud), Asshur or A1 Asur (Kalah 
 Sherghat), Sargina (Khorsabad), and 
 Arbela (Arbil). 
 
 Much light has been thrown on the 
 history of Assyria by the decipherment 
 of the cuneiform inscriptions obtained 
 by excavation. About 1120 n.c.Tiglath- 
 Pileser I., one of the greatest of the 
 sovereigns of the first Assyrian monar- 
 chy, ascended the throne, and carried 
 his conquests to the Mediterranean on 
 the one side and to the Caspian and the 
 Persian Gulf on the other. At his death 
 there ensued a period of decline, which 
 lasted over 200 years. Under Assur- 
 nazir-pal, who reigned from 88cl to 859 
 
ASTARTE 
 
 ASTEROIDS 
 
 B.C., Assyria once more advanced to 
 the position of the leading power in the 
 world, the extent of his kingdom being 
 greater than that of Tiglath-Pileser. 
 The magnificent palaces, temples, and 
 other buildings of his reign prove the 
 advance of the nation in wealth, art, 
 and luxury. In 859 he was succeeded 
 by his son Shalmaneser II., whose 
 career of conquest was equally success- 
 ful. Sargon (722-70.5), a usurper, 
 claimed descent from the ancient 
 Assyrian kings. After taking Samaria 
 and leading over 27,000 people captive, 
 he overthrew the combined forces of 
 Elam (Susiana) and Babylon. He de- 
 feated the King of hlamath, who along 
 with other princes had revolted, took 
 him prisoner, and flayed him alive, ad- 
 vanced through Philistia and captured 
 Ashdod; then pushing southward to- 
 tally defeated the forces of Egypt 
 and Gaza at Raphia (719). The re- 
 volted Armenians had also more than 
 once to be put down. In 710 Merodach- 
 baladan was driven out of Babylonia 
 by Sargon, after holding it for twelve 
 years as an independent king, and being 
 supported by the rulers of Egypt and 
 Palestine; his allies were also crushed, 
 Judah was overrun, and Ashdod leveled 
 to the ground. Sargon latterly crossed 
 over and took Cyprus, where he left an 
 inscription telling of his expedition. 
 
 and Arabia. Egypt was the only power, 
 however, which regained its indepen- 
 dence; fire, sword, and famine reduced 
 the rest to submission. In 640 the 
 Medes revolted, and latterly made 
 themselves independent. Though the 
 king’s character was marked by cruelty 
 and sensuality, he was a zealous patron 
 of the arts and learning. He died in 
 625, and was succeeded by his son Assur- 
 emid-ilin (or Sarakos), under whom 
 Babylon definitely threw off the As- 
 syrian yoke. The country continued 
 rapidly to decline, fighting hard for 
 existence until the capital Nineveh was 
 captured and burned by the allied 
 forces of the Medes and Babylonians, 
 about 607 or 606 b.c. The story of 
 Sardanapalus associated with this event 
 is a mere myth or legend. Assyria now 
 fell partly to Media, partly to Baby- 
 lonia, and afterwards formed with 
 Babylonia one of the satrapies of the 
 Persian empire. In 312 b.c. it became 
 part of the kingdom of the Seleucidse; 
 later on it came under Parthian rule, 
 and was more than once a Roman pos- 
 session. For a long period it was under 
 the caliphs of Bagdad. In 1638 the 
 Turks wrested it from the Persians, and 
 it has continued under their dominion 
 since that date. 
 
 The Assyrians were far advanced in 
 art and industry, and in civilization in 
 
 Hunting wild bull, from monuments at Nineveh. 
 
 He spent the latter years of his reign 
 in internal reforms, in the midst of 
 which he was murdered, being suc- 
 ceeded by Sennacherib, one of his 
 younger sons, in 705. Sennacherib at 
 once had to take up arms against 
 Merodach-baladan, who had again ob- 
 tained possession of Babylon. In 701 
 fresh outbreaks in Syria led him in that 
 direction. He captured Zidon and 
 Askelon, and defeated Hezekiah and 
 his Egyptian and Ethiopian allies, and 
 forced him cc pay tribute, after which 
 he returned to Assyria to overawe the 
 Babylonians, Elamites, and the north- 
 ern hill tribes. A second expedition 
 into Syria is briefly recorded in 2 Kings 
 xix., where we are told that, as his army 
 lay before Libnah, in one night the angel 
 of Jehovah went out, and smote in the 
 camp of the Assyrians 185,000 men 
 (2 Kings xix. 35). In 681 he was mur- 
 dered by his two sons, Adrammelech 
 and Sharezer, but they were defeated 
 by their brother Esar-haddon, who then 
 mounted the throne. In 652 a general 
 insurrection broke out, headed by 
 Sammughes, governor of Babylonia, 
 Assur-bani-pal’s own brother, and in- 
 cluding Baoylonia, Egypt, Palestine, 
 
 general. They constructed large build- 
 ings, especially palaces, of a most impos- 
 ing character, the materials being brick, 
 burned or sun-dried, stone, alabaster 
 slabs for lining and adorning the walls 
 internally and externally, and timber 
 for pillars and roofs. These alabaster 
 slabs were elaborately sculptured with 
 designs serving to throw much light on 
 the manners and customs of the people. 
 A most characteristic feature of the 
 palaces were gigantic figures of winged, 
 human-headed bulls, placed at gate- 
 ways (often arched over) or other im- 
 portant points; figures of lions, etc., 
 were also similarly employed. The 
 palaces were raised on high terraces, 
 and often comprised a great number of 
 apartments; there were no windows, 
 light being obtained by carrying the 
 walls up to a certain height and then 
 raising on them pillars to support the 
 roof and admit light and air. The cities 
 of Nineveh, Assur, and Arbela had each 
 their royal observatories, superintended 
 by astronomers-royal, who had to send 
 in their reports to the king twice a 
 month. At an early date the stars were 
 numbered and named; a calendar was 
 formed, in which the year was divided 
 
 into twelve months (of thirty days each), 
 called after the zodiacal signs, but as 
 this division was found to be inaccurate 
 an intercalary month was added every 
 six years. The week was divided into 
 seven days, the seventh being a day of 
 rest; the day was divided into twelve 
 
 E eriods of two hours each, each of these 
 eing subdivided into sixty minutes, 
 and these again into sixty seconds. The 
 Assyrians employed both the dial and 
 the clepsydra. Eclipses were recorded 
 from a very remote epoch, and their 
 recurrence roughly determined. The 
 principal astronomical work, called the 
 Illumination of Bel, was inscribed on 
 seventy tablets, and went through 
 numerous editions, one of the latest 
 being in the British Museum. It treats 
 among other things of comets, the polar 
 star, the conjunction of the sun and 
 moon, and the motions of Venus and 
 
 ASTAR'TE, a Syrian goddess, prob- 
 ably corresponding to the Semgle of the 
 Greeks and the Ashtaroth of the He- 
 brews, and representing the productive 
 power of nature. She was a moon- 
 goddess. Some regard her as corre- 
 sponding with Hera (Juno), and others 
 with Aphrodite. See Ashtaroth. 
 
 AS'TER, a genus of plants, compre- 
 hending several hundred species, mostly 
 natives of North America, although 
 others are widely distributed. Many 
 are cultivated as ornamental plants. 
 Asters generally flower late in the sea- 
 son, and some are hence called MicliEel- 
 mas or Christmas Daisies. The China 
 Aster is a very showy annual, of which 
 there are many varieties. 
 
 ASTE'RIA, a name applied to a vari- 
 ety of corundum, which displays an 
 opalescent star of six rays of light when 
 cut with certain precautions; and also 
 to the cat’s-eye, which consists of quartz, 
 and is found especially in Ceylon. 
 
 AS'TERISK, the figure of a star, 
 thus *, used in printing and writing, 
 as a reference to a passage or note in 
 the margin, or to fill the spa,ce when a 
 name, or the like, is omitted. 
 
 ASTEROIDS, or PLANETOIDS, a 
 numerous group of very small planets 
 revolving round the sun between the 
 orbits of Mars and Jupiter, remarkable 
 for the eccentricity of their orbits and 
 the large size of their angle of inclina- 
 tion to the ecliptic. The diameter of 
 the largest is not supposed to exceed 
 450 miles, while most of the others are 
 very much smaller. They number over 
 400, and new mpmbers are being con- 
 stantly discovered. Ceres, the first of 
 them, was discovered 1st January, 1801, 
 and within three years more Pallas, 
 Juno, and Vesta were seen. The extraor- 
 dinary smallness of these bodies, and 
 their nearness to each other, gave rise 
 to the opinion that they were but the 
 fragments of a planet that had formerly 
 existed and had been brought to an end 
 by some catastrophe. For nearly forty 
 years investigations were- carried on, 
 but no more planets were discovered 
 till 8th December, 1845, when a fifth 
 planet in the same region was dis- 
 covered. The rapid succession of dis- 
 coveries that followed was for a time 
 taken as a corroborfftion of the dis- 
 ruptive theory, but the breadth of the 
 
ASTHMA 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 zone occupied makes the hypothesis of 
 a shattered planet more than doubtful. 
 Their mean distances from the sun vary 
 between 200,000,000 and 300,000,000 
 miles; the periods of revolution be- 
 tween 1191 days (Flora) and 2868 
 (Hilda). Their eccentricities and in- 
 clinations are on the average greater 
 than those of the earth, but their total 
 mass does not exceed one-fourth that 
 of the earth. 
 
 ASTHMA (ast'ma), difficulty of respi- 
 ration, returning at intervals, with a 
 sense of stricture across the chest and 
 in the lungs, a wheezing, hard cough at 
 first, but more free toward the close 
 of each paroxysm, with a discharge of 
 mucus, followed by a remission. Asth- 
 ma is essentially a spasm of the mus- 
 cular tissue which is contained in the 
 smaller bronchial tubes, bt generally 
 attacks persons advanced in years, and 
 seems, in some instances, to be hered- 
 itary. The exciting causes are various 
 — accumulation of blood or viscid mucus 
 in the lungs, noxious vapors, a cold and 
 foggy atmosphere, or a close, hot air, 
 flatulence, accumulated fteces, violent 
 passions, organic diseases in the tho- 
 racic viscera, etc. By far the most im- 
 portant part of the treatment consists 
 in the obviating or removing the several 
 exciting causes. It seldom proves fatal 
 except as inducing dropsy, consump- 
 tion, etc. 
 
 ASTIG'MATISM, a malformation, con- 
 genital or accidental, of the lens of the 
 eye, in consequence of which the indi- 
 vidual does not see objects in the same 
 
 ? lane, although they may really be so. 
 
 t is due to the degree of convexity of 
 the horizontal and vertical meridians 
 being different, so that corresponding 
 rays, instead of converging into one 
 point, meet at two foci. 
 
 ASTOR, John Jacob, born near 
 Heidelberg, Germany, 1763; died at 
 New York 1848. In 1783 he emigrated 
 to the United States, settled at New 
 York, and became extensively engaged 
 in the fur trade. In 1811 the settlement 
 of Astoria, founded by him, near the 
 mouth of the Columbia river, was 
 formed to serve as a central depot for 
 the fur trade between the lakes and the 
 
 Pacific. He subsequently engaged in 
 various speculations, ana died worth 
 130,000,000, leaving $350,000 to found 
 the Astor Library in New York. This 
 institution is contained in a splendid 
 building, enlarged in 1859 at the cost of 
 his son, and comprises about 260,000 
 volumes. 
 
 ASTOR, John Jacob, an American 
 millionaire, and fourth of that name. 
 Born in New York in 1864. Died 1890. 
 
 ASTOR, William Waldorf, a famous 
 millionaire, born in New York in 1848, 
 and great-grandson of the first John 
 Jacob Astor. Defeated as a candidate 
 for congress in 1881, he was American 
 minister to Italy from 1882 to 1885. 
 In 1890 he removed to England and be- 
 came a British subject. His income is 
 derived from a fortune of $200,000,000 
 in the United States. 
 
 ASTRAKHAN (as-tr^-A^n'), a Russian 
 city, capital of government of same 
 name, on an elevated island in the Volga, 
 about 30 miles above its mouth in the 
 Caspian, communicating with the oppo- 
 site banks of the river by numerous 
 bridges. Pop. 113,001, composed of 
 various races. — The government has 
 an area of 85,000 square miles. It con- 
 sists almost entirely of two vast steppes, 
 separated from each other by the Volga, 
 and forming for the most part arid 
 sterile deserts. Pop. 994,775. 
 
 ASTRAKHAN, a name given to sheep- 
 skins with a curled woolly surface 
 obtained from a variety of sheep found 
 in Bokhara, Persia, and Syria; also a 
 rough fabric with a pile in imitation of 
 this. 
 
 ASTRAL SPIRITS, spirits formerly 
 believed to people the heavenly bodies 
 or the aerial regions. In the middle 
 ages they were variously conceived as 
 fallen angels, souls of departed men, or 
 spirits originating in fire, and belonging 
 neither to heaven, earth, nor hell. 
 Paracelsus regarded them as demoniacal 
 in character. 
 
 ASTRIN'GENT, a medicine which 
 contracts the organic textures and 
 canals of the body, thereby checking or 
 diminishing excessive discharges. The 
 chief astringents are the mineral acids, 
 alum, lime-water, chalk, salts of copper, 
 zinc, iron, lead, silver; and among vege- 
 tables catechu, kino, oak-bark, and galls. 
 
 ASTROL'OGY, literally, the science 
 or doctrine of the stars. The name was 
 formerly used as equivalent to astron- 
 omy, but is now restricted in meaning 
 to the pseudo-science which pretends 
 to enable men to judge of the effects and 
 influences of the heavenly bodies on 
 human and other mundane affairs, and 
 to foretell future events by their situa- 
 tions and conjunctions. As usually 
 practiced the whole heavens, visible and 
 invisible, was divided by great circles 
 into twelve equal parts, called houses. 
 As the circles were supposed to remain 
 immovable every heavenly body passed 
 through each of the twelve houses every 
 twenty-four hours. The portion of the 
 zodiac contained in each nouse was the 
 part to which chief attention was paid, 
 and the position of any plant was settled 
 by its distance from the boundary circle 
 of the house, measured on the ecliptic. 
 The houses had different names and 
 different powers, the first being called 
 
 the house of life, the second the house of 
 riches, the third of brethren, the sixth 
 of marriage, the eighth of death, and so 
 on. The part of the heavens about to 
 rise was cmled the ascendant, the planet 
 within the house of the ascendant being 
 the lord of the ascendant. The different 
 aspects of the planets were of great 
 importance. To cast a person’s nativity 
 (or draw his horoscope) was to find the 
 position of the heavens at the instant of 
 his birth, which being done the astrolo- 
 ger, who knew the various powers and 
 influences possessed by the sun, the 
 moon, and the planets, could predict 
 what the course and termination of that 
 person’s life would be. The tempera- 
 ment of the individual was ascribed to 
 the planet under which he was born, as 
 saturnine from Saturn, jovial from 
 Jupiter, mercurial from Mercury, etc. — 
 words which are now used with little 
 thought of their original meaning. The 
 virtues of herbs, gems, and medicines 
 were supposed to be due to their ruling 
 planets. 
 
 ASTRON'OMY is that science which 
 investigates the motions, distances, 
 magnitudes, and various phenomena 
 of the heavenly bodies. That part of 
 the science which gives a description of 
 the motions, figures, periods of revolu- 
 tion, and other phenomena of the 
 heavenly bodies is called descriptive 
 astronomy; that part which teaches 
 how to observe the motions, figures, 
 periodical revolutions, distances, etc., 
 of the heavenly bodies, and how to use 
 the necessary instruments, is called 
 practical astronomy; and that part 
 which explains the causes of their 
 motions, and demonstrates the laws by 
 which those causes operate, is termed 
 physical astronomy. Recent years have 
 added two new fields of investigation 
 which are full of promise for the advance- 
 ment of astronomical science. The first 
 of these — celestial photography — has 
 furnished us with invaluable light- 
 pictures of the sun, moon, and other 
 bodies, and has recorded the existence 
 of myriads of stars invisible even by 
 the best telescopes; while the second, 
 spectrum analysis, now at work in 
 many hands, reveals to us a knowledge 
 of the physical constituents of the 
 universe, telling us for instance that in 
 the sun (or his atmosphere) there exist 
 many of the elements familiar to us on 
 the earth. It has also been applied to 
 the determination of the velocity with 
 which stars are approaching to, or 
 receding from, our system; and to the 
 measurement of movements taking place 
 within the solar atmospheric envelopes. 
 From analysis of some of the unresolved 
 nebulae the inference is drawn that they 
 are not star-swarms but simply cosmical 
 vapor; whence a second inference results 
 favorable to the hypothesis of the grad- 
 ual condensation of nebulae, and the 
 successive evolutions of suns and 
 systems. 
 
 The most remote period to which we 
 can go back In tracing the history of 
 astronomy refers us to a time about 
 2500 B.C., when the Chinese are said to 
 have recorded the simultaneous con- 
 junction of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, and 
 Mercury with the moon. The Arabs 
 began to make scientific astronomical 
 
ASTRO-PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 ATHENA 
 
 observations about the middle of the 
 8th century, and for 400 years they 
 
 f irosecuted the science with assiduity. 
 bn-Yunis (1000 a.u) made important 
 observations of the disturbances and 
 eccentricities of Jupiter and Saturn. 
 In the 16th century Nicholas Co- 
 pernicus, born in 1473, introduced the 
 system that bears liis name, and 
 which gives to the sun the central place 
 in the solar system, and shows all the 
 other bodies, the earth included, revolv- 
 ing around him. This arrangement of 
 the universe (see Copernicus) came at 
 length to be generally received on ac- 
 count of the simplicity it substitued for 
 the complexities and contradictions of 
 the theory of Ptolemy. The observa- 
 tions and calculations of Tycho Brahe, a 
 Danish astronomer, born in 1546, con- 
 tinued over many years, were of the 
 highest value, and claim for him the 
 title of regenerator of practical astron- 
 omy. His assistant and pupil, Kepler, 
 born in 1571„ was enabled, principally 
 by the aid he received from his master’s 
 labors, to arrive at those laws which 
 have made his name famous: 1. That 
 the planets move, not in circular, but 
 in elliptical orbits, of v/hich the sun 
 occupies a focus. 2. That the radius 
 vector, or imaginary straight line joining 
 the sun and any planet, moves over 
 equal spaces in equal times. 3. That 
 the squares of the times of the revolu- 
 tions of the planets are as the cubes of 
 their mean distances from the sun. 
 Galileo, who died in 1642, advanced the 
 science by his observations and by the 
 new revelations he made through his 
 telescopes, which established the truth 
 of the Copernican theory. Newton, 
 born in 1642, carried physical astronomy 
 suddenly to comparative perfection. 
 The splendid analytical researches of 
 Lalande, Lagrange, Delambre, and La- 
 place, mark the same period. The 
 19th century opened with the dis- 
 covery of the first four minor planets; 
 and the existence of another planet 
 (Neptune), more distant from the sun 
 than Uranus, was, in 1845, simultane- 
 ously and independently predicted by 
 Leverrier and Adams. Of late years 
 the ^un has attracted a number of 
 observers, the spectroscope and photo- 
 graphy having been especially fruitful 
 in this field of investigation. From 
 recent transit observations the former 
 calculated distance of the sun has been 
 corrected, and is now given as 92,560,- 
 000 miles. An interesting recent dis- 
 covery is that of the two satellites of 
 Mars. The existence of an intra- 
 Mercurial planet, which has been named 
 Vulcan, has not yet been verified. Much 
 valuable work has of late been accom- 
 plished in ascertaining the parallax of 
 fixed stars. 
 
 The objects with which astronomy 
 has chiefly to deal are the earth, the sun, 
 the moon, the planets, the fixed stars, 
 comets, nebulae, and meteors. The 
 stellar universe is composed of an 
 unknown host of stars, many millions 
 in number, the most noticeable of which 
 have been formed into groups called 
 constellations. The nebula; are cloud- 
 like patches of light scattered all over 
 the heavens. Some of them have been 
 resolved into star-clusters, but many of 
 
 them are but masses of incandescent 
 gas. The observation of meteors has 
 recently attracted much attention. 
 They most frequently occur in the 
 autumn, and have been supposed to be 
 the debris of comets. See articles Earth, 
 Sun, Moon, Planet, Comet, Stars, Mer- 
 cury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, 
 Asteroids, etc. 
 
 ASTRO-PHOTOGRAPHY, the art of 
 
 photographing heavenly bodies. It has 
 been particularly useful in bringing out 
 nubulse, stars, star-clusters, and other 
 bodies of that kind which remain invis- 
 ible in the most powerful telescopes. 
 Several important discoveries have 
 been made by the use of the camera. 
 Among these may be mentioned the 
 
 E lanet Eros, the earth’s nearest neigh- 
 or (excepting the moon), and a number 
 of comets. Various large observatories 
 in all countries are now engaged in 
 making a complete atlas of 'all the stars 
 down to the 1 1 th magnitude by means of 
 the photographic camera. 
 
 AS'WAIL, the native name for the 
 sloth-bear of the mountains of India, 
 an uncouth, unwieldy animal, with very 
 long black hair, inoffensive when not 
 attacked. 
 
 ASY'LUM, a sanctuary or place of 
 refuge, where criminals and debtors 
 sheltered themselves from justice, and 
 from which they could not be taken 
 without sacrilege. Temples were an- 
 ciently asylums, as were Christain 
 churches in later times. (See Sanc- 
 tuary.) The term is now usually ap- 
 plied to an institution for receiving, 
 maintaining, and, so far as possible, 
 ameliorating the condition of persons 
 laboring under certain bodily defects or 
 mental maladies; sometimes also a 
 refuge for the unfortunate. 
 
 ATACAMA (a-ta-ka'm^i), a desert 
 region on the west coast of S. America 
 belonging to Chile, comprised partly in 
 the province of Atacama, partly in the 
 territory of Antofagasta. It forms the 
 chief mining district of Chile, there being 
 here rich silver mines, while gold is also 
 found, as well as argentiferous lead, 
 copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron; with 
 guano on the coast. The northern 
 portion till recently belonged to Bolivia. 
 The Chilean province of Atacama has 
 an area of 39,000 sq. miles and a pop. 
 of 84,000. 
 
 ATACA'MITE, a mineral consisting of 
 a combination of the protoxide and 
 chloride of copper, occurring abundantly 
 in some parts of South America, as at 
 Atacama, whence it has its name. It is 
 worked as an ore in South America, and 
 is exported to the United States. 
 
 ATALAN'TA, in the Greek mythol- 
 ogy, a famous huntress of Arcadia. 
 Slie was to be obtained in marriage only 
 by him who could outstrip her in a race, 
 the consequence of failure being death. 
 One of her suitors obtained from Aphro- 
 dite (Venus) three golden apples, which 
 he threw behind him, one after another, 
 as he ran. Atalanta stopped to pick 
 them up, and was not unwillingly de- 
 feated. There was another Atalanta 
 belonging to Boeotii, who cannot very 
 well D^e distinguished, the same stories 
 being told about both. 
 
 AT'AVISM, in biology, the tendency to 
 reproduce the ancestral type in animals 
 
 or plants which have become consider- 
 ably modified lay breeding or cultivation; 
 the reversion of a descendant to some 
 peculiarity of a more or less remote 
 ancestor. 
 
 ATAXY, ATAXIA, in medicine, irreg- 
 ularity in the animal functions, or in 
 the symptoms of a disease. See Loco- 
 motor ataxia. 
 
 ATCH'ISON, a city of Kansas, on 
 the Missouri river, about 30 miles 
 from Leavenworth, an important rail- 
 way center, with an increasing trade. 
 Pop. 18,785. 
 
 ATHABAS'CA, a river, lake, and dis- 
 trict of Canada. The Athabasca river 
 rises on the eastern slopes of the Rocky 
 Mountains in the district of Alberta, 
 flows in a n.e. direction through the 
 district of the same name, and falls into 
 Lake Athabasca after a course of about 
 600 miles. — Lake Athabasca, or Lake of 
 the Hills, is about 190 miles s.s.e. of 
 the Great Slave Lake, with which it is 
 connected by means of the Slave river, 
 a continuation of the Peace. It is about 
 200 miles in length from east to west, 
 and about 35 miles wide at the broadest 
 part, but gradually narrows to a 
 point at either extremity. — The dis- 
 trict of Athabasca, formed in 1882, lies 
 immediately e. of British Columbia and 
 n. of Alberta; area about 251,300 sq. 
 miles. It is intersected by the Atha- 
 basca and the Peace river, and 
 as yet has a scanty population. The 
 name is also given to a family of 
 Indians. 
 
 A'THEISM, the disbelief of the exist- 
 ence of a God or supreme intelligent 
 being; the doctrine opposed to theism or 
 deism. The term has been often loosely 
 used as equivalent with infidelity gener- 
 ally, with deism, with pantheism, and 
 with the denial of immortality. 
 
 ATH'ELING, a title of honor among 
 the Anglo-Saxons, meaning one who is 
 of noble blood. The title was gradually 
 confined to the princes of the blood 
 royal, and in the 9th and 10th centuries 
 is used exclusively for the sons or 
 brothers of the reigning king. 
 
 ATHE'NA, or ATHENE, a Greek god- 
 dess, identified by the Romans with 
 Minerva, the representative of the 
 intellectual powers; the daughter of 
 Zeus (Jupiter) and Metis (that is, wisdom 
 or cleverness). According to the legend, 
 which is perhaps allegorical, before her 
 birth Zeus swallowed her mother, and 
 Athena afterwards sprang from the 
 head of Zeus with a mighty war shout 
 and in complete armor. In her char- 
 acter of a wise and prudent warrior she 
 was contrasted with the fierce Ares 
 (Mars). In the wars of the giants she 
 slew Pallas and Enceladus. She is also 
 represented as the patroness of the arts 
 of peace. The sculptor, the architect, and 
 the painter, as well as the philosopher, 
 the orator, and the poet, considered her 
 their tutelar deity. She is also repre- 
 sented among the healing gods. In all 
 these representations she is the symbol 
 of the thinking faculty, the goddess 
 of wisdom, science, and art. As a 
 warrior she is represented completely 
 armed, her head covered with a gold 
 helmet. As the goddess of peaceful arts 
 she appears in the dress of a Grecian 
 matron. All Attica, but particularly 
 
ATHENAEUM 
 
 ATLANTA 
 
 Athens, was sacred to her, and she had 
 numerous temples there. 
 
 ATHEN.®'UM, the temple of Athena 
 or Minerva, at Athens, frequented by 
 poets, learned men, and orators. In 
 modern times the same name is given 
 to literary clubs and establishments con- 
 nected with the sciences. 
 
 ATH'ENS, anciently the capital of 
 Attica and center of Greek culture, now 
 the capital of the Kingdom of Greece. 
 
 the aid of the architects Ictinus and 
 Mnesicles and of the sculptor Phidias 
 the Acropolis was perfected. Covering 
 the whole of the western end rose the 
 Propylsea, of Pentelic marble and con- 
 sisting of a central portico with two 
 wings in the form of Doric temples. 
 Within, to the left of the entrance, 
 stood the bronze statue of Athena 
 Promachus, and beyond it the Erech- 
 theum, containing the statue of Athena 
 
 Athens— The Acropolis and Areopagus. 
 
 It is situated in the central plain of 
 Attica, about 4 miles from the Saronic 
 Gulf or Gulf of .(Egina, an arm of the 
 jEgean Sea running in between the 
 mainland and the Peloponnesus. It 
 is said to have been founded about 1550 
 B.c. by Cecrops, the mythical Pelasgian 
 hero, and to have borne the name 
 Cecropia until under Erechtheus it 
 received the name of Athens in honor 
 of Athene. The Acropolis, an irregular 
 
 Polias; while to the right, on the high- 
 est part of the Acropolis, was the mar- 
 ble Parthenon or temple of Athena, the 
 crowning glory of the whole. About 
 420 A.D. paganism was totally anni- 
 hilated at Athens, and when Justinian 
 closed even the schools of the philoso- 
 phers, the reverence for buildings as- 
 sociated with the names of the ancient 
 deities and heroes was lost. The Par- 
 thenon was turned into a church of the 
 
 oval crag 150 ft. high, with a level sum- 
 mit 1000 feet long by 500 in breadth, 
 was the original nucleus of the city, 
 which according to tradition was ex- 
 tended by Theseus when Athens became 
 the head of the confederate Attic states. 
 Under Pericles the highest point of 
 artistic development was reached. An 
 Odeium was erected on the east of the 
 Dionysiac theater for the recitations of 
 rbapsodists and musicians; and with 
 
 Virgin Mary, and St. George stepped 
 into the place of Theseus. Finally, in 
 1456, the place fell into the hands of the 
 Turks. The Parthenon became a mos- 
 que, and in 1687 was greatly damaged 
 by an explosion at the siege of Athens 
 by the Venetians. Enough, however, 
 remains of it and of the neighboring 
 structures to abundantly attest the 
 splendor of the Acropolis; while of the 
 other buildings of the city the Theseum • 
 
 and Hotologium, or Temple of the 
 Winds, are admirably preserved, as also 
 are the Pnyx, Panathenaic stadium, etc. 
 Soon after the commencement of the 
 war of liberation in 1821 the Turks sur- 
 rendered Athens, but captured it again 
 in 1826-27. It was then abandoned 
 until 1830. In 1835 it became the royal 
 residence, and made rapid progress. 
 The modern city mostly lies northward 
 and eastward from the Acropolis, and 
 consists mainly of straight and well- 
 built streets. Among the principal 
 buildings are the royal palace, a stately 
 building with a fagade of Pentelic mar- 
 ble (completed 1843), the university, 
 the academy, public library, theater, 
 and obervatory. The university was 
 opened in 1836, and has 3000 students. 
 There are valuable museums, in particu- 
 lar the National Museum and that in the 
 Polytechnic School, which embraces the 
 Schliemann collection, etc. These are 
 constantly being added to by excava- 
 tions. There are four foreign archajo- 
 logical schools or institutes, the French, 
 German, American, and British. Tram- 
 ways have been made in the principal 
 streets, and the city is connected by 
 railway (6 miles) with its port, the 
 Piraeus. Pop. 128,735. 
 
 ATHENS, the name of many places in 
 the U. States, the chief being in Georgia, 
 and containing the Georgia University 
 Pop. 10,245. 
 
 ATHERTON, Gertrude Franklin, an 
 American novelist born in California in 
 1859. She is the author of several 
 novels, among which The Aristocrats, 
 The Conqueror, American Wives and 
 English Husbands, and Senator North 
 are popular in America and England. 
 She removed to England in 1895. 
 
 ATHLETES (ath'Iets), combatants 
 who took part in the public games of 
 Greece. The profession was an honor- 
 able one; tests of birth, position, and 
 character were imposed, and crowns, 
 statues, special privileges, and pensions 
 were among the rewards of success. — 
 Athletic sports, if they do not hold such 
 an honorable position today as they did 
 in antiquity, are still practiced with 
 great enthusiasm and excite the keen- 
 est interest in their patrons. Among 
 them are running, jumping, rowing, 
 swimming, baseball, cricket, football, 
 wrestlings throwing the hammer, “put- 
 ting” the shot, etc. 
 
 ATKINSON, Edward, an American 
 economist, born in Massachussetts in 
 1827. He was for many years engaged 
 in business, and meanwhile was a hard 
 student of various sciences. He is the 
 author of several works on economic 
 subjects and of The Science of Nutri- 
 tion, which has run through several 
 editions. 
 
 ATKINSON, George Francis, an Amer- 
 ican botanist and educator, born in 
 Michigan in 1854. He filled several 
 chairs in various institutions till 1892, 
 when he became professor of botany at 
 Cornell University. 
 
 ATLAN'TA, a city in the United 
 States, capital of Georgia, on an elevated 
 ridge, 7 miles southeast of the Chatta- 
 hoochee river. It is an important rail- 
 way center; carries on a large trade in 
 grain, paper, cotton, flour, and especially 
 tobacco, and possesses flour-mills, paper- 
 
ATLANTIC CrrY 
 
 ATMOSPHERE 
 
 mills, iron-works, etc. Here are Atlanta 
 University for colored male and female 
 students, a theological college, a medical 
 
 State Capitol, Atlanta, Ga. 
 
 college, etc. Atlanta suffered severely 
 during the civil war. Pop. 150,000. 
 
 ATLANTIC CITY, a fashionable water- 
 ing-place on the coast of New Jersey. 
 Pop. 27,838. During the summer the 
 transient population varies between 
 250,000 and 300,000. 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN, the vast expanse 
 of sea lying between the west coasts of 
 Europe and Africa and the east coasts 
 of North and South America, and ex- 
 tending from the Arctic to the Antarctic 
 Ocean; greatest breadth, between the 
 west coast of northern Africa and the 
 cast coast of Florida, 4150 miles; least 
 breadth, between Norway and Green- 
 land, 930 miles; superficial extent, 
 25,000,000 square miles. The principal 
 inlets and bays are Baffin’s and Hud- 
 son’s Bays, the Gulf of Mexico, the Car- 
 ibbean Sea, the North Sea or German 
 Ocean, the Bay of Biscay, and the Gulf 
 of Guinea. The principal islands north 
 of the equator are Iceland, the Faroe 
 and British Islands, the Azores, Canaries, 
 and Cape de Verd Islands, Newfound- 
 land, Cape Breton, and the West India 
 Islands; and, south of the equator. 
 Ascension, St. Helena, and Tristan da 
 Cun ha. 
 
 The great currents of the Atlantic are 
 the Equatorial Current (divisible into 
 the Main, Northern, and Southern 
 Equatorial Currents), the Gulf-stream, 
 the North African and Guinea Current, 
 the Southern Connecting Current, the 
 Southern Atlantic Current, the Cape 
 Horn Current, Rennel’s Current, and 
 the Arctic Current. The current system 
 is primarily set in motion by the trade- 
 winds which drive the water of the 
 intertropical region from Africa toward 
 the American coasts. The Main Equa- 
 torial Current, passing across the Atlan- 
 tic, is turned by the S. American coast, 
 along which it runs at a rate of 30 to 50 
 miles a day, till, having received part 
 of the North Equatorial Current, it 
 enters the Gulf of Mexico. Issuing 
 thence between Florida and Cuba under 
 the name of the Gulf-stream, it flows 
 with a gradually expanding channel 
 nearly parallel to the coast of the United 
 States. It then turns northeastward 
 into the mid-Atlantic, the larger pro- 
 portion of it passing southward to the 
 east of the Azores to swell the North 
 African and Guinea Current created by 
 the northerly winds off the Portuguese 
 coast. The Guinea Current, which takes 
 a southerly course, is divided into two 
 
 on arriving at the region of the northeast 
 trades, part of it flowing east to the 
 Bight of Biafra and joining the South 
 African feeder of the Main Equatorial, 
 but the larger portion being carried 
 westward into the North Equatorial 
 drift. Rennel’s Current, which is pos- 
 sibly a continuation of the Gulf-stream, 
 enters the Bay of Biscay from the west, 
 curves round its coast, and then turns 
 northwest toward Cape Clear. The 
 Arctic Current runs along the east coast 
 of Greenland (being here called the 
 Greenland Current), doubles Cape Fare- 
 well, and flows up toward Davis’ Strait ; 
 it then turns to the south along the 
 coasts of Labrador and the United 
 States, from which it separates the 
 Gulf-stream by a cold band of water. 
 Immense masses of ice are borne south 
 by this current from the Polar seas. 
 In the interior of the North Atlantic 
 there is a large area comparatively free 
 from currents, called the Sargasso Sea, 
 from the large quantity of seaweed 
 which drifts into it. A similar area 
 exists in the South Atlantic. In the 
 South Atlantic, the portion of the 
 Equatorial Current which strikes the 
 American coast below Cape St. 
 Roque flows southward at the rate of 
 from 12 to 20 miles a day along the 
 Brazil coast under the name of the 
 Brazil Current. It then turns eastward 
 and forms the South Connecting Cur- 
 rent, which, on reaching the South 
 African coast, turns northward into the 
 Main and Southern Equatorial Currents. 
 Besides the surface currents, an under 
 current of cold water flows from the 
 poles to the equator, and an upper 
 current of warm water from the equator 
 toward the poles. 
 
 The greatest depth as yet discovered 
 is north of Porto Rico, in the West 
 Indies, namely 27,360 feet. Cross- 
 sections of the North Atlantic between 
 Europe and America show that its bed 
 consists of two great valleys lying in a 
 north-and-south direction, and sepa- 
 rated by a ridge, on which there is an 
 average depth of 1600 or 1700 fathoms, 
 while the valleys on either side sink 
 to the depth of 3000 or 4000 fathoms. 
 A ridge, called the Wyville-Thomson 
 Ridge, with a depth of little more than 
 200 fathoms above it, runs from near 
 the Butt of Lewis to Iceland, cutting 
 off the colder water of the Arctic Ocean 
 from the warmer water of the Atlantic. 
 The South Atlantic, of which the great- 
 est depth yet found is over 3000 fathoms, 
 resembles the North Atlantic in having 
 an elevated plateau or ridge in the 
 center with a deep trough on either side. 
 The saltness and specific gravity of the 
 Atlantic gradually diminish from the 
 tropics to the poles, and also from 
 within a short distance of the tropics to 
 the equator. In the neighborhood of 
 the British Isles the salt has been stated 
 at one thirty-eighth of the weight of the 
 water. The North Atlantic is the 
 greatest highway of ocean traffic in the 
 world. It is also a great area of sub- 
 marine communication, by means of the 
 telegraphic cables that are laid across 
 its bed. 
 
 AT'LAS, an extensive mountain sys- 
 tem in North Africa, starting near Cape 
 Nun on the Atlantic Ocean, traversing 
 
 Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis, and ter- 
 minating on the coast of the Mediter- 
 ranean; divided generally into two 
 parallel ranges, running w. to e., the 
 Greater Atlas lying toward the Sahara 
 and the Lesser Atlas toward the Med- 
 iterranean. The principal chain is about 
 1500 miles long, and the principal peaks 
 rise above or approach the line of perpet- 
 ual congelation ; Miltsin in Morocco being 
 11,400 feet high, and Tizi Likumpt being 
 13,150. The highest elevation is per- 
 haps Tizi Tamyurt, estimated at fully 
 1 5,000 feet. Silver, antimony, lead, cop- 
 per, iron, etc., are among the minerals. 
 The vegetation is chiefly European in 
 character, except on the low grounds 
 and next the desert. 
 
 ATLAS, in Greek mythology, the 
 name of a Titan whom Zeus condemned 
 to bear the vault of heaven. — The same 
 name is given to a collection of maps and 
 charts, and was first used by Gerard 
 Mercator in the 16th century, the figure 
 of Atlas bearing the globe being given 
 on the title-pages of such works. 
 
 ATONEMENT, DAY OF, a Jewish fast 
 day observed on the tenth day of the 
 seventh month. Its origin goes back 
 to the Mosaic law, and in ancient times 
 it was observed with much ceremony in 
 the temple at Jerusalem. Today the 
 fast of the atonement is kept by the 
 orthodox among the Jews, who do with- 
 out food from sunset to sunset, the fast 
 being accompanied by appropriate serv- 
 ices in the temple of the congregation. 
 
 AT'MOSPHERE, primarily the gase- 
 ous envelope which surrounds the earth; 
 but the term is applied to that of any 
 orb. The atmosphere of the earth con- 
 sists of a mass of gas extending to a 
 height variously estimated at from 45 
 to 212 miles, and pressing on every part 
 of the earth’s surface with a pressure of 
 about 15 (14‘73) lbs. per square inch. 
 The existence of this atmospheric pres- 
 sure was first proved by Torriculli, who 
 thus accounted for the rush of a liquid 
 to fill a vacuum, and who, working out 
 the idea, produced the first barometer. 
 The average height of the mercurial 
 column counterbalancing the atmos- 
 pheric weight at the sea-level is a little 
 less than 30 inches; but the pressure 
 varies from hour to hour, and, roughly 
 speaking, diminishes geometrically with 
 the arithmetical increase in altitude. 
 Of periodic variations there are two 
 maxima of daily pressure occurring, 
 when the temperature is about the mean 
 of the day, and two minima, when it is at 
 its highest and lowest respectively; but 
 the problems of diurnal and seasonal 
 oscillations have yet to be fully solved. 
 The pressure upon the human body of 
 average size is no less than 14 tons, but 
 as it is exerted equally in all directions 
 no inconvenience is caused by it. It 
 is customary to take the atmospheric 
 pressure as the standard for measuring 
 other fluid pressures; thus the steam 
 pressure of 30 lbs. per square inch on a 
 boiler is spoken of as a pressure of two 
 atmospheres. 
 
 The atmosphere, first subjected to 
 analysis by Priestley and Scheele in the 
 latter part of the 18th century, con- 
 sists of a mixture of oxygen and 
 nitrogen in the almost constant pro- 
 portion of 20' 81 volumes of oxygen to 
 
ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY 
 
 ATROPOS 
 
 79T9 volumes of nitrogen, or, by weight, 
 23'01 parts of oxygen to 76'99 of nitro- 
 gen. The gases are associated together, 
 not as a chemical compound, but as a 
 mechanical mixture. Upon the oxygen 
 present depends the power of the atmos- 
 phere to support combustion and respira- 
 tion, the nitrogen acting as a diluent to 
 prevent its too energetic action. Be- 
 sides these gases, the air contains the 
 recently-discovered gas argon, aqueous 
 vapor in variable quantity, ozone, car- 
 bonic acid gas, traces of ammonia, 
 nitric acid, and, in towns, sulphuretted 
 hydrogen and sulphurous acid gas. In 
 addition to its gaseous constituents the 
 atmosphere is charged with minute par- 
 ticles of organic and inorganic matter. 
 
 ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. See 
 Pneumatic Despatch. 
 
 ATOLL', the Polynesian name for coral 
 islands of the ringed type inclosing a 
 lagoon in the center. They are found 
 
 Bird’s-eye view of an atoll. 
 
 chiefly in the Pacific in archipelagoes, 
 and occasionally are of large size. 
 Suadiva Atoll is 44 miles by 34 ; Rimsk j' 
 is 54 by 20. See Coral. 
 
 ATOM, until the last decade supposed 
 to be the smallest particle of matter in 
 existence, but since the wonderful dis- 
 coveries of Becquerel and Thomson, 
 regarded as a whole universe in itself. 
 Recent theories and discoveries re- 
 garding the nature of the atom have 
 so altered the views of scientists that 
 today it is believed that in the future 
 man w.ill be able to replace all kinds of 
 power in industry and elsewhere with 
 a force so great that a reservoir a foot 
 or so big will generate enough power to 
 run a railroad train or a steamship; and 
 of such infinite quantity that the bare 
 contemplation of it staggers the intel- 
 lect. These discoveries lead to the 
 conviction that matter comes into 
 existence out of force and goes back 
 again into force; in other words, that 
 the universe did not exist as matter at 
 one time, and that the time will come 
 when it will cease to exist as matter, but 
 that the universal force will still con- 
 tain the potentiality of issuing in 
 matter, and so on forever. 
 
 The atom of the chemists, then, has 
 been changed into a marvelous world of 
 electromagnetic energy, which is made 
 up of bodies so small as to be simply 
 inconceivable. The atom itself is so 
 small that countless billions of them 
 are required to make up the smallest 
 visible bit of matter; and in one of 
 these atoms exist thousands of these 
 smaller bodies, called “corpuscles” by 
 the English physicists and “electrons” 
 by the French school. The atom 
 breaks down, or disintegrates, when 
 the electrons composing it are at- 
 
 tracted to other corpuscles to form new 
 atoms. This implies that the old idea 
 that the elements were the simplest bod- 
 ies is false. The energy bound up in a 
 cubic inch of iron, or any other element, 
 is so vast that it cannot bo imagined. 
 If all the atoms in a cubic inch of iron 
 were dissociated, or broken up, the 
 power obtained would be enormous. 
 If man could once discover a way of 
 producing and controlling such a disin- 
 tegration, the effect on human society 
 could not be pictured by the most 
 gigantic imagination. Scientists every- 
 where are working on this problem and 
 the great secret may be discovered 
 at any time. 
 
 ATOMIC THEORY, a theory as to the 
 existence and properties of atoms (see 
 Atoms); especially, in chemistry, the 
 theory accounting for the fact that in 
 compound bodies the elements combine 
 in certain constant proportions, by 
 assuming that all bodies are composed 
 of ultimate atoms, the weight of which 
 is different in different kinds of matter. 
 It is associated with the name of Dalton, 
 who systematized and extended the 
 imperfect results of his predecessors. 
 On its practical side the atomic theory 
 asserts three Laws of Combining Pro- 
 portions: (1) The Law of Constant or 
 Definite Proportions, teaching that in 
 every chemical compound the nature 
 and proportion of the constituent ele- 
 ments are definite and invariable; thus 
 water invariably consists of 8 parts by 
 weight of oxygen to 1 part by weight 
 of hydrogen; (2) The Law of Combi- 
 nation in Mutiple Proportions, accord- 
 ing to which the several proportions in 
 which one element unites with another 
 invariably bear toward each other a 
 simple relation; thus 1 part by weight 
 of hydrogen unites with 8 parts by 
 weight of oxygen to form water, and 
 with 16 parts (i.e. 8X2) parts of oxygen 
 to form peroxide of hydrogen; (3) The 
 Law of Combination in Reciprocal Pro- 
 portions, that the proportions in which 
 two elements combine with a third also 
 represent the proportions in which, or 
 in some simple multiple of which, they 
 will themselves combine; thus in ole- 
 fiant gas hydrogen is present with car- 
 bon in the proportion of 1 to 6, and in 
 carbonic oxide oxygen is present with 
 carbon in the proportion of 8 to 6 ;1 to 8 
 being also the proportions in which 
 hydrogen and oxygen combine with 
 each other. The theory that these 
 proportional numbers are, in fact, noth- 
 ing else but the relative weights of 
 atoms so far accounts for the phenomena 
 that the existence of these laws might 
 have been predicted by the aid of the 
 atomic hypothesis long before they were 
 actually discovered by analysis. In 
 themselves, however, the laws do not 
 prove the theoiy of the existence of 
 ultimate particles of matter of a certain 
 relative weight; and although many 
 chemists, even without expressly adopt- 
 ing the atomic theory itself, have 
 followed Dalton in the use of the terms 
 atom and atomic weight, in preference to 
 proportion, combining proportion, equiv- 
 alent, and the like, yet in using the 
 word atom it should be held in mind 
 that it merely denotes the proportions in 
 which elements unite. These will re- 
 
 main the same whether the atomic 
 hypothesis which suggested the employ- 
 ment of the term be true or false. Dal- 
 ton supposed that the atoms of bodies 
 are spherical, and invented certain 
 symbols to represent the mode in which 
 he conceived they might combine 
 together. 
 
 ATOMISTS. See Atoms. 
 
 ATOMS, according to the hypothesis 
 of some philosophers, the primary parts 
 of elementary matter not further 
 divisible. The principal theorists of 
 antiquity upon the nature of atoms 
 were Moschus of Sidon, Leucippus 
 (510 b.c.), Democritus, Epicurus, and Lu- 
 cretius. These philosophers explained 
 aU phenomena on the theory of the 
 existence of atoms possessing various 
 properties and motions, and are hence 
 sometimes called Atomists. Among the 
 moderns, Gassendi illustrated the doc- 
 trine of Epicurus. Descartes formed 
 from this his system of the vortices. 
 Newton and Boerhaave supposed that 
 the original matter consists of hard, 
 ponderable, impenetrable, inactive, and 
 immutable particles, from the variety 
 in the composition of which the variety 
 of bodies originates. According to 
 Boscovich every atom is an indivisible 
 point possessing position, mass, and 
 potential force or capacity for attraction 
 and repulsion. Upon the discovery of 
 Helmholtz that a vortex in a perfect 
 liquid possesses certain permanent char- 
 acteristics, Sir W. Thomson (Lord 
 Kelvin) has based a theory that atoms 
 are vortices in a homogeneous, incom- 
 pressible, and frictionless fluid. As to 
 chemical atoms, see Atomic Theory. 
 
 ATONEMENT, in Christian theology, 
 the special work of Christ effected by 
 his life, sufferings, and death. The 
 first explicit exposition of the evangel- 
 ical doctrine of the atonement is 
 ascribed to Anselm, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, in 1093. 
 
 AT'ROPHY, a wasting of the flesh 
 due to some interference with the 
 nutritive processes. It may arise from 
 a variety of causes, such as permanent, 
 oppressive, and exhausting passion.-;, 
 organic disease, a want of proper fouil 
 or of pure air, suppurations in impor- 
 tant organs, copious evacuations <ff 
 blood, saliva, semen, etc., and it is aUo 
 sometimes produced by poisons; for 
 example, arsenic, mercurjq lead, in 
 miners, painters, gilders, etc. In old 
 age the whole frame except the heart 
 undergoes atrophic change, and it is 
 of frequent occurrence in infancy as a 
 consequence of improper, unwholesome 
 food, exposure to cold, damp, or impure 
 air, etc. Single organs or parts of the 
 body may be affected irrespective of the 
 general state of nutrition; thus local 
 atrophy may be superinduced by 
 palsies, the pressure of tumors upon 
 the nerves of the limbs, or by artificial 
 pressure, as in the feet of Chinese 
 Iti dlos 
 
 AT'ROPIN, AT'ROPINE, a crystal- 
 line alkaloid obtained from the deadly 
 nightshade. It is very poisonous, and 
 produces persistent dilatation of the 
 pupil. I 
 
 AT'ROPOS, the eldest of the Fates, 
 who cuts the thread of life with her 
 shears. 
 
ATTACHE 
 
 AUCKLAND 
 
 ATTACHE (at-a-sha'), a junior mem- 
 ber of the diplomatic service attached 
 to an embassy or legation. 
 
 ATTACH'MENT, in English law, a 
 taking of the person, goods, or estate 
 by virtue of a writ or precept. It is 
 distinguished from an aiTest by pro- 
 ceeding out of a higher court by precept 
 or writ, whereas the latter proceeds out 
 of an inferior court by precept only. An 
 arrest lies only against the body of a 
 man, whereas an attachment lies often 
 against the goods only, and sometimes 
 against the body and goods. It differs 
 from a distress in that an attachment 
 does not extend ,to lands, while a dis- 
 tress cannot touch the body. 
 
 ATTAIN'DER, the legal consequences 
 of a sentence of death or outlawry pro- 
 nounced against a person for treason or 
 felony, the person being said to be 
 attainted. It resulted in forfeiture of 
 estate and “corruption of blood,” ren- 
 dering the party incapable of inheriting 
 property or transmitting it to heirs; 
 but these results now no longer follow. 
 Formerly persons were often subjected 
 to attainder by a special bill or act 
 passed in parliament. 
 
 AT'TAR, in the East Indies, a gene'ral 
 term for a perfume from flowers; in 
 Europe generally used only of the attar 
 or otto of roses, an essential oil made 
 from the hundredfleaved or cabbage- 
 rose, or damask-rose, or musk-rose, etc., 
 100,000 roses yielding only 180 grains of 
 attar. Cashmere, Shiraz, and Damascus 
 are celebrated for its manufacture, and 
 there are extensive rose farms in the 
 valley of Kezanlik in Roumelia and 
 at Ghazipur in Benares. The oil is at 
 first greenish, but afterwards it presents 
 various tints of green, yellow, and 
 red. It is concrete at all ordinary tem- 
 peratures, but becomes liquid about 
 84° Fahr. It consists of two substances, 
 a hydrocarbon and an oxygenated oil, 
 and is frequently adulterated with the 
 oils of rhodium, sandalwood, and gera- 
 nium, with the addition of camphor or 
 spermaceti. 
 
 ATTIC , an architectural term various- 
 ly used. An Attic base is a peculiar kind 
 of base, used by the ancient architects 
 in the Ionic order and by Palladio and 
 some others in the Doric. An Attic story 
 is a low story in the upper part of a house 
 rising above the main portion of the 
 building. In ordinary language an 
 attic is an apartment lighted by a 
 window in the roof. 
 
 AT'TICA, a state of ancient Greece, 
 the capital of which, Athens, was once 
 the first city in the world. According to 
 traditioii the earliest inhabitants of 
 Attica lived in a savage manner until 
 the time of Cecrops, who came, b.c. 
 1550, with a colony from Egypt, taught 
 them all the essentials of civilization, 
 and founded Athens. The period 
 from the Persian war to the time of 
 Alexander (b.c. 500 to 336) was most 
 remarkable for the development of the 
 Athenian constitution. Attica appears 
 to have contained a territory of nearly 
 850 square miles, with some 500,000 
 inhabitants, 360,000 of whom were 
 slaves, while the inhabitants of the city 
 numbered 180,000. Cimon and Pericles 
 (b.c. 444) raised Athens to its point of 
 greatest splendor, though under the latter 
 
 began the Peloponnesian war, which 
 ended with the conquest of Athens by 
 the Lacedaemonians. The attempts at 
 revolt after the death of Alexander 
 were crushed, and in 260 b.c. Attica 
 was still under the sway of Antigonus 
 Gonatas, the Macedonian king. A 
 period of freedom under the shelter of 
 the Achsean League then ensued, but 
 their support of Mithridates led in 
 B.c. 146 to the subjugation of the 
 Grecian states by Rome. After the 
 di ision of the Roman Empire Attica 
 b( ’onged to the empire of the East 
 until in a.d. 396 it was conquered by 
 Alaric the Goth and the country dev- 
 astated. Attica now forms a nome or 
 province of the Kingdom of Greece, 
 with a population of 255,978, 
 
 AT'TILA, the famous leader of the 
 Huns, was the son of Mundzuk, and the 
 successor, in conjunction with his 
 brother Bleda, of his uncle Rhuas. The 
 rule of the two leaders extended over a 
 great part of northern Asia and Europe, 
 and they threatened the Eastern Em- 
 ire, and twice compelled the weak 
 heodosius II. to purchase an inglorious 
 peace. Attila caused his brother Bleda 
 to be murdered (444), and in a short 
 time extended his dominion over all the 
 peoples of Germany and exacted tribute 
 from the eastern and western emperors. 
 The Vandals, the Ostrogoths, the Gepi- 
 dae, and a part of the Franks united 
 under his banners, and he speedily 
 formed a pretext for leading them 
 against the Empire of the East. He laid 
 waste all the countries from the Black 
 to the Adriatic Sea, and in three en- 
 counters defeated the Emperor Theodo- 
 sius, but could not take Constantinople. 
 Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece all sub- 
 mitted to the invader, who destroyed 
 seventy flourishing cities; and Theodo- 
 sius was obliged to purchase a peace. 
 Attila went back to Hungary, and died 
 on the night of his marriage with Hilda 
 or Ildico (453), either from the bursting 
 of a blood-vessel or by her hand. 
 
 ATTOR'NEY, a person appointed to 
 do something for and in the stead and 
 name of another. An attorney may 
 have general powers to act for another ; 
 or his power may be special, and limited 
 to a particular act or acts. A special 
 attorney is appointed by a deed called 
 a power or letter of attorney, specifying 
 the acts which he is authorized to do. 
 An attorney-at-law is a person qualified 
 to appear for another before a court of 
 law to prosecute or defend any action 
 on behalf of his client. In the United 
 States the term attorney, or attorney- 
 -at-law is used to designate a practicing 
 lawyer of any kind. Qualifications for 
 the profession are fixed, generally, by 
 statute. The attorney must have 
 studied law either in a college or in the 
 offices of a lawyer, must pass an exami- 
 nation, and must be a man of good 
 moral character. He takes, upon ad- 
 mission to the bar, an oath that he will 
 demean himself uprightly and will sup- 
 ort the constitution of the United 
 
 ATTORNEY-GENERAL, in the United 
 States an officer of the president’s 
 cabinet, the chief of the law depart- 
 ment of the government. He receives 
 a salary of $8000 a year. The attorney- 
 
 general of the several states has a func- 
 tion similar to that of his federal proto- 
 type. 
 
 ATTORNEY, POWER OF, the power 
 given by one person to another enabling 
 him to act, generally or specifically, as 
 the agent of the principal. 
 
 ATTORNEY, WARRANT OF, author- 
 ity given to a lawyer to appear in court 
 as representative for a client. 
 
 ATTRAC'TION, the tendency of all 
 material bodies, whether masses or 
 particles, to approach each other, to 
 unite, and to remain united. It was 
 Newton that first adopted the theory 
 of a universal attractive force, and 
 determined its laws. When bodies tend 
 to come together from sensible distances 
 the tendency is termed either t’le at- 
 traction of gravitation, magnetism, or 
 electricity, according to circumstances; 
 when the attraction operates at insensi- 
 ble distances it is known as adhesion 
 with respect to surfaces, as cohesion 
 with respect to the particles of a body, 
 and as affinity when the particles of 
 different bodies tend together. It is by 
 the attraction of gravitation that all 
 bodies fall to the earth when unsup- 
 ported. 
 
 AT'TRIBUTE, in philosophy, a qual- 
 ity or property of a substance, as white- 
 ness or hardness. A substance is known 
 to us only as a congeries of attributes. 
 — In the fiile arts an attribute is a sym- 
 bol regularly accompanying and mark- 
 ing out some personage. Thus the 
 caduceus, purse, winged hat, and san- 
 dals are attributes of Mercury, the 
 trampled dragon of St. George. 
 
 ATWOOD, Charles B., an American 
 architect, born in 1849, died in 1895. 
 He is known as the designer of the Art 
 Building at the Chicago World’s Fair, 
 and of W. H. Vanderbilt’s residence in 
 New York City. 
 
 AUBE (6b), a northeastern French 
 department; area, 2351 sq. miles; pop. 
 257,374. The surface is undulating, 
 and watered by the Aube, etc. Troyes 
 is the capital. — The river Aube, which 
 gives name to the department, rises 
 in Haute-Marne, flows n.w., and after 
 a course of 113 miles joins the 
 Seine. 
 
 AU'BURN, the name of many places 
 in America, the chief being a city of 
 New York state, at the north end of 
 Owasco Lake. It is chiefly famous for 
 its state prison, large enough to receive 
 1000 prisoners. In the town or vicinity 
 various manufactures are carried on. 
 Pop. 32,000. 
 
 AUBURN, a city, and the county 
 seat of Androscoggin Co., Maine, 34 
 miles north of Portland, on the Maine 
 Central and Grand Trunk railroads. 
 Pop. 12,951. 
 
 AUCK'LAND, a town of New Zea- 
 land, in the North Island, founded in 
 1840. It has a large and increasing 
 trade, there being connection with the 
 chief places on the island by rail, and 
 regular communication with the other 
 ports of the colony, Australia, and Fiji 
 by steam. It was formerly the capital 
 of the colony. Pop., (including suburbs), 
 67,226. — The provincial district of 
 Auckland forms the northern part of 
 North Island, with an area of 25,746 
 sq. miles; pop. 175,854. 
 
AUCKLAND ISLANDS 
 
 AUGUSTIN 1<: 
 
 AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group of 
 islands about 180 miles s. of New Zea- 
 land, discovered in 1806, and belonging 
 to Britain. They are of volcanic origin 
 
 and fertile; and the largest, which is 
 30 miles by 15, has two good harbors. 
 No settled inhabitants. 
 
 AUCTION is a public sale to the party 
 offering the highest price where the 
 buyers bid upon each other, or to the 
 bidder who first accepts the terms of- 
 fered by the vendor where he sells by 
 reducing his terms until some one ac- 
 cepts them. 
 
 AUDE (6d), a maritime department 
 in the s. of France; area, 2437 sq. miles; 
 Carcassonne is the capital; other towns 
 are Narbonne and Castelnaudary. Pop. 
 332,080. — The river Aude rises in the 
 eastern Pyrenees, and flowing nearly 
 parallel to the canal du Midi falls into 
 the Mediterranean, after a course of 130 
 miles. 
 
 AU'DIPHONE, an acoustic instru- 
 ment by means of which deaf persons 
 are enabled to hear. It consists essen- 
 tially of a fan-shaped plate of hardened 
 caoutchouc, which is bent to a greater 
 or less degree by strings, and is very 
 sensitive to sound-waves. When used 
 the up edge is pressed against the upper 
 front teeth, with the convexity outward, 
 and the sounds being collected are con- 
 veyed from the teeth to the auditory 
 nerve without passing through the 
 external ear. 
 
 AU'DIT, an examination into ac- 
 counts or dealings with money or prop- 
 erty, along with vouchers or other 
 documents connected therewith, espe- 
 cially by proper officers, or persons 
 appointed for the purpose. Also the 
 occasion of receiving the rents from the 
 tenants on an estate. 
 
 AUDITORY NERVES. See Ear. 
 
 AU'DUBON, John James, an Ameri- 
 can naturalist of French extraction, 
 born near New Orleans in 1775. In 1798 
 he settled in Pennsylvania, but having 
 a great love for ornithology he set out 
 in 1810 with his wife and child, de- 
 scended the Ohio, and for many years 
 roamed the forests in every direction, 
 drawing the birds which he shot. In 
 1826 he exhibited his drawings in Liver- 
 pool, Manchester, and Edinburgh, and 
 finally published them in an unrivaled 
 work of double-folio size, with 435 
 colored plates of birds the size of life 
 (The Birds of America, 4 vols., 1827- 
 39), with an accompanying text (Orni- 
 thological Biography, 5 vols. 8vo, partly 
 written by Prof. Macgillivray). On his 
 final return to America be labored with 
 
 Dr. Bachman on a finely illustrated 
 work entitled The Quadrupeds of 
 America (1843-50, 3 vols.). He died at 
 New York in 1851. 
 
 AUGEAS (a-je'as), a fabulous king of 
 Elis, in Greece, whose stable contained 
 3000 oxen, and had not been cleaned for 
 thirty years. Hercules undertook to 
 clear away the filth in one day in return 
 for a tenth part of the cattle, and exe- 
 cuted the task by turning the river 
 Alpheus through it. Augeas, having 
 broken the bargain, was deposed and 
 slain by Hercules. 
 
 AUGER (a'ger), an instrument for 
 boring holes considerably larger than 
 those bored by a gimlet, used by car- 
 penters and joiners, shipwrights, etc. 
 
 AUGITE (a' jit), or PYROXENE, a 
 mineral of the hornblende family, an 
 essential component of many igneous 
 rocks, such as basalt, greenstone, and 
 porphyry. When crystallized it assumes 
 the form of short, slightly rhombic 
 prisms, with their lateral edges replaced, 
 and terminated at one or both extremi- 
 ties by numerous planes. 
 
 AUGSBURG (ougz'bur/i), a city of Ba- 
 varia, at the junction of the Wertach 
 and Lech. Augsburg was a renowned 
 commercial center in the middle ages, 
 and is still an important emporium of 
 South German and Italian trade. It 
 early took a conspicuous part in the 
 Reformation. In 1806 it was incor- 
 porated in Bavaria. Pop. 88,700. 
 
 AUGSBURG CONFESSION, a docu- 
 ment which was presented by the Prot- 
 
 estants at the Diet of Augsburg, 15.3C 
 to the Emperor Charles V. and the diet, 
 and being signed by the Protestant 
 states was adopted as their creed. 
 Luther made the original draught; but 
 as its style appeared too violent it was , 
 given to Melanchthon for amendment. 
 The original is to be found in the im- 
 perial Austrian archives. Afterwards 
 Melanchthon arbitrarily altered some 
 of the articles, and there arose a division » 
 between those who held the original and 
 those who held the altered Augsburg 
 Confession. The former is received by 
 the Lutherans, the latter by the German 
 Reformed. 
 
 AU'GUST, the eighth month froni<i 
 January. It was the sixth of the Roman 
 year, and hence was called Sextilis till 
 the Emperor Augustus affixed to it his 
 own name. 
 
 AUGUS'TA, capital of Maine, United 
 States, on the river Kennebec, which is 
 crossed by a bridge and is navigable for 
 
 
 
 
 
 gi 
 
 
 
 State Capitol, Augusta, Me. 
 
 small vessels 43 miles from its mouth, 
 while a dam enables steamboats to ply 
 for 20 miles farther up and furnishes 
 immense water-power. Pop. 11,683. 
 
 AUGUSTA, the capital of Richmond 
 Co., Georgia, United States, on the left 
 bank of the Savannah river, 231 miles 
 from its mouth; well built, and con- 
 nected with the river by high-level 
 canals; an important manufacturing 
 center, having cotton-mills, machine- 
 shops, and railroad works, etc. Pop. 
 39,441. 
 
 AU'GUSTINE (Aurelius Augustinus), 
 St., a renowned father of the Christian 
 Church, was born at Tagaste, in Africa, 
 in 354, his mother Monica being a Chris- 
 tian, his father Patricius a Pagan. Of 
 his various works his Confessions is most 
 secure of immortality. He died August 
 28, 430. He was a man of great en- 
 thusiasm, self-devotion, zeal for truth, 
 and powerful intellect, and though there 
 have been fathers of the church more 
 learned, none have wielded a more 
 powerful influence. His writings are 
 partly autobiographical (as the Con- 
 fessions), partly polemical, homiletic, or 
 exegetical. 
 
 AU'GUSTINE, or AUSTIN, St., the ' 
 Apostle of the English, flourished at the 
 close of the 6th century, was sent with 
 forty monks by Pope Gregory I. to intro- 
 duce Christianity into Saxon England, 
 
 I. .j.j. ■■ 
 
AUGUSTUS 
 
 AURELIUS ANTONINUS 
 
 and was kindly received by Ethelbert, 
 king of Kent, whom he converted, 
 baptizing 10,000 of his subjects in one 
 day. In acknowledgment of his tact 
 and success Augustine received the 
 archiepiscopal pall from the pope, with 
 instructions to establish twelve sees in 
 his province, but he could not persuade 
 the British bishops in Wales to unite 
 with the new English Church. He died 
 in 604 or 605. 
 
 AUGUS'TUS, Caius Julius Caesar Octa- 
 vianus, originally called Caius Octavius, 
 Roman Emperor, was the son of Caius 
 Octavius and Atia, a daughter of Julia, 
 the sister of Julius Caesar. He was born 
 
 63 B.C., and died a.d. 14. Octavius was 
 at Apollonia, in Epirus, when he re- 
 ceived news of the death of his uncle 
 (b.c. 44), who had previously adopted 
 him as his son. He returned to Rome 
 to claim Caesar’s property and avenge 
 his death, and now took, according to 
 usage, his uncle’s name with the surname 
 Octavianus. He was aiming secretly at 
 the chief power, but at first he joined 
 the republican party, and assisted at 
 the defeat of Antony at Mutina. He 
 got himself chosen consul in 43. Soon 
 after the first triumvirate was formed 
 between him and Antony and Lepidus, 
 and this was followed by the conscrip- 
 tion and assassination of three hundred 
 senators and two thousand knights of 
 the party opposed to the triumvirate. 
 Next year Octavianus and Antony 
 defeated the republican army under 
 Brutus and CassiuS at Philippi. The 
 victors now divided the Roman world 
 between them^ Octavianus getting the 
 West, Antony the East, and Lepidus 
 Africa. Sextus Pompeius, who had 
 made himself formidable at sea, had 
 now to be put down ; and Lepidus, who 
 had hitherto retained an appearance of 
 power, was deprived of all authority 
 (b.c. 36) and retired into private life. 
 Antony and Octavianus now shared the 
 empire between them; but while the 
 former, in the East, gave himself up to a 
 life of luxury, and alienated the Romans 
 by his alliance with Cleopatra and his 
 adoption of Oriental manners, Octavi- 
 anus skilfully cultivated popularity, 
 and soon declared war ostensibly against 
 the Queen of Egypt. The naval victory 
 of Actiunn in which the fleet of An- 
 tony and (Jleopatra was defeated, made 
 Octavianus master of the world, b.c. 
 31. He returned to Rome b.c. 29, cele- 
 brated a splendid triumph, and caused 
 
 r. K.— 7 
 
 the temple of Janus to be closed in 
 token of peace being restored. Gradu- 
 ally all the highest offices of state, civil 
 and religious, were united in his hands, 
 and the new title of Augustus was also 
 assumed by him, being formally con- 
 ferred by the senate in b.c. 27. Great 
 as was the power given to him, he exer- 
 cised it with wise moderation, and kept 
 up the show of a republican form of 
 government. He adorned Rome in 
 such a manner that it was said, “He 
 found it of brick, and left it of marble.” 
 The people erected altars to him, and, 
 by a decree of the senate, the month 
 Sextilis was called Augustus (our Aug- 
 ust). He was a patron of hterature ; Virgil 
 and Horace were befriended by him, and 
 their works and those of their contem- 
 poraries are the glory of the Augustan 
 Age. His death, which took place at 
 Nola, plunged the empire into the great- 
 est grief. 
 
 AUGUSTUS II., or FREDERICK- 
 AUGUSTUS I., Elector of Saxony and 
 King of Poland, second son of John 
 George III., elector of Saxony, was born 
 at Dresden in 1670, died at Warsaw 
 1733. He succeeded his brother in the 
 electorate in 1694, and the Polish 
 throne having become vacant, in 1696, 
 by the death of John Sobieski, Augus- 
 tus presented himself as a candidate for 
 it and was successful. His wife left him 
 one son. The Countess of Konigsmark 
 bore him the celebrated commander 
 Marshal Saxe (Maurice of Saxony). 
 
 AUGUSTUS III., or FREDERICK- 
 AUGUSTUS II., Elector of Saxony and 
 King of Poland, son of Augustus II., 
 born at Dresden 1696, succeeded his 
 father as elector in 1733, and was chosen 
 King of Poland through the influence 
 of Austria and Russia. He died in 1763. 
 His son, Frederick Christian, succeeded 
 him as Elector of Saxony, and Stanis- 
 laus Poniatowski as King of Poland. 
 
 AUK, a name of certain swimming 
 birds, including the great auk, the little 
 auk, the puffin, etc. The great auk or 
 gair-fowl, a bird about 3 feet in length, 
 used to be plentiful in northerly regions. 
 
 Great auk. 
 
 and also visited the British shores, but 
 has become extinct. Some seventy 
 skins, about as many eggs, with bones 
 representing perhaps a hundred individ- 
 uals, are preserved in various museums. 
 Though the largest species of the family. 
 
 the wings were only 6 inches from the 
 carpal joint to the tip, totally useless 
 for flight, but employed as fins in swim- 
 ming, especially under water. The tail 
 was about 3 inches long; the beak was 
 high, short, and compressed; the head, 
 neck, and upper parts were blackish; 
 a large spot under each eye, and most 
 
 Razor-bill auk. 
 
 of the under parts white. Its legs were 
 placed so far back as to cause it to sit 
 nearly upright. The razor-bill is about 
 15 inches in length, and its wings are 
 sufficiently developed to be used for 
 flight. It is found in numbers on some 
 parts of the British shores, as the Isle of 
 Man. 
 
 AURE'LIAN, Lucius Domitius Aureli- 
 anus. Emperor of Rome, of humble 
 origin, was born about 212 a.d., rose 
 to the highest rank in the army, and 
 on the death of Claudius II. (270) was 
 chosen emperor. He delivered Italy 
 from the barbarians, and conquered the 
 famous Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. 
 He followed up his victories by the 
 reformation of abuses, and the restora- 
 tion throughout the empire of order 
 and regularity. He lost his life, a.d. 275, 
 by assassination, when heading an expe- 
 dition against the Persians. 
 
 AURE'LIUS ANTONI'NUS, Marcus, 
 often called simply Marcus Aurelius, 
 Roman emperor and philosopher, son- 
 in-law, adopted son, and successor of 
 Antoninus Pius, born a.d. 121, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne 161, died 180. He 
 voluntarily shared the government with 
 Lucius Verus, whom Antoninus Pius 
 had also adopted. Brought up and in- 
 structed by Plutarch’s nephew, Sextus, 
 the orator Herodes Atticus, and L. 
 Volusius Mecianus, the jurist, he had 
 become acquainted with learned men, 
 and formed a particular love for the 
 Stoic philosophy. A war with Parthia 
 broke out in the year of his accession, and 
 did not terminate till 166. A confed- 
 eracy of the northern tribes now threat- 
 ened Italy, while a frightful pestilence, 
 brought from the East with the army, 
 raged in Rome itself. Both emperors 
 set out in person against the rebellious 
 tribes. In 169 Verus died, and the 
 sole command of the war devolved on 
 Marcus Aurelius, who prosecuted it with 
 the utmost rigor, and nearly extermi- 
 nated the Marcomanni. After this vic- 
 tory the Marcomanni, the Quadi, as 
 well as the rest of the barbarians, sued 
 for peace. The sedition of the Syrian 
 governor Avidius Cassius, with whom 
 Faustina, the empress, was in treason- 
 able communication, called off the 
 emperor from his conquests, but before 
 he reached Asia the rebel was assassi- 
 nated. Aurelius returned to Rome, 
 
AURENZLEBE 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 
 after visiting Egypt and Greece, but 
 soon new incursions of the Marcomanni 
 compelled him once more to take the 
 field. He defeated the enemy several 
 times, but was taken sick at Sirmium, 
 and died at Vindobona (Vienna) in 180. 
 His only extant work is the Meditations, 
 written in Greek, and which has been 
 translated into most modern languages. 
 This may be regarded as a manual of 
 practical morality, in which wisdom, 
 gentleness, and benevolence are com- 
 bined in the most fascinating manner. 
 Many believe it to have been intended 
 for the instruction of his son Commodus. 
 Aurelius was one of the best emperors 
 ever Rome saw, although his philosophy 
 and the magnanimity of his character 
 did not restrain him from the perse- 
 cution of the Christians, whose religious 
 doctrines he was led to believe were sub- 
 versive of good government. 
 
 AU'RENGZEBE (-zeb), one of the 
 greatest of the Mogul emperors of Hin- 
 dustan, born in Oct., 1618 or 1619. In 
 his twentieth year he raised a body of 
 troops by his address and good fortune, 
 and obtained the government of the 
 Deccan. He murdered his relatives one 
 after the other, and in 1659 ascended the 
 throne. Two of his sons, who endeavored 
 to form a party in their own favor, he 
 caused to be arrested and put to death 
 by slow poison. He carried on many 
 wars, conquered Golconda and Bijapur, 
 and drove out, by degrees, the Mahrattas 
 from their country. After his death in 
 1707 the Mogul Empire declined. 
 
 AURICULAR CONFESSION. See Con- 
 fession 
 
 AURO'RA, in classical mythology, 
 the goddess of the dawn, daughter of 
 Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios 
 and Selene (Sun and Moon). She was 
 represented as a charming figure, “rosy- 
 iingered,” clad in a yellow robe, rising 
 ;'t dawn from the ocean and driving her 
 chariot through the heavens. 
 
 AURO'RA, a city of Kane Co., Illinois, 
 
 on the Fox river, 40 miles w. by s. of 
 Chicago; it has flourishing manufac- 
 tories, railway works, and a considerable 
 trade. Pop. 21,000. 
 
 AURO'RA BOREA'LIS, a luminous 
 
 meteoric phenomenon appearing in the 
 north, most frequently in irigh latitudes, 
 the corresponding phenomenon in the 
 southern hemisphere being called Aurora 
 Australis, and both being also called 
 Polar Light, Streamers, etc. The north- 
 ern aurora has been far the more ob- 
 served and studied. It usually mani- 
 fests itself by streams of light ascending 
 toward the zenith from a dusky line 
 of cloud or haze a few degrees above the 
 horizon, and stretching from the north 
 toward the west and east, so as to form 
 an arc with its ends on the horizon, and 
 its different parts and rays are con- 
 stantly in motion. Sometimes it appears 
 in detached places; at other , times it 
 almost covers the whole sky. It as- 
 sumes many shapes and a variety of 
 colors, from a pale red or yellow to a 
 deep red or blood color; and in the 
 northern latitudes serves to illuminate 
 the earth and cheer the gloom of the 
 long winter nights. The appearance 
 of the aurora borealis so exactly re- 
 semples the effects of artificial electricity 
 that there is every reason to believe 
 that their causes are identical. When 
 electricity passes through rarefied air 
 it exhibits a diffused luminous stream 
 which has all the characteristic appear- 
 ance of the aurora, and hence is is highly 
 probable that this natural phenomenon 
 is occasioned by the passage of electric- 
 ity through the upper regions of the 
 atmosphere. The influence of the 
 aurora upon the magnetic needle is now 
 considered as an ascertained fact, and 
 the connection between it and mag- 
 netism is further evident from the fact 
 that the beams or coruscations issuing 
 from a point in the horizon west of north 
 are frequently observed to run in the 
 magnetic meridian. What are known as 
 magnetic storms are invariably con- 
 nected with exhibitions of the aurora, 
 and with spontaneous galvanic currents 
 in the ordinary telegraph wires; and 
 
 this connection is found to be so cer- 
 tain that, upon remarking the display 
 of one of the three classes of phenomena, 
 we can at once assert that the other 
 
 two are also observable. The aurora 
 borealis is said to be frequently accom- 
 panied by sound, which is variously de- 
 scribed as resembling the rustling of 
 pieces of silk against each other, or 
 the sound of wind against the flame of 
 a candle. The aurora of the southern 
 hemisphere is quite a similar phenom- 
 enon to that of the north. 
 
 AUS'TEN, Jane, English novelist, 
 born 1775, at Steventon, in Hants. 
 Her principal [novels a'-e Sense and 
 Sensibility ; Pride and Prejudice ; Mans- 
 field Park; and Emma. She died in 
 1817. 
 
 AUS'TERLITZ, a town with 3452 
 inhabitants, in Moravia, 10 miles e. of 
 Briinn, famous for the battle of the 2d 
 of December, 1805, fought between the 
 French (70,000 in number) and the 
 allied Austrian and Russian armies 
 (95,000). The decisive victory of the 
 French led to the Peace of Pressburg 
 between France and Austria. 
 
 AUS'TIN, capital of the state of Texas, 
 on the Colorado, about 200 miles from 
 its month, and accessible to steamboats 
 
 State eapitol, Austin, Tex. 
 
 during certain seasons. There is a state 
 university and other institutions, and 
 a splendid eapitol built of red granite. 
 Pop. 25,000. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA, a division of the 
 globe usually regarded as comprehend- 
 ing the islands of Australia, Tasmania, 
 New Zealand, New Caledonia, the New 
 Hebrides, the Solomon Islands, New 
 Ireland, New Britain, the Admiralty 
 Islands, New Guinea, and the Arru 
 Islands, besides numerous other islands 
 and island groups; estimated area, 
 3,400,000 sq. miles; pop. 6,000,000. It 
 forms one of three portions into which 
 some geographers have divided Oceania, 
 the other two being Maylasia and Poly- 
 nesia. 
 
 AUSTRALIA, the largest island in the 
 world, a sea-girt continent, lying be- 
 tween the Indian and Pacific Oceans, 
 s.e. of Asia; between lat. 10° 39' ana 39° 
 11' s.; Ion. 113° 5' and 153° 16' e. ; great- 
 est length, from w. to e., 2400 miles; 
 greatest breadth, from n. to s., 1700 to 
 1900 miles. It is separated from New 
 Guinea on the north by Torres Strait, 
 from Tasmania on the south by Bass 
 Strait. It is divided into two unequal 
 parts by the Tropic of Capricorn, and 
 consequently belongs partly to the 
 South Temperate, partly to the Torrid 
 Zone. It is occupied by five British 
 colonies; namely. New South Wales, 
 Victoria, and Queensland in the east; 
 South Australia in the middle, stretch- 
 ing from sea to sea; and Western Aus- 
 tralia in the west. Their area and popu- 
 
 Aurora borealis, as seen when crossing the polar circle.’ 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 lation are as follows (but authorities 
 dififer as to the areas) ; 
 
 
 Area in 
 
 
 
 sq. m. 
 
 Pop. 
 
 N. S. Wales 
 
 310,700 
 
 1,459,943 
 
 Victoria 
 
 87,884 
 
 1,341,506 
 
 Queensland 
 
 668,497 
 
 503,266 
 
 South Australia. . 
 
 . 903,425 
 
 402,604 
 
 Western Australia 
 
 975,920 
 
 192,553 
 
 
 2,946,426 
 
 3,899,872 
 
 Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Bris- 
 bane, and Perth are the chief towns. 
 The population of the Commonwealth 
 of Australia, which includes the above 
 colonies or states and also Tasmania, 
 was 4,282,347 
 
 The interior, so far as explored, is 
 largely composed of rocky tracts and 
 barren plains with little or no water. 
 The whole continent forms an immense 
 plateau, highest in the east, low in the 
 center, and with a narrow tract of land 
 usually intervening between the ele- 
 vated area and the sea. 
 
 The rivers of Australia are nearly all 
 subject to great irregularities in volume, 
 many of them at one time showing a 
 channel in which there is merely a series 
 of pools, while at another they inundate 
 the w’hole adjacent country. The chief 
 is the Murray, which, with its affluents 
 the Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Dar- 
 ling, drains a great part of the interior 
 west of the Dividing Range, and falls 
 into the sea on the south coast (after 
 entering Lake Alexandrina). Its great- 
 est tributary is the Darling, which may 
 even be regarded as the main stream. 
 On the east coast are the Hunter, Clar- 
 ence, Brisbane, Fitzroy, and Burdekin; 
 on the west, the Swan, Murchison, Gas- 
 coyne, Ashburton, and De Grey; on the 
 north, the Fitzroy, Victoria, Flinders, 
 and Mitchell. The Australian rivers 
 are of little service in facilitating inter- 
 nal communciation. Many of them lose 
 themselves in swamps or sandy wastes 
 of the interior. A considerable river 
 of the interior is Cooper’s Creek, or the 
 Barcoo, which falls into Lake Eyre, one 
 of a group of lakes on the south side of 
 the continent having no outlet, and 
 accordingly salt. The principal of these 
 are Lakes Eyre, Torrens, and Gairdner, 
 all of which va-ry in size and saltness 
 according to the season. Another large 
 salt lake of little depth. Lake Amadeus, 
 lies a little west of the center of Austra- 
 lia. Various others of less magnitude 
 are scattered over the interior. 
 
 The climate of Australia is generally 
 hot and dry, but very healthful. 
 
 Australia is a region containing a vast 
 quantity of mineral wealth. Foremost 
 come its rich and extensive deposits of 
 gold, which, since its discovery in 1851, 
 have produced a total of more than 
 two billion dollars. The greatest quan- 
 tity has been obtained in Victoria, but 
 New South Wales and Queensland have 
 also yielded a considerable amount. 
 Rich stores of gold have recently been 
 discovered in W. Australia. Australia 
 also possesses silver, copper, tin, lead, 
 zinc, antimony, mercury, plumbago, 
 etc., besides coal (now worked to a con- 
 -siderable extent in New South Wales) 
 and iron. Various precious stones are 
 
 found, as the garnet, ruby, topaz, sap- 
 phire, and even the diamond. Of build- 
 ing stone there are granite, limestone, 
 marble, and sandstone. 
 
 The Australian flora presents pecu- 1 
 liarities which mark it off by itself in a 
 very decided manner. Many of its 
 most striking features have an un- 
 mistakable relation to the general dry- 
 ness of the climate. The trees and 
 bushes have for the most part a scanty 
 foliage, presenting little surface for 
 evaporation, or thick leathery leaves 
 well fitted to retain moisture. The most 
 widely spread types of Australian vege- 
 tation are the various kinds of gum- 
 tree, the shea-oak, the acacia or wattle, 
 the grass-tree, and a great number of 
 ferns and tree-ferns. Of the gum-tree 
 there are found upward of 150 species, 
 many of which are of great value. 
 Individual specimens of the “pepper- 
 mint” have been found to measure from 
 480 to 500 feet in height. As timber- 
 trees the most valuable members of this 
 genus are the red-gum, the timber of 
 
 Australian aboriginals. 
 
 which is hard, dense, and almost in- 
 destructible. A number of the gum- 
 trees have deciduous bark. The wattle 
 or acacia includes about 300 species, 
 some of them of considerable economic 
 value, yielding good timber or bark for 
 tanning. The most beautiful and most 
 useful is that known as the golden wattle, 
 which in spring is adorned with rich 
 masses of fragrant yellow blossom. 
 Palms — of which there are 24 species, 
 all except the coco-palm peculiar to 
 Australia — are confined to the north 
 and east coasts. Beautiful flowering 
 plants are numerous. Australia also 
 possesses great numbers of turf-forming 
 grasses, such as the kangaroo-grass, 
 which survives even a tolerably pro- 
 tracted drought. The native fruit-trees 
 are few and unimportant, and the same 
 may be said of the plants yielding roots 
 used as food; but exotic fruits and 
 vegetables may now be had in the differ- 
 ent colonies in great abundance and of 
 excellent quality. The vine, the olive, 
 and mulberry thrive well, and quantities 
 
 of wine are now produced. The cereals 
 of Europe and maize are extensively 
 cultivated, and large tracts of country, 
 particularly in Queensland, are under 
 i the sugar-cane. 
 
 The Australian fauna is almost unique 
 in its character. Its great feature is the 
 nearly total absence of all the forms of 
 Mammalia which abound in the rest of 
 the world, their place being .supplied by 
 a great variety of marsupials — these 
 animals being nowhere else found, ex- 
 cept in the opossums of America. There 
 are about 110 kinds of marsupials (of 
 which the kangaroo, wombat, bandicoot, 
 and phalangers or opossums, are the 
 best -known varieties), over twenty 
 kinds of bats, a wild dog (the dingo), 
 and a number of rats and mice. Two 
 extraordinary animals, the platypus, 
 or water-mole of the colonist, and the 
 porcupine ant-eater, constitute the 
 lowest order of mammals, and are con- 
 fined to Australia. Their young are 
 produced from eggs. Australia now 
 possesses a large stock of the domestic 
 animals of Britain, which thrive there 
 remarkably well. The breed of horses 
 is excellent. Horned cattle and sheep 
 are largely bred, the first attaining a 
 great size, while the sheep improve in 
 fleece and their flesh in flavor. There 
 are upward of 650 different species of 
 birds, the largest being the emu, or 
 Australian ostrich, and a species of 
 cassowary. Peculiar to the country are 
 the black-swan, the honey-sucker, the 
 lyre-bird, the brush-turkey, and other 
 mound-building birds, the bower-birds, 
 etc. The parrot tribe preponderate 
 over most other groups of birds in the 
 continent. There are many reptiles, 
 the largest being the alligator, found in 
 some of the northern rivers. There are 
 upwards of 60 different species of snakes, 
 some of which are very venomous. 
 Lizards, frogs, and insects are also 
 numerous in various parts. The seas, 
 rivers, and lagoons abound in fish of 
 numerous varieties, and other aquatic 
 animals, many of them peculiar. 
 Whales and seals frequent the coasts. 
 On the n. coasts are extensive fisheries 
 of trepang, much visited by native 
 traders from the Indian Archipelago. 
 Some animals of European origin, such 
 as the rabbit and the sparrow, have 
 developed into real pests in several of 
 the colonies. 
 
 The natives belong to the Australian 
 negro stock, and are sometimes con- 
 sidered the lowest as regards intelligence 
 in the whole human family, though this 
 is doubtful. They number about 60,000, 
 exclusive of those in the unexplored 
 parts, and are of a dark-brown or black 
 color, with jet-black curly but not 
 woolly hair, of medium size, but inferior 
 muscular development. In the settled 
 parts of the continent they are inoffen- 
 sive, and rapidly dying out. 
 
 Till recently each of the colonies was 
 quite independent of the others. Lat- 
 terly for a number of years there had 
 been a movement in favor of Australian 
 federation and a Federal Convention 
 sat at Adelaide in 1897-98 and drafted 
 a Constitution Bill for the formation of 
 an Australian Commonwealth, which 
 in 1900 was actually established by act 
 of the British Parliament. The colonies 
 
AUSTRIA 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 or states included in the Commonwealth 
 comprise Tasmania as well as the five 
 Australian colonies proper. The col- 
 '.>nies have a considerable defensive 
 force of militia and volunteers, also a 
 number of gun-boats, torpedo-boats, 
 etc., besides which there is always a 
 squadron of British men-of-war on the 
 Australian station. Education is well 
 provided for, instruction in the primary 
 schools being in some cases free and 
 compulsory, and the higher education 
 being more and more attended to. 
 There are flourishing universities in 
 Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide. 
 Newspapers are exceedingly numerous, 
 and periodicals of all kinds are abundant. 
 There is as yet no native literature of 
 any distinctive type, but names of Aus- 
 tralian writers of ability both in prose 
 and poetry are beginning to be known 
 beyond their own country. 
 
 Pastoral and agricultural pursuits 
 and mining are the chief occupations 
 of the people, though manufactories and 
 handicrafts also employ large numbers. 
 
 It is doubtful when Australia was 
 first discovered by Europeans. Be- 
 tween 1531 and 1542 the Portuguese 
 j)ublished the existence of a land wdiich 
 they called Great Java, and which cor- 
 responded to Australia, and probably 
 the first discovery of the country was 
 made by them early in the 16th century. 
 The first authenticated discovery is said 
 to have been made in 1601, by a Por- 
 tuguese named Manoel Godinh de 
 Eredia. In 1606 Torres, a Spaniard, 
 passed through the strait that now 
 bears his name, between New Guinea 
 and Australia. Between this period and 
 1028 a large portion of the coast-line 
 of Australia had been surveyed by 
 various Dutch navigators. In 1664 
 the continent was named New Holland 
 by the Dutch government. In 1688 
 Dampier coasted along part of Australia, 
 and about 1700 explored a part of the 
 ,w. and n.w. coasts. In 1770 Cook 
 carefuliy surveyed the e. coast, named 
 a number of localities, and took posses- 
 ■sion of the country for Britain. He 
 was followed by Bligh in 1789, who 
 carried on a series of observations on 
 the n.e. coast, adding largely to the 
 knowledge already obtained of this new 
 world. Colonists had now arrived on 
 t lie soil, and a penal settlement was 
 formed (1788) at Port Jackson. In this 
 way was laid the foundation of the 
 future colony of New South Wales. The 
 Moreton Bay district (Queensland) was 
 settled in 1825; in 1835 the Port Phillip 
 district. In 1851 the latter district was 
 erected into a seiiarate colony under 
 the name of Victoria. Previous to this 
 time the colonies both of Western 
 .\ustralia and of South .Vustralia had 
 been founded — the former in 1829, the 
 latter in 1836. The latest of I he colonies 
 is Queensland, which only took an 
 independent existence in 1859. 
 
 July 9. 1900, the British Parliament 
 ))assetl an act empowering the six 
 l)rovinces of Australia to forma federal 
 union and Jan. 1 1901, the new' eom- 
 monw'ealth w'as proclaimed at Syd?ie\, 
 N. 8. W. Its first parliament was 
 opened May 9, 1901. In 1903 Bonibala, 
 N. S. W., was chosen as the permanent 
 capital. 
 
 AUSTRIA, or AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 
 
 an extensive duplex monarchy in cen- 
 tral Europe, inhabited by several dis- 
 tinct nationalities, and consisting of 
 two semi-independent countries, each 
 with its own parliament and government, 
 but with one common sovereign, army, 
 and system of diplomacy, and also with 
 a common parliament. The Austrian 
 Empire now has a total area of about 
 240,000 sq. miles, and is bounded s. 
 by Turkey, the Adriatic, and Italy; w. 
 by Switzerland, Bavaria, and Saxony; 
 n. by Prussia and Russian Poland; and 
 e. by Russia and Rumania. On the 
 shores of the Adriatic, along the coasts 
 of Dalmatia, Croatia, Istria, etc., lies 
 its onlj^ sea frontage, which is of com- 
 paratively in.significant extent. Pop. 
 about 43,000,000. The largest cities 
 are Vienna, Budapest, Prague, Trieste, 
 Lemberg, Gratz, Brunn, Szegedin, Maria 
 Theresio]iol, Cracow'. Bosnia and Herze- 
 govina, formerly Turkish, now admin- 
 istered by' .\ustria, have an area of 
 19,728 sq. miles. Pop. 1 ,591,036. 
 
 The prevailing character of the 
 Austrian dominions is mountainous or 
 hilly, the plains not occupying more than 
 a fifth part of the whole surface. The 
 loftiest ranges belong to the Alps, and 
 are found in Tyrol, Styria, Salzburg, 
 and Carinthia, the highest summits 
 being the Ortlerspitzen (12,814 feet) on 
 the western boundary of Tyrol, and the 
 Grossglockner (12,300) on the borders 
 of Salzburg, Tyrol, and Carinthia. 
 Another great range is that of the Car- 
 pathians, bounding Hungary on the 
 north. The most e.xtensive tracts of 
 low or flat land, much of which is very 
 fertile, occur in Hungary, Galicia, and 
 Slavonia, the great Hungarian plain 
 having an area of 36,000 sq. miles. They 
 stretch along the courses of the rivers, 
 of which the chief are the Danube, 
 with its tributaries the Save, the Drave, 
 the Theiss, the Maros, the Waag, the 
 March, the Raab, the Inn; also the 
 Elbe and Moldau and the Dniester. 
 The Danube for upward of 800 miles 
 is navigable for pretty large vessels; 
 the tributaries also are largely navigable. 
 The lakes are numerous and often pic- 
 turesque, the chief being Lake Balaton 
 on the Plattensee. The climate is ex- 
 ceedingly varied, but generally good. 
 The principal products of the north are 
 wheat, barley, oats, and rye; in the 
 center vines and maize are added; and 
 in the south olives and various fruits. 
 The cereals grow' to perfection, Hun- 
 garian wheat and flour being celebrated. 
 Other crops are hops, tobacco, flax, and 
 hemp. Wine is largely made, but the 
 wines are inferior on the whole, with 
 exception of a few kinds, including 
 Tokay. The fore.sts cover 70,000 sq. 
 miles, or one-1 bird of the productive 
 soil of the empire. Sheep and cattle 
 are largely reared. — Wild deer, wild 
 swine, chamois, foxes, lynxes, and a 
 species of small black bear are found in 
 many districts, the fox and lynx being 
 particularly abundant. Herds of a 
 small native breed of horses roam wild 
 over t lie plains of Hungary'. — In mineral 
 productions .\ustria is very rich, pos- 
 sessing, with the exception of platinum, 
 all the useful metals, the principal being 
 1 coal, salt, and iron. 
 
 Manufactures are in the most flourish- 
 ing condition in Bohemia, Moravia, 
 Silesia, and Lower Austria; less so in the 
 eastern provinces, and insignificant in 
 Dalmatia, Bukowina, Herzegovina, etc. 
 Among the most important manufac- 
 tures are those of machinery and metal 
 goods, Austria holding a high place for 
 the manufacture of musical and scien- 
 tific instruments, gold and silver plate 
 and jewelry; of stone and china-ware, 
 and of glass, which is one of the oldest 
 and most highly developed industries 
 in Austria; of chemicals; of sugar from 
 beet; of beer, spirits, etc., and espe- 
 cially the manufactures of woolen, 
 cotton, hemp, and flax. The manufac- 
 ture of tobacco is a state monopoly. 
 Tanning is carried on to a great extent, 
 and in the production of gloves (in 
 Vienna and Prague) Austria stands 
 next to^ France. 
 
 None of the European states, except 
 Russia, exhibits such a diversity of race 
 and language as the Austrian Empire. 
 The Slavs — who differ greatly, however, 
 among themselves in language and 
 civilization — amount to above 17,000,- 
 000, or 45 per cent of the total popula- 
 tion, and form the great mass of the 
 population of Bohemia, Moravia, Gar- 
 niola, Galicia, Dalmatia, Croatia, and 
 Slavonia, and northern Hungary, and 
 half of the population of .Silesia and 
 Bukowina. The Germans, about 10,- 
 
 600.000, form almost the sole popula- 
 tion of the archduchy of Austria, Salz- 
 burg, the greatest portion of Styria and 
 Carinthia, almost the whole of Tyrol 
 and Vorarlberg, large portions of 
 Bohemia and Moravia, the whole of 
 West Silesia, etc.; and they are also 
 numerous in Hungary and Transyl- 
 vania. The Magyars or Hungarians 
 (7,400,000) form the bulk of the inhabi- 
 tants of the Kingdom of Hungary and 
 eastern Transylvania. Of the Italic or 
 western Romanic stock there are about 
 
 700.000, and in the southeast about 
 2,800,000 of the Rumanian or eastern 
 Romanic stock. The number of Jews 
 is above 1,000,000; and there are other 
 races, such as the Gypsies (150,000), 
 who are most numerous in Hungary 
 and Transylvania, and the Albanians 
 in Dalmatia and the adjacent parts. 
 The population, generally speaking, 
 decreases in density from west to east. 
 
 The state religion of Austria is the 
 Rbman Catholic, but the civil power 
 exercises supreme control in all ecclesi- 
 astical matters. In 1900 there were in 
 the Austrian portion of the monarchy 
 20,660,279 Roman CatWics, 3,136,535 
 Greek Catholics united to the Roman 
 Church, 606,764 non-united, 494,011 
 Protestants, and 1,224,899 Jews. In 
 Hungary and Transylvania there were 
 9,919,913 Roman Catholics, 1,854,143 
 Greek united and 2,815,713 non-united, 
 3,730,084 Protestants, and 851,378 
 Jews. 
 
 The intellectual culture of the people 
 is highest in the German provinces, 
 but in some of the other provinces the 
 illiterates mimber as many as 80 to 90 
 per cent. Yet for a number of years 
 attendance on the elementary scnools 
 has been compulsory on all children 
 from their sixth to the end of their 
 Twelfth year; and there are higher 
 
AUTOCRAT 
 
 AUTOMATON 
 
 schools on which attendance is com- 
 pulsory for young people of thirteen to 
 fifteen years (not elsewhere educated). 
 There are numerous gymnasia and 
 “real-schools,” the gymnasia being 
 intended chiefly to prepare pupils for 
 the universities, while in the real-schools 
 a more practical end is kept in view, 
 and modern languages and physical 
 science form the groundwork of the 
 educational course; also agricultural, 
 commercial, industrial, art, music, and 
 other special schools. There are eleven 
 universities, viz. in Vienna, Prague (2), 
 Budapest, Gratz, Cracow, Lemberg, 
 Innsbruck, Klausenburg, Agram, and 
 Czernowitz. Most of these have four 
 faculties — Catholic theology, law and 
 politics, medicine, and philosophy. 
 
 The ruler of the Austro-Hungarian 
 monarchy has the title of emperor so far 
 as concerns his Austrian dominions, but 
 he is only king of Hungary. All matters 
 affecting the joint interests of the two 
 divisions of the empire, such as foreign 
 affairs, war, and finance, are dealt with 
 by a supreme body known as the Dele- 
 gations — a parliament of 120 members, 
 one-half of whom are chosen by and 
 represent the legislature of German 
 Austria and the other half that of 
 Hungary. The legislative center of the 
 .\ustrian division of the empire is the 
 Reichsrath, or council of the realm, 
 consisting of an upper house (Herren- 
 haus), composed of princes of the 
 imperial family, nobles with the heredi- 
 tary right to sit, archbishops and life- 
 members nominated by the emperor; 
 and a lower house (Abgeordnetenhaus) 
 of 353 elected deputies. There are 
 seventeen provincial diets or assemblies, 
 eath provincial division having one. 
 In the Hungarian division of the empire 
 the legislative power is vested in the 
 king and the diet or Reichstag con- 
 jointly, the latter consisting of an upper 
 house or house of magnates and of a 
 lower house or house of representatives, 
 the latter elected by all citizens of full 
 age paying direct taxes to the amount 
 of 16s a year. The powers of, the Hun- 
 garian Reichstag correspond to those 
 of the Reichsrath of the Cisleithan 
 provinces. There being three distinct 
 parliaments in the empire, there are also 
 three budgets, that, viz., for the whole 
 empire, that for Cisleithan, and that for 
 Transleithan Austria. A small portion 
 of the imperial revenue of Austria is 
 derived from customs and other sources, 
 70 per cent of the remainder being 
 made up by the Cisleithan and 30 per 
 cent by the Transleithan divisions of 
 the empire. 
 
 Military service is obhgatory on all 
 citizens capable of bearing arms who 
 have attained the age of twenty. The 
 period of service is twelve years, of 
 which three are passed in the hne, seven 
 in the reserve, and two in the landwehr. 
 The army numbers over 290,000 men 
 (including officers) on the peace-footing 
 and over 1,500,000 on the war-iooting. 
 The most important portion of the 
 Austrian navy comprises 12 iron-dads, 
 of from 5 to 14-incn armor, the largest 
 having a tonnage of over 7000, and 
 carrying 27-ton guns; besides gun- 
 boats, torpedo vessels, and other vessels, 
 mostly small and intended for coast 
 
 • 
 
 defense. The- crews number about 
 10,000 officers and men. 
 
 In 791 Charlemagne drove the Avars 
 from the territory between the Ens and 
 the Raab, and united it to his empire 
 under the name of the Eastern Mark 
 (that is March or boundary land); and 
 from the establishment by him of a 
 margraviate in this new province the 
 present empire took its rise. The 
 present imperial family descends from 
 Rudolph von Hapsburg, and the house 
 of Hapsburg furnished 24 sovereigns 
 from Albert I. (1282) to Maria Theresa 
 (1740). With the marriage of the 
 latter to Stephen, Duke of Lorraine, the 
 house of Hapsburg-Lorraine acceded 
 to the throne in the person of Joseph 
 III. in 1780. The succession then fell 
 to Leopold II. (1790), Franz I. (1792), 
 Ferdinand I. (1835), and Franz Joseph 
 I., the present emperor (1848). 
 
 In the troubled period following the 
 French revolution of 1830 insurrections 
 took place in Modena, Parma, and the 
 Papal States (1831-32), but were sup- 
 pressed without much difficulty; and 
 though professedly neutral during the 
 Polish insurrections Austria clearly 
 showed herself on the side of Russia, 
 with whom her relations became more 
 intimate as those between Great Britain 
 and France grew more cordial. The 
 death of Francis I. (1835) and accession 
 of his son Ferdinand I. made little 
 change in the Austrian system of govern- 
 ment, and much discontent was the 
 consequence. In 1846 the failure of the 
 Polish insurrection led to the incor- 
 poration of Cracow with Austria. In 
 Italy the declarations of Pio Nono in 
 favor of reform increased the diffi- 
 culties of Austria, and in Hungary the 
 opposition under Kossuth and others 
 assumed the form of a great constitu- 
 tional movement. In 1848, when the 
 expulsion of Louis Philippe shook all 
 Europe, Metternich found it impossible 
 any longer to guide the helm of the 
 state, and the government was com- 
 pelled to admit a free press and the right 
 of citizens to arms. Apart from the 
 popular attitude in Italy and in Hun- 
 gary, where the diet declared itself per- 
 manent under the presidency of Kos- 
 suth, the insurrection made equal prog- 
 ress in Vienna itself, and the royal 
 family, no longer in safety, removed to 
 Innsbruck. After various ministerial 
 changes the emperor abdicated in favor 
 of his nephew, Francis Joseph; more 
 vigorous measures were adopted; and 
 Austria, aided by Russia, reduced Hun- 
 gary to submission. 
 
 The year 1855 is memorable for the 
 Concordat with the pope, which put the 
 educational and ecclesiastical affairs of 
 the empire entirely into the hands of the 
 Papal see. In 1859 the hostile inten- 
 tions of France and Sardinia against the 
 possessions of Austria in Italy became 
 so evident that she declared war by 
 sending an army across the Ticino ; 
 but after disastrous defeats at Magenta 
 and Solferino she was compelled to cede 
 Milan and the northwest portion of 
 Lombardy to Sardinia. In 1864 she 
 joined with the German states in the 
 war against Denmark, but a dispute 
 about Schleswig-Holstein involved her 
 in a war with her allies (1866), while at 
 
 the same time Italy renewed her at- 
 tempts for the recovery of Venice. The 
 Italians were defeated at Custozza 
 and driven back across the Mincio; but 
 the Prussians, victorious at Koniggratz 
 (or Sadowa), threatened Vienna. Peace 
 was concluded with Prussia on Aug. 23 
 and with Italy on Oct. 3, the result of the 
 war being the cession of Venetia through 
 France to Italy and the withdrawal of 
 Austria from all interference in the 
 affairs of Germany. 
 
 Since 1866 Austria has been occupied 
 chiefly with the internal affairs of the 
 empire. Hungarian demands for self- 
 government were finally agreed to, and 
 the Empire of Austria divided into the 
 two parts already mentioned — the Cis- 
 leithan and the Transleithan. This 
 settlement was consummated by the 
 coronation of the Emperor Francis 
 Joseph I., at Budapest, as King of 
 Hungary, on the 8th of June, 1867. In 
 the same year the Concordat of 1855 
 came up for discussion, and measures 
 were passed for the reestablishment 
 of civil marriage, the emancipation of 
 schools from the domination of the 
 church, and the placing of different 
 creeds on a footing of equality. The 
 fact of the Austro-Hungarian dominions 
 comprising so many different nationali- 
 ties has always given the central govern- 
 ment much trouble, both in regard to 
 internal and to external affairs. In re- 
 gard to the “Eastern Question,” for 
 instance, the action of Austria has been 
 hampered by the sympathies shown by 
 the Magyars for their blood relations, 
 the Turks, while the Slavs have natu- 
 rally been more favorable to Russia. 
 During the war between Russia and 
 Turkey in 1877-78 Austria remained 
 neutral; but at its close, in the middle of 
 1878, it was decided, at the Congress of 
 Berlin, that the provinces of Bosnia and 
 Herzegovina should in future be admin- 
 istered by Austria-Hungary instead of 
 Turkey. Since that time the external 
 history of the Austro-Hungarian mon- 
 archy has been uneventful, but in 
 internal affairs there has been consider- 
 able friction between the different 
 nationalities and the numerous political 
 parties. The language question has been 
 a fruitful source of controversy. 
 
 AUTOCRAT, an absolute or uncon- 
 trolled ruler; the head of a state who is 
 not controlled by any constitutional lim- 
 itations; such as the Emperor of Russia. 
 
 AUTO DE FE (Spanish) ; AUTO DA FE 
 (Portuguese), lit. “act of faith.” See 
 Inquisition. 
 
 AUTOGRAPH, a person’s own hand- 
 writing; an original manuscript or signa- 
 ture, as opposed to a copy. The prac- 
 tice of collecting autographs or signa- 
 tures dates at least from the 16th cen- 
 tury, among the earliest collections 
 known being those of Lomenie de 
 Brienne and Lacroi.x du Maine. 
 
 AUTOM'ATON, a self-moving machine 
 performing actions like those of a living 
 being, and often shaped like one. The 
 walking statues of Daedalus, the flying 
 dove of Archytas, the brazen head of 
 Friar Bacon, the iron fly of Regiomon- 
 tanus, the door-opening figure of Alber- 
 tus Magnus, the parading knights of the 
 clock presented to Charlemagne by 
 Harun al Rashid, the toy carriage and 
 
AUTOMOBILE 
 
 AUTOMOBILE 
 
 attendants constructed by Camus for 
 Louis XIV., the flute-player, tambour- 
 player, and duck of Vaucanson, and the 
 writing child of the brothers Droz are 
 among the more noteworthy of tradi- 
 tional automata. 
 
 AUTOMOBILE (a-to-mo-bel'), a self- 
 propelling vehicle for use on streets or 
 roads for conveying passengers or 
 freight. The earliest automobile was 
 the crude vehicle invented by the Eng- 
 lishman, Hancock, and patented in 
 1827. Other early automobile invent- 
 ors, none of whom, however, were 
 successful, were Sir Charles Dance, 
 Guideworthy Gurney, W. A. Summers, 
 Nathaniel Ogle, Macerone and Squire, 
 Henry James, Scott Russell, and Robert 
 Griffith, whose patents date between 
 1827 and 1836. These inventions were 
 regarded as curiosities only, and it was 
 not until 1885 when Gottlieb Daimler 
 invented his small powerful gas-engine 
 that the modern automobile became 
 possible. 
 
 The first American self-propelling 
 road vehicle was made by Oliver Evans 
 in 1786, atwhich timehe planned asteam 
 wagon that could be made to transport 
 merchandise at less expense than the 
 same work could be done by horses. 
 
 It was not, however, until recent 
 years, that any widespread interest 
 was manifested in the subject of 
 horseless vehicles. All such machines 
 may be classified, according to their 
 motor power, under the following 
 general heads: 1. Steam vehicles 
 with boilers and engines burning coal, 
 oil, etc. 2. Machines driven by oil 
 or vapor engines, gasoline, naphtha, 
 etc. 3. Machines driven by com- 
 pressed air (liquid air being a possi- 
 bility.) 4. Machines run by elec- 
 tricity. 
 
 The equipment of the modern elec- 
 tric automobile consists of a storage 
 battery for supplying the current, the 
 motor for transforming this current 
 into mechanical power, and the con- 
 troller for regulating the speed of the 
 motor. In most electric vehicles two 
 motors or a double motor drive are 
 employed, the motor being either sup- 
 ported on the rear axle or on the reach. 
 The battery is either placed in a case 
 hung under the body of the vehicle or 
 else inside the body. The motors and 
 other moving parts are placed in dust- 
 proof cases. The efficiency of the bat- 
 tery is of course the most important 
 consideration, and its deterioration 
 with service has to be borne in mind 
 in such commercial applications as 
 automobiles. In 1908 the batteries 
 then in use were considered to be good 
 for 5000 miles by observing ordinary 
 precautions in charging and use. In 
 the United States electric power has 
 been applied to a great variety of 
 vehicles, including, besides pleasure 
 carriages of various types, delivery 
 wagons, cabs, omnibuses, and trucks. 
 
 Since 1900 in the United States 20- 
 passenger omnibuses and heavy trucks 
 with double electric motor drives have 
 been constructed and are in active 
 use. 
 
 The most popular motor is some 
 form of oil engine. The number and 
 variety of Miese motors makes de- 
 
 • 
 
 scription of them impossible. In the in- 
 ternal combustion motor the propulsive 
 power is given to the piston by the ex- 
 plosion of vaporized oil, such as ben- 
 zine or gasoline in the cylinder. The 
 mechanism comprises, besides the 
 engine and its connections, a carbureter 
 for vaporizing and feeding the oil to 
 the cylinder, and a cooler, by which 
 water is kept in circulation around the 
 cylinder. The engine transmits its 
 power to a crank-shaft , from which it 
 is led off by a chain drive or gearing to 
 the driving shaft of the vehicle. These 
 motors are made with one, two and four 
 cylinders, and are of various powers, 
 They will not start up of themselves 
 under load, and cannot be reversed. 
 Backing the carriage is effected by 
 gears, and a steady movement of the 
 engine is produced by a fly-wheel. The 
 gasoline motor is unable to run under 
 overload, but on the other hand con- 
 sumes less fuel, and on this account 
 has a greater radius of action. 
 
 The speed attained by the automo- 
 biles has been and is being enormously 
 increased, and it is in this respect that 
 there have been the most remarkable 
 developments. These have progressed 
 from time to time, so that at present the 
 horseless carriage rivals modern express 
 trains in the speed of its travel, while it 
 is also able to operate for long distances, 
 requiring supplies of fuel and water in a 
 manner similar to the railway locomo- 
 tive. If a machine is constructed to run 
 comparatively short distances on a 
 level and well-surfaced road, a mile 
 may be accomplished in from 40 to 60 
 seconds. 
 
 The years 1907 and 1908 were the 
 most successful in the history of the 
 automobile industry. There were 
 in use in the United States 175,000 
 pleasure vehicles of various models 
 and horse power and 18,000 com- 
 mercial vehicles, both gasoline and 
 electric. The estimated valuation of 
 all types of motor-driven vehicles in 
 use is $370,000,000. 
 
 The estimated production of auto- 
 mobiles of the entire industry in the 
 United States is placed at 55,000 ma- 
 chines. The approximate value of this 
 output is $110,000,000. The capital 
 employed in the automobile industry 
 is approximately .$90,000,000. 
 
 There are about fifty companies en- 
 gaged exclusively or partially in the 
 manufacture of motor vehicles for 
 business purposes. A decided change 
 is noticeable in the attitude of those 
 who are using horses in their business 
 toward the possible adoption of the 
 motor. The failure of some of the 
 earliest installations, owing largely to 
 exorbitant claims made for them, 
 somewhat retarded the development 
 for a time, but the prejudice so born 
 has been largely overcome, and with 
 the much improved vehicle and the more 
 rational demands as to what it should 
 do, the machine is beginning steadily 
 to replace the animal as it has in every 
 field where they have come in conflict 
 so far, and naturally always will. The 
 much greater working capacity of the 
 motor vehicle — owing to its speed and 
 ability to work for indefinite periods 
 of time — is Us chief advantage. 
 
 Economy of use usually results through 
 this feature rather than through re- 
 duced cost of operation, although the 
 relative value of the latter item in- 
 creases rapidly in favor of the motor 
 with the number of vehicles employed, 
 it being capable of displacing a greater 
 number of horse-drawn vehicles. It is 
 generally conceded by those who 
 should know that the best field for the 
 electric commercial vehicle is in the 
 lines where the length of the runs to be 
 made is relatively short and the num- 
 ber of stops great. The gasoline 
 vehicle is coming rapidly to the front 
 in all other lines, and, in many cases, 
 is doing w'ell in this one, too. Very 
 little has been done with steam, ex- 
 cept that one company has built a 
 number of ambulances, although it 
 seems to have great possibilities. 
 
 The taximeter cab service now in 
 operation in the large cities opens a 
 new field for the American automo- 
 bile. These motor cabs will carry taxi- 
 meters to determine the fares, and 
 promise to be popular throughout the 
 country, and seems destined to shortly 
 replace the horse-drawn cab. 
 
 Federal statistics show there are 
 more than 2,151,570 miles of public 
 highways in the United States. Of 
 this mileage 108,232.9 miles are sur- 
 faced with gravel, 38.621.7 miles with 
 stone, and 6,809.7 miles with special 
 materials, such as shells, sand, clay, 
 oil and brick, making in all 153,664.3 
 miles of improved road. From this it 
 follows that 7.14 per cent, of all the 
 roads in this country have been im- 
 proved. 
 
 Automobile speed may be judged by 
 a study of the record table which shows 
 that the fastest mile ever recorded is 
 the ;28 1-5 made by F. H. Marriott in a 
 Stanley steamer at Ormond, Fla., in 
 1906. The fastest average pace for a 
 middle-distance race was made at Or- 
 mond, March 5, 1908, when Maurice 
 Bernin, in a sixty-horsepower Renault, 
 traveled 100 miles in 1:12:561-5, an 
 average of 82.26 miles per hour. At 
 the same meet Emanuel Cedrino, in 
 the sixty-horse power Fiat Cyclone, 
 established a 300-mile record of 3 :53 :44, 
 an average of 77.02 miles per hour. 
 Greater speed than even this is report- 
 ed to have been made by Nazzaro in a 
 Fiat in a match race at Brooklands, 
 England, it being said he showed 120 
 miles an hour for two and three-quarter 
 miles, but these figures never were 
 officially accepted. On the road the 
 fastest average pace was made in the 
 Florio cup race in Italy, in 1908, by 
 Nazzaro in a Fiat, who averaged 74.27 
 miles per hour. 
 
 The world’s record for twenty-four 
 hours is 1,681 miles 1,310 yards, an 
 average pace of 65.9 miles an hour, 
 made June 28-29, 1907, by S. F. Edge 
 in a six-cylinder Napier on the three 
 and one-quarter mile cement track at 
 Weybridge, England. During the year 
 there were run in the United States ten 
 twenty-four-hour races, five of them 
 single car events and the other five re- 
 lay or team races in which two cars of 
 the same make constituted a team. 
 
 Motor-bicycles and quadricycles were 
 built in New York in 1895. Gasolino 
 
AUTONOMY 
 
 AXIOM 
 
 motors provided the propelling force. 
 The former weighs only sixty pounds. 
 A naphtha tank is fastened on tM of 
 the frame between the saddle and the 
 handles. It feeds down through the 
 frame to the cylinders, one on each 
 side of the rear wheel. The drops of 
 naphtha are exploded by an electric 
 spark from a small battery hung to 
 the frame, thus giving impulse to the 
 pistons. The speed depends upon the 
 amount of oil let down. The machine 
 is started by pedals, and the rotation of 
 the wheels, together with the turning 
 of the switch, sets the motor to working. 
 
 AUTONOMY, the power of a state, 
 institution, etc., to legislate for itself. 
 
 AUTOP'SY, literally, personal obser- 
 vation or inspection, commonly re- 
 stricted to post-mortem examination. 
 
 AUTOSUGGES'TION, in hypnotism, 
 the power of suggesting thought or ac- 
 tion to one’s self. It is used largely 
 in medicine under the name suggestive 
 therapeutics, by which the patient, be- 
 ing given an inert remedy, suggests a 
 cure to himself. 
 
 AU'TOTYPE, a species of photo- 
 graphic print. A thin sheet of gelatine 
 on paper is rendered sensitive to light 
 by treatment with bichromate of potash, 
 and then exposed under an ordinary 
 photographic negative. The portions 
 of gelatine affected by the light become 
 insoluble, the remainder of the gelatine 
 is then washed away, and the picture 
 remains reproduced in the gelatine, 
 there being slight elevations and depres- 
 sions corresponding with the distribu- 
 tion of light and shade. This may be 
 printed from, but it is more often made 
 use of to obtain electrotypes or other 
 reverses, from which impressions can 
 more easily be taken. 
 
 AUTUMN, the season between sum- 
 mer and winter, in the northern hemi- 
 sphere often regarded as embracing 
 August, September, and October, or 
 three months about that time. The be- 
 ginning of the astronomical autumn is 
 September 22, the autumnal equinox; 
 and the end is December 21, the shortest 
 day. The autumn of the southern 
 hemisphere takes place at the time of 
 the northern spring. 
 
 AUTUN o-tiin ; ancient Bibracte, 
 later Augustodunum) a town. South- 
 eastern France, department of Saone-e 
 -Loire. It has two Roman gates of ex- 
 quisite workmanship, the ruins of an 
 amphitheater and of several temples, 
 the cathedral of St. Lazare, a fine Gothic 
 structure of the eleventh century ; 
 manufactures of carpets, woolens, cot- 
 ton, velvet, hosiery, etc.. Pop. 14,066. 
 
 AUVERGENE (6-var-nye), a prov- 
 ince, Central France, now merged into 
 departments Cantal and Puy-de-D6me, 
 and an arrondissement of Haute-Loire. 
 The Auvergne Mountains, separating 
 the basins of the Allier, Cher and 
 Creuse from those of the Lot and Dor- 
 dogne, contain the highest points of 
 Central France: Mount Dor, 6188 
 feet ; Captal, 6093 feet, and Puy-de- 
 D6me, 4806 feet. The number of ex- 
 tinct volcanoes and general geologic 
 formation make the district one of 
 great scientific interest. The minerals 
 include iron, coal, copper and lead, 
 and there are watm and cold mineral 
 
 springs. Auvergne contributes a large 
 supply to the labor markets of Paris 
 and Belgium, there being in Paris 
 alone some 60,000 Auvergnats. 
 
 AUXERRE (6-s4r), a town, France, 
 department of Yonne, 110 miles south- 
 east of Paris, Principal edifices: A 
 fine Gothic cathedral, unfinished ; the 
 abbey of St. Germain, with curious 
 crypts; and an old Episcopal palace, 
 now the Hotel de-Prefecture ; it manu- 
 factures woolens, hats, casks, leather, 
 earthern ware, violin strings, etc._; trade 
 chiefly in wood and wines, of which the 
 best known is white Chablis. Pop. 20, 236. 
 
 AUXOM’ETER, an instrument to 
 measure the magnifying powers of an 
 optical apparatus. 
 
 AUXONNE (o-son ; anc. Aussona) a 
 town, France, department of Cote- 
 d’Or (Burgundy), on theSaone; a forti- 
 fied place with some manufactures. 
 Pop. 6911. 
 
 A’VA, a town in Asia, formerly the 
 capital of Burmah, on the Irrawady, 
 now almost wholly in ruins. 
 
 AVA-AVA, Arva, Kava or Yava, 
 plant of the nat. order Pi peracesef pepper 
 family), so called by the inhabitants of 
 Polynesia, who make an intoxicating 
 drink out of it. Its leaves are chewed 
 with betel in Southeastern Asia. 
 
 AV'ALANCHES, large masses of snow 
 or ice precipitated from the mountains, 
 and distinguished as wind or dust ava- 
 lanches, when they consist of fresh- 
 fallen snow whirled like a dust storm 
 into the valleys; as sliding avalanches, 
 when they consist of great masses of 
 snow sliding down a slope by their own 
 weight ; and as glacier or summer ava- 
 lanches, when ice-masses are detached 
 by heat from the high glaciers. 
 
 AVELLINO (a-vel-le'no), a town in 
 southern Italy, capital of the province 
 of Avellino, 29 miles east of Naples, the 
 seat of a bishop. Avellino nuts were 
 celebrated under the Romans. Pop. 
 16,376. — Area of the province, 1409 sq. 
 miles; pop. 419,688. 
 
 A-'VE MARI' A, the first two words of 
 the angel Gabriel’s salutation (Luke i. 
 28), and the beginning of the very com- 
 mon Latin prayer to the Virgin in the 
 Roman Catholic Church. Its lay use 
 was sanctioned at the end of the 12th 
 century, and a papal edict of 1326 or- 
 dains the repetition of the prayer thrice 
 each morning, noon, and evening, the 
 hour being indicated by sound of bells 
 called the Ave Maria or Angelus Domini. 
 The prayers are counted upon the small 
 beaus of the rosary, as the Paternosters 
 are upon the largest ones. 
 
 AVERAGE, in maritime law, any 
 charge or expense over and above the 
 freight of goods, and payable by their 
 owner. — General average is the sum fall- 
 ing to be paid by the owners of ship, 
 cargo and freight, in proportion to their 
 several interests, to make good any 
 loss or expense intentionally incurred 
 for the general safety of ship and cargo, 
 e. g. throwing goods overboard, cutting 
 away masts, port dues in cases of dis- 
 tress, etc. — Particular average is the 
 sum falling to be paid for unavoidable 
 loss when the general safety is not in 
 question, and therefore chargeable on 
 the individual owner of the property 
 lost. A policy of insurance generally 
 
 covers both general and particular 
 average, unless specially excepted. 
 
 AVESTA. See Zendavesta. 
 
 AVEYRON (i-va-ron), a department 
 occupying the southern extremity of the 
 central plateau of France, traversed by 
 mountains belonging to the Cevennes 
 and the Cantal ranges; principal rivers, 
 Aveyron, Lot, and Tarn, the Lot alone 
 being navigable. The climate is cold, 
 and agriculture is in a backward state, 
 but considerable attention is paid to 
 sheep-breeding. It is poted for its 
 “Roquefort cheese.’’ It has coal, iron and 
 copper mines, beside^ other minerals. 
 Area, 3340 sq. miles; capital, Rhodez. 
 Pop. 377,559. 
 
 AVIGNON (a-ve-nyon), an old town 
 of s.e. France, capital of department 
 Vaucluse, on the left bank of the 
 Rhone; inclosed by lofty battlemented 
 and turreted walls, well built, but with 
 rather narrow streets. The silk manu- 
 facture and the rearing of silk-worms 
 are tfie principal employments in the 
 district. Here Petrarch lived several 
 years, and made the acquaintance of 
 Laura, whose tobib is in the Franciscan 
 church. From 1309 to 1376 seven popes 
 in succession, from Clement V. to 
 Gregory XL, resided in this city. After 
 its purchase by Pope Clement VI. in 
 1348 Avignon and its district continued, 
 with a few interruptions, under the 
 rule of a vice-legate of the pope’s till 
 1791, when it was formally united to the 
 French Republic. Pop. 46,209. 
 
 AVILA (a've-la), town of Spain, capital 
 of province of Avila, a modern di^ision 
 of Old Castile. Pop., town, 11,885; 
 province, 197,164. 
 
 AV'OSET, a bird about the size of a 
 lapwing. The bill is long, slender, 
 elastic, and bent upward toward the 
 tip, the legs long, the feet webbed, and 
 the plumage variegated with black and 
 
 white. The bird feeds on worms and 
 other small animals, which it scoops up 
 from the mud of the marshes and fens 
 that it frequents. It is found in Europe, 
 Asia, Africa, and America; but the 
 American species is slightly different 
 from the other. 
 
 AX, or AXE, a well-known tool for 
 cutting or chipping wood, consisting of 
 an iron head with an arched cutting edge 
 of steel, which is in line with the wooden 
 handle of the tool, and not at right 
 angles to it as in the adz. 
 
 AX'IOM, a universal proposition, 
 which the understanding must perceive 
 to be true as soon as it perceives the 
 meaning of the words, and therefore 
 called a self-evident truth: e.g., A is A. 
 In mathematics axioms are those prop- 
 ositions which are assumed without 
 proof, as being in themselves independ- 
 
AXIS 
 
 BABCOCK 
 
 ent of proof, and which are made the 
 basis of all the subsequent reasoning; 
 as, “The whole is greater than its part” ; 
 “Things that are equal to the same 
 thing are equal to one another.” 
 
 AXIS, the straight line, real or im- 
 aginary, passing through a body or mag- 
 nitude, on which it revolves, or may b^e 
 supposed to revolve; especially a 
 straight line with regard to which the 
 different parts of a magnitude, or several 
 magnitudes, are symmetrically arranged; 
 e g., the axis of the world, the imagi- 
 nary line drawn through its two poles. 
 
 In botany the v.mrd is also used, the 
 stem being termed the ascending axis, 
 the root the descending axis. 
 
 In anatomy the name is given to the 
 second vertebra from the head, that 
 on which the atlas moves. See Atlas. 
 
 AYE-AYE (i'i), an animal of Mada- 
 gascar, so called from its cry, now referred 
 to the lemur family. It is about the size 
 of a hare, has large flat ears and a bushy 
 
 Aye-aye. 
 
 tail; large eyes; long sprawling Angers, 
 the third so slender as to appear shriv- 
 eled; color, musk-brown, mixed with 
 black and gray ash; feeds on grubs, 
 fruits, etc.; habits, nocturnal. 
 
 AYR (ar), a town of Scotland, a royal 
 and pari, burgh, and capital of Ayrshire, 
 at the mouth of the river Ayr, on the 
 Firth of Clyde. The house in which 
 Burns was born stands within 1^ miles 
 of the town, between it and the church 
 of Alloway (“Alloway’s auld haunted 
 kirk”), and a monument to him stands 
 on a height between the kirk and the 
 bridge over the Boon. Pop. 28,697. — 
 The county has a length along the Firth 
 of Clyde and North Channel of 80 miles; 
 
 area, 735,262 acres. It is divided into 
 the districts of Carrick in the south, 
 Kyle in the middle, and Cunningham in 
 the north. Chief towns, Ayr, ffilmar- 
 nock, and Irvine. North Ayrshire and 
 South Ayrshire each returns one member 
 to parliament. Pop. (1901), 254,436. 
 
 AZA'LEA, a genus of plants remark- 
 able for the beauty and' fragrance of 
 their flowers, and distinguished from 
 the rhododendrons chiefly by the 
 flowers having five stamens instead 
 
 of ten. Many beautiful rhododer drons 
 with deciduous leaves are known under 
 the name of azalea in gardens. The 
 azaleas are common in North America. 
 
 AZAMGARH, a town of India, United 
 Provinces, capital of dist. of same name. 
 Pop. 18,528. — The district has an area 
 of 2418 sq. miles; a pop. of 1,728,625. 
 
 AZERBIJAN (a-zer-bi-jan'), a province 
 of northwestern Persia; area, 40,000 
 sq. miles; pop. estimated at 2,000,000. 
 It consists generally of lofty mountain 
 ranges, some of which rise to a height of 
 between 12,000 and 13,000 feet. Prin- 
 cipal rivers : the Aras or Araxes, and the 
 Kizil-Uzen, which enter the Caspian; 
 smaller streams discharge themselves 
 within the province into the great salt 
 lake of Urumiyah. 
 
 AZORES (a-z6rz' or a-z6'res) or WEST- 
 ERN ISLANDS, a ^oup belonging to and 
 900 miles west of Portugal, in the North 
 Atlantic Ocean. The total area is about 
 900 sq. miles; SS,o Miguel (containing 
 the capital Ponta Delgada), Pico, and 
 Terceira are the largest. The islands, 
 which are volcanic and subject to earth- 
 quakes, are apparently of comparatively 
 
 recent origin, and are conical, lofty, 
 precipitous, and picturesque. The most 
 remarkable summit is the peak of Pico, 
 about 7600 feet high. There are nu- 
 merous hot springs. They are covered 
 with luxuriant vegetation, and diversi- 
 fied with woods, corn-fields, vineyards, 
 lemon and orange groves, and rich open 
 pastures. When first visited they were 
 uninhabited, and had scarcely any other 
 animals except birds, particularly 
 hawks, to which, called in Portuguese 
 acores, the islands owe their name. 
 Pop. 256,615. 
 
 AZ'TECS, a race of people who settled 
 in Mexico early in the 14th century, 
 ultimately extended their dominion 
 over a large territory, and w'ere still ex- 
 tending their supremacy at the time of 
 the arrival of the Spaniards, by whom 
 they M^ere speedily subjugated. Their 
 piost celebrated ruler was Montezuma, 
 who was reigning when the Spaniards 
 arrived, about the middle of the 15th 
 century. It is inferred that consider- 
 able numbers of them lived in large com- 
 munal residences, and that land was held 
 and cultivated upon the communal 
 principle. Slavery and polygamy were 
 both legitimate, but the children of 
 slaves were regarded as free. Although 
 ignorant of the horse, ox, etc., they had 
 a considerable knowledge of agriculture, 
 maize and the agave being the chief 
 produce. Silver, lead, tin, and copper 
 were obtained from mines, and gold from 
 the surface and river beds, but iron was 
 unknown to them, their tools being of 
 bronze and obsidian. In metal -work, 
 feather-work, weaving, and potter}', 
 they possessed a high degree of skill. 
 To record events they used an unsolved 
 hieroglyphic writing, and their lunar 
 calendars , were of unusual accuracy. 
 Two special deities claimed their rever- 
 ence: Hintzilopochtli, the god of war, 
 propitiated with human sacrifices; and 
 Quetzalcoatl, the beneficent god of light 
 and air, with whom at first the Aztecs 
 were disposed to identify Cortez. Their 
 temples, with large terraced pyramidal 
 bases, were in the charge of an exceed- 
 ingly large priesthood, with whom lay 
 the education of the young. As a civil- 
 ization of apparently independent origin, 
 yet closely resembling in many features 
 the archaic oriental civilizations, the 
 Aztec civilization is of the first interest, 
 but in most accounts of it a large specu- 
 lative element has to be discounted. 
 
 B 
 
 B is the second letter and the first 
 consonant in the English and most 
 other alphabets. It is a mute and 
 labial, pronounced solely by the lips, 
 and is distinguished from p by being 
 sonant, that is, produced by the utter- 
 ance of voice as distinguished from 
 breath. 
 
 B, in music, the seventh note of the 
 model diatonic scale or scale of C. It is 
 called the leading note, as there is always 
 a feeling of suspense when it is sounded 
 until the key-note is heard. 
 
 BA'AL, BEL, a Hebrew and general 
 Semitic word, which originally appears 
 
 to have been generic, signifying simply 
 lord, and to have been applied to many 
 different divinities, or, with quaUfjdng 
 epithets, to the same divinity regarded 
 in different aspects and as exercising 
 different functions. Thus in Hos. ii. 16 
 it is applied to Jehovah himself, while 
 Baal-berith (the Covenant-lord) was the 
 god of the Shechemites, and Baal-zebub 
 (the Fly-god) the idol of the Philistines 
 at Ekron. 
 
 BABBITT, Isaac, an American in- 
 ventor, born in Massachusetts in 1799, 
 died 1862. He invented the amalgam 
 known as Babbitt metal, for which con- 
 
 gress gave him a grant of $20,000 and a 
 gold medal. 
 
 BABBITT-METAL, a soft metal result- 
 ing from alloying together certain pro- 
 portions of copper, tin, and zinc or 
 antimony, used with the view of as 
 far as possible obviating friction in 
 the bearings of journals, cranks, axles, 
 etc., invented by Isaac Babbitt (1799- 
 1862), a goldsmith of Taunton, Massa- 
 chusetts. 
 
 BABCOCK, James Francis, an Ameri- 
 can chemist, born in Boston in 1844, 
 died there in 1897. His principal dis- 
 tinction, aside from his teaching career. 
 
BABCOCK 
 
 BABYROUSSA 
 
 was his invention of a useful fire-ex- 
 tinguisher. 
 
 BABCOCK, Stephen Moulton, an 
 American chemist, born in New York in 
 1843 He invented the Babcock milk- 
 tester, which he did not patent, so that 
 its benefits would be free to the public 
 In 1893 he was made professor of agri- 
 cultural chemistry in the University of 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 B A'BEL, TOWER OF, according to the 
 11th chapter of Genesis, a structure in 
 the Plain of Shinar, Mesopotamia, com- 
 menced by the descendants of Noah sub- 
 sequent to the deluge, but which was not 
 allowed to proceed to completion. It 
 has commonly been identified with the 
 great temple of Belus or Bel that was 
 one of the chief edifices in Babylon, and 
 the huge mound called Birs Nimrud is 
 generally regarded as its site, though 
 another mound, which to this day beais 
 the name of Babil, has been assigned by 
 some as its site. Babel means literally 
 ‘‘gate of God.” The meaning “con- 
 fusion” assigned to it in the Bible really 
 belongs to a word of similar form. See 
 Babylon. 
 
 BABOON', a common name applied to 
 a division of old-world apes and mon- 
 keys. They have elongated abrupt 
 muzzles like a dog, strong tusks or ca- 
 nine teeth, usually short tails, cheek- 
 
 Baboon mother and infant. 
 
 pouches, small deep eyes with large 
 eyebrows, and naked callosities on the 
 buttocks. Their hind and fore feet are 
 well proportioned, so that they run 
 easily on all fours, but they do not 
 maintain themselves in an upright 
 posture with facility. They are gen- 
 erally of the size of a moderately large 
 dog, but the largest, the mandrill, is, 
 when erect, nearly of the height of a 
 man. They are almost all African, ugly, 
 sullen, fierce, lascivious, and gregarious, 
 defending themselves by throwing 
 stones, dirt, etc. They live on fruits and 
 roots, eggs and insects. 
 
 BAB'YLON, the capital of Babylonia, 
 on both sides of the Euphrates, one of 
 the largest and most splendid cities of 
 the ancient world, now a scene of ruins, 
 and earth-mounds containing them. 
 Babylon was a royal city sixteen nundred 
 years before the Christian era; but the 
 old city was almost entirely destroyed 
 in 683 B.c. A new city was built by 
 Nebuchadnezzar nearly a century later. 
 This was in the form of a square, each 
 
 side 15 miles long, with walls of such 
 immense height and thickness as to con- 
 stitute one of the wonders of the world. 
 It contained splendid edifices, large 
 gardens and pleasure-grounds, especially 
 the “hanging-gardens,” a sort of lofty 
 terraced structure supporting earth 
 enough for trees to grow, and the cele- 
 brated tower of Babel or temple of Belus, 
 rising by stages to the height of 625 feet. 
 After the city was taken by Cyrus in 
 538 B.C., and Babylonia made a Persian 
 province, it began to decline, and had 
 suffered severely by the time of Alex- 
 ander the Great. He intended to restore 
 it, but was prevented by his death, 
 which took place here in 323 b.c., from 
 which time its decay was rapid. In- 
 teresting discoveries have been made on 
 its site in recent times, more especially of 
 numerous and valuable inscriptions in 
 the cuneiform or arrow-head character. 
 The modern town of Hillah is believed to 
 represent the ancient city, and the plain 
 here for miles round is studded with 
 vast mounds of earth and brick and 
 imposing ruins. The greatest mound is 
 Birs Nimrud, about 6 miles from Hillah. 
 It rises nearly 200 feet, is crowned by a 
 ruined tower, and is commonly believed 
 to be the remains of the ancient temple 
 of Belus. Another great ruin-mound, 
 called Mujellibeh, has also been assigned 
 as its site. 
 
 BABYLONIA, an old Asiatic empire 
 occupying the region watered by the 
 lower course of the Euphrates and the 
 Tigris, and by their combined stream. 
 The inhabitants, though usually desig- 
 nated Babylonians, were sometimes 
 called Chaldeans, and it is thought that 
 the latter name represents a superior 
 caste who at a comparatively late period 
 gained influence in the country. At 
 the earliest period of which we have 
 record the whole valley of the Tigris 
 and Euphrates was inhabited by tribes 
 of Turanian or Tatar origin. Along 
 with these, however, there early existed 
 an intrusive Semitic element, which 
 gradually increased in number till at 
 the time the Babylonians and Assyrians 
 (the latter being a kindred people) be- 
 came known to the western historians 
 they were essentially Semitic peoples. 
 The great city Babylon (which see), 
 or Babel, was the capital of Babylonia, 
 which was called by the Hebrews 
 Shinar. The country was, as it still is, 
 exceedingly fertile, and must have 
 anciently supported a dense population. 
 The chief cities, besides Babylon, were 
 Ur, Calneh, Erech, and Sippara. Baby- 
 lonia and Assyria were often spoken of 
 together as Assyria. 
 
 The discovery and interpretation of 
 the cuneiform inscriptions have enabled 
 the history of Babylonia to be carried 
 back to about 4000 b.c., at which period 
 the inhabitants had attained a consider- 
 able degree of civilization, and the 
 country was ruled by a number of kings 
 or princes each in his own city. About 
 2700 B.c. Babylonia came under the rule 
 of a single monarch. Latterly it had 
 serious wars with neighboring nations, 
 and for seve’-al hundred years previous 
 to 2000 B.c. Babylonia was subject to 
 the neighboring Elam. It then regained 
 its independence, and for a thousand 
 year," it was the foremost state of west- 
 
 ern Asia in power, as well as in science, 
 art, and civilization. The rise of the 
 Assyrian empire brought about the 
 decline of Babylonia, which latterly 
 was under Assyrian domination, though 
 with intervals of independence. Tig- 
 lath-Pileser II. of Assyria (745-727) 
 made himself master of Babylonia; but 
 the conquest of the country had to be 
 repeated by his successor, Sargon, who 
 expelled the Babylonian king, Merodach- 
 baladan, and all but Anally subdued the 
 country, the complete subjugation being 
 effected by Sennacherib. After some 
 sixty years the second or later Baby- 
 lonian empire arose under Nabopolassar, 
 who, joining the Medes against the 
 Assyrians, freed Babylon from the 
 superiority of the latter power, 625 
 B.c. The new empire was at its height 
 of power and glory under Nabopolassar’s 
 son, Nebuchadnezzar (604-561), who 
 subjected Jerusalem, lyre, Phoenicia, 
 and «ven Egpyt, and carried his domin- 
 ion to the shores of the Mediterranean 
 and northward to the Armenian moun- 
 tains. The capital, Babylon, was rebuilt 
 by him, and then formed one of the 
 greatest and most magnificent cities 
 the world has ever seen. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Evil-merodach, but 
 the dynasty soon came to an end, the 
 last king being Nabonetus or Nabona- 
 dius, who came to the throne in b.c. 
 555, and made his son, Belshazzar, 
 co-ruler with him. Babylon was taken 
 by Cyrus the Persian monarch in 538, 
 and the second Babylonian empire 
 came to an end, Babylonia being incor- 
 porated in the Persian empire. Its 
 subsequent history was similar to that 
 of Assyria. 
 
 BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY, a term 
 usually applied to the deportation of the 
 two tribes of the kingdom of Judah to 
 Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, 585 b.c. 
 The duration of this captivity is usually 
 reckoned seventy years, though strictly 
 speaking it lasted only fifty-six years. 
 A great part of the ten tribes of Israel 
 had been previously taken captive to 
 Assyria. 
 
 BABYROUSSA (bab-i-rus'a), a species 
 of wild hog, a native of the Indian 
 Archipelago. From the outside of the 
 upper jaw spring two teeth 12 inches 
 long, curving upward and backward 
 
 Babyroussa. 
 
 like horns, and almost' touching the 
 forehead. The tusks of the lower jaw 
 also appear externally, though they 
 are not so long as those of the upper 
 jaw. Along the back are some weak 
 bristles, and on the rest of the body 
 only a sort of wool. These animals 
 live in herds, feed on herbage, are 
 
BACCARAT 
 
 BACON 
 
 sometimes tamed, and their flesh is well 
 flavored. 
 
 BAC'CARAT, a gambling game of 
 French origin, played by any number 
 of players, or rather betters, and a 
 banker. The latter deals two cards to 
 each player and two to himself, and 
 covers the stakes of each with an equal 
 sum. The cards are then examined, and 
 according to the scores made the players 
 take their own stake and the banker’s, 
 or the latter takes all or a certain num- 
 ber of the stakes. 
 
 BACCHANA'LIA, feasts in honor of 
 Bacchus, characterized by licentious- 
 ness and revelry, and celebrated in 
 ancient Athens. In the processions 
 were bands of Bacchantes of both 
 sexes, who, inspired by real or feigned 
 intoxication, wandered about rioting 
 and dancing. They were clothed in 
 fawn-skins, crowned with ivy, and bore 
 in their hands thyrsi, that is spears 
 entwined with ivy, or having a pine- 
 cone stuck on the point. These feasts 
 passed from the Greeks lo the Romans, 
 who celebrated them with still greater 
 dissoluteness till the senate abolished 
 them B.c. 187 
 
 BACCHUS Cbak'us), the god of wine, 
 son of Zeus (Jupiter) and SSmgle. He 
 first taught the cultivation of the vine 
 and the preparation of wine. To spread 
 the knowledge of his invention he 
 traveled over various countries and 
 received in every quarter divine honors. 
 Drawn by lions (some say panthers, 
 tigers, or lynxes;, he began his march, 
 which resembled a triumphal procession 
 Those who opposed him were severely 
 punished, but on those who received him 
 hospitably he bestowed rewards. His 
 love was shared by several; but Ariadne, 
 whom he found deserted upon Naxos, 
 alone was elevated to the dignity of a 
 wife, and became a sharer of his im- 
 mortality. 
 
 BACH (bah), Johann Sebastian, one 
 of the greatest of German musicians, was 
 born in 1685, at Eisenach; died in 1750, 
 at Leipzig. Being the son of a musician 
 he was early trained in the art, and soon 
 distinguished himself. In 1703 he was 
 engaged as a player at the court of 
 Weimar, and subsequently he was 
 musical director to the Duke of Anhalt- 
 Kothen, and latterly held an appoint- 
 ment at Leipzig. He paid a visit to 
 Potsdam on the invitation of Frederick 
 the Great. As a player on the harpsi- 
 chord and organ he had no equal among 
 his contemporaries; but it was not till 
 a century after his death that his great- 
 ness as a composer was fully recognized. 
 His compositions breathe an original 
 inspiration, and are largely of the 
 religious kind. They include pieces, 
 vocal and instrumental, for the organ, 
 piano, stringed and keyed instruments; 
 church cantatas, oratorios, masses, pas- 
 sion music, etc. 
 
 BACH'ELOR, a terra applied an- 
 ciently to a person in the first or pro- 
 bationary stage of knighthood who has 
 not yet raised his standard in the field. 
 It also denotes a person who has taken 
 the first degree in the liberal arts and 
 sciences, or in divinity, law, or medi- 
 cine, at a college or university; or a man 
 of any age who has not been married. 
 
 BACHELOR’S DEGREE, an academic I 
 degree given at the end of the first stage 
 of collegiate education, preliminary to 
 the master’s or doctor’s degree. A.B. 
 is the abbreviation of bachelor of arts, 
 S.B. of bachelor of science, Ph.B. of 
 bachelor of philosophy, LL.B. of bache- 
 lor of laws, D.B. of bachelor of divinity, 
 Litt.B. of bachelor of letters, and so on. 
 
 BACHELOR’S BUTTONS, the double- 
 flowering buttercup, with white or 
 yellow blossoms, common in gardens. 
 
 BACIL'LUS, the name applied to cer- 
 tain minute rod-like miscroscopic organ- 
 isms (Bacteria) which often appear in 
 putrefactions, and one of which is be- 
 lieved to hold a constant causative 
 relation to tubercule in the lung, and to 
 be present in all cases of phthisis. 
 Others are alleged to be connected with 
 anthrax, typhoid fever, erysipelas, etc. 
 See Bacteria. 
 
 BACKGAM'MON, a game played by 
 two persons upon a table or board made 
 for the purpose, with pieces or men, dice- 
 boxes, and dice. The table is in two 
 parts, on which are twenty-four black 
 and white spaces called points. Each 
 player has fifteen men of different colors 
 for the purpose of distinction. The 
 movements of the men are made in ac- 
 cordance with the numbers turned up 
 by the dice. 
 
 BACON, Delia Salter, an American 
 author and a conspicuous contributor 
 to the Uterature in which is discussed 
 the probability that Sir Francis Bacon 
 was the author of Shakespeare’s plays. 
 She was born in Ohio in 1811 and died 
 in London in 1859. She published 
 several stories, and in 1857 the Philos- 
 ophy of the Plays of Shakespeare 
 Unfolded, for which Nathaniel Haw- 
 thorne wrote the preface. 
 
 BACON, Francis, Baron of Verulam, 
 Viscount St. Albans, and Lord High 
 Chancellor of England; was born at 
 London in 1561, died at Highgate in 
 
 Francis Bacon. 
 
 1626. He was educated at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, and in 1575 was 
 admitted to Gray’s Inn. In 1584 he 
 became member of parliament for Mel- 
 combe Regis, and soon after drew up a 
 Letter of Aavice to Queen Elizabeth, an 
 able political memoir. In 1586 he was 
 
 member for Taunton, in 1589 for Liver- 
 pool. A year or two after he gained the 
 Earl of Essex as a friend and patron. 
 Bacon’s talents and his connection with 
 the lord-treasurer Burleigh, who had 
 married his mother’s sister, and his son 
 Sir Robert Cecil, first secretary of state, 
 seemed to promise him the highest pro- 
 motion; but he had displeased the 
 queen, and when he applied for the 
 attorney-generalship, and next for the 
 solicitor-generalship (1595), he was un- 
 successful. Essex endeavored to in- 
 demnify him by the donation of an 
 estate in land. Bacon, however, for- 
 got his obligations to his benefactor^ 
 and not only abandoned him as soon as 
 he had fallen into disgrace, but without 
 being obliged took part against him on 
 his trial, in 1601, and was active in ob- 
 taining his conviction. He had been 
 chosen member for the county of Middle- 
 sex in 1593, and for Southampton in 
 1597, and had long been a queen’s 
 counsel. The reign of James I. was 
 more favorable t^o his interest. He 
 was assiduous in courting the king’s 
 favor, and James, who was ambitious 
 of being considered a patron of letters, 
 conferred upon him in 1603 the order of 
 knighthood. In 1604 he was appointed 
 king’s counsel; in 1606 he married; in 
 1607 he became solicitor-general, and 
 six years after attorney-general. In 
 1617 he was made lord-keeper of the 
 seals; in 1618 Lord High Chancellor of 
 England and Baron Verulam. In this 
 year he lent his influence to bring a 
 verdict of guilty against Raleigh. In 
 1621 he was made Viscount St. Albans. 
 Soon after this his reputation received 
 a fatal blow. A new parliament was 
 formed in 1621, and the lord-chancellor 
 was accused before the house of bribery, 
 corruption, and other malpractices. It 
 is difficult to ascertain the full extent 
 of his guilt; but he seems to have been 
 unable to justify himself, and handed in 
 a “confession and humble submission,” 
 throwing himself on the mercy of the 
 Peers. In 1597 he published his cele- 
 brated Essays, which immediately be- 
 came very popular, were successively 
 enlarged and extended, and translated 
 into Latin, French, and Italian. The 
 treatise on the Advancement of Learn- 
 ing appeared in 1605; The Wisdom of 
 the Ancients in 1609; his great philo- 
 sophical work, the Novum Organum, in 
 1620; and the De Augmentis Scientia- 
 rum, a much enlarged edition of the 
 Advancement, in 1623. His New At- 
 lantis was written about 1614^17; Life 
 of Henry VII. about 1621. Bacon was 
 great as a moralist, a historian, a writer 
 on politics, and a rhetorician; but it 
 is as the father of the inductive method 
 in science, as the powerful exponent of 
 the principle that facts must be observed 
 and collected before theorizing, that he 
 occupies the grand position he holds 
 among the world’s great ones. 
 
 BACON, Nathaniel, an American 
 colonist of Virginia. He was a remote 
 cousin of Sir Francis Bacon, and 
 educated for the law. He took part in 
 the Indian wars of 1675-6, and was 
 carried off by dysentery in the midst 
 of political strife. He was born in 1648. 
 
 BACON, Roger, an English monk, and 
 one of the most profound and original 
 
BACTERIA 
 
 BAGGAGE 
 
 thinkers of his day, was bom about 1214, 
 near Ilchester, Somersetshire; died at 
 Oxford in 1294. His most important 
 work is his Opus Majus, v here he dis- 
 cusses the relation of ph msophy to 
 religion, and then treats of language, 
 metaphysics, optics, and experimental 
 science. He was undoubtedly the 
 earliest philosophical experimentalist in 
 Britain; he made signal advances in 
 optics; was an excellent chemist; and 
 in all probability discovered gunpowder. 
 He was intimately acquainted with 
 geography and astronomy, as appears 
 by his discovery of the errors of the 
 calendar, and their causes, and by his 
 proposals for correcting them, in which 
 he approached very near to truth. 
 
 BACTE'RIA, minute vegetable organ- 
 isms, a few species of which are produc- 
 tive of disease when introduced into the 
 animal organism. The vast majority of 
 bacteria are harmless and many of them 
 
 A. 1, single bacilli; 2, bacilli, forming 
 threads and developing spores. The bright 
 oval body in the center of each bacillus is a 
 spore. B. 1, ordinary form without .spores; 
 2. with spores; 3. free spores; 4. a mass of 
 spores. (After Klein.) 
 
 are useful to the human economy. 
 Poisonous bacteria are called “patho- 
 genic,” or disease-producing; the innoc- 
 uous ones are called “non-pathogenic.” 
 “Microbes,” “disease germs,” “micro- 
 organisms,” or simply “germs” are 
 other names for bacteria. Bacteria 
 abound everywhere. Millions of them 
 ^ist in a glassful of ordinary drinking 
 water. They stream through the pur- 
 est kind of air and are drawn in and 
 cast out with every breath. The at- 
 mosphere of cities especially is crowded 
 with them, and it is a growing belief 
 that all diseases are caused by their 
 presence and multiplication in the body. 
 Experiments, however, give the hope 
 that most of these diseases will be 
 conquered, as bacteriology develops 
 methods of immuning the human body 
 to the multiplication of these organisms 
 in the blood and other tissues. (See 
 Antitoxin.) Bacteria are classified as 
 bacilli, spirilli, and cocci. These names 
 are used because they describe the 
 shape of the different bacteria to which 
 they are applied. Bacillus means a 
 little rod, and bacilli are rod-shaped. 
 Spirillum means a spiral, and spirilli 
 are spiral-like, while coccus means a 
 berry, and cocci are little round bodies. 
 These three main divisions are sub- 
 divided into numerous species. The 
 average size of bacteria is so small as 
 to surpass comprehension. For ex- 
 ample, 2000 of them in a row, side by 
 side, would hardly stretch across the 
 head of a pin. Pneumonia is caused 
 by a coccus, tuberculosis by a bacillus, 
 and bacteriology has positively proved 
 that various other diseases are produced 
 by these germs. 
 
 BADAKSHAN', a territory of central 
 Asia, tributary to the Ameer of .Afghan- 
 istan. It has the Oxus on the north. 
 
 and the Hindu Kush on the south ■ and 
 has lofty mountains and fertile valleys; 
 the chief town is Faizabad. The inhab- 
 itants profess Mohammedanism. Pop. 
 100,000. 
 
 BADEN (bii'den). Grand-duchy of, 
 one of the more important states of the 
 German Empire, .situated in the s.w. of 
 Germany, to the west of Wtirtemberg. 
 It is divided into four districts, Con- 
 stance, Freiburg, Karlsruhe, and Mann- 
 heim; has an area of 5824 sq. miles, 
 and a pop. of 1,866,584. It is moun- 
 tainous, being traversed to a consider- 
 able extent by the lofty plateau of the 
 Schwarzwald or Black Forest, which 
 attains its highest point in the Feldberg 
 (4904 feet). The nucleus of this plateau 
 consists of gneiss and granite. In the 
 north it sinks down toward the Olden- 
 wald, which is, however, of different 
 geological structure, being composed 
 for the most part of red sandstone. The 
 whole of Baden, except a small portion 
 in the s.e., in which the Danube takes 
 its rise, belongs to the basin of the 
 Rhine, which bounds it on the south 
 and west. Numerous tributaries of the 
 Rhine intersect it, the chief being the 
 Neckar. Lakes are numerous, and 
 include a considei’able part of the Lake 
 of Constance. The climate varies 
 much. The hilly parts, especially in 
 the east, are cold and have a long winter, 
 while the valley of the Rhine enjoys 
 the finest climate of Germany. The 
 principal minerals worked are coal, 
 salt, iron, zinc, and nickel. The number 
 of mineral springs is remarkably great, 
 and of these not a few are of great 
 celebrity. The vegetation is peculiarly 
 rich, and there are magnificent forests. 
 The cereals comprise wheat, oats, barley, 
 and rye. Potatoes, hemp, tobacco, 
 wine, and sugar-beet are largely pro- 
 duced. Several of the wines, both white 
 and red, rank in the first class. Baden 
 has long been famous for its fruits also. 
 Of the total area 42 per cent is under 
 cultivation, 37 per cent under forest, 
 and 17 per cent under meadows ancl 
 pastures. The farms are mostly quite 
 small. The manufactures are impor- 
 tant. Among thern are textiles, tobacco, 
 and cigars, chemicals, machinery, pot- 
 tery ware, jewelry (especially at Pforz- 
 heim), wooden clocks, confined chiefly 
 to the districts of the Black Forest, 
 musical boxes and other musical toj^s. 
 The capital is Carlsruhe, about 5 miles 
 from the Rhine; the other chief towns 
 are Mannheim, Freiburg-im-Brei.sgau, 
 with a Roman Catholic university; 
 Baden, and Heidelberg. Baden has 
 warm mineral springs, which were 
 known and used in the time of the Ro- 
 mans. Heidelberg has a university 
 (Protestant), founded in 1386, the oldest 
 in the present German Empire. The 
 railways have a length of 850 miles, and 
 are nearly all state property. In the 
 time of the Roman Empire southern 
 Baden belonged to the Roman province 
 of Rhsetia. Under the old German 
 Empire it was a margraviate, which in 
 1533 was divided into Baden-Baden 
 and Baden-Durlach, but reunited in 
 1771. The title of grand-duke was 
 conferred by Napolean in 1806, and in 
 the same year Baden was extended to 
 its present limits. The executive power 
 
 is vested in the grand-duke, the legis- 
 lative in the house of legislature, con- 
 sisting of an upper and a lower chamber 
 
 BADEN (or Baden-Baden, to dis- 
 tinguish it from other towns of the same 
 name), a town and watering-place, 
 Grand-duchy of Baden, 18 miles s.s.w. 
 Carlsruhe, built in the form of an amphi- 
 theater on a spur of the Black Forest, 
 overhanging a valley, through which 
 runs a little stream Oosbach. Baden 
 has been celebrated from the remotest 
 antiquity for its thermal baths; and it 
 used also to be celebrated for its gaming 
 saloons. Pop. 15,731. 
 
 BADGER (baj'er), a plantigrade, car- 
 nivorous mammal, allied both to the 
 bears and to the weasels, of a clumsy 
 make, with short thick legs, and long 
 claws on the fore-feet. The common 
 badger is as large as a middling-sized 
 
 Badger 
 
 dog, liut much lower on the legs, with 
 a flatter and broader body, very thick 
 tough hide, and long coarse hair. It 
 inhabits the north of Europe and Asia, 
 burrows, is indolent and sleepy, feeds 
 by night on vegetables, small quad- 
 rupeds, etc. Its flesh may be eaten, and 
 its hair is used for artists’ brushes in 
 painting. The American badger be- 
 longs to a separate genus. 
 
 BAFFIN BAY, on the n.e. of North 
 America between Greenland and the 
 islands that lie on the n. of the conti- 
 nent; discovered by Baffin in 1616. 
 
 BAGDAD', capital of a Turkish pa- 
 shalic of the same name (70,000 sq 
 miles, 1,300,000 inhabitants), in the 
 southern part of Mesopotamia. The 
 greater part of it lies on the eastern bank 
 of the Tigris, which is crossed by a 
 bridge of boats; old Bagdad, the resi- 
 dence of the caliphs (now in ruins), was 
 on the western bank of the river. 
 Manufactures: leather, silks, cottons, 
 woolens, carpets, etc. Steamers ply 
 on the river between Bagdad and Bas- 
 sorah, and the town exports wheat, 
 dates, galls, gum, mohair, carpets, etc., 
 to Europe. Bagdad is inhabited by 
 Turks, Arabs, Persians, Armenians, 
 Jews, etc., and a small number of Euro- 
 peans. Estimated pop. over 100,000. 
 Bagdad was founded in 762, by the 
 Caliph Almansur, and raised to a high 
 degree of splendor in the 9th century 
 by Harun A1 Rashid. It is the scene of 
 a number of the tales of the “Arabian 
 Nights.” 
 
 BAGGAGE, goods carried by a trav- 
 eler while on the road. In the United 
 States the term is used in a restricted 
 sense to designate certain necessary 
 articles to be used by the person travel- 
 ing. Railroads as a rule limit the 
 weight of the baggage to be carried 
 
BAGGAGE 
 
 BAILIFF 
 
 free The carrier is liable for actual 
 baggage, but not for merchandise 
 carried by the passenger. If the carrier, 
 knowing the nature of the merchandise, 
 however, accepts them, he becomes 
 liable for their loss through negligence 
 of his own. 
 
 in number, besides keys and rocks 
 innumerable. The principal islands are 
 Grand Bahama, Great and Little Abaco, 
 Andros Islands, New Providence, Eleu- 
 thera, San Salvador, Great Exuma, 
 Watling Island, Long Island, Crooked 
 Island, Acklin Island, Mariguana Island, 
 
 Bagdad, from the south. 
 
 BAGGAGE, Military, all the goods 
 carried by an army except those which 
 are attached to the persons of the fight- 
 ing men, such as guns and ammunition. 
 But arms and ammunition carried in 
 bulk are military baggage. All officers 
 are allowed a certain weight of bag- 
 gage. 
 
 BAGHELKAND, a tract of country 
 in central India, occupied by a collec- 
 tion of native states (Rewah being the 
 chief), under the governor-general's 
 agent for central India; area, 11,323 sq. 
 miles; pop. 1,737,095. 
 
 BAGIRJVII (ba-gir'me) or BAGHER- 
 MI, a Mohammedan negro state in cen- 
 tral Africa, situated between Bornu and 
 Waday, to the south of Lake Tchad. 
 It is mostly a plain ; has an area of about 
 56,000 sq miles, and about 1,500,000 
 inhabitants 
 
 BAGPIPE, a musical wind-instrument 
 of very great antiquity, having been 
 used among the ancient Greeks, and 
 being a favorite instrument over Europe 
 generally in the 15th century. It still 
 continues in use among the country 
 people of Poland, Italy, the south of 
 France, and in Scotland and Ireland. 
 Though now often regarded as the 
 national instrument of Scotland, espe- 
 cially Celtic Scotland, it is only Scottish 
 by adoption, being introduced into that 
 country from England. It consists of 
 a leathern bag, which receives the air 
 from the mouth, or from bellows; and 
 of pipes, into which the air is pressed 
 from the bag by the performer’s elbow. 
 In the common or Highland form one 
 pipe (called the chanter) plays the 
 melody; of the three others (called 
 drones) two are in unison with the 
 lowest A of the chanter, and the third 
 and longest an octave lower, the sound 
 being produced by means of reeds. 
 
 BAHA'MA ISLANDS, or LUCAYOS, a 
 group of islands in the West Indies, 
 forming a colony belonging to Britain, 
 lying n.e. of Cuba and s.e. of the coast 
 of Florida, the Gulf-stream passing be- 
 tween them and the mainland. They 
 extend a distance of upward of 600 
 miles, and are said to be twenty-nine 
 
 Great Inagua. Of the whole group 
 about twenty are inhabited, the most 
 populous being New Providence, which 
 contains the capital, Nassau, the largest 
 being Andros, 100 miles long, 20 to 40 
 broad. They are low and flat, and have 
 in many parts extensive forests. Total 
 area, 5400 sq. miles. The soil is a thin 
 but rich vegetable mold, and the prin- 
 cipal product is pineapples, which form 
 the most important export. The islands 
 are a favorite winter resort for those 
 afflicted with pulmonary diseases. San 
 Salvador, or Cat Island, is generally 
 believed to be the same as Guanahani, 
 the land first touched on by Columbus 
 (October 12, 1492) on his first great 
 voyage of discovery. Pop. 53,735, in- 
 cluding 14,000 whites. 
 
 BAHA'WALPUR, a town of India, 
 capital of state of same name in the 
 Punjab, 2 miles from the Sutlej; sur- 
 rounded by a mud wall and containing 
 the extensive palace of the Nawab. 
 Pop. 18,700. — The state has an area of 
 
 BAHIA (ba*e'a), a town of Brazil, on 
 the Bay of All Saints, province of Bahia 
 It consists of a lower town, which is 
 little more than an irregular, narrow, 
 and dirty street, stretching about 4 
 miles along the shore; and an upper 
 town, with which it is connected by a 
 steep street, much better built. The 
 harbor is one of the best in South 
 ■America ; and the trade, chiefly in sugar, 
 cotton, coffee, tobacco, hides, piassava, 
 and tapioca, is very extensive. Pop. 
 162,000 — -Area of the province for state), 
 164,590 sq. miles; pop. 1,821,089. 
 
 BAIKAL (bi'kal), a large fresh-water 
 lake in eastern Siberia, 360 miles long, 
 and about 50 in extreme breadth, 
 interspersed with islands; in the line of 
 the great Siberian Railway. It is sur- 
 rounded by rugged and lofty mountains.- 
 contains seals, and many fish, particu- 
 larly salmon, sturgeon, and pike. Its 
 greatest depth is over 4000 feet. It 
 receives the waters of the Upper Angara 
 Selenga, Barguzin, etc., and discharges 
 its waters by the Lower .Angara. It is 
 frozen over in winter. 
 
 BAIL, the person or persons who 
 procure the release of a prisoner from 
 custody by becoming surety for his 
 appearance in court at the proper time- 
 also, the security giver for the release 
 of a prisoner from custody 
 
 Entrance to Port Nassau, Bahama Islands. 
 
 17,285 sq. miles, of which 10,000 is 
 desert, the only cultivated lands l 5 ung 
 along the Indus and Sutlej. Pop. 
 650,042. 
 
 BAILIFF, a civil officer or functionary 
 subordinate to .some one else. There are 
 several kinds of bailiffs, whose offices 
 widel)' differ, but all agree in this, that 
 
BAILLY 
 
 BAKU 
 
 the keeping or protection of something 
 belongs to them. 
 
 BAILLY (ba-ye), Jean Sylvain, 
 French astronomer and statesman, born 
 at Paris, 1736. After some youthful 
 essays in verse he was induced by 
 Lacaille to devote himself to astronomy, 
 and on the death of the latter in 1753, 
 being admitted to the Academy of 
 Sciences, he published a reduction of 
 Lacaille’s observations on the zodiacal 
 stars. In 1784 the French Academy 
 elected him a member. The revolution 
 drew him into public life. Paris chose 
 him. May 12, 1789, first deputy of the 
 tiers-6tat, and in the assembly itself 
 he was made first president, a post 
 occupied by him on June 20, 1789, in 
 the session of the Tennis Court, when 
 the deputies swore never to separate 
 till they had given France a new consti- 
 tution. As mayor of Paris his modera- 
 tion and impartial enforcement of the 
 law failed to, commend themselves to 
 the people, and his forcible suppression 
 of mob violence, July 17, 1791, aroused 
 
 Jean Sylvain Bailly. 
 
 a storm which led to his resignation and 
 retreat to Nantes. In 1793 he at- 
 tempted to join Laplace at Melun, but 
 was recognized and sent to Paris, where 
 he was condemned by the revolutionary 
 tribunal, and executed on Nov. 12th. 
 
 BAINBRIDGE, William, an American 
 naval oflficer, born in Princeton, N. J., 
 in 1744, died in 1833. He became 
 lieutenant in the navy in 1798, was 
 captured by the French near Guada- 
 loupe, and caused the passage of an act 
 against French subj'ects captured at 
 sea. He served in the war against 
 Tripoli and captured the Moorish ship 
 Meshboha in 1803, was himself taken by 
 the Tripolitans on having run aground, 
 and held prisoner until the end of the 
 war. He took part in the war of 1812 
 and captured the British frigate Java. 
 In 1815 he commanded the squadron 
 sent against Algiers and on his return 
 I founded the school for naval officers at 
 Boston. His last years were spent in 
 command of the navy yards at Phil- 
 adelphia and Charlestown. 
 
 BAIRD, Sir David, a distinguished 
 British commander, was born in Edin- 
 burghshire in 1757, and entered the 
 army in 1772. He distinguished him- 
 self as a captain in the war against Hyder 
 .■Vli, was wounded and taken prisoner, 
 and confined in the fortress of Serin- 
 gapatam for nearly four years. He 
 received a colonelcy in 179^, went 
 
 in 1797 to the Cape of Good Hope 
 as brigadier-general, and in 1798, on 
 his appointment as major-general, 
 returned to India. In 1799 he com- 
 manded the storming party at the 
 
 assault of Seringapatam. Being ajj- 
 pointed in 1800 to command an expedi- 
 tion to Egypt, he landed at Kosseir in 
 June, 1801, crossed the desert, 'and, 
 embarking on the Nile, descended to 
 Cairo, and thence to Alexandria, which 
 he reached a few days before it sur- 
 rendered to General Hutchinson. With 
 the rank of lieutenant-general he com- 
 manded an expedition in 1805 to the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and in 1806, after 
 defeating the Dutch, he received the 
 surrender of the colony. He com- 
 manded a division at the seige of Copen- 
 
 Sir David Baird. 
 
 hagen, and after a short period of service 
 in Ireland sailed with 10,000 men for 
 Corunna, where he formed a j’unction 
 with Sir John Moore. He commanded 
 the first division of Moore’s army, and 
 in the battle of Corunna lost his left 
 arm. By the death of Sir John Moore 
 Sir David succeeded to the chief com- 
 mand, receiving for the fourth time the 
 thanks of parliament, and a baronetcy. 
 In 1814 he was made a general. He 
 died in 1829. 
 
 BAIRD, Spencer Fullerton, American 
 naturalist, born 1823, died 1887. He 
 was long assistant secretary, and 
 latterly secretary, of the Smithsonian 
 Institution, and /was also chief govern- 
 ment commissioner of fish and fisheries. 
 He wrote much on natural history, his 
 chief works being The Birds of N. 
 America (in conjunction with John 
 Cassin); The Mammals of N. America; 
 Review of American Birds in the Smith- 
 sonian Institution; and (with Messrs. 
 Brewer and Ridgeway) History of N. 
 American Birds. 
 
 BAK'ARGANJ, a maritime district 
 and town in Bengal; chief rivers, 
 Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna. 
 Area, 3649 sq. miles; pop. 2,153,965. — 
 The town now lies in ruins. Pop. 7060. 
 
 BAKER, Sir Samuel White, a dis- 
 tinguished English traveler, born in 
 1821. He resided some years in Ceylon ; 
 in 1861 began his African travels, which 
 lasted several years, in the Upper Nile 
 regions, and resulted, among other dis- 
 coveries, in that of Albert Nyanza lake 
 in 1864, and of the exit of the White 
 Nile from it. In Africa he encountered 
 Speke and Grant after their discovery 
 of the Victoria Nyanza. On his return 
 home he was received with great honor 
 and was knighted. In 1869 he returned 
 to Africa as head of an expedition sent 
 by the Khedive of Egypt to annex and 
 open up to trade a large part of the 
 newly explored country, being raised to 
 the dignity of pasha. He returned in 
 1873, having finished his work, and was 
 succeeded by the celebrated Gordon. 
 His writings include The Rifle and the 
 Hound in Ceylon; Eight Years’ Wander- 
 ings in Ceylon ; The Albert Nyanza, Etc. ; 
 The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia; 
 Ismailia: a Narrative of the Expedition 
 to Central Africa ; Cyprus as I Saw It in 
 1879; also. Cast Up by the Sea, a story 
 published in 1869. He died Dec. 30, 
 1893. 
 
 BAKHUISEN. See Backhuysen. 
 
 BAKING, a term used in various 
 senses. For the baking of bread, see 
 Bread. A common application of the 
 term is to a mode of cooking food in a 
 close oven, baking in this case being 
 opposed to roasting or broiling, in which 
 an open fire is used. The oven should 
 not be too close, but ought to be properly 
 ventilated. Baking is also applied to 
 th^ hardening of earthenware or porce- 
 lain by fire. 
 
 BAKING POWDER, a mixture of 
 bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid, 
 usually with some flour added. The 
 water of the dough causes the fiberation 
 of carbonic acid, which makes the bread 
 “rise.” 
 
 BAKU (ba-ko'), a Russian port on the 
 western shore of the Caspian, occupying 
 part of the peninsula of Apsheron. The 
 naphtha or petroleum springs of Baku 
 have long been known; and the Field 
 of Fire, so called from emitting inflam- 
 mable gases, has long been a place of 
 pilgrimage with the Guebres or Fire- 
 worshipers. Recently, from the devel- 
 opment of the petroleum industry, 
 Baku h^s greatly increased, and is now 
 a large and flourishing town. About 
 400 oil-wells are in operation, producing 
 immense quantities of petroleum, much 
 of which is led direct in pipes from the 
 
BAKUNIN 
 
 BALFE 
 
 Wells to the refineries in Baku, and it is 
 intended to lay a pipe for its conveyance 
 all the way to the Black Sea at Batoum, 
 which is already connected with Baku 
 by railway. Some of the wells have had 
 such an outflow of oil as to be un- 
 manageable, and the Baku petroleum 
 now competes successfully with any 
 other in the markets of the world. 
 Baku is the station of the Caspian fleet, 
 is strongly fortified, and has a large 
 shipping trade. Pop. 112,253. 
 
 BAKU'NIN, Michael, Russian social- 
 ist, the founder of Nihilism, born 1814 
 of rich and noble family, entered the 
 army, but threw up his commission 
 after two years’ service, and studied 
 philosophy at Moscow. Having adopted 
 Hegel’s system as the basis of a new 
 revolution, he went in 1841 to Berlin, 
 and thence to Dresden, Geneva, and 
 Paris, as the propagandist of anarchism. 
 His extreme views, however, led to a 
 quarrel Avdth Marx and the Inter- 
 national; and, having fallen into dis- 
 repute with his own party in Russia, 
 he died suddenly and almost alone at 
 Berne,, in 1878. 
 
 BALAAM (ba'lam), a heathen seer, 
 invited by Balak, king of Moab, to curse 
 the Israelites, but compelled by miracle 
 to bless them instead (Numbers xxii.- 
 xxiv.). In another account he is repre- 
 sented as aiding in the perversion of the 
 Israelites to the worship of Baal, and 
 as being, therefore, slain in the Midi- 
 anitish war (Numbers xxxi.; Joshua 
 xiii.). 
 
 BALAKLAVA (ba-l^-kla'va), a small 
 seaport in the Crimea, 8 miles s.s.e. of 
 Sevastopol, consisting for the most part 
 of houses perched upon heights, with 
 
 BAL'ANCE, an instrument employed 
 for determining the quantity of any 
 substance equal to a given weight. 
 
 BALANCE OF POWER, a political 
 principle which first came to be recog- 
 nized in modern Europe in the 16th 
 century, though it appears to have been 
 also acted on by the Greeks in ancient 
 times, in preserving the relations be- 
 tween their different states. The object 
 in maintaining the balance of power is 
 to secure the general independence of 
 nations as a whole, by preventing the 
 aggressive attempts of individual states 
 to extend their territory and sway at 
 the expense of weaker countries. 
 
 BALANCE OF TRADE, the difference 
 between the stated money values of the 
 exports and imports of a country. The 
 balance is erroneously said to be “in 
 favor’’ of a country when the value of 
 the exports is in excess of that of the 
 imports and “against it” when the im- 
 ports are in excess of the exports. The 
 phrases date from the days of the mer- 
 cantile system, the characteristic doc 
 trine of which alleged the desirability 
 of regulating commerce with a view to 
 amassing treasure by exporting produce 
 largely, importing little merchandise in 
 return, and receiving the balance in 
 bullion. 
 
 BALBO'A, Vasco Nmiez de, one of the 
 early Spanish adventurers in the New 
 World; born 1475. Having dissipated 
 his fortune, he went to America, and 
 was at Darien with the expedition of 
 Francisco de Enciso in 1510. An insur- 
 rection placed him at the head of the 
 colony, but rumors of a western ocean 
 and of the wealth of Peru led him to 
 cross the isthmus. On Sept. 25, 1513, 
 he saw for the first time the Pacific, and 
 
 Balaklava harbor. 
 
 an old Genoese castle on an almost in- 
 accessible elev'ation. The harbor has a 
 very narrow entrance, and though deep, 
 is not capacious. In the Crimean war 
 it was captured by the British, and a 
 heroically fought battle took place here 
 (Oct. 25, 1854), ending in the repulse 
 of the Russians by the British. The 
 “charge of the Light Brigade” was at 
 this battle. 
 
 after annexing it to Spain, and acquir- 
 ing information about Peru, returned 
 to Darien. Here he found himself sup- 
 planted by a new governor, Pedrarias 
 Davila, with much consequent griev- 
 ance on the one side, and much jealousy 
 on the other. Balboa submitted, how- 
 ever, and in the following year was 
 appointed viceroy of the South Sea. 
 Davila was apparently reconciled to ' at 
 
 him, and gave him his daughter in 
 marriage, but shortly after, in 1517, 
 had him beheaded on a charge of intent 
 to rebel. Pizarro, who afterward com- 
 pleted the discovery o: Peru, served 
 under Balboa. 
 
 BAL'CONY, in architecture, is a gal- 
 lery projecting from the outer wall of 
 a building, supported by columns or 
 brackets, and surrounded by a balus- 
 trade. Balconies were not used in 
 Greek and Roman buildings, and in the 
 East the roof of the house has for cen- 
 turies served similar purposes on a larger 
 scale. Balconies properly so styled 
 came into fashion in Italy in the middle 
 ages, and were apparently introduced 
 into Britain in the IGth century. 
 
 BALDNESS, loss of the hair, com- 
 plete or partial, usually the latter, and 
 due to various causes. Most commonly 
 it results as one of the changes belonging 
 to old age, due to wasting of the skin, 
 hair sacs, etc. It may occur as a result 
 of some acute disease, or at an unusually 
 early age, without any such cause. In 
 both the latter cases it is due to defec- 
 tive nourishment of the hair, owing to 
 lessened circulation of the blood in the 
 scalp. The best treatment for prevent- 
 ing loss of hair seems to consist in such 
 measures as bathing the head with cold 
 water and drying it by vigorous rubbing 
 with a rough towel and brushing it well 
 with a hard brush. Various stimulating 
 lotions are also recommended, especially 
 those containing cantharides. But prol> 
 ably in most cases senile baldness is 
 unpreventable. When extreme scur- 
 finess of the scalp accompanies loss of 
 the hair an ointment that will clear away 
 the scurf will prove beneficial. 
 
 BALDWIN, Evelyn Briggs, an Ameri- 
 can arctic explorer, born in Missouri in 
 1862, was a teacher until 1892, when he 
 was appointed observer of the U. States 
 Weather Bureau. In 1893-4 he accom- 
 panied Peary to North Greenland as 
 meteorologist, and also went in the same 
 capacity with Wellman in 1898-9. 
 
 BALE (bal). See Basel. 
 
 BALEARIC ISLANDS, a group of five 
 islands southeast of Spain, including 
 Majorca, Minorca, Iviza, and Formen- 
 tera. The popular derivation of the 
 ancient name Baleares has reference 
 to the repute of the inhabitants for 
 their skill in slinging, in which they 
 distinguished themselves both in the 
 army of Hannibal and under the Ro- 
 mans, by whom the islands were an- 
 nexed in 123 B.c. After being taken 
 by the Vandals, under Genseric, and in 
 the 8th century by the Moors, they 
 were taken by James I., King of Arra- 
 gon, 1220-34, and constituted a king- 
 dom, which in 1375 was united to Spain. 
 The islands now form a Spanish prov- 
 ince, with an area of 1860 square miles, 
 and 300,473 inhabitants. See separate 
 
 BALFE (half), Michael William, com- 
 poser, was born in Dublin 15th May, 
 1808. In his seventh year he performed 
 in public on the violin, and at sixteen 
 took the part of the Wicked Huntsman 
 in Der Freischiitz at Drury Lane. In 
 1825 he went to Italy, wrote the music 
 for a ballet La Peyrouse for the Scala at 
 Milan, and in the following year sang 
 the Thdatre-Italicn, Paris, with 
 
BALFOUR 
 
 BALL-COCK 
 
 modern success. He returned to Italy, 
 and at Palermo was given his first opera, 
 I Rivali (1829L For five years he con- 
 tinued singing and composing operas for 
 the Italian stage. In 1835 he went to 
 England, and composed a number of 
 operas, among others The Bohemian 
 Girl (1843), Rose of Castile (1857), 
 Satanella '(1858), and the Talisman 
 (first performed in 1874). He died Oct. 
 20, 1870. His operas are melodious and 
 many of the airs are excellent. 
 
 BAL'FOUR, Right Hon. Arthur 
 James, LL.D., F.R.S., etc., son of Mr. 
 Balfour of Whittinghame, Haddington- 
 shire, was born July 15, 1848, and edu- 
 cated at Eton and Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge. He acted as private secretary 
 to his uncle, the Marquis of Salisbury, 
 at the Foreign Office during 1878-80, 
 and since 1885 has been a distinguished 
 member of the Conservative party. He 
 showed much ability as Chief Secre- 
 tary for Ireland during Lord Salisbury’s 
 administration in 1887-91. He was 
 leader of the House of Commons and 
 first lord of the treasury in 1891-92, and 
 again from 1895. On the retirement of 
 Lord Salisbury in 1902 he became prime 
 minister. He has published a Defence 
 of Philosophic Doubt (1879), Essays and 
 Addresses (1893), and The Foundations 
 of Belief (1895). 
 
 BALFROOSH', or BARFURUSH', a 
 
 town, Persia, province of Mazanderan, 
 about twelve miles from the Caspian, a 
 great emporium of the trade between 
 Persia and Russia. Pop. estimated 
 from 50,000 to 100,000. 
 
 BA'LI, an island of the Indian Archi- 
 pelago east of Java, belonging to Hol- 
 land; greatest length, 85, greatest 
 breadth, 55 miles; area, about 2260 sq. 
 miles. It consists chiefly of a series of 
 volcanic mountains, of which the lofti- 
 est, Agoong (11,326 feet), became active 
 in 1843 after a long period of quiescence. 
 Principal products, rice, cocoa, coffee, 
 indigo, cotton, etc. The people are akin 
 to those of Java and are mostly Brah- 
 mans in religion. It is divided into 
 eight provinces under native rajahs, 
 and forms one colony with Lombok, the 
 united pop. being 1,363,000, of whom 
 about 500,000 belong to Bali. 
 
 BAL'IOL, or BALLIOL, John de, of 
 Barnard Castle, Northumberland, father 
 of king John Baliol, a great English 
 baron in the reign of Henry III. In 
 1263 he laid the foundation of Balliol 
 College, Oxford, which was completed 
 by his widow Devorguila or Devorgilla. 
 She was daughter and co-heiress of Allan 
 of Galloway, a great baron of Scotland, 
 by Margaret, eldest daughter of David, 
 Earl of Huntingdon, brother of William 
 the Lion. It was on the strength of this 
 genealogy that his son John Baliol be- 
 came temporary King of Scotland. He 
 died 1269. 
 
 BAL'IOL, or BALLIOL, John, King of 
 Scotland; born about 1249, died 1315. 
 On the death of Margaret, the Maiden 
 of Norway and grandchild of Alexander 
 III., Baliol claimed the vacant throne by 
 virtue of his descent from David, Earl of 
 Huntingdon, brother of William the 
 Lion, King of Scotland. Robert Bruce 
 (grandfather of the king) opposed Baliol ; 
 but Edward I.’s decision was in favor of 
 Baliol, who did homage to him for the 
 
 kingdom, Nov. 20, 1292. Irritated by 
 Edward’s harsh exercise of authority, 
 Baliol concluded a treaty with France, 
 then at war with England; but after 
 the defeat at Dunbar he surrendered 
 his crown into the hands of the English 
 monarch. He was sent with his son to 
 the Tower, but by the intercession of 
 the pope in 1297, obtained liberty to re- 
 tire to his Norman estates, where he 
 died. — His son, Edward, in 1332 landed 
 in Fife with an armed force, and having 
 defeated a large army under the regent 
 Mar (who was killed) got himself crowned 
 king, 'but was driven out in three months. 
 
 BAL'KAN, a rugged chain of moun- 
 tains extending from Cape Emineh, on 
 the Black Sea, in Eastern Roumelia, 
 westward to the borders of Servia, 
 though the name is sometimes used to 
 include the whole mountain system 
 from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, the 
 region south of Austria and Russia, or 
 south of the Danube and Save, forming 
 the Balkan Peninsula. The range, 
 which is over 200 miles in length, forms 
 the water-shed between the streams 
 flowing northward into the Danube and 
 those flowing southward to the .iEgean, 
 the chief of the latter being the Maritza. 
 The average height is not more than 
 5000 feet, but the highest point, Tchat- 
 al-dagh, is 8340 feet. As a political 
 boundary it divides Bulgaria from East- 
 ern Rumelia. 
 
 BALKAN FREE STATES, Bulgaria, 
 Eastern Roumelia, Rumania, and Ser- 
 via. 
 
 BALKH (balk or bal/i), a city in the 
 north of Afghanistan, in Afghan Turkes- 
 tan, at one time the emporium of the 
 trade between India, China, and west- 
 ern Asia. It was long the center of 
 Zoroastrianism, and was also an impor- 
 tant Buddhist center. In 1220 it was 
 sacked by Genghis Khan, and again by 
 Timur in the 14th century. The re- 
 mains of the ancient city extend for 
 miles. The town is now merely a village, 
 but a new town has risen up an hour’s 
 journey north of the old, the residence 
 of the Afghan governor, with a pop. of 
 about 20,000. — The district, which 
 formed a portion of ancient Bactria, lies 
 between the Oxus and the Hindu-Kush, 
 with Badakshan to the east and the 
 desert to the west. In the vicinity of the 
 Oxus, where there are facilities for 
 irrigation, the soil is rich and productive, 
 and there are many populous villages. 
 
 BAL'KIS, the Arabian name of the 
 Queen of Sheba who visited Solomon. 
 She is the central figure of innumerable 
 Eastern legends and tales. 
 
 BALL, a spherical implement origi- 
 nally of war, later of sports and games 
 which are the degenerated forms of war. 
 The ball was freely used by the Romans 
 and Greeks, and playing with a ball 
 dates farther back than history. Tennis, 
 racquet, football, baseball, golf, in 
 short all games using a ball, have an 
 origin so old as to be lost in antiquity. 
 The term ball is often used to designate 
 projectiles from firearms generally. 
 
 BALL, Thomas, an American sculp- 
 tor, born in 1819 at Charlestown, Mass. 
 He made busts of Jenny Lind, of Daniel 
 Webster (1852), and a life-sized figure of 
 the latter. He is the sculptor of the 
 Washington statue at Boston, of the 
 
 statue of Webster in Central Park, N. Y., 
 and of the group “Emancipation” at 
 Washington. 
 
 BAL'LAD, a term loosely applied to 
 various poetic forms of the song type, 
 but in its most definite sense a poem in 
 which a short narrative is subjected to 
 simple lyrical treatment. The ballad is 
 probably one of the earliest forms of 
 rhythmic poetic expression, constituting 
 a species of epic in miniature, out of 
 which by fusion and remolding larger 
 epics were sometimes shaped. As in the 
 folk-tales, so in the ballads of different 
 nations, the resemblances are sufficiently 
 numerous and close to point to the con- 
 clusion that they have often had their 
 first origin in the same primitive folk- 
 lore or popular tales. But in any case, 
 excepting a few modern literary ballads 
 of a subtler kind, they have been the 
 popular expression of the broad human 
 emotions clustering about some strong- 
 ly outlined incidents of war, love, crime, 
 superstition, or death. 
 
 BALLADE (bal-ad'), the earlier and 
 modern French spelling of ballad, but 
 now limited in its use to a distinct verse- 
 form introduced into English literature 
 of late years from the French and chiefly 
 used by writers of vers-de-societ6. It 
 consists of three stanzas of eight lines 
 each, with an envoy or closing stanza 
 of four lines. The rhymes, which are 
 not more than three, follow each other 
 in the stanzas thus: a, b, a, b;b, c, b, c, 
 and in the envoy, b, c, b, c, and the 
 same line serves as a refrain to each of 
 the stanzas and to the envoy. There are 
 other varieties, but this may be regarded 
 as the strictest, according to the prec- 
 edent of Villon and Marot. 
 
 BALLARAT', or BALLAARAT, an 
 Australian town in Victoria, chief center 
 of the gold-mining industry of the 
 colony, and next in importance to Mel- 
 bourne, from which it is distant w.n.w. 
 about sixty miles direct. Gold was first 
 discovered in 1851, and the extraor- 
 dinary richness of the field soon 
 attracted hosts of miners. The surface 
 diggings having been exhausted the 
 precious metal is now got from greater 
 depths, and there are mines as deep as 
 some coal-pits, the gold being obtained 
 by crushing the auriferous quartz. Pop. 
 about 43,000. 
 
 BAL'LAST, a term applied (1) to 
 heavy matter, as stone, sand, iron, or 
 water placed in the bottom of a ship or 
 other vessel to sink it in the water to 
 such a depth as to enable it to carry 
 sufficient sail without oversetting. (2) 
 The sand placed in bags in the car of a 
 balloon to steady it and to enable the 
 aeronaut to lighten the balloon by 
 throwing part of it out. (3) The ma- 
 terial used to fill up the space between 
 the rails on a railway in order to make 
 it firm and solid. 
 
 BALL-COCK, a kind of self-acting 
 stop-cock opened and shut by means of 
 a hollow sphere or ball of metal attached 
 to the end of a lever connected with the 
 cock. Such cocks are often employed 
 to regulate the supply of water to cis- 
 terns. The ball floats on the water in 
 the cistern by its buoyancy, and rises 
 and sinks as the water rises and sinks, 
 shutting off the water in the one case 
 and letting it on in the other. 
 
BALLET 
 
 BALTIMORE 
 
 BALLET (bal'a), a species of dance 
 usually forming an interlude in theatri- 
 cal performances, but principally con- 
 fined to opera. Its object is to repre- 
 sent, by mimic movements and dances, 
 actions, characters, sentiments, pas- 
 sions, and feelings, in which several 
 dancers perform together. The ballet 
 is an invention of modern times, though 
 pantomimic dances were not unknown 
 to the ancients. The dances frequently 
 introduecd into operas seldom deserve 
 the name ballet, as they usually do not 
 represent any action, but are destined 
 only to give the dancers an opportunity 
 of showing their skill, and the modern 
 ballet in general, from an artistic point 
 of view, is a very low-class entertain- 
 ment. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. I, Cistei'ii with ball-cock attached. 
 
 Fig. 2, luternal structure of cock. 
 a, Valve shown open so as to admit water. 
 
 Arm of lever, which being raised 
 shuts the valve. 
 
 BALLIS'TIC PENDULUM, an appa- 
 ratus for ascertaining the velocity of 
 military projectiles, and consequently 
 the force of fired gunpowder. A piece of 
 ordnance is fired against bags of sand 
 supported in a strong case or frame sus- 
 pended so as to swing like a pendulum. 
 The arc through which it vibrates is 
 shown by an index, and the amount of 
 vibration forms a measure of the force 
 or velocity of the ball. 
 
 BALLOON'. See Airship. 
 
 BAL'LOT, Voting by, signifies liter- 
 ally voting by means of little balls 
 (called by the French ballottes), usually 
 of different colors, which are put into a 
 box in such a manner as to enable the 
 voter, if he chooses, to conceal for whom 
 or for what he gives his suffrage. The 
 method is adopted by most clubs in the 
 election of their members — a white ball 
 indicating assent, a black ball dissent. 
 Hence, when an applicant is rejected, he 
 is said to be blackballed. The term vot- 
 ing by ballot is also applied in a general 
 way to any method of secret voting, as, 
 for instance, when a person gives his 
 vote by means of a ticket bearing the 
 name of the candidate whom he wishes 
 to support. In this sense vote by ballot 
 is the mode adopted in electing the mem- 
 bers of legislative assemblies in most 
 countries, as well as the members of 
 various other bodies. 
 
 BALM (biim), a plant formerly in 
 great repute for its medicinal virtues. 
 A native of the south of Europe. It is a 
 herbaceous perennial, with an erect 
 branching stem about 2 feet high. The 
 leaves arise with the flower-stems from a 
 
 thick joint at the extremity of the stalk. 
 The flowers are whitish; they are pro- 
 duced in a round terminal umbel, and 
 appear in June. The stems and leaves 
 are slightly stimulating and tonic. They 
 contain an essential oil of a yellowish 
 color and with a fragrant smell, called 
 oil of balm. 
 
 BALM OF GILEAD, the exudation of 
 a tree, a native of Arabia Felix. The 
 leaves of the former tree yield when 
 bruised a strong aromatic scent ; and the 
 
 balm of Gilead of the shops, or balsam of 
 Mecca or of Syria, is obtained from it by 
 making an incision in its trunk. It has 
 a yellowish or greenish color, a warm, 
 bitterish, aromatic taste, and an acidu- 
 lous fragrant smell. It is valued as an 
 odoriferous unguent and cosmetic by the 
 Turks. It is frequently adulterated for 
 market. — The balm of Gilead fir, which 
 produces a turpentine called Canada 
 balsam, is the Abies balsamifSra, a 
 North American species, whose range 
 is from Virginia to Canada. 
 
 BALSAM, an aromatic, resinous sub- 
 stance, flowing spontaneously or by 
 incision from certain plants. A great 
 variety of substances pass under this 
 name. But in chemistry the term is 
 confined to such vegetable juices as 
 consist of resins mixed with volatile oils, 
 and yield the volatile oil on distillation. 
 The resins are produced from the oils 
 by oxidation. A balsam is thus inter- 
 mediate between a volatile oil and a 
 resin. It is soluble in alcohol and ether, 
 and capable of yielding benzoic acid. 
 The balsams are either liquid or more 
 or less solid; as, for example, the balm 
 of Gilead, and the balsams of copaiba, 
 Peru, and Tolu. Benzoin, dragon’s- 
 blood, and storax are not true balsams, 
 though sometimes called so. The bal- 
 sams are used in perfumery, medicine, 
 and the arts. 
 
 BALTIC PROVINCES, a term com- 
 monly given to the Russian govern- 
 ments of Courland, Livonia, and Es- 
 thonia. 
 
 BALTIC SEA, an inland sea or large 
 gulf connected with the North Sea, 
 wasliing the coasts of Denmark, Ger- 
 many, Russia, and Sweden; nearly 900 
 miles long, extending to 200 broad; 
 superficial extent, together with the 
 Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, 171,743 
 sq. miles. Its greatest depth is 126 
 fathoms; mean, 44 fathoms. 
 
 BALTIMORE, the sixth most popu- 
 lous city of the United States, the chief 
 city of Maryland. It has an area of 
 
 31.5 sq. miles, and is situated on the 
 Patapsco river, at the head of naviga- 
 tion 14 miles from Chesapeake Bay. 
 The city is divided into two parts by a 
 small stream called Jones’ Falls, which 
 separates the business and manufactur- 
 ing from the residence portion of the 
 town. The names of Monumental City, 
 or City of Monuments, which Baltimore 
 bears, is not derived from the number 
 of its public monuments, but from the 
 early date at which Washington Monu- 
 ment, in Mount Vernon Place — a 
 marble shaft rising 164 feet, surmounted 
 by a heroic figure of Washington — and 
 Battle Monument, in Monument Square, 
 were erected. 
 
 The city is one of the foremost edu- 
 cational influences of the country. A 
 graded system of public schools pro- 
 vides free instruction in kindergarten, 
 primary, secondary, collegiate, and 
 normal studies, and in manual training. 
 
 Baltimore is the seat of the Johns 
 Hopkins University, opened for in- 
 struction in 1876, and distinguished 
 for its graduate courses. The institu- 
 tion owes its foundation to the benef- 
 icence of a Baltimore merchant, who 
 left a large fortune for the endowment 
 of a university and a hospital. Among 
 the professional schools are the law 
 
 and medical departments of the Uni- 
 versity of Maryland, College of Physi- 
 cians and Surgeons, Baltimore Medi- 
 cal College, Baltimore University, 
 Woman’s Medical College, Maryland 
 College of Pharmacy, and Baltimore 
 College of Dental Surgery. The last 
 named, founded in 1839, is the oldest 
 dental college in the world. The Pea- 
 body institute, endowed by George Pea- 
 
BALTIMORE 
 
 BAMBOO 
 
 body, who laid the foundation of his 
 great fortune in Baltimore and enter- 
 tained a strong friendship for its peo- 
 ple, contains a valuable library of 
 143,000 volumes, an interesting art gal- 
 lery, and a well-organized conservatory 
 of music. 
 
 Natural situation, favorable trade 
 connections, and unusual harbor facili- 
 ties constitute Baltimore’s chief com- 
 mercial advantages. Regular com- 
 munication between Baltimore and 
 foreign ports is afforded by the North 
 German Lloyd to Bremen, the Neptune 
 Line to Rotterdam, the Atlantic Trans- 
 port Line to London, and a number of 
 other lines offering frequent service. The 
 city is the largest corn exporting port 
 in the United States. Other important 
 articles of local export are wheat, flour, 
 cotton, tobacco, copper, and coal. Im- 
 porting activity centers about iron ore, 
 bananas, pineapples, cocoanuts, sugar, 
 and general merchandise. 
 
 The manufacturing enterprises of 
 Baltimore are most varied, scarcely 
 a single important industry being 
 unrepresented. It is the largest manu- 
 facturing center in the United States for 
 ready-made clothing, shirts, fertilizers, 
 straw goods, cotton duck, fruit canning, 
 and oyster packing, while in other 
 important fields its operations are of 
 absolutely greater magnitude. 
 
 The twelfth census (1900) of the 
 United States gives the total popula- 
 tion of Baltimore as 508,957 ; 243,280 are 
 males and 265,677 are females; 440,357 
 are native born and 68,600 are foreign 
 born. The total number of whites is 
 429,218, and of colored 79,739. Of the 
 whites 361,278 are native boim, 67,940 
 are foreign ; 236,053 of the native whites 
 have native parents and 125,226 have 
 foreign parents. The total illiterate 
 population ten years and over is 29,148, 
 of whom 12,111 are white and 17,037 are 
 colored. Estiihated by the mayor of 
 the city Jan. 1, 1909, 650,000. 
 
 Baltimore was founded July 14, 1729, 
 and passed through the vicissitudes of 
 the revolutionary war, that of 1812, 
 and likewise of the civil war. It has 
 several times been a sufferer from 
 destructive fires, but has always re- 
 covered without assistance from outside 
 8ourc0s« 
 
 BALTIMORE, George C.alvert, 
 Lord, born in Yorkshire about 1580; 
 died in London, 1632. He was for 
 some time secretary of state to James 
 I., but this post he resigned in 1624 in 
 consequence of having become a Roman 
 Catholic-. Notwithstanding this he re- 
 tained the confidence of the king, who 
 in 1625 raised him to the Irish peerage, 
 his title being from Baltimore, a fishing 
 village of Cork. He had previously ob- 
 tained a grant of land in Newfoundland, 
 but as this colony was much exposed 
 to the attacks of the French, he left it 
 and obtained another patent for Mary- 
 land. He died before the charter was 
 completed, and it was granted to his 
 son Cecil, who deputed the governor- 
 ship to bis brnther T.eonard (1606-47). 
 
 BALTIMORE BIRD, an American 
 bird. It is a migratory bird, and is 
 known also by the names of “golden 
 robin,” “hang-bird,” and “fire-bird.” 
 It is .about 7 inches long; the head and 
 
 P. E.— 8 
 
 upper parts are black ; the under parts 
 of a brilliant orange hue. It builds a 
 pouch -like nest, very skilfully con- 
 structed of threads deftly interwoven, 
 suspended from a forked branch and 
 shaded by overhanging leaves. It feeds 
 on insects, caterpillars, beetles, etc. Its 
 song is a clear, mellow whistle. 
 
 BALUCHISTAN (ba-l6'chi-stan), a 
 country in Asia, the coast of which is 
 continuous with the northwestern sea- 
 board of India, bounded on the north 
 by Afghanistan, on the west by Persia, 
 
 Baluchis on the lookout. 
 
 on the south by the Arabian Sea, and on 
 the east by Sind. It has an area of about 
 160,000 sq. miles, and a population esti- 
 mated at 400,000. The general surfact 
 of the country is rugged and mountain- 
 ous, with some extensive intervals ol 
 barren sandy deserts, and there is a 
 general deficiency of water. The coun- 
 try is almost entirely occupied by pas- 
 toral tribes under semi-independent 
 sirdars or chiefs. The Baluchis in 
 general have tall figures, long visages, 
 and prominent features; the Brahuis, 
 on the contrary, have short, thick 
 bodies, with round faces and flat linea- 
 ments, with hair and beards frequently 
 brown. Both races are zealous Moham- 
 medans, hospitable, brave, and capable 
 of enduring much fatigue. 
 
 BAL’USTER, a small column or 
 pilaster, of various forms and dimen- 
 sions, often adorned with mouldings, 
 used for balustrades. 
 
 BALUSTRADE’, a range of balus- 
 ters, together with the cornice or cop- 
 ing w'hich they support, used as a para- 
 pet for bridges or the roofs of buildings, 
 or as a mere termination to a structure ; 
 also serving as a fence or enclosure 
 for altars, balconies, terraces, stair- 
 cases, etc. 
 
 BALUZE, (ba-luz), Etienne, French 
 historian and miscellaneous writer, 
 born 1630, died 1718. For more than 
 30 years he was librarian to M. de Col- 
 bert, and was appointed professor of 
 canon law in the royal college, but dis- 
 pleasing Louis XIV. with his Histoire ! 
 
 generale de la maison d’Auvergne, he 
 was thrown into prison and his property 
 confiscated. He recovered his liberty 
 in 1713, but did not regain his position. 
 He left some 1500 MSS. in the national 
 library of Paris, besides 45 printed 
 works, including Regum Francorum 
 Capitularia, two vols. and Miscel- 
 lanea, seven volumes. 
 
 BALZAC (bal-zak), Honore de, a 
 celebrated French novelist, was born 
 at Tours in 1799, died 1850. Before 
 completing his twenty-fourth year he 
 had published a number of novels under 
 various assumed names, but the success 
 attending all was very indifferent; and 
 it was not till 1829, by the publication 
 of Le Dernier Chouan, a tale of La 
 Vendde, and the first novel to which 
 Balzac appended his name, that the 
 attention of the public was diverted to 
 the extraordinary genius of the author. 
 A still greater popularity attended his 
 Physiologie de Mariage, a W'ork full of 
 
 iquant and cau.stic observations on 
 
 uman nature. He wrote a large num- 
 ber of novels, all marked by a singular 
 knowledge of human nature and dis- 
 tinct delitieation of character, but apt 
 to be marred by exaggeration. Among 
 his best-known works aie Scenes de la 
 Vie de Province; Scenes de la Vie 
 Parisienne; I,e P^re Goriot; Eugenie 
 Grandet; and Le M6decin de Campagne. 
 The publication of this last, in 1835, 
 led to a correspondence between Balzac 
 and the Countess Eveline de Hanska, 
 a Polish lady whom, after about fifteen 
 years, he visited and mairied. A col- 
 lected edition of his works under the 
 title La Comedie Humaine was published 
 in 45 vols., Paris, 1856-59. 
 
 BAMBA, a district of the Congo, 
 west coast of Africa, lying to the south 
 of the River Ambriz, It is thickly 
 populated , and is rich in gold, silver, 
 copper, salt, etc. 
 
 BAMBAR'RA, a territory of western 
 Africa, on the Upper Niger, first visited 
 by Mungo Park, now in the French 
 portion of the Soudan. The country 
 is generally very fertile, producing 
 wheat, rice, maize, yamis, etc. The 
 inhabitants are of negro or mixed race, 
 and partly Mohammedans. Excellent 
 cotton cloth is made. The chief town is 
 Sego. Pop. estimated at. 2,000,000. 
 
 BAMBINO, (bam-be-no; Ital., an in- 
 fant), the figure of our Savior repre- 
 sented as an infant in swaddling- 
 clothes. The Santissimo Bambino in 
 the church of Ara Cseli at Rome, a 
 richly decorated figure carved in wood, 
 is believed to have a miraculous virtue 
 in curing diseases. Bambinos are set 
 up for the adoration of the faithful in 
 many places in Catholic countries. 
 
 BAMBOO', the common name of 
 arborescent grasses. There are many' 
 species, belonging to the warmer parts 
 of Asia, Africa, and America, and grow- 
 ing from a few feet to as much as 100, 
 requiring much moisture to thrive 
 properly. The best-known species is 
 common in tropical and sub-tropical 
 regions. From the creeping under- 
 ground rhizome, which is long, thick, 
 and jointed, spring several round 
 jointed stalks, which send out from their 
 joints several shoots, the stalks also 
 Ibeing armed at their joints with one or 
 
BANANA 
 
 BANGOE 
 
 two sharp rigid spines. The oval leaves 
 8 or 9 inches long, are placed on short 
 footstalks. The flowers grow in large 
 panicles from the joints of the stalk. 
 Borne stems grow to 8 oi 10 inches in 
 diameter, and are so hard and durable 
 
 1, Bamboo, showing the mode of growth. 
 
 2, Flowers, leaves, and stem on a larger scale. 
 
 as to be used for build ”g ’ urooses 
 The smaller stalks are used for walking- 
 sticks, flutes, etc.; and indeed the plant 
 is used for innumerable purposes in the 
 East Indies, China, and other Eastern 
 countries. Cottages are almost wholly 
 made of it; also, bridges, boxes, water* 
 pipes, ladders, fences, bows and arrows, 
 spears, baskets, mats, paper, masts for 
 boats, etc. 
 
 BANA'NA , a plant of the genus Musa. 
 It is originally indigenous to the East 
 Indies, and a herbaceous plant with an 
 underground stem. The apparent stem, 
 which is sometimes as high as 30 feet, 
 is formed of the closely compacted 
 sheaths of the leaves. The leaves are 
 6 to 10 feet long and 1 or more broad, 
 with a strong midrib, from which the 
 veins are given off at right angles; they 
 are used for thatch, basket-making, 
 etc., besides yielding a useful fiber. 
 The spikes of the flowers grow nearly 
 4 feet long, in bunches, covered with 
 purple-colored bracts. The fruit is 4 to 
 10 or 12 inches long, and 1 inch or more 
 in diametei ; it grows in large bunches, 
 weighing often from 40 to 80 lbs. The 
 pulp is soft and of a luscious taste; when 
 ripe it is eaten raw or fried in slices. 
 The banana is cultivated in tropical 
 and sub-tropical countries, and is an 
 important article of food. Manila 
 hemp is the product of a species of 
 banana. 
 
 BAN'CROFT, George, American his- 
 torian, born near Worcester, Mass., 
 1800, died 1891. He was educated at 
 Harvard and in Germany, where he 
 made the acquaintance of many literary 
 men of note. In 1823 he published a 
 translation of Heeren’s Politics of An- 
 cient Greece, and a small volume of 
 poems, and was also meditating and 
 collecting materials for a history of the 
 United States. Between 1834 and 1840 
 three volumes of his history were pub- 
 lished. In 1845 he was appointed secre- 
 tary of the navy, and effected many 
 reforms and improvements in that 
 
 department. He was American am- 
 bassador to Britain from 1846 to 1849, 
 when the University of Oxford conferred 
 on him the honorary degree of D.C.L. 
 He took the opportunity while in 
 Europe to perfect his collections on 
 American history. He returned to 
 New York in 1849, and began to prepare 
 for the press the fourth and fifth vol- 
 umes of his history, which appeared in 
 1852. The sixth appeared in 1854, the 
 seventh in 1858, the eight soon after, 
 but the ninth did not appear till 1866. 
 From 1867 to 1874 he was minister 
 plenipotentiary at the court of Berlin. 
 The tenth and last volume of his great 
 work appeared in 1874. An additional 
 section appeared first as a separate work 
 in 1882 — History of the Formation of 
 the Constitution of the U. States — and 
 the whole came out in 6 vols. in 1884-5. 
 He has also published many essays in 
 the North American Review and other 
 periodicals, a selection from which was 
 published in 1855 under the title of 
 Miscellanies. 
 
 BANCROFT, Hubert Howe, an Ameri- 
 can historian, born in Ohio in 1832. 
 He embarked in business on the Pacific 
 coast, became interested in its history, 
 and decided to devote his life to that 
 work. He made numerous expeditions, 
 spending large sums of money in the 
 work of investigation, and has published 
 several volumes of the history of the 
 Western States. He has also published 
 histories of Mexico, Central America, 
 British Columbia, and other western 
 and southern parts of America. 
 
 BAND, a number of musicians organ- 
 ized for the production of marching or 
 concert music. Mere drum and fife can 
 hardly be dignified by the name band, 
 which is usually confined to an organ- 
 ization consisting of brass and reed 
 instruments, drums, etc. The military 
 band is the highest form of band, and 
 takes its origin from the time of Louis 
 XIV. All the courts of Europe had theii 
 bands, but the modern military oi 
 marine (naval) band is a recent develop- 
 ment, and verges closely on the orches- 
 tra. Its principal instruments are 
 tubas, cornets, clarionets, trombones, 
 saxophones, oboes, bass horns, snare, 
 bass, and kettle drums, and tympani. 
 The number of instruments is unlimited. 
 
 BANDA, a town and district of India, 
 in the United Provinces. The town 
 stands on a plain on the right bank of 
 the Ken river, 95 miles s.w. from 
 Allahabad, and is a considerable cotton- 
 mart. Pop. 22,565. — Area of district 
 3060 sq. miles; pop. 705,832. 
 
 BANDAGE, a surgical wrapper ol 
 some kind applied to a limb or othei 
 portion of the body to keep parts in posi- 
 tion, exert a pressure, or for other pur- 
 pose. To be able to apply a bandage 
 suitably in the case of an accident is a 
 highly useful accomplishment, which, 
 through the teaching of ambulance 
 surgery now so common, may be easily 
 acquired. 
 
 BANDA ISLANDS, a group belonging 
 to HollancL Indian Archipelago, south 
 of Ceram; Great Banda, the largest, be- 
 ing 12 miles long by 2 broad. They arc 
 beautiful islands, of volcanic origin, 
 yielding quantities of nutmeg. Goenong 
 Api, or Fire Mountain, is a cone-shaped 
 
 volcano which rises 2320 feet above the 
 sea. Pop. 6700. 
 
 BAN'DiCOOT, the largest known 
 species of rat, attaining the weight of 2 
 or 3 lbs., and the length, including the 
 tail, of 24 to 30 inches. It is a native 
 of India, and is very abundant in Cey- 
 lon. Its flesh is said to be delicate and 
 to resemble young pork, and is a favorite 
 article of diet with the coolies. It is 
 destructive to rice fields and gardens. — 
 The name is also given to a family of 
 Australian marsupials. The most com- 
 mon species, the long-nosed bandicoot, 
 measures about feet from the tip of 
 the snout to the origin of the tail, and 
 in general appearance bears a consider- 
 able resemblance to a large overgrown 
 rat. 
 
 BAN'DIT, originally an exile, ban- 
 ished man, or outlaw, and hence, as per- 
 sons outlawed frequently adopted the 
 profession of brigand or highwayman, 
 the word came to be synonymous with 
 brigand, and is now applied to members 
 of the organized gangs which infest 
 some districts of Italy, Sicily Spain, 
 Greece, and Turkey. 
 
 BAND OF HOPE, a name given to 
 societies of young persons pledged to 
 teetotalism. 
 
 BANFF (bamf), county town of Banff- 
 shire, Scotland, a seaport on the Moray 
 Firth at the mouth of the Deveron. 
 Pop. of pari, burgh, which includes Mac- 
 duff, 7148; Banff portion, 3730. — The 
 county has an area of 410,112 acres. 
 In the south it is mountainous, but the 
 northern part is comparatively low and 
 fertile; principal rivers, the Spey and 
 Deveron; principal mountains. Cairn- 
 gorm (4095 feet) and Ben Maedhui (4296 
 feet), on its southern boundary. Little 
 wheat is raised, the principal crops being 
 barley, oats, turnips, and potatoes. 
 Fishing is an important industry; as is 
 also the distilling of whisky. Serpen- 
 tine abounds in several places, especially 
 at Portsoy, where it is known as “Port- 
 soy marble,” and Scotch topazes or 
 cairngorm stones are found on the 
 mountains in the south. Pop. 61,487. 
 
 BANGALORE', a town of Hindustan, 
 capital of Mysore, and giving its name 
 to a considerable district in the east of 
 Mysore state. There are manufactures 
 of silks, cotton cloth, carpets, gold and 
 silver lace, etc. Pop. 159,046. — The 
 Bangalore district has an area of 2559 
 square miles, of which more than half 
 represent cultivable land. Pop. 802,994. 
 
 BANGKOK', the capital of the King- 
 dom of Siam, extending for several 
 miles on both sides of the Menam, which 
 falls into the Gulf of Siam about 15 
 miles below The trade, both inland 
 and foreign, is very extensive, the ex- 
 ports consisting chiefly of rice, sugar, 
 silk, cotton, tobacco, pepper, sesame, 
 ivory, aromatic wood, cabinet woods, 
 tin, hides, etc.; and the imports con- 
 sisting chiefly of cotton, woolen, and 
 other goods. Pop. estimated at 500,- 
 000, of whom about a half are Chinese. 
 
 BAN'GOR, a port of the United 
 States, in Maine, on the west side of 
 Penobscot river, a flourishing and 
 pleasantly situated town, and one of 
 the largest lumber depots in the world. 
 The river is navigable to the town for 
 vessels of the largest size. Pop. 22,000 
 
BANGS 
 
 BANK 
 
 BANGS, John Kendrick, an American 
 humorist and verse writer, born in New 
 York in 1862. He has been editor of 
 Harper’s Weekly, and has published 
 several volumes of humor and verse, 
 among them The Idiot, and Coffee and 
 Repartee. 
 
 BAN'JO, the favorite musical instru- 
 ment of the negroes of the Southern 
 States of America. It is six-stringed, 
 has a body like a tambourine and a neck 
 like a guitar, and is played by stopping 
 the strings with the fingers of the left 
 hand and twitching or striking them 
 with the fingers of the right. The upper 
 or octave string, however, is never 
 stopped. 
 
 BANK, primarily an establishment 
 for the deposit, custody, and repay- 
 ment on demand, of money, and ob- 
 taining the bulk of its profits from the 
 investment of sums thus derived and 
 not in immediate demand. Banks are 
 among the oldest institutions in the 
 world. There is evidence of their exist- 
 ence in Assyria thousands of years be- 
 fore the Christian era, and banks were 
 used in ancient Athens and Rome. 
 Modern banking begins in 1587 with the 
 famous bank of Venice, which had itself 
 been preceded by private banks in the 
 great Venetian republic. Other medie- 
 val banks were the Bank of Amsterdam 
 and the Bank of Hamburg. It was not 
 until the 18th century that the dis- 
 tinctly modern features of banking 
 arose — the issue of notes not covered 
 by coin and the granting of accounts 
 on the mere credit of borrowers. Bank 
 notes were known in China 1200 years 
 ago, but the first European bank notes 
 were those issued by the Bank of 
 Sweden in 1661. In the 17th century 
 the Bank of England arose and the bank 
 note became substantially what it is 
 today. 
 
 Modern banks have three functions, 
 deposits, discounts and issue. Primari- 
 ly the bank was a safe place for the 
 keeping of money, but its present 
 function is the collection of small sums 
 of capital which might otherwise be 
 idle, and which are loaned to those who 
 need capital and who can give sufficient 
 security to justify the loan. Loans to 
 the bank are called deposits; loans by 
 the bank are called discounts. Banks 
 of issue are those which issue bank 
 notes which circulate as currency. In 
 the United States the only banks of 
 issue are those under the National 
 Banking Law. 
 
 The deposit and discount functions 
 of the bank have made it the chief 
 factor in the credit upon which nine 
 tenths of the business of the world is 
 said to be done. Most of the deposits 
 are made in the bank in the form of 
 checks which the bank charges itself 
 with the responsibility of collecting. 
 If these checks are drawn on the bank 
 of deposit, the bank simply deducts the 
 amount from the account of the 
 drawer and credits it to the account of 
 the depositor. If the check is drawn on 
 another bank, payment is made 
 through the clearing house which 
 keeps account of the orders upon the 
 various banks or in their favor, much 
 in the same way as the bank does 
 for individual depositors, and^settle- 
 
 ments of the actual balances be- 
 tween the banks are made in cash or 
 drafts. 
 
 The interest paid by banks upon de- 
 posits varies in proportion to the ex- 
 tent of control of its funds that is 
 surrendered by the depositors. In 
 ordinary commercial banking no 
 interest is paid upon deposits unless 
 there is a large balance that is 
 practically stationary. In savings banks 
 where interest is paid ail depositors, it 
 is usual to require a notice of one 
 month for withdrawal of funds, al- 
 though this is not always insisted 
 upon. While deposits for a speci- 
 fied time, called time deposits, 
 receive still greater rates of in- 
 terest. The interest rates paid by the 
 bank and the demand period of their 
 deposits practically govern the charac- 
 ter of the loans which they make, thus 
 the commercial banks paying little or 
 no interest, must loan their money 
 only on easily negotiable paper or 
 collateral, such as bonds or stock 
 which is readily converted into cash. 
 The savings bank not finding it neces- 
 sary that all of its assets may be instantly 
 converted into cash, finds it is possible 
 to loan money upon mortgages. Bank 
 loans are divided between time loans 
 for a definite period of days and 
 nights and call loans upon which 
 payment can be demanded at will. 
 While either form of loan can be made 
 upon the personal credit of the bor- 
 rower, this is exceptional and safe bank- 
 ing disapproves of such loans except to 
 persons of exceptional credit. Safe 
 banking requires that the security 
 shall be at the best, not only at the 
 sacrifice of a possible higher rate of in- 
 terest, but that an adequate reserve 
 shall be maintained to meet the de- 
 mand of the depositors in the case of a 
 run, even though such run may be 
 eminent. This reserve consists of 
 either cash or assets easily convertable 
 into cash, such as government bonds. 
 Obviously the greater the reserve, the 
 smaller the amount of the bank’s de- 
 posit available for loans at interest, 
 and hence the great temptation for 
 the bankers to keep a reserve which 
 will not be adequate in the event of a 
 run. It is this failure to maintain a 
 sufficient reserve which causes most of 
 the failures of banks. The amount of 
 this reserve except in the case of na- 
 tional banks, is practically at the dis- 
 cretion of the banker. The National 
 Banking Laws require a minimum re- 
 serve of 25 per cent of the amount of 
 deposit in certain large cities named 
 in the law, and 15 per cent of the de- 
 posits in smaller cities. In New York, 
 Chicago and St. Louis, the entire re- 
 serve must be in currency. In the 
 other principal cities, one-half of the 
 reserve may be deposits in the three 
 large cities named, but at least one- 
 half must be in currency. In the 
 smaller cities, two-fifths of the reserve 
 must be in cash, while the balance may 
 be deposited in any of the reserve 
 cities. 
 
 Banks of issue are those which issue 
 their own bank notes which pass as 
 currency. The exercise of this func- 
 tion is regulated in different nations. 
 
 and in some, as France, there is a sin- 
 gle bank possessing this power. In 
 England and Germany the power is 
 vested almost entirely in one certain 
 bank which is gradually obtaining a 
 practical monopoly. In these and 
 most other countries . the right of note 
 issue is based upon the amount of cash 
 and other assets held by the bank. 
 Until the passing of the currency act of 
 1908, the note issue of the United States 
 was given to banks chartered under the 
 federal laws only upon the security of 
 government bonds, this provision hav- 
 ing been made after the civil war in 
 oi-der to provide a means for the market- 
 ing of the unusual amount of govern- 
 ment bonds in existence at that time. 
 The demand for a more elastic system 
 of currency dependent upon the actual 
 needs of business instead of upon the 
 amount of money that the United States 
 government owed, led to the 
 passage of the Aldrich-Vreeland cur- 
 rency act of 1908. This act pro- 
 vided for the formation of Na- 
 tional Currency Associations which 
 should authorize their members under 
 certain conditions to issue notes to 75 
 per cent of the value of securities or com- 
 mercial paper, or 90 per cent of the 
 market value of state, city, town, coun- 
 ty or other municipal bonds, but in no 
 case shall circulated notes based on 
 commercial paper, exceed 30 per cent 
 of the unimpared capital and surplus 
 of a bank. The notes, however, cannot 
 be issued unless the Secretary of the 
 Treasury shall deem it advisable. All 
 of the banks in each National Currency 
 Association are made responsible for 
 the notes of their members. Besides 
 these National Currency Associations, 
 the right is given under certain condi- 
 tions to banks to issue notes on bonds 
 other than those of the United States, 
 of a certain character after approval by 
 the Secretary of the Treasury. In order 
 to prevent an increase of circulation 
 that is not justified by actual demands 
 of business, it is provided that the ad- 
 ditional circulation authorized by the 
 law, shall pay for the first month, a tax 
 at the rate of 5 per cent a year, upon 
 the average amount of such notes in 
 circulation as are based upon the de- 
 posit of such authorized securities, 
 and afterwards an additional tax of 
 one per cent a year for each month 
 until the tax of ten per cent a year is 
 reached. 
 
 Although banking operations on a 
 considerable scale appear to have been 
 conducted by the ancients, modern 
 banking must be regarded as having 
 had an independent origin in the re- 
 viving civilization of the middle ages. 
 In the 12th century almost the whole 
 trade of Europe was in the hands of 
 the Italian cities, and it was in these 
 that the need of bankers was first felt. 
 The earliest public bank, that of Ven- 
 ice, established in 1171 and existing 
 down to the dissolution of the repub- 
 lic in 1797, was for some time a bank of 
 deposit only, the government being 
 responsible for the deposits, and the 
 whole capital being in effect a public 
 loan. In the early periods of the oper- 
 ations of this bank deposits could not 
 be withdrawn, but the depositor had a 
 
BANK 
 
 BANSHEE 
 
 credit at the bank to the amount de- 
 posited, this credit being transfer- 
 able to another person in place 
 of money payment. Subsequently de- 
 posits were allowed to be withdrawn, 
 the original system proving inconven- 
 ient outside the Venetian boundaries. 
 It was, however, less from the Bank of 
 Venice than from the Florentine bank- 
 ers of the 13th and 14th centuries that 
 modern banking specially dates, the 
 magnitude of their operations being 
 indicated by the fact that between 
 1430 and 1433, 76 bankers of Florence 
 issued on loan nearly 5,000,000 gold 
 florins. 
 
 The Bank of England, the most im- 
 portant banking establishment in the 
 world, was projected by William 
 Paterson, who was afterwards the pro- 
 moter of the disastrous Darien 
 scheme. It was the first public bank 
 in the United Kingdom, and was char- 
 tered in 1694 by an act which, among 
 other things, secured certain recom- 
 penses to such persons as should ad- 
 vance the sum of £1,500,000 towards 
 carrying on the war against France. 
 Subscribers to the loan became, under 
 the act, stockholders, to the amount 
 of their respective subscriptions, in the 
 capital stock of a corporation, denom- 
 inated the Governor and Company of the 
 Bank of England. The company thus 
 formed, advanced to the government 
 £1,200,000 at an interest of 8 per cent — 
 the government making an additional 
 bonus or ■ allowance to the bank of 
 £4,000 annually for the management of 
 this loan (which in fact, constituted 
 the capital of the bank) , and for set- 
 tling the interest and making trans- 
 fers, etc., among the various stockhold- 
 ers. This bank, like that of Venice, was 
 thus originally an engine of the gov- 
 ernment, and not a mere commercial 
 establishment. Its capital has been 
 added to from time to time, the origi- 
 nal capital of £1,200,000 having in- 
 creased to £14,553,000 in 1816, since 
 which no further augumentation has 
 taken place. There exists, besides, 
 however, a variable * rest ’ of over 
 £3,000,000. 
 
 Clitizens of Philadelphia were orig- 
 inators of the first bank organized in the 
 United States, without charter, June 
 17, 1780. In 1781 Robert Morris, super- 
 intendent of finance, introduced to Con- 
 gress a plan for establishing the Bank 
 of North America at Philadelphia; 
 Dec. 31 aperpetual charter was granted 
 to that institution. On Jan. 2, 1782, 
 the bank opened for business. Feb. 7, 
 1784, was incorporated the Massachu- 
 setts Bank by the legislature of that 
 state ; this was followed March 21 , 1791, 
 by the charter of the Bank of New 
 York, which, however, had been doing 
 business since 1784, under ‘ articles of 
 association’ drawn up by Alexander 
 Hamilton, a member of its original 
 board of directors. All of the above, 
 converted into national banks, are still 
 in a prosperous condition. 
 
 Savings banks began to attract atten- 
 tion in the United States shortly after 
 their inauguration in England, the 
 first being organized in New York, 
 1816, but the first one to go into prac- 
 tical operation was in Philadelphia, of 
 
 the same year, Boston was the first to 
 have an incorporated savings bank, 
 this being effected Dec. 13, 1816, business 
 being begun in 1817; the United States 
 thus anticipated Britain in throwing 
 about these banks the protection and 
 sanction of law. From that time these 
 examples have been rapidly followed. 
 There is no uniform plan of organiza- 
 tion. In some states there is a large 
 number of incorporators who elect 
 trustees and directors from among 
 their members ; again other corporators 
 are limited in number and are them- 
 selves the trustees and managers. In 
 the northeast trustees manage the 
 savings banks for the depositors ; else- 
 where they are mostly under the 
 control of corporations with capital 
 stock. 
 
 An important feature in connection 
 with the banking system is that of the 
 Clearing House, which, in the United 
 States, was first put in operation in 
 New York, Oct. 11, 1853. Since that 
 time this plan has been adopted in 
 every important money center and 
 city. Each bank in its daily dealings 
 receives large amounts of, and checks 
 on, other banks ; thus at the close of the 
 day’s business each one has various 
 sums due it by other banks ; it is like- 
 wise the debtor of other banks who 
 have received bills, checks and drafts 
 drawn upon it. The settlement by 
 means of the clearing house is simul- 
 taneously and quickly effected. The 
 banks now having no direct business 
 with each other save through this 
 medium, which enables them to settle 
 with each other every day, and with 
 but little trouble brings each officer 
 into intimate relations with the others, 
 enabling them by united action to 
 strengthen and aid each other in times 
 of panic and financial danger. 
 
 Bank Guarantee; Law of Oklahoma 
 making all banks liable for deposits in 
 insolvent banks. Indorsed by Demo- 
 cratic national platform of 1908. 
 
 BANK BILLS, or BANK NOTES, 
 paper money issued by banks, either 
 with or without the protection of the 
 state. Bank notes are promises to pay, 
 but differ from ordinary notes in that 
 they are payable on demand, never be- 
 come overdue, and may be reissued 
 when taken up. 
 
 BANK HOLIDAYS, days on which 
 banks close their doors. In the United 
 States banks do not transact business 
 on regular holidays. Certain holidays 
 are not observed by banks, although 
 the custom of closing banks on days of 
 local festivities, etc., is a growing one 
 in the United States. 
 
 BANKRUPT, a person whom the law 
 does or may take cognizance of as unable 
 to pay his debts. Properly it is of 
 narrower signification than insolvent, 
 an insolvent person simply being unable 
 to pay all his debts. Under the present 
 bankruptc}'^ acts in England and in the 
 United States, proceedings in bank- 
 ruptcy may be instituted by the debtor 
 or by creditors. The former is called a 
 voluntary, the latter an involuntary, 
 proceeding. Each is begun by filing a 
 petition. The debtor’s petition must 
 state that he is unable to pay his debts, 
 and is willing to surrender all of his 
 
 property to the use of his creditors. 
 Whether a person is liable to be ad- 
 judged a bankrupt upon the petition of 
 creditors does not depend upon his 
 ability or inability to pay his debts, but 
 upon his having committed an act of 
 bankruptcy. Such at least is the Eng- 
 lish doctrine; but it is modified to some 
 extent in the United States. The 
 United States Bankruptcy Statute of 
 1898 enumerates five classes of acts of 
 bankruptcy. First, conveying, trans- 
 ferring, concealing, or removing, or per- 
 mitting to be concealed or removed, 
 any of his porperty with the intent to 
 hinder, delay, or defraud any of his 
 creditors. Second, transferring, while 
 insolvent, any of his property with in- 
 tent to prefer a creditor or creditors 
 over others. Third, suffering, while in- 
 solvent, any creditor to obtain a prefer- 
 ence through legal proceedings, and not 
 securing the vacating or discharge of 
 such preference. Fourth, making a 
 general assignment for the benefit of 
 creditors. Fifth, admitting in writing 
 his inability to pay his debts, and his 
 willingness to be adjudged a bankrupt 
 on that ground. After the debtor is 
 adjudicated a bankrupt, a trustee is 
 appointed by the creditors (subject to 
 some supervision by the Board of Trade 
 in England, by the bankruptcy court in 
 this country), who becomes vested not 
 only with all the property in possession 
 of the debtor at the time when he was 
 adjudged a bankrupt, but with all that 
 he had transferred in violation of the 
 statute or in fraud of creditors. It is 
 quite important that the trustee’s title 
 should relate back of the adjudication. 
 Otherwise a failing debtor could always 
 defeat one of the main purposes of the 
 bankruptcy statute — that of securing 
 a ratable division of all his estate 
 among all his creditors — by turning over 
 his property to one or more favored 
 creditors. 
 
 BANKS, Nathaniel Prentiss, an Amer- 
 ican soldier, born in Massachusetts in 
 1816. He studied law, served as legis- 
 lator of Massachusetts, and was chair- 
 man of the state constitutional conven- 
 tion. He was governor of Massachu- 
 setts from 1857-9, and speaker of the 
 House of Representatives of congress.* 
 He served as major-general of Union 
 volunteers in the civil war, and suffered 
 many defeats. In 1864 he retired from 
 the army and was elected to congress, 
 where he served almost continuously 
 until 1877. He died in 1894. 
 
 BAN'NER, a piece of drapery, usually 
 bearing some warlike or heraldic device 
 or national emblem, attached to the 
 upper part of a pole or staff, and indic- 
 ative of dignity, rank, or command. 
 
 BANNS OF MATRIMONY, public 
 notice of the intended celebration of a 
 marriage given either by proclamation, 
 viva voce, by a clergyman, session- 
 clerk, or precentor in some religious 
 assembly, or by posting up written 
 notice in some public place. 
 
 BANNU, a district in the northwest of 
 Hindustan, traversed by the Indus; 
 area, 3847 sq. miles; pop. 372,276, nearly 
 half being Afghans. 
 
 BANSHEE', BENSHI',a weird hag be- 
 lieved in Ireland and some parts of 
 Scotland to attach herself to a particu- 
 
BANTAM FOWL 
 
 BARBER 
 
 lar house, ana to appear or make her 
 presence known by wailing before the 
 death of one of the family. 
 
 BANTAM FOWL, a small but spirited 
 breed of domestic fowl, first brought 
 from the East Indies, supposed to derive 
 its name from Bantam in Java. Most 
 of the subvarieties have feathered legs; 
 but these are not to be preferred. In 
 point of color the black and nankeen 
 varieties take the palm. A well-bred 
 bantam does not weigh more than a 
 pound. 
 
 BANTU (ban-to'), the ethnological 
 name of a group of African races below 
 about 6° n. latitude, and including the 
 Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, the tribes of 
 the Loango, Congo, etc., but not the 
 Hottentots. 
 
 BANU. See Bannu. 
 
 BAN'YAN, or BANTAN, a tree of 
 India, of the fig genus. The most pecu- 
 lar feature of this tree is its method of 
 throwing out, from the horizontal 
 branches, supports which take root as 
 soon as they reach the grcTund, enlarge 
 into trunks, and extending branches in 
 their turn, soon cover a prodigious ex- 
 tent of ground. A celebrated banyan- 
 tree has been known to shelter 7000 
 
 Banyan trees. 
 
 men beneath its shade. The wood is 
 soft and porous, and from its white 
 glutinous' juice bird-lime is sometimes 
 prepared. Both juice and bark are re- 
 garded by the Hindus as valuable 
 medicines. 
 
 BA'OBAB, or MONKEY-BREAD 
 TREE is one of the largest of trees, its 
 trunk sometimes attaining a diameter 
 of 30 feet; and as the profusion of leaves 
 and drooping boughs sometimes almost 
 hides the stem, the whole forms a hem- 
 ispherical mass of verdure 140 to 150 feet, 
 in diameter and 60 to 70 feet high. It is a 
 native of western Africa, and is found 
 also in Abyssinia; it is cultivated in 
 nany of the warmer parts of the world. 
 The roots are of extraordinary length , a 
 tree 77 feet in girth having a tap-root 
 110 feet in length. The leaves are deep 
 
 green, divided into five unequal parts 
 lanceolate in shape, and radiating from 
 a common center. The flowers resem- 
 ble the white poppy, having snowy 
 petals and violet-colored stamens; and 
 
 Baobab tree. 
 
 the fruit, which is large and of an oblong 
 shape, is said to taste like gingerbread, 
 with a pleasant acid flavor. The wood 
 is pale-colored, light, and soft. The tree 
 is liable to be attacked by a fungus 
 which, vegetating in the woody part, 
 renders it soft and pith-like. 
 
 BAPTISM, a rite which is generally 
 thought to have been usual with the 
 Jews even before Christ, being admin- 
 istered to proselytes. From this bap- 
 tism, however, that of St. John the 
 Baptist differed, because he baptized 
 Jews also as a symbol of the necessity 
 of perfect purification from sin. Christ 
 himself never baptized, but directed his 
 disciples to administer this rite to con- 
 verts (Mat. xxviii. 19); and baptism, 
 therefore, became a religious ceremony 
 among Christians, taking rank as a 
 sacrament with all sects which acknowl- 
 edge sacraments. Since the Reforma- 
 tion there have been various Protestant 
 sects called Baptists, holding that bap- 
 tism should be administered only by 
 immersion, and to those who can make 
 a personal profession of faith. The 
 Roman and Greek Catholics consecrate 
 the water of baptism, but Protestants 
 do not. The act of baptism is accom- 
 panied only with the formula that the 
 person is baptized in the name of the 
 Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; but, 
 among most Christians, it is preceded by 
 a confession of faith made by the person 
 to be baptized if an adult, and by his 
 parents or sponsors if he be a child. 
 
 BAPTISTS, a Protestant sect, dis- 
 tinguished by their opinions respecting 
 the mode and subjects of baptism. With 
 regard to the mode, they maintain the 
 necessity of immersion, and with regard 
 to the subjects, they consider that bap- 
 ‘ tism ought not to be administered to 
 children at all, nor to adults in general, 
 but to those only who profess repent- 
 ance and faith. The Baptists as a whole 
 adopt the Independent <?r Congrega- 
 tional form of church government, and 
 their ecclesiastical assemblies are held 
 for the purpose of mutual stimulus and 
 intercourse, and not for the general 
 government of the body, or for inter- 
 ference with individual churches. 
 
 BAR, in law, the railing that incloses 
 the place which council occupy in courts 
 of justice; hence the phrase, at the bar 
 of the court, that is, in open court. 
 
 Hence also persons duly admitted as 
 pleaders or advocates before the courts 
 are denominated barristers, and the 
 whole body of such barristers or advo- 
 cates are called the bar. The inclosed 
 place or dock in which persons accused 
 of crimes stand in court is also called the 
 bar. 
 
 BAR, in music, is a line drawn through 
 the stave to mark the rhythm of small 
 portions ; the notes composing these are 
 also called a bar. 
 
 BARBA'DOES, or BARBADOS, the 
 
 most eastern of the West India Islands, 
 first mentioned in 1518, and occupied by 
 the British in 1625. Length 21 miles, 
 breadth 13; area, 106,470 acres or 166 
 sq. miles; mostly under cultivation. It 
 is more densely peopled than almost any 
 spot in the world, the population in 1901 
 being 195,588, or about 1200 to the 
 square mile. The climate is very hot, 
 though moderated by the constant 
 trade-winds; and the island is subject 
 to dreadful hurricanes. The surface is 
 broken, now without forests, and with 
 few streams; the highest point is 1145 
 feet above the sea-level. There are few 
 indigenous mammals or birds. The 
 black lowland soil gives great returns of 
 sugar in favorable seasons. The chief 
 exports, besides sugar, are molasses and 
 rum; imports; rice, salt meat, corn, 
 butter, flour, etc. It is the head- 
 quarters of the British forces in the 
 West Indies. 
 
 BARBARIAN, a name given by the 
 Greeks, and afterward by the Romans, 
 to every one who spoke an unintelligible 
 language ; and hence coming to connote 
 the idea of rude, illiterate, uncivilized. 
 
 BAR'BARY, a general name for the 
 most northerly portion of Africa, ex- 
 tending about 2600 miles from Egypt to 
 the Atlantic, with a breadth varying 
 from about 140 to 550 miles; comprising 
 Morocco, Fez, Algeria, Tunis, and 
 Tripoli (including Barca and Fezzan). 
 The principal races are* the Berbers, 
 the original inhabitants, from whom the 
 country takes its name ; the Arabs, who 
 conquered an extensive portion of it 
 during the times of the caliphs; the 
 Bedouins, Jews, Turks, and the French, 
 colonists of Algeria, etc. The country, 
 which was prosperous under the Cartha- 
 ginians, was, next to Egypt, the richest 
 of the Roman provinces, and the Italian 
 states enriched themselves by their 
 intercourse with it. In the 15th cen- 
 tury, however, it became infested with 
 adventurers who made the name of 
 Barbary corsair a terror to commerce, a 
 condition of things finally removed by 
 the French occupation of Algeria. 
 
 BARBARY APE, a species of ape, or 
 tailless monkey, with greenish-brown 
 hair, of the size of a large cat, remark- 
 able for docility, also called the magot. 
 It is common in Barbary and other parts 
 of Africa, and some used to live formerly 
 on Gilbraltar Rock, being the only 
 European monkey, though probably 
 not indigenous. It has been the “show- 
 man’s ape” from time immemorial. 
 
 BAR'BECUE, a word of West Indian 
 origin, meaning a hog, or other large 
 animal, roasted whole. * 
 
 BARBER, one whose occupation is to 
 ehave or trim the beard, or to cut and 
 dress hair. The practice of surgery was 
 
BARBERS’ ITCH 
 
 BARK. PERUVIAN 
 
 formerly a part of the craft, and by an 
 act of Henry VIII. the Company of 
 Barbers was incorporated with the 
 Company of Surgeons — the company 
 being then known as the Barber-sur- 
 geons — with the limitation, however, 
 that the surgeons were not to shave or 
 practice “barbery,” and the barbers 
 were to perform no higher surgical 
 operation than blood-letting and tooth- 
 drawing. This continued till the time 
 of George II. The signs of the old pro- 
 fession — the pole which the patient 
 grasped, its spiral decoration in imita- 
 tion of the bandage, and the basin to 
 catch the Wood — are still retained. 
 
 BARBERS’ ITCH, a disease of the 
 skin of the face caused by the infection 
 of the hair follicles. It is due to a 
 fungus, the growth of which produces 
 ringworm. The disease yields readily 
 to treatment. It is generally acquired 
 from contact with the brush, lather, or 
 hands of the barber, or the barber’s 
 towel. 
 
 BAR'BERRY, a genus of shrubs 
 having bunches of small beautiful red 
 berries, somewhat oval; serrated and 
 pointed leaves; thorns, three together, 
 upon the branches; and hanging clus- 
 ters of yellow flowers. The berries near- 
 ly approach the tamarind in respect of 
 acidity, and when boiled with sugar 
 make an agreeable preserve, rob, or 
 jelly. They are also used as a dry sweet- 
 meat, and in sugar-plums or comfits; are 
 pickled with vinegar, and are used for 
 the garnishing of dishes. The bark is 
 said to have medicinal properties, and 
 the inner bark and roots with alum 
 yield a fine yellow dye. The shrub was 
 originally a native of Eastern countries, 
 but is now generally diffused in Europe, 
 as also in North America. 
 
 BAR'CA, a division of N. Africa, be- 
 tween the Gulf of Sidra and Egypt, a 
 vilayet of the Turkish Empire, capital 
 Bengazi. It formed a portion of the 
 ancient Cyrenaica, and from the time 
 of the Ptolemies was known as Pen- 
 tapolis from its five Greek cities. Next 
 to Bengazi the seaport of Derna is the 
 chief town. The pop. probably does 
 not exceed 300,000. 
 
 BARCELONA (bar-thel-6'na), one of 
 the largest cities of Spain, chief town of 
 the province of Barcelona, and formerly 
 capital of the kingdom of Catalonia; 
 finely situated on the northern portion 
 of the Spanish Mediterranean coast. 
 Barcelona was, until the 12th century, 
 governed by its own counts, but was 
 afterward united with Arragon. In 
 1040, with the rest of Catalonia, it 
 placed itself under the French crown; 
 in 1652 it submitted again to the 
 Spanish government; in 1697 it was 
 taken by the French, but was restored 
 to Spain at the Peace of Ryswick. Pop. 
 509,589. — The province has an area of 
 2968 sq. miles; pop. 902,970. 
 
 BAR'CLAY. Robert, the celebrated 
 apologist of the Quakers, born in 1648, 
 .t Gordonstown, Moray, and educated 
 at Paris, where he became a Roman 
 Catholic. Recalled home by his father, 
 he followed the example of the latter 
 and became a Quaker. In his travels 
 with William Penn and George Fox 
 through England, Holland, and Ger- 
 many, to spread the opinions of the 
 
 Quakers, he was received everywhere 
 with the highest respect. The last of 
 his productions. On the Possibility and 
 Necessity of an Inward and Immediate 
 Revelation, was not published in Eng- 
 land tiU 1686; from which time Bar- 
 clay lived quietly with his family. He 
 died, after a short illness, at his own 
 house of Ury, Kincardineshire, in 1690. 
 He was a friend of and had influence 
 with James II. 
 
 BAR'COO. See Cooper’s Creek. 
 
 BARD, one of an order among the 
 ancient Celtic tribes, whose occupation 
 was to compose and sing verses in honor 
 of the heroic achievements of princes 
 and brave men, generally to the accom- 
 paniment of the harp. Their verses 
 also frequently embodied religious or 
 ethical precepts, genealogies, laws, etc. 
 
 BARDWAN', or BURDWAN', a divi- 
 sion of Bengal, upon the Hugh, com- 
 prising the six districts of Bardwan, 
 Hugh, Howrah, Midnapur, Bankura, 
 and Birbhum. Area, 13,956 sq. miles; 
 pop. 7,688,818. — The district Bardwan 
 has an area of 2697 sq. miles, and a pop. 
 of 1,391,823. 
 
 BAREBONE, or BARBONE, Praise- 
 God, the name of a leather seller in 
 Fleet Street, - London, who obtained a 
 kind of lead in the convention which 
 Cromwell substituted for the Long 
 Parliament, and which was thence 
 nicknamed the Barebone Parliament. 
 After its dissolution he disappears till 
 1660, when he presented a petition to 
 Parliament against the restoration of 
 the monarchy. In 1661 he was com- 
 mitted to the Tower for some time, but 
 his subsequent history is unknown. 
 
 BAREILLY (ba-ra'li), a town of Hin- 
 dustan in the United Provinces, capital 
 of a district of same name, on a pleasant 
 and elevated site. On the outbreak of 
 the Indian Mutiny the native garrison 
 took possession of the place, but it was 
 retaken by Lord Clyde in May, 1858. 
 Pop. 131,208. — The district has an area 
 of 1595 sq. miles; pop. 1,040,691. 
 
 BARGAIN AND SALE, a legal term 
 denoting the contract by which lands, 
 tenements, etc., are transferred from 
 one person to another. 
 
 BARGE, a term similar in origin to 
 barque, but generally used of a flat- 
 bottomed boat of some kind, whether 
 used for loading and unloading vessels, 
 or as a canal-boat, or as an ornamental 
 boat of state or pleasure. 
 
 BARI (ba're), a seaport, S. Italy, on a 
 small promontory of the Adriatic 
 capital of the province Terra di Bari. 
 It was a place of importance as early as 
 the 3d century b.c., and has been thrice 
 destroyed and rebuilt. Pop. about 
 70,000. — The province has an area of 
 2280 sq. miles, and is fertile in fruit, 
 wine, oil, etc.; pop. 679,000. 
 
 BARIL'LA, the commercial name for 
 the impure carbonate and sulphate of 
 soda imported from Spain and the 
 Levant. It is the Spanish name of a 
 plant, from the ashes of which and from 
 those of others of the same genus the 
 crude alkali is obtained. On the shores 
 of the Mediterranean the seeds of the 
 plants from which it is obtained are 
 regularly sown near the sea, and these, 
 when at a sufficient state of maturity, 
 are pulled up, dried, and burned in 
 
 bundles in ovefis or in trehches. The 
 ashes, while hot, are continually stirred 
 with long poles, and the saline matter 
 they contain forms, when cold, a soUd 
 mass, almost as hard as stone. To 
 obtain the carbonate of soda it is only 
 requisite to lixiviate the barilla in boil- 
 ing water, and evaporate the solution. 
 British barilla or kelp is a still more 
 impure alkali obtained from burning 
 seaweeds. Soda is now obtained for the 
 most part from common salt. 
 
 BARINGS (ba'ring), one of the greatest 
 commercial houses in the world. Its 
 founder was John Baring, a German 
 who settled in a small business in Exe- 
 ter, England, in the first half of the 18th 
 century. Two of his sons, Francis and 
 John, established in London, in 1770, 
 a banking-house. 
 
 In November, 1890, owing to the 
 continued failures of the Argentine 
 Republic to pay the interest due upon 
 its debt, which had been guaranteed by 
 the Barings, the firm was threatened 
 with suspension, but was saved by the 
 action of the Bank of England, which, 
 in conjunction with the firm of Brown, 
 Shipley & Co., advanced the sum of 
 $65,000,000 to tide over the crisis. The 
 house of the Barings has since been 
 reorganized as a limited company for 
 carrying on a regular banking business, 
 though on a less extensive scale than 
 before. 
 
 BAR'ITONE, or BAR'YTONE, a male 
 voice, the compass of which partakes 
 of those of the common bass and the 
 tenor, but does not extend so far down- 
 ward as the one, nor to an equal height 
 with the other. Its best tones are from 
 the lower A of the bass clef to the lower 
 F in the treble. — Also, a person having 
 a voice of such range. 
 
 BA'RIUM, the metallic basis of baryta, 
 wliich is an oxide of barium; it is only 
 found in compounds, such as the com- 
 mon sulphate and carbonate, and was 
 isolated by Davy for the first time in 
 1808. It is a yellow, malleable metal, 
 wliich readily oxidizes, decomposes 
 water, and fuses at a low temperature. 
 Its nitrate and chlorate are used in 
 pyrotechny. 
 
 BARK, the exterior covering of the 
 stems of exogenous plants. It is com- 
 posed of cellular and vascular tissue, is 
 separable from the wood, and is often 
 regarded as consisting of four layers: 
 1st, the epidermis or cuticle, which, 
 however, is scarcely regarded as a part 
 of the true bark; 2d, the epipliloeum, or 
 outer cellular layer of the true bark or 
 cortex; 3d, the mesopliloeum or middle 
 layer, also cellular; 4th, an inner vascu- 
 lar layer, the fiber or endophlceum, 
 commonly called bast. Endogenous 
 plants have no true bark. Bark con- 
 tains many valuable products, as gum, 
 tannin, etc.; cork is a highly useful 
 substance obtained from the epiphloeum; 
 and the strength and flexibility of bast 
 make it of considerable value. Bark 
 used for tanning is obtained from oak, 
 hemlock-spruce, species of acacia grow- 
 ing in Australia, etc. Angostura hark, 
 Peruvian or cinchona bark, cinnamon, 
 cascarilla, etc., are useful barks. 
 
 BARK, PERUVIAN, is the bark of 
 various species of trees of the genus 
 Cinchona, found in many parts of South 
 
BARKER 
 
 BAROMETER 
 
 America, but more particularly in Peni, 
 and having medicinal properties. It 
 was formerly called Jesuit’s bark, from 
 its having been introduced into Europe 
 by Jesuits. Its medicinal properties 
 depend upon the presence of quinine, 
 which is now extracted from the bark, 
 imported, and prescribed in place of 
 nauseous mouthfuls of bark. See Cin- 
 chona. 
 
 BARKER', Jacob, an American law- 
 yer and financier, born in Maine in 1779, 
 died in 1871. In the war of 1812 he 
 secured a loan of $5,000,000 for the 
 
 f overnment. In 1815 he founded the 
 Ixchange Bank of New York, and, 
 having removed to New Orleans, he was 
 elected to the United States senate by 
 the state of Louisiana at the close of the 
 civil war, but, owing to the state not 
 having been readmitted, he did not 
 take his seat. He published a work on 
 the civil war entitled The Rebellion 
 (1866). 
 
 BAR'LEY, the name of several cereal 
 plants, yielding a grain used as food and 
 also for making malt, from which are 
 prepared beer, porter, and whisky. Bar- 
 ley has been known and cultivated from 
 remote antiquity, and beer was made 
 from it among the Egyptians. The 
 species principally cultivated are two- 
 rowed barley, four-rowed barley, and 
 six-rowed, of which the small variety 
 is the sacred barley of the ancients. 
 The varieties of the four- and six-rowed 
 species are generally coarser than those 
 of the two-rowed, and adapted for a 
 poorer soil and more exposed situation. 
 Some of these are called here or bigg. 
 In Britain barley occupies about the 
 same area as wheat, but in N. America 
 the extent of it as a crop is compara- 
 tively small, being in Canada, however, 
 relatively greater than in the United 
 States, and the Canadian barley is of 
 very high quality. Barley is better 
 adapted for cold climates than any other 
 grain, and some of the coarser varieties 
 are cultivated where no other cereal can 
 be grown. Pearl barley is the grain 
 
 E olished and rounded and deprived of 
 usk and pellicle. Patent barley is the 
 farina obtained by grinding pearl barley. 
 Barley-water, a decoction of pearl 
 barley, is used in medicine as possessing 
 emollient, diluent, and expectorant 
 qualities. 
 
 BARLEY-SUGAR, pure sugar melted 
 and allowed to solidify into an amor- 
 phous mass without crystallizing. 
 
 BAR'MEN, a German city on the 
 Wupper, in the Prussian Rhine Prov- 
 ince, government of Diisseldorf, and 
 forming a continuation of the town of 
 Elberfeld, in the valley of Barmen. 
 Pop. 141,947. 
 
 BAR'NABAS, the surname given by 
 the apostles to Joses, a fellow-laborer 
 of Paul, and, like him, ranked as an 
 apostle. He is said to have founded at 
 Antioch the first Christian community, 
 to have been first bishop of Milan, and 
 to have suffered martyrdom at Cyprus. 
 His festival is held on the 11th of June. 
 
 BARNABAS, Saint, Epistle of, an 
 epistle in twenty-one chapters unani- 
 mously ascribed to Barnabas by early 
 Christian writers, but without any 
 support of internal evidence. It was 
 probably written between 119 and 126 
 
 B.C., by one who was not a Jew, and 
 under the influence of Alexandrian 
 Judaistic thought. 
 
 BAR'NACLE, the name of a family of 
 marine crustaceous animals. They are 
 enveloped by a mantle and shell, com- 
 posed of five principal valves and several 
 smaller pieces, joined together by a 
 membrane attached to their circum- 
 ference; and they are furnished with a 
 long, flexible, fleshy stalk or peduncle, 
 provided with muscles by which they 
 attach themselves to ships’ bottoms, 
 submerged timber, etc. They feed on 
 small marine animals, brought within 
 their reach by the water and secured by 
 their tentacula. Some of the larger 
 species are edible. According to an old 
 fable these animals produced barnacle 
 geese. 
 
 BARNACLE GEESE, summer visit- 
 ants of the northern seas, in size rather 
 smaller than the common wild goose, 
 and having the forehead and cheeks 
 white, the upper body and neck black. 
 
 BARNARD, Henry, an American 
 educator, born in Connecticut in 1811, 
 died in 1900. From 1837 to 1840 he 
 was a member of the Connecticut legis- 
 lature and interested himself in prison 
 reform, meanwhile filling numerous 
 educational positions. He was (1857- 
 59) president of the University of 
 Wisconsin, president of St. John’s 
 College, Annapolis (1865-66), and first 
 U. S. commissioner of education (1867- 
 70) He published many works on the 
 subject of education, and was the first 
 to use the term “tainted money” with 
 reference to college endowments. Dr. 
 Barnard is often called the “father of 
 American education.” 
 
 BARNATO, Barnett, known as “Bar- 
 ney Barnato, King of the Kaffirs,” an 
 English-African diamond mine owner, 
 promoter of the Kimberley mines. He 
 was reputed to be the richest man in the 
 world. He was born of Hebrew stock 
 in London, and committed suicide at 
 sea in 1897. 
 
 BARNAVE (bar-nav), Antoine-Pierre- 
 Joseph- Marie, a distinguished French 
 revolutionist, who successfully main- 
 tained against Mirabeau the right of the 
 National Assembly as against that of 
 the king to declare for peace or war, but 
 afterward asserted the inviolability of 
 the king’s person, was impeached, con- 
 demned, and guillotined. Born 1761, 
 died 1793. 
 
 BARNES, Alfred Smith, an American 
 publisher, endower of Barnes Hall at 
 Cornell, and publisher of numerous 
 text-books and other educational pub- 
 lications. He was born in Connecticut 
 in 1817 and died in 1888. 
 
 BARNUM, Phineas Taylor, a noted 
 proprietor of museums and circus shows, 
 famous the world over for his ingenuity 
 in originating rare entertainments. He 
 was born in Bethel, Conn., in 1810, and 
 as a lad he edited a newspaper. At 
 twenty-four he originated his first 
 great sham show, in the person of a 
 woman whom he advertised as the 
 old nurse of George Washington. His 
 first large venture was the Ameri- 
 can Museum in New York, the chief 
 feature of which was “General” Tom 
 Thumb, the dwarf. In 1847 he im- 
 ported Jenny Lind, and, after becom- 
 
 ing bankrupt several times, through 
 fire and other causes, he brought out 
 his “Greatest Show on Earth,” a travel- 
 ing circus and menagerie. He died 
 in 1891. His motto “Wait for Barnum” 
 became a household word. 
 
 BARO'DA, a non-tributary state, but 
 subordinate to the Indian government; 
 situated in the north of the Bombay 
 presidency. Area, 8226 sq. miles; pop. 
 1,952,692. — Baroda, the capital, is the 
 third city in the Bombay presidency. 
 Pop. 103,790 (including troops in the 
 adjoining cantonment). 
 
 BAROM'ETER, an instrument for 
 measuring the weight or pressure of the 
 atmosphere, and thus determining 
 changes in the weather, the height of 
 mountains, and other phenomena. It 
 
 Marine 
 
 barometer. 
 
 Common upright 
 barometer. 
 
 had its origin about the middle of the 
 17th century in an experiment of 
 Torricelli, an Italian, who found that if 
 a glass tube about 3 feet in length, open 
 at one end only, and filled with mercury, 
 were placed vertically with the open end 
 in a cup of the same fluid metal, a 
 portion of the mercury descended into 
 the cup, leaving a column only about 
 30 inches in height in the tube. He 
 inferred, therefore, that the atmospheric 
 pressure on the surface of the mercury 
 in the cup forced it up the tube to the 
 height of 30 inches, and that this was 
 so because the weight of a column of 
 air from the cup to the top of the atmos- 
 phere was only equal to that of a column 
 of mercury of the same base and 30 
 inches high. Pascal confirmed the con- 
 clusion in 1645; six years afterward it 
 was found by Perrier that the height of 
 the mercury in the Torricellian tube 
 varied with the weather; and, in 1665, 
 Boyle proposed to use the instrument 
 to measure the height of mountains. 
 
 The common or cistern barometer, 
 which is a modification of the Tor- 
 ricellian tube, consists of a glass tube 33 
 inches in length and about one-third 
 of an inch in diameter, hermetically 
 sealed at the top, and having the lower 
 end resting in a small vessel containing 
 mercury, or bent upward and terminat- 
 ing in a glass bulb partly occupied by the 
 mercury and open to the atmosphere. 
 The tube is first filled with purified 
 mercury, and then inverted, and there 
 is affixed to it a scale to mark the height 
 of the mercurial column, which com- 
 
BARON 
 
 BARROWS 
 
 paratively seldom rises above 31 or 
 sinks below 28 inches. In general the 
 rising of the mercury presages fair 
 weather, and its falling the contrary, 
 a great and sudden fall being the usual 
 presage of a storm. The weather-points 
 
 Siphon barometer. Wheel barometer. 
 
 on the ordinary barometric scale are as 
 follows: At 28 inches, stormy weather; 
 28i, much rain or snow; 29, rain or 
 snow; 29 J, changeable; 30, fair or frost; 
 30i, settled fair or frost; 31, very dry 
 weather or hard frost. Certain attend- 
 ant signs, however, have also to be 
 noted: thus, when fair or foul weather 
 follows almost immediately upon the 
 rise or fall of the mercury, the change is 
 usually of short duration ; while, if the 
 change of weather be delayed for some 
 days after the variation in the mercury, 
 it is usually of long continuance. The 
 direction of the wind has also to be 
 taken into account. 
 
 The siphon barometer consists of a 
 bent tube, generally of uniform bore, 
 having two unequal legs, the longer 
 closed,, the shorter open. A sufficient 
 quantity of mercury having been intro- 
 duced to fill the longer leg, the instru- 
 ment is set upright, and the mercury 
 takes such a position that the difference 
 of the levels in the two legs represents 
 the pressure of the atmosphere. 
 
 The wheel barometer is the one that 
 is most commonly used for domestic 
 purposes. It is far from being accurate, 
 but it is often preferred for ordinary use 
 on account of the greater range of its 
 scale, by which small differencs in the 
 height of the column of mercury are 
 more easily observed. It usually con- 
 sists of a siphon barometer, having 
 a float resting on the surface of the mer- 
 cury in the open branch, a thread 
 attached to the float pa.ssing over a 
 pulley, and having a weight as a counter- 
 poise to the float at its extremity. As 
 the mercury rises and falls the thread 
 and weight turn the pulley, which 
 again moves the index of the dial. 
 
 The mountain barometer is a portable 
 mercurial barometer with a tripod sup- 
 port and a long scale for measuring tne 
 altitude of mountains. 
 
 In the aneroid barometer, as its name 
 implies, no fluid is employed, the action 
 being dependent upon the susceptibility 
 to atmospheric pressure shown by a flat 
 circular metallic chamber from which 
 the air has been partially exhausted, 
 and which has a flexible top and bottom 
 
 of corrugated metal plate. By an in- 
 genious arrangement of springs and 
 levers the depression or elevation of the 
 surface of the box is registered by an 
 index on the dial, by which means it is 
 also greatly magnified, being given in 
 inches to correspond with the mercurial 
 barometer. 
 
 BAR'ON, originally, in the feudal sys- 
 tem, the vassal or immediate tenant of 
 any superior; but the term was after- 
 ward restricted to the king’s barons, 
 and again to the greater of these only, 
 who attended the Great Council, or who, 
 at a later date, were summoned by writ 
 to Parliament. It was the second rank 
 of nobility, until dukes and marquises 
 were introduced and placed above the 
 earls, and viscounts also set above the 
 barons, who, therefore, now hold the 
 lowest rank in the British peerage. The 
 present barons are of three classes: (1) 
 barons by prescription, whose ancestors 
 have immemorially sat in the Upper 
 House; (2) by patent; (3) by tenure, i.e. 
 holding the title as annexed to land. 
 The coronet is a plain gold circle with 
 six balls or large pearls on its edge, the 
 connected cap being of crimson velvet. 
 — Baron and feme, a term used for 
 husband and wife in the English law. — 
 Baron of beef, two sirloins not cut 
 asunder. 
 
 BAR'ONET, a hereditary dignity in 
 Great Britain and Ireland, next in rank 
 to the peerage, originally instituted by 
 James I. in 1611. A baronet has the 
 title of “Sir” prefixed to his Christian 
 and surname, and his wife is “Lady” 
 so-and-so. Baronets rank before all 
 knights. 
 
 BAR'RA, or BAR, a small kingdom 
 in Africa, near the mouth of the Gambia. 
 The Mandingoes, who form a consider- 
 able part of the inhabitants, are Mo- 
 hammedans and the most civilized peo- 
 ple on the Gambia. Pop. 200,000. The 
 coast here belongs to Britain. 
 
 BARRAS (ba-ra), Paul Frangois Jean 
 Nicholas, Comte de, member of the 
 French national convention and of the 
 executive directory, born in Provence 
 1755, died 1829. He took part in the 
 attack upon the Bastille and upon the 
 Tuileries, and voted for the death of 
 Louis XVI. In the subsequent events 
 he displeased Robespierre, and on this 
 account joined the members of the com- 
 mittee, who foresaw danger awaiting 
 them, and being intrusted with the 
 chief command of the forces of his party 
 he made himself master of Robespierre. 
 On Feb. 4, 1795, he was elected president 
 of the convention, and on Oct. 5, when 
 the troops of the sections which favored 
 the royal cause approached, Barras for 
 a second time received the chief com- 
 mand of the forces of the convention. 
 On this occasion he employed General 
 Bonaparte, for whom he procured the 
 chief command of the army of the in- 
 terior, and afterward the command of 
 the army in Italy. From the events of 
 the 18th Fructidor (Sept. 4, 1797) he 
 governed absolutely until June 13th, 
 1799, when Si6y6s entered the directory, 
 and in alliance with Bonaparte procured 
 his downfall in the revolution of the 18th 
 Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799). He after- 
 ward resided at Brussels, Marseilles, 
 Rome, and Montpellier under sur- 
 
 veillance, returning to Paris only after 
 the restoration of the Bourbons. 
 
 BARREL, a well-known variety of 
 wooden vessel; but the term is also used 
 as a definite measure and weight. A 
 barrel of beer is 36 gals., of flour 196 lbs., 
 of beef or pork 200 lbs. 
 
 BARRETT, Lawrence, an American 
 player, one of the most forceful and 
 polished actors of the American stage, 
 born in New Jersey in 1838, died in 
 1891. He made his debut at Detroit 
 (1853) as Murad, in The French Spy. 
 He subsequently appeared in the cities 
 of the East, fought on the Union side in 
 the civil war, and later became an asso- 
 ciate of Edwin Booth. He was partner 
 with John McCullough in the California 
 Theater, San Francisco, and in 1875 
 played Cassius (his best role) in company 
 with Booth. His visit to England in 
 1884 was entirely successful. On his 
 return he and Booth joined forces and 
 toured the country with splendid suc- 
 cess in every aspect of their enterprise. 
 His chief parts were Hamlet, Lear, 
 Richelieu, and Shylock. 
 
 BARRETT, Wilson, an English player, 
 born in 1846. His first London appear- 
 ance was in 1879, and soon afterward 
 he became manager of the Court Thea- 
 ter. He produced The Lights o’ London, 
 The Silver King, and other plays, and 
 his rendition of Hamlet, Othello, and 
 other tragic parts has been regarded 
 with high favor. Mr. Barrett visited 
 America in 1886, 1888, 1889, 1893, and 
 1897, and in 1898 Australia. 
 
 BARREL-ORGAN, a musical instru- 
 ment usually carried by street musicians, 
 in which a barrel studded with pegs or 
 staples, when turned round, opens a 
 series of valves to admit air to a set of 
 pipes, or acts upon wire strings like 
 those of the piano, thus producing a 
 fixed series of tunes. 
 
 BARRIE, J. M., born in 1860, at 
 Kirriemuir, Forfarshire; studied at 
 Edinburgh University, graduating as 
 M.A. in 1882. He was for a time con- 
 nected with a Nottingham journal, and 
 then removed to London, writing chiefly 
 for the St. James’s Gazette. His first 
 book. Better Dead, a satire on London 
 life, appeared in 1887. It was followed 
 in 1888 by the highly successful Auld 
 Licht Idylls, and When a Man’s Single. 
 In 1889 he published A Window in 
 Thrums; in 1890 My Lady Nicotine; 
 in 1891 The Little Minister; in 1896, 
 Sentimental Tommy. 
 
 BAR'RISTER, in England and Ire- 
 land, a pleader or advocate who has 
 been admitted to plead at the bar. In 
 the United States the term counselor- 
 at-law is the equivalent of the British 
 l.)Q.rrist'0r 
 
 BAR'ROW-IN-FUR’NESS, a seaport, 
 pari, and county borough of Lancashire, 
 in the district of Furness, opposite the 
 island of Walney, a town that has in- 
 creased from a fishing hamlet with 100 
 inhabitants in 1848 to a town of 57,584 
 inhabitants in 1901. Its prosperity is 
 due to the mines of red hematite iron- 
 ore which abounds in the district. 
 
 BAR'ROWS, mounds of earth or 
 stones raised to mark the resting-place 
 of the dead, and distinguished, accord- 
 ing to their shape, as long, bowl, bell, 
 cone, broad barrows. The practice of 
 
BARTHELMY-SAINT-HILAIRE 
 
 BASALT 
 
 barrow-burial is of unknown antiquity 
 and almost universal, barrows being 
 found all over Europe, in northern 
 Africa, Asia Minor, Afghanistan, west- 
 ern India, and in America. In the earli- 
 est barrows the inclosed bodies were 
 simply laid upon the ground, with stone 
 
 
 Bowl barrow. Long barrow. Twin barrow. 
 
 or bone implements and weapons beside 
 them. In narrows of later date the re- 
 mains are generally inclosed in a stone 
 cist. Frequently cremation preceded 
 the erection of the barrow, the ashes 
 being inclosed in an urn or cist. A de- 
 tailed description of an ancient barrow- 
 burial is given in the Anglo-Saxon poem 
 Beowulf. 
 
 BARTHELMY-SAINT-HILAIRE (bar- 
 tal-me-san-te-Iar), Jules, French scholar 
 and statesman, born 1805, died in 1895. 
 He was professor of Greek and Latin 
 philosophy in the College of France, but 
 resigned the chair after the coup d’6tat 
 of 1852 and refused to take the oath; 
 was reappointed 1862; in 1869 was re- 
 turned to the Corps L6gislatif ; after the 
 revolution was a member of the Nation- 
 al Assembly; was elected senator for 
 life in 1875. 
 
 BARTHOLDI (bir-toFde), Auguste, 
 French sculptor, born 1833; best known 
 as the artist of the colossal statue of 
 Liberty now overlooking the harbor of 
 New York. Died 1904. 
 
 BARTHOL'OMEW, the apostle, is 
 probably the same person as Nathiyiael, 
 mentioned in the Gospel of St. John as 
 an upright Israelite and one of the first 
 disciples of Jesus. He is said to have 
 taught Christianity in the south of 
 Arabia, into which, accortling to Euse- 
 bius, he carried the Gospel of St. Mat- 
 thew in the Hebrew language; and to 
 have sufifered martyrdom. The ancient 
 church had an apocryphal gospel bear- 
 ing his name, of which nothing has been 
 preserved. A festival is held to his 
 memory on August 24th. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW’S DAY, St a feast 
 of the Christian Church, celebrated 
 (August 24) in honor of St. Bartholo- 
 mew. What is known as the Massacre 
 of St. Bartholomew was the slaughter of 
 the French Protestants, which began 
 on August 24th, 1572, by secret orders 
 from Charles IX., at the instigation of 
 his mother, Catharine de Medici, and in 
 which, according to Sully, 70,000 
 Huguenots, including women and chil- 
 dren, were murdered throughout the 
 
 country . During the minority of 
 Charles and the regency of his mother 
 a long war raged in France between the 
 Catholics and Huguenots, the leaders 
 of the latter being the Prince of Cond4. 
 and Admiral Coligny. In 1570 over- 
 tures were made by the court to the 
 Huguenots, which resulted in a treaty 
 of peace. This treaty blinded the chiefs 
 of the Huguenots, particularly the Ad- 
 miral Coligny, who was wearied with 
 civil war. The king appeared to have 
 entirely disengaged himself from the 
 influence of the Guises and his mother; 
 he invited Coligny to his court, and 
 honored him as a father. The most 
 artful means were employed to increase 
 this delusion. The sister of the king 
 was married to the Prince de Bearn 
 (Aug. 18, 1572) in order to allure the 
 most distinguished Huguenots to Paris. 
 On Aug. 22 a shot from a window 
 wounded the admiral. The king has- 
 tened to visit him, and swore to punish 
 the author of the villainy; but on the 
 same day he was induced by his mother 
 to believe that the admiral had designs 
 on liis life. “God’s death!’’ he ex- 
 claimed, “kill the admiral; and not 
 only him, but all the Huguenots; let 
 none remain to disturb us.” The follow- 
 ing night Catharine held the bloody 
 council, which fixed the execution for 
 the night of St. Bartholomew, August 
 24, 1572. After the assassination of 
 Coligny a bell from the tower of the 
 royal palace at midnight gave t>o the 
 assembled companies of burghers the 
 signal for the general massacre of the 
 Huguenots. The Prince of Cond6 and 
 the King of Navarre saved their lives by 
 going to mass and pretending to em- 
 brace the Catholic religion. By the 
 king’s orders the massacre was extended 
 throughout the whole kingdom ; and the 
 horrible slaughter continued for thirty 
 days in almost all the provinces. 
 
 BARTLETT, John, an -'American edi- 
 tor, widely known from his compilation, 
 Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations. He 
 was born at Plymouth, Mass., 1820, and 
 has been for many years partner in the 
 house of Little, Brown & Co., of Boston. 
 
 BARTLETT, John Ru<ssell, an Ameri- 
 can ethnologist and author, born at 
 Providence, R. I., in 1805. In 1850-54 
 he surveyed the boundary line between 
 the United States and Mexico, and was 
 secretary of state for Rhode Island 
 (1855-72). He is the author of several 
 works on ethnological subjects, and has 
 published valuable lexicons and his- 
 tories of American countries. He died 
 in 1886. 
 
 BARTLETT, Josiah, an American 
 statesman, born at Amesbury, Mass., 
 in 1729. He was a delegate to the 
 continental congress in 1775, was chief 
 justice of New Hampshire court of com- 
 mon pleas (1779), justice of the state 
 supreme court (1784), and chief justice 
 (1778). He was the first governor of 
 New Hampshire. He died in 1795. 
 
 BARTLETT, Paul Wayland, an Amer- 
 ican sculptor, born at New Haven, 
 Conn., 1865. He is the sculptor of the 
 McClellan statue in Philadelphia, of the 
 Warren statue in Boston, and of the 
 statue of Lafayette presented to France 
 by the school children of the United 
 States, 
 
 BARTON, Clara, president of the 
 American Red Cross Society and its 
 founder. She was born in Massachusetts 
 in 1830, entered the hospital service 
 in the civil war, and did much good 
 work. She was visiting Europe at the 
 outbreak of the Fianco-Prussian war, 
 and served in the hospital service of the 
 German army. She was decorated 
 with the Iron Cross of Germany and the 
 Gold Cross of Baden. Miss Barton 
 represented the United States Red 
 Cross Society in several international 
 meetings, did relief work in America 
 in 1896, and in the late Spanish war and 
 the Anglo-Boer war in Africa. She has 
 published two histories of the Red Cross 
 movement. 
 
 BARTRAM, John, an American bota- 
 nist, born in Pennsylvania in 1699. He 
 became distinguished ' as a botanist 
 early in life and was a correspondent of 
 Linne, who praised him as the greatest 
 natural botanist in the world. His 
 works were printed in the Transactions 
 of the Philosophical Society, and also 
 in the form of books. He died in 1777. 
 
 BARTRAM, William, son of John 
 Bartram, and, like his father, a botanist 
 of distinction. He was born in Pennsyl- 
 vania in 1739 and died in 1823. He 
 published a list of American birds, in 
 additiotn to his botanical studies. 
 
 BARY'TA, oxide of barium, called also 
 heavy earth, from its being the heaviest 
 of the earths. It is generally found in 
 combination with sulphuric and car- 
 bonic acids, Conning sulphate and car- 
 bonate of baryta, the former of which 
 is called heavy-spar. Baryta is a gray 
 powder, has a sharp, caustic, alkaline 
 taste, and a strong affinity for water, and 
 forms a hydrate with that element. 
 It forms white salts with the acids, all 
 of which are poisonous except the sul- 
 phate. Several mixtures of sulphate of 
 baryta and white-lead are manufac- 
 tured, and are used as wliite pigments, 
 or it may be used alone. Carbonate of 
 baryta, which in the natural state is 
 known as witherite, is also used as the 
 base of certain colors. The nitrate is 
 used in pyrotechny, in the preparation 
 of green fireworks. 
 
 BASALT (ba-salt'), a well-known 
 igneous rock occurring in the ancient 
 trap and the recent volcanic series of 
 rocks, but more abundantly in the 
 former. It is a fino-grained heavy 
 crystalline rock, 'consisting of felspar, 
 augite, and magnetic iron, and some- 
 times contains a httle olivine. Basalt is 
 amorphous, columnar, tabular, or globu- 
 lar. The columnar form is straight or 
 curved, perpendicular or inclined, some- 
 times nearly horizontal; the diameter 
 of the columns from 3 to 18 inches, 
 sometimes with transverse semispherical 
 joints, in which the convex part of one 
 is inserted in the concavity of another; 
 and the height from 5 feet to 150. The 
 forms of the columns generally are 
 pentagonal, hexagonal, or octagonal. 
 When decomposed it is found also in 
 round masses, either spherical or com- 
 pressed and lenticular. These rounded 
 masses are sometimes composed of con- 
 centric layers, with a nucleus, and some- 
 times of prisms radiating from a center. 
 Fingal’s Cave, in the island of Staffa, 
 I furnishes a remarkable instance of ba.sal- 
 
BASE 
 
 BASE OF OPERATIONS 
 
 tic columns. The pillars of the Giant’s 
 Causeway, Ireland, composed of this 
 stone, and exposed to the roughest sea 
 for ages, have their angles as perfect as 
 
 Basalt— Lot’s wife, St. Helena. 
 
 those at a distance from the waves. 
 Basalt often assumes curious and fan- 
 tastic forms, as for example Lot’s wife 
 near the south coast of St. Helena. 
 
 BASE, in architecture, that part of a 
 column which is between the top of the 
 pedestal and the bottom of the shaft; 
 where there is no pedestal, the part be- 
 tween the bottom of the column and the 
 pavement. The term i§ also applied to 
 the lower projecting part of the wall of 
 a room, consisting of a plinth and its 
 moldings. 
 
 BASE'BALL, the national field game 
 of the United States, a development of 
 
 cEnTfle 
 
 UPT • BiohT 
 
 • • 
 
 A A, ground reserved for batsman, umpire, and 
 catcher : B B, for captain and assistant : C C, 
 players’ benches; D. bat-rack for visiting 
 pla.vers i E, for home players. 
 
 the old English game of “rounders.” 
 It is played by two teams of 9 men 
 each, with an elastic ball about 9 inches 
 m circumference. The field consists 
 of a level ground, part of which is laid 
 out in a “diamond,” 90 feet square, 
 
 with bases, or goals, at each corner. 
 One is called the home base, the others 
 from right to left of home are called first, 
 second, and third bases. The three last 
 named bases are guarded by the first, 
 second, and third basemen. A player 
 called the shortstop guards the space 
 between second and third bases. These 
 four are the infield. The outfield con- 
 sists of three players, right, center, and 
 left, placed at some distance from the 
 bases. The pitcher stands 55 feet from 
 the home base and delivers the ball over 
 that base to the catcher, who stands 
 just behind the base. This is the make- 
 up of the team “in the field.” The 
 men of the team that has the “innings” 
 come to bat one after another. The 
 batsman tries to hit the ball and to 
 reach first base before the ball can be 
 “fielded” to first base, or before one of 
 the opposing team can touch him with 
 it. If the ball reaches the first baseman 
 and is held by him, or if the batsman 
 is touched before reaching the first 
 base, he is retired from the play and 
 
 when touched with the ball in the hands 
 of a fielder while between bases; when, 
 if forced to run to any base, the ball is 
 held by a fielder on that base before the 
 runner reaches it; and when hit by a 
 batted ball. 
 
 When three men are out the side is 
 out and the team in the field becomes 
 batsmen. The object of the base- 
 runner is to reach in succession first, 
 second, third and home base without 
 being “put out.” He then “scores a 
 run.” Nine innings constitute a game 
 and the side having most runs at the 
 end of the ninth inning is the winner. 
 
 Baseball is played in the United 
 States by several large professional 
 leagues and innumerable small amateur 
 leagues, associations, and clubs. Several 
 millions of dollars are invested in the 
 business. 
 
 BASEL (ba'zl), a canton and city of 
 Switzerland. The canton borders on 
 Alsace and Baden, has an area of 176 
 sq. miles, and a population of 180,697, 
 nearly all speaking German. It is 
 
 Basel, from above the town. 
 
 is “out” of the game, and another 
 batsman takes his place. If the bats- 
 man knocks the ball into the air and it 
 is caught and held before touching the 
 ground; or if the batsman strikes three 
 times at the ball and misses it, the ball 
 being caught by the catcher on the last 
 missed strike ; or if the striker doesn’t try 
 to hit the ball when the ball is judged 
 to have been delivered over the home 
 base according to rule, the striker is out. 
 
 The batsman becomes a base-runner 
 after three strikes are called; when he 
 makes a fair hit, the ball traveling 
 between the above-mentioned lines 
 until after it passes first or third base; 
 after four balls have been called by the 
 umpire, a “ball” being a pitched ball 
 which is not touched by the bat and 
 which passes outside the limits required 
 for a strike; if he is hit by the ball, 
 unless he has made no effort to avoid it ; 
 after the umpire calls a “balk”; and if 
 prevented from striking by the inter- 
 ference of the catcher. In the last four 
 cases he cannot be put out before 
 reaching first base. He is put out when 
 his third strike is held by the catcher; 
 when a ball hit by him is caught by a 
 fielder before it touches the ground; 
 
 divided into two half-cantons, Basel 
 city and Basel country At Basel was 
 signed the treaty of peace between 
 France and Prussia, April 5, and that 
 between France and Spain, July 22, 
 1795. Pop. (with suburbs), 111,009- 
 
 BASE'MENT, the lowest story of a 
 dwelling-house or other building. The 
 basement in America is usually lower 
 than the level of the ground, the first 
 story being higher than the ground 
 level. In medieval Europe all great 
 houses were built with a basement, 
 called in England the “ground floor.” 
 This was level with the ground and 
 was used for servants quarters, offices, 
 
 BASE OF OPERATIONS, the place in 
 which an army keeps its main stores and 
 supplies when in war, and from wdiich 
 the campaign is carried on against an 
 enemy. The invaders of a country 
 often find the maintenance of a base of 
 operations a serious matter, for properly 
 to, guard it requires large numbers of 
 men. Lines leading from the base must 
 also be guarded; and these necessities 
 make it more or less easy for a small 
 number of men to defeat and drive out 
 a large invading army. 
 
BASHI-BAZOOKS 
 
 BASSWOOD 
 
 BASHI-BAZOOKS', irregular troops 
 in the Turkish army. They are mostly 
 Asiatics, and have had to be disarmed 
 several times by the regular troops on 
 account of the barbarities by which they 
 have rendered themselves infamous. 
 
 BASH'KIRS, a tribe of Finnish or of 
 Tatar origin, inhabiting the Russian 
 goverments of Ufa, Orenburg, Perm, 
 and Samara. They are rude and war- 
 like and partially nomadic. They num- 
 ber about 500,000. 
 
 BASIC SLAG, the slag or refuse matter 
 which is got in making basic steel, and 
 which from the phosphate of lime it 
 contains is a valuable fertilizer. 
 
 BASIC STEEL. See Steel. 
 
 BASIL, St., called the Great, one of the 
 Greek fathers, was born in 329, and 
 made in 370 Bishop of Caesarea in Cap- 
 padocia, where he died in 379. He was 
 distinguished by his efforts for the regu- 
 lation of clerical discipline, and, above 
 all, his endeavors for the promotion of 
 monastic life. The Greek Cnurch honors 
 him as one of its most illustrious saints, 
 and celebrates his festival January 1. 
 The vows of obedience, chastity, and 
 poverty framed by St. Basil are essen- 
 tially the rules of all the orders of Chris- 
 tendom. 
 
 BASIL'ICA, originally the name ap- 
 
 E lied by the Romans to their public 
 alls, either of justice, of exchange, or 
 other business. The plan of the basilica 
 was usually a rectangle divided into 
 aisles by rows of columns, the middle 
 aisle being the widest, with a semi- 
 circular apse at the end, in which the 
 tribunal was placed. The ground-plan 
 of these buildings was generally followed 
 in the early Christian churches, which, 
 therefore, long retained the name of 
 basilica, and it is still applied to some 
 of the churches in Rome by way of 
 distinction, and sometimes to other 
 churches built in imitation of the Roman 
 basilicas. 
 
 BASILICA'TA, also called POTENZA, 
 an Italian province, extending north 
 from the Gulf of Taranto, and corre- 
 sponding pretty closely with the ancient 
 Lucania. Area, 4122 sq. miles; pop. 
 524,485. 
 
 BAS'ILISK, a fabulous creature for- 
 merly believed to exist, and variously 
 regarded as a kind of serpent, lizard, or 
 dragon, and sometimes identified with 
 the cockatrice. It inhabited the deserts 
 of Africa, and its breath and even its 
 look was fatal. 
 
 BA'SIN, in physical geography, the 
 whole tract of country drained by a 
 river and its tributaries. The line di- 
 viding one river basin from another is 
 the water-shed; and by tracing the vari- 
 ous water-sheds we divide each country 
 into its constituent basins. The basin 
 of a loch or sea consists of the basins 
 of all the rivers which run into it. — In 
 geology a basin is any dipping or dis- 
 position of strata toward a common 
 axis or center, due to upheaval and sub- 
 sidence. 
 
 BASKET, a vessel or utensil of wick- 
 erwork, made of interwoven osiers or 
 willows, rushes, twigs, grasses, etc. The 
 process of basket-making is very simple, 
 and appears to be weU known among 
 the very rudest peoples. The ancient 
 
 Britons excelled in the art, and their 
 baskets were highly prized in Rome. 
 
 BASKET-BALL, a game played with 
 an inflated bladder 30 inches in circum- 
 ference and weighing about 20 ounces. 
 Goals, consisting of nets, are placed at 
 either end of the field, and are suspended 
 from metal rings. The teams consist of 
 five players each — left and right guard, 
 center, and right forward — and the ob- 
 ject is to put the ball in the opposing 
 team’s goal-basket. The ball must be 
 thrown or batted with the hands. No 
 tackling, kicking, pushing, etc., are 
 allowed. The penalty is a free throw 
 at 15 feet for the basket by the opposing 
 team. A goal thus made counts one 
 point; a goal from the field, 15. The 
 game was invented by James Naismith, 
 of Plainfield, Mass. 
 
 BASKIN G-SHARK, a species of shark, 
 so named from its habit of basking in 
 the sun at the surface of the water. It 
 reaches the length of 40 feet, and its 
 liver yields a large quantity of oil. It 
 frequents the northern seas, and is 
 known also as the sail-fish or sun-fish. 
 
 BASQUES (basks), or BISCAYANS, a 
 remarkable race of people dwelling part- 
 ly in the southwest corner of France, but 
 mostly in the north of Spain adjacent to 
 the Pyrenees. They are probably de- 
 scendants of the ancient Iberi, who oc- 
 cupied Spain before the Celts. They 
 preserve their ancient language, former 
 manners, and national dances, and make 
 admirable soldiers, especially in guerrilla 
 warfare. Their language is highly 
 polysynthetic, and no connection be- 
 tween it and any other language has 
 as yet been made out. There are four 
 principal dialects, which are not only 
 distinguished by their pronunciation 
 and grammatical structure, but differ 
 even in their vocabularies. The Bas- 
 ques, who number about 600,000, oc- 
 cupy in Spain the provinces of Biscay, 
 Guipuzcoa, and Aliiva; in France parts 
 of the departments of the Upper and 
 Lower Pyrenees, Ari4ge, and Upper 
 Garonne. 
 
 BAS-RELIEF (ba're-lef or bas're-lef), 
 BASS-RELIEF, low-relief, a mode of 
 sculpturing figures on a flat surface, the 
 figures having a very slight relief or pro- 
 
 Bas-relief, from the Elgin Marbles. 
 
 jection from the surface. It is distin- 
 guished from haut-relief, or high-relief, 
 in which the figures stand sometimes 
 almost entirely free from the ground. 
 Bas-relief work has been described as 
 “sculptured painting” from the capabil- 
 ity of disposing of groups of figures and 
 exhibiting minor adjuncts, as in a 
 painting. 
 
 BASS (bas), in music, the lowest part 
 in the harmony of a musical composi- 
 tion, whether vocal or instrumental. 
 According to some it is the fundamental 
 or most important part, while others 
 regard the melody or highest part in 
 that light. Next to the melody, the 
 bass part is the most striking, the freest 
 and boldest in its movements, and rich- 
 est in effect. 
 
 BASS (bas), the name of a number of 
 fishes of the perch family, distinguished 
 from the true perches by having the 
 tongue covered by small teeth and 
 the preoperculum smooth. The only 
 British species, called sea-dace, and 
 from its voracity sea-wolf, resembles 
 somewhat the salmon in shape, and is 
 much esteemed for the table, weighing 
 about 15 lbs. Striped bass, an American 
 species, weighing from 25 to 30 lbs., is 
 much used for food, and is also known as 
 rock-fish. Two species of black bass, 
 American fresh-rvater fishes, are excel- 
 lent as food and give fine sport to the 
 angler. The former is often called the 
 large-mouthed black bass, from the size 
 of its mouth. Both make nests and take 
 great care of their eggs and young. 
 
 BASS (bas) DRUM, a musical instru- 
 ment of percussion. It has a cylindrical 
 body of wood, over both ends of which a 
 membrane is stretched tightly by means 
 of hoops. The bass drum is played by 
 beating either one or both heads with 
 sticks having soft, padded knobs at 
 their ends. See Drum. 
 
 BASSEIN (bas-san'), a town in Lower 
 Burmah, province of Pegu, on both 
 banks of the Bassein river, one of the 
 mouths of the Irrawaddy, and navigable 
 for the largest ships. Pop. 31,864. — Bas- 
 sein District has an area of 6848 sq. 
 miles and a pop. of 475,002. 
 
 BAS'SETT, James, an American mis- 
 sionary, born in 1834, near HamiRon, 
 Ont. In 1871 he became a missionary 
 for the Presbyterian Board and traveled 
 widely throughout Europe, spending 
 many years in Turkey and Persia. He 
 is beli'. /ed to have been the first Ameri- 
 can to penetrate as far east as the tomb 
 of Harun-al-Rashid at Meshed, eastern 
 Khorassan. He founded the mission in 
 eastern and central Persia, and did 
 much to effect the appointment of a 
 United States legation to Persia. 
 
 BASSOON', a musical wind-instru- 
 ment of the reed order, blown with a bent 
 metal mouthpiece, and holed and keyed 
 like the clarinet. Its compass compre- 
 hends three octaves rising from B flat 
 below the bass-staff. 
 
 BASS'ORA, or BASRAH, a city in 
 Astiatic Turkey, on the west bank of 
 the Shat-el-Arab (the united stream of 
 the Tigris and Euphrates), about 50 
 miles from its mouth, and nearly 300 
 southeast of Bagdad. Thirty years ago 
 the inhabitants were estimated at 5000; 
 they are now about 40,000; but in the 
 18th eentury they were said to num- 
 ber 150,000. The ruins of the ancient 
 and more famous Basso ra — founded 
 by Caliph Omar in 636, at one time 
 a center of Arabic literature and learning 
 and regarded as “the Athens of the 
 East” — lie about 9 miles southwest of 
 the modern town. 
 
 BASSWOOD, BASS, the American 
 lime-tree or linden, common in North 
 
BASTARD 
 
 BATES 
 
 America, yielding a light, soft tim- 
 ber. 
 
 BAS'TARD, a child begotten and born 
 out of wedlock; an illegitimate child. 
 By the civil and canon laws, and by the 
 law of Scotland (as well as of some of 
 the United States), a bastard becomes 
 legitimate by the intermarriage of the 
 parents at any future time. But by the 
 laws of England a child, to be legitimate, 
 must at least be born after the lawful 
 marriage; it does not require that the 
 child shall be begotten in wedlock, but 
 it is indispensable that it should be born 
 after marriage, no matter how short the 
 time, the law presuming it to be the 
 child of the husband. The only incapac- 
 ity of a bastard is that he cannot be 
 heir or next of kin to any one save his 
 own issue. In England the maintenance 
 of a bastard in the first instance devolves 
 on the mother, while in Scotland it is a 
 joint burden upon both parents. The 
 mother is entitled to the custody of the 
 child in preference to the father, and 
 the father may be required to support 
 the child. 
 
 BASTILLE (bas-tel'), a French name 
 for any strong castle provided with 
 towers, but as a proper name the state 
 prison and citadel of Paris, which was 
 built about 1370 by Charles V. It was 
 
 the Bastille commenced. Not a vestige 
 of it exists, but its site is marked by a 
 column in the Place de la Bastille. 
 
 BASTINA'DO, an Eastern method of 
 corporal punishment, consisting of blows 
 upon the soles of the feet, applied with a 
 stick. 
 
 BASU'TOLAND, a native province 
 and British South African possession, 
 inclosed between Orange River Colony, 
 Natal, Griqualand East, and Cape 
 Colony. The Basutos belong chiefly to 
 the great stem of the Bechuanas, and 
 have made greater advances in civiliza- 
 tion than perhaps any other South Afri- 
 can race. Basutoland has an area of 
 about 10,300 sq. miles, much of it cov- 
 ered with grass, and there is but little 
 wood. The climate is pleasant. The 
 natives keep cattle, sheep, and horses, 
 culitvate the ground, and export grain. 
 It is divided into four districts, each 
 presided over by a magistrate. Pop. 
 (Europ.), 578; (native), 250,000. 
 
 BAT, one of the group of wing-handed, 
 flying mammals, having the fore-limb 
 peculiarly modified so as to serve for 
 flight. Bats are animals of the twilight 
 and darkness, and are common in 
 temperate and warm regions, but are 
 most numerous and largest in the 
 tropics. All European bats are small, 
 
 The Bastille, as in time of Louis XV. 
 
 ultimately used chiefly for the confine- 
 ment of persons of rank who had fallen 
 victims to the intrigues of the court or 
 the caprice of the government. The 
 capture of the Bastille by the Parisian 
 mob, 14th July, 1789, was the opening 
 act of the revolution. On that date the 
 Bastille was surrounded by a tumultuous 
 mob, who first attempted to negotiate 
 with the governor Delaunay, but, when 
 these negotiations failed, began to at- 
 tack the fortress. For several hours the 
 mob continued their siege without being 
 able to effect anything more than an 
 entrance into the outer court of the 
 Bastille; but at last the arrival of some 
 of the Royal Guard with a few pieces of 
 artillery forced the governor to let down 
 the second drawbridge and admit the 
 
 was torn from his captors and put to 
 death. The next day the destruction of 
 
 and have a mouse-like skin. The body 
 of the largest British species is less than 
 that of a mouse, but its wings stretch 
 about 15 inches. During the day it re- 
 mains in caverns, in the crevices of 
 ruins, hollow trees, and such-like lurk- 
 ing-places, and flits out at evening in 
 search of food, which consists of insects. 
 Several species of the same genus are 
 common in North America. Many bats 
 are remarkable for having a singular 
 nasal cutaneous appendage, bearing in 
 some cases a fancied resemblance to a 
 horseshoe. Bats may be conveniently 
 divided into two sections: the insec- 
 tivorous or carnivorous, comprising all 
 European and most African and Ameri- 
 can species; and the fruit-eating, be- 
 longing to tropical .A.sia and Australia, 
 with several African forms. .\n Aus- 
 tralian fruit - eating bat, commonly 
 known as the kalong or flying-fox, is 
 the largest of all the bats: it does much 
 
 mischief in orchards. At least two 
 species of South American bats are 
 known to suck the blood of other mam- 
 mals, and thence are called “vampire- 
 bats.” As winter approaches, in cold 
 
 Great horseshoe bat. 
 
 climates bats seek shelter in caverns, 
 vaults, ruinous and deserted buildings, 
 and similar retreats, where they cling 
 together in large clusters, hanging head 
 downward by the feet; and remain in 
 a torpid condition until the returning 
 spring recalls them to active exertions. 
 Bats generally bring forth two young, 
 which, while suckling, remain closely 
 attached to the mother’s teats, which 
 are two, situated upon the chest. The 
 parent shows a strong degree of attach- 
 ment for her offspring, and, when they 
 are captured, will follow them, and. even 
 submit to captivity herself rather than 
 forsake her charge. 
 
 BATA'VIA, a city and seaport of 
 Java, on the north coast of the island, 
 the capital of all the Dutch East Indies. 
 Its inhabitants are chiefly Malay, with 
 a considerable admixture of Chinese and 
 a small number of Europeans. Pop. 
 115,600. 
 
 BATAVIANS, an old German nation 
 which inhabited a part of the present 
 Holland, especially the island called 
 Batavia, formed by that branch of the 
 Rhine which empties itself into the sea 
 near Leyden, together with the Waal 
 and the Meuse. Tacitus asserts them 
 to have been a branch of the Catti. 
 They were subdued by Germanicus, and 
 were granted special privileges for their 
 faithful services to the Romans, but 
 revolted under Vespasian. They were, 
 however, again subjected by Trajan and 
 Adrian, and at the end of the 3d cen- 
 tury the Salian Franks obtained pos- 
 session of the island of Batavia. 
 
 BATEMAN, Kate Josephine, an Amer- 
 ican actress, born in Baltimore, 1842, 
 and appeared at twenty as Juliet, Juha, 
 Pauline, Lady Macbeth, and other tragic 
 roles. She visited England in 1863, 
 married George Crowe, retired until 
 1868, and reappeared as Medea in 1872. 
 In 1875 Miss Bateman appeared with 
 Irving in Macbeth. 
 
 BATES, .\rlo, an American author 
 and poet, born in Maine in 1850. He 
 has been editor of the Boston Courier 
 and professor of English in the Massa- 
 chusetts Institute of Technology. He 
 has published The Pagans, The Wheel 
 of Fire, The Philistines, The Puritans, 
 and Love in a Cloud. His poems ap- 
 peared in 1886, 1887, and 1891. 
 
 BATES, Blanche, an American ac- 
 tress, born at Portland, Oregon, 1873. 
 She made her first appearance in San 
 Francisco. She has played leading 
 parts in The Senator, The Charity Ball, 
 A Doll’s House, The Great Ruby, The 
 
BATES 
 
 BATTLEMENT 
 
 Three Musketeers, and Under Two 
 Flags 
 
 BATES, Charlotte Fiske, an American 
 author, born in New York in 1838. She 
 has published several volumes of poetry 
 (1879, 1881, and 1882). She married 
 (1891) M. Adolphe Rog6. 
 
 BATH (bath), a city of England in 
 Somersetshire, on the Avon, which is 
 navigable for barges from Bristol. Bath 
 is remarkable for its medicinal waters, 
 the four principal springs yielding no 
 less than 184,000 gallons of water a day ; 
 and the baths are both elegant and 
 commodious. The temperature of the 
 springs varies from 109° to 117° Fah- 
 renheit. They contain carbonic acid, 
 chloride of sodium and of magnesium, 
 sulphate of soda, carbonate and sulphate 
 of lime, etc. Pop. 52,75i. 
 
 BATH, a town in Maine, on the west 
 side and at the head of the winter navi- 
 gation of the Kennebec, 12 miles from 
 the sea. Chief industries: ship-build- 
 ing and allied crafts. Pop. 10,477. 
 
 BATH, the immersion of the body in 
 water, or an apparatus for this purpose. 
 The use of the bath as an institution, 
 apart from occasional immersion in 
 rivers or the sea, is, as might be antic- 
 mated, an exceedingly old custom. 
 Homer mentions the bath as one of the 
 first refreshments offered to a guest; 
 thus, when Ulysses enters the palace of 
 Circe, a bath is prepared for him, and 
 he is anointed after it with costly per- 
 fumes. No representation, howeve-, of 
 a bath as we understand it is given upon 
 the Greek vases, bathers being repre- 
 sented either simply washing at an ele- 
 vated basin, or having water poured 
 over them from above. In later times, 
 rooms, both public and private, were 
 built expressly for bathing, the public 
 baths of the Greeks being mostly con- 
 nected with the gymnasia. Apparently, 
 by an inversion of the later practice, it 
 was customary in the Homeric epoch to 
 take first a cold and then a hot bath; 
 but the Lacedemonians substituted the 
 hot-air sudorific bath, as less enervating 
 than warm water, and in Athens at the 
 time of Demosthenes and Socrates the 
 warm bath was considered by the more 
 rigorous as an effeminate custom. With 
 respect to modern baths, that commonly 
 in use in Russia consists of a single hall, 
 built of wood, in the midst of which is a 
 powerful metal oven, covered with 
 heated stones, and surrounded with 
 broad benches, on which the bathers 
 take their places. Cold water is then 
 poured upon the heated stones, and a 
 thick, hot steam rises, wliich causes the 
 sweat to issue from the whole body. 
 The bather is then gently whipped with 
 wet birch rods, rubbed with soap, 
 and washed with luke-warm and cold 
 water; of the latter, some pailfuls are 
 poured over his head; or else he 
 leaps, immediately after this sweating- 
 bath, into a river or pond, or rolls in the 
 snow. The Turks, by their religion, are 
 obliged to make repeated ablutions 
 daily, and for this purpose there is, in 
 every city, a public bath connected 
 with a mosque. A favorite bath among 
 them, however, is a modification of the 
 hot-air sudorific-bath of the ancients 
 introduced under the name of “Turkish” 
 
 into other than Mohammedan countries. 
 A regular accompaniment of this bath, 
 when properly given, is the operation 
 known as “kneading,” generally per- 
 formed at the close of the sweating 
 process, after the final rubbing of the 
 bather with soap, and consisting in a 
 systematic pressing and squeezing of the 
 whole body, stretching the limbs, and 
 manipulating all the joints as well as 
 the fleshy and muscular parts. 
 
 Public free baths have been opened 
 in several cities of the United States 
 with reasonable success. Public baths 
 (for the payment of a fee) are operated 
 in all the cities of America, and some of 
 them are superior to the best establish- 
 ments in Europe. The Sutro baths at 
 the Cliff House in San Francisco, which 
 were not damaged by the recent earth- 
 quake, are the finest baths in the world, 
 surpassing in size and luxury the 
 greatest of the ancient Roman baths. 
 Salt water is let in directly from the 
 Pacific Ocean and a huge amphitheater 
 seating several thousand spectators 
 surrounds the pools. The most famous 
 bathing springs in America are those at 
 Hot Springs, Ark., and Mount Clemens, 
 Mich., which are regarded as a cure for 
 rheumatism and other diseases. 
 
 BA'THOS, a Greek word meaning 
 depth, now used to signify a ludicrous 
 sinking from the elevated to the mean 
 in writing or speech. First used in tliis 
 sense by Pope. 
 
 BATHYB'IUS, the name given by 
 Huxley to what was regarded as masses 
 of animal matter found covering the sea- 
 bottom at great depths, and in such 
 abundance as to form in some places 
 deposits of 30 feet or more in thickness. 
 It has been described as a tenacious, 
 viscid, slimy substance, exhibiting under 
 the microscope a network of granular, 
 mucilaginous matter, which expands 
 and contracts spontaneously, and thus 
 forms an organism of the utmost sim- 
 plicity corresponding in every respect 
 to protoplasm. But the existence of 
 such a substance has been a matter of 
 dispute among scientists. 
 
 BA'TON, a short staff or truncheon, 
 in some cases used as an official badge, 
 as that of a field-marshal. The conduc- 
 tor of an orchestra has a baton for the 
 purpose of directing the performers as 
 to time, etc. 
 
 BAT'ON ROUGE (rozh>, the capital 
 of Louisiana, on the left bank of the 
 Mississippi, with an arsenal, barracks, 
 military hospital, state-house, state 
 university, etc. On Aug. 5, 1862, the 
 Confederates under General Brecken- 
 ridge suffered a severe defeat before it. 
 Pop. 12,000. 
 
 BATl^CHIANS (ba-tra'ki-anz), the 
 fourth order in Cuvier’s arrangement 
 of the class Reptilia, comprising frogs, 
 toads, newts, salamanders, and sirens. 
 The term is now often employed as 
 synonymous with amphibia, but is more 
 usually restricted to the order Anura 
 or tailless amphibia. 
 
 BATTAL'ION, the tactical unit of 
 command in infantry, supposed to be of 
 the maximum strength to be efficiently 
 handled by one officer. 
 
 BATTERING-RAM, an engine for 
 battering down the walls of besieged 
 places. The ancients employed two 
 
 different engines of this kind — one sus- 
 pended in a frame, the other movable 
 on wheels or rollers. They consisted of 
 a beam or spar with a massive metal 
 head, and were set in motion either by 
 a direct application of manual force or 
 
 Battering-ram. 
 
 by means of cords passing over pulleys. 
 Some are said to have been 120 feet or 
 more in length, and to have been worked 
 by 100 men. One is described as being 
 180 feet long, and having a head weigh- 
 ing 1^ tons. They were generally 
 covered with a roof or screen for the 
 protection of the workers. 
 
 BAT'TERSEA, a municipal borough 
 of London, in Surrey. Pop. in 1901, 
 168,896. 
 
 BAT'TERY, as a military term, (1) 
 any number of guns grouped in position 
 for action; (2) any work constructed as 
 a position for such guns; (3) the tactical 
 unit of field-artillery, more properly 
 described as a field-battery. 
 
 BATTERY, in physics, a combination 
 of several j’ars or metallic plates, to in- 
 crease the effect of electricity and gal- 
 vanism. 
 
 BATTERY, in criminal law, an assault 
 by beating or wounding another. The 
 least touching or meddling with the 
 person of another against his will may 
 be held to constitute a battery. 
 
 BATTERY, The, a small park at the 
 extreme southern point of Manhattan 
 (New York City), which was formerly 
 in Dutch times a fortified place. In 
 early New York the Battery was the 
 most aristocratic residence portion of 
 the city. 
 
 BATTLE-AX, a weapon much used 
 in war in the early part of the middle 
 ages among knights. It is a weapon 
 which affords hardly any guard, and 
 the heavier the blow given with it the 
 more the fighter is exposed; but its use 
 was to some extent necessitated by the 
 resistance of iron armor to all but 
 heavy blows. In England and Scotland 
 the battle-ax was much employed, the 
 Lochaber-ax remaining a formidable 
 implement of destruction in the hands 
 of the Highlanders to a recent period. 
 
 BATTLE CREEK, a town in Michigan, 
 at the junction of the Kalamazoo and 
 Battle Creek, with a college, and manu- 
 factures of agricultural implements, 
 health foods, etc. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 BAT'TLEMENT, a notched or in- 
 dented parapet of a fortification, formed 
 by a series of raised parts called cops or 
 merlons, separated by openings called 
 crenelles or embrasures, the soldier 
 sheltering himself behind the merlon 
 while he fires through the embrasure. 
 Battlements were originally military, 
 but were afterward used freely in 
 ecclesiastical and civil buildings by way 
 of ornament, on parapets, cornices, 
 tabernacle work, etc. 
 
BAUXITE 
 
 BAYONET 
 
 BAUXITE (bak'sit), a clay found at 
 Baux, near Arles in France, and ex- 
 ported from the north of Ireland, con- 
 taining a large proportion of alumina, 
 and used as a lining for furnaces that 
 have to support an intense heat, and 
 as a source of aluminium. 
 
 BAVA'RIA, a kingdom in the south 
 of Germany, the second largest state 
 of the empire, composed of two isolated 
 portions, the larger comprising about 
 eleven-twelfths of the monarchy, having 
 the Austrian territories on the east, and 
 Wiirtemberg, Baden, etc., on the west, 
 while the smaller portion, the Pfalz or 
 Palatinate, is separated from the other 
 by Wiirtemberg and Baden, and lies 
 west of the Rhine; total area, 29,657 
 sq. miles. The main political divisions 
 are: Upper Bavaria (pop. 1,319,985; 
 chief town, Munich, the capital of the 
 kingdom, pop. 499,959); Lower Bavaria 
 (677,973); Palatinate (830,948); Upper 
 Palatinate and Regensburg (555,204) ; 
 Upper Franconia (607,308) ; Middle 
 Franconia (814,294); Lower Franconia 
 and Aschaffenburg (650,624); Schwaben 
 and Neuburg (712,056); total 6,168,392. 
 
 As regards soil Bavaria is one of the 
 most fertile countries in Germany, pro- 
 ducing the various cereals in abundance, 
 the best hops in Germany, fruit, wine, 
 tobacco, etc., and having extensive 
 forests. Lower Franconia (the Main 
 valley) and the Palatinate are the great 
 vine-growing districts. The celebrated 
 Steinweiii and Leistenwein are the 
 produce of the slopes of the Steinberg 
 and Marienberg at Wurzburg (on the 
 Main). The forests of Bavaria, chiefly 
 fir and pine, yield a large revenue; much 
 timber being annually exported, to- 
 gether W'ith potash, tar, turpentine, 
 etc. The principal mineral products are 
 salt, coal, and iron, some of the mining 
 works belonging to the state. The 
 minerals worked include copper, quick- 
 silver, manganese, cobalt, porcelain 
 clay, alabaster, graphite. Large num- 
 bers of horses and cattle are reared, as 
 also sheep and swine. The manufac- 
 tures are individually mostly on a small 
 scale. The principal articles manu- 
 factured are linens, woolens, cottons, 
 leather, paper, glass, earthen and iron 
 ware, jewelry, etc. The optical and 
 mathematical instruments rnade are 
 excellent. A most important branch of 
 industry is the brewing of beer, for 
 which there are upward of 7000 estab- 
 lishments, producing over 260 millions 
 of gallons a year. 
 
 Education is in a less satisfactory 
 condition than in most German states. 
 There are about 7000 elementary schools, 
 on which attendance is compulsory up 
 to fourteen years of age. There are 
 three universities, two of which (Munich 
 and Wurzburg) are Roman Catholic, 
 and one (Erlangen) Protestant. In art 
 Bavaria is best known as the home of 
 the Nurnberg school, founded about the 
 middle of the 16th century by Albert 
 Uiirer. Hans Holbein is also claimed 
 as a Bavarian ; and to these have to be 
 added the eminent sculptors Kraft and 
 Vischer, both born about the middle of 
 the 15th century. The restoration of 
 the reputation of Bavaria in art was 
 chiefly the work of Ludwig I., under 
 whom the capital became one of the 
 
 most prominent seats of the fine arts in 
 Europe. 
 
 The Bavarian crown is hereditary in 
 the male line. The executive is in the 
 hands of the king. The legislature 
 consists of two chambers. 
 
 The Bavarians take their name from 
 the Boii,' a Celtic tribe whose territory 
 was occupied by a confederation of 
 Germanic tribes, called after their pred- 
 ecessors Boiarii. These were made 
 tributary first to the Ostrogoths, and 
 then to the Franks; and on the death of 
 Charlemagne his successors governed 
 the country by lieutenants with the 
 title of margrave, afterward converted 
 (in 921) into that of duke. In 1070 
 Bavaria passed to the family of the 
 Guelphs, and in 1180 by imperial grant 
 to Otho, count of Wittelsbach, founder 
 of the still reigning dynasty. In 1623 
 the reigning duke was made one of the 
 electors of the empire. Elector Maxi- 
 milian II. joined in the war of the 
 Spanish succession on the side of France, 
 and this led, after the battle of Blenheim, 
 1704, to the loss of his dominions for 
 the next ten years. His son, Charles 
 Albert, likewise lost his dominions for 
 a time to Austria, but they were all re- 
 covered again by Charles’s son, Maxi- 
 milian III. (1745). In the wars follow- 
 ing the French revolution Bavaria was 
 in a difficult position between France 
 and Austria, but latterly joined Napo- 
 leon, from whom its elector Maximilian 
 IV. received the title of king G805), a 
 title afterward confirmed by the 
 treaties of 1814 and 1815. King Maxi- 
 milian I. was succeeded by his son, 
 Ludwig (or Louis) I., under whom 
 various circumstances helped to quicken 
 a desire for political change. Reform 
 being refused, tumults arose in 1848, 
 and Ludwig resigned in favor of his son, 
 Maximilian II., under whom certain 
 modifications of the constitution were 
 carried out. At his death in 1864 he 
 was succeeded by Ludwig II. In the 
 war of 1866 Bavaria sided with Austria, 
 and was compelled to cede a small 
 portion of its territory to Prussia, and 
 to pay a war indemnity of $12,500,000. 
 Soon after Bavaria entered into an 
 alliance with Prussia, and in 1867 joined 
 the Zollverein. In the Franco-German 
 war of 1870-71 the Bavarians took a 
 prominent part, and it was at the re- 
 quest of the King of Bavaria, on behalf 
 of all the other princes and the senates 
 of the free cities of Germany, that the 
 King of Prussia agreed to accept the 
 title of Emperor of Germany. Since 
 Jan., 1871, Bavaria has been a part of 
 the German Empire, and is represented 
 in the Bundesrath by six, and in the 
 Reichstag by forty-eight members. 
 The eccentricity early displayed by 
 Ludwig II. developed to such an extent 
 that in June, 1886, he was placed under 
 control, and a regency established under 
 Prince Liutpold (Leopold). The change 
 was almost immediately followed by 
 the suicide of the king, and as Prince 
 Otto, the brother and heir of the late 
 king, was insane, the regency was con- 
 tinued. 
 
 BAY, in geography, an indentation of 
 some size into the shore of a sea or lake, 
 generally said to be one with a wider 
 entrance than a gulf. 
 
 BAYARD, Thomas Francis, an Ameri- 
 can diplomat and statesman, born in 
 Wilmington, Del., 1828, died 1898. He 
 was early engaged in commerce, but 
 later studied law, and began practice in 
 1851. In 1869 he became U. S. senator, 
 and represented Delaware in the senate 
 until he became secretary of state in 
 Cleveland’s first cabinet. He was sev- 
 eral times an unsuccessful candidate for 
 nomination to the presidency in demo- 
 cratic national conventions, and was 
 appointed ambassador to England by 
 Cleveland in 1893, serving until 1897. 
 He was given the degree of Doctor of 
 Civil Law by both Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge Universities. 
 
 BAYARD (ba-yar), Pierre du Terrail, 
 Seigneur de, the Chevalier sans peur et 
 sans reproche (knight without fear and 
 without reproach), born in 1476 in Castle 
 Bayard, near Glrenoble, in southern 
 France. At the age of eighteen he 
 accompanied Charles VIII. to Italy, and 
 in the battle at Verona took a standard. 
 When Francis I. ascended the throne he 
 sent Bayard into Dauphin4 to open a 
 passage over the Alps and through Pied- 
 mont. Prosper Colonna lay in wait for 
 him, but was made prisoner by Bayard, 
 who immediately after further dis- 
 tinguished himself in the battle of 
 Marignano. After liis defense of M6z- 
 ieres against the invading army of 
 Charles V. he was saluted in Paris as the 
 savior of his country, receiving the 
 honor paid to a prince of the blood. 
 His presence reduced the revolted 
 Genoese to obedience, but failed to pre- 
 vent the expulsion of the French after 
 the capture of Lodi. In the retreat the 
 safety of the army was committed to 
 Bayard, who, however, was mortally 
 wounded by a stone from a blunderbuss 
 in protecting the passage of the Sesia. 
 He kissed the cross of his sword, con- 
 fessed to his squire, and died, April 30, 
 1524. He was buried in a church of the 
 Minorites, near Grenoble. 
 
 BAY CITY, a city in Michigan on the 
 e. side of Saginaw river, near its mouth 
 in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron. Chief 
 articles of trade, lumber and salt. Pop. 
 30,000. 
 
 BAYEUX TAPESTRY, so caUed be- 
 cause it was originally found in the 
 cathedral of Bayeux, in the public 
 library of which town it is still pre- 
 served. It is supposed to have been 
 worked by Matilda, queen of Wfiliam. 
 the Conqueror, and to have been pre- 
 sented by Odo, bishop of Bayeux, the 
 half-brother of William, to the church 
 in wliich it was found. It is 214 feet in 
 length and 20 inches in breadth, and is 
 divided into seventy-two compart- 
 ments, the subject of each scene being 
 indicated by a Latin inscription These 
 scenes give a pictorial history of the in- 
 vasion and conquest of England by the 
 Normans, beginning with Harold’s visit 
 to the Norman court, and ending with 
 liis death at Hastings. 
 
 BAYNES (banz), Thomas Spencer, 
 LL.D., born at Wellington, Somerset, 
 in 1823, died suddenly in London, 1887. 
 In 1873 he became editor of the ninth 
 edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
 
 BAY'ONET, a straight, sharp-pointed 
 weapon, generally triangular, intended 
 to be fixed upon the muzzle of a rifle or 
 
BAYONNE CITY 
 
 BEACONSFIELI) 
 
 musket, \yhich is thus transformed into 
 a thrusting weapon; probably invented 
 about 1640, in Bayonne. About 1690 
 the bayonet began to be fastened by 
 means of a socket to the outside of the 
 barrel, instead of being inserted as for- 
 merly in the inside. A variety of the 
 bayonet, called the sword-bayonet, is 
 now pretty widely used in European 
 armies, especially for the short rifles of 
 the light infantry, the carbines of the 
 artillery, etc. 
 
 German war, when he capitulated at 
 Metz, after a seven weeks’ siege, with 
 an army of 175,000 men. For this act 
 he was tried by court-martial in 1871, 
 found guilty of treason, and condemned 
 to death. This sentence was commuted 
 to twenty years’ seclusion in the Isle St. 
 Marguerite, from which he escaped and 
 retired to Spain. 
 
 BAZAR', or BAZAAR', in the East an 
 exchange, market-place, or place where 
 goods are exposed for sale, usually con- 
 
 The coronation of Harold— Men wonder at the star— Harold on the throne. 
 
 The battle of Hastings— Portion of the Bayeux tapestry. 
 BAYEUX TAPESTRY. 
 
 BAYONNE CITY, a city in Hudson 
 Co., New Jersey. Pop. 32,722. 
 
 BAYOU (ba-yo'), in the S. States, a 
 stream which flows from a lake or other 
 stream : frequently used as synonymous 
 with creek or tidal channel. 
 
 BAY RUM, a spirit obtained by dis- 
 tilling the leaves of Myrica acris, or 
 other West Indian trees of the same 
 genus. It is used for toilet purposes, 
 and as a liniment in rheumatic affec- 
 tions. 
 
 BAY-SALT, a general term for coarse- 
 grained salt, but properly applied to 
 salt obtained by spontaneous or natural 
 evaporation of sea -water in large 
 shallow tanks or bays. 
 
 BAY-WINDOW, a window forming a 
 recess or bay in a room, projecting out- 
 ward, and rising from the ground or 
 basement on a plan rectangular, semi- 
 octagonal, or semi-hexagonal, but al- 
 ways straight-sided. The term is, how- 
 ever, also often employed to designate 
 a bow-window, which more properly 
 forms the segment of a circle, and an 
 oriel-window, which is supported on a 
 kind of bracket, and is usually on the 
 first floor. 
 
 BAZAINE (ba-zan), Francois Achille, 
 French general, b. 1811, d. 1888. He 
 served iri Algeria, in Spain against the 
 Carlists, in the Crimean war, and joined 
 the Mexican expedition as general of 
 division in 1862, and in 1864 was made 
 a marshal of France. He commanded 
 the third army corps in the Franco- 
 
 sisting of small shops or stalls in a nar- 
 row street or series of streets. These 
 bazar-streets are frequently shaded by 
 a light material laid from roof to roof, 
 and sometimes are arched over. Marts 
 for the sale of miscellaneous articles, 
 chiefly fancy goods, are now to be found 
 
 The great bazar, Const.iutinople. 
 in most European ciaes bearing the 
 name of bazars. The term bazar is also 
 applied to a sale of miscellaneous 
 articles, mostly of fancy work, and con- 
 tributed gratuitously, in furtherance of 
 some charitable or other purpose. 
 
 BEACON (be'kon), an object visible 
 to some distance, and serving to notify 
 the presence of danger: commonly 
 applied to a fire-signal set on a height to 
 spread the news of hostile invasion or 
 other great event; and also applied to a 
 mark or object of some kind placed con- 
 spicuously on a coast or over a rock or 
 shoal at sea for the guidance of vessels, 
 often an iron structure of considerable 
 height. 
 
 BEACONSFIELD, Benjamin Disraeli, 
 Earl of, an eminent English statesman 
 and novelist, of Jewish extraction; 
 eldest son of Isaac D’ Israeli, author of 
 the Curiosities of Literature; born in 
 London in 1804, died there in 1881, 
 buried at Hughenden. In 1826 he pub- 
 lished Vivian Grey, his first novel; and 
 subsequently traveled for some time, 
 visiting Italy, Greece, Turkey, and 
 Syria, and gaining experiences which 
 were afterward reproduced in his books. 
 His travels and impressions are em- 
 bodied in a volume of letters addressed 
 to his sister and his father. In 1837 he 
 gained an entrance to the House of 
 Commons, being elected for Maidstone. 
 Ilis first speech in the house was treated 
 with ridicule; but he finished with the 
 prophetic declaration that the time 
 
 Lord Beaeonsfleld. 
 
 would come when they would hear him. 
 During his first years in parliament he 
 was a supporter of Peel; but when Peel 
 pledged himself to abolish the corn-laws 
 Disraeli became the leader of the pro- 
 tectionists. Having acquired the manor 
 of Hughenden in Buckinghamshire, he 
 was in 1847 elected for this county, and 
 he retained his seat till raised to the 
 peerage nearly thiry years later. His 
 first appointment to office was in 1852, 
 when he became chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer under Lord Derby. The fol- 
 lowing year, however, the ministry was 
 defeated. He remained out of office 
 till 1858, when he again became chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer, and brought in 
 a reform bill which wrecked the govern- 
 ment. During the time the Palmer- 
 ston government was in office Mr. 
 Disraeli led the opposition in the lower 
 house with conspicuous ability and 
 courage. In 1806 the Liberals resigned, 
 and Derby and Disraeli came into power, 
 the latter being again chancellor of the 
 exchequer. They immediately brought 
 in, and carried, after a violent and bitter 
 struggle, a Reform Bill on the basis of 
 household suffrage. In 1868 he became 
 premier on the resignation of Lord 
 Derby, but his tenure of office was short. 
 
BEAD 
 
 In 1874 he again became prime-minister 
 with a strong Conservative majority, 
 and he remained in power for six years. 
 This period was marked by his elevation 
 to the peerage in 1876 as Earl of Beacons- 
 field, and by the prominent part he 
 took in regard to the Eastern question 
 and the conclusion of the Treaty of 
 Berlin in 1878. In 1880 parliament was 
 rather suddenly dissolved, and, the new 
 parliament showing an overwhelming 
 Liberal majority, he resigned ofBce, 
 though he still retained the leadership 
 of his party. Within a few months of 
 his death the f)ublication of a novel 
 called Endymion (his last, Lothair, had 
 been published ten years before) showed 
 that his intellect was still vigorous. 
 
 BEAD (bed), originally a prayer; 
 then a small perforated ball of gold, 
 pearl, amber, glass, or the like, to be 
 strung on a thread, and used in a rosary 
 by Roman Catholics in numbering their 
 prayers, one bead being passed at the 
 end of each ejaculation or short prayer. 
 
 BEAD-SNAKE, a beautiful snake of 
 North America, inhabiting cultivated 
 grounds, especially plantations of the 
 sweet-potato, and burrowing in the 
 ground. It is finely marked with yellow, 
 carmine, and black. Though it pos- 
 sesses poison-fangs it never seems to use 
 them. 
 
 BEAGLE (be'gl), a small hound, for- 
 merly kept to hunt hares, now almost 
 superseded by the harrier, which some- 
 times is called by its name. The beagle 
 is smaller than the harrier, compactly 
 built, smooth-haired, and with pendu- 
 lous ears. The smallest of them are 
 little larger than the lap-dog. 
 
 BEAM, a long straight and strong 
 piece of wood, iron, or steel, especially 
 when holding an important place in 
 some structure, and serving for support 
 or consolidation; often equivalent to 
 girder. In a balance it is the part from 
 the ends of which the scales are sus- 
 pended. In a loom it is a cylindrical 
 piece of wood on which weavers wind 
 the warp before weaving; also, the 
 cvlinder on which the cloth is rolled as it 
 IS woven. In a ship one of the strong 
 transverse pieces stretching across from 
 one side to the other to support the 
 decks and retain the sides at their 
 
 E roper distance; hence a ship is said to 
 e “on her beam ends” when lying over 
 on her side. 
 
 BEAN, a name given to several kinds 
 of leguminous seeds and the plants 
 producing them. The common bean 
 is cultivated both in fields and gardens 
 as food for man and beast. Beans are 
 very nutritious, containing 36 per cent 
 of starch and 2.3 per cent of nitrogenous 
 matter called legumin, analogous to the 
 casein in cheese. The bean is an annual 
 from 2 to 4 feet high. The flowers are 
 beautiful and fragrant. The kidney- 
 bean, French bean, or hai-icot is a well- 
 known culinary vegetable. There are 
 two principal varieties, annual dwarfs 
 and runners. The scarlet-runner bean, 
 a native of Mexico, is cultivated on 
 account of its long rough pods and its 
 scarlet flowers. 
 
 BEAR, the name of several large 
 carnivorous mammals. The teeth are 
 forty-two in number, as in the dog, but 
 there is no carnassial or sectorial tootli, 
 and the molars have a more tubercular 
 
 character than in other carnivores. 
 The eyes have a nictitating membrane, 
 the nose is prominent and mobile, and 
 the tail very short. The true bears are 
 about ten in number, natives chiefly 
 of Europe, Asia, and N. America. They 
 generally lie dormant in.their den during 
 
 Brown bear. 
 
 the winter months. The brown or 
 black bear is a native of almost all the 
 northern parts of Europe and Asia, 
 and was at one time common in the 
 Bi-itish islands. It feeds on fruits, 
 roots, honey, ants, and, in case of need, 
 on mammals. It sometimes reaches 
 the length of 7 feet, the largest speci- 
 
 Grizzly bear. 
 
 mens being found farthest to the north. 
 It lives solitarily. The American black 
 bear, with black shining hair, is rartly 
 above 5 feet in length. It is a great 
 climber, is less dangerous than the brown 
 bear, and is hunted for its fur and flesh. 
 It is very amusing in captivity. The 
 grizzly bear is an inhabitant of the 
 
 Polar bear. 
 
 Rocky Mountains; it is a ferocious 
 animal, sometimes 9 feet in length, and | 
 has a bulky and unwieldy form, but 
 is nevertheless capable of great rapidity 
 of motion. The extinct cave-bear 
 seems to have been closely akin to the 
 grizzly. The Siberian bear is perhaps 
 
 
 BEARING 
 
 a variety of the brown bear. The polar 
 or white bear is an animal possessed of 
 great strength and fierceness. It lives 
 in the polar regions, frequents the sea, 
 feeds on fish, seals, etc., and usually is 
 7 to 8 feet in length. The Malayan or 
 coconut palm bear is perhaps the 
 smallest of the bears. It inhabits 
 Cochin-China, Nepaul, the Sunda Is- 
 lands, etc., lives exclusively on vegetable 
 food, and is an expert climber. It is 
 called also sun-bear and bruang. The 
 Indian black bear or sloth-bear of 
 India and Ceylon is reputed to be a 
 fierce and dangerous animal. 
 
 BEAR, Great and Little, the popular 
 name of two constellations in the north- 
 ern hemisphere. The Great Bear (Ursa 
 Major) is situated near the pole. It is 
 remarkable for its well-known seven 
 stars, by two of which, called the Point- 
 ers, the pole-star is always readily 
 found. The Little Bear (Ursa Minor) is 
 the constellation which contains the 
 pole-star. This constellation has seven 
 stars placed together in a manner re- 
 sembling those in the Great Bear. 
 
 BEAR-BAITING, the sport of baiting 
 bears with dogs, formerly one of the 
 established amusements, not only of the 
 common people, but of the nobility and 
 even royalty itself. The places where 
 bears were publicly baited were called 
 bear-gardens. 
 
 BEARD, the hair round the chin, on 
 the cheeks, and the upper lip, which is 
 a distinction of the male sex and of man- 
 hood. It differs from the hair on the 
 head by its greater hardness and its 
 form. Some nations have hardly any, 
 others a great profusion. The latter 
 generally consider it as a great orna- 
 ment; the former pluck it out; as, for 
 instance, the American Indians. The 
 beard has often been considered as a 
 mark of the sage and the priest. Moses 
 forbade the Jews to shave their beards. 
 With the ancient Germans the cutting 
 off another’s beard was a high offense. 
 Even now the beard is regarded as a 
 mark of great dignity among many 
 nations in the East, as the Turks. Alex- 
 ander the Great introduced shaving 
 among the Greeks, by ordering his 
 soldiers to wear no beards; among the 
 Romans it was introduced in b.c. 296. 
 The custom of shaving is said to have 
 come into use in modern times during 
 the reigns of Louis XIII. and XIV. of 
 France, both of whom ascended the 
 throne without a beard. Till then 
 fashion had given divers forms of mous- 
 taches and beards. It is only in com- 
 paratively recent times that beards and 
 moustaches have again become common. 
 
 BEARD, George Miller, an American 
 physician, born in Connecticut in 1839. 
 He is known for several works dealing 
 with the nervous sj’^stem. Died 1883. 
 
 BEARD, James Henry, an American 
 artist, born at Buffalo in 1814. He 
 painted portraits of Clay, J. Q. .A.dams, 
 William Henry Harrison, President 
 Taylor, and others, and a number of 
 pictures, among which are The Long 
 Bill, Out All Night, and The I.and 
 i Speculator. He died in 1893. 
 
 BEARING, the direction or point of 
 the compass in which an object is seen, 
 or the situation of one object in regard 
 to another, with reference to the points 
 of the compass. Thus, if from a certain 
 
BEAR’S-GREASE 
 
 BEAVER 
 
 situation an object is seen in the direc- 
 tion of northeast, the bearing of the 
 object is said to be n.e. from the situa- 
 tion. — To take bearings, to ascertain 
 on what point of tlie compass objects 
 lie. 
 
 BEAR’S-GREASE, the fat of bears 
 esteemed as of great efficacy in nourish- 
 ing and promoting the growth of hair. 
 The ungents sold under this name, 
 however, are in a great measure made 
 of hog’s lard or veal fat, or a mixture of 
 both, scented and slightly colored. 
 
 BEARDSLEY, Aubrey, a British 
 artist who gained reputation about 1892 
 by his fantastic studies in highly con- 
 trasted black and white. He was born 
 in 1874 and died in 1898. 
 
 BEAT, in music, the beating or pulsa- 
 tion resulting from the joint vibrations 
 of two sounds of the same strength, and 
 all but in unison. Also a short sha,ke or 
 transient grace-note struck immediately 
 before the note it is intended to orna- 
 ment. 
 
 BEATIFICATION, in the Roman 
 Catholic Church, an act by which the 
 pope declares a person beatified or 
 blessed after his death. It is the first 
 step to canonization, that is, the raising 
 one to the honor and dignity of a saint. 
 No person can be beatified till fifty years 
 after his or her death. All certificates or 
 attestations of virtues and miracles, the 
 necessary qualifications for saintship, 
 are examined by the congregation of 
 Rites. This examination often con- 
 tinues for several years; after which his 
 holiness decrees the beatification, and 
 the corpse and relics of the future 
 saint are exposed to the veneration of 
 all good Christians. 
 
 BEATRICE PORTINARI (ba-a-tre'- 
 cha por-te-na're), the poetical idol of 
 Dante; born about 1266, died 1290; 
 the daughter of & wealthy citizen of 
 Florence, and wife of Simone de Bardi. 
 She was but eight years of age, and 
 Dante nine, when he met her first at the 
 house of her father. He altogether saw 
 her only once or twice, and she probably 
 knew little of him. The story of his love 
 is recounted in the Vita Nuova, which 
 was mostly written after her death. 
 
 BEAUFORT SCALE, a measure of 
 the velocity of the wind, taking its 
 name from Admiral Beaufort, who intro- 
 duced it into the British Navy. The 
 following table indicates the value, in 
 miles per hour, of the terms used in the 
 scale : 
 
 Designation of Wind. 
 
 Approximate 
 Wind Velocity 
 in Miles per 
 Hour. 
 
 Calm . . . 
 
 3 or less 
 
 Light air 
 
 8 “ 
 
 Light breeze 
 
 13 “ 
 
 Gentle “ .. 
 
 18 “ 
 
 Moderate “ .. 
 
 23 “ 
 
 Fresh “ 
 
 28 “ 
 
 Strong “ .. 
 
 34 “ 
 
 Moderate gale 
 
 40 “ 
 
 Fresh “ . . 
 
 48 “ 
 
 Strong “ 
 
 56 •• 
 
 Whole “ 
 
 65 “ 
 
 Storm “ 
 
 75 “ 
 
 Hurricane “ , 
 
 90 “ 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS (bo-ar-na), Alexan- 
 dre, Viscount, was born in 1760 in 
 Martinique. He married Josephine 
 Tascher de la Pagerie, who was after- 
 ward the wife of Napoleon. At the 
 
 P. E.— 9 
 
 breaking out of the French revolution 
 he was chosen a member of the National 
 Assembly, of which he was for some 
 time president. In 1792 he was general 
 of the army of the Rhine. He was 
 falsely accused of having promoted the 
 surrender of Mainz, and was sentenced 
 to death July 23, 1794. 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS, Eugene de, Duke of 
 Leuchtenberg, Prince of Eichstadt, and 
 Viceroy of Italy during the reign of 
 Napoleon, was born 1781, died at Mu- 
 nich 1824. He was the son of Alexandre 
 Beauharnais and Josephine, afterward 
 wife of Napoleon and Empress of France. 
 He accompanied Napoleon to Egypt in 
 1798; rose rapidly in the army; was ap- 
 pointed viceroy of Italy in 1805; and 
 married a daughter of the King of 
 Bavaria in 1806. To him and to Ney 
 France was mainly indebted for the 
 preservation of the remains of her army 
 during the retreat from Moscow. After 
 the battle of Liitzen of May 2, 1813, 
 where, by surrounding the right wing 
 of the enemy, he decided the fate of the 
 day, he went to Italy, which he de- 
 fended against the Austrians until the 
 deposition of Napoleon. After the fall 
 of Napoleon he concluded an armistice, 
 by which he delivered Lombardy and 
 all Upper Italy to the Austrians. He 
 then went immediately to Paris, and 
 thence to his father-in-law at Munich, 
 where he afterward resided. — His sister 
 Hortense Eugenie, Queen of Holland, 
 was born in 1783, died in 1837. She 
 became Queen of Holland by marrying 
 Louis Bonaparte, and after Louis’s 
 abdication of the throne she lived apart 
 from him. She wrote several excellent 
 songs, and composed some deservedly 
 popular airs. Napoleon III. was her 
 third and youngest son. 
 
 BEAUMARCHAIS (bo-mar-sha), 
 Pierre Augustin Caron de, a French 
 wit and dramatist, was born at Paris 
 in 1732, died 1799. He early gave 
 striking proofs of his mechanical and 
 also of his musical talents; attained 
 proficiency as a player on the guitar 
 and harp, and was appointed harp- 
 master to the daughters of Louis XV. 
 In the meantime he occupied himself 
 with literature, and published two 
 dramas — Eugenie in 1767 and Les Deux 
 Amis in 1770. He first really dis- 
 tinguished himself by his Meraoires 
 (Paris, 1774), or statements in connec- 
 tion with a lawsuit, which by their wit, 
 satire, and liveliness entertained all 
 France. The Barber of Seville (1775) 
 and the Marriage of Figaro (1784) have 
 given him a permanent reputation. 
 
 BEAUMONT (bo'mont), Francis, and 
 FLETCHER, John, two eminent English 
 dramatic writers, contemporaries of 
 Shakespeare, and the most famous of 
 literary partners. The former was born 
 at Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, in 
 1584; died in 1616, and was buried in 
 Westminster Abbey. — John Fletcher 
 was born at Rye, Sussex, in 1579. He 
 died in London of the plague, August, 
 1625, and was buried at St. Saviour’s, 
 Southwark. The friendship of Beaumont 
 and Fletcher, like their literary partner- 
 ship, was singularly close ; they lived in 
 the same house, and are said to have 
 even had their clothes in common. The 
 works that pass under their names con- 
 
 sist of over fifty plays, a masque, and 
 some minor poems. It is believed that 
 all the minor poems except one were 
 written by Beaumont. After the death 
 of Beaumont, Fletcher continued to 
 write plays alone or with other drama- 
 tists. It is now difficult, if not indeed 
 impossible, to determine with certainty 
 the respective shares of the two poets 
 in the plays passing under their names. 
 
 BEAUMONT, William, an American 
 surgeon, born in Connecticut in 1785, 
 died 1853. He was the first to publish 
 the digestive power of the stomach 
 through observations made on the 
 stomach of Alexis St. Martin, an open- 
 ing into which had been made by a 
 bullet wound which never healed. 
 Beaumont’s observations, even yet, 
 are regarded as authoritative. 
 
 BEAUREGARD (bo're-gard), Peter 
 Gustavus Toutant, a general of the Con- 
 federate troops in the American civil 
 war; born in 1818 near New Orleans. 
 He studied at the military academy. 
 
 P. G. T. Beauregard. 
 
 West Point, and left it as artillery 
 lieutenant in 1838. He served in the 
 Mexican war, and on the outbreak of 
 the civil war joined the Confederates. 
 He commanded at the bombardment of 
 Fort Sumter, gained the battle of Bull 
 Run, lost that of Shiloh, assisted in the 
 defense of Charleston, and aided Lee in 
 that of Richmond. He was regarded 
 as one of the greatest if not the greatest 
 of Confederate generals. He died in 1893. 
 
 BEAVER, a rodent quadruped, about 
 2 feet in length exclusive of the tail, at 
 one time common in the northern 
 regions of both hemispheres, but now 
 found in considerable numbers only in 
 North America, living in colonies, but 
 occurring solitary in central Europe and 
 Asia. It has short ears, a blunt nose, 
 small fore-feet, large webbed hind-feet, 
 with a flat ovate tail covered with scales 
 on its upper surface. It is valued for its 
 fur, which used to be largely employed 
 in the manufacture of hats, but for 
 which silk is now for the most part sub- 
 stituted, and for an odoriferous secre- 
 tion named castor, at one time in high 
 repute, and still largely used in some 
 parts of the wor ci as an anti-spasmodic 
 medicine. The food of the beaver con- 
 sists of the bark of trees, leaves, roots, 
 and berries. Their favorite haunts are 
 rivers and lakes which are bordered by 
 forests. In winter they live in houses, 
 which are 3 to 4 feet high, are built on 
 the water’s edge, and being substantial 
 
BEAVER FALLS 
 
 BEE 
 
 structures with the entrance under 
 water afford them protection from 
 wolves and other wild animals. These 
 dwellings are called beaver “lodges,” 
 and accommodate a single family. They 
 also live in burrows. They can gnaw 
 
 Beaver. 
 
 through large trees with their strong 
 teeth, this being done partly to obtain 
 food, partly to get materials for houses 
 or dam-building. When they find a 
 stream not sufficiently deep for their 
 purpose they throw across it a dam 
 constructed with great ingenuity of wood, 
 stones, and mud. 
 
 BEAVER FALLS, a town in Beaver 
 Co., Pennsylvania, 31 miles northwest of 
 Pittsburg; on the Beaver river, near its 
 confluence with the Ohio, and on rail- 
 roads of the Pennsylvania and Erie 
 systems. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 BEBEL, Ferdinand August, a German 
 socialist, born at Cologne in 1840. In 
 1867 he, as a turner, joined in the labor 
 agitation, and was one of the founders 
 of the social democratic party in 1869. 
 He was imprisoned (1872) for treason 
 against the Kingdom of Saxony and of 
 Rse majesti against the emperor. Since 
 1871 he has been a member of the Ger- 
 man Reichstag. He has written several 
 widely known works on socialism. 
 
 BECHUANAS, BETCHUANAS (bech- 
 wan'az), a widely spread race of people 
 inhabiting the central region of South 
 Africa north of Cape Colony. They be- 
 long to the great Kaffir stem, and are 
 divided into tribal sections. They live 
 chiefly by husbandry and cattle rearing, 
 and they work with some skill in iron, 
 copper, ivory, and skins. They were 
 led to seek British protection owing to 
 the encroachments of the Boers. The 
 southern portion of their territory was 
 first placed under British protection in 
 1885, and subsequently the whole 
 Bechuana country up to the Zambesi 
 was annexed. In 1895 the southern 
 portion (then a crown colony) was 
 united to the Cape Colony; the remain- 
 der is still a protectorate partly under 
 the rule of native chiefs. The area is 
 about 386,000 sq. miles. Bechuanaland 
 lies between the Transvaal and Matabele- 
 land on the east and the German terri- 
 tory on the west. It is generally speak- 
 ing flat or only slightly undulating, and 
 is essentially a grass country, all the 
 grasses being of a substantial and nutri- 
 tious quality which stands well against 
 drought. Surface water is scarce, but 
 there is abundance underground which 
 yet may be turned to account. Some 
 parts are wooded and well watered. 
 G(4d, coal, and copper have been 
 found. 
 
 BECK'ET, Thomas (the form d, Beck- 
 ct is also common), archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, bom in London 1117 or 1119, 
 assassinated in Canterbury Cathedral, 
 
 29th Dec., 1170. In 1158 Henry II. 
 appointed him high-chancellor and pre- 
 ceptor to his son. Prince Henry — the 
 first instance after the Conquest of a 
 high office being filled by a native Eng- 
 lishman. At this period he was a com- 
 plete courtier, conforming in every 
 respect to the humor of the king. He 
 was, in fact, the king’s prime companion, 
 held splendid levees, and courted popu- 
 lar applause. On the death of Theobald, 
 1162, he was consecrated archbishop, 
 when he affected an extraordinary 
 austerity of character, and appeared as 
 a zealous champion of the church against 
 the aggressions of the king, whose policy 
 was to have the clergy in subordination 
 to the civil power. Becket was forced 
 to assent to the “Constitutions of Clar- 
 endon,” but a series of bitter conflicts 
 with the king followed, ending in 
 Becket’s flight to France, when he ap- 
 pealed to the pope, by whom he was 
 supported. After much negotiation 
 a sort of reconciliation took place in 
 1170, and Becket returned to England, 
 resumed his office, and renewed his 
 defiance of the royal authority. A rash 
 hint from the king induced four barons, 
 Reginald Fitz-Urse, William de Tracy, 
 Hugh de Morville, and Richard Breto, 
 to go to Canterbury and murder the 
 archbishop while at vespers in the cathe- 
 dral. He was canonized in 1172, and 
 the splendid shrine erected at Canter- 
 bury for his remains was, for three cen- 
 turies, a favorite place of pilgrimage. 
 
 BECQUEREL (bek-rel), Antoine 
 C4sar, French physicist, born 1788, died 
 1878. • He served as an officer of engi- 
 neers, and retired in 1815, after which 
 he devoted himself to the study of elec- 
 tricity, especially electro-chemistry. He 
 refuted the “theory of contact” by 
 which Volta explained the action of his 
 pile or battery. Becquerel may be con- 
 sidered one of the creators of electro- 
 chemistry. 
 
 BED, BEDSTEAD, an article of furni- 
 ture to sleep or rest on. The term bed 
 properly is apphed to a large flat bag 
 filled with feathers, down, wool, or other 
 soft material, and also to a mattress 
 supported on spiral springs or form of 
 elastic chains or wirework which is raised 
 from the ground on a bedstead. The 
 term, however, sometimes includes the 
 bedstead or frame for supporting the 
 bed. The forms of beds are necessarily 
 very various — every period and country 
 having its own form of bed. Air-beds 
 and water-beds are much used by in- 
 valids. 
 
 BED, in geol., a layer or stratum, 
 usually a stratum of considerable thick- 
 ness. 
 
 BEDBUG. See Bug. 
 
 BED'FORD, a pari, and municip. 
 borough, England, county town of 
 Bedfordshire, on the Ouse. John Bun- 
 yan was born at Elstow, a village near 
 the town, and it was at Bedford that 
 he lived, preached, and was imprisoned. 
 Bedford sends one member to parlia- 
 ment. Pop. 35,144. — Bedfordshire, or 
 Beds, the county, is bounded by North- 
 ampton, Bucks, Herts, Cambridge, and 
 Huntingdon; area, 295,509 acres, of 
 which 260,000 are under tillage or in 
 permanent pasture. Chalk hills, form- 
 ing a portion of the Chilterns, cross it on 
 
 the 6.; ii. of this is a belt of sand. Pop. 
 
 171,249. 
 
 BED'LAM, a corruption of Bethlehem 
 (Hospital), the name of a religious house 
 in London, converted, after the general 
 suppression by Henry VIII., into a hos- 
 pital for lunatics. The lunatics were 
 at one time treated as little better than 
 wild beasts, and hence Bedlam came to 
 be typical of any scene of wild confusion. 
 
 BEDOUINS (bed-u -enz'), a Moham- 
 medan people of Arab race inhabiting 
 chiefly the deserts of Arabia, Syria, 
 Egypt, and North Africa. They lead 
 a nomadic existence in tents, huts, 
 caverns, and ruins, associating in fami- 
 lies under sheiks or in tribes under emirs. 
 
 Bedouin Arabs. 
 
 In respect of occupation they are only 
 shepherds, herdsmen, and horse-breed- 
 ers, varying the monotony of pastoral 
 life by raiding on each other and plun- 
 dering unprotected travelers whom 
 they consider trespassers. They are 
 ignorant of writing and bobks, their 
 knowledge being purely traditional and 
 mainly genealogical. They are lax in 
 morals, and unreliable even in respect 
 of the code of honor attributed to them 
 in poetry and fiction. In stature they 
 are undersized, and, though active, they 
 are not strong. The ordinary dress of 
 the men is a long shirt girt at the loins, 
 a black or red and yellow handkerchief 
 for the head, and sandals; of the women, 
 loose drawers, a long shirt, and a large 
 dark-blue shawl covering the head and 
 figure. The lance is the favorite weapon. 
 
 BEDSTEAD. See Bed. 
 
 BEE, the common name given to a 
 large family of winged insects, of which 
 the most important is the common hive 
 or honey bee. It belongs to the warmer 
 parts of the eastern hemisphere, but is 
 now naturalized in the western. A hive 
 commonly consists of one mother or 
 queen, from 600 to 800 males or drones, 
 and from 15,000 to 20,000 working bees, 
 formerly termed neuters, but now 
 known to be imperfectly - developed 
 females. The last-mentioned, the small- 
 est, have twelve joints to their antennae, 
 and six abdominal rings, and are pro- 
 vided with a sting ; there is, on the out- 
 side of the hind-legs, a smooth hollow, 
 edged with hairs, called the basket, in 
 wliich the kneaded pollen or bee-bread, 
 the food of the larvae, is stored for tranS' 
 it. The queen has the same characteris- 
 tics, but is of larger size, especially in the 
 abdomen; she has also a sting. The 
 males, or drones, differ from both the 
 
BEECH 
 
 BEERSHEBA 
 
 preceding by having thirteen joints to 
 the antennae; a rounded head, with 
 larger eyes, elongated and united at the 
 summit; and no stings. According to 
 Huber the working-bees are themselves 
 divisible into two classes; one, the 
 cirieres, devoted to the collection of pro- 
 visions, etc. ; the other, smaller and 
 more delicate, employed exclusively 
 within the hive in rearing the young. 
 The mouth of the bee is adapted for 
 both masticatory and suctorial purposes, 
 the honey being conveyed thence to the 
 anterior stomach or crop, communicat- 
 ing with a second stomach, in which 
 alone a digestive process can be traced. 
 The queen, whose sole office is to prop- 
 agate the species, has two large ovaries, 
 consisting of a great number of small 
 cavities, each containing sixteen or 
 seventeen eggs. The inferior half-cir- 
 cles, except the first and last, on the 
 abdomen of w’orking-bees, have each 
 on their inner surface two cavities, 
 where the wax, secreted by the bee from 
 its saccharine food, is formed in layers, 
 and comes out from between the ab- 
 dominal rings. Respiration takes place 
 by means of air-tubes which branch out 
 to all parts of the body, the bee being 
 exceedingly sensitive to an impure at- 
 mosphere. Of the organs of sense the 
 most important are the antenna;, depri- 
 vation of these resulting in a species of 
 derangement. The majority of ento- 
 mologists regard their function as in 
 the first place auditory, but they are 
 exceedingly sensitive to tactual im- 
 pressions, and are apparently the 
 principal means of mutual commu- 
 nication. Bees undergo perfect meta- 
 morphosis, the young appearing first 
 as larvae, then changing to pupae, 
 from which the imagos or perfect 
 insects spring. Whether the offspring 
 are to be female or male is said to 
 be dependent upon the contact or 
 absence of contact of the egg with the 
 impregnating fluid received from the 
 male and stored in a special sac com- 
 municating with the oviduct, unfertil- 
 ized eggs producing males. The further 
 question whether the offspring shall be 
 queens or workers is resolved by the 
 influence of environment upon function. 
 The enlargement of a cell to the size of a 
 royal chamber and the nourishment of 
 its inmate with a special kind of food 
 appear to be sufficient to transform an 
 ordinary working-bee larva into a fully- 
 developed female or queen-bee. The 
 season of fecundation occurs about the 
 beginning of summer, and the laying 
 begins immediately afterward, and con- 
 tinues until autumn ; in the spring as 
 many as 12,000 eggs may be laid in 
 twenty-four days. Those laid at the 
 commencement of fine weather all be- 
 long to the working sort, and hatch at 
 the end of four days. The larvae acquire 
 their perfect state in about twelve days, 
 and the cells are then immediately fitted 
 up for the reception of new eggs. The 
 eggs for producing males are laid two 
 months later, and those for the females 
 immediately afterward. This succession 
 of generations forms so many distinct 
 communities, which, when increased 
 beyond a certain degree, leave the par- 
 ent hive to found a new colony else- 
 where. Thus three or four swarms 
 
 sometimes leave a hive in a season. 
 A good swarm is said to weigh at least 
 6 or 8 pounds. See Apiary. 
 
 The humble-bees, or bumble-bees, of 
 which about forty species are found in 
 Britain and over sixty in N. America, are 
 almost world-wide in their distribution. 
 Of these species solitary females which 
 have survived the winter commence 
 constructing small nests when the 
 weather begins to be warm enough ; 
 some of them going deep into the earth 
 in dry banks, others preferring heaps of 
 stone or gravel, and others choosing 
 always some bed of dry moss. In the 
 nest the bee collects a mass of pollen 
 and in this lays some eggs. The cells 
 in these nests are not the work of the 
 old bee, but are formed by the young 
 insects similarly to the cocoons of silk- 
 worms; and when the perfect insect is 
 released from them by the old bee, 
 which gnaws off their tops, they are 
 employed as honey-cups. The humble- 
 bees, however, do not store honey for 
 the winter, those which survive till the 
 cold weather leaving the nest and pene- 
 trating the earth, or taking up some 
 other sheltered position, and remaining 
 there till the spring. The first brood 
 consists of workers, and successive 
 broods are produced during the summer. 
 
 BEECH, the common name of trees 
 well known in various parts of the world. 
 The wood is hard and brittle, and if ex- 
 posed to the air liable soon to decay. It 
 is, however, peculiarly useful to cabinet- 
 makers and turners, carpenters’ planes, 
 furniture, sabots, etc., Being made of 
 it; and it is durable under water for 
 piles and mill-sluices. 
 
 BEECHER (be'cher), Henry Ward, 
 an eminent American preacher, born 
 in Connecticut 1813; was minister at 
 Lawrenceburg, Ind., 1837, and of Plym- 
 outh Congregational Church, Brook- 
 
 Henry Ward Beecher. 
 
 lyn, New York, in 1847. The latter 
 pulpit he continued to occupy till his 
 death in 1887, though in 1882 he ceased 
 his formal connection with the Congre- 
 gationalists on the ground of disbelief 
 in eternal punishment. From 1861 to 
 1863 he was editor of the Independent, 
 and for about ten years after 1870, 
 of the Christian Union. He was also 
 the author of a considerable number of 
 works, of which his Lectures to Young 
 Men (1850), Life Thoughts (1858), 
 Lectures on Preaching (1872-74), and 
 the weekly issues of his sermons, com- 
 manded wide circulation. Few con- 
 temporary preachers appealed to as 
 large and diverse a public. His brothers 
 Charles, Edward, and Thomas have all 
 distinguished themselves as Congre- 
 
 gational clergymen. His sister Cathe- 
 rine Esther (born 1800, died 1878) did 
 much for the education of women, and 
 wrote on this subject and on domestic 
 economy and kindred subjects. An- 
 other sister is still better known as Mrs. 
 Beecher-Stowe. See Stowe. 
 
 BEEFSTEAK CLUBS, certain noted 
 clubs of London in the 18th century, 
 particularly the Sublime Society of 
 Steaks, founded in 1735, to which 
 belonged Thornhill, Hogarth, Garrick, 
 and other celebrities of the day. There 
 is a Beefsteak Club at present in London. 
 The New York Beefsteak Club and the 
 Gridiron Club of Washington were 
 founded by newspaper and periodical 
 writers. 
 
 BEEF TEA, a drink made from an 
 extract of beef, formerly believed to be 
 quite nutritious but no longer considered 
 so. It is made by placing chopped lean 
 beef in a mason jar, closing the same, 
 and placing the jar in cold water which 
 is brought to boiling and kept there 
 until the meat is reduced to liquid. 
 Beef tea is sometimes made from solid 
 beef extracts, but its food value is 
 problematical. 
 
 BEE-KEEPING, the art of hiving 
 honey bees and securing the honey. 
 The bee hive to be successful should 
 be located in a place near to flowers or 
 clover; glass, wood, and straw are good 
 materials for the hive; facilities for in- 
 creasing the space should be regarded; 
 care should be taken that/ the swarm 
 should not roam away and be lost; 
 twenty pounds of honey should be left 
 in the hive for the winter food of the 
 bees, although ale boiled with sugar 
 is a good substitute. In removing the 
 honey gloves and veils should be worn 
 as protection from the insects’ stings. 
 
 BEER MONEY. A peculiar payment 
 to non-commissioned officers and sol- 
 diers in the British Army, established 
 in the year 1800, at the suggestion of the 
 Duke of York. It consisted of one 
 penny per day for troops when on home 
 service, as a substitute for an issue of 
 beer and spirits. It continued as an 
 addition to the daily pay until 1873, 
 when, the stoppages for rations having 
 been abolished, the opportunity w'as 
 taken to consolidate beer money and 
 pay proper. 
 
 BEELZEBUB (be-el'ze-bub), the su- 
 preme god of the Syro-Phoenician 
 peoples, in whose honor the Philistines 
 had a temple at Ekron. With his name 
 may be compared the epithet “averter 
 of flies” applied to Zeus and later to 
 Hercules. The use of Beelzebul in the 
 New Testament has been the subject of 
 much discussion, some asserting it to 
 be an opprobrious form of Beelzebub, 
 meaning the ‘‘lord of dung,” others 
 translating it ‘‘lord of the dwelling,” 
 and others again finding in the change 
 from b to 1 only a natural linguistic 
 modification. 
 
 BEER. See Ale and Brewing. 
 
 BEERSHE'BA, the place where Abra- 
 ham made a covenant with Abimelech, 
 and in common speech representative 
 of the southernmost limit of Palestine, 
 near which it is situated. It is now a 
 mere heap of ruins near two large and 
 five smaller wells, thoiigh it was a place 
 of some importance down to the period 
 of the Crusades. 
 
BEESWAX 
 
 BELGAUM 
 
 BEESWAX, a solid fatty substance 
 secreted by bees, and containing in its 
 purified state three chemical principles 
 — myricin, cerin, and cerolein. It is 
 not collected from plants, but elaborated 
 from saccharine food in the body of the 
 bee. It is used for the manufacture of 
 candles, for modeling, and in many 
 minor processes. 
 
 BEET, a genus of plants, distin- 
 guished by its fruit being inclosed in a 
 tough woody or spongy five-lobed 
 enlarged calyx. Two species only are 
 known in general cultivation, namely, 
 the sea-beet and the garden beet. The 
 former is a tough-rooted perennial, 
 sometimes cultivated for its leaves, 
 which are an excellent substitute for 
 spinach. Of the garden beet, which 
 differs from the last in being of only 
 biennial duration and in forming a 
 tender fleshy root, two principal forms 
 are ‘known to cultivators, the chard beet 
 and the common beet. In the chard 
 beet the roots are small, white, and 
 rather tough, and the leaves are fur- 
 nished with a broad, fleshy midrib, 
 employed as a vegetable by the French, 
 who dress the ribs like sea-kale under 
 the name of poiree. The common beet 
 includes all the fleshy-rooted varieties, 
 such as red beet (with a fleshy large 
 carrot-shaped root), yellow beet, sugar- 
 beet, mangel-wurzel, etc. For garden 
 urposes the best is the red beet. The 
 eet requires a rich light soil. Red beet 
 is principally used at table, but if eaten 
 in great quantity is said to be injurious. 
 The beet may be taken out of the ground 
 for use about the end of August, but it 
 does not attain its full size and perfec- 
 tion till the month of October. 
 
 BEET SUGAR. See Sugar. 
 
 BEETHOVEN (ba'to-vn), Ludwig von, 
 a great German musical composer, 
 born at Bonn, 16th Dec., 1770, studied 
 under his father (a tenor singer), 
 Pfeiffer, Van der Eden, and Neefe; 
 
 LiUdwig von Beethoven. 
 
 began to publish in 1783; became assist- 
 ant court organist in 1785; and was sent 
 by the Elector of Cologne to Vienna in 
 1792, where he was the pupil of Haydn 
 and Albrechtsberger, and acquired a 
 high reputation for pianoforte extem- 
 porization before the merit of his 
 written compositions was fully under- 
 stood. In or near Vienna almost all his 
 subsequent life was spent, his artistic 
 tour in North Germany in 1796 being 
 the most important break. He died 
 March 27, 1827. His later life was 
 rendered somewhat morbid by his deaf- 
 ness, of which the first signs appeared 
 
 in 1797. He had the head of Jove on 
 the body of Bacchus, and there was in 
 him a strong dash of what in a lesser 
 man would be termed insanity, with an 
 alternation between the highest eleva- 
 tion of genius and the conduct of a fool 
 or buffoon. His best works were pub- 
 lished after 1800, two periods being 
 observable: the first from 1800 to 1814, 
 comprising Symphonies 2-8; the opera 
 Fidelio (originally Leonore), the music 
 to Goethe’s Egmont, and the overtures 
 to Prometheus, Coriolanus, King Stephen 
 and Fidelio; the second (in which 
 the poetic school of musicians find 
 the germs of the subsequent devel- 
 opment through Schumann, Wagner, 
 and Liszt) comprising the 9th Sym- 
 
 E hony, the Missa Solemnis, and the 
 onatas Op. 101, 102, 106, 109, 110, 
 and 111. 
 
 BEETLE, a name often used as 
 synonymous with the term Coleoptera, 
 but restricted by others to include all 
 those insects that have their wings pro- 
 tected by hard cases or sheaths, called 
 elytra. Beetles vary in size from a mere 
 point to the bulk of a man’s fist, the 
 largest, the elephant beetle of S. Amer- 
 ica, being 4 inches long. The so-called 
 “black beetles’’ of kitchens and cellars 
 are not properly beetles at all, but cock- 
 roaches, and of the order Orthoptera. 
 
 BEETLE-STONE, a nodule of copro- 
 litic ironstone, so named from the 
 resemblance of the inclosed coprolite 
 to the body and limb of a beetle. 
 BEET-ROOT. See Beet. 
 
 BEGGARS. See Vagrants. 
 BEGO'NIA, an extensive genus of 
 succulent-stemmed herbaceous plants, 
 order Begoniacese, with fleshy oblique 
 leaves of various colors, and showy 
 unisexual flowers, the whole perianth 
 colored. They readily hybridize, and 
 many fine varieties have been raised 
 from the tuberous-rooted kinds. From 
 the shape of their leaves they have been 
 called elephant’s ear. Almost all the 
 plants of the order are tropical, and 
 they have mostly pink or red flowers. 
 
 BEHAR', a province of Hindustan, in 
 Bengal, area 44,139 sq. miles. It is the 
 most densely peopled province of India; 
 pop. 24,284,370. Patna is the capital. 
 
 BEHEADING. See Capital Punish- 
 ment. 
 
 BEHE'MOTH, the animal described 
 in Job xl. The description is most 
 applicable to the hippopotamus, and the 
 word seems to be of Egyptian origin 
 and to signify “water-ox”; but it has 
 been variously asserted to be the ox, 
 the elephant, the crocodile, etc. 
 BEH'RING. See Bering. 
 
 BELASCO, David, an American man- 
 ager and playwright, born in San Fran- 
 cisco in 1862. He began liis career as a 
 player and began writing soon there- 
 after, his first successful venture being 
 Hearts of Oak. While manager of the 
 Lyceum Theater, New York, he wrote 
 (with Henry C. De Mille) The Wife, The 
 Charity Ball, and Lord Chumley. Other 
 plays to which he has contributed are 
 The Girl I Left Behind Me, The Heart 
 of Maryland, Zaza, May Blossom, Men 
 and Women, La Belle Russe, Val4rie, 
 and Du Barry. 
 
 BEL'EMNITE, a name for straight, 
 solid, tapering, dart - shaped fossils. 
 
 popularly known as arrow-heads, thun- 
 derbolts, finger-stones, etc., but in 
 reality the internal shell or skeleton of a 
 molluscous animal allied to the squid or 
 sepia, and the type of an extinct family, 
 Belemnitidae. 
 
 Belemnites. 
 
 1. Belemnoteuthis antique— ventral side. 
 
 2. Belemnites Owenii (restored), a, Guard, 
 c, Phragmaoone. n, Muscular tissue of man- 
 tle. F, Infundibulum, i, Uncinated arms. 
 K, Tentacula. n, Ink-bag. 
 
 3. Belemnite— British Museum. 
 
 BELFAST', a seaport and municipal 
 and parliamentary borough of Ireland 
 (in 1888 declared a city), principal town 
 of Ulster, and county town of Antrim. 
 Belfast is the center of the Irish linen 
 trade, and has the majority of spinning- 
 mills and power-loom factories in Ire- 
 land. Previous to about 1830 the cotton 
 manufacture was the leading industry 
 of Belfast, but nearly all the mills have 
 been converted to flax-spinning. The 
 iron ship-building trade is also of im- 
 portance, and there are breweries, dis- 
 tilleries, flour-mills, oil-mills, foundries, 
 print-works, tan-yards, chemical works, 
 rope-works, etc. The commerce is large. 
 An extensive direct trade is carried on 
 with British North America, the Medit- 
 terranean, France, Belgium, Holland, 
 and the Baltic, besides the regular 
 traffic with the principal ports of the 
 British islands. Belfast is compara- 
 tively a modern town, its prosperity 
 dating from the introduction of the 
 cotton trade in 1777. It has suffered 
 severely at various times from faction- 
 fights between Catholics and Protes- 
 tants, the more serious having been in 
 the years 1864, 1872, and 1886. It 
 returns four members to the Imperial 
 Parliament. Pop. 348,965. 
 
 BELFORT, a small fortified town and 
 territory of France. Belfort, with the 
 district immediately surrounding it, 
 is the only part of the department of 
 Haut Rhin which remained to France 
 on the cession of Alsace to Germany. 
 Pop. of territory, 91,765. 
 
 BEL 'FRY, a bell-tower or bell-turret. 
 A bell-tower may be attached to another 
 building, or may stand apart ; a bell- 
 turret usually rises above the roof of a 
 building, and is often placed above the 
 top of the western gable of a church. 
 The part of a tower containing a bell 
 or bells is also called a belfry. 
 
 BELGAUM (bel-ga'um), a town and 
 fortress in Hindustan, Bombay Presi- 
 dency, district of Belgaum, on a plain 
 
BELGIUM 
 
 BELL 
 
 2500 feet above the sea-level. In 1818 
 the fort and town were taken by the 
 British, and from its healthful situation 
 selected as a permanent military station. 
 Pop. of town (including the canton- 
 ment), 36,878. The area of the district 
 is 4657 sq. miles, with a population of 
 1,013,261. 
 
 BELGIUM (bel'jum), a European 
 kingdom, bounded by Holland, the 
 North Sea or German Ocean, France, 
 and Germany; greatest length, 165 
 miles; greatest breadth, 120 miles; 
 area, 11,366 sq. miles. For administra- 
 tive purposes it is divided into nine 
 provinces — Antwerp, Brabant, East 
 Flanders, West Flanders, Hainaut, 
 Li6ge, Limburg, Luxemburg, and Na- 
 mur; total pop. 6,815,054. Brabant, the 
 metropolitan province, occupies the 
 center. The capital is Brussels ; other 
 chief towns are Antwerp, Ghent, and 
 Li4ge. The country may be regarded 
 roughly as an inclined plain, falling 
 away in height from the southern dis- 
 trict of the Ardennes until in the n. 
 and w. it becomes only a few feet above 
 sea-level. 
 
 The industrial products of Belgium 
 are very numerous, and are mostly of 
 high character. The chief are those 
 connected with linen, wool, cotton, 
 metal, and leather goods. In respect of 
 manufactures the fine linens of Flanders, 
 and lace of South Brabant, are of Euro- 
 pean reputation. Scarcely less cele- 
 brated are the carpets and porcelain of 
 Tournay, the cloth of Verviers, the 
 extensive foundries, machine - works, 
 and other iron establishments of Lidge. 
 The commerce of Belgium is large and 
 increasing. Apart from the value of her 
 own products, she is admirably situated 
 for the transit trade of central Europe, 
 to which her fine harbor of Antwerp and 
 excellent railway and canal system 
 minister. 
 
 The Belgian population is the densest 
 of any European state (539 per square 
 mile), and is composed of two distinct 
 races — Flemish, who are of German, 
 and Walloons, who are of French ex- 
 traction. The former, by far the more 
 numerous, have their principal locality 
 in Flanders; but also prevail throughout 
 Antwerp, Limburg, and part of South 
 Brabant. The latter are found chiefly 
 in Hainaut, Li6ge, Namur, and part of 
 Luxemburg. The Flemings speak a 
 dialect of German, and the Walloons a 
 corruption of French, with a consider- 
 able infusion of words and phrases from 
 Spanish and other languages. French 
 is the official and literary language, 
 though Flemish is also successfully 
 employed in literature. Almost the 
 entire population is Roman Catholic, 
 and there are over 1500 convents, with 
 nearly 25,000 inmates. Protestantism 
 is fully tolerated, but cannot count 
 more than 15,000 adherents. Improved 
 means of education are now at the dis- 
 osal of the people, every commune 
 eing bound to maintain at least one 
 school for elementary education, the 
 government paying one-sixth, the prov- 
 ince one-sixth, and the commune the 
 remainder of the expenditure. In all 
 the large towns colleges have been estab- 
 lished; while a complete course for the 
 learned professions is provided by four 
 
 universities, two of them, at Ghent and 
 Lidge, established and supported by the 
 state; one at Brussels, the Free Uni- 
 versity, founded by voluntary associa- 
 tion; and one at Louvain, the Catholic 
 University, founded by the clergy. 
 
 By the Belgian constitution the exec- 
 utive power is vested in a hereditary 
 king; the legislative, in the king and 
 two chambers — the senate and the 
 chamber of representatives — the former 
 elected for eight years, and the latter for 
 four, but one-half renewable respec- 
 tively every four years and every two 
 years. There is now a system of pro- 
 portional representation both for the 
 senate and the chamber. Representa- 
 tives are elected on the principle of man- 
 hood suffrage, but certain property or 
 educational qualifications may give a 
 voter three votes. The senators are 
 partly elected directly, partly indirectly 
 by provincial councils. Senators must 
 be forty years of age, deputies and 
 electors twenty-five. The army is raised 
 partly by enlistment, partly by the ballot, 
 to which every man who has completed 
 his nineteenth year is liable. The peace 
 strength is about 51 ,500 officers and men ; 
 in time of war, 163,000. Besides this 
 standing army, there is a garde civique 
 numbering 40,000 partly active, partly 
 non-active men. The navy is confined 
 to a few steamers and a small flotilla of 
 gun-boats. 
 
 The territory now known as Belgium 
 originally formed only a section of that 
 known to Caesar as the territory of the 
 Belgae, extending from the right bank 
 of the Seine to the left bank of the 
 Rhine, and to the ocean. This district 
 continued under Roman sway till the 
 decline of the empire; subsequently 
 formed part of the kingdom of Clovis; 
 and then of that of Charlemagne, whose 
 ancestors belonged to Landen and 
 Herstal on the confines of the Ardennes. 
 After the breaking up of the empire of 
 Charlemagne Belgium formed part of 
 the kingdom of Lotharingia under 
 "Charlemagne’s grandson, Lothaire; Ar- 
 tois and Flanders, however, belonging 
 to France by the treaty of Verdun. 
 
 For centuries this kingdom was con- 
 tended for by the kings of France and 
 the emperors of Germany. In 1384 
 Flanders and Artois fell to the house of 
 Burgundy, which in less than a century 
 acquired the whole of the Netherlands. 
 
 The Seven Years’ War (1756-63) did 
 not affect Belgium, and in that period, 
 and during the peace which followed, 
 she regained much of her prosperity 
 under Maria Theresa and Charles of 
 Lorraine. 
 
 In 1815 Bel^um was united by the 
 Congress of Vienna to Holland, both 
 countries together now forming one 
 state, the Kingdom of the Netherlands. 
 This union lasted till 1830, when a re- 
 volt broke out among the Belgians, and 
 soon attained such dimensions that the 
 Dutch troops were unable to repress it. 
 
 A convention of the great powers, as- 
 sembled in London, favored the separa- 
 tion of the two countries, and drew up a 
 treaty to regulate it; the National Con- 
 gress of Belgium offering the crown, on 
 the recommendation of England, to 
 Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, who 
 acceded to it under the title of Leopold 
 
 I., on July 21, 1831. Leopold II. suc- 
 ceeded his father in 1865. In recent 
 years the chief feature of Belgian politics 
 has been a keen struggle between the 
 clerical and the liberal party. In 1893 
 a bill giving an extension of the fran- 
 chise was passed. Recent years have 
 been marked by socialistic movements 
 and labor troubles. 
 
 BELGRADE (bel-grad'), capital of 
 Servia, on the right bank of the Danube 
 in the angle formed by the junction of 
 the Save with that river, consists of the 
 citadel or upper town, on a rock 100 
 feet high; and the lower town, which 
 partly surrounds it. Being the key of 
 Hungary, it was long an object of fierce 
 contention between the Austrians and 
 the Turks, remaining, however, for the 
 most part in the hands of the Turks 
 until its evacuation by them in 1867. 
 Since the treaty of Berlin (July, 1878) 
 it has been the capital of an independent 
 state. Pop. 69,097. 
 
 BE'LIAL, a word which by the trans- 
 lators of the English Bible is often treated 
 as a proper name, as in the expressions 
 ‘son of Belial,” “man of Belial.” In the 
 Old Testament, however, it ought not 
 to be taken as a proper name, but it 
 should be translated “wickedness” or 
 “worthlessness.” To the later Jews 
 Belial seems to have become what 
 Pluto was to the Greeks, the name of 
 the ruler of the infernal regions; and 
 in 2 Cor. vi. 15 it seems to be used as a 
 name of Satan, as the personification 
 of all that is bad. 
 
 BELISA'RIUS (Slavonic, Beli-tzar, 
 White Prince), the general to whom 
 the Emperor Justinian chiefly owed 
 the splendor of his reign; born in 
 Illyria about 505 a.d. He served in the 
 body-guard of the emperor, soon after 
 obtained the chief command of an army 
 on the Persian frontiers, and in 530 
 gained a victory over a superior Persian 
 army. The next year, however, he lost 
 a battle, and was recalled. In the year 
 532 he checked the disorders in Con- 
 stantinople arising from the Green and 
 Blue factions; and was then sent with 
 15,000 men to Africa to recover the 
 territories occupied by the Vandals. 
 He took Carthage and led Gelimer, the 
 Vandal king, in triumph through 
 Constantinople. Dissensions having 
 arisen in the Ostrogothic kingdom, he 
 was sent to Italy, and though ill sup- 
 plied with money and troops, stormed 
 Naples, held Rome for a year, took 
 Ravenna, and led captive Vitiges, the 
 Gothic king. He died in 565. 
 
 BELL, a hollow, somewhat cup- 
 shaped sounding-instrument of metal. 
 The metal from which bells are usually 
 made (by founding) is an alloy, called 
 bell-metal, commonly composed of 
 eighty parts of copper and twenty of 
 tin. The proportion of tin varies, 
 however, from one-third to one-fifth of 
 the weight of the copper, according to 
 the sound required, the size of the bell, 
 and the impulse to be given. The 
 clearness and richness of the tone depend 
 upon the metal used, the perfection of 
 its casting, and also upon its shape; it 
 having been shown by a number of 
 experiments that the well-known shape 
 with a thick lip is the best adapted to 
 give a perfect soimd. The depth of 
 
BELL 
 
 BELL-RINGING 
 
 the tone of a bell increases in proportion 
 to its size. A bell is divided into the 
 body or barrel, the ear or cannon, and 
 the clapper or tongue. The lip or 
 sound-bow is that part where the bell 
 is struck by the clapper. Among the 
 more famous bells are the bell of 
 Cologne, 11 tons, 1448; of Dantzic, 6 
 tons, 1453; of Halberstadt, 7^, 1457; 
 of Rouen, 16, 1501 ; of Breslau, 11, 1507 ; 
 of Lucerne, 7J, 1636; of Oxford, 7J, 
 1680; of Paris, 12|, 1680; of Bruges, 
 lOj, 1680; of Vienna, 17f, 1711; of 
 Moscow (the monarch of all bells), 
 193, 1736; three other bells at Moscow 
 ranging from 16 to 31 tons, and a fourth 
 of 80 tons cast in 1819; the bell of 
 Lincoln (Great Tom), 5J, 1834; of 
 York Minster (Great Peter), lOJ, 1845; 
 of Montreal, 13J, 1847; of Westminster 
 (Big Ben), 15J, 1856, (St. Stephen), 13i, 
 1858; the Great Bell of St. Paul’s, 17J, 
 1882. Others are the bells of Ghent 
 (5), Gorlitz (lOf), St. Peter’s, Rome (8), 
 Antwerp (7^), Olmutz (18), Sacred 
 Heart, Paris (27), Novgorod (31), Pekin 
 (53i). 
 
 Besides their use in churches bells 
 are employed for various purposes, the 
 most common use being to summon 
 attendants or domestics in private 
 houses, hotels, etc. 
 
 Bells, as the term is used on ship- 
 board, are the strokes of the ship’s 
 bell that proclaim the hours. Eight 
 bells, the highest num,ber, are rung at 
 noon and every fourth hour afterward, 
 i.e. at 4, 8, 12 o’clock, and so on. The 
 intermediary periods are indicated thus: 
 12:30, one bell; 1 o’clock, 2 bells; 1:30, 
 3 bells, etc., until the eight bells an- 
 nounce 4 o’clock, when the series 
 recommences 4:30, one bell; 5 o’clock, 
 two bells, etc. The even numbers of 
 strokes thus always announce hours, 
 the odd numbers half-hours. 
 
 BELL, Alexander Graham, an Amer- 
 ican inventor, born at Edinburgh, Scot- 
 land, in 1847, and educated at London 
 university. In 1870 he came to Canada 
 with his father and assisted him in the 
 
 instruction of the deaf and dumb. 
 In 1872, while teaching vocal physiol- 
 ogy in Boston University, he began 
 the experiments that led up to the 
 invention, by him, of the Bell tele- 
 phone. His claims were disputed by 
 
 other inventors, but the Supreme court 
 of the United States upheld him and he 
 has since that time enjoyed a monopoly 
 of the telephone in the United States. 
 He is a member of numerous learned 
 societies and has published many im- 
 portant papers on phonetics and acous- 
 tics. 
 
 Mr. Bell has visited Europe a number 
 of times, and has been received with 
 much honor by foreign societies and dis- 
 tinguished individuals. His inventions, 
 other than the telephone, have been 
 mainly of scientific interest. Personally, 
 he is a most courteous, suave, and con- 
 siderate man, democratic and willing to 
 speak freely of his great achievements. 
 
 BELL, Sir Charles, anatomist and 
 surgeon, was born at Edinburgh in 1774. 
 In 1804 he went to London, and soon 
 distinguished himself as a lecturer on 
 anatomy and surgery. In 1814 he was 
 appointed surgeon to the Middlesex 
 Hospital, and in 1821 he communicated 
 to the Royal Society a paper on the 
 nervous system, containing among 
 other things the important discovery 
 that the nerve-filaments of sensation 
 are distinct from those of motion. It at 
 once attracted general attention and 
 established his reputation. He died 
 suddenly in 1842. 
 
 BELL, Henry, the first successful 
 applier of steam to the purposes of 
 navigation in Europe, was born in 
 Linlithgowshire 1767, died at Helens- 
 burgh 1830. In 1798 he turned his 
 attention specially to the steamboat, 
 the practicability of steam navigation 
 having been already demonstrated. 
 In 1812 the Comet, a small thirty-ton 
 vessel built at Glasgow under Bell’s 
 directions, and driven by a three horse- 
 power engine made by himeslf, com- 
 menced to ply between Glasgow and 
 Greenock, and continued to run till she 
 was wrecked in 1820. This was the 
 beginning of steam navigation in 
 Europe. It has been asserted that 
 Fulton, who started a steamer on the 
 Hudson in 1807, obtained his ideas 
 from Bell in the previous year. Bell is 
 also credited with the invention of the 
 “discharging machine” used by calico- 
 printers. A monument has been 
 erected to his memory at Dunglass 
 Point on the Clyde. 
 
 BELL, John, an American statesman, 
 born at Nashville, Tenn., 1797, died 
 1869. In 1860 he was nominated for 
 the presidency by the constitutional 
 Union party, and subsequently took 
 sides with the Confederacy. 
 
 BELLADON'NA, or deadly night- 
 shade. It is native in Britain. All parts 
 of the plant are poisonous, and the in- 
 cautious eating of the berries has often 
 produced death. The inspissated juice 
 is commonly known by the name of 
 extract of belladonna. It is narcotic 
 and poisonous, but is of great value in 
 medicine, especially in nervous ailments. 
 It has the property of causing the pupil 
 of the eye to dilate. The fruit of the 
 
 E lant is a dark brownish-black shining 
 erry. The name signifies “beautiful 
 lady,” and is said to have been given 
 from the use of the plant as a cosmetic. 
 
 BELLAMY, Edward, an American 
 socialist, author of Looking Backward 
 (1888), and Equality (1897). He was 
 
 born at Chicopee Falls, Mass., in 1850, 
 and died there 1898. He began his 
 career as a journalist. The publication 
 of Looking Backward familiarized the 
 American people with the central doc- 
 trine of socialism, and attempt was made 
 to propogate the doctrine by means of 
 nationalist clubs, but failed. 
 
 BELLARY (bel-a'ri), a town in India, 
 presidency of Madras, capital of a dis- 
 trict of the same name, 280 r^iles north- 
 west of Madras ; a military station, with 
 a fort crowning a lofty rock, and other 
 fortifications. Pop. (inch cantonment) 
 58,247. — The district was ceded to the 
 British in 1800. Area, 5975 square 
 miles; pop. 900,126. 
 
 BELL, BOOK, AND CANDLE, a 
 solemn mode of excommunication used 
 in the R. Cath. Ch. After the sentence 
 was read, the book was closed, a lighted 
 candle thrown to the ground, and a bell 
 tolled as for one dead. 
 
 BELL-CRANK, in machinery, a rec- 
 tangular lever by which the direction 
 of motion is changed through an angle 
 of 90°, and by which its velocity-ratio 
 and range may be altered at pleasure 
 by making the arms of different lengths. 
 It is much employed in machinery, and 
 is named from its being the form of 
 crank employed in changing the direc- 
 tion of the bell-wires of house-bells. 
 
 BELLE-ISLE (bel-il')i ^ rocky island, 
 9 miles long, at the eastern entrance to 
 the Straits of Belle-Isle, the channel, 15 
 miles wide, between Newfoundland and 
 the coast of Labrador. Steamers from 
 Glasgow and Liverpool to Quebec round 
 the north of Ireland commonly go by 
 this channel in summer as being the 
 shortest route. 
 
 BELL-RINGING, the art by which 
 large bells are rung so as to produce 
 pleasant sounds, successions of such 
 sounds, or a vast assemblage of simul- 
 taneous sounds. By pulling the bell 
 rope to different lengths a change is 
 made in the sound, depending on the 
 swing of the bell and the force with 
 which the clapper strikes it. Rope-ring- 
 ing has been abandoned in the great 
 churches in the United States, such as 
 St. Patrick’s, New York, and other 
 cathedrals. These bells are now rung 
 by electricity, but the effect is not half 
 so stirring as by the old method. The 
 art made rapid progress, and rings of 
 bells increased from five or six to ten 
 or twelve, the latter being the greatest 
 number ever rung in peal. The variety 
 of changes increases enormously with 
 the increase in the number of bells. 
 Six changes can be rung on three bells; 
 on four, four times as many; and so on 
 until with twelve bells the enormous 
 number of 479,001,600 different changes 
 can be rung. Bell-ringing has an inter- 
 esting system of nomenclature. The 
 simplest peals are those called grand- 
 sire on an odd number of bells, and bob 
 on an even number. Changes on three 
 bells are called rounds ; on four, changes 
 or singles; on five, doubles or grand- 
 sires; on six, bobs minor; on seven, 
 grandsire triples; on eight, bobs major; 
 on nine, grandsire caters; on ten, bobs 
 royal; on eleven, grandsire cinques; on 
 twelve, bobs maximus. A bell is set 
 when its mouth is turned upward; at 
 hand stroke when set up so far that 
 
BELLES-LETTRES 
 
 ben:^dict 
 
 only the tuffing or sallic is held by the 
 ringer ; at back stroke when rung so far 
 round that the end of the rope is held. 
 The treble bell is the highest, the tenor 
 the lowest of a set. Five thousand 
 changes are a peal ; any smaller number 
 constitutes a touch or flourish, i.e. a 
 practice rather than a performance. 
 
 BELLES-LETTRES (beldet-r), polite 
 or elegant literature: a word of some- 
 what vague signification Rhetoric, 
 poetry, fiction, history, and criticism, 
 with the languages in which the stand- 
 ard works in these departments are 
 written, are generally understood to 
 come under the head of belles-lettres. 
 
 BELLEVILLE (bel-viF), a city in 
 Illinois, county seat of St. Clair Co., with 
 important manufactures, and a large 
 rolling-mill. Pop. 19,000. 
 
 BELLEW, Harold Kyrle, a British 
 player, born in England in 1857. He 
 was at first a sailor, then a journalist 
 and lecturer, and in Australia became 
 an actor. His success, after his return 
 to England, was speedy. In 1885 he 
 first came to America, and appeared at 
 Wallack’s, New York, in In His Power. 
 Two years later he began his connection 
 with Mrs. James Brown Potter. To- 
 gether they played Hero and Leander 
 (written by Mr. Bellew), Charlotte Cor- 
 day, Romeo and Juliet, and other 
 plays. He has several times visited 
 
 BELLIG'ERENT, a term denoting 
 that a government or state is waging 
 war. Belligerency is a technical term 
 in international law and is recognized 
 by other states when the belligerents 
 have proved that they are capable of 
 carrying on a war. A community need 
 not be independent to be recognized as 
 belligerent, as in the case of Cuba, the 
 American colonies, and other com- 
 munities who fought for and won their 
 independence. Belligerent rights are 
 often accorded to the two powers at 
 war, as in the case of the American civil 
 war when the United States and the 
 Confederacy were both recognized with 
 prejudice by European powers. 
 
 BELLINI (bel-e'ne), Jacopo, and his 
 two sons, Gentile and Giovanni, the 
 founders of the Venetian school of paint- 
 ing. The father excelled in portraits, 
 but very little of his work is extant. He 
 died about 1470. Gentile was born in 
 1421, and in 1479 went to Constanti- 
 nople, Mohammed II, having sent to 
 Venice for a skilful painter; died at 
 Venice in 1501. Giovanni was born 
 about 1424, and died about 1516. 
 
 BELLINI (bel-e'ne), Vincenzo, a cele- 
 brated composer, born at Catania in 
 Sicily in 1802, died 1835. His most cele- 
 brated works are I Montecchi e Capuleti 
 (1829); La Sonnambula (1831); Norma, 
 his best and most popular opera; and 
 I Puritani (1834). 
 
 BEL'LOWS, an instrument or ma- 
 chine for producing a strong current of 
 air, and principally used for blowing 
 fires, either in private dwellings or in 
 forges, furnaces mines, etc. It is so 
 formed as, by being dilated and con- 
 tracted, to inhale air by an orifice which 
 is opened and closed with a valve, and 
 to propel it through a tube upon the 
 fire. It is an ancient contrivance, being 
 known in Egypt, India, and China many 
 
 ages ago, while forms of it are used 
 among savage tribes in Africa. 
 
 BELLUNO (bel-ld'no), a city of north- 
 ern Italy, capital of a province of the 
 same name, on the Piave, 48 miles north 
 of Venice. Pop. 16,000. — The province 
 has an area of 1271 sq. miles, and a pop. 
 of 195,419. 
 
 BEL'MONT, a village in Missouri, 
 opposite Columbus, Ky., on the Missis- 
 sippi, noted for being the spot where 
 General Ulysses S. Grant won his first 
 battle in the American civil war. 
 Grant’s force was 3000, against 7000 
 Confederates. The casualties on the 
 Union side were 485, Confederate 642. 
 
 BELMONT, August, an American 
 capitalist, born 1816 in Germany, died 
 1890. He was prominent as a banker, 
 sportsman, and diplomatist. 
 
 BELMONT, Perry, an American finan- 
 cier and politician, son of August Bel- 
 mont. He was born in New York in 
 1851, was democratic member of con- 
 gress 1881-87, and United States min- 
 ister to Spain 1887-88. 
 
 BELOIT, a city in Rock Co., Wis., 91 
 miles northwest of Chicago, 111., on 
 Rock river, and on the Chicago, Mil- 
 waukee and Saint Paul, and the Chicago 
 and Northwestern railroads. Pop. 42,- 
 000 . 
 
 BELSHAZ'ZAR, the last of the Baby- 
 lonian kings, who reigned conjointly 
 with his father Nabonadius. He per- 
 ished B.c. 538, during the successful 
 storming of Babylon by Cyrus. This 
 event is recorded in the book of Daniel ; 
 but it is difficult to bring the particulars 
 there given into harmony with the 
 cuneiform inscriptions. 
 
 BELT, BELTING, a flexible endless 
 band, or its material, used to transmit 
 motion or power from one wheel, roller, 
 or pulley to another, and common in 
 various kinds of machinery. Driving 
 belts are usually made of leather or 
 india-rubber, or some woven material, 
 but ropes and chains are also used for 
 the same purpose. 
 
 BELT, The Great and Little, two 
 straits connecting the Baltic with the 
 Cattegat, the former between the is- 
 lands of Zealand and Funen, about 18 
 miles in average width; the latter be- 
 tween Funen and the coast of Schleswig, 
 at its narrowest part not more than a 
 mile in width. 
 
 BELUGA (be-l6'ga), a kind of whale 
 or dolphin, the white whale or white fish, 
 found in the northern seas of both 
 hemispheres. It is from 12 to 18 feet 
 in length, and is pursued for its oil 
 (classed as “porpoise oil”) and skin. In 
 swimming the animal bends its tail 
 under its body like a lobster, and 
 thrusts itself along with the rapidity of 
 an arrow. A variety of sturgeon found 
 in the Caspian and Black Sea is also 
 called beluga. 
 
 BELZO'NI, Giovanni Battista (John 
 Baptist), an enterprising traveler, was 
 born at Padua in 1778, and died near 
 Benin 1823. In 1803 he emigrated to 
 England. In 1815 he visited Egypt, 
 where he made a hydraulic machine for 
 Mehemet Ali. He then devoted himself 
 to the exploration of the antiquities of 
 the country, being supplied with funds 
 by Mr. Salt, the British consul-general. 
 IJe succeeded in transporting the bust 
 
 of Memnon (Rameses II.) from Thebes 
 to Alexandria, from whence it came to 
 the British Museum; explored the great 
 temple of Rameses II. at Abu-Simbel; 
 opened the tomb of Seti I., from which 
 he obtained the splendid alabaster 
 sarcophagus bought by Sir John Soane; 
 and he also succeeded in opening the 
 second (King Chephren’s) of the pyra- 
 mids of Ghizeh. He afterward visited 
 the coasts of the Red Sea, the city of 
 Berenice, Lake Moeris, the Lesser Oasis, 
 etc. The narrative of his discoveries 
 and excavations in Egypt and Nubia 
 was received with general approbation. 
 He died during a projected journey to 
 Timbuctoo. 
 
 BEN, a prepositive syllable signifying 
 in composition “son of,” found in many 
 Jewish names, as Bendavid, Benasser, 
 etc. — Beni, the plural, occurs in several 
 modern names and in the names of 
 many Arabian tribes. 
 
 BENARES (be-na'rez), a town in 
 Hindustan, in the United Provinces, 
 administrative headquarters of a dis- 
 trict and division of the same name, on 
 the left bank of the Ganges, from which 
 it rises like an amphitheater, presenting a 
 splendid panorama of temples, mosques, 
 palaces, and other buildings with their 
 domes, minarets, etc. Fine ghauts lead 
 down to the river. It is one of the 
 most sacred places of pilgrimage in all 
 India, being the headquarters of the 
 Hindu religion. The principal temple 
 is dedicated to Siva, whose sacred 
 symbol it contains. It is also the seat of 
 government and other colleges, and of 
 the missions of various societies. Bena- 
 res carries on a large trade in the prod- 
 uce of the district and in English goods, 
 and manufactures silks, shawls, em- 
 broidered cloth, jewelry, etc. The pop- 
 ulation, including the neighboring can- 
 tonments, at Sikraul (Secrole), in 1901, 
 was 209,331. The commissionership 
 or division has an area of 10,414 sq. 
 miles, and a pop. of 5,032,669, of whom 
 76.53 per cent depend on agriculture. 
 — The district has an area of 1099 sq. 
 miles, and a pop. of 882,972. 
 
 BENCH WARRANT, a warrant for the 
 arrest of an indicted person, issued by a 
 court of record. The process, in most 
 of the United States, is regulated by 
 statute. It is often used for the arrest 
 of persons who have been adjudged 
 guilty of contempt. 
 
 BENEDIC'ITE, the canticle in the 
 Book of Common Prayer in the morning 
 service, also called the Song of the Three 
 Holy Children: “O, all ye works of tbe 
 Lord, bless ye the Lord.” It comes 
 from the Septuagint version of Daniel. 
 
 BEN'EDICT, the name of fourteen 
 popes, the first of the name succeeding 
 to the papal chair on the death of John 
 III. in 574. The first deserving of 
 notice is Benedict IX., who succeeded 
 John XIX. in 1033, being placed on the 
 papal throne as a boy of twelve years. 
 His licentiousness caused him to be 
 ignominiously expelled by the citizens, 
 who elected Sylvester III. Six months 
 after he regained the ascendency, and 
 excommunicated Sylvester; but, finding 
 the general detestation too strong to 
 permit him to resume his chair, sold it 
 to John Gratianus, who assumed the 
 title of Gregory VI. There was thus a. 
 
BENEDICT 
 
 BENGAL 
 
 trio of popes, and the emperor, Henry- 
 Ill. , to put an end to the scandal, de- 
 posed all the three. He died in 1054. — 
 Benedict XIII., a karned and -well- 
 disposed man, originally Cardinal Orsini 
 and Archbishop of Benevento, became 
 
 efficacy in epidemics. Made in the same 
 way since 1510. 
 
 BENEDICTINES, members of the 
 most famous and widely-spread of all the 
 orders of monks, founded at Monte 
 Casino, about half-way between Rome 
 
 Benares, from the river. 
 
 pope in 1724. He bestowed his con- 
 fidence on Cardinal Coscia, who was 
 unworthy of it, and abused it in gratify- 
 ing his avarice. He died in 1730, and 
 was succeeded by Clement XII. — Bene- 
 dict XIV., Prospero Lambertini, born 
 at Bologna in 1675, died 1758, a man of 
 superior talents, passionately fond of 
 learning, of historical researches, and 
 monuments of art. Benedict XIII. 
 made him, in 1727, bishop of Ancona; 
 in 1728 cardinal; and in 1732 archbishop 
 of Bologna. In every station he ful- 
 filled his duties with the most consci- 
 entious zeal. He succeeded Clement 
 XII. in 1740, and showed himself a 
 liberal patron of literature and science. 
 He was the author of several esteemed 
 religious works. 
 
 BENEDICT, St., the founder of the 
 first religious order in the West; born 
 at Nursia, in the province of Umbria, 
 Italy, A.u. 480, died 543. In early youth 
 he renounced the world and passed some 
 years in solitude, acquiring a great repu- 
 tation for sanctity. His Regula Mon- 
 achorum, in which he aimed, among 
 other things, at repressing the irregular 
 lives of the wandering monks, gradually 
 became the rule of all the western monks. 
 Under his rule the monks, in addition to 
 the work of God (as he called prayer and 
 the reading of religious writings), were 
 employed in manual labor, in the in- 
 struction of the young, and in copying 
 manuscripts, thus preserving many 
 literary remains of antiquity. See 
 Benedictines. 
 
 BENEDIC'TINE, a liquor prepared 
 by the Benedictine monks of the abbey 
 of Fecamp, in Normandy, consisting of 
 spirit (fine brandy) containing an infu- 
 sion of the juices of plants, and said to 
 possess digestive, antispasmodic, and 
 other virtues, and to have prophylactic 
 
 and Naples, in 529, by St. Benedict. 
 No religious order has been so remark- 
 able for extent, wealth, and men of note 
 and learning as the Benedictines. 
 Among the branches of the order the 
 chief were the Cluniacs, founded in 910 
 at Clugny in Burgundy; the Cistercians, 
 founded in 1098, and reformed by St. 
 
 Benedictine monk. 
 
 Bernard in 116; and the Carthusians 
 from the Chartreuse, founded by Bruno 
 about 1080. The order was probably 
 introduced into England about 600 by 
 St. Augustine of Canterbury, and a 
 great many abbeys, and all the cathe- 
 dral priories of England, save Carlisle, 
 belonged to it. In Britain the Benedic- 
 tines were called Blackfriars, from the 
 color of tlieir habit, which consisted of 
 a loose black gown with large wide 
 
 sleeves, and a cowl on the head ending 
 in a point. The Benedictines have prO' 
 duced many valuable literary works. 
 The fraternity of St. Maur, founded in 
 1618, had in the beginning of the 18th 
 century 180 abbeys and priories in 
 France, and acquired by means of its 
 learned members, such as Mabillon 
 Montfaucon, and Mart^ne, merited 
 distinction. They published the eele- 
 brated chronological work L’Art de 
 Verifier les Dates, and edited many 
 ancient authors. 
 
 BENEDIC'TION, the ceremony of eall- 
 ing a divine blessing upon an individ- 
 ual, a thing, a place, a community, or an 
 undertaking. Invoking a blessing is 
 one of the oldest of customs, and has 
 been practiced by pagans as well as 
 Christians. The pontifical blessing is a 
 special benediction given by the pope 
 of Rome. 
 
 BENEFIT SOCIETIES, organizations 
 for the purpose of securing a cheap, 
 mutual life insurance, to pay funeral 
 expenses, to provide for old age, or 
 other beneficent end. Many labor 
 unions have benefit funds which are 
 applied to members during illness or 
 other specified incapacity. These organ- 
 izations are more numerous in the United 
 States than elsewhere, and are re- 
 garded as an evidence of prosperity. 
 
 BENEVEN'TO, a city of southern 
 Italy, the see of an archbishop, in a 
 province of same name, on a hill be- 
 tween the rivers Sabato and Calore, oc- 
 cupying the site of the ancient Beneven- 
 tum, and largely built of its ruins. Few 
 cities have so many remains of antiq- 
 uity, the most perfect being a magnifi- 
 cent triumphal arch of Trajan, built in 
 114. The cathedral is a building of the 
 12th century in the Lombard-Saracenic 
 style. Pop. 21,631. — The province has 
 an area of 680 sq. miles, and a pop. of 
 238,425. 
 
 BENEV'OLENCES, a means of raising 
 money by forced loans or contributions, 
 first adopted by Edward IV., and em- 
 ployed frequently down to the time of 
 James I. 
 
 BENGAL (ben-gal'), a name formerly 
 given to one of the three “presidencies” 
 of British India which included the 
 whole of British India except what was 
 under the governors of Madras and 
 Bombay. Latterly in this sense the 
 term had no administrative meaning 
 except as regards the army. By Bengal 
 is now usually understood the Lieu- 
 tenant-governorship of Bengal, the 
 most important of the local govern- 
 ments of British India. It comprises the 
 united deltas of the Ganges and Brahma- 
 putra, and stretches north to Nepaul 
 and Sikkim, west to the United Prov- 
 inces, east to Assam, and south to the 
 Bay of Bengal. The divisions of which 
 it is made up are the Presidency (Cal- 
 cutta, etc.), Dacca, Chittagong, Raje- 
 shahye, Bhaugulpore, Patna, Burdwan, 
 Chota Nagpur, and Orissa; total area, 
 151,185 sq. miles; pop. 74,744,866. The 
 feudatory states connected with it have 
 an aggregate area of 38,652 sq. miles, 
 and a pop. of 3,748,544. 
 
 As a whole Bengal consists of plains, 
 there being few remarkable elevations, 
 though it is surrounded with lofty - 
 mountains. It is intersected in all di- 
 
BENGAL, BAY OP 
 
 BENZOIN 
 
 rections by rivers, mostly tributaries of 
 its two great rivers the Ganges and 
 Brahmaputra, which annually, in June 
 and July, inundate a large part of the 
 region. These annual inundations ren- 
 der the soil extremely fertile, but in 
 those tracts where this advantage is 
 not enjoyed the soil is thin, seldom 
 exceeding a few inches in depth. 
 
 The climate is variable, the heat 
 being often extreme and great humidity 
 prevailing The seasons are called hot 
 (March to June), rainy (June to Octo- 
 ber), and cold (the remainder of the 
 year). In eastern Bengal there is an 
 annual fall of 100 inches of rain. Prod- 
 ucts are rice, fruits, indigo, opium, 
 sugar, tobacco, cotton, jute, tea, and 
 cinchona. Forests abound. Wild ani- 
 mals of numerous variety are found 
 in them. The minerals are iron, coal, 
 and salt. Manufactures, cotton piece 
 goods, jute, and silk. The people of 
 Bengal are principally Hindus and 
 Burmese. Hinduism and Mohammedan- 
 ism are the religions. 
 
 The first of the East India Company’s 
 settlements in Bengal were made early 
 in the 17th century. The rise of Cal- 
 cutta dates from the end of the same 
 century. The greater part of Bengal 
 came into the hands of the East India 
 Company in consequence of Clive’s vic- 
 tory at Plassy in 1757, and was formerly 
 ceded to the Company by the Nabob of 
 Bengal in 1765. Chittagong had pre- 
 viously been ceded b^ the same prince, 
 but its government under British ad- 
 ministration was not organized till 
 1824. Orissa came into British hands 
 in 1803. In 1858 the country passed to 
 the crown, and since then the history 
 of Bengal has been, on the whole, one 
 of steady and peaceful progress. 
 
 BENGAL, BAY OF, that portion of the 
 Indian Ocean which lies between Hin- 
 dustan and Farther India, or Burmah, 
 Siam, and Malacca, and may be re- 
 garded as extending south to Ceylon 
 and Sumatra. It receives the Ganges, 
 Brahmaputra, and Irrawadi. Calcutta, 
 Rangoon, and Madras are the most 
 important towns on or near its coasts. 
 
 BENGA'LI, one of the vernacular lan- 
 guages of India, spoken by about 50,- 
 000,000 people in Bengal, akin to San- 
 skrit and written in characters that are 
 evidently modified from the Devanflgari 
 (Sanskrit). Its use as a literary lan- 
 guage began in the 14th century with 
 poetry. Large numbers of Bengali 
 books are now published, as also news- 
 papers. A large number of words are 
 borrowed from Sanskrit literature. 
 
 BENGUELA (ben-ga'la), a district 
 belonging to the Portuguese on the w. 
 coast of South Africa; area, perhaps 
 150,000 sq. miles. The country is 
 mountainous in the interior, and thickly 
 intersected by rivers and streams. Its 
 vegetation is luxuriant, including every 
 description of tropical produce, and 
 animal life is equally abundant. Copper, 
 silver, iron, salt, sulphur, petroleum, 
 and other minerals are found. The 
 natives are mostly rude and barbaroui. 
 Pop. estimated at 2,000,000. 
 
 BENJAMIN, Judah Pnilip, an Ameri- 
 can statesman, born in the West Indies 
 in 1811, died 1884. He was educated 
 at Yale, was, in 1840, a member of the 
 
 law firm of Slidell, Benjamin, and Con- 
 rad, at New Orleans. He became 
 famous for his ability as a lawyer, and 
 declined a seat on the United States 
 Supreme bench. From 1852 to 1861 he 
 was United States senator from New 
 Orleans, but in the latter year resigned 
 to join with the confederacy, becoming 
 attorney-general, secretary of war, and 
 secretary of state in President Davis’s 
 cabinet. After the war he fled to Eng- 
 land and was called to the English bar 
 in 1866, and soon acquired a great 
 reputation and a very large practice. 
 He was known as “the brains of the 
 Confederacy.” 
 
 BENJAMIN, Park, an American law- 
 yer and authority on patents. He was 
 born in New York in 1849, entered the 
 navy, resigned in 1869, studied law, 
 and was associate editor of The Scientific 
 American from 1872 to 1878. Since that 
 time he has practiced law and written 
 numerous sketches and books on 
 scientific and pseudo-scientific subjects. 
 
 BEN'NETT, James Gordon, an Amer- 
 ican journalist, born in Banffshire, 
 Scotland, 1795, and educated at Aber- 
 deen. He emigrated to Halifax, Nova 
 Scotia, in 1819 as a teacher, and went 
 thence to Boston as a proof-reader. 
 In 1822 he went to New York, and, 
 after being connected with various 
 papers, started the New York Herald 
 in 1835. By his enterprise and not very 
 scrupulous conduct of the journal it 
 speedily became an enormous success, 
 its yearly profit at his death being 
 estimated at from a half to three-quar- 
 ters of a million dollars. It was the first 
 paper which published a daily money 
 article and stock lists. The expedition 
 of Stanley to Africa in 1871 in search of 
 Livingstone was projected and supported 
 by Bennett, who, however, died in the 
 following year. 
 
 BENT, Silas, an American naval 
 officer, born at St. Louis in 1820, died in 
 1889. He entered the navy in 1836 and 
 served 25 years as hydrographer and 
 meteorologist. He took part in the 
 Seminole war and was captain under 
 Commodore Perry in Japanese waters. 
 He was the first to describe the Pacific 
 
 BENTHAM (ben'tham), Jeremy, a 
 distinguished writer on politics and 
 jurisprudence, born at London in 1749; 
 educated at Westminster and Oxford; 
 entered Lincoln’s Inn 1763. He was 
 called to the bar, but did not pratice, 
 and, having private means, devoted him- 
 self to the reform of civil and criminal 
 legislation. A criticism on a passage 
 in Blackstone’s Commentaries, pub- 
 lished under the title A Fragment on 
 Government, 1776, brought him into 
 notice; and it was followed by a long 
 list of works, of which the more impor- 
 tant were: The Hard Labour Bill, 1778; 
 Principles of Morals and Legislation, 
 1780; A Defence of Usury, 1787; Intro- 
 duction to the Principles of Morals and 
 Legislation, 1789; Discourses on Civil 
 and Penal Legislation, 1802; Treatise 
 on Judicial Evidence, 1813; Paper 
 relative to Codification and Public In- 
 struction, 1817; and the Book of Falla- 
 cies, 1824. His mind, though at once 
 subtle and comprehensive, was char- 
 acterized by something of the Coleridg- 
 
 ean defect in respect of method and 
 sense of proportion ; and he is, therefore, 
 seen at his best in works that underwent 
 revision at the hands of his disciples. 
 Of these M. Dumont, by his excellent 
 French translations and rearrangements, 
 secured for Bentham at an early date a 
 European reputation and influence, and 
 his editions are still the most satisfac- 
 tory. In England James Mill, Romilly, 
 John Stuart Mill, Burton, and others of 
 independent genius, have been among 
 his exponents. In ethics he must be 
 regarded as the founder of modern 
 utilitarianism; in polity and criminal 
 law he anticipated or suggested many 
 practical reforms; and his whole influ- 
 ence was stimulating and humanizing. 
 
 BENT'LEY, Richard, an English 
 classical scholar and critic, born 1662, 
 died 1742. He was noted as a contro- 
 versialist, and his Dissertation on the 
 Epistles of Phalaris is a great classic 
 in controversial style. 
 
 BENTON, James Gilchrist, an Ameri- 
 can inventor and soldier, born in New 
 Hampshire in 1820, died 1881. He 
 graduated from West Point and entered 
 the army in 1842. In 1853 he per- 
 fected a gun-carriage for seacoast serv- 
 ice, and during the civil war had 
 charge of arsenals. He invented many 
 devices for the perfection of firearms, 
 the Springfield rifle being chiefly of his 
 invention. 
 
 BENTON, Thomas Hart, an American 
 statesman, author of Thirty Years’ 
 View (of the United States senate). He 
 was born in North Carolina in 1782, 
 and in 1815 settled at St. Louis and 
 established The Missouri Inquirer. He 
 fought several duels, killing one man, 
 and in 1820 was chosen United States 
 senator. He opposed the United 
 States Bank, favored election of the 
 President by direct popular vote, and 
 generally allied himself with the West. 
 Senator Benton was an advocate of 
 abolition. He died in 1858 
 
 BEN'ZINE, a liquid hydrocarbon 
 obtained from coal-tar and petroleum. 
 It may also be got by distilling 1 part of 
 crystallized benzoic acid intimately 
 mixed with 3 parts of slaked lime. It 
 is quite colorless, of a peculiar, ethereal, 
 agreeable odor, is used by manufacturers 
 of india-rubber and gutta-percha, on 
 account of its great solvent powers, in 
 the preparation of varnishes, and for 
 cleaning gloves, removing grease-spots 
 from woolen and other cloths, etc., on 
 account of its dissolving fats and resins. 
 It is highly inflammable. 
 
 BENZOTC ACID, a vegetable acid ob- 
 tained from benzoin and other resins 
 and balsams, as those of Peru and Tolu. 
 It forms light feathery needles; taste 
 pungent and bitterish; odor slightly 
 Ai'oms.t'ic 
 
 BENZOIC ETHER, a colorless oily 
 liquid, with a feeble aromatic smell and 
 a pungent aromatic taste, obtained by 
 distilling together 4 parts alcohol, 2 of 
 crystallized benzoic acid, and 1 of con- 
 centrated hydrochloric acid. 
 
 BEN' ZOIN(“ Javanese incense”), a solid, 
 brittle, vegetable substance, the concrete 
 resinous juice flowing from incisions in 
 the stem or branches of a tree 70 or 80 
 feet high. In commerce several varie- 
 ties are distinguished, of which the yel- 
 
BERANGER 
 
 BERIBERI 
 
 low, the Siam, the amygdaloidal — the 
 last containing whitish tears of an al- 
 mond shape — and Sumatra firsts are the 
 finest. It is Imported from Siam, Sin- 
 gapore, Bombay, and occasionally from 
 
 Calcutta; it is found also in South Amer- 
 ica. The pure benzoin consists of two 
 principal substances, viz., a resin, and 
 an acid termed benzoic. It has little 
 taste, but its smell is fragrant when 
 rubbed or heated, and it is used as in- 
 cense in the Greek and Roman Catholic 
 Churches. It is insoluble in water, but 
 soluble in alcohol, in which form it is 
 used as a cosmetic and in pharmacy. 
 Benzoin may be produced by the con- 
 tact of alkalies with the commercial oil 
 of bitter almonds. It is also known as 
 benjamin, or gum benjamin. 
 
 BERANGER (ba-ran-zha), Pierre Jean 
 de, French lyric poet, born in Paris 19th 
 August, 1780. Reduced to extremity, 
 he applied in 1804 to Lucien Bonaparte 
 for assistance, and succeeded in obtain- 
 ing from him, first, a pension of 1000 
 francs, and five years later a university 
 clerkship. Although as yet unprinted, 
 many of his songs had become extremely 
 popular, and in 1815 the first collection 
 of them was published. A second col- 
 lection, published in 1821, made him 
 obnoxious to the Bourbon government, 
 and in addition to being dismissed 
 from his office in the university he was 
 
 B6rauger. 
 
 sentenced to three months’ imprison- 
 ment and a fine of 500 francs. A 
 third collection appeared in 1825, and 
 in 1828 a fourth, which subjected him 
 to a second state prosecution, an im- 
 prisonment of nine months, and a fine 
 of 10,000 francs. In 1833 he published 
 his fifth and last collection, thereafter 
 remaining silent till his death. Shortly 
 after the revolution of February, 1848, 
 he was elected representative of the 
 department of the Seine in the con- 
 stituent assembly, but sent in his resig- 
 nation in the month of May of same 
 year. He died at Paris on July 16, 1857. 
 
 BERAR', otherwise known as the 
 Hyderabad Assigned Districts, a prov- 
 ince of India, in the Deccan, under the 
 British resident at Haidarabad; area, 
 17,711 sq. miles, consisting chiefly of an 
 elevated valley at the head of a chain of 
 ghauts. It is watered by several afflu- 
 ents of the Godavari and by the Tapti, 
 and has a fertile soil, producing some of 
 the best cotton, millet, and wheat crops 
 in India. The two principal towns of 
 Berar are Amr^oti (pop. 39,511) and 
 Khamgaon (12,390). Coal and iron ore 
 are both found in the province, the pop. 
 of which is 2,754,016. Exports, $17,281,- 
 740; imports, $10,504,515. Berar was 
 assigned by the Nizam to the British 
 government in 1853 in security of ar- 
 rears due. 
 
 BER'BERS, a people spread over 
 nearly the whole of northern Africa, 
 from whom the name Barbary is de- 
 rived. The chief branches into which 
 the Berbers are divided are, first, the 
 Amazirgh or Amazigh, of northern 
 Morocco, numbering from 2,000,000 to 
 2,500,000. They are for the most part 
 quite independent of the Sultan of 
 Morocco, Second, the Shuluh, Shillooh, 
 
 Bergen, from 
 
 or Shellakah, who number about 1,450,- 
 000, and inhabit the south of Morocco. 
 They are more highly civilized than the 
 Amazirgh. Third, the Kabyles in Al- 
 geria and Tunis, who are said to number 
 960,000 souls; and fourth, the Berbers 
 of the Sahara, who inhabit the oases. 
 Among the Sahara Berbers the most 
 remarkable are the Beni-Mz&b and the 
 Tuaregs. To these we may also add the 
 Guanches of the Canary Islands, now 
 extinct, but undoubtedly of the same 
 race. The Berbers generally are about 
 the middle height; their complexion is 
 brown, and sometimes almost black, 
 with brown and glossy hair. They are 
 sparely built, but robust and graceful; 
 the features approach the European 
 type. Their language has affinities to 
 the Semitic group, but Arabic is spoken 
 along the coast. They are believed to 
 represent the ancient Mauritanians, 
 Numidians, Gfetulians, etc. The Ber- 
 bers live in huts or houses, and practice 
 various industries. 
 
 BER'DITCHEF, a city of European 
 Russia, gov. of Kiev, with broad streets, 
 well-built houses, numerous industrial 
 establishirtents, and a very large trade. 
 
 having largely-attended fairs. Pop. 
 78,287, including many Jews. 
 
 BERENICE (ber-e-ni'se), the name of 
 several distinguished women of antiq- 
 uity; in particular the wife of Ptolemy 
 Euerggtes, king of Egypt. When her 
 husband went to war in Syria she made 
 a vow to devote her beautiful hair to the 
 gods if he returned safe. She accord- 
 ingly hung it in the temple of Venus, 
 from which it disappeared, and was 
 said to have been transferred to the 
 skies as the constellation Coma Bere- 
 nices. Also the wife of Mithridates the 
 Great, king of Pontus; put to death by 
 her husband (about 71 b.c.) lest she 
 should fall into the hands of Lucullus. 
 
 BER'GAMO, a town of North Italy, 
 capital of the province of Bergamo 
 (1028 sq. miles, 390,775 inhabitants), 
 consists of two parts, the old town 
 situated on hills and having quite an 
 ancient appearance, and the new town 
 almost detached and on the plain. 
 
 BER'GAMOT, a fruit-tree, a variety 
 or species of the genus Citrus, variously 
 classed with the orange. Citrus Auran- 
 tium, the lime. Citrus Limetta, or made 
 a distinct species as Citrus Bergamia. 
 
 the northwest. 
 
 It is probably of eastern origin, though 
 now grown in southern Europe, and bears 
 a pale-yeUow pear-shaped fruit with a 
 fragrant and slightly acid pulp. Its 
 essential oil is in high esteem as a per- 
 fume. — Bergamot is also a name given 
 to a number of different pears. 
 
 BERGEN (ber'gen), a seaport on the 
 w. coast of Norway, the second town 
 of the kingdom, about 25 miles from the 
 open sea, on a bay of the Byfiord, which 
 forms a safe harbor, shut in by hills 
 which encircle the town on the land side, 
 and promote perpetual rains. The trade 
 is large, timber, tar, train-oil, cod-liver 
 oil, hides, and particularly dried fish 
 (stock-fish) being exported in return for 
 corn, wine, brandy, coffee, cotton, 
 woolens, and sugar. Pop. 72,179. 
 
 BERGH, Henry, an American phi- 
 lanthropist, founder of the Society for 
 the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, 
 and of the Society for the Prevention of 
 Cruelty to Animals. He was born in 
 New York in 1820, and died there in 
 1888. 
 
 BER'IBERI, a disease endemic in 
 parts of India, Ceylon, etc., character- 
 ized by paralysis, numbness, difficult 
 
BERING 
 
 BERLIN 
 
 breathing, arid often other symptoms, 
 attacking strangers as well as natives, 
 and generally fatal. 
 
 BERING, or BEHRING (ba'ring), 
 Vitus, a famous navigator, born in 1680 
 at Horsens, Jutland. The courage dis- 
 played by him as captain in the navy of 
 Peter the Great during the Swedish wars 
 led to his being chosen to command a 
 voyage of discovery in the Sea of 
 Kamtchatka. In 1728 and subse- 
 quently he examined the coasts of 
 Kamtchatka, Okhotsk, and the north 
 of Siberia, ascertaining the relation be- 
 tween the northeastern Asiatic and 
 northwestern American coasts. Re- 
 turning from America in 1741, he was 
 wrecked upon the desert island of 
 Awatska (Bering’s Island), and died 
 
 BERING’S STRAIT, SEA, and IS- 
 LAND. The strait is the channel 
 separating the continents of Asia and 
 America, and connecting the North 
 Pacific with the Arctic Ocean; breadth 
 at the narrowest part, between Cape 
 Prinee of Wales and East Cape, about 
 36 miles; depth in the middle, from 29 
 to 30 fathoms. It is frozen in winter, 
 and seldom free from fog or haze. 
 Though named after Vitus Bering, it 
 was only fully explored by Cook in 
 1778. — Bering’s Sea, sometimes called 
 the Sea of Kamtchatka, is that portion 
 of the North Pacific Ocean lying be- 
 tween the Aleutian Islands and Be- 
 ring’s Strait. — Bering’s Island, the most 
 westerly of the Aleutian chain, off the 
 east coast of Kamtchatka. It is unin- 
 habited, and is without wood. 
 
 Bering Sea and its fisheries have been 
 the occasion of a long dispute between 
 the United States and Great Britain be- 
 cause of the seal poaching of unlicensed 
 Canadian fishers. Seals are abundant 
 in these waters, and the fisheries have 
 been leased by the United States to 
 the North American Commercial Com- 
 pany, a limit of 100,000 being placed on 
 the annual catch, and $10 a hide royalty 
 being paid to the government. Cana- 
 dian fishing schooners have frequently 
 been seized by American war vessels. 
 Protests from Britain followed and a 
 court of arbitration met in 1893 at 
 Paris to settle the dispute. Restric- 
 tions were agreed to, but the agreement 
 was without effect. In 1897 the Ber- 
 ing Sea seal treaty was signed, which 
 will do much to prevent the slaughter 
 of the seals. 
 
 BERKELEY (berk'li) a city in 
 Alameda Co., Cal., 5 miles north of 
 Oakland, the county seat; on the Cali- 
 fornia and Nevada and the Southern 
 Pacific railroads. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 BERKELEY (berk'li). Dr. George, 
 Bishop of Cloyne in Ireland, celebrated 
 for his ideal theory. He maintains that 
 the belief in the existence of an exterior 
 material world is false and inconsistent 
 with itself ; that those things which are 
 called sensible material objects are not 
 external but exist in the mind, and are 
 merely impressions made on our minds 
 by the immediate act of God, accotding 
 to certain rules termed laws of nature, 
 from which he never deviates; and that 
 the steady adherence of the Supreme 
 Spirit to these rules is what constitutes 
 the reality of things to his creatures, 
 
 and so effectually distinguishes the 
 ideas perceived by sense from such as 
 are the work of the mind itself or of 
 dreams, that there is no more danger 
 of confounding them together on this 
 hypothesis than on that of the existence 
 of matter. He was born in 1685, died 
 1753. 
 
 BERK'HAMPSTEAD, Great, a town 
 in England, Hertfordshire, with manu- 
 factures of straw-plait and wooden 
 ware. Birthplace of Cowper. Pop. 5219. 
 
 BERKSHIRE, or BERKS, a county 
 of England, between Oxfordshire, Buck- 
 inghamshire, Surrey, Hampshire, and 
 Wilts; area, 450,132 acres, of which 
 eight-ninths are cultivated or under 
 timber. A range of chalk hills, entering 
 from Oxfordshire, crosses Berkshire in a 
 westerly direction. The western and 
 central parts are the most productive 
 in the county, which contains rich 
 pasturage and excellent dairy farms, 
 and is especially suited for barley and 
 wheat crops. The Thames skirts the 
 county on the north, and connects the 
 towns of Abingdon, Wallingford, Read- 
 ing, Henley, Maidenhead, and Windsor 
 with the metropolis. Pop. 254,931. 
 
 BERLIN', the largest town in Ger- 
 many; capital of the Prussian domin- 
 ions and of the German Empire, in the 
 province of Brandenburg. It has water 
 communication to the North Sea by the 
 
 Spree, which flows into the Havel, a 
 tributary of the Elbe, and to the Baltic 
 by canals connecting with the Oder. Of 
 the numerous bridges, the finest is the 
 Castle (Schloss) Bridge, 104 feet wide, 
 and having eight piers surmounted by co- 
 lossal groups of sculpture in marble. The 
 principal and most frequented street, 
 Unter den Linden (“under the lime- 
 trees”), is about two-thirds of a mile in 
 length and 160 feet wide, the center 
 being occupied by a double avenue of 
 lime-trees. At the e. end of this street, 
 and round the Lustgarten, a square with 
 which it is connected by the Schloss 
 Bridge, are clustered the principal pub- 
 lic buildings of the city, such as the 
 royal palace, the palace of the crown- 
 prince, the arsenal, the university, the , 
 
 museums, royal academy, etc.) while at 
 the w. end is the Brandenburg Gate, re- 
 garded as one of the finest portals in 
 existence. One of the most remarkable 
 of modern monuments is that erected 
 in 1851 to Frederick the Great in the 
 Unter den Linden. The literary institu- 
 tions of the city are numerous and ex- 
 cellent; they include the university, 
 having an educational staff of nearly 
 360 professors and teachers, and at- 
 tended by over 5000 students, exclusive 
 of 5000 others who do not matriculate; 
 the academy of sciences; the academy 
 of fine arts; and the technical high 
 school or academy of architecture and 
 industry. The oldest parts of the city 
 were originally poor villages, and first 
 rose to some importance under Mark- 
 graf Albert (1206-20), yet about two 
 centuries ago Berlin was still a place of 
 little consequence, the first important 
 improvement being made by the great 
 Elector Frederick William, who planted 
 the Unter den Linden, and in whose 
 time it already numbered 20,000 in- 
 habitants. Under his successors Fred- 
 erick I. and Frederick the Great the 
 city was rapidly enlarged and im- 
 proved, the population increasing five- 
 fold in the hundred years preeeding 
 the death of Frederick the Great and 
 tenfold in the century succeeding it. 
 Pop. 1,884,151. 
 
 Treaty of Berlin, the treaty, signed 
 13th July, 1878, at the close of the 
 Berlin Congress, which was consti- 
 tuted by the representatives of the six 
 great powers and Turkey. The treaty 
 of San Stefano previously concluded be- 
 tween Turkey and Russia was modified 
 by the Berlin treaty, which resulted in 
 the division of Bulgaria into two parts, 
 Bulgaria proper and Eastern Roumelia, 
 the cession of parts of Armenia to Russia 
 and Persia, the independence of Ru- 
 mania, Servia, and Montenegro, the 
 transference of Bosnia and Herzegovina 
 to Austrian administration, and the 
 retrocession of Bessarabia to Russia. 
 Greece was also to have an accession of 
 territory. The British representatives 
 were Beaconsfield, Salisbury, and Lord 
 
 Berlin— Royal theater and new church In the Gensdarmenmarkt. 
 
BERMUDA GRASS 
 
 BERNINI 
 
 Odo Russell. By a separate arrange- 
 ment previously made between Britain 
 I and Turkey the former got Cyprus to 
 administer. 
 
 BERMU'DA GRASS, a grass cul- 
 tivated in the West Indies, United 
 States, etc., a valuable fodder grass in 
 warm climates. 
 
 BERMU'DAS, or SOMERS ISLANDS, 
 
 a cluster of small islands in the Atlantic 
 Ocean belonging to Britain, and num- 
 bering about 400, set within a space of 
 about 20 miles long and 6 wide; area, 
 20 sq. miles or 12,000 acres; 18 or 20 
 only inhabited. They were first dis- 
 covered by Juan Bermudez, a Spaniard, 
 in 1522; in 1609 Sir George Somers, an 
 Englishman, was wrecked here, and, 
 after his shipwreck, formed the first 
 settlement. The most considerable are 
 St. George, Bermuda or Long Island 
 (with the chief town Hamilton, the seat 
 of the governor), Somerset, St. David’s, 
 and Ireland. They form an important 
 British naval and military station. An 
 immense iron floating-dock, capable of 
 receiving a vessel of 3000 tons, was 
 towed from London to the Bermudas 
 in 1868. The climate is generally 
 healthful and delightful, but they have 
 been sometimes visited by yellow fever. 
 Numbers of persons from the U. States 
 and Canada now pass the colder months 
 of the year in these islands. About 
 4000 acres are cultivated. The military 
 stationed here usually number about 
 1500. Pop. 17,535. 
 
 BERN, a town in Switzerland, capital 
 of the canton Bern, and, since 1848, 
 of the whole Swiss Confederation. 
 Among the public buildings are the 
 great Gothic cathedral, built between 
 1421 and 1502; the Church of the Holy 
 Spirit; the federal-council buildings 
 (or parliament house), commanding a 
 splendid view of the Alps; the univer- 
 sity; the town-house, a Gothic edifice 
 of the 15th century; the mint; several 
 fine bridges; etc. It has an excellent 
 public and other libraries, museum, 
 etc. Bern became a free city of the 
 empire in 1218. In 1353 it entered the 
 Swiss Confederacy. Pop. 63,994. — The 
 canton of Bern has an area of 2660 sq. 
 miles. The northern part belongs to the 
 Jura mountain system, the southern to 
 the Alps; between these being an 
 elevated undulating region where is 
 situated the Emmenthal, one of the 
 richest and most fertile valleys in Swit- 
 zerland. The southern part of the can- 
 ton forms the Bernese Oberland (Upper- 
 land). The lower valleys here are fertile 
 and agreeable; higher up are excellent 
 Alpine pastures ; and above them rise the 
 highest mountains of Switzerland (Fin- 
 steraarhorn, Schreckhorn, Wetterhorn, 
 Eiger, and Jungfrau). The canton is 
 drained by the Aar and its tributaries; 
 the chief lakes are those of Brienz, 
 Thun, and Bienne. Of the surface over 
 58 per cent is under cultivation or 
 pasture. Agriculture and cattle-raising 
 arc the chief occui)ations; manufactures 
 embrace linen, cotton, silk, iron, watches, 
 glass, pottery, etc. Bienne and Thun 
 are the chief towns after Bern. Pop. 
 (1900), 586,918, 87 per cent being 
 Protestants, and nearly as many Ger- 
 man-speaking. 
 
 BERNADOTTE (ber-na-dot), Jean- 
 Bap tiste-Jules, a French general, after- 
 ward raised to the Swedish throne, was 
 the son of an advocate of Pau; born in 
 1764. In 1798 he married Mademoiselle 
 Clary, sister-in-law of Joseph Bona- 
 parte. The following year he became 
 for a short time minister of war, and 
 on the establishment of the empire was 
 raised to the dignity of marshal of 
 I’ ranee, and the title of Prince of Ponte- 
 Corvo. On the death of the Prince of 
 Holstein-Augustenburg the heir appar- 
 ency to the Swedish crown was offered 
 to the Prince of Ponte-Corvo, who 
 accepted with the consent of the em- 
 peror, went to Sweden, abjured Catholi- 
 cism, and took the title of Prince Charles 
 John. In the maintenance of the 
 interests of Sweden a serious rupture 
 occurred between him and Bonaparte, 
 followed by his accession in 1812 to 
 the coalition of sovereigns against 
 Napoleon. At the battle of Leipzig he 
 contributed effectually to the victory 
 of the allies. At the close of the w’ar 
 strenuous attempts were made by the 
 Emperor of Austria and other sover- 
 eigns to restore the family of Gustavus 
 IV. to the crown; but Bernadotte, 
 retaining his position as crown-prince, 
 became King of Sweden on the death 
 of Charles XIII. in 1818, under the title 
 of Charles XIV. During his reign 
 agriculture and commerce made great 
 advances, and many important public 
 works were completed. He died 8th 
 March, 1844, and was succeeded by his 
 son Oscar. 
 
 BER'NARD, Great St., a celebrated 
 Alpine pass in Switzerland, canton 
 Valais, on the mountain-road leading 
 from Martigny in Switzerland to Aosta 
 in Piedmont, and rising to a height of 
 8150 feet. On the e. side of the pass is 
 Mount Velan, and on the w. the Pointe 
 de Dronaz. Almost on the very crest of 
 the pass, near a small lake on which ice 
 sometimes remains throughout the year, 
 is the famous Hospice, next to Etna 
 Observatory the highest inhabited spot 
 in Europe. It is a massive stone build- 
 ing, capable of accommodating seventy 
 or eighty travelers with beds, and of 
 sheltering 300, and is tenanted by ten 
 or fifteen brethren of the order of St. 
 Augustine, who have devoted them- 
 selves by vow to the aid of travelers 
 crossing the mountains. The institution 
 is chiefly supported by subscriptions 
 and donations. The severest cold 
 recorded is 29° below zero Fah., but it 
 has often been 18° and 20° below zero; 
 and few of the monks survive the period 
 of their vow. The dogs kept at St. 
 Bernard, to assist the brethren in their 
 humane labors, are well known. The 
 true St. Bernard dog was a variety by 
 itself, but this is now extinct, though 
 there are still descendants of the last 
 St. Bernard crossed with a Swiss 
 shepherd’s dog. The color of these is 
 yellowish, or white with yellow-gray 
 or brown spots; head large and broad, 
 muzzle short, lips somewhat pendulous, 
 hanging ears. A pagan temple formerly 
 stood on the pass, and classic remains 
 are found in the vicinity. The hospice 
 was founded in 962 by St. Bernard of 
 Menthon, an Italian ecclesiastic, for the 
 benefit of pilgrims to Rome. In May, 
 
 1800, Napoleon led an army of 30,000 
 men, with its artillery and cavalry, into 
 Italy by this pass. 
 
 BERNARD, Little St., a mountain, 
 Italy, belonging to the Graian Alps, 
 about 10 miles s. of Mont Blanc. The 
 pass across it, one of the easiest in the 
 Alps is supposed to be that which Han- 
 nibal used. Elevation of Hospice, 7192 
 feet. 
 
 BER'NARD, Saint, of Clairvaux, one 
 of the most influential ecclesiastics of 
 the middle ages, born at Fontaines, 
 Burgundy, 1091, of a noble family. His 
 austerities, tact, courage, and eloquence 
 speedily gave him a wide reputation; 
 and when, on the death of Honorius III. 
 (1130), two popes. Innocent and Ana- 
 clete, were elected, the judgment of 
 Bernard in favor of the former was ac- 
 cepted by nearly all Europe. In 1140 
 he secured the condemnation of Abelard 
 for heresy; and after the election of 
 his pupil, Eugenius III., to the papal 
 chair, he may be said to have exer- 
 cised supreme power in the church. 
 He died Aug. 20, 1153. Seventy-two 
 monasteries owed their foundation or 
 enlargement to him; and he left no 
 fewer than 440 epistles, 340 sermons, 
 and 12 theological and moral treatises. 
 He was canonized in 1174. 
 
 BER'NARDINE MONKS, a name given 
 in France to the Cistercians, after St. 
 Bernard. See Cistercians. 
 
 BERNESE ALPS, the portion of the 
 Alps which forms tJie northern side of 
 the Rhone Valley, and extends from the 
 Lake of Geneva to that of Brienz, com- 
 prising the Finsteraarhorn, Schreck- 
 horn, Jungfrau, Monk, etc. 
 
 BERNHARDT (ber-nar), Rosine Sara, 
 a French actress, born at Paris 1844. 
 Of Jewish descent, her father French, 
 her mother Dutch, her early life was 
 spent largely in Amsterdam. In 1858 
 she entered the Paris Conservatoire and 
 gained prizes for tragedy and comedy 
 in 1861 and 1862; but her d4but at the 
 Th^fltre Frangais in Iphig^nie and 
 Scribe’s Valerie was not a success. After 
 a brief retirem^t she reappeared at the 
 Gymnase and the Porte Saint-Martin 
 in burlesque, and in 1867 at the Od^on 
 in higher drama. Her success in Hugo’s 
 Ruy Bias led to her being recalled to 
 the Th^&tre Frangais, since which she 
 has abundantly proved her dramatic 
 genius. In 1879 she visited London, 
 and again in 1880, about which time she 
 severed connection with the Comedie 
 Frangaise under heavy penalty. In 
 1882 she married M. Damala, a Greek. 
 Her tours both in Europe and America 
 have as yet never failed to be successful, 
 despite a somewhat painful eccentricity. 
 She has several times visited the United. 
 States. 
 
 BERNICIA, an ancient Anglian king- 
 dom stretching from the Firth of ForU). 
 to the Tees, and extending inland to the^ 
 borders of Strathclyde. Is was unitedi 
 with Deira, and became part of the 
 kingdom of Northumbria. 
 
 BERNICLE GOOSE. See Barnacle 
 Goos6. 
 
 BERNINI (ber-ne'ne), Giovanni Lo- 
 renzo, Italian painter, sculptor, and 
 architect, born 1598. His marble group, 
 Apollo and Daphne, secured him fame 
 at the age of eighteen, and he was em- 
 
BERRY 
 
 BETTING 
 
 ployed by Urban VIII. to prepare plans 
 for the embellishment of the Basilica 
 of St. Peter’s. He declined Mazarin’s 
 invitation to France in 1644. After his 
 return to Rome he was charged with the 
 decoration of the bridge of St. Angelo, 
 the tomb of Alexander VII., etc. He 
 died in 1680. 
 
 BERRY, a succulent fruit, in which 
 the seeds are immersed in a pulpy mass 
 inclosed by a thin skin. The name is 
 usually given to fruits in which the calyx 
 is adherent to the ovary and the pla- 
 centas are parietal, the seeds finally 
 separating from the placenta and lying 
 loose in the pulp. The term, however, 
 is frequently used to include fruits in 
 which the ovary is free and the placentas 
 central, as the grape. Popularly it is 
 applied to fruits like the strawberry, 
 bearing external seeds on a pulpy recep- 
 tacle, but not strictly berries. 
 
 BERSERK'ER, a Scandinavian name 
 for warriors who fought in a sort of 
 frenzy or reckless fury, dashing them- 
 selves on the enemy in the most regard- 
 less manner. The name is probably 
 derived from the bear-sark or bearskin 
 shirt worn by early warriors. 
 
 BERTHIER (bert-ya), Alexander, 
 prince of Neufch3,tel and Wagram, 
 marshal, vice-constable of France, etc.; 
 born 1753. In all Napoleon’s expedi- 
 tions he was one of his closest com- 
 panions, on several occasions rendering 
 valuable services, as at Wagram in 
 1809, when he gained the title of Prince 
 of Wagram. He left a son, Alexander 
 (b. 1810, d. 1887), one of the most 
 zealous adherents of Napoleon III. 
 
 BERTHOLLET (ber-to-la), Claude 
 Louis, Count, an eminent French chem- 
 ist, born 1748; studied medicine; be- 
 came connected with Lavoisier; w'as 
 admitted in 1780 member of the Acad- 
 emy of Sciences at Paris. His chief 
 chemical discoveries were connected 
 with the analysis of ammonia, the use 
 of chlorine in bleaching, the artificial 
 production of niter, etc. He died in 
 Paris 1822. 
 
 BERTILLON SYSTEM, a method of 
 identifying individuals, originated by 
 Dr. Alphonse Bertillon of Paris in 1885, 
 and widely used by the police of Europe 
 and America. The criminal, when 
 captured, is carefully measured as 
 follows; height, outstretched arms, 
 finger tips to finger tips, trunk (height 
 sitting), length and width of head, and 
 of right ear; length of left foot, left mid- 
 dle finger, left little finger, left forearm. 
 Each description is placed on a card, 
 the cards classified according to size of 
 head, etc., and suspects are readily 
 tested. The system is founded on abso- 
 lutely sure scientific data, but general 
 description and marks of identification, 
 such as scars, etc., are also used with 
 Bertillon’s plan. 
 
 BERWICK (ber'ik), or, more fully, 
 BER WICK-ON-TWEED, a seaport town 
 of England. In the beginning of the 
 12th century, during the reign of Alex- 
 ander I., Berwick was part of Scotland, 
 and the capital of the district called 
 Lothian. In 1216 the town and castle 
 were stormed and taken by King John; 
 Bruce retook them in 1318; but, after 
 undergoing various sieges and vicissi- 
 tudes, both were surrendered to Ed- 
 
 ward IV. in 1482, and have ever since 
 remained in possession of England. 
 Pop. 13,378. — The county of Berwick, 
 the most eastern border-county of Scot- 
 land, is bounded by the German Ocean, 
 East Lothian, Roxburgh, Peebles, the 
 river Tweed, and the English borders. 
 Total area, 297,161 acres, of which two- 
 thirds are productive. The principal 
 rivers are the Tweed, the Leader, the 
 Eye, the Whiteadder, and Blackadder. 
 Pop. 30,816. 
 
 BER'YL, a colorless, yellowish, bluish, 
 or less brilliant green variety of emerald, 
 the prevailing hue being green of various 
 shades, but always pale, the want of 
 color being due to absence of chromium, 
 which gives to the emerald its deep rich 
 green. Its crystals, which are six-sided, 
 are usually longer and larger than those 
 of the precious emerald, and its struc- 
 ture more distinctly foliated. The best 
 beryls are found in Brazil, in Siberia, 
 and Ceylon, and in Dauria, on the fron- 
 tiers of China. Beryls are also found 
 in many parts of the U. States. Some 
 of the finer and transparent varieties of 
 it are often called aquamarine. 
 
 BERYLL'IUM, a metal occurring in 
 beryl and other minerals, of a color 
 similar to zinc. 
 
 BESANT', Sir Walter, English novel- 
 ist, born 1836, educated in London and 
 at Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he 
 graduated with mathematical honors. 
 He is best known by his novels, a num- 
 ber of wliich were written in partner- 
 ship with Mr. James RiceJ including 
 Ready-Money Mortiboy; The Golden 
 Butterfly; The Monks of Thelema; etc. 
 After Mr. Rice’s death (1882) he wrote 
 All Sorts and Conditions of Men; The 
 World IVent Very Well Then; etc. He 
 died in 1901. 
 
 BESSARA'BIA, a Russian province 
 stretching in a northw'esterly direction 
 from the Black Sea, between the Pruth 
 and Danube and the Dniester. In the 
 north the country is hilly, but in the 
 south flat and low. It is fertile in grain, 
 but is largely used for pastui-age. 
 Capital, Kishenef. Pop., chiefly Wala- 
 chians, Gypsies, and Tatars, 1,933,436. 
 
 BES'SEL, Friedrich Wilhelm, a Ger- 
 man astronomer, born in 1784; ap- 
 pointed in 1810 director of the observa- 
 tofy at Konigsberg. In 1840 he called 
 attention to the probable existence of a 
 planetary mass beyond Uranus, result- 
 ing in the discovery of Neptune. He 
 died in 1846. 
 
 BES'SEMER, Sir Henry, English 
 engineer and inventor, was born in 
 Hertfordshire in 1813. He is celebrated 
 for his new and cheap process of rapidly 
 making steel from pig-iron by blowing 
 a blast of air through it when in a state 
 of fusion, so as to clear it of all carbon, 
 and then adding just the requisite 
 quantity of carbon to produce steel — a 
 process which has introduced a revolu- 
 tion in the steel-making trade, cheap 
 steel being now made in vast quantities 
 and used for many purposes in which its 
 price formerly prohibited its application. 
 He was knighted in 1879. He died in 
 1898. 
 
 BET'EL, a species of pepper, a creep- 
 ing or climbing plant, native of the East 
 Indies. The leaves are employed to 
 inclose a piece of the areca or betel-nut 
 
 and a little lime into a pellet, which is 
 extensively chewed in the East. The 
 pellet is hot and acrid, but has aromatic 
 and astringent properites. It tinges the 
 saliva, gums, and lips a brick-red, and 
 blackens the teeth. 
 
 BETEL-NUT, the kernel of the fruit of 
 a beautiful palm found in India and 
 the East, and named from being chewed 
 
 Leaf, flowers, and nut of betel palm. 
 
 along with betel-leaf. When ripe it is 
 of the size of a cherry, conical in shape, 
 brown externally, and mottled internally 
 like a nutmeg. Ceylon alone exports 
 70,000 cwt. annually. 
 
 BETH'ANY, now called ErAzariyeh or 
 Lazarieh, a village of Palestine at the 
 base of Mount Olivet, about 2 miles e. of 
 Jerusalem, formerly the home of Martha, 
 Mary, and Lazarus, and the place near 
 which the ascension of our Lord took 
 place. 
 
 BETH'LEHEM, the birthplace of 
 Christ; a village, formerly a town, in 
 Palestine, a few miles south from Jeru- 
 salem. Pop. about 3000, chiefly Chris- 
 tians, who make rosaries, crucifixes, 
 etc., for pilgrims. There are three con- 
 vents for Catholics, Greeks, and Arme- 
 nians. A richly adorned grotto lighted 
 with silver and crystal lamps, under the 
 choir of the fine church built by Jus- 
 tinian, is shown as the actual spot where 
 Jesus was born. 
 
 BETHLEHEM, a towm of the LTnited 
 States, founded by Moravians in 1741 in 
 Pennsylvania, on the Lehigh, across 
 which is a bridge connecting it with S. 
 Bethlehem, the seat of Lehigh Univer- 
 sity. Pop. of both together, 17,064. 
 
 BETROTH'MENT, a mutual promise 
 or contract between two parties, by 
 which they bind themselves to marry. 
 It was anciently attended with the inter- 
 change of rings, joining hands, and kiss- 
 ing in presence of witnesses; and formal 
 betrothment is still the custom on the 
 continent of Europe, being either solemn 
 (made in the face of the church) or pri- 
 vate (made before witnesses out of the 
 church). As betrothinents are contracts, 
 they are valid only between persons 
 whose capacity is recognized by law, 
 and the breach of them may be the sub- 
 ject of litigation. 
 
 BETTING, the staking or pledging of 
 money or property upon a contingency 
 or issue. The processes of betting may 
 be best illustrated in connection with 
 horse-racing, which furnishes the mem- 
 bers of the betting fraternity with their 
 best [markets. Betters are &vided into 
 two classes — the backers of horses, and 
 the book-makers or professional betters, 
 who form the betting ring, and make a 
 living by betting against horses ac- 
 
BEVERIDGE 
 
 BIBLE 
 
 BEYROUT (bi-rot'), or BEIRUT, the 
 chief seaport of Syria, 60 miles n.w. of 
 Damascus (89 by railway) ; pop. 120,000, 
 largely Christians. Ancient Beyrout 
 was an important Phoenician city. The 
 Byzantine emperor Theodosius II. raised 
 it to the rank of a metropolis, and it 
 again rose to importance during the 
 Crusades. In later times it was long in 
 the possession of the Druses. It was 
 bombarded and taken by the British in 
 1840. 
 
 BEZIERS (ba-zyar), a town in south- 
 ern France, dep. H4rault, beautifully 
 situated on a height and surrounded by 
 old walls, its chief edifice being the 
 cathedral, a Gothic structure crowning 
 
 The cathedral of Bdzlers. 
 
 the height on which the town stands. 
 Manufactures, woolens, hosiery, liquors, 
 chemicals, etc., with a good trade in 
 spirits, wool, grain, oil, verdigris, and 
 fruits. Pop. 49,186. 
 
 BEZIQUE (be-zek'),a simple game of 
 cards most commonly played hy two 
 persons with two packs. It was a 
 
 Bhagalpur has an area of 20,511 sq. 
 miles, and a pop. (chiefly Hindus and 
 Mohammedans) of 8,582,490. — The dis- 
 trict has an area of 4226 sq. miles; pop. 
 2,088,565. 
 
 BHOOJ. See Bhuj. 
 
 BHOPAL (bho-pal'), a native state of 
 central India under British protection, 
 on the Nerbudda, in Malwah. Area, 
 6874 sq. miles. Pop. 1,094,800.— -The 
 capital of above state, also called Bho- 
 pal, is on the boundary between Malwah 
 and Gundwana. Pop. 77,023. 
 
 BHURTPORE', a native state, India, 
 in Rajputana, bounded e. by Agra, s. 
 and w. by the Rajput States. Area, 
 1974 sq. miles. Pop. 640,620. — The 
 capital, which has the same n^me, is a 
 fortified place, and was formerly of 
 great strength. The rajah’s palace is a 
 large building of red and yellow free- 
 stone presenting a picturesque appear- 
 ance. Pop. 43,601. 
 
 BIBLE, the collection of the Sacred 
 Writings or Holy Scriptures of the Chris- 
 tians. Its two main divisions, one re- 
 ceived by both Jews and Christians, the 
 other by Christians only, are improperly 
 termed Testaments, owing to the con- 
 fusion of two meanings of the Greek 
 word diatheke, which was applied in- 
 differently to a covenant and to a last 
 will or testament. The Jewish religion 
 being represented as a compact between 
 God and the Jews, the Christian religion 
 was regarded as a new compact between 
 God and the human race ; and the Bible 
 is, therefore, properly divisible into the 
 Writings of the Old and New Cove- 
 nants. The books of the Old Testament 
 received b 3 ' the Jews were divided by 
 them into three classes: 1. The Law, 
 contained in the Pentateuch or five 
 books of Moses. 2. The Prophets, com- 
 prising Joshua, Judges, I. and II. 
 Samuel, I. and II. Kings, Isaiah, Jere- 
 miah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor 
 prophets. 3. The Ketubim, or Hagiog- 
 rapha (holy writings), containing the 
 Psalms, the Proverbs, Job, in one di- 
 vision; Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesi- 
 astes, Esther, the Song of Solomon, in 
 another division; Daniel, Ezra, Nehe- 
 miah, I. and II. Chronicles, in a third. 
 
 The rajah's palace Bhiirtpore. 
 
 cording to a methodical plan. By the 
 method adopted by the professional 
 better the element of chance is as far 
 as possible removed from his trans- 
 actions, so that he can calculate, with 
 a reasonable prospect of having his 
 calculations verified, on making more 
 or less profit as the result of a season’s 
 engagements. Instead of backing any 
 particular horse, the professional better 
 lays the same sum against every horse 
 that takes the field, or a certain number 
 of them, and in doing so he has usually 
 to give odds, which are greater or less 
 according to the estimate formed of the 
 chance of success which each of the 
 horses has on which the odds are given. 
 In this way, while in the event of the 
 race being won (as is usually the case) 
 by any of the horses entered in the 
 betting-book of a professional better, 
 the latter has always a certain fixed sum 
 (say $5000) to pay, he receives from the 
 backers of the losers sums which vary 
 in proportion to the odds given. Thus, 
 if a book-maker is making a $5000 book, 
 and the odds against some horse is 4 to 1, 
 he will, if that horse wins, have to pay 
 $5000, while, if it loses, he will receive 
 $1250. It usually depends upon which 
 horse it is that wins a race whether the 
 book-maker gains or loses. If the first 
 favorite wins it is evidently the worst 
 thing that could happen for the book- 
 maker, for, as he is bound to receive 
 the sum of the amounts to which all 
 the horses except one have been 
 backed, the largest deduction must be 
 made from his total receipts on ac- 
 count of the first favorite. Very fre- 
 quently the receipts of the book-maker 
 are augmented by sums paid on ac- 
 count of horses which have been backed 
 and never run at all. Sometimes, al- 
 though not often, the odds are given 
 upon and not against a particular horse. 
 Books may also be made up on the prin- 
 ciple of betting against any particular 
 horse getting a place among the first 
 three. The odds in this case are usually 
 one-fourth of the odds given against 
 the same horse winning. Another mode 
 of betting is that called a sweepstake, 
 in which a number of persons join in 
 contributing a certain stake, after 
 which each of those taking part in the 
 sweepstake has a horse assigned to him 
 (usually by lot), which he backs, and 
 the backer of the winning horse gains 
 the whole stakes. If there are more 
 persons taking part in the sweepstake 
 than there are horses running some of 
 them must draw blanks, in which 
 case of course their stakes are at once 
 lost. 
 
 BEVERIDGE, Albert J., an American 
 lawj’^er and politician, born in Ohio in 
 1862. In 1899 he was elected Linited 
 States senator from Indiana. 
 
 BEVERIDGE, Kiiline, an American 
 sculptor, born in 1877 at Springfield, 
 III. She has won considerable fame in 
 England and France by her clever 
 work. 
 
 BEVERLY, a city in Essex Co., Mass., 
 18 miles northeast of Boston; on the 
 Boston and Maine Railroad. It is situ- 
 ated on a narrow coast inlet, which is 
 spanned by a bridge connecting with 
 the city of Salem. Pop. 15,884. 
 
 BEY. See Beg. 
 
 favorite game at the French court in 
 the 18th centurJ^ 
 
 BHAGALPUR (bha-gal-por'), a city 
 in Bengal, capital of a district and 
 division of the same name, on the right 
 bank of the Ganges, here seven miles 
 •wide. Pop. 75,760. — The division of 
 
 These books are extant in the Hebrew 
 language; others, rejected from the 
 canon as apocryphal by Protestants, 
 are found only in Greek or Latin. 
 
 The books of Moses were deposited, 
 according to the Bible, in the taber- 
 nacle, near the ark, the other sacred 
 
BIBLE CHRISTIANS 
 
 BIBLICAL CRITICISM 
 
 writings being similarly preserved. They 
 were removed by Solomon to the temple, 
 and on the capture of Jerusalem by 
 Nebuchadnezzar probably perished. 
 According to Jewish tradition Ezra, 
 with the assistance of the great syna- 
 gogue, collected and compared as many 
 copies as could be found, and from this 
 collation an edition of the whole was 
 prepared, with the exception of the 
 writings of Ezra, Malachi, and Nehe- 
 miah, added subsequently, and certain 
 obviously later insertions in other books. 
 When Judas Maccabseus repaired the 
 temple, which had been destroyed by 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, he placed in it 
 a correct copy of the Hebrew Scriptures, 
 whether the recension of Ezra or not is 
 not known. This copy was carried to 
 Rome by Titus. The exact date of the 
 determination of the Hebrew canon is 
 uncertain, but no work known to be 
 written later than about 100 years after 
 the captivity was admitted into it by 
 the Jews of Palestine. The Hellenistic 
 or Alexandrian Jews, however, were less 
 strict, and admitted many later writ- 
 ings, forming what is now known as the 
 Apocrypha, in which they were followed 
 by the Latin Church. The Protestant 
 churches at the Reformation gave in 
 their adherence to the restricted Hebrew 
 canon, though the Apocrypha was long 
 included in the various editions of the 
 Bible. The division into chapters and 
 verses, as it now exists, is of compara- 
 tively modern origin, though divisions 
 of some kind were early introduced. 
 Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro, in the 
 13th centurjq divided the Latin trans- 
 lation known as the Vulgate into chap- 
 ters for convenience of reference, and 
 similar divisions were made in the He- 
 brew text by Rabbi Mordecai Nathan 
 in the 15th century. About the middle 
 of the 16th century the verses in Robert 
 Stephanus’s edition of the Vulgate were 
 for the first time marked by numbers. 
 
 The earliest and most famous version 
 of the Old Testament is the Septuagint, 
 or Greek translation, executed by Alex- 
 andrian Greeks, and completed probably 
 before 130 n.c., different portions being 
 done at different times. This version 
 was adopted by the early Christian 
 church and by the Jews themselves, and 
 has always held an important place in 
 regard to the interpretation and history 
 of the Bible. The Syriac version, the 
 Peshito, made early in the 2d century 
 after Christ, is celebrated for its fidelity. 
 The Coptic version was made from the 
 Septuagint in the 3d or 4?.h century. 
 The Gothic version, by Ulphilas, was 
 made from the Septuagint in the 4th 
 century; but mere insignificant frag- 
 ments of it are extant. The most im- 
 portant Latin version is the Vulgate, 
 executed by Jerome, partly on the basis 
 of the original Hebrew and completed 
 in 405 A.D. 
 
 The books of the New Testament 
 were all written in Greek, unless it be 
 true, as soine critics suppose, that the 
 Gospel of St. Matthew was originally 
 written in Hebrew. Most of these 
 writings have always been received as 
 canonical; but the Epistle to the He- 
 brews, commonly ascribed to St. Paul, 
 that of St. Jude, the second of Peter, 
 the second and third of John, and the 
 
 Apocalyse, have been doubted. The 
 three oldest MSS. are: (1) the Sinaitic 
 MS., discovered by Tischendorf in a 
 convent on Mount Sinai in 1859, as- 
 signed to the middle of the 4th century; 
 (2) the Vatican MS. at Rome of similar 
 date; (3) the Alexandrine MS. in the 
 British Museum, assigned to the middle 
 of the 5th century. Each MS. contains 
 also the Septuagint Greek of the Old 
 Testament in great part. The Vulgate 
 of Jerome embraces a Latin tranHation 
 of the New as well as of the Old Testa- 
 ment, based on an older Latin version. 
 The division of the text of the New 
 Testament into chapters and verses 
 was introduced later than that of the 
 Old Testament; but it is not precisely 
 known when or by whom. The Greek 
 text was first printed in the Complu- 
 tenisian Polyglot, in 1514; in 1516 an 
 edition of it was published at Basel by 
 Erasmus. Among recent valuable edi- 
 tions are those of Lachmann, Tischen- 
 dorf, Tregelles, and Westcott and Hort. 
 
 Of translations of the Bible into 
 modern languages the English and the 
 German are the most celebrated. Con- 
 siderable portions were translated into 
 Anglo-Saxon, including the Gospels and 
 the Psalter. Wycliffe’s translation of 
 the whole Bible (from the Vulgate) 
 begun about 1356, was completed 
 shortly befqre his death, which took 
 place in 1384. The first printed version 
 of the Bible in English was the trans- 
 lation of William Tindall or Tyndale, 
 whose New Testament was printed in 
 quarto at Cologne in 1525, a small 
 octavo edition appearing at the same 
 time at Worms. The Pentateuch was 
 published by Tindall in 1530, and he 
 also translated some of the prophetical 
 books. A translation of the entire 
 Bible was published by Miles Coverdale 
 in 1535. It was undertaken at the 
 instance of Thomas Cromwell, and being 
 made from German and Latin versions 
 was inferior to Tindall’s. After the 
 death of Tindall John Rogers under- 
 took the completion of his translation 
 and the preparation of a new edition. 
 In this edition the latter part of the Old 
 Testament (after II. Chronicles) was 
 based on Coverdale’s version. A revised 
 edition was published in 1539 under 
 the superintendence of Richard Tav- 
 erner. In the same year as Taverner’s 
 another edition appeared, printed by 
 authority, with a preface by Cranmer, 
 and hence called Cranmer’s Bible. This 
 was the first Bible printed by authority 
 in England. This continued, with 
 various revisions, to be the authorized 
 version till 1568. In 1557-60 an 
 edition appeared at Geneva, based on 
 Tindall’s — the work of Wliittington, 
 Coverdale,' Goodman, John Knox, and 
 other exiles — and commonly called 
 the Geneva, or Breeches Bible (from 
 “breeches” standing instead of “aprons” 
 in Gen. iii. 7.) This version, for sixty 
 years the most popular in England, 
 was allowed to be printed in England 
 under a patent of monopoly in 1561. 
 It was the first printed in Roman letters, 
 and was also the first to adopt the plan 
 previously adopted in the Hebrew of a 
 division into verses. It omitted the 
 Apocrypha, left the authorship of the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews open, and put 
 
 words not in the original in italics. The, 
 Bishop’s Bible, published 1568 to 1572, 
 was based on Cranmer’s, and revised by 
 Archbishop Parker and eight bishops. 
 It succeeded Cranmer’s as the authorized 
 version, but did not commend itself to 
 scholars or people. In 1582 an edition 
 of the New Testament, translated from 
 the Latin Vulgate, appeared at Rheims, 
 and in 1609-10 the Old Testament 
 was published at Douay. This is the 
 version recognized by the Roman 
 Catholic Church. 
 
 In the reign of James I. a Hebrew 
 scholar, Hugh Broughton, insisted on 
 the necessity of a new translation, and 
 at the Hampton Court Conference 
 (1604) the suggestion was accepted by 
 the king. The work was undertaken by 
 forty-seven scholars divided into six 
 companies, two meeting at Westmin- 
 ster, two at Oxford, and two at Cam- 
 bridge, while a general committee 
 meeting in London revised the portions 
 of the translation finished by each. 
 The revision was begun in 1607, and 
 occupied three years, the completed 
 work being published in folio in 1611. 
 By the general accuracy of its transla- 
 tion and the purity of its style it super- 
 seded all other versions. In response, 
 however, to a widely-spread desire for 
 a translation even yet more free from 
 errors, the Convocation of Canterbury 
 in 1870 appointed a committee to con- 
 sider the question of revising the English 
 version. Their report being favorable 
 two companies were formed, one for the 
 Old Testament and one for the New, 
 consisting partly of members of Ctti- 
 vocation and partly of outside scholars. 
 Two similar companies were also organ- 
 ized in America to work along with the 
 British scholars. The result was that 
 the revised version of the New Testa- 
 ment was issued in 1881 ; that of the 
 Old Testament in 1885. The revision 
 has been carried out in a spirit of 
 reverence toward the older version, and 
 few alterations have been admitted but 
 such as liave been called for on the score 
 of accuracy, clearness, and uniformity. 
 
 In Germany some seventeen transla- 
 tions of the Bible, partly in the High 
 German partly in the Low German 
 dialect, appeared between the invention 
 of printing and the Reformation, but 
 they had all to make way for Luther’s 
 great translation— the New Testament 
 in 1522, and the whole Bible in 1534. 
 
 BIBLE CHRISTIANS, a small sect 
 founded by a Cornish Methodist preacher 
 called O’Bryan, who profess to follow 
 only the doctrines of the Bible and 
 reject all human authority in religion. 
 Called also Bryanites. 
 
 BIBLE COMMUNISTS. See Perfec- 
 tionists. 
 
 BIBLICAL CRITICISM, a term by 
 which is designated any investigation 
 of the Old or New Testament. “Text 
 criticism” of the Bible seeks to estab- 
 lish the true te.xts of the Bible, that is, 
 to decide what has been added to the 
 original documents. The so-called 
 higher criticism has for its function the 
 establishment of the historical accuracy 
 of the Scriptures and the genuineness 
 of the authorship. The critic relies on 
 what is called internal and external 
 evidence, checking the historical accu- 
 
BIBLE SOCIETIES 
 
 BILE 
 
 racy of the statements in the text, the 
 agreements of the texts among them- 
 selves, and the alleged authorship by 
 the contents of the texts and the known 
 facts of history as found in profane 
 history. Modern criticism began in the 
 latter part of the 18th century and cul- 
 minated with the “Tuebingen school,” 
 some of the members of wdiich denied 
 the divinity of Jesus. 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES, societies formed 
 for the distribution of the Bible or 
 portions of it in various languages, 
 either gratuitously or at a low rate. 
 Since the formation of the British and 
 Foreign Bible Society it has circulated 
 over 340 versions of the whole or parts 
 of the Scriptures in 298 different lan- 
 guages. In more than thirty instances 
 languages have for the first time been 
 reduced to a written form in order to 
 translate into them and circulate among 
 the people the Bibles of this society. 
 The total issues now amount to about 
 100,000,000 copies, while about 70,000,- 
 000 additional copies have been dis- 
 tributed by the kindred societies which 
 have sprung out of it. In the United 
 States the great American Bible Society, 
 formed in 1816, acts in concert with 
 auxiliary societies in all parts of the 
 Union. Its total issue since its organiza- 
 tion has been over 40,000,000. 
 
 BIB'LIA PAU'PERUM, the name for 
 block -books common in the middle ages, 
 and consisting of a number of rude 
 pictures of Biblical subjects with short 
 explanatory text accompanying each 
 picture. 
 
 BIBLIOG'RAPHY, the knowledge of 
 books, in reference to the subjects dis- 
 cussed in them, their different degrees 
 of rarity, curiosity, reputed and real 
 value, the materials of which they are 
 composed, and the rank which they 
 .ought to hold in the classification of a 
 library. The subject is sometimes 
 divided into general, national, and 
 special bibliography, according as it 
 deals with books in general, with those 
 of a particular country, or with those on 
 special subjects or having a special char- 
 acter (as early printed books, anony- 
 mous books). A subdivision of each of 
 these might be made into material and 
 literary, according as books were viewed 
 in regard to their mere externals or in 
 regard to their contents. 
 
 BIBLIOMA'NIA, a passion for pos- 
 sessing curious books, which has reached 
 its highest development in France and 
 England, though originating in Holland 
 toward the close of the 17th century. 
 The true bibliomanist is determined in 
 the purchase of books, less by the value 
 of their contents, than by certain acci- 
 dental circumstances attending them, 
 as that they belong to particular classes, 
 are made of singular materials, or have 
 something remarkable in their his- 
 tory. 
 
 BICARBONATE, a carbonate derived 
 from carbonic acid by replacing one of 
 the atoms of hydrogen b}'’ a metal. 
 Bicarbonate of sodium is used as an 
 antacid, and effervescing liquors are 
 usually produced by mixing it with 
 tartaric acid. It is also the chief in- 
 gredient of baking-powder. 
 
 BI'CEPS, the large muscle in front of 
 the upper arm. See Arm. 
 
 BI'CYCLE, a light vehicle impelled 
 by the rider, consisting of two wheels 
 placed one before the other, and of 
 connecting bars or framework. The 
 vehicle is driven by the pressure of the 
 rider’s feet either directly applied to 
 two cranks attached to the axle of the 
 front wheel, or to cranks in the frame 
 driving the after-wheel by a chain and 
 sprockets. The rider sits upon a saddle 
 generally placed above and between the 
 two wheels, and steers the machine by a 
 handle, which turns the front wheel in 
 in any required direction. It is kept in 
 an upright position by the action of the 
 rider’s body and legs, by the steering 
 power, and also by its own momentum. 
 The speed attained by an expert rider 
 is considerable, 30 miles or more an 
 hour having been covered. 
 
 BIDDEFORD (bid'e-ford), a town in 
 Maine, on the Saco, with which it is 
 connected by several bridges. The river 
 falls, 42 feet high, affording valuable 
 water-power. Pop. 16,145. 
 
 BIDDLE, John, father of the modern 
 Unitarians, born in 1615 at Wotton- 
 under-Edge, in Gloucestershire, died in 
 prison 16^62. He was repeatedy im- 
 prisoned for his anti-Trinitarian views. 
 A general act of oblivion in 1652 re- 
 stored him to liberty, when he immedi- 
 ately disseminated his opinions both by 
 preaching and by the publication of his 
 Twofold Scripture Catechism. He was 
 again imprisoned. Cromwell banished 
 him to St. Mary’s Castle, Scilly, and 
 assigned him a hundred crowns annually. 
 Here he remained three years, until the 
 Protector liberated him in 1658. He 
 then continued to preach his opinions 
 till the death of Cromwell, and also after 
 the Restoration, when he was committed 
 to jail in 1662, and died a few months 
 Q/i td* 
 
 BIEL (bel). See Bienne. 
 
 BIELA’S (be'la) COMET, discovered 
 by M. Biela (1782-1856), an Austrian 
 officer, in 1826. Its periodic time was 
 determined as 6 years 38 weeks. It re- 
 turned in 1832, 1839, 1846, and 1852. 
 On the latter two occasions it was in 
 two parts, each having a distinct 
 nucleus and tail. It has not since been 
 seen as a comet; but in 1872, 1879, and 
 1885, when the earth passed through 
 the comet’s track, immense flights of 
 meteors were seen, which have been 
 connected with the broken-up and dis- 
 persed comet. 
 
 BIEN'NIAL, a plant that requires 
 two seasons to come to maturity, bear- 
 ing fruit and dying the second year, as 
 the turnip, carrot, wallflower, etc. 
 
 BIERSTADT, Albert, an American 
 landscape painter, born at Diisseldorf, 
 Germany, 1830, died in 1902. His 
 principal paintings are of the Rocky 
 Mountain regions. 
 
 BIGAMY, the act or state of having 
 more wives or husbands than one. It 
 is regarded as an offense in most coun- 
 tries, and in the U. States it is a felony, 
 punishable by a term in the peniten- 
 tiary, the length of the term varying in 
 different states. To be guilty of bigamy 
 the offender must have knowledge of 
 the fact that his or her spouse is living, 
 and the second or other marriage must 
 be solemnized by form of law or church, 
 or other formal ceremonial, and not 
 
 merely a personal agreement or con- 
 tract. Bigamy may be committed by 
 persons of either sex. 
 
 BIG HORN, a river of the U. States 
 rising in the Rockies and flowing 
 through Montana into the Yellowstone 
 river. It is 460 miles long. 
 
 BIG HORN, a popular name for the 
 celebrated Rocky Mountain sheep, 
 which, in its several species, is found 
 along the whole course of the Rocky 
 Mountain system to the Arctic regions. 
 The common species is 3 feet 4 inches 
 high, brownish in color, with a dark 
 line along the spine. The horns of the 
 ram are massive, spiral-like, and often 
 measure 45 inches in length. The big 
 horn is a marvelous jumper, scaling 
 great heights almost perpendicular, and 
 one of the hardiest of the wild animals 
 of America. It is called also Rocky 
 Mountain goat. 
 
 BIGELOW, Erastus Brigham, an 
 American inventor, born in Massachu- 
 setts in 1814, died 1879. His principal 
 inventions are weaving apparatus. He 
 founded the Bigelow Carpet Company 
 of Clinton, Mass., and was one of the 
 founders of the Massachusetts Institute 
 of Technology. 
 
 BIGELOW, Poultney, an American 
 writer, traveler, and critic. He was 
 born in 1855, and was educated at Yale 
 and abroad. He has been editor of 
 Outing, and correspondent of numerous 
 publications. He has published several 
 books of travel and criticism on foreign 
 countries. 
 
 BIGNO'NIA, a genus of plants of 
 many species, inhabitants of hot cli- 
 mates, usually climbing shrubs fur- 
 nished with tendrils; flowers mostly in 
 terminal or axillary panicles; corolla 
 trumpet-shaped, hence the name of 
 trumpet-flower commonly given to 
 these plants. All the species are splen- 
 did plants when in blossom, and many 
 of them are cultivated. 
 
 BIKANER', a native state of Rajpu- 
 tana, India. Area, 23,090 sq. miles; 
 pop. 584,712. — Bikaner, the capital, 
 has a fort, containing the rajah’s palace. 
 Pop. 53,075 
 
 BILASPUk (bi-las-p6r'), a district in 
 the chief commissionership of the Cen- 
 tral Provinces of India. Area 8341 sq- 
 miles; pop. 1,164,158. 
 
 BILBA'O, a city in northern Spain, 
 capital of the province of Biscay on the 
 navigable Nervion, 6 miles from the sea. 
 It has a cathedral and fine public build 
 ings; flourishing industries; iron-works, 
 steel-works, foundries, shipyards, etc.; 
 excellent harbor accommodation, and 
 exports much iron ore. Pop. 83,306. 
 
 BILBERRY. See Whortleberry. 
 
 BILE, a yellow bitter liquor, separa- 
 ted from the blood by the primary cells 
 of the liver, and collected by the biliary 
 ducts, which unite to form the hepatic 
 duct, whence it passes into the duode- 
 num, or by the cystic duct into the gall- 
 bladder, to be retained there till required 
 for use. The most obvious use of the 
 bile in the animal economy is to aid in 
 the digestion of fatty substances and to 
 convert the chyme into chyle. It ap- 
 pears also to aid in exciting the peris- 
 taltic action of the intestines. The 
 natural color of the fseces seems to be 
 owing to the presence of bile. The 
 
BILGE 
 
 BINARY 
 
 chemical composition varies with the 
 animal which yields it, but every kind 
 contains two essential constituents, the 
 bile salts and the bile coloring matter 
 associated with small quantities of 
 cholesterine, fats, and certain mineral 
 salts, chiefly chloride of sodium, phos- 
 phates, and iron. Some of the constitu- 
 ents of the bile return into the blood by 
 absorption, the coloring matters and 
 cholesterine being the principal excre- 
 mentitious substances. When bile is 
 not secreted in due quantity from the 
 blood the unhealthy condition of bil- 
 iousness results. 
 
 BILGE, the breadth of a ship’s bot- 
 tom, or that part of her floor which 
 approaches to a horizontal direction, on 
 which she would rest if aground.— 
 Bilge-water, water which enters a ship 
 and lies upon her bilge or bottom ; when 
 not drawn off it becomes dirty and 
 offensive. — Bilge ways, planks of timber 
 placed under a vessel’s bilge on the 
 building - slip to support her while 
 launching. 
 
 BIL'IARY CAL'CULUS, a concretion 
 which forms in the gall-bladder or bile- 
 ducts; gall-stone. It is generally com- 
 posed of a peculiar crystalline fatty 
 matter which has been called cholester- 
 ine. 
 
 BILL, a written or printed paper con- 
 taining a statement of any particulars. 
 In common use a tradesman’s account, 
 or a printed proclamation or advertise- 
 ment, is thus called a bill. In legislation 
 a bill is a draft of a proposed statute 
 submitted to a legislative assembly for 
 approval, but not yet enacted or passed 
 and made law. When the bill has passed 
 and received the necessary assent, it 
 becomes an act. 
 
 BILL OF ATTAINDER, a bill intro- 
 duced in a legislature fixing a penalty 
 or punishment on an individual by 
 enactment of the legislature. Bills of 
 attainder are forbidden by the consti- 
 tution of the United States. This pro- 
 vision was prompted by the abuses 
 wrought in England by this method of 
 punishment. 
 
 BILL OF COSTS, a statement of the 
 costs of a lawsuit, fixed to the judgment, 
 and chargeable to the defeated party to 
 the suit. 
 
 BILL OF CREDIT, a letter of credit. 
 In the United States constitution the 
 term “bills of credit” means no more 
 than paper money. The states are for- 
 bidden to issue bills of credit ; that is, 
 no state can issue paper money, this 
 function being a federal one. 
 
 BILL OF EXCEPTIONS, a statement 
 of the exceptions taken to the ruling of 
 a court in a cause. The bill of excep- 
 tions is used for purposes of appeal. 
 
 BILL OF EXCHANGE, a written order 
 to pay a sum of money to a third party. 
 The order may be to pay at sight or 
 after a certain number of days. If the 
 person on whom the order is made 
 accepts it, by signing it he is liable for 
 its payment. 
 
 BILL IN EQUITY, a petition filed in a 
 court cf chancery stating all the cir- 
 cumstances of the case in dispute and 
 asking the chancery judge, or chancellor, 
 to decide the points at issue. The 
 .custom arose from the old English me- 
 P. B— 10 
 
 thod of appealing directly to the con- 
 science of the king. 
 
 BILL OF HEALTH, a statement of the 
 condition of the health of the crew and 
 passengers of a ship, made by the ship’s 
 surgeon or the captain. A clean bill of 
 health reports no infection on ship board ; 
 a foul bill reports passengers unfit to 
 land; a suspected bill reports infection 
 at the place whence the ship sailed. 
 
 BILL OF INDEMNITY, a bill passed 
 by congress justifying the action of an 
 official who, under stress of circum- 
 stance, has exceeded his authority. — 
 Also a bill to reimburse one who has 
 spent his own money in the service of the 
 state. 
 
 BILL OF LADING, an agreement or 
 contract made by a common carrier 
 with a shipper providing for the trans- 
 portation of the goods or freight men- 
 tioned, the rate of transportation, and 
 the liabilities of both parties. Bills of 
 lading are made out in duplicate, the 
 latter being sent to the consignee. 
 Bills of lading are not negotiable, but are 
 often so used, and some states have 
 even tried to make them negotiable by 
 law. 
 
 BILL OF RIGHTS, the name given to 
 the ten first amendments to the con- 
 stitution of the United States. 
 
 BILL OF SALE, a conveyance of 
 property from one person to another, 
 containing the description of the prop- 
 erty and transferring the title of the 
 property to the buyer. 
 
 BILLIARDS, a game played with 
 three or four ivory balls and a stick, 
 called a “cue,” on a large table the 
 sides of which are banked with rubber, 
 the whole being covered with green 
 baize. Considerable difference exists 
 between the English and the French 
 game, the latter being the game played 
 in the U. States. The English table is 
 6x12 feet, has six pockets and three 
 balls, two white and a red being used. 
 In the U. States pockets are not used. 
 The American table is about 6x12, the 
 cue is ash or maple with a leather tip, 
 the balls ivory, 2f inches in diameter, 
 the color being two white and one red. 
 The object of the player is so to strike 
 his own ball that it will, after leaving 
 his cue, come into contact with the two 
 remaining balls. The rebound from the 
 first ball is called a carom, and when 
 both balls are hit the play counts one 
 point. By playing along the cushions 
 (banked sides of the table) a skilful 
 player can count points indefinitely. 
 To prevent this the game called “the 
 balk-line game” was invented. In this 
 game four lines are drawn parallel 
 with the cushion at an agreed upon 
 distance and the player is allowed to 
 make but one shot, or an agreed-upon 
 number of shots, when one or both balls 
 lie between the line and the cushion. 
 The three-ball game without the balk- 
 line is called the straight-rail game. 
 The following is a list of high runs made 
 since 1880: Straight rail — highest run 
 for match play (3 balls, on regulation 
 5x10 table) 1531 points, Maurice Vig- 
 naux, Paris, 1880. Highest average for 
 match play, 333 J, by Jacob Schaefer, 
 Chicago, 1879. Cushion caroms — high- 
 est run for tournament play, 85 points, 
 Frank G- Ives, Boston, 189§, Highest 1 
 
 average for tournament play, 10 (in 200 
 points), Jacob Schaefer, Chicago, 1887. 
 Highest average (with “anchor nurse” 
 allowed), 100, Jacob Schaefer, New 
 York, 1893, and Frank C. Ives, Chicago, 
 1894. Highest average (with “anchor 
 nurse” barred), 63 2-10, Frank C. Ives, 
 New York, 1894. 18-inch balk-line — 
 highest run for tournament play, 290 
 points (with 5 shots allowed in “anchor” 
 spaces), Frank C. Ives, New York, 
 1896; 140 (with the “anchor nurse” 
 barred), Frank C. Ives, New York, 1897, 
 Highest average for tournament play, 
 50 (with 5 shots allowed in “anchor” 
 spaces), Frank C. Ives, New York, 1896; 
 40 (with “anchor nurse” barred), Jacob 
 Schaefer, Chicago, 1898. In 1906 Jacob 
 Schaefer made a run of 100 in an 18.1 
 match, which is the highest in a cham- 
 pionship match. 
 
 BILLINGS, John Shaw, an American 
 surgeon, born in Indiana in 1837. He 
 v.'as surgeon in the Union army during 
 the civil war, and curator of the military 
 museum at Washington from 1864. In 
 1896 he became librarian of the New 
 York City Public Library. He has 
 published several scientific works End 
 catalogues and is a member of numerous 
 learned societies. 
 
 BILLINGS, JOSH. See Henry W. 
 Shaw. 
 
 BIL'LINGSGATE, the principal fish- 
 market of London, on the left bank of 
 the Thames, a little below London 
 Bridge. From the character, real or 
 supposed, of the Billingsgate fish- 
 dealers, the term Billingsgate is ap- 
 plied generally to coarse and violent 
 language. 
 
 BIL'LION, in Britain and Germany 
 the designation for a million of millions; 
 among the French and in America a 
 thousand millions. A similar difference 
 of usage exists in regard to trillion, 
 quadrillion, etc. 
 
 BI'MANA, animals having two hands : 
 a term applied by Cuvier to the highest 
 order of Mammalia, of which man is the 
 type and sole genus. By some natural- 
 ists man is ‘classified as a sub-division 
 of the order Primates, which includes 
 also the apes, monkeys, and lemurs. 
 
 BIMET'ALLISM, that system of coin- 
 age which recognizes coins of two metals 
 (silver and gold) as legal tender to any 
 amount ; or, in other words, the concur- 
 rent use of coins of two metals as a 
 circulating medium, the ratio of value 
 between the two being arbitrarily fixed 
 by law. It is contended by advocates 
 of the system that by fixing a legal ratio 
 between the value of gold and silver, and 
 using both as legal tender, fluctuations 
 in the value of the metals are avoided, 
 while the prices of commodities are 
 rendered steadier. 
 
 BINARY, twofold; double. — Binary 
 compound, in chemistry, a compound of 
 two elements, or of an element and a 
 compound performing the function of an 
 element, or of two compounds perform- 
 ing the function of elements, according 
 to the laws of combination. The term is 
 now little used. — Binary theory of salts, 
 the theory which regarded all salts as 
 being made up of two oxides, an acid 
 oxide and a basic oxide; thus sodium 
 carbonate as made up of soda and carbon 
 dioxide. — Binary star, a double star 
 
BINGHAMPTON 
 
 BIRD’S-EYE VIEW 
 
 whose members revolve round a com- 
 mon center of gravity. 
 
 BING'HAMPTON, a town in New 
 York, at the junction of the Chenango 
 and Susquehanna rivers, with numerous 
 manufactures and an extensive flour 
 and lumber trade. Pop. 47,000. 
 
 BINOC'ULAR, a field-glass or opera- 
 glass, or a microscope suited for viewing 
 objects with both eyes at once. 
 
 BI'OBIO, a Chilean river, rises in Lake 
 Huchueltui, flows in a n.w. direction 
 for 180 miles, and falls into the Pacific 
 at the city of Concepcjon. It gives 
 name to a province of the country, 
 with 100,000 inhabitants; area, 4158 sq. 
 miles. 
 
 BIOGEN'ESIS, the history of life 
 development generally; specifically, 
 that department of biological science 
 which speculates on the mode by which 
 new species have been introduced ; often 
 restricted to that view which holds that 
 living organisms can spring only from 
 living parents. 
 
 BIOG'RAPHY, that department of 
 literature which treats of the individual 
 lives of men or women; and also a prose 
 narrative detailing the history and un- 
 folding the character of an individual 
 written by another. When written by 
 the individual whose history is told it is 
 called an autobiography. This species 
 of writing is as old as literature itself. 
 In the first century after Christ Plutarch 
 wrote his Parallel Lives; Cornelius 
 Nepos, the Lives of Military Com- 
 manders; and Suetonius, the Lives of 
 the Twelve Csesars. Modern biograph- 
 ical literature may be considered to 
 date from the 17th century, since 
 which time individual biographies have 
 multiplied enormously. Dictionaries of 
 biography have proved extremely use- 
 ful, Moreri’s Dictionnaire Historique 
 et Critique, 1671, being perhaps the 
 first of this class. During the 19th 
 century have been published the Bi- 
 ographie Universelle, 85 vols., 1811- 
 62; Nouvelle Biographie Generale, 46 
 vols., 1852-66; Chalmer’s General Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary, 32 vols., 1812-17; 
 Rose’s Biographical Dictionary, 12 
 vols., 1848-50; the admirable Diction- 
 ary of National Biography, 63 vols., 
 the first published in 1885, the last 
 in 1900, with Supplement of other 3 
 vols. (1901); and Appleton’s Cyclopaedia 
 of American Biography, 6 vols. (1887- 
 1889). 
 
 BIOL'OGY, a comprehensive term 
 for those departments of science which 
 treat of living beings, including under 
 this head both animals and plants. 
 It therefore comprehends both botany 
 and zoology in all their branches and 
 details. 
 
 BI'PED, an animal having two feet: 
 applied to man and birds, indicating 
 their mode of progression rather than 
 the mere possession of two limbs. 
 
 BIRCH, a genus of trees which com- 
 prises only the birches and alders, 
 which inhabit Europe, northern Asia, 
 and North America. The common 
 birch is indigenous throughout the 
 north, and on high situations in the 
 south of Europe. It is extremely hardy, 
 and only one or two other species of 
 trees approach so near to the north pole. 
 The wood of the birch, which is light 
 
 in color, and firm and tough in texture, 
 is used for chairs, tables, bedsteads, and 
 the woodwork of furniture generally, 
 also for fish-casks and hoops, and for 
 smoking hams and herrings, as well as 
 for many small articles. In France 
 wooden shoes are made of it. The 
 bark is whitish in color, smooth and 
 shining, separable in thin sheets or laj'’- 
 ers. Fishing-nets and sails are steeped 
 with it to preserve them. In some 
 countries it is made into hats, shoes, 
 boxes, etc. In Russia the oil extracted 
 from it is used in the preparation of 
 of Russian leather, and imparts the 
 well-known scent to it. In Lapland 
 bread has been made from it. The sap, 
 from the amount of sugar it contains, 
 affords a kind of agreeable wine, which 
 is produced by the tree being tapped 
 during warm weather in the end of 
 spring or beginning of summer, when 
 the sap runs most copiously. The 
 dwarf birch, a low shrub, two or three 
 feet high at most, is a native of all the 
 most northerly regions. The cherry- 
 birch of America, and also the black 
 birch, produce valuable timber, as do 
 other American species. The largest 
 of these is the yellow birch, which 
 attains the height of 80 feet. It 
 is named from its bark being of a 
 rich yellow color. The paper birch of 
 America has a bark that may readily be 
 divided into thin sheets almost like 
 paper. From it the Indian bark canoes 
 are made. 
 
 BIRD, a great class of vertebrate 
 animals, warm-blooded, covered with 
 feathers and ordinarily capable of flight. 
 They have existed since early times, 
 exhibit an interesting evolution within 
 very compact and well-defined limits, 
 dwell in every part of the globe, are 
 exceedingly diverse in size, form, ability, 
 and appearance, adapted to every sort 
 of climate and food, show mental 
 qualities of a high order, are of great 
 importance in their economic relations 
 with man, and in most cases are beauti- 
 ful in outline and color and possessed of 
 melodious voices. 
 
 Birds are classified between the rep- 
 tiles (regarded as inferior to them) and 
 the mammals (regarded as superior in 
 general organization). Birds differ from 
 mammals, broadly, in being clothed with 
 feathers instead of hairs, and in the 
 absence of milk-glands, and by sundry 
 differences in anatomy and methods of 
 existence, such as the hatching exter- 
 nally of eggs, and the devotion of the fore 
 limbs to flight. They differ from rep- 
 tiles in having a covering of feathers 
 instead of scales; a complete double 
 circulation of warm blood; no more 
 than three digits in the manus, long 
 legs, etc. The differences noted are, 
 however, of much less importance than 
 those which separate them from mam- 
 mals, and the structural resemblance is 
 so close that some anatomists, notably 
 Huxley, have included reptiles and 
 birds in a single group, the Sauropsida, 
 comparable to Fishes or Mammals, and 
 completing, with them, the three di- 
 visions of the Vertebrata. This group- 
 ing was founded upon the fact that birds 
 and reptiles were alike in being ovipa- 
 rous or ovo viviparous ; in having a 
 cloaca; in the incompleteness of the 
 
 diaphragm, and of a corpus callosum in 
 the brain; in having only one occipital 
 condyle; in the presence of a movable 
 quadrate bone and other peculiarities 
 of the skull; and in the fact that the 
 ankle-joint is between two sets of tarsal 
 bones. The close relationship thus 
 implied has been confirmed by the dis- 
 closures of paleontology, which show 
 that birds have a reptilian ancestry, and 
 are an offshoot of the same stock as 
 modern reptiles. 
 
 All the species of birds now inhabiting 
 the earth are the descendents of ancient 
 ancestors long since vanished, some of 
 which have, however, left remains 
 behind from which zoologists have 
 reconstructed skeletons of these animals 
 quite accurate in their general features. 
 Tracks have been found in the sand- 
 stones of Connecticut which are be- 
 lieved to be of ancient gigantic birds 
 with three toes and a stride of seven 
 feet. 
 
 BIRD-C^LL, an instrument for imi- 
 tating the cry of birds in order to attract 
 them so that they may be caught. 
 
 BIRD-CATCHING SPIDER, a name 
 applied to a gigantic spider which preys 
 upon insects and small birds which it 
 hunts for and pounces on. It is about 
 two inches long, very hairy, and almost 
 black ; its feet when spread out occupy 
 a surface of nearly a foot in diameter. 
 
 BIRD-CHERRY, a species of cherry, 
 a very ornamental tree in shrubberies 
 from its purple bark, its bunches of white 
 flowers, and its berries, which are suc- 
 cessively green, red, and black. Its 
 fruits is nauseous to the taste, but is 
 greedily eaten by birds. The wood is 
 much used for cabinet-work. It is 
 common in the native woods of Sweden 
 and Scotland. 
 
 BIRD-LIME, a viscous substance 
 used for entangling birds so as to make 
 them easily caught, twigs being for this 
 purpose smeared with it at places where 
 birds resort. It is prepared from holly- 
 bark, being extracted by boiling; also 
 from the viscid berries of the mistletoe. 
 
 BIRDS. See Ornithology. 
 
 BIRD OF PARADISE, the name for 
 members of a family of birds of splendid 
 plumage allied to the crows, inhabiting 
 New Guinea and the adjacent islands. 
 The family includes eleven or twelve 
 genera and a number of species, some 
 of them remarkably beautiful. The 
 largest species is over 2 feet in length. 
 Tlie king bird of paradise is possibly 
 the most beautiful species, but is rare. 
 It has a magnificent plume of feathers, 
 of a delicate yellow color, coming up 
 from under the wings, and falling over 
 the back like a jet of water. The feathers 
 are those chiefly worn in plumes. These 
 splendid ornaments are confined to the 
 male bird. 
 
 BIRD-SEED, seed for feeding cage- 
 birds, especially the seed of canary- 
 grass. 
 
 BIRD’S-EYE MAPLE, curled maple 
 the wood of the sugar-maple when full 
 of little knotty spots somewhat re- 
 sembling birds’ eyes, much used in 
 cabinet-work. 
 
 BIRD’S-EYE VIEW, the representa- 
 tion of any scene as it would appear if 
 seen from a considerable elevation right 
 above. 
 
BIRD’S-NESTS 
 
 BISHOP 
 
 BIRDS’-NESTS, Edible, the nests of 
 the salangane and other species of swifts 
 found in the Indian seas. They are par- 
 ticularly abundant in the larger islands 
 of the Eastern Archipelago. The nest 
 has the shape of a common swallow’s 
 nest, is found in caves, particularly on 
 the sea-shore, and has the appearance 
 of fibrous, imperfectly concocted isin- 
 glass.. When procured before the eggs 
 are laid the nests are of a waxy white- 
 ness and are then esteemed most val- 
 uable; when the bird has laid her eggs 
 they are of second quality; when the 
 young are fledged and flown, a third 
 quality. They appear to be composed 
 of a mucilaginous substance secreted by 
 special glands, and not, as was formerly 
 thought, made form a glutinous marine 
 fucus or seaweed. The Chinese con- 
 sider the nests as a great stimulant and 
 tonic, and it is said that about SJ mil- 
 lions of them are annually imported 
 into Canton. 
 
 Bird of paradise. 
 
 BIRDS OF PASSAGE, birds which 
 migrate with the season from a colder 
 to a warmer, or from a warmer to a 
 colder climate, divided into summer 
 birds of passage and winter birds of 
 passage. Such birds always breed in 
 the country to which they resort in 
 summer, i.e. in the colder of their homes. 
 
 BIRDS OF PREY, the Aecipitres or 
 Raptores, including vultures, eagles, 
 haw’ks or falcons, buzzards, and owds. 
 
 BIR'KENFELD (-felt), an outlying 
 principality belonging to Oldenburg, 
 surrounded by the Rhenish districts of 
 Coblentz and Treves; area 194 sq. miles; 
 pop. .53,409. 
 
 BIR'KENHEAD, a pari., county, and 
 municipal borough of England, in 
 Cheshire, on the estuary of the Mersey, 
 opposite Liverpool. Its commerce is in 
 all respects a branch of that of Liverpool. 
 The communication with Liverpool is 
 by large steamboats and by a railway 
 tunnel under the bed of the Mersey 4^ 
 miles long including the approaches, 
 21 feet high, 26 feet wide, the roof being 
 
 about 30 feet below the bed of the river. 
 Pop. 110,926. 
 
 BIRMAH. See Burmah. 
 
 BIR'MINGHAM, a great manufactur- 
 ing city of England, situated on the 
 small river Rea near its confluence with 
 the Tame, in the n.w. of Warwickshire, 
 with suburbs extending into Stafford- 
 shire and Worcestershire; 112 miles 
 n.w. of London, and 97 s.e. of Liver- 
 pool. It is the principal seat of the hard- 
 ware manufacture in Britain, producing 
 metal articles of all kinds from pins to 
 steam-engines. It manufactures fire- 
 arms in great quantities, swords, jew- 
 elry, buttons, tools, steel-pens, locks, 
 lamps, bedsteads, gas-fittings, sewing- 
 machines, articles of papier-mach4, 
 railway-carriages, etc. The quantity of 
 solid gold and silver plate manufactured 
 is large, and the consumption of these 
 metals in electroplating is very great. 
 Japanning, glass manufacturing, and 
 glass-staining or painting form impor- 
 tant branches of industry, as also does 
 the manufacture of chemicals. At Soho 
 and Smethwick in the vicinity of the 
 town were the famous works founded 
 by Boulton and Watt, who there manu- 
 factured their first steam-engines, where 
 gas was first used, plating perfected, 
 and numerous novel applications tried 
 and experiments made. The principal 
 educational institutions are: The Uni- 
 versity (opened in 1900), which has 
 developed from the Mason University 
 College, founded by Sir Josiah Mason in 
 1875, opened in 1880 and united with 
 Queen’s College (as the medical depart- 
 ment) in 1892; a Roman Catholic college 
 (at Oscott); King Edward’s Grammar 
 School; and a school of art and design. 
 Pop. 522,182. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM, a city and the county 
 seat of Jefiferson Co., Ala., and an impor- 
 tant manufacturing center, 97 miles 
 northwest of Montgomery, on the Central 
 Railroad of Georgia, the Louisville and 
 Nashville, the Southern, the Alabama 
 Great Southern, and the Kansas City, 
 Memphis, and Birmingham railroads. 
 The chief industry is the manufacture 
 of iron and steel in various forms. Be- 
 sides pig-iron furnaces, foundries, engine 
 and boiler works, machine-shops, and 
 car-wheel works, it has cotton-factories, 
 packing-houses, cottonseed-oil mills, and 
 extensive iron and coal mining and lum- 
 ber interests. Pop. 42,000. 
 
 BIRS NIMRUD, a famous mound in 
 Babylonia, on the west side of the Eu- 
 phrates, 6 miles s.w. of Hillah, generally 
 identified as the remains of the Tower of 
 Babel. 
 
 BIRTH, or LABOR, in physiology, is 
 the act by which a female of the class 
 Mammalia brings one of her own species 
 into the world. When the fcetus has re- 
 mained its due time in the womb, and 
 is in a condition to carry on a separate 
 existence, it is extruded from its place 
 of confinement, in order to live the life 
 which belongs to its species, independ- 
 ently of the mother. The period of 
 gestation is very different in different 
 animals, but in each particular species 
 it is fixed with much precision. At the 
 end of the thirty-ninth or the beginning 
 of the fortieth week, the human child 
 has reached its perfect state, and is ca- 
 pable of living separate from the mother; 
 
 hence follows in course its separation 
 from her, that is, the birth. Contrac- 
 tions of the womb gradually come on, 
 which are called, from the painful sen- 
 sations accompanying them, labor-pains. 
 The contractions of the womb take place 
 in the same order as the enlargement 
 had previously done, the upper part of 
 it first contracting, while the mouth of 
 the womb enlarges and grows thin, and 
 the vagina becomes loose and distensi- 
 ble. By this means the foetus, as the 
 space within the womb is gradually 
 narrowed, descends with a turning 
 motion toward the opening, and some 
 time after the head of the child appears 
 and the rest of the body soon follows. 
 An artificial birth is that which is accom- 
 plished by the help of art, with in.stru- 
 ments or the hands of the attendant. 
 Premature birth is one which happens 
 some weeks before the usual time, 
 namely, after the seventh and before 
 the end of the ninth month. Late birth 
 is a birth after the usual period of forty 
 weeks. Although this is considered 
 the usual time for legitimate births, the 
 practice of the English law courts is to 
 allow a longer time when the opinions 
 of the faculty, or the peculiar circum- 
 stances of the case, are' in favor of a 
 protracted gestation. In Scotland a 
 child born after the tenth month is 
 accounted illegitimate. Abortion and 
 miscarriage take place when a foetus is 
 brought forth so immature that it can- 
 not live. They happen from the begin- 
 ning of pregnancy to .the seventh month, 
 but most freciuently in the third month. 
 
 BIRTH MARK. See Ntevus. 
 
 BIRTH'RIGHT, any right or privilege 
 to which a person is entitled by birth, 
 such as an estate descendible by law to 
 an heir, or civil liberty under a free con- 
 stitution. See Primogeniture. 
 
 BIS'CAY, a province of Spain near 
 its northeast corner, one of the three 
 Basque provinces (the other two being 
 Alava and Guipuzcoa), area 850 sq. 
 miles. The surface is generally moun- 
 tainous; the most important mineral 
 is iron, which is extensively worked; 
 capital, Bilbao. Pop. 290,222. 
 
 BISCAY, BAY OF, that part of the 
 Atlantic which lies between the pro- 
 jecting coasts of France and Spain, ex- 
 tending from Ushant to Cape Finisterre, 
 celebrated for its dangerous navigation. 
 
 BISCUIT (bis'ket), a kind of hard, dry 
 bread which is not liable to spoil when 
 kept. Biscuits are either fermented or 
 unfermented, the kinds in ordinary use 
 being generally fermented, while the 
 unfermented biscuit is much used at 
 sea, and hence called sea-biscuit. 
 
 BISHOP, the highest of the three 
 orders in the Christian ministry — bish- 
 ops, priests, and deacons — in such 
 churches as recognize three grades. 
 Originally in the Christian church, the 
 name was used interchangeably with 
 presbyter or elder for the overseer or 
 pastor of a congregation; but at a com- 
 paratively early period a position of 
 special authority was held by the 
 pastors of the Christian communities be- 
 longing to certain places, and the name 
 of bishop became limited to these by 
 way of distinction. There is much that 
 is doubtful or disputed in regard to the 
 history of the episcopal office. Roman 
 
BISMARCK 
 
 BISON 
 
 Catholics and many others hold that it 
 is of divine ordination and existed al- 
 ready in apostolic times; and they 
 maintain the doctrine of the apostolical 
 succession, that is to sarr, the doctrine 
 of the transmission of the ministerial 
 authority in uninterrupted succession 
 from Christ to the apostles, and through 
 these from one bishop to another. Pres- 
 byterians deny that the office was of 
 divine or apostolic origin, and hold that 
 it was an upgrowth of subsequent times 
 easily accounted for, certain of the pres- 
 b 3 ders or pastors acquiring precedence 
 as bishops over others, just as the 
 bishops of the chief cities (Jerusalem, 
 Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, 
 Rome) obtained precedence among the 
 bishops and received the title of metro- 
 politan bishops; -r-hile the Bishop of 
 Rome came to be regarded as the head 
 of the church and the true successor of 
 Peter. At present in the 11. Catholic 
 Church the bishop is usually elected by 
 the presbyters of the diocese, subject 
 to the approbation of the pope and of 
 the secular power. When the monarch 
 is Roman Catholic a bishopric may be 
 in the royal gift, subject to papal appro- 
 val. The bishop comes next in rank to 
 the cardinal. His special insignia are 
 the miter and crosier or pastoral stgff, 
 a gold ring, the pallium, dalmatica, 
 etc. He guards the purity of doctrine 
 in his diocese, appoints professors in 
 the clerical colleges, licenses books on 
 religious subjects, ordains and appoints 
 the clergy, consecrates churches, takes 
 charge of the management of funds 
 for ecclesiastical or pious purposes, etc. 
 The bishops of the Greek Church have 
 similar functions but on the whole less 
 authority. They are always selected 
 from the monastic orders. 
 
 In the Church of England bishops are 
 nominated by the sovereign, who, upon 
 request of the dean and chapter for 
 leave to elect a bishop, sends a conge 
 d’elire, or license to elect, with a letter 
 missive, nominating the person whom 
 he would have chosen. The election, 
 by the chapter, must be made within 
 twelve days, or the sovereign has a right 
 to appoint whom he pleases. 
 
 In the U. States there are 24 arch- 
 bishops, and 86 bishops of the Roman 
 Catholic Church, and upward of a hun- 
 dred bishops of the Protestant Epis- 
 copal Church. The Methodist Episcopal 
 Church (North) has 28 bishops, and the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church (South) 
 has twelve. The African Methodist 
 Episcopal in the U. States has 13 bish- 
 ops, and the Reformed Episcopal Church 
 has seven. There is also a bishop of the 
 Polish Catholic Church, one of the Old 
 Catholic Church, one of the Greek 
 Orthodox Church, and one of the 
 Syrian Greek Orthodox Church in the 
 U. States. 
 
 Bishops in partibus infidelium (in 
 part occupied by the infidels) are held 
 to be successors of ancient bishops 
 whose dioceses became extinct. Suf- 
 fragan bishops fill the function of assist- 
 ants to bishops. 
 
 BISMARCK, (bis'mark), the capital 
 of North Dakota, and county seat of 
 Burleigh Co., ou the Missouri river, 
 and on the Northern Pacific Railroad. 
 In 1883 it was made the capital of 
 
 Dakota Territorjq and in 1889 was 
 chosen as the state capital of North 
 Dakota. 
 
 State Capitol, Bismarck, N. D. 
 
 BISMARCK - SCHONHAUSEN (bis'- 
 mark-sheitn'hou-zen), Otto Eduard 
 Leopold, Prince; born of a noble family 
 of the “Mark” (Brandenburg), at Schon- 
 hausen, April 1, 1815; studied at Got- 
 tingen, Berlin, and Greifswald; entered 
 the army and became lieutenant in the 
 Landwehr. After a brief interval 
 devoted to his estates and to the office 
 of inspector of dikes, he became in 1846 
 a member of the provincial diet of 
 Saxony, and in 1847 of the Prussian 
 diet. In 1851 he was appointed repre- 
 
 Prince Bismarck. 
 
 sentative of Prussia in the diet of the 
 German Federation at Frankfort, where 
 with brief interruptions he remained 
 till 1359, exhibiting the highest ability 
 in his efforts to eheckmate Austria and 
 place Prussia at the head of the German 
 states. From 1859-62 he was ambassa- 
 dor at St. Petersburg, and in the latter 
 year, after an embassy to Paris of five 
 months’ duration, was appointed first 
 minister of the Prussian erown. The 
 Lower House persistently refusing to 
 pass the bill for the reorganization of 
 the army, Bismarck at once dissolved 
 it (Oct., 1862), closing it for four suc- 
 cessive sessions until the work of re- 
 organization was complete. When pop- 
 ular feeling had reached its most 
 strained point the Schleswig-Holstein 
 question acted as a diversion, and Bis- 
 marck — by the skilful manner in which 
 he added the duchies to Prussian terri- 
 tory, checkmated Austria, and excluded 
 her from the new German confeder- 
 
 ation, in which Prussia held the first 
 place— became the most popular man 
 in Germany. As chancellor and presi- 
 dent of the Federal Council he secured 
 the neutralization of Luxembourg in 
 place of its cession by Holland to 
 France; and, though in 1868 he with- 
 drew for a few months into private life,, 
 he resumed office before the close of the 
 year. A struggle between Germany and 
 France appearing to be sooner or later 
 inevitable, Bismarck, having made full 
 preparations, brought matters to a head 
 on the question of the' Hohenzollern 
 candidature for the Spanish throne. 
 Having carried the war to a successful 
 issue, he became chancellor and prince 
 of the new Germap empire. Subse- 
 quently, in 1872, he alienated the 
 Roman Catholic party by promoting 
 adverse legal measures and expelling 
 the Jesuits. He then resigned his presi- 
 dency for a year, though still continuing 
 to advise the emperor. Toward the close 
 of 1873 he returned to power, retaining 
 his position until, in March, 1890, he dis- 
 agreed with the emperor and tendered 
 his resignation. In 1878 he presided at 
 the Berlin Congress, in 1880 at the Ber- 
 lin Conference, and in 1884 at the Congo 
 Conference. His life was twice at- 
 tempted — at Berlin in 1866, and at 
 Kissingen in 1874. He died in 1898. 
 
 BIS'MUTH, a metal of a yellowish or 
 reddish-white color, and a lamellar tex- 
 ture. It is somewhat harder than lead 
 and not malleable, when cold being so 
 brittle as to break easilj" under the 
 hammer, so as to be reducible to powder. 
 Its internal face or fracture exhibits 
 large shining plates variously disposed. 
 It fuses at 476° Fahr., and expands con- 
 siderably as it hardens. It is often 
 found in a native state, crystallized in 
 rhombs or octahedrons, or in the form 
 of dendrites, or thin laminae investing 
 the ores of other metals, particularly 
 cobalt. Bismuth is used in the com- 
 position of pewter, in the fabrication of 
 printers’ types, and in various other 
 metallic mixtures. The subnitrate or 
 basic nitrate of bismuth is used as a 
 paint and as a cosmetic, and is known 
 as Pearl White or Pearl Powder. 
 
 BI'30N, the name applied to two 
 species of ox. One of these, the Euro- 
 pean bison or aurochs, is now nearly 
 extinct, being found only in the forests 
 of Lithuania and the Caucasus. The 
 other, or American bison, improperly 
 
 Americ.au bison. 
 
 termed buffalo, was formerly found over 
 a wide region in the U. States and west- 
 ern Cana where it was wont to wan- 
 der in immense herds, but may now be 
 considered as extinct in the wild state. 
 
BISQUE 
 
 BLACKBIRD 
 
 having been ruthlessly slaughtered. 
 The two species closely resemble each 
 other} the American bison, however, 
 being for the most part smaller, and 
 with shorter and weaker hind-quarters. 
 The bison is remarkable for the great 
 hump or projection over its fore- 
 shoulders, at which point the adult 
 male is almost six feet in height; and 
 for the long, shaggy, rust-colored hair 
 over the head, neck, and fore-part of the 
 body. In summer, from the shoulders 
 backward, the surface is covered with a 
 very short hair, smooth and soft as 
 velvet. The tail is short and tufted at 
 the end. The American bison used to 
 be much hunted for sport as well as for 
 its flesh and skin. Its flesh is rather 
 coarser grained than that of the domes- 
 tic ox, but was considered by hunters 
 and travelers as superior in tenderness 
 and flavor. The hump is highly cele- 
 brated for its richness and delicacy. 
 Their skins, especially that of the cow, 
 dressed in the Indian fashion, with the 
 hair on, make admirable defenses 
 against the cold, and are known as 
 buffalo robes; the wool has been manu- 
 factured into hats, and a coarse cloth. 
 The American bison has been found 
 to breed readily with the common ox, 
 the issue being fertile among them- 
 jsbIvos 
 
 BISQUE (bisk), a kind of unglazed 
 ■white porcelain used for statuettes and 
 'Ornaments. 
 
 BIT'TERN, the name of several 
 grallatorial birds. There are two Brit- 
 ish species, the common bittern, and 
 the little bittern, a native of the south, 
 and only a summer visitor to Britain. 
 Both, however, are becoming rare. The 
 common bittern is about 28 inches in 
 length, about 44 in extent of wing; 
 general color, dull yellowish-brown, 
 with spots and bars of black or dark 
 brown; feathers on the breast long and 
 loose ; tail short ; bill about 4 inches long. 
 It is remarkable for its curious booming 
 or bellowing cry. The eggs (greenish- 
 brown) are four or five in number. The 
 little bittern is not more than 15 inches 
 in length. The American bittern has 
 some resemblance to the common Euro- 
 pean bittern, but is smaller. 
 
 BIT'TERN, the syrupy residue from 
 evaporated sea-water after the common 
 salt has been taken out of it. It is used 
 in the preparation of Epsom salt (sul- 
 phate of magnesia), of Glauber’s salt 
 (sulphate of soda), and contains also 
 chloride of magnesium, iodine, and 
 bromine. 
 
 BITTER-NUT, a tree of N. America, 
 
 • of the walnut order, or swamp-hickory, 
 which produces small and somewhat 
 egg-shaped fruits, with a thin fleshy 
 rind; the kernel is bitter and uneatable. 
 
 BITTER-ROOT, a plant of Canada 
 rand part of the U. States, so called from 
 its root being bitter though edible, and 
 indeed esteemed as an article of food by 
 whites as well as Indians. From the 
 root, which is long, fleshy, and tapering, 
 ■grow clusters of succulent green leaves, 
 with a fleshy stalk bearing a solitary 
 Tose-colored flower rising in the center, 
 :and remaining open only in sunshine. 
 Flower and leaves together, the plant 
 uppears above ground for only about 
 .six weeks. 
 
 BITTERS, a liquor (frequently spirit- 
 uous), in which bitter herbs or roots 
 have been steeped. Gentian, quassia, 
 angelica, bogbean, chamomile, hops, 
 centaury, etc., are all used for prepara- 
 tions of this kind. The well-known 
 Angostura bitters have aromatic as 
 well as bitter properties. 
 
 BITU'MEN, a mineral substance of a 
 resinous nature, composed principally 
 of hydrogen and carbon, and appearing 
 in a variety of forms which pass into 
 each other and are known by different 
 names, from naphtha, the most fluid, 
 to pertoleum and mineral tar, which are 
 less so, thence to maltha or mineral 
 pitch, which is more or less cohesive, 
 and lastly to asphaltum and elastic 
 bitumen (or elaterite), which are solid. 
 It burns like pitch, with much smoke 
 and flame. It consists of 84 to 88 of 
 carbon and 12 to 16 of hydrogen, and 
 is found in the earth, occurring princi- 
 pally in the secondary, tertiary, and 
 alluvial formations. It is a very widely 
 spread mineral, and is now largely em- 
 ployed in various ways. As the binding 
 substance in mastics and cements it is 
 used for making roofs, arches, walls, 
 cellar-floors, etc., water-tight, for street 
 and other pavements, and in some of its 
 forms for fuel and for illuminating pur- 
 poses. The bricks of which the walls of 
 Babylon were built are said to have 
 been cemented with bitumen, which 
 gave them unusual solidity. 
 
 BITUMINOUS COAL. See Coal. 
 
 BITUMINOUS SHALE, or SCHIST, an 
 argillaceous shale impregnated with 
 bitumen and very common in the coal- 
 measures. It is largely worked for the 
 production of paraffin, etc. 
 
 BI'VALVES, molluscous animals hav- 
 ing a shell consisting of two halves or 
 
 Bivalve shell. 
 
 valves that open by an elastic hinge 
 and are closed by muscles; as the oyster, 
 mussel, cockle, etc. 
 
 BIVOUAC (biv'u-ak), the encamp- 
 ment of soldiers in the open air without 
 tents, each remaining dressed and with 
 his weapons at hand. It was the regular 
 practice of the French revolutionary 
 armies, but is only desirable where great 
 celerity of movement is required. 
 
 BJORNSON, Bjornstjerne, a cele- 
 brated Norw'egian poet, born at Kvikne 
 in 1832. He first tried journalism, but 
 that failing wrote in 1858 his first 
 drama. Between the Battles, and also 
 in that year his first novel. Trust and 
 Trial. He became a theatrical manager 
 in 1860, traveled much, was a leader of 
 Norwegian republicans, and helped to 
 carry the revolution of 1901. His 
 poems chiefly celebrate the folk lore 
 of Scandinavia, and his plays deal 
 largely with so-called moral and social 
 problems. In 1880 he visited the U. 
 States, where he delivered a course of 
 
 lectures and was well received. His 
 principal plays and novels have been 
 translated into English. 
 
 BLACK, the negation. of all color, the 
 opposite of white. There are several 
 black pigments, such as ivory-black, 
 made from burned ivory or bones; lamp- 
 black, frona the smoke of resinous sub- 
 stance; Spanish-black, or cork-black, 
 from burned cork, etc. 
 
 BLACK, Jeremiah Sullivan, an Amer- 
 ican jurist, born in Pennsylvania in 
 1810, admitted to the bar in 1831, and 
 from 1842 to 1851 was judge of district 
 courts in Pennsylvania. He was su- 
 preme court justice of Pennsylvania 
 from 1851 to 1857, attorney-general in 
 President Buchanan’s cabinet, secre- 
 tary of state in 1860, counsel for Presi- 
 dent Johnson in 1868, and counsel for 
 Tilden before the electoral commission 
 in the contest of Hayes’s election in 
 1877. He died in 1883. 
 
 BLACK, William, novelist, born in 
 Glasgow in 1841. His first novel. Love 
 or Marriage, 1867, was only moderately 
 successful, but his In Silk Attire, Kil- 
 meny. The Monarch of Mincing Lane, 
 and especially A Daughter of Heth 
 (1871), gained him an increasingly wide 
 circle of readers. He died in 1898. 
 Other works: The Strange Adventures 
 of a Phaeton (1872), A Princess of Thule 
 (1873), The Maid of Killeena, etc. (1874), 
 Three Feathers (1875), Madcap Violet 
 (1876), Green Pastures and Piccadilly 
 (1877), Macleod of Dare (1878), White 
 Wings (1880), Sunrise (1881), The Beau- 
 tiful Wretch (1882), Shandon Bells 
 (1883), Judith Shakespeare (1884), 
 White Heather (1885), The Strange 
 Adventures of a House-boat (1888), 
 In Far Lochaber (1889), The Ne’w Prince 
 Fortunatus (1890), etc. 
 
 BLACK-BEETLE, a popular name for 
 the cockroach. 
 
 BLACK'BERRY, a popular name of 
 the bramble-berry or the plant itself. 
 
 BLACK'BIRD, called also the merle, 
 a well-known species of thrush. It 
 is larger than the common thrush, its 
 length being about 11 inches. The 
 color of the male is a uniform deep black, 
 the bill being an orange-yellow; the 
 female is of a brown color, with blackish- 
 brown bill. The nest is usually in a 
 thick bush, and is built of grass, roots. 
 
 The crow-blackbii'd. 
 
 twigs, etc., strengthened with clay. 
 The eggs, generally four or five in num- 
 ber, are of a greenish-blue, spotted with 
 various shades of brown. The song is 
 rich, mellow, and flute-like, but of no 
 great variety of compass. Its food is 
 insects, worms, snails, fruits, etc. The 
 
BLACKBURN 
 
 BLACKSTONE 
 
 blackbirds or crow-blackbirds of Amer- 
 ica are quite different from the 
 European blackbird, and are more 
 nearly allied to the starlings and crows. 
 See Crow-blackbird. The red-winged 
 blackbird, belonging to the starling 
 family, is a familiar American bird that 
 congregates in great flocks. 
 
 BLACK'BURN, a municipal county, 
 and parliamentary borough of England, 
 Lancashire, 21 miles n.n.w. from Man- 
 chester. Blackburn is one of the chief 
 seats of the cotton manufacture, there 
 being upward of 140 mills, as well as 
 works for making cotton machinery and 
 steam-engines. Pop. 127,527. 
 
 BLACK DEATH. See Plague. 
 
 BLACK DRAUGHT, sulphate of mag- 
 nesia and infusion of senna, with aro- 
 matics to make it palatable. 
 
 BLACKFEET INDIANS, a tribe of 
 American Indians, partly inhabiting 
 the U. States, partly Canada, from the 
 A^ellowstone to Hudson’s Ba}'. 
 
 BLACKFISH, a fish caught on the 
 American coast, especially in the 
 vicinity of Long Island, whence large 
 supplies are obtained for the New York 
 market. Its back and sides are of a 
 
 Blackfish. 
 
 bluish or crow black, the under parts, 
 especially in the males, are white. It 
 is plump in appearance, and much 
 esteemed for the table, varying in size 
 from 2 to 12 lbs. 
 
 BLACK FOREST, a chain of European 
 mountains in Baden and Wiirtemberg, 
 running almost parallel with the Rhine 
 for about 85 ftiiles. The Danube, 
 Neckar, Kinzig, and other streams, rise 
 in the Black Forest, which is rather a 
 chain of elevated plains than of isolated 
 peaks; highest summit, Feldberg, 4900 
 feet. The skeleton of the chain is granite, 
 its higher points covered with sand- 
 stone. The principal mineral is iron, 
 and there are numerous mineral springs. 
 The forests are extensive, chiefly of 
 pines and similar species, and yield 
 much timber. The manufacture of 
 wooden clocks, toys, etc., is the most 
 important industry, employing about 
 40,000 persons. The inhabitants of the 
 forest are quaint and simple in their 
 habits, and the whole district preserves 
 its old legendary associations. 
 
 BLACK FRIARS, friars of the Domin- 
 ican order; so called from their habit. 
 
 BLACK FRIDAY, the name given to 
 Friday, Sept. 24, 1869, or Friday, Sept. 
 19, 1873, on both of which days Wall 
 Street, New York, was stricken with 
 money panics. The first panic was 
 caused by the Fisk-Gould attempt to 
 corner gold; the second was the financial 
 smash which was part of the general 
 panic of 1873. 
 
 BLACK GUM, an American tree, 
 yielding a close-grained, useful wood; 
 fruit a drupe of blue-black color, whence 
 it seems to get its name of “black” ; it has 
 no gum about it. It is called also pep- 
 peridge, and has been introduced into 
 Europe as an ornamental tree. 
 
 BLACK HAWK, a historic Indian, 
 chief of the Sacs, who repudiated his 
 father’s sale of the land of the Sacs and 
 Foxes east of the Mississippi and made 
 war on the Americans in 1812. In 1830 
 Black Hawk opened war a second time 
 and was defeated at the Wisconsin 
 river by Dodge, July 21, 1832. On 
 Aug. 1 he surrendered and was con- 
 fined in Fortress Monroe until 1833. 
 He died Oct. 18, 1838. 
 
 BLACK HILLS, a part of the Rocky 
 Mountains Range in South Dakota. 
 They cover a total area of about 6000 
 sq. miles, 1893 sq. miles of which have 
 been set apart by the U. States govern- 
 ment as a forest reserve. They are 
 drained and nearly surrounded by the 
 two main forks of the Cheyenne river. 
 Their altitude ranges from between 
 2500 and 3000 feet at their base, to the 
 summit of Harney Peak, 7216 feet in 
 height. The mountains were formed 
 by a local uplift, which raised the 
 Archaean and later formations into a 
 concentric fold. The Black Hills dis- 
 trict was first partly explored in 1874 
 by an expedition under General Custer, 
 when gold was discovered. In 1876, 
 after some hostilities, a treaty made 
 with the Sioux Indians opened the 
 country to settlement, and Deadwood, 
 Central City, Lead City, and other 
 towns grew up very rapidly. The 
 Black Hills constitute one of the richest 
 gold-mining districts in the U. States. 
 
 BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA, a 
 small chamber, 20 feet square, in the old 
 fort of Calcutta, in which, after their 
 capture by Surajah Dowlah, the whole 
 garrison of 146 men were confined dur- 
 ing the night of June 21, 1756. Only 
 twenty-three survived. The spot is now 
 marked by a monument. 
 
 BLACKING, for boots and shoes, etc., 
 usually contains for its principal in- 
 gredients oil, vinegar, ivory or bone 
 black, sugar or molasses, strong sul- 
 phuric acid, and sometimes caoutchouc 
 and gum-arabic. It is used either liquid 
 or in the form of paste, the only differ- 
 ence being that in making the paste a 
 portion of the vinegar is withheld. 
 
 BLACK LEAD. See Graphite. 
 
 BLACKLEG, a disease which afflicts 
 cattle, sheep, swine, and horses, but 
 from which man is immune. It is 
 caused by a germ which produces 
 tumors in the muscles and various 
 systemic symptoms which end almost 
 always in death. It is chiefly prevalent 
 in Kansas, Texas, Colorado, and South 
 Dakota. Blackleg may be prevented 
 by vaccination. 
 
 BLACK-LETTER, the name com- 
 monly given to the Gothic characters 
 which began to supersede the Roman 
 characters in the writings of western 
 Europe toward the close of the 12th 
 century. The first types were in black- 
 letter, but these were gradually modi- 
 fied in Italy until they took the later 
 Roman shape introduced into most Eu- 
 ropean states during the 16th century. 
 
 BLACKLIST, a term applied to a 
 number of persons who are deemed 
 obnoxious by the maker of the list and 
 against whom he warns his associates, 
 and with whom he refuses to have any 
 kind of business dealings, either as 
 employer or trader. Black lists have 
 
 been used in almost every kind of busi- 
 ness. The alleged black list of the rail- 
 roads against those who took part in 
 the Pullman and other strikes, and the 
 notorious baseball black list of the base- 
 ball organizations under the famous 
 “national agreement” of a few years 
 ago, are notable instances of this process 
 in the U. States. 
 
 BLACKMAIL, a certain rate of money, 
 corn, cattle, or the like, anciently paid 
 in the north of England and in Scot- 
 land, to certain men who were allied 
 to robbers, to be protected by them 
 from pillage. Blackmail was levied 
 in the districts bordering the Highlands 
 of Scotland till the middle of the 18th 
 century. 
 
 The term now generally survives as 
 the designation of an attempt to extort 
 money, or other things, by threats, 
 usually of exposure or calumny. In 
 many states blackmail by written threat 
 is deemed actionable. 
 
 BLACKMORE, Richard Doddridge, 
 novelist, born at Longworth, Berkshire, 
 1825, died in 1900. His greatest success 
 was Lorna Doone, a Romance of Exmoor 
 (1869), one of the best of modern 
 romances. 
 
 BLACK MOUNTAINS, the group 
 which contains the highest summits. of 
 the Appalachian system, Clingman’s 
 Peak being 6701 feet, Guyot’s Peak 
 6661. See Appalachian Mountains. 
 
 BLACK SEA, a sea situated between 
 Europe and Asia, and mainly bounded 
 by the Russian and Turkish dominions, 
 being connected with the Mediterranean 
 by the Bosporus, Sea of Marmora, and 
 Dardanelles, and by the Strait of 
 Kertsch with the Sea of Azov, which 
 is, in fact, only a bay of the Black Sea; 
 area of the Black Sea and the Sea of 
 Azov about 175,000 square miles, with a 
 depth in the center of more than 150 
 fathoms and few shoals along its shores. 
 The water is not so clear as that of the 
 Mediterranean, and is less salt on ac- 
 count of the many large rivers which 
 fall into it — the Danube, Dniester, 
 Dnieper, Don, etc. Though not tidal,, 
 there are strong currents. The tem- 
 pests on it are very violent, as the land: 
 which confines its agitated waters gives; 
 to them a kind of whirling motion, and 
 in the winter it is scarcely navigable. 
 During January and February the 
 shores from Odessa to the Crimea are 
 ice-bound. It contains few islands, and 
 those of small extent. The most im- 
 portant ports are those of Odessa, 
 Kherson, Nicolaiev, Sebastopol, Batum, 
 Trebizond, Samsun, Sinope, and Varna. 
 
 BLACKSNAKE, a common snake 
 reaching a length of 5 or 6 feet, and so 
 agile and swift as to have been named 
 the racer, with no poison fangs, and 
 therefore comparatively harmless. It 
 feeds on small quadrupeds, birds, and 
 the like, and is especially useful in killing 
 
 BLACK'STONE, Sir William, an emi- 
 nent jurist, born in London in 1723; 
 educated at the Charter House and 
 Pembroke College, Oxford. In 1743 
 he was elected fellow of All-Souls Col- 
 lege, Oxford, and in 1746 was called to. 
 the bar; but, having attended the West- 
 minster law-courts for seven years, 
 without success, he retired to Oxford 
 
BLACKTAIL 
 
 BLAND 
 
 Here he gave lectures on law, which 
 suggested to Mr. Viner the idea of 
 founding a professorship at Oxford for 
 the study of the common law; and 
 Blackstone was in 1758 chosen the first 
 Vinerian professor. In 1761 he was 
 elected M.P. for Hindon, made king’s 
 counsel and solicitor-general to the 
 queen. In 1765 he published the first 
 volume of his famous Commentaries on 
 the Laws of England, the other three 
 volumes being produced at intervals 
 during the next four years. Its merits 
 as an exposition made it for a long 
 period the principal text-book of Eng- 
 lish law. In 1770 he was knighted and 
 made one of the justices of Common 
 Pleas, continuing in office until his 
 death in 1780. 
 
 BLACKTAIL, an American deer, so 
 called because of its black tail. Similar 
 in its general characters to the mule deer, 
 it occupies the coast region from central 
 California to Alaska. Its color is brown- 
 gray mottled with black, and it has a 
 black stripe along the spine. 
 
 BLACK TIN, tin ore when dressed, 
 stamped, and washed ready for smelt- 
 ing, forming a black powder. 
 
 BLACK VOMIT, the dark substance 
 thrown up in yellow fever; hence a name 
 of this disease. 
 
 BLACK WADD, an ore of manganese, 
 used as a drying ingredient in paints. 
 
 BLACKWELL, Elizabeth, the first 
 woman who ever obtained the degree of 
 
 M. D. She was born in England in 1821 , 
 and settled in America with her parents 
 in 1831. After numerous difficulties she 
 was admitted into the College of Geneva, 
 
 N. Y., and graduated M. D. in 1849. 
 
 BLADDER, Urinary, a musculo- 
 
 membranous bag or pouch present in all 
 Mammalia, destined to receive and 
 retain for a time the urine which is 
 secreted by the kidneys. It occupies 
 the anterior and median portion of the 
 pelvis, and in the male of the human 
 subject is situated behind the pubis and 
 above and in front of the rectum; in the 
 female above and in front of the vagina 
 and uterus. The urine secreted by the 
 kidneys is conveyed into this reservoir 
 by means of two tubes called the ureters, 
 which open near the neck or lower part 
 of the bladder in an oblique direction, 
 by which means they prevent the reflux 
 of the urine. When empty it forms a 
 rounded, slightly conoid mass about 
 the size of a small hen’s egg. As it 
 gradually fills with urine its walls be- 
 come distended in all directions except 
 in front, and it then rises above the 
 elvis proper into the abdomen. It is 
 eld in its place by two lateral ligaments, 
 one on each side, and an anterior liga- 
 ment. The contents are carried off by 
 the urethra, which, as well as the neck 
 of the bladder, is surrounded by a 
 structure called the prostate gland. 
 
 BLADDERWORT, the common name 
 of slender aquatic plants, species of 
 which are natives of Britain, the United 
 States, etc., growing in ditches and 
 pools. They are named from having 
 little bladders or vesicles, that fill with 
 air at the time of flowering and raise 
 the plant in the water, so that the 
 blossoms expand above the surface. 
 
 BLAINE, James Gillespie, American 
 statesman, born 1830. He entered 
 
 Washington College, Pa., at the age of 
 thirteen, graduated in 1847, studied 
 law, acted as a teacher, and then having 
 gone to Augusta, Maine, was for several 
 years newspaper editor. He was sent 
 to congress by Maine as a republican in 
 1862, and was repeatedly reelected. 
 He was several times speaker of the 
 House of Representatives. In 1876 he 
 entered the senate; in 1884 he was 
 nominated for the presidency, but was 
 defeated by Mr. Cleveland. In 1884 
 appeared the first volume of his Twenty 
 Years of Congress, a work which has had 
 a very favorable reception. He died in 
 January, 1893. 
 
 BLAIR, Francis Preston, an American 
 politician and writer, born in 1791, at 
 Abingdon, Va., died 1876. He sup- 
 ported Abraham Lincoln for the presi- 
 dency and took part in the famous peace 
 conference at Hampton Roads, Feb. 
 3, 1865. 
 
 BLAIR, Francis Preston, an American 
 statesman, soldier and jurist, born in 
 Lexington, Ky., in 1821, died 1875. 
 He settled in St. Louis, took the federal 
 side during the civil war, after which 
 he became a democrat and was candi- 
 date for vice-president in 1868. 
 
 BLAIR, John Insley, an American 
 philanthropist, born in New Jersey in 
 1802, died 1899. He founded Blair 
 Hall at Princeton University and gave 
 large endowments to other schools and 
 colleges. He was one of the builders 
 of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western 
 Railroad. 
 
 BLAIR, Montgomery, an American 
 jurist and statesman, born in Kentucky 
 in 1813, died 1883. He settled in St. 
 Louis, and was counsel for the defend- 
 ant in the famous Dred Scott case. He 
 was postmaster-general in Lincoln’s 
 cabinet and introduced the money-order 
 system in the American postal service. 
 He subsequently joined the democratic 
 party and was a supporter of Tilden 
 in the Tilden-Hayes controversy. 
 
 BLAKE, Eli Whitney, an American 
 inventor, born at New Haven, Conn., in 
 1795, died in 1886. His principal inven- 
 tion was the famous stone-crusher called 
 by his name. 
 
 BLAKE, Lillie Devereaux, an Ameri- 
 can reformer, born at Raleigh, N. C., in 
 1835. She became known as a novelist 
 in the early sixties and for 20 years, 
 until 1890, served as president of the 
 New York State Woman’s Suffrage 
 Association. She is also known as a 
 most capable lecturer. 
 
 BLAKE, Robert, a celebrated British 
 admiral, was born at Bridgewater in 
 1599, died at the entrance of Plymouth 
 Sound 1657. He was elected member 
 for Bridgewater in the parliament of 
 1640. This being soon dissolved he lost 
 his election for the next, and sought to 
 advance the parliamentary cause in a 
 military capacity in the war which then 
 broke out. He soon distinguished him- 
 self, and in 1649 he was sent to command 
 the fleet with Colonels Deane and Pop- 
 ham. His greatest achievements were 
 in the Dutch war which broke out in 
 1652. In November, 1654, he was sent 
 with a strong fleet to enforce a due 
 respect to the British flag in the Mediter- 
 ranean. He sailed first to Algiers, 
 which submitted, and then demolished 
 
 the castles of Goletta and Porto Ferino, 
 at Tunis, because the dey refused to 
 deliver up the British captives. 
 squadron of his ships also blocked up 
 Cadiz, and intercepted a Spanish Plate 
 
 Admiral Blake. 
 
 fleet. In April, 1657, he sailed with 
 twenty-four ships to Santa Cruz, in 
 Teneriffe; and, notwithstanding the 
 strength of the place, burned the ships 
 of another Spanish Plate fleet which 
 had taken shelter there, and by a for- 
 tunate change of wind came out without 
 loss. 
 
 BLAKE, William, mystic artist and 
 poet, author of many exquisite lyrics, 
 and of designs mainly allegorical or 
 symbolical, was the son of a London 
 hosier, and was born in 1757. Failing 
 to find a publisher for his work Songs 
 of Innocence, he invented a process by 
 which he was both printer and illustrator 
 of his own poems. Some of his best- 
 known works are; Gates of Paradise, 
 Book of Thel, Marriage of Heaven and 
 Hell, Songs of Experience, Book of 
 Urizen, Song of Los, Book of Ahania, 
 etc. He died in 1828. 
 
 BLANCHARD, Thomas, an American 
 inventor, born in 1788, died in 1864. 
 His principal inventions were a tack- 
 making machine, a lathe for turning 
 gun-barrels, and several contrivances 
 for steamboat navigation. 
 
 BLANCHE OF CASTILE, daughter of 
 Alphonso IX., queen of Louis VIII., 
 king of France, and mother of St. Louis, 
 born 1187, died 1252 or 1253. On the 
 death of Louis VIII. she procured the 
 coronation of her son, and during his 
 minority held the reins of government 
 in his name with distinguished success. 
 In 1244, when St. Louis left for the 
 Holy Land, she again became regent, 
 and gave new proofs of her abilities and 
 firmness as a ruler. 
 
 BLANC - MANGE (ble-manzh'), in 
 cookery, a name of different prepara- 
 tions of the consistency of a jelly, vari- 
 ously composed of dissolved isinglass, 
 arrow-root, maize-flour, etc., with milk 
 and flavoring substances. 
 
 BLAND, Richard Parks, an American 
 statesman, born in Kentucky in 1835, 
 died in 1899. He settled in Missouri. 
 He served as congressman from that 
 state from 1872 till his death. He was 
 an ardent supporter of the silver move- 
 ment, and introduced the celebrated 
 Bland Act of 1878 for the coinage of 
 silver. In 1896 he was a prominent 
 
BLANKET 
 
 Bleaching 
 
 candidate for the presidential nomina- 
 tion at the Chicago convention. 
 
 BLANKET, a woolen covering for the 
 bed or for the person. Blanket manu- 
 facture in the Lf. States has grown 
 vastly since the war of 1812, and the 
 industry' is chiefly in New England. 
 Excellent blankets are made by the 
 natives of India, and also by the N. 
 American Indians. In recent years the 
 industry has grown considerably in Cal- 
 ifornia and Oregon. 
 
 BLANK VERSE, verse without rhyme, 
 first introduced into English poetry 
 (from the Italian) by the Earl of Surrey. 
 The most common form of English 
 blank verse is the decasyllabic, such as 
 that of Milton’s Paradise Lost, or of the 
 dramas of Shakespeare. From Shake- 
 speare’s time it has been the kind of 
 verse almost universally used by dra- 
 matic writers, who often employ an 
 additional syllable, making the lines 
 not strictly decasyllabic. The first use 
 of the term blank verse is said to be 
 in Hamlet, ii. 2: “The lady shall say her 
 mind freely, or the blank verse shall 
 halt for’t.’’ The term is not applied to 
 the Anglo-Saxon and Early English 
 alliterative unrhymed verse. 
 
 BLAR'NEY, a village in Ireland, 4 
 miles n.w. of the city of Cork, with 
 Blarney Castle in its vicinity. A stone 
 called the Blarney Stone, near the top 
 of the castle, is said to confer on those 
 who kiss it the peculiar kind of per- 
 suasive eloquence alleged to be charac- 
 teristic of the natives of Ireland. 
 
 BLAS'PHEMY is the denying of the 
 existence of God, assigning to him false 
 attributes, or denying his true attributes; 
 contumelious reproaches of our Savior; 
 profane scoffing at the Holy Scriptures, 
 or exposing them to ridicule and con- 
 tempt. In Catholic countries it also 
 includes the speaking contemptuously 
 or disrespectfully of the Holy Virgin or 
 the saints. 
 
 BLAST-FURNACE, the name given 
 to the common smelting-furnace used 
 for obtaining iron from its ores with the 
 aid of a powerful blast of air. This air- 
 blast, which is propelled by a powerful 
 blowing-engine and is now invariably 
 heated to a high temperature (600° to 
 900° F.), is injected by pipes called 
 tuyeres, situated as shown at A in the 
 annexed vertical section, in the lowest 
 part of the furnace, near to the 
 hearth B. The conical part c next 
 above the hearth is termed the boshes, 
 and the interior is continued upward, 
 sometimes, as in the annexed cut, in a 
 tapered body or cone d, sometimes as a 
 perpendicular cylinder, which is sur- 
 mounted by an opening for the intro- 
 duction of the materials from an exter- 
 nal gallery F. The exterior consists of 
 massive masonry of stone or firebrick, 
 the body part being l_ied with two 
 shells of firebricks separated by a thin 
 space to allow for expansion, this space 
 being generally filled with sand, ground 
 fire-clay, or the like, to hinder the 
 radiation of heat to the outside. When 
 the body rises in the form of a perpen- 
 dicular cylinder it is called the barrel. 
 The cone or barrel is sometimes clasped 
 round on the outside by numerous 
 strong iron hoops, or is cased with iron 
 plates fastened to the masonry by iron 
 
 bolts. The boshes C are lined with fire- 
 brick or firestone, and the hearth b is 
 built with large blocks of refractory 
 stone. The charging of the furnace 
 goes on all day and night, one charge 
 consisting of a barrow-load of coal and 
 
 Section of blast furnace. 
 
 a barrow-load of ore, char, and lime, 
 the last mineral acting as a flux. These 
 charges are constantly passing down- 
 ward and undergoing a change as they 
 come nearer the hotter parts of the 
 furnace. Toward the lower part the 
 earthy matter of the ore unites with 
 the limestone and forms a slag, which 
 finally escapes at an opening below the 
 tuyeres, and the molten metal drops 
 down and fills the lower part at b, to be 
 drawn off at stated periods. This is 
 done usually twice in the twenty-four 
 hours by means of a round hole called 
 a tap. The furnace is constantly kept 
 filled to within about 2 feet of the top. 
 The ore put in at the top takes about 
 thirty-six hours before it comes out as 
 iron. Hematite yields on an average 
 about 55 per cent of metal, and black- 
 band about 40 to 50. In the newer 
 forms of furnaces the top is closed, and 
 the gases formerly burned at the top 
 are conveyed by pipes g to be utilized 
 as fuel in heating the blast and in raising 
 steam for the blowing-engine. The 
 principle adopted is to close the top by 
 a bell-and-cone arrangement e, which 
 is opened and shut at pleasure by 
 hydraulic or other machinery. The 
 height of furnaces varies from 50 to 80, 
 and even in some cases to upward of 
 100 feet, and the greatest width is about 
 one-third of this. 
 
 BLASTING, the operation of breaking 
 up masses of stone or rock in situ by 
 means of gunpowder or other explosive. 
 In ordinary operations holes are bored 
 into the rock from 1 to 6 inches in 
 diameter, by means of a steel-pointed 
 drill, by striking it with hammers or 
 allowing it to fall from a height. After 
 the hole is bored to the requisite depth 
 it is cleaned out, the explosive is intro- 
 duced, the hole is “tamped” or filled up 
 
 with broken stone, clay, or sand, and 
 the charge exploded by means of a fuse 
 or by electricity. In larger operations 
 mines or shafts of considerable diameter 
 take the place of the holes above de- 
 scribed. Shafts are sunk from the top 
 of the rock to various depths, some- 
 times upward of 60 feet. This shaft 
 joins a heading, or gallery, driven in 
 from the face, if possiWe along a natural 
 joint; and from this point other galleries 
 are driven some distance in various 
 directions, with headings at intervals, 
 returning toward the face of the rock 
 and terminating in chambers for the 
 charges. Enormous charges are fre- 
 quently made use of, upward of twenty 
 tons of gunpowder having been fired in 
 a single blast. One of the greatest blast- 
 ing operations ever attempted was the 
 removal of the reefs in the East River, 
 near New York, known as Hellgate. 
 An entrance-shaft was sunk on the I.ong 
 Island shore, from which the reef pro- 
 jected. From this shaft nearly twenty 
 tunnels were bored in all directions, 
 extending from 200 to 240 feet, and 
 connected by lateral galleries. Upward 
 of 52,000 lbs. of dymanite, rend-rock, 
 and powder were used, and millions of 
 tons of rock were dislodged. Numerous 
 important improvements have been made 
 in blasting by the substitution of rock- 
 boring machines for hand labor. Of 
 such machines, in which the “jumper” 
 or drill is repeatedly driven against the 
 rock by compressed air or steam, being 
 also made to rotate slightly at each 
 blow, there are many varieties. 
 
 BLATCHFORD, Samuel, an American 
 jurist, born in 1820 at New York City, 
 died in 1893. In 1882 he was appointed 
 an associate justice of the United States 
 Supreme court, and served in that ca- 
 pacity until his death. 
 
 BLEACHING, the act or art of freeing 
 textile fibers and fabrics and various 
 other substances (such as materials for 
 paper, ivory, wax, oils) from their 
 natural color, and rendering them per- 
 fectly white, or nearly so. The ancient 
 method of bleaching by exposing the 
 fabrics, etc., to the action of the sun’s 
 rays, and frequently wetting them, has 
 been nearly superseded, at least where 
 the business is carried on on the large 
 scale, more complicated processes in 
 connection with powerful chemical 
 preparations being now employed. 
 Among the latter the chief are chlorine 
 and sulphurous acid, the latter being 
 employed more especially in the case 
 of animal fibers (silk and wool), while 
 cotton, flax, and other vegetable fibers 
 are operated upon with chlorine, the 
 bleaching in both cases being preceded 
 by certain cleansing processes. The use 
 of chlorine as a bleaching agent was 
 first proposed by Berthollet in 1786, 
 and shortly afterward introduced into 
 Great Britain, where it was first used 
 simply dissolved in water, afterward 
 dissolved in alkali, and then in the form 
 of bleaching-powder, commonly called 
 chloride of lime. In modern calico 
 bleaching the preliminary process is 
 singeing by passing the fabric over red- 
 hot plates or through a gas-flame to 
 remove the downy pile and short- threads 
 from the surface of the cloth. The 
 goods next pass to the liming process 
 
BLEACHING-POWDER 
 
 BLOCKADE 
 
 wbpn they are uniformly and thoroughly | 
 impregnated with a supersaturated 
 solution of lime. The next process is 
 the bowking or boiling for several hours, 
 after which they are washed. They are 
 then soured by being passed through a 
 solution of hydrochloric acid for the 
 purpose of dissolving any traces of free 
 lime wliich may have been left in the 
 washing, and to decompose the calcare- 
 ous soap formed by the bowking process. 
 .\fter boiling in kiers with a solution of 
 soda-ash and rosin and another washing, 
 tlie cloth is ready for the processes of 
 chemicking or liquoring with bleaching- 
 powder, and white-souring with a very 
 dilute sulphuric acid. Another thorough 
 washing concludes the operations of 
 bleaching proper, after which the cloth 
 goes through various finishing processes. 
 Modifications of the same processes are 
 adopted in bleaching linen, wool, silk, 
 
 BLEACHING-POWDER, chloride of 
 lime, made by exposing slaked lime to 
 the action of chlorine. It is regarded as 
 a double salt of the chloride of calcium 
 and hypochlorite of calcium. It is much 
 used as a disinfectant, besides its use in 
 bleaching. 
 
 BLENHEIM DOG, a variety of spaniel, 
 bearing a close resemblance to the King 
 Charles breed, but somewhat smaller, so 
 named from having been originally bred 
 by one of the Dukes of Marlborough. 
 It has a short muzzle, long silky hair 
 without any curl, and long pendulous 
 ears. 
 
 BLEN'NERHAS'SET, Harman, a large 
 Anglo-American land-owner and emi- 
 grant who became noted for his asso- 
 ciation with the Aaron Burr conspiracy. 
 He was born in England in 1764 and 
 died in 1831. Coming to America in 
 1797 he settled in Virginia, and soon 
 gi-ew very rich, subsequently becoming a 
 cotton planter in Mississippi. His wife, 
 n6e .\deline Agnew, published several 
 novels which were popular in her 
 day. 
 
 BLESSING^ or BENEDICTION, a 
 prayer or solemn wish imploring happi- 
 ness upon another; a certain holy action 
 which, combined with prayer, seeks for 
 God’s grace for persons, and, in a lower 
 degree, a blessing upon things, with a 
 view whether to their efficiency or 
 safety. The lifting up of the hands is 
 an inseparable adjunct of the act of 
 blessing. In the Roman Catholic 
 Church the sign of the cross is made, 
 and the thumb and the two first fingers 
 of the right hand are extended, the two 
 remaining fingers turned down. In the 
 Greek Church tlie thumb and the third 
 finger of the same hand are conjoined, 
 the other fingers being stretched out. 
 Some see in this position a representa- 
 tion of the sacred monogram in Greek 
 letters of our Lord’s name. — In the 
 English liturgy there are two blessings 
 or benediction.®; in the service of the 
 Scotch Church there is only one. 
 
 BLESSINGTON, Margaret, Countess 
 of, was born near Clonmel, Ireland, 
 1789, died at Paris 18 9. At the age of 
 fifteen she married Captain Parmer, 
 who died in 1817; and a few months 
 after his death married Charles John 
 Gardiner, earl of Blessington. In 1822 
 they went abroad, and continued to 
 
 reside on the Continent till the earl’s 
 death in 1829, when Lady Blessington 
 took up her abode in Gore House, 
 Kensington. Her residence became the 
 fashionable resort for all the celebrities 
 of the time. She contributed to the 
 New Monthly Magazine, Conversations 
 with Lord Byron; wrote numerous 
 novels, including The Belle of a Season, 
 The Two Friends, Strathern, and the 
 Victims of Society; and acted as editress 
 for several years of Heath’s Book of 
 Beauty, the Keepsake, and the Gems of 
 Beauty. 
 
 BLIGHT, a generic name commonly 
 applied to denote the effects of disease 
 or any other circumstance which causes 
 plants to wither or decay. It has been 
 vaguely applied to almost every dis- 
 ease of plants whether caused by the 
 condition of the atmosphere or of the 
 soil, the attacks of insects, parasitic 
 fungi, etc. The term is frequently 
 limited to disease in cereal crops. 
 
 BLIND, a screen of some sort to pre- 
 vent too strong a light from shining in 
 at a window, or to keep people from 
 seeing in. Venetian blinds are made of 
 slats of wood, so connected as to overlap 
 each other when closed, and to show a 
 series of open spaces for the admission 
 of light and air when in the other 
 position. 
 
 BLIND, The, those who want, or are 
 deficient in, the sense of sight. Blind- 
 ness may vary in degree from the slight- 
 est impairment of vision to total loss of 
 sight; it may also be temporary or per- 
 manent. It is caused by defect, disease, 
 or injury to the e3"e, to the optic nerve, 
 or to that part of the brain connected 
 with it. Old age is sometimes accom- 
 panied with blindness, occasioned by 
 the drying up of the humors of the eye, 
 or by the opacity of the cornea, the 
 crystalline lens, etc. There are several 
 causes which produce blindness from 
 birth. Sometimes the eyelids adhere to 
 each other, or to the eyeball itself, or a 
 membrane covers the eyes; sometimes 
 the pupil of the eye is closed, or adheres 
 to the cornea, or is not situated in the 
 right place, so that the rays of light do 
 not fall in the middle of the eye; b^esides 
 other defects. The blind are often dis- 
 tinguished for a remarkable mental 
 activity, and a wonderful development 
 of the intellectual powers. Their touch 
 and hearing, particularly, become very 
 acute. 
 
 There are now comparatively few 
 large cities that do not possess a school 
 or institution of some kind for the blind. 
 The occupations in which the blind are 
 found capable of engaging are such as 
 the making of baskets and other kinds 
 of wicker-work, brushmaking, rope and 
 twine making, the making of mats and 
 matting, knitting, netting, fancy work 
 of various kinds, cutting fire-wood, the 
 sewing of sacks and bags, the carving 
 of articles in wood, etc. Piano-tuning 
 is also successfully carried on by some, 
 and the cleaning of clocks and watches 
 has even been occasionally practiced by 
 them. 
 
 Various systems have been devised 
 for the purpose of teaching the blind to 
 read, some of which consist in the use 
 of the ordinary Roman alphabet, with 
 more or less modification, and some of 
 
 which employ types quite arbitrary in 
 form. 
 
 BLIND-FISH, the name of several 
 species of fish, inhabiting the American 
 cave-streams. They are all small, the 
 largest not exceeding five inches. In 
 the typical species, of the Mammoth 
 Cave of Kentucky, the eyes are reduced 
 to a useless rudiment hidden under the 
 skin, the body is translucent and 
 colorless, and the head and body are 
 covered with numerous rows of sensitive 
 papillae, which form very delicate organs 
 of touch. 
 
 BLIND TOM, a celebrated musical 
 prodigy. He w’as born in 1850 near 
 Columbus, Ga., and his performances 
 on the piano were incredible. He could 
 repeat, after a single hearing, exceedingly 
 complex compositions. He was ex- 
 hibited for many years, but his mental 
 infirmities finally caused his with- 
 drawal. Pie was perfectly blind, and 
 almost idiotic. Of late he is said to have 
 lived m New York City. Died in 1908. 
 
 BLISS, CorneTius Newton, an Ameri- 
 can merchant and politician, born at 
 Fall River, Mass., in 1833. He has been 
 chairman of the republican state com- 
 mittee of New York and treasurer of the 
 republican national committee for sev- 
 eral terms. In President McKinley’s 
 cabinet he w’as secretary of the interior. 
 
 BLISTER, a topical application which, 
 when applied to the skin, raises the 
 cuticle in the form of a vesicle, filled 
 with serous fluid, and so produces a 
 counter-irritation. The Spanish fly- 
 blister operates with most certainty 
 and expedition, and is commonly used 
 for this purpose, as well as mustard, 
 hartshorn, etc. 
 
 BLIZ'ZARD, a fierce storm of frosty 
 wind with fine powdery snow, occurring 
 in some parts of N. America and often 
 causing loss of life through suffocation 
 and cold. 
 
 BLOCK, a mechanical contrivance 
 consisting of one or more grooved 
 pulleys mounted in a casing or shell 
 which is furnished with a hook, eye, or 
 strap, by which it may be attached to 
 an object, the function of the apparatus 
 being to transmit power or change the 
 direction of motion by means of a rope 
 or chain passing round the movable 
 pulleys. Blocks are single, double, 
 treble, or fourfold, accorffing as the 
 number of sheaves or pulleys is one, 
 two, three, or four. A running block is 
 attached to the object to be raised or 
 moved; a standing block is fixed to 
 some permanent support. Blocks also 
 receive different denominations from 
 their shape, purpose, and mode of ap- 
 plication. They are sometimes made 
 of iron as well as of wood. Blocks to 
 w'hich the name of dead-eyes has been 
 given are not pulleys, being unpro- 
 vided with sheaves. 
 
 BLOCKADE', is the rendering of inter- 
 course with the seaports of an enemy 
 unlawful on the part of neutrals, and it 
 consists essentially in the presence of a 
 sufficient naval force to make such 
 intercourse difficult. It must be de- 
 clared or made public, so that neutrals 
 may have notice of it. If a blockade 
 is instituted by a sufficient authority, 
 and maintained by a sufficient force, 
 a neutral is so far affected by it tluit an 
 
BLOCK-BOOKS 
 
 BLOOMER COSTUME 
 
 attempt to trade with the place invested 
 subjects vessel and cargo to confisca- 
 tion by the blockading power. The 
 term is also used to describe the state 
 of matters when hostile forces sit down 
 around a place and keep possession of 
 all the means of access to it, so as to 
 cut off entirely its communication with 
 the outside world, and so compel sur- 
 render from want of supplies. 
 
 BLOCK-BOOKS, before and for a 
 short time after the invention of print- 
 ing, books printed from wooden blocks 
 each the .size of a page and having the 
 matter to be reproduced, whether text 
 or picture, cut in relief on the surface. 
 
 BLOCKHOUSE, a fortified edifice of 
 one or more stories, constructed chiefly 
 of blocks of hewn timber. Blockhouses 
 are supplied with loopholes for mus- 
 ketry (a a) and sometimes with em- 
 
 Block-house. 
 
 brasures for cannon, and when of more 
 than one story the upper ones are made 
 to overhang those below, and are fur- 
 nished with machicolations or loopholes 
 in the overhung floor, so that a perpen- 
 dicular fire can be directed against the 
 enemy in close attack. Blockhouses are 
 often of great advantage, and in wooded 
 localities readily constructed. 
 
 BLOCK-SYSTEM, a system of work- 
 ing the traffic on railways according 
 to which the line is divided into sections 
 of 3 or 4 miles, each section generally 
 stretching from one station to the next, 
 with a signal and telegraphic connection 
 at the end of each section. The essential 
 principle of the system is that no train 
 is allowed to enter upon any one section 
 till the section is signaled wholly clear, 
 so that between two successive trains 
 there is not merely an interval of time, 
 but also an interval of space. 
 
 BLOCK-TIN, tin at a certain stage 
 of refinement, but not quite pure. 
 
 BLOIS (blwa), capital of the French 
 dep. Loir-et-Cher, 99 miles s.s.w. Paris, 
 
 Court of the Castle of Blois. 
 
 on the Loire. The castle was long 
 occupied by the counts of the name; 
 and oecame a favorite residence of the 
 kings of France. Louis XII. was born, 
 Francis I., Henry II., Charles IX., and 
 
 Henry III. held their courts in it Pop. 
 
 21,077. 
 
 BLOOD, the fluid which circulates 
 through the arteries and veins of the 
 human body and that of other animals, 
 which is essential to the preservation 
 of life and nutrition of the tissues. This 
 fluid is more or less red in vertebrates, 
 except in the lowest fishes. In insects 
 and in others of the lower animals there 
 is an analogous fluid which may be 
 colorless, red, bluish, greenish, or milky. 
 The venous blood of mammals is a dark 
 red, but in passing through the lungs it 
 becomes oxidized and acquires a bright 
 scarlet color, so that the blood in the 
 arteries is of a brighter hue than that 
 in the veins. The central organ of the 
 blood circulation is the heart (which 
 see). The specific gravity of human 
 blood varies from 1‘045 to 1'075, and 
 its normal temperature is 99° Fahr. 
 1000 parts contain 783' 37 of water, 2'83 
 fibrin, 67’ 25 albumen, 126' 31 blood 
 corpuscles, 5T6 fatty matters, 15' 08 
 various animal matters and salts. When 
 ordinary blood stands for a time it 
 separates into two portions, a red coagu- 
 lated mass consisting of the fibrin, cor- 
 puscles, etc., and a yellowish watery 
 portion, the serum. The blood cor- 
 puscles or globules are characteristic 
 of the fluid. These are minute red and 
 white bodies floating in the fluid of the 
 blood. The red ones give color to the 
 fluid, and are flattish discs, oval in birds 
 and reptiles, and round in man and most 
 mammals. In man they average 
 inch in diameter, and in the Proteus, 
 which has them larger than any other 
 vertebrate, TTtjth inch in length and 
 Trjtth in breadth. The white or color- 
 less corpuscles are the same as the 
 lymph or chyle corpuscles, and are 
 spherical or lenticular, nucleated, and 
 granulated, and rather larger than the 
 rett globules. See Harvey William. 
 
 BLOOD, Avenger of, in Scripture, the 
 nearest relation of any one that had died 
 by manslaughter or murder, so called 
 because it fell to him to punish the 
 person who was guilty of the deed. 
 
 BLOOD FEUD, the right of private 
 vengeance for injuries done by violence. 
 The feud is generally found a legal or 
 acknowledged right in primitive so- 
 cieties only. The right passes to the 
 nearest of kin to the injured or mur- 
 dered person. It persists today in 
 Corsica and other places, and in the U. 
 States it is practiced by the moun- 
 taineers of Kentucky. 
 
 BLOODHOUND, a variety of dog 
 with long smooth and pendulous ears, 
 remarkable for the acuteness of its 
 smell, and employed to recover game or 
 prey which has escaped wounded from 
 the hunter, by tracing the lost animal 
 by the blood it has spilt: whence the 
 name of the dog. There are several 
 varieties of this animal, as the English, 
 the Cuban, and the African bloodhound. 
 In some places bloodhounds have not 
 only been trained to the pursuit of 
 game, but also to the chase of man. In 
 America they used to be employed in 
 hunting fugitives slaves. 
 
 BLOOD-LETTING. See Phlebotomy. 
 
 BLOOD-RAIN, showers of grayish and 
 reddish dust mingled with rain which 
 occasionally fall usually in the zone of 
 
 the earth which extends on both sides 
 of the Mediterranean westwardly over 
 the Atlantic, and eastwardly to central 
 Asia. The dust is largely made up of 
 microscopic organisms, especially the 
 shells of diatoms; the red color being 
 owing to the presence of a red oxide of 
 iron. 
 
 Blood-hound. 
 
 BLOODROOT, a plant of Canada and 
 the U. States, belonging to the poppy 
 order, and so named from its root-stock 
 yielding a sap of a deep orange color. 
 Its leaves are heart-shaped and deeply 
 lobed, the flower grows on a scape and 
 is white or tinged with rose. The plant 
 has acrid narcotic properties, and has 
 been found useful in various diseases. 
 Geum canadense, another American 
 plant used as a mild tonic, is also known 
 as bloodroot. 
 
 BLOOD-STAINS, the stains left by 
 blood, and of importance in criminal 
 trials. Until recently it was impossible 
 positively to identify a blood-stain, old 
 or new, as human blood, because the 
 crystals formed by chemical tests are 
 indistinguishable as between man arid 
 some other animals. A positive test, 
 however, has recently been discovered. 
 The stain is extracted with a double 
 strength of salt solution and filtered. 
 Small quantities of human blood are 
 then injected daily for six days into the 
 peritoneal cavity of a rabbit. Some of 
 the rabbit’s serum is then added to the 
 clear filtrate of the suspected blood, and 
 if the latter be human a light flocculent 
 precipitate will fall. 
 
 BLOOD-VESSELS are the tubes or 
 vessels in which the blood circulates. 
 See Arteries, Veins, Heart. 
 
 BLOODY ASSIZES, those held by 
 Judge Jeffreys in 1685, after the sup- 
 pression of Monmouth’s rebellion. Up- 
 ward of 300 persons were executed after 
 short trials; very many were whipped, 
 imprisoned, and fined; and nearly 1000 
 were sent as slaves to the American 
 plantations. 
 
 BLOODY MARY, a name given to 
 Queen Mary of England, daughter of 
 Henry VIII., whose reign from 1553 to 
 1 558 was marked by persecution of the 
 Protestants. 
 
 BLOODY TOWER, a name given to 
 the tower in the Tower of London, in 
 which Richard III. had murdered the 
 young sons of Edward IV. 
 
 BLOOMER, Amelia Jenks, the inventor 
 of the bloomer costume for w'omen 
 She was a native of New York, born in 
 1818, died in 1894. She was a general 
 reformer and temperance advocate. 
 See Bloomers. 
 
 BLOOMER COSTUME, a style of dress 
 adopted about the year 1849 by Mrs. 
 Bloomer, of New York, who proposed 
 
BLOOMFIELD- ZEISLER 
 
 BLUE- BOTTLE FLY 
 
 thereby to effect a complete revolution 
 in female dress, and add materially to 
 the health and comfort of women. It 
 consisted of a jacket with close sleeves, 
 a skirt reaching a little below the knee, 
 and a pair of Turkish pantaloons se- 
 cured by bands round the ankles. See 
 Bloomer, Amelia Jenks. 
 
 BLOOMFIELD-ZEISLER, Fanny, an 
 American pianist, born in Austria in 
 1866. She was educated in Chicago and 
 abroad and made her first appearance 
 in 1883. She ranks among the greatest 
 of living pianists. 
 
 BLOOM'INGTON, a thriving city, 
 in the state of Illinois, 60 miles n.n.e. 
 of Springfield. It has several important 
 educational institutions, including the 
 Illinois Wesleyan University, a college 
 for women, and the state Normal Uni- 
 versity in the vicinity. Has coal-mines, 
 iron industries, railway works, etc., and 
 a large trade. Pop. 24,000. 
 
 BLOUSE (blouz), a light loose upper 
 garment, resembling a smock-frock, 
 made of linen or cotton, and worn by 
 men as a protection from dust or in place 
 of a coat. A blue linen blouse is the 
 common dress of French workmen. 
 
 BLOW-FLY, a name for a species of 
 two-winged flies that deposit their eggs 
 on flesh, and thus taint it. 
 
 BLOWING-MACHINE, any contri- 
 vance for supplying a current of air, 
 as for blowing glass, smelting iron, 
 renewing the air in confined spaces, and 
 the like. This may consist of a single 
 pair of bellows, but more generally two 
 pairs are combined to secure continuity 
 of current. The most perfect blowing- 
 machines are those in which the blast 
 is produced by the motion of pistons in 
 a cylinder, or by some application of the 
 fan principle. For smelting and refining 
 furnaces, where a blast with a pressure 
 of 3 or 4 lbs. to the square inch is re- 
 quired, blowing-engines of large size 
 and power, worked by steam, are em- 
 ployed. 
 
 BLOW-PIPE, an instrument by which 
 a current of air or gas is driven through 
 the flame of a tamp, candle, or gas jet, 
 and that flame directed upon a miheral 
 substance, to fuse or vitrify it, an in- 
 
 Blow-pipe. — a, Ball to catch moisture from 
 the mouth. 
 
 tense heat being created by the rapid 
 supply of oxygen and the concentration 
 of the flame upon a small area. In its 
 simplest form it is merely a conical tube 
 of brass, glass, or other substance, 
 usually 7 inches long and f inch in 
 diameter at one end, and tapering so as 
 to have a very small aperture at the 
 other, within 2 inches or so of which it 
 is bent nearly to a right angle, so that 
 the stream of air may be directed side- 
 wise to the operator. The flame is 
 turned to a horizontal direction, assumes 
 a conical shape, and consists of two parts 
 of different colors. The greatest heat is 
 obtained at the tip of the inner blue 
 hame. Here the substance subjected 
 to it is burned or oxidized, a small piece 
 of lead or copper, for instance, being 
 converted into its oxide. Hence the 
 
 name of the oxidizing flame. By shift- 
 ing the substance to the interior blue 
 flame, which is wanting in oxygen, this 
 element will be abstracted from the sub- 
 stance, and a metallic oxide, for in- 
 stance, will give out its metal; hence 
 this is called a reducing flame. The 
 blow-pipe is largely used in the manu- 
 facture of glass, jewelry, and other com- 
 modities. 
 
 BLUBBER, the fat of whales and 
 other large sea animals, from which 
 train-oil is obtained. The blubber lies 
 under the skin and over the muscular 
 flesh. It is eaten by the Eskimo and 
 the sea-coast races of the Japanese 
 islands, the Kuriles, etc. The whole 
 quantity yielded by one whale ordinarily 
 amounts to 40 or 50, but sometimes to 
 80 or more cwts. 
 
 BLUCHER (blii'/ter), Gebhard Leb- 
 erecht von, distinguished Prussian gen- 
 eral, born at Rostock 1742, died at 
 Krieblowitz, in Silesia, 1819. He en- 
 tered the Swedish service when fourteen 
 
 Bliicher. 
 
 years of age and fought against the 
 Prussians, but was taken prisoner in 
 his first campaign, and was induced to 
 enter the Prussian service. He became 
 a major in 1793 and in 1794 major- 
 general of the army of observation. 
 After the Peace of Tilsit he labored 
 in the department of war at Ko- 
 nigsberg and Berlin. He then re- 
 ceived the chief military command 
 in Pomerania, but at the instiga- 
 tion of Napoleon was afterward, with 
 several other distinguished men, dis- 
 missed from the service. In the cam- 
 paign of 1812, when the Prussians 
 assisted the French, he took no part; 
 but no sooner did Prussia rise against 
 her oppressors than Bliicher, then 
 seventy years old, engaged in the cause 
 with all his former activity, and was 
 appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 Prussians and the Russian corps under 
 General Winzingerode. His heroism in 
 the battle of Liitzen (May 2, 1813) was 
 rewarded by the Emperor Alexander 
 with the order of St. George. The 
 battles of Bautzen and Hanau, those on 
 the Katzbach and Leipzig, added to his 
 glory. He was now raised to the rank 
 of field-marshal, and led the Prussian 
 army which invaded France early in 
 1814. After a period of obstinate con- 
 flict the day of Montmartre crowned 
 this campaign, and, March 31, Bliicher 
 entered the capital of France. His king, 
 in remembrance of the victory which he 
 had gained at the Katzbach, created 
 him Prince of Wahlstadt, and gave him 
 an estate in Sjlesia. On the renewal of 
 
 the war in 1815 the chief command was 
 again committed to him, and he led his 
 army into the Netherlands. June 15 
 Napoleon threw himself upon him, and 
 Bliicher, on the 16th, was defeated at 
 Ligny. In the battle of the 18th Bliicher 
 arrived at the most decisive moment 
 upon the ground, and taking Napoleon 
 in the rear and flank assisted materially 
 in completing the great victory of Water- 
 loo. He was a rough and fearless soldier, 
 noted for his energy and rapid move- 
 ments, which had procured him the 
 name of “Marshal Voi-warts” (Forward). 
 
 BLUE, one of the seven colors into 
 which the rays of light divide them- 
 selves when refracted through a glass 
 prism, seen in nature in the clear ex- 
 panse of the heavens; also a dye or pig- 
 ment of this hue. The substance.?’ used 
 as blue pigments are of very different 
 natures, and derived from various 
 sources; they are all compound bodies, 
 some being natural and others artificial. 
 They are derived almost entirely from 
 the vegetable and mineral kingdoms. 
 
 BLUEBEARD, the hero of a well- 
 known tale, originally French, founded, 
 it is believed, on the enormities of a real 
 personage, Gilles de Laval, Count de 
 Retz, a great nobleman of Brittany, put 
 to death for his crimes in 1440. 
 
 BLUEBELL, a name given to the 
 wild hyacinth and to the harebell. 
 
 BLUEBERRY, an American species 
 of whortleberry. 
 
 BLUEBIRD, a small bird, very com- 
 mon in the U. States. The upper part 
 of the body is blue, and the throat and 
 breast of a dirty red. It makes its nest 
 in the hole of a tree or in the box that 
 is so commonly provided for its use by 
 the friendly farmer. The bluebird is 
 the harbinger of spring; its song is cheer- 
 
 The bluebird. 
 
 ful, continuing with little interruption 
 from March to October, but is most 
 frequently heard in the serene days of 
 the spring. It is also called blue robin 
 or blue redbreast, and is regarded with 
 the same sort of sentiments as the robin 
 of Europe. 
 
 BLUE-BOOKS, the official reports, 
 papers, and documents printed for the 
 British government and laid before the 
 Houses of Parliament. They are so 
 called simply from being stitched up in 
 dark-blue paper wrappers, and include 
 bills presented to and acts passed by the 
 houses; all reports and papers moved 
 for by members or granted by govern- 
 ment on particular subjects; the reports 
 of committees; statistics of the trade, 
 etc., of the country and of the colonies; 
 and ambassadorial and consular reports 
 from foreign countries and ports. 
 
 BLUE-BOTTLE FLY, a large blue 
 species of blow-fly, 
 
BLUEFISH 
 
 BOCCACCIO 
 
 BLUEFISH, a species of sea-fish 
 widely distributed on the U. States 
 coasts and highly prized as an article of 
 diet. The size of the fish varies from 
 3 to 25 pounds, 10 pounds being con- 
 sidered a heavy fish. The color is 
 greenish or bluish. The production of 
 bluefish runs up into millions of pounds 
 annually. 
 
 BLUE-GRASS, a species of grass of 
 the same order as meadow grass. It is 
 common in the U. States, Europe, and 
 Asia. It grows to its greatest perfection 
 in Kentucky and Tennessee and is often 
 called, for that reason, Kentucky blue- 
 grass. 
 
 BLUE-GRASS REGION, a part of 
 Kentucky famous for its excellent 
 pastures of blue-grass and its fine horses. 
 
 BLUE LAWS, a term applied to cer- 
 tain Puritan enactments, particularly 
 in Connecticut, and concerned with 
 Sabbath breaking. The term is now 
 generally applied to any stringent laws 
 of religious or moral force. 
 
 BLUE LIGHT, a brilliant light used 
 for signaling at sea. It is produced by 
 the ignition of a fine powder composed 
 principally of antimony. For that 
 reason the fumes of the combustion are 
 poisonous when inhaled in considerable 
 quantity. 
 
 BLUE RIDGE, the most easterly 
 ridge of the Alleghany or Appalachian 
 Mountains. The most elevated sum- 
 mits are the peaks of Otter (4000 feet) 
 in Virginia. 
 
 BLUESTOCKING, a literary lady: 
 applied usually with the imputation of 
 pedantry. The term arose in connection 
 with certain meetings held by ladies in 
 the days of Dr. Johnson for conversation 
 with distinguished literary men. One of 
 these literati was a Mr. Benjamin Still- 
 ingfleet, who always wore blue stockings, 
 and whose conversation at these meet- 
 ings was so much prized that his absence 
 at any time was felt to be a great loss, 
 so that the remark became common, 
 “We can do nothing without the blue 
 stockings”; hence these meetings were 
 sportively called blue-stocking clubs, 
 and the ladies who attended them blue- 
 stockings. 
 
 BLUEWING, a genus of American 
 ducks, so called from the color of the 
 wing-coverts. One species is brought 
 in great quantities to market, the flesh 
 being highly esteemed for its flavor. 
 
 BLUFFS, the name in America for the 
 steep banks of a stream or lake forming 
 prominent headlands, and often extend- 
 ing inland as plateau . 
 
 BLUN'DERBUSS, a short gun with a 
 very wide bore, capable of holding a 
 number of slugs or bullets, and intended 
 to do execution at a limited range with- 
 out exact aim. 
 
 BLUSHING, a physiological process 
 by which the blood flows in larger 
 quantities to certain parts of the body, 
 as the breast, face, and neck. It is 
 customarily produced by some mental 
 shock, as of shame, modest}^, chagrin, 
 etc., and its connection with the brain 
 is not understood. It is known, how- 
 ever, that such mental shocks cause a 
 a sudden dilation of the small blood- 
 vessels in the parts mentioned. 
 
 BOA, a genus of serpents having the 
 jaws so constructed that these animals 
 
 can dilate the mouth sufficiently to 
 swallow bodies thicker than themselves. 
 They are also distinguished by having 
 a hook on each side of the vent ; the tail 
 prehensile; the body compressed and 
 largest in the middle, and with small 
 scales, at least on the posterior part of 
 the head. The genus includes some of 
 the largest species of serpents, reptiles 
 endowed with immense muscular power. 
 They seize sheep, deer, etc., and crush 
 them in their folds, after which they 
 swallow the animal whole. The boas 
 are peculiar to the hot parts of S. 
 America. The Boa constrictor is not 
 one of the largest members of the genus, 
 rarely exceeding 20 feet in length; but 
 the name boa or boa constrictor is often 
 given popularly to any of the large ser- 
 pents of similar habits, and so as to 
 include the Pythons of the Old World 
 and the Anaconda and other large 
 serpents of America. 
 
 BOADICE'A, Queen of the Iceni, in 
 Britain, during the reign of Nero. 
 Having been treated in the most igno- 
 minious manner by the Romans, she 
 headed a general insurrection of the 
 Britons, attacked the Roman settle- 
 ments, reduced London to ashes, and 
 put to the sword all strangers to the 
 number of 70,000. Suetonius, the 
 Roman general, defeated her in a de- 
 cisive battle (a.d. 62), and Boadicea, 
 rather than fall into the hands of her 
 enemies, put an end to her own life by 
 poison. 
 
 BOAR, the male of swine not cas- 
 trated. See Hog. 
 
 BOARD, a number of persons having 
 the management, direction, or superin- 
 tendence of some public or private office 
 or trust; often an office under the con- 
 trol of an executive government, the 
 business of which is conducted by offi- 
 cers speciall}’' appointed for that purpose. 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION, a depart- 
 ment of a city government which has 
 control of primary, secondary, and 
 high school education. 
 
 BOARD OF TRADE. See Trade, 
 Board of. 
 
 BOARDING-HOUSE, a private busi- 
 ness concern which feeds and lodges 
 guests but which differs from a hotel or 
 inn because the proprietor reserves the 
 right to reject applicants for keep. The 
 keeper is responsible for the goods of 
 his guest and in common law has no 
 lien for debt on those goods. 
 
 BOAT, a small open vessel or water 
 craft usually moved Ly oars or rowing. 
 The forms, dimensions, and uses of 
 boats are very various, and some of 
 them carry a light sail. Large vessels, 
 whether ships of war or merchantmen, 
 carry with them a number of boats; 
 and since steam has become so common 
 as a propelling power, it has also been 
 employed in ships’ boats. A ship of 
 war has now usually several large boats 
 propelled by steam, with others that 
 are rowed, as a barge, pinnace, yawl, 
 cutter, jollj^-boat, and gig. 
 
 BOAT'SWAIN (commonly pronounced 
 bo'sn), a warrant-officer in the navy 
 who has charge of the sails, rigging, 
 colors, anchors, cables, and cordage. 
 His office is also to summon the crew 
 to their duty, to relieve the watch, 
 etc. In the merchant service one of 
 
 the crew who has charge of the rigging 
 and oversees the men. 
 
 BOB'BIN, a reel or other similar con- 
 trivance for holding thread. It is often 
 a cylindrical piece of wood with a head, 
 on which thread is wound for making 
 lace; or a spool with a head at one or 
 both ends, intended to have thread or 
 yarn wound on it, and used in spinning 
 machinery (when it is slipped on a 
 spindle and revolves therewith) and in 
 sewing-machines (applied within the 
 shuttle) . 
 
 BOBBINET, a machine-made cotton 
 net, originally imitated from the lace 
 made by means of a pillow and bobbins. 
 
 BOBOLINK, one of the most inter- 
 esting song-birds of North America, 
 found wherever plains, prairie meadows, 
 or cultivated fields offer it a suitable 
 home. The length is about 7 inches, of 
 
 The bobolink. 
 
 which 2| inches go to the tail ; the spring 
 or breeding plumage of the adult male 
 is black, with the hindhead and nape, 
 scapulars, rump, and upper tail-coverts 
 buff, inclining to ochraceous on the neck 
 and ashy toward the tail; the female is 
 protectively denied this gay suit, and is 
 clothed in neutral yellowish brown, much 
 streaked ; and the young of both sexes 
 wear a similar dress until the males ma- 
 ture. The female constmets on the 
 ground a nest of grasses in which are 
 laid four or five eggs, dull white, fleck- 
 ed and marbled with Vandyke brown, 
 upon which she sits very closely for 
 about a fortnight. 
 
 During the nuptial season — from 
 May until mid-July — the male is driv- 
 ing from the vicinity every intruder 
 he can frighten away, especially 
 rivals of his own kind. 
 
 BOBRUISK, a fortified town of 
 Russia, gov. Minsk. Pop. 58,056. 
 
 BOCCACCIO (bok-kat'cho), Giovanni, 
 Italian novelist and poet, was born 
 1313, in Certaldo, died there 1375. In 
 1341 Boccaccio fell in love with Maria, 
 an illegitimate daughter of King Robert, 
 who returned his passion with equal 
 
BOCHUM 
 
 BOHEMIA 
 
 ardor, and was immortalized as Fiam- 
 metta in many of his best creations. 
 In 1344 he returned to Naples, where 
 Giovanna, the granddaughter of Robert, 
 who had succeeded to the throne, re- 
 ceived him with distinction. Between 
 1344 and 1350 mos<^ of the stories of 
 the Decameron were composed at her 
 desire or at that of Fiammetta. This 
 work, on which his fame rests, consists 
 of 100 tales represented to have been 
 related in equal portions in ten days by 
 a party of ladies and gentlemen at a 
 country house near Florence while the 
 plague was raging in that city. The 
 stories in this wonderful collection range 
 from the highest pathos to the coarsest 
 licentiousness. On the death of his 
 father Boccaccio returned to Florence, 
 where he was greatly honored, and 
 was sent on several public embassies. 
 Among others he was sent to Padua to 
 communicate to Petrarch the tidings of 
 his recall from exile and the restoration 
 of his property. From this time an 
 intimate friendship grew up between 
 them which continued for life. They 
 both contributed greatly to the revival 
 of the study of classical literature. In 
 1373 he was chosen by the Florentines 
 to occupy the chair which was estab- 
 lished for the exposition of Dante’s 
 Divina Commedia. His lectures con- 
 tinued till his death. 
 
 BOCHUM (boA'um), a Prussian town, 
 prov. of Westphalia, 5 miles e.n.e. of 
 Essen; manufactories of iron, steel, 
 hardware, etc. Pop. 65,554 
 
 BOCK, BOCKBIER, a variety of Ger- 
 man beer made with more malt and less 
 hops than ordinary German beer, and 
 therefore sweeter and stronger. 
 
 BODLEIAN LIBRARY at Oxford, 
 founded by Sir Thomas Bodley in 1598, 
 opened 1602. It claims a copy of all 
 works published in Britain, and for 
 rare works and MSS. it is said to be 
 second only to the Vatican. It contains 
 about 500,000 books. 
 
 BODLEY, Sir Thomas, the founder of 
 the Bodleian Library at Oxford, was 
 born at Exeter in 1544, died in London 
 1612. He was educated partly at 
 Geneva, whither his parents, who were 
 Protestants, had retired in the reign of 
 Queen Mary. On the accession of Eliza- 
 beth they returned home, and he com- 
 pleted his studies at Magdalen College, 
 Oxford. He traveled much on the Con- 
 tinent, and was employed in various 
 embassies to Denmark, Germany, 
 France, and Holland. In 1597 he re- 
 turned home, and dedicated the re- 
 mainder of his life to the reestablish- 
 inent and augmentation of the public 
 library at Oxford. He expended a very 
 large sum in collecting rare and valuable 
 books, besides leaving an estate for the 
 support of the library. He was knighted 
 at the accession of James 1. 
 
 BODY-SNATCHING, an ancient prac- 
 tice in vogue previous to the recogni- 
 tion by law of the science of anatomy 
 and the legal provision of material for 
 dissection. Body-snatching, or grave- 
 robbing, is a general offense in com- 
 mon law, no matter what may be the 
 purpose of the theft. It is seldom 
 practiced nowadays except in the com- 
 mission of crime. Jerry Cruncher, in 
 
 Dickens’s Tale of Two Cities, was a pro- 1 
 fessional body-snatcher. 
 
 BCEO'TIA, a division of ancient 
 Greece, lying between Attica and Phocis, 
 had an area of 1119 sq miles. The 
 whole country is surrounded by moun- 
 tains. The country originally had a 
 superabundance of water, but artificial 
 drainage works made it one of the most 
 fertile districts of Greece. The inhabi- 
 tants were of the .iEolian race, most of 
 the towns formed a kind of republic, of 
 which Thebes was the chief city. 
 Epaminondas and Pelopidas raised 
 Thebes for a time to the highest rank 
 among Grecian states. Refinement and 
 cultivation of mind never made such 
 progress in Boetia as in Attica, and the 
 term Boeotian was used by the Athenians 
 as a synonym for dulness, but somewhat 
 unjustly, since Hesiod, Pindar, the 
 poetess Corinna, and Plutarch were 
 Boeotians. Boeotia now forms a nomar- 
 chy of the kingdom of Greece, with a 
 population of 57,091 ; capital, Livadia. 
 
 BOERS (borz), the farmers of Dutch 
 origin in South Africa. In 1836-37 many 
 Boers, being dissatisfied with the 
 Britisn government in Cape Colony, 
 migrated beyond the Orange river, and 
 a number found their way to what is 
 now Natal. Here there had been British 
 settlements for some years, and the 
 British formally annexed the country 
 in 1843. Subsequently the Boers were 
 allowed to establish the Orange Free 
 State as an independent republic, and 
 several other small republics, which 
 finally were combined into one — the 
 South African Republic, or Transvaal. 
 In 1877 the Transvaal was annexed by 
 Britain, according to the wish of many 
 of the people, but war broke out in 1880, 
 British forces suffered more than one 
 defeat, and in 1881 the country was 
 accorded a modified independence. 
 Henceforth it was a common feeling 
 among the Boers that they and not the 
 British must be predominant in South 
 Africa, and in October, 1899, after an 
 insolent ultimatum, the united forces 
 of the Transvaal and Orange State 
 invaded Natal. The war which followed 
 with Britain was concluded 'oy the final 
 surrender of the Boers in May, 1902; 
 the two states having been declared 
 British territory in 1900. See Transvaal, 
 Natal, etc. 
 
 BOG, a piece of wet, soft, and spongy 
 ground, where the soil is composed 
 mainly of decaying and decayed vege- 
 table matter. Such ground is valueless 
 for agriculture until reclaimed, but often 
 yields abundance of peat for fuel. 
 
 BOGAR'DUS, James, an American 
 inventor, born in 1800, died in 1874. 
 Among nis inventions were the “ring- 
 flyer” or “ring-spinner” used in cotton 
 manufacture (1828), the eccentric mill 
 (1829), an engraving machine (1831), 
 and the first dry gas-meter (1832). In 
 1839 he gained the reward offered for 
 the best plan for carrying out the penny 
 postage system by the use of stamps. 
 In 1847 he built the first complete cast- 
 iron structure in the world, and the first 
 wrought-iron beams were made from 
 his design. His delicate pyrometer and 
 deep-sea sounding machine were valua- 
 able additions to scientific instru- 
 ments. 
 
 BOGOTA', a city of South America, 
 capital of Colombia and of the state or 
 department of Cundinamarcp, and seat 
 of an archbishopric, situated on an 
 elevated plain 8863 feet above the sea, 
 at the foot of two lofty mountains, 
 with a healthful though moist climate, 
 and a temperature rarel}' exceeding 59° 
 Fahr. Bogota being subject to earth- 
 quakes, the houses are low, and strongly 
 built of sun-dried brick. The inhabi- 
 tants are mostly Creoles. Bogota is an 
 emporium of internal trade, and has 
 manufactures of soap, cloth, leather, 
 etc., not of great importance. It was 
 founded in 1538. Pop. about 100,000. 
 
 BO'GUS, an Americanism meaning 
 counterfeit, and applied to any spurious 
 or counterfeit object; as, a bogus gov- 
 ernment, a bogus law. The origin of the 
 term is uncertain. 
 
 BOHE'MIA, a province with the title 
 of kingdom belonging to the Austro- 
 Hungarian monarchy, bounded by Ba- 
 varia, Saxony, the Prussian province 
 of Silesia, Moravia, and the archduchy 
 of Austria; area, 20,223 sq. miles; pop. 
 6,318,280, of whom more than 2,000,000 
 are Germans, the rest mostly Czechs. 
 The prevailing religion is the Roman 
 Catholic, the country being an arch- 
 bishopric with three bishoprics. The 
 language of the country is the Czech 
 dialect of the Slavonic (see Czech lan- 
 guage); in some districts, and in most 
 of the cities, German is spoken. Bo- 
 hemia is surrounded on all sides by 
 mountains, and has many large forests. 
 The chief rivers are the Elbe and its 
 tributary the Moldau, which is even 
 larger. All sorts of grain are produced 
 in abundance, as also large quantities of 
 potatoes, pulse, sugar-beet, flax, hops 
 (the best in Europe), and fruits. The 
 raising of sheep, horses, swine, and 
 poultry is carried on to a considerable 
 extent. The mines yield silver, copper, 
 lead, tin, zinc, iron, cobalt, arsenic, 
 uranium, antimony, alum, sulphur, 
 plumbago, and coal. There are numer- 
 ous mineral springs, but little salt. 
 Spinning and weaving of linen, cotton, 
 and woolen goods are extensively carried 
 on; manufactures of lace, metal, and 
 wood work, machinery, chemical, prod- 
 ucts, beet-root sugar, pottery, porce- 
 lain, etc., are also largely developed. 
 Large quantities of beer (Pilsener) are 
 exported. The glassware of Bohemia, 
 which is known all over Europe, em- 
 ploys 50,000 workers. The trade, partly 
 transit, is extensive, Prague, the capital, 
 being the center of it. The largest 
 towns are Prague, Pilsen, Reichenberg, 
 Budweis, Teplitz, Axissig, and Eger. 
 The educational establishments include 
 the Prague University and upward of 
 4000 ordinary schools. The province 
 sends 92 representatives to the Austrian 
 parliament; the provincial diet consists 
 of 241 members. 
 
 Bohemia was named after a tribe of 
 Gallic origin, the Boii, who were expelled 
 from this region by the Marcomans at 
 the commencement of the Christian era. 
 The latter were in turn obliged to give 
 place to the Germans, and these to the 
 Czechs, a Slavic race who had estab- 
 lished themselves in Bohemia by the 
 middle of the 5th century, and still form 
 the bulk of the population. The country 
 
BOIES 
 
 BOLEYN 
 
 was at first divided into numerouB 
 principalities. Christianity was intro- 
 duced about 900. In 1092 Bohemia was 
 finally recognized as a kingdom under 
 Wratislas II. In 1230 the monarchy, 
 hitherto elective, became hereditary. 
 The monarchs received investiture from 
 the German emperor, held one of the 
 great offices in the imperial court, and 
 were recognized as among the seven 
 electors of tJie empire. Frequently at 
 strife with its neighbors, Bohemia was 
 successively united and disunited with 
 Hungary, Silesia, Moravia, etc., accord- 
 ing to the course of wars and alliances. 
 
 BOIES, Horace, an American states- 
 man, born in New York in 1827. He 
 settled in Iowa and was elected governor 
 of that state in 1889 and 1891. He is 
 well known for his opposition to pro- 
 tective tariff. 
 
 BOIL, to heat a. fluid up to the point 
 at which it is converted into vapor. 
 The conversion takes place chiefly at 
 the point of contact with the source of 
 heat, and the bubbles of vapor rising 
 to the surface, and breaking there, pro- 
 duce the commotion called ebullition. 
 At the ordinary atmospheric pressure 
 ebullition commences at a temperature 
 which is definite for each liquid. The 
 escape of the heated fluid in the form of 
 vapor prevents any further rise of tem- 
 perature in an open vessel when the 
 boiling-point has been reached. The 
 exact definition of the boiling-point of a 
 liquid is “that temperature at which the 
 tension of its vapor exactly balances 
 the pressure of the atmosphere.” The 
 influence of this pressure appears from 
 experiments. In an exhausted receiver 
 the heat of the human hand is sufficient 
 to make water boil; while, on the con- 
 trary, in Papin’s digester, in which it is 
 
 E ossible to subject the water in the 
 oiler to a pressure of three or four 
 atmospheres, the water may be heated 
 far above the normal boiling-point 
 without giving signs of ebullition. 
 From this relation between the ebulli- 
 tion of a liquid and atmospheric pressure 
 the heights of objects above sea-level 
 may be calculated by comparing the 
 actual boiling-point at any place with 
 the normal boiling-point. (See Heights, 
 Measurement of.) The boiling-point 
 of water as marked on Fahrenheit’s 
 thermometer is 212°; on the Centigrade, 
 100°; on the Reaumur, 80°. Ether boils 
 at about 96°, mercury at 662°. 
 
 BOIL, a small painful swelling of a 
 conical shape on the surface of the body. 
 Its base is hard, wdiile its apex is soft 
 and of a whitish color. Boils are gen- 
 erally indicative of depressed health, 
 intemperate habits, or disorder of the 
 digestive organs. 
 
 BOILER, a vessel constructed of 
 wrought iron or steel plates riveted 
 together, with needful adjuncts, , in 
 which steam is generated from water 
 for the purpose of driving a steam- 
 engine, or for other purposes. 
 
 The shell of the boiler, or outer part, 
 is of iron or steel plates. The steam 
 chest or dome, on the upper side of the 
 boiler, is a reservoir, whence the steam 
 is supplied to the engine by the steam- 
 pipe, which is fitted with a stop-valve. 
 The furnace is the chamber for the com- 
 bustion of the fuel. The flues or con- 
 
 duits for the burnt gases are either 
 external or internal; cylindrical metal 
 flues are flue-tubes, and they are fixed 
 at the ends into tube-plates. The man- 
 hole is the entrance to the boiler for 
 inspection, etc.; and it is closed by a 
 manhole door or lid. Mudholes are 
 placed at or near the bottom of the 
 
 Double-flue boiler. 
 
 boiler, for the discharge of sediment, 
 etc. The water Is supplied by the feed- 
 apparatus; its level is indicated by a 
 float. The water-gauge also shows the 
 level of the water; it may be a glass tube 
 at the front of the boiler, connected to 
 it by two horizontal tubes, one at the 
 upper end and one at the lower end of 
 the glass tube; or it may be a series of 
 two or three gauge-cocks, connected at 
 different levels. The boiler is emptied 
 by the blow-off cock; the surface of the 
 water is cleared by the scum-cock. 
 Brine-pumps niay be used instead of 
 blow-off cocks to draw off the brine from 
 marine boilers. Surplus steam escapes 
 by the safety-valves. Vacuum valves 
 admit air into the boiler, when the 
 pressure is less than that of the atmos- 
 phere. Fusible plugs are inserted in the 
 boiler, over the fire, which melt and 
 give vent to the steam when the pressure 
 and temperature of the steam in the 
 boiler become excessive and dangerous. 
 The degree of pressure is indicated by 
 the pressure-gauge. The boiler is 
 strengthened by stays, which may con- 
 sist of rods, bolts, or gussets. The 
 boiler is covered with clothing or clead- 
 ing. The fire-grate carries the fuel, 
 and it consists of grate-bars or fire-bars, 
 usually of cast-iron, supported by cross- 
 bearers or bar-frames. The mouthpiece 
 is the entrance to the furnace, and it 
 rests on the dead-plate. The fire-door 
 or pair of fire-doors are fitted to and 
 hung by it. The heating surface is the 
 surface of the boiler exposed to the 
 flame and burned gases from the furnace. 
 
 Boilers are of two types: shell boilers, 
 consisting of a large shell, usually cylin- 
 drical with flat ends, containing the 
 water and steam, so that the whole of 
 the shell is exposed to the full pressure 
 of the steam; and water-tube boilers, in 
 which the water flows through a large 
 number of tubes of small diameter, 
 while the products of combustion flow 
 over the outsides of the tubes. 
 
 BOISE CITY, capital of the state of 
 Idaho. Pop. 5957. 
 
 BOJOL (bo-hoF), one of the Philippine 
 Islands, north of Mindanao, about 40 
 miles by 30 miles. Woody and moun- 
 tainous. Pop. 187,000. 
 
 BOKHARA, BOCHARA, (bo-/ia'ra), a 
 khanate of central .4sia, vassal to 
 Russia, bounded north by Russian 
 Turkestan, west by Khiva and the 
 Transcaspian Territory of Russim south 
 by Afghanistan, and east by Chinese 
 Turkestan; area about 93,000 square 
 miles. The country in the west is to a 
 
 great extent occupied by deserts; in the 
 east are numerous ranges of mountains 
 Cultivation is mainly confined to the 
 valleys of the rivers. The climate ii 
 warm in summer, but severe in winter; 
 there is very little rain, and artificial 
 irrigation is necessary. Besides cereals, 
 cotton and tobacco are cultivated, and 
 also a good deal of fruit. The total 
 population, about 2,000,000. — Bokhara, 
 the capital of the khanate, is 8 or 9 
 miles in circuit, and is surrounded by a 
 mud wall. Pop 70,000. 
 
 BOLAN' PASS, a celebrated defile in 
 the Hala Mountains, n.e. of Beluchistan, 
 on the route between the Lower Indus 
 (Scinde) and the tableland of Afghanis- 
 tan. It is about 60 miles long, hemmed 
 in on all sides by lofty precipices, and 
 
 In the Bolan pass. 
 
 in parts so narrow that a regiment could 
 defend it against an army. It is trav- 
 ersed by the Bolan river. The crest of 
 the pass is 5800 feet high. 
 
 BOLAS, a form of missile used by the 
 Paraguay Indians, the Patagonians, 
 and especially by the Gauchos of the 
 Argentine Republic. It consists of a 
 rope or line having at either end a stone, 
 ball of metal, or lump of hardened clay. 
 When used it is swung round the head by 
 one end, and then hurled at an animal 
 so as to entangle it. 
 
 BOLER'O, a popular Spanish dance 
 of the ballet class for couples, or for a 
 single female dancer. The music, which 
 is in triple measure, is generally marked 
 by rapid changes of time, and the 
 dancers mostly accompany the music 
 with castanets. The interest of these 
 dances largely depends upon the panto- 
 mine of passion, which forms an essen- 
 tial part of them. 
 
 BOLEYN (bul'in), Anne, second wife 
 of Henry VIII. of England, eldest 
 daughter of Sir Thomas Bolejm and 
 Elizabeth Howard, daughter of the 
 Duke of Norfolk; born, according to 
 some accounts, in 1507. but more 
 probably about 1501. Sne attended 
 Mary, sister of Henry, on her marriage 
 with Louis XII., to France, as lady of 
 honor, returning to England about 1522, 
 and becoming lady of honor to Queen 
 
bolingbroke 
 
 BOLOGNA 
 
 6atherine. The king, who soon grew 
 passionately enamored of her, without 
 waiting for the official completion of his 
 divorce from Catherine, married Anne 
 in January, 1533, having previously 
 created her Marchioness of Pembroke. 
 When her pregnancy revealed the secret, 
 Cranmer declared the first marriage 
 void and the second valid, and Anne 
 was crowned at Westminster with 
 
 Anne Boleyn. 
 
 unparalleled splendor. On Sept. 7, 
 1533, she became the mother of Eliza- 
 beth She was speedily, however, in 
 turn supplanted by her own lady of 
 honor, Jane Seymour. Suspicions of 
 infidelity were alleged against her, and 
 in 1536 the queen was brought before a 
 jury of peers on a charge of treason and 
 adultery. Smeaton, a musician, who 
 was arrested with others, confessed that 
 he had enjoyed her favors, and on May 
 17 she was condemned to death. The 
 clemency of Henry went no further than 
 the substitution of the scaffold for the 
 stake, and she was beheaded on May 
 19, 1536. Whether she was guilty or 
 not has never been decided; that she 
 was exceedingly indiscreet is certain. 
 
 BO'LINGBROKE, Henry St. John, 
 Viscount, English statesman and politi- 
 cal writer, born in 1678 at Battersea, 
 London; educated at Eton and at Ox- 
 ford, where he had a reputation both 
 for ability and libertinism. In 1700 he 
 married a considerable heiress, the 
 daughter of Sir Henry Winchcomb, but 
 they speedily separated. In 1701 he 
 obtained a seat in the Blouse of Com- 
 mons, attaching himself to Harley and 
 the Tories. He at once gained influence 
 and became secretary of war in 1706, 
 though he retired with the ministry in 
 1708. He continued, however, to 
 maintain a constant intercourse with 
 the queen, who preferred him to her 
 other counselors, and on the overthrow 
 of the Whig ministry in 1710, after the 
 Sacheverell episode, he became one of 
 the secretaries of state. In 1712 he was 
 called to the House of Lords by the 
 title of Viscount Bolingbroke, and in 
 1713, against much popular opposition, 
 concluded the Peace of Utrecht. Queen 
 Anne, provoked by Oxford, dismissed 
 him, and made Bolingbroke prime- 
 minister, but died herself four days 
 later. Bolingbroke, dismissed by King 
 George while yet in Germany, fled to 
 France in March, 1715, to escape the 
 inevitable impeachment by which, in 
 
 the autumn of that year, he was deprived 
 of his peerage and banished. In 1723 
 he was permitted to return to England. 
 In 1735 a return to France became 
 prudent, if not necessary. In 1742, on 
 the fall of Walpole, he came back in the 
 expectation that his allies would admit 
 him to some share of power; but, being 
 disappointed in this respect, he with- 
 drew entirely from politics and spent the 
 last nine years of his life in quietude at 
 Battersea, dying in 1751 He was 
 clever and versatile, but unscrupulous 
 and insincere 
 
 BOLIVAR (bo-le'var), Simon, the 
 liberator of Spanish South America, 
 was born at Caracas, July 24, 1783. 
 He finished his education in Europe, 
 and having then joined the patriotic 
 party among his countrymen he shared 
 in the first unsuccessful efforts to throw 
 off the Spanish yoke. In 1812 he joined 
 the patriots of New Granada in their 
 struggle, and having defeated the 
 Spaniards in several actions he led a 
 small force into his own country (Vene- 
 zuela), and entered the capital, Caracas, 
 as victor and liberator, Aug. 4, 1813. 
 But the success of the revolutionary 
 party was not of long duration. Bolivar 
 was beaten by General Boves, and before 
 the end of the year the royalists were 
 again masters of Venezuela. Bolivar 
 next received from the Congress of New 
 Granada the command of an expedition 
 against Bogota, and after the successful 
 transfer of the seat of government to 
 that city retired to Jamaica. Having 
 again returned to Venezuela he was able 
 to rout the royalists under Morillo, and, 
 after a brilliant campaign, effected in 
 1819 a junction with the forces of the 
 New Granada republic. The battle of 
 Bojaca which followed gave him posses- 
 sion of Santa F6 and all New Granada, 
 of which he was appointed president 
 and captain-general. A law was now 
 passed by which the Republics of Vene- 
 zuela and New Granada were to be 
 united in a single state, as the Republic 
 of Colombia; and Bolivar was elected 
 the first president. In 1822 he went to 
 the aid of Peru, and was made dictator, 
 an office held by him till 1825, by which 
 time the country had been completely 
 freed from Spanish rule. In 1825 he 
 visited Upper Peru, which formed itself 
 into an independent republic named 
 Bolivia, in honor of Bolivar. In Colom- 
 bia a civil war arose between his adher- 
 ents and the faction opposed to him, 
 but Bolivar was confirmed in the presi- 
 dency in 1826, and again in 1828, and 
 continued to exercise the chief authority 
 until May, 1830, when he resigned. He 
 died at Carthagena on the 17th Decem- 
 ber, 1830. — One of the departments of 
 Colombia is named after him, as are also 
 a state of the republic Venezuela, and 
 the town Ciudad Bolivar. 
 
 BOLIV'IA, formerly called Upper 
 Peru, a republic of South America, 
 bounded n. and e by Brazil, s. by the 
 Argentine Republic and Paraguay, and 
 w. by Peru and Chile. Estimates of its 
 area vary from 471,788 to 800,000 sq. 
 miles. The total pop. is about 2,300,000. 
 An unascertained proportion of the 
 inhabitants belong to aboriginal races 
 (the Aymaras and the Quichuas); the 
 larger portion of the remainder be- 
 
 ing Mestizos or descendants of the 
 original settlers by native women. The 
 largest town is La Paz, but the executive 
 government has its seat at Sucre or 
 Chuquisaca; other towns are Potosi, 
 Oruro, and Cochabamba. The broadest 
 part of the Andes, where these moun- 
 tains, encompassing Lakes Titicaca 
 (partly in Bolivia) and Aullagas, divide 
 into two chains, known as the Eastern 
 and Western Cordilleras, lies in the 
 western portion of the state. Here are 
 some cuf the highest summits of the 
 Andes, as Sorata, Illimani, and Sajama. 
 The two chains inclose an extensive 
 tableland, the general elevation of 
 which is about 12,500 feet, much of it 
 being saline and barren, especially in 
 the south. 
 
 The climate, though ranging between 
 extremes of heat and cold, is very 
 healthful, and cholera and yellow fever 
 are unknown. The elevated regions are 
 cold and dry, the middle temperate and 
 delightful, the lower valleys and plains 
 quite tropical. Among animals are the 
 llama, alpaca, vicuna, chinchilla, etc.; 
 the largest bird is the condor. Bolivia 
 has long been famed for its mineral 
 wealth, especially silver and gold. The 
 celebrated Potosi was once the richest 
 silver district in the world. The coun- 
 try is capable of producing every product 
 known to South America, but cultiva- 
 tion is in a very backward state. Coffee, 
 coca, cacao, tobacco, maize, and sugar- 
 cane are grown, and there is an inex- 
 haustible supply of india-rubber. The 
 chief exports are silver (two-thirds of 
 the whole) cinchona or Peruvian bark, 
 cocoa, coffee, caoutchouc, alpaca wool, 
 coppe f, tin, and other ores. 
 
 By its constitution Bolivia is a demo- 
 cratiij republic. The executive power is 
 in the hands of a president elected for 
 four years, and the legislative belongs 
 to a congress of two chambers, both 
 elected by universal suffrage. The 
 religion is the Roman Catholic, and 
 public worship according to the rites of 
 any other church is prohibited. Educa- 
 tion is at an exceedingly low ebb. 
 
 Bolivia under the Spaniards long 
 formed part of the viceroyalty of Peru, 
 latterly it was joined to that of La Plata 
 or Buenos Ayres. Its independent 
 history commences with the year 1825, 
 when the republic was founded. The 
 constitution was drawn up by Bolivar, 
 in whose honor the state was named 
 Bolivia; and was adopted by congress 
 in 1826. It has since undergone im- 
 portant modifications. But the country 
 has been almost continually distracted 
 by internal and external troubles, and 
 can scarcely be said to have had any 
 definite constitution. 
 
 BOLOGNA (bo-16n'ya), one of the 
 oldest, largest, and richest cities of 
 Italy, capital of the province of same 
 name, in a fertile plain at the foot of 
 the Apennines, between the rivers Reno 
 and Savena, surrounded by an unforti- 
 fied brick wall. It is the see of an 
 archbishop, and has extensive manufac- 
 tures of silk goods, velvet, artificial 
 flowers, etc. The leaning towers Degli 
 Asinelli and Garisenda, dating from 
 the 12th century, are among the most 
 remarkable objects in the city; and the 
 market is adorned with the colossi 
 
BOLOMETER 
 
 BOMBAY 
 
 bronze Neptune of Giovanni da Bologna. 
 An arcade of 640 arches leads to the 
 church of Madonna di S. Lucca, situated 
 at the foot of the Apennines, near 
 Bologna, and the resort of pilgrims 
 from ail parts of Italy. Bologna has 
 long been renowned for its university, 
 claiming to have been founded in 1088, 
 and having a library, at one time in the 
 care of Cardinal Mezzofanti, which 
 
 numbers over 200,000 volumes and 
 9000 MSS. The Institute delle Scienze 
 has a library which numbers about 
 160,000 volumes, with 6000 manu- 
 scripts. The Church of San Domenico 
 has a library of 120,000 volumes. The 
 Academy of Fine Arts has a rich col- 
 lection of paintings by native artists, 
 such as Francia, and the later Bolognese 
 school, of which the Caraccis, Guido 
 Beni, Domenichino, and Albano were 
 the founders. — Bologna was founded 
 by the Etruscans under the name of 
 Felsina; became in 189 b.c. the Roman 
 colony Bononia; was taken by the 
 Longobards about 728 a.d.; passed 
 into the hands of the Franks, and was 
 made a free city by Charlemagne. In 
 the 12th and 13th centuries it was one 
 of the most flourishing of the Italian 
 republics; but the feuds between the 
 different parties of the nobles led to its 
 submission to the papal see in 1513. 
 Several attempts were made to throw 
 off the papal yoke, one of which, in 
 1831, was for a time successful. In 1849 
 the Austrians obtained possession of it. 
 In 1860 it was anne.xed to the domin- 
 ions of King Victor Emmanuel. Pop. 
 130,000. — The province of Bologna, 
 formerly included in the papal terri- 
 tories, forms a rich and beautiful tract; 
 area, 1390 sq. miles; pop. 527,000. 
 
 BOLOM'ETER, a most sensitive elec- 
 trical instrument that is employed for 
 the measurement of radiant heat. 
 
 BOLSTER, a nautical term applied 
 to a piece of wood covered with canvas 
 upon which rests the topmost rigging 
 to prevent injury to the rigging. 
 
 BOLT, a piece of metal used to bind 
 machinery together, or to fasten, tem- 
 po rarilj' or permanently, any kind of 
 
 structure. The manufacture of bolts 
 requires very complicated machinery, 
 especially bolts to which are attached 
 nuts to hold the bolt in place. Various 
 kinds of bolts are called eye-bolts, 
 through-bolts, blunt-bolts, Lewis bolts, 
 track-bolts (for railroad track), etc. 
 
 BOLTING-CLOTH, a fabric of silk 
 used in the manufacture of flour to 
 separate the fine parts of the product 
 from the coarse. 
 
 BOLTON, a large manufacturing 
 town and municipal, pari., and county 
 borough of Lancashire, England, lying 
 10 miles n.w. from Manchester, and con- 
 sisting mainly of two divisions. Great 
 Bolton and Little Bolton, separated 
 from each other by the river Croal. 
 In manufacturing industries it is now 
 surpassed by few places in Britain, and 
 it contains some of the largest and 
 finest cotton-mills in the world. There 
 are large engineering works, besides 
 collieries, paper-mills, foundries, chemi- 
 cal works, etc. Pop. 168,205. 
 
 BOMB (bom), a large, hollow iron 
 ball or shell, filled with explosive ma- 
 terial and fired from a mortar. The 
 charge in the bomb is exploded by 
 means of a fuse filled with powder and 
 other inflammable materials, which are 
 ignited by the discharge of the mortar. 
 Conical shells shot from rifled cannon 
 have largely supplanted the older bomb. 
 The use of bombs and mortars is said to 
 have been invented in the middle of the 
 15th century. 
 
 BOM'BARD, a kind of cannon or 
 mortar formerly in use, generally loaded 
 with stone instead of iron balls. Hence 
 the term bombardier. 
 
 BOMBARDIER (-der'), an artillery 
 soldier whose special duties are con- 
 nected with the loading and firing of 
 shells, grenades, etc., from mortars or 
 howitzers 
 
 BOMBARDIER BEETLE, a name 
 given to beetles of the family Carabid®, 
 because of the remarkable power they 
 possess of being able to defend them- 
 selves by expelling from the anus a 
 pungent acrid fluid, which explodes 
 with a pretty loud report on coming 
 in contact with the air, 
 
 BOMBARD'MENT, an attack with 
 bombs or shells upon a fortress, town, 
 or any position held by an enemy, gen- 
 erally carried out from the sea. 
 
 BOMBAR'DON, a large musical in- 
 strument of the trumpet kind, in tone 
 not unlike an ophicleide. Its compass 
 is from F on the fourth ledger-line below 
 the bass-staff to the lower D of the 
 treble-staff. It is not capable of rapid 
 execution. 
 
 BOMBASIN. See Bombazine. 
 
 BOMBAY', chief seaport on the west 
 coast of India, and capital of the presi- 
 dency of the same name, stands at the 
 southern extremity of the island of 
 Bombay. Bombay has many hand- 
 some buildings, both public and private, 
 as the cathedral, the .university, the 
 secretariat, the new high court, the post 
 and telegraph offices, etc. Various in- 
 dustries, such as dyeing, tanning, and 
 metal working, are carried on, and there 
 are large cotton factories. The com- 
 merce is very extensive. The harbor is 
 one of the largest and safest in India, 
 and there are commodious docks. There 
 
 is a large traffic with steam-vessels 
 between Bombay and Great Britain, 
 regular steam communication with 
 China, Australia, Singapore, Mauritius, 
 etc The island of Bombay is about 11 
 miles long and 3 miles broad. After 
 Madras, Bombay is the oldest of the 
 British possessions in the East, having 
 been ceded by the Portuguese in 1661. 
 Pop. 776,006. 
 
 Bombardon. 
 
 BOMBAY', one of the three presi- 
 dencies of British India, between lat. 
 14° and 29° n., and Ion. 66° and 77° e. 
 It stretches along the west of the Indian 
 peninsula, and is irregular in its outline 
 and surface, presenting mountainous 
 tracts, low barren hills, valleys, and 
 high tablelands. It is divided into a 
 northern, a central, and a southern 
 division, the Sind' division, and the 
 town and island of Bombay. The 
 
 northern division contains the districts 
 of Ahmedabad, Kaira, Panch Mahals, 
 Broach, Surat, Thana, Kolaba; the 
 central, Khandesh, Nasik, Ahmednagar, 
 Poona, Sholapur, Satara; the southern, 
 Belgaum, Dharwar, Kaladgi, Kanara, 
 llatnagiri. Total area, 123,064 sq. 
 miles; pop. 18,559,561, including the 
 city and territory of Aden in Arabia, SO 
 sq. miles (pop. 43,974). The native or 
 
BOMBAZINE 
 
 BONE 
 
 feudatory states connected with the 
 presidency (the chief being Kathiawar) 
 have an area of 65,761 sq. miles and a 
 pop. of 6,908,648. The Portuguese 
 possessions Goa, Daman, and Diu 
 geographically belong to it. Many 
 parts, the valleys in particular, are 
 fertile and highly cultivated; other dis- 
 tricts are being gradually developed by 
 the construction of roads and railroads. 
 The southern portions are well supplied 
 with moisture, but a great part of Sind 
 is the most arid portion of India. The 
 climate varies, being unhealthful in the 
 capital Bombay and its vicinity, but at 
 other places, such as Poonah, very 
 favorable to Europeans. The chief 
 productions of the soil are cotton, rice, 
 millet, wheat, barley, dates, and the 
 cocoa - palm. The manufactures are 
 cotton, silk, leather, etc. The great 
 export is cotton. The administration 
 is in the hands of a governor and 
 council. 
 
 BOMBAZINE ( -zen') is a mixed tissue 
 of silk and worsted, the first forming the 
 warp and the second the weft. It is fine 
 and light in the make, and may be of 
 any color, though black is now most in 
 use. 
 
 BOMB-PROOF, a quality of fortifica- 
 tion which enables the fortification to 
 resist injury from bombs or shells cast 
 upon it. Gibraltar, cut from the solid 
 rock, and certain forts of exceedingly 
 massive walls are bomb-proof. 
 
 BONA FIDES, BONA FIDE (fi'dez, fi' 
 d5), a term derived from the Roman 
 j'urists, implying the absence of all fraud 
 or unfair dealing. 
 
 BONAN'ZA, a term applied in the U. 
 States to an abundance of precious 
 metal or rich ore in a mine. 
 
 BONAPARTE (bon'a-part), the 
 French form which the great Napoleon 
 was the first to give to the original 
 Italian name Buonaparte, borne by his 
 family in Corsica. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Jerome, youngest 
 brother of Napoleon I., was born at 
 Aj'accio in 1784. In 1801 he was sent 
 out on an expedition to the West Indies, 
 but the vessel being chased by English 
 cruisers, was obliged to put into New 
 York. During his sojourn in America 
 .Terome Bonaparte became acquainted 
 with Miss Elizabeth Patterson, of Balti- 
 more, and though still a minor, married 
 her in spite of the protests of the French 
 consul on 24th December, 1803. The 
 emperor, his brother, after an ineffectual 
 application to Pope Pius VII. to have it 
 dissolved, issued a decree declaring it to 
 be iiull and void. After considerable 
 services both in the army and navy, in 
 1807 he was created King of Westphalia, 
 and married Catherine Sophia, princess 
 of Wiirtemberg. After the election of 
 his nephew, Louis Napoleon, to the 
 presidentship of the French Republic, 
 in 1848, be became successively gov- 
 ernor-general of Les Invalides, a mar- 
 shal of France, and president of the 
 senate. He died in 1860. Of the three 
 children that were born to Jerome 
 Bonaparte from his second marriage 
 one was Prince Napoleon Joseph, who 
 assumed the name of Jerome, and was 
 well known by the nickname “Plon- 
 Plon.” He died in 1891, having married 
 Clotilde, daughter of King Victor 
 P. E.— 1 1 
 
 Emmanuel of Italy. He had three 
 children: Victor (born 18th July, 1862), 
 Louis, and Marie Letitia. The first of 
 these, since the death of Napoleon III.’s 
 son, the Prince Imperial, is generally 
 recognized by the Bonapartist party as 
 the heir to the traditions of the dynasty. 
 He had to leave France in 1886, a law 
 being passed expelling pretenders to the 
 French throne and their eldest sons. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Joseph, the eldest 
 brother of Napoleon I., was born in 
 Corsica in 1768. In 1796, with the rise 
 of his brother to fame after the brilliant 
 campaign of Italy, Joseph began a 
 varied diplomatic and military career. 
 At length, in 1806, Napoleon, having 
 himself assumed the imperial title in 
 1804, made Joseph king of Naples, and 
 two years afterward transferred him 
 to Madrid as King of Spain. His posi- 
 tion here, entirely dependent on the 
 support of French armies, became 
 almost intolerable. He was twice 
 driven from his capital by the approach 
 of hostile armies, and the third time, 
 in 1813, he fled, not to return. After 
 Waterloo he went to the U. States, and 
 lived for a time near Philadelphia, 
 assuming the title of Count de Survil- 
 liers. He subsequently came to England, 
 finally repaired to Italy, and died at 
 Florence in 1844. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Letizia Ramolino, the 
 mother of Napoleon I., and, after 
 Napoleon’s assumption of the imperial 
 crown, dignified with the title of Madame 
 Mere, was born at Ajaccio in 1750, and 
 was married in 1767 to Charles Buona- 
 parte. She was a woman of much 
 beauty, intellect, and force of character. 
 Left a widow in 1785, she resided in 
 Corsica till her son became first consul, 
 when an establishment was assigned 
 to her at Paris. On the fall of Napoleon 
 she returned to Rome, where she died 
 in 1836. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Louis, second younger 
 brother of the Emperor Napoleon I., 
 and father of Napoleon III., was born 
 in Corsica in 1778. He accompanied 
 Napoleon to Italy and Egypt, and sub- 
 sequently rose to the rank of a brigadier- 
 general. In 1802 he married Hortense 
 Beauharnais, Josephine’s daughter, and 
 in 1806 was compelled by his brother 
 to accept, very reluctantly, the Dutch 
 crown. He exerted himself in promoting 
 the welfare of his new subjects, and 
 resisted as far as in him lay the tyranni- 
 cal interference and arbitrary procedure 
 of France; but disagreeing with his 
 brother in regard to some measures of 
 the latter, he abdicated in 1810 and 
 retired to Gratz under the title of the 
 Count of St. Leu. He died at Leghorn 
 in 1846. He was the author of several 
 .works which show considerable literary 
 ability. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Louis. See Napoleon 
 
 III. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Lucien, Prince of 
 Canino, next younger brother of Napo- 
 leon I., was born at Ajaccio in 1775. 
 Shortly after Napoleon’s return from 
 Egypt in 1799 he was elected President 
 of the Council, in which position he con- 
 tributed greatly to the fall of the Direc- 
 tory and the establishment of his 
 brother’s power, on the famous 18th 
 Brumaire (9th Nov.). Next year, as 
 
 Napoleon began to develop his system 
 of military despotism, Lucien, who still 
 held to his republican principles and 
 candidly expressed his disapproval of 
 his brother’s conduct, fell into disfavor 
 and was sent out of the way as ambassa- 
 dor to Spain. Eventually, when Napo- 
 leon had the consulate declared heredi- 
 tary, Lucien withdrew to Italy, settling 
 finally at Rome, where he devoted him- 
 self to the arts and sciences, and lived 
 in apparent indifference to the growth 
 of his brother’s power. In vain Napo- 
 leon offered him the crown, first of 
 Italy and then of Spain ; but he came to 
 France and exerted himself on his 
 brother’s behalf, both before and after 
 Waterloo. Returning to Italy, he spent 
 the rest of his life in literary and scien- 
 tific researches, dying in 1840. Pope 
 Pius VII. made him Prince of Canino. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Napoleon. See Na- 
 poleon I. 
 
 BONAVENTURE, St., otherwise John 
 of Fidanza, one of the most renowned 
 scholastic philosophers, W’as born in 
 1221 in the Papal States; became in 
 1243 a Franciscan monk; in 1253 teacher 
 of theology at Paris, where he had 
 studied, in 1256 general of his order, 
 which he ruled w’ith a prudent mixture 
 of gentleness and firmness. In 1273 
 Gregory X. made him. a cardinal, and 
 he died in 1274 while papal legate at the 
 Council of Lyons. He was canonized in 
 1482 by Sixtus IV. 
 
 BOND, an obligation in WTiting to pay 
 a sum of money, or to do or not to do 
 some particular thing specified in the 
 bond. The person who gives the bond 
 is called the obligor, the person receiving 
 the bond is called the obligee. A bond 
 stipulating either to do something 
 wrong in itself or forbidden by law, or 
 to omit the doing of something w'hich is 
 a duty, is void. No person who cannot 
 legally enter into a contract, such as an 
 infant or a lunatic, can become an 
 obligor, though such a person may 
 become an obligee. No particular form 
 of words is essential to the validity of a 
 bond. A common form of bond is that 
 on which money is lent to some com- 
 pany or corporation, and by which the 
 borrowers are bound to pay the lender 
 a certain rate of interest for the monej’-. 
 Goods liable to customs or excise duties 
 are said to be in bond w'hen they are 
 temporarily placed in vaults or ware- 
 houses under a bond by the importer or 
 owner that they will not be removed 
 till the duty is paid on them. Such 
 warehouses are called bonded ware- 
 houses. 
 
 BONE, a hard material constituting 
 the framework of Mammalia, birds, 
 fishes, and reptiles, and thus protecting 
 vital organs such as the heart and lungs 
 from external pressure and injury. In 
 the foetus the bones are formed of car- 
 tilaginous (gristly) substance, in different 
 points of which earthy matter — phos- 
 phates and carbonates of lime — is 
 
 f radually deposited till at the time of 
 irth the bone is partially formed. After 
 birth the formation of bone continues, 
 and, in the temperate zones, they roach 
 their perfection in men between the 
 ages of twenty and twenty-five. From 
 this age till fifty they change but 
 slightly; after that period they grow 
 
BONE- ASH 
 
 BOOKKEEPING 
 
 thinner, lighter, and more brittle. 
 Bones are densest at the surface, which 
 is covered by a firm membrane called 
 the periosteum; the internal parts are 
 more cellular, the spaces being filled 
 with marrow, a fatty tissue, supporting 
 fine blood-vessels. Bone consists of 
 nearly 34 per cent organic material and 
 of 66 per cent inorganic substances, 
 chiefly phosphate, carbonate, and fluor- 
 ide of lime, and phosphate of mag- 
 nesium. The organic material is con- 
 verted into gelatine by boiling. It is 
 this which makes bones useful for yield- 
 ing stock for soup. The inorganic 
 substances may be dissolved out by 
 steeping the bone in dilute hydrochloric 
 acid. Bones, from the quantity of 
 phosphates they contain, make excellent 
 manure. 
 
 BONE-ASH, BONE-EARTH, the 
 
 earthy or mineral residue of bones that 
 have been calcined so as to destroy the 
 animal matter and carbon. It is com- 
 posed chiefly of phosphate of lime, and 
 is used for making cupels in assaying, 
 
 BONE BLACK, IVORY BLACK, or 
 ANIMAL CHARCOAL, is obtained by 
 heating bones in close retorts till they 
 are reduced to small coarse grains of a 
 black carbonaceous substance. This 
 possesses the valuable property of arrest- 
 ing and absorbing into itself the coloring 
 matter of liquids which are passed 
 through it. Hence it is extensively 
 used in the process of sugar-reflning, 
 when cylinders of large dimensions 
 filled with this substance are used as 
 filters. After a certain amount of 
 absorption the charcoal becomes satu- 
 rated and ceases to act. It has then to 
 be restored by reheating or other 
 methods. Bone black has also the 
 property of absorbing odors, and may 
 thus serve as a disinfectant of clothing, 
 apartments, etc. 
 
 BONE-DUST, bones ground to dust 
 to be used as manure. 
 
 BONE MANUI^, one of the most 
 important fertilizers in agriculture. 
 The value of bones as manure arises 
 chiefly from the phosphates and nitrog- 
 enous organic matters they contain ; 
 and where the soil is already rich in 
 phosphates bone is of little use as 
 manure. It is of most service therefore 
 where the soil is deficient in this respect, 
 or in the case of crops whose rapid 
 growth or small roots do not enaole 
 them to extract a sufficient supply of 
 phosphate from the earth, turnips, for 
 instance, or late-sown oats and barley. 
 There are several methods for increasing 
 the value of bones as manure, by boil- 
 ing out the fat and gelatine, for instance, 
 the removal of which makes the bones 
 more readily acted on by the weather 
 and hastens the decay and distribution 
 of their parts, or by grinding them to 
 dust, or dissolving them in sulphuric 
 acid, by which latter course the phos- 
 phates are rendered soluble in water. 
 
 BONFIRE, a large fire lighted out of 
 doors in celebration of some event; 
 originally a fire in which bones were 
 burned. 
 
 BONHEUR (bo-ne«r), Rosa, a dis- 
 tinguished French artist and painter of 
 animals, born at Bordeaux 22d March, 
 1322. She died in 1899. 
 
 BON'IFACE, the name of nine popes. 
 Boniface I., elected 418. He was the 
 first to assume the title of the First 
 Bishop of Christendom. He died 422. — 
 Boniface II., elected 530, died in 532. 
 He acknowledged the supremacy of the 
 secular sovereign in a council held at 
 Rome. — Boniface III. chosen 607, 
 died nine months after his election. — 
 Boniface IV., elected 608. He con- 
 verted the Pantheon at Rome into a 
 Christian church. — Boniface V., 619 to 
 625. He endeavored to dififuse Chris- 
 tianity among the English. — Boniface 
 VI., elected 896, died a fortnight after. — 
 Boniface VII., elected 947, during the 
 lifetime of Benedict VI., and therefore 
 styled antipope. Expelled from Rome 
 in 984, he returned and deposed and 
 put to death Pope John XIV. He died 
 985. — Boniface VIII. (1294-1303), 
 Benedict Cajetan, one of the ablest and 
 most ambitious of the popes. His idea 
 was, like that of Gregory VII., to raise 
 the papal chair to a sort of universal 
 monarchy in temporal as well as spirit- 
 ual things. — Boniface IX. (1389-1404), 
 elected during the schism in the church 
 while Clement VII. resided at Avignon. 
 He died in 1404. 
 
 BONN, an important German town 
 in the Rhenish province of Prussia, on 
 the left bank of the Rhine. It is chiefly 
 important for its famous university 
 founded in 1777 by Elector Maximilian 
 Frederick of Cologne. Enlarged and 
 amply endowed by the King of Prussia 
 in 1818, it is now one of the chief seats 
 of learning in Europe, with a library of 
 more than 200,000 volumes, an anatom- 
 ical hall, mineralogical and zoological 
 collections, museum of antiquities, a 
 botanical garden, etc. Bonn was long 
 the residence of the Electors of Cologne, 
 and finally passed into the hands of 
 Prussia by the arrangements of the 
 Congress of Vienna in 1815. Pop. 
 50,737. 
 
 BONNER, Robert, an American editor 
 and publisher, born in Ireland in 1824, 
 died in New York in 1899. He pub- 
 lished the Ledger, in the columns of 
 which appeared stories, articles, and 
 poems by numerous literary men of 
 England and America. 
 
 BON'NET, a covering for the head, 
 now especially applied to one worn by 
 females. In England the bonnet was 
 superseded by the hat as a head-dress two 
 or three centuries ago, but continued to 
 be distinctive of Scotland to a later 
 period. 
 
 BONNET-ROUGE (bo-na-rozh), the 
 emblem of liberty during the French 
 Revolution, and then worn as a head- 
 dress by all who wished to mark them- 
 selves as sufficiently advanced in dem- 
 ocratic principles: also called cap of 
 liberty. 
 
 BONNEVILLE, Benjamin L. E., an 
 American engineer, born in France in 
 1795, died in 1878. He graduated at 
 West Point, explored the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, and built a military road in Mis- 
 sissippi. He served in the Florida, 
 Mexican, and civil wars, and became 
 a brigadier-general in 1865. 
 
 BO'NUS, something given over and 
 above what is required to be given, 
 especially an extra dividend to the 
 shareholders of a joint-stock company, 
 
 holders of insurance policies, etc., out 
 of accrued profits. 
 
 BONY PIKE, or GARFISH, a remark- 
 able genus of fishes inhabiting N. Amer- 
 ican lakes and rivers, and one of the few 
 living forms that now represent the 
 order of ganoid fishes so largely de- 
 veloped in previous geological epochs. 
 The body is covered with smooth 
 enameled scales, so hard that it is im- 
 possible to pierce them wuth a spear. 
 The common garfish attains the length 
 of 5 feet, and is easily distinguished by 
 the great length of its jaws. 
 
 BONZES, the name given by Euro- 
 peans to the priests of the religion of 
 Fo or Buddha in eastern Asia, par- 
 ticularly in China, Burmah, Tonquin, 
 Cochin-China, and Japan. They do not 
 marry, but live together in monasteries. 
 There are also female bonzes, whose 
 position is analogous to that of nuns in 
 the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 BOOBY, a swimming bird nearly 
 allied to the gannet, and so named from 
 the extraordinary stupidity with which, 
 as the older voyagers tell, it would 
 allow itself to be knocked on the head 
 without attempting to fly. The booby 
 lives on fish, which it takes, like the 
 gannet, by darting down upon them 
 when swimming near the surface of the 
 
 WSit©!* 
 
 BOODHA. See Buddha. 
 
 BOOK, the general name applied 
 to a printed volume. In early times 
 books were made of the bark of trees; 
 hence the Latin liber means bark and 
 book, as in English the words book and 
 beech may be connected. The materials 
 of ancient books were largely derived 
 from the papyrus, a plant which gave 
 its name to paper. The use of parch- 
 ment, prepared from skins, next fol- 
 lowed, until it was supplanted in Europe 
 by paper in the 12th century, though 
 paper was made in Asia long before this. 
 
 BOOK'BINDING, the art of making 
 up the sheets of a book into a volume 
 with a substantial case or covering. In 
 the middle ages the work of binding the 
 manuscripts then used was done by the 
 monks, in a heavy and excessively solid 
 style. With the invention of printing, 
 and the consequent multiplication of 
 books, binding became a great mechani- 
 cal art, in which the Italians of the 15th 
 and 16th centuries took the lead. Later 
 on the French binders enjoyed a well- 
 deserved supremacy for delicate and 
 elegant work, and it was not till almost 
 the opening of the 19th century that 
 English bookbinding began to take the 
 foremost place. 
 
 BOOK'KEEPING is the art or method 
 of recording mercantile or pecuniary 
 transactions, so that at any time a per- 
 son may be able to ascertain the details 
 and the extent of his business. It is 
 divided, according to the general 
 method pursued, into bookkeeping by 
 single or by double entry. Bookkeep- 
 ing by single entry is comparatively 
 little used, except in retail businesses of 
 small extent, where only the simplest 
 record is required. 
 
 Bookkeeping by double entry, a 
 system first adopted in the great trading 
 cities of Italy, gives a fuller and more 
 accurate record of the movement of a bus- 
 iness, and is necessary in all extensive 
 
BOOK OF MORMON 
 
 BOOTH 
 
 mercantile concerns. The chief feature 
 of double entry is its system of checks, 
 by which each transaction is twice 
 entered, to the Dr. side of one account 
 and then to the Cr. side of another. An 
 important feature of the system con- 
 sists in adopting, in addition to the per- 
 sonal accounts of debtors and creditors 
 contained in the ledger, a series of what 
 are called book accounts, which are 
 systematic records in the form of debtor 
 and creditor of particular classes of 
 transactions. For every debt incurred 
 some consideration is received. This 
 consideration is represented under a 
 particular class or name in the ledger, 
 as the debtor in the transaction in which 
 the party from whom the consideration 
 is received is the creditor. Thus A buys 
 goods to the value of $500 from B. He 
 enters these in his journal — Stock Acet. 
 Dr. $500 (for goods purchased) ordinary 
 To B, $500. The first $500 appears in the 
 Dr. column of the journal, and is posted 
 in the ledger to the debit of Stock Ac- 
 count; the second appears in the Cr. 
 column, and is posted in the ledger to the 
 Cr. of B. In like manner, when the goods 
 are paid. Cash, for which an account is 
 opened in the ledger, is credited with 
 $500, and B is debited with the same. 
 When the goods are sold (for cash) 
 Stock is credited and Cash is debited. 
 If the amount for which they sell is 
 greater than that for which they were 
 bought, there will be a balance at the 
 debit of Cash, and a balance at the credit 
 of Stock. The one balance represents 
 the cash actually on hand (from this 
 transaction), the other the cause of its 
 being on hand. If there is a loss on the 
 transaction, the balance will be on the 
 other side of these accounts. Ulti- 
 mately the balance thus arising at Dr. 
 or Cr. of Stock is transferred to an 
 account called Profit and Loss, which 
 makes the stock account represent the 
 present value of goods on hand, and the 
 profit and loss account, when complete, 
 the result of the business. In this sys- 
 tem the risk of omitting any entry, 
 which is a very common occurrence in 
 single bookkeeping, is reduced to its 
 smallest, as, unless a particular trans- 
 action is omitted in every step of its 
 history, the system will inexorably 
 require that its whole history should be 
 given to bring the different accounts 
 into harmony with each other. 
 
 BOOK OF MORMON, the bible of the 
 Mormons, first published in 1830 by 
 Joseph Smith, who claimed it was 
 written on gold plates, buried in a 
 sacred hill, and disclosed to Smith by an 
 angel. The plates disappeared, but a 
 translation (the original characters 
 were Egyptian) was made by the 
 finder, who, upon it, founded the Mor- 
 mon faith. 
 
 BOOK-PLATE, a label pasted on the 
 Inside of the first cover of a book, giving 
 the name of the owner. Book-plates 
 are a very ancient usage and some of 
 them, especially rare ones, or those from 
 the books of famous persons, are very 
 valuable. Sir Wollasten Franks made a 
 collection of 200,000 book-plates, which 
 is now in the British Museum. Many 
 noted artists, such as Hogarth, for 
 example, drew book-plates for distin- 
 guished patrons. 
 
 BOOKS, Censorship of, the super- 
 vision of books by some authority so as 
 to settle what may be published. After 
 the invention of printing the rapid 
 diffusion of opinions by means of books 
 induced the governments in all countries 
 to assume certain powers of .supervision 
 and regulation with regard to printed 
 matter. The popes were the first to 
 institute a regular censorship. By a 
 bull of Leo X. in 1515 the bishops and 
 inquisitors were required to examine 
 all works before they were printed, with 
 a view to prevent the publication of 
 heretical opinions. As this decree could 
 not be carried out in countries which had 
 accepted the reformed religion, they 
 prepared a list of prohibited books 
 Undex Librorum Prohibitorum), books, 
 that is, which nobody was allowed to 
 read under penalty of the censure of the 
 church. This index continues to be 
 reprinted and revised down to date, as 
 well as another index commonly called 
 the Index Expurgatorius, containing 
 the works which may be read if certain 
 expurgations have been made. In 
 England the censorship was established 
 by act of parliament in 1662, but before 
 that both the well-known Star-chamber 
 and the parliament itself had virtually 
 performed the functions. In 1694 the 
 censorship in England ceased entirely. 
 In France the censorship, like so many 
 other institutions, was annihilated by 
 the revolution. During the republic 
 there was no formal censorship, but the 
 supervision of the directory virtually 
 took its place, and at length in 1810 
 Napoleon openly restored it under 
 another name (Direction de I’lmpri- 
 merie). After the restoration it under- 
 went various changes, and was re- 
 established by Napoleon III. with new 
 penalties. In the old German empire 
 the diet of 1530 instituted a severe 
 superintendence of the press, but in the 
 particular German states the censure 
 was very differently applied, and in 
 Protestant states especially it has never 
 been difficult for individual authors to 
 obtain exemption. In 1849 the censorial 
 laws were repealed, but were again 
 gradually introduced, and still exist in 
 a modified form in most of the German 
 states. The censorship v/as abolished 
 in Denmark in 1770, in Sweden in 1809, 
 in the Netherlands in 1815. In Russia 
 and Austria there is a despotic censor- 
 ship. See Press, Liberty of the. 
 
 BOOM, a long pole or spar run out 
 from various parts of a ship or other 
 vessel for the purpose of extending the 
 bottom of particular sails. Also a strong 
 beam, or an iron chain or cable, fastened 
 to spars extended across a river or the 
 mouth of a harbor, to prevent an enemy’s 
 ships from passing. 
 
 BOO'MERANG, a missile instrument 
 used by the Australian aborigines, and 
 by some peoples of India, made of hard 
 wood, about the size of a common 
 reaping-hook, and of a peculiar curved 
 shape, sometimes resembling a rude and 
 very open V. The boomerang, when 
 thrown as if to hit some object in ad- 
 vance, instead of going directly forward, 
 slowly ascends in the air, whirling round 
 and round to a considerable height, and 
 returns to the position of the thrower. 
 If it hits an object of course it falls. 
 
 The Australians are very dexterous 
 with this weapon, and can make it go in 
 almost any direction, sometimes mak- 
 ing it rebound before striking. 
 
 BOONDEE', or BUNDI, a principality, 
 Hindustan, in Rajputana, under British 
 protection; area, 2300 sep miles. Pop. 
 295,675. Boondee is the capital. Pop. 
 22,544. 
 
 BOONE, Daniel, an American pioneer 
 of civilization, born 1735, died 1820. 
 In 1769 with five companions he went 
 to explore the little known region of 
 Kentucky, and was taken pri.soner by 
 the Indians. In 1775 he built a fort on 
 the Kentucky river, where Boones- 
 borough now is, and settled there. In 
 
 1778 he was taken prisoner by the 
 Indians, and was retained and adopted 
 into the family of a Shawanese chief, 
 but at length he effected his escape. 
 In the end of the century he removed 
 from Kentucky into Missouri. From 
 him a number of places in the U. States 
 take the name of Boone, Booneville, 
 etc., all of small importance. 
 
 BOOT, an article of dress, generally 
 of leather, covering the foot and extend- 
 ing to a greater or less distance up the 
 leg. Hence the name w'as given to an 
 instrument of torture made of iron, or 
 a combination of iron and wood, fast- 
 ened on to the leg, between which and 
 the boot wedges were introduced and 
 driven in by repeated blows of a mallet, 
 with such violence as to crush both 
 muscles and bones. The special object 
 of this form of torture was to extort a 
 confession of guilt from an accused 
 person. 
 
 BOOTH, Agnes, an American actress, 
 born in Syffiiey, Australia, in 1843. 
 She was born Marion Agnes Land 
 Rookes, and made her ddbut in San 
 Francisco when very young, playing 
 Shakespearian parts. In 1867 shd 
 
BOOTH 
 
 BORDELAIS WINES 
 
 married Junius Brutus Booth and until 
 1891 was prominent on the American 
 stage. After the death of her husband 
 she married (1885) John B. Schoeffel. 
 
 BOOTH, Ballington, an American 
 religious leader, son of William Booth, 
 founder of the Salvation Army. In 
 1896 he disagreed with his father and 
 founded the Amei'ican Volunteers, an 
 organization of a kind with the Salva- 
 tion Army. 
 
 BOOTH, Edwin Thomas, an American 
 actor, son of Junius Brutus Booth, 
 regarded as the most finished actor 
 produced by the American stage. He 
 was born at Belair, Md., in 1833, and 
 died at New York in 1893. Booth made 
 his debut in Boston in 1849. In 1851 he 
 appeared in Richard III. at New York, 
 married Mary Devlin in 1860, who died 
 three years later. Among the roles 
 played with excellent success by Booth 
 were Shylock, Hamlet, Richard III., 
 Richelieu, and Cassius. He built 
 Booth’s Theater, New York, in 1869, 
 played in Europe in 1880 and 1882, 
 toured the U. States with Lawrence 
 Barrett in 1891, and retired soon after- 
 ward. Booth’s Hamlet was regarded 
 as unapproachable by many critics. 
 
 BOOTH, James Curtis, an American 
 chemist, born at Philadelphia in 1810, 
 died 1888. He was a specialist in the 
 chemistry of mining and was superin- 
 tendent of the United States Mint at 
 Philadelphia from 1849 till his deatli. 
 
 BOOTH, John Wilkes, brother of 
 Edwin Booth, and the assassin of 
 Abraham Lincoln, born 1839, killed in 
 1865 by his pursuers. Booth was a 
 highly sensitive man, and an intense 
 secessionist. For a time he had been an 
 actor, but the civil war, it is believed, 
 turned his brain. He organized a con- 
 spiracy to assassinate the president, 
 vice-president, and cabinet, and succeed- 
 ed in the first part of his plan when he 
 shot Lincoln on the night of April 14, 
 1865, at Ford’s Theater in Washington. 
 He was overtaken April 26 at Bowling 
 Green, Va., and, refusing to surrender, 
 was shot. Four of his accomplices, 
 including Mrs. Surratt, were hanged. 
 
 BOOTH, Junius Brutus, a British 
 actor of great ability, born in 1796, died 
 in 1852. He appeared first in London 
 in 1813 and subsequently became noted 
 on the British stage. Coming to 
 America in 1821 he settled in this coun- 
 try. His principal roles were Sir Giles, 
 Hamlet, Richard, and lago. He threw 
 so much passion into his work that his 
 mimic antagonists in stage duels were 
 often in serious danger of being injured. 
 
 BOOTH, Maude Ballington, a leader 
 of the American Volunteers, wife of 
 Ballington Booth. She was born in 
 London in 1865 and entered the Salva- 
 tion Army at the age of seventeen. In 
 1896 she seceded with her husband from 
 the Salvation Army. 
 
 BOOTH, William, founder of the Sal- 
 vation Army, born in England in 1829. 
 He was formerly a Methodist Episcopal 
 minister, but in 1865 began an independ- 
 ent mission movement in London, which 
 gradually developed into the Salvation 
 Army, which name it was given in 1878. 
 He is the author of numerous books, 
 among them In Darkest England and 
 The Way Out (1890). 
 
 BOOTH-TUCKER, Emma Moss, a 
 leader of the Salvation Army, daug^hter 
 of Wilham Booth and wife of Com- 
 mander Booth-Tucker. She was born 
 in England in 1860 and for many years 
 has been head of the Salvation Army 
 in the U. States jointly with her hus- 
 band. 
 
 BOOTH - TUCKER, Frederick St. 
 George de Latour, chief of the Salvation 
 Army organization in the U. States. 
 He was born in India in 1853, and 
 occupied an official position in the 
 Indian civil service, which he resigned 
 in 1881 to join the Salvation Army. In 
 1896 he was appointed commander of 
 the' army in America, with headquarters 
 in New York. 
 
 BORACIC ACID, BORIC ACID, a com- 
 pound of the element boron, with 
 hydrogen and oxygen. Boracic acid is 
 found as a saline incrustation in some 
 volcanic regions, is an ingredient in 
 many minerals, and is contained in the 
 steam which, along with sulphureous 
 exhalations, issues from fissures in the 
 soil in Tuscany. The steam from the 
 fumaroles here is now an important 
 
 source of the acid, a system of condensa- 
 tion and evaporation being employed. 
 The acid forms white, shining, scaly 
 crystals, which on heating melt into a 
 transparent ^mass, when cooled resem- 
 bling glass. * It dissolves in water, and 
 has a slight acid taste; it colors blue 
 litmus purple, and the yellow coloring 
 matter turmeric brown. The chief use 
 of the acid is as a source of borax, the 
 biborate of sodium. See Borax. 
 
 BORAX, biborate of sodium. Native 
 borax has tong been obtained under the 
 name of tincal, from India, the main 
 source being not India but a series of 
 lakes in Thibet. As imported it is in 
 small pieces of a dirt}’' yellowish color, 
 and is covered with a fatty or soapy 
 matter. Tincal, which contains various 
 impurities, was formerly the only source 
 of borax; but besides Tuscany other 
 sources of boracic acid, more particu- 
 larly in North and South America, and 
 the salt mines at Stassfurt, etc., in Ger- 
 many, have been rendered available. 
 The U. States yields large quantities, 
 there being rich deposits of borax and 
 boracic minerals on the Pacific slope. 
 
 Pure borax forms large transparent 
 six-sided prisms, which dissolve readily 
 in water, effloresce in dry air, and when 
 heated melt in their water of crystalli- 
 zation, swell up, and finally fuse to a 
 transparent glass. Borax has a variety 
 of uses. In medicine it is employed in 
 ulcerations and skin diseases. It has 
 valuable antiseptic and disinfecting 
 properties, and is now much used for the 
 preservation of meat, fish, and milk. 
 It is also employed in soldering metals, 
 and in making fine glaze for porcelain 
 as it renders the materials more fusible. 
 It is used in enameling, and in making 
 beads, glass, and cement. 
 
 BORDEAUX (bor-do'), one of the 
 most important cities and ports of 
 France, capital of the dep. of Gironde, 
 on the Garonne, about 70 miles from 
 the sea. In the old town are the Cathe- 
 dral of Saint -Andre, St. Michael’s 
 Church, with its superb front of florid 
 Gothic, the Hotel de Ville, and the 
 Palais de Justice. There are extensive 
 and finely - planted promenades. Its 
 position gives it admirable facilities for 
 trade, and enables it to rank next after 
 
 Marseilles and Havre in respect of the 
 tonnage employed. Large vessels sail 
 up to the town and there is ready com- 
 munication by railway or river with the 
 Mediterranean, Spain, and the manu- 
 facturing centers of France. The chief 
 exports are wine and brandy; sugar and 
 other colonial produce and wood are the 
 chief imports. Ship-building is the 
 chief industry, and there are sugar- 
 refineries, woolen and cotton mills, 
 potteries, soap-works, distilleries, etc. 
 
 BORDELAIS WINES, the wines of 
 Bordeaux and district, the name of 
 vin de Bordeaux being generally given 
 to the wines made in the eleven depart- 
 ments' of the southwest of France, 
 Gironde, Landes, Lot, Tarn et Garonne, 
 etc., though it is in the Gironde alone 
 that the famous growths are found. 
 The soil of M6doc (a sandy and calcare- 
 ous loam) produces such famous wines 
 as Ch&teau-Margaux, Ch^teau-Lafitte, 
 and Ch&,teau-Latour. The wines of this 
 country are the best which France pro- 
 duces. Their characteristics are fine 
 bouquet, velvety softness on the palate, 
 and the faculty of acting beneficially 
 
 Bordeaux— Quay of Louis XVIII. 
 
BOKI.EU li'JFFIANS 
 
 BORON 
 
 on the stomach without mounting too 
 readily to the head. Besides the red 
 wines of tlie Bordelais, known under 
 the general name of claret, there are 
 also white wines, of which the finest 
 growths are Sauterne, Preignac, Barsac, 
 ©tc 
 
 BORDER RUFFIANS, a term applied 
 to certain pro-slavery men who wen-t to 
 Kansas from Missouri in 1853 to turn 
 the elections. 
 
 BORDER STATES, a term applied to 
 certain states which were on the border 
 of the free states. Under this head are 
 classified usually. Maryland, Delaware, 
 Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mis- 
 souri, and Arkansas. 
 
 BORDER WAR, the war waged 
 between the pro- and anti-slavery men 
 in Kansas some years previous to the 
 civil war. 
 
 BO'REAS, the name of the north 
 wind as personified by the Greeks and 
 Romans. 
 
 BORER, a name given to the larvae 
 of certain insects which bore holes in 
 trees and thus injure them. 
 
 BORGIA, Cesare (che'za-re bor'jd), 
 the natural son of Pope Alexander VI., 
 and of a Roman lady named Vanozza, 
 born in 1478. He was made Due de 
 Valentinois by Louis XII. In 1499 he 
 married a daughter of King John of 
 Navarre. He carried on a series of 
 petty wars, made himself master of the 
 Romagna, attempted Bologna and 
 Florence, and had seized Urbino when 
 Alexander VI. died, 1503. Enemies 
 now rose against him on all sides, one 
 of the most bitter of whom was the new 
 pope, Julius II. Borgia was arrested 
 and carried to Spain. He at length 
 made his escape to his brother-in-law 
 the King of Navarre, and was killed 
 before the castle of Viana, March 12, 
 1507. He was charged with the murder 
 of his elder brother, of the husband of 
 his sister Lucretia, and the stiletto or 
 secret poisoning was freely used against 
 those who stood in his way. With all 
 his crimes he was a patron of art and 
 literature. 
 
 BORGIA, Lucretia, daughter of Pope 
 Alexander VL, and sister of Cesare 
 Borgia. She W'as accused by contem- 
 poraries of incest, poisoning, and almost 
 every species of enormous crime; but 
 several modern writers defend her, 
 maintaining that the charges which have 
 been made against her are false or much 
 exaggerated. She was a patroness of 
 art and literature. Born 1480, died 
 1523. 
 
 BORING, the process of perforating 
 wood, iron, rocks, or other hard sub- 
 stances by means of instruments 
 adapted for the purpose. For boring 
 wood the tools used are awls, gimlets, 
 augers, and bits of various kinds, tlie 
 latter being applied by means of a 
 crank-shaped instrument called a brace, 
 or else by a lathe, transverse-handle, or 
 drilling-machine. Boring in metal is 
 done by drills or boring-bars revolved 
 l;y boring-machines. Boring in the 
 earth or rock for mining, geologic, or 
 engineering purposes is effected by 
 means of augers, drills, or jumpers, 
 sometimes wrought by hand, but now 
 usually by machinery driven by steam 
 or frequently by compressed air. In 
 
 ordinary mining practice a bore-hole 
 is usually commenced by digging a small 
 pit about 6 feet deep, over which is set 
 up a shear-legs with pulley, etc. The 
 boring-rods are from 10 to 20 feet in 
 length, capable of being jointed together 
 by box and screw, and having a chisel 
 inserted at the lower end. A lever is 
 employed to raise the bore-rods, to 
 which a slight twisting motion is given 
 at each stroke, when the rock at the 
 bottom of the hole is broken by the 
 repeated percussion of the cutting-tool. 
 Various methods are employed to clear 
 out the triturated rock. The work is 
 much quickened by the substitution of 
 steam-power, water-power, or even 
 horse-power for manual labor. Of the 
 many forms of boring-machines now in 
 use may be mentioned the diamond 
 boring-machine, invented by Leschot, 
 a Swiss engineer. In this the cutting- 
 tool is of a tubular form, and receives 
 a uniform rotatory motion, the result 
 being the production of a cylindrical 
 core from the rock of the same size as 
 the inner periphery of the tube. The 
 boring-bit is a steel thimble, about 4 
 inches in length, having two rows of 
 Brazilian black diamonds firmly em- 
 bedded therein, the edges projectign 
 slightly. The diamond teeth are the 
 only parts which come in contact with 
 the rock, and their hardness is such that 
 an enormous length can be bored with 
 but little appreciable wear. 
 
 BORN, Bertrand de, French trouba- 
 dour and warrior, born about the middle 
 of the 12th century in the castle of Born, 
 P^rigord; died about 1209. He dispos- 
 sessed his brother of his e^ate, whose 
 part was taken by Richard Cocur de 
 Lion in revenge for De Born’s satirical 
 lays. Dante places him in the Inferno 
 on account of his verses intensifying the 
 quarrel between Henry II. and his sons. 
 
 BOR'NEO, one of the islands of the 
 Malay Archipelago, and the third largest 
 in the world. Greatest length 780, 
 greatest breadth, 690 miles; area 283,- 
 358 sq. miles. There are several chains 
 of mountains ramif 5 'ing through the 
 interior, the culminating summit (13,- 
 698 feet) being Kini-Balu, near the north- 
 ern extremity. The rivers are very 
 numerous, and several of them are 
 navigable for a considerable distance by 
 large vessels. There are a few small 
 lakes. Borneo contains immense forests 
 of teak and other trees, besides produc- 
 ing various dye-woods, camphor, rattans 
 and other canes, gutta-percha and india- 
 rubber, honey and wax, etc. Its fauna 
 comprises the elephant, rhinoceros, 
 tapir, leopard, buffalo, deer, monkeys 
 (including the orang-outang), and a 
 great variety of birds. The mineral pro- 
 ductions consist of gold, antimony, iron, 
 tin, quicksilver, zinc, and coal, besides 
 diamopds. It is only portions of the 
 land on the coast which are well culti- 
 vated. Among cultivated products are 
 sago, gambier, pepper, rice, tobacco, 
 etc. Edible birds’-nests and trepang 
 are important articles of trade. The 
 climate is not considered unhealthful. 
 The pop. is estimated at about 1,700,- 
 000, comprising Dyaks (the majority of 
 the inhabitants), Malays, Chinese, and 
 Bugis. The southwestern, southern, 
 and eastern portions of the island are 
 
 possessed by the Dutch, under whom 
 are a number of semi-independent 
 princes. On the n.w. coast is the Malay 
 kingdom of Borneo or Bruni. Its chief 
 town is Bruni, on the river of the same 
 name, a place of considerable trade, and 
 the residence of the sultan. British 
 North Borneo has an area of about 31,- 
 000 scj. miles (slightly greater than Scot- 
 land), several splendid harbors, a fertile 
 soil, and a good climate. At present the 
 population is sparse, and a large part of 
 the territory consists of virgin forests. 
 The soil is believed to be well adapted 
 
 Dyaks of Borneo. 
 
 for coffee, sago, tapioca, sugar, tobacco, 
 cotton, etc. Probably there are valu- 
 able mineral deposits also, gold having 
 been already found. The chief settle- 
 ment is Sandakan, the capital, on San- 
 dakan Bay. The revenue is from cus- 
 toms and excise dues, licenses, etc. 
 Birds’-nests, rattans, gutta-percha, tim- 
 ber, etc., are exported, the trade being 
 chiefly with Singapore and Hong-Kong. 
 Pop. estimated at 150,000. North Bor- 
 neo, Bruni, and Sarawak are all under 
 British protection. 
 
 BOR'NU, a negro kingdom of the 
 central Sudan, on the w. side of Lake 
 Chad, with an area of about 79,000 sq. 
 miles, and a pop. estimated at 5,000,- 
 000. Kuka, the capital (pop. 60,000), 
 near the western shore of Lake Chad, is 
 one of the greatest markets in central 
 Africa, a large trade being done in 
 horses, the breed of which is famed 
 throughout the Sudan. Another large 
 town, on the shore of the lake, is Ngornu. 
 Bornu is now' under British and German 
 protection. 
 
 BOROGLYCERIDE, a compound of 
 boracic acid with glycerine, represented 
 by the formula. It is a powerful anti- 
 septic, and being perfectly harmless is 
 as useful in the preservation of food as 
 in surgery, etc. 
 
 BORON, the element from which all 
 boracic compounds are derived, is a 
 dark browui or green amorphous powder, 
 w'hich stains the skin, has no taste or 
 odor, and is only slightly soluble in 
 water. It also crystallizes into darkish 
 brilliant crystals nearly as hard as dia- 
 
BORROMEO 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 mond, which, in the form of dust, are 
 used for polishing. It is one of the few 
 elements which combine direct with 
 nitrogen. 
 
 BORROME'O Carlo, Count, a cele- 
 brated Roman Catholic saint and car- 
 dinal, born 1538, at Arona, on Lago 
 Maggiore, died at Milan 1584. Immedi- 
 ately after his death miracles were said 
 to be wrought at his tomb, and his 
 canonization took place in 1610. — Ilis 
 nephew. Count Federigo Borromeo, also 
 cardinal and Archbishop of Milan, 
 equally distinguished for the sanctity 
 of his life ancl the benevolence of his 
 character, was born at Milan in 1564, 
 and died in 1631. He is celebrated 
 as the founder of the Ambrosian Li- 
 brary. 
 
 BOR'ROW, George, English writer, 
 born 1803, died 1881. He had a passion 
 for foreign tongues, stirring scenes, and 
 feats of bodily prowess. He associated 
 much with the gypsies, and acquired an 
 exact knowledge of their language, man- 
 ners, and customs. As agent of the 
 British and Foreign Bible Society he 
 traveled France, Germany, Russia, and 
 the East; spent five years in Spain, and 
 published The Gypsies in Spain (1841), 
 and The Bible in Spain (1842), the best 
 known of his w'orks. Other works are 
 Lavengro, largely autobiographical 
 (1850), The Romany Rye (1857), Wild 
 Wales (1862), and Dictionary of the 
 Gypsy Language (1874). 
 
 BORROWING, the act of taking 
 something with agreement to return 
 the identical thing or its equivalent, or 
 its equivalent plus compensation to the 
 lender. The first kind of contract is 
 called in law commodatum, the second 
 locatio. Unless a time for return is set 
 the borrowed thing is returnable at the 
 demand of the lender. 
 
 BOS'NIA, a Turkish province in the 
 northwest of the Balkan Peninsula, 
 west of Servia, by the Treaty of Berlin 
 (1878) to be administered for an unde- 
 fined future period by the Austrian 
 governm.ent; area (including Herze- 
 govina and Novi-bazar), 23,570 sq. 
 miles (of which Bosnia Proper occupies 
 16,200), with 1,568,092 inhabitants, 
 mostly of Slavonian origin, in 1708 
 Bosnia was annexed by Austria. 
 
 BOS'PORUS, or BOSPHORUS, the 
 strait, 19 miles long, joining the Black 
 Sea with the Sea of Marmora, called also 
 the Strait of Constantinople. It is de- 
 fended by a series of strong forts ; and by 
 agreement of the European powers no 
 ship of war belonging to any nation 
 shall pass the Bosporus without the 
 permission of Turkey. 
 
 BOSS, a word used to designate a 
 master of some kind, generally of a 
 lower order. It is derived from the 
 Dutch baas, which means the same thing. 
 In the U. States the word is used collo- 
 quially to designate a man of influence 
 and importance in almost any occupa- 
 tion, such as labor boss, railroad boss, 
 political boss. The last mentioned 
 term is applied to politicians who have 
 acquired the power to influence the 
 action of conventions, etc. In very 
 recent years it has lost much of its 
 opprobrious signification, and is now 
 applied to any politician who controls 
 a large number of followers. 
 
 BOSS, Lewis, an American astron- 
 omer, born at Providence, R. I., in 
 1846. He is chief of the Dudley Ob- 
 servatory at Albany, N. Y., and in 1878 
 published a list of declinations of fixed 
 stars, and 1890 a catalogue of 8241 
 stars. He observed the transit of 
 Venus in 1882 for the U. States govern- 
 ment. 
 
 BOSSUET (bos-u-a), Jacques B(3- 
 nigne, illustrious French preacher and 
 theologian, was born in 1627, died in 
 1704. He was unrivaled as a pulpit 
 orator, and greatly distinguished for his 
 strength and acumen as a controversial- 
 ist. The great occupation of his life was 
 controversy with the Protestants. 
 
 BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, 
 metropolis of New England, situated on 
 Massachusetts Bay, 232 miles from New 
 York, and 450 miles from Washington. 
 It is the center of a vast suburban popu- 
 lation, and is unique among American 
 cities for its external resemblance to the 
 cities of Europe. Pop. 622,0()<' 
 
 Boston was founded in 1630, and 
 derives its name from the English city 
 Boston. It figured prominently in the 
 American revolution, was evacuated 
 by the British March 17, 1776, was 
 
 almost wiped out by fire in 1872, and 
 was rebuilt with vast improvement 
 within two years. Washington street, 
 extending from Haymarket Square to 
 and through the Roxbury district, has 
 always been the main thoroughfare. 
 Tremont street, from Scollay Square 
 
 also to Roxbury, is another important 
 artery. State street is the financial 
 center. Atlantic avenue, 100 feet wide, 
 extends along a portion of the water- 
 front at the head of the principal 
 wharves. Many of the old streets have 
 been straightened, widened, and ex- 
 tended at enormous expense; and in 
 place of the waters of the Back Bay han 
 
 grown up the “Back Bay quarter,” a 
 region of broad streets and stately 
 avenues, costly and often elegant dwell- 
 ings, noble churches, fine public and 
 private buildings, famous institutions, 
 great hotels and apartment-houses: 
 remarkable especially for the taste 
 displayed in its embellishment and the 
 richness and variety of its architecture. 
 Beacon street, sweeping over Beacon 
 Hill, for years the finest residential 
 quarter, is now continued across the 
 Back Bay into the Brighton district 
 as a broad boulevard. Commonwealth 
 avenue, 250 feet wide, with a mall in the 
 center, also extending through the Back 
 Bay section to and through the Brighton 
 district, is one of the finest boulevards 
 in the world.. Near the heart of Boston 
 proper is the Common, set apart for 
 public use by the first settlers, a rare old 
 park, with broad malls and pleasant 
 by-paths shaded by elms, lindens, and 
 other graceful trees; and beyond, 
 separated from it by a single street, 
 is the Public Garden, the gateway to 
 the Back Bay quarter. In these parks 
 and other public places are numerous 
 statues and monuments. The greater 
 public-park system consists of a chain 
 of parks beginning with the Back Bay 
 Fens, and extending through parkwaj's 
 to the Arboretum and Franklin Park 
 in the West Roxbury district, and along 
 the shores of Dorchester Bay to the 
 Marine Park at South Boston. 
 
 The Subway, an underground road- 
 way, carries the street -car traffic 
 through portions of the heart of the city, 
 It was built by the municipality, under 
 the direction of a Transit Commission, 
 in 1897-99, at a cost of $4,400,000, and 
 leased to the local street railway com- 
 pan}’^ for a period of twenty years at a 
 rental of 4^ per cent of its cost. An 
 elevated system between the Roxbury 
 
 view in the Bosporus. 
 
BOSTON MASSACRE, THE 
 
 BOTANY 
 
 and Charlestown districts, completed 
 in 1901, is connected with the Subway. 
 The steam railways radiating from the 
 city, formerly 5, subsequently consoli- 
 dated into 3 great systems, connect 
 Boston with all parts of New England, 
 
 TUe city hall Boston. 
 
 and the far West,'South, and East. They 
 enter two great stations, the Union 
 Station at the north, and the South, or 
 Terminal Station, at the south. The 
 system of public schools comprises 
 kindergarten, primary, grammar, high, 
 Latin, normal, and special schools, in 
 which 86,719 pupils are taught by 1970 
 teachers. There are 226 schoolhouses. 
 The Boston Public Library, opened in 
 1854, is wholly free, and is supported 
 by the city at an annual expense of 
 about $255,000. It is the largest 
 library in the w’orld for free circulation. 
 With its 10 branches it contains 746,383 
 volumes, and the annual circulation is 
 over 1,250,000 volumes. Its executive 
 force consists of 140 persons. A new 
 public library building on Copley 
 Square, Back Bay, costing upward of 
 $2,225,000, was built in 1888-95. It is 
 a monumental structure, of elegant 
 proportions, the interior especially en- 
 riched by some of the best of modern 
 decorative work. Among other notable 
 libraries are those of the Boston 
 
 State Capitol, Boston. 
 
 Athenaeum, the Massachusetts Histori- 
 cal Society, the N. E. Historic-Genea- 
 logical Society, and the State Library. 
 Conspicuous among the higher institu- 
 tions for instruction are the Massa- 
 
 chusetts Institute of Technology, the 
 Boston University, the Boston College 
 (Roman Catholic), the medical and 
 dental schools connected with Harvard 
 University, the Massachusetts Normal 
 Art School, and the New England Con- 
 servatory of Music. 
 
 The first bank in America was estab- 
 lished in Boston in 1686, and the first 
 savings institution in 1816. There are 
 43 national banks with a total capital 
 of $38,500,000; 13 trust companies, 
 $8,500,000; and 17 savings-banks. The 
 valuation of taxable property in Boston 
 is $1,129,175,832; the tax levy, $16,- 
 928,136; the tax rate, $14.70. 
 
 BOSTON MASSACRE, THE, the kill- 
 ing of several citizens of Boston by 
 British troops in a riot on March 5, 
 1770, which was the culmination of 
 much quarreling between the soldiery 
 and the people. Seven soldiers were 
 tried for murder, but were acquitted. 
 The occurrence helped to produce the 
 American revolution, and, in fact, has 
 been called “the first drama of the 
 revolution.” 
 
 BOSTON PORT BILL, a law passed in 
 March, 1774, by the British parliament 
 closing the harbor of Boston for having 
 destroyed the famous tea cargo on 
 December 16th previously. It reacted 
 by hurrying on the revolution. See 
 Boston Tea Party. 
 
 BOSTON TEA PARTY, a name given 
 the throwing of 350 chests of tea into 
 Boston harbor by a mob of citizens 
 disguised as Indians on Dec. 16, 1773. 
 It was as a protest to the importation 
 of tea following the policy of taxation 
 without representation. See Boston 
 Port Bill, The. 
 
 BOSTON UNIVERSITY, founded in 
 1869, at Boston, supporting schools 
 of medicine, law, and theology. It has 
 an endowment of $1,500,000, a college of 
 liberal arts, and a college of agriculture. 
 It offers sixty-four free scholarships, 
 200 general scholarships, and two fellow- 
 ships. It has a registration of 1324 
 students, 134 instructors, and a library 
 of 30,000 volumes. 
 
 BOS'WELL, James, the friend and 
 biographer of Dr. Johnson. He was 
 born at Edinburgh in 1740, and died 
 in London in 1795. In 1763 he became 
 acquainted with Johnson — a circum- 
 stance which he himself calls the most 
 important event of his life. He after- 
 ward visited Voltaire at Ferney, Rous- 
 seau at Neufch&tel, and Paoli in Cor- 
 sica, with whom he became intimate. 
 In 1785 he settled at London, and was 
 called to the English bar. Being on 
 terms of the closest intimacy with 
 Johnson, he at all times diligently noted 
 and recorded his sayings, opinions, and 
 actions, for future use in his contem- 
 plated biography. In 1773 he accom- 
 panied him on a tour to the Scottish 
 Highlands and the Hebrides, and he 
 published an account of the excursion 
 after their return. His Life of Samuel 
 Johnson, one of the best pieces of biog- 
 raphy in the language, was published 
 in 1791. 
 
 BOTANY is the science which treats 
 of the vegetable kingdom. 
 
 Plants may be studied from several 
 different points of view. The considera- 
 tion of their general form and structure, 
 
 and the comparison of these in th* 
 various groups from the lowest to the 
 highest, constitutes morphology. AnaU 
 omy and histology treat respectively 
 of the bulkier and the more minute 
 internal structure of the parts, and 
 physiology of their functions. Sys- 
 tematic botany considers the arrange- 
 ment of plants in groups and sub- 
 groups according to the greater or less 
 degree of resemblance between them. 
 Geographical botany tells of their dis- 
 tribution on the earth’s surface, and 
 strives to account for the facts observed, 
 while palseobotany bears the same 
 relation to distribution in the successive 
 geological strata wdiich make up the 
 earth’s crust. Economic botany com- 
 prises the study of the products of the 
 vegetable kingdom as regards their use 
 to man. 
 
 The simplest plants are very minute, 
 and can only be studied by use of the 
 compound microscope. A little rain- 
 water which has been standing some 
 time when thus examined is found to 
 contain a number of roundish green 
 objects, each of which is an individual 
 plant, consisting of one cell only. In- 
 creased complexity of structure is 
 exemplified in many of the ordinary 
 seaweeds, the stalk and more or less 
 flattened expansions of which are sev- 
 eral to many cells thick, the external 
 cell-layers differing somewhat in struc- 
 ture from the internal. 
 
 Going a step liigher we reach the 
 Mosses, where, for the first time, we 
 distinguish a clear differentiation of the 
 part of the plant above ground into a 
 stem and leaves borne upon it. The 
 stem is attached to the soil by delicate 
 colorless hairs — root-hairs. Its struc- 
 ture is, however, very simple, and the 
 leaves are merely thin plates of cells. 
 Microscopical examination of sections 
 of stem, leaf, or root, shows great dif- 
 ferences in structure between various 
 groups of cells ; there is, in fact, marked 
 differentiation of tissues. A tissue is a 
 layer, row, or group of cells which have 
 all undergone a similar development; 
 by differentiation of tissues we mean 
 that various layers, rows, or groups 
 have developed in different ways, so 
 that we can make out and mark by 
 distinctive names the elements of which 
 a stem or leaf is built up. 
 
 Phanerogams, or Flowering-plants, 
 represent the highest group of plants: 
 Seed-plants would be a better name, as 
 their main distinction from those al- 
 ready described is the production of a 
 seed. The much greater variety in form 
 and structure seen in them as com- 
 pared with the ferns justifies us in 
 regarding them as the highest group 
 in the vegetable kingdom They are 
 divided into two classes: (1) those in 
 which the seed is developed on an open 
 leaf, termed a carpel, and called there- 
 fore Gj^mnosperms; and (2) those in 
 which the seed is developed in a closed 
 chamber, formed by the folding together 
 of one or more carpels, and called ac- 
 cordingly Angiosperms. To the former 
 belong the Conifers — pines and firs — 
 and Cycads; to the latter the rest of our 
 trees and the enormous number of 
 field and garden plants which are not 
 ferns or mos.ses, 
 
BOTANY BAY 
 
 BOTIIWELL 
 
 The cn;br 3 " 0 , or rudimentary plant 
 contained in the seed, consists of a very 
 short axis or stem, bearing one (in 
 Monocotyledons), tvm (in Dicotyledons), 
 or several (in many Gymnosperms) 
 primary leaves, the cotyledons, above 
 which it terminates in a little bud or 
 plumule, while below them the axis 
 passes into the primary root or radicle. 
 When the seed germinates the radicle 
 is the first to protrude between the 
 separating seed-coats, and growing 
 downward fixes itself in the soil. Then 
 the plumule grows out accompanied or 
 not, as the case may be, by the cotyle- 
 dons, which have hitherto concealed 
 and protected it, and by rapid growth 
 soon develops into a stem bearing leaves. 
 The stem continues growing in length 
 at its apex throughout the life of the 
 plant; at a short distance below the, 
 apex growth in length ceases; but while 
 in Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons it 
 also continually increases in thickness 
 through its whole length. Monocotyle- 
 dons are distinguished by the fact that 
 when once the stem has been formed 
 its diameter remains unchanged. The 
 same rule applies to the branches. 
 
 Branches proceed from buds which 
 are formed in the autumn in the axils 
 of the leaves, that is, at the point where 
 the leaf or leaf-stalk is joined on to the 
 stem; they remain dormant through the 
 winter, and grow out into new shoots 
 in the spring. 
 
 The leaf is borne on the stem; its 
 tissues, epidermal, cortical, and vascu- 
 lar, are continuous with those of the 
 stem ; but it is distinguished by the fact 
 that its growth is limited, it soon reaches 
 the normal size and stops growing. 
 
 In Dicotyledons and Gymnosperms 
 the primary root or radicle after emerg- 
 ing from the seed continues to grow 
 vigorously, often with copious lateral 
 branching, forming an extensive root- 
 system; but in Monocotyledons it soon 
 perishes, and its place is taken by roots 
 developed from the base of the stem, 
 such roots are called adventitious. Ad- 
 ventitious roots occur also in Dicoty- 
 ledons, as in creeping stems like the 
 strawberry, which bears buds at inter- 
 vals from which new shoots are formed 
 and ro.'.ts given off. The clinging roots 
 of the ivy are also adventitious. There 
 are many forms of roots: some are large 
 and woody, as those of trees; others 
 fibrous, as in grasses; or they may be 
 greatly swollen, forming the fleshy 
 globose root of the turnip, or the conical 
 one of the carrot. Such fleshy develop- 
 ments are due to the plant storing up a 
 quantity of reserve food-material in the 
 first year on which to draw in the sec- 
 ond, when it will want to expand all its 
 energy in flowering and fruiting. The 
 potato, which is a swollen stem, answers 
 the same purpose. The mistletoe and 
 other parasites give off sucker-like roots 
 which penetrate into the tissues of their 
 host. 
 
 As to their reproduction, plants may 
 be asexual, that is, not requiring the 
 cooperation of two distinct (male and 
 female) elements to produce a new in- 
 dividual; or sexual, when two such ele- 
 ments are necessary, and a process of 
 fertilization takes place in which the 
 female cell is impregnated by one or 
 
 more male cells, and the cell resulting 
 from the fusion of the two gives rise by 
 very extensive growth and division to a 
 new individual. In the very lowest 
 plants, like Protococcus, only asexual 
 reproduction is known, but in most 
 Thallophytes both forms occur. In the 
 asexual method numbers of small cells 
 called spores are produced which on 
 germination give rise to a plant similar 
 to that which bore them. In the sexual 
 process the contents of a male organ, 
 escape and impregnate the oosphere, or 
 female cell contained in the female organ. 
 The fertilized oosphere is termed an 
 oospore, and by growth and division 
 gives rise to a plant like that on which 
 it was produced. 
 
 The flower of a seed-plant is a shoot 
 modified for purposes of reproduction. 
 A buttercup, for instance, consists of a 
 number of modified leaves borne in sev- 
 eral whorls on the somewhat expanded 
 top of the stalk, the receptacle or thala- 
 mus. Disseptionof the flower shows (1) 
 An outer whorl of five green leaves, very 
 like ordinary foliage leaves; these are the 
 sepals, and together make up the calyx. 
 (2) An inner whorl of five yellow leaves, 
 composing the corolla, each leaf being 
 a petal. (3) More or less protected by 
 the petals are a great number of sta- 
 mens, each consisting of a slender stalk 
 or filament capped by an anther, a little 
 case containing the dry powdery pollen. 
 The stamens are really much modified 
 leaves; collectively they form the 
 andrcecium. (4) The rest of the recep- 
 tacle right up to the apex is also covered 
 by very much modified leaves, the car- 
 pels, forming the pistil or gynoecium. 
 Each carpel consists of a basal portion, 
 the ovary, in which is contained an 
 ovule, and of a terminal beak-like por- 
 tion, the style. The andrcecium and 
 gynoecium, being the parts directly con- 
 cerned in reproduction, are distin- 
 guished, as the essential organs of the 
 flower, from the calyx and corolla, which 
 are only indirectly so concerned, though 
 of great importance in the process. 
 
 An important characteristic is the 
 fruit, which is the result of fertilization 
 on the ovary. 
 
 Many flowers contain both stamens 
 and pistil, these are termed bisexual or 
 hermaphrodite (b); while others con- 
 tain stamens or pistil only, such are said 
 to be unisexual. When both male (^f) 
 and female ( 9 ) flowers occur on the 
 same plant the species is monoecious, 
 like the hazel ; while it is dioecious if the 
 separate sexes are borne on different 
 individuals, as is the case in the hop. 
 
 Plants which, like the sunflower, pass 
 through all the stages from germination 
 to production of fruit and seed in one 
 season, and then perish, are called an- 
 nuals ; if two years are required, as with 
 the turnip and onion, they are biennials; 
 while perennials last several to many 
 years, during which they may flower 
 and seed many times. 
 
 A plant is built up chiefly of four ele- 
 ments: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and 
 nitrogen, with small quantities of sul- 
 phur and phosphorus and some mineral 
 matter. Substances containing these 
 must therefore form the food. A green 
 plant can take up its carbonaceous food 
 in a very simple form by means of the 
 
 green chlorophyll contained especially 
 in its leaves. This absorbs some of the 
 sun’s rays, and by virtue of the energy 
 represented by the light so absorbed it 
 can obtain the carbon from the carbonic 
 acid gas present in the atmosphere. An 
 animal, having no chlorophyll, has to 
 use more complex carbon-containing 
 compounds, in fact those which have 
 already been worked up in the vegetable 
 kingdom. The other items of the food 
 are obtained from the water and mineral 
 pits in the soil, the salts being brought 
 into solution and absorbed with large 
 quantities of water by the roots. The 
 leaves are the laboratory where the 
 food is worked up into the complex 
 compounds which form the plant sub- 
 stance, and to raise the crude material 
 from the absorbing roots to the leaves 
 there is an upward current of liquid 
 through the stem. This is known as the 
 transpiration current; it travels in the 
 wood-cells. A much larger quantity of 
 water is absorbed than is required as 
 food; this is got rid of by transpiration, 
 that is, by the giving off of water-vapor 
 from the leaves. This is evident if a 
 plant be placed under a glass shade in 
 the sunlight, the vapor given off becom- 
 ing condensed on the glass. The com- 
 plex compounds elaborated in the leaves 
 are returned to all parts of the plant 
 where growth, or storage of reserve- 
 material, is taking place, by means of 
 the other constituent of the vascular 
 bundle, the bast tissue. 
 
 BOTANY BAY, a bay in New South 
 Wales, so called by Captain Cook on 
 account of the great number of new 
 plants collected in its vicinity. The 
 English penal settlement, founded in 
 1788, and popularly known as Botany 
 Bay, was established on Port Jackson, 
 some miles to the northward, near 
 where Sydney now stands. 
 
 BOT-FLY, a fly the maggots of 
 which are developed from the egg in 
 the intestines of horses or under the 
 skins of oxen; a gadfly. 
 
 BOTH'NIA, GULF OF, the northern 
 part of the Baltic Sea, which separates 
 Sweden from Finland. Length about 
 450 miles, breadth 90 to 130, depth from 
 20 to 50 fathoms. Its water is but 
 slightly salt, and it freezes in the win- 
 ter, so as to be passed by sledges and 
 carriages. 
 
 BOTH'WELL, James Hepburn, Earl 
 of, known in Scottish history by his 
 marriage to Queen Mary, was born 
 about 1526. It is believed that he was 
 deeply concerned in the murder of 
 Darnley, Mary’s husband, and that he 
 was even supported by the queen. He 
 was charged with the crime and tried, 
 but, appearing along with 4000 follow- 
 ers, was readily acquitted. He was now 
 in high favor with the queen, and with 
 or without her consent he seized her at 
 Edinburgh, and carrying her a prisoner 
 to Dunbar Castle prevailed upon her to 
 marry him after he had divorced his 
 own wife. But by this time the mind 
 of the nation was roused on the subject 
 of Bothwell’s character and actions. A 
 confederacy was formed against him, 
 and in a short time Mary was a prisoner 
 in Edinburgh, and Bothwell had been 
 forced to flee to Denmark, where he 
 died in 1576. 
 
BOXriCELLl 
 
 BOURBON 
 
 BOTTICELLI (bot-te-chel'le), Sandro 
 (for Alessandro), an Italian painter of 
 the Florentine school, born in 1447, 
 died 1515. Working at first in the shop 
 of the goldsmith Botticello, from whom 
 he takes his name, he showed such talent 
 that he was removed to the studio of the 
 distinguished painter Fra Lippo Lippi. 
 From this master he took the fire and 
 passion of his style, and added a fine 
 fantasy and delicacy of his own. He 
 painted flowers, especially roses, with 
 incomparable skill. In his later years 
 Botticelli became an ardent disciple of 
 Savonarola, and is said by Vasari to 
 have neglected his painting for the 
 study of mystical theology. 
 
 BOTTLE, a vessel of moderate or 
 small size, and with a neck, for holding 
 liquor. By the ancients they were made 
 of skins or leather; they are now chiefly 
 made of glass or earthenware. The 
 common black bottles of the cheapest 
 kind are formed of the most ordinary 
 materials, sand with lime, and some- 
 times clay and alkaline ashes of any 
 kind, such as kelp, barilla, or even wood 
 ashes. This glass is strong, hard, and 
 less subject to corrosion by acids than 
 flint-glass. 
 
 BOTTLE-CHART, a chart which 
 shows the course traveled by a sealed 
 bottle thrown into the sea. It had its 
 origin in the custom of throwing into 
 the sea sealed bottles containing intelli- 
 gence from travelers on long or dis- 
 astrous voyages. The chart represents 
 the travels of various bottles. It is 
 used chiefly by hydrographers. Charts 
 of this kind are made at the U. States 
 hydrographic office. 
 
 BOTTLE-FLOWER. See Blue-bottle. 
 
 BOTTLE-GOURD, a kind of gourd, 
 the dried fruits of which, when the pulp 
 is removed, are used in warm countries 
 for holding liquids. 
 
 BOTTLE-NOSE, a kind of whale, of 
 the dolphin family, 20 to 28 feet long, 
 with a beaked snout and a dorsal fin, . a 
 native of northern seas. The caaing 
 whale is also called bottle-nose. 
 
 BOTTLE-TREE, a tree of north- 
 eastern Australia, with a stem that 
 
 ■jW; 
 
 Bottle-tree. 
 
 bulges out into a huge rounded mass. 
 It abounds in a nutritious mucilaginous 
 substance. 
 
 BOTTLING, the art of placing liquid 
 in bottles, corking, and otherwise seal- 
 ing them. Special apparatus has been 
 designed for this work by which the 
 bottles are cleaned, filled, corked, and 
 sealed. One machine will clean 75 
 dozen bottles a day. Self-feeding cork- 
 
 ing machines will each cork 2000 bottles 
 an hour. A wiring machine will wire 
 1000 bottles an hour, and these can be 
 labeled by machinery at the rate of 
 12,000 a day. The liquids bottled on 
 the largest scale are all kinds of bever- 
 ages, alcoholic and otherwise. 
 
 BOTTOMRY is a contract by which 
 a ship is pledged by the owner or master 
 for the money necessary for repairs to 
 enable her to complete her voyage. The 
 freight and even the cargo may be 
 pledged as well as the ship. The condi- 
 tions of such a contract usually are that 
 the debt is repayable only if the ship 
 arrives at her destination. As the lender 
 thus runs the risk oi her loss, he is en- 
 titled to a high premium or interest on 
 the money lent. The latest bottomry 
 bond takes precedence of all previous 
 ones. 
 
 BOUCHES - DU - RHONE (bSsh-dfl- 
 ron), a dep. in the s. of France, in 
 ancient Provence. Chief town, Mar- 
 seilles. Area, 1,267,088 acres, of which 
 about one-half is under cultivation. 
 The Rhone is the principal river. The 
 manufactures are principally soap, 
 brandy, olive-oil, chemicals, vinegar, 
 scent, leather, glass, etc. The fisheries 
 are numerous and productWe. Pop. 
 737,112. 
 
 BOUCICAULT (bo'si-ko), Dion, dra- 
 matic author and actor, born at 
 Dublin Dec. 20, 1822. He was intended 
 for an architect, but the success of a 
 comedy, the well-known London Assur- 
 ance, which he wrote when only nineteen 
 years old, determined him for a career 
 in connection with the stage. Bouci- 
 cault being a remarkably facile writer, 
 in a few years had produced quite a 
 lengthy list of pieces, both in comedy 
 and melodrama, and all more or less 
 successful. He produced a new style of 
 drama, dealing largely in sensation, but 
 with more heart in it than his earlier 
 work. The Colleen Bawn and Arrah- 
 na-Pogue are the best examples. In- 
 deed the best Mr. Boucicault could do 
 was such pictures of Irish life and 
 manners. He died in 1890. 
 
 BOUDOIR (bo'dwar), a small room, 
 elegantly fitted up, destined for retire- 
 ment. The boudoir is the peculiar 
 property of the lady, where only her 
 most intimate friends are admitted. 
 
 BOUGUER (bo-ga), Pierre, a French 
 mathematician and astronomer, born 
 in 1698. He was associated with Godin 
 and La Condamine in an expedition to 
 the South American equatorial regions to 
 measure the length of a degree of the 
 meridian The main burden of the task 
 fell upon Bouguer, who performed it with 
 great ability, and published the results 
 in his Th4orie de la Figure de la Terre. 
 He also invented the heliometer, and 
 his researches about light laid the foun- 
 dation of photometry. He died in 1758. 
 
 BOUILLON, Godfrey. See Godfrey of 
 Bouillon. 
 
 BOULDER (bol'der), a rounded water- 
 worn stone of some size; in geol. applied 
 to ice worn and partially smoothed 
 blocks of large size lying on the surface 
 of the soil, or embedded in clays and 
 gravels, generally differing in composi- 
 tion from the rocks in their vicinity, 
 a fact which proves that they must have 
 been transported from a distance, prob- 
 
 ably by ice. When lying on the surfacfi 
 they are known as erratic blocks. The 
 boulder-clay in which these blocks are 
 found belongs to the post-tertiary or 
 quaternary period. It occurs in many 
 localities, consists of a compact clay 
 often with thin beds of gravel and sand 
 interspersed, and is believed to have 
 been deposited from icebergs and gla- 
 ciers in the last glacial period. 
 
 BOULEVARD (bol-var), a French 
 word formerly applied to the ramparts 
 of a fortified town, but when these were 
 leveled, and the whole planted with 
 trees and laid out as promenades, the 
 name boulevard was still retained. 
 Modern usage applies it also to many 
 streets which are broad and planted with 
 trees, although they were not originally 
 ramparts. The most famous boulevards 
 are those of Paris. 
 
 BOULOGNE (bo-lon-ye or bo-lon), or 
 BOULOGNE-SUR-MER, a fortified sea- 
 port of France, dep. Pas de Calais, at the 
 mouth of the Liane. In the castle, 
 which dates from 1231, Louis Napoleon 
 was imprisoned in 1840. Boulogne has 
 manufactories of soap, earthenware, 
 linen and woolen cloths; wines, coal, 
 corn, butter, fish, linen and woolen 
 stuffs, etc., are the articles of export. 
 Steamboats run daily between this place 
 and England, crossing over in two or 
 three hours. Pop. 49,083, about a tenth 
 being English. 
 
 BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE, a town of 
 France, dep. Seine, southwest of Paris, 
 of which it is a suburb. It is from this 
 place that the celebrated Bois de Bou- 
 logne gets its name. Pop. 47,168. 
 
 BOUNTY, in political economy, is a 
 reward or premium granted for the en- 
 couragement of a particular species of 
 trade or production, the idea being that 
 the development of such trade or pro- 
 duction will be of national benefit. The 
 subsidies granted for carrying the 
 oceanic mails are the only bounties 
 now made by the English government. 
 — The same name is given to a premium 
 offered to induce men to enlist in the 
 army and navy. 
 
 BOUNTY JUMPER, a term applied to 
 those individuals who, during the civil 
 war, enlisted in the army for a reward 
 and deserted at the earliest opportunity. 
 This was repeated again and again, one 
 man having confessed to “jumping the 
 bounty” thirty times. 
 
 BOURBON (bor-bon), an ancient 
 French family which has given three 
 dynasties to Europe, the Bourbons of 
 France, Spain, and Naples. The first 
 of the line known in history is Adhemar, 
 who, at the beginning of the 10th cen- 
 tury, was lord of the Bourbonnais 
 (now the dep. of Allier). The power 
 and possessions of the family increased 
 steadily through a long series of Ar- 
 chambaulds of Bourbon till in 1272 
 Beatrix, daughter of Agnes of Bourbon 
 and John of Burgundy, married Robert, 
 sixth son of Louis IX. of France, and 
 thus connected the Bourbons with 
 the royal line of the Capets. Their son 
 Louis had the barony converted into a 
 dukedom and became the first Due de 
 Bourbon. Two branches took their 
 origin from the two sons of this Louis, 
 duke of Bourbon, who died in 1341. 
 The royal branch was divided by the 
 
BOURGEOIB 
 
 BOWMAN 
 
 two sons of Louis XIII., the elder of 
 whom, Louis XIV., continued the chief 
 branch, while Philip, the younger son, 
 founded the house of Orleans as the 
 first duke of that name. The kings of 
 the elder French royal line of the house 
 of Bourbon run in this way; Henry IV., 
 Louis XIII., XIV., XV., XVI., XVII., 
 XVIII., and Charles X. The last 
 sovereigns of this line, Louis XVL, 
 Louis XVIII., and Charles X. (Louis 
 XVII., son of Louis XVI., never ob- 
 tained the crown), were brothers, all of 
 them being grandsons of Louis XV. 
 Louis XVIII. had no children, but 
 Charles X. had two sons, viz., Louis 
 Antoine de Bourbon, duke of Angouleme, 
 who was dauphin till the revolution of 
 1830, and died without issue in 1844, 
 and Charles Ferdinand, duke of Berry, 
 who died 14th Feb., 1820, of a wound 
 given him by a political fanatic. The 
 Duke of Berry had two children; (1) 
 Louise Marie Therd"e, called Made- 
 moiselle d’ Artois; and (2) Henri Charles 
 Ferdinand Marie Dieudonnci, born in 
 1820, and at first caLed Duke of Bour- 
 deaux, but afterward Count De Cham- 
 bord, who was looked upon by his party 
 until his death (in 1883) as the legitimate 
 heir to the crown of France. 
 
 The bmpch of the Bourbons known 
 as the H(jfi«e of Orleans was raised to the 
 throne of France by the revolution of 
 1830, and deprived of it by that of 1848. 
 It derives its origin from Duke Philip 
 I. of Orleans (died 1701), second son of 
 Louis XIII., and only brother of Louis 
 XIV. 
 
 BOURGEOIS (bur-]6'), a size ot 
 printing type larger than brevier and 
 smaller than long-primer, used in books 
 and newspapers. 
 
 BOURGEOISIE (b6rzh-w5,-ze), a name 
 applied to a certain class in France 
 in contradistinction to the nobiUty and 
 clergy as well as to the working-classes. 
 It thus includes all those who do not 
 belong to the nobility or clergy, and 
 yet occupy an independent position, 
 from financiers and heads of great mer- 
 cantile establishments at the one end 
 to master tradesmen at the other. It 
 corresponds pretty nearly with the 
 English term “middle classes.” 
 
 BOUTELLE, Charles Addison, an 
 American writer and legislator, born in 
 Maine in 1839, died in 1901. He was a 
 delegate to several republican national 
 conventions and served three terms in 
 congress. 
 
 BOUT'WELL, George Sewall, an 
 American legislator, politician, and 
 cabinet officer, born in Massachusetts 
 in 1818. He was secretary of the 
 treasury from 1869 to 1873, in which 
 latter year he became a U. States sen- 
 ator. He published several books of 
 speeches and political history. He died 
 in 
 
 BOW, the name of one of the most 
 ancient and universal weapons of 
 offense. It is made of steel, wood, horn, 
 or other elastic substance. The figure 
 of the bow is nearly the same in all 
 countries. The long bow was the 
 favorite national weapon in England. 
 The battles of Crecy (1346), Poictiers 
 (1356), and Agincourt (1415) were won 
 by this weapon. It was made of yew, 
 ash, etc., of the height of the archer, or 
 
 about 6 feet long, the arrow being us- 
 ually half the length of the bow. The 
 arbalist, or cross-bow, was a popular 
 weapon with the Italians, and was intro- 
 duced into England in the 13th century, 
 but never was so popular as the long- 
 bow. In England the strictest regula- 
 tions were made to encourage and 
 facilitate the use of the bow. 
 
 BOW, in music, is the name of that 
 well-known implement by means of 
 which the tone is produced from violins, 
 and other instruments of that kind. 
 
 BOWDITCH’S PRACTICAL NAVI- 
 GATOR, a compendium of information 
 for navigators. It contains explana- 
 tions of all the ordinary methods of 
 determining the ship’s position at sea, 
 together with all the tables necessary 
 for using them; also descriptions of 
 instruments used in navigation, methods 
 of making hydrographic surveys, charts; 
 etc. The copyright of this work was 
 purchased by the United States govern- 
 ment, and it is now published and is- 
 sued by the hydrographic office, United 
 States navy. It has been several times 
 revised, and a considerable amount of 
 matter has been added. 
 
 BOWDOIN (bo'dn), James, born 1727, 
 at Boston, died 1790. In 1785 was ap- 
 pointed governor of Massachusetts, and 
 he was a member of the convention 
 assembled to deliberate on the adoption 
 of the constitution of the United States. 
 He was a friend and correspondent of 
 Franklin. — Bowdoin College, Brunswick, 
 Maine, was named after him. It is a 
 flourishing institution, which has had 
 among its students Longfellow and 
 Hawthorne. 
 
 BOWDOIN, James, an American 
 public man and philanthropist, born at 
 Boston in 1752, the son of Governor 
 Bowdoin. He graduated at Harvard, 
 studied also at Oxford, and traveled in 
 Europe, returning to America soon after 
 the battle of Lexington. In 1805 he 
 was United States minister to Spain. 
 He left to Bowdoin College 6000 acres 
 of land and $5500, the reversion of the 
 island of Naushon, where he had his 
 summer home, a large library; and an 
 extensive collection of philosophical ap- 
 paratus. He died in 1811. 
 
 BOWDOIN COLLEGE, chartered in 
 1794 by Massachusetts, and named after 
 James Bowdoin, governor of Massa- 
 chusetts, of which state Maine was for- 
 merly a district. The college opened 
 at Brunswick, Cumberland Co., in 
 1802, with Joseph McKeen, D.D., a 
 Dartmouth graduate, as its first pres- 
 ident. The present buildings of the 
 college, representing a value of $600,- 
 000, include King Chapel, the Walker 
 Art building, the Searles Science build- 
 ing, Memorial Hall, the Hubbard 
 Library, and a gymnasium, observa- 
 tory, and dormitories. The course of 
 study leading to the degree of A.B. is 
 based on a knowledge of the ancient and 
 modern languages and mathematics, 
 and includes such other courses as are 
 usually given in smaller colleges of the 
 first class. Connected with Bowdoin 
 College is the Medical School of Maine, 
 organized in 1820. 
 
 BOWER-BIRD , a name given to cer- 
 tain Australian birds of the starling 
 family from a remarkable habit they 
 
 have of building bowers to serve as 
 places of resort. The bowers are con- 
 structed on the ground, and usually 
 under overhanging branches in the most 
 retired parts of the forest. They are 
 decorated with variegated feathers. 
 
 Bower-bird and its run. 
 
 shells, small pebbles, bones, etc. At 
 each end there is an entrance left open. 
 These bowers do not serve as nests at 
 all, but seem to be places of amusement 
 and resort, especially during the breed- 
 ing season. 
 
 BOWERY, a famous street of New 
 York City, running from Chatham 
 Square to Cooper Union. It was for- 
 merly a street of dangerous and low 
 resorts, but recently has been invaded 
 by retail business stores. 
 
 BOWIE-KNIFE, a long kind of knife 
 like a dagger, but with only one edge, 
 named after Colonel James Bowie, and 
 used by hunters and others. 
 
 BOW INSTRUMENTS are all the 
 instruments strung with catgut from 
 which the tones are produced by means 
 of the bow. The most usual are the 
 double-bass, the small bass, or violon- 
 cello, and the violin proper. In refer- 
 ence to their construction the several 
 parts are alike; the difference is in the 
 size. 
 
 BOWLINE (bo'-), in ships, a rope 
 leading forward, which is fastened by 
 bridles to loops in the ropes on the per- 
 pendicular edge of the square sails. It 
 is used to keep the weather-edge of the 
 sail tight forward and steady when the 
 ship is close-hauled to the wind. 
 
 BOWLS, a game played -nuth a 
 variable number of wooden pins and 
 a wooden ball on a smooth wooden 
 runway called an alley. The alley is 
 75 feet long, 41 inches wide, and flanked 
 on both sides by a gutter for the return 
 of the balls. The pins are “set up” at 
 one end and the player tries to knock 
 them down (according to rule) by rolling 
 the ball along the floor from the other 
 end. The game in the U. States is 
 played with ten, nine, five, three, or 
 other number of pins, and usually three 
 rolls are permitted for each frame, the 
 purpose being to knock down all the 
 pins. When all the pins are knocked 
 with one stroke (in tenpins) the play 
 is called a “ten strike,” or “double 
 spare,” meaning that the player has two 
 more rolls on the next frame. A player 
 who makes “ten strikes” to the end 
 scores 300. The game has a very ancient 
 origin. 
 
 BOWMAN, Edward Morris, an Ameri- 
 can musician, born at Barnard, Vt., in 
 1848. In 1877 he published his Manual 
 of Musical Theory, which was trans- 
 
BOWSPRIT 
 
 BRADDOCK 
 
 lated into German, and in 1881 became 
 the first American associate of the Royal 
 College of Organists of England. In 
 1891 he became professor of music in 
 Vassar College, and has done much 
 toward raising the tone of popular 
 musical taste in the U. States. 
 
 BOWSPRIT (bo'-), the large boom or 
 spar which projects .over the stem of a 
 vessel, having the foremast and foretop- 
 mast stays and staysails attached to it, 
 while extending beyond it is the jib- 
 boom. 
 
 BOW-WINDOW, a window con- 
 structed so as to project from a wall, 
 properly one that forms a segment of a 
 circle. See Bay-window. 
 
 BOX-ELDER, the ash-leaved maple, 
 a small but beautiful tree of the U. 
 States, from which sugar is sometimes 
 made. 
 
 BOXING, or PUGILISM, a manner of 
 fighting with the fists so common in 
 England as to be regarded abroad as a 
 national accomplishment. The art of 
 boxing consists in showing skill in deal- 
 ing blows with the fist against one’s 
 opponent, especially on the upper part 
 of the body, while at the same time one 
 protects one’s self. In England pro- 
 fessional boxers, who made a livelihood 
 out of their skill in the art, were at one 
 time commom especially during the 
 reigns of the Ueorges, when persons of 
 the highest rank were sometimes to be 
 seen at pugilistic combats, and “pro- 
 fessors” of the art frequently had mem- 
 bers of the nobility among their pupils. 
 Byron relates in his diary that he re- 
 ceived instruction in boxing from the 
 celebrated Jackson, who made a fortune 
 as a pugilist. Boxing has, however, 
 fallen in a great measure into disrepute, 
 and prize-fights are illegal, and both 
 the principals and the spectators may 
 be proceeded against. At the gladia- 
 torial shows of the Greeks and Romans 
 boxing was common, but in a more 
 dangerous form, the fist being armed 
 with leather appliances loaded with iron 
 or lead. 
 
 BOXING-DAY, the day after Christ- 
 mas, which has long been held as a 
 holiday in England. It is so called from 
 the practice of giving Christmas boxes 
 as presents on that day. 
 
 BOXING THE COMPASS, in seaman’s 
 phrase, the repetition of all the points 
 of the compass in their proper order — 
 an accomplishment required to be at- 
 tained by all sailors. 
 
 BOX-TORTOISE, a name given to 
 one or two North American tortoises 
 that can completely shut themselves 
 into their shell. 
 
 BOX - TREE, a shrubby evergreen 
 tree, 12 or 15 feet high, a native of Eng- 
 land, southern Europe, and parts of 
 Asia, with small oval and opposite 
 leaves, and greenish, inconspicuous 
 flowers, male and female on the same 
 tree. The wood is of a yellowish color, 
 close-grained, very hard and heavy, 
 and admits of a beautiful polish. On 
 these accounts it is much used by 
 turners, wood-carvers, engravers on 
 wood (no wood surpassing it in this 
 respect), and mathematical-instrument 
 makers. Flutes and other wind-instru- 
 ments are formed of it. The box of 
 commerce comes mostly from the 
 
 regions adjoining the Black Sea and 
 Caspian, and is said to be diminishing 
 in quantity. 
 
 BOYACA', in South America, on«3 of 
 the departments or provinces of Colom- 
 bia. On the west side the country is 
 traversed by a chain of the Andes, from 
 which it slopes toward the east into 
 immense plains or llanos, mostly uncul- 
 tivated, and watered by the tributaries 
 of the Orinoco. Area, 33,351 sq. miles; 
 pop. 702,000. 
 
 BOY'COTTING, a name given to an 
 organized system of social and com- 
 mercial ostracism employed in Ireland 
 in connection with the Land League 
 and the land agitation of 1880 and 1881 
 and subsequently. Landlords, tenants, 
 or other persons who are subjected to 
 boycotting find it difficult or impossible 
 to get any one to work for them, to 
 supply them with the necessaries of 
 life, or to associate with them in any way. 
 It took its name from Captain James 
 Boycott, a Mayo landlord, against whom 
 it was first put in force. 
 
 BOY'DELL. John, an English en- 
 graver, but cniefly distinguished as an 
 encourager of the fine arts. He engaged 
 Reynolds, Opie, West, and other cele- 
 brated painters to illustrate Shake- 
 speare’s works, and from their pictures 
 was produced a magnificent volume of 
 plates, the Shakespeare Gallery (Lon- 
 don, Boydell, 1803). In 1790 Boydell 
 had been made lord-mayor; but the 
 outbreak of war consequent on the 
 French revolution injured his foreign 
 trade and brought him into difficulties. 
 He died in 1804. 
 
 BOYLE LECTURES. See Boyle, 
 Robert. 
 
 BOYLE’S LAW, otherwise called 
 Mariotte’s Law, a law in phy.sics to the 
 effect that the volume of a gas will vary 
 inversely to the pressure to which it is 
 subjected. 
 
 BOYS’ CLUBS, associations of Ameri- 
 can boys for various purposes, chiefly 
 maintained by their parents and grown- 
 up friends. Of these, investigation has 
 shown, there are nearly 1000 in the U. 
 States, the membership consisting of 
 boys ranging from ten to seventeen years 
 old. The character of the clubs are 
 social, industrial, literary, benevolent, 
 musical, hunting and fishing, athletic, 
 and game playing. 
 
 BOZZARIS (bot-sa'ris), Marko, a hero 
 of the Greek war of independence 
 against the Turks, born in the end of 
 the 18th century. In the summer of 
 1823, when he held the command-in- 
 chief of the Greek forces at Missolonghi, 
 he made a daring night attack on the 
 camp of the Pasha of Scut&ri, near 
 Karpenisi. The attack was successful; 
 but the triumph of the Greeks was 
 clouded by the fall of the heroic Boz- 
 zaris. His deeds are celebrated in the 
 popular songs of Greece. 
 
 BRABANT', the central district of the 
 lowlands of Holland and Belgium, ex- 
 tending from the Waal to the sources of 
 the Dyle, and from the Meuse and Lim- 
 burg plains to the lower Scheldt. It is 
 divided between the kingdoms of Hol- 
 land and Belgium, into three provinces : 
 1st, Dutch or North Brabant, area 1977 
 sq. miles, pop. 559,287; 2d, the Belgian 
 province of Antwerp, area 1095 sq. 1 
 
 miles, pop. 837,976; and 3d, the Bel- 
 gian province of South Brabant, area 
 1276 sq. miles, pop. 1,303,064. 
 
 BRACELET, a kind of ornament 
 usually worn on the wrist, the use of 
 which extends from the most ancient 
 times down to the present, and belongs 
 to all countries, civilized as well as un- 
 civilized. Bracelets were in use in 
 Egypt and among the Medes and Per- 
 .sians at a very remote period, and in the 
 Bible the bracelet is frequently men- 
 tioned as an ornament in use among the 
 Jews, both men and women. Among 
 the ancient Greeks bracelets seem to 
 have been worn only by the women. 
 The spiral form was preferred, and very 
 often made to assume the appearance 
 of snakes, which went round the arm 
 twice or thrice. Among the Romans 
 it was a frequent practice for a gener;.l 
 to bestow bracelets on soldiers who had 
 distinguished themselves by their valor. 
 Roman ladies of high rank frequently 
 wore them both on the wrist and on the 
 upper arm. .\mong the ancient heathen 
 Germanic tribes they formed the chief 
 and almost only ornament, as is shown 
 by their being so often found in old 
 graves. They seem to have been used 
 by the men even more than by the 
 women, and were the gifts by which 
 an ancient German chief attached his 
 followers to himself. So, in old Anglo- 
 Saxon poems, “ring-giver” is a common 
 name for the lord or ruler. 
 
 BRACES, in ships, ropes passing 
 through blocks at the ends of the yards, 
 used for swinging the latter round so as 
 to meet the wind in any desired direc- 
 tion. 
 
 BRACKET, a short piece or combina- 
 tion of pieces, generally more or less 
 triangular in outline, and projecting 
 from a wall or other surface. They may 
 be either of an ornamental order, as 
 
 Bracket, 
 
 Harlestone church, Northamptonshire. 
 
 when jdesigned to support a statue, 
 a bust, or such like, or plain forms of 
 carpentry, such as support slielves, etc. 
 Brackets may also be used in connection 
 with machinery, being attached to walls, 
 beams, etc., to support a line of shafting. 
 
 BRAD'DOCK, Edward, m.ajor-general 
 and commander of the Britisli army in 
 the expedition against the French on 
 the river Ohio, in 1755. In the spring 
 of that year he set out from Virginia to 
 invest Fort Duquesne, now Pittsburg, 
 but from want of caution fell into an 
 Indian ambuscade by which he lost 
 nearly one-half of his troops and re- 
 ceived himself a mortal wound. 
 
 BRAD'DOCK, a borough in .\llegheny 
 Co., Pa., 10 miles east of Pittsburg, on 
 1 the Monongahela river, and on the 
 
BRADFORD 
 
 BRAHMANISM 
 
 Pennsylvania, the Baltimore and Ohio, 
 and the Pittsburg and Lake Erie rail- 
 roads. Pop. 18,422. 
 
 BRAD'FORD, a mun., pari., and 
 county bor. and important manufac- 
 turing town in W. Riding of Yorkshire, 
 England. Bradford is the chief seat 
 in England of the spinning and weaving 
 of worsted yarn and woolens, but there 
 are also manufactures of alpaca stuffs, 
 plush and velvet, machine works, foun- 
 dries, etc. Pop. 279,809. 
 
 BRADFORD, a city in McKean Co., 
 Pa., 76 miles south of Buffalo, N. Y., on 
 the Pennsylvarria, the Erie, the Buffalo, 
 Rochester and Pittsburg, and several 
 local railroads. It is in a petroleum and 
 natural-gas region. Pop. 18,129. 
 
 BRADFORD, William, one of the 
 Pilgrim Fathers, born in England in 
 1590, died in 1657. He came over in the 
 Mayflower in 1620 and founded Plym- 
 outh Colony. He acquired consider- 
 able fame by his exhaustive works on the 
 history of Massachusetts. 
 
 BRADLAUGH (brad'lg,), Charles, Eng- 
 lish secularist, atheist, and advocate of 
 republicanism, born in London in 1833. 
 He is well known by his writings and 
 lectures, and more especially by his 
 efforts to gain admission to parliament. 
 Being elected for Northampton in 1880 
 he claimed the right to make affirmation 
 simply instead of taking the oath which 
 members of parliament take before they 
 can sit and vote, but being a professed 
 atheist this right was denied him. 
 Though he was repeatedly reelected by 
 the same constituency, the majority of 
 the House of Commons continued to 
 declare him disqualified for taking the 
 oath or affirming; and it was only after 
 the election of a new parliament in 1885 
 that he was allowed to take his seat 
 without opposition as a representative 
 of Northampton. He was editor of the 
 National Reformer. He died in 1891. 
 
 BRADLEY, Joseph P., an American 
 jurist, born in New York in 1813, died 
 in 1892. He was appointed associate 
 justice of the United States Supreme 
 court in 1870, and in 1877 was a mem- 
 ber of the commission which decided 
 the election of 1876 in favor of Ruther- 
 ford B. Hayes. 
 
 Braxlou Bragg. 
 
 BRAGG, Braxton, an American sol- 
 dier. He was born in North . Carolina 
 in 1817 and died in 1876. During the 
 
 Mexican war he served under Taylor 
 and took part in the engagements of 
 Fort Pickens, Shiloh, Corinth, Perry- 
 ville, 'Murfreesboro, Chattanooga, and 
 other battles during the civil war. He 
 fought against Sherman in Georgia and 
 was under the command of General 
 Johnston until the peace. After the 
 war he devoted himself to civil en- 
 gineering. 
 
 BRAGG, Edward Stujwesant, an 
 American legislator, born in New York 
 in 1827. He served in the civil war as 
 one of the “iron brigade” of Wisconsin, 
 and has been prominent in democratic 
 national politics. In 1902 he became 
 consul general to the Cuban republic. 
 
 BRAH'MA, a Sanskrit word signify- 
 ing (in its neuter form) the Universal 
 Power or ground of all existence, and 
 also (in its masculine form with long 
 final syllable) a particular god, the first 
 
 Brahma— Bronze, Indian museum. 
 
 person in the Triad (Brahma, Vishnu, 
 and Siva) of the Hindus. The personal 
 god Brahma is represented as a red or 
 golden-colored figure with four heads 
 and as many arms, and he is often 
 accompanied by the swan or goose. He 
 is the god of the fates, master of life and 
 death, yet he is himself created, and is 
 merely the agent of BrahmS, the Uni- 
 versal Power. His moral character is 
 no better than that of the Grecian Zeus. 
 
 BRAH'MANISM, a religious and social 
 system prevalent among the Hindus, 
 and so called because developed and 
 expounded by the sacerdotal caste 
 known as the Brahmans (from brahman, 
 a potent prayer; from root brih or vrih, 
 to increase). It is founded on the an- 
 cient religious writings known as the 
 Vedas and regarded as sacred revela- 
 tions, of which the Brahmans as a body 
 became custodians and interpreters, 
 being also the officiating priests and the 
 general directors of sacrifices and re- 
 ligious rites. As the priestly caste in- 
 creased in numbers and power they 
 went on elaborating the ceremonies, and 
 added to the Vedas other writings tend- 
 ing to confirm the excessive pretensions 
 of this now predominant caste, and give 
 them the sanction of a revelation. The 
 earliest supplements to the Vedas are 
 the Brahmanas, more fully explaining 
 the functions of the officiating priests. 
 Both together form the revealed Scrip- 
 tures of the Hindus. In time the caste 
 of Brahmans came to be accepted as a 
 divine institution, and an elaborate sys- 
 1 tern of rules defining and enforcing by 
 
 the severest penalties its place as well 
 as that of the inferior castes was promul- 
 gated. Other early castes were the 
 Kshattriyas or warriors, and the Vaisyas 
 or cultivators, and it was not without a 
 struggle that the former recognized the 
 superiority of the Brahmans. It was by 
 the Brahmans that the Sanskrit liter- 
 ature was developed ; and they were not 
 only the priests, theologians, and philos- 
 ophers, but also the poets, men of 
 science, lawgivers, administrators, and 
 statesmen of the Aryans of India. 
 
 The sanctity and inviolability of a 
 Brahman are maintained by severe 
 penalties. The murder of one of the 
 order, robbing him, etc., are inexpiable 
 sins; even the killing of his cow can only 
 be expiated by a painful penance. A 
 Brahman should pass through four 
 states: First, as Brahmachari, or novice, 
 he begins the study of the sacred Vedas, 
 and is initiated into the privileges and 
 the duties of his caste. He has a right 
 to alms, to exemption from taxes, and 
 from capital and even corporal punish- 
 ment. Flesh and eggs he is not allowed 
 to eat. Leather, skins of animals, and 
 most animals themselves are impure 
 and not to be touched by him. When 
 manhood comes he ought to marry, and 
 as Grihastha enter the second state, 
 which requires more numerous and 
 minute observances. When he has be- 
 gotten a son and trained him up for 
 the holy calling he ought to enter the 
 third state, and as Vanaprastha, or in- 
 habitant of the forest, retire from the 
 world for solitary praying and medita- 
 tion, with severe penances to purify the 
 spirit; but this and the fourth or last 
 state of a Sannyasi, requiring a cruel 
 degree of asceticism, afe now seldom 
 reached, and the whole scheme is to be 
 regarded as representing rather the 
 Brahmanical ideal of life than the actual 
 facts. 
 
 The worship represented in the oldest 
 Vedic literature is that of natural ob- 
 jects: the sky, personified in the god 
 Indra; the dawn, in Ushas; the various 
 attributes of the sun, in Vishnu, Sur 3 '^a, 
 Agni, etc. These gods were invoked for 
 assistance in the common affairs of life, 
 and were propitiated by offerings which, 
 at first few and simple, afterward be- 
 came more complicated and included 
 animal sacrifices. In the later Vedic 
 hymns a philosophical conception of 
 religion and the problems of being and 
 creation appears struggling into exist- 
 ence ; and this tendency is systematically 
 developed by the supplements and com- 
 mentaries known as the Brahmanas and 
 the Upanishads. In some of the Upan- 
 ishads the deities of the old Vedic creed 
 are treated as symbolical. Brahma, the 
 supreme soul, is the only reality, the 
 world is regarded as an emanation from 
 him, and the highest good of the soul is 
 to become united with the divine. The 
 necessity for the purification of the soul 
 in order to its reunion with the divine 
 nature gave rise to the doctrine of 
 metempsychosis or transmigration. 
 
 This philosophical development of 
 Brahmanism gave rise to a distinct 
 separation between the educated and 
 the vulgar creeds. While from the fifth 
 to the first century n.c. the higher 
 thinkers among the Brahmans were 
 
BRAIN 
 
 BRAKE 
 
 developing a philosophy which recog- 
 nized that there was but one god, the 
 popular creed had concentrated its ideas 
 of worship round three great deities — 
 Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva — who now 
 took the place of the confused old Vedic 
 Pantheon. Brahma, the creator, though 
 considered the most exalted of the three, 
 was too abstract an idea to become a 
 popular god, and soon sank almost out 
 of notice. Thus the Brahmans became 
 divided between Vishnu, the preserver, 
 and Siva, the destroyer and reproducer, 
 and the worshipers of these two deities 
 now form the two great religious sects 
 of India. Siva, in his philosophical 
 significance, is the deity mostly wor- 
 shiped by the conventional Brahman, 
 while in his aspect of the Destroyer, or 
 in one of his female manifestations, he 
 is the god of the low castes, and often 
 worshiped with degrading rites. But 
 the highly cultivated Brahman is still 
 a pure theist, and the educated Hindu 
 in general professes to regard the special 
 deity he chooses for worship as merely 
 a form under which the One First Cause 
 may be approached. 
 
 The sharp division of the people of 
 India into civilized Aryans and rude 
 non-Aryans has had a great influence 
 upon Brahmanism, and thus the spirit- 
 ual conceptions of the old Vedic creed 
 have been mixed in modern Hinduism 
 with degrading superstitions and cus- 
 toms belonging to the so-called aborig- 
 inal races. Suttee, for example, or the 
 burning of widows, has no authority 
 in the Veda, but like most of the darker 
 features of Hinduism is the result of a 
 compromise which the Brahmanical 
 teachers had to make with the barba- 
 rous conceptions of non-Aryan races 
 in India. The Buddhist religion has 
 also had an important influence on the 
 Brahmanic. 
 
 The system oi caste originally no 
 doubt represented distinctions of race. 
 The early classification of the people 
 was that of “twice -born” Aryans 
 (priests, warriors, husbandmen) and 
 once-born non-Aryans (serfs) ; but inter- 
 marriages, giving rise to a mixed 
 progeny, and the variety of employ- 
 ments in modern times, have pro- 
 foundly modified this simple classifica- 
 tion. Innumerable minor distinctions 
 have grown up, so that among the 
 Brahmans alone there are several hun- 
 dred castes who cannot intermarry or 
 eat food cooked by each other. 
 
 The Brahmans represent the highest 
 culture of India, and as the result of 
 centuries of education and self-restraint 
 have evolved a type of man distinctly 
 superior to the castes around them. 
 They have still great influence, and 
 occupy the highest places at the courts 
 of princes. Many, however, are driven 
 by need or other motives into trades 
 and employments inconsistent with the 
 original character of their caste. 
 
 BRAIN, the center of the nervous 
 system, and the seat of consciousness 
 and volition in man and the higher 
 animals. It is a soft substance, partly 
 gray and partly whitish, situated in the 
 skull, penetrated by numerous blood- 
 vessels, and invested by three mem- 
 branes or meninges. The outermost, 
 called the dura mater, is dense and 
 
 elastic. The next, the tunica arach- 
 noidea, is very thin, and is really double. 
 The third, the pia mater, covers the 
 whole surface of the brain, and is full 
 of blood-vessels. The brain consists of 
 two principal parts, connected by bands 
 of fibers. The one, called the cere- 
 brum, occupies, in man, the upper part 
 of the head, and is seven or eight times 
 larger than the other, the cerebellum, 
 lying behind and below it. The surface 
 of the brain exhibits the appearance of 
 a series of ridges and furrows, forming 
 what are called the convolutions. The 
 cerebrum is divided into two portions, 
 the right and left hemispheres, by the 
 longitudinal fissure, the hemispheres 
 being at the same time transversely con- 
 
 Brain and spinal cord 
 
 nected by a band of nervous matter 
 called the corpus callosum. The ex- 
 ternal or grayish substance of the brain 
 is softer than the internal white sub- 
 stance. The cerebellum lies below the 
 cerebrum, in a peculiar cavity of the 
 skull. It is divided into a right and a 
 left hemisphere, connected by a bridge 
 of nervous matter called the pons 
 Varolii, under which is the medulla 
 oblongata or continuation of the spinal 
 marrow. Like the cerebrum, it is gray 
 on the outside and whitish within. At 
 the base of the brain are several masses 
 of nervous matter or ganglia known as 
 the corpora striata (two), optic thalami 
 (two), and corpora quadrigemina (four); 
 and there are in it certain cavities or 
 ventricles. Every part of the brain is 
 
 exactly symmetrical with the part 
 opposite. Twelve pairs of nerves pro- 
 ceed from the base of the brain, includ- 
 ing the nerves for the organs of smell, of 
 sight, of hearing, and of taste, also those 
 for the muscles of the face, those for the 
 cavity of the mouth and for the larynx. 
 When compared with the brain of other 
 animals, the human brain presents 
 striking differences. Even the brain of 
 the higher classes of the inferior verte- 
 brate animals differs from that of man, 
 especially in the degree of development; 
 while among the lower grades there is 
 .sometimes, properly speaking, no brain 
 at all, but only nerve ganglia, which 
 correspond to the brain. In size, also, 
 the brain of the lower animals, although 
 sometimes (as in the elephant) actually 
 greater, is always much less when com- 
 pared with the size of the whole body, 
 and it is found that the size of the brain 
 proportionally to the size of the body 
 is a direct measure of the intelligence of 
 different animals. In man the brain 
 weights from 2 to 4 lbs., the average 
 weight in male European adults being 
 49 to 50 oz., or about ^th of the weight 
 of the body; in the dog the average 
 weight is about yl^th of the animal; in 
 the horse Tsifth; and in the sheep T^th. 
 The heaviest brain yet known was that 
 of Cuvier — 64^ oz. The brain of females 
 weighs 5 oz. less on the average than 
 that of males. The brain attains its 
 highest degree of development earlier 
 any other part of the body. In old age 
 it loses both in bulk and in weight. 
 Comparatively little is known of the 
 functions of the separate parts of the 
 brain, but, speaking generally, the parts 
 lying in front have functions connected 
 with the intellectual part of man’s 
 nature; while the parts lying nearer the 
 back of the head belong more to our 
 merely animal or organic nature. As 
 the central organ of the nervous system 
 the brain is sympathetically affected in 
 nearly all cases of acute disease. Dis- 
 eases of the brain fall into two classes, 
 according as they exhibit mental char- 
 acteristics alone, or also anatomical dis- 
 turbances. To the former class belong 
 hypochondria, mania, etc. Among the 
 latter may be mentioned meningitis, 
 or inflammation of the membranes of 
 the brain, which seldom occurs without 
 affecting also the substance of the brain, 
 and thus giving rise to phrenitis ; hydro- 
 cephalus, or water in the head, caused 
 by pressure of water in the cavities of 
 the brain; softening of the brain, fre- 
 quently the result of chronic inflamma- 
 tion ; and plethora, or poverty of blood 
 in the brain, which, though opposite 
 diseases, may cause the same symptoms 
 of giddiness and headache. 
 
 BRAINARD, David Legge, an Ameri- 
 can traveler and explorer, born in New 
 York in 1856. He was sergeant of the 
 Franklin Bay Expedition in 1881, and 
 won latitude 83° 24' 30" north in that 
 enterprise, which was the record for thir- 
 teen years. In 1900 he was sent to the 
 Philippines as major in the regular 
 army. 
 
 BRAKE, a contrivance for retarding 
 or arresting motion by means of friction. 
 In machinery it generally consists of a 
 simple or compound lever, that may be 
 pressed forcibly upon the periphery of 
 
BRAKE, AIR 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 a wheel, fixed upon a shaft or axis. A 
 similar contrivance is attached to road 
 and railway carriages, but continuous 
 brakes applied to everj'^ pair of wheels 
 in a railway train, and operated by air 
 either by the compression or vacuum 
 method, are now generally used on rail- 
 ways. By the first method, of which 
 the Westinghouse brake is an example, 
 the air is compressed by a pump on the 
 locomotive and conveyed by pipes and 
 tubes to cylinders which are under each 
 car, and the pistons of which act on the 
 brake-levers. In the vacuum method, 
 exemplified in the Loughridge brake, 
 the air is exhausted from the device 
 beneath the car, and the pressure of the 
 atmosphere operates the brake-levers. 
 
 BRAKE, AIR. See Air-brake. 
 
 BRAM'BLE, the name commonly 
 applied to the bush with trailing prickly 
 stems which bears the well-known berries 
 usually called in Scotland brambles, 
 and in England blackberries. It is 
 similar to the raspberry, and belongs 
 to the same genus. It is rarely culti- 
 vated, but as a wild plant it grows in 
 great abundance. The flowers do not 
 appear till late in the summer, and the 
 fruit, which is deep purple or almost 
 black in color, does not ripen till autumn. 
 
 BRAN, the husky part of wheat 
 separated by the bolter from the flour. 
 Its components are: water, 13; gluten, 
 19’ 5; fatty matter, 5; husk with starch, 
 55; and ashes, 7’ 5; but the results of 
 different analyses vary considerably. 
 It is employed in feeding cattle, and 
 has also been found useful as a manure. 
 
 BRAN'DENBURG, a province of 
 Prussia, surrounded mainly by Mecklen- 
 burg and the provinces of Pomerania, 
 Posen, Silesia, and Prussian Saxony. 
 The soil consists in many parts of barren 
 sands, heaths, and moors; yet the prov- 
 ince produces much grain, as well as 
 fruits, hemp, flax, tobacco, etc., and 
 supports many sheep. The forests are 
 very extensive. The principal streams 
 are the Elbe, the Oder, the Havel, 
 and the Spree. Berlin is locally in 
 Brandenburg. Area, 15,600 sq. miles; 
 pop. 3,108,554. Most of the inhabitants 
 are Lutherans. — The town Brandenburg 
 is on the Havel, 35 miles w.s.w. of Berlin. 
 Pop. 49,263. 
 
 BRAND'ING, a form of punishment 
 once in use in England for various 
 crimes, but abolished in 1822. It was 
 performed by means of a red-hot iron, 
 and the part which was branded was 
 the cheek, the hand, or some other part 
 of the body. Even after branding had 
 been abolished in all other cases, a 
 milder form of it was for a long time 
 retained in the army as a punishment 
 for desertion, the letter D being marked 
 with ink or gunpowder on the left side 
 of a deserter 2 inches below the armpit. 
 This also has been abolished. 
 
 BRANDY, the liquor obtained by the 
 distillation of wine, or of the refuse of 
 the wine-press. It is colorless at first, 
 but usually derives a brownish color 
 from the casks in which it is kept or 
 from coloring matters added to it. The 
 best brandy is made in France, particu- 
 larly in the Cognac district in the de- 
 partment of Charente. Much of the 
 so-called brandy sold in Britain and 
 America is made there from more or 
 
 less coarse whisky, flavored and colored 
 to resemble the real article; and France 
 itself also exports quantities of this stuff. 
 Brandy is often used medicinally as a 
 stimulant, stomachic, and restorative, 
 or in mild diarrhoea. In America various 
 distilled liquors get the name of brandy, 
 as cider brandy, peach brandy. 
 
 BRANDYWINE CREEK, a small river 
 which rises in the state of Pennsylvania, 
 passes into the state of Delaware, and 
 joins Christiana Creek near Wilming- 
 ton. It gives its name to a battle fought 
 near it. Sept. 11, 1777, between the 
 British and Americans, in which the 
 latter were defeated. 
 
 BRANK, or BRANKS, an instrument 
 formerly in use in Scotland, and to some 
 extent also in England, as a punishment 
 for scolds. It consisted of an iron frame 
 
 Brank. 
 
 which went over the head of the offender, 
 and had in front an iron plate which 
 was inserted in the mouth, where it was 
 fixed above the tongue, and kept it 
 perfectly quiet. 
 
 BRANT, Joseph, a chief of the Mo- 
 hawk tribe of Indians, born in 1742, 
 died in 1807. His native name was 
 Thayendanega. He became a convert 
 to Christianity and helped the British 
 in several of the Indian wars, and fought 
 against the Americans during the 
 revolution. His alleged exploits are 
 recounted by Campbell in his Gertrude 
 of Wyoming. 
 
 BRASS is an alloy of copper and zinc, 
 of a bright-yellow color, and hard, 
 ductile, and malleable. The best brass 
 consists of two parts by weight of copper 
 to one of zinc; but any degree of varia- 
 tion may be obtained by altering the 
 proportions; thus by increasing the 
 quantity of zinc we may form tombac 
 and pinchbeck, and with nearly a 
 seventh more of zinc than copper the 
 compound becomes brittle and of a 
 silver-white color. By increasing the 
 copper, on the other hand, the com- 
 pound increases in strength and tenacity. 
 Brass which is to be turned or filed is 
 made workable by mixing about 2 per 
 cent of lead in the alloy, which has the 
 effect of hardening the brass and pre- 
 venting the tool being clogged. For 
 engraving purposes a little tin is usually 
 mixed with the brass. Brass is used 
 for a vast variety of purposes, both 
 useful and ornamental. 
 
 BRASSES, SEPULCHRAL or MONU- 
 MENTAL, large plates of brass inlaid 
 in polished slabs of stone, and usually 
 exhibiting the figure of the person 
 intended to be commemorated, either 
 in a carved outline on the plate or in 
 th® form of the plate itself. In place of 
 
 the figure we sometimes find an orna- 
 mented cross. The earliest example of 
 these monumental slabs now existing 
 is that on the tomb of Sir John D’Aber- 
 
 Brass— Westminster abbey. 
 
 non (died 1277) at Stoke D’Abernon in 
 Surrey, England. These brasses are cf 
 great value in giving us an exact picture 
 of the costume of the time to which they 
 belong. 
 
 BRASSEY, Thomas, an English rail- 
 way contractor, born 1805, died 1870. 
 His operations were on an immense 
 scale, and extended to most of the Euro- 
 pean countries, as well as to America, 
 India, and Australia, one of his greatest 
 works being the Grand Trunk Railway 
 of Canada, with the great bridge over 
 the St. Lawrence at Montreal. He left 
 a very large fortune. His son, Thomas, 
 born 1836, now Lord Brassey, has been 
 admiralty secretary and civil lord, gov- 
 ernor of Victoria, and writes on naval 
 matters, etc. His first wife (died 1888) 
 wrote Voyage of the Sunbeam and other 
 books. 
 
 BRAVO (bra'v6), an Italian adj'ective 
 used as exclamation of praise in theaters, 
 meaning “well done! excellent!” The 
 correct usage is to say bravo to a man, 
 brava to a woman, bravi to several 
 persons. 
 
 BRAZIL', United States of, a republic 
 in S. America, occup 3 ’'ing nearly one- 
 half of that continent ; greatest length, 
 e. to w., 2630 miles, greatest length, 
 n. to s., 2540 miles; area estimated at 
 3,124,000 square miles, or about one- 
 sixth smaller than Europe. It is 
 bounded s.e., e. and n.e. by the Atlantic 
 Ocean, n. by French, Dutch, and British 
 Guiana, and Venezuela; w. and s.w. by 
 
BRAZIL 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, the 
 Argentine Republic, and the Republic 
 of Uruguay. Brazil is divided politically 
 into a federal district and twenty states. 
 Pop. 14,333,915. 
 
 The coast has few indentations of 
 importance — the chief being the estua- 
 ries of the Amazon and Para in the north 
 — and good harbors are comparatively 
 few. As a whole the country may be 
 regarded as having three natural divi- 
 sions, namely, one belonging to the 
 basin of the Amazon, another belonging 
 to the La Plata basin, and a third con- 
 sisting of the eastern portion watered 
 by a number of streams directly enter- 
 ing the Atlantic. The Amazon valley 
 is bounded by elevated tablelands 
 which, in the lower course of the river, 
 approach within a comparatively short 
 distance of each other. The character- 
 istic feature of this region is its immense 
 low-lying, forest-covered plains, inter- 
 sected by innumerable water-courses, 
 and in many parts subject to annual 
 inundation, the vegetation being of the 
 most luxuriant character, from the heat 
 and frequent rains. The greater part 
 of this vast region is unpopulated except 
 by Indians, and as yet of little com- 
 mercial importance. The climate, not- 
 withstanding the tropical heat and 
 moisture, is comparatively healthful, 
 and the facility for commerce given by 
 thousands of miles of groat navigable 
 streams must in time attract numerous 
 settlers. This northern part of Brazil 
 is unequaled in the number and magni- 
 tude of the streams which compose its 
 river system and connect it with Vene- 
 zuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and 
 Bolivia. On the north side the chief 
 affluents of the Amazon are the Rio 
 Negro and the Japura, the former giving 
 through the Cassiquiare continuous 
 water communication with the Orinoco. 
 Among the southern affluents which are 
 important as water highways into the 
 interior of Brazil are the Xingu, the 
 Tapajos, the Maderia the Purus, and 
 the Jurua; the Madeira being the most 
 important, and forming a navigable 
 waterway into Bolivia, except that it is 
 interrupted by falls about 2Q0 miles 
 below where it enters Brazil. The 
 Tocantins is another large stream from 
 the south, which enters the Para estuary 
 and hardly belongs to the Amazon basin. 
 The forest region of the Amazon 
 occupies about one-fourth of the em- 
 pire; the rest is made up of undulating 
 tablelands 1000 to 3000 feet above the 
 sea, mountain ranges rising to 10,000 
 feet, and river valleys. 
 
 The great streams belonging to the 
 La Plata basin, in the south, are the 
 Paraguay and Parana. The water-shed 
 between this and the Amazonian basin, 
 near the western boundary of Brazil, 
 is only about 500 feet above sea-level, 
 and here a canoe can be hauled across 
 from a head-stream of the Madeira to be 
 launched on one belonging to the Para- 
 guay. It would thus be easy to connect 
 the one system with the other by means 
 of a canal, and so connect the La Plata 
 with the Orinoco. The water -shed 
 rises gradually from west to east. The 
 southern part of Brazil is characterized 
 by its low plains or pampas, covered 
 with graao or scrub. Its vegetation is 
 
 of a much less tropical character than 
 in the Amazon basin, and its climate 
 more variable. In many parts of this 
 region there is an admirable field for 
 future colonization, though it is as yet 
 defective in means of transport. Near 
 the coast, in the provinces of S. Paulo, 
 Rio Grande, and Parana, there is already 
 a considerable population, much aug- 
 mented by German and Italian immi- 
 gration, and mostly occupied in cattle- 
 raising and agriculture. Railways also 
 have been constructed and have given a 
 great stimulus to trade. 
 
 The most important river in eastern 
 Brazil is the San Francisco, which is the 
 great waterway into its interior, and 
 after a course of 1800 miles discharges 
 its waters into the Atlantic at San 
 Antonio. The three greatest cities of 
 Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, Pernambuco, 
 and Bahia, are all endeavoring to de- 
 velop a traffic in connection with this 
 river. A state line has now been con- 
 structed round the falls of Pedro Affonso 
 on its lower course, and thus brought 
 the traffic of the upper river into com- 
 munication with the lower. Eastern 
 Brazil exhibits a great variety in surface, 
 climate, and productions, and though 
 large tracts consist of arid and sandy 
 tablelands, it contains within itself the 
 greater part of the population, wealth, 
 and industry of the empire. 
 
 The chief mountain ranges are near 
 the southeastern coast. The Serra do 
 Mar or Maritime range commences in 
 the far south, and travels close to the 
 coast-line in a northeasterly direction 
 till it reaches Rio de Janeiro and Cape 
 Frio, where it culminates in the Serra 
 dos Orgaos, or Organ Mountains, from 
 7000 to 8000 feet above the sea, and 
 forming the noblest element in the 
 marvelous scenery of the bay of Rio 
 de Janeiro. West of the Serra do Mar 
 lies the Serra Mantequeira, which 
 farther north is known as the Serra do 
 Espinhago. Here are the loftiest sum- 
 mits in Brazil, Itatiaia-Assu, the highest 
 of all, being 10,040 feet above the sea. 
 Between the sources of , the Tocantins 
 and Parana are the. Montes Pyrenees, 
 the second most elevated ridge in 
 Brazil, some of its heights being esti- 
 mated at nearly 8000 and 10,000 feet 
 above the level of the sea. 
 
 As almost the whole of Brazil lies s. 
 of the equator, and in a hemisphere 
 where there is a greater proportion of sea 
 than land, its climate is generally more 
 cool and moist than that of countries 
 in corresponding latitudes in the north- 
 ern hemisphere. In the s. parts of 
 Brazil, in consequence of the gradual 
 narrowing of the continent, the climate 
 is of an insular character — cool summers 
 and mild winters. The quantity of 
 rain differs widely in different localities. 
 The n. provinces generally are subject 
 to heavy rains. At Rio, where the 
 climate has been much modified by the 
 clearing away of the forests in the 
 neighborhood, the mean temperature 
 of the year is 74°. At Pernambuco the 
 temperature rarely exceeds 82°; in 
 winter it descends to 68°. Generally 
 the climate of Brazil is delightful. 
 
 Only an insignificant portion of Brazil 
 is as yet under cultivation. The pas- 
 tures are of vast extent, and support 
 
 great herds of horned cattle, one of the 
 principal sources of the wealth of the 
 country. The chief food - supplying 
 plants are sugar, coffee, cocoa, rice, 
 tobacco, maize, wheat, manioc (or 
 cassava), beans, bananas, ginger, yams, 
 lemons, oranges, figs, etc. — the two 
 first, sugar and coffee, being the staple 
 products of the empire. As much 
 coffee, indeed, is produced in Brazil as 
 in all the rest of the world together. 
 In its forests Brazil possesses a great 
 source of wealth. They yield dyewoods 
 and fancy woods of various kinds, 
 including Brazil-wood, rosewood, fustic, 
 cedar, mahogany, and a variety of 
 others, as also Brazil-nuts, coconuts, 
 vegetable ivory, india-rubber, copaiba, 
 arnotto, piassava fiber, etc. Other 
 vegetable products are vanilla, sarsapa- 
 rilla, ipecacuanha, cinnamon, and cloves. 
 
 The principal domestic animals of 
 Brazil are horned cattle and horses. 
 Sheep are kept only in some parts, 
 chiefly in the south. Goats and hogs 
 are abundant. The wild animals com- 
 prise the puma, jaguar, sloth, porcu- 
 pine, etc. Monkeys are numerous. 
 Among the feathered tribes are the 
 smallest, the humming-bird, and one of 
 the largest, the rhea, parrots in great 
 variety, tanagers, toucans, and the 
 harpy eagle. The reptiles consist of the 
 boa-constrictor and other species of 
 serpents, some of them venomous, alli- 
 gators, and fresh-water turtle, the eggs 
 of which yield a valuable oil. The 
 insects are, many of them, remarkable 
 for the beauty of their colors and their 
 size, especially the butterflies. Among 
 minerals the diamonds and other 
 precious stones of Brazil — emeralds, 
 sapphires, rubies, beryls, etc. Gold also 
 is procured in considerable quantities. 
 Other minerals are quicksilver, copper, 
 manganese, iron, lead, tin, antimony, 
 and bismuth. The shores and rivers 
 abound with fish. 
 
 The population of Brazil consists of 
 whites, Indians, negroes, and people of 
 mixed blood. The negroes are over 
 2,000,000 in number, and till 1888 were 
 partly slaves. Of the Indians some are 
 semi-civilized, but others (estimated 
 at 600,000) roam about in a wild state, 
 and are divided into a great many 
 tribes speaking different languages. The 
 state language is Portuguese. Primary 
 education is gratuitous, but the great 
 majority of the people are illiterate, 
 though education is now compulsory 
 in some provinces. 
 
 The principal imports are cottons, 
 linens, woolens, machinery, hardware 
 and cutlery, wheat, flour, wine, coals, 
 etc., the manufactured articles and coals 
 being largely from Britain. The exports 
 consist of coffee, sugar, cotton, hides, 
 cabinet and dye woods, drugs, caout- 
 chouc, and diamonds. 
 
 The prevailing religion of Brazil is the 
 Roman Catholic, but all religions are 
 now on an equal footing. Previous to 
 1889 the government was monarchical, 
 but in that year a revolution took place 
 and a republic was established. By the 
 new constitution of 1891 each of the 
 old provinces forms a state, having its 
 own local government, with representa- 
 tion in a congress appointed by popular 
 vote, and consisting of a senate and a 
 
BRAZIL-NUT 
 
 BREAD 
 
 chamber of deputies. The standing 
 army numbers about 30,000. The navy 
 comprises eleven iron-clads, besides other 
 vessels. 
 
 Brazil was discovered in 1499 by Vin- 
 cente Yanez Pingon, one of the com- 
 panions of Columbus in the service of 
 Spain, and next year was taken posses- 
 sion of by Pedro Alvares de Cabral on 
 behalf of Portugal. The first governor- 
 general was Thome de Sousa, who in 
 1549 arrived in the Bay of Bahia and 
 established the new city of that name, 
 making it the seat of his government. 
 The usurpation of the crown of Portugal 
 by Philip II. left Brazil in a defenseless 
 and neglected condition, and the Eng- 
 lish, French, and Dutch made successive 
 attempts to obtain a footing. The 
 Dutch were the most persevering, and 
 for a time almost divided the Brazilian 
 territory with the Portuguese. The 
 tyranny of the Dutch governors, how- 
 ever, incited their native and Portuguese 
 subjects to revolt, and after a sanguinary 
 war, in 1654 the Dutch were driven out 
 and the Portuguese remained masters 
 of an undivided Brazil. The value of 
 Brazil to Portugal continued steadily 
 to increase after the discovery of the 
 gold mines in 1698 and the discovery 
 of the diamond mines in 1728. The 
 vigorous policy of the Portuguese gov- 
 ernment under the administration of 
 the Marquis de Pombal (1760-77) did 
 much to open up the interior of Brazil, 
 though his high-handed modes of pro- 
 cedure left among the Brazilians a dis- 
 content with the home government 
 which took shape in the abortive revolt 
 of 1789. On the invasion of Portugal 
 in 1808 by the French the sovereign of 
 that kingdom, John VI., sailed for 
 Brazil, accompanied by his court and 
 a large body of emigrants. He raised 
 Brazil to the rank of a kingdom, and 
 assumed the title of King of Portugal 
 and Brazil. But on his return to Portu- 
 gal in 1820 he found the Portuguese 
 Cortes unwilling to grant civil and 
 political equality to the Brazilians — a 
 fact which raised such violent convul- 
 sions in Rio Janeiro and other parts of 
 Brazil that Dom Pedro, the king’s son, 
 was forced to head the party resolved 
 to make Brazil independent, and in 
 1822 a national assembly declared the 
 separation of Brazil from Portugal, and 
 appointed Dom Pedro the constitutional 
 emperor. In 1864 began a severe strug- 
 gle between Brazil and Paraguay, 
 caused principally by the arbitrary 
 conduct of Lopez, the dictator of Para- 
 guay. Brazil, though joined by Uru- 
 guay and the Argentine Confederation, 
 had to bear the brunt of the war, which 
 terminated only with the death of Lopez 
 in 1870. This struggle was attended 
 with an immense expenditure of men 
 and money to Brazil, but it established 
 her reputation as a great power, and 
 secured the freedom of the navigation 
 of the La Plata river-system. In 1871 
 an act was passed for the gradual eman- 
 cipation of slaves, and in 1888 slavery 
 was finally abolished. In 1889 took 
 place the revolution and establishment 
 of the republic. The proceedings of th? 
 president, Fonseca, led to a revolution- 
 ary movement in 1891, which was not 
 quelled without difficulty. 
 
 BRAZIL-NUT, the fruit of a South 
 American tree, native to Guiana, Vene- 
 zuela, and Brazil. The fruit is nearly 
 round, about 6 inches in diameter, has 
 a hard shell, and contains a number of 
 seeds, from twenty to twenty-four, 
 wrinkled, triangular and which are 
 pleasant to the taste and are used as 
 a dessert. An oil is also extracted 
 from them. 
 
 BRAZIL-WOOD, a kind of wood 
 yielding a red dye, obtained from sev- 
 eral trees, natives of the West Indies 
 and Central and South America. The 
 wood is hard and heavy, and as it 
 takes on a fine polish it is used by 
 cabinet-makers for various purposes, 
 but its principal use is in dyeing red. 
 The dye is obtained by reducing the 
 wood to powder and boiling it in water, 
 when the water receives the red coloring 
 principle, which is a crystallizable sub- 
 stance called brazilin. The color is not 
 permanent unless fixed by suitable 
 mordants. 
 
 BRAZOS (bra'zos), a large river, 
 in Texas, rising in the n.w. part of the 
 state, and flowing into the Gulf of 
 Mexico, after a course of 900 miles, 40 
 miles w.s.w. Galveston. During the 
 rainy season, from February to May 
 inclusive, it is navigable by steamboats 
 for about 300 miles. 
 
 BREACH, the aperture or passage 
 made in the wall of any fortified place 
 by the ordnance of the besiegers for the 
 purpose of entering the fortress. — 
 Breaching batteries are batteries of 
 heavy guns intended to make a breach. 
 
 BREACH, in law, any violation of a 
 law, or the non-performance of a duty 
 imposed by law. — Breach of Peace is an 
 offense against the public safety or 
 tranquillity either personally or by 
 inciting others. Breaches of peace are 
 such as affrays, riots, routs, and unlaw- 
 ful assemblies, forcible entry or detainer 
 by violently taking or keeping posses- 
 sion of lands or tenements with menaces, 
 force, and arms; riding, or going, armed 
 with dangerous or unusual weapons, 
 terrifying people; challenging another 
 to fight, or bearing such a challenge, 
 besides certain other offenses. — Breach 
 of Promise (of marriage), the failure to 
 implement one’s premise to marry a 
 particular person, in consequence of 
 which that person may raise an action 
 for damages, though it is only the 
 woman as a rule that gains damages. — 
 Breach of Trust is a violation of duty 
 by a trustee, executor, or any other 
 person in a fiduciary position, as, for 
 instance, when a trustee manages an 
 estate entrusted to him for his own ad- 
 vantage rather than for that of the 
 trust. 
 
 BREAD is the flour or meal of grain 
 kneaded with water into a tough and 
 consistent paste and baked. There are 
 numerous kinds of bread, according to 
 materials and methods of prepara- 
 tion; but all may be divided into two 
 classes: fermented, leavened, or raised, 
 and unfermented, unleavened, not 
 raised. The latter is the simplest, and 
 no doubt was the original kind, and is 
 still exemplified by oiscuits, the oat 
 cakes of Scotland, the corn-bread of 
 Arfierica, the dampers of the Australian 
 colonies, and the still ruder bread of 
 
 savage races. It was probably by 
 accident that the method of bringing 
 the paste into a state of fermentation 
 was found out, by which its toughness 
 is almost entirely destroyed, and it 
 becomes porous, palatable, and digesti- 
 ble. All the cereals are used in making 
 bread, each zone using those which are 
 native to it. Thus maize, millet, and 
 rice are used for the purpose in the 
 hotter countries, rye, barley, and oats 
 in the colder, and wheat in the inter- 
 mediate or more temperate regions. In 
 the most advanced countries bread is 
 made from wheat, which makes the 
 lightest and most spongy bread. The 
 fermentation necessary for the ordinary 
 loaf-bread is generally produced by 
 means of leaven or yeast. The chemical 
 changes that take place during the proc- 
 ess of making bread may be explained 
 in the following way: An average qual- 
 ity of flour consists of gluten 12, starch 
 70, sugar 5, gum 3, water 10; total, 100. 
 When water is added to the flour, in the 
 first operation of baking, it unites with 
 the gluten and starch, and dissolves the 
 gum and sugar. The yeast or barm 
 added acts now upon the dissolved 
 sugar, especially at an elevated tem- 
 perature, and produces the vinous fer- 
 mentation, forming alcohol and setting 
 free carbonic acid as a consequence of 
 the transformation of the elements of 
 the sugar. The gaseous carbonic acid 
 is prevented from escaping by the gluten 
 of the mass, and if the mixing or knead- 
 ing has been propedy performed it re- 
 mains very equally diffused through 
 every part of the dough. The alcohol 
 and carbonic acid are carried into the 
 oven with the dough, and the former 
 partially escapes, while the latter gas, 
 being expanded by the heat, produces 
 the lightness and sponginess of the loaf. 
 
 It may be produced in bread-making 
 by other means than fermentation, as 
 by some of those well-known prepara- 
 tions called “baking powders,” which 
 usually contain bicarbonate of potash 
 or of soda, with tartaric acid. Aerated 
 bread is so called because made with 
 aerated water — that is, water strongly 
 impregnated with carbonic acid under 
 pressure, the dough being also worked 
 up under pressure and caused to.expand 
 by the carbonic acid when the pressure 
 is removed. 
 
 The several qualities of flour used for 
 bread-making are known by the names 
 of firsts or whites, seconds or households, 
 and thirds, according to the degree of 
 fineness resulting from the process of 
 bolting or dressing. The latter two con- 
 tain a certain proportion of the bran. 
 Brown or whole-flour bread is considered 
 to be very wholesome. It is made from 
 undressed wheat, and consequently con- 
 tains the bran as well as the flour. 
 
 Various adulterations are found in 
 bread, such as chalk, starch, potatoes, 
 etc. ; but Ihe commonest is alum, which 
 enables the baker to give to bread of 
 inferior flavor the whiteness of the best 
 bread, and also to keep in the loaf an 
 undue quantity of water, which, of 
 course, increases its weight. Boiled rice 
 also is used for the same purpose. In 
 the making of bread the flour or meal 
 of wheat, barley, rye, oats, buckwheat, 
 Indian corn, rice, beans, peas, and 
 
BREADFRUIT 
 
 BREEDING 
 
 potatoes may be used, along with 
 salt, eggs, water, milk, and leaven or 
 yeast of any kind; but any other in- 
 gredient is regarded as an adulteration. 
 
 BREADFRUIT, a large globular fruit 
 of a pale-green color, about the size 
 of a child’s head, marked on the sur- 
 face with irregular six-sided depres- 
 sions, and containing a white and some- 
 what fibrous pulp, which when ripe be- 
 
 Breadfruit. 
 
 comes juicy and yellow. The tree that 
 produces it grows wild in Otaheite and 
 other islands of the South Seas, whence 
 it was introduced into the West Indies 
 and S. America. It is about 40 feet high, 
 with large and spreading branches, and 
 has large bright-green leaves deeply 
 divided into seven or nine spear-shaped 
 lobes. The fruit is generally eaten im- 
 mediately after being gathered, but is 
 also often prepared so as to keep for 
 some time either by baking it whole in 
 close underground pits or by beating it 
 into paste and storing it underground, 
 when a slight fermentation takes place. 
 The eatable part lies between the skin 
 and the core, and is somewhat of the 
 consistence of new bread. Mixed with 
 cocoanut milk it makes an excellent 
 pudding. The inner bark of the tree is 
 made into a kind of cloth. The wood is 
 used for the building of boats and for 
 furniture. 
 
 BREADNUTS, the seeds of a tree of 
 the same order as the breadfruit. 'The 
 breadnut tree is a native of Jamaica. 
 Its wood, which resembles mahogany, 
 is useful to cabinet-makers, and its nuts 
 make a pleasant food, in taste not un- 
 like hazelnuts. 
 
 BREAK' WATER, a work constructed 
 in front of a harbor to serve as a protec- 
 tion against the violence of the waves. 
 The name may also be given to any 
 structure which is erected in the sea 
 with the object of breaking the force of 
 the waves without and producing a 
 calm within. Breakwaters are usually 
 constructed by sinking loads of un- 
 wrought stone along the line where they 
 are to be laid, and allowing them to find 
 their angle of repose under the action of 
 the waves. When the mass rises to the 
 surface, or near it, it is surmounted with 
 a pile of masonry, sloped outward in 
 such a manner as will best enable it to 
 resist the action of the waves. 
 
 BREAMING, a nautical term mean- 
 ing the operation of clearing a ship’s 
 bottom by means of fire of the shells, 
 seaweeds, barnacles, etc., that have 
 P. E.— 12 
 
 become attached to it. It is performed 
 by holding to the hull kindled furze, 
 reeds, or such like light combustibles, 
 so as to soften the pitch and loosen the 
 adherent matters, which may be then 
 easily swept off. 
 
 BREAST, The female, is of a glan- 
 dular structure, containing vesicles for 
 the secretion of milk, and excretory 
 ducts, which open by small orifices in 
 the nipple, and discharge the secreted 
 fluid for the nourishment of the child. 
 At the center of each breast there is a 
 small projection, the nipple, and this is 
 surrounded by a dark ring termed the 
 areola. The breast is liable to many 
 diseases, from irritation during nursing, 
 bruises of the part, undue pressure from 
 tight clothes, and from constitutional 
 causes. Among the most common of 
 these is inflammation arising from a 
 superabundant secretion of milk during 
 nursing. 
 
 BREASTPLATE, a piece of defensive 
 armor covering the breast, made of 
 leather, brass, iron, steel, or other 
 metals. Among the ancient Jews the 
 name was given to a folded piece of rich, 
 ernbroidered stuff worn by the high- 
 priest. It was set with twelve precious 
 stones bearing the names of the tribes. 
 
 BREAST-WHEEL, a water-wheel in 
 which the water driving it is delivered 
 to the float-beards between the top and 
 
 bottom, generally a little below the 
 level of the axis. In this kind of wheel 
 the water acts partly by impulse, partly 
 by weight. 
 
 BREASTWORK, in the military art, 
 a hastily-constructed parapet made for 
 protection against the shot of the enemy, 
 generally of earth. 
 
 BREATH, the air which issues from 
 the lungs during respiration through 
 the nose and mouth. A smaller portion 
 of oxygen and a larger portion of car- 
 bonic acid are contained in the air which 
 is exhaled than in that which is inhaled. 
 There are also aqueous particles in the 
 breath, which are precipitated by the 
 coldness of the external air in the form 
 of visible vapor; likewise other sub- 
 stances which owe their origin to secre- 
 tions in the mouth, nose, windpipe, and 
 lungs. These cause the changes in the 
 breath which may be known by the 
 smell. A bad breath is often caused by 
 local affections in the nose, the mouth, 
 or the windpipe; viz., by ulcers in the 
 nose, cancerous polypi, by discharges 
 from the mouth, by sores on the lungs, 
 or peculiar secretions in them. It is 
 also caused by rotten teeth, by im- 
 purities in the mouth, and by some 
 kinds of food. The remedies of course 
 
 vary. Frequent washing, gargles of 
 chlorine-water, charcoal, etc., are pre- 
 scribed according to the disease. 
 
 BREATHING. See Respiration. 
 
 BRECKENRIDGE, John Cabell, an 
 American soldier, statesman, and poli- 
 tician, born in Kentucky in 1821, died 
 in 1875. He was elected vice-president 
 of the U. States with Buchanan, and 
 in 1860 was nominated by the southern 
 section of the democracy for president, 
 but, with Douglas, was defeated by 
 Lincoln. Elected to the senate, he 
 resigned, entered the Confederate mili- 
 tary service, and fought at many of the 
 principal battles of the civil war, sub- 
 sequently becoming a member of the 
 cabinet of Jefferson Davis. After the 
 war he practiced law. 
 
 BREECH, BREECH-LOADING. The 
 breech is the solid mass of metal behind 
 the bore of a gun, and that by which the 
 shock of the explosion is principally 
 sustained. In breech-loading arms the 
 charge is introduced here, there being 
 a mechanism by which the breech can 
 be opened and closed. In small arms 
 the advantages of breech-loading for 
 rapidity of fire, facilit3'’ of cleaning, 
 etc., recommended it to general use, 
 and its efficacy for military purposes 
 was effectively demonstrated by the 
 Prussian campaigns against Denmark 
 and Austria in 1864 and 1866. Since 
 that time every government has 
 adopted the new system, both in small- 
 arms and heavy ordnance, while breech- 
 loading sporting-arms are also in general 
 use. The chief difficulty in breech- 
 loading is to close the breech so as to 
 prevent the escape of the highly elastic 
 gas to which the force of the explosion 
 is due, but the appliances of modern 
 science and mechanical art may be said 
 to have effectually met this difficulty. 
 See Cannon, Musket, etc. 
 
 BREECHES, an article of clothing 
 for the legs and lower part of the body 
 in use among the Babylonians and 
 other ancient peoples as well as among 
 the moderns. In Europe we find them 
 first used among the Gauls; hence the 
 Romans called a part of Gaul breeched 
 Gaul. Trousers are longer and looser 
 than the breeches that used to be worn. 
 
 BREECHING, a rope used to secure 
 a ship’s gun and prevent it from recoil- 
 ing too much in battle. 
 
 BREEDING, the art of improving 
 races or breeds of domestic animals, or 
 modifying them in certain directions, by 
 continuous attention to their pairing, 
 in conjunction with a similar attention 
 to their feeding and general treatment. 
 Animals (and plants no less) show great 
 susceptibility of modification under 
 systematic cultivation; and there can 
 be no doubt that by such cultivation 
 the sum of desirable qualities in par- 
 ticular races has been greatly increased, 
 and that in two ways. Individual 
 specimens are produced possessing more 
 good qualities than can be found in any 
 one specimen of the original stock ; and 
 from the same stock many varieties are 
 taken characterized by different per- 
 fections, the germs of all of which may 
 have been in the original stock but could 
 not have been simultaneously developed 
 in a single specimen. But when an 
 effort is made to develop rapidly, or to 
 
BREEZE 
 
 BREWING 
 
 its extreme limit, any particular quality, 
 it is always made at the expense of some 
 other quality, or of other qualities gen- 
 erally, by which the intrinsic value of 
 the result is necessarily affected. High 
 speed in horses, for example, is only 
 attained at the expense of a sacrifice 
 of strength and power of endurance. 
 So the celebrated merino sheep are the 
 result of a system of breeding which 
 reduces the general size and vigor of the 
 animal, and diminishes the value of the 
 carcass. Much care and judgment, 
 therefore, are needed in breeding, not 
 only in order to produce a particular 
 effect, but also to produce it with the 
 least sacrifice of other qualities. 
 
 Breeding, as a means of improving 
 domestic animals, has been practiced 
 more or less systematically wherever 
 any attention has been paid to the care 
 of live stock. Quantity of meat, small- 
 ness of bone, lightness of offal; in cows, 
 yield and quality of milk; in sheep, 
 weight of fleece and fineness of wool, 
 have all been studied with remarkable 
 effects by modern breeders. 
 
 BREEZE, BREEZE-FLY, a name 
 given to various flies, otherwise called 
 gadflies, horseflies, etc. 
 
 BREEZES, Sea and Land. See Wind. 
 
 BREMEN (bra'men), a free city of 
 Germany, an independent member of 
 the empire, one of the three Hanse towns, 
 on the Weser, about 50 miles from its 
 mouth, in its own small territory of 
 98 sq. miles, besides which it possesses 
 the port of Bremerhaven at the mouth 
 of the river. The manufacturing estab- 
 lishments consist of tobacco and cigar 
 factories, sugar-refineries, rice -mills, 
 iron - foundries, machine - works, rope 
 and sail works, and ship-building yards. 
 Its situation renders Bremen the em- 
 porium for Hanover, Brunswick, Hesse, 
 and other countries, traversed by the 
 Weser, and next to Hamburg it is the 
 principal seat of the export and import 
 and emigration trade of Germany. 
 Vessels drawing n\ feet can now come 
 up to the town itself; but the bulk of 
 the shipping trade centers in Bremer- 
 haven. Bremerhaven is a place of over 
 16,000 inhabitants, has docks capable 
 of receivipg the largest vessels, and is 
 connected by railway with Bremen, 
 where the chief merchants and brokers 
 have their offices. The chief imports are 
 tobacco, cotton and cotton goods, wood 
 and woolen goods, rice, coffee, grain, 
 petroleum, etc., which are chiefly re- 
 exported to other parts of Germany 
 and the Continent. Pop. of town, 
 163,418; of total territory (including 
 Bremerhaven), 224,967. 
 
 Bremen was made a bishopric by 
 Charlemagne about 788, was afterward 
 made an archbishopric, and by the end 
 of the 14th century had become virtually 
 a free imperial city. The constitution 
 is in most repects republican. 
 
 BREN'EMAN, Abram Adam, an Amer- 
 ican inventor, born in Pennsylvania in 
 1847. He is noted for the invention of 
 a process for making iron non-corrosive. 
 In 1892 Breneman was elected vice- 
 resident of the American Chemical 
 ociety. 
 
 BRENT GOOSE, a wild goose, smaller 
 than the common barnacle goose and of 
 much darker plumage, remarkable for 
 
 length of wing and extent of migratory 
 power, being a winter bird of passage in 
 France, Germany, Holland, Great Brit- 
 ain, the United States, Canada, etc. It 
 breeds in high northern latitudes; it 
 feeds on drifting seaweeds and saline 
 plants, and is considered the most deli- 
 cate for the table of all the goose tribe. 
 
 BRESCIA (bra'shi-a), a city of north 
 Italy, capital of the province of the same 
 name, is beautifully situated at the foot 
 of the Alps, and is of a quadrilateral 
 form, about 4 miles in circuit. The city 
 contains a museum of antiquities, 
 picture-gallery, botanic garden, a fine 
 public library, a theater, hospital, etc. 
 An aqueduct supplies water to its nu- 
 merous fountains. Near the to'wn are 
 large ironworks, and its firearms are 
 esteemed the best that are made in 
 Italy. It has also silk, linen, and paper 
 factories, tan-yards, and oil-mills, and 
 is an important mart for raw silk. Pop. 
 70,618. The province has an area of 
 1644 sq. miles; pop. 537,690. 
 
 BRESLAU (bres'lou), an important 
 city of the German Empire, the second 
 largest in the Prussian dominions (being 
 excelled in population only by Berlin), 
 is the capital of the province of Silesia, 
 and is situated on both sides of the Oder. 
 The cathedral, built in the 1 2th century, 
 and the Rathhaus, or town-hall, a Gothic 
 structure of about the 14th century, are 
 among the most remarkable buildings. 
 There is a flourishing university, with a 
 museum, library of 400,000 volumes, 
 observatory, etc. Breslau has manu- 
 factures of machinery, railway-carriages, 
 furniture and cabinet ware, cigars, 
 spirits and liquors, cotton and woolen 
 yarn, musical instruments, porcelain, 
 glass, etc., and carries on an extensive 
 trade. Pop. 422,738. 
 
 BREST, a seaport in the n.w. of 
 France, department of Finisterre. It 
 has one of the best harbors in France, 
 and is the chief station of the French 
 marine, having safe roads capable of 
 
 containing 500 men-of-war in from 8 to 
 1 5 fathoms at low water. The entrance 
 is narrow and rocky, and the coast on 
 both sides is well fortified. Brest stands 
 on the summit and sides of a projecting 
 ridge, many of the streets being exceed- 
 ingly steep. Several of the docks have 
 been cut in the solid rock, and a break- 
 water extends far into the roadstead. 
 The manufactures of Brest are incon- 
 siderable, but it has an extensive trade 
 in cereals, wine, brandy, sardines, mack- 
 erel, and colonial goods. It is connected 
 with America by a cable terminating 
 near Duxbury, Mass. Pop. 81,948. 
 
 BRET'ONS, the inhabitants of Brit- 
 tany. 
 
 BREV'ET, in Britain and the U. 
 States applied to a commission to an 
 officer, entitling him to a rank in the 
 army higher than that which he holds in 
 his regiment, without, however, confer- 
 ring the right to a corresponding advance 
 of pay. 
 
 BREV'IARY, the book which'contains 
 prayers or offices to be used at the seven 
 canonical hours of matins, prime, tierce, 
 sext, nones, vespers, and compline by 
 all in the orders of the Church of Rome 
 or in the enjoyment of any R. Catholic 
 benefice. It is not known at what time 
 the use of the breviary was first enjoin- 
 ed, but the early offices were exhaustive 
 from their great length, and under 
 Gregory VII. (1073-85) their abridgment 
 was considered necessary, hence the 
 origin of the breviary. In 1568 Pius V. 
 published that which has remained, 
 with few modifications, to the present 
 day. The Roman breviary, however, 
 was never fully accepted by the Galilean 
 Church until after the strenuous efforts 
 made by the Ultramontanes from 1840 
 to 1864. The Psalms occupy a large 
 place in the breviary; passages from 
 the Old and New Testament and from 
 the fathers have the next place. All the 
 services are in Latin, and their arrange- 
 ment is very complex. The English 
 Book of Common Prayer is based on the 
 Roman Breviary. 
 
 BREVIER (bre-ver'), a kind of print- 
 ing type, in size between bourgeois and 
 minion, the same as the type of this 
 book, 
 
 BREWER, David Josiah, an Ameri- 
 can jurist, born in Smyrna, Asia Minor, 
 in 1837. He was for many years a 
 federal judge in Kansas, and in 1889 
 was appointed an associate justice of 
 the United States Supreme court. 
 
 BREWING, the process of extracting 
 a saccharine solution from malted grain 
 and converting the solution into a fer- 
 mented and sound alcoholic beverage 
 called ale or beer. The preliminary proc- 
 ess of malting (often a distinct business 
 to that of brewing) consists in promoting 
 the germination of the grain for the sake 
 of the saccharine matter into which the 
 starch of the seed is thus converted. 
 The barley or other grain is steeped for 
 about two days in a cistern and then 
 piled in a heap, or couch, which is turned 
 and re-turned until the radicle or root, 
 and acrospire or rudimentary stem, 
 have uniformly developed to some little 
 extent in all the heap of grain. Tliis 
 treatment lasts from seven to ten days, 
 by which time the grain has acquired a 
 sweet taste; the life of the grain being 
 then destroyed by spreading the whole 
 upon the floor of a kiln to be thoroughly 
 dried. At this point begins the brewing 
 process proper, which in breweries is 
 generally as follows : The malt is crushed 
 or roughly ground in a malt-mill, whence 
 it is carried to the mashing-macliine, and 
 there thoroughly mixed with hot water. 
 The mixture is now received by the 
 mash-tun — a cylindrical vessel with a 
 false perforated bottom held about an 
 inch from the true one. In the mash-tun 
 the useful elements are extracted from 
 the malt in the form of the sweet liquor 
 known as wort, and the tun, therefore, 
 is fitted with an elaborate system of 
 revohdng rakes for thoroughly mixing 
 
BREWSTER 
 
 BRIDGE 
 
 the malt with hot water. The mixing 
 completed, the mash-tun is covered up 
 and allowed to stand for about three 
 hours, when the taps in the true bottom 
 are opened and the wort or malt-extract 
 run off. The wort being drained into a 
 copper the hops are now added, and the 
 whole boiled for about two hours, the 
 boiling, like the addition of hops, tend- 
 ing to prevent acetous and putrefactive 
 fermentation. When sufficiently boiled 
 the contents of the copper are run into 
 the hop-back— a long rectangular vessel 
 with a false bottom 8 or 9 inches from 
 the true bottom. The hot wort leaving 
 the spent hops in the hop-back runs 
 through the perforations in the false 
 bottom and thence into the cooler — a 
 large flat vessel where the worts are 
 cooled to about 100° Fah. From the 
 cooler the liquor is admitted to the re- 
 frigerator — a shallow rectangular vessel, 
 which reduces the temperature to al- 
 most that of the cold water, or about 58°. 
 The worts are next led by pipes into the 
 large wooden fermenting tuns, where 
 yeast or barm is added as soon as the 
 wort begins to run in from the refriger- 
 ator. During the operation of fermen- 
 tation, by which a portion of the sac- 
 charine matter is converted into alcohol, 
 the temperature rises considerably, and 
 requires to be kept in check by means 
 of a coil of copper piping with cold 
 water running through it lowered into 
 the beer. When the fermentation has 
 gone far enough, and the liquor has been 
 allowed to settle, the beer becomes com- 
 paratively clear and bright, and may be 
 run off and filled into the trade casks or 
 into vats. 
 
 BREWSTER, Benjamin Harris, an 
 American lawyer, born in New Jersey 
 in 1816, died in 1888. From 1881 to 
 1885 he was attorney-general of the 
 U. States, prosecuting the famous Star 
 Route trials for fraud. 
 
 BREW'STER, Sir David, natural phi- 
 losopher, born in Jedburgh 1781. In 
 1808 he became editor of the Edinburgh 
 Encyclopjedia, and in 1819 was one of 
 the founders of the Edinburgh Philo- 
 sophical Journal, of which he was sole 
 editor from 1824-32. Brewster was one 
 of the founders of the British Associa- 
 tion, and its president in 1850. In 1832 
 he was knighted and pensioned, and 
 both before and after this time his 
 services to science obtained throughout 
 Europe the most honorable recogni- 
 tion. From 1838 to 1859 he was prin- 
 cipal of the united colleges of St. Leon- 
 ard’s and St. Salvador at St. Andrews,, 
 and in the latter year was chosen prin- 
 cipal of the University of Edinburgh 
 — an office which he held till his 
 death in 1868. Among his inventions 
 were 'the “polyzonal lens” (introduced 
 into British lighthouses in 1835), the 
 kaleidoscope, and the improved stereo- 
 scope. 
 
 BRI'AN, a famous chieftain of the 
 early Irish annals, who succeeded to 
 Munster in 978, defeated the Danes of 
 Limerick at Waterford, attacked Mal- 
 achi, nominal king of tne whole island, 
 and became king in his stead (1002). 
 He was slain at the close of the battle 
 of Clontarf, near Dublin, in 1014, after 
 gaining a signal victory over the revolted 
 Maelmora and his Danish allies. 
 
 BRIAN CON (bre-^n-son). A town 
 and fortress of France, department of 
 Hautes-Alpes, on the right bank of the 
 Durance. It occupies an eminence 4284 
 ft. above the sea level and is --called the 
 Gibraltar of the Alps. Pop. 3,579. 
 
 Briancon. 
 
 BRIAR, BRIER, the wild rose. The 
 well-known briar-root tobacco-pipes are 
 made from the root of a large kind of 
 heath, a^ native of southern Europe, 
 Corsica, Sardinia, Algeria, etc. 
 
 BRIBE, a reward given to a public 
 officer or functionary to induce him to 
 violate his official duty so as to suit the 
 person bribing; especially a corrupt pay- 
 ment of money for the votes of electors 
 in the choice of persons to places of 
 trust under government. Bribery is in 
 most countries regarded as a crime 
 deserving severe punishment. 
 
 BRICK, a sort of— artificial .stone, 
 made principally of aj:gillacepus earth 
 formed in molds, dried in the sun, 
 and baked by burning, or, as in many 
 Eastern countries, by exposure to the 
 sun. Sun-dried bricks of great antiqui- 
 ty have been found in Egypt, Assyria, 
 and Babylonia, and in the mud walls 
 of old Indian towns. Under the Romans 
 the art of making and building with 
 bricks was brought to great perfection, 
 and the impressions on Roman bricks, 
 like those on the bricks of Babylonia, 
 have been of considerable historic 
 value. The Roman brick was afterward 
 superseded in England by the smaller 
 Flemish make. Of the various clays 
 used in brickmaking, the simplest, con- 
 sisting chiefly of silicates of alumina, 
 are almost infusible, and are known as 
 fire-elays. Of such clays fire-bricks are 
 made. Clays containing Lime and no 
 iron burn white, the colors of others 
 being due to the presence in varying 
 proportions of ferric oxide, which also 
 adds to the hardness of bricks. The 
 clay should be dug in autumn and 
 exposed to the influence of frost and 
 rain. It should be worked over re- 
 peatedly with the spade and tempered 
 to a ductile homogeneous paste, and 
 should not be made into bricks until 
 the ensuing spring. The making of 
 bricks by hand in molds is a simple 
 process. After being made and dried 
 for about nine or ten days they are 
 ready for the burning, for which purpose 
 they are formed into kilns, having 
 flues or cavities at the bottom for the 
 insertion of the fuel, and interstices 
 between them for the fire and hot air 
 to penetrate. Much care is necessary 
 in regulating the fire, since too much 
 heat vitrifies the bricks and too little 
 leaves them soft and friable. Bricks 
 are now largely made by machines of 
 
 various construction. In one the clay 
 is mixed and comminuted in a cylin- 
 drical pug-mill by means of rotatory 
 knives or cutters working spirally and 
 pressing the clay down to the bottom of 
 the cylinder. From this it is conveyed 
 by rollers and forced through an opening 
 of the required size in a solid rectan- 
 gular stream, which is cut into bricks 
 by wires working transversely. Ma- 
 chine-made bricks are heavier, being 
 less porous than hand-made bricks, and 
 are more liable to crack in drying; but 
 they are smoother, and, when carefully 
 dried, stronger than the hand-made. 
 
 Bricks were made in Virginia as early 
 as 1612, in New England in 1647, and 
 in Philadelphia in 1685. The various 
 kinds of brick made in the U. States at 
 present are as follows: Common brick; 
 stock, or pressed, or front brick, of 
 prime clay and very smooth; enameled 
 or glazed brick; ornamental brick, 
 variously formed; fire brick, from 
 refractory clays; paving and vitrified 
 brick, of specially hard quality. 
 
 BRIDEWELL, a name given, in the 
 U. States, to penal work-houses, or 
 minor prisons where the prisoners are 
 required to do hard labor. The name 
 originates from a well in London named 
 for St. Bride. The name Bridewell 
 earne to be applied to a palace in the 
 vicinity, which was afterward used as 
 a house of correction. The original 
 building was destroyed in 1864. 
 
 BRIDGE, a structure of stone, brick, 
 wood, or iron, affording a passage over 
 a stream, valley, or the like. The 
 earliest bridges were no doubt trunks 
 of trees. The arch seems to have been 
 unknown among most of the nations 
 of antiquity. Even the Greeks had not 
 sufficient acquaintance with it to apply 
 it to bridge-building. The Romans 
 were the first to employ the principle of 
 the arch in this direction, and after the 
 construction of such a work as the great 
 arched sewer at Rome, the Cloaca 
 Maxima, a bridge over the Tiber would 
 be of comparatively easy execution. 
 One of the finest examples of the Roman 
 bridge was the bridge built by Augustus 
 over the Nera at Narni, the vestiges of 
 which still remain. It consisted of four 
 arches, the longest of 142 feet span. 
 The most celebrated bridges of ancient 
 Rome were not generally, however, dis- 
 tinguished by the extraordinary size 
 of their arches, nor by the lightness of 
 their piers, but by their excellence and 
 durability. Old London Bridge was 
 commenced in 1176, and finished in 
 1209. It had houses on each side like a 
 regular street till 1756-58. In 1831 it 
 was altogether removed, the new bridge, 
 which had been begun in 1824, having 
 then been finished 
 
 Stone bridges consist of an arch or 
 series of arches, and in building them 
 the properties of the arch, the nature 
 of the materials, and many other 
 matters have to be carefully considered. 
 It has been found that in the construc- 
 tion of an arch the slipping of the stones 
 upon one another is prevented by their 
 mutual pressure and the friction of their 
 surfaces; the use of cement is thus 
 subordinate to the principle of construc- 
 tion in contributing to the strength and 
 maintenance of the fabric. 
 

 BRIDGE 
 
 The first iron bridges were erected 
 from about 1777 to 1790. The same 
 general principles apply to the construc- 
 tion of iron as of stone bridges, but the 
 greater cohesion and adaptability of the 
 material give more liberty to the archi- 
 tect, and much greater width of span 
 is possible. At first iron bridges were 
 erected in the form of arches, and the 
 material employed was cast-iron; but 
 the arch has now been generally super- 
 seded by the beam or girder, with its 
 numerous modifications; and wrought- 
 iron or steel is likewise found to be much 
 better adapted for resisting a great 
 tensile strain than cast-metal. Numer- 
 ous modifications exist of the beam or 
 
 1, Suspension-bridge, Chelsea. 
 
 S, Lattice bridge on railway from St. Gall to 
 Appenzell. 
 
 3, The Britannia tubular bridge. 
 
 girder, as the lattice-girder, bow-string- 
 girder, etc.; but of these none is more 
 interesting than the tubular or hollow 
 girder, first rendered famous from Rs 
 employment by Robert Stephenson in 
 the construction of the railway bridge 
 across the Menai Strait, and connecting 
 Anglesey with the mainland of North 
 Wales. This is known as the Britannia 
 Tubular Bridge. The Victoria Bridge 
 over the St. Lawrence at Montreal, 
 originally tubular, is no longer so, the 
 upper portion having been reconstructed 
 with an open track. It is nearly two 
 miles in length, or about five and a half 
 times as long as the bridge across the 
 Menai Strait. A girder railway bridge 
 across the Firth of Tay at Dundee was 
 opened in 1887, being the second built 
 at the same place, after the first had 
 given way in a great storm. It is 2 
 miles 73 yds. long, has 85 spans, is 77 
 feet high, and carries two lines of rails. 
 
 The bridge over the Firth of Forth, at 
 Queensferry, completed in 1889, has 
 two chief spans of 1710 feet, two others 
 of 680 feet, fifteen of 168 feet, and seven 
 small arches, and the bridge gives a 
 clear headway for navigation purposes 
 of 150 feet above high-water of spring- 
 tides. The great spans consist of a can- 
 tilever at either end, 680 feet long, and a 
 central girder of 350 feet. Both the 
 above bridges carry the lines of the N. 
 British Railway. The Crumlin Railway 
 Viaduct, S. Wales, having lattice-girders 
 supported on open-work piers, is more 
 remarkable for height than length, 
 being 200 feet high. 
 
 Suspension-bridges, being entirely in- 
 dependent of central supports, do not 
 interfere with the river, and may be 
 erected where it is impracticable to 
 build bridges of any other kind. The 
 entire weight of a suspension-bridge 
 rests upon the piers at either end from 
 which it is suspended, all the weight 
 being below the points of support. Such 
 bridges always swing a little, giving a 
 vibratory movement which imparts a 
 peculiar sensation to the passenger. 
 The modes of constructing these bridges 
 are various. The roadway is suspended 
 either from chains or from wire-ropes, 
 the ends of which require to be anchored, 
 that is, attached to the solid rock or 
 masses of masonry or iron. One of the 
 earlier of the great suspension-bridges is 
 that constructed by Telford over the 
 Menai Strait near the Britannia Tubular 
 Bridge, finished in 1825; the opening 
 between the points of suspension is 
 580 feet. The Hammersmith Chain- 
 bridge, the Union Suspension-bridge 
 near Berwick, and the suspension- 
 bridge over the Avon at Clifton are 
 other British examples. On the Euro- 
 pean continent, the Fribourg Suspen- 
 sion-bridge in Switzerland, span 870 
 feet, erected 1834, is a celebrated work; 
 as is that over the Danube connecting 
 Buda with Pesth. In America the lower 
 suspension-bridge over the Niagara, 7 
 miles below the falls, supported by wire 
 cables, is 822 feet long; it has two floors 
 or roadways connected together but 15 
 feet apart, the lower serving for ordinary 
 trafiic, the upper carr 5 dng three lines of 
 rails, 245 feet above the river. Another 
 bridge, close to the falls, has a span 
 of 1250 feet. The Cincinnati bridge 
 over the Ohio has a span of 1057 feet. 
 A suspension-bridge of great magnitude, 
 connecting the city of New York with 
 Brooklyn, was opened in 1883. The 
 central or main span is 1595J feet from 
 tower to tower, and the land spans 
 between the towers and the anchorages 
 930 feet each; the approach on the New 
 York side is 2492 feet long, and that 
 on the Brooklyn side 1901 feet, making 
 the total length 5989 feet. The height 
 of the platform at the center is 135 feet 
 above high-water, and at the ends 119 
 feet. The roadway is 85 feet broad, and 
 is divided into five sections, the two 
 outside for veliicles, the two inner for 
 tram-cars, and the middle one, 12 feet 
 above the rest, for foot-passengers. Of 
 recent devices the most useful is that of 
 the counterpoise bridge, or jackknife 
 bridge, which is lifted up from one 
 end or from the middle oy counter- 
 weights. . 
 
 BRIG 
 
 BRIDGE, a game of cards played by 
 four players and one pack of 52 cards. 
 The players are known as the leader, 
 the dummy, the pone, and the dealer. 
 One of the varieties of bridge is called 
 bridge-whist. 
 
 BRIDGE, Ship’s, a raised walk on 
 the forward end of a ship, patrolled by 
 the officer in charge. 
 
 BRIDGE'MAN, Laura, a blind deaf- 
 mute, born in Hanover, New Hampshire, 
 in 1829. Till the age of two years she 
 was a bright active child, when a severe 
 illness deprived her of the senses of 
 sight, hearing, and smell, and partly 
 also of that of taste. She was put under 
 the care of Dr. Howe of Boston, and the 
 history of the methods by which she 
 was gradually taught to read, write, and 
 eventually perform most of the ordinary 
 duties and even some of the accom- 
 plishments of life, is a very interest- 
 ing one. She became herself a teacher 
 of persons similarly afflicted, and led 
 an active and useful life, dying in 
 1889. 
 
 BRIDGE'PORT, a seaport of Con- 
 necticut, 58 miles n.e. of New Y'ork, on 
 an arm of Long Island Sound, with a 
 large coasting trade, but chiefly sup- 
 ported by its manufactories, including 
 the large sewing-machine factories of 
 Wheeler, Wilson & Co., Elias Howe, 
 etc. Pop. 84,216. 
 
 BRIDGETON (brij' tun), a city, port 
 of entry, and county-seat of Cumber- 
 land Co., N. J., 38 miles south of Phil- 
 adelphia, at the head of navigation on 
 the Cohansey river, and on the New 
 Jersey Central and the West Jersey and 
 Seashore railroads. Pop. 15,418. 
 
 BRIDGETOWN, the capital of the 
 island of Barbados, in the West Indies, 
 extending along the shore of Carlisle 
 Bay, on the s.w. coast of the island, for 
 nearly 2 miles. Bridgetown is the resi- 
 dence of the governor-general of the 
 Windward Islands. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 BRIDG'MAN, Elij'ah Coleman, an 
 American missionary to China, born in 
 Massachusetts iia 1801, died in 1861. 
 In 1829 he went to Clrina as a missionary 
 and founded a mission at Shanghai. 
 
 BRIDGMAN, Frederick Arthur, an 
 American painter, born at Tuskegee, 
 Ala., in 1847. He exhibited in Paris 
 in 1878 and was made a Chevalier of the 
 Legion of Honor. In 1900 two of his 
 paintings were exhibited at the Paris 
 Exposition. 
 
 BRIDGMAN, Herbert Lawrence, an 
 American explorer, born in Massa- 
 chusetts in 1844. He accompanied 
 Peary in his expedition of 1894, and in 
 1899 he commanded the auxiliary 
 Peary expedition on the ship Diana. 
 
 BMEF, which comes from the Latin 
 brevis, short, denotes a brief or short 
 statement or summary, particularly the 
 summary of a client’s case which the 
 solicitor draws up for the instruction of 
 counsel. A brief may also mean, in law, 
 an order emanating from the superior 
 courts. A papal brief is a sort of pas- 
 toral letter in which the pope gives his 
 decision on some matter wliich concerns 
 the party to whom it is addressed. The 
 brief is an official document, but of a 
 less public character than the bull. 
 
 BRIG, a sailing vessel with two masts 
 rigged like the foremast and mizzen- 
 
BRIGADE 
 
 BRISTOL 
 
 mast of a full-rigged ship. See Brigan- 
 tine. 
 
 BRIGADE', in general an indeter- 
 minate number of regiments or squad- 
 rons. A number of brigades form a 
 division, and several divisions an army 
 corps. A brigadier or brigadier-general 
 is the officer who commands a brigade. 
 See Army. 
 
 Brig. 
 
 BRIGADIER-GENERAL, an army 
 officer who commands a brigade of 
 soldiers. See Army, and Brigade. 
 
 BRIG'ANTINE, a sailing vessel with 
 two masts, the foremast rigged like a 
 brig’s, the main-mast rigged like a 
 schooner’s. Called also hermaphrodite 
 brig. 
 
 BRIGHT, John, a great English orator 
 and politician, born at Greenbank, near 
 Rochdale, Lancashire, Nov. 16, 1811. 
 He first became known as a leading 
 spirit along with Mr. Cobden in the 
 Anti-Corn-Law League. In 1843 he was 
 chosen M.P. for Durham, and dis- 
 tinguished himself as a strenuous advo- 
 cate of free-trade and reform. In 1847 
 he sat for the first time for Manchester, 
 
 John Bright. 
 
 but in 1857 his opposition to the Crimean 
 war had made him so unpopular in the 
 constituency that he lost his seat by a 
 large majority. He was, however, re- 
 turned for Birmingham, and soon after 
 made speeches against the policy of 
 great military establishments and wars 
 of annexation. In 1865 he took a lead- 
 ing part in the movement for the exten- 
 sion of the franchise, and strongly advo- 
 cated the necessity of reform in Ireland. 
 In the Gladstone ministry formed in 
 1868 he was President of the Board of 
 Trade and afterward Chancellor of the 
 Duchy of Lancaster, and he held the 
 
 latter office again under Mr. Gladstone 
 in 1880-82. In 1886 he joined the 
 Liberals who opposed Mr. Gladstone’s 
 schemes for Ireland, and contributed by 
 his letters and influence to the over- 
 throw of the Gladstone party. He was 
 a member of the Society of Friends. 
 He died March 27, 1889. 
 
 BRIGHTON (bri'tun), a county bor- 
 ough and favorite watering-place in 
 England, county of Sussex, 50^ miles 
 from London. In front of the town is 
 a massive sea-wall, with a promenade 
 and drive over 3 miles in length, one 
 of the finest in Europe. Among the 
 remarkable buildings, all of modern 
 date, is the Pavilion, built by George 
 IV., which cost upward of $5,000,000. 
 It is in the oriental style, with numerous 
 cupolas, spires, etc. The building and 
 its gardens, which are open to the public 
 as pleasure-grounds, cover 9 acres. 
 There is- a very large and complete 
 aquarium, and a fine iron pier. Brigh- 
 ton has no manufactures, and is resorted 
 to chiefly as a watering-place. It was 
 about the middle of the 18th century 
 that Dr. Russell, an eminent physician, 
 drew attention to Brighton, which sub- 
 sequently was patronized by George IV., 
 then Prince of Wales; in this way it was 
 converted from a decayed fishing village 
 into a fashionable and populous water- 
 ing place. It has sent two members to 
 parliament since 1832. Pop. 153,393. 
 
 BRIGHT’S DISEASE, a name (de- 
 rived from a Dr. Bright of London, who 
 first described the disorder) given to 
 various forms of kidney disease, espe- 
 cially to that which is characterized by 
 a granular condition of the cortical part 
 of the kidneys and inflammation of the 
 malpighian bodies. The urine during 
 life contains albumen, and is of less 
 specific gravity than natural. The dis- 
 ease is accompanied with uneasiness 
 or pain in the loins, pale or cachectic 
 countenance, disordered digestion, fre- 
 quent urination, and dropsy. The 
 blood contains urea, and is deficient in 
 albumen and corpuscles. Progressive 
 blood-poisoning induces other visceral 
 diseases, and in the end gives rise to the 
 cerebral disturbance which is the fre- 
 quent cause of death. 
 
 BRIM'STONE, a name of sulphur. 
 Sulphur, in order to purify it from 
 foreign matters, is generally melted in 
 a close vessel, allowed to settle, then 
 poured into cylindrical molds, in which 
 it becomes hard, and is known in com- 
 merce as roll brimstone. 
 
 BRINE, water saturated with com- 
 mon salt. It is naturally produced in 
 many places beneath the surface of the 
 earth, and is also made artificially, for 
 preserving meat, a little saltpeter being 
 generally added to the solution. 
 
 BRIS'BANE, the capital of Queens- 
 land, about 25 miles by water from the 
 mouth of the river Brisbane, which 
 intersects the town. Brisbane was 
 originally settled, in 1825, as a penal 
 station by Sir Thomas Brisbane (whence 
 the name of the town). In 1842 the dis- 
 trict was opened to free settlers, and on 
 the erection of Queensland into a sepa- 
 rate colony in 1859, Brisbane became 
 the capital. Since then it has made 
 great progress, and now possesses many 
 fine public buildings, such as the Houses 
 
 of Legislature, the town-hall and the 
 Albert Hall, the viceregal lodge, the 
 post and telegraph offices, etc. There 
 are also botanical gardens, several pub- 
 lic parks, etc. The climate is tropical. 
 
 The town is the terminus of the west- 
 ern and southern railway system, and 
 the port is the principal one in the 
 colony. Pop. (with suburbs), 119,428. 
 
 BRIS'BANE, General Sir Thomas 
 MacDougall, a Scotch soldier and as- 
 tronomer, born in 1773. After serving 
 in Flanders and the West Indies he 
 commanded a brigade under the Duke of 
 Wellington during the Peninsular war, 
 and took part in the battles of Victoria, 
 Orthes, and Toulouse. In 1821 he was 
 appointed governor of New South Wales, 
 where his administration tended greatly 
 to promote the prosperity of the colony. 
 At the same time he devoted himself 
 to astronomy, and from his observatory 
 at Paramatta catalogued 7385 stars, 
 until then scarcely known. On his re- 
 turn to Scotland he continued his as- 
 tronomical pursuits, and died in 1860. 
 
 BRISSOT (bre-so), Jean Pierre, a 
 French political writer, born in 1754, 
 executed 30th October, 1793. He early 
 turned his attention to public affairs, 
 associating himself with such men as 
 P4tion, Robespierre, Marat, etc. Dur- 
 ing the revolution he made himself 
 known as a politician and one of the 
 leaders of the Girondist party. The 
 extreme views of the men of the “Moun- 
 tain” having prevailed over more mod- 
 erate counsels, Brissot, like most of his 
 party, suffered death by the guillotine. 
 
 BMSTLES, the stiff, coarse, glossy 
 hairs of the hog and the wild boar, espe- 
 cially of the hair growing on the back; 
 extensively used by brushmakers, shoe- 
 makers, saddlers, etc., and chiefly im- 
 ported from Russia and Germany. 
 Russia supplies the finest qualities, 
 which are worth about $250 or $300 per 
 cwt. 
 
 BRIS'TOL, a cathedral city of Eng- 
 land, a municipal, county, and pari, 
 borough, situated partly in Gloucester- 
 shire, partly in Somersetshire, but form- 
 ing a county in itself. It stands at the 
 
BRISTOL-BOARD 
 
 BRITAIN, OR GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 confluence of the rivers Avon and 
 Frome, -which unite -within the city, 
 ■whence the combined stream (the Avon) 
 pursues a course of nearly 7 miles to the 
 Bristol Channel. The Avon is a naviga- 
 ble river, and the tides rise in it to a great 
 height. The public buildings are numer- 
 ous and handsome, and the number of 
 places of worship very great. The most 
 notable of these arc the cathedral, 
 founded in 1142, exhibiting various styles 
 of architecture, and recently restored 
 and enlarged; St. Mary Redcliff, said 
 to have been founded in 1293, and per- 
 haps the finest parish church in the 
 kingdom. Among the educational in- 
 stitutions are the University College, 
 the Theological Colleges of the Baptists 
 and Independents, Clifton College, and 
 the Philosophical Institute. There is 
 a school of art, and also a public library. 
 Bristol has glass-works, potteries, soap- 
 works, tanneries, sugar-refineries, and 
 chemical works, ship-building and ma- 
 chinery yards. Coal is worked exten- 
 sively within the limits of the borough. 
 The export and import trade is large 
 and varied. There is a harbor in the 
 city itself, and doc.ks at Avonmouth and 
 Portishead. Bristol is one of the most 
 healthful of the large towns of the 
 kingdom. It has an excellent water 
 supply, chiefly obtained from the Mendip 
 Hills. Pop. 328,842. 
 
 BRISTOL-BOARD, a fine kind of 
 pasteboard, smooth, and sometimes 
 glazed, on the surface. 
 
 BRISTOL CHANNEL, an arm of the 
 Altantic, extending between the south- 
 ern shores of Wales and the south- 
 western peninsula of England, and form- 
 ing the continuation of-The estuary of 
 the Severn. It is remarkable for its 
 high tides. 
 
 BRITAIN, or GREAT BRITAIN, the 
 
 island consisting of the three countries, 
 England, Scotland, and Wales, the 
 name being also used as equivalent to 
 the British Islands collectively, or to 
 the British Empire. Great Britain and 
 Ireland, with their connected islands, 
 form the United Kingdom of Great 
 Britain and Ireland. 
 
 The British Islands form a kind of 
 archipelago in the northwest of Europe. 
 The principal islands are Great Britain 
 and Ireland, separated from each other 
 by the Irish Sea, which, near the center, 
 attains its greatest width of about 130 
 miles; but between Holyhead in Wales 
 and Howth Head in Ireland is not wider 
 than 60 miles; while the distance be- 
 tween the Mull of Cantyre in Scotland 
 and Fair Head in Ireland is only about 
 12 miles. Great Britain is the largest 
 island in Europe, and the seventh 
 largest in the world. Its nearest ap- 
 proach to the continent of Europe is at 
 its s.e. extremity, where the Strait of 
 Dover, separating it from France, is 
 only 21 miles broad. The British Isles 
 rise from a submarine plateau connect- 
 ing them geologically with the rest of 
 Europe, of which at a remote period they 
 must have actually formed a part. This 
 is evidenced too by the similarity of the 
 British fauna and .flora to the conti- 
 nental. 
 
 The n. part of Britain is, for the most 
 part, rugged, mountainous, and barren, 
 this being the character of much of 
 
 Scotland. The chief feature of the 
 southern portion is the mountain mass 
 of the Grampians, the culminating 
 points of which, Bennevis and Benmac- 
 dhui, are the highest British summits, 
 being respectively 4406 and 4296 feet. 
 South of the Highlands lies the plain 
 of the Forth and Clyde, a region of coal 
 and iron, in which the chief manufac- 
 turing industries of Scotland are carried 
 on. 
 
 The mountains which constitute the 
 principal watersheds of Great Britain 
 being generally at no great distance 
 from the w. coast, the rivers which 
 descend from them in that direction 
 have generally a short course, and are 
 comparatively unimportant. The two 
 great exceptions to this rule are the 
 Clyde and the Severn, which owe both 
 their volume and the length of their 
 course to a series of longituclinal valleys, 
 which, instead of opening directly to the 
 coast, take a somewhat parallel direc- 
 tion. The chief rivers entering the sea 
 on the e. coast, proceeding from n. to s., 
 are the Spey, Don, Dee, Tay, Forth, 
 Tweed, Tyne, Ouse, Trent, and Thames, 
 the last named in navigable importance 
 the greatest river of the world. Owing 
 to the great central flat of Ireland its 
 rivers usually flow on in a gently wind- 
 ing course in different directions to the 
 sea. Those of importance are not very 
 numerous; but one of them, the Shan- 
 non, is the longest river of the British 
 Isles, its length being about 225 miles; 
 while the Thames is 215. 
 
 Their maritime situation has a favor- 
 able effect on the climate of the British 
 Isles, making it milder and more equable 
 than that of continental countries in 
 the same latitude. 
 
 The principal cereal crops grown in 
 England are wheat, barley, and oats, 
 oats now covering the largest area; the 
 principal green crops are turnips, pota- 
 toes, mangolds, vetches, etc. In Ireland 
 and Scotland oats are by far the prin- 
 cipal grain crop; by far the chief green 
 crop being in Ireland potatoes, in Scot- 
 land turnips. Hops are grown to a large 
 extent in Kent, and less extensively in 
 some other parts of southern England. 
 
 Such is the mineral wealth of the Brit- 
 ish Isles that there is scarcely a metal or 
 mineral product of economical value 
 which is not worked, to a greater or less 
 extent, beneath their surface. Among 
 these the first place is due to coal, which, 
 in regard both to the quantity raised 
 annually and its aggregate value, sur- 
 passes any other mineral product. The 
 coal-fields are not confined to one par- 
 ticular district, but extend as a series of 
 basins in an irregular curve from central 
 Scotland through northern and middle 
 England to the Bristol Channel. On the 
 east side of Scotland there are coal- 
 fields both north and south of the 
 Forth; farther west lie the coal-basins 
 of Lanark, Renfrew, and Ayrshire; the 
 first famous throughout the world for 
 the immense manufacturing establish- 
 ments which it mainly has called into 
 existence and made prosperous. In the 
 north of England is the great coal-field 
 centering near Newcastle, which gives it 
 its name. 
 
 Britain, next to the U. States, is the 
 most important commercial country. 
 
 Its exports exceed $1,800,000,000 and 
 its imports $2,900,000,000 annually. 
 It has about 25,000 miles of railroad, of 
 which upward of 20,000 belong to Eng- 
 land and Wales. Its annual tonnage 
 is about 110,000,000, and the number 
 of its vessels about 20,000. Two-thirds 
 of its tonnage is steam. 
 
 Every form of religion enjoys the 
 most complete toleration, but there are 
 two churches, one in England having 
 an Episcopal form of government, and 
 one in Scotland with a Presbyterian 
 organization, established by law and 
 partly supported by state endowments. 
 Both of these are Protestant. In Ire- 
 land there has been no state church 
 since 1871, when the branch of the Angli- 
 can Church there established was dis- 
 established. The great majority of the 
 people are Roman Catholics. 
 
 All education in England was long 
 entirely voluntary. The average at- 
 tendance is about 5,000,000. The ele- 
 mentary schools number 3000, the 
 average attendance being about 650,- 
 000. Ireland is still far behind in the 
 matter of education. 
 
 For the higher education there are 
 in England the universities of Oxford, 
 Cambridge, London, Durham, Birming- 
 ham, and Liverpool; Victoria Univer- 
 sity, Manchester; the University of 
 Wales; also colleges, some of them called 
 “University colleges,” at Newcastle, 
 Nottingham, Bristol, etc., besides in- 
 stitutions giving a university education 
 in one or more departments; the train- 
 ing institutions for teachers; and the 
 colleges belonging to the different 
 religious bodies. London University, 
 which till 1900 only held examinations 
 and conferred degrees, is now a teach- 
 ing institution, embracing University 
 College, King’s College, etc. In Scot- 
 land there are the universities of Edin- 
 burgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. 
 Andrews, the last with a college at 
 Dundee, St. Mungo’s College, Glasgow 
 — theological colleges, normal schools, 
 etc. Ireland has the University of Dub- 
 lin, the Queen’s Colleges of Belfast, 
 Cork, and Galway, in connection with 
 the Royal University of Ireland, which 
 is merely an examining and degree- 
 conferring body; the Roman Catholic 
 university, and Maynooth and other 
 Roman Catholic colleges. 
 
 The earliest inhabitants of the United 
 Kingdom known to history were Celts, 
 who inhabited both Great Britain and 
 Ireland at the time of the Roman 
 occupation. In the 5th and 6th centu- 
 ries, however, the Celts were displaced 
 through the greater part of South 
 Britain and in the eastern lowlands of 
 North Britain by the Anglo-Saxons, a 
 Teutonic race from which the modern 
 English and Lowland Scotch are mainly 
 descended. The Celts as a distinct peo- 
 ple were gradually confined to the moun- 
 tainous districts of Wales and Cornwall 
 and the Highlands of Scotland, and only 
 in Wales and Scotland has the Celtic 
 language survived in Great Britain, be- 
 ing still also spoken by many in the 
 west of Ireland. There is a considerable 
 Celtic element, however, among the 
 population everyv’here. The English 
 language is the direct descendant of that 
 spoken by the Anglo-Saxons, but con- 
 
BRITANNIA 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA 
 
 tains a strong infusion of French ele- 
 ments introduced by the Normans in 
 the 11th and following centuries, as well 
 as other elements, chiefly of Latin and 
 Greek origin, introduced in later times. 
 The population is as follows: England 
 32,526,075; Wales, 4,471,957; Ireland, 
 4,456,546; islands, 150,000; total, 41,- 
 605,599. 
 
 The area of the British empire is about 
 ll,4;>o,283 sq. miles, with a popula- 
 tion of about 393,000,000, distributed 
 as follows; British Isles and posses- 
 sions in Europe (Gibraltar, Malta, and 
 Gozoi, area, 121,000 sq. miles; pop. 
 about 41,605,000; British India and 
 feudatory states, (ileylon. Straits Settle- 
 ments, Hong Kong, etc., in Asia; area, 
 
 1.900.000, pop. about 295,000,000; Cape 
 Colony, Natal, Bechuanaland, Sierra 
 Leone, Mauritius, St. Helena, protec- 
 torates and other African possessions, 
 
 2.500.000 sq. miles; pop. estimated 40,- 
 000,000; Canada, Newfoundland, Ja- 
 maica, Trinidad, and other West India 
 islands; Honduras, Guiana, and all pos- 
 sessions in America, North or South, 
 
 3.648.000 sq. miles; pop. 6,790,000; 
 Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Fiji, 
 New Guinea, islands in the Pacific, etc.; 
 area, 3,270,000 sq. miles; pop. about 
 
 4.285.000. The increase of some of the 
 British colonies, especially of Canada 
 and Australia, in population, wealth, 
 and trade has been something prodigious 
 within the last few years. Self-govern- 
 ment has been conceded to the larger 
 colonies. 
 
 Under the name of a constitutional 
 and hereditary monarchy the govern- 
 ment of Britain is vested in a sovereign 
 and the two houses of parliament — the 
 House of Lords and the House of Com- 
 mons. Laws passed by these houses, 
 and assented to by the sovereign, be- 
 come the laws of the land. But under 
 this general fixity of form the center of 
 real power may change greatly, as it has 
 in Great Britain within the last two 
 centuries. The sovereign’s right of veto 
 on acts of parliament has practically 
 passed into desuetude, while of the two 
 legislative houses the House of Com- 
 mons, from its being the expression of 
 the national will as a whole, has become 
 the real center of power and influence. 
 
 The British army has a total (peace 
 footing) of 270,128 men, 42,140 horses, 
 and 984 guns. It has a war footing of 
 
 1.315.000 men, 98,040 horses, and 
 1764 guns. The British navy consists 
 of 40 first-class battle-ships, 20 second- 
 class battle-ships, 7 coast defense ships, 
 24 armored cruisers, 147 other cruisers, 
 97 sea-going gunboats, 18 river gun- 
 boats, 149 torpedo boat destroyers, 
 188 torpedo boats, 383 transports and 
 other service boats, 29 training ships, 
 6740 officers, and 124,930 men. 
 
 The island in the remotest times bore 
 the name of Albion. From a very early 
 period it was visited by Phoenicians, Car- 
 thaginians, and Greeks, for the purpose 
 of obtaining tin. Csesar’s two expedi- 
 tions, 55 and 54 B.C., made it known 
 to the Romans, by whom it was gen- 
 erally called Britannia; but it was not 
 till the time of Claudius, nearly a hundred 
 years after, that the Romans made a 
 serious attempt to convert Britain into 
 A Roman province. Some forty years 
 
 later, under Agricola, the ablest of the 
 Roman generals in Britain, they had 
 extended the limits of the Provincia 
 Romana as far as the line of the Forth 
 and the Clyde. Here the Roman armies 
 came into contact with the Caledonians 
 of the interior, described by Tacitus as 
 large-limbed, red-haired men. After 
 defeating the Caledonians under Gal- 
 gacus at “Mons Grampius” Agricola 
 marched victoriously northward as far as 
 the Moray Firth, establishing stations 
 and camps, remains of which are still to 
 be seen. But the Romans were unable 
 to retain their conquests in the northern 
 part of the island, and were finally 
 forced to abandon their northern wall 
 and forts between the Clyde and the 
 Forth and retire behind their second 
 wall, built in 120 a.d. by Hadrian, be- 
 tween the Solway and the Tyne. Thus 
 the southern part of the island alone 
 remained Roman, and became specially 
 known as Britannia, while the northern 
 portion was distinctively called Cale- 
 donia. The capital of Roman Britain 
 was York (Eboracum). Under the rule 
 of the Romans many flourishing towns 
 arose. Great roads were made, travers- 
 ing the whole country and helping very 
 much to develop its industries. Chris- 
 tianity was also introduced, and took 
 the place of the Druidism of the native 
 British. Under the tuition of the 
 Romans the useful arts and even many 
 of the refinements of life found their 
 way into the southern part of the island. 
 
 British history since the Norman con- 
 quest is really a history of the progress 
 of the world since that time in the arts 
 and the sciences. The principal events 
 of its external political history are the 
 w'ar of the grand alliance in which the 
 Duke of Marlborough commanded the 
 British army and which ended in the 
 peace of Utrecht in 1713; the loss of 
 the American colonies, the consolida- 
 tion of the Canadian colonies, the Napo- 
 leonic wars, the acquisition of India, 
 Australia, and parts of Africa, and the 
 gradual territorial growth of the empire, 
 the extent of w'hich is described above. 
 
 In 1900 the Unionist government 
 appealed to the country on their South 
 African War policy, and received a 
 majority of over 130. Queen Victoria 
 died on Jan. 22, 1901, and was succeeded 
 by her eldest son Edward VII. In May, 
 1902, the South African War ended, and 
 Lord Salisbury soon afterward resigned 
 the premiership to Mr. A. J. Balfour. 
 Edward VII. was crowned in Westmin- 
 ster Abbey on Aug. 9, 1902. In 1906 
 Sir Campbell-Bannerman became pre- 
 mier, and on his retirement in 1908, 
 owing to ill health, the premiership was 
 assumed by Herbert H. Asquith. 
 
 BRITANNIA, the ancient name of 
 Britain. 
 
 BRITANNIA METAL, also called 
 White Metal, a metallic compound or 
 alloy of tin, with a little copper and 
 antimony, used chiefly for tea-pots, 
 spoons, etc. The general proportions are 
 85i tin, 10^ antimony, 3 zinc, and 1 
 copper. 
 
 BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE, an 
 
 iron tubular bridge across Menai Strait, 
 which separates Anglesey from Wales, 
 about one mile from the Menai Suspen- 
 sion Bridge. It has two principal spans 
 
 of 460 feet each over the water, and two 
 smaller ones of 230 feet each over the 
 land; constructed 1846-50. See Bridge. 
 
 BRITAN'NICUS, son of the Roman 
 Emperor Claudius, by Messalina, born 
 A.D. 42, poisoned .i.o. 56. He was passed 
 over by his father for the son of his new 
 wife Agrippina. This son became the 
 emperor Nero, whose fears that he 
 might be displaced by the natural suc- 
 cessor of the late emperor caused him to 
 murder Britannicus. 
 
 BRITISH CHANNEL. See English 
 Channel. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA, a British col- 
 ony forming with Vancouver Island a 
 province of the Dominion of Canada. 
 It is situated partly between the Rocky 
 Mountains and the sea, partly between 
 Alaska and the meridian of 120° w., and 
 extends from the U. States boundary 
 north to the 60th parallel n. lat. Area, 
 341,305 sq. miles (including Vancouver 
 Island). Till 1858 it was part of the 
 Hudson Bay Territory; in that year 
 gold discoveries brought settlers, and 
 it became a colony. Vancouver Island, 
 
 16,000 sq. miles, became a colony at the 
 same time, but was afterward joined 
 to British Columbia; the conjoined 
 colony entered the Dominion in 1871. 
 The coast-line is much indented, and is 
 flanked by numerous islands, the Queen 
 Charlotte Islands being the chief after 
 Vancouver. The interior is mountain- 
 ous, being traversed by the Cascade 
 Mountains near the coast, and by the 
 Rocky Mountains farther west. There 
 are numerous lakes, generally long and 
 narrow, and lying in the deep ravines 
 that form a feature of the surface and 
 are traversed by numerous rivers. Of 
 these the Fraser, with its tributary the 
 Thomson, belongs entirely to the colony, 
 as does also the Skeena ; while the upper 
 courses of the Peace river and of the 
 Columbia also belong to it. All except 
 the Peace find their way to the Pacific. 
 Its mountain ranges (highest summits: 
 Mount Hooker, 15,700 feet, and Mount 
 Brown, 16,000 feet) afford magnificent 
 timber (including the Douglas pine and 
 many other trees); and between the 
 ranges are wide grassy prairies. Part 
 of the interior is so dry in summer as 
 to render irrigation necessary, and the 
 arable land is comparatively limited in 
 area, but there is a vast extent of splen- 
 did pasture land. The climate is mild 
 in the lower valleys, but severe in the 
 higher levels ; it is very healthful. The 
 chief products of the colony are gold, 
 coal, silver, iron, copper, galena, mer- 
 cury, and other metals; timber, furs, 
 and fish, the last, particularly salmon, 
 being very abundant in the streams and 
 on the coasts. Gold exists almost every- 
 where, but has been obtained chiefly 
 in the Cariboo district. The total yield 
 since 1858 has been over $75,000,000. 
 The coal is found chiefly in Vancouver 
 Island, and is mined at Nanaimo, where 
 large quantities are now raised. Mining, 
 cattle-rearing, agriculture, fruit-grow- 
 ing, salmon-canning, and lumbering are 
 the chief industries. Victoria, on the 
 s.e. coast of Vancouver Island, is the 
 capital and chief town of the colony. 
 Near Victoria is Esquimalt, a British 
 naval station. New Westminster, on 
 the Fraser river, about 15 miles from 
 
BRITISH HONDURAS 
 
 BROMINE 
 
 its mouth, is a place of some importance ; 
 but the new town Vancouver, the ter- 
 minus of the Canadian Pacific Railway, 
 at the mouth of the Fraser, is the chief 
 town on the mainland (pop. 17,000). 
 Besides this railway there is one between 
 Nanaimo and Victoria. Steamers now 
 run to China and Japan in connection 
 with the Canadian Pacific Railway, and 
 lines to Australia and India are pro- 
 jected. Like the other provinces of the 
 Dominion, British Columbia has a 
 separate parliament and administration, 
 with a lieutenant-governor of its own. 
 (See Canada.) Schools are supported 
 entirely by government. Pop. in 1881, 
 65,954, including about 25,000 Indians; 
 in 1891, 98,173; in 1901, 177,272. 
 
 BRITISH HONDURAS. See Hon- 
 duras, British. 
 
 BRITISH MUSEUM, the great na- 
 tional museum in London, owes its 
 foundation to Sir Hans Sloane, who, in 
 1753, bequeathed his various collec- 
 tions, including 50,000 books and MSS., 
 to the nation. Montague House was 
 appropriated for the museum, which 
 was first opened on the 15th January, 
 1759. The Museum is under the man- 
 agement of 48 trustees. It is open 
 daily, free of charge. Admission to the 
 reading-room as a regular reader is by 
 ticket, procurable on application to the 
 chief librarian, there being certain 
 simple conditions attached. The li- 
 brary, which is now one of the largest 
 and most valuable in the world, has 
 been enriched by numerous bequests 
 and gifts, among others the splendid 
 library collected by George III. during 
 his long reign. A copy of every book, 
 pamphlet, newspaper, piece of music, 
 etc., published anywhere in British 
 territory, must be conveyed free of 
 charge to the British Museum. The 
 museum contains eight principal de- 
 partments; namely, the department of 
 printed books, maps, charts, plans, etc.; 
 the department of manuscripts; the 
 department of natural history; the 
 department of oriental antiquities; the 
 department of Greek and Roman an- 
 tiquities; the department of coins and 
 medals; the department of British 
 and medieval antiquities and ethnog- 
 raphy; and the department of prints 
 and drawings. 
 
 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA, a name 
 under which are included the Dominion 
 of Canada and the colony of Newfound- 
 land, comprising all the mainland north 
 of the U. States (except Alaska) and a 
 great many islands. 
 
 BRITTANY, or BRETAGNE, an an- 
 cient duchy and province of France, 
 corresponding nearly to the modern 
 departments of Finisterre, Cotes du 
 Nord, Morbihan, Ille et Vilaine, Loire 
 Inf^rieure. It is supposed to have 
 received its name from the Britons who 
 were expelled from England and took 
 refuge here in the 5th century. Along 
 the coast and toward its seaward 
 extremity the country is remarkably 
 rugged, but elsewhere there are many 
 beautiful and fertile tracts. Fisheries 
 employ many of the inhabitants. The 
 people still retain their ancient language, 
 which is closely allied to the Welsh, and 
 is exclusively used by the peasantry in 
 the woslurn part of the province. 
 
 BRI'ZA, a genus of grasses, commonly 
 called quaking grass, maiden’s hair, or 
 lady’s tresses. There are about thirty 
 species, chiefly found in South America. 
 
 BROAD ARROW, a government mark 
 placed on British stores of every de- 
 scription (as well as on some other 
 things) to distinguish them as public or 
 crown property, and to obliterate or 
 deface which is felony. Persons in pos- 
 session of goods marked with the broad 
 arrow forfeit the goods and are subject 
 to a penalty. The origin of the mark is 
 not clearly known. 
 
 BROAD'CAST, a mode of sowing 
 grain by which the seed is cast or dis- 
 persed upon the ground with the hand 
 or with a machine devised for sowing 
 in this manner; opposed to planting 
 in drills or rows. 
 
 BROAD CHURCH, a name given 
 originally to a party in the Church of 
 England, assuming to be midway be- 
 tween the Low Church or Evangelical 
 section and the High Church or Ritual- 
 istic; now widely applied to the more 
 tolerent and liberal section of any 
 denomination. 
 
 BROAD'SIDE, in a naval engagement, 
 the whole discharge of the artillery on 
 one side of a ship of war. The term is 
 also applied to any large page printed 
 on one side of a sheet of paper, and, 
 strictly, not divided into columns. 
 
 BROAD'SWORD, a sword with a 
 broad blade, designed chiefly for cut- 
 ting, formerly used by some regiments 
 of cavalry and Highland infantry in the 
 British service. The claymore or broad- 
 sword was the national weapon of the 
 Highlanders. 
 
 BROADWAY, the leading thorough- 
 fare of New York City. It begins at 
 Bowling Green, near the southern point 
 of Manhattan Island, and runs diag- 
 onally through the city to Central 
 Park, and then by extension to the 
 northern part of Manhattan. It con- 
 tains many of the largest theaters, 
 hotels, and retail shops, and is one 
 of the busiest thoroughfares in the 
 world. 
 
 BROCADE', a stuff of silk, enriched 
 with raised flowers, foliage, or other 
 ornaments. The term is restricted to 
 silks figured in the loom, distinguished 
 from those which are embroidered after 
 being woven. Brocade is in silk what 
 damask is in linen or wool. 
 
 BROD'HEAD, John Romeyn, Amer- 
 ican historian, born in Philadelphia in 
 1814, died in 1873. His principal work 
 is his History of the State of New York, 
 published 1853-71. 
 
 BROGUE (brog), a coarse and light 
 kind of shoe made of raw or half-tanned 
 leather, of one entire piece, and gath- 
 ered round the foot by a thong, for- 
 merly worn in Ireland and the High- 
 lands of Scotland. The term is also 
 used of the mode of pronunciation 
 peculiar to the Irish. 
 
 BROKE, Sir Philip Bowes Vere, a 
 British admiral, born in 1776, died in 
 1841 ; distinguished himself, particularly 
 in 1813, as commander of the Shannon, 
 in the memorable action which that 
 vessel, in answer to a regular challenge, 
 fought with the U. States vessel Chesa- 
 peake off the American coast, and in 
 which the latter was captured. 
 
 BROKEN-WIND, a disease in horses, 
 often accompanied with an enlarge- 
 ment of the lungs and heart, which dis- 
 ables them for bearing fatigue. In this 
 disease the expiration of the air from 
 the lungs occupies double the time that 
 the inspiration of it does; it requires also 
 two efforts rapidly succeeding to each 
 other, attended by a slight spasmodic 
 action, in order fully to accomplish it. 
 It is caused by rupture of the air-cells, 
 and there is no known cure for it. 
 
 BROKER, an agent who is employed 
 to conclude bargains or transact busi- 
 ness for others in consideration of a 
 charge or compensation, which is usually 
 in proportion to the extent or value of 
 the transaction completed by him, and 
 is called brokerage. In large mercantile 
 communities the business of each broker 
 is usually limited to a particular class 
 of transactions, and thus there are bro- 
 kers with several distinctive names, as 
 bill-brokers, who buy and sell bills of 
 exchange for others; insurance-brokers, 
 who negotiate between underwriters 
 and the owners of vessels and shippers 
 of goods; ship-brokers, who are the 
 agents of owners of vessels in chartering 
 them to merchants or procuring freights 
 for them from one part to another; 
 stock-brokers, the agents of dealers in 
 shares of joint-stock companies, govern- 
 ment securities, and other monetary 
 investments. 
 
 BROM'BERG, a town of Prussia, 
 province of Posen, on the Brahe, near 
 its confluence with the Vistula. Among 
 its industries are machinery, iron- 
 founding, tanning, paper, tobacco, chic- 
 ory, pottery, distilling, and brewing. 
 The Bromberg Canal connects the Brahe 
 with the Netz, and thus establishes 
 communication between the Vistula, 
 the Oder, and the Elbe. Pop. 52,154. 
 
 BROMELIA' CE.®, the pineapple 
 family, a natural order of endogenous 
 plants, taking its name from the genus 
 Bromelia (so called after a Swedish bo- 
 tanist, Glaus Bromel), to which the 
 pineapple was once incorrectly referred, 
 and consisting of herbaceous plants re- 
 markable for the hardness and dryness 
 of their gray foliage. They abound in 
 tropical America, commonly growing 
 epiphytically on the branches of trees. 
 With the exception of the pineapple the 
 Bromeliaceae are of little value, but 
 some species are cultivated in hot-houses 
 for the beauty of their flowers. They 
 can exist in dry hot air without contact 
 with the earth, and in hot-houses arj 
 often kept hung in moist moss. 
 
 BROMIDES, certain salts consisting 
 of hydrobromic acid united with an- 
 other substance such as a metal, or 
 metallic salts. Bromides, especiallj" the 
 bromide of potassium, are used exten- 
 sively in medicine 
 
 BRO'MINE, a non-metallic element 
 discovered in 1826. In its general chem- 
 ical properties it much resembles chlo- 
 rine and iodine, and is generally asso- 
 ciated with them It exists, but in very 
 minute quantities, in sea-water, in the 
 ashes of marine plants, in animals, and 
 in some salt springs. It is usually ex- 
 tracted from bittern by the agency of 
 chlorine. .\t common temperatures it 
 is a very dark reddish liquid of a 
 powerful and suffocating odor, a, d 
 
BRONCHI 
 
 BROOKLYN 
 
 emitting red vapor. It has bleaching 
 powers Tike chlorine, and is very poison- 
 ous. Its density is about four and a 
 half times that of water. It combines 
 with hydrogen to form hydrobromic 
 acid gas. With oxygen and hydrogen 
 it forms bromic acid. — Bromide of 
 potassium has sedative and other prop- 
 erties, and is used in medicine (scrofula, 
 goiter, rheumatism, etc.); bromide of 
 silver is used in photography. 
 
 BRON'CHI (-kl), the two branches 
 into which the trachea or wind-pipe 
 divides in the chest, one going to the 
 
 Bronchi and their ramifications. 
 
 right lung, the other to the left, and 
 ramifying into innumerable smaller 
 tubes — the bronchial tubes. 
 
 BRONCHITIS (bron-ki'tis), an inflam- 
 mation of the mucous membrane of the 
 bronchial tubes, or the air-passages 
 leading from the trachea to the lungs. 
 (See Bronchi.) It is of common occur- 
 rence, and may be either acute or 
 chronic. Its symptons are those of a 
 feverish cold, such as headache, lassi- 
 tude, and an occasional cough, which 
 are succeeded by a more frequent cough 
 occurring in paroxysms, a spit of yellow- 
 ish mucus, and a feeling of great oppres- 
 sion on the chest. Slight attacks of 
 acute bronchitis are frequent and not 
 very dangerous. They may be treated 
 with mustard poultices or fomentations. 
 Acute bronchitis is often a formidable 
 malady, and requires prompt treatment. 
 Confirmed chronic bronchitis is hardly 
 amenable to medical treatment. Its 
 main symptoms are cough, shortness of 
 breath, and spit. It is particularly apt 
 to attack a person in winter; and in the 
 end may cause death through the lungs 
 becoming unable to do their work, and 
 through accompanying complications. 
 
 BRON'TE, Charlotte (afterward Mrs. 
 Nicholls), English novelist, born at 
 Thornton, in Yorkshire, 21st April, 1816; 
 died at Haworth, 31st March, 1855. 
 The success of Jane Eyre, which was 
 published in October, 1847, was imme- 
 diate and decided. Her second novel, 
 Shirley, appeared in 1849. In the au- 
 tumn of 1852 her third novel, Villette, 
 was published. Shortly after, she mar- 
 ried her father’s curate, the Rev. Arthur 
 Bell Nicholls, but in nine months died i 
 of consumption. Her originally rejected 
 tale of The Professor was published after 
 her death, in 1857, and the same year a 
 biography of her appeared from the pen 
 of Mrs. Gaskel). 
 
 BRONTOSAU'RUS, a gigantic rep- 
 tilian animal, of the order Dinosauria, 
 found fossil in secondary strata of the 
 Rocky Mountains, having a long neck 
 and tail, a very small head, and strong 
 limbs. It seems to have lived in 
 swampy localities, and to have been 
 herbivorous. Living it must have 
 weighed between 20 and 30 tons. 
 
 BRONZE is an alloy of copper and tin, 
 to which other metallic substances are 
 sometimes added, especially zinc. It is 
 a fine-grained metal, taking a smooth 
 and polished surface, harder and more 
 fusible than_cop 2 Der, but not so malle- 
 able. In various parts of the world 
 weapons and implements were made of 
 this alloy before iron came into use, and 
 hence the bronze age is regarded as one 
 coming between the stone age and the 
 iron age of prehistoric archoeology. (See 
 Archaeology.) Both in ancient and mod- 
 iern times it has been much used in mak- 
 ing casts of all kinds, metals, bas-reliefs, 
 statues, and other works of art; and 
 varieties of it are also used for bells, 
 gongs, reflectors of telescopes, cannon, 
 etc. Its color is reddish, brownish, or 
 olive-green, and is darkened by exposure 
 to the atmosphere. Ancient bronze 
 generally contains from 4 to 15 per cent 
 of tin. An alloy of about 85 parts cop- 
 per, 1 1 zinc, and 4 tin is used for statues. 
 Bell-metal consists of 78 of copper and 
 22 of tin. An alloy called phosphor 
 bronze, consisting of about 90 per cent 
 of copper, 9 of tin, and from '5 to '75 of 
 phosphorus has been found to have pe- 
 culiar advantages for certain purposes. 
 The addition of phosphorus increases the 
 homogeneousness of the compound, and 
 by varying the proportion of the constit- 
 uents the. hardness, tenacity, and elas- 
 ticity of the alloy may be modified at 
 {pleasure. — Aluminium bronze is an alloy 
 of copper and aluminium, the metals 
 being combined in different proportions 
 according to the kind of bronze wanted. 
 One variety is of a yellow or golden color, 
 and is made into watch-chains and orna- 
 mental articles. — Manganese bronze is a 
 bronze containing manganese and iron, 
 and is said to possess remarkable prop- 
 erties in regard to strength, hardness, 
 toughness, etc. — Bronzing is the oper- 
 ation of covering articles with a wash 
 or coating to give them the appearance 
 of bronze. Two kinds are common, the 
 yellow and the red. The yellow is made 
 of fine copper dust, the red of copper 
 dust with a little pulverized red ocher. 
 The fine green tint which bronze ac- 
 quires by oxidization, called patina an- 
 tiqua, is imitated by an application of 
 sal-ammoniac and salt of sorrel dissolved 
 in vinegar. Recently bronze has been 
 deposited on small statues and other 
 articles with good effect by means of 
 the electrotype process. 
 
 BRONZING. See Bronze. 
 
 BROOCH (broch), a kind of orna- 
 ment worn on the dress, to which it is 
 attached by a pin stuck through the fab- 
 ric. They are usually of gold or silver, 
 often worked in highly artistic patterns 
 and set with precious stones. Brooches 
 are of great antiquity, and were for- 
 merly worn by men as well as women, 
 especially among the Celtic races. 
 
 BROOK FARM, a community at West 
 Roxbury, Mass., founded by George 
 
 Ripley to test the socialistic doctrines 
 of Fourier. Among the members were 
 George W. Curtis, Nathaniel Hawthorne, 
 Charles H. Dana, and Margaret Fuller. 
 Hawthorne based his story “The Blithe- 
 dale Romance” on Brook Farm. The 
 community fell to pieces after a short 
 life. 
 
 BROOKLYN, a borough of Nerv York 
 City, formerly a city in Long Island on 
 Long Island Sound. Pojmlation, 1906, 
 1,500,000. It consists of an aggregation 
 of villages which have gradually grown 
 together to form a vast city, and that 
 is why the streets have no uniformity 
 of plan. The park system of Brooklyn 
 consists of 36 parks, with a combined 
 area of 1566| acres, and 22 parkways, 
 42^ miles in length. The principal 
 park is Prospect; area, 516^ acres. 
 It is on the highest ground in the city, 
 and includes 110 acres of woodland. 
 Fort Greene Park, 30 acres of beautiful 
 grounds, is less than half a mile from the 
 Borough Hall. Here 11,000 victims of 
 the Revolutionary War prison ships are 
 entombed The Soldiers and Sailors’ 
 Memorial .\rch on Prospect Park Plaza, 
 dedicated in 1892, is of white marble; 
 the bas-reliefs are by Maurice J. Power. 
 Six cemeteries lie wholly or partly in 
 Brooklyn, and others are just beyond 
 the borough boundary in Queens. 
 Greenwood, southwest of Prospect Park, 
 has an area of 474 acres, and is widely 
 known for the beauty of its ground and 
 monuments. Other cemeteries within 
 Brooklyn’s boundaries are Evergreens, 
 Holy Cross, Kings County Farm (Pot- 
 ter’s Field), Maimonides Cemetery, 7J 
 acres; Mount Hope, 12 acres; Washing- 
 ton Cemetery, on Ocean Parkway. The 
 suspension-bridge over the East river 
 W'as commenced Jan. 2, 1870. The first 
 wire was runout May 29, 1877, and the 
 bridge was opened to the public May 24, 
 1883. The bridge railroad was opened 
 Sept. 24, 1883. Total length, wdth exten- 
 sions, 6537 feet. The original cost of 
 construction was $15,000,000. 
 
 Brooklyn is called “the city of 
 churches.” There are 400 Protestant 
 churches, with a total indebtedness of 
 $1,863,700, and property valued at 
 $109,923,681. There are 84 Roman 
 Catholic churches, with property to the 
 value of $10,086,000, indebted to the 
 extent of $1,342,859. There are 75 
 religious societies and Young Men’s 
 Christian Associations, besides church 
 societies, 100 city missionaries, 31 mis- 
 sions, 10 Chinese missions, 41 church 
 sewing and industrial schools, 19 church 
 kindergartens, and 19 free church read- 
 ing-rooms. There are 6 high-schools, a 
 training-school for teachers, 122 day 
 and 16 evening schools, 10 industrial 
 and asylum schools, and a truant school. 
 There a^e 23 libraries, having an aggre- 
 gate of more than 480,000 volumes, of 
 which 208,445 volumes are also in free 
 circulation. Brooklyn has der^eloped 
 an extensive commerce. The wharves 
 and docks of the city nave a water 
 frontage of more than 25 miles, lined 
 with great storehouses and elevators, 
 and represent an investment of hun- 
 dreds of millions of dollars. Ninety per 
 cent of the coffee and sugar imported 
 into the U. States is received there, 
 Thirty-three regular lines of steamships, 
 
BROOKS 
 
 BROWN 
 
 and a great number of “tramp” steam- ' 
 ers and sailing vessels, dock in Brooklyn. 
 Along the water-front are also extensive 
 liasins, one covering 40 acres and ac- 
 commodating 500 vessels at one time, 
 ship-yards, dry-docks, and marine rail- 
 ways. Here also is the Brooklyn Nav}^- 
 yard, the most important station in the 
 U. States, where four-fifths of the stores 
 for the entire navy are handled, and 
 war-ships repaired and fitted for sea. 
 Pop. 1909, 1,492,970. See New York. 
 
 BROOKS, Phillips, a noted American 
 Protestant Episcopal bishop and preach- 
 er, born in Boston Dec. 13, 1835, died 
 in 1893. He served in charges at Phila- 
 delphia and Boston, and was elected 
 bishop of Massachusetts in 1891. His 
 works are: Lectures on Preaching, The 
 Influence of Jesus, and several volumes 
 of sermons. His hymn, 0, Little Town 
 of Bethlehem, is one of the most popular 
 Christmas hymns of the church. 
 
 BROOKS, Preston Smith, an Ameri- 
 can lawyer and legislator, born in South 
 Carolina in 1819, died in 1857. He 
 served as congressman from 1852 to 
 1856. On May 22, 1856, he assaulted 
 Senator Charles Sumner while the latter 
 was at his desk in the senate chamber, 
 the alleged offense being Sumner’s 
 arraignment of South Carolina in his 
 famous speech on the “Crime of Kan- 
 sas,” delivered a few days previously. 
 
 BROOM, a popular name which in- 
 cludes several allied genera of plants 
 distinguished by a leguminous fruit and 
 papilionaceous flowers. The common 
 broom of Europe is a bushy shrub with 
 straight angular branches, of a dark- 
 green color, deciduous leaves, and 
 flowers of a deep golden yellow. Its 
 twigs are often made into brooms, and 
 are used as thatch for houses and corn- 
 stacks. They have also been used for 
 tanning. The whole plant has a very 
 bitter taste, and a decoction of it is 
 diuretic, in strong doses emetic. — White 
 broom or Portugal broom has beautiful 
 white flowers. — Spanish broom or Spart 
 is an ornamental flowering shrub grow- 
 ing in Africa, Spain, Italy, and the s. of 
 France. It has upright, round branches, 
 that flower at the top, and spear-shaped 
 leaves. Its fiber is made into various 
 textile fabrics, and is also used in paper- 
 making. — Dyer’s broom yields a yellow 
 color used in dyeing. — Butcher’s broom 
 is an evergreen shrub of the order 
 Liliacese, and therefore entirely different 
 from the brooms proper. 
 
 BROOM-CORN, BROOM-GRASS, a 
 
 plant of the order of grasses, with a 
 jointed stem, rising to the height of 8 
 or 10 feet, extensively cultivated in N. 
 America, where the branched panicles 
 are made into carpet-brooms and clothes- 
 brushes. The seed is used for feeding 
 poultry, cattle, etc. 
 
 BROTH, the liquor in which some 
 kind of flesh is boiled and macerated, 
 often with certain vegetables, to give it 
 a better relish. Beef-tea is a kind of 
 Broth. Scotch broth is a kind of soup 
 in which pot-barley is an ingredient. 
 
 BROTHERHOODS. See Fraternities. 
 
 BROTHERS, a term applied to the 
 members of monastic and military 
 orders as being united in one family. 
 Lay brothers were an inferior class of 
 
 monks employed in monasteries as 
 servants. Though not in holy orders, 
 they were bound by monastic rules. 
 
 BROUGH, John, an American gov- 
 ernor and politician, born in Ohio in 
 1811, died in 1865. He is known as 
 “the war governor of Ohio.” 
 
 BROUGHAM (brom or bro'em), a 
 close four-wheeled carriage, with a single 
 inside seat for two persons, glazed in 
 front and with a raised driver’s seat, 
 named after and apparently invented 
 by Lord Brougham. 
 
 BROUGHAM (brom or bro'em), 
 Henry, Baron Brougham and Vaux, 
 was born at Edinburgh 19th September, 
 1778; died at Cannes 7th May, 1868. 
 He was educated at Edinburgh, studied 
 law there, and was admitted a member 
 of the Society of Advocates in 1800. 
 Along with Jeffrey, Horner, and Sydney 
 Smith, he bore a chief part in the start- 
 
 ing of the Edinburgh Review in 1802, 
 to which he contributed a great number 
 of articles. Finding too circumscribed 
 a field for his abilities in Edinburgh he 
 removed to London, and in 1808 was 
 called to the English bar. In 1810 he 
 entered parliament as member for the 
 borough of Camelford, joined the Whig 
 party, which was in opposition, and 
 soon after obtained the passing of a 
 measure making the slave-trade felony. 
 At the general election of 1830 he was 
 returned for the large and important 
 county of Y^ork. In the ministry of Earl 
 Grey he accepted the post of lord- 
 chancellor, and was raised to the peerage 
 (22d Nov. 1830), with the title of Baron 
 Brougham and Vaux. In this post he 
 distinguished himself as a law reformer, 
 and aided greatly in the passing of the 
 Reform Bill of 1832. Lord Brougham 
 accomplished a large amount of literary 
 work, contributing to newspapers, re- 
 views, and encyclopedias, besides writ- 
 ing several independent works; and he 
 had no mean reputation in mathematics 
 and physical science. 
 
 BROUGHTON (br^'tun), John Cam 
 Hobhouse, Lord, English writer and 
 statesman; born 1786, died 1869. He 
 entered parliament in 1819 as member 
 for Westminster. In 1832 he entered 
 Lord Melbourne’s ministry as secretary 
 at war, and became a privy-councilor. 
 In 1833 he was made chief-secretary for 
 Ireland, and in 1835 he was appointed 
 president of the board of control. He 
 
 held this office till Sept., 1841, and in 
 Lord Russell’s administration, 1846-52. 
 He was raised to the peerage as Baron 
 Broughton in 1851. 
 
 BROUSSONET (bro-so-na), Pierre 
 Marie Auguste, French naturalist, born 
 1761, died 1807. He was professor of 
 botany at Montpellier, and a member of 
 the Academy of Sciences. 
 
 BROWN, a color which may be re- 
 garded as a mixture of red and black, or 
 of red, black, and yellow. There are 
 various brown pigments, mostly of min- 
 eral origin, as bister, umber, cappagh 
 brown, etc. 
 
 BROWN, Charles Brockden, an emi- 
 nent American novelist, was born in 
 Philadelphia in 1771, died 1810. He 
 was originator of the Monthly Magazine 
 and American Review (1799-1800). He 
 also founded in 1805 the Literary Maga- 
 zine and American Register, which he 
 edited for five years. 
 
 BROWN, John, an American oppo- 
 nent of slavery, born 1800, hanged 1859. 
 He early conceived a hatred for slavery, 
 and having removed to Osawatomie, 
 Kansas, in 1855, he took an active part 
 against the pro-slavery party, the sla- 
 very question there giving rise already 
 almost to a civil war. In the summer of 
 1859 he rented a farmhouse about 6 
 miles from Harper’s Ferry, and organ- 
 ized a plot to liberate the slaves of Vir- 
 ginia. On Oct. 16 he, with the aid of 
 about twenty friends, surprised and 
 captured the arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, 
 but was wounded and taken prisoner by 
 the Virginia militia next day, tried, and 
 executed at Charlestown, 2d Dec. 
 
 BROWN, Robert, botanist, born at 
 Montrose, December 21, 1773; died in 
 London June 10, 1858. In 1800 he was 
 appointed naturalist to Flinders’s sur- 
 veying expedition to Australia. He 
 returned with nearly 4000 species of 
 plants, and was shortly after appointed 
 librarian to the Linna;an Society. He 
 was the first English writer on botany 
 who adopted the natural system of 
 classification, which has since entirely 
 superseded that of Linnaeus. In 1810 
 he received the charge of the collections 
 and library of Sir Joseph Banks. He 
 transferred them in 1827 to the British 
 Museum, and was appointed keeper of 
 botany in that institution. He became 
 a fellow of the Royal Society in 1811, 
 D.C.L. Oxford in 1832, and a foreign 
 associate of the French Academy of 
 Sciences in 1833. He had the Copley 
 medal in 1839, and was appointed pres- 
 ident of the Linnaean Society in 1849 
 .\s a naturalist Brown occupied the very 
 highest rank among men of science. 
 
 BROWN, Dr. Thomas, Scotch meta- 
 physician, was born at Kirkmabreck, 
 Kirkcudbright, in 1778; died at Bromp- 
 ton, London, 1820 He distinguished 
 himself, at a very early age, by an acute 
 review of the medical and physiological 
 theories of Dr. Darwin, in a work en- 
 titled Observations on Darwin’s Zoono- 
 mia. He published some indifferent 
 poems which were collected in 1820 
 But he chiefly deserves notice on account 
 of his metaphysical speculations, his 
 chief work being Lectures on the Phi- 
 losophy O’” the Human Mind, 1822. His 
 system reduces the intelle<^tual faculties 
 to three great classes — perception, sim,. 
 
BROWN UNIVERSITY 
 
 BRUCINE 
 
 pie suggestion, and relative suggestion ; 
 employing the term suggestion as nearly 
 synonymous with association. He held 
 original views in regard to the part 
 played by touch and the muscular sense 
 in relation to belief in an external world. 
 His development of the theory of cause 
 and effect was first suggested by Hume. 
 
 BROWN UNIVERSITY, founded at 
 Providence, R. I., in 1765, and named 
 for Nicholas Brown, one of its sup- 
 porters. The university confers degrees 
 in art, science, and philosophy. It has 
 an endowment of nearly $2,000,000, 100 
 instructors and a student body of near- 
 ly 1000. The libraries contain 120,000 
 volumes. The school is open, in all 
 departments, to women. 
 
 BROWNE, Charles Farrar, an Amer- 
 ican humorist, best known as “Artemus 
 Ward,” was born at Waterford, Maine, 
 1836; died at Southampton, England, 
 1867. Originally a printer, he became 
 editor of papers in Ohio, where his hu- 
 morous letters became very popular. 
 He subsequently lectured on California 
 and Utah in the States and in England, 
 where he contributed to Punch. His 
 writings consist of letters and papers by 
 “Artemus Ward,” a pretended exhibitor 
 of wax figures and wild beasts, and are 
 full of drollery and eccentricity. 
 
 BROWNE, Francis Fisher, an Ameri- 
 can poet and critic, born in South Hali- 
 fax, Vt., 1843. He has edited several 
 literary publications, including The Dial, 
 of which he has been the editor since 
 1880. He has published several col- 
 lections of poems. 
 
 BROWNE, Hablot Knight, an Eng- 
 lish designer of humorous and satirical 
 subjects, and an etcher of eonsiderable 
 skill, better known by the pseudonym 
 of “Phiz,” born at Kennington, Sur- 
 rey, 1815, died at Brighton 1882. In 
 1835 he succeeded Seymour as the illus- 
 trator of Dickens’s Pickwick, and was 
 afterward engaged to illustrate Nicho- 
 las Nickleby, Dombey & Son, Martin 
 Chuzzlewit, David Copperfield, and 
 other works of that author. He also 
 illustrated the novels of Lever, Ains- 
 worth, etc., besides sending many comic 
 sketches to the illustrated serials of the 
 time. 
 
 BROWNIE, in Scotland, an imaginary 
 spirit formerly believed to haunt houses, 
 particularly farmhouses. Instead of 
 doing any injury he was believed to be 
 very useful to the family, particularly 
 to the servants if they treated him well, 
 for whom he was wont to do many pieces 
 of drudgery while they slept. The 
 brownie bears a close resemblance to 
 the Robin Goodfellow of England, and 
 the Kobold of Germany. 
 
 BROWNING, Elizabeth Barrett, Eng- 
 lish poetess; born at Burn Hall, Dur- 
 ham, in 1809; died at Florence 1861. 
 Her bodily frame was from the first ex- 
 tremely delieate, but her mind was 
 sound and vigorous, and disciplined by 
 a course of severe and exalted study. 
 She early began to commit her thoughts 
 to writing, and in 1826 a volume, en- 
 titled An Essay on Mind, with other 
 Poems, appeared of her authorship. Her 
 health was at length partially restored, 
 and in 1846 she was married to Mr. 
 Robert Browning, soon after which they 
 
 settled in Italy, and continued to reside 
 for the most part in the city of Florence. 
 Her Prometheus Bound ("from the Greek 
 of .iEschylus) and Miscellaneous Poems 
 appeared in 1833; the Seraphim and 
 other Poems in 1838. In 1856 a col- 
 lected edition of Mrs. Browning’s works 
 appeared, including several new poems, 
 and among others Lady Geraldine’s 
 Courtship. Casa Guidi Windows, a 
 poem on the struggles of the Italians for 
 liberty in 1848-49, appeared in 1851. 
 The longest and most finished of all her 
 works, Aurora Leigh, a narrative and 
 didactic poem in nine books, was pub- 
 lished in 1857. Poems before Congress 
 appeared in 1860, and two posthumous 
 volumes. Last Poems, 1862, and The 
 Greek Christian Poets and the English 
 Poets (prose essays and translations), 
 1863 were edited by her husband. 
 
 BROWNING, Robert, poet, born at 
 Camberwell May 7, 1812; died Dec. 12, 
 1889. In 1846 he married Elizabeth 
 Barrett (see above), and thereafter re- 
 sided chiefly in Italy, making occasional 
 
 
 visits to England. His first poem, 
 Pauline, was published in 1833; fol- 
 lowed by Paracelsus in 1835; Strafford, 
 a Tragedy (1837), produced at Covent 
 Garden. Sordello appeared in 1840, 
 followed by Pippa Passes, A Blot on the 
 Scutcheon, Luria, A Soul’s Tragedy, 
 the well-known Pied Piper of Hamelin, 
 and How They Brought the Good News 
 from Ghent to Aix (1841-46). Between 
 1846 and 1889 appeared The Ring and 
 the Book, his longest poem, Fifine at 
 the Fair; Aristophanes’ Apology; Dra- 
 matic Idylls; Jocoseria; Ferishtah’s 
 Fancies; Asolando. He received the 
 degree of D.C.L. from Oxford in 1882. 
 A Browning Society for the study of his 
 works was formed in 1881, under whose 
 auspices several of his dramas have been 
 performed. His poems are often diffi- 
 cult to understand from the quick trans- 
 itions of thought, and they are not in- 
 frequently rugged and harsh in expres- 
 sion, yet they are among the chief poetic 
 utterances of last century. 
 
 BRUCE, a family name distinguished 
 in the history of Scotland. The family 
 of Bruce (or de Brus) was of Norman 
 
 descent, its founder having obtained 
 from William the Conqueror large 
 grants of land in Northumberland. 
 After being frequently involved in bor- 
 der warfare with the Scots, the house 
 of Bruce received about 1130 from 
 from David I. a grant of the lands of 
 Annandale, thus obtaining a footing in 
 the south of Scotland. 
 
 BRUCE, David. See David II. 
 
 BRUCE, Edward, a brother of Robert 
 
 I. , who, after distinguishing himself in 
 the war of independence, crossed in 1315 
 to Ireland to aid the native septs against 
 the English. After many successes he 
 was crowned king of Ireland at Carrick- 
 fergus, but fell in battle near Dundalk in 
 1318. 
 
 BRUCE, Robert, the greatest of the 
 kings of Scotland, born 1274. In 1296, 
 as Earl of Carrick, he swore fealty to 
 Edward I., and in 1297 fought on the 
 English side against Wallace. He then 
 joined the Scottish army, but in the 
 same year returned to his allegiance to 
 Edward until 1298, when he again 
 joined the national party, and became 
 in 1299 one of the four regents of the 
 kingdom. In the three final campaigns, 
 however, he resumed fidelity to Edward, 
 and resided for some time at his court; 
 but, learning that the king meditated 
 putting him to death on information 
 given by the traitor Comyn, he fled in 
 Feb., 1306, to Scotland, stabbed Comyn 
 in a quarrel at Dumfries, assembled liis 
 vassals at Lochmaben Castle, and 
 claimed the crown, which he received at 
 Scone, March 27th. Being twice de- 
 feated, he dismissed his troops, retired 
 to Rathlin Island, and was supposed to 
 be dead, when, in the spring of 1307, 
 he landed on the Carrick coast, defeated 
 the Earl of Pembroke at Loudon Hill, 
 and in two years had wrested nearly the 
 whole country from the English. He 
 then in successive years advanced into 
 England, laying waste the country; 
 and on June 24, 1314, defeated at Ban- 
 nockburn the English forces advancing 
 under Edward II. to the relief of the 
 garrison at Stirling. In 1316 he went 
 to Ireland to the aid of his brother 
 Edward, and on his return in 1318, in 
 retaliation for inroads made during his 
 absence, he took Berwick and harried 
 Northumberland and Yorkshire. Hos- 
 tilities continued until the defeat of 
 Edward near Byland Abbey in 1323, and 
 though in that year a truce was con- 
 cluded for thirteen years, it was speedily 
 broken. Not until March 4, 1328, was 
 the treaty concluded by which the in- 
 dependence of Scotland was fully recog- 
 nized. Bruce did not long survive the 
 completion of his work, dying at Car- 
 dross Castle on June 7, 1329. He was 
 twice married ; first to a daughter of the 
 Earl of Mar, Isabella, by whom he had a 
 daughter, Marjory, mother of Robert 
 
 II. ; and then to a daughter of Aymer de 
 Burgh, Earl of Ulster, Elizabeth, by 
 whom he had a son, David, who suc- 
 ceeded him. 
 
 BRUCINE, an alkaloid accompanying 
 strychnia in nux vomica. Its taste is 
 exceedingly bitter and acrid, and its 
 action on the animal economy is entirely 
 analogous to that of strychnia, but 
 much less powerful. 
 
BRUGES 
 
 BRUNSAVICK, NEAV 
 
 BRUGES (brtizh), an old walled city 
 of Belgium, capital of AVest Flanders, 
 57 miles n.w. Brussels, on the railway 
 to Ostend. It is an important canal 
 center, and has over fifty bridges, all 
 opening in the middle for the passage of 
 vessels. The principal canals are those 
 to Sluis, Ghent, and Ostend, on all of 
 which pretty large vessels can come up 
 to Bruges. Among its more noteworthy 
 buildings are the Halles (containing 
 cloth and other halls or markets), a fine 
 old building, with a tower 354 feet high, 
 in which is a numerous set of chimes; 
 the Hotel de Ville, the Bourse, and the 
 Palace of Justice; the Church of Notre 
 Dame, with its elevated spire and splen- 
 did tombs of Charles the Bold and Mary 
 of Burgundy; etc. The town possesses 
 interesting works of art by Jan Van 
 Eyck, Memling, the Van Oosts, etc. 
 Textile goods, lace, etc., are manu- 
 factured. Pop. 51,657. 
 
 BRUHL (brill), Heinrich, Count von, 
 minister and favorite of Augustus III., 
 king of Poland, born in 1700, died 1763. 
 In 1747 he became the prime-minister 
 of Augustus, to gratify whose wishes he 
 exhausted the state, plunged the coun- 
 try into debt, and greatly reduced the 
 army. lie acquired great wealth and 
 lived in greater state than the king him- 
 self. His profusion was often beneficial 
 to the arts and sciences, and his library 
 of 62,000 vols. forms a chief part of the 
 Rojml Library at Dresden. 
 
 BRUISE, a hurt caused by a blow or 
 other violent pressure on the body. 
 Owing to the rupture of small blood- 
 vessels and the leakage of blood into the 
 tissues the skin becomes discolored in 
 the region affected. The best remedy 
 for bruises is rest. The pain resulting 
 from small bruises may be relieved by 
 letting cold water fall on the part, or by 
 immersing the part in cold water. 
 
 BRUMAIRE (brii-mar), the second 
 month in the calendar adopted by the 
 first Fi-ench republic, beginning on the 
 23d of October and ending 21st Novem- 
 ber. The 18th Brumaire of the year VIII. 
 of the French Revolution (Nov. 9, 1799) 
 witnessed the overthrow of the Direc- 
 tory by Bonaparte. The next day he 
 dispersed at the point of the bayonet 
 the Council of Five Hundred, and was 
 elected consul. 
 
 BRUMMELL, George Bryan (Beau 
 Brummell), son of a clerk in the Treas- 
 ury, born in London in 1778, died 1840. 
 He was educated at Et.on and at Ox- 
 ford, and at the age of sixteen made the 
 acquaintance of the Prince of AVales, 
 afterward George IV., who made him 
 a cornet in his own regiment of the 10th 
 Hussars, and secured his rapid promo- 
 tion. The death of his father in 1794 
 brought him a fortune of $150,000, 
 which he expended in a course of sump- 
 tuous living, extending over twenty-one 
 years, during which his dicta on matters 
 of etiquette and dress were received in 
 the beau monde as indisputable. 
 
 BRUNEL', Isambard Kingdom, Eng- 
 lish engineer, son of Sir Mark Isambard 
 Brunei, born in 1806, died in 1859. 
 He was educated at the Henri IV. 
 College, Paris; and commenced practical 
 engineering under his father, acting at 
 twenty as resident engineer at the 
 Thames Tunnel. Among his best-known 
 
 works were the Great AVestern, Great 
 Britain, and Great Eastern steamships; 
 the entire works on the Great AVestern 
 Railway, to which he was appointed 
 engineer in 1833; the Hungerford Sus- 
 pension-bridge; docks at Plymouth, 
 Milford Haven, etc. 
 
 BRUNEL', Sir Mark Isambard, a dis- 
 tinguished engineer, born near Rouen 
 in 1769. He was educated in Rouen, his 
 mechanical genius early displaying 
 itself. Among his inventions were a 
 machine for making seamless shoes, 
 machines for making nails and wooden 
 boxes, for ruling paper and twisting 
 cotton into hanks, and a machine for 
 producing locomotion by means of 
 carbonic acid gas; but his greatest 
 engineering triumph was the Thames 
 Tunnel, commenced March, 1825, and 
 opened in 1843. In 1841 the honor of 
 knighthood was conferred on him. He 
 died in Dec., 1849. 
 
 BRUNN (brun), an Austrian city, 
 capital of Moravia, on the railway from 
 Vienna to Prague, nearly encircled by 
 the rivers Schwarzawa and Zwittawa. 
 It contains a cathedral and other hand- 
 some churches; a landhaus, where the 
 provincial assembly meets, and several 
 palaces; and has extensive manufactures 
 of woolens, which have procured for it 
 the name of the Austrian I^eeds. Pop. 
 108,944. 
 
 BRUNO, Giordano (jor-da'no), an 
 Italian philosopher of the Renaissance, 
 born at Nola about 1550. He entered 
 the order of Dominicans, but was 
 accused of impiety, and, after endur- 
 ing much persecution, fled from Rome 
 about 1577 to Geneva. Here he was 
 soon persecuted in turn by the Calvin- 
 ists, and traveled slowly through 
 southern France to Paris, where he 
 was offered a chair of philosophy, but 
 declined to fulfil its conditions of at- 
 tendance at mass. In 1583 he went 
 to London, where he published sev- 
 eral of his works, and to Oxford, 
 where he taught for a short time. In 
 
 1585 he went by way of Paris and 
 Marburg to AVittenberg, and from 
 
 1586 to 1588 taught his philosophy 
 there. He next went to Prague and to 
 Helmstedt, where he remained till 1589; 
 thence to Frankfort until 1592; and 
 finally to Padua, where he remained 
 until the inquisition of Venice arrested 
 him and transferred him to Rome. 
 After an imprisonment of seven years, 
 during which he steadfastly refused to 
 retract his doctrines, he was burned, 
 February 16, 1600, for apostasy, heresy, 
 and violation of his monastic vows. 
 His doctrines form a more complete 
 Pantheistical system than had been 
 previously exhibited, and represent 
 the highest level of the thought of the 
 period. 
 
 BRUNO, THE GREAT, Archbishop 
 of Cologne and Duke of Lorraine, third 
 son of Henry the Fowler, and brother 
 of the Emperor Otho I. He was em- 
 ployed in various important negotia- 
 tions, and was a great patron of learning. 
 Commentaries on the Pentateuch, and 
 some biographies of saints, are ascribed 
 to him. He died 965, at Rheims. 
 
 BRUNS'WICK, a duchy and sovereign 
 state in the northwest of Germany, area 
 
 1425 sq. miles. A good portion of it is 
 hilly or undulating, and it partly be- 
 long to the Harz mountain system. 
 Mining is carried on chiefly in the Harz, 
 and the minerals include iron, lead, 
 copper, brown coal, etc. About half 
 the surface is arable, and the chief cul- 
 tivated products are grain, flax, hops, 
 tobacco, potatoes, and fruit. Brewing, 
 distilling, the manufacture of linens, 
 woolens, and leather, the preparation of 
 paper, soap, tobacco, beet-sugar, with 
 agriculture and mining, afford the 
 principal employment of the people. 
 Pop. 464,251, mostly Lutherans by 
 religion. — Brunswick, the capital, is sit- 
 uated on the Oker, and on the railway 
 from Hanover to Berlin. The principal 
 buildings of note are the ducal palace, 
 the cathedral of St. Blaise (1173), St. 
 Catherine’s Church (dating from 1172), 
 and St. Magnus’s (1031), the Gewand- 
 haus, and the fine old Gothic Council 
 House. The educational institutions 
 include the polytechnic school, a gym- 
 nasium, etc., and there are a city 
 museum, a ducal museum, and a public 
 library. The principal manufactures 
 are wool, linen, jute, machinery, sewing- 
 machines, gloves, lackered wares, etc., 
 chemicals, and the town is famous for 
 beer. Pop. 128,177. 
 
 BRUNSAVICK (brunz'wik), a city, 
 port of entry, and county seat of Glynn 
 Co., Ga., 90 miles south by west of • 
 Savannah, on Saint Simon’s Sound, 8 
 miles from the ocean, and on the Sea- 
 board Air Line, the Plant System, and 
 the Southern railroads. Pop. 10,840. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, a town of Maine, on 
 the Androscoggin, 26 miles n.e. of Port- 
 land. At Bowdoin College, in this towm, 
 Hawthorne and Longfellow graduated 
 in 1825, and the latter filled the chair 
 of modern languages for several years. 
 Pop. 10,125. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, Family of, a distin- 
 guished family founded by Albert Azo 
 II., Marquis of Reggio and Modena, a 
 descendant, by the female line, of 
 Charlemagne. In 1047 he married 
 Cunigunda, heiress of the Counts of 
 Altorf, thus uniting the tv.’o houses 
 of Este and Guelph. From his son, 
 Guelph, who was created Duke of 
 Bavaria in 1071, and married Judith of 
 Flanders, a descendant of Alfred of 
 England, descended Henry the Proud, 
 who succeeded in 1 1 25, and by marriage 
 acquired Brunswick and Saxony. Otho, 
 the great-grandson of Henry by a 
 younger branch of his family, was the 
 first who bore the title of Duke of Bruns- 
 wick (1235). By the two sons of Ernest 
 of Zell, who became duke in 1532, the 
 family was divided into the two 
 branches of Brunswick - AA'clfenbuttel 
 (11.) and Brunswick - Hanover, from 
 the latter of which comes the present 
 royal family of Britain. The former was 
 the German family in possession of the 
 duchy of Brunswick until the death of 
 the last duke in 1884. George Louis, 
 son of Ernest Augustus and Sophia, 
 granddaughter of James I. of England, 
 succeeded his father as Elector of Han- 
 over in 1698, and was called to the 
 throne of Great Britain in 1714 as 
 George I. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, NEW. See New Bruns- 
 wick, 
 
BRUNSWICK BLACK 
 
 BRUTUS 
 
 BRUNSWICK BLACK, a varnish com- 
 posed chiefly of lamp-black and turpen- 
 tine, and applied to cast-iron goods. 
 Asphalt and oil of turpentine also are 
 ingredients in some kinds of it. 
 
 BRUNSWICK GREEN, commonly a 
 carbonate of copper mixed with chalk or 
 lime. 
 
 BRUSA, BROUSSA (bro'sS,), or 
 BURSA, a Turkish city in Asia Minor, 
 south of the Sea of Marmora, about 20 
 miles distant from its port Mudania, 
 with a pop. of about 75,000 Turks, 
 Greeks, Armenians, and Jcavs, engaged 
 in commerce, and the manufacture of 
 satins, silk stuffs, carpets, gauze, etc. 
 
 BRUSH, Charles Francis, an American 
 inventor, born in Ohio in 1849. His 
 principal inventions are the dynamo 
 which bears his name and a number of 
 other electric devices, being chiefly 
 improvements on his dynamo. He is 
 the founder of the Brush Electric 
 Company. 
 
 BRUSH, an implement for removing 
 dirt, for polishing surfaces, or for paint- 
 ing. Brushes are made of broom (which 
 see), bristles, wire, and of various kinds 
 of hair. Among the materials prin- 
 cipally used in the manufacture of 
 brushes are bristles, broom straw, feath- 
 ers, and the hair of the camel, squirrel, 
 goat, badger, and bear. Brushes are 
 simple when they con.sist of a single 
 tuft, compound when they consist of a 
 series of tufts. The brush industry of 
 the U. States has increased vastly dur- 
 ing the past twenty years. 
 
 BRUSH- WHEEL, a toothless wheel 
 sometimes u.sed in light machinery to 
 turn a similar wheel by means of bristles, 
 or some brush-like or soft substance, as 
 cloth, buff-leather, india-rubber, or the 
 like. 
 
 BRUS'SELS, the capital of Belgium 
 and of tlie province of Brabant, is situ- 
 
 ated on the small river Senne, which is 
 not navigable, but serves as a canal- 
 feeder. The city consists of^ north- 
 v/estem or lower portion affd a south- 
 eastern or upper portion. The older 
 
 part is surrounded with fine boulevards 
 on the site of its fortifications, and in 
 many places presents a congeries of 
 twisted streets. The upper toAvn, which 
 is partly inside the boulevards and part- 
 ly outside, is the finest part of the city, 
 and contains the king’s palace, the 
 palace of the chambers, the palace of 
 justice, the palace of the fine' arts, the 
 public library and museum, etc.; and 
 has also a fine park of 17 acres, around 
 which most of the principal buildings are 
 situated. The lower town retains, much 
 of its ancient appearance. The hotel 
 de ville (1401-55) is an imposing Gothic 
 structure, with a spire 3G4 feet in height, 
 the square in front of it being perhaps 
 the most pictorial of all the public places 
 of Brussels. The cathedral of Saint Gu- 
 dule (dating in part from the 13th 
 century) is the finest of many fine 
 churches, richly adorned with sculp- 
 tures and paintings. The whole town is 
 rich in monuments and works of art. 
 The institutions comprise a university, 
 an academy of science and the fine arts 
 and polytechnic school; one of the finest 
 observatories in Europe; a conserva- 
 torium of music; a public library, con- 
 taining 400,000 volumes and 30,000 
 MSS.; a picture-gallery with the finest 
 specimens of Flemish art; and many 
 learned societies and educational organ- 
 izations. The manufactures and trade 
 are greatly promoted by canal communi- 
 cations with Charleroi, Mechlin, Ant- 
 werp, and the ocean, and by the net- 
 work of Belgian railways. The indus- 
 tries are varied and important. Lace 
 was an ancient manufacture, and is still 
 of great importance; the manufacture 
 of cotton and woolen fabrics, paper, 
 carriages, and many minor manufactures 
 are carried on. There are breweries, 
 distilleries, sugar-refineries, foundries, 
 etc. The language spoken by the upper 
 
 classes is French, and Flemish is that 
 of the lower; but German, Dutch, and 
 English are also a good deal spoken. 
 Pop. 211,429, or, including suburbs, 
 about 590,000. 
 
 BRUSSELS CARPET. See Carpet. 
 
 BRUTUS, or BRUTE, the first king of 
 Britain- a purely mythical personage, 
 said to have been the son of Sylvius, and 
 grandson of Ascanius, the son of .^Eneas. 
 He landed in Devonshire, destroj^ed the 
 giants then inhabiting Albion, and 
 called the island from his own name. 
 At his death the island was divided 
 among his sons; Locrine, Cumber, and 
 Albanact. 
 
 BRUTUS, Decimus Juniu.s, served 
 under Julius Cresar in Gaul, and was 
 afterward commander of his fleet, but, 
 like his relative, Marcus Junius Brutus, 
 joined in the assassination of Ca;sar. 
 He was afterward for a short time suc- 
 cessful in opposing Antony, but was 
 deserted by his soldiers in Gaul and 
 betrayed into the hands of his opponent, 
 who put him to death in b.c. 43. 
 
 BRUTUS, Lucius Junius, ancient 
 Roman hero, son of Marcus Junius by 
 the daughter of the elder Tarquin. He 
 saved his life from the persecutions of 
 Tarquin the Proud by feigning himself 
 insane, whence his name Brutus (stupid). 
 On the suicide of Lucretia (see Lucretia), 
 however, he threw off the mask, and 
 headed the revolt against the Tarquins. 
 Having secured their banishment, he 
 proposed to abolish the regal dignity 
 and introduce a free government, with 
 the result that he was elected to the con- 
 sulship, in w-hich capacity he condemned 
 his own sons to death for conspiring to 
 restore the monarchy. He fell in battle 
 n.c. 509. 
 
 BRUTUS, Marcus Junius, a distin- 
 guished Roman, born b.c. 85; was at 
 first an enemy of Pompey, but joined 
 him on the outbreak of civil war until 
 
 Marcus Junius Brutus.— Antique bust. 
 
 the battle of Pharsalia. He then sur- 
 rendered to Ca 2 sar, who made him in the 
 following year governor of Cisalpine 
 Gaul, and afterward of Macedonia. 
 He soon, however, joined the conspiracy 
 against Caesar, and by his influence 
 insured its success. After the assassina- 
 tion he took refuge in the East, made 
 himself master of Greece and Macedonia, 
 and with a powerful army joined Cas- 
 sius in the subjugation of the Lyciaas 
 and Rhodians. In the meantime the 
 triumvirs, Octavianus, Antony, and 
 Lepidus, had been successful at Rome, 
 and were prepared to encounter the 
 army of the conspirators, which, cross- 
 ing the Hellespont, assembled at Phi- 
 lippi in Macedonia. Cassius appears to 
 have been beaten at once by Antony; 
 and Brutus, though temporarily success- 
 ful against Octavianus, was totally 
 
 The law courts or Palais de Justice, Brussels. 
 
BRUYERE 
 
 BUCKBOARD 
 
 defeated twenty days later. He escaped 
 with a few friends; but, seeing that his 
 cause was hopelessly ruined, fell upon 
 the sword held for him by his confidant 
 Strato, and died (n.c. 42). 
 
 BRUYERE (brix-yar'), Jean de la, a 
 Fi’ench writer, born at Paris in 1645. 
 Through the influence of Bossuet he 
 was employed in the education of the 
 Duke of Bourbon, grandson of the 
 great Cond4, with a pension of 3000 
 livres, and was attached to his person 
 during the remainder of his life. In 
 1095 he was elected a member of the 
 French Academy. He died in 1696. 
 
 BRYAN, William Jennings, an Ameri- 
 can politician, born at Salem, 111., in 
 1800. He graduated in law at the 
 Union College of Law in Chicago, and 
 settled in Lincoln, Neb., in 1887. From 
 1891 to 1895 he was congressman from 
 the Lincoln district; in 1896 he was nom- 
 inated by the Chicago convention for 
 president on the democratic ticket. 
 Defeated by McKinley, he was again 
 nominated in 1900, but was again de- 
 feated by McKinley. He subsequently 
 founded The Commoner, a weekly paper 
 which he still publishes. Bryan is one 
 of the most appealing orators in the 
 United States. 
 
 BRYANT, Henry Grier, an American 
 traveler, born in Pennsylvania in 1859. 
 In 1892 he was second in command of 
 the Peary relief expedition to Green- 
 land, and in 1894 was the commander 
 of a similar expedition, also in 1897 
 commander of the expedition to Mount 
 Elias. 
 
 BRYANT, William Cullen, an Ameri- 
 can poet and journalist, born in Hamp- 
 shire, Mass., in 1794. At ten years of 
 age he published translations from Latin 
 poets; at thirteen wrote The Embargo; 
 
 William Cullen Bryant. 
 
 and at eighteen the Thanatopsis. In 
 1815 he was admitted to the bar, and 
 practiced with success till 1825, when 
 lie established the New York Review. 
 In 1826 he became assistant editor of 
 the Evening Post, a leading organ of the 
 New York democrats, of which he was 
 long chief editor. His poems, first 
 collected in 1832, took rank as the best 
 America had up to that time produced. 
 In 1842 he issued The Fountain and 
 other poems; and a new edition of his 
 poems in 1858 was followed by metrical 
 tran.slations of the Iliad in 1869 and of 
 the Odyssey in 1871. His Letters of a 
 Traveller record his visits to Europe 
 
 in 1834 and subsequently. He died in 
 1878. 
 
 BRYN MAWR ( mar ) COLLEGE, 
 
 founded by Joseph W. Taylor, was incor- 
 porated in 1880, and opened for students 
 in 1885, at Bryn Mawr, near Philadel- 
 phia. Bryn Mawr is distinctive among 
 women’s colleges in that its course and 
 method of study are based upon the 
 university model. The system of 
 “major and minor electives in fixed 
 combination” has been adopted; stu- 
 dents are grouped in accordance with 
 the work they have actually accom- 
 plished, instead of by arbitrary “classes” ; 
 original research is in all cases en- 
 couraged ; and, in pursuance of the same 
 policy of placing the scholarship of the 
 college upon a basis of pure merit, can- 
 didates for admission as undergraduates 
 are not accepted upon certificate, and 
 honorary degrees are not granted. The 
 college offers the graduate degrees of 
 A.B., A.M., and Ph.D. Eleven resident 
 fellowships, eight graduate scholarships, 
 and three European fellowships are 
 offered to graduate students, and there 
 are also scholarships and a students’ 
 loan fund for undergraduates. 
 
 Bryn Mawr has grown rapidly since 
 its foundation, and in 1902 had 45 pro- 
 fessors and instructors, and a student 
 body of 425. 
 
 BUCCANEERS', a name derived from 
 Carib boucan, a place for smoking meat, 
 first given to European settlers in Hayti 
 or Hispaniola, whose business was to 
 hunt wild cattle and swine and smoke 
 their flesh. In an extended sense it was 
 applied to English and French adven- 
 turers, mostly seafaring people, who, 
 combining for mutual defense against 
 the arrogant pretensions of the Span- 
 iards to the dominion of the whole of 
 America, frequented the W. Indies in 
 the 17th century, acquired predatory 
 and lawless habits, and became ulti- 
 mately, in many cases, little better than 
 pirates. The earliest association of 
 these adventurers began about 1625, 
 but they afterward became much more 
 formidable, and continued to be a terror 
 until the opening of the 18th century, 
 inflicting heavy losses upon the shipping 
 trade of Spain, and even attacking large 
 towns. Among their chief leaders were 
 Montbars (II exterminador), Peter the 
 Great of Dieppe, L’Olonnas, de Busco, 
 Van Horn, and the Welshman Henry 
 Morgan, who, in 1670, marched across 
 the Isthmus, plundered Panama, and, 
 after being knighted by Charles II., 
 became deputy-governor of Jamaica. 
 The last great exploit of the buccaneers 
 was the capture of Carthagena in 1697, 
 after which they are lost sight of in the 
 annals of vulgar piracy. 
 
 BUCEPH'ALUS, the horse of Alex- 
 ander the Great. On its death from a 
 wound Alexander built over its grave, 
 near the Hydaspes, a city called Bu- 
 cephala. 
 
 BUCHANAN, Franklin, an American 
 naval officer, born in Maryland in 1800, 
 died in 1874. He served in the Mexican 
 war, and was an officer on Perry’s ship 
 in the expedition to Japan. In 1861 he 
 resigned from the United States navy, 
 joined the confederate navy and com- 
 manded the Merrimac in the famous 
 battle with the Monitor in Hampton 
 
 Roads. After the war he devoted him- 
 self to the life of an educator. 
 
 BUCHANAN, James, the fifteenth 
 president of the United States, born in 
 Stony Batter, Franklin Co., Pennsyl- 
 vania in 1791, died in 1868. He was 
 educated at Dickinson College and 
 
 James Buchanan. 
 
 qualified for the bar. In 1820 Buchanan 
 became a member of congress, continu- 
 ing in that capacity for ten years. He 
 supported Jackson for president, was 
 made minister to Russia, and in 1833 
 was elected United States senator. He 
 held that congress had no power over 
 slavery, but favored petition for aboli- 
 tion. In 1845 he became secretary of 
 state in Polk’s cabinet, and successfully 
 handled the various territorial expan- 
 sion questions of his time. In 1856 he 
 was nominated for president by the 
 democrats, defeating Fremont, the can- 
 didate of the newly-organized republican 
 party. His administration was marked 
 by much activity in diplomatic affairs, 
 and successfullj’' avoided the brewing 
 trouble between the North and the 
 South. He died at Lancaster, Pa. 
 
 BUCHANAN, Robert, an English poet, 
 born in 1841. His earliest volumes of 
 verse — Undertones (1863), Idylls and 
 Legends of Inverburn (1865), and Lon- 
 don Poems (1866) — gained him a good 
 reputation for truth, simplicity, humor, 
 and pathos, and he afterward produced 
 various volumes of poetry which have 
 been no less well received; such as Way- 
 side Poesies (1866), North Coast and 
 other Poems (1867); The Drama of 
 Kings (1871); Ballads of Life, Love, and 
 Humour (1882); The City of Dream 
 (1888U The Wandering Jew (1893). He 
 also wrote novels — The Shadow of the 
 Sword, God and the Man, The Child of 
 Nature, etc., and plays. He died in 
 1901. 
 
 BUCHAREST. See Bukarest. 
 
 BUCHARIA. See Bokhara. 
 
 BUCK, the male of the fallow-deer, of 
 the goat, rabbit, and hare. 
 
 BUCKBOARD, a four-wheeled vehicle 
 in which a long elastic board or platform 
 is used in place of the ordinary body, 
 springs, and gear. It is fixed as a con- 
 nection between the fore and rear axles, 
 and may have one or more seats. It is 
 thus the most simply constructed of 
 any four-wheeled vehicle. Buckboards 
 were first used only in mountain dis- 
 tricts where the roads are rugged, and 
 
BUCKEYE 
 
 BUDAUN 
 
 were for a long time rudely and simply 
 built. When the Adirondack region and 
 Mount Desert became fashionable re- 
 sorts, the summer vistors to these 
 places had the primitive buckboards 
 reproduced in more elegant form by 
 carriage-builders, so that the buckboard 
 now usually seen differs greatly from 
 the model, being made in handsome 
 woods of a light color, ash or hickory, 
 with springs, silver mountings, and 
 cushions of russet leather. 
 
 BUCKEYE, an American name for 
 certain species of horse-chestnuts. 
 
 BUCK-HOUND, a kind of hound 
 similar to but smaller than a stag-hound, 
 once commonly used in Britain for hunt- 
 ing bucks. The Master of the Buck- 
 hounds is still the title of an officer of 
 the royal household in England. 
 
 BUCK'INGHAM, an inland county of 
 England, bounded by Northampton, 
 Bedford, Hertford, Middlesex, Berks, 
 and Oxford; area about 730 sq. miles, 
 or 467,009 acres, of which over 400,000 
 are under crops or permanent pasture. 
 The rich vale of Aylesbury stretches 
 through the center, and a portion of the 
 Chiltern range across the south of the 
 county, which is watered by the Ouse, the 
 Thame, and the Thames. The breeding 
 and fattening of cattle and pigs are 
 largely carried on, also the breeding of 
 horses, and much butter is made. The 
 manufactures are unimportant, among 
 them being straw-plaiting, thread lace, 
 and the making of wooden articles, such 
 as beechen chairs, turnery, etc. There 
 are also paper-mills, silk-mills, etc. The 
 mineral productions are of no great im- 
 portance. The county comprises eight 
 hundreds, those of Stoke, Burnham, and 
 Desborough being known as “the Chil- 
 tern Hundreds.” Buckingham is nom- 
 inally the county town, but Aylesbury 
 is the assize town. Pop. 195,534. — 
 Buckingham, the county town, a munic- 
 ipal, and, until 1885, a pari, borough, is 
 pleasantly situated on a peninsula 
 formed by the Ouse. Malting and tan- 
 ning are carried on, and some lace is 
 made. Pop. 3151. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, George Villiers, Duke 
 of, favorite of James I. and Charles I. 
 of England, was born in 1592, his father 
 being George Villiers, Knight. At eigh- 
 teen he was sent to France, where he 
 resided three years, and on his return 
 made so great an impression on James 
 I. that in two years he was made a 
 knight, a gentleman of the bed-chamber, 
 baron, viscount. Marquis of Bucking- 
 ham, lord high-admiral, etc., and at last 
 dispenser of all the honors and offices of 
 the three kingdoms. In 1623, when the 
 Earl of Bristol was negotiating a mar- 
 riage for Prince Charles with the Infanta 
 of Spain, Buckingham went with the 
 prince incognito to Madrid to carry on 
 the suit in person in the hope of securing 
 the Palatinate as dowry. The result, 
 however, was the breaking off of the 
 marriage, and the declaration of war 
 with Spain. During his absence Buck- 
 ingham was created duke. After the 
 death of James in 1625 he was sent to 
 France as proxy for Charles I. to marry 
 the Princess Henrietta Maria. In 1626, 
 after the failure of the Cadiz expedition, 
 he was impeached, but saved by the 
 
 favor of the king. De^ite the difficulty 
 in obtaining supplies Buckingham took 
 upon himself the conduct of a war with 
 France, but his expedition in aid of the 
 Rochellese proved an entire failure. 
 Aug. 24, 1628, he was stabbed by John 
 Felton, an ex-lieutenant who had been 
 disappointed of promotion. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM PALACE, a royal 
 palace in London, facing St. James’s 
 Park, built in the reign of George IV., 
 and forming one of the residences of the 
 sovereign. 
 
 BUCKLE, Henry Thomas, English 
 historical writer, born 1822. His chief 
 work, a philosophic History of Civiliza- 
 tion, of which only two volumes (1858 
 and 1861) were completed, was charac- 
 terized by much novel and suggestive 
 thought, and by the bold coordination 
 of a vast store of materials drawn from 
 the most varied sources. He died, 
 while traveling, at Damascus, 1862. 
 
 BUCKLER, a kind of small shield 
 formerly worn on the left arm, and vary- 
 ing in form and material, among the 
 latter being wickerwork, wood covered 
 with leather, a combination of wood 
 and metal, etc. 
 
 BUCKNER, Simon Bolivar, an Ameri- 
 can politician and soldier, born in Ken- 
 tucky in 1823. He graduated from 
 West Point, served in the Mexican war, 
 and was a brigadier-general of the Con- 
 federate army. In 1896 he was candi- 
 date for vice-president with John M. 
 Palmer on the ticket of the gold wing 
 of the democratic party. 
 
 BUCK'RAM, a coarse textile fabric 
 stiffened with glue and used in garments 
 to give them or keep them in the form 
 intended. It is also used in binding 
 books. 
 
 BUCK-SHOT, a kind of large leaden 
 shot used for killing deer or other large 
 game. 
 
 BUCK'SKIN, a kind of soft leather 
 of a yellowish or grayish color, made 
 originally frorn deer-skins, but now 
 usually from sheep-skins. The softness 
 which is its chief characteristic is im- 
 parted by using oil or brains in dressing 
 it. 
 
 BUCK'THORN, the name of an exten- 
 sive genus of trees and shrubs. Several 
 species belong to N. America. The 
 common buckthorn, a British and 
 N. American shrub, grows to 7 or 8 feet, 
 has strong spines on its branches, ellipti- 
 cal and serrated leaves, male and female 
 flowers on different plants, a greenish- 
 yellow calyx, no corolla, and a round 
 black berry. It flowers in May. The 
 berries are purgative, but harsh in 
 action. The bark yields a yellow dye, 
 the berries sap green. 
 
 BUCK' WHEAT , a plant with branch- 
 ed herbaceous stem, somewhat arrow- 
 shaped leaves, and purplish-white 
 flowers, growing to the height of about 
 30 inches, and bearing a small triangular 
 grain of a brownish-black without and 
 white within. The shape of its seeds 
 gives it its German name Buchweizen, 
 “beech-wheat,” whence the English 
 name. The plant was first brought to 
 Europe from Asia by the Crusaders, 
 and hence in France is often called 
 Saracen corn. It glows on the poorest 
 
 soils. It is cultivated in China and other 
 Eastern countries as a bread-corn. In 
 Europe buckwheat has been principally 
 cultivated as food for oxen, swine, and 
 poultry; but in Germany it serves as an 
 ingredient in pottage, puddings, and 
 other food, and in America buckwheat 
 cakes are common. 
 
 BUD, the name of bodies of various 
 form and structure, which develop upon 
 vegetables, and contain the rudiments 
 of future organs, as stems, branches, 
 leaves, and organs of fructification. 
 Upon exogenous plants they are in their 
 commencement cellular prolongations 
 from the medullary rays, which force 
 their way through the bark. In general 
 a single bud is developed each year in 
 the axil of each leaf, and there is one 
 terminating the branch called a terminal 
 bud. The life of the plant during wunter 
 is stored up in the bud as in an embryo, 
 and it is by its vital action that on the 
 return of spring the flow of sap from 
 the roots is stimulated to renewed 
 activity. Buds are distinguished into 
 leaf-buds and flower-buds. The latter 
 are produced in the axil of leaves called 
 floral leaves or bracts. The termina, 
 bud of a branch is usually a flower-bud, 
 and as cultivation is capable of produc- 
 ing flower-buds in place of leaf-budsl 
 the one is probably a modification of the 
 other. 
 
 BUDAPEST (-pesht'), the official name 
 of the united towns of Pest and Buda or 
 Ofen, the one on the left, the other on 
 the right, of the Danube, forming the 
 capital of Hungary, the seat of the im- 
 perial diet of the Hungarian ministry 
 and of the supreme court of justice. 
 Buda, which is the smaller of the two, 
 and lies on the west bank of the river, 
 consists of the fortified Upper Town on 
 a hill, the Lower Town or Wasserstadt 
 at the foot of the hill, and several other 
 districts. The mineral baths of Buda 
 have long been famous, the Bruckbad 
 and Kaiserbad having both been used 
 by the Romans. Pest, or the portion of 
 Budapest on the left or east bank of the 
 river, is formed by the inner town of 
 Old Pest on the Danube, about which 
 has grown a semicircle of districts — 
 Leopoldstadt, Theresienstadt, Eliza- 
 bethstadt, etc. There is a well-attended 
 university. In commerce and industry 
 Budapest ranks next to Vienna in the 
 empire. Its chief manufactures are 
 machinery, gold, silver, copper, and 
 iron wares, chemicals, silk, leather, 
 tobacco, etc. A large trade is done in 
 grain, wine, wool, cattle, etc. Budapest 
 is strongly Magyar, and as a factor in 
 the national life may almost be regarded 
 as equivalent to the rest of Hungary. 
 It was not until 1799 that the population 
 of Pest began to outdistance that of 
 Buda; but from that date its growth 
 was very rapid and out of all proportion 
 to the increase of Buda. In 1799 the 
 joint population of the two towns was 
 little more than 50,000; in 1900 it was 
 713,383. 
 
 BUDA'UN, a town of India, United 
 Provinces, consisting of an old and a 
 new town, the former partly surrounded 
 by ancient ramparts; there is a hand- 
 some mosque, American mission, etc. 
 Pop. 39,031. The district of Budaur 
 
BUDDHA 
 
 BUENOS AYRES 
 
 has an area of 2017 sq. miles, and a pop. 
 of 925,598. 
 
 BUDDHA (bud'ha), the sacred name 
 of the founder of Buddhism, an Indian 
 sage who appears to have lived in the 
 5th century n.c. His personal name 
 was Siddhartha, and his family name 
 Gautama; and he is often called also 
 Sakya-muni. His father was King of 
 Kapilavastu, a few days’ journey north 
 of Benares. Siddhartha, filled with a 
 deep compassion for the human, race, 
 left his father’s court, and lived for 
 years in solitude till he had penetrated 
 the mysteries of life, and become the 
 Buddha. He then began to teach his 
 new faith, in opposition to the prevail- 
 ing Brahmanism, commencing at Ben- 
 ares. Among his earliest converts were 
 the monarchs of Magadha and Kosala, 
 in whose kingdoms he chiefly passed the 
 latter portion of his life, respected, 
 honored, and protected. See Buddhism. 
 
 BUDDHISM, the religious system 
 founded by Buddha, one of the most 
 prominent doctrines of which is that 
 NirvS.na, or an absolute release from 
 existence, is the chief good. According 
 to it pain is inseparable from existence, 
 and consequently pain can cease only 
 through Nirv5,na; and in order to attain 
 Nirv&na our desires and passions must 
 be suppressed, the most extreme self- 
 renunciation practiced, and we must, as 
 far as possible, forget our own person- 
 ality. In order to attain Nirvana eight 
 conditions must be kept or practiced. 
 The first is in Buddhistic language right 
 view; the second is right judgment; the 
 third is right language; the fourth is 
 right purpose; the fifth is right profes- 
 sion; the sixth is right application; the 
 seventh is right memory; the eight is 
 right meditation. The five fundamental 
 precepts of the Buddhist moral code are ; 
 not to kill, not to steal, not to commit 
 adultery, not to lie, and not to give way 
 to drunkenness. To these there are 
 added five others of less importance, and 
 binding more particularly on the relig- 
 ious class, such as to abstain from re- 
 pasts taken out of season, from theatri- 
 cal representations, etc. There are six 
 fundamental virtues to be practiced 
 by all men alike, viz., charity, purity, 
 
 Buddha— From a Burmese bron ze 
 
 patience, courage, contemplation, and 
 knowledge. These are the virtues that 
 are said to “conduct a man to the other 
 shore.” The devotee who strictly prac- 
 tices them has not yet attained Nirvana, 
 but is on the road to it. The Buddhist 
 
 virtue of charity is universal in its 
 application, extending to all creatures, 
 and demanding sometimes the greatest 
 self-denial and sacrifice. There is a leg- 
 end that the Buddha in one of his stages 
 of existence (for he had passed through 
 
 Singhalese Buddhist priests and dagobah at 
 Kandy. 
 
 innumerable transmigrations before be- 
 coming “the enlightened”) gave him- 
 self up to be devoured by a famishing 
 lioness which was unable to suckle her 
 young ones. There are other virtues 
 less important, indeed, than the six car- 
 dinal ones, but still binding on believers. 
 Thus not only is lying forbidden, but 
 evil-speaking, coarseness of language, 
 and even vain and frivolous talk, must 
 be avoided. Buddhist metaphysics are 
 comprised in three theories — the theory 
 of transmigration (borrowed from Brah- 
 manism), the theory of the mutual con- 
 nection of causes, and the theory of 
 Nirv&,na. The first requires no explana- 
 tion. According to the second, life is the 
 result of twelve conditions, which are by 
 turns causes and effects. Thus there 
 would be no death were it not for birth'; 
 it is therefore the effect of which birth 
 is the cause. Again, there would be no 
 birth were there not a continuation of 
 existence. Existence has for its cause 
 our attachment to things, which again 
 has its origin in desire; and so on 
 through sensation, contact, the organs 
 of sensation and the heart, name and 
 form, ideas, etc., up to ignorance. This 
 ignorance, however, is not ordinary 
 ignorance, but the fundamental error 
 wliich causes us to attribute permanence 
 and reality to tilings. This, then, is the 
 primary origin of existence and all its 
 attendant evils. Nirvana or extinction is 
 eternal salvation from the evils of exist- 
 ence, and the end which every Buddhist 
 is supposed to seek. Sakya-muni did not 
 leave his doctrines in writing; he de- 
 clared them orally, and they were care- 
 fully treasured up by his disciples, and 
 written down after his death. The de- 
 termination of the canon of the Buddhist 
 scriptures as we now possess them 'vs'as 
 the work of three successive councils, 
 and was finished two centuries at least 
 
 before Christ. From Buddhism involv- 
 ing a protest against caste distinctions 
 it was eagerly adopted by the Dasyus or 
 non-Aryan inhabitants of Hindustan. 
 It was pure, moral, and humane in its 
 origin, but it came subsequently to be 
 mixed up with idolatrous worship of its 
 founder and other deities. Although 
 now long banished from Hindustan by 
 the persucutions of the Brahmans, 
 Buddhism prevails in Ceylon, Burmali, 
 Siam, Anam, Tibet, Mongolia, China, 
 Java, and Japan, and its adherents are 
 said to comprise about a third of the 
 human race. 
 
 BUDDING, the art of multiplying 
 plants by causing the leaf-bud of one 
 species or variety to grow upon the 
 branch of another. The operation con- 
 sists in shaving off a leaf-bud, with a 
 portion of the wood beneath it, which 
 portion is afterward removed by a 
 sudden jerk of the operator’s finger and 
 thumb, aided by the budding-knife. An 
 incision in the bark of the stock is then 
 made in the form of a T; the two side 
 lips are pushed aside, the bud is thrust 
 between the bark and the wood, the 
 upper end of its bark is cut to a level 
 with the cross arm of the T, and the 
 whole is bound up with worsted or other 
 soft fastening, the point of the bud being 
 left exposed. In performing the opera- 
 tion, a knife with a thin flat handle and 
 a blade with a peculiar edge is required. 
 The bud must be fully formed; the bark 
 of the stock must separate readily from 
 the wood below it ; and young branches 
 should always be chosen, as having be- 
 neath the bark the largest quantity of 
 cambium or viscid matter out of which 
 tissue is formed. The maturer shoots 
 of the 3’'ear in which the operation is 
 performed are the best. The autumn 
 is the best time for budding, though 
 it may also be practiced in the spring. 
 
 BUELL, Don Carlos, an American 
 soldier, born in Ohio in 1818, died in 
 1898. He was graduated at West Point, 
 fought in the Mexican 'W'ar, and was 
 brigadier-general of the Union forces 
 
 D. C. Buell. 
 
 (volunteer) at the beginning of the civil 
 war, and later brigadier-general. He 
 took part in several of the great battles 
 of the civil war, and was subsequently 
 appointed pension agent. 
 
 BUENOS AYRES (by-en'6s i'ras), a 
 city of S. America, capital of the Argen- 
 tine Republic, on the s.w. side of the 
 La Plata, 150 miles from its mouth. 
 It was founded in 1535 by Don Pedro de 
 Mendoza, and is built with great regu- 
 larity, the streets uniformly crossing 
 each other at right angles. It contains 
 the palace of the president, the house of 
 
BUFFALO 
 
 BUILDING ACTS 
 
 representatives, a town*hall, a number 
 of hospitals and asylums, a cathedral, 
 several monasteries, nunneries, and 
 Catholic and Protestant churches; 
 several theaters, a university, and a 
 custom-house. The university, founded 
 in 1821, is attended by about 800 stu- 
 dents. There are also a medical school, 
 normal and other schools, besides 
 literary and scientific societies. For- 
 merly large vessels could only come 
 within 8 or 9 miles of the town, but 
 they can now come up to it and enter 
 the extensive docks that have been con- 
 structed, about $25,000,000 having been 
 spent on harbor works and channels. 
 La Plata (capital of the province), 30 
 mil es lower down the estuary, serves as 
 a subport. Buenos Ayres is one of the 
 leading commercial centers of S. Amer- 
 ica. Chief exports are wool, wheat, 
 maize, meat, hides and skins, tallow, 
 etc. There are six railways running 
 from the city, and 100 miles of tram- 
 way in the city and suburbs. About 
 one -fourth of the inhabitants are 
 whites; the rest are of mixed blood 
 or Indians, negroes, etc. Pop. in 1900, 
 795,323. — The province of Buenos Ayres 
 has an area of 177,777 sq. miles, and 
 consists mostly of level or slightly un- 
 dulating plains (pampas), which afford 
 pasture to vast numbers of cattle, 
 sheep, and horses. Pop. 1,140,067. 
 
 BUF'FALO, an ungulate or hoofed 
 ruminant mammal, family Bovidse or 
 oxen, the best-known species of which is 
 the common or Indian buffalo, larger 
 than the ox and with stouter limbs, origi- 
 
 1 , Head of Cape bullalo. 
 
 2 , Head oi Indian buffalo. 
 
 nally from India, but now found in most 
 of the warmer countries of the Eastern 
 Continent. A full-grown male is a bold 
 and powerful animal, quite a match for 
 the tiger. The buffalo is less docile than 
 the common ox, and is fond of marshy 
 places and rivers. It is, however, used 
 in tillage, draft, and carriage in India, 
 Italy, etc. The female gives much more 
 milk than the cow, and from the milk 
 the ghee or clarified butter of India is 
 made. The hide is exceedingly tough, 
 and a valuable leather is prepared from 
 it, but the flesh is not very highly 
 esteemed. Another Indian species is the 
 arnee, the largest of the ox family. The 
 Cape buffalo is distinguished by the size 
 of its horns, which are united at their 
 bases, forming a great bony mass on the 
 front of the head. It attains a greater 
 size than an ordinary ox. The name is 
 also applied to wild oxen in general, and 
 particularly to the bison of N. America. 
 See Bison. 
 
 BUFFALO, a city of the state of New 
 York, situated on Lake Erie, and by 
 virtue of its position one of the principal 
 ports of the country. It is 400 miles 
 from New York, 500 miles from Chicago, 
 and only 20 miles from Niagara Falls. 
 Its population in 1908 was 400,000. 
 The city has an area of 42 square miles. 
 
 Buffalo is one of the most marked of 
 large American cities in its recent de- 
 velopment, and owes its prosperity to 
 commerce. Several great steamship 
 lines and innumerable independent ves- 
 sels ply to the chief ports on the Great 
 Lakes, and there are several ferries to 
 the Canada side, besides the Inter- 
 national Bridge, completed at a cost of 
 $1,500,000. The city is connected with 
 the tide-waters of the Hudson by the 
 Erie Canal, and with ports on Lake 
 Ontario and the Saint Lawrence river 
 by the Welland Canal, and is also the 
 terminus or connecting-point of a score 
 of railroads, the commerce of Buffalo 
 by these various means of transpor- 
 tation is very great. With a season 
 of only about 2^46 days in the year, 
 Buffalo ranks with the leading Amer- 
 ican and European ports in extent of 
 traffic. The immense quantity of flour 
 and grain moved from the Western 
 States to the seaboard constitutes the 
 most important feature of its commerce; 
 but live stock, lumber, and coal, iron 
 ore, and fish, also, are of importance. 
 Some part of the lumber and iron ore 
 which arrive at this end of Lake Erie is 
 received at Tonawanda, a suburb to 
 the north, on Niagara river, but Buf- 
 falo receives large quantities of each. 
 Over 15,000,000 pounds of fish are 
 received annually, mainly from Georgian 
 Bay, and are distributed as far east as 
 Boston and as far west as Denver. The 
 horse market and sheep market of 
 Buffalo are the largest in the U. States, 
 and in the trade in cattle and hogs 
 Buffalo is among the leading American 
 cities. In the production of foundry and 
 machine-shop products, including stoves, 
 nails, etc., and agricultural implements, 
 the city ranks among the foremost. 
 Other industries are slaughtering and 
 meat-packing, refining petroleum, and 
 ship-building; clothing, flouring- and 
 grist-mill products, brick, stone, lime, 
 and stucco, malt and distilled liquors, 
 soap and candles, starch, furniture, and 
 tobacco and cigars, are extensively 
 produced. 
 
 BUFFALO-GRASS, a strong-growing 
 N. American grass, so called from form- 
 ing a large part of the food of the buffalo, 
 and said to have excellent fattening 
 properties. 
 
 BUFFER, any apparatus for deaden- 
 ing the concussion between a moving 
 body and the one on which it strikes. 
 In railway-carriages they are placed in 
 pairs at each end, and are fastened by 
 rods to springs under the frame-work 
 to deaden the concussions caused when 
 the velocity of part of the train is 
 checked. 
 
 BUFFET, a cupboard, sideboard, or 
 closet to hold china, crystal, plate, and 
 the like. The word is also very com- 
 monly applied to the space set apart for 
 refreshments in public places. 
 
 BUFF LEATHER, a sort of leather 
 prepared from the skin of the buffalo 
 and other kinds of oxen, dressed with 
 oil, like shammy. It is used for making 
 bandoliers, belts, pouches, gloves, and 
 other articles. 
 
 BUFF ON (bu-fon), George Louis 
 Leclerc, Count de, celebrated French 
 naturalist, was born at Montbard, in 
 Burgundy, 1707; died in Paris 1788. 
 In 1739 he was appointed superintend- 
 ent of the Royal Garden at Paris (now 
 the Jardin des Plantes), and devoted 
 himself to the great work on Natural 
 History, which occupied the most of his 
 life. It is now obsolete and of small 
 scientific value, but it for long had an 
 extraordinary popularity, and was the 
 means of diffusing a taste for the study 
 of nature throughout Europe. After an 
 assiduous labor of ten years the three 
 first volumes were published, and be- 
 tween 1749 and 1767 twelve others, 
 which comprehend the theory of the 
 earth, the nature of animals, and the 
 history of man and the Mammalia. In 
 these Buffon was assised by Daubenton 
 in the purely anatomical portions. 
 Buffon was raised to the rank of count 
 by Louis XV., whose favor, as also that 
 of Louis XVI., he enjoyed. His works 
 were translated into almost every Euro- 
 pean language. 
 
 BUFFOON', a merry-andrew, a clown, 
 a jester. 
 
 BUFORD, John, an American soldier, 
 born in Kentucky in 1826, died in 1863. 
 He was graduated at West Point, fought 
 in the Indian wars, and was a brigadier- 
 general in the Union army during the 
 civil war. He was one of the most 
 brilliant of the minor generals in Ameri- 
 can history. 
 
 BUG, a name given to the house-bug 
 or bedbug, or any member of this genus 
 or of the family Cimicidse. The com- 
 mon bug is about inch long, wingless, 
 of a roundish depressed body, dirty 
 rust color, and emits an offensive smell 
 when touched. The female lays her 
 eggs in summer in the crevices of bed- 
 steads, furniture, and walls of rooms. 
 Its larvse are small, white, and semi- 
 transparent. They attain full size in 
 eleven weeks. The mouth of the bug 
 has a three-jointed proboscis, which 
 forms a sheath for a sucker. It is fond 
 of human blood, but eats various other 
 substances. 
 
 BUGGY, a name given to several 
 species of carriages or gigs: in England, 
 a light one-horse two-wheeled vehicle 
 without a hood; in the U. States, a 
 light one-horse four-wheeled vehicle, 
 with or without a hood or top ; in India, 
 a gig with a large hood to screen those 
 who travel in it from the sun’s rays. 
 
 BU'GLE, a military musical brass 
 wind-instrument of the horn kind, 
 sometimes furnished with keys or valves. 
 It is used in the American and other 
 armies to sound signal-calls. The name 
 is an abbreviation of bugle-horn, that 
 is, buffalo-horn. 
 
 BUGLE, a shiny elongated glass bead, 
 usually black, used in decorating female 
 apparel and also in trafficking with 
 sav^e tribes. 
 
 BUILDING ACTS, laws restricting the 
 rights of land owners in the matter of 
 improving their land with buildings. 
 
 P. K.— 13 
 
BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS 
 
 BULLDOG 
 
 They generally have to do with the ' 
 height, stability, material, sanitation, 
 etc., of proposed structures. 
 
 BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIA- 
 TIONS, societies the purpose of which 
 is to encourage and assist individuals 
 in buying, building, and paying for a 
 home. They were in existence in Eng- 
 land as early as 1781, but were first 
 introduced in the U. States in 1831. 
 
 Five states, New York, Massachu- 
 setts, New Jersey, Ohio, and Illinois, 
 require these associations to make 
 annual returns, the same as is required 
 of savings banks. In all the other states 
 no control whatsoever is exercised over 
 them. 
 
 BUILDING LOANS, loans made to 
 owners of land who desire to build upon 
 the land. They are usually secured by a 
 mortgage on the whole property. 
 
 BUILDING STONE, stone used in the 
 construction of buildings of any kind, 
 of bridges, walls, or other structures in 
 which stone can be used. The principal 
 building stones are granite, limestones 
 of various kinds, marbles, sandstones, 
 and slate. Granite is the most enduring 
 of stones, as it is not so easily affected by 
 weather. The granite quarries of the 
 U. States are practically inexhaustible, 
 and the natural resources of the country 
 in respect to the other stones used for 
 building are unsurpassed in the world. 
 
 BUKAREST', the capital of Rou- 
 mania, situated on the Dimbovitza 
 about 33 miles north of the Danube, in 
 a fertile plain. It is in general poorly 
 built, among the chief buildings being 
 
 A Street in Bukarest. 
 
 the royal palace, the National Theater, 
 the university buildings, the National 
 Bank, the Mint, and the Archiepiscopal 
 Church. There are handsome public 
 gardens. Manufactures are varied but 
 unimportant; the trade is considerable, 
 the chief articles being grain, wool, 
 honey, wax, wine, hides. The mercan- 
 tile portion of the community is mostly 
 foreign, and the whole population pre- 
 sents a curious blending of nationalities. 
 Bukarest became the capital of Wala- 
 chia in 1665, in 1862 that of the united 
 principalities of Walachia and Moldavia. 
 
 treaty was concluded here in 1812 
 between Turkey and Russia by which 
 ihe former ceded Bessarabia and part 
 of Moldavia: Pop. 282,071. 
 
 BUKOWINA (bd-ko-ve'na), an Aus- 
 trian duchy, forming the southeastern 
 coTner of Galicia. Area, 4035 sq. miles; 
 pop. 571,671. It is traversed by ramifi- 
 
 cations of the Carpathians, and much of 
 the surface is occupied with swamps and 
 forests. Chief town, Czernowitz. 
 
 BULANDSHAHR (bu-land-shar'), a 
 district of India, United Provinces, in 
 the alluvial plain between the Ganges 
 and the Jumna; producing cotton, in- 
 digo, sugar, etc. Area, 1911 sq. miles; 
 pop. 949,914. — Bulandshahr, the capital, 
 has a pop. of 16,900. 
 
 BULB, a modified leaf-bud, formed on 
 a plant upon or beneath the surface of 
 the ground, emitting roots from its base, 
 and producing a stem from its center. 
 It is formed of imbricated scales or of 
 concentric coats or layers. It incloses 
 the rudiments of the future plant and 
 a store of food to nourish it. Examples 
 of bulbs are the onion, lily, hyacinth, 
 etc. 
 
 BULGA'RIA, a principality tributary 
 to Turkey, constituted by the first 
 article of the Treaty of Berlin, July 13, 
 1878, and placed under the suzerainty 
 of the sultan. It is bounded north by 
 Roumania and the Dobrudsha, east by 
 the Black Sea, south by the Balkan 
 Mountains, which separate it from 
 Eastern Rumelia, and west by Servia. 
 The principal towns are Widdin, Sofia, 
 Plevna, Sistova, Tirnova, Rustchuk, 
 Shumla, Varna, and Silistria. The 
 country almost wholly belongs to the 
 north slope of the Balkans, and is inter- 
 sected by streams flowing from that 
 range to the Danube. It possesses 
 much good agricultural land and a good 
 climate; but cultivation is backward, 
 though the rearing of cattle and horses 
 is successfully carried on. Agricultural 
 produce is exported, manufactured goods 
 imported. Education is backward, but 
 is improving; four years’ school attend- 
 ance is obligatory in principle. The 
 prevalent religion is that of the Greek 
 Church. The revenue and expenditure 
 are each about $20,000,000. Military 
 service is obligatory; the war strength 
 of the army is about 130,000. In accord- 
 ance with the Treaty of Berlin a consti- 
 tution was drawn up by an assembly of 
 Bulgarian notables in 1879 By this 
 constitution, as subsequently amended, 
 the legislative authority is vested in a 
 single chamber, called the Sobranje or 
 National Assembly, elected by man- 
 hood suffrage for five years, the mem- 
 bers being now one for every 20,000 of 
 the population. The capital is Sofia, 
 On the 29th of April, 1879, Prince Alex- 
 ander of Battenberg, cousin of the 
 Grand-duke of Hesse, was elected prince 
 by unanimous vote of the constituent 
 assembly. In 1885 a national rising took 
 place in Eastern Rumelia, the Turkish 
 governor was expelled, and union with 
 Bulgaria proclaimed. In consequence 
 Servia demanded an addition to her 
 own territory, and began a war against 
 Bulgaria (Nov., 1885), in which she was 
 severely defeated. By the treaty which 
 followed, the Prince of Bulgaria was ap- 
 pointed governor-general of Eastern 
 Rumelia for a term of five years, to be 
 renominated at the end of that time by 
 sanction of the great powers. These 
 events greatly irritated Russia, whose 
 agents managed to seduce certain regi- 
 ments of Bulgarians; and in August, 
 1 886, the prince was seized and carried 
 
 off, while a proclamation was issued to 
 the effect that he had abdicated. When 
 he was set free on Austrian territory he 
 discovered that the people were still 
 with him, and determined to return. 
 Seeing, however, that his presence 
 would cause an immediate interference 
 on the part of Russia *he formally ab- 
 dicated and left the country (7th Sep., 
 1886). In 1887 Prince Ferdinand of 
 Saxe-Coburg accepted an invitation to 
 occupy the throne and the six great 
 powers sanctioned the step. In 1908 Bul- 
 garia proclaimed its independence. The 
 area of Bulgaria proper is 24,440 sq. 
 miles of Eastern Rumelia or southern 
 Bulgaria, 13,500 sq. miles. The total 
 pop. is 3,733,189. 
 
 BULGARIANS, a race of Finnish 
 origin, whose original seat was the banks 
 of the Volga, and who subdued the old 
 Mcpsian population and established a 
 kingdom in the present Bulgaria in the 
 7th century. They soon became blended 
 with the conquered Slavs, whose lan- 
 guage they adopted. In the 14th century 
 the country was conquered by the Turks, 
 and has until lately remained part of 
 the Ottoman Empire, (See Bulgaria ) 
 The Bulgarian language is divided into 
 two dialects, the old and the new; the 
 former is the richest and best of the 
 Slavonic tongues, and although extinct 
 as a living tongue is still used as the 
 sacred language of the Greek Church. 
 The Bulgarians are now spread over 
 many parts of the Balkan peninsula. 
 
 BULK-HEADS, partitions built be- 
 tween the several portions of the in- 
 terior of a ship, whether to separate it 
 into rooms, or as a safeguard in case of 
 wreck. 
 
 BULL, a letter, edict, or rescript of 
 the pope, published or transmitted to 
 the churches over which he is head, con- 
 taining some decree, order, or decision, 
 and in many cases having a leaden seal 
 attached, impressed on one side with 
 the heads of St. Peter and St. Paul, on 
 the other with the name of the pope. 
 The document is in Latin and on parch- 
 ment. 
 
 BULL, the name given to the male 
 of any bovine quadruped. 
 
 BULL, John, the English nation per- 
 sonified, and hence any typical English- 
 man: first used in Arbuthnot’s satire. 
 The History of John Bull, designed to 
 ridicule the Duke of Marlborough; and 
 in which the French are personified as 
 Lewis Baboon, the Dutch as Nicholas 
 Frog, etc. 
 
 BULL, Ole Bornemann, famous vio- 
 linist, born at Bergen, in Norway, 1810; 
 died 1880. He secured great triumphs 
 both throughout Europe and in America 
 by his wonderful playing. 
 
 BULL-BAITING, the barbarous sport 
 of setting dogs on a bull, which is tied to 
 a stake and worried by the dogs for the 
 amusement of the spectators. It was a 
 favorite sport in England from a very 
 early period till it was finally put down 
 by act of parliament in 1835. 
 
 BULLDOG, a variety of the common 
 dog, remarkable for its short, broad 
 muzzle, and the projection of its lower 
 jaw, which causes the lower front teeth 
 to protrude beyond the upper. The 
 head is massive and broad : the lips are 
 
BULLE^^ 
 
 BUMPUS 
 
 thick and pendulous; the ears pendent 
 at the extremity; the neck robu:t and 
 short; the body long and stout; and 
 the legs short and thick. The bulldog 
 is a slow-motioned, ferocious animal, 
 better suited for savage combat than 
 for any purpose requiring activity and 
 intelligence. For this reason he is often 
 employed as a watch-dog. It was for- 
 merly used — as its name implies — for the 
 barbarous sport of bull-baiting. — The 
 bull terrier was originally from a cross 
 between the bulldog and the terrier. 
 It is smaller than the bulldog, lively, 
 docile, and very courageous. 
 
 BULLEN, Anne. See Boleyn. 
 
 BULLER, Sir Henry Redvers, a 
 British soldier, born in 1839, commander 
 of the army in South Africa during 
 the early part of the Anglo-Boer war in 
 1898. His command was marked by 
 numerous disasters and defeats, and 
 his military reputation totally annihi- 
 lated. He was soon afterward retired 
 from the service. Died in 1908. 
 
 BU’^ LET (byl'et), a projectile in- 
 tended to be discharged from firearms 
 or other missile weapons; more espe- 
 cially, one for a rifle, musket, fowling- 
 piece, pistol, or similar firearm. Bullets 
 used to be solid spherical masses, but of 
 late many changes have been made in 
 their shape and structure. Bullets used 
 for rifles of recent construction are elon- 
 gated and generally rounded, conical, or 
 ogival at the apex, somewhat like half 
 a.n egg drawn out, often with a hollow 
 at the base, into which a plug of wood 
 or clay is inserted. When the rifle is 
 fired the plug is driven forward, forcing 
 the base of the bullet outward till the 
 lead catches the grooves of the barrel. 
 
 BULLETIN (byl'e-tin), an authen- 
 ticated official report concerning some 
 public event, such as military operations, 
 the health of the sovereign or other dis- 
 tinguished personage, issued for the 
 information of the public. The name 
 is also given to some periodical publi- 
 cations recording the proceedings of 
 learned societies. 
 
 BULLET-TREE, or BULLY-TREE, a 
 
 forest tree of Guiana and neighboring 
 regions yielding an excellent gum (the 
 concreted milky juice) known as balata, 
 having properties giving it in some re- 
 spects an intermediate position between 
 gutta-percha and india-rubber, and 
 making it for certain industrial purposes 
 more useful than either. In the U. 
 States it is used as a chewing material. 
 The timber of the tree is also valuable. 
 
 BULL-FIGHTS are among the favorite 
 diversions of the Spaniards. They are 
 usually held in an amphitheater having 
 circular seats rising one above another, 
 and are attended by vast crowds who 
 eagerly pay for admission. Thie com 
 batants, who make bull-fighting their 
 profession, march into the arena in pro- 
 cession. They are of various kinds — 
 the picadores, combatants on horseback, 
 in the old Spanish knightly garb; the 
 chulos or banderilleros, combatants on 
 foot, in gay dresses, with colored cloaks 
 or banners; and lastly, the matador 
 (the killer). As soon as the signal is 
 given the bull is let into the arena. The 
 picadores, who have stationed them- 
 selves near him, commence the attack 
 
 with their lances, and the bull is thus 
 goaded to fury. Sometimes a horse is 
 wounded or killed (only old worthless 
 animals are thus employed), and the 
 rid^ r is obliged to run for his life. The 
 chulos assist the hor.semen by drawing 
 the attention of the bull with their 
 cloaks; and in case of danger they save 
 themselves by leaping over the wooden 
 fence which surrounds the arena. The 
 banderilleros then come into play. 
 They try to fasten on the bull their 
 banderillas — barbed darts ornamented 
 with colored paper, and often having 
 squibs or crackers attached. If they 
 succeed, the squibs are discharged, and 
 the bull races madly about the arena. 
 The matador or espada now comes in 
 gravely with a naked sword, and a red 
 flag to decoy the bull with, and aims a 
 fatal blow at the animal. The slaughter- 
 ed bull is dragged away, and another is 
 let out from the stall. Several bulls are 
 so disposed of in a single day. 
 
 BULLFINCH, an insessorial bird, with 
 short thick rounded bill, beak and crown 
 of the head black, body bluish-gray 
 above and bright tile-red below. It 
 
 Bullfinch. 
 
 occurs in Britain, in the middle and 
 south of Europe, and in Asia, and when 
 tamed may be taught to sing musical 
 airs. 
 
 BULLFROG, a large species of frog 
 found in North America, 8 to 12 inches 
 long, of a dusky-brown color mixed 
 with a yellowish green, and spotted with 
 black. These frogs live in stagnant 
 water, and utter a low croaking sound 
 resembling the lowing of cattle, whence 
 the name. 
 
 BULLHEAD, the popular name of 
 certain fishes. One of these, a British 
 fish, is about 4 inches long, with head 
 very large and broader than the body. 
 The armed bull-head is found in the 
 Baltic and northern seas ; the six-horned 
 bull-head is a North American species. 
 In America this name is called also Cat- 
 fish and Horned-pout. 
 
 BUL'LION is uncoined gold or silver, 
 in bars, plate, or other masses, but the 
 term is frequently employed to signify 
 the precious metals coined and uncoined. 
 
 BULL RUN, a stream in the n.e of 
 Virginia, flowing into the Occoquan river, 
 14 miles from the Potomac; the scene 
 of two great battles during the American 
 civil war in which the Federals were de- 
 feated. The first battle was fought 21st 
 July, 1861'; and the second on 30th 
 August, 1862. 
 
 BULLS AND BEARS, in stock-ex- 
 change slang, manipulators of stocks; 
 the former operating in order to effect a 
 rise in price, the latter doing all they can 
 to bring prices of stock down. 
 
 BULL’S-EYE, (1) a round piece of 
 thick glass, convex on one side, inserted 
 into the decks, ports, scuttle-hatches, 
 or skylight-covers of a vessel for the 
 purpose of admitting light. (2)' A small 
 lantern with a lens in one side of it to 
 concentrate the light in any desired 
 direction. (3) In rifle shooting, the 
 center of a target, of a differerent color 
 from the rest of it and usually round. 
 
 BULOW (bu'lc), Friedrich Wilhelm 
 von, Prussian general, born 175.5, died 
 1816. He was actively engaged against 
 the French at the earliest periods of the 
 revolutionary war; and his services in 
 1813 and 1814, especially at Grosbeeren 
 and Dennewitz, were rewarded with a 
 Grand Knightship of the Iron Cross and 
 the title Count Billow von Dennewitz. 
 As commander of the fourth division of 
 the allied army he contributed to the 
 victorious close of the battle of Waterloo. 
 
 BULOW (bii'lo), Hans Guido von, 
 pianist and composer, born at Dresden 
 1830. He studied the piano under Liszt, 
 and made his first public appearance in 
 1852. In 1855 he became leading pro- 
 fessor in the Conservatory at Berlin ; in 
 1858 was appointed court pianist; and 
 in 1867 he became musical director to 
 the King of Bavaria. His compositions 
 include overture and music to Julius 
 Caesar, The Minstrel’s Curse, and Nir- 
 wana; songs, choruses, and pianoforte 
 pieces. He was considered one of the 
 first of pianists and orchestral conduct- 
 ors. He died in 1894. 
 
 BULOZ (bii-loz), Fran 5 ois, born near 
 Geneva, Switzerland, 1803, died at Paris 
 1877; founder and editor of the Revue 
 des Deux Mondes, the celebrated French 
 fortnightly literary magazine. 
 
 BULRUSH (buF-), the popular name 
 for large rush-like plants growing in 
 marshes, not very definitely applied. 
 Some authors apply the name to cat’s- 
 tail or reed-mace. But it is more gener- 
 ally restricted to a tall rush-like plant 
 from which the bottoms of chairs, mats, 
 etc., are manufactured. 
 
 BULWER (bill'-). Sir Henry Lytton, 
 Lord Dalling and Bulwer, diplomatist 
 and author, elder brother of Lord 
 Lytton, born 1804, died 1872. He was 
 attached to the British embas.sies at 
 Berlin, Brussels, and the Hague from 
 1827 to 1830, when he entered parlia- 
 ment. In 1837 he was sent as secretary 
 of legation to Constantinople; subse- 
 quently he was minister at Madrid and 
 Washington; and he succeeded Lord 
 Stratford de Redcliffe as ambassador 
 at the Porte (1858-6.5). He wrote, 
 among others, France, Social, Literary, 
 and Political; Life of Byron, Life of 
 Palmerston, and Historical Characters. 
 He was raised to the peerage in 1871. 
 
 BULWER LYTTON. See Lytton, 
 Lord. 
 
 BUM-BOAT, a small boat used to sell 
 vegetables, etc., to ships lying at a dis- 
 tance from shore. 
 
 BUMPUS, Herman Carey, an Ameri- 
 can anatomist and zoologist, born in 
 Maine in 1862. He is director of the 
 
BUNCE 
 
 BUOY 
 
 biological laboratory at Am. Mus. Nat- 
 ural History, New York. 
 
 BUNCE, Francis Marvin, an American 
 admiral, born in Connecticut in 1836. 
 He was graduated at Annapolis in 1857, 
 was wounded at the siege of Charleston 
 in 1863, and was commander of the 
 monitor Monadnock from Philadelphia 
 to San Francisco in 1865. In 1898 he 
 was retired with the rank of rear ad- 
 miral. 
 
 BUNCO, a word used to designate a 
 species of swindling practiced by city 
 sharpers on strangers. The stranger is 
 led to believe that the “bunco man” is 
 acquainted with people of influence in 
 the stranger’s locality, and in one way 
 or another is then fleeced of money. 
 
 BUNCOMBE, BUNKUM, a county in 
 South Carolina; area, 450 sq. miles; 
 pop. 21,910. The term Bunkum, mean- 
 ing talking for talking’s sake, bombastic 
 speech-making, is said to have originated 
 with a congressional member for this 
 county, who declared that he was only 
 talking for Buncombe, when attempts 
 were made to cut his oratory short. 
 
 BUNDELCUND, a tract of country 
 in Upper India lying between the river 
 Jumna on the n., and the Chambal on 
 the n. and w.; area, 20,658 sq. miles; 
 pop. 3,779,627. It comprises the British 
 districts of Hamirpur, Jalaun, Jhansi, 
 Lalitpur, and Banda, and tliirty-one 
 native states. 
 
 BUNDESRATH (bun'des-rat), the 
 German federal council which represents 
 the individual states of the empire, as 
 the Reichstag represents the German 
 nation. It consists of sixty-two dele- 
 gates, and its functions are mainly those 
 of a confirming body, although it has 
 the privilege of rejecting measures 
 passed by the Reichstag. 
 
 BUN'GALOW, in India, a house or 
 residence, generally of a single floor. 
 Native bungalows are constructed of 
 wood, bamboos, etc.; but those erected 
 
 Bungalow on Penang hills. 
 
 by Europeans are generally built of 
 sun-dried bricks, and thatched or tiled, 
 and are of all styles and sizes, but in- 
 variably surrounded by a veranda. 
 
 BUNTON, an enlargement and in- 
 flammation of the joint of the great toe 
 arising from irritation of the small mem- 
 branous sac called bursa mucosa. 
 
 BUNK, a wooden box or case serving 
 as a seat during the day and a bed at 
 night; also one of a series of sleeping 
 berths arranged above each other. 
 
 BUNKER HILL, a small eminence in 
 Charlestown, now a part of Boston, 
 Mass. ; scene of the first important battle 
 in the revolutionary war, fought June 
 17, 1775. A considerable body of Amer- 
 icans having been sent to occupy 
 
 the peninsula on which Charlestown 
 stands, a British force was sent to dis- 
 lodge them. This Tvas not effected till 
 after three assaults on their intrenched 
 position, with a loss of 1000 men, while 
 the Americans did not lose half that 
 number. 
 
 BUNKUM. See Buncombe. 
 
 BUNSEN, Robert Wilhelm Eberard, 
 eminent German chemist, born at Got- 
 tingen 1811. Among his many dis- 
 coveries and inventions are the produc- 
 tion of magnesium in quantities, mag- 
 nesium light, spectrum analysis, the 
 Bunsen burner, etc. He died in 1899. 
 
 BUNSEN’S BURNER, a form of gas 
 burner especially adapted for heating, 
 consisting of a tube, in which, by means 
 of holes in the side, the gas becomes 
 mixed with air before consumption so 
 that it gives a non-illuminating smoke- 
 less flame. 
 
 BUNT'ING, a thin woolen stuff, of 
 which the colors and signals of a ship are 
 usually formed; hence, a vessel’s flags 
 collectively. 
 
 BUN'YAN, John, author of the Pil- 
 grim’s Progress, was the son of a tinker, 
 and was born at the village of Elstow, 
 near Bedford, in 1628, died in London 
 1688. He followed his father’s employ- 
 ment, but during the civil war he served 
 as a soldier. Returning to Elstow, after 
 much mental conflict his mind became 
 impressed with a deep sense of the truth 
 and importance of religion. He joined 
 a society of Anabaptists at Bedford, and 
 at length undertook the office of a public 
 teacher among them. Acting in defiance 
 of the severe laws against dissenters, 
 Bunyan was detained in prison for 
 twelve years (1660-72), but was at last 
 liberated, and became pastor of the com- 
 munity with which he had previously 
 been connected. During his imprison- 
 ment he wrote Profitable Meditations, 
 The Holy City, etc., and also the curious 
 piece of autobiography entitled Grace 
 Abounding to the Chief of Sinners. In 
 1675 he was sent to prison for six months 
 under the Conventicle Act. To this con- 
 finement he owes his chief literary fame, 
 for in the solitude of his cell he produced 
 the first part of that admired religious 
 allegory, the Pilgrim’s Progress. His 
 Holy War, his other religious parables, 
 and his devotional tracts, which are 
 numerous, are also remarkable, and 
 many of them valuable. On obtaining 
 his liberty Bunyan resumed his functions 
 as a minister at Bedford, and became 
 extremely popular. He died when on a 
 visit to London. 
 
 BUONAPARTE. See Bonaparte. 
 
 BUONAROTTI (bu-o-na-rot'te), Mi- 
 chael Angelo, of the ancient family of the 
 counts of Canossa, born at Caprese, in 
 Tuscany, 1475, died at Rome 1563; a 
 distinguished Italian painter, sculptor, 
 architect, and poet. Having distin- 
 guished nimself both in sculpture and 
 painting, he was commissioned (to- 
 gether with Leonardo da Vinci) to deco- 
 rate the senate-hall at Florence with a 
 historical design, but before it was fin- 
 ished, in 1505, he was induced by Pope 
 Julius II. to settle in Rome. Here he 
 sculptured the monument of the pontiff 
 (there are seven statues belonging to it) 
 now in the church of St. Pietro in Vin- 
 
 coli; and painted the dome of the 
 Sistine Chapel, his frescoes representing 
 the creation and the principal events of 
 sacred history. In 1530 he took a lead- 
 ing part in the defense of Florence 
 
 Michael Angelo Buonarotti. 
 
 against Charles V. Three years later 
 he began his great picture in the Sistine 
 Chapel, the Last Judgment, which 
 occupied him eight years. His last con- 
 siderable works in painting were two 
 large pictures: the Conversion of St. 
 Paul and the Crucifixion of St. Peter in 
 the Pauline Chapel. In sculpture he 
 executed the Descent of Christ from the 
 Cross, four figures of one piece of marble. 
 His statue of Bacchus was thought by 
 Raphael to possess equal perfection with 
 the masterpieces of Phidias and Praxit- 
 eles. As late as 1546 he was obliged to 
 undertake the continuation of the build- 
 ing of St. Peter’s, and planned and 
 built the dome, but he did not live long 
 enough to see his plan finished, in 
 which many alterations were made 
 after his death. Besides this, he under- 
 took the building of the Piazza del 
 Campidoglio (Capitol), of the Farnese 
 Palace, and of many other edifices. His 
 style in architecture is distinguished by 
 grandeur and boldness, and in his orna- 
 ments the untamed character of the 
 imagination frequently appears, pre- 
 ferring the uncommon to the simple and 
 elegant. 
 
 BUOY (boi), any floating body em- 
 ployed to point out the particular situa- 
 tion of a ship’s anchor, a shoal, the 
 direction of a navigable channel, etc. 
 
 Buoys. 
 
 1, Can-buoy. 2, Nun-buoy. 3, Bell-buoy. 
 ‘ 4, Mooring-buoy. 
 
 They are made of wood, or now more 
 commonly of wrought-iron plates rivet- 
 ed together and forming hollow cham- 
 bers. They are generally moored by 
 chains to the bed of the channel, et" 
 
BURBANK 
 
 BURGUNDY 
 
 They are of various shapes, and receive ) 
 corresponding names; thus there are 
 the can-buoy, the nun-buoy, the bell- 
 buoy, the mooring-buoy, as represented 
 in the accompanying cuts. The name 
 is also given to a floating object intended 
 to keep a person afloat till he can be 
 taken from the water: more particu- 
 larly called a life-bouy. 
 
 BURBANK, Luther, an American 
 plant grower, born in Massachusetts 
 in 1849, and since 1875 the proprietor 
 of an experimental farm near Santa 
 Rosa, Cal. By means of artificial selec- 
 tion he has bred numerous useful varie- 
 ties of food plant, including a thornless 
 cactus and a white blackberry. 
 
 BURCHARD, Samuel Dickinson, an 
 American Presbyterian clergyman, born 
 in New York in 1812, died in 1891. He 
 preached to New York City. Burchard 
 is famous chiefly for his speech in 1884 
 during the Blaine-Cleveland campaign, 
 in which he denounced the democratic 
 party as the party of Rum, Romanism, 
 and Rebellion. The speech, it is be- 
 lieved, defeated Blaine, notwithstanding 
 his favor with many Roman Catholics. 
 
 BURDEN, Henry, an American in- 
 ventor, born in Scotland in 1791, died 
 in 1871. His principal inventions, are 
 improvements in the plow, a railroad 
 spike making machine, and a horseshoe 
 making machine. He was the owner 
 of the Troy Iron and Nail Works. 
 
 BURDEN OF PROOF, the obligation 
 resting on the affirmant of a proposition 
 to prove the truth of his affirmation. 
 In criminal cases the burden of proof 
 rests with the state. 
 
 BUR'DETT, Sir Francis, English 
 politician, born 1770, died 1844. In 
 1796 he entered parliament as member 
 for Boroughbridge, and advocated par- 
 liamentary reform and various liberal 
 measures. He afterward sat for Middle- 
 sex, and in 1807-37 for Westminster. 
 In his later years he became a Tory, 
 and represented North Wilts. In 1793 
 he married the youngest daughter of 
 Thomas Coutts the banker. 
 
 BURDETT-COUTTS (kots), Angela 
 Georgina, daughter of the above, born 
 1814, has become deservedly popular 
 for the liberal use she has made of the 
 immense wealth she inherited from her 
 grandfather (Thomas Coutts) in public 
 and private charities. In 1871 she 
 received a peerage from government, 
 and in 1881 married a Mr. Ashmead- 
 Bartlett who has assumed the name of 
 Burdett-Coutts. She died in 1906. 
 
 BUREAU (bu-ro'), a writing-table, 
 also the chamber of an officer of gov- 
 ernment and the body of subordinate 
 officers who labor under the direction of 
 a chief. — Bureau system, or bureau- 
 cracy, is a term often applied to those 
 governments in which the business of 
 administration is carried on in depart- 
 ments, each under the control of a chief; 
 or, more broadly, the system of central- 
 izing the administration of a country 
 through regularly graded series of gov- 
 ernment officials. 
 
 BURGESS, Edward, an American 
 naval architect, born in 1848, died in 
 1891. He is noted for his designs of 
 racing yachts, including the Puritan, 
 the Mayflower, and the Volunteer, 
 which were successful defenders of 
 
 the America’s cup in 1885, 1886, and 
 1887. 
 
 BURGESS, Frank Gelett, an Ameri- 
 can humorist, born in 1866, in Boston. 
 He originated in 1895 a fantastical 
 weekly called The Lark, which was pub- 
 lished with poor success at San Fran- 
 cisco. His drawings are quaint and 
 most pleasing. 
 
 BURGESS, Neil, an American actor, 
 born in Boston in 1846. His principal 
 roles have been those of Josiah Allen’s 
 Wife, and the Widow Bedott, female 
 characters in which the actor evinced a 
 quaint and fetching humor which has 
 made him exceedingly popular. 
 
 BURG'LARY is defined in English 
 law to be a breaking and entering the 
 dwelling-house of another, in the night, 
 with intent to commit some felony 
 within the same, whether such felonious 
 intent be executed or not. In the U. 
 States the crime of burglary has been 
 defined in many states by statutes in 
 which the meaning of the term has been 
 considerably widened so as to include 
 the breaking into any building at any 
 time with the intention of committing 
 a crime. 
 
 BUR'GOMASTER, the chief magis- 
 trate of a municipal towm in the Nether- 
 lands and Germany. The title is equiva- 
 lent to the English mayor and the Scotch 
 provost. 
 
 BURGOS (bur'gos), a city of northern 
 Spain, once the capital of the kingdom 
 of Old Castile, and now the chief town 
 of the province of Burgos. The cathe- 
 dral, commenced in 1221, is one of the 
 
 The Cathedral of Burgos. 
 
 finest examples of Gothic architecture 
 in Spain. It contains the tombs of the 
 famous Cid, and of Don Fernando, both 
 natives of Burgos, and celebrated 
 throughout Spain for their heroic 
 achievements in the wars with the 
 Moors. Before the removal of the court 
 to Madrid, in the 16th century, Burgos 
 was in a very flourishing condition, and 
 contained thrice its present population. 
 It has some manufactures in woolens 
 and linens. Pop. 29,683. — The province 
 has an area of 5650 sq. miles, largely 
 hilly or mountainous, but with good 
 agricultural and pastoral land. Pop. 
 348 152 
 
 BURGOYNE (bur-goin'), John, an 
 English general officer and dramatist; 
 born 1722, died 1792. After serving in 
 various parts of the world, he was in 
 1777 appointed commander of an army 
 against the revolted Americans, and 
 took Ticonderoga, but had at last to 
 surrender with his whole army at Sar- 
 atoga. He was ill received on his return 
 to England, and deprived of his com- 
 mand of the 76th Light Dragoons and 
 the governorship of Fort William. 
 
 BURGUNDY, a region of western 
 Europe, so named from the Burgun- 
 
 dians, a Teutonic or Germanic people 
 originally from the country between the 
 Oder and the Vistula. They migrated 
 first to the region of the Upper Rhine, 
 and in the beginning of the 5th century 
 
 passed into Gaul and obtained posses- 
 sion of the southeastern part of this 
 country, where they founded a king- 
 dom having its seat of government 
 sometimes at Lyons, and sometimes at 
 Geneva. They were at last wholly sub- 
 dued by the Franks. In 879 Boson, 
 Count of Autun, succeeded in establish- 
 ing the royal dignity again in part of 
 this kingdom. He styled himself King 
 of Provence, and had his residence at 
 Arles. His son Louis added the country 
 beyond the Jura, and thus established 
 Cis-Juran Burgundy. A second king- 
 dom arose when Rudolph of Strettlingen 
 formed Upper or Transjuran Burgundy 
 out of part of Switzerland and Savoy. 
 Both these Burgundian kingdoms were 
 united, and finally, on the extinction of 
 Rudolph’s line, were incorporated with 
 Germany. But a third state, the his- 
 torical Duchy of Burgundy, consisting 
 principally of the French province of 
 Bourgogne or Burgundy, had been 
 formed as a great feudal and almost 
 independent province of France in the 
 9th century. This first ducal line died 
 out with a Duke Philip, and the duchy, 
 reverting to the crown, was, in 1363, 
 granted by King John of France to his 
 son Philip the Bold, who thus became 
 the founder of a new line of dukes of 
 Burgundy. A marriage wuth Margaret, 
 daughter of Louis III., count of Flanders, 
 brought him Flanders, Mechlin, Ant- 
 werp, and Franche-Comt4. He was 
 succeeded by his son Duke John the 
 Fearless, whose son and successor, 
 Philip the Good, so greatly extended 
 his dominions, that on his death in 1467 
 his son Charles, surnamed the Bold, 
 though possessing only the title of duke, 
 was in reality one of the richest and most 
 powerful sovereigns of Europe. (See 
 Charles the Bold.) Charles left a daugh- 
 ter, Mary of Burgundy, the sole heiress 
 of his states, who by her marriage to 
 Maximilian of Austria transferred a 
 large part of her dominions to that 
 prince, while Louis XI. of France ac- 
 quired Burgundy proper as a male fief 
 of France. Burgundy then formed a 
 province, and is now repi'esented by the 
 four departments of Yonne, Cote-d’Or, 
 Saone-et-Loire, and Ain. It is waterecl 
 by a number of navigable rivers, and 
 is one of the most productive provinces 
 in France, especially of wines. 
 
BURGUNDY PITCH 
 
 BURMAH 
 
 BURGUNDY PITCH, a resin got from I 
 the Norway spruce and several other 
 pines. It is used in medicine as a 
 simulating plaster. It takes its name 
 from Burgundy in France, where it was 
 first prepared. 
 
 BURGUNDY WINES are produced in 
 the former province of Burgundy, espe- 
 cially in the department of C6te-d’Or, 
 and in richness of flavor and all the more 
 delicate qualities of the juice of the 
 grape they are inferior to none in the 
 world. Among the red wines of Bur- 
 gundy the finest are the Chambertin, 
 the Clos Vougeot, Roman4e-Conty, etc. 
 
 BURIAL (be'ri-al), the mode of dis- 
 posing of the dead, a practice which 
 varies among different peoples. Among 
 savage races, and even among some 
 cultured peoples of the East, exposure 
 to wild animals or birds of prey is not 
 uncommon. The careful embalmment 
 of their dead by the ancient Egyptians 
 may be regarded as a special form of 
 burial. But by far the most common 
 forms of disposing of the dead have been 
 burning and interring. Among the 
 Greeks and Romans both forms were 
 racticed, though among the latter 
 urning became common only in the 
 later times of the republic. In this form 
 of burial the corpse, after being borne 
 in procession through the streets, was 
 placed upon a pyre built of wood, and 
 profusely sprinkled with oils and per- 
 fumes. Eire was set to the wood, and 
 after the process of cremation was com- 
 plete the bones and ashes were carefully 
 gathered together by the relatives and 
 placed in an urn. With the introduction 
 of the Christian religion, consecrated 
 places were appropriated for the purpose 
 of general burial, and the Roman custom 
 of providing the sepulcher with a stone 
 and inscription was continued by the 
 Christians. The practice of cremation 
 now declined and finally disappeared, 
 but has recently to some little extent 
 been revived. 
 
 BU'RIATS, a nomadic Tartar people 
 allied to the Kalmucks, inhabiting the 
 southern part of the government of 
 Irkutsk and Transbaikalia. Their num- 
 ber is about 200,000. They live in huts 
 called yurts, which in summer are 
 covered with leather, in winter with felt. 
 They support themselves by their 
 flocks, by hunting, and the mechanical 
 arts, particularly the forging of iron. 
 
 BURKE, Edmund, a writer, orator, 
 and statesman of great eminence, was 
 born in Dublin, Jan. 1, 1730. The 
 political career for which he had been 
 arduously preparing himself all along at 
 length opened up to him on his appoint- 
 ment as private secretary to Mr. W. G. 
 Hamilton, Secretary for Ireland, in 
 1761. On his return he obtained the 
 appointment of private secretary to the 
 Marquis of Rockingham, then First 
 Lord of the Treasury. Through the 
 same interest he entered parliament as 
 member for Wendover (1765). The 
 great question of the right of taxing the 
 American colonies was then occupying 
 parliament, and the Rockingham min- 
 istry having taken, mainly through 
 Burke’s advice, a middle and undecided 
 course, was soon dissolved (1766). From 
 1770 to 1782 Lord North was in power, 
 and Burke held no office. In 1774-80 
 
 he was member for Bristol. In several 
 magnificent speeches he criticized the 
 ministerial measures with regard to the 
 colonies, and advocated a policy of 
 justice and conciliation. In 1782, when 
 the Rockingham party returned to 
 power, Burke obtained the lucrative 
 post of paymaster-general of the forces, 
 and shortly after introduced his famous 
 
 Edmund Burke. 
 
 bill for economical reform, which passed 
 after considerable modifications had 
 been made on it. On the fall of the Duke 
 of Portland’s coalition ministry, 1783, 
 of which Burke had also been part, Pitt 
 again succeeded to power, and it was 
 during this administration that the im- 
 peachment of Hastings, in which Burke 
 was the prime mover, took place. The 
 lucidity, eloquence, and mastery of 
 detail which Burke showed on this 
 occasion haVe never been surpassed. 
 The chief feature in the latter part of 
 Burke’s life was his resolute struggle 
 against the ideas and doctrines of the 
 French revolution. His attitude on this 
 question separated him from his old 
 friend Fox, and the Liberals who fol- 
 lowed Fox. His famous Reflections on 
 the Revolution in France, a pamphlet 
 which appeared in 1790, had an un- 
 precedented sale, and gave enormous 
 impetus to the reaction which had 
 commenced in England. From this 
 time most of his writings are powerful 
 pleadings on the same side. In 1794 he 
 withdrew from parliament. Three years 
 after, on July 8, 1797, he died, his end 
 being hastened by grief for the loss of his 
 only son. 
 
 BURLEIGH, Lord. See Cecil. 
 
 BURLESQUE (bur-lesk') signifies a 
 low form of the comic, arising generally 
 from a ludicrous mixture of things high 
 and low. High thoughts, for instance, 
 are clothed in low expressions, noble 
 subjects described in a familiar manner, 
 or vice versa. The true comic shows us 
 an instructive, if laughable, side of 
 things; the burlesque Travesties and 
 caricatures them in order to excite 
 laughter or ridicule. 
 
 BURLET'TA, a light, comic species 
 of musical drama, which derives^ its 
 name from the Italian burlare, to jest. 
 It originated in Italy, from whence it 
 passed to the Transalpine countries. 
 
 BURLINGTON, city, important rail- 
 road center, and river-port of Iowa; 
 capital of Des Moines co. ; situated on 
 the Mississippi river; 207 miles w.s.w. of 
 Chicago, 250 miles by water above St. 
 
 Louis, and 296 miles by railroad east of 
 Omaha. The river is here a broad, deep, 
 and beautiful stream. The plan of the 
 city is regular, and the houses are mostly 
 of brick and stone. This place is the 
 seat of Burlington University, and con- 
 tains about twenty-five churches and 
 numerous manufactories. Pop. 27,400. 
 
 BURLINGTON, city, and railroad cen- 
 ter, of Burlington co., N. J., on the Del- 
 aware river, 20 miles above Philadel- 
 phia and 12 miles s.w. of Trenton. The 
 principal industries are the manufacture 
 of shoes, canned goods, iron pipes of all 
 sizes, stoves, heaters, and carriages. 
 Pop. 10,100. 
 
 BURLINGTON, city and railrgad cen- 
 ter and county-seat of Chittenden co., 
 Vt., on Burlington Bay of Lake Cham- 
 plain ; 40 miles w. from Montpelier, the 
 capital of the state. 
 
 The heaviest trade in the city is in lum- 
 ber. There are large quarries of build- 
 ing-stone, of limestone, and of fine mar- 
 ble within or near the city limits; large 
 cotton-mills, steam marble-mills, ma- 
 chine-shops, foundries, sash, chair, fur- 
 niture, patent medicine, malt cereals, 
 and shoe factories, paper-mills, and 
 many smaller manufacturing trades are 
 thriving. 
 
 The University of Vermont and State 
 Agricultural College is situated here. 
 Pop. 20,140. 
 
 BURLINGTON LIMESTONE, a forma- 
 tion of the carboniferous period, occur- 
 ing in Missouri and Illinois, adjacent to 
 the Mississippi river. It affords a val- 
 uable building-stone, and is peculiarly 
 interesting to naturalists. The upper 
 bed is of a light-gray color, and is nearly 
 pure carbonate of lime. The lower bed 
 contains more magnesia. 
 
 BUR'MAH, a country of southern 
 Asia, bounded on the north by Assam 
 and Tibet, on the east by Chinese 
 territory and Siam, elsewhere mainly 
 by the Bay of Bengal; area about 290,- 
 000 sq. miles. It is traversed by great 
 mountain ranges branching off from 
 those of northern India and running 
 parallel to each other southward to the 
 sea. Between these ranges and in the 
 plains or valleys here situated the four 
 great rivers of Burmah — the Irrawaddy, 
 its tributary the Kyen-dwen,the Sittang, 
 and the Salwen — flow in a southerly 
 direction to the sea, watering the rich 
 alluvial tracts of Lower Burmah, and 
 having at their mouths all the great 
 seaports of the country — Rangoon, Bas- 
 sein, Moulmein, Akyab, etc. The Irra- 
 waddy is of great value as a liighway 
 of communication and traffic, being 
 navigable beyond Bhamo, near the 
 Chinese frontier, or over 800 miles. 
 In their lower courses the rivers often 
 overflow their banks in the rainy season. 
 Though its resources are almost entirely 
 undeveloped, the country, as a whole, 
 is productive, especially in the lower 
 portions. Here grow rice, sugar-cane, 
 tobacco, cotton, indigo, etc. Cotton is 
 grown almost everywhere; tea is cul- 
 tivated in many of the more elevated 
 parts. The forests produce timber of 
 many sorts, including teak, which grows 
 most luxuriantly, and is largely ex- 
 ported. Iron-wood is another valuable 
 timber; and among forest products are 
 also the bainboo, cutch, stick-lac, and 
 
BURNABY 
 
 BURNS AND SCALDS 
 
 rubber. Burmah has great mineral 
 wealth— gold, silver, precious stones, 
 iron, marble, lead, tin, coal, petroleum, 
 etc.; but these resources have not yet 
 been much developed. The chief pre- 
 cious stone is the ruby, and the mines 
 of this gem belong to the crown. Sap- 
 phire, amber, and jade arc also obtained. 
 Among wild animals are the elephant, 
 rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, deer of various 
 kinds, and the wild hog. Among do- 
 mestic animals are the ox, buffalo, 
 horse, and elephant. The rivers abound 
 with fish. The most common fruits are 
 the guava, custard-apple, tamarind, 
 pine, orange, banana, jack, and mango. 
 The yam and sweet-potato are culti- 
 vated, and in some parts the common 
 potato. The climate of course varies 
 according to elevation and other cir- 
 cumstances, but as a whole is warm, 
 though not unhealthful, except in low 
 jungly districts. The rainfall among 
 the mountains reaches as high as 190 
 inches per annum. 
 
 The population may be stated at 
 about 9,000,000 or 10,000,000, made up 
 of a great variety of races besides the 
 Burmese proper, as Talaings, Shans, 
 Karens, etc. The Burmese proper are 
 of a brown color, with lank, black hair 
 (seldom any on the face), and have 
 active, vigorous, well - proportioned 
 frames. They are a cheerful, lively 
 people, fond of amusement, averse to 
 continuous exertion, free from prejudice 
 of caste or creed, temperate and hardy. 
 The predominant religion is Buddhism. 
 The Burmese language is monosyllabic, 
 like Chinese, and is written with an 
 alphabet the characters of which (de- 
 rived from India) are more or less cir- 
 cular. There is a considerable literature. 
 
 Burmah is now divided into Lower 
 Burmah and Upper Burmah, the former 
 till 1886 being called British Burmah, 
 while the latter till that date was an 
 independent kingdom or empire. Lower 
 Burmah was acquired from Independ- 
 ent Burmah in 1826 and 1852 as the 
 result of two wars terminating in favor 
 of Britain. It comprises the divisions 
 of Aracan, Pegu, Irrawaddy, and Tenas- 
 serim; area, 87,957 sq. miles; population 
 5,371,328. Under British rule it has 
 prospered greatly, the population and 
 trade having increased immensely. 
 Roads, canals, railways, and other 
 public works have been carried out. 
 The area of Upper Burmah under direct 
 British administration is 83,473 sq. 
 miles; pop. 3,849,833. The chief city 
 and port is Rangoon, which is now con- 
 nected by railway with Mandalay in 
 Upper Burmah. 
 
 Under its native kings the form of 
 government in Upper Burmah was 
 absolute monarchy, the seat of govern- 
 ment being latterly at Mandalay. The 
 king was assisted in governing by a 
 council of state known as the Hloot-daw, 
 to which belonged the functions of a 
 house of legislature, a cabinet, and a 
 supreme court. The king had power to 
 punish at his pleasure any one, even the 
 great officers of state. The revenue was 
 derived from taxes levied in a very 
 irregular and capricious manner, and 
 official corruption was rampant. The 
 criminal laws were barbarously severe. 
 Capital punishment was commonly 
 
 inflicted by decapitation, but crucifixion 
 and disemboweling were also practiced. 
 After the loss of the maritime provinces 
 the influence of Independent Burmah 
 greatly declined, as did also its Asiatic 
 and foreign trade. 
 
 The Burmese empire is of little note in 
 ancient or general history. Upper Bur- 
 mah was annexed to the British empire 
 by proclamation of the Viceroy of India, 
 1st Jan. 1886. The area thus annexed 
 was about 200,000 sq. miles, of which 
 half belonged to the kingdom proper, 
 half to the semi-independent Shan 
 states. Its government is now organ- 
 ized under a single lieutenant-governor, 
 Upper and Lower Burmah forming each 
 a commissionership, and being divided 
 into four divisions each, which again are 
 subdivided into districts. 
 
 BUR'NABY, Frederick Gustavus, Eng- 
 lish soldier and traveler, born 1842. 
 In 1875 he made his famous ride to 
 Khiva. In 1876 he rode through Asiatic 
 Turkey and Persia. Of both these 
 journeys he published narratives. In 
 1885 (Jan. 17), while serving as lieu- 
 tenant-colonel of the Royal Horse 
 Guards in the Egyptian campaign, he 
 was slain at the battle of Abu-Klea. 
 
 BURNETT, Frances Eliza Hodgson, an 
 Anglo-American novelist, born in Eng- 
 land in 1849 and identified with Ameri- 
 can literature since 1872. Her most 
 popular works are That Lass o’ Lowrie’s, 
 A Lady of Quality, Little Lord Faunt- 
 leroy, and Through One Administration. 
 In 1873 she married Dr. S. M. Burnett. 
 She lives in Europe and in Washington. 
 
 BURNING-GLASS, a lens which, by 
 bringing the sun’s rays rapidly to a 
 focus, produces a heat strong enough to 
 kindle combustible matter. The lenses 
 commonly used are convex on both 
 sides, and have a small focal distance. 
 That such a glass may produce its great- 
 est effect it is necessary that the rays of 
 the sun should fall upon it in a perpen- 
 dicular direction. The effect may be 
 greatly augmented by the use of a 
 second lens, of a .smaller focal distance, 
 placed between the first and its focus. 
 Some immense burning-glasses have 
 been made, producing surprising effects. 
 Concave burning-mirrors produce the 
 same kind of results, and have almost 
 four times more power than burning- 
 glasses of equal extent and curvature. 
 The concavity must present a surface of 
 high reflecting power (polished silver or 
 other metal, or silvered glass), and must 
 be either spherical or parabolic. Plane 
 mirrors may also be employed like con- 
 cave ones, if several of them are com- 
 bined in a proper manner. The ancients 
 were acquainted with such mirrors, and 
 Archimedes is said to have set the Ro- 
 man fleet on fire at the siege of Syracuse 
 (n.c. 212) by some such jneans. In 1747 
 Buffon by a combination of mirrors 
 burned wood at the distance of 200 feet 
 and melted tin at the distance of 1 50, etc. 
 
 BURNING-MIRRORS. See preceding 
 article. 
 
 BURNISHER, a blunt, smooth tool, 
 used for smoothing and polishing a 
 rough surface by rubbing. Agates, 
 tempered steel, and dog’s teeth are used 
 for burnishing. 
 
 BURN'LEY^, a pari., municipal, and 
 county borough of England, in Lan- 
 
 cashire, about 22 miles n. of Manchester. 
 Pop. 97,044. 
 
 Burns, Robert, the great lyric poet 
 of Scotland, was born near Ayr, January 
 25, 1759. He was instructed in the 
 ordinary branches of an English edu- 
 cation; to these he afterward added 
 French and a little mathematics. But 
 
 Robert Burns. 
 
 most of his education was got from the 
 general reading of books, to which he 
 gave himself with passion. In this 
 manner he learned what the best Eng- 
 lish poets might teach him, and culti- 
 vated the instincts for poetry which had 
 been implanted in his nature. He be- 
 gan to produce poetical pieces which 
 attracted the notice of his neighbors and 
 gained him considerable reputation. 
 In 1786 Burns was about to set sail 
 for Jamaica, when he was drawn to 
 Edinburgh by a letter from Dr. Black- 
 lock to an Ayrshire friend of his and the 
 poet, recommending that he should take 
 advantage of the general admiration his 
 poems had excited, and publish a new 
 edition of them. This advice was eager- 
 ly adopted, and the result exceeded his 
 most sanguine expectations. After re- 
 maining more than a year in the Scot- 
 tish metropolis, admired, flattered, and 
 caressed by persons of eminence for 
 their rank, fortune, or talents, he retired 
 to the countr}'^ with the sum of some 
 82500, wliich he had realized by the 
 second publication of his poems. A part 
 of this sum he advanced to his brother, 
 and with the remainder took a consider- 
 able farm (Ellisland) near Dumfries, to 
 which he subsequently added the office 
 of exciseman. He now married Jean 
 Armour, a Mauchline girl. But the 
 farming at Ellisland was not a success, 
 and in about three years Burns removed 
 to Dumfries and relied on his employ- 
 ment as an exciseman alone. He con- 
 tinued to exercise his pen, particularly 
 in the composition of a number of beauti- 
 ful songs adapted to old Scottish tunes. 
 In the winter of 1795 his constitution, 
 broken by cares, irregularities, and 
 passions, fell into premature decline; 
 and in Juljq 1796, a rheumatic fever 
 terminated his life and sufferings at the 
 early age of .thirty-seven. 
 
 BURNS AND SCALDS are injuries 
 produced by the application of excessive 
 heat to the human body. They are 
 generally dangerous in proportion to 
 the extent of surface they cover, and a 
 wide-spread scald may cause serious 
 consequences on account of the nervous 
 shock. Congestion of the brain, pneu- 
 
BURNSIDE 
 
 BUSHRANGERS • 
 
 monia, inflammation of the bowels, or 
 lock-jaw may result from an extensive 
 burn. Hence the treatment requires to 
 be both local and constitutional. If 
 there is shivering or exhaustion hot 
 brandy and water may be given with 
 good eilect, and if there is much pain a 
 sedative solution of opium. The local 
 treatment consists in dredging the burn 
 with fine wheat flour, and then wrapping 
 it up in cotton-wool. An application of 
 equal quantities of olive-oil and lime- 
 water, called carron-oil, is much recom- 
 mended by some, the part being after- 
 ward covered by cotton-wool. The 
 main thing is to keep the air from the in- 
 jured part, and therefore, when a blister 
 forms, although it may be pricked, the 
 loose skin should not be removed. 
 
 BURNSIDE, Ambrose Everett, an 
 American soldier, born in Indiana in 
 1824, died in 1881. He began his mili- 
 tary career as a colonel of Rhode Island 
 volunteers in the civil war and took part 
 
 A. E. Burnside. 
 
 in the battles of Antietam, Fredericks- 
 burg, and other engagements. He tried 
 to suppress several newspapers in the 
 North, but his orders were overruled by 
 popular pressure. He was raised to the 
 rank of major-general of volunteers, and 
 toward the end of the war he served 
 under Grant in the Richmond campaign. 
 Burnside subsequently to the war served 
 in the senate of the U. States. 
 
 BURNT-OFFERING, something of- 
 fered and burnt on an altar as an atone- 
 ment for sin; a sacrifice. The burnt- 
 offerings of the Jews were either some 
 clean animal, as an ox, a sheep, a pigeon ; 
 or some species of vegetable substance, 
 as bread, flour, ears of wheat or barley. 
 
 BURR, Aaron, third vice-president of 
 the U. States, born in New Jersey in 
 1756. After serving with honor in the 
 revolutionary army he became a law- 
 yer, and finally leader of the democratic 
 party and vice-president in 1801. His 
 duel with Alexander Hamilton, which 
 ended fatally for the latter, drove him 
 from New i'ork to settle farther west, 
 where he conceived an audacious and 
 grandiose scheme of founding an em- 
 pire in the s.w. He was tried for trea- 
 son, and, though acquitted, sank into 
 obscurity. He died in 1836. 
 
 BUR'RITT, Elihu, the “learned black- 
 smith,” as he was called, was born at 
 New Britain, Conn., Dec. 8, 1810. He 
 was apprenticed to a blacksmith, but, 
 conceiving a strong desire for knowl- 
 edge, he began to read English literature, 
 and with great diligence and perse- 
 verance at length acquired proficiency 
 not only in the ancient, but also most 
 of the modern languages of Europe. 
 In 1848 the first International Peace 
 Congress was held under his guidance 
 at Brussels. In 1865 he was consular 
 
 agent at Birmingham. In 1868 he 
 returned to live on his farm in America, 
 and died March 7, 1879. His best- 
 
 known writings are Sparks from the 
 Anvil; Thoughts and Things at Home 
 and Abroad; Chips from Many Blocks; 
 etc. 
 
 BURROUGHS, John, an American 
 naturalist and writer, born at Roxbury, 
 N. Y., in 1837. His chief works are 
 concerned with descriptions of animals 
 and plants, but he has also written a 
 considerable number of essays and 
 
 criticisms. Among his more popular 
 books are Wake, Robin; M inter Sun- 
 shine; Birds and Poets; Locusts and 
 Wild Honey; Fresh Fields; Signs and 
 Seasons; Indoor Studies; and Squirrels 
 and Other Fur-Bearers. 
 
 BURROUGHS, Marie, an American 
 actress, born at San Francisco in 1866. 
 She made her d6but in New York in 
 The Rajah, and subsequently appeared 
 with E. S. Willard in The Middleman, 
 Judah and Ophelia, and other plays. 
 She married Robert Barclay MacPher- 
 son in 1901. 
 
 BURROWING-OWL, an American 
 owl which dwells in holes in the ground 
 
 either made by itself or by some other 
 animal, as the prairie-dog or marmot. 
 
 It feeds on insects and seeks it food by 
 day. 
 
 BURTON, John Hill, historian of Scot- 
 land, born at Aberdeen 1809, died near 
 Edinburgh 1881. His first book was 
 the Life and Correspondence of David 
 Hume (1846), followed by Lives of Lord 
 Lovat and Duncan Forbes of Culloden, 
 and other works. His chief work was 
 his History of Scotland from the Earliest 
 Times to 1746. He was appointed 
 secretary to the Scottish Prison Board 
 in 1854, and was connected with this 
 department till his death. 
 
 BURTON, Sir Richard Francis, K.C. 
 M.G., English traveler and linguist, 
 born in 1821. In 1853 he went to Arabia 
 and visited Mecca and Medina dis- 
 guised as a Mohammedan pilgrim — a 
 sufficiently dangerous journey. He vis- 
 ited many countries and published 
 many works, and translations of Cam- 
 oens’s Lusiads and of the Arabian 
 Nights, etc. Died 1890. 
 
 BUR'TON, Robert, an English writer, 
 born at Lindley in Leicestershire in 
 1576. His vast out-of-the-way learning 
 is curiously displayed in his book The 
 Anatomy of Melancholy, which he pub- 
 lished in 1621. Burton died in 1640. 
 
 BURTON-UPON-TRENT, a county 
 borough of England, in Staffordshire. 
 It is chiefly celebrated for its excellent 
 ale, for which there are numerous 
 breweries, employing upward of 5000 
 men and boys. Pop. 50,386. 
 
 BURY (be'ri), a municipal, county, 
 and pari, borough of England, in Lan- 
 cashire, 8 miles n.n.w. of Manchester. 
 Sir Robert Peel was born near Bury 
 in 1788, and a bronze statue of him 
 adorns the town. Pop. 58,028. 
 
 BURYING-BEETLE, the name of a 
 genus of insects. They have a very 
 keen scent, which guides them to the 
 dead bodies of rats, mice, etc., which 
 form their food. Several beetles will 
 unite to cover such animals, burying 
 them sometimes more than 6 inches in 
 the earth. They deposit their eggs on 
 the carrion, and in less than a fortnight 
 the larvae issue. The species are com- 
 mon everywhere. 
 
 BUSBY (buz'bi), a military head-dress 
 worn by hussars, artillerymen, and 
 engineers, consisting of a fur hat with 
 a bag, of the same color as the facings 
 of the regiment, hanging from the top 
 over the right side. The bag appears 
 to be a relic of a Hungarian head-dress 
 from which a long padded bag hung 
 over, and was attached to the right 
 shoulder as a defense against sword-cuts. 
 
 BUSHEL, an English dry measure, 
 containing 8 gallons or 4 pecks. 
 
 BUSHMEN, a race of people who 
 dwell in the western part of South Africa, 
 in the immense plains bordering on the 
 n. side of the colony of the Cape of Good 
 Hope. They are the most degraded of 
 the races who inhabit this part of the 
 country. Their language is exceedingly 
 poor, consisting only of a certain click- 
 ing with the tongue and harsh gurgling 
 tones, for which we have no letters. 
 
 BUSH'RANGERS, the name for 
 desperadoes in Australia who, taking 
 to the bush, have supported themselves 
 by levying contributions on the prop- 
 
BUSINESS COLLEGES 
 
 BUTTERFLY 
 
 erty of all and sundry within their 
 
 BUSINESS COLLEGES, the name in 
 America for the higher-class institutions 
 specially intended to give a practical 
 training in all subjects belonging to 
 commerce. 
 
 BUSINESS HOURS, the hours of the 
 day in which business is ordinarily done. 
 In the U. States from 8 a. m. till 6 p. m. 
 is the usual business day. In American 
 banks business hours are from 10 a. m. 
 to 3 p. m. No payment is made nor 
 deposit received except in these hours. 
 Bills cannot be collected nor payment 
 legally tendered except during business 
 hours. 
 
 BUST, in sculpture, the representation 
 of that portion of the human figure 
 which comprises the head and the upper 
 part of the body. During the literary 
 period of Greece the portrait busts of 
 the learned formed an important branch 
 of art, and in this way we come to 
 possess faithful likenesses of Socrates, 
 Plato, Demosthenes, etc., in which the 
 artists showed great power of expressing 
 the character of those represented. The 
 number of busts belonging to the time 
 of the Roman Empire is very consider- 
 able, but those of the Roman poets and 
 men of letters have not been preserved 
 in nearly so large numbers as those of 
 the Greeks. The first bust that can be 
 depended upon as giving a correct like- 
 ness is that of Scipio Africanus the elder. 
 
 BUSTARD, a bird belonging to the 
 order Cursores, or runners, but ap- 
 proaching the waders. The great 
 bustard is the largest European bird, 
 the male often weighing 30 lbs., with a 
 
 Great bustard. 
 
 breadth of wing of 6 or 7 feet. The 
 bustard is now rare in Britain, but 
 abounds in the south and east of Europe 
 and the steppes of Tartary, feeding on 
 green corn and other vegetables, and 
 on earth-worms. Its flesh is esteemed. 
 All the species run fast, and take flight 
 with difficulty. 
 
 BUTLER, Alban, English Roman 
 Catholic writer, born 1711, died 1773. 
 His Lives of the Saints is a monument 
 of erudition which cost him thirty years’ 
 labor. 
 
 BUTLER, Benjamin Franklin, an 
 American politician and lawyer, born 
 in New York in 1795, died 1858. He 
 was Martin Van Buren’s partner until 
 1821, revised the New York statutes, 
 was attorney-general in Jackson’s cabi- 
 net, and secretary of war in Polk’s 
 cabinet. He was an ardent democrat. 
 
 BUTLER, Benjamin Franklin, an 
 American soldier, politician, and gover- 
 nor, born in Deerfield, N. H., in 1818, 
 died in 1893. He was candidate for 
 governor of Massachusetts in 1860, and 
 at the opening of the civil war was made 
 major-general of volunteers. Butler 
 
 from the first was an uncompromising 
 enemy of slave-owners, and his occupa- 
 tion of New Orleans from 1862 to 1863 
 has been critized severely. His chief 
 offense was his general order that women 
 insulting officers should be treated as 
 women of the town. Jefferson Davis 
 issued a proclamation that Butler was 
 an outlaw, and if captured should be at 
 once hanged. Subsequently to the war 
 Butler was very prominent in politics, 
 and in 1880 was elected governor of 
 Massachusetts. In 1884 he was candi- 
 date for president on the greenback- 
 labor ticket. He died at Washington. 
 
 BUTLER, Joseph, an English prelate 
 and celebrated writer on ethics and 
 theology, born in Berkshire in 1692. 
 The sermons which he delivered as 
 preacher at the Rolls Chapel, an appoint- 
 ment he occupied in 1718-26, still hold 
 a high place in ethical literature. But 
 his great work is the Analogy of Religion, 
 Natural and Revealed, to the Constitu- 
 tion and Course of Nature, which was 
 published in 1736, and acquired for him 
 a great reputation. In 1738 he was 
 made Bishop of Bristol, and in 1750 
 promoted to the see of Durham. He 
 died in 1752. 
 
 BUTLER, Nicholas Murray, an Amer- 
 ican educator, born in New Jersey in 
 1862, educated in American and Eu- 
 ropean universities, and in 1887 organ- 
 ized the New York College for the Train- 
 ing of Teachers. He founded the Edu- 
 cational Review in 1891, and since 1901 
 has been president of Columbia Uni- 
 versity. 
 
 BUTLER, Samuel, English satirical 
 poet. Butler published the first part of 
 Hudibras after the Restoration, in 1663. 
 It became immensely popular, and 
 Charles II. himself was perpetually 
 
 Samuel Butler. 
 
 quoting the poem, but did nothing for 
 the author, who seems to have passed 
 the latter part of his life dependent on 
 the support of friends, and died in 
 poverty in London in 1680. A second 
 part of Hudibras appeared in 1664, a 
 third in 1678. The poem is a sort of 
 burlesque epic ridiculing Puritanism, 
 and fanaticism and hypocrisy generally. 
 Butler was author also of various other 
 pieces, including a satire on the Royal 
 Society entitled the Elephant in the 
 Moon. 
 
 BUTTE, a city and county seat of 
 Silverbow Co., Mont., on the western 
 slope of a range of the Rocky Mountains, 
 and on the Oregon Short Line, the 
 
 Northern Pacific, the Great Northern, 
 and the Montana Union railroads. The 
 famous Anaconda Copper and Silver 
 Mine is located here, and within a 
 few miles are many other productive 
 gold, silver, and copper deposits, the 
 industries of the city centering almost 
 entirely in the mines. In copper, the 
 production of Butte is placed at about 
 one-half of the entire output of the 
 United States, and the amount of gold 
 and silver mined is also considerable, the 
 value of the annual production of these 
 three minerals being estimated at nearly 
 $50,000,000. Besides the mines, there 
 are immense mills and smelting-works. 
 Pop. 33,125. 
 
 BUTTER, a fatty substance produced 
 from milk, especially cows’ milk. When 
 the milk is first drawn this fatty matter 
 is disseminated through it in minute 
 clear globules inclosed in membranous 
 sacs or bags which in a short time rise 
 to the surface and form cream. The 
 cream is then skimmed off to undergo 
 the operation of churning, which by 
 rupturing the sacs effects a separation of 
 the cream, into a solid called butter and 
 a liquid called buttermilk, the latter 
 consisting of whey and other caseous 
 matter. The quality of the butter de- 
 pends much upon the treatment of the 
 cream at this stage. Its temperature 
 in warm weather ought to be between 
 53° and 55°; in colder weather several 
 degrees higher. If too cold the fat is 
 hard and does not coalesce, and if too 
 warm it becomes semi -liquid. The 
 butter, being formed into lumps, is 
 washed well in cold water, and kneaded 
 till all the buttermilk has been expelled. 
 Butter of good quality has a faint sweet 
 odor and a soft delicate flavor. Its com- 
 position varies somewhat according to 
 the way in which it is made. It has 
 usually from 80 to 90 per cent of pure 
 fat, the rest consisting of casein, water, 
 and salt. The water should not amount 
 to more than 10 per cent, nor the salt 
 to more than 2 per cent of the whole 
 weight, but butter is frequently adul- 
 terated by the excess of these two ele- 
 ments. Butter which is to be thoroughly 
 “cured,” so as to keep for some length 
 of time, is usually prepared with from 
 5 to 8 per cent of common salt. 
 
 BUTTERCUP, the popular name of 
 two or three species of plants with bril- 
 liant yellow-flowers. 
 
 BUTTERFLY, the common name of 
 all diurnal lepidopterous insects. One of 
 the most remarkable and interesting cir- 
 cumstances connected with these beau- 
 tiful insects is their series of transforma- 
 tions before reaching a perfect state. 
 The female butterfly lays a great quan- 
 tity of eggs, which produce larvae com- 
 monly called caterpillars. After a short 
 life these assume a new form, and 
 become chrysalids or pupae. These 
 chrysalids are attached to other bodies 
 in various ways, and are of various forms; 
 they often have brilliant golden or 
 argentine spots. Within its covering 
 the insect develops, to emerge as the 
 active and brilliant butterfly. These 
 insects in their perfect form suck the 
 nectar of plants, but take little food, 
 and are all believed to be short-lived, 
 their work in the perfect state being 
 almost confined to the propagation of 
 
BUTTERING 
 
 BYRON 
 
 the species. Butterflies vary greatly 
 in size and coloring, but most of . them 
 are very beautiful. The largest are 
 found in tropical countries, where some 
 measure nearly a foot across the wings. 
 They may generally be distinguished 
 from moths by having their wings erect 
 when sitting, the moths having theirs 
 
 1,3, Chrysalis of the white butterfly-moth; 
 a, Palpi or feelers; 66, wing-cases; c, sucker; 
 
 eyes; xx, antennaj. 3, Chrysalis of the oak 
 efger-moth. 
 
 horizontal. Some of them have great 
 powers of flight. Among the most 
 remarkable butterflies are those that 
 present an extraordinary likeness to 
 other objects — leaves, green or withered, 
 flowers, bark, etc. — a feature that serves 
 greatly to protect them from enemies. 
 See Lepidoptera and Mimicry. 
 
 BUTTERINE, a mixture of several 
 kinds of fats, worked together, churned 
 in milk, colored, and sold as a substitute 
 for butter. Its manufacture is per- 
 mitted by U. States law, but it must not 
 be sold as butter, but must be marked 
 plainly “butterine.” Some states forbid 
 the coloring of it, and dealers supply 
 coloring matter to the buyer, who may 
 thus evade the law in dealing v/ith bis 
 consumei's. Butterine now is generally 
 made of deodorized lard mixed with 
 cottonseed stearine and a little genuine 
 butter, and churned with milk. It was 
 formerly made of “oleo oil,” that is, the 
 fat expressed from beef tallow, which 
 was mixed and churned as above. 
 Butterine is not an unhealthful article 
 of diet when properly and carefully 
 manufactured. 
 
 BUTTERMILK, the milk from which 
 butter has been extracted, forming a 
 nutritious and agreeable cooling bever- 
 age with an acidulous taste. 
 
 BUTTERNUT, the fruit of an Ameri- 
 can tree, so called from the oil it con- 
 tains. The tree bears a resemblance in 
 its general appearance to the black 
 walnut, but the wood is not so dark in 
 color. 
 
 BUTTONS are of almost all forms and 
 materials — wood, horn, bone, ivory, 
 steel, copper, silver, brass, etc. — which 
 are either left naked or covered with silk 
 or some other material. A substance 
 now very commonly used for buttons 
 is vegetable ivory (seeds of the ivory- 
 nut palm), which may be colored accord- 
 ing to taste. Mother-of-pearl buttons 
 are another common kind. 
 
 BUTTRESSES, in architecture, espe- 
 cially Gothic, projections on the outside 
 of the walls of an edifice, extending from 
 the bottom to the top, or nearly, and 
 intended to give additional support to 
 the walls and prevent them from spread- 
 ing under the weight of the roof. Flying 
 buttresses, of a somewhat arched form, 
 often spring from the top of the ordinary 
 buttresses, leaning inward so as to abut 
 against and support a higher portion of 
 
 the building, such as the wall of a elear- 
 story, thus receiving part of the pressure 
 from the weight of the roof of the central 
 pile. 
 
 BUTYR'IC ACID, an acid obtained 
 from butter; it also occurs in perspira- 
 
 Buttress aud flying buttress. 
 
 tion, cod-liver oil, etc. Butyric acid is 
 a colorless liquid, having a smell like 
 that of rancid butter; its taste is acrid 
 and biting, with a sweetish after-taste. 
 
 BUZ'ZARD, the name of raptorial 
 birds which form one of the sub-families 
 of the diurnal birds of prey; characters, 
 a moderate-sized beak, hooked from the 
 base, long wings, long tarsi, and short 
 weak toes. The common buzzard is 
 distributed over the whole of Europe 
 as well as the north of Africa and 
 America. Its food is very miscellaneous, 
 and consists of moles, mice, frogs, toads, 
 worms, insects, etc. It is sluggish in its 
 habits. Its length is from 20 to 22 
 inches. The rough-legged buzzard, so 
 called from having its legs feathered to 
 the toes, is also a native of Britain. Its 
 habits resemble those of the common 
 buzzard. The red-tailed hawk of the 
 U. States is a buzzard. It is also called 
 hen-hawk, from its raids on the poultry- 
 yard. 
 
 BY-LAW, a law made by an incorpo- 
 rated or other body for the regulation of 
 its own affairs, or the affairs intrusted 
 to its care. By-laws must of course be 
 within the meaning of the charter of 
 incorporation and in accordance with 
 the law of the land. 
 
 BY'RON, George Gordon Noel, Lord 
 Byron, a great English poet, was born in 
 Holies street, London, Jan. 22, 1788. 
 In 1805 he was entered of Trinity Col- 
 lege, Cambridge. Two years after, in 
 1807, appeared his first poetic volume. 
 Hours of Idleness, which, though indeed 
 containing nothing of much merit, was 
 castigated with overseverity by Brough- 
 am in the Edinburgh Review. This 
 caustic critic roused the slumbering 
 energy in Byron, and drew from him his 
 first really notable effort, the celebrated 
 satire English Bards and Scotch Re- 
 viewers. In 1809, in company with a 
 friend, he visited the southern provinces 
 of Spain, and voyaged along the shores 
 
 of the Mediterranean. The fruit of 
 these travels was the fine poem of Childe 
 Harold’s Pilgrimage, the first two cantos 
 of which were published on his return 
 in 1812. The poem was an immense 
 success, and Byron “awoke one morning 
 and found himself famous.” During 
 the next two years (1813-14) the Giaour, 
 the Bride of Abydos, the Corsair, Lara, 
 and the Siege of Corinth showed the 
 brilliant work of which the new poet 
 was capable. On the 2d of January, 
 1815, Byron married Anna Isabella, 
 only daughter of Sir Ralph Milkanke, 
 but the marriage turned out unfortunate, 
 and in about a year Lady Byron, having 
 gone on a visit to her parents, refused to 
 return, and a formal separation took 
 place. He visited France, the field of 
 Waterloo and Brussels, the Rhine, 
 Switzerland, and the north of Italy, and 
 for some time took up his abode at 
 Venice, and latterly at Rome, where he 
 completed his third canto of Childe 
 Harold. Not long after appeared the 
 Prisoner of Chillon, The Dream, and 
 other poems; and in 1817 Manfred, a 
 tragedy, and the Lament of Tasso. 
 From Italy he made occasional excur- 
 sions to the islands of Greece, and at 
 length visited Athens, where he sketched 
 many of the scenes of the fourth and 
 last canto of Childe Harold. In 1819 
 was published the romantic tale of 
 Mazeppa, and the same year was marked 
 by the commencement of Don Juan. 
 In 1820 appeared Marino Faliero, Doge 
 of Venice, a tragedy; the drama of 
 Sardanapalus; the Two Foscari, a 
 
 Lord Byron. 
 
 tragedy; and Cain, a mystery. After 
 leaving Venice Byron resided for some 
 time at Ravenna, then at Pisa, and 
 lastly at Genoa. There he continued to 
 occupy himself with literature and 
 poetry, sustained for a time by the com- 
 panionship of Shelley, one of the few 
 men whom he entirely respected and 
 with whom he was quite confidential. 
 Besides his contributions to the Liberal, 
 a periodical established at this time in 
 conjunction with Leigh Hunt and Shel- 
 ley, he completed the later cantos of 
 Don Juan, with Werner, a tragedy, and 
 the Deformed Transformed, a fragment. 
 These are the last of Byron’s poetical 
 efforts. In 1823 he conceived the idea 
 of throwing himself into the struggle 
 for the independence of Greece. In 
 January, 1824, he arrived at Missolonghi, 
 was received with the greatest enthusi- 
 asm, and immediately took into his pay 
 a body of 500 Suliotes. On the 9th of 
 
BYZANTINE ART 
 
 BYZANTINE EMPIRE 
 
 April, 1824, while riding out in the rain, 
 he caught a fever, which ten days later 
 ended fatally. Thus, in his thirty- 
 seventh year, died prematurely a man 
 whose natural force and genius were 
 perhaps superior to those of any English- 
 man of his time. The body of Byron 
 was brought to England and interred 
 near Newstead Abbey. 
 
 BYZAN'TINE ART, a style which 
 arose in southeastern Europe after 
 Constantine the Great had made Byza,n- 
 tium the capital of the Roman Empire 
 (330 A.D.), and ornamented that city, 
 which was called after him, with all the 
 treasures of Gracian art. (See Byzan- 
 tine Empire.) / One of the chief in- 
 fluences in Byzantine art was Christian- 
 ity, and to a certain extent Byzantine 
 art may be recognized as the endeavor 
 to give expression to the new elements 
 which Christianity had brought into 
 the life of men. The tendency toward 
 Oriental luxuriousness and splendor of 
 ornament now quite supplanted the 
 simplicity of ancient taste. Richness 
 of material and decoration was the aim 
 of the artist rather than purity of con- 
 ception. Yet the classical ideals of art, 
 and in particular the traditions of 
 technical processes and methods carried 
 to Byzantium by the artists of the 
 Western Empire, held their ground long 
 enough, and produced work pure and 
 powerful enough, to kindle the new 
 artistic life which began in Italy with 
 Cimadue and Giotto. 
 
 Byzantine architecture may be said 
 to have assumed its distinctive features 
 in the church of St. Sophia built by 
 Justinian in the 6th century, and still 
 existing as the chief mosque in Con- 
 stantinople. It is more especially the 
 style associated with the Greek Church 
 as distinguished from the Roman. The 
 leading forms of the Byzantine style are 
 the round arch, the circle, and in par- 
 ticular the dome. The last is the most 
 conspicuous and characteristic object 
 in Byzantine buildings, and the free and 
 full employment of it was arrived at 
 when by the use of pendentives the 
 
 Byzantine Architecture— Ancient cathedral, 
 Athens. 
 
 architects were enabled to place it on 
 a square apartment instead of a circular 
 or polygonal. In this style of building 
 incrustation, the incrustation of ^ick 
 with more precious materials, ^as 
 largely in use. It depended much on 
 color and surface ornament for its effect. 
 
 and with this intent mosaics wrought 
 on grounds of gold or of positive color 
 are profusely introduced, while colored 
 marbles and stones of various kinds are 
 greatly made use of. The capitals are 
 of peculiar and original designs, the 
 most characteristic being square and 
 
 Byzantine Architecture— Part of the nave of 
 the Palatine chapel, Palermo. 
 
 tapering downward, and they are very 
 varied in their decorations. Byzantine 
 architecture may be divided into an 
 older and a newer (or Neo-Byzantine) 
 style. The most distinctive feature of 
 the latter is that the dome is raised on a 
 perpendicular circular or polygonal 
 piece of masonary (technically the 
 drum) containing windows for lighting 
 the interior, while in the older style the 
 light was admitted by openings in the 
 dome itself. The Cathedral of Athens 
 (shown in the accompanying cut) is an 
 example of the Neo-Byzantine style. 
 The Byzantine style had a great in- 
 fluence on the architecture of Western 
 Europe, especially in Italy, where St. 
 Mark’s in Venice is a magnificent ex- 
 ample, as also in Sicily. It had also 
 material influence in Southern France 
 and Western Germany. 
 
 BYZAN'TINE EMPIRE, the Eastern 
 Roman Empire, so called from its capital 
 Byzantium or Constantinople. The 
 Byzantine Empire was founded in a.d. 
 395, when Theodosius at his death 
 divided the Roman Empire between 
 his sons Arcadius and Honorius. In this 
 empire the Greek language and civili- 
 zation were prevalent; but the rulers 
 claimed still to be Roman emperors, and 
 under their sway the laws and official 
 forms of Rome were maintained. It 
 lasted for about a thousand years after 
 the downfall of the Western Empire. 
 It is also known as the Greek Empire or 
 Lower Empire. Its capital was natur- 
 ally Constantinople, a city established 
 by Constantine in 330 as the new capi- 
 tal of the whole Roman Empire. 
 
 The Eastern Empire, then comprising 
 Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Greece, Thrace, 
 Moesia, Macedonia, and Crete, fell to 
 Theodosius’s elder son Arcadius, through 
 whose weakness and that of several 
 of his immediate successors it suffered 
 severely from the encroachments of 
 Huns, Goths, Bulgarians, and Per- 
 sians. In 527 the celebrated Justinian 
 succeeded, whose reign is famous for the 
 codification of Roman law, and the 
 victories of his generals Belisarius and 
 Narses over the Vandals in Africa, and 
 the Goths in Italy, which was hence- 
 forth governed for the Eastern Empire 
 by an exarch residing at Ravenna. But 
 his energy could not revive the decaying 
 strength of the empire, and Justin II. 
 his successor (565-578), a weak and 
 avaricious prince, lost his reason by the 
 reverses encountered in his conflicts 
 with plundering Lombards, Avars, and 
 Persians. Tiberius, a captain of the 
 guard, succeeded in 578, and in 582 
 Mauricius; both were men of ability. In 
 602 Phocas, proclaimed emperor by the 
 army, succeeded, and produced by his 
 incapacity the greatest disorder in the 
 empire. 
 
 The empire was in sore straits when 
 Leo the Isaurian (Leo III.), general of 
 the army of the East, mounted the 
 throne (716), and a new period of com- 
 parative prosperity began. Some writ- 
 ers date the beginning of the Byzantine 
 Empire proper, and the end of the 
 Eastern Roman Empire, from this era. 
 Numerous reforms, civil and military, 
 were now introduced, and the worship 
 of images was prohibited. After an 
 interval of three centuries of indifferent 
 history Isaac Comnenus, the first of 
 the Comnenian dynasty, ascended the 
 throne, but soon after became a monk. 
 The three chief emperors of this dynasty 
 were Alexius, John, and Manuel Com- 
 nenus. During the reign of Alexius I. 
 (1081-1118) the Crusades commenced. 
 His son, John II., and grandson, Manuel 
 I., fought with success against the 
 Turks, whose progress also was con- 
 siderably checked by the Crusaders. 
 The Latins, the name given to the 
 French, Venetian, etc., crusaders, now 
 forced their way to Constantinople 
 (1204), conquered the city, and retained 
 it, together with most of the European 
 territories of the empire. Baldwin, 
 count of Flanders, was made emperor; 
 Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, ob- 
 tained Thessalonica as a kingdom, and 
 the Venetians acquired a large extent of 
 territory. Theodore Lascaris seized on 
 the Asiatic provinces, in 1206 made Nice 
 (Nicaea) the capital of the empire, and 
 was at first more powerful than Baldwin. 
 Neither Baldwin nor his successors, 
 Henry, Peter, and Robert of Courtenay, 
 were able to secure the tottering throne. 
 John, emperor of Nice, conquered all the 
 remaining Byzantine territory except 
 Constantinople, and at last, in 1261, 
 Michael Palceologus, king of Nice, con- 
 quered Constantinople, and thus over- 
 threw the Latin dynasty. 
 
 In 1361 Sultan Amurath took Adria- 
 nople. Bajazet conquered almost all the 
 European provinces except Constanti- 
 nople, and was pressing it hard when 
 Timur’s invasion of the Turkish prov- 
 inces saved Constantinople for this 
 
BYZANTIUM 
 
 CABOT 
 
 time (1402). Manuel then recovered his 
 throne, and regained some of the lost 
 provinces from the contending sons of 
 Bajazet. To him succeeded his son 
 John, Palseologus II. (1425), whom 
 Amurath II. stripped of all his terri- 
 tories except Constantinople, and laid 
 under tribute (1444). To the Emperor 
 John succeeded his brother Constantine 
 Palseologus. With the assistance of his 
 general Giustiniani, a Genoese, he with- 
 
 stood the superior forces of the enemy 
 with fruitless courage, and fell in the 
 defense of Constantinople, by the con- 
 quest of which (May 29, 1453) Mo- 
 hammed II. put an end to the Greek or 
 Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine 
 Empire, which thus lasted for over a 
 thousand years, was of immense service 
 to the world in stemming the tide of 
 Mohammedan advance, in spreading 
 Christianity and civilization, and in 
 maintaining a regular system of govern- 
 
 ment, law, and policy in the midst of 
 surrounding barbarism. 
 
 BYZANTIUM, the original name of 
 the city of Constantinople. It was 
 founded by Greek colonists in 658 b.c., 
 and owing to its favorable position for 
 commerce it attained great prosperity, 
 and survived the decay, of most of the 
 other Greek cities. In a.d. 330 a new 
 era began for it when Constantine the 
 Great made it the capital of the Roman 
 Empire. See Constantinople. 
 
 C, the third letter in the English al- 
 phabet and the second of the consonants. 
 In English it serves to represent two 
 perfectly distinct sounds, namely, the 
 guttural sound pertaining to k and the 
 hard or thin sound of s, the former being 
 that which historically belongs to it; 
 while it also forms with h the digraph ch. 
 The former sound it has before the 
 vowels a, o, and u, the latter before e, i, 
 and y. The digraph ch has three dif- 
 ferent sounds, as in church, chaise, and 
 chord. To these the Scotch adds a 
 fourth, heard in the word loch. 
 
 C, in music, (a) after the clef, the mark 
 of common time, in which each measure 
 is a semibreve or four minims, corre- 
 sponding to I or I and when a bar is per- 
 pendicularly drawn through it alla-breve 
 time or a quicker movement is indicated, 
 (b) The name of the first or key-note of 
 the modern normal scale, answering to 
 the do of the Italians and the ut of the 
 French. 
 
 CAAING WHALE (ka'ing), the round- 
 headed porpoise, a cetaceous animal of 
 the dolphin family, characterized by a 
 rounded muzzle and a convex head, 
 attaining a size of 16 to 24 feet. It 
 frequents the shores of Orkney, Shet- 
 land, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland, 
 appearing in herds of from 200 to 1000, 
 and numbers are often caught. They 
 live on cod, ling, and other large fish, and 
 also on molluscs, especially the cuttle- 
 fishes. 
 
 CAB, a kind of hackney-carriage with 
 two or four wheels drawn by one horse. 
 The original cab was for only one pas- 
 senger besides the driver, and was a 
 kind of hooded chaise. 
 
 CABBAGE, the popular name of vari- 
 ous species of cruciferous plants, espe- 
 cially applied to the plain-leaved, heart- 
 ing, garden varieties, cultivated for food. 
 The kinds most cultivated are the com- 
 mon cabbage, the savoy, the broccoli, 
 and the cauliflower. The common cab- 
 bage forms its leaves into heads or bolls, 
 the inner leaves being blanched. Its 
 varieties are the white, the red or pur- 
 ple, the tree or cow cabbage for cattle 
 (branching and growing when in flower 
 to the height of 10 feet), and the very 
 delicate Portugal cabbage. The garden 
 sorts form valuable culinary vegetables, 
 and are used at table in various ways. 
 In Germany pickled cabbage forms a 
 sort of national dish, known as sauer- 
 kraut. 
 
 CABBAGE-PALM, a name given to 
 various species of palm-trees from the 
 circumstance that the terminal bud. 
 
 c 
 
 which is of great size, is edible and re- 
 sembles cabbage, one of which is a 
 native of the West Indies, the simple un- 
 branched stem of which grows to a 
 height of 150 or even 200 feet. The un- 
 opened bud of young leaves is much 
 prized as a vegetable, but the removal 
 of it completely destroys the tree, as it 
 is unable to produce lateral buds. 
 
 CAB'INET, the collective body of 
 ministers who direct the government of 
 a country. In Britain, though the exec- 
 utive government is vested nominally 
 in the crown, it resides practically in a 
 committee of ministers called the cabi- 
 net. Every cabinet includes the first 
 lord of the treasury, who is usually (not 
 always) the prime-minister or chief of 
 the ministry, and therefore of the cabi- 
 net ; the lord-chancellor, the lord-presi- 
 dent of the council, the chancellor of 
 the exchequer, the first lord of the 
 admiralty, and the five secretaries of 
 state. A number of other ministerial 
 functionaries, varying from two to eight, 
 have usually seats in the cabinet, and 
 its members belong to both houses of 
 parliament, but usually adhere to that 
 political party which predominates for 
 the time being in the House of Commons. 
 Its meetings are secret, and no minutes 
 of the proceedings are taken. Although 
 the cabinet is regarded as an essential 
 part of the institutions of Great Britain, 
 it has never been recognized b 5 ’' act of 
 parliament. It began to take its present 
 form in the reign of William III. 
 
 In the United States the cabinet of 
 the president is appointed by him and 
 assists him in his administration. It 
 consists of the following officials : secre- 
 tary of state, secretary of the treasury, 
 secretary of war, attorney-general, post- 
 master-general, secretary of the navy, 
 secretary of the interior, secretary of 
 agriculture, and secretary of commerce 
 and labor. By an act of congress which 
 went into effect Jan. 19, 1886, in case 
 of removal by death, resignation, or 
 inability of both the president and the 
 vice-president, the secretary of state, and 
 after him, in the order above given, the 
 other members of the cabinet, shall 
 act as president until the disability of 
 the president is removed or a new 
 president is elected. The departments 
 of agriculture and of labor and commerce 
 were created after the passage of the 
 above law. 
 
 CABLE, a large strong rope or chain, 
 such as is used to retain a vessel at 
 anchor. It is made usually of hemp or 
 iron, but may be made of other mate- 
 
 rials. A hemp cable is composed of three 
 strands, each strand of three ropes, and 
 each rope of three twists. A ship’s 
 cable is usually 120 fathoms or 720 feet 
 in length; hence the expression a cable’s 
 length. Chain-cables have now almost 
 superseded rope-cables. Although defi- 
 cient in elasticity, heavier, and more 
 difficult of management, yet their im- 
 munity from chafing and rotting, their 
 greater compactness for stowage, and 
 the fact that from their greater weight 
 the strain is exerted on the cable rather 
 than on the ship, more than counter- 
 balance these drawbacks. — A submarine 
 telegraph cable is composed of one or 
 more copper wires embedded in a com- 
 pound of gutta percha and resinous sub- 
 stances, encircled by layers of gutta 
 percha or india-rubber, hemp or jute 
 padding, and coils of iron wire. 
 
 CABLE, a bundle of wires for the con- 
 duction of electricity, covered with sub- 
 stances which protect the wires from 
 harm, the wires themselves being sepa- 
 rately insulated. Cables are used in 
 several ways; they are strung along 
 posts exposed to the air, or upon houses, 
 or other structures; they are placed 
 underground in conduits, or otherwise; 
 and they are laid in the beds of bodies 
 of water. Various materials are used 
 for their insulation and protection, such 
 as rubber, bitumen, jute, hemp, or oil 
 paper, wax or other resins, rubber tape, 
 and other materials, depending upon the 
 situation of the cable and the nature of 
 the reagents which attack it. 
 
 CABLE, George Washington, an Amer- 
 ican writer and novelist, born in New 
 Orleans in 1844. He was early engaged 
 in journalism, and his first w’ork of 
 fiction was Old Creole Days, a number 
 of short stories of Louisiana and New 
 Orleans. He has published The Gran- 
 dissimes, Madame Delphine, Dr. Sevier, 
 Bonaventure, and other highly original 
 works of fiction. Since 1885 he has been 
 living in New England. 
 
 CABLE - MOLDING, in architecture, 
 a molding with its surface cut in im- 
 itation of the twisted strands of a rope. 
 
 CABOOSE', the cookroom or kitchen 
 of a ship. In smaller vessels it is an 
 inclosed fireplace, hearth, or stove for 
 cooking on the main deck. 
 
 CAB'OT, Sebastian, navigator, was 
 born at Bristol about 1474, died about 
 1557. He was the son of John Cabot, a 
 Venetian pilot, who resided at Bristol, 
 and was highly esteemed for his skill in 
 navigation. In 1497, in company with 
 his father and two brothers, he dis- 
 
CABRAL 
 
 CADENCE 
 
 covered the mainland of N. America, 
 having visited Nova Scotia and New- 
 foundland. In 1517 he made an attempt 
 to discover the northwest passage, visit- 
 ing Hudson’s Bay. In 1526, when in the 
 
 Sebastian Cabot. 
 
 Spanish service, he visited Brazil and 
 the river Plata. In 1548 he again settled 
 in EnglaAd, and received a pension from 
 Edward VI. He was the first who 
 noticed the variations of the compass; 
 and he published a large map of the 
 world. 
 
 CABRAL', Pedro Alvarez, the dis- 
 coverer (or second discoverer) of Brazil, 
 a Portuguese, born about 1460, died 
 about 1526. In 1500 he received com- 
 mand of a fleet bound for the East 
 Indies, and sailed from Lisbon, but 
 having taken a course too far to the west 
 he was carried by the South American 
 current to the coast of Brazil, of which 
 he took possession in name of Portugal. 
 Continuing his voyage, he visited Mo- 
 zambique, and at last reached India, 
 where he made important commercial 
 treaties with native princes, and then 
 returned to Europe. 
 
 CABUL (ka-bul'), capital of the king- 
 dom of Afghanistan, 165 miles from the 
 
 Indian station and fort of Peshawur, 600 
 from Herat, and 290 from Candahar. 
 It stands on the Cabul river, at an eleva- 
 tion of 6400 feet above sea-level. The 
 citadel, Bala-Hissar, contains the palace 
 
 and other public buildings, the fort, etc. 
 Cabul carries on a considerable trade 
 with Hindustan through the Khyber 
 Pass. It was taken by the British in 
 1839 and in 1842, and on the occasion of 
 a subsequent war with the British in 
 1879 Cabul was twice taken by their 
 troops. Pop. 75,000. — The Cabul river 
 rises in Afghanistan at the height of 
 about 8400 feet, flows eastward, passes 
 through the Khyber Pass into India, 
 and falls into the Indus at Attock. 
 Length 300 miles. 
 
 CACA'O, or CO'COA, the chocolate- 
 tree, and also the powder and beverage 
 made with it obtained from the fruit 
 of this tree. The tree is 16 to 18 feet 
 high, a native of tropical America, and 
 much cultivated in the tropics of both 
 hemispheres, especially in the West India 
 Islands, Central and South America. 
 Its fruit is contained in pointed, oval, 
 ribbed pods 6 to 10 inches long, each 
 inclosing 50 to 100 seeds in a white, 
 sweetish pulp. These are very nutritive, 
 containing 50 per cent of fat, are of an 
 agreeable flavor, and used, both in their 
 fresh state and when dried, as an article 
 of diet. Cocoa and chocolate are made 
 from them, the former being a powder 
 obtained by grinding the seeds, and 
 often mixed with other substances when 
 prepared for sale, the latter being this 
 powder mixed with sugar and various 
 flavoring matters and formed into solid 
 cakes. The seeds when roasted and 
 divested of their husks and crushed are 
 known as cocoa nibs. The seeds jdeld 
 also an oil called butter of cacao, used in 
 pomatum and for making candles, soap, 
 etc. The term cocoa is a corruption of 
 cacao, but is more commonly used in 
 commerce; cocoanuts, however, are ob- 
 tained from an entirely different tree. 
 
 CACHALOT (kash'a-lot). See Sperm- 
 whale. 
 
 CACHE (ka,sh), a hole in the ground 
 for hiding and preserving provisions 
 which it is inconvenient to carry: used 
 
 by settlers in the western states of 
 America and Arctic explorers. 
 
 CACHET (ka-sha), Lettre de, a name 
 given especially to letters proceeding 
 from and signed by the kings of France, 
 
 and countersigned by a secretary of 
 state. They were at first made use of 
 occasionally as a means of delaying the 
 course of justice, but they appear to 
 have been rarely employed before the 
 17th century as warrants for the deten- 
 tion of private citizens, and for depriv- 
 ing them of their personal liberty. Dur- 
 ing the reign of Louis XIV. their use 
 became frightfully common, and by 
 means of them persons were imprisoned 
 for life or for a long period on the most 
 frivolous pretexts. They were abolished 
 at the Revolution. 
 
 CACHOU (ka-sho'), a sweetmeat in 
 the form of a pill, made from the ex- 
 tract of licorice, cashew-nut, gum, etc., 
 used by smokers to sweeten the breath. 
 
 CACIQUE (ka-sek'), in some parts of 
 America the title of the native chiefs at 
 the time of the conquest by the Span- 
 iards. 
 
 CACTUS, a Linnrean genus of plants, 
 now used as a name for any of the 
 Cactaceae, otherwise called the Indian 
 fig order. The species are succulent 
 shrubs, with minute scale-like leaves 
 
 Cacti. 
 
 (except in the genus Pereskia, tree- 
 cactus, with large leaves), ancl with 
 clusters and spines on the stems. They 
 have fleshy stems, with sweetish watery 
 or milky juice, and they assume many 
 peculiar forms. The juice in some 
 species affords a refreshing beverage 
 where water is not to be got. All the 
 plants of this order, except a single 
 species, are natives of America. They 
 are generally found in very dry localities. 
 Some are epiphytes. Several have been 
 introduced into the Old World, and in 
 many places they have become natural- 
 ized. The fruits of some species are 
 edible, as the prickly-pear and the 
 Indian fig, cultivated throughout the 
 Mediterranean region. The flowers are 
 usually large and beautifully colored, 
 and many members of the order are 
 cultivated in hot-houses. 
 
 CADE, John (better knowm as Jack 
 Cade), a popular agitator of the 15th 
 century, leader of an insurrection of the 
 common people of Kent (1450) in the 
 reign of Henry VI. Having defeated a 
 force sent against him he advanced to 
 London, which he ruled for two days. 
 On a promise of pardon being given the 
 rebels soon dispersed, but Cade himself 
 was killed by a gentleman of Kent 
 named Iden. 
 
 CA'DENCE, the concluding notes of a 
 musical composition or of any well- 
 defined section of it. A cadence is per- 
 fect, full, or authentic when the last 
 chord is the tonic preceded by the 
 dominent ; it is imperfect when the 
 chord of the tonic precedes that of the 
 
 Cabal— The bazaar during the fruit season. 
 
CADET 
 
 t* 
 
 dominant; it is plagal when the closing 
 tonic chord is preceded by that of the 
 sub-dominant; and it is interrupted, 
 false, or deceptive when the base rises a 
 second, instead of falling a fifth. Ca- 
 dence, or cadenza, is the name also 
 given to a running passage which a per- 
 former may introduce at the close of 
 a movement. 
 
 CADET, a student in one of the mili- 
 tary schools of the U. States, par- 
 ticularly that of West Point. The 
 appointment of cadet.s to West Point is 
 generally made after competitive exam- 
 ination, or from recommendation by a 
 congressman, each congressional dis- 
 trict being entitled to a cadet, each state 
 to two cadets at large, and the U. States 
 to thirty cadets at large. Cadets spend 
 four years in school and then are com- 
 missioned in the army. A naval cadet 
 is the holder of the lowest grade in the 
 navy, being identical with that of mid- 
 shipman. 
 
 CADIZ (ka-deth'), a seaport of south- 
 western Spain, situated at the extremity 
 of a long tongue of land projecting from 
 the island of Leon, which is separated 
 by a narrow (bridged) channel from the 
 
 coast of .\ndalusia. It is well built, well 
 paved, and very clean, and is strongly 
 fortified. The chief buildings are the 
 great hospital, the custom-house, the 
 old and new cathedrals, the theaters, 
 the bull-ring, capable of accommodating 
 12,000 spectators, and the lighthouse of 
 St. Sebastian. The bay of Cadiz is a 
 large basin inclosed by the mainland on 
 one side and the projecting tongue of 
 land on the other, with good anchorage, 
 and protected by the neighboring hills. 
 It has four forts, two of which form the 
 defense of the grand arsenal. La Carraca 
 (4 miles from Cadiz), at which ate large 
 basins and docks. Cadiz has long been 
 the principal Spanish naval station. 
 Its trade is large, its exports being 
 especially wine and fruit. Cadiz was 
 founded by the Phcenicians about b.c. 
 1100, and was one of the chief seats of 
 
 their commerce in the west of Europe. 
 Pop. 70,177. — The province of Cadiz is 
 the most southerly in Spain; area, 2809 
 sq. miles; pop. 434,250. 
 
 CAD'MIUM, a scarce metal which 
 resembles tin in color and luster, but is 
 a little harder. It is very ductile and 
 malleable; has a specific gravity of 8'6 
 to 8'69; and fuses a little below a red 
 heat. In its chemical character it re- 
 sembles zinc. It occurs in the form of 
 carbonate, as an ingredient in various 
 kinds of calamine, or carbonate of zinc. 
 It is also found in the form of a sulphide, 
 as the rare mineral greenockite. It 
 forms at least two oxides, one chloride, 
 and one sulphide. 
 
 CADMIUM YELLOW, a pigment pre- 
 pared from the sulphide of cadmium. 
 It is of an intense yellow color, and 
 possesses much body. 
 
 CADMUS, in Greek legend, the son of 
 Agenor and grandson of Poseidon 
 (Neptune). He was said to have come 
 from PhcBnicia to Greece about 1550 
 B.C., and to have built the city of Cad- 
 mea or Thebes, in Boeotia. Herodotus 
 and other writers ascribe the introduc- 
 tion of the Phoenician alphabet into 
 Greece to Cadmus. The solar mythists 
 identify him with the sun-god. 
 
 CADU'CEUS, Mercury’s rod ; a winged 
 rod entwisted by two serpents, borne 
 by Mercury as an ensign of quality and 
 office. In modern times it is used as a 
 symbol of commerce. Mercury being the 
 god of commerce. The rod represents 
 power; the serpents, wisdom; and the 
 two wings, diligence and activity. 
 
 C.®DMON (kad'mon), the first Anglo- 
 Saxon of note who wrote in his own 
 language, flourished about the end of 
 the 7th century. His chief work (if it 
 can all be attributed to him) consists of 
 paraphrases of portions of the Scriptures, 
 in Anglo-Saxon verse, the first part of 
 which bears sticking resemblances to 
 Milton’s narrative in Paradise Lost. 
 
 C.®'SAR, a title, originally a surname 
 of the Julian family at Rome, which, 
 after being dignified in the person of the 
 dictator Caius Julius Caesar, was adopted 
 by the successive Roman emperors, and 
 latterly came to be applied to the heir- 
 presumptive to the throne. The title 
 was perpetuated in the Kaiser of the 
 Holy Roman Empire, and in the Czar 
 of the Russian emperors. 
 
 C.®'SAR, Caius Julius, a great Roman 
 general, statesman, and historian, was 
 born B.c. 100, died b.c. 44. He w'as the 
 son of the praetor Caius Julius Caesar, and 
 of Aurelia, a daughter of Aurelius Cotta. 
 At the age of sixteen he lost his father, 
 and shortly after he married Cornelia, 
 the daughter of Lucius Cinna, the friend 
 of Marius. This connection gave great 
 offense to Sulla, the dictator, wKo pro- 
 scribed him for refusing to put away his 
 wdfe. His friends obtained his pardon 
 with difficulty, and Caesar withdrew 
 from Rome, and went to Asia, serving 
 his first campaign under M. Minucius 
 Thermus, the praetor in Asia. On the 
 death of Sulla Caesar returned to Rome, 
 where he distinguished himself as an 
 orator. He afterward visited Rhodes, 
 when he was taken by pirates, and com- 
 pelled to pay fifty talents for his release. 
 To revenge himself, he fitted out some 
 vessels at Miletus, overtook the pirates. 
 
 C^SAR 
 
 made the greater number of them 
 prisoners, and had them crucified before 
 Pergamus. He now returned to Rome, 
 where his eloquence and liberality made 
 him very popular. He was pontifex 
 
 Julius Csesar— Marble in Brit. Museum. 
 
 maximus in 63 b.c., praetor in 62 b.c., 
 and governor of Spain in 61 b.c. On 
 his return to Rome, having united with 
 Pompey and Crassus in the memorable 
 coalition called “the first triumvirate,’’ 
 he became consul, and then obtained the 
 government of Gaul wdth the command 
 of four legions. His military career was 
 rapid and brilliant. He compelled the 
 Helvetii, who had invaded Gaul, to 
 retreat to their native country, subdued 
 Ariovistus, who at the head of a German 
 tribe had attempted to settle in the 
 country of the .(Edui, and conquered the 
 Belgae. In nine years he reduced all 
 Gaul, crossed the Rhine twice (b.c. 55 
 and 53), and twice passed over to Britain, 
 defeated the gallant natives of this 
 island in several battles, and compelled 
 them to give him hostages. The senate 
 had continued his government in Gaul 
 for another period of five years, while 
 Pompey was to have the command of 
 Spain, and Crassus that of Syria, Egypt, 
 and Macedonia for five years also. But 
 the death of Crassus in his campaign 
 against the Parthians dissolved the 
 triumvirate; and about the same time 
 the friendship betw'een Cresar and 
 Pompey cooled. The senate, influenced 
 by Pompey, ordered that CjEsar should 
 resign his offices and command within a 
 certain time, or be proclaimed an enemy 
 to the state, and appointed Pompey 
 general of the army of the Republic. 
 Upon this Ciesar urged his soldiers to 
 defend the honor of their leader, passed 
 the Rubicon (49 b.c.), and made himself 
 master of Italy without striking a blow, 
 Pompey retiring into Greece. CsEsa” 
 then levied an army with the treasures 
 of the state, and hastened into Spain, 
 which he reduced to submission without 
 coming to a pitched battle with Pom- 
 pey’s generals. He next conquered Mas- 
 silia (now Marseilles), and returned to 
 Rome, where he was appointed dictator. 
 He then followed Pompey into Greece, 
 and defeated him at Pharsalia, from 
 which Poiimey escaped only to be assas- 
 sinated in Egypt. In Rome the senate 
 and the people strove eagerly to gain 
 the favor of the victor. They appointed 
 him consul for five years, dictator for a 
 year, and tribune of the people for life. 
 When his dictatorship had expired he 
 caused himself to be chosen consul 
 again, and without changing the ancient 
 forms of government, ruled with almost 
 unlimited power. In 46 b.c. he crossed 
 
C^SAREA 
 
 CAIRO 
 
 to Africa, defeated the Pompeians 
 Scipio and Cato at Chapsus, and return- 
 ing to Rome he was received with the 
 most striking marks of honor. The term 
 of his dictatorship was prolonged to ten 
 years, the office of censor conferred on 
 him alone; his person was declared 
 inviolable, and his statue placed beside 
 that of Jupiter in the capitol. He soon 
 after was honored with four several 
 triumphs, made perpetual dictator and 
 received the title of imperator with full 
 powers of sovereignty. In February, 
 44, he declined the diadem which An-, 
 tony publicly offered him, and next 
 morning his statues were decked with 
 diadems. His glory, however, was 
 short-lived, for a conspiracy was set on 
 foot by his enemy Cassius, and joined 
 by many of his own friends, including 
 M. Brutus; and, notwithstanding dark 
 hints had been given to him of his dan- 
 ger, he attended a meeting of the senate 
 on 15th (ides) March, 44 b.c., and fell 
 beneath the daggers of the conspirators. 
 Of his writings, we still possess the 
 history of his wars with the Gauls and 
 with Pompey. Caesar was undoubtedly 
 “the foremost man of all this world,” 
 being great as a statesman, a general, an 
 orator, a historian, and an architect and 
 engineer, and his assassination was 
 brought about more by jealousy and 
 envy than by real patriotism. 
 
 CiESARE'A, the ancient name of 
 many cities, such as: (1) Caesarea 
 Philippi in Palestine, north of the Sea of 
 Galilee, rebuilt by Philip, tetrarch of 
 Galilee, son ol Herod the Great. — (2) 
 Caesarea, on the shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean, about 55 miles n.w. from Jeru- 
 salem, enlarged and beautified by Herod 
 the Great, and named in honor of Caesar 
 Augustus; the place where St. Paul was 
 imprisoned two years (Acts xxiii.— xxv.) 
 — (3) The capital of Cappadocia in Asia 
 Minor. 
 
 C.ffiSA'REAN OPERATION, a surgical 
 operation, which consists in delivering a 
 child by means of an incision made 
 through the walls of the abdomen and 
 womb; necessary when the obstacles to 
 delivery are so great as to leave no other 
 alternative. It is said to be so named 
 because Julius Csesar was brought into 
 the world in this way. 
 
 CiESIUM, a rare metal, first dis- 
 covered by Bunsen and Kirchoff by 
 spectrum analysis in 1860; symbol Cs, 
 atomic weight 133. It is soft, and of a 
 silver-white color. It is always found 
 in connection with rubidium. It be- 
 longs to the same group of elements 
 with lithium, sodium, potassium, and 
 rubidium, viz. the group of the alkali- 
 metals. 
 
 CAFF'EINE, or THE'INE, the active 
 principle of tea and coffee, a slightly 
 bitter, highly azotized substance, crys- 
 tallizing in slender, silk-like needles, 
 found in coffee-beans, tea-leaves, Para- 
 guay tea, guarana, etc. Coffee contains 
 from 0'8 to 3' 6, and tea from 2 to 4 per 
 cent. Doses of 2 to 10 grains induce 
 violent nervous and vascular excite- 
 ment. 
 
 CAGE-BIRDS, birds kept in cages as 
 pets or songsters. A large traffic is done 
 in birds of this description, particularly 
 the so-called canary birds which are 
 Raised in the Hartz mountains and form 
 
 a large industry. The tame bird has, 
 under these conditions, altered con- 
 siderably from its wild ancestor in the 
 Canary Islands. Other song birds 
 kept in cages are mockingbirds, bull- 
 finches, nightingales, goldfinches, cardi- 
 nal birds, parrots, parakeets, cockatoos, 
 and others are kept for their power of 
 speech or beauty of plumage. In keep- 
 ing cage birds the cage should be regu- 
 larly cleaned, should be large, and the 
 bird should be fed generously with 
 proper food. 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO (kM-yos'tro), Count 
 Alessandro (real name Giuseppe (Joseph) 
 Balsamo), a celebrated charlatan, born 
 in 1743 at Palermo. He was the son of 
 poor parents, and entered the order of 
 the Brothers of Mercy, where he ac- 
 quired a knowledge of the elements of 
 chemistry and physic. He left, or had 
 to leave the order, and committed so 
 many crimes in Palermo that he was 
 obliged to abscond. He subsequently 
 formed a connection with Lorenza 
 Feliciani, whose beauty, ability, and 
 want of principle made her a valuable 
 accomplice in his frauds. With her he 
 traveled through many countries, as- 
 suming other names besides that of 
 Count Cagliostro, pretending to super- 
 natural powers, and wringing consider- 
 able sums from those who became his 
 dupes. In England he established an 
 order of what he called Egyptian 
 Masonry, in which, as grand kophta, he 
 pretended to reveal the secrets of futu- 
 rity, and made many dupes among the 
 higher classes. In Paris he was im- 
 plicated in the affair of the diamond 
 necklace which caused so great a scan- 
 dal in the reign of Louis XVI., and was 
 imprisoned in the Bastile, but escaped 
 by means of his matchless impudence. 
 He afterward visited England, but met 
 with little success. In 1789 he revisited 
 Rome, where he busied himself about 
 freemasonry, but being discovered, and 
 
 committed to the Castle of St. Angelo, 
 he was condemned by a decree of the 
 pope to imprisonment for life as a free- 
 mason, an arch-heretic, and a very 
 dangerous foe to religion. He died in 
 prison in 1795. 
 
 CAI'MAN, or CAY'MAN. See Alliga- 
 tor. 
 
 CAIN, the eldest son of Adam and 
 Eve; the first murderer, who slew his 
 brother Abel. For the biblical history 
 
 of Cain and his descendants see Gen. 
 iv.-vii. A Gnostic sect of the 2d cen- 
 tury called Cainites held that Cain was 
 the offspring of a superior power and 
 Eve, and Abel of an inferior power — 
 the Jewish God, and that the killing of 
 Abel symbolized the defeat of the in- 
 ferior by the superior power. 
 
 CAINOZOTC, a geological term ap- 
 plied to the latest of the three divisions 
 into which strata have been arranged, 
 with reference to the age of the fossils 
 they include. The Cainozoic system 
 embraces the tertiary and postertiary 
 systems of British geologists, exhibiting 
 recent forms of life, in contradistinction 
 to the Mesozoic, exhibiting intermediate, 
 and the Pala30zoic, ancient and extinct, 
 forms. It corresponds nearly with what 
 has been called the age of mammals. 
 
 CAIQUE (ka-ek'), a small skiff or 
 rowing boat ; especially a light skiff 
 used in the Bosporus, where it almost 
 monopolizes the boat traffic. It may 
 have from one to ten or twelve rowers. 
 The name is also given to a Levantine 
 vessel of a larger size. 
 
 CAIRN (karn), a heap of stones; espe- 
 cially one of those large heaps of stones 
 common in Great Britain, particularly 
 in Scotland and Wales, and generally of 
 a conical form. They are of various 
 sizes, and were probably constructed for 
 different objects. Some are evidently 
 sepulchral, containing urns, stone chests, 
 bones, etc. Some were erected to com- 
 memorate some great event, others ap- 
 pear to have been intended for religious 
 rites, while the modern cairn is generally 
 set up as a landmark. 
 
 CAIRO (ki'ro), the capital of Modern 
 Egypt, is situated on the right bank of 
 the Nile, 12 miles above the apex of its 
 delta, and 150 miles by rail from Alexan- 
 dria. The character of the town is still 
 mainly Arabic, though in modern times 
 the European style in architecture and 
 other matters has become more and 
 
 more prevalent. The city is partly sur- 
 rounded by a fortified wall, and is inter- 
 sected by seven or eight great streets, 
 from which run a labyrinth of narrow 
 crooked streets and lanes. There are 
 several large squares or places, the prin- 
 cipal being the Ezbekiyeh. To the 
 southeast of the town is the citadel, 
 on the last spur of the Mokattam Hills, 
 overlooking the city. It contains the 
 fine mosque of Mohammed Ali, a well 
 
CAIRO 
 
 CALCULATORS, LIGHTNING 
 
 270 feet deep called Joseph’s Well, cut 
 in the rock, the palace of the viceroy, 
 etc. There are upward of 400 mosques. 
 The finest is that of Sultan Hassan. 
 There are also some forty Christian 
 churches, Jewish synagogues, etc. The 
 tombs in the burying-grounds outside 
 the city also deserve mention, especially 
 those known as the tombs of the Caliphs. 
 The trade of Cairo is large, and the 
 bazaars and markets are numerous. 
 Of these the Khan el Khalili, in the 
 northeast of the town, consists of a 
 series of covered streets and courts in 
 which all kinds of eastern merchandise 
 are displayed in open stalls. Cairo has 
 railway communication with Alexan- 
 dria, Suez, and Siout. It was occupied 
 by the British, Sept. 1882. Pop. 570,062. 
 
 CAIRO (ka'ro), a city, port of entry, 
 and county-seat of Alexander Co., 111., 
 at the junction of the Mississippi and 
 Ohio rivers, 150 miles southeast of 
 Saint Louis, on the Illinois Central, 
 Cleveland, Cincinnati, Cliicago and 
 Saint Louis, and other railroads. Pop. 
 15,141. 
 
 CAIS'SON. In civil engin. (a) a vessel 
 in the form of a boat used as a flood- 
 gate in docks, (b) An apparatus on 
 which vessels may be raised and floated ; 
 especially a kind of floating-dock, which 
 may be sunk and floated under a vessel’s 
 keel, used for docking vessels while at 
 their moorings, without removing stores 
 or masts, (c) A water-tight box or 
 casing used in founding and building 
 structures in water too deep for the 
 cofferdam, such as piers of bridges, 
 quays, etc. 
 
 CAITH'NESS, a county occupying the 
 extreme northeast of the mainland of 
 Scotland; area, 438,878 acres, of which 
 about a fourth is under crop. Caithness 
 gives the title of earl to the head of the 
 Sinclair family. It returns one member 
 to Parliament. Pop. 33,859. 
 
 CALABAR BEAN, the seed of a legu- 
 minous African plant, nearly allied to 
 the kidney-bean. It is a powerful 
 narcotic poison, operating also as a 
 purgative and emetic, and in virtue of 
 these last qualities is the famous “ordeal 
 bean’’ of Africa, administered to per- 
 sons suspected of witchcraft. If it 
 cause' purging it indicates crime; if 
 vomiting, innocence. It induces faint- 
 ing fits and asphyxia, and weakens or 
 paralyzes the action of the heart. It is 
 employed in medicine, chiefly (exter- 
 nally) as an agent for producing con- 
 traction of the pupil of the eye in certain 
 cases; sometimes also (internally) in 
 neuralgia, tetanus, and rheumatism 
 
 CAL'ABASH, a vessel made of a dried 
 gourd-shell or of a calabash shell, used 
 in some parts of America and Africa. 
 They are so closely grained and hard 
 that when they contain any liquid they 
 may be put on the fire as kettles. 
 
 GALA'BRIA, a name anciently given 
 to the jteninsula at the southeastern 
 extremity of Italy, but now applied to 
 the s.w. peninsula in which Italy ter- 
 minates ; area 6663 sq. miles ; pop. 1,304,- 
 980. Scene in 1908 of the greatest 
 earthquake of modern times. (See 
 earthquake.) 
 
 CALAIS (kii-la), a fortified seaport 
 town of France, dep. Pas-de-Calais, on 
 the Strait of, and 25 miles s-e- of Dover, 
 
 and distant 184 miles by rail from Paris. 
 Pop. 56,857. 
 
 CALAMAN'DER WOOD, a beautiful 
 species of wood, the product of Ceylon. 
 It resembles rosewood, but is so hard 
 that it is worked with great diSiculty. 
 It takes a very high polish, and is 
 wrought into chairs and tables, and 
 yields veneers of almost unequaled 
 beauty. 
 
 CAL'AMARY, the general name for 
 two-gilled decapod cuttle-fishes. The 
 bod}' is oblong, soft, fleshy, tapering, 
 and flanked behind by two triangular 
 fins, and contains a pen-shaped gladius 
 or internal horny flexible shell. They 
 have the power of discharging, when 
 alarmed or pursued, a black fluid from 
 an ink-bag. The species are found in 
 all seas, and furnish food to dolphins, 
 whales, etc. Some species can dash out 
 of the water and propel themselves 
 through the air for 80 or 100 yards. 
 It occasionally grows to the length of 
 2^ feet. Called also Squid. 
 
 CAL'AMUS, a genus of palms, the 
 stems of the different species of which 
 are the rattan-canes of commerce. The 
 genus holds a middle station between 
 the grasses and palms, with the habit of 
 the former and the inflorescence of the 
 latter. The species are principally 
 found in the hotter parts of the East 
 Indies. 
 
 GALAS (ka-la), Jean, a memorable 
 victim of fanaticism, born 1698, exe- 
 cuted 1762. He was a Protestant, and 
 was engaged as a merchant in Toulouse, 
 when his eldest son committed suicide; 
 and as he was known to be attached to 
 the Roman Catholic faith, a cry arose 
 that he had on that account been mur- 
 dered by his father. Jean Calas and his 
 whole family were arrested, and a prose- 
 cution instituted against him, in support 
 of which numerous witnesses came for- 
 ward. The parliament of Toulouse 
 condemned him, by eight voices against 
 five, to be tortured and then broken on 
 the wheel, which sentence was carried 
 out, his property being also confiscated. 
 Voltaire became acquainted with his 
 family, and procured a revision of the 
 trial, when Calas was declared innocent, 
 and his widow pensioned. 
 
 CALCA'REOUS, a term applied to 
 substances partaking of the nature of 
 lime, or containing quantities of lime. 
 Thus we speak of calcareous waters, 
 calcareous rocks, calcareous soils. — Cal- 
 careous spar, crystallized carbonate of 
 lime. It is found crystallized in more 
 than 700 different forms, all having for 
 their primitive form an obtuse rhomboid. 
 — Calcareous tufa, an alluvial deposit 
 of carbonate of lime, formed generally 
 by springs, which, issuing through lime- 
 stone strata, hold in solution a portion 
 of calc.areous earth; this they deposit on 
 coming in contact with air and light. 
 Calc-sinter is a variety of it. 
 
 CALCINATION, the operation of 
 roasting a substance or subjecting it to 
 heat, generally with the purpose of 
 driving off some volatile ingredient, 
 and so rendering the substance suitable 
 for further operations. The term was 
 formerly also applied to the operation 
 of converting a metal into an oxide or 
 metallic calx : now called oxidation. 
 
 CAL'CITE, a term applied to various 
 minerals all of which are modifications 
 of the rhombohedral form of carbonate 
 of calcium. It includes limestone, all 
 the white and most of the colored mar- 
 bles, chalk, Iceland-spar, etc. 
 
 CAL'CIUM, the metallic base of lime ; 
 in the metallic state, one of the rarest 
 of substances; combined, one of the 
 most abundant and most widely dis- 
 tributed. As phosphate, it forms the 
 main part of the mineral matter of the 
 bones of animals; as carbonate, chalk, 
 limestone, or marble, it forms mountain 
 ranges; as sulphate or gypsum, large 
 deposits in various geological forma- 
 tions; it is a constituent of many miner- 
 rals, as fluor-spar, Iceland-spar, etc., and 
 is found in all soils, in the ash of plants, 
 dissolved in seawater, and in springs, 
 both common and mineral. It was first 
 obtained in the metallic state by Sir 
 H. Davy in 1808. When quite pure, it 
 is a pale-yellow metal, with a high 
 luster. It is about one and a half times 
 as heavy as water, ductile, malleable, 
 and very oxidizable. Its salts are for 
 the most part insoluble or sparingly 
 soluble in water, but dissolve in dilute 
 acids. 
 
 CALC-SINTER, a carbonate of lime, 
 the substance which forms the stalac- 
 tites and stalagmites that beautify many 
 caves. 
 
 CALCULATING MACHINES, contriv- 
 ances by which the results of arithmet- 
 ical operations may be obtained 
 mechanically. Modern calculating ma- 
 chines are those invented by Kummer 
 in 1847, and by Lagrous, Djakoff and 
 Webb. The most commonly used ma- 
 chine is called the slide rule machine, 
 by which the multiplication of large 
 numbers can be quickly done. They 
 are based upon the principle of log- 
 arithms.' The following machines are 
 extensively used: Beher’s addition ma- 
 chine (1892), of keyboard type, limited 
 to sums under 500; Rlgen’s calculator 
 (1888), limited to sums under 1000; 
 Runge’s addition machine, Berlin (1896), 
 adding numbers of several figures; Felt’s 
 comptometer, Chicago (1887), key- 
 board type, performing all four opera- 
 tions; Burrough’s registering account- 
 ant, Saint Louis (1888), an addition 
 machine of 81 keys, wdth a capacity of 
 2000 entries per hour, and automatically 
 printing both the addenda and the total 
 sum; Carney’s cash register, Dayton 
 (1890), an adding and printing machine 
 of great perfection. 
 
 CALCULATORS, LIGHTNING, prodi- 
 gies having an unusual capacity for 
 combining numbers. Thus, at the age 
 of 6, T. H. Safford computed mentally 
 the number (617,760) of barley corns in 
 1040 rods, and could extract the cube 
 roots of numbers of 9 and 10 figures. 
 Buxton solved the problem, to find the 
 product of doubling a farthing 139 
 times, the result, expressed in pounds, 
 being a number of 39 figures. Zerah 
 Colburn, at 9 years of age, gave at sight 
 the factors of 294,967,297, and in 20 
 seconds found mentally the number of 
 hours in 1811 years. Raising 991 to the 
 fifth power in 13 operations, and gi\’ing 
 the product of any pair of tow'-figure 
 numbers in li seconds, are feats accom- 
 plished by Arthur Griffith, who also 
 
CALCULUS 
 
 CALENDAR 
 
 memorized the squares of all numbers 
 up to 130 and the cubes up to 100. 
 Other noted prodigies are Annich, Bid- 
 der, Vinckler, Pughiesi, Mondeux, Magi- 
 melle, and Inaudi. 
 
 CAL'CULUS, The Infinitesimal or 
 Transcendental Analysis, a branch of 
 mathematical science. The lower or 
 common analysis contains the rules 
 necessary to calculate quantities of any 
 definite magnitude whatever. But 
 quantities are sometimes considered as 
 varying in magnitude, oi> as having 
 arrived at a given state of magnitude 
 by successive variations. This gives 
 rise to the higher analysis, which is of 
 the greatest use in the physico-mathe- 
 matical sciences. Two objects are here 
 proposed: First, to descend from 
 
 quantities to their elements. The 
 method of effecting this is called the 
 differential calculus. Second, to ascend 
 from the elements of quantities to the 
 quantities themselves. This method is 
 called the integral calculus. Both of 
 these methods are included under the 
 general name infinitesimal or trans- 
 cendental analysis. Those quantities 
 which retain the same value are called 
 con.stant; those whose values are vary- 
 ing are called variable. When variable 
 quantities are so connected that the 
 value of one of them is determined by 
 value ascribed to the others, that vari- 
 able quantity is said to be a function of 
 the others. A quantity is infinitely 
 great or infinitely small, with regard 
 to another, when it is not possible 
 to assign any quantity sufficiently 
 large or suflficiently small to express 
 the ratio of the two. When we con- 
 sider a variable quantity as increas- 
 ing by infinitely small degrees, if we 
 wish to know the value of these 
 increments, the most natural mode is to 
 determine the value of this quantity 
 for any given period, as a second of time, 
 and the value of the same for the period 
 immediately following. This difference 
 is called the differential of the quantity. 
 The integral calculus, as has been 
 already stated, is the reverse of the 
 differential calculus. There is no vari- 
 able quantity expressed algebraically, 
 of which we cannot find the differential; 
 but there are differential quantities 
 which we cannot integrate: some be- 
 cause they could not have resulted from 
 differentiation j others because means 
 have not yet been discovered of inte- 
 grating them. Newton was the first 
 discoverer of the principles of the in- 
 finitesimal _ calculus, having pointed 
 them out in a treatise written before 
 1669, but not published till many years 
 after. Leibnitz, meanwhile, made the 
 same discovery, and published it before 
 Isewton, with a much better notation, 
 which is now universally adopted. 
 
 CALCULUS, in pathology, a general 
 term for the various inorganic concre- 
 tions which are sometimes formed in the 
 body. Such are biliary calculi or gall- 
 stones, formed in the gall bladder, 
 urinary calculi, formed by a morbid 
 denosition from the urine in the kidney 
 or bladder; and various others known as 
 salivary, arthritic, pancreatic, lachry- 
 mal, etc. Urinary and biliary calculi 
 common. The former, 
 when the particles are comparatively 
 
 P. U 
 
 small in size, are known as gravel, when 
 larger as stone. Both cause painful and 
 dangerous symptoms. 
 
 CALCUTTA, capital of British India 
 and of Bengal; situated about 80 miles 
 from the sea, on the left bank of the 
 Hooghly (Hugh'), a branch of the 
 Ganges, navigable up to the city for 
 large vessels. The river opposite the 
 city varies in breadth from about two 
 furlongs to three-quarters of a mile. 
 Calcutta extends along the river for 
 about five miles from north to south, 
 stretching eastward for nearly two 
 miles in the south and in the north nar- 
 rowing to half a mile. Adjacent to the 
 city proper are extensive suburbs, which 
 include the large town of Howrah on the 
 opposite side of the Hooghly, connected 
 
 educational institutions are Calcutta 
 Medical College, government school of 
 art, a school of engineering, and Calcutta 
 University, an examining and degree- 
 conferring institution. Pop. 1,026,987. 
 
 CALDERON' DE LA BARCA, Don 
 Pedro, the great Spanish dramatist, born 
 at Madrid, 1600. Before his fourteenth, 
 year he had written his third play. 
 Leaving Salamanca in 1625, he entered 
 the army and served with distinction for 
 ten years in Milan and the Netherlands. 
 In 1636 he was recalled by Philip IV., 
 who gave him the direction of the court 
 entertainments. The next year he was 
 made knight of the order of Santiago, 
 and he served in 1640 in the campaign 
 in Catalonia. Besides heroic comedies 
 and historical plays, some of which merit 
 
 Calcutta— Bazaar on the Chltpore road. 
 
 with Calcutta by a pontoon bridge. 
 The celebrated Fort William is a mag- 
 nificent octagonal work, said to have 
 cost altogether $10,000,000. It was 
 built in 1757-73, being begun by Clive 
 after the battle of Plassey. Govern- 
 ment-house, or the palace of the gov- 
 ernor-general, built by the Marquis 
 Wellesley at an expense of 15,000,000, 
 stands on the Esplanade, a street or road 
 running along the north side of the 
 Maidan. Here also are the high court 
 and the town-hall, other buildings in 
 this quarter being the currency- office, 
 post-office. Bank of Bengal, mint, etc. 
 The churches include the cathedral, 
 St. John’s (the old cathedral), St. An- 
 drew's Scotch Church, Roman Catholic 
 cathedral, etc. Calcutta has an exten- 
 sive system of internal navigation 
 through the Ganges and its connections, 
 as also by the railways (the chief of 
 which start from Howrah), and it almost 
 monopolizes the external commerce of 
 this part of India. The principal ex- 
 ports are opium, cotton, rice, wheat, 
 jute, gunny-bags, tea, indigo, seeds, 
 raw silk, etc. Of the imports the most 
 important in respect of value are cotton 
 goods. The j'ute manufacture is ex- 
 tensively carried on, as also that of 
 cottons. The religious, educational, and 
 benevolent institutions of Calcutta are 
 numerous. The educational institu- 
 tions comprise the Presidepcy College, 
 the Mohammedan College, and the 
 Sanscrit College, all government colleges 
 besides others mainly supported by 
 missionary or native efforts. Other 
 
 the name of tragedies, Calderon wrote 
 hundreds of preludes, farces, etc. He 
 wrote his last play in the eightieth year 
 of his age. His smaller poems are now 
 forgotten; but his plays have main- 
 tained their place on the stage even 
 more than those of Lope de Vega. He 
 died May 25, 1681. 
 
 CALEDO'NIA, Caledonians, the names 
 by which the northern portion of Scot- 
 land and its inhabitants first became 
 known to the Romans, when in the year 
 80 Agricola occupied the country up to 
 the line of the Firths of Clyde and Forth. 
 He defeated the Caledonians in 83, and 
 again at Mons Grampius in 84, a battle 
 of which a detailed description is given 
 by Tacitus. In the early part of the 3d 
 century they maintained a brave re- 
 sistance to Severus, but the name then 
 lost its historic importance. Caledonia 
 is now used as a poetical name of Scot- 
 land. 
 
 CAL'ENDAR, a record or marking out 
 of time as systematically divided into 
 years, months, weeks, and days. The 
 periodical occurrence of certain natural 
 phenomena gave rise to the first division 
 of time, the division into weeks being 
 the only purely arbitrary partition. The 
 year of the ancient Egyptians was based 
 on the changes of the seasons alone, 
 without reference to the lunar month, 
 and contained 365 days divided into 
 twelve months of thirty days each, with 
 five supplementary days at, the end of 
 the year. The Jewish year consisted of 
 lunar months of which they reckoned 
 twelve in the year, intercalating a 
 
CALENDER 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 thirteenth when necessary to maintain 
 the correspondence of the particular 
 months with the regular recurrence of 
 the seasons. The Greeks in the earliest 
 period also reckoned by lunar and inter- 
 calary months, but after one or two 
 changes adopted the plan of Meton and 
 Euctemon, who took account of the fact 
 that in a period of nineteen years, the 
 new moons return upon the same days 
 of the year as before. This period of 
 nineteen years was found, however, to be 
 about six hours too long, and subsequent 
 calculators still failed to make the be- 
 ginning of the seasons return on the 
 same fixed day of the year. Each month 
 was divided into three decads. The 
 Romans at first divided the year into 
 ten months, but they early adopted the 
 Greek methods of lunar and intercalary 
 months, making the lunar year consist 
 of 354, and afterward of 355 days, 
 leaving ten or eleven days and a fraction 
 to be supplied by the intercalary 
 division. This arrangement continued 
 till the time of Caesar. The first day of 
 the month was called the calends. In 
 March, May, July, and October the 15th, 
 in other months the 13th, was called the 
 ides. The ninth day before the ides 
 (reckoning inclusive) was called the 
 nones, being therefore either the 7th or 
 the 5th of the month. From the inac- 
 curacy of the Roman method of reckon- 
 ing the calendar came to represent the 
 vernal equinox nearly two months after 
 the event, and at the request of Julius 
 Caesar, the Greek astronomer Sosigenes, 
 with the assistance of Marcus Fabius 
 contrived the so-called Julian calendar. 
 The chief improvement consisted in 
 restoring the equinox to its proper place 
 by inserting two months between 
 November and December, so that the 
 year 707 (b.c. 46), called the year of 
 confusion, contained fourteen months. 
 In the number of days the Greek com- 
 putation was adopted, which made it 
 365. To dispose of the quarter of a 
 day it was determined to intercalate a 
 day every fourth year between the 23rd 
 and 24th of February. This calendar 
 continued in use among the Romans 
 until the fall of the empire, and through- 
 out Christendom till 1582. 
 
 By this time, owing to the cumulative 
 error of eleven minutes, the vernal 
 equinox really took place ten days earlier 
 than its date in the calendar, and 
 accordingly Pope Gregory XIII. issued 
 a brief abolishing the Julian calendar in 
 all Catholic countries, and introducing 
 in its stead the one now in use, the 
 Gregorian or reformed calendar. In 
 this way began the new style, as opposed 
 to the other or old style. Ten days were 
 to be dropped; every hundredth year, 
 which by the old style was to have been 
 a leap year, was now to be a common 
 year, the fourth excepted; and the 
 length of the solar year was taken to be 
 365 days, five hours, forty-nine minutes, 
 and twelve seconds, the difference be- 
 tween which and subsequent obser- 
 vations is immaterial. Russia alone 
 retains the old style, which now differs 
 twelve days from the new. 
 
 In France, during the revolution, a 
 new calendar was introduced by a decree 
 of the National Convention, Nov. 24, 
 1793. The time from which the new 
 
 reckoning was to commence was the 
 autumnal equinox of 1792, which fell 
 upon the 22nd of September, when the 
 first decree of the new republic had been 
 promulgated. The year was made to 
 consist of twelve months of three 
 decades each, and, to complete the full 
 number, five fete days, or sansculotides 
 (in leap years six) were added to the 
 end of the year. The common Christian 
 or Gregorian calendar was re-established 
 in France on the 1st January, 1806, by 
 Napoleon. For the Mohammedan cal- 
 endar, see Hegira. 
 
 CAL'ENDER, a machine consisting of 
 two or more cylinders (calenders) re- 
 volving so nearly in contact with each 
 other that cloth or paper passed be- 
 tween them is smoothed and glazed by 
 their pressure, or some other kind of 
 finish is imparted to the surface. 
 
 CALHOUN (kal-hon'), John Caldwell, 
 an American statesman, born in 1782, 
 died 1850. He was admitted to the 
 bar of S. Carolina in 1807, and in 1811 
 was sent to Congress, where he distin- 
 
 guished himself by his eloquence. In 
 1817 he was made secretary of war 
 under President Monroe; in 1825 he was 
 elected vice-president of the United 
 States; in 1831, a senator; in 1843 
 secretary of state, and in 1845, again a 
 senator. He continued till his death an 
 advocate of extreme state rights, and of 
 the policy of the slave-holding states. 
 
 CAL'IBER, a technical term for the 
 diameter of the bore of a firearm. 
 
 CAL'ICO, a general term for any plain 
 white cotton cloth; in America it is 
 usually applied to printed cottons. 
 
 CALICO-PRINTING is the art of 
 applying colors to cloth after it has come 
 from the hand of the weaver in such a 
 manner as to form patterns or figures. 
 This art, originally brought from India, 
 is sometimes practised on linen, woolen, 
 and silk, but most frequently upon that 
 species of cotton cloth called calico. 
 The process was first introduced into 
 Britain in 1738, and was originally 
 accomplished by means of hand-blocks 
 made of wood on which patterns or 
 parts of patterns for each different 
 color were cut. The machinery now 
 generally used consists of various mod- 
 ifications of the cylinder printing- 
 
 machine, in which a number of separate 
 engraved cylinders are mounted, corres- 
 ponding to the number of colors to be 
 printed. Formerly the cloth had to 
 pass once through the machine for every 
 color; but now, by an arrangement of 
 machinery equally ingenious and effec- 
 tive, any number of cylinders are fitted 
 on one machine, which act on the cloth 
 one after the other, and by this means 
 the pattern is finished with a corres- 
 ponding number of colors in the same 
 time that was formerly employed to 
 give one. A great variety of methods 
 are employed in calico-printing, but they 
 all fall under the general heads of dye- 
 colors and steam-colors. Under the first 
 head are included all the styles in which 
 the pattern is printed on the cloth by a 
 mordant — a substance which may have 
 little or no color itself, but has an affin- 
 ity for the fiber on the one hand, and 
 for the coloring matter on the other — 
 the dye or coloring matter being subse- 
 quently fixed by dyeing on such parts 
 of the cloth as have been impregnated 
 with the mordant, and thus bringing 
 out the pattern . In steam-color printing 
 the coloring material is applied to the 
 cloth direct from the printing-cylinder, 
 and subsequently fixed by steaming. 
 In steam-colors there is no limit to the 
 number and variety of shades which 
 may be produced, each color-box on the 
 cylinder printing-machine containing 
 the whole ingredients essential to the 
 production and fixation of a separate 
 and distinct shade of color. This pro- 
 cess is superseding most of the other 
 styles, the brilliant coal-tar colors so 
 extensively used being almost entirely 
 fixed by steaming. The bodies used for 
 fixing are tin mordants, tannic acid, etc., 
 which are mixed with the dye-colors and 
 printed together. The effects of calico- 
 printing are varied by numerous other 
 operations, such as the discharge-style, 
 in which the cloth is first dyed all over, 
 then printed in a certain pattern with 
 discharge-chemicals, which either pro- 
 duce a pattern of some other color, or 
 one purely white, as in the Turkey-red 
 bandanna handkerchiefs. The resist- 
 style, in some respects, is the reverse 
 of the discharge-style; the process being 
 to print a pattern in certain chemicals, 
 which will enable those parts to resist 
 the action of the dye subsequently ap- 
 plied to all other parts of the cloth. 
 After the prints have undergone the 
 printing process they are submitted to 
 a series of finishing operations, the 
 object of which is to give to the fabrics 
 a pleasing appearance to the eye. 
 
 CALTCUT, a seaport of India, pres- 
 idency of Madras, on the Malabar coast, 
 which was ceded to the British in 1792. 
 It was the first port in India visited by 
 Europeans, the Portuguese adventurer, 
 Pedro da Covilham having landed here 
 about 1486, and Vasco da Gama in 1498. 
 It has considerable trade, and manu- 
 factures cotton cloth, to which it has 
 given the name calico. Pop. 76,981. 
 
 CALIF and CALIFATE. See Caliph. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, one of the Pacific 
 states, the second in size of the U. States, 
 was ceded by Mexico to the United 
 States in 1847, and in 1850 was ad- 
 mitted to the Union. It is bounded 
 on the north by Oregon, on the 9 puth 
 
CALIFORNIA 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 by Mexico (Lower California), on the 
 east by Nevada and Arizona, and 
 on the west ' by the Pacific Ocean. 
 Its population in 1906 was 1,750,000. 
 California in many ways is the most 
 interesting state in the Union. It is 
 750 miles long in a direct line, but 
 has more than 800 miles of coast line. 
 It has an average width of about 200 
 miles and a measured ar^ of 155,980 
 sq. miles excluding bodies of water 
 indented into the land, or a total of 
 158,360 sq. miles, including bays, lakes 
 and inlets. To make the dimensions 
 more clear to persons familiar with the 
 geography of the Atlantic coast, it may 
 be stated as being approximately true 
 that California equals in area all of that 
 country lying east of the Appalachian 
 chain of mountains and extending from 
 Port Royal, South Carolina to Boston, 
 Massachusetts. The surface of Cali- 
 fornia is extreqiely diversified. The 
 Coast Range of mountains follows the 
 coast line from the northern part of the 
 state down two-thirds the length and 
 then extends eastward to a junction 
 with the Sierra Nevada range which 
 parallels the Coast Range from the 
 northern boundary to this junction, 
 except that it is along the eastern bor- 
 der. Between these two ranges is in- 
 cluded the great valley of California, 
 nearly 600 miles in length, the ranges 
 being distant from each other from 100 
 to 140 miles, a part of this distance 
 being filled with local detached moun- 
 tain areas and foot hill districts. The 
 valley proper has an ordinary width of 
 from 40 to 60 miles. Between the local 
 detached ranges above mentioned and 
 along the foot hills are many lesser 
 valleys opening out into the big valley 
 and on the western slope of the Coast 
 Range are also many small valleys and 
 some rather large ones'opening out upon 
 the sea coast. These valleys are ex- 
 tremely fertile and attractive, as also is 
 the great interior valley. This interior 
 valley is divided at about the middle of 
 the upper two-thirds of the state into 
 the Sacramento Valley, lying to the 
 north and the San Joaquin Valley run- 
 ning to the south, each of these valleys 
 being drained by rivers of the same 
 name. The principal river is the Sacra- 
 mento, which fluws s. for upward of 300 
 miles, receiving numerous affluents from 
 the Sierra Nevada, and falls into the 
 Bay of Suisun. The San Joaquin rises 
 in the Sierra Nevada, flows n. for about 
 250 miles, and joins the Sacramento 
 about 15 miles above Suisun Bay. It 
 receives the waters of Lake Tule or Tu- 
 lares, and has numerous tributaries. 
 The Bay of San Francisco, forming the 
 most capacious harbor on the Pacific 
 coast is about 60 miles in length, 14 
 broad, and with a coast-line of 275 miles. 
 It is connected with the ocean by a 
 strait about 2 miles wide and from 5 to 
 7 long, called the Golden Gate. The 
 city of San Francisco stands on the n.w. 
 shore of the southern arm. 
 
 The peaks of the Sierra Nevada — 
 Mount Shasta, Lassen’s Butte, Spanish 
 Peak, Pyramid Peak, Mounts Dana, 
 Lyell. Brewer, Tyndall, Whitney, and 
 others — reach from 10 000 to nearly 
 15,000 feet above the sea (Mount Whit- 
 ney is 14,886). The volcanic character 
 
 of the state is manifested by the moun- 
 tain formations; and earthquakes are 
 frequent. California is celebrated for 
 its many wonderful natural objects and 
 remarkable scenery. Noteworthy are 
 the Yosemite Valley (which see) and the 
 “big tree groves” containing groups of 
 giant redwood trees — some of which 
 reach the height of nearly 400 feet. 
 
 The climate of California is peculiarly 
 its own. Nothing else on the North 
 American continent is comparable with 
 it. In the valley portions of the state 
 the year is divided into two seasons of 
 approximately equal duration, common- 
 ly known as the wet and the dry sea- 
 son. The wet season extends from 
 November to May, and during this 
 part of the year the rains fall about as 
 they do in the eastern states during the 
 spring and summer, although, as a rule, 
 less copiously. In the northern part 
 of the state the rains are abundant; in 
 the central part sufficient, and in the 
 southern part half scanty to such an ex- 
 tent that irrigation must be employed in 
 
 Seal of California. 
 
 order to make agriculture certainly 
 profitable. During the dry season rains 
 seldom fall, although there may be 
 showers earlier than November and 
 later than May. The summers in the 
 interior are warm. Along the coast the 
 sun is warm, but the ocean breezes are 
 always cool. California oft'ers no 
 climatic hardships. In the higher 
 mountain altitudes there is a wintry 
 season, not as cold as in the Atlantic 
 states, but with a very much heavier 
 snow fall. 
 
 Politically speaking, California is 
 divided into fifty-seven counties. The 
 legislature consists of forty senators, 
 elected for four years and eighty 
 assemblymen, elected for two years, and 
 the legislature convenes biennially. 
 The legislators draw pay at the rate of 
 $8.00 per day for 60 days and if the 
 legislature sits longer than 60 days the 
 legislators must serve without further 
 compensation. The governor and other 
 state officers are elected every four years, 
 elections falling in mid-presidential 
 terms so that national and state general 
 elections do not occur simultaneously. 
 In national elections the state in 1892 
 gave Cleveland eight and Harrison one 
 electoral votes; in 1896 it gave McKinley 
 eight and Bryan one. In the elections 
 of 1900, 1901 and 1908, it went Republi- 
 can. 
 
 For the fiscal year ending June 30, 
 1906, the property tax levied and col- 
 lected in California amounted to .$7, .590 
 387.87. There were collected from all 
 other sources $5,64-4,195.99, being a 
 total of $13,234,583.86. The disburse- 
 ments on account of state government 
 were $12,945,862.73. 
 
 Included in this disbursement is one 
 item of state aid to the common schools 
 amounting to $3,952,806.75, state aid 
 to high schools being $238,522.62, 
 making a total of $4,191,329.37. 
 
 California regards education as pre- 
 eminently of concern to the whole 
 commonwealth and therefore collects 
 a large part of the entire educational 
 fund from the state as a whole and 
 disburses it to the several schools in a 
 way that materially aids in supporting 
 schools in .sparsely settled districts. 
 
 California is liberal in sustaining 
 educational institutions. Its support 
 of the State University, with its 3300 
 students, is chiefly given in the form of 
 a levy of two cents on each $100 of 
 assessed valuation of all property, al- 
 though the university has special 
 sources of revenue in addition to this. 
 Besides the common and high schools 
 and the State University, the state 
 supports five normal training schools, 
 two industrial state schools and one 
 polytechnic and elementary agricul- 
 tural school. Stanford University, 
 with an endowment valued at twenty 
 millions of dollars bears an important 
 part in the educational work of the 
 state and there are also many denomina- 
 tional colleges and preparatory schools 
 which unite in making the school system 
 of California the equal of that of any 
 other state in the union. 
 
 The wealth of the state, as ascertained 
 for purposes of taxation for the year 
 
 1906, is as follows: 
 
 Assessed value of real estate other 
 
 than city aud town lots $416,238,889 
 
 City aud town lots 50 2,934,230 
 
 Total real estate $919.173,119 
 
 Assessed value of improvements 
 on other than city and town lots $ 87,613,284 
 
 City and town lots 238 ,242,091 
 
 Total value of improvements. . $3 25,855 ,375 
 
 Total value of all real estate and 
 
 improvements thereon $1,245,028,494 
 
 Assessed value of personal prop- 
 erty, other than money and solv- 
 ent credits 237.929.012 
 
 Money and solvent credits 31,929,084 
 
 Assessment of railroads within 
 
 state 81,010.821 
 
 Total assessed valuation of all 
 property $1 ..595.897,411 
 
 The Forestry interests of California. 
 
 are very important. The entire stand 
 of merchantable forests originally 
 amounted to about 17,000,000 acres, 
 but § of this has been cut over, at least 
 in part, leaving only about 6,000,000 
 acres as yet untouched. Most of the 
 cut over areas are capable of being 
 speedily reforested, a work to which 
 the general government, as well as the 
 State of California is now addressing 
 itself. The U. States government has 
 withdrawn from sale about 20,000,000 
 acres of lands either forested or sus- 
 ceptible of becoming forested, which 
 has been set apart as forest reserves 
 or national parks. 
 
 The gold mines of California still 
 yield about $20,000,000 a year in gold, 
 silver and platinum and the tendency 
 
CALIFORNIA 
 
 CALOMEL 
 
 IB to increase rather than diminish the 
 yield. 
 
 The manufacturing interests of Cali- 
 fornia are steadily developing. Census 
 Bulletin 49, issued by the U. States 
 department of commerce and labor, 
 gives the following figures for manufac- 
 tures in California : 
 
 Between 1900 and 1905, the number 
 of manufacturing establishments in- 
 creased .369 per cent and now total 
 6,839 The capital invested increased 
 .611 per cent and now totals $282,647,- 
 201.00. The value of the product in- 
 creased .427 per cent and now totals 
 §367,218,494.00. The number of wage 
 earners increased 30 per cent and totals 
 100,355. The total wages increased 
 .621 per cent and for the year 1905 
 amounted to $64,850,686.00. This 
 development is largely the result of the 
 discovery of petroleum, of which Cali- 
 fornia is now a larger producer than any 
 other state in the Union, and the de- 
 velopment of electrical power through 
 the utilization of the streams flowing 
 down from the higher altitudes of the 
 Sierra Nevada mountains. 
 
 California’s fruit and fruit products 
 are annually sufficient to load from 
 75,000 to 85,000 ten-ton freight cars, 
 and this product is shipped to nearly 
 all of the markets of the world. The 
 canning industry now ranks first among 
 the manufacturing interests of the state. 
 The wool industry adds about 20,000,- 
 000 pounds of wool per year to the 
 country’s wool supply. The develop- 
 ment of the open door in Asia and 
 trade with the Philippine Islands affords 
 a ready market for every pound of 
 agricultural products at remunerative 
 prices. 
 
 Ocean steamers run regularly between 
 San Francisco and Australia, Panama, 
 Mexico, China and Japan. 
 
 California has 19 railroads, having a 
 total mileage of 5,489 miles, not count- 
 ing electrical lines, of which there are 
 about a thousand miles of road in the 
 state, including the state railways. The 
 total assessed value of these railroads 
 for purposes of taxation, including 
 Pullman Car Company's rolling stock 
 is $81,010,821.00. There are already 
 4 trans-contineijtal lines and a fifth line 
 is building and will be completed within 
 two or three years. There are also three 
 other great railroad companies that are 
 heading toward California and it is not 
 improbable that the close of the present 
 decade will witness the completion of 
 at least two of these to a termination at 
 San Francisco Bay. 
 
 The principal city and port is San 
 Francisco, the capital is Sacramento. 
 Of the other cities the most important 
 are Oakland and Los Angeles. 
 
 California is a very prosperous and 
 growing commonwealth and notwith- 
 standing the great catastrophe of April 
 18, 1906, which resulted in the destruc- 
 tion of property having an assessed 
 value of $150,000,000.00, the assessed 
 valuation for the entire state for 
 1906 is only about $39,000,000.00 less 
 than for 1905. The general prosper- 
 ity has come so near to making good 
 the destruction of property by the 
 great San Francisco fire of 1906. Pop. 
 1909, about 1,800,000. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, Gulf of, a gulf on the 
 w. coast of N. America, in Mexico, lying 
 between the peninsula of Lower Cali- 
 fornia and the mainland. It is about 
 700 miles long, and, through most of its 
 length, is less than 100 miles wide. It 
 has long had a pearl fishery. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, Lower, a territory of 
 Mexico, comprising a peninsula jutting 
 into the Pacific Ocean, and separated 
 from the mainland throughout its entire 
 length by the Gulf of California. It is 
 nearly 800 miles in length, and in dif- 
 ferent places 30, 60, 90, and 120 miles 
 wide; area 61,562 sq. miles. It is largely 
 mountainous and arid, but is said to 
 possess valuable agricultural and mineral 
 resources. The chief towns are Loretto 
 and La Paz, the capital. Pop. 47,082, 
 of whom perhaps a half are Indians. 
 
 CALIG'ULA, Caius Caesar Augustus 
 Germanicus, Roman emperor, son of 
 Germanicus and Agrippina, was born 
 A.D. 12, in the camp at Antium; assas- 
 sinated by conspirators a.d. 41. He 
 
 received from the soldiers the surname 
 of Caligula, on account of his wearing 
 the caligae, a kind of boots in use among 
 them. He succeeded Tiberius, a.d. 37, 
 and made himself very popular by his 
 mildness and ostentatious generosity; 
 but at the end of eight months he was 
 seized with a disorder, caused by his 
 irregular mode of living, which appears 
 to have permanently deranged his in- 
 tellect. After his recovery, he suddenly 
 showed himself the most cruel and un- 
 natural of tyrants — a monster of de- 
 bauchery and prodigality, a perpetrator 
 of the greatest crimes and follies. The 
 most exquisite tortures inflicted on the 
 innocent served him for enjoyments. 
 In the madness of his arrogance he even 
 considered himself a god, and caused 
 sacrifices to be offered to himself. One 
 of his greatest follies was the building 
 of a bridge between Baiae and Puteoli 
 (Puzzuoli), in order that he might be 
 able to boast of marching over the sea 
 on dry land. He projected expeditions 
 to Gaul, Germany and Britain, and 
 having reached the sea, he bade his 
 soldiers gather shells for spoils, and then 
 led them back to Rome. At last a band ' 
 of conspirators put an end to his career 
 in the 29th year of his age. 
 
 CALTPER COMPASSES, compasses 
 made either with arched legs to measure 
 the diameters of cylinders or globular 
 bodies, or with straight legs and re- 
 tracted points to measure the interior 
 diameter or bore of anything. 
 
 CAL'IPH, CALIF, or KHALIF is the 
 
 name assumed by the successors of 
 Mohammed in the government of the 
 faithful and in the high-priesthood. 
 Caliphate is therefore the name given 
 to the empire of these princes which the 
 Arabs founded in Asia, and enlarged, 
 within a few centuries, to a dominion, 
 exceeding even the Roman empire in 
 extent. The appellation of caliph has 
 long ago been swallowed up in Shah, 
 Sultan, Emir,and other titles peculiar to 
 the East. 
 
 CALISTHEN'ICS, a less correct spell- 
 ing of Callisthenics. (Which see.) 
 
 CALIX'TUS, the name of three popes. 
 — Calixtus I. was a Roman bishop from 
 217 to 224, when he suffered martyrdom. 
 Calixtus 11. was elected in 1119, in the 
 monastery of Clugny, successor of the 
 expelled pope, Gelasius II., who had 
 been driven from Italy by the Emperor 
 Henry V., and had died in this monas- 
 tery. He excommunicated the Emperor 
 Henry V. on account of a dispute re- 
 specting the right of investiture ; as also 
 the anti-pope Gregory YIII., whom 
 he drove from Rome. He availed him- 
 self of the troubles of the emperor to 
 force him, in 1122, to agree to the Con- 
 cordat of Worms. He died in 1124. — 
 Calixtus III., chosen in 1168 in Rome, 
 as anti-pope to Paschal III., and con- 
 firmed by the Emperor Frederick I., 
 in 1178, was obliged to submit to Pope 
 Alexander III. As he was not counted 
 among the legal popes, a subsequent 
 pope, Alfonso Borgia, made pope in 
 1455, was called Calixtus III. He died 
 in 1458. 
 
 CALLAO (kM^ya'o), a seaport town 
 of Peru, the port of Lima, from which 
 it is 6 miles distant, and with which it 
 is connected by a railway; pop. 60,000. 
 Callao is the emporium of the whole of 
 the trade of Peru, importing manu- 
 factured goods, and exporting guano, 
 copper ore, cubic nitre, wool, bark, etc. 
 In 1746 the old town was destroyed by 
 an earthquake, wdth mitfeh loss of life 
 and damage to shipping. 
 
 CAL'LIPERS. See Calliper Com- 
 
 passes. 
 
 CALLISTHEN'ICS, the art or practice 
 of exercising the body for the purpose of 
 giving strength to the muscles and 
 grace to the carriage. The term is 
 usually applied to the physical exer- 
 cises of females, as gymnastics is to those 
 of males. 
 
 CALLOS'ITY, any thickened or hard- 
 ened part of the human skin caused by 
 pressure and friction. Also the natural 
 cutaneous thickenings on the buttocks 
 of monkeys. 
 
 CAL'LUS, a callosity; also a new 
 growth of osseous matter between the 
 extremities of fractured bones, serving 
 to unite them. 
 
 CALMS, Regions of, tracts in the 
 Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, on the con- 
 fines of the trade-winds, where calms of 
 long duration prevail. About the winter 
 solstice their average northern limit is 
 in 5° n. lat., and in the months about the 
 summer solstice about 12° n. lat. The 
 southern limit lies nearly alwa3"s to the 
 north of the equator, varj^ing between 
 1° and 3° n. lat. 
 
 CAL'OMEL, 
 preparation of 
 
 mercurous chloride ; a 
 mercury much used in 
 
calorescence 
 
 CALYX 
 
 medicine, and also found native as horn- 
 quicksilver. It is prepared by grinding 
 in a mortar sulphate of mercury with 
 as much mercury as it already contains, 
 and heating the compound which is 
 formed with common salt in a retort 
 until the mercury sublimes. The calo- 
 mel is thus produced as a white powder. 
 It is used in a variety of ailments, as a 
 purgative, a vermifuge, etc. 
 
 CALORES'CENCE, thejransmutation 
 of heat rays into light r^s; a peculiar 
 transmutation of the invisible calorific 
 rays, observable beyond the red rays 
 of the spectrum of solar and electric 
 light, into visible luminous rays, by 
 passing them through a solution of 
 iodine in bisulphide of carbon, which 
 intercepts the luminous rays and trans- 
 mits the calorific. The latter, when 
 brought to a focus, produce a heat strong 
 enough to ignite combustible substances, 
 and to heat up metals to incandescence; 
 the less refrangible calorific rays being 
 converted into rays of higher refran- 
 gibility, whereby they become luminous. 
 
 CALORIM'ETER, an apparatus for 
 measuring absolute quantities of heat or 
 the specific or latent heat of bodies, as 
 an instrument for measuring the heat 
 given out by a body in cooling from the 
 quantity of ice it melts or from the rise 
 of temperature it produces in water 
 around it. 
 
 CALTANISSET'TA, a town, Sicily, 
 capital of the province of the same 
 name, on the right bank of the Salso, 
 62 miles s. e. of Palermo. In the vicinity 
 are springs of petroleum and of hydrogen 
 gas, a mud-volcano, and important sul- 
 phur mines. Pop. 44,600. — The prov- 
 ince has an area of 1445 sq. miles, with 
 a pop. of 330,972. 
 
 CAL'UMET, a kind of pipe used by 
 the American Indians for smoking 
 tobacco. Its bowl is usually of soft red 
 soapstone, and the tube a long reed, 
 oramented with feathers. The cal- 
 umet is (or was) used as a symbol or 
 instrument of peace and war. To accept 
 the calumet is to agree to the terms of 
 peace, and to refuse it is to reject them. 
 The calumet of peace is used to seal or 
 ratify contracts and alliances, to receive 
 strangers ^ kindly, and to travel with 
 safety. The calumet of war, differently 
 made, is used to proclaim war. 
 
 CALVADOS (kal-vi-dos), a French 
 dep., part of the old province of Nor- 
 mandy, bounded on the n. by the Eng- 
 lish Channel, and e. w. and s. by the 
 deps. Eure, La Manche, and Orne. 
 Area, 2145 sq. miles. It is named from 
 a dangerous ridge of rocks which extends 
 along the coast for 10 or 12 miles. The 
 dep. is undulating and picturesque, and 
 possesses rich pastures. Chief town 
 Caen. Pop. 410,178. 
 
 CAL' VARY, applied to the place out- 
 side Jerusalem where Christ was cruci- 
 fied, usually identified with a small 
 eminence on the north side of the city. 
 The term is also applied in Roman 
 Catholic countries to a kind of chapel, 
 sometimes erected on a hill near a city 
 and sometimes on the exterior of a 
 church, as a place of devotion, in mem- 
 ory of the place where our Savior 
 suffered; as also to a rocky mound or 
 hill on which three crosses are erected, 
 an adjunct to religious bouses. 
 
 CALVIN, John, reformer and Protes- 
 tant theological writer, born at Noyon, 
 in Picardy, 1509, died at Geneva 1564 
 He went to Paris and entered on a 
 course of regular study. He became dis- 
 satisfied with the teaching of the Roman 
 Catholic Church; in consequence he 
 gave up his cure, and took to the study 
 of the law in Orleans. In 1532 he re- 
 turned to Paris a decided convert to the 
 reformed faith, and was soon compelled 
 to fly, when, after various wanderings, 
 he found a protector in Margaret of 
 Navarre. In 1534 he returned to Paris; 
 but, finding that the persecution against 
 those who were inclined to the doctrines 
 of the reformers was still raging, he 
 retired to Basel in the autumn of the 
 same year. At Basel he completed and 
 published his great work. The Institutes 
 of the Christian Religion. In 1538 he 
 was expelled from Geneva. Here he 
 married a widow, Idelette de Burie, 
 and had one son, who died early. In 
 1541 his friends in Geneva succeeded in 
 effecting his recall, when he laid before 
 the council the draft of his ordinances 
 respecting church discipline, which were 
 immediately accepted and published. 
 Michael Servetus, passing through 
 Geneva in 1553, was arrested, and 
 through Calvin’s instrumentality was 
 burnt alive because he had attacked the 
 mystery of the Trinity in a book which 
 was neither written nor printed at 
 Geneva. This has been regarded as the 
 great blot on Calvin’s career, though 
 approved of by many others of the 
 reformers. His energy and industry 
 were enormous: he preached almost 
 daily, delivered theological lectures 
 three times a week, attended all delibera- 
 tions of the consistory, all sittings of the 
 association of ministers, and was the 
 soul of all the councils. He was con- 
 sulted, too, upon points of law as well 
 as of theology. Besides this, he found 
 time to attend to political affairs in the 
 name of the Republic, to publish a mul- 
 titude of writings in defense of his 
 opinions, and to maintain a corres- 
 pondence through all Europe. Up to 
 1561 the Lutherans and the Calvinists 
 were as one, but in that year the latter 
 expressly rejected the tenth article of 
 the Confession of Augsburg, besides 
 some others, and hence arose the name 
 of Calvinists Calvin retained his per- 
 sonal influence to the last; but a year 
 or two before his death his health had 
 broken down. As a theologian Calvin 
 was equal to any of his contemporaries 
 in profound knowledge, acuteness of 
 mind, and in the art of making good a 
 point in question. As an author he 
 merits great praise. His Latin works 
 are written with much method, dignity, 
 and correctness. He was also a great 
 jurist and an able politician. 
 
 CALVINISM, the theological tenets or 
 doctrines of , John Calvin, including a 
 belief in predestination, election, total 
 depravity, original sin, effectual calling, 
 and the final perseverance of the saints. 
 The system also includes several other 
 points of controversy, such as that of 
 free-will, the Sonship of the Second 
 Person of the Trinity, and other dif- 
 erences in doctrine as between Calvinists 
 and Arminians. Calvinism is the theo- 
 logical system expounded in the West- 
 
 minster Confession of Faith, and is 
 therefore the faith officially held by the 
 Presbyterian churches generally,' it is 
 also substantially identical with what 
 is known as “evangelicalism” in any 
 of the churches or religious bodies. 
 
 CAL'YDON, an ancient city of north- 
 ern Greece, in ^tolia, celebrated in 
 Greek mythology on account of the 
 ravages of a terrible boar. All the 
 princes of the age assembled at the 
 famous Hunt of the Calydonian Boar, 
 which was finally despatched by Melea- 
 ger. 
 
 CALYP'SO, in Greek mythology, a 
 nymph who inhabited the island Ogygia, 
 on the shores of which Ulysses was ship- 
 wrecked. She promised him immor- 
 tality if he would consent to marry her 
 but after a seven year’s stay she was 
 ordered by the gods to permit his de- 
 parture. 
 
 CALYP'TRA, the hood of the theca or 
 capsule of mosses. The same name is 
 
 a. Moss. 6, Cassule with calyptra. c. Do, 
 with calj'ptra removed. 
 
 given to any hood-like body connected 
 with the organs of fructification in 
 flowering plants. 
 
 CA'LYX, in botany, the name given 
 to the exterior covering of a flower, that 
 is, the floral envelope consisting of a 
 circle or whorl of leaves external to the 
 corolla, which it incloses and supports. 
 The parts or leaves which belong to it 
 are called sepals; they may be united by 
 their margins, or distinct, and are 
 
 Forms of calyx. 
 
 usually of a green color and of less 
 delicate texture than the corolla. In 
 many flowers, however, there is little or 
 no difference in character between calyx 
 and corolla, in which case the whole gets 
 the name of perianth. When the calyx 
 leaves are distinct the calyx is called 
 polysepalous (a a a in accompanying 
 
CAM 
 
 CAMEL 
 
 cut) ; when united, gamosepalous or 
 monosepalous (bb). 
 
 CAM, in machinery, a simple contri- 
 vance for converting a uniform rotatory 
 motion into a varied rectilinear motion, 
 usually a projecting part of a wheel or 
 other revolving piece so placed as to 
 give an alternating or yarying motion to 
 another piece that comes in contact with 
 it and is free to move only in a certain 
 direction. 
 
 CAMBACERES (kan-ba-sa-ra)^ Jean 
 Jacques Regis de, Duke of Parma, born 
 in 1753 at Montpellier; died at Paris, 
 1824. He was trained a lawyer, and by 
 his talents soon attracted the notice of 
 the Convention, and was appointed to 
 various judicial offices. In the discus- 
 sion relative to the fate of the king he 
 declared Louis guilty, but disputed the 
 right of the Convention to judge him, 
 and voted for his provisory arrest, and 
 in case of a hostile invasion, death. 
 For a time he had the management of 
 foreign affairs; and when Bonaparte was 
 first consul, Cambaceres was chosen 
 second. After the establishment of the 
 empire, Cambaceres was created arch- 
 chancellor, grand officer of the Legion 
 of Honor, and ultimately Duke of Parma. 
 He was banished on the second restora- 
 tion of Louis XVIII., but was subse- 
 quently permitted to return. 
 
 CAM'BAY, a feudatory state in India, 
 Bombay Presidency ; lying at the head of 
 the gulf of the same name in the western 
 part of Gujarat. Area, 350 sq. miles; 
 pop. 89,722. Also, chief town of above 
 state, situated at the head of the Gulf 
 of Cambay, formerly a flourishing port, 
 but now decayed. Pop. 31,390. — The 
 gulf separates the peninsula of Kathia- 
 v/ar from the northern coast of Bombay, 
 having a length of about 80 miles, and 
 an average breadth of 25 miles. 
 
 CAMBO'DIA, or CAMBO'JA, a coun- 
 try in the Indo-Chinese peninsula, 
 bounded n. by Siam, e. by Anam, s. by 
 French Cochin-China and Gulf of Siam, 
 and w. by Gulf of Siam Pop. estimated 
 at 1,500,000, partly Cambodians proper, 
 partly Siamese, Annamese, etc. 
 
 CAMBRIAN ROCKS, in geology, an 
 extensive series of gritstones, sand- 
 stones, conglomerates, slates, and shales, 
 lying under the Lower Silurian beds, 
 and above the Archaean, and divided 
 into the Upper and Lower Cambrian. 
 Many fossils occur in the series, in- 
 cluding sponges, star-fishes, trilobites, 
 bracliiopods, lamellibranchs, pteropods, 
 gasteropoda, cephalopoda, etc. They 
 may be regarded as the bottom rocks of 
 the Silurian system, and are well de- 
 veloped in N. Wales (hence the name), 
 but can be recognized in many other 
 regions. 
 
 CAM'BRIC, the name of a fine kind 
 of linen which was originally manufac- 
 tured principally at Cambria, in French 
 Flanders, whence the name. It is also 
 applied to a cotton fabric, which is very 
 extensively manufactured in imitation 
 of the true cambric, and which is in 
 reality a kind of muslin. 
 
 CAM'BRIDGE (kam'brij), an inland 
 county of England, bounded by the 
 counties of Lincoln, Northampton, 
 Huntingdon, Bedford, Hertford, Essex, 
 Suffolk, and Norfolk; area, 524,935 
 acres. The soil is diversified and gen- 
 
 erally fertile ; a large part belongs to the 
 fen country. The principal rivers are 
 the Cam or Granta, and the Ouse. The 
 county abounds in dairy farms, cele- 
 brated for the production of excellent 
 butter and cheese. The county town 
 is Cambridge; other towns are Ely, 
 Wisbech, Newmarket, and March. Pop. 
 190,687. — Cambridge, the county town, 
 is situated on the river Cam, 50 miles 
 n. of London. It occupies a perfect 
 level encompassed by the colleges, and 
 their beautiful grounds and gardens, on 
 both sides of the Cam, The town is 
 supported mainly by the presence of the 
 university; but has some manufactures. 
 Pop. 38,393. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, a city separated from 
 Boston by the Charles River. It is well 
 laid out, with fine broad streets and 
 avenues, and many open spaces adorned 
 with shrubs and trees. The most im- 
 portant institution it contains is Har- 
 vard University (which see). Though 
 distinct from Boston it really forms 
 part of it. Pop. 100,000. See Boston. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, University of, one of 
 the two great English universities, as 
 old at least as the thirteenth century, 
 situated in the above town. The fol- 
 lowing list contains the names of the 
 colleges or distinct corporate bodies 
 comprised in the university, with the 
 time when each was founded; 
 
 1. St. Peter’s College, or Peter House 1257 
 
 2. Clare College, formerly Clare Hall 1326 
 
 3. Pembroke College 1347 
 
 4. Gonville and Caius College 1348 
 
 5. Trinity Hall 13.50 
 
 6. Corpus Christ! College 1352 
 
 7. King’s College 1441 
 
 8. Queen’s College 1448 
 
 9. St. Catherine’s College, or Catherine Hall 1473 
 
 10. Jesus College 1496 
 
 11. Christ’s College 1505 
 
 12. St. John’s College 1511 
 
 13. Magdalene College 1519 
 
 14. Trinity College. 1546 
 
 15. Emmanuel College 1584 
 
 16. Sidney Sussex College 1598 
 
 17. Downing College 1800 
 
 There is also Selwyn College (or 
 hostel), founded in 1882, for Church of 
 England students. Each of the colleges 
 is a separate corporation, which is gov- 
 erned by laws and usages of its own 
 although subject to the paramount laws 
 of the university. The university is 
 composed of a chancellor, vice-chancel- 
 lor, the masters or heads of colleges, 
 fellows of colleges, and students, and is 
 incorporated as a society for the study 
 of all the liberal arts and sciences. The 
 senate, which is composed of all who 
 have taken the degree of Doctor or 
 Master, is the great legislative assembly 
 of the university. The chief executive 
 power is vested in the chancellor, the 
 high-steward, and the vice-chancellor, 
 who is the head of some college. Two 
 proctors superintend the discipline of all 
 pupils. The number of undergraduate 
 students is about 3000. There are over 
 forty professors in the various depart- 
 ments. A botanic garden, an anatomi- 
 cal school, an observatory, and a valua- 
 able library containing more than 
 300,000 printed volumes, besides many 
 manuscripts, are attached to the uni- 
 versity. The museums and laboratories 
 for the study of scffinee are among the 
 most complete in the country. 
 
 CAMBY'SES, (1) a Persian of noble 
 blood, to whom King Astyages gave his 
 
 daughter Mandane in marriage. Asty- 
 ages was dethroned by Cyrus, the off- 
 spring of this union. (2) The son of 
 Cyrus the Great, and grandson of the 
 preceding, became, after the death of 
 his father. King of the Persians and 
 Medes, b.c. 529. In the fifth year of his 
 reign he invaded Egypt, conquering the 
 whole kingdom within six months. But 
 his expeditions against the Ammonites 
 and Ethiopians having failed, his 
 violent and vindictive nature broke out 
 in cruel treatment of his subjects, his 
 brother Smerdis and his own wife being 
 among his victims. He died in 521 b.c. 
 
 CAMDEN, a town of New Jersey, 
 on the left bank of the Delaware, and 
 connected with Philadelphia, on the 
 opposite side, by a steamboat service. 
 There are manufactories of various 
 kinds, foundries, saw-mills, etc. Pop. 
 100.000. 
 
 CAMEL, a genus of ruminant quad- 
 rupeds, characterized by the absence of 
 horns; the possession of incisive, canine, 
 and molar teeth; a fissure in the upper 
 lip; a long and arched neck; one or two 
 humps or protuberances on the back; 
 
 Bactrian camel. 
 
 a broad elastic foot ending in two small 
 hoofs, which does not sink readily in 
 the sand of the desert. The native 
 country of the camel is said to extend 
 from Morocco to China, within a zone of 
 900 or 1000 miles in breadth. The com- 
 mon camel, having two humps, is only 
 found in the northern part of this 
 region, and exclusively from the ancient 
 Bactria, now Turkestan, to China. The 
 dromedary, or single-hump camel, or 
 Arabian camel, is found throughout the 
 entire length of this zone, on its southern 
 side, as far as Africa and India. The 
 Bactrian species is the larger, more 
 robust, and more fitted for carrying 
 heavy burdens. The dromedary has 
 been called the race-horse of its species. 
 To people residing in the vicinity of 
 the great deserts the camel is an invalu- 
 able mode of conveyance. It will travel 
 three days under a load and five days 
 under a rider without drinking. The 
 stronger varieties carry from 700 to 1000 
 lbs. burden. The camel’s power of 
 enduring thirst is partly due to the pecu- 
 liar structure of its stomach, to which 
 are attached little pouches or water-cells, 
 capable of straining off and storing up 
 water for future use, when journeying 
 across the desert. It can five on httle 
 food, and of the coarsest kind, leaves of 
 trees, nettles, shrubs, twigs, etc. In 
 this it is helped by the fact that its 
 humps are mere accumulations of fat 
 
Camel 
 
 CAMEROONS 
 
 (the back-bone of the animal being quite 
 straight) and form a store upon which 
 the system can draw when the outside 
 supply is defective. Hence the camel- 
 driver who is about to start on a journey 
 takes care to see that the humps of his 
 animal present a full and healthy ap- 
 pearance. Camels which carry heavy 
 
 one 1.35°, and the other two each 67° 30'. 
 One of the two faces which contain the 
 right angle is turned toward the object 
 to be sketched. Rays falling in a 
 straight line on this face, as from f, are 
 totally reflected at g from the face c b to 
 the next face at h, whence they are 
 again totally reflected to the fourth face. 
 
 Figs. 1 and 2, Arabian camels and camel-driver. 
 
 Fig. 3, Bactrian or two-humped camel. 
 
 burdens will do about 25 miles a day, 
 those which are used for speed alone, 
 from 60 to 90 miles a day. The camel 
 is rather passive than docile, showing 
 less intelligent co-operation with its 
 master than the horse or elephant; but 
 is is very vindictive when injured. It 
 lives from forty to fifty years. Its 
 flesh is esteemed by the Arab and its 
 milk is his common food. The hair 
 of the camel serves in the East for mak- 
 ing cloth for tents, carpets and wearing 
 apparel. It is imported into European 
 countries, for the manufacture of fine 
 pencils for painting and for other pur- 
 poses. The South American members 
 of the family Camelidas constitute the 
 genus Auchenia, to which the llama and 
 alpaca belong; they have no humps. 
 
 CAMEL, a water-tight box or caisson 
 used to raise a sunken vessel, or to float a 
 vessel over a shoal or bar. It is let down 
 with water in it. and is attached to the 
 vessel, after which the water is pumped 
 out, and the camel rises from its buoy- 
 ancy. 
 
 CAMELLIA (ka-mel'ya), a genus of 
 plants, with .showy flowers and elegant 
 dark-green, shining, laurel-like leaves, 
 nearly allied to the plants which yield 
 tea. 
 
 CAM'EO, a general name for all gems 
 cut in relief, in contradistinction to 
 those hollowed out, or intaglios. More 
 particularly, a cameo is a gem composed 
 of several different-colored layers having 
 a subject in relief cut upon one or more 
 of the upper layers, an under layer of a 
 different color forming the ground. For 
 this purpose the ancients used the onyx, 
 sardonjrx, agate, etc. The shells of 
 various molluscs are now much used for 
 making cameos; and they are also imi- 
 tated on glass. 
 
 CAM'ERA LXJ'CIDA, an optical in- 
 strument employed to facilitate the 
 sketching of objects from nature by pro- 
 ducing a reflected picture of them upon 
 paper. Wollaston’s apparatus is one of 
 the commonest. The essential part is 
 a totally-reflecting prism with four 
 angles, one of which is 90°, the opposite 
 
 from which they emerge in a straight 
 line. An eye (e) placed so as to receive 
 the emergent rays, will see an image of 
 the object in the direction m, and by 
 placing the sketching paper below in 
 this place, the image may be traced with 
 a pencil. As the paper, for convenience 
 of drawing, must be at a distance of 
 about a foot, a concave lens, with a focal 
 length of something less than a foot, is 
 placed close in front of the prism in 
 drawing distant objects. By raising or 
 lowering the prism in its stand, the 
 image of the object to be sketched may 
 he made to coincide with the plane of 
 the paper. The prism is mounted in 
 such a way that it can be rotated either 
 about a horizontal or a vertical axis; 
 and its top is usually covered with a 
 movable plate of blackened metal, 
 having a semicircular notch at one edge, 
 for the observer to look through. This 
 form of camera has undergone various 
 modifications. It is very convenient 
 on account of its portability. 
 
 Camera lucida. 
 
 CAM'ERA OBSCU'RA, an optical in- 
 strument employed for exhibiting the 
 images of objects in their forms and 
 colors, so that thej may be traced and 
 a picture drawn, or may be represented 
 by photography. A simple camera 
 obscura is presented by a darkened 
 chamber into which no light is permitted 
 to enter excepting by a small hole in the 
 window-shutter. A picture of the ob- 
 jects opposite the hole will then be seen 
 on the wall, or on a white screen placed 
 opposite the opening. A simple camera 
 obscura is shown in the figure; the rays 
 
 of light passing through a convex lens at 
 A, being reflected from the mirror m 
 (which is at a slope of 45°) to the glass 
 plate N, where they form an image that 
 may be traced. Another arrangement 
 is a kind of tent surrounded by opaque 
 curtains, and having at its top a revolv- 
 ing lantern, containing a lens with its 
 axis horizontal, and a mirror placed 
 behind it at a slope of 45°, to reflect the 
 transmitted light downward on the 
 paper. It is still better to combine lens 
 and mirror in one by using a glass of 
 peculiar shape, in which rays from ex- 
 ternal objects are first refracted at a 
 convex surface, then totally reflected 
 at the back of the lens, which is plane, 
 and finally emerge through the bottom 
 of the lens, which is concave, but with 
 a larger radius of curvature than the 
 first surface. The camera obscura em- 
 ployed by photographers is commonly 
 a box, one half of which slides into the 
 other, with a tube in front containing 
 an object-glass at its extremity. At the 
 back of the box is a slide of ground glass, 
 on which the image of the object or ob- 
 jects to be depicted is thrown, in setting 
 the instrument. The focussing is per- 
 formed in the first place by sliding the 
 one half of the box into the other, and by 
 means of a pinion attached to the tube 
 
 Camera obscura. 
 
 in front which moves the lens. When 
 the image has thus been rendered as 
 sharp as possible, the ground-glass slide 
 is removed, and a sensitized plate sub- 
 stituted, which not only receives, but 
 retains the image. 
 
 CAMERON, Simon, an American 
 statesman, born in Pennsylvania in 
 1799, died in 1889. In 1845 he became 
 a United States senator, and was ap- 
 pointed by Lincoln to be secretary of 
 war, a position which contributed the 
 largest part to his reputation. After 
 serving (1862-66) as minister to Russia 
 he returned to the United States and 
 used his influence for the second nomina- 
 tion of Lincoln. He was a strong 
 opponent of civil service reform. 
 
 CAMEROONS, (1) a district on the 
 West Coast of Africa, on the Bight of 
 Biafra, now belonging to Germany, and 
 one of the most suitable districts for 
 colonization in this region. (2) A river 
 in the Cameroons territory. It falls 
 into a broad estuary, on approaching 
 which it has a width of about 400 yards. 
 There are several large and thriving 
 towns (including King Bell’s town) on 
 the river, through which an extensive 
 trade is carried on in ivory and palm-oil. 
 (3) A mountain range in the territory, 
 the highest peak of which has been 
 estimated at over 13,000 feet. It is 
 volcanic in character, and is clothed with 
 
CAMILLUS 
 
 CAMPHOR 
 
 a dense growth of forest to the height of 
 4000 or 5000 ft. 
 
 CAMIL'LUS, Marrjs Furius, a Roman 
 patrician, famous as the deliverer of the 
 city of Rome from the Gauls. In b.c. 
 396 he was made dictator during the 
 Veientine war, and captured the town of 
 Veii by mining, after it had defied the 
 Roman power for ten years. In b.c. 
 394 Camillus besieged the Falerii, and 
 by an act of generosity induced them to 
 surrender. Three years after, Camillus 
 was appointed dictator a second time, 
 and was successful in repelling the in- 
 vaders. After having been four times 
 appointed dictator, a new invasion of 
 the Gauls called Camillus, now eighty 
 years old, again to the front, and for the 
 fifth and last time, being appointed 
 dictator, he defeated and dispersed the 
 barbarians. He died in b.c. 365. 
 
 CAM'OENS, Luis de, the most cele- 
 brated poet of the Portuguese, born at 
 Lisbon of a good family, probably in 
 1524 or 1525. An affray into which he 
 was drawn was the cause of his embark- 
 ing in 1553 for India. He landed at Goa, 
 but, being unfavorably impressed with 
 the life led by the ruling Portuguese 
 there, wrote a satire which caused his 
 banishment to Macao (1556). Here, 
 however, he was appointed to an honor- 
 able position as administrator of the 
 property of absentee and deceased 
 Portuguese, and here, too, in what were 
 the quietest and most prosperous years 
 of his life, he wrote the earlier cantos 
 of his great poem, the Lusiads. The 
 Lusiads was printed at Lisbon (1572), 
 and celebrating, as it did, the glories of 
 the Portuguese conquests in India, 
 acquired at once a wide popularity. 
 The king himself accepted the dedica- 
 tion of the poem. He died on the 18th 
 June, 1579. Fifteen years after his 
 death a magnificent monument was 
 erected to his memory, with an inscrip- 
 tion on it which called him the prince of 
 poets. The Lusiads is an epic poem in 
 ten cantos. Its subject is the voyage of 
 Vasco da Gama to the East Indies; but 
 many dther events in the history of 
 Portugal are also introduced. 
 
 CAMP, the place and aggregate body 
 of tents for soldiers in the field. Among 
 the Greeks, the Lacedaemonians seem to 
 have been the first who devoted atten- 
 tion to the art of forming military 
 camps, adopting a circular form with 
 the general’s tent in the center; but the 
 Romans, who had so often to carry on 
 wars in distant and thinly-populated 
 regions, were the first to carry the art of 
 encampment to a high degree of per- 
 fection. Their camps as a rule were 
 square, and were strongly intrenched 
 so as to provide against the danger of 
 surprise. Since the invention of gun- 
 powder intrenched camps have become 
 much more elaborate affairs and cover 
 a much greater area. They may con- 
 sist of intrenched areas permanently 
 connected with and under the protection 
 of fortified places; thus they are some- 
 times attached to certain large cities on 
 the chief roads, partly in order to de- 
 fend them against the first attack of the 
 enemy, partly, to give to retreating 
 armies rallying-points able to furnish 
 support to numerous soldiers. Camps 
 which, though intrenched, are to be 
 
 occupied merely for the period of a 
 campaign, or which serve as a refuge for 
 a few days only to a subordinate army, 
 are termed “lines” or “temporary posi- 
 tions.” From the perfection of modern 
 artillery strong detached forts form the 
 chief defensive feature of intrenched 
 camps of the present day. 
 
 CAMPAGNA DI ROMA (kam-pan'ya), 
 the coast region of Middle Italy, in 
 which Rome is situated, from 30 to 40 
 mites wide and 100 long; and forming 
 the undulating, mostly uncultivated 
 plain which extends from near Civita 
 Vecchia or Viterbo to Terracina, and 
 includes the Pontine Marshes. The 
 district is volcanic, and its lakes, Regil- 
 lus, Albano, Nemi, etc., are evidently 
 craters of extinct volcanoes. The soil 
 is very fertile in the lower parts, though 
 its cultivation is much neglected, owing 
 to the malaria which makes residence 
 there during midsummer very danger- 
 ous; and during the months of July, 
 August, and September its inhabitants, 
 chiefly herdsmen and peasants, seek 
 refuge in Rome or the neighboring tov/ns. 
 
 CAMPAIGN (kam-pan'), generally de- 
 notes the series of operations of an army 
 during the time it keeps the field in one 
 season or accomplishes a determinate 
 object. Formerly campaigns lasted 
 only during the warmer months, and 
 were terminated by the troops retiring 
 into winter quarters. 
 
 CAMPA'NIA, the ancient name of a 
 province of Italy, in the former king- 
 dom of Naples, which, on account of its 
 beauty and fertility, was a favorite 
 resort of wealthy Romans, who built 
 there magnificent country houses. It 
 comprises the modern provinces of 
 Caserta, Naples, and parts of Salerno 
 and Avellino. Cumae (the oldest Greek 
 settlement in Italy), Puteoli, Naples, 
 Herculaneum, Pompeii, Baite, Stabiae, 
 Salernum, and Capua (its ancient capi- 
 tal) were the principal cities of Cam- 
 pania. Even now Campania is the most 
 beautiful and fruitful part of Italy. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Alexander, an American 
 religious minister, founder of the Dis- 
 ciples of Christ, widely known as Camp- 
 bellites. Campbell was born in Ireland 
 in 1788, and died in the U. States in 
 1866. The principle upon w'hich he | 
 founded the new method of interpreting 
 the Scriptures was based on the idea 
 that where the Scriptures are silent 
 the interpreter should be silent. The 
 new method spread rapidly and now 
 numbers nearly 2,000,000 adherents. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Bartley, an American 
 dramatic writer, born in Pennsylvania 
 in 1843, died 1888. He was early a 
 journalist but left that profession for 
 play-writing. His principal works are 
 Through Fire and My Partner. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Thomas, a distinguished 
 modern poet, was born at Glasgow 27th 
 July, 1777, and educated at its uni- 
 versity. After leaving the university he 
 resided for a short time in Edinburgh; 
 and all at once attained the zenith of 
 his fame by publisliing, in 1799, his 
 Pleasures of Hope. In 1803, after 
 spending some time in Germany, Camp- 
 bell published an edition of the Pleasures 
 of Hope with the addition of some of the 
 finest lyrics in the English language, 
 including Hohenlinden, Ye Mariners of 
 
 England, and the Exile of Erin. In 1809 
 he again made his appearance as a poet, 
 and published Gertrude of Wyoming, 
 Lord Ullin’s Daughter, and the Battle 
 of the Baltic. He died at Boulogne, 
 15th June, 1844, and was interred at 
 Poet’s Corner in Westminster Abbey, 
 close to the tomb of Addison. 
 
 CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, Sir 
 Henry, a British statesman, premier of 
 England. Was born in 1836. He has 
 been financial secretary of the war oflSce, 
 admiralty secretary, chief secretary for 
 Ireland, and secretary of state for war. 
 In 1899 he became leader of the liberal 
 party. In 1906 he became premier. He 
 died in 1908. 
 
 CAMPEACHY, or CAMPECHE (kam'- 
 pechi, kam'pech-e), a seaport of Mexico, 
 in the state and on the bay of the same 
 name, on the w. coast of the peninsula 
 of Yucatan, a mart for logwood and 
 wax. Cigars are manufactured, and 
 ships are built, though the harbor can 
 only admit small vessels. Pop. 15,196. 
 —The state of Campeachy has an area 
 of 25,832 sq. miles; a pop. of 90,413. 
 
 CAMP FOLLOWERS, a term applied 
 to servants, small merchants, pur- 
 veyors, women, and others who follow 
 an army while on the march. In former 
 times these camp followers often ex- 
 ceeded in number the army itself, thus 
 becoming a source of insurmountable 
 difficulty to the commander. Their 
 function, however, was very useful to 
 the daily life of the soldiers. 
 
 CAMPHENE (kam'fen), the generic 
 name for the volatile oils or hydrocar- 
 bons, isomeric or polymeric with oil 
 of turpentine, as oil of bergamot, 
 cloves, copaiba, hops, juniper, orange, 
 pepper, etc. They are liquid at ordi- 
 nary temperatures, and are distin- 
 guished from each other by their odors. 
 
 CAMPHINE (kam'fen), the commer- 
 cial term for purified oil of turpentine, 
 obtained by distilling the oil over quick- 
 lime to free it from resin. It is used in 
 lamps, and gives a very brilliant light; 
 but, to prevent smoking, the lamp must 
 have a very strong draft. With oxy- 
 gen it forms camphor. 
 
 CAM'PHOR, a whitish translucent 
 substance, of a granular or foliated 
 I fracture, and somewhat unctuous to the 
 
 tribe. It has a bitterish aromatic taste 
 and a strong characteristic smell. In 
 chemical character it belongs to the 
 vegetable oils. The common camphor 
 of the shops is obtained from the cam- 
 
CAMPI 
 
 CANADA 
 
 phot laurel, a native of China and 
 Japan, now naturalized in many other 
 countries. The camphor is chiefly pre- 
 pared in the island of Formosa, though 
 also exported from Japan, and to a 
 small extent from China The common 
 camphor is obtained from the wood by 
 distillation and sublimation. Borneo 
 camphor, on the other hand, is not pro- 
 cured by distillation, but is found in 
 masses, secreted naturally in cavities 
 in the trunk and greater branches. 
 Numerous other vegetables, such as 
 thyme, rosemary, sage, etc., are found 
 to yield camphor by distillation. In 
 medicine camphor is used both as an 
 external and internal stimulant. In 
 small doses it acts as an anodyne and 
 antispasmodic ; in large doses it acts as a 
 poison. Its effluvia being very noxious 
 to insects, it is much used to protect 
 specimens in natural history. It readily 
 dissolves in alcohol, oils, etc., and in this 
 way is much used as a liniment. It 
 evaporates or volatilizes at ordinary 
 temperatures. A third kind of camphor, 
 blumea camphor, is prepared in China 
 from Blum6a balsamifSra, a tall com- 
 posite plant. 
 
 CAMPI, a family of Italian artists 
 w’ho founded what is known in painting 
 as the school of Cremona. Of the four 
 of this name, Giulio, Antonio, Vincenzo, 
 and Bernardino, the first and last are 
 the best known. Giulio (1502-72), the 
 eldest and the teacher of the others, was 
 a pupil of Giulio Romano, and acquired 
 from the study of Titian and Pordenone 
 a skill in coloring which gave the school 
 its high place. Bernardino (1525-90), 
 was the greatest of the school. He took 
 Romano, Titian, Correggio in succession 
 as his models, but without losing his 
 own individuality as an artist. 
 
 CAMP-MEETING, religious gather- 
 ings held in the open air in which the 
 audiences are addressed by prominent 
 or able exhorters, scholars, enter- 
 taining lecturers, etc. They were origi- 
 nated in Kentucky by a Methodist 
 and a Presbyterian preacher, two 
 brothers named McGee. Camp-meet- 
 ings are now held yearly in the summer 
 by many methodist conferences, and 
 are among the most cherished institu- 
 tions of that church, although in Eng- 
 land the church itself has refused them 
 its countenance. 
 
 CAMPOBAS'SO, a town of Italy, 
 province of Campobasso, on a hill-slope, 
 52 miles n.e. Naples; has manufactures 
 of cutlery, and a good trade. Pop. 
 14,818. — The prov. (formerly Molise) 
 has an area of 1771 sq. miles; pop. 
 38.j,140. 
 
 CAMPUS MARTIUS, was a large 
 place in the suburbs of ancient Rome, 
 consisting of the level ground between 
 the Quirinal, Capitoline, and Pincian 
 hills, and the river Tiber, set apart for 
 military exercises and sacred to the god 
 Mars. In the later period of the re- 
 public it was a suburban pleasure- 
 ground for the Romans, and was laid 
 out with gardens, shady walks, baths, 
 etc. A large part of the modern city 
 stands on it. 
 
 CANAAN (ka'nan). See Palestine. 
 
 CANAANITES, the general name for 
 the heathen peoples (Jebusites, Hittites, 
 Amorites, etc.) whom the Israelites 
 
 found dwelling in Canaan (Palestine) 
 west of the Jordan, and whom latterly 
 they utterly subdued, though the sub- 
 jugation was not quite complete till 
 Solomon’s time. They are believed to 
 have been, in part at least, of kindred 
 race with the Israelites; and some 
 authorities find traces of their descend- 
 ants among the present inhabitants of 
 Palestine. 
 
 CANADA, Dominion of, an extensive 
 series of British territories in North 
 America, the greatest of Britain’s 
 colonial possessions, comprising the 
 provinces of Ontario (formerly Upper 
 Canada), Quebec (formerly Lower 
 Canada), Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, 
 British Columbia, Prince Edward Is- 
 land, and Manitoba, along with the vast 
 regions in the north and northwest 
 known as the Northwest Territories, 
 and another vast region north of Quebec 
 known as the Northeast Territory. 
 The Dominion thus embraces the whole 
 of British North America, with the ex- 
 ception of Newfoundland and part of 
 Tjabrador (which belongs to Newfound- 
 land), and its area, 3,729,620 sq. miles, 
 is not much less than that of Europe. 
 
 The southern boundary is most re- 
 markable for passing through the 
 system of great lakes — Superior, Huron, 
 Erie, and Ontario, between the last two 
 of which are the Falls of Niagara, partly 
 belonging to Canada, partly to the 
 United States. To the Atlantic the 
 drainage of these lakes is carried by 
 the St. Lawrence, with which river, and 
 the great gulf into which it expands, are 
 connected the provinces of Ontario, 
 Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, 
 and Prince Edward Island, together 
 containing by far the greater portion 
 of the population of the Dominion. 
 
 The chief mountain ranges of the 
 east are north and south of the St. 
 Lawrence, and run nearly parallel to 
 that river. On the Pacific slope we have 
 a distinctly mountainous region, in- 
 cluding the Rockies, some peaks of 
 which (Mt. Hooker, Mt. Brown) attain 
 a height of about 16,000 feet, as also 
 the Gold and the Cascade Ranges. In 
 the prairie region and the northwest are 
 great lake and river systems, formed 
 by the Saskatchewan, Nelson, Churchill, 
 Athabasca, and Mackenzie rivers, and 
 the great lakes Winnipeg, Athabasca, 
 Great Slave and Great Bear. The Sas- 
 katchewan, lying in the heart of the 
 rich wheat-growing district, must in 
 time prove a far more important water- 
 way than at present. The Mackenzie 
 and its connected lakes and rivers form 
 the most remarkable feature of the far 
 northwest. This river, including its 
 tributary the Peace, has a length of 
 perhaps 2500 miles, and drains an area 
 of 550,000 sq. miles, or almost double 
 that of the St. Lawrence basin. Be- 
 tween the Mackenzie system and 
 Hudson Bay is a great region called 
 from its desolate character the Barren 
 Grounds. 
 
 Canada has great mineral wealth. 
 Iron of the best quality has been found 
 in great abundance in Quebec, Ontario, 
 and British Columbia. The district 
 round Lake Superior and the upper 
 part of Lake Huron abounds in copper 
 and has much silver as well; and Nova 
 
 Scotia, Assiniboia, Alberta, and British 
 Columbia are rich in coal. In Nova 
 Scotia there are a number of coal-mines 
 worked; gold is also obtained in some 
 quantity, as well as iron. Coal is worked 
 in the northwest, and more extensively 
 in British Columbia; but the most 
 valuable mineral of the latter is gold. 
 British Columbia is very rich in iron. 
 Gold is also found in the Klondike 
 region, near Alaska. 
 
 The chief wild animals (some of them 
 represented by several species) are the 
 deer, buffalo, musk-ox, bear, wolf, fox, 
 otter, beaver, squirrel, raccoon, musk- 
 rat, marten, etc. The buffalo is now 
 scarce, and will probably soon be exter- 
 minated. The largest of the deer kind 
 is the moose, or elk, which is found in 
 New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the 
 northern parts of Quebec, as well as in 
 the far west and northwest. The rein- 
 deer occurs in the north. The grizzly 
 bear is met with in the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, and the polar bear in the extreme 
 north and northeast. Fur-bearing ani- 
 mals are so numerous as to have been 
 a source of revenue to a large trading 
 company like the Hudson Bay Co., for 
 over two centuries. There are birds in 
 great variety, Canada having more than 
 700 of these altogether. They include 
 the wild swan, wild turkey, geese and 
 ducks of various kinds, partridges, quail, 
 prairie-fowl, pigeon, woodcock, snipe, 
 plover, etc.; besides eagles, hawks, owls, 
 and many smaller birds, among which 
 are two species of humming-bird. Ex- 
 cept at certain seasons game of all kinds 
 may be shot at will. The rattle-snake 
 and other snakes occur, but are less 
 common than in the States. The seas, 
 lakes, and rivers, especially the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence and the neighboring 
 waters, abound in almost all kinds of 
 fish, and the fisheries are extremely 
 valuable, employing over 250,000 
 people. The chief sea fish caught are 
 cod, herring, mackerel, halibut, had- 
 dock, hake, shad, salmon, etc. The 
 rivers and lakes abound with salmon, 
 white-fish, bass, trout, sturgeon, maski- 
 nonge (or maskelonge), pike, pickerel, 
 etc. The seal and whale fisheries are 
 also valuable. Lobsters and oysters 
 are abundant and excellent. 
 
 In the forests grow more than sixty 
 kinds of trees. 
 
 Generally the climate of the Dominion 
 shows considerable extremes of heat and 
 cold, but, except in some of the coast 
 regions, the exceeding dryness of the 
 Canadian atmosphere makes both 
 extremes of temperature pleasant and 
 healthy. 
 
 The chief crops are wheat, barley, 
 oats, rye, pease, maize, buckwheat, 
 potatoes, turnips, mangel-wurzel, etc. 
 The breeds of cattle are now being 
 much improved, partly by the intro- 
 duction of high-class cattle ; and cattle, 
 horses, and sheep are exported. 
 
 The trade of the Dominion is chiefly 
 with Great Britain and the United 
 States. About four-fifths of the whole 
 exports are sent to these two countries, 
 while nearly nine-tenths of the imports 
 come from them. Besides timlier, 
 animals and their produce, and agri- 
 cultural products, the chief articles of 
 export are fish, coal and other minerals, 
 
CANADA BALSAM 
 
 CANAL 
 
 leather, and wooden goods. The im- 
 ports chiefly consist of manufactured 
 goods, coal, iron, tea, coffee, sugar, 
 cotton, etc. Canada grain and flour, 
 timber, cattle, bacon and hams, cheese, 
 butter, furs, and fish are exported to 
 Great Britain and U. States. 
 
 Of the railways the greatest is the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway, running 
 from Montreal across the whole con- 
 tinent to Vancouver on the Pacific 
 coast in British Columbia ; length, about 
 2900 miles, exclusive of branches. The 
 Grand Trunk Railway connects the 
 maritime provinces and the North- 
 eastern U. States with the western rail- 
 ways, running from Portland, Maine, to 
 Sarnia on the Detroit River. 
 
 Some of the canals are stupendous 
 achievements. The most important, 
 from a commercial point of view, are the 
 St. Lawrence Canals and the Welland 
 Canal. The last Canadian canal neces- 
 sary to complete the navigation of the 
 St. Lav/rence to Lake Superior is St. 
 Mary’s Canal, opened in 189.5, avoiding 
 the St, Mary rapids (Sault Ste. Marie), a 
 tumultuous descent by which Lake 
 Superior pours its waters into Lake 
 Huron. Next after those mentioned, 
 the most important of the Canadian 
 canals is the series of locks and short 
 artificial connections known as the 
 Rideau Canal. It connects Lake Ontario 
 at Kingston with the Ottawa near the 
 city of that name. By means of these 
 works large vessels can now sail by the 
 St. Lawrence route from the Atlantic 
 to the head of Lake Superior. 
 
 By the Act of Confederation of 1867 
 the constitution of the Dominion was 
 required to be similar in principle to 
 that of the United Kingdom. There is 
 a central federal government and 
 separate provincial governments and 
 legislatures. The central executive 
 government is vested in the sovereign 
 of Great Britain and Ireland, and is 
 carried on in his name by a governor 
 general appointed by the crown, and a 
 privy-council. The governor-general 
 has a salary of $50,000 per annum. He 
 is assisted by a privy-council consisting 
 of the prime-minister and twelve other 
 ministers or heads of departments. The 
 legislative authority rests with a Par- 
 liament consisting of two houses, the 
 Senate and the House of Commons. 
 The Senate consists of eighty-one mem- 
 bers, nominated by the governor-general. 
 The House of Commons is elected by the 
 people for five years, there being one 
 member for about every 22,000 of the 
 population. Each of the provinces has 
 a separate parliament and administra- 
 tion, independent in its own sphere, 
 at the head being a lieutenant-governor 
 appointed by the central government. 
 The provinces of Quebec and Nova 
 Scotia have eaeh two chambers; the 
 other provinces have only one There 
 is also a very perfect system of municipal 
 government throughout the Dominion, 
 the counties and townships having 
 local governments or councils which 
 regulate their local taxation. The ad- 
 ministration of justice is based on the 
 English model, except in Quebec prov- 
 ince, where the old French law prevails. 
 The only court that has jurisdiction 
 throughout the Dominion (except the 
 
 ‘dktk 
 
 Exchequer and the Maritime Court), is 
 the Supreme Court, the ultimate court 
 of appeal in civil and criminal cases. 
 In certain cases an appeal may be had 
 to his Majesty’s Privy Council. The 
 capital of the Dominion is Ottawa, but 
 the largest cities are Montreal, Toronto, 
 and Quebec. Canada has both a large 
 volunteer force and a militia. The 
 former comprises many well-equipped 
 organizations in infantry, cavalry, and 
 artillery. A military college for the 
 training of officers is maintained by the 
 Dominion government at Kingston. 
 
 There is no state church in the 
 Dominion. The prevailing religion in 
 Quebec is that of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. In Ontario Methodists pre- 
 dominate, then Presbyterians, the Eng- 
 lish Church, and the Roman Catholics. 
 Of the total population in 1901 , 2,229,600 
 were Roman Catholics, 91 6,886 Metho- 
 dists, 842,442 Presbyterians, 680,620 
 Anglicans. Education is well attended 
 to, being everywhere more or less under 
 the supervision of government, and 
 excellent free schools being provided. 
 
 The population is increasing rapidly 
 both naturally and by means of immi- 
 gration. Ontario is settled principally 
 by emigrants from Great Britain and 
 their descendants, with considerable 
 numbers of Germans and Americans. 
 In the province of Quebec the people 
 are mostly French in origin, speech, and 
 customs, being mainly descendants of 
 the French colonists who inhabited the 
 region before it became British. There 
 are, besides, the Indian tribes and the 
 Eskimos, the latter in the extreme 
 north. The Indians number about 
 130,000. Population about 6,000,000. 
 
 CANADA BALSAM, a fluid oleo-resm 
 obtained from the balsam-fir common in 
 Canada and the U. States, and also from 
 Fraser’s balsam-fir and the hemlock 
 spruce. It is used in medicine and in 
 making varnishes, etc. 
 
 CANADA GOOSE, an American wild 
 goose 30 to 35 inches long, brownish 
 above, lighter below, head, neck, bill. 
 
 Canada goose, or wild goose. 
 
 and feet black, a white patch on the 
 cheek; breeds in the north of the con- 
 tinent, and migrates southward when 
 the frost becomes severe. 
 
 CANADA HEMP, a perennial herb, 
 of the dogbane family, native of N. 
 America. It has a strong fiber used for 
 twine, nets, woven fabrics, etc. 
 
 CANADA RICE, a floating grass grow- 
 ing in lakes and sluggish streams in 
 Canada and the northern U. States, 
 yielding a grain that forms part of the 
 food of the Indians, and is eaten by 
 whites also. 
 
 CANAL, an artificial water-course for 
 the transportation of goods or passen- 
 gers by boats or ships, or for purposes 
 of drainage or irrigation. The canals 
 most familiar to ordinary readers are for 
 navigation. These consist usually of a 
 number of different sections, each on one 
 level throughout its course, but differing 
 in relative height from the others. From 
 one section to another boats are trans- 
 ferred by means of locks, or it may be by 
 inclines or lifts. The lock is a water- 
 tight inclosure with gates at either end, 
 constructed between two successive 
 sections of a canal. When a vessel is 
 descending, water is let into the lock 
 till it is on a level with the higher water, 
 and thus permits the vessel to enter; 
 the upper gates are then closed, and by 
 the lower gates being gradually opened, 
 the water in the lock falls to the level of 
 the lower water, and the vessel passes 
 out. In ascending the operation is 
 reversed. The incline conveys the 
 vessel from one reach to another, gen- 
 erally on a specially-constructed carriage 
 running on rails, by means of drums 
 and cables. The lift consists of two 
 counterbalancing troughs, one going 
 up as the other descends, carrying the 
 vessel from the higher to the lower level, 
 or vice versa. Works of great magni- 
 tude in the way of cuttings, embank- 
 ments, aqueducts, bridges, tunnels, 
 reservoirs for water-supply, etc., are 
 often necessary in constructing canals. 
 Canals have been known from remote 
 times, Egypt being intersected at an 
 early period by canals branching off 
 from the Nile to distant parts of the 
 country, for purposes of irrigation and 
 navigation. 
 
 The chief canal in Germany is the 
 great North Sea and Baltic Canal for 
 sea-going vessels, constructed at a cost 
 of $40,000,000, starting near the mouth 
 of the Elbe and reaching the Baltic near 
 Kiel. The greatest British canal is the 
 Manchester Canal, a waterway for 
 ocean-going vesesls from the estuary of 
 the Mersey, near Runcorn, to Man- 
 chester, through a few locks and partly 
 in the beds of the Mersey and the Irwell, 
 begun in 1887, opened in 1894; total 
 cost, about $75,000,000. In the U. 
 States the most extensive undertakings 
 of this kind are the canal connecting the 
 Hudson with Lake Erie and the Chicago 
 drainage canal. In Canada, besides the 
 Welland Canal, uniting Lakes Erie and 
 Ontario, and avoiding the Niagara river 
 and its falls, there are several other 
 important canals. As yet the greatest 
 achievement in canal-making has been 
 the Suez Canal. It is an example of a 
 ship-canal without locks, open at both 
 ends to the sea. A similar but much 
 smaller canal is that of Corinth. Two 
 great American canals, the Panama 
 Canal and the Nicaragua Canal — the 
 one of very different character from the 
 
 ' ' ... . 
 
CANAL 
 
 CANEBRAKE 
 
 other — remain as yet uncompleted. 
 See separate articles. 
 
 CANAL, Chicago drainage, for the re- 
 moval of Chicago’s sewage was begun 
 Sept. 3,1892, and opened Jan. 2, 1900. 
 Some sections are excavated in solid 
 rock, are 160 ft. wide, with perpendicu- 
 lar walls, and 30 to 35 ft. deep. Where 
 it is full earth-cut the bottom of the 
 channel is 202 ft. wide. The full length 
 of the channel is 281^ mi. Its capacity 
 per minute is 600,000 cubic ft ; maxi- 
 mum velocity of current per hour, 3 mi.; 
 length of spillway, 397 ft. The total 
 cost of construction was about 
 $33,000,000. 
 
 CAN'ARA, a maritime region of Hin- 
 dustan, now partly in the Madras 
 presidency (south Canara), and partly 
 in the Bombay presidency (north 
 (Canara), extending along the Indian 
 Ocean for 180 miles, with a mean 
 breadth of 40 miles. The Bombay portion 
 has an area of 39.10 sq. miles and a pop. 
 of 446,351 ; the Madras portion 3902 sq. 
 miles and 1,056,081 inhabitants. 
 
 CANA'RY, a wine not unlike Madeira, 
 made in the Canary Islands, chiefly at 
 Teneriffe. 
 
 CANARY-BIRD, an insessorial sing- 
 ing bird, a kind of finch from the Canary 
 Islands. Many of the cage canaries are 
 really mules, produced by the inter- 
 breeding of canaries with allied spe- 
 cies, such as the goldfinch, siskin, lin- 
 110^ 0t)C 
 
 CANARY, GRAND, or GRAN CANA- 
 RIA, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, 
 about 180 miles from the coast of Africa. 
 It is the most fertile and important of 
 the Canary Islands, to which it gives 
 name. Area, 650 sq. miles; pop. 93,653. 
 Canary, or Cividad de Palmas, is the 
 capital. 
 
 CANA'RY ISLANDS, or CANARIES, a 
 
 cluster of islands in the Atlantic, 60 or 
 70 miles from the n.w. coast of Africa, 
 and belonging to Spain. They are 
 thirteen in number, seven of which are 
 considerable, viz.: Palma, Ferro, Gom- 
 era, Teneriffe, Grand Canary, Fuer- 
 teventura, and Lancerota. The other 
 six are very small: Graciosa, Roca or 
 Rocca, Allegranza, Sta. Clara, Inferno, 
 and Lobos. All are volcanic, rugged 
 and mountainous, frequently presenting 
 precipitous cliffs to the sea. The prin- 
 cipal peak is that of Teneriffe, 12,182 
 feet; El Cumbre in Gran Canaria is 6650 
 feet. The area of the whole has been 
 estimated at 2808 sq. miles. Their fine 
 climate and their fertility, which owes 
 little to cultivation, justified their 
 ancient name of Fortunate Islands. 
 The Canaries form a Spanish province; 
 pop. 358,564. 
 
 CANARY-SEED, the seed of the 
 canary-grass, order Graminaceae, is used 
 as food in the Canaries, Barbary, and 
 Italy, and is largely collected for canary- 
 birds. 
 
 CANA'RY- WOOD, the light orange- 
 colored wood of trees of the laurel family 
 belonging to the Canaries and Madeira. 
 
 CANBY, Edward Richard Sprigg, an 
 American soldier, born in Kentucky 
 in 1819, died in 1873. He graduated 
 at West Point, served in the Indian and 
 Mexican wars, and during the civil 
 war repelled the attacks of Sibley on 
 New Mexico. In 1873 he was killed by 
 
 the treachery of the Modoc Indians in 
 Oregon. 
 
 CANCER, in astronomy, the fourth 
 sign in the zodiac, entered by the sun on 
 or about the 21st of June, and quitted 
 about the 22d of July. The constellation 
 Cancer is no longer in the sign of Cancer, 
 but at present occupies the place of the 
 sign Leo. | 
 
 CANCER, or CARCINO'MA, a malig- 
 nant growth or structure in some part 
 of the human body, which can extend 
 itself and spread to neighboring parts, 
 and even form again after removal, and 
 usually causes death. Cancer is often a 
 very painful disease, but in many cases 
 is not attended with pain. No cure for 
 it can be said to exist, though excision, 
 if performed in time, may not be fol- 
 lowed by a recurrence. 
 
 CANCER, Tropic of. See Tropics. 
 
 CANDAHAR. See Kandahar. 
 
 CANDELA'BRUM, an ornamental 
 candlestick or lamp-holder, often of a 
 branched form. Ancient candelabra 
 frequently display much ingenious treat- 
 ment in the design, presenting columns, 
 figures, etc., and the branches from the 
 central shaft were often numerous. In 
 ancient times Tarentum and .(Egina 
 were famous for their elegant candela- 
 bra. Marble, earthenware, and other 
 materials, as well as metal, were em- 
 ployed in their structure, which was 
 sometimes on a large scale. 
 
 CAN'DIA, one of the most important 
 islands of the Turkish Empire, situated 
 in the Mediterranean, 81 miles from 
 the southern extremity of the Morea and 
 230 miles from the African coast, 160 
 miles long, 14 to 50 broad; area, 4026 
 sq. miles. The inhabitants (estimated 
 at 1,200,000 in ancient times) now num- 
 ber about 309,349, of whom 269,246 
 are Greek Christians (rapidly increas- 
 ing), and 38,281 Mahometans. The cap- 
 ital, Canea, the seat of the governor 
 and chief place of trade, has 24,537 in- 
 habitants; Candia, 22,774. 
 
 CAN'DIDATE, a term taken from the 
 Latin candidatus, a candidate, literally 
 a person dressed in white, because, 
 among the Romans, a man who solicited 
 an office, such as the praetorship or con- 
 sulship, appeared in a bright white 
 garment — toga Candida. 
 
 CANDLE, a solid cylindrical rod of 
 some fatty substance, with a small 
 bundle of loosely-twisted threads placed 
 longitudinally in its center, used for a 
 portable light. The chief material used 
 for making candles is tallow, either in a 
 pure state or in mixture with other fatty 
 substances, as palm-oil, spermaceti, 
 wax, etc. Paraffin candles are now 
 made in considerable quantities also. 
 Ordinarily tallow candles are either 
 dipped or moulded. The former, gen- 
 erally composed of the coarser tallow, 
 are made by attaching a number of 
 separate wicks to a frame and dipping 
 the whole into a cistern of melted tallow 
 as often as may be necessary to give 
 the candle the required thickness. 
 Moulded candles, as their name implies, 
 are formed in moulds. These, made 
 generally of pewter, are hollow cylinders 
 of the length of the candle, and open at 
 both ends, but provided at the upper 
 end with a conical cap, in which there is 
 * a hole for the wick. A number of these 
 
 moulds are inserted in a wooden frame 
 or trough with their heads downward; 
 the wick is then drawn in through the 
 top hole by means of a wire, and kept 
 stretched while the moulds are filled by 
 running melted tallow from a boiler into 
 the trough. Considerable modern im- 
 provements have been made in the 
 manufacture of candles. One of the 
 most important of these consists in not 
 employing the whole of the fatty or oily 
 substances, but in decomposing them, 
 and then using only the stearine of the 
 former and the palmitine of the latter 
 class of substances. AVax cannot be 
 formed into candles by melting it and 
 then running it into moulds. Instead, 
 the wdcks, properly cut and twisted, are. 
 suspended by a ring over a basin of 
 liquid wax, which is poured on the tops 
 of the wicks until a sufficient thickness 
 is obtained, when the candles, still hot, 
 are placed on a smooth walnut table, 
 kept constantly wet, and rolled upon it 
 by means of a flat piece of boxwood. 
 The large wax candles used in Roman 
 Catholic churches are merely plates of 
 wax bent round a wick and then rolled. 
 
 CANDLEBERRY, Candleberry Myrtle, 
 Wax Myrtle, etc., a shrub growing from 
 4 to 18 feet high, and common in N. 
 America, where candles are made from 
 its drupes or berries, which are about the 
 
 Candleberry or wax myrtle. 
 
 size of peppercorns, and covered w'ith a 
 greenish-white wax popularly known as 
 Blayberry tallow. The wax is collected 
 by boiling the drupes in water and skim- 
 ming off the surface. A bushel of berries 
 yields from 4 to 5 lbs. of wax. 
 
 CANDLE-FISH, a sea-fish of the 
 salmon family, frequenting the north- 
 western shores of America, of about the 
 size of the smelt. It is converted by the 
 Indians into a candle simply by passing 
 the pith of a rush or a strip of the bark 
 of the cypress-tree through it as a wick, 
 when its extreme oiliness keeps the 
 wick blazing. 
 
 CAN'DLEMAS, a church feast, in- 
 stituted in 492 in commemoration of the 
 presentation of Christ in the temple and 
 of the purification of Mary. It falls on 
 February 2, and on this day among 
 Roman Catholics lighted candles are 
 carried about in procession, and all 
 candles and tapers which are to be used 
 in the churches during the entire year 
 are consecrated. 
 
 CANE. See Bamboo, Rattan, Sugar- 
 cane. 
 
 CANEBRAKE, a reed or grass, in- 
 digenous to the warmer parts of the U. 
 States. It grows in marshy situations, 
 
CANEPHORUS 
 
 CANOE 
 
 where it attains a height of 10 to 30 
 feet. It is of a genus allied to the 
 bamboo. The flowers are in panicles. 
 The young growth of this cane is used 
 as fodder, but the quality is rather poor. 
 The stems supply fishing-rods, pipe- 
 stems, splints for baskets, chair-bottoms, 
 mats, etc. 
 
 CANE'PHORUS, one of the bearers of 
 the baskets containing the implements 
 of sacrifice in the processions of the 
 Dionysia, Panathenea, and other ancient 
 Grecian festivals an office of honor 
 
 Canephorus, from terra cotta in British 
 Museum. 
 
 much coveted by the virgins of antiq- 
 uity. The term is applied to archi- 
 tectural figures bearing baskets on 
 their head, sometimes improperly con- 
 founded with Caryatides. 
 
 CANTD.®, the dog family of animals. 
 
 CANIS MAJOR, a constellation of the 
 southern hemisphere, remarkable as 
 containing Sirius, the brightest star. — 
 Canis Minor, is a constellation in 
 the northern hemisphere, immediately 
 above Canis Major, the chief star in 
 which is Procyon 
 
 CANISTER SHOT, Same as Case- 
 shot. 
 
 CANKER, (1) in medicine, a collection 
 of small sloughing ulcers in the mouth, 
 especially of children ; called also water 
 canker. (2) In horticulture, a kind of 
 grangrenous disease to which fruit-trees 
 especially are liable, beginning in the 
 younger shoots and gradually extending 
 to the trunk. (3) In farriery, a disease 
 in horses’ feet causing a discharge of 
 fetid matter from the cleft in the middle 
 of the frog, generally originating in a 
 diseased thrush. 
 
 CANKER-WORM, a worm or larva 
 destructive to trees or plants; in Amer- 
 ica specifically applied to moths. 
 
 CANNA, a genus of plants, order 
 Marantacece, some species of which hav'e 
 fine flowers, and some from their black, 
 hard, heavy seeds are called Indian shot. 
 
 CANNEL COAL. See Coal. 
 
 CANNES (kiin), a seaport of France, 
 on the shore of the Mediterranean, dep. 
 Alpes-Maritimes; famous as a winter 
 residence, and as the place where Na- 
 poleon landed when he returned from 
 Elba, March 1, 1815. Pop. 34,151. 
 
 CANNIBALISM, or ANTHROPOPH- 
 AGY, the eating of human flesh as 
 food, a practice that has been known 
 from the earliest times, and in the most 
 widely spread localities. See Anthro- 
 pophagi. 
 
 CANNING, Charles John, Earl, son of 
 George Canning, born in 1812; educated 
 at Eton and Oxford, and in 1856 went 
 out to India as governor-general. 
 Throughout the mutiny he showed a 
 fine coolness and clear-headedness, and 
 though his carefully-pondered decisions 
 were sometimes lacking in promptness, 
 yet his admirable moderation did much 
 to re-establish the British Empire in 
 India. He was raised to the rank of 
 earl and made viceroy, but returned 
 to England with shattered health in 
 1862, dying in the same year. — CAN- 
 NING, George, a distinguished orator 
 and statesman, born in London in 1770; 
 educated at Eton and at Oxford. He 
 
 George Canning. 
 
 was first brought into parliament by 
 Pitt in 1793, and in 1796 became under- 
 secretary of state. In 1814 he was ap- 
 pointed minister to Portugal, and re- 
 mained abroad about two years. He 
 refused to take any part in the proceed- 
 ings against the queen, and in 1822, 
 having been nominated governor-gen- 
 eral of India, he was on the point of 
 embarking when the death of Castlereagh 
 called him to the cabinet as foreign 
 secretary. — CANNING, Stratford, Vis- 
 count Stratford de Redcliffe, an Eng- 
 lish diplomatist, son of a London 
 merchant and cousin of George Canning, 
 born in 1788. He retired from diplo- 
 matic work in 1858, but exercised no 
 small influence in the House of Lords, 
 and as late as 1880 drew up a paper on 
 the Greek claims. He died in the August 
 of that year, having done more than 
 any one man to establish British prestige 
 in the East. 
 
 CANNON, a big gun or piece of ord- 
 nance. The precise period at which 
 engines for projecting missiles by 
 mechanical force (catapults, etc.) were 
 supplanted by those utilizing explosive 
 materials is a matter of controversy, the 
 invention of cannon being even attri- 
 buted to the Chinese, from whom the 
 Saracens may have acquired the knowl- 
 edge. A doubtful authority asserts 
 their use at the siege of Belgrade in 
 1073; but they were certainly brought 
 into use in France as early as 1338. 
 
 Great improvements and changes in 
 the manufacture of cannon have been 
 introduced in recent times. Those that 
 are now made of bronze have often 
 their bore widened by strong cylinders 
 of steel successively forced into them, 
 a process which condenses and hardens 
 the surrounding bronze, giving it a 
 tenacity approaching that of cast-steel. 
 
 The heavy guns of the British service, 
 made on the “Woolwich” system, 
 have a steel tube to form the bore, over 
 which are shrunk coils of wrought iron, 
 increasing in thickness about the breech. 
 This method of manufacture was first in- 
 troduced by Sir W. (later Lord) Arm- 
 strong about 1858. This construction 
 presents the hard steel to meet the wear 
 and tear on the bore of the gun, while 
 great support is given by shrinking on 
 the wrought-iron hoops, which contract 
 with a tight grip upon the steel. In 
 the U. States enormous cast-iron 
 smooth-bore guns have been made on 
 the Rodman system, throwing very 
 heavy spherical projectiles at a low 
 velocity, intended by their great weight 
 to bend and open armor at the joints, 
 thus destroying the vessel by what is 
 termed “racking.” But the common 
 system is to punch holes in the armor 
 by means of rather smaller projectiles, 
 made of chilled iron, which strike at a 
 high velocity, and the range and pene- 
 tration of modern ordnance are some- 
 thing enormous. Thus some of the 
 larger guns are sighted for 5 miles, and 
 they can penetrate 30 inches of armor 
 at the distance of 1000 yards. Eighty- 
 ton, 100-ton, and 110-ton guns have 
 been constructed for the navy and land 
 defenses. 
 
 Rifled cannon load either at the 
 muzzle or breech. The former system 
 is simpler and stronger. The latter 
 facilitates loading and exposes the 
 gunners less to the fire of the enemy’s 
 riflemen, especially when the gun is 
 firing through a ship’s port or the em- 
 brasure of a fort. The projectiles for 
 rifled guns are not spherical, but elon- 
 gated, their length being perhaps 2J or 
 3 times their diameter; and they re- 
 quire to be so constructed that they 
 may take hold of the giooves of the 
 bore and thus get the required rotation 
 to send them at a high speed point 
 first through the air. For this purpose 
 they used to have rows of studs pro- 
 jecting and fitting into the grooves, 
 or a coating of lead, which served the 
 same purpose; but the projectile now 
 usually has a flanged copper disc fitted 
 on to the base, and the pressure of the 
 gas when the charge is exploded forces 
 out the flanges into the grooves. Among 
 recent improvements may be mentioned 
 the use of a “powder chamber” of 
 greater diameter than the rest of the 
 bore, and the adoption of an increased 
 twist in the rifling instead of a uniform 
 one. Guns for firing charges of dyna- 
 mite or other powerful explosive have 
 recently been experimented with. See 
 also Gun-carriage, Artillery, Mortar, 
 Howitzer, Machine Gun, Shell, etc. 
 
 CANNON, Joseph G., an American 
 politician and congressman, born at 
 Guilford, N. C., in 1836. He removed 
 to Illinois and from 1873 to 1906 has 
 been successively elected to the con- 
 gresses between those years. He was 
 elected speaker of the house of repre- 
 sentatives in 1903. 
 
 CANOE (ka-no'), a light boat narrow 
 in the beam, and adapted to be pro- 
 pelled by paddles, often in conjunction 
 with sails. The name was originally 
 given to the boats of uncivilized races, 
 but its application has been consider- 
 
CANON 
 
 CANTILEVER 
 
 ably extended, and canoes of home 
 make may be seen on the waters of the 
 most civilized countries. They are of 
 the most diverse materials and con- 
 struction. Often they are hollowed 
 out of a single log. The Indian canoes 
 are of bark on a wooden frame. The 
 Eskimo kaiaks consist of a light 
 wooden frame, covered with seal-skins 
 sewed together with sinews, and having 
 only one opening to admit the boatman 
 to his seat. In the islands of the Pacific 
 the natives have double canoes, united 
 by a strong platform, serving in this 
 way as one vessel. 
 
 CAN'ON, a term given collectively to 
 the books of the Holy Scriptures uni- 
 versally received as genuine by Chris- 
 tian churches. See Bible, Apocrypha. 
 
 CAN'ON, a church dignitary who 
 possesses a prebend, or revenue allotted 
 for the performance of divine service in a 
 cathedral or collegiate church. 
 
 CANON (kan-yon'), the Spanish word 
 for tube, funnel, cannon; applied by 
 the Spanish Americans, and hence in 
 N. America generally (often with the 
 spelling Canyon), to long and narrow 
 river gorges or deep ravines with pre- 
 cipitous and almost perpendicular sides 
 occurring frequently in the Rocky 
 Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, and great 
 western plateaux of N. America. 
 
 CANONICAL BOOKS, the books of 
 Scripture belonging to the canon. See 
 Canon. 
 
 CANONICAL HOURS, certain stated 
 times of the day appropriated by ecclesi- 
 astical law to the offices of prayer and 
 devotion in the Roman Catholic Church, 
 viz.: matins with lauds, prime, tierce, 
 sext, nones, evensong or vespers, and 
 compline. 
 
 CANONICALS, the dress or vestments 
 of the clergy. 
 
 CANONIZATION, a ceremony in the 
 Roman Church, by which deceased per- 
 sons are declared saints. The pope in- 
 stitutes a formal investigation of the 
 miraculous and other qualifications of 
 the deceased person recommended for 
 canonization; and an advocate of the 
 devil, as he is called, is appointed to op- 
 pose the canonization and submit evi- 
 dence. If the examination is satisfac- 
 tory, the pope pronounces the beatifica- 
 tion of the candidate, the actual canon- 
 ization generally taking place some 
 years afterward, when a day is dedicated 
 to his honor, his name inserted in the 
 calendar of the Saints, a solemn mass is 
 celebrated by the pope, and his remains 
 preserved as holy relics. 
 
 CANON LAW, a collection of eccle- 
 siastical constitutions for the regulation 
 of the Church of Rome, consisting for 
 the most part of ordinances of general 
 and provincial councils, decrees promul- 
 gated by the popes with the sanction of 
 the cardinals, and decretal epistles and 
 bulls of the popes. There is also a 
 canon law for the regulation of the 
 Church of England, which under certain 
 restrictions is used in ecclesiastical 
 courts and in the courts of the two uni- 
 versities. 
 
 CAN'OPY, a raised and ornamental 
 covering above a throne, a bed, or the 
 like;'in architecture, a decorative struc- 
 ture serving as a hood or cover above an 
 altar, pulpit, niche, etc. 
 
 CANO'VA, Antonio, an Italian sculp- 
 tor, born in 1757 at Possagno, in Vene- 
 tian territory. He was first an appren- 
 tice to a statuary in Bassano, from whom 
 he went to the Academy of Venice, 
 where he had a brilliant career. In 
 1779 he was sent by the senate of Venice 
 to Rome with a salary of 300 ducats, and 
 there produced his Theseus and the 
 Slain Minotaur. In 1783 Canova under- 
 took the execution of the tomb of Pope 
 Clement XIV. in the Church of the 
 Apostles, a work in the Bernini manner, 
 and inferior to his second public monu- 
 ment the tomb of Pope Clement XIII. 
 (1792) in St. Peter’s. From 1783 his 
 fame rapidly increased. He established 
 a school for the benefit of young Vene- 
 tians, and among other works produced 
 his group of Venus and Adonis, the 
 Psyche and Butterfly, a Repentant 
 Magdalene, the well-known Hebe, the 
 colossal Hercules hurling Lichas into the 
 Sea, the Pugilists, and the group of 
 Cupid and Psyche. In 1796 and 1797 
 Canova finished the model of the cele- 
 brated tomb of the Archduchess Chris- 
 tina of Austria, and in 1797 made the 
 colossal model of a statue of the King of 
 Naples executed in marble in 1803. 
 He afterwards executed in Rome his 
 Perseus with the Head of Medusa, 
 which, when the Belvidere Apollo was 
 carried to France, was thought not un- 
 worthy of its place and pedestal. In 
 1802 he was invited by Bonaparte to 
 Paris to make the model of his colossal 
 statue. Among the later works of the 
 artist are a colossal Washington, the 
 tombs of the Cardinal of York and of 
 Pius VII.; a Venus Rising from the 
 Bath; the colossal group of Theseus 
 Killing the Minotaur; the tomb of 
 Alfieri; the Graces Rising from the 
 Bath; a Dancing Girl; a colossal Hector; 
 a Paris, etc. After the second fall of 
 Napoleon, in 1815, Canova Was com- 
 missioned by the pope to demand the 
 restoration of the works of art carried 
 from Rome. He went from Paris to 
 London, and returned to Rome in 1816, 
 where he was made Marquis of Ischia, 
 with a pension of 3000 scudi. He died at 
 Venice, Oct. 13, 1822. 
 
 CANROBERT (kan-ro-bar), Francois 
 Certain, French marshal, Ijorn 1809. 
 He commanded in the Crimean war 
 under St. Arnaud, and after his death 
 received the chief command, but could 
 not work in harmony with the British 
 and made way for P^lissier. In the 
 Italian war (1859) he commanded the 
 3d division, and distinguished himself 
 at Magenta. In the Franco-German 
 war he belonged to the force that was 
 shut up in Metz and had to capitulate. 
 He was latterly a French senator. He 
 died in 1895. 
 
 CANTAL', a central department in 
 France, area 2217 sq. miles; capital, 
 Aurillac. This department, formerly 
 part of Upper Auvergne, is named from 
 its highest mountain, the Plomb du 
 Cantal, 6094 feet in height. The prin- 
 cipal crops are rye, buckwheat, potatoes, 
 and chestnuts, hemp and flax. Cattle, 
 sheep, pigs, horses, and mules are 
 reared in large numbers. Large quan- 
 tities of cheese (“.Auvergne cheese”) are 
 made. Hot mineral springs are abund- 
 ant. Pop. 241,742. 
 
 CAN'TALIVER, Cantilever, a wooden 
 or iron block framed into the wall of a 
 house and projecting from it to carry 
 mouldings, eaves, balconies, etc. Also 
 a large projecting framework forming 
 part of an iron bridge directly carrying 
 part of the roadway, and also supporting 
 beams or girders bridging over a space 
 between it and another similar structure. 
 
 CAN'TALOUPE (-lop), a small round 
 variety of musk-melon, globular, ribbed, 
 of pale green or yellow color, and of 
 delicate flavor; first grown in Europe at 
 the castle of Cantaloupe. 
 
 CANTATA (kan-ta'ta), a vocal com- 
 position, consisting of an intermixture 
 of air, recitative, duet, trio, quartette, 
 and chorus, often taking the form of a 
 short oratorio or unacted opera. 
 
 CANTEEN', in military language, a 
 regimental establishment managed by a 
 committee of officers, for the sale of 
 liquors, tobacco, groceries, etc., to the 
 soldiers at reasonable prices. The 
 profits are employed for the benefit of 
 the soldiers themselves. 
 
 CAN'TERBURY, a city, and pari., 
 mun., and county borough of England, 
 in Kent, 55 miles s.e. of London, giving 
 name to an archiepiscopal see, the 
 occupant of which is primate of all 
 England. The foundation of the archi- 
 episcopal see took place soon after the 
 arrival of St. Augustine in 596. In the 
 8th, 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries the 
 city was dreadfully ravaged by the 
 Danes, but at the Conquest its build- 
 ings exceeded in extent those of London. 
 The ecclesiastical importance of the 
 place was consummated by the murder 
 of Thomas a Becket in the cathedral, 
 the priory and see benefiting by the 
 offerings of devotees and pilgrims at his 
 shrine. Henry VIII. dissolved the 
 priory in 1539, and ordered the bones 
 of Becket to be burned; and the troopers 
 of Oliver Cromwell made a stable of the 
 cathedral. — The cathedral, one of the 
 finest ecclesiastical structures in Eng- 
 land, 530 feet in length and 154 in 
 breadth, has been built in different ages, 
 the oldest part dating from about 1174. 
 The great tower, 235 feet in height, is a 
 splendid specimen of the Pointed style. 
 Other ecclesiastical buildings are St. 
 Augustine’s monastery, now a Church 
 missionary college, St. Margaret’s 
 Church, and the church dedicated to 
 St. Martin, believed to be one of the 
 oldest existing Christian churches. Can- 
 terbury has a royal grammar-school, 
 founded by Henry VIII., numerous 
 other schools, art gallery, etc. There 
 are breweries and malting establish- 
 ments; and the principal articles of 
 trade are corn and hops. There are 
 extensive barracks for cavalry and 
 infantry. It returns one member to 
 parliament. Pop. 24,868. 
 
 CANTERBURY, a district occupying 
 most of the center of South Island, New 
 Zealand, with a coast -line of 200 miles, 
 and a greatest breadth of about 150 
 miles. The western part is traversed 
 by mountains, from which a fertile 
 plain of 2,500,000 acres slopes gradually 
 down to the sea. The chief places in the 
 province are Christchurch, the capital; 
 and Lyttelton, the port town, 8 miles 
 from Christchurch. Pop. 143.040. 
 
 CANTILEVER. See Cantaliver. 
 
CANTON 
 
 CA'pa cOLOisrY 
 
 CANTON, a large and important city 
 of Southern China, 80 miles from the sea, 
 on the Pearl River, in the province of 
 Quangtung (of which name Canton is a 
 corruption). The city proper is enclosed 
 by walls 25 feet high and 20 feet thick. 
 
 forming a circuit of six miles, with 12 
 gates; and it is divided into two parts 
 by a wall running east and west; the 
 larger portion north of this wall being 
 called the old, that on the south of it the 
 new city. The streets are long, straight, 
 and in general paved, but very narrow, 
 and gaudy with painted signs. The 
 houses of the poorer classes are mere 
 mud hovels: those of the shop-keeping 
 class are commonly of two stories, the 
 lower serving as the shop. The foreign 
 mercantile houses, and the British, 
 French, and American consulates, have 
 as their special quarter an area in the 
 suburbs in the southwest of the city, 
 with water on two sides of it. In the 
 European quarter are churches, schools, 
 and other buildings in the European 
 style. The river opposite the city for 
 the space of four or five miles is crowded 
 with boats, a large number of which — 
 as many it is said as 40,000 — are fixed 
 residences, containing a population of 
 200,000. The industries of Canton are 
 varied and important, embracing silk, 
 cotton, porcelain, glass, paper, sugar, 
 lacquered ware, ivory carving, metal 
 goods, etc. It was the chief foreign 
 emporium in China until 1850, when 
 Shanghai began to surpass and other 
 ports to compete with it but it exports 
 and imports together often still amount 
 to about $40,000,000. Since the estab- 
 lishment of the colony of Hong-Kong a 
 flotilla of river steamers ply daily be- 
 tween Canton, Hong-Kong, and Macao. 
 In 1856 the foreign factories were pil- 
 laged and destroyed by the Chinese, and 
 about a year after this Canton was taken 
 by an English force, and occupied by an 
 English and French garrison until 1861. 
 Pop. estimated at over 1,600,000. 
 
 CANTON, a city and county-seat of 
 Stark Co., Ohio, 60 miles south-south- 
 east of (Cleveland, on the Nimishillen 
 Creek, and on the Cleveland, Canton & 
 Southern, the Baltimore & Ohio, and 
 the Pennsylvania railroads. Pop. 36,140. 
 
 CANUCK, in the U. States, a term 
 used to designate a Canadian. In 
 Canada it is applied to French Canadians, 
 it is thought by some to have an Indian 
 origin, by others to be a corruption of 
 Connaught. 
 
 CANUTE, or CNUT (ka-nfit', knut). 
 King of England and Denmark, suc- 
 
 ceeded his father Swegen or Sweyn on 
 his death in England in 1014 a.d., and 
 confirmed the Danish power in England. 
 He began by devastating the eastern 
 coast, and extended his ravages in the 
 south, where, however, he failed to 
 establish himself until after the assas- 
 sination of Edmund Ironside, when he 
 was accepted king of the whole of Eng- 
 land (1017). Canute, who began his 
 reign with barbarity and crime, after- 
 ward became a humane and wise mon- 
 arch. He restored the English customs 
 at a general assembly, and ensured to 
 the Danes and English equal rights and 
 equal protection of person and property, 
 and even preferred English subjects to 
 the most important posts. His power 
 was confirmed by his marriage with 
 Emma, Ethelred’s widow. At Harold’s 
 death in 1018 he gained Denmark; in 
 1028 he conquered Norway; and in 1031 
 he made Malcolm of Scotland admit his 
 superiority. Sweden also was vassal 
 to him. He died in 1036 at Shaftesbury, 
 leaving Norway to his eldest son, Sweyn ; 
 to the second, Harold, England; to the 
 third, Hardicanute, Denmark. 
 
 CAN'VAS, a coarse and strong cloth, 
 made of flax or hemp, and used for sails, 
 tents, etc. 
 
 CANVAS-BACK DUCK, a bird pecu- 
 liar to N. America, and considered the 
 finest of the water -fowl for the table. 
 They arrive in the U. States from the 
 north about the middle of October, 
 sometimes assembling in immense num- 
 bers. The plumage is black, white, 
 chestnut-brown, and slate color; length 
 about 20 inches. 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC (ko'chok or kou'- 
 chok), an elastic gummy substance 
 chemically a hydrocarbon, contained 
 in the milky juice of a number of tropical 
 trees of various orders, growing in S. 
 America. The name is also used as an 
 equivalent of india-rubber, but strictly 
 caoutchouc is only the chief ingredient 
 of india-rubber. The crude india-rubber 
 is most commonly obtained by making 
 incisions in the trunks of the trees, 
 whence the sap exudes in the form of a 
 milky fluid which gradually thickens 
 and solidifies. Caoutchouc is a non- 
 conductor of electricity and a bad con- 
 ductor of heat. It is not dissolved by 
 water, hot or cold, but chloroform, oil 
 of turpentine bi-sulphide of carbon, etc., 
 dissolve it. India-rubber was at first 
 only used to rub out pencil-marks, but 
 before the end of last century it was 
 
 used to render leather and other sub- 
 stances water-tfght, and in 1823 Macin- 
 tosh took out a patent for the water- 
 proof materials prepared with caout- 
 chouc which bear his name. Latterly its 
 uses have become innumerable. Gutta 
 
 percha is a similar substance to caout- 
 chouc, and is often popularly con- 
 founded with it. See India-rubber. 
 
 CAP, in ships, a strong piece of tim- 
 ber placed over the head or upper end 
 of a mast, having in it a round hole to 
 receive the top or top-gallant masts, 
 which are thus kept steady and firm. 
 
 CAP, a covering for the head, usually 
 of softer materials and less definite 
 form than a hat. Cap of maintenance, 
 a cap formerly worn by dukes and eom- 
 
 Cap of maintenance, from great seal of 
 Henry VII. 
 
 manders in token of excellency, now an 
 ornament of state carried before the 
 sovereigns of England at their corona- 
 tion, and also before the mayors of 
 some cities. 
 
 CAPE BRETON, an island of the 
 Dominion of Canada, separated from 
 Nova Scotia, to which province it 
 belongs, by the narrow Gut or Strait of 
 Canso; area 3120 sq. miles. Chief town, 
 Sydney. Pop. of Cape Breton, 97,605. 
 
 CAPE COD, a noted peninsula of the 
 United States on the s. side of Massa- 
 chusetts Bay; 65 miles long and from 1 
 to 20 broad. It is mostly sandy and 
 barren, but populous. 
 
 CAPE COLONY, a British colony oc- 
 cupying the southern extremity of 
 Africa. Area (including southern 
 Bechuanaland), 276,700 sq. miles; pop. 
 about 1,738,000. The coast is not much 
 indented; the principal bays are St. 
 Helena, Saldanha, Table, False, Walker, 
 Mossel, and Algoa. In the interior al- 
 most every variety of soil and surface is 
 found, but a great part of the colony is 
 arid and uninviting in appearance. 
 Several ranges of mountains, running 
 nearly parallel to the southern coast, 
 divide the country into successive ter- 
 races, rising as they recede inland, be- 
 tween which lie belts of fertile land, or 
 vast barren-looking plains, one of them 
 the Great Karroo, being 300 miles long 
 and 100 broad. The principal and 
 furthest inland mountain terrace, -aver- 
 aging 6000 or 7000 ft. in height, com- 
 mences in Namaqualand and runs to 
 the northeast frontier. The culminating 
 point is the Compass Berg, over 8000 ft. 
 The Table Mountain at Cape Town 
 rises almost perpendicularly about 3585 
 feet in height. The climate is very 
 healthy and generally pleasant. Ex- 
 cept along the coast, especially the 
 southeast coast district, where there are 
 extensive forests, timber is scarce, but 
 with irrigation trees can be grown any- 
 where. The quadrupeds of the colony 
 comprise the African elephant, still 
 found in the forests of the southeast 
 coast region; buffalo, wild-boar, zebra, 
 quagga, leopard, hyena, numerous ante- 
 lopes, baboon, armadillo, etc. The 
 birds include vultures, eagles, the ser- 
 pent-eater, pelicans, flamingoes, and, 
 most important of all, the ostrich, now 
 bred in farms for the sake of its feathers. 
 The cobra and other reptiles are found. 
 
CAPE HORN 
 
 CAPILLARITY 
 
 The principal minerals are copper ore, 
 coal, iron ore, manganese, and dia- 
 monds, amethysts, agates, etc. Coal and 
 copper are worked, and the diamonds 
 have brought a great amount of money 
 into the colony since 1869, and have 
 given rise to the town of Kimberley, the 
 center of the diamond-fields. Wheat, 
 maize, and other cereals can be grown 
 almost everywhere, if there is sufficient 
 moisture, in some years yielding a sur- 
 plus for exportation. Sheep-rearing, 
 especially that of pure merinos, is the 
 most important industry, and wool the 
 chief export. Ostrich feathers, hides, 
 and skins are also exported. Both 
 native and Angora goats are bred, and 
 the export of mohair is important. 
 Cattle breeding is also carried on to 
 some extent. The colony is intersected 
 by 2252 miles of railway, far-inland 
 Kimberley, and still farther Johannes- 
 burg and Pretoria, being now thus conr 
 nected with Cape Town and Port Eliza- 
 beth. The total value of diamonds pro- 
 duced is over $400,000,000. The 
 European inhabitants consist in part of 
 English and Scottish settlers and their 
 descendants, but, notwithstanding the 
 recent infiux of settlers from Britain, 
 the majority are still probably of Dutch 
 origin. The colored people are chiefly 
 Hottentots, Kaffirs, Basutos, Griquas, 
 Malays, and a mixed race. The laborers 
 are chiefly Hottentots and Kaffirs. For 
 the higher education there are four col- 
 leges, besides a university (at Cape 
 Town) incorporated in 1873. Respon- 
 sible government has been possessed by 
 the colony since 1872. The executive 
 is vested in the governor (who is ap- 
 pointed by the crown and is also com- 
 mander-in-chief) and an executive coun- 
 cil of office-holders appointed by the 
 crown. The legislative is in the hands 
 of a council of twenty-three members 
 (the Upper House); and a representa- 
 tive house of assembly of ninety-five 
 members (the Lower House), elected for 
 five years. After Cape Town the chief 
 towns are Kimberley, Port Elizabeth, 
 Grahamstown, Beaconsfield, Paarl, and 
 King William’s Town. The Dutch first 
 colonized the Cape in 1652, and till the 
 end of the 18th century the colony was 
 under the Dutch East India Company. 
 It was held by the British from 1795-, 
 1801, and it came finally into British 
 possession in 1806. The progress of the 
 colony was long retarded by a series of 
 Kaffir wars, the last of which was in 
 1851-53. Its involvements in the Boer 
 war of 1899-1902 are still fresh in the 
 memory of everyone. 
 
 CAPE HORN, or THE HORN, the 
 southern extremity of an island of the 
 same name, forming the most southerly 
 point of South America. It is a dark, 
 precipitous headland, 500 to 600 feet 
 high, running far into the sea. Navi- 
 gation round it is dangerous on account 
 of frequent tempests. The cape was 
 first doubled in 1616 by Schouten, a 
 native of Hoorn, in Holland, whence 
 its name. 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a celebrated 
 promontory near the southern extrem- 
 ity of Africa, at the termination of a 
 mall peninsula extending south from 
 Table Mountain which overlooks Cape 
 Town. This peninsula forms the west 
 
 side of False Bay, and on its inner coast 
 is Simon’s Bay and Simon’s Town, 
 where there is a safe anchorage and a 
 British naval station. Bartholomew 
 
 Diaz, who discovered the Cape in 1487, 
 called it Cape of Storms; but John II. of 
 Portugal changed this to its present 
 designation. It was first doubled by 
 Vasco de Gama in 1497. 
 
 CA'PER, the unopened flower-bud of a 
 low trailing shrub, which grows from the 
 crevices of rocks and walls, and among 
 rubbish, in the countries bordering the 
 Mediterranean. Picked and pickled in 
 vinegar and salt they are much used as a 
 condiment (caper-sauce being especially 
 the accompaniment of boiled mutton). 
 The plant was introduced into Britain 
 as early as 1596, but has never been 
 grown on a large scale. The flower-buds 
 of the marsh-marigold and nasturtium 
 are frequently pickled and eaten as a 
 substitute for capers. 
 
 CAPERNAUM (ka-per'na-um), a town 
 in ancient Palestine, on the w. side of 
 the Sea of Tiberias. Nothing of it now 
 remains, but the site is identified with 
 Tel Hum. 
 
 CA'PET, the name of the French race 
 of kings which has given 118 sovereigns 
 to Europe, viz. 36 kings of France, 22 
 kings of Portugal, 11 of Naples and 
 Sicily, 5 of Spain, 3 of Hungary, 3 
 emperors of Constantinople, 3 kings of 
 Navarre, 17 dukes of Burgundy, 12 
 dukes of Brittany, 2 dukes of Lorraine, 
 and 4 dukes of Parma. The first of the 
 Capets known in history was Robert the 
 Strong, a Saxon , made Count of Anjou by 
 Charles the Bold, and afterward duke 
 of the He de France. His descendant, 
 Hugh, son of Hugh the Great, was in 
 987 elected king of France in place of 
 the Carlovingians. On the failure of 
 the direct line at the death of Charles IV. 
 the French throne was kept in the 
 family by the accession of the indirect 
 line of Valois, and in 1589 by that of 
 Bourbon. Capet being thus regarded 
 as the family name of the kings of 
 France, Louis XVI. was arraigned be- 
 fore the National Convention under the 
 name of Louis Capet. 
 
 CAPE TOWN, capital of the Cape 
 Colony, S. Africa, at the head of Table 
 Bay, and at the base of Table Mountain, 
 30 miles from the Cape of Good Hope. 
 The port has a break-water 3554 feet 
 
 long, two docks 16 acres in area, a large 
 graving-dock, etc. Pop. 83,718. 
 
 CAPE VERD, the extreme w. point 
 of Africa, between the Senegal and the 
 Gambia, discovered by Fernandez, 1445. 
 
 CAPE VERD ISLANDS, a group of 
 ten or fifteen volcanic islands and rocks 
 in the Atlantic, 320 miles west of Cape 
 Verd (see above), belonging to Portugal. 
 They produce rice, maize, coffee, tobac- 
 co, the sugar-cane, physic-nuts, and 
 various fruits. Coffee, hides, archil, 
 physic-nuts, etc., are exported. Most 
 of the inhabitants are negroes or mixed 
 race. Porto Grande, on Sao Vicente, is 
 a coaling station for steamers. Pop. 
 about 147,000. 
 
 CA'PIAS, in English law, a writ of 
 two sorts: one before judgment, called 
 a capias ad respondendum, to take the 
 defendant and make him answer to the 
 plaintiff; the other, which issues after 
 judgment, of divers kinds; as, a capias 
 ad satisfaciendum, or writ of execution. 
 
 CAPTLLARIES, in anatomy, the fine 
 blood-vessels which form the links of 
 connection between the extremities of 
 the arteries and the beginnings of the 
 veins. 
 
 CAPILLARTTY, the general name for 
 certain phenomena exhibited by fluid 
 surfaces when the vessels containing 
 the liquid are very narrow, and also ex- 
 hibited by that portion of the fluid sur- 
 face which is in close proximity to the 
 sides of a larger vessel, or to any inserted 
 object. Thus if an open tube of small 
 bore be inserted in water, it will be 
 noted that the liquid rises within it 
 above its former level to a height vary- 
 ing inversely as the diameter of the bore, 
 and that the surface of this column is 
 more or less concave in form (as in Fig. 
 1) . The same phenomenon occurs in any 
 fluid which will wet the tube; but in the 
 case of a fluid like mercury, which does 
 not wet the glass, the converse phenom- 
 enon appears, the liquid being de- 
 pressed in the tube below its former 
 level, and the portion within the tube 
 exhibiting a convex surface (see Fig. 2). 
 Similarly round the sides of the respec- 
 tive vessels, and round the outsides, of 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig, 2. 
 
 Capillarity. 
 
 the inserted tubes, we find in the first 
 case an ascension, and in the second a de- 
 pression of the liquid, with a correspond- 
 ing concavity or convexity at its ex- 
 treme edge. Two parallel plates im- 
 mersed in the liquids give kindred 
 results. As these phenomena occur 
 equally in air and in vacuo they cannot 
 be attributed to the action of the atmos- 
 phere, but depend upon molecular 
 actions taking place between the parti- 
 cles of the liquid itself, and between the 
 
CAPITAL 
 
 CAPSICUM 
 
 liquid and the solid, these actions being 
 confined to a very thin layer forming the 
 superficial boundary of the fluid. Every 
 liquid, in fact, behaves as if a thin film 
 in a state of tension formed its external 
 layer; and although the theory that 
 such tension really exists in the super- 
 ficial laj'er must be regarded as a scien- 
 tific fiction, yet it adequately represente 
 the effects of the real cause, whatever 
 that may be. Scientific calculations 
 with respect to capillary depressions , 
 and elevations proceed, therefore, on 
 the working theory that the superficial 
 film at the free surface is to be regarded 
 as pressing the liquid inward, or pulling 
 it outward according as the surface is 
 convex or concave — the convex or con- 
 cave film being known as the meniscus 
 (crescent). The part which capillarity 
 plays among natural phenomena is a 
 very varied one. By it the fluids cii’cu- 
 late in the porous tissues of animal 
 bodies; the sap rises in plants, and 
 moisture is absorbed from air and soil by 
 the foliage and roots. For the same rea- 
 son a sponge or lump of sugar, or a piece 
 of blotting-paper soaks in moisture, the 
 oil rises in the wick of a lamp, etc. 
 
 CAPITAL, in trade, the term applied, 
 as the equivalent of “stock,” to the 
 money, or property convertible into 
 money, used by a producer or trader 
 for carrying on his business; in political 
 economy, that portion of the produce of 
 former labor which is reserved from con- 
 sumption for employment in the further 
 production of wealth — the apparatus of 
 production. It is commonly divided 
 under two main heads — circulating 
 capital and fixed capital. Circulating 
 capital comprises those forms of capital 
 which require renewal after every use 
 in production, being consumed (absorb- 
 ed or transformed) in the .single use, e.g. 
 raw materials and wages. Fixed capital, 
 on the other hand, comprises every 
 form of capital which is capable of use 
 in a series of similar productive acts, 
 e.g. machinery, tools, etc. From the 
 I ordinary economic point of view capital 
 is conveniently limited to material 
 objects directly employed in the repro- 
 duction of material wealth, but from 
 the higher social point of view many 
 things less immediately concerned in 
 productive work may be regarded as 
 capital. Thus Adam Smith includes in 
 the fixed capital of a country, “the ac- 
 quired and useful abilities of all the in- 
 habitants;” and the wealth sunk in 
 prisons, educational institutions, etc., 
 plays ultimately a scarcely less im- 
 portant part in production than that 
 invested in directly productive machin- 
 ery. 
 
 CAPITAL, an architectural term, usu- 
 ally restricted to the upper portion of a 
 column, the part resting immediately 
 on the shaft. In classic architecture 
 each order has its distinctive capital, 
 but in Egyptian, Indian, Saracenic, 
 Norman, and Gothic they are much 
 diversified. See Column. 
 
 CAPITAL PUNISHMENT, in criminal 
 law, the punishment by death. For- 
 merly it was the ordinary form of pun- 
 ishment for felonies of all kinds; but a 
 more accurate knowledge of the nature 
 and remedies of crime, a more discrimi- 
 nating sense of degrees in criminality. 
 
 and an increased regard for human life 
 have latterly tended to restrict, if not 
 to abolish, the employment of the 
 penalty of death. In several Euro- 
 pean countries — Sweden, Denmark, 
 North Germany, Bavaria, Austria — 
 there is great unwillingness to enforce 
 capital punishment, though the penalty 
 remains upon the statute books. In 
 Belgium there has been no execution 
 since 1863. In Switzerland capital 
 punishment was abolished in 1874, and 
 though the right of restoring it was 
 allowed to each canton in consequence 
 of an increase of murders, only 7 out of 
 a total of 22 have availed themselves 
 of it. In Roumania it was abolished in 
 1864; in Holland in 1870; and it has also 
 been discontinued in Portugal and Italy. 
 In several of the U. States — Michigan, 
 Wisconsin, Rhode Island, and Maine, 
 imprisonment for life has been substi- 
 tuted for murder in the first degree; 
 in the remainder capital punishment is 
 retained, though the experiment of its 
 abolition was made for a short time in 
 New York and Iowa. 
 
 The manner of inflicting the punish- 
 ment of death has varied greatly. Bar- 
 barous nations are generally inclined to 
 severe and vindictive punishments; and 
 even in civilized countries, in cases of a 
 political nature, or of very great atroc- 
 ity, the punishment has been sometimes 
 inflicted with many horrible accompani- 
 ments, such as tearing the criminal to 
 pieces, starving him to death, breaking 
 his limbs upon the wheel, pressing him 
 to death in a slow and lingering manner, 
 burning him at the stake, crucifixion, 
 etc. In modern times among civilized 
 nations, public opinion is strongly dis- 
 posed to discountenance the punishment 
 of death by any but simple means; and 
 even in governments where torture is 
 still countenanced by the laws it is rarely 
 or never resorted to. In the U. States, 
 except New York, where it is done by 
 electric shock, the method of execution 
 is by hanging. In Germany and France 
 the sword and the guillotine are the 
 usual means; in Spain, strangulation by 
 means of the garrote, a sort of iron 
 collar tightened by a screw. Capital 
 punishment cannot be inflicted, by the 
 general humanity of the laws of modern 
 nations, upon persons who are insane 
 or who are pregnant, until the latter are 
 delivered and the former become sane. 
 In military law, sentence of death may 
 be passed for various offenses, such as 
 sedition, violence and gross neglect of 
 duty, desertion, assault upon superior 
 officers, disobedience to lawful com- 
 mands, etc. 
 
 CAPITALS, the large letters used in 
 writing and printing, most commonly as 
 the initial letters of certain words. 
 As among the ancient Greeks and 
 Romans, so also in the early part of the 
 middle ages, all books were written 
 without any distinction in the kind of 
 letters, large letters (capitals) being the 
 only ones used; but gradually the prac- 
 tice became common of beginning a 
 book, subsequently, also, the chief 
 divisions and sections of a book, with a 
 large capital letter, usually illuminated 
 and otherwise richly ornamented. 
 
 CAPTTOL, now Campidoglio, the 
 citadel of ancient Rome, standing on the 
 
 Capitoline Hill, the smallest of the seven 
 hills of Rome. It is used as a hotel de 
 ville, museum, etc., contains some fine 
 statues and paintings, and commands a 
 superb view of the Campagna. — The 
 name of capitol is also given to the 
 edifice in Washington where Congress 
 assembles. The various states also call 
 their state-houses capitols. 
 
 CAPITULA'TION, in military lan- 
 guage, the act of surrendering to an 
 enemy upon stipulated terms, in oppo- 
 sition to surrender at discretion. 
 
 CAPO D’ISTRIA, John Antony, Count, 
 Greek statesman, born at Corfu in 1776. 
 
 In 1809 he entered the service of Russia 
 and obtained an appointment in the de- 
 partmei t of foreign affairs. As im- 
 perial Russian plenipotentiary he sub- 
 scribed the Treaty of Paris, Nov. 20 
 1815. In 1828 he became president of 
 the Greek Republic, in which office he 
 was very unpopular, and in 1831 he was 
 assassinated. 
 
 CAP'RICORNUS, Capricorn, a con- 
 stellation of the southern hemisphere, 
 and one of the twelve signs of the zodiac, 
 the one to which belongs the winter 
 solstice, represented by the figure of a 
 goat or a figure having the fore-part like 
 a goat and the hind-part like a fish. 
 
 CAPRIVI, Georg Leo, Count von, a 
 German statesman, successor to Bis- 
 marck in the chancellorship of the Ger- 
 man empire. He was born at Charlotten- 
 burg, in 1831, died in Brandenburg, 
 1899. Caprivi distinguished himself in 
 the Franco-Prussian war, and after 
 serving in high commands in the army 
 was made chief of the admiralty in 1883. 
 A.fter Bismarck’s decline in health, 
 Caprivi took the reins of government, 
 but his administration was not satis- 
 factory. He retired in 1894. 
 
 CAP'SICUM, a genus of annual, sub- 
 shrubby plants, with a wheel-shaped 
 corolla, projecting and converging 
 stamens, and a many-seeded berry. 
 They are chiefly natives of the East and ' 
 
 Capsicum. 
 
 West Indies, Cluna, Brazil, and Egypt, 
 but have spread to various other tropi- 
 cal or sub-tropical countries, being cul- 
 tivated for their fruit, which in some 
 reaches the size of an orange, is fleshy 
 and variously colored, and contains a 
 pungent principle which is present also 
 and more largely in the seed. The fruit 
 or pod is used for pickles, sauces, etc., 
 and also medicinally. Several of them 
 
CAPSTAN 
 
 CARBON 
 
 yield Cayenne pepper, and are originally 
 a native of S. America. 
 
 CAP'STAN, a strong upright column 
 of timber, movable round a strong iron 
 spindle, and having its upper extremity 
 pierced to receive bars or levers, for 
 winding a rope round it to raise weights, 
 such as the anchors of a vessel, or to per- 
 form other work that requires great 
 power. It is distinguished from a wind- 
 lass by the axis, and consequently the 
 barrel, being vertical. 
 
 CAPTAIN, one who is at the head or 
 has authority over others, especially: 
 (1) The military officer who commands 
 a company, whether of infantry, cavalry, 
 or artillery. (2) An officer in the navy 
 commanding a ship of war. Captains 6f 
 ships were formerly designated post- 
 captains. — Captain of the fleet (in 
 Britain), a flag-officer temporarily ap- 
 pointed by the admiralty, who acts as 
 adjutant-general of the force, sees to the 
 carrying out of the orders of the com- 
 mander-in-chief, and to proper dis- 
 cipline being maintained in the fleet. 
 (3) The master of a merchant vessel. 
 
 CAPTION, in law, a certificate stating 
 the time and place of executing a com- 
 mission in chancery, or of taking a 
 deposition, or of the finding of an indict- 
 ment, and the court or authority before 
 which such act was performed, and such 
 other particulars as are necessary to 
 render it legal and valid. 
 
 CAPUCHIN MONKEY (kap-u-shen'), 
 a name given to various species of S. 
 American monkeys. The hair of their 
 heads is so arranged that it has the 
 appearance of a capuchin’s cowl, hence 
 the name. 
 
 CAPUCHINS (kap-u-shenz'), monks 
 of the order of St. Francis, so called 
 from the capuchon or capuce, a stuff 
 cap or cowl, the distinguishing badge 
 of the order. They are clothed in brown 
 or gray, go barefooted, and never shave 
 their beard. 
 
 CAPYBA'RA, a species of rodent, 
 sometimes known by the name of the 
 water-hog, and of the family Cavidse 
 (guinea-pig). It attains the length of 
 
 Capybara. 
 
 about 3 feet, and has a very large and 
 thick head, a thick body covered with 
 long, coarse, brown hair, and short legs, 
 with long feet, which, being in a manner 
 webbed, fit it for an aquatic life. It has 
 no tail. It is common in several parts 
 of S. America, and particularly in Brazil. 
 It feeds on vegetables and fish, which it 
 catches somewhat in the manner of the 
 ottei 
 
 CARABO'BO. a state of Venezuela, 
 washed on the n by the Caribbean Sea. 
 Area about 2984 sq. miles; pop. 167,499. 
 P. E. — 15 
 
 The capital is Valencia, the chief port 
 Puerto Cabello. 
 
 CARACAL'LA, Marcus Aurelius An- 
 tonins, eldest son of the Emperor 
 Severus, was born at Lyons a.d. 188, 
 died 217. On the death of his father 
 he succeeded to the throne with his 
 brother Antoninus Geta, whom he 
 speedily murdered. To effect his own 
 security upward of 20,000 oth r vic.ims 
 were butchered. He was himself assassi- 
 nated by Macrinus, the pretorian perfect, 
 who succeeded him. 
 
 CARAC'AS, a city of S. America, capi- 
 tal of Venezuela, situated in a fine valley 
 about 3000 feet above the Caribbean 
 Sea, connected by railway with the port 
 La Guayra, about 10 miles distant. In 
 1812 it was in great part destroyed by 
 an earth-quake, and nearly 12,000 per- 
 sons buried in the ruins. Pop. 72,429. 
 
 CARAFE (ka-raP), the French name 
 for an ordinary glass bottle or decanter 
 for holding drinking water. 
 
 CAR'AMEL, the brown mass which 
 cane-sugar becomes at 220° C., used in 
 cookery as a coloring and flavoring in- 
 gredient, in giving a brown color to 
 spirits, etc. The name is also given to a 
 kind of candy. 
 
 CAR' AT, a weight of 3 17 troy grains, 
 used by jewelers in weighing precious 
 stones and pearls. The term is also used 
 to express the proportionate fineness of 
 gold. The whole mass of gold is divided 
 into twenty-four equal parts, and it is 
 called gold of so many carats as it con- 
 tains twenty-fourth parts of pure metal. 
 Thus if a mass contain twenty-two parts 
 of pure gold out of every twenty-four 
 it is gold of twenty-two carats. 
 
 CARAV AGGIO, Michel Angelo Ameri- 
 ghi, or Merighi da, a celebrated painter, 
 born at Caravaggio 1569, died 1609. 
 He attained distinction as a colorist of 
 the Neapolitan school, being considered 
 the head of the so-called Naturalists’ 
 school. He was coarse and violent in 
 his character and habits, and was in con- 
 tinual trouble through his quarrelsome 
 disposition. Among his chief pictures 
 are the Card Player (at Dresden), the 
 Burial of Christ, St. Sebastian, Supper 
 at Emmaus, and a Holy Family. 
 
 CAR'AVAN, a Persian word used to 
 denote large companies which travel 
 together in Asia and Africa for the sake 
 of security from robbers, having in view, 
 principally, trade or pilgrimages. In 
 Mohammedan countries caravans of 
 pilgrims are annually formed to make 
 the journey to Mecca. The most im- 
 portant are those which annually set 
 out from Damascus and Cairo. Camels 
 are used as a means of conveyance on 
 account of their remarkable powers of 
 endurance. 
 
 CAR'AVEL, the name of different 
 kinds of v'^essels, particularly a small 
 ship used by the Spaniards and Por- 
 tuguese in the 15th and 16th centuries 
 for long voyages. It was narrow at the 
 poop, wide at the bow, and carried a 
 double tower at its stern and a single 
 one at its bows. It had four masts and a 
 bowsprit, and the principal sails vvere 
 lateen sails. It was in command of three 
 such caravels that Columbus crossed the 
 Atlantic and discovered America. 
 
 CAR' AWAY, an umbelliferous bien- 
 ' nial plant, with a tapering fleshy root. 
 
 a striated furrowed stem, and white or 
 pinkish flowers. It produces a well- 
 known seed used in confectionery, and 
 from which both a carminative oil is 
 extracted and the liquor called ktimmel 
 prepared. 
 
 Caravel of the fifteenth century. 
 
 CARBAZOT'IC ACID, a crystallizable 
 acid and bitter substance obtained by 
 the action of nitric acid on indigo and 
 some other animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances. It is of great importance in 
 dyeing. When silk which has been 
 treated with a mordant of alum or cream 
 of tartar, is immersed in a solution of 
 this acid, it is dyed of a beautiful per- 
 manent yellow color. It is also called 
 Picric Acid, and is used as an explosive. 
 
 CAR'BIDE, a compound of carbon 
 with a metal, the usual effect of which 
 is to render it hard and brittle. From 
 calcium carbide acetylene gas is pre- 
 p3»r0d 
 
 CARBOL'IC ACID, an acid obtained 
 from coal-tar. It is, when pure, a color- 
 less crystalline substance, but it is 
 usually found as an oily liquid, colorless, 
 with a burning taste and the odor of 
 creosote. Carbolic acid is now much 
 employed as a therapeutic and disin- 
 fectant. It may be taken internally in 
 cases in v/hich creosote is indicated; but 
 its principal use in medicine is as an 
 external application to unhealthy sores, 
 compound fractures, and to abscesses 
 after they have been opened, over which 
 it coagulates, forming a crust imperme- 
 able to air and to the organic germs 
 floating in the atmosphere, which pro- 
 duce decomposition in the wound. The 
 action of the acid is not only to exclude 
 these germs but also to destroy such as 
 may have been admitted, for which 
 reason it is introduced into the interior 
 of the wound. Called also Phenic Acid 
 and Phenol. 
 
 CARBON, one of the elements, exist- 
 ing uncombined in three forms, char- 
 coal, graphite or plumbago, and the 
 diamond. The diamond is the purest 
 form of carbon; in the different varieties 
 of charcoal, in coal, anthracite, etc., it 
 is more or less mixed with other sub- 
 stances. Pure charcoal is a black, 
 brittle, light, and inodorous substance. 
 It is usually the remains of some vege- 
 table body from which all the volatile 
 matter has been expelled by heat ; but 
 it may be obtained from most organic 
 matters, animal as well as vegetable, 
 by ignition in close vessels. Carbon 
 being one of those elements which exist 
 in various distinct forms is an example 
 of what is called allotropy. The com- 
 
Carbon ATi!lj5 
 
 cardinal 
 
 pounds of this element are more numer- 
 ous than those of all the other elements 
 taken together. With hydrogen espe- 
 cially it forms a very large number of 
 compounds, called hydrocarbons, which 
 are possessed of the most diverse prop- 
 erties, chemicals and physical. With 
 oxygen, again, carbon forms only two 
 compounds, but union between the two 
 elements is easily effected. It is one of 
 the regular and most characteristic 
 constituents of both animals and plants. 
 See Diamond, Charcoal, Graphite, Bone 
 Black, Carbonic Acid, Coke, etc. 
 
 CAR'BONATES, compounds formed 
 by the union of carbonic acid with a 
 base, as the carbonate of lime, the car- 
 bonate of copper, etc. Carbonates are 
 an important class of salts, many of 
 them being extensively used in the arts 
 and in medicine. 
 
 CAR'BONDALE, a city in Pennsyl- 
 vania, about 110 miles n.n.w. of Phila- 
 delphia. It is the center of a rich coal- 
 field. Pop. 17,000. 
 
 CARBON'IC ACID, a gaseous com- 
 pound of 12 parts by weight of carbon 
 and 32 of oxygen, colorless, without 
 smell, twenty-two times as heavy as 
 hjTlrogen, turning blue litmus slightly 
 red, and existing in the atmosphere to 
 the extent of 1 volume in 2500. It is 
 incapable of supporting combustion or 
 animal life, acting as a narcotic poison 
 when present in the air to the extent of 
 only 4 or 5 per cent. It is disengaged 
 from fermenting liquors and from de- 
 composing vegetable and animal sub- 
 stances, and is largely evolved from 
 fissures in the earth, constituting the 
 choke-damp of mines. From its weight 
 it has a tendency to subside into low 
 places, vaults and wells, rendering some 
 low-lying places, as the upas valley of 
 Java, and many caves, uninhabitable. 
 It has a pleasant, acidulous, pungent 
 taste, and aerated beverages of all kinds 
 kinds — beer, champagne, and carbon- 
 ated mineral water — owe their refresh- 
 ing qualities to its presence, for though 
 poisonous when taken into the lungs, 
 it is agreeable when taken into the 
 stomach. This acid is formed and given 
 out during the respiration of animals, 
 and in all ordinary combustions, from 
 the oxidation of carbon in the fuel. It 
 exists in large quantity in all limestones 
 and marbles. It is evolved from the 
 colored parts of the flowers of plants 
 both by night and day, and from the 
 green parts of plants during the night. 
 During the day plants absorb it from 
 the atmosphere through their leaves, 
 and it forms an important part of their 
 nourishment. 
 
 CARBONIC OXIDE, a substance ob- 
 tained by transmitting carbonic acid 
 over red-hot fragments of charcoal, con- 
 tained in a tube of iron or porcelain, and 
 also by several other processes. It is a 
 colorless inodorous gas, has neither acid 
 nor alkaline properties, is very poison- 
 ous, and burns with a pale lavender 
 flame. 
 
 CARBONIF'EROUS SYSTEM, in ge- 
 
 i logy, the great group of strata which 
 lie between the Old Red Sandstone 
 below and the Permian or Dyas forma- 
 tion above, named from the quantities 
 of coal, shale, and other carbonaceous 
 matter contained in them. They in- 
 
 clude the coal measures, millstone grit, 
 and mountain limestone, the first being 
 uppermost and containing the chief 
 coal-fields that are worked. Iron-ore, 
 limestone, clay, and building-stone are 
 also yielded abundantly by the car- 
 boniferous strata which are found in 
 many parts of the world often covering 
 large areas. As coal consists essentially 
 of metamorphosed vegetable matter, 
 fossil plants are very numerous in the 
 carboniferous rocks, more than 1500 
 species of them having been named, a 
 large proportion of whch are ferns, tree 
 lycopods, and large horse-tail-like plants. 
 The animals include insects, scorpions, 
 amphibians, numerous corals, crinoids, 
 molluscs, cephalopods, sharks, and other 
 fishes. 
 
 CARBON POINTS, in electric lighting, 
 two pieces of very hard, compact car- 
 bon, between which the electric current 
 is broken, so that the resistance which 
 they offer to the passage of the current 
 produces a light of extraordinary 
 brilliancy. 
 
 CARBUN'CLE, a beautiful gem of a 
 deep red color with a mixture of scarlet, 
 found in the East Indies. When held 
 up to the sun it loses its deep tinge, and 
 becomes exactly of the color of a burn- 
 ing coal. The carbuncle of the ancients 
 is supposed to have been a garnet. 
 
 CARBUN'CLE, in surgery, an in- 
 flammation of the true skin and tissue 
 beneath it akin to that occurring in boils. 
 It is more extensive than the latter, and 
 instead of one has several cores. It is 
 associated with a bad state of general 
 health, from which condition its danger 
 arises, for it may threaten life by ex- 
 haustion or blood poisoning. With 
 regard to the local treatment, the prin- 
 cipal thing to be done is to make a free 
 incision into the tumor; as much of the 
 contents as possible should then be 
 pressed out, and a poultice applied. The 
 patient’s strength should be supported 
 by nourishing and easily-digested food, 
 and tonics and cordials should be ad- 
 ministered. 
 
 CAR'BURETTED HYDROGEN, the 
 
 name given to two compounds of carbon 
 and hydrogen, one known as light car— 
 buretted hydrogen, and the other as 
 olefiant gas. The former is the com- 
 pound which occurs in coal-mines (fire- 
 damp) and about the neighborhood of 
 stagnant pools. Mixed with atmos- 
 pheric air from 7 to 14 times that of the 
 gas it explodes The latter is obtained 
 from distilling coal or fat substances in 
 close vessels. It explodes when mixed 
 with ten or twelve volumes of atmos- 
 pheric air. 
 
 CARD, an instrument for combing, 
 opening, and breaking wool, flax, etc., 
 freeing it from the coarser parts and 
 from extraneous matter. It is made by 
 inserting bent teeth of wire in a thick 
 piece of leather, and nailing this to a 
 piece of oblong board to which a handle 
 is attached. But wool and cotton are 
 now generally carded in mills by teeth 
 fixed on a wheel moved by machinery. 
 
 CARD, an oblong piece of thick paper 
 or pasteboard prepared for various pur- 
 poses. (1) A piece of card-board with 
 one’s name written or printed on it, used 
 in visiting, and generally for indicating 
 the name of the person presenting it. 
 
 (2) A piece of card-board on which are 
 printed certain colored devices or figures 
 forming one of a pack, and used in play- 
 ing games. A modern pack of playing- 
 cards numbers fifty-two, and consists 
 of four suits, two red (hearts and dia- 
 monds), and two black (spades and 
 clubs), each suit comprising thirteen 
 cards — three picture-cards (court-cards), 
 the king, queen, and knave; and ten 
 other cards numbered from one, the ace, 
 to ten, according to the pips or marks 
 belonging to the respective suits printed 
 on them. 
 
 CAR'DAMOMS, the aromatic cap- 
 sules of different species of plants em- 
 ployed in medicine as well as an in* 
 ^redient in sauces and curries. 
 
 CARD'BOARD, a kind of stiff paper 
 or paste-board for cards, etc., usually 
 made by sticking together several sheets 
 of paper. 
 
 CARDIAC MEDICINES, medicines 
 which act upon the heart. 
 
 CAR'DIFF, a municipal, county, and 
 pari, borough and seaport, the county 
 town of Glamorganshire, Wales, situated 
 at the mouth of the Taff on the estuary 
 of the Severn. Iron ship-building is 
 carried on, and there are iron and other 
 works on a large scale Among the chief 
 buildings are the county buildings, 
 town-hall, infirmary, university college 
 (for S. Wales and Monmouthshire), 
 law courts, free library and museum, 
 etc. The docks are extensive and well 
 constructed. There is here a castle 
 which dates from 1080. It is the prop- 
 erty of the Marquis of Bute, and has 
 been modernized and part of it con- 
 verted into a residence. Pop. 164,420. 
 
 CAR'DIGAN, the county town of Car- 
 diganshire, S. Wales, on the river Teifi, 
 about 3 miles from its mouth in Cardigan 
 Bay. The salmon fishery is extensively 
 carried on. Pop. 3511. — The county of 
 Cardigan has an area of 443,387 acres, of 
 which two -thirds is under crops or pas- 
 ture. Pop. 60,237. 
 
 CAR'DINAL, an ecclesiastical prince 
 in the Roman Catholic Church, who has 
 a voice in the conclave at the election of 
 a pope, the popes being taken from the 
 cardinals. The cardinals are appointed 
 by the pope, and are divided into three 
 
 Cardinal's hat. 
 
 classes or orders, comprising six bishops, 
 fifty priests, anci fourteen deacons, 
 making seventy at most. These con- 
 stitute the Sacred College and compose 
 the pope’s council. Originally they 
 were subordinate in rank to bishops; 
 but they now have the precedence. The 
 chief symbol of the dignity of cardinal 
 is a low-crowned, broad-brimmed red 
 hat, with two cords depending from it, 
 one from either side, each having fifteen 
 tassels at its extremity. Other insignia 
 
CARDIXAL BIRD 
 
 CARLOS 1)E BOURBON 
 
 are a red biretta, a purple cassock, a 
 sapphire ring, etc. 
 
 CARDINAL BIRD, a North American 
 bird of the finch family, with a fine red 
 plumage, and a crest on the head. Its 
 song resembles that of the nightingale, 
 hence one of its common names, Vir- 
 ginian Nightingale. In size it is about 
 equal to the starling. Called also Scarlet 
 Grosbeak or Cardinal Grosbeak and Red- 
 bird. 
 
 CARDINAL-FLOWER, the name com- 
 monly given, becau.se of its large, very 
 showy, and intensely red flowers; it is a 
 native of North America. 
 
 CARDINAL POINTS, the n., s., e., and 
 w. points of the horizon ; the four inter- 
 sections of the horizon with the meridian 
 and the prime vertical circle. 
 
 CARDINAL VIRTUES, or PRINCIPAL 
 VIRTUES, in morals, a name applied to 
 justice, prudence, temperance, and forti- 
 tude. 
 
 CARDING, the process wool, cotton, 
 flax, etc., undergo previous to spinning, 
 to lay the fibers all in one direction, and 
 remove all foreign substances. See Card. 
 
 CARDI'TIS, inflammation of the heart 
 substance. Inflammation of the lining 
 membrane is endocarditis, of the ex- 
 ternal membrane pericarditis. See 
 Heart. 
 
 CARDS, PLAYING. See Card. 
 
 CA'REY, Henry, a composer, dram- 
 atist, and poet, born at London in 1696. 
 He composed the words and music of 
 many popular songs, including Sally 
 in Our Alley, God Save the King, etc. 
 He also wrote farces and other works. 
 He is said to have committed suicide, 
 1743. 
 
 CAREY, Henry Charles, American 
 economist, born in Philadelphia 1793, 
 died 1<S79. In that year he published an 
 essay on the Rate of Wages, vdiich he 
 afterward expanded into Principles of 
 
 William Carey. 
 
 Political Economy. His other im- 
 portant works are The Credit System, 
 The Past, the Present, and the Future, 
 j’he Principles of Social Science, etc. 
 Originally a free-trader he became an 
 advocate for protection; held that the 
 growth of populationwas self-regulating; 
 and was opposed to the theories of 
 Ricardo and others on the law of dimin- 
 ished returns from the soil and on rent. 
 He was also opposed to any arrange- 
 ment on the subject of international 
 copyright. 
 
 CAREY, William, D.D., an English 
 oriental scholar and Christian mis- 
 
 sionary, born in 1761, died at Serampore 
 1834. In 1793 he sailed for the East 
 Indies as a Baptist missionary, and in 
 1800, in conjunction with Marshman, 
 Ward, and others, he founded the mis- 
 sionary college at Serampore. Here he 
 had a printing-press, and issued various 
 translations of the Scriptures. His 
 first work was a Bengali Grammar. 
 Under his direction the whole Bible was 
 translated into six, and the New Testa- 
 ment into twenty-one Hindustani dia- 
 lects. He was long professor of San- 
 skrit, Mahratta, and Bengali, in Cal- 
 cutta. 
 
 CARGO, the goods or merchandise 
 carried by a trading vessel from one 
 place to another. When part of the 
 cargo is on deck it is called the deck 
 cargo, as distinguished from the inboard 
 cargo. 
 
 CARTACOU, the Virginian deer, 
 found in all parts of North America 
 up to 43° n. lat. It is smaller than the 
 common stag, and its color varies with 
 the season. In spring it is reddish- 
 brown, in autumn slaty-blue, and in 
 winter dull-brown. Written also Car- 
 jacou. 
 
 CARIBBE'AN SEA, that portion Of 
 the North Atlantic Ocean lying between 
 the coasts of Central and South America, 
 and the West India Islands. It com- 
 municates with the Gulf of Mexico by 
 the Yucatan Channel. 
 
 CARTBBEES, or LESSER ANTILLES, 
 usually divided into the Windward and 
 Leeward Islands, a section of the West 
 India Islands. 
 
 CAR'IBOU, the name of two American 
 species of reindeer, sometimes regarded 
 as specifically identical with the Old 
 World reindeer. They have never been 
 brought under the sway of man, but are 
 a great object of chase for the sake of 
 their flesh. The woodland caribou most 
 nearly resembles the common reindeer. 
 It is found over considerable tracts of 
 Canada, as also in Newfoundland and 
 Labrador, and is migratory in its habits. 
 The Barren Ground caribou is much 
 smaller, but has larger horns. It in- 
 habits the Barren Grounds northwest of 
 Hudson Bay, and also extends into 
 Greenland. It executes considerable 
 migrations, going north to the Arctic 
 Ocean in summer, and returning in 
 autumn. 
 
 CAR'IBS, the original inhabitants of 
 the W. Indian Islands, and, when Euro- 
 peans became acquainted with Amer- 
 ica, also found in certain portions of 
 Central America and the north of South 
 America. At present only a few remain 
 on Trinidad, Dominica, and St. Vincent. 
 
 CAR'ICA. See Papaw. 
 
 CAR'ICATURE, a representation of 
 the qualities and peculiarities of an ob- 
 ject, but in such a way that beauties are 
 concealed and peculiarities or defects 
 exaggerated, so as to make the person or 
 thing ridiculous, while a general likeness 
 is retained. Though a degenerate, it is 
 one of the oldest forms of art. Egyptian 
 art has numerous specimens of carica- 
 ture, and it has an important place in 
 Greek and Roman art. It flourished in 
 every European nation during the 
 middle ages, and in the present day it is 
 a chief feature in the comic and also 
 in the leading daily journals. 
 
 CA'RIES (ka'ri-ez), a disease of bone 
 analogous to ulceration in soft tissues. 
 The bone breaks down, or may be said 
 to melt down into unhealthy matter, 
 which works its way to the surface and 
 bursts. Excision of the carious portion 
 of the bone is often effected with good re- 
 sults, but the disease often results in 
 death. Caries of the teeth is decay of 
 the dentine or body of the tooth. 
 
 CARINTHTA, a western duchy or 
 province of Austria, on the borders of 
 Italy; area, 4006 sq. miles. Pop. 
 367,344. 
 
 CARLETON, Will, an American poet, 
 born in Michigan in 1845. His first 
 volume of poems appeared in 1871. 
 Farm Ballads appeared in 1873, Farm 
 Legends in 1875, Young Folks Centen- 
 nial Rhymes in 1876, Farm Festivals in 
 1881, City Ballads in 1885, City Festi- 
 vals in 1892, and Rhymes of Our Planet 
 in 1895. Carlton’s best vein is domestic 
 verses. 
 
 CARLISLE (kar-llF), a parliamentary 
 and municipal borough of England, 
 county town of Cumberland. Sacked 
 by the Danes, it was rebuilt by William 
 Rufus. It was held by the Scots during 
 their tenure of Cumberland, and the 
 Church of St. Mary’s was founded by 
 David I., who died here. During the 
 border wars Carlisle underwent many 
 sieges. It surrendered to Charles Ed- 
 ward in 1745. It is a bishop’s see. The 
 cathedral, begun in the reign of William 
 Rufus, was partly destroyed by Crom- 
 well in 1648. Carlisle is the seat of vari- 
 ous manufactures, of which cotton is 
 the principal. Pop. 45,478. 
 
 CARLISLE, a town, in Pennsylvania, 
 1 14 miles w. Philadelphia. It is the seat 
 of Dickinson Methodist College, founded 
 in 1783. Pop. 11,526. 
 
 CARLISLE, John Griffin, an Ameri- 
 can statesman and lawyer, born in 
 Kentucky in 1835, and speaker of the 
 national house of representatives from 
 1883 to 1889. In 1890 be became 
 United States Senator and was Secretary 
 of the Treasury in the second cabinet 
 of Cleveland. 
 
 CAR'LISTS, the name given to the 
 followers of Don Carlos of Bourbon and 
 his descendants. See Carlos de Bourbon. 
 
 CARLOS', Don, Infant of Spain, son 
 of Philip II., born 1545, died 1568. He 
 was deformed in person, of a violent 
 and vindictive disposition. He was 
 presumably murdered, but of this 
 there is no proof. The story of Don 
 Carlos has furnished the subject of 
 several tragedies, viz., by Otway (Eng- 
 lish), Schiller (German), and Alfieri 
 (Italian). 
 
 CARLOS DE BOURBON, Don Maria 
 I.sidor, the second son of Charles IV. of 
 Spain and brother of Ferdinand VII., 
 born 1788, died 1855. He was heir pre- 
 sumptive to the throne until the birth of 
 Maria Isabella in 1830. On the death 
 of his brother he claimed the throne as 
 legitimate king of Spain, and was recog- 
 nized as such by a considerable party, 
 who excited a civil war in his favor, and 
 thenceforward were designated by the 
 title of Carlists. After a course of 
 hostilities he found himself obliged in 
 1839 to take shelter in France. In the 
 meantime he and his descendants had 
 been formally excluded from the sue- 
 
CARLOTTA 
 
 CARMELITRS 
 
 Cession by a vote of the Cortes in 1836. 
 In 1845 he resigned his claims in favor of 
 his eldest son, and in 1847 was permitted 
 to take up his abode in Trieste, where 
 he died. His eldest son, Don Carlos 
 (1818-61), married Maria Carolina Ferdi- 
 nanda, a sister of Ferdinand II., king 
 of Naples. His nephew, Don Carlos, 
 duke of Madrid, born 1848, is the pres- 
 ent representative of the Carlists. He 
 married the sister of the late Count of 
 Chambord. In 1873 he instigated a 
 rising in the north of Spain, and con- 
 tinued the struggle till after Alfonso 
 XII. came to the throne, when he was 
 defeated and withdrew. See Spain. 
 
 CARLOTTA, Empress, the daughter 
 of King Leopold I. of Belgium and wife 
 of the Archduke Maximilian, emperor 
 of Mexico. She was born in 1840, 
 accompanied her husband to Mexico 
 in 1864, but the disasters which over- 
 took her husband affected her mind, and 
 she has lived in retirement in Belgium. 
 
 CARLOVIN'GIANS, the second dy- 
 nasty of the French or Frankish kings, 
 which supplanted the Merovingians, 
 deriving the name from Charles Martel 
 or his grandson Charlemagne (that is, 
 Karl or Charles the Great). Charles 
 Martel (715-741) and his son Pepin (741- 
 768) were succeeded by Charlemagne 
 and his brother Carloman (768-771). 
 Charlemagne became sole king in 771, 
 and was succeeded in the Empire of the 
 West by his son Louis le Debonnaire 814. 
 He divided his empire among his sons, 
 and at his death (840) his son Charles 
 the Bald became king of France. He 
 died in 877, and was succeeded by a 
 number of feeble princes. The dynasty 
 came to an end with Louis V., who died 
 in 987. 
 
 CARLSBAD (karls'bat), a town of 
 Bohemia, famous for its hot mineral 
 springs, and much frequented by visitors 
 from all parts of the world, being useful 
 in diabetes, gout, biliary diseases, etc. 
 Permanent pop. about 15,000. 
 
 CARLSRUHE (karls'ro), the capital 
 of the Grand-duchy of Baden, 3 miles 
 from the Rhine, laid out in 1715, one 
 of the most regularly - built towns in 
 Europe. The castle of the grand-duke 
 stands as a center, and from this point a 
 number of streets radiate at regular dis- 
 tances, thus forming a kind of fan. 
 There are many handsome edifices. 
 The court library contains 100,000 
 volumes; there are also a large public 
 library, several valuable museums and 
 art collections, a botanic garden, poly- 
 technic school, etc. The industries are 
 active and varied. Pop. 97,164. 
 
 CARLYLE, Thomas, one of the great- 
 est English writers of the 19th century, 
 born 4th December, 1795, at Ecclefe- 
 chan, Dumfriesshire; died at Chelsea, 
 Feb. 5th, 1881. He was the eldest son 
 of James Carlyle, a mason, afterward 
 a farmer, and was intended for the 
 church, with which object he was care- 
 fully educated at the parish school and 
 afterward at the burgh school of 
 Annan. In his fifteenth year (in 1810) 
 he was sent to the University of Edin- 
 burgh, wliere he developed a strong 
 taste for mathematics. Having re- 
 nounced the idea of becoming a minister 
 after finishing his curriculum (in 1814), 
 he became a teacher for about four years. 
 
 first at Annan, afterwards at Kirkcaldy. 
 In 1818 he removed to Edinburgh, 
 where he supported himself by literary 
 work, devoted much time to the study 
 of German, and went through a varied 
 and extensive course of reading in 
 history, poetry, romance, and other 
 fields. His first literary productions 
 were short biographies and other articles 
 for the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia. His 
 career as an author may be said to have 
 begun with the issue in monthly por- 
 tions of his Life of Sehiller in 1823, this 
 work being enlarged and published 
 
 Thomas Carlyle. 
 
 separately in 1825. In 1824 he pub- 
 lished a translation of Legendre’s 
 Geometry, with an essay on proportion 
 by himself prefixed. The same year 
 appeared his translation of Goethe’s 
 Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship. He 
 was next engaged in translating speci- 
 mens of the German romance writers; 
 published in 4 vols. in 1827. In 1826 
 he married Miss Jane Bailie Welsh, 
 daughter of a doctor at Haddington, and 
 a lineal descendant of John Knox. After 
 his marriage he resided for a time in 
 Edinburgh, and then withdrew to 
 Craigenputtock, a farm in Dumfriesshire 
 belonging to his wife, about 15 miles 
 from the town of Dumfries. Here he 
 wrote a number of eritical and bio- 
 graphical articles for various periodicals ; 
 and here was written Sartor Resartus, 
 the most original of his works. The 
 publication of Sartor soon made Carlyle 
 famous, and on his removal to London 
 early in 1834 he became a prominent 
 member of a brilliant literary circle 
 embracing John Stuart Mill, Leigh 
 Hunt, John Sterling, Julius Charles 
 and Augustus William Hare, F. D. 
 Maurice, etc. He fixed his abode at 
 Cheyne Row, Chelsea, where his life 
 henceforth was mainly spent. His next 
 work of importance was on the French 
 Revolution, published in 1837. About 
 this time, and on one or two subsequent 
 years, he delivered several series of 
 lectures, the most important of these, 
 On Heroes and Hero-worship, being 
 published in 1840. Chartism, published 
 in 1839, and Past and Present, in 1843, 
 were small works bearing more or less 
 on the affairs of the time. In 1845 
 appeared his Oliver Cromwell’s Letters 
 and Speeches, with Elucidations, a 
 
 work of great research, and brilliantly 
 successful in vindicating the character 
 of the great Protector. In 1850 came 
 out his Latter-day Pamphlets. This 
 work was very repulsive to many from 
 the exaggeration of its language and 
 its advocacy of harsh and coercive meas- 
 ures. He next wrote a life of his friend 
 John Sterling, published in 1851, and 
 regarded as a finished and artistic per- 
 formance. The largest and most labori- 
 ous work of his life, The History of 
 Friedrich II. of Prussia, called Frederick 
 the Great, next appeared, the first two 
 volumes in 1858, the second two in 1862, 
 and the last two in 1865, and after this 
 time little came from his pen. In 1866, 
 having been eleeted Lord Rector of 
 Edinburgh University, he delivered 
 an installation address to the students 
 On the Choice of Books. He had ap- 
 pointed James Anthony Froude his 
 literary executor, who, in conformity 
 with his trust, published Reminiscences 
 of Thomas Carl3de, 1881; Thomas 
 Carlyle; the First Forty Years of his 
 Life, 1882; Letters of Jane Welsh 
 Carlyle, 1883; and Thomas Carljde: 
 Life in London, 1884. The character of 
 Carlyle presented in these volumes gave 
 an unexpected shock to the public, and 
 a bitter controversy has raged regarding 
 Froude’s conduct in the matter. 
 
 CARMARTHEN, or CAERMAR'- 
 THEN, a maritime county, S. Wales, 
 the largest of the Welsh counties; area, 
 594,405 acres, of which about 440,000 
 are under tillage or permanent pasture. 
 Pop. 135,325. — Carmarthen, the county 
 town, is situated 9 miles from the sea, 
 on the Towy, which is navigable to its 
 outlet in Carmarthen Bay. Pop. 9935. 
 
 CAR'MELITES, mendicant friars of 
 the order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel. 
 From probably the 4th century holj 
 
 Carmelite. 
 
 men took up their abode as hermits on 
 Mount Carmel, in Syria, but it was not 
 till about the year 1150 that pilgrims 
 established an association for the pur* 
 
CARMINATIVES 
 
 CARP 
 
 pose of leading a secluded life on this 
 mountain, and so laid the foundation 
 of the order. Being driven by the 
 Saracens to Europe in 1247 they adopted 
 all the forms of monastic life and a some- 
 what milder rule. In lime they became 
 divided into several branches, one of 
 them distinguished by walking bare- 
 footed. They are still to be seen in 
 Roman Catholic countries. The habit 
 of the order is of a dark-brown color, and 
 over it when out of doors they wear a 
 white cloak, with a hood to cover the 
 head. 
 
 CAR'MINATIVES, medicines ob- 
 tained chiefly from the vegetable king- 
 dom, and used as remedies for flatulence 
 and spasmodic pains. 
 
 CAR'MINE, the fine red coloring 
 matter or principle of cochineal, from 
 which it is prepared in several ways. 
 It is used to some extent in dyeing, in 
 water-color painting, to color artificial 
 flowers, confectionery, etc. 
 
 CARNA'RIA. Same as Carnivora. 
 
 CARNAR'VON or CAERNARVON, a 
 maritime county of N. Wales, forming 
 the n.w. extremity of the mainland; 
 area, 369,477 acres. Although the most 
 mountainous county in Wales there are 
 many tracts of low and fertile land, but 
 the arable area is small. Pop. 126,835. 
 — Carnarvon, the county town, is a 
 seaport and parliamentary borough on 
 the s.e. side of the Menai Strait. The 
 magnificent castle or palace of Edward 
 I., and in which Edward II. was born, 
 stands at the w. end of the town, and 
 is still externally entire. Pop. 9760. 
 
 CARNATION, the popular name of 
 varieties of the clove-pink. The carna- 
 tions of the florists are much prized for 
 the beautiful colors of their sweet- 
 
 Carnation. 
 
 scented double flowers. They are 
 arranged into three classes according 
 to color, viz.; bizarres, flakes, and 
 picotees. 
 
 CARNEGIE, Andrew, an American 
 philanthropist and steel manufacturer, 
 born in Dumferline, Scotland, in 1837. 
 He removed to the U. States as a boy 
 and early became associated with the 
 iron industry at Pittsburg. In 1868 
 he introduced the Bessemer process into 
 this country and retired from active 
 business life in 1901 with the organiza- 
 tion of the United States Steel Corpora- 
 tion. He has given upward of $40,000,- 
 000 in donations to education. 
 
 CARNEGIE HERO FUND, a fund of 
 $5,000,000 for the benefit of “the de- 
 
 pendents of those losing their lives in 
 heroic effort to save their fellow men, or 
 for the heroes themselves if injured 
 only," created by Andrew Carnegie in 
 1904. Provision was also made for 
 medals to be given in commemoration 
 of heroic acts. The endowment known 
 as “The Hero Fund” was placed in the 
 hands of a commission composed of 
 twenty persons, residents of Pittsburg, 
 Pa. The first awards were made by the 
 commission in May, 1905. Nine persons 
 were awarded medals for brave acts, six 
 of them receiving bronze medals, and 
 three silver medals. To three widows 
 who lost their husbands while the latter 
 were performing acts of bravery money 
 was given. 
 
 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION, a founda- 
 tion of Andrew Carnegie for scientific 
 research, with the co-operation of uni- 
 versities and other institutions. The 
 institute was incorporated on Jan. 4, 
 1902, with a fund of $10,000,000. It 
 is administered by 27 trustees, one of 
 them being the president of the U. 
 States (ex officio). The purpose of the 
 foundation is to encourage research in 
 all departments of science and to pay 
 the expenses of workers while devoting 
 themselves to the work. The office of 
 the institute is in Washington, D. C. 
 
 CARNIO'LA, a duchy or province of 
 Austria, bounded by Carinthia, Styria, 
 Croatia, and Italy; area, 3856 sq. miles. 
 There are iron,- lead, and quicksilver 
 mines, and abundance of coal, marble, 
 and valuable stone. Pop. 508,348. The 
 capital is Laibach. 
 
 CAR'NIVAL, the feast or season of 
 rejoicing before Lent, observed in Catho- 
 lic countries with much revelry and 
 merriment. 
 
 CARNIV'ORA, a term applicable to 
 any creatures that feed on flesh or 
 animal substances, but now applied 
 specially to an order of mammals which 
 prey upon other animals. The head is 
 small, the jaws powerful, and the skin 
 is well covered with hair. -Two sets of 
 teeth, deciduous or milk and permanent, 
 are always developed in succession, and 
 in both sets incisors, canines, and molars 
 are ditinguishable. The stomach is 
 simple and the alimentary canal short, 
 thus making the body as light and 
 slender as possible for the purpose of 
 hunting and springing on its prey. 
 The muscular activity of the Carnivora 
 is very great, their respiration and cir- 
 culation very active, and their demand 
 for food is consequently constant. Car- 
 nivora comprise the bears, badgers, rac- 
 coons, lions, tigers, cats, dogs, Seals and 
 walruses. 
 
 CARNOT (kar-no), Lazare Nicolas 
 Marguerite, a French statesman, general, 
 and strategist, was born in 1753, and 
 died in 1823. When the revolution 
 broke out he was captain in the corps 
 of engineers. In 1791 he was appointed 
 deputy to the constituent assembly. 
 In the following March he was sent to 
 the Army of the North, where he took 
 command, and successfully repulsed the 
 enemy. On his return he was made 
 member of the Committee of Public 
 Safety, and directed and organized the 
 French armies with great ability and 
 success. In 1797 Carnot, having un- 
 successfully opposed Barras, had to 
 
 escape to Germany, but returned, and 
 was appointed minister of war by 
 Napoleon (1800). In 1814 Napoleon 
 gave him the chief command at Ant- 
 werp, and in 1815 the post of minister 
 of the interior. After the emperor’s 
 second fall he retired from France. A 
 grandson of his, Marie Frangois Sadi, 
 born in 1837, was elected president of 
 the French republic in 1887, and assas- 
 sinated in 1894. 
 
 CAR'OL, a song, especially one ex- 
 pressive of joy. It often signifies, 
 specifically, a religious song or ballad 
 in celebration of Christmas. 
 
 CAROLI'NA, North. (See North 
 Carolina.) 
 
 CAROLI'NA, South. (See South 
 Carolina.) 
 
 CAROLINA-PINK, a name given to 
 a N. American plant bearing scarlet 
 flowers, and having a root used as a 
 vermifuge. 
 
 CAROLINE, British queen, was a 
 daughter of the Duke of Brunswick- 
 Wolfenbiittel, bojn May 17, 1768. In 
 1795 she was married to the Prince of 
 Wales, afterward George IV. The 
 marriage was not to his liking, and after 
 the birth of the Princess Charlotte he 
 separated from her. She died 7th Aug. 
 1821. 
 
 CAROLINE ISLANDS, or NEW 
 PHILIPPINES, a large archipelago. 
 North Pacific Ocean, between lat. 3° 
 and 12° n. and Ion. 132° and 163° 6' e., 
 and between the Philippines and the 
 Marshall Isles, first discovered by the 
 Spaniards in 1543, if not by the Portu- 
 guese in 1525. Many of the islands are 
 mere coral reefs little elevated above 
 the ocean. The islands were long in the 
 possession of Spain, but in 1899, after 
 the conclusion of the war between that 
 power and the U. States, they were sold 
 to Germany. 
 
 CARO'TID ARTERIES, the two great 
 arteries which convey the blood from 
 the aorta to the head and the brain. 
 The common carotids, one on either side 
 of the neck, divide each into an external 
 and an internal branch. The external 
 carotid passes up to the level of the 
 angle of the lower jaw, where it ends in 
 branches to the neck, face, and outer 
 parts of the head. The internal carotid 
 passes deeply into the neck, and through 
 an opening in the skull behind the ear 
 enters the brain, supplying it and the 
 eye with blood. Wounds of the carotid 
 trunks cause almost immediate death. 
 
 CARP, a genus of soft-finned abdomi- 
 nal fish, distinguished by the small 
 mouth, toothless jaws, and gills of three 
 flat rays. They have but one dorsal fin. 
 
 Carp. 
 
 and the scales are generally of large size. 
 They frequent fresh and quiet waters, 
 feeding chiefly on vegetable matters, 
 also on worms and molluscs. The 
 common carp is olive-green above and 
 yellowish below, and in many parts is 
 bred in ponds for the use of the table. 
 It sometimes weighs many pounds, is of 
 
CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS 
 
 CARRIER PIGEON ' 
 
 V 
 
 quick growth, and spawns thrice a year. 
 It is said to live to the great age of 100 
 or even 200 years. 
 
 CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS, a range 
 of mountains in southern Europe, 
 chiefly in Austria, forming a great semi- 
 circular belt of nearly 800 miles in length. 
 The Carpathian range is rich in minerals, 
 including gold, silver, quicksilver, cop- 
 per, and iron. Salt occurs in beds, 
 which have sometimes a thickness of 
 600 or 700 feet. On the plateaux corn 
 and fruit are grown to the height of 1500 
 feet. Higher up the mountain steeps 
 are covered with forests of pine. There 
 is much remarkable scenery. 
 
 CARPENTER-BEE, the common 
 name of the different species of insects 
 numerous in Asia,- Africa, and America, 
 and one species inhabits the south of 
 
 Carpenter-bee, half the natural size. 
 
 1, A piece of wood bored by the bee, and grubs 
 and food deposited in the cells. 2, Two of the 
 cells drawn larger to show the partitions. 
 
 Europe. They are generally of a dark 
 violet-blue, and of considerable size. 
 They usually form their nests in pieces of 
 half-rotten W'ood, cutting out various 
 apartments for depositing their eggs. 
 
 CAR'PENTRY is the art of combining 
 pieces of timber to support a weight or 
 sustain pressure. The work of the car- 
 penter is intended to give stability to a 
 structure, that of the joiner is applied to 
 finishing and decoration. An explana- 
 tion of some of the terms employed in 
 carpentry may be useful. The term 
 frame is applied to any assemblage of 
 pieces of timber firmly connected to- 
 gether. The points of meeting of the 
 pieces of timber in a frame are called 
 joints. Lengthening a beam is uniting 
 pieces of timber into one length by 
 joining their extremities. When neat- 
 ness is not required this is done by fish- 
 ing, that is, placing a piece of timber 
 on each side of where the beams meet 
 and securing it by bolts passed through 
 the W'hole. When the width of the 
 beam must be kept the same through- 
 out scarfing is employed. This is cut- 
 ting from each beam a part of the 
 thickness of the timber, and on op- 
 posite sides, so that the pieces may be 
 jointed together and bolted or hooped. 
 When greater strength is required than 
 can be produced by a single beam build- 
 ing and trussing beams are resorted to. 
 Building beams is combining two or 
 more beams in depth so as to have the 
 effect of one. In trussing the beam is 
 cut in two in the direction of its length, 
 and supported with cross-beams, as in 
 roofing. Mortise and tenon is a mode 
 of jointing timber. An excavation 
 called the mortise is made in one piece. 
 
 and a projecting tongue to fit it called 
 the tenon in the other. The timber 
 framework of floors is called naked 
 flooring, and is single if there be but a 
 single series of joists, double if there are 
 cross-binding joists, and framed if there 
 are girders or beams in addition to the 
 joists. The roof is the framework by 
 which the covering of a building is sup- 
 ported. It may consist of a series of 
 sloping pieces of timber, with one end 
 resting on one wall and the other end 
 meeting in a point with a corresponding 
 piece resting on the opposite wall: these 
 are called rafters. There is usually a 
 third piece which connects the lower 
 extremities of the rafters and prevents 
 them from spreading. This is called a 
 tie, and the whole frame a couple. The 
 principal instruments used in carpentry 
 are saws, as the circular-, band-, and 
 tenon-saws; planes, as the jack-plane, 
 smoothing-plane, moulding-plane, etc.; 
 chisels, gouges, brad-awls, gimlets, etc. 
 
 CARPET, a thick fabric, generally 
 composed wholly or principally of wool, 
 for covering the floors of apartments, 
 staircases, and passages in the interior 
 of a house. The Persian, Turkish, and 
 Indian carpets are all woven by hand, 
 and the design is formed by knotting 
 into the warp tufts of woolen threads 
 of the proper color one after the other. 
 The Brussels carpet is a common and 
 highly-esteemed variety. It is com- 
 posed of linen thread and W’orsted, the 
 latter forming the pattern. The linen 
 basis does not appear on the surface, 
 being concealed by the worsted, which 
 is drawn through the reticulations and 
 looped over wires that are afterward 
 withdrawn, giving the surface a ribbed 
 appearance. Wilton carpets are similar 
 to Brussels in process of manufacture, 
 but in them the loops are cut open by 
 using wires with a knife-edge, and the 
 surface thus gets a pile. Tapestry tar- 
 pets also have a pile surface, the great 
 specialty of which is that the threads 
 are particolored by printing in the 
 proper manner for each design before 
 being woven up. The Kidderminster 
 or Scotch carpet consists of two distinct 
 webs woven at the same time and 
 knitted together by the woof. The 
 pattern is the same on both sides of the 
 cloth, but the colors are reversed. An 
 improvement upon this is the three-ply 
 carpeting, made originally at Kilmar- 
 nock. The original Axminster carpets 
 were made on the principle of the Per- 
 sian or Turkey carpets. Patent Axmin- 
 ster carpets have a fine pile, which is 
 produced by using chenille as the weft, 
 the projecting threads of which form 
 the pile, which is dyed before being used. 
 Carpets of felted wool, with designs 
 printed on them, are also used, and are 
 very cheap. Cheap jute carpets are also 
 made. 
 
 CARPET-BAGGER, a needy political 
 adventurer who goes about the country 
 pandering to the prejudices of the 
 ignorant with the view of getting into 
 place or power, so called because re- 
 garded as having no more property than 
 might fill a carpet-bag. Originally 
 applied to needy adventurers of the 
 northern states of America wdio tried in 
 this way to gain the votes of the negroes 
 of the southern states, 
 
 CARPET-SWEEPER, a device con- 
 sisting of a closed box from which the 
 ends of a brush protrude, used for 
 sweeping carpets. The box is on rollers, 
 is pushed by a long handle, and the dust 
 is swept into the cavity of the box which 
 can be opened and emptied at will. 
 
 CARPUS, in anatomy, the bones be- 
 tween the forearm and hand, the wrist 
 in man, or corresponding part in other 
 animals. 
 
 CARRACCI (kar-rach'e), Ludovico, 
 Agostino, and Annibale, the three 
 founders of the .Bologna, or, as it has 
 been called, the eclectic school of paint- 
 ing. — Ludovico was born in 1555 at 
 Bologna. He set up a studio in Bologna, 
 and established a school of painting 
 characterized particularly by its atten- 
 tion to composition and its principle of 
 eclecticism, or endeavor to imitate and 
 unite the chief excellencies of different 
 great masters, the drawing of Raphael, 
 the coloring of Titian, etc. To assist 
 him Ludovico had his two younger 
 cousins, Agostino and Annibale, edu- 
 cated as artists; and after the comple- 
 tion of their studies all three by their 
 able work soon made a high reputation 
 for the academy of the Carracci at 
 Bologna. He died in 1619. — Agostino 
 was born in 1558 at Bologna; he died 
 at Parma in 1601. He engraved more 
 pieces than he painted, though some of 
 his pictures were admired by contem- 
 poraries even more than those of his 
 brother Annibale. — Annibale was born 
 in 1560 at Bologna. In 1600 he was 
 invited by Cardinal Farnese to Rome, 
 where the influence of Raphael and 
 Michael Angelo’s work tempered the 
 characteristics he had acquired from 
 the Lombard and Venetian schools. 
 His chief work is the series of frescoes 
 for the Farnese Palace at Rome, which 
 kept him eight years. He is generally 
 considered the greatest of the Carracci. 
 He died at Rome in 1609. 
 
 CARRA'RA, a city of northern Italy, 
 59 miles s.w. of Modena, a few miles 
 from the coast. It is surrounded by 
 hills which contain fine white statuary 
 marble, in the preparation of which and 
 commoner sorts most of the inhabitants 
 are occupied. Pop. 16,000. — The Car- 
 rara marble is the variety generally 
 employed by statuaries. It was for- 
 merly supposed to be a primitive lime- 
 stone, but is now considered an altered 
 limestone of the Oolitic period. Al- 
 though the Carrara quarries have been 
 worked for 2000 years, having furnished 
 the material for the Pantheon at Rome, 
 the supply is still practically inexhausti- 
 ble. They employ 6000 or 7000 men. 
 
 CARRIAGE, a general name for a 
 vehicle, but more especially for one of 
 the lighter and more ornamental kind. 
 
 CAR'RIER, is a person who under- 
 takes to transport the goods of other 
 persons from place to place for him. 
 Persons who undertake this as a sys- 
 tematic business are called common 
 carriers, and come under special legal 
 regulations, such as that thej' shall be 
 responsible for the goods intrusted to 
 them so long as in their custod}^ 
 
 CARRIER PIGEON is a large bird 
 with long wings, large tuberculated mass 
 of naked skin at the base of the beak, 
 and with a circle of naked skin round 
 
CARRINGTON 
 
 CARTHAGE 
 
 the eyes. I'hc practice of sending letters 
 by pigeons belongs originally to eastern 
 countries. An actual post-system in 
 which pigeons were the messengers was 
 established at Bagdad by the Sultan 
 Nureddin Mahmud, who died in 1174, 
 and lasted till 12.58. These birds can be 
 utilized in this way only in virtue of 
 what is called their “homing” facidty or 
 instinct, which enables them to find 
 their way back home from surprising 
 distances. But if they are taken to the 
 place from which the message is to be 
 sent and kept there too long, say over a 
 fortnight, they will forget their home 
 and not return to it. By the use of 
 microphotography a long message may 
 be conveyed in this way, and such were 
 received by the besieged residents in 
 Paris during the Franco-Prussian war of 
 1870-71, the birds being conveyed out 
 of the city in balloons. Seventy-two 
 miles in two and a half hours, a hundred 
 and eighty in four and a half, have been 
 accomplished by carrier pigeons. 
 
 CARRINGTON, Henry Beebee, an 
 American historian and soldier, born in 
 Connecticut in 1824. In the civil war 
 he was a brigadier-general of volunteers, 
 and was subsequently an educator. 
 He has published Battles of the Revo- 
 lution, Russia as a Nation and other 
 military hi-storical works of note. 
 
 CARRION-CROW, in Britain the 
 common crow, so called because it often 
 feeds on carrion. In America the name 
 is given to a small species of vulture 
 called the Black Vulture. 
 
 CARROLL, Charles, of Carrollton, an 
 American gentleman and patriot, born 
 at Annapolis, Md., in 1737, died 1832. 
 He was one of the signers of the Declara- 
 
 tion of Independence. He helped to 
 draft the Maryland constitution and in 
 1789 was elected U. States senator. He 
 was the last of the signers of the Declara- 
 tion to die. 
 
 CARROLL, .John, an American 
 Roman Catholic bishop, the first in the 
 U. States. He was born in Maryland 
 in 1735, and was a cousin of Charles 
 Carroll of Carrollton. He was the first 
 archbishop of Baltimore and the founder 
 of Georgetown College. He died in 1815. 
 
 CARRONADE, an iron gun introduced 
 in 1779 by the director of the Carron 
 Foundry, from which it took its name. 
 They were of large caliber, but short and 
 much lighter than comfnon cannon . ' 
 
 They were of great service in close naval 
 engagements, but they had a very short 
 range, and have been superseded by 
 more modern inventions. 
 
 CARROT, a biennial umbelliferous 
 plant, a native of Britain and other parts 
 of Europe. The leaves are tripinnate, 
 of a handsome feathery appearance. 
 The plant rises to the height of 2 feet, 
 and produces white flowers. The root, 
 in its wild state, is small, tapering, of a 
 white color, and strong-flavored; but 
 that of the cultivated variety is large, 
 succulent, and of a red, yellow, or pale 
 straw-color, and shows remarkably the 
 improvement which may be effected by 
 cultivation. It is cultivated for the 
 table and as a food for cattle. Carrots 
 contain a large proportion of saccharine 
 matter, and attempts have been made 
 to extract sugar from them. 
 
 CARROUSEL (kar'6-zel), a name 
 given in the middle ages to a tilting 
 match or other occasion when knightly 
 exercises, such as riding at the ring, 
 throwing the lance, were publicly en- 
 gaged in. They were superseded by 
 tournaments, but were again revived 
 when the latter had fallen out of use, 
 and were frequent at the court of Louis 
 XIV. In the U. States the name is ap- 
 plied to a merry-go-round or movable 
 platform filled with wooden horses on 
 which children ride. 
 
 CARRYING-TRADE, that department 
 of trade or commerce which consists in 
 the carriage of commodities from one 
 place or country to another; generally 
 applied to the carrying of merchan- 
 dise from one country to another by 
 sea, especially when the vessels convey- 
 ing the goods belong to a different 
 country from either of the other two. 
 
 CARSON, Christopher (“Kit”), an 
 American scout and trapper, born in 
 Kentucky in 1809, died in 1868. He 
 lived for a time in Missouri, crossed the 
 continent to California in 1829, and 
 served with distinction in the west 
 during the civil war. Carson knew the 
 American Indian perhaps better than 
 any other scout and his adventures read 
 like romances rather than sober facts. 
 Several biographies of him have been 
 published. 
 
 CARSTAIRS, or CARSTARES, Will- 
 iam, a Scottish divine of political 
 eminence, born in 1649 near Glasgow, 
 died 1715. He studied at the University 
 of Edinburgh, and afterward at Utrecht. 
 He was introduced to the Prince of 
 Orange, on whom he made a favorable 
 impression. When William was settled 
 on the throne Carstairs was constantly 
 consulted by him on Scotch affairs. 
 He was the chief agent between the 
 Church of Scotland and the court, and 
 w'as very instrumental in the establish- 
 ment of Presbyterianism, to which 
 William was averse. On the death of 
 William he was no longer employed on 
 public business, but Anne retained him 
 as her chaplain royal, and made him 
 principal of the University of Edin- 
 burgh. When the union of the two 
 kingdoms was agitated he took a de- 
 cided part in its favor. He was re- 
 peatedly moderator of the General 
 Assembly of the church. His country- 
 men have mostly looked upon him as an 
 enlightened patriot. ^ 
 
 CART, a carriage with two wheels, 
 with or without springs, fitted to be 
 drawn by one horse, and used for carry- 
 ing goods, or as a vehicle for conveying 
 persons. 
 
 CARTAGENA (kar-ta-Aa'n ), or CAR- 
 THAGENA (kar-tha-je'na), a fortified 
 town and seaport of Spain, ii the prov- 
 ince of and 31 miles s.s.c. Murcia; with 
 a harbor which is one of the largest and 
 safest in the Mediterranean, sheltered 
 by lofty hills. It is a naval and military 
 station, with an arsenal, dockyards, etc. 
 Lead smelting is largely carried on; 
 and there are in the neighborhood rich 
 mines of excellent iron. Cartagena was 
 founded by the Carthaginians under 
 Hasdrubal about 243 n.c., and was 
 called New Carthage. It was taken by 
 Scipio Africanus n.c. 210, and was long 
 an important Roman town. It was 
 ruined by the Goths, and revived in the 
 time of Philip II. Pop. 99,871. 
 
 CARTE-BLANCHE (kart-blansh), a 
 blank paper, duly signed, intrusted to a 
 person to fill up as he pleases, and thus 
 giving unlimited power to decide. 
 
 CARTE-DE-VISITE (kart-dc-vi-zet'), 
 literally a visiting card, a name applied 
 to a size of photographs somewhat 
 larger than a visiting card, and usually 
 inserted in a photographic album. 
 
 CAR'TEL, an agreement for the de- 
 livery of prisoners or deserters; also, a 
 written challenge to a duel. — Cartel- 
 ship, a ship commissioned in time of war 
 to exchange prisoners. 
 
 CARTER, James Coolidge, an Ameri- 
 can lawyer, born in Massachusetts in 
 1850. He served on the New York con- 
 stitutional commission in 1888 and, in 
 1892 represented the U. States before 
 the Bering Sea tribunal. 
 
 CAR'THAGE, the most famous city 
 of Africa in antiquity, capital of a rich 
 and powerful commercial republic, situ- 
 ated in the territory now belonging to 
 Tunis. Carthage was the latest of the 
 
 Phoenician colonies in this district, and 
 is supposed to have been founded by 
 settlers from Tyre and from the neigh- 
 boring Utica about the middle of the 
 9th century before Christ. The story 
 of Dido and the foundation of Carthage 
 is mere legend or invention. The history 
 of Carthage falls naturally into tliree 
 epochs. The first, from the foundation 
 to 410 B.C., comprises the rise and cul- 
 mination of Carthaginian power ; the 
 second from 410 to 265 b.c., is tire 
 period of the wars with the- Sicilian 
 Greeks; the third, from 265 to 146 b.c.j 
 
CARTHAGE 
 
 CARTRIDGE 
 
 the period of the wars with Rome, end- 
 ing with the fall of Carthage. 
 
 The rise of Carthage may be at- 
 tributed to the superiority of her site 
 for commercial purposes, and the enter- 
 prise of her inhabitants, which soon 
 acquired for her an ascendency over the 
 earlier Tyrian colonies in the district, 
 Utica, Tunis, Hippo, Septis and Had- 
 rumetum. 
 
 In extending her commerce Carthage 
 was naturally led to the conquest of the 
 various islands which from their posi- 
 tion might serve as entrepots for traffic 
 with the northern shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean. Sardinia was the first con- 
 quest of the Carthaginians, and its 
 capital, Caralis, now Cagliari, was 
 founded by them. Soon after they 
 occupied Corsica, the Balearic, and 
 many smaller islands in the Mediter- 
 ranean. When the Persians under 
 Xerxes invaded Greece the Carthagin- 
 ians, who had already several settle- 
 ments in the west of Sicily, cooperated 
 by organizing a great expedition of 
 300,000 men against the Greek cities 
 in Sicily. But the defeat of the Car- 
 thaginians at Himera by the Greeks 
 under Gelon of Syracuse effectually 
 checked their further progress (480 b.c.). 
 The war with the Greeks in Sicily was 
 not renewed till 410. Hannibal, the son 
 of Gisco, invaded Sicily, reduced first 
 Selinus and Himera, and then Agri- 
 gentum. Syracuse itself was only saved 
 a little later by a pestilence which en- 
 feebled the army of Himilco (396). 
 The struggle between the Greeks and 
 the Carthaginians continued at inter- 
 vals with varying success, its most 
 remarkable events being the military 
 successes of the Corinthian Timoleon 
 (345-340) at Syracuse, and the invasion 
 of the Carthaginian territory in Africa 
 by Agathocles b.c. 310. After the 
 death of Agathocles the Greeks called 
 in Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to their aid, 
 but notwithstanding numerous defeats 
 (b.c. 277-5), the Carthaginians seemed, 
 after the departure of Pyrrhus, to have 
 the conquest of all Sicily at length within 
 their power. The intervention of the 
 Romans was now invoked, and with 
 their invasion, b.c. 264, the third period 
 of Carthaginian history begins. The 
 first Punic war (L. Punicus, Phoenician), 
 in which Rome and Carthage contended 
 for the dominion of Sicily, was pro- 
 longed for twenty-three years, b.c. 264 
 to 241, and ended, through the exhaus- 
 tion of the resources of Carthage, in her 
 expulsion from the island. The loss 
 of Sicily led to the acquisition of Spain 
 for Carthage, which was almost solely 
 the work of Hamilcar and Hasdrubal. 
 The second Punic war, arising out of 
 incidents connected with the Carthagin- 
 ian conquests in Spain, and conducted 
 on the side of the Carthaginians by the 
 the genius of Hannibal, and distin- 
 guished by his great march on Rome 
 and the victories of Lake Trasimene, 
 Trebia, and Cannae, lasted seventeen 
 years, b.c. 218 to 201, and after just 
 missing the overthrow of Rome, ended 
 in the complete humiliation of Carthage. 
 The policy of Rome in encouraging the 
 African enemies of Carthage occasioned 
 the third Punic war, in which Rome 
 was the aggressor. This war, begun 
 
 b.c. 150, ended b.c. 146, in the total 
 destruction of Carthage. 
 
 CARTHAGE, a city and county-seat 
 of Jasper Co., Mo., 150 miles southeast 
 of Kansas City, on Spring River, and on 
 the Missouri Pacific, the Saint Louis and 
 San Francisco, and other railroads. It 
 has lead and zinc mines, stone and lime 
 works, foundries, flour-mills, etc. Pop 
 11 , 220 . 
 
 CARTHU'SIANS, a religious order 
 instituted by St. Bruno, who about 
 1084, built several hermitages 4 leagues 
 from Grenoble in s.e. France, and, with 
 six companions, united the ascetic with 
 
 Carthusian monk. 
 
 the monastic life. They practiced the 
 greatest abstinence, wore coarse gar- 
 ments, and ate only vegetables and the 
 coarsest bread. From their original seat 
 (La Chartreuse) they were called Car- 
 thusians. Their habit is a hair-cloth 
 shirt, a white tunic, a black cloak, and 
 a cowl. 
 
 CARTIER, Sir George Etienne, Cana- 
 dian statesman, born at St. Antoine, 
 Quebec, in 1814; died in England in 
 1873. He was admitted to the bar in 
 1835, took part in the rebellion of 1837, 
 and had for a time to leave Canada. 
 In 1848 he entered the Canadian Parlia- 
 ment, and in 1855 became provincial 
 secretary. Next year he became attor- 
 ney-general for Lower Canada, in which 
 post he was active in behalf of legal 
 reforms. In 1857 he was a member of 
 the Macdonald ministry, and in 1858 
 he himself became premier, remaining 
 in this position till 1862. He was active 
 in bringing about the establishment of 
 the Dominion of Canada in 1867, and 
 held a post in the first Dominion cabinet. 
 The following year he received a 
 baronetcy. 
 
 CARTIER (kiir-tya), Jacques, a French 
 navigator, born at St. Malo 1479, time 
 of death not known. He commanded 
 an expedition to N. America in 1534, 
 entered the Straits of Belle Isle, and 
 took possession of the mainland of 
 Canada in name of Francis I. Next 
 year he sailed up the St. Lawrence as 
 
 far as the present Montreal. He sub- 
 sequently went to found a settlement in 
 Canada, and built a fort near the site 
 of Quebec. He was living in France in 
 1552. 
 
 CARTILAGE, or GRISTLE, a firm 
 and very elastic substance occurring in 
 vertebrate animals. When cut, the 
 surface is uniform, and contains no 
 visible cells, cavities, nor pores, but 
 resembles the section of a piece of glue. 
 It enters iato the composition of parts 
 whose functions require the combination 
 of firmness with pliancy and flexibility, 
 the preservation of a certain external 
 form with the power of yielding to 
 external force or pressure. The ends of 
 bones entering into the formation of a 
 joint are always coated with cartilage. 
 Temporary cartilages are those from 
 which bones are formed by ossification. 
 The permanent cartilages are of various 
 kinds. They are found in the external 
 ear and aid in forming the nose, the 
 larynx, etc. 
 
 CARTOON', in painting, a drawing on 
 stout paper or other material, intended 
 to be used as a model for a large picture 
 in fresco, a process in which it is neces- 
 sary to complete the picture portion by 
 portion and in which a fault cannot 
 afterward be easily corrected. The 
 cartoon is made exactly the size of the 
 picture intended, and the design is 
 transferred to the surface to be orna- 
 mented by tracing or other processes. 
 Cartoons executed in color, like paint- 
 ings, are used for designs in tapestries, 
 mosaics, etc. The most famous are 
 those painted by Raphael for the Vati- 
 can tapestries, seven of which are still 
 preserved in the South Kensington 
 Museum, London. In modern times 
 the term is also applied to a pictorial 
 sketch relating to some notable charac- 
 ter or events of the day. 
 
 CARTOUCHE (kar'tosh), (1) in archi- 
 tecture, a sculptured ornament in the 
 form of a scroll unrolled, often appear- 
 ing on the cornices of columns, used as a 
 field for inscriptions, etc. — (2) In 
 
 Cartouche. 
 
 heraldry, a sort of oval shield, much 
 used by the popes and secular princes 
 in Italy, and others, both clergy and 
 laity, for painting or engraving their 
 arms on. — (3) The name given to that 
 oval ring or border which includes, in 
 the Egyptian hieroglyphics, the names 
 of persons of high distinction. The 
 annexed cut shows a cartouche of one 
 of the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, with 
 the inscription “Ptolemy eternal be- 
 loved of Phtah.” 
 
 CARTRIDGE, a case of paper, parch- 
 ment, or flannel suited to the bore of 
 fire-arms, and holding the exact charge, 
 including, in the case of small arms, both 
 powder and bullet (or shot). In loading 
 with the old style of cartridge for muz- 
 zle-loading rifles, the paper over the 
 powder was bitten or twisted off and the 
 powder poured in, the bullet being then 
 inserted and rammed homo. The car- 
 
CARTWRIGHT 
 
 CASHMERE 
 
 tridges used for breech-loading rifles 
 contain the powder in a case of solid 
 brass, and have the percussion-cap by 
 which they are ignited fixed in the base. 
 Such cases can be refilled and used a 
 number of times in succession. Cart- 
 ridges for shot-guns are similar to those 
 for rifles, but are usually of less solid 
 construction, being commonly of strong 
 paper with a base of metal. Those 
 for large guns are usually made of flannel 
 and contain only the powder. Blank- 
 cartridge is a cartridg3 without ball or 
 shot. Cartridges for blasting are filled 
 with dynamite or other explosive. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, Edmund, the in- 
 ventor of the power-loom, was born in 
 1742 in Nottinghamshire, Eng. He was 
 educated at Oxford, and took orders in 
 the church. In 1785, he brought his 
 first power-loom into action. Although 
 much opposed both by manufacturers 
 and workmen, it made its way, and in a 
 developed and improved form is now 
 in universal use. He died in 1823. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, Peter, an American 
 clergyman, born in Virginia in 1785, 
 died 1872. He was noted for the re- 
 vivals he preached in Illinois and for the 
 large number of converts he made. 
 
 CARVING, as a branch of art, is the 
 process of cutting a hard body by means 
 of a sharp instrument into some particu- 
 lar shape, and is a term generally em- 
 ployed in speaking of figures cut out in 
 ivory or wood, in contradistinction to 
 sculpture, or figures pi'oduced in stone 
 or metal. The art of carving is of the 
 highest antiquity. Even among the 
 most uncivilized tribes, rudely-carved 
 representations in wood are common. 
 In the early and middle ages wood- 
 carving became general for the decora- 
 tion of Christian churches and altars. 
 One of the latest developments of the 
 art of carving is the modern invention 
 of carving by machinery. A machine 
 patented in 1845 is capable of copying 
 any carved design that can be produced, 
 so far as that is possible, by revolving 
 tools; the finish is ,afterward given by 
 •hand-labor. 
 
 CARY, Alice and Phoebe, two Ameri- 
 can poets, sisters. Alice was born in 
 Ohio, in 1820, and died in 1871, Phoebe 
 was born in Ohio in 1824, and died in 
 1871. Their first book of poems ap- 
 peared in 1850 under the title Poems of 
 Alice and Phoebe Cary. From 1850 to 
 1869 the sisters issued numerous vol- 
 umes of verses which won them inter- 
 national fame. They died within three 
 months of each other. 
 
 CARY, Alice Louise, an American 
 operatic singer, born in Maine in 1842. 
 Her rich contralto voice early attracted 
 attention and after studying in Italy, 
 made her debut in Copenhagen in 1868. 
 In 1870 she appeared in New York and 
 for many years was the favorite Ameri- 
 can singer. She married Charles M. 
 Raymond in 1882. 
 
 CARYATTDES (-dez;, or CAR'YAT- 
 IDS, in architecture, figures of women 
 dressed in long robes, serving to sup- 
 port entablatures. 
 
 CARYOPHYLLA'CEvE, an order of 
 plants, of which the pink, may be con- 
 sidered as the type. The plants have 
 opposite undivided leaves, without 
 stipules, tumid articulations of the stems. 
 
 and seeds disposed upon a free central 
 placenta, surrounded by several car- 
 pellary leaves. The great proportion 
 of the species are inconspicuous weeds, 
 like chick-weed, sandwort, etc., but 
 
 Caryatides. 
 
 many are found as favorite plants in our 
 gardens, as the carnation, sweet-william, 
 etc. 
 
 CASCADE RANGE, a range of moun- 
 tains in North America, near the Pacific 
 coast, to which they are parallel, ex- 
 tending from the Sierra Nevada in Cali- 
 fornia northward to Alaska. It con- 
 tains several active volcanoes. Highest 
 peak. Mount St. Elias, 18,017 feet. The 
 highest peaks in the U. States portion of 
 it are in Washington territory, where 
 Tacoma reaches 14,444 feet. 
 
 CASE, in grammar, a term indicating 
 certain relationships in which nouns 
 and pronouns may stand as regards 
 other words, and which are often 
 marked by special forms or inflections. 
 A word that is the subject of a verb is 
 generally said to be in the nominative 
 case, one that is an object in the objec- 
 tive or accusative case. In English 
 these two cases are alike except in pro- 
 nouns, the only inflected noun-case in 
 English being the possessive. English 
 pronouns have three cases — nominative, 
 possessive, and objective, as he, his, him. 
 In Sanskrit there are eight cases. In 
 French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese 
 there are no case-forms. In German 
 there are four cases, nominative, geni- 
 tive, dative, accusative. 
 
 CASE, in law, a cause or action, or a 
 statement on which a decision is to be 
 given. 
 
 CASE-HARDENING is a process by 
 which iron is superficially converted 
 into steel, in such articles as require the 
 toughness of the former conjointly with 
 the hardness of the latter substance. 
 The articles intended for case-hardening 
 are first manufactured in iron, and are 
 then placed in an iron box, with char- 
 coal in powder, and heated to redness. 
 Immersion into water then converts the 
 surface into a coating of steel. 
 
 CASEIN (ka'se-in), that ingredient in 
 milk which is neither coagulated spon- 
 taneously, like fibrin, nor by heat, like 
 albumen, but by the action of acids 
 alone, and constituting the chief part 
 of the nitrogenized matter contained in 
 it. Cheese made from skimmed milk 
 and well pressed is fully half casein. 
 Casein is one of the most important 
 elements of animal food as found in 
 milk and leguminous plants. It con- 
 sists of carbon 53'7 per cent, hydro- 
 gen 7T5, nitrogen 15'65, oxygen 22'65, 
 and sulphur 0'85. 
 
 CASE'MATES (from the Spanish 
 casa, a house, and matare, to kill), in 
 for. iJfication, vaults which are proof 
 against bombs, and which may serve 
 as a place for keeping ordnance, am- 
 munition, etc., and in case of necessity 
 as habitations for the garrison. 
 
 CASEMENT, a frame inclosing part of 
 the glazing of a window and opening on 
 hinges. 
 
 CASER'TA, or CASERTA NUOVA, 
 
 the capital of the province of Caserta, 
 south Italy, in a plain, 7 miles e.s.e. of 
 Capua and 18 from Naples. The prin- 
 cipal edifice is the royal palace, a large 
 and richly-decorated structure, com- 
 menced in 1752 by Charles III. of Spain. 
 Pop. 20,000. — The province has an area 
 of 2307 sq. miles and a pop. of 805,305. 
 
 CASE-SHOT, in artillery, is formed by 
 putting a quantity of small iron balls 
 into a cylindrical tin box called a can- 
 ister, that just fits the bore of the gun. 
 This kind of shot is very injurious to an 
 enemy within a short distance. The 
 shrapnel-shell is a modern variety of 
 case-shot. ' 
 
 CASH CREDIT. A cash credit is an 
 account which the trader may overdraw 
 to a certain amount as he may require, 
 paying cash in and taking it out accord- 
 ing to his needs within that limit. 
 Heritable property, two sureties, or 
 some other form of security is usually 
 demanded by the bank. 
 
 CASH'MERE, an extensive princi- 
 pality in the n.w. of Hindustan, subject 
 to a ruler (the Maharajah) belonging to 
 the Sikh race. The principality em- 
 braces not only Cashmere proper, but 
 also Jamoo or Jummoo, Baltistan or 
 Little Tibet, Ladakh, Gilghit, etc. The 
 area is estimated at 80,000 sq. miles. 
 It extends from about 32° to 37° n. lat., 
 and from about 73° to 80° e. Ion., and is 
 largely a region of mountains, contain- 
 ing magnificent glaciers. The elevated 
 situation of the valley, and the moun- 
 tains of snow which surround it, render 
 the climate rather cold; but the region 
 is well watered by streams and very 
 fertile. Among its minerals are iron and 
 plumbago. Sulphur springs are com- 
 mon. Earthquakes frequently occur, 
 and in 1885 one caused the loss of thou- 
 sands of lives. Bears, leopards, wolves, 
 the ibex, and chamois are among the 
 animals. The flora has a strong affinity 
 to that of Europe; the deodar cedar 
 forms extensive and valuable forests. 
 The chief crops are wheat, barley, rice, 
 and Indian corn, and two harvests are 
 reaped in the year. The chief manufac- 
 ture is that of the celebrated Cashmere 
 shawls. The genuine Cashmere shawls 
 owe their superiority to the material of 
 which they are made, which is, properly 
 
CASHMERE GOAT 
 
 CASSINI 
 
 speaking, not wool, but a fine kind of 
 down with which the animals of this 
 region are clad during the winter season, 
 and which in length and fineness far 
 surpasses the merino wool. This down 
 is obtained in great quantities from the 
 Cashmere goat, the yak of Tibet, and the 
 wild sheep. The average time taken to 
 manufacture a good Cashmere shawl 
 is from sixteen to twenty weeks. The 
 inhabitants of Cashmere are a fine race 
 physically, tall, strong, and well-built, 
 with regular features. There are thir- 
 teen separate dialects in use. The 
 Maharajah is independent, but his rela- 
 tions with other states are subject to the 
 authority of the government of India. 
 The capital of the whole principality is 
 Srinagar (or Cashmere), which is the 
 Maharajah’s usual residence and the 
 largest town. Population 2,906,173, 
 about 1,800,000 being Mohammedans 
 and 700,000 Hindus. 
 
 CASHMERE GOAT, a variety of the 
 common goat remarkable for its fine 
 downy fleece, said to be found in per- 
 fection only in Tibet in the neighbor- 
 hood of Lhassa, but also found in other 
 parts of this region, including Ladakh, 
 now a province of Cashmere. The colder 
 the region where the goat pastures, the 
 heavier is its fleece. A full-grown goat 
 yields not more than 8 ounces, the fine 
 curled wool being close to the skin. A 
 large shawl of the finest quality requires 
 5 lbs. of the wool; one of the inferior 
 quality from 3 to 4 lbs. 
 
 CASHMERE SHAWL. See Cashmere 
 and Cashmere Goat. 
 
 CASINO, a word used, in the U. States 
 to designate some place of amusement 
 or recreation. It is derived from the 
 Italian in which tongue it means a little 
 house, and formerly Italian noblemen 
 built casinos adjacent to their castles. 
 
 CASPIAN SEA, a large lake or inland 
 sea between Europe and Asia, 730 miles 
 in length from n. to s., and from 130 
 to 270 in breadth; area, 170,000 sq. 
 miles, the largest isolated sheet of water 
 on the globe. Its surface is 85 feet be- 
 low that of the Sea of Azof; greatest 
 depth about 3250 feet. Russian terri- 
 tory surrounds it on three sides, Persia 
 on the fourth. 
 
 CASS, George Washington, an Ameri- 
 can engineer and railroad man, born in 
 Ohio in 1810, died in 1888. He assisted 
 in the development of the Adams Ex- 
 press Company, of the Pittsburg, Fort 
 Wayne & Chicago, and of the Northern 
 Pacific railroads. 
 
 CASS, Lewis, an American politician, 
 born in Exeter, New Hampshire, in 
 1782. In 1813, having entered the 
 army, he rose to the rank of general ; in 
 1814-30 was governor of Michigan, was 
 minister of war in 1831, was a candidate 
 for the presidency several times, was 
 long a senator, and in 1857-60 was sec- 
 retary of state. He wrote the History 
 Traditions, Languages, etc., of Indians 
 in the U. States. He died in June, 1866. 
 
 CASSAN'DER, a king of Macedonia, 
 born about 354 n.c. He displaced his 
 brother Polysperchon in the regency, 
 removed in succession the mother, the 
 wife, and the son of Alexander the Great 
 to make way for himself to the throne. 
 He married Thessalonica, Ale.xander’s 
 half -sister, and founded the city of that 
 
 name in her honor. In company with 
 Seleucus, Ptolmy, and Lysimachus he 
 defeated and slew Antigonus, king of 
 Asia, whose dominions were divided 
 among the conquerors. He died in 
 297 B.c. 
 
 CASSAN'DRA, in Greek legend, a 
 daughter of Priam and Hecuba. She 
 is fabled to have been endowed by 
 Apollo with the gift of prophecy, coupled 
 with this disadvantage, that her proph- 
 ecies should never he believed. She 
 frequently foretold the fall of Troy, and 
 warned her countrymen in vain against 
 the stratagem of the horse. 
 
 CASSATION, a term used in the 
 courts on the continent of Europe, 
 signifying the annulling of any act or 
 decision, if the forms prescribed by law 
 have been neglected, or if anything is 
 contained in it contrary to law. — Court 
 of Cassation, one of the most important 
 institutions of modern France, estab- 
 lished by the first national assembly in 
 1790. In 1814 the number of its mem- 
 bers was fixed at forty-nine, at which it 
 still remains. The members are ap- 
 pointed for life. The sphere of this court 
 is to decide on the competency of the 
 other courts, and on the petitions to 
 have their decisions reviewed or an- 
 nulled. Its decisions are uot only re- 
 corded in the journals of the courts the 
 decisions of which are reversed, but 
 published likewise in an official bulletin. 
 It has enjoyed from its commencement 
 the respect and confidence of France. 
 
 CASSA'VA, a South American shrub, 
 about 8 feet in height, with broad, 
 shining, and somewhat hand-shaped 
 leaves, and beautiful white and rose- 
 colored flowers. A nutritious starch is 
 obtained from the white soft root of the 
 plant, and is called by the same name. 
 It is prepared in the West Indies, 
 tropical America, and in Africa in the 
 following manner : — The roots are 
 washed, stripped of their rind, and 
 grated down to a pulp, which is put into 
 coarse, strong canvas bags, and sub- 
 mitted to powerful pressure to express 
 the juice, which is highly poisonous in 
 its natural state. The flour that remains 
 after pressing is formed into cakes, and 
 baked on a hot iron plate. In this state 
 it forms a valuable article of food, upon 
 which many of the inhabitants of 
 
 southern America live almost entirely. 
 From cassava the tapioca of commerce 
 is prepared. Another species, the sweet 
 cassava, has roots the juice of which is 
 not poisonous, and which are an agree- 
 able and nutritive food. 
 
 Cassava plant. 
 
 CAS'SEL, or KASSEL, formerly the 
 residence of the Elector of Hesse-Cassel, 
 is now the chief town in the province of 
 Hessen-Nassau, Prussia, on the Fulda, 
 
 91 miles n.n.e. of Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
 There are many fine walks and public 
 gardens in the vicinity ; among the latter 
 are the gardens of Wilhelmshohe, in 
 which is situated the ex-elector’s sum- 
 mer palace, the residence of the late ' 
 Emperor Napoleon III., after his being 
 taken prisoner at Sedan, from Sept. 5, • 
 1870, to March 19, 1871. Pop. 106,001. 
 
 CASSIMIR-PERIER, Jean Paul Pierre, 
 a French statesman, born in 1857 at 
 Paris, and president of the French 
 Republic in 1894 and 1895. He won 
 distinction in the Franco-Prussian war, 
 was elected to the chamber of deputies 
 in 1874, vice-president of the chamber 
 in 1890 and president of the chamber in 
 1893. In December of that year Cas- 
 simir-Perier was called to be prime 
 minister under Carnot and in 1894, on 
 the assassination of Carnot he was 
 elected to the presidency of the republic. 
 Although believed to be a royalist, he 
 has always acted as a moderate repub- i, 
 lican. 
 
 CASSIN, John, an American ornithol- 
 ogist, born in 1813 at Chester, Pa., died 
 1869. He wrote several authoratitive 
 works on North American birds. 
 
 CASSI'NI, a name famous in as- 
 tronomy and physics for three genera- 
 tions: — (1) Giovanni Domenico, born 
 in 1625 near Nice. He discovered four ’■ 
 new satellites of Saturn and the zodiacal 
 light, proved that the axis of the moon 
 is not perpendicular to the plane of the 
 ecliptic, and showed the causes o f her ' 
 libration. He died in 1712. — (2) Jacques, 
 his son, born at Paris in 1677. After 
 several essays on subjects in natural * 
 philosophy, etc., he completed his great 
 work on Saturn’s satellites and ring, fj 
 He died in 1756. — (3) Cassini de Thury, K 
 C^sar FranQois, son of the preceding, H 
 born in 1714, member of the Academy 
 from his twenty-second year, under- 
 took a geometrical survey of the whole of 
 France, which was completed by his son. 
 
 He died in 1784. — (4) Cassini, Jean 
 Dominique, Count de Thury, son of the 
 preceding, born at Paris 1748 In 1787 
 he completed the topographical work 
 
CASSIN(') 
 
 which was begun by his father, and 
 which in its complete state consists of 
 180 sheets. He died in 1845. 
 
 CASSI'NO, a game at cards somewhat 
 resembling whist. 
 
 CAS'SIUS, full name Caius Cassius 
 Longinus, a distinguished Roman, one 
 of the assassins of Julius Cssar. In the 
 civil war that broke out between Pom- 
 pey and Cajsar he espoused the cause of 
 the former, and, as commander of his 
 naval forces, rendered him important 
 services. After the battle of Pharsalia 
 he was apparently reconciled with 
 Csesar, but later was among the more 
 active of the conspirators who assas- 
 sinated him B.c. 44. He then, together, 
 with Brutus, raised an army, but they 
 were met by Octavianus and Antony at 
 Philippi. The wing which Cassius 
 commanded being defeated, he imagined 
 that all was lost, and killed himself, 
 B.c. 42. 
 
 CAS'SOCK, a tight-fitting coat worn 
 under the gown or surplice by the clergy. 
 The cassock is generally black; but in the 
 Church of Rome only the ordinary 
 riests wear black cassocks, those of 
 ishops being purple, of cardinals scar- 
 let, and that of the pope white. 
 
 CAS'SOWARY, a family of birds akin 
 to the ostrich, emeu, etc., among living, 
 the moa and others among extinct, 
 birds. The shortness of their wings 
 
 Helmeted cassowary. 
 
 totally unfits them for flying, and, like 
 others of their order, the pectoral or 
 wing muscles are comparatively slight 
 and weak, while those of their posterior 
 limbs are very robust and powerful. 
 
 CAST, in the fine arts, is an impres- 
 sion taken by means of wax or plaster 
 of Paris from a statue, bust, bas-relief, 
 or any other model, animate or inani- 
 mate. When plaster casts are to be 
 exposed to the weather their durability 
 is greatly increased by saturating them 
 with linseed-oil, with which wax or rosin 
 may be combined. 
 
 CAS'TANETS, an instrument com- 
 posed of two small concave shells of 
 ivory or hardwood, shaped like spoons, 
 placed together, fastened to the thumb. 
 
 Castanets. 
 
 and beat with the middle finger. This 
 instrument is used by the Spaniards and 
 Moors as an accompaniment to their 
 dances and guitars. 
 
 CASTE, a term applied to a distinct 
 class or section of a people marked off 
 from others by certain restrictions, and 
 whose burdens or privileges are heredi- 
 tary. The word is derived from the 
 Portuguese casta, a breed or race, and 
 was originally applied to the classes in 
 India whose occupations, customs, privi- 
 leges, and duties are hereditary. It is 
 probable that wherever caste exists it 
 was originally grounded on a difference 
 of descent and mode of living, and that 
 the separate castes were originally 
 separate races. It now prevails prin- 
 cipally in India, but it is known to exist 
 or have existed in many other regions. 
 “The effect of the caste system is,” as 
 the Cyclopedia of India says, “that no 
 man may lawfully eat with any in- 
 dividual of any other caste, or partake 
 of food cooked by him, or marry into 
 another caste family; but he may be his 
 friend, his master, his servant, his 
 partner.” Those that are outside of 
 any caste are known as pariahs. 
 
 CASTELAR', Emilio, a Spanish politi- 
 cian and author, born in 1833. In 1856 
 he was made professor of history in the 
 University of Madrid, but becoming 
 involved in the republican disturbances 
 of 1866, he had to take refuge in Switz- 
 erland. Having gone back to Spain in 
 1868 he was returned to the Cortes in 
 the following year. In 1873 he was 
 elected president of the republican 
 Cortes, but resigned in Jan. 1874, in 
 consequence of the vote of confidence 
 being defeated. After the pronuncia- 
 miento in favor of Alphonso XII., Dec. 
 13, 1874, Castelar retired from Spain, 
 but in a year or two returned, and 
 again sat in the Cortes. He died in 
 1899. He published many novels, 
 poems, and popular works. 
 
 CASTELLON-DE-LA-PLANA (kas-tel- 
 yon'), a town, Spain, capital of the 
 province of Castellon, 40 miles n.n.e. of 
 Valencia, in a large and fertile plain, 
 with manufactures of sail-cloth, woolen 
 and hempen fabrics, ropes, paper, soap, 
 etc., and some trade in hemp, grain, and 
 fruit. Pop. of town, 31,272; of province, 
 304,477 ; area of latter, 2445 sq. miles. 
 
 CASTILE (kas-tel'), an ancient king- 
 dom of Spain, the nucleus of the Spanish 
 monarchy, extends over a large part of 
 the peninsula from the Bay of Biscay 
 southward. It is divided into New 
 Castile and Old Castile. The former 
 occupies nearly the eenter of the penin- 
 sula; area, 28,010 sq. miles. It is trav- 
 ersed from e. to w. by three lofty 
 mountain ehains, nearly parallel to each 
 other — the Sierra Guadarrama, the 
 mountains of Toledo and Sierra Molina, 
 and the Sierra Morena. Between these 
 chains, which form the great water- 
 sheds of the province, lie two extensive 
 plains or plateaux, almost without wood, 
 and arid and barren in appearance. 
 Dryness, indeed, is the curse of the whole 
 country, and there is a great deficiency 
 of method alike in agriculture and in- 
 dustries. The inhabitants are of a 
 grave, manly character, with much of 
 the old Spanish pride and probity, but 
 devoid of enterprise, and content to live 
 on from day to day as their fathers did 
 before them. This ancient province now 
 forms the five provinces of Madrid, 
 Ciudad-Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara, and 
 
 Castle 
 
 Toledo. Pop. 1,853,314. — Old CasUle 
 stretches from the Bay of Biscay to New 
 Castile; area, 25,405 sq. miles. It is 
 traversed by three mountain chains — 
 the Sierra de Guadarrama, the Sierra de 
 Deza, and the Cantabrian jMountains. 
 It is less dry than New Castile, and grain, 
 particularly wheat, is raised in great 
 abundance. The pastures both of the 
 mountains and the plains are exeellent, 
 and much merino wool is produced. 
 Old Castile now forms the provinces of 
 Burgos, Logrono, Santander, Soria, 
 Segovia, Avila, Palencia, and Valla- 
 dolid. Pop. 1,761,440. 
 
 CASTING, the running of melted 
 metal into a mold prepared for the pur- 
 pose, so as to produee an article of a 
 certain shape. Iron-casting (or iron- 
 founding) is the most important branch. 
 In ordinary operations the pattern is 
 laid on a board known as the turn-over 
 board, and the flask placed over it, the 
 sand being carefully rammed into the 
 flask till it is full. Another board, 
 known as the bottom-board, is then laid 
 upon it. The flask is then turned over, 
 the first or turn-over board taken off, 
 the one side of the pattern uncovered, a 
 fine facing of sand spread upon the sur- 
 face to prevent adhesion, after which a 
 second flask, called the cope, sometimes 
 made with crossbars to strengthen it and 
 help to hold the sand, is placed upon it 
 and sand carefully rammed in. The 
 cope or second flask is them lifted off, 
 the sand which it contains carrying the 
 impression of the upper side of the 
 pattern; the pattern in the lower part 
 of the flask, or drag, is then carefully 
 drawn out, and any injuries which the 
 mold receives during the operation is 
 repaired. Holes or passages are then 
 cut into the sand for pouring in the 
 metal, all loose sand carefully removed, 
 the cope replaced and secured to the 
 drag by clamps. The mold is now 
 ready for the molten metal. In pouring, 
 the metal is generally run through two 
 or three different passages at the same 
 time to prevent it losing fluidity by 
 cooling. It is only in lighter castings 
 that sand, of the proper degree of dry- 
 ness, porosity, and adhesiveness, is used. 
 In heavy castings the mold is usually 
 made of loam, which is more adhesive, 
 and in complicated articles the making 
 of the mold is often a difficult process. 
 
 CASTING-VOTE, the vote of a pre- 
 siding officer in an assembly or council 
 which decides a question when the 
 votes of the assembly or house are 
 equally divided between the affirmative 
 and negative. 
 
 CAST-IRON, the name given to the 
 iron obtained from the blast-furnace by 
 running the fused metal into molds 
 prepared for the purpose. The molds 
 are in the form of long narrow channels, 
 from which the iron, when it has cooled 
 and solidified, is taken in bars called 
 pigs, between 3 and 4 feet long and 3 or 
 4 inches broad. See Iron. 
 
 CASTLE, an edifiee serving at once 
 as a residence and as a place of defense, 
 especially such an edifice belonging to 
 feudal times. Castles differed some- 
 what at different times and in different 
 places, but they had all several features 
 of similarity. The first defense of a 
 castle was usually the moat or ditch, 
 
CASTLE GARDEN 
 
 CATACOMBS 
 
 that sometimes comprised several acres; 
 and behind it was the outer wall, gen- 
 erally of great height and thickness, 
 strengthened with towers at regular 
 distances, and pierced with loopholes 
 through which missiles could be dis- 
 charged at the assailants. The main 
 entrance through the outer wall was 
 protected by the barbican, with its 
 narrow archway, and strong gates and 
 portcullis, and inside there were usually 
 an outer and an inner court, and the 
 strong more or less detached building 
 known as the keep, which formed the 
 residence of the owner and his family. 
 This was the most strongly constructed 
 of all the buildings, to which the de- 
 fenders retreated only in the last ex- 
 tremity. The cut shows the castle of 
 the Sires de Coucy, France, built in the 
 13th century. In the foreground is the 
 outer bailey or esplanade, fortified, and 
 containing a chap.l, stables, and other 
 buildings. The outer entrance to this 
 was formed by the barbican, a, is 
 the fosse, 20 yards broad; b, the 
 gateway, approached by two swing- 
 bridges, defended by two guard-rooms, 
 and having a double portcullis within, 
 giving entrance to vaulted guard- 
 rooms with sleeping apartments, etc.. 
 
 Castle— Chateau de Coucy. 
 
 above, c; d, inner bailey or courtyard; 
 e, covered buildings for the men defend- 
 ing the walls or curtains; f, apartments 
 for the family, entered by the grand 
 staircase, g; h, great hall, with store- 
 rooms and vaults below; i, donjon or 
 keep (the chapel is seen behind it), the 
 strongest part of the castle, with walls 
 of immense thickness. At k was a 
 postern leading from the donjon and 
 communicating with an outer postern, 
 drawbridge, etc.; 1, m, n, o, towers or 
 bastions flanking the walls. 
 
 CASTLE GARDEN, a building in 
 Battery Park, New York City, and long 
 used as a landing place for immigrants. 
 It is now used as a public swimming place 
 and has a collection of salt-water and 
 fresh-water Ashes. 
 
 CAS'TOR, Casto'reum, a reddish- 
 brown substance, of a strong penetrating 
 smell, secreted by two glandular sacs 
 connected with the organs of reproduc- 
 tion of the beaver, and used by per- 
 fumers. 
 
 CASTOR AND POLLUX, in Greek 
 mythology, twin divinities, sons of 
 Zeus (Jupiter) and Leda, also called 
 Dioscuri (sons of Zeus). Castor was 
 mortal, but Pollux was immortal. The 
 former was particularly skilled in break- 
 ing horses, the latter in boxing and 
 wrestling. They were the patron 
 deities of mariners. In the heavens 
 they appear as one of the twelve con- 
 stellations of the zodiac, with the name 
 of Gemini (the Twins). 
 
 CASTOR AND POLLUX are two min- 
 erals which are found together in granite 
 in the island of Elba. Castor is a silicate 
 of aluminium and lithium, pollux is a 
 silicate of aluminium and the rare 
 element caesium. 
 
 CASTOR-OIL, the oil obtained from 
 the seeds of a plant, a native of India, 
 but now distributed over all the warmer 
 regions of the globe. The oil is obtained 
 from the seeds by bruising and pressing. 
 
 The oil that first comes away, called 
 cold-drawn castor-oil, is reckoned the 
 best; an inferior quality being obtained 
 by heating or steaming the pressed 
 seeds, and again subjecting them to 
 pressure. The oil is afterward heated 
 to the boiling point, which coagulates 
 and separates the albumen and im- 
 purities. Castor-oil is used medicinally 
 as a mild but efficient purgative. It is 
 chiefly imported from India. The plant 
 is often cultivated as an ornamental 
 plant. 
 
 CASTRATION, the act of depriving 
 a male animal of the testicles. It is 
 practiced on domestic animals (as oxen 
 and horses) with the object of rendering 
 them more submissive and docile, etc. 
 Men who are castrated are known as 
 eunuchs. 
 
 CAST-STEEL, steel made by fusing 
 the materials and running the product 
 into molds. 
 
 CAS'UISTRY, that part of the old 
 theology and morals which relates to the 
 principles by which difficult cases of 
 conscience (especially where there is a 
 collision of different duties) are to be 
 settled. Hence a casuist is a moralist 
 who endeavors to solve such doubtful 
 question. 
 
 CASUS BELLI, the material grounds 
 which justify a declaration of war. 
 
 CAT, a well-known domesticated 
 quadruped, order Carnivora, the same 
 name being given also to allied forms 
 of the same order. It is believed that 
 the cat was originally domesticated in 
 Egypt, and the gloved cat of Egypt and 
 Nubia has by some been considered the 
 original stock of the domestic cat. 
 
 though more probably it was the Egypt- 
 ian cat. It was seldom, if at all, kept 
 by the Greeks and Romans, and till 
 long after the Christian era was rare in 
 many parts of Europe. Some have 
 thought that the domestic breed owed 
 its oiigin to the wild cat; but there are 
 considerable differences between them, 
 the latter being larger, and having a 
 shorter and thicker tail, which also does 
 not taper. The domestic cat belongs 
 to a genus — that which contains the 
 lion and tiger — better armed for the 
 destruction of animal life than any other 
 quadrupeds. The short and powerful 
 jaws, trenchant teeth, cunning dispo- 
 sition, combined with nocturnal habits 
 (for which their eyesight is naturally 
 adapted) and much patience m pursuit, 
 give these animals great advantages 
 over their prey. The cat in a degree 
 partakes of all the attributes of her race. 
 Its food in a state of domestication is 
 necessarily very various, but always 
 of flesh or fish if it can be obtained. 
 Instances of its catching the latter are 
 known, though usually the cat is ex- 
 tremely averse to wetting itself. It is a 
 very cleanly animal, avoiding to step 
 in any sort of filth, and preserving its 
 fur in a very neat condition. Its fur is 
 very easily injured by water on account 
 of the want of oil in it, and it can be 
 rendered highly electric by friction. 
 The cat goes with young for sixty-three 
 days, and brings forth usually from 
 three to six at a litter, which remain 
 blind for nine days. It is usually re- 
 garded as less intelligent than the dog, 
 but this is by no means certain. It has a 
 singular power of finding its way home 
 when taken to a distance and covered up 
 by the way. 
 
 CAT'ACLYSM, in geol. a physical 
 catastrophe of great extent, supposed to 
 have occurred at different periods, and 
 to have been the efficient cause of 
 various phenomena observed in the 
 surface configuration of localities. 
 
 CAT'ACOMBS, (a hollow or recess), 
 caves or subterranean places for the 
 burial of the dead, the bodies being 
 placed in graves or recesses hollowed 
 out in the sides of the cave. Caves of 
 
 Catacomb of St. Agnes, Home. 
 
 this kind were common among the 
 Phoenicians, Greeks, Persians, and maiiy 
 oriental nations. In Sicily and Asia 
 Minor numerous excavations have been 
 discovered containing sepulchers, and 
 the catacombs near Naples are remark- 
 ably extensive. Those of Rome, how- 
 
CAT ACOUSTICS 
 
 CATARACT 
 
 ever, are the most important. The term 
 catacumbse is said to have been origi- 
 nally applied to the district near Rome 
 which contains the chapel of St. Sebas- 
 tian, in the vaults of which, according 
 to tradition, the body of St. Peter was 
 first deposited; but (besides its general 
 application) it is now applied in a 
 special way to all the extensive sub- 
 terranean burial-places in the neigh- 
 borhood of Rome, which extend under- 
 neath the town itself as well as the 
 neighboring country, and are said to 
 contain not less than 6,000,000 tombs. 
 They consist of long narrow galleries 
 usually about 8 feet high and 5 feet 
 wide, which branch off in all directions, 
 forming a perfect maze of corridors. 
 Different stories of galleries lie one below 
 the other. Vertical shafts run up to the 
 outer air, thus introducing light and air, 
 though in small quantity. The graves 
 lie longwise in the galleries. They are 
 closed laterally by a slab, on which there 
 is occasionally a brief inscription or a 
 symbol, such as a dove, an anchor, or a 
 palm-branch, and sometimes both. 
 The earliest that can be dated with any 
 certainty belongs to the year 111 a.d. 
 It is now regarded as certain that in 
 times of persecution the early Christians 
 frequently took refuge in the cata- 
 combs, in order to celebrate there in 
 secret the ceremonies of their religion; 
 but it is not less certain that the cata- 
 combs served also as ordinary places of 
 burial to the early Christians, and were 
 for the most part excavated by the 
 Christians themselves. 
 
 CAT'ACOUSTICS, the science of re- 
 flected sounds, or that part of acoustics 
 which considers the properties of echoes. 
 
 CATAFAL'CO, Catafalque, a tem- 
 porary and ornaments I structure, rep- 
 resenting a tomb placed over the coffin 
 of a distinguished person or over a 
 grave. 
 
 CATALEP'SY, a spasmodic disease, 
 generally connected with hysteria, in 
 which there is a sudden suspension of 
 the senses and volition, with statue-like 
 fixedness of the body and limbs in the 
 attitude immediately preceding the 
 attack, while the action of the heart 
 and lungs continues, and the pulse and 
 temperature remain natural. It is gen- 
 erally the consequences of some other 
 disease, or of a constitution enfeebled 
 by the gradual operation of unobserved 
 causes. 
 
 CATALOGUING, the art of making 
 classified lists of books, or other things. 
 Book catalogues, especially those of large 
 hbraries have been superseded by 
 card indexes, although catalogues are 
 still used by libraries for the purpose 
 of distribution to other libraries. Cata- 
 logues are made in a systematic manner 
 by name of author and subject each 
 “crossed” with the other. 
 
 CATALO'NIA, an old province of 
 Spain, bounded n. by France, e. and 
 s.e. by the Mediterranean, s. by Val- 
 encia, and w. by Arragon. The country 
 in general is mountainous, but inter- 
 sected with fertile valleys, while the 
 mountains themselves are covered with 
 valuable woods and fruit-trees, the 
 slopes being cut in terraces and plenti- 
 fully supplied with water by an artificial 
 eystem of irrigation. Wheat, wine, oil, 
 
 flax, hemp, vegetables, and almost every 
 kind of fruit are abundant. There are 
 mines of lead, iron, alum, etc. On the 
 coast is a coral-fishery. Catalonia, 
 though less fertile than most of Spain, 
 stands pre-eminent for the industry of 
 its inhabitants, who speak the Catalan 
 dialect (see Catalan). Pop. 1,942,245; 
 area, 12,480 sq. miles. It comprises the 
 modern provinces of Tarragona, Gerona, 
 Lerida, and Barcelona. 
 
 CATAL'PA, a genus of plants. The 
 species are trees with simple leaves and 
 large, gay, trumpet-shaped flowers. 
 A North American species, is well 
 adapted for large shrubberies, and has 
 been introduced into England and other 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 CATAL'YSIS, or CONTACT ACTION, 
 
 the chemical change which occurs when 
 one body decomposes another without 
 being itself changed; thus oxide of 
 cobalt decomposes a solution of bleach- 
 ing-powder into chloride of calcium and 
 oxygen, itself remaining without change. 
 
 nificence unknown in other parts of the 
 island, and the town has a title to rank 
 among the elegant cities of Europe. 
 The ruins of the amphitheater, which 
 was more extensive than the Colosseum 
 at Rome, are still to be seen, as also the 
 remains of the theater, baths, aque- 
 ducts, sepulchral chambers, hippo- 
 drome, and several temples. The har- 
 bor was choked up by the eruption of 
 1669, but latterly has been greatly 
 improved. The trade is of some im- 
 portance, the chief exports being sul- 
 phur, oranges, and lemons, grain, wine, 
 oil, etc. Pop. 113,.391. 
 
 CATANZA'RO, a cathedral city. South 
 Italy, capital of province of the same 
 name, on a height, 5 miles from the Gulf 
 of Squillace, with manufactures of silk 
 and velvet and some trade in wheat, 
 wine, oil, etc. Pop. 20,931. Area of 
 prov. 2307 sq. miles; pop. 433,975. 
 
 CAT'APULT, a machine of the an- 
 cients for projecting missiles, chiefly 
 arrows. They may be described as a 
 
 CATAMARAN', a sort of raft used in 
 the East Indies, Brazil, and elsewhere. 
 Those of the island of Ceylon, like those 
 of Madras and other parts of that coast, 
 are formed of three logs lashed together. 
 Their length is from 20 to 25 feet, and 
 breadth 2^ to 3^^ feet. The center log 
 is much the largest, and is pointed at 
 the fore-end. These floats are navigated 
 with great skill by one or two men in a 
 kneeling posture. They think nothing 
 of passing through the surf which lashes 
 the beach at Madras when boats of the 
 best construction would be swamped. 
 
 CATAMAR'CA, a province of the 
 Argentine Republic, S. America; area, 
 about 31,500 sq. miles; mountainous in 
 all directions except the s. Pop. 102,000. 
 The capital is Catamarca, or more fully 
 San Fernando de Catamarca. Pop. 
 about 6000. 
 
 CAT'AMOUNT, or CATAMOUNTAIN, 
 
 the wild cat. In America the name is 
 also given to the tiger or the puma. 
 
 CATA'NIA, a city on the east coast of 
 Sicily, in the province of Catania, at the 
 foot of Mount Etna. It has been re- 
 peatedly visited by tremendous earth- 
 quakes, one of the worst of which was in 
 1693, when 18,000 people were destroyed 
 and has been partially laid in ruins by 
 lava from eruptions of Mount Etna. 
 Most of the edifiees have an air of mag- 
 
 kind of gigantic cross-bows. Balistae 
 were engines somewhat similarly con- 
 structed, but were cliiefly confined to 
 the shooting of stones. 
 
 CAT'ARACT, a disease of the eye, 
 consisting in an opacity of the crystal- 
 line lens, or its capsule, or both. It is 
 quite different from amaurosis, which is 
 a disease of the retina. In cataract the 
 lens becomes opaque, and is no longer 
 capable of transmitting the Light. Its 
 earliest approach is marked by a loss of 
 the natural color of the pupil, and when 
 developed it causes the pupil to have a 
 milk-white or pearly color. It is most 
 common in old or elderly people, and 
 is quite painless. Cataract is treated 
 by different surgical operations, all of 
 them consisting in removing the dis- 
 eased lens from its situation opposite 
 the transparent cornea. In couching, 
 the lens is depressed, removed down- 
 ward, and kept from rising by the vitre- 
 ous humor; but this method is now al- 
 most entirely given up in favor of 
 removal of the lens by extraction. Ex- 
 traction consists in making an incision 
 in the cornea, and in the capsule of the 
 lens, by which the lens may be brought 
 forward, and through the cut in the 
 cornea, so as to be altogether removed. 
 The third operation is by absorption. 
 This consists in wounding the capsule. 
 
CATARACT, OR WATERFALL 
 
 CATHARINE DE’ MEDICI 
 
 breaking down the crj’’stalline, and 
 bringing the fragments into the anterior 
 chamber of the eye, where they are 
 exposed to the action of the aqueous 
 humor, and are at length absorbed and 
 disappear. Extraction is now the 
 regular method, and after it is effected 
 a special kind of spectacles are required. 
 
 CAT'ARACT, or WATERFALL, the 
 leap of a stream over a ledge or precipice 
 occurring in its course. Many cataracts 
 are remarkable for their sublimity, the 
 grandest being the Falls of Niagara, on 
 the Niagara River between Lakes Erie 
 and Ontario, in N. America, the river 
 having here a fall of about 160 feet. 
 Among other notable falls are those of 
 the river Montmorency, a tributary of 
 the St. Lawrence, which are 242 feet in 
 height; that of the river Potaro, in 
 British Guiana, about 822 feet high and 
 369 broad; that of the Yosemite River, 
 California, which makes a perpendicular 
 leap of 2100 feet; the Victoria Falls, on 
 the river Zambesi, in south Africa, 
 about 370 feet high and 1860 yards 
 broad. The cataract of the Riukanfoss, 
 on the river Maan, in Norway, is about 
 900 feet high. The cascade of Gavarnie, 
 in the Pyrenees, is reputed the loftiest 
 in Europe, being about 13,000 feet, but 
 its volume is so small that it is converted 
 into spray before reaching the bottom. 
 The fall of the Staubbach at Lauter- 
 brunnen, in Switzerland, is between 
 800 and 900 feet, but has also a very 
 small volume of water; the falls of the 
 Rhine at Schaffhausen, renowned over 
 Europe, are 300 feet broad and nearly 
 100 feet in height. In Italy the falls of 
 Terni, on the Velino, and those of the 
 Anio, at Tivoli, are artificial but very 
 beautiful Among British waterfalls, 
 the falls of the Clyde, three in number, 
 viz., Bonniton Linn, 30 feet, Corra Linn, 
 84 feet, and Stonebyres Linn, 80 feet, 
 are remarkable for their beauty and 
 grandeur. 
 
 CATARRH (ka-tar'), an increased 
 secretion of mucus from the membranes 
 of the nose, fauces, and bronchi, ac- 
 companied with fever and attended with 
 sneezing, cough, thirst, lassitude, and 
 want of appetite. There are two species 
 of catarrh, one which is very common, 
 and is called a cold in the head; and 
 another, the influenza, or epidemic 
 catarrh. It is seldom fatal except in 
 scrofulous habits by laying the founda- 
 tion of consumption. 
 
 CAT-BIRD, a well-known species of 
 American thrush, which during the 
 summer is found throughout the Middle 
 and New England States, frequenting 
 thickets and shrubberies. Its note is 
 strikingly similar to the plaint of a 
 kitten in distress. The plumage is a 
 deep slate-color above and lighter below, 
 and it is about 9 inches in length. In 
 habit it is lively, familiar, and un- 
 suspicious; the song is largely imitative 
 of those of other birds. During the 
 winter it inhabits the extreme south of 
 the U. States, and is found also in 
 Mexico and Central America. The cat- 
 bird frequently attacks the common 
 black snake, which, in the absence of the 
 bird, rifles its nest. 
 
 CAT-BOAT, a sailboat with one large 
 fore-and-aft sail, and generally not 
 
 longer than 25 or 30 feet. Cat-boats are 
 fast sailers and easily managed. 
 
 CATECHISM (kat'e-kizm), an ele- 
 mentary book containing a summary 
 of principles in any science or art, but 
 particularly in religion, reduced to the 
 form of questions and answers. 
 
 CAT'ECHU (-sho), a name common 
 to several astringent extracts prepared 
 from the wood, bark, and fruits of 
 various plants. Catechu is one of the 
 best astringents in the materia medica. 
 It consists chiefly of tannin, and is used 
 in tanning, in calico-printing, etc. It 
 is chiefly obtained from Burmah. 
 
 CATERPILLAR. See Butterfly. 
 
 CAT-FISH, a remarkably voracious 
 fish, belonging to the family of gobies, 
 known also as the wolf-fish; also the 
 name common to several N. American 
 fish. The common cat-fish is known 
 also as the horned pout and bull-head. 
 It is excellent eating. 
 
 CAT'GUT, a cord made from the in- 
 testines of sheep, and sometimes from 
 those of the horse, ass, and mule, but 
 not from those of cats. The manufac- 
 ture is chiefly carried on in Italy and 
 France by a tedious process. Catgut 
 for stringed instruments as violins and 
 harps, is made principally in Milan and 
 Naples, the latter having a high reputa- 
 tion for treble strings. 
 
 CATHARINE I., Empress of Russia 
 and wife of Peter the Great, was a 
 woman of humble origin, who, having 
 become mistress to Prince Menschikoff, 
 was relinquished by him to the czar. 
 In 1708 and 1709 she bore the emperor 
 the Princesses Anna and Elizabeth, the 
 first of whom became the Duchess of 
 Holstein by marriage, and mother of 
 Peter III. The second became Empress 
 of Russia. In 1711 the emperor publicly 
 acknowledged Catharine as his wife, and 
 she was subsequently proclaimed em- 
 press, and crowned in Moscow in 1724. 
 When Peter with his army seemed 
 irreparably lost on the Pruth in 1711 
 Catharine secured the relief of her hus- 
 taand by bribing the Turkish general. 
 At Peter’s death in 1725 Catharine was 
 proclaimed empress and autocrat of all 
 the Russias, and the oath of allegiance 
 to her was taken anew. Catharine died 
 suddenly in 1727, her death having 
 been hastened by dissipation. 
 
 CATHARINE II., Empress of Russia, 
 was born in 1729, her father being 
 Christian Augustus, prince of Anhalt- 
 Zerbst. In 1745 she was married to 
 Peter, nephew and successor of the 
 Russian Empress Elizabeth, on whose 
 death in 1762 her husband succeeded as 
 Peter III. In danger of being sup- 
 planted by his mistress, the Countess 
 Woronzoff, Catharine, with the assist- 
 ance of her lover, Gregory Orloff, and 
 others, won over the guards and was 
 proclaimed monarch (July, 1762). Peter 
 attempted no resistance, abdicated al- 
 most immediately, and was strangled 
 in prison a few days later, apparently 
 without Catharine's knowledge. On 
 the death of Augustus III. of Poland she 
 caused her old lover, Poniatowski, to be 
 placed on the throne with a view to the 
 extension of her influence in Poland, by 
 which she profited in the partition of 
 that country in the successive dismem- 
 berments of 1772, 1793, and 1795. By 
 
 the war with the Turks, which occupied 
 a considerable part of her reign, she 
 conquered the Crimea and opened the 
 Black Sea to the Russian navy. Her 
 dream, however, of driving the Turks 
 from Europe and restoring the Byzan- 
 tine Empire was not to be fulfilled. Her 
 relations with Poland and with other 
 European powers induced her to make 
 peace with Turkey in 1792, and accept 
 the Dniester as the boundary line be- 
 
 Catharine II of Russia. 
 
 tween the two countries. She appears 
 to have been successful in improving 
 the administration of justice, amelio- 
 rated the condition of the serfs, con- 
 structed canals, founded the Russian 
 Academy, and in a variety of ways con- 
 tributed to the enlightenment and pros- 
 perity of the country. Her enthusiasm 
 for reform, however, was summarily 
 checked by the events of the French 
 revolution; and the dissipation and ex- 
 travagance of her court were such that 
 there was even a danger of its ex- 
 hausting the empire. She died in 1796. 
 
 CATHARINE, St., in the Roman 
 hagiology there are six saints of this 
 name, of whom only two are of im- 
 portance: — (1) St. Catharine, a virgin 
 of Alexandria who suffered martyrdom 
 in the 4th century. She is represented 
 with a wheel; and the legend of her 
 marriage with Christ has been painted 
 by several of the first masters. (2) St. 
 Catharine of Siena, born in 1347, who 
 was preternaturally pious from her 
 birth, and at six years of age was given 
 to self-castigation and other penances. 
 Urban VI. and Gregor}" XI. sought her 
 advice, and in 1460 — 80 years after her 
 death — she was canonized. Her poems 
 and letters have been published. 
 
 CATHARINE DE’ MEDICI (da-med'i- 
 che), wife of Henry II., king of France, 
 born at Florence in 1519, the only 
 daughter of Lorenzo de’ Medici, duke 
 of Urbino, and the niece of Pope Clement 
 VII. She was married to the Duke of 
 Orleans, afterward Henry II., in 1533, 
 but had little or no influence at the 
 French court either during the reign of 
 her husband, who was under the influ- 
 ence of his mistress Diana de Poitiers, 
 or during the reign of her eldest son, 
 Francis II., who, in consequence of his 
 marriage with Mary Stuart, was de- 
 voted to the party of the Guises. The 
 death of Francis placed the reins of 
 government during the minority of her 
 son Charles IX., in her hands. Waver- 
 
CATHARINE HOWARD 
 
 CATHOLIC CHURCH 
 
 ing between the Guises on one side, who 
 had put themselves at the head of the 
 Catholics, and Conde and Coligny on the 
 other, who had become very powerful 
 by the aid of the Protestants, she played 
 off one faction against the other in the 
 hope of increasing her own power; and 
 the thirty years of civil war which fol- 
 lowed were mainly due to her. Her 
 influence with Charles IX. was through- 
 out of the worst kind, and the massacre 
 of St. Bartholomew’s Day was largely 
 her work. After the death of Charles 
 IX., in 1574, her third son succeeded as 
 Henry III., and her mischievous in- 
 fluence continued. She died in 1589, 
 shortly before the assassination of Henry 
 III. Of her two daughters, Elizabeth 
 married Philip II. of Spain, and Mar- 
 garet of Valois married Henry of Na- 
 varre, afterward Henry IV. 
 
 CATHARINE HOWARD, Queen of 
 England, fifth wife of Henry VIII., 
 daughter of Lord Edmund Howard, son 
 of the Duke of Norfolk; born 1522. Her 
 beauty and vivacity induced the king 
 to marry her in 1 540, but her conquest 
 appears to have been of a dubious kind 
 both before and after marriage, and she 
 was charged in 1541 with adultery. 
 Her paramours Derham and Culpepper 
 were beheaded, and two months later 
 (Feb., 1542), she shared the same fate. 
 
 CATHARINE OF ARAGON, Queen of 
 England, the youngest daughter of 
 Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of 
 Castile, was born in 1485. In 1501 she 
 was married to Arthur, prince of Wales, 
 son of Henry VII. Her husband dying 
 about five months after, the king, un- 
 willing to return her dowry, caused her 
 to be contracted to his remaining son, 
 Henry, and a dispensation was procured 
 from the pope for that purpose. On 
 his accession to the throne as Henry 
 VIII. in 1509 she was crowned with him, 
 and despite the inequality of their ages 
 retained her ascendency with the king 
 for nearly twenty years. Her children, 
 however, all died in infancy, excepting 
 Mary, and on the advent of Anne Boleyn 
 Henry affected to doubt the legality of 
 his union with Catharine. He applied 
 therefore to Rome for a divorce, but the 
 attitude of the papal court ultimately 
 provoked him to throw off his submission 
 to it, and declare himself head of the 
 English church. In 1532 he married 
 Anne Boleyn ; upon which Catharine, no 
 longer considered queen of England, 
 retired to Ampthill in Bedfordshire. 
 She died in January, 1536. 
 
 CATHARINE OF BRAGANZA, wife 
 of Charles II., king of England, and 
 ^ daughter of John IV., king of Portugal, 
 was born in 1638. In 1693 she returned 
 to Portugal, where, in 1704, she was 
 made regent, and in the conduct of 
 affairs during the war with Spain 
 showed marked ability. She died in 
 1705. 
 
 CATHARINE PARR, sixth and last 
 wife of Henry VIII. of England was 
 born in 1.512, and had had two husbands 
 before she became Henry’s queen in 
 1543. After the death of the king she 
 espoused the Lord-admiral Lord Thomas 
 Seymour, uncle to Edward VI. ; but the 
 union was an unhappy one. She died 
 in 1548. I 
 
 CATHAR'TICS, a general name for 
 
 purgative medicines. 
 
 CATHAY', an old name of China. 
 
 CATHE'DRAL, the principal church 
 of a diocese, so called from its possessing 
 the episcopal chair or cathedra. This 
 is really what distinguishes a cathedral 
 from other churches, though most 
 cathedrals are also larger and more 
 elaborate structures than ordinary 
 churches, and have various dignitaries 
 and functionaries connected with them. 
 The cathedral establishments in Eng- 
 land regularly consist of a dean and 
 chapter, presided over by the bishop, 
 the chapter being composed of a certain 
 number of canons. The dean and chap- 
 ter meet in the chapter-house of the 
 
 Plan of Amiens Cathedral. 
 
 A, Apsidal aisle. BB, Outer aisles of 
 choir. 
 
 FG, Transepts. H, Central tower. 
 
 IJ, Western turrets. 
 
 M, Principal or western doorway. 
 
 NN, Western side doors. 
 
 PQ, North and south aisles of choir. 
 RRR, Chapels. 
 
 TU. North and south aisles of naive. 
 
 cathedral; in them the property of the 
 cathedral is vested, and they nominally 
 elect the bishop on a cong4 d'elire from 
 the crown. There are often a certain 
 number of honorary canons, also “minor 
 canons” who assist in the performance 
 of the choral services, choristers, etc. 
 As regards architecture cathedrals 
 naturally vary much. Those in Eng- 
 land are almost all in the Gothic style, 
 cruciform or cross-shaped in arrange- 
 ment, and having connected with them 
 a chapter-house, side chapels (varying 
 in number and position), cloisters, 
 crypt, etc. This style and arrangement 
 are also common on the continent of 
 Europe and in most modern cathedrals; 
 but the Romanesque, Renaissance, and 
 Byzantine styles of architecture are also 
 employed. Many cathedrals furnish 
 the most magnificent examples of the 
 architecture of the middle ages; and as 
 they were intended to accommodate 
 great numbers of people, and to exhibit 
 imposing religious services, they are 
 
 often of great size (St. Peter’s, Rome, 
 is 613 feet long and 450 across the tran- 
 septs). Among the most notable cathe- 
 drals are St. Peter’s, the largest of all, 
 founded 1450; the cathedral at Milan, 
 founded in 1386, built of white marble; 
 the cathedral at Florence, begun about 
 1294, one of the finest specimens of the 
 Italian-Gothic style; Cologne Cathedral, 
 commenced in 1248 (and only finished 
 recently); Notre Dame at Paris begun 
 1163; and those of Amiens, Chartres, 
 and Rheims. The most noteworthy 
 English cathedrals are St. Paul’s, 
 London (1675-1711), in the Renaissance 
 style, and those of Canterbury, Ely, 
 Exeter, Lichfield, Lincoln, Norwich, 
 Salisbury, Wells, Westminster, and 
 
 Plan of Wells Cathedral. 
 
 A, Apse or apsis. B, Altar, altar-platform, 
 and altar-steps. DE, Eastern or lesser tran- 
 sept. PG, Western or greater transept. H, 
 Central tower. IJ, Western towers. K, North 
 porch. L, Library or register. M. Principal 
 or western doorway. NN, Western side doors. 
 O, Cloister yard or garth. PQ, North and 
 sou th aisles of choir. RS, East and west aisles 
 of transept, TU, North and south aisles of 
 nave. RR, Chapels. V, Rood screen or organ 
 loft. W, Altar of Lady chapel. 
 
 York. The cathedrals of Glasgow and 
 Kirkwall are the only entire cathedrals 
 in Scotland, exclusive of modern edifices. 
 
 CATHERINE. See Catharine. 
 
 CATHERWOOD, Mary Hartwell, an 
 American novelist born in Ohio in 1847, 
 died 1902. Her stories are chiefly con- 
 cerned with the early days of the Middle 
 West. 
 
 CATHETOM'ETER, an instrument for 
 measuring small differences of level be- 
 tween two points; in its simplest form, 
 a vertical graduated rod, upon which 
 slides a horizontal telescope. With the 
 telescope the observer sights the two 
 objects under examination, and the dis- 
 tance on the graduated rod moved over 
 by the telescope is the measure of the 
 distance of height between the two 
 objects. 
 
 CATH'OLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 See Irvingites. 
 
 CATHOLIC CHURCH, the universal 
 church, the whole body of true believers 
 in Christ; but the term is often used as 
 
CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION 
 
 CATTLE 
 
 equivalent to the Roman or Western 
 Church. See Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION, i.e., the 
 abolition of those civil and ecclesiastical 
 restraints to which the Roman Catholics 
 of Great Britain, and particularly of 
 Ireland, were once subjected. By the 
 statutes of William III. Roman Catho- 
 lics were forbidden to hold property in 
 land, and their spiritual instructors 
 were open to the penalties of felony; 
 and although latterly these restrictions 
 had not been enforced, they lemained 
 unrepealed in England until 1778. The 
 proposal to repeal similar enactments 
 on the Scotch statute-books was de- 
 layed by the strenuous opposition of the 
 Protestant associations, in connection 
 with which the Lord Gordon riots 
 occurred. In 1791, however, a bill was 
 passed allowing Roman Catholics who 
 took the oath of allegiance to hold 
 landed property, enter the legal pro- 
 fession, and enjoy freedom of education. 
 In Ireland the Roman Catholics had 
 been even more unjustly treated. Their 
 public worship was proscribed, all 
 offices and the learned professions were 
 closed against them, they were deprived 
 of the guardianship of their children, 
 and if they had landed estates they were 
 forbidden to marry Protestants. Burke 
 and a strong body of followers took up 
 their cause, and in 1792 and 1793 the 
 Wf'rst of the disabilities were removed 
 by the Irish parliament. Restraints on 
 worship, education, and disposition of 
 property were removed; they were ad- 
 mitted to the franchise, and to some of 
 the higher civil and military offices, and 
 to the honors and endowments of the 
 Dublin University. 
 
 CATHOLIC KNIGHTS OF AMERICA, 
 a Roman Catholic fraternal order 
 founded in 1877. It is the pioneer of the 
 Roman Catholic assessment insurance 
 organizations, and the only one which 
 admits women to membership on the 
 same footing as men. There are now 
 600 branches in the order, with a total 
 membership of about 25,000; it also has 
 a uniform rank, with a membership of 
 2000. It has paid about !fl5,500,000 
 to the beneficiaries of its deceased 
 members. 
 
 CATHOLIC MAJESTY, a title which 
 Fope Alexander VI. gave to the kings of 
 Spain, in memory of the complete ex- 
 ulsion of the Moors from Spain in 1491 
 y Ferdinand of Aragon. But even 
 before that time, and especially after 
 the council at Toledo in 589, several 
 Spanish kings are said to have borne 
 this title. 
 
 CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMER- 
 ICA, founded at Washington, D. C., in 
 1887, and was opened in 1889. The fac- 
 ulties at present organized are those of 
 theology, philosophy, law, and tech- 
 nology. Its library contains approxi- 
 mately 32,000 volumes, exclusive of 
 pamphlets. 
 
 CATHCLIC YOUNG MEN’S NATION- 
 AL UNION, a society of young men 
 among Roman Catholics, organized at 
 Newark, N. J., in 1875. It has over 
 50,000 members, distributed in more 
 than 300 societies. 
 
 CATILINE (Lucius Sergius Catillna), 
 a Roman conspirator, of patrician rank, 
 born about 108 e.c. In his youth he 
 
 attached himself to the party of Sulla, 
 but his physical strength, passionate 
 nature, and unscrupulous daring soon 
 gained him an independent reputation. 
 Despite the charges of having killed his 
 brother-in-law and murdered his wife 
 and son, he was elected prsetor in b.c. 
 68, and governor of Africa in 67. In 
 B.c. 66 he returned to Rome to contest 
 the consulship, but was disqualified by 
 an impeachment for maladministration 
 in his province. Urged on by his neces- 
 sities as well as his ambition, he entered 
 into a conspiracy with other disaffected 
 nobles. The plot, however, was re- 
 vealed to Cicero, and measures were at 
 once taken to defeat it. Thwarted by 
 Cicero at every turn, and driven from 
 the senate by the orator’s bold denun- 
 ciations, Catiline fled, and put himself at 
 the head of a large but ill-armed follow- 
 ing. The news of the suppression of the 
 conspiracy and execution of the ring- 
 leaders at Rome diminished his forces, 
 and he led the rest toward Gaul. 
 Metellus Celer threw himself between 
 the rebels and their goal, while Antonius 
 pressed upon their rear, and, driven to 
 bay, Catiline turned upon the pursuing 
 army and perished fighting (62 B.c.). 
 
 GATLIN, George, a writer on the 
 American Indians, born in Pennsylvania 
 1796, died 1872. After practising as a 
 lawyer for two years he set up at New 
 York as a portrait-painter, and in 1832 
 commenced special studies of Indian 
 types, residing many years among them 
 both in N. and S. America. In 1840 he 
 went to Europe, and subsequently in- 
 troduced three parties of American 
 Indians to European courts. His finely 
 illustrated works are: Manners, Cus- 
 toms, and Condition of the N. American 
 Indians (1841); North American Port- 
 folio (1844); Eight Years’ Travel in 
 Europe (1848); Last Rambles Among 
 the Indians, etc. (1868). 
 
 CATMINT, or CATNIP, a plant of the 
 natural order Labiatoe, not uncommon 
 in England, scarce in Scotland and Ire- 
 land, and widely diffused throughout 
 Europsi N. America, etc. It grows 
 erect to a height of 2 or 3 feet, has 
 whorls oU* rose-tinged, whitish flowers, 
 and stalked, downy, heart-shaped leaves. 
 It has much the same fascination for 
 cats as valerian root. 
 
 CATO, Marcus Porcius, the Censor, 
 a celebrated Roman, born 234 b.c. at 
 Tusculum. He served his first cam- 
 paign, at the age of seventeen, under 
 Fabius Maximus, was present at the 
 siege of Capua in 214 b.c. ; and five years 
 after fought under the same commander 
 at the siege of Tarentum. He rose 
 rapidly, accompanied Scipio to Sicily 
 as quaestor in b.c. 204, became an sedile 
 in 199, and in 198 was chosen praetor, 
 and appointed to the province of Sar- 
 dinia. Three years later he gained the 
 consulship, and in 194 for his brilliant 
 campaign in Spain obtained the honor 
 of a triumph. His election to the cen- 
 sorship in 184 set an official seal to his 
 efforts, the unsparing severity of which 
 has made his name proverbial. From 
 that year until his death, in 149, he held 
 no public office, though zealously con- 
 tinuing his unofficial labors for the state. 
 His hostility to Carthage, the destruc- 
 tion of which he advocated in every 
 
 speech made by him in the forum, was 
 the most striking feature of his closing 
 years. His incessant “Delenda est 
 Carthago” (Carthage must be destroyed) 
 did much to further the third Punic war. 
 
 CATO, Marcus Porcius (called Cato 
 of Utica, the place of his death, to dis- 
 tinguish him from the Censor, his great- 
 grandfather), a distinguished Roman, 
 born 95 b.c. He formed an intimacy 
 with the Stoic Antipater of Tyre, and 
 ever remained true to the principles of 
 the Stoic philosophy. He distinguished 
 himself as a volunteer in the war against 
 Spartacus, served as military tribune 
 in Macedonia in b.c. 67, was made 
 quaestor in b.c. 65. His rigorous re- 
 forms won him general respect, and in 
 b.c. 63 he was chosen tribune of the 
 people. On the breach between Pom- 
 pey and Caesar he threw in his lot with 
 Pompey, and guarded the stores at 
 Dyrrhachium, while Pompey pushed 
 on to Pharsalia. After receiving news 
 of Pompey’ s defeat he sailed to Cyrene 
 and effected a junction with Metellus 
 Scipio at Utica, in b.c. 47. He took 
 command of that city, but its defense 
 appearing hopeless after the defeat of 
 Scipio at Thapsus, he determined on 
 suicide, and after spending some time 
 in the perusal of the Phaedo of Plato, 
 stabbed himself with his sword. His 
 wounds were bound up by his attend- 
 ants, but he tore off the bandages and 
 died. b.c. 46. 
 
 CAT'S-EYE, a mineral, a variety of 
 quartz, very hard and semi-transparent, 
 and from certain points exhibiting a 
 yellow opalescent radiation or chatoyant 
 appearance, somewhat resembling a 
 cat’s eye. 
 
 CATSKILL MOUNTAINS, a fine range 
 of mountains in New York state. They 
 lie on the w. side of and nearly parallel 
 to the Hudson, from which their base is, 
 at the nearest point, 8 miles distant. 
 The two most elevated peaks are Round 
 Top and High Peak; the former 3804 
 feet, the latter 3718 feet high. 
 
 CATTLE, a term applied in the U. 
 States to horned animals, horses, and 
 sheep, and to almost all domestic 
 mammals. Specifically, however, the 
 
 Shortaom. 
 
 term applies to bovine animals used for 
 purposes of food. The principal breeds 
 of beef cattle in Great Britain and the 
 U. States are the Shorthorn, Hereford, 
 Galloway, Devon, and Aberdeen- Angus. 
 These breeds all originated in Great 
 Britain, and for the most part took their 
 names from the county or district 
 whence the came. Alvord says: “The 
 cattle which have been most famous as 
 a breed in England and America, which 
 have received the longest and closest 
 
CATTLE PLAGUE 
 
 CAUSTIC 
 
 attention of breeders and improvers, 
 which have commanded prices, singly 
 and in herds, far above all others, and 
 which have made the greatest impres- 
 sion upon the live stock of both coun- 
 tries during the 19th century, are the 
 Shorthorns or Durhams.” The name 
 
 Hereford. 
 
 Shorthorns was probably given to dis- 
 tinguish them from the rival race of 
 Blackwell’s Longhorns, which they soon 
 surpassed. They are red and white 
 cattle, the colors being variously blended 
 and often roan, rectangular in outline 
 and having horns of moderate length. 
 They are notable for early maturity, 
 beauty of form, quick fattening qualities 
 and minimum amount of waste in 
 slaughtering. Although unsurpassed 
 as beef cattle, many of the cows are 
 good milkers, the best of any of the 
 strictly beef breeds. The Herefords, 
 originated in the county of Hereford, 
 may be described as red with white on 
 face, chest, belly, feet, and over the tops 
 of tne shoulders. They are close rivals 
 or the equals of Shorthorns as beef 
 cattle. The breeds of dairy cattle most 
 common in the U. States and England 
 at the present time are Ayrshire, Hol- 
 stein, Guernsey, Jersey, Red Poll, and 
 Shorthorns. The Jersey and Guernsey 
 breeds were both originated in the 
 Channel Islands. 
 
 Guernseys are rather larger than the 
 Jerseys, stronger boned, and are claimed 
 to be hardier. They are light in color, 
 with darker shades approaching brown. 
 
 Jersey. 
 
 and have a yellow skin. The milk of 
 both breeds is unusually rich in fat, the 
 fat-globules being large and separating 
 readily in creaming. The Guernseys 
 are liberal milkers. The average cow 
 is expected to produce 5000 pounds 
 of milk and 300 pounds of butter a 
 year without high feeding. There 
 are records of several herds which have 
 averaged over 6000 pounds of milk and 
 350 pounds of butter a year. Individual 
 cows have produced 10,000, and nearly 
 13,000 pounds, of milk, and 500 to 700 
 pounds of butter a year. The Jerseys 
 are the smallest of the better dairy 
 
 P-E.— 16 ' ^ 
 
 breeds, though in the TJ. States they 
 have been considerably increased in size. 
 Good herds produce from 3500 to 4500 
 pounds of milk a year, and several herd 
 records show averages of 6000 and 7000 
 pounds per cow. Single cows produce 
 1000, 1200 pounds of butter, and even 
 more. There are. numerous records of 
 25 to 30 pounds of butter a week, and 
 individual records run all the way from 
 600 to 800, and even 1000 pounds of 
 butter in a year. The Holsteins, or 
 Holstein-Friesians, of north Holland 
 and Friesland, are black and white, 
 irregularly marked, but not mixed, 
 large in frame, strong, and usually in 
 good flesh. It is not unusual for a cow 
 to give more than her own weight in 
 milk every month for ten or twelve 
 
 Holstein. 
 
 consecutive months, and there are 
 numerous instances of yields of 100 
 pounds or more a day, and 20,000 to 
 30,000 pounds a year, although 40 to 60 
 pounds a day, or 7500 to 8000 pounds a 
 year, is considered an average. 
 
 CATTLE PLAGUE, or MURRAIN, a 
 fever which attacks cattle and sheep 
 and which is almost always fatal. It 
 does not occur in the U. States, Texas 
 fever, with which it is sometimes con- 
 fused, being a totally different disease. 
 The disease lasts from 5 to 7 days. 
 Murrain is very ancient and has been 
 described by Roman writers. 
 
 CATUL'LUS, Caius (or Quintus) Val- 
 erius, a famous Roman lyric poet, born 
 probably b.c. 94, at Verona, died prob- 
 ably about B.c. 54. Almost all the 
 known details of his life are derived by 
 inference from his works, and relate to 
 such matters as his passion for Lesbia, 
 his journey to Bithynia, and voyage 
 home in his yacht, his pleasant villa on 
 Lake Benacus, etc. He was the first of 
 the Romans who successfully caught 
 the Greek lyric spirit, and gave to the 
 Roman literature its most genuine songs. 
 
 CAUCA (kou'ka), a S. American river 
 in Colombia, an important tributary of 
 the Magdalena; length 600-700 miles. 
 It gives its name to a department or 
 state of Colombia ; area, 52,000 sq. milesj 
 pop. 450,000. 
 
 CAUCASIAN RACE, a term intro- 
 duced into ethnology by Blumenbach, 
 in whose classification of mankind it 
 was applied to one of the five great races 
 into which all the different nations of the 
 world were divided. Blumenbach 
 believed this to be the original race 
 from wliich the others were derived, 
 and he gave it the epithet of Caucasian 
 because he believed that its most typical 
 form — which was also that of man in 
 his highest physical perfection — was to 
 be met with among the mountaineers of 
 the Caucasus. In later classifications 
 
 this "race” is usually divided into Aryan 
 or Indo-European, and Semitic. Most 
 of the tribes inhabiting the Caucasus 
 belong to the Turanian class. 
 
 CAtJ'CASUS, a chain of mountains 
 which gives name to a lieutenancy under 
 Russian government lying to the south- 
 east of Russia Proper, between the 
 Black Sea and the Caspian. The total 
 area of the lieutenancy (including the 
 district of Armenia, acquired in 1878) 
 is 179,527 sq. miles, and the pop. about 
 5,900,000. The Causasus chain of moun- 
 tains traverses the lieutenancy from 
 northwest to southeast through a length 
 of 700 miles. It does not form a single 
 chain, but is divided, at least for part of 
 its length, into two, three, or even four 
 chains, which sometimes run parallel to 
 one another, and sometimes meet and 
 form mountain ganglions. The heights 
 of the chief summits are Elbruz, 18,572 
 feet; Koshtan-tau, 17,123; Dych-tau, 
 16,928; Kasbek, 16,546. 
 
 CAU'CUS, a term, for a private meet- 
 ing of citizens to agree upon candidates 
 to be proposed for election to offices or 
 to concert measures for supporting a 
 party. 
 
 CAUL, a popular name for a mem- 
 brane investing the viscera, such as the 
 peritoneum or part of it, or the pericard- 
 ium; also a portion of the amnion or 
 membrane enveloping the fetus, some- 
 times encompassing the head of a child 
 when born. This caul was supposed to 
 predict great prosperity to the person 
 born with it, and to be an infallible 
 preservative against drowning, as well 
 as to convey the gift of eloquence. 
 
 CAU'LIFLOWER, a garden variety of 
 cabbage, in which cultivation has caused 
 the inflorescence to assume when young 
 the form of a compact fleshy head, 
 which is highly esteemed as a table 
 vegetable. 
 
 CAULKING (kak'ing), of a sliip, 
 driving a quantity of oakum into the 
 seams of the planks in the ship’s decks 
 or sides in order to prevent the entrance 
 of water. After the oakum is driven 
 very hard into these seams it is covered 
 with hot melted pitch to keep the water 
 from rotting it. 
 
 CAUSALITY, a term of metaphysics 
 which designates in general the idea 
 of cause. See Cause. 
 
 CAUSE, that which produces an 
 effect; that from which anything pro- 
 ceeds and without which it would not 
 exist. In the system of Aristotle the 
 word rendered by cause and its equiva- 
 lents in modern language has a more 
 extensive signification. He divides 
 causes into four kinds; efficient, formal, 
 material, and final. The efficient or 
 first cause is the force or agency by 
 wliich a result is produced; the formal, 
 the means or instrument by which it is 
 produced; the material, the substance 
 from which it is produced; the final, 
 the purpose or end for wliich it is pro- 
 duced. In a general sense the term is 
 used for the reason or motive that urges, 
 moves, or impels the mind to act or 
 decide. 
 
 CAUSTIC, a name given to substances 
 which have the property of burning, 
 corroding, or disintegrating animal 
 matter; or of combining with the prin- 
 ciples of organized subsitances and 
 
CAUSTIC 
 
 CAVOUR 
 
 destroying their texture. — Lunar Caus- 
 tic, a name given to nitrate of silver when 
 cast into sticks for the use of surgeons, 
 etc. — Caustic potash, the hydrate of 
 potassium. — Caustic soda, protoxide of 
 sodium. 
 
 CAUSTIC, in optics, the name given 
 to the curve to which the rays of light, 
 reflected or refracted by another curve, 
 are tangents. 
 
 CAU'TERY, in surgery the searing or 
 burning of living flesh by a hot iron 
 (actual cautery) or a caustic substance 
 (potential cautery). 
 
 CAUTION, a legal term signifying 
 much the same as guarantee or security, 
 now mostly used in Scots law. 
 
 CAVAIGNAC (ka-van-yak), Louis 
 Eugene, French general, born 1802, 
 died 1857. Cavaignac in 1824 joined 
 the 2d Regiment of Engineers, and 
 being at Arras on the outbreak of the 
 revolution of 1830 he was the first 
 officer in his regiment to declare for the 
 new order of things. In 1832 he was 
 sent to Africa, where he remained for 
 several years, and greatly distinguished 
 himself. When the revolution of 1848 
 broke out Cavaignac was appointed 
 governor-general of Algeria; but on 
 being elected a member of the Con- 
 stituent Assembly he returned to Paris 
 and was appointed minister of war. 
 At the outbreak of the June insurrection 
 Cavaignac was appointed dictator with 
 unlimited powers. Fo'’ three days Paris 
 presented a dreadful scene of tumult 
 and bloodshed. About 15,000 persons 
 perished, and property was destroyed 
 to the value of upward of $1,000,000. 
 By the energy of Cavaignac, aided by 
 the loyalty of the army and the National 
 Guard, the insurrection was suppressed, 
 and France saved from a threatened 
 dissolution of all the bonds of society. 
 Toward the close of the year he became 
 a candidate for the presidency of the 
 republic, but was defeated, and Louis 
 Napoleon was preferred to the office. 
 On 20th December he resigned his dic- 
 tatorship. After the coup d’etat of 2d 
 December, 1851, he was arrested and 
 conveyed to the fortress of Ham, but 
 was liberated after about a month’s 
 detention. In 1852 and in 1857 he was 
 elected member for Paris of the legis- 
 lative body, but on both occasions was 
 incapacitated from taking his seat by 
 refusing to take the oath of allegiance 
 to the emperor. 
 
 CAVALIER (ka-va-ler'), a horseman, 
 especially an armed horseman; applied 
 in history to the partisans of Charles L, 
 as opposed to Roundheads, the ad- 
 herents to the parliament. 
 
 CAV'ALRY, a body of troops which 
 serve on horseback, one of the three 
 great classes of troops, and a formidable 
 power in the hands of a leader who 
 knows how to employ it with effect. 
 Its adaptation to speedy movements is a 
 great advantage, which enables a com- 
 mander to avail himself immediately 
 of a decisive moment, when the enemy 
 exposes a weak point, or when disorder 
 appears in his ranks. It is a very im- 
 portant instrument in completing the 
 defeat of an enemy, in disconcerting him 
 by a sudden attack, or overthrowing 
 him by a powerful shock. It is very 
 serviceable in protecting the wings and 
 
 center of an army, for escorts, for 
 blockading, for intercepting the supplies, 
 of the enemy, for procuring intelli- 
 gence, for covering a retreat, for forag- 
 ing, etc. 
 
 CAVALRY AND LIGHT ARTILLERY 
 SCHOOL, a school for officers of the 
 cavalry and light artillery arms of the 
 United States Army. The curriculum 
 of the school includes all that pertains 
 to the art and science of war, so far as 
 regards the cavalry and artillery. Im- 
 provements in equipment and tactics, 
 or the application of new principles 
 affecting either branch of the service, 
 are here tested, reported upon, and 
 formulated to the army at large. The 
 school is located at Fort Riley, Kan., 
 and is governed by special regulations 
 of the War Department. 
 
 CAV'AN, an inland Irish county in 
 Ulster; area, 477,399 acres, of which 
 three-fourths are arable. Pop. 97,368. 
 
 CAVE, or CAVERN, an opening of 
 some size in the solid ci'ust of the earth 
 beneath the surface. Caves are prin- 
 cipally met with in limestone rocks, 
 sometimes in sandstone and in volcanic 
 rocks. Some of them have a very grand 
 or picturesque appearance, such as 
 Fingal’s Cave in Staffa; others, such as 
 the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, which 
 incloses an extent of about 40 miles of 
 subterranean windings, are celebrated 
 for their great size and subterranean 
 waters. Caves in which the bones of 
 extinct animals are found owe their 
 origin, for the most part, to the ac- 
 tion of rain-water on limestone rocks. 
 The deposit contained in them us- 
 ually consists of clay, sand, and gravel 
 combined. In this are embedded the 
 animal remains, and stones either angu- 
 lar or rounded. Some of the remains 
 found in European caverns belong to 
 animals now found only in the tropical 
 or subtropical regions, and others are 
 the remains of animals now living in 
 more northerly areas; others, again, are 
 the relics of extinct animals. Among 
 the latter class of animals are the cave 
 bear and lion, the mammoth and masto- 
 don, species of rhinoceros, etc. Of 
 others that have only migrated may be 
 mentioned the reindeer, which is no 
 longer found in Southern Europe; and 
 the hyena, found in the Gibraltar 
 caves, which now lives in south Africa. 
 The ibex, the chamois, and a species of 
 ground squirrel, are shown to have once 
 lived in the Dordogne, but are now 
 found only on the heights of the Alps 
 and Pyrenees. Thus it is evident that 
 the geographical conditions of the 
 country must have been very different 
 from what they are now. Man’s rela- 
 tion to these extinct animals, and his 
 existence at the time these changes took 
 place, are demonstrated by such dis- 
 coveries as those of human bones and 
 worked flints beneath layers of hyena 
 droppings. 
 
 CA'VEAT, in law, a process in a court 
 to stop proceedings, as to prevent the 
 enrolment of a decree in chancery in 
 order to gain time to present a petition 
 of appeal to the lord-chancellor. In 
 the U. States this name is given to a 
 notice lodged in the patent-office by a 
 person who wishes to patent an inven- 
 tion, but desires to be protected till he 
 
 has perfected it. It stands good for a 
 year. 
 
 CAVE-MEN, prehistoric races who 
 lived in caves. 'That they were at a low 
 state of civilization, though possessed 
 of some artistic faculty, is evidenced 
 by the fact that they were ignorant of 
 the metals, of pottery, and of agricul- 
 ture, and had no domestic animals. 
 Their chief food seems to have been the 
 reindeer, and their manner of life was 
 probably somewhat similar to that of the 
 Eskimos. 
 
 CAVENDISH, or CANDISH, Thomas, 
 an English circumnavigator in the reign 
 of Elizabeth; born about 1555, died 
 1592. Having collected three small 
 vessels for the purpose of making a pred- 
 
 Thomas Cavendish. 
 
 atory voyage to the Spanish colonies, 
 he sailed from Plymouth in 1586, took 
 and destroyed many vessels, ravaged 
 the coasts of Chili, Peru, and New Spain, 
 and returned by the Cape of Good Hope, 
 having circumnavigated the globe in 
 two years and forty-nine days, the 
 shortest period in which it had then been 
 effected. In 1591 he set sail on a similar 
 expedition, during which he died. 
 
 CAVIARE (kav'i-ar), the roes of cer- 
 tain large fish prepared and salted, 
 "rhe best is made from the roes of the 
 sterlet and sturgeon, caught in the lakes 
 or rivers of Russia. 
 
 CAVTD.ffi, the guinea-pig tribe. See 
 Cavy. 
 
 CAVITE (ka-ve'ta), a town in the 
 island of Luzon, one of the Philippines; 
 situated on the Bay of Manilla, about 1 1 
 miles s. w. of lilanilla. It gives name to 
 a province with a pop. of 57,000. Pop. 
 of town about 7000. 
 
 CAVOUR (ka-v6r'), Count Camillo 
 Benso di, a distinguished Italian states- 
 man, was born at Turin in 1809 or 1810, 
 died 1861. He became a member of the 
 Sardinian Chamber of Deputies in 1849, 
 and the following year minister of com- 
 merce and agricullture. In 1852 he be- 
 came premier, and not long afterward 
 took an active part in cementing an 
 alliance with Great Britain and France, 
 and making common cause with these 
 powers against Russia, during the 
 Crimean War. The attitude, however, 
 thus taken by Sardinia could not fail to 
 prove offensive to Austria. A collision, 
 therefore, was inevitable, resulting in 
 the campaign of 1859. The intimate 
 connection formed at that time with 
 France, who lent her powerful assistance 
 in the prosecution of the war, waa 
 
CAVY 
 
 CECILIA 
 
 mainly due to the agency of Cavour, 
 who was accused by some on this 
 occasion of having purchased the assist- 
 ance of Napoleon III. by unduly coun- 
 tenancing his ambitious projects. In 
 1860 Garibaldi’s expedition to Sicily 
 
 Count Cavour. 
 
 took place; but toward this and the 
 subsequent movements of the Italian 
 liberator Count Cavour was forced to 
 maintain an apparent coldness. He 
 lived to see the meeting of the first 
 Italian parliament, which decreed Victor 
 Emmanuel king of Italy. 
 
 CA'VY, the popular name for a genus 
 of rodent animals, family Cavidae, char- 
 acterized by molars without roots, fore- 
 feet with five toes, hinder with three, 
 and the absence of a tail and clavicles. 
 They are natives of tropical America, 
 the most familiar example of this genus 
 being the guinea-pig. 
 
 CAWNPORE', a town, India, United 
 Provinces, on the right bank of the 
 Ganges, which is here about a mile wide, 
 130 miles n.w. from Allahabad, 628 
 miles n.w. of Calcutta, and 266 miles 
 s.e. of Delhi. Pop. 197,170. 
 
 In 1857 the native regiments stationed 
 here mutinied and marched off, placing 
 
 themselves under the command of the 
 Rajah of Bithoor, the notorious Nana 
 Sahib. General Wheeler, the com- 
 mander of the European forces, de- 
 fended his position for some days, was at 
 length iiiduced to surrender to the rebels 
 on condition of his party being allowed 
 to quit the place uninjured. This was 
 
 agreed to ; but after the European 
 troops had embarked in boats on the 
 Ganges, they were treacherously fired 
 on by the rebels; many were killed, and 
 the remainder conveyed back to the 
 city, where the men were massacred 
 and the women and children placed in 
 confinement. The approach of General 
 Havelock to Cawnpore roused the brutal 
 instincts of the Nana, and he ordered 
 his hapless prisoners to be slaughtered, 
 and their bodies to be thrown into a well. 
 The following day he was obliged, by 
 the victorious progress of Havelock, to 
 retreat to Bithoor. 
 
 CAXAMARCA, or CAJAMARCA (ka- 
 /ia-mar'kii), a department and town, 
 Peru; area of the department about 
 14,200 sq. miles; pop. 442,412. The 
 town is situated about 70 miles from 
 the Pacific Ocean, 280 n. Lima. Pop. 
 18,400. 
 
 CAXTON, William, the introducer of 
 the art of printing into Britain, was born 
 in the Weald of Kent about 1422, died 
 at Westminster 1491. He had trans- 
 lated the popular mediaeval romance 
 Le Recueil des Histoires de Troye 
 (Collection of the Histories of Troy), 
 and in order to multiply copies he 
 learned the newly-discovered art of 
 printing. It was printed either at 
 Cologne or Bruges about 1474, and is the 
 earliest specimen of typography in the 
 English language. The Game and Playe 
 of the Chesse, Bruges, 1475, is the second 
 English book printed. In 1476 he 
 returned to England, and in 1477 
 printed at Westminster The Dictes and 
 Sayings of the Philosophers, the first 
 book printed in England. In fourteen 
 years he printed nearly 80 separate 
 books, nearly all of folio size, some of 
 which passed through two editions, and a 
 few through three. He was buried in the 
 church of St. Margaret’s, Westminster. 
 
 CAYENNE PEPPER, or CAPSICUM, 
 the name given to the powder formed 
 
 of the dried and ground fruits, and more 
 especially the seeds, of various species 
 of Capsicum. It is used as a condiment 
 to improve the flavor of food, aid diges- 
 tion, and prevent flatulence. In medi- 
 cine it is used as a stimulent, and is a 
 valuable gargle for a relaxed throat. 
 See Capsicum. 
 
 CAYMAN. See Caiman. 
 
 CAYVAN, Georgia, an American 
 actress born at Bath, Me., in 1858. She 
 made her debut as Hebe in Pinafore at 
 Boston in 1879. In 1880 her first 
 success as an actress wa.s made in Hazel 
 Kirke, and until her retirement in 1897 
 she played in various society plays and 
 melodramas. 
 
 CEARA (sa-a-ra'), a state on the 
 northern coast of Brazil; area, 50,247 
 sq. miles. Pop. of state, 805,687; of 
 town Ceara, 40,902. 
 
 CEBU (tha-bo'), one of the Philippine 
 Islands, lying between Luzon and Slin- 
 danao, 135 miles long, with an extreme 
 width of 30 miles. Sugar cultivation 
 and the manufacture of abaca are the 
 chief industries. Pop. 320,000. The 
 town of Cebu, on the eastern coast of the 
 island, the oldest Spanish settlement on 
 the Philippines, is a place of considerable 
 trade, and has a cathedral and several 
 churches 
 
 CECIL (ses'il), Robert, Earl of Salis- 
 bury, English statesman, second son of 
 William Cecil, Lord Burleigh, born 
 
 about 1563. On the death of Sir Francis 
 Walsingham he succeeded him as prin- 
 cipal secretary, and continued to be a 
 confidential minister of Queen Eliza- 
 beth to the end of her reign. In 1608 
 Lord Salisbury was made lord high- 
 treasurer, an office which he held till his 
 death in 1612. — William, Lord Burleigh, 
 eminent English statesman, was the son 
 of Richard Cecil, master of the robes 
 to Henry VIII., and was born at Bourne, 
 in Lincolnshire, in 1520, died 1598. 
 He held no public office during the 
 reign of Mary, and by extraordinary 
 caution managed to escape persecution. 
 On the accession of Elizabeth he was 
 appointed privy-councillor and secre- 
 tary of state, and during all the rest of 
 his life he was at the helm of affairs. 
 On the suppression of the northern 
 rebellion in 1571 Elizabeth raised him 
 to the peerage by the title of Baron 
 Burleigh. Much of the glory of the 
 reign of Elizabeth is due to the counsels 
 and measures of Cecil. His character 
 in private life was very attractive. 
 
 CECILTA, Saint, the patron saint of 
 music, who has been falsely regarded as 
 the inventress of the organ, and who is 
 said to have suffered martyrdom a..d. 
 230, although other dates are given. 
 In the Roman Catholic Church her 
 festival (Nov. 22) is made the occasion 
 of splendid music. Her story forms one 
 of Chaucer’s Canterbury ^ Tales, and 
 
CEDAR 
 
 CELLULOID 
 
 Dryden in his Alexander’s Feast, and 
 Pope in his Ode on St. Cecilia’s Day, 
 have sung her praises. Raphael, Domeni- 
 chino, Dolce, and Mignard, have rep- 
 resented her in celebrated paintings. 
 
 CE'DAR, a tree which forms fine 
 woods on the mountains of Syria and 
 Asia Minor. It is an evergreen, grows 
 to a great size, and is remarkable for 
 its durability. Of the famous cedars of 
 
 Cedar of Lebanon. 
 
 Lebanon comparatively few now remain, 
 and the tree does not grow in any other 
 part of Palestine. The most celebrated 
 group is situated not far from the village 
 of Tripoli, at an elevation of about 6000 
 feet above the sea. The circumference 
 of the twelve largest trees here varies 
 from about 18 to 47 feet. Cedar timber 
 was formerly much prized, but in mod- 
 ern times is not regarded as of much 
 value, perhaps from the trees not being 
 of sufficient age. The name is given 
 also to the deodar wliich is indeed re- 
 garded by many botanists as a mere 
 variety of the cedar of Lebanon, and 
 which produces excellent timber. It 
 is a native of India, and is a large and 
 handsome tree, growing in the Hima- 
 layas to the height of 150 feet, with a 
 circumference of 30. It has wide- 
 spreading branches, whfth droop a little 
 at the extremities. The leaves are 
 tufted or solitary, larger than those of 
 the cedar of Lebanon and very numer- 
 ous, of a dark-bluish green, and covered 
 with a glaucous bloom. The cones are 
 rather larger than those of the Lebanon 
 cedar, and very resinous. The wood is 
 well adapted for building purposes, 
 being compact and very enduring. 
 
 CEDAR RAPIDS, a flourishing town 
 in Iowa, on Red Cedar River, with large 
 railway machine-shops and numerous 
 industrial establishments. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 CEILING, the inner covering of a 
 room, apartment, hall, or other en- 
 closure. Ceilings may be decorated in 
 various ways, by paintings, sculpture 
 in bas relief, stucco, or by those curved 
 lines called in the Pompeiian style. 
 Ceilings, especially of domes, or dome- 
 like structures may be made in glass. 
 Famous ceilings are those of numerous 
 churches in Europe, as St. Mark’s in 
 Venice, and the Byzantine churches of 
 Constantinople. 
 
 CELEBES (seTe-bez), one of the larger 
 islands of the Indian Archipelago, be- 
 tween Borneo on the w. and the Moluc- 
 
 cas on the e. Gold is found in all the 
 valleys of the north peninsula, which 
 abounds in sulphur. Copper occurs at 
 various points, and in Macassar tin also. 
 Diamonds and other precious stones are 
 found. The maritime districts are in- 
 habited by Malays; the Peninsula of 
 Macassar is occupied by Bugis and 
 Macassars. Mandhars dwell in the w. 
 of the island, and , the mountainous 
 regions in the interior, especially in the 
 n., are inhabited by Alfoories. The 
 inhabitants may be classed into two 
 groups; the Mohammedan semi-civilized 
 tribes, and the pagans, who are more or 
 less savages. The capital is Macassar, in 
 the s.w. of the island. Pop. estimated 
 at 1,000,000. 
 
 CEL'ERY, an umbelliferous plant. 
 There are two varieties in cultivation, 
 viz. red and white stalked, and of these 
 many sub-varieties. Celery is commonly 
 blanched by heaping up the soil about 
 the plants. 
 
 CELTBACY, the state of being celibate 
 or unmarried; specially applied to the 
 voluntary life of abstinence from mar- 
 riage followed by many religious de- 
 votees and by some orders of clergy, as 
 those of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 The ancient Egyptian priests preserved 
 a rigid chastity; the priestesses of 
 ancient Greece and Rome were pledged 
 to perpetual virginity; and celibacy is 
 the rule with the Buddhist priests of the 
 East. Among Christians the earliest 
 aspirants to the spiritual perfection 
 supposed to be attainable through celib- 
 acy were not ecclesiastics as such, but 
 hermits and anchorites who aimed at 
 superior sanctity. During the first three 
 centuries the marriage of the clergy was 
 freely permitted, but by the Council of 
 Elvira (305) continence was enjoined 
 on all who served at the altar. For 
 centuries this subject led to many 
 struggles in the church, but was finally 
 settled by Gregory VII. positively for- 
 bidding the marriage of the clergy. 
 The Council of Trent (1593) confirmed 
 this rule. In the Greek Church celibacy 
 is not compulsory on the ordinary 
 clergy. Protestants hold that there is no 
 moral superiority in celibacy over mar- 
 riage, and that the church has no right 
 to impose such an obligation on any 
 class of her ministers. 
 
 CELL, a term of various applications. 
 (1) Ecclesiastically it was sometimes 
 applied to a lesser or subordinate re- 
 ligious house, dependent upon a greater. 
 The apartments or private dormitories 
 
 Cells of round or oval form, 
 a, Border of the cell or cell-wall; 6, cell sub- 
 stance; cc, nuclei; dd. nucleoli. 
 
 of monks and nuns are also called cells. 
 The term cell is applied also to the part 
 of the interior of a temple where the 
 image of a god stood. (2) In electricity 
 the term is appUed to a single jar, bath, 
 or division of a compound vessel, con- 
 taining a couple of plates, generally 
 
 copper and zinc, united to their op- 
 posites or to each other, usually by a 
 wire. (3) In biol. a cell is a micro- 
 scopically small semi-fluid portion of 
 matter, consisting of a soft mass of 
 living, contractile, jelly-like matter, and 
 a central structure, consisting of a small, 
 roundish body, called the nucleus, 
 generally more solid than the rest of 
 the cell, and which may have within it 
 a still more minute body, the nucleolus. 
 The cell substance or protoplasm (see 
 Protoplasm) wliich surrounds the nu- 
 cleus is an albuminous substance possess- 
 ing fundamental vital properties, and 
 believed to be the starting point of all 
 animal and vegetable organisms. The 
 cell-wall when present consists of an 
 alteration of the external portion of the 
 cell body, and is not a separate structure. 
 All cells have but a very limited dura- 
 tion, so the tissues are being constantly 
 renewed. 
 
 CELLA, part of a temple. See Cell. 
 
 CELLINI (chel-le'ne), Benvenu'to, a 
 sculptor, engraver, and goldsmith, was 
 born at Florence in 1500, and died there 
 in 1571 or 1572. Of a bold, honest, and 
 open character, but vain and quarrel- 
 some, he was often entangled in disputes 
 which frequently cost his antagonists 
 their lives. At the siege of Rome (if 
 we believe his own account, given in his 
 autobiography) he killed the Constable 
 of Bourbon and the Prince of Orange. 
 He was afterward imprisoned on the 
 charge (probably false) of having stolen 
 the jewels of the Papal crown, and with 
 difficulty escaped execution. He then 
 visited the court of Francis I. of France. 
 He afterward returned to Florence, 
 and under the patronage of Cosmo de’ 
 Medici made a Perseus with the head 
 of Medusa in bronze, which is still an 
 ornament of one of the public squares; 
 also a statue of Christ, in the chapel 
 of the Pitti Palace, besides many ex- 
 cellent dies for coins and medals. 
 
 CELLULAR THEORY, in physiology, 
 that theory which derives all vegetable 
 and animal tissues from the union and 
 metamorphosis of primitive cells. 
 
 CELLULAR TISSUE, in physiology, 
 a name for what is also called the areolar 
 tissue. In botany, the term is applied 
 
 Cellular tissue in plants. 
 
 to the soft substance of plants, com- 
 posed of elementary vesicles or cells 
 without woody or vascular tissues. 
 
 CELL'ULOID, an artificial substance 
 e-xtensively used as a substitute for 
 
 . .Mr -< 
 
CELLULOSE 
 
 CENTER OF OSCILLATION 
 
 ivory, bone, hard rubber, coral, etc,, 
 having a close resemblance to these 
 substances in hardness, elasticity, and 
 texture. It is composed of cellulose or 
 vegetable fibrine reduced by acids to 
 pyroxyline (or gun-cotton), camphor 
 is then added, and the compound 
 moulded by heat and pressure to the 
 desired shape. It is used chiefly for such 
 articles as buttons, handles for knives, 
 forks, and umbrellas, billiard-balls, 
 backs to brushes, piano keys, napkin- 
 rings, opera-glass frames, etc. It can 
 be variously colored. 
 
 CELL'ULOSE, the substance of which 
 the permanent cell-membranes of plants 
 are always composed. It is closely 
 allied to sugar, dextrin, or gum and 
 starch, and is changed into the latter by 
 heat, sulphuric acid, or caustic potash. 
 
 CELTS, the earliest Aryan settlers in 
 Europe according to the common theory. 
 They appear to have been driven west- 
 ward by succeeding waves of Teutons, 
 Slavonians, and others, but there are no 
 means of fixing the periods at which any 
 of these movements took place. Herod- 
 otus mentions them as mixing with 
 the Iberians who dwelt round the river 
 Ebro in Spain. At the beginning of the 
 historic period they were the predomi- 
 nant race in Britain, Ireland, France, 
 Belgium, Switzerland, N. Italy, Spain, 
 and elsewhere. The Romans called 
 them generally Galli, that is Gauls or 
 Gael. They appear to have reached the 
 zenith of their power in the 2d and 3d 
 centuries b.c. Some tribes of them 
 overrunning Greece, settled in a part of 
 Asia Minor, to which the name of 
 Galatia was given. They finally went 
 down before the resistless power of 
 Rome, and either became absorbed 
 with the conquering races or were 
 cooped up in the extreme n.w. of Europe. 
 At at early date the Celts divided into 
 two great branches, speaking dialects 
 widely differing from each other, but 
 doubtless belonging to the same stock. 
 One of these branches is the Gadhelic 
 or Gaelic, represented by the Highland- 
 ers of Scotland, the Celtic Irish, and the 
 Manx; the other is the Cymric, repre- 
 sented by the Welsh, the inhabitants of 
 Cornwall, and those of Brittany. The 
 Cornish dialect is now extinct. The sun 
 seems to have been the principal object 
 of worship among the Celts, and groves 
 of oak and the remarkable circles of 
 stone commonly called “Druidical Cir- 
 cles,” their temples of worship. All 
 the old Celts seem to have possessed a 
 kind of literary order called Bards. 
 The ancient Irish wrote in a rude 
 alphabet called the Ogham, later 
 they employed the Roman alpha- 
 bet, or the Anglo-Saxon form of it. The 
 chief literature existing consists of the 
 hymns, martyrologies, annals, and laws 
 of Ireland, written from the 9th to the 
 16th centuries. The Scottish Gaelic 
 literature extant includes a collection 
 of MSS. in the Advocates' Library, 
 Edinburgh, some of which date from 
 the 12th century; the Book of the Dean 
 of Lismore, 16th century; a number of 
 songs from the 17th century to the 
 present day; and the co-called poems of 
 Ossian. The Welsh literary remains 
 date from the 9th century, and consist 
 of glossaries, grammars, annals, gene- 
 
 alogies, histories, poems, prose tales, etc. 
 
 CEMENTS', the general name for 
 glutinous or other substances capable of 
 uniting bodies in close cohesion. In 
 building the name is given to a stronger 
 kind of mortar than thatt which is 
 ordinarily used, consisting of those 
 hydraulic hmes which contain silica 
 and therefore set quickly. Cements are 
 variously composed, according to the 
 nature of the surfaces to which they are 
 applied and their exposure to heat or 
 moisture. Hydraulic or water cements 
 harden under water and consolidate 
 almost immediately on being mixed. 
 Of this kind are the Roman and Port- 
 land cements. 
 
 CEM'ETERY. See Burying-places. 
 
 CENCI (chen'che), Beatrice, called 
 the beautiful parricide, the daughter of 
 Francesco Cenci, a noble and wealthy 
 Roman (1527-98), who, according to the 
 common story, after his second marriage, 
 behaved toward the children of his first 
 marriage in the most shocking manner, 
 procured the assassination of two of his 
 sons, on their return from Spain, and 
 debauched his youngest daughter Bea- 
 trice. She failed in an appeal for pro- 
 tection to the pope, and planned and 
 executed the murder of her father. She 
 was beheaded 1599 and the Cenci estates 
 confiscated. 
 
 CENIS (se-ne'). Mount, a mountain 
 belonging to the Graian Alps, between 
 Savoy and Piedmont, 11,755 feet high. 
 It is famous for the winding road con- 
 structed by Napoleon I. which leads 
 over it from France to Italy, and for 
 an immense railway tunnel, which, after 
 nearly fourteen years’ labor, was fin- 
 ished in 1871. The tunnel does not 
 actually pass through the mountain, 
 but through the Col de Fr^jus, about 15 
 miles to the s.w., where it was found 
 possible to construct it at a lower level. 
 The Mount Cenis Pass is 6765 feet 
 above the level of the sea, whereas the 
 elevation of the entrance to the tunnel 
 on the side of Savoy is only 3801 feet, 
 and that on the sid^ of Piedmont 4246 
 feet. The total length of the tunnel is 
 12,849 meters (42,145 feet, or nearly 8 
 miles). The total cost amounted to 
 $13,000,000, which was borne partly by 
 the French and Italian governments 
 and partly by the Northern Railway 
 Company of Italy. The tunnel super- 
 seded a grip railway which was con- 
 structed over the mountain by Mr. Fell, 
 an English engineer, 1864-68. 
 
 CEN'SER, a vase or pan in which 
 incense is burned; a vessel for burning 
 and wafting incense. Among the 
 ancient Jews the censer was used to 
 offer perfumes in sacrifices. Censers, 
 called also thuribles, are still used in the 
 Roman Catholic Church at mass, ves- 
 pers, and other offices, as well as in 
 some Anglican and other churches. 
 They are of various forms. In Shake- 
 speare’s time the term was applied to a 
 bottle perforated and ornamented at 
 the top, used for sprinkling perfume, 
 or to a pan for burning any odoriferous 
 substance. 
 
 CENSUS, an enumeration of the peo- 
 ple of a country, together with an 
 ascertainment of all the various social 
 and industrial facts concerning them. 
 The first census of the United States was 
 
 taken in 1790 for the purpose of appor- 
 tioning representatives. Each succeed- 
 ing decade a new census is taken and 
 the facts thus gathered are carefully 
 correlated and published by the govern- 
 ment. The director of the census is 
 appointed by the president. Census 
 taking originated with King Servius 
 of Rome in 577 b.c. 
 
 CENT, Centime (san-tem), etc., the 
 name of a small coin in various countries, 
 so-called as being equal to a hundredth 
 part of some other coin. In the U. 
 States and in Canada the cent is the 
 hundredth part of a dollar. In France 
 the centime is the hundredth part of a 
 franc. Similar coins are the centavo 
 of Chili; and the centesimo of Italy, 
 Peru, etc. Cents or centimes, and their 
 equivalents, are written simply as 
 decimals of the unit of value. 
 
 CEN'TADRS, in Greek myth, fabulous 
 beings represented as half man, half 
 horse. 
 
 CEN'TENARY, the commemoration 
 of any event, as the birth of a great 
 man, which occurred 100 years before. 
 
 CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION, an in- 
 ternational exposition held at Phila- 
 delphia in 1876 to commemorate the 
 Declaration of Independence. There 
 were upward of 50,000 exhibits from 
 all parts of the world, 13,104 exhibitors, 
 and a total of 9,910,966 admissions. 
 The largest number of persons attend- 
 ing in any one day was 274,919 on 
 Pennsylvania Day (Sept. 28). It was 
 the first of the great international ex- 
 positions held in the U. States and 
 marked a new era in the industrial 
 development of the nation. 
 
 CENTER-BOARD, a sort of movable 
 keel used especially in American yachts, 
 and capable of being raised and lowered 
 in a well extending longitudinally 
 amidships. It tends to prevent leeway 
 and gives the vessel greater stability 
 when under a press of canvas. 
 
 CENTER OF GRAVITY, that point of 
 a body through which the line of the 
 resultant of the weights of all the par- 
 ticles composing the body always passes, 
 whatever be the position of the body. 
 
 CENTER OF GYRATION, the point 
 at which, if the whole mass of a revolv- 
 ing body were collected, the rotatory 
 effect would remain unaltered. 
 
 CENTER OF OSCILLATION, that 
 point of a body suspended by an axis, 
 at which, if all the matter were concen- 
 
CENTER OF PRESSURE 
 
 CERUSITE 
 
 trated, the oscillations would be per- 
 formed in the same time. 
 
 CENTER OF PRESSURE, that point 
 of a body at which the whole amount 
 of pressure may be applied with the 
 same effect as it would produce if dis- 
 tributed ; specifically, in hydro-statics, 
 that point in the side of a vessel con- 
 taining a liquid, to which, if a force were 
 applied equal to the total pressure and 
 in the opposite direction, it would 
 exactly balance the effort of the total 
 pressure. 
 
 CENTIGRADE. See Thermometer. 
 
 CENTIME. See Cent. 
 
 CEN'TIPEDE, a term applied to vari- 
 ous insect-like creatures having many 
 feet, and a body consisting of numerous 
 similar rings or segments. Those of 
 tropical countries inflict severe and often 
 dangerous bites. They sometimes grow 
 to a foot in length. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA, a geographical 
 division, including the stretch of ter- 
 ritory from the Isthmus of Panama to 
 the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, but by 
 political arrangements the limits most 
 generally assigned to it include the five 
 republican states of Guatemala, Hon- 
 duras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and 
 Costa Rica, with British Honduras, 
 and the Mosquito Coast. It thus has 
 Mexico on the n.w., Colombia on the 
 s.e., and the Pacific Ocean and Carib- 
 bean Sea on either side. Its entire 
 length may be about 800 miles, with a 
 breadth varying from between 20 and 30 
 to 350 miles. It is generally moun- 
 tainous, contains a number of active 
 volcanoes, and on the whole is a rich 
 and fertile, but almost totally un- 
 developed region. The area is about 
 181,500 sq. miles; the pop. 5,000,000. 
 
 CENTRAL FALLS, a city in Provi- 
 dence Co., R. I., 4 miles north of 
 Providence on the Blackstone River, 
 and on the New York, New Haven and 
 Hartford Railroad. Pop. 21,717. 
 
 CENTRAL INDIA AGENCY, a collec- 
 tion of states in Hindustan, consisting 
 of four divisions or agencies, viz. : 
 Gwalior, Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand, 
 and Nimar, and Malwa, under the 
 ultimate charge of the governor-gen- 
 eral’s agent at Indore ; chief states, 
 Gwalior, Indore, Bhopal, and Rewah. 
 These states cover an area of 78,772 
 sq. miles, and have a pop. o/ 8,628,781. 
 
 CENTRALIZATION, a term in a 
 specific sense applied to a system of 
 government where the tendency is to 
 administer by the central government 
 matters which had been previously, or 
 might very well be, under the manage- 
 ment of local authorities. 
 
 CENTRAL PROVINCES, an extensive 
 British territory in India. They became 
 a separate administration in 1861, and 
 are under the authority of a chief com- 
 missioner. Their total area is 115,936 
 sq. miles, of which 86,501 sq. miles are 
 British territory, and 29,435 the terri- 
 tory of native protected states, fifteen 
 in number. In 1891 the population, 
 including the native states, was 12,944,- 
 805 persons; in 1901 it was 11,873,029. 
 For administrative purposes the prov- 
 ince is divided into four commissioner- 
 ships, Jabalpur, (Jubbulpore), Nagpur, 
 Narbada (Nerbudda), and Chhattis- 
 garh. 
 
 CENTRIF'UGALand CENTRIP'ETAL, 
 
 in bot., terms applied to two kinds of 
 inflorescence, the former being that in 
 which the terminal or central flower is 
 the first to expand, as in a true cyme 
 (examples, elder and valerian), the latter 
 being that kind in which the lower or 
 outer flower is the first to expand, as in 
 spikes, racemes, umbels, and corymbs. 
 The laburnum, hemlock, and daisy are 
 examples. 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL AND CENTRIPETAL 
 FORCE. See Central Forces. 
 
 CENTU'RION, in the ancient Roman 
 army, the commander of a century, or 
 body of 100 men, but afterward an 
 indefinite number, the sixtieth part of a 
 legion. The rank of a centurion cor- 
 responded pretty much to that of a 
 captain in modern armies. 
 
 CENTURY- PLANT, a popular name 
 of the American aloe. 
 
 CERAM', an island in the Moluccas, 
 lying w. of New Guinea; area about 
 7000 sq. miles; pop. estimated at 200,- 
 000 . 
 
 CERAM'IC ART, that department of 
 plastic art which comprises all objects 
 made of baked clay, as vases, cups, urns, 
 bassi-nlievi, statuettes, etc., and in- 
 cluding all the varieties of earthenware 
 and porcelain which can be regarded as 
 works of art. 
 
 CERASTES, a genus of African 
 vipers, remarkable for their fatal venom, 
 and for two little horns formed by the 
 
 Cerastes vulgaris. 
 
 scales above the eyes. Hence they have 
 received the name of horned vipers. 
 The tail is very distinct from the body. 
 
 CER'BERUS, in classical mythology, 
 the dog-monster of Hades, variously 
 described as having a hundred, fifty, 
 
 Cerberus— Antique bronze. 
 
 and three heads, with a serpent’s tail, 
 and a mane consisting of the heads of 
 various snakes. He was subdued by 
 Hercules. 
 
 CE'REALS, a term derived from 
 Ceres, the goddess of corn, though some- 
 times extended to leguminous plants, 
 as beans, lentils, etc., is more usually 
 and properly confined to wheat, barley, 
 rye, oats, and other grasses, cultivated 
 for the sake of their seed as food. 
 
 CEREBRA'TION, exertion or action 
 of the brain, conscious or unconscious. 
 
 CEREBRO-SPINAL, pertaining to the 
 brain and spinal cord together, looked 
 on as forming one nerve mass. 
 
 CEREBRUM and CEREBELLUM. 
 See Brain. 
 
 CEREMONY, an act done with a cer- 
 tain amount of solemnity, v/hether of a 
 joyous, sad, indifferent nature. Cere- 
 monial institutions are traced back 
 to remote antiquity and have an un- 
 doubted primitive origin. That origin 
 is doubtless of a religious nature and all 
 living ceremonies have some associa- 
 tion, whether obvious or not, with 
 ancient religious fear, veneration, fit 
 piety. 
 
 CERES (se'rez), a Roman goddess, 
 corresponding to the Greek Demeter; 
 she was the daughter of Kronos and 
 Rhea, and the mother of Proserpine and 
 Bacchus. She was the goddess of the 
 earth in its capacity of bringing forth 
 fruits, especially watching over the 
 growth of grain and other plants. The 
 Romans celebrated in her honor the 
 festival of the Cerealia. Ceres was 
 always represented in full attire, her 
 attributes being ears of corn and 
 poppies, and her sacrifices consisted of 
 pigs and cows. — Also a planet discovered 
 by M. Piazzi at Palermo, in Sicily, in 
 1801. It was the first discovered of the 
 asteroids. Its size is less than that of the 
 moon. 
 
 CERTIFICATE, a written attestation 
 of the truth of a fact. Certificates are 
 used to attest graduation from high 
 schools (diplomas), and the law often 
 requires certificates for the practice of 
 trade or professions. The United States 
 army issues certificates of merit which 
 entitle the holder to extra pay of $2 
 per month 
 
 CERTIORA'RI, in law, a writ issuing 
 out of a superior court to call up the 
 records of an inferior court or remove 
 a cause there depending, that it may 
 be tried in the superior court. This writ 
 is obtained upon the complaint of a 
 party that he has not received justice, 
 or that he cannot have an impartial 
 trial in the inferior court. 
 
 CERU'LEUM, a blue pigment, con- 
 sisting of stannate of protoxide of 
 cobalt mixed with stannic acid and 
 sulphate of lime. 
 
 CERU'MINOUS GLANDS, the glands 
 of the ear which secrete the cerumen or 
 wax which lubricates the passage to the 
 tympanum and prevents the entrance 
 of foreign matter. 
 
 CERUSE (se'rus), white-lead, car- 
 bonate of lead produced by exposing 
 the metal in thin plates to the vapor of 
 acetic acid or vinegar. It is much used 
 in painting, and a cosmetic is made 
 from it. 
 
 CE'RUSITE, a native carbonate of 
 lead, next to galena the must abundant 
 ore of lead. When heated it decrepitates 
 and is converted into oxide of lead. 
 
CERVANTES SAAVEDRA 
 
 CEYLON 
 
 CERVANTES SAAVEDRA (tlier-van'- 
 tes sii-a-va'c/ra-), Miguel de, author of 
 Don Quixote, born at Alcala de Henares 
 in 1547, and removed thence to Madrid 
 at the age of seven. He commenced 
 writing verses at an early age, and his 
 pastoral Filena attracted the notice of 
 Cardinal Acquaviva, whom he accom- 
 panied to Italy as page. In 1570 he 
 served under Colonna in the war against 
 the Turks and African corsairs, and in 
 the battle of Lepanto (1571) he lost the 
 use of his left hand. After this he joined 
 the troops at Naples, in the service of 
 the Spanish king, winning the highest 
 reputation as a soldier. In 1575, while 
 returning to liis country, he was taken 
 by the corsair Arnaut Mami, and sold 
 in Algiers as a slave — a condition in 
 wliich he remained for seven years, dis- 
 playing great fortitude. In 1580 his 
 friends and relations at length ran- 
 somed him, and, rejoining his old 
 regiment, he fought in the naval battle 
 and subsequent storming of Terceira. 
 In 1583, however, he retired from 
 service and recommenced his literary 
 work, publishing in 1584 his pastoral 
 Galatea. In the same year he married, 
 and lived for a long time by writing for 
 the stage, to which he contributed 
 between twenty and thirty plays, of 
 which two only have survived. From 
 1588 to 1599 he lived retired at Seville, 
 where he held a small ofSce. He did 
 not appear again as an author till 1605, 
 when he produced the first part of Don 
 Quixote, a work having, as its immediate 
 aim, the satirical treatment of the 
 novels of cliivalry then popular, but 
 embodying at the same time human 
 types of cosmopolitan interest, and 
 having a profounder bearing upon life 
 than its express object covered. In 
 
 1613 his twelve Exemplary Novels 
 (his best work after Don Quixote), in 
 
 1614 his Journey to Parnassus, and in 
 
 1615 eight new dramas, with inter- 
 mezzos, were published. In 1614 an 
 unknown writer published, under the 
 name of Alonzo Fernandez de Avel- 
 laneda, a continuation of Don Quixote, 
 full of abuse of Cervantes, who there- 
 upon published the real continuation 
 which was the last work of his issued 
 during his lifetime. His novel Persiles 
 and Sigismunda was published after 
 his death, which took place at Madrid 
 on the same day as that of Shakespeare, 
 April 23, 1616. 
 
 CESTUS, a leathern thong or bandage, 
 often covered with knots and loaded 
 
 Various forms ot cestus. 
 
 with lead and iron, anciently worn by 
 Roman pugilists to increase the force of 
 the blow. 
 
 CETA'CEA, an order of marine 
 animals, surpassing in size all others 
 in existence. They are true mammals, 
 since they suckle their young, have 
 
 warm blood, and respire by means of 
 lungs, for which purpose they come to 
 the surface of the water to take in fresh 
 supplies of air. The body is fish-like 
 in form, but ends in a bilobate tail, 
 which is placed horizontally, not, as in 
 the fishes, vertically. The posterior 
 limbs are wanting, and the anterior are 
 converted into broad paddles or flippers, 
 consisting of a continuous sheath of the 
 thick integument, within which are 
 present representatives of all the bones 
 usually found in the fore-limb of 
 mammals. The fish-like aspect is fur- 
 ther increased by the presence of a 
 dorsal fin, but tms is a simple fold of 
 integument, and does not contain bony 
 spines. The right whale and its allies 
 have no teeth in the adult state, their 
 place being taken by the triangular 
 plates of baleen or whalebone which 
 are developed on transverse ridges of 
 the palate, but the fcetal whales possess 
 minute teeth, which are very soon lost. 
 The nostrils open directly upward on 
 the top of the head, and are closed by 
 valvular folds of integument which are 
 under the control of the animal. When 
 it comes to the surface to breathe it 
 expels the air violently (popularly 
 known as “blowing” or “spouting”), 
 and the vapor it contains becomes con- 
 densed into a cloud, which resembles a 
 column of water ana spray. The blood- 
 vessels in these animals break up into 
 extensive plexuses or net-works, in 
 which a large amount of oxygenated 
 blood is delayed, and they are thus 
 enabled to remain a considerable time 
 under water. Injury to these dilated 
 vessels leads to profuse hemorrhage, 
 and hence the whale is killed by the 
 comparatively trifling wound of the 
 harpoon. The Cetacea (which are 
 grouped broadly as Mysticeti or tooth- 
 less whales; and Odontoceti, Denticeti, 
 or toothed whales) are commonly 
 divided into five families : (1) whalebone 
 whales, divided into two sections; 
 smooth whales, with smooth skin and 
 no dorsal fin, and furrowed whales, with 
 furrowed skin and a dorsal fin; (2) 
 sperm-whales or cachalots, the palates 
 of which have no baleen-plates, and 
 which are furnished with teeth, de- 
 veloped in the lower jaw only; (3) a 
 family possessing teeth in both jaws, 
 and including the dolphins, porpoises, 
 and narwhal ; (4) a family allied to the 
 sperm-whales, but having only a pair or 
 two pairs of teeth in the lower jaw, a 
 pointed snout or beak, a single blow- 
 hole, etc.; (5) an extinct family, dis- 
 tinguished from all the tooth-bearing 
 whales by the possession of molar teeth 
 implanted by two distinct fangs, etc. 
 The last family is exclusively confined 
 to the Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene 
 periods. The manatees and dugongs, 
 have sometimes been classified among 
 the Cetacea, but they must be regarded 
 as forming a separate order. 
 
 CETEWAYO (kech-wa'6), a Kaffir 
 chief or king, son of Panda, king of the 
 Zulus. A dispute regarding lands on the 
 frontier was settled by arbitration in 
 favor of the Zulus; but on the refusal of 
 Cetewayo to comply with the conditions 
 imposed war was declared against him 
 by the British, and the king made 
 prisoner soon after the battle of Ulundi 
 
 (July, 1879). In 1882 he was condition- 
 ally restored to part of his dominions. 
 In the following year he was driven from 
 power by the chief Usibepu, and re- 
 mained under the protection of the 
 British until his death in 1884. 
 
 CETTE (set), a fortified seaport of 
 France, dep. H4rault. After Marseilles, 
 Cette is the principal trading port in the 
 south of France, and it is much resorted 
 to as a watering-place. Pop. 35,517. 
 
 CEVENNES (se-venz'), a chain of 
 mountains in the southeast of France, 
 The length of the chain, exclusive of the 
 Cote d’Or, is about 330 miles, the 
 average height not more than 3000 feet. 
 It is divided into two sections, the 
 northern and southern Cevenne..; the 
 dividing point is Mount Loz^re, in the 
 department of the same name, 5582 feet 
 high. The highest peak is Mezenc, 5753 
 feet. The Cevennes form the watershed 
 between the Bay of Biscay and the Medi- 
 terranean, separating the basins of the 
 Garonne and Loire from those of the 
 Rhone and Saone. They are rich in 
 minerals, containing mines of copper, 
 iron, lead, and coal, and quarries of 
 granite, porphyry, marble and plaster. 
 
 ceyl6n (si-lon'), an island belonging 
 to Great Britain in the Indian Ocean, 
 50 to 60 miles southeast of the southern 
 extremity of Hindustan, from which it 
 is separated by the Gulf of Manaar and 
 Palk’s Strait, and by a chain of sand- 
 banks, called Adam’s Bridge, impas- 
 sable by any but very small vessels. 
 Length, about 270 miles north to south; 
 average breadth, 100 miles; area, 25,364 
 sq. miles. The north and northwest 
 coasts are flat and monotonous, those 
 on the south and east bold, rocky, and 
 picturesque, with exuberant vegetation. 
 The mountainous regions are confined 
 to the center of the south and broader 
 part of the island Their average height 
 is about 2000 feet, but several summits 
 are upward of 7000 and one over 8000 
 feet high, the culminating point being 
 Pidurutallagalla, 8296 feet. Adam’s 
 Peak, reaching 7420 feet, is the most 
 remarkable from its conical form, the 
 distance from which it is visible from 
 the sea, and from the legend that thence 
 Buddha ascended to heaven, leaving in 
 evidence a gigantic footprint. 
 
 In respect of climate, where the jungle 
 has been cleared away, and the land 
 drained and cultivated, the country 
 is perfectly healthy; but where low 
 wooded tracts and flat marshy lands 
 abound it is malarial and insalubrious 
 The east part of the island being exposed 
 to the northeast monsoon has a hot and 
 dry climate; while the west division, 
 being open to the southwest monsoon 
 has a temperate and humid climate 
 
 In the luxuriance of its vegetable 
 productions Ceylon rivals the islands of 
 the Indian Archipelago, and in some 
 respects bears a strong resemblance to 
 them. Its most valuable products are 
 tea, cofliee, rice, cinnamon (which is 
 found almost exclusively in the south- 
 west), and the cocoa-nut palm Coffee 
 used to be very extensively cultivated, 
 but disease has within recent years 
 reduced the produce to a fraction of its 
 former amount, and tea cultivation ha 
 taken its place, and is rapidly increasing 
 The island abounds with timber o 
 
CHAFFINCH 
 
 CHALMERS 
 
 various descriptions, including ebony, 
 satin, rose, sapan, iron, jack, and other 
 beautiful woods adapted for cabinet 
 work. Attention has been directed 
 latterly to the cultivation of cinchona, 
 cacao, and silk. The chief mineral 
 products are iron, plumbago or graphite, 
 and a variety of gems, including sap- 
 phires, rubies, etc. The pearl-fisheries 
 of Ceylon are famous. 
 
 The commerce of Ceylon is now im- 
 portant. The exports comprise tea, 
 cofiFee, plumbago, areca-nuts, cocoa-nut 
 oil fibre and kernals (copra), cinnamon, 
 cinchona, cacao, etc. The principal 
 articles of import are manufactured 
 goods, iron and steel manufactures, 
 machinery, dried fish, rice, wheat, sugar, 
 tea, cowries, etc. Ceylon is one of the 
 British crown colonies, the government 
 being conducted by a governor and two 
 councils, executive and legislative, of 
 both of which the governor is president. 
 The present population of Ceylon is 
 composed of Singhalese or Cingalese, 
 who are the Ceylonese proper, Tamils 
 (from India), Moormen or Moors, 
 Malays, Veddahs, a small proportion 
 of Europeans and their descendants, 
 and negroes. The Singhalese are in 
 stature rather below the middle size; 
 their limbs slender, but well shaped, 
 eyes dark, finely-cut features, hair long, 
 smooth, and black, turned up and fixed 
 with a tortoise-shell comb on the top of 
 the head; color varying from brown to 
 black, or rather from the lightest to the 
 darkest tints of bronze. The general 
 population of the island was decreasing 
 for several centuries. It is now, how- 
 ever, on the increase, and latterly this 
 increase has been rapid. In 1901 the 
 population was 3,576,990, of whom 
 9583 were Europeans, and 4913 Boer 
 prisoners of war. The Singhalese 
 numbered 2,334,817, the Tamils 952,- 
 237. The population in 1891 was 
 3,008,466. 
 
 Buddhism prevails in the interior, and 
 generally among the Singhalese of the 
 sea-coasts. The .Singhalese have a 
 colloquial language peculiar to them- 
 selves, but their classic and sacred 
 writings are either in Pali or Sanskrit. 
 The Hindu religion (Brahmanism) pre- 
 vails among the Tamils or population 
 of Indian extraction, which forms a 
 large proportion of the inhabitants of 
 the north and northeast districts. The 
 Tamils speak their own Tamil tongue. 
 
 The Singahalese possess a native 
 chronicle, the Mahawanso, which records 
 liistory of the island from 543 b.c. 
 onward, under a long series of kings 
 reigning most frequently at the ancient 
 capital Anuradhapura, the earliest of 
 these being leader of an invading host 
 from India. Buddhism was introduced 
 307 B.c. The island was not known to 
 Europeans till the time of Alexander 
 the Great, and their knowledge of it 
 was long vague and meager. Little, 
 however, was known in Europe regard- 
 ing the island until 1505, when the 
 Portuguese established a regular inter- 
 course with it, and latterly made them- 
 selves masters of it. When they arrived 
 the Malabars were in possession of the 
 north, the Moors or Arabs held all the 
 seaports, the rest was under petty kings 
 and chiefs. The Portuguese, who were 
 
 cruel and oppressive rulers, were sub- 
 sequently expelled by the Dutch in 
 1658, after a twenty years’ struggle. 
 The Dutch in turn were driven from the 
 island by the British in 1796, though a 
 part of the island remained independent 
 under native princes. The King of 
 Kandy, nominally the sovereign of the 
 island, was deposed in 1815 on account 
 of his cruelties, aaid the island was then 
 finally annexed by Britain, though a 
 rebellion had to be put down in 1817. 
 The principal towns are Colombo (the 
 capital and chief port), Kandy, Galle, 
 Jaffna, and Trincomalee. 
 
 CHAFFTNCH, a lively and handsome 
 bird of the finch family. The male is 6 
 or 7 inches in length, and is very agree- 
 ably colored, having a chestnut back, 
 reddish-pink breast and throat, and a 
 yellowish-white bar on the wings. The 
 food consists of seeds and of insects and 
 their larvae. The nest, which is generally 
 placed in the fork of a tree, is an elegant 
 structure usually covered with moss and 
 lichens. 
 
 CHAFIN, Eugene" Wilder, born at 
 East Troy, Wis., Nov. 1, 1852; educated 
 in public school; graduated from law 
 department of University of Wisconsin, 
 1875; practiced law in Waukesha, Wis., 
 1876-1900; grand chief templar of Good 
 Templars of Wisconsin and Illinois; 
 Prohibition candidate for various offices; 
 nominated for president of the United 
 States by Prohibitionist national con- 
 vention at Columbus, O. , in 1908. 
 
 CHAILLE-LONG, Charles, an Ameri- 
 can traveler, born in Maryland in 1840. 
 He served on the Union side during the 
 civil war and in 1875 was chief of staff 
 to Gordon in the latter’s expedition up 
 the Nile. Returning to America he 
 studied international law, and in 1887 
 was made consul general in Korea. He 
 has published several works on the 
 Orient. 
 
 CHAIN, in surveying, is a measure 
 consisting of 100 links, each 7'92 inches 
 in length, and having a total length of 4 
 rods, or 66 feet. It is sometimes called 
 Gunter’s chain, from its inventor. 
 
 CHAIN-ARMOR, coats and other 
 pieces of mail, formed of hammered 
 iron links, constituting a flexible gar- 
 ment which fitted to the person. 
 
 CHAIN-PUMP, a pump consisting in 
 principle of an endless chain equipped 
 
 with a number of valves or buckets 
 moving round two wheels, one above 
 ana one below. The chain in its ascent 
 
 passes through a tube closely fitting the 
 valves or buckets, the water being dis- 
 charged either from the top of the tube 
 or from an orifice in it. 
 
 CHAINS, strong links or plates of iron, 
 the lower ends of which are bolted to a 
 ship’s side, used to contain the blocks 
 called dead-eyes, by which the shrouds 
 of the masts are fastened. 
 
 CHAIN-SHOT, two cannon-balls con- 
 nected by a chain, which, when dis- 
 charged, revolve upon their shorter 
 axis, and mow down masts, rigging, etc. 
 
 CHALCED'ONY (kal-sed'o-ni), a min- 
 eral, a variety of quartz, called also 
 white agate, resembling milk diluted 
 with water, semi-transparent or trans- 
 lucent, and more or less clouded with 
 circles and spots. It is found usually in 
 cavities of rocks uncrystallized, in veins, 
 botryoidal masses, etc., and is used in 
 jewelry. There are several varieties, 
 such as the common chalcedony, chryso- 
 prase, sard, and sardonyx. 
 
 CHALD.^A, in ancient geography, 
 the southerly part of Babylonia, or in a 
 wider sense corresponding to Babylonia 
 itself. The name Chaldaeans was espe- 
 cially applied latterly to a portion of the 
 Babylonian Magi, who were devoted 
 to the pursuit of astronomy and magical 
 science. See Babylonia. 
 
 CHAL'ICE, a term generally applied 
 to a communion cup for the wine in the 
 Eucharist, often of artistic and highly 
 ornamental character. 
 
 CHALK (chak), a well-known earthy 
 limestone, of an opaque white color, soft 
 and admitting no polish. It is an im- 
 pure carbonate of lime, and is used 
 as an absorbent and ant-acid, and for 
 making marks for various purposes, as 
 on the black-board in schools, and by 
 artisans and others. — Black chalk is a 
 soft variety of argillaceous slate. (See 
 Black Chalk.) — Brown chalk, a familiar 
 name for umber. — Red chalk, another 
 name for ruddle. — French chalk, steatite 
 or soap-stone, a soft magnesian mineral. 
 Drawing chalks were originally re- 
 stricted in colors to white, black, and 
 red, but now chalks of every color are 
 used, and are known by the name of 
 crayons. — In geology chalk is the rock 
 which forms the higher part of a series 
 or group of strata, comprising rocks of 
 different kinds, termed the cretaceous 
 system, 
 
 CHAL'LENGE, to jurors, is an ob- 
 jection either to the whole panel or 
 array, that is, the whole body of jurors 
 returned, or to the polls, that is, to the 
 jurors individually; and it is either 
 peremptory, that is, without assigning 
 any reason, or for cause assigned. See 
 Jury. 
 
 CHALMERS, Thomas, D.D., an emi- 
 nent Scottish divine, born in 1780, at 
 Anstruther Easter, Fife. In 1803 he 
 was presented to the parish of Kilmany, 
 in Fife, where he made a high reputation 
 as a preacher. In 1808 he published an 
 Inquiry into the Extent and Stability 
 of National Resources. In 1813 his 
 article on Christianity appeared in the 
 Edinburgh Encyclopedia, and shortly 
 afterward his review of Cuvier’s Theory 
 of the Earth, in the Christian Instructor. 
 His fame as a preacher had by this time 
 extended itself throughout Scotland, 
 and in 1815 he was inducted to the Tron 
 
CHAMBER 
 
 CHAMOIS 
 
 Church of Glasgow. His astronomical 
 discourses delivered there in the follow- 
 ing winter produced a sensation not 
 only in the city but throughout the 
 country. In 1832 he published his 
 Political Economy, and shortly after- 
 ward his Bridgewater Treatise On the 
 .Adaptation of External Nature to the 
 Moral and Intellectual Constitution of 
 Man. During this period he was 
 occupied with the subject of church 
 
 extension on the voluntary principle, 
 but it was in the great non-intrusion 
 movement in the Scottish church that 
 his name became most prominent. 
 Throughout the whole contest to the 
 Disruption in 1843, he acted as the 
 leader of the party that then separated 
 from the Establishment, and mey be 
 regarded as the founder of the Free 
 Church of Scotland, of the first assem- 
 bly of which he was moderator. His 
 death took place suddenly, and appar- 
 ently during sleep, in the night preceding 
 May 31, 1847. He.-was a D.D. of Glas- 
 gow University and a D.C.L. of Oxford. 
 
 CHAMBER, a word used in many 
 countries to designate a branch of 
 government whose members assemble in 
 a common apartment, as the chamber of 
 deputies in France, or applied to bodies 
 of various kinds meeting for various 
 purposes. The imperial chamber (in 
 German Reichskammergericht) of the 
 old German Empire was a court estab- 
 lished at Wetzlar, near the Rhine, by 
 Maximilian I. in 149.5, to adjust the dis- 
 putes between the different independent 
 members of the German Empire, and 
 also such as arose between them and the 
 emperor. — Chambers of commerce are 
 associations of the mercantile men of 
 towns for the purpose of protecting and 
 furthering the interests of the com- 
 mercial community. 
 
 CHAMBERLAIN, Joseph, English 
 statesman, born in London in 1836, and 
 educated at London University school 
 In 1876 he entered parliament as a rep- 
 resentative of Birmingham, and at the 
 general election of 1880 he was chosen 
 for the same city along with Mr. Bright 
 , and Mr. Muntz. Under Mr. Gladstone’s 
 premiership he became president of the 
 Board of Trade, and a cabinet-minister, 
 and was able to pass the Bankruptcy Act 
 now in force, though he failed with his 
 merchant shipping bill. In the Glad- 
 stone government of 1886 he was pres- 
 ident of the Local Government Board. 
 As colonial secretary in the Unionist 
 government in 1895-1903 he has been 
 
 prominent in other affairs besides the 
 Boer War of 1899-1902. 
 
 CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, an or- 
 ganization of traders or merchants for 
 the purpose of facilitating transactions 
 of business, making a central market, 
 etc. The term has been superseded in 
 many American cities by the term Board 
 of Trade. Chambers of Commerce use 
 their influence for legislation favorable 
 to trade, collect and publish trade 
 statistics, and take part in public 
 enterprises for the commercial good of 
 the community. The New York Cham- 
 ber of Commerce was organized in 1768, 
 and many Chambers of Commerce in 
 Europe antedate it by many years. 
 
 CHAMBERS, Robert, historical and 
 miscellaneous writer, the younger of 
 two brothers originally composing the 
 publishing firm of W. & R. Chambers, 
 was born at Peebles in 1802. Besides 
 editing or compiling many instructive 
 works of a high class, including the 
 Cyclopaedia of English Literature; the 
 Domestic Annals of Scotland; Ancient 
 Sea-Margins; and the Book of Days. He 
 also edited a valuable edition of Burns. 
 He died at St. Andrews in 1871. His 
 name was long associated with the 
 authorship of the famous “Vestiges of 
 Creation,’’ and it was not known to be 
 really his till years after his death. — 
 William Chambers wrote Things as They 
 Are in America, History of Peebles-shire; 
 France, its History and Revolutions; 
 Memoir of Robert Chambers, with Auto- 
 biographical Reminiscences, etc. He 
 was twice lord-provost of Edinburgh. 
 He died in 1883, just as a baronetcy was 
 to be conferred on him. 
 
 CHAMBERS, Robert William, an 
 American writer and artist, born in 
 New York in 1865. He has pubished 
 several volumes of fiction and exhibited 
 in the Paris salon of 1889. 
 
 CHAMBERSBURG, a town in Penn- 
 sylvania, in a fertile and populous dis- 
 trict. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 CHAMBERTIN (shan-ber-tan), a su- 
 perior kind of red Burgundy wine, 
 named after the place where it is pro- 
 duced. 
 
 CHAMBORD (shan-bor), Henri Charles 
 Ferdinand Marie Dieudonn^, Comte- 
 de, Duke of Bordeaux, the last repre- 
 sentative of the elder branch of the 
 French Bourbon dynasty, called by his 
 partisans Henry V. of France. He was 
 born in 1820, seven months after the 
 assassination of his father. Prince 
 Charles Ferdinand d’Artois, duke de 
 Berry. Charles X., after the revolu- 
 tionary outbreak of 1830, abdicated in 
 his favor; but the young count was 
 compelled to leave the country with the 
 royal title unrecognized by the nation. 
 In 1846 he married the Princess Maria- 
 Theresa, eldest daughter of the Duke 
 of Modena; and in 1851 inherited the 
 domain of Frohsdorf, near Vienna, 
 where for the most part he subsequently 
 resided. He died in 1883, leaving no 
 heir. 
 
 CHAME'LEON (ka-me'li-on), a genus 
 of reptiles belonging to the Saurian or 
 lizard order, a native of parts of Asia, 
 Africa, and the south of Europe. The 
 best-known species, has a naked body 
 6 or 7 inches long, with a prehensile tail 
 of about 5 inches, and feet suitable for 
 
 grasping branches. The skin is cold 
 to the touch, and contains small grains 
 or eminences of a bluish-gray color an 
 the shade, but in the light of the sun all 
 parts of the body become of a grayish- 
 brown or tawny color. It possesses the 
 curious faculty, however, of changing 
 its color, either in accordance with its 
 environment, or with its temper when 
 disturbed, the change being due to the 
 presence of clear or pigment-bearing 
 
 contractile cells placed at various depths 
 in the skin, their contractions and dila- 
 tions being under the influence of the 
 nervous system. Their power of fasting 
 and habit of inflating themselves gave 
 rise to the fable that they lived on air, but 
 they are in reality insectivorous, taking 
 their prey by rapid movements of a 
 long viscid tongue. In general habit 
 they are dull and torpid. 
 
 CHAMELEON MINERAL, a name 
 given to manganate of potassium, be- 
 cause a solution of it changes from 
 green, through a succession of colors, 
 to a rich purple. 
 
 CHAMOIS (sham'wil), a species of 
 goat-like antelope inhabiting high inac- 
 cessible mountains in Europe and West- 
 ern Asia. Its horns, which are about 
 6 or 7 inches long, are round, almost 
 
 Chamois. 
 
 smooth, perpendicular and straight 
 until near the tip, where they suddenly 
 terminate in a hook directed back- 
 ward and downward. Its hair is brov/n 
 in winter, brown fawn color in summer, 
 and erayish in spring. The head is of 
 a pare yellow color with a black band 
 
CHAMOMILE 
 
 CHANNING 
 
 from the nose to the ears and surround- 
 ing the eyes. The tail is black. Its 
 agility, the nature of its haunts, and its 
 powers of smell, render its pursuit an 
 exceedingly difficult and hazardous 
 occupation. 
 
 CHAMOMILE or CAMOMILE (kam'o- 
 tnil), a well-known European plant. It 
 is perennial, and has slender, trailing, 
 hairy, and branched stems. The flower 
 is white, with a yellow center. Both 
 leaves and flowers are bitter and aro- 
 matic. The fragrance is due to the 
 presence of an essential oil, called oil of 
 chamomile, of a light blue color when 
 first extracted, and used in the prepar- 
 ation of certain medicines. Both the 
 leaves and the flowers are employed in 
 fomentations and poultices, and also in 
 the form of an infusion as a stimulant 
 or anti-spasmodic. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE (sham-pan'), a French 
 wine, white or red, which is made chiefly 
 in the department of Marne, in the 
 former province Champagne, and is 
 generally characterized by the property 
 of creaming, frothing, or effervescing 
 when poured from the bottle, though 
 there are also still Champagne wines. 
 The creaming or slightly sparkling 
 Champagne wines are more highly valued 
 by connoisseurs, and fetch greater prices 
 than the full-frothing wines, in which 
 the small quantity of alcohol they con- 
 tain escapes from the froth as it rises to 
 the surface, carrying with it the aroma 
 and leaving the liquor nearly vapid . The 
 property of creaming or frothing pos- 
 sessed by these w’ines is due to the fact 
 that they are partly fermented in the 
 bottle, carbonic acid being thereby pro- 
 duced. Wine of a similar kind can of 
 course be made elsewhere, and some of 
 the German champagnes are hardly to 
 be distinguished from the French. 
 Much artificial or imitation champagne 
 is sold. 
 
 CHAMPAIGN, (sham-pan'), a city 
 in Champaign County, 111., 128 miles 
 south by west of Chicago, on the Illinois 
 Central, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chi- 
 cago and Saint Louis, and a branch of 
 the Wabash railroads. Pop., 13,160. 
 
 CHAMP-DE-MARS (shan-de-mars), 
 that is Field of Mars, an extensive piece 
 of ground in Paris, used as a place of 
 military exercise. It was here that 
 Louis XVI. swore to defend the new con- 
 stitution in 1790, and it was the site of 
 the exhibitions of 1867 and 1878. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN (sham-plan') Lake, a 
 lake, chiefly in the United States, be- 
 tween the states of New York and Ver- 
 mont, but having the north end of it in 
 Canada ; extreme length, north to south, 
 about 120 miles; breadth, from half a 
 mile to 15 miles; area, about 600 square 
 miles. It is connected by canal with 
 the Hudson River, and has for outlet 
 the river Richelieu, or Sorel, flowing 
 north to the St. Lawrence. Its scenery is 
 beautiful, and attracts many vistors. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN (shan-plan), Samuel, a 
 French naval officer and maritime ex- 
 plorer, born about 1570. His exploits in 
 the maritime war against Spain in 1595 
 attracted the attention of Henry IV., 
 who commissioned him in 1603 to found 
 establishments in North America. After 
 three voyages for that purpose, in the 
 last of which he founded Quebec, he was 
 
 in 1620 appointed governor of Canada. 
 He wrote an account of his voyages, and 
 died in 1635. 
 
 Champlain. 
 
 CHAMPOLLION (shan-pol-yon), Jean 
 Frangois, French scholar, celebrated for 
 his discoveries in the department of 
 Egyptian hieroglyphics, born at Figeac, 
 department of Lot, in 1790. At an early 
 age he devoted himself to the study of 
 Hebrew, Arabic, Coptic, etc., and in 
 1809 became professor of history at 
 Grenoble. He soon, however, retired to 
 Paris, where, with the aid of the trilin- 
 gual inscription of the Rosetta Stone and 
 the suggestions thrown out by Dr. 
 Thomas A'oung, he at length discovered 
 the key to the graphic system of the 
 Egyptians, the three elements of which 
 — figurative, ideographic, and alpha- 
 betic — he expounded before the Insti- 
 tute in a series of memoirs in 1823. 
 These were published in 1824 at the 
 expense of the state. In 1826 Charles 
 X. appointed him to superintend the 
 department of Egyptian antiquities in 
 the Louvre; in 1828 he went as director 
 of a scientific expedition to Egypt; and 
 in 1831 the chair of Egyptian archaeol- 
 ogy was created for him in the College 
 de France. He died at Paris in 1832. 
 
 CHANCE, in the ordinary acceptation 
 of the term, an unexpected occurrence. 
 Chance exists only in so far as the in- 
 tention, desires, or knowledge of men are 
 concerned. See Cause. 
 
 CHAN'CELLOR, a high official in 
 many of the kingdoms of Europe, the 
 office including in its duties the super- 
 vision of charters and other official wri- 
 tings of the crown requiring solemn 
 authentication. The title and office 
 are also ecclesiastical, and hence each 
 bishop still has his chancellor, the 
 principal judge of his consistory. In the 
 new German empire, the chancellor 
 (Reichskanzler) is president of the 
 Federal Council, and has the general 
 conduct of the imperial administration. 
 In the United States, a chancellor is the 
 judge of a court of chancery or equity 
 established by statute. 
 
 CHAN'CELLORSVILLE, the site of one 
 of the greatest battles of the American 
 civil war, in which, on the 2d, 3d, and 
 4th of May, 1863, a nominal victory was 
 gained bj'’ the Confederates under 
 Generals Lee and Jackson over the 
 Federal troops, commanded by General 
 Hooker. The Federal troops, though 
 compelled to retreat across the Rappa- 
 hannock, carried with them some thou- 
 sands of prisoners and one more gun 
 
 than they had lost, while the Con- 
 federates lost from 15,000 to 18,000 
 men and their brilliant leader Jackson. 
 
 CHAN'CERY, in England, the highest 
 court, next to parliament, and presided 
 over by the I.ord High Chancellor. In 
 the U. States, a court established in 
 many states under this name and, in 
 effect, a court of equity. In most states 
 there are no separate courts of chancery 
 or equity, the same judge presiding over 
 the court of common law and the equity 
 court also. The court of equity origi- 
 nated the injunction, and, in many ways, 
 has larger power than a law court. 
 
 CHANDA (chan-da'), a town of India, 
 Central Provinces, surrounded by a wall 
 5^ miles long, with manufactures and a 
 considerable trade. Pop. 16,137. — The 
 District, has an area of 10,785 sq. miles, 
 a pop. of 697,610. 
 
 CHAN'DLER, William Eaton, an 
 American legislator, born in 1835 in 
 New Hampshire. He occupied several 
 positions in the departments of the 
 national government from 1865 to 1881, 
 and from the latter year to 1901 was 
 U. States senator from New Hampshire. 
 
 CHANDLER, Zachariah, an Ameri- 
 can legislator born in New Hampshire 
 in 1813, removed to Detroit in 1833, 
 and one of the organizers of the repub- 
 lican party. In 1857 he was elected 
 United States senator from Michigan and 
 was twice re-elected. In 1875-7 he was 
 secretary of the interior under Grant, 
 and in 1879 was again elected to the 
 senate. As chairman of the national 
 republican committee he aroused much 
 enmity by his forceful methods. He 
 died suddenly in 1879. 
 
 CHANG-CHOW-FOO, a city, China, 
 province of Fokien, 36 miles s.w. of 
 Amoy, which is its pert. It stands in a 
 valley surrounded by hills and inter- 
 sected by a river, and is the center of 
 the silk manufacture of the province. 
 Pop. estimated at from 800,000 to 
 1 , 000 , 000 . 
 
 CHANNEL, English, See English 
 Channel. 
 
 CHANNEL ISLANDS, a group of 
 islands in the English Channel, off the 
 w. coast of department La Manche, in 
 France. They belong to Britain, and 
 consist of Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, 
 and Sark, with some dependent islets. 
 They form the only remains of the 
 Norman provinces once subject to 
 England. Area 112 sq. miles, pop. 
 95,841. 
 
 CHANNEL TUNNEL. See English 
 Channel. 
 
 CHANNING (chan'ing), William El- 
 lery, American preacher and writer, 
 born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1780, 
 He studied at Harvard College, became 
 a decided Unitarian, and pi'opagated 
 Unitarian tenets with great zeal and 
 success. His first appointment as a 
 pastor was in 1803, when he obtained 
 the charge of a congregation in Boston, 
 and ere long be became known as one of 
 the most popular preachers of America. 
 His reputation was still further increased 
 by the publication of writings, chiefly 
 sermons, reviews, etc., on popular sub- 
 jects. He died at Burlington, Vermont, 
 in 1842. — His nephew, William Henry 
 Channing, born 1810, also a Unitarian 
 preacher (for some time at IJvcrpool) 
 
CHANT 
 
 CHARIOT 
 
 and supporter of the socialistic move- 
 ment, wrote a memoir of his uncle and 
 other works. He died in 1884. 
 
 CHANT, a short musical composition 
 consisting generally of a long reciting 
 note, on which an indefinite number of 
 words may be intoned, and a melodic 
 phrase or cadence. A single chant con- 
 sists of two strains, the first of three 
 and the second of four bars in length. 
 A double chant has the length of two 
 single ones. 
 
 CHAOS (ka'os), in old theories of the 
 earth, the void out of which sprang all 
 things or in which they existed in a con- 
 fused, unformed shape before they were 
 separated into kinds. 
 
 CHAP-BOOKS, a species of cheap 
 literature which preceded the popular 
 periodicals of the present day. They 
 usually consisted of coarsely printed 
 (and often coarsely written) publica- 
 tions sold for a copper or two, and were 
 so called because they were prepared 
 by the popular publishers expressly for 
 sale by the chapmen or pedlars, who 
 hawked them from district to district. 
 They included lives of heroes and won- 
 derful personages, tales of roguery and 
 broad humor, witch and ghost stories 
 etc. 
 
 CHAP'EL, a term applied to buildings 
 of various kinds erected for some sort of 
 religious service. 
 
 CHAPELLE, Placide Louis, an Ameri- 
 can Roman Catholic churchman, born 
 in France in 1842, and studied in Mary- 
 land. In 1891 he was made coadjutor of 
 Santa Fe, in 1897 archbishop of New 
 Orleans, and in 1899 apostolic delegate 
 to the Philippine Islands. 
 
 CHAPLAIN (chap'lin), literally a per- 
 son who is appointed to a chapel, as a 
 clergyman not having a parish or similar 
 charge, but connected with a court, the 
 household of a nobleman, an army, a 
 prison, a ship, or the like. 
 
 CHAPTER, one of the chief divisions 
 of a book. As the rules and statutes of 
 ecclesiastical establishments were ar- 
 ranged in chapters, so also the assembly 
 of the members of a religious order, and 
 of canons, was called a chapter. The 
 orders of knights used this expression 
 for the meetings of their members, and 
 some societies and corporations call 
 their assemblies chapters. 
 
 CHARADE (sha-rad' or sha-rad'), a 
 kind of riddle, the subj'ect of which is a 
 word that is proposed for discovery 
 from an enigmatical description of its 
 several syllables, taken separately as so 
 many individual and significant words. 
 When dramatic representation is used 
 to indicate the meaning of the syllables 
 and the whole word it is called an acting 
 charade. 
 
 CHAR'COAL, a term applied to an 
 impure variety of carbon, especially 
 such as is produced by charring wood. 
 One kind of it is also obtained from bones 
 (see Bone Black) ; lampblack and coke 
 are also varieties. . Wood charcoal is 
 prepared by piling billets of wood in a 
 pyramidal form, with vacuities between 
 them for the admission of air, and 
 causing them to burn slowly under a 
 covering of earth. In consequence of 
 the heat, part of the combustible sub- 
 stance is consumed, part is volatilized, 
 together with a portion of water, and 
 
 there remains behind the carbon of the 
 wood, retaining the form of the ligneous 
 tissue. Another process consists in 
 heating the wood in close vessels, by 
 which the volatile parts are driven off, 
 and a charcoal remains in the retorts, 
 not so dense as that obtained by the 
 other process. Wood charcoal, well 
 prepared, is of a deep-black color, 
 brittle, and porous, tasteless and in- 
 odorous. It is infusible in any heat a 
 furnace can raise; but by the intense 
 heat of a powerful galvanic apparatus it 
 is hardened, and at length is volatilized, 
 presenting a surface with a distinct ap- 
 pearance of having undergone fusion. 
 Charcoal is insoluble in water, and is not 
 affected by it at low temperatures ; hence, 
 wooden stakes which are to be immersed 
 in water are often charred to preserve 
 them, and the ends of posts stuck in the 
 ground are also thus treated. Owing 
 to its peculiarly porous texture, charcoal 
 possesses the property of absorbing a 
 large quantity of air or other gases at 
 common temperatures, and of yielding 
 the greater part of them when heated. 
 Charcoal likewise absorbs the odorifer- 
 ous and coloring principles of most 
 animals and vegetable suostances, and 
 hence is a valuable deodorizer and dis- 
 infectant. Water which, from having 
 been long kept in wooden vessels, as 
 during long voyages, has acquired an 
 offensive smell, is deprived of it by 
 filtration through charcoal powder. 
 Charcoal can even remove or prevent 
 the putrescence of animal matter. It 
 is used as fuel in various arts, where a 
 strong heat is required, without smoke, 
 and in various metallurgic operations. 
 By cementation with charcoal, iron is 
 converted into steel. It is used in the 
 manufacture of gunpowder. In its 
 finer state of aggregation, under the 
 form of ivoryblack, lampblack, etc., 
 it is the basis of black paint ; and mixed 
 with fat oils and resinous matter, to give 
 a due consistence, it forms the composi- 
 tion of printing-ink. 
 
 CHARENTE (sha-rant), a river in 
 Western France, rising in the depart- 
 ment of Haute-Vienne, and falling into 
 the sea about 8 miles below Rochefort, 
 opposite to the isle of Oleron, after a 
 course of aborit 200 miles. It gives its 
 name to two departments. — Charente, 
 an inland department; area, 2294 sq. 
 miles; capital Angouleme. Soil gen- 
 erally thin, dry and arid ; one-third de- 
 voted to tillage, a third to vineyards, 
 and the remainder meadows, woods, 
 and waste lands. The wines are of in- 
 ferior quality, but they yield the best 
 brandy in Europe, the- celebrated cognac 
 brandy being made in Cognac and other 
 districts. Pop. 350,305. 
 
 CHARENTE-INFERIEURE (an-fa-ri- 
 eur),a maritime department; area, 2635 
 sq. miles. Surface in general flat; soil 
 chalky and sandy, fertile, and well culti- 
 vated; a considerable portion planted 
 with -vines; salt marshes along the coast. 
 The pastures are good, and well stocked 
 with cattle, horses and sheep. Oysters 
 and sardines abound on the coast. 
 Salt and brandy are the only articles 
 manufactured to any great extent. 
 Capital La Rochelle. Pop. 452,149. 
 
 CHARGE, in heraldry, signifies the 
 various figures depicted on the escutch- 
 
 eon. — In gunnery charge signifies the 
 quantity of powder used at one dis- 
 charge of a gun. — Charge, in military 
 tactics, is the rapid advance of infantry 
 or cavalry against the enemy, with the 
 obj'ect of breaking his lines by the mo- 
 mentum of the attack. Infantry gen- 
 erally advance to about 100 yards and 
 fire, then gradually quicken their pace 
 into the charge-step, and dash at the 
 enemy’s lines. Cavalry charge in 
 echelon or column against infantry, 
 which is usually formed in squares to 
 
 v'PpAi'trA tnATn 
 
 CHARGE-b’AFFAIRES (shar-zha- 
 d&f-ar), the title of an inferior rank of 
 diplomatic agents. See Minister, For- 
 eign. 
 
 CHARIOT, a term applied to vehicles 
 used both for pleasure and in war. 
 Ancient chariots, such as those used 
 among the Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks 
 and Romans, were of various forms. 
 
 A common form was open behind and 
 closed in front, and had only two wheels. 
 In ancient warfare chariots were of great 
 importance; thus we read of the 900 
 iron chariots of Sisera, as giving him a 
 great advantage against the Israehtes. 
 The Philistines in their war against Saul 
 had 30,000 chariots. The sculptures 
 of ancient Egypt show that the chariots 
 formed the strength of the Egyptian 
 army, these vehicles being two-horsed 
 and carrying the driver and the warrior, 
 sometimes a third man, the shield- 
 bearer. There is no representation of 
 Egyptian soldiers on horse-back, and 
 consequently when Moses in his song of 
 triumph over Pharaoh speaks of the 
 “horse and his rider,” “rider” must be 
 understood to mean chariot-rider. In 
 the Egyptian chariots the framework, 
 wheels, pole, and yoke -were of wood, 
 and the fittings of the inside, the bind- 
 ings of the framework, as well as the 
 harness were chiefly of raw hide or of 
 tanned leather. We have also numbers 
 of sculptures which give a clear idea of 
 the Assyrian chariots. These resembled 
 the Egyptian in all essential features, 
 containing almost invariably three men 
 — the warrior, the shield-bearer, and the 
 charioteer. A peculiarity of both is the 
 quiver or quivers full of arrows attached 
 to the side. The Assyrian war-chariot 
 shown in the figure is drawn by three 
 horses abreast, and all the appointments 
 are rich and elaborate. It has, as will 
 be noticed, two quivers crossing each 
 other on the side, filled with arrows, and 
 each also containing a small axe. A 
 socket for holding the spear is also 
 
CHARITIES 
 
 CHARLES I. 
 
 attached. From the front of the chariot 
 a singular ornamental appendage 
 stretches forward. War-chariots had 
 sometimes scythe-like weapons attached 
 to each extremity of the axle, as among 
 the ancient Persians and Britons. 
 
 king, and divided the kingdom of the 
 Franks with his younger brother Carlo- 
 man, at whose death in 771, Charle- 
 magne made himself master of the whole 
 empire, which embraced, besides France, 
 a large part of Germany. His first great 
 
 Assyrian war-chariot. 
 
 Among the Greeks and Romans chariot- 
 races were common. In Britain the 
 name chariot was formerly given to a 
 kind of light travelling carriage. 
 
 CHARITIES, institutions for the 
 relief of the poor, sick, or otherwise 
 disabled or incompetent members of 
 society. Within the past 25 or 30 years 
 organized charity has grown with tre- 
 mendous strides until at present they 
 represent vast sums of wealth and innu- 
 merable workers, paid and .unpaid- 
 These charities care for destitute adults, 
 incurables of various kinds, criminals, 
 the sick, children, homeless aged, in- 
 digent families, and many other types 
 of pitiable persons. The majority of 
 these institutions are independent of 
 the state and are supported by private 
 donations and bequests. 
 
 CHARITIES, United, societies for 
 charitable purposes in various cities, 
 consisting of a union of many or most 
 of the charity organizations in the city. 
 These united charity organizations 
 have been established in 140 cities of 
 the U. States and in 10 Canadian cities. 
 The purpose is to secure co-ordination 
 of work and to prevent imposition, or 
 systematic deception or double dealing 
 on the part of applicants. 
 
 CHARITIES AND CORRECTION, the 
 national conference of, an organization 
 with 1500 members scattered through- 
 out the U. States, Canada, and Mexico. 
 The first meeting was held in New York 
 in 1874. In 1879 the conference met in 
 Chicago, and yearly meetings are held 
 in varions cities. A fee of $2.50 is 
 charged for membership which entitles 
 the member to the annual publications. 
 The general secretary is J. P. Byers, 
 Columbus, Ohio. 
 
 CHARITY, Sisters of. See Sisters of 
 Charity. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE (shar-le-man') , King 
 of the Franks, and subsequently Em- 
 peror of the West, was born in 742, 
 probably at Aix-la-Chapelle. His father 
 was Pepin the Short, king of the Franks, 
 son of Charles Martel. On the decease 
 of his father, in 768, he was crowned 
 
 enterprise was the conquest of the 
 Saxons, a heathen nation living between 
 the Weser and the Elbe, which he under- 
 took in 772; but it was not till 803 that 
 they were finally subdued, and brought 
 to embrace Christianity. While he was 
 combating the Saxons, Pope Adrian 
 implored his assistance against Desider- 
 ius, king of the Lombards. Charle- 
 magne immediately marched with his 
 army to Italy, took Pavia, overthrew 
 Desiderius, and was crowned King of 
 Lombardy with the iron crown. In 
 778 he repaired to Spain to assist a 
 Moorish prince, and while returning his 
 troops were surprised in the valley of 
 Roncesvalles by the Biscayans, and the 
 rear-guard defeated; Roland, one of the 
 most famous warriors of those times, 
 fell in the battle. As his power in- 
 creased, he meditated more seriously the 
 accomplishemnt of the plan of his an- 
 cestor, Charles Martel, to restore the 
 Western Empire. Having gone to 
 Italy to assist the pope, on Christmas-day 
 800 he was crowned and proclaimed 
 Caesar and Augustus by Leo III. His 
 son Pepin, who had been made king of 
 Italy, died in 810, and his death was 
 followed the next year by that of Charles 
 his eldest son. Thus of his legitimate 
 sons one only remained, Louis, king of 
 Aquitania, whom Charlemagne adopted 
 as his colleague in 813. He died Jan. 
 28, 814, in the forty-seventh year of his 
 reign, and was buried at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 his favorite and usual place of residence. 
 Charlemagne was a friend of learnitig, 
 and deserves the name of restorer of the 
 sciences and teacher of his people. He 
 attracted by his liberality the most dis- 
 tinguished scholars to his court (among 
 others, Alcuin, from England), and 
 established an academy in his palace at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, the sittings of which 
 he attended with all the scientific and 
 literary men of his court. He invited 
 teachers of language and mathematics 
 from Italy to the principal cities of the 
 empire, and founded schools of theology 
 and the liberal sciences in the monas- 
 teries. He strove to cultivate his mind 
 
 by intercourse with scholars; and, to the 
 time of his death, this intercourse 
 remained his favorite recreation. His 
 mother-tongue was a form of German, 
 but he spoke several languages readily, 
 especially the Latin, and was naturally 
 eloquent. He sought to improve the 
 liturgy and church music, and attempted 
 unsuccessfully to introduce uniformity 
 of measures and weights. He built a 
 lighthouse at Boulogne, constructed 
 several ports, encouraged agriculture, 
 and enacted wise laws. He convened 
 councils and parliaments, published 
 capitularies, wrote many letters (some 
 of which are still extant), a grammar, 
 and several Latin poems. His empire 
 comprehended France, most of Cata- 
 lonia, Navarre, and Aragon; the Nether- 
 lands, Germany as far as the Elbe, Saale, 
 and Eider, Upper and Middle Italy, 
 Istria, and a part of Sclavonia. 
 
 CHARLES I., surnamed le Chauve, or 
 the Bald, King of France, was son of 
 Louis le I)(5bonnaire, and was born 823. 
 He died in 877. CHARLES II., sur- 
 named le Gros, or the Fat, King of 
 France, is also known as Charles III., 
 emperor of Germany, and was born 
 about 832. He was the son of Louis the 
 German, and ascended the French 
 throne in 885 to the prejudice of his 
 cousin, Charles the Simple, but was 
 deposed in 887 and died the following 
 year. CHARLES III., King of France, 
 surnamed the Simple, was the son of 
 Louis the Stammerer, and born in 879, 
 died in 929. CHARLES IV., King of 
 France, surnamed le Bel, or the Hand- 
 some, third son of Philippe le Bel was 
 born in 1294, and ascended the throne 
 in 1322. He died in 1328.* CHARLES 
 V., surnamed the Wise, King of France, 
 was the son of King John, and was born 
 in 1337. He died in 1380. He erected 
 the Bastille for the purpose of over- 
 awing the Parisians. CHARLES VI., 
 surnamed the Silly. King of France, and 
 son of the foregoing, was born at Paris 
 in 1368, and in 1388 took the reins of 
 government into his own hands. Four 
 years later he lost his reason, and one of 
 the most disastrous periods of French 
 history began. Charles died in 1422. 
 CHARLES VII., King of France, was 
 born at Paris in 1403. He succeeded 
 only to the southern provinces of the 
 kingdom, Henry VI. of England being 
 proclaimed king of France at Paris. 
 The English dominion in France was 
 under the government of the Duke of 
 Bedford, and so skilfully did the Eng- 
 lish general conduct his operations that 
 Charles had almost abandoned the 
 struggle as hopeless, when the appear- 
 ance of Jeanne d’Arc, the Maid of 
 Orleans, gave, as if by a miracle, a 
 favorable turn to his affairs, and the 
 struggle ended in the expulsion of the 
 English from all their possessions in 
 France, except Calais. Charles died in 
 1461. CHARLES VIII., King of France, 
 son of Louis XI., was born in 1470, died 
 in 1498. CHARLES IX., King of France, 
 son of Henry II., and Catharine de’ 
 Medici, born in 1550, ascended the 
 throne at the age of ten years. His 
 haughty and ambitious mother seized 
 the control of the state. Along with 
 the Guises she headed the Catholic 
 League against the Calvinists, and her 
 
CHARLES IV. 
 
 CHARLES XII 
 
 tortuous and unscrupulous policy helped 
 to embitter the religious strife of the 
 factions. After a series of Huguenot 
 persecutions and civil wars a peace was 
 made in 1570, which, two years later, on 
 24th August, 1572, was treacherously 
 broken by the Massacre of St. Bartholo- 
 mew’s. The king, who had been little 
 more than the tool of his scheming 
 mother, died two years afterward, in 
 1574. CHARLES X., King of France, 
 Comte d’Artois, born at Versailles in 
 1757, grandson of Louis XV., was the 
 youngest son of the dauphin, and 
 brother of Louis XVI. He died in 1836. 
 His grandson, the Comte de Chambord 
 (which see), claimed the French throne 
 as his heir. 
 
 CHARLES IV., Emperor of Germany, 
 of the house of Luxemburg, was born 
 1316, and was the son of King John of 
 Bohemia. In 1346 he was elected 
 emperor by five of the electoral princes. 
 
 diaries V, of Germany. 
 
 while the actual emperor Louis the 
 Bavarian was still alive. On the death 
 of the latter a part of the electors 
 elected Count Gunther of Schwarzburg, 
 who soon after died; and Charles at 
 'length won over his enemies, and was 
 elected and consecrated emperor at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle. He died at Prague 
 in 1378. CHARLES V., Emperor of 
 Germany and King of Spain (in the 
 latter capacity he is called Charles I.), 
 the eldest son of Philip, archduke of 
 Austria, and of Joanna, the daughter 
 of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, was 
 born at Ghent, Feb. 24, 1500. Charles 
 was thus the grandson of the Emperor 
 Maximilian and Mary, daughter of 
 Charles the Bold, last duke of Burgundy, 
 and inherited from his grandparents on 
 both sides the fairest countries in 
 Europe, Aragon, Naples, Sicily, Sar- 
 dinia, Castile, and the colonies in the 
 New World, Austria, Burgundy, and the 
 Netherlands. On the death of Ferdi- 
 nand, his grandfather, Charles assumed 
 the title of King of Spain. Foiled in his 
 schemes and dejected with repeated 
 failures, Charles resolved to resign the 
 imperial dignity, and transfer his heredi- 
 tary estates to his son Philip. In 1555 
 he conferred on him the sovereignty of 
 the Netherlands, and on January 15, 
 1556, that of Spain, retiring himself to a 
 residence beside the monastery of Yuste, 
 ’n Estremadura, where he amused 
 himself by mechanical labors and the 
 cultivation of a garden. He still took a 
 strong interest in public affairs, though 
 latterly he was very much of an invalid, 
 
 his ill health being partly caused by his 
 high living. He died on Sept. 21, 1558. 
 CHARLES VI., German emperor, the 
 second son of the Emperor Leopold I., 
 was born Oct. 1, 1685. He was destined 
 according to the ordinary rules of in- 
 heritance to succeed his relative Charles 
 II. on the throne of Spain. But Charles 
 II. by his will made a French prince, 
 Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of 
 Louis XIV., heir to the Spanish mon- 
 archy. This occasioned the war of the 
 Spanish Succession, in which England 
 and Holland took the part of the 
 Austrian claimant. In 1733 a war with 
 France and Spain regarding the succes- 
 sion in Poland terminated unfavorably 
 for him, he having to surrender Sicily, 
 Naples, and part of Milan, to Spain, and 
 Lorraine to France. In 1737 he renewed 
 the war with the Turks, this time un- 
 successfully. Charles died Oct. 20, 1740. 
 CHARLES VII., Emperor of Germany, 
 born in 1697, was the son of Maximilian 
 Emanuel, elector of Bavaria. In 1726 
 he succeeded his father as Elector of 
 Bavaria. In support of his claims he 
 invaded Austria with an army, took 
 Prague, was crowned king of Bohemia, 
 and in 1742 was elected emperor. But 
 fortune soon deserted him. The armies 
 of Maria Theresa reconquered all Upper 
 Austria, and overwhelmed Bavaria. 
 Charles fled to Frankfort, and returning 
 to Munich in 1744, died there the fol- 
 lowing year. 
 
 CHARLES I., King of England, Scot- 
 land, and Ireland, was born at Dun- 
 fermline, Scotland, in the year 1600, 
 and was the third son of James VI. and 
 Anne of Denmark. He married Hen- 
 rietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of 
 France, and in 1625 succeeded to the 
 throne, receiving the kingdom em- 
 broiled in a Spanish war. The first 
 parliament which he summoned, being 
 
 Charles I, of England. 
 
 more disposed to state grievances than 
 grant supplies, was dissolved. Next 
 year (1626) a new parliament was sum- 
 moned; but the House proved no more 
 tractable than before, and was soon dis- 
 solved. In 1628 the king was obliged to 
 call a new parliament, which showed 
 itself as much opposed to arbitrary 
 measures as its predecessor, and after 
 voting the supplies prepared the Petition 
 of Right, which Charles was constrained 
 to pass into a law. In was in Scotland, 
 however, that formal warlike opposition 
 was destined to commence. The king 
 had on his side the great bulk of the 
 gentry, while nearly all the Puritans and 
 
 the inhabitants of the great trading 
 towns sided with the parliament. The 
 first action, the battle of Edgehill (23d 
 Oct., 1642), gave the king a slight ad- 
 vantage; but nothing very decisive 
 happened till the battle of Marston Moor, 
 in 1644, where Cromwell routed the 
 royalists. Charles at length gave him- 
 self up to the Scottish army at Newark 
 (5th May, 1646) All interposition being 
 vain, he was beheaded before the Ban- 
 queting House, Whitehall, on 30tn Jan., 
 1649, meeting his fate with great 
 dignity and composure. 
 
 CHARLES II., King of England, Ire- 
 land, and Scotland, son of Charles I. and 
 Henrietta Maria of France, was born in 
 1630. He was a refugee at the Hague on 
 the death of his father, on which he 
 immediately assumed the royal title. 
 Cromwell was then all-powerful in Eng- 
 land ; but Charles accepted an invitation 
 from the Scots, who had proclaimed him 
 their king July, 1650, and, passing over 
 
 Charles II. 
 
 to Scotland, was crowned at Scone 
 (1651). Cromwell’s approach made him 
 take refuge among the English royal- 
 ists, who, having gathered an army, 
 encountered Cromwell at Worcester, 
 and were totally defeated. With great 
 difficulty Charles escaped to France. 
 On the death of Cromwell the Restor- 
 ation, effected without a struggle by 
 General Monk, set Charles on the 
 throne after the declaration of Breda, 
 his entry into the capital (29th May, 
 1660) being made amidst universal ac- 
 clamations. In 1662 he married the 
 Infanta of Portugal, Catharine of Bra- 
 ganza, a prudent and virtuous princess, 
 but in no way calculated to acquire the 
 affection of a man like Charles. For a 
 time his measures, mainly counselled by 
 the chancellor Lord Clarendon, were 
 prudent and conciliatory. But the 
 indolence, extravagance, and licentious 
 habits of the king soon involved the 
 nation as well as himself in difficulties. 
 He died from the consequences of an 
 apoplectic fit in February, 1685, after 
 having received the sacrament accord- 
 ing to the rites of the Roman Church. 
 
 CHARLES XII., King of Sweden, was 
 born at Stockholm, June 27, 1682. On 
 the death of his father, in 1697, when he 
 was but fifteen years old, he was de- 
 clared of age by the estates. Unfor- 
 tunate in his campaigns against fhe 
 Russians he returned to his own coun- 
 try and set about the measures neces- 
 sary to defend the kingdom, and the 
 fortunes of Sweden were beginning to 
 assume a favorable aspect when he was 
 
CHARLES XIV. 
 
 CHARM 
 
 blain by a cannon-ball as he was besieg- 
 ing Frederikshall, Nov. 30, 1718. Firm- 
 ness, valor, and love of justice were the 
 great featui'es in the character of Charles, 
 but were disfigured by an obstinate 
 rashness. After his death Sweden sank 
 from the rank of a leading power. 
 CHARLES XIII., King of Sweden, was 
 born in 1748, being the second son of 
 King Adolphus Frederick. In the war 
 with Russia, in 1788, he received the 
 command of the fleet, and defeated the 
 Russians in the Gulf of Finland. He 
 adopted as his successor Marshal Berna- 
 dette, who became king on the death of 
 Charles. Feb. 5, 1818. 
 
 CHARLES XIV. See Bernadotte. 
 
 CHARLES I., King of Spain. See 
 Charles V., Emperor of Germany. 
 
 CHARLES IV., King of Spain, born 
 at Naples 12th Nov. 1748, succeeded 
 his brother Ferdinand VI. in 1788, was 
 all his life completely under the influ- 
 ence of his wife and her paramour 
 Godoy. In 1808 Charles abdicated in 
 favor of Napoleon. He died in 1819. 
 
 CHARLES, Archduke of Austria, 
 third son of the Emperor Leopold II., 
 was born in Florence 5th Sept. 1771. 
 After distinguishing himself in various 
 campaigns, in 1796 he was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the Austrian 
 army on the Rhine, and won several 
 victories against the French. In 1805 
 he commanded in Italy against Massena, 
 and won Caldiero (31st Oct.); but in the 
 campaign of 1809 in Germany against 
 Napoleon he was unsuccessful, the battle 
 of Wagram (5th and 6th July) laying 
 Austria at the feet of the French em- 
 peror. With that event the military 
 career of Charles closed. He died in 
 1847. He published several military 
 works of value. 
 
 CHARLES ALBERT, King of Sar- 
 dinia, born 1798, was the son of Charles 
 Emmanuel, prince of Savoy-Carignan. 
 He abdicated in favor of his son, Victor 
 Emmanuel, and, retiring to Portugal, 
 died 28th July, 1849. 
 
 CHARLES EDWARD STUART, called 
 the Pretender, grandson of James II. 
 king of England, son of James Edward 
 and Clementina, daughter of Prince 
 Sobieski, was born in 1720 at Rome. 
 
 Prince Charles Edwai-cl Stuart. 
 
 In 1 742 he went to Paris and persuaded 
 Louis XV. to assist him in an attempt 
 to' recover the throne of his ancestors. 
 Fifteen thousand men were on the point 
 of sailing from Dunkirk, when the Eng- 
 lish admiral Norris dispersed the whole 
 fleet. Charles now determined to trust 
 to his own exertions. .Accompanied by 
 
 seven officers he landed on the west 
 coast of Scotland, from a small ship call- 
 ed the Doutelle. Many Lowland nobles 
 and Highland chiefs went over to his 
 party. With a small army thus formed 
 he marched forward, captured Perth, 
 then Edinburgh (Sept. 17, 1745), de- 
 feated an army of 4000 British under 
 Sir John Cope at Prestonpans (Sept. 22), 
 and advancing obtained possession of 
 Carlisle. He now caused his father to 
 be proclaimed king, and himself regent 
 of England; removed his head-quarters 
 to Manchester, and soon found him- 
 self within 100 miles of London, where 
 many of his friends awaited his arrival. 
 The rapid successes of the adventurer 
 now caused a part of the British forces 
 in Germany to be recalled. Want of 
 support, disunion, and jealousy among 
 the adherents of the house of Stuart, 
 some errors, and the superior force op- 
 posed to him, compelled Prince Charles 
 to retire in the beginning of 1746. He 
 latterly fell into habits of intoxication, 
 and he died Jan. 31, 1788. 
 
 CHARLES MARTEL', ruler of the 
 Franks, was a son of Pepin Heristal. 
 His father had governed as mayor of 
 the palace under the weak Frankish 
 kings with so much justice that he was 
 enabled to make his office hereditary 
 in his family. Chilperic II.. king of the 
 Franks, refusing to acknowledge Charles 
 Martel as mayor of the palace, the latter 
 deposed him, and set Clothaire IV. in his 
 place. After the death of Clothaire he 
 restored Chilperic, and subsequently 
 placed Thierri on the throne. Charles 
 Martel rendered his rule famous by the 
 great victory which he gained in Octo- 
 ber, 732, over the Saracens, near Tours, 
 from which he acquired the name of 
 Martel, signifying hammer. He died 
 741. Charlemagne was his grandson. 
 See Charlemagne. 
 
 CHARLES THE BOLD, Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, son of Philip the Good and Isa- 
 bella of Portugal, born at Dijon Nov. 10, 
 1433. While his father yet lived Charles 
 left Burgundy, and foi'ming an alliance 
 with some of trie great French nobles for 
 the purpose of preserving the power of 
 the feudal nobility, he marched on Paris 
 with 20,000 men, defeated Louis XI. at 
 Montlh6ri, and won the counties of 
 Boulogne, Guines, and Ponthieu. Suc- 
 ceeding his father in 1467 be commenced 
 his reign by severe repression of the 
 citizens of Liege and Ghent. Charles 
 now turned his arms against the Swiss, 
 took the city of Granson, putting 800 
 men to the sword. But this cruelty was 
 speedily avenged by the descent of a 
 Swiss army, which at the first shock 
 routed the duke’s forces at Granson, 
 March 3, 1476. Mad with rage and 
 shame Charles gathered another army, 
 invaded Switzerland, and was again 
 defeated with great loss at Morat. The 
 Swiss, led by the Duke of Lorraine, now 
 undertook the reconquest of Lorraine, 
 and obtained possession of Nancy. 
 Charles marched to recover it, but was 
 utterly routed and himself slain. 
 
 CHARLESTON, a city and seaport of 
 South Carolina, on a tongue of land 
 formed by the confluence of the rivers 
 Cooper and Ashley, which unite just 
 below the city, and form a spacious and 
 convenient harbor extending about 
 
 miles to the Atlantic, and defended by 
 several forts. The city is regularly laid 
 out, most of the principal thoroughfares 
 being 60 to 70 feet wide and bordered 
 with fine shade-trees. It is much the 
 
 largest town in the state, and is one of 
 the leading commercial cities in the 
 south. The staple exports are cotton 
 (to the value of, say, $20,000,000 
 annually), cotton-seed, rice, rosin and 
 turpentine, lumber, and phosphate. The 
 civil war greatly damaged the trade, but 
 there has since been marked commer- 
 cial and industrial progress. Yellow 
 fever has made frequent ravages in 
 Charleston, but on the whole it is 
 considered more healthy than most 
 other Atlantic towns in the southern 
 states. It was the scene of the out- 
 break of the civil war on April 12, 1861, 
 and was evacuated by the Confederates 
 on February 17, 1865. On 31st August, 
 1886, the coast region of the U. States 
 from Alabama to New York experienced 
 a series of earthquake shocks, from which 
 Charleston inparticularsuffered severely, 
 many lives and about five million dollars 
 worth of property being destroyed. 
 Pop. 64.000. 
 
 CHARLESTON, the county seat of 
 Kanawha county, and capital of West 
 Virginia, is situated on the Kanawha 
 river at the confluence of Elk river 65 
 miles from its mouth and 150 miles s.s.w. 
 of Wheeling. Pop. 13,109. 
 
 CHARLOTTE, a city and county- 
 seat of Mecklenburg County, N. C., 125 
 miles west by south of Raleigh, on Sugar 
 Creek, and on the Southern and the Sea- 
 board Air-line railroads. It is in the 
 gold region of the State, and a branch 
 mint was established here in 1838. Pop. 
 21,040. 
 
 CHARLOTTENBURG (shar-lot'en- 
 buvh), a town of Prussia, on the Spree, 
 about 3 miles from Berlin, with a ro 3 'al 
 palace and park, great teclmical school 
 or college, also a number of industrial 
 and maufacturing establishments. Pop. 
 189,290. 
 
 CHARLOTTE-RUSSE (shar'lot-rus), a 
 dish made of whipped-cream surrounded 
 with a border of sponge-cake. 
 
 CHARM, anything believed to possess 
 some occult or supernatural power, such 
 as an amulet, spell, etc., but properly 
 
 / 
 
CHARNEL-HOUSE 
 
 CHATHAM 
 
 applied (as the name, derived from Lat. 
 carmen, a song, indicates) to spells 
 couched in formulas of words or verses. 
 
 CHARNEL-HOUSE, a chamber or 
 building under or near churches where 
 the bones of the dead are deposited. 
 
 CHARON (ka'ron). in Greek mythol- 
 ogy, the son of Erebus and Night. It 
 was his office to ferry the dead in his 
 crazy boat over the rivers of the infernal 
 regions, for which office he received an 
 obolus, or farthing, which accordingly 
 was usually put into the mouth of the 
 deceased. He was represented as an 
 old man, with a gloomy aspect, matted 
 beard, and tattered garments. 
 
 CHART, a hydrographical or marine 
 map, that is a draft or projection _ of 
 some part of the earth’s surface, with 
 the coasts, islands, rocks, banks, chan- 
 nels, or entrances into harbors, rivers, 
 and bays, the points of compass, sound- 
 ings, or depth of water, etc., to regulate 
 the courses of ships in their voyages. 
 The term chart is applied to a marine 
 map ; map is applied to a draft of 
 some portion of land (often including 
 sea also). A plane chart is one in which 
 the meridians are supposed parallel to 
 each other, the parallels of latitude at 
 equal distances, and of course the de- 
 grees of latitude and longitude every- 
 where equal to each other. A great 
 number of excellent charts are pro- 
 duced by the hjffirographic department 
 of the British admiralty. The United 
 States Coast Survey Department pro- 
 duces similar charts. 
 
 CHARTER, a franchise or power, 
 given to a corporation by a state en- 
 abling the corporation to perform the 
 functions described in the charter. 
 Charters were granted by the English 
 kings to all sorts of associations in 
 the American colonies. In the' United 
 States today corporations of all kinds 
 are chartered by legislatures, inclusive 
 of the cities incorporated within the 
 state. Thus all public or civic corpora- 
 tions, of whatever kind, being creatures 
 of the state, can be nullified or destroyed 
 by the state at the will of the legislature. 
 But the state cannot nullify the charter 
 of a private corporation as this is for- 
 bidden by the federal constitution 
 which provides that no state can pass 
 a law impairing the obligation of con- 
 tracts — unless this power is reserved 
 by the state when it grants the 
 ctis-rtsr 
 
 CHARTER-HOUSE, a celebrated 
 school and charitable foundation in the 
 city of London. In 1371 Sir Walter 
 Manny built and endowed it as a priory 
 for Carthusian monks (hence the name, 
 a corruption of Chartreuse, the cele- 
 brated Carthusian convent). After the 
 dissolution of the monasteries it passed 
 through several hands till it came into 
 the possession of Thomas Sutton, who 
 converted it into a hospital and school, 
 richly endowed, consisting of a master, 
 
 reacher, head schoolmaster, forty-four 
 
 qys and eighty decayed gentlemen, 
 vdth a physician and other officers and 
 servants. Among famous men who 
 have received their education at the 
 Charter-house are Isaac Barrow, Addi- 
 son, Steele, .lohn Wesley, Blackstone, 
 Grote, Thirlwall, Havelock, John Leech, 
 and Thackeray. 
 
 CHARTER OAK, a great oak tree In 
 Hartford, Conn., which was blown down 
 in 1856, and which was believed to have 
 been standing for 1000 years previously. 
 It received its name from the tradition 
 that the charter of Connecticut had been 
 concealed in its hollow. 
 
 CHARTREUSE (shar-trewz) or GREAT 
 CHARTREUSE, a famous Carthusian 
 monastery in Southeastern France, a 
 little northeast of Grenoble, situated 
 at the foot of high mountains, 3280 
 feet above sea-level, the head-quarters 
 of the order of the Carthusians. It was 
 founded in 1084, but the present build- 
 ing, a huge, plain-looking pile, dates 
 from 1676. The monks of this mon- 
 astery manufacture the well-known 
 liquor called Chartreuse, which owes its 
 special properties to the aromatic plants 
 growing on the Alps. 
 
 CHARYBDIS (ka-rib'dis), an eddy or 
 whirlpool in the Straits of Messina, cele- 
 brated in ancient times, and regarded 
 as the more dangerous to navigators 
 because in endeavoring to escape it they 
 ran the risk of being wrecked upon 
 Scylla, a rock opposite to it. There are 
 several whirlpools in this region which 
 may have been dangerous enough to the 
 undecked boats of the Greeks, but none, 
 which the modern navigator with due 
 caution may not easily pass. 
 
 CHASE: (1) in printing, an iron frarne 
 used to^ confine types when set in 
 columns or pages. (2) The part of a 
 gun between the trunnions and the 
 swell of the muzzle, or in modern guns, 
 in which the muzzle has no swell, the 
 whole of that part of a gun which is in 
 front of the trunnions. 
 
 CHASE, Salmon Portland, American 
 statesman and jurist, born in New Hamp- 
 shire, 1808. Having adopted the law 
 as his profession he settled at Cincinnati 
 and acquired a practice there. He early 
 showed himself an opponent of slavery, 
 and was the means of founding the Free- 
 soil party, which in time gave rise to the 
 great Republican party — the power that 
 brought the downfall of slavery. In 
 1849-55 he was a member of the United 
 States Senate, in which he vigorously 
 opposed the extension of slavery into the 
 new territories. In 1855 he was elected 
 governor of Ohio, being re-elected in 
 1857. In 1860 he was a.n unsuccessful 
 candidate for the presidency. In 1861 
 he was nominated secretary of the 
 treasury, and in this post was signally 
 successful in providing funds for carry- 
 ing on the civil war. In 1864 he resigned 
 office, and was appointed chief-justice 
 of the supreme courts. He died in 1783. 
 
 CHASING is the art of working 
 decorative forms in low-relief in gold, 
 silver, or other metals. It is generally 
 practised in connection with repouss6 
 work, in which the figures are punched 
 out from behind and are then sculptured 
 on the front or chased with the graver. 
 
 CHASSEPOT RIFLE (shas-p6), a 
 breech-loading rifle, named after its 
 inventor, and adopted as the firearm 
 of the French infantry in 1866, but since 
 given up. It was about 4 lbs. lighter 
 than the needle-gun and about 1 lb. 
 lighter than the Martini-Henry rifle. 
 
 CHASSEURS (shas-ear), a name given 
 to various sections of light infantry and 
 cavalry in the French service. 
 
 CHAS'UBLE, the upper garment worn 
 by a priest during the celebration of 
 mass. It was originally circular, had a 
 hole in the middle for the head, but no 
 holes for the arms. In later times the 
 sides were cut away to give a freer 
 
 A, Ancient form of chasuble: 1, Apparel of the 
 neck. 2232, Chasuble. 3 3, Orphreys of the 
 chasuble. 4, The stole. 5 5, The alb. 6, Ap- 
 parel of the alb. 7. The maniple. 
 
 B, Modern form of chasuble. 
 
 motion to the arms, and it has now 
 become an oblong garment hanging 
 down before and behind, made of rich 
 materials, as silk, velvet, cloth of gold, 
 and has a cross embroidered on the 
 back. 
 
 CHAT, the popular name of birds of 
 the family Sylviadse or warblers. They 
 are small, lively birds, moving inces- 
 santly and rapidly about in pursuit of 
 the insects on which they chiefly live. 
 There are three species found in Britain, 
 the stone-chat, whin-chat, and wheatear. 
 The yellow-breasted chat of the United 
 States is a larger bird, belonging to the 
 family Turdidse or thrushes. 
 
 CHATEAU (sha-to), the French term 
 for a castle or mansion in the country; 
 a country-seat. — Chateau en Espagne, 
 literaly, a castle in Spain; a castle in 
 the air: a phrase of doubtful origin. 
 
 CHATEAUBRIAND (sha-to-bri-an), 
 Frangois Auguste, Vicomte de, a cele- 
 brated French author and politician, 
 was born at St. Malo in Brittany, of a 
 noble family, September 14, 1768. After 
 serving in the navy and the army he 
 travelled in North America; but the 
 news of the flight of Louis XVI. and his 
 arrest at Varennes brought him back 
 to France. Shortly after he quitted 
 France and joined with other emigrants 
 the Prussian army on the Rhine. In 
 1800 he returned to France, and in the 
 following year published his romance 
 of Atala, the sc.ene of which is laid in 
 America, and the year after his cele- 
 brated work, Le G4nie du Christianisme, 
 which is a kind of brilliant picture of 
 Christianity in an sesthetic and romantic 
 aspect. Style, power of description, and 
 eloquence are the merits of the book 
 rather than any depth of thought; but 
 it carried the author’s reputation far 
 and wide, and contributed much to the 
 religious reaction of the time. In his 
 later years he wrote several works, but 
 none of the value of his earlier produc- 
 tions. He died 4th July, 1848. 
 
 CHATHAM, William Pitt, Earl of, 
 one of the most illustrious statesmen of 
 
CHATTANOOGA 
 
 Briiainj the son of Robert Pitt of 
 Boconnoc, in Cornwall, born Nov. 15, 
 1708, and educated at Eton and Oxford. 
 He entered parliament and soon at- 
 tracted notice as a powerful opponent 
 of Walpole. In spite of the king’s dis- 
 like Pitt was powerful enough to win a 
 
 William Pitt, Earl of Chatham. 
 
 place in the administration (1746), first 
 as vice-treasurer of Ireland, and after- 
 ward as paymaster-general. In 1756 
 he became secretary of state and real 
 head of the government. Dismissed in 
 1757 on account of his opposition to the 
 king’s Hanoverian policy, no stable 
 administration could be formed without 
 him, and he returned to power the same 
 year in conjunction with the Duke of 
 Newcastle. In was under this adminis- 
 tration and entirely under the inspira- 
 tion of Pitt that Britain rose to a place 
 among the nations she had not before 
 occupied. Wolfe and Clive, both stimu- 
 lated and supported in their great 
 designs by Pitt, won Canada and India 
 from the French, and the support the 
 Great Commoner gave Frederick of 
 Prussia contributed not a little to the 
 destruction of French predominance in 
 Europe. The accession of George III. 
 brought Lord Bute into power, and 
 Pitt, disagreeing with Bute, resigned in 
 1761. In 1766 he strongly advocated 
 conciliatory measures toward the Amer- 
 ican colonies, and undertook the same 
 year to form an administration, he going 
 to the House of Lords as Earl of Chat- 
 ham. But the ministry was not a suc- 
 cess, and in 1768 he resigned. After this 
 his principal work was his appeals for a 
 conciliatory policy toward the colonies. 
 But his advice was disregarded, and the 
 colonies declared themselves independ- 
 ent in 1776. Chatham died May 11, 
 1778. He received a public funeral and 
 a magnificent monument in Westminster 
 Abbey. The character of Chatham was 
 marked by integrity, disinterestedness, 
 and patriotism. With great oratorical 
 gifts and the insight of a great states- 
 man he had liberal and elevated senti- 
 ments; but he was haughty and showed 
 too marked a consciousness of his own 
 superiority. 
 
 CHAT'TANOO'GA, a city and county- 
 seat of Plamilton Co., Tenn., 150 miles 
 southeast of Nashville, on the Tennes- 
 see River. The river is navigable eight 
 months of the year as far as this place, 
 and several lines of railroad pass through 
 the city, making it an important rail- 
 road center. The Chickamauga Na- 
 tional Military Park, laid out by the 
 Federal Government on the site of the ' 
 
 CHEESE 
 
 battle of Chickamauga, is south by east 
 of the city, and was dedicated in 1895. 
 Another feature of interest is the 
 National Cemetery, one of the largest 
 in the country, containing 13,322 graves. 
 Pop. 84,000. 
 
 CHATTELS, property movable and 
 immovable, not being freehold. The 
 word chattel is originally the same word 
 with cattle, formed from late Latin 
 capitalia, meaning heads of cattle, from 
 L. caput, head. Chattels are divided 
 into real and personal. Chattels real are 
 such as belong not to the person im- 
 mediately, but dependently upon some- 
 I thing, as an interest in a land or tene- 
 ment, or a lease, or an interest in ad- 
 vowsons. Any interest in land or tene- 
 ments, for example, is a real chattel; so 
 also is a lease, an interest in advowsons, 
 etc. Chattels personal are goods which 
 belong immediately to the person of the 
 owner, and include all movable property. 
 
 CHATTERERS, the popular name of 
 certain insessorial birds of the family 
 Ampelidse, as the Bohemian chatterer 
 or waxwing and the chatterer of Caro- 
 lina. 
 
 CHATTERTON, Thomas, a youth 
 whose genius and melancholy fate have 
 gained him much celebrity, was born 
 at Bristol in 1752, of poor parents, and 
 educated at a charity school. The most 
 remarkable of his poems are those pub- 
 lished under the name of, Rowley, 
 spurious antiques, such as The Tragedy 
 of AHla, The Battle of Hastings, The 
 Bristow Tragedy, etc. He committed 
 suicide in 1776. 
 
 CHAU'CER, Geoffrey, “the father of 
 English poetry,’’ born in London prob- 
 ably about 1340; died there on the 25th 
 of October, 1400. Nothing is known of 
 his education, but in 1356-59 he was a 
 
 Geoffrey Cliaucer. 
 
 page to Princess Lionel. In 1367 we 
 find his name as a valet of the king’s 
 chamber. Between 1370 and 1380 he 
 was employed abroad in seven diplo- 
 matic missions. In one of these, in 
 1372, he was sent to Genoa as a com- 
 missioner to negotiate a commercial 
 treaty. In 1374 he was appointed 
 comptroller of the customs on wool at 
 London. In 1377 he was sent to Flan- 
 ders and France on diplomatic business 
 and next year to Lombardy. In 1382 
 he was appointed comptroller of the 
 petty customs. In 1386 he was returned 
 to parliament as knight of the shire for 
 Kent, but in the same year he shared 
 the disgrace of his patron, John of 
 
 Gaunt, was dismissed from his comp- 
 trollerships, and reduced to a state of 
 comparative poverty. His most cele- 
 brated work. The Canterbury Tales, was 
 written at different periods between 
 1373 and 1400. It consists of a series 
 of tales in verse (two in prose), supposed 
 to be told by a company of pilgrims to 
 the shrine of St. Thomas (Becket) at 
 Canterbury in 1386. In its pages we get 
 such pictures of English life and English 
 ways of thought in the 14th century as 
 are found nowhere else. Besides his 
 great work Chaucer wrote many poems, 
 some of which are founded on French 
 or Italian works. He was buried in Wes- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 CHAUFFEUR (sh^'fer) a French 
 word, meaning stoker, applied generally 
 to the operator of an automobile. It 
 also is used to designate certain ruffians 
 who during the French Revolution ter- 
 rorized the country districts by garrot- 
 ing helpless persons. 
 
 CHAUTAU'QUA, a beautiful lake in 
 New York, 18 miles long and 1 to 3 
 broad, 726 feet above Lake Erie, from 
 which it is 8 miles distant. On its 
 banks is the ^'illage of Chautauqua, 
 the center of a religious and educa- 
 tional movement of some interest. 
 This originated in 1874, when the village 
 was selected as a summer place of meet- 
 ing for all interested in Sunday-schools 
 and missions. Since then the Chautauqua 
 Literary and Scientific Circle has taken 
 origin here, the most prominent feature 
 of which is to engage the members — 
 wherever they may reside — in a regular 
 and systematic course of reading, ex- 
 tending, when completed, over four 
 years and entitling the student to a 
 diploma. There are many local branches 
 or societies, and it is attempted to start 
 the movement in Britain. 
 
 CHAUVINISM (sho'viu-izm), an un- 
 reflecting and fanatical devotion to any 
 cause, especially'hn exaggerated patriot- 
 ism, so called from Nicholas Chauvin, 
 a soldier so enthusiastically devoted to 
 Napoleon I. and so demonstrative in his 
 adoration that his comrades turned him 
 into ridicule. 
 
 CHECK. See Cheque. 
 
 CHECKERS, the common ■ name for 
 the game of draughts. 
 
 CHED'DAR, a parish and thriving 
 village, England, county Somerset, 18 
 miles s.w. Bristol. The dairies in the 
 neighborhood have long been famous 
 for the excellence of their cheese, which 
 is made from the whole milk, on a highly 
 approved method now widely practised. 
 
 CHEESE, one of the most important 
 products of the dairy, is composed 
 principally of casein, which exists in 
 cows’ milk to the extent of about 3 or 4 
 per cent, fat, and water. It is made 
 from milk, skimmed wholly, partiallj’', 
 or not at all, the milk being curdled or 
 coagulated, and the watery portion or 
 whey separated from the insoluble curd, 
 which being then worked into a uniform 
 mass, salted (as a rule), and pressed in 
 a vat or mold forms cheese, but requires 
 to be cured or ripened for a time before 
 being used. The coagulation of the milk 
 may be effected either by adding an acid 
 as in Holland, or sour milk as in Switzer- 
 land, or rennet as usual in Britain and 
 this country. There are a great many 
 
CHEIROMANCY 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 varieties of cheese, of which the most 
 notable are Stilton, Cheshire, Cheddar, 
 Dunlop, among British; and Parmesan, 
 Gruy^re, Gorgonzola, Gouda, among 
 foreign ones. In the United States 
 immense quantities of cheese are made, 
 almost all the different European kinds 
 being imitated. Large factories are 
 devoted to the manufacture. Other 
 kinds are known as sour-milk, skimmed- 
 milk, cream, sweet-milk, etc., cheese. 
 Sheep’s and goat’s milk cheese are 
 also made. The output of cheese in 
 the United States is upward of 300,- 
 00,000 pounds annually. New York 
 and Wisconsin are the two most pro- 
 ductive states, and production has been 
 materially assisted by the experiments 
 of the United States agricultural de- 
 artment with various ferments which 
 asten the process. 
 
 CHEIROMANCY (ki'ro-), or PALM- 
 ISTRY, the art of divining by inspection 
 of the lines of the hand; it was prac- 
 tised in India in the remotest ages; in 
 Europe, during the middle ages, it was 
 in great repute, but latterly it took re- 
 fuge among the gypsies, who to this day 
 find profit in the exercise of their fav- 
 
 OFltO fliPt 
 
 CHEIROPTERA (kl-rop'te-ra), or 
 BATS, an order of mammals, the essen- 
 tial character of which is the possession 
 of a patagium, or expansion of the in- 
 tegument of the body which connects 
 the tail throughout its whole length to 
 the hinder limbs as far as the ankle, and 
 thence passes along the side of the body 
 to the fore-limbs, which are greatly 
 elongated, and give support and varied 
 movement to the expansion (which is 
 popularly called the wing) by means of 
 the very Jong and slender digits. Other 
 mammals, as some of the squirrels and 
 the flying lemur, have the power of 
 gliding through the air for some dis- 
 tance, but none of them have the power 
 of sustained flight, nor are the anterior 
 extremities modified in the same way 
 as are those of the bats. The Cheirop- 
 tera are divided into two sub-orders. 
 Fruit-eaters, and Insect-eaters. (See 
 Bat.) 
 
 CHE-KIANG, a maritime province, 
 China, between lat. 27° and 31° n., and 
 including the Chusan Archipelago ; area, 
 39,150 sq. miles; pop. . 11,588,692. It 
 is traversed by the Grand Canal, and 
 has as its principal ports Ningpo and 
 Hangchow, the capital. Staple exports, 
 silk and tea. 
 
 CHELONIANS (ke-lo'-), or CHE- 
 LONIA, an order of reptiles including 
 the tortoises and turtles, and distin- 
 guished by the body being inclosed in a 
 double shell, out of which the head, tail, 
 and four legs protrude. See Tortoise, 
 Turtle. 
 
 CHELSEA (chel'se), a suburb of Lon- 
 don, and a mun. and pari, borough, on 
 the Thames, opposite Battersea, and 
 chiefly distinguished for containing a 
 royal military hospital, originally com- 
 menced by James I. as a theological 
 college, but converted by Charles II. 
 for the reception of sick, maimed, and 
 superannuated soldiers. The building 
 was finished in 1692 by Sir Christopher 
 Wren. Connected with the hospital is a 
 royal military asylum, founded in 1801, 
 for the education and maintenance of 
 P. E.— 17 
 
 soldiers’ children. The parliamentary 
 borough returns one member. Pop. 
 pari. bor. 93,841. 
 
 CHELSEA, a city in Suffolk Co., Mass., 
 and a suburb of Boston, from which it is 
 distant 2 miles, on the Boston and Maine 
 Railroad. It is connected with Charles- 
 town by a bridge across the Mystic 
 River, and with Boston by ferry and 
 steam and electric railroads. Pop. 
 40,000. 
 
 CHELTENHAM (chel'tn-am), a mu- 
 nicipal and parliamentary borough and 
 fashionable watering-place in England, 
 in the county of Gloucester, beautifully 
 situated on the small river Clhelt, within 
 the shelter of the Cotswold Hills. It 
 grew rapidly into a place of fashionable 
 resort after the discovery of its saline, 
 sulphuric, and chalybeate springs in 
 1716, to which, in 1788, George III. 
 paid a visit. Pop. 49,439. 
 
 CHEMICAL RAYS, a not very appro- 
 priate name given to the blue and 
 violet rays of the spectrum, and also 
 the non-luminous rays at the violet end 
 of the spectrum, which have a peculiarly 
 powerful chemical effect on silver com- 
 pounds. 
 
 CHEMISTRY, the science which treats 
 of the nature, laws of combination, and 
 mutual actions of the minute particles 
 of the different sorts of matter compos- 
 ing our universe, and the properties of 
 the compounds they form. As a science 
 it is entirely of modern origin, in its 
 earliest phases being identical with 
 alchemy (which see), the great object of 
 which was the discovery of the philoso- 
 pher’s stone. In this pursuit most 
 minerals, especially such as presented 
 the characters of metallic ores, were sub- 
 jected to numerous experiments, and 
 many important isolated discoveries 
 were made by Basil Valentine, Raymond 
 Lully, Paracelsus, Van Helmont, and 
 others. But during the latter part of 
 the 17th century the belief in alchemy 
 was greatly on the wane, and just at its 
 close the German chemist Becher threw 
 out certain speculations regarding the 
 cause of combustion, which were after- 
 ward taken up and extended by Stahl 
 in the “phlogistic theory,’’ and consti- 
 tute the first generalization of the 
 phenomena of chemistry, though the 
 theory itself was diametrically opposed 
 to the truth. About the middle of the 
 18th century Dr. Black made his great 
 discovery of a gas differing from atmos- 
 pheric air, rapidly followed by that of a 
 number of other gases by Cavendish, 
 Rutherford, Priestley, Scheele, etc.; and 
 the discovery of oxygen by the two 
 last-named chemists afforded to La- 
 voisier the means of revolutionizing and 
 systematizing the science. By a series 
 of experiments he showed that all sub- 
 stances, when burned, absorb oxygen, 
 and that the weight of the products of 
 combustion is exactly equal to that of 
 the combustible consumed and of the 
 oxygen which has disappeared. The 
 application of this theory to the great 
 majority of the most important chemical 
 phenomena was obvious, and the Stahl- 
 ian hypothesis disappeared from the 
 science. A yet more important step 
 was the discovery by Dalton of the laws 
 of chemical combination. His theory 
 was immediately taken up by Berzelius, 
 
 to whose influence and careful deter- 
 mination of the chemical equivalents of 
 almost all the elements then known, its 
 rapid adoption was mainly due. To 
 Berzelius we owe almost all the modern 
 improvements in the methods of analy- 
 sis, and to Sir H. Davy the foundation 
 of electro-chemistry. Of late years 
 every branch of the science has ad- 
 vanced, but the most extraordinary 
 progress has been made in organic 
 chemistry. The investigations of chem- 
 ists have shown that the great ma- 
 jority of the different substances fo\md 
 at the surface of the earth can be 
 broken up into several substances of 
 less complicated nature, which resist all 
 further attempts to decompose them, 
 and appear to consist of only one kind of 
 matter. These substances, by union 
 of which all the different sorts of known 
 matter are built up, are about seventy 
 in number, and are called the chemical 
 elements. When any two or more of 
 these elements are brought in contact, 
 under the proper conditions, they may 
 unite and form chemical compounds 
 of greater or less complexity, in which 
 the constituents are held in union by a 
 form of energy which has received the 
 name of chemical affinity. This affinity 
 is characterized by its acting between 
 dissimilar particles, and producing a 
 new kind of matter, readily distinguish- 
 able from either of the substances com- 
 bining to form it, and which cannot be 
 again separated into its elements by 
 merely mechanical processes. 
 
 The properties of chemical com- 
 pounds may be classified not merely 
 under the head of the particular ele- 
 ments they contain, but also according 
 to their special chemical functions. The 
 advantages of the latter method were 
 early recognized, and the distinction 
 between acids and alkalies dates back 
 to a period long previous to the ascer- 
 tainment of their true nature. These, 
 and the class of salts which are produced 
 by the mutual action of an acid and a 
 base, are the most important classes of 
 chemical compounds. An acid is now 
 described as a compound containing a 
 certain quantity of hydrogen, easily 
 replaceable by a metal when it comes 
 in contact with it either in the free state 
 or as an oxide. 
 
 Bases are compounds which, by re- 
 acting on acids, yield salts. The most 
 important bases are oxides of metals, 
 and they are divided into several sec- 
 tions, of which the most important are 
 the alkalies. These substances are the 
 hydrates of the so-called alkaline metals, 
 and may be compared to water in which 
 an atom of hydrogen is replaced by an 
 atom of metal. Most of the bases, ex- 
 cepting the alkalies, are insoluble in 
 water, and without any effect on vege- 
 table colors. Another class of bases of 
 great importance is typified by ammonia. 
 
 Sulphides are compounds of the 
 metals with sulphur, and form a very 
 important class of compounds. They 
 are obtained either by heating the 
 metals with sulphur in proper propor- 
 tions, or by passing a current of hydro- 
 sulphuric acid gas through a solution of 
 a salt. They exist abundantly in the 
 mineral kingdom, and form some of the 
 most important ores. Some of the sul- 
 
CHEMIOTS 
 
 GHERUB 
 
 phides are capable of acting as bases and 
 others as acids, and by combination a 
 class of salts, usually distinguished as sul- 
 phur salts, can be obtained. The greater 
 part of the sulphides are insoluble in 
 water,and some of them possess extreme- 
 ly fine colors, and are used as paints. 
 
 Organic chemistry is that oranch of 
 the science which treats of the com- 
 pounds existing in plants and animals, 
 or which may be produced from sub- 
 stances found ready formed in their 
 tissues. It was at first believed that 
 these compounds were peculiar in their 
 constitution, quite distinct in their 
 chemical relations, and produced by 
 what was called vital affinity. The dis- 
 covery by Wohler, however, that urea 
 could be produced artificially from 
 purely mineral substances entirely 
 altered this view; and since then the 
 artificial production of many organic 
 compounds has practically annulled the 
 distinction between organic and in- 
 organic chemistry except as a matter 
 of convenience. Organic chemistry is 
 now most commonly defined as the 
 chemistry of the carbon compounds, 
 for that element is found in every sub- 
 stance which can be extracted from 
 plants and animals, in combination with 
 hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and less 
 frequently with sulphur and phosphorus. 
 These elements are so combined as in 
 many cases to form compounds of ex- 
 treme complexity, the constitution of 
 some of which is still a matter of much 
 difference of opinion among chemists; 
 but the constitution of the simpler 
 organic compounds is now thoroughly 
 understood. 
 
 CHEMISTS and DRUGGISTS, in the 
 
 United States, retail venders of drugs 
 and various chemical reagents. They 
 are regulated by law and prohibited 
 from indiscriminately selling certain 
 poisons and other drugs that are deemed 
 dangerous or may be used for criminal 
 purposes. 
 
 CHEMNITZ (fcem'nits), the principal 
 manufacturing town in the kingdom of 
 Saxony, on the Chemnitz, 39 miles 
 southwest of Dresden. The principal 
 manufactures are white and printed 
 calicoes, ginghams, handkerchiefs, wool- 
 en and half-woolen goods, etc. There 
 are also extensive cotton-spinning mills, 
 and mills for the spinning of combed 
 wool and floss-silk; dye-works, print- 
 works, bleach-works, chemical works; 
 large manufactures of cotton hose, etc. 
 Pop. 206,584. 
 
 CHEMULPO (che-mul'po), one of the 
 new treaty-ports of Korea, exporting 
 beans, ginseng, etc., and importing 
 European and American manufactures. 
 
 CHENEY, Charles Edward, an Ameri- 
 can bishop of the Reformed Episcopal 
 Church, born in New York in 1836. He 
 was ordained in the Protestant Epis- 
 copal church and in 1873 he joined the 
 reformed church in Chicago. 
 
 CHENG, a Chinese musical instru- 
 ment, consisting of a series of tubes 
 having free reeds. Its introduction into 
 Europe led to the invention of the 
 accordion, harmonium, and other free- 
 reed instruments. 
 
 CHENILLE (she-nil'), a sort of orna- 
 mantal fabric of cord-like form, made 
 by weaving or twisting together warp- 
 
 threads, with a transverse filling or 
 weft, the loose ends of which project all 
 round in the form of a pile. Chenille 
 carpets have a weft of chenille, the 
 loose threads of which produce a fine 
 velvety pile. 
 
 CHEOPS (ke'ops), the name given by 
 Herodotus to the Egyptian despot whom 
 the Egyptians themselves called Khufu. 
 He belonged to the rulers who had for 
 their capital Memphis; lived about 
 2800-2700 B.C., and built the largest of 
 the pyramids. According to Herodotus 
 he employed 100,000 men on this work 
 constantly for 20 years. 
 
 CHEPHREN (kef'ren), or CEPHREN, 
 was the successor of Cheops as king of 
 Egypt, and the builder of the second 
 pyramid. His name is properly Khafra. 
 
 CHEQUE, or CHECK, a draft or bill 
 on a bank payable on presentation. A 
 check may be drawn payable to the 
 bearer, or to the order of some one 
 named: the first form is transferable 
 without endorsation, and payable to 
 any one who presents it; the second 
 must be endorsed, that is the person in 
 whose favor it is drawn must write his 
 name on the back of it. Checks are a 
 very important species of mercantile 
 currency wherever there is a well- 
 organized system of banking. The 
 regular use of them for all payments, 
 except of small amount, makes the 
 transfer of funds a mere matter of cross- 
 entries and transferring of balances 
 among bankers, and tends greatly to 
 economize the use of the precious metals 
 as a currency. 
 
 CHER (shar), a department of Cen- 
 tral France, named from the river Cher, 
 and formed from part of the old prov- 
 inces of Berry and Bourbonnais; area, 
 2779 square miles; capital, Bourges. 
 Pop. 355,349. 
 
 CHERBOURG (shar-bor), a fortified 
 seaport and naval arsenal of France, in 
 the department of La Manche, 196 miles 
 w.n.w. Paris. The fortifications are 
 
 very extensive, and have been greatly 
 strengthened in recent years, so that 
 Cherbourg, if not impregnable from the 
 sea, is at least very difficult of attack. 
 There is a great digue or breakwater, 
 stretching across the roadstead, which, 
 though protected on three sides by the 
 land, was formerly open to the heavy 
 
 seas from the north. The digue was 
 commenced under Louis 'XVI., is 4120 
 yards long, and is 2J miles from the 
 harbor, in water varying from 42 to 62 
 feet deep. A fort and lighthouse occupy 
 the center of the digue, and there are 
 circular forts at the extremities. The 
 principal industry of the town is cen- 
 tered in the works of the dockyard, the 
 commercial trade and manufactures be- 
 ing comparatively insignificant. William 
 the Conqueror founded a hospital, and 
 built the castle church. The castle, in 
 which Henry II. frequently resided, was 
 one of the strongholds of Normandy. 
 The town was taken by the British in 
 1758. Pop. 42,952. 
 
 CHEROKEES', a tribe of North Amer- 
 ican Indians occupying an allotted re- 
 gion in the Indian Territory. Their old 
 seats were in Georgia, Alabama, Mis- 
 sissippi, and Tennessee. The Cherokees 
 are the most enlightened of the Indian 
 tribes, have invented an alphabet, 
 printed books and newspapers in their 
 own language, live in well-built villages, 
 and have an excellent school system. 
 Their numbers are about 20,000. 
 
 CHEROOT (she-rot'). See Cigar. 
 
 CHERRY, a fruit-tree of the prune or 
 plum tribe. It is a native of most tem- 
 perate countries of the northern hemis- 
 phere. The cultivated varieties prob- 
 ably belong to two species. The fruit 
 of the wild cherry, or gean, is often as 
 well flavored, if not quite so large, as 
 that of the cultivated varieties. It is 
 said that this fruit was brought from 
 Cerasus, in Pontus, to Italy, by Lucullus 
 about B.c. 70, and introduced into Eng- 
 land by the Romans about a.d. 46. The 
 cherry is used in making the liquors 
 Kirschwasser and Maraschino. The 
 American wild cherry is a fine large 
 tree, the timber of which is much used 
 by cabinet-makers and others, though 
 the fruit is rather astringent. 
 
 CHERUB (cher'ub), one of an order 
 of angels variously represented at differ- 
 
 ent times, but generally as winged 
 spirits with a human countenance, and 
 distinguished by their knowledge from 
 the seraphs, whose distinctive quality 
 is love. The first mention of cherubs is 
 in Gen. iii. 24. The cherubs in Ezekiel’s 
 vision had each four heads or faces, the 
 hands of a man, and wings. The four 
 
CHERUBINI 
 
 CHESTNUT 
 
 faces were the face of a bull, that of a 
 man, that of a lion, and that of an eagle. 
 (Ezek. iv. and x.) In the celestial 
 hierarchy cherubs are represented as 
 spirits next in order to seraphs. 
 
 CHERUBINI (ke-ru-be'ne), Maria 
 Luigi Carlo Zenobio Salvatore, an 
 eminent Italian composer, born at 
 Florence in 1760. His first opera, 
 Quinto Fabio, was produced in Alessan- 
 dria in 1780, and in Rome (in an altered j 
 form) in 1783, with such success as to ■ 
 spread his fame over Italy. After visit- 
 ing London he finally settled in Paris, 
 where he became director of the Ecole 
 Royale in 1822, and died in 1842. 
 Among his compositions are Iphigenia 
 in Aulide, Lodoiska, Faniska, Les Deux 
 Journdes, etc. In his later years he con- 
 fined himself almost exclusively to the 
 composition of sacred music, and gained 
 a lasting fame by his Coronation Mass, 
 and more especially his gorgeous Re- 
 quiem. 
 
 CHES'APEAKE BAY, a spacious bay 
 of North America, in the states of Vir- 
 ginia and Maryland. Its entrance is be- 
 tween Cape Charles and Cape Henry, 
 16 miles wide, and it extends 180 miles 
 to the northward. It is from 10 to 30 
 miles broad, and at most places as much 
 as 9 fathoms deep, affording many com- 
 modious harbors and a safe and easy 
 navigation. It receives the Susque- 
 hanna, Potomac, and James River. 
 
 CHESHIRE (chesh'ir), or CHESTER, 
 a maritime county and county palatine 
 of England, bounded by the counties of 
 Lancaster, York, Derby, Stafford, Salop, 
 Denbigh, Flint, the estuaries of the Dee 
 and Mersey, and the Irish Sea. The 
 area is 657,123 acres, of which only a 
 sixteenth is uncultivated. The surface 
 is generally level, the soil mostly a rich 
 reddish loam variously clayey or sandy. 
 There is some of the finest pasture land 
 in England ; and cheese, the main 
 produce of the Cheshire farmer, is made 
 in great quantities. Extensive tracts of 
 land are cultivated as market-gardens, 
 the produce being sent to Liverpool, 
 Manchester, and other towns. Minerals 
 abound, especially rock-salt and coal, 
 which are extensively worked. Cotton 
 manufacture is carried on at Stockport, 
 Stalybridge, and the northeastern dis- 
 trict, ship-building at Birkenhead and 
 othe-'- places. Pop. 814,555. 
 
 CHESS, a well-known game of great 
 antiquity and of eastern origin, having 
 probably arisen in India, and thence 
 spread through Persia and Arabia to 
 Europe. The name itself as well as 
 many of the terms used in the game are 
 clearly of eastern origin, the word chess 
 being formed from the old French 
 eschecs, from Persian shlh, a king; 
 rook is from the Sanskrit roka, mean- 
 ing a ship or chariot; checkmate from 
 Persian shS,h mS,t, the king is dead. The 
 game is played by two persons on a 
 board which consists of sixty-four squares 
 arranged in eight rows of eight squares 
 each, alternately black and white. Each 
 pla3'er has sixteen men, eight of which, 
 known as pawns, are of the lowest grade ; 
 the other eight, called pieces, are of 
 various grades. They are, on each side, 
 king and queen; two bishops, two 
 knights, and two rooks or castles. The 
 board must be placed so that each player 
 
 shall have a white square to his right 
 hand. The men are then set upon the 
 two rows of squares next the players; 
 the pieces on the first the pawns on the 
 second row, leaving oetween each side 
 four unoccupied rows. The king and 
 queen occupy the central squares facing 
 the corresponding pieces on the opposite 
 side. The queen always occupies her 
 own color, white queen on white square, 
 black on black. The two bishops occupy 
 
 bishops; the rooks the last or corner 
 squares. The pawns fill indiscriminate- 
 
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 Chess-board. 
 
 ly the squares of the second or front row. 
 The men standing on the king’s or 
 queen’s side of the board are named 
 respectively king’s and queen’s men. 
 Thus king’s bishop or knight is the bis- 
 hop or knight on the side of the king. 
 The pawns are named from the pieces in 
 front of which they stand; king’s pawn, 
 king’s knight’s pawn, queen’s rook’s 
 pawn, etc. The names of the men are 
 contracted as follows; — King, K.; 
 King’s Bishop, K.B.; King’s Knight, 
 K.Kt.; King’s Rook, K.R.; Queen, Q.; 
 Queen’s Bishop, Q.B.; Queen’s Knight, 
 Q. Kt.; Queen’s Rook, QJl. The pawns 
 are contracted: K.P., Q-Pv K.B.P., 
 Q.Kt.P., etc. The board is divided, in- 
 versely from the position of each player, 
 into eight rows and eight files. Counting 
 from White’s right hand to his left, or 
 from Black’s left to his right, each file is 
 named from the piece which occupies its 
 first square, and counting inversely 
 from the position of each player to that 
 of the other, the rows are numbered 
 from 1 to 8. At White’s right-hand 
 corner we have thus K.R. square; 
 immediately above this K.R. 2; and so 
 on to K.R. 8, which completes the file; 
 the second file begins with K.Kt. square 
 on the first row, and ends with K.Kt. 8 
 on the eighth. White’s K.R. 8 and 
 K.Kt. 8 are thus Black’s K.R. square 
 and K.Kt. square, and the moves of 
 each player are described throughout 
 from his own position, in inverse order 
 to the moves of his opponent. 
 
 The definite aim in chess is the reduc- 
 tion to surrender of the opposing king. 
 The K. in chess is supposed to be in- 
 violable, that is, he cannot be taken, 
 he can only be in such a position that 
 if it were any other piece it would be 
 taken. Notice of every direct attack 
 upon him must be given by the adver- 
 sary saying check, and when the K. is 
 
 attacked all other plans must be aban- 
 doned, and all other men sacrificed, if 
 necessary, to remove him from danger, 
 cover the attack, or capture the assail- 
 ant. It is also a fundamental rule of the 
 game that the K. cannot be moved into 
 check. When the K. can no longer be 
 defended on being checked by the ad- 
 versary, either by moving him out of 
 danger, or by interposing, or by capture, 
 the game is lost, and the adversary 
 announces this by saying checkmate. 
 When, by inadvertence or want of skill, 
 the player having the superior force 
 blocks up his opponent’s K. so that he 
 cannot move without going into check, 
 and no other man can be moved without 
 exposing him, the player, reduced to 
 this extremity, cannot, without vio- 
 lating the fundamental rule referred to, 
 play at all. In such a case, the one 
 player being unable to play and the 
 other out of turn, the game is consid- 
 ered drawn, that is, concluded without 
 advantage to either player. The laws of 
 the game must be sought in some special 
 manual. Perhaps the best code is that 
 given in Staunton’s Chess Praxis. 
 
 CHEST, in man and the higher verte- 
 brates, the cavity formed by the breast- 
 bone in front and the ribs and backbone 
 at the sides and behind, shut off from 
 the abdomen below by the diaphragm 
 or midriff. It contains the heart, lungs, 
 etc., and the gullet passes through it. 
 §06 TThorstx 
 
 CHESTER, a city in Delaware County, 
 Pa., 14 miles southwest of Philadelphia, 
 on the Delaware River, and on the Balti- 
 more and Ohio, the Pennsylvania, the 
 Philadelphia and Reading railroads. 
 Pop. 39,100. 
 
 CHESTER, an English pari., county, 
 and municipal borough, county town of 
 Cheshire, situated on the Dee about 16 
 miles from Liverpool. It is a bishop’s 
 see, and contains an old and interest- 
 ing cathedral recently restored. Pop. 
 46,204. 
 
 CHESTNUT, a genus of plants, allied 
 to the beech. The common or Span- 
 ish chestnut is a stately tree, with 
 large, handsome, serrated, dark-green 
 leaves. The fruit consists of two or 
 more seeds enveloped in a prickly 
 
 husk. Probably a native of Asia 
 Minor. The tree grows freely and 
 may reach the age of many centuries. 
 Its fruit ripens only in some cases, 
 however, and the chestnuts eaten in 
 Britain are mustly imported. Chestnuts 
 form a staple article of food among 
 the peasants of Spain and Italy. The 
 timber of the trefe was formerly more ia 
 
CHETAH 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 use than it is now; it is inferior to that 
 of the oak, though very similar to it in 
 appearance, especially when old. Two 
 American species of chestnuts, have 
 edible fruits. The former is often re- 
 garded as identical with the European 
 tree. — The horse-chestnut is quite a dif- 
 ferent tree from the common chestnut. 
 
 CHETAH (che'ta), or hunting leopard 
 of India, a native of Arabia and Asia 
 Minor. It, has its specific name from 
 a short mane-like crest at the back of 
 the head. When used for hunting it is 
 hooded and placed in a car. When a 
 herd of deer is seen, its keeper places its 
 head in the proper direction and removes 
 its hood. It slips from the car, and, ap- 
 proaching its prey in a stealthy manner, 
 springs on it with several bounds. It is 
 about the size of a large greyhound, has 
 a cat-like head, but a body more like a 
 dog’s. A slightly different species in- 
 
 rlQnltc AtPI/'Q 
 
 CHEVALIER (she-va-lya), Michel, a 
 celebrated economist, born at Limoges 
 in France, Jan. 13, 1806. He was edu- 
 cated as an engineer in the School of 
 Mines. M. Chevalier was sent to the 
 United States and to England on special 
 missions. He became a councilor of 
 state (1838), professor of political 
 economy in the College de France (1840), 
 member of the chamber of deputies 
 (1846), and member of the Institute 
 (1851). He was known as a strong advo- 
 cate of free-trade, and as a specialist on 
 questions of currency. Along with Cob- 
 den and Bright he had a great part in 
 the commercial treaty of 1860 between 
 France and Britain. He died in 1879. 
 
 CHEVIOT SHEEP, a variety of sheep, 
 noted for their large carcass and valu- 
 able wool, which qualities, combined 
 with a hardiness second only to that of 
 the black-faced breed, constitute them 
 the most valuable race of mountain 
 sheep. The fleece weighs from 3 to 4 
 lbs., and the carcass of ewes varies from 
 12 to 16 lbs. per quarter, that of wethers 
 from 16 to 20 lbs. 
 
 CHEV'RON, a heraldic and orna- 
 mental form, variously used. _ In 
 heraldry, the chevron is an ordinary 
 
 7 
 
 Chevron molding. 
 
 supposed to represent two rafters meet- 
 ing at top. It is one of charges called 
 honorable ordinaries, and is usually 
 placed as shown in the accompanying 
 cut. A similar form is used for the dis- 
 tinguishing badge worn on the arm of 
 a non-commissioned officer in the 
 
 British army. In architecture, the 
 chevron molding consists of a variety 
 of fret ornament of a zigzag form, com- 
 mon in Norman architecture. 
 
 CHEWING-GUM, a substance, in- 
 soluble in saliva, used for continuous 
 exercise of the jaws. It is usually 
 manufactured of paraffin, tolu balsam, 
 and certain resins, sweetened and 
 flavored. The habit is general through- 
 out the United States, men and women 
 indulging freely in it. The chewing 
 of gum is believed to have a beneficial 
 effect upon the digestion. 
 
 CHEYENNE (shl-yen'), the capital of 
 the state of Wyoming, on the Union 
 Pacific Railway, where it is joined by 
 the Denver Pacific; a rising place. Pop. 
 17,640. — The river Cheyenne, or Big 
 Cheyenne, a tributary of the Missouri, 
 is formed by two branches, the N. Fork 
 and the S. Fork, which rise in this state, 
 and have the Black Hills between them, 
 each about 300 miles long, the Big Chey- 
 enne being 150 more. 
 
 CHIAPAS (chi-a'pis), a state of 
 Mexico on the Pacific coast, area 16,048 
 square miles. It is in many parts moun- 
 tainous, is intersected by the river 
 Chiapas, and covered with immense 
 forests. Capital, Tuxtla-Gutierrez. Pop. 
 363,607. 
 
 CHICA (che'ka), a red coloring matter 
 which the Indians on the upper parts of 
 the Orinoco and the Rio Negro prepare 
 from the leaves of a plant native to that 
 region called Bignonia Chica, and with 
 which they paint their skin, in order to 
 be better able to resist the rays of the 
 sun. See Bignonia. 
 
 CHICA (che'ka), a kind of beer made 
 from maize, in general use in Chile, Peru, 
 and elsewhere in the mountainous 
 regions of South America. The usual 
 method of preparing it is to steep the 
 maize till it begins to grow, when it is 
 exposed to dry in the sun. The malt 
 thus prepared is then ground, mixed 
 with warm water, and left to ferment. 
 The beer, when ready, has a dark-yellow 
 color, and a pleasant and somewhat 
 bitter and sour taste, and is very intoxi- 
 cating. Sometimes the Indians instead 
 of grinding the malt chew it, and this 
 variety of the liquor is considered the 
 best. It is the national drink of the 
 Indians, and consumed by them in great 
 quantities. Pito and poso are other 
 names for it. 
 
 CHICAGO, the second city of the 
 United States in population and com- 
 mercial and manufacturing importance. 
 It is the metropolis of the west, the 
 largest railroad center in the country, 
 and the head of navigation of the great 
 lakes. Situated on the southwest shore 
 of Lake Michigan, it lies 910 miles from 
 New York, 810 miles from Washington, 
 910 miles from New Orleans, and 2400 
 from San Francisco, and has an area 
 of 191 square miles. The city is natur- 
 ally cut into three divisions, or “sides,” 
 the north, the south, and the we.st sides, 
 by the Chicago River, and its north and 
 south forks. The entire site of Chicago 
 is very flat, its highest point being but 
 a few feet above the level of Lake 
 Michigan. The population is estimated 
 at 2,500,000. 
 
 The plan upon which Chicago is laid 
 out was a wise provision of the makers 
 
 of the city, who had an eye to its future 
 growth. Its park and boulevard system 
 is unsurpassed by any city in the world. 
 Of parks there are over 2600 acres, the 
 chief being Lincoln Park, with many 
 monuments, Jackson Park, and the 
 newly prospected Grant Park, on the 
 lake front before the main part of the 
 town. Of boulevards, which connect the 
 parks into a system, there are 65 miles 
 of magnificent driveways. The bus- 
 iness center is comparatively small, oc- 
 cupying an area less than a mile square, 
 bounded on the e. by the lake and n. 
 and w. by Chicago river. Here are sit- 
 uated most of the great railway depots, 
 the post-office, the court-house, the 
 board of trade building and custom- 
 house, the Art Institute, the principal 
 stores, banks, theaters, and hotels, the 
 lofty structures that are the chief arch- 
 itectural features of the city. The ship- 
 ping business is transacted along the 
 river and the canal, the former having a 
 frontage, including docks, of 41 miles. 
 The livestock and meat industry is car- 
 ried on at the Union stock-yards, extend- 
 ing from Thirty-ninth Street to Forty- 
 seventh Street, in the geographical cen- 
 ter of the city. The value of the prod- 
 ucts in 1908 was about !rt3on.000,0(X). 
 
 After several years’ agitation and dis- 
 cussion a plan for the construction of a 
 new waterway, 160 feet wide and at 
 least 16 feet deep, from the Chicago 
 river to the Desplaines, and so on to 
 Joliet, was adopted, and the work was 
 begun in 1891. On Jan. 2, 1900, this 
 great canal was opened, the cost to that 
 date having been $33,525,700. The 
 city is supplied with water from Lake 
 Michigan. Pure water is obtained at 
 “cribs” located from 2 to 4 miles from 
 the shore, and is conveyed thence to the 
 city through five tunnels under the lake. 
 It is distributed by ten pumping works 
 capable of supplying the city with 
 532,000,000 gals, daily. The cost of the 
 system was $30,000,000. 
 
 The Chicago river is spanned by fifty- 
 four swinging bridges, of from 200 to 
 250 feet in length, operated by steam. 
 By the elevation of 260 miles of rail- 
 way tracks and the construction of 
 254 subways, dangerous grade cross- 
 ings have been eliminated. Among the 
 public buildings the new post-office and 
 custom house, by Henry Ives Cobb, re- 
 cently finished, is by far the most pic- 
 turesque. A new county building has 
 recently been erected and a new city 
 hall is in prospect. 
 
 Chicago is the center of twenty-five 
 railroads, has 1500 miles of track, seven 
 depots, and handles 275 through and 
 800 local trains per day. It has a lake 
 tonnage of 12,600,000, and 450 miles of 
 street railroad of which 50 are elevated. 
 
 The Public Library is the largest in 
 the Northwest, containing over 260,000 
 volumes. It was established in 1873, 
 and is supported by city taxation. It 
 is housed in a magnificent fireproof 
 building on Michigan avenue. It is a 
 free circulating library, with reading 
 and reference rooms. The Newberry 
 Library is named after its founder, 
 Walter L. Newberry, who left in his will 
 for its esablishment property from which 
 has been realized over $2^500,000. It 
 occupies a handsome building facing 
 
CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 CHILD LABOR 
 
 Washington Place, on the north side. 
 The library is for reference only, and 
 over 200,000 volumes, many of them 
 rare and costly, have been collected. 
 The Chicago Law Institute has a fine 
 law library in the county building. 
 The Crerar Library, with an endowment 
 of over $2,000,000 from John Crerar, 
 is to be located on the south side, and, 
 in accordance with the founder’s will, 
 must be kept free from sensational and 
 skeptical works. 
 
 The city is governed by a mayor, 
 who receives a salary of $7,000; and a 
 common council, composed of 70 aider- 
 men, whose terms are two years, each of 
 the thirty-five wards into which the city 
 is divided electing one each year. 
 
 The manufacturing industries of Chi- 
 cago are second in magnitude only to 
 those of New York city and are growing 
 rapidly. The total value of manufac- 
 tures for l'J08 was 1,000,000,000. Tha 
 receipts of grain, and flour in its grain 
 equivalent, aggregate about 350,000,000 
 bushels yearly. 
 
 The principal hotels in the heart of 
 the city are the Auditorium and its 
 Annex, the Great Northern, the Palmer 
 House, the Grand Pacific, the Welling- 
 ton, the Victoria, Sherman, and the 
 Tremont House; the Virginia, the Met- 
 ropole, the Lexington, and in course of 
 erection the Blackstone and LaSalle. 
 The “downtown” theaters, with the 
 Auditorium, are Orchestra Hall, Mc- 
 Vicker’s, the Illinois, Chicago, Garrick, 
 the Grand, Whitney, Powers, the Great 
 Northern, Studebaker, Olympic, Majes- 
 tic, Colonial, Coliseum, ithe LaSalle, Prin- 
 cess, and American Music Hall. 
 
 Chicago was founded in 1803 with the 
 establishment of Fort Dearborn on the 
 site of the present city. The first village 
 was laid out in 1830, the town was 
 incorporated in 1833, and the city in 
 1837. On Oct. 8, 1871, the great fire 
 began which in two days virtually 
 wiped out the city. The losses were 
 about $190,000,000 in property but only 
 a few lives were lost. 
 
 CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF, founded 
 by John D. Rockefeller, in 1889 and 
 situated on the Midway Plaisance in 
 Chicago. It has a productive fund of 
 about $15,000,000, and an annual out- 
 lay of over $1,000,000. The libraries 
 contain nearly 400,000 volumes, and 
 the registration is about 3000 students. 
 The university offers all degrees except 
 for mechanical and civil engineering, 
 its doctorate of philosoph'y covering the 
 sciences. It has law, medical, and 
 theological departments and a quad- 
 rangle devoted to the biological sciences 
 which cost $1,000,000 to found. It has 
 ten periodical publications, a faculty of 
 400 instructors, a school of education, 
 and an academic department. Much 
 of the revenue of the university is 
 derived from its real estate, of which it 
 owns nearly a solid mile fronting the 
 Midway Plaisance. 
 
 CHICK' ADEE, the popular name in 
 America of the black-cap titmouse and 
 other allied species, being given from 
 their note. 
 
 CHICKAHOM'INY, a river in Virginia, 
 rising about 20 miles n.w. of Richmond, 
 flowing s.e. till it joins the James river. 
 Near this river many important battles 
 
 during the civil war took place — the 
 battle of Williamsburg, of the Seven 
 Pines, of Gaines’s Mill, etc. 
 
 CHICKAMAU'GA, a small tributary 
 of the Tennessee river, state of Tennes- 
 see, U. States, where a battle took place 
 Sept. 19-20, 1863, between the Federal 
 troops under Rosecrans and the Con- 
 federates under Bragg and Longstreet, 
 the latter gaining the victory. 
 
 CHICKAMAUGA NATIONAL PARK, 
 a military park on the site of the Battle 
 of Chickamauga, near Chattanooga on 
 the Georgia-Tennessee line. It has an 
 area of 15 sq. miles and is laid out as 
 nearly as possible to conform to the 
 state of affairs at the time of the battle 
 itself. The park was dedicated Sept., 
 1895, since which time a number of 
 fine monuments have been erected in it 
 by the different states. The cost of 
 the improvements was upward of 
 $1,000,000, three-fourths of which was 
 appropriated by Congress, the remainder 
 by the separate states. 
 
 CHICK'ASAW INDIANS, a tribe of 
 American Indians of the Appalachian 
 nation. In 1833 they gave up to the 
 United States the last of their lands south 
 of the Tennessee river, receiving as com- 
 pensation a money indemnity and new 
 lands on the left bank of the Red river, 
 in the Indian Territory. The Chicka- 
 saws number about 8000. They have 
 made considerable advances toward 
 civilization, have a senate, house of 
 representatives, and more than a million 
 dollars in deposit with the Union gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 CHICKEN-BREASTED, having that 
 form of breast, resulting from malfor- 
 mation or from carious disease or spinal 
 weakness, in which the vertebral column 
 is curved forward, giving rise to pro- 
 jection of the sternum or breast-bone. 
 
 CHICKEN-POX, an infectious dis- 
 ease mainly confined to children. It 
 commences with feverishness, and an 
 eruption of pimples, which speedily 
 become blebs filled with clear fluid and 
 as large as split-peas. Within a week 
 these dry up into dark-colored scabs, 
 which within another week have fallen 
 off. The disease is never fatal, and has 
 no evil results. A little opening medi- 
 cine and a mild diet is all tne treatment 
 requires. 
 
 CHICK'ERING, Jonas, born 1737, a 
 self-taught piano maker of Boston, who 
 eventually established the largest piano 
 manufactory in the U. States. He was 
 greatly esteemed for his public spirit 
 and benevolence. He died 1853. 
 
 CHICK'WEED, the popular name of 
 one of the most common weeds. It has 
 a procumbent more or less hairy stem, 
 with ovate pointed leaves, and many 
 small white flowers. It is much used 
 for feeding cage-birds, which are very 
 fond both of its leaves and reeds. 
 
 CHIC'OPEE, a city in Hampden Co., 
 Mass., three miles north of Springfield, 
 on the east side of the Connecticut river, 
 at the mouth of the Chicopee, and on the 
 Boston and Maine Railroad. Pop. 
 19,167. 
 
 CHIC'ORY, a genus of composite 
 
 E lants. The leaves are sometimes 
 
 lanched, to be used as salad. But the 
 most important part of the plant is its 
 long, fleshy, and milky root, which when 
 
 roasted and ground is now extensively 
 used for mixing with coffee. Its 
 presence among coffee may easily be 
 detected by putting a spoonful of the 
 mixture into a glass of clear cold water. 
 
 Chicory. 
 
 when the coffee will float on the surface, 
 and the chicory separate and discolor 
 the water as it subsides. 
 
 CHIEF- JUSTICE, the presiding judge 
 of a judicial body. In England the 
 chief justice is the superior judge of the 
 king’s bench and of the court of common 
 pleas. In the U. States he is the pre- 
 siding judge of the United States Su- 
 preme Court — of a state supreme court. 
 The chief justice of the Federal Supreme 
 Court administers the oath of office to 
 the president. 
 
 CHIGNON (shen-yon), a French word, 
 properly signifying the nape of the neck, 
 now used in English and other languages 
 to denote ladies’ back hair when raised 
 and folded up, usually round a pad, in a 
 sort of roll on the back part of the head. 
 
 CHIH-LE (chi-le'), or PE-CHI-LE, 
 one of the northern provinces of China, 
 watered by the Pei-ho, containing 
 Peking, the imperial capital. Area 
 about 59,000 sq. miles; pop. 18,000,000. 
 
 CHIHUAHUA (che-wa'wa), a city, 
 Mexican Confederation, capital of the 
 state of the same name, generally well 
 built, and supplied with water by a 
 notable aqueduct. It is surrounded by 
 silver mines, and is an important entre- 
 pot of trade. Pop. about 18,279. — The 
 state is bounded on the n. by the U. 
 States, and on the n.e. by the Rio 
 Grande del Norte; has a healthy climate, 
 and is rich in silver mines. Pop. 
 327,004. 
 
 CHIL'BLAINS are painful inflam- 
 matory swellings, of a deep purple or 
 leaden* color, to which the fingers, toes, 
 heels, and other extreme parts of the 
 body are subject on being exposed to a 
 severe degree of cold. The pain is not I 
 constant, but rather pungent and shoot- 1 
 ing at particular times, and an insup- 1 
 portable itching attends it. It some) 
 instances the skin remains entire, but I 
 in others it breaks and discharges a thin j 
 fluid. Compound camphor liniment is a | 
 useful application, and the parts should 
 be kept warm. 
 
 CHILDBIRTH. See Birth. ; 
 
 CHILD LABOR, the employment of 
 children under the age provided by law 
 at which children are allowed to work. 
 Child labor is one of the most distressing 
 problems of social life. Although the 
 
CHILDREN, SOCIETIES FOR 
 
 CHIMPANZEE 
 
 law forbids it, yet poverty compels it, 
 and both employers and employed thus 
 conspire to defeat the laws which, in 
 most states, in virtually all, are really 
 a dead letter. Very young children are 
 employed in mines, offices, stores, 
 factories of many kinds, and, in a word, 
 in all trades or occupations in which 
 they can be used. Disease, stunted 
 growth, defectiveness, moral ruin and 
 general vitiation are some of the results. 
 Before this great wrong society stands 
 avowedly helpless. 
 
 CHILDREN, SOCIETIES FOR THE 
 BENEFIT OF, associations to care for 
 homeless children, to prevent cruelty to 
 (see Bergh, Henry), to encourage the 
 industry of children, and to relieve dis- 
 eased or crippled children. In the U. 
 States vast sums of wealth are devoted 
 to these various designs. 
 
 CHILDS, George William, an Ameri- 
 ican philanthropist and journalist, born 
 in Baltimore in 1829, died in 1894. In 
 1864 he purchased the Philadelphia 
 Public Ledger and soon became quite 
 rich. His gifts to charity and education 
 were exceedingly large. 
 
 CHILI, or CHILE (che'le, cheTa), a 
 country of S. America, extending along 
 the Pacific coast from lat. 18° s. nearly 
 to Cape Horn, and including Chiloe and 
 many other islands and part of Tierra 
 del Fuego. It is bounded on the n. by i 
 Peru (the river Sama being the bound- 
 ary), on the n.e. and e. by Bolivia and 
 the Argentine Republic, from which it 
 is separated by the chief range of the 
 Cordilleras. Its length from n. to s. 
 is about 2400 miles; its breadth, on an 
 average 120 miles; area, 293,310 sq. 
 miles, divided into a number of prov- 
 inces and territories; pop. 3,110,085. 
 By the war with Peru and Bolivia which 
 terminated in 1882 Chili gained all the 
 sea-board of Bolivia, and annexed also 
 the Peruvian provinces of Tarapaca 
 and Tacna. The chief towns are San- 
 tiago or St. Jago (the capital) and Val- 
 paraiso. The rivers are numerous, but 
 small, and have generally rapid currents. 
 The surface is greatly diversified, but 
 rises in elevation as it recedes from the 
 coast and approaches the Andes, along 
 the watershed of which great part of the 
 boundary runs. Some of the summits 
 here rise to 20,000 feet or more, but the 
 elevation decreases toward the south. 
 Chiloe and numerous other islands 
 fringe the coast in the south. Earth- 
 quakes are common, those -of 1822, 
 1835, and 1868 being particularly 
 violent. In the Chilian Andes there are 
 twenty volcanoes at least, three of 
 which (Antuco, Villarcia, and Osorno) 
 are still active. The climate is remark- 
 ably salubrious. In the northern prov- 
 inces it rarely rains — in some parts per- 
 haps never; in the central parts rain is 
 sufficiently abundant, while in the ex- 
 treme south there is even an excess of 
 moisture. Among the minerals of Chili 
 are gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, zinc, 
 antimony, manganese, arsenic, tin, 
 sulphur, alum, salt, and cubic nitre. 
 Silver and copper are the two most im- 
 portant metals. The copper mines are 
 most numerous in the northern districts. 
 The cubic niter, or Chili saltpeter, is a 
 great source of wealth. Coal is mined 
 {it several places. From the 29th 
 
 degree of latitude southward green 
 valleys and fertile tracts appear, the 
 character of the vegetation getting 
 always richer, till in the southern prov- 
 inces we find the sides of the Andes 
 clothed with forests and with herbaceous 
 plants and flowers of the richest and 
 most beautiful hues. In some of the 
 northern districts maize is cultivated ; 
 in the southern districts wheat and 
 barley are the chief agricultural prod- 
 ucts. Fruits are abundant — apples, 
 pears, apricots, peaches, figs, grapes, 
 oranges, water-melons, etc. The wild 
 animals include the guanaco, puma, or 
 
 Costumes of the environs of Santiago. 
 
 American lion, the chinchilla, coypu, 
 deer, etc. Cattle are raised in great 
 numbers, from 4000 to 20,000 being 
 sometimes reared on one farm. The 
 manufactures are of little importance. 
 Mineral products form five-sixths of the 
 total exports, the principal article being 
 cubic niter (or Chili saltpeter) next come 
 copper, iodine, wheat, silver, etc. 
 
 Chili is a republic, and is considered 
 the best regulated in S. America. It is 
 under a president elected for five years 
 and a council of state. The legislature 
 is composed of a senate elected for six 
 years, and a house of deputies elected 
 for three years. The army numbers 
 about 6000 men ; the chief vessels of the 
 navy are three iron-clads and five pro- 
 tected cruisers. The Chilians are mostly 
 of Spanish or Indian descent. 
 
 Chili originally belonged to the Incas 
 of Peru, fi'om whom it was wrested by the 
 Spaniards under Pizarro and Almagro 
 in 1535. From this period Chili con- 
 tinued a colony of Spain till 1810, when 
 a revolution commenced, which ter- 
 minated in 1817 in the independence of 
 Chili. Several internal commotions 
 have since occurred; but the country 
 has been free from these compared with 
 other S. American states. A war begun 
 with Spain in 1865 led to the blockade 
 of the coast by the Spanish fleet, and 
 the bombardment of Valparaiso in 
 1866. In 1879-81 a war was success- 
 fully waged with Bolivia and Peru, in 
 reference to the rights of Chili in the 
 mineral district of Atacama. In 1891 
 an insurrection arose against President 
 Balmaceda’s administration, a move- 
 ment which resulted in his overthrow 
 and suicide. Since which time the 
 country has been prosperous and peace- 
 ful. 
 
 The earthquakes in Chili are very se- 
 vere. The last one of importance oc- 
 
 curred on Aug. 5, 1906, and continued 
 for several days. More than 500 people 
 were killed and a property loss of $8,- 
 000,000 was sustained, none of which 
 was insured. 
 
 CHILLED IRON, iron cast ir metal 
 molds called chills, where, on account 
 of the rapid conducting of the heat, the 
 iron cools more quickly on the surface 
 than it would do if cast in sand. Chilled 
 iron is whiter and has a harder surface 
 than iron cast in any other way. 
 
 CHILLICOTHE (-koth'e), a town in 
 Ohio, on the west bank of the Scioto, 
 with manufacturing and other indus- 
 tries. Pop. 15,488. 
 
 CHILTERN HILLS, a range of flint 
 and chalk hills, England, extending 
 through Oxford, Hertford, and Buck- 
 ingham shires, loftiest summit 905 feet. 
 These hills were anciently covered with 
 forests, and were "infested by numerous 
 bands of robbers. To protect the in- 
 habitants of the neighboring districts 
 an officer was appointed by the crown, 
 called the Steward of the Chiltern 
 Hundreds, and although the duties and 
 emoluments have long ceased the office 
 still exists, and is made use of to afford 
 members of the House of Commons 
 (who cannot give up their seats directly) 
 an opportunity of resigning their seats 
 when they desire to do so. Being re- 
 garded as an appointment of honor and 
 profit under government, the acceptance 
 of it disqualifies a member from retaining 
 his seat 
 
 CHIMjERA (ki-me'ra), in class, myth, 
 a fire-breathing monster, the foreparts of 
 whose body were those of a lion, the 
 middle of a goat, and the hinder of a 
 dragon. Thus the name came to be used 
 for an unnatural production of the fancy. 
 
 CHIMES, a species of music, mechan- 
 ically produced by the strokes of ham- 
 mers against a series of bells, tuned 
 agreeably to a given musical scale. The 
 hammers are lifted by levers acted upon 
 by metallic pins, or wooden pegs, stuck 
 into a large barrel, which is made to 
 revolve by clock-work, and is so con- 
 nected with the striking part of the 
 clock mechanism that it is set in motion 
 by it at certain intervals of time, usually 
 every hour, or every quarter of an hour. 
 The chime mechanism is sometimes so 
 constructed that it may be played like 
 a piano. 
 
 CHIM'NEY, an erection generally of 
 stone or brick containing a passage by 
 which the smoke of a fire or furnace 
 escapes to the open air. In this sense 
 the first chimneys we hear of are no 
 earlier than the middle ages. The 
 longer a chimney is the more perfect is 
 its draught, provided the fire is great 
 enough to heat the column of air in it, 
 because the tendency of the smoke to 
 draw upward is in proportion to the 
 difference of weight between the heated 
 air in a chimney and an equal column 
 of external air. 
 
 CHIMNEY-SWALLOW. See Swallow. 
 
 CHIMPAN'ZEE, the native Guinea 
 name of a large West and Central .\fri- 
 can ape belonging to the anthropoid or 
 man-like monkeys, and to the same 
 genus as the gorilla. When full grown 
 it is sometimes about 5 feet high, with 
 black hair, and is not so large and power- 
 ful as the gorilla. Like the orang it has 
 
CHINA 
 
 CHINA 
 
 Ihe hair on its forearm turned back- 
 ward, but differs from it in having an 
 additional dorsal vertebra and a thir- 
 teenth pair of ribs. It walks erect better 
 than most of the apes. It feeds on 
 
 Chimpanzee. 
 
 fruits, often robs the gardens of the 
 natives, and constructs a sort of nest 
 among the branches. It is common in 
 menageries, where it shows much in- 
 telligence and docility. 
 
 CHINA, an immense empire stretch- 
 ing from the center of Asia, about 75° 
 e. ion., for 3000 miles to the east coast 
 of Corea, in 128° e. Ion.; and from the 
 Siberian frontier at the river Amoor, 
 about 50° 30' n. lat., for 2400 miles 
 southward to the island of Hainan. 
 This vast empire, second in magnitude 
 only to that of Russia and Great Britain, 
 has an area of about 4,500,000 sq. miles, 
 and a population variously estimated 
 at 300,000,000 and 400,000,000, or 
 more, and is usually divided into China 
 Proper, and the dependencies; Man- 
 churia, Mongolia, Eastern Turkestan, 
 Dzoungaria, and Tibet, of which Tibet 
 is practically autonomous. The depend- 
 encies, though they cover more than 
 3,000,000 sq. miles, contain but a small 
 and relatively unimportant part of the 
 
 most remarkable of human structures, 
 being an artificial barrier 1500 miles 
 long. Two thirds of the interior are 
 estimated to be mountainous. The 
 general slope is from west to east, and 
 the mountains are a continuation of 
 those of Tibet and Central Asia. The 
 great Kuen-lun range throws off 
 branches, the Tsing-Ling, Fu-niu-shan 
 and Mu-ling, which, running eastward 
 between the great valleys of the Hoang- 
 Ho and Yang-tse-kiang, traverse almost 
 the whole breadth of China. Further 
 north the Nan-shan branch of the Kuen- 
 lun range runs under various names 
 (Kuliang, Alashan, Inshan, etc.) along 
 the northeast of China till it reaches the 
 frontier of Manchuria, north of Peking. 
 The third great mountain system of 
 China is in the southeast, where exten- 
 sive chains such as the Nanshan, the 
 Ta-yu-ling, and Pu-ling stretch on the 
 south side of the Yang-tse-kiang all the 
 way form the highlands of Yunnan to 
 the eastern sea-board. The two great 
 rivers of China are the Hoang-ho and 
 the Yang-tse-kiang. Here lie the cen- 
 tral and richest provinces of China. On 
 both sides of the lower Iloang-ho is an 
 immense delta plain, consisting gen- 
 erally of a deep alluvial soil of un- 
 paralleled fertility. As they approach 
 the sea-coast the two rivers are con- 
 nected by the Grand Canal, 700 miles 
 in length, thus completing a magnificent 
 system of inland navigation. 
 
 The greater part of China belongs to 
 the temperate zone, but it has what is 
 called an excessive climate. At Peking 
 in summer the heat ranges from 90° to 
 100° in the shade, while the winter is so 
 cold that the rivers are usually frozen 
 from December to March. At Shanghai, 
 lat. 31° 20', the maximum temperature 
 reaches 100°, and the minimum falls at 
 least to 20° below freezing point (12° 
 Fahr.). In the south the climate is of a 
 tropical character, the summer heat 
 
 Chlnese manaarln, lady, boy, female attendant, soldier, and bird’s-nest seller. 
 
 population (about 30,000,000), China 
 Proper being the center of power and 
 population. 
 
 Great part of the country is not well 
 known. The coast-line forms an irregu- 
 lar curve of about 2500 miles. The in- 
 land boundaries are formed mainly by 
 Tonquin, Burmah, Tibet, and, on the 
 north, partly by the Great Wall separat- 
 ing China from Mongolia, one of the 
 
 rising to 120°. Here the southwest and 
 northeast monsoons blow with great 
 regularity, and divide the year between 
 them. 
 
 China is well supplied with minerals, 
 including gold, silver, copper, iron, and 
 other metals, and there are very exten- 
 sive coal-fields, though the quantity 
 raised from them is comparatively small. 
 Salt is abundant, and there are inex- 
 
 haustible beds of kaolin, or porcelain 
 earth. Among animals it is difficult to 
 mention any that are characteristic of 
 the country; many of them are identical 
 with or differ but little from those of 
 Europe. Among birds the most beauti- 
 ful are the gold and silver pheasants. 
 Fish swarm in all inland waters as well 
 as on the coast, the natural supply being 
 immensely increased by artificial means. 
 As regards the flora of China, it is tropi- 
 cal in the south (coco and sago palms, 
 banana, pandanus, etc.), sub-tropical 
 farther north, and still farther north 
 prevails a number of plants and trees 
 identical with or closely akin to those 
 of middle Europe. Flowering plants, 
 shrubs, and trees are so exceedingly 
 abundant as to form a feature. The 
 bamboo, from the immense number of 
 uses to which it is put, is one of the most 
 valuable trees. Oaks, the chestnut, 
 hazel, pines, yew, walnut, etc., are 
 among forest trees. Wax and camphor 
 trees abound. Azaleas are exceedingly 
 numerous; other flowering plants are 
 the camellia rose, passion-flower, cactus, 
 lagerstroemia, etc. Fruits are abundant 
 and varied. Rice, as the principal food 
 of the people, is the staple crop. Three 
 plants of the greatest economical im- 
 portance to China are the mulberry, 
 cultivated to provide food for silkworms, 
 cotton, and tea, the last for long re- 
 garded as exclusively a Chinese product. 
 Another important crop is the opium 
 poppy, which is extensively grown, 
 though the product is inferior to that 
 of India. 
 
 Among the chief industries is the silk 
 manufacture, which produces some 
 varieties of stuffs unsurpassed any- 
 where. The porcelain of China has 
 been famous from the earliest periods, 
 and the manufacture of the finest forms 
 of it was long known to the Chinese 
 alone, though their productions are now 
 surpassed by those of Europe. Paper 
 is made of a great variety of substances, 
 and the art of making it — like various 
 others — was practiced in China long 
 before Europe acquired it. 
 
 The inland trade of China, aided by 
 its vast system of water communication, 
 is of incalculable magnitude, the rivers 
 and canals literally swarming with 
 junks, barges, and boats of all sizes. 
 The chief of ports are: Shanghai (by 
 far the first). Canton, Hankow, Swatow, 
 Tientsin, Ningpo, and Foo-chow. The 
 main articles of export are tea and raw 
 and manufactured silk; the main im- 
 ports cotton goods, opium, metals and 
 metal goods. The total exports and 
 imports have increased considerably in 
 recent years. The chief article of ex- 
 port is tea. The quantity of opium 
 imported, almost wholly from India, 
 reaches the value of $30,000,000 an- 
 nually. Silver bullion, called sycee, 
 and gold bullion, usually stamped with 
 the name of the banker and the year 
 and district in which it is cast, are used 
 in larger transactions. 
 
 The Chinese belong to the Mongolian 
 race, but in them its harsher features, 
 as represented in the genuine Tartars, 
 are considerably softened. They are 
 generally of low stature, have small 
 hands and feet (the last artificially made 
 so small in the females as to become a 
 
CHINA ASTER 
 
 CHINA-WARE 
 
 deformity), a dark complexion, a wide 
 forehead, black hair, eyes and eyebrows 
 obliquely turned upward at the outer 
 extremities. They are strongly attached 
 to their homes, hold age in respect, toil 
 hard for the support of their families, 
 and in the interior, where the worst 
 kind of foreign intercourse has not 
 debased them, exhibit an unsophisti- 
 cated simplicity of manners which re- 
 calls the age of the patriarchs. The 
 Chinese use great politeness in their 
 intercourse with each other. They 
 scrupulously avoid all contradiction 
 and offensive expressions in conversation. 
 Drunkenness has hitherto been rare 
 among them, but the habit of opium- 
 smoking has much extended of late. 
 Hard work, done in the most uncom- 
 plaining way, has become second nature 
 with them. Filial piety is also a striking 
 feature of their character, and is, in fact, 
 the principle upon which Chinese society 
 is constituted. They have chambers set 
 apart for the worship of their ancestors, 
 where religious ceremonies are regularly 
 performed. 
 
 The Chinese is the most important 
 and most widely spread of the so-called 
 monosyllabic languages of eastern Asia, 
 in which each word is uttered by a 
 single movement of the organs of speech. 
 There is no alphabet, each word being 
 represented by a single symbol or char- 
 acter. The chief religions in China are 
 Confucianism, Taouism, and Buddhism, 
 the last introduced subsequently to the 
 others. In the western parts Moham- 
 medanism has many followers. 
 
 Government, Administration, etc. — 
 The government is an absolute despot- 
 ism. The reigning dynasty is of Manchu- 
 Tartar blood. The monarch unites in 
 his person the attributes of supreme 
 magistrate and sovereign pontiff, and as 
 the “Son of Heaven” is in theory 
 accountable only to heaven. Four 
 principal ministers, two of whom are 
 Manchus and two Chinese^ form, along 
 with two assistants, the inner council 
 of state. The Chinese army is said to 
 number 300,000 men on a peace footing, 
 and 1,000,000 on a war footing, but 
 only a small proportion of these are of 
 any value for actual service, the great 
 bulk of the men having received no 
 proper military training or discipline 
 and being equipped only with obsolete 
 weapons. The navy consists of two 
 fleets — one for rivers and another for 
 sea; but though it numbers many vessels 
 it is not very efficient, and is scarcely 
 able to clear the Chinese coast from the 
 pirates who infest the creeks and islets. 
 
 The early history of the Chinese is 
 shrouded in fable, but it is certain that 
 civilization had advanced much among 
 them when it was only beginning to 
 dawn on the nations of Europe. The 
 Chow dynasty, which was founded by 
 Woo-wang, and lasted from about 1100 
 B.c. to 258 B.C., is perhaps the earliest 
 that can be regarded as historic, and even 
 of it not much more is historic than the 
 name. The present reigning house is of 
 Manchu origin. European relations 
 with the Chinese began in 1596 and 
 European interference has gone on 
 uninterruptedly ever since. The Chinese 
 are refractive to European civilization 
 end have resisted intercourse persist- 
 
 ently. In spite of this, however, every 
 European nation of importance has 
 secured a foothold in China. In 1850 
 began the great Tai Ping rebellion 
 against the government. In 1894-5 
 was fought the Japanese-Chinese war 
 resulting in the defeat of China, the 
 payment of an indemnity and the re- 
 linquishment of Formosa to Japan. In 
 1900 an anti-foreign movement broke 
 out in north China, mainly instigated, 
 it would seem, by a secret nationalist 
 society, whose members are known to 
 Europeans as the Boxers. Native 
 Christians and European and other 
 missionaries were murdered; and for a 
 time the members of the legations in 
 Peking were isolated and in danger of 
 being massacred. An international 
 relief force, however, succeeded in 
 effecting their rescue.. Tsi-Au, the 
 empress dowager, died in November, 
 1908, the emperor was poisoned and an- 
 other infant, Pu-Yi ascended the throne. 
 
 CHINA ASTER, the common name 
 of a composite plant, hardy and free 
 flowering. See Asters. 
 
 CHINA GRASS, a plant of the nettle 
 family, a native of southern and eastern 
 Asia and the Asiatic islands, and now 
 more or less cultivated in many other 
 countries, such as southern France, 
 Algeria, Natal, Mauritius, Australia, the 
 U. States, Mexico, Jamaica, etc. It 
 yields a fiber which possesses most 
 valuable properties, and has long been 
 made in China into a beautiful cloth, 
 and is probably destined to play a much 
 more important part as a textile ma- 
 terial. It is very strong, presents 
 unusual resistance to the effects of 
 moisture, and is fine and silky in ap- 
 pearance. With wool, hemp, cotton, 
 and flax it is believed that it may 
 successfully compete, but its full capa- 
 bilities are hardly as yet known, though 
 it is long since trials have been made 
 with it as a subject of manufacture. 
 
 CHINA, GREAT WALL OF, the 
 largest artificial structure on the face of 
 the earth, a barrier extending for about 
 1500 miles- in the north of China proper, 
 of which it partly forms the boundary. 
 Its western end is in the deserts of 
 central Asia, its eastern reaches the sea 
 to the north-eastward of Peking. It 
 was erected as a barrier against the 
 inroads of the barbarous tribes, and 
 dates from about 214 b.c. It is carried 
 over height and hollow, and avoids no 
 inequality of the ground, reaching in 
 one place the height of over 5000 ft. 
 above the sea. Earth, gravel, brick, 
 and stone were used in its construction, 
 and in some places it is much more 
 substantial than in others. Its greatest 
 height, including the parapet on its top, 
 is about 50 feet, and it is strengthened 
 by towers at regular distances. 
 
 CHINA INK, a black solid, which, 
 when rubbed down with water, forms 
 a very pure black indelible ink. It has 
 been used in China from time immemor- 
 ial. There are different accounts of the 
 
 E rocess, but it appears to be made by 
 oiling the juices of certain plants with 
 water to a syrup, adding to tnis a quan- 
 tity of gelatine, and then thoroughly 
 incorporating the carbonaceous matter. 
 There is generally added some perfume 
 — a little musk or camphor. The mass 
 
 is then made into square columns of 
 different sizes, which are often decorated 
 with figures and Chinese characters. 
 Many attempts have been made to 
 imitate Chinese ink, some of which have 
 been tolerably successful. Good Chinese 
 ink should have a velvety-black ap- 
 pearance, with a gloss which becomes 
 very conspicuous on rubbing. The 
 color it gives on paper should be pure 
 black and homogeneous, and if water be 
 passed over it it should not run or be- 
 come streaky. It is indelible by ordi- 
 nary solvents, but may be removed 
 sometimes mechanically. 
 
 CHINA ROSE, the name given to a 
 number of varieties of garden rose. 
 
 CHINA SEA, that part of the North 
 Pacific Ocean bounded n. by Formosa, 
 n.w. by China, v/. by Anam and the 
 Malay Peninsula, s.e. b,y Borneo, and e. 
 by the Philippines. It contains numer- 
 ous islands, receives several considerable 
 rivers, and forms the important Gulfs 
 of Siam and Tonquin. 
 
 CHINA-WARE, porcelain, the finest 
 and most beautiful of all the kinds of 
 earthenware, so called from China 
 being the country which first supplied 
 it to Europeans. The Chinese are said 
 to have manufactured porcelain pre- 
 vious to the Christian era, but it was not 
 till five or six centuries later that they 
 attained any great perfection in the art. 
 Japan also appears to have been early 
 acquainted with the manufacture. In 
 the beginning of the 16th century the 
 ware was first introduced into Europe, 
 and won immediate popularity by its 
 beauty and novelty. For long it was 
 thought impossible to fabricate any- 
 thing similar in Europe, but at length 
 John Frederick Bottcher or Bottiger, a 
 native of Saxony who had long devoted 
 himself to alchemy, discovered a means 
 of producing a porcelain equal in white- 
 ness to that of China. This led to the 
 establishment by the government of 
 the far-famed porcelain manufactory 
 at Meissen, near Dresden. The Saxon 
 porcelain soon became celebrated over 
 Europe, and rivalled that of China in 
 the excellence of its quality, and the 
 beauty of its decorations. Subsequently 
 porcelain works were established at 
 Vienna, Munich and elsewhere in Ger- 
 many. In France also about the middle 
 of the 18th century the celebrated 
 factory at Sevres was set up and soon 
 acquired a great renown. The first 
 successful attempt in England to manu- 
 facture porcelain was made by some 
 Germans, who established a factory at 
 Chelsea, from which, in 1748, it was 
 transferred to Derby. About twenty 
 years afterward the valuable discovery 
 in Cornwall of an excellent species of 
 clay contributed greatly to improve 
 the quality of English porcelain, which 
 now began to be largely manufactured 
 in Staffordshire under the auspices of 
 the celebrated Josiah Wedgwood. China- 
 ware, when broken, presents a granular 
 surface, with a texture compact, dense, 
 firm, hard, vitreous, and durable. It is 
 semi-transparent, with a covering of, 
 white glass, clear, smooth, unaffected 
 by all acids excepting the hydrofluoric, 
 and resisting uninjured sudden changes 
 of temperature. For the process of 
 manufacture sge Pottery. 
 
CHINA WAX 
 
 CHLORIC ETHER 
 
 CHINA WAX, a sort of wax deposited 
 py. insects on a deciduous tree with 
 light-green ovate, serrated leaves, cul- 
 tivated in the province of Si-chuen 
 (Ssu-chuan) in south-western China. 
 The insects, a species of Coccus, are 
 bred in galls which are formed on a 
 different tree, an evergreen (a species of 
 Ligustrum or privet), and these galls are 
 transported in great quantities to the 
 districts where the wax trees are grown, 
 to the branches of which they are sus- 
 pended. Having emerged from the 
 galls the insects spread themselves over 
 the branches, which gradually become 
 coated with a white waxy substance, 
 reaching in 90 or 100 days the thicknes 
 of a quarter of an inch. The branches 
 are then lopped off and the wax removed. 
 It is white in color and is chiefly made 
 into candles; it melts at 160° whereas 
 tallow melts at about 95°. 
 
 CHINCH, the popular name of certain 
 fetid American insects, resembling the 
 bed-bug, very destructive to wheat, 
 maize, etc., in the southern and western 
 states. Also applied to the common 
 bed-bug. 
 
 CHINCHIL'LA, a genus of S. Ameri- 
 can herbivorous rodents very closely 
 allied to the rabbit, which they resemble 
 in the general shape of the body, in the 
 limbs being longer behind than before, 
 in the conformation of the rootless 
 molars, and by the nature of the fur, 
 which is more wooly than silky; but 
 differing from the rabbit in the number 
 of their incisors and molars, in a greater 
 length of tail, and also in having broader 
 and more rounded ears. One species 
 about 15 inches long, is covered with a 
 beautiful pearly-gray fur, which is 
 highly esteemed as stuff for muffs, 
 pelisses, linings, etc. The chinchilla 
 
 Chinchilla. 
 
 lives gregariously in the mountains of 
 most parts of S. America, and makes 
 numerous and very deep burrows. It 
 is of a gentle nature, very sportive, 
 losing none of its gaiety in captivity, 
 and very cleanly. 
 
 CHINCHONA (chin-cho'ni) . See Cin - 
 chona. 
 
 CHINESE EDIBLE DOG, a small dog, 
 in form somewhat like a greyhound, 
 reared by the Chinese to be used as an 
 article of food. 
 
 CHINESE IMMIGRATION, a political 
 question in the U. States, arising from 
 a fear that American labor would be 
 injured by imported labor from China. 
 In 1882 the Chinese exclusion act was 
 passed by congress and has been con- 
 tinued in force ever since. By its pro- 
 vision all Chinese are excluded except 
 those who are certified not to be laborers. 
 In 1900 there were 89,863 Chinese in 
 the U. States. 
 
 CHINESE LANTERN, a lantern made 
 of thin paper, usually variously colored 
 and much used in illuminations. 
 
 CHINESE WHITE, oxide of zinc used 
 in the arts instead of white lead. It 
 is valuable principally as a color. 
 
 CHING'LEPUT (ching'gl-put), or 
 CHENGALPAT, a coast district, and its 
 capital, Hindustan, presidency Madras. 
 The district, which lies s. of Arcot and 
 Madras — area, about 2842 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 1,136,928. 
 
 CHINIQUY, Charles Pascal Teles- 
 phore, a Canadian clergyman, born in 
 Quebec in 1809, died in 1899. He took 
 part in the temperance crusade of 1846 
 and in 1851 established a Roman 
 Catholic colony at Kankakee, 111. He 
 published Fifty Years in the Church of 
 Rome. 
 
 CHIN-KIANG, or TCHANG-KIANG, a 
 
 city, China, province of Kiangsu. Pop. 
 135,000. 
 
 CHINOOK, a dialect consisting of 
 English, Chinook and other Indian 
 tongues, used largely as a trade language 
 on the Pacific coast. 
 
 CHINTZ, cotton cloth or calico 
 printed with flowers or other devices in 
 various colors and now generally glazed. 
 Originally a manufacture of the East 
 Indies it is now largely manufactured in 
 Europe. 
 
 CHIP'MUNK, CHIP'MUCK, the popu- 
 lar name in America of the ground- 
 squirrel. 
 
 Chipmunk. 
 
 CHIPPEWAYS (chip'e-waz), or OJIB- 
 BEWAYS, a tribe of N. American In- 
 dians, U. States and Canada. They 
 are distributed in bands round both 
 sides of the basin of Lake Superior, 
 where they once owned vast tracts. 
 They are of the Algonquin stock, tall, 
 active, and well formed, subsist chiefly 
 by hunting and fishing, and number 
 about 18,000. 
 
 CHIPPING SPARROW, a common N. 
 American bird, some five or six inches 
 long. 
 
 CHIRAGRA (ki-rag'ra), that species 
 of gout which attacks the joints of the 
 hand (the wrist and knuckles) and 
 hinders their motions. It gradually 
 bends, distorts, and finally stiffens the 
 fingers. 
 
 CHIROMANCY (ki-'ro-man-si). See 
 Cheiromancy. 
 
 CHISHOLM VS. GEORGIA, a cele- 
 brated case decided by the Supreme 
 Court of the U. States in 1793, in which 
 the court decided that the federal 
 judiciary could not exercise power in 
 an action brought by a citizen of one 
 state against the government of another 
 state. 
 
 CHISHOLM, William Wallace, an 
 American politician, born in Georgia 
 in 1830, died 1877. He was a fierce 
 partisan republican in Geor^a and in 
 1877 was arrested charged with having 
 murdered John W. Gully, a democratic 
 leader. Chisholm was attacked in jail 
 by a mob and shot to death. 
 
 CHITTAGONG (chit'-), a district, 
 Hindustan, in the s.e. of Bengal, having 
 the Bay of Bengal on the w. ; area, 2563 
 sq. miles; pop. 1,290,167. Chittagong 
 is also the name of a commissionership 
 or division of Bengal. Area, 12,118 sq. 
 miles; pop. 4,190,081. 
 
 CHIVALRY (chiv'al-ri), a term which 
 indicates strictly the organization of 
 knighthood as it existed in the middle 
 ages, and in a general sense the spirit 
 and aims which distinguished the 
 knights of those times. The chief 
 characteritics of the chivalric ages were 
 a warlike spirit, a lofty devotion to the 
 female sex, a love of adventure, and an 
 undefinable thirst for glory. The 
 Crusades gave for a time a religious turn 
 to the spirit of chivalry, and various 
 religious orders of knighthood arose, 
 such as the Knights of St. John, the 
 Templars, the Teutonic Knights, etc. 
 
 CHLO'RAL, a liquid first prepared by 
 Liebig by passing dry chlorine gas 
 through absolute alcohol to saturation, 
 afterward by Stiideler by the action of 
 hydrochloric acid and manganese on 
 starch. The hydrate of chloral, as now 
 prepared, is a white crystalline sub- 
 stance, which, in contact with alkalies, 
 separates into chloroform and formic 
 acid. Chloral kills by paralyzing the 
 action of the heart. It is a hypnotic as 
 well as an anaesthetic, and is frequently 
 substituted for morphia. It has been 
 successfully used in delirium tremens, 
 St. Vitus’s dance, poisoning by strychnia, 
 in tetanus, and in some cases of asthma 
 and whooping-cough. It should be 
 taken with great caution and under 
 medical advice, as an extra dose may 
 produce serious symptoms and even 
 death. The treatment of poisoning by 
 chloral is to keep the person warm by 
 means of blankets, warm bottles, etc. 
 Warm stimulating drinks should also 
 be administered, such as hot coffee, hot 
 tea, negus, etc. It has been shown that 
 an animal kept warm by wrapping in 
 cotton wool recovered from a dose of 
 chloral that otherwise would have 
 killed it. 
 
 CHLO'RATE, a salt of chloric acid. 
 The chlorates are very analogous to the 
 nitrates. They are decomposed by a 
 red heat, nearly all of them being con- 
 verted into metallic chlorides, with 
 evolution of pure oxygen. They de- 
 flagrate with inflammable substances 
 with such facility that an explosion is 
 produced by slight causes. The chlor- 
 ates of sodium and potassium are used 
 in medicine. The latter, in doses of 
 from five to twenty grains, is largely 
 used in scarlet fever, inflamed throat, 
 etc. It is also used in the manufacture 
 of lucifer-matches, fireworks, and per- 
 cussion-caps. 
 
 CHLORIC ETHER, a volatile liquid 
 obtained by passing hydrochloric acid 
 gas into alcohol to saturation and dis- 
 tilling the products. 
 
CHLORIDE OF LIME 
 
 CHOPIN 
 
 CHLORIDE OF LIME. See Bleach- 
 
 ing-powder. 
 
 CHLORIM'ETRY, the process of test- 
 ing the bleaching power of any combina- 
 tion of chlorine, but especially of thfe 
 commercial articles, the chlorides of 
 lime, potash and soda. 
 
 CHLO'RINE is a very heavy gas, being 
 about two and a half times as heavy as 
 ordinary air; it has a peculiar smell, 
 and irritates the nostrils most violently 
 when inhaled, as also the windpipe and 
 lungs. It exercises a corrosive action 
 upon organic tissues. It is not com- 
 bustible, though it supports the com- 
 bustion of many bodies, and, indeed, 
 spontaneously burns several. In com- 
 bination with other elements it forms 
 chlorides, which act most important 
 parts in many manufacturing processes. 
 This gas may be liquefied by cold and 
 pressure, when it becomes a trans- 
 parent, greenish-yellow, limpid liquid. 
 Chlorine is one of the most powerful 
 bleaching agents, this property belong- 
 ing to it through its strong affinity for 
 hydrogen. It is a valuabe disinfectant 
 where it can be conveniently applied, 
 as in the form of chloride of lime. 
 
 CHLO'RODYNE, a popular patent 
 medicine used in allaying pain and in- 
 ducing sleep, and containing morphia, 
 chloroform, prussic acid, extract of 
 Indian hemp, etc. There are several 
 makes of it, but all have to be used with 
 caution. 
 
 CHLO'ROFORM, a volatile colorless 
 liquid of an agreeable, fragrant, sweetish 
 apple taste and smell, discovered by 
 Soubeiran and Liebig in 1832. It is 
 prepared by cautiously distilling to- 
 gether a mixture of alcohol, water, 
 and chloride of lime or bleaching-poM^der. 
 Its use as an anaesthetic was introduced 
 in 1847 by Prof. Simpson of Edinburgh. 
 For this purpose its vapor is inhaled. 
 The inhalation of chloroform first pro- 
 duces slight intoxication ; then, fre- 
 quently, slight muscular contractions, 
 unruliness, and dreaming; then loss of 
 voluntary motion and consciousness, 
 the patient appearing as if sound asleep; 
 and at last, if too much be given, death 
 by coma and syncope. When skilfully 
 administered in proper cases it is con- 
 sidered one of the safest of anaesthetics; 
 but it requires to be used under certain 
 precautions, as its application has 
 frequently proved fatal. Chloroform 
 is a powerful solvent, dissolving resins, 
 wax, iodine, etc., as well as strychnine 
 and other alkaloids. 
 
 CHLORO'SIS or GREEN SICKNESS, 
 a disease specially affecting young girls, 
 is characterized by a greenish or yellow- 
 ish hue of the skin, languor, indigestion 
 and general debility, and derangement 
 of the system. The pathological con- 
 dition of chlorosis is a diminution in 
 quantity of the red globules of the blood, 
 an important constituent of which is 
 iron, and accordingly the administra- 
 tion of iron forms a leading part of the 
 treatment of this disease. — -The term is 
 also applied to a disease of plants in 
 which a deficiency of chlorophyll causes 
 a blanched and yellow appearance in- 
 stead of a healthy green in the plant. 
 It is artificially produced in some 
 esculent vegetables to destroy their 
 bitter flavor. 
 
 CHOATE, Joseph Hodges, an Ameri- 
 can diplomat and lawyer, born in 
 Massachusetts in 1832. He became 
 noted for his part as counsel for the 
 defense in the Tweed Ring case, the 
 Tilden will contest and the Chinese 
 exclusion case. He represented the U. 
 States in the Bering Sea dispute, and in 
 1899 was appointed ambassador to 
 England. 
 
 CHOATE, Rufus, a noted American 
 lawyer, born in Massachusetts in 1799, 
 died in 1859. He was a member of the 
 
 U. States senate for some years and was 
 an ardent advocate of protection. 
 Choate was particularly noted for his 
 fine oratory. 
 
 CHO'COLATE, a paste composed of 
 the kernels of the Theobroma Cacao or 
 cacao-tree, ground and combined with 
 sugar and vanilla, cinnamon, or other 
 flavoring substance; also a beverage 
 made by dissolving chocolate in boiling 
 water or milk. It was used in Mexico 
 long before the arrival of the Spaniards, 
 and is now largely used. 
 
 CHOC'TAWS, a N. American Indian 
 tribe now settled on a portion (10,450 
 sq. miles) of the Indian Territory on the 
 Red river. They formerly inhabited 
 what is now the w. part of Alabama and 
 s. part of Mississippi. They cultivate 
 the soil, are partially civilized, having a 
 regular constitution prefaced with a 
 bill of rights, courts of justice, books 
 and newspapers. 
 
 CHOIR (cjuir), that part of a cruci- 
 form church extending eastward from 
 the nave to the altar, frequently in- 
 closed by a screen, and set apart for the 
 performance of the ordinary service. 
 The name is also given to the organized 
 body of singers in church services. 
 
 CHOKE-CHERRY, a popular name 
 for one or more species of cherry dis- 
 tinguished by their astringency. 
 
 CHOKE-DAMP, or AFTER-DAMP, 
 the name given to the irrespirable gas 
 (carbonic acid) found in coal-mines 
 after an explosion of fire-damp or light 
 carburetted hydrogen. 
 
 CHOLAGOGUE (ko'la-gog), a medi- 
 cine which has the property of carrying 
 off bile. 
 
 CHOLERA (kol'e-ra), an acute con- 
 tagious and very fatal disease. In its 
 
 more ordinary form it commences with 
 sickness, vomiting, or perhaps two or 
 three loose evacuations of the bowels; 
 after which follow a sense of burning at 
 the prsecordia, an increased purging 
 and vomiting of a white or colorless 
 fluid, great prostration of strength, 
 spasms at the extremities, which in- 
 crease in violence with the vomiting 
 and purging. Such cases may last from 
 twelve to thirty-six hours; after this the 
 patient generally sinks into a state of 
 extreme collapse, and this stage in most 
 cases passes by a gradual transition into 
 a febrile one, which in a majority of 
 instances proves fatal. Sometimes the 
 patient is suddenly stricken down and 
 dies, collapsed within a few hours with- 
 out diarrhtea or vomiting. This disease 
 is endemic in certain parts of Asia 
 (hence it is sometimes called Asiatic 
 cholera), and is liable to spread to other 
 parts of the world, usually by the ordi- 
 nary channels of commerical inter- 
 course. It first appeared in Europe in 
 1829, and reached Britain in 1831, 
 spreading thence to America. Western 
 Europe was again visited by it in 1847, 
 1853, 1865, 1873, 1875, and in 1885.' 
 In 1892 Russia and western Europe 
 suffered severely. 
 
 The primary and essential element in 
 the production of cholera has been as- 
 certained to be a constituent of the 
 excreta of cholera patients. Whether 
 this particular substance is the germ of 
 a fungus or other form of minute life 
 is not quite certain, but that it is an 
 organism capable of propagating itself 
 when it is taken into the alimentary 
 canal in food, impure water, or the like, 
 is beyond a doubt. Dr. Koch asserts 
 that the essential cause is a bacillus, 
 having the form of a curved rod, hence 
 called the comma bacillus, and that the 
 disease is caused by the multiplication 
 of this organism in the small intestines. 
 The fact that great numbers are present 
 in persons suffering from cholera is gen- 
 erally admitted, but it is doubted by 
 other experts if they do actually produce 
 the disease. A method of protective 
 inoculation against cholera has been 
 lately tried in Spain, but with small 
 success. The contagion of cholera is 
 not so likely to be conveyed by personal 
 intercourse as by residence in an in- 
 fected district. Sanitary measures 
 have proved to be the only efficacious 
 means of arresting an epidemic; in- 
 sanitary conditions decidedly favor it. 
 
 Chopines. 
 
 CHOPIN (sho-pan), Fr6d4ric Francois, 
 pianist and musical composer, of Frencn 
 extraction, was born at Warsaw in 1810, 
 went to Paris in 1831 on account of the 
 political troubles of Poland, and died 
 
CHOPINE 
 
 CHRISTIANITY 
 
 there in 1849. He wrote nurnerous 
 pieces for the pianoforte, chiefly in the 
 form of nocturnes, polonaises, waltzes, 
 and mazurkas; all of which display 
 much poetic fancy, abounding in subtle 
 ideas with graceful harmonic eS’ects. 
 
 CHOPINE (chop-enO, a very high shoe 
 or elevated clog, introduced into Eng- 
 land from Venice, in the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth, and which became the 
 fashionable wear of court ladies during 
 that reign. They were made of wood 
 covered with leather of sundry colors, 
 white, red, yellow, and sometiines gut. 
 Some of them were of great height, as 
 much as 18 inches, the height of the 
 chopine being seemingly regarded aa a 
 mark of the rank of the wearer. 
 
 CHOP-STICKS, the Chinese substi- 
 tute for our knife, fork, and spooii at 
 meals, consisting of two smooth sticks 
 of bamboo, wood, or ivory, which are 
 used for conveying meat to the mouth 
 with wonderful dexterity. 
 
 CHORAL SERVICE, in the Church of 
 England, service with intoned responses, 
 and the use of music throughout where- 
 ever it is authorized. The service is 
 said to be partly choral when only can- 
 ticles, hymns, etc., are sung; wholly 
 choral, when, in addition to these, the 
 versicles, responses, etc., are sung. 
 
 CHORD (kord), in music, the simul- 
 taneous combination of different sounds, 
 consonant or dissonant. The common 
 chord consists of a fundamental or bass 
 note with its third and fifth. When 
 the interval between the bass note and 
 its third is two full tones the combina- 
 tion is a major chord; when the interval 
 is a tone and a half the combination is 
 termed a minor chord; when the inter- 
 vals between the bass note and its third 
 and the third and the fifth are each a 
 tone and a half, the chord is called 
 diminished. The tonic chord is made up 
 of the key-note and its third and fifth; 
 the dominant chord, consists of the 
 dominant or fifth of the scale accom- 
 panied by its third and fifth; the sub- 
 dominant chord has for its root or bass 
 the subdominant or fourth of the scale, 
 accompanied with its third and fifth. — 
 In geom. a chord is a straight line drawn, 
 or supposed to extend, from one end of 
 an arc of a circle to the other. 
 
 CHOROID (ko'-), a term applied in 
 anat. to various textures; as the choroid 
 membrane, one of the membranes of 
 the eye, of a very dark color, situated 
 between the sclerotic and the retina, and 
 terminating anteriorly at the great cir- 
 cumference of the iris. 
 
 CHORUS (ko'rus), originally an an- 
 cient Greek term for a'troop of singers 
 and dancers, intended to heighten the 
 pomp and solemnity of festivals. Dur- 
 ing the most flourishing period of ancient 
 tragedy (b.c. 500-400) the Greek chorus 
 was a troop of males and females, who, 
 during the whole representation, were 
 spectators of the action, never quitting 
 the stage. In the intervals of the action 
 the chorus chanted songs, which related 
 to the subject of the performance. 
 Sometimes it even took part in the per- 
 formance, by observations on the con- 
 duct of the personages, by advice, con- 
 solation, exhortation, or disuasion. 
 In the beginning it consisted of a great 
 number of persons, sometimes as many 
 
 as fifty; but the number was afterv;ard 
 limited to fifteen. In music, the chorus 
 is that part of a composite vocal per- 
 formance which is executed by the whole 
 body of the singers, in contradistinction 
 to the solo airs, and concerted pieces for 
 selected voices. The singers who join 
 in the chorus are also called the chorus. 
 The term is also applied to the verses 
 of a song in which the company join the 
 singer, or the union of a company with a 
 singer in repeating certain couplets or 
 verses at certain periods in a song. 
 
 CHOTA NAGPORE, a division of Brit- 
 ish India, presidency Bengal. Total 
 area, 43,020 sq. miles. Pop. 4,645,590. 
 
 CHOW-CHOW, a kind of mixed 
 pickles put up in mustard. It originated 
 in India. 
 
 CHOW CHOW, a Chinese dog, marked 
 by the possession of a black tongue. It 
 was introduced into the U. States in 
 1901. 
 
 CHOWDER, a dish consisting of a 
 mixture of fish or clams, potatoes, 
 biscuit, vegetables and other ingredi- 
 ents. The word and dish are of French 
 
 origin. 
 
 CHRIST, a title of our Savior, now 
 used almost as a name or part of his 
 name. See Christianity and Jesus Christ. 
 
 CHRISTENING, the ceremony at 
 which a person or thing is given a name. 
 In former times it was generally accom- 
 panied by baptism at which time the 
 person baptized was believed to become 
 a Christian, as previous to baptism 
 the individual w^as still a pagan. The 
 ceremony of christening a ship was first 
 practiced in 1418. Nowadays ships are 
 always christened by a woman, pre- 
 ferably young, who breaks a bottle of 
 champagne on the prow as the vessel is 
 launched from the ways. 
 
 CHRISTIAN, the name of nine Danish 
 kings. Christian II., King of Denmark, 
 Norway, and Sweden, was born 1480, 
 died 1559. He attained the throne in 
 1513, and in 1518 usurped the throne of 
 Sweden, from which he was expelled by 
 Gustavus Vasa in 1522. He was deposed 
 by his Danish subjects in 1523, and re- 
 tired to the Netherlands, whence he 
 returned in 1531 with an army, but was 
 defeated, and kept in confinement till 
 his death. — Christian IV., King of Den- 
 mark, son of Frederick II. and the 
 Princess Sophia of Mecklenburg, born 
 in Zealand in 1577, succeeded to the 
 throne as a minor in 1588, and died 1648. 
 In the Thirty Years’ war he was beaten 
 by Tilly at Lutter in 1626, but after- 
 ward, in conjunction with Gustavus 
 Adolphus, obtained thn Treaty of Lii- 
 beck, 1629. He has the merit of having 
 laid the foundation of the Danish navy, 
 extended the trade of his subjects to the 
 East Indies, and fitted out several expe- 
 ditions for the discovery of a north- 
 west passairp. Christi.nn TX died 1906. 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS COLLEGE, 
 a scliool at St. Louis founded by the 
 Brothers of the Christian Schools 
 (Roman Catholic) in 1855, and having 
 a regular college curriculum of arts and 
 sciences. It has about 450 students, 
 and income of $30,000. 
 
 CHRISTIAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, 
 the name given by John Alexander 
 Dowie to a denomination founded by 
 him in 1890 at Chicago. The faith was 
 
 based on the belief that miraculous 
 healing is possible. Dowie removed 
 his organization to Zion City, near 
 Chicago, a town built by the Zionites 
 and governed by them, since 1902. 
 In late years Dowie claimed to be Elijah, 
 reincarnated. His followers revolted 
 in 1905 and his place was taken by 
 Voliva, a subordinate. The manage- 
 ment of the business of Zion is now in 
 the hands of a receiver. 
 
 CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR, YOUNG 
 PEOPLE’S SOCIETY OF, a society 
 founded in 1881 by Francis E. Clark of 
 the Methodist Episcopal church. It 
 grew with great rapidity and recently 
 had a membership of upward of 
 3,000,000. The object of the society is 
 to cultivate religious activity in simple 
 things of daily life. 
 
 CHRISTIAN ERA, the great era now 
 almost universally employed in Chris- 
 tian countries for the computation of 
 time. It is generally supposed to begin 
 with the year of the birth of Christ ; but 
 that event seems to have taken place 
 four years before the present established 
 beginning of the era. Time before 
 Christ is marked b.c., after Christ a.d. 
 The era is computed from the 1st Jan. 
 in the fourth year of the 194th olym- 
 piad, and the 753d year from the build- 
 ing of Rome. It was first used by 
 Dionysius, a Syrian monk, in the 6th 
 century, but did not become general 
 until about the middle of the 15th 
 eentury. 
 
 CHRISTIANIA, a city and port, the 
 capital of Norway, province Aggershuus 
 
 or Christiania, at the head of the long 
 narrow inlet called Christiania Fjord, 
 about 60 miles from the open sea or 
 Skagerraek. Important public build- 
 ings are the royal palace, the house of 
 representatives or Storthing, the gov- 
 ernor’s palace, and the cathedral. At- 
 tached to the university — the only one 
 in Norway, opened in 1813 — is a muse- 
 um, containing a fine collection of 
 antiquities. The manufactures of the 
 city consist of woolen cloth, ironware, 
 tobacco, paper, leather, soap, spirits, 
 glass, etc., and there are extensive 
 breweries. The exports are principally 
 timber and iron. The environs are 
 exceedingly beautiful. Pop. 225,686. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY, the religion insti- 
 tuted by Jesus Christ. Though th® 
 
CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE 
 
 CHRISTY 
 
 great moral principles which it reveals 
 and teaches, and the main doctrines of 
 the gospel, have been preserved without 
 interruption, the genius of the different 
 nations and ages have materially col- 
 ored its character. The first com- 
 munity of the followers of Jesus was 
 formed at Jerusalem soon after the 
 death of their Master. Another at 
 Antioch in Syria first assumed (about 
 65) the name of Christians; and the 
 travels of the apostles spread Chris- 
 tianity through the provinces of the 
 Roman Empire. Palestine, Syria, Asia 
 Minor, Greece, the islands of the Medi- 
 terranean, Italy, and the northern 
 coast of Africa, as early as the 1st cen- 
 tury, contained societies of Christians. 
 At the end of the 3d century almost 
 one-half of the inhabitants of the Roman 
 Empire, and of several neighboring 
 countries, professed this belief. While 
 Christianity as a system was thus 
 spreading, many heretical branches 
 had sprung from the main trunk. From 
 the Gnostics, who date from the days 
 of the apostles, to the Nestorians of 
 the 5th century the number of sects 
 was large, and some of them exist to 
 the present day. The most important 
 events in the subsequent history of 
 Christianity are the separation of the 
 Eastern and Western Churches early 
 in the 8th century; and the Western 
 reformation, which may be said to have 
 commenced with the sectaries of the 
 13th century and ended with the estab- 
 lishment of Protestantism in the 16th. 
 The number of Christians now in the 
 world is computed at 450,000,000. Of 
 these about 212,000,000 are Roman 
 Catholics, 83,000,000 belong to the 
 Greek Church, and 155,000,000 are 
 Protestants. Of the various sects of 
 Protestants the most numerous are the 
 Lutheran, the Calvinistic, and the 
 Anglican Church. 
 
 CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, Society 
 for Promoting, a society founded in 
 London in 169^8, in connection with the 
 Church of England, having for its main 
 objects the establishment of churches, 
 schools, and libraries, and the publica- 
 tion and circulation of religious and 
 moral literature. It is still in active 
 operation, publishes a great number of 
 religious and instructive works, and 
 recently established a training college 
 for schoolmistresses. 
 
 CHRISTIANS, the general name of 
 the followers of Christ. See Christianity. 
 
 CHRISTIANS, or Christian Connec- 
 tion, the name of a denomination in the 
 United States and' Canada, adopted to 
 express their renunciation of all sec- 
 tarianism. They are to be met with in 
 all parts of the country, the number of 
 their churches being estimated at over 
 1000. Each church is an independent 
 body; the Scriptures are their only rule 
 of faith, and admission to the church is 
 obtained by a simple profession of belief 
 in (Christianity. As a rule they are anti- 
 Trinitarians and Baptists. 
 
 CHRISTIAN SCIENCE, a religio- 
 scientific discovery claimed by Mrs. 
 Mary Baker Eddy of Concord, N. H., 
 to have been made by her in 1866. 
 Christian Science purports to reveal the 
 science of God, also the science of life 
 and of man. It claims to be the science 
 
 of the divine Mind or Omniscience. It 
 affirms the divine individuality of God, 
 and denies all man-made conceptions of 
 Him as a finite personality. It declares 
 that God can only be spiritually dis- 
 cerned, and that the material senses 
 cannot cognize or comprehend God. 
 Mrs. Eddy adds to the accepted 
 synonyms for Deity such as Life, Truth, 
 Love and Spirit, that God is the Divine 
 Principle of all true being; the creative 
 principle, the cause, origin, source, basis, 
 foundation, government and law of all 
 that has actual and permanent existence. 
 She repudiates all assumption that God 
 has created or consented to any form of 
 evil, sin, sickness or death. She declares 
 that all of God’s laws mean and pro- 
 vide for life, and life only. 
 
 It denies the personality of evil as 
 devil, and avers that evil has no real 
 entity or immortality. Sin or evil is a 
 negation — a wrong sense of the truth of 
 being — a wrong sense of that which is 
 eternally right. It asserts that the 
 primary cause of sickness is to be found 
 in the mental realm. It declares that 
 fear, sin, superstition and ignorance 
 have involved the human race in mor- 
 tality, and that when the world fully 
 learns this fact, it will begin to scien- 
 tifically cope with, and permanently 
 master disease. 
 
 Christian Scientists believe in God, 
 in the inspiration of the Scriptures, in 
 the divinity of Christ, in the supremacy 
 of God as Spirit, in prayer without 
 ceasing, and in all the essentials^ of 
 Christianity, and claim that the prime 
 office of Christian Science is to destroy 
 evil and reform mankind. They be- 
 lieve that all evil will eventually be de- 
 stroyed and become extinct. 
 
 CHRISTI'NA, Queen of Sweden, 
 daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, born 
 1626, died 1689. After the death of 
 Gustavus, at Liitzen, in 1632, the states- 
 general appointed guardians to the 
 Queen Christina, then but six years 
 old. In 1644 she took upon herself the 
 government. A great talent for busi- 
 ness, and great firmness of purpose, 
 distinguished her first steps. She ter- 
 minated the war with Denmark begun 
 in 1644, and obtained several provinces 
 by the treaty concluded at Bromsebro 
 in 1645. In 1654 she abdicated in favor 
 of her cousin Charles Gustavus, reserv- 
 ing to herself a certain income, entire 
 independence, and full power over her 
 suite and household. She left an im- 
 mense art collection and a large number 
 of valuable MSS. Her writings were 
 collected and published in 1752. 
 
 CHRISTMAS (kris'mas), the festival 
 of the Christian church observed an- 
 nually on 25th December in memory 
 of the birth of Christ, and celebrated by 
 a particular church service. The time 
 W'hen the festival was first observed is 
 not known with certainty; but it is 
 spoken of in the beginning of the 3d 
 century by Clement of Alexandria, and 
 in the latter part of the 4th century 
 Chrysostom speaks of it as of great 
 antiquity. As to the day on which it 
 was celebrated, there was long consider- 
 able diversity, but by the time of 
 (Chrysostom the Western Church had 
 fixed on the 25th of December, though 
 no certain knowledge of the day of 
 
 Christ’s birth existed. The Eastern 
 Church, which previously had generally 
 favored the 6th of January, gradually 
 adopted the same date. Many believe 
 that the existence of heathen festivals 
 celebrated on or about this day had 
 great influence on its being selected ; and 
 the Brumalia, a Roman festival held at 
 the winter solstice, when the sun is as it 
 were born anew, has often been in- 
 stanced as having a strong bearing on 
 the question. 
 
 CHRISTMAS-BOXES, boxes in 
 which presents were deposited at Christ- 
 mas; hence a Christmas gift. The cus- 
 tom of bestowing Christmas boxes arose 
 in the early days of the church, when 
 boxes were placed in the churches for the 
 reception of offerings; these boxes were 
 opened on Christmas day, and their 
 contents distributed by the priests on 
 the morrow (boxing-day). 
 
 CHRISTMAS CARDS, ornamental 
 cards containing words of Christmas 
 greeting to friends to whom they are 
 sent. The first of them appeared about 
 1862, and consisted of pictures of robins, 
 holly, etc.; since then highly artistic 
 designs have been introduced, and their 
 manufacture has become a considerable 
 industry in Germany, France and Eng- 
 land. Immense quanties of them pass 
 through the post-office every Christmas. 
 
 CHRISTMAS CAROL, a carol or 
 song descriptive of the birth of Christ, 
 or of incidents connected with it, sung 
 especially at Christmas. 
 
 CHRISTMAS ROSE, the black 
 hellebore, so called from its flower, 
 which resembles a large white single 
 rose ; its foliage is dark and evergreen, 
 and the plant blossoms during the 
 winter months. 
 
 CHRISTMAS TREE, a smaU fir- 
 tree lighted up by means of tiny small 
 candles of colored wax or small Chinese 
 lanterns, ornamented with flags, tinsel 
 ornaments, etc., and hung all over with 
 gifts for children. 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY, that branch of the 
 study of divinity which deals directly 
 with the doctrine of the person of 
 Christ,. 
 
 CHRiSTOPHE (kris-tof), Henri, King 
 of Hayti, was born in the West Indies 
 in 1767, and was employed as a slave in 
 St. Domingo on the outbreak of the 
 blacks against the French in 1793. 
 From the commencement of the troubles 
 he signalized himself by his energy, 
 boldness, and activity in many bloody 
 engagements. In 1811 he had himself 
 proclaimed King of Hayti by the name 
 of Henri I. His cruelty provoked a 
 revolt, which being unable to quell he 
 shot himself, 1820. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER’S, St. (commonly 
 called St. Kitt’s), a British island in the 
 West Indies, one of the Leeward Is- 
 lands, 23 miles in length, and in general 
 about 5 in breadth; area 68 sq. miles, 
 or 44,000 acres, of which about 17,000 
 acres are appropriated to the growth of 
 sugar, and 4000 to pasturage. It was 
 discovered by Columbus in 1493 and 
 colonized by the English in 1623. 
 Pop. 29,782. 
 
 CHRISTY, Howard Chandler, an 
 American illustrator, born in Ohio in 
 
CHROMATE 
 
 CHUQUISACA 
 
 1873. In 1893 be began his career as a 
 magazine illustrator and in 1901 drew 
 the pictures with which Winston 
 Churchill’s Crisis is illustrated. 
 
 CHROMATE. See Chrome Iron Ore, 
 Chrome Yellow. 
 
 CHROMATIC PRINTING. See Color 
 Printing. 
 
 CHROMATICS, the science of colors; 
 that part of optics which treats of the 
 properties of the colors of light and of 
 natural bodies. 
 
 CHRO'MIUM, a metal which forms 
 very hard steel-gray masses; it never 
 occurs native, but may be obtained by 
 reducing the oxide. In its highest de- 
 gree of oxidation it forms a compound 
 of a ruby-red color. By itself it has 
 received no practical applications. It 
 takes its name from the various and 
 beautiful colors which its oxide and acid 
 communicate to minerals into whose 
 composition they enter. It is the color- 
 ing matter of the emerald and beryl. 
 Chromium is employed to give a fine 
 deep green to the enamel of porcelain, 
 glass, etc. The oxide of chromium is of 
 a bright grass-green or pale-yellow color. 
 This element was originally discovered 
 in 1797 by Vauquelm, in the native 
 chromate of lead of Siberia. See pre- 
 ceding articles. 
 
 CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY, a method 
 of producing a colored or tinted litho- 
 graphic picture, by using various stones 
 having different portions of the picture 
 drawn upon them with inks of various 
 colors and so arranged as to blend into 
 a complete picture. Sometimes as many 
 as twenty different colors are employed.. 
 In printing, the lighter shades are 
 printed off first and the darkest last. 
 
 CHRO'MOSPHERE, the name given 
 to the gaseous envelope which exists 
 round the body of the sun, through 
 which the light of the photosphere, an 
 inner envelope of incandescent matter, 
 passes. Dunng total eclipses it had been 
 observed that a red-colored envelope 
 surrounded the sun, shooting up to 
 great distances from the surface. It 
 seems to have been first recognized by 
 Secchi ; and the projecting portions of it 
 are commonly described as “red-colored 
 protuberances” and “red flames.” To 
 this red envelope the name chromo- 
 sphere was given by Mr. Lockyer. The 
 light from it is much fainter than that 
 from the photosphere; and till 1868, 
 when M. Janssen and Mr. Lockyer 
 almost simultaneously pointed out a 
 method of viewing it, it was never seen 
 except during eclipses. The chromo- 
 sphere and its prominences, when ex- 
 amined with the telespectroscope, ex- 
 hibit a spectrum of bright lings due to 
 incandescent gases. The most elevated 
 portions consist entirely or almost en- 
 tirely of hydrogen, the lightest of the 
 gases. Lower down are found the gases 
 or vapors of the heavier metals — of 
 sodium, magnesium, barium, iron, and 
 others. The lower the layer of the 
 chromosphere examined the more 
 densely is the spectrum filled with lines 
 of metals, and in the prominences the 
 red hydrogen flames tower high above 
 all. 
 
 CHRONIC, a term applied to diseases 
 which are inveterate or of long con- 
 
 tinuance. in distinction to acute dis- 
 eases, which speedily terminate. 
 
 CHRONICLES, Books of, two books 
 of the Old Testament which formed 
 only one book in the Hebrew canon, in 
 which it is placed last. The name 
 Chronicles was given to it by Jerome. 
 The book is one of the latest composi- 
 tions of the Old Testament, and is sup- 
 
 E osed to have been written by the same 
 and as Ezra and Nehemiah. Accord- 
 ing to its contents the book forms three 
 great parts: — 1, genealogical tables; 
 2, the history of the reigns of David and 
 Solomon; 3, the history of the kingdom 
 of Judah from the separation under 
 Rehoboam to the Babylonian captivity, 
 with a notice in the last two verses of 
 the permission granted by Cyrus to the 
 exiles to return home and rebuild their 
 temple. The Chronicles present many 
 points of contact with the earlier scrip- 
 tures, historical and prophetical, more 
 especially, however, with the books of 
 Samuel and of Kings. 
 
 CHRON'OGRAPH, the name given to 
 various devices for measuring and 
 registering very minute portions of 
 time with extreme precision. Benson’s 
 chronograph is, in principle, a lever 
 watch with a double seconds hand, the 
 one superimposed on the other. The 
 outer end of the loM'ermost hand has 
 a small cup filled with a black viscid 
 fluid, with a minute hole at the bottom, 
 while the corresponding end of the 
 uppermost is bent down so as just to 
 reach the hole. At the starting (say) of 
 a horse-race, the observer pulls a string, 
 whereupon the bent end of the upper 
 hand passes through the hold and makes 
 a black mark on the dial, instantly 
 rebounding. Again, as each horse passes 
 the winning-post the string is redrawn 
 and a dot made, and thus the time occu- 
 pied by each horse is noted. This chron- 
 ograph registers to one-tenth of a second. 
 Strange’s chronograph is connected 
 with the pendulum of an astronomical 
 clock, which makes a mark on a sheet 
 of paper at the beginning and end of 
 eacn swing. By touching a spring on 
 the appearance (say) of a particular 
 star in the field of a telescope, an ad- 
 ditional dot is made intermediate be- 
 tween the two extreme ones, and by 
 measuring the distance of this from 
 either of these extremes the exact time 
 can be ascertained to one-hundredth 
 of a second. Schultze’s chronograph, 
 in which electricity is applied, is yet far 
 more precise, registering time to the 
 five - hundred - thousandtn part of a 
 second. 
 
 CHRONOL'OGY, the science which 
 treats of time, and has for its object the 
 arrangement and exhibition of historical 
 events in order of time and the ascer- 
 taining of the intervals between them. 
 Its basis is necessarily the method of 
 measuring or computing time by regular 
 divisions or periods, according to the 
 revolutions of the earth or moon. The 
 motions of these bodies produce the 
 natural division of time into years, 
 months, and days. As there can be no 
 exact computation of time or placing of 
 events without a fixed point from which 
 to start, dates are fixed from an arbi- 
 trary point or epoch, which forms the 
 beginning of an era. The more im- 
 
 portant of these are the creation of the 
 world among the Jews; the birth of 
 Christ among Christians; the Olympiads 
 among the Greeks; the building of Rome 
 among the Romans; the Hejira or flight 
 of Mohammed among the Mohamme- 
 dans, etc. See Epoch, Calendar. 
 
 CHRONOM'ETER, any instrument 
 that measures time, as a clock, watch, 
 or dial; but, specifically, this term is 
 applied to those time-keepers which are 
 used for determining the longitude at 
 sea, or for any other purpose where an 
 accurate measure of time is required, 
 with great portability in the instrument. 
 The chronometer differs from the ordi- 
 nary^ watch in the principle of its 
 escapement, which is so constructed 
 that the balance is free from the wheels 
 during the greater part of its vibration, 
 and also in being fitted with a “com- 
 pensation adjustment,” calculated to 
 prevent the expansion and contraction 
 of the metal by the action of heat and 
 cold from affecting its movements. 
 Marine chronometers generally beat 
 half-seconds, and are hung in gimbals 
 in boxes 6 or 8 inches square. The 
 pocket chronometer does not differ in 
 appearance from a watch except that 
 it is somewhat larger. 
 
 CHRON'OSCOPE, an instrument for 
 measuring the duration of extremely 
 short-lived phenomena, such as the 
 electric spark; more especially the name 
 given to instruments of various forms 
 for measuring the velocity of projectiles. 
 
 CHRYS'ALIS, a form which butter- 
 flies, moths, and most other insects 
 assume when they change from the 
 state of larva or caterpillar and before 
 they arrive at their winged or perfect 
 state. In the chrysalis form the animal 
 is in a state of rest or insensibility, and 
 exists without nutriment, the length 
 of time varying with the species and 
 season. During this period an elabora- 
 tion is going on in the interior of the 
 chrysalis, giving to the organs of the 
 future animal their proper development. 
 
 CHRYSAN'THEMUM, a large genus 
 of composite plants, consisting of herbs 
 or shrubs with single, large-stalked 
 yellow flowers or with many small 
 flowers; the rays are sometimes white. 
 
 CHRYS'OSTOM, John, St., a cele- 
 brated Greek father of the church, born 
 in Antioch about a.d. 344, died at 
 Comana in Pontus 407. 
 
 CHUB, a fish of the genus carps. 
 The body is oblong, nearly round; the 
 head and back green, the sides silvery, 
 and the belly white. It frequents deep 
 
 Chub. 
 
 holes in rivers shaded by trees, but in 
 warm weather floats near the surface, 
 and furnishes sport for anglers. It is 
 indifferent food, and rarely attains the 
 weight of 5 lbs. 
 
 CHUQUISACA (ch6-kS-sa'k5i), or 
 SUCRE, a city of S. America, the capital 
 of Bolivia; well situated on a plateau 
 1 between the Amazon and La Plata 
 
CHURCH 
 
 CIGAR 
 
 rivers, 9343 feet above sea-level. It 
 has a cathedral and a university. It 
 was founded by one of Pizarro’s officers 
 in 1539. Pop. estimated at about 
 
 25.000. — The province of Chuquisaca 
 has an area of 72,000 sq. miles; pop. 
 
 200.000. 
 
 CHURCH, a word which in its widest 
 sense denotes the whole community of 
 Christians, and was tlius used by the 
 New Testament writers. In more 
 restricted significations it denotes a 
 particular section of the Christian com- 
 munity differing in doctrinal matters 
 from the remainder, as the Roman 
 Catholic Chui’ch, the Protestant Church, 
 etc.; or to designate the recognized 
 leading church of a nation, as the Eng- 
 lish, Scotch, or French Church. Gen- 
 erally speaking any building set apart 
 for religious ordinances is called a 
 church, though when of a minor kind it 
 is usually designated a chapel. 
 
 CHURCH CALENDAR, a table of the 
 holy days, feasts, and fasts of a church. 
 It originated in 448 a.d. and has been 
 retained by the Roman Catholic, the 
 Lutheran, and the Protestant Episcopal 
 churches. 
 
 CHURCH, FATHERS OF THE, 
 
 teachers and writers of the ancient 
 church who flourished after the time of 
 the apostles and apostolic fathers (the 
 immediate disciples of the apostles), 
 from the 2nd to the 6th century. The 
 most celebrated among the Greek 
 fathers are Clement of Alexandria, 
 Origen, Eusebius, Athanasius, and 
 Chrysostom. The most distinguished 
 among the Latin fathers are Tertullian, 
 Augustine, Ambrose and Jerome. 
 
 CHURCH, Frederick Edwin, an Amer- 
 ican painter, born in 1826 at Hartford, 
 Conn., died 1900. He painted N. and S. 
 American mountains and American 
 landscapes in general. His best known 
 picture is his Horseshoe Falls, Niagara. 
 
 CHURCH, States of the. See Papal 
 States. 
 
 CHURCHILL, Randolph Henry Spen- 
 cer, Lord, second son of the sixth Duke 
 of Marlborough, born 1849. Having 
 entered parliament in 1874, by 1884 he 
 had risen to the position of a recognized 
 leader of the Conservative party, and 
 in 1885 became Indian secretary in 
 Lord Salisbury’s government. Op the 
 defeat of Gladstone’s Irish Bill in 1886 
 Churchill became leader of the House of 
 Commons and Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer, posts which he unexpectedly 
 resigned in December, 1886. He died 
 in 1895. 
 
 CHURCH OF GOD, a religious de- 
 nomination of the U. States, the doc- 
 trines of which are substantially those of 
 the Baptist church. It originated with 
 the revival work of John Winebrener, 
 in 1830, at Harrisburg, Pa. There are 
 about 500 ministers, 580 churches, and 
 40,000 communicants. The denomina- 
 tion has a college at Findlay, Ohio, and 
 does considerable mis.sionary work. 
 
 CHURCH TRIUMPHANT, an organi- 
 zation founded by George Schweinfurth 
 in 1883, and centered at Rockford, 111. 
 Schweisifurth claimed that he was 
 another incarnation of Christ. The 
 church has about 400 members. 
 
 CHURCH WARDENS, officials of the 
 Protestant Episcopal Church elected 
 
 for the purpose of caring for the church 
 property. In the U. States they are 
 generally two and are elected annually. 
 
 CHURN, a vessel for preparing butter 
 from cream or milk, in which cream is 
 agitated to separate its buttery globules 
 in a solid mass from the fluid portions. 
 
 CIBBER, Colley, a diamatic writer 
 and actor, born in London 1671, died 
 1757. He took to the stage in 1689. 
 His first dramatic effort. Love’s Last 
 Shift, appeared in 1695; and it was fol- 
 lowed "by Woman’s Wit, the Careless 
 Husband, and the Non-juror, of which 
 the Hypocrite of the modern stage is a 
 new version. A court pension and the 
 appointment of pcet -laureate drew upon 
 him the rancor of the wits and poets 
 of the day, including Pope. He is 
 author of about twenty-five dramas, 
 the amusing Apology for the Life of 
 Colley Cibber, etc. 
 
 CICERO, Marcus Tullius, the greatest 
 Roman orator, was born 106 b.c. at 
 Arpinum. He received the best educa- 
 tion available, studied philosophy and 
 law, became familiar with Greek litera- 
 ture, and acquired some military knowl- 
 
 edge from serving a campaign in the 
 Marsic war. At the age of twenty-five 
 he came forward as a pleader, and hav- 
 ing undertaken the defense of Sextus 
 Roscius, who was accused of parricide, 
 procured his acquittal. In b.c. 76 he 
 was appointed quaestor of Sicily, and be- 
 haved with such justice that the Sicilians 
 gratefully remembered him and re- 
 quested that he would conduct their 
 suit against their governor Verrcs. 
 After this suit Cicero was elected to the 
 office of aedile, n.c. 70, became praetor 
 in 6f, and consul in 63. It was now that 
 he succeeded in defeating the conspiracy 
 of Catiline, after whose fall he received 
 greater honors than had ever before 
 been bestowed upon a Roman citizen. 
 But Cicero’s fortune had now reached 
 the culminating point, and soon was to 
 decline. The Catilinarian conspirators 
 who had been executed had not been 
 sentenced according to law, and Cicero, 
 as chief magistrate, was responsible for 
 the irregularity. Publius Clodius, the 
 tribune of the people, raised such a storm 
 against him that he was obliged to go 
 into exile (b.c. 58). On the fall of the 
 Clodian faction he was recalled to Rome, 
 but he never succeeded in regaining the 
 
 influence he had once possessed. In 
 B.c. 52 he became proconsul of Cilicia, 
 a province which he administered with 
 eminent success. As soon as his terra 
 of office had expired he returned to 
 Rome (Jan. b.c. 49), which was 
 threatened with serious disturbances 
 owing to the rupture oetween Ctesar 
 and Pompey. He espoused the cause 
 of Pompey, but after the battle of 
 Pharsalia he made his peace with Cffisar, 
 with whom he continued to all appear- 
 ance friendly, and by whom he was 
 kindly treated, until the assassination 
 of the latter (44 b.c.). Antony having 
 taken Csesar’s place, Cicero composed 
 those admirable orations against him, 
 delivered in b.c. 43, wliich are known 
 to us by the name of Philippics (after 
 the speeches of Demosthenes against 
 Philip of Macedon). He died in his 
 sixty-fourth year, n.c. 43. Cicero’s 
 eloquence has always remained a model. 
 After the revival of learning he was the 
 most admired of the ancient writers; 
 and .the purity and elegance of his style 
 will always place him in the first rank 
 of Roman classics. His works, which 
 are very numerous, consist of orations; 
 philosophical, rhetorical, and moral 
 treatises; and letters to Atticus and 
 other friends. 
 
 CID, an epithet applied to Ruy or 
 Roderigo Diaz, Count of Bivar (born 
 1026, died 1099), the national hero of 
 Spain. He signalized himself by his 
 exploits in the reigns of Ferdinand, 
 Sancho, and Alphonso VI. of Leon and 
 Castile; but the facts of his career have 
 been so mixed with glorifying myths 
 that it is scarcely possible to separate 
 them. His life, however, appears to 
 have been entirely spent in fierce war- 
 fare with the Moors, then masters of a 
 great part of Spain. His exploits are set 
 forth in a special chronicle, and in a 
 Castilian poem, probably composed 
 about the end of the 12th century. The 
 story of his love for Ximena is the sub- 
 ject of Le Cid of Corneille. Whatever 
 chronicles and songs have conveyed to 
 us of the history of the Cid is collected 
 in Southey’s Chronicle of the Cid. 
 
 CI'DER, a fermented liquor made 
 from the expressed juice of apples. The 
 apples are ground a’ld crushed until they 
 are reduced to a pulp, the juice is allowed 
 to run into casks, where it is freely 
 exposed to the air until fermentation 
 takes place, when a clear liquor of a 
 pale-brown or amber color is the result. 
 
 CIENFUEGOS (the-en-fo-a'gos), a sea- 
 port of Cuba, on the south coast of the 
 island, with a safe and capacious harbor 
 on the bay of Jagua, 130 miles s e. of 
 Havana, with which (and other towns) 
 it is connected by railway. It is among 
 the finest towns of the island, and ex- 
 ports sugar, wax, timber, etc. During 
 the Spanish-American war it was 
 blockaded by Admiral Schley. Pop. 
 30,038. 
 
 CIGAR (si-gar'), a small roll of manu- 
 factured tobacco leaves carefully made 
 up, and intended to be smoked by light- 
 ing at one end and drawing the smoke 
 through it. The choicest cigars are 
 those made in and imported from 
 Havana. Medicated cigars, or cigars 
 made of some substance having remedial 
 properties, are often used for certain 
 
CIGARETTE 
 
 CINNABAR 
 
 complaints, as stramonium cigars for 
 asthma. Cheroots are peculiarly-shaped 
 cigars much thicker at one end than the 
 other, and are largely imported from 
 
 CIGARETTE (sig-a-ret'), a sort of 
 small cigar made by rolling fine-cut 
 tobacco in thin paper specially prepared 
 for the purpose. 
 
 CrMON, an ancient Athenian general 
 and statesman, was a son of the great 
 Miltiades. He fought against the 
 Persians in the battle of Salamis (480 
 B.C.), and shared with Aristides the 
 chief command of the fleet sent to Asia 
 to deliver the Greek colonies from the 
 Persian yoke. The return of Aristides 
 to Athens soon after left Cimon at the 
 head of the whole naval force of Greece. 
 He died shortly after, in 449, while 
 besieging Citium in Cyprus. 
 
 CINCHONA (sin-ko'na or sin-cho'na), 
 the trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants, 
 with simple opposite leaves. They are 
 found almost exclusively in the tropics, 
 and many of the species are of great 
 medicinal importance as tonics, febri- 
 fuges, emetics, and purgatives. Among 
 
 Clncliona. 
 
 their chief products are Peruvian bark, 
 quinine, ipecacuanha, coffee, chay-root, 
 etc. The genus trees seldom exceed 40 
 or 50 feet in height, with simple, oppo- 
 site, entire leaves and small flowers, 
 inhabiting chiefly the east side of the 
 Andes of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and 
 Colombia. The valuable Peruvian bark 
 is yielded by various species. From 
 the wasteful method of cutting down 
 the trees to get their bark it was believed 
 that there would soon be a dearth of the 
 valuable medicine, and hence chinchona 
 plants were taken from their native 
 regions and plantations formed in 
 various tropical countries, so that 
 Ceylon, India, Java, etc., are now im- 
 
 E ortant sources of Peruvian bark. The 
 ark is taken off in strips longitudinally, 
 and is in time renewed by natural 
 growth. 
 
 CINCINNATI, the chief city of Ohio, 
 situated on the Ohio river. It is 300 
 miles from Chicago, 764 miles from New 
 York, and 610 miles from Washington. 
 The city is built on a number of eleva- 
 tions which rise in plateaux from the 
 river and is bounded by a semicircle of 
 hills upon which the fine residences are 
 situated. It has an area of 36 sq. miles 
 and was laid out on a plan similar to 
 fthat of Philadelphia, 
 
 The city was settled in 1788 and the 
 settlement passed through various vicis- 
 situdes until 1819 when it was incor- 
 porated. Its limits were several times 
 increased. The principal public build- 
 ings are the U. States building for post- 
 office, courts, etc., constructed entirely 
 of brick, iron and granite, at a cost of 
 $5,000,000; the city hall, completed in 
 1893, a substantial, spacious, and elegant 
 structure costing $1,500,000; the Music 
 Hall, with a seating capacity of 5,000; 
 the Chamber of &mmerce building; 
 the County Court-house; the Cincinnati 
 College; the Ohio and Miami Medical 
 Colleges; the Public Library; the Central 
 Union R. R. d4p(')t;the Masonic Tem- 
 ple; the Odd Fellows’ building; the 
 Scottish Rite Cathedral; the City Hospi- 
 tal, and the Art Museum in Eden Park. 
 Among theaters, the Pike, Grand Opera- 
 house and Walnut Street are very 
 creditable The Ohio Mechanics’ In- 
 stitute has long been a great educational 
 force in the city. It owns an ample 
 building, with library, lecture-hall, and 
 school-rooms. It maintains courses of 
 lectures specially devoted to the me- 
 chanic arts, and a night-school with 700 
 pupils, where instruction is given in the 
 rudiments of science, mathematics, 
 architecture, and kindred subjects. 
 The principal libraries are the Public 
 Library, with 212,262 books and 33,867 
 pamphlets; the Young Men’s Mercantile, 
 with 50,000 volumes; the Law Library, 
 with 8,000 volumes; the library of the 
 Historical Society, with a large number 
 of rare books, pamphlets, manuscripts, 
 etc.; and the horary of the Mechanics’ 
 Institute. 
 
 The government of the city has much 
 of the so-called “federal” plan. The 
 mayor is elected every three years, and 
 is not eligible for re-election. He ap- 
 points a bboard of review, six members, 
 with authority to examine and super- 
 vise city officers and fix rates of taxa- 
 tion; and a board of elections, four 
 members, which appoints all election 
 officers, and conducts the elections and 
 canvasses returns. He also appoints 
 the prosecutor of the police court. He 
 is the chief of police, with powers 
 similar to those belonging to an officer 
 of the army — to discipline and com- 
 mand, but not to appoint or discharge. 
 There is a board of four police com- 
 missioners, appointed by the governor 
 of the state. The mayor nominates all 
 officers of the police court, and with the 
 approval of the board appoints them. 
 Police oflicers hold during “good be- 
 havior,” and can only be removed or 
 punished upon charges and a hearing 
 by the board. They must pass a medi- 
 cal and a literary examination before 
 appointment. A board of service, 
 chosen by popular vote, consisting of 
 five members, has charge of the streets, 
 waterworks, city infirmary, and parks. 
 
 The vigorous growth of railway 
 facilities has apparently reduced the 
 importance of river transportation; 
 figures show an enormous tonnage by 
 river each year. The city is also a rail- 
 way center, every important railway 
 system having lines passing through it. 
 Its inland situation precludes it from 
 foreign commerce, but its location in 
 the most productive portion of the U. 
 
 States, with its ample means of commu- 
 nication, must always make it a most 
 mportant center of domestic trade. 
 
 It is, however, chiefly a manufactur- 
 ing city. Its industries ran in this direc- 
 tion at an early date. The distance 
 from any source of supply and the con- 
 venience of all sorts of materials made 
 manufacturing profitable, and there was 
 a steady and increasing demand from 
 the growing regions lying south and west. 
 Pop. 475,000. 
 
 CINCINNATI MUSICAL FESTIVAL, 
 
 a musical feast originated by Theodore 
 Thomas in 1873, held every two years, 
 comprehending seven concerts. The 
 Chicago orchestra furnishes the music 
 and a local chorus of 500 assists. 
 
 CINCINNATI, SOCIETY OF THE, a 
 patriotic society to perpetuate the 
 traditions of the American revolutionary 
 war. Its members consist of lineal 
 descendants Of officers who fought in 
 that war and membership is restricted 
 to the eldest male descendants of such 
 officers. The society was organized in 
 1783 at Fishkill, N. Y., and the name 
 was adopted from that of the Roman 
 patriot (lincinnatus (which see). There 
 are at present about 860 members, 
 organized into 13 state societies. 
 
 CINCINNATI, UNIVERSITY OF, 
 founded in 1858 by Charles McMicken, 
 and subsequently enlarged by appro- 
 priations set apart by the city of Cin- 
 cinnati. The university has a law and 
 a medical school, an academic apart- 
 ment, a college of engineering, a college 
 of dentistry, and a pathological school. 
 It has a fund of $3,500,000, 164 in- 
 structors, 1100 students, and a library 
 of 68,000 volumes. 
 
 CINCINNA'TUS, Lucius Quinctiua, 
 a wealthy patrician in the early days of 
 the Roman Republic, born about 519 
 B.c. After violently opposing the 
 passage of the Terentilian law for the 
 equalization at law of patricians and 
 plebians, he succeeded Publicola in the 
 consulship, and then retired to cultivate 
 his small estate beyond the Tiber. 
 Here, when Minucius was surrounded 
 by the .iEquians, the messengers of the 
 senate found him at work when they 
 came to summon him to the dictator- 
 ship. He rescued the army from its 
 peril, marched to Rome laden with 
 spoil, and then returned quietly to his 
 farm. At the age of eighty he was again 
 appointed dictator to oppose the am- 
 bitious designs of Spurius Mselius. 
 
 CINNA, Lucius (Cornelius, an eminent 
 Roman, an adherent of Marius, who, 
 obtaining the consulship b.c. 87, along 
 with Cneius Octavius, impeached Sulla 
 and endeavored to secure the recall of 
 Marius. Being driven from the city 
 by Octavius, he raised the Italian cities, 
 and invested Rome while Marius block- 
 aded it from the sea. On its capture the 
 friends of Sulla were massacred, and 
 Cinna and Marius made themselves con- 
 suls (b.c. 86); but after the death of 
 Marius the army refused to follow Cinna 
 against Sulla, and put him to death in 
 B.c. 84. 
 
 CIN'NABAR, red sulphide of mercury, 
 the principal ore from which that metal 
 is obtained, occurring abundantly in 
 Spain, California, China, etc. It is of a 
 cochineal-red color, and is used as a 
 
CINNAMON 
 
 pigment under the name of vermil- 
 ion. 
 
 CIN'NAMON, the bark of the under 
 branches of a species of laurel, which is 
 chiefly found in Ceylon, but grows also 
 in Malabar and other parts of the East 
 Indies. The tree attains the height of 
 20 or 30 feet, has oval leaves, pale-yellow 
 
 Cinnamon. 
 
 flowers, and acorn-shaped fruit. The 
 Ceylonese bark their trees in April and 
 November, the bark curling up into 
 rolls or quills in the process of drying; 
 the smaller quills being introduced into 
 the larger ones. These are then assorted 
 according to quality by tasters, and 
 made up into bundles. 
 
 CIPHERS, signs used to represent 
 numbers, whether borrowed signs, or 
 letters, with which the Greeks desig- 
 nated their numbers, or peculiar charac- 
 ters, as the modern or Arabic ones. The 
 ciphers, such as they are at present 1, 
 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, did not come in 
 common European use until the 11th 
 century. For cipher as applied to 
 methods of secret writing see Crypto- 
 graphy. 
 
 CIRCAS'SIA, or TCHERKESSIA, a 
 
 mountainous region in the southeast 
 of European Russia, lying chiefly on the 
 
 Circassians— From Hommaire de Hell. 
 
 north slope of the Caucasus, partly also 
 on the south, and bounded on the west 
 by the Black Sea, and now forming part 
 of the government of the Caucasus. 
 The mountains, of which the cul- 
 minating heights are those of Mount 
 Elbruz, are intersected everywhere with 
 
 steep ravines and clothed with thick 
 forests, and the territory is principally 
 drained by the Kuban and its tribu- 
 taries. Its climate is temperate, its 
 inhabitants healthy and long-lived. 
 They are divided into several tribes 
 speaking widely-different dialects. 
 While they retained their independence 
 their government was of a patriarchal 
 character, but every free Circassian had 
 the right of expressing his opinion in 
 the assemblies. They possessed none 
 but traditional annals and laws. Polyg- 
 amy was permissible in theory, but not 
 common. The duties of hospitality and 
 vengeance were alike binding, and a 
 Spartan morality existed in the matter 
 of theft. Their religion, which is nomin- 
 ally Moslem, is in many cases a jumble of 
 Christian, Jewish, and heathen tradi- 
 tions and ceremonies. As a race the 
 Circassians are comely, the men being 
 prized by the Russians as warriors, and 
 the women by the Turks as mistresses, 
 a position generally desired by the 
 women themselves. The early history of 
 Circassia is obscure. Between the 10th 
 and 13th centuries it formed a portion of 
 the empire of Georgia, but in 1424 the 
 Circassians were an independent people, 
 and at war with the Tartars of the 
 Crimea, etc., to whose khans, however, 
 some were occasionally tributary. In 
 1705 the Tartars were defeated in a 
 decisive battle, but shortly after the 
 territorial encroachments of the Rus- 
 sians on the Caucasian regions began, 
 and in 1829 the country was formally 
 annexed by them. The Circassians, 
 properly so called, have been estimated 
 to number from 500,000 to 600,000. 
 
 CIRCE (ser-se), a fabled sorceress of 
 Greek mythology, who lived in the 
 Island of jEsea, represented by Homer 
 as having converted the companions of 
 Ulysses into swine after causing them to 
 partake of an enchanted beverage. 
 Ulysses under the guidance of Hermes 
 compelled her to restore his companions, 
 and afterward had two sons by her. 
 
 CIRCLE is a plane figure contained by 
 one line, which is called the circum- 
 ference, and is such that all straight 
 lines drawn from a certain point (the 
 center) within the figure to the circum- 
 ference are equal to one another. The 
 properties of the circle are investigated 
 in books on geometry and trigonometry. 
 Properly the curve belongs to the class 
 of conic sections, and is a curve of the 
 second order. A great circle of a sphere 
 is one that has its center coinciding 
 with that of the sphere. The celebrated 
 problem of “squaring the circle,” is to 
 find a square v/hose area shall be equal 
 to the area of any given circle. It is 
 not possible to do so. All that can be 
 done is to express approximately the 
 ratio of the length of the circumference 
 of the circle to the diameter, and to de- 
 duce the area of the figure from this ap- 
 proximation. 
 
 CIRCUIT, a division of a country, or 
 a county, or a state, in which the same 
 judges hold court for the trial of facts. 
 In the United States, the federal judi- 
 ciary sits in nine circuits comprising 
 the whole territory of the United States, 
 and the federal judges move about in 
 these circuits holding court in different 
 parts thereof. In certain states, also 
 
 CIRCUMCISION I 
 
 there are a number of circuits. In 
 Britain a certain number of counties 
 form a circuit, and the time of court 
 is called assizes. 
 
 CIRCULATION, in an organism, the 
 flowing of sap or blood through the veins 
 or channels, by means of which the per- - 
 petual and simultaneous movements of 
 composition and decomposition mani- 
 fested in organic life are carried on. Al- 
 though Galen, who had observed the 
 opposite directions of the blood in the 
 arteries and veins, may be said to have 
 been upon the very point of discovering 
 the circulation, the discovery was re- 
 served for William Harvey, who in 1628 
 pointed out the continuity of the connec- 
 tions between the heart, arteries, and 
 veins, the reverse directions taken by the 
 blood in the different vessels, the ar- 
 rangements of valves in the heart and 
 veins so that the blood could flow only in 
 one direction, and the necessity of the 
 return of a large proportion of blood to 
 the heart to maintain the supply. In 1661 
 Malpighi exhibited microscopically the 
 circulation in the web of a frog’s foot, 
 and showed that the blood passed from 
 arteries to veins by capillaries or inter- 
 mediate vessels. This finally established 
 the theory with regard to animals, but 
 the movements of sap in vegetables were 
 only traced with difficulty and after 
 numerous experiments. Many physi- 
 ologists indeed are still disposed to 
 refuse the term “circulation” to this 
 portion of the economy of plants; but 
 though sap, unlike the blood, does not 
 exhibit movements in determinate ves- 
 sels to and from a common center, a 
 definite course is observable. In the 
 stem of a dicotyledonous tree, for 
 example, the sap describes a sort of 
 circle, passing upward from the roots 
 through the newer woody tissue to the 
 leaves, where it is elaborated under the 
 action of air and light; and thence de- 
 scending through the bark toward the 
 root, where what remains of it is either 
 excreted or mixed with the new fluid, 
 entering from the soil for a new period of 
 circulation. 
 
 CIRCUMCISION, a rite common 
 among the Semites, though by no means 
 eculiar to them, and possibly derived 
 y them from the Egyptians or from 
 some non-Semitic source. At any rate 
 the antiquity of its institution in Egypt 
 is fully established by the monuments, 
 which make it evident that it was prac- 
 ticed at a period very much earlier than 
 the Exodus. It was, however, a primi- 
 tive Arab custom, and its practice 
 among the Jews may with equal proba- 
 bility be assigned to an Arab source. 
 Whatever its origin, the rite is confined 
 to no single lace. It was practiced by 
 the Aztecs and other peoples of Central 
 America, and is still to be found among 
 tribes on the Amazon, among the 
 Australian tribes, the Papuans, the 
 inhabitants of New' Caledonia, and those 
 of the New Hebrides. In Africa it is 
 common among the Kaffirs and other 
 tribes widely removed from Semitic 
 influence. It is practised also by the 
 Abyssinian Christians, and although not ' 
 enjoined in the Koran has been adopted 
 by the Mahometans on the example of 
 Mahomet himself. It was possibly in 
 its origin a sacrifice tc the deity pre- 
 
CIRC U -vl;: A V IG ATORS 
 
 siding over generation, though in cer- 
 tain nations the rite has acquired a new 
 symbolic significance according to the 
 stage of their spiritual development. 
 
 CIRCUMNAVIGATORS, a term usual- 
 ly applied to the early navigators who 
 sailed round the globe. Magellan, a 
 Portuguese in the service of Spain 
 headed the first expedition which suc- 
 ceeded in circumnavigating the globe, 
 though he did not live to complete the 
 voyage. 
 
 CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE. See 
 
 Evidence. 
 
 CIRCUMVALLA'TION, or LINE OF 
 CIRCUMVALLATION, in military af- 
 fairs, a line of field-works consisting 
 of a rampart or parapet, with a trench 
 surrounding a besieged place, or the 
 camp of a besieging army. 
 
 CIR'CUS. among the Romans, a near- 
 ly oblong building without a roof, in 
 which public chariot-races and exhi- 
 bitions of pugilism and wrestling, etc., 
 took place. The largest of these build- 
 ings in Rome was the Circus Maximus, 
 capable, according to Pliny, of contain- 
 ing 260,000, and according to Aurelius 
 Victor, 385,000 spectators. The games 
 celebrated in these structures were 
 known collectively by the name of 
 ludi circenses, circensian games, or 
 games of the circus, which under the 
 emperors attained the greatest magnif- 
 icence. The passion of the common or 
 poorer class of people for these shows 
 appears from the cry with which they 
 addressed their rulers — panem et cir- 
 censes (bread and the games!). The 
 festival was opened by a splendid pro- 
 cession, or pompa, in which the magis- 
 trates, senate, priests, augurs, vestal 
 virgins, and athletes, took part, carry- 
 ing with them the images of the great 
 gods, the Sibylline books, and some- 
 times the spoils of war. On reaching the 
 circus the procession went round once 
 in a circle, the sacrifices were performed, 
 the spectators took their places, and 
 the games commenced. These were: 
 
 1. Races with horses and chariots, in 
 which men of the highest rank engaged. 
 
 2. The gymnastic contests. 3. The 
 Trojan games, prize contests on horse- 
 back, revived by Julius Caesar. 4. The 
 combats with wild beasts or with men 
 (criminals or volunteers). 5. Repre- 
 sentations of naval engagements for 
 which purpose the circus could be laid 
 under water. The expense of these 
 games was often immense. Pompey, 
 m his second consulship, brought for- 
 ward 500 lions at one combat of wild 
 beasts, which, with eighteen elephants, 
 were slain in five days. 
 
 The modern circus is a place where 
 horses are trained to perform antics, and 
 where exhibitions of acrobats and vari- 
 ous pageantries, including a large 
 amount of buffoonery, are presented. 
 
 CIRRHO'SIS, a disease characterized 
 bjy growth of fibrous tissue which gradu- 
 ally encroaches on and by compression 
 destroys the true structure of the organ 
 attacked. It is very frequent in the 
 liver as a consequence of spirit-drinking; 
 and hence the term “drunkard’s liver”. 
 
 CISAL'PINE REPUBLIC, a state set 
 up in 1797 by Napoleon I. in North 
 Italy, recognized by Germany as an 
 independent power at the Peace of 
 F. K— 18 “ 
 
 CampO'Formlo. It comprised Austrian 
 Lombardy, together with the Mantuan 
 and the Venetian provinces, Bergamo, 
 Brescia, Crema; Verona, and Rovigo, 
 the duchy of Modena, the principality 
 of Massa and Carrara, Bologna, Ferrara, 
 and Romagna, and latterly its area was 
 16,337 sq. miles; its pop. 3,500,000. 
 The legislative body held its sessions in 
 Milan. On January 25, 1802, it received 
 the name of the Italian Republic; from 
 1805 to 1814 it formed part of the king- 
 dom of Italy; and it was given to Aus- 
 tria by the Congress of Vienna in 1615 
 as the Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom. 
 
 CIST, a place of interment of an early 
 or prehistoric period, consisting of a 
 rectangular stone chest or inclosure 
 formed of rows of stones set upright. 
 
 Cist, found near Driffield, Yorkshire . 
 
 and covered by similar flat stones. 
 Such cists are found in barrows or 
 mounds, inclosing bones. In rocky dis- 
 tricts cists were sometimes hewn in the 
 rocl^ 
 
 CISTER'CIANS, a religious order 
 named from its original convent, Citeaux 
 not far from Dijon, in Eastern France, 
 where the society was formed in 1098 
 by Robert, abbot of Molesme, under the 
 strictest observance of the rule of St. 
 
 Benedict. The Cistercians led a severely 
 ascetic and contemplative life, and 
 having freed themselves from episcopal 
 supervision, formed a kind of spiritual 
 republic under a high council of twenty- 
 five members, with the abbot of Citeaux 
 as president. 
 
 CIT'ADEL, a strong fortress in or near 
 a city intended to keep the inhabitants 
 in subjection, or to form a final point of 
 defense in case of an attack of enemies, 
 
 CITRUS 
 
 CITATION, a summons or official 
 notice given to a person to appear in a 
 court as a party or witness in a cause. 
 
 CITH'ERN, or CITTERN, an old 
 instrument of the guitar kind, strung 
 with wire instead of gut. Its eight 
 
 Cittern, In South Kensington museum. 
 
 strings were tuned to 4 notes, G, B, D, 
 and E. It was frequently to be found in 
 barbers’ shops for the amusement of the 
 waiting customers. 
 
 CITIES OF REFUGE, six out of the 
 forty-eight cities, given to the tribe of 
 Levi in the division of Canaan, set apart 
 by the law of Moses as places of refuge 
 for the man-slayer or accidental homi- 
 cide. Their names were Kedesh, Shec- 
 hem, and Hebron on the west side of 
 Jordan; and Bezer, Ramoth-Gilead, and 
 Golan on the east. 
 
 CITIES OF THE PLAIN. See Sodom 
 and Gomorrah. 
 
 CITIZEN, an individual member of 
 a political community or state. In the 
 United States the term has the very 
 same significance as it had under the 
 Republic in ancient Rome, that is, a 
 free individual, co-sovereign with all 
 other free individuals, sharing the power 
 of governing with those others. Citi- 
 zenship in the United States is restricted 
 to males, 21 years old, either born in 
 the United States or its jurisdiction, or 
 naturalized. The term citizen, however, 
 is also applied in a more getieral way, 
 to all persons, not aliens, living in the 
 United States, whether they have the 
 rights of sovereign citizens or not. 
 
 CIT'RJC ACID, the acid of lemons, 
 limes, and other fruits. It is generally 
 prepared from lemon-juice, and when 
 pure is white, inodorous and extremely 
 sharp in its taste. In combination with 
 metals it forms cyrstalline salts known 
 as citrates. The acid is used as a dis- 
 charge in calico-printing and as a 
 substitute for lemon in making bever- 
 ages. « 
 
 CIT'RON, a small evergreen shrub 
 introduced into the southern parts of 
 Europe from Asia, and yielding a fruit 
 which is candied with sugar. The rind 
 is considered superior to the pulp. The 
 juice is less acid than that of the lemou. 
 See Citrus. 
 
 CIT'RUS, an important genus of trees, 
 characterized by simple ovate acuminate 
 leaves or leaflets united by a distinct 
 joint to the leaf-like stalk; by having 
 the stamens united by their filaments 
 into several irregular bundles, and by 
 yielding a pulpy fruit with a spongy 
 rind, — Citrus medica is the citron 
 
CITY 
 
 CIVIL RIGHTS BILL 
 
 Other species are the lemon, the sweet 
 orange, the bitter orange, the shaddock, 
 and the forbidden fruit, sometimes used 
 as an ornamental addition to dessert. 
 The genus furnishes the essential oils 
 of orange and lemon peels, of orange 
 flowers, of citron peel, of bergamot, and 
 oil of orange leaves — all much esteemed 
 in perfumery. See Lemon, Orange, etc. 
 
 CITY, in the United States, a muni- 
 cipality chartered by a state and having 
 a magistrate called aTnayor. In Britain 
 a city is an incorporated town in which 
 there is a cathedral. In ancient Rome 
 and Greece, a city was synonymous with 
 a state, as Rome and the city states of 
 Greece. In Germany today there are 
 certain “free cities,” such as Hamburg. 
 During the 19th century cities, in all 
 parts of the world have grown so vastly 
 at the expense of the country popu- 
 lation that fear is expressed of the city 
 ultimately swallowing up the rural 
 population. In 50 years the city popu- 
 lation of Britain has increased 20 per 
 cent ovei the rural. In France the only 
 increase has been in cities, the rural 
 population having actually decreased, 
 and in the United States 33 per cent of 
 the people live in cities. Efforts to 
 remedy this state of affairs have not 
 been successful, as those who are making 
 them persist in living in cities them- 
 S©1 v©s 
 
 CIUDAD-REAL (thi-o-d^d-ra-il'), a 
 town of Spain, capital of the province of 
 same name. Pop. 14,769. — The prov- 
 ince occupies the south extremity of 
 New Castile, between the parallel ranges 
 of the Sierra Toledo and Sierra Morena; 
 area, 7840 sq. miles. Pop. 305,002. 
 
 CIV'ET, a genus of carnivorous mam- 
 mals found in N. Africa, and in Asia 
 from Arabia to Malabar and Java, and 
 distinguished by having a secretory 
 apparatus in which collects the odorif- 
 erous fatty substance known as civet. 
 The animal, which in form is inter- 
 mediate between the weasel and the fox, 
 and from 2 to 3 feet long by 10 inches 
 high, is of a cinereous color, tinged with 
 yellow and marked by dusky spots dis- 
 posed in rows. They are nocturnal, 
 and prey upon birds and small animals, 
 and may be considered as forming the 
 transition from the musteline or marten 
 kind to the feline race. The genus has 
 been divided into two sub-genera — the 
 true civets, having the pouch large and 
 well marked; and the genets, in which 
 there is a simple depression instead of a 
 pouch. Two species of the first and 
 eight of the second are at present known, 
 the chief scent-yielding species being 
 the common civet of N. Africa and the 
 zibeth of Asia. The pouch is situated 
 between the anus and the genitals, and 
 the odorous matter obtained from it 
 is, when good, of a clear yellowish or 
 brown color, and of about the consist- 
 ence of butter. In its natural state the 
 smell is powerful and very offensive, 
 but when largely diluted with oil or 
 other materials it becomes an agreeable 
 perfume. 
 
 CIVIL ADMINISTRATION, the 
 
 method of conducting the affairs of a 
 state in all those respects in which the 
 interests of the individual come into 
 conflict with the interests of the com- 
 munity, or which is virtually the same 
 
 thing, into conflict with the interests of 
 other individuals. Civil administration 
 varies in form from that of an absolute 
 monarchy like Turkey, a feudalism such 
 as that of India, or a federalism like 
 that of the United States with its auton- 
 omy of commonwealth, county, town, 
 and village. An aspect of civil admin- 
 istration, quite ancient, is that affecting 
 colonies, which support an independent 
 police and city administration, an 
 elective government, and so on. The 
 particulars of civil administration will 
 be found explained in separate articles. 
 
 CIVIL DAMAGE ACTS, laws of cer- 
 tain states in the Union in which per- 
 sons selling intoxicants are made liable 
 for injuries sustained because of the 
 intoxication by the person intoxicated. 
 
 CIVIL DEATH. See Death, Civil. 
 
 CIVILIZATION, the sum at any given 
 time of the attainments and tendencies 
 by which the human race or any section 
 of it is removed from the savage state. 
 The history of progress in civilization is 
 usually presented from one of two points 
 of view — the first conceiving the race 
 as starting from a high civilization, to 
 which in point of intellectual and moral 
 power it nas yet to return; the second 
 viewing the civilization of any period as 
 the result of a constant and increasingly- 
 Euccessful stream of effort upward from 
 an origin comparable with the condition 
 of the lower animals. The latter is the 
 prevailing scientific theory, which finds 
 the secret of progress in the interaction 
 of function and environment. Accord- 
 ing to it primitive man, at first feeding 
 on wild fruits and berries, and sheltering 
 himself under overhanging rocks or 
 caves, entered upon the stone age, in 
 which, as the contemporary of the mam- 
 moth and cave-bear, he made himself 
 sharp-edged tools by chipping the flakes 
 of flint found in the drift under gravel 
 and clay. In the newer stone age he 
 learned the art of polishing these rough 
 implements, with which he cut down 
 trees to make canoes, killed wild animals 
 for food, and broke their bones for mar- 
 row, or shaped them into weapons. Fire 
 he turned to account to hollow out trees, 
 to cook his food, to fashion clay ware. 
 Artificial means of shelter were con- 
 structed by piling rude huts of stones, 
 by digging holes in the ground, or by 
 driving piles into the beds of lakes and 
 raising dwellings on them. The artistic 
 instincts found expression in drawings of 
 animals scratched upon bone or slate. 
 The discovery of metals constituted a 
 great step in advance. Gold and copper 
 came early into use, and bronze was soon 
 discovered, though a long time passed 
 before iron was smelted and substituted 
 for bronze where hardness was required. 
 Gradually the roving savage became a 
 nomadic shepherd and herdsman, or a 
 tiller of the soil, according to his environ- 
 ment. The practice of barter was in 
 part superseded by the beginnings of 
 some sort of currency. Gesture language 
 gave place in part to an enlarged vocabu- 
 lary, and picture-writing to the use of 
 phonetic signs. In the meantime man 
 had begun to question himself and the 
 world on profounder issues, entering 
 upon the myth-making age, in which 
 was projected outward on the chief 
 phenomena of nature some shadow of 
 
 his own personality. The worship of 
 the sun, moon, and stars, a faith in a 
 future life, the worship of dead ances- 
 tors, fetishes, animals, etc., the belief 
 in magic and witchcraft, all sprang into 
 being. Prayer came spontaneously to 
 him; the idea of propitiation by sacrifice 
 would arise from his dealings with his 
 fellows and his foes; the sacred books 
 began to shape themselves. Tribal and 
 national relations, arising from ties of 
 family and exigencies of defense, were 
 cemented by unity of faith, and the 
 higher social unit began to perfect it- 
 self under the rule of the patriarch, the 
 bravest warrior, etc. With varying 
 needs, arising from diversity of environ- 
 ment, distinctions of nationality became 
 more and more emphatic, and the his- 
 tory of civilization becomes the history 
 of the nations viewed from the philo- 
 sophic standpoint. 
 
 CIVIL LAW, among the Romans the 
 term nearly corresponding to what in 
 modern times is implied by the phrase 
 positive law, that is, the rules of right 
 established by any government. They 
 contradistinguished it from natural law, 
 by which they meant a certain natural 
 order followed by all living beings; also 
 from the general laws of mankind 
 established by the agreement of all 
 nations and governments. The final 
 digest of Roman law was made in the 
 6th century a.d. under the Emperor 
 Justinian, but at first was only admitted 
 as formally binding in a small part of 
 Italy. After the 11th century, in Upper 
 Italy, particularly in the school of 
 Bologna, the body of the Roman law, 
 
 E ut together by Justinian, was formed 
 y degrees into a system applicable to 
 the wants of all nations; and on this 
 model the ecclesiastical and papal 
 decrees were arranged, and to a con- 
 siderable degree the native laws of the 
 new Teutonic states. From all these the 
 Roman law was distinguished under the 
 name of civil law. In this sense, there- 
 fore, civil law means ancient Roman 
 law; and it is contradistinguished from 
 canon law and feudal law, though the 
 feudal codes of the Lombards have been 
 received into the body of civil law. As 
 the Roman code exerted the greatest 
 influence on the private law of modern 
 Europe, the expression civil law is also 
 used to embrace all the rules relating to 
 the private rights of citizens. Under 
 the term civil law, therefore, in both 
 Europe and America, is to be under- 
 stood not only the Roman law, but 
 also the modern private law of the 
 various countries; for example, in Ger- 
 many, Das gemeine Deutsche Privat- 
 recht; in France the Code Civil des 
 Frangais or Code Napoleon. In this 
 sense it is chiefly opposed to criminal 
 law, particularly in reference to the ad- 
 ministration of justice, which is to be 
 divided into civil justice and criminal 
 justice. 
 
 CIVIL LIST, a list of allowances made 
 to government officials. The term is 
 sometimes applied to the salary lists of 
 officials in the United States, but more 
 generally it is applied to the allow- 
 ances made by European states to 
 members of reigning families. 
 
 CIVIL RIGHTS BILL, a bill passed 
 by congress in 1866, giving equality in 
 
CIVIL SERVICE 
 
 CLARINET 
 
 citizenship rights to all persons, ex- 
 cept Indians not taxed. Its purpose 
 was to secure civil rights to the newly 
 emancipated negroes, a condition cover- 
 ed by the words of the statute “without 
 regard to race, color, or previous con- 
 dition of slavery or involuntary servi- 
 tude except as a punishment for crime, 
 whereof the party shall have been duly 
 convicted.” 
 
 CIVIL SERVICE, a term applied to 
 all branches of public service in a state, 
 or a government of any kind, exclusive 
 of the army and the navy. In the 
 United States the federal civil service 
 employs 100,000 officials, pertaining to 
 the nine general departments, of state, 
 navy, treasury, post-office, war, agri- 
 culture, interior, justice, and labor and 
 commerce, and congress. In state, 
 city and county government civil 
 service consists of virtually the entire 
 machinery of these governmental units, 
 the city having, as a matter of necessity, 
 the largest number of employes. 
 
 CIVIL SERVICE REFORM, a move- 
 ment beginning in the early part of 
 the 19th century to purify the civil 
 service of the federal government, and 
 latterly extending to the purification 
 of state, county, and city governments. 
 The cause of civil service reform was 
 the policy, instituted in 1829 by 
 President Jackson, to the effect that 
 “to the victor belong the spoils,” 
 spoils here meaning the “patronage,” 
 or positions in the gift of an admin- 
 istration. Each new administration 
 would in turn clear the offices of their 
 incumbents and replace them with men 
 who helped to elect the party ticket. 
 The merit system was introduced in 
 1875 after ten years of effort to pass 
 it in congress, since which time the 
 largest part of the civil service has 
 been free from interference. Employes 
 cannot now be removed “without 
 cause.” The reform has spread to cer- 
 tain states and cities, Chicago being an 
 especial example of civil service reform 
 among the larger cities. 
 
 CIVIL WAR VETERAN SOCIETIES. 
 See Grand Army of the Republic, Sons of 
 Veterans, etc., under their names. 
 
 CLAFLIN, Horace Brigham, an Amer- 
 ican business man, born in Massachusetts 
 in 1811, died 1885. His house in New 
 York, as early as 1865, did an annual 
 volume of business of $72 000,000, and 
 since that time the house has probably 
 been the largest in America. 
 
 CLAIM, in common law, the assertion 
 of right of title to property of any kind. 
 In the United States the term is used 
 to designate the rights of settlers to 
 government lands, and of prospectors to 
 mining property found by them. 
 
 CLAIMS, COURT OF, a tribunal 
 created by congress, or by the legisla- 
 tures of the several states for the ad- 
 judication of claims against the govern- 
 ment. A sovereign cannot be sued at 
 the law and hence, the United States, 
 or any of the separate states, being 
 sovereign, cannot so be sued. It can 
 be petitioned, however, and it is to 
 provide for this process that courts of 
 claims have been created. 
 
 CLAIRVOYANCE, an alleged faculty 
 by which certain persons in certain states, 
 or under certain conditions, are said to 
 
 be able to see things by some sort of 
 mental or spiritual vision apart alto- 
 gether from the sense of sight; thus 
 they are said to be able to tell what an 
 absent person is doing, to describe the 
 contents of a closed box, etc. It is 
 claimed that clairvoyance is the result 
 of a kind of natural state of trance, or 
 may be induced by mesmerism; and 
 in evidence of its existence in ancient 
 times the utterances of prophets, sybils, 
 etc., have been adduced. 
 
 CLAM, the popular name of certain 
 bivalvular shell-fish of various genera 
 and species, e.g. the thorny clam, the 
 yellow clam, the giant clam, the com- 
 mon clam of the United States, etc. The 
 giant clam has the largest shell known, 
 and the animal is used as food in the 
 Pacific. The common U. States clam is 
 also much used for food. 
 
 CLAN, among the Highlanders of 
 Scotland, consisted of the common 
 descendants of the same progenitor, 
 under the patriarchal control of a chief, 
 who represented the common ancestor. 
 The name of the clan was frequently 
 formed of that of the original progenitor 
 with the affix mac (son) : thus the Mac- 
 Donalds were the sons of Donald, and 
 every individual of this name was con- 
 sidered a descendant of the founder of 
 the clan, and a brother of every one of 
 its members. The chief exercised his 
 authority by right of primogeniture, as 
 the father of his clan: the clansmen 
 revered and served the chief with the 
 blind devotion of children. The clans 
 each occupied a certain portion of the 
 country, and hostilities with neigh- 
 boring clans were extremely common. 
 Next in rank to the chief were a certain 
 number of persons, commonly near 
 relations of the chief, to whom portions 
 of land were assigned, during pleasure 
 or on short leases. Each of these usually 
 had a subdivision of the clan under him, 
 of which he was chieftain, subject, how- 
 ever, to the general head of the sept. 
 The jurisdiction of the chiefs was not 
 very accurately defined, and it was 
 necessary to consult, in some measure, 
 the opinions of the most influential 
 clansmen and the general wishes of the 
 whole body. 
 
 CLAN-NA-G.®L, a secret society 
 founded by patriotic Irishmen in the 
 United States for the purpose of in- 
 timidating England into granting Ire- 
 land home rule. It is charged that the 
 dynamite outrages in London in 1883 
 were due to Clan-na-Gael agents. 
 
 CLARE, a maritime county, Ireland, 
 province Munster (capital, Ennis), be- 
 tween Galway Bay and the Shannon 
 estuary; area, 827,994 acres, of which 
 140,000 are under tillage. Oats, pota- 
 toes, wheat, and barley are the prin- 
 cipal crops. The chief minerals are 
 limestone, lead, and slate, but the prod- 
 uce of the county is almost wholly 
 agricultural. Lakes are numerous, but 
 generally of small size, and the county 
 is deficient in wood. The salmon-fish- 
 eries are valuable, and there are im- 
 mense oyster-beds in some places. Pop. 
 112,129. 
 
 CLARENDON, George William Fred- 
 erick Villiers, Earl of. He was educated 
 at Cambridge, entered the civil service 
 
 at an early age, and in 1820 was attach- 
 ed to the embassy at St. Petersburg. In 
 1831 he was sent to PYance to negotiate 
 a commercial treaty, and in 1833, as 
 minister plenipotentiary at Madrid, was 
 instrumental in negotiating the Quad- 
 ruple Alliance signed in 1834. Having 
 succeeded to his uncle’s title in 1838 he 
 returned home in the following year, and 
 in Jan. 1840 was appointed lord privy- 
 seal, and in October chancellor of the 
 duchy of Lancaster. He supported the 
 repeal of the corn-laws and the reduc- 
 tion of duties, and in 1846 was appointed 
 president of the board of trade in Lord 
 J. Russell’s mini.stry, and in the follow- 
 ing year Lord-lieutenant of Ireland. 
 He resigned with his party in 1852, 
 when the Earl of Derby took office, but 
 soon after the formation of the Aberdeen 
 ministry he was appointed to the foreign 
 secretaryship, which he held until Jan. 
 1855. After a few weeks’ interval he 
 returned to the post under Lord Palm- 
 erston, and retained it until 1858, being 
 one of the signatories of the Treaty of 
 Paris. In 1861 Clarendon was sent as 
 ambassador-extraordinary to the coro- 
 nation of the King of Prussia, and in 
 1864 was appointed chancellor of the 
 duchy of Lancaster. In the following 
 administration, under Russell, he re- 
 sumed the direction of the foreign office. 
 He was sent in 1868 on a special mission 
 to the pope and the King of Italy, and 
 again occupied the post of foreign 
 secretary in the Gladstone ministry till 
 his death, in June, 1870. 
 
 CLAR'ENDON PRESS, the press of 
 the University of Oxford. In January, 
 1586, delegates de impressione lib ro rum 
 were appointed by the Convocation of 
 the university, Joseph Barnes and others 
 after him being styled “Printer to the 
 University.” The management of the 
 printing-office is committed to a dele- 
 gacy consisting of the vice-chancellor 
 and ten other members of Convocation. 
 The north side of the present building, 
 called the “learned” or classical side, is 
 set apart for the printing of university 
 documents and authorized books, the 
 “south” for the printing of Bibles and 
 Prayer-books. 
 
 CLAR'ET, the name given in Britain, 
 and the United States, etc., to the red 
 wines of Bordeaux. See Bordelais Wines. 
 
 CLARIFICA'TION, or the separation 
 of the insoluble particles that prevent a 
 liquid from being transparent, may be 
 performed by depuration, in which the 
 liquid is allowed to stand until the 
 particles are precipitated, and then 
 decanted; by filtration, or .straining 
 through wool, sand, charcoal, etc.; or 
 by coagulation, in which the albumen 
 contained in or added to the liquid is 
 solidified and precipitated by the action 
 either of heat or of acids, the extraneous 
 substances being precipitated with it. 
 See also Fining. 
 
 CLARINET, or CLARIONET, a wind- 
 instrument of the reed kind, played by 
 holes and keys. Its lowest note is E 
 below the F clef, from which it is cap- 
 able, in the hands of good performers, of 
 ascending more than three octaves. 
 Clarinets in A natural and B fiat are 
 those chiefly used in the orchestra, 
 while instruments in B flat and E flat 
 are used in reed bands. 
 
CLARK 
 
 CLAUDIUS 
 
 CLARK, Alvan, an American optician 
 and maker of telescope lenses, born in 
 Massachusetts in 1808, died 1887. He 
 founded an establishment at Cambridge- 
 port, Mass., in 1844, at wliich have been 
 ground the largest telescope lenses in 
 the world. 
 
 CLARK, Alvan Graham, an Ameri- 
 can optician, son of Alvan Clpk, born 
 in Massachusetts in 1832, died 1897. 
 He made the objectives of the great 
 Lick and the great Yerkes observatories, 
 and discovered the Companion Star to 
 Sirius. 
 
 CLARK, George Rogers, an Ameri- 
 can soldier, born in Virginia in 1752, 
 died in 1818. In 1778 he began his 
 famous expedition into Illinois capturing 
 
 many of the French villages and de- 
 feated the English general, Hamilton in 
 1779. In 1783 the Virginia legislature 
 made him a grant of 8000 acres for his 
 services. 
 
 CLARK, John Bates, an American 
 economist, born in Rhode Island in 
 1847. He is the originator of a new 
 conception of economic science and 
 has published several works of high 
 value to social science and philosophy. 
 Since 1895 he has been professor of 
 economics at Columbia University. 
 
 CLARK UNIVER.SITY, founded at 
 Worcester, Mass., in 1887 by Jonas 
 Gilman Clark. It is exclusively a 
 graduate school and has an endow- 
 ment of upward of $3,000,000. The 
 University publishes The American 
 Journal of Psychology, The Pedagog- 
 ical Seminary, and the Mathematical 
 Review. 
 
 CLARK, William, an American trav- 
 eler and soldier, born in Virginia 1770, 
 died in 1838. He was one of the com- 
 manders of the famous Lewis and Clark 
 expedition and was engaged in the 
 early fighting against the Indians. He 
 was superintendent of Indian affairs 
 at St. Louis from 1822 until his death. 
 
 CLARK, William Andrews, an Ameri- 
 can legislator and capitalist, bom in 
 
 PSnnsylvahia in 1839. He emigrated to 
 Montana in 1863 and acquired immense 
 wealth as a merchant. He was elected 
 in 1899 to the United States senate but 
 was rejected by the committee on elec- 
 tions. He at once resigned from the 
 senate but was forthwith appointed by 
 the governer of Montana to the seat 
 vacated by his resignation. In 1901 he 
 was duly elected senator. 
 
 CLARKE, James Freeman, an Ameri- 
 can clergyman, born in New Hampshire 
 in 1810, died in 1888. He began to 
 
 preach to Unitarian charges in 1833, and 
 during his busy life published a mass of 
 literature dealing with the liberal aspect 
 of religion, the more important of which 
 were Christian Doctrine of Prayer, Or- 
 thodoxy, Its Truths and Errors, The Ten 
 Great Religions, Common Sense in Reli- 
 mon. Essentials and Non-Essentials in 
 Religion, Manual of Unitarian Belief. 
 
 CLARKE, John Sleeper, an Ameri- 
 can actor, born in Baltimore in 1833, 
 died in 1 899. In 1 867 he visited England 
 where he succeeded so well that he took 
 up his residence in that country^ al- 
 though he afterward paid several visits 
 to the United States. 
 
 CLARKE, William Horatio, an Ameri- 
 can musician and organist, born in 
 Massachusetts in 1840. For ten years, 
 until 1887, he was organist at Tremont 
 Temple, Boston. He is the author of 
 A New Method for Reed Organs, a work 
 which has had a tremendous sale. 
 
 CLARKS'VILLE, a city and the 
 county-seat of Montgomery County, 
 Tenn., 45 miles northwest of Nashville; 
 near the junction of the Cumberland 
 and Red rivers, and on the Louisville 
 and Nashville Railroad. It is one of 
 the great tobacco markets of the south, 
 and has manufactures of iron, agri- 
 cultural implements, etc._ Pop. 11,232. 
 
 CLASSIC, a term derived from L. 
 classic!, the name given to the citizens 
 belonging to the first or highest of the 
 six classes into which the Romans were 
 divided. Hence the Greek and Roman 
 authors have been in modern times 
 called classics, that is, the excellent, the 
 models. The Germans, however, soon 
 gave the word klassisch (classical) a 
 wider sense, making it embrace: 1, the 
 
 standard works of any nation; and 2, 
 ancient literature and art, in contradis- 
 tinction to the modern. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION is commonly de- 
 fined as the arrangement of things, or of 
 our notions of them, according to their 
 resemblances or identities; and its 
 general object is to provide that things 
 shall be thought of in such groups, and 
 the groups in such an order, as will best 
 promote the remembrance and ascertain- 
 ment of their laws. As any collection of 
 objects may be classified in a variety of 
 ways, no fixed method can be laid down; 
 but it will be obvious that in correct 
 classification the definition of any 
 group must hold exactly true of all the 
 members of that group and not of the 
 members of any other group. The best 
 classification again will be that which 
 shall enable the greatest possible num- 
 ber of general assertions to be made; a 
 criterion which distinguishes between a 
 natural and an artificial system of 
 classification. Classification is perhaps 
 of most importance in natural history — 
 for example, botany and zoology. In 
 the former the artificial or Linnsean 
 system long prevailed, in opposition to 
 the modern or natural. 
 
 CLAUDIA'NUS, Claudius (commonly 
 called Claudian), a Latin poet, native of 
 Alexandria, lived at the end of the 4th 
 and beginning of the 5th century after 
 Christ, under the Emperor Theodosius 
 and his sons. He did much to recall to 
 dying Rome the splendors of the Augus- 
 tan literature, ranking considerably 
 above any other of the later poets. Be- 
 sides several panegyrical poems on 
 Honorius, Stilicho, and others, we 
 possess two of his epic poems, the Rape 
 of Proserpine, and an unfinished War of 
 the Giants, eclogues, epigrams, and occa- 
 sional poems. 
 
 CLAU'DIUS, often also called Clodius, 
 the name of a distinguished Roman 
 family of antiquity. See Appius Clau- 
 dius. 
 
 CLAU'DIUS, or, in full Tiberius 
 Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus, a 
 Roman emperor, son of Claudius Drusus 
 Nero, stepson of Augustus and Antonia, 
 
 the daughter of Augustus’s sister; bom 
 at Lyons (10 b.c.). He lived in privacy, 
 occupying himself with literature, the 
 composition of a Roman history, and 
 
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CLAVICLE 
 
 CLEMENS 
 
 other works, until the murder of Calig- 
 ula, when he was dragged from his 
 hiding-place and proclaimed emperor 
 (41 A.D.). The early years of his reign 
 were marked by the restoration of the 
 exiles, the embellishment of Rome, the 
 addition of Mauritania to the Roman 
 provinces, and successes in Germany 
 and Britain. But latterly he became 
 debauched, left the government to his 
 wives, and in particular to Messalina, 
 who with his freedmen committed the 
 reatest enormities. He was poisoned 
 y his fourth wife, Agrippina (mother of 
 Nero), A.D. 54. 
 
 CLAV'ICLE, the collar-bone, a bone 
 forming one of the elements of the 
 shoulder girdle in vertebrate animals. 
 Tn man and sundry quadrupeds there 
 are two clavicles each ]oined at one end 
 to the scapula or shoulder-bone, and at 
 the other end to the sternum or breast- 
 bone. In many quadrupeds the clavicles 
 are absent or rudimentary, while in 
 birds they are united in one piece popu- 
 larly called the “merry-thought.” 
 
 CLAY, the name of various earths, 
 which consist of hydrated silicate of 
 aluminium, with small proportions of 
 the silicates of iron, calcium, magnesium, 
 potassium, and sodium. All the varie- 
 ties are characterized by being firmly 
 coherent, weighty, compact, and hard 
 when dry, but plastic wnen moist, 
 smooth to touch, not readily diffusible 
 in water, but when mixed not readily 
 subsiding in it. Their tenacity and 
 ductility when moist and their hard- 
 ness when dry has made them from the 
 earliest times the materials of bricks, 
 tiles, pottery, etc. Of the chief varieties 
 porcelain-clay, kaolin, or china-clay, a 
 white clay with occasional gray and 
 yellow tones, is the purest. Potter’s- 
 clay and pipe-clay, which are similar 
 but less pure, are generally of a yellow- 
 ish or grayish color, from the presence of 
 iron. Fire-clay is a very refractory 
 variety, always found lying immediately 
 below the coal; it is used for making fire- 
 bricks, crucibles, etc. Loam is the same 
 substance mixed with sand, oxide of 
 iron, and various other foreign ingre- 
 dients. The boles, which are of a red or 
 yellow color from the presence of oxide 
 of iron, are distinguished by their con- 
 choidal fracture. The ochres are similar 
 to the boles, containing only more oxide 
 of iron. Other varieties are fuller’s- 
 earth, Tripoli, and boulder-clay, the 
 last a hard clay of a dark-brown color, 
 wth rounded masses of rock of all 
 sizes embedded in it, the result of glacial 
 action. The distinctive property of 
 clays as ingredients of the soil is their 
 power of absorbing ammonia and other 
 gases and vapors generated on fertile 
 and manured lands ; indeed no soil will 
 long remain fertile unless it has a fair 
 proportion of clay in its composition. 
 
 CLAY, Henry, an American states- 
 man, born at Richmond, Virginia, in 
 1777. After acting as clerk in two or 
 three state offices he commenced busi- 
 ness in 1797 as a lawyer at Lexington, 
 Kentucky. He soon became famous 
 as a public speaker, and at the age of 
 twenty-six was a member of the Ken- 
 tucky legislature. In 1806 he was elected 
 to the United States Senate; and in 
 1811 to the House of Representatives, 
 
 where he was at once made speaker. 
 In 1814 he proceeded to Europe and 
 acted as one of the commissioners for 
 adjusting the treaty of peace at Ghent 
 between America and Great Britain. He 
 was an unsuccessful candidate for the 
 presidency in 1824, 1832, and 1844. 
 
 
 He is best known for his endeavors to 
 shut out European influences from 
 America, and in connection with the 
 “Missouri Compromise of 1820,” re- 
 stricting slavery to the states south of 
 lat. 36° 30' n.; and another similar com- 
 promise of 1850 regarding the admission 
 of California, New Mexico, and Utah, 
 etc. He died at Washington in 1852. 
 
 CLAYMORE, formerly the large two- 
 handed, double-edged sword of the 
 Scotch Highlanders; now a basket- 
 hilted. double-edged broad-sword. 
 
 CLAY-SLATE, in geology, a rock con- 
 sisting of clay which has been hardened 
 and otherwise changed, for the most 
 part extremely fissile and often affording 
 good roofing-slate. In color it varies 
 from greenish or bluish gray to lead 
 color. The cleavage is independent of 
 the stratification. It rarely lies parallel 
 to the bedding, generally crossing the 
 strata at all angles. 
 
 CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY, a 
 treaty between the United States and 
 Britain ratified in 1850, establishing 
 the relations of the two countries as 
 to their powers over the projected inter- 
 oceanic canal across the Isthmus of 
 Panama. According to its provisions 
 neither power was to fortify, nor ex- 
 clusively control the canal or any part 
 of central America, its neutrality was 
 to be preserved, and other powers were 
 to be invited to participate in these 
 agreements. The treaty was superseded 
 by the Hay-Pauncefote treaty of 1901. 
 
 CLEARANCE OF VESSELS, the ex- 
 amination of them by the proper cus- 
 tom-house officers, and the giving of a 
 certificate that the regulations have 
 been duly complied with. Vessels are 
 said to clear inward or outward accord- 
 ing as they arrive or set sail. 
 
 CLEARING HOUSE, an institution in 
 a city by which the banks of the city 
 can settle all their relations to each 
 other by a single transaction instead of 
 
 each bank settling separately with the 
 other. In the United States there are 
 nearly 100 clearing houses, the largest 
 being that of New York, the clearings of 
 which are about $80,000,000,000 (eighty 
 billions) annually. The total clearings 
 of all the banks in the country are about 
 $120,000,000,000, or one hundred and 
 twenty thousand million of dollars 
 annually. American clearing houses 
 are united in an association which has 
 proved quite helpful to business. 
 
 CLEAVAGE, the manner or direction 
 in which substances regularly cleave or 
 split. The regular structure of most 
 crystallized bodies becomes manifest as 
 soon as they are broken. Each frag- 
 ment presents the form of a small poly- 
 hedron, and the very dust appears under 
 the miscroscope an assemblage of minute 
 solids, regularly terminated. The direc- 
 tions in which such bodies thus break 
 up are called their planes of cleavage; 
 and the cleavage is called basal, cubic, 
 diagonal, or lateral (or peritomous), 
 according as it is parallel to the base of 
 a crystal, to the faces of a cube, to a 
 diagonal plane, or to the lateral planes. 
 In certain rocks again there is a tendency 
 to split along planes which may coincide 
 with the original plane of stratification, 
 but which more frequently cross it at an 
 angle. This tendency is the conse- 
 quence of the readjustment by pressure 
 and heat of the components of rocks, 
 which is one of the phases of metamor- 
 phism. 
 
 CLEAVELAND, Moses, an American 
 soldier and pioneer, the founder of the 
 city of Cleveland, Ohio. The change of 
 the form of the name was due to the 
 fact that the editor of a newspaper 
 spelled the name without the letter a 
 in the first syllable because of lack of 
 space. Cleaveland was born in Con- 
 necticut in 1754 and died in 1806. 
 
 CLEF (French for key), in music, a 
 sign placed on a line of a staff, and which 
 determines the pitch of the staff and 
 the name of the note on its lines. There 
 are three clefs now in use ; the treble or 
 
 G clef, ^ written on the second line; the 
 
 mean or C clef, ^ which may be placed 
 
 on the first, second, third, or fourth lines; 
 
 and the bass or F clef, § seated on the 
 
 fourth line. The mean clef is very 
 seldom used in writing vocal music in 
 England. 
 
 CLEM'ATIS, a genus of woody climb- 
 ing plants. The most common species, 
 virgin’s bower or traveler’s joy, is con- 
 spicuous by its copious clusters of white 
 blossoms, and afterward by its feather 
 tailed silky tufts attached to the fruits. 
 
 CLEM'ENS, Samuel Langhorne, an 
 American humorist, more generally 
 known by his pseudonym “Mark 
 Twain,” born in Missouri in 1835. He 
 worked for some time as a compositor in 
 Philadelphia and New York, and then 
 in 1855 learned the business of pilot on 
 the Mississippi. Thence he went to the 
 Nevada mines; became in 1862 local 
 editor of a newspaper in Virginia City; 
 went to San Francisco; was fo. some 
 time a reporter, and worked in the 
 
CLEMENT 
 
 CLEVELAND 
 
 Calaveras gold-diggings. In 1866 he 
 went to the Sandwich Islands, and on 
 his return commenced his lecturing 
 career. He edited for a time a paper in 
 Buffalo, and finally married and settled 
 in Hartford, Conn. Mr. Clemens under- 
 took publishing, but failed, and settled 
 dollar for dollar. He removed to Eng- 
 land, recovered much of his fortune by 
 writing, and recently came to the United 
 States to spend his remaining years in 
 New York. His chief books are the 
 Jumping Frog, etc., Roughing It, The In- 
 nocents Abroad, Tom Sawyer, A Tramp 
 Abroad, Life on the Mississippi, Huckle- 
 berry Finn, American Claimant, Tom 
 Sawyer Abroad, The Prince and The 
 Pauper, An American at King Arthur’s 
 Court. 
 
 CLEM'ENT, the name assumed by 
 many popes, the first being Clement of 
 Rome. Clement XIV., who abolished 
 the order of Jesuits, was one of the most 
 distinguished. He died in 1774. 
 
 CLEMEN'TI, Muzio, pianist and com- 
 poser, born in Rome in 1752. As early 
 as his twelfth year he wrote a successful 
 mass for four voices. He w^ent in 1780 
 to Paris, and in 1781 to Vienna, where 
 he played with ^lozart before the 
 emperor. In 1784 he repeated his visit 
 to Paris, but after that remained in 
 England till 1802, when he went back 
 to the Continent. He returned in 1810 
 to England, where he settled down as 
 superintendent of one of the principal 
 musical establishments in London. He 
 died in 1832, and was interred in West- 
 minster Abbey. He represented per- 
 haps the highest point of' technique of 
 his day, and his influence upon modern 
 execution has led to his being character- 
 ized as “the father of pianoforte play- 
 ing.” 
 
 CLEOPAT'RA, a Greek queen of 
 Egypt, born b.c. 69, the eldest daughter 
 of Ptolemy Auletes. When she was 
 seventeen her father died, leaving her 
 as joint-heir to the throne with his 
 eldest son Ptolemy, whom she was to 
 marry — such marriages being common 
 among the Ptolemies. Being deprived 
 of her part in the government (b.c. 49) 
 she won Caesar to her cause, and was 
 reinstated by his influence. In a second 
 disturbance Ptolemy lost his life, and 
 Caesar proclaimed Cleopatra queen of 
 Egypt; though she was compelled to 
 take her brother, the younger Ptolemy, 
 then eleven years old, as husband and 
 colleague. Caesar continued some time 
 at Cleopatra’s court, had a son by her 
 named Caesarion (afterward put to 
 death by Augustus), and gave her a 
 magnificent reception when she subse- 
 quently visited him at Rome. By 
 poisoning her brother she remained sole 
 possessor of the regal power, took the 
 part of the triumvirs in the civil war at 
 Rome, and after the battle of Philippi 
 sailed to join Antony at Tarsus. Their 
 meeting was celebrated by splendid 
 festivals; she accompanied him to Tyre, 
 and was followed by him on her return 
 to Egypt. After his conquest of Ar- 
 menia he again returned to her and made 
 his three sons by her, and also Caesarion, 
 kings. On the commencement of the 
 war between Augustus and Antony the 
 latter lost a whole year in festivals and 
 amusements with Cleopatra at Ephesus, 
 
 Samos, and Athens, and when at last 
 the fleets met at Actium, Cleopatra 
 suddenly took to flight, with all her 
 ships, and Antony, as if under the 
 influence of frenzy, immediately fol- 
 lowed her. They fled to Egypt, and 
 declared to Augustus that if Egypt were 
 left to Cleopatra’s children they would 
 thenceforth live in retirement. Au- 
 gustus, however, demanded Antony’s 
 death and advanced on Alexandria. 
 Believing Cleopatra, who had taken 
 refuge in her mausoleum, to be treacher- 
 ous and dead, Anthony threw himself 
 on his sword, and shortly afterward 
 Cleopatra killed herself by applying an 
 asp to her arm to escape the ignominy 
 of being led in a Roman triumph (b.c. 
 30). With her the dynasty of the 
 Ptolemies ended. 
 
 CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLES, the name 
 given to two Egyptian obelisks, former- 
 ly at Alexandria, but one of which is- 
 now in London, the other in New York. 
 They are made of the rose-red granite 
 of Syene, and were originally erected by 
 the Egyptian king Thothmes III. in 
 front of the great temple of Heliopolis, 
 the On of the Scriptures, where Moses 
 was born and brought up. They were 
 taken to Alexandria shortly before the 
 commencement of the Christian era, 
 and after the death of Cleopatra, but 
 possibly in pursuance of a design origi- 
 nated by her. The London obelisk, 
 which stands on the Thames Embank- 
 ment, was presented to the British 
 government in 1820, but was long left 
 uncared for. In 1877-78, however, it 
 was brought to London by the private 
 munificence of Sir Erasmus Wilson, and 
 erected in its place at a cost of some 
 5'50,000. The New York obelisk was 
 presented to the U. States by the Khe- 
 dive of Egypt, and was set up in the 
 Central Park in 1881. Each is about 
 70 feet high and inscribed with numerous 
 hieroglyphics. 
 
 CLERGY, the body of ecclesiastical 
 persons, in contradistinction to the 
 laity. At first there was no strongly- 
 marked distinction between clergy and 
 laity, but the former soon drew apart, 
 consisting, after the apostolic age, of 
 bishops, priests, and deacons, and in the 
 4th century of many additional inferior 
 orders, such as sub-deacons, acolytes, 
 etc. With the increased complexity of 
 the hierarchy there was a steady accre- 
 tion of privileges until the burden of 
 these became intolerable to the laity. 
 The Episcopalians recognize three classes 
 of clergy — bishops, priests, and dea- 
 cons; and generally hold the doctrine 
 of the apostolic succession. Large 
 numbers of Protestants however, reject 
 this dogma, and believe in the ministry 
 of only one order. The Catholic clergy- 
 man, according to the doctrine of the 
 Roman Catholic Church, is endowed 
 in his spiritual character with a super- 
 natural power, which distinguishes him 
 essentially from the layman. 
 
 CLEVELAND, a city of Ohio, capital 
 of Cuyahoga County, on the Cuyahoga 
 river, 255 miles from Cincinnati, 343 < 
 miles from Chicago, and 183 miles from 
 Buffalo. Population in 1908, 525,000. 
 
 It has an area of 33 sq. miles and is 
 built upon a gentle slope from the bank 
 of Lake Erie, the river cutting the city 
 
 into two parts. The business part of 
 the city extends eastward from the 
 lower reaches of the river, parallel with 
 the lake-front, for about a mile. 
 
 Among the principal buildings are 
 the Central Armory, the Cleveland 
 Grays’ Armory, the Western Reserve 
 Historical Society Library, Women’s 
 College, Lakeside Hospital, several 
 lesser hospitals, U. S. building. Northern 
 Ohio Insane Asylum, House of Correc- 
 tion, Adelbert College, Case School of 
 Applied Science, Cleveland Medical 
 College, city-hall, county court-house, 
 and Union Railway Depot. The board 
 of education has under it 73 schools 
 with 58,000 enrolled pupils, of whom 
 3,460 boys and girls are in the five high 
 schools. The Cleveland Public Li- 
 brary, opened in 1853, has about 150,000 
 volumes, and is free; the Case Library 
 Association, with property valued at 
 $600,000, maintains for subscribers a 
 circulating and reference collection of 
 over 45,000 volumes; the I^aw Library, 
 opened in 1870, has 20,000 volumes; 
 the Western Reserve Historical Society 
 has 25,000 books and a valuable collec- 
 tion of antiquities. 
 
 The city is governed by a mayor and 
 a city council, comprising two repre- 
 sentatives for each of the 11 districts 
 formed from the 42 wards. 
 
 The Lake Shore and Mich. Southern, 
 the Erie, the N. Y., Chicago and St. L. 
 (Nickel Plate), the Cl., Cin., Chic, and 
 St. L., the Cleveland and Pittsburg, as 
 part of the Pennsylvania system, and 
 the Balt, and Ohio, are six great trunk 
 lines carrying the traffic of Cleveland, 
 while several smaller railways enter the 
 city. The lake commerce is large and 
 expanding, and fine passenger steamers 
 run daily to various ports on the Great 
 Lakes. Six suburban street railways 
 radiate from Cleveland. 
 
 Cleveland is an important manufac- 
 turing center. In the building of iron 
 and steel vessels Cleveland surpasses all 
 lake ports, on the average of the last ten 
 years. Sternposts and shafts for U. 
 States naval vessels built on the Atlan- 
 tic coast are forged in Cleveland ; also 
 heavy castings and forgings for bridges, 
 street-railway machinery, and lifts for 
 unloading vessels. Here is the center of 
 the malleable-iron trade in the U. States. 
 Important optical instruments and 
 their mountings are made in Cleveland. 
 Petroleum refining, hardware, boots and 
 shoes, and chemicals give rise to im- 
 portant industries. 
 
 CLEVELAND, Grover, twenty-second 
 president of the U. States, born in New 
 Jersey in 1837. He settled in Buffalo, 
 and having acquired an excellent posi- 
 tion as a lawyer "was elected mayor in 
 1881. Next year he was elected by the 
 democrats governor of New York State, 
 and in 1884, having been nominated for 
 the presidency by the democratic 
 national convention at Chicago, was 
 elected on Nov. 4. Civil ser\dce reform 
 and tariff reform •n'ere advocated by 
 him during his tenure of office, which 
 came to an end in 1889. President 
 Harrison then succeeded, but Cleveland 
 was again elected president in 1892. 
 His second administration was marked 
 by the Venezuela boundary dispute 
 with Britain in which Mr. Cleveland 
 
CLIFF-DWELLEU 
 
 CLINTON 
 
 E Tactically threatened war on England. 
 
 [is administration kept clear of Cuban 
 affairs which confronted Mr. McKinley, 
 his successor. He has lately become 
 
 Grover Cleveland. 
 
 identified with one of the large life in- 
 surance companies. He died in 1908. 
 
 CLIFF-DWELLER, a name given to 
 a certain extinct people who presumably 
 built and inhabited the cliff ruins which 
 abound in southwest Colorado. Several 
 expeditions have been made to these 
 ruins but with little effect. It is held by 
 some that the cliff dwellers were the 
 ancestors of the Pueblo Indians. 
 
 CLIMACTERIC, according to an old 
 theory, a critical period in human life 
 in which some great alteration is sup- 
 posed to take place in the constitution. 
 The first climacteric is, according to 
 some, the seventh year; the others are 
 multiples of the first, as 14, 21, etc.; 
 63 is called tlxe grand climacteric. 
 
 CLI'MATE, the character of the 
 weather or atmospheric phenomena 
 eculiar to every country as respects 
 eat and cold, humidity and dryness, the 
 direction and force of the prevailing 
 winds, the alteration of the seasons, 
 etc., especially as such conditions affect 
 animal and vegetable life. In general, 
 geographical latitude is the principal 
 circumstance to be taken into view in 
 considering the climate of a country, 
 and thus the torrid, temperate, and 
 frigid zones may each be said roughly 
 to have a climate of its own. The 
 highest degree of heat is found in the 
 equatorial regions, and the lowest, or 
 the greatest degree of cold, at the poles. 
 In the former the temperature continues 
 practically the same all the year round, 
 though there may be alternating rainy 
 seasons and dry seasons. The varia- 
 tions in temperature are very con- 
 siderable in the temperate zones, and 
 increase as we approach the polar circles. 
 The heat of the higher latitudes, 
 especially about 59° or 60°, is, in July, 
 greater than that of countries 10° nearer 
 the equator, and at Tornea, in Lapland, 
 where the sun’s rays are very oblique 
 even in summer, the heat is sometimes 
 equal to that of the torrid zone, because 
 the sun is almost always above the 
 horizon. But even in the equatorial 
 regions, and still more in intermediate 
 
 regions, the temperature is affected by 
 local configuration and circumstances. 
 In the deserts of Africa, for instance, 
 owing to the exceptional radiating power 
 of sandy plains and the absence of 
 aqueous vapor in the atmosphere, the 
 heat is excessive, while in the corres- 
 ponding latitudes of south America the 
 mountainous character of the country 
 makes the climate more moderate. Al- 
 titude above the sea indeed has every- 
 where the same effect as removal to a 
 greater distance from the equator, and 
 thus in the Andes we may have a tropi- 
 cal climate at the sea-level and an arctic 
 one on the mountain summits. The 
 winds to which a country is most ex- 
 posed by its situation have also a great 
 influence on the climate. In the north- 
 ern hemisphere if north and east winds 
 blow frequently in any region it will be 
 colder, the latitude being the same, than 
 another which is often swept by milder 
 breezes from the south and west. The 
 climate of southern Europe, for instance, 
 is decidedly affected by the warm 
 south winds which blow from the hot 
 deserts of Africa. The greater or lesser 
 extent of coast-line a country possesses 
 in proportion to its area has a decided 
 influence on the climate. The almost 
 unvarying temperature of the ocean 
 equalizes in some degree the periodic 
 distribution of heat among the different 
 seasons of the year, and the proximity 
 of a great mass of water moderates, by 
 its action on the atmosphere, the heat of 
 summer and the cold of winter. Hence 
 the more equable temperature of is- 
 lands and coasts as compared with that 
 of places far inland, and hence the terms 
 insular climate and continental climate. 
 The British Isles, Tasmania, and New 
 Zealand enjoy a mild or insular climate 
 as compared with, say. Central Russia, 
 or Central Asia. Thus it happens that 
 London has a milder winter and a cooler 
 summer than Paris, though the latter is 
 nearly 3° farther south. Similarly, 
 though Warsaw and Amsterdam are 
 almost in the same latitude, the mean 
 annual temperature of the former is 
 46'48°, while it reaches at the latter 
 53'4° Fahr. The proximity of large 
 masses of water involves also the pres- 
 ence of much aqueous vapor in the at- 
 mosphere, which may be condensed in 
 abundant rains so as to greatly influence 
 the plant-life of a country. Direction 
 of mountain chains, set of ocean cur- 
 rents, nature of soil, are other modifying 
 elements. In exhibiting graphically the 
 chief climatic facts of a region various 
 methods may be adopted, but in all the 
 use of isothermal lines is one of the most 
 instructive features. These are lines 
 drawn on a map or chart connecting 
 those places which have the same mean 
 annual temperature or same mean sum- 
 mer and mean winter temperature. 
 In this way we may divide the earth into 
 zones of temperature which by no means 
 coincide with the limits of the zones into 
 which the earth is astronomically 
 divided, and when compared with these 
 on a map show interesting and instruc- 
 tive divergences. Geology teaches that 
 vast changes have taken place in the 
 climate of most if not of all countries, 
 the causes of which are not fully under- 
 stood. 
 
 CLI'MAX, a rhetorical figure in which 
 a series of propositions or objects are 
 presented in such a way that the least 
 impressive comes first, and there is a 
 regular gradation from this to the most 
 impressive or final. 
 
 CLIMBERS, a name applied to birds 
 of the order Scansores from their climb- 
 ing habits. They have two toes before 
 and two behind, and are represented by 
 parrots, cockatoos, etc. 
 
 CLIMBING PERCH, a singular fish, 
 remarkable for having the pharyngeal 
 bones enlarged and modified into a 
 series of cells and duplications so that 
 they can retain sufficient water to keep 
 
 Climbing perch. 
 
 the gills moist and enable the fish to 
 live out of water six days. The climbing 
 perch of India proceeds long distances 
 overland in search of water when the 
 I pools in which it has been living have 
 I dried up. 
 
 CLIMBING PLANTS are plants of 
 weak stems which naturally seek sup- 
 port from their surroundings to rise from 
 the ground. Some are twining plants, 
 rising by winding themselves or their 
 tendrils round the trunks of trees, etc. 
 Such are the honey-suckle and scarlet- 
 runner. Others, like the ivy, attach 
 themselves by small roots developed 
 from the stem as they ascend. Some 
 in climbing always twine spirally from 
 right to left, others again always take 
 the opposite direction. 
 
 CLIN'ICAL MEDICINE, that depart- 
 ment of medicine which teaches how to 
 investigate, at the bedside of the sick, 
 the nature of diseases, to note their 
 course and termination, and to study 
 the effects of the various modes of 
 treatment to which they are subjected. 
 A clinical lecture is the instruction which 
 the teacher gives his pupil at the bed- 
 side of the patient. 
 
 CLINOMETER, an instrument used 
 for taking the dip and strike of rock 
 strata. 
 
 CLINTON, a town in Iowa, on the 
 Mississippi, 42 miles above Davenport, 
 with railway workshops, foundries, etc. 
 Pop. 26,820. 
 
 CLINTON, DeWitt, an American 
 statesman, born in New York state in 
 1769, died in 1828. He became a lawyer 
 and w'as one of the opponents of the 
 federal constitution. In 1802 he was 
 elected U. States senator from New York, 
 but resigned to become mayor of New 
 York City, a post he filled until 1815. 
 In 1812 he was republican candidate 
 for president but was defeated by 
 Madison. His greatest service was the 
 persistent work he did for the promotion 
 of the Erie canal. 
 
 CLINTON, George, an American 
 statesman, born in New York state 
 in 1739, died in 1812. He was a mem- 
 ber of the continental congress, was a 
 brigadier-general on the revolutionary 
 army, and the first governor of New 
 
CLINTON 
 
 CLOCK 
 
 York, a position he held until 1805, when 
 he became vice-president of the U. 
 States, filling that office until the time 
 of his death. He opposed the adoption 
 of the federal constitution. 
 
 CLINTON, Sir Henry, a British gen- 
 eral who served in the Hanoverian war, 
 and was sent to America in 1775 with 
 the rank of major-general, where he 
 
 Sir Henry Clinton. 
 
 distinguished himself in the battle of 
 Bunker Hill. He defeated the Ameri- 
 cans at Long Island, but had to evacuate 
 Philadelphia to Washington. In 1782 
 Clinton retired to England. He died 
 in 1795. 
 
 CLI'O, in Greek mythology, daughter 
 of Zeus and Mnemosyne; the muse of 
 history. Her attributes are a wreath of 
 laurel upon her head, a trumpet in her 
 right hand, and a roll of papyrus in her 
 left. 
 
 CLIPPER, a modern build of sailing 
 ship, having a long sharp bow, the 
 greatest beam abaft the center, and a 
 great rate of speed. 
 
 CLIVE, Robert, Lord Clive and Baron 
 of Plassey, English general and states- 
 man, was born in 1725 in Shropshire. 
 In his nineteenth year he entered the 
 East India Company’s service at Madras 
 as a writer, but in 1747 quitted the civil 
 for the military service. In 1751 Clive, 
 who had already a reputation for skill 
 and courage, marched on the large city 
 
 Lord Clive. 
 
 of Arcot vdth 200 British troops and 
 300 Sepoys, and took it, although 
 strongly garrisoned, without a blow, 
 withstood a siege by Chunda Sahib for 
 nearly two months, and at last routed 
 the enemy, took possession of important 
 posts, and returned to Madras com- 
 pletely victorious. In 1753 he sailed 
 to England to recover his health, and 
 was received with much honor. Two 
 
 years later he was back in India, in his 
 overnorship of St. David’s, from which 
 e was soon summoned to command the 
 expedition sent to Bengal, where the 
 nabob Suraj-ud-Dowlah had attacked 
 the British, destroyed their factories, 
 taken Calcutta, and suffocated over 120 
 of his prisoners in the Black Hole. Clive 
 soon took possession of Calcutta and 
 brought Suraj-ud-Dowlah to terms, 
 but having no trust in the loyal inten- 
 tions of the nabob he resolved to de- 
 throne him. With the help of Meer 
 Jaffier, one of the nabob’s officers, he 
 effected his purpose, and in the battle 
 of Plassey completely overthrew Suraj- 
 ud-Dowlah’s forces. Meer Jaffier now 
 became the new nabob, and Clive was 
 made governor of Calcutta. Here he was 
 equally successful against the encroach- 
 ments of the Dutch, defeating their 
 forces both by sea and land. In 1761 he 
 was raised to the Irish peerage with the 
 title of Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey. 
 In 1764 fresh troubles in India brought 
 him back, but now as president of Ben- 
 gal, with command of the troops there. 
 Before his arrival, however. Major 
 Adams had already defeated the Nabob 
 of Oude, and Lord Clive had only the 
 arranging of the treaty by which the 
 Company obtained the disposal of all 
 the revenues of Bengal, Bahar, and 
 Orissa. In 1767 he finally returned to 
 England. His health was by this time 
 broken, and in one of his habitual fits of 
 melancholy he put an end to his life, 
 November 22, 1774. 
 
 CLOCK, an instrument for measuring 
 time and indicating hours, minutes, 
 and usually seconds, by means of hands 
 moving on a dial-plate, and differing 
 from a watch mainly in having the 
 movement of its machinery regulated by 
 a pendulum, and in not being portable. 
 The largest and most typical clocks also 
 differ in having their machinery set in 
 motion by means of a falling weight 
 or weights, the watch wheel-work being 
 moved by the force of an uncoiling 
 spring; but many clocks also have a 
 spring setting their works in motion. 
 The use of a horologium, or hour-teller, 
 was common even among the ancients, 
 but their time-pieces were nothing else 
 than sun-dials, hour-glasses, and clepsy- 
 drae. In the earlier half of our era we 
 have accounts of several attempts at 
 clock construction: that of Boethius in 
 the 6th centhry, the clock sent by 
 Harun al Rashid to Charlemagne in 809, 
 that made by Pacificus, archdeacon of 
 Verona, in the 9th century, and that of 
 Pope Sylvester II. in the 10th century. 
 It is doubtful, however, if any of these 
 was a wheel-and-weight clock, and it 
 is probably to the monks that we owe 
 the invention of clocks set in motion 
 by wheels and weights. In the 12th 
 century clocks were made use of in the 
 monasteries, which announced the end 
 of every hour by the sound of a bell put 
 in motion by means of wheels. From 
 this time forward the expression, “the 
 clock has struck,” is often met with. 
 The hand for marking the time is also 
 made mention of. In the 14th century 
 there are stronger traces of the present 
 system of clock-work. Dante particu- 
 larly mentions clocks. Richard, abbot 
 of St. Albans in England, made a clock 
 
 in 1326, such as had never been heard 
 of till then. It not only indicated the 
 course of the sun and moon, but also 
 the ebb and flood tide. Large clocks on 
 steeples likewise were first made use of 
 in the 14th century. Watches are a much 
 later invention, although they have 
 likewise been said to have been invented 
 as early as the 14th century. A cele- 
 brated clock, the construction of which 
 is well know'n, was set up in Paris for 
 Charles V. in 1379, the maker being 
 Henry de Vick, a German. It probably 
 
 Strassburg clock. 
 
 formed a model on which clocks were 
 constructed for nearly 300 years, and 
 until Huyghens applied the pendulum 
 to clock-work as the regulating power, 
 about 1657. The great advantage of the 
 pendulum is that the beats or oscillations 
 of a pendulum all occupy substantially 
 the same time (the time depending on 
 its length), hence its utility in imparting 
 regularity to a time-measurer. The 
 mechanism by which comparative regu- 
 larity was previously attained, though 
 ingenious and simple, was far less perfect ; 
 and the first pendulum escapement, 
 that is, the contrivance by which the 
 pendulum was connected with the clock- 
 work, was also less perfect than others 
 subsequently introduced, especially Gra- 
 ham’s dead-beat escapement, invented 
 in 1700. In a watch the balance-wheel 
 and spring serves the same purpose as 
 the pendulum, and the honor of being 
 the inventor of the balance-spring was 
 contested between Hugyhens and the 
 English philosopher Dr. Hooke. Vari- 
 ous improvements followed, such as the 
 chronometer escapement, and the addi- 
 tion of a compensation adjustment, by 
 which two metals having unequal rates 
 of expansion and contraction under 
 variations of temperature are combined 
 in the pendulum or the balance-wheel, 
 so that, each metal counteracting the 
 other, the vibrations are isochronous 
 
CLOISTER 
 
 CLOUD 
 
 under any change of temperature. This 
 arrangement was perfected by Harrison 
 in 1726, and is especially useful in 
 navigation. See Watch. 
 
 CLOISTER, an arched way or gallery, 
 often forming part of certain portions of 
 monastic and collegiate buildings, usual- 
 ly having a wall of the building on one 
 side, and an open colonnade, or a series 
 
 Part of the cloister— Westminster Abbey. 
 
 of windows with piers and columns ad- 
 joining an interior yard or court on the 
 other side. Such galleries were origin- 
 ally intended as places of exercise and 
 recreation, the persons using them being 
 under cover. The term is also used as 
 equivalent to convent or monastery. 
 
 CLOSE CORPORATION, a corpora- 
 tion which fills up its own vacancies, 
 the election of members not being open 
 to the public. 
 
 CLOSE-HAULED, in navigation, said 
 of a ship when the general arrangement 
 or trim of the sails is such as to enable 
 her to sail as nearly against the wind as 
 possible. 
 
 CLO'SURE, a rule in British parlia- 
 mentary procedure adopted in 1887 
 by which, at any time after a question 
 has been proposed, a motion may be 
 made with the speaker’s or chairman’s 
 consent “That the question be now put,” 
 when the motion is immediately put and 
 decided without debate or amendment. 
 So also if a clause of a bill is under debate 
 a motion that it stand or be added may 
 be put and carried in the same way. 
 The motion must be supported by more 
 than 100 members and opposed by less 
 than 40, or have the support of 200 mem- 
 bers. The introduction of the closure 
 was intended to prevent debates from 
 being too much spun out. 
 
 CLOTH, a fabric formed by inter- 
 weaving threads or fibers of animal or 
 vegetable origin, as w.ool, hair, cotton, 
 flax, hemp, etc. Cloth may also be 
 made by felting as well as by weaving. 
 See Cotton, Woolen, Silk, etc. 
 
 CLOTHES-MOTH, the name com- 
 mon to several moths, whose larvae are 
 destructive to woolen fabrics, feathers, 
 furs, etc., upon which they feed, using 
 at the same time the material for the 
 construction of the cases in which they 
 assume the chrysalis state. 
 
 CLOTHING, the clothes or dress, that 
 is the artificial coverings collectively, 
 which people wear. Nothing is more 
 necessary'to comfort than that the body 
 should be kept in nearly a uniform 
 temperature, thus preventing the dis- 
 turbance of the important excretory 
 functions of the skin by the influence of 
 
 heat or cold. Hence in a changeable 
 climate the question of clothing becomes 
 of special importance. The chief end 
 proposed by clothing ought to be pro- 
 tection from the cold. A degree of cold 
 amounting to shivering cannot be felt 
 without injury to the health, and the 
 strongest constitution cannot resist the 
 benumbing influence of a sensation of 
 cold constantly present, even though it 
 be so moderate as not to occasion im- 
 mediate complaint, or to induce the 
 sufferer to seek protection from it. This 
 degree of cold often lays the foundation 
 of the whole host of chronic diseases, 
 foremost among which are found scrof- 
 ula and consumption. The only kind of 
 dress that can afford the protection re- 
 quired by the changes of temperature 
 to which the cooler or temperate 
 climates are liable, is woolen. Those who 
 would receive the advantage which the 
 wearing of woolen is capable of affording, 
 must wear it next the skin; for it is in 
 this situation only that its health-pre- 
 serving power can be felt. The great 
 advantages of woolen cloth are briefly 
 these: — the readiness with which it 
 allows the escape of sweat through its 
 texture; its power of preserving the 
 sensation of warmth to the skin under 
 all circumstances; the slowness with 
 which it conducts heat; the softness, 
 lightness, and pliancy of its texture. 
 Cotton cloth, though it differs but little 
 from linen, approaches nearer to the 
 nature of woolen, and on that account 
 must be esteemed as the next best sub- 
 stance of which clothing may be made. 
 Silk is the next in point of excellence, 
 but it is very inferior to cotton in every 
 respect. Linen possesses the contrary 
 of most of the properties enumerated 
 as excellencies in woolen. It retains the 
 matter of perspiration in its texture, and 
 
 Cloud— Cirrus. 
 
 misery and suffering arising from it 
 often begin while we are yet in the 
 cradle. 
 
 CLOUD, a collection of visible vapor 
 or watery particles suspended in the 
 atmosphere at some altitude. They 
 differ from fogs only by their height and 
 less degree of transparency. The aver- 
 age height of clouds is calculated to be 
 2} miles, thin and light clouds being 
 much higher than the highest moun- 
 tains, while thick heavy clouds often 
 touch low mountains, steeples, and even 
 trees. Clouds differ much in form and 
 character, but are generally classed 
 (following Luke Howard, in his Essay 
 on Clouds) into three single or primary 
 forms, viz.; — 1. The cirrus, so called 
 from its resemblance to a lock of hair, 
 and consisting of fibers which diverge 
 in all directions. Clouds of this descrip- 
 tion float at a great height, usually from 
 3 to 5 miles above the earth’s surface. 
 2. The cumulus or heap, a cloud which 
 assumes the form of dense convex or 
 conical heaps, resting on a flattish base, 
 called also summer-cloud. Under ordi- 
 nary circumstances these clouds accom- 
 pany fine weather, especially in the heat 
 of summer. They attain their greatest 
 size early in the afternoon and gra- 
 dually decrease toward sunset. 3. The 
 stratus, so named from its spreading 
 out uniformly in a horizontal layer, 
 which receives all its augmentations of 
 volume from below. It belongs essen- 
 tially to the night, and is frequently 
 seen on calm summer evenings after sun- 
 set ascending from the lower to the 
 higher grounds, and dispersing in the 
 form of a cumulus at sunrise. These 
 three primary forms of clouds are sub- 
 divided as follows: — 1. The cirro-cumu- 
 lus, composed of a collection of cirri 
 and spreading itself frequently over the 
 
 Cloud— Cumulus. 
 
 Cloud— Stratus. 
 
 speedily becomes imbued with it; it 
 gives an unpleasant sensation of cold to 
 the skin; it is very readily saturated 
 with moisture, and it conducts heat too 
 rapidly. Clothes should be so made as 
 to allow the body the full exercise of 
 all its motions. The neglect of this pre- 
 caution is productive of more miscnief 
 than is generally believed, and the 
 
 Cloud— Nimbus. 
 
 sky in the form of beds of delicate snow- 
 flakes. 2. The cirro-stratus or wane- 
 cloud, so called from its being generally 
 seen slowly sinking, and in a state of 
 transformation; when seen in the dis- 
 tance, a collection of t?hese clouds sug- 
 gests the resemblance of a shoal of fish, 
 and the sky, when thickly mottled with 
 them, is called in popular language a 
 
CLOUD-BURST 
 
 CLYMER 
 
 mackerel sky. 3. The cumulo-stratus or 
 twain-cloud, one of the grandest and 
 most beautiful of clouds, and consisting 
 of a collection of a large fleecy clouds 
 overhanging a flat stratum or base. 
 4. The nimbus, cumulo-cirro-stratus, or 
 rain-cloud, recognizable, according to 
 Mr. Howard, by its fibrous border and 
 uniformly gray aspect. It is a dense 
 cloud spreading out into a crown of 
 cirrus and passing beneath into a shower. 
 It presents one of the least attractive 
 appearances among clouds, but it is 
 only when the dark surface of this cloud 
 forms its background that the splendid 
 phenomenon of the rainbow is exhibited 
 in perfection. 
 
 CLOUD-BURST, a sudden and very 
 heavy fall of rain. The term was first 
 used in the United States and after- 
 ward in India, to describe the same 
 phenomenon. Cloud-bursts occur fre- 
 quently in the Rocky Mountains, in 
 which 10 to 21 inches of rain fall within 
 an hour. 
 
 CLOUD ON TITLE, a defect or fault 
 in a title to realty. It may be removed 
 by a proceeding in a court of equity. 
 
 CLOVER, or TREFOIL, a name of 
 different species of plants. There are 
 about 150 species. Some are weeds, 
 but many species are valued as food for 
 cattle. Common red clover, is a bien- 
 nial, and sometimes, especially on chalky 
 soils, a triennial plant. This is the kind 
 most commonly cultivated, as it yields 
 a larger product than any of the other 
 sorts. White clover, is a most valuable 
 plant for pasturage over the whole of 
 Europe, Central Asia, and North Ameri- 
 ca, and has also been introduced into 
 South America. The bee gathers much 
 of its honey from the flowers of this 
 species. 
 
 CLOVES, a very pungent aromatic 
 spice, the dried flower-buds of a native 
 of the Molucca Islands, belonging to the 
 myrtle tribe, now cultivated in Sumatra, 
 Zanzibar, Malacca, Jamaica, etc. The 
 
 tree is a handsome evergreen from 15 to 
 30 feet high, with large elliptic smooth 
 leaves and numerous purplish flowers on 
 jointed stalks. Every part of the plant 
 abounds in the volatile oil for which the 
 flower-buds are prized. The spice yields 
 a very fragrant odor, and has a bitterish, 
 pungent, and warm taste. It is some- 
 times employed as a hot and stimulating 
 medicine, but is more frequently used in 
 culinary preparations. 
 
 CLOVIS, King of the Franks, born 
 465, succeeded his father Childeric in 
 the year 481, as chief of the warlike 
 tribe of Salian Franks, who inhabited 
 Nothern Gaul. In 486 he overthrew the 
 Roman governor at Soissons and occu- 
 pied the country between the Somme 
 
 and the Loire. He died at Paris, 
 which he had made his capital, on Nov. 
 27, 511, in the thirtieth year of his 
 reign. 
 
 CLOWN, the buffoon or practical 
 jester in pantomime and circus per- 
 formances. On the old English stage the 
 clown was the privileged laughter- 
 provoker, who, without taking any part 
 in the dramatic development of the 
 piece represented, carried on his im- 
 provised jokes and tricks with the 
 actors, often indeed addressing himself 
 directly to the audience instead of 
 confining himself to what was going on 
 on the stage. In Shakespeare’s dramas, 
 a distinct part is assigned to the clown, 
 who no longer appears as an extempore 
 jester, although the part he plays is to 
 a certain extent in keeping with his 
 traditional functions. He is now con- 
 fined to the pantomime and the circus. 
 
 CLUB, an association of men, or of 
 men and women, or of women algne, 
 for social purposes, for political pur- 
 poses, or for purposes other than these. 
 The club originated in England, but 
 there is not in the United States, pro- 
 bably, a single club which, in its usages, 
 is precisely similar to the English 
 clubs. The London clubs originated in 
 the coffee houses and the first of impor- 
 tance was that which met in the 
 Mermaid Tavern. This was attended by 
 Raleigh, Shakespeare, Beaumont and 
 Fletcher and other literary celebrities 
 of that time. The first political club 
 was established in 1659 and from this 
 time forward clubs grew in number and 
 variety representing every art, profes- 
 sion, and business in existence, one may 
 almost say. A bare list of the clubs of 
 London would fill several pages of this 
 book. London has scores of sporting 
 club:!, athletic clubs, travelers’ clubs, 
 pistol and gun clubs, in short clubs for 
 every kind of purpose which could 
 possibly bring men together, from the 
 study of oriental tongues to prize- 
 fighting and moral reform. 
 
 In the United States the club idea 
 has been expanded so as to include 
 women and their purposes. — The 
 women’s clubs — organized chiefly for 
 reform — are associated in a national 
 federation which meets annually. This 
 federation takes in not only the reform 
 clubs of women but also self-improve- 
 ment clubs, temperance clubs, art and 
 press clubs and all clubs forjned ex- 
 clusively of women. 
 
 Of men’s clubs in the United States. 
 New York City is the center and its 
 clubs are the most famous in America. 
 Among them may be mentioned The 
 Union Club (1836), The Century Club 
 (1846), The Union League Club (1863), 
 The University Club (1865), The Knick- 
 erbocker Club (1871), The Lotus, a 
 literary club (1870), The Manhattan 
 Cllub (1864), a political club. The 
 Plajmrs’ Club (1888) and the Lambs’ 
 Club. Chicago has a number of strong 
 political clubs the more noted of which 
 are the Marquette Club (republican) and 
 the Iroquois (democratic). The Press 
 Club of Chicago is the best known press 
 club in the world. Every large city in 
 the United States has its quota of 
 clubs, virtually of the same character. 
 In this country the tendency of the 
 
 larger clubs is to extend the lodging 
 house feature of the establishment 
 which until recently was not a general 
 practice in American clubs. 
 
 CLUB-FOOT, a congenital distortion 
 of the foot. There are several varieties. 
 Sometimes the foot is twisted inward; 
 sometimes the heel is raised and the toes 
 only touch the ground; sometimes the 
 foot is twisted outward; or it rests 
 only on the heel. In most cases the 
 deformity is curable by modern surgery. 
 
 CLYDE (klld), a river of Scotland, 
 which has its sources amid the hills that 
 separate Lanarkshire from the counties 
 of Peebles and Dumfries, passes by 
 Lanark, Hamilton, Glasgow, Renfrew, 
 Dumbarton, Greenock, etc., and forms 
 finally an extensive estuary or firth 
 before it enters the Irish Sea, at the 
 southern extremity of the island of 
 Bute. From its source to Glasgow, 
 where navigation begins, its length is 
 70 or 80 miles. The Clyde, by artificial 
 deepening, has been made navigable 
 for large vessels up to Glasgow, and is 
 the most valuable river in Scotland for 
 commerce. 
 
 CLYDE, Lord, Sir Colin Campbell, 
 was born in Glasgow, in 1792. He 
 served in Spain under Sir John Moore 
 and Wellington, being engaged in the 
 battles of Barossa and Vittoria, and 
 
 Lord Clyde. 
 
 having displayed distinguished gal- 
 lantry at the siege of San Sebastian, 
 where, as well as at the Bidassoa, he 
 was severely wounded. In 1854 he 
 became major-general, with the com- 
 mand of the Higliland Brigade in the 
 Crimean war. His services at the battles 
 of Alma and Balaklava, and during the 
 war generall}'^, were conspicuous, so that 
 on the outbreak of the Indian mutiny 
 he was appointed to the chief command 
 there. Landing at Calcutta on 29th 
 August, 1857, he relieved Havelock and 
 Outran! at Lucknow, and crushed the 
 rebellion entirely before the end of the 
 year. For his services here Sir Colin 
 received the thanks of both Houses of 
 Parliament, was created a peer wdth 
 the title of Baron Clyde. In 1862 he 
 was made field-marshal. He died 
 .\ugust 14, 1863, and was buried in 
 Westminster Abbey. 
 
 CLYMER, George, one of the signers 
 of the Declaration of Independence, 
 born in Philadelphia in 1739, died 1813. 
 He was one of the treasurers of the 
 continental congress and took part in 
 the revolutionary war both as soldier 
 
COACH 
 
 COAL GAS 
 
 and investigating delegate from con- 
 gress. Clymer was a member of the 
 constitutional convention of 1787 and a 
 member of congress from 1789 to 1791. 
 
 COACH, a general name for all cov- 
 ered carriages drawn by horses and in- 
 tended for the rapid conveyance of 
 passengers. The earliest carriages ap- 
 pear to have been all open, if we may 
 Judge from the figures of Assyrian and 
 Babylonian chariots found on the 
 monuments discovered amid the ruins 
 of Nineveh and Babylon. At Rome 
 both covered and uncovered carriages 
 were in use. After the fall of the Roman 
 Empire they went out of use again, and 
 during the feudal ages the custom was 
 to ride on horseback, the use of carriages 
 being considered effeminate. They do 
 not appear to have become common till 
 the 15th century, and even then were 
 regarded exclusively as vehicles for 
 women ^<nd invalids. Later on they 
 became, especially in Germany, part of 
 the appendage of royalty. They seem 
 to have been introduced into England 
 about the middle of the 16th century, 
 but were for long confined to the aristoc- 
 racy and the wealthy classes. Hack- 
 ney-coaches were first used in London 
 in 1625. They were then only twenty 
 in number, and were kept at the hotels, 
 where they had to be applied for when 
 wanted. In 1634 coaches waiting to be 
 hired at a particular stand were intro- 
 duced, and had increased to 200 in 
 1652, to 800 in 1710, and to 1000 in 
 1771. Stage-coaches were introduced 
 into England about the same time as 
 hackney-coaches. — The first stage-coach 
 in London appears to have run early 
 in the 17th century, and before the 
 end of the century they were started 
 on three of the principal roads in Eng- 
 land. Their speed was at first very 
 moderate, about 3 or 4 miles an hour. 
 They could only run in the summer, 
 and even then their progress was often 
 greatly hindered by floods and by the 
 wretched state of the roads generally. 
 In 1700 it took a week to travel from 
 York to London; in 1754 a body of 
 Manchester merchants started a con- 
 veyance, the Flying Coach, of an im- 
 proved kind, which did the journey to 
 London in the unusually short period 
 of four days and a half, and thirty years 
 later a Mr. Palmer of Bath, after a 
 considerable amount of opposition, 
 succeeded in inducing the government 
 to put in practice certain suggestions 
 which he made, by which he showed 
 that great saving both of time and 
 money in the conveyance of passengers 
 and letters would be effected. The 
 result was the establishment of the 
 system of mail-coaches, which con- 
 tinued to be the means of traveling in 
 England until their place was taken by 
 the railways. The first mail-coach 
 started between London and Bristol 
 on the 8th of August, 1784. 
 
 The revival of coaching as a sport in 
 recent years has caused, of course a 
 revival of the industry of coach build- 
 ing, and elegant coaches are now 
 turned out in Europe and the United 
 States by numerous factories. The 
 weight of a road coach varies from 
 2200 to 3000 pounds and it is drawn by 
 four horses. The typical American 
 
 coach is that made at Concord, N. H. 
 Other vehicles, such as hackney-coaches, 
 landaus, etc., are not coaches at all. 
 For their description see separate 
 articles. 
 
 COACH-DOG, a short-haired dog of 
 moderate size, and rather handsome 
 shape, white with numerous black spots, 
 kept as an attendant upon carriages, 
 and of no use otherwise. Called also 
 Dalmatian dog. 
 
 COACHING, the art or sport of driv- 
 ing a four-in-hand coach. Coaching as 
 a necessary means of transportation- is 
 treated in the article on Coach (which 
 see). Coaching was never brought to 
 a high degree of perfection in America 
 until it recently came into vogue as a 
 pastime. In America it is used for 
 sight seeing in large American and 
 European cities, and in Europe until 
 recently was practiced as a pastime. 
 Today its place is almost entirely filled 
 by the rapid growth of the automo- 
 bile. 
 
 COADJU'TOR, a Latin term, nearly 
 synonymous in its original meaning with 
 assistant. The term is especially applied 
 to an assistant bishop appointed to act 
 for and succeed one who is too old or 
 infirm for duty. 
 
 COAGULATION, the changing of a 
 fluid into a more or less solid substance, 
 or the separation of a substance from a 
 solution, through the substance becom- 
 ing more or less solid. Thus albumen of 
 egg can be dissolved in cold water, but 
 if the solution be warmed, the albumen 
 undergoes a change, separates out in 
 white floeky masses, and cannot again 
 be redissolved in the water. Coagu- 
 lation is well exemplified by the “curd- 
 ling” of milk and “clotting” of blood. 
 
 COAHUILA (ko-a-we'la), a state of 
 Mexico, on the frontier of the United 
 States, rich in woods and pastures, and 
 having several silver-mines; area, 50,890 
 square miles; pop. 280,899. 
 
 COAL, a solid, opaque, inflammable 
 substance, mainly consisting of carbon, 
 found in the earth, largely employed as 
 fuel, and formed from vast masses of 
 vegetable matter deposited through the 
 luxuriant growth of plants in former 
 epochs of the earth’s history. In the 
 varieties of coal in common use the com- 
 bined effects of pressure, heat, and 
 chemical action upon the substance have 
 left few traces of its vegetable origin; 
 but in the sandstones, claj's, and shales 
 accompanying the coal, the plants to 
 which it principally owes its origin are 
 presented in a fossil state in great pro- 
 fusion, and frequently with their struc- 
 ture so distinctly retained, although re- 
 placed by mineral substances, as to 
 enable the microscopist to determine 
 their botanical affinities with existing 
 species. The great system of strata in 
 which coal is chiefly found is known as 
 the carboniferous. There are many 
 varieties of coal, varying considerably 
 in their composition, as anthracite, 
 nearly pure carbon, and burning with 
 little flame, much used for furnaces and 
 malt kilns; bituminous (popularly so 
 called) or “household coal;” and cannel 
 or “gas-coal,” which burns read’ly like 
 a candle, and_ is much used in gas-mak- 
 ing. All varieties agree in containing 
 from 60 to over 90 per cent of carbon, 
 
 the other elements being chiefly oxygen 
 and hydrogen, and frequently a small 
 portion of nitrogen. For manufactur- 
 ing purposes coals are generally con- 
 sidered to consist of two parts, the 
 volatile or bituminous portion, which 
 yields the gas used for lighting, and the 
 substance comparatively fixed, usually 
 known as coke, which is obtained by 
 heating the coal in ovens or other close 
 arrangements, and thus removing the 
 volatile or smoke-yielding matter, while 
 the full heating power of the coal still 
 remains in the coke. 
 
 The principal coal deposits of Europe 
 and America are found in the United 
 States, Great Britain, Germany, France, 
 Belgium, Russia, and Austria-Hungary, 
 Coal is found in immense quantities in 
 China and Japan, in India, and other 
 oriental countries but its production 
 there is limited. In the United States 
 the largest deposits are found in the 
 great coal belt of the Appalachians 
 which extends from Pennsylvania to 
 Alabama, a tract about 800 miles long 
 and nearly 100 wide. In this region 
 all kinds of coal are produced. Bitu- 
 minous coal is produced in large quanti- 
 ties in Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky. 
 The western states from Colorado to the 
 Pacific are also rich in coal but its 
 mining is backward. 
 
 The coal production of the world 
 at present is about 900,000,000 tons 
 annually of which the LTnited States pro- 
 duces 270,000,000, Great Britain 250,- 
 000,000 and Germany 165,000,000 tons. 
 Austria Hungary comes fourth and falls 
 to 40,000,000. 
 
 Coal is mined by means of shafts and 
 tunnels which tap the seams in which 
 great chambers are mined, the coal be- 
 ing transported underground on trucks, 
 and brought to the surface through the 
 shafts. Various improvements in ma- 
 chinery have recently facilitated the 
 work, although coal mining still remains 
 one of the most disagreeable and dan- 
 gerous trades practiced. 
 
 COAL BRASS, the iron pyrites found 
 in coal-measures, so named on account 
 of its brassy appearance. Coal con- 
 taining much pyrites is bad for iron 
 smelting, and it is unpleasant for 
 domestic use on account of the sulphur- 
 ous acid which it gives off on burning. 
 Coal brass is useful in the manufacture 
 of copperas, and in alkali works. 
 
 COAL-CUTTING MACHINE, any ma- 
 chine for cutting out coal in the pit, the 
 chief objects they are intended to serve 
 being the cheapening of the work, the 
 saving of a large quantity of coal, which 
 in the ordinary process of holing by 
 hand-labor with the pick is broken up 
 into slack and dust, and the removal of 
 the danger attending upon the employ- 
 ment of hand-labor. The instruments 
 of excavation in these machines are con- 
 structed on various principles, some 
 having an action like that of an ordinary 
 pick, others a horizontal cutting-tool. 
 There are usually arrangements for 
 regulating the depth and force, and to 
 a certain extent the direction of the 
 blow, and the precision obtained is 
 fully equal to that of hand-labor. 
 
 COAL GAS, the variety of carburetted 
 hydrogen which produces common gas- 
 light. 
 
COALING-STATIONS 
 
 COCA 
 
 1 
 
 COALING-STATIONS, stations estab- 
 lished by government at various im- 
 portant points throughout the world, 
 where the ships, both of the navy and 
 the mercantile marine, may obtain 
 supplies of coal. The utility of such 
 stations, when properly fortified, as 
 points of refuge, defense, and repair for 
 ships in the event of war can hardly be 
 over-estimated. 
 
 COALITION, a term used in diplo- 
 macy and politics to denote a union 
 between different parties not of the 
 same opinions, but who agree to act to- 
 gether for a particular object. Among 
 states it is understood to mean theoret- 
 ically someting less general in its ends, 
 and less deeply founded than an alli- 
 ance. 
 
 COAL-TAR, or GAS-TAR, a substance 
 obtained in the distillation of coal for 
 the manufacture of illuminating gas, a 
 dark-colored more or less viscid mass, 
 consisting principally of oily hydrocar- 
 bons. It passes over with the gas into 
 the condenser, along with ammonia 
 liquor, but being heavier than the latter, 
 it is easily separated from it when the 
 whole is allowed to stand. It was 
 formerly of comparatively little use; 
 but in recent years a great number of 
 valuable products have been derived 
 from it by distillation, such as ammonia, 
 naphtha, creosote, carbolic acid, and 
 benzine, while it is also the source of the 
 whole series of aniline colors, and other 
 dyes, of alizarine, salicylic acid, etc. 
 
 COAL TAR COLORS, dyes made from 
 the combinations of various hydro- 
 carbons derived from coal tar. The 
 possibility of making these dyes was 
 discovered by the German chemist, 
 Runge, in 1834. This observation was 
 carried farther by Perkins in 1856, 
 but the most interesting discovery 
 in this connection was that of the 
 German chemists Graebe and Lieber- 
 mann who made a color from anthracene 
 which was really the coloring matter 
 found in madder root. This was in 1868 
 and the progress of organic chemistry 
 since then has made it possible to 
 prepare from aniline and other hydro- 
 carbons a variety of dyes varying in- 
 finitely in shade. 
 
 COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, 
 
 The United States, a bureau pertaining 
 to the department of the treasury, for the 
 purpose of surveying the coasts and 
 boundaries of the country and determin- 
 ing geographical positions in the interior. 
 It was organized on the recommenda- 
 tion of President Jefferson in 1807 and 
 its work since that time has included 
 almost every region in the United 
 States. Some ot the important work 
 done by the survey was triangulation, 
 along the Atlantic coast to the Florida 
 Keys, observation of the gulf stream, 
 surveys of the boundary line between 
 Alaska and British Columbia, soundings 
 in all American waters, explorations of 
 rivers and mountains, and magnetic 
 observations in various parts of the 
 country. The bureau issues a line of 
 publications important for commerce, 
 science, and defense. 
 
 COAST ARTILLERY, artillery for the 
 defense of coasts. The United States 
 uses 8, 10, and 12-inch breech loading 
 guns, rapid-fii’e guns, and other forms 
 
 of ordnance. The 16-inch breech load- 
 ing rifle of the United States is one of 
 the largest and most effective rifles 
 in existence. It requires a charge of 
 576 pounds smokeless, and 1176 pounds 
 black powder, and fires a projectile of 
 2400 pounds, a velocity (muzzle) of 
 2300 feet per second. The Italian and 
 French rifles are a little larger but not 
 so effective. English coast artillery has 
 not been brought to the same per- 
 fection or that of the United States. 
 
 COAST DEFENSE, the art of fortify- 
 ing and defending a coast from an 
 enemy. This is done by the use of large 
 guns (see Coast Artillery), by tactics 
 which obstruct the enemy’s advance, 
 by harassing the enemy from different 
 points of attack with isolated instru- 
 ments or boats, by mining the water 
 with torpedoes, and by the use of 
 search lights to disclose the enemy’s 
 location. Since modern coast defense 
 methods have been perfected no good 
 opportunity of testing it has offered. 
 The test made by Dewey at Manila 
 Bay in 1898 was not a fair one, as the 
 Spaniards were not only poor tacticians 
 but their torpedoes were worthless. 
 
 COAT OF ARMS. See Arms and 
 Heraldry. 
 
 COAT OF MAIL, a piece of armor in 
 the form of a shirt, consisting of a net- 
 work of iron or steel rings, or of small 
 laminae or plates, usually of tempered 
 iron, laid over each other like the scales 
 of a fish, and fastened to a strong linen 
 or leather jacket. 
 
 CO'BALT , a metal of a grayish-white 
 color, very brittle, of a fine close grain, 
 compact, but easily reducible to pow- 
 der. It crystallizes in parallel bundles 
 of needles. It is never found in a pure 
 state, but usually as an oxide, or com- 
 bined with arsenic or its acid, with sul- 
 phur, iron, etc. The great use of cobalt 
 is to give a permanent blue color to 
 glass and enamels upon metals, porce- 
 lain, and earthenwares. 
 
 COBB, Howell, an American legis- 
 lator, born in Georgia in 1815, died in 
 1868. He was congressman for four 
 terms until 1851, and in the last term 
 was speaker of the house. His other 
 positions were governor of Georgia 
 (1855) secretary of the treasury in 
 Buchanan’s cabinet, and president of 
 the congress which adopted the con- 
 stitution of the confederacy. He was 
 a bitter anti-reconstructionist. 
 
 COB'DEN, Richard, English politi- 
 cian, the “apostle of free trade,” born 
 in Sussex 3d June, 1804, died in London 
 2d April, 1865. His first political writ- 
 ing was a pamphlet on England, Ire- 
 land, and America, which was followed 
 by another on Russia. In both of these 
 he gave clear utterance to the political 
 views to which he continued through his 
 life rigidly to adhere, advocating non- 
 intervention in the disputes of other 
 nations, and maintaining it to be the 
 only proper object of the foreign policy 
 of England to increase and strengthen 
 her connections with foreign countries 
 in the way of trade and peaceful inter- 
 course. Having joined the anti-corn- 
 law league, formed in 1838, it was 
 chiefly the extraordinary activity of 
 Cobden, together with Bright and other 
 zealous fellov'-workers, which won vic- 
 
 tory for the movement. In 1841 Cobden 
 entered parliament as member for Stock- 
 port, and after several years of un- 
 wearied efforts at last induced Sir 
 Robert Peel, then prime minister, to 
 bring in a bill for the repeal of the corn 
 
 Richard Cobden. 
 
 laws, a measure which became law in 
 1846. His last great work was the 
 commercial treaty w'hich he was the 
 means of bringing about between Britain 
 and France in 1860. During his later 
 years he lived a good deal in retirement. 
 
 COBDEN CLUB , an association formed 
 about a year after the death of Mr. Cob- 
 den, mainly by the influence of Mr. 
 Bright and Mr. T. B. Potter, for the 
 purpose of encouraging the growth and 
 diffusion of those economical and polit- 
 ical principles with which Mr. Cobden’s 
 name is associated. The Cobden Club 
 has distributed a vast number of books 
 and pamphlets. 
 
 COBRA DE CAPELLO, the Portu- 
 guese name of the hooded or spectacled 
 snake, which is found in Southern Asia, 
 a closely allied species, also called cobra, 
 or asp, being found in Egypt. It is 
 called spectacled snake from a singular 
 marlung on the back of the neck, while 
 its other name is given from the remark- 
 able manner in which it spreads out the 
 skin on the sides of the neck and head 
 when disturbed or irritated, raising the 
 anterior part of its body so as to appear 
 to stand erect, and expanding its hood. 
 So exceedingly poisonous is its bite, 
 that in numerous instances death has 
 followed within a few minutes, and under 
 ordinary circumstances a few hours 
 is the longest term where prompt 
 measures have not been taken. But 
 indeed recovery rarelj' takes place, 
 though injection of potash into the 
 veins is said to be a remedy. In India 
 thousands of natives lose their lives 
 yearly through cobra bites. Its food 
 consists of small reptiles, birds, frogs, 
 fishes (being an excellent swimmer), 
 etc. Its great enemy is the ichneumon. 
 It is one of the snakes that the snake- 
 charmers perform tricks with. 
 
 COBWEB, the web or network spun 
 by spiders to catch their prey. 
 
 COCA, a South American plant. The 
 leaf is a stimulating narcotic, and is 
 chewed by the inhabitants of countries 
 on the Pacific side of South America, 
 mixed with finely-powdered chalk. It 
 has effects somew'hat similar to those of 
 opium. A small quantity of it enables 
 a person to bear up against fatigue ever 
 when receiving less food than usual 
 
COCAINE 
 
 COCOA-NUT 
 
 and it prevents the difficulty of respira- 
 tion experienced in climbing high 
 mountains. Used in excess it brings 
 on various disorders, and the desire for 
 it increases so much with indulgence 
 that a confirmed coca-chewer is said 
 never to have been reclaimed. Coca- 
 leaves depend for their influence on a 
 crystallizable alkaloid called cocaine, 
 which, besides having effect similar to 
 the leaf, possesses valuable anaesthetic 
 properties, and in recent times has been 
 e.specially employed to prevent suffering 
 in operations on the eye, having also 
 similar effects when applied to the 
 tongue, larynx, ear, etc. 
 
 COCAINE (ko'ka-in). See Coca. 
 
 COCCUS, a genus of insects of the 
 order Hemiptera, family Coccidae, or 
 scale-insects. The males are elongated 
 in their form, have large wings, and 
 are destitute of any obvious means of 
 suction; the females, on the contrary, 
 are of a rounded or oval form, about an 
 eighth of an inch in length, have no 
 wings, but possess a beak or sucker, by 
 which they suck up the juices of the 
 plants on which they live. At a certain 
 period of their lives the females attach 
 themselves to the plant or tree which 
 they inhabit, and remain thereon im- 
 movable during the rest of their exist- 
 ence. In this situation they are im- 
 pregnated by the male; after which 
 their body increases considerably, in 
 many species losing its original form 
 and assuming that of a gall, and, after 
 depositing the eggs, drying up and 
 forming a habitation for the young. 
 Cochineal consists of the bodies of the 
 females of the Coccus cacti, a native of 
 Mexico, which feeds on various species of 
 cactus, particularly on one called nopal. 
 
 COCH'IN, a small native state of 
 India, on the s. w. or Malabar coast 
 connected with the Presidency of 
 Madras. Area, 1361 sq. miles; pop. 
 815.218. 
 
 COCHIN-CHINA, a country forming 
 part of the peninsula of South-eastern 
 Asia, and generally regarded as com- 
 prising the whole of Anam and Lower 
 or French Cochin-China. The latter 
 belonged to Anam till, in 1863 a portion 
 of it was finally ceded to France after a 
 war occasioned by the persecution of 
 French missionaries; another portion 
 being declared French territory in 1867. 
 The territory thus acquired covers 
 21,710 sq. miles, and in 189^ had a pop. 
 of 2,226,935. 
 
 COCHIN-CHINA, a term applied to a 
 variety of the domestic fowl, imported 
 from Cochin-China. It is a large un- 
 gainly bird, valuable chiefly owing to its 
 fecundity, eggs being laid even during 
 the winter. 
 
 COCHINEAL (koch'in-el), a dye-stuff 
 consisting of the dried bodies of the 
 females of a species of insect, a na- 
 tive of the warmer parts of America, 
 particularly Mexico, and found living on 
 a species of cactus called the cochineal- 
 fig. The insects are brushed softly off, 
 and killed by being placed in ovens or 
 dried in the sun, having then the appear- 
 ance of small berries or seeds. A pound 
 of cochineal contains about 70,000 of 
 them. The finest cochineal is prepared 
 in Mexico, where it was first discovered, 
 and Guatemala; but Peru, Brazil, 
 
 Algiers, the East and West Indies, and 
 the Canary Islands have also entered 
 into this industry with more or less 
 success. Cochineal produces crimson 
 and scarlet colors, and is used in making 
 carmine and lake. 
 
 COCHRANE, John, an American 
 legislator and soldier, born in New York 
 State in 1813, died in 1898. He was 
 democratic member of congress from 
 1856 to 1862 and was a brigadier-gen- 
 eral in the Union army during the civil 
 war. In 1864 he was candidate for the 
 vice presidency with Fremont. 
 
 COCK. See Fowl. 
 
 COCKADE', a plume of cock’s feath- 
 ers, with which the Croats in the ser- 
 vice of the French in the 17th century 
 adorned their caps. A bow of colored 
 ribbons was adopted for the cockade in 
 France, and during the French revolu- 
 tion the tricslored cockade — red, white, 
 and blue — became the national dis- 
 tinction. National cockades are now to 
 be found over all Europe. 
 
 COCKATOO', the name of a number of 
 climbing birds belonging to the family 
 of the parrots. They have a large, hard 
 bill ; a crest, capable of being raised and 
 lowered at the will of the bird, com- 
 monly white, but sometimes yellow, 
 red, or blue; a tail somewhat longer 
 than that of the parrot, and square or 
 rounded; long wings; and, for the most 
 
 Leadbeater’s cockatoo. 
 
 part, a white plumage, though in some 
 genera the plumage is dark. They are 
 found especially in the Eastern Archi- 
 pelago and Australia. They live on 
 roots, fruits, grain, insects, etc., and 
 usually congregate in flocks. These 
 birds are easily tamed, and when 
 domesticated become very familiar. 
 
 COCK'CHAFER, a species of lamel- 
 licorn beetle, remarkable for the length 
 of its life in the worm or larva state, as 
 well as for the injury it does to vegeta- 
 tion after it has attained its perfect con- 
 dition. The common cockchafer is 
 hatched from an egg which the parent 
 deposits in a hole about 6 inches deep, 
 which she digs for the purpose. At the 
 end of about three months the insect 
 emerges as a small grub or maggot, and 
 feeds on the roots of vegetables in the 
 vicinity with great voracity. When 
 full grown it is over an inch in length; 
 it makes its way underground with ease, 
 and commits great devastation on grass 
 and corn crops. In the fourth year the 
 insect appears as a perfect coleopterous 
 insect — a beetle over an inch long, of a 
 black color, with a whitish down. It 
 usually emerges from the ground about 
 
 the beginning of May, from which cir- 
 cumstance the English name May bug 
 or beetle has been given it. In its per- 
 fect state it is very destructive to the 
 leaves of various trees. 
 
 COCKER, a dog of the spaniel kind, 
 allied to the Blenheim dog, used for 
 raising woodcocks and snipes from their 
 haunts in woods and marshes. 
 
 COCK-FIGHTING, an amusement 
 practiced in various countries, first per- 
 haps among the Greeks and Romans. 
 At Athens there were annual cock- 
 fights, and among the Romans quails 
 and partridges were also used for this 
 purpose. 
 
 COCK'NEY, a nickname for a London 
 citizen, as to the origin of which there 
 has been much dispute. The word is 
 often, but not always, employed slight- 
 ingly as implying a peculiar limitation of 
 taste or judgment. The epithet is as 
 old at least as the time of Henry II. 
 
 COCK OF THE PLAINS, a large North 
 American species of grouse, inhabiting 
 desolate plains in the western states. 
 
 COCK OF THE ROCK, a South Amer- 
 ican bird of a rich orange color with a 
 beautiful crest, belonging to the mana- 
 kin family. 
 
 COCKPIT, in a man-of-war, the place 
 where the wounded are dressed in battle 
 or at other times, and where medicines 
 are kept. 
 
 COCK'ROACH, a genus of insects, 
 characterized by an oval, elongated, 
 depressed body, which is smooth on its 
 superior surface. They have parch- 
 ment-like elytra, and in the female the 
 wings are imperfectly developed. They 
 are nocturnal in their habits, exceeding- 
 ly agile, and devour provisions of all 
 kinds. Cockroaches, like other orthop- 
 terous insects, do not undergo a com- 
 plete metamorphosis: the larvse and 
 nymphs resemble the perfect insect, 
 except that they have merely rudiments 
 of wings. The eggs are carried below 
 the abdomen of the female for seven or 
 eight days till she finally attaches them 
 to some solid body by means of a gummy 
 fluid. The species are numerous. 
 
 COCKSWAIN (colloquially cok'sn), 
 the officer who manages and steers a 
 boat and has the command of the boat’s 
 crew. 
 
 CO'COA, a name given to the ground 
 kernels of the Yacao or chocolate tree 
 prepared to be made into a beverage. 
 See Cacao. 
 
 CO'COA-NUT, or COCO-NUT, a woody 
 fruit of an oval shape, from 3 or 4 to 6 or 
 8 inches in length, covered with a 
 fibrous husk, and lined internally with 
 a white, firm, and fleshy kernel. The 
 tree which produces the cocoa-nut is a 
 palm, from 40 to 60 feet high. The 
 trunk is straight and naked, and sur- 
 mounted by a crown of feather-like 
 leaves. The nuts hang from the sum- 
 mit of the tree in clusters of a dozen or 
 more together. The external rind of the 
 nuts has a smooth surface. This in- 
 closes an extremely fibrous substance, 
 of considerable thickness, which im- 
 mediately surrrounds the nut. The 
 latter has a thick and hard shell, with 
 three black scars at one end, through 
 one of which the embryo of the future 
 tree pushes its way. This scar may be 
 pierced with a pin; the others are as 
 
COCOA-NUT OIL 
 
 COTFEE 
 
 hard as the rest of the shell. The kernel 
 incloses a considerable quantity of 
 sweet and watery liquid, of a whitish 
 color, which has the name of milk. This 
 palm is a native of Africa, the East and 
 West Indies, and South America, and 
 is. now grown almost everywhere in 
 tropical countries. Food, clothing, and 
 the means of shelter and protection are 
 all afforded by the cocoa-nut tree The 
 kernels are used as food in various modes 
 of dressing, and yield on pressure an oil 
 which is largely imported into various 
 countries. When dried before the oil is 
 expressed they are known as copra. The 
 fibrous coat of the nut is made into the 
 well-known cocoa-nut matting; the 
 coarse yarn obtained from it is called 
 coir, which is also used for cordage. 
 The hard shell of the nut is polished 
 and made into a cup or other domestic 
 utensil. The fronds are wrought into 
 baskets, brooms, mats, sacks, and many 
 other useful articles; the trunks are 
 made into boats or furnish timber for 
 the construction of houses. By boring 
 the tree a white sweetish liquor called 
 toddy exudes from the wound, and 
 yields by distillation one of the varieties 
 of the spirit called arack. A kind of 
 sugar called jaggery is also obtained 
 from the juice by inspissation. 
 
 COCOA-NUT OIL, a solid vegetable 
 fat, largely used in candle - making 
 and in the manufacture of soaps and 
 pomatum. This fat is got by pressure 
 from the albumen of the cocoa-nut ker- 
 nel, and is as white as lard, and some- 
 what firmer. Manila and Ceylon send 
 large quantities of .the oil to the U. S. 
 
 COCOON', the name given to the web 
 or ball spun by caterpillars before pass- 
 ing into the chrysalis state. The valu- 
 able product thus obtained from the 
 silkworm is well known. 
 
 COD, a genus of well-known soft- 
 finned fishes, distinguished by the fol- 
 lowing characteristics: — A smooth, ob- 
 long, or fusiform body, covered with 
 small soft scales; ventrals attached 
 beneath the throat; gills large, seven- 
 rayed, and opening laterally; a small 
 beard at the. tip of the lower jaw; 
 generally two or three dorsal fins, one 
 or two anal, and one distinct caudal 
 fin. The most interesting species is 
 the common or bank cod. Though 
 found plentifully on the coasts of other 
 northern regions, as Britain, Scandi- 
 navia, and Iceland, a stretch of sea 
 near the coast of Newfoundland is 
 the favorite annual resort of count- 
 less multitudes of cod, which visit the 
 the Grand Banks to feed upon the 
 crustaceous and molluscous animals 
 abundant in such situations, and thus 
 attract fleets of fishermen. Few mem- 
 bers of the animal creation are more 
 universally serviceable to man than the 
 codfish. Both in its fresh state and when 
 salted and dried it is a substantial and 
 wholesome article of diet; the tongue is 
 considered a delicacy, and the swim- 
 ming-bladders or sounds, besides being 
 highly nutritious, supply, if rightly 
 prepared, an isinglass equal to the best 
 Russian. The oil extracted by heat 
 and pressure from the liver is of great 
 medicinal value, and contributes con- 
 siderably to the high economic value of 
 the cod. The cod is enormously prolific, 
 
 the ovaries of each female containing 
 more than 9,000,000 of eggs; but the 
 numbers are kept down by a host of 
 enemies. The spawning season, on the 
 banks of Newfoundland, begins about 
 the mouth of March and terminates in 
 June; but the regular period of fishing 
 does not commence before April on 
 account of the storms, ice, and fogs. 
 The season lasts till the end of June, 
 when the -cod commence their migra- 
 tions. The average length of the com- 
 mon cod is about or 3 feet, and the 
 weight between 30 and 50 lbs., though 
 sometimes cod are caught weighing 
 three times this. The color is a yellow- 
 ish-gray on the back, spotted with 
 yellowish and brown; the belly white 
 or reddish, with golden -spots in young 
 individuals. It is caught by lines and 
 hooks. 
 
 COD, Cape. See Cape Cod. 
 
 CODE, in jurisprudence, is a name 
 given to a systematic collection or 
 digest of laws. The following are the 
 chief codes which have affected the laws 
 of Europe and the United States: The 
 Theodosian Code, a compilation ' exe- 
 cuted in 429 by a commission on behalf 
 of Theodosius the Younger, and pro- 
 mulgated as law throughout the eastern 
 and western empires. The Justinian 
 Code, a code compiled in 528, in the 
 reign of the Emperor Justinian, incor- 
 porating all the codes, rescripts, edicts 
 previously in use (see Civil Laws). The 
 Code Napoleon, or Code Civil, under- 
 taken under the consulship of Napoleon 
 by the most eminent jurists of France, 
 and published in 1804. The Code Na- 
 poleon (under which name other four 
 codes of commercial law, criminal law, 
 penal law, and law of procedure, drawn 
 up at the same time, are often included) 
 was a code in the strictest sense, that is, 
 not merely a collection of laws, but a 
 complete and exclusive statement of the 
 law virtually amounting to a recasting 
 of the laws of the country. Under the 
 first empire the adoption of the Code 
 Napoleon was made obligatory on all 
 the countries subject to the French, 
 and although it has been judged defect- 
 ive in some technical respects, its brev- 
 ity, clearness, and modern spirit have 
 made it popular in all the countries 
 where it has been introduced. At present 
 it is recognized in Belgium (with some 
 modifications), in Baden, in Italy, and 
 elsewhere in Europe. 
 
 CODEINE (ko-de'-in), a crystallizable 
 alkaloid obtained from opium, in which 
 it exists to the amount of 6 or 8 ozs. per 
 100 lbs. It is used to produce sleep and 
 to soothe irritable coughs ; and is the chief 
 remedy in diabetes; dose I grain and 
 upward. It is a poison in excessive doses. 
 
 COD'ICIL, in law, a supplement to a 
 will, to be considered as a part of it, 
 either for the purpose of explaining or 
 altering or of adding to or subtracting 
 from the testator’s former disposition. 
 A codicil may not only be written on the 
 same paper or affixed to or folded up 
 with the will, but may be written on a 
 different paper and deposited in a 
 different place. In general the law 
 relating to codicils is the same as that 
 relating to wills, and the same proofs of 
 genuineness must be furnished by 
 signature, and attestation by witnesses. 
 
 A man may make as many codicils as 
 he pleases, and. if not contradictory, 
 all are equally valid. 
 
 COD-LIVER OIL, an oil extracted 
 from the livers of different kinds of cod. 
 The finest and palest oil is got from 
 fresh and carefully-cleaned liver, the 
 oil being extracted either in the cold or 
 by a gentle heat. The darker kinds are 
 got at a higher temperature, and often 
 from the livers in a putrefying state. 
 Only the pale oils are used in medicine; 
 the dark oils are too rank and acrid, and 
 they are only used in dressing leather^^ 
 Cod-liver oil is a somewhat complex^ 
 substance, but the main ingredients 
 appear to be olein and margarin. Acetic ^ 
 butyric, and other acids are also present, 
 and to these the oil may owe some of its 
 odor. This oil is now a recognized agent 
 in the treatment of rheumatism, gout, 
 scrofula, and especially of consumption, 
 being taken internally and containing 
 a quantity of easily-assimilated nutritive 
 matter. 
 
 CODY, William Frederick (Buffalo 
 Bill), an American scout, marksman 
 and showman, born in Iowa in 1845. ■ 
 During the civil war he was a scout for 
 the Union army and was subsequently 
 a contractor for the supply of buffalo 
 meat to the constructors of the Kansas 
 Pacific Railroad, an enterprise which 
 earned him his soubriquet. Of late years 
 he originated his “Wild West Show,” 
 which took Europe by storm. 
 
 CO-EDUCATION, the education of 
 the two sexes (1) in the same institution, 
 and (2) in the same class room or labora- 
 tory. The practice is almost universal 
 in the public schools and state colleges 
 and universities, and in many of the 
 large endowed colleges and universities. 
 
 In Europe women are not admitted to 
 the large schools except in England, 
 Sweden, Switzerland and Austria. In 
 this country co-education was advo- 
 cated as early as 1826 by Horace Mann 
 in the high schools of Massachusetts, 
 and in 1833 Oberlin College opened its 
 doors to women. Today virtually all 
 the universities of the U. States and 
 Canada (with the exception of a few 
 religious institutions) admit women 
 either as undergraduate students, grad- 
 uate students, or both. The merits 
 of the controversy as to the desirability 
 of co-education is a very difficult 
 question to decide. 
 
 COFFEE is the seed of an evergreen 
 shrub which is cultivated in hot climates, 
 and is a native of Abyssinia and of 
 Arabia. This shrub is from 15 to 20 
 feet in height, and belongs to the Rubi- 
 aceae. The leaves are green, glossy on 
 the upper surface, and the flowers are 
 white and sweet-scented. The fruit is 
 of an oval shape, about the size of a 
 cherry, and of a dark-red color when 
 ripe. Each of these contains two cells, 
 and each cell a single seed, which is the 
 coffee as we see it before it undergoes 
 the process of roasting. Great attention 
 is paid to the culture of coffee in Arabia. 
 The trees are raised from seed sown in 
 nurseries and afterward planted out in 
 moist and shady situations, on sloping 
 grounds or at the foot of mountains. 
 Care is taken to conduct little rills of 
 water to their roots, which at certain 
 seasons require to be constantly sur- 
 
COFFER-DAM 
 
 COINAGE 
 
 rounded with moisture. When the 
 fruit has attained its maturity cloths 
 are placed under the trees, and upon 
 these the laborers shake it down. They 
 afterward spread the berries on mats, 
 and expose them to the sun to dry. The 
 husk is then broken off by large and 
 heavy rollers of wood or iron. When the 
 coffee has been thus cleared of its husk 
 it is again dried in the sun, and, lastly, 
 winnowed with a large fan, for the pur- 
 
 E ose of clearing it from the pieces of 
 usks with which it is intermingled. 
 A pound of coffee is generally more 
 than the produce of one tree ; but a tree 
 in great vigor will produce 3 or 4 lbs. 
 Nexf in quality to the Mocha coffee may 
 perhaps be ranked that of Southern 
 India and that of Ceylon, which is strong 
 and well flavored; but comparatively 
 little coffee now comes from Ceylon. 
 
 Java and Central America produce large 
 quantities of excellent coffee. Brazilian 
 coffee, though produced more abun- 
 dantly than any other, stands at the 
 bottom of the list as regards quality. 
 Liberian coffee may also be mentioned. 
 Of the best Mocha coffee grown in the 
 province of Yemen little or none is said 
 to reach the western markets. Arabia 
 itself, Syria, and Egypt consume fully 
 two-thirds, and the remainder is ex- 
 clusively absorbed by Turkish or 
 Armenian buyers. The only other 
 coffee which holds a first rank in eastern 
 opinion is that of Abyssinia. Then 
 comes the produce of India, which those 
 accustomed to the Yemenite variety 
 are said to consider hardly drinkable. 
 American coffee holds in the judgment 
 of all Orientals the very last rank. 
 
 COFFER-DAM, a temporary wooden 
 inclosure formed in water in order to 
 obtain a firm and dry foundation for 
 bridges, piers, etc. It is usually formed 
 of two or more rows of piles driven close 
 together, with elay packed in between 
 the rows. 
 
 COFFIN, the chest or box in which a 
 dead body is inclosed for burial. Coffins 
 were used by the ancients mostly to 
 receive the bodies of persons of dis- 
 tinction. Among the Romans it was 
 latterly the almost universal custom 
 to consume the bodies with fire, and 
 
 deposit the ashes in urns. In E^pt 
 coffins seem to have been used in ancient 
 times universally. They were of stone, 
 earthenware, glass, wood, etc. A sort 
 of ancient coffin is known as a sarcoph- 
 agus. Coffins among Christians weje 
 introduced with the custom of burying. 
 (See Burial.) Modern coffins are usually 
 made of wood, and are sometimes in- 
 closed in a leaden case. It has been 
 often proposed that they should be made 
 with a hole opposite the place of the 
 mouth of the body, so as to allow 
 breathing in case of revival. Of course 
 it would he necessary, at the same time, 
 to let the coffin stand for some days in a 
 convenient place, as is the custom in 
 some parts of Germany. It has re- 
 cently been proposed to employ coffins 
 of wicker-work, while some strenuously 
 advocate the burning of all dead bodies. 
 See Cremation. 
 
 COFFIN, Charles Carleton, an Ameri- 
 can journalist and writer, born in New 
 Hampshire in 1823, died in 1896. He 
 was war correspondent during the civil 
 war for the Boston Journal and later 
 made a tour of the world. His pub- 
 lished works deal largely with war and 
 travel. 
 
 COFFIN, James Henry, an American 
 mathematician and scientist, born in 
 Massachusetts in 1806, died in 1873. 
 He was one of the first scientists ap- 
 pointed to the Smithsonian Institution 
 and his publications deal with meteor- 
 ology, astronomy nad psychology. 
 
 COFFIN, William Anderson, an Ameri- 
 can painter, born in Pennsylvania in 
 1855. His paintings are chiefly land- 
 scapes. His picture. Rain, was pur- 
 chased by the Metropolitan Museum, 
 and he was awarded a bronze medal 
 at the Paris exposition of 1889. 
 
 COGHLAN, Rose, ah Anglo-American 
 actress, born in England in 1853. Her 
 first appearance was as one of the 
 witches in Macbeth. She made her 
 American debut with E. A. Sothern in 
 1871 at New York, and since that time 
 has appeared in Shakespearean and 
 other parts in the principal American 
 cities. 
 
 COGNAC (kon-yak), a town in France, 
 dep. Charente, and near the river 
 Charente, 22 miles w. Angouleme, 
 pleasantly situated on a hill, crowned 
 by the remains of an old castle. It is 
 famous for the brandy which bears its 
 name, and which is exported to all parts 
 uf the world. Pop. 18,932. 
 
 COGNATES, relations by the mother’s 
 side. See Agnates. 
 
 COG'NISANCE, in heraldry, a crest, 
 coat of arms, or similar badge of dis- 
 tinction appertaining to a person or 
 family; in law, judicial or formal notice 
 or acknowledgment of a fact. 
 
 COGNO'MEN, the hereditary family 
 name (such ns Cicero, Cato, etc.) among 
 the ancient Romans. The other two 
 names generally borne by every well- 
 born Roman, viz. the praenomen and 
 nomen (as in Marcus Tullius Cicero) 
 served to denote the individual (Marcus), 
 and the gens (Tullius) or clan to which 
 his family belonged. 
 
 COGNO'VIT, in law, is a written con- 
 fession given by the defendant that the 
 action of the plaintiff is just, or that he 
 has no available defense. 
 
 COG-WHEEL, a wheel with cogs oi 
 teeth. 
 
 COHABITATION, the living together 
 of a man and woman as husband and 
 wife. The term does not exclusively 
 mean the very act of sexual intercourse 
 itself, but implies it. 
 
 COHE'SION, the force by which the 
 various particles of the same material 
 are kept in contact, forming one con- 
 tinuous mass. Its action is seen in a 
 solid mass of matter, the parts of which 
 cohere with a certain force which resists 
 any mechanical action that would tend 
 to separate them. In different bodies it 
 is exerted with different degrees of 
 strength, and it is measured by the 
 force necessary to pull them asunder. 
 Cohesion acts at insensible distances, 
 or between particles in contact, and is 
 thus distinguished from the attraction 
 of gravitation. It unites particles into 
 a single mass, and that without pro- 
 ducing any change of properties, and 
 is thus distinguished from adhesion, 
 which takes place between different 
 masses or substances ; and from chemical 
 attraction or affinity, which unites 
 particles of a different kind together and 
 produces a new substance. Hardness, 
 softness, tenacity, elasticity, mallea- 
 bility, and ductility are to be considered 
 as modifications of cohesion. The great 
 antagonist of cohesion is heat. 
 
 COHESION FIGURES, a class of 
 figures produced by the attraction of 
 liquids for other liquids or solids with 
 which they are in contact, and divided 
 into surface, submersion, breath, and 
 electric cohesion figures. Thus a drop 
 of an independent liquid, as oil or 
 alcohol, will spread itself out on the 
 surface of water always in a definite 
 figure,, but differing with each fluid 
 dropped on the water. Breath figures 
 are produced by putting a drop of the 
 liquid to be examined on a slip of mica, 
 and breathing on it, when each fluid 
 takes a distinct characteristic shape. 
 Electric cohesion figures are produced 
 by electrifying drops of various liquids 
 placed on a plate of glass. 
 
 COHOBA'TION, the repeated dis- 
 tillation of the same liquid from the same 
 materials. 
 
 COHOES (ko-hoz'), a city of Albany 
 Co., New York, on the west bank of the 
 Hudson River, at the mouth of the 
 Mohawk, with unlimited water-power 
 derived from the Mohawk Falls. There 
 are large cotton and other mills. Pop. 
 26,140. 
 
 COIMBATORE (ko-im-ba-tor'), a town 
 of Hindustan, Madras Presidency, capi- 
 tal of district to which it gives name, 
 situated on the river Noyil, with wide 
 streets, abundant water, and a healthy 
 climate. Pop. 53,080. — The district has 
 an area of 7860 square miles. It is fer- 
 tile, producing sugar, cotton rice, and 
 tobacco; and well watered by several 
 rivers. Pop. 2,202,312. 
 
 COINAGE, Coins. See Coining, Money, 
 Numismatics, Currency. 
 
 COINAGE, the conversion of a metal 
 into pieces of money, (coins) stamped 
 with impressions which are provided 
 for by law. The right to coin money is 
 a prerogative of the State and one of the 
 foremost marks of sovereignty. The 
 circulation of coins rests, in the first 
 
COKE 
 
 COLEOPTERA 
 
 instance, upon the authority of the State, 
 but that authority must be exercised 
 in good faith. Coinage issued by in- 
 dividuals would lack authority and 
 lack also the guaranty of good faith. 
 There have been occasions of great 
 dearth of money where private persons 
 have issued coins. Such issues are 
 known as tokens, and gain circulation 
 either from their similarity to legal coins 
 or from the promise of redeeming them. 
 Their total lack of uniformity gives a 
 picture of what might be expected were 
 the issue of coins left wholly to private 
 initiative. Almost equally obvious is 
 the necessity for the manufacture by 
 the State of the coins which it issues. 
 To delegate the manufacture of its coins 
 to a private establishment, as was done 
 in France before 1879, required such 
 a minute control of all itiS operations by 
 State officials that the plan has gener- 
 ally been abandoned. The greater in- 
 tegrity of a national mint over a private 
 enterprise is further illustrated by the 
 fact that the mints of the leading nations 
 are frequently called upon to execute 
 the coinage for smaller States which 
 have no mints of their own. Thus, in 
 1901, the United States Mint executed a 
 gold coinage for Costa Rica. 
 
 In many countries, notably England 
 and the United States, the government 
 makes no charge for coining gold 
 (free coinage) and in others a charge is 
 made, called seignorage, the term being 
 derived from the feudal system of 
 France. Perfectly free coinage has been 
 found to be most advantageous to the 
 general welfare of a nation. 
 
 COKE, the carbonaceous residue of 
 coal which has been heated in an oven or 
 retort, or in any way by which little air is 
 admitted, until all volatile matter has 
 been expelled. The simplest method of 
 producing coke is based on the prepara- 
 tion of wood charcoal, the coal being 
 arranged in heaps which are smothered 
 with clay or coal-dust, and then set on 
 fire, sufficient air being admitted to 
 keep the mass at the proper temperature 
 for decomposition without wasting the 
 coke. After the volatile portions are got 
 rid of, the heap is allowed to cool, or is 
 extinguished with water, and the coke 
 is then ready. Methods of heating the 
 coal in close or open ovens until the 
 gaseous and fluid products are driven off 
 are also commonly used. Gas-coke is 
 that which remains in the retorts after 
 the gas has been given off. Good oven- 
 coke has an iron-gray color, sub-metallic 
 luster, is hard, and somewhat vesicular; 
 but gas-coke has rather a slagged and 
 cindery look, and is more porous. Coke 
 contains about 90 per cent of carbon, 
 and is used where a strong heat is 
 wanted without smoke and flame, and 
 it is accordingly largely consumed in 
 drying malt and similar purposes. It 
 used to be burned regularly in locomo- 
 tive-engines, but raw coal is now com- 
 monly substituted. The largest quanti- 
 ties are consumed in smelting opera- 
 tions. 
 
 COKE, Sir Edward, an eminent Eng- 
 lish lawyer, was the son of a Norfolkshire 
 gentleman and was born in 1551. He 
 died, September, 1634. His principal 
 works are Reports, from 1600 to 1615; 
 Institutes of the Laws of England, in 
 
 four parts; the first of which contains 
 the celebrated commentary on Little- 
 ton’s Tenures (“Coke Upon Littleton’’); 
 A Treatise of Bail and Mainprise, Com- 
 plete Copyholder. 
 
 ‘fA 
 
 i 
 
 
 Sir Edward Coke. 
 
 COLBERT (kol-bar), Jean Baptiste, 
 a celebrated French minister of finances, 
 born at Rheims in 1619. After serving 
 in various subordinate departments Col- 
 bert was made intendant, and at length 
 comptroller-general of the finances. His 
 task was a difficult one. He found dis- 
 order and corruption everywhere. The 
 state was the prey of the farmers- 
 general, and at the same time main- 
 tained only by their aid. The people 
 were obliged to pay 90,000,000 livres 
 of taxes, of which the king received 
 scarcely 35,000,000, the revenues were 
 anticipated for two years, and the 
 treasury empty. Colbert at once com- 
 menced a system of stringent reforms, 
 abolishing useless offices, retracting 
 burdensome privileges, diminishing sala- 
 ries, and distributing and collecting the 
 taxes by improved methods till he had 
 reduced them almost to one-half. To 
 his talents, activity, and enlarged views 
 the development and rapid progress 
 of industry and commerce in France 
 was largely due. He constructed the 
 Canal of Languedoc; declared Mar- 
 seilles and Dunkirk free ports; granted 
 premiums on goods exported and im- 
 ported; regulated the tolls; estab- 
 lished insurance offices; made uniform 
 laws for the regulation of commerce, 
 labored to render the pursuit of it well 
 esteemed, and invited the nobility to 
 engage in it. The French colonies in 
 Canada, Martinique, etc., showed new 
 signs of life; new colonies were estab- 
 lished in Cayenne and Madagascar, and 
 to support these Colbert created a con- 
 siderable naval force. Under the pro- 
 tection and in the house of the minister 
 (1663) the Academy of Inscriptions was 
 founded. Three years afterward he 
 founded the Academy of Sciences, and 
 in 1671 the Academy of Architecture. 
 He enlarged the Royal Library and the 
 Garden of Plants, and built an observ- 
 atory, in which he employed Huyghens 
 and Cassini. He began the measurement 
 of the meridian in France, and sent men 
 of science to Cayenne. After having 
 conferred the greatest benefits on his 
 country he died in 1683, out of favor 
 with the king and the people. 
 
 COLD, the absence of sensible heat, 
 especially such a want of heat as causes 
 
 some discomfort or uneasiness. The 
 temperature in which man and other 
 animals live is generally below the na- 
 tural heat of the body, but this is easily 
 kept up in ordinary cases by means of 
 the food taken in and digested. A high 
 degree of cold, however, produces bodily 
 depression, and is a frequent source of 
 disease, or even of death. For the ail- 
 ment called a cold, see Catarrh. 
 
 COLD-BLOODED ANIMALS, a term 
 applied to those animals, such as rep- 
 tiles, the temperature of whose blood 
 ranges from the freezing-point, or near 
 it, to 90° Fahr., in accordance with that 
 'of the surrounding medium. 
 
 COLD CREAM, a cooling ointment 
 prepared in various ways. A good 
 variety may be made by heating four 
 parts of olive-oil with one of white wax. 
 This ointment cools the skin, rendering 
 it soft and pliable, and is successfully 
 applied for the cure of chapped hands. 
 
 COLD-WATER CURE. See Hydrop- 
 athy. 
 
 COLD WAVE, a term used by the 
 United States weather bureau and 
 applied to sudden changes in tempera- 
 ture. Cold waves are caused by the 
 pressure of the heavy cold air of the 
 north or northwest upon the lighter 
 warm air of the Southern and Eastern 
 parts of the United States. They ad- 
 vance with an even front causing the 
 temperature to drop from a few degrees 
 to 40 or 50 degrees in a few hours. 
 
 COLE, Timothy, an American en- 
 graver, born in England in 1852 and 
 known as the engraver of numerous 
 fine pictures published by the Century 
 company of New York. Many cities 
 consider Mr. Cole the best of modem en- 
 gravers. 
 
 COLEMAN, William Tell, an Ameri- 
 can pioneer, one of the 49’ers who went 
 to California with the prospectors on 
 the discovery of gold in that state. 
 He was conspicious as a leader of early 
 vigilance committees. Coleman was 
 born in Kentucky in 1824 and died in 
 1893. 
 
 COLEN'SO, John William, D.D., Bish- 
 op of Natal, born in 1814; educated at 
 Cambridge; assistant-master at Harrow 
 till 1842; appointed in 1853 first bishop 
 of Natal, South Africa. He published 
 treatises on Algebra and Arithmetic 
 which have been popular text-books in 
 schools and colleges. His work on the 
 Pentateuch and Book of Joshua, which 
 called in»question the historical accuracy 
 of these books, involved the author in a 
 conflict with his ecclesiastical superiors, 
 and he was deposed by the Bishop of 
 Cape Town. But the decisions of the 
 privy-council of chancery were in his 
 favor, and he continued to officiate as 
 bishop. He died in 1883. 
 
 COLEOP'TERA, an order of insects, 
 commonly known as beetles. They have 
 four wings, of which the two superior 
 are not suited to flight, but form a cover- 
 ing and protection to the two inferior, 
 and are of a hard and horny or parch- 
 ment-like nature. The inferior wings, 
 when not in use, are folded transversely 
 under the superior. The coleoptera 
 undergo a perfect metamorphosis. The 
 larva generally resembles a short thick 
 worm with six legs and a scaly head and 
 mouth. 
 
COLERIDGE 
 
 COLLISION 
 
 COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor, a cele- 
 brated English poet and philosopher, 
 was born on 21st October, 1772, at 
 Otterj’ St. Mary, Devonshire. He died 
 July 25th, 1 834. The dreamy and trans- 
 cendental character oLColeridge’s poetry 
 eminently exhibits the man. In his best 
 moments he has a fine sublimity of 
 thought and expression not surpassed by 
 Milton; but he is often turgid and ver- 
 bose. As a critic, especially of Shake- 
 spere, Coleridge’s work is of the highest 
 rank, combining a comprehensive grasp 
 of large critical principles and a singu- 
 larly subtle insight into details. Coler- 
 idge’s poetical works include The 
 Ancient Mariner, Christabel (incom- 
 plete), Remorse, a tragedy, Kubla Khan, 
 a translation of Schiller’s Wallenstein, 
 etc.; his prose works, Biographia Liter- 
 aria, The Friend, The Statesman’s Man- 
 ual, Aids to Reflection, On the Consti- 
 tution of Church and State, etc. Pos- 
 thumously were published specimens of 
 his Table Talk, Literary Remains, etc. 
 
 One of the coleoptera, 
 
 a, Head. &, Thorax, c, Abdomen, dd, Elytra. 
 «e, Wings. //.Antennae. 
 
 COLFAX, Schuyler, an American 
 statesman, born in New York City in 
 1823, died in 1885. In 1836 he settled 
 in Indiana and started the South Bend 
 Register. After serving seven terms in 
 congress he was speaker for six years till 
 1869, he was elected Vice-President of 
 the United States in the last mentioned 
 year. 
 
 COLGATE, James Boorman, an Amer- 
 ican banker, born in New York City in 
 1818. He was conspicuous during the 
 panic of 1873 for his large loans to the 
 government 
 
 COLGATE, Samuel, an American 
 philanthropist and capitalist, born in 
 New York City in 1822, died in 1897. 
 He was famous as a manufacturer of 
 soaps and for his liberal distribution to 
 religion and education of a part of the 
 fortune he made in his business. In 
 honor of him the name of Madison 
 University was changed in 1889 to 
 Colgate University. 
 
 COLGATE UNIVERSITY, founded at 
 Hamilton, N. Y., in 1818 by the Baptist 
 Education Societj'’. In 1846 it was in- 
 corporated as Madison University, and 
 its name was changed in 1889 to Col- 
 gate University in honor of Samuel 
 Colgate, its greatest benefactor. The 
 University has a property of $2,160,000, 
 a library of 35,000 volumes, and a regis- 
 tration of 300 students. A Baptist 
 divinity school forms part of the insti- 
 tution. 
 
 CO'LIC, a painful disorder of the 
 bowels, usually of a spasmodic character, 
 unaccompanied by diarrhoea, and pre- 
 senting itself in various forms. When 
 the pain is accompanied with a vomit- 
 ing of bile or with obstinate costiveness 
 P. E.— 19 
 
 it is called a bilious colic ; if with windy 
 distension, it takes the name of flatulent 
 or windy_ coMc ; if with heat and inflam- 
 mation, it takes the name of inflamma- 
 tory colic, or enteritis. There are many 
 other varieties of this complaint, some 
 of which are peculiar to certain occupa- 
 tions or districts, as the painters’ colic 
 (see Lead Poisoning), the Devonshire 
 colic. 
 
 COLIGNY (kol-in-ye), Gaspard de, 
 French admiral, born in 1517, dis- 
 tinguished himself under Francis I. 
 and Henry IT., who made him in 1552 
 Admiral of France. After the death 
 of Henry II., Coligny took the Protest- 
 ant side in the religious strifes of the 
 time, and became the head of the 
 Huguenot party. He was generally 
 unfortunate in the battles he fought, 
 but speedily repaired his defeats by 
 prudence and good management. When 
 peace was made Coligny was received 
 with apparent favor at court. But this 
 was only a blind; and on the night of 
 St. Bartholomew’s (Aug. 24, 1572) 
 Coligny was basely slaughtered, and his 
 corpse given up to the outrages of the 
 mob. 
 
 COLLAT'ERAL RELATIONS, de- 
 scendants of brothers or sisters, or the 
 brothers or sisters of the ascending lines. 
 
 COLLATERAL SECURITY, additional 
 security, such as a deed granted over 
 other property besides that already 
 mortgaged. 
 
 COLLATION, a comparison of one 
 copy or thing of a like kind with another, 
 especially manuscripts and editions of 
 books. — In canon law, the presentation 
 of a clergyman to a benefice by a bishop 
 who has the right of patronage. In such 
 a case the combination of the act of 
 presentation and institution constitute 
 collation. 
 
 COL'LEGE, in a general sense, a body 
 or society of persons invested with cer- 
 tain powers and rights, performing cer- 
 tian duties, or engaged in some common 
 employment or pursuit. In the U. 
 States and Great Britain some societies 
 of physicians are called colleges. So, 
 also, there are colleges of surgeons, a 
 college of heralds, etc. The most famil- 
 iar application of the term college, 
 however, is to a society of persons en- 
 gaged in the pursuits of literature, in- 
 cluding the professors, lecturers, or 
 other officers, and the students. As 
 applied to an educational institution 
 the name is somewhat loosely used. The 
 higher class of colleges are those in 
 which the students engage in study for 
 the purpose of taking a degree in arts, 
 medicine, or other subjects, and are 
 connected with, or have more or less 
 the character of universities. The early 
 history of these institutions is somewhat 
 obscure; the probability is that they 
 were originally founded in the various 
 universities of the middle ages, with 
 similar objects and from the same 
 charitable motives. Hostels or board- 
 ing-houses were provided (principally 
 by the religious orders, for the benefit 
 of those of their own fraternity), in 
 which the scholars lived under a certain 
 superintendence, and the endowment of 
 these hostels by charitable persons for 
 the support of poor scholars completed 
 the foundation of a college. Out of this 
 
 has developed the modern English 
 college as seen at Oxford and Cambridge, 
 where each college, though a member or 
 component part of the university, is a 
 separate establishment whose fellows, 
 tutors, and students live together under 
 a particular head, called master, princi- 
 pal, warden, etc., of the college. In 
 Scotland, the U. States, and Germany 
 the college is practically one with the 
 university, the latter body performing 
 all the functions alike, of teaching, 
 examining, degree-conferring, etc. See 
 Universities. 
 
 COLLIE, a variety of dog especially 
 common in Scotland, and from its 
 intelligence of much use to shepherds. 
 It is of medium size and varies much in 
 coloring, black and white being com- 
 mon, and black with tan-colored legs, 
 muzzle, etc., being highly esteemed. 
 The head is somewhat fox-shaped, the 
 ears erect, but with drooping points, 
 the tail rather long, bushy, and with a 
 strong curl. 
 
 COLLIMATION, Line of, in an as- 
 tronomical instrument, such as a teles- 
 cope or transit instrument, the straight 
 line which passes through the center of 
 the object-glass and intersects at right 
 
 angles a system of spider-threads placed 
 at the focus of the eye-piece. The prop- 
 er adjustment of the line of collimation 
 of the instrument is necessary to accur- 
 ate observation of the time at which 
 movements of the heavenly bodies take 
 place. 
 
 COLLIMA'TORS, two small sub- 
 sidiary telescopes used for collimating 
 astronomical instruments, that is, for 
 adjusting the line of collimation, and for 
 determining the collimation error. 
 
 COLLINS, William Wilkie, born in 
 London in 1'824. He was educated for 
 the bar, but turned aside to literature, 
 in which he has specially distinguished 
 himself as a novelist of great dramatic 
 and constructive power. Among his 
 best-known works are Antonina, The 
 Woman in White, The New Magdalen, 
 The Evil Genius, etc. He died in 1889. 
 
 COLLISION, in maritime affairs, the 
 shock of two ships coming into violent 
 contact, whereby one or both may 
 suffer more or less injury. Collision may 
 happen without blame being imputa- 
 ble to either party, as where the loss is 
 occasioned by a storm, in which case the 
 misfortune must be borne by the party 
 on whom it happens to light. Or a col- 
 lision may arise where both parties are 
 to blame — where there has been a want 
 
COLLODION 
 
 COLON 
 
 of due diligence or skill on both sides ; in 
 which case neither party has an action 
 against the other. Thirdly, it may 
 happen by the misconduct of the suffer- 
 ing party only, and then the rule is that 
 the sufferer must bear his own burden. 
 Lastly, it may have been the fault of the 
 ship which ran the other down; and in 
 that case the injured party would be en- 
 titled to an entire compensation from 
 the other. Strict laws and regulations 
 to prevent collisions have been laid 
 down, which contain rules concerning 
 lights, and sailing and steering rules. 
 By the rule of the road at sea, if two 
 sailing ships are approaching each other 
 end on, or nearly so, the helms of both 
 must be put to port, so that each may 
 pass on the port side of the other; in 
 crossing so as to involve risk of collision 
 the sailing ship with the wind on the port 
 side shall keep out of the way of the 
 ship with the wind on the starboard, but 
 if they have both the wind on the same 
 side the ship which is to windward shall 
 keep out of the way of the one that has 
 it to leeward. If a steam ship and a 
 sailing ship are approachin-g, so as to 
 involve collision the former must keep 
 out of the way of the latter. If one 
 vessel is overtaking another she must 
 keep out of the way of the last-named 
 vessel. 
 
 COLLO'DION, a substance prepared 
 by dissolving pyroxiline (gun-cotton) 
 in ether, or in a mixture of ether and 
 alcohol, which forms a useful substitute 
 for adhesive plaster in the case of slight 
 wounds. When the fluid solution is 
 applied to the cut or wound it immedi- 
 ately dries into a semi-transparent, 
 tenacious film, which adheres firmly to 
 the part, and under it the wound or 
 abrasion heals without inflammation. 
 In a slightly modified form collodion 
 is also employed as the basis of a photo- 
 graphic process called the collodion pro- 
 cess. See Photography. 
 
 COL'LOIDS, non-crystallizable sub- 
 stances, such as gelatine, gum, etc. 
 See Dialysis. 
 
 COLLOT D'HERBOIS (kol-6-dar- 
 bwa), Jean Marie, French revolutionary, 
 born in 1750, On the outbreak of the 
 revolution he soon became prominent 
 as a leader of the Mountain or extreme 
 party. After filling several missions he 
 was sent by Robespierre along with 
 Fouch6 to Lyons in 1793, with almost 
 unlimited powers, and was guilty of the 
 most flagrant enormities. Returning 
 to Paris he became a determined op- 
 ponent of Robespierre, and being chosen 
 president of the Convention (19th July, 
 1794), contributed to his fall. A few 
 weeks after he was banished to Cayenne, 
 where he died in 1796. 
 
 COLLU'SION, in law, a secret agree- 
 ment between opposing litigants to ob- 
 tain a particular judicial decision on a 
 preconcerted statement of facts, whether 
 true or false, to the injury of a third 
 party. Collusion, when proved to exist, 
 nullifies the judgment obtained through 
 it. 
 
 COLOGNE (ko-l6n'), German, Koln 
 (kewln), a city of Rhenish Prussia, on the 
 left bank of the Rhine, forming, in con- 
 nection with Deutz, which serves as a 
 t6te-du-pont on the opposite side of the 
 river (across which is a bridge of boats 
 
 and an iron railway and general traffic 
 bridge), a fortress of the first rank. The 
 old fortifications, dating from the middle 
 ages, are being, or have been recently, 
 swept away, new works being construct- 
 ed in accordance with the principles of 
 modern fortification. There are many 
 fine old buildings as well as excellent 
 modern ones; the churches in particu- 
 lar are interesting. The most important 
 edifice of all is the cathedral, begun in 
 1248, one of the finest and largest Gothic 
 
 Cologne, showing cathedral and church 
 of St. Martin. 
 
 structures in Europe. It was only 
 completed in the 19th century, there 
 being expended on it in 1828-84 over 
 $5,000,000. It is in the form of a cross; 
 its entire length is about 445 feet; 
 breadth, 200 ft.; height to ridge of roof, 
 202 ft., height of the two western towers, 
 between which is a grand portal, 520 
 feet, being thus among the highest 
 edifices in the world. The council- 
 house, museum, and the great St. Martin 
 Church with its imposing tower should 
 also be mentioned. The manufactures 
 embrace sugar, tobacco, glue, carpets, 
 leather, machinery, chemicals, pianos, 
 and the celebrated eaude Cologne. The 
 trade by river and railway is very great. 
 — It was annexed to the German Empire 
 in 870, and became one of the most 
 powerful and wealthy cities of the 
 Hanseatic League, but latterly it de- 
 clined. In 1792’ it ceased to be a free 
 city. It was taken by the French in 
 1794, ceded to them by the Treaty of 
 Lun4ville in 1801, and restored to 
 Prussia in 1814. Pop. 372,229. 
 
 COLOM'BIA, Republic of, formerly 
 called New Granada, a republic of South 
 America, consisting of the eight depart- 
 ments or states of Antioquia, Bolivar, 
 Boyaca, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Mag- 
 dalena, Santander, and Tolima. The 
 population is now about 3,593,600. 
 The chief towns are Bogota, the capital, 
 Medellin, Barranquilla, Cartagena, and 
 Bucaramanga. The area is estimated 
 officially at 473,202 sq. miles, but there 
 is much disputed boundary territory 
 in the inland regions toward the south 
 and east. Late in 1903 the department 
 of Panama proclaimed itself an inde- 
 pendent republic, and was at once 
 recognized by the U. States, which 
 has concluded with it an agreement for 
 the construction of a canal across the 
 isthmus. The flora is rich and luxuriant. 
 A great part of the country is still 
 covered with virgin forests, which yield 
 excellent building-wood, Peruvian bark, 
 caoutchouc, vanilla, etc. The fauna 
 includes the jaguar, puma, tapir, arma- 
 
 dillo, sloth, various species of deer, and • 
 the gigantic condor. The mineral wealth 
 is various and abundant, though still 
 imperfectly explored. It comprises coal, 
 gold, silver (both now largely worked 
 by foreign companies), emeralds, and 
 salt. Industry is at a very low stage. 
 Maize, bananas, and plantains are the 
 chief articles of food. Tobacco and 
 coffee are cultivated and exported. 
 Sugar IS also grown. Manufactures can 
 scarcely he said to exist, Panama hats, 
 mats, and coarse cotton cloths being 
 almost the only articles that can be 
 mentioned in this class. The chief ports 
 are Sabanilla, the port of Barranquilla 
 and Cartagena. The loss of the Isthmus 
 of Panama has deprived Colombia of 
 much of its commercial importance 
 The foreign trade of the country is 
 chiefly with Britain and the United 
 States. The exports are chiefly precious 
 metals, hides, coffee, tobacco, etc.; the 
 imports, manufactured goods. — By the ' 
 constitution, as amended in 1886, the 
 executive power is vested in a president 
 elected for six years, the legislative 
 power in a congress of two houses — the j 
 
 Senate and the House of Representa- 
 tives. The former consists of twenty- 3 
 four representatives, three from each ] 
 department, the latter of representatives I 
 elected by universal suffrage for four 1 
 years, one for every 50,000 inhabitants. 
 The revenue is generally under the ex- J 
 penditure and the finances are in an ! 
 unsatisfactory state. New Granada ^ 
 was discovered by Alonso de Ojeda in 
 1499; it was visited by Columbus on ^ 
 his fourth voyage, in 1502. The first ; 
 Spanish settlement was made in 1510 
 at Santa Maria in the Gulf of Darien, j 
 and the whole country was formed into 
 a province under a captain-general in i 
 1547. New Granada declared its inde- 
 pendence of Spain in 1811, and after 
 eleven years of warfare succeeded with 
 the help of Venezuela in effecting its lib- 
 eration. Both states then united with ; 
 Ecuador, also freed from the Spanish i 
 domination, to form the first republic ' 
 of Colombia; but internal dissensions ’ 
 arising, the three states again separated 
 in 1831, forming three independent 
 republics, which have had a very . 
 troubled existence. In 1861 the states 
 forming New Granada by agreement 
 adopted a new constitution, the republic 
 henceforth to be called the United 
 States of Colombia. This title was re- 
 tained till, by the new constitution 
 adopted in 1886, the state ceased to be 
 a federal republic and became a unitary 
 republic, with the name of Republic of 
 Colombia. The secession of Panama in 
 1903 was partly brought about by the 
 dilatoriness of the central government 
 in concluding a satisfactory arrange- 
 ment with the United States in regard to 
 the construction of an interoceanic 
 canal. 
 
 COLOM'BO, a seaport town, the 
 capital of Ceylon, on the south west : 
 coast, and about 70 miles west by south ■ 
 of Kandy, with which it is connected by , 
 railway Pop. 158,093. ‘ 
 
 CO'LON, the middle portion of the ; 
 large intestine, or that which lies be- ^ 
 tween the c£ecum and the rectum, or ^ 
 terminal portion. In man it is about ,w 
 feet long, and forms a series of ■ 
 
COLON 
 
 COLORADO 
 
 pouches in which the digested food is 
 for a time detained. It is itself believed 
 to have some digestive power. 
 
 CO'LON, a punctuation mark, thus: 
 used to mark a pause in the sense that 
 might also be indicated by a full stop. 
 
 COLON', or ASPINWALL (the former 
 is the official name), a free port of 
 Panama, on Manzanillo Island, on the 
 north side of the Isthmus of Panama, at 
 the Atlantic extremity of the inter- 
 oceanic railway, and near that of the 
 Panama Canal. Established in con- 
 nection with the railway, it had an im- 
 portant transit trade before the canal 
 was begun, and since then the place has 
 been entirely transformed, a new town 
 with wide and regular streets having 
 been built on a tract of land reclaimed by 
 the builders of the canal. There is 
 extensive harbor accommodation. Pop. 
 estimated at 8,000 to 10,000. 
 
 COLONEL (ker'nel), a military title 
 indicative of a rank under that of briga- 
 dier general. In the United States army 
 a colonel commands a regiment. In 
 England and Europe generally the title 
 has more an honorary than an actual 
 value. 
 
 COLONIAL DAMES OF AMERICA, 
 
 national society of, an organization of 
 women patriots, founded in 1890, mem- 
 bership in which is limited to women 
 lineally descended from an ancestor of 
 distinction who resided in the colonies 
 previously to 1776. Its purpose is the 
 collection of interesting documents 
 relative to colonial and revolutionary 
 affairs. 
 
 COLONIAL DAMES OF AMERICA, a 
 
 patriotic society of women organized 
 in 1892 for the purpose of preserving 
 records, manuscripts, etc., pertaining to 
 the colonies. Membership is conditioned 
 on being descended from a worthy 
 ancestor settling in the colonies pre- 
 viously to 1750. It has a membership 
 of 5,000 and is distinct from the other 
 society of the same name. 
 
 COLON'NA, an Italian family that 
 had become important as early as the 
 8th century. Its fame during the middle 
 ages eclipsed that of every other Roman 
 family except the great rival house of 
 the Orsini. The Colonna family is at 
 present represented by several branches, 
 the Colonna-Sciarra, Colonna-Stigliano, 
 etc. It played an important part in 
 the affairs of Europe, became allied to 
 the greatest houses of Italy, Spain, and 
 Germany and has furnished many cele- 
 brated warriors, popes, and cardinals. 
 
 COLON'NA, Vittoria, the most re- 
 nowned poetess of Italy, was born in 
 1490. At the age of seventeen she was 
 married to Ferdinand, Marquis of 
 Pescara, the companion of her youth, 
 who became one of the distinguished 
 n\en of his age. All her poems were 
 devoted to the memory of her husband. 
 She died at Rome in 1547. Her most 
 celebrated work is the Rime Spirituali, 
 1538. They are considered among the 
 happiest imitations of Petrarca. 
 
 COLONNADE', in architecture, any 
 series or range of columns placed at 
 certain intervals from each other. When 
 surrounding the building on the ex- 
 terior the ^olonnade is called a peristyle ; 
 when projecting beyond the line of the 
 building it is called a portico. 
 
 COL'ONY, a settlement formed in one 
 country by the inhabitants of another. 
 Colonies may either be formed in de- 
 pendence on the mother country or in 
 independence. In the latter case the 
 name of colony is retained only in a 
 historical sense. Properly, perhaps, 
 the term should be limited to a settle- 
 ment which carries on a direct culti- 
 vation of the soil, as in the Dominion 
 of Canada or Australia; such settle- 
 ments as those of the British in Hindus- 
 tan or Malta being the mere super 
 position on the natives of a ruling race 
 which takes little or no part in the 
 general industry of the country. The 
 motives which lead to the formation of 
 colonies, and the manner of their forma- 
 tion, are various. Sometimes the am- 
 bition of extending territory and the 
 desire of increasing wealth have been 
 the chief impulses in colonization; but 
 colonies may now be said to have be- 
 come a necessity for the redundant 
 population of European states. Among 
 ancient nations the principal pro- 
 moters of colonization were the Phoeni- 
 cians, the Greeks, and the Romans; 
 the greatest colonizers in modern times 
 have been the English and the Spani- 
 ards, next to whom may be reckoned 
 the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the 
 French. 
 
 The Germans have colonized parts of 
 South America and Africa, and since 
 the war with Spain the United States, 
 by the acquisition of Porto Rico and 
 the Philippine Islands have become one 
 of the colonial powers of the world. 
 
 COLOR, the sensation in the brain 
 produced by different rates of vibration 
 of light waves which stimulate the 
 retina and give rise to chemical changes 
 therein which when reaching the brain 
 are interpreted in a change of conscious- 
 ness; also the pigment used in art to 
 produce the sensation. Different 
 lengths in the light waves produce 
 different colors. For example, when 
 the light-wave is of an inch long, 
 
 red is the color produced, and as the 
 waves decrease in force, we see yellow, 
 green, blue, and so on, through the 
 spectrum. According to the theory of 
 Chevreuil, iiow generally accepted, 
 white light is the union of all colors, 
 and its decomposition by an object re- 
 veals the color separated from the rest. 
 Thus, a rose absorbs all colors but red, 
 which it reflects; while a white sub- 
 stance, rejecting all colors, is therefore 
 colorless. Correctly speaking, there are 
 but six colors — three primary (red, blue, 
 and yellow), and three secondary 
 (orange, violet, and green). Orange is 
 composed of purple and yellow, violet 
 of red and blue, green of yellow and 
 blue. All other colors are compounds 
 of these. 
 
 Complementary Colors are those 
 which, combined with another color 
 or colors, make up the three primary 
 colors constituting white light. If the 
 given color be primitive, its comple- 
 ment is composed of the other two 
 primitive colors- For example, the 
 complementary color of blue is orange 
 — that is to say, red and yellow. If the 
 given color be a secondary, its comple- 
 mentary is the remaining primitive 
 color — ^as, for instance, the comple- 
 
 mentary color of green (blue and yel- 
 low) is red. In painting, brilliancy of 
 coloring may be obtained by placing 
 complementary colors side by side, 
 because each lends to the other a favor- 
 able halo, while the juxtaposition of 
 non-complementary colors has the op- 
 posite effect of dullness. This method 
 of heightening and softening colors was 
 used with great effect by Delacroix, and 
 is today much practiced by French and 
 Spanish painters. 
 
 The fact that color is really a sensa- 
 tion in the brain, rather than a quality 
 of the thing that is colored, is proved 
 by the strange power which many peo- 
 ple have of being able to hear colors. 
 Statistics go to show that one person 
 in every eight can hear colors; that is 
 to say, one person in every eight, when 
 looking at certain vivid colors, can hear 
 peculiar sounds. On the other hand 
 many persons, on hearing certain 
 musical sounds, can see certain colors; 
 sound on the one hand, producing color 
 sensations, color on the other, produ- 
 cing sound sensations. These interest- 
 ing facts are easily understood when we 
 remember that in the brain there are 
 different receiving centers for the 
 various senses — sight, hearing, taste, 
 smell — and a vast area of the brain 
 used in the coordination of these sensa- 
 tions. Slight derangements of the 
 cerebral machinery might well be 
 imagined to cause a mixing of the 
 functions of these coordinating parts 
 and thus produce the phenomena men- 
 tioned. A Swiss boy was discovered 
 recently who could taste, see, and smell 
 sounds, see and hear odors, and so on. 
 The problem is one of the most inter- 
 esting in the phy.siology of the brain. 
 
 COLORADO, (kol-o -ra'do) one of the 
 United States of America, situated in 
 the central belt of states in the Rocky 
 Mountains, between lat. 37° and 41° n., 
 and Ion. 102° and 109° w. , and containing 
 
 an area of 103,645 sq. miles, being sixth 
 in size among the states. It is 
 bounded on the north by Wyoming and 
 Nebraska; east by Nebraska and Kan- 
 sas; south by Oklahoma and New Mex- 
 ico, and west by Utah. Its form is that 
 of a perfect parallelogram, and it is the 
 only state whose lines are so defined. 
 It is traversed from north to south by 
 the main range of the Rocky Mountains. 
 The plains of Kansas, Nebraska and 
 Colorado were, in passed ages, covered 
 
COLORADO 
 
 COLOR-BLINDNESS 
 
 by a great paleozoic ocean, and are now 
 filled with fossil remains of fishes, rep- 
 tiles and animals. They rise gradually 
 from the Missouri river to the base of 
 the great Rocky chain. This broad and 
 comparatively level expanse is destitute 
 of timber, excepting a fringe of cotton- 
 woods on the borders of the streams, 
 but IS covered with short nutritious 
 grasses. 
 
 The plains east of the mountains con- 
 stitute about one-third of the total area. 
 Among the elevated ranges are four 
 large natural parks — the North, South, 
 Middle, and San Luis, which form distinct, 
 picturesque and beautiful features of 
 the mountain system and are watered 
 by numerous streams and covered with 
 verdure. Thousands of square miles 
 are covered by forests, chiefly yellow 
 and white pine and spruce. None of 
 the harder woods, except a few clusters 
 of scrub oaks, worthless for anything but 
 fuel, exist in Colorado. Four-fifths of 
 the state has an elevation of 4,000 to 
 10,000 feet above the sea. The lowest 
 on the eastern border is 3,703 feet, and 
 on the western, 4,435. The mountain 
 parks are 8,000 to 9,500 feet above 
 tide water. The summit of the main 
 range averages 11,000 feet. Seventy-two 
 peaks from which the snow never disap- 
 pears, rise to heights between 13,500 and 
 14,500 feet. The loftiest of these is the 
 Sierra Blanca, a part of the chain en- 
 closing the San Luis park, 14,483 feet 
 high. Among the others being Pikes 
 Peak and Longs Peak. 
 
 The geographical center of Colorado 
 is at a point three miles north-northeast 
 of Spinney Station, on the Colorado 
 Midland railway, in Park county. 
 
 The climate of Colorado is remarka- 
 bly healthful. The air is dry, clear, 
 and well adapted to the cure of diseases 
 of the lungs and throat. The annual 
 range of temperature is much less than 
 in other sections of the country. In 
 the various parts it is about 60° F., and 
 the highest temperature does not ex- 
 ceed 80° nor the lowest 20° below. 
 Health resorts are numerous in the 
 mountain regions and there are also 
 mineral and thermal springs. The mean 
 temperature at Denver is 50°. 
 
 The soil is fruitful and the climate is 
 well adapted to the growth of cereals. 
 There is a large supply of native grass 
 in Colorado, and this furnishes pasture 
 for the large herds of cattle and sheep. 
 Vegetables of all kinds and many fruits 
 are successfully grown. The soil of the 
 greater part of the state is very fruitful 
 where it can have sufficient moisture. 
 Irrigation is used to a great extent, and 
 in such regions, wheat, corn, barley, 
 oats, hay, and potatoes are staple 
 products. Cattle and sheep raising are 
 important industries. 
 
 The chief industry of the state is min- 
 ing, and in its yield of gold and silver it 
 is the leading state of the Union. 
 Nearly every known mineral is found 
 within the state. There are thousands 
 of mines which produce lodes of silver 
 and gold. There are also large deposits 
 of lead ores, and the state produces 
 about 45 per cent of the entire lead out- 
 put of the whole country. One of the 
 richest gold fields in the world was 
 opened up in the Cripple Creek district 
 
 in 1896. In various parts of the state 
 are iron mines. There are large sup- 
 plies of copper, zinc, cement, silica, 
 gypsum, onyx, and several valuable 
 clays. There are many veins of anthra- 
 cite and bituminous coal. 
 
 The principal manufacturing indus- 
 tries are in connection with the mineral 
 products of the state; they are brass 
 works, lead works, machine shops, 
 foundries, iron works, building materials, 
 tin, copper works, flouring mills, and 
 furniture. 
 
 Colorado has a state university, agri- 
 cultural college, school of mines, state 
 normal school, all of which are sustained 
 by legislative appropriations. Other 
 institutions of learning are Colorado Col- 
 lege, University of Denver, Westminster 
 University of Colorado, Presbyterian 
 College of the Southwest. 
 
 Colorado was a part of the immense 
 Territory of Louisiana ceded to the 
 United States by Napoleon Bonaparte 
 in 1803. The first explorations were 
 made by Spaniards from Mexico in 1540- 
 42, the first of which, under Francisco 
 Vasquiz di Coronado, found in New Mex- 
 ico near the southern border of Colorado a 
 peculiar race of people dwelling in towns 
 built of stone and adobe, and far super- 
 ior in intelligence to the savage tribes of 
 nomads. The southwestern part of the 
 state is strewn with the ruins of these 
 people, who were of Aztec or Toltec 
 origin, probably the former, ancestors 
 or contemporaries of the vast horde 
 which swept down into Anahuac, over- 
 threw the Toltecs and occupied their 
 lands. Several other expeditions came 
 up from the south in later times, and 
 some of them penetrated the plains as 
 far east as the Missouri river. The 
 remnant of Hernando De Soto’s army, 
 after the death of the conqueror of 
 Florida, came west to the Rocky moun- 
 tains, but did not explore them. A 
 Spanish cavalier, Don Juan de Onato, 
 passed up the Rio Grande river into the 
 San Luis park in 1695, and discovered 
 gold and silver there. Several French 
 expeditions from New Orleans pene- 
 trated far out upon the plains toward 
 the mountains, the first in 1712, others 
 from the same source occurred in 
 1741. 
 
 The first regularly organized Ameri- 
 can exploration of the Rocky moun- 
 tains occurred in 1806. It was 
 conducted by Lieut. Zebulon M. Pike, 
 whose report contained the first authen- 
 tic record of the extent and value of the 
 region. The second was by Maj. Stephen 
 S. Long in 1820. In 1842 John C. Fre- 
 mont began a series of five explorations, 
 which developed practicable routes for 
 the Pacific railways, and led ultimately to 
 the construction of the Union Pacific 
 railway from the Missouri river to San 
 Francisco. The Territory of Colorado 
 was organized by act of congress ap- 
 proved February 28, 1861, and Maj. 
 William Gilpin was appointed governor. 
 It was admitted into the Union as a 
 State, August 1, 1876. From 1876 to 
 1888 Colorado was republican in national 
 politics, but in the three presidential 
 elections after 1888 the silver interests of 
 the State made it decidedly democratic. 
 In 1896 and 1900 especially, the demo- 
 crats, populists, and Silver republicans. 
 
 in fusion, controlled a large proportion 
 of votes in the State. In 1904 and 1908 
 the state was carried by the republic- 
 ans. 
 
 Colorado is the most populous of the 
 Rocky Mountain States. The following 
 gives the population by decades; 186'>, 
 34,277 : 1870, 39,864; 1880, 194,327; 
 
 1890, 412,198; 1900, 539,700, of which 
 only 10,654 were colored; 1908, 800,- 
 000 . 
 
 COLORADO, a name of two rivers of 
 the United States. — (1) The Western Col- 
 orado, or Rio Colorado, formed by the 
 junction of the Green and Grand Rivers, 
 at about lat. 38° n.; Ion. 110° w., in 
 Utah. It flows southwest and south 
 through Arizona, and between Arizona 
 and Nevada and California, and after a 
 total course, including Green River, of 
 about 1200 miles, falls into the Gulf of 
 Cahfornia. Among the most wonderful 
 natural objects in North America is the 
 Big Canon of the Colorado, between Ion. 
 112° and 115°w. Here the river flows 
 between walls of rock which are nearly 
 vertical, and are in some places 6000 
 feet high. This canon is more than 300 
 miles long. (2) A river in Texas which 
 rises in the northwest part of the State, 
 flows generally southeast, and after a 
 course of about 900 miles falls into the 
 Gulf of Mexico at the town of Mata- 
 gordo. 
 
 COLORADO BEETLE, an American 
 species of beetle, nearly half an inch in 
 length, almost oval, of a yellowish color 
 marked with black spots and blotches, 
 and on the elytra with ten black longi- 
 tudinal stripes. The wings, which are 
 folded under the elytra, are of a blood- 
 red color. It is a native of the eastern 
 slopes of the Rocky Mountains, and 
 works great havoc among the potato 
 crops. 
 
 CpLORADO COLLEGE, an endowed 
 institution at Colorado Springs, founded 
 in 1874. It has a library of 35,000 
 volumes, has about 700 students and 
 S450,000 productive funds. 
 
 COLORADO DESERT, a region in 
 southern California, considerably below 
 the level of the sea, and consisting of 
 arid, sandy wastes. 
 
 COLORADO SPRINGS, a thriving 
 town of El Paso County, Colo., noted 
 for the salubrity of its climate and its 
 fine mineral springs. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 COLORADO STATE AGRICULTUR- 
 AL COLLEGE, a school of agriculture at 
 Tort Collins, Colo., founded in 1876. 
 It has an attendance of 400 and a 
 library of 15,000 volumes. 
 
 COLORADO, UNIVERSITY OF, the 
 state university of Colorado at Boulder, 
 Colo., founded in 1861 and opened in 
 1877. It is a complete university with 
 medical and law schools, and offers full 
 courses in the arts and the sciences. 
 It has a library of 25,000 volumes, and 
 a registration of above 500 students. 
 
 COLOR-BLINDNESS, total or partial 
 incapability of distinguishing colors. 
 Color-blindness has been divided into 
 three grades: (a) Inability to discern 
 any color, so that light and shade, or 
 black and white, are the only variations 
 perceived, (b) Inabihty to distinguish 
 the nicer shades of the more composite 
 colors, as browns, grays, and neutral 
 tints, (c) Inability to distinguish be- 
 
COLORIMETER 
 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 tween the primary colors, red, blue, and 
 yellow, or between them and their 
 secondaries, green, purple, orange, and 
 brown. Red is the color which the 
 color-blind are most commonly unable 
 to distinguish, while yellow is the most 
 easily recognized. Color - blindness 
 occurs in eyes whose power of vision, 
 as to form and distance, is quite per- 
 fect, and may exist unknown to the 
 person affected by it. This defect is 
 common especially among men. The 
 cause of it in almost every case which 
 has been carefully investigated has 
 been found to be seated in the sen- 
 sorium, not in the visual apparatus. 
 It will be easily understood that those 
 whose eyesight is thus defective are 
 disqualified for holding various posi- 
 tions. 
 
 COLORIM'ETER, an instrument for 
 measuring the depth of color in a liquid 
 by comparison with a standard liquid 
 of the same tint. 
 
 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY, photog- 
 raphy which will reproduce the colors 
 of the thing, scene, or person photo- 
 graphed. Experiments have been made 
 for years to succeed in accomplishing 
 this much-to-be desired purpose, but 
 thus far without avail. Experiments 
 have been made upon a suggestion of 
 J. Clark Maxwell concerning the physiol- 
 ogy of color but the problem is as yet 
 unsolved. 
 
 COLOR PRINTING, the art of produ- 
 cing pictures, designs, cards, etc., in vari- 
 ous colors by means of lithography, 
 printing from metal blocks, etc. The or- 
 dinary methods are: (1) the chromo- 
 lithographic, in which a tracing of the 
 original picture, or the like, is first 
 made, and a copy transferred to as 
 many stones as there are colors in the 
 original, every color requiring a fresh 
 stone. The drawing on each stone is 
 made to fit in, or register, with the 
 preceding one, and as the paper passes 
 through the machine an additional 
 color is added each time, and thus the 
 picture is built up color upon color 
 (each being allowed to dry before the 
 next is put on) until it is completed. 
 Some chromos or oleographs may have 
 as many as 25 or 30 printings or colors. 
 (2) Block or surface color printing is 
 specially adapted for book illustrations 
 or similar work where nicety of detail 
 or rapidity of production is required. 
 As in chromo-lithography various print- 
 ings are necessary; but these, while 
 producing similar effects, are reduced in 
 number by a method of printing several 
 tints of the .same color at one operation. 
 Each block, which is usually of zinc and 
 prepared in the usual way, is capable of 
 producing three or more gradations of 
 the same color; the darkest shade from 
 the normal surface, lighter shades being 
 got from parts which have been bitten 
 or corroded in an almost inperceptible 
 degree — the deeper corrosions giving, 
 of course, the lightest shade. When all 
 the tints of one color are thus printed 
 from one block and at one operation, a 
 second block with gradations, in the 
 same way, is used, registering as in 
 chromo-lithography, and so on until the 
 picture is finished. 
 
 COLORS, a term used to indicate the 
 flag or standard, of a people or a partyj 
 
 hence, in popular speech, anything 
 which shows the true state of affairs. 
 
 The colors carried in the United States 
 Army by the various regiments and 
 battalions are two in number, the na- 
 tional flag (see Flag) and the regimental 
 color, both of which are of prescribed 
 size and form for the various arms of 
 the service. The battalions of engineers 
 carry the national flag, with the title of 
 the battalion embroidered in silver on 
 the center stripe; and the battalion 
 color, of scarlet silk having in the center 
 a castle, with the number of the bat- 
 talion placed above the castle, and the 
 words “U. S. Engineers” below. The 
 artillery corps have similar colors, on 
 which the corps device of two crossed 
 cannon are emblazoned. Infantry regi- 
 ments have the same national color as 
 artillery and engineers; the regimental 
 color being of blue silk, the coat of arms 
 of the United States embroidered in silk 
 on the center, beneath the eagle, a red 
 scroll with number and name of regi- 
 ment embroidered in white; cavalry 
 standards in size are somewhat smaller 
 than those carried by the infantry and 
 consist of a national flag made of silk. 
 The regimental standard is of yellow 
 silk, with the coat of arms of the United 
 States embroidered in silk on the center, 
 beneath the eagle a red scroll, with 
 number and name of regiment em- 
 broidered in yellow, fringe yellow. 
 
 COLOSSE'UM, a name given to the 
 Flavian Amphitheatre in Rome, a large 
 edifice for gladiatorial combats, fights 
 of wild beasts, and similar sports. It 
 was begun by Vespasian, and finished 
 by Titus 80 a.d. The outline of the 
 Colosseum is elliptic, the exterior length 
 of the building being 620 and its breadth 
 513 feet; it is pierced with eighty open- 
 ings or vomitoria in the ground story, 
 over which are superimposed three other 
 stories, the whole rising perpendicularly 
 to the height of 160 feet. Although two- 
 thirds of the original building have dis- 
 appeared it is still a wonderful structure. 
 
 COLOS'SIANS, Epistle to the. was 
 written to the Colossians by the Apostle 
 Paul either from Rome or Csesarea, at 
 the same time that he wrote the Epistles 
 to the Ephesians and to Philemon. The 
 epistle contains a summary of Christian 
 doctrine, especially dwelling on the di- 
 vine power and majesty of Christ, and 
 a series of practical exhortations to 
 specific duties of Christian morality. 
 
 COLOS'SUS, in sculpture, a statue of 
 enormous magnitude. The Asiatics, the 
 Egyptians, and in particular the Greeks, 
 have excelled in these works. Among 
 the colossi of Greece the most celebrated 
 was the Colossus of Rhodes, a brass 
 statue of Apollo 70 cubits high, esteemed 
 one of the wonders of the world, erected 
 at the port of Rhodes by Chares, 290 or 
 288 B.c. It was thrown down by an 
 earthquake about 224 b.c. There is no 
 authority for the popularly-received 
 statement that it bestrode the harbor 
 mouth, and that the Rhodian vessels 
 could pass tmder its legs; and Bar- 
 tholdi’s statue of Liberty presented to 
 the U. States by the French nation, and 
 which measures 104 feet, or to the ex- 
 tremity of the torch in the hand of the 
 figure 138 feet. It is erected at New 
 York harbor on a pedestal 114 feet, is 
 
 constructed for a lighthouse with one of 
 the most powerful fixed lights in the 
 world, and stands 317 feet above mean 
 tide. 
 
 COLQUITT, Alfred Holt, an Ameri- 
 can senator, governor, and soldier, born 
 in Georgia in 1824, died in 1894. He 
 served in the Mexican war, was a mem- 
 ber of congress from 1853-5, and rose to 
 the rank of major-general in the Con- 
 federate army. He was governor of 
 Georgia from 1876 to 1882 and from 
 that year to his death United States 
 Senator from Georgia. 
 
 COLT, Samuel, an American in- 
 ventor, born in 1814, died in 1862. 
 Colt invented the revolver and his 
 name is a synonym for the weapon. 
 He got the idea while working in his 
 father’s factory at Hartford, Conn., and 
 made frequent improvements on his 
 original patent. He laid the first sub- 
 marine cable in New York harbor and 
 was the first to construct a rational 
 protective armor for water cables of any 
 kind. 
 
 COLTON, Walter, an American pio- 
 neer and author, born in Vermont in 
 1797, died in 1851. He was early a 
 teacher and having gone to California 
 in the early forties he founded The 
 Californian, the first newspaper pub- 
 lished in the state. His newspaper 
 was the first to announce the discovery 
 of gold on the Pacific coast. 
 
 COLT’S REVOLVER. See Revolver. 
 
 COLUM'BIA, the capital of South 
 Carolina, situated on an elevated plain 
 on the left bank of the Congaree. It is 
 regularly laid out, and contains some fine 
 
 E ublic buildings, including the state- 
 ouse. Among the educational institu- 
 tions are the South Carolina University, 
 founded in 1804, and a Presbyterian 
 theological college. Pop. 25,100. 
 
 COLUMBIA, a city in Pennsylvania, 
 on the Susquehanna, a great mart for 
 lumber. Pop. 14,116. 
 
 COLUMBIA, British. See British 
 Columbia. 
 
 COLUMBIA, District of, a small tract 
 of country in the U. States, on the 
 Potomac, about 120 miles from its 
 mouth, surrounded on three sides by 
 Maryland, forming a neutral district 
 for the seat of the national government. 
 It has an area of 64 sq. miles; was 
 formed into a territory in 1871; and 
 contains the city of Washington, which 
 has been the national capital since 1800 
 (and now includes also Georgetown). 
 The affairs of the district and of Wash- 
 ington are administered by three com- 
 missioners directly under Congress. 
 Pop. 298,718. 
 
 COLUMBIA RIVER, or OREGON, a 
 
 river in N. America, flowing into the 
 Pacific Ocean, and rising at the base of 
 the Rocky Mountains in British Colum- 
 bia. It has a very winding course partly 
 in British Columbia but mainly in the 
 U. States, where it receives two large 
 tributaries, Clark’s River and Snake 
 River. Latterly it turns abruptly to 
 the west and forms the boundary be- 
 tween Washington Territory and Ore- 
 gon. It drains an area of 298,000 sq. 
 miles, and has a length of about 1400 
 miles. 
 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, a large 
 institution in New York City, founded 
 
COLUMBIAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 CPOLUMN 
 
 in 1746. It has an endowment of 
 $20,000,000, an income of nearly 
 $1,000,000, a library of 315,000 volumes, 
 and a total attendance of 3632 students. 
 The university is made up of an under- 
 graduate department and graduate 
 schools of science, medicine and law, 
 wliile its affiliations with various theo- 
 logical schools in New York enable 
 it to offer education in theology also. 
 For many years it has been slowly 
 adding institution after institution to 
 its body until now it is virtually 
 equipped as a complete university. It 
 confers all degrees, including engineer- 
 ing (mechanical and mining) and re- 
 cently it absorbed Barnard College and 
 Teachers’ College, thus providing peda- 
 gogy to its curricula. It is governed by 
 a board of 24 trustees. 
 
 COLUMBIAN UNIVERSITY, an in- 
 stitution at Washington, D. C., founded 
 in 1821 by members of the Baptist 
 church. It offers courses in the arts and 
 sciences, in medicine, law, dentistry, 
 theology, and in electrical, mining, and 
 mechanical engineering. The univer- 
 sity has an endowment of $1,000,000, a 
 library of 20,000 volumes, and a regis- 
 tration of 1420 students. 
 
 COL'UMBINE, the popvdar name of 
 plants with five colored sepals and five 
 spurred petals. The common columbine 
 is a favorite flower, and owes its name 
 to the fancied resemblance of the petals 
 to the form of pigeons. 
 
 COL'UMBINE, in the older pan- 
 tomimes, a female mask with whom 
 Harlequin was In love; their marriage 
 formed the denouement. In modern 
 pantomime the chief female dancer in 
 the harlequinade. 
 
 COLUM'BIUM. See Niobium. 
 
 COLUMBUS, a town in Georgia, on 
 the Chattahoochee River, well built, 
 with cotton and other manufactures. 
 Pop. 20,000. 
 
 COLUM'BUS, Ohio, the capital of the 
 state, in Franklin county, on the east 
 bank of the Scioto. It contains some 
 notable public buildings. The capitol 
 is second in size only to that of Wash- 
 
 State capitol, Columbus, O. 
 
 Ington, and is built of gray limestone in 
 the simple Doric style Other buildings 
 are the deaf and dumb institution, in- 
 stitution for the blind, lunatic asylum, 
 penitentiary, R. Catholic cathedral, etc. 
 Educational institutions include the 
 state university, Columbus medical 
 college^ Starling medical college, etc. 
 "rhere is a very extensive trade, and the 
 manufactures are important and varied. 
 Pop. 179,370. 
 
 COLUM'BUS, Christopher, was born 
 in Genoese territory in 1435 or 1436, 
 died at Valladohd, Spain, 1506. His 
 
 father, Domenico Colombo, a poor wool- 
 comber, gave him a careful education. 
 He appears to have gone to sea at an 
 early age and to have navigated all 
 parts of the Mediterranean and some of 
 the coasts beyond the Straits of Gibral- 
 tar. In 1470 we find him at Lisbon, 
 where he married the daughter of Bar- 
 tolommeo de Palestrello, a distinguished 
 navigator. He had gradually come to 
 the conclusion that there were unknown 
 
 Columbus. 
 
 lands belonging to Eastern Asia sepa- 
 rated from Europe by the Atlantic: 
 while the Portuguese were seeking to 
 reach India by a southeast course round 
 Africa he was convinced that there must 
 be a shorter way by the west. He 
 applied in vain to Genoa for assistance, 
 and equally fruitless were his endeavors 
 to interest John II. of Portugal in the 
 enterprise. He then determined to 
 apply to the Spanish court; and after 
 many disappointments he induced Fer- 
 dinand and Isabella to equip and man 
 three vessels for a voyage of discovery. 
 It was early in the morning of Friday, 
 on the 3d of August, 1492, that Colum- 
 bus set sail from the port of Palos, and 
 after sailing for two months the expe- 
 dition narrowly escaped failure. The 
 variation of the needle so alarmed the 
 crews that they were on the point of 
 breaking out into open mutiny, and he 
 was obliged to promise that he would 
 turn back if three more days brought 
 no discovery. On the third day (12th 
 Oct. 1492) the island of Guanahani or 
 San Salvador was sighted, which Colum- 
 bus believed to belong to Eastern Asia 
 and to be connected with India — a 
 belief which he carried with him to his 
 grave. Hence the mistaken name of 
 Indians applied to the natives of Ameri- 
 ca, and that of West Indies applied to 
 the group of islands. Columbus, planted 
 the royal standard, and in the name of 
 his sovereigns took possession _ of the 
 country, which, in memory of his reser- 
 vation he called San Salvador. He 
 then sailed in search of other lands, and 
 discovered Cuba, St. Domingo, and 
 some other of the West India Islands. 
 Being so far successful, he built a fort 
 at Hispaniola, Hayti, left some of his 
 men there, and set out on his return to 
 Europe, where he was received with 
 
 almost royal honors. In 1493 he set out 
 on his second great voyage from Cadiz, 
 with three large ships of heavy burden 
 and fourteen caravels, carrying 1500 
 men. He discovered the island of 
 Dominica, and afterwards Mariegalante, 
 Guadeloupe, and Porto Rico, and at 
 length arrived at Hispaniola. Finding 
 the colony destroyed, he built a fortified 
 town, which he called, in honor of the 
 queen, Isabella. He then left the island 
 in order to make new discoveries, 
 visited Jamaica, and returning after a 
 voyage of five months, worn down with 
 fatigue, found to his great joy that his 
 brother Bartolommeo had arrived at 
 Isabella with provisions and other : 
 supplies for the colony. In May, 1498, I 
 he sailed with six vessels on his third 
 voyage. Three of his vessels he sent 
 direct to Hispaniola; with the three 
 others he took a more southerly direc- 
 tion, and having discovered Trinidad 
 and the continent of America, returned 
 to Hispaniola. His colony had now 
 been removed from Isabella, according 
 to his orders, to the other side of the 
 island, and a new fortress erected called 
 St. Domingo. Columbus found the 
 colony in a state of confusion, but soon 
 restored tranquility. His enemies, in 
 the meantime, endeavored to convince 
 his sovereigns that his plan was to make 
 himself independent, and Columbus was 
 not only displaced, but Francisco de 
 Bobadilla, a new governor who had 
 come from Spain, even sent him to that 
 country in chains. On his arrival (in 
 1500) orders were sent directing him 
 to be set at liberty and inviting him to 
 court, but for this injurious treatment he 
 never got redress, though great promises 
 were made. After some time he was 
 able to set out on his fourth and last 
 voyage (1502) in four slender vessels 
 supplied by the court. In this expedi- 
 tion he was accompanied by his brother 
 Bartolommeo and his son Hernando. 
 He encountered every imaginable dis- 
 aster from storms and shipwreck, and 
 returned to Spain, sick and exhausted, 
 in 1504. The death of the queen soon 
 followed, and he urged in vain on Fer- 
 dinand the fulfilment of his promises; 
 but after two years of illness, humilia- 
 tions, and despondency, Columbus died 
 at Valladolid. His remains were trans- . 
 ported, according to his will, to St. 
 Domingo, but on the cession of His- 
 paniola to France they were removed to ' 
 Havana in Cuba in 1796. In 1899 they 
 were carried back to Spain. 
 
 COL'UMN, in architecture, a round 
 pillar, a cylindrical solid body set up- 
 right and primarily intended to support ' 
 some superincumbent weight. A col- 
 umn has as its most essential portion , 
 a long solid body, called a shaft, set 
 vertically on a stylobate, or on a con- ^ 
 geries of moldings which forms its base, I 
 the shaft being surmounted by a more or i 
 less bulky mass which forms its capital, if. 
 In classical architectecture columns t 
 have commonly to support an entable- * 
 ture consisting of three divisions, the 
 architrave, frieze, and cornice, adorned S 
 with moldings, etc. The accompany- ^ 
 ing cut will illustrate these and other ^ 
 terms. Columns are distinguished by « 
 the names of the styles of architecture 
 to which they belong; thus there are > 
 
COLUMN 
 
 COMETS 
 
 Hindu, Egyptian, Grecian, Roman, and 
 Gothic columns. In classic architecture 
 they are further distinguished by the 
 name of the order to which they belong, 
 as Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Composite 
 or Tuscan columns. They may also be 
 characterized by some peculiarity of 
 position, of construction, of form, or of 
 
 CJolumn (Tuscan order), illustrating the terms 
 applied to the several parts. 
 
 ornament, as attached, twisted, cabled, 
 etc., columns. Columns are chiefly used 
 in the construction or adornment of 
 buildings. They have also been used, 
 however, singly for various purposes, 
 especially for monuments. See Corinth- 
 ian, Doric, Ionic, Gothic, etc. 
 
 COLUMN, in military tactics, a 
 formation of troops drawn up in deep 
 files, showing a small front; as dis- 
 tinguished from line, which is extended 
 in front and thin in depth. They are 
 said to be close or open according to the 
 intervals between the battalions, regi- 
 ments, etc., of which they are composed. 
 Sometimes the name column is given to 
 a small army, especially when actively 
 engaged. 
 
 COMA, in medicine, a state of com- 
 plete insensibility, resulting from various 
 diseases, as apoplexy ; from narcotics, 
 as opium; from accident or injury to 
 the brain; or from excessive cold. 
 
 COMANCHES (ko-man'chez), an 
 American Indian tribe formerly roam- 
 ing through Texas and part of Mexico. 
 They were excellent horsemen, and 
 extremely warlike, but their numbers 
 are now insignificant. Some of them 
 have been collected on a reservation in 
 the western part of the Indian Territory. 
 
 COMB, an instrument with teeth, 
 made of tortoise-shell, ivory, horn, 
 wood, bone, metal, or other material, 
 used for dressing the hair, and by 
 women for keeping the hair in its place 
 when dressed. Combs have been used 
 from the earliest times by rude as well 
 as by civilized races. 
 
 COMBINATION, in the United States, 
 a union of persons for the furtherance of 
 their business interests. Combination 
 is lawful when it is not in restraint of 
 trade, nor made with a view of violent- 
 ly or fraudulently, interfering with 
 others in the pursuit of their occupa- 
 tion. When so, it is called conspiracy 
 and is punishable under conspiracy acts. 
 
 COMBUSTION, the operation of fire 
 on inflammable substances; or the 
 union of an inflammable substance with 
 oxygen or some other supporter of com- 
 bustion, attended with heat and in 
 most instances with light. In conse- 
 quence of the combination of the carbon 
 in fuel with the oxygen of the air being 
 the universal method of getting heat and 
 light, and as when the action takes 
 place the fuel is said to burn or undergo 
 combustion, the latter term has been 
 extended to those cases in which other 
 bodies than carbon — for example, phos- 
 phorus, sulphur, metals, etc. — burn in 
 the air or in other substances than air— 
 for example, chlorine. Though the 
 action between the gas and the more 
 solid material, as coal, w'ood, char- 
 coal, of whose combination combustion 
 is the result, is mutual, the one having 
 as much to do with the process as the 
 other, yet the former, as oxygen, 
 chlorine, iodine, and the compounds 
 which they form with each other and 
 with nitrogen, have received the name of 
 supporters of combustion, while to the 
 latter the term combustibles has been 
 assigned. 
 
 Spontaneous Combustion is the igni- 
 tion of a body by the internal develop- 
 ment of heat without the application 
 of fire. It not unfrequently takes place 
 among heaps of rags, wmol, and cotton 
 when lubricated with oil ; hay and 
 straw when damp or moistened with 
 water ; and coal in the bunkers of 
 vessels. In the first case the oil rapidly 
 combines with the oxygen of the air, 
 this being accompanied with great 
 heat; in the second case the heat is 
 produced by a kind of fermentation; 
 in the third by the pyrites of the coal 
 rapidly absorbing and combining with 
 the oxygen of the air. The term is also 
 applied to the extraordinary alleged 
 phenomenon of the human body being 
 reduced to ashes without the direct 
 application of fire. It is said to have 
 occurred in the aged and persons that 
 were fat and hard drinkers; but most 
 chemists reject the theory altogether, 
 maintaining that none of the instances 
 adduced are well authenticated. 
 
 COMEDIE FRANCAISE, the national 
 subsidized theater of France, formed 
 in 1680 by the fusion of the two bodies 
 into which Moli^re’s company of actors 
 had split. It is at present managed by 
 regulations, made in 1812, modified by 
 subsequent resolutions. 
 
 COMEDIET'TA, a dramatic com- 
 position of the comedy class, but not so 
 much elaborated as a regular comedy. 
 
 and generally consisting of one or at 
 most two acts. 
 
 COM'ETS, certain celestial bodies 
 which appear at irregular intervals, 
 moving through the heavens in paths 
 which seem to correspond with parabolic 
 curves, or in a few instances in elliptical 
 orbits of great eccentricity. The for- 
 mer, after being visible from the earth for 
 a shorter or longer time, disappear into 
 space apparently never to return; the 
 latter return to us periodically. Some 
 comets aro only visible by the aid of the 
 telescope, while others can be seen by 
 the naked eye. In the latter case they 
 usually appear like stars accompanied 
 with a train of light, sometimes short 
 and sometimes extending over half the 
 sky, mostly single and more or less curved 
 but sometimes forked. In a comet 
 which appeared in 1744 the train was 
 divided into several branches, spreading 
 out from the head like a fan. The train 
 is not stationary relatively to the head, 
 but is subject to remarkable move- 
 ments. The direction in which it points 
 is always opposite to the sun. and as the 
 comet passes its perihelion the train 
 changes its apparent position with ex- 
 traordinary velocity The head of the 
 comet is itself of different degrees of 
 luminosity, there being usually a cen- 
 tral core, called the nucleus, of greater 
 brilliancy than the surrounding envel- 
 ope, called the coma. 
 
 Comets were long regarded as super- 
 natural objects, and usually as portents 
 of impending calamity, Tycho Brahe 
 ■was the first who expressed a rational 
 opinion on the subject, coming to the 
 conclusion that the comet of 1577 was a 
 heavenly body at a greater distance 
 from the earth than that of the moon. 
 The general law of the motion of bodies, 
 as well as his own observations on the 
 comet of 1680, led Newton to conclude 
 that the orbits of the comets must, like 
 those of the planets, be ellipses, having 
 
 Comet of 1811. 
 
 the sun in one focus, but far more eccen- 
 tric; and having their aphelions, or 
 greater distances from the sun, far re- 
 mote in the regions of space. This idea 
 was taken up by Halley, who collated 
 the observations which had been made 
 of all the twenty-four comets of which 
 notice had been taken previous to 1680. 
 The results were very interesting. With 
 but few exceptions the comets had 
 passed within less than the earth’s 
 shortest distance from the sun, some of 
 them •within less than one-third of it, 
 and the average about one-half. Out 
 of the number, too, nearly fwo-thirds 
 
COMITY OF NATIONS 
 
 COMMISSION, MILITARY 
 
 had had their motions retrograde, or 
 moved in the opposite direction to the 
 planets. While Halley was engaged 
 on these comparisons and deductions 
 the comet of 1682 made its appearance, 
 and he found that there was a wonder- 
 ful resemblance between it and three 
 other comets that he found recorded — 
 the comets of 1456, of 1531, and of 1607. 
 The times of the appearance of these 
 comets had been at very nearly regular 
 intervals, the average period being be- 
 tween seventy-five and seventy-six 
 years. Their distances from the sun, 
 when in perihelion, or when nearest to 
 that luminary, had been nearly the 
 same, being nearly six-tenths of that 
 of the earth, and not varying more 
 than one-sixtieth from each other. 
 The inclination of their orbits to that of 
 the earth had also been nearly the same, 
 between 17° and 18°; and their motions 
 had all been retrograde. Putting these 
 facts together, Halley concluded that 
 the comets of 1456, 1531, 1607, and 1682 
 were reappearances of one and the same 
 comet, which revolved in an elliptic or- 
 bit round the sun, performing its circuit 
 in a period varying from a little more 
 than seventy-six years to a little less 
 than seventy-five; or having, as far as 
 the observations had been carried, a 
 variation of about fifteen months in 
 the absolute duration of its year, meas- 
 ured according to that of the earth. 
 
 It now became possible to predict the 
 reappearance of comets with certainty. 
 Sometimes a comet may split up into 
 thousands of small pieces and reappear 
 as “shooting stars.” Among the famous 
 comets are those of Encke (1786 and 
 
 Donati’s comet, 1868. 
 
 1818), Biela’s comet (1826, 1839, 1845), 
 which in 1846 split in two and has since 
 been entirely dissipated; and Donati’s 
 comet (1858). The tails of comets are 
 sometimes many millions of miles in 
 length. 
 
 That the comets are formed of matter 
 of some sort or other we know from the 
 dense and opaque appearance of their 
 nucleus, as well as from the action of 
 the planets upon them; but as their 
 action upon the planets has not been 
 great, or even perceptible, we are led 
 to the conclusion that they are not 
 bodies of the same density or magni- 
 tude as even the smallest and rarest of 
 the planets. One modern theory of the 
 nature of comets is that these bodies 
 were ejected millions of years ago from 
 the interios* of suns, or planets in a sun- 
 like state. When a comet is viewed 
 through a telescope of considerable 
 power there appears a dense nucleus in 
 the center of the luminous and appar- 
 ently vaporous matter of which the 
 external parts are composed; and the 
 opacity of this nucleus varies in different 
 
 comets. On its first appearance, and 
 again when it recedes, the luminous 
 part of the comet is faint and does not 
 extend far from the nucleus; but as it 
 moves on toward the perihelion the 
 brightness increases, and the luminous 
 matter lengthens into a train, which, in 
 some cases, has extended across a fourth 
 of the entire circumference of the 
 heavens. The most remarkable dis- 
 covery of recent times regarding comets 
 is the identity of the course of some of 
 them with the orbit of certain showers 
 of shooting-stars. This was first demon- 
 strated by the Italian astronomer 
 Schiaparelli, who proved the agreement 
 between the orbit of the great comet of 
 1862 and that of the star-shower seen 
 annually about August 9, 10. It has 
 since been demonstrated that every 
 meteoric stream follows in the train of 
 some comet large or small, which 
 either ex:sts now or has been dissipated, 
 as Biela’s comet was, leaving only its 
 meteoric trail to show where it once 
 traveled; and that every comet is 
 followed or preceded by a train of 
 meteors, extending over a greater or 
 less portion of the comet’s orbit accord- 
 ing to the length of time during which 
 the comet has existed. 
 
 COMITY OF NATIONS, a phrase 
 adopted in international law to denote 
 that kind of courtesy by which the laws 
 and institutions of one state or country 
 are recognized and given effect to by 
 the government of another. 
 
 COMMA, in punctuation, the point 
 [,] denoting the shortest pause in reading, 
 and separating a sentence into divisions 
 or members according to the construc- 
 tion. — In music, a comma is the smallest 
 enharmonic interval, being the differ- 
 ence between a major and a minor tone, 
 and expressed by the ratio 80:81. 
 
 COMMAN'DER, a chief; the chief 
 officer of an army or any division of it. 
 The office of commander-in-chief is the 
 highest staff appointment in the army. 
 The title is sometimes not command- 
 er-in-chief, but field-marshal command- 
 ing-in-chief, the difference being that 
 the former is appointed by patent for 
 life, while the latter is appointed by a 
 letter of service, and holds oflSce only 
 during the pleasure of the sovereign. 
 In the navy, a commander holds a 
 definite rank above lieutenant and under 
 captain. In matters of etiquette he 
 ranks with a lieutenant-colonel in the 
 army. In large vessels there is a com- 
 mander as well as a captain, but in 
 sloops and vessels of that class the 
 commander is the highest oflBcer. 
 
 COMMAN'DERY, a term used in 
 several senses in connection with some 
 of the military and religious orders. 
 Among several orders of knights as the 
 Templars, Hospitallers, etc., it was a 
 district under the control of a member 
 of the order (called a commander or 
 preceptor), who received the income of 
 the estates belonging to the knights 
 within that district, and expended part 
 for his own use and accounted for the 
 rest; in England, more especially 
 applied to a manor belonging to the 
 priory of the Knights Hospitallers or 
 Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. In 
 certain religious orders, as those of St. 
 Bernard and St. Anthony, it was the 
 
 district under the authority of a digni- 
 tary called a commander. 
 
 COMMENCEMENT, in the universi- 
 ties of the United States, the day when 
 masters of arts and doctors receive 
 
 COMMEN'SURABLE, an appellation 
 given to such quantities or magnitudes 
 as can be measured by one and the same 
 common measure. Commensurable 
 numbers are such as can be measured or 
 divided by some other number without 
 any remainder; such are 12 and 18, as 
 being measured by 6 or 3. 
 
 COMM'ENTARY, a term used (1) in 
 the same sense as memoirs, for a nar- 
 rative of particular transactions or 
 events as the Commentaries of Caesar. 
 (2) A series or collection of comments or 
 annotations. These may either be in 
 the form of detached notes, or may be 
 embodied in a series of remarks written 
 and printed in a connected form. 
 
 COMM'ERCE, the interchange of 
 goods, merchandise, or property of any 
 kind between countries or communities; 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW, the law which 
 regulates commercial affairs among the 
 merchants of different countries, or 
 among merchants generally. It is de- 
 rived from the different maritime codes 
 of mediaeval Europe, the imperial code 
 of Rome, international law, and the 
 custom of merchants. 
 
 COMMERCIAL TREATIES, treaties 
 entered into between two countries for 
 the purpose of improving and extending 
 their commercial relations; each coun- 
 try engaging to abolish or to reduce to 
 an agreed rate or otherwise modify the 
 duties on articles of production and 
 manufacture imported from the one 
 country into the other. They are usually 
 for a limited period, but may be renewed 
 and modified according^ to altering 
 conditions. In these treaties the phrase, 
 “most favored nations,” implies con- 
 cessions equal to the most favorable 
 granted under any similar treaty. The 
 first treaty of commerce made by Eng- 
 land with any foreign nation was entered 
 into with the Flemings in 1272; the 
 second was with Portugal and Spain, 
 1308. Among modern treaties the most 
 famous is that negotiated between 
 Richard Cobden, the English free- 
 trader, and the ministers of Napoleon 
 III. in 1860, and which resulted in 
 great benefit to both nations. A second 
 one was signed in 1873, but negotiations 
 for a third in 1882 fell through chiefly 
 owing to French protectionist prej- 
 udices. Several treaties of reciprocity 
 have been made between the United 
 States and other countries, notably 
 France and Canada. 
 
 COMMISSA'RIAT, the department of 
 an army whose duties consist in supply- 
 ing transport, provisions, forage, camp 
 equipage, etc., to the troops, but not 
 arms, ammunition, etc .5 also the body of 
 officers in that department. 
 
 COMMISSION, MILITARY, the au- 
 thorization of rank or right to command 
 in the army, generally in the form of a 
 certificate. A commission is issued only 
 by the President of the United States. 
 In Britain military commissions were 
 formerly purchasable but this custom 
 was abolished in 1871. 
 
COMMISSIONAIRE 
 
 COMMUNE OF PARIS 
 
 COMMISSIONAIRE, on the continent 
 of Europe hotel runners and general 
 servants of hotels who look after the 
 luggage of guests whom they meet at 
 the railway stations or docks. In Ger- 
 many commissionaires are analogous 
 to messenger boys in the United States. 
 
 COMMITMENT, a warrant of a mag- 
 istrate holding an accused person to 
 trial. The word is also used to designate 
 an order sending a person to jail for 
 contempt of court, or other offense. 
 
 COMMITTEE, one or more persons 
 elected or appointed to attend to any 
 matter or business referred to them 
 either by a legislative body, or by a 
 court, or by any corporation, or by any 
 society or collective body of men acting 
 together. In legislative bodies, when 
 a committee consists of the whole mem- 
 bers of the body acting in a different 
 capacity from that which usually be- 
 longs to them it is called a committee of 
 the whole house, the business of which 
 is conducted under somewhat different 
 regulations from those under which 
 the business of the house when not in 
 committee is carried on. — Standing 
 committees are such as continue during 
 the existence of legislature, and to 
 these are committed all matters that 
 fall within the purposes of their appoint- 
 ment, as the committee of elections or 
 of privileges, etc. — Select committees 
 are appointed to consider and report on 
 particular subjects. 
 
 COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY, a 
 body elected by the French Convention 
 (6th April, 1793) from among its own 
 members, at first having very limited 
 powers conferred upon it — that of super- 
 vising the executive and of accelerating 
 its actions. Subsequently, however, 
 its powers became extended; all the 
 executive authority passed into its 
 hands, and the ministers became merely 
 its scribes. It was at first composed 
 of nine, but was increased to twelve 
 members viz.: Robespierre, Danton, 
 Couthon, St. Just, Prieur, Robert-Lin- 
 det, H^ault de S4chelles, Jean-Bon 
 St. Andre, BarrSre, Carnot, Collot 
 d’Herbois, and Billaud Varennes. The 
 severe government of this body is 
 known as the Reign of Terror, which 
 ended with the execution of Robes- 
 pierre and his associates in July, 1794. 
 During the commune (March to May, 
 1871) a similar committee was estab- 
 lished in Paris. 
 
 COM'MODORE, in the navy, an 
 officer, generally a captain, holding 
 a temporary commission with a rank 
 between that of captain and admiral, 
 who commands a ship or detachment of 
 ships in the absence of an admiral. 
 They are of two kinds — one having a 
 captain under him in the same ship, and 
 the other without a captain. They 
 both carry distinguishing pennants. 
 The title is also given to the senior cap- 
 tain of a line of merchant vessels, and 
 also to the president of a yachting 
 club. 
 
 COMMON CARPJERS. See Carriers. 
 
 COMMON COUNCIL, the council of a 
 city or corporate town, empowered to 
 inake by-laws for the government of the 
 citizens. The common councils some- 
 times consist of two houses, chambers, or 
 courts, and sometimes form only one. 
 
 Thus the common council of London 
 consists of two houses, the upper house, 
 composed of the lord-mayor and aider- 
 men, and the lower house of the com- 
 mon council men, who are elected 
 annually. In the United States several 
 cities have two houses of municipal 
 legislature, notably St. Louis. The 
 term common council is not used so 
 familiarly in this country as in Eng- 
 land, the term city council being pre- 
 ferred. 
 
 COM'MONER, IN BRITAIN, a term 
 applied to all citizens except the heredi- 
 tary nobility. 
 
 COMMON LAW, the unwritten law, 
 the law that receives its binding force 
 from immemorial usage and universal 
 reception, in distinction from the writ- 
 ten or statute law; sometimes from 
 the civil or canon law; and occasionally 
 from the lex mercatoria, or commercial 
 and maritime jurisprudence. It con- 
 sists of that body of rules, principles, 
 and customs which have been received 
 from former times, and by which courts 
 have been guided in their judicial 
 decisions. The evidence of this law 
 is to be found in the reports of those 
 decisions and the records of the courts. 
 Some of these rules may have originated 
 in edicts or statutes which are now lost, 
 or in the terms and conditions of par- 
 ticular grants or charters; but it is 
 quite certain that many of them origi- 
 nated in judicial decisions founded on 
 natural justice and equity, or on local 
 customs. It is contrasted with (1) the 
 statute law contained in acts of parlia- 
 ment; (2) equity, which is also an 
 accretion of judicial decisions, but 
 formed by a new tribunal, which first 
 appeared when the common law had 
 reached its full growth; and (3) the 
 civil law inherited by modern Europe 
 from the Roman Empire. Wherever 
 statute law, however, runs counter to 
 common law, the latter is entirely over- 
 ruled; but common law, on the other 
 hand, asserts its pre-eminence where 
 equity is opposed to it. 
 
 COMMON PLEAS, Court of, formerly 
 one of three superior courts of common 
 law in England, presided over by a lord 
 chief -justice and five (at an earlier period 
 four) puisn6 judges, and having cogni- 
 zance of all civil causes, real, personal, 
 or mixed, as well by original writ as by 
 removal from the inferior courts; now 
 merged in the High Court of Justice. 
 
 COMMON PRAYER, Book of, the 
 liturgy or public form of prayer pre- 
 scribed by the Church of England to be 
 used in all churches and chapels, and 
 which the clergy are to use under a 
 certain penalty. The Book of Common 
 Prayer is used also by the English- 
 speaking Episcopal churches in Scot- 
 land, Ireland, America, and the colonies, 
 as well as by some non-episcopal bodies, 
 with or without certain alterations. 
 It dates from the reign of Edward VI. ; 
 was published in 1549, and again with 
 some changes in 1 552. Some slight alter- 
 ations were made upon it when it was 
 adopted in the reign of Elizabeth. In 
 the reign of James I.^ and finally soon 
 after the Restoration, it underwent new 
 revisions. 
 
 COMMONS, House of. See Britain 
 and Parliament. 
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS, in the United 
 ^States, the public schools, including 
 the primary and high schools, and the 
 normal schools. The present system of 
 graded schools is a vast enlargement 
 and improvement of the elementary 
 schools of colonial times. To assist 
 in the support of the public schools the 
 government, and sometimes the several 
 states, particularly in the west, have 
 given grants of land the sale of which 
 has helped to defray the expenses of 
 public education. About 16,000,000 
 children are enrolled in the common 
 schools of the United States. In the 
 instruction of these nearly 500,000 
 teachers are engaged, and the total 
 expenditures for the support of these 
 schools aggregate nearly $220,000,000 
 annually. 
 
 COMMON TIME, in music, is that in 
 which every bar contains an even num- 
 ber of subdivisions, such as two minims, 
 four quavers, or their equivalents. It 
 is of two kinds, simple and compound. 
 Simple common time is that which in- 
 cludes four beats in a bar, or any division 
 of that number, or square of the num- 
 ber or its divisions. Compound com- 
 mon time includes two or four beats of 
 three crochets or quavers to each beat. 
 
 COM'MONWEALTH, the whole body 
 of people in a state; the body politic. 
 In Eng. hist, the name given to the 
 form of government establislied after 
 the death of Charles I., and which 
 lasted until the restoration of Charles 
 II. (1649-59). 
 
 COM'MUNALISM, the theory of gov- 
 ernment by communes or corporations 
 of towns and districts, adopted by the 
 advanced republicans of France and 
 elsewhere. The doctrine is that every 
 commune, or at least every important 
 city commune, as Paris, Marseilles 
 Lyons, etc., should be a kind of inde- 
 pendent state in itself, and France 
 merely a federation of such states. 
 This system must not be confounded 
 with communism, with which, however, 
 it is naturally and historically allied, 
 though the two are perfectly dis- 
 tinct in principle. 
 
 COM'MUNE, a small territorial dis- 
 trict in France, being one of the sub- 
 ordinate divisions into which that 
 country is parcelled out'; the name 
 is also given to similar divisions in 
 some other countries, as Belgium. In 
 the country a commune sometimes em- 
 braces a number of \’illages, while some 
 large cities are divided into a number of 
 communes. In either case each com- 
 mune is governed by an officer called 
 a mayor. 
 
 COMMUNE OF PARIS.— 1. A revolu- 
 tionary committee which took the place 
 of the municipality of Paris in the 
 French revolution of 1789, and soon 
 usurped the supreme authority in the 
 state. Among its chiefs were some of 
 the most violent of the demagogues, such 
 as Hubert, Danton, and Robespierre. 
 2. The name adopted by the ultra-radical 
 party in PSiIs brought once more into 
 prominence by the events of the Franco- 
 German war, more immediately by the 
 siege of Paris (Oct. 1870 to Jan. 1871). 
 They ruled over Paris for a brief period 
 after the evacuation of the German 
 troops, and had to be suppressed by 
 
COMMUNION 
 
 COMPOSITE ORDER 
 
 troops collected by the National As- 
 sembly of France. The rising was 
 entirely political and confined to Paris; 
 it was based on no well defined dogmas, 
 only a fractional part of the communal 
 government being communists in the 
 economic sense, and these were soon 
 thrust aside by their more violent and 
 unscrupulous comrades. Much blood- 
 shed and wanton destruction of property 
 took place before the rising was put 
 down by M. Thiers’ government. 
 
 COMMU'NION, the act of partaking 
 with others of the sacramental symbols 
 in the Lord’s Supper. See Lord’s 
 Supper. 
 
 COM'MUNISM, the economic system 
 or theory which upholds the absorption 
 of all proprietary rights in a common 
 interest, an equitable division of labor, 
 and the formation of a common fund 
 for the supply of all the wants of the 
 community; the doctrine of a com- 
 munity of property, or the negation of 
 individual rights in property. No com- 
 munistic society has as yet been suc- 
 cessful. Robert Owen made several 
 experiments in modified communism, 
 but they failed. St. Simon, Fourier, and 
 Proudhon have been the chief exponents 
 of the system in France; and under the 
 names of socialism, nihilism, etc., it 
 seems to be working as a great unseen 
 force in several countries. 
 
 COMO, capital of the province of 
 Como, in the north of Italy (Lombardy), 
 24 miles n.n.w. of Milan. Pop. 25,560. — 
 The province of Como has an area of 
 1049 sq. miles, and a pop. of 515,134. 
 
 COMPANTON, a raised hatch or 
 cover to the cabin stair of a merchant 
 vessel. — Companion Ladder, the steps 
 or ladder by which persons ascend to 
 and descend from the quarter-deck. 
 
 COM'PANY, in military language, a 
 subdivision of an infantry regiment or 
 battalion, corresponding to a troop of 
 cavalry or a battery of artillery, con- 
 sisting of from 60 to 100 men and com- 
 manded by a captain. 
 
 COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. See 
 Anatomy. 
 
 COMPARISON, Degrees of, in gram- 
 mar, inflections of adjectives or adverbs 
 to express degrees of the original 
 quality, usually divided into positive, 
 comparative, and superlative; as strong, 
 stronger, strongest, glorious, more glori- 
 ous, most glorious. 
 
 COMPASS, an instrument used to 
 indicate the magnetic meridian or the 
 position of objects with respect to that 
 meridian, and employed especially on 
 ships, and by surveyors and travelers. 
 Its origin is unknown, but it is supposed 
 to have been brought from China to 
 Europe about the middle of the 13th 
 century. As now generally used it con- 
 sists of three parts : namely, the box, 
 the card or fly, and the needle — the 
 latter being the really essential part, and 
 consisting of a small magnet so sus- 
 pended that it may be able to move 
 freely in a horizontal direction. The 
 box, which contains the card and needle, 
 is, in the case of the common mariner’s 
 compass, a circular brass receptacle 
 hung within a wooden one by two con- 
 centric rings called gimbals, so fixed by 
 the cross centers to the box that the 
 inner one, or compass-box, shall retain 
 
 a horizontal position in all motions of 
 the ship. The circular card is divided 
 into thirty-two equal parts by lines 
 drawn from the center to the circum- 
 ference, called points or rhumbs; the 
 intervals between the points are also 
 divided into halves and quarters, and 
 the whole circumference into equal 
 parts or degrees, 360 of which complete 
 the circle; and, consequently, the dis- 
 
 Snip’s compass. 
 
 a 6, Needle, c c. Box. d d. Inner glmbal. //, 
 Outer glmbal. i. Pivot upon which the card is 
 placed. TO, Reflector, rr, Card, tt.tiu. Sup- 
 porting pivots. 
 
 tance or angle comprehended between 
 any two rhumbs is equal to 11}°. The 
 four principal are called cardinal points : 
 viz.. North, South, East, and West. The 
 names of the rest are compounded of 
 these. The needle is a small bar of 
 magnetized steel. It is fixed on the 
 under side of the card, and in the center 
 Is placed a conical socket, which is 
 poised on an upright pointed pin fixed 
 in the bottom of the box; so that the 
 card, hanging on the pin, turns freely 
 round its center, and one of the points, 
 by the property of the needle, will al- 
 
 ways be directed tow'ard the north pole. 
 The needle, however, is liable to a cer- 
 tain deviation owing to the magnetism 
 of the ship itself, and this is especially 
 strong in iron ships. (See Deviation.) 
 To obviate this Sir W. Thomson (Lord 
 Kehdn) invented a compass, having a 
 number of needles arranged in a partic- 
 ular manner instead of one. In this 
 compass quadrantal errors are corrected 
 
 by means of two iron globes fixed on 
 opposite sides of the binnacle ; while the 
 various components of the ship’s mag- 
 netic force are neutralized by a series of 
 bar-magnets so arranged as to act as 
 correctors. In the compass used by 
 land-surveyors and others the needle 
 is not fixed to the card, but plays alone, 
 the card being drawn on the bottom of 
 the box. 
 
 COMPASSES, or PAIR OF COM- 
 PASSES, a mathematical instrument 
 used for the describing of circles, measur- 
 ing lines, etc. They consist simply of 
 two pointed legs, m.ovable on a joint 
 or pivot, and are used for measuring and 
 transferring distances. For describing 
 circles the lower end of one of the legs is 
 removed and its place supplied by a 
 holder for a pencil or pen. — Hair Com- 
 passes are compasses having a spring 
 tending to keep the legs apart, and a 
 finely-threaded screw by which the 
 spring can be compressed or relaxed 
 with the utmost nicety, and the distance 
 of the legs regulated to a hair’s-breadth. 
 — Bow Compasses are compasses having 
 the two legs united by a bow passing 
 through one of them, the distance be- 
 tween the legs being adjusted by means 
 of a screw and nut. — Proportional Com- 
 passes are compasses used for reducing 
 or enlarging drawings, having the legs 
 crossing so as to present a pair on each 
 side of a common pivot. By means of a 
 slit in the legs, and the movable pivot, 
 the relative distances between the 
 points at the respective ends may be ad- 
 justed at pleasure in the required pro- 
 portion. 
 
 COMPLEXION, the color or hue of 
 the skin, particularly of the .face. The 
 color depends partly on pigment in the 
 deep cells of the epidermis and partly 
 on the blood supply. The nature and 
 color of the hair seems closely con- 
 nected with the complexion, and these 
 combined are important distinguishing 
 marks of different races. See Ethnology. 
 
 COMPLUTENSIAN POLYGLOT, a 
 celebrated polyglot edition of the Bible 
 published at Complutum, the ancient 
 name of Alcala de Henares, in Spain, 
 1514-17, by Cardinal Ximenes. See 
 Polyglot. 
 
 COMPOSTTiE, the largest known nat. 
 order of plants, containing over 12,000 
 described species of herbs or shrubs dis- 
 tributed all over the world. The flowers 
 (generally called florets) are numerous 
 (with few exceptions) and sessile, form- 
 ing a close head on the dilated top of the 
 receptacle, and surrounded by an in- 
 volucre of whorled bracts. The head 
 of numerous florets was called by the 
 older botanists a compound flower, 
 hence the name. Many are common 
 weeds, like the daisy, dandelion, thistle, 
 etc.; many are cultivated in gardens, 
 such as the asters, marigold, etc. ; others 
 have some economic or medicinal value, 
 as chicory, artichoke, chamomile, let- 
 tuce, wormwood, arnica, etc. 
 
 COMPOSITE ORDER, in arch, the 
 last of the five orders; so called be- 
 cause the capital belonging to it is com- 
 
 C osed out of those of the other orders, 
 orrowing a quarter-round from the 
 Tuscan and Doric, a row of leaves from 
 the Corinthian, and volutes from the 
 Ionic. Its cornice has simple modil- 
 
COMPOSITION OF FORCES AND MOTIONS 
 
 CONCORD 
 
 lions of dentils. It is called also the 
 Roman or the Italic order. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FORCES AND 
 MOTIONS, in mechanics, the union or 
 assemblage of several forces or motions 
 that are oblique to one another, into 
 an equivalent force or motion in another 
 direction. Thus two forces acting in the 
 directions of the adjacent sides of a 
 parallelogram, compose one force acting 
 in the direction of the diagonal, and if 
 the lengths of the adjacent sides repre- 
 sent also the magnitudes of the forces, 
 the diagonal will represent the magni- 
 tude of the compound force or resultant. 
 
 Composite order. 
 
 COMPOSITION WITH CREDITORS, 
 
 an arrangement whereby a debtor who 
 has failed, compromises with all or a 
 number of his creditors who agree to 
 discharge him from his indebtedness 
 for a percentage of their claims. If 
 the arrangement be made secretly it 
 is held to be void. 
 
 COMPOUND ANIMALS, animals, 
 many of which by no means belong to 
 the lowest types, in which individuals, 
 distinct as regards many of the func- 
 tions of life, are yet connected by some 
 part of their frame so as to form a 
 united whole. Such are the polyzoa and 
 some of the ascidia. 
 
 COMPOUNDING A FELONY, the act 
 of agreeing not to prosecute a person 
 accused of a crime for a consideration 
 of value. In the United States com- 
 pounding a felony is punishable by 
 imprisonment and a fine. 
 
 COMPRESSED AIR, atmospheric air 
 compressed by means of pumps, etc., 
 and used in driving stationary and loco- 
 motive engines, and excavating ma- 
 chines; as also in working pneumatic 
 despatch-tubes, railway-brakes, etc. 
 
 COMPRESSED-AIR ENGINE, an 
 engine operated by the escape of air 
 from a tank in which atmospheric air 
 has been stored under high pressure. 
 
 COMPRESSED-AIR LOCOMOTIVE, 
 a locomotive in which the motive power 
 is compressed air. Many devices for 
 this kind of locomotive have been 
 invented but none of them have stood 
 the practical tests through which they 
 have been put. Compressed air motors 
 have been tried on the street car lines of 
 New York and other cities with small 
 success. 
 
 COMPRESSED-AIR TREATMENT, 
 
 atmospheric pressure brought to bear 
 on the body for the purpose of curing 
 diseases. It is applied by causing the 
 patient to breathe compressed air, or 
 to exhaust the air from a cabinet in 
 which his body is placed, while he 
 breathes the ordinary air through a 
 tube communicating with the outside. 
 It has not been successful. 
 
 COMPRESSIBILITY, the property of 
 bodies in virtue of which they may be 
 pressed into smaller bulk. All bodies 
 are probably compressible, though the 
 liquids are but slightly so. The gases 
 are exceedingly compressible, and may 
 be liquefied by pressure and cold com- 
 bined. Those bodies which occupy 
 their former space' when the pressure is 
 removed, are called elastic. 
 
 COMSTOCK, Anthony, an American 
 reformer, noted for his detestation of 
 improper literature. He was born in 
 Connecticut in 1844, and served during 
 the civil war on the Union side. Com- 
 stock organized the society for the 
 suppression of vice, in 1873, and has 
 done much to suppress immoral litera- 
 ture. 
 
 COMSTOCK LODE, a famous vein of 
 gold and silver ore in Nevada (Storey 
 county) in the Sierra mountains. It 
 was discovered in 1859, is about four 
 miles long and 2900 feet at its widest 
 part. In 30 years the vein has produced 
 $350,000,000. Its greatest production 
 in any one year was $38,000,000 in 1877. 
 
 COMTE (kont), Isidore Auguste Marie 
 Francois Xavier, founder of the “posi- 
 tive” system of philosophy, was born at 
 Montpellier on 12th January, 1798, died 
 at Paris 1857. In 1826 Comte com- 
 menced a course of lectures on positive 
 philosophy, but only four lectures were 
 given when he became deranged in 
 mind, and did not recover till the 
 end of 1827. In 1830 he commenced 
 the publication of his Cours de Phi- 
 losophic Positive, which was completed 
 in six volumes in 1842. In 1845 he 
 made the acquaintance of Clotilde de 
 Vaux, who seems to have inspired him 
 ■with a depth and tenderness of moral 
 and aesthetic feeling before unknown in 
 him. This appears in his second great 
 work. Positive Polity (1851-54) ; the 
 Positivist Catechism (1852); and his 
 last work. Subjective Synthesis (1855). 
 In his Religion of Humanity he himself 
 assumed the office of high-priest, per- 
 forming marriage and funeral rites on 
 behalf of the disciples who had been 
 induced to adopt his system. These, 
 however, were never very numerous; 
 and as a practical faith his system is 
 now stationary, though as a philosophy 
 of knowledge it is ■widely accepted. His 
 works have been made known to 
 American readers mainly by Mr. G. H. 
 Lewes’ Comet’s Philosophy of the Sci- 
 ences and Miss Martineau’s translation 
 above mentioned. 
 
 CONCAN, a maritime subdivision of 
 Hindustan, in the presidency of Bom- 
 bay. Area about 13,500 sq. miles; 
 pop. about 3,000,000. 
 
 CONCAVE, hollow and curved or 
 rounded, as the inner surface of a 
 spherical body. A surface is concave 
 when straight lines drawn from point 
 to point in it fall between the surface 
 
 and the spectator; and convex when 
 the surface comes between him and 
 such lines. 
 
 CONCEALMENT, in law the hiding 
 of facts bearing upon a crime, or the 
 hiding of property in litigation, or of 
 persons. 
 
 CONCEPCION', a seaport of Chili, 
 capital of a province of the same name. 
 Concepcion was founded in 1550, and 
 has suffered much from earthquakes 
 and attacks by the Araucanians. Pop. 
 55 458 
 
 CONCEP'TION, the act or power of 
 conceiving in the mind; in philosophy, 
 that mental act or combination of acts 
 by which an absent object of perception 
 is brought before the mind by the 
 imagination. 
 
 CONCEPTION, Immaculate, in the 
 Roman Catholic Church, the doctrine 
 that the Virgin Mary was born without 
 the stain of original sin. This doctrine 
 came into favor in the 12th century, 
 when, however, it was opposed by St. 
 Bernard, and it afterward became a 
 subject of vehement controversy be- 
 tween the Scotists, who supported, 
 and the Thomists, who opposed it. In 
 1708 Clement XI. appointed a festival 
 to be celebrated throughout the church 
 in honor of the immaculate conception. 
 Since that time it was received in the 
 Roman Church as an opinion, but not 
 as an article of faith until the year 1854, 
 when the pope issued a bull which 
 makes the immaculate conception a 
 point of faith. 
 
 CON'CERT, a public or private musi- 
 cal entertainment, at wliich a number 
 of vocalists or instrumentalists, or both, 
 perform singly or combined. 
 
 CONCERTI'NA, a musical instrument 
 invented by Professor Wheatstone, the 
 principle of which is similar to that of 
 the accordion. It is composed of a bel- 
 lows, with two faces or ends, generally 
 polygonal in shape, on which are placed 
 the various stops or studs, by the action 
 of which air is admitted to the free 
 metallic reeds which produce the 
 sounds. 
 
 CONCERTO (kon-cher'to), in music, 
 a kind of composition, usually in a sym- 
 phonic form, written for one principal 
 instrument, •with accompaniments for 
 a full orchestra. 
 
 CONCERT PITCH. See Pitch. 
 
 CONCH (kongk), a marine shell, 
 especially a large spiral shell of a trum- 
 pet shape, and which may be blown as 
 a trumpet, as is the practice in Hindus- 
 tan and some of the Pacific Islands. 
 
 CONCHOL'OGY, the science of shells, 
 that department of zoology which treats 
 of the nature, formation, and classifica- 
 tion of the shells with which the bodies 
 of many mollusca are protected; or the 
 word may be used also to include a 
 knowledge of the animals themselves, 
 in which case it is equivalent to malaco- 
 logy. In systems of conchology shells 
 are usually divided into three orlers. 
 Univalves, Bivalves, and Multivalves, 
 according to the number of pieces of 
 which they are composed. 
 
 CON'CORD, in music, the combina- 
 tion of two or more sounds pleasing to 
 the ear. Concords are the octawe, the 
 fifth, third', and sixthf The two first are 
 called perfect, because as concords they 
 
CONCORD 
 
 CONDOR 
 
 are not liable to any alteration by 
 sharps or flats. The two last are called 
 imperfect, as being alterable. 
 
 CONCORD, the capital of New 
 Hampshire, on the Merrimac, 60 miles 
 n.n.w. Boston, one of the largest rail- 
 
 State eapitol, Concord, N. H. 
 
 way centers in New England. It has 
 manufactures of carriages, hardware, 
 cutlery, woolen fabrics, paper, etc. 
 Pop. 21,632. 
 
 CONCOR'DANCE, a book in which 
 the principal words used in any work or 
 number of works, as the Scriptures, 
 Shakespeare, Milton, Tennyson, Homer, 
 etc., are arranged alphabetically, and 
 the book, chapter, and verse, or act, 
 scene, line, or other subdivision in which 
 each word occurs, are noted; designed 
 to assist an inquirer in finding any 
 passage by means of any leading word 
 which he can recollect, or to show the 
 character of the language and style of 
 any writer. 
 
 CON'CRETE, a technical term in 
 logic, applied to an object as it exists in 
 nature, invested with all its attributes, 
 or to the notion of such on object. Con- 
 crete is opposite to abstract. The 
 names of individuals are concrete; those 
 of classes, abstract. A concrete name 
 is a name which stands for a thing; an 
 abstract name is a name which stands 
 for the attribute of a thing. 
 
 CON'CRETE, a composition used in 
 building, consisting of hydraulic or 
 other mortar mixed with gravel or stone 
 chippings about the size of a nut. It 
 is used extensively in building under 
 water, for example, to form the bottom 
 of a canal or sluice, or the foundation of 
 any structures raised in the sea; and it 
 is also frequently used to make a bed 
 for asphalt pavements, or to form 
 foundations for buildings of any kind. 
 It is sometimes even used as the mater- 
 ial with which the walls of houses are 
 built, the concrete being firmly rammed 
 into molds of the requisite shape, and 
 then allowed to set. 
 
 CONCU'BINAGE, sexual cohabitation 
 of a man without legal marriage. It 
 was permitted among the ancient 
 Hebrews and the Greeks without limita- 
 tion; but among the Romans in the 
 case of unmarried men concubinage was 
 limited to a singly concubine of mean 
 clcscoiit 
 
 CONCURRENT JURISDICTION, the 
 jurisdiction of different courts author- 
 
 j ized to take cognizance of the same kind 
 of case. In criminal cases the court 
 which first takes up a case has the right 
 of prevention, that is, of deciding upon 
 that case exclusive of the other courts 
 which but for that right would have been 
 equally entitled to take cognizance of 
 it. In civil cases it lies with the suitor 
 to bring his cause before any court he 
 pleases, which is competent to take it up. 
 
 CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN, a 
 term applied to certain injuries of the 
 brain resulting from blows and falls, 
 though unattended with fracture of the 
 skull. Stupor or insensibility, sickness, 
 impeded respiration, and irregular pulse 
 are the first symptoms, and though 
 these may subside there is always for a 
 time more or less risk of serious inflam- 
 mation of the brain setting in. 
 
 CONDE, Louis de Bourbon, founder of 
 the house of, born 1530; killed after 
 battle of Jarmac, 1569. See Bourbon. 
 
 CONDE, Louis de Bourbon, Prince of 
 (the Great Cond6), a famous general, 
 born in 1621. In 1641 he married a 
 niece of Cardinal Richelieu. His defeat 
 of the Spanish at Rocroi, in 1643, was 
 followed, in 1645, by his defeat of Mercy 
 at Nordlingen, and by his capture of 
 Dunkirk in 1646, the year in which he 
 inherited his father’s title. During the 
 troubles of the Fronde he at first took 
 the side of the court; but believing 
 himself to be ill requited by Mazarin, 
 he put himself at the head of the faction 
 of the Petits Maitres, and was imprison- 
 ed for a year by Mazarin (1650). On 
 his release he at once put himself at the 
 head of a new Fronde, entered upon 
 negotiations with Spain, and, his at- 
 tack on Paris being indecisive, retired 
 to the Netherlands, where he was ap- 
 pointed generalissimo of the Spanish 
 armies. In this capacity he unsuccess- 
 fully besieged Arras in 1654; but he 
 was more fortunate at Valenciennes in 
 1656, and at Cambrai in 1657. In 1658 
 he was defeated before Dunkirk by 
 Turenne, but was restored to his rank 
 in France after the peace of 1659. In 
 1668 he accomplished the reduction of 
 Franche Comt6 in three weeks; and 
 in 1674 he defeated the Prince of Orange 
 at Senef. His successes over Montecu- 
 culi in Alsace inl675 closed his military 
 career. Four years later he retired 
 to Chantilly, near Paris, and died at 
 Fontainebleau in 1687. 
 
 CONDENSA'TION, ir chemistry and 
 physics, the act of reducing a gas or 
 vapor to a liquid or solid form. Sur- 
 face condensation, a mode of condensing 
 steam by bringing it in contact with 
 cold metallic surfaces in place of by 
 injecting cold water. 
 
 CONDENSED MILK, milk preserved 
 by evaporating part of its moisture, 
 mixing with refined powdered sugar, 
 and packing in air-tight cans hermetic- 
 ally sealed: the sugar may also be 
 omitted. 
 
 CONDENSER, an apparatus for re- 
 ducing the volume of a gas, or for 
 reducing a gas to a liquid, or a liquid to 
 a solid. Condensers are used in steam 
 engines to condense the exhaust, and 
 on shipboard for the purpose of supply- 
 ing the boilers. 
 
 CONDENSER, an electric apparatus 
 used to collect electricity and to store 
 
 it. The Leyden jar is a classic example 
 of a condenser. The electricity is col- 
 lected by brushes and passed into the 
 jar. Another form of condenser is the 
 Franklin plate, consisting of a glass 
 plate with strips of tin foil on the sides. 
 
 CONDENSING STEAM-ENGINE. See 
 Steam-engine. 
 
 CONDILLAC (kon-de-yak), Etienne 
 Bonnot de, French philosopher, born 
 in 1715. His essay on the Origin of 
 Human Knowledge (1746), in large 
 part a polemic against abstract methods 
 of philosophizing, struck the key-note of 
 his system, and his Treatise on Systems, 
 (1749) continued the condemnation of 
 all systems not evolved from experience, 
 from sensation. In 1754 appeared his 
 Treatise on Sensation, and in 1755 his 
 Treatise on Animals, a criticism on 
 Buffon. The sagacity and clearness of 
 his writings led to his appointment as 
 tutor to the nephew of Louis XV., the 
 infant Duke of Parma, for whom he 
 wrote in 1755 his Cours d’Etudes, in- 
 cluding a grammar. The Art of Writing,. 
 The Art of Reasoning, The Art of 
 Thinking, and a general history. His; 
 work Commerce and Government ap- 
 peared in the same year as the Wealth 
 of Nations (1776), and was no un- 
 worthy companion to it. In 1768 he 
 was elected to the Academy. He died 
 shortly after the publication of his 
 Logic in 1780, his work on Calculus 
 being published posthumously in 1798. 
 
 CONDONA'TION, in law, forgiveness 
 of injury. In an action for divorce on 
 the ground of adultery it is a legal plea 
 in defense. 
 
 CON'DOR, a South American bird, 
 one of the largest of the Vulturidae or 
 vulturine birds. In its essential features 
 it resembles the common vultures, dif- 
 fering from them mainly in the large 
 
 cartilaginous caruncle which surmounts 
 its beak, and in the large size of its oval 
 and longitudinal nostrils placed almost 
 at the extremity of the cere. Despite 
 the many stories of its gigantic pro- 
 portions, Humboldt met with no speci- 
 mens whose wings exceeded 9 feet in 
 expanse, though it has occasionally been 
 known to attain an expanse of 14 feet. 
 It is found in greatest numbers in the 
 Andos chain, frequenting regions from 
 10,000 to 15,000 feet above the level of 
 the sea, w’here they breed, depositing 
 their two white eggs on the bare rock. 
 They are generally to be seen in groups 
 of three or four, and only descend to 
 the plains under stress of hunger, when 
 they will successfully attack sheep, 
 goats, deer, and bullocks. They prefer 
 carrion, however, and, when they have 
 opportunity gorge themselves until they 
 
CONDORCET 
 
 CONFIDENTIAL COMMUNICATION 
 
 become incapable of rising from the 
 ground. 
 
 CONDORCET (kon-dor-sa), Marie 
 Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, Mar- 
 quis de, an eminent French writer, born 
 in 1743. At the age of twenty-one he 
 presented to the Academy of Sciences an 
 Essai Sur le Calcul Integral, and in 1767 
 his Memoire on The Problem of Three 
 Points appeared, both being afterward 
 united under the title of Essays on 
 Analysis. The merit of this work gained 
 for him in 1769 a seat in the Academy 
 of Sciences, of which, after the pub- 
 lication of hjs Eulogies of Academicians, 
 who died previously to 1699, (1773), he 
 was appointed perpetual secretary 
 (1777). In 1777 his Theory of Comets 
 gained the pririe offered by the Academy 
 of Berlin; he enriched the transactions 
 of many learned sccieties; and took 
 an active part in Ihe Encyclopedic. 
 During the tioubles of the first French 
 revolution his sympathies were strongly 
 engaged on the side of the people. The 
 fall of the Girondist party. May 31, 1793, 
 prevented the constitution which Con- 
 dorcet had drawn up from being ac- 
 cepted, and as he freely criticised the 
 constitution which took its place he 
 was denounced as being an accomplice 
 of Brissot. Madame Verney, a woman 
 of noble feelings, secreted him for eight 
 months, during which he wrote his 
 Sketch of an Historic Picture of the 
 Progress of the Human Spirit. Lest he 
 should endanger her safety, however, 
 he left the house secretly in opposition 
 to her wishes, fled from Paris, and 
 wandered about till arrested and thrown 
 into prison, where, March 28, 1794, he 
 was found dead on the floor, having 
 apparently swallowed poison. 
 
 CONDUCTION. See Heat. 
 
 CONDUC'TOR, or LIGHTNING CON- 
 DUCTOR, an instrument by means of 
 which either the electricity of the clouds, 
 the cause of lightning, is conducted 
 without explosion into the earth, or the 
 lightning itself is received and con- 
 ducted quietly into the earth or water 
 without injuring buildings, ships, etc. 
 It was invented by Benjamin Franklin 
 
 Lightnlng-cond uctor. 
 
 o6«, Various forms of rods, cdf. Various 
 forms of tips. ghi,V arlous forms 
 of attachments. 
 
 about 1752, and met with speedy 
 general adoption, the first conductor in 
 England being erected in 1762. It 
 usually consists of a stout iron rod with 
 one or more points at the top, the lower 
 end being metallically connected with 
 thick strips of copper which are carried 
 into the ground to a considerable depth 
 and terminated, if possible, in water 
 or in wet earth. Vanous other forms of 
 conductors have been introduced, such 
 as are shown in the accompanying cut, 
 where a is a conductor consisting of 
 
 metallic strips joined together, b a con- 
 ductor of copper wires intertwined with 
 iron rods, e a conductor consisting of a 
 metallic strip forming a tube with spiral 
 flanges. Various kinds of tips are also 
 in use, as will be seen in the cut, d being 
 formed of several metals inclosed the one 
 within the other, the most fusible being 
 outside; g, h, i show how in some cases 
 successive sections of rods are connected. 
 
 CONDUIT (kun'dit), a line of pipes or 
 an underground channel of some kind 
 for the conveyance of water. 
 
 CONE, as used in geometry, generally 
 means a right circular cone, which may 
 be defined as the solid figure traced out 
 when a right-angled triangle is made to 
 revolve round one of the sides that con- 
 tain the right angle. A more compre- 
 hensive definition may be given as 
 follows: — Let a straight line he held 
 fixed at one point, and let any other 
 point of the line be made to describe 
 any closed curve which does not cut 
 itself; the solid figure traced out is a 
 cone. When the curve which the second 
 point describes is a circle, the cone is a 
 right circular cone. The cubical con- 
 tent of a right circular cone is one-third 
 of that of a cylinder on the same base 
 and of the same altitude, and is there- 
 fore found by multiplying the area of 
 the base by the altitude, and taking one- 
 third of the product. See also Conic 
 Sections. 
 
 CONE, in botany, a dry compound 
 fruit, consisting of many open scales, 
 each with two seeds at the base, as in 
 the conifers; a strobilus. 
 
 CONEY ISLAND, a small island 9 
 miles southeast of New York, at the 
 west end of Long Island, a favorite 
 summer bathing resort, having a fine 
 beach, splendid hotels, and numerous 
 other attractions and accommodations 
 for visitors. 
 
 CONFECTIONERY, an edible sub- 
 stance made principally from sugar and 
 including what is generally called candy. 
 Confections were formerly used chiefly 
 as vehicles for medicine and were made 
 by druggists or medicine venders. 
 Since their manufacture on a large 
 scale began in the last century they 
 have been adulterated with various 
 substances injurious to health, such 
 as coal tar colors, clay, etc. The value 
 of confectionery products in the United 
 States amounts to $70,000,000 or more 
 annually. 
 
 CONFEDERACY, United Daughters 
 of the, a society of women patriots 
 formed in 1894 at Nashville, Tenn., 
 for the perpetuation of the memory of 
 the part which the women of the South 
 took in the civil war. It is organized 
 into state divisions and has a member- 
 ship of over 30,000. 
 
 CONFEDERATE STATES, the name 
 given to eleven of the Southern States of 
 America, which attempted to secede 
 from the Union on the election of Abra- 
 ham Lincoln, the abolitionist candidate, 
 to the presidency in November, 1860, 
 thus leading to the great civil war 
 which lasted till 1865. See United 
 States. 
 
 CONFEDERATE VETERANS , United, 
 an organization of former soldiers of 
 the Confederate army, founded at New 
 Orleans in 1889, for social, patriotic. 
 
 and historical purposes. It has a mem- 
 bership of nearly 70,000 and publishes 
 a periodical. The Confederate Veteran, 
 which is the official organ of the society, 
 
 CON'FERENCE, (1) a meeting of the 
 representatives of different foreign coun- 
 tries for the discussion of some question. 
 (2) A meeting between delegates of the 
 two houses of parliament called to dis- 
 cuss the provisions of a bill with regard 
 to which they are disagreed, with the 
 object of effecting an agreement between 
 them. (3) The annual meetings of 
 Wesleyan preachers for deliberation on 
 the affairs of the body. 
 
 CONFESSION, Auricular, in the strict- 
 est sense, the disclosure of sins to the 
 priest at the confessional, with a view 
 to obtain absolution for them. The 
 person confessing is allowed to conceal 
 no sin of consequence which he remem- 
 bers to have committed, and the father 
 confessor is bound to perpetual secrecy. 
 The practice of a public acknowledg- 
 ment of great sins was altered by Pope 
 Leo the Great, in 450, into a secret one 
 before the priest, and the Fourth General 
 Lateran council (1215) ordained that 
 every one of the faithful, of both sexes, 
 come to years of discretion, should 
 privately confess all their sins at least 
 once a year to their own pastor, an 
 ordination still binding on members of 
 the R. Catholic Church. Confession is 
 a part of the sacrament of penance. 
 
 CONFESSIONAL, in Roman Catholic 
 churches and chapels, a kind of inclosed 
 seat in which the priest sits to hear 
 persons confess their sins. The con- 
 fessional is often not unlike a sentry- 
 box, the priest sitting within and the 
 
 Confessional, cathedral of St. Gudule, 
 Brussels. 
 
 penitent kneeling without and speak- 
 ing through an aperture. Many con- 
 fessionals are in three divisions or com- 
 partments, the center, which is for the 
 reception of the priest, being closed 
 half-way up by a dwarf door, and hav- 
 ing a seat within it. The side compart- 
 ments, which communicate with the 
 center by grated apertures, are for the 
 penitents. 
 
 CONFIDENTIAL COMMUNICATION, 
 
 in law, a communication made by one 
 person to another which the latter can- 
 not be compelled to give in evidence as a 
 witness. Generally all communications 
 made between a client and his agent, 
 between the agent and the counsel in a 
 suit, or between the several parties to a 
 suit, are treated as confidential. The 
 privilege of confidentiality does not ex- 
 tend to disclosures made to a medical 
 adviser, and in England it has been 
 
CONFIRMATION 
 
 CONIFERiE 
 
 decided also that confessions made to 
 a priest are not to be treated as con- 
 fidential. 
 
 CONFIRMATION, the ceremony of 
 laying on of hands by a bishop in the 
 admission of baptized persons to the 
 enjoyment of Christian privileges, the 
 person confirmed then taking upon him- 
 self the baptismal vov/s made in his 
 name. In the Roman Catholic churches 
 a delay of 7 years is interposed after 
 baptism, in the Lutheran from 13 to 16, 
 and in the English Church from 14 to 
 18, though in the latter there is no fixed 
 eriod. The Lord’s Supper is not taken 
 y these sects until after confirmation. 
 
 CONFISCATION, the act of condemn- 
 ing as forfeited, and adjudging to the 
 public treasury, the goods of a criminal 
 in part punishment of a crime. 
 
 CONFOR'MABLE, in geol., lying in 
 parallel or nearly parallel planes, and 
 
 b e a 
 
 Conformable strata a and fi.unconformable at c 
 
 having the same dip and changes of dip ; 
 said of strata, the opposite term being 
 unconformable. 
 
 CONFU'CIUS, or KONG-FU-TSE, that 
 is, “the teacher, Kong,” the famous 
 Cninese sage, born about 550 b.c. in the 
 
 E rovinee of Shantung. The deaths of 
 is favorite disciples Yen Hwin and 
 Tze-lu in 481 and 478 did much to further 
 his own, which took place in the latter 
 year. Confucius left no work detailing 
 his moral and social system, but the five 
 canonical books of Confucianism are the 
 Yih-king, the Shu-king, the Shi-king, 
 the Le-king, and the Chun-tsien, with 
 which are grouped the “Four Books,” by 
 disciples of Confucius, the Ta-heo or 
 Great Study, the Chung-Yung or In- 
 variable Mean, the Tun-yu or “Philos- 
 ophical Dialogues,” and the Hi-tse, 
 written by Meng-tse or Mencius. The 
 teaching of Confucius has had^ and still 
 has, an immense influence in China, 
 though he can hardly be said to have 
 founded either a religion or a philosophy. 
 All his teaching was devoted to prac- 
 tical morality and to the duties of man 
 in this world in relation to his fellow- 
 men; in it was summed up the wisdom 
 acquired by his own insight and ex- 
 perience, and that derived from the 
 teaching of the sages of antiquity. It 
 is doubtful if he had any real belief in a 
 personal god. 
 
 CONGENITAL DISEASE, a disease 
 with which one is afflicted at the time of 
 birth, not necessarily an inherited 
 disease, although most inherited dis- 
 eases are congenital. Many congem'tal 
 diseases are due to defects of the 
 mothei or to accidental causes during 
 the term of pregnancy. 
 
 CONGER-EEL (kong'ger), a genus 
 of marine eels characterized by a long 
 dorsal fin beginning near the nape of the 
 neck, immediately above the origin of 
 the pectoral fins, and by having the 
 upper jaw longer than the lower. 
 
 CONGESTION, in medicine, an ex- 
 cessive accumulation of blood in an 
 
 organ, which thereby becomes disorder- 
 ed. Among the causes of congestion are 
 the different periods of development of 
 the human body, each of which renders 
 some particular organ unusually active; 
 diseased conditions; and the accidental 
 exertions of certain organs. Again, if 
 the current of blood to one organ is 
 checked the blood tends to accumulate 
 in another* and the vessels wliich bring 
 back the blood to the heart — that is the 
 veins — are sometimes obstructed, as 
 by external pressure, by tumors, etc. 
 Congestion sometimes lasts a short time 
 only; but if not early cured, and its 
 return, which would otherwise be fre- 
 quent, prevented, it is only the begin- 
 ning of other diseases. Sometimes it 
 terminates in bleeding, which is a 
 remedy for it; sometimes it increases 
 into inflammation; sometimes it be- 
 comes a chronic disease, that is, the 
 blood accumulates for a long time and 
 expands the veins, the expansion be- 
 comes permanent, and dropsy may re- 
 sult. 
 
 CONGLOM'ERATE, a term applied 
 by geologists to rocks consisting mostly 
 of water-worn pebbles cemented to- 
 gether by a matrix of siliceous, calcare- 
 ous,'-or other cement. 
 
 CONGO, or ZAIRE, one of the great 
 rivers of the world, in Southern Africa, 
 having its embouchure in the South 
 Atlantic. It carries more water to the 
 ocean than the Mississippi, its volume 
 being next to that of the Amazon. Its 
 total length is perhaps 3000 miles. Its 
 chief tributaries are the Aruwimi and 
 the Mobangi from the right, and the 
 Ikelemba and Kwa from the left, which 
 latter represents the collected waters of 
 immense rivers from the south, such as 
 the Kassai, the Kwango, etc. It is 
 navigable for about 110 miles from its 
 mouth, after which the navigation is 
 interrupted by cataracts. 
 
 CONGO FREE STATE, a state re- 
 cently founded on the river Congo, in 
 Central South Africa, stretching by a 
 kind of narrow neck of territory to the 
 river’s mouth, but expanding inland so 
 as to cover an immense area, mainly 
 lying south of the river. The central 
 government is at Brussels, consisting 
 of the King of Belgium as sovereign, and 
 three departmental chiefs. In Africa 
 there is a governor-general with many 
 officials, and an armed force. The 
 revenue is partly from funds provided 
 by King Leopold. A number of stations 
 have been formed on the river, the 
 chief of which is Boma, 70 miles from 
 its mouth. The chief exports are palm 
 oil and kernels, caoutchouc, ivory, copal, 
 ground-nuts, wax, etc. From Matadi, 
 opposite Vivi, a railway has been laid 
 to Stanley Pool, and steamers have 
 been placed on the river. Area esti- 
 mated at 900,000 sq. miles; pop. at 
 8,000,000 to 40,000,000. 
 
 CONGO PEA. See Pigeon Pea. 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISTS, a Chris- 
 tian sect claiming to continue the primi- 
 tive form of church government. Each 
 congregation is autonomous^ and wholly 
 independent of extraneous jurisdiction, 
 the union of Congregational churches 
 having only such indirect authority 
 as attends the cumulative expression 
 of opinion. In doctrine the majority 
 
 are evangelical, though in individual 
 churches considerable latitude is shown. 
 
 CONGRESS, generally speaking a 
 meeting of international representatives 
 for the purpose of considering particular 
 or general questions concerning inter- 
 national politics, art, science, economy, 
 or religion. A series of world’s con- 
 gresses were held at the Chicago World’s 
 Fair in 1893. International treaty 
 congresses will be found described under 
 their separate heads. 
 
 CONGRESS, the name given to the 
 legislative assembly of the U. States, 
 consisting of two houses — a senate and 
 a house of representatives. The sen- 
 ate consists of two members elected by 
 each state for a period of six years, one- 
 third of whom are elected every two 
 years. The representatives in the lower 
 house are elected by the several states 
 every two years, and their number 
 varies in each state in proportion to the 
 population as determined by the de- 
 cennial census. The united body of 
 senators and representatives for the two 
 years during which the representatives 
 hold their seats is called one congress. 
 See United States. 
 
 CONGRESSMAN AT LARGE, a mem- 
 ber of the U. States house of represen- 
 tatives who is elected by the votes of all 
 of the people of a state and not by a 
 single district. They are elected _ to 
 provide for the excess of population 
 until the state can be regularly redis- 
 tricted. 
 
 CONIC SECTIONS, three curves, the 
 hyperbola, the parabola, and the eclipse, 
 so called because they are formed by 
 the intersection of the surface of a cone 
 with planes that cut the cone in various 
 
 directions. If the cutting-plane be 
 parallel to the axis the curve formed is 
 the hyperbola (1) ; if parallel to the slope 
 of the cone the curve is a parabola (2); 
 if passing through both sides of the cone 
 obliquely the section is an ellipse (3). 
 A section perpendicular to the axis of 
 the cone forms a circle (4), which may 
 also be considered one of the conic sec- 
 tions. A perpendicular plane through 
 the apex gives a triangle (5). 
 
 CONIF'ER^, the pines, firs, and their 
 allies, the essential character of which 
 consists in the manner in which the 
 ovules, not inclosed in an ovary, receive 
 directly the action of the pollen without 
 the intervention of a stigma. The 
 ovules in these plants are borne on scales 
 or modified leaves, which are spread out, 
 not folded, and generally grouped in 
 sueh a manner as to form a cone com- 
 posed of a greater or smaller number of 
 these leaves, of which only a portion 
 may be fertile and bear ovules. 
 
CONJUGAL RIGHTS 
 
 CONNEMARA 
 
 CON'TUGAL RIGHTS, in law, the 
 right which husband and wife have to 
 each other’s society, comfort, and affec- 
 tion. A suit for restitution of conjugal 
 rights is competent by either party. 
 
 CONJUGATION. See Verb. 
 
 CONJUNCTION, in grammar, a con- 
 nective indeclinable particle serving to 
 unite words, sentences, or clauses of a 
 sentence, and indicating their relation 
 to one another. They are classifiable 
 into two main groups: (1) Coordi- 
 nating conjunctions, joining independent 
 propositionsj and subdivisible into cop- 
 ulative, disjunctive, adversative, and 
 illative conjunctions; (2) Subordinating 
 conjunctions, linking a dependent or 
 modifjdng clause to the principal sen- 
 tence. The only active influence which 
 the conjunction can be said to exercise 
 grammatically in a sentence is in respect 
 of the mood of the verb following it in 
 dependent sentences, the rule being to 
 employ the subjunctive where futurity 
 and contingency are implied, the in- 
 dicative where they are not; as “I will 
 do it, though he be there” (which he may 
 or may not be) ; or “I will do it, though 
 he is there” (which he is). 
 
 CONJUNCTION, in astronomy, the 
 position of two of the heavenly bodies, 
 as two planets, or the sun and a planet, 
 when they have the same longitude 
 (are in the same direction from the 
 earth). _ When it is simply said that a 
 planet is in conjunction, conjunction 
 with the sun is to be understood. 
 Superior conjunction and inferior con- 
 junction are terms used of the planets 
 whose orbits are nearer to the sun than 
 that of the earth, according as the sun 
 is between us and them, or they between 
 Us and the sun. 
 
 CON'JURING. See Legerdemain. 
 
 CONKLING, Roscoe, an American 
 senator and orator, born in Albany, N.Y., 
 in 1829, died in 1888. He was admitted 
 to the bar in 1850 and was early in the 
 political field as a stump-speaker. He 
 was several times elected congressman. 
 Up to 1867, and his ability as a debater 
 and orator won him great fame. At 
 38 he was elected U. States senator and 
 soon became one of the foremost leaders 
 of the republican party. In 1876 he 
 appeared as a presidential candidate, 
 opposed civil service reform, and in 
 1880 led the movement to nominate 
 Grant for a third time. He quarreled 
 with Garfield for appointing anti- 
 Conkling men to federal offices and soon 
 afterward retired from active politics 
 to the practice of law. Conkling was a 
 very positive man, strong in his friend- 
 ships and enmities and his work was for 
 the most part ephemeral. 
 
 CONNAUGHT (kon'nat), the smallest 
 of the four provinces of Ireland, situated 
 between Leinster and the Atlantic; area, 
 4,392,086 acres. A large proportion of 
 the province is bog, and, generally it is 
 the least fertile of all of the provinces. 
 It is divided into five counties — Galway, 
 Mayo, Roscommon, Leitrim, and Sligo. 
 Pop. 649,635. 
 
 CONNECTICUT (kon-net'i-kut), a 
 river. U. States, the west branch of 
 which forms by treaty the boundary 
 between the U. States and Canada to 
 Jat. 45° n. It rises on the north border 
 -of New Hampshire; forms the boundary 
 
 between Vermont and New Hampshire 
 passes through the west part of Massa- 
 chusetts and the central part of Con- 
 necticut, and falls into Long Island 
 Sound. It is navigable for vessels 
 drawing from 8 to 10 feet for about 300 
 miles from its mouth, subsidiary canals, 
 however, being required above Hart- 
 ford; total length, 450 miles. It is 
 famed for its shad fisheries. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, one of the original 
 thirteen states of the American Union; 
 bounded by New York, Massachusetts, 
 Rhode Island, and Long Island Sound; 
 length, east to west, about 95 miles; 
 greatest breadth, north to south, about 
 72 miles; area, 4845 sq. miles. It con- 
 tains several distinct ranges of hills, but 
 none of them have any great elevation. 
 Its principal river is the Connecticut, 
 which divides it into two nearly equal 
 parts. The coast is indented with 
 numerous bays and creeks which fur- 
 nish many harbors. In former geologic 
 times the area of Connecticut is believed 
 to have formed a part of the southern 
 slope of a great mountain mass, whose 
 summits are perhaps indicated bj" the 
 present White, Green, and Ad'rondack 
 mountains. Long-continued erosion of 
 
 Connecticut seal. 
 
 streams and perhaps of ice reduced this 
 region to a plain, with low relief and 
 shallow stream valleys. A compara- 
 tively recent tilting of the land has 
 slightly depressed the coast and elevated 
 the interior. This has revived the cut- 
 ting power of the streams, which are now 
 actively eroding thcli valleys, most of 
 them in hard rocks, in which slow prog- 
 ress is made. The Connecticut Valley 
 is, however, largely of relatively softer 
 rocks, which have been eroded away 
 with greater rapidity. In recent geo- 
 logic times the area of the state was 
 covered by the Laurentian glacier, 
 which did much erusiqn and deposition, 
 scouring out lake basins, and thus form- 
 ing the multitude of little lakes and 
 ponds which diversify the surface, and 
 modifying the streams’ courses, pro- 
 ducing rapids and falls, now utihzed 
 for water-power. 
 
 Among the highest points in Connecti- 
 cut are Bear Mountain, 2355 feet; 
 Gridley Mountain, 2200 feet; Riga 
 Mountain, all in Salisbury; Bradford 
 Mountain, in Canaan, 1927; Dutton 
 Mountain, 1620 feet, and Mount Ball, 
 
 1780, In Norfolk; Above All Mountain, 
 1456, in Warren; Ivy Mountain, in 
 Goshen, 1640 feet; and Ellsworth Hill, 
 1580 feet, in Sharon. Its minerals com- 
 
 C rise iron, copper, lead, cobalt, plum- 
 ago, marbie, free-stone, porcelain-clay, 
 and coal. Lime is produced in large 
 quantities, and there is abundance of 
 building stone. The soil is in general 
 better suited for grazing than tillage, 
 abounding in fine meadows. But where 
 agriculture is practiced there are ample 
 crops of Indian corn, rye, wheat, oats, 
 barley, buckwheat, potatoes, hay, to- 
 bacco, etc.: and fruits, particularly 
 apples, flourish. Connecticut is nota- 
 bly a manufacturing state, 19.5 per 
 cent of the total population being en- 
 gaged in that industry. Though one 
 of the smallest states of the Union, 
 it ranks eleventh in the importance of 
 its manufactures. Influential among the 
 factors which have developed these in- 
 terests have been the favorable geo- 
 graphical location and the excellence of 
 the land and water communication of 
 the state, the water power afforded by 
 its streams, and especially the inventive 
 talents and industrious habits of its 
 people. 
 
 By the twelfth census the state sur- 
 passed any other state in 11 important 
 industries, producing 75 per cent in 
 value of the total ammunition output 
 of the country; 56 per cent of the brass 
 manufactures; 63 per cent of the clocks; 
 47 per cent of the hardware; 76 per cent 
 of the plated and britannia ware; 64 
 per cent of the needles and pins. The 
 development of its manufactures has 
 been consistent. The cotton-mills of the 
 state are clustered on the streams that 
 flow into the Thames at Norwich. The 
 principal exports consist of agricultural 
 produce and manufactures. The foreign 
 commerce is nearly all carried on through 
 New York and Boston, but there is a 
 considerable coasting trade, and a large 
 amount of tonnage engaged in the cod- 
 fisheries. Fish-culture has received 
 special attention, many millions of shad 
 ova and young salmon having been 
 introduced into the rivers. The state is 
 intersected in various directions by 
 railways. The chief educational insti- 
 tution is Yale University, one of the 
 most celebrated in the world. Connecti- 
 cut is divided into eight counties; Hart- 
 ford is the capital. The state at first 
 consisted of two colonies — Connecticut, 
 with its seat of government atHartford; 
 and New Haven, at New Haven. Con- 
 necticut was settled in 1633 by emi- 
 grants from Massachusetts. Hartford 
 was settled by English in 1635, the 
 Dutch having previously built a fort 
 there. The colony of New Haven was 
 settled by English in 1638, and the two 
 colonies were united in 1665 by a charter 
 granted by Charles II. In national 
 elections the state went Democratic in 
 1888 and 1892; in 1896, 1900, 1904, 1908, 
 Republican. Pop. 1,000,000. 
 
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE. See Areolar 
 Tissxi6» 
 
 CONNEMARA (“the Bays of the 
 Ocean”), a boggy and mountainous dis- 
 trict occupying the west portion^ of 
 county Galway, Ireland; about 30 miles 
 in length and 15 to 20 miles in breadth. 
 Its coasts are broken, and there are nu* 
 
■ CONRAD II. 
 
 CONSTANTINE 
 
 merous small lakes. It is subdivided 
 into Connemara Proper in the west, Jar- 
 Connaught in the south, and Joyce 
 Country in the north. 
 
 CON'RAD II,, king of Germany and 
 emperor of the Romans, reigned from 
 1024 to 1039, and is regarded as the true 
 founder of the Franconian or Salic line. 
 
 CONRAD III., king of Germany, and 
 emperor of the Romans from 1138 to 
 
 and is performed by a bishop; (3) the 
 act of the priest in celebrating the 
 eucharist by which the elements are 
 solemnly dedicated to their sacred 
 purpose. 
 
 CONSENT', in law, is understood to be 
 a free and deliberate act of a rational 
 being. It is invalidated by any undue 
 means — intimidation, improper influx 
 ence, or imposition — used to obtain it. 
 
 by an act consolidating several separate 
 stocks bearing interest at 3 per Cent 
 into one general stock. At the period 
 when the consolidation took place the 
 principal of the funds united amounted 
 to $45,000,000; but through the addi- 
 tion of other loans it has increased sO 
 much that how, after considerable re- 
 ductions. it still amounts to more than 
 half of tne national debt. The interest 
 of about flve million pounds is payable 
 in Dublin, that of the remainder in 
 London. 
 
 CON'SONANCE, in music, an agree- 
 able accord of sounds, such as the third, 
 fifth, and octave. See Concord. 
 
 CON'SONANT, a letter so named as 
 being sounded only in connection with a 
 vowel, though some consonants have 
 hardly any sound even w’hen united 
 with a vowel, serving merely to de- 
 termine the manner of beginning or 
 ending the vowel sounds; as in ap, pa, 
 at, ta. In uttering a consonant there is 
 greater or less contact of some parts of 
 the organs of speech; in uttering a 
 vowel there is a want of such contact, 
 the_ vocal passage being open though 
 variously modified. They are classed 
 as liquids, mutes, sibilants, labials, 
 dentals, palatals, gutturals, etc. 
 
 CONSPIR'ACY, in law, an offense 
 ranked as a misdemeanor, and punish- 
 able by imprisonment and hard labor. 
 It is constituted by a combination be- 
 tween several persons to carry into 
 effect any purpose injurious either to 
 individuals, particular classes, or the 
 community at large. When the con- 
 spiracy leads to any overt act of an un- 
 lawful kind, the offense becomes felony. 
 
 Cornice supported by Consoles* a 
 
 CONSTABLE, in the common modern 
 acceptation of the term constables are 
 olice officers in towns, counties, etc., 
 aving as their duties the repression of 
 felonies, the keeping of the peace, the 
 execution of legal warrants, etc. In 
 case of special disturbance a certain 
 number of private citizens may be sworn 
 in as special constables. 
 
 CON'STANTINE, Caius Flavius Val- 
 erius Aurelius Claudius, Roman em- 
 peror, surnamed the Great, son of the 
 Emperor Constantins Chlorus, was born 
 a.d.274. After the death of his father 
 he was chosen emperor by the soldiery, 
 in the year 306, and took possession of 
 the countries which had been subject to 
 his father, namely, Gaul, Spain, and 
 Britain. In the campaign in Italy he 
 saw, it is said, the vision of a flaming 
 cross in the heavens, beneath the sun, 
 bearing the inscription, “In hoc signo 
 vinces.” Under the standard of the 
 cross, therefore, he vanquished the 
 army of Maxentius under the walls of 
 Rome, and entered the city in triump]^ 
 
 Scene In Connemara — Going to market. 
 
 1152, was the founder of the Suabian 
 dynasty of Hohenstaufen. His marriage 
 with a Greek princess led to his adoption 
 of the double-headed eagle now appear- 
 ing on the Austrian arms. He was 
 succeeded by his nephew Frederick 
 Barbarossa. 
 
 CONSANGUIN'ITY, the relation of 
 persons descended from the same ances- 
 tor. It is either lineal or collateral — 
 lineal between father and son, grand- 
 father and grandson, and all persons in 
 the direct line of ancestry and descent, 
 from one another; collateral between 
 brothers, cousins, and other kinsmen 
 descended from a common ancestor, 
 but not from one another. 
 
 CONSCIENCE, that power or faculty, 
 or combination of faculties, which de- 
 cides on the rightness and wrongness of 
 actions; otherwise called the Moral 
 Sense. 
 
 CONSCIOUSNESS, a term used in 
 various senses, most commonly perhaps 
 to denote the mind’s knowledge or 
 cognizance of its own action. 
 
 CONSCRIP'TION, the enlisting of the 
 inhabitants of a country capable of 
 bearing arms, by a compulsory levy, at 
 the pleasure of the government, being 
 thus distinguished from recruiting, X)r 
 voluntary enlistment. In Great Brit- 
 ain and the U. States a small militia 
 obtained, if necessary, by conscription 
 s usually kept up in time of peace, but 
 the rule is voluntary enlistment. 
 
 CONSECRA'TION, the dedication 
 with certain rites or ceremonies of a 
 person or thing to the service of God; 
 especially (1) the ordination of a bishop 
 or archbishop, which requires the co- 
 operation of at least three bishops; 
 (2) the dedication of a church to God’s 
 service, which is practiced in the .An- 
 glican and Roman Catholic churches 
 
 Idiots, pupils, etc., cannot give legal 
 consent; neither can persons in a state 
 of absolute drunkenness, though partial 
 intoxication will not afford legal ground 
 for annulling a contract. 
 
 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. See 
 Energy, Conservation of. 
 
 CONSER'VATORY, a name given to a 
 systematic school of musical instruction. 
 
 CONSER'VATORY, in gardening, a 
 term generally applied by gardeners to 
 plant-houses, in which the plants are 
 raised in a bed or border without the use 
 of pots, the building being frequently 
 attached to a dwelling-house. 
 
 CON'SERVE, a form of medicine in 
 which flowers, herbs, fruits, roots, are 
 preserved as nearly as possible in their 
 natural fresh state. 
 
 CONSIGN'MENT, a mercantile term 
 which means either the sending of goods 
 to a factor or agent for sale, or the goods 
 so sent. 
 
 CON'SISTORY, the highest council of 
 state in the Papal government. The 
 name is also applied to the court of 
 every diocesan bishop, held in their 
 cathedral churches for the trial of 
 ecclesiastical causes arising within the 
 diocese. In the English Church the con- 
 sistory is held by the bishop’s chancellor 
 or commissary and by archdeacons and 
 their officials either in the cathedral 
 church or other convenient place in the 
 diocese. 
 
 CON'SOLE, in architecture, a project- 
 ing ornament or bracket having for its 
 contour generally a curve of contrary 
 ffexure. It is employed to support a 
 cornice, bust, vase, or the like, but is 
 frequently used merely as an ornament. 
 
 CON'SOLS, or CONSOLIDATED AN- 
 NUITIES, a public stock forming the 
 greater portion of the national debt of 
 Great Britain. It was formed in 1751 
 
CONSTANTINOPLE 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 la 313, together with his son-in-law, 
 the eastern emperor, Licinius, he pub- 
 lished the memorable edict of toleration 
 in favor of the Christians, and subse- 
 quently declared Christianity the re- 
 ligion of the state. Licinius, becoming 
 jealous of his fame, twice took up arms 
 against him, but was on each occasion 
 defeated, and finally put to death. Thus 
 
 in 325 Constantine became the sole 
 head of the Roman Empire. His in- 
 ternal administration was marked by a 
 wise spirit of reform, and by many hu- 
 mane concessions with regard to slaves, 
 accused persons, v/idows, etc. In 329 
 he laid the foundation of a new capital of 
 the empire, at Byzantium, which was 
 called after him Constantinople, and 
 soon rivalled Rome herself. In 337 he 
 was taken ill near Nicomedia, was 
 baptized, and died after a reign of 
 thirty-one years, leaving his empire be- 
 tween his three sons, Constantine, Con- 
 stantins, and Constans. 
 
 CONST ANTINO'PLE, a celebrated city 
 of Turkey in Europe, capital of the 
 Turkish Empire, situated on a pro- 
 montory jutting into the Sea of Mar- 
 
 Golden Horn, an inlet 
 of the latter, on the north and the Bos- 
 pori^ on the east. The city proper 
 18 thus surrounded by water on all 
 sides excepting the west, where is an 
 ancient and lofty double wall of 4 miles 
 in length, stretching across the promon- 
 wy. On the opposite side of the Golden 
 Horn ai-e Galata, Pera, and other 
 
 P. E.— 20 
 
 suburbs, while on the Asiatic side of 
 the Bosporus entrance is Skutari. 
 Occupying the extreme point of the 
 promontory on which the city stands is 
 the seraglio or palace of the sultan, 
 which, with its buildings, pavilions, 
 gardens, and groves, includes a large 
 space At the principal entrance is a 
 large and lofty gate, called Bab Humay- 
 um, "the high door” or “sublime porte,” 
 from which has been derived the well- 
 known diplomatic phrase. Of the 300 
 mosques, the most remarkable are the 
 royal mosques, of which there are about 
 fifteen, esteemed the finest in the world. 
 First among these is the mosque of 
 St. Sophia, the most ancient existing 
 Christian church, converted into a 
 mosque in 1453 on the capture of the 
 city by the Turks. Another magnificent 
 mosque is that of Soliman ; after which 
 are those of the Sultana Valide, built by 
 the mother of Mohammed IV., and of 
 Sultan Achmet, the most conspicuous 
 object in the city when viewed from 
 the Sea of Marmora. The harbor, the 
 Golden Horn, which more resembles a 
 large river than a harbor, is deep, well- 
 sheltered, and capable of containing 
 1200 large ships, which may load and 
 unload alongside the quays. It is about 
 6 miles long, and a little more than half 
 a mile broad at the widest part. Among 
 the imports are corn, timber, cotton 
 stuffs, and other manufactured goods. 
 The exports consist of silk, carpets, 
 hides, wool, goats’-hair, valonia^ etc. 
 — Constantinople occupies the site of 
 the ancient Byzantium, and was named 
 after Constantine the Great, who re- 
 built it about A.D. 330. It was taken in 
 1204 by the Crusaders, who retained it 
 till 1261; and by tne Turks under 
 Mohammed II., May 29, 1453 — an event 
 which completed the extinction of the 
 Byzantine Empire. See Byzantine 
 Empire and Byzantium. Pop. 1,125,- 
 000 . 
 
 CONSTELLA'TIONS are the groups 
 into which astronomers have divided 
 the fixed stars, and which have received 
 names for the convenience of description 
 and reference. It is plain that the union 
 of several stars into a constellation, to 
 which the name of some animal, person 
 or inanimate object is given must be 
 entirely arbitrary, since the several 
 oints (the stars) may be united in a 
 undred different ways, just as imagi- 
 nation directs. The grouping adopted 
 by the Egjmtians was accordingly 
 modified by tne Greeks, though they 
 retained the Ram, the Bull, the Dog, 
 etc.; and the Greek constellations were 
 again modified by the Romans and 
 again by the Arabians. Ptolemy 
 enumerated forty-eight constellations, 
 which are still called the Ptolemsean. 
 They are the following- — 1. The twelve 
 signs of the zodiac (see Zodiac). 2. 
 Twenty-one constellations found in the 
 northern hemisphere — the Great Pear 
 (Ursa Major), the Little Bear (Ursa Mi- 
 nor), Perseus, the Dragon, Cepheus, 
 Cassiopeia, Andromeda, Pegasus, Equu- 
 lus (Horse’s Head), the Triangle, the 
 Wagoner (Auriga), Bootes, the North- 
 ern Crown (Corona Borealis), Ophiu- 
 chus, the Serpent (Serpentarius), Hercu- 
 les, the Arrow (Sagitta), the Lyre, the 
 Swan (Cygnus), the Dolphin, the Eagle 
 
 (Aqufla). 3. Fifteen constellations in 
 the southern hemisphere— Orion, the 
 Whale (Cetus), Eridanus, the Hare 
 (Lepus), the Great Dog (Canis Major)., 
 the Little Dog (Canis Minor), Hydra/ 
 the Cup (Crater), the Crow (CorV^rs)/ 
 the Centaur, the Wolf (Lupus), the 
 Altar (Ara), the Southern Fish (Piscis 
 Australis), the Argo, the Southern 
 Crown (Corona Australis). Others were 
 subsequently added, this being especi- 
 ally rendered necessary by the increased 
 navigation of the southern hemisphere,- 
 and now the different groups of stars 
 have come to be associated with all 
 sorts of animals and objects, including: 
 the Camelopard, the Fly, the Air-pUmp,. 
 the Compasses^ etc. The different sturss 
 of a constellation are marked by Greek 
 letters, a denoting those of the first 
 magnitude, /3 those of the second, and 
 so on. Stars of the sixth magnitude are 
 the smallest visible to the naked eye. 
 Several stars have also particular names. 
 
 CONSTIPA'TION, the undue retention^ 
 of feces. Its immediate effects are; 
 disordered appetite, a dry coated or' 
 clammy tongue, thirst, or a disagreeable! 
 taste in the mouth, dullness, giddiness, 
 or pain in the head, torpor, irritability, 
 and despondency. Its less immediate 
 effects are cutaneous affections, dj^spep- 
 sia, cohc, hysteria, hemorrhoids, etc. 
 In most cases it is produced by indi- 
 gestible food, astringent and stimu- 
 lating drinks, sedentary habits, exces- 
 sive indulgence in sleep, etc. The im- 
 mediate use of purgatives, followed by 
 strict attention to regimen, is in many 
 cases all that is necessary. 
 
 CONSTITU'TION, the fundamental 
 law of a state, whether it be a written 
 instrument of a certain date, as that of 
 the United States or an aggregate of laws 
 and usages which have been formed in 
 the course of ages, like the English con- 
 stitution. The ideal constitution isJ 
 that established by a free sovereign 
 people for their own regulation, though 
 the expediency of other forms at various 
 stages of national development cannot 
 but be recognized. The chief of these 
 are: — 1. Constitutions granted by the 
 plenary power of absolute monarchs, 
 or constitutions octroyees; such as 
 Louis XVIII. ’s Charte. 2. Those 
 formed by contract between a ruler and 
 his people, the contract being mutually 
 binding — a class under which, in a great 
 degree, the British constitution must 
 be placed 3 Those formed by a com- 
 pact between different sovereign powers, 
 such as the constitutions of the German 
 Empire, of the United Provinces of 
 Holland, and of the Swiss Confederation. 
 
 In regard to political principles, con- 
 stitutions are : 1 . Democrat ic, when the 
 fundamental law guarant* es to every 
 citizen equal rights, protection, and 
 participation, direct or indirect, in the 
 government, such as the constitutions of 
 the United States and of some cantons 
 of Switzerland. 2. Aristocratic, when 
 the constitution recognizes privileged 
 classes, as the nobility and clergy, and 
 intrusts the government entirely to 
 them, or allows them a very dispropor- 
 tionate share in it. Such a constitution 
 was that of Venice, and such at one time 
 those of some Swiss cantons, for in- 
 stance, BerQ, 3. Of a mixed character. 
 
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 To this latter division belong some 
 monarchical constitutions, which recog- 
 nize the existence of a king whose power 
 is modified by other branches of govern- 
 ment of a more or less popular cast. 
 The British constitution belongs to this 
 division. 
 
 CONSTITUTIONAL LAW, a branch 
 of law which has to do with the organi- 
 zation of government, the soundness of 
 statutory law in relation to the prin- 
 ciples of a state’s constitution, and 
 with the power of a government over its 
 citizens or subjects. In the United 
 States the interpretation of the con- 
 stitution is open to all courts but the 
 Supreme Court of the United States 
 has the final jurisdiction in all ques- 
 tions of the federal constitution while 
 the supreme courts of the several states 
 have final jurisdiction over all questions 
 concerned with the constitutions of 
 the separate states themselves. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED 
 STATES, the organic law of the United 
 States. The constitution was drawn up 
 by a constitutional convention which 
 began its work on May 14, 1787, in 
 Independence Hall, Philadelphia. The 
 work was finished on Sept. 17, 1787, and 
 was ratified by all the thirteen states by 
 1790. Several amendments have been 
 made to the constitution to meet the 
 exigencies of national growth. The 
 following is a complete transcript of the 
 constitution as it exists today: 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 We, the people of the United States, 
 in order to form a more perfect union, 
 establish justice, insure domestic tran- 
 quillity, provide for the common de- 
 fense, promote the general welfare, and 
 secure the blessings of liberty to our- 
 selves and our posterity, do ordain and 
 establish this Constitution for the United 
 States of America. 
 
 Article I., Sec. 1. All legislative 
 powers herein granted shall be vested 
 in a congress of the United States, 
 which shall consist of a senate and 
 house of representatives. 
 
 Sec. 2. The house of representatives 
 shall be composed of members chosen 
 every second year by the people of the 
 several states, and the electors in each 
 state shall have the qualifications 
 requisite for electors of the most num- 
 erous branch of the state legislature. 
 
 No person shall be a representative 
 who shall not have attained to the age 
 of twenty-five years, and been seven 
 years a citizen of the United States, and 
 who shall not, when elected, be an 
 inhabitant of that state in which he 
 shall be chosen. 
 
 Representatives and direct taxes 
 shall oe apportioned among the several 
 states which may be included within 
 this Union according to their respective 
 numbers, which shall be determined by 
 adding to the whole number of free 
 persons, including those bound to ser- 
 vice for a term of years, and excluding 
 Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all 
 other persons. The actual enumeration 
 shall be made within three years after 
 the first meeting of the congress of the 
 United States, and within every subse- 
 quent term of ten years, in such man- 
 ner as they shall by law direct. The 
 
 number of representatives shall not 
 exceed one for every thirty thousand, 
 but each state shall have at least one 
 representative; and until such enu- 
 meration shall be made, the state of 
 New Hampshire shall be entitled to 
 choose 3; Massachusetts, 8; Rhode 
 Island and Providence Plantations, 1 ; 
 Connecticut, 5; New York, 6; New 
 Jersey, 4; Pennsylvania, 8; Delaware, 
 1; Maryland, 6; Virginia, 10; North 
 Carolina, 5; South Carolina, 5; and 
 Georgia, 3. 
 
 When vacancies happen in the repre- 
 sentation from any state, the executive 
 authority thereof shall issue writs of 
 election to fill such vacancies. 
 
 The house of representatives shall 
 choose their speaker and other officers; 
 and shall have the sole power of im- 
 peachment. 
 
 Sec. 3. The senate of the United 
 States shall be composed of two sena- 
 tors from each state, chosen by the 
 legislature thereof, for six years; and 
 each senator shall have one vote. 
 
 Immediately after they shall be as- 
 sembled in consequence of the first elec- 
 tion, they shall be divided as equally as 
 may be into three classes. The seats of 
 the senators of the first class shall be va- 
 cated at the expiration of the second 
 year, of the second class at the expira- 
 tion of the fourth year, and of the third 
 class at the expiration of the sixth year, 
 so that one-third may be chosen every 
 second year; and if vacancies happen by 
 resignation, or otherwise, during the 
 recess of the legislature of any state, the 
 executive thereof may make temporary 
 appointments until the next meeting of 
 the legislature, which shall then fill such 
 vacancies. 
 
 No person shall be a senator who 
 shall not have attained to the age of 
 thirty years, and been nine years a citi- 
 zen of the United States, and who shall 
 not, when elected, be an inhabitant of 
 that state for which he shall be chosen. 
 
 The vice-president of the United 
 States shall also be president of the 
 senate, but shall have no vote, unless 
 they be equally divided. 
 
 The senate shall choose their other 
 officers, and also a president pro tem- 
 pore, in the absence of the vice-president 
 or when he shall exercise the office of 
 president of the United States. 
 
 The senate shall have the sole power to 
 try all impeachments; when sitting for 
 that purpose, they shall be on oath or 
 affirmation. When the president of the 
 United States is tried, the chief justice 
 shall preside; and no person shall be 
 convicted without the concurrence of 
 two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 Judgment in cases of impeachment 
 shall not extend further than to removal 
 from office, and disqualification to hold 
 and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or 
 profit under the United States; but the 
 party convicted shall nevertheless be 
 liable and subject to indictment, trial, 
 judgment, and punishment, according 
 to law. 
 
 Sec. 4. The times, places, and manner 
 of holding elections for senators and 
 representatives shall be prescribed in 
 each state by the legislature thereof; 
 but the congress may at any time, by 
 law, make or alter such regulations, ex- 
 
 cept as to the places of chosing sena- 
 tors. 
 
 The congress shall assemble at least 
 once in every year, and such meeting 
 shall be on the first Monday in December 
 unless they shall, by law, appoint a dif- 
 ferent day. 
 
 Sec. 5. Each house shall be the judge 
 of the elections, returns, and qualifica- 
 tions of its own members, and a majority 
 of each shall constitute a quorum to do 
 business; but a smaller number may 
 adjourn from day to day, and may be 
 authorized to compel the attendance of 
 absent members, in such manner and 
 under such penalties as each house may 
 provide. 
 
 Each house may determine the rules 
 of its proceedings, punish its members 
 for disorderly behavior, and, with the 
 concurrence of two-thirds, expel a mem- 
 ber. 
 
 Each house shall keep a journal of its 
 proceedings and from time to time pub- 
 lish the same, excepting such parts as 
 may in their judgment require secrecy, 
 and the yeas and nays of the members of 
 either house on any question shall, at the 
 desire of one-fifth of those present, be 
 entered on the journal. 
 
 Neither house, during the sessions of 
 congress, shall, without the consent of 
 the other, adjourn for more than three 
 days, nor to any other place than that 
 in which the two houses shall be sitting. 
 
 Sec. 6. The senators and representa- 
 tives shall receive a compensation for 
 their services, to be ascertained by law, 
 and paid out of the treasury of the 
 United States. They shall in all cases, 
 except treason, felony, and breach of the 
 peace, be privileged from arrest during 
 their attendance at the sessions of their 
 respective houses, and in going to and 
 returning' from the same ; and for any 
 speech or debate in either house they 
 shall not be questioned in any other 
 place. 
 
 No senator or representative shall, 
 during the time for which he was elected, 
 be appointed to any civil office under the 
 authority of the^ United States, which 
 shall have been created, or the emolu- 
 ments whereof shall have been increased 
 during such time; and no person holding 
 any office under the United States shall 
 be a member of either house during his 
 continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue 
 shall originate in the house of representa- 
 tives; but the senate may propose or 
 concur with amendments, as on other 
 bills. 
 
 Every bill which shall have passed the 
 house of representatives and the senate 
 shall, before it become a law, be present- 
 ed to the president of the United States; 
 if he approve, he shall sign it ; but if not, 
 he shall return it, with his objections, 
 to that house in which it shall have 
 originated, who shall enter the objec- 
 tions at large on their journal, and pro- 
 ceed to reconsider it. If after such re- 
 consideration two-thirds of that house 
 shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be 
 sent, together with the objections to 
 the other house, by which it shall like- 
 wise be reconsidered ; and if approved by 
 two-thirds of that house, it shall become 
 a law. But in all such cases the votes of 
 both houses shall be determined b3’' yeas 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 and nays, and the names of the persons 
 voting for and against the bill shall be 
 entered on the journal of each house 
 respectively. If any bill shall not be 
 returned by the president within ten 
 days (Sunday excepted) after it shall 
 have been presented to him, the same 
 shall be a law in like manner as if he 
 had signed it, unless the congress by 
 their adjournment prevent its return; in 
 which case it shall not be a law. 
 
 Every order, resolution, or vote to 
 which the concurrence of the senate and 
 the house of representatives may be 
 necessary (except on a question of ad- 
 j'ournment) shall be presented to the 
 president of the United States; and be- 
 fore the same shall take effect, shall be 
 approved by him, or, being disapproved 
 by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds 
 of the senate and house of representa- 
 tives, according to the rules and limita- 
 tions prescribed in the case of a bill. 
 
 Sec. 8. The congress shall have power 
 to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, 
 and excises, to pay the debts and pro- 
 vide for the common defense and gener- 
 al welfare of the United States; but all 
 duties, imposts, and excise shall be uni- 
 form throughout the United States; 
 
 To borrow money on the credit of the 
 United States; 
 
 To regulate commerce with foreign 
 nations, and among the several states, 
 and with the Indian tribes; 
 
 To establish an uniform rule of natur- 
 alization, and uniform laws on the sub- 
 j'ect of bankruptcies throughout the 
 United States; 
 
 To coin money, regulate the value 
 thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the 
 standard of weights and measures; 
 
 To provide for the punishment of 
 counterfeiting the securities and current 
 coin of the United States; 
 
 To establish post-oflBces and post- 
 roads ; 
 
 To promote the progress of science 
 and useful arts, by securing for limited 
 times, to authors and inventors, the 
 exclusive right to their respective writ- 
 ings and discoveries; 
 
 To constitue tribunals inferior to the 
 supreme court; 
 
 To_ define and punish piracies and 
 felonies committed on the high seas, 
 and offenses against the law of nations; 
 
 To declare war, grant letters of mar- 
 que and reprisal, and make rules con- 
 cerning captures on land and water ; 
 
 To raise and support armies, but no 
 appropriation of money to that use shall 
 be for a longer term than two years; 
 
 To provide and maintain a navy; 
 
 To make rules for the government and 
 regulation of the land and naval forces; 
 
 To provide for calling forth the militia 
 to execute the laws of the Union, sup- 
 press insurrections, and repel invasions ; 
 
 To provide for organizing, arming, 
 and disciplining the militia, and for 
 governing such part of them as may be 
 employed in the service of the United 
 States, reserving to the states repect- 
 ively the appointment of the officers, 
 and the authority of training the militia 
 according to the discipline prescribed 
 by congress; 
 
 To exercise exclusive legislation in all 
 cases whatsoever over such district (not 
 exceeding ten miles square) as may, by 
 
 cession of particular states, and the 
 acceptance of congress, become the seat 
 of the government of the United States, 
 and to exercise like authority over all 
 places purchased by the consent of the 
 legislature of the state in which the 
 same shall be, for the erection of forts, 
 magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and 
 other needful buildings; and 
 
 To make all laws which shall be neces- 
 sary and proper for carrying into execu- 
 tion the foregoing powers, and all other 
 powers vested by this constitution in 
 the government of the United States, or 
 in any department or officer thereof. 
 
 Sec. 9. The migration or importa- 
 tion of such persons as any of the states 
 now existing shall think proper to ad- 
 mit shall not be prohibited by congress 
 prior to the year one thousand eight 
 hundred and eight; but a tax of duty 
 may be imposed on such importation, 
 not exceeding ten dollars for each 
 person. 
 
 The privilege of the writ of habeas 
 corpus shall not be suspended, unless 
 when in cases of rebellion or invasion 
 the public safety may require it. 
 
 No bill of attainder or ex post facto 
 law shall be passed. 
 
 No capitation or other direct tax shall 
 be laid, unless in proportion to the cen- 
 sus or enumeration hereinbefore directed 
 to be taken. 
 
 No tax or duty shall be laid on articles 
 exported from any state. 
 
 No preference shall be given by any 
 regulation of commerce or revenue to 
 the ports of one state over those of an- 
 other; nor shall vessels bound to or 
 from one state be obliged to enter, clear, 
 or pay duties in another. 
 
 No money shall be drawn from the 
 treasury but in consequence of appro- 
 priations made by law; and a regular 
 statement and account of the receipts 
 and expenditures of all public money 
 shall be published from time to time. 
 
 No title of nobility shall be granted 
 by the United States; and no person 
 holding any office of profit or trust under 
 them shall, without the consent of the 
 congress, accept of any present, emolu- 
 ment, office, or title, of any kind what- 
 ever, from any king, prince, or foreign 
 state. 
 
 Sec. 10. No state shall enter into any 
 treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant 
 letters of marque and reprisal; coin 
 money; emit bills of credit; make any- 
 thing but gold and silver coin a tender 
 in payment of debts; pass any bill of 
 attainder, ex post facto law, or law im- 
 pairing the obligation of contracts, or 
 grant any title of nobility. 
 
 No state shall, without the consent of 
 the congress, lay any imposts or duties 
 on imports or exports, except what may 
 be absolutely necessary for executing 
 its inspection laws; and the net produce 
 of all duties and imposts, laid by any 
 state on imports or exports, shall be for 
 the use of the treasury of the United 
 States; and all such laws shall be sub- 
 j'ect to the revision and control of the 
 congress. 
 
 No state shall, without the consent of 
 congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep 
 troops, or ships of war in time of peace, 
 enter into any agreement or compact 
 with another state, or with a foreign 
 
 power, or engage in war, unless actually 
 invaded, or in such imminent danger 
 as will not admit of delay. 
 
 Article II., Sec. 1. The executive 
 power shall be vested in a president of 
 the United States of America. He shall 
 hold his office during the term of four 
 years, and, together with the vice-presi- 
 dent, chosen for the same term, be 
 elected as follows: 
 
 Each state shall appoint, in such man- 
 ner as the legislature thereof may direct, 
 a number of electors, equal to the whole 
 number of senators and representatives 
 to which the state may be entitled in 
 the congress; but no senator or repre- 
 sentative, or persons holding an office of 
 trust or profit under the United States, 
 shall be appointed an elector. 
 
 The congress may determine the time 
 of choosing the electors, and the day on 
 which they shall give their votes; which 
 day shall be the same throughout the 
 United States. 
 
 No person, except a natural-born citi- 
 zen or a citizen of the United States at 
 the time of the adoption of the consti- 
 tution, shall be eligible to the office of 
 president; neither shall any person be 
 eligible to that office who shall not have 
 attained at the age of thirty-five years, 
 and been fourteen years resident within 
 the United States. 
 
 In case of the removal of the president 
 from office, or of his death, resignation, 
 or inability to discharge the powers and 
 duties of the said office, the same shall 
 devolve on the vice-president, and the 
 congress may by law provide for the 
 case of removal, death, resignation or 
 inability, both of the president and vice- 
 president, declaring what officer shall 
 then act as president, and such officer 
 shall act accordingly, until the disability 
 be removed, or a president shall be 
 elected. 
 
 The president shall, at stated timesj 
 receive for his services a compensation, 
 which shall neither be increased nor 
 diminished during the period for which 
 he shall have been elected, and he shall 
 not receive within that period any other 
 emolument from the United States, or 
 any of them. 
 
 Before he enters on the execution of 
 his office, he shall take the following 
 oath or affirmation: “I do solemnly 
 swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully 
 execute the office of president of the 
 United States, and will, to the best of 
 myability, preserve, protect, and defend 
 the constitution of the United States.” 
 
 Sec. 2. The president shall be com- 
 mander-in-chief of the army and navy of 
 the United States, and of the militia of 
 the several states when called into the 
 actual service of the United States; he 
 may require the opinion, in writing, of the 
 principal officer in each of the executive 
 departments upon any subj'ect relating 
 to the duties of their respective offices, 
 and he shall have power to grant re- 
 prieves and pardons for offenses against 
 the United States, except in cases of 
 impeachment. 
 
 He shall have power, by and with the 
 advice and consent of the senate, to 
 make treaties, provided two-thirds of 
 the senators present concur; and he 
 shall nominate, and by and with the ad- 
 vice and consent of the senate, shall 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 appoint ambassadors, other public min- 
 isters and consuls, judges of the supreme 
 court, and all other officers of the United 
 States, whose appointments are not 
 herein otherwise provided for, and which 
 shall be established by law; but the 
 congress may by law vest the appoint- 
 ment of such inferior officers as they 
 think proper in the president alone, in 
 the courts of law, or in the heads of 
 departments. 
 
 The president shall have power to fill 
 up all vacancies that may happen during 
 the recess of the senate, by granting 
 commissions which shall expire at the 
 end of their next session. 
 
 Sec. 3. He shall from time to time 
 give to the congress information of the 
 state of the Union, and recommend to 
 their consideration such measures as he 
 shall judge necessary and expedient; he 
 may on extraordinary occasions convene 
 both houses, or either of them, and in 
 cases of disagreement between them, 
 with respect to the time of adjournment, 
 he may adjourn them to such time as he 
 shall think proper; he shall receive am- 
 bassadors and other public ministers; 
 he shall take care that the laws be faith- 
 fully executed, and shall commission all 
 the officers of the United States. 
 
 Sec. 4. The president, vice-president, 
 and all civil officers of the United States, 
 shall be removed from office on impeach- 
 ment for, and conviction of, treason, 
 bribery, or other high crimes and mis- 
 demeanors. 
 
 Article III., Sec. 1. The judicial power 
 of the United States shall be vested in 
 one supreme court, and in such inferior 
 courts as the congress may from time to 
 time ordain and establish. The judges, 
 both of the supreme and inferior courts, 
 shall hold their offices during good be- 
 havior, and shall, at stated times, re- 
 ceive for their services a compensation, 
 vhich shall not be diminished during 
 their continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. 2. The judicial power shall ex- 
 tend to all cases, in law and equity, 
 arising under this constitution, the laws 
 of the United States, and treaties made, 
 or which shall be made, under their 
 authority; to all cases affecting am- 
 bassadors, other public ministers, and 
 consuls; to all cases of admiralty and 
 maritime jurisdiction; to controversies 
 to which the United States shall be a 
 party; to controversies between two 
 or more states; between a state and 
 citizens of another state; between citi- 
 zens of different states; between citizens 
 of the same state claiming lands under 
 grants of different states, and between 
 a state, or the citizens thereof, and 
 foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 
 
 In all cases affecting ambassadors, 
 other public ministers, and consuls, and 
 those in which a state shall be party, the 
 supreme court shall have original juris- 
 diction. In all the other cases before 
 mentioned, the supreme court shall have 
 appellate jurisdiction, both as to law 
 and fact, with such exceptions and under 
 such regulations as the congress shall 
 make. 
 
 The trial of all crimes, except in cases 
 of impeachment, shall be by jury; and 
 such trial shall be held in the state where 
 the said crimes shall have been com- 
 mitted ; but when not committed within 
 
 any state, the trial shall be at such 
 place or places as the congress may by 
 law have directed. 
 
 Sec. 3. Treason against the United 
 States shall consist only in levying war 
 against them, or in adhering to their 
 enemies, giving them aid and comfort. 
 
 No person shall be convicted of trea- 
 son unless on the testimony of two wit- 
 nesses to the same overt act, or on con- 
 fession in open court. 
 
 The congress shall have power to de- 
 clare the punishment of treason ; but no 
 attainder of treason shall work corrup- 
 tion of blood, or forfeiture except during 
 the life of the person attainted. 
 
 Article IV., Sec. 1. Full faith and 
 credit shall be given in each state to the 
 public acts, records, and judicial pro- 
 ceedings of every other state. And the 
 congress may by general laws prescribe 
 the manner in which such acts, records, 
 and proceedings shall be proved, and 
 the effect thereof. 
 
 Sec. 2. The citizens of each state shall 
 be entitled to all privileges and immuni- 
 ties of citizens in the several states. 
 
 A person charged in any state with 
 treason, felonyj or other crime, who 
 shall flee from justice, and be found in 
 another state, shall, on demand of the 
 executive authority of the state from 
 which he fled, be delivered up, to be 
 removed to the state having jurisdiction 
 of the crime. 
 
 No person held to service or labor in 
 one state, under the laws thereof, escap- 
 ing into another, shall in consequence of 
 any law or regulation therein, be dis- 
 charged from such service or labor, but 
 shall be delivered up on claim of the 
 party to whom such service or labor may 
 be due. 
 
 Sec. 3. New states may be admitted 
 by the congress into this Union; but no 
 new state shall be formed or erected 
 within the jurisdiction of any other 
 state, nor any state be formed by the 
 junction of two or more states, or parts 
 of states, without the consent of the 
 legislatures of the states concerned as 
 well as of the congress. 
 
 The congress shall have power to dis- 
 pose of and make all needful rules and 
 regulations respecting the territory or 
 other property belonging to the United 
 States ; and nothing in this constitution 
 shall be so construed as to prejudice any 
 claims of the United States, or any 
 particular state. 
 
 Sec. 4. The United States shall guar- 
 antee to every state in this Union a 
 republican form of government, and 
 shall protect each of them against in- 
 vasion, and, on application of the legis- 
 lature, or of the executive (when the 
 legislature cannot be convened), against 
 domestic violence. 
 
 Article V. The congress, whenever 
 two-thirds of both houses shall deem it 
 necessary, shall propose amendments to 
 this constitution, or, on the application 
 of the legislatures of two-thirds of the 
 several states, shall call a convention 
 for proposing amendments, which, in 
 either case, shall be valid to all intents 
 and purposes as part of this constitution, 
 when ratified by the legislatures of three- 
 fourths of the several states, or by con- 
 ventions in three-fourths thereof, as the 
 one or the other mode of ratification 
 
 naay be proposed by the congress; pro- 
 vided, that no amendment which may 
 be made prior to the year one thousand 
 eight hundred and eight shall in any 
 manner affect the first and fourth 
 clauses in the ninth section of the first 
 article; and that no state, without its. 
 consent, shall be deprived of its equal 
 suffrage in the senate. 
 
 Article VI. All debts contracted and 
 engagements entered into before the 
 adoption of this constitution shall be as 
 valid against the United States under 
 this constitution, as under the con- 
 federation. 
 
 This constitution and the laws of the 
 United States which shall be made in 
 pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, 
 or which shall be made, under the 
 authority of the United States, shall 
 be the supreme law of the land; and 
 the judges in every state shall be bound 
 thereby, anything in the constitution 
 or laws of any state to the contrary 
 notwithstanding. 
 
 The senators and representatives 
 before memtioned, and the members of 
 the several state legislatures, and all 
 executive and judicial officers, both of 
 the United States and of the several 
 states, shall be bound by oath or affirma- 
 tion to support this constitution; but 
 no religious test shall ever be required 
 as a qualification to any office or public 
 trust under the United States. 
 
 Article VII. The ratification of the 
 conventions of nine states shall be 
 sufficient for the estabhshment of this 
 constitution between the states so 
 ratifying the same. 
 
 Done in convention, by the unani- 
 mous consent of the states present the 
 17th day of September, in the year of our 
 Lord one thousand seven hundred and 
 eighty-seven, and of the independence 
 of the United States of America the 
 twelfth. 
 
 AMENDMENTS. 
 
 Article I. Congress shall make no 
 law respecting an establishment of 
 religion, or prohibiting the free exercise 
 thereof; or abridging the freedom of 
 speech or of the press; or the right of 
 the people peaceably to assemble, and 
 to petition the government for redress uf 
 grievances. 
 
 Article II. A well-regulated militia 
 being necessary to the security of a free 
 state, the right of the people to keep and 
 bear arms shall not be infringed. 
 
 Article III. No soldier shall, in time 
 of peace, be quartered in any house 
 without the consent of the owner, nor 
 in time of war but in a manner to be 
 prescribed by law. 
 
 Article IV. The right of the people to 
 be secure in their persons, houses, 
 papers, and effects, against unreason- 
 able searches and seizure.s, shall not be 
 violated; and no warrants shall issue 
 but upon probable cause, supported 
 by oath or affirmation, and particularly 
 describing the place to be searched, 
 and the persons or things to be seized. 
 
 Article V. No person shall be held to 
 answer for a capital or otherwise in- 
 famous crime, unless on a presentment 
 or indictment of a grand jury oxcept 
 in cases arising in the land or naval 
 forces, or in the militia, when in actual 
 
OONStTL 
 
 CONSUL 
 
 eervice, in time of war and public 
 danger; nor shall any person be sub- 
 ject for the same offense to be twice put 
 in jeopardy of life or limb, nor shall be 
 compelled in any criminal case to be 
 a witness against himself; nor to be 
 deprived of life, liberty, or property, 
 without due process of law; nor shall 
 private property be taken for public 
 use without just compensation. 
 
 Article VI. In all criminal prosecu- 
 tions, the accused shall enjoy the right 
 to a speedy and public trial, by an im- 
 partial jury of the state and district 
 wherein the crime shall have been 
 committed, which district shall have 
 been previously ascertained by law, and 
 to be informed of the nature and cause of 
 the accusations; to be confronted 
 with the witnesses against him; to 
 have compulsory process for obtaining 
 witnesses in his favor, and to have the 
 assistance of counsel for his defense. 
 
 Article VII. In suits at common law, 
 where the value in controversy shall 
 exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial 
 by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
 tried by a jury shall be otherwise re- 
 examined in any court of the United 
 States than according to the rules of the 
 common law. 
 
 Article VIII. Excessive bail shall not 
 be required, nor excessive fines imposed 
 nor cruel and unusual punishment in- 
 flicted. 
 
 Article IX. The enumeration in the 
 -constitution of certain rights shall not 
 be construed to deny or disparage others 
 retained by the people. 
 
 Article X. The powers not delegated 
 to the United States by the constitu- 
 tion, nor prohibited by it to the states, 
 are reserved to the states respectively, 
 or to the people. 
 
 Article XI. The judicial power of the 
 United States shall not be construed to 
 extend to any suit in law or equity com- 
 menced or prosecuted against one of 
 the United States by citizens of another 
 state, or by citizens or subject of any 
 foreign state. 
 
 Article XII. The electors shall meet 
 in their respective states, and vote by 
 ballot for president and vice-president, 
 one of whom at least shall not be an 
 inhabitant of the same state with them- 
 selves. They shall name in their ballots 
 the person voted for as president, and 
 in distinct ballots the person voted for 
 as vice-president; and they shall make 
 distinct lists of all persons voted for as 
 president, and of all persons voted for 
 as vice-president, and of the number of 
 votes for each, which lists they shall 
 sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to 
 the seat of the government of the United 
 States, directed to the president of the 
 senate. The president of the senate 
 shall, in the presence of the senate and 
 hou^ of representatives, open all the 
 certificates, and the votes shall then be 
 counted ; the person having the greatest 
 number of votes for president shall be 
 the president, if such number be a 
 majority of the whole number of elec- 
 tors appointed; and if no person have 
 such a majority, then from the persons 
 having the highest numbers, not exceed- 
 ing three, on the list of those voted for as 
 president, the house of representatives 
 shall choose immediately, by ballot, the 
 
 president. But in choosing the presi- 
 dent, the votes shall be taken by states, 
 the representation from each state hav- 
 ing one vote; a quorum for this purpose 
 shall consist of a member or members 
 from two-thirds of the states, and a ma- 
 jority of all the states shall be necessary 
 to a choice. And if the house of repre- 
 sentatives shall not choose a president, 
 whenever the right of choice shall de- 
 volve upon them, before the fourth day 
 of March next following, then the vice- 
 president shall act as president, as in 
 the case of the death or'other constitu- 
 tional disability of the president. The 
 person having the greatest number of 
 votes as vice-president shall be the vice- 
 president, if such number be a majority 
 of the whole number of electors ap- 
 pointed; and if no person have a ma- 
 jority, then from the two highest num- 
 bers on the list the senate shall choose 
 the vice-president; a quorum for the 
 purpose shall consist of two-thirds of 
 the whole number of senators, and a 
 majority of the whole number shall be 
 necessary to a choice. But no person 
 constitutionally ineligible to the office of 
 president shall be eligible to that of 
 vice-president of the United States. 
 
 Article XIII., Sec. 1. Neither slavery 
 nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
 punishment for crime whereof the party 
 shall have been duly convicted, shall 
 exist within the United States, or any 
 place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to 
 enforce this article by appropriate 
 legislation. 
 
 Article XIV., Sec. 1. All persons born 
 or naturalized in the United States, and 
 subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are 
 citizens of the United States, and of the 
 state wherein they reside. No state 
 shall make or enforce any law which 
 shall abridge the privileges or immuni- 
 ties of citizens of the United States; nor 
 shall any state deprive any person of 
 life, liberty, or property without due 
 process of law, nor deny to any person 
 within its jurisdiction the equal pro- 
 tection of the laws. 
 
 Sec. 2. Representatives shall be ap- 
 portioned among the several states 
 according to their respective numbers, 
 counting the whole number of persons 
 in each state, excluding Indians not 
 taxed. But when the right to vote as 
 any election for the choice of electors 
 for president and vice-president of the 
 United States, representatives in con- 
 gress, the executive and judicial officers 
 of a state, or the members of the legis- 
 lature thereof, is denied to any of the 
 male inhabitants of such state being 
 twenty-one years of age, and citizens 
 of the United States, or in any way 
 abridged, except for participation in 
 rebellion or other crime, the basis of 
 representation therein shall be re- 
 duced in the proportions which the 
 number of such male citizens shall bear 
 to the whole number of male citizens 
 twenty-one years of age in such state. 
 
 Sec. 3. No person shall be a senator or 
 representative in congress, cr elector of 
 president and vice-president, or hold 
 any office, civil or military, under the 
 United States, or under any state, who, 
 having previously taken an oath as a 
 member of congress, or as an officer of 
 
 the United States, or as a member of any 
 state legislature, or as ada executive or 
 judicial officer of any sifete, to support 
 tbfr constitution of the United States, 
 shall have engaged in insurrection or 
 rebellion against the same, or given aid 
 or comfort to the enemies thereof. But 
 congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of 
 each house, remove such disability. 
 
 Sec. 4. The validity of the public 
 debt of the United States authorized 
 by law, including debts incurred for 
 payment of pensions and bounties for 
 services in suppressing insurrection or 
 rebellion, shall not be questioned. But 
 neither the United States nor any state 
 shall assume or pay any debt or obliga- 
 tion incurred in aid of insurrection or 
 rebellion against the United States, or 
 any claim for the loss or emancipation 
 of any slave; but all such debts, obliga- 
 tions, and claims shall be held illegal and 
 void. 
 
 Sec. 5. The congress shall have power 
 to enforce, by appropriate legislation, 
 the provisions of this article. 
 
 Article XV., Sec. 1. The right of the 
 citizens of the United States to vote 
 shall not be denied or abridged by the 
 United States, or by any state, on ac- 
 count of race, color, or previous con- 
 dition of servitude. 
 
 Sec. 2. The congress shall have power 
 to enforce this article by appropriate 
 legislation. 
 
 CON'SUL, a name originally given to 
 the two highest magistrates in the re- 
 public of Rome. In the beginning of 
 the republic the authority of the consuls 
 was almost as great as that of the pre- 
 ceding kings. They could declare war, 
 conclude peace, make alliances, and even 
 order a citizen to be put to death; but 
 their powers were gradually curtailed, 
 especially by the establishment of the 
 tribunes of the people, early in the 5th 
 century. But they still stood at the 
 head of the whole republic; all officers 
 were under them, the tribunes of the 
 people only excepted: they convoked 
 the senate, proposed what they thought 
 fit, and executed the laws. In times of 
 emergency they received unlimited 
 power, and could even sentence to death 
 without trial, levy troops, and make 
 war without the resolve of the people 
 first obtained. Under the emperors the 
 consular dignity sunk to a shadow, and 
 became merely honorary. The last con- 
 sul at Rome was Theodorus Paulinus 
 (a.d.536). 
 
 In France the name of consul was 
 temporarily adopted for the chief 
 magistrates after the revolution. As 
 early as Aug. 2, 1802, Bonaparte was 
 proclaimed first consul for life, and thus 
 the_ constitution of France became 
 again practically monarchical. On 
 April 10, 1804, he was proclaimed 
 emperor, and even the nominal consu- 
 late ended. 
 
 At present consuls are officials ap- 
 pointed by the government of one coun- 
 try to attend to its commercial interests 
 in seaports or other towns of another 
 country. The duties of a consul gen- 
 erally speaking are to promote the 
 trade of the country he represents; to 
 give advice and assistance when called 
 upon to his fellow-subjects; to uphold 
 their lawful interests and privileges if 
 
CONSUMPTION 
 
 CONVERSION 
 
 any attempt be made to injure them; 
 to transmit reports of trade to his 
 own government, to authenticate cer- 
 tain aocuments, etc. They are gener- 
 ally of three ranks : consuls-general, con- 
 suls, and vice-consuls. 
 
 CONSUMPTION, or PHTHISIS, a 
 disease known by emaciation, debility, 
 cough, hectic fever, and purulent ex- 
 pectoration. The predisposing causes 
 are very variable — hereditary taint, 
 scrofulous diathesis, syphilis, small-pox, 
 etc.; exposure to fumes and dusty air 
 in certain trades; violent passions and 
 excess of various kinds, sudden lower- 
 ing of the temperature of the body, etc. 
 The more immediate or occasional 
 causes are pneumonic inflammation 
 proceeding to suppuration, catarrh, 
 asthma, and tubercles in the lungs, the 
 last of which is by far the most general. 
 The incipient symptoms usually vary 
 with the cause of the disease; but when 
 it arises from tubercles it is usually 
 marked by a short dry cough that be- 
 cimes habitual, but from which nothing 
 is spit up for some time except a frothy 
 mucus. The breathing is at the same 
 time somewhat impeded, the body be- 
 comes gradually leaner, and great lan- 
 guor, with indolence, dejection, and 
 loss of appetite prevail. At a later 
 stage the cough becomes more trouble- 
 some, particularly by night, and is 
 attended with an expectoration, the 
 matter of which assumes a greenish 
 color and purulent appearance, being 
 cn many occasions streaked with blood. 
 In some cases a more severe degree of 
 blood-spitting attends, and the patient 
 spits up a considerable quantity of 
 florid, frothy blood. At a mere ad- 
 vanced period of the disease a pain is 
 sometimes felt on one side in so high a 
 degree as to prevent the person from 
 lying easily on that side; but it more 
 frequently happens that it is felt only on 
 making a full inspiration, or coughing. 
 At the first commencement of the dis- 
 ease the pulse is often natural, but it 
 afterwards becomes full, hard, and fre- 
 quent. At the same time the face 
 flushes, particularly after eating, the 
 palms of the hands and soles of the feet 
 are affected with burning heat; the 
 respiration is difficult and laborious; 
 evening exacerbations become obvious, 
 and by degrees the fever assumes the 
 hectic form with remittent exacerba- 
 tions twice every day, at noon and 
 evening. From the first appearance of 
 the hectic symptoms the urine is high 
 colored, and deposits a copious branny 
 red sediment. At this time the patient 
 is usually costive; but in the more 
 advanced stages a diarrhoea often comes 
 on, colliquative sweats likewise break 
 out, and these alternate with each other, 
 and induce great debility. Some days 
 before death the extremities become 
 cold. In some cases a delirium precedes 
 that event. The morbid appearance 
 most, frequently to be met with on the 
 dissection of those who die of phthisis 
 is the existence of tubercles in the 
 cellular substance of the lungs, most 
 usually at the upper and back part; 
 but, in some instances, occupying the 
 outer part, and forming adhesions to 
 the pleura. In some cases life has been 
 protracted till not one-twentieth part 
 
 of the lungs appeared, on dissection, 
 fit for performing their function. The 
 left lobe is oftener affected than the 
 right. The diet in this disorder should 
 be nutritious, but not heating, or diffi- 
 cult of digestion. Milk, especially that 
 of the ass; farinaceous vegetables; 
 acescent fruits; animal soups; and, 
 above alb cod-liver oil, etc. are usually 
 given. It is also of the utmost im- 
 portance to see that the digestive organs 
 are in proper working order. As much 
 open air as possible, combined with 
 abundance of nutritious food, is at 
 present the treatment in vogue. With 
 regard to urgent symptoms requiring 
 palliation, the cough may be allayed by 
 demulcents, but especially mild opiates 
 swallowed slowly; colliquative sweats 
 by acids, particularly the mineral; di- 
 arrhoea by chalk and other astringents, 
 or by small doses of opium. 
 
 CONTA'GION, the communication of 
 disease by contact direct or indirect. 
 A distinction has sometimes been made 
 between contagion, as the communica- 
 tion of disease strictly by contact, and 
 infection, as communication of disease 
 by the miasmata, exhalations or germs 
 which one body gives out and the other 
 receives. There is little doubt that ex- 
 cessively minute disease germs proceed 
 from the breath, the perspiration or 
 other excretions of a diseased person, 
 and are capable of propagating the 
 disease in another person ; but the true 
 nature of these is little understood. 
 Antiseptics, or disinfectants, are used 
 to destroy the poisonous particles, such 
 as carbolic acid, sulphur, permanganate 
 of potasffi chlorine gas, etc. 
 
 CONTEMPT, a term applied to an act 
 of disobedience, impertinence, etc., to a 
 judge or his mandates. It is really a 
 crime and can be punished by the court 
 as the court sees fit. Some American 
 judges have tried to punish persons not 
 connected with a law case who have 
 criticized the conduct of the judge out- 
 side the court, but this power has never 
 been legally established. 
 
 CONTINENT, a connected tract of 
 land of great extent, forming a sort of 
 whole by itself, as Europe, Asia, Africa, 
 North and South America; or we may 
 speak of the eastern and western con- 
 tinents, Europe, Asia, and Africa being 
 regarded as one, and North and South 
 America another. Australia, from its 
 size, may also be regarded as a con- 
 tinent. 
 
 CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, a plan de- 
 vised by Napoleon to exclude Britain 
 from all intercourse with the continent 
 of Europe. It began with the decree of 
 Berlin of November 21, 1806, by which 
 the British Islands were declared to be 
 in a state of blockade; all commerce, 
 intercourse, and correspondence were 
 prohibited; every Briton found in 
 France, or a country occupied by French 
 troops, was declared a prisoner of war; 
 all property belonging to Britons, fair 
 prize, and all trade in goods from 
 Britain or British colonies entirely 
 prohibited. Britain replied by orders in 
 council prohibiting trade 'ndth French 
 ports, and declaring all harbors of 
 France and her allies subjected to the 
 same restrictions as if they were closely 
 blockaded. Further decrees on the part 
 
 of France, of a still more stringent kind, 
 declared all vessels, of whatever flag, 
 which had been searched by a British 
 vessel or paid duty to Britain, de- 
 nationalized, and directing the burning 
 of all Britisn goods, etc. These decrees 
 caused great annoyance, and gave rise 
 to much smugghng, till annulled at the 
 fall of Napoleon, 1814. 
 
 CONTRABAND, in commerce, all 
 goods and wares exported from or im- 
 ported into any country, against the 
 laws of said country. There are, also, a 
 number of articles termed contraband 
 of war which neutrals may be prevented, 
 by one belligerent, from carrying to 
 another. These generally include not 
 only arms and munitions of war, but all 
 the articles out of which they may be 
 made. In recent times even provisions 
 in certain cases have been considered 
 contraband of war. 
 
 CONTRACT, in law, an agreement or 
 covenant between two or more persons, 
 in which each party binds himself to do 
 or forbear some act, and each acquires 
 a right to what the other promises. Con- 
 tracts may be in express terms or im- 
 plied from the acts of the parties; they 
 may be verbal or written, and at com- 
 mon law both forms are binding; but by 
 statute law a promise must be in writing. 
 To be valid, a contract must be entered 
 into W parties legally competent, that is, 
 of sound mind and of full age The act 
 contracted for must not be contrary to 
 law or public policy. Thus an agree- 
 ment to do injury to another, or a con- 
 tract not to marry at all is void. The 
 contract must be founded on a con- 
 sideration either of money or some act 
 whereby an undoubted advantage ac- 
 crues to the party sued. Lastly, the con- 
 tract is voidable, if obtained by fraud, 
 mistake or compulsion. 
 
 CONTRALTO, in music, the highest 
 voice of a male adult, or the lowest of a 
 woman or a boy, called also the alto, or 
 when possessed by a man counter-tenor. 
 It is next below the treble and above 
 the tenor, its easy range being from 
 tenor G to treble C. 
 
 CONVENTION, a coming together of 
 persons delegated to act for others, or 
 not so delegated, the purpose of which is 
 to make agreements, treaties, nomina- 
 tions or elections for office, transact 
 business of various kinds and to do 
 other things that may seem desirable to 
 the convention. Political conventions 
 generally have to do with the machinery 
 of politics not connected with the actual 
 government of a state. The first 
 national convention of a political party 
 was that of the anti-masonic party in 
 1828. The idea immediately was 
 adopted and today seems to form an 
 inalienable and necessary part of Ameri- 
 can political procedure. 
 
 CONVERSAZIONE (sat-si-6'ne), a re- 
 ception, usually on a large scale and in 
 the evening, at which the company 
 move about, converse with their ac- 
 quaintances, partake of tea, coffee, or 
 other refreshments, and often have 
 objects of art, science, or general, in- 
 terest set out for their inspection. 
 
 CONVERSION, a term in lomc. A 
 proposition is converted when the pre- 
 dicate is put in the place of the suoject, 
 and the subject in place of the predicatej 
 
CONVEX LENS 
 
 COOLIE 
 
 as. “no A is B” (“no virtuous man is a 
 rebel”), the converse of which is “no B 
 is A” (“no rebel is a virtuous man”). 
 Simple conversion, however, in this 
 manner is not always logical. In the 
 case of universal affirmatives, for ex- 
 ample, “all A are B” (say, “all men are 
 animals”), the simple converse “all B 
 are A” (“all animals are men”) would 
 not be true. 
 
 CONVEX LENS. See Lens. 
 
 CONVEY'ANCING, the practice of 
 drawing deeds, leases, or other writings 
 (conveyances) for transferring the title 
 to property from one person to another, 
 of investigating the title of the vendors 
 and purchasers of property, and of fram- 
 ing those multifarious deeds and con- 
 tracts which govern and define the rights 
 and liabilities of families and individuals. 
 
 CON'VICT, the general term for a 
 person who has been found guilty of a 
 serious offense and sentenced to penal 
 servitude. 
 
 CONVIC'TION, the finding a person 
 guilty of an offense by the verdict of a 
 jury. In certain cases of minor offenses, 
 such as are tried before justices of the 
 peace, etc., the law allows of convictions 
 without the intervention of a jury. 
 
 CONVICT LABOR, labor performed 
 by felons, or other convicts, and espe- 
 cially a term applied to the labor of con- 
 victs the products of which are pur- 
 chased by contractors at an annual 
 ayment. The convict labor plan has 
 een bitterly opposed by labor unions 
 as destructive to the interests of free 
 labor and this view has been confirmed 
 by experience. Convict labor, even 
 when used for public purposes, such as 
 road building, has been found expensive, 
 undesirable and inefficient. 
 
 CONVOL'VULUS, a genus of plants, 
 consisting of slender twining herbs with 
 milky juice; bell-shaped flowers and five 
 
 CONVUL'SION, a diseased action of 
 muscular fibers, known by violent and 
 involuntary contractions of the muscu- 
 lar parts, with alternative relaxations. 
 Convulsions are universal or partial, and 
 have obtained different names accord- 
 ing to the parts affected, or the symp- 
 toms. The muscles principally affected 
 in all species of convulsions are those 
 immediately under the direction of the 
 will, as those of the eyelids, eye, face, 
 jaws, neck, superior and inferior ex- 
 tremities. Convulsions are produced 
 commonly by irritation of some part of 
 the brain or spinal cord, such as the 
 general convulsions in inflammation of 
 the brain membrances, or of the nerves 
 themselves. Children of a nervous 
 temperament are often the subjects of 
 convulsions during dentition, particu- 
 larly when accompanied by a disordered 
 state of the bowels or the presence of 
 worms. 
 
 CONWAY, Moncure Daniel, an Ameri- 
 ^n author, clergjanan ,and historian. 
 He was born in Virginia in 1832 and 
 early allied himself with the abolitionist 
 party and the Unitarian Church. In 
 1863 he went to England and resided 
 there for 20 years. He recently re- 
 turned to the United States. His 
 principal works are The Rejected Stone, 
 Idols and Ideals, Demonology and Devil 
 Lore, and a number of literary essays. 
 
 COOCH-BEHAR', or KUCH-BEHAR', 
 
 a native state in India, in political re- 
 lation with the government of Bengal. 
 The greater portion of the soil is fertile 
 and well-cultivated. Area, 1307 sq. 
 miles; pop. 578,868. — The chief town, 
 Cooch-Behar, contains some handsome 
 public buildings and a splendid new 
 palace of the Maharajah. Pop. 11,480. 
 
 COOK, Eliza, English poetess, born in 
 London in 1818. She published a col- 
 lection of poems under the title of 
 Melaia and Other Poems. She after- 
 ward wrote a great many poems mostly 
 of a lyric cast, and some of her songs 
 have been highly popular. She died in 
 1889. 
 
 COOK, James, a famous British navi- 
 gator, born in Yorkshire, 1728. In 1755 
 he entered the royal navy, and four 
 years later as sailing-master of the Mer- 
 cury performed valuable services in 
 surveying the St. Lawrence River and 
 
 Captain Cook. 
 
 the coast of Newfoundland. Some ob- 
 servations on a solar eclipse, communi- 
 cated to the Royal Society, brought 
 him into notice, and he was appointed 
 commander of a scientific expedition to 
 the Pacific, with the rank of lieutenant 
 in the navy. During this expedition he 
 successively visited Tahiti, New Zea- 
 land, discovered New South Wales, 
 and returned by the Cape of Good Hope 
 to Britain in 1771. In 1772 Captain 
 Cook, now raised to the rank of a com- 
 mander in the navy, commanded a 
 second expedition to the Pacific and 
 Southern Oceans, which resulted like 
 the former in many interesting obser- 
 vations and discoveries. He returned to 
 Britain in 1774. Two years later he 
 again set out on an expedition to ascer- 
 tain the possibility of a north-west 
 passage. On this voyage he explored 
 the western coast of North America, 
 and discovered the Sandwich Islands, on 
 one of which, Hawaii, he was killed by 
 the natives, February 14, 1779. 
 
 COOK, Joseph, an American clergy- 
 man and author, born in New York in 
 1838, died in 1901. For six years until 
 1880 he delivered his famous “Boston 
 Monday Lectures” and subsequently 
 toured the country as a lecturer. 
 
 COOKE, Jay, a noted American 
 financier, born in Ohio in 1821. During 
 the civil war he negotiated loans of 
 
 over $2,000,000,000 for the govern- 
 ment and was one of the most effect- 
 ive advocates of the present national 
 banking system. He died in 1905. 
 
 COOKE, John Esten, an American 
 novelist, born in Virginia in 1830, died 
 in 1886. His literary career was inter- 
 rupted by the civil war in which he took 
 an active part. His principal works of 
 fiction are The Virginia Comedians, and 
 a sequel to that work. The Story of 
 Eagle’s Nest, Leather Stocking and 
 Silk, Elbe, or the Human Comedy, and 
 Henry St. John, Gentleman. He also 
 wrote several works of history. 
 
 COOKE, Rose Terry, an American 
 story writer and poet, born in Connecti- 
 cut in 1827, died in 1892. She pub- 
 lished Poems in 1860, Steadfast in 1889, 
 Happy Dodd in 1879 and several col- 
 lections of short stories which in their 
 day were widely read. 
 
 COOKERY, the preparation of food 
 so as to render it more palatable and 
 more digestible. The art is of great im- 
 portance, not only for comfort but also 
 for health. Food is mainly prepared by 
 submitting it to the action of fire, as by 
 roasting, boiling, stewing, etc. These 
 processes give each a different flavor to 
 food, but result alike in rendering the 
 tissues, both of animal and vegetable 
 food, softer and much more easily dealt 
 with by the digestive organs. The art 
 of cookery was carried to considerable 
 perfection among some of the ancient 
 nations, as for instance the Egyptians, 
 Persians, and Athenians. Extravagance 
 and luxury at table were notable 
 features of Roman life under the empire. 
 Among moderns the Italians were the 
 first to reach a high degree of art in this 
 department. Their cooking, like that 
 of the ancient Romans, is distinguished 
 by a free use of oil. Italian cookery 
 seems to have been transplanted by the 
 princesses of the House of Medici to 
 France, and was carried there to per- 
 haps the highest degree of perfection; 
 even yet the skill and resource which 
 the French cook shows in dealing often 
 with very slight materials is a highly 
 creditable feature in the domestic 
 economy of the nation. 
 
 COOLEY, Thomas McIntyre, an Amer- 
 ican jurist and author, born in New 
 York in 1824, died in 1898. For several 
 years he was a professor in the law 
 school of the University of Michigan 
 and from 1864 to 1885 an associate 
 justice of the Supreme Court of Michi- 
 gan. His various publications are 
 authority on constitutional law. 
 
 COOLIDGE, Thomas Jefferson, an 
 American diplomat, born at Boston in 
 1831. He served as United States 
 minister to France in 1892 and served 
 subsequently on the Canadian American 
 Joint High Commission. 
 
 COOLIE, a name in Hindustan for a 
 day laborer, also extended to those of 
 some other eastern countries. Many of 
 these have been introduced into the 
 West Indies, Mauritius, and other 
 places, their passage being paid for them 
 on their agreeing to serve for a term of 
 years. The first coolie emigrants appear 
 to have been those sent to British 
 Guiana from Calcutta in 1839 to supply 
 the want of labor felt after the abolition 
 of slavery. The coolies employed in 
 
COOLIDGE 
 
 COPENHAGEN 
 
 Guiana are still chiefly from India, but 
 there is also a considerable number of 
 Chinese. Coolies have also been intro- 
 duced into Jamaica, Trinidad, Natal, 
 and large numbers into Mauritius, the 
 Indian population of the latter island 
 being nearly 250,000. The Chinese 
 coolies have been principally sent to 
 Cuba and Peru. Chinese coolies were 
 excluded from the United States by act 
 of Congress in 1888. Through the ex- 
 clusion of Japanese from the schools in 
 San Francisco, a movement is now 
 being made to have Japanese coolies 
 also excluded. 
 
 COOL-TANKARD, an old English 
 beverage of various composition, but 
 usually made of ale, with a little wine or 
 wine and water, with an addition of 
 lemon juice, spices, etc. 
 
 COOM'ASSIE, a town. West Africa, 
 capital of Ashantee, 130 miles north 
 of Cape Coast Castle. It was taken and 
 burned by Sir Garnet Wolseley in 1874. 
 In 1900 it was invested by Ashanti na- 
 tives, but was relieved after severe 
 fighting. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 COON OYSTER, in the southern 
 states an oyster which ^ows close 
 enough to shore to be obtained by the 
 raccoon. 
 
 COOPER, Henry Ernest, an Ameri- 
 can lawyer, born in Indiana in 1857. 
 He settled in Honolulu and was one of 
 the leaders of the American revolution 
 in the Hawaiian Islands. He filled 
 several offices of the provisional govern- 
 ment pending the annexation of the 
 islands to the United States. 
 
 COOPER, James Fenimore, American 
 novelist, born at Burlington, New 
 Jersey, in 1789, studied at Yale College, 
 and entered the American navy as a 
 midshipman at the age of sixteen. In 
 
 
 1821 appeared the novel of Precaution, 
 the first production of his pen. Though 
 successful it gave no scope, for his pecu- 
 liar powers, and it was not till the pro- 
 duction of The Spy and The Pioneers 
 that he began to take a high place 
 among contemporary novelists. Af- 
 ter that came a steady flow of novels 
 dealing with life on the sea and in the 
 backwoods, most of which, like The 
 Pilot, Red Rover, Waterwitch, Pathfind- 
 er, Deer-slayer, and Last of the Mohi- 
 
 cans, are familiar names to the novel- 
 reading public. After visiting Europe 
 and serving as consul for the United 
 States at Lyons for three years. Cooper 
 returned to America, where he died 
 at Cooperstown, New York, 1851. Be- 
 sides his novels he wrote a history of the 
 U. S. navy, and some volumes descrip- 
 tive of his travels. 
 
 COOPER, Peter, American inventor, 
 manufacturer, and philanthropist, born 
 1791, died 1883. He started life with 
 few advantages, being almost self edu- 
 cated; but by dint of energy, persever- 
 ance, sagacity and integrity, accumu- 
 lated a large fortune. He carried on 
 the manufacture of glue and isinglass 
 for over fifty years, and was also con- 
 nected with the iron-manufacture, the 
 railways (he designed and built the first 
 American locomotive), and the tele- 
 graphs of the U. States. 
 
 CO-OPE^TIVE SOCIETIES are asso- 
 ciations of individuals for mutual assist- 
 ance in industrial or commercial ob- 
 jects. One form of co-operative socie- 
 ties is that of an association of men be- 
 longing to some trade or industry for 
 the purpose of carrying it on entirely 
 by their own efforts, and thus securing 
 all the profits of their labors to them- 
 selves; but much more common associa- 
 tions are those the object of which is to 
 provide the members, and sometimes 
 also the general public, with the ordi- 
 nary household necessaries, at as near 
 as possible the prime cost. Associations 
 of the former kind are thus associations 
 for production, those of the latter for 
 distribution, by means of what are 
 commonly known as Co-operative Stores. 
 
 COOPER’S CREEK, or the BARCOO, 
 called by the latter name chiefly in its 
 upper course, the largest inland river of 
 Australia, which rises in Queensland by 
 two branches, the Thomson and Victoria 
 (or Barcoo), and flows southwest to 
 Lake Eyre. 
 
 COOPER UNION, an institution for 
 the advancement of art and science, 
 founded in New York in 1859 by Peter 
 Cooper. The purpose is to educate the 
 people by means of day and night 
 classes in the different technical trades 
 and sciences. The institution has over 
 $5,000,000 in property and is in reality 
 a technical school which is very well 
 attended. It has about 2,000 students 
 and confers degrees. 
 
 COORG, or KURG, an ancient prin- 
 cipality now a province in Southern 
 Hindustan, lying between Mysore on the 
 east and northeast and the districts of 
 South Canara and Malabar on the west ; 
 area, 1583 sq. miles. The country has 
 a healthy climate, and yields coffee, 
 spices, timber, etc. The capital is 
 Merkara. Pop. 180,607. 
 
 CO'OS. See Cos. 
 
 CO-PARTNERSHIP. See Partnership. 
 
 COPE, a sacerdotal vestment, re- 
 sembling a sleeveless cloak with a hood, 
 reaching from the shoulders to the feet, 
 worn on solemn occasions, and particu- 
 larly in processions, by the pope and 
 other bishops as well as by priests. It 
 was one of the vestments retained at the 
 reformation in the Anglican Church. 
 
 COPE, Edward Drinker, an American 
 zoologist born in Philadelphia in 1840, 
 1 died in 1897. For many years he was 
 
 professor in the University of Pennsyl- 
 vania and from 1878 was the editor of 
 the American Naturalist. Cope’s prin- 
 cipal contribution to science was his fine 
 collections of fossils and the classifica- 
 tion and interpretation of the same. 
 His principal writings are Origin of the 
 Fittest, Origin of Genera, and Primary 
 Factors of Organic Evolution. 
 
 Cope. 
 
 A, Probably Dr. Robert Langton, Queen’s 
 Coll. Oxon. 1, Cope. 
 
 B, Figure of Pugin's Glossary. 3 2;2, Cope. 
 
 CO'PECK, a Russian copper coin, so 
 called from the impression of St. George 
 bearing a lance, the hundredth part of a 
 silver ruble, or about the eightieth part of 
 a paper ruble. It is equal to about three 
 quarters of a cent. 
 
 COPENHA'GEN, the capital of Den- 
 mark, on the Sound, the larger and older 
 portion of it on the east side of the 
 Island of Zealand, a smaller portion on 
 the north point of the island of Amager, 
 with between them a branch of the sea 
 forming the harbor. It has a citadel 
 and several strong forts protecting it 
 on the sea side; and is mostly well built, 
 principally of brick. The chief buildings 
 are the royal palace of Rosenborg, with 
 many antiques and precious articles; 
 the Amalienborg, consisting, properly 
 speaking, of four palaces, one of them 
 the usual residence of the sovereign; the 
 palace of Charlottenburg, now the re- 
 pository of the Academy of Arts; the 
 Royal Library, containing 550,000 vol- 
 umes and 25,000 manuscripts; Thor- 
 waldsen’s Museum, containing a great 
 many of the sculptor’s works; the uni- 
 versity buildings; the Vor Frue Kirke; 
 the arsenal; etc. The_ university, 
 founded by Christian I. in 1478, has 
 about 700 professors and teachers, five 
 faculties, and a library of 200,000 
 volumes. The harbor is safe and com- 
 modious. Copenhagen is the principal 
 station of the Danish fleet and the cen- 
 ter of the commerce of Denmark. It 
 carries on an active trade with Norway, 
 Sweden, Russia, and Germany, and in 
 particular with Britain, the principal ex- 
 ports being grain, butter, cheese, beef, 
 pork, cattle, horses, hides, etc. It has 
 foundries and machine-works, woolen 
 and cotton mills, porcelain works, brew- 
 eries, distilleries, etc., and produces also 
 watches, clocks, pianofortes, etc. Sugar- 
 refining and tanning are carried on. 
 1 Pop. with suburbs, 476,806. 
 
COPERjnICUS 
 
 CORAL 
 
 COPER'NICUS, Nicholas, astronomer, 
 born at Thorn, then in Poland, Feb. 19, 
 1473, his family being supposed to have 
 come originally from Westphalia. Hav- 
 ing studied medicine at Cracow, he 
 afterward devoted himself to mathe- 
 matics and astronomy, and in 1500 
 taught mathematics at Rome with great 
 success. Returning to his own country 
 he was made a canon in the cathedral 
 of Frauenburg, and began now to work 
 out his new system of astronomy. 
 Doubting that the motions of the 
 heavenly bodies could be so confused 
 and so complicated as the Ptolemaic 
 system made them, he was induced to 
 consider the simpler hypothesis that the 
 sun was the center round which the 
 earth and the other planets revolve. 
 Besides this fundamental truth Coperni- 
 cus anticipated, for he can scarcely be 
 said to have proved, many other of the 
 principal facts of astronomical science, 
 such as the motion of the earth round its 
 axis, the immense distance of the stars 
 which made their apparent position the 
 same from any part of the earth’s orbit, 
 etc. His general theory also enabled 
 him to explain for the first time many 
 of the important phenomena of nature, 
 such as the variations of the seasons and 
 the precession of the equinoxes. The 
 great work in which Copernicus ex- 
 plained his theory, De Orbium Coeles- 
 tiuin Revolutionibus (On the Revolu- 
 tions of the Celestial Orbs), was com- 
 pleted in 1510, and published at Nurem- 
 berg in 1543. It was long among books 
 forbidden to Roman Catholics. He 
 died at Frauenburg, 24th May, 1543. 
 
 COPTER, one of the most ancient 
 known metals, deriving its name from 
 Cyprus, large supplies having in Greek 
 and Roman times come from that 
 island. It is a metal of a pale red color 
 tinged with yellow. Next to gold, 
 silver, and platinum it is the most ductile 
 and malleable of metals; it is more 
 elastic than any metal except steel, and 
 the most sonorous of all except alumin- 
 ium. Its conducting power for heat 
 and electricity is inferior only to that 
 of silver. ' It has a distinct odor and a 
 nauseous metallic taste. It is not 
 altered by water, but tarnishes by 
 exposure to the air, and becomes 
 covered with a green carbonate. It 
 occurs native in branched pieces, 
 dendritic, in thin plates, and rarely in 
 regular crystals, in the primitive and 
 older secondary rocks. Blocks of native 
 copper have sometimes been got weigh- 
 ing many tons. Its ores are numerous 
 and abundant. Of these several contain 
 sulphur and iron or other metal, such as 
 copper glance or vitreous copper; gray 
 copper or Fahlerz, one of the most 
 abundant and important ores; and 
 copper pyrites or yellow copper ore, and 
 other abundant ore. The red oxide of 
 copper forms crystals of a fine red 
 color, and is used for coloring glass. 
 There are two native carbonates, the 
 blue and the green, the latter being the 
 beautiful mineral malachite, the former 
 also known as blue malachite. Blue 
 Vitrol is a sulphate, and is used for 
 dyeing and preparing pigments, as are 
 various other copper compounds. Ver- 
 digris is an acetate. The arsenite of 
 popper is the pigment Scheele’s green. 
 
 Schweinfurth green is another copper 
 pigment. All the compounds of copper 
 are poisonous. It is found in most 
 European countries, in Australia and 
 Japan, in Africa and in North and South 
 America (especially in the vicinity of 
 Lake Superior). In Britain the mines 
 of Cornwall are the richest. 
 
 COP'PERAS, sulphate of iron or green 
 vitriol, a salt of a peculiar astringent 
 taste and of a fine green color. When 
 exposed to the air it assumes a brownish 
 hue. It is much used in dyeing black 
 and in making ink, and in medicine 
 as a tonic. The copperas of commerce 
 is usually made by the decomposition 
 of iron pyrites. 
 
 COPPER-HEAD, a venomous N. 
 American serpent, of the rattlesnake 
 family. 
 
 COPPER-HEADS, a n%ae given to 
 residents of the north during the civil 
 war who either sympathized with the 
 south, or opposed the prosecution of 
 the war against th§ south. 
 
 COPPER-PLATE, a polished plate of 
 copper on which the lines of some draw- 
 ing or design are engraved or etched to 
 be printed from ; also a print or impres- 
 sion from such a plate. 
 
 COPPER PYRI'TES, or yellow copper 
 ore, a double sulphide of copper and iron 
 composed in equal parts of copper, 
 sulphur, and iron. It occurs mostly in 
 primary and metamorphic rocks, and 
 is the chief copper ore of England, 
 
 COPTS, a name given to the Christian 
 descendants of the Ancient Egyptian 
 race, belonging mostly to the Jacobite 
 or Monophysite sect. Reduced by a 
 long course of oppression and misrule to 
 a state of degradation, the number and 
 national character of the Copts have 
 greatly declined. At present they do not 
 amount to more than perhaps 350,000. 
 Their costume resembles that of the 
 Moslems, but they are very generally 
 in the habit of wearing a black turban 
 for distinction’s sake. In various other 
 respects they resemble the Moslem, and 
 they practice circumcision and abhor 
 the flesh of swine. The women go out 
 with veiled faces like the Moslem women. 
 There are schools for the male children, 
 but very few of the females are taught 
 to read. Confession is required of all. 
 Fasting holds a prominent place in the 
 life of the Copt, who is, indeed, required 
 to fast (that is, to abstain from all 
 animal food except fish) during the 
 greater part of every year. The head of 
 the Coptic Church is the Patriarch of 
 Alexandria, who is also head of the 
 Abyssinian Church. He is regarded 
 as the successor of St. Mark, by whom 
 the Copts believe that Christianity was 
 introduced among them. They are 
 very strict and exclusive in their religion 
 but a certain number have latterly been 
 converted to Protestantism. The Copts 
 are quiet and industrious, have a good 
 capacity for business, but are said to be 
 servile and crafty. The Coptic scribes 
 form a close guild. What is called the 
 Coptic language is no longer spoken, 
 Arabic having taken its place. It is 
 still used, however, in a formal way in 
 their religious services. It is regarded 
 as the direct descendant of the ancient 
 sacred language of the Egyptians. 
 Ther? is a tolerably abundant Coptic 
 
 Christian literature, chiefly lives of 
 saints, homilies, etc. It is written in 
 what is substantially the Greek a'phabet 
 with some additional letters. 
 
 COPYING MACHINES, devices for 
 making several copies of a writing, the 
 chief of which are the socalled mimeo- 
 graph and the papyrograph, the former 
 an invention of Edison. Various other 
 devices consist of sheets of jelly-like 
 substance upon which the original, 
 written in colored ink, is pressed leaving 
 a reversed copy upon the surface of the 
 jelly and from which other copies are 
 made. No perfectly satisfactory copy- 
 ing machine has yet been devised. 
 
 COPYRIGHT, the exclusive property 
 right to reproduce in writing, engraving, 
 printing, or by any other means, of an 
 artistic or literary thing for the purpose 
 of sale. In the U. States a copyright 
 is obtained by sending to the librarian 
 of congress at Washington two copies 
 of the thing with a fee of 50 cents (or 
 $1 if papers are desired), on or before 
 the day of publication. Copyright was 
 originated in the reign of Queen Anne 
 of England and has been practiced in 
 the U. States since the beginning of this 
 government. The right extends only to 
 the form of the thing copyrighted and 
 not to its substance. The right is 
 granted for a period of 28 years and this 
 period may be extended for an ad- 
 ditional period of 14 years. Inter- 
 pretation of the law is somewhat plastic, 
 and infringement is a matter that must 
 be decided by a court. By the act of 
 1891 foreign works may be copyrighted 
 in America if printed from plates made 
 in this country and published simul- 
 taneously. 
 
 COQUELIN (ko'klan), Benoit Con- 
 stant, a noted French actor, born at 
 Boulogne-sur-Mer, Jan. 23, 1841. He 
 visited the U. States in 1888, in 1893, 
 and in 1894. His most celebrated 
 character is that of Cyrano de Bergerac 
 in Rostand’s play. Died 1909. 
 
 COQUELIN^, Ernest Alexandre 
 Honore, brother of Constant Coquelin, 
 a French actor, born in 1848. He is as 
 well known for his success as a dramatic 
 writer as for his histrionic talent. 
 
 COQUIMBO (ko-kim'bo), or Laserena, 
 a town of Chili, capital of the prov- 
 ince of Coqumibo, stands near the sea, 
 on a river of the same name. It is the 
 see of a bishop. Pop. 13,000. — Porto 
 Coquimbo, the port of the above, from 
 which it is distant 7 miles to the s.w., 
 has smelting works and a large e;xport 
 trade, chiefly in copper and the precious 
 metals. Pop. 5100. — The province is 
 rich in copper, silver, gold, and other 
 metals, and is mountainous. Pop. 
 165,474. 
 
 COR'ACLE, a small boat or canoe of 
 oval form and made of wicker-work 
 covered with skins. It was used by the 
 ancient Britons, and something similar 
 is still in use among Welsh fishermen 
 and on the Irish lakes. 
 
 COR'ACOID BONE, a bone in birds 
 joining the sternum and shoulder-bone, 
 and giving support to the wing. In 
 mammals it is represented by the cora- 
 coid process of the scapula. 
 
 COR'AL, the name applied to the 
 calcareous stony structures secreted by 
 many of the sea-anemones, etc. Two 
 
CORBEL 
 
 CORELLI ' 
 
 kinds of corals are distinguished by 
 naturalists, those in which the cal- 
 careous skeleton is developed in the 
 walls of the body, as in the reef-building 
 corals, and those in which (as in the red 
 coral of commerce) the skeleton is ex- 
 ternal or cuticular. Reproduction takes 
 place by ova, but chiefly by budding, 
 the new individual remaining in organic 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 ^ f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Formation of coral reefs, according to 
 Darwin. 
 
 union with the old. The coral masses 
 grow not merely by the multiplication 
 of individuals, but by the increase in 
 height of each of the latter, which, as 
 they grow, become divided transversely 
 by partitions. The animal, distended 
 with ova, collapses on their discharge, 
 and thus becomes too small for the cup 
 which it formerly occupied; it cuts off 
 the waste space by a horizontal layer of 
 coral, and the repetition of this process 
 gradually adds to the height of the mass. 
 It is in this way that the coral reefs and 
 islands, occurring in such abundance 
 in the Pacific, the Indian Ocean, and the 
 Red Sea, are built up — works of such 
 stupendous and astonishing bulk when 
 compared with the tiny creatures that 
 produce them. 
 
 COR'BEL, in architecture, a piece of 
 stone, wood, or iron projecting from the 
 vertical face of a wall, to support some 
 superincumbent mass. Corbels are of a 
 
 Corbel-table. 
 
 great variety of forms, and are orna- 
 mented in many ways. They are some- 
 times used in rows to support a project- 
 ing course called a corbel-table. 
 
 CORCORAN ART GALLERY, a col- 
 lection of paintings and sculptures in 
 Washington, D. C., presented to that 
 city by W. W. Corcoran, containing 
 numerous famous pieces. It is housed 
 in a white marble building given by 
 Ernest Flagg. 
 
 CORDAY D’ARMANS (kor-da-dar- 
 man), Marie Anne Charlotte, commonly 
 called Charlotte Corday, was born in 
 Normandy in 1768, of a family which 
 counted the poet Corneille among its 
 ancestors. Her lover, an officer in the 
 garrison of Caen, was accused by Marat 
 
 as a conspirator against the republic, 
 and assassinated by villains hired for 
 that purpose. This, as well as a deep- 
 rooted hatred against all oppressors, 
 determined Charlotte Corday to free 
 her country from Marat. Having 
 obtained an interview with Marat at his 
 own house she plunged her dagger into 
 his bosom, and gave herself up to the 
 attendants who rushed in at his cries. 
 When tried for the murder before the 
 revolutionary tribunals, her air was 
 dignified and her replies firm. In spite 
 of the fervid eloquence of her advocate’s 
 defense she was condemned to the 
 guillotine, and was executed on 17th 
 July, 1793. 
 
 CORDELIERS (kor'de-lerz), originally 
 an order of Franciscan monks who wore 
 as part of their dress a girdle of knotted 
 cords; afterward the name given to a 
 society of Jacobins, to which the names 
 of Marat, Danton and Camille Des- 
 moulins gave some reputation. The 
 club lasted from 1792 to 1794, and took 
 its name from their place of meeting. 
 
 CORDITE, a new smokeless explosive 
 for use in ordnance, so named from 
 being made in cordlike forms. 
 
 COR'DON, in a military sense, troops 
 so disposed as to keep up an uninter- 
 rupted line of communication, to pre- 
 serve an area either from hostile invasion 
 or from contagious diseases. In the 
 latter sense it is called cordon sanitairp. 
 
 COR'DOVA, an ancient Spanish city 
 on the Guadalquiver, in Andalu.sia, 
 capital of a province of the same name. 
 A part of the town is of Roman, a part 
 
 of Moorish origin. Pop. 55,614. — The 
 province includes the fertile and beau- 
 tiful valley of the Guadalquiver and the 
 mountains of Sierra Morena. Ai-ea, 
 5188 sq. miles; pop. 420,728. 
 
 COR'DOVA, a town of the Argentine 
 Republic, capital of province of same 
 name. It occupies a beautiful site on 
 the Primero, and has various, important 
 buildings and institutions, including a 
 university. Pop. 58,275. — The prov- 
 ince has an area of 54,000 sq. miles, a 
 pop. of 456,000. 
 
 CORDUROY', a thick cotton stuff 
 corded or ribbed on the surface. — Cor- 
 duroy road, in N. America, a road con- 
 structed with logs laid together over 
 swamps or marshy places for carriages 
 to pass over. 
 
 CORD-WOOD, wood cut and piled 
 for sale by the cord, in distinction from 
 long wood; properly, wood cut to the 
 length of 4 feet ; but in this respect the 
 practice is not uniform. 
 
 CORE'A, a kingdom of Asia, consist- 
 ing chiefly of a peninsula lying north 
 east of China, bounded n. by Manchuria, 
 e. by the Sea of Japan, s. by a narrow 
 
 sea which parts it from the Japanese J 
 
 Islands, and w. by the Yellow Sea Pop. ^ 
 
 vaguely estimated at about 9,000,000 i 
 
 or'Tnore; area about 80,000 sq. miles. 1 
 
 Soul or Seoul, is the capital. The 1 
 
 peninsula is traversed through its length J 
 
 by a mountain range, abrupt and pre- I 
 
 cipitous on the east, but forming a J 
 
 gentle slope on the west side, which, 1 
 
 being watered by the principal rivers j 
 
 of the country is exceedingly fertile. S 
 
 In the north the only grain that can be 4 
 
 grown is barley ; but in the south, wheat, 
 cotton, rice, millet, and hemp are grown 
 
 extensively. The ginseng root is a pro- 
 duction greatly valued in China and 
 Japan. Tigers, panthers, foxes, wolves, 
 and sables are abundant. The penin- 
 sula abounds in minerals, gold, silver, 
 iron, copper, lead, and coal. Corea is 
 governed bj’’ a king, whose sway is 
 nominally absolute. Till recently China 
 was suzerain of Corea, but the war with 
 Japan ended this. Buddhism, Confu- 
 cianism, and Taouism are the chief 
 religions. 
 
 CORELLI, Marie. An English nov- . 
 elist, the adopted daughter of Charles 
 Mackay, the poet. She was born in Italy 
 in 1864, and educated in London and in 
 a convent in France. A musical career 
 was planned for her, but she early 
 adopted literature instead. Among her ,■ 
 
 Cordova. 
 
COREOPSIS 
 
 CORNEILLE 
 
 writings are: The Romance of Two 
 Worlds; Thelma; The Sorrows of Satan; 
 The Mighty Atom ; The Murder of Deli- 
 cia; Ziska; Jane; The Master-Christian ; 
 Boy; and Temporal Power. 
 
 CO'REOP'SIS, An herbaceous annual 
 or perennial plant of the order Com- 
 positJE, nearly all natives of easte/n 
 N. America, and popularly known as 
 tick-seed, the fruit neing in the shape of 
 a small tick. It is often raised for its 
 showy yellow or rose-purple flowers 
 with yellow or brown discs. The 
 perennials are grown in hardy borders; 
 the annuals in the garden in almost any 
 soil. 
 
 COR'FU, a Greek island in the Medi- 
 terranean, the most northerly of the 
 Ionian Islands, at the mouth of the 
 Adriatic, near the coast of Albania, about 
 40 miles long, and from 15 to 20 wide; 
 square miles, 427. The surface rises at 
 one point to the height of 3000 feet, the 
 scenery is beautiful, the climate pleasant 
 and healthy, the soil fertile. Oranges, 
 citrons, grapes, honey, wax, oil, ana 
 salt are abundant. 
 
 CORTNTH, a once celebrated city 
 upon the isthmus of the same name, 
 which unites Peloponnesus with North- 
 ern Greece. It was renowned among the 
 cities of Greece, commanded by its ad- 
 vantageous position a most important 
 transit trade, and possessed all the 
 splendor whicn wealth and luxury could 
 create. St. Paul lived here a year and a 
 half, and two of his epistles are addressed 
 to the Corinthians. — New Corinth is a 
 village on the shore of the gulf, several 
 miles n. w. from the site of ancient 
 Corinth ; it is the seat of an archbishop. 
 Pop. 3000. 
 
 CORINTHIAN ORDER, that order of 
 Grecian architecture of which the most 
 characteristic feature is the capital of 
 the column, which is adorned with 
 
 Corinthian order. 
 
 a a, Dentils of the Corinthian cornice. 
 
 beautifully carved acanthus leaves, but 
 varies considerably in minor details. 
 The column is generally fluted, with a 
 fillet between the flutings, and stands 
 upon a base. The entablature is va/- 
 
 riously decorated, especially the cornice; 
 the frieze may be quite plain, or 
 sculptured with foliage and animals. 
 The Corinthian order was not very 
 common in Greece before the time of 
 Alexander the Great ; among the Romans 
 it was much employed. 
 
 CORINTHIANS, Epistles to the, two 
 ^istles addressed to the church at 
 Corinth about a.d. 57 or 58, which have 
 been admitted as genuine writings of St. 
 Paul by even the most critical assailants 
 of the New Testament canon. 
 
 CORIOLA'NUS, the name given to an 
 ancient Roman, Caius, or more properly 
 Cneius, Marcius, because the city of 
 Corioli the capital of the kingdom of 
 the Volsci, was taken almost solely by 
 his exertions. He was banished for 
 seeking to deprive the plebeians of their 
 hard-earned privileges, and in particular 
 of the tribimeship; and seeking revenge, 
 he took refuge among the Volsci, the 
 bitterest enemies of Rome, and pre- 
 vailed upon them to go to war with her. 
 The story of Coriolanus, which is now 
 regarded as legendary, forms the sub- 
 ject of one of Shakespeare’s plays. 
 
 CORK, a city in the south of Ireland, 
 capital of the county of Cork, situated 
 on the river Lee. It is 15 miles from 
 the sea, and besides an upper harbor 
 at the city itself, and quays extending 
 over four miles in length, there is a lower 
 harbor at Queenstown, 11 miles below 
 the town. The entrance, deep and 
 narrow, is strongly fortified on each side. 
 Cork is the third city in Ireland, and 
 exports great quantities of grain, butter, 
 bacon, hams, eggs, and live stock. The 
 principal industries are tanning, dis- 
 tilling, brewing, and the making of 
 tweeds and friezes. Pop. 100,022. — 
 The county is the most southerly and 
 the largest in Ireland, having an area of 
 2885 sq. miles, or 1,849,686 aeres, of 
 which less than a fourth is under crops. 
 The county town is Cork; other towns 
 are Queenstown, Fermoy, Youghal, 
 Bandon, Mallow, and Kinsale. Pop. 
 404,813. 
 
 CORK is the external bark of a species 
 of oak which grows in Spain, Portugal, 
 and other southern parts of Europe 
 and in the north of Africa, and is 
 distinguished by the great ^thickness 
 and sponginess of its bark, and by 
 the leaves being evergreen, oblong, 
 somewhat oval, downy underneath, 
 and waved. The outer bark falls off of 
 itself if left alone, but for commer- 
 cial purposes it is stripped off when 
 judged sufficiently matured, this being 
 when the tree has reached the age of 
 from fifteen to thirty years. The first 
 stripping yields the coarsest kind of bark. 
 In the course of eight or nine years, or 
 even less, the same tree will yield 
 another supply of cork of better quality, 
 and the removal of this outer bark is 
 said to be beneficial, the trees thus 
 stripped reaching the age of 150 years or 
 more. Cork is light, elastic, impervious 
 to water, and by pressure can be greatly 
 redueed in bulk, returning again to its 
 original size. These qualities render it 
 peculiarly serviceable for the stopping 
 of vessels of different kinds, for floats, 
 buoys, swimming-belts or jackets, arti- 
 ficial limbs, etc. Corks for bottles are 
 cut either by hand or by means of a 
 
 machine. The best corks are cut across 
 the grain. 
 
 COR'MORANT (a sea-crow), the name 
 of several large web-footed birds of the 
 pelican family, or forming a family by 
 themselves. They have a longish and 
 strongly-hooked bill, long neck, short 
 wings, and rather long rounded tail; 
 
 Common cormorant. 
 
 all the toes are united by a web, and, 
 though excellent swimmers, they are 
 able to perch on trees; color generally 
 black or dark. The common cormorant 
 of Europe is larger than a goose, but 
 with smaller wings. It occupies cliffs 
 by the sea, feeds on fish, and is ex- 
 tremely voracious. It dives and swims 
 with great power, and pursues its prey 
 beneath the surface of the water, often 
 to a great depth. Among the Chinese 
 cormorants have long been trained to 
 fish for man. At first a ring is placed 
 on the lower part of the bird’s neck to 
 prevent it swallowing the prey, and in 
 time it learns to deliver the fish to its 
 master without such a precaution being 
 necessary. 
 
 CORMUS. See Corm. 
 
 CORN, a hardened portion of the 
 cuticle of the foot, appearing as a sort 
 of distinct growth, produced by pres- 
 sure. Corns are generally found on the 
 outside of the toes, but sometimes be- 
 tween them, on the sides of the foot, op 
 even on the ball. They appear at first, 
 as small dark points in the hardened 
 skin, and in this state stimulants op 
 escharotics, as nitrate of silver (lunap 
 caustic), are recommended. Perhaps 
 the most efficacious remedy for corns is 
 the application of glacial acetic acid 
 night and morning. 
 
 CORN is the generic term for all kinds 
 of grain used for making bread, and is 
 applied specifically to the principal 
 breadstuff: in England to wheat, in the 
 U. States generally to maize, and fre- 
 quently in Scotland to oats. 
 
 CORN, Indian. See Maize. 
 
 CORNEILLE (kor-na-ye), Pierre, the 
 father of French tragedy and classic 
 comedy was born at Rouen in 1606, at 
 which place his father was advocate- 
 general. He began his dramatic ca- 
 reer with comedy, and a series of 
 vigorous dramas, M61ite (1629), Cli- 
 tandre, La Veuve, La Suivante, etc., 
 announced the advent of a dramatist 
 of a high order. In 1635 he entered 
 the field of tragedy with Medea; but 
 it was not till the appearance of his 
 next work, the famous Cid, that Cor- 
 neille’s claim was recognized to a place 
 amongst the great tragic poets. Tha 
 Cid was an imitation of a Spanish drama. 
 
CORNELIA 
 
 CORNWALL 
 
 and though gravely defective in the 
 improbabilities of the plot and other 
 respects, acliieved an immense success 
 for a certain sublimity of sentiment 
 and loftiness of ideal, which are the 
 native characteristics of Corneille’s 
 poetry. After the Cid appeared in 
 rapid succession Horace (1639); Cinna 
 (1639), his masterpiece, according to 
 Voltaire; and Polyeuete (1640), works 
 which show Corneille’s genius at its 
 best. He died in 1684. 
 
 CORNE'LIA, daughter of Scipio Afri- 
 canus the elder, married Tiberius Sem- 
 pronius Gracchus, censor b.c. 169, by 
 whom she was the mother of the two 
 tribunes, Tiberius and Caius Gracchus. 
 
 CORNE'LIAN, or Carnelian, a gem of 
 a light-red or flesh color. It consists 
 of sihca along with minute quantities of 
 the oxides of iron, aluminium, and 
 sometimes of other metals, and is used 
 for seals, bracelets, necklaces, and 
 other articles. 
 
 CORNE'LIUS NEPOS, a Roman 
 author of the 1st century b.c., the con- 
 temporary of Cicero and Catullus. The 
 only extant work attributed to him is 
 a collection of short biographies, prob- 
 ably an abridgment of a work written 
 by Nepos. These biographies have 
 long been a favorite school-book, and 
 popular editions of them are very 
 numerous. 
 
 CORNE'LIUS, Peter von, German 
 painter, born at Diisseldorf in 1787, died 
 in 1867. He early exhibited a taste for 
 art, and studied the great masters, espe- 
 cially Raphael. In 1811 he went to 
 Rome, where, in conjunction with Over- 
 beck, Veit, and other associates, he may 
 be said to have founded a new school of 
 German art, and revived fresco-painting 
 in imitation of Michael Angelo and Ra- 
 phael. He left Rome in 1819 for Diis- 
 seldorf, where he had been appointed 
 director of the academy, but ne soon 
 settled in Munich to give his whole at- 
 tention to the painting of the Glyptothek 
 and the Ludwigskirche there. In these 
 two great works he was assisted by his 
 Munich pupils. In 1833 he made an- 
 other visit to Rome, and in 1839 he vis- 
 ited Paris. In 1841 he was invited to 
 Berlin by Frederick William IV., who 
 intrusted him with the painting of the 
 royal mausoleum or Campo Santo. 
 The most celebrated cartoon in this series 
 is the Four Riders of the Apocalypse. 
 The series consists of twelve paintings, 
 which have been engraved. Cornelius, 
 a true representative of modem German 
 thought, introduced into art a meta- 
 physical and subjective element which 
 is easily liable to be abused; and in his 
 work grandeur of conception and eleva- 
 tion of tone have to make up for the 
 want of the finest natural effects. 
 
 CORNELL', Alonzo B., American 
 olitician, son of Ezra Cornell, was 
 orn at Ithaca, N. Y., in 1832. He was 
 the Republican candidate for Lieutenant- 
 Governor of New York in 1863, and 
 from 1869 to 1873 was surveyor of 
 customs in NewYork. He was chair- 
 man of the Republican State Committee 
 from 1870 to 1878, and was three times 
 Speaker of the New York Assembly. 
 From 1880 to 1883 he was Governor 
 pf New York. 
 
 CORNELL, Ezra, American capitalist 
 and philanthropist, founder of Cornell 
 University was born in 1807 in West- 
 chester County, N. Y. His attention 
 being turned accidentally in 1842 to 
 the project of constructing a telegraph 
 line_ from Baltimore to Washington, 
 he invented a machine for laying the 
 wires under ground and was subse- 
 quently put in charge of the work. The 
 insulation being poor, however, the 
 plan had to be abandoned, and on 
 Cornell’s suggestion the wires were 
 strung on poles, and the line was thus 
 speedily completed. Subsequently Cor- 
 nell devoted his attention almost wholly 
 to the construction of telegraph lines 
 and the organization of telegraph com- 
 panies, and was instrumental in forming 
 the Western Union Telegraph Com- 
 pany in 1855. He was a member of the 
 first Republican National Convention in 
 1856, was president of the New York 
 State Agricultural Society in 1862, and 
 was a member of the State Assembly in 
 1862-63, and of the State Senate in 
 1864-67. In 1868 “The Cornell Univer- 
 sity,” so founded, was formally opened. 
 Mr. Cornell also built a public library 
 at Ithaca. He died in 1874. 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY, founded by 
 Ezra Cornell at Ithaca, N. Y., in 1865. 
 Cornell University comprises the fol- 
 lowing departments and colleges; 'The 
 Graduate Department, having charge of 
 all ^aduate studies pursued at the uni- 
 versity under the several faculties. This 
 department offers courses leading to the 
 degrees of A.M., Ph.D., etc. Twenty- 
 four fellowships, ranging from $500 to 
 $600 a year, and 17 scholarships, of the 
 annual value of $300 a year, are avail- 
 able for students. The Academic De- 
 partment offers elective courses lead- 
 ing, whether sciences, letters, or the 
 classics are mainly chosen, to the degree 
 of A.B. The College of Law offers 
 courses leading to the LL.B. degree. 
 The Medical College, partially conducted 
 at New York City, confers the degree 
 of M.D. The College of Agriculture of- 
 fers courses leading to the B.S.A. de- 
 gree. Connected with this college is an 
 agricultural experiment station, estab- 
 lished by the Federal Government in 
 1887. 'She New York State Veterinary 
 College confers the degree of D.V.M. 
 The State College of Forestry confers 
 the degree of F.E. The College of Archi- 
 tecture confers the degree of B.Arch. 
 The College of Civil Engineering confers 
 the degree of C.E. Sibley College of 
 Mechanical Engineering and Mechanic 
 Arts, consisting of the departments of 
 mechanical, electrical, experimental en- 
 gineering, the department of mechamc 
 arts, etc., confers the degree of M.E. 
 
 The libraries, including the famous 
 Andrew D. White collection on the 
 French Revolution and the Fisk Dante 
 collection, contain 261,852 volumes, 
 besides 43,000 pamphlets. The income 
 of the university from all sources is 
 about $800,000 a year. The presidents 
 since its inception have been: Andrew 
 D. White, LL.D. (1865-85); Charles 
 Kendall Adams, LL.D. (1885-92); Jacob 
 Gould Schurman, LI..D (1892 — ■). 
 
 CORNER, a trade term applied to 
 the act of acquiring control of all or 
 pearly all of a commodity, or of the 
 
 stock-shares of a company (when they 
 are to be bought in the market), the 
 purpose being to force those who are 
 bound to deliver the goods into bupng 
 the goods (or shares) from those who 
 control them, at the latter’s prices. 
 When those who are engineering the 
 corner are forced through lack of means, 
 to throw their holdings on the market 
 the corner is said to be smashed. Few 
 corners have been successful. 
 
 CORNET, a wind-instrument of former 
 times, originally curvilinear or serpen- 
 tine in form and increasing in diameter 
 from the mouthpiece to the lower end. 
 
 Cornet-^pistons. 
 
 The modern comet is a keyed bugle 
 which has a very agreeable tone, and 
 is much used in orchestras and military 
 bands. 
 
 CORN-HUSKING, Corn-shucking, an 
 assemblage of friends and neighbors at 
 the house of a farmer to assist him in 
 stripping the husks or shucks from his 
 Indian com. 
 
 CORN'ING, a city and one of the 
 county seats of Steuben county, N. Y., 
 18 miles w.n.w. of Elmira; on the Che- 
 mung river, and on the New York Cen- 
 tral, the Erie, and the Lackawanna rail- 
 road. Pop. 12,061. 
 
 CORN-LAWS, a name commonly 
 given to certain statutes passed to pro- 
 tect the agricultural interest in Britain. 
 
 CORN'WALL, a maritime county of 
 England, forming the southwestern 
 extremity of the island, bounded e. by 
 Devonshire, and surrounded on all 
 other sides by the sea; area, 1350 sq. 
 miles or 863,665 acres. The chief wealth 
 of the county is in its minerals, especially 
 its mines of copper and tin, though the 
 value of both has diminished. Several 
 mines exceed 350 fathoms in depth. 
 In the Botallack Copper Mine, a few 
 miles north of Land’s End, the work- 
 ings are carried below the sea. Corn- 
 wall, with the Scilly Isles, seems to 
 have been the Cassiterides or Tin Islands 
 of antiquity. The natives long main- 
 tained their independence against the 
 Saxons, and their country was spoken 
 of as West Wales. Their language also 
 long continued to be Celtic. It mves 
 the title Duke of Cornwall to the eldest 
 son of the sovereign of Great Britain, 
 
CQRNWALLIb 
 
 CCRPUS CHRISTI 
 
 and forms a royal duchy, the revenues 
 of which belong to the Prince of Wales 
 7or the time being. The dukedom 
 was created for the Black Prince in 
 1337. Pop. 322,957. 
 
 CORN'WALLIS, Charles, Marquis of, 
 son of the first Earl Cornwallis, born in 
 1738. On the outbreak of the American 
 war he sailed with his regiment, served 
 with distinction under Howe and 
 Clinton, and in 1780 was left in inde- 
 pendent command in South Carolina 
 with 1000 men. He defeated Gen. 
 Gates at Camden 1780, and General 
 Green at Guilford in 1781, but six 
 months afterward was besieged in 
 Yorktown and compelled to surrender 
 19th Oct. 1781. This disaster proved 
 decisive of the war. In 1786 Lord 
 Cornwallis went out to India with the 
 double appointment of commander-in- 
 chief and governor-general, invaded 
 
 Lord Cornwallis. 
 
 Mysore in 1791, and obliged Tippoo 
 Saib to surrender much territory. 
 Having returned to Britain he was 
 created a marquis (1792), appointed 
 Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and again 
 in 1804 governor-general of India. He 
 ’died the following year. 
 
 COROL'LA, in botany, the portion of 
 the flower inside the calyx; the inner 
 floral envelope. The corolla surrounds 
 the parts of fructification and is com- 
 posed of leaves called petals. When 
 there are several free leaves it is called a 
 polypetalous corolla, as in the rose; but 
 when the petals are united by the mar- 
 gins into a continuous structure it is 
 called monopetalous, or more correctly 
 gamopetalous. It may generally be dis- 
 toguished from the calyx by the fine- 
 ness of its texture and the gayness of its 
 colors; but there are many exceptions. 
 
 CORONA, the beautiful, brilliant 
 streamers which are seen radiating 
 from the opaque disc of the sun during 
 a total echpse. The nature of the 
 corona is wholly unknown, although 
 it is believed to be of electric or mag- 
 netic origin. As no two coronae are 
 alike the presumption is that the corona 
 itself is a perpetually changing radiation. 
 The streamers are hundreds of thou- 
 sands of miles in length. 
 
 CORONA'TION, the placing of the 
 crown on a monarch’s head with solemn 
 rites and ceremonies. Part of the 
 
 ceremon> usually consists in the oath 
 which the monarch takes that he will 
 govern justly, will always consult the 
 real welfare of his people, and will 
 conscientiously observe the fundamen- 
 tal laws of the state. 
 
 Corona. 
 
 COR'ONER, an official whose chief 
 duty is to inquire into the cause of the 
 death of persons killed or dying sud- 
 denly. His examination is made in all 
 cases with the aid of a jury, in sight of 
 the body, and at the place where the 
 death happened. If the body is not 
 found he cannot sit. If the jury have 
 brought in a verdict of murder or man- 
 slaughter the coroner may commit the 
 accused party to prison or admit him 
 to bail. 
 
 COR'ONET, such a variety of crown as 
 is worn by princes and noblemen. The 
 coronet of a British duke is adorned with 
 strawberry leaves ; that of a marquis has 
 
 1, Coronet of a duke. 2. Do. of a marquis. 
 
 3, Do. of an earl. 4. Do. of a vis- 
 count. 4. Do. of a baron. 
 
 leaves with pearls interposed ; that of an 
 earl raises the pearls above the leaves; 
 that of a viscount is surrounded with 
 pearls only; that of a baron has only 
 six pearls. 
 
 COROT (ko-ro), Jean-Baptiste-Ca- 
 mille, French artist, born at Paris in 
 1796. He exhibited for the first time 
 in the Salon in 1827, but some years 
 elapsed before the high qualities of his 
 work were recognized. The fortune 
 which he inherited from his father en- 
 abled him, however, to follow out the 
 bent of his genius, and the last twenty- 
 five years of his life were a continuous 
 triumph. He died in 187.5 He fre- 
 
 queiitly painted figure subjects, in- 
 cluding^ the large sacred pictures, the 
 Flight into Egypt and the Baptism of 
 Christ; but his most characteristic and 
 successful work was in landscape. His 
 woodland scenes, painted for the most 
 part at dawn or twilight in a scheme of 
 pale greens and silvery grays, show a 
 singularly subtle feeling for this phase 
 of nature, and are undoubtedly among 
 the most important contributions of the 
 century to landscape art. 
 
 COR'PORAL, 0 petty officer ranking 
 just above the ordinary private and be- 
 low the sergeant. He has charge of one 
 of the squads of the company, places 
 and relieves sentinels, etc. 
 
 CORPORA'TION, in English common 
 law (the first modern definition of a 
 corporation) a body with certain legal 
 rights and powers. A corporation has 
 essentially three factors — persons who 
 are its members, persons who are its 
 trustees, and a legal charter for its 
 existence. A corporation consisting 
 of only one person (as the sovereign of 
 England, or the Roman Catholic arch- 
 bishop of New York or Chicago) is 
 called a sole corporation; and a cor- 
 poration consisting of several persons is 
 called an aggregate or sole corporation. 
 Corporations may be ecclesiastical, 
 civil, eleemosynary, and so on. Strictly 
 speaking joint stock companies, such as 
 railroads, modern “trusts,” etc., are 
 not corporations although generally 
 so termed in the United States. 
 
 CORPS (kor), a word often used as a 
 military and a political term. — A corps 
 d’arm4e, or army corps, one of the 
 largest divisions of an army. — Corps 
 diplomatique, the body of ministers or 
 diplomatic characters. — Corps legislatif 
 (kor la-zhis-la-tef), the lower house of 
 the French legislature in 1857-70. 
 
 COR'PULENCE, the unwieldy state 
 of the human body due to the excessive 
 deposition of fat. It is promoted by a 
 diet too rich in fat-forming materials, 
 fats, starch and sugars, bodily inactivity 
 tranquillity of mind, etc. There is, 
 however, a diseased state of the system, 
 which, independently of all these in- 
 fluences, wiU increase the production 
 and deposition of fat. If corpulence is 
 excessive it becomes troublesome and 
 at length dangerous. In curing cor- 
 pulency due attention must be paid to 
 the regulating of the diet, exercise, and 
 sleep of the individual. Especial atten- 
 tion must be given to the kind of diet. 
 Avoid all kinds of fat-forming food, such 
 as fat, cream, butter, sugar, potatoes, 
 farinaceous food and malt liquors, and 
 indeed alcoholic liquors of all kinds. 
 Little bread should be eaten ; a moderate 
 increase in animal foods, lean beef, fish, 
 fowl, eggs, is allowed: green vegetables 
 and fresh fruit may be partaken of. 
 Regular exercise to suit the person’s 
 powers should be engaged in. A noted 
 instance of corpulency is Daniel Lam- 
 bert, who weighed over 50 stone, or 
 more than 700 lbs. Moderate corpu- 
 lence may be quite consistent with 
 health. 
 
 CORPUS CHRISTI, the. consecrated 
 host at the Lord’s supper, which, ac- 
 cording to the doctrines of the R. Catho- 
 lic Church, is changed by the act of con- 
 secration into the real body of Christ, 
 
CORPUSCULAR THEORY OF LIGHT 
 
 CORUNDUM 
 
 This doctrine caused the adoration of the 
 consecrated host, and hence the R. 
 Catholic Church has ordained for the 
 host a particular festival, called the 
 Corpus Christ! feast. This was insti- 
 tuted in 1264 by Pope Urban IV. by 
 a bull, in which he appointed the Thurs- 
 day of the v/eek after Pentecost for the 
 celebration of the Corpus Christ! festival 
 throughout Christendom. Since then 
 this festival has been kept as one of the 
 greatest of the Catholic Church. Splen- 
 did processions, in which the host is 
 carried by a priest in a precious box, 
 form an essential part of it. In France it 
 is known as the fete-dieu. 
 
 CORPUS'CULAR THEORY OF 
 LIGHT, the older theory, which ex- 
 plained the phenomena of light by 
 supposing that a luminous body emits 
 excessively minute particles of matter, 
 corpuscules at they were called which 
 striking the eye produce the sensation 
 of light. Newton held the corpuscular 
 theory, and supported it with great 
 ingenuity. This theory has long been 
 displaced by the undulatory theory 
 (which see). 
 
 CORRAL', in South America and 
 elsewhere, a yard or stockade for 
 cattle. 
 
 CORREGGIO (kor-rej'6), Antonio Al- 
 legri, Italian painter, born at Correggio, 
 near Modena, in 1494. Among his best 
 pictures are Night, in which the chief 
 light is the glory beaming from the In- 
 fant Savior; the St. Jerome; the Mar- 
 riage of St. Catherine; several Madon- 
 nas, one of them (called La Zingarella, 
 or the Gipsy Girl) said to represent his 
 wife; the Pentitent Magdalene; the 
 altar-pieces of St. Francis, St. George, 
 and St. Sebastian; Christ in the Garden 
 of Clives; the fresco of the Ascension 
 in the Church of St. John, Parma; the 
 Assumption of the Virgin in the cathe- 
 dral of the same city; the Ecce Homo, 
 and Cupid, Mercury, and Venus, both 
 in the National Gallery, London. He 
 died in 1534. 
 
 CORREZE (kor-raz), an inland de- 
 partment, France; area, 2265 sq. miles; 
 capital. Tulle. It belongs almost en- 
 tirely to the basin of the Garonne. Ex- 
 cept in a few valleys the soil is far from 
 fertile, heaths occupying a great ex- 
 tent of surface, and agriculture being 
 in a very backward state. Pop. 326,494. 
 
 CORRIEN'TES, a town, Argentine 
 Republic, capital of the province of 
 same name, on the Parana, near its con- 
 fluence with the Paraguay, 390 miles 
 n. Buenos Ayres. Pop. 15,500. Pop. of 
 prov. 290,000. 
 
 CORRIGAN, Michael Augustine, an 
 American Roman Catholic archbishop, 
 born in New Jersey in 1839, died in 
 1902. From 1868 to 1873 he was pres- 
 ident of Seton Hall College; in 1873 
 he was made bishop of Newark; in 1880 
 coadjutor to Cardinal McCloskey, arch- 
 bishop of New York, and in 1885 arch- 
 bishop of New York, which he re- 
 mained until his death. Archbishop 
 Corrigan was regarded as one of the 
 ablest scholars of the American hier- 
 archy. 
 
 CORRO'SIVES, in surgery, substances 
 which eat away whatever part of the 
 body they are applied to; such are 
 glacial acetic acid, burned alum, white 
 
 percipitate of mercury, red precipitate 
 
 of mercury, butter of antimony, etc. 
 
 CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, the bi- 
 chloride of mercury, a white crystalline 
 solid, and an acrid poison of great 
 virulence. The stomach-pump and 
 emetics are the surest preventives of its 
 deleterious effects when accidentally 
 swallowed; white of egg is also service- 
 able, in counteracting its poisonous in- 
 fluence on the stomach. It is a power- 
 ful antiseptic. 
 
 COR'RUGATED IRON, sheet -iron 
 strengthened by being bent into parallel 
 furrows. It is largely used for rooflng, 
 and when dipped in melted zinc, to 
 give it a thin coating, is commonly 
 known as galvanized iron. 
 
 CORRUPT PRACTICES, fraudulent 
 methods used in public elections. The 
 term is especially used in England and 
 special laws have been enacted by 
 parliament bearing on the matter. 
 Most corrupt practices are provided for 
 by common law, but statutes have been 
 made in most of the United States pro- 
 viding for the punishment of fraud of 
 every kind in elections. 
 
 COR'SAIRS, the Anglicized form of 
 the term used in the south of Europe to 
 denote those pirates who sailed from 
 Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and the ports of 
 Morocco. 
 
 CORSELET (kors'let) : (1st) a cuirass 
 or armor to protect the body from in- 
 jury, worn formerly by pikemen, gener- 
 ally of leather, and pistol proof. (2d) 
 The part of a winged insect which 
 answers to the breast of other animals. 
 
 CORSET, a piece of underclothing 
 worn to give shape to the body, con- 
 sisting of a sort of closely-fitting jacket, 
 usually stiffened by strips of steel, 
 whalebone, or other means, and tight- 
 ened' by a lace. The materials of which 
 it is made should be smooth and elastic, 
 and it should be specially fitted for the 
 individual wearer, as no two human 
 figures are precisely alike. It should 
 be remembered, also, that corsets are 
 meant to preserve a good figure, not 
 to make one, and any forcible com- 
 pression of the shape, especially on 
 young persons, will only end in destroy- 
 ing natural grace of movement and in 
 serious injury to the health. 
 
 COR'SICA, an island in the Mediter- 
 ranean, forming the French department 
 of same name. It is separated from the 
 island of Sardinia, on the south, by the 
 Strait of Bonifacio, about 10 miles 
 wide; length, n. to s., 110 miles; breath, 
 near its center, 53 miles; area, 3377 
 sq. miles. The most distinguished men 
 to whom Corsica has given birth are 
 Paoli and Napoleon. Pop. 288,596. 
 
 COR'SO, an Italian term given to a 
 leading street or fashionable carriage- 
 drive. 
 
 CORT, Henry, the inventor of the 
 processes of puddling and rolli»g iron, 
 born at Lancaster in 1740. He died in 
 1800. 
 
 CORTES (kor'tes), the old assembly 
 of the estates in Spain and Portugal. 
 In early times the king was very de- 
 pendent upon them, especially in the 
 kingdom of Aragon. When the king- 
 doms of Aragon and Castile were united 
 under Ferdinand and Isabella the crown 
 succeeded in rendering itself more inde- 
 
 pendent of the estates, and in 1538 
 Charles abolished the assembly of the 
 estates in Castile altogether. Gradually 
 the popular liberties were encroached 
 upon, and the cortes at length were con- 
 vened only for the purpose of homage or 
 ceremony, or when a question regarding 
 the succession arose. In 1808 Napoleon 
 revived the cortes for his own ends. The 
 present cortes of Spain are composed of 
 a senate and congress equal in author- 
 ity, and having the power along with 
 the king to make laws. (See Spain.) 
 The Portuguese cortes is coeval with the 
 monarchy, and has had a history very 
 similar to that of the Spanish. 
 
 COR'TEZ, or CORTES, Fernando, or 
 Hernan, the conqueror of Mexico, was 
 born in 1485 at Medellin, in Estrema- 
 dura; died near Seville 1547. He went 
 to the West Indies in 1504, where Velas- 
 
 Fernando Cortez. 
 
 quez, governor of Cuba, under whom 
 he had greatly distinguished himself, 
 gave him the command of a fleet, which 
 was sent on a voyage of discovery. 
 Cortez quitted Santiago de Cuba in 1518, 
 with eleven vessels, about 700 Spaniards, 
 eighteen horses, and ten small field- 
 pieces. He landed on the shore of the 
 Gulf of Mexico, where he caused his 
 vessels to be burned, in order that his 
 soldiers might have no other resource 
 than their own valor. Having i n- 
 duced the Totonacs and Tlaxcalans to 
 become his allies he marched toward 
 Mexico, where he was amicably received ; 
 but, having seized their monarch 
 Montezuma, and treated the people with 
 great cruelty, they finally resisted. 
 After a desperate struggle, in which 
 100,000 Mexicans are said to have 
 perished, the city was taken, and soon 
 after the whole country was subjugated. 
 In 1528 he returned to Spain; but two 
 years after he was again sent out to 
 Mexico, where he remained for ten years, 
 discovering meanwhile the peninsula of 
 California. He returned once more to 
 Spain, where, notwithstanding his great 
 services, he was coldly received and 
 neglected. After taking part in an 
 expedition to Algiers in 1541 he passed 
 the remainder of his days in solitude. 
 
 CORUN'DUM, the earth alumina as 
 found native in a crystalline state. In 
 hardness it is next to the diamond The 
 amethyst, ruby, sapphire, and topaz are 
 considered as varieties of this mineral, 
 which is found in India and China, and 
 is most usually in the form of a six- 
 sided prism or six-sided pyramid. It is 
 nearly pure anhydrous alumina, and its 
 specific gravity is nearly four times that 
 of water. Its color is various — green, 
 blue, or red, inclining to gray, due to 
 
CORUNA 
 
 COTTON 
 
 traces of iron, copper, etc. Emery is a 
 variety of corundum. 
 
 CORUN'A, a seaport of Spain, in the 
 province of the same name in Galicia, 
 on the northwest coast, on a peninsula 
 at the entrance of the Bay of Betanzos. 
 
 Pop. 37,251. — The province ^s hilly and 
 its inhabitants chiefly engaged in agri' 
 culture and fishing. Area, 3079 sq 
 miles, pop. 616,043. 
 
 COR'VETTE, a vessel of war, ship- 
 rigged, haviiig a flush deck, with no 
 quarter-deck and only one tier of guns; 
 but the term is now somewhat loosely 
 used. In the British navy there ij a 
 class of corvettes built of iron o; steel, 
 swift vessels, propelled by steam as 
 well £-8 by a large spread of canvas, and 
 carrying heavy guns. 
 
 COR'VID.®, the crows, a family of 
 birds, in which the bill is strong, of 
 conical shape, more or less compressed, 
 and the gape straight. The nostrils are 
 covered with stiff bristle-like feathers 
 directed forward. The family in- 
 cludes the common crow, rook, raven, 
 magpie, jay, jackdaw, nut-cracker, cor- 
 nish chough, etc. 
 
 CORYBAN'TES, frantic priests of 
 Cybele, who celebrated the mysteries 
 with orgiastic dances to the sound of 
 drum and cymbal. 
 
 COR'YMB, in botany, that form of in- 
 florescence in which the flowers, each on 
 its own pedicel of different lengths, are so 
 arranged along a common axis as to 
 form a flat broad mass of flowers with 
 a convex or level top, as in the hawthorn 
 and candytuft. 
 
 CORYPH.$'NA, a genus of fishes of 
 the mackerel family. The body is 
 elongated, compressed, covered with 
 small scales, and the dorsal fin extends 
 the whole length of the back, or nearly 
 so. All the species, natives of the seas 
 of warm climates, are very rapid in 
 their motions, and very voracious. 
 They are of brilliant colors, and are 
 objects of admiration to every voyager. 
 
 CORYPHiE'US, the leader of the 
 chorus in the Greek dramas. His 
 functions were often as wide as those 
 of our stage-manager, conductor, and 
 ballet-master. The name coryph4e is 
 now applied to a ballet-dancer. 
 
 COSMET'ICS, external preparations 
 for rendering the skin soft, pure, and 
 white, or for beautifying and improving 
 the complexion. To these may be 
 added preparations for preserving or 
 beautifying the teeth, and those which 
 are applied to the hair. 
 
 COSMIC DUST, the fine dust which 
 tails upon the earth from regions be- 
 yond the earth. This may be ob- 
 served often after a heavy rain in favor- 
 able places. The origin of this extra- 
 
 terrestrial material is believed to be 
 m©t©oric 
 
 COSMOG'ONY, a theory of the origin 
 or formation of the universe. Such 
 theories may be comprehended under 
 three classes: — 1. The first represents 
 the world as eternal, in form as well s 
 substance. 2. The matter of the world 
 is eternal, but not its form. 3. The 
 matter and form of the universe is 
 ascribed to the direct agency of a spirit- 
 ual cause; the world had a beginning, 
 and shall have an end. 
 
 COSMOS, order or harmony, and 
 hence the universe as an orderly and 
 beautiful system. In this sense it has 
 been adopted Py Humboldt as the title 
 of his celebrated work, which describes 
 the nature ot the heavens as well as the 
 physical phenomena of the earth. 
 
 COSSACK POSTS, ..n the U. States 
 army a system of outposts consisting of 
 four men and a non-commissioned 
 officer. They are used instead of the old 
 style line of pickets and are claimed, by 
 American army officers to be far more 
 efficient and self-reliant, owing to the 
 support which the members of the out- 
 post lend cc one another. 
 
 COS'SACKS, tribes who inhabit the 
 southern and eastern parts of Russia, 
 paying no taxes, but performing in- 
 stead the duty of soldiers. They supply 
 the empire with one of the most valua- 
 ble elements in ’ts national army, form- 
 ing a first-rate irregular cavalry, and 
 rendering excellent service as scouts 
 and skirmishers. In 1570 they built 
 their principal “stanitza” and rendez- 
 vous, called Tcherkask, on the Don, not 
 far above its mouth. As it was ren- 
 dered unhealthy by the overflowing of 
 the island on which it stood. New 
 Tcherkask was founded in 1805 some 
 miles from the old city, to which nearly 
 all the inhabitants removed. This 
 forms the capital of the country of the 
 Don Cossacks, which constitutes a 
 government of Russia, and has an area 
 of 61,900 sq. miles and a population of 
 1,474,133. It has a military organiza- 
 lion of its own. 
 
 COSTA RICA, the most southern state 
 of the republics of Central America; 
 bounded n. by Nicaragua, e. and n. by 
 the Caribbean Sea; e. and s. by Colom- 
 bia; and s. and w by the Pacific. Area, 
 about 23,200 sq. miles. The capital is 
 San Jos4, and the two established ports 
 are Punta Arenas, on the Pacific side, 
 and Port Limon, on the Caribbean 
 Sea. It has been an independent state 
 since 1821, from 1824 to 1839, forming 
 a part of the Central American Confed- 
 eration, but subsequently separate. Pop. 
 243,000, mostly of Spanish descent. 
 
 COSTER, Laurens (called Janszoon, 
 that is, son of John), whose name is con- 
 nected with the origin of printing, was 
 born in Haarlem in 1370 or 1371, died 
 about 1440. According to a statement 
 first found in Junius’ Batavia (1588), he 
 was the original inventor of movable 
 types, and on this ground the Dutch 
 have erected statues in his honor. 
 
 COSTS, in law, are the expenses in- 
 curred by the plaintiff and defendant. 
 As a rule these are paid by the loser in a 
 suit, but there are always extra-judicial 
 expenses incurred by both parties, which 
 each has to pay whatever be the issue 
 
 of the suit. In criminal cases the party 
 accused may have his expenses if the 
 court thinks the accusation unreason- 
 able. In matrimonial suits, the wife, 
 whether petitioner or respondent, is gen- 
 erally entitled to her costs from the 
 husband. 
 
 COS'TUME, the style of attire char- 
 acteristic of an individual, community, 
 class, or people; the modes of clothing 
 and personal adornment which prevail 
 in any period or country. — Costume 
 balls, also called fancy dress balls, are 
 entertainments at which the guests 
 adopt a style of dress different from 
 the one usually worn. It may be one 
 which was worn at another period, or 
 one worn in another country, or a 
 modern dress worn by some particular 
 class of society A favorite plan is to 
 make up as some well-known character 
 in history or literature. 
 
 COTE-D’OR, an inland and eastern 
 department of France, part of the old 
 province of Burgundy, having Dijon 
 as its capital. Area, 3382 sq. miles. 
 The vineyards of the eastern slopes of 
 the Cote-d’Or produce the celebrated 
 wines of Upper Burgundy. Iron, coal, 
 marble, etc., are found. Pop. 381, 574. 
 
 COTES-DU-NORD (kot-du-nor), a 
 maritime department in the north of 
 France, forming part of ancient Brit- 
 tany; capital &ieuc. Area, 2659 sq. 
 miles. Pop. 628,256. 
 
 COTIL'LION, a brisk dance of French 
 origin, performed by eight persons 
 together, resembling the quadrille which 
 superseded it. The name is now given 
 to a dance which often winds up a ball, 
 and which is danced with any number 
 of dancers and with a great variety of 
 figures the pairs of dancers following 
 in this the leading pair, and partners 
 being successively changed. 
 
 COTTON, a vegetable fiber used 
 extensively in the manufactures and 
 highly valuable because of the ease 
 with which it is grown and its structural 
 value in the weaving arts. Cotton is 
 cultivated in those parts of the globe 
 
 Cotton plant in bloom. 
 
 between the two thirty-fifth parallels 
 of latitude (a region which contains the 
 largest portion of the land surface of the 
 globe), although its most profitable 
 cultivation is between the twentieth 
 and thirty-fifth parallels north of the 
 equator. Within this belt lie the cotton 
 districts of the United States, northern 
 Mexico, Egypt, northern Africa, and 
 Asia, except the extreme southern 
 
COTTON 
 
 parts of India and the Malay Peninsula. 
 South of the equator cotton is grown 
 in Brazil, nearly all of which country 
 is said to be favorably adapted to its 
 cultivation; in Australia, though not 
 to any great extent; in Africa, where 
 the extent of production is not known; 
 and in the islands of the Pacific. 
 
 All the species are perennial shrubs, 
 though in cultivation they are some- 
 times treated as if they were annuals. 
 They have alternate stalked and lobed 
 leaves, large yellow flowers, and a three 
 or five celled capsule, which bursts open 
 when ripe through the middle of the cell, 
 liberating the numerous black seeds 
 covered with the beautiful filamentous 
 cotton. The North American cotton 
 is produced by two well-marked va- 
 rieties, the long-staple cotton, which 
 has a fine soft silky fibre nearly two 
 inches long, and the short- staple 
 cotton, which has a fibre little over 
 one inch long adhering closely to the 
 seed. The long-staple variety known 
 as Sea Island cotton holds the first 
 place in the market. It is grown in 
 some of the southern states of Amer- 
 ica, especially on islands bordering 
 the coast. The mode of cultivation is 
 usually as follows: — The seeds are sown 
 in the spring in drills of about a yard in 
 width, the plant appearing above ground 
 in about eight days afterwards. The 
 rows of young plants are then carefully 
 weeded and hoed, a process which re- 
 quires to be repeated at two or three 
 subsequent periods. No hoeing takes 
 place after the flowering has commenced, 
 from which a period of 70 days generally 
 elapses till the ripening of the seed. To 
 prevent the lustre of the cotton wool 
 from being tarnished, the pods must not 
 remain ungathered longer than eight 
 days after coming to maturity. The 
 cotton wool is collected by picking with 
 the fingers the flakes from the pods, and 
 then spreading out to dry, an operation 
 which requires to be thoroughly per- 
 formed. The cotton now comes to be 
 separated from the seeds, a process form- 
 erly effected by manual labour, but 
 which is now generally accomplished by 
 machinery. After being cleansed from 
 the seeds, the cotton wool is formed into 
 bales, and is now ready for delivery to 
 the manufacturer. 
 
 Cotton has been cultivated in India 
 and the adjacent islands from time im- 
 memorial. It was known in Egypt in 
 the sixth century before the Christian 
 
 imported 
 
 era, but was then probably 
 from India. It was not till a compara- 
 tively late period that the nations of the 
 West became acquainted with this useful 
 
 ;omrnodity, and even then it cruiser Harvard durin; 
 
 nly to have been used as an article ofil 
 h. 
 
 frc 
 eff 
 ph 
 Cc 
 wa 
 
 nly to have been used as an article of! Spain 
 
 he greatest luxury. The introduction, ttawtw 
 
 f the cotton-shrub into Europe dates! 
 from the ninth century, and was first* 
 effected by the Spanish Moors, who 
 planted it in the plains of Valencia. 
 
 wards established at Cordova, Granada, , i 
 and Seville; and by the 14th centuiy 
 the cotton stuffs manufactured in thje 
 Kingdom of Granada had come to be rfn; 
 garded as superior in- quality to those 4f! 
 Syria. About the 14th century cottcm 
 thread began to be imported into Eng- 
 land by the Venetians and Genoese. Ifi 
 
 Lto 
 
 China the cotton-shrub was known at 
 very early period, but it does not appe; 
 to have been turned to any account 
 an article of manufacture till the sixt 
 century of the Christian era, nor was it ex ^ 
 tensivelyjused for that purpose till nearly 
 the middle of the 14th century. In the 
 newworld the manufacture of cotton cloth 
 appears to have been well understood by 
 the Mexicans and Peruvians long before 
 the advent of Europeans. It was plant- 
 ed by the English colonists of Virginia 
 in 1621, but only as an experiment, and 
 the amount produced was long very 
 small, the crop only amounting to about 
 2,000,000 pounds in 1791. After this it 
 rapidly increased, and in 1810 94,000,-: 
 000 pounds were exported The quantity 
 now produced is enormous, the crop of 
 1906-7 being estimated at 13,551 ,000 bales, 
 averaging 492 pounds each. The chief 
 cotton growing states are Texas, Georgia, 
 Mississippi, Alabama, South Carolina, 
 Arkansas, Louisiana, North Carolina, 
 Tennessee and Florida. The United 
 States furnishes two-thirds of the cotton 
 supply of the world. The raw cotton 
 exported in 1907 was 9,036,434 bales of 
 500 pounds each. 
 
 As a general rule, cotton is a dry-; 
 weather plant, heavy rainfall interfer-j 
 ing with both the culture and the stand " 
 although an extremely dry spring inter: 
 feres with the growth. The experlmen] 
 stations in the southern states have aid3 
 ed in introducing improved methods ol 
 cultivating, fertilizing, and handlings 
 the crop. Rotation of crops and greet? 
 manuring have been shown to be o^ 
 great advantage. From the date ofi ^ 
 bloom, warm, dry weather is needful.^ 
 until picking time, which usually com 
 mences from July 10 in Southernl 
 Texas, up to September 10 in Tennessee',* 
 ajid continues until frost puts a stop to 
 further growth. During the harvest 
 all available hands are called into full 
 employment. The cotton is gathered, 
 into baskets or bags hung from th 
 shoulders of the pickers, and when th 
 crop has been secured it is spread out,; 
 
 CODES 
 
 COTTON-GRASS,: a kind of plant with 
 long silky hairs 'upon the fruit. It i 
 grows freely in the U. States and is 
 regarded as good food for sheep. 
 
 COTTON INSECTS, insects injurious 
 growing cotton, the chief of which is 
 he larva of a moth. Millions of dollars 
 re annually lost in crops owing to the 
 avages of this destructive insect. The 
 oth is a night flier and deposits its 
 ;gs on the under side of the cotton 
 af. Here they hatch during the sum- 
 er and the worm feeds on the plant, 
 he bud-worm is another insect destruc- 
 ive to cotton. 
 
 COTTON SEED, COTTON SEED OIL, 
 
 he seed of the cotton plant and the oil 
 xtracted from it. After the oil has 
 een pressed out of the cotton seed, 
 he residuum is the pulp of the seed, 
 ailed cotton seed stearine, or cotton 
 leed cake. It is a highly valuable prod- 
 ct for cattle food and fertilizer. The 
 il is used for cooking, for the adultera- 
 ion of lard and lard oil, while the 
 tearine is often used for the adultera- 
 ion of lard. The hulls of the seed are 
 sed as a low grade food for animals. 
 COTTON-SPINNING, a term employed 
 o describe in the aggregate all the 
 >perations involved in transforming raw 
 cotton into yarn. 
 
 COTTONTAIL, the popular name of a 
 small American hare. 
 
 COTTON-WOOD, a tree of the poplar 
 kind, a native of N. America. The 
 “cotton" from the seeds has been used 
 in France and Germany for making cloth 
 hats and paper, but the experiment was 
 ’ le. 
 
 OTYLE'DONS, the seea=Ii 
 seed-lobes of the embryo plant, form- 
 ing, together with the radicle and 
 lumule, the embryo, wliich exists in 
 very seed capable of germination, 
 ome plants have only one cotyledon, 
 and are accordingly termed monocotyle- 
 donous; others have two, and are dicot- 
 yledonous. These differences aie ac- 
 companied by remarkable differences 
 in the structure of the stems, leaves, and 
 
 dried, and then the fiber separated- 1 blossoms, which form the basis for the 
 
 from the seeds. For long-staple or Seaj 
 Island cotton in South Carolina, th 
 usual date to begin preparing land i 
 February 1 ; planting begins April 
 and ends May 1 ; picking is fttato August 
 25.,t,o Elec- 
 
 /COTTONrCh^ tries^Stanhope, an Amer-j 
 
 VW A A WAl I V/Xim iXli. XLli-ivA ^ 
 
 Jfcan naval officer, born at Milwaukee^ 
 »Vis., in 1843. He was graduated at 
 liaval academy and took part in th ' 
 Ipattle between the Merrimac ani 
 jiMonitor in March, 1862. He was com 
 
 COTTON-FAMINE, a term used to- 
 designate the stagnation of the cotton 
 industry in England during the last 
 years of the civil war, owing to the arrest 
 
 Cotton manufactories were shortly aftei-: indusHy of cotton 
 
 - ■ growing in the U. States. Owing to this 
 stagnation nearly 400,000 persons were 
 thrown out of employment in England 
 and maintained by charity for nearly 
 two years. 
 
 COTTON-GIN, a machine invented 
 by Eli Whitney in 1794 for separating 
 the cotton fiber from the seed 
 
 division of flowering plants into two 
 great classes. The embryo plant of the 
 Conifer® has many (three to twelve) 
 cotyledons, and is called polycotyledon- 
 ous. The cotyledons contain a supply 
 of food for the use of the germinating 
 (plant. In some plants the store is very 
 and in germination the seed- 
 es remain under the ground, as in 
 the pea and oak ; in others the store is not 
 so large, and the seed-leaves appear 
 above ground and perform the functions 
 of true leaves; while there is a large 
 class of seeds where the embryo is very 
 small, and the food is stored up around 
 t, as in wheat and the buttercup 
 COUCH ANT, in heraldry said of a 
 east lying down with the head raised. 
 COUES, Elliott, an American zoolo- 
 st and anatomist, born in New Hamp- 
 ire in 1842, died 1899 He was 
 turalist for the Northern Boundary 
 mmission in 1873-6 and from 1877 
 1887 was professor of anatomy at 
 National Medical college at Wash- 
 .„ton. He published numerous scien- 
 fi^c works upon ornithology in which 
 cience he was a distinguished specialist 
 
COUDERT 
 
 COUP 
 
 COUDERT, Frederic Rene, an Ameri- 
 can lawyer and diplomat, born in New 
 York in 1832. He appeared for the U. 
 States before the International Bering 
 Sea Commission and was a member in 
 1896-8 of the Venezuela Boundary 
 Commission. 
 
 COUGAR (ko'gar), or PUMA, a quad- 
 ruped of the cat kind, inhabiting most 
 parts of America. Its color is a uniform 
 fawn or reddish-brown, without spots 
 
 Cougar. 
 
 or markings of any kind. It may attain 
 a length of 9 feet, inclusive of the tail. 
 In habits it is stealthy and cowardly, 
 and seldom or never attacks man. It is 
 by some called the panther or red tiger, 
 and is one of the most destructive of all 
 the animals of America, particularly in 
 the warmer climates, where it carries off 
 fowls, dogs, cats, and other domestic 
 animals. 
 
 COUGH, a sudden and forcible ex- 
 piration immediately preceded by clos- 
 ure of the glottis or narrowed portion 
 of the box of the windpipe. The force 
 for the action is obtained by a deep 
 breath, then follows the closure of the 
 glottis, succeeded by .the expiratory 
 effort forcing open the glottis. The 
 action is performed by the expiratory 
 muscles, that is the abdominal muscles, 
 by whose contraction the diaphragm is 
 forced up, and the muscles of the chest, 
 by which the ribs are pulled down. The 
 cavity of the chest being thus diminished 
 air is driven out of the lungs. The 
 object of the cough is usually to expel 
 any foreign material in the lungs or 
 air-tubes. The offending material may 
 be there present as the result of inflam- 
 mation, catarrh, etc. It may also have 
 gained entrance from without. Thus 
 the irritating material may be merely 
 some food or drink which has slipped 
 into the larynx, or it may be dust, etc., 
 in the air inhaled, and the cough is the 
 means of expelling the intruder. But 
 cough may also be produced when there 
 is no irritating material present. The 
 larynx or windpipe may be in an in- 
 flamed and irritable condition, in which 
 state even the entrance of cold air will 
 excite coughing. Moreover, cough may 
 be produced by irritation of nerves, 
 distant from the lungs and air-passages, 
 by what is called reflex action. Thus 
 irritation of the stomach, irritation con- 
 nected with the ear, irritation of cer- 
 tain nerves by pressure of growths, etc., 
 may produce cough, when the respira- 
 tory organs are not directly affected at 
 all. Irritation at the back of the throat, 
 as of the tickling of a long uvula, and so 
 on, also produces it. A catarrhal cough 
 IS generally considered unimportant, par- 
 ticma,rly if there be no fever connected 
 with it. But every cough lasting longer 
 
 P. E.— 21 
 
 than two or three days is suspicious, 
 and ought to be medically treated. 
 
 COUNCIL, an assembly met for de- 
 liberation, or to give advice. The term 
 specially applies to an assembly of the 
 representatives of independent churches, 
 convened for deliberation and the 
 enactment of canons or ecclesiastical 
 laws. The four general or oecumenical 
 councils recognized by all churches are: 
 1, the Council of Nice, in 325, by which 
 the dogma respecting the Son of God 
 was settled; 2, that of Constantinojile, 
 381, by which the doctrine concerning 
 the Holy Ghost was decided; 3, that of 
 Ephesus, 431 ; and 4, that of Chalcedon, 
 451 ; in which two last the doctrine of 
 the union of the divine and human 
 nature in Christ was more precisely 
 determined. Among the principal Latin 
 councils are that of Clermont (1096), 
 in the reign of Urban II., in which the 
 first crusade was resolved upon; the 
 Council of Constance, the most numer- 
 ous of all the councils, held in 1414, 
 which pronounced the condemnation 
 of John Huss (1415), and of Jerome of 
 Prague (1416); the Council of Basel, in 
 1431, which intended a reformation, 
 if not in the doctrines, yet in the con- 
 stitution and discipline of the church; 
 and the Council of Trent, which began 
 its session in 1545, and labored chiefly 
 to confirm the doctrines of the Catholic 
 Church against the Protestants. On 
 the 8th of December, 1869, an cecumeni- 
 cal council, summoned by a bull of Pope 
 Pius IX., assembled at Rome. This 
 council adopted a dogmatic Decree or 
 Constitutio de Fide, and a Constitutio 
 de Ecclesia, the most important article 
 of which latter declares the infallibility 
 of the pope when speaking ex cathedra. 
 
 COUNCIL BLUFFS, a city and im- 
 portant manufacturing center, Potta- 
 wattamie Co., Iowa, on the left bank of 
 the Missouri, opposite Omaha City, with 
 which it is connected by a bridge 2750 
 feet in length and 50 feet above high 
 water. The name is derived from a 
 council held here with the Indians in 
 1804. Pop. 35,000. 
 
 COUNCIL OF WAR, an assembly of 
 oflicers of high rank called to consult 
 with the commander-in-chief of an 
 army or admiral of a fleet on matters of 
 supreme importance. 
 
 COUNSEL, a person retained by a 
 client to plead his cause in a court of 
 Judicature. 
 
 COUNT, in modern times the custom 
 of styling all the sons of a count also 
 counts makes this designation on the 
 Continent very common, and the rank 
 little more than nominal. In point of 
 rank, the English earls are considered 
 as corresponding to the continental 
 counts, an earl’s wife being styled a 
 countess. 
 
 COUNT, in law, an independent part 
 of a declaration or indictment, which, 
 if it stood alone, would constitute a 
 ground of action. 
 
 COUNTERFEITING, a term generally 
 applied to the making of imitation 
 money, coin or paper. The U. States 
 secret service has examples of counter- 
 feit coins and bills so like the original 
 that they are distinguished only with 
 the greatest difficulty by experts. An 
 enormous amount of counterfeit money 
 
 must be in constant circulation. The 
 crime is a felony. 
 
 COUNTER-IRRITANT, in med. a sub- 
 stance employed to produce an artificial 
 or secondary disease, in order to relieve 
 another or primary one. The term is 
 more specifically applied to such irritat- 
 ing substances, as, when applied to the 
 skin, redden or blister it, or produce 
 pustules, purulent issues, etc. The 
 commonest counter-irritants are such 
 as mustard, turpentine, cantharides or 
 Spanish flies, croton oil, and the cautery. 
 
 COUNTERPOINT, in music, a term 
 equivalent to harmony, or the writing 
 of a carefully planned accompanying 
 part; or that branch of the art which, 
 musical thought being given, teaches 
 the development of it, by extension or 
 embellishment, by transposition, repeti- 
 tion, or imitation throughout the dif- 
 ferent parts. Counterpoint is divided 
 into simple, florid or figurate, and double. 
 Simple counterpoint is a composition in 
 two or more parts, the notes of each part 
 being equal in value to those of the 
 corresponding part or parts and con- 
 cords. In florid counterpoint, two or 
 more notes are written against each 
 note of the subj'ect, or canto-fermo, and 
 discords are admissible. Double coun- 
 terpoint is an inversion of the parts, so 
 that the base may become the subject, 
 and the subject the base, etc., thus pro- 
 ducing new melodies and new harmonies. 
 
 COUNTERSIGN, a private signal, 
 word, or phrase given to soldiers on 
 guard, with orders to let no man pass 
 unless he first give that sign; a military 
 watchword. 
 
 COUNTY, an administrative unit of a 
 state or a government, or the territory 
 ruled over by a count. In England the 
 term shire is used instead of county. 
 Counties in the U. States are in reality 
 units of administration, which each 
 send one or more representatives to the 
 state legislature. Counties have taxing 
 power, prosecute crime, and administer 
 justice generally. Cities are parts of 
 counties, a city often being conterminous 
 with a county, as Chicago and Philadel- 
 phia. New York includes four counties. 
 St. Louis has a separate charter and has 
 no connection with the county, sending 
 its own members to the legislature . 
 
 COUNTY COUNCILS, administrative 
 bodies created by the British parliament 
 in 1888 to replace the justices of the 
 peace who had formerly administered 
 county affairs and to give local self- 
 government to the counties. These 
 councils are elective administrative 
 bodies, and were perfected in 1894 by 
 the local self-government act. 
 
 COUNTY COURT, a tribunal of 
 justice the jurisdiction of which is 
 limited to the county in which it exists. 
 In this much the English and the 
 American county courts are much the 
 same thing, although the county court 
 in England is a relatively more im- 
 portant body. 
 
 COUP (ko) , a term used in various con- 
 nections to convey the idea of prompt- 
 ness and force. — Coup de main, a 
 prompt, vigorous, and successful attack. 
 — Coup d’etat, a sudden decisive blow 
 in politics ; a stroke of policy ; specifically, 
 an exertion of prerogative to alter the 
 laws or the constitution of a country 
 
COUPLE 
 
 COWLEY 
 
 without the consent or concurrence of 
 the people expressed through their 
 representatives, especially when such 
 exertion is supported by armed force. — 
 Coup de soleil. See Sunstroke. 
 
 COUPLE, in dynamics, two equal 
 and parallel forces acting in different 
 directions, and applied to the same body. 
 The distance between their lines of 
 action is called the arm of the couple, 
 and the product of one of the two equal 
 forces by this arm is called the moment 
 of the couple. 
 
 COUPLET, two verses or lines of 
 poetry of equal length and rhythm, 
 often embodying an idea of the nature 
 of an aphorism. 
 
 COUPLING, in machinery, a contri- 
 vance for connecting one portion of a 
 system of shafting with another, and of 
 which there are various forms. A com- 
 mon form is the flange or plate coupling, 
 which consists of two flanges separately 
 
 Flange coupling. 
 
 fitted on to the two contiguous ends of 
 the lengths of shaft to be connected, and 
 firmly secured together by screws. The 
 most useful kinds of couplings are those 
 that are adjustable, or can be readily 
 put on and off. — The term is also ap- 
 plied to an organ register, by which two 
 or more rows of keys can be connected 
 by a mechanism, so that they can be 
 played together. 
 
 COUPON (ko'pan), an interest-certifi- 
 cate printed at the bottom of transfera- 
 ble bonds, and so called because it is cut 
 off or detached and given up when a 
 payment is made. Also one of a series 
 of tickets which binds the issuer to 
 make certain payments, perform some 
 service, or give value for certain 
 amounts at different periods, in consid- 
 eration of money received. 
 
 COURIER, a bearer of special des- 
 patches, whether public or private; 
 also an attendant on a party traveling 
 abroad, v/hose especial duty is to make 
 all arrangements at hotels and on the 
 journey. 
 
 COURLAND, a government in Russia, 
 bounded n. by Livonia and the Gulf of 
 Riga, w. the Baltic, s. Kovno, and e. by 
 Vitebsk; area, 10,535 sq. miles] pop. 
 712,700. 
 
 COURSING, a kind of sport in which 
 hares are hunted by greyhounds, which 
 follow the game by sight instead of by 
 scent. 
 
 COURTj a term generally applied to 
 the judicial part of a government’s 
 machinery, and sometimes to bodies 
 with judicial powers to settle disputes 
 outside of litigation, properly so called. 
 Courts have existed in all ages and are 
 an evolution from the power of the 
 chief or king in savage or prehistoric 
 
 E copies. In England and the United 
 tates courts are essentially the same 
 and have the same powers, although 
 there are a few minor differences. In 
 the United States two distinct systems 
 of courts exist, the federal courts which. 
 
 with the exception of the supreme 
 court (a constitutional creation) are the 
 creation of the congress, and state 
 courts which, (with the exception of 
 the state supreme court) are creatures 
 of the state legislature. In the federal 
 system there is a court of claims, courts 
 for the various territories, _ district 
 courts and circuit courts, the judges of 
 which are all appointed by the pres- 
 ident and retain their positions on 
 good behavior. The state courts con- 
 sist of tribunals arranged with a view to 
 the territory of the state and its divi- 
 sions and the judges, as those also of the 
 state supreme court are elected by the 
 people. There are county courts, 
 circuit courts, and appellate courts, the 
 court of last appeal being the supreme 
 court. The federal judiciary tries all 
 cases concerned with the federal govern- 
 ment, or cases of an interstate kind. 
 
 COURT, MILITARY, COURTS-MAR- 
 TIAL, in the United States judicial 
 bodies created by congress for the 
 trial of offenses committed by soldiers. 
 Soldiers, however, can be prosecuted in 
 the civil courts for other than military 
 offenses. Military courts are of several 
 kinds, as general court, summary court, 
 garrison court, regimental court, and 
 court of inquiry. 
 
 COURT-PLASTER (so called because 
 originally applied by ladies of the court 
 as patches on the face), black, flesh- 
 colored, or transparent silk varnished 
 over with a solution of isinglass, which 
 is often perfumed with benzoin, used 
 for covering slight wounds. 
 
 COUSIN (ko-zan), Victor, French 
 philosopher and writer, founder of the 
 so-called Eclectic school of philosophy, 
 was born at Paris 1792, died as Cannes 
 1867. The head and founder of the 
 modern school of eclecticism in France, 
 he borrowed from many sources. His 
 eclecticism was based on the principle 
 that every system, however erroneous, 
 which has anywhere commanded assent, 
 contains some elements of truth, by 
 which its acceptance may be explained, 
 and that it is the business of philosophi- 
 cal criticism to discover and combine 
 these scattered elements of truth. 
 
 COUTHON (ko-ton), Georges, a noted 
 French revolutionist, was born in 1756, 
 and was bred to the profession of a 
 lawyer. Some time after the revolution 
 he was chosen a member of the national 
 assembly, and allying himself with 
 Robespierre aided and abetted the 
 latter in all his atrocities. On the down- 
 fall of Robespierre’s party Couthon 
 shared, along with him and St. Just, in 
 the decree of arrest, and was guillotined, 
 July 28, 1794. 
 
 COUVADE (k6-vad0, a singular cus- 
 tom prevalent in ancient as well as 
 modern times among some of the primi- 
 tive races in all parts of the world. After 
 the birth of a child the father takes to 
 bed, and receives the food and compli- 
 ments usually given elsewhere to the 
 mother. The custom was observed, 
 according to Diodorus, among the Corsi- 
 cans; and Strabo notices it among the 
 Spanish Basques, by whom, as well as 
 by the Gascons, it is still to some ex- 
 tent practiced. Travelers from Marco 
 Polo downward have met with a some- 
 what similar custom among the Chinese, 
 
 the Dyaks of Borneo, the negroes, the 
 aboriginal tribes of North and South 
 America, etc. 
 
 COVENANT, in law, an agreement 
 between two or more parties in writing 
 signed, sealed, and delivered, whereby 
 they agree to do, or not to no, some 
 specified act. In theology, the promises 
 of God as revealed in the Scriptures, 
 conditional on certain terms on the part 
 of man, as obedience, repentance, faith, 
 etc. 
 
 COVENANTERS, in Scottish his- 
 tory, the name given to the party which 
 struggled for religious liberty from 1637 
 on to the revolution; but more especi- 
 ally applied to the insurgents who, after 
 the passing of the act of 1662 denounc- 
 ing the solemn league and covenant as 
 a seditious oath, took up arms in de- 
 fense of the Presbyterian form of church 
 government. 
 
 COVENTRY, a city in England, 
 county of Warwick, 85 miles northwest 
 of London. Coventry is the center of 
 the ribbon trade, and manufactures also 
 silk fabrics, cambric frilling, cottons, 
 watches, machinery, and bicycles. It 
 sends one member to parliament. Pop. 
 69,877. 
 
 COVERDALE, Miles, the earliest 
 translator of the Bible into English, 
 was born in Yorkshire in 1487, died 1568. 
 
 COVTNGTON, a city of Kentucky, on 
 the s. bank of the Ohio River, opposite 
 Cincinnati, of which it is substantially a 
 suburb, connected by means of bridges 
 and ferries. It has a large general trade 
 and manufacturing business. Pop. 
 50,145. 
 
 COW, the general term applied to the 
 females of the genus Bos or ox, the most 
 valuable to man of all the ruminating 
 animals. Among the best breeds of 
 dairy cows in Britain are the Devon- 
 shire, the Ayrshire, the shorthorn, the 
 polled Angus or Aberdeenshire, and the 
 Alderney. See Ox and cattle. 
 
 COW-BERRY, the red whortleberry, 
 a procumbent shrub of high moorlands 
 in Europe, Asia, and N. America, has 
 evergreen box-like leaves, and pro- 
 duces a red acid berry used for jellies and 
 preserves. 
 
 COWBOYS, a name first applied to 
 cattle thieves during the war of the 
 American Revolution and later to the 
 herdsmen upon the large cattle ranches 
 of Texas and the West. Cowboys are 
 excellent horsemen and acquire great 
 skill in catching and “rounding up” the 
 cattle on a large range. They are pro- 
 verbial for their generosity and manli- 
 ness. 
 
 COW-BUNTING, an American bird 
 about the size of the sky-lark. It drops 
 its eggs into the nests of other birds to 
 be hatched by them, but has_ never been 
 known to drop more than one egg into 
 the same nest. It is migratory spending 
 its winters regularly in the lower parts of 
 North and South Carolina and (jeorgia, 
 and appearing in Pennsylvania about 
 the end of March. These birds often 
 frequent corn and rice fields in company 
 with the red-winged troopials, but are 
 more commonly found accompanying 
 the cattle, feeding on seeds, worms, etc. 
 
 COWLEY (kou'li), Abraham, an Eng- 
 lish poet of great celebrity in his day, 
 was born at London in 1618, died 1667. 
 
COWPER 
 
 CRAMP 
 
 He published his first volume, Poetic 
 Blossoms, at the age of fifteen. He 
 took a considerable interest in science, 
 and was one of the founders of the 
 Royal Society. His chief works are: 
 Love’s Riddle, a pastoral comedy; Da- 
 
 Young cow-bunting fed by female 
 yellow-throat. 
 
 videis, a scriptural epic; Naufragium 
 Joculare; The Mistress, a collection of 
 love verses; Pindarique Odes; Liber 
 Plantarum; etc. 
 
 COWPER (k6'p6r or kou'per), Will- 
 iam, English poet, born at Berkham- 
 stead in 1731, died at East Dereham, in 
 Norfolk, 1800. In 1776, on the advice 
 of Mrs. Unwin, he commenced a poem 
 on the Progress of Error, which he fol- 
 lowed by three other poems. Truth, 
 Table-talk, and Expostulation; these 
 with some others were published in a 
 volume in 1782. The Task, together 
 with Tirocinium, formed a second 
 volume in 1785. The History of John 
 Gilpin is also due to the suggestion 
 of Lady Austen. The translation of 
 Homer, begun in 1784, occupied him 
 for the next six years, and was pub- 
 lished in 1791. He removed during its 
 progress, in 1786, from Olney to Weston. 
 In the beginning of 1794 he was again 
 attacked with madness, which was 
 aggravated by the death of Mrs. Unwin 
 in 1796. The revisal of his Homer, and 
 the composition of some short pieces, 
 occupied the latter years of his life. He 
 is considered among the best of descrip- 
 tive poets 
 
 COW-POX, the vaccine disease which 
 appears on the teats., of the cow, in the 
 form of vesicles of a blue color, ap- 
 proaching to livid. These vesicles are 
 elevated at the margin and depressed at 
 the center; they are surrounded with 
 inflammation and contain a limpid fluid. 
 This fluid or virus is capable of com- 
 municating genuine cow-pox to .the 
 human subject, and of protecting against 
 small-pox either completely, or, at least, 
 against the virulent form of the disease. 
 See Vaccination. 
 
 COW'SLH*, the popular name of 
 several varieties of a favorite wild flower 
 found in pastures. It has umbels of 
 small, buff-yellow, scented flowers on 
 short pedicels. Its flowers possess seda- 
 tive properties, and have been used as 
 an anodyne, a sort of wine being pre- 
 pared from them. 
 
 COW-TREES, a name of various trees 
 having an abundance of milky juice 
 especially a South American tree, which, 
 when wounded, yields a rich milky nu- 
 tritious juice in such abundance as to 
 render it an important article of food. 
 
 This fluid resembles in appearance and 
 quality the milk of the cow. The tree is 
 common in Venezuela, growing to the 
 height of 100 ft. The leaves are leath- 
 ery, about 1 ft. long and 3 or 4 inches 
 broad. 
 
 COX, Kenyon, an American painter, 
 born in Ohio in 1856. He studied paint- 
 ing in Paris and on his return to New 
 York painted several portraits which 
 became well known. 
 
 COX, Palmer, an American artist and 
 illustrator, born in Quebec in 1840. 
 His most widely known work is his 
 quaint Brownies, consisting of drawings 
 and verses. 
 
 COX, Samuel Sullivan, an American 
 author and legislator, born in Ohio in 
 1824, died in 1889. He was congress- 
 man from 1857 almost continually un- 
 til his death representing districts in 
 Ohio and New York to which state he 
 removed in 1866. He was minister to 
 Turkey in 1885-6. Cox published 
 several light books of politics and 
 travel. He was nicknamed “Sunset 
 Cox’’ because of one of his glowing 
 descriptions. 
 
 COYOTE, the American prairie wolf, 
 several varieties of which inhabit the 
 Western United States and British 
 Columbia. The animal is noted for its 
 
 CRAB-APPLE, a small, wild, very 
 sour species of apple. See Apple. 
 
 CRACOW', the old captital of Poland, 
 in 1815-46 capital of a republic of the 
 same name now forming part of Austrian 
 Galicia, is situated on the left bank of 
 the Vistula, where it becomes navigable, 
 and consists of Cracow proper, or the old 
 city, and several suburbs. It is the see of 
 a bishop, is well built and regularly 
 fortified. The cathedral, a fine old 
 Gothic edifice, contains monuments of 
 many Polish kings, of Kosciusko, etc. 
 The university was founded in 1364, 
 but gradually fell into decay, and was 
 reorganized in 1817. It has a library 
 of 300,000 volumes. On a hill near the 
 town stands the monument of Kos- 
 ciusko, 120 feet high. Pop. 74,593 
 (21,000 being Jews); with all its suburbs, 
 94,696. 
 
 C^DLE OF LIBERTY, a name often 
 applied to Faneuil Hall, Boston, owing 
 to the early indignation meetings against 
 British rule held there. 
 
 CRAFTS, James Mason, an American 
 chemist, born in Boston in 1839. His 
 investigations have been chiefly con- 
 cerned with organic chemistry and also 
 with physical chemistry. His method 
 of making certain compounds syn- 
 thetically is one of the most important 
 
 The cathedral. Cracow. 
 
 disconcerting and continuous yelping 
 during the night. It travels in packs, 
 is as large as a setter dog, and seldom 
 attacks men. The hair is reddish- 
 yellow tipped with black. 
 
 CRAB, a popular name for all the 
 ten-footed, short-tailed crustaceans com- 
 prising many genera, distinguished from 
 the lobster and other long-tailed deca- 
 pods by the shortness of their tail, which 
 is folded under the body. Most inhabit 
 the sea, others fresh water, some the 
 land, only going to the sea to spawn. 
 Of the crabs several species are highly 
 esteemed as an article of food, and the 
 fishery constitutes an important trade 
 on many coasts. 
 
 CRAB, a name given to various ma- 
 chines, especially to a kind of portable 
 windlass or machine for raising weights, 
 etc. Crabs are much used in building 
 operations for raising stones or other 
 weights, and in loading and discharging 
 vessels. 
 
 of the recent discoveries in chemistry. 
 Crafts has been honored with member- 
 ship in several learned societies of 
 Europe and America. 
 
 CRAIK, Dinah Maria, English novel- 
 ist, born at Stoke-upon-Trent 1826, her 
 father’s name being Mulock She 
 became the wife of George Lillie Cra’k 
 in 1865. She published a volume of 
 poems under the title of Thirty Years; 
 many essays and papers on etliical and 
 domestic subjects; books tor young 
 people, and about twenty-four novels, 
 the best of which a e: John Halifax, 
 Gentleman; A Life for a Life; Agatha’s 
 Husband; and The Woman s Kingdom. 
 She died in 1887. 
 
 CRAMP, an involuntary contraction 
 of a voluntary muscle produced by 
 cold or by long continued action. It 
 can be removed by heat or friction. 
 When a swimmer is attacked by cramp 
 of the leg-muscles he should turn on his 
 back, “float,” and vigorously rub the 
 
CRAMP 
 
 CRAVAT 
 
 muscles of the legs. Cramp accom- 
 panies colic, cholera, and tetanus, and 
 often attacks the muscles of persons 
 who use the hands continuously, such 
 as writers, telegraph operators, etc. 
 
 CRAMP, Charles Henry, an American 
 ship builder born at Philadelphia in 
 1828, and head of the Cramp Ship 
 Building Compoany. It was this com- 
 pany that built the battleship Maine 
 which was destroyed in Havana Harbor 
 Feb. 15, 1898. 
 
 CRAN'BERRY, a native of Europe, 
 N. Asia, and N. America. The berry, 
 when ripe, is globose and dark red, and 
 a little more than ^ inch in diameter. 
 These berries form a sauce of exquisite 
 flavor, and are used for tarts. The 
 American cranberry, a native of Canada 
 and the U. States, has larger berries 
 than the European species, and is ex- 
 tensively cultivated in some localities. 
 
 CRANE, the common name of birds 
 of the genus Grus. They are generally 
 of considerable size, and remarkable for 
 their long necks and stiltlike legs, which 
 eminently fit them for living in marshes 
 
 Crowned crane. 
 
 and situations subject to inundations, 
 where they usually seek their food 
 This is partly of vegetable matter, but 
 they also devour insects, worms, frogs, 
 lizards, reptiles, small fish, and the 
 spawn of various aquatic animals 
 They build their nests among bushes or 
 upon tussocks in marshes, and lay but 
 two eggs. Cranes annually migrate t.o 
 distant regions, and perform voyages 
 astonishing for their great length. The 
 common crane has the general plumage 
 ash-gray, the throat black, the rump 
 ornamented with long, stiff, and curled 
 feathers, the head with bristly feathers; 
 legs black; length about 4 feet. It in- 
 habits Europe, Asia, and the north of 
 Africa. The crowned crane has the 
 general plumage bluish ash-gray, the 
 tail and primary quills black, the wing 
 coverts pure white ; the head is crowned 
 with a tuft of slender yellow feathers, 
 which can be spread out at pleasure. 
 It inhabits North and West Africa. 
 The demoiselle crane is so called from 
 the elegance of its form. It is ash-gray, 
 and the head is adorned with two tufts 
 of feathers formed by a prolongation 
 of the ear-coverts. Its habitat is Africa 
 and the south of Europe. Among North 
 American species _ are the whooping 
 crane, a larger species than the common 
 crane, and the brown or sand-hill crime. 
 
 CRANE, a machine for raising great 
 weights and depositing them at some 
 distance from their original place, for 
 example, raising bales from the hold of a 
 
 sliip and depositing them on the quay. 
 Cranes are generally constructed on the 
 principle of the wheel and axle, cog- 
 wheel, or wheel and pinion. A very 
 efficient wheel-and-pinion crane much 
 used on quays consists of a jib or trans- 
 verse beam, inclined to the vertical at 
 an angle of from 40° to 50°, which, by 
 means of a collar, turns on a vertical 
 shaft. The upper end of the jib carries 
 a fixed pulley, and the lower end a 
 cylinder, which is put in motion by a 
 wheel and pinion. The weight is made 
 fast to a rope or chain which passes over 
 the pulley and is wound round the 
 cylinder. On turning the cylinder 
 (either by a winch handle attached to 
 the wheel which works in the pinion, or 
 by the application of steam-power) the 
 weight is raised as far as necessary. 
 The jib is then turned on its arbor till 
 the weight is brought immediately over 
 the spot where it is to be deposited, and 
 the moving power is withdrawn so as to 
 allow the weight to descend by its own 
 graAuty. 
 
 CRANE, Stephen, an American writer, 
 born in Newark, N. J., in 1870, died 1900. 
 He was early a war-correspondent and 
 published several military stories, the 
 chief of which was The Red Badge of 
 Courage (1896). 
 
 CRANE, William Henry, an American 
 actor, born in Massachusetts in 1845. 
 He became noted in 1877 for his power 
 of comedy when he appeared with 
 Stuart Robson in Our Boarding House. 
 Crane for many years was the leading 
 spirit in the joint performance with 
 Robson in which the partners played 
 the two Dromios in Shakespeare’s 
 Comedy of Errors. After his separation 
 from Robson he attempted Falstaff but 
 with poor success. 
 
 CRA'NIUM. See Skull. 
 
 CRANK, an iron axis with the end 
 bent like an elbow, serving as a handle 
 for communicating circular motion; as, 
 the crank of a grindstone; or for chang- 
 ing circular into longitudinal motion, 
 as in sonie saw-mills, or longitudinal 
 into circular motion, as in a steam- 
 engine. The single crank (1) can only 
 be used on the end of an axis. The 
 
 1 Single crank 2, Double crank. 
 
 3, Bell crank. 
 
 double crank (2) is employed when it is 
 necessary that the axis should be ex- 
 tended on both sides of the point at 
 which the reciprocating motion is 
 applied. An exemplification of this 
 arrangement is afforded by the ma- 
 chinery of steam-boats. The bell- 
 crank (3), so called from its being much 
 used in bell-hanging, is for a totally 
 different purpose to the others, being 
 used merely to change the direction of 
 motion, as from a horizontal to a vertical 
 line. 
 
 CRAN'MER, Thomas, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, and famous for the part he 
 played in the English reformation dur- 
 ing the reign of Henry VIII., was born 
 at Aslacton, Nott^ in 1489; executed 
 by burning at Oxford, 1556. An 
 opinion which he gave on the question 
 of Henry VIII. ’s proposed divorce from 
 Catharine brought him under the 
 favorable notice of the king. Cranmer 
 was sent for to court, made a king’s 
 chaplain, and commanded to write a 
 treatise on the su bject of the divorce. In 
 1530 he was sent abroad with others to 
 collect the opinions of the divines and 
 canonists of France, Italy, and Ger- 
 many, on the validity of the king’s 
 marriage. At Rome he presented his 
 treatise to the pope, but his mission was 
 fruitless. In January, 1533, he was 
 appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 Soon after he set the papal authority 
 at defiance by pronouncing sentence of 
 divorce between Henry and Catharine, 
 and confirming the king’s marriage v’ith 
 Anne Boleyn. The pope threatened 
 excommunication, and an act of par- 
 liament was immediately passed for 
 abolishing the pope’s supremacy, and 
 declaring the king chief head of the 
 Church of England. In 1536 he pan- 
 dered to Henry’s passions by promot- 
 ing the diAmrce of Anne Boleyn. He was 
 sent to the Tower on the accession of 
 Mary. He was tried and was sentenced 
 to be degraded and deprived of office. 
 After this flattering promises were 
 made, which induced him to sign a 
 recantation of his alleged errors, and 
 become in fact, a Catholic convert. 
 But when he was brought into St. 
 Mary’s Church, Oxford, to read his re- 
 cantation in public, instead of confessing 
 the justness of his sentence, and sub- 
 mitting to it in silence or imploring 
 mercy, he calmly acknowledged that 
 the fear of death had made him belie 
 his conscience; and declaring that 
 nothing could afford him consolation 
 but the prospect of extenuating his guilt 
 by encountering, as a Protesfant peni- 
 tent, with firmne.ss and resignation, the 
 fiery torments which awaited him. He 
 was immediately hurried to the stake, 
 where he behaved with the resolution of 
 a martyr. 
 
 CRAPE, a light transparent stuff, 
 like gauze, made of raw silk, gummed 
 and twisted on the mill, woven with- 
 out crossing, and much used in mourn- 
 ing. 
 
 CRAPS, a dice game. When the 
 amount of the stake is decided upon the 
 first player throws the dice. If the 
 number thrown is two, three or twelve 
 he loses. If seven or eleven he wins. If 
 none of these numbers is thrown he 
 keeps on “shooting” until he again 
 throws the first number, when he wins, 
 or seven, when he loses. 
 
 CRATER, the orifice or mouth of a 
 Amlcano. Craters may be central or 
 lateral, and there may be several sub- 
 sidiary ones, which may shift their 
 places, or become merged by subsidence 
 into others. 
 
 CRAVAT', a neckcloth; an article of 
 silk, muslin, or other material, worn by 
 men about the neck; so called from Fr. 
 craAmte, a Croat, because this piece of 
 dress was adopted in the 17th century 
 
CRAWFISH 
 
 CREDIT FONCIER 
 
 CREASY (kre'si), Sir Edward Shep- 
 herd, English historian, was born at 
 Bexley, Kent, in 1812, died 1878. His 
 principal works are: The Rise and 
 Progress of the British Constitution, 
 and The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the 
 World. 
 
 CREA'TIONISM, the doctrine that a 
 soul is specially created for each human 
 fetus as soon as it is formed in the 
 womb : opposed to traducianism, which 
 teaches that the souls of children as well 
 as their bodies are begotten by repro- 
 duction from the substance of the 
 parents; and to infusionism, which 
 holds that souls are pre-existent, and 
 that a soul is divinely infused into each 
 human fetus as soon as it is formed by 
 generation. Many theologians, how- 
 ever, regard the mode of the soul’s 
 coming into being as a part of the mys- 
 tery which envelops the whole subject 
 of the existence and transmission of life. 
 The term creationism has also recently 
 been applied to that theory of the origin 
 of man which is opposed to evolution. 
 
 CRECHE (krash), a public nursery 
 for the children of poor women who have 
 to work out during the day, where for a 
 small payment they are nursed and fed 
 during the day, remaining with their 
 parents at night. These institutions 
 were first started in Paris in 1844; they 
 were soon afterward introduced into 
 Great Britain, and are now common in 
 large towns in the U States. 
 
 CRECY, or Cressy, a small town of 
 France, in the department of Somme, 9 
 miles north of Abbeville and 100 miles 
 north of Paris; pop. 1,748. It is cele- 
 
 each other’s honesty, solvency, and 
 resources. By means of a credit system 
 a comparatively small stock of money 
 can be made to do duty for carrying on a 
 number of different transactions; but 
 it is indispensable for every good system 
 of credit that money must Be instantly 
 available when required, and this prin- 
 ciple applies to every species of trans- 
 action where postponed payment is con- 
 cerned. Public credit is the confidence 
 which men entertain in the ability and 
 disposition of a nation to make good its 
 engagements with its creditors; or the 
 estimation in which individuals hold 
 the public promises of payment, whether 
 such promises are expressed or implied. 
 The term is also applied to the general 
 credit of individuals in a nation; when 
 merchants and others are wealthy and 
 punctual in fulfilling engagements; or 
 when they transact business with honor 
 and fidelity; or when transfers of prop- 
 erty are made with ease. So we speak of 
 the credit of a bank when general con- 
 fidence is placed in its ability to redeem 
 its notes, and the credit of a mercantile 
 house rests on its supposed ability and 
 probity, which induce men to trust to 
 its engagements. When the public 
 credit is questionable it raises the pre- 
 mium on loans. 
 
 CREDIT, Letter of, an order given by 
 bankers or others at one place to enable 
 a person to receive money from their 
 agents at another place. 
 
 CREDIT FONCIER (kra-de fon-sya), 
 a peculiar m.ode of raising money on 
 land in France, the peculiarity of which 
 is that the advance must not exceed 
 
 Battlefield of CrScv. 
 
 from the Croats who entered the French 
 service. 
 
 CRAWFISH, or CRAYFISH, a name 
 of various crustaceous animals, the 
 common crawfish being the river lobster, 
 a macrurous (long-tailed), ten-footed 
 crustacean, resembling the lobster in 
 appearance and habits. The crawfish 
 by t’neir burrowing habits injure mill- 
 dams and the levees of the Mississippi. 
 Crawfish are regarded by many as fur- 
 nishing a delicate dish for the table. 
 
 CRAWFORD, Francis Marion, an 
 American novelist, born in Italy in 1854. 
 His first publication was Mr. Isaacs 1882, 
 since which time he has produced an av- 
 erage of two novels a year. His prin- 
 cipal stories are laid in Italy. Died 1909. 
 
 CRAY'ONS, colored pencils obtained 
 from certain mineral substances in their 
 natural state, but more commonly 
 manufactured from a fine paste of chalk 
 or pipe-clay colored with various pig- 
 ments, and consolidated by means of 
 gum, wax, etc. A kind of crayon paint- 
 ing (or pastel painting) is practiced to 
 some extent, the coloring matter in a 
 soft state being rubbed on with the 
 finger. Its chief advantages consist in 
 the great facility of its execution, and 
 the soft beauty and richness of coloring 
 of effects so easily produced. The paper 
 used has a specially granulated sur- 
 face. 
 
 CREAM, the yellowish, thick, oily 
 layer which forms at the surface when 
 new milk is allowed to remain at rest. 
 When it is agitated or churned butter 
 is formed. 
 
 CREAMERY, a name applied to a 
 factory where butter is made. The 
 growth of the creamery industry in the 
 U. States has been enormous since its 
 beginning in 1864. The creamery is 
 usually situated in the middle of a milk 
 producing region and the milk is de- 
 livered daily to the factory, and the 
 butter is manufactured by machinery 
 at a great reduction in cost. The 
 largest creamery district in the U. 
 States is that near Elgin, 111. 
 
 CREAM OF TARTAR, cr POTASSIUM 
 BITARTRATE, exists in grapes, tamar- 
 inds, and other foods. It is prepared 
 from the crystalline crust (crude tartar 
 01 argol) deposited on the vessels in 
 which grape juice has been fermented. 
 The argol is dissolved by boiling with 
 water, the mixture filtered, and the 
 cream of tartar allowed to crystallize 
 out. The commercial product usually 
 contains a small percentage of calcium 
 tartrate. It is frequently employed in 
 medicine for its diuretic, cathartic, and 
 refrigerant properties; as a mordant in 
 dyeing wool; and as an ingredient in 
 baking-powder. 
 
 CRE'ASOTE, a substance discovered 
 by Reichenbach about 1831 in wood- 
 tar, from which it is separated by a 
 tedious process. It is generally ob- 
 tained, however, from the products of 
 the destructive distillation of wood. 
 In a pure state it is oily, heavy, eolorless, 
 has a sweetish burning taste and a 
 strong smell of peat smoke or smoked 
 meat. It is a powerful antiseptic. 
 Wood treated with it is not subject to 
 dry-rot or other disease. It has been 
 used in surgery and medicine with great 
 success. 
 
 brated on account of a battle fought here, 
 August 26, 1346, between the English 
 and French. Edward III. and his son, 
 the Black Prince, were both engaged, 
 and the French were defeated with great 
 slaughter, 30.000 foot and 1,200 horse 
 being left dead on the field; among 
 whom were the King of Bohemia, the 
 Count of Alencon, Louis, count of Flan- 
 ders, with many others of the French 
 nobility, 
 
 CREDTT, in economics, is the post- 
 ponement agreed on by the parties of 
 the p.ayment of a debt to a future day. 
 It implies confidence of the creditor in 
 the debtor; and a “credit system’’ is 
 one of general confidence of people in 
 
 one-half of the value of the property 
 pledged or hypothecated, and that the 
 repayment of the loan is by an annuity 
 terminable at a certain date. Several 
 companies have been established by 
 the French government with the priv- 
 ilege of making such loans. 
 
 CREDIT MOBILIER (kra-de mo-bel- 
 ya), a scheme which originated in France 
 in 1852, its objects being to undertake 
 trading enterprises of all kinds on the 
 principle of limited liability, to buy up 
 existing trading companies, and to 
 carry on the business of bankers and 
 stock-jobbers 
 
 CREDITOR, one who has given credit 
 to another Creditors are “general,” 
 
CREDIT MOBILIER 
 
 CRIBBAGE 
 
 when they have only right of action 
 against the debtor; “secured,” when 
 they have a lien protecting them; 
 “preferred” when the law secures them 
 a special right in preference to other 
 creditors. A judgment creditor is one 
 who secured judgment against a 
 debtor. 
 
 CREED, a summary of belief, from 
 the Latin credo (I believe), with which 
 the Apostles’ and Nicene Creeds begin. 
 These two creeds, together with the 
 Athanasian Creed, are the most ancient 
 authoritative Christian creeds, though 
 numerous ancient formularies of faith 
 are preserved in the writings of the early 
 fathers, Irenseus, Origen, Tertullian, 
 etc., which agree in substance, though 
 with some diversity of expression. 
 The Nicene Creed was so called from 
 being adopted as the creed of the church 
 at the Council of Niciea or Nice, 325 
 A.D., though its terms were subsequently 
 somewhat altered. The Apostles’ Creed 
 probably dates from the end of the 4th 
 century; but there is no evidence of its 
 being accepted in its present form till 
 the middle of the 8th. The Athanasian 
 Creed was certainly not drawn up by 
 St Athanasius, as there is no sufficient 
 evidence for its existence before the 
 end of the 8th or beginning of the 9th 
 century. In addition to these three 
 creeds, the Roman Catholic Church has 
 the creed of Pius IV., put forth in 1564, 
 and consisting of the Nicene Creed with 
 additional articles adopted by the Coun- 
 cil of Trent, to which is now added a 
 profession of belief in the definitions of 
 the Vatican Council. The English 
 Church adopts as “thoroughly to be re- 
 ceived and believed” the three ancient 
 creeds, which as part of her liturgy may 
 be read in the Book of Common Prayer, 
 but does not consider any of them to be 
 inspired. Besides the creeds, there are 
 numerous Confessions of Faith, which 
 have been adopted by different churches 
 and sects. The Thirty-nine Articles of 
 the Book of Common Prayer form a 
 confession of faith for the Anglican 
 Church. The creed of the Church of 
 Scotland and other Presbyterian 
 churches is contained in the Confession 
 of Faith, drawn up by the Westminster 
 Assembly of Divines, and completed in 
 1646. 
 
 CREEDMOOR, a station on the Long 
 Island railway, 11 miles east of the city 
 of New York. It is much frequented 
 by riflemen for target practice. 
 
 CREEK, a small inlet, bay, or cove; 
 a recess in the shore of the sea or of a 
 river. In America and Australia the 
 term is often applied to a small river or 
 rivulet. 
 
 CREEKS, American Indians formerly 
 in Georgia and Alabama, but now 
 planted in the Indian Territory. The 
 number of warriors used to amount to 
 about 6000, but altogether the tribe 
 does not now exceed 15,000. They have 
 made considerable progress in agricul- 
 ture, and raise horses, cattle, fowls, and 
 hogs, and cultivate tobacco, rice, and 
 corn. 
 
 CREEPERS, a family of birds which 
 strongly resemble the woodpeckers in 
 their habit of creeping on the stems of 
 trees with the aid of the strong quills 
 which project from the tail-feathers, 
 
 and of securing their insect food by an 
 exsertile tongue. The common creeper 
 is European, but is represented by 
 American species. It is a pretty and 
 interesting little bird, which builds its 
 nest usually in holes or crevices of trees. 
 The wall-creeper of Southern Europe 
 searches for its insect food on rocks. 
 The family is found in all parts of the 
 world. 
 
 CREMA'TION, the burning of the 
 bodies of the dead, a practice which was 
 frequent in ancient times instead of 
 burial, and which has recently been 
 advocated on hygienic grounds by 
 many scientific men in Europe and 
 America on account of the dangers to 
 the living caused by the presence of 
 graveyards and cemeteries. Various 
 methods of cremation have been pro- 
 posed, the great difficulty being to con- 
 sume the body without permitting the 
 escape of noxious exhalations, and with- 
 out mingling the ashes with foreign 
 substances. In Siemens’ process, a 
 modification of a plan of Sir Henry 
 Thompson, this is successfully accom- 
 plished. Cremation societies exist in 
 many countries, and crematories have 
 been erected in or near not a few towns 
 
 CREMO'NA, a city of Italy, capital of 
 province of same name, on the left bank 
 of the Po, 47 miles s e. by e. of Milan. 
 It is surrounded by walls and wet 
 ditches, its circumference being nearly 
 five miles. The most remarkable edifice 
 is the cathedral, begun in 1107 and com- 
 pleted about 1491. Close by and con- 
 nected with the cathedral, is the 
 Torazzo, one of the .loftiest and most 
 beautiful towers in Italy. Cremona is 
 the seat of a bishopric, and has consider- 
 able manufactures of silk, wool, cotton, 
 etc. It was at one time celebrated for 
 its violins, especially those made by 
 Antonius Straduarius, Joseph Guar- 
 nerius, and members of the Amati 
 family. Pop. 37,693. The province has 
 an area of about 500 sq. miles, and a 
 population of 300,000. 
 
 CRE'OLE is the name which was 
 originally given to ail the descendants 
 of Spaniards born in America and the 
 West Indies. It is now used in a wider 
 sense to signify the descendants of 
 Europeans of any nation born in S. 
 America and the West Indies, as well 
 as in some other localities. 
 
 CREOSOTE. See Creasote. 
 
 CRESCENDO (kre-shen'do), or Cres. 
 (Italian), a musical term signifying that 
 the notes of the passage over which it is 
 placed are to be gradually swelled. 
 
 CRES'CENT, an emblem representing 
 the moon in her horned state. This 
 emblem is of very high antiquity, being 
 that of the Greek goddess Artemis or 
 Diana. It is found on medals of many 
 ancient cities, particularly of Byzan- 
 tium, from whence it is supposed to have 
 been borrowed by the Ottomans. Since 
 their establishment in Europe it has 
 been the universal emblem of their 
 empire. The crescent has given name 
 to a Turkish order of knighthood from 
 the form of the badge, instituted by 
 Selim, sultan of Turkey, in 1801. 
 
 CRESS, the name of several species of 
 plants. Water-cress is used as a salad, 
 and is valued in medicine for its anti- 
 scorbutic qualities. The leaves have a 
 
 moderately pungent taste. It grows 
 on the brinks of rivulets and in moist 
 grounds 
 
 CRESSELLE (kre-seP) ,a wooden rattle 
 used in some Roman Catholic countries 
 during Passion Week instead of bells, 
 to give notice of divine worship. 
 
 CRESSET, a name which appears to 
 have been given in the middle ages and 
 later indifferently to the fixed candle- 
 sticks in great halls and churches, to the 
 
 Various forms of cressets. 
 
 great lights used as beacons and other- 
 wise; and to lamps or fire-pans sus- 
 pended on pivots and carried on poles in 
 processions, municipal and military 
 watches, etc. 
 
 CRESSY. See Cr4cy 
 
 CRETA'CEOUS (or Chalk) SYSTEM, 
 in geol. the upper strata of the Second- 
 ary series, immediately below the Ter- 
 tiary series, and superincumbent on the 
 Oolite system. This group is common 
 to Europe, and also to a part of Asia. 
 It consists of chalk resting upon arena- 
 ceous and argillaceous deposits, which 
 are also regarded as part of the system. 
 
 CRETE. See Candia» 
 
 CRET'INISM, a form, .of idiocy asso- 
 ciated with a peculiar condition of the 
 body, occurring in Switzerland and 
 other mountainous countries. Cretins 
 are usually affected with goitre, and are 
 usually the offspring of goitrous parents 
 They are ill grown and stunted, with 
 swollen bellies. The skin is coarse, head 
 large, the nose sunken and flattened at 
 the bridge, the lips thick, chin pro- 
 truding, mouth wide and gaping, the 
 tongue large. The countenance is dull 
 and heavy; there is general muscular 
 weakness and slowness of sensibility. 
 Associated with these are feebleness or 
 want of intellect, varying in degree from 
 absolute vacuity to a certain power of 
 acquiring a little knowledge; sometimes 
 deafness and dumbness, perhaps squint- 
 ing and blindness. Careful training may- 
 do much for them, along with good food, 
 cleanliness, exercise, etc. 
 
 CRETONNE (kre-ton'), a cotton cloth 
 with various textures of .surface, printed 
 on one side with pictorial and other 
 patterns, and used for curtains, covering 
 furniture, etc. 
 
 CREUSE (kreuz), an inland depart-*- 
 ment, France, comprising most part of 
 the old province of Mar^e; area, 2150 
 sq. miles. Pop. 284,942. 
 
 CRIB'BAGE, a game at cards played 
 with the whole pack. It may be played’ 
 by two, three, or four persons; and when 
 by two, five or six cards may be dealt 
 to each. Five-card cribbage played b^ 
 two persons is the most scientific game.” 
 Sixty-one-points make the game; there 
 are no tricks and no trumps, the 
 object being to make pairs, fifteens, 
 sequences, or the go, or prevent the 
 adversary from doing the same. Court 
 
CRICHTON 
 
 CRIMEAN WAR 
 
 cards and tens count as ten each, and 
 all the rest count for the number of 
 “pips” upon them. Every pair, that is, 
 every couple of cards of the same value 
 belonging to different suits (two aces, 
 two fours, two kings, etc.), counts two; 
 and when there are three or four similar 
 cards, as many pairs are counted as 
 there are different combinations of the 
 cards taken two at a time. Every com- 
 bination of cards, the united pips of 
 which make up fifteen, counts two. 
 A sequence consists of three or more 
 cards of any suit following one another 
 in rank, and counts one for each card. 
 When the player whose turn it is to play 
 cannot play a card without going be- 
 yond thirty-one, the other player scores 
 one for having been the nearest to 
 thirty-one. This is called scoring one 
 for “the go.” The remaining cards 
 after thirty-one, or the next point to it, 
 is made, are thrown up, and each 
 player’s cards are counted. When all 
 the cards in a hand, either with or with- 
 out the turn-up card, are of one suit, 
 or when all the cards in the crib, with 
 the turn-up card, are of one suit, it is 
 called a flush, and counts one for each 
 card When the turn-up card is a knave 
 the dealer scores two (“two for his 
 heels”). When a knave of the same suit 
 with the turn-up card is found in the 
 hand of either player, the player inwhose 
 hand it is scores one (“one for his nob”). 
 
 CRICHTON (kri'ton), James, sur- 
 named the Admirable, a Scottish celeb- 
 rity, son of Robert Crichton, lord- 
 advocate, was born in 1560, died about 
 1585. He was educated at the Univer- 
 sity of St. Andrews, and according to the 
 current accounts of him, before his 
 twentieth year, had run through the 
 whole circle of the sciences, could speak 
 and write to perfection ten different 
 languages and was equally distinguished 
 for his skill in riding, fencing, singing, 
 and playing upon all sorts of instru- 
 ments. He visited Paris, Xlenoa, Venice, 
 Padua, etc., challenging all scholars to 
 learned disputations, vanquishing doc- 
 tors of the universities, and disarming 
 the most famous swordsmen of the time 
 in fencing. He was latterly tutor to a 
 son of the Duke of Mantua, and is said 
 to have been stabbed to the heart in a 
 dastardly manner by his pupil. The 
 story of his achievements seems to be 
 rather highly colored; but he was ex- 
 travagantly praised by Aldus Manutius 
 the printer of Venice, by whom he was 
 well known. He left some Latin poems, 
 which are said to be possessed of no 
 remarkable quality. 
 
 CMCKET, the house-cricket is about 
 an inch long, with antennae of about 
 an inch and a half, of a pale yellow- 
 ish color mixed with brown By the 
 friction of the peculiarly-formed wing- 
 covers the males produce that strid- 
 ulous sound by which these insects 
 are so well known, and which has be- 
 come associated with ideas of cheerful 
 domestic comfort. They live in holes 
 and crevices near fire places or in other 
 warm situations, whence they come out 
 at night to feed on crumbs and other 
 fragments^ of food. The field-cricket 
 makes a similar noise. 
 
 CRICKET, an open-air game played 
 with bats, balls, and wickets on a place 
 
 of smooth green sward. It is played by 
 two opposite sets or sides of players, 
 generally numbering eleven each. Two 
 wickets of , three stumps each are 
 pitched fronting each other at a distance 
 of about 22 yards apart, the stumps 
 being upright rods stuck in the ground, 
 and projecting 27 inches. On the top 
 of each set of stumps are placed two 
 small pieces of wood called bails. After 
 the rival sides have tossed for the choice 
 of either taking the bat or fielding, two 
 men are sent to the wickets bat in hand. 
 The opposite or fielding side are all 
 simultaneously engaged; one (the bowl- 
 er) being stationed behind one wicket 
 for the purpo.se of bowling his ball 
 against the opposite wicket, where his 
 coadjutor (the wicket-keeper) stands 
 ready to catch the ball should it pass 
 near him ; the other fielders are placed in 
 such parts of the field as is judged most 
 favorable for stopping the ball after it 
 has been struck by the batsman or 
 missed by the wicket-keeper. It is the 
 object of the batsman to prevent the 
 ball delivered by the bowler reaching 
 his wicket either by merely stopping it 
 with his bat or by driving it away to a 
 distant part of the field. Should the ball 
 be driven any distance the two batsmen 
 run across and exchange wickets, and 
 continue to do so as long as there is no 
 risk in being “run out,” that is, of having 
 the stumps struck by the ball while 
 they are out of their position near the 
 wickets. Each time the batsmen run 
 between the wickets is counted as a 
 “run,” and is marked to the credit of the 
 striker of the ball. If the batsman 
 allows the ball to carry away a bail or a 
 stump, if he knocks down any part of 
 his own wicket, if any part of his person 
 stops a ball that would have otherwise 
 reached his wicket, or if he strikes a ball 
 so that it is caught by one of the op- 
 posite party before it reaches the ground 
 he is “out,” that is, he gives up his bat 
 to one of his own side; and so the game 
 goes on until all the men on one side 
 have played and been put out. This 
 constitutes what is called an “innings.” 
 The other side now take the bat and try 
 to defend their wickets and make runs 
 as their rivals did. Generally after two 
 innings each have been played by the 
 contestants the game comes to an end, 
 that side being the victors who can 
 score the greatest number of runs. 
 
 CRILLON (kre-yon), Louis des Balbes 
 de Berton de, great French warrior of 
 the 16th century, born in 1541, died 
 1615. He distinguished himself in five 
 successive reigns. 
 
 CRIME, a term used to indicate some- 
 times a violation of the higher moral 
 law, sometimes more specifically the 
 violation of a certain group of the laws 
 formulated by a nation. This group 
 properly comprises in its scheme all 
 offenses endangering the welfare of the 
 community, as distinct from civil or 
 private injuries, which are as between 
 person and person, and terminate with 
 the compensation of the injured. Hence, 
 from the legal point of view crime is 
 sometimes defined as an offense punish- 
 able by law directly, as opposed to an 
 offense which the law punishes indirectly 
 by granting damages to the person 
 wronged, (^e Criminal Law.) Whether 
 
 used in the legal or the moral sense 
 crime implies freedom of will, the power 
 of distinguishing between right and 
 wrong, and a fulfilled intention. Hence, 
 though the theoretic rule of common 
 law is that all infraction of law is 
 criminal and penal, it is held that young 
 children, madmen, and idiots cannot 
 commit crimes. 
 
 CRIME'A, The, a peninsula of south- 
 ern Russia; area, 10,000 sq. miles. 
 Three-lourths of the Crimea belongs to 
 the regions of steppes, but the other 
 part, confided entirely to the south, 
 and stretching along the coast from 
 west to east, abounds in beautiful 
 mountain scenery. Here the valleys 
 looking southward are luxuriant with 
 vines and olive and mulberry planta- 
 tions, while the northern slope gives a 
 large yield in cereals and fruits. The 
 climate, however, is unequal, and in 
 winter is severe. The forests are of 
 limited extent. Pop. estim. at 450,000. 
 The chief town and port is Sebastopol. 
 In 1783 the Russians took possession of 
 the country; and with the view of over- 
 awing the Turks the great naval arsenal 
 of Sebastopol, occupying the most com- 
 manding position in the Black sea, was 
 begun by Catharine II. in 1786. Its mili- 
 tary resources were steadily developed 
 up to the time of the Anglo-French 
 campaign (see Crimean War) of 1854, 
 when it fell into the hands of the allies. 
 
 CRIME'AN WAR, the struggle be- 
 tween England, France, and Turkey on 
 the one hand, and Russia on the other, 
 to prevent the undue preponderance of 
 Russia in the east of Europe; 1854 to 
 1856. The old plans for the extension of 
 Russian power conceived by Catharine 
 II. and Potemkin were resuscitated by 
 Nicholas I., who, believing tha't he had 
 secured himself from interference on the 
 part of Austria and Prussia, and that 
 an Anglo-French alliance was impos- 
 sible, prepared to carry them into action. 
 Servia, Bosnia, Bulgaria, and the prin- 
 cipalities of the Danube were to become 
 Russian protectorates, and Constanti- 
 nople was to be provisionally occupied 
 by Russian troops. The first markedly 
 aggressive step — the demand by Russia 
 for a protectorate over the Greek Church 
 throughout the Turkish empire — 
 brought matters to a crisis. An ulti- 
 matum presented by Menschikoff in 
 May, 1853, was rejected by the Porte; 
 the Russians occupied the Danubian 
 principalities; and war was declared by 
 the Porte in October, 1853, by France 
 and England in 1854, and by Sardinia 
 in 1855. A French and English fleet 
 entered the Baltic and captured Bo- 
 marsund and one of the Aland Is- 
 lands, and in the south the allies 
 landed at Varna, under Lord Raglan 
 and Marshal St. Arnaud as com- 
 manders-in-chief. While the allies 
 were making preparations Prussia and 
 Austria demanded the evacuation of the 
 Danubian principalities, and on evacua- 
 tion being ordered by Nicholas, “for 
 strategic reasons,” the principalities 
 were provisionally occupied by the 
 Austrians. It soon became obvious that 
 the Crimea must be the seat of the war, 
 and 50,000 French and English troops 
 with 6000 Turks were landed at Eupa- 
 toria (Sept. 1854). Five days later the 
 
CRIMINAL LAW 
 
 CROCODILE 
 
 battle of Alma was won by the allies (20th 
 Sept.), and the march continued toward 
 the south side of Sebastopol. Soon 
 after St. Arnaud died and was succeeded 
 by Canrobert. The siege of Sebastopol 
 was commenced by a grand attack 
 which proved a failure, and the Russians 
 under Liprandi retaliated by attacking 
 the English at Balaklava (Oct. 25), but 
 were defeated with heavy loss. It was 
 at this battle that the famous, but 
 useless, charge was made by the Light 
 Brigade. A second attack at Inkerman 
 was again repulsed by the allies, but the 
 siege works made slow progress during 
 the winter, in which the ill-supplied 
 troops suffered great privations. The 
 death of Nicholas and succession of 
 Alexander II., in March, 1855, brought 
 no change of policy. Canrobert re- 
 signed in favor of Pelissier; and shortly 
 after an unsuccessful attack on those 
 parts of the fortification known as the 
 Malakhoff and Redan Lord Raglan died, 
 and was succeeded by Simpson. The 
 bombardment was continued, and in 
 September the French successfully 
 stormed the Malakhoff, the simultaneous 
 attack on the Redan by the British 
 proving a failure. The Russians, how- 
 ever, then withdrew from the city to the 
 north forts and the allies took possession. 
 The chief subsequent event was the 
 capture of Kars, in Asia, by the Rus- 
 sians after a splendid defense by the 
 Turks under General Williams By 
 this time, however, the allies had 
 practical possession of the Crimea, and 
 overtures of peace were gladly accepted. 
 A treaty was accordingly concluded at 
 Paris on 27th April, 1856, by which the 
 independence of the Ottoman Empire 
 was guaranteed. See Paris, Treaty of. 
 
 CRIMINAL LAW, the law relating to 
 crimes The general theory of the com- 
 mon law is, that all wrongs are divisible 
 into two species: first, civil or private 
 wrongs or torts; secondly, criminal ©r 
 public wrongs. The former are to be 
 redressed by private suits or remedies 
 instituted by the parties injured. The 
 latter are redressed by the state acting 
 in its sovereign capacity. The general 
 description of the private wrongs is, 
 that they comprehend those injuries 
 which affect the rights and property of 
 the individual, and terminate there; 
 that of public wrongs or offenses being, 
 that they comprehend such acts as 
 injure, not merely individuals, but the 
 community at large, by endangering 
 the peace, the comfort, the good order, 
 the poliejq and even the existence of 
 society. In the first, therefore, so far 
 as the law is concerned, the compen- 
 sation of the individual, whose rights 
 have been infringed is held to be a suffi- 
 cient atonement; but in the second 
 class of offenses it is demanded that 
 the offender make satisfaction to the 
 community as acting prejudically to 
 its welfare. The exact boundaries be- 
 tween these classes are not, however, 
 always ea.sy to be discerned, even in 
 theory; for there are few private wrongs 
 which do not exert an influence beyond 
 the individual whom they directly in- 
 jure. The divisions, torts and crimes, 
 are thus not necessarily mutually ex- 
 clusive, cases sometimes occurring in 
 which the person injured obtains dam- 
 
 ages, while at the same time the crimi- 
 nal is subjected to punishment, not as 
 against the individual, but as against 
 the state. It is, moreover, obvious that 
 legal ci-iminality is not in any strict 
 sense the measure of the morality of 
 actions, though the legal enactment 
 tends to enforce itself as a moral law. 
 In large part it is only an approximate 
 expression of the current sense of justice, 
 this expression being both aided and 
 hindered by the historical and con- 
 stantly reflexive character of legal 
 method. The basis of the criminal law 
 of Britain and the United States is to 
 be found in a series of loose definitions 
 and descriptions, of which many, and 
 those among the more important, date 
 from the 13th century. The irregular 
 superstructure reared upon these con- 
 sists mainly of parliamentary enact- 
 ments which originated in the 18th 
 century. 
 
 In the United States the common law 
 of England generally obtains, in some 
 states more than in oihers, while in 
 all there is a criminal code, or a mass 
 of statutes defining crime and fixing the 
 punishment. On the other hand, the 
 United States itself has a criminal code 
 consisting of congressional enactments. 
 The various states have wide differ- 
 ences in their statutory laws with 
 reference to crime. 
 
 CRIMINOLOGY, the science which 
 deals with crime and its social and in- 
 dividual causes. Criminology in its 
 most rational form, is embodied in the 
 writings of Cesare Lombroso, the 
 Italian alienist, but the attempts of 
 less capable persons, such as professors 
 of sociology, ])rison chaplains, wardens, 
 “students,” and uncultured physicians, 
 have, especially in the United States, 
 reduced the entire discussion to the 
 level of a farce. Intelligently to under- 
 stand criminology one must first master 
 the main facts of organic evolution, 
 anthropology, and human anatomy. 
 
 CRIMSON, a rich deep red color, a 
 red that owes its characteristic tint to a 
 certain admixture of blue. 
 
 CRIN'OLINE, properly a kind of 
 fabric made chiefly of horse-hair, but 
 afterward generally applied to a kind 
 of petticoat supported by steel hoops, 
 and intended to distend or give a cer- 
 tain set to the skirt of a lady’s dress. 
 Hooped skirts (farthingales or fardin- 
 gales), supported by whalebone, were 
 worn in the time of Queen Elizabeth 
 and James I., and the fashion was again 
 introduced in the time of George II. 
 The crinoline proper came in about 1856, 
 and was worn by women of all ranks, 
 sometimes proving by their portentous 
 dimensions a source of much incon- 
 venience and no little danger. The 
 immense bell-shaped crinolines happily 
 fell into disuse about 1866. Crinoline 
 wire was for years a leading branch in 
 the steel trade. A horse-hair and 
 cotton fabric used as a material for 
 making ladies’ bonnets is also called 
 crinoline. 
 
 CRIP'PLE CREEK, a town and coun- 
 ty-seat of Teller County, Col., 30 miles 
 west-southwe'st of Colorado Springs. It 
 was founded in 1890, developed rapidly 
 after 1893, and was nearly destroyed 
 
 by fire in 1896. Population, 10,147; the 
 district contains about 50,000. 
 
 CRI'SIS, in medicine, the turnings 
 point in a disease at which a decided 
 change for the better or the worse takes 
 place. In regular fevers the crisis takes 
 place on regular days, which are called 
 critical days (the 7th, 14th, and 21st) 
 sometimes, however, a little sooner or 
 later, according to the climate and the 
 constitution of the patient. The word 
 crisis is also figuratively used for a deci- 
 sive point in any important affair or 
 business, for instance, in politics and 
 commerce. Commercial crises have 
 been in an especial degree the subjects 
 of study at the hands of economists 
 with the result of establishing a curious 
 periodicity in their recurrence. 
 
 CRISP, Charles Frederic, an Ameri- 
 can politician and lawyer, born in Eng- 
 land in 1845, died 1896. He came to 
 the United States as a child. He 
 fought in the Confederate army and 
 from 1891 to 1895 was speaker of the 
 national house of representatives. 
 
 CRISPI, Francesco, an Italian states- 
 man born in Sicily in 1819, died in 1901. 
 He was a helper of Garibaldi, and in 
 1876 he was elected president of the 
 Chamber of Deputies. From that time 
 to 1898 he was prominent in European 
 politics as cabinet officer and prime 
 minister of Italy. In 1898 he retired to 
 the practice of law and occasionally 
 wrote for popular magazines on ques- 
 tions of European policy. 
 
 CRIT'TENDEN,Jolin Jordan, an Amer- 
 ican statesman, born in Kentucky in 
 1787, died in 1863. He served in the 
 war of 1812, was United States senator 
 for 20 years, governor of Kentucky in 
 1848-50, and twice United States at- 
 torney-general. He proposed the Crit- 
 tenden compromise, which aimed at 
 the permanent retention of slavery in 
 all states in which slavery existed. 
 
 CROA'TIA, a country which forms 
 with Slavonia and the former “Military 
 Frontiers” a province of the Hungarian 
 portion of the Austrianmonarchy, partly 
 bounded by the Adriatic; total area, 
 16,411 sq. miles. The inhabitants are 
 Croats and Serbs (both Slavs by race), 
 with a mixture of Germans, Hungarians, 
 Jews, and Gypsies. About three-fourths 
 of the population are R. Catholics, the 
 rest belong chiefly to the Greek Church. 
 The chief towns are Agram (the capital), 
 Warasdin,and Karlstadt. Pop. 2,184,414. 
 
 CROCHET (kro'sha), a species of 
 knitting performed with a small hook, 
 of ivory, steel, or wood, the material 
 used being woolen, cotton, or silk thread. 
 Various fancy articles are made in 
 crochet-work. 
 
 CROCKETT, David, an American 
 backwoodsman, born in Tennessee in 
 1786, died in 1836. He was the origina- 
 tor of the aphorism “Be sure jmu’re 
 right, then go ahead.” Crockett was 
 the ideal of the American pioneer. He 
 fought in the Indian war under Jackson 
 and was elected to congress and was 
 killed while defending the Alamo. 
 
 CROC'ODILE, a genus, family, and 
 order of saurian reptiles, comprising the 
 largest living forms of reptiles. The 
 characters of the order Crocodilia are as 
 follows: — The skin is covered with 
 square bonj"^ plates; the tail is long and 
 
CROCUS 
 
 CROMWELL 
 
 compressed laterally. The four feet are 
 short, and there are five toes on each 
 of the two fore-feet, and four on each of 
 the two hind-feet, the latter more or less 
 webbed; the limbs are feeble. The 
 jaws are long and their gape of enor- 
 mous width. The nostrils are at the 
 extremity of the snout, and capable 
 of being closed to prevent ingress of 
 water. The heart is four-chambered. 
 Crocodiles have unequal teeth and no 
 
 Crocodile. 
 
 abdominal plates, and the cervical and 
 dorsal plates are distinct for the most 
 part. The crocodile of the Nile is the 
 best-known member of the order; 
 another species is met with in South 
 Asia, Sunda, and the Moluccas. The 
 crocodile is formidable from its great 
 size and strength, but on shore its short- 
 ness of limb, great length of body, and 
 difficulty of turning enable men and 
 animals readily to escape pursuit. In 
 the water it is active and formidable. 
 It is exclusively carnivorous, and al- 
 ways prefers its food in a state of putre- 
 faction. In Egypt it- is no longer found I 
 except in the upper or more southern 
 parts, where the heat is greatest and the 
 population least numerous. Crocodiles 
 are still common enough in the river 
 Senegal, the Congo, Niger, etc. They 
 grow sometimes to a length of 30 feet, 
 and apparently live to a vast age. 
 
 CROCUS, a genus of plants, forming 
 one of the most common ornaments of 
 the garden. They may be divided, ac- 
 cording to their period of flowering, 
 into vernal and autumnal. Among the 
 vernal crocuses may be mentioned the 
 white and purple, distinguished by the 
 yellow tube of its flower bearded with 
 hairs, and its sweet scent; the Scotch 
 crocus, with beautiful pencilled sepals, 
 and clear or bluish-white petals. Among 
 the autumnal species are two whose 
 long, reddish-orange, drooping stigmas, 
 when dried, form saffron. See Saffron. 
 
 CRCESUS, the last king of Lydia, son 
 of Alyattes, whom he succeeded in 560 
 n.c., extending the empire from the 
 northern and western coasts of Asia 
 Minor to the Halys on the east and 
 Mount Taurus on the south, including 
 the Greek colonies of the mainland. 
 His riches, obtained chiefly from mines 
 and the gold-dust of the river Pactolus, 
 were greater than those of any king 
 before him, so that his wealth became 
 proverbial. 
 
 CROFTERS, petty farmers renting a 
 few acres of land, with sometimes the 
 right of grazing their cattle in common 
 on a piece of rough pasture. Crofters 
 are numerous in the Highlands and in 
 the Western Islands of Scotland, as well 
 as in some other localities. 
 
 CROKER, Richard, an American 
 politician born in Ireland in 1843, emi- 
 
 grated to N. Y. City as a child. He be- 
 gan life as a laborer and entered politics 
 as a ward worker. He served as aider- 
 man, rose in power in Tammany Hall, 
 and in 1886 became the democratic 
 leader of New York City politics. In 
 1902 he resigned from Tammany and 
 went to England to live. 
 
 CROLY, Jane Cunningham, (Jennie 
 June), an American writer, born in 
 England in 1831, emigrated to the 
 United States as a girl. She died in 
 1901. She was widely known for the 
 part she took in women’s reform move- 
 ments and women’s clubs. She was 
 a liberal contributor to newspapers and 
 magazines and published several books 
 for women. 
 
 CROMLECH (krom'lek), an ancient 
 monument consisting of two or more 
 columns of unhewn stone supporting a 
 large tabular block so as to form a 
 rectangular chamber, beneath the floor 
 
 Cromlech at Lanyon, Cornwall. 
 
 of which is sometimes found a cist in- 
 closing a skeleton and relics. Some- 
 times the cromlech was encircled by a 
 ring of standing-stones, as in the case 
 of the standing-stones of Stennis, in 
 Orkney; and sometimes it was itself 
 buried beneath a large mound of earth. 
 
 I CROM'WELL, Oliver, Lord-protector 
 of the Commonwealth of England, Scot- 
 land, and Ireland, was born at Hunt- 
 ingdon April 25, 1599. The first really 
 authentic fact in his biography is his 
 leaving school at Huntingdon and 
 entering Sidney-Sussex College, Cam- 
 bridge, April 23, 1616. On the death 
 of his father in 1617 he returned home, 
 and in 1620 married Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Sir James Bourchier. In 1628 he 
 
 Oliver Cromwell. 
 
 was member of parliament for the 
 borough of Huntingdon, to which he 
 returned on the dissolution in 1629. 
 During the short and long parlia- 
 ments he represented Cambridge, his 
 influence gradually increasing. At the 
 battle of Winceby (1643) he led the van 
 narrowly escaping death, and in the 
 following year he led the victorious left 
 at Marston Moor, deciding the result of 
 the battle. As the result of the disci- 
 pline introduced by Cromwell the decisive 
 victory of Naseby was gained in 1645, 
 and Leicester, Taunton, Bridgewater, 
 
 Bristol, Devizes, Winchester, and Dart- 
 mouth fell into the hands of the parlia- 
 ment. On the occasion of the surrender 
 of Charles by the Scottish army in 1646 
 Cromwell was one of the commissioners. 
 Though at first supporting parliainent in 
 its wish to disband the army, which re- 
 fused to lay down its arms till the 
 freedom of the nation was established, 
 he afterward saw reason to decide in 
 favor of the latter course. Hastily 
 suppressing the Welsh rising, he march- 
 ed against the Scottish royalists, whom 
 he defeated with a much inferior force 
 at Preston (Aug. 17, 1648). Then fol- 
 lowed the tragedy of the king’s execu- 
 tion, Cromwell’s name standing third 
 in order in the death-warrant. Affairs 
 in Ireland demanding his presence, he 
 was appointed lord-lieutenant and com- 
 mander-in-chief ; and by making a 
 terrible example of Drogheda (Septem- 
 ber, 1649), crushed the royalist party in 
 that country within six months. Re- 
 signing the command to Ireton, he 
 undertook, at the request of the parlia- 
 ment, a similar expedition against Scot- 
 land, where Charles II. had been pro- 
 claimed king. With an army greatly 
 reduced by sickness he saved himself 
 from almost inevitable disaster hy the 
 splendid victory at Dunbar (Sept. 3, 
 1650), and a year later put an end to the 
 struggle by his total defeat of the 
 royalists at Worcester (Sept. 3, 1651). 
 
 He already exerted a weighty in- 
 fluence in the supreme direction of 
 affairs, being instrumental in restoring 
 the continental relations of England, 
 which had been almost entirely dis- 
 solved, and regulating them so as to 
 promote the interests of commerce. The 
 navigation act, from which may be 
 dated the rise of the naval power of 
 England, was framed upon his sug- 
 gestion, and passed in 1651. The 
 rump parliament, as the remnant of 
 the long parliament was called, had 
 become worse than useless, and on April 
 20, 1653, Cromwell, with 300 soldiers, 
 dispersed that body. He then sum- 
 moned a council of state, consisting 
 mainly of his principal officers, which 
 finally chose a parliament of persons 
 selected from the three kingdoms, nick- 
 named Barebone’s Parliament, or the 
 Little Parliament. Fifteen months after 
 a new annual parliament was chosen; 
 but Cromwell soon prevailed on this 
 body, who were totally incapable of 
 governing, to place the charge of the 
 commonwealth in his hands. The chief 
 power now devolving again upon the 
 council of officers (Dec. 12, 1653), they 
 declared Oliver Cromwell sole governor 
 of the commonwealth, under the name 
 of Lord-protector, with an assistant 
 council of twenty-one men. The new 
 protector behaved with dignity and 
 firmness. Despite the innumerable 
 difficulties which beset him from adverse 
 parliaments, insurgent royalists, and 
 mutinous republicans, the early months 
 of his rule established favorable treaties 
 with Holland, Sweden, Portugal, Den- 
 mark, and France. In Sept. 1656 he 
 called a new parliament, which under- 
 took the revisal of the constitution and 
 offered Cromwell the title of king. On 
 his refusal he was again installed as 
 Lord-protector, but with his powers 
 
CRONSTADT 
 
 now legally defined. Early in the fol- 
 lowing year, however, he peremptorily 
 dissolved the house, which had rejected 
 the authority of the second chamber. 
 Abroad his influence still increased, 
 reaching its full height after the victory 
 of Dunkirk in June, 1658. But his 
 masterly administration was not effected 
 without severe strain, and upon the 
 death of his favorite daughter, Eliza- 
 beth Claypole, in the beginning of 
 August, 1658, his health began to fail 
 him. Toward the end of the month he 
 was confined to his room from a tertian 
 fever, and on Sept. 3, 1658, died at 
 Whitehall, in the sixtieth year of his 
 age. He was buried in King Henry 
 VII. ’s Chapel, in Westminster Abbey, but 
 after the restoraton his body was taken 
 up and hanged at Tyburn, the head 
 being fixed on a pole at Westminster 
 Abbey, and the rest of the remains 
 buried under the gallows. — Great as a 
 general, Cromwell was still greater as a 
 civil ruler. 
 
 CRONSTADT (kron'stat), a town of 
 Austria, in Transylvania, after Her- 
 mannstadt the principal seat of the 
 industry and trade of the province, 
 lying in a mountainous but well-wooded 
 and romantic district near its southeast 
 corner. Pop. 34,511. 
 
 CRONSTADT, a maritime fortress of 
 Russia, about 20 miles w. St. Petersburg, 
 both by its position and the strength of 
 its fortifications, the bulwark of the 
 capital, and being also the most im- 
 portant naval station of the empire. 
 Cronstadt used to be the commercial 
 port of St. Petersburg, but since the 
 construction of a canal giving large 
 vessels direct access to the capital it has 
 lost this position. Pop. 48,276. 
 
 CROOKES, Sir William, a noted 
 British chemist and physicist, born in 
 London in 1832. He was one of the ear- 
 liest physicists to study radio-activity, 
 and invented the term “radiant matter.” 
 He did most valuable work in spectros- 
 copy, in the chemistry of dyes, and 
 devised the Crookes tubes Avhich led to 
 the discovery of the X-ray. His radiom- 
 eter, a little instrument which is moved 
 by light-rays, is familiar to almost 
 everyone who has looked into the show- 
 vfindow of an optician. 
 
 CROQUET (kro'ka), an open-air game 
 played with balls, mallets, hoops, and 
 pegs on a level area, which should be at 
 least 30 yards long by 20 wide. The 
 iron hoops (shaped like the letter U) are 
 fixed with their two ends in the ground, 
 arranged in a somewhat zigzag manner 
 over the ground; they are usually ten 
 in number. The posts or pegs (two in 
 number) are placed at the near and far 
 end of the field respectively, marking 
 the starting and turning points. The 
 game may be played by any number of 
 persons up to eight, either individually, 
 or arranged in couples or in sides. The 
 object of the players is to drive with the 
 mallets the balls belonging to their 
 own side through the hoops and against 
 the posts in a certain order, and to 
 prevent the balls of their opponents from 
 completing the journey before their 
 own by playing them against those of 
 the enemy, and driving them as far as 
 possible from the hoop or post to be 
 played for; the player or players whose 
 
 balls first complete the course claiming 
 the victory. 
 
 CROSBY, Frances Jane, an American 
 writer of hymns, born in New York in 
 1820. She became blind when a child, 
 a fact which probably influenced her 
 religious emotionality. Among her 
 well known hymns are “Safe in the 
 Arms of Jesus,” and “Pass Me Not O 
 Gentle Savior.” 
 
 CROSS, one straight body laid at any 
 angle across another, or a symbol of simi- 
 lar shape. Among the ancients a piece of 
 wood fastened across a tree or upright 
 post formed a cross, on which were exe- 
 cuted criminals of the worst class It 
 had, therefore, a place analogous to 
 that of the modern gallows as an instru- 
 ment of infamous punishment until it 
 
 which is placed at one-third the distance from 
 the top of the perpendicular portion, supposed 
 to be the form of cross on which Christ suffered. 
 3, Tau Cross, (so called from being formed like 
 the Greek letter r , tau) , or cross of St. Anthony , 
 one of the most ancient forms of the cross. 4, 
 Cross of Lorraine. 5, Patriarchal Cross. 6, St. 
 Andrew’s Cross, the form of cross on which St. 
 Andrew, the national saint of Scotland, is said 
 to have suffered. 7, Greek Cross, or cross of 
 St. George, the national saint of England, the 
 red cross which appears on British flags. 8, 
 Papal Cross. 9, Cross nowy quadrat, that is, 
 having a square expansion In the center. 10, 
 Maltese Cross, formed of four arrow-heads 
 meeting at the points; the badge of the Knights 
 of Malta. 11, Cross fourch6e or forked. 12, 
 Cross pattfie or form6e. 13, Cross potent or 
 Jerusalem Cross. 14, Cross fleury, from the 
 fleur de 11s at its ends. 
 
 acquired honor from the crucifixion of 
 Christ. The custom of making the sign 
 of the cross in memory of Christ may 
 be traced to the 3d century. Constan- 
 tine had crosses erected in public places, 
 palaces, and churches, and adopted it, 
 according to a legend, as the device for 
 a banner in consequence of a dream 
 representing it as the symbol of victory. 
 In his time also Christians painted it at 
 the entrance of their houses as a sign of 
 their faith, and subsequently the 
 churches were for the most part built in 
 the form of a cross. It did not, however, 
 become an object of adoration until 
 after the alleged discovery of the true 
 cross by the Empress Helena (a.d. 326). 
 Its adoption as the Christian symbol 
 may be held to connect itself with the 
 fact that it was used emblematically 
 long before the Christian era, in the 
 same way that traces of belief in a 
 trinity, in a war in heaven, in a paradise, 
 a flood, a Babel, an immaculate con- 
 ception, and remission by the shedding 
 of blood, are to be found diffused 
 amongst widely sundered peoples. The 
 general meaning attached to the sign 
 appears to have been that of life and 
 regeneration Since its adoption by 
 Christianity it has undergone many 
 
 \ 
 
 CROSS-EXAMINATION 
 
 modifications of shape, and has been 
 employed in a variety of ways for orna- 
 ments, badges, heraldic bearings, etc. 
 After the introduction of the cross into 
 the military ensigns of the crusaders 
 its use in heraldry became frequent, 
 and its form was varied more than that 
 of any other heraldic ordinary, some of 
 the varieties being of great beauty. The 
 name cross is also given to various 
 architectural structures, of which a 
 cross in stone was a prominent feature; 
 thus we have market crosses, peaching 
 crosses, monumental crosses, etc 
 CROSS, Exaltation of the, a Catholic 
 festival celebrated on the 14th of 
 September in honor of the recovery of 
 a portion of the true cross from the 
 Persians by Heraclius (628 a.d.) and 
 its erection on Mount Calvary. 
 
 CROSS, Victoria. See Victoria Cross 
 CROSS'BILL, a genus of birds of the 
 finch family, deriving their name from 
 a peculiarity of their bill, the mandibles 
 of which are curved at the tips, so as to 
 
 American crossbill. 
 
 cross each other, sometimes on the one 
 side and sometimes on tbe other. The 
 form of the bill enables them to extract 
 wdth ease the seeds of the pine, their 
 usual food, from underneath the scales of 
 the cones. They build and also breed 
 at all seasons of the year, in December, 
 as in March, April, or May 
 
 CROSS-BILL, a bill brought by a 
 defendant against he complainant in 
 an action at law. It is used in equity or 
 chancery cases, and its purpose is to 
 bring the details of the case more 
 fully before the court. 
 
 CROSS-BOW, or ARBALIST, form- 
 erly a very common weapon for shooting, 
 consisting of a bow fastened athwart a 
 stock. The bow, which was often of 
 steel, was usually bent by a lever wind- 
 lass, or other mechanical contrivance, 
 the missile usually consisting of a square- 
 headed bolt or quarrel, but occasionally 
 of short arrows, stones, and leaden bul- 
 lets. Though largely used on the Euro- 
 pean continent the cross-bow was super- 
 seded at an early period in England by 
 the more efficient long-bow, from which 
 twelve arrows could be despatched per 
 minute to three bolts of the cross-bow 
 
 CROSS-BREEDING, the breeding to- 
 ■gether of animals of different races or 
 stocks. See Breeding. 
 
 CROSS-EXAMINATION, a term ap- 
 plied to the examination given a vfit- 
 ness by one party to a suit after the 
 other party has finished the direct 
 examination. Cross examination always 
 assumes previous examination There 
 
cross-fertilization 
 
 CROWNINSHlELi) 
 
 is re-cross examination (when re-direct 
 examination has been taken up after 
 cross-examination) and cross-examina- 
 tion “in rebuttal” — to re-direct exami- 
 nation. Cross examination must be 
 limited to matters touched upon by 
 direct examination. Its purpose is to 
 weaken the value of the witness’s testi- 
 mony. 
 
 CROSS-FERTILIZATION, in botany, 
 the fertilization of the ovule of one 
 flower by the pollen of another, usually 
 effected by the agency of insects, the 
 action of the wind, water, etc. See 
 Botany. 
 
 CROSS-TREES, in ships, certain pieces 
 of timber at the upper ends of the lower 
 and top masts, athwart which they are 
 
 laid, to sustain the frame of the tops in 
 the one, and extend the top-gallant 
 shrouds on the other. 
 
 CRO'TON, a genus of herbaceous 
 
 E lants, shrubs, and trees, order Euphor- 
 iacese, comprehending a great number 
 of species, many of which possess im- 
 portant medical properties. See Croton 
 Oil. 
 
 CROTON-OIL, a vegetable oil ex- 
 pressed from the seeds of the Croton. 
 It is so strongly purgative that one drop 
 is a full dose, and half a drop will some- 
 times produce a powerful effect, and it 
 should never be used except by the 
 direction of an experienced physician. 
 When applied externally it causes 
 irritation and suppuration, and thus it 
 is used as a counter-irritant in neu- 
 ralgia, etc. 
 
 CROUCH, Frederick Nicholls, an 
 American musician born in London in 
 1808, died in Maine in 1896. His prin- 
 cipal works were Kathleen Mavourneen, 
 The Soldier’s Grave, The Emigrant's 
 Lament, Friendship, and Twenty Years 
 Ago. 
 
 CROUP (krop). Two diseases are 
 commonly confounded under the term 
 “croup,” one a simple and, if promptly 
 treated, a readily subdued disease, the 
 other most fatal. The former is simple 
 inflammation of the inner lining mem- 
 brame of the larynx — the box of the 
 windpipe — or of the windpipe itself, or 
 of both._ It is common in children, and 
 as the air-passage of children is narrow, 
 the swelling produced by the inflam- 
 mation so diminishes the fair-way that 
 difficult breathing, hoarseness of voice, 
 and a cough like a muffled bark are 
 quickly produced, while the breathing 
 sounds loud and harsh. The other 
 disease is diphtheria of the larynx or 
 windpipe, or both, in which a false 
 membrane is formed which lines the air- 
 passages, and so narrows them. Croup 
 
 frequently proves fatal by suffocation, 
 induced either by spasm affecting the 
 glottis, or by a quantity of matter 
 blocking up the air-passages. The 
 earliest symptoms should be noted, and 
 the treatment in the absence of im- 
 mediate medical advice should consist 
 in the application of hot poultices to the 
 upper part of the chest, while at the 
 same time the child is made to inhale 
 the steam from hot water. Hot drinks 
 are beneficial, and the bowels should be 
 freely opened. 
 
 CROW, a genus of birds, type of the 
 family Corvidae. It includes, as British 
 species, the carrion-crow, the hooded or 
 Royston crow, the raven, the rook, and 
 the jackdaw, the last three of which are 
 described under their respective heads. 
 The carrion-crow, or simply the crow, 
 is 18 or 19 inches in length, and about 36 
 between the tips of the w’ings. Its 
 plumage is compact and glossy blue- 
 black with some greenish reflections 
 Its favorite food is carrion of all kinds; 
 but it also preys upon small quadrupeds, 
 young birds, frogs, lizards, etc., and is a 
 confirmed robber of the nests of game 
 birds and poultry. It is not gregarious, 
 being generally met with either solitary 
 or in pairs. It builds a large isolated 
 nest, with from four to six eggs, gen- 
 erally of a bluish-green with blotches of 
 brown. The carrion-crow is easily 
 tamed, and may be taught to articulate 
 words. The American crow is similar 
 to the foregoing, but is smaller and less 
 robust, and is somewhat gregarious. 
 This crow is common in all parts of the 
 U. States, and is deemed a great nuisance 
 by farmers from preying on their corn. 
 The fish-crow, another American crow, 
 resembling the preceding but smaller, 
 is abundant in the coast districts of the 
 southern states. Its favorite food is 
 fish, but it also eats all kinds of garbage, 
 mollusca, etc. In winter its food is 
 chiefly fruit, and it is then fat and con- 
 sidered good eating. 
 
 CROW-BLACKBIRD, the name of 
 certain American birds. The great 
 crow-blackbird, found in the southern 
 states, Mexico, and the West Indies, is 
 16 inches long, and of a glossy black 
 plumage. The female is of a light-brown 
 above and whitish beneath. The purple 
 grackle, lesser or common crow-black- 
 bird, is similar in color to the preceding, 
 but smaller. They reach the middle 
 states of America from the south in 
 flocks in the latter part of March, and 
 build in April in the tall pines or cedars 
 On their first arrival they feed upon 
 insects, but afterward commit great 
 ravages upon the young corn. In 
 November they fly southward again. 
 
 CROWN, a circular ornament for the 
 head. As now used the name is limited 
 to the head-dress worn by royal per- 
 sonages as a badge of sovereigntv, but 
 it was formerly used to include the 
 wreaths or garlands worn by the ancients 
 upon special occasions. Thus, among 
 the Greeks and Romans, crowns made 
 of grass, flowers, twigs of laurels, oak, 
 olive, parsley, etc., and latterly of gold, 
 were made use of as honors in atheletic 
 contests, as rewards for military valor, 
 and at feasts, funerals, etc. It is, how- 
 ever, with the eastern diadem rather 
 than with the classic corona that the 
 
 crown as a symbol of royalty is con- 
 nected; indeed, is was only introduced 
 as such a symbol by Alexander the 
 Great, who followed the Persian usage. 
 Antony wore a crown in Eg5'pt, and the 
 Roman emperors also wore crowns of 
 various forms, from the plain golden 
 fillet to the radiated or rayed crown 
 In modern states they were also of 
 various forms until heralds devised a 
 regular series to mark the grades of 
 rank from the imperial crown to the 
 baron’s coronet. The English crown 
 
 ^ 1, Crown of England. 2, Rnssian Crown. 3, French 
 
 Jrown. 4, Austrian Crown. 6, Imperial Crown (Cbarle* 
 
 tnagne’s). 
 
 has been gradually built up from the 
 plain circlet with four trefoil heads worn 
 by William the Conqueror. This form 
 was elaborated and jeweled, and 
 finally arched in with jeweled bands 
 surmounted by the cross and scepter. 
 As at present existing the crown of 
 England is a gold circle, adorned with 
 pearls and precious stones, having 
 alternately four Maltese crosses and 
 four fleurs-de-lis. From the top of the 
 crosses rise imperial arches, closing 
 under a mound and cross. The whole 
 covers a crimson velvet cap with an 
 ermine border. The crown of Charle- 
 magne, which is preserved in the im- 
 perial treasury of Vienna, is composed 
 of eight plates of gold, four large and 
 four small, connected by hinges. The 
 large plates are studded with precious 
 stones, the front one being surmounted 
 with a cross; the smaller ones, placed 
 alternately with these, are ornamented 
 with enamels representing Solomon, 
 David, Hezekiah, and Isaiah, and Christ 
 seated between two flaming seraphim. 
 The Austrian crown is a sort of cleft 
 tiara, having in the middle a semi-circle 
 of gold supporting a mound and cross; 
 the tiara rests on a circle with pendants 
 like those of a miter. The royal crown 
 of France is a circle ornamented with 
 eight fleurs-de-lis, from which rise as 
 many quarter-circles closing under a 
 double fleur-de-lis. The triple crown 
 of the popes is more commonly called 
 tiara. 
 
 CROWN, a British silver coin value 
 five shillings ($1.20), first coined by 
 Henry VIII. None were coined from 
 1851 to 1887. In 1847 and 1848 some 
 pattern crowns were struck with a gold 
 center, but the experiment was carried 
 no further. 
 
 CROWN'INSHIELD, Arthur Schuyler, 
 an American naval officer, born in 1843 
 and educated at the naval academy. 
 He took part in the naval battles of the 
 civil war, and during the Spanish war 
 was a member of the Board of Naval 
 
CEOWN LANDS 
 
 CRUSADES 
 
 Strategy which sat at Wasliington, 
 D. C. He died in 1809. 
 
 CROWN LANDS, the lands belonging 
 to the British crown. These are now 
 surrendered to the country at the be- 
 ginning of every sovereign’s reign in 
 return for an allowance (the civil list) 
 fixed at a certain amount for the reign 
 by parliament. They are placed under 
 commissioners, and the revenue de- 
 rived from them becomes part of the 
 consolidated fund. 
 
 CROWN SOLICITOR, in England, the 
 solicitor to the treasury, who instructs 
 counsel in all state prosecutions. In 
 Ireland, an officer attached to each 
 circuit, paid by a salary, whose duty it 
 is to take charge of every case for the 
 crown in criminal cases. 
 
 CROY'DON, a mun., pari., and co., 
 borough, England, in county Surrey, 10 
 miles s. of London, of which it is prac- 
 tically a suburb, near the sources of the 
 Wandle, and near the Banstead Downs. 
 Of special interest are the remains of 
 the ancient palace, long a residence of 
 the Archbishops of Canterbury. Pop. 
 133 885 
 
 CROZIER. See Crosier. 
 
 CRU'CIBLE, a vessel employed to 
 hold substances which are to be sub- 
 mitted to a high temperature without 
 collecting the volatile products of the 
 action. It is usually of a conical, 
 circular, or triangular shape, closed at 
 the bottom and open at the top, and is 
 made of various materials, such as fire- 
 clay, platinum, a mixture of fire-clay 
 and plumbago, porcelain, etc. 
 
 CRU'CIFIX, a cross bearing the figure 
 of Christ. As a rule the figures on the 
 most ancient crucifixes were not carved, 
 but were engraved on gold, silver, or iron 
 crosses. At a later period they were 
 painted on wood, and it is only in the 
 9th century in the pontificate of Leo 
 III., that the figure of Christ appears 
 carved upon the cross in bas-relief. 
 Originally the body was represented 
 clothed in a tunic reaching to the feet ; 
 afterward the clothing was removed 
 with the exception of a cloth round the 
 loins. Until the 11th century Christ 
 is represented alive; since that period 
 he has been represented as dead. In the 
 earlier crucifixes, also, the number of 
 nails by which Christ is fixed to the 
 cross is four, one through each hand and 
 each foot, while in the more modern 
 ones one foot is laid above the other 
 and a single nail driven through both. 
 Many crucifixes bear also the super- 
 scription in an abbreviated form, and 
 accessory symbbls and figures. 
 
 CRUCIFIXION, a mode of inflicting 
 capital punishment, by affixing crim- 
 inals to a wooden cross, formerly 
 widely practiced, but now chiefly con- 
 fined to the Mohammedans. Different 
 kinds of crosses were employed, espe- 
 cially that consisting of two beams at 
 right angles, and the St. Andrew’s 
 cross. 
 
 CRUDEN, Alexander, compiler of the 
 Concordance to the Scriptures, was born 
 at Aberdeen in 1701. He took the 
 degree of M. A., at Marischal College, 
 and in 1722 proceeded to London. His 
 great work appeared in 1737, under the 
 title of A Complete Concordance of the 
 
 Holy Scriptures of the Old and New 
 Testament. He died in Islington in 
 1770. 
 
 CRUELTY TO ANIMALS, in the 
 
 modern sense the wanton maltreatment 
 of beasts. Until recent times the senti- 
 ment against cruelty to animals did not 
 take definite form until 1826, when the 
 first society of prevention was organized 
 in England. The first apostle of pre- 
 vention in the U. States was Henry 
 Bergh, through whose efforts almost 
 all states have been led to adopt laws 
 severely punishing cruelty to animals. 
 
 CRUELTY TO CHILDREN, the mod- 
 ern notion that it Is a crime to mistreat 
 one’s own children. In 1875 the New 
 York Society for the Prevention of 
 Cruelty to Cliildren was organized and 
 has been widely copied in other cities. 
 The^e societies do not concern them- 
 selves with child labor, which is cruelty 
 to children on a social scale and one of 
 the greatest crimes of which society is 
 guilty. 
 
 CRUIKSHANK, George, the greatest 
 of English pictorial satirists after 
 Hogarth, born in London 1792, of 
 Scottish extraction. The earliest of his 
 drawings known is dated 1799, when 
 he was only seven years of age, and 
 when fifteen he was comparatively 
 distinguished. In 1837 he commenced 
 in Bentley’s Miscellany his famous 
 series of etchings on steel illustrative of 
 Dickens’ Oliver Twist, followed two 
 years later by those for Ainsworth’s 
 Jack Sheppard, and then by those for 
 Windsor Castle and the Tower of Lon- 
 don. Having connected himself with 
 the temperance movement he produced 
 the Bottle, a powerful and popular 
 series of designs, but marking clearly 
 the limits of his art. His temperance 
 connection and 'his absurd claims to 
 having suggested the idea of Dicken’s 
 Oliver Twist, undermined his artistic 
 reputation. Poorly paid for work by 
 which others profited, he was latterly 
 obliged to part with the vast collection 
 of his works, and in 1866 $250.00 a year 
 was settled on him from the Royal 
 Academy’s Turner Annuities. He lat- 
 terly turned his attention to oil-painting, 
 his most noteworthy pictures being Tam 
 o’ Shanter, Disturbing a Congregation, 
 and The Worship of Bacchus. He died 
 in 1878. 
 
 CRUSADES, the wars carried on by 
 the Christian nations of the West, from 
 the end of the 11th till the latter half of 
 the 13th century, for the conquest of 
 Palestine. They were called Crusades, 
 because the warriors wore the sign of 
 the cross. The antagonism between the 
 Christian and Mohammedan nations 
 had been intensified by the possession 
 of the Holy Land by the Turks and by 
 their treatment of pilgrims to Jerusa- 
 lem ; and the first strenuous appeal was 
 assured of response alike from the pious, 
 the adventurous, and the greedy. The 
 immediate cause of the first crusade 
 was the preaching of Peter of Amiens, 
 or Peter the Hermit, who in 1093 had 
 joined other pilgrims on a journe 3 ^ to 
 Jerusalem. A well-conducted regular 
 army of 80,000 men was headed by 
 Godfrey of Bouillon; Hugh of Verman- 
 dois, brother to Philip, king of France; 
 Baldwin, brother of Godfrey; Robert 
 
 II. of Flanders; Robert II. of Nor- 
 mandy, brother of William II., king of 
 England; Raymond of Toulouse; and 
 other heroes. After remaining nearly a 
 year in the neighborhood of Antioch 
 they commenced, in May, 1099, their 
 march against Jerusalem, the siege of 
 which they commenced in June. Their 
 numbers were now reduced to little 
 more than 20,000 men; but after a 
 fierce struggle the town was taken by 
 storm on July 15, and Godfrey of 
 Bouillon was chosen king of Jerusalem, 
 or, as he preferred to term himself. 
 Protector of the Holy Sepulcher. At 
 his death in 1100 he was succeeded by 
 his brother Baldwin, who had in the 
 eai'ly part of the crusade established 
 himself in Edessa, and made himself 
 ruler of an extensive territory stretching 
 over the Armenian mountains and the 
 plain of Mesopotamia. 
 
 The second great and regularly-con- 
 ducted crusade was occasioned by the 
 loss of Edessa, which the Saracens 
 conquered in Dec., 1144. Fearing still 
 graver losses. Pope Eugenius III., 
 seconded by Bernard of Clairvaux, 
 exhorted the German emperor Conrad 
 
 III. , and the King of France, Louis VII., 
 to defend the cross. Both these 
 monarchs obeyed, and in 1147 led large 
 forces to the East, but returned without 
 accomplishing anything in 1149. 
 
 The third crusade w’as undertaken 
 after the capture of Jerusalem by 
 Saladin in 1187, the monarchs Frederick 
 
 I. (Barbarossa) of Germany, Philip 
 Augustus of France, and Richard I. 
 (Occur de Lion) of England, leading 
 their armies in person. Richard de- 
 feated Saladin and occupied Jaffa or 
 Joppa; but having twice vainly set out 
 with the design of besieging Jerusalem, 
 he concluded (Sept. 2, 1192) a truce of 
 three years and three months with 
 Saladin, who agreed that pilgrims 
 should be free to visit the Holy Sepul- 
 cher, and that the whole sea-coast from 
 Tyre to Jaffa (including the important 
 fortress of Acre) should belong to the 
 crusaders. 
 
 The fourth crusade was set on foot 
 by Pope Innocent III., v/ho commis- 
 sioned Fulk of Neuilly to preach it in 
 1198. Among its chief promoters was 
 Godfrey of Villehardouin, seneschal of 
 Champagne; Baldwin, count of Flan- 
 ders and Hainaut; Dandolo, the aged 
 doge of Venice; and the Marquis of 
 Montferrat, who was chosen leader. 
 The crusaders assembled at Venice in 
 the spring of 1201, but were diverted 
 from their original purpose first by the 
 capture of the Dalmatian town of Zara, 
 and then by the expedition which ended 
 in the sack of Constantinople and the 
 establishment of a Latin empire there 
 (1204)’. 
 
 The fifth crusade, undertaken by 
 Andreas of Hungary in 1217, and shared 
 in by John of Brienne, to whom the 
 title of King of Jerusalem was given 
 had little other result than the tem- 
 porary occupation of the Nile delta. 
 
 The sixth crusade, that of Frederick 
 
 II. , emperor of German 3 ’, was under- 
 taken at the instance of Popes Honorius 
 
 III. and Gregory IX. The seventh and 
 eighth Crusades were led by St. Louis of 
 France (Louis IX.) in person. 
 
CRUSTACEA 
 
 CUBA 
 
 Despite their want of success, the 
 crusades were of considerable indirect 
 value in that by these joint enterprises 
 the European nations became more 
 connected with each other, the class of 
 citizens increased in influence, partly 
 because the nobility suffered by extrava- 
 gant contributions to the Crusades, and 
 partly because a more intimate com- 
 mercial intercourse greatly augmented 
 the wealth of the cities, and a numlaer 
 of arts and sciences, till then unknown 
 in Europe, were introduced. 
 
 CRUSTA'CEA, one of the primary 
 branches into which is divided the great 
 group of Articulate or Annulose animals. 
 The body is divided into head, thorax, 
 and abdomen, of which the two former 
 are united into a single mass, cephalo- 
 thorax, covered with a shield or cara- 
 pace, and the abdomen usually presents 
 the appearance of a tail. In some — the 
 sand-hopper, wood-louse, etc. — the head 
 is partially distinct from the thorax. 
 The Crustacea breathe by branchias or 
 gills, or by membraneous vesicles, or by 
 the general surface; and the body is com- 
 posed of a series of rings more or less 
 distinct. They possess the faculty of 
 reproducing lost parts in an eminent 
 degree. 
 
 -CRWTH (kruth), a Welsh name for a 
 kind of violin with six strings, formerly 
 much used in Wales. Four of the 
 
 Crwth. 
 
 strings were played on by a bow, and 
 two were struck or twitched by the 
 thumb. Its general length was 22 
 inches, and its thickness H inch. 
 
 CRYPT, originally a subterranean 
 cell or cave, especially one constructed 
 for sepulture. From the usage of these 
 by the early Christians crypt came to 
 signify a church underground or the 
 lower story of a cathedral or church. 
 It is usually set apart for monumental 
 purposes, but is sometimes used as a 
 chapel. The crypt is a common feature 
 of cathedrals, being always at the east 
 end, under the chancel or apse. The 
 largest in England is that of Canterbury 
 Cathedral; that of Glasgow Cathedral, 
 formerly used as a sepai-ate church, is 
 one of the most perfect pieces of archi- 
 tecture in Britain. 
 
 CRYPTOG'RAPHY, the art of writing 
 in secret characters or cipher, or with 
 sympathetic ink. The simplest method 
 consists in choosing for every letter of 
 the alphabet some sign, or another 
 letter or group of letters. Thus the 
 letter of Charles I. to the Earl of Gla- 
 morgan with respect to the Catholics 
 of Ireland was composed in an alphabet 
 of 24 strokes variously placed about a 
 line. The names in the records of the 
 Clan-na-Gael Society were, according 
 to the Times newspaper, written in a 
 
 cipher formed by taking in each case 
 the letter previous to that intended; 
 and the cipher devised by Lord Bacon 
 consisted in an alphabet formed by 
 difl'erent arrangements of the letters 
 a and b in groups of five. All these 
 methods, however, are easily de'uphered 
 by experts, as also is that employed by 
 the Earl of Argyle in his plot against 
 James II., in which the words of the 
 letter were set down at concerted dis- 
 tances, the intervals being filled up 
 with mi.sleading words. Even the more 
 complex, however, present, as a rule, 
 only temporary difficulty to an expert. 
 The fact that the most frequently 
 recuriin,g letter in the English language 
 is the letter e; (hat the most common 
 double vowels are ea and ou, that r, s, 
 and t are the most frequent terminal 
 letters, etc., are of no small assistance in 
 forming a key to any given cryptogram. 
 
 CRYSTAL, in chemistry and miner- 
 alogy, any body which, by the mutual 
 attraction of its particles, has asfsumed 
 the form of some one of the regular 
 
 geometric solids, being bounded by a 
 certain number of plane -surfaces. The 
 chemist procures crystals either by 
 fusing the bodies by heat and then 
 allowing them gradually to cool, or by 
 dissolving them in a fluid and then ab- 
 stracting the fluid by slow evaporation. 
 A ciysfal consists of three parts. 1st, 
 Plane surfaces, called faces, which are 
 said to be similar when they are equal 
 to one another and similarly situated; 
 dissimilar, when they are unequal or 
 have a different position. 2d, Edges, 
 foi-med by the meeting of two faces. 
 They are said to be similar when formed 
 by similar faces; dissimilar, by dis- 
 similar faces. Equal edges are formed 
 when the faces are inclined at the same 
 angle to one another; unequal, when 
 they are inclined at different angles. 
 3d, Solid angles, formed by the meeting 
 of three or more faces; and in this case 
 also there are similar and dissimilar, 
 equal and unequal solid angles, accord- 
 ing as the}' are formed by similar or dis- 
 similar faces, and equal or unecjiial 
 angled edges. The angles of crystals are 
 measured by an instrument called the 
 goniometer. 
 
 CRYSTAL'LOMARCY, a mode of 
 divining by means of a transparent 
 body, as a precious stone, crystal globe, 
 etc. The operator first muttered over 
 it certain formulas of prayer, and then 
 gave the crystal (a beryl was preferred) 
 into the hands of a young man or virgin, 
 who feceived an answer from the spirits 
 within the crystal. 
 
 CUBA, the largest and most westerly 
 of the West India Islands, lying at the 
 entrance to the Gulf of Mexico, about 
 150 miles from Florida and Yucatan. 
 Its length is 750 miles; breadth, 20 to 
 over 120; area, 43,220 sq. miles. Since 
 the Spanish-American war of 1898 
 Cuba has been independent, and is now 
 
 under its own republican government 
 The navigation of the coast is unsafe, on 
 account of rocks and shoals, but there 
 are many excellent and easily-accessible 
 ports and anchoring places. The chief 
 commerical ports and harbors are, on the 
 north, Havana (the capital), Matanzas, 
 Cardenas, Sagua, Remedies; on the 
 south, Santiago, Trinidad, Cienfuegos, 
 and Guantanamo. The surface ex- 
 hibits various chains or groups of hills 
 extending from west to east, and in the 
 extreme southeast is a mountain range 
 rising to the height of over 8000 feet. 
 At the foot of the hills the country opens 
 into extensive savannahs. A consider- 
 able number of small streams water the 
 island on both sides. Cuba is rich in 
 minerals; those worked are chiefly 
 copper and iron. Bitumen is plentiful, 
 both in a liquid form and in a soft 
 resinous state. There are many mineral 
 springs, and on the north coast are ex- 
 tensive lagoons, which in dry years 
 produce immense quantities of marine 
 salt. The climate is hot and dry during 
 greater part of the year, Lut is, on the 
 whole, more temperate than that of 
 some other islands in the same latitude. 
 Rain often descends in torrents from 
 July to September, but no snow is 
 known to fall on the highest mountains, 
 though frost occurs occasionally. The 
 soil is fertile and the vegetation is ex- 
 ceedingly luxuriant. Forests of mahog- 
 any. ebony, cedar, fustic, and other 
 useful woods, abound; and the fields 
 are covered with flowers and odoriferous 
 plants. The principal cereal cultivated 
 is the indigenous maize, or Indian corn. 
 Rice is also produced in many districts; 
 but the principal crops are sugar and 
 tobacco, with a little cotton, cocoa, 
 coffee, indigo, etc. The best tobacco is 
 growTi in the district of Vuelta Abajo, 
 near Havana. A considerable extent of 
 country is appropriated also to cattle- 
 breeding farms, and to farms on which 
 fruit and vegetables are raised. The 
 principal fruits are the pine-apple, 
 oranges, .shaddocks, plantains, bananas, 
 m_e!ons, lemons, and sweet limes; figs 
 and strawberries are also to be had. 
 The most valuable domestic animals aro 
 the ox, horse, and pig, which form a 
 large proportion of the wealth of the 
 island; the sheep, goat, and mule are 
 inferior in quality and numbers. Among 
 the few indigeneous mammals are two 
 species of aguti and an opossum. The 
 sylvan birds are numerous and in great 
 ^-ariety; but birds of prey are few, and 
 snakes and reptiles are not very numer- 
 ous. The shores a’ ound with turtle, 
 and in the deep gulfs and bays the 
 alligator is found. The manati is met 
 with in the deep pools of fresh water, 
 and the iguana is not uncom_mon. The 
 manufactures are confined to the making 
 of sugar, rum, molasses, and cigars, 
 and these, with tobacco, form the chief 
 exports. Next in commercial impor- 
 tance rank mahogany and other valuable 
 timber and fruit. The chief imports are 
 grain and flour, salted provisions, 
 brandy, wines, hardware, and cotton, 
 linen, and woolen manufactures. Th* 
 great b ulk of the trade is with the U. 
 States. There is also a considerable 
 trade between Cuba and Great Britain. 
 The legal system of money, weights, and 
 
CUBATURE OF A SOLID 
 
 CUMBERLAND 
 
 measures of Cuba are the same as those 
 of Spain. The internal traffic of the 
 island has been greatly facilitated by 
 road improvements and by railways, 
 the length of which in operation now 
 amounts to about 1000 miles. Steam- 
 vessels ply between Havana and other 
 parts of the coast. Under Spain Cuba 
 was governed by a captain-general. 
 Cuba was first discovered on October 28, 
 1492, by Columbus, who revisited it in 
 1494, and again in 1502. In 1511 the 
 Spaniards formed the first settlement on 
 the island, and the native inhabitants 
 were soon extirpated. Negro slaves 
 were introduced in 1524 Attempts to 
 put an end to slavery were made in 1820 
 and 1845 without result; but in 1868 a 
 law, designed gradually to put an end 
 to slavery, was passed. In that year 
 commenced an insurrectionary struggle 
 against the mother country, which 
 lasted for ten years. The final abolition 
 of slavery dates only from 1886. In 
 1895 began another insurrection, which 
 continued till the war with the U. States. 
 The pop. is 1,772,797, of whom over 
 500,000 are colored. During 1906 an 
 insurrection took place against the 
 Palma government which necessitated, 
 on the appeal of the Cubans, the placing 
 of an American military governor with 
 forces on the island pending the settle- 
 ment of the troubles. Reciprocity with 
 the United States was adopted in 1903. 
 The U. S. troops were withdrawn in 1909. 
 
 CUBATURE OF A SOLID, the finding 
 of the solid or cubic contents of it 
 
 CUBE, in geometry, a regular solid 
 body with six equal square sides. The 
 solid content of any cube is found by 
 multiplying the superficial area of one 
 of the sides by the height; or, what 
 comes to the same thing, by multiplying 
 the number that expresses the length of 
 one of the edges by itself, and the prod- 
 uct thus found by that number again. 
 Cubes are to one another in the triplicate 
 ratio of their diagonals. — Cube, or cubic 
 number, in arithmetic, that which is 
 produced by the multiplication of a 
 square number by its root; thus 64 
 is a cube number, and arises by mul- 
 tiplying 16, the square of 4, by the root 4. 
 
 CUBE ROOT, the number or quantity 
 which, multiplied into itself and then 
 into, the product, produces the cube; 
 or which, twice multiplied into itself, 
 produces the number of which it is the 
 root: as 2 is the cube root of 8, because 
 twice 2 are 4, and twice 4 are 8. 
 
 CUBIC FOOT of an^ substance, so 
 much of it as is contained in a cube 
 whose side is 1 foot. 
 
 CUBIT, in the mensuration of the 
 ancients, a long measure, equal to the 
 length of a man’s arm from the elbow 
 to the tip of the fingers, or, say equal 
 to 18 inches. 
 
 CUCK'OO, a scansorial or climbing 
 bird. The note from which it derives 
 its name is a love-call used only in the 
 mating season. The greater number of 
 species belonging to the genus are con- 
 fined to hot countries, more especially 
 India and Africa, though some are 
 summer visitants of colder climates. 
 In America no true cuckoos are found, 
 the genus to which the so-called Ameri- 
 can cukcoo belongs, differing very 
 essentially from them in its habits. 
 
 CU’CUMBER, the fruit of the plant 
 belonging to the Cucurbitacese or. gourd 
 order, and supposed to have been 
 originally imported into Europe from 
 the Levant. Though grown in England 
 in the 14th century, it did not become 
 generally used until after the reign of 
 Henry VIII. It is an annual with 
 rough trailing stems, large angular 
 leaves, and yellow male and female 
 flowers set in the axils of the leaf -stocks 
 Other species of the cucumber genus are 
 the common melon, and the water 
 melon. 
 
 CUCUMBER-TREE, a fine American 
 forest tree, so named from the appear- 
 ance of its fruit. 
 
 The cuckoo. 
 
 CUD'DAPAH, or KADAPA, a district 
 
 and town, Hindustan, presidency Ma- 
 dras. The district area is 8745 sq.miles. 
 The forests contain much valuable tim- 
 ber, and the minerals include iron ore, 
 lead, copper, diamonds, etc. Pop. 
 1,272,072. — The town lies on a small 
 river of same name, an affluent of the 
 Pennar, 140 miles n.w. Madras. It ex- 
 ports indigo and cotton. Pop. 17,387. 
 
 CUIRASS (kwi-rasO, an article of de- 
 fensive armor, protecting the body both 
 before and behind, and composed of 
 
 of Charles 11. , and in France a little 
 later. It was reintroduced by Napo- 
 leon I., and the achievements of his 
 cuirassiers led to its adoption for regi- 
 ments of heavy cavalry in most Eu- 
 ropean armies. 
 
 CULLO'DEN MOOR, a heath in Scot- 
 land, 4 miles e. of Inverness, celebrated 
 for the victory obtained April 27, 1746, 
 by the Duke of Cumberland over Prince 
 Charles Edward Stuart (the Pretender) 
 and his adherents. The battle was the 
 last fought on British soil, and the 
 termination of the attempts of the 
 Stuart family to recover the throne of 
 England. 
 
 CULLOM, Shelby Moore, an Ameri- 
 can senator, boim in Jventucky in 1829, 
 removed to Illinois in 1855 as a lawyer. 
 
 He served in the state legislature and 
 was twice speaker of the house (1861 
 and 1873), was a member of congress for 
 three terms, governor of Illinois from 
 1876 to 1883 and since then has been 
 United States senator. He is one of 
 the leaders of the republican party in ' 
 Illinois. 
 
 CULMIN ATION, in astronomy, the 
 passing of a star through the meridian, ■ 
 because it has at that moment reached 
 the highest point of its apparent path j 
 in the sky. i 
 
 CUM'BERLAND, the extreme north- \ 
 western county of England. Length, - 
 north to south, 75 miles; extreme 
 breadth 45 miles; area, 970,161 acres, 
 rather more than a half of which is 
 under cultivation. There is great 
 variety of surface in different parts. 
 The two largest rivers are the Eden ‘ 
 and the Derwent The county em- t 
 braces part of the “lake country” of '• 
 England. The largest lakes are Der- ; 
 wentwater, Bassenthwaite, Loweswater, 
 Crummock, Buttermere, Ennerdale, A 
 Wastwater, Thirlmere, and part of • 
 Ullswater. Cumberland is rich in min- 
 erals, including lead, gypsum, zinc, and 
 especially coal and rich hematite iron- 
 ore. In the western division of the 
 county there are a great many blast- 
 furnaces, and works for the manufac- 
 ture of steel and finished iron. The 
 
 CuUoden moor. 
 
 leather, metal, or other materials vari- 
 ously worked. It was in common use 
 throughout Europe in the 14th century. 
 In England it fell into disuse in the time 
 
 principal crops raised are oats, barley, 
 wheat, and turnips, but the bulk of the IE- 
 inclosed lands is sown in clover and ' 
 
 
CUMBERLAND 
 
 CURFEW 
 
 and dairy farming are engaged in to a 
 fcohsiderable extent. Pop. 266,549. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, county seat of Alle- 
 gany county, Maryland, on the Poto- 
 mac, 179 miles by rail from Baltimore. 
 It is on the edge of the great coal-basin 
 of the same name, and iron is also largely 
 worked in the vicinity. Pop. about 
 19,000. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, a river of the U. 
 States which runs through Kentucky 
 and Tennessee into the Ohio, having a 
 course of about 600 miles, navigable for 
 steamboats to Nashville, near 200 miles. 
 
 CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS, in Ten- 
 nessee, part of a range of the Appala- 
 chian system, rarely exceeding 2000 
 feet in height. 
 
 CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIANS, a 
 small American sect, so named from tne 
 Cumberland country in Tennessee, 
 founded early in the last century, and 
 holding Calvinistic doctrines, except in 
 regard to predestination. It has three 
 universities and several colleges con- 
 nected with it. 
 
 CUMBRIAN MOUNTAINS, a range of 
 hills, England, occupying part of the 
 counties of Cumberland, Westmoreland, 
 and North Lancashire. The mountains 
 rise with steep acclivities, inclosing in 
 some parts narrow but well-cultivated 
 valleys, with numerous picturesque 
 lakes, this being the English “Lake 
 Country” so much frequented by 
 tourists. 
 
 CUMMINS, Maria Susanna, an Amer- 
 ican story writer, born in Massachusetts 
 In 1827, died in 1863. Her principal 
 success was The Lamplighter (1854), 
 which Is still read. 
 
 CUTUULATIVE VOTE, the system by 
 which every voter is entitled to as many 
 votes as there are persons to be elected, 
 and may give them all to one candidate, 
 or may distribute them among the can- 
 didates, as he thinks fit. 
 
 CUM'YN, COMYN, or CUMMING, a 
 family whose name appears frequently 
 in the early history of England and 
 Scotland. It had its original possessions 
 near the town of Comines in France, 
 and from one of the branches sprang the 
 historian Philip de Comines. The 
 English Comyns came over with the 
 Conqueror, and Robert Comyn was sent 
 by William with 700 men to reduce the 
 northern provinces. His nephew be- 
 came chancellor of Scotland about 1133, 
 and in the middle of the 13th century 
 the family counted among its members 
 four Scottish earls. In the beginning of 
 the 14th century it was almost annihi- 
 lated by Robert Bruce, who slew the son 
 
 of its head (the Lord of Badenoch) in 
 Dumfries. The Comyns who escaped 
 settled down in the English court, and 
 established important connections. See 
 Comyn. 
 
 CUNDINAMARCA, one of the depart- 
 ments of the Republic of Colombia. 
 Area, estim. 79,810 square miles; pop. 
 537,658. 
 
 CUNE'IFORM WRITING, the name 
 applied to the wedge-shaped characters 
 of the inscriptions on old Babylonian 
 and Persian monuments ; sometimes also 
 described as arrow-headed or nail- 
 headed characters. They appear to 
 have been originally of the nature of 
 hieroglyphs, and to have been invented 
 by the primitive Accadian inhabitants 
 of Chaldea (a Turanian race), from 
 whom they were borrowed with con- 
 siderable modification by the conquer- 
 ing Batoylonians and Assyrians, who 
 were Semites by race and spoke an 
 entirely different language. The use of 
 the character, however, ceased shortly 
 after the reign of Alexander the Great; 
 and after the lapse of nearly two thou- 
 sand years it was doubted by many if 
 the signs had ever had an intelligible 
 meaning. They were even regarded by 
 some as the work of a species of worm, 
 by others as mere talisraanic signs, 
 astrological symbols, and the like. The 
 first hints toward decipherment were 
 given by Karstens Niebuhr late in the 
 18th century; and the labors of Grote- 
 fend, Rask, Burnouf, Lassen, Rawlin- 
 son, and other investigators slowly per- 
 fected the means of translation. Most 
 of the inscriptions first discovered were 
 in three different languages and as many 
 
 varieties of cuneiform writing, the most 
 prominent, and at the same time the 
 simplest and latest, being the Persian 
 cuneiform writing with about sixty let- 
 ters. Next older in time and much more 
 complex is what is designated the As- 
 syrian or Babylonian system of writing, 
 consisting of from 600 to 700 characters, 
 partly alphabetic, partly syllabic, or 
 representing sound groups Lastly 
 comes the Accadian inscriptions, the 
 oldest of all, originally proceeding from 
 a people who had reached a high state 
 of civilization three thousand years be- 
 fore Christ, and whose language (allied 
 to Turkish) ceased to be a living tongue 
 about 1700 B.c. The most celebrated 
 trilingual inscription is that at Behistun, 
 cut upon the face of a rock 1700 feet 
 high, and recording a portion of the his- 
 tory of Darius. The British Museum 
 contains many thousands of inscribed 
 clay tablets, cylinders, prisms, etc., 
 
 the decipherment of which is in prog- 
 ress. 
 
 CU'PID, the god of love; correspond- 
 ing with the Greek Eros. He is repre- 
 sented as a winged infant, naked, armed 
 with a bow, and a quiver full of arrows. 
 
 CUPPING, a surgical operation con- 
 sisting in the application of the cupping- 
 glass in cases where it is desirable to 
 abstract blood from, or draw it to, a 
 particular part When blood is removed 
 the operation is simply termed cupping; 
 when no blood is abstracted, it is dry- 
 cupping. 
 
 CURACAO (k6-r4-sa'6), an island, 
 Dutch West Indies, Carribbean Sea, 46 
 miles n. the coast of Venezuela • 36 miles 
 long and 8 miles broad; capital Willem- 
 stad, principal harbor Santa Anna. 
 The tamarind, cocoa-palm, banana, and 
 other useful trees are reared — among 
 them three varieties of orange, from one 
 of which the Curasao liquor is made. 
 Sugar, tobacco, cochineal, and maize are 
 also produced, but the staple exports 
 are salt, and a valuable phosphate of 
 lime used as a manure in its natural 
 state, or made to yield valuable super- 
 phosphates. Pop. 44,066. 
 
 CURACAO, or Curacoa, a liquor or 
 cordial prepared from a peculiar kind 
 of bitter oranges growing in Curagao, 
 which have a persistent aromatic odor 
 and taste. It ^ prepared from the yel- 
 low part of the rind, which is steeped in 
 strong alcohol, the infusion being after- 
 ward distilled and rectified and mixed 
 with syrup. For the true orange, the 
 common hitter orange of Europe is 
 often substituted, and the genuine deep- 
 yellow color imitated by caramel, etc. 
 
 CURAS'SOW, or Hocco, the name 
 given to gallinaceous birds natives of the 
 warm parts of America. The crested 
 
 Crested curassow. 
 
 curassow found in Guiana, Mexico, 
 and Brazil, is a handsome bird, nearly 
 as large as the turkey and more im- 
 posing in appearance, being of a dark 
 violet color, with a purplish-green gloss 
 above and on the breast; the abdomen 
 is snow-white, and the crest golden. An- 
 other species is the red curassow, also 
 a native of South America, and about 
 the size of a turkey. 
 
 CURD. See Cheese and Milk. 
 
 CUR'FEW, a practice originated in 
 England by William the Conqueror, 
 who Erected that at the ringing of the 
 
 Part of a Babylonian brick, with cuneiform writing. 
 
CURICO 
 
 CURRENTS 
 
 bell at eight o’clock all fires and lights 
 should be extinguished. The law was 
 repealed by Henry I. in 1100, but the 
 bell continued to be rung in many dis- 
 
 Curfew for fire. 
 
 tricts to modern times, and probably 
 may still be heard. The name was also 
 given formerly to a domestic utensil for 
 covering up a fire. 
 
 CURICO', a town of Chili, capital of 
 prov. of same name Pop. 9000. Area 
 of prov. 2913 sq. miles; pop. 102,647. 
 
 CURIE, Pierre and Madame, discov- 
 erers of the metal radium. Professor 
 Curie and Madame Curie were collabo- 
 
 rators in physics at one of the Paris 
 institutes. In 1903 they were awarded 
 the Nobel prize for their discovery. 
 Professor Curie was killed in a street 
 accident at Paris on April 19, 1906, his 
 wife taking his place as lecturer in the 
 Sarbonne. 
 
 CURLEW, a genus of birds belonging 
 to the same family as the snipe and 
 woodcock. The genus is characterized 
 by a very long, slender, and arcuated 
 bill, tall and partly naked legs, and a 
 short somewhat rounded tail. The bill 
 is more or less covered with a soft sensi- 
 tive skin by which the bird is enabled to 
 detect its food in the mud. Three 
 species of curlew are inhabitants of 
 America — the long-billed curlew, about 
 29 inches long, with a bill 7 to 9 inches 
 in length; the Hudsonian, or short- 
 billed curlew; and the Esquimo curlew 
 
 CURLING, a favorite Scottish winter 
 amusement on the ice. in which contend- 
 ing parties slide large smooth stones 
 
 having somewhat the shape of a flat- 
 tened hemisphere, weighing from 30 to 
 45 lbs. each, with an iron or wooden 
 handle at the top, from one mark to an- 
 other. The space within which the 
 stones move is called the rink, and the 
 hole or mark at each end the tee The 
 length of the rink from tee to tee varies 
 from 30 to 50 yards. The players are 
 arranged in two parties, each headed by 
 a skip or director. The number of play- 
 
 ers upon a rink is eight or sixteen — 
 eight when the players use two stones 
 each, and sixteen when they use one 
 stone each. There may be one or more 
 rinks according to the number of curl- 
 ers. The object of the player is to lay 
 his stone as near to the mark as possible, 
 to guard that of his partner which has 
 
 been well laid before, or to strike off 
 that of his antagonist. When the stones 
 on both sides have been all played the 
 stone nearest the tee counts one, and if 
 the second, third, fourth, etc., belong to 
 the same side, each counts one more, the 
 number playtd for being generally 
 twenty-one. If a player’s stone does 
 not cross a line, called the hog-score, at 
 some distance in front of the tee his shot 
 goes for nothing and the stone is re- 
 moved from the rink. The set matches 
 are termed bonspiels. 
 
 CUR'RANT, the name of two well- 
 known shrubs, cultivated for their fruit. 
 The red currant, the fruit of which is 
 used principally for tarts and jellies, is 
 a native of S. Europe, Asia, and N. 
 America. The white currant is a culti- 
 vated variety of the red, and is used 
 chiefly for dessert and for conversion 
 into wine. The black currant, a native 
 to most parts of Europe, and found 
 abundantly in Russia and Siberia, is 
 used for tarts and puddings and for a 
 fine jelly recommended in cases of sore 
 throat. 
 
 CURRANTS, a small kind of dried 
 grape imported from the Levant, chief- 
 ly from the vicinity of Patras in the 
 Morea, as also from Zante, Cephalonia, 
 and Ithaca, of which islands they are 
 the staple produce. The plant is deli- 
 cate and the crop precarious, and as the 
 plantation must be six or seven years 
 old before it bears, its cultivation re- 
 quires a great outlay of capital After 
 being dried the currants are exported 
 in large butts. 
 
 CURRANT WINE, a wine made of the 
 juice of the white or red currant (prefer- 
 ably the former). A pint of water is 
 added to every four pints of berries and 
 
 afterward a pound and a half of sugar 
 to each pint, a little spirits being mixed 
 in the liquor before it is set aside to fer- 
 ment. Fermentation requires several 
 weeks, and the wine is not fit for use for 
 some months. For black-currant wine 
 the berries are first put over the fire 
 and heated to the boiling point in as 
 small a quantity of water as possible. 
 
 CURRENCY, the medium of exchange 
 used in ordinary business and in- 
 dustry. It is generally in. the form of 
 coin or paper, and circulates from hand 
 to hand. The currency of the civilized 
 world is based on gold or silver, and 
 large quantities of safe currency in 
 paper are thus kept afloat. The total 
 currency of the United States is con- 
 siderably above $2,000,000,000, al- 
 though all of this is never in circulation. 
 Paper currency consists of the promis- 
 sory notes of the government or of 
 banks, and certificates for gold and 
 silver coin, good for their face amount 
 in the coin specified at the United 
 States treasury. 
 
 CURRENTOM'ETER, Current Gauge, 
 an instrument for measuring the veloc- 
 ity of cunients. It may be constructed 
 
 in various ways, e.g. a simple tube 
 which is bent and has its lower end open 
 to the current, the ascension of water 
 in the vertical part indicating the veloc- 
 ity of the current. 
 
 CURRENTS, Marine, masses of sea- 
 water flowing or moving forward in the 
 manner of a great stream. They are 
 henomena of the highest importance, 
 oth on account of their influence upon 
 the climate of many maritime regions — 
 an influence often reaching far inland 
 — and their practical relation to the art 
 of navigation. These currents are very 
 numerous, and taken together constitute 
 an oceanic circulation the intricacy and 
 irregularity of whose form is owing to 
 the number and variety of the agencies 
 at work. Among the theories which 
 have been put forward to account 
 for the existence of currents the chief 
 place belongs to the theory of a circuit 
 maintained between equatorial and 
 polar waters. According to this theory 
 there is in either hemisphere an area 
 within which the waters of the ocean 
 are colder, and hence by many degrees 
 denser, than within the belt of the 
 tropics. The natural result is a tendency 
 of the colder and heavier water to sink 
 and to diffuse itself over the lower 
 portion of the ocean-bed, and a move- 
 ment of the warmer and lighter water in 
 the direction of the surface, over which 
 it tends to become diffused. In other 
 words, the colder waters will move be- 
 neath the surface in the direction of 
 the equator, and the warmer waters 
 will flow along the surface in the direc- 
 tion of either pole. Hence, in either half 
 of the globe two great and opposite 
 currents — a cold current flowing from 
 the pole toward the equator, and a 
 
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 A YARDS 
 
 The rink as drawn on the ice. 
 
CURRICULUM 
 
 CUSTER 
 
 ■p-arin nirrent flowing from the equator 
 in the direction of the pole. This theory 
 lias been excellently illustrated by Dr. 
 Carpenter’s experiment, in which a 
 trough of glass filled with water and 
 having a lump of ice at one end and a 
 heated bar of iron at the other exhibits a 
 similar circulation of hot and cold cur- 
 rents. To this theory Sir C. Wyville 
 Thomson opposed a theory of evapora- 
 tion as the general cause of the move- 
 ment, holding that in the Antarctic 
 Ocean at least the return of moisture to 
 the south to balance the cold indraft 
 of water that comes from thence takes 
 place in a large measure through the at- 
 mosphere. Another great general cause 
 of currents is to be found in the axial 
 rotation of the earth eastward, by which 
 the movement of tropical waters to- 
 ward the pole is deflected eastward, and 
 becomes in the northern hemisphere a 
 north-eastwardly current and in the 
 southern a southeastwardly one. Under 
 the operation of the same laws the 
 opposite currents from polar latitudes to 
 the equator are deflected in southwester- 
 ly and northwesterly directions respect- 
 ively. It is to such influences that we 
 may in the main attribute the well- 
 known differences between the climates 
 of North America and Europe within 
 correspondent parallels. 
 
 CURRIC'ULUM, originally, in Latin, 
 the course over which the race was run, 
 hence the whole course of study at a 
 university necessary to qualify for a 
 particular degree. 
 
 CURRY, an Eastern condiment, a 
 powder composed of cayenne-pepper, 
 coriander, ginger, turmeric, and other 
 strong spices. 
 
 CURRYING is the art of dressing cow- 
 hides, calves’-skins, seal-skins, etc., prin- 
 cipally for shoes, saddlery, or harness, 
 after they have come from the tanner 
 In dressing leather for shoes the leather 
 is first soaked in water until it is 
 thoroughly wet; then the flesh side is 
 shaved to a proper surface with a knife 
 of peculiar construction, rectangular in 
 form with two handles and a double 
 edge. The leather is then thrown into 
 the water again, scoured upon a stone 
 till the white substance called bloom is 
 forced out, then rubbed with a ^easy 
 substance and hung up to dry. wTien 
 thoroughly dry it is grained with a 
 toothed instrument on the flesh side 
 and bruised on the grain or hair side 
 for the purpose of softening the leather. 
 A further process of paring and graining 
 makes it ready for waxing or coloring, 
 in which oil and lamp-black are used on 
 the flesh side. It is then sized, dried, 
 and tallowed. In the process the leather 
 is made smooth, lustrous, supple, and 
 water-proof. 
 
 CURTIN, Andrew Gregg, an Ameri- 
 can politician and governor, known as the 
 “war governor” of Pennsylvania. He 
 was born in Pennsylvania in 1817 and 
 died in 1894. He early allied himself 
 with the republican party and was 
 governor of Pennsylvania during the 
 civil war. He was subsequently a 
 member of qongress and minister to 
 Russia. 
 
 CURTIS, George Ticknor, an Ameri- 
 can jurist, born in Massachusetts in 
 1812, died, 1894- He appeared as 
 P. E.~22 
 
 counsel in the Dred Scott case, in the 
 legal tender cases, the sewing machine 
 cases, and the Colt revolver suits. He 
 published in its complete form in 1896 
 his Constitutional History of the United 
 States, and he was the author also of 
 numerous valuable treatises on law, 
 and a Life of Daniel Webster. 
 
 CURTIS, George William, an Ameri- 
 can publicist, editor, and critic, born in 
 Rhode Island in 1824 and died in 1892. 
 He was a member in 1842 of the famous 
 Brook Farm Community, traveled in 
 the Orient, and in 1853 was placed in 
 charge of the Editor’s Easy Chair, a 
 department of Harper Bros.’ periodi- 
 cals. In this he continued until his 
 death. He published a number of vol- 
 umes of essays and critiques and a few 
 novels. 
 
 CURVE, a line which may be cut by a 
 straight line in more points than one; a 
 line in which no three consecutive points 
 lie in the same direction. The doctrine 
 of curves and of the figures and solids 
 generated from them constitutes what 
 is called the higher geometry, and forms 
 one of the most interesting and im- 
 portant branches of mathematical 
 science. Curve lines are distinguished 
 into algebraical or geometrical and 
 transcendental or mechanical. The 
 varieties of curves are innumerable; 
 that is, they have different degrees of 
 bending or curvature. The curves most 
 generally referred to, besides the circle, 
 are the ellipse, the parabola, and the 
 hyperbola, to which may be added the 
 cycloid. 
 
 CUR'ZON, George Nathaniel, Baron 
 Curzon of Kedleston, an English states- 
 man and author, born at Kedleston in 
 1859. He served in parliament from 
 1886 to 1898, in 1891-2 was under- 
 secretary of state for India, and subse- 
 quently under-secretary of state for 
 foreign affairs. In 1898 he was ap- 
 pointed viceroy and governor-general 
 of India, He is the author of several 
 important books on the Orient. 
 
 CUSCO. See Cuzco. 
 
 CUSCO-BARK, the bark of a tree, 
 which comes from Cuzco, in S. America, 
 and is exported from Arequipa. It 
 contains a peculiar alkaloid called cusco- 
 cinchonine, or cusconine, which resem- 
 bles cinchonine in its physical qualities, 
 but differs from it in its chemical prop- 
 erties. When applied medicinally it 
 excites warmth in the system, and is 
 therefore recommended to be given in 
 cold intermittents and low typhoid 
 states of the system. 
 
 CUSH, the eldest son of Ham, and 
 also a country frequently mentioned in 
 the Old Testament, probably in Africa, 
 south of Egypt. In other places it is 
 evident that the name Cush must also 
 be understood as referring to some 
 part of Arabia. 
 
 CUSHING, Caleb, an American diplo- 
 mat and statesman, born in Massa- 
 chusetts in 1800, died in 1879. In 1844 
 he was appointed the first American 
 minister to China. He assisted in the 
 work of the treaty of Nankin and estab- 
 lished the rights of Christian mission- 
 aries in China. Cushing fought in the 
 Mexican war, was attorney-general in 
 Pierce’s cabinet, was counsel for the 
 United States in the Alabama olaims 
 
 case and was latterly minister to Spain. 
 He was one of the most talented of 
 American statesmen. 
 
 CUSHMAN, Charlotte, an American 
 actress, born at Boston in 1816, died, 
 1876. She made her first appearance as 
 an opera singer in 1835 but, on the 
 failure of her voice, took up the drama. 
 She became noted for her fine rendition 
 of roles such as Lady Macbeth, Meg 
 Merrilies, Queen Gertrude, and Ophelia, 
 and for many years was the foremost 
 actress of the American stage. 
 
 CUSP, the point at which two con- 
 verging curves meet and have a com- 
 mon tangent. Such points are numer- 
 ous in architecture in the internal 
 curvings of trefoils, heads of Gothic 
 windows, etc. In the Decorated and 
 
 Architectural Cusps — 1, Henry VII. ’s chapel. 
 2. Monument of Sir James Douglas, Douglas 
 church. 3, Beauchamp chapel, Warwick. 
 
 perpendicular styles the cusps, in 
 addition to leaves, flowers, etc., were 
 frequently ornamented with heads or 
 animals. In the romanesque and 
 norman styles they were often orna- 
 mented with a small cylinder which bore 
 a flower or similar ornament. 
 
 CUS'TARD, a composition of milk or 
 cream and eggs, sweetened with sugar 
 and variously flavored. It may be 
 cooked in the oven or stew-pan. 
 
 CUSTARD-APPLE, a delicious fruit, 
 a native of the West Indies, but cul- 
 tivated in most tropical countries. The 
 fruit is large, and heart-shaped, with a 
 thick, rou^ exterior, and conta-ining a 
 pulp of a sweet flavor, very cooling and 
 agreeable. 
 
 CUSTER, George Armstrong, an 
 American soldier, born in Ohio in 183^, 
 and was killed in the summer of 1876 
 by the Indians of Sitting Bull arid 
 Crazy Horse in the Black Hills in 
 
 George A. Custer. 
 
 Montana. Custer fought during the 
 civil war in the Richmond campaign 
 and was bre vetted major-general of the 
 regular army with the actual rank of 
 lieutenant-colonel in 1866. He led 
 'Terry’s column against the Sioux in the 
 Black Hills in 1876. Coming upon a 
 large encampment on the Little Big 
 Horn River he divided his regiment in 
 
CUSTOM 
 
 cyclamen 
 
 two, ordering one detachment to attack 
 the Indians from the rear while he him- 
 self led the attack in front. The force 
 attacking the rear was driven back and 
 then the Indians turned on Custer’s 
 detachment and massacred him and his 
 entire force. 
 
 CUSTOM, social habit. In law 
 custom has the force of law, and law 
 itself is largely codified custom. Gen- 
 eral custom constitutes the body of 
 common law, and particular custom 
 binds the inhabitants of special districts, 
 occupations, etc. As an example of the 
 force of general custom is the right of the 
 inhabitants of a country to the use of 
 the sea shore. 
 
 CUSTOM-HOUSE, an establishment 
 ■where commodities are entered for im- 
 portation or exportation and the duties, 
 ibounties, etc., on the same are payable. 
 
 CUSTOMS, duties charged upon goods 
 exported from or imported into a 
 country. The revenue derived from 
 this source in the U. States is nearly 
 three hundred million dollars. 
 
 CUTCH, a state in the west of India, 
 lying to the south of Sind, under British 
 protection; area, 6500 sq. miles. Pop. 
 558,415. 
 
 CU'TICLE, the epidermis or outer- 
 most layer of the skin, a thin, pellucid, 
 insensible membrane that covers and 
 defends the true skin. 
 
 CUT'LASS, a short sword used by 
 seamen. A guard over the hand is an 
 advantage. It is, if well understood, a 
 very effectual weapon in close contact; 
 on account of its shortness it can be 
 handled easily, and yet is long enough 
 to protect a skilful swordsman. 
 
 CUT'LERY is a term applied to all 
 cutting instruments made of steel. 
 The finer articles, such as the best 
 scissors, penknives, razors, and lancets 
 are made of cast-steel. Table-knives, 
 plane-irons, and chisels of a very 
 superior kind are made of shear-steel, 
 while common steel is wrought up into 
 ordinary cutlery. 
 
 CUTTACK, a town of Hindustan, in 
 Orissa, on the right bank of the Maha- 
 nuddy, 60 miles from its embouchure 
 and 230 s.s.w. Calcutta, It has little 
 trade, and is known mainly for its 
 beautiful filagree work in gold and 
 silver. Pop. 51,364. — The district of 
 Cuttack has an area of 3517 sq. miles. 
 It is well watered, and rice, pulse, sugar, 
 spices, dye-stuffs, etc., are grown along 
 the coast, which is low and marshy, and 
 wheat and maize in the hilly regions. 
 On the coast salt is extensively manu- 
 factured. Pop. 1,937,671. 
 
 CUTTER, a small vessel resembling a 
 sloop, with one mast, and a straight 
 running (not fixed) bowsprit, the sails 
 being usually a fore-and-aft mainsail, 
 gaff topsail, stay foresail, and jib. 
 
 CUTTLEFISH, any one of m'any 
 mollusks, the species of which are 
 numerous and almost world-wide in dis- 
 tribution. They are characterized by 
 the presence of an ink-bag filled with 
 black or brown “sepia,” a substance 
 which the animal ejects when pursued, 
 so as to conceal itself from view by 
 coloring the waters around it. Cuttle- 
 bone is in reality the calcareous internal 
 shell of these animals. When 
 it is sold under the name of ‘ 
 
 powdered 
 
 'pounce,” 
 
 and is used for polishing, for tooth- 
 powder, and in making molds for deli- 
 cate castings. It was formerly much 
 used in medicine, but is valuable only 
 for its feebly antacid properties. In 
 
 Cuttlefish. 
 
 the tropical seas cuttlefish have been 
 found weighing 2 tons. They are all 
 marine. Many fossil species occur. 
 Several species are found on the Atlantic 
 coast of the U. States. See Squid. 
 
 CUTWORM, any worm or grub which 
 is destructive to cultivated plants, as 
 cabbage, corn, beans, etc. 
 
 CUVIER (kuv-ya), Georges Leopold 
 Chr6tien Fr6d4ric Dagobert, Baron, a 
 distinguished modern naturalist, was 
 born, Aug. 23, 1769, at Montbeliard, 
 then belonging to the duchy of Wiirtem- 
 berg. A natural classification of worms 
 was his first labor. The ability and 
 knowledge shown in this work procured 
 him the friendship of the greatest 
 naturalists of France. He was in-vited 
 to Paris, established at the Central 
 School there, and received by the Insti- 
 tute as a member of the first class. His 
 lectures on natural history, distin- 
 guished not less for the elegance of their 
 style than for profound knowledge and 
 elevated speculation, were attended by 
 all the accomplished society of Paris. 
 In Jan. 1800, be was appointed to the 
 College de France. Under Napoleon, 
 who fully recognized his merits, Cuvier 
 held important offices in the department 
 of public instruction. In 1819 he was 
 received among the forty members of 
 the French Academy. He died at 
 Paris, 13th May, 1832. 
 
 CUZCO, an ancient city in Peru, 
 capital of a department of the same 
 name, is situated in a wide valley about 
 1 1 ,300 feet above sea-level, between the 
 Apurimac and Urubamba. The houses 
 are built of stone, covered with red 
 tiles, and are many of them of the era 
 of the Incas. The ruins of the fortress 
 built by the Incas, a stupenduous 
 specimen of cyclopean architecture, are 
 still to be seen, as well as other massive 
 specimens of ancient Peruvian architec- 
 ture. The inhabitants manufacture 
 sugar, soap, cotton, and woolen goods. 
 
 etc. There is a University, k cathedralj ^ 
 etc. Cuzco is the inost ancient of the 
 Peruvian Cities, and ■was at one time the ^ 
 capital of the empire of the Incas. In 
 1534 it was taken by Pizarro. Pop. , 
 18,730. Area of the department, 
 95,547 sq. miles; pop. 238,445. ^ 
 
 CY'ANIDE, a combination of cyan- i 
 ogen with a metallic base. Cyanide of , 
 potassium is used in photography and 
 to separate gold from ores, especially 
 in treating “tailings.” 
 
 CY'ANIN, the blue coloring matter of 
 certain flowers, as of the ■violet, corn- 
 flower, etc. 
 
 CY'ANITE, a mineral of the garnet 
 family found both massive and in regu- 
 lar crystals. Its prevailing color is blue 
 but of varying shades. It is found only 
 in primitive rocks. 
 
 CYAN'OGEN, a compound radical 
 composed of one atom of carbon and 
 one of nitrogen. It is a gas of a strong 
 and peculiar odor, resembling that of 
 crushed peach leaves, and burning 
 with a rich purple flame. It is unrespir- 
 able and highly poisonous. It unites 
 with oxygen, hydrogen, and most non- 
 metallic elements, and also ■with the 
 metals, forming cyanides. Combined 
 with hydrogen it forms prussic acid. 
 
 CYANOM'ETER, is the name of an 
 instrument invented by Saussure for 
 ascertaining the intensity of color in the 
 sky. It consists of a circular piece of 
 metal or pasteboard, ■with a band 
 divided by radii into fifty-one portions, 
 each of which is painted with a shade of 
 blue, beginning with the deepest, not 
 distinguishable from black, and de- 
 creasing gradually to the lightest, not 
 distinguishable from white. The ob- 
 server holds this up between himself and 
 the sky, turning it gradually round till 
 he finds the tint of the instrument ex- 
 actly corresponding to the tint of the 
 sky. 
 
 CYAN'OTYPE PROCESS, a photo- 
 graphic picture obtained by the use of a 
 cyanide. This process is in very com- 
 mon use by architects and engineers for 
 copying plans, producing an image with 
 white lines upon a blue ground. Sen- 
 sitive paper is made by brushing it over 
 with a solution of ferric oxalate ; it is 
 then exposed under the positive and 
 treated ■with a solution of potassium 
 ferricyanide, by which the image is 
 developed. The color of the ground is 
 deepened by subsequent washing ■with 
 solution of potassium bisulphate. 
 
 Cyclamen. 
 
 CY'CLAMEN, a genus of bulbous 
 plants, nat. order Primulaceae or prim-- 
 roses. The species are low-growing 
 
CYCLE 
 
 CYPRUS 
 
 herbaceous plants, with very handsome 
 flowers. Several of them are favorite 
 spring-flowering green-house plants. 
 The fleshy root-stalks, though acrid, are 
 greedily sought after by swine; hence 
 the vulgar name, sowbread. 
 
 CYCLE is used for every uniformly- 
 returning succession of the same events. 
 On such successions or cycles of years 
 rests all chronology, particularly the 
 calendar. Our common solar year, 
 determined by the periodical return of 
 the sun to the same point in the ecliptic, 
 everybody knows contains fifty-two 
 weeks and one day, and leap-year a day 
 more. Consequently in different years 
 the same day of the year cannot fall 
 upon the same day of the week. And 
 as every fourth year is a leap-year, it 
 will take twenty-eight years (4x7) be- 
 fore the days return to their former 
 order according to the Julian calendar. 
 Such a period is called a solar cycle. 
 The cycle of the moon, or golden num- 
 ber, or Metonic cycle is a period of 
 nineteen years after which the new and 
 full moons return on the same days of 
 the month. 
 
 CYCLING, the art of locomotion by 
 means of a machine consisting of two, 
 three, or sometimes four wheels con- 
 nected by a light framework of steel 
 and having a seat or seats for one or 
 more riders. It is propelled by the 
 pressure of the rider’s feet on two 
 cranks attached to an axle. To the 
 practiced cyclist his cycle is a rapid and 
 easy mode of traveling, and on it he 
 can cover as much as 300 miles in a day. 
 Fully 500 miles have been accomplished 
 by a professional in 24 hours on a pre- 
 
 f )ared track. A remarkable cycling 
 eat was the journey of 12,000 miles by 
 Mr. Thomas Stevens across the conti- 
 nents of America, Europe, and Asia on a 
 bicycle. Commencing in April, 1884, 
 he crossed first America, then Europe, 
 then Asia, finishing at Yokohama in 
 December of the same year. The 
 cycle is now made use of for various 
 practical purposes, in business, military 
 affairs, etc. See Bicycle and Tricycle. 
 
 CYCLONE (si'klQn), a circular or 
 rotatory storm or system of winds, 
 varying from 50 to 500 miles in diameter 
 revolving round a center, which ad- 
 vances at a rate that may be as high as 
 40 miles an hour, and toward which the 
 winds tend. Cyclones of greatest 
 violence occur within the tropics^ and 
 they revolve in opposite directions in the 
 two hemispheres — in the southern with, 
 and in the northern against, the hands 
 of a watch — in consequence of which, 
 and the progression of the center, the 
 strength of the storm in the northern 
 hemisphere is greater on the south of the 
 line of progression and smaller on the 
 north, than it would be if the center 
 were stationary, the case being reversed 
 in the southern hemisphere. 
 
 CYCLOPAEDIA. See Encyclopaedia. 
 CYL'INDER, a geometrical solid 
 which, in popular language, may be 
 described as a long round solid body, 
 terminating in two flat circular surfaces 
 which are equal and parallel. There is 
 a distinction between right cylinders 
 and oblique cylinders. In the first case, 
 the axis, that is, the straight line joining 
 the center of the two opposite bases, 
 
 must be perpendicular, and it may be 
 regarded as described by the revolution 
 of a rectangular parallelogram round 
 one of its longer sides (the axis) ; in the 
 second, the axis must form an angle 
 with the inferior base. — In steam- 
 engines, the cylinder is the chamber in 
 which the force of the steam is exerted 
 on the piston. 
 
 CYLIN'DRICAL LENS, a lens whose 
 surfaces are cylindrical, instead of 
 spherical which is usually the case. 
 A convex cylindrical lens brings the 
 image of a source of hght to a focus in a 
 line instead of in a point. They are 
 usually piano-cylindrical, that is, cylin- 
 drical on one side and flat on the other. 
 
 CYLINEDRICAL VAULTING, in arch, 
 the most ancient mode of vaulting, 
 called also a wagon, barrel, or tunnel 
 roof. It is a plain half-cylinder without 
 either groins or ribs. 
 
 CYM'BALS, musical instruments con- 
 sisting of two hollow basins of brass, 
 which emit a ringing sound when struck 
 together. They are military instru- 
 ments, but are now occasionally used in 
 orchestras. 
 
 CYNICS (sin'iks), a sect of philoso- 
 phers among the ancient Greeks, 
 founded by Antisthedes, a scholar of 
 Socrates, at Athens, about 300 B.c. 
 Their pMosophy was a one-sided de- 
 velopment of the Socratic teaching by 
 Antisthenes and his followers, who 
 looked only to the severer aspect of 
 their master’s doctrines, and valued 
 themselves on their contempt of arts, 
 sciences, riches, and all the social 
 civilization of life. They made virtue to 
 consist in entire self-denial and in- 
 dependence of external circumstances. 
 In time this attitude degenerated into 
 a kind of philosophic savagery and 
 neglect of decency, and the cynics fell 
 into contempt. 
 
 CY'PRESS, a genus of coniferous trees. 
 The common cypress is a dark-colored 
 evergreen with extremely small leaves, 
 entirely covering the branches. I<^ has 
 
 Cypress. 
 
 a quadrangular, or, where the top 
 branches diminish in length, pyramidal 
 shape. Cypress-trees, though of a some- 
 what somber and gloomy appearance, 
 may be used with great effect in shrub- 
 beries and gardens. They are much 
 valued also on account of their wood, 
 which is hard, compact, and very durable, 
 of a reddish color and a pleasant smell. 
 The deciduous cypress of the U. States 
 
 and Mexico, is frequently called the 
 Virginian cypress. Its timber is valu- 
 able, and under water is almost im- 
 perishable. In parts of the U. States 
 this cypress constitutes forests hundreds 
 of miles in extent. 
 
 CY'PRUS, an island lying on the 
 south of Asia Minor, and the most 
 easterly in the Mediterranean. Its 
 greatest length is 145 miles, maximum 
 breadth about 60 miles; area, 3678 sq. 
 miles. The chief features of its surface 
 are two mountain ranges, both stretch- 
 ing east and west, the one running close 
 to the northern shore, and extending 
 through the long north-eastern horn 
 or prolongation of the island, the other 
 and more massive (Mt. Olympus) 
 occupying a great part of the south of 
 the island, and rising in Trobdos to 
 6590 feet. Between them is the bare 
 and mostly uncultivated plain called 
 Messaria. There is a deficiency of 
 water. The climate is in general healthy. 
 The mountains are covered with forests 
 of excellent timber (now under govern- 
 ment supervision), and the island is 
 esteemed one of the richest and most 
 fertile in the Levant. Agriculture, 
 however, is in a very backward state, 
 and locusts sometimes cause great 
 damage. Wheat, barley, cotton, to- 
 bacco, olives, raisins, and carobs are the 
 most important vegetable products. 
 The wine is famous, especially that 
 known as commandery. Silk-worms 
 are reared, and a coarse kind of silk is 
 woven. Salt in large quantities is pro- 
 duced. The minerals are valuable; the 
 copper-mines were of great importance 
 in ancient times (the name copper is 
 derived from that of this island), and 
 are again being worked. Large num- 
 bers of sheep and goats are reared on 
 the extensive pasture lands of the island. 
 The principal towns are Lefkosia or 
 Nicosia, the capital, the only consider- 
 able inland town, and the seaports are 
 Larnaca and Limassol. The chief 
 exports are carobs, wine, and cotton, 
 with cheese, raisins, cocoons, wool, etc. 
 
 After belonging successively to the 
 Phoenicians, Greeks, Egypt, Persia, and 
 again Egypt, Cyprus in 57 b.c. became 
 a Roman province, and passed as such 
 to the eastern division of the empire. 
 In 1191 it was bestowed by Richard of 
 England (who had conquered it when 
 engaged in the third crusade) on Guy de 
 Lusignan, and after his line was extinct 
 it fell into the hands of the Venetians 
 (1489), with whom it remained till it 
 was conquered by the Turks in 1571 
 and annexed to the Ottoman Empire. 
 In 1878 it was ceded to Britain by the 
 convention of Constantinople concluded 
 between England and Turkey, its 
 reversion to Turkey being provided if 
 Russia should give up Batoum and Kars 
 The island has become much more 
 prosperous under British administra- 
 tion, and roads, harbor-works, etc., have 
 been constructed, trees planted, and 
 schools opened. The head of the 
 government is the high commissioner, 
 and there is a legislative council of 
 twelve elected and six official members, 
 nine of the former being Greeks, the 
 others Mohammedans. Pop. 237,022, 
 of whom three-fourths belong to the 
 Greek Church. 
 
CYRUS 
 
 DAGOBA 
 
 CY'RUS, King of Persia, a celebrated 
 conqueror. Cyrus conquered his grand- 
 father (b.c. 559), and thus became king 
 of Media and Persia. In 546 he con- 
 quered Croesus of Lydia, and two years 
 later took Babylon. He also subdued 
 Phoenicia and Palestine, and restored 
 the Jews from their Babylonish cap- 
 tivity. He was slain in battle with a 
 Scythian nation in b.c. 529. 
 
 CZAR (zar or tsarh a title of the 
 Autocrat of all the Russias, not im- 
 probably a corruption of the Roman 
 title Cajsar. It was first adopted in 1579 
 by Ivan II. The feminine of czar is 
 czarina, meaning the Empress of Russia. 
 
 CZAREV'NA, the wife of the czaro- 
 witz. 
 
 CZAROWITZ or CZAREVITCH (za'ro- 
 vits, za're-vich), the title of the eldest 
 son of the Czar of Russia. 
 
 CZECHS (che/is), the most westerly 
 branch of the great Slavonic family of 
 races. The Czechs have their head- 
 quarters in Bohemia, where they 
 arrived in the 5th century. The original 
 of the name is unknown. The total 
 number of the Czechs (including Mora- 
 vians, Slovaks, etc.) is about 7,500,000, 
 nearly sill of whom live in the Austrian 
 
 Empire. The Czechs proper, in Bo- 
 hemia, number about 3,200,000. They 
 speak a Slavonic dialect of great an- 
 tiquity and of high scientific cultivation. 
 The Czech language is distinguished as 
 highly inflectional, with great facility 
 for forming derivatives, frequentatives, 
 inceptives, and diminutives of all kinds. 
 Like the Greek it has a dual number, 
 and its manifold declensions, tenses, and 
 participial formations, with their subtle 
 shades of distinction, give the language 
 a complex grammatical structure. The 
 alphabet consists of forty-two letters, 
 expressing a great variety of sound. 
 In musical value the Czech comes next 
 to Italian. 
 
 CZENSTOCHOWA (chen-sto-^io'va), 
 a town in Russian Poland, government 
 of Petrokow. There is here a convent 
 containing a famous picture of the 
 Virgin, which is visited by vast numbers 
 of pilgrims. Pop. 65,000. 
 
 CZERNOWITZ (cher-no'vits), a city 
 of Austria, chief town of Bukowina, 138 
 miles s.c. of Lemberg. It has manufac- 
 tures of clocks, silver-plate, carriages, 
 toys, etc. Pop. (including suburbs), 
 54,171, a considerable proportion being 
 Jews. 
 
 CZERNY (cher'ni), George, hospodar 
 of Servia, born in the neighborhood of 
 Belgrade about 1770; beheaded by the 
 Turks July, 1817. His true name was 
 George Petrovitch, but he was called 
 Czerny or Kara George, i. e.. Black 
 George. In 1801 he organized an in- 
 surrection of his countrymen against 
 the Turks, took Belgrade, and forced 
 the Porte to recognize him as hospodar of 
 Servia. In 1813, however, he had to 
 retire before a superior force and took 
 refuge in Austria. Returning to his 
 country in 1817 he was taken and put 
 to death. 
 
 CZERNY (clw?r'ni), Karl, pianist and 
 musical composer, born 1791, died 1857. 
 Among his pupils were Liszt, Thalberg, 
 and other distinguished musicians. 
 
 CZOLGOSZ (chol'gotch), Leon, the 
 assassin of President McKinley. He 
 was born at Detroit in 1873 and he was 
 therefore only 28 when he killed McKin- 
 ley. He was a fanatical anarchist, a 
 dreamer, but was said to be sane. He was 
 executed Oct. 29, 1901. (See McKinley, 
 William.) 
 
 13 
 
 D, the fourth letter in our alphabet, 
 representing a dental sound formed by 
 placing the tip of the tongue against 
 the foot of the upper teeth, and then 
 forcing up vocalized breath, or voice, 
 into the mouth, the soft palate being 
 raised to prevent its escape through the 
 nose. T is formed in the same way, 
 except that it is uttered with breath 
 merely and not with voice. As a 
 numeral D represents 500. 
 
 DAB, a fish belonging to the family ot 
 flat-fishes, comprising also the sole, 
 turbot, halibut, plaice, and flounder, the 
 last two being included in the same 
 
 Dab. 
 
 f enus with the dab It is of a pale- 
 rownish color spotted with white on 
 the side which it usually keeps upper- 
 most, and white on the underside, and 
 has rougher scales than the other mem- 
 bers of the same genus. It is preferred 
 to the flounder for the table. 
 
 DACCA, a commissioner’s division of 
 Hindustan in Bengal, at the head of the 
 Bay of Bengal; area, 15,000 sq. miles. 
 It is one of the richest districts in India, 
 and produces such quantities of rice as 
 to be called the granary of Bengal. 
 Pop. 9,844,127, Mohammedans being 
 in a decided majority. Dacca, its 
 capital, is about 150 miles northeast of 
 Calcutta, being free from violent heats, 
 is one of the healthiest and pleasantest 
 stations in Bengal. Pop. 90,542, 
 
 DACE, a small river fish of the family 
 Cybrindise, and resembling the roach 
 but longer and thinner. It is a gregar- 
 
 Dace. 
 
 ious fish swimming in shoals and in- 
 habiting chiefly deep clear streams with 
 a gentle current. It seldom exceeds a 
 pound in weight. 
 
 DACHSHUND (daks'hunt). See Badg- 
 er Dog. 
 
 DACRYO'MA, a disease of the lachry- 
 mal duct of the eye, by which the tears 
 are prevented from passing into the nose 
 and consequently trickle over the cheek. 
 
 DAC'TYI /, in versification, a foot con- 
 sisting of one long followed by two short 
 syllables, or, in English, one accented 
 and two unaccented, as happily. 
 
 DADDY-LONG-LEGS, a name given 
 to a species of the crane-fly, and to a 
 species of the common house spider. 
 
 DA'DO, in classical architecture, the 
 middle part of a pedestal, that is to say, 
 the solid rectangular part between the 
 plinth and the cornice; also called the 
 die. In the interior of houses it is ap- 
 plied to a skirting of wood several feet 
 high round the lower part of the walls, 
 or an imitation of this by paper or 
 painting. 
 
 DAFF'ODIL, the popular name of a 
 plant which is one of the earliest 
 ornaments of woods and meadows. 
 Many varieties of the daffodil are in 
 cultivation, differing chiefly in bulk and 
 in the form of the flower, which is of a 
 bright primrose-yellow color. There are 
 other forms of the name in local or 
 partial use. 
 
 DAGGER, a weapon resembling a 
 short sword, with sharp-pointed blade. 
 In single combat it was wielded in the 
 left hand and used to parry the adver- 
 sary’s blow, and also to despatch him 
 when vanquished. 
 
 DAGHESTAN', a promnce of Russia, 
 in the Caucasus, stretching along the 
 west side of the Caspian Sea; area, 
 11,036 square miles. Pop. 601,987. 
 
 DA'GOBA, in Buddhist countries and 
 those which at one time held the Budd- 
 hist faith, a solid structure erected to 
 contain some sacred relic or relics, as 
 distinguished from the term stupa or 
 
 Ceylonese dagoba. 
 
 tope, which in its specific application 
 is usually restricted to monuments 
 which commemorate some event or 
 mark some spot sacred to the followers 
 of Buddha. Dagobas are built of brick 
 or stone, are circular in form, generally 
 vith a dome-shaped top, and are 
 erected on natural or artificial mounds, 
 while the stone or brick structure itself 
 sometimes rises to an immense height. 
 These dagobas have always been held 
 in the highest veneration by the Budd- 
 hists, and a common mode of testifying 
 
DAGUERRE 
 
 DALMATIC 
 
 their veneration is to walk round them, 
 repeating prayers the while. 
 
 DAGUERRE (dii-gar), Louis Jacques 
 Mand6, was born in 1789 at Cormeilles, 
 dep. Seine-et-Oise. He was a scene- 
 painter at Paris, and as early as 1814 had 
 his attention directed to the subject of 
 photographic pictures on metal, but it 
 was not till July 5, 1833, that Daguerre 
 succeeded in perfecting the process 
 since called daguerreotype. The new 
 process excited the greatest interest. 
 Daguerre was made an officer of the 
 Legion of Honor, and an annuity of 
 6000 francs was settled on him. Da- 
 guerre died July 10, 1851. 
 
 DAGUERREOTYPE PROCESS (da- 
 ger'ro-tip), the original photographic 
 process, consisting in sensitizing a silver 
 plate with the vapor of iodine, and then 
 placing it in a camera obscura previous- 
 ly focussed, and afterward developing 
 the picture by vapor of mercury. It is 
 then fixed by immersion in hyposulphate 
 of sodium. After thorough washing and 
 drying the picture is covered with glass 
 to prevent its being rubbed off. 
 Daguerreotype has now been super.se- 
 ded by the collodion and other processes. 
 
 DAHABIEH (da-ha-be'e), a boat used 
 on the Nile for conveyance of travelers. 
 It varies considerably in size; has one or 
 
 two masts with a very long slanting 
 yard on each mast supporting a triangu- 
 lar sail, and accommodates from two 
 to eight passengers. 
 
 DAHLGREN, John Adolf, an Ameri- 
 can naval officer born in Philadelphia in 
 1809, died in 1870. In 1850 he invented 
 the Dahlgren gun which was found to 
 be very efficient during the civil war. 
 In 1862 he was made chief of the bureau 
 of ordnance, in 1863 became a rear- 
 admiral, commanded the South At- 
 lantic Squadron during the siege of 
 Charleston, silenced Fort Sumter, and 
 performed other valuable services dur- 
 ing the war. After the war he was 
 placed in charge of the U. S. Navy 
 Yard in Washington where he remained 
 until his death. 
 
 DAHLGREN (dal'gren) GUNS, an 
 improved kind of cannon invented by 
 John A. Dahlgren, admiral of the United 
 States navy. Their chief peculiarity 
 consists in their having less metal be- 
 tween the muzzle and the trunnions 
 than ordinary cannons. 
 
 DAHO'MEY, a French possession in 
 
 est .\frica, formerly a negro kingdom, 
 notorious for the savagery of its in- 
 habitants, and especially for the human 
 
 sacrifices or “customs” offered up by 
 the king. It lies between the German 
 colony of Togoland on the west and the 
 British territories of Lagos, etc., on 
 the east, and extends inland for about 
 130 miles with a breadth of about 70. 
 
 It is well wooded and watered, and very 
 fertile. The chief export is palm-oil. 
 The king used to keep up an army of 
 10,000, a number being female warriors. 
 The capital is Abomey, the chief port 
 Whydah. In 1890 the king granted 
 France a protectorate over the coast. 
 A year or two after, hostilities broke out 
 with the French, who defeated the king 
 and have made Dahomey a colonial 
 possession. Pop 600,000. 
 
 DAIRY, the department of a farm 
 which is concerned with the production 
 of milk and its manufacture into butter 
 and cheese. As a rule the soil and 
 climate of a country, and the nearness 
 of suitable markets, determine in a 
 great measure the choice between til- 
 lage and dairy husbandry. For milk 
 dairies cows that yield abundantly are 
 selected, while for butter and cheese 
 dairies the rich quality of the milk is 
 the principal point. Regularity in 
 feeding is very important, and the 
 nature of the food given has a great 
 effect on the quality of the milk. The 
 younger the cow is the richer is her 
 milk, and the second and third years, 
 therefore, are generally the most pro- 
 fitable, both quantity and quality 
 being taken into account. In general, 
 after the seventh or eighth year it is not 
 considered advisable to continue the 
 cow longer in milk, as her milk is fast 
 deteriorating and she consumes more 
 food than a young one. 
 
 DAIS, a platform or raised floor at the 
 upper end of an ancient dining-hall, 
 where the high table stood; also a seat 
 with a high wainscot back, and some- 
 times with a canopy, for those who sat 
 at the high table. The word is also 
 sometimes applied to the high table 
 itself. 
 
 DAISY, the name of a plant which is 
 very familiar, and a great favorite. It 
 never ceases to flower, is found in all 
 pastures and meadows, and ascends 
 nearly to the summit of the highest 
 mountains. Its name is literally day’s 
 eye, being given because it opens and 
 closes its flower with the daylight. 
 
 DAKOITY. See Dacoity. 
 
 DAKOTA, North. See North Dakota. 
 
 DAKOTA, South. See South Dakota. 
 
 DAKOTA INDIANS. See Sioux. 
 
 DALHOUSIE (dal-ho'zi), James An- 
 drew Brown Ramsay, tenth Earl and 
 first Marquis of, born in 1812; British 
 statesman. After filling the offices of 
 vice-president (1843), and president of 
 the board of trade (1844), he was 
 appointed governor-general of India 
 (1847). In this post he showed high 
 administrative talent, establishing rail- 
 way lines, telegraphs, irrigation works, 
 etc., on a vast scale. He greatly ex- 
 tended the British empire in India, 
 annexing the Punjab, Oude, Berar, 
 and other native states, as well as 
 Pegu in Burmah. In 1849 he was made 
 a marquis, and obtained the thanks of 
 both houses of parliament. He out- 
 stayed his term of office to give the 
 government the aid of his experience 
 
 in the annexation of Oude; and when 
 he returned to Europe in 1856 it was 
 with a constitution so completely shat- 
 tered that he was never able to appear 
 
 again in public life, and died on 19th 
 December, 1860. As he left no direct 
 male issue, his marquisate expired with 
 him. 
 
 DALLAS, a city of Texas, county seat 
 of Dallas County, on the five principal 
 railroads running through Texas. The 
 city has large grain and manufacturing 
 interests, and is one of the largest dis- 
 tributing centers of agricultural in- 
 struments in the United States. It has 
 a Roman Catholic and a Protestant 
 Episcopal Cathedral, a $300,000 court 
 house, a hospital, a handsome con- 
 federate monument and many beauti- 
 ful residences. The population is 
 90,000. 
 
 DALLAS, George Mifflin, an Ameri- 
 can statesman, born in Philadelphia in 
 1792, died 1864. He accompanied 
 Gallatin on his mission to St. Peters- 
 burg, studied law, was elected to the 
 United States senate in 1831, was made 
 minister to Russia in 1837, vice-presi- 
 dent of the United States from 1845 to 
 1849, and minister to Britain from 
 1856 to 1861. Dallas’s forte lay in his 
 talent as a diplomat. 
 
 DALLES (dalz), the name given to 
 various rapids and cataracts in North 
 America. The Great Dalles of the 
 Columbia are about 200 miles from its 
 mouth, where the river is compressed 
 by lofty basaltic rocks into a roaring 
 torrent about 58 yards in width; the 
 Dalles of the St. Louis are a series of 
 cataracts near Duluth, Minnesota. 
 
 DALMA'TIA, a province of Austria, 
 with the title of kingdom, the most 
 southern portion of the Austrian do- 
 minions. It consists of a long narrow 
 triangular tract of mountainous country 
 and a number of large islands along 
 the northeast coast of the Adriatic Sea, 
 and bounded n. by Croatia, and n.e. by 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina. In breadth 
 it is very limited, not exceeding 40 
 miles in any part; its whole area is 
 4940 English square miles. Pop. 527,- 
 426. 
 
 DALMATIAN DOG, a variety of dog, 
 called also the Danish, spotted, or 
 coach dog. See Coach-dog. 
 
 DALMATTC, or DALMATIC A, an 
 ecclesiastical vestinent worn by the dea- 
 con at mass, so called bec.ause it was an 
 
DALTON 
 
 DAMIENS 
 
 imitation of Dalmatian costume. It 
 is worn also by bishops under the 
 chasuble. It is a long robe with large 
 full sleeves with black or red longitu- 
 
 DalmaUca, cathedral of Chartres (twelfth 
 century). 
 
 dinal stripes and partially unclosed 
 sides. A similar robe was worn by 
 kings and emperors at high solemnities, 
 and continues still to be worn by the 
 sovereigns of England on such occasions. 
 
 DALTON, John, an English chemist 
 and natural philosopher, born in 1766. 
 After teaching for twelve years at 
 Kendal, in 1793 his reputation as a 
 mathematician won for him the chair 
 of mathematics at the New College, 
 Manchester. Here he continued to 
 reside (though the college was removed 
 in 1799L publishing from year to year 
 valuable essays and papers on scientific 
 subjects, while he also lectured in 
 London, and visited Paris. In 1808 he 
 announced (New System of Chemical 
 Philosophy) his atomic theory of chemi- 
 cal action, the discovery of which spread 
 his fame over Europe. Various academ- 
 ic and other honors were bestowed 
 upon him, and in 1833 he received a 
 pension of $750, afterward increased 
 to $1500. He died July 27, 1844. 
 
 DALY, John Augustin, an American 
 theatrical manager, born in North Caro- 
 lina in 1838, died in 1899. In 1869 he 
 opened the Fifth Avenue Theater in 
 New York in which appeared Fanny 
 Davenport, Mrs. Scott Siddons, E. L. 
 Davenport, Clara Morris and others. 
 In 1879, after a visit to Europe, he 
 opened Daly’s Theater on Broadway. 
 He produced many of the best of 
 American plays and was one of the 
 most efficient managers in the develop- 
 ment of the American stage. 
 
 DAM, a bank or construction of stone, 
 earth, or wood across a stream for the 
 purpose of keeping back the current to 
 give it increased head, for holding back 
 supplies of water, for flooding lands, or 
 for rendering the stream above the 
 dam navigable by increased depth. Its 
 material and construction will depend on 
 its situation and the amount of pressure 
 it has to bear. For streams which are 
 broad and deep strong materials are 
 required, usually stone masonry bound 
 in hydraulic cement and a strong frame- 
 work of timber. The common forms 
 of a dam are either a straight line cross- 
 ing the stream transversely, or one or 
 two straight lines traversing it diagon- 
 ally, or an arc with its convex side to- 
 
 ward the current. See Embankment 
 and Reservoir. 
 
 DAM, Tinker’s, a small bank of clay 
 or dough which a tinker places around 
 his solder until it sets. The phrase 
 is used facetiously, as in the expression, 
 “not to give a tinker’s dam,” deriving 
 its force from the insignificance of the 
 instrument itself and its worthlessness 
 after it has served its purpose. 
 
 DAM'AGES, in law, pecuniary com- 
 pensation paid to a person for loss or 
 injury sustained by him through the 
 fault of another. It is not necessary 
 that the act should have been a fraudu- 
 lent one; it is enough that it be illegal, 
 unwarrantable, or malicious. If, how- 
 ever, a person has suffered a loss through 
 fraud or delict on the part of another, 
 that person has not only a claim to 
 ordinary damages, but may also claim 
 remote or consequential damages, and 
 may estimate the amount of the loss he 
 has sustained not at its real value, but 
 at the imaginary value which he him- 
 self may put upon it, subject, however, 
 to the modification of a judge or a jury. 
 In other cases the damages cover only 
 the loss sustained estimated at its real 
 value, together with the expenses in- 
 curred in obtaining damages. 
 
 DAMAN (da-man'), a seaport, Hin- 
 dustan, at the mouth of the Gulf of Cam- 
 bay, 100 miles north from Bombay. It 
 belongs to the Portuguese; area, 82 sq. 
 miles; pop. 49,084. 
 
 DAMAS'CUS, a celebrated city, capi- 
 tal of the Turkish vilayet of Syria, sup- 
 posed to be the most ancient city in the 
 
 ornamented vdth trees and spouting 
 fountains, the rooms adorned with 
 arabesques and filled with splendid 
 furniture. Damascus is an important 
 emporium of trade in European manu- 
 factures; it is also a place of consider- 
 able manufacturing industry in silk, 
 damasks, cotton and other fabrics, to- 
 bacco, glass, soap, etc. Saddles, fine 
 cabinet-work, and elegant jewelry are 
 well made; but the manufacture of the 
 famous Damascus blades no longer 
 exists. It is one of the holy moslem 
 cities, and continues to be the most 
 thoroughly oriental in its features of 
 any city. Of its origin nothing certain 
 is known; but it is mentioned as a 
 place of some note in Gen. xiv. 15. 
 After being held by the Israelites, 
 
 I Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, 
 I and Arabs, it passed in 1516 to the 
 Turks. It now has gas-works and tram- 
 ways, and railways connect it with 
 Beyrout and the Hauran. Pop. 215,000. 
 
 DAMASCUS-STEEL, a kind of steel 
 originally made in Damascus and the 
 East, greatly valued in the making of 
 swords for its hardness of edge and 
 flexibility. It is a laminated metal of 
 pure iron and steel of peculiar quality, 
 carbon being present in excess of ordi- 
 nary proportions, produced by careful 
 heating, laborious forging, doubling, 
 and twisting. 
 
 DAM'ASK, the name given to textile 
 fabrics of various materials, ornamented 
 I with raised figures of flowers, landscapes, 
 and other forms, being the richest species 
 1 of ornamental weaving, tapestry ex- 
 
 world. It is beautifully situated on a 
 plain which is covered with gardens and 
 orchards and watered by the Barrada. 
 The appearance of the city, as it first 
 opens on the view, has been rapturously 
 spoken of by all travelers; but the 
 streets are narrow, crooked, and in parts 
 dilapidated, and, except in the wealthy 
 Moslem quarter, the houses are low, 
 with flat-arched doors and accumula- 
 tions of filth before the entrance. With- 
 in, however, there is often a singular con- 
 i trast, in courts paved with marble and 
 
 cepted. Damask is very commonly 
 made in linen for table napery. 
 
 DAMASKEEN'ING, the ornamenting 
 of iron and steel with designs produced 
 by inlaying or incrusting with another 
 metal, as gold, silver, etc., by etching, 
 and the like. 
 
 DAMIENS (da-me-an), Robert Fran- 
 cois, notorious for his attempt to assas- 
 sinate Louis XV., born in 1715 in the 
 village of Tieulloy. On Jan. 5, 1757, as 
 Louis XV. was getting into his carriage 
 
 to return from Versailles to Trianon, he 
 
 < 
 
DAMOCLES 
 
 DANIELL’S BATTERY 
 
 / 
 
 was stabbed by Damiens in the right 
 side. The wound was of a trifling na- 
 ture, and Damiens, who made no at- 
 tempt to escape, declared he never in- 
 tended to kilt the king. Damiens was 
 condemned and torn in quarters by 
 horses March 28, 1757, on the Place de 
 Gr^ve at Paris. 
 
 DAM'OCLES, a native of Syracuse, 
 and one of the courtiers and flatterers 
 of the tyrant Dionysius the elder. One 
 day he was extolling the grandeur and 
 happiness of Dionysius, whereupon the 
 latter invited him to a magnificent 
 banquet, where he would be regaled 
 with regal fare and regal honors. In the 
 midst of the entertainment, however. 
 Damocles happened to look upward, 
 and perceived with dismay a naked 
 sword suspended over his head by a 
 single hair, and was thus taught to 
 form a better estimate of royal honors. 
 
 DAMON AND PYTHIAS, two illus- 
 trious Syracusans, celebrated as models 
 of constant friendship. Pythias had 
 been unjustly condemned to death by 
 Dionysius the younger, tyrant of Sicily; 
 but, having to leave Syracuse to arrange 
 his affairs, his friend Damon was taken 
 as a pledge that Pythias should return 
 on the day fixed. Pythias, however, 
 being unexpectedly detained, had great 
 difficulty in reaching Syracuse in time 
 to save Damon being executed in his 
 place; and Dionysius was so affected by 
 this proof of their friendship that he 
 pardoned Pythias. 
 
 DAMPERS, certain movable parts in 
 the internal frame of a pianoforte, 
 which, whenever the finger leaves the 
 key, descend upon the wires and in- 
 stantly check the vibration. — Dampers 
 also denote the iron plates used to 
 regulate the draft of flues. 
 
 DAMPS, noxious exhalations issuing 
 from the earth, and deleterious or fatal 
 to animal life. Damps exist in wells 
 which continue long covered and not 
 used, and in mines and coal-pits; and 
 sometimes they issue from the old 
 lavas of volcanoes. These damps are 
 distinguished by miners under the 
 names of choke-damp, consisting chiefly 
 of carbonic acid gas, which instantly 
 suffocates; and fire-damp, consisting 
 chiefly of light carburetted hydrogen, 
 so called from its tendency to explode. 
 
 DAM'ROSCH, Leopold, a German- 
 American composer and conductor, 
 born in Pasen, Prussia, in 1832, died 
 in 1885. In 1855 he began his musical 
 career as a violinist, and became promi- 
 nent in Germany as a composer and 
 director. In 1871 he removed to New 
 York as director of the Arion Society. 
 In 1884 he established German opera 
 in New York and in other ways aided 
 musical growth in the U. States. 
 
 DAM'ROSCH, Walter Johannes, an 
 American musician, son of Leopold 
 Damrosch, born in Breslau, Prussia, in 
 1862, and was brought to the U. S. by 
 his parents in 1871. He has been con- 
 duc^r of several important musical or- 
 ganizations and opera performances and 
 n 1896 produced the Scarlet Letter, an 
 'pera founded on Hawthorne’s novel. 
 
 DAM'SON, a variety of the common 
 plum. The fruit is rather small and 
 oval, and its numerous sub-varieties are 
 of different colors: black, bluish, dark 
 
 purple, yellow, etc. The damson (cur- 
 ruption of Damascene), as its. name 
 imports, is from Damascus. 
 
 DAN, one of the sons of Jacob by his 
 concubine Bilhah. At the time of the 
 exodus the Danites numbered 62,700 
 adult males, being then the second tribe 
 in point of numbers. The territory 
 assigned them in Canaan lay on the 
 coast, in the immediate neighborhood 
 of the hardy and well-equipped Philis- 
 tines, and the Danites were pushed 
 back into a more mountainous region. 
 The tribe also possessed an isolated 
 portion of territory in the extreme north 
 of Canaan, containing the town of 
 Laish or Dan, which gave rise to the 
 proverbial expression “from Dan to 
 Beersheba.” The most notable person 
 connected with the tribe was Samson. 
 
 DA'NA, Charles Anderson, an Ameri- 
 can journalist born in New Hampshire 
 in 1819, died in 1897. He was one of 
 the socialists of the Brook Farm experi- 
 ment and from 1847 to 1862 was con- 
 nected with the New York Tribune. 
 In 1863-4 he was assistant secretary 
 of war, and after the war became the 
 proprietor of the New York Sun, which 
 he remained until his death. 
 
 DANA, James Dwight, a noted Ameri- 
 can geologist, born in New York in 1813, 
 died in 1895. His principal work was 
 done as a member of the Wilkes Ex- 
 ploring Expedition (U. States govern- 
 ment) the results of which were pub- 
 lished by the government in 1846, 1849, 
 and 1852. From 1846 he was the editor 
 of the American Journal of Science. 
 Dana was honored by foreign scientific 
 societies perhaps more than any other 
 American. Since 1850 he had been 
 professor of natural science at Yale. 
 
 DANA, Richard Henry, an American 
 writer and poet, born in Massachusetts 
 in 1787, died 1879. In 1815 he was 
 made editor of the North American 
 Review, and later worked in conjunc- 
 tion with Bryant in a journalistic ven- 
 ture called the Idle Fellow. His col- 
 lected works were published in 1850. 
 
 DANA, Richard Henry, an American 
 writer, son of Richard Henry Dana, 
 the poet. He was born in Massachusetts 
 in 1815, and died in 1882. He con- 
 tributed to periodicals and published 
 several works dealing with travel and 
 nautical life. He left no lasting work. 
 
 DAN'AE, in Greek mythology, daugh- 
 ter of Acrisius, king of Argos. She was 
 shut up by her father in a brazen tower, 
 but Zeus, inflamed with passion for her, 
 transformed himself into a golden 
 shower, and descended through the 
 apertures of the roof into her embraces. 
 Set adrift on the waves by her father, 
 she reached safely one of the Cyclades, 
 where her child, Perseus, was brought 
 up. 
 
 DAN'BURY, a town in Connecticut, 
 about 53 miles n.n.e. of New York. 
 It has notable manufactures of hats, 
 shirts, and sewing-machines. Pop. 
 18,140. 
 
 DANCE OF DEATH. See Death, 
 Dance of. 
 
 DANCING, a studied and rhythmical 
 movement of the limbs generally ad- 
 justed to the measure of a tune. In 
 ancient times it was generally an ex- 
 pression of religious, patriotic, or mili- 
 
 tary feeling, as in the case of the dance 
 of David before the ark, the choric 
 dances, or the Pyrrhic dange of the 
 Greeks. The Romans, however, like 
 the orientals, had their dancing done by 
 hired slaves. This solemn character of 
 the dance has declined with the progress 
 of refinement and civilization, and it is 
 now nothing more than an elegant social 
 amusement and an agreeable spectacle 
 at public entertainments. 
 
 DANCING FAUN, a bronze sculpture 
 found in Pompeii in 1853, which has 
 given the name to the ruined house in 
 which it was discovered. 
 
 DANCING GIRLS, the Nautch girls 
 of India. 
 
 DANCING MANIA, a form of hysteria 
 in medieval Europe, in which men and 
 women, apparently crazed, danced in 
 the streets of Aix-la-Chapelle, until 
 they fell exhausted. This frenzy 
 was of a religious order and spread over 
 many cities of Europe. The mania 
 seemed to yield to the exorcisms of the 
 priests. 
 
 DANDELI'ON, a plant indigenous to 
 Europe, but now also common in 
 America. The leaves are all radical, 
 and runcinate or jagged on the margin. 
 From this circumstance has been de- 
 rived its French name dent de lion 
 (lion’s tooth), of which the English 
 appellation is a corruption. The stems 
 are hollow and have one large bright- 
 yellow flower and a tapering milky 
 perennial root, which acts as an aperient 
 and tonic, and is much esteemed in 
 affections of the liver. The whole 
 plant is full of a milky and bitter juice. 
 The seed of the plant is furnished with 
 a white pappus, and is transported far 
 and wide by the wind. 
 
 DANE'GELT, Dane'geld (that is, 
 “Dane tax’’), in English history, an 
 annual tax laid on the English nation 
 for maintaining forces to oppose the 
 Danes, or to furnish tribute to procure 
 peace. It was at first one shilling, and 
 ultimately seven, for every hide of land, 
 except such as belonged to the church, 
 When the Danes became masters of 
 England the danegelt was a tax levied 
 by the Danish princes on every hide 
 of land owned by the Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 DAN'IEL, the prophet, a contem- 
 porary of Ezekiel, was born of a dis- 
 tinguished Hebrew family. In hia 
 youth, B.c. 605, he was carried captive 
 to Babylon, and educated in the Baby- 
 lonish court for the service of King 
 Nebuchadnezzar. Thrown into the 
 lions’ den for conscientiously refusing 
 to obey the king he was miraculously 
 preserved, and finally made prime- 
 minister in the court of the Persian 
 king Darius. He ranks with what are 
 called the “greater prophets.” The 
 book of the Old Testament which bears 
 his name is divided into a historical and 
 a prophetic part. Modern criticism 
 generally regards it as written during 
 the oppression of the Jews under 
 Antiochus, about 170 B.c. It is partly 
 in Chaldee. 
 
 DANIELL’S BATTERY, a galvanic 
 battery the cells of which were originally 
 constructed in the following way. A 
 tall cylindrical copper vessel was nearly 
 filled with saturated solution of sulphate 
 of copper. A rod of amalgamated zinc 
 
DANITES 
 
 DANUBE 
 
 was inclosed in a skin or bladder, which 
 was filled with dilute sulphuric acid, 
 and was suspended in the copper cylin- 
 der. When the zinc rod is connected 
 by a wire with the copper vessel, which 
 itself forms one of the plates of the 
 battery, the current passes, according 
 to common phraseology, from the 
 copper through the wire to the zinc. 
 Instead of the bladder or skin porous 
 earthenware pots are now employed to 
 contain the dilute sulphuric acid in 
 which the zinc is immersed. In im- 
 proved modifications of Daniell’s bat- 
 tery the most important change is that 
 of substituting for the dilute sulphuric 
 acid that surrounds the zinc, solution of 
 sulphate of zinc, and in this case the 
 zinc is not amalgamated. By doing 
 away with the sulphuric acid local waste 
 of the zinc is to a great extent prevented. 
 
 Daniell’s Battery.— Section of Cell. 
 
 0, Outer copper cell, b, Solution of sulphate of 
 copper. D, Shelf for sulphate uf. copper. £, Pofous 
 cell. A, Sulphuric acid. z. Ziuc. 
 
 and the solution of sulphate of zinc is 
 used instead of pure water on account 
 of the very high resistance of water 
 impregnated with salts. 
 
 DAN'ITES, the band of assassins and 
 “avengers on the gentiles” which was 
 organized among the Mormons in 1837; 
 also called “the destroying angels.” 
 Many crimes were attributed to the 
 Danites, whose existence, by the way, 
 has always been denied by the Mormons 
 themselves. 
 
 DAN'NAT, William T., an American 
 painter, born in New York in 1853. 
 He became a resident of Paris, a teacher 
 in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, and has 
 exhibited at numerous European ex- 
 hibitions. Dannat has lived contin- 
 uously in Europe since boyhood and 
 is an American only in name. 
 
 DANTE ALIGHIERI (dan'ta a-le- 
 ge-a're), the greatest of Italian poets, 
 was born in Florence about the end of 
 May, 1265. He seems to have been 
 quite a boy, no more than nine years of 
 age, when he first saw Beatrice Portinari 
 and the love she awakened in him he has 
 described in that record of his early 
 years, the Vita Nuova, as well as in his 
 later great work, the Divina Commedia, 
 in terms which make it hard to distin- 
 guish the real personality of Beatrice 
 from some ideal power of beauty and 
 virtue of which she is to Dante the 
 symbol. Their actual lives at least went 
 far enough apart, Beatrice marrying a 
 noble Florentine, Simone Bardi, in 
 1287, and dying three years afterward- 
 while the year following Dante marfiea 
 Gemma dei Donati, by whom he had 
 seven children. He died Sept., 1321. 
 
 His great poem, the Divina Commedia 
 (Divine Comedy), is divided into three 
 parts, entitled Hell, Purgatory, and 
 Paradise. The poet dreams that he has 
 wandered into a dusky forest, when the 
 
 Dante. 
 
 shade of Virgil appears and offers to 
 conduct him through hell and purgatory. 
 Further the pagan poet may not go, 
 but Beatrice herself shall lead him 
 through paradise. The journey through 
 hell is first described, and the imagina- 
 tive power with which the distorted 
 characters of the guilty and the punish- 
 ments laid upon them are brought before 
 us ; the impressive pathos of these short 
 histories — often compressed in Dante’s 
 severe style into a couple of lines — of 
 Pope and Ghibelline, Italian lord and 
 lady; the passionate depth of charac- 
 terization, the subtle insight and intense 
 faith, make up a whole which for sig- 
 nificance and completeness has perhaps 
 no rival in the work of any one man. 
 From hell the poet, still in the company 
 of Virgil, ascends to purgatory, where 
 the scenes are still mostly of the same 
 kind though the punishments are only 
 temporary. In the earthly paradise 
 Dante beholds Beatrice in a scene of 
 surpassing magnificence, ascends with 
 her into the celestial paradise, and after 
 roaming over seven spheres reaches the 
 eighth, where he beholds the “glorious 
 company which surrounds the trium- 
 phant Redeemer.” In the ninth Dante 
 feels himself in presence of the divine 
 essence, and sees the souls of the blessed 
 on thrones in a circle of infinite mag- 
 nitude. The Diety himself, in the tenth 
 he cannot see for excess of light. 
 
 DANTON (dan-ton), Georges Jacques, 
 an advocate by profession, and one of 
 the great figures in the French Revolu- 
 tion, born 1759. His colossal stature, 
 athletic frame, and powerful voice con- 
 tributed not a little, together with his 
 intellectual gifts and audacity, to win 
 him a prominent position among the 
 revolutionaries. He founded the club 
 of the Cordeliers, was foremost in organ- 
 izing and conducting the attack on the 
 Tuileries, Aug. 10, 1792, and as a reward 
 for such services was made minister of 
 justice and a member of the provisional 
 executive council. When the advance 
 of the Prussian army spread consterna- 
 tion among the members of the govern- 
 ment Danton alone preserved his 
 courage, and in a celebrated speech 
 summoned all Frenchmen capable of 
 bearing arms to march against the 
 enemy. He voted for the capital pun- 
 
 ishment of all returning aristocrats, but 
 undertook the defense of religious 
 worship, and along with Robespierre 
 brought Hubert and the worshipers of 
 the goddess Reason to the scaffold. 
 But the rivalry of the two great leaders 
 had now reached a point when one must 
 succumb, and the crafty Robespierre 
 succeeded in having Danton denounced 
 and thrown into prison, 31st March, 
 1794. Five days afterward he was con- 
 demned by the revolutionary tribunal 
 as an accomplice in a conspiracy for the 
 restoration of monarchy, and executed 
 the same day. 
 
 DANTZIG, or DANZIG (dant'zi/i), a 
 fortified town and port, Prussia, capital 
 of the province of West Prussia, 253 
 miles n.e. Berlin, on the left bank of the 
 west arm of the Vistula, about 3 miles 
 above its mouth in the Baltic, and inter- 
 
 sected by the Mottlau, which here 
 divides into several arms. It is one of 
 the most important seaports in the 
 Prussian monarchy. The prosperity of 
 the town is founded chiefly on its transit 
 trade, particularly in wheat from Poland. 
 Thpre is also a considerable trade in 
 amber. Pop. 140,539. 
 
 DAN'UBE, a celebrated river of 
 Europe, originates in two small streams 
 rising in the Schwarzwald, or Black 
 Forest, in Baden, and uniting at Donau- 
 eschingen. The direct distance from 
 source to mouth of the Danube is about 
 1000 miles, and its total length, includ- 
 ing windings, about 1670 miles. From 
 its source the Danube flows in a north- 
 easterly direction to Ulm, in Wurtem- 
 berg, where it becomes navigable for 
 vessels of 100 tons; thence to Ratisbon 
 in Bavaria, where it becomes navigable 
 for steamers. Here it turns in a south- 
 easterly direction, entering Austria at 
 Passau, passing Vienna and Budapest, 
 above which latter town it suddenly 
 turns due south, holding this direction 
 till it is joined by the Drave, after which 
 it runs s.s.e. and enters Servia at Bel- 
 grade. Continuing its general course 
 eastward it forms for a long distance the 
 boundary line between Roumania and 
 Bulgaria. At Silistria it once more 
 turns northward, and flowing between 
 Roumania and Bessarabia falls into the 
 Black Sea by three different outlets. 
 In the upper part of its course, through 
 Wiirtemberg and Bavaria, the Danube 
 flows through some of the most fertile 
 and populous districts of its basin. Its 
 principal affluents here are the Iser and 
 Lech. In Austria it passes through a 
 succession of picturesque scenery till 
 past Vienna, the land on both sides being 
 
DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES 
 
 DARIUS 
 
 well peopled and cultivated. The 
 principal affluents are the March, or 
 Morawa, and the Ens. After passing 
 through what is called the Carpathian 
 Gate, at Pressburg, where it enters 
 Hungary, it gives off a number of 
 branches, forming a labyrinth of islands 
 known as Schtitten, but on emerging 
 it flows uninterruptedly southward 
 through wide plains interspersed with 
 pools, marshes, and sandy wastes. 
 The principal affluents here are the Save, 
 the Drave, and the Theiss. Sixty 
 miles before entering Roumania the river 
 passes through a succession of rapids or 
 cataracts which it has made in cutting 
 a passage for itself through the cross 
 chain of hills which connect the Carpa- 
 thian Mountains with the Alps. The 
 
 last of these cataracts, at Old Orsova, 
 is called the Iron Gate. The lower 
 course of the Danube, in Roumania and 
 Bulgaria, is through a flat and marshy 
 tract, fertile but badly cultivated and 
 thinly peopled. In this part it increases 
 its width from 1400 to 2100 yards, and 
 latterly forms an expanse like a sea, 
 and is studded with islands. Of the 
 three outlets the Sulina Mouth is the 
 deepest, and is usually chosen by ships 
 bound up the river. The Danube is 
 navigable for steamers up to Regens- 
 burg (Ratisbon), nearly 1500 miles from 
 its mouth. Some of its tributaries, such 
 as the Save, the Theiss, and the Drave, 
 are also navigable, so that the water 
 system of the Danube may be estimated 
 as admitting of about 2500 miles of 
 steam navigation. 
 
 DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. See 
 Roumania. 
 
 DAN'VERS, a town including several 
 villages, in Essex Co., Mass., four miles 
 northwest of Salem; on the Boston and 
 Maine Railroad. The manufactures in- 
 clude shoes, leather, morocco, brick, 
 motor vehicles, electric lamps, iron, 
 rubber, soap, etc. Pop. 10,100. 
 
 DAN'VILLE, a city and county seat 
 of Vermilion Co., 111., 125 miles south of 
 Chicago; on the Vermilion River, and on 
 the Wabash, the Chicago and Eastern 
 
 Illinois, and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, 
 Chicago and Saint Louis railroads. It 
 has coal-mining interests, foundries, 
 and manufactures of woolen goods, 
 glass,, and bricks. Pop. 1900, 18,354. 
 
 DANVILLE, a borough and county- 
 seat of Montour co.. Pa., on the north 
 branch of the Susquehanna River, 12 
 miles from its intersection with the West 
 Branch, and on the Pennsylvania, the 
 Lackawanna, and the Philadelphia and 
 Reading railroads. Pop. 10,100. 
 
 DANVILLE, a city in Pittsylvania 
 CO., Va., 141 miles southwest of Rich- 
 mond; on the Dan River and on railroads 
 of the Southern Railway System. It was 
 for a short time the seat of government 
 of the Southern Confederacy during its 
 last days. Pop. 17,424. 
 
 DAPH'NE, the Greek name for laurel, 
 in Greek mythology a nymph beloved 
 by Apollo. Deaf to the suit of the 
 god, and fleeing from him, she besought 
 Zeus to protect her. Her prayer was 
 heard, and at the moment Apollo was 
 about to encircle her in his arms she was 
 changed into a laurel, a tree thence- 
 forth consecrated to the god. 
 
 DARBHAN'GAH, a town of Hindus- 
 tan, in the Patna division of Behar, in a 
 low-lying district subject to inundation; 
 it is the residence of the Maharaja of 
 Darbhangah, who has a fine new palace 
 here. Pop. 66,244. 
 
 DAR'DANELLES (-nelz), a narrow 
 channel which connects the Sea of 
 Marmora with the Grecian Archipelago, 
 and at this particular point separates 
 Europe from Asia. It is about 40 miles 
 in length, and varies in breadth from 
 1 to 4 miles. On both shores there are 
 numerous forts and batteries. Two 
 castles on the opposite shores occupy 
 the sites of ancient Sestos and Abydos, 
 and recall the story of Hero and Lean- 
 der. By treaty made in 1841 between 
 the five great powers and Turkey, con- 
 firmed by the Peace of Paris in 1856, 
 it is settled that no non-Turkish man-of 
 war shall pass the strait without the 
 express permission of the Turkish 
 government. 
 
 DARFUR', or DARFOOR', a consider- 
 able region of Central Africa, forming a 
 large oasis in the s.e. corner of the Great 
 Desert. The inhabitants are Moham- 
 medans and negroes, and semi-barbar- 
 ous. Their occupation is chiefly agri- 
 culture, and cattle form their principal 
 wealth. The commerce with Egypt is 
 extensive, and is carried on entirely by 
 the African system of caravans. It 
 exports slaves, ivory, ostrich feathers, 
 gum, copper, etc., and receives in ex- 
 change sugar, cotton cloth, hardware, 
 fire-arms, etc. Unlimited polygamy is 
 allowed, and the morals and manners 
 of the natives are of a very degraded 
 kind. Darfur is part of the Egyptian 
 Soudan. Pop. estimated at 4,000,000. 
 
 DARIC, an ancient Persian gold coin 
 of Darius, weighing about 129 grains, 
 value about $6.00, and bearing on one 
 
 Golden daric, from British museum. 
 
 side the figure of an archer. In later 
 times the name has been applied to a 
 silver coin having the figure of an archer. 
 
 DA'RIEN, Gulf of, a gulf of the Carib- 
 bean Sea at the north extremity of South 
 America, between the Isthmus of Pana- 
 ma and the mainland. 
 
 DARIEN, Isthmus of, often used as 
 synonymous with the Isthmus of Pana- 
 ma, but more strictly applied to the 
 neck of land between the Gulf of Darien 
 and the Pacific. 
 
 DARIEN SCHEME, a celebrated finan- 
 cial project, conceived and set afloat by 
 William Paterson, a Scotchman, toward 
 the close of the 17th century. He pro- 
 posed to form an emporium on each 
 side of the Isthmus of Darien or Pana- 
 ma for the trade of the opposite con- 
 tinents. The settlement thus formed 
 would become the entrepot for an im- 
 mense exchange between the manufac- 
 tures of Europe and the produce of 
 South America and Asia. In 1698 five 
 large vessels laden with stores, etc , and 
 with 1200 intending colonists, sailed for 
 the Isthmus of Darien. The settlement 
 was found in a suitable position, and 
 the colonists fortified a secure and 
 capacious harbor; but nothing else had 
 been rightly calculated. For eight 
 months the colony bore up, but at the 
 end of that time the survivors were com- 
 pelled by disease and famine to abandon 
 their settlement and return to Europe. 
 Two of the ships were lost on the way 
 home, and only about thirty, including 
 Paterson, reached Scotland. 
 
 DARI'US, the name of several Persian 
 kings. (1) Darius I., fourth king of 
 Persia, son of Hystaspes, a prince of 
 the royal family of the Aclijemenidse, 
 attained the throne in n.c. 521. His 
 reign was distinguished by many im- 
 portant events, died b.c. 485. — (2) 
 Darius II , ascended the throne in 123, 
 and died in 404. His son Cyrus is 
 familiar to us through Xenophon’s Ana- 
 basis. — (3) Darius III., grandson of 
 Darius IR, was the twelfth and last king 
 
DARJEELING 
 
 DATE 
 
 of Persia. He ascended the throne 
 B.c. 336, died 330 b.c. 
 
 DARJEEL'ING, a district of India, 
 in the extreme north of the lieutenant- 
 governorship of Bengal, division of 
 Cooch-Behar; area, 1234 sq. miles. 
 Tea, coffee, cinchona, and cotton are 
 cultivated more or less, and the culti- 
 vation of the tea-plant and the mak- 
 ing of tea is now the staple industry. 
 Pop. 223,314. — Darjeeling, the chief 
 town in the district, is a sanatory 
 station for the British troops, and 
 though little more than 36 miles from 
 the plains stands at an elevation of 7400 
 feet above sea-level, on a ridge with deep 
 valleys on either side, in a bleak but 
 healthy situation. There is a residence 
 of the lieutenant-governor, barracks, a 
 sanitarium, etc. Pop. 13,037, much 
 increased in the hot 'weather. 
 
 DARK HORSE, an American political 
 term used to designate an unlooked-for, 
 or comparatively unknown, candidate 
 in a political convention who suddenly 
 comes to the front and wins the nomina- 
 tion. The term originated in the story 
 of the trotting race in which a dark 
 horse, upon which nobody counted, 
 turned up winner. 
 
 DARLING, Grace, a celebrated Eng- 
 lish heroine, was born in 1815 in the 
 Longstone Lighthouse (Fame Islands, 
 coast of Northumberland), of which 
 her father was keeper. In 1838 the 
 steamer Forfarshire, with forty-one 
 passengers on board besides her crew, 
 became disabled off the Fame Islands 
 during a storm, and was thrown on a 
 rock where she broke into two, part of 
 the crew and passengers being left 
 clinging to the wreck. Next morning 
 * William Darling descried them from 
 Longstone, about a mile distant, but he 
 shrank from attempting to reach the. 
 wreck through a boiling sea in a boat. 
 His daughter Grace, however, implored 
 him to make the attempt and let her 
 accompany him. At last he consented, 
 and father and daughter each taking 
 an oar, they reached the wreck and suc- 
 ceeded in rescuing nine sufferers. The 
 news of the heroic deed soon spread 
 and the brave girl received testimonials 
 from all quarters. Four years after- 
 ward she died of consumption, 20th 
 October, 1842. 
 
 DARMSTADT (darm'stat), Germany, 
 capital of the Grand-duchy of Hesse, in 
 a sandy plain, on the Darm, 15 miles s. 
 Frankfort. Among the remarkable 
 buildings are the old palace (with a 
 library of 500,000 volumes and 4000 
 MSS., a picture-gallery, and a rich mu- 
 seum of natural history), the Roman 
 Catholic Church, and the Rathhaus or 
 town-hall, built in 1580. Pop. 56,399. 
 
 DARMSTADT, or HESSE-DARM- 
 STADT. See Hesse. 
 
 DARN'LEY, Henry Stuart, Lord, son 
 of the Earl of Lennox and Lady Mar- 
 garet Douglas, a niece of Henry VIII., 
 and by her first marriage queen of James 
 IV., born 1541. In 1565 he was married 
 to Mary Queen of Scots. It was an 
 unfortunate match, and ere long gave 
 rise first to coolness, then to open 
 quarrel, and finally to deadly hate, 
 which the murder of Rizzio, to which 
 Darnley was a party, only increased. 
 Mary affected, however, to be reconciled 
 
 to him, but could not long conceal her 
 contempt for the handsome imbecile. 
 After the birth of a son, subsequently 
 James VI., Darnley was seized at Glas- 
 gow with smallpox, from which he had 
 barely recovered when Mary visited 
 him, and had him conveyed to an iso- 
 lated house called Kirk of Field, close to 
 the Edinburgh city walls. This dwell- 
 ing, which belonged to a retainer of 
 Bothwell’s, the rapidly rising favorite, 
 was blown into the air with gunpowder 
 (10th February, 1567). The dead 
 bodies of the king and his page were 
 found in a field at a distance of 80 yards 
 from the house, quite free from any 
 mark which such an explosion would 
 cause. Strong circumstantial evidence 
 points to Bothwell as the murderer, and 
 to Mary as an accomplice in the crime. 
 
 DARRANG, an administrative dis- 
 trict of Hindustan, forming a portion of 
 the upper valley of the Brahmaputra, in 
 the prov. of Assam ; area, 3418 sq. miles ; 
 pop. 307, 761. Virgin forests cover a 
 large portion of the region. 
 
 DARTMOOR', an extensive upland 
 tract in England, in the western part 
 of Devonshire, often called the Forest of 
 Dartmoor, and belonging to the Duchy 
 of Cornwall; reaching from Brent s., to 
 Oakhampton n., 22 miles, with a breadth 
 of about 20 miles, and occupying from 
 130,000 to 150,000 acres. Cattle and 
 sheep are fed on the coarse grass during 
 the summer months. Several of the 
 rugged granite hills (here called tors) 
 are of considerable height. Yes Tor rising 
 2050 feet above the plain. Dartmoor 
 prison, built in 1809 as a state-prison, is 
 now a convict depot. 
 
 DARTMOOR MASSACRE, an incident 
 of the war of 1812, in which a number of 
 American prisoners in Dartmouth pris- 
 on, England, were shot by a company of 
 British troops. The charge was made 
 that the Americans were at the bottom 
 of a conspiracy to escape. The massacre 
 was justified by a joint high commission, 
 although the prisoners were found 
 guiltless and the British government 
 made ample provision for the injured 
 and the families of the dead. 
 
 DARTMOUTH COLLEGE, situated at 
 Hanover, N. H., and organized in 1750 
 at Lebanon, Conn. Besides the collegi- 
 ate department there is a medical school, 
 an engineering school, a finance school, 
 and an agricultural school. There are 
 800 or more students and 90,000 volumes 
 in the library. 
 
 DARTMOUTH COLLEGE CASE, an 
 
 important law case concerning the 
 charter of Dartmouth college. The 
 charter was originally granted by 
 Britain but in 1816 the New Hampshire 
 legislature passed a law taking over the 
 school. The Dartmouth trustees re- 
 jected the new charter and in this they 
 were upheld by the decision of the 
 supreme court. 
 
 DAR'WIN, Charles Robert, English 
 naturalist, born at Shrewsbury in 1809, 
 died at Down, near Beckenham in Kent, 
 1882. He early devoted himself to the 
 study of natural history, and in 1831 he 
 was appointed naturalist to the survey- 
 ing voyage of H. M. S. Beagle. The 
 vessel sailed in Dec. 1831, and did not 
 return till Oct. 1836, after having cir- 
 cumnavigated the globe. In 1839 he 
 
 married his cousin Emma Wedgwood 
 In 1859 his name attained its great 
 celebrity by the publication of The 
 Origin of Species by Means of Natural 
 Selection. This work, scouted and 
 derided though it was at first in certain 
 quarters, may be said to have worked 
 nothing less than a revolution in bio- 
 logical science. In it for the first time 
 
 Charles Darwin. 
 
 was given a full exposition of the theory 
 of evolution as applied to plants and 
 animals, the origin of species being ex- 
 plained on the hypothesis of natural 
 selection. The rest of his works are 
 largely based on the material he had 
 accumulated for the elaboration of this 
 great theory. Mr. Darwin was buried 
 in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 DAR'WINISM, the views, especially 
 regarding the origin and development of 
 animals and plants, expressed in detail 
 and advocated with much earnestness 
 in the works of Charles Darwin. See 
 Evolution, Natural Selection, etc. 
 
 DATE, that addition to a writing 
 which specifies the year, month, and 
 day when, and usually the place where, 
 it was given or executed; also the time 
 when any event happened, when any- 
 thing was transacted, or when anything 
 is to be done. 
 
 DATE, the fruit of the date-palm or 
 the tree itself. The fruit is used exten- 
 sively as an article of food by the natives 
 of Northern Africa and of some coun- 
 tries of Asia. It consists of an external 
 pericarp, separable into three portions, 
 and covering a seed which is hard and 
 horny in consequence of the nature of 
 the albumen in which the embryo plant 
 is buried. Next to the cocoanut tree 
 the date is unquestionably the most 
 interesting and useful of the palm tribe. 
 Its stem shoots up to the height of 50 or 
 60 feet without branch or division, and 
 of nearly the same thickness throughout 
 its length. From the summit it throws 
 out a magnificent crown of large feather- 
 shaped leaves, and a number of spadices, 
 each of which in the female plant bears 
 a bunch of from 180 to 200 dates, each 
 bunch weighing from 20 to 25 lbs. The 
 fruit is eaten fresh or dried. Cakes of 
 dates pounded and kneaded together 
 are the food of the Arabs who traverse 
 the deserts. A liquor resembling wine 
 is made from dates by fermentatiqn. 
 
DATIA 
 
 DAVIS 
 
 Persia, Palestine, Arabia, and the north 
 of Africa are best adapted for the culture 
 of the date-tree, and its fruit is in these 
 countries an important article of food. 
 
 Date palm. 
 
 DATIA (dat'-io), a native state in 
 Bundelkhand, Hindustan, under the 
 Central India Agency. Area, 836 sq. 
 miles; pop. 186,440. — Datia, the chief 
 town of the state, is situated 125 miles 
 s.e. of Agra. Pop. 24,071. 
 
 DAUDET (do-da), Alphonse, French 
 novelist, born at Nimes 1840. He 
 settled in Paris in 1857, and wrote 
 poems, essays, plays, etc., without much 
 success, till he discovered his powers 
 as a novelist, when he speedily became 
 famous. He died in 1897. 
 
 DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN 
 REVOLUTION, Society of, a patriotic 
 society for women, organized in Wash- 
 ington, D.C., Oct. 11, 1890. Its purpose 
 is to perpetuate traditions of the Ameri- 
 can Revolution and membership is 
 restricted to female descendents of 
 ancestors who aided the revolution. 
 The society has from 40,000 to 50,000 
 members, scattered in state chapters 
 throughout the Union.- 
 
 DAUGHTERS OF THE CONFED- 
 ERACY, The United. (See Confederacy, 
 United Daughters of). 
 
 DAUGHTERS OF THE KING, a 
 Protestant Episcopal organization for 
 women, organized in New York City in 
 1885 for the purpose of promoting work 
 in the church. It has a membership of 
 about 18,000. 
 
 DAUGHTERS OF THE REVOLU- 
 TION, Society of, a patriotic society for 
 women, organized in New York City in 
 1891, with objects similar to those of the 
 Daughters of the American Revolution, 
 but with a membership restricted to 
 lineal female descendents who by assist- 
 ing the revolution because guilty of 
 treason to Britain. The membership is 
 about 5,000. 
 
 , DAU'PHIN, the title of the eldest son 
 of the King of France prior to the 
 
 revolution of 1830, said to be derived 
 from the dolphin, the crest of the lords 
 of Dauphiny. The name was assumed 
 towards the middle of the 9th century 
 by the lord of Dauphiny, which prov- 
 ince was bequeathed by Humbert II. 
 to the King of France in 1349, on con- 
 dition that the heir of the throne 
 should bear the title of Dauphin of 
 Viennois 
 
 DAVENPORT, a city of Iowa, on the 
 Mississippi River about 300 miles north 
 of St. Louis. Connecting it with Rock 
 Island are two iron bridges built at a 
 cost of $2,000,000. Davenport has 
 splendid transportation facilities by 
 water and rail. It has a public library, 
 two theaters, several important educa- 
 tional institutions, and a number of 
 large factories. The town was founded 
 in 1851 by George Davenport. It has 
 a population of 5U,000. 
 
 DAVENPORT, Charles Benedict, an 
 American zoologist born in Connecticut 
 in 1866. He has written a number of 
 monographs on zoological subjects. 
 
 DAVENPORT, Edward Loomis, an 
 American actor, born in Boston in 1816, 
 died in 1877. He made his first appear- 
 ance at Providence, R. I., as Sir Giles 
 Overreach and subsequently became 
 noted as a most excellent interpreter of 
 Shakespearean roles. 
 
 DAVENPORT, Fanny Lily Gipsy, an 
 American actress, daughter of E. L. 
 Davenport, born in England in 1850, 
 died in 1898. She began her stage career 
 as a little girl, and by 1883 had appeared 
 with great success in a variety of parts 
 of wide range. In the last mentioned 
 year she began to appear in Sardou’s 
 dramas in which she disclosed new 
 power. She married Willet Melbourne 
 Mac Dowell in 1889. 
 
 DAVID, King of Israel, the youngest 
 son of Jesse, a citizen of Bethlehem, 
 and descended through Boaz from the 
 ancient princes of Judah. The life of 
 David is recorded in the first and second 
 books of Samuel and the first book of 
 Chronicles. The book of Psalms, a 
 large portion of which has been attrib- 
 uted to him (see Psalms), also contains 
 frequent allusions to incidents in his 
 life. He reigned from 1055 b.c. to 1015 
 B.C., according to the usual chronology, 
 but recent investigations put the dates 
 of David’s reign from 30 to 50 years 
 later. Under David the empire of the 
 Israelites rose to the height of its power, 
 and his reign has always been looked on 
 by the Jews as the golden age of their 
 nation’s history. 
 
 DAVID I., Kng of Scotland, son of 
 Malcolm Canmore; born about 1080; 
 succeeded his brother Alexander I. in 
 1124; died 1153. He was the first to 
 introduce feudal institutions and ideas 
 into his native land. 
 
 DAVID II., King of Scotland, son of 
 Robert Bruce, born 1322; succeeded 
 to the throne 1329; died 1370. 
 
 DAVID, Jacques Louis, the founder 
 of the modern French school of paint- 
 ing, born at Paris 1748, died at Brussels 
 1825. What is considered his master- 
 piece, The Rape of the Sabines, was 
 painted in 1799. He was appointed 
 first painter to Napoleon about 1804; 
 and after the second restoration of 
 Louis XVIII, he was included in the 
 
 decree which banished all regicides from 
 France, when he retired to Brussels. 
 
 DAVID, Pierre Jean, a French sculp- 
 tor, born at Angers in 1789 (hence 
 commonly called David d’ Angers), died 
 1856. In 1831 he began the magnifi- 
 cent sculptures of the Pantheon, his 
 most important work, which he finished 
 in 1837. He executed a great number 
 of medallions, busts, and statues of 
 celebrated persons of all countries, 
 among whom we may mention Walter 
 Scott, Canning, Washington, Lafayette, 
 Guttenberg, Cuvier, Victor Hugo, B6- 
 ranger, Paganini, and Madame de Stael. 
 
 DAVIS, Jefferson, president of the 
 Confederate States of America during 
 the civil war; born in Kentucky 1808. 
 He was trained at West Point Military 
 
 Jefferson Davis. 
 
 Academy, and from 1828 to 1835 saw 
 a good deal of service on the frontier. 
 At the latter date he became a cotton 
 planter in the State of Mississippi. He 
 was elected to congress in 1845, but at 
 the commencement of the Mexican war 
 he left congress and engaged actively 
 in the contest. He entered the senate 
 in 1847, and held various posts in the 
 government, upholding the pohcy of 
 t^he slave states and the doctrine of 
 slave rights. On the outbreak of the 
 civil war he was chosen president of 
 the Southern States, was taken prisoner 
 after the fall of Richmond, imprisoned 
 for two years in Fortress Monroe, and 
 set at liberty by the general amnesty 
 of 1868. He subsequently wrote a 
 history of the war. He died in 1889. 
 
 DAVIS, John Chandler Bancroft, an 
 American diplomat, born in Massachu- 
 setts in 1822. He was an agent of the 
 United States in the Alabama claims case 
 and was minister to Germany from 1874 
 to 1877. 
 
 DAVIS, John D., an American oriental 
 scholar, born in Pennsylvania in 1854. 
 He has published (1898) a Dictionary 
 of the Bible, and (1894) Genesis and 
 Shemitic Tradition. 
 
 DAVIS, Nathan Smith, an American 
 physician born in New York in 1817, and 
 educated in the College of Physicians 
 and Surgeons of Western New York. 
 He was the projector and founder of the 
 American Medical Association in 1845 
 and soon afterward removed to Chicago 
 where he become associated with the 
 
DAVIS 
 
 DAY 
 
 Rush Medical College. He became 
 noted as an advocate of teetotalism 
 
 DAVIS, Rebecca Harding, an Ameri- 
 can writer, born in 1831 in Pennsylvania. 
 She has written several short stories 
 which have received considerable praise. 
 
 DAVIS, Richard Harding, an Ameri- 
 can editor and short story writer, born 
 in Philadelphia in 1864. He was for a 
 time editor of Harper’s Weekly and in 
 1891 published his first successful short 
 story book called Gallagher and Other 
 Stories. This was followed by numer- 
 ous other such books, and a number of 
 books made up of descriptive articles 
 previously published in magazines. 
 His style is vigorous and interesting. 
 
 DAVIS, Varina Anne Jefferson, daiigh- 
 ter of Jefferson Davis, born in Rich- 
 mond, Va., in 1864, died in 1898. She 
 was known as “The Daughter of the 
 Confederacy.” 
 
 DAVIS, William Morris, an American 
 astronomer and meteorologist, born in 
 Philadelphia in 1850. He has been 
 for many years a teacher at Harvard 
 University. 
 
 DAVIS’ STRAIT, a narrow sea wdiich 
 separates Greenland from Baffin’s Land, 
 and unites Baffin’s Bay with the 
 Atlantic Ocean; lat. 60° to 70° n. 
 
 DA'VITS, two projecting pieces of 
 wood or iron on the side or stern of a 
 vessel, used for suspending or lowering 
 and hoisting the boats by means of 
 sheave and pulley. They are fixed so 
 as to admit of being shipped and un- 
 shipped at pleasure. 
 
 DA'VITT, Michael, an Irish patriot, 
 politician and parliamentarian, born in 
 Mayo in 1846. He began his career as a 
 journalist, began anti-landlord agitation 
 in 1867 and was several times elected 
 member of parliament. Davitt visited 
 the U. States on a number of occasions 
 to raise money for the Irish cause. He 
 was one of Parnell’s most bitter op- 
 ponents. He died in 1906. 
 
 DA'VY, Sir Humphry, Bart., dis- 
 tinguished English chemist, was born at 
 
 Sir Humphry Davy. 
 
 Penzance, 1778, died at Geneva 1829. 
 His discoveries with the galvanic 
 battery, his decomposition of the earths 
 and alkalies and ascertaining their 
 metallic bases, his demonstration of the 
 
 simple nature of the oxymuriatic acid 
 (to which he gave the name of chlorine), 
 etc., obtained him an extensive reputa- 
 tion; and in 1810 received the prize of 
 the French Institute. The numerous 
 accidents arising from fire-damp in 
 mines led him to enter upon a series of 
 experiments on the nature of the ex- 
 plosive gas, the result of which was the 
 invention of his safety-lamp. He was 
 knighted in 1812, and created a baronet 
 in 1818. 
 
 DAVY-LAMP. See Safety-lamp. 
 
 DAW, or JACKDAW; a bird of the 
 crow family, found in Europe, Asia and 
 Africa; 14 inches long, black, with a 
 smoky-gray neck. Daws are very cun- 
 
 Daw, or jackdaw. 
 
 ning, social, and active birds, often nest- 
 ing in church-towers and old castles. 
 They build a nest of sticks, of which 
 they sometimes collect a large quantity 
 
 DAY, either the interval of time 
 during which the sun is continuously 
 above the horizon, or the time occupied 
 by a revolution of the earth on its axis, 
 embracing this interval (the period of 
 light) as well as the interval of darkness. 
 The day in the latter sense may be 
 measured in more than one way. If 
 we measure it by the apparent move- 
 ment of the stars, caused by the rotation 
 of the earth on its axis, we must call day 
 the period between the time when a 
 star is on the meridian and when it 
 again returns to the meridian; this is a 
 sidereal day. It is uniformly equal to 
 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 098 seconds. 
 But more important than this is the 
 solar day, or the interval between two 
 passages of the sun across the meridian 
 of any place. The latter is about 4 
 minutes longer than the former, owing 
 to the revolution of the earth round the 
 sun, and it is notof uniform length, ow- 
 ing to the varying speed at which the 
 earth moves in its orbit and to the obli- 
 quity of the ecliptic. For convenience 
 an average of the solar day is taken, and 
 this gives us the mean solar or civil day 
 of 24 hours, the difference between 
 which and the actual solar day at any 
 time is the equation of time. 
 
 The length of the days and nights at 
 any place varies with the latitude and 
 season of the year, owing to the inclina- 
 tion of the earth’s axis. In the first 
 place, the days and nights are equal 
 (twelve hours each) all over the world on 
 the 21st of March and the 21st of Sep- 
 tember, which dates are called the 
 vernal (spring) and autumnal equinoxes 
 (Lat. sequus, equal; nox, night). Again, 
 the days and nights are always of equal 
 length at the equator, which, for this 
 reason, is sometimes called the equi- 
 noctial line. With these exceptions, we 
 find the difference between the duration 
 
 of the day and the night varying more 
 and more as we recede from the equator. 
 I'his will be easily understood from a 
 consideration of the accompanying 
 figure, which represents the position 
 of the earth at the northern summer 
 solstice. Let s a, s'd, s"b represent the 
 sun’s rays, then the vertical circle a f b g 
 will be the circle of illumination, that is, 
 the line which separates the illuminated 
 and dark hemispheres of the earth. 
 Consider a place f. As the earth turns 
 round it would describe a circle f d g h, 
 the greater part of which, f d g, is per- 
 formed in the sunlight, and the smaller 
 part, g h f, in the dark. In other words, 
 the day for the place f would be longer 
 than its night. It will be also seen that 
 for any place within the Arctic circle 
 a k the sun does not set, while in the 
 Antarctic circle the sun never rises so 
 long as- the earth is in this position. 
 At the northern winter solstice the 
 reverse of all this is the case — the 
 Arctic circle never comes into the light 
 area, and places within the Antarctic 
 circle never enter into the dark. From 
 this it will be seen that at both poles the 
 year consists of one day of six months’ 
 duration, and one night of the same 
 length. 
 
 The Babylonians began the day at 
 sun-rising; the Jews at sun-setting; 
 the Egyptians and Romans at mid- 
 night, as do most modern peoples. 
 The civil day in most countries is 
 divided into two portions of twelve 
 hours each. The abbreviations p.m. and 
 a. m. (the first signifying postmeridian, 
 Latin for afternoon; the latter ante- 
 meridian, forenoon) are requisite, in 
 consequence of this division of the day. 
 The Italians in some places reckon the 
 day from sunset to sunset, and enumer- 
 ate the hours up to twenty-four; the 
 Chinese divide it into twelve parts of 
 two hours each. For astronomical 
 purposes the day is divided into twenty- 
 four hours instead of two parts of twelve 
 hours. Formerly it began at noon, but 
 since 1st Jan. 1885, the day of twenty- 
 four hours begins at midnight at Green- 
 wich Observatory; and this reckon- 
 ing is now generally adopted for astro- 
 nomical purposes elsewhere than at 
 
 length of day and night. 
 
 Greenwich. The Greenwich day prac- 
 tically determines the date for all the 
 world. At mid-day at Greenwich the 
 date (day of the week and month) is 
 everywhere the same, though there are 
 
day 
 
 DEAF AND DUMB 
 
 flll possible differences in namii^ the 
 hour of the day. But mid-day at Green- 
 wich is tlie only instant at which we 
 ever have the same date all over the 
 world. The meridian of midnight, 
 which is then at 180° e. or w., goes on 
 revolving, gradually bringing a new 
 date to every place to the west of that 
 line, but obviously not bringing that 
 new date to the places immediately to 
 the east of that line till twenty-four 
 hours after. From this it follows that 
 whereas places on the one side of the 
 globe never have a different date except 
 when midnight lies between them, places 
 on the opposite side of the globe, and 
 on different sides of the meridian of 
 180° e. or w., never have the same date 
 except when midnight lies between them. 
 The actual difference of time between 
 Wellington in New Zealand and Hono- 
 lulu in the Sandwich Islands is only 
 about 2 hours; yet a person at Welling- 
 ton may date a letter 9 o’clock a. m. 
 26th June, while another writing at the 
 same instant at Honolulu dates his 
 11 o’clock a. m. 25th June. 
 
 DAY, William Rufus, an American 
 jurist and statesman, born in Ohio in 
 1849, studied law, and in 1897 was 
 appointed assistant secretary of state, 
 and subsequently secretary of state in 
 succession to John Sherman. In 1899 
 he was made judge of the sixth circuit 
 of the U. States circuit court. 
 
 DAY-BOOK, a journal of accounts; 
 a book in which are recorded the debts 
 and credits or accounts of the day. 
 See Book-keeping. 
 
 DAYS OF GRACE are days allowed 
 for the payment of a promissory note 
 or bill of exchange after it becomes due. 
 The time varies in different countries. 
 
 DAYTON, a town in Ohio, capital of 
 Montgomery county, at the confluence 
 of the Mad and Great Miami rivers, 52 
 miles n.e. of Cincinnati. It is a place of 
 great industrial activity, a center of 
 railway communication, and in the 
 variety and extent of its manufactures it 
 stands in the front rank of western 
 towns of its size. The National Home for 
 Disabled Soldiers and Sailors is situated 
 here. The city is laid out with wide 
 streets adorned with numerous hand- 
 some buildings. There is a Greek court- 
 house, a fine high school, several hos- 
 pitals, and a public library. Pop. 
 130,000. 
 
 DEACON, ecclesiastically, a person in 
 the lowest degree of holy orders. The 
 office of deacon was instituted by the 
 ' apostles, and seven persons were chosen 
 at first to serve at the feasts of Chris- 
 tians, and distribute bread and wine to 
 the communicants, and to minister to 
 the wants of the poor. In the Roman 
 Catholic Church the deacon is the chief 
 minister at the altar. He assists the 
 priest in the celebration of mass, and on 
 certain conditions can preach and bap- 
 tize. In the Church of England the 
 deacon is the lowest of the three orders 
 of priesthood, these being bishops, 
 priests, and deacons. The deacon may 
 perform all the ordinary offices of the 
 Christian priesthood except consecrating 
 the elements at the administration of 
 the Lord’s Supper, and pronouncing the 
 absolution. In Presbyterian churches 
 the deacon’s office is to attend to the 
 
 secular interests, and in Independent 
 churches it is the same, with the addition 
 that he has to distribute the bread and 
 wine to the communicants. 
 
 DEAD, BOOK OF THE, a name ap- 
 plied to a number of texts and other 
 writings in the religious system of 
 Egypt. The origin of the name lay in 
 the belief of the ancient Egyptians that 
 this book, or these texts were of great 
 assistance to the dead in the wandering 
 of their souls in the spiritual world. 
 The book was placed in the coffin with 
 the dead person, or under his arm. 
 
 DEAD-LETTER, a letter which lies 
 for a certain period uncalled for at the 
 post-office, or one which cannot be de- 
 livered from defect of address, and 
 which is sent to the general post-office 
 at Washington to be opened and re- 
 turned to the writer. The department 
 which deals with such letters is now 
 called the Returned Letter Office. 
 
 DEAD RECKONING, the calculation 
 of a ship’s place at sea without any ob- 
 servation of the heavenly bodies. It is 
 obtained by keeping an account of the 
 distance which the ship has run by the 
 log, and of her course steered by the 
 compass, and by rectifying these data 
 by the usual allowance for drift, leeway, 
 etc., according to the ship’s known trim. 
 
 DEAD SEA, a celebrated lake in 
 Asiatic Turkey, near the south extremity 
 of Palestine, in the pashalic of Damasus. 
 The basin or hoflow in which the Dead 
 Sea reposes forms the south termination 
 of the great depression through which 
 the Jordan flows, that river entering it 
 at its north extremity. It receives 
 several other tributaries, but has no 
 outlet. The surface is 1312 feet below 
 the level of the Mediterranean, and 984 
 feet below Lake Tiberias, from which 
 the Jordan issues. It lies deeply im- 
 bedded between lofty cliffs of naked 
 limestone, its shores presenting a scene 
 of indescribable desolation and solitude, 
 encompassed by desert sands, and bleak, 
 strong salt hills. Sulphur and rock salt, 
 lava, and pumice, abound along its 
 shores. The water is nauseous to the 
 taste and smell, and so buoyant that the 
 human body will not sink in it. At 
 about a third of its length from the 
 north end it attains a maximum depth 
 of 1308 feet. The southern portion is 
 a mere lagoon, 12 feet deep in the middle 
 and 3 at the edges. 
 
 DEAF AND DUMB, or Deaf-mutes, 
 persons both deaf and dumb, the dumb- 
 ness resulting from deafness which has 
 either existed from birth or from a very 
 early period of life. Such persons are 
 unable to speak simply because they 
 have not the guidance of the sense of 
 hearing to enable them to imitate 
 sounds. Among the causes assigned for 
 congenital deafness are consanguineous 
 marriages, hereditary transmission, scrof- 
 ula, certain local or climatic conditions, 
 ill health of the mother during preg- 
 nancy, etc. Acquired or accidental deaf- 
 ness, which occurs at all ages, is fre- 
 quently due to such diseases as small- 
 pox, measles, typhus, paralysis, hydro- 
 cephalus, and other cerebral affections, 
 but more particularly to scarlet fever, 
 which is somewhat apt to leave the 
 patient deaf owing to the inflammatory 
 state of the throat extending to the inter- 
 
 nal ear, and thus causing suppuration 
 and destruction of the extremely deli- 
 cate parts of the auditory apparatus. 
 In the greater proportion of deaf-mutes 
 no defect is visible, or can be detected 
 by anatomical examination, and no 
 applications yet discovered appear to be 
 
 useful. The necessity of communica- 
 tion, and the want of words, oblige the 
 deaf-mute to observe and imitate the 
 actions and expressions which accom- 
 pany various states of mind and of feel- 
 ing, to indicate objects by their appear- 
 ance and use, and persons by some 
 peculiar mark, and to describe their 
 actions by direct imitation. In this 
 way he and his friends are led to form a 
 dialect of that universal language of 
 attitude, gesture, and expression which 
 becomes a substitute for words in the 
 hands of the pantomimic actor, and 
 w'hich adds force and clearness to the 
 finest effusions of the orator; in other 
 words, the natural sign language. This 
 language, in its elements, is to be found 
 among all nations, and has ever been the 
 medium of communication bet^ween 
 voyagers and the natives of newly dis- 
 covered countries. It is employed by 
 many savage tribes to supply the pau- 
 city of expression in their language and 
 to communicate with other tribes. 
 Among some of the Indians of North 
 America it exists as a highlj^-organized 
 language Such a means of communica- 
 tion is after all very imperfect, however, 
 and various more perfect systems have 
 been devised to enable deaf-mutes to 
 communicate with one another and with 
 the rest of mankind, and thus to gain 
 such an education as people in general 
 possess. In 1648 John Bulwer published 
 the earliest work in English on the in 
 struction of the deaf and dumb. This 
 was followed by Dalgarno’s Ars Signo- 
 rum (Art of Signs) in 1661, and Dr. W. 
 D. Holder’s Elements of Speech. Dal- 
 garno, who was a native of Scotland, 
 likewise published, in 1680, Didascaloco- 
 phus; or. the Dea^ and Dumb Man’s 
 > Tutor, a work of considerable merit. 
 
DEAFNESS 
 
 DEATH-WATCH 
 
 To Dr. John Wallis, however, Savilian 
 professor of mathematics at Oxford, is 
 generally ascribed the merit of having 
 been the first Englishman who succeed- 
 ed in imparting instruction to deaf- 
 mutes. In 1743 the practicability of in- 
 structing deaf-mutes was first publicly 
 demonstrated in France by Pereira, a 
 Spaniard, before the Academy of 
 Sciences, which gave its testimony to the 
 success of the method. About the same 
 time the Abb6 de L’Ep4e, who devoted 
 his life and fortune to this subject, intro- 
 duced a system for the instruction of the 
 deaf and dumb, which was taught with 
 great success in the Royal Parisian 
 Institution, and afterward still further 
 
 Two-handed alphabet. 
 
 developed by his pupil and successor, 
 the Abbe Sicard. In 1779 a public 
 institution for the education of deaf- 
 mutes was established at Leipzig, 
 through the labors of Samuel Heinicke, 
 the great upholder of the vocal or articu- 
 latory system, which is still retained 
 at Vienna and throughout Germany. 
 About twenty years previously Thomas 
 Braidwood had established near Edin- 
 burgh in 1760 a deaf and dumb school 
 on the articulating system, which was 
 visited by Dr. Johnson during his tour in 
 Scotland. The first public institution in 
 Great Britain for the gratuitous educa- 
 tion of the deaf and dumb was founded 
 at Bermondsey in 1792 by the Rev. 
 Messrs. Townsend ?nd Mason. From 
 this establishment originated the Lon- 
 don Asylum in Kent Road, which was 
 opened in 1807. In 1810 a school for 
 affording instruction gratuitously to the 
 dumb was founded in Edinburgh, and 
 others of a similar description were sub- 
 sequently established at Birmingham, 
 Glasgow, Manchester, and other towns. 
 An association for the oral instruction of 
 the deaf and dumb was founded in 
 London in 1871. 
 
 The two chief methods of conveying 
 instruction to the deaf and dumb are by 
 means of the manual alphabet, and by 
 training them to watch the lips of the 
 
 teacher during articulation. There are 
 two kinds of manual alphabet: the 
 double-handed alphabet, where the 
 letters are expressed by the disposition 
 of the fingers of both hands; and the 
 single-handed, in which the letters are 
 formed with the fingers of one hand. 
 Particular gestures which are attached to 
 each word as its distinctive sign are 
 largely used, as are also real objects and 
 models, pictures, etc. The method of 
 teaching oy articulation, the pupil learn- 
 ing to recognize words, and in time to 
 utter them, by closely watching the 
 motions of the lips and tongue in speech, 
 and by being instructed through dia- 
 grams as to the different positions of the 
 vocal organs, is now receiving much 
 attention, and has given excellent re- 
 sults, cases being known where persons 
 have conversed with the deaf and dumb 
 and remained ignorant that those to 
 whom they were speaking were afflicted 
 in this way. It is by no means a novel 
 system, but of late it has vastly increased 
 in favor with authorities. A new mode 
 of teaching articulation has recently been 
 brought into notice, consisting in the 
 use of the system of visible speech 
 devised by Mr. Melville Bell. The char- 
 acters of the alphabet on which this 
 .system is founded are intended to reveal 
 to the eye the position of the vocal 
 organs in the formation of any sound 
 which the human mouth can utter. Its 
 practical value as a means of instruc- 
 tion with all classes of the deaf and 
 dumb has not as yet been sufficiently 
 tested. 
 
 DEAFNESS, the partial or total ina- 
 bility to hear. This is a symptom of 
 most affections of the ear. It may be 
 due simply to an accumulation of wax. 
 If it come on suddenly without pain in a 
 healthy person this is probably the cause. 
 When it comes on with a cold in the 
 head it is the result of a cold or catarrh, 
 and is likely to pass off in a few days. 
 Attended by pain, ringing in the ears, 
 etc., some degree of inflammation is 
 likely present. The most intractable 
 form of deafness comes on very gradually 
 and painlessly, and is connected with 
 disease of the middle ear. If a skilled 
 ear-surgeon were consulted in time much 
 might probably be done to stay its prog- 
 ress. Deafness due to the disease of the 
 nerve of hearing is usually very intense, 
 comes on suddenly or advances very 
 rapidly, and is not easily reached by 
 treatment. As to other causes of com- 
 plete deafness see Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 DEAL, the division of a piece of tim- 
 ber made by sawing; a board or plank. 
 The name deal is chiefly applied to 
 boards of fir above 7 inches in width and 
 of various lengths exceeding 6 feet. If 7 
 inches or less wide they are called bat- 
 tens, and when under 6 feet long they 
 are called deal-ends. The usual thick- 
 ness is 3 inches, and width 9 inches. 
 The standard size, to which other sizes 
 may be reduced, is inch thick, 11 
 inches broad, and 12 feet long. Whole 
 deal is deal which is IJ inch tliick; slit 
 deal, half that thickness. 
 
 DEAN, an ecclesiastical dignitary, 
 said to have been so called because he 
 presided over ten canons or prebenda- 
 ries; but more probably because each 
 diocese was divided into deaneries, each 
 
 comprising ten parishes or churches, and 
 Avith a dean presiding over each. 
 
 DEAN OF FACULTY,— (1) In some 
 universities, as that of London and those 
 of Scotland, the chief or head of a faculty 
 (as of arts, law, or medicine) ; in the 
 United States, a registrar or secretary 
 of the faculty in a department of a col- 
 lege, as in a medical, theological, or 
 scientific department. (2) The presi- 
 dent for the time being of an incorpora- 
 tion of barristers or law practitioners; 
 specifically, the president of the incor- 
 poration of advocates in Edinburgh. 
 
 DEATH is that state of a being, ani- 
 mal or vegetable, but more particularly 
 of an animal, in which there is a total and 
 permanent cessation of all the vital 
 functions, when the organs have not 
 only ceased to act, but have lost the 
 susceptibility of renewed action. Death 
 takes place either from the natural decay 
 of the organism, as in old age, or from 
 derangements or lesions of the vital 
 organs caused by disease or injury. The 
 signs of actual death in a human being 
 are the cessation of breathing and the 
 beating of the heart ; insensibility of the 
 eye to light, pallor of the body, com- 
 plete muscular relaxation, succeeded by 
 a statue-like stiffness or rigidity wliich 
 lasts from one to nine days; and decom- 
 position, which begins to take place 
 after the rigidity has yielded, beginning 
 first in the lower portion of the body and 
 gradually extending to the chest and 
 face. What becomes of the mind or 
 thinking principle, in man or animal, 
 after death, is a matter of philosophical 
 conjecture or religious faith. 
 
 DEATH, Dance of, a grotesque allegori- 
 cal representation in which the figure of 
 Death, generally in the form of a skele- 
 ton, is represented interrupting people 
 of every condition and in all situations,! 
 and carrying them away ; so called from I 
 the mocking activity usually displayed 
 by the figure of Death as he leads away 
 his victims. 
 
 DEATH-RATE, the proportion of 
 deaths among the inhabitants of a town, 
 country, etc. In the U. S. it is usually 
 calculated at so many per thousand per 
 annum. 
 
 DEATH VALLEY, a stretch of desert 
 in Inyo County, Cal., surrounded by 
 four small ranges of mountains. The 
 length of the valley is about 150 miles 
 and its breadth from 10 to 20 miles. Its 
 lowest level is nearly 500 feet below the 
 level of the sea. The soil is destitute of 
 vegetation, the temperature rises to 122 
 degrees Fahr. in the shade, and sand 
 storms are common. The desert is 
 occupied by reptiles only. 
 
 DEATH-WATCH, the popular name 
 of the insect that inhabits the wood- 
 work of houses. In calling to one an- 
 
 Death-watch beetle— 1. Natural size. 2. Mag- 
 nified. 3, Head as seen from underneath, 
 
 other they make a peculiar ticking 
 sound, which superstition has inter- 
 preted as a forerunner of death. 
 
DEBENTURE 
 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 DEBENTURE, a deed-poll given by a 
 ublic company in acknowledgment of 
 orrowed money. It gives the holder 
 the first claim for dividends, while the 
 capital sum lent is usually assured on 
 the security of the whole undertaking. 
 With the deed, coupons or warrants for 
 the payment of interest at specified 
 dates are generally issued. Custom- 
 house certificates of drawback are also 
 termed debentures. 
 
 DEBRECZIN (de-bret'sin), a town of 
 Hungary, on the edge of the great cen- 
 tral plain 113 miles e. of Budapest. 
 Debreczin is considered the head-quar- 
 ters of Hungarian Protestantism. Pop. 
 72,351. 
 
 DEBS, Eugene Victor, an American 
 socialist and labor leader born in Indiana 
 in 1855. He was early a locomotive 
 fireman, was an Indiana legislator, and 
 led the strike of the American Railway 
 Union in 1894. In 1900 he was the can- 
 didate of the Social democratic party 
 for president of the United States. 
 
 DEBT, National. See National Debt. 
 
 DECADE (dek'ad), is sometimes used 
 
 for the number ten, or for an aggregate 
 of ten. In the French revolution, de- 
 cades, each consisting of ten days, took 
 the place of weeks in the division of the 
 year. The term is now usually applied 
 to an aggregate of ten years. 
 
 DEC'AGON, in geometry, a figure of 
 ten sides and angles. 
 
 DECALOGUE dek'a-log), the ten 
 commandments, which, according to 
 Exod. XX. and Deut. v., were given by 
 God to Moses on two tables. The Jews 
 call them the ten words. Jews and 
 Christians have divided the ten com- 
 mandments differently; and in some 
 Catholic catechisms the second com- 
 mandment has been united with the 
 first, and the tenth has been divided into 
 two. 
 
 DECAM'ERON. See Boccaccio. 
 
 DECANDOLLE(dekan-dol), Augustin 
 Pyrame, one of the most illustrious of 
 modern botanists, whose natural system 
 of classification, with some modifications 
 is the one still generally used, was born 
 at Geneva in 1778, died there 1841. 
 In 1804 he lectured in the College of 
 France on vegetable physiology; and 
 the following year published an outline 
 of his course, under the title of Principes 
 de Botanique, prefixed to the third 
 edition of Lamarck’s Flore Fran§aise. 
 In this outline he laid the basis of the 
 system of classification which he after- 
 ward developed in larger and more cele- 
 brated works. In 1816 he returned to 
 Geneva, where a chair of natural history 
 was expressly created for him, and 
 where he continued for many years to 
 extend the boundaries of his favorite 
 science by his lectures and publications. 
 
 DECAPITATION, beheading, capital 
 punishment inflicted by the sword, ax, 
 or guillotine. 
 
 DECA'TUR, a city and important 
 railway center of Illinois, 39 miles e. of 
 Sprin^eld. It has a large rolling-mill, 
 and is a place of considerable trade. 
 Pop. 23,750. 
 
 DECA'TUR, Stephen, American naval 
 commander, born 1779, killed in a duel 
 1820. Among the chief exploits of his 
 life were the capture of the British frig- 
 ate Macedonian in 1812; his attempted 
 
 escape from the blockade of New York 
 harbor, 1813 — 14; and his chastise- 
 ment of the Algerines, 1815. 
 
 Stephen Decatur. 
 
 DECEASED WIFE’S SISTER, a term 
 used in the old English law which for- 
 bade the marriage of a widower with 
 his deceased wife’s sister. The law 
 originated among the Jews. 
 
 DECEDENT, in law, a deceased per- 
 son, the term being used only of a person 
 who has left a will, or an estate to be 
 administered, and almost always now 
 used of a person who has died intestate. 
 
 DECEIT, a term of law designating an 
 act by which through trick or misrepre- 
 sentation legal injury or damage is done 
 to another. 
 
 DECEM'BER, the twelfth month of 
 our year, from the Latin decern, ten, 
 because in the Roman year instituted 
 by Romulus it constituted the tenth 
 month, the year beginning with March. 
 In December the sun enters the tropic of 
 Capricorn, and passes the winter sol- 
 stice. 
 
 DECEM'VIRS, the ten magistrates 
 who had absolute authority in ancient 
 Rome (b.c. 451-449). See Appius 
 Claudius. 
 
 DECID'UOUS is a term applied in 
 botany to various organs of plants, 
 particularly leaves, to indicate their 
 annual fall. A tree of which the leaves 
 fall annually is called a deciduous tree, 
 and the same term is applied to the 
 leaves themselves. The term is also 
 applied in zoology to parts which fall 
 off at a certain stage of an animal’s 
 existence, as the hair, horns, and teeth 
 of certain animals. 
 
 DECIMAL FRACTIONS. See Frac- 
 tions. 
 
 DECIMAL SYSTEM is the name given 
 to any system of weights, measures, or 
 money in which the unit is always multi- 
 plied by 10 or some power of 10 to give 
 a higher denomination, and divided by 
 10 or a power of 10 for a lower denomina- 
 tion. This system has been rigidly car- 
 ried out in France, and the principle 
 obtains in the coinage of Belgium, Italy, 
 Spain, Portugal, the United States, and 
 other countries. To express the higher 
 denominations, that is to say, the unit 
 multiplied by 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, the 
 French make use of the prefixes d6ca, 
 hecto, kilo, myria, derived from the 
 Greek ; thus, the mfetre being the unit of 
 length, decametre is 10 metres, hecto- 
 metre 100 metres, kilometre 1000 metres. 
 To express lower denominations, that is, 
 tenths, hundredths, etc., the Latin pre- 
 fixes d4ci, centi, milli are used in the 
 same way; thus a centilitre is the hun- 
 dredth part of a litre, decilitre t he tenth 
 
 part of a litre. The basis of the whole 
 system is the linear measure, the unit of 
 which is the metre, supposed to be the 
 ten-millionth part of a quadrant of the 
 earth’s meridian (39‘37 inches). The 
 square of 10 metres, or square decame- 
 tre, called an arc, is the unit of surface 
 measure. The cube of the tenth part of 
 the metre, or cubic decimetre, called a 
 litre, is the unit of liquid capacity. The 
 cube of the metre, called a stere, is the 
 unit of solid measure. The weight of a 
 cubic centimetre of distilled water at 
 39°'2 Fahr. ; (4° centigrade), called a 
 gramme, is the unit of weight. The 
 unit of money is the franc, which is 
 divided into decimes and centimes. 
 
 DECK, a horizontal platform or floor, 
 extending from side to side of a ship, 
 and formed of planking supported by the 
 beams. In ships of large size there are 
 several decks one over the other. The 
 quarter-deck is that above the upper- 
 deck, reaching forward from the stern 
 to the gangway. 
 
 DECLAJ^TION, an avowal or formal 
 statement; especially a simple affirma- 
 tion, or affidavit, which English law 
 allows in a variety of cases, such as those 
 which relate to the revenues of customs 
 or excise, the post-office, and other 
 departments of administration. Justices 
 of the peace, notaries, etc., are also em- 
 powered in various cases to take vol- 
 untary declarations in lieu of oaths, 
 solemn affirmations and affidavits. — 
 Declaration of war, the formal notice 
 which by the usage of nations belliger- 
 ents are expected to give before com- 
 mencing hostilities. — Declaration of 
 rights, or bill of rights. See Bill. 
 
 DECLARATION, DYING, the ante- 
 mortem statement made by a person 
 injured by another as to the cause of 
 his death. Such a statement has force 
 in a trial but only such parts of it as 
 the deceased would be allowed to testify 
 to were he alive. 
 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPEND- 
 ENCE, AMERICAN, the document pro- 
 claiming the independence of the Amer- 
 ican colonies, uttered by the continent- 
 al congress on July 4, 1776. It was 
 drafted by Thomas Jefferson and from 
 the beginning has been almost contin- 
 uously in the possession of the Depart- 
 ment of State. Facsimiles of the paper 
 have been made, and the original in 
 1894 was withdrawn from public view 
 and carefully sealed from the light and 
 air to prevent decomposition. The full 
 text of the declaration, and the signers, 
 follow : 
 
 THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE 
 THIRTEEN UNITED STATES OF 
 AMERICA. 
 
 When, in the course of human events, 
 it becomes necessary for one people to 
 dissolve the political bands which have 
 connected them with another, and to 
 assume, among the powers of the earth, 
 the separate and equal station to which 
 the laws of nature and of nature’s God 
 entitled them, a decent respect to the 
 opinions of mankind requires that they 
 should declare the causes which impel 
 them to the separation. 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident 
 — that all men are created equal; that 
 they are endowed by their Creator with 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDEFTCE 
 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 certain unalienable rights; that among 
 these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of 
 happiness. That to secure these rights, 
 governments are instituted among men, 
 deriving their just powers from the con- 
 sent of the governed; that whenever 
 any form of government becomes de- 
 structive of these ends, it is the right of 
 the people to alter or to abolish it, and 
 to institute a new government, laying 
 its foundation on such principles, and 
 organizing its powers in such form, as 
 to them shall seem most likely to effect 
 their safety and happiness. Prudence 
 indeed, will dictate that governments 
 long established should not be changed 
 for light and transient causes; and, 
 accordingly, all experience hath shown, 
 that mankind are more disposed to suf- 
 fer, while evils are sufferable, than to 
 right themselves by abolishing the forms 
 to which they are accustomed. But 
 when a long train of abuses and usurpa- 
 tions, pursuing invariably the same 
 object, evinces a design to reduce them 
 under absolute despotism, it is their 
 right, it is their duty, to throw off such 
 government, and to proA'ide new guards 
 for their future security. Such has been 
 the patient sufferance of these colonies, 
 and such is now the necessity which con- 
 strains them to alter their former systems 
 of government. The history of the 
 present king of Great Britain is a his- 
 tory of repeated injuries and usurpa- 
 tions, all having, in direct object, the 
 establishment of an absolute tyranny 
 over these states. To prove this, let 
 facts be submitted to a candid world; 
 
 He has refused his assent to laws the 
 most wholesome and necessary for the 
 public good. 
 
 He has forbidden his governors to 
 pass laws of immediate and pressing 
 importance, unless suspended in their 
 operation till his assent should be ob- 
 tained; and, when so suspended, he has 
 utterly neglected to attend to them. 
 
 He has refused to pass other laws for 
 the accommodation of large districts of 
 people, unless those people would re- 
 linquish the right of representation in 
 the legislature; a right inestimable to 
 them, and formidable to tyrants only. 
 
 He has called together legislative 
 bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, 
 and distant from the depository of their 
 public records, for the sole purpose of 
 fatiguing them into compliance with 
 his measures. 
 
 He has dissolved representative 
 houses repeatedly for opposing with 
 manly firmness his invasions on the 
 rights of the people. 
 
 He has refused, for a long time after 
 such dissolutions, to cause others to be 
 elected; whereby the legislative powers, 
 incapable of annihilation, have returned 
 to the people at large for their exercise; 
 the state remaining, in the meantime, 
 exposed to all the danger of invasion 
 from Avithout and conAmlsions within. 
 
 He has endeavored to prevent the 
 population of these states; for that 
 purpose obstructing the laws for the 
 naturalization of foreigners; refusing 
 to pass others to encourage their migra- 
 tion hither, and raising the conditions of 
 new appropriations of lands. 
 
 He has obslructed the administration 
 of justice by refusing his assent to 
 
 laws for establishing judiciary powers. 
 
 He has made judges dependent on his 
 will alone, for the tenure of their offices, 
 and the amount and payment of their 
 salaries. 
 
 He has erected a multitude of new 
 offices, and sent hither swarms of officers 
 to harass our people and eat up their 
 substance. 
 
 He has kept among us, in times of 
 peace, standing armies, without the 
 consent of our legislatures. 
 
 He has affected to render the military 
 independent of, and superior to, the 
 civil power. 
 
 He has combined, Avith others, to sub- 
 ject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our 
 constitution, and unacknowledged by 
 our laws, giving his assent to their acts of 
 pretended legislation: 
 
 For quartering large bodies of armed 
 troops among us; • 
 
 For protecting them, by a mock trial, 
 from punishment, for any murders 
 Avhich they should commit on the in- 
 habitants of these states; 
 
 For cutting off our trade with all parts 
 of the world; 
 
 For imposing taxes on us mthout our 
 consent; 
 
 For depriving us, in many cases, of the 
 benefits of trial by jury; 
 
 For transporting us beyond seas to be 
 tried for pretended offenses; 
 
 For abolishing the free system of Eng- 
 lish laws in the neighboring province, 
 establishing therein an arbitrary govern- 
 ment, and enlarging its boundaries, so 
 as to render it at once an example and 
 fit instrument for introducing the same 
 absolute rule into these colonies; 
 
 For taking away our charters, abolish- 
 ing our most valuable laws, and altering, 
 fundamentally, the powers of our 
 governments; 
 
 For suspending our own legislatures, 
 and declaring themselves invested with 
 power to legislate for us in all cases 
 whatsoever. 
 
 He has abdicated government here, by 
 declaring us out of his protection, and 
 waging war against us. 
 
 He has plundered our seas, ravaged 
 our coasts, burnt our towns, and de- 
 stroyed the lives of our people. 
 
 He is, at this time, transporting large 
 armies of foreign mercenaries to com- 
 plete the works of death, desolation, 
 and tyranny, already begun, with cir- 
 cumstances of cruelty and perfidy 
 scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous 
 ages, and totally unworthy the head of a 
 civilized nation. 
 
 He has constrained our fellow-citizens, 
 taken captive on the high seas, to bear 
 arms against their country, to become 
 the executioners of their friends and 
 brethren, or to fall themselves by their 
 hands. 
 
 He has excited domestic insurrections 
 among us, and has endeavored to bring 
 on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the 
 merciless Indian savages, Avhose knoAvn 
 rules of warfare is an undistinguished 
 destruction of all ages, sexes, and con- 
 ditions. 
 
 In eA'ery stage of these oppressions we 
 have petitioned for redress in the most 
 humble terms; our repeated petitions 
 haA^e been ansAA’ered only by repeated 
 injury. A prince Avhose character is 
 
 thus marked by every act which may 
 define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of 
 a free people. 
 
 Nor haAm we been wanting in atten- 
 tion to our British brethren. We have 
 warned them from time to time of at- 
 tempts made by their legislature to ex- 
 tend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over 
 us. We haA'e reminded them of the cir- 
 cumstances of our emigration and settle- 
 ment here. We have appealed to their 
 native justice and magnanimity, and we 
 have conjured them, by the ties of our 
 common kindred, to disavow these 
 usurpations, Avdiich wmuld ineA'itably 
 interrupt our connection and corres- 
 pondence. They, too, have been deaf 
 to the voice of justice and consanguinity. 
 We must, therefore, acquiesce in the 
 necessity which denounces our separa- 
 tion, and hold them, as we hold the rest 
 of mankind, enemies in war, in peace, 
 friends. 
 
 We, therefore, the representatives of 
 the United States of America, in general 
 congress assembled, appealing to the 
 supreme judge of the world for the recti- 
 tude of our intentions, do, in the name 
 and by the authority of the good people 
 of these colonies, solemnly publish and 
 declare; That these United Colonies are, 
 and of right ought to be, ‘free and inde- 
 pendent states; that they are absoh'ed 
 from all allegiance to the British crown, 
 and that all political connection between 
 them and the state of Great Britain is, 
 and ought to be, totally dissolved; and 
 that, as free and independent states, they 
 have full power to levy war, conclude 
 peace, contract alliances, establish com- 
 merce, and to do all other acts and things 
 which independent states may of right 
 do. And, for the support of this declara- 
 tion, with a firm reliance on the protec- 
 tion of Divine Providence, we mutually 
 pledge to each other, our liA^es, our 
 fortunes, and our sacred honor. 
 
 The fifty-six signers of the Declaration 
 were as follows : Roger Sherman, Samuel 
 Huntington, William Williams, and 
 Oliver Wolcott, of Connecticut; Csesar 
 Rodney, George Read, and Thomas 
 McKean, of Delaware; Button Gwin- 
 nett, Lyman Hall, and George Walton, 
 of Georgia; Samuel Chase, William Paca, 
 Thomas Stone, and Charles Carroll of 
 Carrollton, of Jlaryland; John Hancock, 
 Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert 
 Treat Paine, and Elbridge Gerry, of 
 Massachusetts; Josiah Bartlett, William- 
 Whipple, and MattheAV Thornton, of 
 New Hampshire; Richard Stockton, 
 John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, 
 John Hart, and Abraham Clark, of New 
 Jersey; William Floyd, Philip Living- 
 ston, Francis Lewis, and Lewis IMorris, 
 of New York; William Hooper, Joseph 
 Hewes, and John Penn, of North Caro- 
 lina; Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, 
 Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, 
 George Clymer, James Smith, George 
 Taylor, James Wilson, and George Ross, 
 of Pennsylvania ; Stephen Hopkins and ' 
 William Ellery, of Rhode Island?^ 
 Edward Rutledge, Thomas He5’ward, • 
 Jun., Thomas Lynch. Jun., and Arthur 
 Middleton, of South Carolina; andi 
 George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, I 
 Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, J 
 Thomas Nelson, Jun., Francis Lightfoot^ 
 Lee, and Carter Braxton, of Virginia, '‘■t 
 
X' 
 
 m ^ 
 
 m' 
 
DECLARATION OF PARIS 
 
 DEER-STALKING 
 
 DECLARATION OF PARIS, an agree- 
 ment defining the regulations of mari- 
 time war, which was signed at Paris 
 April 16, 1856, by France, Britain, 
 Austria, Prussia, Russia, Turkey, and 
 Sardinia. By it privateering was 
 abolished, neutral goods under enemy’s 
 flag cannot be captured, and blockades 
 must be effective in order to be binding. 
 These rules are still in force and were 
 observed during the late Spanish Amer- 
 ican war. 
 
 DECLARATION OR AFFIRMATION, 
 SOLEMN, terms applied to the assevera- 
 tion made by a witness who, for any 
 reason, declines taking the oath. Al- 
 though the oath is not administered in 
 such cases, violation of the affirmation 
 constitute perjury. 
 
 DECLINATION, in astronomy, the 
 distance of a heavenly body from the 
 celestial equator (equinoctial), measured 
 on a great circle passing through the 
 pole and also through the body. It is 
 said to be north or south according as 
 the body is north or south of the equator. 
 Great circles passing through the poles, 
 and cutting the equator at right angles, 
 are called circles of declination. Twenty 
 four circles of declination, dividing the 
 equator into twenty-four arcs of 15° 
 each, are called hour circles or horary 
 circles — Declination of the compass or 
 needle, or magnetic declination, is the 
 variation of the magnetic needle from 
 the true meridian of a place. This is 
 different at different places, and at the 
 same place at different times. The de- 
 clination at London was 11° 15' e. in 
 1576, 0° in 1652, 19° 30' w. in 1760, 
 24° 27' w., its maximum, in 1815, 21° 
 6' w. in 1865, 19° 15' w. in 1870, and 
 17° 4' in ,1894. 
 
 DECOMPOSITION, Chemical, is the 
 separation of the constituents of a body 
 from one another. Roughly speaking — 
 for it is a difference of degree rather than 
 of kind — decomposition is either artifi- 
 cial or spontaneous. Artificial decom- 
 position is produced in bodies by the 
 action of heat, light, electricity or chemi- 
 cal reagents; spontaneous, in bodies 
 which quickly undergo change in 
 ordinary circumstances, unless special 
 precautions are taken to preserve them. 
 The bodies of the mineral, and the 
 definite crystallized principles of the 
 organic world, belong to the first; or- 
 ganized matter, such as animal and 
 vegetable tissues, organic fluids, such as 
 blood, milk, bile, and the complex non- 
 crystallized bodies, albumen, gelatine, 
 emulsine, etc., belong to the second. 
 
 DEC'ORATEDSTYLE,in architecture, 
 the second style of pointed (Gothic) 
 architecture, in use in Britain from the 
 end of the 13th to the beginning of the 
 15th century, when it passed into the 
 Perpendicular. It is distinguished from 
 the Early English, from which it was 
 developed, by the more flowing or wavy 
 lines of its tr§,cery, especially of its 
 windows, by the more graceful com- 
 binations of its foliage, by the greater 
 richness of the decorations of the capitals 
 of its columns, and of the moldings of 
 its doorways and niches, finials, etc., and 
 generally by a style of ornamentation 
 more profuse and naturalistic, though 
 perhaps somewhat florid. The most dis- 
 tinctive ornament . of the style is the 
 ' P. E.~2S 
 
 ball-flower, which is usually inserted in 
 a hollow molding. The Decorated style 
 has been divided into two periods, viz. 
 the Early or Geometrical Decorated pe- 
 riod, in which geometrical figures are 
 largely introduced in the ornamenta- 
 
 Decorated style— York cathedral, west front. 
 
 tion ; and the Decorated style proper, in 
 which the peculiar characteristics of the 
 style are exhibited. To this latter pe- 
 riod belong some of the finest monu- 
 ments of British architecture. 
 
 DECORATION DAY, a memorial day. 
 May 30, observed in the northern 
 states by decorating with flowers the 
 graves of soldiers who perished in the 
 civil war. It is observed in the south 
 by decorating the graves of the con- 
 federate dead. 
 
 DECREE', in general, an order, edict, 
 or law made by a superior as a rule to 
 govern inferiors. In law it is a judicial 
 decision or determination of a litigated 
 cause. 
 
 DEDICA'TION, the act of consecra- 
 ting something to a divine being, or to a 
 sacred use, often with religious solemni- 
 ties. Also an address prefixed to a book, 
 and formerly inscribed to a patron, 
 testifying respect and recommending 
 the work to his protection and favor; 
 now chiefly addressed to friends of the 
 author, or to public characters, simply 
 as a mark of affection or esteem. 
 
 DEDUC'TION, in reasoning, the act or 
 method of drawing inferences, or of 
 deducing conclusions from premises; or 
 that which is drawn from premises. See 
 Logic. 
 
 DEED, in law, a writing containing 
 some contract or agreement, and the 
 evidence of its execution, made between 
 parties legally capable of entering into a 
 contract or agreement; particularly 
 an instrument on paper or parchment, 
 conveying real estate to a purchaser or 
 donee. 
 
 DEEM'STER, an officer formerly 
 attached to the high court of justiciary 
 in Scotland, who formally pronounced 
 the doom or sentence of death on con- 
 demned criminals. The office was con- 
 joined with that of executioner. The 
 name is now given in the Isle of Man to 
 
 two judges who act as the chief-justices 
 of the island, the one presiding over the 
 northern, the other over the southern 
 division. They hold courts weekly at 
 Douglas, Ramsey, and other places. 
 
 DEEP SEA EXPLORATION, investi- 
 ation of the physical and organic con- 
 itions at the bottom of the sea. This 
 kind of investigation had its systematic 
 beginnings in 1873 with the Challenger 
 expedition backed by the British govern- 
 ment. Since that time much of interest 
 has been discovered by various explora- 
 tions. The deepest sounding was that 
 at Guam, of nearly six miles. Deep sea 
 dredging has disclosed numerous forms 
 of life unknown before. 
 
 DEER, a general name for the un- 
 gulate or hoofed ruminating animals 
 constituting the family Cervidae, of 
 which the typical genus is the stag 
 or red-deer. The distinguishing char- 
 acteristics of the genus are, that the 
 members of it have solid branching 
 horns which they shed every year, 
 and eight cutting teeth in the lower 
 jaw and none in the upper. The horns 
 or antlers always exist on the head 
 of the male, and sometimes on that of 
 the female. The forms of the horns are 
 various; sometimes they spread into 
 broad palms which send out sharp snags 
 around their outer edges; sometimes 
 they divide fantastically into branches, 
 some of which project over the forehead, 
 whilst others are reared upward in the 
 air; or they may be so reclined back- 
 ward that the animal seems almost 
 
 Blacktail. or mule-deer. 
 
 forced to carry its head in a stiff erect 
 posture. They are used as defensive 
 and offensive weapons, and grow with 
 great rapidity. There are many spe- 
 cies of deer, as the red-deer or stag, the 
 fallow-deer, the roebuck, the reindeer, 
 the moose, the elk. Deer are pretty 
 widely distributed over the world 
 though there are none in Australia and 
 few in Africa, where the antelopes (whose 
 horns are permanent) take their place. 
 The rein deer alone has been domesti- 
 cated. 
 
 DEERHOUND. See Staghound. 
 
 DEER-MOUSE, the common name of 
 the animals belonging to an American 
 genus of rodent animals allied to the 
 mice and the jerboas of the Old World. 
 The deer-mouse of Canada is a pretty 
 animal of the size of a mouse, with very 
 long hind-legs and tail, and very short 
 fore-legs. 
 
 DEER-STALKING, an exciting but 
 laborious mode of hunting the red-deer, 
 in which, on account of the extreme shy- 
 ness of the game, their far-sightedness 
 and keen sense of smell, they have to be 
 approached by cautious maneuvering 
 before a chance of obtaining a shot oc- 
 
DE FACTO 
 
 DEISM 
 
 curs. Great patience and tact and a 
 thorough knowledge of the ground are 
 essential to a good stalker, who has to 
 undergo many discomforts in crouching, 
 creeping, wading through bogs, etc. Ad- 
 vance from higher to lower ground is 
 usually made, since the deer are always 
 apt to look to the low ground^ as the 
 source of danger. “Deer-driving” to- 
 ward a point where the shooters are con- 
 cealed is often practiced, but is looked 
 on as poor sport by the true deer-stalker. 
 
 DE FACTO, a legal term meaning in 
 very fact, as opposed to de jure, which 
 means by legal right. The exercise of 
 de facto authority is always a usurpa- 
 tion. 
 
 DEFAMATION OF CHARACTER, the 
 
 publication or circulation of a report 
 injurious to the character or reputation 
 of a person. It is actionable when dam- 
 age has been done the individual de- 
 famed. 
 
 DEFAULT', in law, signifies generally 
 any neglect or omission to do something 
 which ought to be done. Its special 
 application is to the non-appearance of a 
 defendant in court when duly summoned 
 on an appointed day. If he fail to ap- 
 pear judgment may be demanded and 
 given against him by default. 
 
 DEFEND'ANT, in law, the party 
 against whom a complaint, demand, or 
 charge is brought ; one who is summoned 
 into court, and defends, denies, or op- 
 poses the demand or charge, and main- 
 tains his own right. The term is applied 
 even if ihe party admits the claim. 
 
 DEFENDER OF THE FAITH, a title 
 belonging to the King of England, as 
 Catholicus to the King of Spain, Chris- 
 tianissimus to the King of France, etc. 
 Leo X. bestowed the title of Defender of 
 the Faith on Henry VIII. in 1521, on 
 account of his book against Luther, and 
 the title has been used by the sovereigns 
 of England ever since. 
 
 DEFENSE, in law, the repulsion of an 
 attack on the person, the property, or 
 the family of an individual. There are 
 certain limitations to the rights which 
 vary in different states. 
 
 DEFILE, a narrow passage or way in 
 which troops may march only in a file, 
 or with a narrow front; a long narrow 
 pass, as between hills, etc. 
 
 DEFINITION, a brief and precise 
 description of a thing by its properties; 
 an explanation of the signification of a 
 word or term, or of what a word is under- 
 stood to express. 
 
 DEFOE (de-fo'), Daniel, an English 
 writer of great ingenuity and fertility, 
 was born in 1661 in London. In 1719 
 appeared the most popular of all his 
 writings; The Life and Surprising Ad- 
 ventures of Robinson Crusoe, the favor- 
 able reception of which was immediate 
 and universal. The success of Defoe in 
 this performance induced him to write a 
 number of other lives and adventures in 
 character; as Moll Flanders, Captain 
 Singleton, Roxana, Duncan Campbell, 
 The Memoirs of a Cavalier, Journal of 
 the Plague, etc. He died in London in 
 1731. 
 
 DEFORCEMENT, in law, the holding 
 of lands or tenements to which another 
 person has a right; a general term in- 
 cluding any species of wrong by which 
 he who has a right to the freehold is 
 
 kept out of possession. In Scots law, 
 it is the resisting of an officer in the exe- 
 cution of law. 
 
 DEFORMITY, a malformation whether 
 congenital or not, which mars the 
 symmetry of the body. It was formerly 
 believed that congenital deformities, 
 so called birth marks, were produced by 
 shocks to the mind of the mother while 
 bearing young. This idea is wholly 
 false. The child is never affected in 
 this way by the mental state of the 
 mother. Strawberry marks, and other 
 fancied resemblances of that kind, are 
 due to causes entirely apart from the 
 mother’s “state of mind.” These stories 
 are chiefly old women’s tales. 
 
 DEGENERACY, a very loose, un- 
 scientific term used to describe any 
 state of mind or body which deviates 
 highly from the normal type. Results of 
 atavism, reversion to ancestral type, 
 effects of nutrition, and numerous other 
 and more obscure traits have been 
 called degenerate. The term degen- 
 eracy has also been applied to epilepsy 
 in its thousand forms. The use of the 
 term is confusing and leads to unending 
 misunderstanding. 
 
 DEGREDATION, the ecclesiastical 
 censure by which a clergyman is divested 
 of his holy orders. 
 
 DEGREE', in geometry or trigonom- 
 etry, the 360th part of the circum- 
 ference of any circle, the circumference 
 of every circle being supposed to be 
 divided into 360 equal parts, called 
 degrees. A degree of latitude is the 
 360th part of the earth’s circumference 
 north or south of the equator, measured 
 on a great circle at right angles to the 
 equator, and a degree of longitude the 
 same part of the surface east or west of 
 any given meridian, measured on a 
 circle parallel to the equator. Degrees 
 are marked by a small-° near the top of 
 the last figure of the number which ex- 
 presses them; thus 45° is 45 degrees. 
 The degree is subdivided into sixty 
 equal parts called minutes; and the 
 minute is again subdivided into sixty 
 equal parts called seconds. Thus, 45° 
 12' 20" means 45 degrees, 12 minutes, 
 and 20 seconds. The magnitude or 
 quantity of angles is estimated in de- 
 grees and parts of a degree, because 
 equal angles at the center of a circle are 
 subtended by equal arcs, and equal 
 angles at the centers of different circles 
 are subtended by similar arcs, or arcs 
 containing the same number of degrees 
 and parts of a degrees. An angle is said 
 to be so many degrees as are contained 
 in the arc of any circle intercepted be- 
 tween the lines which contain the angle, 
 the angular point being the center of the 
 circle. Thus we say an angle of 90°, or 
 of 45° 24'. It is also usual to say that a 
 star is elevated so many degrees above 
 the horizon, or declines so many degrees 
 from the equator, or such a town is 
 situated in so many degrees of latitude 
 or longitude. The length of a degree 
 depends upon the radius of the circle 
 of the circumference of which it is a part, 
 the length being greater the greater the 
 length of the radius. Hence the length 
 of a degree of longitude is greatest at the 
 equator, and diminishes continually 
 toward the poles, at which it = 0. 
 Under the equator a degree of longitude 
 
 contains 60 geographical, and 695 
 statute miles. The degrees of latitude 
 are found to increase in length from the 
 equator to the poles. Oaring to the figure 
 of the earth. Numerous measurements 
 have been made in order to determine 
 accurately the length of degrees of lati- 
 tude and longitude at different parts of 
 the earth’s surface and thus settle its 
 dimensions and magnitude. When the 
 French determined to establish their 
 system of measures and weights based 
 upon the metre (see Decimal System), 
 they settled that this basis was to be the 
 ten-millionth part of the distance from 
 the equator to the pole, which distance 
 had to be found by accurate measure- 
 ment. Ten degrees of latitude were ac- 
 cordingly measured, from Dunldrk to 
 Formentera, one of the Balearic islands. 
 Similar measurements having been made 
 in Britain, the length of a total arc of 
 twenty degrees has been found. Many 
 measurements have also been made 
 elsewhere. The term is also applied 
 to the divisions, spaces, or intervals 
 marked on a mathematical, meteorologi- 
 cal, or other instrument, as a thermom- 
 eter or barometer. 
 
 DEGREE, in universities, a mark of 
 distinction conferred on students, mem- 
 bers, or distinguished strangers, .as a 
 testimony of their proficiency in the arts 
 or sciences, or as a mark of respect, the 
 former known as ordinary, the latter as 
 honorary degrees. The degrees are 
 bachelor, master, and doctor, and are 
 conferred (though not all of them) in 
 arts, letters or literature, science, medi- 
 cine, surgery, law, philosophy, divinity, 
 and music. Various universities now 
 admit women to degrees. 
 
 DEGREE, in algebra, a term used in 
 speaking of equations, to express what 
 is the highest power of the unknown 
 quantity. Thus if the index of that 
 power be 3 or 4 (x®, i/), the equation is 
 respectively of the third or fourth 
 degree. 
 
 DEHORNING, the art of depriving 
 cattle of their horns. It is done by a 
 huge pair of clippers, and although 
 painful to the animal, works out a 
 great saving in the long run by pre- 
 venting the animals from injuring one 
 another. After the operation the 
 animal becomes docile. The horn does 
 not regenerate. 
 
 DEI GRATIA (de'I gra'shi-a), a for- 
 mula which sovereigns add to their title. 
 The expression is taken from several 
 apostolical expressions in the New Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 DE'ISM, a philosophical system which, 
 as opposed to Atheism, recognizes a 
 great First Cause; as opposed to Pan- 
 theism, a Supreme Being distinct from 
 nature or the universe; while, as op- 
 posed to Theism, it looks upon God as 
 wholly apart from the concerns of this 
 world. It thus implies a disbelief in 
 revelation, skepticism as regards the 
 value of miraculous evidence, and an 
 assumption that the light of nature 
 and reason are the only guides in doc- 
 trine and practice. It is thus a phase of 
 Rationalism. In the 18th century there 
 were a series of writers who are spoken 
 of distinctively as the English deists. 
 They include Collins, Toland, Tindal, 
 etc. 
 
DE KOVEN 
 
 DELEGATE 
 
 DE KOVEit, Henry Louis Reginald, an 
 American song and light opera writer, 
 born in Connecticut in 1859. He 
 studied music in Europe and in 1882 
 settled in Chicago where he wrote and 
 produced Robin Hood, The Begum, 
 The Fencing Master, Rob Roy, The 
 Highwayman, Maid Marian and other 
 small operas. 
 
 DELACROIX (de-la-krwil), Ferdinand 
 Victor Eugene, an eminent French 
 painter, born 1799, died 1863. He is 
 considered the chief of the rnodern 
 French romantic school of painters. 
 His chief pictures up to 1830 are: Dante 
 and Virgil in the Infernal Regions, 
 Massacre in Scio, the Execution of the 
 Doge Marino Falieri, the Death of Sar- 
 danapalus, the Murder of the Bishop of 
 Lidge. In 1831 he joined the embassy 
 sent by Louis Philippe to the Emperor 
 of Morocco. To this journey we are in- 
 debted for several pictures remarkable 
 for their vivid realization of oriental life 
 as well as their rhasterly coloring. They 
 are: The Jewish Marriage, Muley Ab- 
 derrhaman With His Body-guard, Al- 
 gerian Ladies in Their Chamber, Moorish 
 Soldiers at Exercise, and several scenes 
 of eommon life. He decorated several of 
 the public buildings of Paris, and was 
 admitted into the Institute in 1857. 
 
 DELAGO'A BAY, in Southeast Africa, 
 a large sheet of water partly separated 
 from the Indian Ocean by the peninsula 
 and island of Inyack. The bay stretches 
 north and south upward of 40 miles, 
 with a breadth of from 16 to 20 miles, 
 and is situated near the southern ex- 
 tremity of the Portuguese possessions 
 here, which surround it. 
 
 DELAROCHE (de-la-rosh), Hippolyte, 
 probably the greatest painter of the 
 French school, born in Paris in 1797, 
 died 1856. He studied landscape-paint- 
 ing for a short time, but applied himself 
 
 Hippolyte Delaroche. 
 
 afterward to historical painting, and 
 rapidly rose to eminence. His subjects 
 are principally taken from French and 
 English history. His merits consist in 
 correct drawing, appropriate expression, 
 harmonious color, and great distinctness 
 and perspicuity in treatment, rendering 
 the story of his pictures at once intelligi- 
 ble. He held a middle place between the 
 classical and the romantic schools, and 
 is regarded as the leader of the so-called 
 “eclectic school.” 
 
 DEL'AWARE, a river of the United 
 States, which rises in Catskill Moun- 
 
 tains in New York, separates Pennsyl- 
 vania from New Ifork and New Jersey, 
 and New Jersey from Delaware, and 
 loses itself in Delaware Bay. It has a 
 course of about 300 miles, and is naviga- 
 ble for smaller craft to the head of tide- 
 water at Trenton (155 miles). 
 
 DELAWARE, one of the original 
 thirteen United States of North Amer- 
 ica, and, next, to Rhode Island, the 
 smallest state in the Union, named after 
 Lord Delaware, one of the early gover- 
 
 nors of Virginia. It is bounded north by 
 Pennsylvania, east by the Delaware 
 River and Bay and by the ocean, south 
 and west by Maryland; area, 2120 
 square miles. It is divided into three 
 counties, Kent, Newcastle, and Sus,‘ex, 
 and has nearly the form of a right- 
 angled triangle (hence its popular name 
 “the diamond state”). In the south and 
 toward the coast the surface is very 
 level, but the north part is rather hilly. 
 An elevated swampy table-land toward 
 the west traverses the state, forming 
 the water-shed between the Bay of 
 Chesapeake and the Delaware. 
 
 Situated on the eastern coast of the 
 continent, Delaware has a temperate 
 climate, with a considerable range of 
 temperature and an ample rainfall. 
 
 The soils are sedimentary, derived 
 from the underlying tertiary rocks. In 
 the rolling northern portion of the state 
 the soil is clay, passing through me 
 various gradations from a heavy clay 
 to a loamy clay, and is well adapted to 
 raising fruits, grasses, grains. In the 
 undulating middle section, approxi- 
 mately covered by Kent County, the 
 soil is generally loamy. Hero fruits, 
 berries, vegetables, and the vine flourish. 
 In the flat southern section of Sussex 
 County the soil is sandy, with here and 
 there outcrops of loamy clay. This 
 region is best adapted for strawberry and 
 peach culture, and the canning and dry- 
 ing of fruits are important industries. 
 
 Agriculture is the leading industry, 
 farms constituting 85 per cent of the 
 total land surface. During the last 
 half-century there has been a continuous 
 and marked increase in the number of 
 farms, and a corresponding decrease in 
 the average size. 
 
 In no state have fertilizers become so 
 generally used, the average amount per 
 farm (S55.65) being three times that for 
 the North Atlantic states. There has 
 been a marked increase during the de- 
 ; cade in the two principal crops — corn 
 
 and wheat. The wheat acreage is several 
 times that for all the New England 
 states. The other cereals are relatively 
 unimportant. The oats crop has de- 
 creased to one-third the acreage of 1890. 
 Hay ranks third in acreage. Orchard 
 and small fruits have long constituted 
 one of the main sources of income. 
 
 The manufacturing industry employs 
 over 22,000 people, and rivals agriculture 
 in importance. The falls noar the mouth 
 of the Brandywine have been, from an 
 early date extensively utilized for manu- 
 facturing purposes. The manufacture 
 of iron and steel products leads in im- 
 portance. This industry includes steel 
 and rolling mills, car-shops, foundry and 
 machine shops, and ship-building yards. 
 
 A number of the trunk lines connect- 
 ing the East with the South and West 
 pass through the northern part of the 
 state. Chesapeake and Delaware bays 
 are connected by a canal 13^- miles long, 
 66 feet wide, and 10 feet deep. This 
 work was completed in 1829, at a cost of 
 $2,250,000. The masrive breakwater 
 at Lewes was begun in 1828, and com- 
 pleted in 1869, at a cost of over $2,000,- 
 000. There is some foreign commerce 
 direct _ through Wilmington, but such 
 trade is generally through Baltimore or 
 some northern port. The coasting trade 
 is important, especially with New York, 
 with which Wilmington is connected by 
 a line of steamers. Wilmington is a 
 customs disti’ict, and there are deputy 
 collectors at New Castle and Lewes. 
 The capital is Dover. In National 
 elections the state in 1888 and 1892 
 went Democratic ; in 1896, 1900, 1904 
 and 1908, Republican. Pop, 1909, 
 200,000. 
 
 DELAWARE, a city and the county- 
 seat of Delaware County, Ohio, 24 miles 
 north of Columbus, on the Whetstone 
 (Olentangy) River, and on the Cleveland, 
 Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis, the 
 Columbus, Sandusky and Hocking, 
 and the Columbus, Hocking Valley and 
 Toledo railroads. Population, 11,000. 
 
 DELAWARE BAY, an estuary or arm 
 of the sea between the states of Dela- 
 ware and New Jersey. At the entrance, 
 near Cape Henlopen, is situated the 
 Delaware Breakwater, which affords 
 vessels a shelter within the cape. It 
 was erected by the Federal government 
 and cost about $300,000. 
 
 DELAWARE COLLEGE, founded at 
 Newark, Del., in 1833. It has an annual 
 income of $45,000 and a library of 13,000 
 volumes. There is also here a valuable 
 government agricultural experiment sta- 
 tion. 
 
 DELAWARE INDIANS, a tribe be- 
 longing to the Algonquin family, origin- 
 ally known as living on the Delaware 
 river, and called by themselves Lenni 
 Lenape. They had to leave their original 
 settlements about the middle of last 
 century, going farther W'est, and latterly 
 they were removed to the Indian Terri- 
 tory. Their numbers are now insignifi- 
 cant. 
 
 DELAWARE WATER GAP, a gorge 
 in the Appalachian chain near Strouds- 
 burg, Pa. The Delaware River flows 
 through it, 1400 feet below the top of the 
 sides of the gorge. 
 
 DEL'EGATE, a person appointed and 
 sent by another or by others, with 
 
DELFT 
 
 DEMAND AND SUPPLY 
 
 powers to transact business as his or 
 their representative. The title was 
 given to members of the first continental 
 congress in America, 1774. Representa- 
 tives to congress from the U. S. terri- 
 tories are still designated by this term. 
 They have the right of discussion, but 
 have no vote. 
 
 DELFT, formerly Delf, a town, Hol- 
 land, 8 miles n.w Rotterdam, inter- 
 sected in all directions by canals. Delft 
 was formerly the center of the manu- 
 
 is densely occupied by the shops and 
 dwellings of the native population; the 
 streets are narrow and turtuous, but 
 some of the main thoroughfares of the 
 city are splendid streets, the chief being 
 the Chandni Chauk, or Silver Street. 
 During the mutiny Delhi was seized by 
 the Sepoys, who held possession for four 
 months, during which many atrocities 
 were committed. Pop. 208,385. 
 
 DELIQUES'CENCE, a change of form 
 from the solid to the liquid state, by the 
 
 DE'LOS, an island of great renown 
 among the ancient Greeks, fabled to be 
 the birthplace of Apollo. It was a center 
 of his worship, ana the site of a famous 
 oracle. It is the eentral and smallest 
 island of the Cyclades, in the ^Egean 
 Sea, a rugged mass of granite about 12 
 square miles in extent. Abundant ruins 
 of its former magnificence yet exist, and 
 excavations resulting in interesting 
 archaeological discoveries have recently 
 been made. 
 
 DELPHI, an ancient Greek town, 
 originally called Pytho, the seat of the 
 famous oracle of Apollo, was situated in 
 Phocis, on the southern side of Parnas- 
 sus, about 8 miles north of the Corin- 
 thian Gulf. It was also one of the meet- 
 ing-places of the Amphictyonic Council, 
 and near it were held the Pythian games. 
 The oracles were delivered by the mouth 
 of a priestess who was seated on a 
 tripod above a subterranean opening, 
 whence she received the vapors ascend- 
 ing from beneath, and with them the in- 
 spiration of the Delphian god. The 
 oracular replies were alwa 5’8 obscure and 
 ambiguous; yet they served, in earlier 
 times, in the hands of the priests, to 
 regulate and uphold the political, civil 
 and religious relations of Greece. 
 
 DELTA, the name of the Greek letter 
 A, answering to the English D. The 
 island formed by the alluvial deposits 
 between the mouths of the Nile, from 
 its resemblance to this letter, was named 
 Delta by the Greeks; and the same 
 name has since been extended to those 
 alluvial tracts at the mouths of great 
 rivers which, like the Nile, empty them- 
 selves into the sea by two or more di- 
 verging branches. 
 
 DEL'UGE, the universal inundation 
 which, according to the Mosaic history, 
 took place to punish the great iniquity 
 of mankind. It was produced, according 
 to Genesis, by a rain of forty days; and 
 covered the earth 15 cubits above the 
 tops of the highest mountains, and 
 killed every living creature except Noah, 
 with his family, and the animals which 
 entered the ark by the command of God. 
 Many other nations mention, in “the 
 mythological or prehistoric part of their 
 history, inundations which, in their 
 essential particulars, agree with the 
 Scriptural account of Noah’s preser- 
 vation, each nation localizing the chief 
 events and actors as connected with 
 itself. 
 
 DEMAGOGUE (dem'a-gog), originally 
 simply one who leans or directs the 
 people in political matters; now it 
 usually means one who acquires in- 
 fluence with the populace by pandering 
 to their prejudices or playing on their 
 ignorance. 
 
 DEMAND AND SUPPLY, the law 
 which, it was formerly believed, regu- 
 lated prices. Price really determines 
 demand, not the reverse. The whole 
 quantit}’’ of goods in the market repre- 
 sents the demand for goods in the 
 market. Demand and desire for goods 
 are not the same thing. Demand is 
 desire for commodities plus the ability 
 to pay. When the supply of a commod- 
 ity is large, the price is low and the 
 demand great. When the supply is 
 small the price is high and the demand 
 small. 
 
 The town-hall. Delft. 
 
 facture of the pottery called delft-ware ; 
 its chief industries now embrace car- 
 pets, leather, soap, oil, gin, etc. Pop. 
 27,131. 
 
 DELFT-WARE, or Delf, is a kind of 
 pottery covered with an enamel or white 
 glazing which gives it the appearance of 
 porcelain. It was originally manufac- 
 tured in Delft in the 14th century, is 
 now considered coarse, but was among 
 the best of its day. 
 
 DELHI (del'i), a city of Hindustan, in 
 the Punjab, anciently capital of the 
 Patan and Mogul Empires, about 954 
 miles n.w. Calcutta. It was at one time 
 the largest city in Hindustan, covering 
 a space of 20 square miles, and having a 
 population of 2,000,000. A vast tract 
 covered with the ruins of palaces, pavil- 
 ions, baths, gardens, mausoleums, etc., 
 marks the extent of the ancient metrop- 
 olis. The present city abuts on the 
 right bank of the Jumna, and is sur- 
 rounded on three sides by a lofty stone 
 wall 5^ miles long. The palace or resi- 
 dence of the Great Mogul, built by Shah 
 Jehan, commenced in 1631, and now 
 known as “the fort,” is situated in the 
 east of the city, and abuts directly on 
 the river. It is .surrounded on three 
 sides by an embattled wall of reddish 
 sandstone nearly 60 feet high, with 
 round towers at intervals, and a gateway 
 on the west and south. Since the mutiny 
 in 1857 a great portion has been demol- 
 ished in order to make room for military 
 barracks. One of the most remarkable 
 objects in the city is the Jamma Musjid 
 or Great Mosque, a magnificent struc- 
 ture in the Byzantine-Arabic style, 
 built by the Emperor Shah Jehan in the 
 17th century. The East Indian Rail- 
 way enters the city by a bridge over the 
 Jumna. The s.w quarter of the town 
 
 absorption of moisture from the atmos- 
 phere. It occurs in many bodies, such as 
 caustic potash, carbonate of potassium, 
 acetate of potassium, chloride of cal- 
 cium, chloride of copper, chloride of 
 zinc, etc. 
 
 DELIR'IUM, a temporary disordered 
 state of the mental faculties occurring 
 during illness either of a febrile or of an 
 exhausting nature. It may be the effect 
 of disordered or inflammatory action 
 affecting the brain itself, or it may be 
 sympathetic with active disease in other 
 parts of the body, as the heart; it may 
 be caused by long-continued and ex- 
 hausting pain, and by a state of inanition 
 of ;.hc nervous system. 
 
 DELIRIUM TRE'MENS, an affection 
 of the brain which arises from the in- 
 ordinate and protracted use of ardent 
 spirits. It is therefore almost peculiar 
 to drunkards. The principal symptoms 
 of this disease, as its name imports, are 
 delirium and trembling. The delirium 
 is a constant symptom, but the tremor 
 is not always present, or, if present is 
 not always perceptible. Frequently the 
 sufferer thinks he sees the most frightful, 
 grotesque, or extraordinary objeets, and 
 may thus be put into a state of extreme 
 terror. It is properly a disease of the 
 nervous system. The common treat- 
 ment is to administer soporifics so as to 
 get the patient to sleep. 
 
 DE LONG, George Washington, an 
 American explorer and naval officer, 
 born in New York City in 1844, died in 
 
 1881. He was an officer of the Juniata 
 when that ship went to search for the 
 Polaris in 1873. He commanded the 
 Jeanette in her polar expedition of 
 1879 and perished of starvation in that 
 expedition. His body was found in 
 
 1882. 
 
DEMENTIA 
 
 DENARIUS 
 
 DEMEN'TIA, a form of insanity in 
 which unconnected and imperfectly de- 
 fined ideas chase each other rapidly 
 through the mind, the powers of con- 
 tinued attention and reflection being 
 lost. It often implies such general 
 feebleness of the mental faculties as may 
 occur in old age. 
 
 DEMERA'RA, or Demarara, a divi- 
 sion of British Guiana, which derives its 
 name from the river Demarara or De- 
 merara. It extends about 100 miles 
 along the coast, lying on the east of 
 Essequibo and on the west of Berbice. 
 The soil is very fertile, producing abun- 
 dant crops of sugar, coffee, cotton, rice, 
 etc. Chief town, Georgetown. Pop. of 
 province, 125,000. — The river, after a 
 course of about 120 miles, flows into the 
 Atlantic. 
 
 DEMESNE (de-man'), or Domain, in 
 law, a manor-house and the land adja- 
 cent or near, which a lord keeps in his 
 own hands or immediate occupation, for 
 the use of his family, as distinguished 
 from his tenemental lands, distributed 
 among his tenants. 
 
 DEMET'RIUS, or DMITRI, the name 
 of a series of impostors who usurped 
 supreme authority in Russia, and led to 
 some of its remarkable revolutions. 
 
 DEMET'RIUS, king af ancient Mace- 
 donia, son of Antigonus, a successor of 
 Alexander the Great, was born about 
 B.c. 339, and died in Syria 283 b.c. 
 
 DEMI-MONDE, an expression first 
 used by the younger Dumas in a drama of 
 the same name (first performed in 1855), 
 to denote that class of gay female ad- 
 venturers who are only half-acknowl- 
 edged in society; popularly, disrepu- 
 table female society; courtezans. 
 
 DEMISE', in law, a grant by lease; it 
 is applied to an estate either in fee- 
 simple, fee-tail, or for a term of life or 
 years. As applied to the crown of Eng- 
 land, demise signifies its transmission to 
 the next heir on being laid down by the 
 sovereign at death. 
 
 DEMISEMIQUAVER, in music, half a 
 semiquaver, or the thirty second part 
 of a semibreve. 
 
 DEMOC'RACY, the rule of a people by 
 the people themselves; that form of 
 government in which the sovereignty of 
 the state is vested in the people, and 
 exercised by them either directly, as in 
 the small republics of ancient Greece, or 
 indirectly, by means of representative 
 institutions, as in the constitutional 
 states of modern times. The term is 
 also applied in a collective sense to the 
 
 article. 
 
 DEM'OCRAT, one who adheres to 
 democracy. In the U. States, a member 
 of one of the two great political parties 
 into which that country is divided; op- 
 posed to republican. The main features 
 of their system of principles are decen- 
 tralization and self-government of the 
 states. 
 
 DEMOC'RITUS, a Greek philosopher 
 of the new Eleatic school, a native of 
 Abdera, who was born between 470 and 
 460 B.c. He explained the origin of the 
 world by the eternal motion of an in- 
 finite number of invisible and indivisible 
 bodies or atoms, which differ from one 
 another in form, position, and arrange- 
 
 ment, and which have a primary motion, 
 which brings them into contact, and 
 forms innumerable combinations, the 
 result of which is seen in the productions 
 and phenomena of nature. In this way 
 the universe was formed, fortuitously, 
 without the interposition of a First 
 Cause. The eternal existence of atoms 
 (of matter in general) he inferred from 
 the consideration that time could be 
 conceived only as eternal and without 
 beginning. He applied his atomical 
 theory, also, to natural philosophy and 
 astronomy. Even the gods W con- 
 sidered to have arisen from atoms, and 
 to be perishable like the rest of things 
 existing. In his ethical philosophy 
 Democritus considered the acquisition of 
 peace of mind as the highest aim of 
 existence. He is said to have written a 
 great deal; but nothing has come to us 
 except a few fragments. He died 370 
 B.C., at an advanced age. His school 
 was supplanted by that of Epicurus. 
 
 DE'MON, a spirit or immaterial being 
 of supernatural but limited powers, 
 especially an evil or malignant spirit. 
 Among the ancient Greeks the name 
 was given to beings similar to those 
 spiritual existences called angels in the 
 Bible. In the New Testament evil 
 spirits are called demons (commonly 
 translated "devils”). A belief in demons 
 is found in the oldest religions of the 
 East. Buddhism reckons six classes of 
 beings in the universe: two, gods and 
 men, are accounted good; the other 
 four are malignant spirits. The Per- 
 sians and the Egyptians had also a 
 complete system of demons; and in 
 Europe, up till the middle ages, the 
 divinities of oriental, classical, and Scan- 
 dinavian mythology often figure, from 
 the Christian point of view, as evil 
 spirits. In later times phases of de- 
 monology may be seen in the witchcraft 
 mania and the spiritualism of the 
 present day. 
 
 DEMO'NIAC, a person whose mental 
 faculties are overpowered, and whose 
 body is possessed and actuated by some 
 created spiritual being; especially a 
 person possessed of or controlled by 
 evil spirits. The New Testament has 
 many narratives of demoniacs, and 
 various opinions are entertained in 
 regard to the character of their affliction. 
 
 DEMONOLOGY, the science which 
 studies the various beliefs and supersti- 
 tions of men concerning the existence of 
 personal devils, or evil powers invisible 
 to human eyes, but exerting an impor- 
 tant influence or human affairs. De- 
 mons have existed in the beliefs of all 
 peoples and do still exist in the belief of 
 many. Faith in a personal devil is one 
 of the scriptural qualifications of a 
 Christian, however much the idea may 
 be ridiculed by modern teachers. Nu- 
 merous works have been written upon 
 the science of demonology. (See Demon). 
 
 DEMONSTRATION, in a logical sense, 
 any mode of connecting a conclusion 
 with its premises, or an effect with its 
 cause. In a more rigorous sense it is 
 applied only to those modes of proof in 
 which the conclusion necessarily follows 
 from the premises. In ordinary lan- 
 guage, however, demonstration is often 
 used as synonymous with proof. 
 
 DEMOS'THENES (-ngz), the famous 
 ancient Greek orator. He was born in 
 382 (according to some in 385) b.c. He 
 thundered against Philip of Macedon in 
 his orations known as the Philippics, and 
 endeavored to instil into his fellow-citi- 
 zens the hatred which animated his own 
 bosom. He labored to get all the Greeks 
 to combine against the encroachments 
 of Philip, but their want of patriotism 
 and Macedonian gold frustrated his 
 efforts. He was present at the battle of 
 Chaeroneia (380 b.c.), in which the 
 Athenians and Boeotians were defeated 
 by Philip, and Greek liberty crushed. 
 On the accession of Alexander in 336 
 Demosthenes tried to stir up a general 
 rising against the Macedonians, but 
 Alexander at once adopted measures of 
 extreme severity, and Athens sued for 
 mercy. It was with difficulty that 
 Demosthenes escaped being delivered up 
 to the conqueror. In 324 he was im- 
 prisoned on a false charge of having 
 received a bribe from one of Alexander's 
 generals, but managed to escape into 
 exile. On the death of Alexander next 
 year he was recalled, but the defeat of 
 the Greeks by Antipater caused him to 
 seek refuge in the temple of Poseidon, 
 in the island of Calauria, on the coast of 
 Greece, where he poisoned himself to 
 escape from the emissaries of Antipater 
 (322 b.c ). The character of Demos- 
 thenes is by most modern scholars con- 
 sidered almost spotless. His fame as 
 an orator is equal to that of Homer as a 
 poet. Cicero pronounces him to be 
 the most perfect of all orators. He 
 carried Greek prose to a degree of per- 
 fection which it never before had reach- 
 ed. Everything in his speeches is 
 natural, vigorous, concise, symmetrical 
 
 DEMURR'AGE, in maritime law, the 
 time during which a vessel is detained 
 by the freighter beyond that originally 
 stipulated, in loading or unloading. 
 When a vessel is thus detained she is 
 said to be on demurrage. The name is 
 also given to the compensation which 
 the freighter has to pay for such delay 
 or detention. Demurrage must be 
 paid though it be proved the delay is 
 inevitable; but it cannot be claimed 
 where it arises from detention by an 
 enemy, tempestuous weather, or through 
 the fault of the owner, captain, or crew. 
 The term is applied also to detention of 
 freight by railroads. 
 
 DEMURRER, in law, a stop at some 
 point in the pleadings, and a resting of 
 the decision of the cause on that point; 
 an issue on matter of law. A demurrer 
 confesses the fact or facts to be true, 
 but denies the sufficiency of the facts in 
 point of law to support the claim or 
 defense. 
 
 DEMY', a size of writing paper 16x21 
 inches intervening between cap 14x17 
 inches and folio 17x22 inches. Printing 
 demy measures 24x36 inches. Double 
 demy is 36x48 inches. 
 
 DENARIUS, a Roman silver coin 
 worth 10 asses or 10 lbs. of copper orig- 
 inally, and afterward considered equal 
 to 16 asses, when the weight of the as 
 was reduced to an ounce on account of 
 the scarcity of silver. The denarius was 
 equivalent to about 15 cents There 
 was also a gold denarius ecjual in value 
 to 25 silver ones. 
 
DENBIGH 
 
 DENMARK 
 
 DENBIGH (den'bi), a county of North 
 Wales, on the Irish Sea; area, 392,005 
 acres, of which about a fourth is arable. 
 Barley, oats, and potatoes are grown on 
 the uplands; and in the rich valleys 
 wheat, beans, and pease. Cattle and 
 sheep are reared, and dairy husbandry 
 is carried on to a considerable extent. 
 The minerals consist of lead, iron, coal, 
 freestone, slate, and millstone. Flannels, 
 coarse cloths, and stockings are manu- 
 factured. The principal rivers are the 
 Clwyd, the Dee, and the Conway Pop. 
 129,933. — The county town Denbigh is 
 a municipal and parliamentary borough 
 near the center of the Vale of Clwyd, 
 25 miles w. of Chester. Pop. 6439; of 
 dist. of boroughs, 26,934. 
 
 DEN'DRITE, a stone or mineral, on 
 or in which are figures resembling shrubs, 
 trees, or mosses. The appearance is 
 due to arborescent crystallization, re- 
 sembling the frostwork on our vdndows. 
 The figures generally appear on the sur- 
 faces of fissures and in joints in rocks, 
 and are attributable to tlie presence of 
 the hydrous oxide of manganese, which 
 generally assumes such a form. 
 
 DENIS, St., a town in France, depart- 
 ment of the Seine, 6 miles north of Paris, 
 lying within the lines of forts surround- 
 ing the capital. It contains the famous 
 abbey church of St. Denis, a noble 
 Gothic structure in part dating from the 
 11th century or earlier. The church is 
 about 354 feet long and 92 high. The 
 town has tanneries, breweries, manu- 
 factories of calicoes, gelatine, soda, etc. 
 Pop. 50,992. 
 
 DENISON, a city in Grayson county, 
 Tex., 72 miles north by east of Dallas, 
 on the Missouri, Kansas and Texas, the 
 Texas and Pacific, the Houston and 
 Texas Central, and the Saint Louis and 
 San Francisco railroads. Pop. 13,510. 
 
 DEN'MARK, a northern kingdom of 
 Europe, consisting of a peninsular por- 
 tion called Jutland, and an extensive 
 archipelago lying east of it and com- 
 prising the islands of Seeland (or Sjal- 
 land), Fiinen (or Fyen), Laaland (or Lol- 
 land), Falster, Langeland, Moen, Samso, 
 Laso, Arro, Bornholm, and many smaller 
 ones. Besides these there are the out- 
 lying possessions of Iceland, Greenland, 
 and the Faroe Islands in the Atlantic 
 Ocean, and Santa Cruz, St. Thomas, and 
 St. John in the West Indies. The area 
 of the home possessions is 15,388 sq. 
 miles of which Jutland occupies 9755; 
 the ])op. in 1908, 2,535,660. Including 
 Iceland, part of Greenland, etc., the 
 total area of the Danish possessions is 
 102,022 sq. miles ; pop. 2,706,550. Co- 
 penhagen is the capital. For administra- 
 tive purposes Denmark is divided into 
 eighteen provinces or districts, besides 
 the capital, nine of these making up Jut- 
 land, wliile the others embrace the 
 islands. 
 
 On the south Denmark is bounded by 
 Germany and the Baltic i on the west it 
 
 is washed by the North Sea; northward it 
 is separated from Norway by the Skagei-- 
 rack; eastward it is separated from 
 Sweden by the Kattegat and the Sound. 
 Denmark, whether insular or mainland, 
 is a very low-lying country, the eastern 
 side of Jutland where the highest eleva- 
 tion occurs, not exceeding 550 feet. The 
 country was once covered with great 
 forests, but these have disappeared, and 
 Denmark is largely dependent on other 
 countries for her supplies of timber. 
 Woods of some extent still exist, how- 
 ever, especially in the islands. In ear- 
 liest perhistoric times (the stone age) 
 the Scotch fir was the prevailing tree 
 and suljsequently the oak. The prin- 
 cipal tree now is the beech, the oak form- 
 ing but a small portion of the timber of 
 Denmark. The elm, ash, willow, aspen, 
 and birch are met with in small numbers 
 or singly. Pine forests have been plant- 
 ed in the north of Jutland and else- 
 where. Denmark has numerous streams 
 but no large rivers; the principal is the 
 Guden, which flows northeast through 
 Jutland into the Kattegat. It is naviga- 
 ble for part of its course. The lakes are 
 very numerous but not large, none ex- 
 ceeding 5^ miles in length by about \\ 
 miles broad. Copenhagen, Aalborg, 
 Aarhuus, and Randers are the chief 
 seaports. Ov/ing to the lowness of the 
 
 Danish mansion— Castle on the island ot 
 Piinen. 
 
 land and its proximity to the sea on all 
 sides, the climate is remarkably tem- 
 perate for so northerly a region, though 
 the thermometer in winter may sink 
 to 22° below zero, and in summer rise 
 to 89°. Violent winds are frequent, and 
 rains and fogs prevalent, but the climate 
 is favorable to vegetation. 
 
 The agricultural land is greatly sub- 
 divided, as the law interdicts the union 
 of small farms into larger. Among crops 
 the greatest area is occupied by oats, 
 which are grown all over the country, 
 but best in Jutland. Barley is grown 
 chiefly in Seeland, and is largely used 
 in brewing beer, the common beverage 
 of the country. Rye is extensively 
 raised, and the greater part of the bread 
 used in Denmark is made from it. Tur- 
 nips, beans, pease, flax, hemp, hops, 
 tobacco, etc., are also grown; but in 
 general cattle-breeding, grazing, and the 
 
 dairy take up most of the farmers’ atten- 
 tion in Denmark. 
 
 The commerce of Denmark is carried 
 on chiefly with Great Britain, Germany, 
 Norway, Sweden, and Russia, Great 
 Britain possessing the larger share, and 
 Germany coming ^ little behind her. 
 The chief imports are textile manufac- 
 tures, metal goods, coal, timber, oil, 
 coffee, sugar, tobacco, fruit, etc. The 
 chief exports are butter (the most im- 
 portant item), cattle, horses, and swine, 
 bacon, grain, hides, eggs, and other 
 edibles. The Danish mercantile marine 
 has a total tonnage of about 416,500 
 tons. The railways have a length of 
 about 1300 miles. 
 
 The population of Denmark is com- 
 posed almost exclusively of Danes, with 
 a few thousand Jews and others. The 
 Danes have regular features, fair or 
 brownish hair, and blue eyes. .\t the 
 head of the educational institutions 
 stand the University of Copenhagen and 
 the Holberg Academy at Soroe. The 
 provinces are well supplied with gym- 
 nasia and middle schools, and primary 
 instruction is given at the public ex- 
 pense in the parochial schools. It is rare 
 to meet a peasant who cannot read and 
 write even among the poorer class. 
 
 The government of Denmark was 
 originally an elective monarchy. In 
 1661 it became a hereditary and abso- 
 lute monarchy, and in 1849 a hereditary 
 constitutional one, the legislative power 
 being in the king and diet jointly. The 
 diet or Rigsdag consists of two chambers, 
 the Landsthing or upper house, the 
 Folkething or lower house. The army 
 consists of all the able bodied young men 
 of the kingdom who have arrived at the 
 age of twenty-one years. The time of 
 service is eight years in the regular 
 troops, and afterward eight more in the 
 reserve. Every corps has to drill for 
 thirty to forty-five days every year. 
 The army on a war footing has a total 
 strength of about 60,000 men. The navy 
 is of no great strength. 
 
 History. — The oldest inhabitants of 
 Denmark whom we find mentioned by 
 name were the Cimbri, who dwelt in the 
 peninsula of Jutland, thq Chersonesus 
 Cimbrica of the Romans. They first 
 struck terror into the Romans by their 
 incursion, with the Teutones, into the 
 rich provinces of Gaul (113-101 n.c.). 
 After this, led by the mysterious Odin, 
 the Goths broke into Scandinavia, and 
 appointed chiefs from their own nation 
 over Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. 
 For a considerable time Denmark was 
 divided into a number of small states, 
 whose inhabitants lived mostly by piracy 
 along the neighboring coasts. In 787 
 they began to make their descents on the 
 eastern coasts of England, and along 
 with other inhabitants of Scandinavia 
 they conquered Normandy in 876-7. 
 Under Gorm the Old all the small Danish 
 states were united in 920, and his grand- 
 son Sweyn, now the head of a powerful 
 kingdom, commenced the conquest of 
 Norway and of England, which was 
 ultimately completed by his son Canute 
 Canute died in 1035, lea^^ng a powerful 
 kingdom to his successors, who, in 1042, 
 lost England, and in 1047 Norway. In 
 .1047 Sweyn Magnus Estridsen ascended 
 the throne, but with the exception of 
 
DENNISON 
 
 DENVER 
 
 the great Waldemar the new dynasty 
 furnished no worthy ruler, and the power 
 of the kingdom decayed considerably 
 till the accession of the politic Queen 
 Margaret in 1387, who established the 
 union of Calmar in 1397 uniting under 
 her rule Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. 
 In 1448 Christian I., count of Oldenburg 
 was elected to the throne, thus founding 
 the royal family of Oldenburg, which 
 kept possession of the throne till 1863. 
 Under the rule of Christina, Norway, 
 Sweden, Schleswig, and Holstein were 
 connected with the crown of Denmark, 
 but under his successor Christian II. 
 Sweden established its independence. 
 Under Frederick I. (1523-33) the re- 
 formation was introduced. Christian 
 IV of Denmark ascended the throne in 
 1588, took paid in the Thirty Years’ 
 war, and engaged twice in a war with 
 Sweden, with most unfortunate results. 
 Frederick III. again engaging in war 
 with Sweden in 1657 was equally unsuc- 
 cessful, Christian V. and Frederick IV. 
 were conquered in the war with Charles 
 XII. Denmark, however, after the fall 
 of Charles XII., gained by the Peace of 
 1720 the toll on the Sound, and main- 
 tained possession of Schleswig. After 
 this Denmark enjoyed a long repose. 
 In 1800, having acceded to the northern 
 confederacy, the kingdom was involved 
 in a war with Great Britain, in which 
 the Danish fleet was defeated at Copen- 
 hagen April 2, 1801. In 1807, there 
 being reason to think that Denmark 
 would join the alliance with France, a 
 British fleet was sent up the Sound to 
 demand a defensive alliance or the sur- 
 render of the Danish fleet as a pledge 
 of neutrality. Both were denied, till the 
 Danish capital was bombarded and 
 forced to capitulate, the whole fleet being 
 delivered up to the British. The war, 
 however, was continued, Denmark form- 
 ing new alliances with Napoleon till 
 1814, when a peace was concluded by 
 which she ceded Heligoland to England 
 in exchange for the Danish West India 
 Islands, and Norway to' Sweden in ex- 
 change for Swedish Pomerania and 
 Rugen, which, however, she shortly 
 after surrendered to Prussia, receiving 
 in return Lauenburg and a pecuniary 
 compensation. In June 1815 the king 
 entered into the German confederacy 
 as representing Holstein and Lauenburg. 
 In 1 848 Schleswig and Holstein revolted 
 and were not Anally subdued till 1852. 
 In 1857 the Sound dues were abolished. 
 Frederick VII. died in 1863 and with 
 him the Oldenburg line became extinct. 
 He_ was succeeded by Christian IX. 
 (Prince of Sonderburg-Glucksburg). At 
 the commencement of 1864 the Danish 
 territory was politically distributed 
 into four parts, viz. Denmark Proper 
 (consisting of the Danish islands and 
 North Jutland), the duchy of Schleswig 
 or South Jutland, with a population 
 more than one-half Danish, the remain- 
 der Frisian and German; the duchy of 
 Lauenburg, also German. The measures 
 of the Danish government compelling 
 the use of the Danish language in state 
 schools having given great umbrage to 
 the (jerman population of the duchies, 
 the disputes resulted in the intervention 
 of the German confederation, and 
 ultimately Holstein was occupied by the 
 
 troops of Austria and Prussia (1864). 
 After a short campaign the Prussians 
 captured Alsen, overran the greater part 
 of Jutland, and forced the Danes to 
 accept a peace (Aug. 1), by which they 
 renounced their right to the duchies of 
 Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg. A 
 difference now arose between Austria 
 and Prussia as to what should be done 
 with the duchies, and Prussia showing 
 an evident intention of annexing them, 
 the result was a war between the two 
 powers, which ended in the total defeat 
 of Austria at Sadowa, or Koniggriitz, 3d 
 July, 1866. By the treaty which follow- 
 ed Austria relinquished all claim to the 
 duchies, which thus fell to Prussia. The 
 chief events since then have been the 
 prolonged struggle between the govern- 
 ment and the Folkething; the celebra- 
 tion of the centenary of the emanci- 
 pation of the Danish peasants and the 
 jubilee of King Christian (1888) and the 
 strengthening of the national defenses. 
 King Christian died in 1906 and was 
 succeeded by his son, Frederick VIII. 
 
 DENNISON, William, an American 
 cabinet officer and governor, born in Cin- 
 cinnati in 1815, died in 1882. He was 
 governor of Ohio during the civil war 
 and raised 30,000 troops for the Union 
 side. He was postmaster-general in the 
 cabinets of Lincoln and Johnson. 
 
 DENOUEMENT (da-no-man), a French 
 term naturalized in England, and sig- 
 nifying the winding up or catastrophe of 
 a plot, the solution of any mystery, etc. 
 
 DEN'SITY, in physics, the quantity of 
 matter contained in a body under a 
 given bulk. If a body of equal bulk with 
 another contains double the quantity 
 of matter it is of double the density. 
 Or if a body contain the same quantity 
 of matter as another, but under a less 
 bulk, its density is greater in proportion 
 as its bulk is less than that of the other. 
 Hence the density is directly proportion- 
 al to the quantity of matter, and inverse- 
 ly proportional to the bulk or magnitude. 
 The relative quantities of matter in 
 bodies are known by their gravity or 
 weight, and when a body, mass, or 
 quantity of matter is spoken of, its 
 weight or gravity is always understood, 
 that being the proper measure of the 
 density or quantity of matter. The 
 weights of different bodies, of equal 
 bulks, indicate their relative densities. 
 The density of solids, fluids, and gases, 
 as compared with that of water, is their 
 Specific Gravity (which see). As for the 
 density of the earth see Earth. 
 
 DENTAL FORMULA, an arrange- 
 ment of symbols and numbers used to 
 signify the number and kinds of teeth 
 of a mammiferous animal. The dental 
 formula of man is: 
 
 which is read thus: Two incisors on each 
 side of both jaws, one canine tooth on 
 each side of both jaws, two prmmolars 
 on each side of both jaws, and three true 
 molars on each side of both jaws, in all 
 32 teeth. 
 
 DENTA'RIA, coral-root, a genus of 
 plants. There are about twenty sp'-cies, 
 natives of temperate countries. They 
 are ornamental herbs, with creeping 
 singularly toothed root-stocks, from 
 which they received the names of coral- 
 
 root and tooth-wort. The stem-leaves 
 are opposite or in whorls of three, and 
 the flowers are large and purple. 
 
 DEN'TIFRICE, a preparation for 
 cleaning the teeth, of which there are 
 various kinds in the form of tooth- 
 powders, tooth-washes, or tooth-pastes. 
 Cuttle-fish bone, finely-powdered chalk, 
 and charcoal are common dentifrices. 
 Rhatany, catechu, myrrh, and mastic 
 are also often employed. 
 
 DEN'TILS, in arch., the little cubes 
 resembling teeth, into which the square 
 
 a a. Dentils of the Corinthian cornice. 
 
 member in the bed-molding of an Ionic, 
 Corinthian, or Composite cornice is 
 divided. 
 
 DEN'TINE, the ivory tissue lying 
 below the enamel and constituting the 
 body of a tooth. It consists of an 
 organic basis disposed in the form of 
 extremely minute tubes and cells, and 
 of earthy particles. 
 
 DENTISTRY, the art of curing, re- 
 pairing, extracting, and treating the 
 teeth. Dentistry was practiced in a 
 crude way among the ancients, and 
 modern dentistry is an almost wholly 
 American art. The art is divided into 
 mechanical dentistry and operative or 
 surgical dentistry, the former having to 
 do with the cleaning, filling, and replac- 
 ing of teeth (except the transplanting of 
 teeth, which would fall under the surgi- 
 cal di^^sion). The oldest dental school 
 in the world is the Baltimore College of 
 Dental Surgery, founded in 1839, the 
 second oldest is the Ohio College of 
 Dental Surgery founded in 1845. Almost 
 all large universities and medical schools 
 now have dental colleges. This increase 
 in the educational facilities of dentistry 
 has placed the modern dentist on a 
 professional level as high as that of the 
 medical doctor and has opened up a 
 new art of surgery called stomatology, 
 or the science of diseases of the mouth. 
 By means of mechanical appliances the 
 j aw can be lengthened and the expression 
 of face entirely altered. Dentistry, in a 
 somewhat high form, has been practiced 
 for centuries by the Chinese. 
 
 DENTITION. See Teeth, Teething. 
 
 DENUDATION, in geology, the act 
 of washing away the surface of the 
 earth by water, either in the form of con- 
 stant currents or of occasional floods. 
 
 DENVER, a city and important rail- 
 way center; capital of Colorado and of 
 Arapahoe County; beautifully situated 
 on South Platte river, 15 miles e. of the 
 base of the Rocky Mountains; 5200 feet 
 above the level of the sea. It com- 
 mands a magnificent view of moun- 
 tain scenery, including Pike’s, Long’s, 
 and other noted peaks perpetually cov- 
 ered with snow. The streets are wide 
 and shady, and the residences and pub- 
 lic buildings, built largely of brick and 
 yellow stone, are stately, handsome, 
 and attractive. Denver is appropri- 
 ately called “The Queen City of the 
 Plains.” 
 
'V- T 
 
 
 -r -»■ 
 
 DENVER, UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 DERBY 
 
 The citj' has over 150 churches, among 
 them St. John’s Cathedral (Protestant 
 Episopal), noted for its stained glass 
 window representing the crucifixion. 
 The public school system is excellent. 
 There are ten public and private libra- 
 ries. The city is also the seat of Denver 
 University, three medical colleges, and 
 several private schools. The State 
 Capitol is 383 feet long and 313 feet wide. 
 It stands on Capitol Hill, where is ob- 
 
 State capitol, Denver, Col. 
 
 tained the best view of the city. Other 
 prominent buildings are the city-hall, 
 the county court-house, and especially 
 the U. States court-house and post-office. 
 Denver has 143 miles - of electric street 
 railways, and is lighted by gas and elec- 
 tricity It has an excellent system of 
 water-works ; water is brought from the 
 mountains Seven railways center here, 
 and there is a large and commodious 
 union depot. All the eastern trunk 
 lines maintain offices here. Denver has 
 eleven parks, the largest. City Park, 
 containing 340 acres. It is an im- 
 portant center for mining, agriculture, 
 and stock-raising, the leading industries 
 of the state. It has a branch U. States 
 mint and many important manufac- 
 tories. 
 
 The city was settled as a mining-camp 
 in 1858-59. Its growth has been rapid 
 and steadv. Pop. 1909. 200,000. 
 
 DENVER, UNIVERSITY OF, founded 
 at Denver, Colo., in 1864, by methodists. 
 It has collegiate, medical, law, music, 
 dental, and theological schools, an 
 endowment of nearly .11,000,000, nearly 
 2,000 students, and 200 instructors. 
 
 DEODORI'ZERS, chemical substances 
 which have the power of destroying 
 fetid effluvia, as chlorine, chloride of 
 lime, etc. 
 
 DEPART'MENT, the name given to 
 the principal territorial divisions of 
 France. At the time of the French 
 revolution department replaced the old 
 division into provinces, the change being 
 voted in the constituent assembly in 
 1789. There are at present eighty-seven 
 departments, each of which is sub- 
 divided into arrondissements. 
 
 DE PAUW UNIVERSITY, at Green- 
 castle, Putnam county, Indiana, one of 
 the chief institutions of learning main- 
 tained by the methodist church in Amer- 
 ica, constituted in 1837. It is excellent- 
 ly endowed, mainly by the liberality of 
 the Hon. W. C. de Pauw, has a staff of 
 40 professors and teachers, and over 900 
 students. 
 
 DEPENDENT CHILDREN, children, 
 who, although not defective, must be 
 supported bj’’ others than their parents. 
 In the United States there are numer- 
 
 ous children’s aid societies and homes 
 for dependent children, and large sums 
 of money are devoted to the proper 
 rearing of such children. After a good 
 training the children are placed in 
 private families whose desirability has 
 been specially investigated. 
 
 DEPEW, Chauncey Mitchell, an Amer- 
 ican lawyer, senator, ■ and railroad 
 president, born in New York in 1834. 
 Since 1866 he has been identified with 
 the Vanderbilt railroads and in 1899 
 was elected to the United States senate. 
 
 DEPO'NENT, (1) in grammar, a verb 
 passive in form but active or neuter in 
 signification. (2) In law, a person who 
 makes an affidavit, or one who gives his 
 testimony in a court of justicej a witness 
 upon oath. 
 
 DEPOSIT, in law, something given 
 or entrusted to another as security for 
 the performance of a contract, as a sum 
 of money or a deed. In commerce, a 
 deposit is generally either money re- 
 ceived by banking or commercial com- 
 panies with a view to employ it in their 
 business, or documents, bonds, etc., 
 lodged in security for loans. In the 
 first case interest is usually paid to the 
 depositor. The receipt given by the 
 banker for money deposited with him is 
 called a deposit receipt. 
 
 DEPOSIT, in geology, a layer of 
 matter formed by the settling down of 
 mud, gravel, stones, detritus, organic 
 remains, etc., which had been held in 
 suspension in water. 
 
 DEPOSITION, in law, the testimony 
 given in court by a witness upon oath. 
 It is also used to signify the attested 
 written testimony of a witness by way 
 of answer to interrogatories. Deposi- 
 tions are frequently taken conditionally, 
 or de bene esse, as it is called; for in- 
 stance, when the parties are sick, aged, 
 or going aliroad, depositions are taken, 
 to be read in court in case of their death 
 or departure before the trial comes on. 
 
 DEPOT (da'po or dep'6), a French 
 word in general use as a term for a place 
 where goods are received and stored; 
 hence, in military matters, a magazine 
 where arms, ammunition, etc., are kept. 
 The term is now usually applied to those 
 companies of a regiment which remain at 
 home when the rest are away on foreign 
 service. In America it is the common 
 term for a railway-station. 
 
 DEPRIVATION, the removing of a 
 clergyman from his benefice on account 
 of heresy, misconduct, etc. It entails, of 
 course, loss of all emoluments, but not 
 the loss of clerical character. 
 
 DE PROFUNDIS, in the liturgy of the 
 Roman Catholic Church, one of the 
 seven penitential psalms, the 130th of 
 the Psalms of David, which in the vul- 
 gate begins with these words, signifying 
 “Out of the depths.” It is sung when 
 the bodies of the dead are committed to 
 the grave. 
 
 DEPTFORD (det'ford), a pari, and 
 mun. borough, England, in the counties 
 of Kent and Surrey, on the right bank of 
 the Thames, forming now part of Lon- 
 don. It has some manufactures of 
 pottery, chemicals, soap, etc. Pop. 
 110,513. 
 
 DEP'UTY, one who exercises an office 
 as representing another. — Chamber of 
 Deputies, the lower of the two legislative 
 
 chambers in France and in Italy, elected 
 by popular suffrage, and corresponding 
 in some respects to the House of Com- 
 mons in Britain. See France, Italy. 
 
 DE QUINCEY, Thomas, author of Con- 
 fessions of an English Opium Eater 
 was born at Greenhay, near Manchester, 
 on 15th August, 1785. He died at Edin- 
 burgh December 8, 1859. His writings, 
 nearly all contributions to magazines, 
 are distinguished by power of expression, 
 subtle thought, and an encyclopaedic 
 abundance of curious information. 
 
 DERA GHAZI KHAN, a district and 
 town in the Punjab, Hindustan. The 
 former, which is in Derajat division, 
 has an area of 5606 sq. miles and a popu- 
 lation of 404,031. The town has a 
 population of 23,731, half Hindus and 
 half Mohammedans. It has extensive 
 manufactures of silk, cotton, and coarse 
 cutlery. ! 
 
 DERAJAT (-jat'), a commissionership 
 of Hindustan, in the west of the Punjab, > 
 occupying part of the valley of the ( 
 Indus. It is well watered and fertile, 
 and contains numerous towns and > 
 
 villages. Pop. 1,643,603, mostly Mo- 
 hammedans. - 
 
 DERBY, a municipal, pari., and coun- 
 ty borough in England, capital of Derby- 
 shire, 115 miles n.n.w. London. Derby 
 is one of the oldest towns in the kingdom, *■ 
 and is supposed to owe its origin to a ^ 
 Roman station, Derventio. Under the ii 
 Danes it took the name of Deoraby. 
 Richardson, the novelist and Herbert 
 Spencer were natives. Pop. 105,785. — 
 
 The county of Derby in the center of 
 the kingdom, is about 55 miles long 
 and from 15 to 30 broad; area, 658,624 
 acres, or 1029 square miles, five-sixths 
 being arable or in permanent pasture. 
 
 The principal rivers are the Derwent, 
 the Trent, the Wye, the Erwash, the 
 Dove, and the Rother. Oats and tur- S 
 nips are important crops, and dairy- « 
 husbandry is carried on to a large * 
 extent. Coal is abundant in various (S 
 parts of the county, iron ore is also 3 
 plentiful, and lead, gypsum, zinc, fluor- aj 
 spar, and other minerals are obtained. * 
 The manufactures are very consider- i 
 able, especially of silk, cotton, and lace, 
 machinery, and agricultural implements, a 
 Pop. 620,196. 1 
 
 DERBY, Edward Geoffrey Smith ^ 
 
 Edward, Hth Earl of Derby. 
 
 Stanley, fourteenth Earl of, an English 
 statesman, born in Knowsley Park, 
 Lancashire, March 29, 1799; died there 
 
 
DERBY-DAY 
 
 DES MOINES 
 
 Oct. 23, 1869. In 1820 he was returned 
 to the House of Commons as member 
 for Stockbridge, and in 1830 became 
 chief secretary for Ireland, in Lord 
 Grey’s government. In 1841 he became 
 colonial secretary under Sir Robert Peel, 
 but resigned on Peel’s motion for repeal 
 of the corn-laws. In 1851 and 1858 he 
 formed ministries which held office only 
 for a short period; and again in 1866, 
 when his administration signalized it- 
 self by the reform of the government in 
 India, the conduct of the Abyssinian 
 war, and the passing of a bill for elec- 
 toral reform (1867). 
 
 DERBY-DAY, the great annual Lon- 
 don holiday, on which the horse-race for 
 the stakes instituted by Lord Derby in 
 1780 is run. It always falls on a Wed- 
 nesday, being the second day of the 
 grand race meeting which takes place in 
 the week after Trinity Sunday. The 
 race is run on Epsom Downs, an ex- 
 tensive plain in the neighborhood of 
 London. The entry-money for each sub- 
 scriber is fifty guineas, and the stakes are 
 run for by colts of three years. In the 
 first year of the Derby there were only 
 thirty-six entries, but now they are so 
 numerous that the value of the stakes 
 reaches several thousand pounds. The 
 Epsom races are the most popular of the 
 English horse-races. The Ascot races 
 are patronized by royalty, the world of 
 fashion is to be seen at Goodwood, but 
 on Epsom Downs, on the Derby-day, are 
 assembled all classes, high and low. 
 
 DER'ELICT, a vessel or anything re- 
 linquished or abandoned at sea, but 
 most commonly applied to a ship aban- 
 doned by the crew and left ' floating 
 about. 
 
 DERIVATION. See Etymology. 
 
 DERMA, Dermis, the true skin, or 
 under layer of the skin, as distinguished 
 from the cuticle, epidermis, or scarf- 
 skin. 
 
 DERMATOLOGY, the branch of medi- 
 cine which treats of the skin and its 
 diseases. 
 
 DER'RICK, a lifting apparatus, con- 
 sisting of a single post or pole, supported 
 by stays and guys, to which a boom 
 vdth a pulley or pulleys is attached, used 
 in loading and unloading vessels, etc. 
 Floating derricks of the strongest con- 
 struction, with an immense boom and 
 numerous blocks, are also used. 
 
 DERRICK-CRANE, a kind of crane 
 combining the advantages of the com- 
 mon derrick and those of the ordinary 
 crane. The jib of this crane is fitted with 
 a joint at the foot, and has a chain in- 
 stead of a tension-bar attached to it at 
 the top, so that the inclination, and con- 
 sequently the sweep, of the crane can be 
 altered at pleasure. 
 
 DERRY. See Londonderry. 
 
 DER'VISH, a Mohammedan devotee, 
 distinguished by austerity of life and the 
 observance of strict forms. There are 
 many different orders of them. Some 
 live in monasteries, others lead an itin- 
 erant life, others devote themselves to 
 menial or arduous occupations. 
 
 DESCARTES (da-kart), Ren6, a great 
 French philosopher and mathematician, 
 with whom the modern or new philoso- 
 phy is often considered as commencing, 
 was born March 31, 1596, at La Haye, 
 in Touraine. Descartes, seeing the 
 
 errors and inconsistencies in which other 
 philosophers had involved themselves, 
 determined to build up a system anew 
 for himself, divesting himself first of all 
 the beliefs he had acquired by education 
 or otherwise, and resolving to accept as 
 true only what could stand the test of 
 
 Traveling dervish of Khorasan. 
 
 reason. Proceeding in this way he 
 found that there was one thing that he 
 could not doubt or divest himself of the 
 belief of and that was the existence of 
 himself as a thinking being, and this 
 ultimate certainty he expressed in the 
 celebrated phrase “I think, therefore I 
 am.” Here, then, he believed he had 
 found the test of truth. Starting from 
 this point Descartes found the same 
 kind of certainty in such propositions as 
 these: that the thinking being or soul 
 differs from the body (whose existence 
 consists in space and extension) by its 
 simplicity and immateriality and by the 
 freedom that pertains to it;^that every 
 perception of the soul is not distinct; 
 that it is so far an imperfect finite being; 
 that this imperfection of its own leads 
 it to the idea of an absolutely perfect 
 being; and from this last idea he deduces 
 all further knowledge of the truth. 
 Descartes also contributed greatly to the 
 advancement of mathematics and phys- 
 ics. The higher departments of geom- 
 etry were greatly extended by him. His 
 works effected a great revolution in the 
 principles and methods of philosophi- 
 zing. In 1647 the French court granted 
 him a pension, and two years later, on 
 the invitation of Christina of Sweden, 
 he went to Stockholm, where he died 
 Feb. 11, 1650. 
 
 DESCENDANTS. See Descent. 
 
 DESCENT', in law, is the transmission 
 of the right and title to lands to the heir, 
 on the decease of the proprietor, by the 
 mere operation of law. The rule deter- 
 mining to whom an estate belongs, on 
 the decease of the proprietor, is that of 
 consanguinity, or relationship by blood, 
 though with some exceptions, as in the 
 case of the portion, or the use of a 
 portion, of a man’s property given by 
 the law to his widow. The rules of 
 descent, designating what relations shall 
 inherit, and their respective shares, will 
 be determined by the genius and policy of 
 the government and institutions. Hence 
 the practice of entailments in the feudal 
 system. And wherever the govern- 
 ment is founded in family privileges, or 
 very intimately connected with them, 
 
 as is the case in all governments where 
 the hereditarily aristocratical part of the 
 community have a great preponderance, 
 the sustaining of families will very prob- 
 ably be a characteristic feature in the 
 code of laws. Thus, in Britain, all the 
 lands of the father, unless otherwise 
 directed by will go to the eldest son. In 
 the U. States this distinction in favor 
 of the eldest son has been abolished, and 
 the laws are founded upon the principle 
 of equal distribution both of real and 
 personal estate among heirs of the near- 
 est surviving degree. Kindred in blood 
 are divided into three general classes, 
 viz. 1, descendants; 2, ancestors; 3, 
 collateral relatives, that is, those who 
 have descended from the same common 
 ancestor. The civil law' computes the 
 degrees by counting the generations up 
 to the common ancestor, as father, 
 grandfather, great-grandfather; or moth- 
 er, grandmother, great-grandmother; 
 and from him or her down to the 
 collateral relative, as brother, cousin, 
 etc., making the degree of relationship 
 the sum of these two series of genera- 
 tions. Every person has two sets of 
 ancestors, the paternal and maternal, 
 and therefore two sets of collateral 
 relatives. There is also a distinction of 
 collateral kindred, into those of the 
 whole blood and those of the half blood. 
 
 DES'ERET. See Utah. 
 
 DES'ERT, a term more particularly 
 applied to vast barren plains such as are 
 found in Asia and Africa, but which may 
 also be used to designate any solitude or 
 uninhabited place whether barren or not. 
 See Sahara and Gobi. 
 
 DESERT'ER, a soldier or sailor who 
 quits the service without leave. Desert- 
 ers are tried by court-martial, which 
 may inflict death as the extreme punish- 
 ment, or a less severe punishment, ac- 
 cording to the circumstances of the case. 
 
 DESERTION, by husband or w'ife, 
 without due cause, is ground for a judi- 
 cial separation. A wife may obtain an 
 order to protect any money or property 
 she may have acquired since desertion, 
 against her husband or his creditors. 
 
 DESICCATION, a process of dispelling 
 moisture by the use of air, heat, or chem- 
 ical agents such as chloride of calcium, 
 quicklime, oil of vitriol, and fused car- 
 bonate of potash. — Desiccation cracks, 
 in geology, are the fissures caused in 
 clayey beds by the sun’s heat, and seen 
 in various rock strata. 
 
 DESIGN, the art of creating orna- 
 mental devices of any kind, or for any 
 purpose. Design is one of the most an- 
 cient of arts and has been carried to its 
 highest complexity and development in 
 the orient. Schools of design were 
 originated in France during the reign of 
 Louis XIV. and w'ere later introduced 
 into England and other countries, and 
 most recently in America. Principles of 
 design are taught in these schools, 
 covering the designing of patterns for 
 laces, rugs, carpets, wall paper, glass- 
 ware, in short, everything to w^hich an 
 ornamental design can add beauty. 
 
 DES MOINES (de moin), capital of the 
 state of Iowa and of Polk county, on the 
 Des Moines River, about 350 miles west 
 of Chicago. Among its chief buildings 
 are the state house, the state arsenm, 
 colleges, opera-houses, etc. There are 
 
DES MOINES 
 
 DEVIL-FISH 
 
 coal-mines in the vicinity, and the manu- 
 factures and other industries are varied 
 and increasinff. Pop. 1909, 80,000. 
 
 DES MOINES, the largest river in tire 
 state of Iowa, rises in the s.w. of Min- 
 nesota and flows in a south-easterly 
 
 State capltol, Des Moines, la. 
 
 direction till it falls into the Mississippi 
 about 4 miles below Keokuk, after a 
 course of 300 miles. 
 
 DESMOL'OGY, that branch of anat- 
 omy which treats of the ligaments and 
 sinews. 
 
 DESMOULINS (da-mo-lan), Benoit 
 Camille, born in 1760 or 1762, was con- 
 spicuous during the first period of the 
 French revolution. He was among 
 the most notable of the pamphleteers 
 and orators who urged the multitude 
 forward in the path of revolution. In 
 1793 he gave his vote for the death of 
 the king. Having become closely con- 
 nected with Danton and the party of 
 opposition to Robespierre, and inveigh- 
 ing against the reign of blood and terror, 
 he was arrested on the order of the latter 
 on 30th March, 1794, tried on the 2d 
 April, and executed on the 5th. He met 
 his fate in an agony of despair. 
 
 DE SOTO, Hernando, a Spanish ex- 
 lorer and discoverer of the JVIississippi, 
 orn about 1496, died in 1542. He ac- 
 companied expeditions to the New 
 World under Davila and Pizarro, and 
 played a distinguished part in the con- 
 quest of Peru. In 1536 he led an expedi- 
 tion to Florida, whence after many diffi- 
 culties he penetrated to the Mississippi, 
 where he was attacked with fever and 
 died. — The name De Soto has been given 
 to a county in the n.w. of Mississippi, and 
 to several places in the U. States. 
 
 DES'POT, originally a master, a lord; 
 at a later period it became an honorary 
 title which the Greek emperors gave to 
 their sons and sons-in-law when gover- 
 nors of provinces. At present despot 
 means an absolute ruler, as the Emperor 
 of Russia, and in a narrower sense a 
 tyrannous one. 
 
 DESSAU (des'ou), a town in Germany, 
 capital of the duchy of Anhalt. The 
 manufactures consist of woolens, woolen 
 yarn, carpets, machinery, tobacco, etc. 
 The ducal palace has a picture-gallery 
 and interesting relics and antiquities. 
 Pop. 50,677. 
 
 DETACH'MENT, a body of troops 
 selected from the main army for some 
 special service. 
 
 DET'ONATING POWDERS, certain 
 chemical compounds, which, on being 
 
 exposed to heat or suddenly struck, ex- 
 plode with a loud report, owing to one or 
 more of the constituent parts suddenly 
 assuming the gaseous state. The 
 chloride, and iodide of nitrogen are very 
 powerful detonating substances. The 
 compounds of ammonia with silver and 
 old, fulminate of silver and of mercury, 
 etonate by slight friction by means of 
 heat, electricity, or sulphuric acid. 
 
 DETROIT, 1 the principal city of 
 Michigan, a port of entry and county- 
 seat of Wayne county, situated on the 
 Detroit River, 285 miles northeast of 
 Chicago, connecting Lakes Erie and St. 
 Clair. Pop. 1909, 400,000. 
 
 The city has an area of 29 sq. miles, 
 and is finely situated on ground rising 
 gradually from the river. It has broad, 
 clean, well shaded and paved streets. 
 Most of the streets cross at right angles, 
 but these are intersected by several 
 broad avenues, radiating from the Grand 
 Circus, a semicircular park of five and 
 a half acres in the heart of the city. 
 Woodward Avenue extends through 
 this, and divides the city into nearly 
 equal portions. 
 
 Detroit has a superb park system the 
 central feature of which is Belle Isle, an 
 island park of 707 acres. The city con- 
 tains a number of institutions of higher 
 education, an excellent public school 
 system, and numerous hospitals and 
 charitable institutions. In trade it 
 ranks among the Canada export cities 
 of the United States and it is also a very 
 large manufacturing center. It was 
 settled by the French in 1810. 
 
 DETROIT RIVER, or STRAIT OF ST. 
 CLAIR, a river or strait of North Amer- 
 ica, which runs from Lake St. Clair to 
 Lake Erie. It is 28 miles long, and of 
 sufficient d^pth for the navigation of 
 large vessels. It is about J mile wide 
 opposite Detroit and enlarges as it 
 descends. 
 
 DEUTERON'OMY, the last of the 
 books of the Pentateuch, so called from 
 its consisting in part of a restatement of 
 the law as already given in Exodus, 
 Leviticus, and Numbers, and containing 
 also, in addition to special commands 
 and admonitions not previously given, 
 an account of the death of Moses. See 
 Pentateuch. 
 
 DEVIATION OF THE COMPASS, the 
 
 deviation of a ship’s compass from the 
 true magnetic meridian, caused by the 
 near presence of iron. In iron ships the 
 amount of deviation depends upon the 
 direction, with regard to the magnetic 
 meridian, in which the ship lay when 
 being built. It is least when the ship 
 has been built with her head south. 
 Armor-plated ships should be plated 
 with their head in a different direction 
 from that in which they lay when built. 
 The mode now generally employed to 
 correct deviation is by introducing on 
 board ship masses of iron and magnets 
 to exactly neutralize the action of the 
 ship’s magnetism. Compasses are some- 
 times carried on masts in iron vessels as 
 a means of removing them from the 
 disturbing influence of the iron of the 
 hull. In this position they serve as 
 standards of comparison for the binnacle 
 compass. Wooden ships are also affect- 
 ed, though in a far less degree, by the 
 
 direction in which they lie when build- 
 ing. 
 
 DEVICE', a name common to all 
 figures, ciphers, characters, rebuses, 
 mottoes, etc., which are adopted by a 
 person or a family by way of badge or 
 distinctive emblem, often a representa- 
 tion of some natural body, with a motto 
 or sentence applied in a figurative 
 sense. 
 
 DEVIL, in theology, an evil spirit or 
 being; specifically the evil one, repre- 
 sented in Scripture as the traducer, 
 father of lies, etc. Most of the old re- 
 ligions of the East acknowledge a host 
 of devils. The doctrine of Zoroaster, 
 who adopted an evil principle called 
 Ahriman, opposed to the good prin- 
 ciple and served by several orders of 
 inferior spirits, spread the belief in such 
 spirits among the people. The Gre^ 
 mythology did not distinguish with the 
 same precision between good and bad 
 spirits. With the Mohammedans Eblis, 
 or the devil, was an archangel whom 
 God employed to destroy a pre-Adamite 
 race of jinns, or genii, and who was so 
 filled with pride at his victory that he 
 refused to obey God. The Satan of the 
 New Testament is also a rebel against 
 God. He uses his intellect to entangle 
 men in sin and to obtain power over 
 them. But he is not an independent 
 self-existent principle like the evil prin- 
 ciple of Zoroaster, but a creature subject 
 to omnipotent control. The doctrine 
 of Scripture on this subject soon became 
 blended with numerous fictions of 
 human imagination, with the various 
 superstitions of different countries, and 
 the mythology of the pagans. The 
 excited imaginations of hermits in their 
 lonely retreats, sunk as they were in 
 ignorance and unable to account for 
 natural appearances, frequently led 
 them to suppose Satan visibly present; 
 and innumerable stories were told of his 
 appearance, and his attributes — the 
 horns, the tail, cloven foot, etc. — dis- 
 tinctly described. In consequence of the 
 cures which Christ and his apostles per- 
 formed on the possessed, the early 
 church believed in a power connected 
 with the consecration of priests to drive 
 out evil spirits. (See Exorcism.) The 
 belief in evil spirits, witches, etc., was in 
 the 17th century so common that they 
 became the objects of judicial process. 
 With the progress of the natural sciences, 
 however, in the 18th century many 
 wonderful phenonema became explain- 
 ed, and less was heard of witchcraft. 
 
 DEVIL, the machine through which 
 cotton or wool is first passed to prepare 
 it for the carding-machines ; a teasing- 
 machine. 
 
 DEVIL-FISH, the popular name of 
 various fishes, one of them being the 
 angler (which see). Among others the 
 name is given to several large species of 
 ray occasionally captured on the Atlan- 
 tic and Pacific coasts of America, and 
 much dreaded by divers, whom they 
 are said to devour after enveloping them 
 in their vast vdngs. During gales of 
 wind or from strong currents these im- 
 mense fish are driven into shoal water, 
 and being unable to extricate them- 
 selves, fall an easy prey to the vigilance 
 of the fishermen, who obtain consider- 
 able quantities of oil from their livers. 
 
DEVIL’S PUNCH-BOWL 
 
 DHOW 
 
 DEVIL’S PUNCH-BOWL, a small 
 lake of Ireland, near the Lakes of Kil- 
 larney, between 2,000 and 3,000 feet 
 above the sea, supposed to be the crater 
 of an ancient volcano. 
 
 DEVIL-WORSHIP, the worship paid 
 to the devil, an evil spirit, a malignant 
 deity, or the personified evil principle in 
 nature, by many of the primitive tribes 
 of Asia, Africa, and America, under the 
 assumption that the good deity does not 
 trouble himself about the world; or that 
 the powers of evil are as mighty as the 
 power of good, and have in conse- 
 quence to be bribed and reconciled. 
 There is a sect called devil-worshipep 
 inhabiting Turkish and Russian Armenia 
 and the valley of the Tigris, who pay 
 respect to the devil, to Christ, and to 
 Allah or the supreme being, and also 
 worship the sun. 
 
 DE VINNE, (de-vin'-ne), Theodore 
 Low, an American printer, born in 
 Connecticut in 1828. He is the founder 
 of the Typothetse Society and has done 
 much for the improvement of typo- 
 graphical art in the United States. 
 
 DEVON, Devonshire, a maritime 
 county in the s. w. of [England, its 
 northern coast being on the Bristol 
 Channel and its southern on the English 
 Channel; area, 1,655,208 acres, or 2586 
 square miles, the county being the third 
 largest of England. Tin, lead, iron, 
 copper, manganese, granite, and the 
 clay used by potters and pipe-makers 
 are the chief mineral products. The 
 geological formation of the Old Red 
 Sandstone is so largely developed that 
 the term Devonian has to some extent 
 become its synonym. Agriculture is in 
 a somewhat backward state, owing, prob- 
 ably, to the general preference given to 
 dairy husbandry, for which the extent 
 and richness of its grass lands make the 
 county most suitable. Wheat, barley, 
 beans, pease, and potatoes are the prin- 
 cipal crops. Pop. 660,444. 
 
 DEVO'NIAN SYSTEM, in geology, a 
 name originally given to rocks of Devon- 
 shire and Cornwall, intermediate be- 
 tween the Silurian and carboniferous 
 strata, and consisting of sandstones of 
 different colors, calcareous slates and 
 limestones, etc. They are divided into 
 lower, middle, and upper groups, all con- 
 taining fossils, but the middle most 
 abounding in them, including corals, 
 crinoids, crustaceans, mollusca (especi- 
 ally brachiopods), and cephalopods. 
 Devonian rocks occupy a large area in 
 Central Europe, as well as in the United 
 States, Eastern Canada, and Nova 
 Scotia. The term has been often used as 
 equivalent to Old Red Sandstone. 
 
 DEV'ONPORT, a municipal, pari., and 
 county borough and port of England, 
 county of Devon, contiguous to Ply- 
 mouth. It is the seat of one of the royal 
 dockyards, and an important naval and 
 military station. Pop. 69,674. 
 
 DEVONSHIRE. See Devon. 
 
 DEVONSHIRE, Duke of. See Caven- 
 dish. 
 
 DEW is a deposition of water from 
 the atmosphere upon the surface of the 
 earth in the form of minute globules. 
 During the day the earth both absorbs 
 and emits heat, but after sunset its 
 supply of warmth is cut off, while it still 
 continues to radiate heat into the sur- 
 
 rounding space. Crass, flowers, and foil- 1 
 age being good radiators, lose after sunset | 
 the heat which has previously been ab- 
 sorbed by them, without receiving any 
 in return, and their temperature conse- 
 quently falls considerably below that of 
 the atmosphere. From the proximity 
 of these cold substances the particles of 
 vapor in the adjoining air are condensed 
 and deposited upon their surfaces in the 
 form of dew, or of hoar-frost where the 
 temperature of the earth is below 32°. 
 When the sky is clouded the heat ab- 
 stracted from the earth’s surface by 
 radiation is restored by the clouds, 
 which, being good radiators, send back 
 an equal amount of heat to what they 
 receive; and a balance of temperature 
 being thus maintained between the earth 
 and the surrounding atmosphere, no 
 dew is formed. The deposition of dew is 
 likewise prevented by wind, which 
 carries away the particles of air before 
 the vapor contained in them has been 
 condensed. Horizontal surfaces, and 
 those which are exposed to a wide ex- 
 panse of sky, receive a greater supply of 
 dew than sheltered or oblique sur- 
 faces, where circumstances diminish the 
 amount of radiation. The radiation from 
 the earth’s surface is one of those happy 
 revisions for the necessities of living 
 eings with which nature everywhere 
 abounds. The heavy dews which fall 
 in tropical regions are in the highest 
 degree beneficial to vegetation, which, 
 but for this supply of moisture, would, 
 in countries where scarcely any rain 
 falls for months, be soon scorched and 
 withered. But after the high tempera- 
 ture of the day the ground radiates under 
 these clear skies with great rapidity, the 
 surface is quickly cooled, and the watery 
 vapor, which, from the great daily 
 evaporation,, exists in large quantities in 
 the atmosphere, is deposited abundant- 
 ly. This deposition is more plentiful 
 also on plants, from their greater radi- 
 ating power; while on hard, bare 
 ground and stones, where it is less 
 wanted, it is comparatively trifling. 
 In cold climates the earth, being cold 
 and sufficiently moist, requires little 
 dew; accordingly the clouds, which 
 are so common in damp and chilly 
 regions, prevent the radiation of heat ; 
 the surface is thus preserved warm, and 
 the deposition of dew is, in a great 
 measure, prevented. 
 
 DEWAS, a native state of Central 
 India consisting of two combined states 
 with two chiefs. Total pop. 152,073. 
 Dewas, the chief town, has a pop. of 
 15,100. 
 
 DE WET, Christian, a Boer soldier 
 born in South Africa in 1853. He 
 fought with distinction in the Anglo- 
 Boer war of 1880-1 and later in that of 
 1899-1902. He finally submitted to 
 the English. 
 
 DEWEY, George, an American ad- 
 miral, born in Vermont in 1837. He 
 served under Farragut during the civil 
 war, and at the opening of the Spanish- 
 American he was the commodore com- 
 manding the oriental station. Dewey 
 at once proceeded to Manila, destroyed 
 the Spanish ships there and took pos- 
 session of Manila. On his return home 
 in 1899 he was given a popular ovation 
 and promoted to the rar.k of admiral, a 
 
 rank which Farragut and Porter only 
 had won before him. 
 
 DEWEY, Melvil, an American libra- 
 rian born in New York state in 1851. 
 His principal work is the invention of a 
 decimal system of cataloguing. 
 
 George Dewey. 
 
 DE WITT, Jan, Grand-pensionary of 
 Holland, celebrated as a statesman and 
 for his tragical end, was born in 1625 or 
 1632. He became the leader of the polit- 
 ical party opposed to the Prince of 
 Orange, and in 1652, two years after the 
 death of William II., was made grand- 
 pensionary. In 1665 the W'ar with Eng- 
 land was renewed and conducted by 
 De Witt with great ability till its termin- 
 ation in 1665. In 1672 Louis XIV. in- 
 vaded the Spanish Netherlands and 
 involved Holland in war. De Witt’s 
 popularity, already on the decline, 
 suffered still further in the troubles thus 
 occasioned, and he felt it necessary to 
 resign his office of grand-pensionary. 
 At this time his brother Cornelius, who 
 had been tried and put to torture for 
 conspiring against the life of the young 
 Prince of Orange, lay in prison. Jan de 
 Witt went to visit him, when a tumult 
 suddenly arose among the people, and 
 both brothers were murdered, Aug. 20, 
 1672. De Witt was a man of high char- 
 acter, simple and modest in all his rela- 
 tions. 
 
 DEW-POINT, the temperature at 
 which condensation of the vapor in the 
 air takes place. When the temperature 
 of the air has been reduced by radiation 
 to the dew-point, dew is deposited and 
 an amount of heat set free which raises 
 the temperature of the air. Thus the 
 dew-point will indicate what the mini- 
 mum temperature of the night is likely to 
 be, a knowledge of which is useful to the 
 horticulturist. 
 
 DEY, a title formerly assumed by the 
 rulers (under the Turkish Sultan) of Al- 
 giers, Tripoli, and Tunis. 
 
 DHAR (dhar), a small native state in 
 Central India, with an area of about 
 1740 sq. miles. The soil is fertile, and 
 yields wheat, rice, opium, etc. Pop. 
 169,474. 
 
 DHARWAR, the chief town of Dhdr- 
 war district, in the Bombay presidency, 
 Hindustan. Pop. 32,841. The Dhdrwhr 
 district has an area of 4535 sq. miles; 
 pop. 1,051,314. 
 
 DHOLPUR, native state of Central 
 India, Rajputana; area, 1200 square 
 miles; pop. 279,657. The capital is 
 also called Dholpur. Pop. 15,833. 
 
 DHOW (dou), an Arab sea-going 
 vessel, ranging from a comparatively 
 small size up to 250 tons burden, with 
 one mast and a large square sail. It is 
 
DIABEl'ES 
 
 DIAMOND 
 
 used for merchandise and is often em- 
 ployed in carrying slaves from the east 
 coast of Africa to Arabia. 
 
 Slave dhow, east coast of Africa. 
 
 DIABE'TES, a disease of which the 
 most remarkable symptoms are: a 
 great increase in the quantity of urine, 
 a voracious appetite, a stoppage of the 
 cutaneous perspiration, thirst, emacia- 
 tion, and great muscular debility. In 
 true diabetes the composition of the 
 urine is also greatly affected, an abund- 
 ance of saccharine matter (diabetic 
 sugar) being found in it. This disease 
 usually attacks persons of a debilitated 
 constitution and often without any 
 obvious cause. With respect to treat- 
 ment a diet should be employed of which 
 farinaceous or saccharine matter (starch 
 and sugar) forms no part, ordinary bread 
 or biscuits, rice, arrow-root, pastry, and 
 fruits being accordingly forbidden, 
 though almost any kind of animal food, 
 including eggs, cheese, butter, cream, 
 etc., as also various vegetables may be 
 eaten. Tea, coffee, dry wines, spirits, 
 and bitter ale may be drunk. Milk 
 should be taken only sparingly. The 
 disease is essentially a chronic one, 
 though death may occur with great 
 rapidity. Diseases of the lungs are 
 liable to attack a diabetic person. 
 
 DIABETIC SUGAR, the sweet prin- 
 ciple of diabetic urine. It is identical 
 with starch-sugar, grape-sugar, etc. It 
 is a constant though trifling constituent 
 of healthy urine, but in diabetes amounts 
 to 8 or 10 per cent, and in some cases 
 more. 
 
 DIACOUS'TICS, the science or doc- 
 trine of sounds as they are refracted by 
 passing through different mediums. 
 
 DI'ADEM, an ancient ornament of 
 royalty. It was originally a head-band 
 or fillet made of silk, linen, or wool, worn 
 round the temples and forehead, the 
 ends being tied behind and let fall on 
 the neck, as seen in old representations 
 of the diadem of the Indian Bacchus. 
 Latterly it was usually set with pearls 
 and other precious stones. The term is 
 also used as equivalent to crown or 
 coronet. 
 
 DIAGNO'SIS, in medicine, the dis- 
 crimination of diseases by their distinc- 
 tive marks or symptoms; the discovery 
 of the true nature and seat of a disease. 
 
 DIAG'ONAL, in geometry, a straight 
 line drawn between the opposite angles 
 of a quadrilateral figure. 
 
 DIAG'ONAL SCALE, a scale which 
 consists of a set of parallel lines drawn 
 on a ruler, with lines crossing them at 
 right angles and at equal distances. 
 One of these equal divisions, namely. 
 
 that at the extremity of the ruler. Is 
 subdivided into a number of equal parts, 
 and lines are drawn through the points 
 of division obliquely across the parallels. 
 
 Diagonal scale. 
 
 With the help of the compasses such a 
 scale facilitates the laying down of lines 
 of any required length to the 200th part 
 of an inch. 
 
 DI'AGRAM, a figure or geometrical 
 delineation applied to the illustration or 
 solution of geometrical problems, or any 
 illustrative figure in which outlines are 
 chiefly presented, and the details more 
 or less omitted. 
 
 DIAL, or SUN-DIAL, an instrument 
 for showing the hour of the day from the 
 shadow thrown while the sun is shining 
 by a stile or gnomon upon a graduated 
 surface. Tlus instrument has been 
 known from the earliest times among 
 Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Hebrews. 
 From those eastern nations it came to 
 the Greeks. It was introduced into 
 Rome during the first Punic war. Dials 
 are of various constructions, horizontal, 
 inclined, or upright, the principle in 
 every case being to show the sun’s dis- 
 tance from the meridian by means of 
 the shadow cast by the stile or gnomon. 
 The stile is made parallel with the earth’s 
 axis, and may be considered as coin- 
 ciding with the axis of the diurnal rota- 
 tion. Consequently as the sun moves 
 westward the shadow of the stile moves 
 round in the opposite direction, falling 
 on the meridian lines so marked as to 
 represent the hours of the day. The 
 dial of course gives solar time, which, 
 except on four days of the year, is slight- 
 ly different from that of a well-regulated 
 clock. Dials are now rather articles of 
 curiosity or ornament than of use. 
 
 DI'ALECT, the language of a part of a 
 country, or a distant colony, deviating 
 either in its grammar, vocabulary, or 
 pronunciation, from the language of that 
 part of the common country whose 
 idiom has been adopted as the literary 
 language, and the medium of inter- 
 course between well-educated people. 
 
 DIALEC'TICS, the old name of logic, 
 or the art of reasoning, but used in 
 Kant’s philosophy to mean the logic of 
 appearance, or that logic which treats of 
 inevitable tendencies toward error and 
 illusion in the very nature of reason. 
 
 DI'ALOGUE, a conversation or dis- 
 course between two or more persons. 
 The word is used more particularly for a 
 formal conversation in theatrical per- 
 formances, and for a written conversa- 
 tion or composition, in which two or 
 more persons carry on a discourse. This 
 form was much in favor among the, 
 ancient philosophers as a medium for 
 expressing their thoughts on subjects. 
 The Dialogues of Plato are the finest 
 example. Many of the great French 
 and Italian writers have used this form. 
 Landor’s Imaginary Conversations is 
 the best production of this kind in 
 English. 
 
 DIAMAGNETTC, a term applied to 
 substances which, when under the 
 influence of magnetism and freely 
 suspended, take a position at right 
 angles to the magnetic meridian, that 
 is, point east and west. From the ex- 
 periments of Faraday it appears that 
 all matter is subject to the magnetic 
 force as universally as it is to the 
 gravitating force, arranging itself into 
 two great divisions, the paramagnetic 
 and diamagnetic. Among the former 
 are iron, nickel, cobalt, platinum, 
 palladium, titanium, and a few- other 
 substances; and among the latter are 
 bismuth, antimony, cadmium, copper, 
 gold, lead, mercury, silver, tin, zinc, 
 and most solid, liquid, and gaseous 
 substances. When a paramagnetic sub- 
 stance is suspended freely between 
 the poles of a powerful horseshoe 
 magnet it points in a line from one pole 
 to the other, which Faraday terms the 
 axial line. On the other hand, when a 
 diamagnetic substance is suspended in 
 the same manner it is repelled alike 
 by both poles, and assumes an equato- 
 rial direction, or a direction at right 
 angles to the axial line. 
 
 DIAM'ETER, the straight line drawn 
 through the center of a circle, and 
 touching the two opposite points of the 
 circumference. It thus divides the 
 circle into two equal parts, and is the 
 greatest chord. The length of the 
 diameter is to the length of the circum- 
 ference of the circle as 1 to 3T4159265..., 
 the latter number being an interminable 
 decimal. 
 
 DIAMOND, the hardest and most 
 valuable of gems and the purest form 
 in which the element carbon is found. 
 A diamond and a piece of charcoal are 
 the same thing, that is, both are carbon, 
 only that the molecules are differently 
 arranged. Diamonds can be made 
 artificially, but the Expense attaching 
 to the work is too great to give the 
 process a commercial value. Previous 
 
 Five of the great diamonds of the world. The 
 “Great Mogul” in the middle: left hand 
 upper corner, “Star of the South” ; right 
 hand, “Koh-i-nur”; left hand lower, "Re- 
 gent”; right hand, “Orloff.” About one- 
 half actual size. 
 
 > 
 
 to the discovery of the Brazilian mines 
 Borneo and India were chief sources of 
 supply. The South African mines, it 
 is believed, now absolutely control the 
 diamond market of the world. 
 
 The most valuable gems, among 
 which there are some exceeding 100 
 carats in weight, are generally owned 
 by royal families or are treasured by 
 governments as state jewels. One 
 
DIAMOND NECKLACE 
 
 DICKENS 
 
 of the largest is the Orloff, owned by 
 the Czar of Russia, whieh weighs 195 
 carats, and is eut in rose form. Its 
 origin is doubtful; aeeording to one 
 aceount, it was stolen from a Brahman 
 temple in India, while another indicates 
 that it was owned by Nadir Shah of 
 Persia, and came after his death into 
 the hands of an Armenian merchant. 
 In 1772 it was purchased by the Em- 
 press Catharine II., at a price said to 
 have been $450,000, besides an annuity 
 of $4,000 and a Russian title. The 
 Koh-i-nur, weighing 102J carats, and 
 owned by the royal family of England, 
 was found, according to legend, in 
 India long before the Christian Era. 
 After having been handed down through 
 a long line of Indian princes, it was 
 seized during the British invasion of 
 the Punjab, and carried to England. 
 The stone is said to have weighed 
 originally 794 carats, having been 
 reduced to its present size by repeated 
 cutting. The Regent or Pitt diamond, in 
 the Louvre- in Paris, weighs 136 carats, 
 and is valued at $2,500,000. It is 
 perhaps the finest of large brilliants. 
 The Hope diamond, weighing 44J 
 carats, is a beautiful blue stone, valued 
 at $125,000. A light green diamond 
 of 48i carats, in the Green Vault at 
 Dresden, and a red diamond of 10 carats 
 among the crown jewels of Russia, are 
 .unique specimens. Among the most 
 valuable stones found in recent times 
 are the Victoria, weighing 180 carats, 
 which was purchased by the Nizam of 
 Hyderabad ; the De Beers, weighing 
 225 carats; and the Tiffany, weighing 
 125 
 
 DIAMOND NECKLACE, an affair 
 of some note in French history imme- 
 diately preceding the Revolution. 
 
 DIAN'A, in mythology, an ancient 
 Italian goddess whom the Romans 
 latterly identified with the Greek 
 Artemis, with whom she had various 
 attributes in common, being the virgin 
 
 Diana — Antique statue in the Louvre. 
 
 goddess of the moon and of the chase,' 
 and having as attribute's the crescent 
 moon, bow, arrows, and quiver. The 
 name is a feminine form of Janus. She 
 seems to have been originally the patron 
 divinity of the Sabines and Latins. 
 She was worshiped especially by 
 women as presiding over births, no man 
 being allowed to enter her temple. See 
 Artrmis. 
 
 DIANA OF POITIERS, Duchess of 
 Valentinois, born in 1499. She was the 
 
 mistress of King Henry II. of France, 
 and descended from the noble family of 
 Poitiers, in Dauphiny. At an early age 
 she married the Grand-seneschal of 
 Normandy, Louis de Brez6, became a 
 widow at thirty-one, and some time 
 after the mistress of the young Duke of 
 Orleans. On his accession to the throne, 
 in 1547, as Henry II., Diana continued 
 to exercise an absolute empire over 
 him till his death in 1559. After that 
 event she retired to her castle of Anet, 
 where she died in 1566. 
 
 DIAPA'SON, in music, the concord 
 of the first and last notes of an octave. 
 The word is also used for the most 
 important foundation-stops of an organ. 
 They are of several kinds, as open diapa- 
 son, stopped diapason, double diapason. 
 The French use the term as equivalent 
 to pitch in music. 
 
 DI'APER, a kind of textile fabric 
 much used for towels and napkins, and 
 formed either of linen or cotton, or a 
 mixture of the two, upon the surface of 
 which a flowered or figured pattern is 
 produced by a peculiar mode of twill- 
 ing. 
 
 DIAPHORET'ICS are agents used in 
 medical practice for producing a greater 
 degree of perspiration than is natural, 
 but less than in sweating. The Turkish 
 bath and a large part of hydropathic 
 treatment, diluent drinks, etc., are 
 employed for this purpose. Diaphoret- 
 ics increase only the insensible per- 
 spiration, while sudorifics excite the 
 sensible discharge called sweat. 
 
 DIAPHRAGM (di'a-fram), in anat- 
 omy, a muscular membrane placed 
 transversely in the trunk, and dividing 
 the chest from the abdominal cavity. In 
 its natural situation the diaphragm is 
 convex on the upper side and concave 
 on its lower, but when the lungs are 
 filled with air it becomes almost flat. 
 It is the principal agent in respiration, 
 particularly in inspiration. A com- 
 plete diaphragm is found only in mam- 
 malia. 
 
 DIARRHCE'A, a very common dis- 
 ease, which consists in an increased 
 discharge from the alimentary canal, 
 the evacuations being but little affected, 
 except in their assuming a more liquid 
 consistence. They are generally pre- 
 ceded or accompanied by flatulence 
 and a griping pain in the bowels, and 
 frequently by sickness. Diarrhoea is 
 often produced by indigestible food, 
 repletion of the stomach, cold applied 
 to the surface of the body, impressions 
 on the nervous system. It is often 
 also a symptom of some other disease. 
 In its simple form diarrhoea is not diffi- 
 cult of cure, mild purgatives given in 
 small doses and accompanied by quanti- 
 ties of mild diluents being frequently 
 successful. Castor-oil, rhubarb, mag- 
 nesia are the most generally applicable. 
 The food should be of the least stimu- 
 lating kind. 
 
 DIARY, a daily record of any kind, 
 customarily kept in a blank book with 
 forms printed for this purpose. The 
 diary form of narration is often made use 
 of by novelists to relieve the monotony 
 of an otherwise tiresome narration. 
 
 DIATH'ESIS, in medicine, a certain 
 general habit or constitution of body 
 as predisposing to certain diseases. 
 
 DIAZ (de-as), Porfirio, a Mexican 
 statesman and soldier, president of 
 Mexico, born at Oaxaca in 1380. As a 
 youth he entered the army, led a bat- 
 talion against Santa Anna, was a mem- 
 ber of congress in 1861, and took Puebla 
 in 1867 after the evacuation of the 
 French. In 1867 he became a candidate 
 for the presidency but was defeated. 
 He revolted successfully against the 
 government and in 1877 was elected 
 president, a post he has held almost 
 continuously since that time. He has 
 ruled Mexico with a hand of iron, but 
 the people like him, and he has been 
 very successful in bringing foreign 
 capital into the country. 
 
 DICE, cubical pieces of bone or ivory, 
 marked with dots on each of their six 
 faces, from one to six, according to the 
 number of faces. They are shaken in 
 a small box and then thrown on the 
 table. Dice are often loaded or falsified 
 in some way so as to make the high or 
 low side turn down. Dice are very 
 ancient, being well known among the 
 Egyptians and Greeks. 
 
 DICHROSCOPE (dl'kro-skop), an op- 
 tical instrument, usually consisting of an 
 achromatized double-image prism of 
 Iceland-spar, fixed in a brass tube, 
 which has a small square hole at one end 
 and a convex lens at the other, of such a 
 power as to give a sharp image of the 
 square hole. On looking through the 
 instrument the square hole appears 
 double, and if a dichroic crystal is placed 
 in front of it the two images will appear 
 of different colors. 
 
 DICKENS, Charles, one of the greatest 
 English novelists, was born February 
 7th, 1812, at Landport, Portsmouth, 
 died 1870. Having perfected himself 
 in shorthand, however, he became a 
 
 newspaper critic and reporter, was en- 
 gaged on the Mirror of Parliament and 
 the True Sun, and in 1835 on the Morn- 
 ing Chronicle. For some time previous- 
 ly he had been contributing humorous 
 pieces to the Monthly Magazine; but 
 at length, in 1835, appeared in the 
 Sketches by Boz which, brought Digk.ens 
 
DICKINSON COLLEGE 
 
 DIETETICS 
 
 into fame. In 1836 he was engaged to 
 prepare the letterpress for a series of 
 comic sketches on sporting subjects, the 
 result being the immortal Pickwick 
 Papers. The great characteristics of 
 Dickens’ genius were now fully apparent, 
 and his fame rose at once to the highest 
 point it was possible for a writer of fiction 
 to reach. He was buried in Westmin- 
 ster Abbey. Dickens’ work as a novelist 
 is firmly based upon a wide and keen 
 observation of men. It is true that most 
 of his characters suffer from being creat- 
 ed to exhibit little more than one trait 
 or quality alone, and thus receive an 
 air of grotesqueness and exaggeration 
 which approaches caricature. But the 
 single trait of quality which they em- 
 body is so truly conceived, and exhibited 
 with such vitality and humor, as to 
 place Dickens, in spite of all that is 
 grotesque and overstrained in his work, 
 among the great artists. 
 
 DICKINSON COLLEGE, founded in 
 1783 at Carlisle, Pa., and named for 
 John Dickinson. It has a preparatory, 
 a collegiate, and a law school, about 500 
 students, property worth $1,000,000, 
 and a library of 30,000 volumes. 
 
 DICKINSON, John, an American polit- 
 ical writer, known as “the penman of 
 the revolution.’’ He was born in 
 Marjfland in 1732 and died in 1808. 
 Dickinson studied law in London and 
 early allied himself with the revolu- 
 tionary movement. He was a member 
 of several of the early and later con- 
 ventions, but was chiefly distinguished 
 for his state papers and pamphlets. 
 He refused to sign the declaration of 
 independence, which caused his in- 
 fluence to wane. 
 
 DICTATOR, an extraordinary magis- 
 trate of the Roman Republic, first insti- 
 tuted 13. c. 501. The power of naming a 
 dictator when an emergency arose re- 
 quiring a concentration of the powers 
 of the state in a single superior 
 officer, was vested by a resolution of 
 the senate in one of the consuls. 
 The dictatorship was limited to six 
 months, and the person who held it 
 could not go out of Italy. This rule 
 was laid aside during the first Punic 
 war. The dictator was also forbidden to 
 appear in Rome on horseback without 
 the permission of the people, and he had 
 no control over the public funds without 
 the permission of the senate. He had 
 the power of life and death, and could 
 punish without appeal to the senate or 
 people. All the other magistrates were 
 under his orders. . 
 
 DICTIONARY, a book containing the 
 words, or subjects, which it treats, ar- 
 ranged in alphabetical order. It may be 
 either a vocabulary, or collection of the 
 words in a language, with their defini- 
 tions; or a special work on one or more 
 branches of science or art prepared on 
 the principle of alphabetical arrange- 
 ment, such as dictionaries of biography, 
 law, music, medicine, etc. The best- 
 known American dictionary of the Eng- 
 lish. language is that by Noah Webster, 
 published in 1828, and since entirely re- 
 cast. The largest complete English 
 dictionary is the Century Dictionary, 
 Webster’s International Dictionary and 
 The Standard Dictionary are other well 
 known American works. > 
 
 DIDACTIC POETRY, that kind of 
 poetry which professes to give a kind of 
 systematized instruction on a definite 
 subject or range of subjects. In a larger 
 sense of the word most great poems 
 might be called didactic, since they 
 contain a didactic element in the shape 
 of history or moral teaching, Dante’s 
 Divina Commedia, Milton’s Paradise 
 Lost, or Goethe’s Faust, for example. 
 The difference may be said to be this, 
 that in the one case the materials are 
 limited and controlled by nothing but 
 the creative fancy of the poet, while in 
 the other they are much more deter- 
 mined by the actual nature of the sub- 
 ject treated of. 
 
 DIDEROT (ded-ro) Denis, a French 
 writer and philosopher, was born in 1713, 
 at Langres, in Champagne. In 1749 he 
 had begun along with D’Alembert and 
 some others the Encyclopaedia. At first 
 it was intended to be mainly a transla- 
 tion of one already published in English 
 by Chambers. Diderot and D’Alembert, 
 however, enlarged upon this project, and 
 made the new Encyclopaedia a magnifi- 
 cently comprehensive and bold account 
 of all the thought and science of the 
 time. Diderot, besides revising the 
 whole, undertook at first the mechanical 
 arts, and subsequently made contribu- 
 tions in history, philosophy, and art. 
 criticism. But the profits of all his 
 labor were small, and it was only the 
 liberality of the Empress Catharine, 
 who purchased his library for 50,000 
 livres and made him a yearly allowance 
 of 1000 livres, that saved Diderot from 
 indigence. In 1773 he visited St. Peters- 
 burg to thank his benefactress and was 
 received with great honor. On his re- 
 turn to France he lived in retirement, 
 and died in 1784. 
 
 DIDUN'CULUS, a genus of birds allied 
 to the pigeons. This bird is of special 
 interest as being the nearest living ally 
 of the extinct dodo. It has a length of 
 about 14 inches, with a glossy plumage 
 
 Dldunculus striglrostrls. 
 
 verging from a velvety black on the back 
 to greenish black on the head, breast, 
 and abdomen. The large beak, which is 
 nearly as long as the head, is greatly 
 arched on the upper half, while the lower 
 is furnished with two or three tooth-like 
 indentations. 
 
 DIE, a metallic stamp for impressing 
 a design or figure upon coins or other 
 metallic objects. See Die-sinking. 
 
 DIEFFENBACH (de'fen-ba/i.), Johann 
 Friedrich, German surgeon, born at 
 Kanigsbergin 1792. Surgery is particu- 
 larly indebted to him for new methods 
 of forming artificial no?es, eyelids- lies. 
 
 etc., and curing squinting, stammering, 
 etc. He died in 1847. 
 
 DI'ELECTRIC, a name applied by 
 Faraday to any medium through or 
 across which electrostatic induction can 
 take place. Faraday first showed that 
 electrostatic induction was not action 
 at a distance, but took place by means 
 of the insulating medium separating 
 the two conductors. The medium he 
 named a dielectric, and measured its 
 specific inductive capacity by taking 
 that of common air as unity. 
 
 DIEPPE (de-ep'), a seaport town, 
 France, department Seine-Inf^rieure, on 
 the English Channel, at the embouchure 
 of the Arques, 93 miles n.n.w. Paris. 
 The port is spacious, admitting vefssels 
 of 1200 tons burden; but it cannot be 
 entered at low water. Dieppe is one of 
 the chief watering-places of France, and 
 is much frequented by visitors in sum- 
 mer and autumn. The manufactures 
 include works in ivory, the most famed 
 in Europe; works in horn and bone, 
 lace-making, sugar-refining, ship-build- 
 ing, etc. Pop. 20,804. 
 
 DIE-SINKING is the art of preparing 
 dies for stamping coins, buttons, medal- 
 lions, jewelry, fittings, etc. The steel 
 for the manufacture of dies is carefully 
 selected, forged at a high heat into the 
 rough die, softened by careful annealing, 
 and then handed over to the engraver. 
 After the engraver has worked out the 
 design in intaglio the die is put through 
 the operation of hardening, after which, 
 being cleaned and polished, it is called a 
 matrix. This is not, however, generally 
 employed in multipl 5 dng impressions, 
 but is used for ma^ng a punch or steel 
 impression for relief. For this purpose 
 another block of steel of the same quality 
 is selected, and, being carefully annealed 
 or softened, is compressed by proper 
 machinery upon the matrix till it re- 
 ceives the impression. When this pro- 
 cess is complete the impression is re- 
 touched by the engraver, and hardened 
 and collared like the matrix. Any num- 
 ber of dies may now be made from this 
 punch by impressing upon it plugs of 
 soft steel. In place of this process pat- 
 terns are now frequently engraved upon 
 rollers for transference to sheet metal 
 by rolling pressure. 
 
 DI'ET, a meeting of some body of men 
 held for deliberation or other purposes; 
 a term especially applied to the legis-. 
 lative or administrative assemblies of 
 the German empire, Austria, etc. 
 
 DIETET'ICS, that part of medicine 
 which relates to the regulation of diet. 
 The ideal diet is clearly that which, 
 without burdening the viscera uselessly, 
 furnishes all necessary nutritive ele- 
 ments, with due consideration for special 
 physiological conditions in any given 
 case. No single substance contains the 
 elements needed to replace this waste ^ 
 in their requisite proportions, and a 
 mixed diet is therefore necessary. For 
 instance to secure the required amount 
 of carbon a man would need to eat about 
 4 lbs. of lean beef, while 1 lb. would yield 
 all the nitrogen required; thus, apart 
 from the labor of digesting 4 lbs. of beef, 
 the body would be compelled to get ria 
 of the excess of nitrogen. Bread, on the 
 other hand, has carbon in abundance, 
 but is deficient in nitrogen; so that by 
 
DIEU ET MON DROIT 
 
 DIKE 
 
 uniting 2 lbs. of bread with f lb. of lean 
 meat, the due proportion of carbon and 
 nitrogen is satisfactorily supplied. Milk 
 and oatmeal taken together also con- 
 tain nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous 
 substances in nearly the required pro- 
 portions. A certain proportion of saline 
 matter is also necessary. The nature of 
 the food most suitable for a healthy man 
 is dependent in part upon general con- 
 ditions such as climate and season, and 
 in part upon special conditions of in- 
 dividual habit. The inhabitants of the 
 arctic regions need large quantities of 
 oleaginous food; those of the tropics 
 live chiefly on starchy products. With 
 increased activity and exertion, as in 
 training, an increase in the nitrogenous 
 foods becomes necessary. In a state of 
 health we need not draw hair-breadth 
 distinctions as to the superior salubrity 
 of the several sorts of diet, the quantity 
 rather than the quality of food being the 
 main consideration. Those persons who 
 have been most remarkable for health 
 and long life have generally been con- 
 tented with two moderate meals a day 
 which are certainly quite sufficient dur- 
 ing a state of health. 
 
 In all diseases attended with much 
 fever or quickness of pulse the stomach 
 loathes animal food, and there is gener- 
 ally a great increase of thirst, to quench 
 which water, either quite cold, or iced, 
 or tepid, or rendered acid, may be freely 
 indulged. Infusions, too, of barley, sage, 
 balm, etc., may be taken. In chronic 
 diseases attended with hectic fever, 
 milk is the most proper diet. The best 
 food for infants is, of course, their 
 mother’s milk; but whenever they begin 
 to cut teeth a little animal food, such 
 as soft-boiled eggs, beef-tea, and even 
 chicken minced very fine, may be given. 
 Many infants suffer from having too 
 much sugar given them in their food. 
 
 DIEU ET MON DROIT (dyew e mon 
 drwa), the motto of the arms of England, 
 first assumed by Richard I., and revived 
 by Edward III. when he claimed the 
 crown of France. Except during the 
 reigns of Elizabeth and Anne, who used 
 the motto Semper eadem, and of William 
 III., who personally used Je maintien- 
 dray, it has ever since been the royal 
 motto of England. 
 
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS. See 
 Calculus. 
 
 DIFFERENTIAL - THERMOMETER, 
 
 an instrument for determining very 
 minute differences of temperature. Les- 
 lie’s differential thermometer consists of 
 two glass bulbs containing air connected 
 by a bent tube containing some sulphuric 
 acid, the movement of which (as the air 
 expands and contracts) serves to indi- 
 cate any slight difference of temperature 
 between the two bulbs. 
 
 DIFFRACTION, a term applied to 
 certain phenomena connected with the 
 modification that rays of light undergo 
 in passing close to the edge of an opaque 
 body. Thus w'hen a beam of direct sun- 
 light is admitted into a dark room 
 through a narrow slit, and falls upon a 
 screen placed to receive it, there appears 
 a line of white light bordered by colored 
 fringes; these fringes are produced by 
 diffraction. See Interference. 
 
 DIFFU'SION, the gradual dispersion 
 of particles of one liquid or gas among 
 
 those of another. Thus, in the case of 
 gases, when a jar of oxygen and a jar of 
 hydrogen are connected together by a 
 tube or opening of any kind, they rapidly 
 become mixed; and their mixture does 
 not depend on gravity, but takes place 
 in opposition to that force, as may be 
 shown by placing the jar of hydrogen gas 
 above the other. Oxygen is sixteen 
 times heavier than hydrogen, bulk for 
 bulk, but the heavier gas moves upward 
 and the lighter downward, and the pro- 
 cess of intermixture, or diffusion, goes 
 on till the two gases are apparently 
 equably distributed throughout the 
 whole space. After that they have no 
 tendency whatever to separate. Similar- 
 ly, if two vessels, one containing oxygen 
 and the other hydrogen, be connected 
 by a tube which is stuffed with a plug of 
 porous material, such as plaster of Paris, 
 the gases gradually diffuse on^ into the 
 other through the porous plug. The 
 two gases, however, do not pass through 
 the porous separator at equal rates, but 
 in inverse proportion to the square roots 
 of the densities of the gases. Thus in 
 the case of two vessels, one containing 
 hydrogen and the other oxygen, which 
 is sixteen times as heavy as hydrogen, 
 the hydrogen will pass toward the 
 oxygen jar four times as quickly as the 
 oxygen will pass toward the hydrogen 
 jar. Kindred phenomena occur when 
 two liquids that are capable of mixing, 
 such as alcohol and water, are put in 
 contact, the two gradually diffusing one 
 into the other in spite of the action of 
 gravity. In some cases, however, as 
 where ether and water are employed, 
 the diffusion is only partial, extending a 
 comparatively small distance on either 
 side of the original line of separation. 
 When solutions of various solid bodies 
 are placed in contact, interdiffusion also 
 takes place. On the results of his ex- 
 amination of the phenomena of diffusion 
 of liquids and salts across porous mem- 
 branes or septa, Graham founded a 
 method of separating colloid from 
 crystalloid bodies, which he called 
 dialysis. 
 
 DI'GEST, a name originally given to a 
 collection or body of Roman laws, di- 
 gested or arranged under proper titles 
 by order of the emperor Justinian. 
 Hence applied to any somewhat similar 
 collection. 
 
 DIGESTER, a strong vessel of copper 
 or iron, on which is screwed an air-tight 
 cover with a safety-valve, the object 
 being to prevent loss of heat by evapora- 
 tion. Water may be thus heated to 400° 
 Fahr.; at which temperature its solvent 
 power is so greatly increased that bones 
 are converted into a jelly. 
 
 DIGESTION is that process in the 
 animal body by which the aliments are 
 so acted upon that the nutritive parts 
 are prepared to enter the circulation, 
 and separated from those which cannot 
 afford nourishment to the body. The 
 organs effecting this process are called 
 the digestive organs, and consist of the 
 stomach, the great and small intestines, 
 etc. (see Intestine, Stomach), the liver, 
 and pancreas. When the aliments, 
 after being properly prepared and mixed 
 with saliva by mastication, have reached 
 the stomach, they are intimately united 
 with a liquid substance called the gastric 
 
 juice, by the motion of the stomach. 
 By this motion the aliments are mechan- 
 ically separated into their smallest parts, 
 penetrated by the gastric juice, and 
 transformed into a uniform pulpy or 
 fluid mass. The gastric juice acts upon 
 the albuminous parts of the food, con- 
 verting them into peptones, V’hich can 
 pass through organic membranes and 
 thus enter the blood. This action is 
 aided by the warmth of the stomach. 
 The pulpy mass, called chyme, proceeds 
 from the stomach, through the pylorus, 
 into that part of the intestinal canal 
 called the small intestine, where it is 
 mixed with the pancreatic juice, bile, 
 and intestinal juice. The pancreatic 
 juice converts starch into sugar, albu- 
 mins into peptones, and emulsionizes 
 fats, so that all these kinds of food are 
 rendered capable of absorption. The 
 process is aided by the intestinal juice. 
 The bile also acts upon fats, and thus 
 the food is formed into the chyle, which 
 is absorbed into the system by the capil- 
 lary vessels called lacteals while the 
 non-nutritious matters pass down the 
 intestinal canal and are carried off. 
 
 DIGIT (dij'it), in arithmetic, any one 
 of the ten numerals, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 
 9, 0. Digit is also a measure of a finger’s 
 breadth, equal to f inch. — Digit, in 
 astronomy, is the measure by which we 
 estimate the quantity of an eclipse. The 
 diameter of the sun or moon’s disc is 
 conceived to be divided into twelve 
 equal parts, called digits; and according 
 to the number of those parts or digits 
 which are obscured, so many digits are 
 said to be eclipsed. 
 
 DIJON (de-zhon), a town in Eastern 
 France, capital of the department Cote- 
 d’Or, in a fertile plain, at the foot of a 
 range of vineclad slopes, formerly sur- 
 rounded by ramparts, which now furnish 
 beautiful promenades. At some dis- 
 tance it is surrounded by a series of forts. 
 Some of the buildings belong to the 
 period when Dijon was capital of the 
 dukedom of Burgundy, the chief being 
 the cathedral, a building of vast extent 
 with a lofty wooden spire above 300 
 feet high; the churches of Notre Dame 
 and St. Michael; the ancient palace of 
 the dukes of Burgundy, now used as the 
 hotel de ville and museum; and the 
 palais ■ de justice, formerly the parlia- 
 ment house of Burgundy. It has im- 
 portant educational institutions and a 
 valuable library. Industries: woolens, 
 hosiery, candles, mustard, vinegar, 
 chemicals, paper-hangings, etc., tan- 
 neries, foundries, machine factories, 
 cotton and oil mills. The trade is con- 
 siderable, particularly in the wines of 
 Burgundy. Pop. 65,428. 
 
 DIKE, or DYKE, a w'ord variously 
 used in different localities to represent 
 a ditch or trench, and also an embank- 
 ment, rampart, or wall. It is specially 
 applied to an embankment raised to 
 oppose the incursions of tlie sea or of a 
 river, the dikes of Holland being notable 
 examples of work of this kind. These 
 are often raised 40 feet above the high- 
 water mark, and are wide enough at the 
 top for a common roadway or canal, 
 sometimes for both. The Helder Dike, 
 one of the largest, is about 6 miles in 
 length and involves an annual outlay 
 of over $30,000. 
 
DIKE 
 
 DIOMEDES 
 
 DIKE, DYKE, in geology, a terin 
 applied to intrusions of igneous rock, 
 such as basalt, greenstone, etc., 'svhich 
 fill up veins and fissures in the stratified 
 systems, and sometimes project on the 
 surface like walls. 
 
 DILEM'MA, in logic, a form of argu- 
 ment used to prove the falsehood or 
 absurdity of some assertion, as in the 
 following instance : If he did go he must 
 be either foolish or wicked; but we 
 know he is neither foolish nor wicked; 
 therefore he cannot have done so. The 
 two suppositions, which are equally 
 untenable, are called the “horns” of the 
 dilemma. 
 
 DILETTANTE (di-let-tan'ta), an Ital- 
 ian expression, signifying a lover of the 
 arts and sciences, who devotes his leisure 
 to them as a means of amusement and 
 gratification, being thus nearly equiva- 
 lent to amateur. 
 
 DILL, an umbelliferous plant, a native 
 of the southern countries of Europe, the 
 fruits, commonly but erroneously called 
 seeds, of which are moderately warming, 
 pungent, and aromatic, and are employ- 
 ed medicinally as a carminative. In 
 appearance it resembles the fennel. Dill- 
 seeds yield dill-water, which is used as a 
 remedy in flatulency and gripes of 
 children. 
 
 DIL'UENTS, in medicine, are those 
 substances which are taken to increase 
 the proportion of fluid in the blood. 
 They consist of water and watery liquors. 
 
 DILU'VIUM, the name formerly given 
 by geologists to certain gravels and com- 
 paratively recent deposits, which seem 
 to have been the result of a rush of water 
 or deluge. 
 
 DIME, the term for a silver coin, the 
 tenth part of a dollar or ten-cent piece 
 in the United States. 
 
 DIMIN'UTIVE, in grammar, a word 
 having a special affix which conveys the 
 idea of littleness, and all other ideas 
 connected with this, as tenderness, affec- 
 tion, contempt, etc. The opposite of 
 diminutive is augmentative. In Latin, 
 diminutives almost always ended in 
 lus, la, or lum ; as Tulliola, meum corcu- 
 lum, little Tullia, my dear or little heart ; 
 homunculus, a manikin. The Italian is 
 particularly rich in diminutives and 
 augmentatives, such compound dimin- 
 utives as fratellinucciettinetto (a di- 
 minutive of frate, brother) being some- 
 times employed. Among English di- 
 minutive affixes are kin, as in manikin, a 
 little man; pipkin, a little pipe; ling, as 
 in gosling, a little goose; darling, that 
 is, dearling, or little dear; and et, as in 
 pocket, from poke, a bag or pouch ; 
 tablet, a little table. Diminutives are 
 also formed, in colloquial and familiar 
 language, by adding y or ie to the names, 
 as Charley, Mousie, etc. 
 
 DIM'ITY, a stout cotton fabric, orna- 
 mented in the loom either by raised 
 stripes or fancy figures. It is usually 
 employed white, as for bed and bed- 
 room furniture. 
 
 DINAJPUR', a town, Hindustan, 
 Bengal, capital of a district of same 
 name, 205 miles north of Calcutta; pop. 
 12,000. The district covers an area of 
 about 4118 square miles- pop. 1,555,835. 
 
 DINGN, the native wild dog of Austra- 
 lia, of a wolf-like appearance and ex- 
 tremely fierce. The ears are short and 
 
 erect, the tail rather bushy, and the hair 
 of a reddish-dun color. It is very de- 
 structive to the flocks, killing more than 
 it eats. 
 
 DINO'CERAS, a fossil mammal found 
 in the Eocene strata of U. America, in 
 some respects akin to the elephant and 
 of equal size, but without a proboscis. 
 Its bones were very massive; it had two 
 long tusks in the upper jaw, three pairs 
 of horns, and the smallest .brain, pro- 
 portionally, of any known mammal. 
 
 DINOR'NIS, an extinct genus of large 
 wingless birds — classed among the Stru- 
 thionidse or ostrich tribe — the bones of 
 five species of which have been found in 
 
 Dinornis (pelvic and leg bones and outline 
 of body). 
 
 New Zealand. The largest must have 
 stood at least 14 feet in height, several 
 of its bones being at least twice the size 
 of those of the ostrich. The body seems 
 to have been even more bulky in pro- 
 portion, the tarsus being shorter and 
 stouter in order to sustain its weight. 
 They do not appear to have become ex- 
 tinct until the 17th or 18th century, and 
 are spoken of as moas by the natives, 
 who buried the eggs with their dead as 
 provision for their journey to the other 
 world. 
 
 DINOSAU'RIA, a group of colossal 
 lizards, resembling the pachydermatous 
 mammals in general appearance, but in 
 reality intermediate between the stru- 
 thious birds and lizards. The majority, 
 as the Megalosaurus, which attained to 
 40 feet in length, were carnivorous; the 
 Iguanodon, however, was herbivorous. 
 They were the land reptiles of the Juras- 
 sic, Wealden, and inferior Cretaceous 
 continents. 
 
 DINOTHE'RIUM, a genus of extinct 
 gigantic mammals, the remains of which 
 occur in Tertiary formations in several 
 parts of Europe. The largest species is 
 
 Dinoiherium restored. 
 
 calculated to have attained the length 
 of 18 feet. It had a proboscis and mso 
 two tusks placed at the anterior ex- 
 tremity of the lower jaw, and curved 
 downward somewhat after the manner 
 
 of those in the upper jaw of the walrus. 
 The zoological position of the Dinother- 
 ium is that of a proboscidean allied to 
 the elephant. The skull, molar teeth, 
 and scapular bone are the only portions 
 yet discovered. Kaup regarcls it as 
 intermediate between the mastodons 
 and tapirs, and terrestrial; while Blain- 
 ville and Pictet regard it as allied to 
 the sea-cows, and inhabiting the em- 
 bouchure of great rivers. 
 
 DI'OCESE, the circuit or extent of a 
 bishop’s jurisdiction. Each diocese is 
 divided into archdeaconries, each arch- 
 deaconry (nominally) into rural dean- 
 eries, and each deanery into parishes. 
 
 DIOCLE'TIAN, a native of Dalmatia, 
 proclaimed Emperor of Rome by the 
 army 284 a.d. He was compelled by the 
 dangers threatening Rome to share the 
 government with M. Aurelius Valerius 
 Maximian. In 292 C. Galerius and Con- 
 stantins Chlorus were also raised to a 
 share in the empire, which was thus 
 divided into four parts, of which Diocle- 
 tian administered Thrace, Egypt, Syria, 
 and Asia. As the result of his reconsti- 
 tution of the empire there followed a 
 period of brilliant successes in which the 
 barbarians were driven back from all the 
 frontiers, and Roman power restored 
 from Britain to Egypt. In 305, in con- 
 junction with Maximian, he resigned 
 the imperial dignity at Nicomedia, and 
 retired to Salona in Dalmatia, where he 
 cultivated his garden in tranquillity 
 until his death in 313. In the latter 
 part of his reign he was induced to 
 sanction a persecution of the Christians. 
 
 DIOGENES of Sinope, (on the Black 
 Sea) the most famous of the Cynic phi- 
 losophers, born about 412 b.c. Having 
 been banished from his native place 
 with his father, who had been accused 
 of coining false money, he went to 
 Athens, and thrust himself upon An- 
 tisthenes as a disciple. Like Antis- 
 thenes he despised all philosophical 
 speculations, and opposed the corrupt 
 morals of his time; but while the 
 stern austerity of Antisthenes was re- 
 pulsive, Diogenes exposed the follies 
 of his contemporaries with wit and good 
 humor. As an exemplar of Cynic virtue 
 he satisfied his appetite with the coarsest 
 food, practiced the most rigid temper- 
 ance, walked through the streets of 
 Athens barefoot, without any coat, with 
 a long beard, a stick in his hand, and a 
 wallet on his shoulders, and by night, 
 according to the popular story, slept in a 
 tub (or large earthenware vessel). On 
 a voyage to the island of .lEgina he fell 
 into the hands of pirates, who sold him 
 as a slave to the Corinthian Xeniades in 
 Crete. The latter emancipated him, and 
 intrusted him -sv-ith the education of his 
 children. He attended to the duties of 
 his new- employment with the greatest 
 care, commonly living in summer at 
 Corinth and in winter at Athens. He 
 died 323 B.c., at a great age. 
 
 DIOMEDES (dl-o-me'dez), in Greek 
 mythology, (1) A king of the Bistones, 
 who fed nis horses on human flesh, and 
 used to throw all strangers who entered 
 his territories to those animals to be 
 devoured. He was killed bj-^ Hercules, 
 who carried off the horses. (2) One of 
 the heroes at the siege of Troy, the son 
 of Tydeus and Deipyle, and king of 
 
DIONYSIUS 
 
 DIPSOMANIA 
 
 Argos, one of the suitors of Helen. After 
 she was carried off Diomedes engaged in 
 the expedition against Troy, in which 
 his courage and the protection of Pallas 
 rendered him one of the most distin- 
 guished heroes. He wounded Aphrodite 
 and ^res, and thrice assailed Apollo; 
 and by carrying off the horses of Rhoesus 
 from the enemies’ tents, and aiding Ulys- 
 ses in the removal of Philoctetes from 
 Lemnos, he fulfilled two of the condi- 
 tions on which alone Troy could be 
 conquered. Finally he was one of the 
 heroes concealed in the wooden horse by 
 whom the capture of Troy was at length 
 accomplished. Different accounts were 
 given of his after-life. He is often called 
 Diomede. 
 
 DIONYSIUS of Halicaonassus, in 
 Caria, a Greek critic and teacher of elo- 
 quence, born about 70 b.c. He went to 
 Rome about 30 b.c., where he wrote his 
 Roman Antiquities, in twenty books, in 
 which he relates (in Greek) the early 
 history of Rome and its government up 
 to the times of the first Punic war. 
 
 DIONYSIUS the Areopagite, that is, 
 one of the judges of the Areopagus, at 
 Athens, a convert to Christianity by the 
 Apostle Paul about the middle of the 
 first century, and the first bishop at 
 Athens, where he suffered martyrdom. 
 
 DIONYSIUS the Elder, in Greek his- 
 tory, tyrant or absolute ruler of Syra- 
 cuse, born about 430 b.c. of obscure 
 parentage. He obtained the rank of 
 general, and afterward of commander- 1 
 in-chief ; and gaining the support of the 
 army, he seized the supreme power in 
 Syracuse, though only twenty-five years 
 of age. He gained a complete victory 
 over the Carthaginians under the walls of 
 Syracuse. In 368 he commenced a new 
 war against the Carthaginians, but failed 
 to drive them entirely out of Sicily. He 
 is said to have died from a potion ad- 
 ministered at the instigation of his son 
 Dionysius the Younger (367 b.c.). 
 
 DIONYSIUS the Little, a Serbian 
 monk who was abbot of a monastery at 
 Rome in the bemnning of the 6th cen- 
 tury, and died about the year 530, cele- 
 brated as the author of the computation 
 of time from the Christian era. This 
 mode of computation, however, was not 
 publicly used until the 8th century. 
 
 DIONYSIUS the Younger, a tyrant of 
 Syracuse, who in 367 b.c. succeeded his 
 father, Dionysius the Elder. For the 
 purpose of recalling him from the ex- 
 cesses to which he was addicted Dion- 
 ysius persuaded him to invite Plato to 
 his court, but the influence of the phil- 
 osopher effected no permanent change. 
 Timoleon, who came to Syracuse with 
 aid_ from Corinth against the Cartha- 
 ginians, desposed him in 344 b.c. 
 
 DIOPTRICS, that part of optics 
 which treats of the refraction of light 
 passing through different mediums, as 
 through air, water or glass, and especially 
 through lenses. These phenomena, how- 
 ever, are now more commonly treated 
 under the head of refraction. 
 
 DIORA'MA, a mode of painting and of 
 scenic exhibition invented by Messrs. 
 Daguerre and Bouton, and first exhibited 
 in 1823. It secures a higher degree of 
 illusion than the ordinary panorama, by 
 a mode of uniting transparent painting 
 to the usual opaque method, ancl causing 
 P.IS.— 24 
 
 the light to fall upuu the picture both 
 from before and behind. At the same 
 time, by means of colored transparent 
 blinds, suspended both above and be- 
 hind the picture, the rays of light can be 
 intercepted and made to fall at pleasure 
 in graduated tints upon every part of the 
 picture in succession. 
 
 DIP of the horizon, an allowance made 
 in all astronomical observations of alti- 
 tude for the height of the eye above the 
 level of the sea. 
 
 DIP, in geology, the inclination or 
 angle at which strata slope or dip down- 
 ward into the earth. The degree of 
 inclination or amount of the dip, which 
 is easily measured by a special instru- 
 ment, is determined by the angle which 
 a line drawn perpendicular to the direc- 
 tion of the stratum makes with the 
 horizon. The line in which such strata 
 cut the surface is called the strike, and 
 is always at right angles to the dip. 
 
 DIPHTHE'RIA, a malignant dise^e 
 characterized by the formation of a thick 
 leathery false membrane in the throat, 
 and allied to croup, which, indeed, is 
 often considered a form of it, the disease 
 being called diphtheria when it attacks 
 principally the tonsQs and parts in their 
 neighborhood, and croup when it prin- 
 cipally attacks the larynx. (See Croup.) 
 It has only in recent times attracted 
 public attention by its frequency and 
 peculiar symptoms. It is a most fatal 
 disease, resulting from the introduction 
 I into the body of a specific poison, is con- 
 tagious, often epidemic, and in some 
 places endemic. It is always accom- 
 panied by a very low state of the system, 
 indicating the necessity of giving stimu- 
 lating nourishment very freely. The 
 membrane may spread more or less, go- 
 ing down into the windpipe or up the 
 nose, and death may be caused by suffo- 
 cation and exhaustion, or the violence 
 of the poison may cause it without the 
 formation of a membrane. The patient’s 
 strength must be well kept up, and anti- 
 septic agents applied. Injection of anti- 
 toxic serum, from the blood of a horse 
 previously inoculated with the disease, 
 IS now successfully employed. 
 
 DIPHTHONG, a coalition or union of 
 two vowels pronounced in one syllable. 
 In uttering a proper diphthong both 
 vowels are pronounced ; the sound is not 
 simple, but the two sounds are so blend- 
 ed as to be considered as forming one 
 syllable, as in void, bough. The term 
 improper diphthong is applied to the 
 union in one syllable of two or more 
 vowels, of which only one is sounded, as 
 in bean. 
 
 DIPLEI'DOSCOPE, an instrument for 
 indicating the passage of the sun or a 
 star over the meridian, by the coin- 
 cidence of two images of the object, the 
 one formed by single and the other by 
 double refiection. It consists of an 
 equilateral hollow prism, two of whose 
 sides are silvered on the inside so as to 
 be mirrors, while the third is formed of 
 glass. The prism is adjusted so that one 
 of the silvered sides shall be exactly in 
 the plane of the meridian, and the trans- 
 parent side toward the object. 
 
 DIPLO'MA, literally a document fold- 
 ed but once, and therefore divided into 
 twq parts. It is used to signify a docu- 
 ment signed ^nd sealed, iri wMcb cer- 
 
 tain rights, privileges, dignities, etc., 
 are conferred, especially a university 
 d©gr66. 
 
 DIPLO'MACY, the science or art of 
 conducting negotiations, arranging trea- 
 ties, etc., between nations; the branch 
 of knowledge which deals with the rela- 
 tions of independent states to one an- 
 other; the agency or management of en- 
 voys accredited to a foreign court; the 
 forms of international negotiations. 
 Diplomatic agents are of several degrees: 
 1, ambassadors; 2, envoys extra ordinary 
 and ministers plenipotentiary; 3, minis- 
 ters resident; 4, charges d’affaires; 5, 
 secretaries of legation and attaches. 
 Their rank was regulated in Europe, in 
 the above order, by the congress assem- 
 bled at Vienna in 1814. Among the 
 European powers it is agreed that of 
 ministers of the same rank he who ar- 
 rives first shall have the precedence over 
 his colleagues. 
 
 DIPPER, a bird of the genus Cinclus, 
 allied to the thrushes. The common 
 
 a er is about 7 inches in length, 
 a very short tail, small rounded 
 wings, and large powerful feet; the bill 
 
 is of moderate length, straight, and 
 slender. The male has the upper part 
 of the body dark brown, the throat and 
 breast white, belly rusty. The dipper 
 frequents streams, and feeds largely on 
 water-insects and larvae. It can dive 
 and walk under water, effecting its prog- 
 ress by grasping the stones with its 
 feet. The song is sweet and lively. 
 
 DIPPING-NEEDLE, or INCLINATION 
 COMPASS, an instrument for showing 
 the direction of one of the components 
 of the earth’s magnetism. In essentials 
 the instrument consists of a light mag- 
 netized steel bar supported on a horizon- 
 tal axis which passes, as nearly as possi- 
 ble, through the center of inertia of the 
 bar. When a needle thus mounted is 
 placed anywhere not in the magnetic 
 equator, it dips or points downward; 
 and if the vertical plane, in which it 
 moves, coincides with the magnetic 
 meridian the position of the needle 
 shows at once the direction of the mag- 
 netic force. The intersection of two or 
 more directions found by making the 
 experiment at different places, indicates 
 the place of the magnetic pole. 
 
 DIPSOMA'NIA, a term recently intro- 
 duced to denote an insane craving for 
 intoxicating liquors, when occ\irring in a 
 confirmed or habitual form. It is often 
 of hereditary origin, but may result 
 from sunstroke, from some injury to the 
 brain, or from disease. The only remedy 
 appears to be seclusion, with enforced 
 abstinence and healthy occupation. 
 
DIPTERA 
 
 DISEASES OF PLANTS 
 
 DIP'TERA, an order of two-winged 
 insects, of which the common house-fly 
 and blue-bottle are familiar examples. 
 
 DIRECTORS, persons elected to meet 
 together at short fixed intervals and con- 
 sult about the affairs of corporations or 
 joint-stock companies, and to advise and 
 assist the manager. Directors are ap- 
 pointed by a general meeting of the 
 shareholders in the undertaking, and a 
 certain number of them, usually a third, 
 retire every year. Ordinary directors 
 are granted a certain remuneration for 
 their services. The duties and responsi- 
 bilities of directors are defined by the 
 constitution of the company, or by the 
 various acts of the legislature affecting 
 joint-stock and other companies. 
 
 DIRECTORY, the name given to a 
 body of five officers to whom the execu- 
 tive authority in France was committed 
 by the constitution of the year III. 
 (1795). The two legislative bodies, 
 called the councils, elected the members 
 of the directory: one member was 
 obliged to retire yearly, and his place 
 was supplied by election. This body 
 was invested with the authority, which, 
 by the constitution of 1791, had been 
 granted to the king. By the revolution 
 of the 18th Brumaire the directory and 
 the constitution of the year III. were 
 abolished. It was succeeded by the 
 consulate. 
 
 DIRECTRIX, in math, a line perpen- 
 dicular to the axis of a conic section, and 
 so placed that the distance from it of any 
 point in the curve is to the distance of 
 
 Directrix of a parabola. 
 
 the same point from the focus in a con- 
 stant ratio ; also, the name given to any 
 line, whether straight or not, that is re- 
 quired for the description of a curve. 
 The directrix of a parabola is a line per- 
 pendicular to the axis produced, and 
 whose distance from the vertex is equal 
 to the distance of the vertex from the 
 focus. Thus A B is the directrix of the 
 parabola v e d, of which f is the focus. 
 
 DIRK, a kind of dagger formerly used 
 as a weapon of offense by the High- 
 landers of Scotland. Dirks are worn by 
 midshipmen- and cadets of the English 
 navy, and still form part of the full high- 
 land costume. 
 
 DISABILITY, in law, incapacity to do 
 any legal act. It is either absolute, 
 which wholly disables the person; such 
 as outlawry or excommunication — or 
 partial, such as infancy, coverture, in- 
 sanity or drunkenness. 
 
 DISBANDING, the breaking up of a 
 regiment or other body of military, and 
 releasing them from service, when they 
 are no longer required, or it may be on 
 account of insubordination. 
 
 DISBARRING, expelling an attorney 
 from the bar. The party disbarred may 
 lodge an appeal with the judges in their 
 capacity of citizen. 
 
 DISC, DISK, the central part of a 
 radiate compound flower surrounded by 
 the ray. Also c, part, sometimes cup- 
 
 shaped, at the base of the stamens, con- 
 sisting in some cases of rudimentary 
 stamens, in others of the modified re- 
 ceptacle. — In astronomy the term is 
 applied to the face or circular figure ex- 
 hibited by the sun, moon, or a planet in 
 the sky. 
 
 DISCHARGING ARCH, an arch form- 
 ed in the substance of a wall to relieve 
 the part which is below it from the super- 
 
 incumbent weight. Such arches are 
 commonly used over lintels and flat- 
 headed openings. 
 
 DISCIPLES OF CHRIST, also called 
 Christians, a religious denomination 
 formed by Thomas Campbell and his 
 son Alexander, their general principle 
 being announced in the aphorism, 
 “Where the scriptures speak, we speak; 
 where the scriptures are silent, we are 
 silent.” The denomination sprang up 
 in 1812 in Pennsylvania, and has grown 
 very rapidly until today it numbers 
 nearly 1,500,000. The Christians ac- 
 cept the inspiration of the scriptures, 
 baptize by immersion, and in church 
 government are congregational. 
 
 DISCLAIM'ER, in its stricter legal 
 sense, a plea containing renunciation or 
 a denial of some claim alleged to have 
 been made by the party pleading. 
 
 DIS'CORD, in music, a dissonant or 
 inharmonious combination of sounds, so 
 called in opposition to the concord. See 
 Til Cl n 
 
 DIS'COUNT, the charge made by a 
 banker for interest of money advanced 
 by him on a bill or other document not 
 presently due. In advancing money on 
 such security the banker deducts the 
 charge for interest on his advance from 
 the total amount represented on the 
 security, pays the difference, which is 
 called the proceeds of the bill, to the per- 
 son parting with it, and collects the full 
 amount to reimburse himself for outlay 
 and interest at maturity. Popularly the 
 term discount is applied to any deduc- 
 tion from the full amount of an account 
 made by the party to whom it is paid, 
 especially on prompt or early payment. 
 When a bill which has been discounted 
 is paid by the acceptor before it is due, 
 the discount allowed for prepayment is 
 called rebate. 
 
 DISCOV'ERY, in law, the act of re- 
 vealing or making known any matter by 
 a defendant in his answer to a bill in 
 chancery. The word is also used in 
 reference to the disclosure by a bank- 
 rupt of his property for the benefit of his 
 creditors 
 
 DISCRIMINATION, a term applied to 
 the practice of railroads or other com- 
 mon carriers of favoring certain users of 
 the road, or other utility to the prejudice 
 of other users, particularly in the matter 
 of charges. Railway discrimination has 
 
 been continuously practiced in the U. 
 States for many years and much legisla- 
 tion has been directed against it, with- 
 out, it would seem, any useful or efficient 
 result. Federal and state laws against 
 discrimination seem all to be mere dead 
 letters. Similar legislation in England 
 seems to have fallen as far short of the 
 mark as in the U. States. 
 
 DISCUS, DISC, or DISK, among the 
 Greeks and Romans a quoit of stone or 
 metal, convex on both its sides, some- 
 times perforated in the middle. The 
 players aimed at no mark, but simply 
 tried to throw the quoit to the greatest 
 possible distance. It was sometimes 
 furnished with a thong of leather to assist 
 in the throwing. 
 
 DISEASE, any morbid state of , the 
 body, or of any organ or part of the body. 
 Diseases are described as local or con- 
 stitutional, idiopathic, symptomatic, 
 epidemic, endemic, contagious, acute, 
 chronic, etc. The influence of the parents 
 on the organization of the child is so 
 great that not only peculiarities of ex- 
 ternal form, but the peculiar constitu- 
 tion, the greater or less activity and de- 
 velopment of the organs, are found to 
 pass from parent to child. As it is in the 
 particular state of the several organs and 
 functions that a very great part of dis- 
 eases have their foundation, the liability 
 to certain diseases is inevitably inherited 
 with the organic structure, and the son is 
 not unfrequently attacked by various 
 comfSaints at the same period of life in 
 which his father was. These diseases 
 are called hereditary; but it is only the 
 predisposition to them that is, properly 
 speaking, inherited. Hence the actual 
 development of hereditary diseases re- 
 quires certain cooperating circumstan- 
 ces. Constitutional diseases are very 
 often not hereditary, but depend on cir- 
 cumstances which affect the fetus dur- 
 ing pregnancy. Among the diseases 
 which are most frequently hereditary 
 are scrofula, bleeding (especially at the 
 lungs) and hemorrhoids, consumption, 
 gout, the gravel and stone, cancer, dis- 
 orders of the mind and spirits, hysterical 
 and hypochondriac affections, apoplexy, 
 epilepsy, and organic diseases of par- 
 ticular parts, especially of the heart. 
 Inherited diseases are much more diffi- 
 cult to cure than those which originate 
 in accidental external causes, and special 
 care should therefore be taken to adopt 
 an environment and mode of life calcu- 
 lated to counteract the inherited predis- 
 position. As to the origin of certain dis- 
 eases see Germ Theory. 
 
 DISEASE, FEIGNING OF, a practice 
 used by many persons for the attain- 
 ment of an end, sometimes fraudulent, 
 sometimes not. A disease commonly 
 simulated is epilepsy, the simulator 
 using a little soap in the mouth for the 
 making of foam at the lips. The detec- 
 tion of such fraud is often quite difficult, 
 but there are certain physiological tests 
 unknown to malingerers wliich generally 
 disclose the fraud. 
 
 DISEASES OF PLANTS may be di- 
 vided into two main classes: those pro- 
 duced by temperature, excess or de- 
 ficiency of moisture and light, impure 
 air, the composition of the soil, and other 
 mechanical or chemical agencies; and 
 those produced by other organized be*. 
 
DISHONOR OF A BILL 
 
 DISTILLATION 
 
 mgs, whether belonging to the animal or 
 vegetable world. 
 
 DISHONOR OF A BILL, the refusal or 
 neglect to accept or pay when due, a bill 
 of exchange, or promissory note, or draft 
 on a banker. It is absolutely necessary 
 that the holder of a dishonored bill 
 should give immediate notice of the non- 
 payment to the drawer or indorsers. 
 
 DISINFECTANT, any substance that 
 destroys the germs of contagious and in- 
 fectious diseases. The most important 
 for practical purposes are chlorine, car- 
 bolic acid, sulphurous acid, manganate 
 and permanganate of potash, chloride of 
 zinc. Carbolic acid is one of the most 
 effective, needing, however, some little 
 care in the handling, as it sometimes 
 causes severe burns. It does not in its 
 common form mix with water, but floats 
 on the surface undiluted. In cases of 
 infectious or contagious disease, disin- 
 fectants such as chlorinated lime or car- 
 bolic acid should at once be placed about 
 the house, especially in the sick room 
 and in the passages and landing outside 
 it. A large sheet also should be nailed so 
 as to hang across the door, and this 
 should be kept constantly wet with car- 
 bolic acid. All excretions should be in- 
 stantly disinfected and also the closet 
 which receives them. In a country place 
 it is best to bury them in a considerable 
 depth of earth. Every article of cloth- 
 ing and furniture should be carefully 
 treated, as the germs may lurk in them 
 and break out after a lapse of months or 
 years. 
 
 DISINTEGRATOR, a machine for pul- 
 verizing and sometimes for mixing var- 
 ious materials, such as rock, asphalt, ore, 
 artificial manures, sugars, corn, the in- 
 gredients of mortar, etc. 
 
 DISLOCATION, a surgical term ap- 
 plied to cases in which the articulating 
 surfaces of the bones have been forced 
 out of their proper places. The particu- 
 lar dislocation takes its name either from 
 the joint itself or its furthest bone, and 
 is called compound when accompanied 
 with an external wound. The most 
 common dislocations are those of the 
 hip, shoulder, elbow, knee, and ankle, 
 and the chief obstacle to their reduction 
 is the spasmodic and violent contraction 
 of the muscles consequent upon theni, 
 the application of considerable force be- 
 ing often necessary to set the joint. 
 Chloroform is of great use, not only in 
 preventing pain but in relaxing the 
 muscles. The most daqgerous disloca- 
 tions are those of the bones of the spine. 
 — In geology \t signifies the displace- 
 ment of parts of rocks or portions of 
 strata from the situations they originally 
 occupied. 
 
 DISMAL SWAMP, a large tract of 
 marshy land in America, beginning a 
 little south of Norfolk, in Virginia, and 
 extending into North Carolina, contain- 
 ing 150,000 acres: 30 miles long, from 
 north to south, and 10 broad. This 
 tract was entirely covered with trees, 
 with almost impervious brushwood be- 
 tween them, but it has now in part been 
 cleared and drained. 
 
 DISPEN'SARY, a charitable institu- 
 tion for the free supply of medicine to 
 the poor. Each institution has one or 
 more physicians, surgeons, and apothe- 
 caries, who attend at stated times in 
 
 order to prescribe for the sick, and, if 
 necessary, to visit them at their own 
 habitations. A note from a subscriber 
 or governor is usually required by would- 
 be patients. Provident dispensaries are 
 similar institutions in which a small fee 
 is exacted. 
 
 DISPERSION, an optical term applied 
 to the angular separation experienced by 
 the component rays of a pencil of light 
 on emerging from a refracting medium, 
 whose surfaces are not parallel to each 
 other, e. g. the common prism. The 
 length of the spectrum and the relative 
 space occupied by the colored rays vary 
 greatly according to the refracting me- 
 dium, the speetrum from a prism of oil of 
 cassia being two or three times longer 
 than one formed by a glass prism. 
 
 DISRAELI, Benjamin. See Beacons- 
 field. 
 
 D’ISRAELI (diz-ra'e-li), Isaac, man 
 of letters, and father of the well-known 
 statesman, was born at Enfield, Middle- 
 sex, in 1766. An anonymous reply to 
 Peter Pindar, entitled On the Abuse of 
 Satire, was followed in 1791-1793 by the 
 appearance of his Curiosities of Litera- 
 ture, the success of which determined 
 much of his afterwork. He died in 
 1848. 
 
 DISSENTERS, the common name by 
 which in Britain all Christian denomina- 
 tions, excepting that of the Established 
 Churches, are usually designated, though 
 in acts of parliament it generally in- 
 cludes only Protestant dissenters, Ro- 
 man Catholics being referred to under 
 their specific name. 
 
 DISSOCIATION, a chemical term used 
 to express the partial decomposition 
 which takes place when chemical com- 
 pounds are exposed to a high tempera- 
 ture; as when by the passage of steam 
 through a white-hot platinum tube some 
 of it is decomposed and an explosive 
 mixture of oxygen and hydrogen may be 
 coll©ct©d 
 
 DISSOLVING VIEWS are paintings 
 upon glass magnified and thrown with 
 great distinctness upon a screen by 
 means of one or two magic lanterns with 
 strong lenses, and illuminated by the 
 oxyhydrogen light. If one lantern is 
 used the picture is drawn out of focus 
 gradually, and a second substituted, 
 which is brought gradually into focus, 
 thus producing the haze and brilliancy 
 which have gained this sort of exhibition 
 its name. If two lanterns are used, they 
 are placed side by side with their lens 
 tubes slightly convergent, so that the 
 images may be superposed on the screen. 
 By means of a revolving shutter either 
 lantern can be wholly or partially shut 
 off and the image of other lanterns be 
 correspondingly disclosed. 
 
 DISTAFF, the first instrument em- 
 ployed in spinning. It consisted of a 
 staff, on one end of which the wool or flax 
 was rolled. The spinner held it in the 
 left hand, and drew out the fibers with 
 the right, at the same time twisting 
 them. A small piece of wood called a 
 spindle was attached to the thread, the 
 weight of which carried it down as it was 
 formed. When the spindle reached the 
 ground the thread which had been spun 
 was wound round it, and it was then 
 again fastened near the beginning of the 
 new thread. 
 
 DISTEMP'ER, a disease of the dog 
 commonly considered as of a catarrh^ 
 nature. In most cases a running from 
 the nose and eyes is one of the first and 
 chief symptoms, the deduction becoming 
 after some time mucous and purulent. 
 The animal is subject to violent fits of 
 coughing combined with vomiting, loses 
 its appetite, its flesh begins to waste, and 
 if the disease be virulent, symptoms of 
 affection of the brain manifest them- 
 selves, accompanied by fits, paralysis, or 
 convulsive twitchings. In the first stage 
 of the disease laxatives, emetics, and 
 occasional bleeding are the principal 
 remedies ; diarrhoea should be checked by 
 astringents, and to reduce the violence 
 of the fits warm bathing and antispas- 
 modics should be resorted to. The dis- 
 temper is generally contagious, and 
 occurs but once in a lifetime. 
 
 DISTILLATION, the volatilization 
 and subsequent condensation of a liquid 
 by a special apparatus, resulting in the 
 separation of the liquid from a mixture. 
 The operation is performed by heating 
 
 the crude liquid or mixture in a retort or 
 vessel known as the body of the still. 
 This is made of various shapes and ma- 
 terials, and is closed with the exception 
 of a slender neck which opens into the 
 condenser, a long tube through which the 
 hot vapor from the still is passed. The 
 tube is kept at a sufficiently low tem- 
 perature to cause the vapor to condense, 
 the common method of securing this be- 
 ing to surround the tube with a con- 
 stantly renewed stream of cold water. 
 In some cases ice or a freezing mixture 
 may be required to effect condensation. 
 On a large scale the condensing tube is 
 coiled round and round in a tub or box, 
 and is known as a worm. From the end 
 of it the vapor condensed into a liquid 
 drops or distils into a receiver. The 
 simplest case of distillation is that of 
 water containing solid matter in solu- 
 tion, the solid matter remaining behind 
 in the still or retort while the water 
 trickles pure into the receiver. The cut 
 which represents a simple form of still, 
 shows b, a copper boiler, the “body” of 
 the still, a being the “head,” and c the 
 “neck,” which communicates with the 
 spiral worm d placed in a vessel which 
 contains cold water, the distilled liquid 
 trickling out at o. The cold water round 
 the worm requires to be continually re- 
 newed, as otherwise it gets heated. 
 When the mixture to be distilled con- 
 sists of two or more fluids of different 
 boiling-points, such as alcohol and watet 
 the more volatile comes off first, accom- 
 panied by a certain proportion of the 
 vapor of the other, so that it is hardly 
 ossible completely to separate bodies 
 y one distillation. This is effected by 
 
DISTRESS 
 
 DIVING-BELL 
 
 repeated successive distillations of the 
 liquid with or without the addition of 
 substances to retain the impurities. 
 When the production of one of the in- 
 gredients only is aimed at by this proc- 
 ess, it is called rectification, but when it 
 is desired to separate and collect all the 
 liquids present, or to divide a mixture 
 into portions lying within certain ranges 
 of temperature ascertained either by the 
 thermpmeter or by the amount of liquor 
 run off, or by the appearance of the dis- 
 tillate, etc. , the process is called fractional 
 distillation. In the laboratory, distilla- 
 tion is employed for purifying water, 
 for recovering alcohol and ether, for the 
 prepai-ation, purification, and separa- 
 tion of a great number of bodies. On the 
 large scale distillation is employed in the 
 preparation of potassium, sodium, zinc, 
 mercury; of sulphuric acid, ether, chloro- 
 form, sulphide and chloride of carbon, 
 essential oils and perfumes; purification 
 of coal and wood tar, and the products 
 obtained from them ; and most extensive 
 of all, the manufacture of whisky, 
 brandy, or other spirit. Sea-water is 
 also distilled in many cases for drinking 
 or cooking purposes. Destructive dis- 
 tillation differs from the preceding in this 
 respect, that the original substance is 
 not merely separated into the bodies by 
 the mixture of which it is formed, but is 
 so acted on that it is completely decom- 
 posed, and bodies are produced which 
 had no existence in the original matter. 
 The term is restricted to the action of 
 heat upon complex organic substances 
 out of contact with the air. The prod- 
 ucts of destructive distillation are nu- 
 merous and varied. On the manufac- 
 turing scale the process is conducted 
 sometimes for one part, sometimes for 
 another part of the products. Coal, for 
 example, is distilled primarily for the 
 gas, but also for ammoniacal water, 
 benzol, anthracene, and sometimes for 
 the sake of the fixed carbon or coke, the 
 volatile portions being neglected and 
 practically wasted. Wood is distilled 
 partly for the sake of the pyroligeneous 
 acid and the tar, partly for the charcoal. 
 Bones are distilled for the sake of the 
 charcoal, though the oil is also collected. 
 Shale is distilled solely for the sake of 
 the oil. 
 
 DISTRESS', in law, is the taking of a 
 personal chattel of a wrong-doer or a 
 tenant, in order to obtain satisfaction for 
 the wrong done, or for rent or service 
 due. If the party whose goods or cattle 
 are seized disputes the injury, service, 
 duty, or rent, on account of which the 
 distress is taken, he may replevy the 
 things taken, ^ving bonds, at the same 
 time, to return them or pay damages m 
 case the party making the distress shows 
 that the wrong has been done, or the 
 service or rent is due. Another descrip- 
 tion of distress is that of attachment, to 
 compel a party to appear before a court 
 when summoned for this purpose. The 
 distresses most frequently made in Eng- 
 land are on account of rent and taxes 
 and damage-feasance. 
 
 DISTRICT ATTORNEY, a public pros- 
 ecutor of the federal district or (in 
 many states) the county courts. U. 
 States district attorneys are appointed 
 by the president and their compensation 
 is in the form of fees. 
 
 DISTRICT COURT, a court the juris- 
 diction of which is restricted to one sec- 
 tion of territory. Several of the states 
 are so divided into districts. In the 
 federal judiciary, a court having juris- 
 diction in one of the districts into which 
 each of the nine circuits of the U. States 
 is divided. 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, a territory 
 of sixty miles area between Maryland 
 and Virginia, occupied by the city of 
 Washington. The district is governed 
 by three commissioners appointed by 
 the president and approved by the 
 senate. (See Washington.) 
 
 DISTRICTS, Congressional, the divi- 
 sions in the U. States which each return 
 a member to congress. Their number 
 varies at different times, being fixed 
 after each decennial census. At present 
 (1907) they are 386. 
 
 DITCH, a trench in the=earth made by 
 digging, particularly a trench for drain- 
 ing wet land, or for making a fence to 
 guard inclosures. 
 
 DITMARSHES, a district of Holstein, 
 in Germany, between the mouths of the 
 Elbe and the Eider, are so little raised 
 above the sea as to require the protec- 
 tion of strong embankments. The area 
 is 500 sq. miles, and the total pop. 
 above 70,000. 
 
 DIURET'ICS, medicines intended to 
 increase the secretion and discharge of 
 urine. They either act directly on the 
 kidneys, exciting these organs to in- 
 creased action ; or indirectly by influenc- 
 ing the circulation first. Of the first 
 class are squill, broom, juniper, alcohol, 
 potash, etc.; of the second, digitalis, 
 elaterium, cream of tartar, etc. 
 
 DIVAN, a Persian word having several 
 significations. It is used in Turkey for 
 the highest council of state, the Turkish 
 ministry; and for a large hall for the 
 reception of visitors. Among several 
 oriental nations this name is given to 
 certain collections of lyric poems by one 
 author. The divans of Hafiz and Saadi, 
 the Persian poets, are among the most 
 important. In Western Europe the term 
 is applied to a cafe, and to a kind of 
 cushion seat. 
 
 DIVERS, birds remarkable for the 
 habit of diving. The divers are a family 
 of swimming Birds, characterized by a 
 strong, straight, rather compressed 
 pointed bill about as long as the head; 
 a short and rounded tail; short wings; 
 thin, compressed legs, placed very far 
 back, and the toes completely webbed. 
 They prey upon fish, which they pursue 
 under water, making use partly of their 
 wings, but chiefly of their legs and 
 webbed feet in their subaqueous pro- 
 gression. These birds inhabit the Arctic 
 seas of the New and Old Worlds; they 
 are abundant in the Hebrides, Norway, 
 Sweden, and Russia. The great north- 
 ern diver, loon, or ember goose is about 
 2} feet long, and is of handsome plum- 
 age. 
 
 DIV'IDEND, lit. what is to be divided, 
 a term used in aritlunetic and in refer- 
 ence to stocks, etc. In the latter sense it 
 is the interest or profit of stocks divided 
 among, and paid to, the owners. It also 
 signifies the payment made to creditors 
 out of the estate of a bankrupt.- 
 
 DIVIDERS, a pair of compasses or 
 similar instrument. 
 
 DIVIDING ENGINE, a machine for 
 marking the divisions on the scales of 
 scientific, mathematical, or other instru- 
 ments. Some of these perform work of 
 extraordinary fineness and accuracy. 
 
 DIVINA COMMEDIA. See Dante. 
 
 DIVINATIONj the act of divining; a 
 foretelling future events, or discovering 
 things secret or obscure, by the aid of 
 superior beings, or by other than human 
 means. In ancient times divination was 
 divided into two kinds, natural and 
 artificial. Natural di-vination was sup- 
 posed to be effected by a kind of inspira- 
 tion or divine afflatus; artificial divina- 
 tion was effected by certain rites, experi- 
 ments, or observations, as by sacrifices, 
 observation of entrails and flight of 
 birds, lots, omens, position of the stars, 
 etc. 
 
 DIVINE RIGHT, the claim set up by 
 some sovereigns or their supporters to 
 the absolute obedience of subjects as 
 ruling by appointment of God, inso- 
 much that, although they may them- 
 selves submit to restrictions on their 
 authority, yet subjects endeavoring to 
 enforce those restrictions by resistance 
 to their sovereign’s acts are considered 
 guilty of a sin. 
 
 DIVING, the art or act of descending 
 into water to considerable depths, and 
 remaining there for a time. The uses of 
 diving are important, particularly in 
 fishing for pearls, corals, sponges, ex- 
 amining the foundations of bridges, 
 recovering valuables from sunken ships, 
 and the like. Without the aid of arti- 
 ficial appliances a skilful diver may re- 
 main under water for two, or even three 
 minutes' accounts of longer periods are 
 doubtful or absurd. Various methods 
 have been proposed and engines con- 
 trived to render di-ving more safe and 
 easy. The great object in all these is to 
 furnish the diver with fresh air, -without 
 which he must either make but a short 
 stay under water or perish, 
 
 DIVING-BELL, a contrivance for the 
 purpose of enabling persons to descend 
 and to remain below the surface of water 
 
 Di-vlng-dress and diving-helmet. 
 a, Pipe by which air is supplied; 6. valve by 
 which it escapes. 
 
 for a length of time, to perform various 
 operations, such as examining the 
 foundations of bridges, blasting rocks, 
 recovering treasure from sunken vessels, 
 etc. Di-ving-bells have been made of 
 
DIVING-DRESS 
 
 DIVORCE 
 
 various forms, more especially in that of 
 a bell or hollow truncated cone, with the 
 smaller end close, and the larger one, 
 which is placed lowermost, open. The 
 air contained within these vessels pre- 
 vents them from being filled with water 
 on submersion, so that the diver may 
 descend in them and breathe freely for 
 a long time, provided he can be furnish- 
 ed with a new supply of fresh air when 
 the contained air becomes vitiated by 
 respiration. The diving-bell is generally 
 made of cast-iron, and has several strong 
 convex lenses set in the upper side or 
 roof, to admit light to the persons with- 
 in. It is suspended by chains from a 
 barge or lighter, and can be raised or 
 lowered at pleasure upon signals being 
 given by the persons within, who are 
 supplied with fresh air injected into a 
 flexible pipe by means of forcing pumps 
 placed in the lighter, while the heated 
 air escapes by a cock in the upper part 
 of the bell. A form, called the nautilus, 
 has been invented which enables the 
 occupants, and not the attendants 
 above, to raise or sink the bell, move it 
 about at pleasure, or raise great weights 
 with it and deposit them in any desired 
 spot. 
 
 DIVING-DRESS, a waterproof dress of 
 india-rubber cloth used by professional 
 divers, and covering the entire body 
 except the head. The dress has a neck- 
 piece or breastplate, fitted with a seg- 
 mental screw bayonet joint, to which the 
 head-piece or helmet, the neck of which 
 has a corresponding screw, can be at- 
 tached or removed. The helmet has 
 usually three eyeholes, covered with 
 strong glass, and protected by guards. 
 Air is supplied by means of a flexible 
 tube which enters the helmet and com- 
 municates with an air-pump above. To 
 allow of the escape of the used air there 
 is sometimes another flexible tube, 
 which is led from the back part of the 
 helmet to the surface of the water. But 
 in the more improved forms of the dress, 
 the breathed air escapes by a valve so 
 constructed as to prevent water from 
 getting in, though it lets the air out. 
 Leaden weights are attached to the diver, 
 and his shoes are weighted, that he may 
 be able to descend a ladder, walk about 
 below, etc. Communication can be 
 carried on with those above by means of 
 a cord running between the diver and 
 the attendants; or he may converse 
 with them through a speaking tube or a 
 telephonic apparatus. One form of 
 diving-dress makes the diver independ- 
 ent of any connection with persons 
 above the water. It is elastic and 
 hermetically closed. A reservoir con- 
 taining highly compressed air is fixed on 
 the diver’s back, which supplies him 
 with air by a self-regulating apparatus 
 at a pressure corresponding to his depth. 
 When he wishes to ascend he simply in- 
 flates his dress from the reservoir. An- 
 other form, known as the Fleuss dress, 
 makes the diver also independent of 
 exterior aid. The helmet contains a 
 supply of compressed oxygen, and the 
 exhaled breath is passed through a filter 
 in the breast-piece which deprives it of 
 its carbonic acid, while the nitrogen 
 goes back into the helmet to be mixed 
 with the oxygen, the supply of which is 
 under the diver’s own control, and to be 
 
 breathed over again. A diver has re- 
 mained an hour and a half under 35 feet 
 of water in this dress. The safe limit 
 of depth at which operations can be 
 carried on with the diving-dress is 120 
 to 150 feet. Diving for pearls, sponges, 
 or corals is now to a great extent carried 
 on by means of diving-dresses. 
 
 DIVINING-ROD, a rod, usually of 
 hazel, wdth two forked branches, used 
 by persons who profess to discover min- 
 erals or water under ground. The rod, 
 if carried slowly along by the forked 
 ends, dips and points downward, it is 
 affirmed, when brought over the spot 
 where the concealed mineral or water is 
 to be found. The use of the divining- 
 rod is still common in many parts, and 
 quite recently various wonderful in- 
 stances of its efficacy in discovering 
 water have been published in respect- 
 able prints. 
 
 DIVISIBILTTY, that general property 
 of bodies by which their parts or com- 
 ponent particles are capable of separa- 
 tion. Numerous examples of the divi- 
 sion of matter to a degree almost ex- 
 ceeding belief, may be easily instanced. 
 Thus glass test-plates for miscroscopes 
 have been ruled so fine as to have 225,- 
 000 spaces to the inch. Cotton yarn has 
 been spun so fine that one pound of it 
 extended upward of 1000 miles, and a 
 Manchester spinner is said to have at- 
 tained such a marvelous fineness that 
 one pound would extend 4770 miles. 
 One grain of gold has been beaten out 
 to a surface of 52 square inches, and 
 leaves have been made 367,500 of which 
 would go to the inch of thickness. Iron 
 has been reduced to wonderfully thin 
 sheets. Fine tissue paper is about the 
 1200th part of an inch in thickness, but 
 sheets of iron have been rolled much 
 thinner than this, and as fine as one 
 4800th part of an inch in thickness. 
 Wires of platinum have been drawn out 
 so fine as to be only the 30,000th part of 
 an inch in diameter. Human hair varies 
 in thickness from the 250th to the 600th 
 part of an inch. The fiber of the coarsest 
 wool is about the 500th part of an inch 
 in diameter, and that of the finest only 
 the 1500th part. The silk line, as spun 
 by the worm, is about the 5000th part 
 of an inch thick; but a spider’s line is 
 only the 30,000th part of an inch in 
 diameter; insomuch that a single pound 
 of this attenuated substance might be 
 sufficient to encompass our globe. The 
 trituration and levigation of powders, 
 and the perennial abrasion and waste of 
 the surface of solid bodies, occasion a 
 disintegration of particles almost ex- 
 ceeding the powers of computation. The 
 solutions of certain saline bodies, and of 
 other colored substances, also exhibit a 
 prodigious subdivision of matter. A 
 single grain of the sulphate of copper 
 or blue vitrol, will communicate a flne 
 azure tint to five gallons of water. In 
 this case the sulphate must he attenuated 
 at least 10,000,000 times. Odors are 
 capable of a much wider diffusion. A 
 single grain of musk has been known to 
 perfume a large room for the space of 
 twenty years. At the lowest computa- 
 tion the musk had been subdivided into 
 320 quadrillions of particles, each of 
 them capable of affecting the olfactory 
 organs. 
 
 DIVISION, in arithmetic, the dividing 
 of a number or quantity into any parts 
 assigned; one of the four fundamental 
 rules, the object of which is to find how 
 often one number is contained in an- 
 other. The number to be divided is the 
 dividend, the number which divides is 
 the divisor, and the result of the division 
 is the quotient. Division is the converse 
 of multiplication. 
 
 DIVISION, in military matters, a por- 
 tion of an army consisting of two or 
 more brigades, composed of the various 
 arms of the service, and commanded by 
 a general officer. In the navy, a select 
 number of ships in a fleet or squadron 
 of men-of-war. The term is now practi- 
 cally abolished since the introduction of 
 gigantic heavily-armed iron-clad ships 
 into the navy. 
 
 DIVISION OF LABOR, a principle 
 employed in great industries for the 
 simplification of the work to be done by 
 each of the workmen engaged in it. The 
 separation of complicated processes into 
 a series of simple operations not only 
 results in a great saving of time, but 
 also demands much less ability on the 
 part of the workman, in order that he 
 may acquire the necessary skill in per- 
 forming any particular operation. Ow- 
 ing to both of these causes, the saving 
 of time, and the employment of cheaper 
 labor, the cost of producing complicated 
 articles is, by the application of this 
 principle, immensely reduced. Division 
 of labor tends to the invention of ma- 
 chinery, and to the effectual use of 
 machinery when invented. It increases 
 the skill and dexterity of the individual 
 workman; it effects a great saving of 
 time and capital, and it conduces to 
 the more economical distribution of 
 labor by classing work-people accord- 
 ing to their capacity. It has, however, 
 a deteriorating effect on the laborer’s 
 usefulness as an all-round workman. 
 
 DIVORCE is a separation, by law, of 
 husband and wife, and is either, a com- 
 plete dissolution of the marriage bonds, 
 or a divorce, whereby the parties are 
 legally separated, but not unmarried. 
 The causes admitted by different codes 
 of laws as grounds for the modification 
 or entire dissolution of the marriage con- 
 tract, as well as the description of tri- 
 bunal which has jurisdiction of the pro- 
 ceedings, and the form of the proceed- 
 ings, are various. Divorce was per- 
 mitted by the law of Moses, but for- 
 bidden in the New Testament, except for 
 unchastity. The early laws of Rome 
 pertnitted the husband to divorce his 
 wife for adultery and many other alleged 
 offenses. The facility of divorce con- 
 tinued, without restriction, under the 
 Roman emperors, but as the modern 
 nations of Europe emerged from the 
 ruins of the Roman Empire, they adopt- 
 ed the doctrine of the New Testament. 
 Marriage, under the Roman Church, 
 instead of a civil contract, came to be 
 considered a sacrament of the church, 
 which it was unlawful to dissolve. In 
 the United States, marriage, though it 
 may be celebrated before clergymen as 
 well as civil magistrates, is considered to 
 be a civil contract, and the laws as to 
 divorce, and the facility or difficulty of 
 obtaining it, differ greatly in the several 
 states. In France divorce was legalized 
 
DIXON 
 
 DOE 
 
 In 1884, with conditions, after having 
 been prohibited for many years. 
 
 DIXON, William Hepworth, miscel- 
 laneous writer, born at Manchester 1821, 
 died in London 1879. He published 
 several very popular works, including 
 the Personal History of Lord Bacon, 
 The Holy Land, and New America, the 
 last being followed by Spiritual Wives; 
 in the last ten years of his life, he gave 
 to the world somewhere about twenty- 
 five volumes of history, travel, and 
 fiction, among others. Free Russia; Her 
 Majesty’s Tower ; The Switzers; History 
 of Two Queens, Catharine of Aragon and 
 Anne Boleyn; Diana Lady Lyle, and 
 Ruby Grey (both novels); and his last 
 work. Royal Windsor. 
 
 DJOKDJOKARTA, a Dutch residency 
 in the island of Java, on the south coast, 
 with a capital of the same name. Pop. 
 441,800. The town is large and regular, 
 and contains the sultan’s water-palace, 
 and the seat of the Dutch resident, which 
 is a fort commanding both the palace 
 and the town. Pop. 45,000. 
 
 DNIEPER (ne'per), a great river of 
 Russia which rises in the government of 
 Smolensk, flows first southwest, then 
 southeast, and latterly again southwest 
 to the Black Sea. It begins to be navi- 
 gable a little above Smolensk, and has 
 a total length, including windings, of 
 1230 miles. Since 1838 there have been 
 steamboats on the river, and the trade 
 carried by it is considerable. 
 
 DNIESTER (nes'ter), a large river of 
 Europe, which has its source in the Car- 
 pathian Mountains, in Austrian Galicia, 
 enters Russia at Chotin, and empties 
 itself into the Black Sea, after a course 
 of about 750 miles. Its navigation is 
 difficult on account of frequent shallows 
 and rapids. 
 
 DOBRUD'SHA, The, a territory form- 
 ing part of the kingdom of Roumania, 
 included between the Danube, which 
 forms its boundary on the west and 
 north, the Black Sea on the east, and on 
 the south by a line stretching from Silis- 
 tria to a point a few miles south of Man 
 galia. Pop. about 100,000. 
 
 DOCKS are usually artificial inclosures 
 for the reception of vessels, and provided 
 with gates to keep in or shut out the tide. 
 
 Dry or graving dock. 
 
 They are called wet-docks when they 
 are intended to receive vessels for load- 
 ing and unloading, the gates being in 
 this case constructed so as to keep in the 
 tide, and thus preserve the water within 
 the docks as nearly as possible at the 
 
 uniform level of high water. They are 
 called dry-docks, or graving-docks, when 
 they are intended to admit vessels to be 
 examined and repaired, the gates in this 
 case being such as to keep out the tide 
 wliile the shipwrights are engaged on the 
 
 vessel. There is another kind of dry- 
 docks called floating-docks, which float 
 on the surface of the water, and may be 
 sunk sufficiently to allow of a vessel be- 
 ing floated into them, and then raised 
 again, by pumping the water out of the 
 tanks round the sides. One of the ciiief 
 uses of a wet-dock is to keep a uniform 
 level of water, so that the business of 
 loading and unloading ships can be car- 
 ried on without any interruption and 
 without danger of damage to the vessel 
 from straining, low tides, storms, etc. 
 
 Graving-docks are built of strong ma- 
 sonry, and their entrance is closed either 
 by swinging gates opening in the middle, 
 and when shut presenting a salient angle 
 to the water in the river or harbor from 
 which the dock is entered, or by a frame- 
 work called a caisson, built like the hull 
 of a ship, with a keel and a stem at both 
 ends. When the caisson is empty it 
 floats, and may be removed to admit of a 
 vessel being floated into the dock. The 
 caisson being then placed at the entrance 
 and filled with water, again sinks into 
 the grooves intended for it and closes 
 the graving-dock. The water is then 
 pumped out, leaving the ship dry and 
 supported by wooden blocks and props. 
 With regard to floating-docks, a com- 
 mon type of construction is the iron 
 floating-dock built in water-tight com- 
 partments, and not closed in at either 
 end. It is sunk to the required depth by 
 the admission of water into so many of 
 the compartments, till the vessel to be 
 docked can float easily above its bottom, 
 and it is then raised by pumping out the 
 water until the ship can be propped up 
 as in a dry-dock. 
 
 A kind of dry-dock, called the hy- 
 draulic lift dock, consists of a double row 
 of iron columns, each of which contains 
 a hydraulic press. All these hydraulic 
 
 C resses can be worked simultaneously 
 y a powerful steam-engine, and their 
 combined action has the effect of raising 
 a series of transverse iron girders stretch- 
 ing from the columns on one side to 
 those of the other. An iron pontoon is 
 first floated above these girders, and 
 then sunk so as to rest on them, and the 
 ship to be docked is floated above the 
 pontoon and supported by blocks resting 
 only upon the pontoon, so that the ship 
 is in no wav connected with the columns 
 on each side. The hydraulic presses are 
 then set to work, the girders with the 
 
 pontoon and ship are raised high enough 
 for the water to be run out of the pon- 
 toon, which is then sufficiently buoyant 
 to float the ship. The pontoon may now 
 be floated away clear of the dock, and 
 another take its place. By this plan a 
 number of vessels can be floated for over- 
 hauling and repairs in very shallow 
 water at comparatively slight expense. 
 
 DOCTOR, a term literally signifying 
 teacher. In the middle ages, from the 
 12th century, it came into use as a title 
 of honor for men of great learning, such 
 as Thomas Aquinas (Doctor Angelicus), 
 Duns Scotus (Doctor Subtilis), etc. It 
 was first made an academical title by the 
 University of Bologna, and emperors 
 and popes soon afterward assumed the 
 right of granting universities the power 
 of conferring the degree in law. The 
 faculties of theology and medicine were 
 soon included, but for a long time the 
 faculty of arts retained the older title of 
 Magister, till the German universities 
 substituted that of Doctor. The title of 
 Doctor is in some cases an honorary 
 degree, and in other cases (as in medi- 
 cine and science) conferred after exami- 
 nation. The title of D.C.L. (Doctor of 
 Civil Law), for example, at the Univer- 
 sity of Oxford and at Trinity College, 
 Dublin, is an honorary degree, and so 
 also are those of D.D. (Doctor of Divin- 
 ity) and LL.D. (Doctor of Laws) at 
 various universities. The popes and the 
 archbishops of Canterbury exercise the 
 right of conferring the degree of Doctor 
 both in law and divinity. 
 
 DODGE, Mary Abigail, an American 
 writer, better known as Gail Hamilton, 
 born at Hamilton, Mass., in 1830, died 
 in 1896. Her work was ephemeral, 
 chiefly on current topics, but possessed 
 a crispness that made it in demand. 
 
 DODGE, Mary Elizabeth Mapes, an 
 American poet, editor, and writer, born 
 in New York in 1838. She was editor of 
 St. Nicholas for many years. One of her 
 best knowm works is Hans Brinker, or. 
 The Silver Skates, which still retains its 
 place, although published in 1865. This 
 work was translated into several Euro- 
 pean languages and crowned by the 
 French academy. 
 
 DODO, an extinct genus of birds once 
 abundant on the island of Mauritius, and 
 assigned by naturalists to the order 
 ColumbjB or pigeons, though an extreme 
 modification of the type. It w^as a mas- 
 
 Dodo. 
 
 sive clumsy bird, larger than a swan, 
 covered with down instead of feathers 
 with short ill-shaped legs, a strong 
 bulky hooked beak, and wungs and tail 
 so short as to be useless for flight. 
 
 DOE, John, and Richard Doe, two 
 fictitious personages of the English law 
 who formerly appeared in a suit of 
 
DOG 
 
 DOLPHIN 
 
 ejectment. This fictitious form of pro- 
 cedure was abolished in 1852. 
 
 DOG, a well-known mammal, largely- 
 domesticated, carnivorous in the wild 
 state, of very high intelligence, and of 
 all the lower animals the most closely 
 associated with man in sympathy 
 and sociality. Wild dogs exist in 
 Asia and Australia and all domesti- 
 cated dogs are derived from some form 
 of the wild animals, or from the ming- 
 ling of various strains under domestica- 
 tion. 
 
 No one probably has ever attempted 
 to make a complete catalogue of the 
 varieties of domestic dogs known 
 throughout the world, but Fitzinger 
 estimated the number in 1876 at about 
 185. All these fall into certain groups, 
 or types, as will presently be noted; 
 and the study of their points of likeness 
 and unlikeness has been made by 
 several recent investigators of the law 
 of variation. 
 
 Breeds of dogs have been variously 
 classified. One Roman grouping men- 
 tioned by old writers was into fighters 
 (pugnaces), wise dogs (sagaces), and 
 swift-footed ones (celeres); the sagaces 
 were said to have come from Greece, 
 and the pugnaces from Asia. Another 
 ancient grouping was into house-dogs, 
 sheep-dogs, and sporting-dogs, the last 
 embracing fighters, hounds hunting by 
 scent, and hounds hunting by sight. 
 Modern naturalists have substantially 
 agreed Upon six groups, with consider- 
 able differences in composition, however. 
 Thus Col. Hamilton Smith, about 1830, 
 arranged the list as follows: The 
 wolf-dogs, including the Siberian dog, 
 Eskimo dog, Iceland dog, Newfoundland 
 dog, Nootka dog, sheep-dog, great wolf- 
 dog, great Saint Bernard dog, Pomer- 
 anian dog, etc. The watch and cattle 
 dogs, including the German boar- 
 hound, Danish dog, matin, dog of the 
 North American Indians, etc. The 
 greyhounds, including the Brinjaree 
 dog, different kinds of greyhound, 
 Irish hound, lurcher, Egyptian street 
 dog, etc. The hounds, including the 
 bloodhound, old southern hound, stag- 
 hound, foxhound, harrier, beagle, 
 pointer, setter, spaniel, springer, cocker, 
 Blenheim dog, water-dog or poodle, 
 etc. The cur dogs, including the terrier 
 and its allies. The mastiffs, including 
 different kinds of mastiff, the bulldog, 
 pug dog, etc. _ 
 
 The latest arrangement is that by 
 Windle, based upon the shape of the 
 skull and other features, rather than 
 upon form and function, yet not greatly 
 different from its predecessors. It is 
 as follows: Wolf -like Dogs. — Arctic 
 sledge-dogs; shepherd dogs (collies); 
 Newfoundland dog; Saint Bernard, 
 rough and smooth, and Pomeranian or 
 Spitz dog. Greyhound. — Old Irish wolf- 
 dog; modern Irish wolf-dog; grey- 
 hound; Italian greyhound ; West Indian 
 naked dog. Spaniels. — All varieties. 
 Hounds. — Bloodhound; foxhound; har- 
 rier; otter-hound, beagle, pointer, set- 
 ter, etc., (hunting-dogs). 
 
 DOG-BANE, an American plant found 
 from Canada to Carolina. The whole 
 
 lant is milky; the root is intensely 
 
 itter and nauseous, and is employed 
 in America instead of ipecacuanha. 
 
 DOG-CART, a sort of double-seated 
 gig for four persons, those before and 
 those behind sitting back to back; it is 
 often furnished with a boot for holding 
 dogs. 
 
 DOG-DAYS, the name applied by the 
 ancients to a period of about forty days, 
 the hottest season of the year, at the 
 time of the heliacal rising of Sirius, the 
 dog-star. The time of the rising is 
 now, owing to the precession of the 
 equinoxes, different from what it was 
 to the ancients (1st July) ; and the dog- 
 days are now counted from 3d July to 
 Aug. 11, that is, twenty days before and 
 twenty days after the heliacal rising. 
 
 DOG-FISH, a name given to several 
 species of small shark, common around 
 the British isles. The rough skin of one 
 of the species, the lesser-spotted dog- 
 fish, is used by joiners and other arti- 
 ficers in polishing various substances, 
 particularly wood. This species is 
 rarely 3 feet long. The greater dog-fish 
 is in length from 3 to 5 feet. It is 
 blackish-brown in color, marked with 
 numerous small dark spots. Both 
 species are very voracious and destruc- 
 tive. Their flesh is hard, dry, and un- 
 palatable. The common or picked 
 dog-fish is common in British and N. 
 American seas, and is sometimes used 
 as food. It is fierce and voracious. 
 
 DOGGER, a Dutch vessel equipped 
 with two masts and somewhat resem- 
 
 Dutch dogger. 
 
 bling a ketch. It is used particularly 
 in the German Ocean for tne cod and 
 herring fisheries. 
 
 DOGMA, an article of religious belief, 
 one of the doctrines of the Christian 
 faith. The history of dogmas, as a 
 branch of theology, exhibits in a 
 historical way the origin and the changes 
 01 the various Christian systems of 
 belief, showing what opinions were 
 received by the various sects in different 
 ages of Christianity, the sources of the 
 different creeds, by what arguments 
 they were attacked and supported, 
 what degrees of importance were 
 attached to them in different ages, the 
 circumstances by which they were 
 affected, and the mode in which the 
 dogmas were combined into systems. 
 
 DOGMAT'ICS, a systematic arrange- 
 ment of the articles of Christian faith 
 (dogmas), or the branch of theology 
 that deals with them. (See Dogma.) 
 The first attempt to furnish a complete 
 and coherent system of Christian dog- 
 mas was made by Origen in the 3d cen- 
 tury. 
 
 DOG-STAR, a name for Sirius, the 
 star that gives their name to the dog- 
 days (which see). 
 
 DOILEY, a small ornamental napkin 
 used at table to set glasses on at dessert. 
 
 DOL'DRUMS, among seamen, the 
 parts of the ocean near the equator that 
 abound in calms, squalls, and light 
 baffling winds. 
 
 DOLE, Nathan Haskell, an American 
 editor, born in Massachusetts in 1852. 
 He has translated Daudet, Tolstoi, and 
 other foreign authors with much success, 
 and has published a number of original 
 poems and essays. 
 
 DOLE, Sanford Ballard, an Hawaiian 
 agitator, revolutionist, and statesman, 
 born in Honolulu in 1844. He was presi- 
 dent of the provisional government in 
 1893, and in 1894 was elected president 
 of the Hawaiian republic. He is a most 
 capable jurist. 
 
 DOLLAR, the unit of money in the U. 
 States and Canada. The American dol- 
 lar was established by act of congress in 
 1792. The silver dollar consists of 412J 
 grains .900 fine, and the gold dollar of 
 25.8 grains .900 fine. The gold dollar 
 was made the standard by the act of 
 March 14, 1900, but no coin of that de- 
 scription has been made. 
 
 DOL'MAN, a long robe worn by the 
 Turks as an upper garment. It is open in 
 front, and has narrow sleeves. It has 
 given its name to a kind of loose jacket 
 worn by ladies. 
 
 DOL'OMITE, a mineral, also called 
 magnesian limestone. It is composed 
 of carbonate of calcium and carbonate 
 of magnesium, and varies from gray 
 or yellowish-white to yellowish-brown. 
 
 DOLPHIN, a cetaceous animal, which 
 includes also the porpoises and narwhal. 
 Dolphins are cosmopolite animals, in- 
 habiting every sea from the equator 
 to the poles; they are gregarious, and 
 swim with extraordinary velocity. The 
 common dolphin measures from 6 to 
 10 feet in length, has a long, sharp 
 snout with numerous nearly conical 
 teeth in both jaws; its flesh is coarse, 
 rank, and disagreeable, but is used by 
 the Laplanders as food. It lives on 
 fish, mollusea, etc., and often may be 
 seen in numbers round shoals of herring. 
 The animal has to come to the surface at 
 
 Common dolphin. 
 
 short intervals to breathe. The blow- 
 hole is of a semilunar form, with a kind 
 of valvular apparatus, and opens on the 
 vertex, nearly over the eyes. The 
 structure of the ear renders the sense of 
 hearing very acute, and the animal is 
 observed to be attracted by regular or 
 harmonious sounds. One or two young 
 are produced by the female, who 
 
DOM 
 
 DOMREMY LA PUCELLE 
 
 suckles and watches them with great 
 care and anxiety, long after they have 
 acquired considerable size. 
 
 DOM, a Portuguese title corresponding 
 with the Spanish Don. 
 
 DOMAIN', same as Demesne (which 
 see); also applied especially to crown 
 lands or government lands. — Right of 
 eminent domain, the dominion of the 
 sovereign power over all the property 
 within the state, by which it is entitled 
 to appropriate any part necessary to 
 the public good, compensation being 
 pven. 
 
 DOME, a vaulted roof of spherical 
 ar other curvature, covering a building 
 ar part of it, and forming a common 
 feature in Byzantine and also in 
 
 Section of dome of San Pedro in Montorio, 
 Rome, end of 15tti century. 
 
 Renaissance architecture. Cupola also 
 is used as a synonym, or is applied 
 to the interior, dome being applied to 
 the exterior. Most modern domes are 
 semielliptical in vertical section, and 
 are constructed of timber; but the 
 ancient domes were nearly hemispher- 
 ical, and constructed of stone. Of 
 domes the finest, without any com- 
 parison, ancient or modern, is that of 
 the Rotunda or Pantheon at Rome 
 (142J feet internal diameter and 143 
 feet internal height), erected under 
 Augustus, and still perfect. 
 
 DOMESDAY (or Doomsday) BOOK, 
 a book containing a survey of all the 
 lands in England, compiled in the 
 reign and by the order of William the 
 Conqueror. The survey was made by 
 commissioners, who collected the in- 
 formation in each district from a sworn' 
 jury consisting of sheriffs, lords of 
 manors, presbyters, bailiffs, villeins — 
 all the classes, in short, interested in 
 the matter. The extent, tenure, value, 
 and proprietorship of the land in each 
 district, the state of culture, and in 
 some cases the number of tenants, 
 villeins, serfs, etc., were the matters 
 chiefly recorded. The survey was com- 
 pleted within a year. 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, such as are 
 reared and kept by man, and are to 
 some extent in a tame state; as the 
 dog, cat, ox, sheep, swine, horse, ass, 
 elephant, camel, llama, reindeer, etc. 
 
 DOM'ICILE, in law, the place where 
 a person has a home or established 
 residence. Domicile is often an impor- 
 
 tant question in determining the efficacy 
 of legal citations, the validity of mar- 
 riage, the right of succession to prop- 
 erty, etc. For some purposes what is 
 called a temporary domicile is sufficient, 
 but in questions of marriage and suc- 
 cession it is the permanent domicile 
 that determines the decision. A per- 
 manent domicile may be constituted 
 by birth, by choice, or by operation 
 of the law. To constitute a domicile by 
 choice both actual residence and the 
 intention to make it the permanent 
 home are required. It is a legal prin- 
 ciple that the wife takes the domicile 
 of her husband. As a general rule the 
 old domicile, and especially the domicile 
 of origin, continues till a new one has 
 been acquired. 
 
 DOMIN'GO, San, capital of the 
 Dominican Republic (or San Domingo) 
 in the island of Hayti. It lies on the 
 southeast coast, at the mouth of the 
 Ozama, and has a commodious port. 
 It is the oldest European city in the 
 New World, having been founded in 
 1494 by Bartholomew Columbus. Pop. 
 about 16,000. 
 
 DOM'INIC, Saint, the founder of the 
 order of the Dominicans, was born in 
 1170 at Calahorra, in Old Castile. He 
 early distinguished himself by his zeal 
 for the reform of canonical life and by 
 his success as a missionary among 
 the Mohammedans. Saint Dominic is 
 usually considered the founder of the 
 Inquisition, which is supposed to have 
 originated with his mission to the 
 AlWgenses; but his claim is denied, on 
 the ground that two Cistercian monks 
 were appointed inquisitors in 1198. 
 
 DOMINICA (dom-i-ne'ka), a British 
 West India island. It is about 29 miles 
 in length, north to south, and 12 miles 
 in breadth east to west; area, 186,436 
 acres. The principal exports consist of 
 sugar, molasses, cocoa, and lime-juice. 
 Dominica was ceded by France to Great 
 Britain in 1763. Roseau is the capital. 
 Pop. 26,841 (including about 300 abori- 
 ginal Caribs). 
 
 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, or SAN 
 DOMINGO, a republic occupying the 
 eastern portion of the island of Hayti; 
 area, 18,000 sq. miles. It is fertile and 
 exports mahogany, sugar, tobacco, 
 cocoa, etc., but its resources are as yet 
 iDUt little developed. It formerly be- 
 longed to Spain, and is the oldest colon- 
 ial settlement in America. Its inhabi- 
 tants are chiefly negroes and mulattoes. 
 Capital, San Domingo. Pop. estimated 
 at 504,000. See Hayti. 
 
 DOMIN'ICANS, called also predicants, 
 or preaching friars (praedicatores), de- 
 rived their name from their founder, St. 
 Dominic. At their origin (1216, at 
 Toulouse) they were governed by the 
 rulfe of St. Augustine, perpetual silence, 
 poverty, and fasting being enjoined upon 
 them; and the principal object of their 
 institution was to preach against 
 heretics. Their distinctive dress con- 
 sists of a white habit and scapular with 
 a large black mantle, and hence they 
 have been commonly known as Black 
 Friars. 
 
 DOM'INO, formerly a dress worn by 
 priests in the winter, which, reacliing no 
 lower than the shoulders, served to pro- 
 tect the face and head from the weather. 
 
 At present it is a masquerade dress worn 
 by gentlemen and ladies, consisting of a 
 long silk mantle with wide sleeves and a 
 masking hood. The name is also given 
 to a half -mask formerly worn on the face 
 by ladies when traveling or at mas- 
 querades. 
 
 ■Dominican or black friar. 
 
 DOM'INOES, a game played with 
 small flat rectangular pieces of ivory, 
 about twice as long as they are broad. 
 They are marked with spots varying in 
 number. When one player leads by 
 laying down a domino, the next must 
 follow by placing alongside of it another 
 which has the same number of spots on 
 one of its sides. Thus if the first player 
 lays down 6-4, the second may reply 
 with 4-8, or 6-7, etc. ; in the former case 
 he must turn in the 4, placing it beside 
 the 4 of the first domino, so that the 
 numbers remaining out will be 6-8; in 
 the latter case he must turn in the 6 to 
 the 6 in like manner, leaving 4-7, to 
 wliich his opponent must now respond. 
 The player who cannot follow suit loses 
 his turn, and the object of the game is to 
 get rid of all the dominoes in hand, or to 
 hold fewer spots than your opponent 
 when the game is exhausted by neither 
 being able to play. 
 
 DOMITIAN, or in full Titus Flavius 
 Domitianus Augustus, Roman emperor, 
 son of Vespasian, and brother of Titus, 
 was born a.d. 51, and in 81 succeeded to 
 
 the throne. At first he ruled with a show 
 of moderation and justice, but soon re- 
 turned to the cruelty and excesses for 
 which his youth had been notorious. He 
 established the most stringent laws 
 against high treason, which enabled 
 almost anything to be construed into this 
 crime. At length a conspiracy, in which 
 his wife, Domitia took part, -u'as formed 
 against him, and he was assassinated in 
 liis bed-room a.d. 96. 
 
 DOMREMY LA PUCELLE (don-re-mi 
 la pu-sal), the birth-place of Joan of -) re. 
 
DON 
 
 DORMANT STATE 
 
 a small French village, department of the 
 Vosges, 7 miles n. of NeufchUteau. The 
 house is still shown hero in which the 
 heroine was born, and in the neighbor- 
 hood is the monument erected to her 
 memory. 
 
 DON, a Spanish title of honor, ori^n- 
 ally given only to the highest nobility, 
 afterward to all the nobles, and finally 
 used indiscriminately as a title of cour- 
 tesy. It corresponds with the Portuguese 
 Dom. During the Spanish occupation 
 it was introduced and became natural- 
 ized in some parts of Italy, and was par- 
 ticularly applied to the priests. 
 
 DONA'TI’S COMET, so called from the 
 Italian astronomer Donati, who first ob- 
 served it in June, 1858. Next to the 
 comet of 1811 it was the most brilliant 
 that appeared last century. It was 
 nearest the earth on the 10th October, 
 1858. 
 
 DON'EGAL, a maritime county, Ire- 
 land, province of Ulster, bounded n. and 
 w. by the Atlantic Ocean; area, 1,197,- 
 154 acres, of which about a fifth is under 
 crops. The manufactures are limited, 
 and consist chiefly of linen cloth, woolen 
 stockings, and worked muslin. The 
 fisheries are extensive and valuable, and 
 form the chief employment of the in- 
 habitants of the coast and islands. Grain 
 butter, and eggs are exported. The 
 minerals include marble, lead, copper, 
 etc., but are not wrought to advantage. 
 Pop. 173,625. — Donegal, the county 
 town, is a small seaport on the bay of 
 the same name, at the mouth of the 
 river Esk. Pop. 1323. 
 
 DONELSON, Andrew Jackson, an 
 American diplomat, born in Tennessee 
 ii\ 1800, died 1871. He was private sec- 
 retary to Jackson in 1829, and subse- 
 quently served as minister to Prussia 
 and the federal German government. 
 He took no part in the civil war. 
 
 DON'GOLA, a district of Upper Nubia, 
 extending on both sides of the Nile from 
 about lat. 18° to lat. 20° n. After having 
 belonged to Egypt the rebellion under 
 the Mahdi caused its evacuation by the 
 Egyptian government, leaving it in an 
 unsettled state; but under the Anglo- 
 Egyptian authorities it has again been 
 occupied. Its chief products are dates, 
 cotton, indigo, and maize. The popula- 
 tion is a mixture of Arabs and indigen- 
 ous Nubians. Its chief town is New 
 Dongola, on the Nile. Pop. 6000. 
 
 DONIZET'TI, Gaetano, Italian com- 
 poser, born in 1798, at Bergamo. In 
 1830 appeared his Anna Bolena, which 
 first, along with Lucrezia Borgia and 
 Lucia di Lammermoor — the latter his 
 masterpiece — acquired for him a Euro- 
 pean fame. Donizetti removed in 1840 
 to Paris, bringing with him three new 
 operas, Les Martyrs, La Favorita, and 
 La Fille du Regiment, of which the last 
 two are among his most popular pro- 
 ductions. He died 8th April, 1848. He 
 had written as many as sixty-four operas 
 
 DON JUAN {hu-kn'), the hero of a 
 Spanish legend which seems to have had 
 some historical basis in the history of a 
 member of the noble family of Tenorio at 
 Seville. According to the legend Don 
 Juan was a libertine of the most reckless 
 character. An attempt to seduce the 
 daughter of a governor of Seville brought 
 the indignant father and the profligate 
 
 don into deadly conflict, in which the 
 former was slain. Don Juan afterward, 
 in a spirit of wild mockery, goes to the 
 grave of the murdered man and invites 
 the statue of him erected there to a 
 revel. To the terror of Don Juan the 
 “stony guest” actually appears at the 
 table to bear him away to the infernal 
 world. The legend has furnished the 
 subject for many dramas and operas. 
 The most famous of the latter is Mozart’s 
 Don Giovanni, which has made the story 
 familiar to everybody. The Don Juan of 
 Byron bears no relation to the old story 
 but in name and in the libertine char- 
 acter of the hero. 
 
 DONKEY-ENGINE, a small engine 
 used in various operations where no 
 great power is required. Thus a donkey- 
 engine is often stationed on the deck of a 
 ship to work a crane for loading and un- 
 loading. 
 
 DONNYBROOK, a village, Ireland, 
 now mostly in the parliamentary bor- 
 ough of Dublin. Its famous fair, which 
 seldom passed off without riot and blood- 
 shed, was abolished in 1855. 
 
 DON QUIXOTE (ke-/i6'ta), the title of 
 a famous romance by Cervantes. The 
 name of the hero, Don Quixote, is used 
 as a synonym for foolish knight-errantry 
 or extravagant generosity. 
 
 DOOMSDAY BOOK, See Domesday 
 Book. 
 
 DORCAS SOCIETY (from Dorcas men- 
 tioned in Acts ix.), an association gen- 
 erally composed of ladies for supplying 
 clothes to the poor. Frequently the 
 members of the society meet at stated 
 times and work in common. 
 
 DORDOGNE (dor-dony), a depart- 
 ment of France, which includes the 
 greater part of the ancient province of 
 P^rigord, and small portions of Limousin, 
 Angoumois, and Saintonge. Area, 3544 
 sq. miles, of which about a third is fit 
 for the plow. The climate is mild but 
 somewhat changeable. Pop. 492,205. 
 
 DORE (d5-ra), Paul Gustave, a pro- 
 lific French draftsman and painter, born 
 at Strasbourg Jan. 6, 1833. He studied 
 at Paris, contributing, when only six- 
 teen years of age, comic sketches to the 
 Journal Pour llire. He distinguished 
 himself greatly as an illustrator of books. 
 His illustrations of Rabelais, of Per- 
 rault’s Tales, Sue’s Wandering Jew, 
 Dante’s Divina Commedia, and Cer- 
 vantes’ Don Quixote, displayed great 
 fertility of invention, and the fine fan- 
 tasy of his landscapes and the dramatic 
 effectiveness of his groups acquired for 
 him a European reputation. His illus- 
 trations of the Bible, of Ariosto’s Or- 
 lando Furioso, and Milton’s Paradise 
 Lost, are also of high excellence. As a 
 painter he has grandeur of conception 
 and a bold expressive style. Among his 
 chief works are Christ leaving the Prae- 
 torium, Paolo and Francesca di Rimini, 
 The Flight into Egypt, Mont Blanc, etc. 
 In later years Dor6 also won fame as a 
 sculptor. He died 23d June, 1883. 
 
 DORIANS, one of the four great 
 branches of the Greek nation who mi- 
 grated from Thessaly southward, set- 
 tling for a time in the mountainous dis- 
 trict of Doris in Northern Greece and 
 finally in Peloponnesus. Their migra- 
 tion to the latter was said to have taken 
 I place in b.c. 1104; and as among their 
 
 leaders were certain descendants of Her- 
 cules (or Herakles), it was known as the 
 return of the Heraclidae. The Dorians 
 ruled in Sparta with great renown as a 
 strong and warlike people, though less 
 cultivated than the other Greeks in arts 
 and letters. Their laws were severe and 
 rigid, as typified in the codes of the great 
 Doric legislators Minos and Lycurgus. 
 (See Sparta.) — The Doric dialect was 
 characterized by its broadness and hard- 
 ness, yet on account of its venerable and 
 antique style was often used in solemn 
 odes and choruses. 
 
 DORIC ORDER, in architecture, is 
 the oldest, strongest, and simplest of the 
 three Grecian orders, and the one that is 
 best repre.sented among the remains of 
 ancient Greek architecture. The Doric 
 
 
 Doric entablatur 
 
 I 
 
 entablature; a, epistyle or architrave; 5, 
 trieze; c, cornice. (From Archaeol. Inst. 
 Report on Assos Expedition. 
 
 column is distinguished by its want of a 
 base (in the more ancient examples, at 
 least), by the small number of its flutings 
 
 Grecian Doric order. 
 
 and by its massive proportions, the true 
 Grecian Doric having the height of its 
 pillars six times that of the diameter. 
 The capital was small and simple, and 
 the architrave, frieze, and cornice were 
 rather plain and massive. 
 
 DORMANT STATE, a state of torpid- 
 ity in which certain animals pass a por- 
 tion of the year. In cold and temperate 
 climates this period of long sleep takes 
 place during the winter months, and is 
 properly cmled hibernation. It com- 
 mences when the food of the animals 
 begins to get scarce, continues for a 
 longer or shorter period, and is deeper 
 or lighter according to the habits and 
 constitution of the animal. Bats, bears, 
 some animals of the rodent order, such 
 
DORMER WINDOWS 
 
 DOUGLAS 
 
 as the porcupine, the dormouse, the 
 squirrel, etc., all the animals belonging 
 to the classes of Amphibia and Reptilia, 
 such as tortoises, lizards, snakes, frogs, 
 etc., and many species of molluscs and 
 insects, hibernate more or less complete- 
 ly, retiring to suitable places of conceal- 
 ment — the bat to dark caves, the hedge- 
 h,og to fern-brakes, snakes to holes in 
 trees, etc. During hibernation there is a 
 great decrease of heat in the bodies of 
 the animals, the temperature some- 
 times sinking to 40° or even 20° Fahr., 
 or in general to a point a little above that 
 of the surrounding atmosphere. The 
 respiration as well as the pulsation of the 
 heart is exceedingly slow, and the irrita- 
 bility of the animal often so low that in 
 some cases it can be awakened only by 
 strong electric shocks. With frogs and 
 amphibious reptiles the dormant state 
 is very common, and if the temperature 
 is kept low by artificial means they may 
 remain dormant for years. The term 
 ajstivation has been used to describe a 
 similar condition into which certain 
 animals, such as serpents and crocodiles, 
 in tropical countries pass during the 
 hottest months of the year 
 
 DORMER WINDOWS are windows 
 inserted in the inclined plane of a sloping 
 roof, on a frame rising vertically above 
 the rafters. 
 
 DORMOUSE, a genus of mammiferous 
 quadrupeds, of the order Rodentia. 
 These little animals, which appear to be 
 intermediate between the squirrels and 
 the mice, inhabit temperate and warm 
 countries, and subsist entirely on vege- 
 table food. Their pace is a kind of leap, 
 but they have not the activity of squir- 
 rels. Whilst feeding they sit upright and 
 carry the food to their mouth M'ith their 
 paws. The dormice pass the winter 
 in a lethargic or torpid state, reviving 
 only for a short time on a warm sunny 
 day, when they take a little of their 
 hoarded stores and then relapse into the 
 dormant state. 
 
 D’ORSAY, Alfred, Count, a dilettante 
 artist and man of fashion, born at Paris 
 1798, died 1852. When a 3 mung man he 
 visited England, and became acquainted 
 with Byron and other literary and fash- 
 ionable celebrities. He married a daugh- 
 ter of the Earl of Blessington, but after 
 the earl’s death a separation took place, 
 and D’Orsay became an inmate of Gore 
 House, which the Countess of Blessing- 
 ton had made the center of a famous 
 literary coterie A zealous Bonapartist, 
 he followed Prince Louis Napoleon to 
 Paris in 1849, whose favor he enjoyed 
 till his death. 
 
 DORSET, Dorsetshire, a . maritime 
 county in the south of England, having 
 on the south the English Channel; area, 
 627,265 acres, over 490,000 being under 
 crop. The general surface of the county 
 is undulating; its principal elevations 
 being chalk hills known as the North and 
 South Downs, upon which immense 
 flocks of sheep are pastured. The prin- 
 cipal manufactures are those of flax, 
 canvas, duck, etc., also silk and woolens. 
 The principal rivers are the Stour, the 
 Frome, and the Piddle. Dorchester is 
 the county town. Other towns are Brid- 
 port, Poole, and Weymouth. Pop. 
 202,962. 
 
 DORSET, Earls of. See Sackville. 
 
 DORT'MUND, a city of Prussia, prov- 
 ince of Westphalia, on the Emscher, 
 47 miles n.n.e. of Cologne, starting-point 
 of an important canal to the lower Ems. 
 It was once a free imperial Hanseatic 
 town, and the seat of the chief tribunal 
 of the Vehme. Pop. 142,733. 
 
 DORY, a fish belonging to the mackerel 
 family, celebrated for the delicacy of its 
 flesh. It seldom exceeds 18 inches in 
 length, and is yellowish-green in color 
 with a blackish .spot on each side, which. 
 
 Dory. 
 
 according to an old superstition, is the 
 mark of St. Peter’s fore-finger and 
 thumb. The dory is found on the At- 
 lantic shores of Europe and in the Med- 
 
 DOUAI ’(do-a), or DOUAY, a town, 
 France, department Nord, on the Scarpe, 
 18 miles south of Lille. It is one of the 
 oldest towns in France, of which it be- 
 came part by the Treaty of Utrecht. 
 It is strongly fortified, has a fine town- 
 house, several handsome churches, an 
 academy of arts and law, a lyceum, 
 museum and public library, Benedictine 
 college, hospital, etc. ; a cannon foundry, 
 linen manufactories, machine-works, 
 tanneries, etc. There was long here a 
 college for British Roman Catholic 
 priests, the most celebrated of its kind. 
 Pop. 30,030. 
 
 DOUAI BIBLE, the English transla- 
 tion of the Bible used among English- 
 speaking R. Catholics, and executed by 
 divines connected with the English 
 College at Douai. The New Testament 
 was published in 1582 at Rheims, the 
 Old in 1609 — 10 at Douai, the transla- 
 tion being based on the vulgate. Vari- 
 ous revisions have since materially 
 3<lt'Gr0ci it 
 
 DOUBLE CONSCIOUSNESS, an alleg- 
 ed morbid “state of mind,” in which 
 the same person at different times ap- 
 pears to have a different personality. 
 It is seriously discussed by psycholo- 
 gists, who compare it with hypnosis, and 
 it is probably due to incomplete co- 
 ordination in the associational region of 
 the cerebral cortex. 
 
 DOUBLE-EAGLE, an American gold 
 coin of the value of twenty dollars, so 
 called because double the value of the 
 coin called the eagle. 
 
 DOUBLE-ENTRY. See Book-keep- 
 
 DOUBLE-INSURANCE, the effecting 
 of two insurances upon the same goods. 
 In marine insurance it is lawful for a 
 shipper to insure his goods twice, but 
 only to give an additional security in 
 the event of the failure of the first under- 
 writers. In the event of a loss it is 
 ultimately divided among the under- 
 writers in the ratio of the risks they have 
 taken. 
 
 DOUBLE-STANDARD OF MONE- 
 TARY VALUE. See Currency, Bi- 
 metallism. 
 
 DOUBLE-STARS, or BINARY STARS, 
 
 stars which are so close together that 
 they appear as one to the naked eye, 
 but are seen to be double when viewed 
 through a telescope. One of these stars 
 may revolve about the other, or both 
 may revolve round a common center. 
 See Stars. 
 
 DOUBLET, a close-fitting garment, 
 covering the body from the neck to a 
 little below the waist. It was intro- 
 duced from France into England in the 
 
 1, Doublet, time of Edward IV, 8, 3, Doublets, 
 time of Elizabeth. 4, Doublet, time of 
 Charles 1. 
 
 14th century, and was worn by both 
 sexes and all ranks until the time of 
 Charles II., when it was superseded by 
 the vest and waistcoat. The garment 
 got its name from being originally lined 
 or wadded for defense. 
 
 DOUBS (do), a department of France, 
 having Switzerland on its eastern fron- 
 tier. Its surface is traversed by four 
 chains of the Jura. The temperature is 
 variable, and the climate somewhat 
 rigorous. About a third of the land is 
 arable, but much the greater part is 
 covered with forests. Maize, potatoes, 
 hemp, flax, are the principal crops 
 Much dairy produce is made into 
 Gruyere cheese. The minerals include 
 iron, lead, and marble. Pop. 310,963. 
 
 DOUCHE (dosh), a jet or current of 
 water or vapor directed upon some part 
 of the body; employed in bathing 
 establishments. When water is applied 
 it is called the liquid douche, and when 
 a current of vapor the vapor douche. 
 
 DOUGHFACE, a name applied, be- 
 fore and during the ci\dl war, to any 
 resident of the North who favored the 
 slave owners of the South. The appli- 
 cation of the name is not clear. 
 
 DOUGLAS (dug'las), a family dis- 
 tinguished in the annals of Scotland. 
 Their origin is unknown. They were 
 already territorial magnates at the time 
 when Bruce and Baliol were competitors 
 for the crown. .\s their estates lay on 
 the borders they early became guardians 
 of the kingdom against the encroach- 
 ments of the English, and acquired in 
 this way power, habits, and experience 
 
DOUGLAS 
 
 DRAGON 
 
 which frequently made them formidable 
 to the crown. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Stephen Arnold, American 
 statesman, born in Vermont 1813, died 
 1861. Having gone to Jacksonville, 111., 
 be became an attorney, was appointed 
 attorney-general for the state, and in 
 1843 was elected a member of the U. 
 
 Stephen A. Douglas. 
 
 States house of representatives. In 
 1847 he was elected to the senate, and 
 by re-election was a member of this 
 body till his death. He was especially 
 prominent in connection with the ques- 
 tion at to the extension of slavery into 
 new states and territories, which he 
 maintained was a matter to be settled by 
 the people of the respective states or 
 teiritories, and not by congress. He 
 was a presidential candidate in 1860, 
 when Lincoln was elected. 
 
 DOUGLASS, Frederick, American lec- 
 turer and journalist, was the son of a 
 negro slave, and was born at Tuckahoe 
 in Maryland, about 1817. Although his 
 father was a white man, he was, accord- 
 ing to the law, reared as a slave. In 
 1832 he was purchased by a Baltimore 
 ship-builder, but made his escape in 1838. 
 As he had taught himself to read and 
 write, and showed talent as an orator, 
 he was employed by the anti-slavery 
 society as one of their lecturers. In 
 1845 he published his autobiography, 
 and afterward made a successful lectur- 
 ing tour in England. In 1870 he started 
 a journal entitled the The New National 
 Era; in 1871 he was appointed secretary 
 of the commission to Santo Domingo; 
 in 1872, presidential elector; in 1877 
 marshal for the district of Columbia, 
 then commissioner of deeds for that 
 district, and in 1889 United States 
 minister to Hayti. He died in 1895. 
 
 DOUM PALM (dom), a palm-tree. It 
 is remarkable, like the other species of 
 the genus, for having a repeatedly- 
 branched stem. Each branch terminates 
 in a tuft of large fan-shaped leaves. The 
 fruit is about the size of an apple; it 
 has a fibrous mealy rind, which tastes 
 like gingerbread (whence the name 
 gingerbread tree sometimes applied to 
 this palm), and is eaten by the poorer 
 inhabitants of Upper Egypt, where it 
 grows. An infusion of the rind is also 
 used as a _ cooling beverage in fevers. 
 The seed is horny, and is made into 
 small ornaments. Ropes are made of 
 the fibers of the leaf -stalks. 
 
 DOVE. See Turtle-dove and Pigeon. 
 
 DOVER, a city in New Hampshire. 
 It is situated on both sides of the Coche- 
 cho, which has here a fall of over 30 feet, 
 affording abundant water-power for the 
 large iron and cotton manufactories, 
 fop. 13,214. 
 
 DO'VER, a mun. and pari, borough of 
 England, county Kent, 67 miles south- 
 east of London. It is an important rail- 
 way terminus, and as a port for mail and 
 packet service with the Continent has 
 a large passenger traffic. Pop. 41,782. 
 
 Doum palm. 
 
 DOVER, Straits of, the narrow chan- 
 nel between Dover and Calais which 
 separates Great Britain from the French 
 coast. At the nanowest part it is only 
 21 miles wide. The depth of the channel 
 at a medium in the highest spring-tides 
 is about 25 fathoms. On both the 
 French and English sides the chalky 
 cliffs show a correspondency of strata 
 which leaves no room for doubt that they 
 Were once united, although this is known 
 otherwise. 
 
 DOVER’S POWDER, a preparation 
 frequently used in medical practice to 
 produce perspiration. It consists of 1 
 grain of opium, 1 of ipecacuanha, and 8 
 of sulphate of potash in every 10 grains, 
 which constitute a full dose. In pre- 
 paring it the ingredients must be 
 thoroughly mixed. 
 
 DOVE-TAILING, in carpentry, is the 
 fastening boards together by letting one 
 piece in the form of a dove-tail into a 
 corresponding cavity in another. The 
 dove-tail is the strongest kind of joint- 
 ing. 
 
 DOW, Neal, an American temperance 
 advocate, born in Maine in 1804, died 
 in 1897. He fought in the civil war on 
 the Union side, rose to be brigadier- 
 general, was a prisoner in Libby prison 
 and in 1880 was prohibition candidate 
 for president of the United States. His 
 whole life long he consistently worked for 
 total abstinence. 
 
 DOWER, in English law, is the right 
 which a wife (not being an alien) has in 
 the lands and tenements of which her 
 husband dies possessed. By common 
 law this right amounts to one-third of 
 his estate during her life; by local cus- 
 tom it is frequently greater. 
 
 DOWN, a county of Ireland, in 
 Ulster, bounded on the north by Belfast 
 Lough and on the east by the Irish Sea; 
 area, 610,730 acres, of which over five- 
 sixths are productive. The principal 
 manufactures are linen and muslin. The 
 
 fisheries on the coast, principally cod, 
 haddock, and herring, are considerable, 
 the county town is Downpatrick. Bop. 
 289 335 
 
 DOWNING, Andrew Jackson, an 
 American horticulturist, born in New 
 York in 1815, died in 1852. He intro- 
 duced into this country the English 
 niethod of landscape gardening, de- 
 signed the garden of the capitol at 
 Washington, and other government 
 garden works. 
 
 DOXOL'OGY, a set form of words 
 givi,ng glory to God, and especially a 
 name given to two short hymns dis- 
 tinguished by the title of greater (Glory 
 be to God on high, etc.) and lesser (Glory 
 be to the Father, etc.). Both the doxol- 
 ogies have a place in the Church of 
 England liturgy, the latter being re- 
 peated after every psalm, and the former 
 used in the communion service. 
 
 DOYLE, Sir Arthur Conan, English 
 novelist, born at Edinburgh, 185ff, 
 studied medicine, and for some years 
 practiced, but gave up the profession 
 for that of literature. Among his books 
 are Micah Clarke; The Sign of Four; 
 The White Company; The Adventures 
 of Sherlock Holmes, etc. 
 
 DRACHMA (drak'ma), the unit of 
 weight and of money among the ancient 
 Greeks. It was the principal Greek coin, 
 was made of silver and was worth (the 
 Attic drachma) about 20 cents. As a 
 weight among the Greeks it was about 
 2 dwt. 7 grains troy. 
 
 DRACO, a legislator of Athens, about 
 620 B.C., whose name has become pro- 
 verbial as an inexorable and blood- 
 thirsty lawgiver, and wdiose laws were 
 said to have been written in blood, not 
 ink. 
 
 DRACO, the Dragon, a constellation 
 of the northern hemisphere, containing, 
 according to Flamsteed, eighty stars. 
 The star Draconis is celebrated as the 
 one used in determining the coefficient 
 of aberration of the fixed stars. 
 
 DRAFT, or DRAUGHT, a bill drawn 
 by one person on another. Also a rough 
 copy of any document intended to be 
 afterward transcribed. 
 
 DRAG, (1) a long coach or carriage, 
 generally uncovered and seated round 
 the sides. (2) An apparatus for retard- 
 ing or stopping the rotation of one wheel 
 or of several wheels, in carriages espe- 
 cially. (3) An apparatus, consisting of a 
 frame of iron with a bag-net attached, 
 used to recover articles lost in the water. 
 
 DRAG-NET, a net drawn along the 
 bottom of a river or pond to catch fish. 
 The use of drag-nets is usually pro- 
 hibited in rivers where fish breed, as it 
 takes all indiscriminately. 
 
 DRAGO DOCTRINE, so called from 
 Argentine, minister of foreign affairs 
 of that name, who in 1906 declared the 
 debts of one nation should not be forci- 
 bly collected by army and navy of an- 
 other nation, but left to the courts. 
 
 DRAG'ON, a fabulous monster, the 
 stories regarding which reach back al- 
 most as far as history. His form is de- 
 scribed as generally resembling that of a 
 winged and two-legged serpent, the body 
 covered with scales, the head crested, 
 and the mouth spouting fire. The im- 
 mediate source of the mediaeval concep- 
 tion is probably the Scriptures, modi- 
 
DRAGON 
 
 DRAIN-TRAP 
 
 fied by accounts brought home by the 
 crusaders of the crocodiles in Egypt. 
 
 DRAGON, or DRAGON-LIZARD, a 
 name for several species of lizards in- 
 habiting Asia, Africa, and South Amer- 
 ica. The common flying lizard, the best 
 
 The dragon of fable. 
 
 type 01 the genus, is about 10 or 12 
 inches in length, the tail being extremely 
 long in proportion to the body. The 
 sides are furnished with peculiar exten- 
 sions of the skin, forming a kind of wings, 
 which help to support it in the air when 
 it springs from branch to branch. Its 
 food consists almost exclusively of 
 insects. 
 
 DRAGON-FLY, a family of neurop- 
 terous insects. They have a large head, 
 large eyes, and strong horny mandibles. 
 They are beautiful in form and color, and 
 are of very powerful flight. They live on 
 
 Dragon-fly. 
 
 insects, and are remarkable for their 
 voracity. The dragon-fly deposits its 
 eggs in the water, where the larvse and 
 pupae live on aquatic insects. The larval 
 stage lasts for a year. The family is of 
 very wide distribution. 
 
 DRAGON’S BLOOD, a resinous juice, 
 usually obtained by incision from vari- 
 ous tropical plants. It differs in com- 
 position, and is often much adulterated. 
 It is opaque, of a reddish-brown color, 
 brittle, and has a smooth shining con- 
 choidal fracture. It is soluble in alcohol 
 and oil, but scarcely so in water. It is 
 used for coloring varnishes, staining 
 marble, leather, and wood, for tooth 
 tinctures, etc. 
 
 DRAGON-TREE, a tree-like lilaceous 
 plant, with a stem simple or divided at 
 top, and in old age often much branched. 
 It is a native of the Canaries, and yields 
 the resin known as dragon’s blood. It 
 ie often grown in stoves and greenhouses. 
 
 DRAGOON', a kind of mounted sol- 
 dier, so called originally from his mus- 
 ket (dragon) having on the muzzle of it 
 the head of a dragon. At one time 
 dragoons served both as mounted and 
 foot soldiers, but now only as the former. 
 
 DRAINAGE, in agriculture, a method 
 of improving the soil by withdrawing 
 the water from it by means of channels 
 that are generally covered over. The 
 successful practice of draining in a great 
 measure depends on a proper knowledge 
 of the superficial strata, of their situa- 
 tion, relative degrees of porosity, etc. 
 Some strata allow water to pass through 
 them, while others more impervious 
 force it to run or filtrate along their sur- 
 faces till it reaches more level ground 
 below. In general where the grounds 
 are in a great measure flat and the soils 
 of materials which retain the excess of 
 
 1, Horse-shoe tile with sole. Sections of drain 
 — 2, Stone drain. 3. Drain with horse-shoe 
 tiles. 4, Drain with pipe-tiles. 
 
 moisture, they require artificial means of 
 drainage to render them capable of 
 yielding good crops whether of grain or 
 grass. The wetness of land which makes 
 it inferior for agricultural purposes, may 
 appear not only as surface-water but as 
 water which flows through the low'er 
 strata, and to draw off these there are 
 the two distinct operations of surface- 
 draining and under-draining. The 
 rudest form of open drains are the deep 
 furrows lying between high-backed 
 ridges, and meant to carry off the sur- 
 plus water after the soil is completely 
 saturated, but in doing so they generally 
 carry off also much of the best of the 
 soil and of the manure which has been 
 spread upon it. The ordinary ditch is a 
 common form of water-course useful in 
 certain cases, as in hill pastures. But 
 covered drains at a depth of 4 feet or so 
 are the common forms in draining agri- 
 cultural lands. They are generally either 
 stone-drains or tile-drains. Stone-drains 
 are either formed on the plan of open 
 culverts of various forms, or of small 
 stones in sufficient quantity to permit 
 a free and speedy filtration of the water 
 through them. The box-drain, for in- 
 stance, is formed of flat stones neatly 
 arranged in the bottom of the trench, the 
 whole forming an open tube. In tile- 
 drains, tiles or pipes of burnt clay are 
 used for forming the conduits. They 
 possess all the qualities which are re- 
 quired in the formation of drains, afford- 
 ing a free ingress to water, while they 
 effectually exclude vermin, earth, and 
 other injurious substances. Drainage 
 tiles and pipes have been made in a 
 great variety of forms, the earliest of 
 
 which, since the introduction of thor- 
 ough draining, was the horse-shoe tile, 
 so called from its shape. These should 
 always rest on soles, or flats of burned 
 clay. Pipe tiles, which combine the sole 
 and cover in one piece, have been made 
 of various shapes, but the best form 
 appears to be the cylinder. An impor- 
 tant department of draining is the drain- 
 ing off of the waters which are the 
 sources of springs. Sometimes the judi- 
 cious application of a few simple drains, 
 made to communicate with the watery 
 layers, will often dry swamps of great ex- 
 tent, where large sums of money, ex- 
 pended in forming open drains in the 
 swamp itself, would leave it but little 
 improved. In the laying out of drains 
 the first point to be determined is the 
 place of outfall, which should always 
 afford a free and clear outlet to the 
 drains, and must necessarily be at the 
 lowest point of the land to be drained. 
 The next point to be determined is the 
 position of the minor drains; in the lay- 
 ing out of which the surface of each field 
 must be regarded as being made up of 
 one or more planes, as the case may be, 
 for each of which the drains should be 
 laid out separately. Level lines are to 
 be set out a little below the upper edge of 
 each of these planes, and the drains must 
 then be made to cross these lines at right 
 angles. By this means the drains will 
 run in the line of the greatest slope, no 
 matter how distorted the surface of the 
 field may be. All the minor drains 
 should be made to discharge into mains 
 or submains,,and not directly into an 
 open ditch or water-course. As a gen- 
 eral rule there should be a main to re- 
 ceive the waters of the minor drains 
 from every 5 acres. The advantages of 
 drainage are obvious. In the first place 
 it allows the soil to be brought into a 
 more suitable condition for the growth of 
 plants, aiding in producing the finely- 
 divided and porous state by which the 
 roots and rootlets can spread themselves 
 at will in order to obtain the needed sup- 
 plies of food, air, and moisture. It also 
 allows the sun’s rays to produce their 
 full effect on the soil and plants without 
 being robbed of great part of it by the 
 stagnant water. 
 
 DRAINAGE TUBES are used in sur- 
 gery to effect a discharge of matter from 
 an abscess or other collection of matter 
 when a free incision cannot be safely or 
 convenietitly made. They are usually 
 made of india-rubber or caoutchouc, and 
 are introduced into the abscess or wound 
 so that one end is in contact with the 
 seat of discharge, while the other reaches 
 to the surface-of the skin. 
 
 DRAIN-TRAP, a contrivance to pre- 
 vent the escape of foul air from drains, 
 but to allow the passage of water into 
 them. They are of various forms. In 
 
 Drain-trap. 
 
 the traps represented above it will be 
 seen that there must always be certain 
 quantity of water maintained to bar the 
 1 way against the escape of the gas from 
 
DRAKE 
 
 DRAUGHTS 
 
 the drain or sewer. When additional 
 liquid is conveyed to the trap there is of 
 course an overflow into the drain. In 
 the left-hand figure the gas is prevented 
 from escaping By a metal plate thrown 
 obliquely over the drain mouth and 
 dipping into the water in the vessel be- 
 yond it. 
 
 DRAKE, Sir Francis, an English navi- 
 gator, born at Tavistock, in Devonshire, 
 in 1539. He joined Sir John Hawkins 
 in his last expedition against the Span- 
 iards (1567). Having gathered a num- 
 
 Sir Francis Drake. 
 
 ber of adventurers round him he con- 
 trived to fit out a vessel in which he made 
 two successful cruises to the West Indies 
 in 1570 and 1571. Next year, with two 
 small ships, he again sailed for the Span- 
 ish Main, captured the cities of Nombre 
 de Dios and Vera Cruz, and took a rich 
 booty which he brought safely home. In 
 1577 Drake made another expedition to 
 the Spanish Main, having this time com- 
 mand of five ships. On this the most 
 famous of his voyages Drake passed the 
 Straits of Magellan, plundered all along 
 the coast of Chili and Peru, sacked 
 several ports, and captured a galleon 
 laden with silver, gold, jewels, etc., to 
 the value of perhaps $1,000,000. He 
 then ran north as far as 48° n. lat., seek- 
 ing a passage to the Atlantic, but was 
 compelled to return to Port San Fran- 
 cisco on account of the cold. He then 
 steered for the Moluccas, and holding 
 straight across the Indian Ocean doubled 
 the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived at 
 Plymouth 3d Nov., 1580, being thus the 
 first of the English circumnavigators. 
 In 1593 he represented Plymouth in par- 
 liament. His later expeditions, that in 
 
 1595 against the Spanish West Indies 
 and that to Panama, were not so succes- 
 ful, and his death, which took place in 
 
 1596 at sea off Porto Bello, was hastened 
 by disappointment. 
 
 DRAMA, a class of writings which al- 
 most entirely consist of dialogue, per- 
 sons being represented as acting and 
 speaking, and the pieces being usually 
 intended to be acted on a stage by parties 
 assuming the characters of the respec- 
 tive persons. Its two great branches are 
 tragedy and comedy, the former, rough- 
 ly speaking, melancholy in character, 
 the latter cheerful. The origin of the 
 drama must be sought for in the love of 
 imitation, and dramatic performances of 
 some kind are to be met with probably 
 among all nations. Dramatic composi- 
 tions are found in the Old Testament, 
 for example, in Job and the Song of 
 
 Solomon; and ancient India and China 
 both developed a dramatic literature of 
 their own. The European drama had its 
 origin in Greece. Both forms, tragic and 
 comic, took their rise in the celebrations 
 of the Greek festivals of Dionysius 
 (Bacchus), at which hymns and chants 
 were sung by choruses in honor of the 
 god, and the chorus continued to be a 
 prominent feature of the old Greek 
 drama. Greek comedy commenced 
 about 580-560 b.c., with Susarion, but it 
 was long in attaining regular form. Of 
 the old Greek comedy the chief repre- 
 sentatives were Cratinus, Eupolis,Phere- 
 crates, and Aristophanes — the last the 
 greatest. The invention of tragedy is 
 generally ascribed to Thespis about 530 
 B.C., who was followed by Phrynichus. 
 But the true creator of tragedy was 
 .(Eschylus, in whose works and those of 
 Sophocles and Euripides it found its 
 most perfect expression. 
 
 In most modern European countries 
 the regular drama took its rise in the 
 mysteries, miracle-plays, and moralities 
 of the middle ages. In Italy, however, 
 it began with a reproduction in Latin of 
 classical models. The earliest tragedy 
 in Italian is Trissino’s Sofonisba (1502). 
 Regular comedies in Italian were written 
 by Ariosto, Aretino, Macchiavelli, and 
 others; and to the same period (15th and 
 16th centuries) belongs the Italian Pas- 
 toral Drama, which sprung from the 
 ancient idylls, and aimed^ at a fanciful 
 delineation of Arcadian and mythologi- 
 cal scenes. Among the pastoral drama- 
 tists of this period are Poliziano, Tasso 
 and Guarini. Tlie pastorals gave birth 
 to the opera, early masters of which, so 
 far as it may be included in the poetic 
 drama, are Zeno and Metastasio. The 
 Italian drama waned in the 17th cen- 
 tury, but in the 18th genuine comedy 
 ana classic tragedy were restored, the 
 former by Goldoni, the latter by Alfieri. 
 Monti, Manzoni, and Niccolini are among 
 the later writers of tragedy. 
 
 The other European nations culti- 
 vated the dramatic art much later than 
 the Italians. The English and Spaniards 
 devoted their attention to it almost at 
 the same time ; the former reaching their 
 acme in Shakespeare, the latter in Lope 
 de Vega and Calderon. The history of 
 the English theater and the drama is 
 naturally divided into two parts, the 
 first of which begins with the reign of 
 Elizabeth and ends with the reign of 
 Charles I. With Charles II. the drama 
 reappeared, and exhibited a licentious- 
 ness hardly equalled by that of any other 
 Christian nation. During the 19th cen- 
 tury many writers have been conspicu- 
 ous by their dramas. Among the chief 
 of these may be noted Byron, Coleridge, 
 Landor, Shelley, Maturin, Talfourd, Mil- 
 man, Sir Henry Taylor, the first Lord 
 Lytton, Knowles, R. H. Horne, Arnold, 
 Browning, Swinburne, and Tennyson. 
 Among other 19th century writers for 
 the stage, who, however, may be called 
 playwrights rather than dramatists, may 
 Be named, Douglas Jerrold, Tom Taylor, 
 Charles Reade, Thomas Robertson, W. 
 G. Wills, Henry Byron, Robert Bu- 
 chanan, Dion Boucicault, W. S. Gilbert, 
 etc. 
 
 The French drama was in a miserable 
 state before Corneille (1606-84), who 
 
 indeed is looked on as the founder of the 
 drama in France. Racine, MoliSre, 
 Voltaire, and in later times Hugo, are 
 some of the other distinguished French 
 dramatists. Since about 1820 a new 
 dramatic school has been formed in 
 France, which, departing from the an- 
 cient strictness of what is called the 
 classic, approaches more and more to the 
 German or British, or what is called the 
 romantic school. 
 
 The German drama is of later birth 
 than any we have mentioned, and for a 
 long time the Germans contented them- 
 selves with translations and adaptations 
 from the French. Lessing was the first 
 who, by word and deed, broke the French 
 sway (1755), and he was succeeded by 
 Schiller and Goethe, who rank as the 
 greatest of the more modern dramatists. 
 Prominent names in the German drama 
 are Kotzebue, Korner, Schlegel, Tieck, 
 Brentano, Grillparzer, Hebbel, Ludwig, 
 Gutzkow, Frey tag, Laube, Von Moser, 
 etc. The Dutch drama begins with the 
 classical tragedies of Koster in the be- 
 ginning of the 17th century, and reached 
 its highest in Vondel (1587-1659). Hol- 
 berg, Heiberg, Oehlenschlager, Ibsen, 
 and Bjornson are the chief names con- 
 nected with the Scandinavian drama. 
 
 The American drama is on the same 
 order as the English, and although no 
 great dramatists have been developed 
 in the U. States many plays of power 
 have been written by American authors. 
 Among them may be mentioned The 
 Contrast, by Royall Tyler; The Prince of 
 Parthia, by Godfrey; Brutus, or the Fall 
 of Tarquin, by John Howard Payne; 
 Metamora, by John A. Stone; and The 
 Gladiator, by R. N. Bird. More recently 
 a number of fairly good plays have been 
 written, but the U. States has not pro- 
 duced a classic play since those above 
 mentioned. 
 
 DRAPER, John William, an American 
 historian, chemist, and philosopher, 
 born in England in 1811, died in 1882. 
 He came to the U. States as a boy and 
 was early a teacher in Sidney College, 
 Va. He made important contributions 
 to the science of physical chemistry, but 
 is popularly known for his two works 
 The History of the Intellectual De- 
 velopment of Europe (1863) and The 
 History of the Conflict Between Religion 
 and Science (1874). 
 
 DRAPERY, the clothes or hangings 
 with which any object is draped or hung; 
 specifically in sculpture and painting, 
 the representation of the clothing or 
 dress of human figures. 
 
 DRAUGHT, the depth of a body of 
 water necessary to float a ship; or the 
 depth a ship sinks in water, especially 
 when laden. 
 
 DRAUGHTS, a game resembling chess 
 played on a board divided into sixty- 
 four checkered squares. Each of the 
 two players is provided with twelve 
 pieces or “men” placed on every alter- 
 nate square at each end of the board. 
 The men are moved forward diagonally 
 to the right or left one square at a time, 
 the object of each player being to cap- 
 ture all his opponent’s men, or to hem 
 them in so that they cannot move. A 
 piece can be captured only when the 
 square on the diagonal line behind it is 
 unoccupied. When a player succeeds in 
 
DRAWBACK 
 
 DRESDEN 
 
 moving a piece to the further end of the 
 board (the crown-head), that piece be- 
 comes a king, and has the power of 
 moving or capturing diagonally back- 
 ward or forward. When it so happens 
 that neither of the players has sufficient 
 advantage in force or position to enable 
 him to win, the game is drawn. Check- 
 ers is the eommon American name of the 
 game. 
 
 DRAWBACK, usually a certain 
 amount of duties or customs dues paid 
 back or remitted to an importer when 
 he exports goods that he has previously 
 imported and paid duty on, as, for in- 
 stance, tobacco, etc. ; or a certain amount 
 of excise paid back or allowed on the 
 exportation of home manufactures. 
 
 DRAWBRIDGE, a bridge with a lift- 
 ing floor, such as were formerly used for 
 crossing the ditches of fortresses, or any 
 movable bridge over a navigable chan- 
 nel where the height of the roadway is 
 insufficient to allow vessels to pass under- 
 neath. Modern drawbridges across 
 rivers, canals, the entrances of docks, 
 etc., are generally made to open hori- 
 zontally, and the movable portion is 
 called a bascule, balance, or lifting 
 bridge, a turning, swivel, or swing 
 bridge, or a rolling bridge, in accord- 
 ance with the mode in which it is made 
 to open. Swing-bridges are usually 
 divided into two parts meeting in the 
 middle, and each moved on pivots on 
 the opposite sides of the channel, or they 
 ma}^ move as a whole on a pivot in the 
 middle of the channel. Rolling bridges 
 are suspended from a structure high 
 above the water, and are propelled back- 
 ward and forward by means of rollers. 
 
 DRAWING is the art of representing 
 upon a fiat surface the forms of objects, 
 and their positions and relations to each 
 other. The idea of nearness or distance 
 is given by the aid of perspective, fore- 
 shortening, and gradation. The term 
 drawing, in its strict sense, is only ap- 
 plicable to the representing of the forms 
 of objects in outline, with the shading 
 necessary to develop roundness or 
 modeling. In art, however, the term 
 has a wider significance. Highly- 
 finished paintings in water-color are 
 called drawings, as are also sketches or 
 studies in oils. Drawing, in its restricted 
 sense, may be divided into these kinds: 
 (1) pen drawing; (2) chalk drawing, 
 which may include lead-pencil drawings; 
 (3) crayon drawing; (4) drawing shaded 
 with the brush or hair-pencil; (5) archi- 
 tectural or mechanical drawing. Pen 
 drawings are often confined to pure out- 
 lines; an appearance of relief or projec- 
 tion being given by thickening or doub- 
 ling the lines on the shadow side. Fin- 
 ished pen drawings have all the shading 
 produced by combinations of lines. 
 Chalk drawings (including lead-pencil 
 drawings) are most suited for beginners, 
 as errors can be easily corrected. Black, 
 red and white chalks are used. When 
 the chalk is powdered and rubbed in 
 with a stump, large masses and broad 
 effects can be produced with much 
 rapidity. A combination of hatching 
 and stumping is generally preferable to 
 adhering exclusively to either mode. 
 Crayon drawings are those in which the 
 true colors of the objects represented are 
 more or less completely wrought out 
 
 with different colored crayons. Draw- 
 ings shaded with the brush are outlined 
 with the pencil or pen, the shading being 
 laid on or washed in with the brush in 
 tints of India ink, sepia, or color. Archi- 
 tectural and mechanical drawings are 
 those in which the proportions of a build- 
 ing, machine, etc., are accurately set out 
 for the guidance of the constructor : ob- 
 jects are in general delineated by geo- 
 metric or orthographic projection. 
 
 DREAMS, trains of ideas which pre- 
 sent themselves to the mind during .sleep. 
 The principal feature of the state of 
 dreaming is the absence of voluntary 
 control over the current of thought, so 
 that the principle of suggestion has un- 
 limited sway. There is usually an utter 
 want of coherency in the images that 
 appear before the mental eye, but this 
 want excites no surprise in the dreamer. 
 Occasionally, however, intellectual ef- 
 forts are made during sleep which 
 would be difficult to surpass in the wak- 
 ing state. It is said that Condillac often 
 brought to a conclusion in his dreams 
 reasonings on which be had been em- 
 ployed during the day; and that Frank- 
 lin believed that he had been often in- 
 structed in his dreams concerning the 
 issue of events wliich at that time occu- 
 pied his mind. Coleridge composed from 
 200 to 300 lines during a dream; the 
 beautiful fragment of Kubla Khan, 
 which was all he got committed to paper 
 when he awoke, remains a specimen of 
 that dream-p'o'em. Dreams are subjec- 
 tive phenomena dependent on natural 
 causes. They generally take their rise 
 and character from external bodily im- 
 pressions, or from something in the pre- 
 ceding state of body or mind. They are, 
 therefore, retrospective and resultant 
 instead of being prospective or prophetic. 
 The latter opinion has, however, pre- 
 vailed in all ages and among all nations; 
 and hence the common practice of 
 divination or prophesying by dreams, 
 that is, interpreting them as presages of 
 
 other deposits from the bottom of har- 
 bors, canals, rivers, docks, etc. The 
 steam dredging-machine now in common 
 use has a succession of strong iron 
 buckets on an endless chain, which 
 traverses on a frame whose lower end is 
 vertically adjustable so as to regulate 
 the depth at which it works. It is 
 worked by steam, and the buckets tear 
 up the matter at the bottom, raise it, 
 and discharge it into punts or hoppers 
 stationed close to the dredging vessel. 
 Dredging is also the operation of drag- 
 ging the bottom of the sea in order to 
 bring up oysters, or to procure shells, 
 plants, and other objects for scientific 
 observation. The oyster dredge is a 
 light iron frame with a scraper like a 
 narrow hoe on one side, and a suspend- 
 ing apparatus on the other. To the 
 frame is attached a bag made of some 
 kind of netting to receive the oysters. 
 The dredges used by naturalists are 
 mostly modifications of or somewhat 
 similar to the oyster dredge. Scientific 
 dredging has of late assumed a high im- 
 portance as making us acquainted with 
 the life of deep-sea areas. 
 
 DRED SCOTT CASE, a celebrated 
 case decided by the United States Su- 
 preme Court in 1857. Scott was the 
 slave of a Missouri owner who brought 
 him into Illinois and later into Min- 
 nesota. There he was permitted to 
 marry and raise a family On his return 
 to Missouri he sued for freedom on the 
 ground that his residence in Illinois and 
 Minnesota (which were free soil) had en- 
 franchised him. All the lower courts de- 
 cided against him and so did the supreme 
 court which held that negroes descended 
 from negro slaves had no standing in the 
 courts. In his decision Justice Taney 
 used the oft-quoted words, “the negroes 
 had no rights which the white man was 
 bound to respect.” 
 
 DRENTHE (dren'te), a province, Hol- 
 land, bounded by Hanover, Overijssel, 
 Friesland, and Groningen; area, 948 sq 
 
 Dresden— The old bridge, Court church, and church of Our Lady. 
 
 coming events. Some authorities de- 
 clare that all our dreams take place when 
 we are in process of going to sleep or be- 
 coming awake, and that during deep 
 sleep the mind is totally inactive. This 
 is denied by the majority of pliilosophers, 
 and with apparent reason. 
 
 DREDGING, a term applied to the 
 operation of removing mud, silt, and 
 
 miles. Drenthe is remarkable for the 
 great number of so-called “giants” 
 graves’ or barrows scattered over th/e 
 country. Its capital is Assen. Pop. 
 125,792. 
 
 DRES'DEN, the capital of the king- 
 dom of Saxony, is situated in a beautiful 
 valley on both sides of the river Elbe, 
 which is here spanned by three stone 
 
DRESDEN CHINA 
 
 DROMEDARY 
 
 bridges. It is first mentioned in history 
 in 1206, and has been the residence of 
 the sovereigns since 1485; was greatly 
 extended and embellished by Augustus 
 the Strong (1694-1736), and rapidly in- 
 creased duing the 19th century. Among 
 the chief edifices besides several of the 
 churches are the Museum (joined on to 
 an older range of buildings called the 
 Zwnger), a beautiful building contain- 
 ing a famous picture-gallery and other 
 treasures; the Japanese Palace (Augus- 
 teum), containing the royal library of 
 from 300,000 to 400,000 volumes, beside 
 a rich collection of manuscripts; the 
 Johanneum, containing the collection of 
 porcelain and the historical museum, a 
 valuable collection of arms, armor, 
 domestic utensils, etc., belonging to the 
 middle ages. The city is distinguished 
 for its excellent educational, literary, 
 and artistic institutions, among which 
 are the Polytechnic School, much on the 
 plan and scale of a university; the Con- 
 servatory and School of Music; the Acad- 
 emy of Fine Aids, etc. The chief glory 
 of Dresden is the gallery of pictures, one 
 of the finest in the world, which first be- 
 came of importance under Augustus II., 
 king of Poland and elector of Saxony, 
 but owes its most valuable treasures to 
 Augustus III., who purchased the greater 
 portion of the gallery of the Duke of 
 Modena. The pictures number about 
 25,000, and in particular comprise many 
 fine specimens of the Italian, Dutch, and 
 Flemish schools. Besides this fine col- 
 lection the museum contains also en- 
 gravings and drawings amounting to up- 
 ward of 350,000. There is here also a 
 rich collection of casts exemplifying the 
 progress of sculpture from the earliest 
 times, and including copies of all the 
 most important antiques . Pop. (1900), 
 395,349. 
 
 DRESDEN CHINA, a delicate, semi- 
 transparent, highly-finished china made 
 at Meissen, near Dresden. The manu- 
 facture resulted from an accidental dis- 
 covery made by Bottger, a young 
 chemist, in 1710, and the vases, 
 statuettes, groups of figures, candelabra, 
 clocks, etc., manufactured during the 
 18th century are highly prized. They 
 are more remarkable for excellence of 
 execution than for puiltj'’ of design. 
 
 DREW, Daniel, an American capital- 
 ist, born in New York in 1788, died in 
 1879. He was one of the most impor- 
 tant of the earlier railroad builders and 
 developers and was at one time asso- 
 ciated with Cornelius Vanderbilt. 
 
 DREW, John, an American actor, 
 born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1825, died in 
 1862. He was well known in his day as 
 a clever comedian. 
 
 DREW, John, an American actor, son 
 of John Drew, born in 1853. About 
 1879 he became the leading man with 
 Daly’s company, and in 1892 he ap- 
 peared as a star. Drew has a wide range 
 of comedy power from Petruchio, in the 
 Taming of the Shrew, to Richard Carvel. 
 He is one of the most popular of Ameri- 
 can actors. 
 
 DREW THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, 
 
 a Methodist Episcopal theological school 
 founded in 1866 at Madison, N. J., by 
 donations . from Daniel Drew. The 
 property of the seminary amounts to 
 $1,170,000, and the library contains 
 
 73,000 volumes. No tuition fees are 
 charged. 
 
 DREXEL INSTITUTE of Art, Science, 
 and Industry, an institution founded by 
 Anthony Drexel at Philadelphia in 1891. 
 The buildings and endowments aggre- 
 gate $6,000,000, technical courses are 
 given, and there is a registration of per- 
 haps 5,000 students. The library con- 
 tains 30,000 volumes, and the institute 
 conducts extension lectures and courses 
 of great utility. 
 
 DREYFUS, Alfred, a French officer of 
 artillery, who was convicted of treason 
 in 1894, stripped of his uniform and ban- 
 ished to the He du Diable off the coast 
 of Guiana. During his imprisonment his 
 friends unearthed the conspiracy which 
 caused his conviction, and Dreyfus was 
 recalled, re-tried and fully acquitted. 
 His rank and uniform were returned to 
 him'; he was made an officer of the 
 Legion of Honor and other honors were 
 done him, one especially being worthy 
 of mention, that of placing the body of 
 Emile Zola in the Pantheon because he 
 had defended the honor of Dreyfus. 
 Although the case made a great stir its 
 chief interest (aside from the sufferings 
 of the victim) hinges on the stupidity of 
 the French courts and the hatred of the 
 French for Jews. 
 
 DRIFT. in geology, a term applied to 
 earth and rocks which have been con- 
 veyed by icebergs or glaciers and de- 
 posited over the surface of a country; 
 variously called Diluvium, Diluvial, 
 Glacial, or Northern Drift, Boulder 
 Formation, etc. Geologists now often 
 use instead of Drift the terms stratified 
 or unstratified Boulder Clay, which were 
 not formerly recognized as distinct 
 formations. 
 
 DRIFT, in mining, the course or direc- 
 tion of a tunnel or gallery; or a passage 
 between two mine shafts. 
 
 DRIFT SAND, sand thrown up by the 
 waves of the sea, and blown when dry 
 some distance inland until arrested by 
 large stones, tree roots, or other ob- 
 stacles, round which it gradually accu- 
 mulates until the heaps attain consider- 
 able dimensions, often forming dunes 
 or sand-hills. 
 
 DRILL, a tool used for boring holes in 
 wood, metal, stone, ivory, etc. It con- 
 sists of a sharp chisel to which a circular 
 motion is communicated by various con- 
 trivances. For drilling iron, steel, etc., 
 a lathe driven by steam is generally used, 
 the drill being fixed into a chuck and the 
 work pressed against it as it revolves. 
 For rock-boring the diamond rock-drill, 
 an instrument with cutting edges made 
 of boart or black diamond, is now gen- 
 erally adopted. See Boring. 
 
 DRILL, a fine linen texture of a satiny 
 finish, used for gentlemen’s summer 
 dresses. Plain drills are worked with 
 five shafts, fancy patterns with eight. 
 
 DRILL, the course of instruction in 
 which a soldier or sailor is taught the use 
 of arms and the practice of military and 
 naval evolutions. 
 
 DRILL, a species of baboon, of a 
 smaller size and less fierce disposition 
 than the mandrill, and like it a native of 
 the coast of Guinea. The face and ears 
 are bare and of a glossy black color, the 
 palms of the hands and soles of the feet 
 
 are also naked and of a deep copper 
 color. 
 
 DRILLING, the plan of sowing in 
 parallel rows as distinguished from sow- 
 ing broadcast. The crops which are now 
 generally drilled are turnips, potatoes, 
 beans, pease, carrots, clover, cereals, 
 flax, etc. The first form of drill was of 
 very simple construction, and was only 
 adapted for sowing one row at a time, 
 but now a great variety of improved im- 
 plements are in use. 
 
 DRINK. See Dietetics. 
 
 DRINKING FOUNTAIN, an erection, 
 often ornate and artistic, on or near a 
 public thoroughfare or place of resort, 
 for supplying people, and sometimes also 
 horses, dogs, etc., with water to quench 
 their thirst, 
 
 DRIPSTONE, a projecting tablet or 
 molding over the head of a doorway, 
 window, archway, or niche to throw off 
 the rain. It is also called a weather 
 
 Dripstone, Westminster Abbey. 
 
 molding, and label when it is turned 
 square. It is of various forms; some- 
 times a head is used as a termination or 
 support, at others an ornament or simple 
 molding is adopted. 
 
 DRIVING-WHEEL, in machinery, a 
 wheel that communicates motion to an- 
 other or others; in railway locomotives 
 the large wheel which is fixed upon the 
 crank-axle or main shaft. 
 
 DROME, a southeast department of 
 France, covered almost throughout by 
 ramifications of the Alps, the average 
 height of which, however, does not ex- 
 ceed 4000 feet; area, 2508 sq. miles. 
 Valence is the capital. Pop. 314,615 
 
 DROMEDARY, the Arabian and Af- 
 rican camel, difierent from the Bactrian 
 camel in having only one hump on the 
 back. It has also more slenderness and 
 symmetry of form. Its usnal pace is a 
 
 Dromedary, or Arabian camel. 
 
 trot, which it often maintains for manj'- 
 hours together at the rate of 9 miles an 
 hour. The dromedary surpasses other 
 camels in speed, and can travel several 
 several days without drink. It is ex- 
 tensively used as a beast of burden in 
 Africa and Arabia. 
 
DROPSY 
 
 DRUM 
 
 DROPSY, a disease which consists in 
 the collection of serous or watery fluid 
 in the cellular tissue, or in different 
 cavities of the body. It receives dif- 
 ferent appellations according to the par- 
 ticular situation of the fluid. When it is 
 diffused through the cellular tissue, 
 either generally or partially, it is called 
 anasarca; when it is deposited in the 
 cavity of the cranium it is called hydro- 
 cephalus; when in the chest, hydro- 
 thorax, or hydrops pectoris; when in the 
 abdomen, ascites; in the uterus, hydro- 
 metra; within the scrotum, hydrocele; 
 and within the ovary, ovarian dropsy. 
 Obstructive organic disease of the heart 
 and degenerative diseases of the kidneys 
 are the most common causes of general 
 dropsy. The treatment often includes 
 removal of the fluid from the cavities 
 containing it by tapping or puncturing; 
 otherwise drugs which stimulate excre- 
 tion by the skin, bowels, and kidneys are 
 employed, but all remedies frequently 
 prove ineffectual. 
 
 DROSKY, a kind of light, four- 
 wheeled carriage used by the Russians. 
 It is not covered, and in the middle there 
 rises a sort of bench placed lengthwise 
 on which the passengers ride as on a 
 saddle; but the name is now applied to 
 various kinds of vehicles, as to the 
 common cabs plying in the streets of 
 German cities, etc. 
 
 DROWNING means death by the air 
 being prevented entering the lungs 
 owing to the mouth and nostrils being 
 immersed in a liquid, the liquid being 
 commonly water. Death may, there- 
 fore, occur by drowning in a small 
 
 lungs. When death has been caused 
 by drowning, the skin presents the ap- 
 pearance called goose-skin (cutis an- 
 serina), the face and surface of the body 
 generally are usually pale, a frothy 
 liquid is found in the lungs and air- 
 passages, and about the bps and nos- 
 trils; water may be found in the stomach 
 and clenched fingers, holding substances 
 grasped at, may serve to show that a 
 struggle had taken place in the water 
 and that the body was ahve at the time 
 of immersion. Complete insensibihty 
 arises, it is probable, in from one to two 
 minutes after submersion, recovery, 
 however, being still possible, and death 
 occurs in from two to five minutes. So 
 long as the heart continues to beat, 
 recovery is possible; after it has ceased 
 it is impossible. Newly born children 
 and young puppies stand submersion 
 longer than the fully grown. 
 
 Remedies: Pull the body up on to 
 dry ground. Send immediately for med- 
 ical assistance, warm blankets, dry 
 clothing, brandy and hot water, if any 
 one is at hand to send. No delay must 
 be permitted, however, in treating the 
 person, so that if only one person is 
 on the spot, he must begin to treat 
 the person instantly, without seeking 
 assistance. Remove all clothing from 
 the neck and chest. Fold the article 
 of dress removed so as to make a firm 
 pillow, which is to be placed under the 
 shoulders, so that the upper part of 
 the body is slightly raised and the 
 head slightly thrown back. Cleanse 
 the mouth and nostrils, open the mouth 
 and pull forward the tongue. If natural 
 
 Howard’s method for restoring the apparently drowned. 
 
 quantity of water. Thus a child may 
 fall head downwards into a tub and be 
 drowned, though the tub is not half full 
 of water, sufficient to cover the mouth 
 and nostrils being all that is necessary 
 and a man overcome by a fit or by 
 drunkenness may fall on a road with his 
 head in a ditch or pool of water, and 
 thus meet death. Death is thus due to 
 suffocation, to the stoppage of breathing 
 and to the entrance of water into the 
 
 efforts to breathe are made, try to stimu- 
 late them by brisk rubbing of the sides 
 of the chest and of the face. If no effort 
 to breathe is made, proceed to produce 
 the entrance and outflow of air from the 
 lungs bj’ Sylvester’s or Howard’s method. 
 
 Sylvester’s method: Stand or kneel 
 behind the person’s head, grasp each 
 arm at the elbow, draw both arms simul- 
 taneously upward till they are extended 
 in line with the body^ as a man places 
 
 them when he stretches himself. Let 
 this movement occupy about 2 seconds. 
 This enlarges the chest and causes the 
 entrance of air to the lungs. Without a 
 pause carry the arms down to the sides, 
 making them overlap the chest a little, 
 and firmly press them on the chest. 
 This mov^ent should occupy another 
 2 seconds. It expels air from the lungs. 
 Repeat the movements, and maintain 
 them steadily and patiently at the rate 
 of 15 times a minute, until breathing 
 has been fully restored, or until medicm 
 aid arives, or until death is certain. An 
 hour is not too long time to persist, and 
 so long as there seems at least effort to 
 breathe the efforts must be persevered 
 in. 
 
 Howard’s method : Place the body on 
 its face, with the roll of clothing under 
 the stomach; the head being supported 
 on the hand as shown in Figure 1. Pull 
 the body over the roll of clothing to ex- 
 pel water from the chest. Then turn the 
 body on the back, the shoulders being 
 supported as shown in Fig. 2. Kneel 
 over the body. Place both hands on the 
 lower part of the chest, so that the 
 thumbs hook in under the lowest ribs 
 and the fingers are spread out on the 
 chest. Steadily press forward, raising 
 the ribs, your own body being thus 
 thrown leaning forward. This enlarges 
 the cavity of the chest and causes air to 
 enter. When the ribs have been raised 
 to the utmost extent, with a slight effort 
 push yourself back to the more erect 
 position, allowing the ribs to recoil to 
 their former position. This expels the 
 air. Repeat the process 15 times a min- 
 ute. One person will find it more easy 
 to maintain this method for a prolonged 
 period than Sylvester’s, especially if the 
 patient be big and heavy. 
 
 Meanwhile, if other persons are 
 present they should be occupied rubbing 
 the body and limbs (always upward) 
 with hands or warm flannel, applying 
 hot flannels, bottles, etc., to the limbs, 
 feet, arm-pits, etc. As soon as the 
 person is sufficiently restored to be able 
 to swallow, give small quantities of hot 
 brandy and water, hot wine and water, 
 hot coffee, etc., and use every effort to 
 restore and maintain warmth. 
 
 Drowning was formerly a mode of 
 capital punishment in Europe. The 
 last person executed by drowning in 
 Scotland suffered death in 1611. In 
 Ireland there was an execution by 
 drowning as late as 1777. 
 
 DRUGGET, a coarse kind of woolen 
 felt or cloth, formerly used by the lower 
 classes for purposes of clothing, but now 
 chiefly used as a covering for carpets. 
 
 DRUGS, a general name for any sub- 
 stances, vegetable, animal or mineral, 
 used in the composition or preparation 
 of medicines ; also applied to ingredients 
 used in chemical preparations employed 
 in the arts. 
 
 DRUIDS, the priests of the Celts of 
 Gaul and Britain. According to Julius 
 Caesar they possessed the greatest 
 authority among the Celtic nations. 
 They had some knowledge of geometry, 
 natural philosophy, etc., superintended 
 the affairs of religion and morality, and 
 performed the office of judges. 
 
 DRUM, a musical instrument of per- 
 cussion, of Eastern origin, either cylin- 
 
DRUM-FISH 
 
 DUBLIN 
 
 drical or hemispherical in shape, with 
 the end or ends covered with tightened 
 parchment, which is stretched or slack- 
 ened at pleasure by means of cords with 
 sliding knots or screws. Drums are of 
 three kinds: (1) the long or bass drum 
 played with stuffed-nob drum-sticks, 
 and used only in large orchestras or mili- 
 tary bands; (2) the side-drum, having 
 two heads, the upper one only being 
 played upon by two sticks of wood; 
 (3) the kettle-drum, a hemisphere of 
 brass or copper, the end of which is 
 covered with parchment, always used 
 in pairs, one drum being tuned to the 
 key-note, and the other to the fifth of 
 the key, the compass of the two to- 
 gether being an octave. 
 
 DRUM-FISH, and other species of the 
 same genus, fishes found on the Atlantic 
 coasts of N. America, and so named 
 from the deep drumming sound they 
 make. They often weigh about 20 lbs. 
 
 DRUM-MAJOR, or SERGEANT- 
 DRUMMER, a non-commissioned officer 
 whose duty it is to teach and direct the 
 drummers. He marches at the head of 
 the band carrying the regimental baton. 
 
 DRUMMOND, Prof. Henry, was born 
 at Stirling in 1851, and educated at the 
 universities of Edinburgh and Tubingen. 
 He died in 1897. He traveled much, and 
 wrote a popular book on Tropical Africa 
 (1888). His most remarkable work is 
 Natural Law in the Spiritual World 
 (1883), which has passed through many 
 editions and been translated into various 
 languages. He is author also of Travel 
 Sketches in Our New Protectorate; 
 The Greatest Thing in the World; The 
 Ascent of Man (1894), etci 
 
 DRUMMOND, Thom.as, the inventor 
 of the lime-ball light known by his name, 
 was born in Edinburgh in October, 1797, 
 and died at Dublin, April 15, 1840. He 
 invented a heliostat, and first used the 
 light which bears his name about 1825 
 during the survey of Ireland. He subse- 
 quently entered political life, and be- 
 came in 1835 under-secretary for Ire- 
 land, a country which he practically 
 ruled with the utmost success for five 
 years. 
 
 DRUMMOND LIGHT, a very intense 
 light produced by turning two streams of 
 gas, one of oxygen and the other of 
 hydrogen, in a state of ignition upon a 
 ball of lime. This light was proposed by 
 Capt. Drummond to be employed in 
 light-houses. See Lime-light. 
 
 DRUNKENNESS, the state of being 
 drunk or overpowered by alcoholic 
 liquor, or the habit of indulging in intoxi- 
 cation. A similar condition may be pro- 
 duced by numerous agents, but the term 
 is always applied to the act or habit of 
 drinking alcoholics to excess. Drunken- 
 ness is no excuse for any crime, but it 
 renders a contract invalid if either of the 
 parties was in a state of complete drunk- 
 enness when the contract was signed. 
 
 DRUSUS, the name of several dis- 
 tinguished Romans, among whom were: 
 — Marcus Livius, orator and politician; 
 became tribune of the people in 122 b.c. 
 He opposed the policy of Caius Gracchus, 
 and became popular by planting colo- 
 nies. — Marcus Livius, son of the above, 
 was early a strong champion of the 
 senate or aristocratic party, but showed 
 great skill in manipulating the mob. 
 P. E.— 25 
 
 He rose to be tribune of the people, and 
 was assassinated n.c. 91. — Nero Clau- 
 dius, brother of the Emperor Tiberius, 
 born B.c. 38. By a series of brilliant 
 campaigns he extended the Roman 
 empire to the German Ocean and the 
 river Elbe, and was hence called Ger- 
 manicus. By his wife Antonia, daughter 
 of Mark Antony, he had a daughter, 
 Livia, and two sons, Germanicus and 
 Claudius, the latter of whom afterward 
 became emperor. He died in b.c. 9. 
 
 DRY'ADS, wood nymphs, in the Greek 
 mythology; supposed to be the tutelar 
 deities of trees. Each particular tree or 
 wood was the habitation of its own 
 special dryad. 
 
 DRY'DEN, John, English poet, was 
 born near Aldwinkle, Northampton- 
 shire, in 1631, and went to Trinity Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, being here elected to a 
 scholarship. After leaving the university 
 he went to London, and on the death of 
 
 John Dryden. 
 
 the Protector he wrote his Heroic Stan- 
 zas on that event. In 1661 he produced 
 his first play. The Duke of Guise. This 
 was followed by The Indian Queen, a 
 tragedy, and The Indian Emperor, 
 which at once raised Dryden to the 
 highest pitch of public estimation, an 
 elevation which he retained till his death. 
 He published a translation of Juvenal, 
 and one of Persius. About a third part 
 of Juvenal was translated by Dryden, 
 who wrote an essay on satire which was 
 prefixed to the whole. His poetic trans- 
 lation of Virgil appeared in 1697, and, 
 soon after, that masterpiece of Bwic 
 poetry, Alexander’s Feast, his Fables, 
 etc. He died May 1st, 1700, in the 
 sixty-ninth year of his age, and was 
 buried in Westminster Abbey. Dryden 
 is unequalled as a satirist among Eng- 
 lish poets, and the best of his tragedies 
 are unsurpassed by any since written. 
 His poetry as a whole is more remark- 
 able for vigor and energy than beauty, 
 but he did much to improve English 
 verse. He was also an admirable prose 
 writer. Personally he was modest and 
 kindly. 
 
 DRYING-MACHINE, a machine used 
 in bleaching, dyeing, and laundry 
 establishments, consisting of two con- 
 centric drums or cylinders, one within 
 the other, open at the top, and having 
 the inner cylinder perforated at its side 
 with numerous small holes. The goods 
 to be dried are placed within the inner 
 cylinder, and the machine is then made 
 to rotate with great velocity, when, by 
 
 the action of centrifugal forc«r,' the watjur 
 escapes through the holes in the side. 
 The action of the drying-machine is 
 the same in principle as that witnessed 
 when a person trundles a mop to dry it. 
 
 DRYING-OIL, the name given to lin- 
 seed and other oils which have been 
 heated with oxide of lead; they are the 
 bases of many paints and varnishes. 
 When exposed to the air they absorb 
 oxygen, and are converted into a trans- 
 parent, tough, dry mass or varnish. 
 
 DRY-POINT, a sharp-pointed instru- 
 ment used by engravers to incise fine 
 lines in copper without the plate being 
 covered with etching-ground or the lines 
 bit in .by acid. This tool is much em- 
 ployed in working the more’ delicate 
 portions of plates produced as etchings. 
 
 DRY-ROT, a well-known disease af- 
 fecting timber, occasioned by various 
 species of fungi, the mycelium of which 
 penetrates the timber, destroying''it. 
 
 DUAL, in grammar, that number 
 which is used, in some languages, to 
 designate two things, whilst another 
 number (the plural) exists to express 
 many. The Greek, Sanskrit, and Gothic 
 of ancient languages, and the LiUmanian 
 and Arabic of modern, possess forms of 
 the verb and noun in which two persons 
 or things are denoted, called the dual 
 numbers. 
 
 DUBAR'RY, Marie Jeanne, Comtesse, 
 mistress of Louis XV., was born at 
 Vaucouleurs 1746. She came young to 
 Paris, entered on an immoral course, 
 and was presented to the king in 1769, 
 who had her married for form’s sake to 
 the Count du Barry. She exercised a 
 powerful influence at court, and with 
 some of her confidants completely ruled 
 the king. Important offices and priv- 
 ileges were in her gift, and the courtiers 
 abased themselves befoi'e her. After 
 the death of Louis she was dismissed 
 from court and sent to live in a convent 
 near Meaux. She received a pension 
 from Louis XVI. During the reign of 
 terror she was arrested as a royalist and 
 executed, Nov. 1793. 
 
 DUB'LIN, the metropolis of Ireland, 
 is situated in co. Dublin, on the east 
 coast of the island, at the mouth of the 
 Liffey, the banks of which for more than 
 two miles from the sea are lined with 
 quays. The river, which divides the 
 city into two unequal parts, is crossed by 
 numerous bridges. The principal public 
 secular buildings are the Castle, the 
 official residence of the viceroy; the 
 Bank of Ireland, formerly the Irish 
 parliament house; Trinity College; the 
 courts of justice ; the custom-house ; the 
 King’s Inns; the post-office; rotunda; 
 corn exchange; commercial buildings; 
 the mansion house; city hall or corpora- 
 tion buildings; etc. The most impor- 
 tant literary and scientific institutions 
 are Trinity College (Dublin University); 
 the Royal Univerfsity; the Royal Col- 
 lege of Science; the Roman Catholic 
 University; the College of Surgeons; 
 the Royal Dublin Society; the Royal 
 Hibernian Academy of Painting, Sculp- 
 ture and Architecture; the Royal Irish 
 Academy for Promoting the Study of 
 Science, Literature, and Antiquities; 
 the Archaeological Society; the Royal 
 Zoological Society; etc. Dublin con- 
 tains two Protestant Episcopal cathe- 
 
DUBLIN 
 
 DUCTILITY 
 
 drals — St. Patrick’s Cathedral, erected 
 in 1190, and thoroughly restored be- 
 tween 1860 and 1865; and Christ’s 
 Church, built in 1038 and also recently 
 restored, both restorations being carried 
 on by private munificence. The Roman 
 Catholic Cathedral is a very large edifice. 
 A little northwest of the city, up the 
 Liffey, is the Phoenix Park, with an area 
 of 1759 acres. In it are the Viceregal 
 Lodge, the residence of the Lord Lieu- 
 
 The scholarships are tenable for five 
 years, or till the degree of M.A. is 
 attained. The course of general in- 
 struction extends over four years. The 
 college possesses a library of about 
 200,000 printed volumes and 1700 
 manuscripts. It has also a botanic 
 garden and museum. 
 
 DUBUQUE (du-buk'), a city in Iowa, 
 on the right bank of the Mississippi. It 
 occupies an important commerical posi- 
 
 Sackville street, Dublin, showing the O 
 the Nelson 
 
 tenant; the chief secretary’s and under 
 secretary’s official residences; the Royal 
 Hibernian Military School, and the 
 depot of the Royal Irish Constabulary; 
 as also the gardens of the Royal Zoo- 
 logical Society. The manufactures 
 carried on are of little note: poplins, for 
 which Dublin has been long celebrated, 
 are still in some request, and brewing 
 and distilling are largely carried on. 
 Pop. 289,108. — The county, which is in 
 the province of Leinster, on the east 
 coast of the island, has an area of 226,- 
 895 acres, or 354 square miles, about a 
 third of it under crops of various kinds, 
 chiefly grass and clover. Pop. 447,266. 
 
 DUBLIN, University of, an institution 
 founded in 1591, when a charter, or 
 letters-patent, was grantd by Queen 
 Elizabeth for the incorporation of the 
 “College of the Holy and Undivided 
 Trinity,’’ the University and Trinity 
 College being practically the same. The 
 corporation now consists of a provost, 
 seven senior fellows, twenty-six junior 
 fellows, and seventy foundation scholars. 
 The senate of the university consists of 
 “the chancellor of the university, or, 
 in his absence, of the vice-chancellor, 
 and such doctors or masters of the uni- 
 versity as shall have and keep their 
 names on the books of Trinity College.’’ 
 The senate possesses the right of electing 
 the chancellor of the university; it is 
 also the body which grants degrees. 
 The fellows are appointed for life, after 
 an examination. The scholars are 
 chosen from among the under-graduates, 
 after an examination in mathematics 
 and logic, or in Greek, Latin, and logic. 
 
 Connell monument, the post office, and 
 monument. 
 
 tion as a railway center and entrepot for 
 the agricultural and mineral products of 
 the northern half of Iowa, and the tim- 
 ber of Wisconsin, and also from the 
 valuable lead-mines in its vicinity. Pop. 
 1909, 50,000. 
 
 DU CHAILLU (du-sha-yii), Paul Bel- 
 loni, traveler, born in Paris, 1835. He 
 spent his youth in the French settlement 
 at the Gaboon, on the west coast of 
 Africa, where his father was a merchant. 
 In 1852 he came to the U. States, of 
 which he afterward became a natural- 
 ized citizen. In 1855 he began his first 
 journey through western Africa, and 
 spent till 1859 alone among the different 
 tribes, traveling on foot upward of 
 8000 miles. He collected several gorillas 
 never before hunted, and rarely, if ever, 
 before seen by any European. The re- 
 sult of this journey was published in 
 1861. A second expedition was made in 
 1863, an account of which, under the 
 title A Journey to Ashango Land, ap- 
 peared in 1867. The Land of the Mid- 
 night Sun, an account of a tour in 
 northern Europe (1881), had a consider- 
 able success. He died in 1903. 
 
 DUCK, the name common to all the 
 web-footed birds constituting the land- 
 ducks and sea-ducks. The ducks are 
 very numerous as species, and are met 
 with all over the world. They are often 
 migratory, going northward in summer 
 to their breeding-places. Their food is 
 partly vegetable, partly animal. The 
 common mallard or wild-duck is the 
 original of the domestic duck. In its, 
 wild state the male is characterized by 
 the deep green of the plumage of the 
 
 head and neck, by a white collar separat- 
 ing the green from the dark chestnut of 
 the lower part of the neck, and by hav- 
 ing the four middle feathers of the tail 
 recurved. The wild-duck is taken in 
 large quantities by decoys and other 
 means. Some tame ducks have nearly 
 the same plumage as the wild ones; 
 others vary greatly, being generally 
 duller or pure white, but all the males 
 have the four recurved tail-feathers. 
 There are several favorite varieties of 
 the domestic duck, those of Normandy 
 and Picardy in France, and the Ayles- 
 bury ducks in England, being remark- 
 able for their great size and delicacy of 
 flesh. The musk-duck, erroneously 
 called Muscovy duck, a native of south 
 America, is the largest of the duck kind, 
 and approaches nearly to the size of a 
 goose. The canvas-back duck is peculiar 
 to America, and is celebrated for the ex- 
 cellence of its flesh. Other species of 
 ducks are the shoveler, remarkable for 
 the strange form of its bill; the gadwall, 
 which is more rare in America than in 
 Europe; the pintail or sprigtail, remark- 
 able for the form of its tail, abundant in 
 both hemispheres; the black or dusky 
 duck, peculiar to America, and very 
 abundant; the summer or wood duck, 
 remarkable for its great beauty, and for 
 its migrations being directly opposed to 4 
 those of the other species; the teal; the j 
 eider-duck, so well known for its valu- j 
 able down; the scoter; the pochard or J 
 red-head; the scaup-duck or blue-bill; I 
 the long-tailed duck; the harlequin-duck 
 all found on both continents. j 
 
 DUCK, a species of coarse cloth made 
 of flax, lighter and finer than canvas. * 
 DUCKING-STOOL, a stool or chair in 
 which common scolds were formerly tied 
 and plunged into water. They were of : 
 different forms, but that most common- : 
 ly in use consisted of an upright post 
 and a transverse movable beam on i 
 which the seat was fitted or from which 
 it was suspended by a chain. The duck- ■ 
 ing-stool is mentioned in the Doomsday • 
 survey : it was extensively in use through- 
 out the country from the 15th till the 
 beginning of the 18th century, and in 
 one rare case at least — at Leominster — 
 was used as recently as 1809. 
 
 DUCKWEED, the popular name of 
 several species of plants growing in 
 ditches and shallow water, floating on 
 the surface, and serving for food for ■ 
 ducks and geese. Five species are known i( 
 in Britain, and others are common in ,, 
 America. They consist of small fronds 
 bearing naked unisexual flowers. , 
 
 DUCTILTTY, the property of solid 
 bodies, particularly metals, which ren- * 
 ders them capable of being extended by j 
 drawing, while their thickness or dia- ' 
 meter is diminished, without any actual J 
 fraction or separation of their parts. 'B 
 On this property the wire-drawing of ■ 
 metals depends. The following is nearly jB 
 the order of ductility of the metals wiiich M 
 possess the property in the highest de- J 
 gree, that of the first mentioned being 
 the greatest: gold, silver, platinum, iron, ' 
 copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, palladium, H 
 cadmium. Dr. Wallaston succeeded inS 
 obtaining a wire of platinum only 9 
 
 of an inch in diameter. The ductility of ■ 
 glass at high temperatures seems to befl 
 unlimited, while its flexibility increases^ 
 
DUDEVANT 
 
 DULCIMER 
 
 in proportion to the fineness to which its 
 threads are drawn. 
 
 DUDEVANT (dud-van), Armantine- 
 Lucile-Aurore Dupin, Madame, better 
 known by the non de plume of George 
 Sand, one of the greatest of French 
 novelists, born 1804, died 1876. In 1822 
 she married Baron Dudevant, to whom 
 she bore a son and a daughter; but in 
 1831 separated from him, and took up 
 her residence in Paris. In conjunction 
 with Jules Sandeau, a young lawyer, she 
 wrote Rose et Blanche, which was pub- 
 lished in 1831, with the pseudonym Jules 
 Sand. The reception it met with 
 afforded her an opportunity of publish- 
 ing a novel solely by herself — Indiana, 
 under the name of George Sand, which 
 she ever after retained. Indiana had a 
 brilliant success, but excited much 
 criticism by its extreme views on social 
 questions. This was also the case with 
 many others of her works. She visited 
 Italy with Alfred de Musset; and lived 
 eight years with Frdd^ric-Fran^ois 
 Chopin, the composer. These relations 
 also influenced or occasioned some of 
 her works (as Elle et Lui, 1858). In 1836 
 she obtained a judicial separation from 
 her husband, with the care of her chil- 
 dren. _ She took an active interest in the 
 revolution of 1848, and contributed con- 
 siderably to newspaper and other politi- 
 cal literature. In 1854 she published 
 Histoire de Ma Vie, a psychological 
 autobiography. Her published works 
 consist of upward of sixty separate 
 novels, a large number of plays, and 
 numerous articles in literary journals. 
 
 DUE BILL, a brief acknowledgment 
 of indebtedness, generally taking the 
 form of the familiar “I. O. U” (I owe 
 you). It is not a negotiable instrument, 
 it does not promise to pay, but it is 
 legally assignable by the payee. 
 
 DUEL, a premeditated and prear- 
 arranged combat between two persons 
 with deadly weapons, for the purpose of 
 deciding some private difference or quar- 
 rel. The combat generally takes place in 
 the presence of witnesses called seconds, 
 who make arrangements as to the mode 
 of fighting, place the weapons in the 
 hands of the combatants, and see that 
 the laws they have laid down are carried 
 out. Upon every insult or injury which 
 seemed to touch his honor, a gentleman 
 thought himself entitled to draw his 
 sword, and to call on his adversary to 
 give him satisfaction, and it is calculated 
 that 6000 persons fell in duels during 
 ten years of the reign of Henry IV. His 
 minister. Sully, remonstrated against 
 the practice’ but the king connived at it, 
 supposing that it tended to maintain a 
 military spirit among his people. In 
 1602, however, he issued a decree against 
 it, and declared it to be punishable with 
 death. Many subsequent prohibitions 
 were issued, but they were all powerless 
 to stop the practice. During the mi- 
 nority of Louis XIV. more than 4000 
 nobles are said to have lost their lives in 
 duels. The practice of duelling was in- 
 troduced into England from France in 
 the reign of James I.; but it was never 
 so common as in the latter country. 
 Cromwell was an enemy of the duel, and 
 during the protectorate there was a ces- 
 sation of the practice. It came again 
 into vog;ue, however, after the restora- 
 
 tion, thanks chiefly to the French ideas 
 that then inundated the court. As 
 society became more polished duels be- 
 came more frequent, and they were 
 never more numerous than in the reign 
 of George III. In France duelling still 
 prevails to a certain extent; but the 
 combats are usually very bloodless and 
 ridiculous affairs. In the German army 
 it is common, and is recognized by law. 
 The duels of German students, so often 
 spoken of, seldom cause serious blood- 
 shed. In the United States duels 
 are now uncommon. In some of the 
 states the killing of a man in a duel is 
 punishable by death or by forfeiture of 
 political rights, and in a large number 
 the sending of a challenge is a felony. 
 In the army and navy it is forbidden. 
 Among the celebrated duels fought in 
 the U. States were those between Charles 
 Lee and John Laurens, McIntosh and 
 Gwinnett, Cadwallader and Conway, 
 Hamilton and Burr, Dickinson and 
 Jackson, Benton and Lucas, Clinton 
 and Swartout, Randolph and Clay, and 
 Graves and Cilley. 
 
 DUEN'NA, the chief lady-in-waiting 
 on the Queen of Spain. In a more gen- 
 eral sense, an elderly female holding a 
 middle station between a governess and 
 companion, appointed to take charge 
 of the younger female members of 
 Spanish and Portuguese families. 
 
 DUE PROCESS OF LAW, a term used 
 to designate the regular procedure in 
 litigation, prosecution, etc. It is very 
 ancient, having been used in magna 
 charta and also in the constitution of 
 the U. States. 
 
 DUET, a musical composition for two 
 voices or instruments. 
 
 DUFF'ERIN, Frederick Temple Ham- 
 ilton-Blackwood, Marquis of, British 
 statesman, born at Florence 1826. He 
 began his public services in 1855, when 
 he was attached to Earl Russell’s mission 
 to Vienna. Subsequently he was gov- 
 ernor general of Canada and viceroy of 
 India. He died in 1902. Beside being 
 a noted diplomatist he was also a popu- 
 lar author. In 1847 he published Nar- 
 rative of a Journey from Oxford to 
 Skibbereen during the year of the Irish 
 Famine; in 1860, Letters from High 
 Latitudes; also various pamphlets on 
 Irish qnestions. In 1888 he w’as made 
 Marquis of Dufferin and Ava. 
 
 DU'GONG, a herbivorous mammal, 
 belonging to the order Sirenia, which in- 
 cludes the manatees. It is a native of 
 the Indian seas; possesses a tapering 
 
 Dugong. 
 
 body ending in a crescent-shaped fin, 
 and is said sometimes to attain a length 
 of 20 feet, though generally it is about 7 
 or 8 feet in length. The skin is thick and 
 smooth, with a few scattered bristles; 
 the color bluish above and white be- 
 neath. In its osteology it exhibits some 
 
 points of correspondence with the Pachy- 
 dermata. Its food consists of marine 
 plants; it yields little or no oil, but is 
 hunted by the Malays for its flesh, which 
 resembles young beef, and is tender and 
 palatable. 
 
 DU GUECSLIN (du-ga-klan), Ber- 
 trand, Constable of France, born about 
 1314, died 1380. Mainly to him must be 
 attributed the expulsion of the English 
 from Normandy, Guienne, and Poitou. 
 He was captured by Chandos at the 
 battle of Auray in 1364, and ransomed 
 for 100,000 francs. While serving in 
 Spain against Peter the Cruel he was 
 made prisoner by the English Black 
 Prince, but was soon liberated. For 
 his services in Spain he was made Con- 
 stable of Castile, Count of Trastamare, 
 and Duke of Molinas; and in 1370 he was 
 made 'constable of France. 
 
 DUKE, a title belonging originally to 
 a military leader. In Britain it is the 
 highest rank in the peerage, the corres- 
 ponding female title being duchess. 
 Royal Dukes have a special status and 
 precedence. The first hereditary duke 
 in England was the Black Prince, 
 created by his father, Edward III., in 
 1336. The duchy of Cornwall was be- 
 stowed upon him, and was henceforward 
 attached to the eldest son of the king, 
 who is considered a duke by birth. The 
 duchy of Lancaster was soon after con- 
 ferred on Edward’s third son, John of 
 Gaunt, and hence arose the special 
 privileges which these two duchies still 
 in part retain. A duke in the British 
 peerage, not of royal rank, is styled 
 “your grace,” and is “most noble;” his 
 wife is a duchess. The coronet consists 
 of a richly-chased gold circle, having on 
 its upper edge eight golden leaves of a 
 conventional type called strawberry 
 leaves ; the cap of crimson velvet is closed 
 at the top with a gold tassel, lined with 
 sarcenet, and turned up with ermine. 
 (See Coronet.) At various periods and 
 in different continental countries the 
 title duke (Herzog in Germany) has been 
 given to the actual sovereigns of small 
 states. The titles “grand-duke” and 
 “grand-duchess,” “archduke” and “arch- 
 duchess,” are in use also on the Euro- 
 pean continent, the latter to distinguish 
 the princes and princesses of the Aus- 
 trian imperial family. In the Bible the 
 word dukes is used, Gen. xxxvi., for the 
 duces of the vulgate 
 
 DUL'CIMER, one of the most ancient 
 musical instruments, used in almost all 
 parts of the world. The modern instru- 
 ment consists of a shallow trapezium- 
 shaped box without a top, across which 
 
 Italian dulcimer. 
 
 runs a series of wires, tuned by pegs at 
 the sides, and played on by being struck 
 by two cork-headed hammers. It is in 
 much less common use in Europe now 
 than it was a century or two ago, and is 
 interesting chiefly as being the proto- 
 type of the piano. It is still, however, 
 occasionally to be met with on the Con- 
 
DULUTH 
 
 DUNDEE 
 
 tinent at rustic rejoicings, and in Eng- 
 land in the hands of street musicians. 
 The Hebrew psaltery is supposed to 
 have been a variety of the dulcimer. 
 
 DULUTH (du-liithO, capital of St. 
 Louis CO., Minnesota, at the s.w. ex- 
 tremity of Lake Superior. The Northern 
 Pacific and Lake Superior, and Missis- 
 sippi railways terminate here; and ex- 
 tensive docks and other works have been 
 constructed affording a convenient out- 
 let for the surrounding wheat region. 
 1909, 88,000. 
 
 DUMA, name of the Eussian con- 
 sultative national assembly granted to 
 Russia by Czar Nicholas II. Aug. 19. 
 1905. The first and second duma were 
 dismissed for advocating policies op- 
 posed by the government, and in 1908 a 
 third w'as assembled that was sub- 
 servient to the bureaucracy. 
 
 DUMAS (dii-ma), Alexander, French 
 novelist and dramatist, born at Villers- 
 Cotterets 1803. In 1823 he went to 
 Paris, and obtained an assistant-secre- 
 taryship from the Duke of Orleans, 
 afterward Louis Philippe. He soon be- 
 
 Alexander Dumas. 
 
 gan to write for the stage, and in 1829 
 scored his first success with his drama 
 Henry III. It was produced when the 
 battle between the Romanticists and the 
 Classicists was at its height, and hailed 
 as a triumph by the former school The 
 same year appeared his Christine, and 
 in quick succession Antony, Richard 
 d’ Arlington, Teresa, Le Tour de Nesle, 
 Catharine Howard, Mile, de Belle-Isle, 
 etc. Dumas had now become a noted 
 Parisian character. The critics fought 
 over the merits of his pieces, and the 
 scandal-mongers over his prodigality 
 and galanteries. Turning his attention 
 to romance, he produced a series of 
 historical romances, among which may 
 be mentioned, Les Deux Dianes; La 
 Reine Margot ; Les Trois Mousquetaires, 
 with its continuations Vingt Ans Apres, 
 and Vicomte de Bragelonne. His Monte 
 Cristo and several others are also well 
 known to English readers through trans- 
 lations. Several historical works were 
 also written by him. The works wdiich 
 bear liis name ainount to some 1200 
 volumes, including about 60 dramas; 
 but the only claim he could lay to a 
 great number of the productions issued 
 under his name, was that he either 
 sketched the plot or re^'^sed them be- 
 fore going to press. He earned vast 
 sums of money, but his recklessness and 
 e.xtravagance latterly reduced him to 
 the adoption of a shifty, scheming mode 
 of living. In 1860 he accompanied Gari- 
 
 baldi in the expedition which freed 
 Naples from the Bourbons. He died 
 at the residence of his son, at Puys, near 
 Dieppe, in 1870. 
 
 DUMAS, Alexander, son of the above, 
 born 1824; novelist and dramatist. 
 His works treat mostly of the relations 
 between vice and morals. His first 
 novels. La Dame aux Camillas and 
 Diane de Lys, were very successful, as 
 were also the plays which were founded 
 on them. His dramas, which are much 
 superior to his novels, deal satirically 
 with the characters, follies, and manners 
 of French society. He died in 1895. 
 
 DU MAURIER (du-mo'ri-a), George 
 Louis Palmella Busson, artist and writer, 
 was born in Paris 1834. After studying 
 in Belgium and France he returned to 
 London, and soon began to contribute 
 drawings to Punch, Once a Week, Corn 
 hill Magazine, etc. He succeeded Leech 
 on Punch, and became famous chiefly 
 through his drawings for that publica- 
 tion. He also illustrated various books, 
 and wrote Trilby and two other tales. 
 He died in 1896 
 
 DUMB. See Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 DUMBAR'TON, a royal and parlia- 
 mentary burgh and seaport, Scotland, 
 chief town of Dumbarton co., stands on 
 the Leven near it6 junction with the 
 Clyde, 16 miles w.n.w. Glasgow. Ship- 
 building is carried on to a great extent, 
 etc. Pop. 113.870. 
 
 DUMB-BELLS, weights usually in the 
 form of two iron balls connected by a 
 straight piece for holding, used in gym 
 nastic exercises for strengthening the 
 muscles of the arms and chest. 
 
 DUMBNESS. See Deaf and Dumb, 
 
 DUMFRIES (dum-fres'), a river port, 
 railway center, and parliamentary burgh, 
 Scotland, capital of the county of 
 same name, and the chief place in the, 
 south of Scotland. There are iron- 
 foundries, hosiery and tweed factories, 
 tanneries, coach-building works, etc. 
 Dumfries is a place of great antiquity. 
 The church of the Minorites which once 
 stood here was the scene of the murder 
 of the Red Comyn by Bruce in 1306. 
 Burns spent his closing years here, and 
 the street in which he lived now bears 
 his name. His remains rest under a 
 handsome mausoleum, and a statue of 
 him was erected in 1882. Pop. 20,240. — 
 The county abuts on the Solway Firth, 
 havung on its borders the counties of 
 Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, Roxburgh, 
 Ayr, and Kirkcudbright; area, about 
 1100 sq. miles or 702,946 acres, of which 
 about a third are under cultivation. 
 The minerals most abundant are coal, 
 lead, iron, antimony, and gypsum. Coal 
 and lead are ■worked to a small extent. 
 Limestone and freestone abound in 
 various parts. Its principal towns are 
 Dumfries, Annan, Sanquhar, Lockerbie, 
 Moffat, and Lochmaben. Pop. 72,569. 
 
 DUMOURIEZ (du-mo-ri-a), Charles 
 Frangois Duperrier, a French general of 
 great military talent, was born at Cam- 
 brai in 1739, died near Henley-on- 
 Thames 1823. He served as an officer 
 in the Seven Years’ war. In 1778 he 
 was appointed governor of Cherbourg; 
 in 1792 he was minister of foreign affairs. 
 War breaking out between France and 
 Austria he resigned in order to fake 
 command of the army; invaded Flan- 
 
 ders, and defeated the Austrians at 
 Jemappes and conquered Belgium. In- 
 stead of prosecuting the war vigorously 
 he now entered upon measures for the 
 overthrow of the revolutionary govern- 
 ment, issued a proclamation, in which 
 he promised the restoration of the consti- 
 tutional monarchy in the person of the 
 
 General Dumourlez. 
 
 heir to the crown, but was attacked by 
 the Versailles volunteers, and compelled 
 to flee (April 4, 1793). The convention 
 set a price of 300,000 fivres upon his 
 head. At first he retired to Brussels, and 
 after various wanderings found a final 
 refuge in England, where he died in 
 1823. 
 
 DUNABURG (du'na-biirg), or Dvina- 
 burg, a fortified town, Russia, govern- 
 ment of Vitebsk, on the right bank of 
 the Dfina, or D-vina, 112 miles southeast 
 from Riga. It carries on various in- 
 dustries, a considerable trade, and has 
 three yearly fairs. The official name is 
 Dvinsk. Pop. 72,518. 
 
 DUNBAR, Paul Laurence, an Ameri- 
 can negro poet, born in Ohio in 1872 
 died 1906. He published several vol- 
 umes of poetry of considerable merit, 
 among them being Oak and Ivy, Lyrics 
 of Lowly Life, Poems of Cabin and Field, 
 and Lyrics of the Hearth Side, When 
 Melandy Sings, Howdy, Honey, Howdy, 
 etc. Dunbar’s verses were commend- 
 ed by William Dean Howells, to whose 
 encouragement the poet owed much 
 of his perseverance. 
 
 DUNBAR', William, the most eminent 
 of all the old Scottish poets, was born, 
 probably in East Lothian, about 1460- 
 65. On the marriage of James IV. to 
 Margaret of England Dunbar celebrated 
 the event in a poem of great beauty, 
 entitled. The Tliistle and the Rose. He 
 ffied about 1520. 
 
 DUN'CIAD, THE, a celebrated satiri- 
 cal poem by Pope, in which he gibbets 
 his critics and foes. The first three 
 books were published in 1728; the 
 fourth book, or New Dunciad, appeared 
 in 1742, with illustrations by Scriblerus 
 and notes variorum. Cibber was latter- 
 ly substituted for Theobald as the hero; 
 and among others who figured in the 
 satire were 'Ambrose Philips, Black- 
 more, Bentley, Defoe, Dennis, Shadwell, 
 Settle, etc. 
 
 DUNDEE', a city, royal and parlia- 
 mentary burgh, and seaport, Scotland, 
 in the county of Forfar, on the north 
 shore of the Firth of Taj', about 8 miles 
 from the open sea, 37 miles nm.e. of 
 
DUNDONALD 
 
 DUODENUM 
 
 Edinbuirgh. The most conspicuous 
 building IS St. Mary’s Tower, or the Old 
 Steeple as it is popularly called, 156 feet 
 high, erected in the middle of the 14th 
 century, and to which three modern 
 parochial churches have been built in 
 form of a cathedral, the nave, choir, and 
 transept respectively forming a separate 
 church. Among public buildings are: 
 the town-hall, several public halls, the 
 high school, exchange, infirmary, lunatic 
 asylum, Albert Institute and free 
 library, etc. The chief educational 
 institution is the University College, for 
 males and females, whose first session 
 opened in 1883. The town has long been 
 celebrated for its textile manufactures, 
 particularly those of the coarser de- 
 scriptions of linen, and it is now the chief 
 seat of the linen trade in Scotland and 
 of the jute trade in Great Britain, there 
 being a great number of mills and fac- 
 tories engaged in the spinning and weav- 
 ing of flax, jute, and hemp. Ship-build- 
 ing is extensively carried on, and there 
 are large engineering establishments, etc. 
 Population 160,871. 
 
 DUNDON'ALD, Thomas Cochrane, 
 Tenth Earl of, British admiral, was born 
 in Lanarkshire 1775, died 1860. In 1800 
 he was appointed to the Speedy sloop-of- 
 war of fourten guns, and in the course of 
 thirteen months captured over fifty 
 vessels. In 1805, while in command of 
 the Pallas frigate, he took some rich 
 prizes, and for the next four years in the 
 Imperieuse performed remarkable ex- 
 ploits in cutting out vessels, storming 
 batteries, destroying signals, etc. On 
 his return to England he entered parlia- 
 ment, and by his attacks on the abuses 
 of the naval administration made him- 
 self obnoxious to the authorities. In 
 1818 he took service in the Chilian navy, 
 his exploits greatly aiding the national 
 independence of that country, as well 
 as soon after of Brazil. He did much to 
 promote the adoption of steam and the 
 screw propeller in war ships. 
 
 DUNEDIN (dun-e'din), capital of the 
 pro\’incial district of Otago, New Zea- 
 land, and the most important commer- 
 cial town in the colony, stands at the 
 upper extremity of an arm of the sea. 
 
 about 9 miles from its port. Port Chal- 
 mers, with which it is connected by 
 railway. Though founded in 1848, its 
 more rapid progress dates only from 
 1861, when extensive gold-fields dis- 
 covered in Otago attracted a large influx 
 
 of population. Wood is the staple ex- 
 port. There is a regular line of steam- 
 ers between this port and Melbourne and 
 communication is frequent with all ports 
 of New Zealand. Population 52,390. 
 
 DUNES, low hills of sand accumu- 
 lated on the sea-coasts of Holland, 
 Britain, Spain, and other countries, in 
 some places encroaching on and covering 
 what once was cultivated land, but in 
 others serving as a natural barrier to 
 protect the country from the destructive 
 encroachments of the sea. 
 
 DUNGARPUR (don-gar-por'), an In- 
 dian native state in Rajputana; area, 
 1000 sq. miles; pop. 153,381. — Dun- 
 garpur is also the name of the chief town 
 and residence of the Maharawal of the 
 
 DUNG BEETLE, a name applied to a 
 large number of coleopterous insects 
 from their habit of burying their eggs 
 in dung. 
 
 DUNKERS, or TUNKERS, a religious 
 sect in America, founded by Conrad 
 Peysel, a German, in 1724, and which 
 takes its name from the Ger. tunken, to 
 dip, from their mode of baptizing con- 
 verts. They reject infant baptism; use 
 great plainness of dress and language- 
 refuse to take oaths or to fight; and 
 anoint the sick with oil in order to their 
 recovery, depending on this unction 
 and prayer, and rejecting the use of 
 medicine. Every brother is allowed to 
 speak in the congregation, and their best 
 speaker is usually set apart as their 
 minister. Called also Dippers, but by 
 themselves Brethren. 
 
 DUNKIRK, a city, port of entry, and 
 railway center in Chautauqua co., N. Y. ; 
 situated on Lake Erie, 40 miles s.w. of 
 Buffalo. It is the western terminus of 
 the Erie R. R., which connects it with 
 New York city, 459 miles distant, and 
 has a good harbor and an advantageous 
 position for trade. Pop. 13,726. 
 
 DUN'LIN, a British bird, a species of 
 sandpiper, occurring in vast flocks along 
 sandy shores. It is about 8 inches in 
 length from the point of the bill to the 
 extremity of the tail, and its plumage 
 
 Dipper. 
 
 undergoes marked variations in summer 
 and winter, the back passing from black 
 with reddish edges to each feather, to an 
 ashen gray, and the breast from mottled 
 black to pure white. The American 
 red-backed sandpiper is a different 
 variety of dunlin, larger and with a 
 longer or more decurved bill. 
 
 DUNLOP', a parish of Ayrshire, Scot- 
 land, which has given its name to an 
 esteemed variety of cheese. 
 
 DUN'NAGE, faggots, boughs, or loose 
 wood laid in the hold of a ship to raise 
 heavy goods above the bottom to pre- 
 vent injury from water ; also loose articles 
 of lading wedged between parts of the 
 cargo to hold them steady. 
 
 DUNNE, Finley Peter, an American 
 humorist, born at Chicago in 1867, and 
 from 1885 to 1891 engaged as reporter, 
 and later as editor and editorial writer 
 for Chicago newspapers. In 1898 he 
 published his first book of humor, “Mr. 
 Dooley in Peace and War.” Since that 
 time he has published several other 
 volumes, all devoted to the sayings of 
 “Mr. Dooley,” a convenient medium for 
 the propagation of Mr. Dunne’s deep 
 and searching satire on human society 
 and its shams. Mr. Dunne is probably 
 the foremost of American humorists. 
 
 DUNOIS (du-nwa), Jean, Count of 
 Orleans and of Longueville; a French 
 hero, natural son of Louis, duke of 
 Orleans, born 1402, died 1468. Dunois 
 made the name “I3astard of Orleans” 
 illustrious by his military exploits. He 
 began his career with the defeat of War- 
 wick and Suffolk, whom he pursued to 
 Paris. Being besieged by the English he 
 defended Orleans until relieved by the 
 Maid of Orleans. In 1450 he had com- 
 pletely freed France from the English, 
 and was rewarded by the title of “de- 
 liverer of his country,” the county of 
 Longueville, and the dignity of high 
 chamberlain of France. 
 
 DUNS, John, commonly called Duns 
 Scotus, an eminent scholastic divine, 
 born 1265 or 1275, but whether in Eng- 
 land, Scotland, or Ireland is uncertain. 
 In 1304 he went to Paris, and was ap- 
 pointed professor and regent in the theo- 
 logical schools, in which situation he 
 acquired the title of “the subtle doctor.” 
 Duns opposed Thomas Aquinas on the 
 subject of grace and free-will; and hence 
 the Scotists are opposed to the Thomists. 
 Duns was the apostle of realism, which 
 was opposed to the systems of nominal- 
 ism and conceptualism promulgated by 
 the other sections into which the school- 
 men were divided. He died, it is said, 
 at Cologne in 1308, leaving behind him 
 numerous works. 
 
 DUNWOODY, Henry Harrison Chase, 
 an American meteorologist, born in 
 Ohio in 1842. Educated at West Point, 
 he served for a time in the army, espe- 
 cially with the signal service and organ- 
 ized a large number of the weather 
 stations in the U. States. He has pub- 
 lished a number of important papers on 
 meteorological subiects. 
 
 DUODECIMAL SYSTEM, in numera- 
 tion, a system of numbers the scale of 
 which is twelve. Duodecimals is a term 
 applied to an arithmetical method of 
 ascertaining the number of sciuare 
 feet, etc., in a rectangular area or surface 
 whose sides are given in feet, inches and 
 lines. 
 
 DUODEC'IMO (often contracted 
 12mo.) is that form of volume in which 
 each leaf forms a twelfth part of the 
 sheet. 
 
 DUODE'NUM, the commencement of 
 the intestinal canal, the first of the 
 smaller intestines, so called because its 
 length is about twelve fingers’ breadth 
 (Lat. duodeni, by twelves). 
 
DUQUESNE 
 
 DUST COUNTER 
 
 DUQUESNE (d65-kan'), a town in 
 Alleghen}’^ County, Pa., one mile from 
 McKeesport ; on the Monongahela River, 
 and on the Pennsylvania railroad. Its 
 steelworks and blast-furnaces are ex- 
 tensive. Pop. 10,416. 
 
 DURAN'GO, a town in Mexico, capital 
 of the state of Durango, about 500 miles 
 n. w. Mexico, on an elevation 6845 feet 
 above the sea. It is well built, has a 
 cathedral, a mint, manufactures of 
 cotton and woolen goods, leather, etc. 
 Pop. 20,000. — The state (area, 42,530 
 sq. miles) is partly mountainous and un- 
 productive, but has valuable gold, silver, 
 and iron mines, and also fertile tracts. 
 Pop. 196,852. 
 
 DUR'BAN, the chief port of the colony 
 of Natal, S. Africa, on a landlocked bay 
 (Port Natal). Pop. 57,000. 
 
 DURER (dti'rer), Albert, German 
 painter, designer, sculptor, and engraver 
 on wood and metal, born at Nilrnberg 
 1471, died there 1528. In 1505 he went 
 to Venice to improve himself in his art. 
 
 His abilities excited envy and admira- 
 tion. He painted the Martyrdom of 
 Bartholomew for St. Mark’s church, 
 which painting was purchased by the 
 Emperor Rudolph and removed to 
 Prague. He also traveled to Bologna, 
 to improve his knowledge of perspective. 
 On his return to Nurnberg his fame 
 spread far and wide. Maximilian I. ap- 
 pointed him his court-painter, and 
 Charles V. confirmed him in this office. 
 All the artists and learned men of his 
 time honored and loved him, and for 
 many years he was one of the chief 
 burghers of his native town. Profound 
 application and great facility in the 
 mechanical part of his art were the char- 
 acteristics of Durer, and enabled him to 
 exert a great influence on German art. 
 He was the first in Germany who taught 
 the rules of perspective, and of the pro- 
 portions of the human figure. He not 
 only made use of the burin, like his pre- 
 decessors, but was also among the first 
 to practice etching. He invented the 
 method of printing woodcuts with two 
 colors. 
 
 DU'RESS, in law, restraint or com- 
 pulsion, is of two kinds; duress of im- 
 prisonment, which is imprisonment or 
 restraint of personal liberty; and duress 
 by menaces or threats (per minas), 
 when a person is threatened with loss of 
 Hfe, or w'ith some kind of injury. An act 
 done under duress is voidable or ex- 
 cusable. 
 
 DURGA (dur'ga), a Hindu divinity, 
 one of the names given to the consort of 
 
 Siva. She is generally represented with 
 ten arms. In one hand she holds a spear, 
 with which she is piercing Mahisha, the 
 chief of the demons, the killing of whom 
 was her most famous exploit ; in another 
 
 Durga. 
 
 a sword; in a third the hair of the demon 
 chief ; and in others, the trident, discus, 
 ax, club, and shield. A great festival 
 in her honor, the Durga puja, is cele- 
 brated annually, lasting for ten days. 
 
 DURHAM (du'ram), an ancient city 
 and parliamentary borough in England, 
 capital of the county of the same name, 
 on the river Wear, which is crossed here 
 by four bridges, 14 miles s. of Newcastle. 
 The principal public buildings are the 
 ancient castle — now appropriated to the 
 uses of the university — the cathedral, 
 and other churches, the town-hall, 
 county prison, grammar-school, etc. 
 The educational institutions comprise 
 the university, the grammar-school, a 
 training-school for schoolmistresses, and 
 other schools. There are manufactures 
 of carpeting and mustard. The cathe- 
 dral occupies a height overlooking the 
 Wear. The larger portion of it is Nor- 
 man in style, with insertions in all the 
 English syles. Three magnificent and 
 elaborately ornamented towers spring up 
 from the body of the building, one from 
 the center 212 feet high, and two to- 
 gether from the west end each 143 feet 
 high; the entire length is 420 feet. It 
 was founded by William de Carilepho, 
 assisted by Malcolm, king of Scotland, in 
 1093. Pop. 14,641. — Durham Univer- 
 sity was founded in 1832, opened in 1833, 
 incorporated by royal charter in 1837. 
 It is in some relations connected with 
 the bishopric of Durham, the office of 
 warden being annexed to the deanery of 
 Durham, and a canonry in the cathedral 
 being annexed to each of the professors 
 of divinity and classical literature. There 
 are also professors of mathematics, 
 Hebrew, medicine, etc. There are a col- 
 lege of physical science and a college of 
 medicine at Newcastle-on-Tyne in con- 
 nection with the university. — The county 
 is on the n.e. coast of England, having 
 on the e. the German Ocean, on the n. 
 Northumberland, from which it is 
 divided by the rivers Tyne and Derwent, 
 Cumberland on the w., and Yorkshire on 
 the s., the river Tees parting the two 
 counties. Its area is 647,592 acres, of 
 which two-thirds are under cultivation. 
 
 The chief towns besides Durham are 
 Sunderland, Gateshead, S. Shields, 
 Stockton, Darlington, and Hartlepool. 
 Pop. 1,187,324. 
 
 DUROC (dii-rok), Michel Gerard 
 Christophe, Duke of Friuli, a distin- 
 guished general under Bonaparte, was 
 born at Pont-4-Mousson in 1772; killed, 
 1813, at the battle of Bautzen. He 
 served as aide-de-camp to Napoleon in 
 the Italian and E^ptian campaigns. 
 In 1805 he was made grand-marshal of 
 the palace, and was frequently employed 
 in diplomatic missions, though he still 
 took his full share in the wars of France 
 till the time of his death. He was a 
 great favorite of Napoleon, and was 
 killed by his side. 
 
 DURUY (dii-ru-e), Victor, French his- 
 torian and educationalist, borr at Paris 
 1811. He is author of History France, 
 History of Greece, History of the 
 Romans, History of Ancient Greece, and 
 History of the World. He died in 1894. 
 
 DUSE (doo'zay), Eleonora, an Italian 
 actress born in 1859 in Piedmont. Her 
 first great success was at Milan in 1885. 
 In 1892 she appeared at Vienna and in 
 1893 she made her American debut in 
 New York as Camille. Duse has played 
 with great success as Juliet, Magda, 
 Francesca da Rimini and other noted 
 parts. 
 
 DUSSELDORF (dus'sel-dorf), a town 
 of Prussia, in the Rhenish province, 
 beautifully situated among villas and 
 gardens on the right bank of the Rhine, 
 22 miles n.n.w. Cologne, one of the hand- 
 somest towns in the valley of the Rhine. 
 It is a great focus of railway and steam- 
 boat communication, and has a number 
 of handsome public buildings, and 
 several remarkable churches. Among 
 the public institutions particular notice 
 is due to the Academy of Art, founded, 
 1767, by the Elector Theodore. The 
 industries embrace iron, cotton, leather, 
 tobacco, carpets, chemicals, objects of 
 art, etc., and the trade is large. Pop. 
 213,767. 
 
 DUST, very small particles of various 
 kinds of matter, vegetable, animal, and 
 mineral, which fills the atmosphere of 
 the earth, at least near the surface of the 
 earth, and which may be seen in the 
 beams of the sun when passed through 
 a mass of air, as in a room. No local- 
 ities are free from dust. It is found 
 over the surface of the ocean, on the 
 tops of mountains, and in the most se- 
 cluded places. It consists of the pollen 
 of plants, vegetable fibers of many kinds, 
 hairs, and fragments of various kinds, 
 such as metallic salts, iron, etc. There 
 are living organisms in dust wliich are 
 not revealed by the microscope except 
 by special tests, such as their power to 
 propogate. In this way disease germs 
 and moulds of various kinds are scat- 
 tered about, find lodging places in 
 favorable media, and in the bodies of 
 man and animals produce what is called 
 disease. Dust is largely made up of vol- 
 canic matter, finely ground, and of the 
 comminuted meteroites oxized in their 
 swift passage through the air. It is 
 known that dust produces rain and 
 causes moulds. 
 
 DUST-BRAND. See Smut. 
 
 DUST COUNTER, an instrument for 
 counting the particles of dust in the air. 
 
DUST STORMS 
 
 DYNAMICS 
 
 A small volume of air is forced into a 
 receptacle with a glass bottom ruled into 
 very small squares. The air is sud- 
 denly expanded and a fog is formed 
 which, when it settles, carries down the 
 dust. The number of particles per square 
 are counted and a calculation is made by 
 which the number of particles in a cubic 
 centimeter of air can be estimated. The 
 instrument was invented by J ohn Aitken. 
 
 DUST STORMS, extraordinary whirl- 
 winds caused by the rapid rise of the air 
 from the surface of the earth in very hot 
 climates. They are seen in India, the 
 Sahara Desert, and in the western part 
 of the U. States. The vertical motion of 
 the air sucks in the dust from the earth, 
 dead leaves, sticks, and other objects, 
 and carries them sometimes up to the 
 clouds, but ordinarily only 1000 feet 
 above the earth. In hot desert regions 
 several of these whirls are often seen 
 together whirling about a center like 
 dancing pillars of sand. 
 
 DUTCH, the people and language of 
 Holland or the Netherlands. See Neth- 
 erlands. 
 
 DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY, a 
 
 company founded in 1602, which was 
 given a trade monopoly of the Dutch 
 colonies in Java, and the East. It went 
 out of existence in 1795. 
 
 DUTCH EAST INDIES, a term applied 
 to the possessions of Holland in the 
 Malay Peninsula. They include Java, 
 Madura, Sumatra, part of Borneo, and 
 other islands, the total area of which is 
 736,400 miles and the popidation 34,- 
 090,000. The total European popula- 
 tion, numbering not more than 75,000, 
 consists chiefly of Dutch. 
 
 DUTCH GOLD, an alloy of eleven 
 parts of copper and two of zinc. Called 
 also pinchbeck. See also Dutch Metal. 
 
 DUTCH METAL, an alloy containing 
 84’5-84‘7 per cent of copper and 
 15‘5-15'3 per cent of zinc, with a fine 
 golden-yellow color, ductile, malleable, 
 and tenacious. When beaten out by a 
 process analogous to that for gold-leaf, 
 until the sheets are less than ^T^jth part 
 of an inch thick, it constitutes Dutch 
 leaf or Dutch foil, and is used instead of 
 gold-leaf for ornamental purposes. 
 
 DVORAK (dvor-sh k'), Anton, a 
 Bohemian musical composer, born in 
 1841. He studied at the Prague Con- 
 servatoire and at Vienna. He has com- 
 osed several operas on national Bo- 
 emian subjects, a number of songs, 
 orchestral arrangements of Bohemian 
 dances, several symphonies, a Stabat 
 Mater, a cantata The Specter Bride, 
 an oratorio St. Ludmilla. Died 1904. 
 
 DWARF, a term applied to any ani- 
 mal or plant greatly below the usual size 
 of its kind, particularly to a human be- 
 ing of small dimensions. Accounts of 
 dwarf tribes have been common from 
 early times, such tribes being located 
 especially in Africa; and it would ap- 
 ear from the accounts of Du Chaillu, 
 chweinfurth, and other travelers that 
 there are several dwarfish tribes through 
 out this continent. The Obongo, a race 
 of dwarfs, are described as living in 
 woods near the Okanda river, in wretch- 
 ed huts made of branches. Other races 
 are the Mabongo, and the Akka dwarfs 
 of Central Africa; and a race is said to 
 exist in the Congo State, not as a dis- 
 
 tinct community, however, but mixed 
 with other tribes. Individual dwarfs 
 occur in all races, and were formerly a 
 fashionable appendage to the courts of 
 princes and the families of nobles. 
 
 DWARFING, the process of training 
 up trees or shrubs for ornament in houses 
 so as to cause them never to reach more 
 than a very small size, by keeping them 
 in poor soil, giving them little water, 
 pinching off strong shoots, etc. Prac- 
 ticed among the Cliinese and Japanese. 
 
 DWIGHT (dwit), Timothy, American 
 divine, born in Massachusetts 1752, died 
 1817. His father was Colonel Timothy 
 Dwight, and his mother was a daughter 
 of Jonathan Edwards. He served as 
 chaplain in the revoluntionary army, 
 and ultimately became president of Yale 
 College. His Theology (1818) was for 
 long a standard both in Britain and in 
 America. He was also the author of two 
 poems, the Conquest of Canaan and 
 Greenfield Hill, besides numerous unim- 
 portant w'orks, consisting of disserta- 
 tions, occasional sermons, etc. 
 
 DWIGHT, Timothy, an American 
 educator and clergyman, born in Con- 
 necticut in 1828. In 1886 he was elected 
 president of Yale, and resigned in 1899. 
 He has w’ritten a number of valuable 
 commentaries on biblical literature. 
 
 DWIGHT, William Buck, an Ameri- 
 can geologist, born in 1833 at Constanti- 
 nople, where his father was a missionary. 
 He has been professor at Vassar College 
 since 1878 and curator of the museum. 
 He has published several papers on 
 geological subjects. 
 
 DY'AKS, the aborigines of Borneo, 
 chiefly inhabiting the interior of the 
 island. They are a finely-formed race, 
 of a yellow complexion, and are de- 
 scribed as docile, industrious, and su- 
 perior to the Malays. The more ad- 
 vanced of them practice agriculture and 
 dwell in neatly-constnicted and toler- 
 ably comfortable houses. In Sarawak 
 they have made considerable advances 
 in civilization. They are mostly heathen. 
 The practice of head-hunting (hunting 
 their enemies to make trophies of their 
 heads) is practiced among them, but has 
 -been abolished where European in- 
 fluence prevails. See Borneo*. 
 
 DYAS, in geology, a name for the Per- 
 mian system. 
 
 DYCK, Sir Anthony Van. See Van- 
 dyck. 
 
 DYEING is the art of fixing a new and 
 permanent color on textile substances, 
 usually cotton, linen, silk, and wool. 
 Some preliminary operations are neces- 
 sary in order to cleanse the stuff from 
 any foreign matters which would pre- 
 vent the dye having free access to it, as 
 well as to remove any natural coloring 
 which would interfere with the produc- 
 tion of bright clear tints. Cotton and 
 linen fabrics go through a prolonged 
 series of operations in bleaching (which 
 see). Silk is boiled in a solution of fine 
 soap, to remove the fatty matter; and 
 wool is cleansed by scouring in weak 
 soap or soda-lye or weak ammonia. 
 
 The process of dyeing varies much 
 according to the stuff and the coloring 
 matters used. In general animal fibers, 
 like silk and wool, combine more easily 
 with most colors than vegetable fibers 
 
 such as linen and cotton. In the case of 
 the former, for example, a simple im- 
 mersion in aniline dyes is sufficient to 
 produce a fixed color. Such colors are 
 said to be substantive, in relation to the 
 stuffs with which they thus combine. 
 Dyes which will not unite directly with 
 the fibers so as to produce a good and 
 permanent color, are termed adjective. 
 These dyes require the intervention of 
 another agent to fix them on the differ- 
 ent stuffs, and the name of mordant is 
 applied to those substances which are 
 employed to make the stuff to be dyed 
 and the dyeing color combine. Alum, 
 acetate of alumina, chloride of tin, salts 
 of iron, albumen, gluten, tannin, etc., 
 are common mordants. The mordant is 
 generally dissolved in water into 
 which the stuffs to be dyed are plunged. 
 In some cases it is mixed with the color 
 and both are simultaneously applied to 
 the stuff. An important characteristic 
 of mordants is their power of affecting 
 the natural tint of the dye and thus 
 enabling a variety of shades to be pro- 
 duced at small expense. Thus nitrates 
 tend to give a yellow tinge to the colors, 
 alumina deepens and oxide of tin bright- 
 ens the natural tints. A process of dye- 
 ing to which the name of Aero-hydraulic 
 dyeing has been given, consists in for- 
 cing the color through the material by 
 hydraulic pressure. The advantages of 
 the process are that the color is forced 
 equally through any thickness of the 
 stuff, which thus remains bright till 
 completely worn out. 
 
 The dye-stuffs in use at the present 
 day are derived alike from the animal, 
 mineral, and vegetable kingdoms. 
 Among the most notable additions to 
 the list of coloring stuffs within recent 
 years are the aniline dyes of coal-tar 
 origin (see Aniline), which yield a great 
 variety of brilliant colors, such as 
 magenta, mauve, aniline, purple, rose- 
 ine, violine, etc. From coal-tar also the 
 two coloring principles of madder 
 (alizarine and purpurine) have been 
 artificially produced. There are few 
 organic substances which under proper 
 treatment will not yield coloring matter, 
 and of late new coloring matters have 
 been obtained from wood-sawdust, 
 lichens, mosses, paper and cotton waste, 
 bran, starch, sugar, soot, etc. 
 
 DYE-STUFFS. See Dyeing. 
 
 DYING DECLARATION. (See Dec- 
 laration, Dying.) 
 
 DYKE. See Dike. 
 
 DYNAM'ETER, an instrument used 
 for measuring the magnifying power of 
 telescopes. It consists of a small com- 
 pound microscope, with a transparent 
 plate, exactly divided, which is fixed to 
 the tube of a telescope, in order to meas- 
 ure exactly the diameter of the distinct 
 image of the eye-glass. Also same as 
 Dynamometer. 
 
 DYNAMTCS is the science which deals 
 with the laws of force in their relation to 
 matter at rest or in motion, and as such 
 it is differentiated from kinematics, 
 which considers motion mathematically, 
 and apart from the forces producing it. 
 It is to Newton that we owe the clear 
 statement of the three primary laws of 
 force. These are: (1) that every body 
 remains in a state of rest, or of uniform 
 motion along a straight line, unless it is 
 
DYNAMIC THEORY 
 
 DYNAMOMETER 
 
 compelled by force to change that state. 
 
 (2) That change of motion is in propor- 
 tion to the force employed, and occurs 
 along the straight line in which the force 
 acts. This change of motion includes 
 both change of rate and of direction. 
 
 (3) That, as the result of every action, 
 
 there is also and always an equal re- 
 action. These laws, which were formu- 
 lated from experiment, involve the con- 
 ception of force as a primary influence 
 or action expressed in terms of space, 
 time, and matter. Now, in dealing with 
 the laws of force, a standard of measure- 
 ment is required which shall be applica- 
 ble to all forces at all times, and we 
 therefore require to begin by establish- 
 ing units of space, time, and mass. 
 There are two systems of units in use, 
 the one ISritish, the other French. In 
 the British system the foot is taken as 
 the unit of length, and the second as the 
 unit of time. In the French the centi- 
 metre is the unit of length, the second 
 the unit of time; the unit velocity in the 
 one case being that of one foot per sec- 
 ond, in the other one centimetre per 
 second. The British unit of mass is the 
 pound (the mass of a certain lump of 
 platinum deposited in the exchequer 
 office, London) ; the French the gramme ; 
 and accordingly the French units of 
 space, mass, and time are commonly 
 known as the C.G.S. (centimetre, 
 gramme, second) units. As the weight 
 of a pound (or a gramme) is not the 
 same at all parts of the earth’s surface 
 it cannot give us of itself an absolute or 
 dynamical unit of force, that is, an in- 
 variable unit; but taking it in conjunc- 
 tion with unit time and unit velocity, 
 we do obtain such a unit. Two absolute 
 units of force are in common use in 
 dynamics, the poundal and the dyne; 
 the latter being the absolute unit in the 
 C.G.S. system. The former is that force 
 which, acting on the mass of one pound 
 for one second, generates in that mass a 
 velocity of one foot per second. The 
 latter is that force which, acting on the 
 mass of one gramme for one second, 
 generates in that mass a velocity of one 
 centimetre per second. It is important 
 in dynamics to distinguish between mass 
 and weight. The mass of one pound is 
 the quantity of matter equal to a certain 
 standard quantity (a certain lump of 
 metal) and is quite independent of force. 
 The weight of one pound is the force with 
 which the mass of one pound is attracted 
 to the earth’s surface by the force of 
 gravity. Another important term is 
 momentum; the momentum of a body 
 in motion at any instant is the product 
 of the mass of the body and the velocity 
 at that instant. Dynamics is divided 
 into t^TO great branches: statics, which 
 treats of solid bodies at rest under the 
 action of forces; and kinetics, which 
 treats of the action of forces in produ- 
 cing motion in solid bodies. Formerly 
 the alone was called dynamics, 
 
 and to tms, in conjunction with statics, 
 the general name mechanics was given. 
 In the wide sense dynamics includes also 
 hydrostatics. 
 
 DYNAMIC THEORY, a theory ex- 
 planatory of the essential constitution 
 of matter. In the dynamic theory every 
 body is considered as a space filled with 
 ■wntinuous matter; porosity then be- 
 
 comes an accidental quality, but com- 
 pressibility and dilatability essential 
 properties. The state of a body depends 
 entirely on certain attracting and repel- 
 ling forces; and its volume must change 
 with every change in the relative propor- 
 tions of these forces. It is opposed to 
 the atomic theory, which supposes every 
 body to be composed of indivisible and 
 impenetrable particles termed atoms. 
 These are almost infinitely small, with 
 void spaces between them, so that this 
 theory makes porosity essential to 
 matter. 
 
 DY'NAMITE, an explosive substance 
 patented - by A. Nobel in 1867. As 
 originally made it consists of a siliceous 
 earth obtained at Oberlohe in Hanover 
 and known as kieselguhr, impregnated 
 with 75 per cent of nitro-glycerine (see 
 Nitro-glycerine), the object of the mix- 
 ture being to facilitate the carriage and 
 use of the substance by diminishing its 
 susceptibility to explode by shock while 
 not destroying its explosive force. The 
 siliceous matter is of diatomaceous origin ; 
 it is extremely friable and porous, and 
 has a considerable absorbent power. 
 Dynamite thus prepared has the appear- 
 ance of raw sugar. Diatomite, a sub- 
 stance superior to kieselguhr, is now 
 also employed, and various other sub- 
 stances have been used to mix with the 
 nitro-glycerine, such as charcoal, sand, 
 saw-dust, etc. The mixture remains 
 without change for any length of time. 
 
 by means of continuous relative motion 
 between electrical conductors and a 
 magnetic field, or fields, such motion 
 causing the conductors to cut or trav- 
 erse the lines of force of the fields. In 
 an electric motor electrical energy is 
 transformed into mechanical energy by 
 means of continuously supplying a sys- 
 tem of electrical conductors with an 
 electric current, which causes a magnetic 
 force to act between the conductors 
 carrying it and the magnetic field, or 
 fields, thereby producing continuous 
 relative motion between the conductors 
 and the magnetic fields. 
 
 The preceding definitions are general 
 and necessarily technical. To compre- 
 hend them fully a knowledge of the fun- 
 damental principles involved in the 
 operation of dynamo-electric machines 
 is necessary. They may, however, be 
 in a measure elucidated by a descriptive 
 definition as follows : All generators 
 consist essentially of one or more electro- 
 magnets between the poles of which an 
 armature, consisting of a soft iron core 
 wound with coils of insulated copper 
 wire, is made to revolve very rapidly by 
 means of a steam-engine, a water-wheel, 
 or 'other prime mover. In the trans- 
 mission of energy by electricity the cur- 
 rent produced by the generator is made 
 to pass through another machine, 
 similar and often identical in construc- 
 tion, and there causes the armature to 
 revolve, and this revolution may be em- 
 
 unless exposed to water. It burns away 
 quietly if a light is applied to it, but 
 explodes if heated to a high tempera- 
 ture. Usually it is exploded by a 
 specially arranged fulminating cap. 
 Its explosive force is several times that 
 of gunpowder, which it has largely 
 superseded for blasting. 
 
 DYNAMO, an electro-magnetic device 
 for the production of electricity, which 
 serves either as a generator or a motor. 
 For example, the motor of a trolley car 
 is a dynamo in all essentials the same 
 as the dynamo at the power house 
 which generates the current. 
 
 In an electric generator mechanical 
 energy is convertedinto electrical energy 
 
 ployed to do any kind of mechanical 
 work. This second machine, working 
 in reverse order from the first, is an 
 electric motor. This description makes 
 it clear, as do the preceding definitions, 
 that to understand thoroughly the 
 dynamo-electric machine requires a 
 knowledge of three great branches of 
 science — magnetism, electricity, and 
 mechanics. The necessity for this 
 special knowledge makes the subject of 
 dynamo-electric machines a difficult one 
 to discuss in familiar terms. 
 
 
 
 DYNAMOM'ETER, any instrument ; 
 for measuring the relative strength of^ 
 men or animals, or the force of ma-; 
 rihinery. Commonly it consists of 
 
FHE HAPPY HENS OF Hbi 
 
 Ve are g®bappy!”pr°“d' and 
 
 beauty; , j, do our 
 
 Are matrons brave a 
 
 And, bke °tbe^ ® ‘ and the r 
 We rule the roost, ^ackleat 
 
 We’re active birds . 
 
DYSENTERY 
 
 EAGLE 
 
 spiral spring suitably applied. When 
 the pull upon a draft implement, as a 
 plow for instance, is the point to be 
 determined, the dynamometer is made 
 a link in the draft-chain, and the 
 amount of extension or collapse which 
 it suffers indicates the intensity of the 
 strain. 
 
 DYS'ENTERY, a dangerous disorder 
 of the intestines, known by fever; fre- 
 quent griping stools; tenesmus; stools 
 chiefly mucous, sometimes mixed with 
 blood, the natural feces being retained, 
 or voided in small, compact, hard 
 masses; loss of appetite and nausea. It 
 may be occasioned by a sudden check 
 in the perspiration, or the use of un- 
 wholesome and putrid food, or by 
 noxious exhalations and vapors, and it 
 is often the result of a specific con- 
 tagion. When the symptoms run high, 
 produce great loss of strength, and are 
 accompanied with a putrid tendency 
 and a fetid and involuntary discharge, 
 the disease often terminates fatally in a 
 few days. In some cases the febrile state 
 wholly disappears after a time, while 
 the proper dysenteric symptoms may be 
 of long continuance. Hence the dis- 
 tinction into acute and chronic dysen- 
 tery. Saline purgatives, and for severe 
 cases laudanum (20 or 30 drops) or 
 
 Dover’s powder, are useful. The en- 
 demic dysentery of Egypt is a distinct 
 disease caused by the presence of a worm 
 in the intestines. 
 
 DYSMENORRHCE'A, a disease of 
 women, consisting in painful or difficult 
 menstruation, which may be caused in 
 various ways. 
 
 DYSPEP'SIA, difficulty of digestion. 
 The action of the stomach on the food 
 is that usually designated as digestion, 
 and it is the derangement of this process 
 that is usually expressed by the term 
 dyspepsia. This derangement may be 
 caused by disorders of a very various 
 and even opposite character. The sub- 
 acute and chronic forms of gastric irrita- 
 tion and inflammation are the most com- 
 mon forms of dyspepsia, and are often 
 caused by too highly-seasoned or too 
 abundant food and stimulant drinks, or 
 by the improper use of emetics, tonics, 
 or stimulants. Another class of dys- 
 peptic diseases is connected with irrita- 
 tion of the mucous membrane of the 
 duodenum, causing perversion of secre- 
 tions and disorder of functions. A third 
 class of dyspeptic diseases depends on 
 the nerves connected with the digestive 
 viscera. Hence arises an order of dys- 
 peptic symptoms independent of any 
 immediate affection of the stomach. 
 
 Dyspepsia is therefore not a disease of 
 a uniform character, but is rather at- 
 tached as a symptom to a variety of dis- 
 eases. The most common cause of 
 dyspepsia are excesses of various kinds, 
 especially in the quantity of food eaten. 
 Persons of a sedentary life require less 
 nutriment than those of active habits. 
 Exercise and the quantity of food to be 
 digested must be proportioned to each 
 other. The quality of food as well as its 
 quantity has to be considered. Good 
 cookery, which renders the food tender 
 and -pulpy, is one preservative against 
 dyspepsia. Tough and badly-dressed 
 meats, crude vegetables, hot bread and 
 cakes, and the daily use of hot tea or 
 coffee for breakfast, are among the nu- 
 merous causes of this ailment. 
 
 DZOUNGARIA, a Chinese territory in 
 Central Asia, stretching from about 43° 
 to 48° n. lat. and from about 82° to 86° 
 e. Ion. It has an area of 147,950 sq. 
 miles, and pop. 600,000. It is adminis- 
 tratively connected with Kuldja, and 
 since the surrender of Kuldja by the 
 Russians in 1880 is again under Chinese 
 rule. Dzoungaria, once the center of an 
 independent empire, was first conquered 
 by the Chinese in 1757. 
 
 E 
 
 E, the second vowel and the fifth 
 letter of the English alphabet. It occurs 
 more frequently in English words than 
 any other letter of the alphabet. Its 
 long or natural sound in English coin- 
 cides with the sound of i in the Italian 
 and French languages, as in here, mere, 
 me. It has also another principal sound, 
 a short one, heard in met, men. It has 
 besides a sound like a in bare, as in there, 
 where, etc., and the obscure sound which 
 is heard in her. As a final letter in Eng- 
 lish it is generally silent, but it serves 
 to indicate that the preceding vowel is 
 to have its long sound, as in mane, 
 cane, plume. When two e’s come to- 
 gether the sound is generally the same 
 as that of the single e long, as in deem, 
 esteem, need (comp, however pre-exist, 
 etc.). 
 
 E, in music, is the third note or de- 
 gree of the diatonic scale, answering to 
 the mi of the Italians and French. 
 
 EADS, James Buchanan, an American 
 civil engineer and inventor, born in 
 Indiana in 1820, died 1887. He removed 
 to St. Louis in 1833 and figured in the 
 civil war as an adviser of Lincoln in the 
 matter of ironclads. In 1867 he began 
 his famous work on the great Eads 
 bridge at St. Louis, and 1874 undertook 
 the construction of the jetties at New 
 Orleans, by which the channel of the 
 Mississippi river was deepened. The 
 latter years of his life were spent in 
 engineering works abroad. 
 
 _ EAGLE, the general name of raptorial 
 birds that form a group of the great 
 family Falconidae, which includes the 
 eagles, falcons, and hawks. The eagle 
 is popularly regarded as the noblest and 
 most courageous of the rapacious birds. 
 It soars to a greater height than any 
 
 other bird, from which circumstance the 
 ancients considered it as the bird or 
 
 Golden eagle. 
 
 which includes the most typical eagles, 
 is distinguished by its long and powerful 
 
 bill, the curve commencing at the cere, 
 by its wings reaching to the tip of the 
 tail, and by its tarsi being feathered to 
 the toes. The imperial eagle of Centra 
 Europe is probably the species to which 
 the popular belief in the courage, 
 strength, and nobleness of eagles is to 
 be traced. The golden eagle, is the chief 
 British species. It measures over 6 feet 
 from tip to tip of the expanded wings. 
 
 Imperial eagle. 
 
 and 3 feet from the beak to the end of 
 the tail. The adults have the body 
 brownish, becoming darker with age; 
 the feathers of the head and neck pointed 
 and of a golden-red hue. This species is 
 found all over the northern hemisphere. 
 The bald eagle, found in N. America and 
 northeast Asia, is the symbol of the U. 
 States. Like all members of the genus 
 his diet is less restricted than that of the 
 true eagles; and he even takes carrion. 
 Another eagle, the serpent eagle, or 
 short-toed eagle, ranges through south- 
 
EAGLE 
 
 EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ern Europe, Asia, and especially North 
 Africa. In structure and habits this 
 bird approaches the buzzards. 
 
 EAGLE, as a symbol. The eagle first 
 appears as a war standard among the 
 Persians, through whom it reached the 
 Egyptians. As the standard of the 
 Roman armies it w;as first used by Mar- 
 ius, and latterly took the place of all the 
 
 Roman eagles. 
 
 other emblems at the head of the legions. 
 In the mediaeval ages the eagle became 
 the heraldic emblem of the old German 
 Empire, and was made double-headed 
 in the 14th century. When the old Ger- 
 man Empire ceased the double-headed 
 eagle was retained by Austria. A double- 
 headed eagle is also the national military 
 symbol of Russia, as a single-headed 
 eagle is that of Prussia and the United 
 States of America; the latter stands with 
 outspread wings guarding a shield, with 
 the motto E Pluribus Unum. The eagle 
 is also the badge of several orders, the 
 chief of which are the order of the Black 
 Eagle, founded in 1701, and the highest 
 order in Prussia; the order of the Red 
 Eagle, also a Prussian order and founded 
 in 170.5; the Russian order of the White 
 Eagle, originally Polish, and instituted 
 in 1325. 
 
 EAGLE, a gold coin in the U. States 
 of the value of ten dollars, first coined in 
 1795. There are also half-eagles, quar- 
 ter-eagles, and double-eagles. 
 
 EAGLE-OWL, a name for several 
 large horned owls, little inferior in size 
 to the golden eagle, found in many parts 
 of Europe and sometimes in Britain. 
 An allied species, the Virginian horned 
 owl is common in the U. States. 
 
 EAMES, Emma (Mrs. Julian Story), 
 an American opera singer, born in 1867 
 in China, where her father was engaged 
 in law. Her studies were made in Boston 
 and in Paris (under Marches!). In 1889 
 she made her first appearance in Faust 
 and at once took her place among the 
 great soprano singers of the time. 
 Madame Eames has sung in Europe and 
 the U. States in all the most difficult 
 grand operas. 
 
 EAR, the organ of hearing. It is situ- 
 ated at the side of the head, and in the 
 higher vertebrates is divided into the 
 outer, middle and inner ear. The external 
 ear, which is a cartilaginous funnel for 
 collecting the sound waves and directing 
 them inward, is composed of the pavil- 
 ion, or projecting part, and of the audi- 
 tory canal, which extends from the 
 concha, or central hollow of the pavilion. 
 
 to the membrane of the tympanum or 
 drum. This membrane is a partition 
 stretched obliquely across the bottom of 
 the auditory canal, which it separates 
 from the middle ear or drum ; it is semi- 
 transparent and very delicate. It 
 vibrates with the waves of sound which 
 strike against it, and transmits the vi- 
 brations to certain little bones of the 
 cavity of the tympanum. These bones, 
 which have been named respectively 
 the hammer (malleus), the anvil (incus), 
 and the stirrup (stapes), transmit the 
 vibrations to the internal ear, forming 
 a chain communicating at one end with 
 the membrane just mentioned, and at 
 the other with the inner ear. The inter- 
 nal ear consists of a bony cavity called 
 the vestibule, three semicircular canals, 
 and a bony structure in the form of a 
 spiral shell, called the cochlea. The 
 vestibule communicates with the tym- 
 panum, the cochlea, and the semi- 
 circular canals, and is entered by 
 branches of the nerve of hearing. The 
 various parts of the internal ear, which 
 together form the osseous labyrinth, 
 are lodged in the hardest part of the 
 temporal bone; they are lined through- 
 out with a very thin membrane, and 
 are full of a very thin and limpid fluid. 
 They contain a structure of corre- 
 sponding form called the membran- 
 ous labyrinth, consisting of sacs and 
 canals, also containing a fluid. With- 
 
 in the membranous canal of the cochlea 
 is lodged the complicated apparatus 
 which is believed to be the chief agent 
 in the perception of sound. The mid- 
 dle ear communicates with the throat 
 and pharynx by the Eustachian tube, 
 through which air from the mouth may 
 be pressed against the membrane of the 
 drum. In the external auditory canal 
 of the ear is produced the cerumen or 
 ear-wax, which if allowed to accumulate 
 may cause deafness. The cut shows a 
 the pavilion, b the external canal, c the 
 drum membrane partly removed, d 
 cavity of middle ear, e anvil and m ham- 
 mer, the small bones communicating 
 with the drum and vestibule, h cochlea, 
 g semi-circular canals, i Eustachian tube. 
 
 EARL, a degree of the British nobility 
 between marquis and viscount, the title 
 of highest antiquity in England. The 
 title was made hereditary by William 
 the Conqueror, and for a time was used 
 interchangeably with that of count, the 
 corresponding title on the Continent. 
 The wife of an earl is still called a coun- 
 tess. An earl’s coronet is composed of 
 eight pearls raised upon points, with 
 small leaves between, above the rim. 
 See Coronet. 
 
 The ear of the right side. 
 
 EARLSTON, a village of Scotland in 
 Berwickshire. Near it are the ruins of 
 the ancient tower, which belonged to the 
 famous Thomas the Rhymer. Pop. 1060. 
 
 EARLY, Jubal Anderson, an American 
 confederate general, born in Virginia in 
 1816, died in 1894. He graduated at 
 West Point fought in the Mexican War, 
 joined the confederate forces in 1861, 
 fought at Bull Run, Williamsburg, 
 Antietam, and other important battles 
 of the civil war. Subsequently to the 
 war general Early practiced law and 
 was distinguished for being the most 
 prominent of the “unreconstructed 
 rebels.’’ He never took the oath of 
 allegiance to the U. States and died a 
 confederate. He published several in- 
 teresting memoirs. 
 
 EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 the first of the Pointed or Gothic styles 
 of architecture that prevailed in Eng- 
 land. It succeeded the Norman in the 
 reign of Richard I. (1189), and continued 
 to the end of the reign of Henry II. in 
 
 Early English capital, Salisbury. 
 
 1272, a period of 123 years, when it 
 gradually merged into the Decorated 
 style. One of the leading peculiarities in 
 this style is the form of the windows, 
 
 Early English architecture— Galilee porch and 
 south transept of Lincoln cathedral. 
 
 which are narrow in proportion to their 
 height, and terminate in a pointed arch, 
 resembling the blade of a lancet. 
 Throughout the early period of the style 
 they are very plain, particularly in small 
 churches; but in cathedrals and other 
 large buildings the windows, frequently 
 combined two or more together, are car- 
 
EAR-RiNGt 
 
 EARTH 
 
 ried to a great height, are richly and 
 deeply molded, and the jambs orna- 
 mented with slender shafts. Though 
 separated on the outside, these lancets 
 are in the interior combined into one de- 
 sign, thus giving the first idea of a com- 
 pound window. The doorways are in 
 general pointed, and in rich buildings 
 sometimes double; they are usually 
 molded, and enriched with the tooth- 
 ornament. The buttresses are often 
 very bold and prominent, and are fre- 
 quently carried up to the top of the 
 building with but little diminution, and 
 terminate in acutely -pointed pediments, 
 which, when raised above the parapet, 
 produce in some degree the effect of 
 pinnacles. In this style, likewise, flying- 
 
 Early English style— North-west transept 
 of Beverly minster. 
 
 buttresses were first introduced, and the 
 buttresses themselves much increased 
 :in projection owing to the comparative 
 .tightness of the walls, which required 
 some counter-support to resist the out- 
 ward pressure of the vaulting. The roof 
 ,.n the Early English style appears al- 
 ways to have been high pitched, and the 
 towers surmounted by lofty pointed 
 spires, as at Salisbury cathedral. In 
 the interior the arches are usually lancet- 
 shaped, and the pillars often reduced to 
 very slender proportions. As if to give 
 still greater lightness of appearance, they 
 are frequently made up of a center pillar, 
 surrounded by slight detached shafts, 
 only connected with the pillar by their 
 capitals and bases, and bands of metal 
 placed at intervals. The architects of 
 this style carried their ideas of lightness 
 to the utmost limits of prudence, and 
 their successors have been afraid to 
 imitate their example. The abacus of 
 the capitals is generally made up of two 
 bold round moldings, with a deep 
 hollow between. The foliage is peculiar, 
 generally very gracefully drawn, and 
 thrown into elegant curves; it is usually 
 termed stiff-leaved, from the circum- 
 stances of its rising with a stiff stem 
 from the neck-mold of the capital. 
 The trefoil is commonly imitated, and is 
 very characteristic of the style. The 
 
 moldings of this style have great bold- 
 ness, and produce a striking effect of 
 light and shade. They consist chiefly of 
 rounds separated by deep hollows, in 
 which a peculiar ornament, called the 
 dog’s-tooth, is used, whenever orna- 
 ment can be introduced. This ornament 
 is as characteristic of the Early English 
 as the zig-zag is of the Norman. 
 
 EAR-RING, an ornament for the ear, 
 consisting of a ring or hook passing 
 through the lobe, with a pendant of 
 diamonds, pearls, or other jewels fre- 
 quently attached. Ear-rings were com- 
 monly worn among the Oriental nations, 
 and by both sexes, from the earliest 
 times. Among the Greeks and Romans 
 they were not so commonly worn by 
 
 Early English style— Detached shaft in Lady 
 Chapel, Salisbury cathedral. 
 
 men as by women. In England the 
 Romanized Britons and the Anglo- 
 Saxons wore them, but the fashion de- 
 clined in the 10th century, and was again 
 introduced in the 16th century, in Queen 
 Elizabeth’s time. 
 
 EARTH, the planet which we inhabit, 
 a nearly spherical body which every 
 twenty-four hours rotates from west to 
 east round an imaginary line called its 
 axis — this axis having as its extremities 
 the north and south poles respectively — 
 while in the course of a year it completes 
 a revolution round the sun. To an 
 observer whose view is not obstructed 
 any part of the earth presents itself as a 
 circular and horizontal expanse, on the 
 circumference of which the heavens 
 appear to rest. Accordingly, in remote 
 antiquity, the earth was regarded as a 
 flat, circular body, floating on the water. 
 But even in antiquity the spherical form 
 of the earth began to be suspected. It 
 is only on this suppo.sition that we can 
 explain how the horizon of vision grows 
 wider and wider the higher the position 
 we choose, how the tops of towers and 
 mountains at a distance become visible 
 before the bases, how the hull of a ship 
 first disappears as she sails away, and 
 how, aawe go from the poles toward the 
 equator, new stars become visible 
 Besides these proofs there are many 
 
 others, such as the circular shadow of 
 the earth seen on the moon during an 
 eclipse, the gradual appearance and dis- 
 appearance of the sun, and, lastly, the 
 fact that since 1519 it has been regularly 
 circumnavigated. 
 
 The earth is not, however, an exact 
 sphere, but is very slightly flattened at 
 the poles, so as to have the form known 
 as an oblate spheroid. In this way the 
 polar diameter, or diameter from pole to 
 pole, is shorter than the diameter at 
 right angles to this — the equatorial 
 diameter. The most accurate measure- 
 ments make the polar diameter about 27 
 miles less than the equatorial, the equa- 
 torial diameter being found to be 7925'6 
 miles, and the polar 7899' 14 The earth 
 is regarded as divided into two halves — 
 the northern and the southern hemis- 
 phere — by the equator, an imaginary 
 line going right round it midway be- 
 tween the poles. In order to indicate 
 with precision the position of places on 
 the earth additional circles are imagined 
 to intersect one another on the surface 
 in such a manner that those of the one 
 set all pass through both poles, while 
 those of the other are drawn parallel to 
 the equator. The former are called 
 meridians, the latter parallels of latitude 
 and by them we can tell the latitude and 
 longitude, and thus the exact position 
 of any place. 
 
 Many experiments by various methods 
 have been made in order to determine 
 the average density of the earth, that is, 
 the quantity of matter it contains. 
 Among these methods may be men- 
 tioned: (1) that of determining the 
 attraction of a mountain on the direc- 
 tion of a plumb-line and calculating 
 from thence the density of the earth; 
 (2) that founded on the difference of 
 oscillation in a pendulum when placed 
 at the summit of a mountain and when 
 at the sea-level; (3) the converse of the 
 preceding method, by the determination 
 of the difference of gravity at the top 
 and the bottom of a deep mine, by pen- 
 dulum experiments; (4) Cavendish’s ex- 
 periment with the torsion balance, which 
 attempts to compare the attractive force 
 of two large lead balls over other two 
 small lead balls with that exercised by 
 the earth. From these and other ex- 
 periments it has been calculated, taking 
 the mean of all results, that the density 
 of the earth is to that of water as 5' 639 
 to 1. 
 
 The earth, in common with the other 
 planets, moves round the sun, complet- 
 ing its revolution in about 365 days and 
 six hours, and thus forming our common 
 year. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse, 
 with the sun in one of its foci. Hence 
 the earth is not equally distant from the 
 sun in all parts of the year; being about 
 3,000,000 miles nearer at one time than 
 another, its least distance (perihelion 
 distance) according to recent calcula- 
 tions being 89,897,000 miles, its greatest 
 (aphelion distance) 92,963,000, and the 
 the mean distance, or half the length of 
 the long axis of the orbit, 91,430,000 
 miles. From this it may be calculated 
 that the velocity of the earth in its orbit 
 is about 17 miles a second. In winter 
 (speaking of the northern hemisphere) 
 the earth is nearest the sun and in sum- 
 mer farthest from it; for the difference 
 
EARTH-CURRENTS 
 
 EARTH-CURRENTS 
 
 in the summer and winter temperature 
 is not occasioned by the greater or less 
 distance of the earth from the sun, but 
 by the more or less oblique direction of 
 the sun’s rays. The passage of the earth 
 round its orbit causes the sun to appear 
 as if it described a similar orbit in the 
 heavens ; and hence it is that at one time 
 of the year one group of stars is seen in 
 the neighborhood of the sun at sunrise 
 and sunset and at another time another 
 group. This apparent path of the sun is 
 the ecliptic, and corresponds with what 
 would be the path of the earth as seen 
 from the sun; and the groups of stars 
 through which the sun successively 
 passes form the zodiac. 
 
 The earth’s daily motion about its own 
 axis takes place, according to mean 
 time, in twenty-three hours, fifty-six 
 
 the equator the sun is directly overhead i 
 at every point in succession twice in the 
 year. The circles which bound this 
 region are called the tropics, that in the 
 northern hemisphere being the tropic of 
 Cancer, that in the southern the tropic of 
 Capricorn, while the region between is 
 the torrid zone. The regions between 
 the tropics and the polar circles are re- 
 spectively the north and south temper- 
 ate zones. 
 
 From the evidence furnished by vol- 
 canoes, hot springs, sinking of mines, 
 etc., it is known that the earth has a high 
 internal temperature of its own. Taking 
 the average of the various observed rates 
 of increase this temperature seems to in- 
 crease 1° Fahr. for every 60 feet of de- 
 scent. Assuming this to continue, the 
 rocks at a depth of 2 miles would be as 
 
 tions of portions of the earth’s surface 
 which are constantly taking place, and 
 that this allows the rocks to liquefy. 
 Water may then soak down to these 
 liquid rocks, and being converted into 
 steam produce the various volcanic 
 phenomena. 
 
 The earth (like the other planets) is 
 believed to have condensed and solidi- 
 fied from a gaseous or nebular condition, 
 and to have once had a far higher tem- 
 perature than now. If such were the 
 case the outer surface, losing heat by 
 radiation, would be the first part to cool 
 quickly; while the interior, losing its 
 heat by conduction, would not cool so 
 rapidly, and therefore would naturally 
 have a higher temperature than the 
 portion at the surface. This is what all 
 observations indicate the condition of 
 the earth to be, and the shape of the 
 earth also indicates that it must once 
 have been in a fluid state. Even the 
 time at which it was in the fluid state 
 has been roughly calculated by Sir W. 
 Thomson (Lord Kelvin), whose esti- 
 mate makes it about 200 millions of 
 years ago. See Nebular Hypothesis. 
 
 Another feature that the earth as a 
 whole presents is its magnetism. When 
 a magnetic needle is balanced on a point 
 it remains at rest in one position only, 
 pointing then nearly due north and 
 south. ■■ This can be explained only on 
 the supposition that the earth acts as a 
 great magnet. It has in fact two poles — 
 a north and a south magnetic pole — 
 which are not very far from, but by no 
 means coincident with, the geographical 
 poles. There is also a neutral line or 
 magnetic equator, which does not 
 greatly diverge from the geographical 
 equator. The earth acts upon all mag- 
 nets as they act upon each other, and it 
 is for this reason that they point north 
 and south. 
 
 The surface of the earth contains over 
 196,000,000 square miles, of which 
 scarcely a third-part is dry land, the re- 
 maining two-thirds being water. The 
 land is arranged into masses of irregular 
 shape and size, the greatest connected 
 mass being in the eastern hemisphere. 
 The chief masses receive the name of con- 
 tinents, detached masses of smaller size 
 forming islands. The surface of the land 
 is variously diversified, exhibiting moun- 
 tains, valleys, plains, plateaux, deserts, 
 etc. The water area of the earth is 
 divided into oceans, seas, bays, gulfs, 
 etc., while rivers and lakes may be re- 
 garded as features of the land surface. 
 The great phenomena of the oceans are 
 currents and tides. The population of 
 the whole earth is estimated at from 
 1350 to 1450 millions. The earth is 
 attended by the moon as a subordinate 
 or subsidiary planet. See also such 
 articles as Climate, Currents, Ocean, 
 Earthquake, Seasons, etc. 
 
 EARTH-CURRENTS, violent electrical 
 disturbances of the nature of tran- 
 sient currents, which rush in one direc- 
 tion or the other, and by which tele- 
 graph lines, and particularly long sub- 
 marine lines, are constantly troubled. 
 Their origin and nature are not thor- 
 oughly understood, but they are found 
 to be very intimately connected with 
 the perturbations of terrestrial mag- 
 netism called magnetic storms, and 
 
 WATER bEMlSPHEBE.. LAND HEMISPHERE 
 
 The earth. 
 
 minutes, and four seconds. This diurnal 
 revolution is the occasion of the alterna- 
 tion of day and night. As the axis on 
 which the earth performs its diurnal 
 rotation forms with the plane of its path 
 about the sun an angle of 23^° (which 
 angle also represents that between the 
 plane of the ecliptic and the plane of the 
 earth’s equator), the sun ascends in the 
 heavens, from March 21 to June 21 (the 
 summer solstice), about 23^° above the 
 equator toward the north pole, and de- 
 scends again toward the equator from 
 June 21 to September 23; it then sinks 
 till December 21 (the winter solstice), 
 about 23^° below the equator, toward 
 the south pole, and returns again to the 
 equator by March 21. This arrangement 
 is the cause of the seasons, and the in- 
 equality of day and night attending 
 them. For all countries lying beyond 
 the equator, day and night are equal 
 only twice in the year (at tlie equinoxes). 
 At the summer solstice the north pole 
 of the earth is turned toward the sun, 
 and the south pole away from it, and for 
 23^° round the former there is a period 
 of longer or shorter duration during 
 which the sun is continually above the 
 horizon for more than 24 hours, while 
 round the latter there is an equal extent 
 of surface within which the sun for 
 similar periods is below the horizon. 
 (See Day.) The reverse state of matters 
 occurs at the winter solstice. The cir- 
 cles bounding these regions are called 
 respectively the arctic and the antarctic 
 circle, and the regions themselves the 
 polar or frigid zones. Throughout a 
 region extending to 23^° on each side of 
 
 hot as boiling water, and at a depth of 
 50 miles the heat would be such as at the 
 surface would melt every known solid. 
 This being so, various theories as to the 
 internal condition of the earth have been 
 proposed: (1) That a thin envelope or 
 crust surrounds a molten interior. It 
 can be shown, however, that as tides 
 must be produced in such a molten mass 
 the cool outer crust would be unable to 
 withstand the enormous force of these 
 unless it were about 2000 miles thick. 
 (2) That the interior is solid, with spaces 
 here and there filled with liquid or 
 gaseous material. This theory assumes 
 that there are within the earth enormous 
 cavities filled with molten rock, which 
 escapes when local pressure is removed in 
 the form of volcanic outbursts. (3) That 
 the earth consists of a thin crust, a large 
 solid nucleus, and a liquid film between 
 the nucleus and the crust; the tempera- 
 ture at the center being not much greater 
 than comparatively near the surface. 
 (4) That the earth is solid to the center, 
 but any part may become liquid if local 
 pressure is removed. We know that if 
 the pressure on a solid be increased the 
 melting point is correspondingly raised; 
 now the pressure at the center of the 
 earth, or even at the depth of 50 or 100 
 miles, must be something enormous, and 
 probably is so great as to keep the rocks 
 there permanently in a solid condition, 
 notwithstanding the heat. This last 
 theory is considered the most probable. 
 On the supposition of its correctness 
 volcanoes might be explained by sup- 
 posing that at certain points here and 
 there pressure is removed by the eleva- 
 
EARTHENWARE 
 
 EASTER 
 
 these, it is well known, are closely con- 
 nected both with the appearance of 
 the aurora borealis and with the occur- 
 rence of the sun’s spots. 
 
 EARTHENWARE, a name applied to 
 the more common sorts of pottery-ware. 
 The older kinds of earthenware, such as 
 Majolica, Delft%are, Faience, and 
 Palissy-ware are not only glazed, but 
 are besides elaborately colored and 
 enameled and ornamented with raised 
 figures of various kinds. 
 
 EARTHQUAKE, a shaking of certain 
 parts of the earth’s surface, produced 
 by causes not perceivable by our senses. 
 This motion occurs in very different 
 ways, having sometimes a perpendic- 
 ular, sometimes a horizontal undu- 
 lating, and sometimes a whirling motion. 
 It also varies much in degrees of 
 violence, from a shock which is hardly 
 perceptible to one which bursts open 
 chasms and changes the appearance of 
 the ground itself. During these shocks 
 sometimes smoke and flames, but more 
 frequently stones and torrents of water 
 are discharged. There is little doubt 
 that earthquakes and volcanic eruptions 
 are kindred phenomena, the latter dif- 
 fering from the former principally in 
 proceeding from a permanent ci’ater. 
 All observations go to prove that both 
 are due to disruptions produced by 
 internal heat at a great depth beneath 
 the surface of the earth. Of the partic- 
 ular way in which this force works, 
 however, there are various theories. 
 It has been thought by some that the 
 center of earthquakes and volcanic dis- 
 turbances is always near the sea or 
 other large supplies of water, and that 
 the disturbances are directly caused 
 by the filtration of the water down to 
 igneous matter, and the consequent 
 generation of vast quantities of steam 
 which frees itself by explosion. Others 
 have sought to explain earthquakes as 
 part of the phenomena of a planet cool- 
 ing at the surface. The steady con- 
 traction of matter caused by the decay 
 of heat would be likely to produce large 
 cavities with an increasing tension of 
 the neighboring strata till a tremendous 
 subsidence involving convulsions reach- 
 ing to the earth’s surface removed the 
 strain. The most remarkable earth- 
 quakes of modern times are those 
 which destroyed Lima, in 1746, and 
 Lisbon in 1755; still more recent are the 
 earthquakes that visited Calabria in 
 1857, Peru and Ecuador in 1868, the 
 island of Ischia in 1884, Charleston and 
 that district of the United States in 
 1886, Mentone and the Riviera of Italy 
 in 1887. 
 
 The great earthquake which destroyed 
 San Francisco (see San Francisco) was 
 connected, it is believed, with the 
 recent disastrous eruption of Vesuvius 
 (see Vesuvius) and with the earth- 
 quake all along the coast of South 
 America on August 5, 1906, and fol- 
 lowing, in which 200 people were killed, 
 and Valparaiso, Chile, was almost de- 
 stroyed, with a loss of 12,000,000 of 
 property, none of which was insured. 
 
 Measured by the immediate destruc- 
 tion of human life and of property and 
 the resultant misery and suffering to 
 human beings yet alive, the earth- 
 quake of December 28, 1908, in Sicily and 
 
 Calabria was the most direful calamity 
 in the world’s history. Two hundred 
 thousand lives and more than .$1,000,- 
 000,000 worth of property — these figures 
 tell the terrible story of Italy’s misfor- 
 tune and grief. The cities of Messina 
 and Reggio, the former in Sicily and 
 the latter on the mainland almost op- 
 posite, with their combined population 
 of 170,000 were almost entirely de- 
 stroyed. These cities and a number of 
 smaller towns in the immediate vicinity 
 were, in less than five minutes, crushed 
 to heaps of smoking ruins. 
 
 Sicily and Calabria have always been 
 known to be in the so-called earth- 
 quake belt. This region has been 
 much studied by seismologists, and 
 this latest convulsion has revived the 
 speculation as to the cause of earth- 
 quakes. Volcanic activity on the part 
 of Etna, Vesuvius and Stromboli was 
 looked for at the time of the shock, but 
 no serious eruption actually occurred. 
 All of the seriously entertained theories 
 of earthquake causes have been ad- 
 vanced to explain the shocks in south- 
 ern Italy, for there were many minor 
 shocks after the first great one, not only 
 in Italy, but in Austria and Turkey as 
 well The most generally accepted 
 theory is that an earthquake is the re- 
 sult of a “fault” in the geological 
 formation under the affected region, in 
 this case the fault constituting a line of 
 contact between tne volcanic strata 
 underlying Mt. Etna and Mt. Vesuvius. 
 It is believed that the strata underly- 
 ing the Sti’ait of Messina slipped along 
 the line of this fault, and that the so- 
 called tidal wave resulted from this 
 I’apid and radical altering of the sea’s 
 bed. In support of the theory now 
 w'idely held that earthquakes are gen- 
 erally caused by the seeping of vast 
 quantities of water into the earth’s hot 
 interior, resulting in the formation of 
 gas and steam, it b.as been pointed out 
 by Professor Milne, perhaps the great- 
 est living authority on seismology, that 
 an analysis of more than 10,000 observa- 
 tions in Japan shows that by far the 
 greater number of earthquakes origina- 
 ted beneath the ocean or along the sea- 
 board, ‘‘and as they radiated inland 
 they became more and more feeble un- 
 til on reaching the backbone of the 
 country, w'hich is drilled by numerous 
 volcanic vents, they were almost im- 
 perceptible.” Another idea is that the 
 quiet, ceaseless work of the world’s 
 great rivers in carrying to the ocean 
 sand and mud in immense quantities 
 gradually alters the center of gravity 
 of the globe and causes a shift in the 
 direction of the axis. Many physicists 
 agree with Prof. Percival Lowell, the 
 eminent astronomer, in the contention 
 that the earth is rapidly aging and that 
 it is the wrinkling and consequent 
 shrinking of the “skin” of the planet 
 which is really the primary cause of 
 earthquakes. 
 
 EARTHS, a term applied to certain 
 tasteless, inodoi’ous, dry, uninflam- 
 mable substances of a moderate specific 
 gravity, which constitute by far the 
 greatest part of the gravel and soil that 
 go to make up the mountains, valleys, 
 and plains of our globe. They include 
 lime, baryta, strontia, magnesia, alu- 
 
 mina, etc. The earths were regarded as 
 simple bodies until Sir H. Davy proved 
 them to be compounds of oxygen 
 with metals. 
 
 EARTH-SHINE, in astron. a name 
 given to the faint light visible on the 
 part of the moon not illuminated by 
 the sun, due to the illumination of that 
 portion by the light which the earth 
 reflects on her. It is most conspicuous 
 when the illuminated part of the disc is 
 at its smallest, as soon after new moon. 
 This phenomenon is popularly de- 
 scribed as “the old moon in the new 
 moon’s arms.” 
 
 EARTHWORM, a genus of common 
 worms. They have a long, cylindrical 
 body, divided by transverse furrows 
 into numerous rings. The mouth is 
 destitute of teeth, and they have no 
 eyes, tentacles, or cirrhi. They are 
 hermaphrodite. The common earth- 
 worm attains nearly a foot in length. 
 It subsists on roots, woody fibers, 
 animal matter, etc. It moves by the 
 contractions of successive parts of the 
 body aided by a double row of bristles. 
 They are of great service to the agricul- 
 turist by loosening the soil and increas- 
 ing its depth. This is chiefly the result 
 of their mode of nourishment, since they 
 deposit the soil they have swallowed, 
 after digestion, in heaps called w'orm 
 castings which bring up rich fine soil to 
 the surface, gradually covering the 
 upper layer sometimes to the extent of 
 several inches. 
 
 EAR-TRUMPET, an artificial instru- 
 m.ent for aiding the collection of the 
 vibrations or waves of sound, and carry- 
 ing them in an intensified form to the 
 internal parts of the ear. 
 
 EARWIG, a common orthopterous 
 insect whose name is derived from its 
 supposed habit of insinuating itself into 
 the ears of persons. This is practically 
 impos-sible, yet the notion is widely 
 spread. Much damage is sustained 
 by gardeners from the depredations of 
 these insects among fruit and tender 
 vegetables, which constitute their proper 
 food. The earwig is about three- 
 quarters of an inch in length, having 
 the wings folded under very short and 
 truncate elytra or wing-cases, and the 
 extremity of the abdomen armed with 
 a horny forceps. 
 
 EASEL (e'zel), the frame on which an 
 artist supports his canvas. It is usually 
 made to fold up after use. 
 
 EASEMENT, in law, a right or privi- 
 lege which one proprietor may have 
 to use the land of another in connection 
 with the needs of his own land, as the 
 use of a way, a water-course, etc. The 
 right to an easement may be acquired 
 either by grant or by uninterrupted 
 enjoyment for a period of years. 
 
 EAST, one of the four cardinal points, 
 being the point in the heavens where the 
 sun is seen to rise at the equinox, or the 
 corresponding point on the earth; that 
 point of the norizon lying on the right 
 hand when one’s face is turned toward 
 the north pole. 
 
 EASTER, the festival commemorating 
 the resurrection of Christ, observed in 
 the Roman Catholic, the Greek, Angli- 
 can, Lutheran, and other branches of 
 the Christian church. By the first 
 Christians it waa considered to continue 
 
EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO 
 
 EBONY 
 
 the feast of the passover, at which the 
 paschal lamb, a t3'pe of Christ, was sac- 
 rificed. Hence its name in Greek (pas- 
 cha), French (paques), and other Ro- 
 mance languages is taken from the 
 Hebrew pesach, passover. The English 
 name comes from the Anglo-Saxon 
 Eostre, a goddess of light or spring, 
 whose festival was celebrated in April. 
 There was a long dispute in the Christian 
 church as to the proper time for holding 
 Easter, the Christians of the East cele- 
 brating it on the same day as that on 
 which the Jewish passover fell, that is, 
 the 14th of Nisan (hence they were 
 called quarto decimani), while the 
 majority of the church celebrated it on 
 the Sunday next after this day. The 
 controversy was decided by the Council 
 of Nice (Nic£ea) in 325, which settled 
 that it was to be reckoned as at present, 
 namely, that Easter is the first Sunday 
 after the full moon which happens upon 
 or next after the 21st of March, and if 
 the full moon happens on a Sunday, 
 Easter-day is the Sunday after, but, 
 properly speaking, for the “full moon” 
 in the above the “fourteenth day of the 
 moon” should be substituted. 
 
 EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. See Malay 
 Archipelago. 
 
 EASTERN CHURCHES, a collective 
 term for the Greek, Armenian, Coptic, 
 Abyssinian, Syrian, and other kindred 
 ohurctiGs 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE. See Byzantine 
 Empire. 
 
 EASTERN QUESTION, the name 
 given to the diplomatic and national 
 interests affected by the gradual retro- 
 cession of the Turkish Empire in Europe, 
 and the problem of disposing of the ter- 
 ritory thus left, or presumably to be left. 
 Bulgaria, Roumania, Servia, and Greece 
 are the new states which have naturally 
 arisen on the withdrawal of the Turkish 
 power, and their history in connection 
 with the respective policies of England, 
 France, Austria, and Russia toward 
 them is the history of the phases of the 
 “Eastern Question” so far. The Crimean 
 war of 1854-56 with the Treaty of Paris 
 which followed, the Russo-Turkish war 
 of 1877-78 with the Treaty of Berlin, 
 and the Greco-Turkish war of 1897, are 
 among the notable events connected 
 with this subject. 
 
 EASTERN ROUMELIA, a portion of 
 the Turkish dominions in Europe lying 
 on the south of Bulgaria from which it is 
 separated by the Balkan Mountains; 
 area, 13,500 sq. miles. The country is 
 fertile, but agriculture is backward; 
 wheat, wine, tobacco, etc., are produced ; 
 timber is abundant. The chief town is 
 Philippopolis. East Roumelia was con- 
 stituted an autonomous province of 
 Turkey by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, 
 but has since attached itself to Bul- 
 garia. (See Bulgaria.) Pop. 975,000. 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY, a great Eng- 
 lish company, originally simply a trad- 
 ing association, which played an impor- 
 tant part in the history of Hindustan. 
 It was formed in 1599 in London, with a 
 subscribed capital of about $150,000, 
 for the purpose of trade with the East 
 Indies. A charter was granted to it by 
 Queen Elizabeth on 31st December, 
 1600, for fifteen years, renewable for a 
 similar period. In this charter the com- ^ 
 
 pany is styled, “The Governor and Com- 
 pany of the Merchants of London trad- 
 ing into the East Indies.” In 1617-18 
 the company was so enlarged as to'in- 
 clude 954 proprietors, while a new joint- 
 stock of $8,000,000 was subscribed. A 
 new charter, granted by Charles II. in 
 1660, enlarged the powers of the com- 
 pany, giving it political and judicial 
 authority in the factories and colonies 
 established by it, with the right to 
 appoint governors. On the revolution 
 of 1688 the company was involved in 
 new difficulties, and in 1692 the com- 
 mons presented an address to the crown 
 praying for their dissolution. A resolu- 
 tion in favor of the formation of a new 
 company passed the House of Commons 
 on 4th May, 1698, and this company 
 was actually constituted by Act 9, 
 William III. This act provided for the 
 extinction of the old company, but an 
 amalgamation was eventually arranged 
 in 1708. The renewal of the company’s 
 charter in 1834 took place amid con- 
 tinued opposition to their mercantile, 
 and even to their legislative privileges. 
 It continued them in all their possessions 
 except the island of St. Helena, put an 
 end to the exclusive right of trade with 
 China, and enacted that the company 
 should with all convenient speed close 
 their commercial business, and make 
 sale of all their property not retained 
 for government purposes; all their other 
 property was to be held in trust for the 
 crown, which was to take over their 
 debts and guarantee their dividend out 
 of the revenues of India. Henceforth 
 the company existed only for the pur- 
 pose of receiving payment of its capital, 
 and of the dividends due upon capital 
 until its repayment. 
 
 EAST INDIES, the name loosely ap- 
 plied to Hindustan, the Indo-Chinese 
 peninsula, and a portion of the Eastern 
 Archipelago, but excluding the Philip- 
 pine Islands, New Guinea, and Australia. 
 
 EASTLAKE, Sir Charles Lock, Eng- 
 lish painter, president of the Royal 
 Academy, born at Plymouth 17th 
 November, 1793. He studied at the 
 Royal Academy, London, and at Paris. 
 In 1830 he was elected member of the 
 Royal Academy, and in 1850 became 
 its president, receiving at the same time 
 the honor of knighthood. He died at 
 Pisa 23d December, 1865. 
 
 EAST LIVERPOOL, a city in Colum- 
 biana CO., Ohio, on the Ohio river; 44 
 miles w.n.w. of Pittsburg and 44 miles e. 
 of Wheeling; has excellent educational 
 advantages; is one of the most impor- 
 tant pottery-ware manufacturing centers 
 in the U. States, having thirty potteries. 
 Pop. 69,285. 
 
 EASTON, a city and railway center, 
 the capital of Northampton co.. Pa., 
 situated at the confluence of the Dela- 
 ware and Lehigh rivers; 75 miles from 
 New York and 60 miles fom Philadel- 
 phia. The famous treaty with the Five 
 Nations is recorded as having taken 
 place at the forks of the Delaware. 
 Pop. 29,848. 
 
 EAST ORANGE, a town in Essex co., 
 N. J., situated on the D., L. and W. 
 railroad and the Wachung branch of 
 the N. Y. and Greenwood Lake rail- 
 way; 12 miles from New York and ad- 
 joining Newark on the west. It is a place 
 
 of suburban residences for New York 
 business men. Pop. 25,170. 
 
 EAST RIVER, a strait in New York 
 state, separating New York from Brook- 
 lyn and connecting Long Island Sound 
 with New York Bay, about 20 miles 
 long. A great supension-bridge crosses 
 between New York and Brooklyn. 
 
 EAST SAGINAW, the eastern portion 
 of Saginaw city, Michigan, on the navi- 
 gable river Saginaw, about 17 miles 
 from its mouth in Saginaw Bay (Lake 
 Huron). It has a large trade and im- 
 portant manufactures. See Saginaw. 
 
 EAST SAINT LOUIS, a city of Illinois, 
 in St. Clair county, opposite Saint Louis, 
 Mo. It is an important manufacturing 
 and railroad center and contains manj' 
 large buildings and 'several miles of 
 paved streets. It has a population of 
 30,000. 
 
 EAU (6), a French word signifying 
 water, and used in English with some 
 other words for several spirituous 
 waters, particularly perfumes, as eau de 
 Cologne, eau de Luce, etc. — Eau de 
 Cologne is a fragrant water, made origin- 
 ally and in most perfection in Cologne. 
 It consists of spirits of wine flavored by 
 different essential oils blended so as 
 to yield a fine fragrant scent.— Eau 
 Creole, a highly-esteemed liqueur made 
 in Martinique by distilling the flowers 
 of the mammee apple with spirit of 
 wine. — Eau de Luce (“water of Luce”), 
 is made by dissolving white soap in 
 spirit of wine, and adding oil of amber 
 and sal ammoniac. It is a milky fluid, 
 antispasmodic and stimulant. — Eau de 
 Vie (“water of life”), a term used by 
 the French for the coarser kinds of 
 brandy, cognac being the name of the 
 best. 
 
 EAU CLAIRE (6 klar), the county 
 seat of Eau Claire county, Wis., 85 
 miles from Saint Paul, Minn. It has 
 considerable manufacturing interests. 
 Pop. 21,517. 
 
 EBERS (a'berz), Georg Moritz, Ger- 
 man Egyptologist and novelist, born 1st 
 March 1837 at Berlin. His most im- 
 portant works have been translated into 
 English, such as Egypt, Descriptive, 
 Historical, and Picturesque, and the 
 novels. An E^ptian Princess, Uarda, 
 Homo Sum, The Emperor, The Sisters, 
 all dealing with old Egj'^ptian life: The 
 Burgomaster’s Wife, Only a Word, etc. 
 He died in 1898 
 
 EB'ONY, the popular name of various 
 plants of different genera, agreeing in 
 having wood of a dark color. The most 
 
 Ebony. 
 
 valuable is the heart-wood, which grows 
 in great abundance in the flat parts of 
 Ceylon, and is of such size that logs of 
 its heart-wood 2 feet in diameter and 
 from 10 to 15 feet long are easilj' pro- 
 
EBULLITION 
 
 ECLIPSE 
 
 cured. Ebony is hard, heavy, and dur- 
 able, and admits of a fine polish or gloss. 
 The most usual color is black, red, or 
 green. The best is jet black, free from 
 veins, very heavy, astringent, and of an 
 acrid pungent taste. On burning coals 
 it yields an agreeable perfume, and 
 when green it readily takes fire from its 
 abundance of fat. It is wrought into 
 toys, and used for mosaic and inlaid 
 work. 
 
 EBULLITION, the boiling of a fluid. 
 See Boil. 
 
 ECARTE (a-kar'ta), a game at cards 
 for two persons played with thirty-two 
 cards, the small cards from two to six 
 being excluded. In the English mode of 
 playing the game the players cut for the 
 deal, which is decided by the lowest 
 card. The dealer gives five cards to 
 either player, three and two at a time, 
 and turns up the eleventh card for 
 trump. If he turns up a king he scores 
 one, and if a king occurs in the hand of 
 either player he may score one by an- 
 nouncing it before the first trick. The 
 cards rank as follows; king (highest), 
 ueen, knave, ace, ten, etc. The non- 
 ealer leads ; trumps take all other suits, 
 but the players must follow suit if they 
 can. Three tricks count one point, five 
 tricks two points; five points make 
 ame. Before play begins the non- 
 ealer may claim to discard (^carter) 
 any of the cards in his hand, and have 
 them replaced with fresh ones from the 
 -pack. This claim the dealer may or may 
 not allow. Should he allow he can dis- 
 card as many as he pleases. Sometimes 
 only one discard is allowed, sometimes 
 more. 
 
 ECCE HOMO (ek'se-), a name often 
 given to crucifixes and pictures which 
 represent Christ bound and crowned 
 with thorns. 
 
 ECCENTRIC, a term in mechanics 
 applied to contrivances for converting 
 circular into reciprocating (backward 
 and forward) rectilinear motion, con- 
 sisting of variously-shaped discs attach- 
 
 Eccentrlc of steam-engine — a, Eccentric wheel ; 
 
 6, Eccentric-strap: c. Eccentric-rod. 
 
 ed to a revolving shaft not in their 
 center. An eccentric wheel is a wheel 
 fixed on an axis that does not pass 
 through the center. Its action is that of 
 a crank of the same length as the eccen- 
 tricity. 
 
 ECCLESIASTES (-tez), the title by 
 which the Septuagint translators render- 
 ed the Hebrew Coheleth (“the gatherer 
 of the people”), a symbolic name ex- 
 plained by the design of the book and 
 the dramatic position occupied by 
 Solomon in it, one of the canonical books 
 of the Old Testament. According to 
 Jewish tradition it was written by Solo- 
 mon; but the best modern criticism has 
 decided that its style and language, no 
 less than its thought, belong to a much 
 later date. 
 
 ECHIDNA (e-kid'na), a genus of Aus- 
 tralian monotrematous, toothless mam- 
 mals, in size and general appearance 
 
 I resembling a large hedgehog, excepting 
 that the spines are longer, and the 
 muzzle is protracted and slender, with a 
 small aperture at the extremity for the 
 protraction of a long flexible tongue. 
 The habits of the Echidna are nocturnal; 
 it burrows, having short strong legs 
 with five toes, and feeds on insects. 
 
 Porcupine ant eater. 
 
 which it catches by protruding its long 
 sticky tongue. It is nearly allied to the 
 Ornithorhynchus, the two forming a 
 peculiar class of animals, having in their 
 structure some peculiarities at once of 
 mammals, birds, and reptiles. In 1884 
 it was found, that, as Geoffroy St. 
 Hilaire had suspected, the echidna and 
 ornithorhynchus, although essentially 
 mammals, were yet oviparous, pro- 
 ducing their young from eggs. One 
 species from its appearance, is popu- 
 larly known as the porcupine ant- 
 eater. 
 
 ECHO (ek'6), the repetition of a 
 sound caused by the reflection of sound- 
 waves at some moderately even surface, 
 as the wall of a building. The waves of 
 sound on meeting the surface are turned 
 back in their course according to the 
 same laws that hold for reflection of 
 light. In order that the echo may return 
 to the place from which the sound pro- 
 ceeds the reflection must be direct, and 
 not at an angle to the line of transmis- 
 sion, otherwise the echo may be heard 
 by others but not by the transmitter of 
 the sound. This may be effected either 
 by a reflecting surface at right angles to 
 the line of transmission, or by several 
 reflecting surfaces which end in bringing 
 the sound back to the point of issue. 
 Sound travels about 1125 feet in a 
 second ; consequently, an observer stand- 
 ing at half that distance from the re- 
 flecting object would hear the echo a 
 second later than the sound. Such an 
 echo would repeat as many words and 
 syllables as could be heard in a second. 
 As the distance decreases the echo re- 
 peats fewer syllables till it becomes 
 monosyllabic. The most practiced ear 
 cannot distinguish in a second more 
 than from nine to twelve successive 
 sounds, so that a distance of not less 
 than 60 feet is needed to enable a com- 
 mon ear to distinguish between the echo 
 and the original sounds. At a near dis- 
 tance the echo only clouds the original 
 sounds, and this often interferes with 
 the hearing in churches and other large 
 buildings. Woods, rocks, and moun- 
 tains produce natural echoes in every 
 variety, for which particular localities 
 have become famous. — In Greek mythol. 
 Echo was a nymph (one of the Oreads) 
 who fell in love with Narcissus, and 
 because he did not reciprocate her 
 affection she pined away until nothing 
 was left but her voice. 
 
 ECKELS, James Herron, an Ameri- 
 can financier, born in Princeton, 111., 
 1858. He was comptroller of the cur- 
 rency from 1893 to 1898, since which 
 time he has been president of the Com- 
 mercial National IBank of Chicago. 
 
 ECKFORD, Henry, an American ship 
 designer, born in Scotland in 1775, died 
 in 1832. In 1796 he removed to the 
 United States, established a ship yard, 
 and built the Robert Fulton, the first 
 successful ocean-going steamship. 
 
 ECLECTICS is a name given to all 
 those philosophers who do not follow one 
 system entirely, but select what they 
 think the best parts of all systems. In 
 this century the eclectic method found 
 a notable supporter in the French 
 philosopher Victor Cousin. 
 
 ECLECTIC SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, a 
 school of medicine, founded in the United 
 States in 1826 and represented today by 
 22 colleges and a considerable number 
 of practitioners. The eclectic school 
 teaches that the best practice of medicine 
 is found in choosing remedies regardless 
 of the “isms” of the discoverers. 
 
 ECLIPSE (ek-lips'), an interception 
 or obscuration of the light of the sun 
 moon or other heavenly body by the 
 intervention of another and nonlumi- 
 nous heavenly body. Stars and planets 
 may suffer eclipse, but the principal 
 eclipses are those of the sun and the 
 moon. 
 
 An eclipse of the moon is an obscura- 
 tion of the light of the moon occasioned 
 by an interposition of the earth between 
 the sun and the moon; consequently, 
 all eclipses of the moon happen at full 
 moon; for it is only when the moon is 
 on that side of the earth which is turned 
 away from the sun, and directly oppo- 
 site, that it can come vdthin the earth’s 
 shadow. Further, the moon must at 
 
 Diagram illustrating the theory of eclipses. 
 
 that time be in the same plane as the 
 earth’s shadow; that is, the plane of the 
 ecliptic in which the latter always 
 moves. But as the moon’s orbit makes 
 an angle of more than 5° with the plane 
 of the ecliptic, it frequently happens 
 that though the moon is in opposition 
 it does not come within the shadow of 
 the earth. The theory of lunar eclipses 
 will be understood from Fig. 1, where s 
 represents the sun, e the earth, and m 
 the moon. If the sun were a point of 
 light there would be a sharp outlined 
 shadow or umbra only, but since the 
 luminous surface is so large there is 
 always a region in which the light of the 
 sun is only partially cut off by the earth, 
 which region is known as the penumbra 
 (p p), Hence during a lunar eclipse the 
 , moon first enters the penumbra, then is 
 
ECLIPTIC 
 
 EDDA 
 
 totally eclipsed by the umbra, then 
 emerges through the penumbra again. 
 
 An eclipse of the sun is an occulta- 
 tion of the whole or part of the face of 
 the sun occasioned by an interposition 
 of the moon between the earth and the 
 sun; thus all eclipses of the sun happen 
 at the time of new moon. Fig. 2 is a 
 diagram showing the principle of a solar 
 eclipse. The dark or central part of the 
 moon’s shadow, where the sun’s rays 
 are wholly intercepted, is here the 
 umbra, and the light part, where only 
 a part of them are intercepted, is the 
 penumbra; and it is evident that if a 
 spectator be situated on that part of the 
 earth where the umbra falls there will 
 be a total eclipse of the sun at that 
 place; in the penumbra there will be a 
 partial eclipse, and beyond the penum- 
 bra there will be no eclipse. As the 
 earth is not always at the same distance, 
 from the moon, and as the moon is a 
 comparatively small body, if an eclipse 
 should happen when the earth is so far 
 from the moon that the moon’s shadow 
 falls short of the earth, a spectator 
 situated on the earth in a direct line 
 between the centers of the sun and moon, 
 would see a ring of light round the dark 
 body of the moon; such an eclipse is 
 called annular, as shown in Fig. 3; when 
 this happens there can be no total eclipse 
 anywhere, because the moon’s umbra 
 does not reach the earth. An eclipse 
 can never be annular longer than 12 
 minutes 24 seconds, nor total longer 
 than 7 minutes 58 seconds; nor can the 
 entire duration of an eclipse of the sun 
 ever exceed 2 hours. 
 
 An eclipse of the sun begins on the 
 western side of his disc and ends on the 
 eastern; and an eclipse of the moon 
 begins on the eastern side of her disc 
 and ends on the western. The average 
 number of eclipses in a year is four, two 
 of the sun and two of the moon ; and as 
 the sun and moon are as long below the 
 horizon of any particular place as they 
 are above it, the average number of 
 visible eclipses in a year is two, one of 
 the sun and one of the moon. 
 
 ECLIPTIC, the sun’s path, the great 
 circle of the celestial sphere, in which the 
 sun appears to describe Iris annual course 
 from west to east — really corresponding 
 to the path which the earth describes. 
 (See Earth.) The Greeks observed that 
 eclipses of the sun and moon took place 
 near this circle; whence they called it the 
 ecliptic. The ecliptic has been divided 
 tnto twelve eqiial parts, each of which 
 contains 30 degrees, and which are 
 occupied by the twelve celestial signs or 
 constellations, viz.‘ 
 np = Aries (the Ram), March 20. 
 b = Taurus (the Bull), April 20. 
 n = Gemini (the Twins), May 21. 
 
 25 = Cancer (the Crab), June 21. 
 
 SI =Leo (the Lion), July 22. 
 tijt = Virgo (the Virgin), August 23. 
 
 ^ = Libra (the Balance), September 23. 
 IR = Scorpio (the Scorpion), October 23. 
 t = Sagittarius (the Archer^ Nov. 22. 
 
 =Caprieornus (the Goat), Dec. 21. 
 ;x:“ Aquarius (the Water-carrier), Jan. 
 
 19. 
 
 X •“ Pisces (the Fishes), February 18. 
 These are also called signs of the zodiac, 
 the zodiac being a belt of the heavens 
 extending 9 degrees on each side of the 
 
 ecliptic. The days of the month an- 
 nexed show when the sun, in its annual 
 revolution, enters each of the signs of 
 the zodiac. From the first point of 
 Aries, or the place of the sun at the 
 vernal >equinox, the degrees of the 
 ecliptic are counted from \vest to east. 
 The plane of the ecliptic is that by which 
 the position of the planets and the lati- 
 tude and longitude of the stars are 
 reckoned. The points at wliich the 
 equator and ecliptic intersect are sub- 
 ject to a continual variation, receding 
 westward at the rate of about 50 seconds 
 a year. The angle at which the ecliptic 
 stands to the equator is also variable, 
 and has been diminisliing for about 4000 
 years at the rate of about 50 seconds in a 
 century. Laplace showed, however, 
 that this variation has certain fixed 
 limits, and that after a certain time the 
 angle will begin to increase again. The 
 combined result of these two changes is 
 to cause the pole of the earth not to 
 point constantly to the same spot in the 
 heavens, but to describe an undulating 
 circle round a certain point; but this 
 movement is so slow that it takes many 
 thousand years to complete it. See 
 Nutation and Precession. 
 
 ECLOGUE (ek'log), a term usually 
 applied to what Theocritus called idyls 
 -y-short, highly-finished poems, prin- 
 cipally of a descriptive or pastoral land. 
 
 ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE, a school 
 in Paris established with the purpose of 
 giving instruction in matters connected 
 with the various branches of the public 
 service, such as mines, roads and bridges, 
 engineering, the army and the navy, 
 government manufactures, etc. It was 
 founded in 1794, and is under the direc- 
 tion of the minister of war. Candidates 
 are admitted only by competitive ex- 
 amination, and have to pay for their 
 board 1000 francs (about $200) a year. 
 The pupils who pass satisfactory exam- 
 inations at the end of their course are 
 admitted to that branch of public serv- 
 ice which they select. 
 
 ECUADOR (ek-wa-dSr'), a republic of 
 S. America, situated under the equator, 
 whence it takes its name, between Peru 
 and Colombia. Area, about 248,386 sq. 
 miles, or including the Galapagos Is- 
 lands, 251,337 sq. miles. The mountain 
 region is formed by a double range of 
 snow-clad mountains — several of them 
 active volcanoes — which inclose a longi- 
 tudinal valley or table-land, with a 
 breadth of 20 to 40 miles, and varying 
 in elevation from 8500 to 13,900 feet. 
 The most elevated of these mountains 
 are, in the western range, Clumborazo, 
 Pichincha, and Cotacachi, Chimborazo 
 being 20,703 feet high. The chief towns 
 here are Quito, the capital, with a pop. 
 of 80,000; Riobamba, and Cuenca, all 
 situated at a height of 9000 feet or more 
 above the sea. The chief ports of Ecua- 
 dor are Guayaquil and Esmeraldas. 
 The most considerable rivers, the Tigre, 
 Napo, Pastaza, etc., belong to the basin 
 of the Amazon. Ecuador is compara- 
 tively poor in mammalia; although var- 
 ious kinds of deer as well as tapirs and 
 peccaries are found in the forests. Par- 
 rots and humming-birds are also nu- 
 merous, but perhaps the most remark- 
 able of the birds in Ecuador is the con- 
 dor, which dwells on the slopes of the 
 
 Andes. Reptiles, Including serpents, 
 are numerous. The forests yield cin- 
 chona bark, caoutchouc, sarsaparilla, 
 vegetable ivory, etc. The climate on the 
 plains, both in the east and the west, is 
 moist, hot, and unhealthy. In the 
 higher regions the climate is rough and 
 cold, but in great part the elevated 
 valleys, as that of Quito, enjoy a de- 
 lightful climate. Here the chief pro- 
 ductions are potatoes, barley, wheat, 
 and European fruits. In the lower 
 regions are grown all the food-products 
 of tropical climates, cacao, coffee, sugar, 
 etc. Cacao forms three-fourths (or more) 
 of the whole export; the remainder is 
 made up of coffee, hides, vegetable 
 ivory, caoutchouc, etc. The people are 
 poorly educated. The religion is exclu- 
 sively Roman Catholic. The executive 
 goveriunent is vested in a president 
 elected for four years, who is assisted by 
 a council of state. The congress is the 
 legislative body, and consists of two 
 houses, one formed of senators, two for 
 each province, the other of deputies, 
 one for every 30,000 inhabitants, both 
 elected by universal suffrage. The money 
 unit is the sucre, equivalent to a 5-franc 
 piece, but the coins of the U. States, 
 France, and Britain circulate. Rail- 
 ways and telegraphs have made little 
 progress. — Ecuador at the time of the 
 conquest of Peru by the Spaniards 
 formed part of the great empire of the 
 Incas. Of the present population, the 
 aboriginal red race form more than half ; 
 the rest are negroes, mulattoes, mesti- 
 zos, a degenerate breed of mixed negio 
 and Indian blood, and Spanish Creoles 
 or whites. The latter are the chief pos- 
 sessors of the land, but are deficient in 
 energy. Pop. estimated, 1,275,000. 
 
 ECUMENICAL COUNCIL, a general 
 ecclesiastical council regarded as rep- 
 resenting the whole Roman Catholic 
 Church. The last was held at Rome in 
 1870. There were present 803, including 
 cardinals, archbishops, bishops, abbots, 
 and generals of orders. After much dis- 
 cussion, and the withdrawal of a number 
 of bishops, the infallibility of the pope 
 as head of the church was affirmed and 
 promulgated. 
 
 EC'ZEMA, a disease of the skin, 
 marked by an eruption of small vesicles, 
 preceded by redness, heat, and itching 
 of the part. In course of time the mi- 
 nute vesicles burst, and discharge a thin 
 acrid fluid, which often gives rise to ex- 
 coriation. The most severe form of this 
 disease arises from constitutional con- 
 ditions, but purely local attacks are like- 
 wise caused by exposure of the skin to 
 irritating substances. 
 
 EDDA, the name given to two ancient 
 Icelandic works, the one consisting of 
 mythological poems, the other being 
 mainly in prose. The first of these col- 
 lections, called the Older or Poetic Edda, 
 was compiled in the 13th century. For 
 a long time an earlier date was given, 
 the compiler being erroneousl}^ believed 
 to have been Ssemund Sigfusson, a 
 learned Icelandic clergyman, who lived 
 from about 1056 to 1133. It consists of 
 thirty-three pieces, written in allitera- 
 tive verse, and comprising epic tales of 
 the Scandinavian gods and goddesses, 
 and narratives dealing with the Scan- 
 dinavian heroes. These poems are now 
 
EDDY 
 
 EDINBURGH 
 
 
 t 
 
 / ' 
 ?;■ 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 I, 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 (. 
 
 
 assigned to a period extending from the 
 9th to the 11th century. The prose 
 Edda, or Younger Edda, presents a kind 
 of prose synopsis of the Northern myth- 
 ology; a treatise on the Scaldic poetry 
 and versification, with rules and ex- 
 amples; and lastly a poem (with a com- 
 mentary) in honor of Haco of Norway 
 (^ed 1263). In its earliest form this 
 collection is ascribed to Snorri Sturluson, 
 who was born in Iceland in 1178, and 
 was assassinated there in 1241 on his 
 return from Norway, where he had been 
 scald or court poet. 
 
 EDDY, Clarence, an American organ- 
 ist, born in Massachusetts in 1851. In 
 1894 he became organist of the First 
 Congregational Church in Chicago. He 
 has composed a considerable quantity 
 of organ music and has translated im- 
 portant text-books from the German. 
 
 EDDY, Mary Baker Glover, the 
 founder of Christian Science, born in 
 ' New Hampshire in 1822. She discovered 
 j Christian Science in 1866, founded the 
 . first Christian Science Church in 1879 at 
 ! Boston, and the Massachusetts Meta- 
 I physical College in 1881. Her principal 
 ■ work is Science and Health, with Key to 
 the Scriptures, in which the doctrines 
 of Christian Science are set forth. (See 
 Christian Science.) 
 
 EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, a light- 
 house in the English Channel, erected to 
 mark a group of rocks lying in the fair 
 way from the Start to the Lizard. The 
 rocks are covered only at the flood. 
 
 EDELWEISS (a'del-vis), a composite 
 plant inhabiting the Alps, and often 
 growing in the most inaccessible places. 
 Its flower-heads are surrounded by a 
 
 Edelweiss. 
 
 spreading foliaceous wooly involucre, 
 and its foliage is also of the same woolly 
 character. It is not difficult to cultivate, 
 but is apt to lose its peculiar woolly ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 E'DEN, the original residence of the 
 first human pair. It is said to have had 
 a garden in the eastern part of it, and we 
 are told that a river went out of Eden to 
 water this garden, and from thence it 
 was parted into four heads, which were 
 called respectively Bison, Gihon, Hid- 
 dekel, and Euphrates (Phrat), but this 
 does not enable us to identify the local- 
 ity. It was not the whole of Eden that 
 was assigned to man for his first habita- 
 tion, but the part toward the east, to 
 which the translators of the Authorized 
 Version have given the name of the 
 P. E.— 26 
 
 Garden of Eden, and which Milton, in 
 Paradise Lost, calls Paradise, that word 
 (originally Persian) having in its Greek 
 form (paradeisos) been applied to the 
 Garden of Eden by the translators of the 
 Septuagint. 
 
 EDENTA'TA (e-), or toothless ani- 
 mals, the name of an order of Mam- 
 malia, though only two genera of the 
 order want teeth, the ant-eaters, and 
 the pangolins. The remainder are merely 
 
 1, Skull and (3) tooth of a small species of 
 armadillo. 3, Skull of Great ant-eater. 
 
 destitute of teeth in the front of the jaws. 
 The teeth they possess, however, are 
 destitute of enamel, do not have com- 
 plete roots, and are not replaced by a 
 second set. This order is also charac- 
 terized by the presence of great claws 
 surrounding the ends of the toes, and 
 more or less approximating to the nature 
 of hoofs. It is divided into two sections, 
 the first comprehending the sloths, 
 which subsist on vegetable food, and the 
 gigantic fossil animals the Megatherium 
 and the Megalon 3 rx ; and the second in- 
 cluding the armadillos and the ant- 
 eaters, which live mainly on insects, 
 though some of the armadillos eat other 
 sorts of animal food, and also vegetables. 
 
 EDGAR ATHELING, grandson of Ed- 
 mund Ironside and son of Edward the 
 
 but made peace with William and ac- 
 cepted the Earldom of Oxford. 
 
 EDIBLE BIRDS’ NESTS. See Birds’- 
 nests. Edible. 
 
 EDICT, a public proclamation by a 
 sovereign, a governor, or other com- 
 petent official. 
 
 EDICT OF NANTES. See Nantes. 
 
 ED'INBURGH, the metropolis of 
 Scotland, and one of the finest as well as 
 most ancient cities in the British em- 
 pire, lies within 2 miles of the south 
 shore of the Firth of Forth. It is pic- 
 turesquely situated, being built on three 
 eminences which run in a direction from 
 east to west, and surrounded on all sides 
 by lofty hills except on the north, where 
 the ground slopes gently toward the 
 Firth of Forth. The central ridge, 
 which constituted the site of the ancient 
 city, is terminated by the castle on the 
 west, situated on a high rock, and by 
 Holyrood House on the east, not far 
 from which rise the lofty elevations of 
 Salisbury Crags, Arthur’s Seat (822 feet 
 high), and the Calton Hill overlooking 
 the city. Among the notable buildings 
 are the ancient Parliament House, now 
 the seat of the supreme courts of Scot- 
 land; St. Giles’s Church or Cathedral, an 
 imposing edifice in the later Gothic stjde, 
 recently carefully restored; the Tron 
 Church; Victoria Hall (where the Gen- 
 eral Assembly of the Established Church 
 meets), with a fine spire; the Bank of 
 Scotland; etc., besides some of the old 
 family houses of the Scottish nobility 
 and other buildings of antiquarian in- 
 terest. In the old town the most remark- 
 able public building is the castle. This 
 fortress contains accommodation for 
 2000 soldiers, and the armory space for 
 30,000 stand of arms. In an apartment 
 
 Edinljurgh, showing the prison, the castle, Scott monument, Princess street, etc. 
 
 Outlaw, was born in Hungary, where his 
 father had been conveyed in infancy to 
 escape the designs of Canute. After the 
 battle of Hastings, Edgar (who had been 
 brought to England in 1057) was pro- 
 claimed king of England by the Saxons, 
 
 here are kept the ancient regalia of Scot- 
 land. The palace of Holyrood, or Holy- 
 rood House, as it is more generally called, 
 stands at the lower or eastern extremity 
 of the street leading to the castle. In 
 the northwest angle of the building are 
 
EDINBURGH 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 the apartments which were occupied by 
 Queen Mary, nearly in the same state in 
 which they were left by that unfortunate 
 princess. Adjoining the palace are the 
 ruins of the chapel belonging to the 
 Abbey of Holyrood, founded in 1128 by 
 David I. On the south side of the Old 
 Town, and separated from it also by a 
 hollow crossed by two bridges (the 
 South Bridge and George IV. Bridge), 
 stands the remaining portion of the city, 
 which, with the exception of a few unim- 
 portant streets, is mostly modern. Be- 
 sides the buildings already noticed Edin- 
 burgh possesses a large number of im- 
 portant edifices and institutions, chief 
 among which are the Royal Institution 
 (accommodating the Royal Society and 
 other bodies), the National (Picture) 
 Gallery, the National Portrait Gallery, 
 the Museum of Science and Art, the 
 Episcopal Cathedral of St. Mary’s, the 
 High-school register office, etc. Among 
 the more prominent educational insti- 
 tutions are the University, the High- 
 school, the Academy, the Free Church 
 Theological College, the United Presby- 
 terian Theological Hall, the Edinburgh 
 School of Medicine, the Veterinary Col- 
 lege, the Fettes College, on the model of 
 the great English public schools, the 
 Heriot-Watt College, technical, com- 
 mercial, and literary, several endowed 
 secondary schools. The Advocates’ 
 Library, the largest in Scotland, con- 
 tains upward of 300,000 printed vol- 
 umes and 3000 MSS. ; the University Li- 
 brary, 200,000; the Library of Writers to 
 the Signet, 90,000. There is also a rate- 
 supported public library. The town 
 was made a royal burgh in the time of 
 David I.; but it was not till the 15th 
 century that it became the recognized 
 capital of Scotland. Pop. 316,479. — 
 The county of Edinburgh or Midlothian 
 is bounded n. by the Firth of Forth, 
 along which it extends 11 or 12 miles; 
 and by the counties of Linlithgow, Had- 
 dington, Berwick, Lanark, Peebles, 
 Selkirk, and Roxburgh; area, 234,926 
 acres, over half of which is aralsle or un- 
 der permanent pasture. The principal 
 rivers are the North and South Esks and 
 the Water of Leith, all running into the 
 Forth. The chief crops are oats, barley, 
 turnips, and potatoes. The manufac- 
 tures are comparatively limited, but 
 include ale, whisky, gunpowder, paper, 
 tiles, etc. The fisheries are valuable. 
 The chief towns are: Edinburgh, Leith, 
 Dalkeith, Musselburgh, and Portobello. 
 Pop. 488.647. 
 
 EDINBURGH, Duke of, H.R.H.,Prince 
 Alfred Ernest Albert, K.G., K.T., K.P., 
 etc., late Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
 the second son of Queen Victoria, was 
 born at Windsor Castle, Aug. 6, 1844. 
 In 1862 he declined the offer of the 
 throne of Greece. In 1874 he married 
 the Grand-duchess Marie, only daughter 
 of the Emperor of Russia. In 1893 he 
 succeeded his uncle as ruler of Saxe- 
 Coburg-Gotha, He had one son (who 
 predeceased him) and four daughters. 
 He died in 1900. 
 
 EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY, the lat- 
 est of the Scottish universities, was 
 founded in 1582 by a charter granted by 
 James VI. The number of chairs is now 
 over forty, besides assistants. The 
 universitjr is a corporation consisting of 
 
 a chancellor, rector, principal, professors, 
 registered graduates and alumni, and 
 matriculated students. Its government 
 is administered by the University Court, 
 the Senatus Academicus, and the 
 General Council, as in the other Scottish 
 universities, in all of which new ordi- 
 nances have been introduced under the 
 Universities (Scotland) Act of 1889. 
 The University Court, which is the 
 supreme governing body of the uni- 
 versity, consists of the rector, who is 
 president, the principal, the Lord-pro- 
 vost of Edinburgh, and eleven assessors. 
 The Senatus superintends the teaching 
 and discipline of the university, and 
 consists of the principal and professors. 
 The General Council consists of the 
 chancellor, who is president, tfie mem- 
 bers of the University Court and Sena- 
 tus, and the graduates of the university. 
 It takes cognizance of matters generally 
 affecting the well-being of the university. 
 The chancellor is the official head of the 
 university, and it is through him or his 
 deputy, the vice-chancellor, that de- 
 grees are conferred. He is elected for life 
 by the general council. The principal is 
 the resident head of the university and 
 president of the Senatus, and is appoint- 
 ed for life (at Edinburgh by a body called 
 the “Curators,” elsewhere by the crown). 
 The rector is elected for three years by 
 the matriculated students. There are 
 six faculties in the university, viz. arts, 
 science, divinity, law, medicine, and 
 music. The library contains 200,000 
 volumes. There are bursaries, scholar- 
 ships, and fellowships, amounting annu- 
 ally to about $60,000. 
 
 EDISON, Thomas Alva, a noted Amer- 
 ican inventor, born in Ohio in 1847. 
 He began his career as a newsboy on the 
 Grand Trunk Railway, and early began 
 to experiment with mechanical and 
 electrical devices. He learned the art of 
 telegraphy at Mount Clemens, Mich., 
 and soon afterward invented his auto- 
 matic repeater. Going to Boston he 
 secured work as an operator and was 
 meanwhile busy with new inventions, 
 among them a vote recorder, and the 
 so-called “ticker” for tbe printing of 
 market quotations. His greatest in- 
 vention was that of the quadruplex 
 telegraph system which revolutionized 
 the art of telegraphy. He improved the 
 telephone, invented the phonograph, 
 and perfected the incandescent electric 
 light. Edison has taken out hundreds 
 of patents many of which have proved 
 to be failures. He may be truly said, 
 however, to be the greatest inventor 
 of history. 
 
 ED'MONTON, a town in England, 
 county of Middlesex, 7J miles north of 
 London, with an extensive trade in tim- 
 ber, carried on by the Lea River na%’iga- 
 tion. The “Bell at Edmonton” has be- 
 come famous by association with the 
 adventures of Cowper’s John Gilpin. 
 Pop. 46,899. 
 
 EDMUND I., King of England, an 
 able and spirited prince, succeeded his 
 brother Athelstan in 940. He con- 
 quered Cumbria, which he bestowed on 
 Malcolm, king of Scotland, on condition 
 of doing homage for it to himself. He 
 was slain at a banquet May 26, 946. 
 
 EDMUND H., surnamed Ironside, 
 IGng of England, was the eldest son of I 
 
 Ethelred II., and was born in 989. He 
 was chosen king in 1016, Canute having 
 been already elected king by another 
 party. He won several victories over 
 Canute, but was defeated at Assandun 
 in Essex, and forced to surrender the 
 midland and northern counties to 
 Canute. He died after a reign of only 
 seven months. 
 
 EDRIOPHTHAL'MATA, one of the 
 great divisions of the Crustacea, includ- 
 ing all those genera which have their 
 eyes sessile, or imbedded in the head. 
 
 Edriophthalmata. 
 
 1, Fresh-water shrimp, a, single eye. 2. Head 
 
 of cymothoa. b, clusters of simple eyes. 
 
 and not fixed on a peduncle or stalk as 
 in the crabs, lobsters, etc. It includes 
 slaters, sandhoppers, woodlice, etc. 
 Some are parasitic on fishes, and of the 
 others some live in the sea and some on 
 land, as the common and the sea wood- 
 louse. 
 
 EDSON, Cyrus, an American physi- 
 cian born in New York in 1857. He has 
 been active in the sanitation affairs of 
 New York City and is the inventor of 
 several important surgical instruments. 
 
 EDUCATION, in the widest sense, all 
 that course of instruction and discipline 
 which is intended to enlighten the under- 
 standing, correct the temper, cultivate 
 the taste, and form the manners and 
 habits of youth, and fit them for useful- 
 ness in their future stations. Or it may 
 be defined as the art or scientifically- 
 matured system of developing and culti- 
 vating the various physical, intellectual, 
 sesthetic, and moral faculties; and may 
 thence be divided into four branches — 
 physical, intellectual, esthetic, and 
 moral education. Under physical edu- 
 cation is included all that relates to the 
 healthy development of the organs of 
 sensation and the muscular and nervous 
 system. Intellectual education compre- 
 hends the means by which the powers 
 of the understanding are to be developed 
 and improved, and the imparting of 
 instruction in the various branches of 
 knowledge. ^Esthetic education com- 
 prehends the agencies which purify and 
 refine the mind by training it to per- 
 ceive and take delight in what is beauti- 
 ful, true, and pure in nature, literature, 
 and art. Moral education (in which 
 may or may not be included religious 
 education) embraces the various meth- 
 ods of cultivating and regulating the 
 affections of the heart. In the popular 
 view education is much the same as 
 instruction, and is regarded as consist- 
 ing simply in the lessons and discipline 
 learned in connection with attendance 
 at school. So far as governments or 
 other public bodies have interested 
 themselves in the education of youth 
 this view is tolerably correct; but 
 probably the most perfect system of 
 education would be one in which 
 schools formed no part whatever. 
 Schools, however, seem to have been. 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 EDWARD IV. 
 
 established at a very early period in the 
 history of all civilized communities, 
 though not necessarily in connection 
 with any system of national education. 
 Indeed a thoroughly-organized system of 
 national education exists in but few 
 states, Germany being the most con- 
 spicuous example of such. In England 
 no national system existed till the pass- 
 ing of the education act of 1870, and in 
 Britain it is only elementary education 
 that can be said to be established on a 
 satisfactory footing. A complete sys- 
 tem of national education ought to 
 make satisfactory provision for primary 
 or elementary education, secondary 
 education, and higher or university edu- 
 cation, besides providing for the due 
 education of teachers, and for technical 
 education, commercial education, artis- 
 tic education, etc.; but how far educa- 
 tion in any department should be free 
 (or at the expense of the state) is a 
 question on which authorities are not 
 agreed. Elementary education is prac- 
 tically free in Britain, France, Italy, 
 Germany, the United States, Canada, 
 several of the Australian colonies, and 
 elsewhere. In a properly-organized sys- 
 tem the three great classes of educational 
 institutions would be interdependent, 
 the primary schools supplying pupils 
 satisfactorily equipped for passing into 
 the secondary schools, and these again 
 passing on a certain number of their 
 pupils to the university sufficiently 
 equipped for entering on their more 
 advanced studies. It is generally agreed 
 that elementary education should be 
 compulsory, and this is now the law in 
 Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Den- 
 mark, many of the United States, etc.; 
 but the law may exist with more or less 
 laxity in the enforcement of it. The 
 elementary schools have, at their special 
 province, the teaching of those branches 
 of education that everyone ought to be 
 instructed in, such as reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, grammar, geography, etc.; 
 but they usually teach also a number of 
 other subjects. The secondary schools 
 include institutions known as high 
 schools, academies, grammar-schools, 
 colleges, etc. The sunjects taught in 
 them are such as ancient and modern 
 languages, mathematics, science, history, 
 geography, etc., and they may either 
 prepare pupils who intend to engage in 
 commerce or other business, or who 
 intend to proceed to the university. 
 Thus in some secondary schools there 
 is a modern side and a classical side (or 
 similar divisions); while in Germany 
 there are the two distinct classes of 
 schools, the “real-schools,”) for modern 
 subjects), and the gymnasia. The uni- 
 versities provide an education for the 
 so-called “learned profession,” as well 
 as for all who appreciate the advantages 
 of a university training. Their most 
 characteristic feature is the privilege 
 of granting degrees. Since 1900, Eng- 
 lish education, primary, secondary, and 
 technical, has been under the control of 
 the board of education, consisting of a 
 president, the lord-president of the 
 council, the principal secretaries of 
 state, the first commissioner of the 
 treasury, and the chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer. There are separate education 
 departments for Scotland and Ireland. 
 
 EDUCATION, COMMERCIAL, in the 
 
 United States the teaching of account 
 keeping, and other arts used in the con- 
 duct of business generally. Commercial 
 education differs from technical educa- 
 tion in that the American business or 
 commercial college does not include the 
 sciences in its curriculum. Of recent 
 years institutions of higher education 
 have taken up technical and commercial 
 education on a scale much larger than 
 before, and the importance of this 
 branch of learning is a constantly grow- 
 ing quantity in American educational 
 systems. The number of students in 
 independent business colleges agregates 
 hundreds of thousands. 
 
 EDUCATION, COMMISSIONER OF, 
 the title of the chief of the United States 
 Bureau of Education at Washington, 
 D.C. He is appointed by the president 
 and has charge of all educational statis- 
 tics. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, the 
 
 National, an association of American 
 teachers, organized in 1857 and incor- 
 porated in 1886. Annual meetings of 
 the association are held in various parts 
 of the country and the members read 
 papers upon and discuss all aspects of 
 their profession. The annual reports of 
 the society are the most important 
 educational documents published in the 
 United States. 
 
 EDWARD, known as the Elder, King 
 of England, son of Alfred the Great, 
 born about 870, succeeded his father in 
 901. His reign was distinguished by 
 successes over the Danes. He died in 
 925. 
 
 EDWARD, surnamed the Martyr, 
 IGng of England, succeeded his father, 
 Edgar, at the age of fifteen, in 975. He 
 was treacherously slain in 979 by a ser- 
 vant of his step-mother, at her residence, 
 Corfe Castle. The pity caused by his 
 innocence and misfortune induced the 
 people to regard him as a martyr. 
 
 EDWARD, King of England, sur- 
 named the Confessor. On the death of 
 his maternal brother, Hardicanute the 
 Dane, in 1041, he was called to the 
 throne, and thus renewed the Saxon line. 
 His queen was the daughter of Godwin, 
 earl of Kent. He died in 1066, and was 
 succeeded by Harold, the son of Godwin. 
 He caused a body of laws to be com- 
 piled from those of Ethelbert, Ina, and 
 Alfred, to which the nation was long 
 fondly attached. He was canonized by 
 Pope Alexander III. in 1166. 
 
 EDWARD, Prince of Wales, surnamed 
 the Black Prince, born June 15, 1330, 
 the eldest son of Edward III. and 
 Philippa of Hainault. In 1346 he com- 
 manded part of the forces at the battle 
 of Cr^cy, and earned the praise of his 
 warlike father. It was on this occasion 
 hat he adopted the motto Ich dien 
 (I serve), used by all succeeding princes' 
 of Wales. He died in 1376. 
 
 EDWARD I. (of the Norman line), 
 King of England, son of Henry III., was 
 born at Winchester in 1239. The con- 
 tests between his father and the barons 
 called him early into active life, and he 
 finally quelled all resistance to the royal 
 authority by the decisive defeat of 
 Leicester at the battle of Evesham, in 
 1265. During his reign great progess 
 was made in the establishment of law 
 
 and oraer throughout the land. He 
 died in 1307. 
 
 EDWARD II., King of England, born 
 at Caernarvon Castle in 1284, and the 
 first English Prince of Wales, succeeded 
 his father, Edward I., in 1307. The 
 king’s fondness for a favorite, Hugh le 
 Despenser, had made a number of 
 malcontents, and Queen Isabella, mak- 
 ing a visit to France, entered into a 
 correspondence with the exiles there, 
 and formed an association of all hostile 
 to the king. Aided with a force from 
 the Count of Hainault she landed in 
 Suffolk in 1326. Her army was com- 
 pletely successful. The Despensers were 
 captured and executed, and the king 
 was taken prisoner and confined in 
 Kenilworth, and ultimately in Berkeley 
 Castle, where he was murdered 21st 
 Sept. 1327. 
 
 EDWARD III., King of England, son 
 of Edward II. by Isabella of France, 
 was born in 1313. On his father’s 
 deposition in 1327 he was proclaimed 
 king under a council of regency. Col- 
 lecting an army and accompanied by 
 the Black Prince, he crossed over to 
 France. The memorable battle of 
 Crecy followed, August 25, 1346, which 
 was succeeded by the siege of Calais. 
 In the meantime DaA'id II., having re- 
 covered the throne of Scotland invaded 
 England with a large army, but was 
 defeated and taken prisoner by a much 
 inferior force under Lord Percy. In 
 1348 a truce was concluded with France; 
 but on the death of King Philip, in 1350, 
 Edward again invaded France, plunder- 
 ing and devastating. Recalled home 
 by a Scottish inroad he retaliated by 
 carrying fire and sword from Berwick 
 to Edinburgh. In the meantime the 
 Black Prince had penetrated from Gui- 
 enne to the heart of France, fought the 
 famous battle of Poictiers,'^nd taken 
 King John prisoner. A truce was then 
 
 Edward the Black Prince— Effigy at 
 Canterbury. 
 
 made at the expiration of which (1359) 
 Edward again crossed over to France 
 and laid waste the provinces of Picardy 
 and Champagne, but at length consented 
 to a peace. This confirmed him in the 
 possession of several provinces and dis- 
 tricts of France which were intrusted to 
 the Prince of AVales (the Black Prince), 
 but gradually all the English possessions 
 in France, with the exception of Bor- 
 deaux, Bayonne, and Calais, were lost. 
 King Edward died a year after his heroic 
 son. June 21, 1377. 
 
 EDWARD IV., King of England, was 
 born in 1441 . His father, Richard, Duke 
 
EDWARD V, 
 
 EGGLESTON 
 
 of York, was grandson of Edmund, Earl 
 of Cambridge and Duke of York, fourth 
 son of Edward III., while the rival line 
 of Lancaster descended from John of 
 Gaunt, the third son. The victory of 
 Towton, soon after his accession, con- 
 firmed his title, and three years after, on 
 May 4, 1464, the battle of Hexham com- 
 pletely overthrew the party of Henry VI. 
 The king now made an imprudent mar- 
 riage with Elizabeth, widow of Sir John 
 Grey, at the very time when he had de- 
 spatched the Earl of Warwick to nego- 
 tiate a marriage for him with the sister of 
 the French king. He thus alienated 
 powerful friends, and Warwick, passing 
 over to the Lancastrian cause, gathered 
 a large army, and compelled Edward to 
 flee the country. Henry’s title was once 
 more recognized by parliament. But in 
 1471 Edward, at the head of a small 
 force given him by the Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, landed at Ravenspur in York- 
 shire, and his army, being ciuickly in- 
 creased by partisans, marched swiftly on 
 London and took the unfortunate Henry 
 prisoner. Warwick now advanced with 
 an army to Barnet, where a battle was 
 fought, 4th April, 1471, which ended in 
 the death of Warwick and a decisive 
 victory for Edward. The Idng was pre- 
 paring for an expedition against France 
 when he died, in April, 1483. 
 
 EDWARD V., King of England, the 
 eldest son of Edward IV., was in his 
 thirteenth year when he succeeded his 
 father in 1483. His uncle, the Duke of 
 Gloucester, soon made himself king as 
 Richard III., and caused the young king 
 and his brother to be sent to the Tower, 
 where, it is said, he had them smothered 
 by ruffians. 
 
 EDWARD VI., King of England, son 
 of Henry VIII. by Jane Seymour, was 
 born in 1537. His reign was uneventful. 
 Edward died of a pulmonary complaint 
 in July, 1553. 
 
 EDWARD VII., King of Great Brit- 
 ain and Ireland and Emperor of India, 
 eldest son of Queen Victoria and the 
 Prince Consort, was born at Bucking- 
 ham Palace on Nov. 9, 1841. In Decem- 
 ber he was created Prince of Wales. He 
 was educated under private tutors and 
 at Edinburgh, Oxford, and Cambridge; 
 visited Canada and the U. States in 1860; 
 and underwent military training at the 
 Curragh camp in 1861. He was pro- 
 moted to the rank of general in 1862, 
 and in that year visited Palestine and 
 the East. Next year he took his seat in 
 the House of Lords. On March 10, 1863, 
 he was married in St. George’s Chapel, 
 Windsor Castle, to Princess Alexandra, 
 eldest daughter of the King of Denmai'k, 
 and from this time onward he discharged 
 many public ceremonial functions. At- 
 tacked by typhoid fever in the winter of 
 1871, his life was for a time despaired of, 
 but he recovered early in 1872, his re- 
 covery being made the occasion of a 
 thanksgiving service in St. Paul’s Cathe- 
 dral. He visited India in 1875-76. He 
 was a member of the poor law com- 
 mission of 1893. He promoted the es- 
 tablishment of the Imperial Institute as 
 a memorial of Queen Victoria’s jubilee 
 (1887), and he commemorated her dia- 
 mond jubilee (1897) by founding the 
 Prince of Wales’s hospital fund for the 
 better financial support of the London I 
 
 hospitals. On the death of Queen Vic- 
 toria on Jan. 22, 1901, he succeeded to 
 the throne. To him and Queen Alex- 
 andra have been born: Albert Victor 
 Christian Edward, Duke of Clarence and 
 Avondale, born 1864, died 1892; George 
 Frederick Ernest Albert, now Prince of 
 Wales and heir-apparent, born 1865, 
 married 1893, to Princess Victoria Mary 
 of Teck; Princess Louise, born 1867, 
 married 1889, to the Duke of Fife; 
 Princess Victoria, born 1868; and Prin- 
 cess Maud, born 1869, married 1896, to a 
 son of the Crown Prince of Denmark. 
 
 EDWARDS, Jonathan, a celebrated 
 American theologian and metaphysician, 
 born at East Windsor, Connecticut, 
 October 5, 1703. He entered Yale Col- 
 lege in 1716, and studied till 1722, when 
 
 he received a license as preacher. In 
 1723 he was elected a tutor in Yale Col- 
 lege, but resigned in 1726 to be ordained 
 as minister at Northampton, Mass. 
 After more than twenty-three years of 
 zealous service here he was dismissed by 
 the congregation owing to the severity 
 with wluch he sought to exercise church 
 discipline. He then went as a mission- 
 ary among the Indians at Stockbridge, 
 in Massamiusetts. Here he composed 
 his famous work on the Freedom of the 
 Will, a masterpiece of metaphysical 
 argument. It appeared in 1754, and 
 was completed within four months and a 
 half. In 1757 he was chosen president 
 of the college at Princeton, New Jersey, 
 but died shortly afterward, March 22, 
 1758. 
 
 EDWY, King of England, son of Ed- 
 mund I., succeeded his uncle Edred in 
 955. He died in 959, being probably 
 not more than eighteen or nineteen 
 years old. 
 
 EEL, the general name of a family of 
 fishes. The eel is characterized by its 
 serpent-like elongated body, by the ab- 
 sence of ventral fins, and the continuity 
 of the dorsal and anal fins round the 
 extremity of the tail. The dorsal fin 
 commences half-way between the head 
 and the anal fin, and the lower jaw pro- 
 jects beyond the upper. The conger eel 
 which is exclusively marine, the dorsal 
 fin commences above the pectoral, and 
 the upper jaw is the longer. The smooth- 
 ness of the body — the scales being in- 
 conspicuous — and the serpentine move- 
 ments of eels are proverbial. 
 
 EFFEN'DI, a Turkish title which sig- 
 nifies lord or master. It is particularly 
 applied to the civil, as aga is to the mili- 
 tary officers of the sultan. Thus the 
 
 sultan’s first physician is called Hakim 
 effendi, the priest in the seraglio Iman 
 effendi, etc. 
 
 EFFERVES'CENCE, the rapid escape 
 of a gas from a liquid, producing a tur- 
 bulent motion in it, and causing it to 
 boil up. It is produced by the actual 
 formation of a gas in the liquid, as in 
 fermentation, or by the liberation of a 
 gas which has been forced into it, as in 
 aerated beverages. 
 
 EF'FIGY, an image or portrait, most 
 frequently applied to the figures on 
 sepulchral monuments. — To burn or 
 hang in effigy, is to burn or , hang an 
 image or picture of a person, a mode in 
 which the populace sometimes expresses 
 its feelings respecting an obnoxious per- 
 sonage. 
 
 EFFLORES'CENCE, the fine white, 
 feathery crystallization of sulphate and 
 carbonate of sodium which appears on 
 walls, or similar crystallizations on the 
 surface of the earth, in decomposing 
 rocks, etc. In medicine the term is ap- 
 plied to an eruption or rash, as in 
 measles, etc. 
 
 EFFLUVIUM (pi. Effluvia), a noxious 
 or disagreeable exhalation. 
 
 EGAN, Patrick, an Irish-American 
 politician, born in Ireland in 1841. 
 Until 1883 he was active in the home rule 
 movement in Ireland, but in that year 
 settled in the U. States at Lincoln, Neb. 
 He was appointed minister to Cliile by 
 President Harrison in 1888. Egan for 
 some time was the leader of the Irish 
 revolutionists in America. 
 
 EGBERT, considered the first king of 
 all England, was of the royal family of 
 Wessex. He succeeded Brihtric in 802 
 as King of Wessex. He reduced the 
 other kingdoms and rendered them de- 
 pendent on him in 829, thus becoming 
 their overlord. He died in 839. 
 
 EGG, a body specially developed in 
 the females of animals, and in which, by 
 impregnation, the development of the 
 young animal takes place. Birds, rep- 
 tiles, fishes, insects, and worms are ovip- 
 arous, i. e. bring forth eggs or ova, as 
 do also, among mammalia, the ornithor- 
 hynchus and echidna. The egg contains 
 the germ of the young animal, as well as 
 the substance which serves for its 
 nourishment. All it needs for its de- 
 velopment is external heat. The eggs of 
 animals lower than the birds have 
 usually only three parts, viz. the ger- 
 minal spot or dot, the germinal vesicle, 
 and the vitellus or yolk; the first being 
 contained in the vesicle, and that again 
 in the yolk. Besides these parts the eggs 
 of birds have the white or albumen, and 
 the shell, which consists of a membrane 
 coated with carbonate of lime. The 
 eggs of birds, especially of fowls, are a 
 pleasant and nutritive food. The com- 
 mon domestic fowl, the turke}', the pea- 
 hen, and the common duck produce the 
 the eggs which are commonest in the 
 market. Among reptiles, turtle produce 
 eggs wluch are good for eating. The 
 eggs of fishes are their roe or spawn. 
 
 EGGLESTON, Edward, an American 
 novelist, born in Indiana in 1837, died in 
 1902. In 1870 he was made literary 
 editor of the New York Independent, 
 and was later editor of the Hearth and 
 Home. Eggleston’s works, such as the 
 Hoosier Schoolmaster, The Mystery of 
 
EGGLESTON 
 
 EGYPT 
 
 Metropolisville, The Circuit Rider, and 
 other tales, are full of originality and 
 ower and occupy an unique place in 
 terature. 
 
 EGGLESTON, George Cary, an Ameri- 
 can writer and editor, born in Indiana in 
 1839. He has served as the editor of 
 numerous newspapers since 1870 and 
 has published several volumes of his- 
 torical memoirs and a number of novels. 
 
 EGG-NOG, a drink consisting of the 
 yolk of eggs beaten up with sugar, and 
 the white of eggs whipped, with the 
 addition of wine or spirits. 
 
 EGG-PLANT, an herbaceous plant, 
 from 1 foot to 18 inches high, with large 
 white or purplish flowers The fruit is 
 
 Egg-plant. 
 
 about the size of a goose’s egg, and gen- 
 erally yellow, white, or violet, and when 
 boiled or stewed is used as an article of 
 food. 
 
 EG'LA^TINE, one of the names of the 
 sweet-briar, a kind of wild rose. The 
 name has sometimes been erroneously 
 used for other species of the rose and for 
 the honeysuckle. 
 
 E'GOTISM, as a philosophical doc- 
 trine, the view that the elements of all 
 knowledge and the reality of the things 
 known are dependent on the personal 
 existence of the knower. Hence the 
 logical position of the egotist is to doubt 
 the substantial reality of everything 
 except his own existence. 
 
 EG'RET, a name given to those 
 species of white herons which have the 
 feathers of the lower part of the back 
 
 American great white egret. 
 
 elongated and their webs disunited, 
 reaching to the tail or beyond it at cer- 
 tain seasons of the year. Their forms 
 are more graceful than those of common 
 herons. The American egret is about 37 
 
 inches long to the end of the tail ; plum- 
 age soft and blended; head not crested; 
 wings moderate; the tail short, of twelve 
 weak feathers. The European egret is 
 about 40 inches long, of a pure white 
 plumage; the bill is black or dark brown, 
 yellow at the base and about the nos- 
 trils, and the legs are almost black. 
 The little egret is about 22 inches long 
 from bill to end of tail, the plumage is 
 white. 
 
 EGYPT (e'jipt), a country in the north- 
 eastern part of Africa, governed by a 
 ruler (the khedive or viceroy) who pays 
 tribute to the sultan of Turkey, but is 
 virtually independent. Egypt is bounded 
 on the n. by the Mediterranean Sea, on 
 the e. by Arabia and the Red Sea, and 
 on the w. by the Libyan Desert. Its 
 natural southern frontier may be placed 
 about Assouan (about 500 miles south 
 of the Mediterranean), near which cul- 
 tivated land almost disappears and the 
 counti-y begins to assume the features of 
 the Nubian Desert. Another point at 
 which the southern boundary has been 
 placed is the second cataract of the 
 Nile at Wady Haifa (about C70 miles 
 south of the Mediterranean), which is the 
 limit of free navigation for larger vessels. 
 Farther south lies the extensive region 
 known as the Egyptian Soudan. This 
 territory was acquired by conquest and 
 occupied for many years previous to the 
 Mahdist revolt of 1883, but the success 
 of the rebels led to its evacuation. Lord 
 Kitchener’s expedition in 1897-98, 
 however, regained the country for Egypt. 
 On the Red Sea littoral the farthest 
 point south under the Egyptian flag is 
 Suakin. A small strip of n. w. Arabia 
 on the east of the Red Sea belongs to 
 Egypt, as also the Sinaitic peninsula and 
 the Isthmus of Suez. - The area is about 
 394,000 sq. miles (only some 13,000 be- 
 ing inhabited), with a population of 
 9,734,405. The capital and largest town 
 
 is Cairo, the next largest and chief sea- 
 port is Alexandria. 
 
 The inhabited portion of Egypt is 
 mainly confined to the valley of the Nile, 
 which, where widest (at the Delta), does 
 not exceed 80 miles, and narrows stead- 
 ily as we ascend its stream till, at the 
 
 southern frontier, it is only 2 miles wide. 
 The Nile has no tides, but runs con- 
 stantly toward the sea at the rate of 
 to 3 miles an hour. After it enters 
 Egypt it flows in a northward direction 
 but with considerable bends till it 
 reaches lat. 30° 15', a little beyond 
 Cairo, where it divides into two main 
 streams, the Rosetta and Damietta 
 branches, which inclose that portion of 
 land known as the Delta and formed by 
 deposits of alluvial matter. Bordering 
 on the Mediterranean are several salt 
 lakes or lagoons, Menzaleh being the 
 largest, through which is carried the 
 Suez Canal, connecting the Mediter- 
 ranean and the Red Sea; and also pass- 
 ing through other salt lakes; about 150 
 miles south of the Mediterranean is the 
 lake Birket-el-Kurun, fed by the Nile. 
 As very little rain falls in Egypt, the 
 prosperity of the country entirely de- 
 pends upon the Nile, and especially upon 
 the yearly overflow of the river, which so 
 fertilizes the soil with a brown slimy 
 deposit that it produces two crops a 
 year. Beyond the limits of the inunda- 
 tion and of ii-rigation there is no culti- 
 vation whatsoever. The Nile begins to 
 rise in June, and continues to increase 
 until September, overflowing the low 
 lands along its course, the waters being 
 conveyed by canals where natural chan- 
 nels fail. The Delta then looks like an 
 immense marsh interspersed with is- 
 lands, villages, towns, and plantations, 
 just above the level of the water. After 
 a few days the water begins to subside, 
 and leaves the land again dry about the 
 end of October. The seed is then sown, 
 and artificial irrigation is maintained by 
 water raised from the river, and dis- 
 tributed by means of channels through- 
 out the fields. The appliances for rais- 
 ing water are simple and primitive; 
 chiefly the shadoof worked by two men, 
 and the sakieh driven by a donkey or an 
 
 ox. The land is soon covered with 
 green crops, and the first harvest is in 
 March. 
 
 The atmosphere in Egypt is extremely 
 clear and dry, the temperature regular 
 and exceedingly hot. The winter months 
 are the most delightful part of the year: 
 
 Chandler’s shops, Lower Egypt. 
 
EGYPT 
 
 EGYPT 
 
 later, the ground becomes parched and 
 dry, and in May the suffocating kham- 
 seen. or simoom, begins to blow from 
 the desert plains. Rain is scanty except 
 near the sea-shore; but at night the dews 
 are heavy in lower Egypt, and the air 
 cool and refreshing. Egypt is not re- 
 markably healthy, as, in addition to 
 visitations of plague and cholera, opthal- 
 mia, diarrhaea, dysentery, and boils are 
 very prevalent. 
 
 N ow as formerly there is little timber, 
 the principal trees, besides the date- 
 palm and tamarisk, being the sycamore 
 fig, and acacia or gum-arabic tree. The 
 pipyrus plant, once so important, is 
 now to be found only in one or two spots. 
 Of it was manufactured a paper which 
 was supplied to all the ancient world. 
 Beside the lotus or water-lily of the Nile, 
 Egypt has always been celebrated for its 
 production of corn, barley, a great 
 variety of the bean class, leeks, garlic, 
 onions, flax, and for plants of the cucum- 
 ber tribe. To the products of ancient 
 times have been added the sugar-cane, 
 cotton plant, indigo, and tobacco. 
 
 In spite of the fact that at least two 
 and sometimes three successive crops 
 may be gathered in a year, agriculture in 
 Egypt is still in a very low state; and 
 the extreme poverty and generally 
 wretched condition of the cultivators 
 render improvement difficult. There 
 are few trades which have attained a 
 development of any importance. 
 
 Of the inhabitants of Egypt those of 
 the peasant class, or fellahs as they are 
 called, appear to be descendants of the 
 ancient Egyptians mixed with Arab 
 blood. Having embraced Mohamme- 
 danism, they are often denominated 
 Arabs, though regarded by the true 
 Arab with contempt. The Copts are 
 the descendants of the ancient Egyp- 
 tians who embrace and still cling to the 
 Christian religion. With those aborigi- 
 nal inhabitants are mingled, in various 
 proportions, Turks, Arabs (chiefly Be- 
 douins), Armenians, Berbers, negroes, 
 and a considerable number of Euro- 
 peans, especially Greeks and Levantines. 
 
 The government of Egypt is in the 
 hands of the khedive or viceroy, who is 
 assisted by a ministry formed on the 
 model of those of Western Europe. The 
 title and government are hereditary, but 
 the khedive, as a Turkish vassal, has to 
 pay an annual tribute to the sultan of 
 about $3, .500, 000. 
 
 The Egyptians are the earliest people 
 known to us as a nation. When Abra- 
 ham entered the Delta from Canaan 
 they had been long enjoying the ad- 
 vantages of a settled government. They 
 had built cities, invented hieroglyphic 
 signs, and improved them into syllabic 
 writing, and almost into an alphabet. 
 They had invented records, and wrote 
 their kings’ names and actions on the 
 massive temples which they raised. The 
 arrangement of Egyptian chronology is 
 still a much-disputed point among 
 scholars. A list of the kings of Egypt, 
 arranged in 30 dynasties was given by 
 the priest Manetho about 250 n.c., and 
 this division is still used. Egyptologists 
 go back as far as 5,702 years before 
 Christ, and trace the founding of Egypt 
 by Mena, about that date, with the build- 
 ing of its capital, Memphis. The chro- 
 
 nology carries down with more or less 
 breaks through the various dynasties 
 until the conquest of Egypt in 332 b.c. 
 by Alexander the Great. Egypt be- 
 came a Greek state, subsequently a 
 Roman province, and finally in 640 a.d., 
 a mere territory of the Mohammedan 
 power which it remains to the present 
 day. Its glories are all in its ancient 
 civilization. This cilivization of the 
 Egyptian had reached a high pitch from 
 the earliest period to which we can trace 
 their history. The masonry of the 
 passages in the 'great pyramid has not 
 been surpassed at any age. More than 
 2000 B.c. the Egyptians had duodecimal 
 as well as decimal numbers; weights and 
 measures adjusted to a pound of 1400 
 grains. In mechanical arts the carpen- 
 ter, boat-builder, potter, leather-cutter, 
 glass-blower, and others are frequently 
 represented on their ancient monu- 
 ments, and we see the blow-pipe, bel- 
 lows, and siphons; the press, balance, 
 lever; the saw, the adze, the chisel, the 
 forceps, the syringe, harpoon, razors; 
 we have also glazed pottery, the potter’s 
 wheel, and the kiln; and dated speci- 
 mens of glass of the time of Thothmes 
 III., 1445 B.c. Gold-beating, damascen- 
 ing, engraving, casting, inlaying, wire- 
 drawing, and other processes, were 
 practiced. The processes of growing 
 and preparing flax, as well as the looms 
 employed, are all depicted. The social 
 and domestic life of the ancient Egyp- 
 tians is pictured for us on the walls of 
 their temples and tombs. The rich spent 
 much of their time in hospitality and 
 entertainments, especially of a musical 
 kind. In the country districts the 
 superintendence of the agricultural 
 works or the fisheries on their estates 
 was varied by the sports and pleasures 
 of a country life. The lower orders were 
 poor and uneducated, scantily fed and 
 clothed, and held in contempt by the 
 higher classes. But there was no strict 
 separation into caste; and although the 
 priests form a ruling bureaucracy, the 
 highest posts were open to the suc- 
 cessful scholar Next to the priesthood 
 in importance was the military class or 
 order, who were all landholders and 
 bound to serve in time of war. Below 
 these were the husbandmen, who paid a 
 small rent to the king. Egyptian cus- 
 tom seems to have allowed but one wife, 
 who occupied an honorable and well- 
 established position as the “lady of the 
 house ’’ 
 
 The two main principles on which the 
 religion of Egypt was based appear to 
 have been the existence of an omnip- 
 otent Being, whose various attributes 
 being deified, formed a series of divini- 
 ties; and the deification of the sun and 
 moon. Each group of divinities formed 
 a triad composed of a chief male deity, 
 with a wife or sister and a son, as Osiris, 
 Isis, and Horus, or Amun, Maut, and 
 Khonso. Among the other gods of the 
 Egyptian Pantheon are Ra, the sun, 
 usually represented as a hawk-headed 
 man. Mentu and Atmu are merely two 
 phases of Ra, the rising and the setting 
 sun. The worship of the bull Apis is 
 connected with Osiris. Serapis is the 
 defunct Apis, who has become Osiris. 
 Seth or Set represents the power of evil. 
 Ammon (Egyptian Amen), originally a 
 
 local god, owed his importance to the 
 greatness of his city, Thebes. Thoth 
 is the chief moon-god, and is generally 
 represented as ibis-headed. Anubis, 
 the jackal -headed, belonged to the 
 family of Osiris, and presided over mum- 
 mification. Besides these deities the 
 Egyptians worshiped beasts, reptiles, 
 and even vegetables, probably as sym- 
 bols. The Egyptians believed in the 
 transmigration of souls and in the exist- 
 ence of a future state, in which mankind 
 would be rewarded or punished accord- 
 ing to their actions while on earth. 
 
 The monuments we have left to us 
 in Egypt are of two main periods — those 
 
 Fig. 1 Plan of the Memnonium, Thebes. 
 
 built in the times of the Paraohs or 
 native kings, and those built during 
 the rule of the Greeks and Romans 
 (subsequently to 330 b.c.). The former 
 
 Fig. 2. Types of Egyptian columns. 
 
 period was by far the longer and more 
 important, and to it belong the most 
 characteristic examples of Egyptian 
 architecture and sculpture, such as 
 pyramids, vast temples, some of them 
 cut in the solid rock (as at Ipsambul), 
 rock-cut tombs, gigantic monolithic 
 obelisks, and colossal statues. The 
 characteristic features of the style 
 are solidity, boldness, and originality. 
 Among its peculiar characteristics may 
 be noted — symmetry of structure; the 
 gradual converging of the walls of some 
 of its edifices, especially of the propylsea 
 or tower gateways of its temples; roofs 
 and covered ways being flat, and com- 
 posed of immense blocks of stone reach- 
 ing from one wall or column to another, 
 the arch not being employed nor yet 
 
EGYPT 
 
 EGYPT 
 
 Fig. 6. Plan of Ptolemaic temple at Edf< 
 
 timber; columns numerous, close, and 
 massive, generally without bases, and 
 exhibiting great variety in their capitals, 
 from a simple square block to an elab- 
 orate composition of palm-leaves or other 
 forms suggested by vegetation Fig. 2) ; 
 
 doubt that these structures were in- 
 tended as the tombs of kings. The lead- 
 ing features of the Egyptian temples 
 were these: a gateway flanked by two 
 lofty pylons (Fig. 3) formed the entrance 
 to a square court (see Fig. 1, a entrance, 
 
 customary to place the name and titles 
 of the Pharaoh or king; the architrave 
 stone was symbolically ornamented 
 with the names of the divinities to 
 whom the temple was dedicated, and of 
 the sovereign in whose time it was built. 
 The abacus of the column was invari- 
 ably decorated with the royal titles. 
 The capitals were painted in accordance 
 with the intention of the form; if, for 
 instance, the expanded papyrus was 
 shown* the leaves of the calyx would 
 be yellow and the filaments green. Be- 
 neath were horizontal bands of blue and 
 white, and then a representation of the 
 king off'ering gifts to the gods of the 
 temple; and lastly, the yellow and red 
 lines at the base of the shaft signified 
 the brown leaves that envelop the base 
 of the stalk of the natural plant, The 
 Egyptian temple was invariably rectan- 
 gular, with its walls inclining inward, 
 and never more than one story high, 
 and the approach to it was frequently 
 
 Sphinx and pyramid. 
 
 through an avenue of sphinxes Fig. 3). 
 The temples built during the sway of 
 the Greeks and Romans, though having 
 a general resemblance to the earlier 
 ones, differed in some respects, as in 
 the use of more elaborate capitals, 
 more salient forms in the architectural 
 and sculptural decorations, etc. (The 
 Ptolemaic temple is shown in Fig. 6.) A 
 peculiar kind of mural sculpture was 
 
 Fig. 3. Restoration of the prodylon or gate of the Temple of Luxor. 
 
 the employment of a large concave mold- 
 ing in the entablature, decorated with 
 vertical flutings or leaves; walls and 
 columns decorated with a profusion of 
 
 Fig. 4. Hall of columns in the Memnonium— 
 Time of the Pharaohs. 
 
 sculptures in outline or low relief repre- 
 senting divinities, men, and animals, 
 with innumerable hieroglyphics, bril- 
 liant coloring being often superadded. 
 One remarkable feature associated with 
 
 b b pylons, c court). From this court 
 the way leads through a second gate- 
 way to an inner court (d), surrounded 
 by a colonnade. Beyond this is the 
 chamber of the temple known as the 
 Hall of Columns (Fig. 1 e, and Fig. 4), the 
 center avenue of which was higher than 
 the rest of the hall, and consisted usually 
 of twelve columns, which supported a 
 flat roof formed of massive stones, light 
 being admitted at the sides of this 
 elevated portion. To the Hall of Col- 
 umns succeeded a series of smaller cham- 
 bers, the roofs of which were generally 
 supported by six or four columns. 
 These apartments frequently surrounded 
 a dark chamber — the most sacred in the 
 temple — the holy of holies. The surface 
 
 this style is the grandeur of its mechani- 
 cal operations in cutting, polishing, 
 ®^'^^Pturing, and transporting vast blocks 
 of lirnestone and of granite. The 
 Py^’^id is one of the best-known forms 
 of Egyptian art, and there is little 
 
 Temple of Denderah. 
 
 of each architectural feature was en- 
 graved with its particular ornament 
 appropriately colored. In the cavetto, 
 or hollow molding of the cornice, it was 
 
 practiced among the Egyptians, the 
 outline of the object to be represented 
 being cut into the surface, while the 
 minor forms and rotundity are shown 
 
EGYPTIAN BEAN 
 
 ELASTICITY 
 
 within this incised outline, thus forming 
 a kind of “hollow relief.” For further 
 illustrations of Egyptian architecture, 
 see Architecture, Esneh, Karnak; and 
 for an account of the hieroglyphics of 
 ancient Egypt see Hieroglyphics. ’ 
 
 EGYPTIAN BEAN, a name sometimes 
 given to the bean-like fruits of the Nel- 
 umbium speciosum, or sacred lotus, 
 found in China, India, Australia, but no 
 longer on the Nile. 
 
 EGYPTIAN BLUE, a brilliant pig- 
 ment consisting of the hydrated pro- 
 toxide of copper mixed with a minute 
 quantity of iron. 
 
 EGYPTIAN VULTURE, a bird that 
 frequents both shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean, but rarely passes farther north, 
 though it has been found in the British 
 islands. It is one of the smaller vultures, 
 about the size of a raven. The general 
 color is white, the quill feathers of the 
 wing being dark brown. It frequents 
 the streets of eastern towns, where it is 
 protected on account of its services as 
 a scavenger. 
 
 EGYPTOLOGY, the science of Egyp- 
 tian antiquities, or that branch of knowl- 
 edge which deals with the language, 
 history, etc., of ancient Egypt. 
 
 EIDER DUCK, a species of duck 
 found from 45° north to the highest 
 latitudes yet visited, both in Europe and 
 America. Its favorite haunts are soli- 
 tary rocky shores and islands. In Green- 
 
 Eider duck. 
 
 land and Iceland they occur in great 
 numbers, and also breed on the western 
 islands of Scotland. The eider duck is 
 about twice the size of the common 
 duck, being about 2 ft. 3 in. in length, 
 3 feet in breadth of wing, and from 6 to 7 
 lbs. in weight. The male is black, head 
 and back white, with a black crown. 
 The female is reddish drab spotted 
 with black, and with two white bands on 
 the wings. They feed largely on shell- 
 fish, crustaceans, etc. Their nests are 
 usually formed of drift grass, dry sea- 
 weed, etc., lined with a large quantity 
 of down, which the female plucks from 
 her own breast. In this soft bed she 
 lays five eggs, which she covers over 
 with a layer of down. If this, with the 
 eggs, is removed the bird repeats the 
 process. One female generally furnishes 
 about ^ lb. of down, but the quantity is 
 reduced by cleaning. This down, from 
 its superior warmth, lightness, and 
 elasticity, is in great demand for beds 
 and coverlets; and the districts in Nor- 
 way and Iceland where these birds 
 abound are guarded with the greatest 
 vigilance as a most valuable property. 
 As found in commerce this down is in 
 balls of the size of a man’s fist, and 
 weighing from 3 to 4 lbs. It is so fine 
 and elastic that 5 lbs. of the best quality 
 is sufficient for a whole bed. The down 
 
 from the dead birds is little esteemed, 
 having lost its elasticity. The king eider 
 duck is another species resembling the 
 preceding and inhabiting the same 
 coasts. 
 
 EIFFEL, Alexandre Gustave, a 
 French engineer, designer of the Eiffel 
 Tower at Paris. He was born in France 
 in 1832, and was the designer of several 
 important bridges. The frame work of 
 Bartholdi’s statue of Liberty at New 
 York, was planned by M, Eiffel. (See 
 Eiffel Tower). 
 
 EIFFEL TOWER, a gigantic steel 
 tower at Paris, the tallest building of 
 any kind in the world. It was erected as 
 a special “wonder” for the Paris Exposi- 
 tion of 1889 by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel 
 (which see). Its total height is 984 feet. 
 It is built of four great piers, merging 
 into one at a height of 620 feet from the 
 ground. On various levels are great 
 floor areas for entertainment, obser- 
 vation, and refreshment the first of these 
 having an area of 38,000 square feet. 
 Seven thousand tons of steel were used 
 in the construction of the tower, at a 
 cost of upwards of $1,000,000. From 
 the top of the tower a view to a dis- 
 tance of 85 miles can be had. 
 
 EIGHT-HOUR DAY, a term applied 
 to the ideal working day of the labor 
 unions. It had its origin in England 
 and its greatest growth in the United 
 States, where numerous trades unions 
 have established it as part of their bar- 
 gain-contracts with employers. The 
 eight-hour working day is established 
 by law for all kinds of government 
 work. Several states and cities have 
 adopted it for their employes, but it is 
 as yet by no means universal in the 
 United States. In Australia the move- 
 ment has succeeded better than in any 
 other part of the world. 
 
 EJECT'MENT, in law, an action 
 wherein the title to lands and tenements 
 may be tried and the possession re- 
 covered. It is commenced by a writ 
 addressed to the tenant in possession 
 and all entitled to defend the possession, 
 bearing that the plaintiff lays claim to 
 the property in question, and calling 
 upon all interested to appear within a 
 certain time to defend their right, failing 
 which the tenant in possession will be 
 ejected. In its older form the action was 
 
 Flowering branch of oleaster, a. Fruit. 
 b. Section of same. 
 
 remarkable for certain curious legal 
 fictions on which procedure was based; 
 and the name of John Doe, an imaginary 
 plaintiff, and of Richard Roe, an equally 
 imaginary defendant, were long familiar 
 in cases of this kind in the courts. 
 
 EKAT'ERINOSLAV, a town of south- 
 ern Russia, capital of a government of 
 the same name, on the right bank of the 
 Dnieper, 250 miles n. e. of Odessa. It 
 was founded in 1787 by Prince Potem- 
 kin, and consists of a number of long, 
 broad, and dirty streets. Pop. 46,876. — 
 The government, which is intersected by 
 the I)neiper and at one point reaches the 
 Sea of Azow, mostly consists of steppes; 
 area, 26,140 sq. miles; pop. 1,792,831. 
 
 EL.®AGNA'CE.®, the oleaster family 
 of plants, a small natural order of opetal- 
 ous oxogens scattered over the northern 
 regions. Several species are cultivated 
 for their silvery scurfy foliage. The 
 silver-berry is a native of northern 
 America. 
 
 E'LAND, a species of antelope inhabit- 
 ing Africa, the largest of all the antelopes 
 being about the size of an ox. Its flesh, 
 especially that of the thighs, which are 
 dried and used in this state, is highly 
 prized, and consequently the animal is 
 
 Eland. 
 
 now nearly exterminated in the neigh- 
 borhood of Cap'e Colony, where it was 
 once common. The color is a light or 
 grayish brown, and it possesses a short 
 mane. The horns, which are about 18 
 inches long and nearly straight, are 
 spirally keeled. 
 
 ELASMOBRANCHII f-brang'ki-i), an 
 order of fishes, including the sharks, 
 skates, and chimaera, in which the skull 
 is not composed of distinct bones, but 
 simply forms a kind of cartilaginous box, 
 the vertebral column sometimes cartil- 
 aginous, sometimes consisting of dis- 
 tinct vertebrae, the integumentary skele- 
 ton in the form of placoid scales, the 
 intestines being very short, and provided 
 with a spiral valve. Thej^ have two 
 pairs of fins (pectorals and ventrals), two 
 responding to the fore and hind limbs, 
 and the ventral fins are close to the anus. 
 The heart consists of an auricle, a ven- 
 tricle, and a muscular arterial bulb. The 
 gills are fixed, and form a number of 
 pouches, which open internally into the 
 pharynx, communicating outwardly by 
 a series of apertures placed on the side of 
 the neck. 
 
 ELAS'MODON, a sub-genus of the 
 genus Elephant, under which are in- 
 cluded the mammoth and Asiatic species, 
 the African elephant belonging to the 
 sub-genus Loxodon. 
 
 ELASTICTTY is the property in virtue 
 of which bodies resist change of volume 
 and change of shape, and recover their 
 former figure or state after external 
 pressure, tension, or distortion. The 
 former is called elasticity of volume, the 
 
ELBA 
 
 ELECTRIC BATTERY 
 
 latter elasticity _ of shape. The name 
 compressibility is also used in connec- 
 tion with the elasticity of volume; and 
 rigidity, or resistance to change of 
 shape in connection with the latter. 
 Fluids possess no rigidity whatever; 
 they offer no permanent resistance to 
 change of shape; while a solid body, un- 
 less it is cUstorted beyond certain limits, 
 called the limits of elasticity, tends to 
 return to its original form. Both fluid 
 and solids possess elasticity of volume, 
 and tend to resume their original volume 
 after compression. The elasticity of 
 volume of the former is perfect; what- 
 ever compression they have been sub- 
 jected to, they return under the same 
 conditions of temperature to precisely 
 their original volumes when the forces of 
 compression are removed. In the case 
 of solids there are limits to their 
 elasticity of volume as well as to their 
 elasticity of form; thus gold may be 
 made permanently denser by hammer- 
 ing. 
 
 ELBA, a small island in the Mediter- 
 ranean, in the province of Livorno 
 (Leghorn), Italy, separated from the 
 mainland by the Strait of Piombino, 
 about 6 miles wide. The island is 18 
 miles long and from 2^ to lOJ miles 
 broad, and is traversed by mountains 
 rising to a height of over 3000 feet. It 
 is rich in iron, marble, granite, salt, etc. ; 
 and iron ore is exported. Excellent wine 
 and fruits are produced. It has two 
 seaports — Porto-Ferrajo (the capital) 
 and Porto-Longone. The Treaty of 
 Paris in 1814 erected Elba into a sover- 
 eignty for Napoleon, who resided in it 
 from May 4, 1814, to February 26, 1815. 
 Pop. 24,000 
 
 ELBE, river of Germany, one of the 
 largest in Europe. It rises on the s.w. 
 slopes of the Schneekoppe or snowcap, 
 one of the Riesengebirge, between Bo- 
 hemia and Silesia. From this point it 
 flows nearly due s. into Bohemia for 
 about 50 miles, when it turns to the w., 
 and after about 40 miles takes a general 
 n.n.w. direction till it falls into the North 
 Sea, intersecting Saxony, a considerable 
 portion of Prussia, and in the latter part 
 of its course separating Holstein on its 
 right from Hanover on the left. The 
 length, including windings, is upward of 
 780 miles. It is more or less navigable 
 for about 470 miles, but its estuary at 
 Cuxhaven is much encumbered with 
 sand-banks. In 1870 its navigation was 
 declared free from Hamburg to Melnik 
 in Bohemia. The North Sea and Baltic 
 ship canal now connects its estuary with 
 Kiel Bay. The Elbe is well stocked 
 with fish. 
 
 ELBERFELD (el'ber-felt), a town of 
 Rhenish Prussia, in the government of 
 and 15 miles e. of Diisseldorf, on both 
 sides of the Wupper, inclosed by lofty 
 hills. Taken with Barmen it stretches 
 along the Wupper valley for about 6 
 miles. Linen, woollen, silk, and mixed 
 goods, ribbons, and velvet are exten- 
 sively made and exported. There are 
 numerous mills for spinning cotton 
 twist, linen yarn, and worsted, and 
 numerous dye-works, and miscellaneous 
 industrial establishments. The en- 
 virons are almost entirely taken up with 
 bleach-fields. Pop. 156,937; with Bar- 
 men, 298,884. 
 
 ELDER, a name given to different 
 species of small trees or shrubs, with 
 opposite and pinnated leaves, bearing 
 small white flowers in large and con- 
 spicuous corymbs, small berries of a 
 black or red color, and bitter and nause- 
 ous leaves possessing purgative and 
 emetic properties. The wood of the 
 young shoots contains a very large pro- 
 portion of pith. The common elder is a 
 wild shrub or small tree, distinguishable 
 by its winged leaves; its clusters of small, 
 cream-white flowers, and the small black 
 berries by which these are succeeded, 
 and from which a kind of wine is some- 
 times made. Two species inhabit N. 
 America : a common plant from the 49th 
 to the 30th parallel of latitude, the ber- 
 ries of which are black and have a sweet 
 taste; and one which bears red berries, 
 and inhabits Canada, the northern parts 
 of New England, and the Alleghany 
 Mountains. Elder wood is yellow, and 
 in old trees becomes so hard that it is 
 often substituted for box-wood. Its 
 toughness also is such that it is made 
 into skewers, tops for fishing-rods, etc. 
 The light pith is utilized for balls for 
 electric experiments, and various oint- 
 ments, drinks, and medicinal decoctions 
 are made from the bark, leaves, flowers, 
 and berries. 
 
 ELDERS, persons who, on account of 
 their age, experience, and wisdom, are 
 selected for office, as, among the Jews, 
 the seventy men associated with Moses 
 in the government of the people. In the 
 modern Presbyterian churches elders are 
 officers who, with the pastors or minis- 
 ters, compose the consistories or kirk- 
 sessions, with authority to inspect and 
 regulate matters of religion and dis- 
 cipline in the congregation. 
 
 EL DORA'DO, a country that Orel- 
 lana, the lieutenant of Pizarro, pre- 
 tended he had discovered in South Amer- 
 ica; and between the Orinoco and Ama- 
 zon rivers ; and which he named thus on 
 account of the immense quantities of 
 gold and precious metals which, he as- 
 serted, he had seen in Manoa, the capital 
 of the country. 
 
 ELECTION, in politics the choosing of 
 public officials by the vote of the electors 
 (persons having the suffrage right). In 
 the U. States elections may be direct, as 
 in the case of congressmen, legislators, 
 judges, etc., or indirect, as in the case of 
 U. States senators and the president, 
 the former being chosen by the state 
 legislatures and the latter by an electoral 
 college (which see). Candidates are 
 named in various ways, or may be self- 
 constituted, and the law in many in- 
 stances recognizes the machinery by 
 W'hich candidates are chosen. The 
 various states have various laws regulat- 
 ing elections and contests of elections. 
 All contested elections, however, are 
 always decided by party considerations 
 and not by justice — unless party con- 
 siderations be considered as being suf- 
 ficiently just. 
 
 ELECTION, in theology, the doctrine 
 that God has from the beginning elected 
 a portion of mankind to eternal life, 
 passing by the remainder. It is founded 
 on the literal sense of certain passages of 
 Scripture, and has been amplified by 
 the labors of systematic theologians 
 into a complete and logical system. 
 
 It dates in ecclesiastical history from 
 the time of Augustine; but Calvin has 
 stated it so strongly and clearly in his 
 Institutes, that it is generally associated 
 with his name. 
 
 ELECTIVE STUDIES, studies w^hich 
 are optional with the student in an 
 educational institution, In American 
 universities a certain number of specific 
 studies are “required” for a degree. 
 Thus for the A.B. degree the candidate is 
 required to do a definite amount of work 
 in the languages, history, etc., but he is 
 given a choice as to the kind of work he 
 will do within certain limits. Elective 
 studies have been found to be very 
 efficient in stimulating interest, as they 
 enable a candidate for a degree to select 
 the branches in which he is most inter- 
 ested. The system, however, has many 
 eminent opponents. 
 
 ELECTOR, the title of certain princes 
 of the old German Empire who had the 
 right of electing the emperors. 
 
 ELECTORAL COLLEGE, in the U. 
 States the body of the electors chosen 
 by the people to vote for the president. 
 The people vote not for their favorite 
 candidate for president but for the can- 
 didate for elector wdio invariably votes 
 for the head of the party ticket. This 
 fact shows how really little force the 
 American constitution has upon the will 
 of the people. In effect it is the popular 
 vote that elects the president, not the 
 vote of the electors. The electors of 
 each state meet, vote by ballot for the 
 president and vice-president, and after 
 being signed by the governor the vote is 
 sent to the president of the U. States 
 senate and counted in the presence of 
 both houses of congress. All tliis work, 
 however, is merely formal, the result 
 of the election being known as soon as 
 the popular vote is known. 
 
 ELECTORAL COMMISSION, a body 
 of men empowered by congress in 1877 
 to settle the electoral votes of Florida, 
 Louisiana, Oregon, and South Carolina, 
 in the presidential election of 1876. 
 These four states presented conflicting 
 certificates and congress could not agree. 
 The commission consisted of five sena- 
 tors, five representatives, and five mem- 
 bers of the supreme court. The com- 
 mission found that Hayes and Wheeler 
 had been elected over Tilden and Hen- 
 dricks by a majority of one electoral 
 vote. 
 
 ELECTRICAL FISHES, a name given 
 to fishes possessing the property of com- 
 municating an electric shock when 
 touched with the hand or any electric 
 conductor. One of the best known is 
 the electric eel, a native of South Ameri- 
 ca. It is of nearly equal thickness 
 throughout; head and tail obtuse; 
 ordinary length, 3J to 4 feet. The seat 
 of the four electrical organs is along the 
 under side of the tail, and they are said 
 to possess the power of knocking down a 
 man, and of painfully numbing the af- 
 fected limb for several hours after the 
 shock. After a few discharges, however, 
 the faculty of producing a shock is im- 
 paired, and an interval of rest is re- 
 quired for a new storage of force. 
 
 ELECTRIC BATTERY, the original 
 name of what is now more commonly 
 called a battery of Leyden-jars, the old 
 name having been given before galvanic 
 
ELECTRIC CLOCK 
 
 ELECTRICITY 
 
 batteries were invented. See Leyden- 
 jar. 
 
 ELECTRIC CLOCK, a clock driven or 
 controlled by electrictity, the latter 
 being the ordinary meaning of the term. 
 One clock driven in the ordinary way 
 can be made to control by electric 
 currents another clock (or clocks) also 
 driven in the ordinary way so as to make 
 it keep accurate time. By means of it 
 one high-class clock (usually in an as- 
 tronomical observatory) compels a num- 
 ber of other clocks at considerable dis- 
 tances to keep time with it. The clocks 
 thus controlled ought to be so regulated 
 that if left to themselves they would 
 always gain a little, but not more than a 
 few minutes per day. The pendulum of 
 the controlling clock, in swinging to 
 either side, makes a brief contact, 
 which completes the circuit of a galvanic 
 battery, and thus sends a current to the 
 controlled clock. The currents pass 
 through a coil in the bob of the pendu- 
 lum of the controlled clock, and the 
 action between these currents and a pair 
 of fixed magnets urges the pendulum to 
 one side and to the other alternately. 
 The effect is that, though the controlled 
 clock may permanently continue to be 
 a fraction of a second in advance of the 
 controlling clock, it can never be so 
 much as half a second in advance. An 
 electrically-controlled clock usually has 
 close beside it a small magnetic needle, 
 which moves to the one side or the other 
 according to the direction of the cur- 
 rent, and thus shows whether the 
 currents are coming. The arrange- 
 ments are usually such that at every 
 sixieth second (that is at every exact 
 minute) no current is sent, and the 
 needle stands still. Any small error is 
 thus at once detected. 
 
 ELECTRIC HEATER, a device used 
 to convert an electric current into heat 
 for the purpose of heating a house, an 
 apartment, or an interior. The heater 
 consists of coils of metal, placed in a 
 box containing air which, on the passage 
 of the current through the coils, thus 
 heating the coils, becomes itself hot 
 and heats the air surrounding the box. 
 Numerous variations of this idea have 
 been patented, nearly all of which are 
 satisfactory. Electric heating is the 
 ideal system for warming houses of any 
 kind, but its expense prevents its 
 general adoption. 
 
 ELECTRICTTY, the name given to 
 the unknown cause of certain effects of 
 very various kinds which are found to 
 be closely connected one with another. 
 They include two distinct kinds of at- 
 traction and repulsion (electrostatic and 
 electrodynamic), the magnetization of 
 iron, the deflection of magnetic needles, 
 the production of heat and light in cer- 
 tain circumstances, the separation of 
 certain chemical compounds into their 
 constituents, and spasmodic actions on 
 the nervous and muscular systems of 
 animals. The name is derived from the 
 Greek electron, amber, the fact that 
 amber when rubbed attracts light par- 
 ticles, such as small pieces of paper, 
 having been known to the ancient 
 Greeks. Friction was the only artificial 
 source of electricity employed until Gal- 
 vani, near the close of last century, 
 accidentally obtained it by the contact 
 
 of two metals with the limbs of a frog; 
 and Volta, developing Galvani’s dis- 
 covery, invented the first galvanic or 
 voltaic battery. Electricity produced 
 by friction is called frictional electricity; 
 that produced by chemical action on 
 metals, voltaic electricity. 
 
 All substances which, like amber, 
 could be made to show electrical at- 
 traction by rubbing them, were called 
 electrics by early writers on electricity. 
 They included glass, amber, sulphur, 
 shellac, rosin, silk, flannel, etc. The 
 name non-electrics was given to other 
 bodies which were supposed not to be 
 susceptible of excitation by friction. 
 The bodies called non-electrics were also 
 called conductors, from the power 
 which they exhibited of allowing elec- 
 tricity to pass through them. Electrics 
 were also called non-conductors. The 
 names conductor and non-conductor 
 are still retained, but the names electric 
 and non-electric are discarded as being 
 founded on a mistake. Electricity can 
 be excited by the friction of a conductor 
 against a non-conductor, and is, in fact, 
 so excited in the ordinary electrical 
 machine, in which glass rubs against an 
 amalgam spread on a cushion. A 
 metallic rod furnished with a glass 
 handle ean be electrified by rubbing it 
 with flannel, the glass preventing the 
 electricity from being conducted away 
 through the hand. Substances thus 
 electrified exhibit two opposite kinds of 
 electricity, known respectively as posi- 
 tive and negative. Bodies charged 
 with the same kind of electricity repel 
 each other; those charged with opposite 
 kind attract each other. An instrument 
 for indicating the presence of electricity 
 is called an electroscope. 
 
 All solid and liquid substances allow 
 electricity to pass through them to some 
 e.xtent, but the differences of degree are 
 enormous. The best conductors are the 
 metals, especially gold, silver, and cop- 
 per. Perfectly pure copper conducts 
 about seven times as well as iron. Sub- 
 stances which have excessively small 
 conducting power are not called con- 
 ductors, but insulators, so that a good 
 insulator is another name for an ex- 
 cessively bad conductor. Among the 
 best insulators may be mentioned glass, 
 paraffin (the wax, not the oil), ebonite, 
 shellac, mica, india-rubber, and gutta 
 percha. The ratio of the conducting 
 power of a metal to that of one of these 
 substances is about a thousand million 
 billions to one. Water occupies an in- 
 termediate position between these two 
 extremes. In experiments with fric- 
 tional or influence machines it behaves 
 as a conductor, but in experiments with 
 galvanic batteries it behaves as an insu- 
 lator. The word resistance is used in the 
 opposite sense to conducting power; a 
 good insulator is said to have high re- 
 sistance, and a good conductor to have 
 low resistance. 
 
 Electrostatics is that branch of the 
 general science of electricity which 
 treats of the repulsions between like and 
 the attractions between unlike kinds of 
 electricity. The fundamental law of 
 electrostatics ’s that if e and 4 denote 
 two quantities of electricity collected 
 in two spaces very small in comparison 
 with the distance between them, the 
 
 mutual force which they exert upon 
 each other is directly as the product e4, 
 and inversely as the square of the dis- 
 tance. If the two quantities ee are both 
 positive, or both negative, the force is a 
 repulsion; but if one is positive and the 
 other negative, it is an attraction. Elec- 
 trostatic attractions and repulsions 
 manifest themselves in two distinct 
 ways, namely, (1) as attractions and 
 repulsions between electrified bodies; 
 (2) as producing changes in the distri- 
 bution of electricity on conductors. 
 This second effect is called electrostatic 
 induction. The different portions of the 
 charge of one and the same conductor 
 act upon one another according to the 
 general law of repulsion, and thus pro- 
 duce the actual distribution, which is 
 entirely on the surface, all electricity 
 being repelled from the interior. The 
 interposition of an insulating substance 
 between two quantitities of electricity 
 alters the amount of the forces which 
 they exert upon each other. In a broad 
 sense electrostatics may be held to in- 
 clude within its range all the phenomena 
 of frictional electricity and of the elec- 
 tricity produced by influence machines, 
 such as those of Holtz, Voss, and Wims- 
 hurst. 
 
 The rapid escape of electricity from a 
 charge body is an electric discharge. 
 When the discharge takes place through 
 a conductor it is called continuous, and 
 when it takes place through a non- 
 conductor (for example through air) it 
 is called a disruptive discharge. The 
 name “electric discharge” is especially 
 applied to cases in which the escaping 
 electricity produces luminosity. Three 
 kinds of such discharge have been dis- 
 tinguished — the spark, the brush, and 
 the glow. The spark is accompanied by 
 a sound which varies from a faint crack 
 to a loud bang. In nature it is seen on 
 the largest scale in the case of lightning, 
 which is a discharge of atmospheric 
 electricity. In many cases the electric 
 spark presents no definite shape, but 
 looks like a mere point of fire, or, if very 
 bright, is enlarged by its dazzling effect 
 on the retina; but when it leaps across 
 a space of several inches of air it assumes 
 a crooked shape bearing a remarkable 
 resemblance to a flash of lightning. The 
 brush discharge is only faintly luminous. 
 It occurs especially at sharp points and 
 edges of highly-charged bodies. It is 
 barely visible bj"- daylight, and its ap- 
 pearance in the dark is that of a lumin- 
 ous halo. It projects only a small dis- 
 tance into the air surrounding the body 
 from which the charge is escaping. The 
 glow discharge simply renders the sur- 
 face of the body luminous, and does not 
 extend into the air at all. In some 
 modern electric apparatus beautiful 
 effects of electric discharge are shown. 
 Thus by causing a discharge to take 
 place in highly-rarefied air or gas it is 
 made to jump across a considerable 
 interval; and the whole intervening 
 space is filled with a beautiful nebulous 
 luminosity, the color of which depends 
 on the nature of the gas. If the vacuum 
 is sufficiently good the luminosity is 
 seen to be disposed in transverse stripes, 
 t clinically called stria!. 
 
 An electrified body left to itself grad- 
 ually loses its electricity. This effect 
 
ELECTRICITY 
 
 ELECTRICITY 
 
 is due to more causes than one. If the 
 body is a conductor and has any sharp 
 points or edges, these afford a ready 
 channel for the escape of the charge into 
 the air. Some loss occurs by particles of 
 dust in the air being attracted to the 
 body and then repelled after coming in 
 contact with it. But the chief loss in the 
 case of a smooth conductor on insulating 
 supports usually occurs by leakage over 
 the surface of the supports, owing to a 
 thin film of moisture from which it is 
 difficult to keep them free. This is 
 especially the case with glass supports. 
 Dissipation can be almost completely 
 
 C revented by surrounding the electrified 
 ody with an artificially dried atmos- 
 phere. The most usual means of doing 
 this is to place a shallow dish of sulphuric 
 acid in the closed vessel in which the 
 body is contained. The loss by dissi- 
 pation can thus be reduced to one or two 
 per cent of the entire charge per diem. 
 
 When a conductor has a permanent 
 charge, there is no electricity in its 
 interior. The charge resides entirely 
 at the surface, and is not distributed 
 equally over the whole surface but is 
 thickest (so to speak) at those parts 
 which project most. The dotted lines in 
 
 Distribution of electricity— Relative amounts 
 on curved surfaces. 
 
 figures above illustrate by their distances 
 from the conductor, the thickness (tech- 
 nically called density) of the electricity 
 at the different parts of the surface. At 
 sharp edges, and still more at sharp 
 points, the density is exceedingly great 
 and hence the electricity has a strong 
 tendency to leak away. 
 
 What is known as an electric current 
 is a peculiar condition of a wire or other 
 conductor of electricity, in virtue of 
 which it deflects magnetic needles in its 
 neighborhood, magnetizes a piece of 
 soft iron round which is it coiled, has its 
 own temperature raised, and exhibits 
 various other effects. This condition 
 of a wire occurs both in connection with 
 frictional and voltaic electricity, and 
 can be produced by attaching its ends to 
 the two terminals of a galvanic battery, 
 or to the two terminals of a magneto- 
 electric machine, and in various other 
 ways. An electric current may be re- 
 garded at pleasure as consisting in the 
 flow of positive electricity in one direc- 
 tion through the wire in question, or of 
 negative electricity in the opposite di- 
 rection, or of both electricities simul- 
 taneously one in each direction. What 
 is conventially called the direction of 
 the current is the direction in which 
 the positive electricity may be re- 
 garded as flowing. The “strength” of 
 a current denotes the quantity of elec- 
 tricity that passes through the wire 
 In the unit of time. The deflecting force 
 which a current exerts on a magnetic 
 needle — other things being equal — is 
 proportional to the strength of a cur- 
 rent; but the quantity of heat which 
 it generates in a given time is propor- 
 tional to the square of its strength. One 
 effect of currents is the decomposition 
 
 of certain chemical compounds, and 
 this effect, like that first mentioned, is 
 simply proportional to the strength of 
 the current. Instruments for measuring 
 the strengths of currents by chemical 
 decomposition are called voltameters, 
 and instruments for measuring them 
 by the deflection of magnetic needles are 
 called galvanometers. The current by 
 which telegraphs are worked are usually 
 obtained from galvanic batteries; but 
 the far stronger currents required for 
 electric lighting are usually produced by 
 machines called dynamos driven by 
 steam or water power. The currents in 
 such machines are due to magneto- 
 electric induction. 
 
 Electro-dynamics is that branch of 
 electrical science which treats of the 
 attractions and repulsions exhibited 
 between wires or other conductors 
 through which currents are passing. 
 If two wires are paralled, they will 
 attract each other when currents are 
 passing the same way through them 
 both, and will repel each other when the 
 currents are opposite. If the wires are 
 inclined to each other at any angle 
 there is not only an attraction or repul- 
 sion, but a still more marked tendency 
 to rotation, which is not satisfied till 
 the wires have become parallel and the 
 currents flow in the same direction 
 through them both. When there are 
 only two straight wires these forces are 
 feeble and require delicate apparatus for 
 their exhibition; but by employing 
 coils of wire the forces are multiplied, 
 and an instrument constructed on this 
 principle called the electro-dynamom- 
 eter has been much employed for the 
 measurement of currents. The whole 
 science of electro-dynamics is due to 
 Ampere, who discovered its main facts, 
 and reduced them by ingenious ex- 
 periments, combined with very abstruse 
 reasoning, to a- single mathematical 
 formula which includes them all. 
 
 Daily experience with the electric 
 telegraph shows that electrical action is 
 propagated with great rapidity. The 
 time that intervenes between the send- 
 ing of a signal from one station and its 
 visible effect at another, depends on a 
 variety of circumstances The time is 
 notably longer for underground or sub- 
 marine wires than for wires suspended 
 in the air on poles When one end of a 
 long submarine or subterranean tele- 
 graph wire is suddenly put in connection 
 with a galvanic battery or other source 
 of electricity, the current which flows 
 out of the other end into the earth does 
 not begin sharply but gradually, and 
 takes a measurable time to attain its 
 full strength. Hence an instrument 
 which is delicate enough to show a very 
 feeble current, will show the effect earlier 
 than one which requires a strong current 
 to move it. An instrument in which the 
 moving parts are small and light has 
 also an advantage over one in which they 
 are large and heavy. Something, too, 
 depends on the nature of the source of 
 electricity employed. A source which 
 acts with sudden violence, like the dis- 
 charge of a Leyden-jar or an induction- 
 coil, will make the effect appear earlier 
 than a comparatively gentle source, 
 such as an ordinary galvanic battery. 
 Electrictiy has not a definite velocity 
 
 like light or sound. It is rather com- 
 parable to waves on water, which travel 
 with very various speeds according to 
 their length and the depth of the water. 
 The highest speed ever observed in the 
 transmission of electric effects was that 
 obtained by Wheatstone in his cele- 
 brated experiment with a rotating 
 mirror. In this experiment a Leyden- 
 jar was discharged through half a mile 
 of wire with three interruptions in it, 
 at each of which a spark was formed 
 by the electricity leaping across. One 
 interruption was in the middle, and the 
 other two were at the ends, one end 
 being close to the knob of the jar, and 
 the other end close to its outer coating. 
 The wire was so arranged that all three 
 interruptions were near together; and 
 by observing the reflections of the three 
 sparks in a rotating mirror, he was able 
 to discover that the middle spark oc- 
 curred sensibly later than those at the 
 two ends, these latter being simulta- 
 neous. The lagging of the middle spark 
 behind the other two was regarded 
 as the time that electricity took to 
 travel through a quarter of a mile of 
 wire, and the velocity thus found for 
 electricity was 230,000 miles per second, 
 a velocity greater than that of light, 
 which is between 185,000 and 186,000 
 miles per second. Observations made 
 in connection with the use of the electric 
 telegraph for determining longitudes, 
 have shown that the time which inter- 
 venes between the sending and receiving 
 of a signal was about four-tenths of a 
 second between Aden and Bombay, 
 two-tenths of a second between Alexan- 
 dria and Malta, two-tenths between Mal- 
 ta and Berlin, and about one-eighth of 
 a second between Greenwich and 
 Valentia. 
 
 If we endeavor to explain electrical 
 phenomena by regarding electricity as a 
 substance, we are met by two difficulties : 
 one is that electricity adds nothing to 
 the weight of a body; the other is that 
 electrical phenomena are dual, as if there 
 were two opposite kinds of electricity 
 which destroy each other when they 
 unite, Du Paye maintained the exist- 
 ence of two electrical fluids endowed 
 with opposite qualities, and called them 
 the vitreous and the resinous fluid. 
 Franklin endeavored to account for the 
 same phenomena by assuming the 
 existence of a single electric fluid, and 
 supposing an electrified body to be a 
 body which possesses either more or less 
 than the normal quantity of this fluid. 
 If more, it was said to be positively, and 
 if less, negatively electrified. Franklin’s 
 positive and negative corresponded 
 with Du Faye’s vitreous and resinous. 
 Whenever electricity is generated the 
 two opposite kinds are always produced, 
 and produced in exactly equal quantity. 
 Modern theories favor the idea that 
 electricity is not a substance or a pair 
 of substances, but a special kind of 
 motion, and that the two opposite elec- 
 tricities are two opposite states of mo- 
 tion of the particles of a medium which 
 is believed to pervade all bodies and all 
 space: the same medium whose vibra- 
 tions constitute light. 
 
 The employment of electricity com- 
 mercially and industrially is daily 
 increasing in importance. The electric 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT 
 
 telegraph has long been familiar, and the 
 telephone is now almost equally so. 
 Electric lighting is rapidly extending, 
 and electric railways or tramways are 
 increasing in number. The operations 
 of electro-metallurgy are also of great 
 importance. 
 
 The electric transmission of power 
 is the transmission of power to a distance 
 by electricity, effected by employing the 
 source of power to drive a machine called 
 a dynamo which generates an electric 
 current. This current is conveyed by a 
 copper conductor insulated from the 
 earth to the distant station, where it 
 passes through a machine called an 
 electro-motor (see that article), one part 
 of which (called the armature) is thereby 
 made to revolve, and imparts its motion 
 to the machinery which is to be driven. 
 
 This is the simplest arrangement, and 
 is that which is commonly employed 
 when the original currents are not of 
 such high tension as to be dangerous to 
 life in the case of accidental shocks. 
 There is, however, a great waste of 
 power in employing low-tension cur- 
 rents when the distance is great ; hence 
 it is becoming a common practice to 
 employ high-tension currents for trans- 
 mission through the long conductor 
 which connects the two stations, and to 
 convert these into low-tension currents 
 before they reach the houses or work- 
 shops where they are to be used. This 
 is done sometimes by employing the 
 high-tension currents to drive a local 
 dynamo which generates low-tension 
 currents, sometimes by employing them 
 to charge storage cells arranged in long 
 series, and afterward connecting these 
 cells in shorter series. When the original 
 currents are alternating they are made 
 to generate induced currents by means 
 of an instrument called a transformer, 
 which is similar in principle to an ordi- 
 nary Ruhmkorff coil, with the important 
 difference that the primary wire is long 
 and thin, and the secondary wire short 
 and thick. These methods of trans- 
 mission and transformation are em- 
 ployed not only for giving out mechani- 
 cal power, but also for electric lighting. 
 In the gigantic installation which has 
 been recently erected for supplying a 
 large district in London with electricity 
 sent from Deptford, the currents are 
 alternating, and the conductors consist 
 not of copper wires, but of two copper 
 tubes one within the other, insulated 
 from one another, the outer one being 
 connected with the earth. It is believed 
 that the time is not far distant when 
 electricity will be generally laid on to 
 houses in large towns as gas and water 
 are now, and will be available both for 
 electric lighting and for mechanical 
 work such as driving lathes and sewing- 
 macliines, raising lifts, etc. 
 
 The phrase, “distribution of elec- 
 tricity,” has been used during the last 
 few years to denote the supplying of 
 strong currents of electricity from cen- 
 tral stations where they are generated, 
 to houses, street lamps, etc., in their 
 vicinity. The central station contains 
 a few powerful dynamo machines, 
 driven usually by steam-power. The 
 positive and negative terminals of the 
 dynamo are put in connection with the 
 positive and negative main conductors 
 
 which are to supply the district, and 
 from these mains smaller conductors 
 branch off to the houses or lamps. All 
 these conductors are of copper, that 
 metal when pure having seven times the 
 conductivity of iron. Different methods 
 are in use for keeping the supply of elec- 
 tricity steady in spite of the varying 
 demands made upon it. In some sys- 
 tems of distribution, instead of the two 
 main conductors being one positive 
 and the other negative, each is positive 
 and negative alternately, the reversals 
 taking place some hundreds of times per 
 second. The currents are then said to 
 be alternating. When such reversals do 
 not take place, the currents are said to 
 be direct. 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT, a light obtained 
 through heating a suitable body to 
 incandescence by causing a current of 
 electricity to pass through the body. 
 The substance usually employed for this 
 purpose in carbon, which has two recom- 
 
 Fig. 1. Arc light carbons. 
 
 mendations : first, its power of bearing a 
 very high temperature without melting; 
 and secondly, its high emissive power, 
 which is the source of most of the light 
 in the flame of a candle, an oil lamp, 
 or a jet of gas. 
 
 Until quite recent years the only kind 
 of electric light in practical use was what 
 is now called the arc light. The arc light 
 is obtained by causing two sticks of 
 carbon, one of them in connection with 
 the positive and the other with the 
 negative terminal of a battery or dyna- 
 mo, to touch each other for an instant so 
 as to complete the circuit, and then 
 separating them and keeping them 
 steadily at a small distance apart. Be- 
 fore the carbons have touched, the cold 
 air between them prevents the current 
 from passing, but as soon as they touch 
 they become intensely heated, and if 
 they are not separated too far the air 
 between them is hot enough to serve as 
 a conductor. The light is emitted partly 
 by the ends of the carbons, especially of 
 the positive carbon, and partly by the 
 gaseous matter (containing also fine 
 particles of solid carbon) which accupies 
 the intervening space and forms the arc 
 or streak of light joining the two carbon 
 points. When the source of electricity 
 is an alternating-current machine each 
 carbon is alternately positive and nega- 
 tive several times in a second, and the 
 two points behave alike. When the 
 
 source is a direct-current machine or a 
 galvanic battery the positive carbon 
 wears away about twice as fast as the 
 negative, and the positive carbon be- 
 comes hollow at the end, while the nega- 
 tive remains pointed. The hollow in the 
 positive carbon is the brightest part of 
 the whole arrangement ; and when a beam 
 of light is to be thrown in some definite 
 direction, care should be taken that this 
 hollow is exposed to view in that direc- 
 tion. 
 
 Fig. 1 contains a representation of the 
 two carbons of the arc light as they ap- 
 pear when cold, the positive carbon 
 being marked + and the negative — . 
 Also a magnified representation such as 
 can be obtained by throwing an image 
 of the burning carbons on a screen by 
 means of a lens. 
 
 To keep the carbons at the proper 
 distance apart a special contrivance 
 called a “regulator” is employed. There 
 are many varieties of regulator, but they 
 all depend on the principle that increase 
 of distance between the carbons causes 
 increase of resistance. They usually 
 contain an electro-magnet through 
 which either the whole or a portion of 
 the current passes, and the variations in 
 the strength of this magnet arising from 
 change of resistance are taken advan- 
 tage of to cause the motion, in one direc- 
 tion or the opposite, of a piece of iron 
 which locks and unlocks the mechanism. 
 
 As regards the material of the carbon 
 sticks, Sir Humphry Davy used pieces 
 of wood-charcoal, and the substance de- 
 posited in the interior of gas retorts has 
 sometimes been employed, but it is now 
 usual to employ a mixture of powdered 
 carbon (from gas retorts), lamp-black, 
 syrup, and gum, with a very little water. 
 The sticks are obtained by forcing this 
 pasty mixture through a draw-plate; 
 they are then baked, and after being 
 again impregnated with syrup are heated 
 to a high temperature. 
 
 Arc lights give the largest amount of 
 light for a given amount of horse-power 
 expended in driving the dynamo ; but in- 
 candescent lights, which have been 
 introduced by Edison, Swan, and other 
 inventors of late years, possess several 
 
 Fig. 2. The Swan lamp. 
 
 advantages. Fig. 2 represents Swan’s 
 incandescent lamp, a is a glass vessel 
 of globular form exhausted very per- 
 fectly of air; b b is a fine elastic filament 
 of carbon, prepared from parchment 
 paper, and becoming incandescent when 
 the current is sent through it. Its two 
 ends are attached to two platinum wires 
 which, where they pass out of the bulb, 
 are hermetically sealed into its wall by 
 
ELECTRIC MACHINES 
 
 ELECTRIC MACHINES 
 
 fusion of the glass around the wires. 
 These two wires are in connection with 
 the two binding-screws, c c when the 
 lamp is upon the stand, where it is held 
 in its place by the spiral wire d. 
 
 Owing to the absence of oxygen, there 
 is no combustion in an incandescent 
 lamp, and hence the carbon does not 
 waste away. The want of means to 
 obtain a sufficiently good vacuum was 
 the chief cause which prevented the 
 earlier introduction of such lamps. 
 Sprengel’s murcurial pump, with 
 Crookes’s improvements, has supplied 
 this want. All the incandescent lamps 
 agree in having a carbon filament sus- 
 pended in vacuo, but they differ in the 
 mode of preparation of the carbons and 
 in other details. 
 
 The light of an incandescent lamp is 
 extremely steady, affording a great con- 
 trast to the flickering which is never 
 altogether absent from arc lights. Its 
 temperature is lower, and hence its 
 color is not blue or violet, like that of 
 most arc lights, but slightly yellow, 
 though whiter than gas. It is superior 
 both to gas and to the arc light in giving 
 off no products of combustion to vitiate 
 the air of an apartment 
 
 The Jablochkoff light, which is repre- 
 sented in Fig. 3, occupies an interme- 
 
 Jablocnkofl lamp. 
 
 diate place, but more nearly resembles 
 the arc lamps. The two sticks of carbon 
 (a a) are side by side at the distance of i 
 inch or ^ inch according to the power of 
 the lamp, and this intervening space is 
 occupied either with plaster of paris or 
 china-clay (b). The lower ends of the 
 carbon are inserted in copper or brass 
 tubes (c c) separated by asbestos. The 
 lamp is lighted by temporarily inserting 
 a piece of carbon to connect the ends of 
 the two sticks; and after a fair start has 
 once been obtained, the top of the plas- 
 ter of paris is hot enough to act as a con- 
 ductor. Its incandescence contributes a 
 portion of the light of the lamp, and it 
 gradually burns away so as never to 
 project quite so far as the carbons. 
 Alternating currents are now always 
 used with it, as the two carbons may 
 then be exactly alike and will wear away 
 equally. 
 
 The introduction of electric lights for 
 commercial uses may be said to date 
 from the lighting of the Avenue de 
 rOp^ra at Paris by Jablochkoff lamps, 
 a few years previous to the Paris Elec- 
 trical Exhibition of 1881. The electric 
 light, as previously known, was con- 
 sidered too dazzling for street purposes, 
 
 but the Jablochkoff “candles,” which 
 even when naked are far less dazzling 
 than “arc” lights, were concealed from 
 direct view by opal globes, and instead 
 of single points of dazzling brightness, 
 presented an appearance like a row of 
 full moons. The application of elec- 
 tricity to street lighting having thus been 
 proved to be feasible, the attention of 
 
 Incandescent and arc lamps. 
 
 inventors was directed to the subject, 
 and rapid improvements followed. The 
 subsequent invention of “incandescent” 
 or “glow” lamps rendered electricity 
 applicable as an illuminant for domestic 
 purposes. The electric lights now used 
 for street lighting are sometimes Jab- 
 lochkoff candles, but more frequently 
 arc lights in opal globes. For the light- 
 ing of harbors and open spaces, naked 
 arc lights are preferred, as they give 
 more light in proportion to the expense 
 than any other arrangement. For 
 hotels, shops, dwelling-houses, and 
 steamboats, incandescent lamps are 
 almost evclusively employed. The cur- 
 rents necessary for producing the light 
 are always obtained either directly or 
 indirectly from dynamo or magneto ma- 
 chines driven by steam-engines or other 
 prime movers. When we say “indirect- 
 ly,” we allude to the fact that galvanic 
 batteries of the kind called storage bat- 
 teries or accumulators are sometimes em- 
 ployed to give the currents; but these 
 accumulators must first be charged by 
 sending currents through them from 
 dynamos, and can produce no current 
 on their own account. For the methods 
 of conveying currents from a central sta- 
 tion to different parts of a district, see 
 Electricity. For an explanation of the 
 action of dynamos, see Magneto-electric 
 Machines. 
 
 ELECTRIC MACHINES, any ma- 
 chine for producing powerful electrical 
 
 Fig. 1. Cylinder electric machine. 
 
 effects. The name is, however, seldom 
 applied to machines depending on mag- 
 neto-electric principles, and is prac- 
 
 tically confined to two classes of ma- 
 chines — those which act by friction, and 
 those which act by electro-static induc- 
 tion. The former are called friction 
 machines, and the latter influence ma- 
 chines. For many years the former 
 were the only kind known, but they have 
 now been almost superseded by the 
 latter. In friction machines the elec- 
 tricity is generated by the friction of 
 either a glass cylinder or a circular gla.ss 
 plate against cushions covered with an 
 amalgam of zinc and tin. The positive 
 electricity which is thus developed on 
 the surface of the glass is given off to an 
 insulated brass conductor furnished with 
 teeth like those of a comb, the sharp 
 points of which are nearly in contact 
 with the glass. The negative electricity 
 which is at the same time generated on 
 the cushion must be provided with some 
 means of escaping, or the action of the 
 
 Fig. 2. Plate electric machine. 
 
 machine would soon stop. It is usually 
 allowed to escape to the earth by a brass 
 chain connected with the cushions; but 
 in some machines a negative conductor 
 connected with the cushions is insulated 
 like the positive conductor by a glass 
 support. Negative sparks can then be 
 drawn from this conductor at the same 
 time that positive sparks are drawn from 
 the other. A cylinder machine having 
 both a positive and a negative conductor 
 is shown in Fig. 1, and a plate machine 
 in Fig. 2„ 
 
 An influence machine (that of Voss) is 
 exhibited in Fig. 3. Of the two glass 
 plates which it contains the larger is 
 stationary, and has two patches of tin- 
 
 Flg. 3. Voss’s Influence macMne. 
 
 foil on its back, one of which has a posi- 
 tive and the other a negative charge. 
 One of them covers the left-hand and 
 upper portion of the back, and the other 
 the right-hand and lower portion. The 
 revolving plate has six metallic studs 
 like that seen at d set in it at ecjual dis- 
 tances. The sloping bar seen in front Of 
 it is of brass and carries two little brusheg 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAY 
 
 ELECTRO-MACNET 
 
 a a of thin brass wire, against which the 
 studs rub as they pass by, and this hap- 
 pens at the same moment for both 
 brushes. When the studs have ad- 
 vanced about a quarter of a revolution, 
 they come in contact with another pair 
 of brushes b b which are in connection 
 with the two patches of tinfoil, and serve 
 to replenish their charges. 
 
 There are also two brass combs fixed 
 opposite the two horizontal radii of the 
 plate, one row collecting positive and the 
 other negative electricity. They are in 
 connection with the two knobs c which 
 are seen in front of the machine, and a 
 brilliant discharge of electricity takes 
 place between these knobs. The first 
 influence machine that came into exten- 
 sive use was that of Holtz, and the latest 
 (and probably the best) is that of Wims- 
 hurst, in which both the plates revolve, 
 their directions of rotation being op- 
 
 E osite. The machine of Holtz is started 
 y holding a flat piece of vulcanite, 
 which has been excited by friction, at 
 the back of the fixed plate. The ma- 
 chines of Voss and Wimshurst, if kept 
 dry, will usually work without such 
 assistance, their action being such as to 
 rapidly increase any casual charge pos- 
 sessed by the plates. For other kinds of 
 machine by which electric shocks can be 
 obtained, see Electro-medical Machines. 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAY, a railway in 
 which the propulsion is effected by 
 means of an electro-motor, that is, a 
 machine one part of which can be made 
 to revolve by sending a current through 
 it. This revolving part, called the arma- 
 ture, is geared to the driving-wheels and 
 forces them to revolve whenever the 
 current passes. The current is supplied 
 in some cases by storage cells carried in 
 the car, these cells having themselves 
 been first charged by a dynamo-machine. 
 More usually the current is conveyed 
 direct from a dynamo to the electro- 
 motor, by means of a long conductor 
 insulated from the ground, which is 
 fixed either beside or between the rails, 
 and is rubbed by a metallic brush at- 
 tached to the car, this brush being in 
 connection with the electro-motor. The 
 current, after passing through the 
 electro-motor, escapes to the axles of the 
 driving-wheels, and so through the 
 driving-wheels themselves to the rails, 
 which need not be insulated. In many 
 electric railways (or tramways) the con- 
 ductor is an overhead wire from which 
 the current is obtained to drive the cars. 
 The first permanent electric railway was 
 laid down at Berlin in 1881. 
 
 ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. See Tele- 
 graph, Electric. 
 
 ELECTROCUTION, execution by elec- 
 tricity; that is, the killing of a man by an 
 electric shock. This method of killing 
 condemned criminals was adopted by 
 New York in 1888 and by Ohio in 1896. 
 It is supposed that the method is more 
 humane than that of hanging. The con- 
 demned is led to a chair, an electrode is 
 placed upon his bared leg, and enough 
 current is sent into him to kill him. 
 Many people think that electrocution is 
 even more horrible than hanging. The 
 courts, however, have decided that it is 
 less so. 
 
 ELECTRODE, a term Introduced by 
 Faraday to denote the wires or other 
 
 terminals by which electricity either en- 
 ters or leaves a body which is undergoing 
 electrolytic decomposition, in order to 
 avoid an implied theory connected with 
 the use of the older terms pole, positive 
 pole, negative pole. He called the elec- 
 trode at which the current enters the 
 anode (ana, upward), and the electrode 
 at which the current leaves the elec- 
 trolyte the cathode (kata, downward). 
 (See Electro-metallurgy.) The two 
 latter terms have now been introduced 
 in metallurgic practice; and the term 
 electrode has become common in the ex- 
 tended sense of the way by which elec- 
 tricity enters or leaves an instrument. 
 For instance, we speak of the electrodes 
 of an electrometer or a galvanometer, or 
 of a battery. 
 
 ELECTRO-DYNAMOMETER, an in- 
 strument used for the measurement of 
 electric currents by means of the me- 
 chanical forces which they exert upon 
 each other. It contains two coils of wire, 
 one fixed and the other movable; the 
 latter being either larger or smaller than 
 the other so as to be able to pass either 
 outside it or through it. Both coils are 
 in vertical planes and have the same 
 vertical diameter, round which the 
 movable one can revolve so as to set its 
 own plane at any angle with the plane of 
 the other. The terminals of the mov- 
 able coil dip in cups of mercury, one of 
 which is in connection with one end of 
 the fixed coil, and the other with one of 
 the binding-screws of the instrument. 
 The other binding-screw is in connection 
 with the other end of the fixed coil. 
 Hence when the two binding-screws are 
 connected with a battery or other source 
 of electricity, the current has to pass 
 through both coils. Its effect is ex- 
 hibited by a tendency in the movable 
 coil to set its plane in coincidence with 
 that of the fixed coil, and in such a man- 
 ner that the current will circulate the 
 same way round both coils. This ten- 
 dency is resisted by mechanical means 
 provided for the purpose — usually by 
 the torsion of a wire from the end of 
 which the movable coil hangs; and the 
 measurement is usually made by apply- 
 ing torsion until the planes of the two 
 coils are at right angles. The amount of 
 torsion thus applied is proportional to 
 the mutual force exerted by the two 
 coils, and this is proportional to the 
 square of the current, since when we 
 double the current through one we also 
 double the current through the other. 
 
 ELECTROL'YSIS is the chemical de- 
 composition of certain compound bodies 
 under the action of a current of elec- 
 tricity. The following are the main 
 facts to be mentioned. When an elec- 
 trolyte (as a body capable of electrolytic 
 decomposition is called) is subjected to a 
 current of electricity of sufficient in- 
 tensity, it is broken up into two elements, 
 which appear, one of them at one elec- 
 trode and the other at the other electrode ; 
 thus, if two platinum plates connected 
 with the first and last plates of a battery 
 be plunged in a trough containing a 
 solution of chloride of silver, the chlorine 
 is given off at the plate by which positive 
 electricity enters, that is, at the plate 
 which is connected with the copper 
 plate of the battery, and the silver is 
 deposited at the plate connected with I 
 
 the zinc plate of the battery. The two 
 elements are liberated at these places in 
 quantities chemically equivalent. Thus 
 for every 108 grammes of silver de- 
 posited at one side of the vessel 35' 5 
 grammes of chlorine are given off at the 
 other side. When a compound consist- 
 ing of a metallic and a non-metallic part 
 is decomposed, the non-metallic part is 
 set free at the electrode at which the 
 current enters and the metallic part at 
 the opposite electrode. Hydrogen acts 
 as a metal. Electrolysis takes place only 
 when the electrolyte is in a liquid state, 
 and involves a transfer of the materials 
 of which the compound is composed 
 from one part of the vessel to another. 
 
 The electrolytic action of the current 
 is the same at all parts of the circuit. If 
 the current is made to traverse several 
 vessels, each containing the same sub- 
 stance, all in series (that is, the current 
 that leaves the first entering the second, 
 and so on), it will be found that in each 
 of the cells precisely the same amount 
 of decomposition goes on. There will be 
 the same weight of silver deposited at 
 one side, and the same weight of chlorine 
 set free at the other. 
 
 The same quantity of electricity de- 
 composes chemically equivalent quan- 
 tities of different electrolytes. If we 
 pass the current through a series of cells 
 containing different electrolytes, for ex- 
 ample, water, chloride of silver, sulphate 
 of soda, and collect the products of de- 
 composition, we find that the quantities 
 of hydrogen, silver, and sodium set free 
 are strictly proportional to the chemical 
 equivalents of these bodies. Further, 
 in the battery which gives rise to the 
 electric current, if precautions are taken 
 to avoid disturbance by local action on 
 the plates, it is found that the action 
 which goes on in each of its cells is chem- 
 ically equivalent to that in each of the 
 decomposing cells. 
 
 The quantity of the electrolyte de- 
 composed in a given time is proportional 
 to the strengtn of the current. Cur- 
 rents are often measured in practice by 
 observing the weight of copper deposited 
 in a given time from a solution of sul- 
 phate of copper. 
 
 ELECTROLYTE. See previous article 
 
 ELECTRO-MAGNET, a piece of iron 
 temporarily converted into a magnet by 
 means of a current of electricity sent 
 through a wire which is coiled round it. 
 The wire is usually covered with silk, 
 cotton, gutta percha, or some other in- 
 sulator, to prevent the current from 
 leaping across, and compel it to travel 
 through the whole length of the ware. 
 The more pure and soft the iron is, the 
 stronger will its magnetism be while it 
 lasts, and the more completely will it 
 disappear when the current stops. Steel 
 is less affected than soft iron for the 
 time, but remains permanently mag- 
 netized after the current ceases. Electro- 
 magnets are usually much more power- 
 ful than other magnets of the same size. 
 The iron which is magnetized by the cur- 
 rent passing round it is called the core. 
 It is frequently straight, the wire being 
 wound upon it like thread upon a reel; 
 but very frequently it has the shape of a 
 U, or horse-shoe, the wire being coiled 
 round the tw'o ends and the bend of the 
 U left uncovered. 
 
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM 
 
 electro-metallurgy 
 
 To predict which end will be the north 
 pole, the following rule may be em- 
 ployed: Let the core be a straight bar of 
 iron held in front of you pointing left 
 and right, then if the current ascends on 
 the side next you, and descends on the 
 further side, the north pole is to your 
 left hand and the south pole to your right. 
 If the straight bar is then bent into 
 horse-shoe shape, its poles will not be 
 changed. There is no necessity to in- 
 quire whether the wire forms a right- 
 handed or a left-handed helix, this cir- 
 cumstance having no influence on the 
 question of poles. Indeed, in most cases 
 (just as in the case of thread on a reel) 
 the helices are some right-handed and 
 some left-handed. 
 
 An electro-magnet is said to be made 
 when the current is sent through its coil, 
 and unmade when the current is stopped. 
 In some applications of electro-magnets 
 it is necessary to make and unmake 
 them in rapid succession. It is then 
 referable for the core to consist of a 
 undle of iron wires rather than of a solid 
 bar. 
 
 ELECTRO-MAGNETISM, a term that 
 in its broadest sense denotes the science 
 which treats of the relations between 
 magnetism and electricity. In a nar- 
 rower sense a magnetic effect produced 
 by electricity is said to be electro- 
 magnetic, while an electrical effect pro- 
 duced by the agency of magnets is called 
 magneto-electric. In the preceding 
 article we have described one electro- 
 magnetic effect — the making of an 
 electro-magnet by means of a current. 
 Another important electro - magnetic 
 effect is the deflection of a magnetic 
 needle by a current of electricity passing 
 near it. The simplest experiment to 
 illustrate this action is to take an ordi- 
 nary mariner’s compass, hold just above 
 it a copper wire parallel to the needle of 
 the compass, and then, while the wire is 
 in this position, let its two ends be con- 
 nected with the two poles of a galvanic 
 battery. The needle will instantly turn 
 away from its north-and-south position, 
 and will remain deflected as long as the 
 current continues to pass over it. If 
 the current flows from south to north, 
 the north end of the needle is turned to 
 the west ; and if the current is in the op- 
 posite direction, the needle turns the 
 other way. This is the easiest test for 
 determining the direction in which a cur- 
 rent is flowing through a wire; and it is 
 the basis of the construction of galvano- 
 meters, which are the instruments 
 chiefly employed for the measurement 
 of currents. The current tends to make 
 the needle take a position at right angles 
 to the direction of the current ; but as the 
 earth tends to make the needle point 
 north and south, the position actually 
 taken is between the two. The fact that 
 a current deflects a needle was dis- 
 covered by (Ersted of Copenhagen, and 
 the general rule for the direction of the 
 deflection was thrown into the following 
 form by Ampere: Imagine the current 
 to enter at your feet and come out at 
 your head, then the north pole of a 
 needle in front of you will be deflected 
 to your left. This rule holds good 
 whether the current is above the needle, 
 below it, or in any other position. The 
 rule may also be put in the following 
 
 form ; Imagine an ordinary screw placed 
 so that the current is in its axis; the 
 north pole of the needle will turn to the 
 same side to which that part of the cir- 
 cumference which is next it turns when 
 the screw advances in the direction of 
 the current. 
 
 The leading fact of magneto-elec- 
 tricity is that when a magnet is moved 
 in the neighborhood of a wire or other 
 conductor, the motion causes a current 
 of electricity in the conductor; and a 
 similar effect occurs if the wire is moved 
 while the magnet remains at rest. In 
 the experiment, above described, of 
 making a magnetic needle turn on its 
 pivot by sending a current through a 
 wire held above it, the motion of the 
 needle produces for the time being a 
 weakening of the current. If the needle 
 were made by mechanical means to turn 
 the contrary way, it would strengthen 
 the current for the time being. If there 
 were no original current, the turning of 
 the needle to either side by mechanical 
 means would produce a current in the 
 wire. The current thus produced is al- 
 ways opposite in direction to that which 
 would aid the motion. 
 
 ELECTRO - MEDICAL MACHINES, 
 machines intended for giving shocks for 
 medical purposes. They are of various 
 kinds, but they all produce their effects 
 by a rapid succession of either interrup- 
 tions or reversals of an electric current. 
 Such interruptions or reversals are al- 
 ways accompanied by the action called 
 self-induction, especially when the origi- 
 
 Electro-medical machine. 
 
 nal current flows through a coil of many 
 convolutions, and still more if these con- 
 volutions encircle an iron core. Self- 
 induction in such cases shows itself as a 
 sudden and violent action, having the 
 same sort of relation to a steady current 
 that a blow has to a steady pressure. 
 One form of electro-medical machine is 
 shown above. At the top of the figure 
 are shown two small galvanic cells, in 
 which for greater portability materials 
 of pasty consistency are used instead of 
 liquids. The bottle shown below is for 
 replenishing them. In the center of the 
 figure are seen two cylindrical coils, 
 through which the current from the two 
 cells passes. They have cores of soft iron 
 to strengthen their action, and they 
 have also sliding covers of copper for 
 mitigating their action. These are 
 shown in the figure as pulled out a short 
 distance, so as to uncover a small portion 
 
 of the coils. The shocks become stronger 
 as these covers are drawn further out. 
 The action of the covers may be de- 
 scribed as a muffling or cushioning of the 
 sudden violence of self-induction. Some 
 of the commonest forms of electro- 
 medical machine are magneto-electric, 
 their currents being produced by mak- 
 ing a coil of copper wire rotate rapidly 
 between the poles of a strong magnet. 
 The employment of such a machine for 
 administering shocks to patients is 
 called faradisation, from Faraday, the 
 discoverer of magneto-electricity. 
 
 ELECTRO-METAL'LURGY, the art 
 of depositing metals from solutions of 
 their salts upon metallic or other con- 
 ducting surfaces by the agency of an 
 electric current. Its operations may be 
 classified under three heads: the making 
 of facsimilies, the formation of perma- 
 nent coatings, and the obtaining of a 
 pure metal from an impure. In every 
 instance the current enters the solution 
 by a plate of the metal in question, 
 which is immersed in it, and leaves the 
 solution by the conducting surface on 
 which the deposit is formed. The plate 
 at which the current enters (called the 
 anode) is gradually dissolved, and an 
 equal quantity of the metal is at the 
 same time deposited on the surface by 
 which file current leaves the solution 
 (called the cathode). The source em- 
 ployed for giving the current was for- 
 merly a galvanic battery, but is now 
 more frequently a dynamo machine, in 
 which the armature is constructed of 
 much stouter wire than is used in dyna- 
 mos intended for other purposes. Cop- 
 per lends itself with special readiness to 
 electrical deposition, and the solution 
 employed for the purpose is usually a 
 saturated solution of sulphate of copper; 
 but if the surface to be coated is of iron, 
 steel, or zinc, it is necessary to employ 
 an alkaline solution, in which cyanide of 
 potassium and carbonate of soda are 
 usually the chief ingredients, a salt of 
 copper being present in comparatively 
 small quantity. For electro-gilding, a 
 solution containing cyanide of potas- 
 sium and cyanide of gold is employed; 
 and for electro-plating, a solution of 
 cyanide of potassium and cyanide of 
 silver. It so happens that the impurities 
 which usually occur in copper roughly 
 smelted from the ore consist of sub- 
 stances which either cannot be dissolved 
 in a solution of sulphate of copper, or 
 cannot be deposited on a copper surface 
 from such a solution. Hence when a 
 plate of crude copper is used as the 
 anode, pure copper is deposited on the 
 cathode, and most of the impurities fall 
 to the bottom of the vessel. Pure copper 
 is now produced in enormons quantities 
 by this method, purity being an essential 
 requisite in copper wire for electrical 
 purposes. 
 
 The most important instance of the 
 position of a permanent coating is 
 electro-plating. To ensure good adhe- 
 sion it is necessary to remove every par- 
 ticle of grease and oxide from the sur- 
 face (usually German silver) on which 
 the silver is to be deposited. With this 
 view the article to be plated, after being 
 well scoured, is boiled in a strong lye 
 of caustic potash or soda, and dipped in 
 dilute acid, technically called pickle; 
 
electrometer 
 
 ELECTROSCOPE 
 
 after which it is washed in distilled 
 water, and then quickly dipped in a 
 solution of nitrate of mercury until it 
 appears white on the surface. Finally 
 it is suspended in the silver solution, 
 when it is immediately coated with a 
 thin film of silver. This operation is 
 called striking. After a few seconds it is 
 taken out and well brushed, generally 
 with bundles of brass wire attached to a 
 lathe; it is then washed and replaced in 
 the plating solution, where it is allowed 
 to remain for a longer or shorter period 
 according to the thickness of deposit 
 required. An immersion of a few hours 
 is generally sufficient. To ascertain the 
 amount of metal deposited it is only 
 necessary to weigh the articles from 
 time to time. One and a quarter or one 
 and a half ounce of silver to the square 
 foot gives an excellent plate about the 
 thickness of common writing-paper. 
 In ordinary circumstances the coating 
 of deposited silver is chalk-white, and 
 has a dead or matted appearance, which 
 is much esteemed for medals. Some- 
 times the operator is desirous of having 
 his object bright, either entirely or 
 partially. In this case the object is 
 brushed over with old beer or dipped 
 into a solution of soft soap, and is then 
 submitted to the burnisher. Certain 
 chemicals added to the solution will 
 cause the original deposit to have a 
 metallic luster 
 
 The production of copper facsimiles 
 by the electric current is called electro- 
 type, and is the oldest branch of electro- 
 metallurgy. One of its most important 
 applications is the copying of type set 
 up for printing, and of wood blocks for 
 wood-cuts. A mould is first obtained in 
 gutta percha or some similar material. 
 This, being a non-conductor, is brushed 
 over with plumbago in its interior, so as 
 to give it a conducting surface to re- 
 ceive the deposit. After several hours 
 the deposit is detached from the mould 
 and backed by pouring in melted solder, 
 the surface being first moistened with 
 chloride of zinc to make the solder ad- 
 here. In the copying of steel engravings 
 the mould is obtained by electro-deposi- 
 tion of copper on the steel, the surface of 
 which must first be specially prepared 
 to prevent adhesion; and a second 
 electro-deposition of copper, on the 
 mould thus obtained, gives the required 
 copy, from which impressions can be 
 printed. 
 
 ELECTROM'ETER, an instrument in- 
 tended for accurate electro-statical 
 measurements. Stated in precise tech- 
 nical language, its purpose is to measure 
 the difference of potential between two 
 conductors. Most of the electrometers 
 in actual use are inventions of Sir Will- 
 iam Thomson, who was the first to give 
 accuracy to this branch of electrical 
 measurement. His quadrant-electrom- 
 eter is the instrument chiefly used, and its 
 indications are usually given by means 
 of a small movable mirror wliieh reflects 
 a spot of light from a lamp on to a paper 
 scale. When the two conductors which 
 are tested have the same potential the 
 spot of light stands in the middle of the 
 scale, and its movement to either side 
 indicates the difference of their poten- 
 tials. The instrument is sufficiently 
 delicate to give a sensible displacement 
 
 when the two conductors are the two 
 plates of a single galvanic cell ; and a dis- 
 placement twice as great will be ob- 
 tained by combining two such cells. 
 
 ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE, a phrase 
 (commonly abbreviated into the three 
 initial letters e.m.f.) which is of very 
 frequent use in modern electrical litera- 
 ture, especially in connection with 
 electric currents. The e.m.f in a wire 
 through which a current is flowing may 
 be compared to the difference of pres- 
 sures in a long, narrow, horizontal pipe, 
 through which water is flowing. As the 
 difference of the pressure at the two ends 
 of the pipe forces the water through in 
 spite of frictional resistance, so the differ- 
 ence of the potentials at the two ends of 
 the wire forces the current through in 
 spite of the electrical resistance of the 
 wire. This difference of potentials is 
 another name for electro-motive force. 
 Each cell of a battery is a source of e.m.f. 
 and when the cells are connected in the 
 usual way (technically called in series) 
 their e.m.f.’s are added together, so that, 
 for example, the e.m.f. of a battery of 
 ten cells Is ten times the e.m.f. of one 
 cell. E.m.f. can also be produced in a 
 wire by moving a magnet in its neighbor- 
 hood, and this e.m.f. will be exactly pro- 
 portional (other things being equal) to 
 the velocity of the motion. The com- 
 mercial unit of e.m.f. is the volt. Its 
 magnitude may be inferred from the 
 statement that the e.m.f. of a single cell 
 is usually more than one volt, and less 
 than volts. The highest e.m.f. per- 
 mitted by the board of trade in wires 
 which are liable to be touched by the 
 public is about 200 volts. It is no un- 
 usual tiling for a dynamo to give an 
 e.m.f. of 1000 or 2000 volts. Currents 
 produced by a source of high e.m.f. are 
 often called currents of high tension. 
 They are necessary when several arc 
 lamps are to be supplied in series, and 
 they are also necessary (on the score of 
 economy) when power is to be trans- 
 mitted by electricity to great distances. 
 
 ELECTRO-MOTORS, or ELECTRO- 
 MAGNETIC ENGINES, are contrivances 
 for making a current produce continu- 
 ous rotatory motion, the force produc- 
 ing the motion being sufficient to over- 
 come a considerable amount of me- 
 chanical resistance, and so do useful 
 work. Until quite recent years this ob- 
 ject was effected by the alternate mak- 
 ing and unmaking of electro-magnets, 
 which attracted pieces of iron provided 
 for the purpose, and caused them to 
 move in the directions required for pro- 
 ducing continuous rotation. In modern 
 electro-motors the action is greatly in- 
 tensified by employing, instead of the 
 above-mentioned pieces of iron, electro- 
 magnets whose poles are alternately 
 attracted and repelled by those of the 
 fixed electro-magnets. In order to pro- 
 duce these alternate attractions and re- 
 pulsions the currents in the moving 
 electro-magnets are continually reversed, 
 while the currents in the fixed magnets 
 are always in the same direction. The 
 revolving electro-magnet or group of 
 electro-magnets is called the armature. 
 It revolves with great rapidity, and its 
 movement is transmitted bj' a belt or 
 otherwise to the machinery which is to 
 be driven. The construction of an 
 
 electro-motor is almost precisely similat 
 to that of a direct-current dynamo. 
 Indeed the same machines have often 
 been used interchangeably for both pur- 
 poses. See Electric Railway, Electricity. 
 
 ELECTROPH'ORUS, an electrical in- 
 strument consisting of two plates, the 
 lower of vulcanite or shellac, with tin- 
 foil or other metal at the bottom, and 
 the upper of brass, with a glass handle 
 The operator begins by applying friction 
 
 Electrophorus. 
 
 with a catskin or flannel to the upper 
 surface of the lower plate, which thus 
 acquires a negative charge. The upper 
 plate is then placed upon it and pressed 
 closely down. In this process the upper 
 plate, being in connection with the earth 
 through the body of the operator, ac- 
 quires a positive charge by induction; 
 and if the upper plate be now lifted off 
 by its glass handle, a good spark can be 
 obtained from it. It may then be pressed 
 down again, removed again, and an- 
 other spark obtained, and so on, time 
 after time. If the insulation is thor- 
 oughly good, hundreds of sparks can be 
 drawn in this way without the necessity 
 of renewing the charge on the surface of 
 the lower plate. It might have been 
 expected that the upper plate would 
 require a coating of insulating varnish 
 to prevent it from touching the lower 
 one; but experience shows that this pre- 
 caution is unnecessary. A smooth plate 
 of metal does not easily receive elec- 
 tricity from an insulating substance with 
 which it is brought in contact. The 
 electrophorus is often so constructed 
 that when the two plates are in contact, 
 the upper plate is in conducting com- 
 munication with the metal base of the 
 lower plate. This arrangement saves 
 time, as it is then unnecessary to touch 
 the upper plate with the hand. 
 
 ELECTROPLATE. See Electro-met- 
 allurgy. 
 
 ELEC'TROSCOPE, any apparatus for 
 showing the presence of electricity with- 
 out giving quantitative measurements. 
 One form consists of two stiff straws 
 loosely tied together at the top, so that 
 
 Gold leaf electroscope. 
 
 they are free to open out at the bottom 
 whenever they repel each other. If they 
 are placed in conducting communication 
 with an electrified bod}' they will open 
 out. A more sensitive instrument is the 
 
ELECTROTYPE 
 
 ELEPHANT 
 
 gold-leaf electroscope, which is repre- 
 sented in the adjoining figure. Here 
 the two gold leaves are shown diverging 
 under the influence of an electrified body 
 held over the instrument. The gold 
 leaves are attached to the lower end of a 
 short rod of brass, whose upper end 
 carries the brass knob which forms the 
 top of the instrument. These metal 
 parts are supported by the glass shade 
 which insulates them from the earth, 
 and the upper part of which is repre- 
 sented in the figure as coated with var- 
 nish, but this is not essential. The two 
 gold leaves originally hang down parallel 
 and nearly touching each other. When 
 an electrified body is slowly brought 
 down over the knob from a good height 
 above it, the unlike electricity is at- 
 tracted to the knob, and the like elec- 
 tricity is repelled into the gold leaves, 
 which, in consequence of being thus 
 electrified, repel each other. The two 
 little brass columns standing up from 
 the base are in connection with the 
 earth, and their presence increases the 
 divergence of the leaves. As soon as the 
 electrified body above is removed, the 
 leaves come together again. If, how- 
 ever, while the leaves are standing apart 
 under the influence of the body over- 
 head, the knob is touched with the finger 
 the leaves will instantly come together. 
 It will then be found that either lowering 
 or raising the influencing body causes 
 them to open out again; and if the in- 
 fluencing body is removed they will open 
 out to the same width at which they 
 stood just before the knob was touched. 
 The leaves and knob have now a charge 
 opposite to that of the influencing body, 
 and the electroscope can now be used to 
 show whether the charge of a second 
 influencing body is positive or negative. 
 If the second body has the same kind of 
 electricity as the first, it will diminish 
 the repulsion; if it has the opposite kind, 
 it will increase the repulsion. 
 
 ELECTROTYPE, that branch of 
 electro-metallurgy which deals with the 
 production of facsimiles. See Electro- 
 metallurgy. 
 
 EL'EGY, a mournful and plaintive 
 poem or funeral song, or any serious 
 poem of a melancholy contemplative 
 kind. In classic poetry what is known 
 as elegiac verse is composed of couplets 
 consisting of alternate hexameter and 
 pentameter lines. 
 
 ELEMENTAL SPIRITS, according to 
 a belief common in the middle ages, 
 spirits proper to and partaking of the 
 four so-called elements, viz. salamanders 
 or fire spirits, sylphs or aerial spirits, 
 gnomes or earth spirits, and undines or 
 water spirits. 
 
 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. See 
 Education. 
 
 EL'EMENTS, the simplest constituent 
 principles or parts of anything; in a 
 special sense, the ultimate indecomposi- 
 ble constituents of any kind of matter. 
 In ancient philosophies the term was 
 applied to fire, air, earth, and water. 
 The mediaeval chemists, however, ob- 
 sorbed in the study of metals and min- 
 eral substances, supposed that the metals 
 consisted of an elemental sulphur and an 
 an elemental mercury mixed together 
 more or less perfectly and in different 
 proportions. To these were subsequent- 
 P. E.— 27 
 
 ly added salt and some others, so that 
 about the middle of the 17th century the 
 first principles amounted to five, divided 
 into two classes: the active, consisting 
 of mercury or spirit, sulphur or oil, and 
 salt; and the passive, consisting of water 
 or phlegm, and earth or the terrestrial 
 part. The names remained, not so much 
 as denoting substances or ultimate prin- 
 ciples as gradually coming to denote 
 functions; the first great modification 
 being the expansion of the idea of 
 elemental sulphur into phlogiston by 
 Stahl, as the result of which the adher- 
 ents of the phlogistic theory applied the 
 term to phlogiston, to the gases then 
 discovered, the mineral, vegetable, and 
 animal acids, the alkalies, earths, and 
 metallic calces, oil,/ alcohol, and water. 
 The substances considered as simple 
 naturally changed with the change of 
 theory introduced by Lavoisier, who 
 considered as elements, oxygen, nitro- 
 gen, hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, 
 and carbon, the metals and the earths, 
 and, as Boyle had already suggested, 
 practically defined an element as a body 
 not yet decomposed, the definition now 
 commonly adopted. For list of known 
 elements see Chemistry. 
 
 EL'EPHANT, the popular name of a 
 genus or sub-family of five-toed pro- 
 boscidian mammals, usually regarded 
 as comprehending two species, the Asiat- 
 
 African elephant. 
 
 ic and the African. From a differ- 
 ence in the teeth, however, the African 
 species is sometimes treated as a distinct 
 genus, and some authors divide the 
 
 Asiatic elephant. 
 
 Asiatic elephants into several species, 
 such as the Indian elephant, the Ceylon 
 elephant and the Sumatra elephant. 
 The so-called white elephants are merely 
 albinos. The African elephant is dis- 
 tinguished from the Asiatic species by 
 its greater height, its larger ears, its less 
 elevated head and bulging or convex 
 
 forehead, the closer approximation of the 
 roots of the tjusks, and the greater 
 density of the bone. It has also only 
 three external hoofs on the hind-feet, 
 while the Asiatic has four. All elephants 
 
 Indian elephant. 
 
 are remarkable for their large, heavy, 
 short bodies supported on columnar 
 limbs, a very short neck, a skull with 
 lofty crown and short face-bones, with 
 the exception of the premaxillaries, 
 which are enlarged to form tusk-sockets. 
 To compensate for the short neck, they 
 have the long proboscis, often 4 or 5 feet 
 
 Head of Indian elephant. 
 
 in length, produced by the union and 
 development of the nose and upper lip. 
 It is made up of muscular and mem- 
 braneous tissue, the only cartilages be- 
 ing the valves at the entrance of the 
 nares. The trunk is of great strength 
 and sensibility, and serves alike for 
 respiration, smell, taste, suction, touch, 
 and prehension. The tusks, which are 
 
 Head of African elephant. 
 
 enormously developed upper incisor 
 teeth, are not visible in young animals, 
 but in a state of maturity they project, 
 in some instances 7 or 8 feet. The 
 largest on record (possibly that of an 
 extinct species) weighed 350 lbs. Ele- 
 phants sometimes attain the height of 
 15 feet, but their general height is a.bout 
 9 or 10. Their weight ranges from 4000 
 to 9000 lbs. The female is gravid twenty 
 months, and seldom produces more than 
 one at a birth: this, when first born, is 
 about 3 feet high, and continues to grow 
 till it is sixteen or eighteen years of age. 
 It is said they live to the age of 100 
 years and upward. They feed on vege- 
 tables, the young shoots of trees, grain, 
 
ELEPHANTIASIS 
 
 ELISHA 
 
 and fruit. They are polygamous, asso- 
 ciating in herds of a considerable size un- 
 der the guidance of a single leader. The 
 domesticated elephant requires much 
 care, and a plentiful supply of food, 
 being liable to many ailments. The 
 daily consumption of a working elephant 
 is, 2 cwts. of green food, about half a 
 bushel of grain, and about 40 gallons of 
 water. Their enormous strength, 
 docility, and sagacity make them of 
 great value in the East for road-making, 
 building and transport. They are used 
 on occasions of pomp and show, being 
 often richly caparisoned, and bearing on 
 their back a howdah containing one or 
 more riders, besides the mahout or 
 driver sitting on the animal’s neck. 
 Tiger-shooting is often practiced from 
 an elephant’s back. The fossil remains 
 of the genus Elephas indicate the former 
 existence of at least fourteen species; 
 and a still larger number of species be- 
 long to the allied genus Mastodon. 
 
 ELEPHANTI'ASIS, a disease chiefly 
 occurring in tropical climates, charac- 
 terized by a pecuUar overgrowth of the 
 skin and subjacent textures, and attack- 
 ing especially the legs, which become 
 enlarged and elephantine. It appears to 
 arise from repeated inflammation of the 
 skin and a concurrent obstruction of the 
 veins and l 5 rmphatic glands of the im- 
 flamed part. The disease occasionally 
 affects the scrotum, enlarging it to 
 enormous dimensions. In general it is 
 attended with little pain, and the health 
 may remain otherwise unaffected for 
 many years. In the early stages wet 
 bandaging or ligature of the main artery 
 has been found serviceable, but ampu- 
 tation may be necessary. 
 
 ELEPHANT-SEAL, the proboscis seal, 
 or sea-elephant, the largest of the seal 
 family. There are probably two species, 
 one found only on the coast of California 
 and Western Mexico, the other found in 
 Patagonia, Kerguelen Island, Heard’s 
 Island, and other parts of the southern 
 seas. They vary in length from 12 to 
 30 feet, and in girth at the chest from 8 
 to 18 feet. The proboscis of the male 
 is about 15 inches long when the creature 
 is at rest, but elongates under excite- 
 ment. The females have no proboscis, 
 and are considerably smaller than the 
 male. Both species are becoming rare 
 from their continual slaughter. 
 
 ELEPHANT’S-EAR, a name some- 
 times given to plants of the genus 
 Begonia. 
 
 ELEVATION, in architecture, a geo- 
 metrical delineation of the front or any 
 face of a building in which all the parts 
 are drawn according to scale, and not 
 shown as they would appear in perspec- 
 tive. — In astronomy, it is the height of a 
 celestial object above the horizon. 
 
 ELEVATION OF THE HOST, in the 
 ritual of the Mass, is the lifting up of the 
 elements immediately after consecra- 
 tion, to be worshiped by the people. 
 It was introduced into the Latin Church 
 in the 11th century. 
 
 EL'EVATOR, a mechanical contriv- 
 .'ince consisting of a series of boxes or 
 buckets attached to a belt traveling 
 round two drums, one above and one 
 below, for hoisting grain, meal, etc., 
 into a mill or storehouse from a ship’s 
 Jiold, etc. In the U. States large buildings 
 
 containing such contrivances, and in 
 which grain is stored, receive the same 
 name. — (2) An apparatus for raising or 
 lowering persons or goods to or from 
 different levels in warehouses, hotels, 
 etc., consisting usually of a cage or mov- 
 able platform worked by hydraulic, 
 steam, or electric power. 
 
 ELF. See Fairy. 
 
 ELGIN, a royal and parliament burgh 
 of Scotland, capital of Elgin county, 
 finely situated on the Lossie, about 
 5 miles from its influx into the Moray 
 Firth, 70 miles n.w. of Aberdeen. Pop. 
 8260.— The county of Elgin, also called 
 Morayshire, is a maritime count 3 q 
 bounded by the Moray Firth, Banff- 
 shire, Inverness-shire, and Nairnshire; 
 area, 340,000 acres. Pop. 44,808. 
 
 ELGIN, a town on the Fox river in 
 Kane co.. 111., noted for its important 
 manufacturing and agricultural indus- 
 tries. It is charmingly situated on a 
 number of pretty hills and is the centre 
 of one of the prettiest districts in 
 America. Here is situated the Elgin 
 watch works the products of which have 
 a world-wide reputation. Elgin is also 
 the center of one of the finest dairy 
 farming districts in the world. The 
 Illinois State Hospital for the Insane is 
 the largest public institution. Pop. 
 25,000. 
 
 ELGIN, James Bruce, Eighth Earl of, 
 and twelfth Earl of Kincardine, Gover- 
 nor-general of India, born in 1811. He 
 died in 1863. 
 
 EL HASA, a fertile district of Eastern 
 Arabia, on the Persian Gulf. It pro- 
 duces dates, wheat, millet, rice, etc. 
 Pop. estimated at 160,000. 
 
 ELI, one of the Hebrew judges, the 
 predecessor of Samuel. He was high- 
 priest and judge for fort 5 ’’ years, but was 
 less successful as head of his own hou.se- 
 hold. His two sons having been slain 
 and the ark taken in battle by the 
 Philistines, the news proved so severe a 
 shock that he fell and broke his neck, at 
 the age of ninety-eight. Little is really 
 known of the history of Eli, since he is 
 only shown to us in the weakness of old 
 age, unable to control his sons Hophni 
 and Phinehas, whose wickedness dis- 
 gusted and alienated the people. 
 
 ELI' AS, the New Testament form of 
 Elijah. 
 
 ELIAS, Mount St. See Saint Elias, 
 Mount. 
 
 ELI'JAH, the most distinguished of 
 the prophets of Irsael, flourished in the 
 9th century b.c., during the reigns of 
 Ahab and Ahaziah, and until the be- 
 ginning of the reign of Jehoram, his 
 special function being to denounce ven- 
 geance on the kings of Israel for their 
 apostasy. He incurred the anger of 
 Jezebel, wife of Ahab, for slaying the 
 prophets of Baal, but escaped to Horeb, 
 afterward returning to Samaria to de- 
 nounce Ahab for the murder of Naboth. 
 Elijah at length ascended to heaven in a 
 chariot of fire, Elisha, his successor, be- 
 ing witness. See 1 Kings xra. to xxi. 
 and 2 Kings i. and ii. 
 
 ELIOT, Charles William, a noted 
 American educator, born in Boston in 
 1834. He was educated at Harvard and 
 held several chairs in the university 
 until 1869, when he became its presi- 
 dent. Under his administration the 
 
 university had its greatest growth. He 
 remodeled the curriculum, devised the 
 elective system of studies and soon be- 
 came the acknowledged authority in 
 America on higher education. He has 
 published several text-books and a num- 
 ber of essays and addresses. He re- 
 signed the presidency of Harvard in 
 1908. 
 
 EL'IOT, George, the assumed literary 
 name of Mary Ann, or, as she preferred 
 to write the name in later years, Marian 
 Evans, English novelist. Born at Griff, 
 near Nuneaton, on 22d November, 1820. 
 She received at Coventry an excellent 
 education, comprising the classical and 
 modern languages, and shortly after her 
 twenty-first year became a convert to 
 rationalism. It was not, however, until 
 January, 1857, that she came prominent- 
 nently into public notice, with the first 
 of a series of tales entitled Scenes from 
 Clerical Life. The series came to an end 
 in November, 1857, and in the following 
 year the publication of Adam Bede 
 placed her in the first rank of writers of 
 fiction. It was succeeded by the Mill on 
 the Floss (1860), Silas Marner (1861), 
 Romola (186.3), Felix Holt (1866), Mid- 
 dlemarch (1872), and Daniel Deronda 
 (1876). In addition to those prose works 
 she published three volumes of poems. 
 The Spanish Gj-psy (1868), Agatha 
 (1869), and the Legend of Jubal (1874). 
 Her last work published during her life 
 was the series of essays entitled The 
 Impressions of Theophrastus Such 
 (1879), but a volume of mixed essays 
 was issued posthumously. For many 
 years she was happily associated both in 
 life and work with George Henry Lewes, 
 though a legal union was impossible 
 during the lifetime of Mrs. Lewes. In 
 Majq 1880, after Mr. Lewes’ death, she 
 married Mr. John Cross, but did not 
 sur^^ve the marriage many months, 
 dying rather suddenly at Chelsea on the 
 22d December of that year. 
 
 ELI'SHA, a Hebrew prophet, the dis- 
 ciple and successor of Elijah. Many 
 miracles of prediction and cure, and even 
 
ELIXIR 
 
 of raising the dead, are ascribed to him, 
 but his figure is less original and heroic 
 than that of his master. He held the 
 office of prophet for fully sixty-five years 
 from the reign of Ahab to that of Joash 
 (latter half of 9th century b.c.). 
 
 ELIX'IR, a word of Arabic origin, ap- 
 plied by the alchemists to a number of 
 solutions employed in attempting the 
 transmutation of metals into gold, and 
 also to a potion, the elixir vita;, or elixir 
 of life, supposed to confer immortality. 
 It is still used for various popular reme- 
 dies, for the most part composed of 
 various aromatic and stimulative sub- 
 stances held in solution by alcohol. 
 
 ELIZABETH, a city in New Jersey, 14 
 miles s.w. from New York, with which 
 it has ample communication by railway 
 and steamer. It is a favorite residence 
 of New York business men. The Singer 
 Sewing Machine Co. has a large factory 
 here, and there are also foundries, oil- 
 cloth factories, etc. Pop. 1909, 70,000. 
 
 ELIZABETH, Queen of ' England, 
 daughter of Henry VIII. and of Anne 
 Boleyn, was born at Greenwich Sep- 
 tember 7th, 1533, and almost immedia- 
 ately declared heiress to the crown. 
 On the accession of Edward VI. Eliza- 
 beth was committed to the care of the 
 
 Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 queen-dowager Catherine. The first 
 great object of her reign was the settle- 
 ment of religion, to effect which a par- 
 liament was called on 25th January, and 
 dissolved on the 8th May, its object 
 having been accomplished. The nation 
 was prepared for a return to the re- 
 formed faith, and the parliament was at 
 the bidding of the court. The ecclesias- 
 tical system devised in her father’s reign 
 was re-established, the royal supremacy 
 as.serted, and the revised prayer-book 
 enforced by the act of uniformity. 
 While, however, the formal establish- 
 ment of the reformed religion was easily 
 completed, the security and defense of 
 the settlement was the main object of 
 the policy and the chief source of all the 
 struggles and contentions of her reign. 
 With the unfortunate Mary, Queen of 
 Scots, were connected many of the politi- 
 cal events of Elizabeth’s reign. On her 
 accession the country was at war with 
 France. Peace was easily concluded 
 (1559); but the assumption by Francis 
 and Mary of the royal arms and titles of 
 England led to an immediate interfer- 
 ence on the part of Elizabeth in the 
 affairs of Scotland. The detention of 
 Mary in England (1568-87), whither she 
 
 fled to the protection of Elizabeth, led to 
 a series of conspiracies, beginning with 
 that under the Earls of Northumberland 
 and Westmoreland, and ending with the 
 plot of Babington, which finally deter- 
 mined Elizabeth to make away with her 
 captive. The execution of Queen Mary 
 (1587), though it has stained her name to 
 posterity, tended to confirm her power 
 among her contemporaries, and caused 
 Philip of Spain to send the Armada 
 against England (see Armada). The 
 war with Spain dragged on till the close 
 of Elizabeth’s long reign. During her 
 reign the splendor of her govei-nment at 
 home and abroad was sustained by such 
 men as Burleigh, Bacon, Walsingham, 
 and Throgmorton; but she had personal 
 favorites of less merit who were often 
 more brilliantly rewarded. Chief of 
 these were Dudley, whom she created 
 Earl of Leicester, and whom she was 
 disposed to marry, and Essex, whose 
 violent passions brought about his ruin. 
 He was beheaded in 1601, but Elizabeth 
 never forgave herself his death. Her 
 own health soon after gave way, and she 
 died on 24th March, 1603, naming James 
 VI. of Scotland as her successor. 
 
 ELIZ'ABETHAN ARCHITECTURE, a 
 style of architecture which prevailed in 
 England during the reigns of EJizabeth 
 and James I. It succeeded to the Tudor 
 style, properly so called, with which it 
 is sometimes confounded. The Eliza- 
 bethan is a mixture of inferior Gothic 
 and debased Italian, producing a singu- 
 lar heterogeneousness in detail, with, 
 however, wonderful picturesqueness in 
 general effect, and domestic accommo- 
 dation more in accordance with the 
 wants of an advancing civilization than 
 was afforded by the styles which pre- 
 ceded it. The chief characteristics of 
 Elizabethan architecture are: windows 
 
 Elizabethan architecture— Hargrave hall , 
 England. 
 
 of great size both in the plane of the wall 
 and deeply embayed, ceilings very richly 
 decorated in relief, galleries of great 
 length, very tall and highly-decorated 
 chimneys, as well as a profuse use of 
 ornamental strap-work in the parapets, 
 window-heads, etc. The Elizabethan 
 style is the last stage of the Tudor or 
 
 ELIZADETiJ PETP.OWNA 
 
 Perpendicular, and from its correspond- 
 ing in point of period with the Renais- 
 sance of the Continent has sometimes 
 been called the English Renaissance. 
 The epithet Jacobean has sometimes 
 
 Drawing-room of Bramhall hall, Cheshire. 
 Time of Elizabeth. 
 
 been given to the very latest stage of the 
 Elizabethan, differing from the Eliza- 
 bethan proper in showing a greater ad- 
 mixture of debased Italian forms. The 
 
 /I 
 
 Elizabethan window, Rushton hall. 
 
 princely houses which arose during the 
 reign of Elizabeth are numerous, and 
 many even yet remain to attest the 
 splendor of the time. Of these may be 
 mentioned Burghley House, Hardwick 
 Hall, and Bramhall Hall. 
 
 ELIZABETH FARNESE (far-na'za). 
 Queen of Spain, daughter of Edward II., 
 prince of Parma, born 1692. On be- 
 coming the second wife of Philip V. she 
 surprised those who had counseled the 
 marriage by assuming the practical 
 headship of the kingdom, and her am- 
 bition and that of her minister Alberoni 
 disturbed the whole of Europe. The 
 “termagant tenacious woman,’’ as Car- 
 lyle called her, died in 1766. 
 
 ELIZABETH OF VALOIS, or ISA- 
 BELLA, Queen of Spain, was born in 
 1545, daughter of Henry II. of France 
 and Catherine de Medici. She was 
 destined by the Treaty of Cateau- 
 Cambr6sis to be the wife of the infante, 
 Don Carlos, but his father, Philip 11. , 
 being left a widower, became fascinated 
 and married her himself. She died in 
 1568. 
 
 ELIZABETH PETROWNA, Empress 
 of Russia, daughter of Peter the Great 
 and Catherine, born in 1709 or 1710, 
 ascended the throne on 7th Dec. 1741, 
 as the result of a conspiracy, in which 
 
ELIZABETH STUART 
 
 ELOHLM 
 
 Ivan VI., a minor, was deposed. Eliza- 
 beth is said to have rivalled her mother 
 in beauty, and to have surpiassed her in 
 her love of pleasure, and her government 
 was largely conducted by favorites. She 
 was a patron of literature, founded the 
 University of Moscow, and corresponded 
 with Voltaire. She died in 1762. 
 
 ELIZABETH STUART, Queen of 
 Bohemia, daughter of James I. of Eng- 
 land and VI. of Scotland, born in Falk- 
 land Palace, Fifeshire, 1596. Her mar- 
 riage with the Palatine Frederick was 
 celebrated at Whitehall in 1613. Her 
 husband, then at the head of the Prot- 
 estant interest in Germany, accepted 
 in 1619 the crown of Bohemia offered to 
 him by the revolted Protestants of that 
 country; but after his defeat by the 
 imperialists at the battle of Prague in 
 1620 he and his wife were obliged to flee, 
 first to Breslau and Berlin, and then to 
 the Hague. She returned to England at 
 the Restoration with her nephew Charles 
 II., and died at Leicester House, London 
 on 13th Feb., 1662. 
 
 ELK, Moose, or Moose Deer, the larg- 
 est of the deer family, a native of north- 
 ern Europe, Asia, and America. The 
 American form (to which the name 
 moose is usually given) is sometimes 
 separated from the European, but most 
 naturalists find no specific difference 
 between them. The elk or moose has a 
 
 Elk. 
 
 short compact body, standing about 6 
 feet in height at the shoulders, a thick 
 neck, large clumsy head, and horns 
 which flatten out almost from the base 
 into a broad palmate form with numer- 
 ous snags. In color the elk is grayish 
 brown, the limbs, sides of head, and 
 coarse mane being, however, of a lighter 
 hue. Their flesh resembles beef rather 
 than venison. For the most they are 
 inoffensive, and so exceedingly wary 
 that they are app'roached only with 
 difficulty. In America the Indians and 
 half-breeds are the most skilful moose- 
 hunters. The moose has a wide range in 
 Canada, extending from the Arctic 
 Ocean and British Columbia to New 
 Brunswick and Nova Scotia; and it is 
 found also in Maine. It feeds largely on 
 the shoots of trees or shrubs, such as the 
 willow and maple, and on bark, etc. 
 In Sweden its destruction is illegal, and 
 in Norway, there are many restrictions. 
 
 ELK'HART, a town of Indiana, on the 
 Elkhart River, with railroad works, 
 paper-mills, etc. Pop. 13,140. 
 
 ELKINS, Stephen Benton, an Ameri- 
 can politician, born in Ohio in 1841. He 
 
 studied law, began practice in Missouri, 
 removed to New Mexico in 1864 and was 
 territorial delegate from 1873 to 1877. 
 He removed to West Virginia, was secre- 
 tary of war in President Harrison’s 
 cabinet and in 1894 was elected L^. 
 States senator from West Virginia. 
 
 ELKS, Benevolent and Protective 
 Order of, a fraternal association organ- 
 ized in 1868 and consisting chiefly of 
 theatrical people. It has lodges in 
 numerous cities of the U. States and is 
 very active in contributing to all kinds 
 of charities through its great “benefit” 
 performances. The membership is 
 upward of 150,000. 
 
 ELLIOTT, Maxine, an American 
 actress, born in Maine. She made her 
 first important appearance in 1890 in 
 The Middleman and subsequently joined 
 Daly’s company going to London, where 
 she played in Shakespearean parts. In 
 1898 she was married to N. C. Goodwin, 
 with whom she has appeared in various 
 plays with great success. 
 
 ELLIPSE', a figure in geometry rank- 
 ing next in importance to the circle, and 
 produced when any cone is cut by a 
 plane which passes through it not 
 parallel to nor cutting the base. Kepler 
 
 discovered that the paths described by 
 the planets in their revolutions round 
 the sun are ellipses, the sun being placed 
 in one of the foci. To describe an ellipse ; 
 — At a given distance on the surface on 
 which the ellipse is to be described fix 
 two pins, a and b, and pass a looped 
 string round them. Keep the string 
 stretched by a pencil, c, and move the 
 pencil round, keeping the string at the 
 same tension, then the ellipse e g f h will 
 be described; f and g are the foci, d the 
 center, e f the major axis, and g h the 
 minor axis, d a or d b is the eccentricity 
 of the ellipse. A line drawn from any 
 point in the curve perpendicularly to 
 the axis is an ordinate to the axis. Any 
 straight line drawn through the center 
 and terminated both ways by the curve 
 is called a diameter. 
 
 ELLIP'SIS, in grammar, the omission 
 of one or more words, which may be 
 easily supplied by the connection. 
 
 ELLIPTIC'ITY of the earth, the de- 
 viation of the form of the earth from 
 that of a sphere. See Earth, Degree. 
 
 ELLSWORTH, Ephraim Elmer, an 
 American 'soldier-hero, born in New 
 York in 1837, died in 1861. In April. 
 1861 he organized a Zouave regiment in 
 Chicago, went to the front, ana was the 
 first man killed in the north. On May 
 24 he was shot dead at Alexandria by 
 an inn-keeper from whom he had just 
 torn a confederate flag. 
 
 ELLSWORTH, Oliver, an American 
 jurist, born in Connecticut in 1745, died 
 in 1807. He took a leading part in the 
 continental congress and in the early 
 Connecticut legislature and from 1796' 
 
 to 1800 was chief justice of the U. States 
 Supreme Court. 
 
 ELM, a genus of trees, consisting of 
 thirteen species, all natives of the north- 
 ern temperate zone. They have bisexual 
 flowers with a campanulate calyx, as 
 many stamens as there, are divisions in 
 the limb of the calyx, and two styles. 
 
 Flowering branch and foliage of English elm 
 with flower ami fruit on larger scale. 
 
 The American or white elm is abundant 
 in the Western States, attaining its loft- 
 iest stature between lat. 42° and 46°; 
 here i, reaches the height of 100 feet, 
 with a trunk 4 or 5 feet in diameter, 
 rising sometimes 60 or 70 feet before it 
 separates into a few primary limbs. Its 
 wood is not much esteemed. The red or 
 slippery elm is found over a great extent 
 of country in Canada, Missouri, and as 
 far south as lat. 31°; it attains the height 
 of 50 or 60 feet, with a trunk 15 or 20 
 inches in diameter; the wood is of better 
 quality than that of the white elm. The 
 leaves and bark yield an abund'ant 
 mucilage. The wahoo, inhabiting from 
 lat. 37° to Florida, Louisiana, and Ar- 
 kansas, is a small tree, 30 feet high. The 
 branches are furnished on two opposite 
 sides with wings of cork 2 or 3 lines wide; 
 the wood is fine-grained and heavy. 
 
 ELMI'RA, a town in New York, on 
 the Chemung River; with a college for 
 women, the state reformatory, fine court- 
 house, etc. Its industrial establishments 
 comprise rolling-mill, blast-furnace, 
 foundries, machine-works, etc. Pop. 
 1909, 42,000. 
 
 ELMO’S FIRE, St., a meteoric ap- 
 pearance often seen playing about the 
 masts and rigging of ships. If two 
 flames are visible (Castor and Pollux) 
 the sailors consider it a good omen; if 
 only one (Helena), they regard it as a 
 bad one. 
 
 ELOCUTION, the art by which, in de- 
 livering a discourse before an audience, 
 the speaker is enabled, with greatest 
 east and certainty, to render it effective 
 and impressive. The value of an elocu- 
 tionary training is verj"^ great, as w'ell in 
 sparing the voice as in overcoming 
 natural defects in delivery, and in culti- 
 vating and developing the natural taste. 
 
 ELO'HIM, one of the Hebrew names 
 for God, of frequent occurrence in the 
 Bible. Elohim is used in speaking both 
 of the true God and of false gods, while 
 Jehovah is confined to the true God. 
 The plural form of Elohim has caused a 
 good deal of controversy, some con- 
 sidering it as containing an allusion to 
 the doctrine of the trinity, others re- 
 garding it as the plural of excellence, 
 others holding it as establishing the fact 
 
ELONGATION 
 
 EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION 
 
 of a primitive polytheism. The Elohis- 
 tic passages in the Pentateuch, or, in 
 other words, the passages in which the 
 Almighty is always spoken of as Elohim, 
 are supposed to have been written at an 
 earlier period than those in which he is 
 spoken of as Jehovah. The Elohistic 
 passages are simpler and more primitive 
 in character than the Jehovistic; thus 
 Gen. i. 27 is Elohistic; Gen. ii. 21-24 is 
 Jehovistic. 
 
 ELONGATION, Angle of, the angular 
 distance of a planet from the sun, as it 
 appears to the eye of a spectator on the 
 
 ELOPEMENT, in law, the desertion of 
 her husband by a woman and her co- 
 habitation with another man. The term 
 does not legally apply to unmarried per- 
 sons who flee or abscond for the purpose 
 of becoming married, although it is gen- 
 erally used in that way. The consequent 
 of the act today is to free the husband 
 from all responsibility for his wife’s 
 debts or her support. 
 
 EL PASO, the capital of El Paso co., 
 Texas, a railway center and port of 
 entry; situated on the Rio Grande. Near 
 it the river passes through a mountain- 
 gap called El Paso del Norte (North 
 Pass), which is the chief thoroughfare 
 between Mexico and New Mexico. On 
 the opposite bank of the Rio Grande, in 
 Chihuahua, Mexico, is Ciudad Jaurez, 
 formerly called Paso del Norte, a village 
 important as the starting-point of the 
 Mexican Central Railroad, and having 
 a custom-house, through which a large 
 amount of goods pass in transit between 
 the U. States and Mexico. Pop. 18,575. 
 
 ELPHINSTONE, Hon. Mountstuart, 
 Indian administrator, born in Scotland 
 in 1778. He joined the Bengal civil 
 
 Mountstuart Eiphinstone. 
 
 service in 1795, was ambassador to the 
 Afghan court in 1808, was resident at 
 the court of Poonah from 1810 to 1817, 
 and was British commissioner to that 
 province from 1817 to 1819, when he 
 became governor of Bombay, During a 
 government of seven years he estab- 
 lished a code of laws, lightened taxes, 
 and paid great attention to schools and 
 public institutions. He resigned in 
 *1827. A college established by the 
 natives was called after him Eiphin- 
 stone College. He was offered the 
 governor-generalship of India in 1835, 
 and afterward that of Canada, both of 
 
 which he declined. He died in 1859. 
 
 ELSSLER, Fanny, an Austrian dancer 
 born in 1810, died in 1884. In 1841 she 
 visited the U. States and was received 
 with much enthtrsiasm by lovers of the 
 ballet. Her sister Therese also became 
 proficient as a dancer. She was created 
 Baroness von Barnim by the King of 
 Prussia. 
 
 ELVES. See Elf. 
 
 ELWELL, Frank Edwin, an American 
 sculptor, born in Massachusetts in 1858. 
 He has made a number of noted figures 
 and groups including “Awakening of 
 Egypt,” “Death of Strength,” “Intelh- 
 gence,” and several monumental groups. 
 
 ELWOOD, a town in Madison co., 
 Ind., on the Pitts., Cin., Ch. and St. L. 
 and Erie railways; 45 miles n.n.e. of 
 Indianapolis. It is a shipping-point for 
 grain and stock. Pop. 15,160. 
 
 ELY, Isle of, a portion of the county of 
 Cambridge, separated by the Ouse from 
 the rest of the county, and forming it- 
 self a sort of county. It is about 28 
 miles long by 25 miles broad; area, 
 239,259 acres. Pop. 63,861. 
 
 ELYRIA, the capital of Lorain co., 
 Ohio, beautifully situated at the con- 
 fluence of the eastern and western 
 branches of Black river; 7 miles s. of 
 Lake Erie and 25 miles w. of Cleveland. 
 Sandstone is one of the chief exports. 
 Pop. 10,391. 
 
 ELYSTUM, Elysian Fields, among the 
 Greeks and Romans the regions in- 
 habited by the blessed after death. They 
 are placed by Homer at the extremities 
 of the . earth, by Plato at the antipodes, 
 and by others in the Fortunate Islands 
 (the Canaries). They were at last trans- 
 ferred to the interior of the earth, which 
 is Virgil’s notion. 
 
 EMANCIPATION, Liberation from 
 slavery or subjection of some kind. See 
 Catholic Emancipation, Slavery. 
 
 EMANCIPATION, PROCLAMATION 
 OF, the paper issued by President Lin- 
 coln, Jan. 1, 1863, declaring the negro 
 slaves free. It was issued as a war meas- 
 ure. The proclamation read as follows : 
 
 BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 A PROCLAMATION. 
 
 Whereas, on the 22d day of Septem- 
 ber, in the year of our Lord one thou- 
 sand eight hundred sixty-two, a procla- 
 mation was issued by the President of 
 the United States, containing among 
 other things, the following, to wit; 
 
 “That on the 1st day of January, in 
 the year of our Lord one thousand eight 
 hundred sixty-three, all persons held as 
 slaves within any state, or designated 
 part of a state, the people whereof shall 
 then be in rebellion against the United 
 States, shall be then, thenceforward, and 
 forever free; and the executive goyern- 
 ment of the United States, including 
 the military and naval authority there- 
 of, will recognize and maintain the free- 
 dom of such persons, and will do no 
 act or acts to repress such persons, or 
 any of them, in anv efforts they may 
 make for their actual freedom. 
 
 “That the executive will, on the first 
 day of January, aforesaid, by proclama- 
 tion, designate the states and parts of 
 states, if any, in which the people thereof 
 respectively shall then be in rebellion 
 
 against the United States, and the fact 
 that any state, or the people thereof, 
 shall on that day be in good faith repre- 
 sented in the Congress of the United 
 States by members chosen thereto at 
 elections wherein a majority of the quali- 
 fied voters of such state shall have par- 
 ticipated, shall, in the absence of strong 
 countervailing testimony, be deemed 
 conclusive evidence that such state and 
 the people thereof are not then in re- 
 bellion against the United States.” 
 
 Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, 
 President of the United States, by virtue 
 of the power in me vested as commander- 
 in-chief of the army and navy of the 
 United States and as a fit and necessary 
 war measure for repressing said rebellion, 
 do, on this first day of January, in the 
 year of our Lord one thousand eight 
 hundred sixty-three, and in accordance 
 with my purpose so to do, publicly 
 proclaimed for the full period of 100 
 days from the day first above men- 
 tioned, order and designate as the states 
 and parts of states wherein the people 
 thereof, respectively, are this day in 
 rebellion against the United States, the 
 following, to wit: 
 
 Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, (except 
 the parishes of Saint Bernard, Plaque- 
 mines, Jefferson, Saint John, Saint 
 Charles, Saint James, Ascension, As- 
 sumption, Terre Bonne, Lafourche, 
 Saint Mary, Saint Martin, and Orleans, 
 including the city of New Orleans), 
 Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, 
 South Carolina, North Carolina, and 
 Virginia (except the forty-eight counties 
 designated as West Virginia, and also 
 the counties of Berkeley, Accomac, 
 Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, 
 Princess Ann, and Norfolk, including 
 the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), 
 and which excepted parts are, for the 
 present, left precisely as if this proclama ■ 
 tion were not issued. 
 
 And by virtue of the power and for the 
 purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare 
 that all persons held as slaves within 
 said designated states and parts of states 
 are, and henceforward shall be free; and 
 and that the executive government of 
 the United States, including the military 
 and naval authorities thereof, will recog- 
 nize and maintain the freedom of said 
 persons. 
 
 And I hereby enjoin upon the people 
 so declared to be free, to abstain from all 
 violence, unless in necessary self-de- 
 fense; and I recommend to them that in 
 all cases, when allowed, they labor 
 faithfully for reasonable wages. 
 
 And I further declare and make 
 known that such persons of suitable con- 
 dition will be received into the armed 
 service of the United States to garrison 
 forts, positions, stations, and other 
 places, and to man vessels of all sorts in 
 said service. 
 
 And upon this act, sincerely believed 
 to be an act of justice, warranted bj^ the 
 constitution, upon military necessity, I 
 invoke the considerate judgment of man- 
 kind and the gracious favor of Almighty 
 God. 
 
 In witness whereof, I have hereunto 
 set my hand, and caused the seal of the 
 United States to be affixed. 
 
 Done at the city of Washington, this 
 first day of January, in the year of our 
 
EMANUEL THE GREAT 
 
 EMERSON 
 
 Lord one thousand eight hundred sixty- 
 three, and of the independence of the 
 United States of America the eighty- 
 seventh. 
 
 [l.s.] By the President: 
 
 Abr.\ham Lincoln. 
 William H. Seward, Secretary of State. 
 EMAN'UEL the great, King of 
 
 Portugal, ascended the throne in 1495. 
 During his reign were performed the 
 voyages of discovery of Vasco da Gama, 
 of Cabral, of Americus Vespucius, and 
 the heroic exploits of Albuquerque, by 
 whose exertions a passage was found to 
 the East Indies, the Portuguese domin- 
 ion in Goa was established, the Brazils, 
 the Moluccas, etc., were discovered. 
 The commerce of Portugal, under Eman- 
 uel was more prosperous than at any 
 former period. The treasures of America 
 flowed into Lisbon, and the reign of 
 Emanuel was justly called “the golden 
 age of Portugal.” He died in 1521, aged 
 fifty-two. 
 
 EMBALMING (em-bam'ing), the pro- 
 cess of filling and surrounding with 
 aromatic and antiseptic substances any 
 bodies, particularly corpses, in order to 
 preserve them from corruption. The 
 ancient Egyptians employed the art on 
 a great scale, and other peoples, for 
 example the Assyrians and Persians, 
 followed them, but by no means equalled 
 them in it. The ancient Peruvians ap- 
 pear to have injected and washed the 
 corpses with the fluid that flows from 
 imperfectly burned wood, which would 
 of course contain pyroligneous acid, 
 creosote, and other antiseptics. Pliny 
 alludes to the use of a similar fluid by 
 the Egyptians for embalming. In later 
 times bodies have been preserved a long 
 time by embalming, especially when 
 they have remained at a low and uni- 
 form temperature, and have been pro- 
 tected from the air. The body of Ed- 
 ward I. was buried in Westminster 
 Abbey in 1307, and in 1770 was found 
 entire. Canute died in 1036; his body 
 was found very fresh in 1776 in Win- 
 chester Cathedral. The bodies of Will- 
 iam the Conqueror and of Matilda, his 
 wife, were found entire at Caen in the 
 16th century. Of the various modern 
 artificial means of preserving bodies, 
 impregnation with corrosive sublimate 
 appears to be one of the most effective, 
 next to immersion in spirits. An in- 
 jection of sulphate of zinc into the blood- 
 vessels is said to be very effective. 
 
 EMBANK'MENT, a mound of earth, 
 etc., thrown up either for the purpose of 
 forming a roadway at a level different 
 from that of the natural surface of the 
 ground, or for keeping a large body of 
 water within certain limits. 
 
 EMBAR'GO, in commerce, an arrest 
 on ships or merchandise by public 
 authority; or a prohibition of state, 
 commonly on foreign ships, in time of 
 war, to prevent their going out of or 
 coming into port. A breach of em- 
 bargo, under knowledge of the insured, 
 discharges the underwriters of all lia- 
 bility. 
 
 EM'BASSY, in its strict sense, signifies 
 a mission presided over by an ambassa- 
 dor, as distinguished from a legation or 
 mission intrusted to an envoy. An 
 ambassador, as the representative of the 
 person of his sovereign, can demand a 
 
 
 private audience of the sovereign to 
 whom he is accredited, while an envoy 
 must communicate with the minister for 
 foreign affairs. 
 
 EMBER-DAYS, in the Anglican and 
 Roman Catholic Churches, fast-days 
 occurring at the times in the year ap- 
 pointed for ordination. As now ob- 
 served they are the Wednesday, Friday 
 and Saturday after the first Sunday in 
 Lent, after the feast of Pentecost or 
 Whitsunday, after the festival of the 
 Holy Cross (14th Sept.), and after the 
 festival of St. Lucia (13th Dec.). The 
 weeks in which these days fall are called 
 Ember-weeks. 
 
 EMBER-GOOSE, a bird, known also 
 as the great northern diver and loon. 
 See Divers. 
 
 EMBERIZ'ID.®, a family of small 
 birds belonging to the order Insessores 
 and tribe Conirostres, typical genus 
 Emberiza. It includes the buntings, the 
 
 Texas sparrow. 
 
 snow-flake, the yellow-hammer, and reed 
 sparrow. The ortolan belongs to this 
 family. By some naturalists they are 
 classified as a sub-family of the finches. 
 The Texas sparrow or green-finch is a 
 common species in the lower Rio Grande 
 valley. 
 
 EMBEZ'ZLEMENT is the appropria- 
 tion, by a clerk or servant, to himself, of 
 money or property put into his hands in 
 trust. In English law it is a felony pun- 
 ishable by penal servitude for not more 
 than fourteen years, or by imprison- 
 ment; and in the case of a male under 
 the age of sixteen, by whipping in ad- 
 dition to the imprisonment. 
 
 EM'BLEM, specifically a picture rep- 
 resenting one thing to the eye and an- 
 other to the understanding. The most 
 common emblems are such as a balance, 
 which represents justice; a crown, an 
 emblem of royalty; the serpent, of cun- 
 ning; etc. 
 
 EM'BOLISM, the blocking up of a 
 blood-vessel by a clot of blood that 
 comes from some distance, till it reaches 
 a vessel too small to permit its onward 
 progres.s, often the cause of sudden 
 paralysis and death, or of gangrene and 
 pyaemia. 
 
 EMBOS'SING, the art of producing 
 raised figures upon plane surfaces, such 
 as on leather and cloth for bookbinding, 
 etc.; on paper for envelopes, etc.; on 
 wood or bronze, in architecture or 
 sculpture. 
 
 EMBROI'DERY, figured work in gold, 
 or silver, or silk thread, wrought by the 
 needle, upon cloths, stuffs, or muslins. 
 
 The art was common in the East in very 
 ancient times. The Jews appear to have 
 acquired it from the Egyptians; Homer 
 makes frequent allusion to it; and 
 Phrygia was celebrated for its embroi- 
 dery, which was in great demand at 
 Rome. Embroidery is commonly divided 
 into two classes; white embroidery ap- 
 plied to dress and furniture, in which the 
 French and the Swiss excel; and em- 
 broidery in silk, gold, and silver, chiefly 
 in demand for ecclesiastical vestments, 
 etc. The Chinese, Hindus, Persians, and 
 Turks excel in work of this kind. 
 
 EM'BRYO, (1) in zoology, the earliest 
 and rudimentary form in which any 
 young animal appears; it may be the 
 first rudiments of the animal in the 
 womb, before the several members are 
 distinctly formed, after which it is called 
 the fetus. (2) In plants the embryo 
 is the rudimentary organism contained 
 in the seed. 
 
 EMBRYOL'OGY, the branch of biology 
 comprising the history of animals from 
 the first appearance of organization in 
 the egg or ovum (the embryo stage) up 
 to the attainment of the perfect form. 
 The importance of the study partly de- 
 pends upon the fact that the history of 
 animals thus traced reveals the exist- 
 ence of structures which disappear at a 
 later period, or become obscured by 
 arrest of their development, or by union 
 with other parts, and permits us to 
 follow the steps by which complex organs 
 arise by the combination of simpler 
 parts. Thus points of affinity are de- 
 tected between species and orders whose 
 adult aspect is very unlike. 
 
 EM'ERALD, a well-known gem of 
 pure green color, somewhat harder than 
 quartz ; it is a silicate of aluminium and 
 the rare element glucinum or beryllium, 
 which was detected in it by Vauquelin 
 after it had been discovered by the same 
 chemist in the beryl. Its color is due to 
 the presence of chromium. Its natural 
 form is either rounded or that of a short 
 six-sided prism. It is one of the softest 
 of the precious stones, but is not acted 
 on by acids. Emeralds of large size and 
 at the same time free from flaws ai;e rare ; 
 
 EM'ERSON, Ralph Waldo, an Ameri- 
 can poet and prose writer, born at Bos- 
 ton in 1803. He graduated at Harvard 
 in 1821, for five years taught in a school, 
 and in 1829 became minister to a Unita- 
 rian church in Boston, but in 1832 re- 
 signed his charge. He spent greater 
 part of 1833 in Europe, and on his return 
 began his career as a lecturer on various 
 subjects, in which capacity he acted for 
 a long series of years. In 1835 he took 
 up his permanent residence at Concord, 
 Mass., and in 1836 published a small 
 volume called Nature. Fie was one of 
 the original editors of the Dial, a trans- 
 cendental magazine begun in 1840. 
 Two volumes of his essays were pub- 
 lished in 1841 and 1844, and his poems 
 in 1846. His miscellaneous addresses 
 had been published in England in 1844, 
 and on visiting Great Britain in 1847 
 he was welcomed by a large circle of 
 admirers. In 1850 he published Rep- 
 resentative Men; in 1856, English Traits; 
 in 1860, The Conduct of Life; in 1869, 
 May Day and Other Poems, and Society 
 and Solitude; in 1871, Parnassus, a col- 
 lection of poems; in 1876, Letters ana 
 
 j 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
EMERY 
 
 EMPEROR MOTH 
 
 Social Aims. lie died April 27, 1882. 
 Emerson showed certain similarities 
 with Carlyle, of whom he was a friend 
 and correspondent. Their correspond- 
 ence appeared in 1883. He was one of 
 the most original and influential writers 
 that the U. States have produced. 
 
 
 EM'ERY, an impure variety of corun- 
 dum, of blackish or bluish-gray color, 
 chiefly found in shapeless masses and 
 mixed with other minerals. It contains 
 about 82 per cent of alumina and a 
 small portion of iron; is very hard; is 
 infusible, and is not attacked by acids. 
 The best emery is brought from the 
 Levant, chiefly from Cape Emeri in 
 Naxos. It also occurs in Spain, and in a 
 few iron-mines in Great Britain. It is 
 employed in cutting and polishing 
 precious stones; in smoothing the sur- 
 face of the finer kinds of lenses prepara- 
 tory to their being polished; in the pol- 
 ishing of marble; by cutlers, locksmiths, 
 glaziers, and other artisans. For all these 
 purposes it is pulverized in large iron 
 mortars or in steel mills, and the powder, 
 which is rough and sharp, is carefully 
 washed and sifted into eight or ten dif- 
 ferent degrees of fineness. Emery-paper 
 and emery-cloth are made by laying a 
 thin coat of glue upon the fabric, and 
 dusting the emery from a sieve of the 
 required size. 
 
 EMETTC, any substance adminis- 
 tered to induce vomiting. Emetics are 
 most commonly administered to remove 
 poisonous or indigestible substances 
 from the stomach, or to clear the air- 
 passages of obstructive morbid material 
 in cases of bronchitis, croup, etc. Ipecac- 
 uanha and sulphate of zinc are fre- 
 quently given for these purposes, or, as 
 a readily obtainable substitute, mustard 
 stirred into water. They should, how- 
 ever, always be administered with cau- 
 tion, or serious injury to the system may 
 result. 
 
 EMEU, EMU (e'mu), a large cursorial 
 bird, formerly dispersed over the whole 
 Australian continent, but now almost 
 extirpated in many districts. It is 
 alied to the cassowary, but is distin- 
 
 guished by the absence of a “helmet” 
 on the top of the head. It nearly equals 
 the ostrich in bulk, being thicker in the 
 body, though its legs and neck are 
 shorter. Its feet are three-toed (the 
 ostrich has two toes), and its feathers, 
 which are double, are of a dull sooty- 
 brown color, those about the neck and 
 
 Emu. 
 
 head being of a hairy texture. The 
 wings are small and useless for flight, 
 but the bird can run with great speed, 
 and emeu coursing as a sport is said to 
 surpass that of the hare. The flesh of 
 the young emeu is by some considered a 
 delicacy. The emeu is a bird of the 
 plain, the cassowary of the forest. It is 
 easily tamed, and may be kept out of 
 doors in temperate climates. It feeds 
 on vegetable matter, fruits, roots, etc. 
 
 EMIGRATION. See Immigration. 
 
 EMIGRES (a-mi-gras), a name given 
 more particularly to those persons who 
 left France at the commencement of 
 the French revolution. 
 
 EMINENT DOMAIN, the right of a 
 state or sovereign, to appropriate prop- 
 erty for the use of the state, or public use. 
 In the U. States the right imbues in the 
 general government and in all of the 
 several states, either by right of their 
 sovereignty or by vestment from the 
 constitution. The right, however, has 
 its restrictions. Property cannot be 
 taken by eminent domain except “by 
 due process of law,” and just compen- 
 sation given to the person or persons 
 from whom the property has been taken. 
 The usual procedure is to condemn the 
 property and then to pay to the owner 
 the compensation fixed by a court or 
 other body, this compensation being full 
 value for present or future interests in 
 the property. 
 
 EM'MET, Robert, an Irish patriot, 
 born at Cork in 1780. He was expelled 
 from Trinity College, Dublin, in 1798, 
 on the ground of exciting disaffection 
 and rebellion, and having become an 
 object of suspicion to the government, 
 quitted Ireland. He returned there on 
 the repeal of the suspension of the 
 habeas corpus act, and became a 
 member of the Society of United Irish- 
 men for the establishment of the inde- 
 pendence of Ireland. In July, 1803, he 
 was the leader in the rebellion in which 
 Lord Kilwarden and others perished. 
 He was arrested a few days afterward, 
 fried, and executed. His fate excited 
 special interest from his attachment to 
 Miss Sarah Curran, daughter of the cele- 
 brated barrister. Emmet’s speech 
 before his execution is one of the most 
 stirring and eloquent masterpieces of 
 the world’s oratory. His remains are 
 
 buried in Trinity churchyard. New York. 
 
 EMMETT, Daniel Decatur, an Ameri- 
 can writer of songs and singer, born in 
 Ohio in 1815, died in 1902. He was the 
 author of the song “Dixie” which, car- 
 ried south during the civil war by Union 
 soldiers, became the war song of the 
 south. Among his other famous songs 
 were “Old Dan Tucker” and “Walk 
 Along John.” 
 
 EMOTION, a term variously used by 
 psychologists; sometimes as one of the 
 divisions of feeling the other being sensa- 
 tion; sometimes as opposed to feeling 
 when the latter is identified with sensa- 
 tion, and sometimes as distinct from 
 both sensation and feeling, when the 
 last term is rigidly confined to the sense 
 of pleasure or pain. In any one of these 
 uses, however, emotions are distin- 
 guished from sensations in that sensa- 
 tions are primary forms of consciousness 
 arising by external excitation, are com- 
 paratively simple and immediately 
 presentative phenomena, and are def- 
 inite in character and capable of locali- 
 zation; while emotions are secondary or 
 derived forms of consciousness, are 
 complex and representative, and are 
 vague and diffused. Sensations are said 
 to be “peripherally initiated,” while 
 emotions are centrally initiated. When, 
 in addition to its being distinguished 
 from sensation, it is also distinguished 
 from feeling, emotion is applied to the 
 whole physical condition accompanying 
 the sense of pleasure or pain (feeling). 
 The muscles of the body and the organic 
 functions of the system are often con- 
 siderably influenced by emotion, which 
 naturally seeks an outward expression 
 unless held in check by what Darwin 
 has called ser^dceable associated habits. 
 
 EM'PEROR, the title of the highest 
 rank of sovereigns. The word imperator 
 from imperare, to command, in its most 
 general sense signified the commander 
 of an army. After the overthrow of the 
 Roman republic imperator became the 
 title of the rulers or emperors, and in- 
 dicated their supreme power. Charle- 
 magne was crowned, by Leo III., as 
 “Carolus Augustus, the God-sent pious 
 and great emperor of Rome.” Napoleon 
 I. adopted the old idea of an empire as a 
 general union of states under the pro- 
 tection, or at least political preponder- 
 ance, of one powerful state; and he was 
 followed in this by his nephew, Napoleon 
 III. In 1806 the first German Empire, 
 1000 years old, became extinct, and the 
 German Emperor, Francis II., adopted 
 the title of Francis I., emperor of Austria. 
 In December, 1870, the second German 
 Empire was formed. King William of 
 Prussia having accepted the imperial 
 office and title offered him at Versailles 
 while engaged in the siege of Paris. Brit- 
 ain is considered as an empire, the crown 
 as imperial, and the paliament is styled 
 the Imperial Parliament of Great Britain 
 and Ireland; but the sovereign has not 
 the imperial title in reference to the 
 home dominions, though the king bears 
 the title of Emperor of India. 
 
 EMPEROR MOTH, a British moth of 
 the silk-worm family. The color is 
 grayish-brown, with a faint purple 
 tinge. The wings are about 3 inches in 
 expanse, and in the center of each is a 
 large eye-like spot. The larva is of a 
 
EMPHASIS 
 
 ENCA'CLOPJ^DIA 
 
 green color, with a black band on each 
 segment. 
 
 EM'PHASIS, in rhetoric, a special 
 stress or force given to some syllable, 
 word, or words in speaking, in order to 
 impress the hearers in some desired 
 manner, thus differing from accent, the 
 position of which is fixed. 
 
 Emperor Moth. 
 
 «, eggs; 6, larva, dorsal view: c, pupa, lateral 
 view; d, male butterfly, with partial out- 
 line of female. (All natural size.) 
 
 EMPIRE, the dominions of an em- 
 
 S eror. — Empire State, a name given to 
 few A'ork State, New York being called 
 the Empire City. 
 
 EMPIR'IC, in medical history an ap- 
 pellation assumed by a sect of physi- 
 cians who contended that observation 
 and experience alone were the founda- 
 tion of the art of medicine. An empiric, 
 in modern medicine, is a physician who 
 has had no regular professional educa- 
 tion, but W'ho relies on what is fre- 
 quently a very crude experience. 
 
 EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY, the lia- 
 bility of persons employing others for 
 the injuries such employes sustain in the 
 service of their employers. The liability, 
 however, is limited. The servant enter- 
 ing the employ of another person is 
 assumed to take the ordinary risks of 
 the service or business, including the 
 risks from the negligence of fellow em- 
 ployes. The employer is liable for in- 
 juries employes sustain when the injury 
 is due to negligence on the part of the 
 employer himself. 
 
 ElVIPLOYMENT BUREAU, an agency 
 which secures positions for unemployed 
 persons and secures helpers for those in 
 want of help. In several foreign coun- 
 tries the government engages in this kind 
 of intermediation. Also labor unions 
 operate employment agencies. Several 
 states of the U. States have tried the 
 experiment and certain cities have em- 
 ployment bureaus in operation with 
 some success. The great mass of this 
 business is, however, undertaken by 
 private enterprises which receive fees 
 from both sides. Employment agencies, 
 owing to fraudulent practices by dis- 
 reputable concerns, are now generally 
 regulated by law. 
 
 EMPORIA, city and railway center; 
 capital of Lyon co., Kan., on the A., T. 
 and S. F. and the M., K. and T. R. Rs; 
 6 miles above the junction of the Neosho 
 and Cottonwood rivers, in a fine agri- 
 cultural and stock-raising region. Pop. 
 10 , 120 . 
 
 EMPO'RIUM, a center of extensive 
 commerce, a trading town or city. I 
 
 EMS, a beautiful watering-place in the 
 Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on 
 the river Lahn, not far from its con- 
 fluence with the Rhine. Its mineral 
 waters are warm — from 70° to 118° 
 Fahr., contain large quantities of car- 
 bonic acid gas, and are u.^ed in chronic 
 catarrhs, pulmonary complaints, dis- 
 eases of the stomach, gout, and some 
 diseases of the urinary vessels. There 
 are about 8,000 visitors each season. 
 Pop. 6,943. 
 
 EMU. See Emeu. 
 
 EMUL'SION, a medical preparation, 
 consisting of an oily or resinous sub- 
 stance made to combine with water by 
 some substance that itself has the prop- 
 erty of combining with both, such as gum 
 arabic, the yolk of eggs, almonds, etc. 
 
 ENAM'EL, a vitreous glaze of various 
 colors fused to the surface of gold, silver, 
 copper, and other substances. The art 
 of enameling, wliich is of great antiq- 
 uity, was practiced by the Assyrians 
 and by the Egyptians, from whom it 
 may have passed into Greece, and thence 
 into Rome and its provinces, including 
 Great Britain, where various Roman 
 antiquities with enameled ornamenta- 
 tion has been discovered. The basis of 
 all kinds of enamel is a perfectly trans- 
 parent and fusible glass, which is ren- 
 dered either semi-transparent or opaque 
 by the admixture of metallic oxides. 
 White enamels are composed by melting 
 the oxide of tin with glass, and adding a 
 small quantity of manganese or phos- 
 phate of calcium to increase the bril- 
 liancy of the color. The addition of the 
 oxide of lead, or antimony, or oxide of 
 silver, produces a yellow enamel. Reds 
 are formed by copper, and by an inter- 
 mixture of the oxides of gold and iron. 
 Greens, violets, and blues are formed 
 from the oxides of copper, cobalt, and 
 iron. In the middle of the 18th century 
 enameling was largely applied to the 
 decoration of snuff-boxes; tea-canisters, 
 candlesticks, and other small articles. 
 Of late years it has been extensively 
 applied to the coating of Iron vessels for 
 domestic purposes, the protection of the 
 insides of baths, cisterns, and boilers, 
 and the like. Enameling in colors upon 
 iron is now common, iron plales being 
 thus treated by means of various mix- 
 tures, and words and designs of various 
 kinds being permanently fixed upo-fi 
 them by stencilling, for advertising, 
 sign-boards, etc. 
 
 ENCAMPMENT. See Camp. 
 
 ENCAR'PUS, in architecture, a sculp- 
 tured ornament in imitation of a garland 
 
 
 Enoarpus— From Palazzo Niccollnl, Rome. 
 
 of fruits, leaves, or flowers, suspended 
 between two points. The garland is of 
 greatest size in the middle, )and dimin- 
 ishes gradually to the points of suspen- 
 
 sion, from which the ends generally 
 hang down. The encarpus is sometimes 
 composed of an imitation of drapery 
 similarly disposed, and sometimes of an 
 assemblage of musical instruments, 
 implements of war or of the chase. 
 
 ENCAUSTIC TILES, ornamental pav- 
 ing-tiles of baked pottery, much used 
 during the middle ages in the pavements 
 of churches and othes ecclesiastical 
 edifices. The encaustic tile, strictly 
 so-called, was decorated with patterns 
 
 Part of medieval pavement of encaustic tiles 
 — Church of St. Pierre-sur-Dive, Normandy. 
 
 formed by different colored clays in- 
 laid in the tile and fired with it. The 
 art appears to have originated in the 
 latter part of the 12th century, to have 
 attained its highest perfection during 
 the 13th, and to have sunk into disuse in 
 the 15th. During the whole of this 
 period it was principally carried on in 
 England and Normandy. After a long 
 lapse the art was revived in England in 
 1830 by Wright, a Shelton potter. In 
 modern manufacture two methods are 
 employed, the “plastic” and the “semi- 
 dry” or “dust” method. The first is, 
 in all essentials, that used in the middle 
 ages, except, perhaps, in the perfection 
 of modern molding appliances; the 
 second consists in ramming pulverized 
 clay with a minimum of moisture into 
 metal dies, the subsequent firing of tiles 
 thus consolidated being attended with 
 less risk from shrinkage. 
 
 ENCEINTE (an-sant'), in fortification, 
 the continuous line of works which forms 
 the main enclosure of a town or fortress. 
 The term is also applied to the area 
 within this line. 
 
 ENCKE (en'ke), Johann Franz, Ger- 
 man astronomer, born at Hamburg in 
 1791. He calculated the orbit of the 
 comet observed by Mechain, Miss Her- 
 schel, and Pons, predicted its return, and 
 detected a gradual acceleration of move- 
 ment, ascribed by him to the presence of 
 a resisting medium. The comet is now 
 known as Encke’s comet. The fame of 
 his works The Distance of the Sun, Tran- 
 sit of Venus of 1769 led to his appoint- 
 ment as director of the Berlin Obser- 
 vatory (1825), a position which he held 
 till his death in 1865. 
 
 ENCYCLOPAEDIA, CYCLOP.®DIA, or 
 CYCLOPEDIA, a systematic view of the 
 whole extent of human knowledge or of 
 particular departments of it, with the 
 subjects arranged generally in alpha- 
 betic order. Varro and Pliny the elder, 
 among the Romans, attempted works 
 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 ENGINE 
 
 of an encyclopaedic nature, the latter 
 in his well-known Historia Naturalis, or 
 Natural History. Other ancient ency- 
 clopedic works were those of Stobseus 
 and Suidas, and especially of Marcianus 
 Capella. In the 13th century a work on 
 a regular plan was compiled by the Do- 
 minican Vincent of Beauvais (d. 1264), 
 in which was exhibited the whole sum of 
 the knowledge of the middle ages. His 
 work was entitled Speculum Historiale, 
 Naturale, Doctrinale, to which an anony- 
 mous author added, some years later, a 
 Speculum Morale. Roger Bacon’s Opus 
 Majus also belonged to the encyclopedic 
 class. An exceedingly popular work was 
 the De Proprietatibus Rerum of Bar- 
 tholomeus de Glanvilla, an English 
 Franciscan friar, which maintained its 
 reputation from 1360 to the middle of 
 the 16th century. In the 17th century 
 various encyclopedic works were com- 
 piled, such as the Latin one of Johann 
 Heinrich Alsted (in 7 vols., Herborn, 
 1620). In 1674 appeared the first edi- 
 tion of Moreri’s Le Grand Dictionnaire 
 Historique; in 1677 Johann Jacob Hoff- 
 mann published at Basel his Lexicon 
 Universale ; and in 1697 appeared Bayle’s 
 famous Dictionnaire Historique et 
 Critique, which is still of great value. 
 The first English alphabetical encyclo- 
 ptedia was the Lexicon Technicum, 
 published in 1704. ' Among the chief 
 English works of this kind are: 1. Eph- 
 riam Chambers’s Cyclopaedia, or a Uni- 
 versal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, 
 published in 1728 in 2 vols. folio. 2. 
 The Encyclopaedia Britannica, pub- 
 lished in Edinburgh, in nine editions — 
 the first in 1788, the last in 1875-88 
 (24 vols. 4to, with supplement, 11 vols., 
 1902-03L 3. Rees’ Cyclopaedia, 39 vols. 
 4to, illustrated, 1802-20. 4. Edinburgh 
 Encyclopaedia, 1810-30, 18 vols. 4to, 
 conducted by Sir David (then Dr.) 
 Brewster. 5. Encyclopaedia Metropoli- 
 tana, London, 29 vols. 4to, and contain- 
 ing some valuable complete treatises. 
 6. The London Encyclopaedia, by 
 Thomas Curtis, 22 vols. 4to; London, 
 1829. 7. The Penny Cyclopaedia, in 28 
 vols. small folio, 1838-43; since recast 
 under the name of the English Cyclo- 
 paedia. 8. Chambers’s Encyclopaedia, in 
 10 vols. large 8vo, 1860-68; new edition 
 in 1888-92. 9. The Popular Encyclo- 
 
 paedia, in 7 vols. large 8vo, 183^38; 
 now issued in 14 vols. The cnief Ameri- 
 can encyclopaedias are the Encyclo- 
 paedia Americana, in 13 vols., 1829-33; 
 the New American Cyclopaedia, in 16 
 vols., 1858-63 and 1881, Johnson’s 
 Universal C!yclopedia, 4 vols., 1874-77, 
 and 8 vols., 1895, and the Interna- 
 tional Encyclopaedia, 17 vols. 1904, 20 
 vols. 1906. Of the French cyclo- 
 paedias the most famous is the great 
 Dictionnaire Encyclop6dique, by Diderot 
 and D’Alembert (see next article); the 
 Encyclop6die M6thodique, ou par Ordre 
 des Mati4res, Paris, 1781-1832, in 201 
 vols. 4to, of which 47 are plates; the 
 Encyclop6die Moderne, 1824-32, 26 
 
 vols.; the Encyclop4die des Gens du 
 Monde, 1835-44, 22 vols.; the Diction- 
 naire de la Conversation et de la Lecture 
 1851-58; the excellent Grande Encylco- 
 p4die, 31 vols.; and the large and valu- 
 able Grand Dictionnaire Universel du 
 XIX Si4cle, edited by Larousse, 16 vols. 
 
 folio (with supplementary vols.). Nu- 
 merous works of this kind have been 
 
 E ublished in Germany, the most popular 
 eing the Conversations-Lexikon of 
 Brockhaus, now in its fourteenth edition ; 
 Meyer’s Konversations-Lexicon, in its 
 fifth edition; Pierer’s Konversations- 
 Lexikon, in its seventh edition ; and that 
 issued by Spamer, now in its second 
 edition. The most comprehensive is the 
 Allgemeine Encyklopadie, originally 
 edited by Professors Ersch and Gruber, 
 begun in 1818, and not yet completed. 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIE (in-gik-lo-pa-de), 
 the French, the most important work of 
 the 18th century after the works of 
 Voltaire and Rousseau, originated in a 
 French translation of Ephriam Cham- 
 bers’s Cylcopajdia. Diderot was ap- 
 pointed to edit it, and enlisted the ablest 
 men of the time as contributors. Diderot 
 himself was a prolific contributor on a 
 wide variety of topics. 
 
 ENDEM'IC, a name commonly ap- 
 plied to diseases which attack the in- 
 habitants of a particular district or 
 country, and have their origin in some 
 local cause, as the physical character of 
 the place where they prevail, or in the 
 employment, habits, and mode of living 
 of the people. Diseases which are en- 
 demic in one country may also appear in 
 others, and become epidemic under in- 
 fluences resembling those which are the 
 cause of the endemic in the former place. 
 
 ENDLESS SCREW, a mechanical con- 
 trivance, consisting of a screw, the thread 
 of which gears into a wheel with skew 
 teeth, the obliquity corresponding to the 
 
 Endless screw and wheel. 
 
 angle of pitch of the screw. It is gen- 
 erally employed as a means of producing 
 slow motion in the adjustments of ma- 
 chines, rather than as transmitter of any 
 great amount of power. 
 
 ENDOG'AMY, a custom among some 
 savage peoples of marrying only within 
 their own tribe; opposite to exogamy. 
 
 ENDOGENOUS PLANTS (en-doj'- 
 e-nus), or ENDOGENS, one of the large 
 primary classes into which the vegetable 
 kingdom is divided, so named in conse- 
 quence of the new woody bundles being 
 developed in the interior of the stem, 
 in which there is no distinction of pith 
 and bark. In transverse section these 
 bundles appear scattered through the 
 cellular matter, being more compact 
 toward the circumference. The other 
 organs of the plants are also character- 
 istic. The leaves are generally parallel- 
 veined, the flowers usually with three 
 organs in each whorl, the seed has an 
 embryo with one cotyledon, and the 
 radicle issues from a sheath and is never 
 developed into a tap-root in germination. 
 To this class belong palms, grasses, 
 rushes, lilies, etc, Endogens increase in 
 
 thickness only to a limited extent ; hence 
 they are not injured by twining plants 
 as exogens are. 
 
 ENE'MA, any liquid or gaseous form 
 of medicine for injection into the rec- 
 tum. It is most commonly administered 
 to induce peristaltic action of the bowels, 
 but it is often the most desirable means 
 of conveying into the system nourish- 
 ment or stimulants. 
 
 EN'ERGY, in physics, the power that 
 a body or system possesses of doing work. 
 A body may possess energy in one of two 
 forms, viz. as kinetic energy, that is the 
 energy due to motion, and potential 
 energy, that is energy due to what may 
 be called a position of advantage. Thus 
 a moving mass, a bullet for example, can 
 do work in virtue of its motion, and the 
 name kinetic energy is given to energy 
 of this kind. Under this name is also 
 included energy belonging to molecular 
 motion, to electricity in motion, to heat 
 and light, and to actual chemical action. 
 Again, as examples of potential energy 
 we may take the case of a mass raised up 
 to a position in which it is capable of 
 doing work by falling — the weight of a 
 clock for instance; but the term also in- 
 cludes the energy due to electrical sepa- 
 ration, to absorb heat, and to chemical 
 separation, as in gunpowder, which is 
 ready to do work by means of its ex- 
 plosion. From the investigations of 
 Joule and others into the nature and 
 phenomena of heat and the discovery of 
 the equivalence of a definite quantity of 
 mechanical energy to a definite quan- 
 tity of heat, the grand principle of the 
 conservation of energy was established. 
 This asserts that the total amount of 
 energy in the universe, or in any hmited 
 system which does not receive energy 
 from without, or part with it to external 
 matter, is invariable. If energy of any 
 form seems to disappear in such a case 
 it reappears in some other form. Thus, 
 mechanical energy may be converted 
 into heat. Heat again may be converted 
 into the energy of electricity in motion, 
 or into the potential energy of chemical 
 separation. And electrical energy, 
 whether potential or kinetic, and the 
 energy of chemical separation, are also 
 convertible into heat. (See also Corre- 
 lation of Physical Forces.) Connected 
 with this principle is another which 
 states that no known natural process is 
 exactly reversible, and that if we trans- 
 form mechanical energy into heat, for 
 example, we never can pass back and 
 obtain from the heat produced precisely 
 the amount of mechanical energy with 
 which we commenced. Whatever at- 
 tempt is made to transform and re- 
 transform energy by an imperfect process 
 and no known process is perfect, part of 
 the energy is necessarily transformed 
 into heat, and is dissipated so as to be 
 incapable of further useful transforma- 
 tion. It therefore follows, that as energy 
 is in a constant state of transformation, 
 there is a constant process of degrada- 
 tion of energy going on, a process by 
 which energy constantly approaches the 
 unavailable form of uniformly diffused 
 heat ; and this will go on till the whole of 
 the energy of the universe has taken this 
 final form. 
 
 EN'GINE, a mechanical contrivance 
 in which one or other of the natural 
 
ENGINEER CORPS 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 forces is utilized for the performance of 
 work of some kind; often distinctively 
 a steam-engine. 
 
 ENGINEER CORPS, the name ap- 
 plied to the body of engineers of the U. 
 States navy, established by the act of 
 congress which was approved Aug. 31, 
 1842. The engineers came into the navy 
 with the adoption of steam power, and 
 their importance has steadily increased 
 since that time. In 1866 the first cadet 
 engineers were admitted to the naval 
 academy and the number grew yearly 
 until, in 1899, the engineer corps, as an 
 acknowledged separate body was lost in 
 the general plan of officers, thus putting 
 an end to the ill feeling which had 
 existed in the navy between the en- 
 gineers and the line officers. 
 
 ENGINEERING INSTRUMENTS, in- 
 struments used by civil engineers in the 
 various work attendant upon surveying. 
 They are used generally for measuring 
 levels or horizontal lines, measuring 
 distances, measuring angles, and for 
 other work. Distance is measured by 
 the chain, the surveyor’s compass is used 
 for measuring direction, the level is used 
 for determining horizontal lines, and the 
 theodolite for measuring angles. 
 
 ENGINEERS in the United States 
 Navy are commissioned officers having 
 charge of the machinery of steam- 
 vessels. A thorough practical education 
 in the construction and management of 
 steam machinery is required. In military 
 law they are considered non-combat- 
 ants. 
 
 ENGINEERS, CORPS OF, the body of 
 engineers of the U. States army, the 
 duties of which consist of all kinds of 
 surveying, reconn oitering, construct ino 
 of fortifications, planning of all defen- 
 sive works, laying out of routes, and 
 constructing roads and bridges. The 
 engineers are regarded as combatant 
 and often take part in battle, although 
 their proper work is often more import- 
 ant than mere fighting. 
 
 ENGLAND, inducting Wales, the 
 southern and larger portion of the island 
 of Great Britain, is situated between 50° 
 and 55° 46' n. lat., and 1° 46' e. and 5° 
 42' w. Ion. On the n. it is bounded by 
 Scotland; on all other sides it is washed 
 by the sea; on the e. by the North Sea or 
 German Ocean; on the s. by the English 
 Channel; and on the w. by St George’s 
 Channel and the Irish Sea. The area is 
 37,319,221 acres or 58,311 square miles, 
 of which 32,597,398 acres or 50,933 
 square miles are in England, and 4,721,- 
 823 acres or 7378 square miites in Wales. 
 This is exclusive of the Channel Islands 
 and the Isle of Man, which together 
 would add 193,647 acres or 302 square 
 miles more to the area. For popula- 
 tion, etc., see Britain. 
 
 The capital of England and of the 
 British Empire is London. The cities 
 next in size (in order of population) are: 
 Liverpool, Manchester and Salford, Bir- 
 mingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, Not- 
 tingham, Bradford, and Hull. 
 
 The chief indentations are : on the east 
 the Humber, the Wash, and the Thames 
 estuary; on the west, the Solway Firth, 
 Morecambe Bay, Cardigan Bay, and the 
 Bristol Channel; those on the south are 
 less prominent, though including some 
 useful harbors. The chief islands are: 
 
 Holy Island, the Fame Islands, Sheppy, 
 and Thanet on the east coast ; the Isle of 
 Wight on the south; the Scilly Isles at 
 the south-west extremity; and Lundy 
 Island, Anglesey, Holyhead, and Wal- 
 ney on the west. 
 
 The loftiest heights of England and 
 Wales are situated at no great distance 
 from its western shores, and consist, not 
 so much of a continuous chain as of a 
 succession of mountains and hills, 
 stretching, with some interruptions,from 
 north to south, and throwing out numer- 
 ous branches on both sides, but particu- 
 larly to the west, where all the culminat- 
 ing summits are found. Amid these 
 mountains lie the celebrated English 
 lakes, of which the most important are 
 Windermere, Derwent Water, Coniston 
 Lake, and Ullswater. Here also is the 
 highest summit of Northern England, 
 Scawfell (3210 feet). A large part of the 
 surface of England consists of wide val- 
 leys and plains. Beginning in the north 
 the first valleys on the east side are those 
 of the Coquet, Tyne, and Tees; on the 
 west the beautiful valley of the Eden, 
 gradually widens out into a plain of 
 about 470 square miles, with the town of 
 Carlisle in its center. The most impor- 
 tant of the northern plains is the Vale of 
 York, which has an area of nearly 1000 
 sq. miles. Properly speaking it is still 
 the same plain which stretches, with 
 scarcely a single interruption, across the 
 counties of Lincoln, Suffolk, and Essex, 
 to the mouth of the Thames, and to a 
 considerable distance inland, compris- 
 ing the Central Plain and the region of 
 the Fens. On the west side of the island, 
 in S. Lancashire and Cheshire, is the fer- 
 tile Cheshire Plain. 
 
 England is well supplied with rivers, 
 many of them of great importance to in- 
 dustry and commerce. Most of them 
 carry their waters to the North Sea. If 
 we consider the drainage as a whole, four 
 principal river basins may be distin- 
 guished, those of the Thames, Wash, and 
 Humber belonging to the German Ocean 
 and the Severn belonging to the Atlan- 
 tic. In regard to minerals, manufac- 
 turing, etc., see Britain. 
 
 The history of England proper begins 
 when it ceased to be a Roman possession. 
 On the withdrawal of the Roman forces, 
 about the beginning of the 5th century 
 A.D., the South Britons, or inhabitants 
 of what is now called England, were no 
 longer able to withstand the attacks of 
 their ferocious northern neighbors, the 
 Scots and Piets. In the middle of the 
 5th century the occasional Teutonic in- 
 cursions gave place to persistent in- 
 vasion with a view to settlement. These 
 Teutonic invaders were Low German 
 tribes from the country about the 
 mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, the 
 three most prominent being the Angles, 
 the Saxons, and the Jutes. Of these the 
 Jutes were the first to form a settlement, 
 taking possession of part of Kent, the 
 Isle of Wight, etc., but the larger con- 
 quests of the Saxons in the south and 
 the Angles in the north gave to these 
 tribes the leading place in the kingdom. 
 The struggle continued 150 years, and 
 at the end of that period the whole 
 southern part of Britain, with the ex- 
 ception of Strathclyde, Wales, and West 
 Wales (Cornwall) was in the hands of the 
 
 Teutonic tribes. This conquered terri- 
 tory was divided among a number of i 
 small states or petty chieftaincies. 
 
 While this work of conquest and of in- 
 ter-tribal strife had been in progress 
 toward the establishment of a united 
 kingdom, certain important changes had 
 occurred. The conquest had been the 
 slow expulsion of a Christian race by a 
 purely heathen race, and the country 
 had returned to something of its old 
 isolation with regard to the restofEurope. 
 
 But long before the close of the 6th cen- 
 tury Christianity had secured a footing. 
 
 The legal and political changes immedi- 
 ately consequent upon the adoption of ^ 
 Christianity were not great, but there ; 
 resulted a more intimate relation with 
 Europe and the older civilizations, the 
 introduction of new learning and culture 
 the formation of a written literature, 
 and the fusion of the tribes and petty 
 kingdoms into a closer and more lasting 
 unity than that which could have been 
 otherwise secured. 
 
 The kingdom, however, was still kept 
 in a state of disturbance by the attacks 
 of the Danes, who had made repeated 
 incursions during the whole of the Saxon 
 period, and about half a century after 
 the unification of the kingdom became 
 for the moment masters of nearly the 
 whole of England. But the genius of ' 
 Alfred the Great, who had ascended the 
 throne in 871, speedily reversed matters 
 by the defeat of the Danes at Ethandune 
 (878). _ Guthrum, their king, embraced 
 Christianity, became the vassal of the 
 Saxon king, and retired to a strip of 
 land on the east coast including North- 
 umbria and called the Danelagh. During 
 the 10th century many changes had 
 taken place in the Teutonic constitution. ( 
 Feudalism was already taking root; the 
 king’s authority had increased; the 
 folkland was being taken over as the 
 king’s personal property; the nobles by 
 birth, or ealdormen, were becoming of 
 less importance in administration than 
 the nobility of thegns, the officers of the 
 king’s court. Animosities between the ‘ 
 English and the Danes who had settled 
 among them became daily more violent, 
 and a general massacre of the latter took 1' 
 place in 1002. The following year V 
 Sweyn invaded the kingdom with a 
 powerful army and assumed the crown 
 of England. Ethelred was compelled 5 
 to take refuge in Normandy; and though 
 he afterward returned, he found in 
 Canute and adversary no less formidable 
 than Sweyn. Ethelred left his kingdom j, 
 in 1016 to his son Edmund, who dis- J 
 played great valor, but was compelled to ^ 
 divide his kingdom with Canute; and ^ 
 when he was assassinated in 1017 the 
 Danes succeeded to the sovereignty of ^ 
 the whole. f 
 
 Canute (Knut), who espoused the \ 
 widow of Ethelred, that he might recon- 
 cile his new subjects, obtained the name _ 
 of Great, not only on account of his per- J 
 sonal qualities, but from the extent of 
 his dominions, being master of Denmark 
 and Norway as well as England. In 
 1035 he died, and in England was fol- 
 lowed by other two Danish kings, 
 Harold and Hardicanute, whose joint 
 reigns lasted till 1042, after which the 
 English line was again restored in the 
 person of Edward the Confessor. Ed- 
 
 jj 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 ixiisGLAND 
 
 ward was a weak prince, and in the latter 
 years of his reign had far leSs real power 
 than his brother-in-law Harold, son of 
 the great earl Godwin. On Edward’s 
 death in 1066 Harold accordingly ob- 
 tained the crown. He found, however, 
 a formidable opponent in the second- 
 cousin of Edward, William of Normandy 
 who instigated the Danes to invade the 
 northern counties, while he, with 60,000 
 men, landed in the south. Harold van- 
 quished the Danes, and hastening south- 
 wards met the Normans near Hastings, 
 at Senlac, afterwards called Battle. 
 Harold and his two brothers fell (Oct. 
 14, 1066), and William (1066-87) im- 
 mediately claimed the government as 
 lawful king of England, being subse- 
 quently known as William I., the Con- 
 querer. 
 
 At his death, in 1087, V* illiam II., 
 commonly known by the name of Rufus, 
 the conqueror’s second son, obtained 
 the crown, Robert, the eldest son, re- 
 ceiving the duchy of Normandy. In 
 1100, when William II. was accidently 
 killed i.n the New Forest, Robert was 
 again cheated of his throne by his 
 younger brother Henry (Henry I.), who 
 in 1106 even wrested from him the 
 duchy of Normandy. He supported his 
 quarrel with firmness, and brought it to 
 a not unfavorable issue. His reign was 
 also marked by the suppression of the 
 greater Norman nobles in England, 
 whose power threatened to overshadow 
 that of the king, and by the substitution 
 of a class of lesser nobles. In 1135 he 
 died in Normandy, leaving behind him 
 only a daughter, Matilda. 
 
 By the will of Henry I. his daughter 
 Maud or Matilda, wife of Godfrey Plan- 
 tagenet. Count of Anjou, and frequently 
 styled the Empress Matilda, because she 
 had first been married to Henry V., 
 emperor of Germany, was declared his 
 successor. But Stephen, son of the 
 Count of Blois, and of Adela, daughter 
 of William the Conqueror, raised an 
 army in Normandy, landed in England, 
 and declared himself king. After years 
 of civil war and bloodshed an amicable 
 arrangement was brought about, by 
 which it was agreed that Stephen should 
 continue to reign during the remainder 
 of his life, but that he should be suc- 
 ceeded by Henry, son of Matilda and 
 the Count of Anjou. Stephen died in 
 1154, and Henry Plantagenet ascended 
 the throne with the title of Henry II., 
 being the first of the Plantagenet or 
 Angevin kings. A larger dominion was 
 united under his sway than had been 
 held by any previous sovereign of Eng- 
 land, for at the time when he became 
 King of England he was already in the 
 possession of Anjou, Normandy, and 
 Aquitaine. 
 
 Henry II. found far less difficulty in 
 restraining the license of his barons than 
 in abridging the exorbitant privileges of 
 the clergy, who claimed exemption not 
 only from the taxes of the state, but also 
 from its penal enactments, and who were 
 supported in their demands by the pri- 
 mate Becket. Henry w^as the first who 
 placed the common people of England in 
 a situation which led to their having a 
 share in the government. The system 
 of frank-pledge was revived, trial by 
 jury was instituted by the Assize of 
 
 Clarendon, and the Eyre courts were 
 made permanent by the Assize of Not- 
 tingham. 
 
 Richard I., called Coeur de Lion, who 
 in 1189 succeeded to his father,Henry 
 II., spent most of his reign away from 
 England. Having gone to Palestine 
 to join in the third crusade he proved 
 himself an intrepid soldier. Returning 
 homeward in disguise through Germany 
 he was made prisoner by Leopold, duke 
 of Austria, but was ransomed by his sub- 
 jects. In the meantime John, his 
 brother, had aspired to the crown, and 
 hoped, by the assistance of the French, 
 to exclude Richard from his right. 
 Richard’s presence for a time restored 
 matters to some appearance of order; 
 but having undertaken an expedition 
 against France, he received a mortal 
 wound at the siege of Chalons, in 1199. 
 
 John was at once recognized as King 
 of England, and secured possession of 
 Normandy; but Anjou, Maine, and 
 Touraine acknowledged the claim of 
 Arthur, son of Geoffrey, second son of 
 Henry II. On the death of Arthur, 
 while in John’s power, these four French 
 provinces were at once lost to England. 
 John’s exactions and misgovernment 
 had equally embroiled him with the 
 nobles. In 1213 they refused to follow 
 him to France, and on his return de- 
 feated, they at once took measures to 
 secure their own privileges and abridge 
 the prerogatives of the crown. King and 
 barons met at Runnymede, and on June 
 15, 1215, the Great Charter (Magna 
 Charta) was signed. In 1216, however, 
 John died, and his turbulent reign was 
 succeeded by the almost equally tur- 
 bulent reign of Henry III. 
 
 During the first years of the reign of 
 Henry III. the abilities of the Earl of 
 Pembroke, who was regent until 1219, 
 retained the kingdom in tranquility; but 
 when, in 1227, Henry assumed the reins 
 of government he showed himself in- 
 capable of managing them. 
 
 On the death of Henry III., in 1272, 
 Edward I. succeeded without opposition. 
 From 1276 to 1284 he was largely oc- 
 cupied in the conquest and annexation 
 of Wales. In 1292 Balliol, whom Ed- 
 ward had decided to be rightful heir to 
 the Scottish throne, did homage for the 
 fief to the English king; but when, in 
 1294, war broke out with France, Scot- 
 land also declared war. The Scots were 
 defeated at Dunbar (1296), and the 
 country placed under an English regent ; 
 but the revolt under Wallace (1297) was 
 followed by that of Bruce (1306), and 
 the Scots remained unsubdued. In 1295 
 the first perfect parliament was sum- 
 moned, the clergy and barons by special 
 writ, the commons by writ to the sheriff’s 
 directing the election of two knights 
 from each shire, two citizens from each 
 city, two burghers from each borough. 
 The great aim of Edward, to include 
 England, Scotland, and Wales in one 
 kingdom proved a failure, and he died in 
 1307 marching against Robert Bruce. 
 
 The reign of his son Edward II. was 
 unfortunate to himself and to his king- 
 dom. He made a feeble attempt to 
 carry out his father’s last and earnest 
 request to prosecute the war with Scot- 
 land, but the English were almost con- 
 stantly unfortunate; and at length, at 
 
 Bannockburn (1314), they received a 
 defeat from Robert Bruce which insured 
 the independence of Scotland. He died 
 in 1327. 
 
 The reign of Edward III. was as bril- 
 liant as that of his father had been the 
 reverse. The main projects of the third 
 Edward were directed against France, 
 the crown of which he claimed in 1328 in 
 virtue of his mother, the daughter of 
 King Philip. The victory won by the 
 Black Prince at Crecy (1346), the cap- 
 ture of Calais (1347), and the victory of 
 Poitiers (1356), ultimately led to the 
 Peace of Br^tigny in 1360, by which 
 Edward III. received all the west of 
 France on condition of renouncing his 
 claim to the French throne. Before the 
 close of his reign, however, these advan- 
 tages were all lost again, save a few 
 principal towns on the coast. 
 
 Edward III. was succeeded in 1377 by 
 his grandson Richard II., son of Edward 
 the Black Prince. The people of Eng- 
 land now began to show, though in a tur- 
 bulent manner, that they had acquired 
 just notions of government. In 1380 an 
 unjust and oppressive poll-tax brought 
 their grievances to a head, and 100,000 
 men, under V>’at Tyler, marched toward 
 London (1381). Wat Tyler was killed 
 while conferring with the king, and the 
 prudence and courage of Richard ap- 
 peased the insurgents. Despite his con- 
 duct on this occasion Richard was de- 
 ficient in the vigor necessary to curb the 
 lawlessness of the nobles. In 1398 he 
 banished his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke 
 and on the death of the latter’s father, 
 the Duke of Lancaster, unjustly ap- 
 propriated his cousin’s partimony. 'To 
 avenge the injustice Bolingbroke landed 
 in England during the king’s absence in 
 Ireland, and at the head of 60,000 mal- 
 contents compelled Richard to surren- 
 der. He was confined in the Tower 
 and despite the superior claims of 
 Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, 
 Henry was appointed king (1399), the 
 first of the House of Lancaster, Rich- 
 ard was, in all probability, mui'dered 
 early in 1400. 
 
 The manner in which the Duke of Lan- 
 caster, now Henry IV., acquired the 
 crown rendered his reign extremely tur- 
 bulent, but the vigor of his administra- 
 tion quelled every insurrection. During 
 the reign of Henry IV. the clergy of Eng- 
 land first began the practice of burning 
 heretics under the act de haeretico com- 
 burendo, passed in the second year of 
 his reign. Henry died in 1413, leaving 
 his crown to his son, Henry V., who re- 
 vived the claim of Edward III. to the 
 throne of France in 1415, and invaded 
 that country at the head of 30,000 men. 
 The disjointed councils of the French 
 rendered their country an easy prey; the 
 victory of Agincourt was gained in 1415 ; 
 and after a second campaign a peace was 
 concluded at Troyes in 1420, by which 
 Henry received the hand of Katherine, 
 daughter of Charles VI., was appointed 
 regent of France during the reign of his 
 father-in-law, and declared heir to the 
 throne on his death. The two kings, 
 however, died within a few weeks of each 
 other in 1422, and the infant son of 
 Henry thus became king of England 
 (as Henry VI.) and France at the age of 
 uine months. 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 England during the reign of Henry VI. 
 was subjected, in the first place, to all the 
 confusion incident to a long minority, 
 and afterward to all the misery of a 
 civil war. In France (1422-53) the Eng- 
 lish forces lost ground, and were finally 
 expelled by the celebrated Joan of Arc, 
 Calais alone being retained. The rebel- 
 lion of Jack Cade in 1450 was suppressed 
 only to be succeeded by more serious 
 trouble. In that year Richard, duke of 
 York, the father of Edward, afterward 
 Edward IV., began to advance his pre- 
 tensions to Hie throne, which had been 
 so long usurped by the house of Lancas- 
 ter. The wars which resulted, called the 
 Wars of the Roses, from the fact that a 
 red rose was the badge of the house of 
 Lancaster and a white one that of the 
 house of York, lasted for thirty years, 
 from the first battle of St. Albans, May 
 22, 1455, to the battle of Bosworth, Aug. 
 22, 1485. Henry VI. was twice driven 
 from the throne (in 1461 and 1471) by 
 Edward of York, whose father had pre- 
 viously been killed in battle in 1460. 
 Edward of York reigned as Edward IV. 
 from 1461 till his death in 1483, with a 
 brief interval in 1471 ; and was succeeded 
 by two other sovereigns of the house of 
 York, first his son Edward V., who 
 reigned for eleven weeks in 1483; and 
 then by his brother Richard III., who 
 reigned from 1483 till 1485, when he was 
 defeated and slain on Bosworth field 
 by Henry Tudor, of the House of Lan- 
 caster, who then became Henry VII. 
 
 Henry VII. was at this time the rep- 
 resentative of the house of Lancaster 
 and in order at once to strengthen his 
 own title, and to put to an end the 
 rivalry between the houses of York and 
 Lancaster, he married in 1486 Elizabeth, 
 sister of Edward V. and heiress of the 
 house of York. His administration 
 throughout did much to increase the 
 royal power and to establish order and 
 prosperity. He died in 1509. 
 
 The authority of the English crown, 
 which had been so much extended by 
 Henry VII., was by his son Henry VIII. 
 exerted in a tyrannical and capricious 
 manner. The most important event of 
 the reign was undoubtedly the Refor- 
 mation; though it had its origin rather 
 in Henry’s caprice and in the casual 
 situation of his private affairs than in his 
 conviction of the necessity of a reforma- 
 tion in religion, or in the solidity of 
 reasoning employed by the reformers. 
 Henry had been espoused to Catherine 
 of Spain, who was first married to his 
 elder brother Arthur, a prince who died 
 young. Henry became disgusted with 
 his queen, and enamored of one of her 
 maids of honor, Anne Boleyn. He had 
 recourse, therefore, to the pope to dis- 
 solve a marriage which had at first been 
 rendered legal only by a dispensation 
 from the pontiff; but failing in his de- 
 sires he broke away entirely from the 
 Holy See, and in 1534 got himself recog- 
 nized by act of parliament as the head of 
 the English Church. He died in 1547. 
 He was married six times, and left three 
 children, each of whom reigned in turn. 
 These were: Mary, by his first wife, 
 Catherine of Aragon; Elizabeth, by his 
 second wife, Anne Boleyn ; and Edward, 
 by his third wife, Jane Seymour. 
 
 Edward, who reigned first, with the 
 
 title of Edward VI., was nine years of 
 age at the time of his succession, and 
 died in 1553, when he was only sixteen. 
 His short reign, or rather the reign of the 
 Earl of Hertford, afterward Duke of 
 Somerset, who was appointed regent, 
 was distinguished chiefly by the success 
 which attended the measures of the re- 
 formers, who acquired great part of the 
 power formerly engrossed by the Catho- 
 lics. The intrigues of Dudley, duke of 
 Northumberland, during the reign of 
 Edward, caused Lady Jane Grey to be 
 declared his successor; but her reign, if 
 it could be called such, lasted only a few 
 days. Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., 
 was placed upon the throne, and Lady 
 Jane Grey and her husband were both 
 executed. Mary, a bigoted Catholic, 
 seems to have wished for the crown only 
 for the purpose of re-establishing the 
 Roman Catholic faith. Political motives 
 had induced Philip of Spain to accept 
 of her a spouse • but she could never pre- 
 vail on her suDjects to allow him any 
 share of power. She died in 1558. 
 
 Elizabeth, who succeeded her sister 
 Mary, was attached to the Protestant 
 faith, and found little difficulty in estab- 
 lishing it in England. Having concluded 
 peace with France (1559), Elizabeth set 
 herself to promote the confusion which 
 prevailed in Scotland, to which her 
 cousin Mary had returned from France 
 as queen in 1561. In this she was so far 
 successful that Mary placed herself in 
 her power (1568), and after many years’ 
 imprisonment was sent to the scaffold. 
 ( 1 587) . As the most powerful Protestant 
 nation, and as a rival to Spain in the 
 New World, it was natural that England 
 should become involved in difficulties 
 with that country. The dispersion of 
 the Armada by the English fleet under 
 Howard, Drake, and Hawkins was the 
 most brilliant event of a struggle which 
 abounded in minor feats of valor. 
 
 To Elizabeth succeeded (in 1603) 
 James VI. of Scotland and I. of England, 
 son of Mary Queen of Scots and Darnley. 
 His accession to the crown of England in 
 addition to that of Scotland did much 
 to unite the two nations, though a cer- 
 tain smouldering animosity still lin- 
 gered. His son Charles I., succeeded 
 him in 1625, and his marriage with a 
 Catholic, his arbitrary rule, and illegal 
 methods of raising money, provoked 
 bitter hostility. Under the guidance of 
 Laud and Strafford things went from 
 bad to worse. Civil war broke out in 
 1642 between the king’s party and that 
 of the parliament, and the latter proving 
 victorious, in 1649 the king was be- 
 headed. 
 
 A commonwealth or republican gov- 
 ernment was now established, in which 
 the most prominent figure was Oliver 
 Cromwell. Mutinies in the army among 
 Fifth-monarchists and Levellers were 
 subdued by Cromwell and Fairfax, and 
 Cromwell in a series of masterly move- 
 ments subjugated Ireland and gained 
 the important battles of Dunbar and 
 Worcester. At sea, Blake had destroyed 
 the Royalist fleet under Rupert, and 
 was engaged in an honorable struggle 
 with the Dutch under Van Tromp. But 
 within the governing body matters had 
 come to a deadlock. A dissolution was 
 necessary, yet parliament shrank from 
 
 dissolving itself, and in the meantime 
 the reform of the law, a settlement with 
 regard to the church, and other impor- 
 tant matters remained untouched. In 
 April, 1653, Cromwell cut the knot by 
 forcibly ejecting the members and put- 
 ting the keys of the house in his pocket. 
 From this time he was practically head 
 of the government, which was vested in 
 a council of thirteen. A parliament — 
 the Little or Barebones Parliament — 
 was summoned, and in the December of 
 the same year Cromwell was installed 
 Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland. With 
 more than the power of a king, he suc- 
 ceeded in dominating the confusion at 
 home and made the country feared 
 throughout the whole of Europe. Crom- 
 well died in 1658, and the brief and feeble 
 protectorate of his son Richard followed. 
 
 There was now a wide-spread feeling 
 that the country would be better under 
 the old form of government, and Charles 
 
 II. , son of Charles I., was called to the 
 throne by the Restoration of 1660. He 
 took complete advantage of the popular 
 reaction from the narrowness and intol- 
 erance of Puritanism, and even latterly 
 endeavored to carry it to the extreme 
 of establishing the Catholic religion. 
 
 As Charles II. left no legitimate issue, 
 his brother the Duke of York succeeded 
 him as James II. (1685-88). An in- 
 vasion by an illegitimate son of Charles, 
 the Duke of Monmouth, who claimed 
 the throne, was suppressed, and the 
 king’s arbitrary rule was supported by 
 the wholesale butcheries of such instru- 
 ments as Kirke and Jeffreys. The king’s 
 zealous countenance of Roman Cathol- 
 icism and his attempts to force the 
 church and the universities to submis- 
 sion provoked a storm of opposition. 
 The whole nation was prepared to wel- 
 come any -deliverance, and in 1688 Will- 
 iam of Orange, husband of James’ 
 daughter Mary, landed in Torbay. James 
 fled to France, and a convention sum- 
 moned by William settled the crown 
 upon him, he thus becoming William 
 
 III. Annexed to this settlement was a 
 Declaration of Rights circumscribing 
 the royal prerogative by depriving him 
 of the right to exercise dispensing power, 
 or to exact money, or maintain an army 
 without the assent of parliament. This 
 placed henceforward the right of the 
 British sovereign to the throne upon a 
 purely statutory basis. A bill for trien- 
 nial parliaments was passed in 1694. the 
 year in- which Queen Mary died. For a 
 moment after her death William’s popu- 
 larity was in danger, but his successes 
 at Namur and elsewhere, and the ob- 
 vious exhaustion of France, once more 
 confirmed his power. The treaty of 
 Ryswick followed in 1697, and the death 
 of James II. in exile in 1701 removed a 
 not unimportant source of danger. 
 Early in the following year William also 
 died, and by the act of settlement Anne 
 succeeded him. 
 
 The closing act of William’s reign had 
 been the formation of the grand alliance 
 between England, Holland, and the Ger- 
 man Empire, and the new queen’s rule 
 opened with the brilliant successes of 
 Marlborough at Blenheim (1704) and 
 Ramifies (1706). Throughout the earlier 
 part of her reign the Marlboroughs 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 practically ruled the kingdom, the duke’s 
 wife, Sarah Jennings, being the queen’s 
 most intimate friend and adviser. In 
 1707 the history of England becomes the 
 history of Britain, the Act of Union 
 passed in that year binding the parlia- 
 ments and realms of England and Scot- 
 land into a single and more powerful 
 whole. See art. Britain. 
 
 The first religion of the Celts of Eng- 
 land was Druidism. It has been con- 
 jectured that Christianity may have 
 reached Britain by way of France (Gaul) 
 before the conclusion of the 1st, or not 
 long after the commencement of the 
 2d century, but the period and manner 
 of its introduction are uncertain. It had, 
 however, made considerable^ progress in 
 the island previous to the time of Con- 
 stantine the Great (306-337). 
 
 A period of almost total eclipse fol- 
 lowed the inroad of the pagan Saxons, 
 and it was not until a.d. 570 that signs 
 of change showed themselves in the 
 new nationality. On the coming of 
 Austin, or St. Augustine, sent over in 
 596 by Gregory, the Great, a residence at 
 Canterbury was assigned to him, and 
 Ethelbert, king of Kent, and most of 
 his subjects, adopted Christianity. 
 
 The clergy in course of time attained, 
 particularly after the Norman conquest, 
 to such a height of domination as to form 
 an imperium in imperio. Under Anselm 
 (1093-1109) the church was practically 
 emancipated from the control of the 
 state, and the power of the pope became 
 supreme. Witn the reign of Edward I. 
 the new system of parliaments came as 
 an effective rival of the church synods, 
 and various acts restrained the power of 
 the clergy. In the 14th century the 
 teaching of Wickliffe promised to pro- 
 duce a thorough revolt from Rome; but 
 the diflBculties of the house of Lancaster 
 which drove its members to propitiate 
 the church, and the Wars of tne Roses, 
 prevented matters coming to a head. 
 
 A steady decay of vital power set in 
 however, and when Henry VIII. re- 
 solved to recast the English church 
 there was no effective protest. In 1534 
 the papal authority was set aside by act 
 of parliament, and by another act of 
 parliament, passed in 1535, Henry as- 
 sumed the title of supreme head of the 
 Church of England. 
 
 With the reign of Mary the old re- 
 ligion was re-established; and it was not 
 till that of Elizabeth that the Church of 
 England was finally instituted in its 
 present form. The doctrines of the 
 church were again modified, and the 
 forty-two articles were reduced to thirty 
 nine by the convocation of the clergy in 
 1563. As no change was made in the 
 episcopal form of government, and some 
 rites and ceremonies were retained which 
 many of the reformed considered as 
 superstitious, this circumstance gave 
 rise to many future dissensions. In 1559 
 before the close of the first year of Eliza- 
 beth’s reign, the Acts of Supremacy and 
 Uniformity were passed with the object 
 of brinmng about the entire subjection 
 of the church and the people in religious 
 matters to the royal authority. 
 
 From James I. some relief was antici- 
 ated by Puritans and nonconformists, 
 ut they were disappointed. Under 
 Charles I. the attempt was made, 
 
 through the instrumentality of Laud, to 
 reduce all the churches of Great Britain 
 under the jurisdiction of bishops. But 
 after the death of Laud the parliament 
 abolished the episcopal government, 
 and condemned everything contrary to 
 the doctrine, worship, and discipline of 
 the Church of Geneva. In the reign of 
 William III., and particularly in 1689, 
 the divisions among the friends of Epis- 
 copacy gave rise to the two parties called 
 the high-churchmen or non-jurors, and 
 low-churchmen. The former main- 
 tained the doctrine of passive obedience 
 to the sovereign; that the hereditary 
 succession to the throne is of divine in- 
 stitution; that the church is subject to 
 the jurisdiction of God alone; etc. The 
 gradual progress of civil and religious 
 liberty since that time has settled prac- 
 tically many such controversies. 
 
 As at present constituted the estab- 
 lished religion of England is Episcopacy. 
 The sovereign Is the supreme head. The 
 church is governed by two archbishops 
 and thirty-one bishops. The Archbishop 
 of Canterbury is styled the primate of all 
 England, and to him belongs the privi- 
 lege of crowning the kings and queens of 
 England. The province of Canterbury 
 comprehends 24 bishoprics; in the prov- 
 ince of the Archbishop of York, who is 
 styled primate of England, there are 9 
 bishoprics, the province comprising 
 Cheshire, Lancashire, Yorkshire, and 
 the other northern counties. Arch- 
 bishops and bishops are appointed by 
 the sovereign by what is called a cong^ 
 d’dlire, or leave to elect, naming the 
 person to be chosen and sent to the dean 
 and chapter. The archbishops and bish- 
 ops, to the number of 24, have seats in 
 the House of Lords, and are styled 
 spiritual lords. As regards architecture 
 little can be said with regard to the style 
 prevalent between the invasion of the 
 Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Con- 
 quest, from the fact that the remains of 
 buildings erected in England before the 
 Conquest are few and insignificant. The 
 Norman style was introduced in the 
 reign of Edward the Confessor, though 
 the workmen, both then and after the 
 Conquest, being English, the earlier 
 work preserved many native character- 
 istics. The Norman period proper ex- 
 tends from about 1090 to 1150, some of 
 the best examples being parts of the 
 cathedrals of Rochester, Winchester, 
 Durham, and Canterbury. In the brief 
 period 1160 to 1195 a marked change 
 took place in the adoption of the pointed 
 arch and what is known as the Early 
 English style. Improved methods of 
 construction led to the use of lighter 
 walls and pillars instead of the heavy 
 masses employed in the Norman style. 
 Narrow lancet-shaped windows took 
 the place of the round arch; bold pro- 
 jecting buttresses were introduced; and 
 the roofs and spires became more lofty 
 and more pointed, while in the interiors 
 pointed arches rested on lofty clustered 
 pillars. The best Early English type is 
 Salisbury Cathedral. The Early English 
 style has been regarded as lasting from 
 1190 to 1270, when the Decorated style 
 of Gothic began to prevail. The tran- 
 sition to the Decorated st-yle was grad- 
 ual, but it may be considered as last- 
 ing to 1377. Exeter Cathedral is an 
 
 excellent example of the earliest Dec- 
 orated style. Between 1360 and 1399 
 the Decorated style gave place to the 
 Perpendicular, which prevailed from 
 1377 to 1547, and was an exclusively 
 English style. Gothic architecture, 
 though it lingered on in many districts, 
 practically came to an end in Eng- 
 land in the reign of Henry VIII. The 
 Elizabethan and Jacobean styles which 
 followed were transitions from the 
 Gothic to the Italian, with which these 
 styles were more or less freely mixed. 
 About 1836 the Gothic revival com- 
 menced, and that style has been em- 
 ployed with considerable success in the 
 churches erected in recent times. At 
 the present day Gothic is much em- 
 ployed for ecclesiastical and collegiate 
 buildings, and a mild type of Renais- 
 sance for civil buildings. Of late years 
 a style that has received the name of 
 “Queen Anne’’ is much in vogue for 
 
 E rivate residences. It is very mixed, 
 ut withal highly picturesque. The 
 most striking novelties in the 19th cen- 
 tury have been introduced by the ex- 
 tensive use of iron and glass, as exem- 
 plified in the Exhibition building of 
 1851, the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, and 
 the great railway-stations. 
 
 Very little is known of the state of the 
 art of painting among the Anglo-Saxons; 
 but in the 9th century Alfred the Great 
 caused numerous MSS. to be adorned 
 with miniatures, and about the end of 
 the 10th century Archbishop Dunstan 
 won reputation as a miniature painter. 
 Under William the Conqueror and his 
 two sons the painting of large pictures 
 began to be studied, and Lanfranc, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, adorned the vault 
 of his church with paintings. Numerous 
 miniatures of the 13th and 14th cen- 
 turies have come down to us, rude in 
 execution, but not without originality. 
 Of native artists few are of importance 
 prior to that original genius William 
 Hogarth (1697-1764). Throughout the 
 18tn century English artists attained 
 higher eminence in portrait painting 
 than in other departments, and it cul- 
 minated in Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723- 
 92), Thomas Gainsborough (1727-88), 
 and Romney (1734-1802). Landscape- 
 painting was represented by Richard 
 Wilson, 1714-82, who painted classical 
 scenes with figures from heathen my- 
 thology, and by Gainsborough already 
 mentioned, who painted scenes of Eng- 
 lish nature and humble life. The Royal 
 Academy of Arts, of which Reynolds 
 was the first president, was established 
 in London in 1769. In landscape the 
 reputation of Turner (1775-1857) 
 “stands alone, solitary, colossal.” In 
 historical painting Hilton (1786-1839), 
 Eastlake (1793-1865), Etty (1787-1849), 
 E. M. Ward (1816-97), C. W. Cope 
 (b. 1811), and D. Maclise (1811-70) 
 attained celebrity. Landseer (1802-73) 
 stands by himself as a painter of animals. 
 
 In 1824 the nucleus of the National 
 Gallery was formed by the purchase of 
 the Angerstein collection, and in 1832 
 the vote was passed for the erection of 
 the National Gallery building. 
 
 The modern group of British painters 
 may be held to date from about 1850. 
 Prominent among these the following 
 may be named: In historical painting 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 T 
 
 Leighton, Alma-Tadema, Watts, Poyn- 
 ter. Long, Goodall, Holman Hunt, Noel 
 Paton, Burne-Jones, and Madox Brown, 
 as also W. P. Frith, whose Derby Day 
 and Railway Station, so descriptive of 
 modern life, may well be classed as his- 
 torical. In figure painting or genre T. 
 Faed, Erskine Nicol, Fildes, Orchard- 
 son, Herkomer, and Pettie. In por- 
 traiture Millais, Frank Holl, Ouless, and 
 Richmond. In landscape Linnell, Hook, 
 Peter Graham, John Brett, Vicat Cole, 
 H. Moore, and Keeley Halswelle. In 
 water-colors the most eminent artists 
 have been Girtin (1773-1802), Cotman 
 (1782-1842), Liverseege (1803-32), Sto- 
 thard (1755-1834), Turner, David Cox 
 (1788-1859), De Wint (1784-1849), Cop- 
 ley Fielding (1787-1855), Barret (1774- 
 1842), Samuel Prout (1783-1852), W. H. 
 Hunt (1790-1864), Louis Haghe (1806- 
 85), W. L. Leitch (1804-83, Sam 
 Bough (1822-74), J. F. Lewis (1805-76). 
 
 The language spoken in England from 
 the settlement of the Anglo-Saxons to 
 the Norman Conquest (say 500-1066) 
 is popularly known as Anglo-Saxon, 
 though simply the earliest form of Eng- 
 lish. (See Anglo-Saxons.) It was a 
 highly inflected and purely Teutonic 
 tongue presenting several dialects. The 
 Conquest introduced the Norman- 
 French, and from 1066 to about 1250 
 two languages were spoken, the native 
 English speaking their own language, 
 the intruders speaking French. During 
 this period the grammatical structure of 
 the native language was greatly broken 
 up, inflexions fell away, or were assimi- 
 lated to each other; and towards the end 
 of the period we find a few works written 
 in a language resembling the English of 
 our own day in grammar, but differing 
 from it by being purely Saxon or Teu- 
 tonic in vocabulary. Finally, the two 
 languages began to mingle, and form one 
 intelligible to the whole population, 
 Normans as well as English, this change 
 being marked by a great infusion of 
 Norman-French words, and English 
 proper, being the result. English is thus 
 in its vocabulary, a composite language, 
 deriving part of its stock of words from 
 a Teutonic source and part from a Latin 
 source, Norman-French being in the 
 main merely a modified form of Latin. 
 In its grammatical structure and general 
 character, however, English is entirely 
 Teutonic, and is classed with Dutch and 
 Gothic among the Low German tongues. 
 If we divide the history of the English 
 language into periods we shall find three 
 most distinctly marked; 1st, the Old 
 English or Anglo-Saxon, extending 
 down to about 1100; 2d, the Middle Eng- 
 lish, 1100-1400 (to this period belong 
 Chaucer, Wickliffe, Langland) ; 3d, Mod- 
 ern English. A more detailed subdivi- 
 sion would give transition periods con- 
 necting the main ones. The chief change 
 which the language has experienced 
 during the modern period consists in its 
 absorbing new words from all quarters 
 in obedience to the requirements of ad- 
 vancing science, more complicated social 
 relations, and increased subtlety of 
 thought. At the present time the rapid 
 growth of the sciences already existing, 
 and the creation of new ones, have 
 caused whole grouj^s of words to be in- 
 troduced, chiefly from the Greek, 
 
 Before any English literature, in the 
 strict sense of the term, existed, four 
 literatures had arisen in England — the 
 Celtic, Latin, Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo- 
 Norman. With the coming of the Nor- 
 mans, although the Anglo-Saxon chroni- 
 cle was continued until 1154, the native 
 language practically ceased for a time to 
 be employed in literature, Latin being 
 employed in law, history, and philoso- 
 phy, French in the lighter forms of liter- 
 ature. 
 
 Apart from a few brief fragments, the 
 first English writings after the Conquest 
 are the Brut of Layamon (about 1200), 
 based on the Brut of Wace; and the 
 Ormulum, a collection of metrical homi- 
 lies attributed to Orm or Ormin, an 
 Augustine monk. Between the begin- 
 ning and middle of the 14th century the 
 English speech had entered upon a new 
 phase of development in the absorption 
 of Norman-French words. A rapid ex- 
 pansion of the literature followed, hav- 
 ing as the foremost figure that of 
 Chaucer (1340-1400), who, writing at 
 first under French influences, and then 
 under Italian, became in the end the 
 most representative English writer of 
 the time. 
 
 The period from the time of Chaucer 
 to the appearance of Spenser, that is, 
 from the end of the 14th to near the end 
 of the 16th century, is a very barren one 
 in English literature, in part probably 
 owing to foreign and domestic wars, the 
 struggle of the people toward political 
 power, and the religious controversies 
 preceding and attending the Reforma- 
 tion. 
 
 Several events of European impor- 
 tance combined to stimulate life and en- 
 large the mental horizon — the invention 
 of printing, or rather of movable types, 
 the promulgation of the Copernican sys- 
 tem of astronomy, the discovery of 
 America, the Renaissance, and the 
 Reformation. The Renaissance spread 
 from Florence to England by means of 
 such men as Colet, Linacre, Erasmus, 
 and Sir Thomas More (1480-1535), the 
 last noteworthy as at the head of a new 
 race of historians. Important contribu- 
 tions to the prose of the time were the 
 Tyndale New Testament, printed in 
 1525, and the Coverdale Bible (1535). 
 The first signs of an artistic advance in 
 poetic literature are to be found in 
 Wyatt (1503-42) and Surrey ) 151 6-47), 
 who nationalized the sonnet, and of 
 whom the latter is regarded as the intro- 
 ducer of blank verse. 
 
 After the death of James I. the course 
 of literature breaks up into three stages, 
 the first from 1625 to 1640, in which the 
 survivals from the Elizabethan age 
 slowly die away. The second stage 
 (1640-60) was almost wholly given up to 
 controversial prose, the Puritan revolu- 
 tion checking the production of pure 
 literature. In this controversial prose 
 of the time Milton was easily chief. With 
 the restoration a third stage was begun. 
 Milton turned his new leisure to the com- 
 position of his great poems; the drama 
 was revived, and Davenant and Dryden, 
 with Otway, Wycherley, and Congreve 
 in their first plays, and minor play- 
 wrights, are the most representative 
 writers of the period. Butler established 
 a genre in satire, and Marvell as a satirist 
 
 in some respects anticipated Swift ; Other 
 features of the last part of the 17th cen- 
 tury were the immense advance in phys- 
 ical science under Boyle, Isaac Newton, 
 Harvey, and others, and the rise of the 
 newspaper press. 
 
 Dryden’s death in 1700 marks the 
 commencement of the so-called Augus- 
 tan age in English literature. During it, 
 however, no greater poet appeared than 
 Pope (1688-1744), in whom sagacity, 
 wit, and fancy take the place of the 
 highest poetic faculty, but who was a 
 supreme artist within the formal limits 
 of his conception of metrical art. 
 
 With the French Revolution, or a few 
 years earlier, the modern movement in 
 literature may be said to have com- 
 menced. The departure from the old 
 traditions, traceable in Gray and Collins, 
 was more clearly exhibited in the last 
 years of the century in Cowper (1731- 
 1800) and Burns (1759-96), and was de- 
 veloped and perfected in the hands of 
 Blake (1757-1828), Bowles (1762-1850), 
 and the “Lake poets” Wordsworth 
 (1770-1850), Coleridge (1772-1834), and 
 Southey (1774-1843). A more import- 
 ant group was that of Byron (1788- 
 1824), Shelley (1792-1822), and Keats 
 (1796-1821), with which may be asso- 
 ciated the names of Leigh Hunt (1784- 
 1859), Thomas Moore (1779-1852), and 
 Landor (1775-1864). Among the earlier 
 writers of fiction there were several 
 women of note, such as Maria Edge- 
 worth (1767-1849) and Jane Austen 
 (1775-1817). The greatest name in fic- 
 tion is unquestionably that of Scott. 
 Other prose writers were Mackintosh, 
 Malthus, Hallam, James Mill, Southey, 
 Robert Hall, William Hazlitt, Sydney 
 Smith, Francis Jeffrey, Lord Brougham. 
 In the literature since 1830 poetry has 
 included as its chief names those of 
 Hood, Aytoun, Charles Mackay, Philip 
 James Bailey, Elizabeth Barrett Brown- 
 ing, Coventry Patmore, Lord Lytton 
 (Owen Meredith), Matthew Arnold, 
 Dante G. Rossetti, Robert Buchanan, 
 Wm. Morris, Lewis Morris, Jean Inge- 
 low, Swinburne, and last and greatest, 
 Tennyson and Browning. A brilliant 
 list of novelists for the same period in- 
 cludes Marryat, Lord Lytton, Ainsworth 
 Dickens, Thackeray, Charles Kingsley, 
 Charlotte Bronte, Lover, Lever, Wilkie 
 Collins, Mayne Reid, George Macdonald 
 Charles Reade, George Eliot, Anthony 
 Trollope, William Black, Thomas Hardy 
 R. D. Blackmore, George Meredith, 
 Thackeray, anc^others. To the historical 
 and biographical list belong Alison, Mac- 
 aulay, Buckle, Carlyle, Grote, Milman, 
 Froude, Lecky, Kinglake, John Richard 
 Green, E. A. Freeman, John Morley, 
 Leslie Stephen. In science and philoso- 
 phy among the chief writers have been 
 Whewell, Sir W. Hamilton, Mansel, John 
 Stuart Mill, Alexander Bain, Hugh Mil- 
 ler, Charles Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall 
 Max Mtillrr, Herbert Spencer, T. H. 
 Green. Of the other prose writers of im- 
 portance the chief are De Quincey, Har- 
 riet Martineau, Sir Arthur Helps, Ruskin, 
 Matthew Arnold, W. E. Gladstone. 
 
 ENGLISH, Thomas Dunn: poet and 
 physician; born in Philadelphia, 1819. 
 Among his works are several successful 
 dramas, numerous novels, among them 
 Walter Woolfe, a volume of poems, and 
 
ENGLISH 
 
 ENLISTMENT 
 
 American Ballads. The best known of 
 his poems is the popular ballad, Ben 
 Bolt. He died in 1902. 
 
 ENGLISH, William Hayden: lawyer 
 and politician; born Lexington, Ind., 
 1822. Was elected to U. S. House of 
 Representatives in 1852, and three 
 times re-elected, retiring in I860; was 
 nominated for vice-president of the U. 
 S. by the democratic convention at Cin- 
 cinnati, Ohio, June 2-1, 1880. He was 
 president of the Indiana Historical 
 Society, and the author of works on the 
 history and constitution of that state. 
 Died in Indianapolis, 1896. 
 
 ENGLISH CHANNEL, the arm of sea 
 which separates England from France, 
 extending, on the English side, from 
 Dover to the Land’s End; and on the 
 French, from Calais to the Island of 
 Ushant. On the east it communicates 
 with the German Ocean by the Strait of 
 Dover, 21 miles wide ; and on the west it 
 opens into the Atlantic by an entrance 
 about 100 miles wide. At its greatest 
 breadth it is about 150 miles. The pil- 
 chard and mackeral fisheries are very 
 important. 
 
 ENGRAVING, the art of representing 
 objects and depicting characters on 
 metal, wood, precious stones, etc., by 
 means of incisions made with instru- 
 ments variously adapted to the sub- 
 stances operated upon and the descrip- 
 tion of work intended. Impressions 
 from metal plates are named engravings, 
 prints, or plates; those printed from 
 wood being called indifTerently wood en- 
 gravings and wood-cuts. While, how- 
 ever, these impressions are not altogether 
 dissimilar in appearance, the processes 
 are distinct. In plates the lines intended 
 to print are incised, and in order to take 
 an impression the plate is daubed over 
 with a thick ink which fills all the lines. 
 The surface is then wiped perfectly clean, 
 leaving only the incised lines filled with 
 ink. A piece of damp paper is now laid 
 on the face of the plate, and both are 
 passed through the press, which causes 
 the ink to pass from the plate to the 
 paper. This operation needs to be re- 
 peated for every impression. In the 
 wood block, on the contrary, the spaces 
 between the lines of the drawing are 
 cut out, leaving the lines standing up 
 like type, the printing being from the 
 inked surface of the raised lines, and 
 effected much more rapidly than plate 
 printing. 
 
 Engraving on wood, intended for 
 printing or impressing from, long pre- 
 ceded engraving on metals. The art is 
 of eastern origin, and at least as early as 
 the 10th century engraving and printing 
 from wood blocks was common in China. 
 We first hear of wood engraving being 
 cultivated in Europe by the Italians and 
 Germans in the 13th century. For a 
 hundred and fifty years, however, there 
 is small indication of the practice of the 
 art, which was at first confined to the 
 production of block-books, playing 
 cards, and religious prints. In the 15th 
 century the art of printing from en- 
 graved plates was discovered in Flor- 
 ence by Maso Finiguerra. Engraving 
 had long been used as a means of decora- 
 rating armor, metal vessels, etc., the 
 engravers generally securing duplicates 
 of their work before laying in the niello 
 
 (a species of metallic enamel) by filling 
 the lines with dark color, and taking 
 casts of them in sulphur. The discovery 
 of the practicability of taking impres- 
 sions upon paper led to engraving upon 
 copper plates for the purpose of printing 
 from. The date of the earliest known 
 niello proof upon paper is 1452. The 
 substitution of steel for copper plates 
 (1820-30) gave the power of producing a 
 much larger number of fine impressions, 
 and opened new possibilities for highly- 
 finished work. During the closing years 
 of the 18th century line engraving at- 
 tained a depth of color and fulness of 
 tone in which earlier works generally 
 are deficient, and during the 19th cen- 
 tury it reached a perfectness of fin- 
 ish which it had not previously attained. 
 A picture, whether figure or landscape, 
 may be translated by line engraving 
 with all its depths of color, delicacy of 
 tone, and effect of light, and shade; the 
 various textures, whether of naked flesh, 
 silk, satin, woolen, or velvet, all success- 
 fully rendered by ingenious modes of 
 laying the lines and combination of lines 
 of varying strength, width, and depth. 
 In the period 1820-60 landscape en- 
 graving attained a perfection in Great 
 Britain which it had not attained in any 
 other country, or at any other time. 
 Through lack of encouragement, change 
 of fashion, and the adoption of other 
 methods of reproduction, line engraving 
 is rapidly becoming a lost art. 
 
 Line Engraving, as implied by the 
 term, is executed entirely in lines. The 
 tools are few and simple. They consist of 
 the graver or burin, the point, the 
 scraper, and the burnisher; and oil- 
 stone or hone, dividers, a parallel square, 
 a magnifying lens; a bridge on which to 
 rest the hand ; a blind or shade of tissue 
 paper, to make the light fall equally on 
 the plate, callipers for levelling import- 
 ant erasures, a small steel anvil, a small 
 pointed hammer, and punches. In 
 etching, the following articles are re- 
 quired: a resinous mixture called etch- 
 ing-ground, capable, when spread very 
 thinly over the plate, of resisting the 
 action of the acids used; a dauber for 
 laying the ground equally; a hand-vise; 
 some hair-pencils of different sizes, and 
 bordering wax, made of burgundy-pitch, 
 bees’ -wax, and a little oil. 
 
 In engraving, the plate, which is 
 highly polished and must be free from 
 all scratches, 'is first prepared by spread- 
 ing over it a thin layer of ground. The 
 surface is then smoked, and the outline 
 of the picture transferred to it by pres- 
 sure from the paper on which it has been 
 drawn in fine outlines by a black-lead 
 pencil. The picture is then drawn on 
 the ground with the etching-needle, 
 which removes the ground in every form 
 produced by it, and leaves the bright 
 metal exposed. A bank of wax is then 
 put round the plate and diluted acid 
 poured on it, which eats out the metal 
 from the lines from which the ground has 
 been removed, but leaves the rest of the 
 plate untouched. The plate is then gone 
 over with the graver, the etched lipes 
 clearly defined, broken lines connected, 
 new lines added, etc. Sometimes the 
 plate is rebitten more than once, those 
 parts which are sufficiently bitten in the 
 first treatment being stopped with var- 
 
 nish, and only the selected parts ex- 
 posed to after-biting. Finally the bur- 
 nisher is brought into play alternately 
 with the graver and point to give per- 
 fectness and finish. Such is the process 
 for landscape engraving. In historical 
 and portrait engraving of the highest 
 class, the lines are first drawn on the 
 metal with a fine point and then cut in 
 by the graver, first making a fine line 
 and afterward entering and re-entering 
 till the desired width and depth of lines 
 is attained. Much of the excellence of 
 such engravings depends on the mode 
 in which the lines are laid, their relative 
 thickness, and the manner in which they 
 cross each other. In historical engrav- 
 ing etching is but little used, and then 
 only for accessories and the less import- 
 ant parts. 
 
 The wood' best adapted for engraving 
 is box. It is cut across the grain in thick- 
 nesses equal to the height of type, these 
 slices being subjected to a lengthened 
 process of seasoning, and then smoothed, 
 for use. Every wood engraving is the 
 representative of a finished drawing 
 previously made on the block; the un- 
 shaded parts being cut away, and the 
 lines giving form, shading, texture, etc., 
 left standing in relief by excavations of 
 varied size and character, made between 
 them by gravers of different forms. 
 
 Drawings on wood are made either 
 with black-lead pencil alone or with pen- 
 cil and Indian ink, the latter being em- 
 ployed for the broader and darker 
 masses. It is now much the practice to 
 photograph drawings made in black and 
 white upon the wood instead of making 
 the drawing on the wood block. When 
 the drawing is put on the wood by washes 
 or by photography instead of being en- 
 tirely done by pencil lines, the engraver 
 has to devise the width and style of lines 
 to be employed instead of cutting in fac- 
 simile, as is the.icase when the drawing 
 is made entirely in lines. The tools re- 
 quired for wood engraving are similar 
 but more numerous than those of the en- 
 graver on copper or steel. See also Diq- 
 sinking. Gems, Half-tone and Zinc En- 
 graving. 
 
 ENGROSSING, in law, denotes extend- 
 ing a deed, that is, rewriting it out fully 
 in fair and legible characters. 
 
 ENLIST'MENT, the method by which 
 an army is supplied with troops, as dis- 
 tinguished from conscription. L'p to 
 1802 the enlistment of men for the Brit- 
 ish army was left in the hands of private 
 undertakers, or middlemen, who re- 
 ceived a commission on the recruits they 
 procured; but the abuses of this system 
 induced the government to take the 
 matter into their own management. At 
 an early period enlistment was for short 
 periods, but this was soon changed to 
 enlistment for life. The act of 1847 
 limited the term of enlistment to ten 
 years for the infantry and twelve for the 
 cavalry, artillery, and ordnance; re- 
 enlistments for periods of eleven and 
 twelve years might be made, after serv- 
 ing which retiring pensions were granted. 
 By the acts of 1870 and 1881 the system 
 of long and short service was introduced. 
 By both acts the term of long service 
 was fixed for twelve years, at the expira- 
 tion of which period the soldier may re- 
 enlist for other nine years, service for 
 
ENOCH 
 
 ENTREES 
 
 the two terms, or twenty-one years, en- 
 titling him to a pension. The short serv- 
 ice of the first act extended over six 
 j-^ears with the regular army and six 
 years in the first-class reserve ; the short 
 service of the act of 1881 is seven years 
 in the regular army and five in the re- 
 serve. In the navy a seaman may en- 
 
 f age for five or ten years, for the period 
 is ship is in commission, or for a longer 
 period. He receives higher pay for longer 
 service. In the U. States men are en- 
 listed for five years’ duty in every branch, 
 and recruits are assigned to regiments 
 by order of the war department. 
 
 ENOCH (e'nok), (1) The eldest son of 
 Cain, who called the city which he built 
 after his name (Gen. IV. 17). (2) One of 
 the patriarchs, the father of Methuselah. 
 He “walked with GocH and he was not; 
 for God took him” (Gen. v. 24) at the 
 age of 365 years. The words quoted are 
 generally understood to mean that 
 Enoch did not die a natural death, but 
 was removed as Elijah was. 
 
 ENOCH, Book of, an apocryphal book 
 of an assumedly prophetical character, 
 to which considerable importance has 
 been attached on account of its sup- 
 posed quotation by St. Jude in the 14th 
 and 15th verses of his epistle. It is re- 
 ferred to by many of the early fathers; 
 is of unknown authorship, but was prob- 
 ably written by a Palestinian Hehrew. 
 Its date is also uncertain, critical con- 
 jecture ranging from 144 b.c. to 132 a.Dj 
 EN'SIGN, formerly, in the British 
 army, the officer who carried the flag 
 or colors of an infantry regiment; for 
 this title, second lieutenant has been 
 substituted. In naval language the en- 
 sign is the flag over the poop or stern 
 which distinguishes the ships of different 
 nations. In the royal navy of Britain it 
 is a flag with a white field divided into 
 quarters by the red cross of _St. George, 
 and having the union (or Union Jack as 
 it is commonly called) in the upper cor- 
 ner next the staff. In the United States 
 navy an ensign ranks next below lieu- 
 tenant. , 
 
 ENTAJB'LATURE, in architecture, the 
 horizontal, continuous work which rests 
 
 Entablature of Tuscan Column. 
 
 upon a row of columns, and belongs espe- 
 cially to classical architecture. It con- 
 sists of three principal divisions — the 
 architrave immediately above the aba- 
 cus of the column, next the frieze, and 
 then the cornice. In large buildings 
 projections similar to and known also as 
 entablatures are often carried round the 
 whole edifice, or along one front of it. 
 
 ENTAIL' in law, the settlement of an 
 estate by which a freehold is limited to a 
 person and the heirs of his body, with 
 such particular restrictions as the donor 
 
 may specify. Entailed estates are 
 divided into general and special, the 
 former when the estate is given to the 
 donee and his heirs without exception, 
 the latter when the estate is limited to 
 certain heirs to the exclusion of others. 
 
 ENTENTE CORDIALE (an'tant' kor'- 
 dyM'). A term used specifically to sig- 
 nify a certain cordiality, based either on 
 sentiment or on community of interests, 
 between different countries and states- 
 men. It suggests a relation bordering on 
 an alliance, though a formal alliance is 
 by no means necessary to create it. 
 
 ENTER'IC FEVER. See Typhoid 
 Fever. 
 
 ENTERI'TIS (Greek, enteron, intes- 
 tine), inflammation of the intestines. 
 There are several forms of the disease of 
 great severity and very fatal. A com- 
 mon form, whicb is of the nature of an 
 intestinal catarrh, generally yields to 
 simple treatment; but other forms are 
 of great danger, and demand skilled and 
 attentive treatment. 
 
 ENTOMOL'OGY, the branch of zo- 
 ology which treats of the insects. The 
 true insects are those animals of the 
 division Arthropoda or Articulata dis- 
 tinguished from the other classes of the 
 division by the fact that the three divi- 
 
 Plgure showing parts of insects. 
 
 A, B, O, Mandlbulate mouth. A, Head of 
 Hornet, and upper side of mouth, m, Clypeus. 
 n. Ocelli, stemmata, or simple eyes, o, Com- 
 pound eyes. B, Head of beetle, and 0, under 
 side of mouth of beetle, m, Clydeus. o, Eyes. 
 p, Labrum or upper lip. ?■, Mandibles or up- 
 per Jaws, r, Maxillae or lower jaws, s. Max- 
 illary palpi, t. Labium or under lip. u. Lab- 
 ial palpi. V, Mentum or chin.— D and E, Haus- 
 tellate mouths. D, Spiral sucker of a butter- 
 fly, called antlia. E, Straight sucker of a 
 plant-bug (pentatoma) called haustellum. — 
 F, Leg of stag-beetle, g. Coxa, h, Trochanter, 
 i, Femur, j. Tibia fc, Calcarla or spurs. I, 
 Tarsus, which in this Instance is pentamerous. 
 or consisting of flvepieces.—G. Thorax of stag- 
 beetle. c. Abdomen, dd, Elytra. ««, Wings. 
 w. Prothorax, x, Mesothorax. y. Metathorax. 
 z, Scutellum. 
 
 sions of the body — the head, thorax, and 
 abdomen — are always distinct from one 
 another. There are never more than 
 three pairs of legs in the perfect insect, 
 and these are all borne upon the thorax. 
 Each leg consists of from six to nine 
 joints. The first of these is called the 
 “coxa,” and is succeeded by a short 
 joint called the “trochanter.” This is 
 followed by a joint, often of large size, 
 called the “femur,” succeeded by the 
 
 "tibia,” and this has articulated to it 
 the “tarsus,” which may be composed of 
 from one to five joints. Normally two 
 pairs of wings are present, but one or 
 other may be wanting. The wings are 
 expansions of the sides of the second 
 and third sections of the thorax, and are 
 attached by slender tubes called “ner- 
 vures.” In the beetles the anterior pair 
 of wings becomes hardened so as to form 
 rotective cases for the posterior mem- 
 raneous wings, and are called in this 
 condition “elytra” or “wing-cases.” 
 Respiration is effected by means of air- 
 tubes or tracheiE, which commence at 
 the surface of the body by lateral aper- 
 tures called “stigmata” or “spiracles,” 
 and ramify through every part of the 
 body. The head is composed of several 
 segments amalgamated together, and 
 carries a pair of feelers or “antennae,” a 
 pair of eyes, usually compound, and the- 
 appendages of the mouth. The thorax 
 is composed of three segments, also 
 amalgamated, but generally pretty 
 easily recognized. The abdominal seg- 
 ments are usually more or less freely 
 movable upon one another, and never 
 carry locomotive limbs; but the ex- 
 tremity is frequently furnished with ap- 
 pendages connected with generation, 
 and which in some cases serve as offen- 
 sive and defensive weapons (stings). 
 The organs of the mouth take collective- 
 ly two typical forms, the masticatory 
 and the suctorial, the former exempli- 
 fied by the beetles, the latter by the 
 butterflies, in which the mouth is purely 
 for suction. The alimentary canal con- 
 sists of the oesophagus or gullet, a crop, 
 a gizzard, a stomach, and an intestine, 
 terminating in a cloaca. There is no 
 regular system of blood-vessels; the 
 most important organ of the circulation 
 is a contractile vessel situated dorsally 
 and called the "dorsal vessel.” The 
 nervous system is mainly composed of a 
 series of ganglia placed along the ventral 
 aspect of the body and connected by a 
 set of double nerve-cords. The sexes are 
 in different individuals, and most in- 
 sects are oviparous. Reproduction is 
 
 f enerally sexual, but non-sexual repro- 
 uction also occurs. Generally the 
 young are very different from the full- 
 grown insect, and pass through a “meta- 
 morphosis” before attaining the mature 
 stage. When this metamorphosis is 
 complete it exhibits three stages — that 
 of the larva, caterpillar, or grub, that of 
 the pupa or chrysalis, and that of the 
 imago or perfect winged insect. 
 
 ENTOZO'A, a general name for those 
 annulose parasitical animals, which in- 
 fest the bodies of other animals. Some 
 are found in the intestines, others in the 
 liver, brain, muscles, and other tissues. 
 They pass through different stages in 
 their development, and at each stage 
 occupy a different tissue and usually a 
 different animal. Thus the cystic or 
 bladder worm, whose presence ip the 
 brain of sheep causes staggers, is the 
 immature form of the tapeworm of the 
 dog, etc. 'The number of species is being 
 reduced as the relations of the different 
 forms are studied. 
 
 ENTREES (hn-traz), in cookery, made- 
 dishes comprising cutlets, fricassees, 
 sweetbreads, and similar dishes, usually 
 served hot before the joints at dinner. — 
 
ENTREPOT 
 
 EPIC 
 
 Entremets are similar dishes, but of a 
 more delicate character, served between 
 the main dishes of the second course at 
 dinner. 
 
 ENTREPOT (an-tr-p6; Fr.), a port 
 where foreign merchandise which can- 
 not enter the interior of a country is de- 
 posited in magazines under the surveil- 
 lanee of the custom-house officers till it 
 is re-exported; also, any place where 
 goods are sent to be distributed where- 
 ever customers are found. 
 
 ENTRE RIOS (en'tre re'os; “between 
 rivers”), a province of the Argentine 
 Republic, lying between the Uruguay 
 and the Parana: ; area estimated at 
 45,000 sq. miles: pop. 300,000. The 
 rovince is largely pastoral. Capital, 
 oncepcion, with a pop. of 10,000. 
 
 Part ol bouse on Boulevard Malesherbes, Paris. 
 E, E, entresol. 
 
 ENTRESOL (en'ter-sol;), a low story 
 between two of greater height, generally 
 the ground and first stories. 
 
 EN'TRY, in law, the act of taking 
 possession of lands or tenements by en- 
 tering or setting foot on the same. 
 
 EN'VELOPES, the paper covers that 
 inclose letters or notes. They became 
 common shortly after the introduction 
 of the penny postal system ; were at first 
 made chieflv oy hand, but are now not 
 only shaped, but folded, gummed, etc., 
 by machinery. 
 
 ENVIRONMENT, in zofilogy and 
 botany, the sum of the conditions or sur- 
 roundings of animal and plant life. 
 Climate, the physical features of a coun- 
 try, absence or presence of enemies, and 
 ease or difficulty of procuring food are 
 among the more important factors of 
 environment. 
 
 EN'VOY, ajierson deputed by a ruler 
 or government to negotiate a treaty, or 
 transact other business, with a foreign 
 ruler or government. We usually apply 
 the word to a public minister sent on a 
 special occasion or for one particular 
 purpose; hence an envoy is distinguished 
 from an ambassador or permanent resi- 
 dent at a foreign court, and is of inferior 
 rank. 
 
 E'OCENE, in geology, a term applied 
 to the lower division of the Tertiary 
 strata. The Eocene beds are arranged 
 in two groups, termed the Lower and 
 Upper Eocene : the strata formerly called 
 Upper Eocene being now known as 
 Oligocene. They consist of marls, lime- 
 stones, clays, and sandstones, and are 
 found in the Isle of Wight and in the 
 southeast of ICngland and northwest of 
 France, in Central Europe, Western Asia, 
 
 P. E.— 38 
 
 Northern Africa, and the Atlantic coast 
 of North America. 
 
 EOLIAN HARP. See jEolian Harp. 
 
 EOLITH'IC PERIOD, in archaeology, 
 the early part of the palaeolithic period 
 of prehistoric time. 
 
 EOZOTC ROCKS, the name given to 
 the oldest fossiliferous rocks, su(m as the 
 Laurentian and Huronian of Canada, 
 from their being supposed to contain the 
 first or earliest traces of life in the strati- 
 fied systems. 
 
 EOZO'ON, a supposed gigantic fossil 
 foraminifer found in the limestone of the 
 Laurentian rocks of Canada, and in the 
 Archaean rocks of Germany; so called as 
 being the oldest form of life traceable in 
 the past history of the globe. There is 
 doubt, however, as to their being true 
 fossils, many geologists now regarding 
 them as of mineral origin. 
 
 EP'ACT, in chronology, the excess of 
 the solar month above the lunar synodi- 
 cal month, and of the solar year above 
 the lunar year of twelve synodical 
 months. The epacts then are annual 
 and menstrual or monthly. Suppose the 
 new moon to be on the 1st of January; 
 the month of January containing 31 
 days, and the lunar month only 29 days, 
 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 seconds; the dif- 
 ference, 1 day, 11 hours, 15 minutes, 57 
 seconds, is the menstrual epact. The 
 annual epact is nearly 11 days; the solar 
 year being 365 days, and the lunar year 
 354. The epacts were once of some im- 
 ortance in ecclesiastical chronology, 
 eing used for finding when Easter 
 would fall. 
 
 EPARCH (ep'ark), in Greece, the gov- 
 ernor or prefect of a provincial division 
 called an eparchy, a subdivision of a 
 nomarchy or province of the kingdom. 
 In Russia an eparchy is the diocese or 
 areh-diocese of a bishop or archbishop. 
 
 EPAULEMENT (e-pal'ment), in forti- 
 fication, a term for the mass of earth or 
 other material which protects the guns 
 in a battery in front and on either flank. 
 
 EP'AULET, EP'AULETTE, an orna- 
 mental shoulder-piece belonging to a 
 mOitary or other dress. Epaulettes 
 were worn in the British army till 1855, 
 and are stfil worn in the navy by all 
 officers of and above the rank of lieu- 
 tenant, and by some civil officers. 
 
 EPHEM'ERA, are known as may- 
 flies or day-flies, and are characterized 
 by the slenderness of their bodies; the 
 delicacy of their wings, which are erect 
 and unequal, the anterior being much 
 the larger; the rudimentary condition of 
 the mouth; and the termination of the 
 abdomen in three filiform appendages. 
 In the state of larvae and pupae they are 
 equatic and exist for years. When ready 
 for their final change they creep out of 
 the water, generally toward sunset of a 
 fine summer evening, beginning to be 
 seen generally in May. They shed their 
 whole skin shortly after leaving the 
 water, propagate their species, and die, 
 taking no food in the perfect state. The 
 may-fly is well known to anglers, who 
 imitate it for bait. 
 
 EPHE'SIANS, The Epistle to the, a 
 canonical epistle addressed by the 
 apostle Paul to the church which he had 
 founded at Ephesus. It was written 
 during his first captivity at Rome, im- 
 mediately after he bad written the 
 
 Epistle to the Colossians (a.d. 62); and 
 was sent by the hands of Tychicus, who 
 also bore the message to the church at 
 Colossse. 
 
 EPH'ESUS, an ancient Greek city of 
 Lydia, in Asia Minor, one of the twelve 
 Ionian cities, on the south side of the 
 Caystrus, near its mouth. It was at one 
 time the grand emporium of Western 
 Asia, having a convenient and spacious 
 harbor. The apostle Paul visited Ephe- 
 sus and established a Christian church 
 there, to which he dedicated one of his 
 epistles. It was famous for its temple of 
 Artemis (Diana), called Artemision, the 
 largest and most perfect model of Ionic 
 architecture, and reckoned one of the 
 seven wonders of the world. The first 
 great temple, begun about b.c, 650 and 
 finished after 120 years, was burnt by 
 the notorious Herostratus in order to 
 perpetuate his name b.c. 356 (the night 
 of Alexander the Great’s birth). A sec- 
 ond and more magnificent was then 
 erected, which was burned by the Goths 
 in A.D. 262. Some interesting remains 
 have recently been discovered by exca- 
 vation. Several church councils were 
 held here, especially the third ecumenical 
 council of 431, at which Nestorius was 
 condemned. The site of the city is now 
 desolate; near it is a poor village, Aiaso- 
 luk. 
 
 EPH'OD, a sp ecies of vestment worn 
 by the Jewish high-priest over the sec- 
 ond tunic. It consisted of two main 
 pieces, one covering the back, the other 
 the breast and upper part of the body, 
 fastened together on the shoulders by 
 two onyx stones set in gold, on each of 
 which were engraved the names of six 
 tribes according to their order. A girdle 
 or band, of one piece with the ephod, 
 fastened it to the body. Just above the 
 girdle, in the middle of the ephod, and 
 joined to it by little gold chains, rested 
 the square breastplate with the Urim 
 and Thummim. The ephod was origin- 
 ally intended to be worn by the high- 
 pnest exclusively, but a similar vest- 
 ment of an inferior material seems to 
 have been in common use in later times 
 amongthe ordinary priests. 
 
 E'PHRAIM, the younger son of 
 Joseph, and the founder of one of the 
 twelve tribes of Israel. When the 
 Israelites left Egypt the Ephraimites 
 numbered 40,500, and their possessions 
 in the very center of Palestine included 
 most of what was afterwards called 
 Samaria. 
 
 EPTC, a poem of the narrative kind. 
 Some authorities restrict the term to 
 narrative poems written in a loftj’^ style 
 and describing the exploits of heroes. 
 Others widen the definition so as to in- 
 clude not only long narrative poems of 
 romantic or supernatural aaventure, 
 but also those of a historical, legendary, 
 mock-herioc, or humorous character. 
 Epic is distinguished from drama in so 
 far as the author frequently speaks in 
 his own person as narrator; and from 
 lyrical poetry by making the predomi- 
 nant feature the narration of action 
 rather than the expression of emotion. 
 Among the more famous epics of the 
 world’s literature maybe noted ; Homer’s 
 Iliad and Odyssey; Virgil’s .®neid; the 
 German Nibelungenlied; the Anglo- 
 Saxon poem of Beowulf; the French 
 
EPICTETUS 
 
 EPIGRAM 
 
 Song of Roland; Dante’s Divina Corn- 
 media; Tasso’s Gierusalemnie Liberata; 
 Arosto’s Orlando Furioso; Milton’s Para- 
 dise Lost; Spenser’s Fairy Queen- 
 Camoens’ Lusiads (Portuguese) ; and 
 Firdusi’s Shah Nameh (Persian). 
 Hesiod’s Theogony; the poetic Edda; 
 the Finnish Kalewala; the Indian 
 Mahabh^rata may be described as col- 
 lections of epic legends. The historical 
 epic has an excellent representative in 
 Barbour’s Bruce; and specimens of the 
 mock-heroic and humorous epic are 
 found in The Battle of the Frogs and 
 Mice; Reynard the Fox; Butler’s Hudi- 
 bras; and Pope’s Rape of the Lock. 
 
 EPICTETUS, a Greek Stoic philoso- 
 pher, born in Phrygia about a.d. 60. He 
 lived long at Rome, where, in his youth, 
 he was a slave. Though nominally a 
 Stoic, he was not interested in Stoicism 
 as an intellectual system ; he adopted its 
 terminology and its moral doctrines, but 
 in his discourses he appeared rather as a 
 moral and religious teacher than as a 
 philosopher. His doctrines approach 
 more nearly to Christianity than those 
 of any of the earlier Stoics, and although 
 there is no trace in what is recorded of 
 them of his having been directly ac- 
 quainted with Christianity, it is at least 
 probable that the ideas diffused by 
 Christian teachers may have indirectly 
 influenced them. The excellence of his 
 system was universally acknowledged. 
 When Domitian banished the philoso- 
 phers from Rome (a.d. 94) Epictetus re- 
 tired to Epirus. There he is supposed to 
 have died. His disciple Arrian collected 
 his opinions, which are preserved in two 
 treatises called the Discourses of Epicte- 
 tus, and the Manual or Enchiridion. 
 
 EPICURE'AN PHILOSOPHY. See 
 Epicurus. 
 
 EPICU'RUS, a Greek philosopher, 
 founder of the Epicurean school, was 
 born in the island of Samos n.c. 342, 
 died at Athens n.c. 270. He settled at 
 Athens, n.c. 306, and purchased a gar- 
 den in a favorable situation, where he 
 established a philosophical school. Here 
 he spent the remainder of his life, living 
 in a simple manner and taking no part 
 in public affairs. His pupils were nu- 
 merous and enthusiastically devoted to 
 him. His theory of the universe was 
 based on the atomic theory of Democ- 
 ritus. The fundamental principle of 
 his ethical system was that pleasure and 
 pain are the chief good and evil, the 
 attainment of the one and the avoidance 
 of the other of which are to be regarded 
 as the end of philosophy. He endeav- 
 ored, however, to give a moral ten- 
 dency to this doctrine. He exalted the 
 pure and noble enjoyments derived from 
 virtue, to which he attributed an im- 
 perishable existence, as incalculably 
 superior to the passing pleasures which 
 disturb the peace of mind, the highest 
 good, and are therefore detrimental to 
 happiness. Peace of mind, based on 
 meditation, he considered as the origin 
 of all good. The philosophy of Epicurus 
 has been violently opposed and fre- 
 quently misrepresented; but while it is 
 not open to the charges of gross sensual- 
 ism which have been brought against it, 
 it cannot be considered as much better 
 than a refinement of sensualism. In an- 
 ciefit times his philosophy appears to* 
 
 have been more popular in Greece than 
 in Rome, although his disciples were 
 numerous in both, and the Latin poem 
 of Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, is a 
 poetical exposition of his doctrines. 
 Epicurus was a very voluminous writer, 
 but few of his writings are extant, and 
 what we possess comprising only some 
 fragments of a Treatise on Nature, two 
 letters, and detached passages. Lucre- 
 tius, Cicero, Pliny, and Diogenes Laer- 
 tius are our chief authorities for his 
 doctrines. 
 
 EPTCYCLE, in the ancient astronomy 
 a small circle supposed to move round 
 the circumference of a larger, a hypothet- 
 ical mode of representing the apparent 
 motion of the planets, which were sup- 
 posed to have such a motion round the 
 circumference of a large circle, called 
 the deferent, having the earth in its 
 center. 
 
 EPICY'CLOID, in geometry, a curve 
 generated by the movement of a circle 
 upon the convex side of another curve, 
 that generated by the movement of a 
 circle upon the concave side of a fixed 
 curve being called a hypocycloid. 
 
 EPICYCLOPDAL WHEEL, a wheel 
 or ring fixed to a framework, toothed on 
 its inner side, and having in gear with it 
 another toothed wheel of half the diame- 
 ter of the first, fitted so as to revolve 
 
 about the center of the latter. It is 
 used for converting circular into alter- 
 nate motion, or alternate into circular. 
 While the revolution of the smaller 
 wheel is taking place any point whatever 
 on its circumference will describe a 
 straight line, or will pass arid repass 
 through a diameter of the circle, once 
 during each revolution. In practice, a 
 piston-rod or other reciprocating part 
 may he attached to any point on the cir- 
 cumference of the smaller wheel. 
 
 EPIDEMTC, or EPIDEMIC DISEASE, 
 signifies a disease which attacks a peo- 
 ple, suddenly spreading from one to the 
 other in all directions, prevailing a cer- 
 tain time and then dying away. It 
 usually travels from place to place in the 
 direction of the most -frequented lines of 
 communication. The reason is that such 
 diseases are commonly due to some in- 
 fective material capable of being con- 
 veyed from one individual to another, 
 and of being transported from place to 
 place. In the U. S. small-pox and cholera 
 are occasionally epidemic, while scarlet 
 fever, measles, chicken-pox, diphtheria, 
 typhoid fever, etc., are almost invariably 
 so. Certain diseases which appear to be 
 more mental than physical sometimes 
 * occur so numerously as to assume an 
 
 epidemic form, such as St. Vitus’ dance, 
 convulsionary diseases, suicidal mania, 
 etc. See Endemic. 
 
 EPIDER'MIS, in anatomy, the cuticle 
 or scarf-skin of the bod}^; a thin mem^ 
 brane covering the true skin of animals, 
 consisting of two layers, an inner of 
 mucous layer, called the rete mucosum, 
 composed of active cells containing 
 granules of coloring matter, and an outer 
 or horny layer, consisting of flattened 
 scale-like cells, dry, inactive, and effete 
 which are constantly being shed in the 
 form of dust. Both layers are destitute 
 of feeling, and of vessels or nerves. — 
 The term is also applied to the cellular 
 layer which covers the surface of plants, 
 usually formed of a layer or layers of 
 more or less compressed and flattened 
 cells. It may be thin and soft or dense 
 and hard, and has often appendages in 
 the form of hairs, glands, etc. 
 
 EPIGjEA (-je'a), a genus of shrubs of 
 the heath order, characterized by having 
 three leaflets on the outside of the five- 
 
 Traillng arbutus. 
 
 parted calyx- and by the corolla being 
 salver-shaped, five cleft, with its tube 
 hairy on the inside, the trailing arbutus, 
 is the May-flower of N. America. 
 
 EPIGASTRIUM, Epigastric Region, 
 that part of the abodmen that lies over 
 the stomach. See Abdomen. 
 
 EPIGLOTTIS, a cartilaginous plate 
 behind the tongue, which covers the 
 glottis like a lid during the act of swal- 
 lowing, and thus prevents foreign bodies 
 from entering the larynx. In its ordi- 
 nary position during respiration it is 
 pointed upwards, but in the act of swal- 
 lowing it is pressed downwards and back- 
 ward by the drawing up of the wind- 
 pipe beneath the base of the tongue, and 
 thus closes the entrance to the air- 
 passages. See Larynx. 
 
 EPIGRAM, in a restricted sense, a 
 short poem or piece in verse, which has 
 only one subject, and finishes by a witty 
 or ingenious turn of thought; in a gen- 
 eral sense, a pointed or witty and an- 
 tithetical saying. The term was origin- 
 ally given by the Greeks to a poetical 
 inscription placed upon a tomb or pub- 
 lic monument, and was afterward ex- 
 tended to every little piece of verse 
 expressing with precision a delicate or 
 ingenious thought, as the pieces in the 
 Greek anthology. In Roman classical 
 poetry the term was somewhat indis- 
 criminately used, but the epigrams of 
 
EPILEPSY 
 
 EPSOM SALT 
 
 Martial contain a great number with the 
 modern epigrammatic character. 
 
 EPTLEPSY, a nervous disease, the 
 falling-sickness, so-called because the 
 patient falls suddenly to the ground. It 
 depends on various causes, often exceed- 
 ingly complicated and incapable of be- 
 ing removed; hence it is often an incur- 
 able periodical disease, appearing in 
 single paroxysms. In its fully-developed 
 form, convulsions, attended by com- 
 plete unconsciousness, are the promi- 
 nent feature. Among the different 
 causes may be mentioned hereditary 
 tendency, gastric disturbances, or some 
 irritation within the skull itself, such as 
 tumors, etc. It is, for the most part, 
 preceded by a tingling sensation, creep- 
 ing up from the foot or hand to the breast 
 and head, or some other premonitory 
 symptom such as spectral illusions, 
 headache, giddiness, confusion of thought, 
 sense of fear, etc.; but sometimes there 
 are no precursive symptoms. During 
 the paroxysm all that is to be attended 
 to is to prevent the patient from in- 
 juring himself; and this is to be accom- 
 plished by raising the head gently and 
 loosening all tight parts of the dress. It 
 is advisable to protect the tongue from 
 being bitten by introducing a piece of 
 india-rubber, cork, or soft wood between 
 the teeth. 
 
 EPTLOGUE,the closing speech or short 
 poem addressed to the audience at the 
 end of a play. The epilogue is the oppo- 
 site of the prologue, or opening address. 
 
 EPINAY, Louise Florence P6tronille, 
 Madame d’, French authoress, born in 
 1725, died 1783. She became the wife 
 of M. Delalive d’Epinay, who filled the 
 office of farmer-general. In 1748 she be- 
 came acquainted with Rousseau, and 
 gave him a cottage in which he passed 
 many of his days. She was the author 
 of Les Conversations d’Emilie, Lettres ^ 
 Mon Fils, and Mes Moments Heureux. 
 She left interesting memoirs and corres- 
 pondence. 
 
 EPIPH'ARY, a festival, otherwise 
 called the manifestation of Christ to the 
 Gentiles, observed on the 6th of January 
 in honor of the adoration of our Savior 
 by the three magi, or wise men, who 
 came to adore him and bring him pres- 
 ents, led by the star. As a separate 
 festival it dates from 813. 
 
 EPIS'COPACY, the system of church 
 government in which bishops are estab- 
 lished as distinct from and superior to 
 priests or presbyters, there being in the 
 church three distinct orders — deacons, 
 priests, and bishops. See Bishop. 
 
 EPISCOPAL CHURCH, THE PROT- 
 ESTANT, the religious body formerly 
 known as “The Church of England in 
 America,” and generally styled the 
 “American Episcopal Church.” The 
 full legal title of this communion is 
 “The Protestant Episcopal Church in 
 the United States of America,” to dis- 
 tinguish it from those Christians, on the 
 one hand, who acknowledge the papal 
 supremacy, and from those, on the otlier 
 who reject the authority of bishops. 
 Whether this W'ere really intended or 
 not is perhaps doubtful; the name, how- 
 ever, describes with suflScient accuracy 
 the relations of this church to the other 
 religious bodies in the U. States. 
 
 The Episcopal Church is the descend- 
 
 ant and representative of that branch of 
 the Church of England which was estab- 
 lished in the North American colonies in 
 the 17th century. The English ad- 
 venturers of that and the preceding age, 
 like the Spaniards and Portuguese, car- 
 ried their national religion with them, 
 and introduced it wherever they gained 
 a footing. 
 
 The first services of the Reformed 
 Church of England within the territory 
 now occupied by the U. States were held 
 probably at Point Reyes, Drake’s Bay, 
 on the California coast, in June and July, 
 1579. Francis Fletcher, priest and 
 preacher of the little company in the 
 Golden Hind, in which Sir Francis 
 Drake at this time circumnavigated the 
 globe, records in the World Encom- 
 passed the use of the church’s prayers 
 on the eve, or on the festival, of St. John 
 Baptist, June 24, at which service sailors 
 and savages were the worshipers, and 
 the crew of the Golden Hind besought 
 their God in behalf of the natives at- 
 tracted to thes^ solemn rites that He 
 would “open their blinded eyes to the 
 knowledge of Him, and of Jesus Christ 
 the salvation of the Gentiles.” 
 
 EPISCOPAL SYSTEM, in the Roman 
 Catholic Church, that theory according 
 to which the highest clerical power is 
 vested in the whole body of bishops. 
 This theory was most prominently 
 brought forward in the papal elections 
 of the 14th century, and its followers 
 declared the church, as represented in 
 its general assemblies, to be above the 
 pope. But the declaration of papal in- 
 fallibility put an end to these differences, 
 and made an impossibility of the episco- 
 pal system. In the German Protestant 
 churches the episcopal system is that 
 theory according to which the authority 
 of the bishops, which had been suspend- 
 ed in the Protestant countries in con- 
 sequence of the peace of 1555, was trans- 
 ferred to the ruler of the country. 
 
 EPTSODE, an incidental narrative, or 
 digression in a poem, which the poet has 
 connected with the main plot, but which 
 is not essential to it. 
 
 EP'ITAPH, an inscription upon a 
 tomb or monument in honor or memory 
 of the dead. Epitaphs were in use both 
 among the Greeks and Romans. The 
 Greeks distinguished by epitaphs only 
 their illustrious men. Among the 
 Romans they became a family institu- 
 tion and private names were regularly 
 recorded upon tombstones. The same 
 practice has generally prevailed in Chris- 
 tian countries. On Christian tombstone 
 epitaphs usually give brief facts of the 
 deceased’s life, sometimes also the pious 
 hopes of survivors in reference to the 
 resurrection or other doctrines of the 
 Christian faith, etc. Many so-called 
 epitaphs are mere witty jeux d’esprit, 
 which might be described as epigrams, 
 and which were never intended seriously 
 for monumental inscriptions. The litera- 
 ture of the subject is very large. 
 
 EPITHALAMIUM, a nuptial song or 
 poem in praise of a bride and bride- 
 groom. Among the Greeks and Romans 
 it was sung by young men and maids at 
 the door of the bridal chamber of a new- 
 married couple. 
 
 EPITHE'LIUM, in anatomy, the cel- 
 lular layer which lines the internal 
 
 cavities and canals of the body, both 
 closed and open, as the mouth, nose, 
 respiratory organs, blood-vessels, etc., 
 and which is analogous to the cuticle of 
 the outer surface. There are several 
 varieties of epithelium. The epithelium 
 lining the blood-vessels is called some- 
 times endothelium. 
 
 EPIZOOTTC, or EPIZOOTIC DIS- 
 EASE, a disease that at some particular 
 time and place attacks great numbers of 
 the lower animals just as an epidemic 
 attacks man. Pleuro-pneumonia is often 
 an epizootic, as was also the rinderpest. 
 
 E PLU'RIBUS U'NUM. The national 
 motto of the United States, proposed by 
 the committee appointed by Congress on 
 July 4, 1776, to prepare designs for a 
 seal. The intended meaning was “One 
 formed of many,” in reference to the 
 composition of the government. 
 
 EPOCH, or ERA, is a fixed point of 
 time, commonly selected on account of 
 some remarkable event by W'hich it has 
 been distinguished, and W'hich is made 
 the beginning or determining point of a 
 particular year from which all other 
 years, whether preceding or ensuing, are 
 computed. The creation and the birth 
 of Christ are the most important of the 
 historical epochs. The creation has 
 formed the foundation of various chro- 
 nologies, the chief of which are: 1. The 
 epoch adopted by Bessuet, Ussher, and 
 other Catholic and Protestant divines, 
 which places the creation in b.c. 4004. 
 
 2. The Era of Constantinople (adopted 
 by Russia), which places it in b.c. 5508. 
 
 3. The Era of Antioch, used till a.d. 284, 
 
 placed the creation b.c. 5502. 4. The 
 
 Era of Alexandria, which made the 
 creation b.c. 5492. This is also the Abys- 
 sinian Era. 5. The Jewish Era, which 
 places the creation in b.c. 3760. The 
 Greeks computed their time by periods 
 of four years, called Olympiads, from 
 the occurrence every fourth year of the 
 Olympic games. The first Olympiad, 
 being the year in w'hich Coroebus was 
 victor in the Olympic games, was in the 
 year b.c. 776. The Romans dated from 
 the supposed era of the foundation of 
 their city (Ab Urbe Condita, A.U.C.), 
 the 21st of April, in the third year of the 
 sixth Olympiad, or b.c. 753 (according 
 to some authorities b.c. 752). The Chris- 
 tian Era, or mode of computing from 
 the birth of Christ as a starting-point, 
 w'as first introduced in the 6th century, 
 and was generally adopted by the year 
 1000. This event is believed to have 
 taken place earlier, perhaps by four 
 years, than the received date. The 
 Julian epoch, based on the coincidence 
 of the solar, lunar, and indictional per- 
 iods, is fixed at 4713 b.c., and is the only 
 epoch established on an astronomical 
 basis. The Mohammedan Era, or 
 Hejira, commences on 16th July, 622, 
 and the years are computed by lunar 
 months. The Chinese reckon their time 
 by eycles of 60 years. Instead of num- 
 bering them as we do, they give a differ- 
 ent name to every year in the cycle. See 
 Chronology, Calendar. 
 
 EPSOM SALT, sulphate of magnesium 
 a cathartic salt which appears in capil- 
 lary fibers or acicular crystals. It is 
 found covering crevices of rocks, in 
 mineral springs, etc.; but is commonly 
 prepared by artificial processes from 
 
EQUATION 
 
 EQUIVALENTS 
 
 magnesian limestone by treating it with 
 sulphui’ic acid, or by dissolving the 
 mineral kieserite in boiling water, allow- 
 ing the insoluble matter to settle, and 
 crystallizing out the Epsom salt from 
 the clear solution. It is employed in 
 medicine as a purgative, and in the arts. 
 The name is derived from its having 
 keen first procured from the mineral 
 waters at Epsom. 
 
 EQUATION, in algebra, a proposition 
 asserting the equality of two quantities, 
 and expressed by the sign = between 
 them; or an expression of the same 
 quantity in two dissimilar terms, but of 
 equal value; as, 3s. = 36d. or x = b + m 
 — r. In the latter case x is equal to h 
 added to m with r subtracted, and the 
 quantities on the right hand of the sign 
 of equation are said to be the value of x 
 on the left hand. An equation is termed 
 simple, quadratic, cubic, or biquadratic, 
 or of the first, second, third, or fourth 
 degree, according as the index of the 
 highest powder of the unknown quantity 
 is one, two, three, or four. 
 
 EQUATION, in astronomy, the correc- 
 tion or quantity to be added to or sub- 
 tracted from the mean position of a 
 heavenly body to obtain the true posi- 
 tion. The term personal equation is the 
 quantity of time by which a person is in 
 the habit of noting a phenomenon 
 wrongly; it may be called positive or 
 negative, according as he notes it after 
 or before it really takes place. 
 
 EQUATION OF TIME, the difference 
 between mean and apparent time, or the 
 difference of time as given by a clock 
 and as given by a sun-dial, arising chiefly 
 from the varying velocity of the earth 
 in its orbit and the eccentricity of the 
 orbit. The sun and the clock agree four 
 times in the year; the greatest difference 
 between them at the beginning of No- 
 vember is fully sixteen minutes. See 
 Day. 
 
 EQUATION, PERSONAL, the con- 
 stant which must be applied to every 
 time observation recorded by an observer 
 (as in astronomy) in order to make the 
 mean of such observations agree with 
 those of another observer. It is found 
 by experience that different persons, in 
 recording the results of observations 
 will make various errors, some anticipat- 
 ing the event, but others failing to re- 
 cord it at the proper time. When it is 
 found possible, by examining a long 
 series of records made of the same event 
 by two observers, to discover the aver- 
 age difference between their records of 
 events, a very important correction of 
 time-intervals may sometimes be intro- 
 duced into a computation based upon 
 such records. Such a correction is called 
 the relative personal equation of the 
 two astronomers. When it is found that 
 an observer habitually makes, or is 
 likely to make, a certain error in his 
 time-records, such error (or absolute per- 
 sonal equation) can bereadilyallowedfor. 
 
 EQUA'TOR, that great circle of our 
 globe every point of which is 90° from 
 the poles. All places which are on it 
 have invariably equal days and nights. 
 Our earth is divided by it into the north- 
 ern and southern hemispheres. From 
 this circle is reckoned the latitudes of 
 places both north and south. There is 
 »U» a corresponding celestial equator 
 
 in the plane of the terrestrial, an imagin- 
 ary great circle in the heavens the 
 plane of which is perpendicular to the 
 axis of the earth. It is everywhere 90° 
 distant from the celestial poles, which 
 coincide with the extremities of the 
 earth’s axis, supposed to be produced 
 to meet the heavens. During his ap- 
 parent yearly course the sun is twice 
 in the celestial, and vertically over the 
 terrestrial equator, at the beginning of 
 spring and of autumn. Then the day and 
 night are equal all over the earth, whence 
 the name equinox. — The magnetic equa- 
 tor is a line which pretty nearly coin- 
 cides with the geographical equator, and 
 at every point of which the vertical 
 component of the earth’s magnetic at- 
 traction is zero; that is to say, a dipping 
 needle carried along the magnetic 
 equator remains horizontal. It is hence 
 also called the aclinic line. 
 
 EQUATO'RIAL, an astronomical in- 
 strument contrived for the purpose of 
 directing a telescope upon any celestial 
 object, and of keeping the object in 
 view for any length of time, notwith- 
 standing the diurnal motion of the earth. 
 For these purposes a principal axis rest- 
 ing on firm supports is mounted exactly 
 parallel to the axis of the earth’s rota- 
 tion, and consequently pointing to the 
 poles of the heavens, being fixed so as to 
 turn on pivots at its extremities. To 
 this there is attached a telescope mov- 
 ing on an axis of its own in such a way 
 that it may either be exactly parallel to 
 the other axis, or at any angle to it; 
 when at right andes it points to the 
 celestial equator. By this means a star 
 can be followed by one motion from its 
 rising to its setting. In some observa- 
 tories the equatorials have the necessary 
 motion given them by clock-work. 
 
 EQUESTRIAN STATUE, a complete 
 figure of a person on horseback, exe- 
 cuted generally in bronze or stone. In 
 ancient Greece, where plastic art at- 
 tained its highest perfection, statues of 
 
 Skeleton of horse. 
 
 fr, frontal bone; P, cervical vertebrae; Z), dor- 
 sal vertebrae; i. lumbar vertebrae; erf, caudal 
 vertebrae ; sc, scapula : pelvis : ma, mandible ; 
 Itu, humerus: ra, radius; cp, carpus: me, meta- 
 carpus: /«, femur: tib, tibia; ca, calcaneum; 
 tar, tarsus; mt, metatarsus :p, phalanges. 
 
 men and horses were often of the 'first 
 excellence, but horses were more com- 
 monly represented as attached to the 
 chariot. In Rome, equestrian statues 
 of the emperors mere common. 
 
 EQ'UIDjE, the horse family, a family 
 belonging to the order Ungulata, or 
 hoofed mammals, and subdivision peris- 
 sodactyla, characterized by an undivided 
 hoof formed of the third toe and its 
 enlarged horny nail, a simple stomach, a 
 mane on the neck, and by six incisor 
 teeth on each jaw, seven molars on 
 
 either side of both jaws, and by two 
 small canine teeth in the upper ja,w of 
 the males, and sometimes in both jaws. 
 It is divided into two groups — one in- 
 cluding the asses and zebras, the other 
 comprising the true horses. 
 
 EQUILIB'RIUM, a state of equipoise ; 
 a state of rest produced by the mutual 
 counteraction of two or more forces, as 
 the state of the two ends of a lever or 
 balance, when both are charged with 
 equal weight. When a bodjq being 
 slightly moved out of any position, al- 
 ways tends to return to its position, that 
 position is said to be one of stable equilib- 
 rium; when the body will not thus re- 
 turn to its previous position, its position 
 is said to be one of unstable equilibrium. 
 
 EQUINOC'TIAL, in astronomy, the 
 circle in the heavens otherwise known as 
 the celestial equator. When the sun is 
 on the equator there is equal length cf 
 day and night over all the earth: hence 
 the name equinoctial. — Equinoctial 
 gales, storms which are observed gen- 
 erally to take place about the time of the 
 sun’s crossing the equator, that is, at 
 the vernal and autumnal equinox, in 
 March and September. (See Equinox.) — 
 Equinoctial points are the two points 
 wherein the celestial equator and eclip- 
 tic intersect each other; the one, being in 
 the first point of Aries, is called the 
 vernal point; and the other, in the first 
 point of Libra, the autumnal point. 
 These points are found to be moving 
 backward or westward at the rate of 50" 
 of a degree in a year. This is called the 
 precession of the equinoxes. 
 
 EQ'UINOX, the precise time when the 
 sun enters one of the equinoctial points, 
 or the first point of Aries about the 21st 
 of March, and the first point of Libra 
 about the 23d of September, making the 
 day and night of equal length all over 
 the world. At all other times the length 
 of the day and of the night are unequal, 
 their difference being the greater, the 
 more we approach either pole, while in 
 the same latitude it is everywhere the 
 same. 
 
 EQ'UITY, in law, the system of sup- 
 plemental law administered in certain 
 courts, founded upon defined rules, re- 
 corded precedents, and established prin- 
 ciples, the judges, however, liberally ex- 
 pounding and developing them to meet 
 new exigencies. While it aims to assist 
 the defects of the common law, by ex- 
 tending relief to those rights of property 
 which the strict law does not recognize, 
 and by giving more ample and distribu- 
 tive redress than the ordinary tribunals 
 afford, equity by no means either con- 
 trols, mitigates, or supercedes the com- 
 mon law, but rather guides itself by its 
 analogies, and does not assume any 
 power to subvert its doctrines. Courts 
 of equity grant redress to all parties 
 where they have right, and modify and 
 fashion that redress according to circum- 
 stances. They bring before them all the 
 parties interested in the subject-matter 
 of the suit, and adjust the rights of all. 
 
 EQUITY OF REDEMPTION, in law, 
 the advantage allowed to a mortgagor of 
 a reasonable time to redeem an estate 
 mortgaged, when it is of greater value 
 than the sum for which it is mortgaged. 
 
 EQUTV'ALENTS, in chemistry, a term 
 for the proportions in which the elements 
 
ERA 
 
 ERMINE 
 
 combine with one another to form com- 
 pounds. See Chemistry. 
 
 ERA. See Epoch. 
 
 ERAS'MUS, Desiderius, a Dutch 
 scholar, born at Rotterdam in 1467. His 
 original name was Gerard, but this he 
 changed according to a fashion of the 
 time. In 14'92 he traveled to Paris to 
 perfect himself in theology and polite 
 literature. He went to England in 1497, 
 where he was graciously received by the 
 king. He returned soon after to the 
 Continent, and took his doctor’s degree. 
 He returned to England in 1510; wrote 
 his Praise of Folly and was appointed 
 Margaret professor of divinity and Greek 
 lecturer at Cambridge. In 1514 he re- 
 turned to the Continent and lived chiefly 
 at Basel, where he died in 1536. To ex- 
 tensive learning Erasmus joined a re- 
 fined taste and a delicate wit. He ren- 
 dered great and lasting service to the 
 cause of reviving scholarship. Although 
 he took no direct part in the Reforma- 
 tion, and was reproached by Luther for 
 lukewarmness, he attacked the disorders 
 of monasticism and superstition, and 
 everywhere promoted the cause of truth. 
 
 He edited various classics, the first edi- 
 tion of the Greek Testament from MSS. 
 (with Latin translation), etc., but his 
 best-known books are the Encomium 
 Mori®, or Praise of Folly, and his Col- 
 loquies. 
 
 ER'EBUS, in the Greek mythology, 
 the son of Chaos and Darkness. The 
 name Erebus was also given to the in- 
 fernal regions. 
 
 ER'FURT, an important town in the 
 Prussian province of Saxony, on the 
 river Gera, formerly a fortress with two 
 citadels, now given up as such. Pop. 
 72,360. 
 
 ER'GOT, the altered seed of rye and 
 other grasses caused by the attack of a 
 fungus. The seed is replaced by a dense 
 homogeneous tissue largely charged 
 with an oily fluid. In its perfect state 
 this germinates and produces the Clavi- 
 ceps. When diseased rye of this kind is 
 eaten in food for some time it sometimes 
 causes death by a kind of mortification 
 called dry gangrene. Ergot is used in 
 obstetric practice to promote the con- 
 traction of the uterus. 
 
 ERICA (e-ri'ka), the heath, a large 
 genus of branched rigid shrubs, most of 
 which are natives of South Africa, a few 
 being found in Europe and Asia. The 
 
 leaves are narrow and rigid, the flowers 
 are globose or tubular, and four-lobed. 
 
 1, Heads ol ergot (aa) produced on a grass. 
 2, Clavideps purpurea (bb) springing from the 
 Ergot. 
 
 ER'ICSSON, John, engineer, born in 
 Sweden, 1803. He served for a time in 
 the Swedish army; removed to London 
 in 1826, and to New York in 1839. He 
 is identified with numerous inventions 
 
 John Ericsson. 
 
 and improvements on steam machinery 
 and its applications. His chief inven- 
 tions are his caloric engine, the screw 
 propeller (1836), which has revolution- 
 ized navigation, and his turret-ships, 
 the first of which, the Monitor, distin- 
 guished itself in the American civil war, 
 and inaugurated a new era in naval war- 
 fare. He latterly devoted himself to 
 studies of the earth’s motion and the in- 
 tensity of solar heat. He died in 1889. 
 
 ERIE (e'ri), one of the great chain of 
 North American lakes, between Lakes 
 Huron and Ontario, about 265 miles 
 long, 63^ miles broad at its center, from 
 40 to 60 fathoms deep at the deepest 
 part ; area 9600 square miles. The whole 
 of its southern shore is within the terri- 
 tory of the U. States, and its northern 
 within that of Canada. It receives the 
 waters of the upper lakes by Detroit 
 river at its southwestern extremity, and 
 discharges its waters into Lake Ontario 
 by th& Niagara river at its northeast end. 
 The Welland Canal enables vessels to 
 pass from it to Lake Ontario. It is shal- 
 low compared with the other lakes of 
 the series, and is subject to violent 
 storms. The principal harbors are those 
 on the U. States side — Buffalo, Erie, 
 Cleveland, etc. 
 
 ERIE, a city in Pennsylvania; an im- 
 portant railway and commerical center 
 on the southern shore of Lake Erie. 
 There are numerous iron-works (includ- 
 ing foundries, rolling-mills, blast-fur- 
 naces, etc.), petroleum refineries, brew- 
 eries, tanneries, wood-working factories, 
 etc. The harbor is one of the best on the 
 lake. Population, 19U9, 68,U00. 
 
 ERIE CANAL, the largest in the U. 
 States, serving to connect the great 
 lakes with the sea. It begins at Buffalo 
 on Lake Erie, and extends to the Hud- 
 son at Albany. It is 363 miles long; has 
 in all 72 locks; a surface width 70 feet, 
 
 bottom width 42 feet, and depth 7 feet 
 It is carried over several large streams 
 on stone aqueducts; cost nearly $10,000, 
 000, and was opened in 1825. The 
 navigation is free. 
 
 ERIODEN'DROL, the wool - tree. 
 There are eight species natives of 
 America, but one belongs to Asia and 
 Africa. The species are noble plants. 
 
 Wool-tree. 
 
 growing from 50 to 100 feet high, having 
 palmate leaves, and red or white flowers. 
 The woolly coat of the seeds of some of 
 the species is used in different countries 
 for stuffing cushions and similar pur- 
 poses. 
 
 ERIOM'ETER, an optical instrument 
 for measuring the diameters of minute 
 particles and fibers, from the size of the 
 colored rings produced by the diffraction 
 of the light in which the objects are 
 viewed. 
 
 ERTVAN, a Russian town, capital of 
 government of the same name in the 
 lieutenancy of the Caucasus, on the 
 Sanga, north of Mount Ararat. It has a 
 citadel, barracks, a cannon foundry, and 
 some manufactures. Pop. 12,505. The 
 government has an area of 10,705 sq. 
 miles, and a pop. of 583,957. 
 
 ER'MINE, the stoat, a quadruped of 
 the weasel tribe, found over temperate 
 Europe, but common only in the north. 
 In consequence of the change that 
 occurs in the color of its fur at different 
 seasons — by far most marked in the 
 
 Ermine. 
 
 Arctic regions — it is not generally known 
 that the ermine and stoat are the same. 
 In winter, in cold countries or severe 
 seasons, the fur changes from a reddish- 
 
 U’.y.tr 
 
 Ermine. 
 
 brown to a yellowish-white, or almost 
 pure white, under which shade the ani- 
 mal is recognized as the ermine. In 
 both states the tip of the tail is black. 
 Like many other species of this genua 
 
EROS 
 
 ESCURIAL 
 
 the ermine has the faculty of ejecting a 
 fluid of a musky odor. Its fur is short, 
 soft, and silky. It was formerly one of 
 the insignia of royalty, and is still used 
 by judges. When used as linings of 
 cloaks the black tuft fromthetail issewed 
 to the skin at irregular distances. — In 
 heraldry, ermine is one of the furs, repre- 
 sented with its peculiar spots black on a 
 white ground. 
 
 E'ROS, the Greek name of Cupid and 
 Amor. 
 
 EROSION THEORY, in geology, the 
 theory, now held by all geologists, that 
 valleys are due to the wearing influences 
 of water and ice, the latter chiefly in the 
 form of glaciers, as opposed to the theory 
 which regards them as the result of 
 fissures in the earth’s crust produced by 
 strains during its upheaval. 
 
 EROTTC, relating to love. — Erotic 
 Poetry, amatory poetry. — The name of 
 erotic writers has been applied, in Greek 
 literature, particularly to a class of ro- 
 mance writers, and to the writer of the 
 Milesian Tales. 
 
 ERRA'TA, the list of errors and cor- 
 rections placed at the end or at the be- 
 ginning of a book. 
 
 ERRATICS, or ERRATIC BLOCKS, 
 
 in geology, boulders or large masses of 
 angular rock which have been trans- 
 ported to a distance from their original 
 mountains by the action of ice during 
 the glacial period. Thus on the slopes 
 of the Jura Mountains immense blocks 
 of granite are found which have traveled 
 60 miles from their original situation. 
 Similarly masses of Scotch and Lake- 
 district granites and of Welsh rocks 
 (some of which weigh several tons) occur 
 not uncommonly in the surface soil of 
 the Midland counties of England. 
 
 ERROR, WRIT OF, in law, a formal 
 instrument, issued by or under authority 
 of a court, commanding the person to 
 whom it is addressed to do a certain act 
 tfierein specified. It is written in the 
 form of a mandate from the highest 
 authority in the state — the king in 
 Great Britain, the president, people, or 
 commonwealth in the United States, 
 attested by the chief judge of the court, 
 sealed and signed by the clerk, and may 
 be issued either at the commencement of 
 an action or proceeding, or during its 
 progress, to the sheriff or to some other 
 person, for the purpose of procuring 
 various acts to be done in connection 
 with such action or proceeding. 
 
 ERSKINE, Thomas, Lord Erskine, 
 Scottish lawyer, the youngest son of the 
 tenth earl of Buchan, was born in 1750, 
 and died in 1823. After serving four 
 years in the navy and seven in the army 
 he commenced the study of law, and in 
 1778 took his degree at Cambridge 
 and was called to the bar. His success 
 w'as immediate. In May, 1783, he was 
 elected a member of parliament for 
 Portsmouth, a seat he held till 1806, 
 when he 'was raised to the peerage. The 
 rights of juries he firmly maintained on 
 all occasions. In 1792, being employed 
 to defend Thomas Paine, when prose- 
 cuted for the second part of his Rights of 
 Man, he declared that, waiving all per- 
 sonal convictions, he deemed it right, as 
 an English advocate, to obey the call; 
 by the maintenance of which principle 
 he lost his office of attorney-general to 
 
 the Prince of Wales. In the trials of 
 Hardy, Tooke, and others for high 
 treason in 1794, the ability displayed by 
 Erskine was acknowledped by all parties. 
 He was a wa m partisan of Fox, and a 
 strenuous opposer of the war with 
 France. On the death of Pitt, in 1806, 
 Erskine was created a peer, and raised 
 to the dignity of lord-chancellor. Dur- 
 ing his short tenure of office the bill for 
 the abolition of slavery was passed. 
 
 ERUPTIVE ROCKS, in geology, those 
 which, like lava, basalt, granite, etc., 
 have broken through other rocks while 
 in a molten state. 
 
 ERYSIP'ELAS, the rose, or St. An- 
 thony’s fire, a disease characterized by 
 diffused inflammation of the skin or some 
 part of the body, but chiefly of the face 
 or head, and attended by fever. It is, 
 generally, an acute affection, its medium 
 duration being from ten to fourteen days. 
 It should be treated by nourishing food 
 and iron tonics, the parts being pro- 
 tected from cold. 
 
 ERYTHE'MA, a mild form of inflam- 
 mation of the skin somewhat resembling 
 erysipelas. Some forms are connected 
 wdth constitutional diseases, as rheu- 
 matism, gout, etc. 
 
 ERZERUM, ERZEROUM, or ERZE- 
 ROOM (er'ze-rom), a city of Turkish 
 Armenia, capital of a vilayet with an 
 area of 27,000 sq. miles, and a pop. of 
 582,745. The town is about 6000 feet 
 above sea-level, forms an important 
 strategical center, and has become a 
 principal frontier fortress. The Moslem 
 element prevails largely over the Chris- 
 tian, although it is the metropolis of the 
 Armenian church in union with Rome. 
 In addition to important manufactures, 
 especially in copper and iron, it carries on 
 an extensive trade, and is a chief halt- 
 ing-place for Persian pilgrims on their 
 way to Mecca. Pop. 38,894. 
 
 ESARHAD'DON, the son of Senna- 
 cherib, and one of the most powerful of 
 all the Assyrian monarchs. He ex- 
 tended the empire on all sides, and is 
 the only Assyrian monarch who actually 
 reigned at Babylon. He died about 667 
 
 B.C. 
 
 E'SAU, the eldest son of Isaac, and 
 twin-brother of Jacob. His name 
 (which signifies rough, hairy) was due to 
 his singular appearance at birth, being 
 “red, and all over like an hairy garment.’’ 
 The story of his marriage, of his loss of 
 birthright through the craft of Rebekah 
 and Jacob, and of his quarrel and recon- 
 ciliation with Jacob, are told in the book 
 of Genesis. He was the progenitor of 
 the Edomites, who dwelt on Mount Seir. 
 
 ESCANABA, the capital of Delta co., 
 Mich., situated on the C. and N. W. 
 Railway and on Green Bay, 360 miles 
 north of Chicago. It ships annually 
 over 4,000,000 tons of iron ore and large 
 quantities of coal, lumber, and fish. 
 Pop. 10,760. 
 
 ESCAPE'MENT, the general contriv- 
 ance in a time-piece by which the pres- 
 sure of the wheels (which move always 
 in one direction) and the vibratory 
 motion of the pendulum or balance- 
 wheel are accommodated the one to the 
 other. By this contrivance the wheel- 
 work is made to communicate an im- 
 pulse to the regulating power (which in 
 a clock is the pendulum and in a watch 
 
 the balance-wheel), so as to restore to it 
 the small portion of force which it loses 
 in every vibration, in consequence of 
 friction and the resistance of the air. The 
 leading requisite of a good escapement 
 is that the impulse communicated to the 
 
 Watch and clock escapements. 
 
 1, Anchor escapement of a common clock. 2, 
 Duplex escapement. 3, Lever escapement. 4, 
 Horizontal or cylinder escapement. 
 
 pendulum or balance-wheel shall be in- 
 variable, notwithstanding any irregular- 
 ity of foulness in the train of wheels. 
 Various kinds of escapements have been 
 contrived, some of which are shown in 
 the accompanying figure. See also 
 
 ESCHATOL'OGY (es-ka-), in theol. 
 the “doctrine respecting the last things,’’ 
 which treats of the millennium, the sec- 
 ond advent of Christ, the resurrection, 
 judgment, conflagration of the world, 
 and the final state of the dead. 
 
 ESCHEAT (es-chet'), in law, a species 
 of reversion arising from default of heirs 
 or by forfeiture. That which falls or 
 lapses to the original proprietor, or to 
 the state, as lands or other property. 
 By modern legislation there can be no 
 escheat on failure of the whole blood 
 wherever there are persons of the half- 
 blood capable of inheriting. 
 
 ESCROW', a legal writing delivered 
 to a third person to be delivered by him 
 to the person whom it purports to bene- 
 fit, when some condition is performed. 
 Upon the performance of this condition 
 it becomes an absolute deed, but if the 
 condition be not performed it remains an 
 escrow or scroll. 
 
 ESCU'RIAL, a remarkable building in 
 Spain, comprising at once a palace, a 
 convent, a church, and a mausoleum. 
 It is distant from Madrid about 24 miles 
 in a northwesterly direction, and situ- 
 uated on the acclivity of the Sierra Gua- 
 darrama, the range of mountains which 
 divides New from Old Castile. It was 
 built by Philip II., and dedicated to St. 
 Lawrence, in commemoration of the 
 victory of St. Quentin, fought on the 
 festival of the saint in 1557. It is popu- 
 larly considered to be built on the plan 
 of a gridiron, from the fact that St. 
 Lawrence is said to have been broiled 
 alive on a sort of large gridiron. The 
 building is a rectangular parallelogram 
 measuring 744 feet in length by 580 in 
 breadth. The interior is divided into 
 courts, formerly inhabited by monks 
 and ecclesiastics, while a projection 460 
 feet in length (the handle of the gridiron) 
 contains the ro 5 ml palace. It was begun 
 in 1563 and finished in 1584. It is of 
 moderate height, and its innumerable 
 windows (said to be 11,000) give it 
 (apart from the church) somewhat the 
 
ESCUTCHEON 
 
 ESSEN 
 
 aspect of a large mill or barracks. The 
 church is the finest portion of the whole 
 building. The dome is 60 feet in diame- 
 ter, and its height at the center is about 
 320 feet. Under it is the Pantheon or 
 ! family vault of the Spanish sovereigns. 
 S The library contains a valuable collec- 
 J tion, including a rich store of Arabic 
 f MSS. The Escurial was partly burned 
 p- in 1671, when many MSS. were de- 
 r stroyed, and was pillaged by the French 
 ^ in 1808 and 1813. It was restored by 
 t Ferdinand VII., but the monks, with 
 [ their revenues which supported it, have 
 f long since disappeared. In 1872 it was 
 [ fired by lighting, and suffered serious 
 damage. 
 
 t ESCUTCHEON, in heraldry, the shield 
 f whereon coats of arms are represented, 
 i See Heraldry. 
 
 ESDRAE'LON, Plain of, a plain e.x- 
 tending across Palestine from the Medi- 
 i terranean to the Jordan, and drained by 
 ! the river Kishon. Among its subsidiary 
 ; valleys are those of Engannin, Taanach, 
 J and Megiddo. This plain is celebrated 
 ^ for many important events in Old Testa- 
 ; merit history. 
 
 i ESDRAS, Books of, two apocryphal 
 ' books, which, in the Vulgate and other 
 r editions, are incorporated with the 
 I canonical books of Scripture. In the 
 ^ Vulgate the canonical books of Ezra and 
 t Nehemiah are called the first and second 
 [ and the aprocryphal books the third and 
 f fourth books of Esdras. The Geneva 
 K Bible (1560) first adopted the present 
 s nomenclature, calling the two aprocy- 
 b phal books first and second Esdras The 
 [■ subject of the first book of Esdras is the 
 I same as that of Ezra and Nehemiah, and 
 in general it appears to be copied from 
 , the canonical Scriptures. The second 
 book of Esdras is .supposed to have been 
 either of much later date, or to have 
 been interpolated by Christian writers. 
 
 S ES'KIMOS. See Esquimaux. 
 
 ESMARCH (es'milrh), Johannes Fried- 
 rich August, German surgeon; born 
 1823. He held high official positions 
 during the Schleswig-Holstein and 
 Franco-German wars; is a great author- 
 I ity on gun-shot wounds; has originated 
 f valuable improvements in barrack- 
 * hospitals, ambulances, etc.; and is the 
 autlior of several surgical works. 
 
 L ES'NEH, a town of Upper Egypt, on 
 the left bank of the Nile, 28 miles s.s.w. 
 [T of Thebes, capital of a province of same 
 U name, on the site of the ancient Latopo- 
 ^ lis. Among the ruins there is a beautiful 
 * portico of twenty-four lofty and massive 
 : columns, belonging to a temple of Kneph 
 ^ (the only portion of the temple cleared 
 ’ out), and erected in the Ptolemaic and 
 Roman period, with a zodiac on the 
 ceiling. Esneh is the entrepot of the 
 Senaar caravans; has manufactures of 
 cottons, pottery, etc.; and is reckoned 
 the healthiest place in Egypt, Pop. 7000. 
 ESOP. See Hilsop. 
 
 ESPERANTO LANGUAGE. An effort 
 
 to establish an international language. 
 In 1887 Dr. Zamenhof, a Russian phy- 
 sician, issued a pamphlet suggesting a 
 new international language, to be called 
 Esperanto. Only trifling progress was 
 made in the first ten years of the move- 
 ment. The famous French lin^ist, 
 M. de Beaufort threw his own scheme 
 aside and accepted that of Dr. Zamenhof 
 
 as better suited for the purpose intended. 
 From France the movement extended to 
 Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, 
 and England. During the last few 
 years active work has been undertaken 
 in the U. States. Books on the Esper- 
 anto language are now printed in more 
 than twenty languages .and the number 
 of periodicals is estimated at 30. At the 
 Bologne congress, delegates from 22 
 countries spoke the language freely. 
 
 The Esperanto vocabulary is much 
 smaller than any other language, having 
 only about 2,000 words as compared to 
 32,000 in the French and 100,000 words 
 in the English languages. 
 
 Interior of temple, Esneh. 
 
 ESPIRTTO-SANTO (“Holy Spirit”), 
 a maritime province, Brazil, bounded 
 north by Bahia, south by Rio-de-Janeiro, 
 length, about 260 miles; breadth, about 
 120 miles; area, 43,290 sq. miles. Pop. 
 121,560. 
 
 ESPLANADE', in fortification, the 
 wide open space left between a citadel 
 and the nearest houses of the city. The 
 term is also frequently applied to a kind 
 of terrace, especially along the sea-side, 
 for public walks or drives. 
 
 ESPOU'SAL or BETROTHAL, con- 
 sists of a deliberate mutual promise of 
 marriage, expressed by outward signs, 
 between two persons, both of whom 
 may lawfully and validly enter into such 
 an engagement. When such promise is 
 made and accepted on both sides, neither 
 party can lawfully withdraw from it 
 without the other’s consent or unless 
 something comes to light, which, had it 
 been known in time, would have pre- 
 vented the engagement. 
 
 ESQUIMAULT (es-ke'mMt), a harbor 
 and naval station on the southeast coast 
 of Vancouver Island, about 3 miles from 
 Victoria, the capital of British Columbia. 
 The harbor is almost landlocked, and 
 with the “Royal Roads” outside, is 
 capable of giving safe anchorage to a 
 fleet of vessels of the largest size. It is 
 the station of H.M. ships on the Pacific 
 coast, and is being fortified and pro- 
 vided with all the necessaries of a first- 
 class naval arsenal. 
 
 ESQUIMAUX (es'ki-moz), or ESKI- 
 MOS, a race inhabiting the Arctic coasts 
 of North America, from Greenland to 
 Bering’s Strait, and extending into 
 Asia. They call themselves Inu-it, the 
 people; their other name is from an 
 Algonquin word signifying eaters of raw 
 flesh. They consist of three principal 
 stocks— the Greenlanders; the Esqui- 
 maux proper, in Labrador; and the west- 
 ern Esquimaux, found along Hudson’s 
 Bay, the west side of Baffin’s Bay, the 
 polar shores as far as the mouths of the 
 Coppermine and Mackenzie rivers, and 
 both on the American and Asiatic sides 
 of Bering’s Strait. Their leading 
 physical peculiarities are a stunted 
 stature, flattened nose, projecting cheek- 
 bones, eyes often oblique, and yellow 
 and brownish skin. Seal-skins, reindeer 
 and other furs are used as materials for 
 dress, according to the season, as well as 
 skins of otters, foxes, martins, etc. In 
 summer they live in tents, covered with 
 skins; in winter they may be said to bur- 
 row beneath the snow. In Greenland 
 houses built of stone and cemented with 
 turf are used as permanent habitations. 
 Vegetation being extremely stunted 
 within the limits of their territories, 
 their food consists of the flesh of whales, 
 seals, walrus, etc., often eaten raw; and 
 they show remarkable skill in fishing 
 and hunting. Their weapons are bows 
 and arrows, spears or lances, generally 
 pointed with bone, but sometimes with 
 metal. Their only domestic animal is 
 the Esquimaux dog (which see). In 
 intellect they are by nome.ans deficient; 
 in manners they are kind and hospitable. 
 Their religious ideas appear scanty, but 
 success has attended the labors of the 
 Danish missionaries in teaching them 
 the Christian religion. 
 
 ESQUIMAUX DOG, or ESKIMO DOG, 
 a breed of dogs extensively spread over 
 the northern regions of America and 
 of eastern Asia. It is rather larger than 
 the English pointer, but appears less 
 on account of the shortness of its legs. 
 It has oblique eyes, an elongated muz- 
 zle, and a bushy tail, which give it a 
 wolfish appearance. The color is gen- 
 erally a deep dun, obscurely barred and 
 patched with darker color. It is the 
 only beast of burden in these lati- 
 tudes, and with a team of such dogs 
 attached to his sledge the Eskimo will 
 cover 60 miles a day for several succes- 
 sive days. 
 
 ES'SAY, a composition in which some- 
 thing is attempted to be proved or illus- 
 trated, usually shorter and less methodi- 
 cal and finished than a systematic or 
 formal treatise; so that it may be a short 
 disquisition on a subject of taste, phil- 
 osophy, or common life. Caution or 
 modesty has induced many writers of 
 note to give the title of essay to their 
 most elaborate productions; thus we 
 have Locke’s Essay on the Human Un- 
 derstanding. 
 
 ESSEN, a town of Rhenish Prussia, 18 
 miles northeast of Diisseldorf, founded 
 in the 9th century, and adorned with a 
 fine church dating from 873. It has 
 recently increased with great rapidity 
 and is celebrated for the steel and iron 
 works of Krupp, the most extensive in 
 Europe, employing about 20,000 work- 
 men. Pop. 78,706. 
 
ESSENCES 
 
 ETHICS 
 
 ESSENCES, solutions of the volatile or 
 essential oils in spirits. 
 
 ESSENES (es-senz'), or ESS.®ANSj a 
 sect among the Jews, the origin of which 
 is unknown, as well as the etymology of 
 their name. It appears to have sprung 
 up in the course of the century preced- 
 ing the Christian era, and disappeared 
 on the dispersion of the Jews after the 
 siege of Jerusalem. The sect appears to 
 have been an outcome of Jewish mysti- 
 cism, which gradually assumed the form 
 of a distinct organization. They were 
 remarkable for their strictness and ab- 
 stinence, and had a rule of life analogous 
 to that of a monastic order. 
 
 ESSENTIAL OILS, volatile oils usually 
 drawn from aromatic plants by subject- 
 ing them to distillation with water, such 
 as the oils of lavender, cloves, pepper- 
 mint, etc. 
 
 ESSEX, a maritime county in the s.e. 
 of England, bounded by Suffolk, the 
 Thames, Hertford, and Middlesex; area 
 is 987, 032 acres. The surface is generally 
 level, except in the n.w., where it is un- 
 dulating and sometimes hilly. The soil 
 is in general extremely fertile. The prin- 
 cipal productions are potatoes, barley, 
 wheat, oats, mangolds, turnips, tares, 
 rape, mustard, and trefoil. The raising 
 of caraway, coriander, and teaze, is 
 almost peculiar to this county. The 
 chief towns are Chelmsford, the county 
 town; West Ham, Colchester, Maldon, 
 and Harwich. The county has eight 
 parliamentary divisions, each returning 
 one member Pop. 785,399. 
 
 ESSEX, Robert Devereux, Second 
 Earl of, was born in 1567. Having ap- 
 peared at court, he soon became a favor- 
 ite of Queen Elizabeth, by whom he was 
 kept in attendance against his will dur- 
 ing the danger of the Armada. He 
 served with more or less distinction in 
 expeditions to Portugal and France, the 
 latter on behalf of Henry of Navarre. In 
 1596 he was commander of the troops in 
 an expedition against Spain, and dis- 
 tinguished himself by the capture of 
 Cadiz. In an expedition next year he 
 was less fortunate, and the queen, with 
 whom he was always quarreling, re- 
 ceived him coldly. Presuming on the 
 favor of Elizabeth he behaved with 
 rudeness to her at a privy-council and 
 received a box on the ear, and was told 
 to “go and be hanged.” After some 
 months a reconciliation took place, and 
 he was appointed Lord-lieutenant of 
 Ireland (1599), which was then in a state 
 of rebellion. He returned to England in 
 September, having been entirely unsuc- 
 cessful in his government. He was made 
 a prisoner in his own house, and foolishly 
 tried to excite an insurrection in London. 
 After a skirmish with a party of soldiers 
 he was compelled to surrender, and sent 
 to the Tower. He was tried for treason 
 on 19th February, and executed on 
 26th February, 1601. 
 
 ESTABLISHED CHURCH, a church 
 having a form of doctrine and govern- 
 ment established by law in any country 
 for the teaching of Christianity within 
 its boundaries, and usually endowed by 
 the state. The upholders of the estab- 
 lishment theory maintain that it is the 
 duty of a state to provide for the religious 
 i«.struction of the people. On the other 
 viana, it is argued that the state has no 
 
 right to endow or support any particular 
 sect or denomination, unless they assume 
 that that denomination alone is pos- 
 sessed of religious truth and worth. 
 
 ESTATE, the interest or quantity of 
 interest a man has in lands, tenements, 
 or other effects. Estates are real or per- 
 sonal. Real estate comprises lands, tene- 
 ments, and hereditaments, held in free- 
 hold. Personal estate comprises inter- 
 ests for term sofy ears in lands, tenements 
 and hereditaments, and property of 
 every other description. Real estate de- 
 scends to heirs; personal to executors or 
 administrators. In ordinary language, 
 an estate is a piece of landed property; 
 a definite portion of land in the owner- 
 ship of some one. 
 
 ESTHER, a Jewess, who became the 
 queen of Ahasuerus, King of Persia, and 
 whose story is told in the book of the 
 Old Testamentcalled by her name. This 
 book is supposed by some to be the com- 
 position of Mordecai himself, the uncle 
 of the heroine. Various opinions are 
 held regarding the time and truth of the 
 story; but the feast of Purim which com- 
 memorates the events narrated is still 
 observed by the Jews during the month 
 Adar. 
 
 ESTHONIA, a maritime government 
 of Russia, bounded by the gulf of Fin- 
 land, the Baltic, and the governments of 
 Livonia and St. Petersburg. It includes 
 several islands, of which the most im- 
 portant are Dagoe and Oesel; area, 
 about 7610 sq. miles. The peasantry are 
 almost all of Finnish origin, and speak a 
 Finnish dialect. In the 10th and 12th 
 centuries it belonged to Denmark, it was 
 afterward annexed by Sweden, and in 
 1710 was seized by Russia. Revel is the 
 capital. Pop. 392,738. 
 
 ESTOP'PEL, in law, anything done by 
 a party himself, which puts a period to 
 an action by closing the ground of con- 
 troversy. 
 
 ESTREMADU'RA, a western division 
 of Spain, consisting of the provinces of 
 Badajoz and Caceres. The area is about 
 16,700 sq. miles, and the pop. 818,211. 
 
 ESTREMADURA, a maritime province 
 of Portugal. The principal city is Lis- 
 bon. Area, 6876 sq. miles. Pop. 946,- 
 472. 
 
 ES'TUARY, the wide mouth of a river 
 opening out so as to form an arm of the 
 sea. 
 
 ETA'WAH, a town, Hindustan, N. 
 W. Provinces, capital of the district of 
 same name, on left bank of the Jumna, 
 picturesqnely situated among ravines, 
 and richly planted with trees. Pop. 
 34,721. The district has an area of 1694 
 sq. miles, and a pop. of 722,371. 
 
 ETCHING, the art of producing de- 
 signs upon a plate of steel or copper by 
 means of lines drawn with an etching- 
 needle (a fine-pointed steel tool), the lines 
 being drawn through a coating or varnish 
 (the ground), and bitten in by some 
 strong acid which can only affect the plate 
 where the varnish has been removed. 
 
 ETHELBERT, King of England, son 
 of Ethelwulf, succeeded to the govern- 
 ment of the eastern side of the kingdom 
 in 857, and in 860, on the death of his 
 brother Ethelbald, became sole king. 
 He died in 866. 
 
 ETH'ELBERT, King of Kent, born 
 about 560, died 616. He succeeded his 
 
 father, Hermenric, and reduced all the 
 Anglo-Saxon states, except Northum- 
 berland, to the condition of his depend- 
 ants. Ethelbert was the first Anglo- 
 Saxon king to draw up a code of laws. 
 
 ETH'ELRED I., King of England, son 
 of Ethelwulf, succeeded his brother 
 Ethelbert in 866. Ethelred died in con- 
 sequence of a wound received in an ac- 
 tion with the Danes in 871, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother Alfred. 
 
 ETHELRED II,, King of England, son 
 of Edgar, born 968, succeeded his brother, 
 Edward the Martyr, in 978, and, for his 
 want of vigor and capacity, was sur- 
 named the Unready. He died at Lon- 
 don in the midst of his struggle with 
 Canute (1016). 
 
 ETH'ELWULF, King of England, 
 succeeded his father, Egbert, about 837 ; 
 died 857. He is best remembered for his 
 donation to the clergy, which is often 
 quoted as the origin of the system of 
 tithes. 
 
 E'THER, a hypothetical medium of 
 extreme tenuity and elasticity supposed 
 to be diffused throughout all space (as 
 well as among the molecules of which 
 solid bodies are composed), and to be the 
 medium of the transmission of light and 
 heat. 
 
 ETHER, in chem. a very light, volatile 
 and inflammable fluid, produced by the 
 distillation of alcohol with sulphuric 
 acid. It is lighter than alcohol, of a 
 strong, sweet smell, susceptible of great 
 expansion, and has a pungent taste. 
 A mixture of vapor of ether with atmos- 
 pheric air is extremely explosive. Ether 
 produces an intoxication of short dura- 
 tion, and is sometimes used as an anaes- 
 thetic. 
 
 ETHTCS, otherwise called Moral Phil- 
 osophy or Morals, is the science which 
 treats of the nature and laws of the ac- 
 tions of intelligent beings, considered as 
 to w'hether they are right or wrong, good 
 or bad. The science is more or less 
 closely connected with theology, psy- 
 chology, politics, political economy, and 
 jurisprudence, but what most strictly 
 belongs to it is the investigation of the 
 principles and basis of duty or the moral 
 law, and an inquiry into the nature and 
 origin of the faculty by which duty is 
 recognized. Various answers have been 
 given to the question why we call an 
 action good or bad, such as that it is con- 
 sistent or not with the w’ill of God, or 
 with the nature of things, or with the 
 greatest happiness of the greatest num- 
 ber, or that an inward faculty decides 
 it to be such or such; and a great variety 
 of ethical systems have been proposed. 
 The foundations of the leading systems 
 were laid in antiquity, the names of 
 Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, the 
 Cynics and the Stoics being especially 
 prominent. The introduction of Chris- 
 t ianity brought a new element into ethical 
 speculation, and among Christians ethics 
 were intimately associated with theol- 
 ogy, and morality was regarded as based 
 on and regulated by a definite code con- 
 tained in the sacred writings. The specu- 
 lations of the Greeks were not. however, 
 disregarded, and some of the ablest 
 Cliristian moralists (as Augustine, Peter 
 Lombard, Erigena, Anselm, Aquinas, 
 etc.) endeavored to harmonize the Greek 
 theories with the Christian dogmatics. 
 
ETHIOPIA 
 
 ETHNOLOGY 
 
 Most modern ethical systems consider 
 the subject as apart from theology and 
 as based on independent philosophical 
 principles, and they fall into one of two 
 great classes — the utilitarian systems, 
 which recognize as the chief good, hap- 
 piness, or the greatest possible satisfac- 
 tion of the tendencies of our nature; and 
 the rationalistic systems, which recog- 
 nize that ideas of law and obligation can 
 have their source only in reason. The 
 first of the modern school in England 
 was Hobbes (1588-1679). Among sub- 
 sequent names are those of Cudworth, 
 Locke, Clarke, Shaftesbury, Butler, 
 Hutchison, Hume, Adam Smith, Reid, 
 Paley, Whewell, Bentham, J. S. Mill, etc. 
 Among those who maintain the utilitar- 
 ian theory of morals is Paley, who holds 
 that men ought to act so 'as to further 
 the greatest possible happiness of the 
 race, because God wills the happiness of 
 men, and rewards and punishes them 
 according to their actions, the divine 
 commands being ascertained from Scrip- 
 ture and the light of nature. Bentham’s 
 utilitarianism is considerably different 
 from Paley’s. It was entirely dissoci- 
 ated from theology or Scripture, and 
 maintained that increase of happiness 
 ought to be the sole object of the moral- 
 ist and legislator, pleasure and pain be- 
 ing the sole test of actions. To utilitar- 
 ianism as a special development belong 
 the later “evolution ethics” represented 
 by Mr. Herbert Spencer, in which biologi- 
 cal conceptions, such as “the preserva- 
 tion of the human race,” take the place 
 of the Benthamite criterion for deter- 
 mining what is good and bad in actions. 
 Another theory of ethics places the 
 moral principal in the sentimental part 
 of our nature, that is, in the direct sym- 
 pathetic pleasure or sympathetic indig- 
 nation we have with the impulses which 
 prompt to action or expression. By 
 means of this theory, which he treats as 
 an original and inexplicable fact in 
 human nature, Adam Smith explains all 
 the phenomena of the moral conscious- 
 ness. In considering the systems which 
 recognize that the ideas of law and obli- 
 gation can have their source only in rea- 
 son, the question, what is the source of 
 the laws by which reason governs, gives 
 rise to a number of psychological theories 
 among which we may notice Clarke’s 
 view of the moral principles as rational 
 intuitions or axioms analogous to those 
 of mathematics; Butler’s theory of the 
 natural authority of conscience; the 
 position of Reid, Stewart, and other 
 members of the later intuitional school, 
 who conceive a moral faculty implanted 
 in man which not only perceives the 
 “rightness” or “moral obligation” of 
 actions, but also impels the will to per- 
 form what is seen to be right. Very 
 similar as far as classification goes, is the 
 position of Kant, who holds that reason 
 recognizes the immediate obligation of 
 certain kinds of conduct, and that an 
 action is only good when done from a 
 ood motive, and that this motive must 
 e essentially different from a natural 
 inclination of any kind. 
 
 ETHIOPIA, or ^ETHIOPIA (Hebrew, 
 Cush), in ancient geography, the country 
 lying to the soutn of Egypt, and com- 
 prehending the modern Nubia, Kordo- 
 fan, Abyssinia, and other adjacent di.s- 
 
 tricts; but its limits were not clearly de- 
 fined. In ancient times its history was 
 closely connected with that of Egypt, and 
 about the 8th century n.c. it imposed a 
 dynasty on Lower Egypt, and acquired 
 a predominant influence in the valley of 
 the Nile. In sacred history Ethiopia is 
 repeatedly mentioned as a powerful 
 military kingdom (see particularly Isaiah 
 XX. 5). In the 6th century b.c. the 
 Persian Cambyses invaded Ethiopia; 
 but the country maintained its inde- 
 pendence till it became tributary to the 
 Romans in the reign of Augustus. Sub- 
 sequently Ethiopia came to be the desig- 
 nation of the country now known as 
 Abyssinia, and the Abyssinian monarchs 
 still call themselves rulers of Ethiopia. 
 
 ETHNOL'OGY AND ETHNOG'RA- 
 PHY, sciences treating of man, the form- 
 er analyzing the social phenomena of 
 mankind as shown in their customs, 
 languages, institution, etc.; the latter 
 being more concerned with descriptive 
 details and the orderly collection of facts 
 relating to particular tribes and locali- 
 ties. Besides these terms there is the 
 term Anthropology, used by some to in- 
 dicate the general science or natural his- 
 tory of mankind, of which the other two 
 are parts. Here we can only give a few 
 particulars bearing on the strictly ethno- 
 logical and ethnographic divisions of the 
 subject. (As to the place of man in the 
 animal kingdom see Man.) The unity or 
 plurality of species of the human race is 
 a question which has given rise to much 
 discussion. The most common view has 
 probably been that which regards all 
 mankind as descended from Adam and 
 Eve, attributing the great differences 
 exhibited by different races to climate 
 and other causes acting for a long period 
 of time. Many have held that such dif- 
 ferences were not to be so accounted for 
 and that the various t j^pical races of the 
 earth were not descended from a single 
 pair, but were separately created in 
 separate localities. The belief that rrian 
 may have originated from a single pair 
 is supported by the researches of Dar- 
 win, who has shown how an accumula- 
 tion of differences amounting to the ap- 
 pearance of a distinct species may arise 
 from continual modifications of a single 
 primordial form. Certainly among men 
 the variability of the same race under 
 different climatic conditions is very 
 striking. Even within a comparatively 
 small period of time physical surround- 
 ings have induced typical differences be- 
 tween the lithe, sparsely-fleshed Yankee 
 of New England and the plump, rosy- 
 cheeked Englishman; and the Boer 
 of South Africa, with its dry climate, has 
 developed a type as decidedly different 
 from his original stock in moist Holland. 
 The theory of the development of the 
 human race from a single species de- 
 mands a vast duration of time; and the 
 flint implements discovered intermingled 
 with remains of the mammoth and other 
 extinct animals have proved that man 
 was a contemporary of the mammoth, 
 the cave bear, and other mammalia of 
 the geological period antecedent to our 
 own, though how distant that period 
 was as measured by thousands of years 
 it is difficult to say. Another interesting 
 point is in regard to the first home of the 
 human race. This of course is quite un- 
 
 certain, but probably it was either in 
 western Asia or in Africa, and we may 
 naturally conclude that where the mam- 
 malia of the highest characteristics ap- 
 pear there was the possible birthplace 
 and center of distribution of mankind. 
 
 When we attempt to classify mankind 
 we can scarcely find any one physical 
 characteristic belonging exclusively to a 
 single race. At most we can only say 
 that certain characteristics are the pre- 
 ponderant ones in certain races. In 
 seeking racial characteristics ethnolo- 
 gists make use of various principles of 
 classification. Some give the first place 
 to the shape of the head. Camper, the 
 Dutch anatomist, was the first who at- 
 tempted to make a scientific distinction 
 of races on this principle, taking as the 
 basis of measurement the amount of the 
 facial angle. But Camper’s method, 
 though it illustrates excellently the 
 great differences which exist, between, 
 say, the anthropoid apes with an angle 
 of 42°, the African negro with an angle 
 of 70°, and the European with an angle 
 of 80°, is without certainty, it being pos- 
 sible to find in the population of a single 
 large town as wide variations of the 
 facial angle as exist between distinct 
 races. Camper’s method was therefore 
 superseded by the method of Blumen- 
 bach, which is based on consideration of 
 all the chief distinctions in shape of the 
 head according to which he classified the 
 human family into five varieties; the 
 Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, Malay 
 and American. These five varieties 
 were cut down to three by Cuvier, who 
 treated the Malay and American as sub- 
 divisions of the Mongolian ; and extended 
 by Dr. Prichard, who divided the Cau- 
 casian class into a Semitic and an Aryan 
 or Indo-European class. Latham's 
 classification was into 1. Mongolidse 
 (Chinese, Turks, Malays, American races 
 etc.); 2. Atlantidae (African races, Jew 
 and Arabs); 3. Japetidae (Indo-Euro- 
 peans). Among the later attempts made 
 to find a new principle of classification 
 we may mention that of Retzius, based 
 on the relative length and breadth of the 
 skull, according to which mankind are 
 divided into Dolichocephalic or long- 
 skulled and Brachycephalic or short, 
 broad-skulled races. Later develop- 
 ments of craniology have introduced a 
 third class, the Mesocephailic, represent- 
 ing a mean between the other two. The 
 general rule for measurement is that the 
 longitudinal diameter being rated as 100, 
 the lateral diameter is expressed in a 
 percentage of these units. If the index 
 of breadth is from 74 to 78 the skull is 
 termed mesocephalous; if below 74 it is 
 dolichocephalous, a narrow or long skull ; 
 if it reaches 79 it is brachycephalous, a 
 broad or short skull. The capacity of 
 the brain cavity is also a favorite method 
 with some ethnologists. Here the 
 European stands highest with 92‘1 cubic 
 inches; the Australian lowest with 81‘7. 
 The character of hair and color of skin 
 has always been used by Huxley as the 
 basis of his classifications, which divides 
 mankind into 1. Ulotrichi, crisp or 
 woolly haired people with yellow or 
 black skin, comprising Negroes, Bush- 
 men, and Malays; 2. Leiotrichi, smooth- 
 haired people, subdivided into Austra- 
 lioid, Mongoloid, Xanthochroic (fair 
 
ETHYL 
 
 ETNA 
 
 whites) and Melanochroic (dark whites) 
 groups. But many ethnologists hesitate 
 to accept a classification which brings 
 together nations apparently unrelated, 
 such as the Australians, the ancient 
 Egyptians, and the tribes of southern 
 India. On the other hand, the character 
 of the hair is found to be one of the 
 surest tests in separating neighboring 
 races, such as the Papuan, and the Ma- 
 layan and Australian tribes. Oscar Pes- 
 chel’s classification, based on a number 
 of different particulars, such as the 
 shape of the skull, the color of the skin, 
 the nature and color of the hair, the 
 shape of the features, etc., is as follows: 
 
 1. The Australians. — Characters: skull 
 of the dolichocephalic type, the jaws be- 
 ing also prognathous or protruded. The 
 nose is narrow at the root, widening 
 greatly below. The mouth is wide and 
 unshapely. The body is thickly covered 
 with hair; the hair is black, elliptical in 
 section, that on the head being frizzly, 
 and standing out so as to form a shaggy 
 crown. The color of the skin is dark as a 
 rule, sometimes black, though a light 
 copper-red also occurs. 
 
 2. The Papuans. — This race, which is 
 the one most closely allied to the Austra- 
 lians, occupies New Guinea, New Cale- 
 donia, the Solomon Islands, New Heb- 
 rides, the Fiji Islands, etc. The most 
 distinctive mark is their peculiarly flat- 
 tened and abundant hair, growing in 
 tufts, and forming a spreading crov/n 
 round the head. The skin is always 
 dark, the skull high and narrow (dolicho- 
 cephalic) ; the jaws prognathous; the lips 
 fleshy and somewhat swollen; the nose 
 hooked somewhat after the Jewish tj'pe. 
 
 3. The Mongoloid Nations. — To this 
 race belong the Polynesian and Asiatic 
 Malays, the people of southeastern and 
 eastern Asia, the Tibetese, all the North- 
 ern Asiatics, with their kinsmen in north- 
 ern Europe, and lastly the aboriginal 
 population of America. The common 
 characteristics are: long straight hair, 
 circular in section; almost complete ab- 
 sence of beard and body hair; skin dark- 
 colored, varying from leather-yellow to 
 deep brown, sometimes inclining to red; 
 prominent cheek-bones, and eyes in 
 general set obliquely. The various mem- 
 bers of the Mongoloid race may be 
 classed under the following subdivisions : 
 (a) The Malay race, comprising the 
 Malays of Malacca, Sumatra, Java, etc., 
 the inhabitants of Madagascar, the New 
 Zealanders, the natives of the Sandwich 
 Islands, etc. (b) Southern Asiatics with 
 monosyllabic languages, comprising the 
 Chinese, Indo-Chinese (Burmese, Siamese, 
 Anames, etc.), Tibetese, etc. (c) Coreans 
 and Japanese, (d) Northern Mongoloids 
 of the Old World, comprising the true 
 Mongols, Turks, Finns, Lapps, Magyars, 
 Bulgarians, etc., all much resembling 
 the Chinese and Indo-Chinese group in 
 physical characters, (e) Northern Na- 
 tions of doubtful position. — The Yenisei 
 Ostiakas, the Ainos of Yesso, the inhabi- 
 tants of Saghalien, etc. (f) The Beh- 
 ring’s Nations, of which the Esquimaux 
 or Eskimo, are the most important, (g) 
 The American Aborigines or Red Indian. 
 
 4. The Dravidians or Aborigines of 
 India. — These tribes have the skin gen- 
 erally very dark, frequently quite black; 
 their hair is long and black, not straight 
 
 but crimped or curly; the hair of beard 
 and body grows profusely; the lips are 
 thick and fleshy, somewhat like those of 
 the negroes, but the jaws are never 
 prominent. The Dravidians comprise 
 the Tamuls, Telugus, Gonds, Santals or 
 Sonthals, etc. 
 
 5. The Hottentots and Bushmen. — 
 These are tribes of little importance in- 
 habiting South Africa. They have the 
 hair tufted and matted, the beard scanty, 
 the body almost hairless; the lips are full 
 but not so much so as with the negroes; 
 the nose is of the snub shape; the open- 
 ing of the eyes is narrow but not oblique. 
 They are slimly built, and the Bushmen 
 are particularly low in stature; their color 
 is yellowish or yellowish-brown. 
 
 6. The Negroes. — The negroes inhabit 
 Africa from the southern margin of the 
 Sahara to the territory of the Hottentots 
 and Bushmen, and from the Atlantic to 
 the Indian Ocean. They display great 
 variety in external characteristics, and 
 what is popularly considered the typical 
 negro is rarely met with. The color of 
 the skin passes through every gradua- 
 tion, from ebony-black to dark brown, 
 copper-red, olive, or yellow. In some 
 tribes the nose is straight, in others hook- 
 ed, though often broad and flat. The 
 hair of the head is generally short, 
 elliptic in section, and much crimped; 
 that on the body is not plentiful; whisk- 
 ers are comparatively rare. The negroes 
 may be divided into the Bantu negroes 
 (including the Kaffirs, Bechuanas, etc.) 
 and the Soudan negroes, these divisions 
 being based on differences in language. 
 It is in the Soudan region that the most 
 typical members of the negro race are 
 found. 
 
 7. The Mediterranean Nations. — 
 These include all Europeans who are not 
 Mongoloids, the north Africans, all west- 
 ern Asiatics, and the Hindus. Among 
 them are the highest members of the 
 human race. The northern nations have' 
 the skin quite fair; the southern have it 
 darker; in North Africa and eastern Asia 
 it becomes yellow, red, or brown. The 
 nose has always a high bridge; prognath- 
 ism and prominence of the jaw's and 
 cheek-bones are rare; the lips are never 
 intumescent, and in no other race are 
 refined and noble features so frequent. 
 Subdivisions are : (a) The Hamites, com- 
 prising the ancient Egyptians, the Copts 
 of Egj^pt and the Nubians, the Berbers 
 and Gallas. (b) The Semites. — These 
 comprise the Jews, Arabs, and Abyssin- 
 ians, and the ancient Canaanites, Assyr- 
 ians, Babylonians, and Phoenicians, (c) 
 The Indo-European or Arjmn family. — - 
 This family is divided into two branches, 
 a European and an Asiatic. The Euro- 
 pean eomprises the Germanic or Teu- 
 tonic nations (English, Germans, Dutch, 
 Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, etc.), the 
 Romance nations (French, Italians, 
 Spaniards, Portuguese), the Slavonians 
 (Russians, Bohemians, Servians, etc.), 
 the Greeks, and lastly the Celts. The 
 Asiatic comprises the Hindus, Afghans, 
 Persians, Armenians, and Kurds, (d) 
 Europeans of doubtful position. — These 
 include the Basques of the northeast of 
 Spain and southwest of France and vari- 
 ous tribes in the Cauca.sus. 
 
 ETH'YL, is the name given to the 
 radicle which is contained in ether and 
 
 alcohol. It is a colorless gas, which is 
 
 flame. 
 
 ETH'YLAMINE, an organic base 
 formed by the substitution of ethyl for all 
 or part of the hydrogen of ammonia. It 
 has the odor and many of the reactions 
 of ammonia. i 
 
 ETIENNE (a-ti-an), St., a town of 
 southern France, dep. Loire, on the 
 Furens, 32 miles s.w. of Lyons. The 
 town stands in the eenter of one of the i 
 most valuable mineral fields of France; 
 and in addition to the extensive collier- ' 
 ies, blast-furnaces, and other ironworks . 
 in the vicinity, has manufactures of rib- ' 
 bons, silks, cutlery, firearms, etc. The 
 collieries alone employ about 16,000 
 men. Pop. 1891, 133,443. 
 
 ETIQUETTE (et'i-ket), a collective ' 
 
 term for the established ceremonies and ' 
 usages of society, from the forms which ( 
 are to be observed in particular places 
 such as courts, levees, and public occa- 
 sions, to the general forms of polite 
 society. Among courts the Byzantine 
 and Spanish courts, and the French 
 court under Louis XIV. and XV., have 
 been noted for the strictness of their 
 etiquette. Social etiquette consists in so 
 many minute observances that a toler- 
 able familiarity with it can be acquired 
 only by a considerable intercourse with . 
 polite society. It is often said that all 
 that is necessary to constitute good social 
 manners is common sense and good feel- 
 ing; but not to mention those formal 
 rules of society which, though intrinsi- 
 cally worthless, demand a certain amount 
 of respect, there are also many difficult- 
 ies and emergencies in social intercourse 
 which require peculiar tact and delicacy . 
 of judgment. Hence quickness of sym- 
 pathy and a certain fineness of observa- 
 tion are more needed for proficiency in 
 this sphere than pure power of intellect. 
 
 ETNA, or HStna Mount, the greatest 
 volcano in Europe, a mountain in the 
 'province of Catania in Sicily; height 
 10,874 feet. It rises immediately from 
 the sea, has a circumference of more 
 
 Etna. 
 
 than 100 miles, and dominates the whole 
 northeast part of Siciljq having a num- 
 ber of towns and villages on its lower ' 
 slopes. The top is covered with per- 
 petual snow, midway down is the- woody ' 
 or forest region; at the foot is a region of 
 orchards, vineyards, olive groves, etc. i 
 Etna thus presents the variety of cji-d- 
 
ETRURIA 
 
 EUCALYPTUS 
 
 mates common to high mountains in 
 lower latitudes, oranges and lemons and 
 other fruits growing at the foot, the vine 
 rather higher up, then oaks, chestnuts, 
 beeches, and pines, while on the loftiest 
 or desert region vegetation is of quite a 
 stunted character. A more or less dis- 
 tinct margin of cliff separates the moun- 
 tain proper from the surrounding plain ; 
 and the whole mass seems formed of a 
 series of superimposed mountains, the 
 tenninal volcano being surrounded by a 
 number of cones, all of volcanic origin, 
 and nearly 100 of which are of consider- 
 able size. The different aspects of the 
 mountain present an astonishing variety 
 of features — woods, forests, pastures, 
 cultivated fields, bare rocky precipices, 
 streams of lava, masses of ashes and 
 scoriffi, as also picturesque towns and 
 villages. From the summit the view 
 presents a splendid panorama, embrac- 
 ing the whole of Sicily, the Lipari Is- 
 lands, Malta, and Calabria. The erup- 
 tions of Etna have been numerous, and 
 many of them destructive. That of. 1169 
 overwhelmed Catania and buried 15,000 
 persons in the ruins. In 1669 the lava 
 spread over the country for forty days, 
 and 10,000 persons are estimated to 
 have perished. In 1693 there was an 
 earthquake during the eruption, when 
 over 60,000 lives were lost. One erup- 
 tion was in 1755, the year of the Lisbon 
 earthquake. Among more recent erup- 
 tions are those of 1832, 1865, 1874, 1879. 
 An eruption is ordinarily preceded by 
 premonitory symptoms of longer or 
 shorter duration. 
 
 ETRU'RIA, the name anciently given 
 to that part of Italy which corresponded 
 partly with the modern Tuscany, and 
 was bounded by the Mediterranean, the 
 Apennines, the river Magra, and the 
 Tiber. The name of Tusci or Etrusci 
 was used by the Romans to designate 
 the race of people anciently inhabiting 
 this country, but the name by which 
 they called themselves was Rasena (or 
 perhaps more correctly Ta-rasena). 
 These Rasena entered Italy at a very 
 early period from the north, and besides 
 occupying Etruria proper, extended their 
 infiuence to Campania, Elba, and Cor- 
 sica. Etruria proper was in a flourish- 
 ing condition before the foundation of 
 Rome, 753 b.c. It was known very early 
 as a confederation of twelve great cities, 
 each of which formed a republic of itself. 
 Among the chief were Veii, Clusium, 
 Volsinii, Arretium, Cortona, Falerii, and 
 Faesulae; but the list may have varied 
 at different epochs. The chiefs of these 
 republics were styled lucumones, and 
 united the office* of priest and general. 
 They were elected for life. After a long 
 struggle with Rome the Etruscan power 
 was completely broken by the Romans 
 in a series of victories, from the fall of 
 Veii in 376 b.c. to the battle at the Vadi- 
 monian Lake (283 b.c.). The Etruscans 
 had attained a high state of civilization. 
 They carried on a flourishing commerce, 
 and at one time were powerful at sea. 
 They were less warlike than most of the 
 nations around them, and had the cus- 
 tom of hiring mercenaries for their 
 armies. Of the Etruscan language little 
 is known, although more than 3000 in- 
 scriptions have been preserved. It was 
 written in characters essentially the 
 
 same as the ancient Greek; but philolo- 
 gists have not as yet been able to decide 
 with what language it is connected, nor 
 to agree in the decipherment of almost 
 any inscription. The Etruscans were 
 specially distinguished by their religious 
 institutions and ceremonies, which re- 
 veal tendencies gloomy and mystical. 
 Their gods were of two orders, the first 
 nameless, mysterious deities, exercising 
 a controlling influence in the background 
 on the lower order of gods, who manage 
 the affairs of the world. At the head of 
 these is a diety resembling the Roman 
 Jupiter (in Etruscan Tinia). But it is 
 characteristic of the Etruscan religion 
 that there is also a Vejovis or evil Jupi- 
 ter. The Etruscan name of Venus was 
 Turan, of Vulcan Sethlans, of Bacchus 
 Phuphluns, of Mercury Turms. Etrus- 
 can art was in the main borrowed from 
 Greece. For articles in terra-cotta, a 
 material which they used mainly for 
 ornamental tiles, sarcophagi, and statues 
 Etruscans were especially eelebrated. 
 In the manufacture of pottery they had 
 made great advances; but most of the 
 painted vases popularly known as 
 Etruscan are undoubtedly productions 
 of Greek workmen. The skill of the 
 Etruscans in works of metal is attested 
 by ancient writers, and also by numerous 
 extant specimens, such as necklaces, 
 ear-rings, bracelets, etc. The bronze 
 candelabra, of which many examples 
 have been preserved, were eagerly sought 
 after both in Greece and Rome. A pe- 
 culiar manufacture was that of engraved 
 
 Etruscan sarcophagus in terra-cotta, from 
 Chiusi; period of full development. — 
 Museo Egizio, Florence. 
 
 bronze mirrors. These were polished on 
 one side, and have on the other an en- 
 graved design, taken in most cases from 
 Greek legend or mythology. The Etrus- 
 cans showed great constructive and en- 
 gineering skill. They were acquainted 
 with the principle of the arch, and the 
 massive ruins of the walls of their an- 
 cient cities still testify to the solidity of 
 their constructions. Various arts and 
 inventions were derived by the Romans 
 from the Etruscans. 
 
 ETRUSCAN LANGUAGE. See Etruria. 
 
 ETRUSCAN VASES, a class of beauti- 
 ful ancient painted vases made in 
 Etruria, but not strictly speaking a prod- 
 uct of Etruscan art, since they were 
 really the productions of a ripe age of 
 Greek art, the workmanship, subjects, 
 style, and inscriptions being all Greek. 
 They are elegant in form and enriched 
 with bands of beautiful foliage and other 
 ornaments, figures and similar subjects 
 of a highly artistic character. One class 
 
 has black figures and ornaments on a red 
 ground — the natural color of the clay; 
 another has the figures left of the natural 
 color and the ground painted black. The 
 former class belong to a date about 600 
 B.C., the latter date about a century 
 
 Etruscan vases. 
 
 later, and extend over a period of about 
 300 or 350 years, when the manufacture 
 seems to have ceased. During this per- 
 iod there was much variety in the form 
 and ornamentation, gold and other 
 colors besides the primitive ones of black 
 and red being frequently made use of. 
 The subjects represented upon these 
 vases frequently relate to heroic per- 
 sonages of the Greek mythology, but 
 many scenes of an ordinary and even of 
 a domestic character are depicted. The 
 figures are usually in profile; temples are 
 occasionally introduced; and many cur- 
 ious particulars may be learned from 
 these vase pictures regarding the Hel- 
 lenic ritual, games, festivities, and do- 
 mestic life. 
 
 ETYMOL'OGY, a term applied (1) to 
 that part of grammar which treats of the 
 various inflections and modifications of 
 words and shows how they are formed 
 from simple roots; (2) to that branch of 
 philology which traces the history of 
 words from their origin to their latest 
 form and meaning. Etymology in this 
 latter sense, or the investigation of the 
 origin and growth of words, is among the 
 oldest of studies. Plato and other Greek 
 philosophers, the Alexandrian gram- 
 marians, the scholiasts, the Roman 
 Varro, and others wrote much on this 
 subject. But their work is made up of 
 conjectures at best ingenious rather 
 than sound, and very often wild and 
 fantastic. It was not till recent times, 
 and particularly since the study of Sans- 
 krit, that et}mology has been scientifi- 
 cally studied. Languages then began to 
 be properly classed in groups and fam- 
 ilies, and words were studied by a com- 
 parison of their growth and relationship 
 in different languages. It was recog- 
 nized that the development of language 
 is not an arbitrary or accidental matter, 
 but proceeds according to general laws. 
 The result was a great advance in ety- 
 mological knowledge and the formation 
 of a new science of philology. 
 
 EUBCE'A, formerly called Negropont, 
 a Greek island, the second largest island 
 of the ^gean Sea. It is 90 miles in 
 length; 30 in greatest breadth, reduced 
 at one point to 4 miles. The island was 
 aneiently divided among seven inde- 
 pendent cities, the most important of 
 which were Chalcis and Eretria, and its 
 history is for the most part identical 
 with that of those two cities. With some 
 small islands it forms a modern nom- 
 archy, with a pop. of 95,136. 
 
 EUCALYPTUS, a genus of trees, 
 mostly natives of Australia, and re- 
 markable for their gigantic size, some of 
 
EUCHARIST 
 
 EURE-ET-LOIRj 
 
 them attaining the height of 480 or 500 
 feet. In the Australian colonies they 
 are known by the name of gum-trees, 
 from the gum which exudes from their 
 trunks; and some of them have also such 
 names as “stringy bark,” “iron bark,” 
 etc. The wood is excellent for ship- 
 
 building and such purposes. The blue 
 gum yields an essential oil which is 
 valuable as a febrifuge, antiasthmatic, 
 and antispasm odic ; the medicinal prop- 
 erties of this tree also make it useful a^ a 
 disinfectant, and as an astringent in 
 affections of the respiratory passages, 
 being employed in the form of an infu- 
 sion, a decoction, or an extract, and 
 cigarettes made of the leaves being also 
 smoked. Two species have an excellent 
 sanitary effect when planted in malari- 
 ous districts such as the Roman Cam- 
 pagna, parts of which have already been 
 reclaimed by their use. This result is 
 partly brought about by the drainage 
 of the soil (the trees absorbing great 
 quantities of moisture), partly perhaps 
 by the balsamic odor given out. The 
 Eucalyptus has been introduced with 
 success into India, Algiers, southern 
 France, etc. 
 
 EUCHARIST (u'ka-rist), a name for 
 the sacrament of the Lord’s supper, in 
 reference to the blessing and thanks- 
 giving which accompany it. See Lord’s 
 Supper. 
 
 EUCHRE (u'ker), a game of cards, 
 played mostly by two of four persons. 
 After cutting for the deal, five cards are 
 dealt (either by twos and threes or by 
 threes and, twos) to each player. The 
 uppermost card of those undealt is 
 turned for trump. The first player has 
 the option either to “order up” (i.e. to 
 make this card trump) or “pass.” In 
 the latter case it is left to the next player 
 to decide if he will play first or pass, and 
 so on till the turn of the dealer comes, 
 who must either play on this trump or 
 turn it down, when all the players have 
 again their choice in turn of making a 
 new trump or passing. If a trump is 
 “ordered up” or taken in the first round, 
 the dealer may take it into his cards, 
 discarding instead his poorest card. If 
 the player who elects to play wins five 
 tricks, he counts two; if he wins three 
 tricks he counts one ; if he wins fewer than 
 three tricks he is euchred, and each in- 
 dependent opponent counts two. The 
 cards rank as at whist, except that the 
 knave of the trump suit, called the right 
 bower (from Ger. bauer, a peasant), is 
 the highest card, and the knave of the 
 
 other suit of the same color the second 
 highest. 
 
 EUCLID, of Alexandria, a distin- 
 guished Greek mathematician, who 
 flourished about 300 b.c. His Elements 
 of Geometry in thirteen books, are still 
 extant, and form the most usual intro- 
 duction to the study of geometry. The 
 severity and accuracy of his methods of 
 demonstration have as a whole never 
 been surpassed. Besides the Elements, 
 some other works are attributed to 
 Euclid. 
 
 EUGENE (u-jen'), or FRANCOIS 
 EUGENE, Prince of Savoy, fifth son of 
 Eugene Maurice, duke of Savoy-Carig- 
 nan, and Olympia Mancini, a niece of 
 Cardinal Mazarin,was born at Paris, Oct. 
 18, 1663. He entered the Austrian serv- 
 ice in 1683, serving his first campaign 
 as a volunteer against the Turks. On the 
 outbreak of war between France and 
 Austria he received the command of the 
 imperial forces sent to Piedmont to act 
 in conjunction with the troops of the 
 Duke of Savoy. At the end of the war 
 he was sent as commander-in-chief to 
 Hungary, where he defeated the Turks 
 at the battle of Zenta (Sept. 11, 1697). 
 
 Prince Eugene. 
 
 The Spanish war of succession brought 
 Eugene again into the field. In northern 
 Italy he outmaneuvered Catinat and 
 Villeroi, defeating the latter at Cremona 
 (1702). In 1703 he commanded the im- 
 perial army in Germany, and in co- 
 operation with Marlborough frustrated 
 the plans of France and her allies. In 
 the battle of Hochstadt or Blenheim, 
 Eugene and Marlborough defeated the 
 French and Bavarians under Marshal 
 Tallard, Aug. 13, 1704. Next year Eu- 
 gene, returning to Italy, forced the 
 French to raise the siege of Turin, and 
 in one month drove them out of Italy. 
 During the following years he fought on 
 the Rhine, took Lille, and, in conjunc- 
 tion with Marlborough, defeated the 
 French at Oudenarde (1708), and Mal- 
 plaquet (1709), where he himself was 
 dangerously wounded. In the war with 
 Turkey, in 1716, Eugene defeated two 
 superior armies at Peterwaradin and 
 Temesvar, and, in 1717, took Belgrade, 
 after having gained a decisive victory 
 over a third army that came to its relief. 
 He died in Vienna April 21, 1736. He 
 was one of the great generals of modern 
 times. 
 
 EUGENIE (eu-zha-ne), Marie de Guz- 
 man, Ex-empress of the French, born at 
 Granada in Spain in 1826. On Jan. 29, 
 1853, she became the wife of Napoleon 
 III. and empress of the French. On 
 
 March 16, 1856, a son was bom of the 
 marriage. When the war broke out with 
 Germany she was appointed regent 
 (July 27, 1870) during the absence of the 
 emperor, but on the 4th Sept, the revolu- 
 tion forced her to flee from France. She 
 went to England, where she was joined 
 by the prince imperial and afterward 
 by the emperor. On Jan. 9, 1873, the 
 emperor died, and six years later the 
 prince imperial was slain while with the 
 English army in the Zulu war. In 1881 
 the empress transferred her residence to 
 Farnborough in Hampshire. 
 
 EU'NUCH, a male of the human species 
 emasculated by castration. The term is 
 of Greek origin; but eunuchs became 
 known to the Greeks no doubt from the 
 practice among Eastern nations of hav- 
 ing them as guardians of their women’s 
 apartments. Eunuchs were employed 
 in somewhat similar duties among the 
 Romans in the luxurious times of the 
 empire, and under the Byzantine 
 monarchs they were common. The 
 Mohammedans still have them about 
 their harems. Emasculation, when 
 effected in early life, produces singular 
 changes in males and assimilates them in 
 some respects to women, causing them 
 in particular to have the voice of a fe- 
 male. Hence, not so long ago, it was 
 not uncommon in Italy to castrate boys 
 in order to fit them for soprano singers 
 when grown to manhood. 
 
 EUPHRA'TES, or EL FRAT, a cele- 
 brated river of western Asia, in Asiatic 
 Turkey, having a double source in two 
 streams rising in the Anti-Taurus range. 
 Its total length is about 1750 miles, and 
 the area of its basin 260,000 sq. miles. 
 
 It flows mainly in a southeasterly course 
 through the great alluvial plains of Baby- 
 lonia and Chaldsea till it falls into the 
 Persian Gulf by several mouths, of which 
 only one in Persian territory is navigable. 
 About 100 miles from its mouth it is 
 joined by the "figris, when the united 
 streams take the name of Shatt-el-Arab. 
 
 It is navigable for about 1200 miles, but 
 navigation is somewhat impeded by 
 rapids and shallows. The melting of 
 snow in the Taurus and Anti-Taurus 
 causes a flooding in spring. The water 
 is highest in May and June, when the 
 current, which rarely exceeds 3 miles an 
 hour, rises to 5. 
 
 EURA'SIANS, a name sometimes 
 given to the “half-castes” of India, the 
 offspring of European fathers and In- 
 dian mothers. They are particularly 
 common in the three presidential capi- 
 tals — Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. 
 They generally receive a European 
 education, and the young men are often 
 engaged in government or mercantile 
 offices. The girls in spite of their dark 
 tint are generally very pretty and often 
 marry Europeans. 
 
 EURE (eur), a river of n.w. France, 
 which rises in the department of the 
 Orne, and falls into the Seine after a 
 course of 124 miles, being navigable for 
 about half the distance. It gives its 
 name to a department in the n.w. of 
 France, forming part of Normandy; 
 area, 2300 sq. miles. Evreux is the capi- 
 tal. Pop. 349,471. 
 
 EURE-ET-LOIR (eur-6-lwar), a de- 
 partment in the n.w. of France, forming -* 
 part of the old provinces of Orl^annais 1 
 
EUREKA 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 and Ile-de-France; area, 2267 sq. miles. 
 The department is essentially agricul- 
 tural, and has few manufactures. The 
 capital is Chartres. Pop. 284,683. 
 
 EURE'KA, (I have found it), the ex- 
 clamation of Archimedes when, after long 
 study, he discovered a method of de- 
 tecting the amount of alloy in King 
 Hiero’s crown. Hence the word is used 
 as an expression of triumph, as a dis- 
 covery. 
 
 EURIPTDES (-dez), a celebrated 
 Athenian tragedian, born b.c. 480, or, 
 according to the Arundel marbles, 485, 
 at Salamis. He began to write tragedies 
 at the age of eighteen, although his first 
 published play, the Peliades, appeared 
 
 Euripides. 
 
 only in 455 b.c. He was not successful 
 in gaining the first prize till the year 441 
 B.C., and he continued to exhibit till 408 
 B.C., when he exhibited the Orestes. 
 The violence of unscrupulous enemies, 
 who accused him of impiety and unbe- 
 lief in the gods, drove Euripides to take 
 refuge at the court of Archelaus, king of 
 Macedonia, where he was held in the 
 highest honor. According to a tradition 
 he was killed by hounds in 406 b.c. 
 Euripides is a master of tragic situations 
 and pathos, and shows much knowledge 
 of human nature and skill in grouping 
 characters, but his works lack the artis- 
 tic completeness and the sublime earnest- 
 ness that characterize .iEschylus and 
 Sophocles. Euripides is said to have 
 composed seventy-five, or according to 
 another authority ninety-two tragedies. 
 Of these eighteen (or nineteen, including 
 the Rhesus) are extant, viz.: Alcestis, 
 Medea, Hippolytus, Hecuba, Heracleidae 
 Supplices, Ion, Hercules, Furens, An- 
 dromache, Troades, Electra, Helena, 
 Iphigenia in Tauris, Orestes, Phcenissse, 
 Bacchse, Iphigenia in Aulis, and Cyclops. 
 
 EURIPUS (u-rl'pus), in ancient geog- 
 raphy, the strait between the island of 
 Euboea and Boeotia in Greece. 
 
 EURO'PA, in Greek mythology, the 
 daughter of Agenor, king of the Phoeni- 
 cians, and the sister of Cadmus. The 
 fable relates that she was abducted by 
 Jupiter, who for that occasion had as- 
 sumed the form of a bull, and swam with 
 his prize to the island of Crete. Here 
 Europa bore to him Minos, Sarpedon, 
 and Rhadamanthus. 
 
 EUROPE, the smallest of the great 
 continent.?, but the most important in 
 the history of civilization for the last 
 two thou.sand years. It forms a huge 
 eninsula projecting from Asia, and is 
 ounded on the n. by the Arctic Ocean; 
 on the w. by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the 
 6. by the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, 
 
 and the Caucasus range ; on the east by 
 the Caspian Sea, the Ural river, and 
 the U ral mountains. The most northerly 
 point on the mainland is Cape Nordkyn, 
 in Lapland, in lat. 71° 6'; the most 
 southerly points are Punta da Tarifa, 
 lat. 36° n., in the Strait of Gibraltar, 
 and Cape Matapan, lat. 36° 17', which 
 terminates Greece. The most westerly 
 point is Cape Roca in Portugal, in Ion. 
 9° 28', w., while Ekaterinburg is in Ion. 
 60° 36' e. From Cape Matapan to 
 North Cape is a direct distance of 
 2400 miles, from Cape St. Vincent to 
 Ekaterinburg, northeast by east, 3400 
 miles; area of the continent, about 
 3,800,000 sq. miles. Great Britain and 
 Ireland, Iceland, Nova Zembla, Corsica, 
 Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Crete, the Ionian 
 and the Balearic islands are the chief 
 islands of Europe. The shores are very 
 much indented, giving Europe an im- 
 mense length of coast-line (estimated at 
 nearly 50,000 miles). The chief seas or 
 arms of the sea are : the White Sea on the 
 north; the North Sea or German Ocean 
 on the west, from which branches off 
 the great gulf or inland sea known as ^'he 
 Baltic; the English Channel, between 
 England and France; the Mediterranean 
 communicating with the Atlantic by the 
 Strait of Gibraltar (at one point only 19 
 miles wide) ; the Adriatic and Archi- 
 pelago, branching off from the Mediter- 
 ranean; and the Black Sea, connected 
 with the Archipelago through the Helles- 
 pont, Sea of Marmora, and Bosphorus. 
 
 The mountains form several distinct 
 groups or systems of very different geo- 
 logical dates, the loftiest mountain 
 masses being in the south central region. 
 The Scandinavian mountains in the 
 northwest, to which the great northern 
 peninsula owes its form, extend above 
 900 miles from the Polar Sea to the south 
 point of Norway. The highest summits 
 are about 8000 feet. The Alps, the high- 
 est mountains in Europe (unless Mount 
 Elbruz in the Caucasus is claimed as 
 European), extend from the Mediter- 
 ranean first in a northerly and then in an 
 easterly direction, and attain their 
 greatest elevation in Mont Blanc (15,781 
 feet), Monte Rosa, and other summits. 
 Branching off from the Alps, though not 
 geologically connected with them, are 
 the Apennines, which run southeast 
 through Italy, constituting the central 
 ridge of the peninsula. The highest sum- 
 mit is Monte Corno (9541 feet). Mount 
 Vesuvius, the celebrated volcano in the 
 south of the peninsula, is quite distinct 
 from the Apennines. By southeastern 
 extensions the Alps are connected with 
 the Balkan and the Despoto-Dagh of 
 the southeastern peninsula of Europe. 
 Among the mountains of southwestern 
 Europe are several massive chains, the 
 loftiest summits being in the Pyrenees, 
 and in the Sierra Nevada in the south of 
 the Iberian Peninsula. The highest 
 point in the former. La Maladetta or 
 Mont Maudit, has an elevation of 11,065 
 feet; Mulahacen, in the latter, is 11,703 
 feet, and capped by perpetual snow. 
 West and northwest of the Alps are the 
 Cevennes, Jura, and Vosges; north and 
 northeast, the Harz, the Thuringerwald, 
 Mountains, the Fichtelgebirge, the Erzge- 
 birge and Bohmerwaldgebirge. Further 
 I to the east the Carpathian chain in- 
 
 closes the great plain of Hungary, attain- 
 ing an elevation of 8000 or 8500 feet. 
 The Ural Mountains between Europe 
 and Asia reach the height of 5540 feet. 
 Besides Vesuvius other two volcanoes 
 are Etna in Sicily, and Hecla in Iceland. 
 A great part of northern and eastern 
 Europe is level. The great plain of north 
 Europe occupies part of France, western 
 and northern Belgium, Holland, the 
 northern provinces of Germany, and the 
 greater part of Russia. A large portion 
 of this plain, extending through Holland 
 and North Germany, is a low sandy level 
 not unfrequently protected from inroads 
 of the sea only by means of strong dykes. 
 The other great plains of Europe are the 
 plain of Lombardy (the most fertile dis- 
 trict in Europe) and the plain of Hun- 
 gary. Part of southern and southeast- 
 ern Russia consists of steppes. 
 
 The main European watershed runs 
 in a winding direction from southwest to 
 northeast, at its northeastern extremity 
 being of very slight elevation. From the 
 Alps descend some of the largest of the 
 European rivers, the Rhine, the Rhone, 
 and the Po, while the Danube, a still 
 greater stream, rises in the Black Forest 
 north of the Alps. The Volga, which 
 enters the Caspian Sea, an inland sheet 
 without outlet, is the longest of Euro- 
 pean rivers, having a direct length of 
 nearly 1700 miles, including windings 
 2400 miles. Into the Mediterranean 
 flow the Ebro, the Rhone, and the Po; 
 into the Black Sea, the Danube, Dnieper, 
 Dniester, and Don (through the Sea of 
 Azov) ; into the Atlantic, the Gaudal- 
 quiver, the Guadiana, the Tagus, and the 
 Loire; into the English Channel, the 
 Seine; into the North Sea, the Rhine, 
 the Elbe; into the Baltic, the Oder, the 
 Vistula, and the Duna; into the Arctic 
 Ocean, the Dwina. The lakes of Europe 
 may be divided into two groups, the 
 southern and the northern. The former 
 run along both sides of the Alps, and 
 among them, on the north side, are the 
 lakes of Geneva, Neuchatel, Thun, 
 Lucerne, Zurich, and Constance; on the 
 south side, Lago Maggiore, and the 
 lakes of Como, Lugano, Iseo, and Garda. 
 The northern lakes extend across 
 Sweden from west to east, and on the 
 east side of the Baltic a number of lakes, 
 stretching in the same direction across 
 Finland on the borders of Russia, mark 
 the continuation of the line of depression. 
 It is in Russia that the largest European 
 lakes are found — Lakes Lagoda and 
 Onega. 
 
 The geological features of Europe are 
 exceedingly varied. The older forma- 
 tions prevail in the northern part as 
 compared with the southern half and 
 the middle region. North of the latitude 
 of Edinburgh and Moscow there is very 
 little of the surface of more recent origin 
 than the strata of the Upper Jura be- 
 longing to the mesozoic period, and 
 there are vast tracts occupied either by 
 eruptive rocks or one or other of the 
 older sedimentary formations. Den- 
 mark and the portions of Germany ad- 
 joining belong to the Cretaceous period, 
 as does also a large part of Russia be- 
 tween the Volga and the basin of the 
 Dnieper. Middle and eastern Germany 
 with Poland and the valley of the Dnie- 
 ' per present on the surface Eocene for- 
 
EUROPE 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 mations of the tertiary period. The re- 
 mainder of Europe is remarkable for the 
 great diversity of its superficial structure 
 rocks and deposits belonging to all pe- 
 riods being found within it, and having 
 for the most part no great superficial ex- 
 tent. Europe possesses abundant stores 
 of those minerals which are of most im- 
 portance to man, such as coal and iron, 
 Britain being particularly favored in 
 this respect. Coal and iron are also ob- 
 tained in France, Belgium, and Ger- 
 many. Gold is found to an unimportant 
 extent, and silver is widely spread in 
 small quantities. The richest silver ores 
 are in Norway, Spain, the Erzgebirge, 
 and the Harz Mountains. Spain is also 
 rich in quicksilver. Copper ores are 
 abundant in the Ural Mountains, Thur- 
 ingia, Cornwall, and Spain. Tin ores are 
 found in Cornwall, the Erzgebirge, and 
 Brittany. 
 
 Several circumstances concur to give 
 Europe a climate peculiarly genial, such 
 as its position almost wholly wdthin the 
 temperate zone, and the great extent of 
 its maritime boundaries. Much benefit is 
 also derived from the fact that its shores 
 are exposed to the warm marine currents 
 and warm winds from the southwest, 
 which prevent the formation of ice on 
 most of its northern shores. The eastern 
 portion has a less favorable climate than 
 the western. The extremes of tempera- 
 ture are greater, the summer being hot- 
 ter and the winter colder, while the line 
 of equal mean temperature decline south 
 as we go east. The same advantages of 
 mild and genial temperature which 
 western has over eastern Europe, the 
 continent collectively has over the rest 
 of the Old World. The diminution of 
 mean temperature, as well as the inten- 
 sity of the opposite seasons, increases as 
 we go east. Peking, in lat. 40° n., has as 
 severe a winter as St. Petersburg in lat. 
 60°. 
 
 With respect to the vegetable king- 
 dom Europe may be divided into four 
 zones. The first, or most northern, is 
 that of fir and birch. The birch reaches 
 almost to North Cape' the fir ceases a 
 degree further south. The cultivation of 
 grain extends further north than might 
 be supposed. Barley ripens even under 
 the seventieth parallel of north latitude ; 
 wheat ceases at 64° in Norway, 62° in 
 Sweden. Within this zone, the southern 
 limit of which extends from lat. 64° n. 
 Norway to lat. 62° in Russia, agriculture 
 has little importance, its inhabitants be- 
 ing chiefly occupied with the care of 
 reindeer or cattle, and in fishing. The 
 next zone, which may be called that of 
 the oak and beech, and cereal produce, 
 extends from the limit above mentioned 
 to the 48th parallel. The Alps, though 
 beyond the limit, by reason of their ele- 
 vation belong to this zone, in the moister 
 parts of which cattle husbandry has been 
 brought to perfection. Next we find the 
 zone of the chestnut and vine, occupy- 
 ing the space between the 48th parallel 
 and the mountain chains of southern 
 Europe. Here the oak still flourishes, 
 but the pine species become rarer. Rye, 
 which characterizes the preceding zone 
 on the continent, gives way to wheat./ 
 and in the southern portions of it to 
 maize also. The fourth zone, compre- 
 hending the southern peninsulas, is that 
 
 of the olive and evergreen woods. The 
 orange flourishes in the southern por- 
 tion of it, and rice is cultivated in a few 
 spots in Italy and Spain. 
 
 As regards animals the reindeer and 
 polar-bears are peculiar to the north. 
 In the forest of Poland and Lithuania 
 the urus, a species of wild ox, is still 
 occasionally met with. Bears and 
 wolves still inhabit the forests and 
 mountains; but, in general, cultivation 
 and population have expelled wild ani- 
 mals. The domesticated animals are 
 nearly the same throughout. The ass 
 and mule lose their size and beauty 
 north of the Pyrenees and Alps. The 
 Mediterranean Sea has many species of 
 fish, but no great fishery; the northern 
 seas, on the other hand, are annually 
 filled with countless shoals of a few 
 species, chiefly the herring, mackerel, 
 cod, and salmon. 
 
 Europe is occupied by several differ- 
 ent peoples or races, in many parts now 
 greatly intermingled. The Celts once 
 possessed the west of Europe from the 
 Alps to the British Islands. But the 
 
 garians, all immigrants into Europe in 
 comparatively recent times. The Bas- 
 ques at the western extremity of the 
 Pyrenees are a people whose affinities 
 have not yet been determined. The 
 total population of Europe is about 330,- 
 000,000 ; nine-tenths speak the languages 
 of the Indo-European family, the Teu- 
 tonic group numbering about 108,000,- 
 000, the Slavonic and Latin over 95,000,- 
 000 each. The prevailing religion is the 
 Christian, embracing the Roman Catho- 
 lic, various sects of Protestants (Luth- 
 eran, Calvinistic, Anglican, Baptists, 
 Methodists, etc.), and the Greek Church. 
 A part of the inhabitants profess the 
 Jewish, a part the Mohammedan religion 
 
 The states of Europe, with their re- 
 spective areas and populations, are as 
 shown below. In addition to those given 
 in the table, there are also the insignifi- 
 cant states of Andorra, Monaco, and 
 San Marino, which still maintain a kind 
 of precarious independence. 
 
 Europe was probably first peopled 
 from Asia, but at what date we know not. 
 The first authentic history begins in 
 
 States. 
 
 Area in 
 Eng. sq. 
 Miles. 
 
 POPUTJK.- 
 
 TION. 
 
 Designation. 
 
 Austria-Hunearv 
 
 240,942 
 
 46,973,359 
 
 Empire. 
 
 Principality. 
 
 Annexed hy Austria. 
 
 Liechtenstein. . 
 
 62 
 
 9,124 
 
 Bosnia, Herzegovina, etc. 
 
 23,262 
 
 1,504,091 
 
 Belgium 
 
 11,373 
 
 14,789 
 
 7,074,910 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Denmark 
 
 2,484,770 
 
 Faroe and Iceland. ... 
 
 40,266 
 
 83,665 
 
 France 
 
 204,090 
 
 39.118,995 
 
 Republic. 
 
 Empire. 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Germany 
 
 211,149 
 
 60,600,183 
 
 Britain. 
 
 120,832 
 
 145 
 
 41,606,177 
 
 European Possessions 
 
 175,186 
 
 Greece 
 
 29,014 
 
 2,433,806 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Netherlands . . . 
 
 12,648 
 
 5,347,182 
 
 Luxemburg 
 
 999 
 
 213,283 
 
 Grand-duchy. 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Principality. 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Kingdom 
 
 Empire. 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Italy 
 
 114,410 
 
 32,475,253 
 
 Montenegro 
 
 3,658 
 
 236,000 
 
 Portugal” 
 
 36,028 
 
 5,423,132 
 
 Roumania. ... . .... 
 
 48.307 
 
 5,500,00(1 
 
 143,364,649 
 
 Russia 
 
 2,095,504 
 
 Servia 
 
 18,800 
 
 2,493,691 
 
 Spain .... 
 
 191,100 
 
 18,891,674 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Sweden . . . . 
 
 170,979 
 
 6,136,441 
 
 Norway 
 
 122,869 
 
 2,240,032 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 15,992 
 
 3,315,443 
 
 Confederative Republic. 
 
 Turkey 
 
 63,850 
 
 6,130,200 
 
 Empire. 
 
 Principality. 
 
 Joined to Bulgaria. 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 24,650 
 
 3,744,300 
 
 Eastern Roumelia 
 
 13.500 
 
 
 
 
 Celtic nationalities were broken by the 
 wave of Roman conquest, and the suc- 
 ceeding invasions of the Germanic tribes 
 completed their political ruin. At the 
 present day the Celtic language is spoken 
 only in the Scotch Highlands (Gaelic), 
 in some parts of Ireland (Irish), in Wales 
 (Cymric), and in Brittany (Armorican). 
 Next to the Celtic comes the Teutonic 
 race, comprehending the Germanic and 
 Scandinavian branches. The former in- 
 cludes the Germans, the Dutch, and the 
 English. The Scandinavians are divided 
 into Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians. 
 To the east, in general, of the Teutonic 
 race, though sometimes mixed with it, 
 come the Slavonians, that is, the Rus- 
 sians, the Poles, the Czechs or Bohe- 
 mians, the Servians, Croatians, etc. In 
 the south and southeast of Europe are 
 the Greek and Latin peoples, the latter 
 comprising the Italians, French, Span- 
 ish, and Portuguese. All the above 
 peoples are regarded as belonging to. the 
 Indo-European or Aryan stock. To the 
 Mongolian stock belong the Turks, 
 Finns, Lapps, and Magyars or Ilun- 
 
 Greece at about 776 b.c. Greek civiliza- 
 tion was at its most flourishing period 
 about 430 B.c. After Greece came Rome 
 which, by the early part of the Christian 
 era, had conquered Spain, Greece, Gaul, 
 Helvetia, Germany, between the Danube 
 and the Alps, Illyria, Dacia, etc. Im- 
 proved laws and superior arts of life 
 spread with the Roman empire through- 
 out Europe, and the unity of govern- 
 ment was also extremely favorable to 
 the extension of Christianity. With the 
 decline of the Roman Empire a great 
 change in the political constitution of 
 Europe was produced by the universal 
 migration of the northern nations. The 
 Ostrogoths and Lombards settled in 
 Italy, the Franks in France, the Visi- 
 goths in Spain, and the Anglo-Saxons in 
 South Britain, reducing the inhabitants 
 to subjection, or becoming incorporated 
 with them. Under Charlemagne (771- 
 814) a great Germanic empire was estab- 
 lished, so extensively that the kingdom 
 of France, Germany, Italy, Burgundy, 
 Lorraine, and Navarre were afterward 
 formed out of it. About this time the 
 
 

 EURYDICE 
 
 northern and eastern nations of Europe 
 began to exert an influence in the affairs 
 of Europe. The Slavs, or Slavonians, 
 founded kingdoms in Bohemia, Poland, 
 Russia, and the north of Germany: the 
 Magyars appeared in Hungary, and the 
 Normans agitated all Europe, founding 
 kingdoms and principalities in England, 
 France, Sicily, and the East. The Cru- 
 sades and the growth of the Ottoman 
 power are among the principal events 
 which influenced Europe from the 12th 
 to 15th century. The conquest of Con- 
 stantinople by the Turks (1453), by 
 driving the learned Greeks from this 
 city, gave a new impulse to letters in 
 western Europe, which was carried on- 
 ward by the invention of printing, and 
 the Reformation. The discovery of 
 America was followed by the temporary 
 preponderance of Spain in Europe, and 
 next of France. Subsequently Prussia 
 and Russia gradually increased in terri- 
 tory and strength. The French revolu- 
 tion (1789) and the Napoleonic wars had 
 a profound effect on Europe, the disso- 
 lution of the old German Empire being 
 one of the results. Since then the most 
 important events in European history 
 have been the establishment of the inde- 
 pendence of Greece; the disappearance 
 of Poland as a separate stat^ the unifi- 
 cation of Italy under Victor Emmanuel; 
 the Franco-German war, resulting in the 
 consolidation of Germany into an em- 
 pire under the leadership of Prussia ; and 
 the partial dismemberment of the 'Rirk- 
 ish Empire. 
 
 EURYDICE (u-rid'i-se), in Greek 
 mythology, the wife of Orpheus. See 
 Orpheus. 
 
 EUSE'BIUS, the father of ecclesiasti- 
 cal history, a Greek writer, born in 
 Palestine about 265 a.d., died about 340. 
 About 315 he was appointed Bishop of 
 Caesarea. He became an advocate of the 
 Arians and condemned the doctrines of 
 Anthanasius. His ecclesiastical history 
 extends from the birth of Christ to 324. 
 Among his other extant works is a life of 
 Constantine the Great. 
 
 EUS'TIS, James Biddle, an American 
 lawyer, was born in New Orleans in 1834. 
 During the civil war he served in the 
 Confederate army as judge-advocate on 
 the staffs of Generals Magruder and 
 Johnston, and afterward was one of the 
 commissioners sent by Louisiana to con- 
 fer with President Johnson with regard 
 to the “reconstruction” of that state. 
 He served for several terms in the state 
 legislature, and was afterward twice sent 
 j to the U. States senate, serving from 
 1877 to 1879, and again from 1885 to 
 1891. From 1879 to 1884 he was pro- 
 fessor of civil law in the University of 
 Tji’ Louisiana, and from 1893 to 1899, after 
 his second term in the senate, was U. 
 States minister and first U. States am- 
 ‘ ' bassador to France. He died in 1899. 
 EUTHANASIA, (u'tha-na'zhi-a), the 
 use of narcotics or other means for short- 
 ening life, in disease, has become a sub- 
 , . ject of discussion in civilized countries; 
 and it is often a very practical question 
 as to how far such means are admissible 
 for soothing the last hours of life, when 
 the approach of death does not of itself 
 ^ dull the consciousness and the sensibility 
 to pain. It must be decided according 
 '* to all the surrounding circumstances. 
 
 medical and otherwise, in each individ- 
 ual case. 
 
 EUXANTHINE, a substance supposed 
 to be derived from the bile or urine of 
 the buffalo, camel, or elephant. It comes 
 from India under the name of purree or 
 Indian yellow, and is used as a pigment. 
 
 EUXTNE, the ancient name for the 
 Black Sea. 
 
 EVANGELTCAL, a term often used to 
 qualify certain theological views, espe- 
 'cially strict views on the question of the 
 atonement, justification by faith, the in- 
 spiration and authority of the Scriptures 
 and allied doctrines. In a more general 
 sense the word implies a peculiar fer- 
 vency and earnestness in insisting on 
 such doctrines as regeneration, redemp- 
 tion, etc. 
 
 EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, an asso- 
 ciation of members of different sections 
 of the Christian church, organized in 
 London in 1846, to lend its influence in 
 favor of evangelical doctrines, religious 
 union and liberty, and against super- 
 stition and unbelief. The alliance has 
 branches throughout the world, the 
 American branch being especially strong 
 and has held meetings at Paris, Berlin, 
 Amsterdam, Geneva, New York, etc. 
 
 EVAN'GELISTS, the writers of the 
 history or doctrines, precepts, actions, 
 life, and death of Christ; in particular, 
 the four evangelists, Matthew, Mark, 
 Luke, and John. The ancient symbols of 
 the four evangelists are : for Matthew, a 
 man’s face; for Mark, a lion; for Luke, 
 an ox; and for John, a flying eagle. 
 
 EVANS, Marian. See Eliot, George. 
 
 EV'ANS, Oliver, born at Newport, 
 Del., in 1755, was the inventor of the 
 automatic flour-mill and the high-press- 
 ure steam-engine. He died in New York, 
 21st April, 1819. 
 
 EVANS, Robley Dunglison, naval 
 officer, born in Virginia in 1846. In the 
 civil war he took part in both attacks on 
 Fort Fisher, and was so seriously 
 wounded that he was retired from active 
 service. After his recovery he was re- 
 stored to the service at his own request. 
 During the Chilian imbroglio of 1891 he 
 commanded the Yorktown; in 1896 he 
 was put in command of the Indiana, and 
 in 1898 was put in command of the Iowa, 
 which was assigned to blockade duty off 
 the coast of Cuba during the war with 
 Spain, and which took a prominent part 
 in the battle of July 3 near Santiago. In 
 Oct,, 1898, he was appointed a member 
 of the board of inspection and survey. 
 He published A Sailor’s Log in 1901. 
 
 EV'ANSTON, a town in Illinois, on 
 Lake Michigan, 12 miles n. of Chicago. 
 It has a university with museum and ex- 
 tensive library. Pop. 25,620. 
 
 EV'ANSVILLE, a city in Indiana, 
 pleasantly situated on a height above 
 the Ohio. It contains some handsome 
 buildings, including custom-house and 
 post-office, etc. Coal and iron abound in 
 the vicinity, and there are numerous 
 factories, flour-mills, iron-foundries, 
 etc., and a large shipping trade. Pop. 
 69,140. 
 
 EVAPORATION, the conversion of a 
 liquid or solid by heat into vapor or 
 steam, which becomes dissipated in the 
 atmosphere in the manner of an elastic 
 fluid. The process of evaporation is con- 
 stantly going on at the surface of the 
 
 EVERLASTING-FLOWERS 
 
 earth, but principally at the surface of 
 the sea, of lakes, rivers, and pools. The 
 vapor thus formed, being specifically 
 lighter than atmospheric air, rises to 
 considerable heights above the earth’s 
 surface; and afterward, by a partial con- 
 densation, forms clouds, and finally de- 
 scends in rain. 
 
 EVARTS, Wm. M., was born in Bos- 
 ton, in 1818. In 1868 was counsel for 
 President Johnson in the impeacliment 
 trial. In 1872 was counsel for the U. 
 States in the Alabama claims. His fees 
 have amounted to 150,000 for a single 
 opinion. He was secretary of state un- 
 der President Hayes, and U. States sena- 
 tor from 1885 to 1891. He died 1901. 
 
 EVENING-STAR, or Hesperus, the 
 name given to the planet Venus when 
 visible in the evening. See Venus. 
 
 EVERETT, Edward, an American 
 statesman and author, born at Dorches- 
 ter, Massachusetts, April 11, 1794. Aftei 
 traveling for some years in Germany 
 and England he returned to America ir 
 
 1819 to occupy the chair of Greek litera- 
 ture at Harvard. He became editor of 
 the North American Review, and enter- 
 ing the political world became succes- 
 sively member of Congress, governor of 
 Massachusetts, and minister plenipo- 
 tentiary in England (1840). In 1845 he 
 was appointed president of Harvard 
 College, and in 1852 secretary of state. 
 Shortly after he retired?,[into private life. 
 He died at Boston, January 15, 1865. 
 
 EVERETT, a city in Middlesex co.. 
 Mass., adjoining Boston, Chelsea, and 
 Malden, of which last it formed part 
 until incorporated as a town in 1870. 
 Pop. 29,625. 
 
 EVERGLADES, a low marshy tract 
 of country in Southern Florida, inun- 
 dated with water and interspersed with 
 patches or portions covered with high 
 grass and trees. They are 160 miles 
 long and 60 broad. 
 
 EVERGREEN, a plant that retains its 
 verdure through all the seasons, as the 
 fir, the holly, the laurel, the cedar, the 
 cypress, the juniper, the holm-oak, and 
 many others. Evergreens shed their old 
 leaves in the spring or summer, after the 
 new foliage has been formed, and con- 
 sequently are verdant through all the 
 winter season. They form a consider 
 able part of the shrubs commonly cul- 
 tivated in gardens, and are beautiful at 
 all seasons of the year. 
 
 EVERLASTING-FLOWERS, a name 
 applied to certain plants which, when 
 
EVEREST, MOUNT 
 
 dried, suffer little change in their ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 EV'EREST, MOUNT, the highest 
 mountain of the earth; in the eastern 
 range of the Himalayas, in Northern Ne- 
 paul; lat. 27° 59' 12" n.. Ion. 86° 58' 6" e. 
 According to the measurement of Waugh 
 in 1856, the altitude is 29,002 feet. 
 
 EVERSION OF THE EYELIDS, ectro- 
 pium, a disease in which the eyelids are 
 turned outward, so as to expose the 
 red internal tunic. It occurs most fre- 
 quently in the lower eyelid. 
 
 EVICTION, the dispossession of a per- 
 son from the occupancy of lands or tene- 
 ments. The term occurs most commonly 
 in connection with the proceedings by 
 which a landlord ejects his tenant for 
 non-pa 3 anent pf rent or on determination 
 of the tenancy. In the case of evic- 
 tions of tenants in Ireland, generally for 
 non-payment of rent, the tenants are 
 frequently readmitted as caretakers, or 
 under some other title. 
 
 EVIDENCE is that which makes evi- 
 dent, which enables the mind to see 
 truth. It may be (a) intuitive, i. e. rest- 
 ing on the direct testimony of conscious- 
 ness, of perception or memory, or on 
 fundamental principles of the human in- 
 tellect; or it may be (b) demonstrative 
 i.e. in a strict sense, proofs which estab- 
 lish with certainty as in mathematical 
 science certain conclusions; or it may be 
 (c) probable, under which class are rank- 
 ed moral evidence, legal evidence, and 
 generally every kind of evidence which, 
 though it may be sufficient to satisfy the 
 mind, is not an absolutely certain and 
 incontrovertible demonstration. 
 
 EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY, 
 these may be divided broadly into two 
 great classes, viz. external evidences, or 
 the body of historical testimonies to the 
 Christian relation; and internal evi- 
 dences, or arguments drawn from the 
 nature of Christianity itself as exhibited 
 in its teachings and effects, in favor of 
 its divine origin. The first Christian 
 apologies — those of Justin Martyr, Minu- 
 cius Felix, and Tertullian, written in 
 the 2d century — were mainly intended 
 as justifications of the Christian religion 
 against the charges of atheism, im- 
 morality, etc., commonly made at that 
 time. Of a more philosophical kind 
 and dealing more comprehensively with 
 the principles of religion and belief in 
 general, are the works of Origen, Arno- 
 bius, and Augustine in the centuries 
 immediately succeeding. During the 
 middle ages, the scientific representation 
 of Christianity is mostly the work of 
 the schoolmen occupied in welding 
 Aristotelian or Platonic philosophy 
 with the fabric of Christian dogmatics, 
 or writing attacks on the Jewish and 
 Mahommedan faiths. 
 
 EVIL EYE, a power which, accord- 
 ing to an old and wide-spread super- 
 stition, resides in some people of doing 
 injury to others by a mere look, or a 
 look accompanied by certain words 
 or charms. This belief, common 
 among the ancients, is still prevalent 
 among the more ignorant classes in 
 Italy, Russia, Andalusia, Turkey, Egypt, 
 the Highlands of Scotland, and other 
 places. 
 
 EVOLUTION, a term used to denote 
 (usually) the theory that all forms 
 
 of life are derived from one or a few 
 forms which, by gradual change, have 
 been transmitted into_ the millions 
 of forms we now see. The general idea of 
 evolution was familiar to the ancients, 
 but it was not until Goethe, Lamarck, 
 and Kant suggested the cousinship of 
 all living things that the idea of modern 
 evolution arose. 
 
 The chief interest attaching to 
 evolution in the popular mind dates 
 from Darwin’s work, “The Origin of 
 Species,” because it was seen that if 
 Darwin’s theory was true, man was not 
 specially created by a deity but was 
 descended in a straight line from an 
 ape-hke animal, and more remotely 
 from still lower forms. 
 
 Darwin’s theory is important not be- 
 cause it holds that man is thus descended , 
 but because it was the first rational 
 attempt to establish the doctrine of 
 evolution on a scientific basis. The 
 heart of Darwinism is the process he 
 calls “natural selection.” Organisms 
 inherit their traits from their parents. 
 But as a new generation is slightly dif- 
 ferent from the preceding generation, 
 the individuals having favorable traits 
 survive, while those who have not, 
 perish. Thus the “unfit” are eliminated 
 
 before they can propagate; and this 
 process, going on for centuries or ages, 
 produces the most divergent types. 
 In this way millions of species have 
 disappeared and the millions that 
 survive are still changing their forms. 
 It has been well said that before Darwin 
 the living beings of the earth were as 
 wax-figures in a museum. Darwin’s 
 suggestion imbued them with life and 
 they began to move. 
 
 Since Darwin’s time natural selection 
 has been applied to the entire universe ; 
 to the survival of chemical elements, 
 which, among themselves, are in a 
 “struggle for existence”; to the evolu- 
 tion of star-clusters and planet-systems ; 
 to disease, to society, in a word to 
 all the phenomena of being. 
 
 The doctrine of evolution as appUed 
 to man is of special interest. Man is 
 the most highly organized member of 
 the animal world. The endeavor has 
 often been made in classification to 
 separate man from the brute creation. 
 One system, expressing a vast gap be- 
 
 EVOLUTION 
 
 tween the Quadrumana and man, classi- 
 fies man in the order Bimana (“two- 
 handed”), the highest division of the 
 Mammalian class; and relegates the 
 monkeys and apes to the lower and 
 distinct order — that of the Quadrumana 
 (“four-handed”). The more recent 
 arrangements, however, classify man 
 and the monkeys in one order, making 
 man the highest family or group of 
 this order. From the purely anatomical 
 point of view the differences which 
 separate the anthropoid apes from man 
 are in some respects less than those 
 which separate these higher apes from 
 apes lower in the scale. But the mental 
 or psychical endowments of man oblige 
 us to remove him far above the highest 
 Quadrumana; and even the characters 
 by which he is anatomically separated 
 from the highest apes form a very dis- 
 tinct and appreciable series. The first 
 grand characteristic of man is his erect 
 position and bipedal progression. The 
 lower limbs, with the feet broad and 
 plantigrade and the well-developed 
 heel, are devoted exclusively to pro- 
 gression and supporting the weight of 
 the body; while the upper limbs have 
 nothing to do with progression, but 
 subserve prehension entirely. The bones 
 
 of the face in man do not project for- 
 ward, while they are elongated in sif 
 downward direction; and the face and 
 forehead are in the more civilized races 
 situated nearly in the same plane, so 
 that the face immediately underlies the 
 brain. Similarly the development of a 
 distinct chin is also a peculiarly human 
 feature, and one which in the highest 
 varieties of mankind becomes most 
 marked. The great cranial capacity 
 of man, or the greater size of the cranial 
 or brain portion as compared with the 
 facial portion of the skull, forms another 
 noteworthy and distinctive character 
 of the human form. The brain con- 
 volutions also are more numerous and 
 complex than is the case with any other 
 mammal. The teeth of man are arranged 
 in a continuous series, and without 
 any diastema or interval. The develop- 
 ment of hair too is very partial. The 
 gorilla presents of all the apes the near- 
 est approach to the human tj’pe taken 
 in its entirety; but it differs in the 
 relative number of vertebrae (13 dorsal 
 
 GiBnoN, Obako. Chimpanzee. Gorilla. Man. 
 
 Photographicallij rr.dnccd from Diagrams of the natural size {except that of Che Gibbon^ which was twice as large 
 as nature), drawn by Mr Waterhouse Hawkins from specimens in the Mitseum of the Royal College of Surgeons, 
 
EWALD 
 
 EXECUTION 
 
 and 4 lumbar, to 12 and 5 respectively 
 in man), in the order of dental succession 
 and in the presence of the interval or 
 diastema, in the less prominent mus- 
 cular development of the buttocks and 
 calves, and in other minor differences. 
 The orangs most closely approach man’s 
 structure in the number of ribs and in 
 the form of the cerebrum, while they 
 exhibit the greatest differences from 
 him in the relative length of the limbs. 
 The chin^anzees are most anthropoid 
 in the shape of the cranium, in the 
 arrangement and succession of the 
 teeth, and in the length of the arms as 
 ■compared with that of the legs. Of 
 the higher apes the gibbons are those 
 furthest removed from the human type 
 of structure. Chief among the psychical 
 features, or rather among the results of 
 the operation of the principle of mind, 
 we note the possession of the moral 
 sense of right and wrong. The possession 
 of an articulate language, by which he 
 can communicate his thoughts, is also 
 the exclusive possession of man, and 
 draws a sharp line of separation between 
 him and all other animals. With re- 
 gard to the geological history of man, 
 the earliest traces yet discovered belong 
 to the Post-pliocene deposits in con- 
 junction with existing species of shells 
 and some extinct species of mammals. 
 Man’s advent upon the earth is conse- 
 quently referred to a period much 
 anterior to that which former limits 
 and theological ideas prescribed. Among 
 the modern theories regarding the 
 origin of man may be noted those of (1) 
 Darwin ; that man is directly descended 
 from an extinct form of anthropoid ape, 
 with a tail and pointe'd ears, arboreal 
 in its habits and an inhabitant of the 
 Old World; further, that man has 
 diverged into different races or sub- 
 species, but that all the races agree 
 in so many unimportant details of 
 structure, and in so many mental 
 peculiarities, that they can be accounted 
 for only through inheritance from a 
 common progenitor. _ (2) Wallace also 
 affirms the original unity of man, and 
 places him apart as not only the head 
 and culminating point of the grand 
 series of organic nature, but as, in some 
 degree, a new and distinct order of 
 being; maintaining that a superior 
 intelligence has guided the develop- 
 ment of man in a definite direction 
 and for a special purpose, just as man 
 guides the development of many animal 
 and vegetable forms. (3) Carl Vogt 
 -bolds a rfurality of the race; adopts 
 "Darwin’s idea of natural selection 
 accounting for the origin and endow- 
 ments of plan, but rejects Wallace’s 
 idea of the higher controlling Mntelli- 
 gence. (4) Mivart propounds a theory 
 of a natural evolution of man as to his 
 body, combined with a supernatural 
 creation as to his soul. 
 
 EWALD (a'vMt), Johannes, Danish 
 poet, born at Copenhagen in 1743. After 
 _ studying theology at Copenhagen' Uni- 
 "versity he ran away and enlisted in the 
 Prussian service, -which he soon deserted 
 for the Austrian. Having returned to 
 Copenhagen an elegy which he wrote 
 on the death of Frederick V., of Denmark 
 was received with general admiration, 
 and awoke in himself the consciousness 
 P. E.— 29 
 
 of poetic talent. His reputation rapidly 
 increased with the publication of his 
 tragedies. The Death of Balder, Adam 
 and Eve, Rolfkrage, etc.; and his odes 
 and songs. 
 
 EWELL, Benjamin Stoddert, Ameri- 
 can educator, born in Washington, D. 
 C., in 1810. He was professor of mathe- 
 matics at Hampden-Sidney College in 
 1839-1846 ,and filled a similar chair at 
 Washington University in 1854, and 
 William and Mary College of which he 
 became president in 1854. He was in 
 command of the 32nd regiment Virginia 
 Volunteers from 1861-2 and adjutant- 
 general of the confederate army on the 
 staff of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston when 
 he was commander of the department of 
 Tennessee and Mississippi. He died in 
 1883. 
 
 EWELL, Richard Stoddert, American 
 soldier, born in Georgetown, D. C., in 
 1817. He served during the Mexican 
 war with Scott from Vera Cruz to the 
 City of Mexico. He was actively en- 
 gaged on the side of the confederacy 
 during the civil war and attained the 
 rank of lieutenant-general. He was 
 placed in command of the second corps 
 of Gen. Lee’s army upon the death of 
 “Stonewall” Jackson. He led the charge 
 of the corps at the capture of Winchester, 
 at Gettysburg, the Wilderness and, 
 Spottsylvania Court House. He died in 
 1872. 
 
 EWING, Thos., statesman, was born 
 in Ohio co., Va., in 1789. In 1831 and 
 1850 was elected to the U. States senate. 
 In 1841 appointed Secretary of the 
 Treasury. In 1849 was made the first 
 secretary of the interior. He died in 
 1871. 
 
 EX'CELLENCY, a title given to am- 
 bassadors and plenipotentiaries, gov- 
 ernors of colonies, the president of the 
 United States, etc. 
 
 EXCELSIOR, a material widely used 
 for packing and as stuffing in mattresses 
 and upholstery. It is made from logs of 
 wood that have been divided into 18 
 inch blocks. The fibers are separated 
 from the blocks by knife-points and 
 packed in bales of 250 pounds' weight. 
 About 45,000 tons are manufactured 
 annually in the U. States of which large 
 quantities are exported. 
 
 EXCHANGE, a place in large com- 
 mercial towns where merchants, agents, 
 bankers, brokers, and others concerned 
 in commercial affairs meet at certain 
 times for the transaction of business. 
 The institution of exchanges dates from 
 the 16th century. They originated in 
 the important trading cities of Italy, 
 Germany, and the Netherlands, from 
 which last-named country they were 
 introduced into England. In some ex- 
 changes only a special class of business 
 is transacted. Thus there are stock ex- 
 changes, corn exchanges, coal exchanges, 
 cotton exchanges, etc. 
 
 EXCHANGE, in commerce, that spe- 
 cies of transactions by which the debts 
 of individuals residing at a distance are 
 canceled by order, draft, or bill of ex- 
 change, without the transmission of 
 specie. The process of liquidating obli- 
 gations between different nations is car- 
 ried on in the same way by an exchange 
 of foreign bills. When all the accounts of 
 one country correspond in value with 
 
 those of another, so that there is an even 
 balance, the exchange between the 
 countries will be at par, that is, the sum 
 for which the bill is drawn in the one 
 country will be the exact value of it in 
 the other. Exchange is said to be at 
 par when, for instance, a bill drawn in 
 New York for the payment of $500 in 
 London can be purchased there for 
 $500. If it can be purchased for less, 
 exchange is under par and is against 
 London. If the purchaser is obliged to 
 give more, exchange is above par and in 
 favor of London. Although the thou- 
 sand circumstances which incessantly 
 affect the state of debt and credit pre- 
 vent the ordinary course of exchange 
 from being almost ever precisely at par, 
 its fluctuations are confined within nar- 
 row limits, and if direct exchange is un- 
 favorable between two countries this 
 can often be obviated by the interposi- 
 tion of bills drawn on other countries 
 where an opposite state of matters pre- 
 vails. See also Bill of Exchange. 
 
 EXCHEQ'UER, in Britain, the de- 
 partment which deals with the moneys 
 received and paid on behalf of the public 
 services of the country. The public 
 revenues are paid into the Bank of Eng- 
 land (or of Ireland) to account of the 
 exchequer, and these receipts as well 
 as the necessary payments for the public 
 service are under the supervision of an 
 important official called the controller 
 and auditor general, the pa}^ents be- 
 ing granted by him on receipt of the 
 proper orders proceeding through the 
 treasury. The public accounts are also 
 audited in his department. 
 
 EXCISE', an inland duty or impost 
 laid on commodities produced and con- 
 sumed within a country, and also on 
 licenses to manufacture and deal in 
 certain commodities. 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION, the exclusion 
 of a Christian from the communion and 
 spiritual privileges of the church. Ex- 
 communication was practiced early by 
 the Christian church. A distinction 
 gradually arose between a lesser and a 
 greater excommunication, the former 
 being a suspension from church privi- 
 leges, the latter a formal expulsion ex- 
 cluding from all comiq,union with the 
 faithful. In the middle ages the pope 
 often excommunicated whole cities and 
 kingdoms. In such a case all religious 
 services ceased and the grave inconven- 
 iences thus caused made excommunica- 
 tion a formidable weapon in the hands 
 of the pope, till with frequent abuse it 
 lost its force. Besides excommunication 
 an extreme degree of denunciation called 
 anathema, and cutting the offender off 
 from all the hopes and consolations of 
 the Christian faith, is used in the Roman 
 Catholic Church. In the Church of Eng- 
 land both the less and the greater ex- 
 communication are recognized. 
 
 EXCRE'TION,” in physiology, the 
 separation and carrying off of waste 
 matter from an animal body, a function 
 performed by the lungs, kidneys, blad- 
 der, and tb'^ skin, besides the action of 
 the intestinal canal. 
 
 EXECUTION, in law, is a judicial writ 
 grounded on a judgment of the court by 
 which the writ is issued, and is granted 
 for the purpose of carrying the judgment 
 into effect, by having it executed. Exe- 
 
EXECUTIONER 
 
 EXMOUTH 
 
 cution is granted by a court only upon 
 the judgments given by the same court, 
 not upon those pronounced by another. 
 
 EXECUTIONER, the official who car- 
 ries into effect a sentence of death, or 
 inflicts capital punishment in pursuance 
 of a legal warrant. In England the duty 
 of executing the extreme sentence of the 
 law devolves upon the sheriff, and in 
 Scotland on the civic magistracy, but in 
 practice the duty is performed by an- 
 other in their presence. In the U. States 
 the duty devolves upon the sheriff. 
 
 EXEC'UTIVE, that branch of the 
 government of a country by which the 
 laws are carried into effect or the en- 
 forcement of them superintended. The 
 term is used in distinction from the 
 legislative and the judicial departments, 
 and includes, the supreme magistrate 
 whether emperor, king, president, or 
 governor, his cabinet or ministers, and a 
 host of minor officials. 
 
 EXEC'UTOR, in law, is one appointed 
 by a man’s last will to carry its pro- 
 visions into execution after the testator’s 
 death. The testator may, by the com- 
 mon law, appoint any person of sound 
 mind and discretion, though otherwise 
 under some legal disabilities as to con- 
 tracting and transacting business in gen- 
 eral, such as a married woman, or a minor. 
 The duties of executors and of adminis- 
 trators are, in general, the same, the dif- 
 ference of the two depending mostly on 
 the mode of appointment, 'the executor 
 being nominated by the testator, the 
 administrator being appointed by the 
 judge of probate. An executor is liable 
 for any loss occurring to the estate 
 through negligence; for paying legatees 
 before all debts are discharged. 
 
 EXEGESIS (-je'sis), the exposition or 
 interpretation of The Scriptures. The 
 science which lays down the principles of 
 the art of sacred interpretation is called 
 exegetics or hermeneutics. 
 
 EX'ETER, a city, river-port, and 
 parliamentary and municipal borough 
 of England, in the county of Devon, on 
 the left bank of the Exe, 10 miles north- 
 west from its outlet in the English Chan- 
 nel. By means of a canal vessels of 300 
 tons can reach the city. The largest 
 vessels remain at Exmouth. Exeter is a 
 place of remote antiquity, having been a 
 British settlement long prior to the in- 
 vasion of the Romans, Pop. 37,580. 
 
 EXHIBITION, Industrial, an exhibi- 
 tion of works of industry and art for the 
 purpose of exciting public interest and 
 promoting trade and manufactures. In 
 1798 an industrial exhibition of the prod- 
 ucts of French industry was held at 
 Paris, and proved so successful that in 
 1802, during the consulate of Napoleon,- 
 another was held. The beneficial effects 
 of these exhibitions were so obvious that 
 a series of them was held at intervals, 
 the eleventh and last being held at Paris 
 in 1849. In Britain exliibitions of a more 
 or less local nature had been held in 
 Dublin (1829), Manchester, Liverpool,^ 
 and Birmingham, and annually in Lon- 
 don in thd premises of the Society of 
 Arts. All these had been generally suc- 
 cessful, but the necessity of holding one 
 on an international scale was first 
 brought fairly before the public in 1848 
 by Prince Albert. A vast structure of 
 -iron and glass, the design of Joseph Pax- 
 
 ton, was erected in Hyde Park, London, 
 and was opened by Queen Victoria on 
 the 1st of May, 1851. The entire area 
 was about 19 acres; the number of ex- 
 hibitors reached 15,000. In 1855 the 
 first French Exposition Universelle was 
 opened in Paris. The buildings were 
 erected in the Champs Elys6es, and 
 covered about 24 acres. There were in 
 all about 24,000 exhibitors. This was 
 followed by the national exhibitions of 
 the Dutch at Haarlem and the Belgians 
 at Brussels, both in 1861, and the follow- 
 ing year by the second great interna- 
 tional exhibition held in London. The 
 second French International Exhibition 
 was opened on the 1st April, 1867, and 
 closed on the 3d November. It was 
 erected on the Champ de Mars, and 
 covered about 37 acres. The- exhibitors 
 numbered nearly 50,000, the visitors 
 about 10,000,000. In 1873 the first Aus- 
 trian international exhibition was held 
 in Vienna. A great exhibition was held 
 at Philadelphia in 1876 upon the occas- 
 sion of the centennial festival of the 
 American declaration of independence. 
 It occupied 60 acres, and had nearly 
 10,000,000 visitors. A third French In- 
 ternational Exhibition was held at Paris 
 in 1878, the area occupied amounting in 
 all to 140 acres, the visitors numbering 
 about 17,000,000. A fourth was held in 
 1889, the latter being partly intended to 
 commemorate the centenary of the 
 French Revolution. One of the features 
 in connection with it is the famous Eiffel 
 Tower of iron, 984 feet high, and thus 
 more than 400 feet higher than any 
 other structure. In 1883 a series of ex- 
 hibitions began at South Kensington, 
 London, where the exhibits were con- 
 fined to articles having relation to a 
 special department. To this series be- 
 longed The Fisheries Exhibition of 1883, 
 the Health Exhibition of 1884, the Ex- 
 hibitions of Inventions in 1885 and the 
 Exhibition of Colonial and Indian Prod- 
 ucts in 1886. This latter was visited by 
 5,550,749 persons. Besides these Edin- 
 burgh had an International Exhibition 
 of Industry, Science, and Arts in 1886, 
 visited by 2,769,632 persons. In 1887 a 
 Royal Jubilee Exhibition of Arts and 
 Manufactures was opened at Manches- 
 ter, and was visited by 4,765,000 persons 
 In the following year a great Interna- 
 tional Exhibition of Industry, Science, 
 and Art was held at Glasgow, and at- 
 tracted during the season 5,748,379 
 visitors.. In 1892-93 an International 
 Exhibition of majestic proportions was 
 held in Chicago, Illinois, to commemor- 
 ate the 400th anniversary of the dis- 
 covery of America. The total number of 
 visitors was 27,539,521.- This exhibition 
 presented the finest examples of archi- 
 tectural beauty and grandeur ever seen 
 on earth. Other notable exhibitions in 
 the U. S. were the California Mid-Winter 
 Exhibition in San Francisco in 1894; 
 The Cotton States and Industrial Expo- 
 sition in Atlanta, Ga., in 1895; the Ten- 
 nessee Centennial Exposition in Nash- 
 ville in 1897. In 1898 the Trans-Missis- 
 sippi Exposition at Omaha, Neb., was 
 unqualifiedly successful. In 1899 a Na- 
 tional Export Exposition was held in 
 Philadelphia, whicn resulted in a great 
 increase of foreign trade. The Pan- 
 American Exposition in Buffalo to cele- 
 
 brate the achievements of the Western 
 Hemisphere during one hundred years, ^ 
 and to promote commerce among the 
 Pan-American countries, was opened • 
 
 May 1 and closed Nov. 1, 1901. The J 
 site occupied 350 acres. The South 
 Carolina Inter-State and West Indian ■ 
 
 Exposition in Charleston in 1901-02, the 
 World’s Fair in St. Louis in 1904 in cele- j 
 bration of the Louisiana purchase. The 
 French held a great International Expo- * 
 sition at Paris, 1900, which, in the num- • 
 ber of admissions, was far in excess of 
 any similar affair. This was opened by 
 President Loubet, April 14, and closed 
 Nov. 12. 
 
 EXILE, the condition of a person who ^ 
 either voluntarily or by penal sentence »' 
 absents himself from his own country in 
 order to escape the consequences to life, 
 liberty, or property that residence at 
 home would bring with it ; also, the per- 
 son who so absents himself. Exile is as a 
 punishment unknown to English law, 
 unless it be in the form of transportation 
 by act of Parliament, or as a condition 
 of release by the executive from a capi- 
 tal or other severe punishment. ^ 
 
 Free countries, unless overawed by 
 superior power, have generally given 
 refuge to political exiles, and seldom 
 have they delivered them up on demand 
 from the exile’s country. This was the 
 boast of Athens, which Demosthenes 
 calls the common place of refuge for 
 Greece; he also pronounces it to be the 
 common usage of all men to give shelter 
 to an exile. The connection of the exile 
 with his native land of course ceases. 
 
 The jurisdiction over him depends on 
 the laws of the land where he is domi- 
 ciled. If, as sometimes happens, he en- 
 gages in plots \yith accomplices in his 
 native country, he is amenable to the 
 law of his domicile for any criminal acts 
 he may commit within its jurisdiction. 
 
 Such a person is sometimes demanded 
 by the authorities of his original home, 
 in order to be proceeded against by its 
 laws and modes of trial. But a free 
 country will refuse to surrender its ter- 
 ritorial rights in such cases. 
 
 EXMOUTH, Edward Pellew, Vis- 
 count, a British naval officer, born in 
 1757. He went to sea at the age of thir- 
 
 Vlscount Exmouth. 
 
 teen, served as midshipman in the Blond 
 frigate during the American war, and 
 greatly distinguished himself at Lake 
 Champlain. In 1804 we was sent to take 
 the chief command on the East Indian 
 
 

 JEXODUS 
 
 station, in the Culloden, of seventy-four 
 guns; and here he remained till 1809, 
 when he had attained the rank of vice- 
 admiral. In 1816 he proceeded to Algiers 
 in command of a combined fleet of 
 twenty-flve English and Dutch ships to 
 enforce the terms of a treaty regarding 
 the abolition of Christian slavery which 
 the dey had isolated. He bombarded the 
 city for seven hours, and inflicted such 
 immense damage that the dey consented 
 to every demand. Twelve hundred 
 Christian slaves were by this exploit re- 
 stored to liberty. Lord Exmouth was 
 raised to the dignity of a viscount for 
 this/service. He died in 1833. 
 
 EX'ODUS, the name given in the Sep- 
 tuagint to the second book of the Pen- 
 tateuch, because it describes the depart- 
 ure of the Israelites from Egypt. The 
 contents of the book are partly historical 
 describing the departure of the Israelites 
 from Egypt, and partly legislative, de- 
 scribing the promulgation of the Sinaiti 
 law. One of the difficulties connected 
 with this book is that, according to 
 Scriptural chronology, the residence of 
 the Israelites in Egypt was only 215 
 years, and it seems incredible that in 
 this time “the threescore and ten souls” 
 who accompanied Jacob to Egypt could 
 have become the two and a half millions 
 who left with Moses. 
 
 EXOGENOUS PLANTS (eks-oj'e-nus), 
 or EXOGENS, those plants whose stems 
 are formed by successive additions to the 
 outside. The e.xogens are the largest 
 primary class of plants in the vegetable 
 kingdom, and their increase by annual 
 additions of new layers to the outside of 
 
 ^ Exogenous plants. 
 
 :■ • 1, Section of a branch of three years' growth. 
 
 a. Medulla or pith. 6, Medullary sheath, ee, 
 “ Medullary rays, c c, Circles of annual growth. 
 •" d. Bark. 2, Netted veined leaf of exogen (Oak). 
 ‘ 3, Dicotyledonous seed of exogen. a a, Coty- 
 
 ledons. 4. Germination of dicotyledonous 
 seed, a a, Seed-leaves of cotyledons, o, Plum- 
 ula. 5, Exogenous flower (crowfoot) . 
 
 their stems, formed in the cambium be- 
 tween the wood and the bark, is a feature 
 in which they differ essentially from en- 
 dogens, whose wood is formed by suc- 
 cessive augmentations from the inside. 
 S The concentric circles thus annually 
 formed, distinguishable even in the 
 oldest trees, aid in computing the age of 
 the tree. The stem and branches also ex- 
 hibit a central pith and medullary rays 
 extending outwards to the bark. All 
 the trees of cold climates, and the prin- 
 cipal part of those in hot, are exogenous, 
 and are readily distinguished from those 
 that are endogenous by the reticulated 
 venation of their leaves, and by their 
 seeds having two cotyledons (dicotyle- 
 donous). The parts of the flower are 
 generally in fours or fives. 
 
 I 
 
 EX'ORCISM, the casting out of evil 
 spirits by certain forms of words or cere- 
 monies. An opinion prevailed in the an- 
 cient church that certain persons, those 
 particularly who were afflicted with cer- 
 tain diseases, especially madness and 
 epilepsy, were possessed by evil spirits. 
 Over such persons forms of conjuration 
 were pronounced, and this act was called 
 exorcism. There were even certain men 
 who made this a regular profession, and 
 were called exorcists. Exorcism still 
 makes a part of the beliefs of some 
 churches. In the Roman Catholic Church 
 exorcist is one of the inferior orders of 
 the clergy. 
 
 EXOTTC, belonging to foreign coun- 
 tries; a term used especially of plants. 
 Exotic plants are such as belong to a soil 
 and climate entirely different from the 
 place where they are raised. They are 
 nearly always greenhouse or hothouse 
 plants. 
 
 EXPANSION^ in physics, is the en- 
 largement or increase in the bulk of 
 bodies, in consequence of a change in 
 their temperature. This is one of the 
 most general effects of heat, being com- 
 mon to all bodies whatever, whether 
 solid or fluid. The expansion of fluids 
 varies considerably, but, in general, the 
 denser the fluid, the less the expansion ; 
 thus water expands more than mercury, 
 and spirits of wine more than water ; and, 
 commonly, the greater the heat, the 
 greater the expansion; but this is not 
 universal, for there are cases in which ex- 
 ansion is produced, not by an increase, 
 ut by a diminution of temperature. 
 Water, in cooling, ceases to contract at 
 42° F. ; and at about 39°, just before it 
 reaches the freezing point (32°), it begins 
 to expand again, and more and more rap- 
 idly as the freezing point is reached. 
 This expansion is about one-eleventh of 
 its bulk, and accounts for the bursting of 
 pipes, etc. , when wateris freezing in them. 
 
 EX PARTE, a title frequently used in 
 legal proceedings. If Black is adjudged 
 bankrupt the title of the bankruptcy 
 proceedings is In re Black; and if a 
 creditor named Smith makes an applica- 
 tion in the cause for an order or deter- 
 mination in his behalf, his proceeding is 
 entitled. Ex parte Smith in re Black. 
 So if Jones applied for leave to sue on 
 official bond this preliminary proceed- 
 ing is entitled Ex parte Jones. The term 
 is also used to describe the application 
 or proceeding itself: Statements made 
 in a judicial proceeding under such cir- 
 cumstances that the opposite party has 
 no opportunity to challenge their ac- 
 curacy are often spoken of as ex parte. 
 
 EXPATRIATION, the voluntary aban- 
 donment of one's native country with 
 the intention of becoming a citizen of 
 another state. The right of a person to 
 throw off the obligation of allegiance has 
 been denied" by eminent writers and 
 some governments. The true view would 
 seem to be that the power to determine 
 when the allegiance of the citizen may 
 cease belongs to the state of which he is 
 a member, rather than to himself. At 
 the same time the freedom of intercourse 
 between nations in modern times and 
 the interests of civilization require that 
 the various nations should provide 
 liberal rules by which at proper times 
 the relation of the citizen to the state 
 
 EXPLOSION 
 
 may cease, and the individual, freed from 
 the ties of burdensome allegiance, may 
 assume another citizenship if ho so desire. 
 
 EXPECTATION, in the doctrine of 
 chances, the value of any prospect of 
 prize or property depending upon the 
 happening of some uncertain event. 
 A sum of money in expectation upon a 
 certain event has a determinate value 
 before that event happens. If the 
 chances of receiving or not receiving a 
 hundred pounds, when an event arrives, 
 are equal; then, before the arrival of the 
 event the expectation is worth half the 
 money. — Expectation of life, the prob- 
 able duration of the life of individuals of 
 any given age. A rough estimate of any- 
 one’s expectation of life is made by cal- 
 culating two-thirds of the difference be- 
 tween his or her present age and eighty. 
 
 EXPEC'TORANTS, in pharmacy, mea- 
 icines which favor the discharge of 
 mucus from the windpipe and air-pas- 
 sages of the lungs. Such are the stimu- 
 lating gums and resins, squills, ipecac- 
 uanha, etc. 
 
 EXPERTMENT, an operation de- 
 signed to discover some unknown truth, 
 principle, of effect, or to establish it 
 when discovered. It differs from obser- 
 vation in the fact that the phenomena 
 observed are, to a greater or less extent, 
 controlled by human agency. Experi- 
 ment distinguishes the modern method 
 of investigating nature, and to it we owe 
 the rapid strides made in chemistry, 
 physics, etc. 
 
 EXPERT, a person eminently skilled 
 in any particular branch or profession- 
 specifically a scientific or professional 
 witness who gives evidence on matters 
 connected with his profession, as an 
 analytical chemist or a person skilled in 
 handwriting. 
 
 EXPERT TESTIMONY, in law, the 
 testimony of expert witnesses, or, as they 
 are commonly called, experts. The func- 
 tion of an expert witness is to examine a 
 real or supposed case of facts and inter- 
 pret them. They are called to give their 
 testimony because, by reason of their 
 special knowledge or skill in the matter 
 in question, they are able to interpret or 
 give accurate opinions concerning them 
 where other men would not be qualified 
 so to do. Their function is to give their 
 opinions or judgments merely as wit- 
 nesses of a matter of fact, actual or sup- 
 posititious, presented to them, to aid the 
 final judges of fact (the court or jury, as 
 the case may be), but not to bind them. 
 Notwithstanding the opinion either one 
 way or the other of the expert witness 
 employed to testify in any matter or pro- 
 ceeding at law, the final judgment as to 
 the actual facts of the case, which shall 
 be binding upon the parties to the litiga- 
 tion or proceeding, if for the jury, judge, 
 or referee, as the case may be. 'The ex- 
 pert witness judges of the relation of the 
 phenomena which he sees or perceives 
 by his senses to the general rules of the 
 science or art in which he is skilled or 
 learned; but he has no part in the judg- 
 ment as to the relation of the facts in- 
 volved in the case to legal rules. He 
 usually states what in his opinion would 
 be a fact upon the supposition that cer- 
 tain other facts are true. 
 
 EXPLO'SION, a sudden bursting, gen- 
 erally due to the rapid production of 
 
EXPLOSIVES 
 
 EYE 
 
 gaseous matter from solids to liquids. 
 Thus the explosion of gunpowder is due 
 to the sudden formation and expansion 
 of gases into which the powder is con- 
 verted by chemical agency. Explosions 
 are often caused by the elastic force of 
 steam confined in boilers, etc. 
 
 EXPLO'SIVES, are compounds prac- 
 tically available in war, in mining, and in 
 general use for the sudden development 
 of immense force. They comprise gun- 
 powder, gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine with 
 its compounds dynamite, litho-fracteur, 
 
 EX POST FACTO, in law, by some- 
 thing done after and bearing upon some- 
 thing previously done ; thus a law is said 
 to be ex post facto, or retrospective, 
 when it is exacted to punish an offense 
 committed before the passing of the law. 
 
 EXPRESS', a special message, mes- 
 senger, or conveyance, sent on a particu- 
 lar occasion. The name is given to any 
 regular provision made for the speedy 
 transmission of messages, parcels, com- 
 missions, and the like; and particularly 
 to a railway train which travels at 
 specially high rate of speed, stopping 
 only at the principal stations. ^ 
 
 EXPRESS, (1) Fast passenger service. 
 The minimum standard of express trains 
 in the U. States is about 40 miles an 
 hour. An express on the New York 
 Central road, running from New York 
 to Buffalo, makes 440 miles in 6 hours 
 and forty-seven minutes. On the Lake 
 Shore and Michigan Southern, Buffalo to 
 Chicago, 525 miles in seven hours and 
 fifty minutes. 
 
 (2) Arrangements for fast conveyance 
 of parcels. In continental Europe this 
 service is performed by the post-office; 
 in the United Kingdom mainly by the 
 railways themselves, though the parcels- 
 post is also well developed; in North 
 America by companies specially organ- 
 ized for the purpose. The parcels ex- 
 press business was started by W. F. 
 Hamden between Boston and New York 
 in 1839, this forming the beginning out 
 of which the Adams Express Company 
 ultimately grew. The Wells-Fargo Ex- 
 press was started in 1845, and the Ameri- 
 can Express some five years later. Be- 
 sides these the most important com- 
 panies are the United States and the 
 Southern. 
 
 EXPRESSED OILS, in chemistry, are j 
 those which are obtainable from bodies 
 only by pressing, to distinguish them 
 from mineral and essential oils, which 
 last are, for the most part, obtained by 
 distillation. 
 
 EX'TRACT, a term to denote all that 
 can be dissolved out of a substance by a 
 specified menstruum, such as water, 
 alcohol, ether, etc. In modern phar- 
 macy the term is applied to two kinds 
 of preparation from vegetables. One is 
 got by digesting the plant in water or 
 other solvent, and evaporating or distill- 
 ing away the excess of solvent until the 
 extracted . matter is sufficiently in- 
 spissated. The other is got by bruising 
 the plant in a mortar, separating the 
 juice, warming it until the green color- 
 ing matter separates, and filtering it off. 
 The juice is next heated until the albu- 
 men coagulates, and again filtered. The 
 juice is now evaporated to a S 3 rrup, the 
 green coloring matter added and well 
 
 mixed, and the evaporation is thereafter 
 continued until the required concentra- 
 tion is attained. Extracts must be 
 capable of being redissolved, so as to 
 form a solution like that from which 
 they were derived. Extracts are used in 
 cookery, medicine, and the manufacture 
 of perfumery. 
 
 EXTRACT OF MEAT, a preparation 
 of beef, and sometimes of mutton, or of 
 both combined, in which the muscular 
 fiber, fat, and gelatin are removed, and 
 the highly nitrogenous elements pre- 
 served and condensed into a semi-solid 
 mass of about the consistence of ordi- 
 nary butter. Most of what is sold in 
 Europe and the U. States comes from 
 Buenos Ayres, where its manufacture 
 was first established under the super- 
 vision of the chemist Liebig. 
 
 Extract of meat is of variable quality 
 and composition, and at the best but im- 
 perfectly represents the beef it was made 
 from; some forms of it are stimulants 
 merely. Nevertheless, it is useful in pre- 
 paring soups, and especially in nourish- 
 ing those who are sick of low fevers, 
 pysemia, and other like diseases. 
 
 EXTRADI'TION, the act by which a 
 person accused of a crime is given up by 
 the government in whose territories he 
 has taken refuge to the government of 
 which he is a subject. Treaties have 
 been entered into by the U. States with 
 almost all civilized countries for the ap- 
 prehension and extradition of persons 
 charged with particular offenses, such as 
 murder, robbery, embezzlement by pub- 
 lic officers, arson, rape, piracy, etc. The 
 constitution of the U. States provides 
 that “a person charged in any state with 
 treason, felony, or other crime, who shall 
 flee from justice and be found in'another 
 state, shall, on demand of the executive 
 authority of the state from which he fled, 
 be delivered up to be removed to the 
 state having jurisdiction of the crime.” 
 
 EXTRAVAGAN'ZA, in music, the 
 drama, etc., a species of composition de- 
 signed to produce effect by its wild irreg- 
 ularity and incoherence; differing from a 
 burlesque in being an original composi- 
 tion and not a mere travesty. 
 
 EXTREME UNCTION has been, since 
 the 12th century, one of the seven sacra- 
 ments of the Catholic Church. It is per- 
 formed in cases of mortal disease by 
 anointing in the form of a cross, the eyes; 
 ears, nose, mouth, hands, feet, and reins 
 (in the case of males). It is administered 
 after confession and the eucharist, and 
 is believed to remove the last stains of 
 sin. It can only be administered by a 
 bishop or priest, and is not applied in the 
 case of young children or excommuni- 
 cated persons. 
 
 EXTREMITIES, the limbs, as distin- 
 guishing them from the other divisions 
 of the animal, the head and trunk. The 
 extremities are four in number, in man 
 named upper and lower; in other animals 
 anterior and posterior. 
 
 EYCK (ik), Hubert and Jan van, 
 brothers, famous painters of the old 
 Flemish school, born at Maaseyck, 
 Hubert in 1366, Jan probably about 
 1390. They lived first at Bruges, whence 
 the younger brother is called John of 
 Bruges, and afterwards at Ghent, to 
 which they removed about 1420. Here 
 they executed the celebrated Adoration 
 
 of the Lamb for the cathedral of Ghentij 
 a painting which, in its different parts, 
 contains above three hundred figures, 
 and is a masterpiece. It was in two hori- 
 zontal divisions, comprising ten panels, 
 of which only the two central ones re- 
 main at Ghent, the others being at Ber- 
 lin. Hubert did not live to see it com- 
 pleted. He died at Ghent (1426), as did 
 also his sister Margaret, who was like- 
 wise a painter (1431). Jan finished the 
 work in 1432, and returned to Bruges, 
 where he remained till his death, which 
 took place in 1441, and executed several 
 excellent pieces. His reputation became 
 very great even during his lifetime, by 
 his share in the introduction of oil- 
 painting, the original invention of which 
 has been incorrectly ascribed to him by 
 many. Jan van Eyck also introduced 
 improvements in linear and aerial per- 
 spective, and in painting upon glass. 
 
 EYE, the visual apparatus of animals, 
 consisting in man of the globe of the eye, 
 the muscles which move it, and of its 
 appendages, which are the eyelids and 
 eyebrows, and the lachrymal apparatus. 
 The walls of the globe of the eye are 
 formed principally of two fibrous mem- 
 branes; one white and opaque — the 
 sclerotic (Gr. skleros, hard) — which en- 
 velops two-thirds of the globe poster- 
 iorly; and the other transparent, and 
 resembling a horny plate, whence its 
 name, cornea (Lat. corneus, horny). 
 The sclerotic is a tough fibrous coat, and 
 is the part to which tfie phrase ‘‘white of 
 
 Human eye. 
 
 Interior, o. Pupil. 6, Iris. e. Cornea, d. 
 Crystalline lens, e. Vitreous humor. ^.Retina. 
 g. Choroid coat. A, Sclerotic coat, ti, Central 
 vein of the retina, k. Optic nerve, m. Ciliary 
 processes, n. Ciliary ligament or circle. 
 
 Exterior. I, Eyebrow, o p. Upper and lower 
 eyelid, a:®, Eyelashes. The pupil and iris are 
 also shown at a and b respectively. 
 
 the eye” is applied. In the front of the 
 globe the sclerotic is abruptly trans- 
 formed into the transparent portion 
 (the cornea), which is circular and which 
 forms a window through which one can 
 see into the interior. A mucous mem- 
 brane, the conjunctiva, so named be- 
 cause it unites the eye to the lid, spreads 
 over the anterior portion of the globe, 
 and then folds back on itself and lines 
 the internal surface of the eyelids. On 
 the internal, surface of the sclerotic is a 
 vascular membrane called the choroid. 
 This is essentially the blood-vessel coat 
 of the eyeball. The front part of the 
 choroid terminates about the place 
 where the sclerotic passes into the cor- 
 nea in a series of ridges, the ciliary pro- 
 cesses. The circular space thus left in 
 front by the termination of the choroid is 
 occupied by the iris, a round curtain, the 
 structure seen through the cornea, dif- 
 ferently colored in different individuals. 
 In its center is a round hole, the pupil, 
 which appears as if it were a black spot. 
 The iris forms a sort of transverse par- 
 tition dividing the cavity of the eyeball 
 into two chambers, a small anterior 
 
EYE-PIECE 
 
 EZRA 
 
 chamber filled with the aqueous humor, 
 and a large posterior chamber filled 
 with vitreous humor. The iris consists 
 of a framework of connective tissue, and 
 its posterior surface is lined by cells con- 
 taining pigment which gives the color to 
 the eye. In its substance are bundles of 
 involuntary muscular fibres, one set be- 
 ing arranged in a ring round the margin 
 of the pupil, the other set radiating from 
 the pupil like the spokes of a wheel. In a 
 bright light the circular fibres contract 
 and the pupil is made smaller; but in the 
 dark these fibres relax and cause the 
 pupil to dilate more or less widely, thus 
 allowing only that quantity of luminous 
 rays to enter the eye which is necessary 
 to vision. , Just behind the pupil is the 
 crystalline lens, resembling a small, very 
 strongly magnifying glass, convex on 
 each side, though more so behind. The 
 greater or less convexity of the surfaces 
 of the lens determines whether the vision 
 is long or short. The internal surface of 
 the choroid, or rather the pi^entary 
 layer which covers it is lined by the 
 retina or nervous tunic upon which the 
 objects are depicted that we see. It ap- 
 pears to be formed by the expansion of 
 the optic nerve, which enters the eye at 
 its posterior part about one-tenth of an 
 inch to the inner side of the axis of the 
 eyeball, and forms at the bottom of the 
 globe an enlargement, which is called the 
 papilla of the optic nerve. Microscopists 
 describe the retina as being composed of 
 five, or even eight layers, of which the 
 internal one is vascular and in contact 
 with the vitreous ; the external one, very 
 important in a physiological point of 
 view, is the membrane of Jacob. It is 
 composed of cones and cylinders or rods, 
 joined together like the stakes of a pali- 
 sade, perpendicular to the plane of the 
 membrane, and forming by their free 
 extremities a mosaic, each microscopic 
 division of which is about O'OOl of a line 
 in diameter according to Robin, and 
 O’OOOS of a line according to Helmholtz; 
 and represents a section of a rod. These 
 rods and cones are believed to be the 
 agents by whose aid the waves of light 
 become transformed into the stimulus 
 of a sensation. The ocular globe is put 
 in motion in the orbit by six muscles, 
 grouped two by two, which raise or 
 lower the eye, turn it inward or out- 
 ward, or on its antero-posterior axis. 
 In these movements the center of the 
 globe is immovable, and the eye moves 
 round, its transverse and vertical diame- 
 ters. These three orders of movements 
 are independent of each other, and may 
 be made singly or in combination, in such 
 a manner as to direct the pupil toward 
 all points of the circumference of the 
 orbit. Each eye is furnished with two 
 eyelids, moved by muscles, which shield 
 it from too much light and keep it from 
 being injured. They are fringed with 
 short fine hairs called eyelashes; and 
 along the edge of the lids is a row of 
 glands similar to the sebaceous glands of 
 the skin. The eyebrows, ridges of thick- 
 ened integument and muscle, situated 
 on the upper circumference of the orbit 
 and covered with short hairs, also regu- 
 
 late to som6 extent the admission of 
 light by muscular contraction. In rep- 
 tiles, some fishes (sharks, etc.), in birds i 
 and in some mammals a third eyelid or i 
 nictitating member is present, and can i 
 be drawn over the surface of the eye so i 
 as to clear it of foreign matters, and also i 
 to modify the light. The lachrymal ap- i 
 paratus is composed of, firstly, the ' 
 lachrymal gland, which lies in a depres- ( 
 sion of the orbital arch ; secondly, of the i 
 lachrymal canals, by which the tears are i 
 poured out upon the conjunctiva a little 1 
 above the border of the upper lid; third- i 
 ly, the lachrymal ducts, which are des- ; 
 tined to receive the tears after they have 1 
 bathed the eye, and of which the orifices j 
 or lachrymal points are peen near the i 
 internal commissure of the'lids ; fourthly, 
 the lachrymal sac, in which the lachry- 
 mal ducts terminate, and which empties 
 the tears into the nasal canaL The tears, 
 by running over th^ surface of the con- 
 junctiva, render it supple and facilitate 
 the movements of the globe and eyelids 
 by lessening the friction. The influence 
 of moral or physical causes increases 
 their secretion, and when the lachrymal 
 ducts do not suffice to carry them off 
 they run over the lids. 
 
 Vision. — The retina renders the eye 
 sensible of light, and we may therefore 
 consider it as the essential organ of 
 vision. The function of the other por- 
 tions is to converge the luminous rays to 
 a focus on the surface of the retina, a 
 condition necessary for distinct vision 
 and the clear perception of objects. The 
 visual impressions are transmitted from 
 the retina to the brain by means of the 
 optic nerve, of which that membrane 
 appears to be the expansion. The two 
 optic nerves converge from the base of 
 the orbit toward the center of the base 
 of the skull, where there is an inter- 
 lacement of their fibres in such a man- 
 ner that a portion of the right nerve goes 
 to the left side of the brain, and a part 
 of the left nerve to the right side ; this is 
 called the chiasma or commissure of the 
 optic nerves. Tl/e principal advantage 
 of having two eyes is in the estimation of 
 distance and the perception of relief. 
 In order to see a point as single by two 
 eyes we must make its two images fall 
 on corresponding points of the retinas; 
 and this implies a greater or less con- 
 vergence of the optic axes according as 
 the object is nearer or more remote. To 
 accommodate the eye to different dis- 
 tances the lens is capable of altering it- 
 self with great precision and rapidity. 
 When we look at a near object the an- 
 terior surface of the lens bulges forward 
 becoming more convex the nearer the 
 object; the more distant the object the 
 more the lens is flattened. When the 
 transparency of the cornea, the crygtal 
 line lens, or any of the humors, is de- 
 stroyed, either partially or entirely, then 
 will partial or total blindness follow, 
 since no image can be formed upon the 
 retina; but although all the humors and 
 the cornea be perfectly transparent, and 
 retain their proper forms, which is like- 
 wise necessary to distinct vision, yet, 
 from weakness or inactivity of the optic 
 
 nerve, or injury of the central ganglia 
 with which it is connected, weakness of 
 sight or total blindness may ensue. De- 
 fective vision may also arise from the 
 crystalline lens being so convex as to 
 form an image before the rays reach the 
 retina (a defect known as short sight or 
 myopia), in which case distinct vision 
 will be procured by interposing a con- 
 cave lens between the eye and the object 
 of such a curvature as shall cause the 
 rays that pass through the crystalline 
 lens to meet on the retina; or the lens 
 may be too flat, as in the case in old age, 
 a defect which is corrected by convex 
 lenses. In the lower forms of life the or- 
 gans of sight appear as mere pigment 
 spots. Ascending higher, simple lenses 
 or refracting bodies occur. Insects, crus- 
 taceans, etc., have large masses of simple 
 eyes or ocelli aggregated together to 
 form compound eyes — the separate 
 facets or lenses being optically distinct, 
 and sometimes numbering many thou- 
 sands. In the molluscs well-developed 
 eyes approaching in structure those of 
 the highest animals are found; and in all 
 vertebrate animals the organ of vision 
 corresponds generally to what has been 
 described, though they vary much in 
 structure and adaptation to the sur- 
 roundings of the animal. 
 
 EYE-PIECE, in a telescope, micro- 
 scope, or other optical instrument, the 
 lens, or combination of lenses to which 
 the eye is applied. 
 
 EZE'KIEL (“God shall strengthen”), 
 the third of the great prophets, a priest, 
 and the son of Buzi. He was carried 
 away when young (about 599 b.c.) into 
 the Babylonish captivity. His prpphetic 
 career extended over a period of 22 
 years, from the 5th to the 27th year of 
 the captivity. The Book of Ezekiel con- 
 tains predictions made before the fall of 
 Jerusalem^ 586 b.c. (chaps. I.-xxiv.); 
 prophecies against some of the neigh- 
 boring tribes (chaps, xxv.-xxxii.) ; proph- 
 ecies concerning the future of Israel 
 (xxxiii.-xxxix.) ; and a series of visions 
 relating to the circumstances of the peo- 
 ple after the restoration. 
 
 EZRA., a celeb rate(^ Jewish scribe and 
 priest. Under his guidance the second 
 . expedition of the Jews set out from 
 ; Babylon to Palestine under the reign of 
 • Artaxerxes I., about 458 b.c. The im- 
 5 portant services rendered by Ezra to his 
 > countrymen on that occasion, and also 
 
 - in arranging, and in some measure, it is 
 
 - believed, settling the canon of Scripture, 
 . are especially acknowledged by the Jews, 
 
 - and he has even been regarded as the 
 I second founder of the nation. Josephus 
 } states that he died in Jerusalem; others 
 i assert that he returned to Babylon, and 
 3 died there at the age of 120 years. The 
 1 Book of Ezra contains an account of the 
 
 - favors bestowed upon the Jews by the 
 1 Persian monarchs, the rebuilding of the 
 , temple, Ezra’s mission to Jerusalem, 
 3 and the various regulations and forms 
 1 introduced by him. It is written partly 
 1 in Hebrew and partly in Chaldee, which 
 
 - have led some to conclude that it is the 
 , work of different hands. 
 
p 
 
 F^CES 
 
 F, the sixth letter of the English al- 
 phabet, is a labio-clental articulation, 
 formed by the passage of breath between 
 the lower lip and the upper front teeth. 
 It is classed as a surd spirant, its corres- 
 ponding sonant spirant being v, which is 
 distinguished from f by being pro- 
 nounced with voice instead of breath, 
 as may be perceived by pronouncing ef, 
 ev. (In if, of, however, f is = v.) The 
 figure of the letter F is the same as that 
 of the ancient Greek digamma, which it 
 also closely resembles in power. 
 
 F, in music, is the fourth note of the 
 diatonic scale. 
 
 FA, the name given by Guido to the 
 fourth note of the natural diatonic scale 
 of C. 
 
 FABLE, in literature, a term applied 
 originally to every imaginative tale, but 
 confined in modern use to short stories, 
 either in prose or ver^e, in which animals 
 and sometimes inanimate things are 
 feigned to act and speak with human in- 
 terests and passions for the purpose of 
 inculcating a moral lesson in a pleasant 
 and pointed manner. The fable consists 
 properly of two phrts — the symbolical 
 representation and the application, or 
 the instruction intended to be deduced 
 from it, which latter is called the moral 
 of the tale, and must be apparent in the 
 fable itself. The oldest fables are sup- 
 posed to be the oriental; among these 
 the Indian fables of Pilpay or Bidpai, 
 and the fables of the Arabian Lokman, 
 are celebrated. ((See Bidpai and Lok- 
 man.) /vmong the Greeks, ^sop is the 
 master of a simple but very effective 
 style of fable. The fables of Phaedrus are 
 a second-rate Latin version of those of 
 .iEsop. In modern times Gellert and 
 Lessing among the Germans, Gay among 
 the English, the Spanish Yriarte, and 
 the Russian Ivan Kriloff, are celebrated. 
 The first place, however, among modern 
 fabulists belongs to the French writer 
 La Fontaine. 
 
 FACADE (fa-sad' or fa-sad'), the face, 
 front view, or principal elevation of a 
 building. It usually contains the princi- 
 pal entrance. 
 
 FACE,! the front part of the head, the 
 seat of most of the senses. The bony 
 basis of the face, exclusive of the thirty- 
 two teeth (these not being in the strict 
 sense bones), is composed of fourteen 
 bones, called, in anatomy, the bones of 
 the face. The anterior part of the skull 
 also forms an important feature of the 
 face. Of all these bones the lower jaw 
 only is movable, being articulated with 
 the base of the skull. The other bones 
 are firmly joined together and incapable 
 of motion. In brutes the jaws project 
 much more than in men, and form the 
 prominent feature of the face, while the 
 forehead recedes. The face of birds com- 
 prehends the ophthalmic regions, cheeks, 
 temples, forehead and vertex; the face 
 of insects includes all between the pro- 
 boscis and the prothorax. 
 
 FACIAL ANGLE, an angle of import- 
 ance in the method of skull measurement 
 introduced by Camper, the Dutch 
 anatomist, who sought to establish a 
 connection between the magnitude of 
 
 this angle and the intelligence of differ- 
 ent animals and men, maintaining vhat 
 it is always greater as the intellectual 
 powers are greater. Suppose a straight 
 line drawn at the base of the skull, from 
 the great occipita cavity, across the ex- 
 ternal orifice of the ear to the bottom of 
 the nose, and another straight line from 
 the bottom of the nose, or from the roots 
 of the upper incisors, to the most promi- 
 nent part of the forehead, then both 
 
 Facial angle. 
 
 1, European. 2, Negro. 
 
 lines will form an angle which will be 
 more or less acute. In apes this angle is 
 only from 45° to 60°; in the skull of a 
 negro, about 70°; in a European, from 
 75° to 85°. In another mode of drawing 
 the lines the angle included between 
 them varies in man from 90° to 120°, 
 and is more capable of comparison 
 among vertebrate animals than the 
 angle of Camper. This angle though of 
 some importance in the comparison of 
 races, is fallacious as a test of individual 
 capacity. 
 
 FACIAL NERVE, a nerve of the 
 seventh pair of cranial nerves, a motor 
 nerve which supplies the muscles of ex- 
 pression on either side of the face. Paraly- 
 sis of this nerve produces facial paralysis, 
 the result of which is that the affected 
 side is smooth, unwrinkled, and motion- 
 less, the eyelids are wide open and cannot 
 be closed, and the muscles of the sound 
 side having it all their own way drag the 
 mouth to that side. 
 
 FACTOR, in arithmetic, the multiplier 
 and multiplicand, from the multiplica- 
 tion of which proceeds the product; thus 
 7 and 4 are the factors of 28. In algebra 
 any expression which is considered as 
 part of a product is considered a factor. 
 
 FAC'TORY (from factor), a name 
 which appears originally to have been 
 given to establishments of merchants 
 and factors resident in foreign countries; 
 it now more commonly signifies a place 
 in which the various processes of a par- 
 ticular manufacture are carried on simul- 
 taneously. The rapid growth of factories 
 in this sense is a comparatively recent 
 development of industry, resulting from 
 the free use of machinery and the con- 
 sequent subdivision of labor. Among the 
 advantages of the factory system are 
 generally counted: 1st, increased pro- 
 ductiveness arising from the minute 
 division of labor; 2d, the mechanical 
 accuracy and the cheapness of the pro- 
 duct turned out by machinery; 3d, the 
 facilities for union and co-operation for 
 common inprovement afforded by bring- 
 ing large masses of workmen together. 
 But this last consideration is probably 
 more than counterbalanced by the 
 smaller amount of independent intelli- 
 
 gence called forth in the individual 
 worker, through the monotony of the 
 minutely subdivided operations. De- 
 cided disadvantages of the factory sys- 
 tem are the unhealthiness of the crowd- 
 ed rooms, where the air is full of deleteri- 
 ous elements; and the increasing de- 
 mand on the labor of women and child- 
 ren, interfering as it does with the 
 economy of domestic life. 
 
 FACTORY ACTS, acts passed for the 
 regulation of factories and similar estab- 
 lishments. Considering that women and 
 children were not qualified fully to pro- 
 tect themselves against the strain of 
 competition, the British legislature has 
 passed a series of acts to regulate the 
 conditions of their emplo 5 rment in 
 factories. Various acts were passed up 
 to 1878, when what is known as the 
 Factory and Workshop Act was passed. 
 It consolidates the previous series of 
 statutes, and may be said to contain 
 practically all the law dealing with the 
 subject. It has general provisions regard- 
 ing drainage, ventilation, and fencing of 
 dangerous machinery, etc. In textile 
 factories the hours of labor for women 
 aresTestricted to ten, with Saturday for a 
 half -holiday. The hours for children 
 (those under fourteen years of age) are 
 fixed at half of those allowed to women 
 and young persons (“young persons” 
 being defined as those between fourteen 
 and eighteen). Provision is made for 
 holidays and for attendance at school of 
 children employed in factories. Special 
 provisions for particular kinds of fac- 
 tories are made by separate acts, and 
 under these the employment of females 
 and young persons is regulated in bleach- 
 ing and dyeing works, lace-factories, 
 manufactories of earthenware, lucifer 
 matches, percussion caps, cartridges, 
 blast-furnaces, copper-mills, forges, foun- 
 dries, manufactories of machinery , metal, 
 india-rubber, gutta-percha, paper, glass, 
 tobacco, letterpress printing, book- 
 binding, etc. In all the states of the 
 American Union in which the factory is 
 an industrial feature there is some legis- 
 lation relative to the employment of 
 women and children. Attention is given 
 to the age of children employ- ed, and 
 attendance at public schools for a cer- 
 tain period each year is obligatory. The 
 daily hours of labor are regulated. In 
 some states the belting, shafting, etc.', 
 employed must be Securely guarded. 
 Penalties for violation of these pro- 
 visions are designated. 
 
 FACULTY, the members taken col- 
 lectively of the medical or legal profes- 
 sions; thus we speak of the medical 
 faculty, etc. The term is also used for 
 the professors and teachers collectively 
 of the several departments in a uni- 
 versity' ; as, the faculty of arts, of theol- 
 ogy, of medicine, or of law. 
 
 FACULTY, in law, is a power to do 
 something, the right to do which the law 
 admits, or a special privilege granted by 
 law to do something which would other- 
 wise be forbidden. 
 
 F.®CES, the excrementitious part 
 evacuated by animals. It varies of 
 course with different species of animals, 
 
FAHRENHEIT 
 
 FAIR WEATHER 
 
 according to their diet. The main con- 
 stituents are unassimilable parts of the 
 food, on which the digestive process has 
 no effect, ahd other portions, quite nu- 
 tritious, but which have escaped diges- 
 tion, also certain waste matters, etc. In 
 disease the composition varies ex- 
 tremely. 
 
 FAHRENHEIT, (fa'r^n-hit), Gabriel 
 Daniel, German physicist, known for his 
 arrangement of the thermometer, was 
 born at Dantzig in 1686. Abandoning 
 the commercial profession for which he 
 had been designed, he settled in Holland 
 to study natural philosophy. In 1720 he 
 effected a great improvement by the use 
 of quicksilver instead of spirits of vine 
 in thermometers. He invented the 
 Fahrenheit scale (see Thermometer), 
 and made several valuable discoveries in 
 physics. He died in 1736. 
 
 FAIENCE (fa-yens'), imitation porce- 
 lain, a kind of fine pottery, superior to 
 the common pottery, in its glazing, 
 beauty of form, and richness of painting, 
 and of which several kinds are distin- 
 guished by critics. It derived its name 
 from the town of Faenza, in Italy, where 
 a fine sort of pottery called majolica was 
 manufactured as early as the 14th cen- 
 tury. The majolica reached its greatest 
 perfection between 1530 and 1560. In 
 the Louvre, at Berlin, and at Dresden 
 are rich collections of it. The modern 
 faience appears to have been invented 
 about the middle of the 16th century, at 
 Faenza as an imitation of rnajolica, and 
 obtained its name in France, where a 
 man from Faenza, having discovered a 
 similar kind of clay at Nevers, had in- 
 troduced the manufacture of it. True 
 faience is made of a yellowish or ruddy 
 earth, covered with an enamel which is 
 usually white, but may be colpred. This 
 enamel is a glass rendered opaque by 
 oxide of tin or other suitable material, 
 and is intended not only to glaze the 
 body, but to conceal it entirely. See 
 Pottery. 
 
 FAINTING, or syncope, a sudden sus- 
 pension of the heart’s action, of sensa- 
 tion, and the power of motion. It may 
 be produced by loss of blood, pain, 
 emotional disturbance, or organic or 
 other diseases of the heart. It is to be 
 treated by placing the patient on his 
 back in a recumbent position or even 
 with his head slightly depressed, sprink- 
 ling cold water on his face, applying stim- 
 ulant scent to the nostrils, or anything 
 which tends to bring back the blood to 
 the brain. The admission of fresh cool 
 air and the loosening of any tight article 
 of dress are important. 
 
 FAIRBAIRN, Sir William, British 
 civil engineer, born at Kelso, Roxburgh- 
 shire in 1789. About 1831, his Attention 
 having been attracted to the use of iron 
 as a material for ship-building, he built 
 the first iron ship. He shares with Mr. 
 Stephenson the merit of constructing 
 the great tubular bridge across the 
 Menai Strait'. Fairbairn was one of the 
 earliest members of the British associa- 
 tion for the advancement of science, of 
 which he was president in 1861-62. He 
 was created a baronet in 1869. He died 
 18th August, 1874. 
 
 FAIRBANKS, Charles Warren, Ameri- 
 can statesman, was born in Union co., 
 Ohio, in 1852. In 1874 he was admitted 
 
 to the bar of the supreme court of Ohio 
 at Columbus, and in the same year he 
 removed to Indianapolis, Ind. In 1893 
 he was delegate at large to the Republi- 
 can National Convention at St. Louis, 
 in 1896, and was temporary chairman of 
 the convention. He was appointed a 
 member of the United States and British 
 Joint High Commission which met in 
 Quebec in 1898 for the adjustment of 
 Canadian questions, especially referring 
 to the seal fisheries of Alaska. He was 
 elected to the U. States senate in 1897. 
 In 1904 he was elected vice-president on 
 the republican ticket. 
 
 FAIRBANKS, Thaddeus, American 
 inventor, born in Brimfield, Mass., in 
 1796. In June, 1831, he patented the 
 platform scales being his name. After- 
 ward about fifty different improvements 
 were made on these scales which have 
 been sold in all parts of the world. He 
 died in 1886. 
 
 FAIRCHILD, Charles Stebbins, Ameri- 
 can financier, born in Cazendria, N. Y., 
 in 1842. He was admitted to the bar in 
 1865 and became deputy-attorney-gen- 
 eral of New York in 1874, and attorney- 
 general in 1876. He was assistant secre- 
 tary of the treasury in 1857 to 1887, and 
 secretary in 1887-9. 
 
 FAIRCHILD, Lucius, American sol- 
 dier, born in Kent, Ohio, in 1831. At 
 the beginning of the civil war he en- 
 listed as a private in the federal army 
 and in 1861 was appointed a captain in 
 the regular army and major in the volun- 
 teer army. He took part in the battles of 
 Bull Run and Antietam, and led the 
 charge up Seminary Hill at Gettysburg, 
 lie was promoted brigadier-general in 
 1863 but resigned to become secretary 
 of state of Wisconsin. He was after- 
 ward elected governor and served six 
 consecutive terms. In 1886 he was 
 chosen commander in chief of the Grand 
 Army of the Republic. He died in 
 1896. 
 
 FAIRFAX, Thomas, Lord, a distin- 
 guished commander and leading charac- 
 ter in the civil v/ars which distracted 
 England in the 17th century. He was 
 born in 1611, at Denton, in Yorkshire, 
 being son and heir of Ferdinando, Lord 
 Fairfax, to whose title and estates he 
 succeeded in 1648. After serving in the 
 Netherlands with some reputation he 
 returned to England, and on the rupture 
 between Charles I. and the parliament 
 joined the forces of the latter. In 1642 
 he was appointed general of the horse, 
 and two years later held a chief com- 
 mand in the army sent to co-operate 
 with the Scots. In 1645, on the resigna- 
 tion of the Earl of Essex, Fairfax be- 
 came general-in-chief of the parliamen- 
 tary army. After the victory at Naseby 
 he marched into the western countries, 
 quelling all opposition, put down the 
 insurgents in Kent and Essex in 1647, 
 and captured Colchester. In April, 1649, 
 he was occupied along with Cromwell in 
 suppressing revolt in the army; but 
 positively declined to march against the 
 Scottish Presbyterians. He was a mem- 
 ber of Cromwell’s first parliament. He 
 co-operated in the restoration of Charles 
 II., being one of the committee charged 
 to secure his return. He died at Nun 
 Appleton, Yorkshire, 12th November, 
 1671. 
 
 FAIRIES, Elves, etc., imaginary super- 
 natural beings or spirits supposed to 
 have considerable influence for good or 
 evil in the affairs of men. In the 12th 
 century the poem of Lancelot of the 
 Lake introduced the poetical treatment 
 of the fairy world into France; and the 
 fairies played at important part in the 
 romantic works of the time. In the last 
 part of the 17th century the true fairy 
 tales first became popular, the Italians 
 taking the lead in. the Pentameron of 
 Basilio. The fashion passed to France, 
 where Perrault in 1697 published Contes 
 de ma Mere I’Oye. Numerous imitations 
 soon appeared. The best collections of 
 later times have been those of the 
 Brothers Grimm in German, and in 
 English those of Keightley and Croker. 
 As an original writer of fairy tales, Hans 
 Christian Andersen, the celebrated Dane 
 deserves particular mention. 
 
 FAIRS, periodical meetings of per- 
 sons having goods or wares for sale in an 
 open market held at a particular place, 
 and generally for the transaction of a 
 particular class of business. The origin 
 of fairs is obviously to be traced to the 
 convenience of bringing together at 
 stated times the buyers and sellers of 
 the stock-produce of a district. In 
 Europe the numerous festivals of the 
 church afforded the most favorable op- 
 portunity for the establishment of these 
 markets. This association is indicated 
 in the German name of a fair, which is 
 identical with that used for the cere- 
 mony of the mass. In the middle ages 
 fairs were of great importance, and were 
 specially privileged and chartered by 
 princes and magistrates, public procla- 
 mation being made of their commence- 
 ment and duration. But modern facili- 
 ties of communication have much di- 
 minished the necessity for periodical 
 markets, and it is now chiefly among 
 agriculturists that they are of much im- 
 portance, large agricultural meetings be- 
 ing held in various districts for the sale 
 of cattle and horses, and for the ex- 
 hibition of agricultural implements. 
 There are also, especially in Scotland, a 
 considerable number of hiring fairs for 
 farm-servants. In the less developed 
 commerce of the east, however, they 
 still retain much of their ancient import- 
 ance and magnitude. In Europe the 
 most important fairs of the present day 
 are those at Leipzig, and Frankfort-on- 
 the Main in Germany, at Lyons in 
 France, and at Nijni-Novgorod in Rus- 
 sia. The latter is, indeed, the largest fair 
 in the world. The fairs of Great Britain 
 now mostly consist of the weekly mar- 
 ket-days of country towns and the agri- 
 cultural meetings already mentioned. 
 In many places the old fair-days are still 
 kept, but are now merely an assemblage 
 of penny-theaters, peep-shows, and such 
 amusements. In the U. States there are 
 no fairs of the kind so common in the old 
 world; the term is applied so a variety 
 of exhibitions, especially of cattle and 
 agricultural products. It also includes 
 exhibitions and sales for religious and 
 charitable purposes. 
 
 FAIRWEATHER, Mount, on the wnst 
 coast of North America, in Alaska terri- 
 tory. It rises to the height of 14,900 
 feet, and is covered with perpetual 
 snow. 
 
FAITH 
 
 FALKLAND ISLANDS 
 
 - FAITH, the assent of the mind to the 
 truth of what is declared by another, 
 resting on his authority and veracity, 
 either without other evidence or on 
 probable evidence of any kind. In a 
 special sense the term faith is used for 
 the assent of the mind to what is given 
 forth as a revelation of man’s relation to 
 God and the infinite, i. e. a religious 
 faith ; and in Christian theology we have 
 (1st) historical or speculative faith, or 
 belief in the historic truthfulness of the 
 Scripture narrative and the claims of 
 Scripture to an inspired and super- 
 natural origin : (2d) Evangelical or saving 
 faith, that emotion of the mind (as 
 Dwight defines it) which is called trust, 
 or confidence exercised toward the moral 
 character of God, and particularly of the 
 Savior. 
 
 FAITH, Confession of. See Confession 
 of Faith. 
 
 FAITH CURE, the curing or attempt- 
 ing to cure disease by appealing to the 
 patient’s faith. Also any cure supposed 
 to have been effected by such means. 
 The legal status of practitioners of faith 
 cure — divine healing, faith healing, 
 mental science, prayer cure, etc. — have 
 in recent years arisen in different states 
 but thus far no final determination of 
 them has been reached. 
 
 FAKIRS (fa-kerz'), a kind of fanatics 
 met with chiefly in India and the neigh- 
 boring countries, who retire from the 
 world and give themselves up to con- 
 templation. They are properly of the 
 Mohammedan religion, but the term is 
 bften used for a medicant of any faith. 
 They are found both living in com- 
 munities and solitary. The wandering 
 fakirs gain the veneration of the lower 
 classes by absurd penances and self 
 mutilations. 
 
 FALCON (fa'kn), a name of various 
 birds of prey. The falcons proper for 
 strength, symmetry, and powers of flight 
 are the most perfectly developed of the 
 feathered race. They are distinguished 
 
 by having the beak curved from the 
 base, hooked at the point, the upper 
 mandible with a notch or tooth on its 
 cutting edge on either side, wings long 
 and powerful, the second feather rather 
 the longest, legs short and strong. The 
 largest European falcons are the jer- 
 falcon or gyrfalcon proper, a native of 
 the Scandinavian Peninsula, and the 
 Iceland falcon, to which may be also 
 added the Greenland falcon. Between 
 these three species much confusion at 
 one time prevailed, but they are now 
 distinctly defined and described. In the 
 Greenland falcon the prevailing color at 
 
 all ages is white, in the Iceland falcon 
 dark. The latter more nearly resembles 
 the true gyrfalcon of Norway, which, 
 however, is generally darker, rather 
 smaller, but with a longer tail. The 
 average length of any of these falcons is 
 about 2 feet . The Greenland species used 
 to be the most highly prized by falcon- 
 ers. Its food consists chiefly of ptarmi- 
 gans, hares, and water-fowl. It is found 
 over a wide range of northern territory. 
 The peregrine falcon is not so large as 
 the jerfalcon, but more elegant in shape. 
 It chiefly inhabits wild districts, and 
 nestles among rocks. It preys on grouse, 
 partridges, ptarmigans, pigeons, rab- 
 bits, etc. Its flight is exceedingly swift, 
 said to be as much as 150 miles an hour. 
 The peregrine falcon was one of those 
 most frequently used in falconry. Other 
 British falcons are the hobby, formerly 
 a great favorite for the chase of small 
 game when falconry was in fashion; the 
 merlin, small but swift and spirited; the 
 kestrel, one of the most common British 
 falcons. The term falcon is by sportsr 
 men restricted to the female, the male, 
 
 Gerfalcon. 
 
 which is smaller and less courageous, 
 being called tiercel, tersel, tercelet, or 
 falconet. 
 
 FALCON'IDjE, a family of birds of 
 prey, in which the destructive powers 
 are most perfectly developed. The fam- 
 ily includes the different species of eagles 
 as well as the hawks and falcons proper- 
 ly so-called, comprising the sub-families, 
 buzzards, eagles, falcons, kites, hawks, 
 
 Q H n Cl I'T*! PTC 
 
 FALCONRY (fa'kn-ri), the pursuit of 
 game by means of trained falcons or 
 hawks; also called hawking. Falconry 
 is a very old amusement in Europe and 
 Asia. In the middle ages it was the 
 favorite sport of princes and nobles; and, 
 as ladies could engage in it, it became 
 very prevalent. Charlemagne passed 
 laws in regard to falconry. In Germany 
 Henry the Fowler and the Emperor 
 Frederick the Second were much ad- 
 dicted to this sport, the latter having 
 written a work on falconry. In France it 
 reached its height under Francis - 1., 
 whose grand falconer had under him an 
 establishment of 15 nobles and 50 fal- 
 coners. In Britain it was practiced 
 among the Anglo-Saxons, but grew still 
 more in favor after the Norman Con- 
 quest. In England the Duke of St. 
 Albans is still hereditary grand falconer, 
 and presents the king with a cast (or 
 pair) of falcons on the day of his corona- 
 tion. Falconry continued in favor till 
 the 17th century; but the invention of 
 fire-arms gradually superseded it, though 
 
 in isolated instances gentlemen may be 
 still be found who pursue the sport to 
 some little extent. In Persia and other 
 eastern countries hawking is still in 
 great favor. The training of a hawk is a 
 matter requiring great pains and pro- 
 
 Gosliawk hooded for falconry. 
 
 tracted attention, the natural wildness 
 and intractableness of the birds being 
 difficult to overcome. When a hawk 
 suffers itself to be hooded and unhooded 
 quietly and will leap on the hand of the 
 trainer to receive food, its education is 
 considered far advanced, and the trainer 
 now endeavors to accustom it to the lure. 
 This may be a piece of leather or wood 
 covered with the wings and feathers of 
 a bird and attached to a cord. The falcon 
 is fed from it, and is recalled by the 
 falconer swinging the lure round his 
 head with an accompanying cry. When 
 it has been taught to obey the lure it is 
 then practiced in the mode of seizing 
 its game, which is first done with tame 
 game attached to a peg. It is then made 
 to fly at free game, and when it is fully 
 trained it is used for sport. It is always 
 kept hooded during excursions, until it 
 is wanted to fly. 
 
 FAL'KIRK, a parliamentary burgh 
 of Scotland, in Stirlingshire, 2}^ miles 
 west by north of Edinburgh. Falkirk is 
 of great antiquity, and is associated with 
 many remarkable historical events. In 
 the neighborhood was fought the Battle 
 of Falkirk in 1297 between Sir William 
 Wallace and Edward I., the Scots, who 
 were much inferior in numbers, being 
 defeated. About 1 mile southwest from 
 the town the Highlanders under Prince 
 Charles defeated the royal forces under 
 General Hawley, Jan. 17, 1746. Pop. 
 16,615. 
 
 FALKLAND, (fak'land), an ancient 
 royal burgh of Scotland, county of Fife, 
 21 miles north of Edinburgh. It was 
 once the residence of the Scottish kings, 
 and possesses remains of an ancient 
 palace and some curious old houses. 
 There was formerly a castle here, in 
 which David, eldest son of Robert III., 
 was starved to death by order of his 
 uncle the Duke of Albany, but no trace 
 of it now remains. Pop. 972. 
 
 FALKLAND ISLANDS, an island 
 group belonging to Great Britain, in the 
 South Atlantic Ocean, about 300 miles 
 east of the Straits of Magellan. They 
 consist pf two larger islands. East Falk- 
 land and West Falkland, containing re- 
 spectively about 3000 and 2300 sq. 
 miles, with a great number of smaller 
 ones surrounding them ; total area, 6500 
 
' FALLACY 
 
 eq. miles. They are hilly and boggy, 
 entirely destitute of trees, but covered 
 with a variety of grasses very nutritive 
 for the sheep and cattle, the rearing of 
 which is the principal industry. Fish 
 and sea-fowl abound. The climate is 
 equable and very healthy. The Falk- 
 land Islands were discovered by Davis 
 on the 14th August, 1592. In 1710 a 
 French vessel from St. Malo touched at 
 them, and named them Isles Malouines. 
 Settlements were afterwards formed on 
 them by tlife French, Spaniards, and 
 English alternately, but the latter have 
 ultimately retained possession of them. 
 The colony has a governor and other 
 officers appointed by the crown. Port 
 Stanley, in East Falkland, is a thriving 
 settlement. Pop. of the group, 1800. 
 
 FAL'LACY, in logic, is when an argu- 
 ment is used as decisive of a particular 
 issue, which in reality it does not decide. 
 Properly a fallacy is a fault in the form 
 of reasoning but the term is applied also 
 to faults in the substance of the argu- 
 ment or proving one proposition by 
 assuming another which is identical 
 with it; or mistaking the point at issue; 
 or arguing as if sequence were the same 
 thing as cause and effect. 
 
 FALLING SICKNESS. See Epilepsy. 
 
 FALLING STARS. See Meteors. 
 
 FALL OF BODIES, all bodies on the 
 dearth, by virtue of the attraction^ of 
 •gravitation, tend to the center of the 
 earth. A ball held injthe hand presses 
 
 • downward; if dropped, it descends per- 
 pendicularly; if placed on an inclined 
 plane, it rolls down, in doing which it 
 presses the plane with a part of its 
 weight. In the air bodies fall with un- 
 equal velocities, a piece of paper, for in- 
 stance, more slowly than a ball of lead ; 
 and it was formerly thought that the 
 velocity of the fall of bodies was in pro- 
 portion to their weight. This error was 
 attacked by Galileo, who, experimenting 
 with balls of different substances which 
 he dropped from the tower of Pisa, was 
 led to the conclusion that the resistance 
 
 • of the air acting on different extents of 
 surface was the cause of the unequal 
 velocities, and that in a vacuum all 
 bodies would fall with the same velocity. 
 The truth of this last proposition was 
 first demonstrated by Newton in his 
 celebrated “guinea-and-feather” experi- 
 ment, where a guinea-and feather are 
 ishown to fall side by side in the vacuum 
 of the air-pump. This experiment proves 
 ihat the force of gravitation in bodies is 
 proportional to their inertia, that is to 
 their mass. The laws of falling bodies, 
 that is of bodies falling freely in a straight 
 line and through a distance short in com- 
 parison with the earth’s center, are the 
 iollowing; 
 
 1. When a body falls from rest it ac- 
 quires velocity at the rate of about 32'2 
 feet per second. This number, which 
 .represents the acceleration due to the 
 ■force of gravity, varies slightly with the 
 locality, increasing from the equator to 
 Ihe poles, and diminishing as we recede 
 from the center of the earth. At the end 
 (of five seconds therefore, the body would 
 Le found to be moving at the rate of 
 5 x 32'2, that is 161 feet per second. 
 
 2. The space fallen through in the 
 first second is half of 32‘2, that is 16'1 
 feet; and the space fallen through in any 
 
 given time is found by multiplying the 
 square of the number of seconds by 16T. 
 Thus, in three seconds a body falls 
 9 X 16T feet, or 144'9 feet. 
 
 3. The square of the velocity ac- 
 quired by falling through any number 
 of feet is found by multiplying twice 
 that number by 32'2. Thus if a body 
 falls 9 feet, the square of the velocity 
 acquired is 2 x 32 x 9, or 576 feet per 
 second, 32 being used instead of 32'2 
 and taking the square root of 576, we 
 find that a velocity of 24 feet is acquired 
 in a fall of 9 feet. 
 
 4. When a body is projected vertically 
 upward with a given velocity, it con- 
 tinues to rise during a number of seconds 
 found by dividing the number that ex- 
 presses the velocity of projection by 
 32‘2; and it rises to a height found by 
 dividing the square of that number by 
 2 X 32-2, or 64-4. 
 
 FALL OF MAN, a commonly received 
 doctrine of Christianity, founded upon 
 the historical narrative contained in the 
 third chapter of the book of Genesis, to- 
 gether with the allusions to the same 
 matter in other parts of Scripture. 
 Adam, having eaten of the forbidden 
 fruit, is said to have fallen; and the rela^- 
 tion of mankind in general to this fall is 
 stated by St. Paul in the words: “By 
 one man’s disobedience many were made 
 sinners” (Rom. v. 19). Thus, in the fall 
 of Adam, all men are held to have fallen 
 and to have contracted “original sin,” 
 alienating them from God and rendering 
 them morally inadequate. The doctrine 
 of the fall does not stand alone in Scrip- 
 ture. It is universally agreed by inter- 
 preters that in the original sentence pro- 
 nounced on the transgressors there is 
 contained the promise of a redemption, 
 and that the whole scope of Scripture is 
 directed to the development of this 
 promise, and of the divine scheme of 
 providence associated with it. 
 
 FALLOPIAN TUBES, in anatomy, are 
 two ducts which open by one extremity 
 into the womb, one at either angle of the 
 fundus, and terminate at the other end 
 in an open trumpet-shaped mouth, 
 which at certain times grasps the ovary 
 and receives the ovum. They are named 
 after Fallopius or Falloppio, an Italian 
 anatomist of the 16th century, who first 
 recognized their functions. 
 
 FALLOW DEER, a European and 
 Western Asiatic deer. It is smaller than 
 the stag, of a brownish-bay color, whitish 
 beneath, on the insides of the limbs, and 
 beneath the tail. The horns, which are 
 peculiar to the male, are very different 
 from those of the stag; they are not 
 properly branched, but are broader 
 toward the upper part, and divided into 
 processes down the outside. A simple 
 snag arises from the base of each, and a 
 similar one at some distance from the 
 first. It was introduced at an early 
 period into Britain. 
 
 FALLOWS, Samuel, clergyman, born 
 at Pendleton, near Manchester, England 
 1835; removed with his parents to Wis- 
 consin 1845; became a minister of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church; entered 
 the army as chaplain 1861; afterward 
 engaged in active military service; 
 reached the rank of colonel and brevet 
 brigadier-general; became rector of St. 
 Paul’s Reformed Episcopal Church, 
 
 FAMINE 
 
 Chicago, 1875; editor-in-chief of the 
 Appeal, the organ of the Reformed 
 Episcopal Church, 1876; and was chosen 
 a bishop of the Reformed Episcopal 
 Church 1876, He has published a Sup- 
 plemental Dictionary and Past Noon, 
 and has edited many well-known books. 
 
 FALL RIVER, a city and port, Bristol 
 CO., Massachusetts, on an arm of Nar- 
 raganset Bay and Taunton river, 53 
 miles s.s.w. of Boston. It is at the head 
 of deep-water navigation, and the ter- 
 minus of a line qf steamers from New 
 York. It contains several handsome 
 streets, and has extensive cotton, woolen 
 and calico-printing factories, iron-works, 
 etc. Pop. 1909, 115,000. 
 
 FALSE IMPRISONMENT, the unlaw- 
 ful imprisonment or detention of any 
 person. Every confinement of the per- 
 son is imprisonment, whether in a com- 
 mon prison or a private house, or even 
 by forcibly detaining one in the streets 
 or highways. The law punishes false 
 imprisonment as a crime, besides giving 
 reparation to the party injured, through 
 an action of trespass. 
 
 FALSE PERSONATION, all forms of 
 false personation, for the purpose of ob- 
 taining the property of others, are pun- 
 ishable by the criminal law; as instances, 
 the personation of the owner of any 
 share, stock, or annuity, etc. ; the false 
 personation of voters at an election is a 
 misdemeanor, the punishment of which 
 is determined by state statute, involv- 
 ing fine, imprisonment, and deprivation 
 of the rights of citizenship for a certain 
 period. 
 
 FALSE PRETENSES, false repre- 
 sentations and statements, made with a 
 fraudulent design to otbtain “money, 
 goods, wares, and merchandise,” with 
 intent to cheat. At common law a mis- 
 demeanor, punishable by statute. 
 
 FALSET'TO, applies in singing, to the 
 notes above the natural compass of the 
 voice. It is also called the head or throat 
 voice, in contradistinction to the chest 
 voice, which is the natural one. The 
 falsetto voice is produced by tightening 
 the ligaments of the glottis. 
 
 FAMILIAR SPIRITS, demons or evil 
 'spirits supposed to be continually within 
 call and at the service of their masters, 
 sometimes under an assumed shape, 
 sometimes attached to a magical ring, or 
 the like, sometimes compelled by magic 
 skill, and sometimes doing voluntary 
 service. AVe find traces of this belief in 
 ages and countries, under various forms. 
 
 FAMILY, in zoological classifications, 
 a group of individuals more compre- 
 hensive than a genus and less so than an 
 order, a family usually containing a 
 number of genera, while an order con- 
 tains so many families. Family names 
 usually terminate in -idse (after Latin 
 patronymics, such as iEacidae, sons or 
 descendants of iEacus). In botany it is 
 sometimes used as a synonym of order. 
 
 FAMINE, a dire want of food affecting 
 considerable numbers of people at the 
 same time. Irregular rainfalls in tropical 
 climates, imperfect methods of irriga- 
 tion, or, as in Ireland, the too exclusive 
 dependence of the mass of people on a 
 single article of food which happens to 
 fail, are among the commonest causes of 
 famines. In the early and mediaeval ages 
 they were frequent; but the rapidity of 
 
FAN 
 
 FARADAY 
 
 modern communication and transport 
 has made the rigor of famine almost im- 
 possible in Europe. In Ireland the years 
 1814, 1816, 1822, 1831, 1846, were 
 marked by failure of the potato crop, 
 and in the last-mentioned year the 
 dearth was so great that tert millions 
 were voted by parliament for relief of 
 the sufferers. India has long been the 
 seat of terrific famines; but of late the 
 British officials have been very success- 
 ful in organizing relief measures. Among 
 the more recent are that in Northwest 
 India (1899-00), in which above 800,000 
 perished; that in Bengal and Orissa 
 (1865-66), when about a million per- 
 ished; that in Bengal (1874), which was 
 very successfully treated; that in Bom- 
 bay, Madras, Mysore (1877), in which 
 about half a million died. In China, a 
 great famine took place in 1877-78, in 
 which over nine millions are said to have 
 perished; another took place in 1888-89 
 owing to the overflow of Ihe Yellow river. 
 
 FAN, the name of various instruments 
 for exciting a current of air by the agita- 
 tion of a broad surface. (1) An instru- 
 ment made of wood or ivory, feathers, 
 thin skin, paper, variously constructed 
 and mounted, and used by ladies to agi- 
 tate the air and cool the face. As an 
 article of luxury the fan was well known 
 to the Greeks and Romans, They are 
 said to have been introduced into Eng- 
 land from Italy in the reign of Henry 
 VIII. (2) Any contrivance of vanes or 
 flat discs revolving by the air of ma- 
 chinery, as for winnowing grain, for 
 cooling fluids, urging combustion, assist- 
 ing ventilation, etc., is also so-called. 
 
 FARAT'ICISM is the term applied 
 more particularly to the extravagance 
 manifested in religious matters by those 
 who allow themselves to be hurried away 
 by their fancy and feelings, to the adop- 
 tion not only of wild enthusiasitc views, 
 but also of inordinate and not unfre- 
 quently persecuting measures. By an 
 extension of the term it is also some- 
 times applied to other forms of extrav- 
 agance. 
 
 FANCY, a term approaching imagina- 
 tion in meaning. In its general accepta- 
 tion it refers both to the forms of the 
 imagination and to the mental faculty 
 which produces them ; but it is used fre- 
 quently for the lighter or more fantastic 
 forms of the imagination, and for the 
 active play of that faculty which pro- 
 duces them. 
 
 FANDT^'GO, an old Spanish dance, 
 which originated most probably with 
 the Moors in Andalusia. It is seldom 
 danced but at the theater, and in the 
 
 C arties of the lower classes. It is danced 
 y two persons only, who never touch 
 so much as each other’s hands; their 
 reciprocal allurements, retreats, ap- 
 proaches, and varied movements, by 
 turns pursuing and pursued, their looks, 
 attitudes, and whole expression, are 
 grossly indicative of voluptuousness. 
 
 FANEUIL HALL (fan'u-il), a public 
 building in Boston, famous as the place 
 where stirring speeches were made at 
 the outbreak of the war for American 
 independence. It obtained the name 
 “The cradle of American liberty.” It 
 was enlarged in 1805. 
 
 FANFARE, a short, lively, loud, and 
 warlike, piece of music, composed for 
 
 trumpets and kettle-droms. Also small, 
 lively pieces performed on hunting- 
 horns, in the chase. 
 
 FANNING ISLANDS, a group of coral 
 islands in Central Polynesia between 1° 
 57' and 5° 49' n. lat., and between 157° 
 and 162° w. Ion. 
 
 FAN-PALM, a name sometimes given 
 to the taliput palm, a native of Ceylon 
 and Malabar It is also applied to the 
 Mauritia palm, a tree which grows in 
 great abundance on the banks of the 
 Orinoco river in South America, and 
 which yields the natives of these regions 
 food, wine (made from its sap), and 
 cordage, besides serving them for hous- 
 ing during the inundations to which the 
 country is subject. 
 
 FAN-TAIL, a variety of the domestic 
 pigeon, so called from the fan-like shape 
 
 Pantails. 
 
 of their tails. Also a name applied to 
 certain Australian birds of the fly- 
 catcher family. ^ 
 
 FAN'TAN, In the American game a 
 pack of 52 cards is used. The deal starts 
 by cutting the cards. Ace high deals. 
 The cards are then dealt to the left, one 
 at a time. As many as eight persons may 
 play. The cards remaining at the finish 
 of the deal are dealt face down to the 
 center of the table. The first player at 
 the left of the dealer must have an ace 
 to play, in which event he plays the ace 
 to the center of the table. Having no 
 ace, he must ante the amount agreed 
 upon (usually 5 cents or less) to the 
 center of the table, and draw one of the 
 remaining cards. Thus the game pro- 
 ceeds until an ace can be played, after 
 which the different stacks of cards are 
 built up consecutively to the king. The 
 first player ridding himself of his cards 
 wins the pot. Failure to play a card in 
 turn is punished by a fine equal to the 
 amount of the ante for every card re- 
 maining in all of the player’s hands. 
 
 FANTA'SIA, in music, a species of 
 composition in which the author ties 
 himself to no particular theme, ranging 
 as his fancy leads him amid various airs 
 and movements. 
 
 Fan-tracery, in architecture, elab- 
 orate geometrical carved work, .which 
 spreads over the surface of a vault- 
 ing, rising from a corbel and diverg- 
 ing like the folds of a fan. Fan-tracery 
 vaulting is much used in the Perpendicu- 
 lar style, in which the vault is covered 
 by ribs and veins of tracery, of which all 
 the principal lines diverge from a point, 
 as in Henry VII. ’s chapel, Westminster. 
 
 FAR'ADAY, Michael, one of the great- 
 est of English chemists and physicists, 
 was born in humble circumstances at 
 Newington Butts, near London, on the 
 22d September, 1791. Early in life he 
 
 was apprenticed to a bookbinder in Lon 
 don, but occupied himself at his leisure 
 hours with electrical and other scientific 
 experiments. Having been taken by a 
 friend to Sir Humphrey Davy’s lectures 
 he attended the course, and conceived 
 such an ardent desire for study that he 
 resolved to quit trade. With this end he 
 sent his notes of the lectures to Sir 
 Humphrey Davy, who was so struck 
 with the great ability they showed that 
 
 Fan-tracery vaulting, Beauchamp chapel, 
 Warwick. 
 
 he appointed him his assistant at th 
 Royal Institution. In 1829 he became 
 lecturer at the Royal Military Academy 
 at Woolwich, and in 1833 he was ap- 
 pointed to the newly-established chair of 
 chemistry at the Royal Institution. It 
 was while, in this office that he made 
 most of his great electrical discoveries. 
 His communications to the Philosophi- 
 cal Transactions have been published 
 separately in three vols. (1839, 1844, 
 1855). In 1832 he received the honorary 
 
 Fan-tracery, Cloisters of Gloucester cathedral, 
 England. 
 
 degree of D.C.L. from Oxford, was made 
 an honorary member of the Academy 
 at Berlin, with many other honors too 
 numerous to mention. He'died Aug. 25, 
 1867. As an experimentalist Faraday 
 was considered the very first of his time.. 
 As a popular lecturer he was equally dis- 
 tinguished, and even used to draw crowds- 
 to the Friday evening lecture at the 
 Royal Institution. Among his pub- 
 lished works we may mention the fol- 
 
FARALLONES 
 
 FASCINATION 
 
 lowing: Researches in Electricity (1831- 
 55), Lectures on Non-metallic Elements 
 (1853), Lectures on the Forces of Matter 
 (I860), Lectures on the Chemical His- 
 tory of a Candle (1861). 
 
 FARALLO'NES, a group of small 
 islands in the Pacific, about 30 miles 
 from the entrance to the Bay of San 
 Francisco. 
 
 FARCE, a dramatic piece of low comic 
 character. It is grotesque and extrava- 
 gant rather than artistically humorous. 
 
 FARCY, a disease to which horses are 
 liable, intimately connected with glan- 
 ders, the two diseases generally running 
 into each other. It is supposed to be a 
 disease of the absorbents of the skin, 
 and its first indication is generally the 
 appearance of little tumors called farcy 
 buds on the face, neck, or inside of the 
 thigh. 
 
 FARDEL-BOUND, a term applied to 
 cattle and sheep affected with a disease 
 caused by the retention of food in the 
 maniplies or third stomach, between the 
 numerous plaits of which it is firmly im- 
 pacted. Over-ripe clover, vetches, or 
 rye-grass are liable to produce the dis- 
 ease. 
 
 FARGO, a city and railway center, 
 the capital of Cass co., N. Dak., situated 
 on the Gt. Northern, C., M. and St. P., 
 and Northern Pacific railways, and on 
 the- west bank of the Red river of the 
 North; at the head of navigation, op- 
 posite Moorehead, Minn. It is one of the 
 most important markets for wheat and 
 farm machinery in the Northwest. Pop. 
 11,362. 
 
 FARIBAULT (far-i-bo'), a city and 
 railway center, the capital of Rice co., 
 Minn., situated at the confluence of 
 Straight and Cannon rivers; 53 miles s. 
 of St.-Paul. Pop. 10,160. 
 
 FARID PUR (fa-red-p6r'), a district of 
 India, in the Dacca Division of Bengal; 
 area, 2276 sq. miles; pop. 1,631,734 
 Chief town, Faridpur, on the Mard 
 Padmd. Pop. 10,263. 
 
 FARI'NA, a term given to a soft, 
 tasteless, and commonly white powder, 
 obtained by trituration of the seeds of 
 cereal and leguminousplants,and of some 
 roots, as the potato. It consists of gluten, 
 starch and mucilage. 
 
 FARI'NI, Luigi Carlo, an Italian 
 statesman and author, born in 1812. 
 He became known as a nationalist and 
 patriot in the political movements of 
 1841, had to leave the country for a 
 time, but returned and was made a mem- 
 ber of the reform ministry at Rome 
 during the disturbances of 1848. After 
 the peace of Villafranca he was chosen 
 dictator of the duchies of Parma and 
 Modena, and was mainly instrumental 
 in inducing them to unite with the Pied- 
 montese monarchy. His History of the 
 Papal States from 1814 to 1850 is well 
 known. In 1862 he became president of 
 the ministry, lost his reason in 1863, 
 and died 1st August, 1866. 
 
 FARMERS-GENERAL, private con- 
 tractors, to whom under the old French 
 monarchy was let out the collection of 
 various branches of the revenue, poll- 
 tax, duties on salt and tobacco, customs, 
 etc. These contractors made enormous 
 profits on the farming of the public 
 revenues. A revenue collected in this 
 way not only imposed a much heavier 
 
 burden on the people but the merciless 
 rigor of irresponsible and uncontrolled 
 exactors subjected them' to hardships 
 and indignities to which they could not 
 submit without degradation. In 1790 
 the system was suppressed by the con- 
 stituent assembly. 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTES, gather- 
 ings of farmers held annually in the 
 various states. The object of these in- 
 stitutes is the bringing together the 
 workers in agricultural science and the 
 practical farmers for the discussion of 
 questions of mutual interest. The 
 growth of farmers’ institutes has been 
 largely owing to the impetus given to 
 the agricultural interests by the Morrill 
 Land Grant Act of 1862. Gatherings are 
 held in over 40 states, generally in the 
 winter when the farmers are free to at- 
 tend them. 
 
 FARMING. See Agriculture. 
 
 FARNE (or Feme) ISLANDS, a group 
 of islets, England, in the German Ocean 
 off the north coast of Northumberland, 
 2 miles e. by s. of Bamborough Castle, 
 and separated from the mainland by a 
 channel of about 1 % mile. They have 
 been the scene of several disastrous 
 shipwrecks. 
 
 FARO, or PHARO, a game of hazard 
 at cjwds, played chiefly in gambling 
 establishments, and in which the player 
 plays against the bank, represented by a 
 professional faro-banker. 
 
 FARO, a promontory forming the 
 northeast point of Sicily at the entrance 
 to the Strait of Messina. The point is 
 strongly fortified, and on it there is a 
 lighthouse 200 years old. 
 
 FAROE ISLANDS (fa'ro), a group of 
 islands in the North Atlantic, lying be- 
 tween Iceland and Shetland. They be- 
 long to Denmark, and are twenty-five 
 in number, of which seventeen are in- 
 habited. The inhabitants are chiefly en- 
 gaged in fishing and the rearing of sheep. 
 Thorshavn, in Stromb, the largest island, 
 is the seat of government. Pop. 12,965. 
 
 FAR'RAGUT, David Glasgow, ad- 
 miral of the U. States, was born in 1801, 
 and entered the navy as midshipman at 
 the age of 9^. In 1821 he was promoted 
 to a lieutenancy, and was actively en- 
 gaged in his profession up till 1851, when 
 
 David G. Farragut. 
 
 he was oppointed assistant inspector of 
 ordnance. In 1855 he received a com- 
 mission as captain. In 1861 he was as- 
 signed to go with the expedition against 
 New Orleans, undertaken on the forma- 
 tion of the confederacy, and sailed in 
 February of the following year. New 
 
 Orleans surrendered to the combined 
 attack of the land and naval forces on 
 25th April, and Farragut proceeded to 
 Vicksburg, running past successfully. 
 In consequence of his success at New 
 Orleans he was promoted to the rank of 
 rear-admiral. In 1863 Farragut at- 
 tempted to pass the batteries of Port 
 Hudson, but was unsuccessful. In Aug- 
 ust, 1864, he attacked the confederate 
 fleet in the bay of Mobile, and forced it 
 to surrender, thus making the fall of 
 Mobile merely a question of time. July 
 25, 1866, he was made admiral, a grade 
 which had not hitherto existed in the 
 U. States navy. He died 14th August, 
 1870. 
 
 FARRAR, Frederic William, The 
 Ven., D.D., F.R.S., born in Bombay, 
 Aug. 7, 1831. He has published several 
 popular theological works and works of 
 fiction, and is known as a popular lec- 
 turer. He was Bampton Lecturer in 
 1885. Among his principal works are: 
 The Life of Christ, Life of St. Paul, The 
 Early Days of Christianity, Lives of the 
 Fathers. He died in 1903. 
 
 FARRIERY. See Veterinary Art. 
 
 FARS, or FARSISTAN, a maritime 
 province in the southwest of Persia, 
 abutting on the Persian Gulf. The manu- 
 factures include woolen, silk, and cotton 
 goods; and in these and other articles an 
 active trade is carried on, chiefly with 
 Hindustan. Pop. estimated at 1,700,000. 
 
 FARTHING, the fourth part of a 
 penny; the modern form of the Anglo- 
 Saxon feorthung, the fourth part of any- 
 thing. 
 
 FAR.THINGALE, or FARDINGALE, 
 
 an article of ladies’ attire worn in the 
 days of Queen Elizabeth, and closely 
 resembling the modern crinoline. It was 
 formed of circles of whalebone hoops, 
 and protruded more at the waist than 
 the modern crinoline. 
 
 FARUKHABAD, or FARRAKHA- 
 BAD (far-ak-a-badO, a city in the north- 
 west Provinces of British India, 2 or 3 
 miles from the Ganges, a handsome well- 
 built town, with avenues of trees in 
 many of its streets. Pop. 78,032. 
 
 FASCES (fas'sez), among the ancient 
 Romans, a bundle of polished rods, in 
 the middle of which was an axe, carried 
 by lictors before the superior magistrates. 
 The number of fasces and lictors varied 
 with the dignity of the magistrate. In 
 the city the axe was laid aside. 
 
 FASCINATION, the exercise of an 
 overpowering and paralyzing influence 
 upon some animals attributed to certain 
 snakes corresponding somewhat to the 
 so-called evil-eye among human beings. 
 Squirrels, mibe, and the smaller birds 
 are said to be the most subject to this 
 power; but the fact is far from clearly 
 explained, and is not perhaps even suf- 
 ficiently demonstrated. Most of the 
 accounts agree in describing the animal 
 fascinated as having a painful conscious- 
 ness of its danger, and the power exer- 
 cised over it, but to be unable to resist 
 the desire to approach the fascinator. 
 Some have endeavored to explain this 
 power as the effect of narcotic emana- 
 tions from the serpent which stupefy the 
 weaker animal. Others regard it as 
 bearing as striking analogy to the mes- 
 meric influence which one human being 
 sometimes has over another. 
 
FASCINES 
 
 fault: 
 
 FASCINES, (fa-senz'), in the miliatry 
 art, bundles of boughs or rods from 6 to 
 18 feet in length and usually 1 foot in 
 diameter, used in raising batteries, 
 strengthening parapets, revetting slopes 
 etc. The twigs are drawn tightly to- 
 gether by a cord, and bands are passed 
 round them at the distance of 2 feet 
 from each other. Very long thin ones are 
 called saucissons or battery-sausages. 
 
 FASHODA, a large town built by the 
 Egyptians in 1867 on the banks of the 
 Nile in the Soudan, n. lat. 10°. It gives 
 its name to that portion of the district. 
 Since 1884 it has been in ruins, tjie 
 Mahdi overthrowing Egyptian rule in 
 that year. In 1898 Marchand, a French 
 adventurer, hoisted the French flag 
 there, but was ousted by the Anglo- 
 Egyptian Sirdar, General Herbert Kitch- 
 ener. 
 
 FASTING, the partial or total ab- 
 stinence of mankind and animals from 
 the ordinary requisite supply of aliment, 
 by which it is to be understood that 
 quantity which is adapted to preserve 
 them in a healthy and vigorous condi- 
 tion. It would appear that various warm 
 blooded animals are eapable of sustain- 
 ing total abstinence much longer than 
 human beings. Cats and dogs have sur- 
 vived for several weeks without nourish- 
 ment of any kind, but it is probable that 
 few human beings eould survive such 
 deprivation for more than a week. The 
 use of water without solid food enables 
 life to be sustained much longer than 
 it eould otherwise be. 
 
 FASTS, temporary abstentions from 
 food, especially on religious grounds. 
 Abstinence from food, accompanied 
 with signs of humiliation and repentance 
 or grief, is to be found more or less in 
 almost all religions. Among the Jews 
 fasts were numerous, and we find many 
 instances of occasional fasting in the Old 
 Testament. Herodotus says that the 
 Egyptians prepared themselves by fast- 
 ing for the celebration of the great festi- 
 val of Isis. So in the Thesmophoria at 
 Athens, and in the rites of Ceres at 
 Rome, it was practiced. The Church of 
 Rome, distinguishes between days of 
 fasting and of abstinence. The former 
 are: 1, the forty days of Lent; 2, the 
 Ember days, being the Wednesday, 
 Friday, and Saturday of the first week 
 in Lent, of Whitsun week, of the third 
 week in September, and of the third 
 week in Advent; 3, the Wednesdays and 
 Thursdays of the four weeks in Advent ; 
 4, the vigils or eves of Whitsuntide, of 
 the feasts of St. Peter and St. Paul, of 
 the Assumption of the Virgin, of All 
 Saints, and of Christmas Day. When any 
 fasting days fall upon Sunday it is ob- 
 served on the Saturday before. The 
 Greek Chureh observes four principal 
 fasts: that of Lent, one beginning in the 
 week after Whitsuntide, one for a fort- 
 night before Assumption, one forty days 
 before Christmas. In the East, however, 
 the strict idea of a fast is more preserved 
 than in the West. 
 
 FAT, an oily concrete substance, a 
 compound of carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen, deposited in the cells of the 
 adipose or cellular membrane of animal 
 bodies. In most parts of the body the 
 fat lies immediately under the skin. Fat 
 is of various degrees of consistence, as in 
 
 tallow, lard and oil. It is generally white 
 or-yellowish, with little smell or taste. 
 It consists of two substances, stearine 
 and elaine or oleine, the former of which 
 is solid, the latter liquid. These elements 
 are separated by pressing the fat be- 
 tween folds of bibulous paper, which 
 absorbs the liquid or oil. By after-treat- 
 ment with water the oil is separated 
 from the paper. Fats are insoluble in 
 water. When boiled with caustic alka- 
 lies they are decomposed (saponification 
 yielding an alkaline salt of the fatty acid 
 (soap) apd glycerine. Human fat ap- 
 pears to contain no stearine, but mar- 
 garine and oleine. It is an excellent 
 packing material in the body, and gives 
 the human frame its smooth rounded 
 contour. Being a bad conductor of heat, 
 it is useful in retaining warmth, but its 
 chief function is that of nutrition. 
 
 FA'TALISM, the belief in fate, or an 
 unchangeable destiny, to which every- 
 thing is subject, uninfluenced by reason, 
 and pre-established either by chance or 
 the Creator. Among notable historical 
 examples of the belief in fate may be 
 mentioned the old Greek conception of a 
 fate which stood behind the gods them- 
 selves as a controlling power; the Mo- 
 hammedan fatalism, wliich regards all 
 things great and small as inexorably 
 predetermined, so that no accident is 
 possible; the theological doctrine of pre- 
 destination among Calvinists. See Pre- 
 destination. 
 
 FATEHPUR (fat-e-p6r'), Indian town 
 in district of the same name, Allahabad 
 division. Northwest Provinces, 50 miles 
 s.e. of Cawnpore. Pop. 21,328. The dis- 
 trict was an area of 1639 sq. miles, and 
 a pop. of 683,745. 
 
 FATES, in Greek and Latin mythol- 
 ogy, the inexorable sisters who spin 
 the thread of human life. The appella- 
 tion Clotho (the spinner) was probably 
 at first common to them aU among the 
 Greeks. As they were three in number, 
 and poetry endeavored to designate 
 them more precisely, Clotho became a 
 proper name, as did also Atropos and 
 Lachesis. Clotho means she who spins 
 (the thread of life) ; Atropos signifies un- 
 alterable fate; Lachesis, lot or chance; 
 so that all three refer to the same sub- 
 ject under different points of view. They 
 know and predict what is yet to happen. 
 Lachesis is represented with a spindle, 
 Clotho with the thread, and Atropos 
 with scissors, with which she cuts it off. 
 We find also in the northern mythology 
 three beautiful virgins, the Nornen, Who 
 determine the fate of men. Their names 
 are Urd (the past), Varande (the present) 
 and Skuld (the future). 
 
 FATHERS OF THE CHURCH, or 
 CHRISTIAN FATHERS. See Church, 
 Fathers of the. 
 
 FATHOM, a unit of length equal to 6 
 feet. It is chiefly used by sailors, who 
 measure soundings, etc., in fathoms. 
 
 FAT'IMITE DYNASTY, a line of 
 caliphs claiming descent from Fatima, 
 the favorite daughter of Mohammed, 
 and of Ali her cousin, to whom she was 
 married. In the year 909 Abu-Moham- 
 med Obeidalla, giving himself out as the 
 grandson of Fatima, endeavored to pass 
 himself off as the Mahdi or Messiah pre- 
 dicted by the Kora. Denounced as an 
 imposter by the reigning caliph of Bag- 
 
 dad he fled into Egypt, became caliph of 
 Tunis, and soon conquered all Northern 
 Africa from the Straits of Gibraltar to 
 the borders of Egypt. His son wrested 
 Egypt from the Abbasides in 970 and 
 founded Cairo. The Fatimite dynasty 
 was extinguished on the death of Adhed, 
 the fourteenth cailph, and a new line 
 began with Saladin. 
 
 FATTY ACIDS, a name given to such 
 acids as have been separated from fats. 
 Fats and fixed oils are composed of one 
 or more acids combined with the radical 
 glycyl. By boiling with potash or soda 
 the fat is decomposed, glycerin and a 
 soap being the products. By treating 
 this soap with hydro-chloric or sulphuric 
 acid the base is removed and the fatty 
 acid obtained free. These acids are such 
 as butyric, caproic, steraic, margaric, 
 palmitic, pelargonic, valerianic, acteic, 
 etc. Formic acid has also been included, 
 in the fatty series of acids, as it beloiigs 
 to the same order as those named. 
 
 FATTY DEGENERATION, an abnor- 
 mal condition found in the tissues of the 
 animal body, in which the healthy pro- 
 toplasm is replaced by fatty granules. 
 It is a sign of defective nutrition, and is 
 common in old age, affecting the muscles 
 the heart, the arteries, kidneys, etc. It 
 is_ accoftapanied by great muscular 
 flabbiness and want of energy, the suf- 
 ferer looking at the same time fat and 
 comparatively well. 
 
 FATTY TISSUE,' in anatomy, the 
 adipose tissue, a tissue composed of 
 minute cells or vesicles, having no com- 
 munication with each other, but lying 
 side by side in the meshes of the cellular 
 tissue, which serves to hold them to- 
 gether, and through which also the 
 blood-vessels find their way to them. 
 In the cells of this tissue the animal 
 matter called fat is deposited. 
 
 FAUBOURG (fo-bor), a suburb of 
 French cities; the name is also given to 
 districts now within the city, but which 
 were formerly suburbs without it. Thus 
 the Faubourg St. Germain is a fashion- 
 able quarter of Paris in which the an- 
 cient nobility resided. 
 
 FAU'CET, a form of valve or cock in 
 which a spigot or plug opens or closes a 
 part of a pipe for the passage of liquid. 
 
 FAULT, in geology, a- fracture of 
 strata, accompanied by a sliding down or 
 an upheaval of the deposits on the one 
 side of the fracture to a greater distance 
 
 Section showing displacement of strata by a 
 fault, a and a were once a continuous mass of 
 rock. 
 
 than the other. Faults are frequently 
 met with in coal-beds, the miner coming 
 unexpectedly upon an abrupt wall of 
 other strata. The angle this makes with 
 the plane of the bed he is working indi- 
 cates whether he must look up or down 
 for its continuation on the other side of 
 the fracture. In mines these faults often 
 
FAUNA ' 
 
 FEEHAN 
 
 T 
 
 serve for natural drains. The cut shows 
 at a a the change of position in strata 
 caused by a fault. 
 
 FAUNA, a collective word signifying all 
 the animals of a certain region, and also 
 the description of them, corresponding 
 to the word flora in respect to plants. 
 
 FAURE, rran 5 ois Felix, (friin-swa-fa- 
 leks for) French president, born in Paris 
 in 1841. During the Franco-Prussian 
 w^ar he commanded a body of volunteers 
 and gained the ribbon of the Legion of 
 Honor. He entered the assembly in 
 1881, served as colonial and coramerical 
 minister in the cabinets of Gambetta, 
 Jules Favre, and Tirad, and as minister 
 of marine in that of Dupuy. He was 
 elected president of the republic in 1895 
 He died in 1899. 
 
 FAUST, Doctor John, a celebrated 
 dealer in the black art, who lived in 
 Germany, early in the 16th century. 
 According to some accounts he was born 
 in Suabia, others make him a native of 
 Anhalt, others of Branndenburg. In his 
 sixteenth year he went to Ingolstadt 
 and studied theology, became in three 
 years a magister, but abandoned theol- 
 ogy, and ,began the study of medicine, 
 astrology, and magic, in which he like- 
 wise instructed his familiar Johann 
 Wagner, the son of a clergyman at 
 Wasserburg. After Dr. Faust had spent 
 a rich inheritance, he, according to tra- 
 dition, made use of his power to conjure 
 up spirits, and entered into a contract 
 with the devil for twenty-four years. 
 A spirit called Mephistophles was gi-^n 
 as a servant, with whom he traveled 
 about, enjoying life in all its forms, but 
 the evil spirit finally carried him off. 
 Even yet Dr. Faustus and his familiar 
 Wagner play a conmicuous part in the 
 puppet-shows of Germany, and the 
 legend forms the subject of Goethe’s 
 great drama Faust, and furnishes the 
 fibretto for Gounod’s famous opera of, 
 ^the same name. As early as 1590 the 
 legend was dramatically treated in Eng- 
 land by Christopher Marlowe. 
 
 FAVART (fa-var), Charles Simon, 
 creator of the serio-comic opera in 
 France, born 1710, was the son of a 
 pastry-cook. His poetical reputation 
 rests principally on his numerous produc- 
 tions for the opera aux Italiens, and the 
 comic opera. He was the director of a 
 company of itinerant actors which fol- 
 lowed Marshal Saxe into Flanders.- His 
 wife, Madame Favart, was a famous 
 singer, comic actress, and dancer, and 
 participated in the cbmposition of her 
 husband’s plays. Favart died in 1792. 
 
 FAVRE (favr), Jules, a French politi- 
 cian, born 21st March, 1809, at Lyons. 
 He was a leader of the party of opposi- 
 tion to the President Louis Napoleon; 
 and after the coup d’4tat (1851) he re- 
 tired from political life for six years, till 
 in 1858 his defense of Orsini for the at- 
 tempt on the life of the emperor again 
 brought him forward. From this time he 
 again became an active leader of the 
 republican opposition to the emperor. 
 On the fall of the empire he became vice- 
 president of the government of national 
 defense and minister of foreign affairs. 
 As such he conducted the negotiations 
 for peace with Prince Bismarck. But 
 though he showed great energy and was 
 very eloquent, his operations both in 
 
 the matter of the armistice and the 
 peace showed a lack of skill and judg- 
 ment. He died in 1880. 
 
 FAWKES, Guy. See Gunpowder Plot. 
 
 FAYAL ffl-al'), an island belonging to 
 Portugal, one of the Azores. It is of a 
 circular form, about 10 miles in diameter 
 The climate is good, and the air always 
 mild and pure. The soil is very fertile, 
 producing in abundance wheat, maize, 
 flax, and almost all the fruits of Europe. 
 It exports a great quantity of oranges 
 and lemons. The chief place is Villa 
 Horta or Orta. Pop. 31,000. 
 fayEnce. See Faience. 
 
 FAYETTE, General La. See Lafayette. 
 
 FAYOUM (fA-yom'), a province of 
 Middle Egypt, a little to the w'est of the 
 Nile, surrounded by the Libyan desert; 
 area about 800 sq. miles. On the west 
 lies Lake Birket-el-Kurun. The chief 
 town, Medinet-el-Fayoum, is connected 
 with Cairo by a railway. Pop. of prov- 
 ince, 228,709. 
 
 FEASTS. See Festivals. 
 
 FEATHER-GRASS, the popular name 
 of a plant, a native of dry places in the 
 south of Europe. The leaves are rigid, 
 setaceous, grooved; the awns exceed- 
 ingly long, feathering to the point. It is 
 a great ornament to gardens in summer, 
 and to rooms in winter. The rush- 
 leaved Feather-grass is found in the 
 prairies of the Western States. 
 
 FEATHERS, the form which the der- 
 mal appendages assume in birds, agree- 
 ing in mode of development, but differ- 
 ing in form from hair and scales. The 
 leather consists of a stem, horny, round 
 strong, and hollow in the lower part, 
 called the quill, and in the upper part, 
 called the shaft, filled with pith. On 
 each side of the shaft is a web composed 
 of a series of regularly-arranged fibres 
 called barbs. The barbs and shaft con- 
 stitute the vane. On the edges of the 
 barbs are set the barbules, which inter- 
 lock with those of adjacent barbs, and 
 thus give strength at the vane. Feathers 
 are generally divided into two kinds, 
 quill feathers in the wing or tail, and 
 plumes or clothing feathers generally 
 diffused. The feathers of birds are 
 periodically changed, generally once, 
 but in some species twice a year. This is 
 called moulting. When feathers have 
 reached their full growth they become 
 dry, and only the tube, or the vascular 
 substance which it contains, continues 
 to absorb moisture or fat. When, there- 
 fore, part of a feather is cut off, it does 
 not grow out again; and a bird whose 
 wings have been clipped remains in that 
 situation till the next moulting season, 
 when the old stumps are shed and new 
 feathers grow out. If, however, the 
 stumps»are pulled out sooner (by which 
 operation the bird suffers nothing), the 
 feathers will be renewed in a few weeks 
 or even days. The feather is a very 
 strong formation, not readily damaged 
 the arch of the shaft resisting pressure, 
 while the web and fine fibers yield 
 without suffering. Being a bad conduct- 
 tor of heat it preserves the high tem- 
 perature of the bird, while it is so light 
 as to be easily carried in flight. It is 
 rendered almost impervious to wet by 
 the oily fluid which most birds secrete 
 at the base of the tail. Feathers form a 
 
 considerable article of commerce, par- 
 ticularly those of the ostrich, heron, 
 swan, peacock, goose, etc., for plumes, 
 ornaments, filling of beds, pens, etc. 
 
 FEATHER-STAR, a beautiful crinoid 
 star-fish occurring on the British coasts, 
 consisting of a central body or disc, from 
 which proceed five radiating arms, each 
 dividing into two secondary branches, 
 so that ultimately there are ten slender 
 rays. Each arm is furnished on both 
 sides with lateral processes so as to as- 
 sume a feather-like appearance. It is 
 fixed when young by a short stalk, but ex- 
 ists in a free condition in its adult 
 state. 
 
 FEB'RIFUGE, a medicine employed 
 to drive off or diminish fever, such as 
 quinine. 
 
 FEB'RUARY (from the Roman Feb- 
 rua, a festival of expiation or purifica- 
 tion), the second month in the year, hav- 
 ing twenty-eight days, except in leap- 
 year, when it has twenty-nine. This 
 latter number of days it had originally 
 among the Romans, until the senate de- 
 creed that the seventh month should 
 bear the name of Augustus, when a day 
 was taken from February and added to 
 August to make it equal to July in num- 
 ber of days. 
 
 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT, govern- 
 ment by the eonfederation of several 
 united states, self-governing in local 
 matters, but subject in matters of gen- 
 eral polity to a central authority, as, for 
 instance, the Swdss Republic, the U. 
 States oL North America, Mexico, etc. 
 The degree to which such states give up 
 their individual rights as sovereign 
 bodies may be very different. 
 
 FEDERAL PARTY, a name assumed 
 by that portion of the people of the U. 
 States who favored the adoption of the 
 federal constitution, organized the gov- 
 ernment and administered it for twelve 
 years. They advocated a government 
 having attributes of sovereignty, oper- 
 ating upon the people directly, and hav- 
 ing all necessary powers for effective 
 action; their opponents favored a simple 
 compact of confederation. 
 
 FEE, or FIEF, in law, primarily meant 
 a loan of land, an estate held in trust on 
 condition of the grantee giving personal 
 or other service to the prince or lord 
 who granted it. ' Feudal esiates, how- 
 ever, soon caine to be regarded as in- 
 alienable heritages held on various; 
 'tenures; hence the term fee came to be; 
 equivalent to an estate of inheritance,, 
 that is an interest in land which passes 
 to heirs if the owner die intestate. The 
 amplest estate or interest in land is that 
 of a fee-simple, which is also called an 
 absolute fee, in contradistinction to a 
 fee limited or clogged with certain con- 
 ditions. A fee-simple means the entire 
 and absolute possession of land, with full 
 power to alienate it by deed, gift, or will. 
 It is the estate out of which other lesser 
 estates are said to be carved; such as fee- 
 tail, which is limited to particular heirs, 
 and subject to certain restrictions of 
 use; and a base fee, which ceases with 
 the existence of certain conditions. 
 
 FEEHAN, Patrick Augustine, Ameri- 
 can Roman Catholic prelate, born in 
 Tipperary, Ireland, in 1829. He came 
 to the U. States in 1852, when he was 
 ordained. He was installed as first Arcli- 
 
FEEJEE 
 
 FENCING 
 
 bishop of Chicago in 1880. During his 
 administration lie founded several new 
 parishes, a college of the Christian 
 Brothers and other institutions. He 
 died in 1902. 
 
 FEEJEE. See Fiji. 
 
 FEELING, is properly a synonym for 
 sensation, or that state of consciousness 
 which results from the application of a 
 stimulus to the extremity of some sen- 
 sory nerve. It is the most universal of 
 the senses, existing wherever there are 
 nerves; and they are distributed over 
 all parts of the body, though most nu- 
 merous on such parts as the fingertips 
 and the lines where skin and mucous 
 membrane pass into each other. This 
 universal distribution of feeling is neces- 
 sary, otherwise parts of the body might 
 be destroyed without our knowledge. 
 The structures which thus apprehend 
 the impressions of contact are papillte or 
 conical elevations of the skin in which 
 the nerves end, and which are richly 
 supplied with blood-vessels. The term 
 feeling is also used for a general sense of 
 comfort or discomfort which cannot be 
 localized, and it is thus that the dis- 
 turbances of internal organs often mani- 
 fest themselves. In a figurative sense the 
 term is also applied to a mental emo- 
 tion, or even to a moral conception ; 
 thus we may speak of a friendly feeling, 
 a feeling of freedom. 
 
 FE'LIDjE, animals of the cat kind, a 
 family of Carnivora in which the pre- 
 daceous instincts reach their highest de- 
 velopment. They are among the quad- 
 
 Skull and teetti of the tiger, a. Canines or 
 tearing teeth, b. Incisors or cutting teeth, c, 
 True molars or grinding teeth, d, Carnassiai 
 or sectorial teeth. 
 
 rupecls what the Falconidse are among 
 the birds. The teeth and claws are the 
 principal instruments of the destructive 
 energy in these animals. The incisor 
 teeth are equal; the third tooth behind 
 the large canine in either jaw is narrow 
 and sharp; and these, the carnissial or 
 sectorial teeth, work against each other 
 like scissors in cutting flesh; the claws 
 are sheathed and retractile. They all 
 approach their prey stealthily, seize it 
 with a spring, and devour it fresh. The 
 species are numerous in Europe, Asia, 
 Africa, and America, but none are found 
 in Australia. The family comprehends 
 the lion, tiger, leojiard, lynx, jaguar, 
 panther, chetah, ounce, serval, ocelot, 
 cat, etc. 
 
 FELLAH, an Arabian word meaning 
 “peasant,” and used for the laboring 
 class in Egypt. The fellahs or fellaheen 
 constitute about tlyee-fourths of the 
 popidation of Egypt, and are mostly the 
 direct descendants of the old Egyptians, 
 although both their language ana relig- 
 
 ion are now that of their .\rabian con- 
 querors. They live in rude huts by the 
 banks of the Nile, and have suffered 
 much from over-taxation and oppres- 
 sive rule. See Egypt. 
 
 FELO DE SE (Latin, “a felon in re- 
 gard to himself”), in law, a person that, 
 being of sound mind and of the age of 
 discretion, deliberately causes his own 
 death. Formerly, in England, the goods 
 of such a person were forfeited to the 
 crown, and his body interred in an igno- 
 minious manner; that is, unless the 
 coroner’s jury gave a verdict of unsound 
 mind; but these penalties have been 
 abolished. 
 
 FEL'ONY, in law, includes generally 
 all crimes below treason and of greater 
 gravity than misdemeanors. Formerly 
 it was applied to those crimes which en- 
 tailed forfeiture of lands or goods as part 
 of the punishment. 
 
 FEL'SPAR or FELDSPAR, a mineral 
 widely distributed, and usually of a 
 foliated structure, consisting of silica 
 and alumina, with potash, soda, or lime. 
 It is a principal constituent in all igenous 
 and metamorphic rocks, as granite, gneiss, 
 porphyry, greenstone, trachyte, felstone,' 
 etc. When in crystals or crystalline 
 masses it is very susceptible of mechani- 
 cal division at natural joints. Its hard- 
 ness is a little inferior to that of quartz. 
 There are several varieties, as common 
 felspar or orthoclase, the type of an acid 
 group containing from 7 to 16 per cent 
 of potash; albite and oligoclase, soda 
 felspars, the quantity of soda exceeding 
 that of lime; labradorite aind anorthite, 
 lime felspars, the quantity of lime in the 
 latter amounting to 20 per cent. 
 
 FELT, a kind of cloth made of wool, 
 or of wool and cotton united by rolling, 
 beating and pressure. The materials to 
 be felted are carded and placed in a 
 machine, where they are kept w'et and 
 intimately mixed together by a process 
 of beating. Pressure then unites the 
 whole into a compact mass. The use of 
 felt as a material for hats, tents, cloaks 
 etc., is very ancient. For hat-making 
 the fur of rabbits, beavers, raccoons, and 
 the wool of sheep is generally used. Felt 
 being a good non-conductor of heat is 
 much used for roofing, sheathing boilers, 
 hot-water reservoirs, etc. The felt for 
 such purposes is made from the coarsest 
 woolen refuse from paper-mills. 
 
 FELUC'CA, a long narrow vessel, gen- 
 erally undocked, of light draught, and 
 
 Felucca. 
 
 rigged with large lateen sails. They also 
 carry from eight to twelve large oars. 
 They are common in the Mediterranean. 
 
 FE'MUR, in vertebrate animals, the 
 first bone of the leg, situated next the 
 
 trunk of the body, and in man popularly 
 called the thigh-bone. 
 
 FENCES, continuous lines of obstacles; 
 artificially interposed between one por-- 
 tion of the surface of the land and an- 
 other for the purpose of separation or 
 exclusion. Live .iences are m.ade of 
 hawthorn, holly, box, beech, etc.; dead, 
 fences of stone, wood, and in recent, 
 times of iron or wire. In agriculture 
 fences are necessary both for restricting 
 the tenant’s own animals to their pas- 
 ture, and for protecting his land from 
 straying animals. The general erection 
 of fences on farms is one of the improve- 
 ments of modern agriculture. 
 
 FENCING, the art of attack and de- 
 fense with sword or rapier, no shield be- 
 ing used. It was in Italy in the 16th cen- 
 tury that the skilful use of the small 
 sword first became common. The art 
 spread to Spain and then to France, 
 where, on account of the prevalence of 
 duelling, it was brought to a high degree 
 of development. The small sword or 
 rapier (which was adopted for duelling) 
 has a point, but no edge, and therefore 
 demands the highest degree of adroitness 
 in its use. In the fencing schools the 
 instrument adopted for exercise is called 
 a foil ; it has a guard of metal or leather 
 between the handle and blade, which is 
 made of pliant steel and has a button at 
 the end in place of a point. The parries 
 are made with the weapon itself by 
 opposing the forte of the foil (i.e. the 
 strong part from the handle to the cen- 
 ter) to the feeble of the adversary’s foil 
 (i.e. to the part from center to point); 
 the upper part of the body to the right 
 is defended by the parry called tierce, 
 the upper part to the left by the carte, 
 and the lower part by the seconde. In all 
 parrying care must be taken that in 
 covering the side attacked the other side 
 is not too carelessly exposed to the 
 enemy. After every parry a return 
 should be made with rapidity and de- 
 cision. The fencer should rely more 
 upon his sword hand for protection than 
 upon his agility of leg; yet he must be 
 active on his legs so as to advance, re- 
 treat, or lunge with effect. The knee 
 should therefore be somewhat bent 
 when the fencer is on guard, that he may 
 be light and elastic in his movements. 
 An attack may be made by the mere 
 extension of the arm, or accompanied 
 by a lunge, that is, by advancing the 
 body, stepping forward with the right 
 foot, without moving the left. An en- 
 gagement means the crossing of the 
 blades; a disengagement, slipping your 
 foil under the opponent’s and then press- 
 ing in the opposite direction; riposte, 
 the attack without pause by a fencer 
 who has parried. Fencing with the 
 broadsword differs essentially from that 
 with the foil, as the former has an edge 
 as well as a point, and is therefore meant 
 to cut as well as thrust. .According to the 
 instructions of drill-masters there are 
 seven cuts, with corresponding guards, 
 and three thrusts. Cut one is a diagonal, 
 downward cut at the left cheek of the 
 adversary; cut three is delivered with an 
 upward slope at the left leg, and cut five 
 horizontally at the right side; cuts two, 
 four, and six attack the right cheek, 
 right side, and right leg respectively; 
 and cut seven is directed vertically at 
 
f’ENELO?^ 
 
 FERDINAND VII 
 
 ,the head. Guards one and two defetid 
 the upper portion of the body, the sword 
 sloping upw^rd^.fil .an opposite direction 
 to the opponent’s; gU’ard^, three and four 
 -TJrotect the legs, the sword slobmg- down- 
 ward; guards five and six defend thO 
 sides, when the sword is held vertically, 
 point downward; and guard seven pro- 
 tects the head,- the blade meeting the 
 enemy’s almost at a right angle, Hinco 
 the introduction (ft the’ bayonet, bayo- 
 net exercise has become &ii important 
 department of fencing in the army. In 
 handling the bayonet defensively the 
 right foot is thro'vvh back and receives 
 most of the weight of the body, the 
 knees are bent, the bayonet brought to 
 a horizontal position level with the 
 Waist. Thi.s is tlie “guard,” and accord- 
 ing to the parry to be made the weapon 
 is carried either to the “high” position, 
 pointing upward from, the breast, or to 
 the “low” position, pointing doAvnWard 
 from the breast. In taking the offensive 
 the ri^ht leg is straightened, and the left 
 bent forward, without moving the feet 
 from their place. The butt of the rifle is 
 pressed firmly to the shoulder and points 
 straight forward. In “shortening arms” 
 the butt is carried back to the full extent 
 ef the right arm, while the barrel (turned 
 downward) rests upon the left arm. The 
 body rests upon the right leg, which is 
 slightly bent, while the left is somewhat 
 adyanced. 
 
 FENELON (fan-ion), Franeoia de 
 Saligiiac dfe la Mothe, born in 1651 at the 
 ChfLteau F6neicffi, in P(5rigord, of a 
 family illustrious in church and state. 
 He took orders at the age of twenty- 
 four, and distinguished himself in the 
 Work of converting Protestants. In 
 1681 his uncle conferred on him the 
 priory of CarCnnac. Soon after he 
 wrote his first Work, 'Traits de PEd- 
 UCation des Filles, which -Was the basis 
 of his future reputation. In 1689 
 Louis XIV. intrusted to him the educa- 
 tion of his grandsons, the Dukes of 
 Burgundy, Anjou, and Berri. In 1694 
 he was created Archbishop of Cambray. 
 A theological dispute with Bossuet, the 
 virtual head of the French Church, ter- 
 minated in his condemnation by Pope 
 innocent XII., and his banishment to 
 his diocese by Louis XIV. F4nelon sub- 
 mitted without the least hesitation, and 
 thenceforward lived contentedly in his 
 diocese, sustaining the venerable char- 
 acter of a Christian philosopher, and 
 scrupulously performing his sacred 
 duties. He died in 1715. He left nu- 
 merous works in philosophy, theology, 
 and belles-lettres. The most celebrated 
 is Les Adventures de T41emaque, in 
 which he endeavored to exhibit a model 
 for the education of a prince. It was com- 
 monly taken for a satire on the reign 
 of Louis XIV., though nothing probably, 
 was further from the mind of F4nelon. 
 
 FE'NIANS, a name usually derived 
 from Fionn or Finn, the name given to a 
 semi-mythical class of Irish warriors 
 famous for their prowess. The name has 
 been assumed in recent years by those 
 Irish who formed a brotherhood in their 
 own country and in America, with the 
 intention of delivering Ireland from the 
 sovereignty of England, and establish- 
 ing an Irish republic. About the end of 
 1861 The Fenian Brotherhood was 
 
 Tegitlarly . organized in The 
 
 close ox thf^ civile war, when large CtEm’- 
 bers of Irish soldi^fs 'Were released from 
 service, was thought to b'4 a eonvenient 
 tirne for taking decisive steps. Two 
 ri^ngs were planned in Ireland, but they 
 Were' both frustrated by the energetic 
 measure's' fd the Br)ti.sh government. 
 An invasion Of Canada, failed as miser- 
 ably as the attempt in Ireland, and con- 
 vinced the Irish that they coUld not 
 expect the aid from the U. States on 
 which they had hitherto counted. At 
 last, on 6th March, 1867, the long- 
 prepared insurrection broke out almost 
 simultaneously In the districts of Dublin, 
 Drogheda, and Kerry. The number of 
 insufgents in the field, hoAvever, did not 
 exceed .3000, and though they burned 
 some police stations, they nowhere faced 
 the troops sent after them. About the 
 same time some forty or fifty Irish-Amer- 
 icaris landed in a steamer near Water- 
 ford, but soon after fell into the hands of 
 the police. In 1870 and 1871 two raids 
 were again made on Canada, but both 
 were ridiculous failures, the first being 
 repulsed by the Canadian Volunteers, 
 and the second suppressed b3’’thc United 
 States government. At present the 
 brotherhood seems to have suspended 
 active operations. 
 
 FENNEC, a small animal allied to the 
 dog and fox, and sometimes called the 
 Sahara fox, being a native of that region. 
 
 Fennec. 
 
 It lives on birds, jerboas, lizards, dates, 
 etc., burrows with great facility, and is 
 easily tamed. It is fox-like in appear- 
 ance, and is remarkable for the great 
 size of its ears. 
 
 FENNEL, a fragrant plant, cultivated 
 in gardens. It bears umbels of small 
 yellow flowers, and has finely divided 
 leaves. The fruit, or in common language 
 the seeds, are carminative, and fre- 
 quently employed in medicine. 
 
 FER'DINAND, German emperors:— 
 1. Ferdinand I., brother of Charles V., 
 born at Alcala, in Spain, 10th March, 
 1503. On the abdication of Charles he 
 succeeded to the imperial title. He died 
 25th July, 1564. — 2. Ferdinand II. was 
 born in 1578, and succeeded his uncle 
 Matthias as Emperor of Germany in 
 1619. He was of a dark and reserved 
 character, and had been brought up by 
 his mother and the Jesuits in fierce hate 
 of Protestantism. The result was a 
 quarrel with his Bohemian subjects, 
 who openly revolted and offered the 
 Bohemian crown to the Elector Pala- 
 tine, a step which led to the outbreak of 
 the Thirty Years’ war (1619). He died 
 Feb. 1.5, 1637. — 3. Ferdinand III., son 
 of the preceding, was born in 1608, and 
 
 succeeded his father in 1637. He had 
 served in the Thirty Years’ war and had 
 sees the miseries which it occasioned 
 and v/as reluctant to continue it. There 
 were eleven years more of it, however, 
 before the Peace of Westphalia was con- 
 cluded in 1648. Ferdinand died in 1657. 
 
 FERDINAND I. of Bourbon, King of 
 the Two Sicilies (previously Ferdinand 
 IV. of Naples), born January 12, 1751, 
 was the third son of Charles III., King 
 of Spain, whom he succeeded in 1759, 
 on the throne of Naples, on the acces- 
 sion of the latter to that of Spain. In 
 1768 be married Maria Caroline Louisa, 
 daughter of the Empress Maria Theresa, 
 who soon acquired a decided influence 
 over him. He died in January, 1825, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Francis I. 
 
 FERDINAND II., King of the Two 
 Sicilies, born in 1810, succeeded his 
 father Francis I. on the 8th of Novem- 
 ber, 1830. The revolution of France in 
 this year had unsettled the minds of men 
 throughout the continent, and Ferdi- 
 nand was forced to make concessions to 
 his subjects, but soon recalled them, de- 
 termining thenceforward to make his 
 will the only law. He died in 1859 and 
 was succeeded by his son, Francis II., 
 who lost his crown when Italy was 
 united in 1860 under Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 FERDINAND V., King of Aragon, 
 who received from the pope the title of 
 the Catholic, on account of the expulsion 
 of the Moors from Spain, was the son of 
 King John II., and was born March 10, 
 1453. On the 18th of October, 1469, he 
 married Isabella of Castile, and thus 
 brought about that close connection be- 
 tween Aragon and Castile which became 
 the basis of a tinited Spanish monarchy 
 and raised Spain to preeminence among 
 European states. After a bloody war of 
 ten years they conquered Granada from 
 the Moors (1491); but the most brilliant 
 event of their reign was the discovery 
 of America, which made them sovereigns 
 of a new world. (See Columbus.) This 
 politic prince laid the foundation of the 
 Spanish ascendency in Europe by the 
 acquisition of Naples (1503), and by the 
 conquest of Navarre (1512); but his 
 policy was deceitful and despotic. He 
 instituted the court of the Inquisition at 
 Seville in 1480, and, to the great injury 
 of Spanish commerce, expelled the Jews' 
 (1492) and Moors (1501). He died in 1516. 
 
 FERDINAND VII., King of Spain, 
 eldest son of Charles IV., and of Maria 
 Louisa of Parma, born in 1784; ascended 
 the throne in March, 1808, when a popu- 
 lar rising forced his father to abdicate 
 in his favor. A month later he himself 
 abdicated in favor of Napoleon, who 
 conferred the crown on his brother 
 Joseph. Ferdinand returned to Spain in 
 -March, 1814. His arbitrary conduct 
 caused an insurrection in 1820, which 
 was at first successful, but Louis XVIII. 
 of France having sent an army to his aid, 
 his authority was once more made abso- 
 lute in Spain. Having no sons he abol- 
 ished the act of 1713 by which Philip V. 
 had excluded women from the throne 
 of Spain, and then left his crown to his 
 daughter Isabella to the exclusion of his 
 brother Don Carlos. It was during the 
 reign of this king that the Spanish colon- 
 ies in America broke away from the 
 mother country. 
 
feretory 
 
 FERRET 
 
 FER'ETORY, a kiiirf of box made of 
 gold or other metal, or of wood variously 
 adorned, and usually in the shape of a 
 
 Feretory. 
 
 English medieval silverwork. 
 
 ridged chest, with a roof -like top, for 
 containing the relics of saints. It is 
 borne in processions. 
 
 FERGHANA', a province of Asiatic 
 Russia in Turkestan, formed in 1876 out 
 of the conquered khanate of Khokand. 
 Area, 36,000 sq. miles. The climate is 
 warm, an-d the soil in part fertile, but a 
 considerable portion of the country is 
 desert. Pop. about 716,000. Khokand 
 is the capital. 
 
 FERGUSON, James, an eminent ex- 
 perimental philosopher, mechanist, and 
 astronomer, was born qf poor parents at 
 Keith, in Banffshire, in 1710. While a 
 boy tending sheepdie acquired a knowl- 
 edge of the stars, and constructed a 
 celestial globe. He died in 1776. His 
 principal works are: Astronomy Ex- 
 plained upon Sir Isaac Newton’s Prin- 
 ciples (1756); Lectures on Mechanics, 
 Hydrostatics, etc. (1760); Select Me- 
 chanical Exercises (1773). 
 
 FERMANAGH (fer-ma'na), an inland 
 county in Ireland, in t]ie province of 
 Ulster; area, 714 sq. miles, or 457,369 
 acres. The soil is variable, and not re- 
 markably fertile. The manufactures are 
 unimportant. Politically it is divided 
 into North Fermanagh and South Fer-; 
 managh, each sending one member to 
 parliament. Pop. 74,037. 
 
 FERMENTATION, the spontaneous 
 conversion of an organic substance into 
 new compounds by the influence of a 
 ferment, these ferments being apparent- 
 ly vegetable organisms of extremely 
 simple type, which by their life, growth, 
 and increase set up fermentation. There 
 are several kinds of fermentation: 1st, 
 the vinous or alcoholic fermentation — 
 the most important from an economic 
 and industrial point of view — in which 
 the sugar contained in liquids is con- 
 verted into alcohol, carbonic acid, and 
 glycerin; 2d, the acid fermentation, in 
 which spirituous liquors become acid, 
 •producing acetic acid; 3d, the putrid 
 fermentation, by which organic sub- 
 stances undergo various alterations ac- 
 cording to the nature of the substance, 
 and generally set free poisonous gases. 
 Fermentation is also described as lactic, 
 butyric, etc., according to the nature of 
 the results. The general course of alco- 
 holic fermentation, as seen in brewing 
 and wine making, is as follows: — After a 
 lapse of time, which may vary much 
 according to the temperature and other 
 conditions, the liquid acquires a turbid 
 appearance, there is a slight disengage- 
 ment of gas, which increases till the 
 liquid begins to efifervesce, its tempera- 
 ture rises to a higher point than that of 
 the surrounding air, and its surface be- 
 
 comes covered with a frothy matter 
 knoAvn as yeast. The effervescence be- 
 comes more and more violent till a cli- 
 max is reached, when its intensity grad- 
 ually diminishes, and the disengagement 
 of gas ceases. The yeast then settles 
 down-at the bottom of the liquor, which is 
 now entirely deprived of its su^r; and 
 has the characteristic taste and effects 
 of “fermented liquors.” The rationale of 
 this process has long been the subject of 
 touch discussion, but there” can be little 
 doubt that it is due to microscopic or- 
 ganisms (the yeast fungus) which live 
 and multiply in the liquid in which they 
 cause fermentation. And the fermenta- 
 tion may be checked or altogether pre- 
 vented by anything which prevents the 
 growth of the fungus, for example by the 
 presence of any antiseptic substance 
 such as sulphuric acid, carbolic acid, etc., 
 which acts as a poison on the fungus; or 
 by the liquid being either too hot or too 
 cold (below 50° or above 86° Fahr.). 
 Fermentation differs in kind according 
 toJthe nature of the substance which 
 produces it, and each kind is the special 
 production of a certain species of organ- 
 ism, no two of which will ever pass into 
 each other. Lactic fermentation, such 
 as occurs in milk, that has been allowed 
 to stand, is caused, according to Pasteur, 
 by the development in the mass of a 
 microscopic fungus, Penicillium glau- 
 cum, the sugqj' of the milk being con- 
 verted into lactic acid. The acid or 
 acetous fermentation occurs in liquids 
 which have already undergone vinous 
 fermentation. When exposed to the 
 atmosphere such liquids become sour, 
 and vinegar is produced. This change is 
 probably due to the growth of a fungus, 
 Mycoderma aceti (the vinegar plant). 
 Viscous fermentation often accompanies 
 vinous fermentation, making the wine 
 thick and viscous so that it runs out in 
 threads when poured. It occurs at tem- 
 peratures ranging from 68° to 104° Fahr. 
 Butyric fermentation follows on lactic 
 fermentation when the latter is allowed 
 to proceed after lactate of lime has been 
 formed. It is believed that putrefaction 
 is only a species of fermentation, deter- 
 mined by ferment of the bacteria class. 
 As it is commonly maintained that fer- 
 mentation may be set up by the neces- 
 sary germs entering the liquors from the 
 air in which they float, the theory of 
 fermentation has a close connection with 
 that of the germ theory of disease. See 
 Germ Theory. 
 
 FERMENT'ED LIQUORS, alcoholic 
 bevdrages obtained by the fermentation 
 and clarification of saccharine fluids. 
 These have been in use from the earliest 
 times. Among the commonest kinds are 
 wine made from the juic^ of the grape ; 
 ale or beer made from an infusion of 
 malt; cider, from apples,' mead, from 
 honey; kumiss made by the Kirghiz 
 from mares’ milk; chica from maize by 
 the South American Indians, etc. From 
 all fermented liquors a spirit may be 
 extracted by distillation. 
 
 FERNS, a natural order of cryptoga- 
 mous or flowerless plants, forming the 
 highest group of the acrogens or sum- 
 mit-growers. They are leafy plants, the 
 leaves, or more properly fronds, arising 
 from a rhizome or root-stock, or from a 
 hollow arborescent trunk, and being 
 
 circinate in vernation, a term descriptive 
 of the manner in which the fronds are 
 rolled up before they are developed irt 
 spring, having then the fi.ppearahce pi a 
 bishop’s crosier. Oh, the veins of the, if 
 lotver surfabe, hr .their margins, the 
 fronds bear small vessels named spor- 
 angia, containing spores. These spore- 
 cases are arranged in clusters, named 
 sori, which are either naked or covered 
 with a layer of the epidermis, which 
 forms an involucre or indusium. When 
 the spores germinate they produce a 
 
 Male-fern. 
 
 cellular structure of a leafy description, 
 called the pro-embryo, or prothallus , 
 upon which are developed organs which 
 have received the names of antheridia 
 and archegonia. When produced upon 
 the prothallus these organs do not im- 
 mediately give origin to a germinating 
 spore, but from their mutual action pro- 
 ceeds a distinct cellular body, destined 
 at a later period to develop into a fruit- 
 bearing frond. Ferns have a wide geo- 
 graphical range, but are most abundant 
 in numid, temperate, and tropical re- 
 gions. In the tropical forests the tree 
 ferns rival the pahns, rising sometimes 
 to a height of 50 or 60 feet. Ferns are 
 very abundant as fossil plants. The 
 earliest known forms occur in Devonian 
 rocks. Various systems of classification 
 for ferns have been proposed. At present 
 the order is usually divided into six or 
 eight sub-orders or tribes distinguished 
 by differences in the structure of the 
 sporangium. The generic characters are 
 founded on the position and direction of 
 the sori and on the venation. A few of 
 the ferns are used medicinally mostly as 
 demulcents and astringents. 
 
 FERRA'RA, a city of N. Italy, capital 
 of the province of same name, 26 miles 
 n.n.e. Bologna, in a fertile but unhealthy 
 plain. Pop. 28,814. — The province was 
 formerly a duchy of Italy held by the 
 House of Este as a papal fief from 1471 
 till 1597, when it fell to the pope. 
 At the unification of Italy under 
 Victor Emmanuel in 1860 it gave its 
 name to a province bounded on the n. 
 by the Po, e. by the Adriatic, s. and w. 
 by Ravenna, Bologna, and Modena; 
 area, 1100 sq. miles; pop. 247,788. 
 
 FER'RET, a carnivorous animal 
 closely allied to the polecat, about 14 
 inches in length, of a pale-yellow color, 
 with red eyes. It is a native of Africa. 
 
FERRIS WHEEL 
 
 FETISH 
 
 Fertets are used, in catching rabbits, rats; 
 etc., to drive them out of their holes. 
 
 Ferret. 
 
 FERWS WHEEL, The, exhibited at 
 the Chicago World’s Fair, was a re- 
 InhrkablC engineering featurfei Its diamfe- 
 ter was 270 feet; its circumference 825 
 feet. Its highest point was 280 feet. 
 The axle was a steel bar, 45 feet long, 32 
 inches thick. Fastened to ;each of the 
 twin wheels was a steel hub 16 feet in 
 diameter. The 36 cars oh the tvheel each 
 comfortably seated 40 persons, wheel 
 and passengers weighing 1200 tons. The 
 two towers at the axis supporting the 
 wheel were 140 feet high. The motive 
 |)0wer was a 1000-horse-power-steam- 
 etigine imder the tvheeh By the Ferris 
 tvheel the almost indefinite afiplicatlOil 
 bf the tension spoke tb wheels of large 
 dimensions has beeii vindicated, the 
 expense being far smaller than that of 
 the stiff spoke. 
 
 FERROL, a fortified seaport of North- 
 ern Spain, in the province and about 12 
 miles n.e. of the town of Coruna, on a 
 fine island bay, connected with the sea 
 by a channel so narrow as to admit only 
 one ship-of-the-line at a time. The chief 
 na^l arsenal of Spain, established on a 
 magnificent scale, is here. The manufac- 
 tures consist chiefly of swords, cutlery, 
 and military and naval equipments. 
 Pop. 23,811. 
 
 FERRY, a particular part of a river, 
 lake, arm of the sea, etc., where a boat 
 or other conveyance plies to carry pas- 
 sengers or goods from one side to the 
 other. The right of establishing a public 
 ferry is usually the prerogative of a gov- 
 ernment or legislature. The person who 
 has a right of ferry is required to keep a 
 boat or Doats suitable for the conveyance 
 of passengers, to charge a reasonable 
 fare, and to provide the requisite land- 
 ing-places on either bank of the river. 
 No one will be allowed to establish a 
 rival ferry so near the original one as to 
 destroy its custom. Common rowing- 
 boats, sailing-boats, large flat-bottomed 
 barges pulled along a rope stretched from 
 bank to bank for horses and carriages, 
 and steam ferry-boats are among the 
 conveyances. 
 
 FERRY, Jules Fran 9 ois Camille, 
 French statesman and writer, born at 
 St. Dib in the Vosges, April 5, 1832. He 
 became a barrister at Paris, but de- 
 voted himself almost entirely to jour- 
 nalism. In 1869 he was returned as 
 deputy for the sixth arrondissement of 
 Paris and took his seat among the mem- 
 bers of the “Left.” After the fall of 
 Sedan he became a member of the Gov- 
 ernment, of the National Defense, In 
 1872 Thiers appointed him minister resi- 
 dent at Athens. In 1879 he became minr 
 ister of public instruction, and as such inr 
 troduced an education bill, which among 
 
 i 
 
 othef things fotb&de untiuthorized com- 
 mtlfaities, , such, as Jesuits, to teach in 
 s'chbols; Til 1680; FSrry, haying become 
 premier, entered upon S, VigbrOiiS and 
 somewhat hazardous foreign policy. His 
 seizure of Tunis, in 1881, was so far 
 StlccitssfOl, though it led. to his resigna- 
 tion; again premier iri t88S his 
 tunate expedition to Tonquin forcecl 
 him to retire from office. Feb. 24, 1893, 
 e was elected president of the senate, 
 ut died March 17 of the same year. 
 FER'ULA, a genus of umbelliferous 
 plants, whose species often yield a 
 powerful stimulating gum resin, em- 
 ployed in medicine. The species are 
 natives of the shores of the Mediterra- 
 nean ahdPcfsia, and arecharacterizedlby 
 tall-growing pithy stems, find deebly- 
 divided leaves, the segments of which 
 are frequently linear. 
 
 _ FESSE (fes), in heraldry, a band or 
 girdle comprising the center third part of 
 the shield, and formed by two horizontal 
 lines drawn across it ; it is one of the nine 
 honorable ordinaries. The fesse-point 
 is the exact center of the escutcheon. 
 
 FESSENDEN, William Pitt, states- 
 man, born at Boscawen, N. H., 1806. He 
 was elected in 1841 tnthe congress of the 
 United States, and in 1853, he was elected 
 to the tJnited States Senate. In 1864, on 
 the retirement 6f Mr. Chase from the 
 secretaryship of the treasury, he ac- 
 cepted that portfolio, and discharged the 
 duties of the office during a most critical 
 period of the nation’s finances until 
 March, 1865, when he resigned and re- 
 sumed his seat in the senate, to which 
 he had been re-elected. He died in 1869. 
 
 FESTIVALS, or FEASTS, certain days 
 or longer periods consecrated to par- 
 ticular celeorations either in honor of 
 some god, or in commemoration of some 
 imfiortant event. ■ Such festivals have 
 prevailed among nearly all nations, both 
 ancient and modern. Among the Jews 
 there are six festivals prescribed in the 
 Scriptures (Lev. xxiii.), and thence 
 called sacred feasts. These are the 
 weekly feasts of the Sabbath; the Pas-- 
 Bover, or Feast of Unleavened Bread; 
 Pentecost, or the Feast of Weeks; the 
 Feast of Trumpets, or New Moon; the 
 Feast of the Atonement; and the Feast 
 of Tabernacles. Afterward the Feast of 
 Purim (to commemorate the failure of 
 Haman’s machinations), and the Dedica- 
 tion of the Temple (after its profanation 
 by Antiochus Epiphanesh were added. 
 Amorig the ancient Greeks were cele- 
 brated the Dionysia; the Eleusiania; 
 the four great national games, the 
 Olympic, the Isthmian, Nemean, and 
 Pythian games. But each community 
 and city had its own local festivals in 
 addition, such as the Panathenaea, held 
 by the tribes of Attica, whose union it 
 was intended to celebrate. Among 
 Roman festivals were the Saturnalia, 
 Cerealia, Lupercali, and others. 
 
 The festivals of the Christian church 
 owe their origin partly to those of the 
 Jewish religion, such as Easter, which 
 corresponds to, the Passover of the Jews 
 and Whitsuntide, which corresponds to 
 Pentecost ; partl3f also to pagan festivals, 
 which the Christian hierarchy, finding it 
 impossible to abolish them, applied to 
 Christian uses by converting them in 
 festivals of the church. These festivals 
 
 are divided into movable and immova- 
 ble; the former those Which in different 
 years fall on different days, the latter 
 those which alw^s fall upon the same' 
 day. The chief of the movable feasts is 
 Easter, the one which the position of 
 all the others, excrat that of Adveiif 
 Sunday, depends. Septuagesithei Stm-' 
 day fftlls nine weeks before Easter, 
 Sexagesiiiia Sunday eight weeks, Quin- 
 quagesima Sunday' Seven weeks, the 
 first Sunday in Lent six weekjj and 
 Palm Sunday, one week before KHaiSf/ 
 Rogation Sunday falls five weeks, Astert- 
 sion day forty days, Whitsunday seven 
 weeks, and Trinity Sunday eight weeks 
 after Easter. Ash Wednesday is the 
 Wednesday before the first Sunday in 
 Lent, Maundy Thursday the Thursday, 
 and Good Friday the Friday before 
 Easter, and Corpus Christi is the Thurs- 
 day after Trinity Sunday, Advent Sun- 
 day is the nearest Sunday to the feast of 
 St. Andrew, November 30, whether be- 
 fore or after. The chief immovable feasts 
 are the feast of the Circumcision on the 
 1st of January, Epiphany on the 6th of 
 January, the Annunciation of theBlessed 
 Virgin on the 25th of March, the Trans- 
 figuration of Christ on the 6th of August; 
 the feast of St. Michael (Michaelmas) 
 and All the Angels on the 29th of Sep- 
 tember, the feast of All-Saints on the 1st 
 of November, the festival of All -Souls 
 on the 2d of November, and Christmas 
 Day or the Feast of the Nativity of our 
 Lord on the 25th of December. The 
 festivals relating to the Virgin Mary io 
 the Roman Catholic Church include J 
 the feast of the Annunciation; the Puri- 
 fication of the Virgin, or Candlemas; the 
 feast of the Visitation of Our Lady; the 
 feast, of the Immaculate Conception; 
 the Nativity of the Virgin; the Martyr- 
 dom of the Virgin Mary; the Assumption 
 of the Virgin (Aug. I 6); and several 
 smaller ones. The worship of the cross 
 introduced two festivals; that of the 
 Invention of the Holy Cross (May 3), 
 and that of the Exaltation of the Cross 
 (September 1). The saints’ days that are 
 still held as festivals and have religious 
 services connected with them in the 
 Church of Englnad, are called red-letter 
 days, because they used to be printed 
 with red letters in the church calendar; 
 while the saints’ days which were still 
 retained in the calendar at the Reforma- 
 tion, but had no services connected with, 
 them, are called black-letter days, be- 
 cause they were printed in black letters^ 
 
 FESTUS, Sextus Pompeius, a Roman 
 grammarian belonging to the 2d or 3d 
 century of our era, author of an abridg- 
 ment of a work by Verrius Flaccus called 
 De Verborum Significations, a kind of 
 dictionary, which is very valuable for 
 the information it contains about the 
 Latin language. The work of Festus was 
 still further abridged in the 8th century 
 by Paulus Diaconus. The one MS. of 
 the original work of Festus is now at 
 Naples. 
 
 FETISH, or FETICH, a word first 
 brought into use by De Brosses, in his 
 work Du Culte des Dieux Fetiches 
 (1760), and derived from the Portuguese 
 feitico,- magic, a word which expressed 
 the Portuguese opinion of the religion of 
 the natives of the west coast of Africa. 
 The Portuguese gave this name to the 
 

 idols of the negroes of the Senegal, and 
 afterward the word received a more ex- 
 tensive meaning. A fetish is any object 
 which is regarded with a feeling of awe, 
 as having mysterious powers residing 
 in it, but without any consciousness in 
 
 Fetishes ot Dahomey, Africa. 
 
 the exercise of them. The fetish may be 
 animate, as a cock, a serpent, etc.; or 
 inanimate, as a river, a tooth, a shell. 
 Fetish worship prevails in Guinea and 
 other parts of the west coast of Afriba. 
 In addition to the common fetish Of the 
 tribe every individual may have one of 
 his own. To this he offers up prayers, 
 and if they are not heard he punishes it, 
 or perhaps throws it away^ or breaks it 
 in pieces. 
 
 FETUS, FCETUS, the young of vivip- 
 arous animals iia the womb, and of 
 oviparous animals in the egg, after it is 
 perfectly formed; before troich time it 
 is Called embryo. 
 
 FEUDAL SYSTEM, that system by 
 which land (a flfef) is held by a vassal on 
 condition of fidelity, that is, in consider- 
 ation of services to be rendered to his 
 superior or feudal lord. The nature of 
 the feudal system is to be explained by 
 its origin among the Germanic tribes. 
 In the earliest times the relation of 
 superior and vassal did not exist in con- 
 nection with the ownership of land. 
 Each freeman had his share of the tribe 
 lands, which were held simply on con- 
 dition of his fulfilling his public duties 
 of attendance at the councils of the mark 
 or township and performing his share of 
 military service in the wars or musters 
 decreed at such councils. The noble had, 
 of course, more land and more influence 
 than the simple freeman, but there need 
 be no tie of vassalage between them. 
 This seems to have been the primitive 
 social organization of the Anglo-Saxons 
 and other German tribes. The' lands 
 held by all freemen, whether noble or 
 ordinary freemen, under this system, 
 are said to be allodial as distinguished 
 from feudal lands, which imply service 
 to a superior lord. By the close of the 
 10th century, however, this system had 
 undergone considerable modifications. 
 The masses of Teutonic invaders who 
 overran Gaul and England had neces- 
 sarily to confer exceptional powers on 
 their leaders; and as they were for long 
 very much in the position of military in 
 an enemy’s country, these powers were 
 naturally continued. Thus it was that 
 kings, before unknown to the Anglo- 
 Saxons, made their appearance im- 1 
 
 mediately after their descent upon 
 Britain. It was common for a chief or 
 great man to have a retinue or body- 
 guard composed of valiant youths, who 
 were furnished by the chief With arms 
 and provisions, slid wliO lii fetUfh de- 
 voted themselves to, his service. These 
 companions origin,ally received no pay 
 except their arlns, hOi'SeS, and proVisiohS 
 and the portion of the spoilS; which re- 
 mained after the chieftain had taken his 
 Own share. But when conquered lands 
 canie to be apportioned and large dis- 
 tricts feU into the hands Of kings or dukes 
 and their subordiiiates, they gave cer- 
 tain portions of the .territory tO their 
 attendants to enjoy for life. These es- 
 tates Were called beneficia or fiefS; OO- 
 cause they wOre Only lent to their pos- 
 sessors-, to tevert after their death to the 
 grantor, who immediately gave them to 
 another of his servants on the same 
 terms. As the son commonly esteemed 
 it his duty, or Was forced by necessity, to 
 devote his arm to the lord in whose serv- 
 ice his father had lived, he also received 
 his father's fief; or rather, he was in- 
 A’csted With it anew. By the usage bf 
 centuries this Custom became a right 
 and the, fifcf became hereditary. A fief 
 rehaered vacant by the death of the 
 holder was at pnce taken possession of 
 by his son. Oh the sole condition of pay- 
 ing homage to the feudal superior. Thus 
 a feudal nobility and a feudal systenr 
 arose and for a time existed aloilgside of 
 the old allodial system. But gradually 
 the greater security to be got by putting 
 one’s self under the protection of some 
 powerful ruler or leader gave the feudal 
 system the predominance. The free 
 proprietor of landed property, oppressed 
 by powerful neighbors, sought refuge 
 in submitting to some more powerful 
 nobleman, to whom he surrendered his 
 land, receiving it back as a vassal. Even 
 the inferior nobility found it to be to 
 their adA^antage to have themselves 
 recognized as feudatories of the nearest 
 duke or earl; and as the royal power 
 steadily advanced, the offices of duke, 
 ealdorman, gerefa, etc., were always be- 
 stowed by the king. Thus the crown 
 became the source of all authority and 
 possession in the country. ■ The land 
 which had once been “folcland,” or the 
 land of the people, became the land of 
 the king, from whom all titles to it were 
 held to be deriA'ed. Such at least was 
 the development of feudalism in Eng- 
 land, Avhere its centralizing tendencies, 
 especially in the matter of holding lands 
 from the crown, Avere strongly reinforced 
 by the circumstances of the conquest 
 under William the Norman. Under him 
 and his immediate successors there Avas 
 a struggle betAveen royalty and the 
 nobility, which ended in the poAver of 
 the latter sinking before that of the 
 kings. On the other hand, in Germany, 
 France, and elsewhere on the continent, 
 the disintegrating tendencies of feudal- 
 ism as a system of gOA^ernment had full 
 play. In these countries the Aveakening 
 of the kingly authority encouraged the 
 great feudal dukes and counts to set up 
 in an almost absolute independence, 
 which in France was afterAvards gradu- 
 ally lost as the monarchy greAV stronger, 
 but in Germany continued to diAude 
 the land down almost to our own times 
 
 FEVER 
 
 into a number of petty principalities. 
 
 Among the chief agencies that over- 
 threw the feudal system were the rise of 
 cities, the change in modes of , -Warfare, 
 and the spread of knowledge aiid civilizd- 
 tloii. ’Ihe spirit of the fevidiii.Systemi 
 grounded on the prevalence of landed 
 property, ,was pecessarily foreign td 
 citieS which owfed ilicif bfigin fd mdjisj 
 try and personal property, and foundeq 
 thereon a new sort of power. The groAvth 
 of this new class, with its wealth and 
 industtiiil ImpOttahCe, has contributed 
 more, than anything else tO a social and 
 politicai development befote which the 
 old feudal relations of society have al- 
 most totally disappeared; Evfen yet, 
 jluWfei'et;, the laws tfeiatihg,.tOjland still 
 Deaf the stamp of feudalism in various 
 countries. In England, for instance, all 
 land-owners are theoretically regarded 
 as tenants holding from some superior 
 or lord, though the lord may be quite 
 unknoAvii. See also Middle Ages. 
 
 FEUILLANTS (feu-yan), a religious 
 order which arose as a refofm of th@ 
 order of Bernafdlns, find tOok brigin iff 
 the abbey of Feuillants, near Toulousd, 
 established in 1577. There were also 
 convents of nuns AV'ho followedthe samb 
 fefofm, called Febillantines. Tney Aveifd 
 suppressed by the revolution of 1780, 
 and their convent in Paris taken pos- 
 session of by a political, club named the 
 FculUantg, of Afblcn Mirabeati was it 
 member; 
 
 FEUILLET (feii-ya). Octave, a French 
 novelist and dramatist, born at Saint 
 L6, department of Mancha, 1812; came 
 into notice about 1846 with his novels pf 
 Le Fruit D6fendu,_ Le Conte de Poll- 
 chinelle,. and .a, series ef comedies and 
 tales, in 1857 the appeafancS of Be 
 Roman d’un Jeune Homme Pauvre 
 raised Feuillet to the first rank of the 
 novelists of the day. Among his other 
 numerous novels are Monsieur de Cam- 
 ors, Julia de Tr4cceur, Le Sphinx, His- 
 toire d’une Parisienne, etc. His works 
 have a refined humor, and are free, in 
 great part, from the teallstic coarsetiess 
 of the later French school. He died in 
 1890. 
 
 FEUILLETON-{feu-i-ton), that part of 
 a French newspaper devoted to light 
 literature or criticism, and gener^y 
 marked off from the rest of the page by 
 a line. The feuilleton very commonly 
 contains a tale. 
 
 FEVER, a diseased condition of the 
 body characterized by an accelerated 
 pulse, with increase of heat, deranged 
 functions, diminished strength, and 
 often with excessiA'e thirst. FcA'ers 
 usually commence with chills or rigors, 
 known as the cold stage of the disease, 
 although the temperature of the body is 
 really increased. There are also a feeling 
 of lassitude, pains in the back and limbs, 
 loss of appetite, and nausea. This soon 
 develops into the hot stage, in which the 
 pulse quickens and the skin becomes hot 
 and dry. These phenomena are accom- 
 panied by thirst, headache, a furred 
 tongue, a constipated state of the bowels 
 and a deficiency in the urinarj' secretion. 
 The symptoms are generally aggraA'ated 
 at night, and may eA'en be accompanied 
 by slight delirium. After a time the 
 crisis is reached, when the patient either 
 dies from gradual exhaustion or from. 
 
FEZ 
 
 FIELD-ALLOWANCE 
 
 hyperpyrexia, or he begins to recover, 
 the febrile symptoms disappearing some- 
 times quite suddenly, sometimes very 
 slowly. The loss of strength in fever due 
 to the waste of tissue (caused by the 
 abnormal temperature) being greatly in 
 excess of the nutritive supply, together 
 with the general disturbance of functions 
 often brings about fatal results. In 
 many cases fever is only an accompany- 
 ing symptom of some specific disorder, 
 but in others it is the primary and pre- 
 dominant element, apparently due to 
 some poison operating in the blood. 
 (See Germ Theory of Disease.) These 
 primary or specific fevers ma}"^ be classi- 
 fied as follows: — 
 
 1. Continued Fever, in which there is 
 no intermission of the febrile symptoms 
 till the crisis is reached. Simple fever 
 or febricula, typhus, typhoid (enteric or 
 gastric) fever are examples. Relapsing 
 fever also comes under this head; its 
 chief feature is the recurrence of fever, 
 about a week after the subsidence of the 
 symptoms. 
 
 2. Intermittent Fever or Ague, in 
 which there is a periodic cessation of the 
 symptoms. The varieties are the quoti- 
 dian, occurring every day; the tertian, 
 recurring in 48 hours; quartan, recurring 
 in 72 hours or every three days. 
 
 3. Remittent Fever, in which there is 
 a short daily diminution of the symp- 
 toms. The condition known as hectic 
 fever and yellow fever belong to this 
 class. 
 
 4. Eruptive Fevers — (1) Small-pox. 
 (2) Cow-pox. (3) Chicken-pox. (4) 
 Measles. (5) Scarlet-fever. (6) Erysipelas. 
 (77 Plague. (8) Dengue fever. See the 
 separate articles. 
 
 FEZ, one of the two capitals of Moroc- 
 co, 100 miles east of the Atlantic and 85 
 miles south of the Mediterranean. It is 
 finely situated on the' hilly slopes of a 
 valley, on the river Fez, which divide 
 Old Fez from New Fez. There are many 
 mosques, one of them the largest in N. 
 Africa. The sultan’s palace is a large 
 but somewhat ruinous structure. Fez 
 was at one time famous as a seat of 
 Arabian learning. It is considered a holy 
 town by the Western .Arabs, and was 
 resorted to by them as a place of pil- 
 grimage when the way to Mecca was 
 obstructed. Fez was founded in 793, 
 and was the capital of an independent 
 state from 1202 to 1548, attaining a 
 high state of prosperity. The population 
 is variously estimated from 50,000 to 
 150,000. 
 
 FEZ (from Fez, the above town), a red 
 cap of fine cloth, with a tassel of blue 
 silk or wool at the crown, much worn in 
 Turkey, on the shores of the Levant, in 
 Egypt, and North Africa generally. The 
 core or central part of a turban usually 
 consists of a fez. 
 
 FEZZAN', a state of North Africa, in 
 the Sahara, forming a depression sur- 
 rounded by mountain chains and con- 
 sisting of a great number of small oases. 
 There are no rivers or brooks, and few 
 natural springs; but water is found in 
 abundance at various depths, generally 
 from 10 to 20 feet. Rain seldom falls; in 
 some districts it does not rain for years 
 togfether, and but little at a time. The 
 natives are a mixed race of Arabs, Ber- 
 bers, negroes, etc. Fezzan is governed 
 
 by a lieutenant-governor under the gov- 
 ernor of Tripoli, and dependent therefore 
 on Turkey. Pop., variously estimated, 
 does not probably exceed 50,000. 
 
 FIACRE (fe-a-kr), in France, a small 
 four-wheeled carriage or hackney-coach, 
 so called from the Hotel St. Fiacre, where 
 Sauvage, the inventor of these carriages, 
 established in 1640 an office for the hire 
 of them. 
 
 FI'AT (Lat. “let it be done”), in Eng- 
 lish law, a short order or warrant from a 
 judge for making out and allowing cer- 
 tain processes. 
 
 FIBERS, these may be of mineral, 
 animal, or vegetable origin. In the min- 
 eral kingdom a fiber which may be so 
 used has been found in asbestos. Among 
 animal fibers the silk obtained from the 
 cocoons of the silk-worm and the wool 
 of the sheep represent two great classes. 
 Of the latter the wool of the sheep is by 
 far the most important on account of its 
 length, its fineness, and the comparative 
 ease with which it can be produced in 
 large quantities for the market. Among 
 other animals whose wool or hair is also 
 used to some extent are the goat, espe- 
 cially of the Angora species, the llama or 
 alpaca, the vicuna, the rabbit, the yak, 
 the chinchilla, etc. But the vegetable 
 kingdom furnishes by far the greatest 
 number and variety of fibers for manu- 
 facturing purposes. These fibers are 
 obtained either, as in inexogenous plants, 
 from the sheath of the bark or bast', or, 
 as in endogenous plants, from the cellu- 
 lar tissues and pulp of their roots, stems, 
 and leaves; or, in a few plants, from a 
 hairy covering which grows upon the 
 seeds w'ithin the pod. Of the first class 
 are flax, hemp, and China grass. To the 
 second class oelong New Zealand flax, 
 Manila hemp, coir of cocoa-nut fiber, 
 and Pita-flax. To the third class belong 
 cotton, vegetable silk. For details see 
 Cotton, Flax, Hemp, Jute, Silk, Wool, 
 etc. 
 
 FI'BRIN, a peculiar organic com- 
 pound substance found in animals and 
 vegetables. Animal fibrin constitutes 
 the solid matter which deposits when 
 blood coagulates, but it is also furnished 
 by the chyle, Ijonph, saliva, and by pus 
 and other pathological fluids. Fibrin is 
 composed of carbon, nitrogen, hydro- 
 gen, and oxygen, and is closely allied to 
 albumen and caseine. It is a very im- 
 portant element of nutrition. In healthy 
 venous blood there is dbout 2'3 present, 
 but its percentage is slightly more in 
 arterial blood. It is best obtained by 
 switching newly-drawn blood with a 
 glass rod or bundle of twigs, when the 
 fibrin adheres to the rod or twigs in 
 threads, and is purified from coloring 
 matter by prolonged washing and knead- 
 ing with water, and then by treatment 
 with alcohol and ether to remove fat 
 and other substances. 
 
 FIBROUS TISSUE, an animal tissue 
 with a shining silvery luster used to con- 
 nect or support other parts. It is of two 
 kinds, white, and yellow (elastic). It 
 forms the ligaments, tendons of muscles, 
 etc. 
 
 FIB'ULA, in anat. the outer and 
 smaller bone of the leg below the knee, 
 much smaller than the tibia. See Leg. 
 
 FICHTE (fih'te), Johann Gottlieb, 
 German philosopher, born in 1762. After 
 
 studying at Jena, Leipzig, and Witten- 
 berg he passed several years as a private 
 tutor in Switzerland and in Prussia 
 Proper, and in Konigsberg made the 
 acquaintance of the great Kant, who 
 showed some appreciation of his talents. 
 His Versuch einer Kritik aller Offen- 
 barung (Essay towards a Criticism of all 
 Revelation, 1792) attracted general 
 attention, and procured him the pro- 
 fessorship of philosophy in Jena in 1793. 
 In 1800 he was one of the most promi- 
 nent professors of that university during 
 its most brilliant period. Here he pub- 
 lished, under the name of Wissenschafts- 
 lehre (Theory of Science), a philosophical 
 system, which, though founded on 
 Kant’s system, gives the latter a 
 highly idealistic development which was 
 strongly repudiated by the Konigsberg 
 philosopher. On account of an article he 
 had written to the Philosophical Journal 
 (on the grounds of our belief in the di- 
 vine government of the world) he fell 
 under the suspicion of atheistical views. 
 This gave rise to an inquiry, which ended 
 in Fichte losing his chair. He then 
 went to Prussia, where he wms appointed 
 in 1805 professor of philosophy at Er- 
 langen. During the war between Prussia 
 and France he went to Konigsberg, 
 where he delivered lectures for a short 
 time, returned to Berlin after the Peace 
 of Tilsit, and in 1810, on the establish- 
 ment of the university in that city, was 
 appointed rector and professor of philos- 
 ophy. Fichet’s philosophy, though there 
 are two distinct periods to be dis- 
 tinguished in it, is a consistent idealism, 
 representing all that the individual per- 
 ceives as distinct from himself, the ego, 
 as a creation of this I or ego. This ego, 
 how'ever, is,not the consciousness of the 
 individual so much as the divine or uni- 
 versal cpnsciousness of which the other 
 is but a part. His philosophy thus came 
 to assume a strongly moral and religious 
 character. He died on Jan. 27, 1814. 
 
 FICTION. See Novel and Romance. 
 
 FICTION, in law, is an assumption 
 made for the purposes of justice, though 
 the same fact could not be proved, and 
 may be literally untrue. Thus an heir is 
 held to be the same person as the ances- 
 tor to the effect of making the heir liable 
 for the debts of the ancestor. The rules 
 by which the existence of legal fictions 
 are limited have been stated as follows: 
 (1) The fiction must have the semblance 
 of truth (2) It shall not be used to work 
 a wrong. "(3) It shall only be employed 
 for the end for which it was introduced. 
 
 FIDDLE. See Violin. 
 
 FIDDLE-FISH. See Angel -fish. 
 
 FIDDLE-WOOD, the common name 
 of a genus of trees or shrubs with some 
 twenty species, natives of tropical 
 America. Some of the species are orna- 
 mental timber trees; several yield a 
 hard wood valuable for carpenter work. 
 
 FIEF (fef). See Fee, Feudalism. 
 
 FIELD, in heraldry, the whole surface 
 of the shield on which the charges are 
 depicted, or of each separate coat when 
 the sheld contains quarterings. 
 
 FIELD-ALLOWANCE, an extra pay- 
 ment made to officers of the British 
 army on active service in the field, to 
 compensate partly the enhanced price of 
 all necessaries. These allowances are not 
 made in India. 
 
FIELD-ARTILLERY 
 
 FIELD 
 
 FIELD-ARTILLERY, light ordnance 
 of draught, and hence fitted for 
 ramd movements in the field. 
 
 jjIELD-CRIOKET, campestris, one of 
 the most noisy of all the crickets larger, 
 but rarer than the house-dricket. It fre- 
 dfuents hot, sandy districts, in which it 
 borrows to the depth of 6 to 12 inches, 
 and sits at the mouth of the hole watch* 
 ing for prey, which consists of insects. 
 
 FIELD, Cyrtv.s West, best known as 
 projector and promoter of first sub- 
 marine telegraph between Europe and 
 America, was born in ISIS. Engaged 
 in business in New York until 1^3, 
 when, at age of 33, became interested 
 in submarine cable project. Organized 
 the New York and London Telegraph 
 Company in 1854; induced American 
 government to make ocean survcj^s; 
 made first attempt to lay cable in 
 1857. After several failures cables was 
 completed and first message sent by 
 Queen Victoria to President Buchanan 
 on August 16, 185S. This fir-.t cables 
 broke almost immediately, and after 
 seven years of effort, Mr. Field, with aid 
 of American and British capital, laid 
 another cable, which was successfully 
 completed July 27, 1806. Mr. Field also 
 originated the elevated railroad project 
 in New York City, and was in railroad 
 business until his death in 1892. 
 
 FIELD, David Dudley, American 
 clergyman and historical writer, ^yas 
 born in 1781 ; father of Cyrus W., David 
 Dudley and Stephen Johnson Field. He 
 died in 1867. 
 
 FIELD, David Dudley, a distin- 
 guished American lawyer, who devoted 
 his life to the reform of the laws. Was 
 born in 1805. His code of civil proce- 
 dure was adopted by practically every 
 state in the Union and by Great Britain. 
 Eighteen states adopted his code of 
 criminal procedure and his Outlines of 
 International Law form the basis of the 
 code of nations. He died in 1894. 
 
 FIELD DOG, distinct breed of dog 
 with natural instinct for locating game 
 birds and retrieving them after they are 
 killed. Are of keen, alert intelligence, 
 noted for docile disposition, and capable 
 of receiving close training. Field dogs 
 are of various species, the ' general 
 classes being pointers, setters and re- 
 trievers. Pointers locate game birds by 
 sense of smell and indicate their location 
 to the hunter by stopping short and 
 “pointing” with nose directed to the 
 spot. The setter works in a similar man- 
 ner, but crouches on its haunches when 
 it desires to indicate the presence of the 
 game. The retriever is trained to go 
 into cover or into the water for birds 
 after they have been shot and bring 
 them to its master without mangling 
 them. 
 
 Field dogs must be carefully trained 
 from puppyhood. The most important 
 and therefore the first requisite is obedi- 
 ence. The dog after being accustomed 
 to collar and leash, is taught to keep 
 close to its master’s heel until it is sent 
 forward. The next step in the training 
 of a dog is to prevent him from flushing 
 the game. Then the animal is taught to 
 range for game and to “down” or return 
 promptly at the proper signal. Retrievers 
 of water birds, of course, receive special 
 training, as their duties differ from the 
 
 setter or pointer. The setter and pointer 
 are easily taught to retrieve on land. 
 (See Setter, Pointer, Retriever.) 
 
 FIELD, Eugene, American poet, jour-, 
 nalist and story writer, noted for the 
 touching pathos of his poems on child- 
 hood and the eccentricity of his humor, 
 was born in 1850. Began newspaper 
 
 career on Kansas City Times, later on 
 the Denver Tribune. At age of 33 
 began department of “Sharps and Flats” 
 in Chicago Daily News, which he kept 
 up until his death, twelve years later. 
 In those twelve years be became recog- 
 nized as one of America’s most versatile 
 humorists. His writings covered a wide 
 gamut, from the quaint and whimsical 
 to the pathetic, grotesque and farcical. 
 Best known poem of childhood, “Little 
 Boy Blue;” writings included “Echoes 
 from a Sabine Farm,” “With Trumpet 
 and Drum,” and “Love Affairs of a Bil- 
 lionaire.” He died in 1895. 
 
 FIELDFARE, a song bird of the 
 thrush family, easily tamed and sing- 
 well in captivity. Found principally in 
 
 Norway, but winters in England and 
 along the Mediterranean. General color 
 is gray, throat of reddish yellow streaked 
 with black, back and wings brown, tail 
 nearly black. 
 
 FIELD -FORTIFICATION, Field- 
 works, temporary works, such as 
 trenches, rifle-pits, etc., thrown up to 
 strengthen the position of an army 
 operating in the field. See Fortification. 
 
 FIELD GAMES, open air athletics con- 
 sisiting of running, hurdle racing, broad 
 and high jump, pole vaulting, throwing 
 the hammer and putting the shot. 
 Marathon race (25 miles) recently added 
 to interstate and international meets. I 
 
 FIELD GLASS, a binocular telescope 
 of great magnifying power used prin- 
 cipally by army officers in followjjng 
 , military maneuvers. For use in trenches 
 from behind breastworks field glasses 
 are constructed with reflecting pri.sms 
 which enable one to see without expos- 
 ing any part of his body. Technically 
 a field glass is a double telescope with 
 chromatic eyeglass. 
 
 FIELDING, Henry, one of the great- 
 est of English novelists, was born in 
 Somersetshire, April 22, 1707. He wa.<? 
 educated at Eton, whence he removed 
 to Leyden ; but the straitened circum- 
 stances of his father shortened his 
 academical studies, and turned his at- 
 tention to the stage. His first dramatic 
 piece was entitled Love in Several Masks, 
 was produced at Drury Lane in 1728, 
 and met with a favorable reception. 
 The Temple Beau, The Author’s Farce,, 
 The Modern Husband, Don Quixote iru 
 England, and many others quickly fol- 
 lowed, a number of them being little 
 more than free translations from the 
 French. In 1740 he was called to the 
 bar, and went on circuit, but with soi 
 little success that he was compelled ta 
 return to literature. In 1742 the first 
 of his great novels, Joseph Andrews,, 
 appeared, which he had at first conceivsdl 
 as a burlesque of Richardson’s Pamela.. 
 It was a great success, and was followed 
 by A Journey From this World to the 
 Next, and the History of Jonathan Wild.. 
 In 1749 his masterpiece. The History 
 of Tom Jones, appeared, and was fol- 
 lowed two years afterward by Amelia., 
 At length, however, his constitution, ex- 
 hausted both by hard work and reek- 
 leas living, gave way, and in June of 
 1754 he had to seek the milder climate 
 of Lisbon, where he died 8th October 
 of the same year. The chief merits of 
 Fielding as a novelist are wit, humor,, 
 correct delineation of character, and 
 knowledge of the human heart. He 
 drew from a varied experience of life, 
 which he reproduced with an artistic 
 realism entitling him to be considered, 
 far more than Richardson, as the creator 
 of the English novel. 
 
 FIELD, Kate, American actress, lec- 
 turer and journalist; was born in 1840; 
 stage success inconspicuous; best known 
 as editor of “Kate Field’s Washington,” 
 weekly periodical published at National 
 Capital. She died in 1896. 
 
 FIELD, Marshall, American merchant 
 and financier; was born in 1835; clerked 
 in Pittsfield, Mass., store until 1856; 
 then went to Chicago. In 1860 became 
 junior partner in wholesale dry goods 
 establishment. In 1865 headed firm of 
 Field, Palmer & Leiter; in 1881 Marshall 
 Field & Co., built up largest wholesale 
 and retail dry goods business in the 
 world, with branches in England, France 
 and Germany. Invested largely in Chi- 
 cago real estate before fire of 1871, and 
 became millionaire: largely identified 
 in banking and railroad investments; 
 founded Field Columbian Museum in 
 1894 W’ith initial gift of 81.000,000, to 
 which his will added 88,000.000. Left 
 fortune variously estimated from 8100,- 
 000,000 to 8150,000,000 to two grand- 
 sons, in trust, making them 50 years 
 hence richest heirs in the world. He 
 died in 1906. 
 
f 
 
 FIELD-MARSHAL 
 
 FIJI 
 
 FIELD-MARSHAL, the highest mili- 
 tary dignity in Britain, Germany, and 
 other countries. In Britain the dignity 
 is conferred by selection and enjoyed by 
 but a very few officers, and chiefly for 
 distinguished services or on the ground 
 of royal descent. It was introduced into 
 Britain by George II. in 1736. 
 
 Marshall Field. 
 
 FIELD-MOUSE. See Mouse. 
 
 FIELD-OFFICERS, in the army, those 
 competent to command whole battalions 
 — majors, lieutenant-colonels, as dis- 
 tinguished from those intrusted with 
 company duties, as captains and lieu- 
 tenants. 
 
 FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD, a 
 
 spot in the valley of Andren, between 
 the English castle of Guisnes and the 
 French castle of Ardres, celebrated for 
 the meeting (7th June, 1520) between 
 Henry VIII. of England and Francis I. 
 of France, attended by the flower of 
 nobility of both nations. The diplomatic 
 results were little or nothing, and the 
 event is now memorable only as a grand 
 historical-parade. ^ 
 
 FIELD-PIECES, small cannons, from 
 three to twelve-pounders, carried with 
 an army. 
 
 FIELD, Stephen Johnson, was born 
 in 1816; graduate of Williams college 
 1837; practiced law in New York; went 
 to California as a 49er; on California 
 supreme bench 1857 until 1863. He was 
 appointed to the United States supreme 
 court in 1863. During career as justice 
 of United States supreme court he made 
 many notable dissenting opinions, chief 
 being in legal tender case. As member 
 of electoral commission of 1876-7, which 
 decided Hayes-Tilden controversy, he 
 voted with minority against seating of 
 Hayes. He died in 1899. 
 
 FIELD-WORKS. See Fortification. 
 
 FIFE, a small instrument of the flute 
 kind, pierced with six finger-holes, and 
 usually having one key. Its ordinary 
 icompass is two octaves from d on the 
 fourth line of the treble staff upwards. 
 A combination of fifes and drums is the 
 officially recognized music in the British 
 army and navy. 
 
 FIFE, or FJFESHIRE, a maritime 
 county, Scotland, forming the penin- 
 sula between the Firths of Forth and 
 Tay; extreme length, 43 miles; extreme 
 breadth, 17 miles; area, 316,089 acres. 
 
 Fife is the third largest coal-producing 
 county in Scotland. Iron, limestone, 
 and freestone abound. There are salmon 
 and other fisheries. The principal towns 
 are Dunfermline, Kirkcaldy, St. An- 
 drews, and Cupar, the county town. 
 Pop. 187,320. 
 
 FIFTH, in music, an interval consist- 
 ing of three tones and a semitone. Ex- 
 cept the octave it is the most perfect of 
 concords. Its ratio is 3 :2. It is called the 
 fifth as it comes, by diatonic ascent, in 
 the fifth place from the fundamental or 
 tonic. See Music. 
 
 Stephen J. Field. 
 
 FIG, a deciduous tree belonging to the 
 order Moracese (mulberry). It is indig- 
 enous to Asia Minor, but has been 
 naturalized in all the countries round the 
 Mediterranean. It grows from 15 to 20 
 or even 30 feet high. In congenial cli- 
 mates irbears two crops in a season, one 
 in the early summer from the buds of 
 the last year; and other (which is the 
 chief harvest) in the autumn, from those 
 on the spring growth. The fruit is a 
 
 Common fig. 
 
 hollow receptacle produced in the axils 
 of the leaves on small round peduncles, 
 and containing a great multitude of 
 minute flowers, the ripe carpels of which 
 are embedded in the pulp. The flowers 
 are male and female, the former situated 
 near the orifice at the top, the latter in 
 that part of the concavity next the 
 stalk. Figs, particularly dried figs, form 
 an important article of food in the coun- 
 
 tries of the Levant. The best come from 
 Turkey. 
 
 FIG'ARO, a dramatic character first 
 introduced on the French stage by 
 Beaumarchais in his comedies, the Bar- 
 ber of Seville and the Marriage of Figaro. 
 Figaro is a barber remarkable for his 
 shrewdness and dexterity in intrigue. 
 The plays were adapted for Mozart’s 
 Marriage of Figaro and Rossini’s Barber 
 of Seville. The name is also well known 
 as that of satirical journals published in 
 Paris and London. 
 
 FIGULINE, a name given by miner- 
 ologists to potter’s clay. 
 
 FIG'URAL (or Figurate) NUMBERS, 
 numbers formed by the terms of arith- 
 metical series of all sorts, in which the 
 first number is always unity. For ex- 
 ample : 
 
 I.— 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. 
 
 . II.— 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, etc. 
 
 III. — 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, etc. 
 
 IV. — 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, 51, etc. 
 
 Those in the second row are called 
 triangular numbers, because their units 
 may be arranged in equilateral triangles • 
 the members of the third row are called 
 square numbers: those of the fourth 
 pentagonal, etc. ; and so there are also 
 hexagonal, heptagonal, and, in general, 
 polygonal numbers. 
 
 FIGURE-HEAD, the ornamental fig- 
 ure or bust on the projecting part of a 
 
 Figure-head. 
 
 ship’s stem, over the cutwater and im- 
 mediately under the bowsprit. 
 
 FIJI, FEEJEE, or VITI ISLANDS, an 
 island group. South Pacific Ocean, east 
 of the New Hebrides, between lat. 15° 
 30' and 19° 30' s.; and Ion. 177° e. hnd 
 178° w. The entire group, which was dis- 
 covered by Tasman in 1643, comprises 
 altogether 254 islands and islets, eight 
 of which are inhabited; total area about 
 8000 sq. miles. Two of the islands only 
 are of large size, namely, Viti Levu, 90 
 miles long by 60 wide; and Vanua Levu, 
 rather longer but much narrower and 
 more irregular. Next to these come 
 Taviuni and Kandavu. The islands are 
 of volcanic origin, extremely fertile, and 
 covered with a luxuriant foliage, espe- 
 cially on the east side. The Fijians are 
 dark-colored, frizzly-haired, bearded 
 race of Melanesia extraction although 
 intermixed with the Polynesians of 
 Tonga and Samoa. They are cleanly in 
 their habits, and are generally regarded 
 
FILE 
 
 PILTH DISEASES 
 
 as superior to the Polynesians in intel- 
 ligence. Their early character, however, 
 was bad. Cannibalism was reduced to a 
 system, and wives, children, and friends 
 were often sacrificed to the Lottdness for 
 human flesh. Cannibalism seems now to 
 be abolished. This result has been due 
 to the Christian missions, mostly Wes- 
 leyan, which have been veiy successful, 
 most of the native population having 
 become professed Christians. From 
 1866 onward the influx of European 
 settlers from New Zealand and the Aus- 
 tralian colonies gradually brought the 
 trade of Fiji into importance and re- 
 peated applications were made to the 
 British government both by the settlers 
 and the king, Thakombau, to annex the 
 islands. At length in 1874 this was done, 
 and the Fiji Islands were made a crown 
 colony, under a governor, assisted by an 
 executive council and legislative as- 
 sembly, both, either offieialsmr nomi- 
 nated by the governor. Native chiefs 
 take part in the administration, the old 
 customary law being still largely ad- 
 hered to. Since the annexation the 
 prosperity of the colony has been re- 
 markable. The population is about 
 
 132.000. The Europeans number about 
 
 2.000. The capital is Suva, on the south 
 coast of Viti Levu. The island of Rotu- 
 mah, to the north, was annexed to Fiji 
 in 1881. 
 
 FILE, a bar of cast-steel with small 
 sharp-edged elevations on its surface 
 called teeth, the use of which is to cut 
 into or abrade metals, wood, ivory, horn, 
 etc. Files are of various shapes, as flat, 
 half-round, three-sided, square, or round 
 and are generally thickest in the middle, 
 while their teeth are of various degrees 
 of fineness and of different forms. A file 
 whose teeth are in parallel ridges only is 
 called single-cut or float-cut. Such are 
 mostly used for brass and copper. When 
 there are two series of ridges crossing 
 each other the file is double-cut, which is 
 the file best suited for iron and steel. 
 Rasps are files which have isolated sharp 
 teeth separated by comparatively wide 
 spaces, and are used chiefly for soft 
 materials such as wood and horn. Each 
 of these three classes of files is made in 
 six different degrees of fineness, the 
 coarsest being called rough, the next 
 middle, followed by bastard, second-cut, 
 smooth, and superfine or cleadsmooth, 
 each a degree finer than that which pre- 
 cedes it. Files are usually made with the 
 hand, file-cutting machines not having 
 been as yet perfectly successful on ac- 
 count of the delicacy of touch required 
 in the work. The blanks, as the steel be- 
 fore it has teeth is called, are laid on the 
 anvil and struck with the chisel, which 
 rests obliquely on the blank, each blow 
 raising a ridge or tooth. The strength of 
 the blow depends on the hardness of the 
 metal, and when one part is harder than 
 another the workman alters his blows 
 accordingly. When one side is covered 
 with single cuts, if the file is to be double 
 cut he adds in the same manner a second 
 series, crossing the others at a certain 
 angle. In making fine files a good file- 
 cutter will cut upwards of two hundred 
 teeth within the space of an inch. The 
 files, except those that are used for soft 
 substances, are then hardened by heat- 
 ing them to a cherry-red color and then 
 
 dipping them in water. They are then 
 finished by scouring and rubbing over 
 with olive-oil and turpentine. 
 
 FILE, a row of soldiers ranged one be- 
 hind another from front to rear. When a 
 column is arranged two deep, a file is 
 thus two men. 
 
 FILE-FISH, a name given to certain 
 fishes from their skins being granulated 
 like a file; one species, a common inhabi- 
 tant of the Mediterranean, has the power 
 
 Pile-fish. 
 
 of inflating the sides of the abdomen at 
 pleasure, and grows to the size of two 
 feet. Another species is a native of the 
 Indian and American seas. 
 
 FILTBUSTERS, a name given to those 
 adventurers, chiefly from the U. States, 
 who endeavored to effect settlements on 
 the Spanish islands and colonies in Cen- 
 tral America. The term is of Spanish 
 origin, but is ultimately from the Eng- 
 lish fly-boat, referring to the small fast 
 sailing vessels used by the buccaneers in 
 the 17th century. Among the most 
 noted of the filibusters was William 
 Walker who made three expeditions to 
 Nicaragua (1855, 1857, 1860). 
 
 FILIGREE', a kind of ornamental 
 open work in gold or silver, wrought 
 delicately in the manner of little threads 
 or grains, or of both intermixed. The art 
 was practiced by the Etruscans and the 
 Greeks of the Byzantine empire. In the 
 17th century it was carried to great per- 
 fection in Italy, and silver filigree work 
 is still largely manufactured in the south 
 of Europe. Some of the'eastern nations, 
 especially the Chinese and Malays, show 
 great skill in the manufacture of silver 
 filigree. 
 
 FILLMORE, Millard, the thirteenth 
 president of the United States, born at 
 
 Millard Fillmore. 
 
 Sumner Hill, Cayuga co., N. Y., in 1800. 
 In 1822 he removed to Buffalo, N. Y., 
 was admitted to the bar in 1823, an^j 
 
 sent to the New York Assembly 1839- 
 32; was in congress 1833-35 and 1837- 
 41, where he was an active and useful 
 member, favoring J. Q. Adams’ views 
 upon slavery, and in other public ques- 
 tions acting mainly with the Whigs. 
 In 1844 he was the Whig candidate for 
 governor of New York; in 1847 was 
 chosen comptroller of the state and re- 
 signed in 1849; in 1848 was chosen vice- 
 president of the United States on the 
 ticket with Gen. Taylor. On the death of 
 the latter, July 9, 1850, Mr. Fillmore be- 
 came president. The great events of his 
 administration were the passage of the 
 Compromise acts of 1850 and the Japan 
 expedition of 1852. He died in 1874. 
 
 FILTH DISEASES, discoveries in 
 bacteriology and the application of 
 exact methods of research have shown 
 that the importance of filth as a casual 
 factor in the production of disease con- 
 sists mainly in two facts — first,_ that it 
 furnishes a good medium for the' growth 
 and multiplication of certain foi-ms of 
 pathogenic bacteria when these gain 
 access to it; and, second, that sooner or 
 later such bacteria are very likely to 
 find their way into it. 
 
 Of the micro-organisms which pro- 
 duce disease, some, such as the bacillus 
 of typhoid, can grow and multiply in 
 dead organic matter at ordinary tem- 
 peratures, and a few of them may thus 
 in the course of a few days make all 
 parts of a foul solution dangerous, while 
 others, such as the bacillus of tubercle, 
 require temperatures near that of the 
 living body for development, and hence 
 under ordinary circumstances do not 
 make accumulations of filth injections. 
 Although small-pox, scarlet fever, diph- 
 theria, measles, and typhus may be 
 conveyed by foul clothing or bedding, 
 yet their spread is usually in no way 
 connected with accumulations of filth, 
 nor are they generated de novo by such 
 accumulations. Typhoid fever is the 
 typical filth disease, in the sense that it 
 is mainly transmitted through human 
 excretia, yet there is no evidence that 
 cesspool or water-supply can become the 
 cause of this disease in any other way 
 than by having the specific bacillus of 
 typhoid added to it. It is possible that 
 a common and under ordinary circum- 
 stances harmless form of bacillus may, 
 in the course of time and under special 
 conditions of food and temperature, be 
 so changed in nature and functions as to 
 be capable of producing a transmissible 
 disease, but it is very improbable that 
 such a change gives rise to the ordinary 
 forms of specific disease as^ seen in 
 practice. 
 
 The idea that specific disease of any 
 kind is produced by gases or volatile 
 products of any kind given off by decom- 
 posing filth is now generally abandoned, 
 and it is known that the micro-organ- 
 isms which cause such diseases do not 
 pass into the air from the surface of 
 fluids or fj^om moist surfaces by simple 
 evaporation. They are carried into the 
 air by spray or dust, but not otherwise. 
 Whether yellow fever is a filth disease, 
 in the proper sense of the term, is as yet 
 uncertain, but it is prudent to act on the 
 supposition that its specific germ may 
 be preserved in, and have its powers for 
 evil intensified by, accumulations of hu- 
 
FINGAL 
 
 FILTRATION 
 
 man excreta and by water polluted with 
 such excreta. 
 
 The various forms of septic disease, 
 including puerperal fever and those pro- 
 duced by pyogenic organisms, are often 
 due to want of cleanliness of the person, 
 of clothing, of instruments, etc., and 
 such want of cleanliness is apt to occur 
 in connection with or to be produced by 
 the presence of accumulations of fdth, 
 and in this sense they may perhaps be 
 called filth diseases. The name “finger- 
 nail fever,” which has been applied to 
 puerperal fever, is a very suggestive one. 
 
 Filth diseases are to be prevented, by 
 preventing accumulations of filth rather 
 than by trying to disinfect such accumu- 
 lations, and one of the most important 
 means of doing this for a city is a proper 
 system of sewerage, which involves a 
 good general water-supply and the regu- 
 lation of the drainage systems in individ- 
 ual houses to insure proper connections 
 and prompt disposal of liquid wastes. 
 
 FILTRA'TION, the process of freeing 
 a liquid from solid matter suspended in 
 it by causing it to pass through some 
 pervious substance or substances which 
 catch and retain the solid matter. The 
 materials of which a filter is composed 
 must have pores or interstices suffi- 
 
 Water filter. 
 
 18 3 4, The compartments; a &, porous top of 
 2d compartment; cd, filtering top of 3d com- 
 partment ; e, movable plug. 
 
 ciently coarse to allow the passage of the 
 liquid, and yet sufficiently fine to pre- 
 vent the passage of any solid particles. 
 On a small scale unsized paper is gen- 
 erally used; but on a large scale various 
 kinds of stone, sand, gravel, powdered 
 glass, clay, porous sulphur, preparations 
 of iron, charcoal, cloth, felt, horse-hair, 
 skins, silicated carbon, sponge, wood, 
 wool, cane, capillary threads, etc., are 
 all employed. In domestic filters the 
 simplest forms are those in which the 
 water passes down by its own gravita- 
 tion through the filtering medium to a 
 reservoir below. Lateral and ascending 
 filtration are not uncommon. One of 
 the most successful forms of ascending 
 filter is divided into four compartments, 
 as seen in the figure. The uppermost 
 part, containing the water to be filtered, 
 communicates with the lowest by a tube 
 having a loose sponge at its mouth to 
 stop some of the impurities. The top 
 of the lowest compartment is composed 
 of a porous slab, through which the 
 water passes into the third part, which is 
 filled with charcoal. The water is lastly 
 forced through the charcoal and another 
 slab into the remaining compartment, 
 which is furnished with a tap to draw 
 off the filtered water. The filters at 
 
 / 
 
 water-works are large tanks or beds, 
 made of good clay and filled with layers 
 of large stones, pebbles, and coarse 
 gravel, fine gravel, coarse sand and fine 
 sand — the fine sand being at the top. 
 Other materials are sometimes utilized, 
 such as furnace cinders or clinkers, 
 shells or shell-sand, and so forth. The 
 water in the reservoir, collected from 
 springs, surface drainage, and rain, is 
 allowed to deposit its suspended matter 
 in settling-tanks, and then it is run into 
 the filters. By percolation the rest of the 
 mineral matter is removed, and the 
 water then flows into the mains which 
 are to convey it to the locality where it 
 is to be used. Filtration can only remove 
 substances mechanically suspended in 
 the liquid. In order to remove dissolved 
 substances distillation is necessary. 
 
 FINALE (fi-na'le), the concluding part 
 of a musical composition, for instance, 
 of a quartette, of a symphony, of any act 
 of an opera, of a ballet, etc. It con- 
 sists of compositions of various charac- 
 ters. 
 
 FINANCE', the system or science of 
 public revenue and expenditure. In 
 "the plural the term is applied to the in- 
 come or revenue of a state, to the funds 
 in the public treasury, and also to 
 private incomes or resources. See such 
 articles as Exchequer, National Debt, 
 Taxation, Bank, etc. 
 
 FIN-BACK, or FINNER, a name given 
 the species of a genus of whales (Physa- 
 lus), so called for their possessing a 
 dorsal hump qr fin. The name is also 
 sometimes given to the members of 
 the genus Balsenoptera or rorquals. 
 
 FINCH, one of the Fringillidse, a 
 large family of small seed-eating birds, 
 inhabiting all parts of the globe, and 
 belonging to the order Insessores, sec- 
 tion Conirostres. They are distinguish- 
 ed by having a sharply-pointed, coni- 
 cal, and in most cases a strongly-formed 
 bill, suitable for crushing seeds and other 
 hard objects. The species have been 
 divided among several sub-families, as 
 the haw-finches, the true finches, the 
 buntings, the larks, the bull-finches, etc. 
 
 FIN DE SIECLE, a French phrase 
 meaning end of the century, and used 
 adjectively in the sense of peculiar to, or 
 characteristic of, the close of the cen- 
 tury or of the epoch; of such character 
 as might be thought fitting to the end 
 of the epoch — overwrought, overesti- 
 mated, artificial, and sophisticated. 
 
 FINDING. In law this term has the 
 same meaning as in popular language. 
 The finder of lost property upon land 
 who takes it into his possession becomes 
 invested with a special property therein, 
 which is superior to the claims of all per- 
 sons except that of the true owner. He is 
 under no legal obligation to take into 
 his custody any articles he may thus dis- 
 cover, but if he does, certain important 
 rights and obligations immediately at- 
 tach to his possession. His primary 
 duty is to preserve the property intact, 
 and in as excellent condition as its nat- 
 ural state at the time of finding will per- 
 mit, in anticipation of the owner’s ap- 
 pearing to reassert his title. A finder 
 thus becomes a kind of bailee, and, like 
 other bailees, he may defend his posses- 
 sion and interest by bringing action 
 against any third person who injures 
 
 the property, or asserts dominion over 
 it, or interferes with his immediate own- 
 ership. If the absolute owner ever ap- 
 pears, restoration must be made to him, 
 and the finder will be entitled to no 
 reward if none had been previously 
 offered, and can only claim to be re- 
 munerated for the actual and necessary 
 expenses incurred in the proper care of 
 the goods. But if a specific reward had 
 been promised, of which the finder had 
 knowledge, he would be authorized in 
 demanding it and would have a lien 
 upon the property until such charges 
 were satisfied. If at the time of making 
 the discovery the finder knew, or had 
 means of readily ascertaining to whom 
 the property belonged, it would be his 
 duty to seek out the owner and return 
 whatever he had thus acquired; and if 
 he failed to do this his retention of the 
 goods would be a fraudulent appropria- 
 tion of them which would constitute 
 larceny. But in cases where knowledge 
 of ownership could not be acquired no 
 larceny could be committed. Retaining 
 the chattels would then not be wrongful, 
 but reasonable and obligatory. If the 
 former owner can never he discovered or 
 never asserts any claim to the property, 
 it vests obsolutely in the finder. The 
 place where the finding occurred is im- 
 material as regards his rights. If an 
 article which was lost in a store was 
 picked up by any stranger, he would 
 have the first claim to it, and if the owner 
 never reappeared might enforce his title 
 even against the storekeeper. This 
 would not be the case, however, if the 
 article was only left by accident, for it 
 would then be regarded as confided to 
 the keeping of the proprietor of the 
 store, who might demand it from any 
 one by whom it was discovered. 
 
 FINDLAY, a city and railway center, 
 the capital of Hancock co., Ohio; 90 
 miles n.w. of Columbus. It is the center 
 of a natural gas-field, and since 1885 has 
 become an important manufacturing 
 center for glass-works, rolling-mills, 
 nail-factories, etc. Pop. 20,162. 
 
 FINE, in English law, formerly signi- 
 fied a sum of money paid at the entrance 
 of a tenant into his land and on other 
 occasions, but now generally has the 
 signification of a pecuniary penalty 
 exacted either in punishment of, or in 
 compensation for, an offense, whether 
 committed against an individual, in 
 contravention of the laws of the com- 
 munity, or against the community 
 itself. 
 
 FINE ARTS, the arts whose object is 
 the production of pleasure by their im- 
 mediate impression on the mind, as 
 poetry, music, painting, and sculpture. 
 In modern usage the term is often re- 
 stricted to the imitative arts which ap- 
 peal to us through the eye, namely 
 painting, sculpture, engraving, architec- 
 ture, and is sometimes even restricted 
 to the two first as more essentially 
 imitative and imaginative. 
 
 FIN'GAL, a hero of Gaelic romance, 
 celebrated as a great warrior and a gen- 
 erous man in many old ballads' belonging 
 alike to Ireland and Scotland; but more 
 especially the hero of an epic poem 
 attributed to Fingal’s son Ossian, first 
 ublished by James Macpherson in 1672. 
 ee Ossian. 
 
FINGAL’S CAVE 
 
 FINS 
 
 FINGAL’S CAVE, a famous natural 
 cavern in the island of Staffa, one of the 
 western islands of Scotland. It extends 
 227 feet from its mouth inward, is com- 
 posed of lofty basaltic columns, beau- 
 tifully jointed, and of most symmetrical, 
 though somewhat varied forms. The 
 height from the top of the arched roof 
 to the mean level of the sea is 66 feet; 
 the breadth at the entrance 42 feet, at 
 the end of the cave 22 feet. 
 
 FINGER-BOARD, the part of a 
 stringed instrument, as the neck of a 
 violin, guitar, etc., to which the fingers 
 (of the left hand) are applied in plajdng 
 to stop the strings. The finger-board of 
 a ke}md instrument (played with both 
 hands) is commonly called a key-board. 
 
 FINGERING, in music, (a) the art of 
 dexterously applying the fingers to a 
 musical instrument in playing, (b) The 
 marking of the notes of a piece of music, 
 as for the piano, organ, harmonium, con- 
 certina, etc., so as to guide the fingers in 
 playing. 
 
 FINGERS. See Hand. 
 
 FINIAL, in ai-chitecture, an orna- 
 mental "bunch of foliage which termi- 
 nates pinnacles, canopies, pediments. 
 
 1, Pinial, A.D. 1330, Cathedral of Amiens, France. 
 
 2, Finial, 15lh century. 
 
 etc., or anj^ ornament of like kind. By 
 ohler writers the term is used to denote 
 not only the leafy termination but the 
 whole pyramidal mass. 
 
 FI'NING, a substance used to clarify 
 liquors, usually such as are out of con- 
 dition or are of inferior quality. A solu- 
 tion of isinglass is generally used for 
 beer, and alum, carbonate of soda, salt of 
 tartar, etc., for spirits. Finings always 
 destroy some of the real virtue of the 
 liquor. 
 
 FINISTERE(fi-nis-tar; “Land’s End”), 
 a department of France, so named from 
 occupjung its w'esternm.ost extremity; 
 area, 2,595 sq. miles. The soil is gen- 
 erall 3 ^ fertile and well cultivated; fish- 
 ing is extensively carried on; and the 
 minerals are of considerable importance, 
 including iron, zinc, bismuth, and lead. 
 The manufactures consist chiefly of sail- 
 cloth, linen, soap, oil, candles, ropes, 
 le.athcr, paper, and tobacco. Ship-build- 
 ing also is carried on, and the general 
 trade is extensive. Quimper is the 
 ca])ital; other towns are Brest, Chdteau- 
 lin, and Morlaix. Pop. 707,820. 
 
 FINISTERRE, Cape, the most w'estern 
 ca))e of Spain, on the coast of Galicia. 
 
 FIN'LAND, a Russian grand-duch}'-, 
 containing 134,829 sq. miles, bounded n. 
 by Norway, e. by the governments of 
 Olonetz and Archangel s. by the Gulf 
 of Finland, w. bj-^ Sweden and the Gulf 
 
 of Bothnia. The capital is Helsingfors. 
 The country, in some parts, is hilly, be- 
 ing traversed by the continuations of 
 the Scandinavian Mountains, and, is 
 sandy, marshy, and abounding in lakes, 
 which furnish one of the most charac- 
 teristic features of the scenery. Tillage 
 and cattle-breeding are carried on to 
 some extent; but the most valuable 
 exports are the products of the forests, 
 timber, pitch, tar, and rosin. The forests 
 occupy 60 per cent of the surface. The 
 climate is severe, but healthy; the mean 
 yearly temperature in the north is 27'5° 
 F., at Helsingfors 38'7°. The principal 
 minerals are iron and copper; granite is 
 extensively quarried. The inhabitants 
 are mostly Finns (see Finns) and Sw'edes, 
 with a few Lapps, Russians, and Ger- 
 mans. Up to the 12th century the Finns 
 lived under their own chiefs and were 
 pagans. Their conversion to Christian- 
 ity took place about the middle of that 
 century after their conquest by the 
 Sw'edes. In 1721 the part of Finland 
 which formed the province of Wiborg 
 w'as secured to Peter the Great by 
 treaty. The remainder was conquered 
 from the Swedes in 1809. The religion, 
 laws, and liberties of the country have, 
 however, been preserved, and Finland 
 is perhaps the freest part of the Russian 
 empire. The established religion is 
 Lutheran ; but there is complete religious 
 freedom for other bodies. The national 
 parliament consists of four estates, the 
 nobles, the clergy, the burgesses, and 
 the peasants, convoked by the grand- 
 duke, the Emperor of Russia. The 
 superior administrative power is in the 
 hands of the senate, which is nominated 
 by the crown, and sits at Helsingfors 
 under the presidency of a governor- 
 general representing the emperor. The 
 governor-general is usually a Russian 
 and is appointed by the emperor. All 
 other officials, as well as the officers of 
 the army, must be Finnish subjects. In 
 1899 the Czar af Russia made Finland 
 an integral portion of the em[)ire. In 
 1908 the Czar dissolved the Finnish 
 Diet. Pop 2 2 M', 0 l;u. 
 
 FINLAND, Gulf of, a groat arm of the 
 Baltic, 250 or 260 miles long and from 10 
 to 70 miles wide, stretching from w. to 
 e. between Finland on the n. and the 
 Russian governments of Esthonia and 
 St. Petersburg on the s. Its waters are 
 only slightly salt. It contains numerous 
 islands, several excellent harbors and 
 strong fortresses. 
 
 FINNS, are a race of people inhabiting 
 the northwest of European Russia (gov'- 
 ernments of Archangel and Olonetz), 
 but especially the grand-duchy of Fin- 
 land. In a wider sense the term Finns, 
 with its adjective Finnic, is applied to 
 one of the chief branches of the northern 
 or Uralo-Altaic division of the Turanian 
 family of peoples and languages. The 
 Uralo-Finnic family has been divided 
 into four groups or branches: 1, Ugric, 
 to which the Ostiaks, Voguls, and Mag- 
 yars belong; 2, the Bulgaric or Volgaic, 
 consisting of the Tcheremisses and the 
 Mordvins; 3, the Permic, coin.posed of 
 the Permians, Sirianes, and Votiaks; 
 and 4, the Chudic or Baltic group. To 
 the last belong, besides the Finns proper, 
 the Esths of Esthonia and the Lives or 
 Livonians, the Chudes, in the govern- 
 
 ments of Novgorod and Olonetz, and 
 the Lapps in Archangel and the north- 
 ern^'arts of Finland, Sweden, and Nor- 
 waju The typical Finns are physically 
 of low stature but of strong build ; with 
 round head, forehead low and arched, 
 features fiat with prominent cheek- 
 bones, and oblique e 3 'es. Their language 
 belongs to the northern divusion of the 
 Turanian or I'ralo-Altaic family of lan- 
 guages, and is most nearl 3 ' allied to the 
 languages of the Esths, Lapps, Mord- 
 vins, Voguls, and Hungarians. It is 
 agreeable to the ear, rich inA'owels and 
 diphthongs, copious, and uncommonly 
 flexible. The language is remarkably 
 rich in declensional forms, there being 
 as many .as fifteen different cases, ex- 
 pressing such relations as are expressed 
 in English by near, to, by, on, in, with, 
 without, along, etc. There is no dis- 
 tinction of gender in nouns. The verb 
 resembles the noun in its capability for 
 expressing shades of meaning by corres- 
 ponding inflections. A great imjmlse 
 has been given to the cultivation of the 
 language in modern times. It is now 
 recognized as an official language side 
 by side with Swedish, and is becoming 
 more and more the vehicle for imparting 
 instruction. In many of the higher educ- 
 cational institutions for both sexes in 
 Finland the Finnish language is used. 
 Works on science and history as well as 
 poetry have been written in Finnish in 
 recent years; a great Finnish-Sw^ish 
 dictionary has been published, and there 
 are now a considerable number of news- 
 papers. The center of this literary life is 
 Helsingfors. 
 
 FINS, the projecting wing-like organs 
 which enable fishes to balance them- 
 selves and assist in regulating their move- 
 ments in the water. The fin consists of 
 a thin elastic membrane supported by 
 rays or little bon 3 '’ or cartilaginous 
 
 in 
 
 ID, First dorsal. 2D, Second dorsal. P, Pec- 
 toral. V, Ventral. A, Anal. C, Caudal. 
 
 ossicles. The pectoral or breast fins are 
 never more than two; they are placed j 
 immediately in the rear of the gill. Olden- 
 ing on the shoulder. In a state of rest 
 these fins are parallel with the body, and 
 have the apex toward the tail. The j 
 ventrals, or abdominal fins, are placed t 
 under the throat or belly, and point 1 
 downward and backward. They are | 
 smaller, in general, than the pectorals, j 
 and have sometimes long appendages, a 
 Those of the back, or the dorsal fins, g 
 point up'.vard and backward, and vary 
 in ixumber from cn^ to four, to which i 
 sometimes are added sev’eral finlets or a 
 pinnula; — small appendages which are. 3 
 seen in the mackerel. The anal fins are 1 
 situated behind the vent, var 3 'ing in | 
 number from one to three, placed ver- 
 ticalhu and, like the dorsal, generally : 
 deeper on the anterior margin. The ^ 
 caudal, or tail fin, terminates the body, ” 
 and both propel the fish and serves as S 
 
FINSBURY 
 
 FIREARMS 
 
 the rudder by which it steers itself. The 
 pectoral and ventral are known as 
 paired fins, and represent the fore and 
 hind limbs of other vertebrates; the 
 dorsal, anal, and caudal are median, 
 vertical, or unpaired fins, and are or- 
 gans peculiar to fishes. 
 
 FINSBURY, a parliamenta<>y- borough 
 of England, forming part of London, 
 bounded by the parliamentary-boroughs 
 of St. Pancras, Islington, Shoreditch, Lon- 
 don City, and Westminster. Pop. 182,109. 
 
 FION, FIONN (fe'on), a name given 
 in the Ossianic poetry to a semi-mythi- 
 cal class of warriors of superhuman size, 
 strength, speed, and prowess. Generally 
 they are supposed to have been a sort of 
 Irish militia, and to have had their name 
 from Fion MacCumhal (the Finn Mac- 
 Coul of Dunbar, and Fingal of Macpher- 
 son), their most distinguished leader; 
 but Mr. Skene believes them to have 
 been of the race that inhabited Germany 
 before the Germans, and Scotland and 
 Ireland before the Scots. 
 
 FIORD, a geographical term (of 
 Scandinavian origin) applied to long, 
 narrow, and very irregularly-shaped in- 
 lets of the sea, such as diversify the 
 coast of Norway. Similar inlets of the 
 sea are presented in the sea-lochs of the 
 west coast of Scotland, as also in the 
 fiords on the southwest coast of the 
 South Island of New Zealand, where 
 the scenery is singularly imposing. 
 Fiords often seem to owe their origin to 
 the action of glaciers in remote epochs 
 of the earth’s history. 
 
 FIR, a name sometimes used as co- 
 extensive with the term pine, and in- 
 cluding the whole genus Pinus; some- 
 times restricted to trees of the genus 
 Abies, which differ from the pines in 
 their leaves growing singly, and the 
 scales of the cones being smooth, round 
 and thin. The term fir, thus limited, is 
 applied to the differe^pt varieties of the 
 silver fir and the spruce fir, the common 
 silver fir being the Abies picea of botan- 
 ists, while the common or Norway spruce 
 is the Abies excelsa. Other species are 
 the great Californian fir, the balm of 
 Gilead fir, the large-bracted fir, the hem- 
 lock spruce fir, oriental fir, white spruce 
 fir, Douglas fir, etc. The firs, even in the 
 widest sense of the term, are almost all 
 remarkable for the regularity of their 
 growth, their tapering forms and the 
 great altitude of their stems. Their 
 timber is often highly valuable, being 
 almost solely used in the construction of 
 houses, and for the spars and masts of 
 vessels of all kinds. Some of them are 
 planted mainly as ornamental trees. 
 By some botanists the larch and cedar 
 are included with the firs in the genus 
 Abies. See Spruce, Silver Fir, Hem- 
 lock, etc. 
 
 • FIRE, the simultaneous and vividly 
 perceptible evolution of heat and light 
 during the process of combustion. The 
 uses and dangers of fire, and to some 
 extent the means of controlling it, have 
 been generally understood from a very 
 early period. The symbolic and super- 
 stitious uses of fire are numerous, and 
 have been, or are, common to all races. 
 Anciently fire was regarded as one of the 
 four elements of which all things are 
 composed, the othe^; three being air, earth, 
 and water. 
 
 FIRE-ALARM, an apparatus, me- 
 chanical, electric, and telegraphic, used 
 for detecting fires, and for giving in- 
 stantaneous notice of an outbreak. 
 Detectors are often placed in the differ- 
 ent apartments of a building, which 
 ring an alarm when the temperature 
 reaches a certain height. In large towns 
 a series of signal-boxes is distributed in 
 different quarters from which an alarm 
 can be immediately telegraphed to the 
 fire department. 
 
 FIREARMS, in no other field of the 
 mechanical arts has a greater inventive- 
 ness aftd skill in workmanship been 
 shown th^ in the evolution of the fire- 
 arm. Ffom the old horse pistol to the 
 modern self-acting revolver and auto- 
 matic pistol — from the old muzzle- 
 loading, bell-muzzled fowling piece to 
 
 Hammerless. 
 
 the modern breech-loading, double- 
 barreled, hammerless shotgun — one may 
 trace the hall marks of mechanical per- 
 fection as attained by the artisan of 
 the age. 
 
 The old horse pistol was a cylinder of 
 wrought steel, having a breech pin, a 
 pistol stock and nipple for iTpercussion 
 cap exploding the charge of black ^n- 
 powder beneath it. The fowling piece 
 was of a far longer cylinder of steel, with 
 
 or six chambers of the revolver loading 
 from the chamber muzzles and backed 
 by the nipple and the percussion caps. 
 These chambers, rotating within the 
 cylinder, brought the caps under the 
 striking hammer, one after the other. 
 
 When a Yankee inventor evolved the 
 metallic cartridge, with its fulminating 
 substance held inside the rim of the 
 copper shell and allowing the shell to be 
 loaded as the cylinder bore itself pre- 
 viously had been loaded, the nipple for 
 the percussion cap was done away with 
 and the breech-loading revolver cylinder 
 was made standard. According to this 
 design the revolver went on to its pres- 
 ent perfection, the rim fire cartridge 
 giving way to the surer central fire cart- 
 ridge and adapting itself to the terrible 
 energy of the smokeless powders. 
 
 The term “revolver” comes from the 
 revolving cylinder, though it is often 
 misapplied in speaking of a pistol. 
 
 The first hammerless revolver was of 
 American origin and of recent date. The 
 two chief ends of this weapon were the 
 elimination of danger from an explosion 
 caused by striking the hammer, as from 
 a fall, and in taking the projecting 
 thumb piece away it might not become 
 caught in the withdrawal of the weapon 
 from the pocket. A still later device has 
 made it impossible to explode the ham- 
 merless revdlver unless it shall be 
 clasped by the hand at the moment the 
 trigger is pulled for firing. The mere 
 “breaking” of one of these modern 
 
 Military automatic, Quarter 
 actual size. 
 
 the same general breech lock, cap nipple* 
 and fitted with a shoulder stock instead 
 of the pistol butt. Along these same 
 general lines the older flint-lock weapons 
 had been made and down to the present 
 these lines have been preserved to artis- 
 tic and ultilitarian perfections of the 
 modern firearm. 
 
 To-day the American products in de- 
 fensive and hunting arms take an un- 
 questioned lead in the civilized world. 
 The finish of the watchmaker’s art is on 
 them. Utility and beauty of workman- 
 ship are balanced in them. 
 
 Consider the revolver of modem times. 
 Samuel Colt was its inventor and ex- 
 ploiter before 1840. In that time black 
 powder and the percussion cap were the 
 1 explosive combination, each of the five 
 
 Featherweight Ejector. 
 
 weapons, as necessary for loading, in- 
 sures through the shell injector the abso- 
 lute safety that comes of certain empti- 
 ness of the cylinder. 
 
 The first “automatic” weapon for 
 pocket or holster use was of German 
 origin. It was a heavy, cumbersome 
 mechanism and devoid of all artistic 
 lines. Even at the present time it car- 
 ries many imperfections of line and 
 balance. Buf“in the smaller sizes for 
 pocket use the doing away with the 
 obtruding cylinder has made it compact 
 for the purpose of concealment. Also 
 it has added three more cartridges to 
 the chamber than is possible for the 
 pocket size, five-shot revolver. The 
 chamber of this automatic pistol is in- 
 serted with its eight cartridges into the 
 lower end of the butt. A sliding, forced 
 movement of the barrel mechanism 
 gives the user a full notice that it is 
 loaded. A safety catch makes it safe 
 until the catch is released by thumb 
 pressure. Thereafter from the first shot 
 it becomes the most dangerous weapon 
 ever made. 
 
 Using the high explosive cartridge, 
 the recoil from the shot is taken up in 
 cocking the weapon automatically, 
 ejecting the empty shell and forcing the 
 next cartridge into place, ready for the 
 next pull on the trigger. There is np 
 
FIRE-BALL 
 
 FIRE-ENGINE 
 
 sense of recoil to the hand holding the 
 gun. A light revolver may “jump” 
 three to six inches from a shot; tire 
 automatic pistol holds it quite level, 
 shot after shot until the magazine is 
 empty. 
 
 To the untutored or careless user this 
 automatic weapon is one of the most 
 dangerous of arms to himself or to the 
 bystander, in that unless a careful ex- 
 amination be made, the user never 
 knows for a certainty if it be empty. To 
 the weapon-trained man this fact in it- 
 self makes always for its safety, in that 
 its terrible muzzle never is pointed in 
 any other than a safe direction. Like 
 the hammerless revolver it cannot be 
 fired save when clasped in the hand and 
 the trigger pulled. 
 
 The ,old Kentucky squirrel rifle was 
 the forerunner of the magazine rifle. No 
 weapon within its range ever exceeded 
 this weapon in accuracy. But modern 
 methods have shortened its long barrel, 
 while modern “rifling” and the gradual 
 constriction toward the muzzle made 
 possible by breech loading has given 
 terrible energy to the conical, jacketed 
 bullet, lead filled into its cone of copper 
 or nickel. 
 
 Spencer’s carbine of 1860 was the first 
 American adaptation of the breech-load- 
 ing magazine rifle, carrying a lead mis- 
 sile nearly half an inch in diameter. At 
 close range this soft missile would go 
 through an animal and at the point of 
 egress would leave a wound into which a 
 hand might be thrust. To-day the thin 
 cone of the modern jacketed steel bullet 
 from the modern rifle may pass through 
 the same animal at 3,000 yards and the 
 wound scarcely be found, though a soft- 
 nosed bullet is often used in hunting 
 large game. In the civil war men ad- 
 vanced against the carbine in quadruple 
 lines with success, where to-day against 
 the modern army rifle the same move- 
 ment would mean the annihilation of a 
 regiment. 
 
 Thirty years ago the hunter using the 
 double-barreled muzzle-loading shotgun 
 in a duck blind had no trust in a gun 
 that was not at least 10-gauge with bar- 
 rels of thirty-two to thirty-six inches. 
 To-day the modern hammerless shotgun 
 of 12-gauge and having twenty-eight- 
 inch barrels is all sufficient, its average 
 of seven pounds, beautifully balanced, 
 contrasting with .the over-balanced 
 twelve to fourteen pounds of the old 
 muzzle-loading “duck” gun. -Nitro 
 powders, chilled shot and the “choke” 
 boring of the shorter barrels have effected 
 the revolution of the clumsy muzzle- 
 loader. 
 
 Of necessity the old muzzle-loading 
 shotgun contained perfect cylinders in 
 its two bores. In the making of such a 
 gun no master of gun making could tell 
 if the gun turned out to the best of his 
 art ; one day would throw a shot pattern 
 half equal in efficiency to the pattern of 
 the gun finished the day after. By the 
 laws of choke boring to-day, however, 
 the master of choke boring virtually 
 may make this shot pattern to the order 
 of tlie sportsman. At forty yards he may 
 cause this pattern to spread 250 pellets 
 within the rim of a Derby hat, or may 
 spread the 250 shot through a thirty- 
 >nch circle. 
 
 There are several methods of “chok- 
 ing” a gun. The most accepted method, 
 however, is to bore the cylinder in such a 
 way that the barrel’s least diameter is 
 from two to three inches from the muzzle. 
 A constriction of five l,000ths of an 
 inch in the right hand barrel represents 
 a “modified” choke; thirty to forty 
 l,000ths of an inch in the left hand bar- 
 rel is the full choke. Ordinarily the two 
 barrels of the gun are not choked in the 
 same degree and the right barrel is less 
 choked in order that in firing the right 
 barrel first by the front trigger, the 
 shooter gets from the full choke of the 
 left barrel a second later the same 
 relative chance at a moving bird. 
 
 Once the iron wire twist in a gun bar- 
 rel stood for the strongest and most or- 
 nate possibility for the gun barrel. Steel 
 wire followed iron, until at the present 
 time in the alternating of iron and steel 
 and the manipulation of these metals in 
 the welding, the “chain,” “diamond” 
 and other fanciful twists of the Damascus 
 barrels are suggestive of the jeweler’s 
 art, while of strength to withstand the 
 wedging charge of chilled shot in front 
 of a dynamite force of the terrible nitro 
 powders. 
 
 Twelve years ago the magazine rifle 
 suggested the magazine, or “pump” 
 shotgun. No sportsman handling the 
 finest of Damascus double barrels casts 
 doubt upon the efficiency of the pump 
 gun. At the same time some sportsmen 
 do not take the pump gun afield and on 
 many game preserves it is a discredited 
 arm which would blackball the shooter 
 from club membership. The pump gun 
 carries an average of six shells in its 
 magazine. But its rapidity of action 
 prompts firing at birds in flock until 
 after the murderous possibilities erf its 
 killing range are exhausted, countless 
 cripples are made in every killing season 
 to the destruction of fair sport. 
 
 This pump gun has its successor in the 
 automatic hammerless shot gun that is 
 in a state of evolution. The magazine 
 just above the trigger is especially cum- 
 bersome and heavy, but in use the nat- 
 ural recoil is taken up in the ejection of 
 the shell, and sliding a loaded shell into 
 the barrel, and re-cocking the gun. It 
 works practically upon the same prin- 
 ciple as the automatic pistol and its 
 magazine holds five loaded shells. 
 
 FIRE-BALL, (1) a ball filled with 
 powder or other combustibles, intended 
 to be thrown among enemies, and to in- 
 jure by explosion, or to set fire to their 
 works. (2) a popular name applied to a 
 certain class of meteors which exhibit 
 themselves as globular masses of light 
 moving with great velocity, and not uh- 
 frequently passing unbroken across the 
 sky until lost in the horizon. They differ 
 from ordinary meteors, probably, more 
 in volume and brilliancy than in any 
 other distinctive characteristic. They 
 are not to be confounded with another 
 class of meteors that explode in their 
 passage, and appear to let fall a dull red 
 body (meteorlile) to the earth. 
 
 FIRE-BOX, the box (generally made 
 of copper) in which the fire in a locomo- 
 tive engine is placed. See Boiler. 
 
 FIRE-CLAY, a compact kind of clay, 
 consisting chiefly of silica and alumina, 
 , capable of sustaining intense heat, and 
 
 used in making fire-bricks, gas-retorts, 
 crucibles, etc. The most highly esteemed 
 fire-clay is that of Stourbridge, which is 
 used wherever high temperatures have 
 to be resisted. Fire-clay belongs to the 
 coal formation, and always forms a 
 stratum immediately below each seam 
 of coal. 
 
 FIRE-DAMP, light carburetted hy- 
 drogen gas or marsh-gas. It is some- 
 times very abundantly evolved in coal- 
 mines, and is productive of the most 
 dreadful results when it explodes, occa- 
 sioning the death of nearly all then at 
 work in the mine. It appears to be 
 generated by the decomposition of 
 partially carbonized coal, and when it 
 constitutes more than of the vol- 
 ume of the atmosphere of mines the 
 whole becomes highly explosive when 
 fire is brought in contact with it. The 
 safety-lamp affords the chief protection 
 against the fatal effects of this gas. 
 
 FIRE-ENGINE, a machine for throw- 
 ing water for the purpose of extinguish- 
 ing fire. Machines for the extinguishing 
 of fires have been used from a very early 
 date. 
 
 So far as known, the first steam fire- 
 engine was developed by Brathwaite in 
 1829 or 1830. In 1850 A. B. Latta, in 
 Cincinnati, produced the first machine 
 
 Fire-engine. 
 
 which was practically useful. Cincin- 
 nati was the first city in the U. States 
 to organize a steam fire department', but 
 other large cities and towns rapidly 
 followed the example. 
 
 The main parte of the steam fire- 
 engine are the boiler, engine, pumps, 
 and the vehicle on which these are 
 mounted. Boilers are generally of the 
 vertical water-tube type. The engines 
 and pumps are also generally vertical, 
 double-acting, and in duplicate. To 
 facilitate the preparation of fire-engines 
 for service, heaters are maintained in 
 the engine-house to give a constant 
 supply of hot water to the engines. 
 When the alarm strikes the fire is 
 kindled beneath the boiler, and steam 
 is soon available. The rated capacity of 
 steam fire-engines ranges from about 
 400 to 1300 gallons per minute, and their 
 weights from 5000 to 9500 pounds. 
 The first, and probably the only thorough 
 test of steam fire-engines, was that made 
 in 1876 at the Centennial Exhibition at 
 Philadelphia. A more recent series of 
 tests was made at Boston in 1893. The 
 engines tested were those in regular ser- 
 vice by the fire department, some prac- 
 tically new and others fifteen j^ears old. 
 In all cases the engines drew water from 
 a hydrant under pressures of from 30 to 
 40 pounds. The largest average quan- 
 tity of water pumped per minute during 
 the whole of one test was 910 gallons, 
 the pumps having been run two hours 
 and twenty-three minutes and throwing 
 
FIRE-ESCAPES 
 
 FIRELOCK 
 
 a total of 130,121 gallons of water. 
 . The average steam-pressure was 101.3 
 pounds, and the average water-pressure 
 • at the pumps was 112.8 pounds. For 
 ■ shorter periods during this test better 
 results were obtained: thus, for about 
 twelve minutes there was a discharge 
 of 1022 gallons per minute. To enable 
 the engines to be drawn by horses at a 
 high rate of speed, lightness is essential. 
 Fire-engines mounted on fire-boats, like 
 those used by New York, Chicago, De- 
 troit, and other cities, may be designed 
 with less regard for weight and with 
 more consideration for fuel economy; 
 but here, also, quickness and effective- 
 ness of service ranks first, so the 
 chief advantage of such fire-engines is 
 that they may be made practically as 
 capacious and powerful as is desired, 
 and may approach fires closely from the 
 water-front side, where the ordinary 
 steam fire-engine cannot be driven. 
 
 Chemical fire-engines and extinguish- 
 ers range all the way from apparatus 
 mounted on wheels and propelled by 
 horses or men to small tanks carried on a 
 fireman’s back, or small hand force- 
 pumps. The aim of all such devices is to 
 smother the fire by means of some gas, 
 such as carbonic-acid gas. The larger 
 s,nd more effective apparatus include a 
 generating tank or tanks, in which water 
 and soda are placed, with an agitator to 
 aid in dissolving the soda, an acid-feed- 
 ing chamber, and the necessary hose. 
 If the generating apparatus is in dupli- 
 cate, with proper hose connections, con- 
 tinuous streams may be thrown; other- 
 wise the stream will cease while recharg- 
 ing is in progress. The water serves as a 
 medium to carry the gas, and the gas is 
 the motive force for the water. 
 
 FIRE-ESCAPES, a stationary or port- 
 •able device to escape from burning build- 
 ings when ordinary means of egress to 
 the ground are destroyed or cut off 
 by flames. The fire-escape required by 
 most city building laws, consists of 
 balconies attached to the outside of the 
 building, connected by iron ladders 
 with each other, and opening onto each 
 floor at a door or window. Portable fire- 
 escapes may be operated from the in- 
 terior of the building or from the outside 
 according to their character. Interior 
 fire-escapes of this class vary in char- 
 acter from a simple knotted rope placed 
 in each room, and down which persons 
 seeking escape slide, to more elaborate 
 devices. Portable fire-escapes operated 
 from the outside consist of ladders, 
 telescopic tubes carrying slings, cables 
 which may be thrown up into open win- 
 dows, etc. One of the most effective of 
 all of these devices is a simple ladder of 
 sufficient length to reach frofn one story 
 to the next, and provided with large 
 hooks at one end which may be inserted 
 over the window-sill. The first ladder is 
 placed from the ground, the second from 
 the top of the first, and so on until a line 
 of ladders extends from the ground to 
 the top floor, down which the occupants 
 of the building may descend alone or be 
 carried by the firemen. 
 
 FIRE-EXTINGUISHER, an appara- 
 tus by which fire may be' extinguished, 
 by pouring ’on it water charged with 
 some gas that is incapable of supporting 
 combustion, especially carbonic - acid 
 
 gas. The Babcock extinguisher consists 
 of a cylindrical vessel which may be 
 carried on the back, filled with a solution 
 of sodium bicarbonate, over which is 
 suspended a vessel containing sulphuric 
 acid, which is made to tilt over and dis- 
 charge its contents into the solution 
 when brought into use, thus liberating 
 the carbon dioxide. Large cylinders con- 
 taining chemical salts, have been 
 mounted on -wheels, known as “chemical 
 fire-engines,” and are used in many of 
 the larger cities. 
 
 Hand grenades, or bombs filled with 
 fire-extinguishing solutions of chlorine 
 or ammonium chloride, borax, carbonic- 
 acid gas under preat pressure, mixtures 
 of calcium chloride, magnesium sulphate, 
 sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, and 
 sodium silicate are in common use; but 
 they are of value only in the first stages 
 of a fire. 
 
 FIREFLY, a name indefinitely given 
 to any winged insect which possesses 
 much luminosity. Except the lantern- 
 fly, the fireflies are all coleopterous, and 
 are members of two nearly allied families 
 the Elateridse or skip-jacks, and Lampy- 
 ridae, to which the glow-worm belongs 
 
 FIRE INSURANCE, just when a 
 scientific system of insurance against loss 
 by fire was first introduced it is impos- 
 sible to say. In the ordinances of the 
 guilds of the Middle Ages, we find regu- 
 lations for the payment of indemnity to 
 any member who suffered loss of prop- 
 erty by fire. 
 
 The earliest recorded proposal for the 
 establishment of a scientific fire-insut- 
 ance company in England was made in 
 1635. The first office was opened by N. 
 Barbon, in London, in 1667, the year 
 after the great fire. It is highly probable 
 that the business had already been in- 
 troduced on the continent. 
 
 The first fire-insurance company in 
 the U. States was opened at Philadelphia 
 in 1752, and incorporated in 1768. The 
 development of the fire-insurance busi- 
 ness was slow at first, but before the end 
 of the eighteenth century, at least thirty 
 charters had been granted to companies 
 for carrying on the business. The most 
 trying time in the history of fire insur- 
 ance in the U. States during the last 
 fifty years came in the early seventies. 
 In October, 1871, as a result of the 
 Chicago fire, insurance companies be- 
 came liable for indemnities amounting 
 to more than $96,500,000. In Novem- 
 ber of the following year occurred the 
 great Boston fire, which brought a loss 
 of more than $52,600,000 upon the com- 
 panies. These two great losses, coming 
 in quick succession, subjected all fire- 
 insurance companies to great strain. 
 More than a hundred of them ■^ere 
 forced to suspend operations, while 
 many others found their surplus wiped 
 out and their capital seriously im- 
 paired. 
 
 The year 1906 tested the financial 
 strength of the fire insurance companies 
 to the limit. The earthquake in San 
 Francisco on April 18 was followed by a 
 fire which raged for three days before it 
 was under control. The estimated net 
 losses to the insurance companies was 
 $113,441,595, divided as follows: Amer- 
 ican companies, $63,771,499; foreign 
 companies, $49,670,096. 
 
 On Jan. 1, 1907, there were doing 
 business in the United States 374 joint 
 stock fire insurance companies, and 257 
 mutual companies. Their combined 
 capital was .|84,290,590 ; their combined 
 assets, $554,331,115; their combined net 
 surplus, $176,942,570. During the year 
 they wrote risks aggregating .$30,000,- 
 000,000. The figures do not include the 
 operation of some 500 town and county 
 mutual companies, whose transactions 
 are purely local. 
 
 Some indication of the increase in the 
 use of fire insurance by property-owners 
 may be gained from a comparison of the 
 total fire loss for different periods with 
 the losses sustained by the insurance 
 companies during the same periods. 
 The figures given in the Spectator year 
 book for 1902 indicate that in the de- 
 cade 1881-1890, 57.4 per cent of the total 
 fire loss was covered by insurance, while 
 in the decade 1891-1900, 60.9 per cent 
 of the total loss was thus covered. The 
 relation of insurance to the amount of 
 fire loss demands careful consideration. 
 Against the great gain which the system 
 of fire insurance confers upon society 
 must be set a direct loss due to the in- 
 crease in the amount of property de- 
 stroyed by fire as a result of the insurance 
 itself. A part of this increased loss is due 
 to the greater carelessness of the owners 
 because of the insurance; a larger part is 
 due to the deliberate destruction of in- 
 sured property by the owners for the 
 sake of securing the insurance. What 
 proportion of fires is due to incendiarism 
 it is impossible to determine with ac- 
 curacy. Various estimates, ranging from 
 20 to 40 per cent, have been made by 
 different investigators. The value of the 
 property deliberately destroyed in order 
 to obtain insurance constitutes one ele- 
 ment in the cost of insurance. The in- 
 surance companies themselves are indi- 
 rectly responsible for a part of this loss. 
 It is a matter of common knowledge 
 that agents and brokers show too great 
 laxity in granting insurance on property 
 up to, and sometimes far beyond, its full 
 value. Every instance of over-insurance 
 is a standing invitation to incendiarism. 
 
 While a part of the annual loss by fire 
 must be charged against the system of 
 insurance, insurance companies must, 
 on the other hand, be credited with a 
 large share of the responsibility for the 
 discovery and application of methods 
 for preventing such loss. Not only have 
 they always been active, both in the 
 adoption of preventive measures and in 
 compelling or inducing the insured to 
 adopt such measures, but it is also to 
 their initiative that a large part of the 
 progress in state and municipal activity 
 along the same lines have been due. 
 
 FIRE ISLAND, or GREAT SOUTH 
 BEACH, a low spit of sand, about 50 
 miles long but broken by inlets, almost 
 40 miles southeast of New York City. 
 It separates the Great South Bay from 
 the Atlantic Ocean. On its western end 
 is a lighthouse of the first order; also a 
 station from which transatlantic steam- 
 ers bound for New York are first sighted. 
 The beach is a popular summer resort. 
 
 FIRELOCK, a musket or other gun, 
 with a lock furnished with a flint and 
 steel, by means of which fire is produced 
 in order to discharge it; distinguished 
 
FIRE OF LONDON 
 
 FISH-GLUE 
 
 1 
 
 from the old matchlock, which was fired 
 with a match. 
 
 FIRE OF LONDON, The Great, broke 
 out in a house near London Bridge 2d 
 Sept. 1666, and raged for several days. 
 Two-thirds of London was destroyed — 
 eighty-nine churches and more than 
 13,000 dwelling-houses. The monument 
 erected by AVren at Fish Street Hill com- 
 memorates the great fire, and at one 
 time bore an inscription attributing the 
 fire to Popish faction. 
 
 FIRE-PROOFING, various plans have 
 been adopted for rendering houses, 
 or an apartment in a house, fireproof, as 
 by constructing them entirely of brick 
 or stone, and employing iron doors, ties, 
 and lintels, stone staircafses and land- 
 ings. In the case of textile fabrics, as 
 cotton, linen, etc., saturation with vari- 
 ous salts, as borax, which leaves fheir 
 crystals in the substance of the fabrics, 
 is the means adopted for rendering them 
 incombustible. AVood is best protected 
 by silicate of soda, which, on the applica- 
 tion of strong heat, fuses into a glass, 
 and this, enveloping not only the out- 
 side but also the internal fibers of the 
 wood, shields it from contact with the 
 oxygen of the air. Fireproof safes are 
 generally constructed with double walls 
 and stout iron, having a space between 
 the walls filled with some substance 
 which is a very bad conductor of heat. 
 
 FIRE-SHIPS, are generally old vessels 
 filled with combustibles, and fitted with 
 grappling-irons, to hook enemies’ ships 
 and set them on fire. This ancient de- 
 vice has been frequently tried in modern 
 warfare, though it can never be of much 
 effect when employed against modern 
 ships. 
 
 FIRE-AAtORSHIP, the worship of fire, 
 the highest type of which worship is seen 
 in the adoration of the sun, not only as 
 the most glorious visible object in the 
 universe, but also as the source of light 
 and heat. In the East the worship of the 
 element of fire was practiced by the 
 ancient Persians or Magians, and is 
 continued by the modern Parsees. The 
 •establishment of this species of idolatry 
 among the Persians is ascribed to Zorao- 
 aster, who taught his disciples that in 
 the sun and in tlie sacred fires of their 
 temples God more especially dwelt, and 
 that therefore divine homage was to be 
 paid to these. 
 
 FIRKIN, a British measure of capac- 
 ity, being the fourth part of a barrel, or 
 equal to 7^ imperial gallons, or 2,538 
 cubic inches. It is now legally abol- 
 ished. 
 
 FIR'LOT, a dry measure used in Scot- 
 land, but now legally abolished; the 
 fourth part of a boll. 
 
 FIRM, a partnership or association of 
 two or more persons for carrying on a 
 business; a commercial house; or the 
 name or title under which a company 
 transact business. 
 
 FIR'MAMENT, the vault of heaven. 
 The Hebrew word rakia, which is so 
 rendered in Scripture, conveys chiefly 
 the idea of expansion, although that of 
 solidity is also suggested, inasmuch as 
 the root signification of the word is that 
 which is expanded by beating out. The 
 English firmament is adopted from the 
 Latin firmamentum, w'hich is the equiv- 
 
 alent of the Greek stereoma (stereos, 
 firm, solid), by which the writers of the 
 Septuagint rendered rakia. 
 
 FIR'MAN, a decree, order, or grant of 
 an Oriental sovereign, as of Turkey, is- 
 sued for various special purposes, for 
 instance to ensure a traveler protection 
 and assistance. 
 
 FIROZABAD', town and municipality 
 in Agra district, in the United Provinces 
 of India, pop. 16,023. Pop. of tahsil or 
 revenue district, 108,521. 
 
 FIROZPUR', a thriving commercial 
 town, Punjab, India, capital of a dis- 
 trict of the same name. Pop. 50,437. 
 The district forms the southwestern por- 
 tion of the Jalandhar division. Area, 
 4,302 sq. miles; pop. 886,676. — Firozpur 
 is also the name of a town in Gurgaon 
 district, Punjab. Pop. 6,878. 
 
 FIRTH, Frith, an estuary, a term ap- 
 plied in Scotland to arms of the sea, 
 such as the Firth of Clyde, of Tay, and 
 of Forth, etc. It is the same word as the 
 Norwegian fjord. 
 
 FISH. See Ichthyology. 
 
 FISH CULTURE, the breeding, rear- 
 ing, transplanting, and protection of 
 aquatic animals.in order to maintain or 
 increase their abundance. 
 
 The maintenance of ponds for the 
 rearing of fresh-water fishes for food or 
 ornamental purposes is a very ancient 
 one. In recent years fish culture has be- 
 come almost s 3 monymous with the har- 
 vesting of eggs, their artificial fecunda- 
 tion, and the rearing of the young up to 
 varying stages in hatcheries established 
 for that purpose. The U. States far sur- 
 passes all other countries in the extent 
 of this work under Government patron- 
 age. The Federal government supports 
 twenty-eight hatcheries at various fa- 
 vorable places, and one steamer, the 
 Fishhawk, a sort of floating hatchery, 
 exclusively used in the actual culture of 
 fishes or in the investigation of problems 
 pertaining thereto. The purpose of the 
 governmental hatcheries is either to 
 stock new waters with desirable species 
 or to maintain by planting the supply in 
 waters already tenanted. 
 
 It is now established that waters thus 
 stocked or replenished have not only 
 been able to maintain their supply of 
 fishes, but have greatly increased it. 
 Pacific waters have been successfully 
 stocked with Atlantic species, and al- 
 most exhausted streams in various parts 
 of the U. States have been successfully 
 restored. In some species the eggs are 
 not handled, but the spawning fishes are 
 provided with favorable ponds for 
 spawning purposes, where their eggs are 
 protected from enemies, given suitable 
 temperature, etc. This is the case with 
 members of the Centrarchidae, such as 
 the black bass, which build a nest and 
 guard the eggs during incubation. The 
 young when hatched are either taken 
 from the ponds and fed in suitable 
 troughs until better able to shift for 
 themselves, or are supplied Avith food in 
 the ponds themselves. In most species, 
 however, the eggs are artificially expelled 
 from the body into suitable receptacles, 
 in which they are fertilized by the ad- 
 dition of milt similarly obtained from 
 the males. .After a feAV moments the 
 eggs are transferred to running W'ater 
 where they are kept and taken care of i 
 
 until the embryos emerge. The exact 
 method employed in fertilization, but 
 especially the subsequent handling of 
 the eggs during incubation, varies con- 
 siderably with the character of the eggs 
 See Pisciculture. 
 
 FISHERIES, a term which includes all 
 the industries concerned in the capture 
 of the inhabitants of fresh and salt water 
 for food and other economic purposes. 
 It is thus applied to the procuring not 
 only of fish proper, but also of other 
 animals and products found in the sea, 
 such as sponges, corals, pearls, shell-fish, 
 turtles, Avhales, seals, etc. The most im- 
 portant of fresh-water fisheries is that 
 of salmon, which is prosecuted with 
 draw-nets, stake-nets, and by sports- 
 men with fly-hooks. Trout, eel, pike, 
 aird perch are among the other import- 
 ant fresh-water fishes. Sea-fisheries, in- 
 cluding the herring, cod, haddock, and 
 other fishes, are prosecuted in a variety 
 of ways. Hand-line and long-line fishing 
 are worked more or less. Of nets the chief 
 varieties are trawls, drift-nets, seines, bag 
 nets, and trammel or set nets. Fisheries 
 have generallj'' been considered so im- 
 portant an object of national wealth 
 that governments have been careful to 
 protect and encourage them in various 
 ways. The right to various fisheries has 
 often been a matter of international dis- 
 putes, negotiations, and treaties. (See 
 Canada.) Fisheries belonging to par- 
 ticular governments, especially inland 
 fisheries in lakes and rivers, are also 
 frequently protected by laws relating 
 to the mode of capture, etc., which vary 
 with the particular circumstances. The 
 countries whose fishing industries pro- 
 duce the most valuable returns are 
 Great Britain, British North America, 
 and the U. States. The banks of New- 
 foundland are one of the richest fishing 
 grounds in the world, and are largely 
 frequented by French fishermen. The 
 German Ocean also yields a very rich 
 harvest to the fishermen of all the sur- 
 rounding coasts, especially in herring, 
 cod, haddock, flat-fish, etc. 
 
 FISH, Hamilton, American statesman, 
 born in 1805 in New York City; in 1842 
 he was elected to congress as a AA’hig. 
 In 1848 he was elected governor In 
 1851 he Avas elected U. States senator. 
 In March, 1869, Fish AA'as appointed 
 secretary of state, and served through 
 both of Grant’s administrations, retir- 
 ing in 1877. In 1871 he was one of the 
 commissioners Avho negotiated andsigned 
 the Treaty of AVashington with Great 
 Britain. During the “Alabama Claims” 
 arbitration he was successful in securing 
 the adoption by the tril^nal of a pro- 
 A'ision Avhich relieved the U. States from 
 responsibility for indirect damages aris- 
 ing out of the Fenian raids and Cuban 
 filibustering expeditions. He also 
 brought about the settlement of the 
 long-standing NorthAA’estern boundary 
 dispute Avith Great Britain, which re- 
 sulted in the cession to the U. States of 
 the island of San Juan (see San Juan 
 boundary), and the satisfactory settle- 
 ment of the complications groAA'ing out 
 of the Virginius affair. He died in 
 1895. 
 
 FISHES. See Ichthj'ology. 
 FISH-GLUE, a coarse species of isin- 
 glass. 
 
FISH-HAWK 
 
 FITZGERALD 
 
 FISH-HAWK, a name given in America 
 to the osprey or fishing-eagle. See 
 Osprey. 
 
 FISH-HOOK, a curved, barbed, and 
 pointed steel wire used for catching fish. 
 Hook-making machines are now com- 
 mon , especially in the U. States, where 
 the wire is run into the machine, and on 
 the other side the hook drops out com- 
 leted, with the exception that it must 
 e tempered and colored. 
 
 FISHING BIRDS, the fishing birds 
 proper include the larger sea-birds, such 
 as the loons, penguins, auks, puffins, 
 tropic-birds, frigate-birds, cormorants 
 and gannets; and certain fresh-water 
 families of higher organization, such as 
 the pelicans, darters, most herons, and 
 some ducks. All are either powerful 
 swimmers and divers, or else are skillful 
 in lying in wait and snatching or piercing 
 any fish that comes efficiently close to 
 their motionless fonns. The instrument 
 (except in the Raptores, which use their 
 talons) is the beak, which is long, straight, 
 sharply pointed, and sharp-edged, so 
 Miat a firm grip may be had of the slip- 
 ery bodies of their prey. Many of these 
 irds have a special provision for bring- 
 ing home a part of their catch to their 
 young, either by swallowing it as far as 
 the crop, whence it may be disgorged, 
 or by storing it in a bag formed by the 
 distensible membrane between the lower 
 mandibles. 
 
 FISHING-ROD, a long slender rod, 
 usually made in jointed sections, to 
 which the line is fastened in angling. 
 See Angling. 
 
 FISH-JOINT, a splice or joining, as in 
 railways, where two rails end to end are 
 fastened together by flat pieces of iron 
 (fish-plates) placed on each si^e of the 
 rails, and fastened by screw-nuts and 
 bolts (fish-bolts). 
 
 FISH-LOUSE, a name for several 
 crustaceans of the order Ichthyopthira, 
 parasitic on fishes. Some are common on 
 many of the British sea-fishes. Sickly 
 fishes often become the victims of mul- 
 tutides of these creatures, or the sick- 
 ness is induced by the number which 
 attacks them. 
 
 FISH PLATE, a flat plate or bar of 
 iron employed in pairs to connect the 
 ends of adjacent rails in railway track. 
 The two plates are placed on opposite 
 sides of the webs of the rails, and are 
 held by- bolts passing through the plates 
 and the webs of the two rails. In order 
 to increase the strength of the joint, the 
 angle bar was devised, having a vertical 
 web like the fish plate and an inclined 
 flange extending over the rail-base. 
 The angle-bar joint is now almost uni- 
 versally employed. 
 
 FISK, Clinton Bowen, American sol- 
 dier and politician; was born in 1828 at 
 Griggsville, N. Y. At the beginning of 
 the civil war he entered the Union Army 
 and in 1865 was brevetted major-general. 
 Subsequently he devoted his life largely 
 to the interests of the colored race; was 
 assistant commissioner in the Freed- 
 man’s Bureau, and was instrumental in 
 founding University. He was 
 
 prohibition candidate for governor of 
 New Jersey in 1886, and for president 
 of the U. States in 1888. He died in 1890 
 
 FISK, James, Jr. American stock 
 .speculator, born in Bennington, Vt., in 
 
 1834. In 1870 he opened a broker- 
 age office in New York City. He picked 
 up a precarious living for some time, 
 until Daniel Drew made him one of his 
 agents in his famous struggle with Cor- 
 nelius Vanderbilt for the control of the 
 Erie Railway. The Vanderbilt faction 
 was forced out of the directorate, in- 
 stalling Fisk and Jay Gould in their 
 stead. This was the beginning of the 
 association of Jay Gould and James 
 Fisk, which terminated only with the 
 death of Fisk. Gould became president 
 of the Erie Railroad, and Fisk the vice- 
 president and comptroller. From their 
 headquarters a campaign of bribery and 
 corruption was carried on that brought 
 under the power of these men city, state, 
 and federal officials, judges, and legis- 
 latures, reaching its climax in the gold 
 conspiracy in 1869 and “Black Friday,” 
 when an attempt was made to control 
 President Grant himself. A quarrel with 
 one of his partners, E. S. Stokes in 1872 
 culminated in his death at the hands of 
 the latter. 
 
 FISKE, John, American philosopher 
 and historian, ' was born at Hartford, 
 Conn., in 1842. He graduated at Harvard 
 College in 1863, and in 1869 began a 
 career of distinguished success as a lec- 
 turer at Harvard on Philosophy in its 
 Evolutionary Aspect. In 1884 he was 
 made professor of American History in 
 Washington University, St. Louis. He 
 lectured on American History at Uiv- 
 versity College, London, in 1879, and 
 at the Royal Institution of Great Brit- 
 ain in 1880. He did much to popularize 
 the philosophy of Evolution, and 
 through outlines of Cosmic Philosophy 
 won a national reputation. His con- 
 tributions in book form to American 
 History constitute practically a con- 
 nected history of the U. States from the 
 first discoveries to the establishment of 
 federal government. He edited with 
 Gen. James Grant Wilson Appleton’s 
 Cyclopedia of American Biography. 
 He died in 1901. 
 
 FISKE, Minnie Maddern, American 
 actress, born in New Orleans in 1865. 
 Throughout her childhood she played at 
 times with many well-known actors like 
 Laura Keene, John McCullough, Barry 
 Sullivan and E. L. Davenport. At six- 
 teen she was brought out as a star in 
 Fogg’s Ferry and for several years made 
 some success. She has appeared in 
 Ibsen’s A Doll’s House, A Bit of Old 
 Chelsea, etc. She made a sensation in 
 Tess of the D’Urbervilles and in Becky 
 Sharp. 
 
 FISK UNIVERSITY, an institution 
 for the education of colored persons, 
 founded in 1866, at Nashville, Tenn., by 
 the American Missionary Association of 
 New York and the Western Freedman’s 
 Aid Commission of Cincinnati. The 
 university at present comprises theolog- 
 ical, normal, college, preparatory, music, 
 and industrial departments. The attend- 
 ance in all departments is over 500. 
 
 FISSIROSTRES (-ros'trez), a tribe of 
 the Insessores or perching birds, dis- 
 tinguished by having a very wide gape 
 extending beneath the eyes. It com- 
 prehends the night-jar or goatsuckers, 
 whip-poor-will, swallows, swifts, mar- 
 tins, etc. But in modern classification 
 this division is oft«n disregarded. 
 
 FIS'TULA, in surg. a channel open at 
 both ends excavated between an internal 
 part and the skin-surface, showing no 
 tendency to heal, and generally arising 
 from abscesses. It occurs more fre- 
 quently at some outlet of the body, as 
 the urinary passages and anus. 
 
 Fissirostres. 
 
 1. Dlurna. Head, foot, and bill of a swallow. 
 2, Nocturna. Head, foot, and bill of a goat 
 sucker. 
 
 FIT, a sudden and violent attack of 
 disorder, in which the body is often 
 convulsed, and sometimes the person is 
 unconscious; as, a fit of apoplexy or 
 epilepsy. 
 
 FITCH, William Clyde, an American 
 playwright, born in New York in 1865. 
 His first play. Beau Brummel, was 
 brought out by Richard Mansfield at the 
 Madison Square Theater, New York, in 
 1890. Among his plays are; Betty’s 
 Finish; Frederic Lemaitre; A Modern 
 Match; Pamela’s Prodigy; April Wea- 
 ther; Mistress Betty; The Moth and the 
 Flame; Nathan Hale, which has been his 
 greatest success; The Cowboy and the 
 Lady; Sapho; Barbara Frietchie; The 
 Climbers; Captain Jinks, of the Horse 
 Marines; Lovers’ Lane; The Way of the 
 World; The Last of the Dandies; The 
 Girl and the Judge; and The Stubborn- 
 ness of Geraldine. 
 
 FITCH'BURG, a city (including the 
 villages of West Fitchburg, South Fitch- 
 burg, Cleghorn, Crockerville, Rockville, 
 and Traskville) and one of the county- 
 seats of Worcester county. Mass., 25 
 miles north of Worcester and 50 miles 
 northwest of Boston; on a branch of the 
 Nashua river, and on the Fitchburg 
 division of the Boston and Maine, and 
 the New York, New Haven and Hart- 
 ford railroads. Pop. 33,000. 
 
 FITZGERALD, Edward, English poet, 
 was born near the market town of Wood- 
 bridge, in Suffolk, in 1809. In 1853, the 
 first drama of his famous translations 
 appeared: Six Dramas of Calderon. 
 Fitzgerald’s intimacy w’ith Professor Co- 
 well, the orientalist, culminated in their 
 study of the Persian poets, and bore 
 important fruit in Fitzgerald’s transla- 
 tion of the Salaman and Absal, of Jami, 
 in 1856, and the Rubaiyat three years 
 later. The story of how the now famous 
 quatrains first claimed public attention 
 is well known. Fitzgerald offered some 
 of “the less wicked” of them to Frazer’s 
 Magazine; but as they failed to appear, 
 he made a present of them, two years 
 later, to his publisher, Mr. Quaritch,who 
 issued them in a brown-covered pamph- 
 let, at five shillings. In course of time 
 they found their way to a penny box 
 outside the bookseller’s door. It was 
 there that Mr. Whiteley Stokes bought 
 the copy which he gave to Dante Gab- 
 riel Rosetti, who in turn passed it onto 
 
 Mr. Swinburne, and thus laid the foun- 
 
 • 
 
FIVE FORKS 
 
 flamboyant 
 
 dation of the Omar cult in England. It 
 is only just beginning to be recognized 
 that Fitzgerald’s Rubaiyat is held in 
 honor, not as Persian, but as English 
 poetry, and that to the great majority 
 the sources are as unimportant as the 
 sources of a play of Shakespeare. He 
 died in 1883. 
 
 FIVE FORKS, a locality in Dinwiddie 
 county, Virginia; the scene of an im- 
 portant battle fought 1st April, 1865, 
 one week before the close of the civil 
 war. After heavy fighting the confed- 
 erates were completely defeated. 
 
 FIXED ALKALIES, potash, soda, 
 lithia, and oxides of the rare metals 
 rubidium and cajsium, so named in con- 
 tradistinction to ammonia, which is 
 termed volatile alkali. 
 
 FIXED OILS. See Oils. 
 
 FIXED STARS, those stars which ap- 
 pear to remain always at the same dis- 
 tance from each other and in the same 
 relative position. The name compre- 
 hends, therefore, all the heavenly bodies, 
 with the exception of the planets, with 
 tlieir moons, and the comets. See Stars. 
 
 FIXTURES, in law, are accessories 
 annexed to houses or lands, which by 
 the fact of their being so annexed be- 
 come a part of the real property and pass 
 to the freeholder, not being remova- 
 ble at will by the tenant or occupier of 
 the property. The general rule of law 
 is that whatever has been affixed to the 
 premises or put into the land by a tenant 
 during his occupancy cannot be removed 
 without the landlord’s consent. Large 
 ex-ceptions are made to this rule in favor 
 of the tenant, covering generally fix- 
 tures for trade, for agricultural purposes, 
 and for ornament or convenience; but 
 the removal must not injure the land or 
 buildings of the landlord. 
 
 FLAG, a piece of cloth on which cer- 
 tain figures or devices are painted, im- 
 pressed, or wrought, borne on a staff or 
 pole, and usually employed to distin- 
 guish one company, party, or nation- 
 ality from another. In the army a flag 
 is a banner by which one regiment is 
 distinguished from another. Flags borne 
 on the masts of vessels not only desig- 
 nate the country to which they belong, 
 but also are made to denote the quality 
 of the officer by whom a ship is com- 
 manded. 
 
 FLAG, a popular name for many en- 
 dogenous plants with sword-shaped 
 leaves, mostly growing in moist situa- 
 tions. It has sword-shaped leaves and 
 yellow flowers, grows in marshy places 
 and by the sides of streams and lakes. 
 The stout creeping root-stock has been 
 recommended for alleviating the tooth- 
 ache, and is used for dyeing black in the 
 Hebrides. The leaves make excellent 
 thatch, and are also employed for mak- 
 ing bottoms to chairs. 
 
 FLAGELLANTS, (flaj 'el-ants), the 
 name of a sect in tlie 13th century v^ho 
 maintained that flagellation was of 
 equal virtue with baptism and other 
 sacraments. Tliey walked in procession 
 with shoulders bare, and whipped them- 
 selves till the blood ran down their 
 bodies, to obtain the mercy of God and 
 appease his wrath against the vices of 
 the age. Rainer, a hermit of Perugia, is 
 said to have been its founder in 1260. 
 He soon found followers in nearly all 
 
 parts of Italy. Their number soon 
 amounted to 10,000, who went about, 
 led by priests bearing banners and 
 crosses. They went in thousands from 
 country to country, begging alms; and 
 for centuries they formed a sort of inter- 
 mittent order of fanatics, frequently 
 reappearing here and there in times of 
 extraordinary declension or distress. 
 
 FLAGEOLET (flaj'o-let), a small wind- 
 instrument of music, played by means of 
 a mouthpiece. The tone produced is 
 similar to that of the piccolo, but is 
 softer in quality, andd,he range is two 
 octaves. The double flageolet consists 
 of two instruments united by one mouth- 
 piece, and producing double notes. The 
 name flageolet tones is given to those 
 harmonic tones on the violin, violoncello 
 and other stringed instruments, pro- 
 duced by the finger lightly touching the 
 string on the exact part which generates 
 the harmony, and not by pressing the 
 string down to the finger-board. 
 
 FLAG-OFFICER, an officer in the U. 
 States navy entitled by his rank to carry 
 at the masthead a flag instead of a 
 pennant, indicative of his command. 
 At present the flag-officers are admirals, 
 who carry the flag at the main, vice- 
 admirals, who carry it at the fore, and 
 rear-admirals, who carry it at the miz- 
 zen. In case a ship has but two masts 
 they are called the fore and main; the 
 flag of a rear-admiral is then hoisted at 
 the main. Previous to the abolition of 
 the grade of commodore officers of this 
 rank were included among the flag- 
 oflficers. 
 
 FLAG OF TRUCE, a white flag shown 
 by one of two forces, indicating a desire 
 to communicate. The necessity of com- 
 municating with the enemy in time of 
 war, and the fact that this can usually be 
 best done by means of a flag of truce, has 
 given to the latter a sort of sacred char- 
 acter, which is recognized by all civilized 
 people. A flag of truce, must be sent by 
 the senior officer present, and it can only 
 be received at the will of the senior officer 
 of the other side. In a naval battle the 
 vessel bearing it should not attempt to 
 proceed beyond a point at which her 
 character can be easily ascertained; 
 should she attempt to go farther she may 
 be warned by a shot across her bow, and 
 if she does not then stop she will be fired 
 into. The detention of a flag of truce be- 
 yond the lines is a protection to the re- 
 ceiving side against espionage, torpedo 
 attack, etc. Any attempt to obtain in- 
 formation of the enemy’s position, con- 
 dition, or force through a flag of truce 
 may subject the bearer to trial as a spy. 
 In dispatching a flag of truce, except 
 during an engagement, the flagship of 
 the senior officer should keep her colors 
 flying and a white flag at the fore; and if 
 the senior officer of the enemy receives 
 the flag-bearer his ship should do like- 
 wise during the progress of the confer- 
 ence, and afterward until the flag-of- 
 truce boat has reached its inner lines. 
 The boat carrying the flag should be met 
 at the proper point by one in charge of 
 an oflScer of suitable rank from the other 
 senior officer, which should fly a white 
 flag while going and returning. 
 
 FLAG-SHIP, a ship in which an ad- 
 miral, or the commander of a squadron, 
 hoists his flag. 
 
 FLAGSTONE, any sandstone, lime-- 
 stone, etc., that is cut or split readily 
 into thin layers, and may be used for 
 pavements, floors, etc. 
 
 FLAMBEAU, a sort of torch or light 
 made of some sort of thick wick covered 
 with wax or other inflammable material, 
 and used at night in illuminations, pro- 
 cessions, etc. 
 
 FLAMBOY'ANT, a term designating a 
 style of Gothic architecture in use in 
 France from the 14th to the 16th century, 
 having prevailed during the whole of the 
 
 Flamboyant tracery, St. Ouen, Rouen. 
 
 15th century. It was distinguished by 
 the waving and somewhat flamelike 
 tracery of the windows, panels, etc., 
 (hence the name), and is usually regarded 
 as a decadent variety of the decorated 
 Gothic. The moldings in this style are 
 often ill combined, some of the members 
 being disproportionately large or small. 
 
 Flamboyant tracery, Rouen cathedral, 
 Normandy. 
 
 The pillars are often cylindrical, either 
 plain or with a few of the more prominent 
 moldings of the arches continued down 
 them, without any capital or impost in- 
 tervening. This is so common that it 
 may be regarded as a characteristic of 
 the style. Moldings also sometimes 
 meet and interpenetrate each other. \ 
 The arches are usually two-centered, 
 sometimes semi-circular, and, in later 
 examples, elliptical. The foliage enrich- 
 ments are usually well carved, but the 
 effect is often lost from the minuteness ' 
 and intricacy of the parts. 
 
FLAME 
 
 / 
 
 FLAX 
 
 FLAME, a blaze rising from a burning 
 body, or any inflammable gas in a state 
 of visible combustion. Flame is attended 
 •with great heat, and sometimes with the 
 evolution of much light; but the tem- 
 perature may be intense when the light 
 IS feeble, as is the case with the flame of 
 burning hydrogen gas. The flame of a 
 a candle may be divided into three zones; 
 an inner zone containing chiefly un- 
 burned gas, another zone containing 
 partially-burned gas, and an outer zone 
 where the gas is completely consumed by 
 combination with the oxygen of the air. 
 The luminosity of flame depends upon 
 the presence of extremely small particles 
 of solid matter (usually carbon) or of 
 dense gaseous products of combustion. 
 When the pressure of the gas producing 
 the flame is so great that it is all but flar- 
 ing, it is found that certain sounds will 
 cause the flame to alter its shape, thus 
 producing the phenomenon of sensitive 
 flames. 
 
 FLAMIN'GO, a bird formerly placed 
 in the order of wading birds, but now 
 generally ranked among the Natatores 
 or swimmers, and constituting a family 
 PhoenicopteridjE, allied to the Anatidse 
 or ducks. Its body is rather smaller than 
 that of the stork, but owing to the great 
 length of the neck and legs it stands from 
 
 Red flamingo. 
 
 5 to 6 feet high. The beak is naked, 
 i- lamellate at the edges, and bent as if 
 broken ; the feet are palmated and four- 
 toed. Thecommon flamingo occurs abun- 
 dantly in various parts of Southern 
 Europe, Northern Africa, etc. It is en- 
 - tirely scarlet, except the quill-feathers, 
 which are jet-black. The tongue is fleshy, 
 and one of the extravagances of the 
 Romans during the later period of the 
 empire was to have dishes composed 
 solely of flamingoes’ tongues. The flam- 
 ingoes live and migrate in large flocks, 
 frequenting desert sea-coasts and salt- 
 marshes. They are extremely shy andr 
 watchful. While feeding they keep to- 
 gether, drawn up artificially in lines, 
 Which at a distance resemble those of an 
 anny; and, like many other gregarious 
 birds, they employ some to act as senti- 
 nels, for the security of the rest. Their 
 food appears to be mollusca, spa'wn, 
 crustaceans, etc., which they fish up by 
 means of their long neck, turning their 
 head in such a manner as to take advan- 
 tage of the crook in their beak. They 
 breed in companies in inundated marshes, 
 raising the nest to a certain, height 
 by heaping up the mud with their feet 
 into a small nillock, which is concave 
 
 at the top. In this the female lays her 
 eggs, ana it was formerly believed that 
 she sat on them with her legs hanging 
 down, like those of a man on horseback. 
 But the nests are not so high as to allow 
 of this, and the birds really sit with their 
 legs doubled up under them. 
 
 FLAMSTEED, John, the first astrono- 
 mer-royal of England, was born 1G46, 
 died 1719. He was appointed by Charles 
 II. astronomical observator to the king, 
 and carried on his observations at the 
 Queen’s House at Greenwich, until the 
 observatory was built for him in 1676. 
 Here he passed his life; formed the first 
 trustworthy catalogue of fixed stars ; and 
 supplied the lunar observations by means 
 of which Newton verified his lunar 
 theory. 
 
 FLANDERS, a region of Europe, now 
 included in Holland, Belgium, and 
 France, stretching along the German 
 Ocean. The erection of the territory into 
 a county took place in the 9th century, 
 and was made by Philip the Bold, king of 
 France, in favor of his son-in-law, Bald- 
 win. It afterwards passed to the united 
 houses of Spain and Austria, and ulti- 
 mately to the latter, but underwent con- 
 siderable curtailment by the conquests of 
 the French in the west, when part of it 
 became French Flanders, and by the con- 
 quests of the Dutch in the north. The 
 remainder still retains its ancient name, 
 and forms the modern provinces of East 
 and West Flanders, in Belgium. — The 
 Belgian province of East Flanders 
 (French, Flandre Orientale) has an area 
 of 1157 square miles. The surface forms 
 an extensive plain, sloping gently east- 
 ward. It wholly belongs to the basin of 
 the Schelde. Its soil, partly of a sandy 
 and partly of a clayey nature, is so in- 
 dustriously and skilfully cultivated that 
 it has the appearance of a vast garden. 
 The principal crops are wheat and* flax. 
 Linen, laees, and damask are among the 
 important manufactures. Gand or Ghent 
 is the capital. Pop. 1,039,138. — West 
 Flanders (French, Flandre Occidentale) 
 has an area of 1248 square miles. The 
 surface in generally flat ; the soil naturally 
 sandy and poor, but well cultivated 
 and fertilized, though not so productive 
 as that of East Flanders. The most im- 
 portant branch of industry is linen. 
 Great quantities of lace also are made. 
 Bruges is the capital. Pop. 816,862. 
 
 FLANGE, a projecting edge, rim, or 
 rib on any object, as the rims by which 
 cast-iron pipes are connected together, 
 or the projecting pieces on the tires of the 
 wheels of railway cars to keep them on 
 the rails. 
 
 FLANNEL, a woolen fabric of loose 
 texture and various degrees of fineness, 
 much used as a clothing both in hot and 
 cold countries from its properties of pro- 
 moting insensible perspiration, which is 
 absorbed and carried off by the atmos- 
 phere. Welsh flannels have attained a 
 high reputation. In flannel shirtings the 
 wool is frequently mixed with silk, linen, 
 and cotton. 
 
 FLAT, a character or sign in music, 
 used to lower or depress, by the degree of 
 a semi-tone, any note in the natural 
 scale. It is marked thus b. An accidental 
 flat is one which does not occur in the 
 signature, and which affects only the bar 
 ' in which it is placed. 
 
 FLAT-FISH, a fish which has its body 
 of a flattened form, swims on the side, 
 and has both eyes on one side, as the 
 flounder, turbot, halibut, and sole. The 
 sense is sometimes extended to other 
 fishes which have the body much com- 
 pressed, as the skate and other members 
 of the ray family. 
 
 FLATHEAD INDIANS, tribes estab- 
 lished on the Pacific coast, mainly of the 
 now nearly extinct Chinook group of 
 fish-eating Indians They flatten the 
 skull of the infant by pressure. The 
 same custom anciently prevailed among 
 many tribes, but the practice is now 
 nearly extinct. The name Flathead is 
 improperly given to the small civilized 
 tribe of Selish Indians, who do not flatten 
 the heads of their children. 
 
 FLAUBERT(fl6'b&r') Gustave, French 
 novelist was born in Rome in 1821. He 
 devoted his life to the production of five 
 volumes of rare literary ability — Madame 
 Borary, published in 1857, Salammbo in 
 1862, L’6ducation Sentimentale in 1869, 
 La Tentation de Saint-Antoine in 1874, 
 and the Trois Contes in 1877. He died in 
 1880. 
 
 FLAX, the common name of herbs or 
 small shrubs, with narrow leaves, and 
 yellow, blue, or even ■n^hite fiowers ar- 
 ranged in variously-formed cymes. They 
 occur in warm and temperate regions 
 
 Flax. 
 
 over the world. The cultivated species 
 which is used for making thread, and 
 cloth called linen, cambric, lawn, lace, 
 etc., consists of the woody bundles of the 
 slender stalks. The fine fibres may be so 
 separated as to be spun into threads as 
 fine as silk, f A most useful oil is expressed 
 from the seeds, and the residue, called 
 linseed-cake, is one of the most fattening 
 kinds of food for cattle. When the plant 
 is ripe it is pulled up by the roots, tied 
 together in little bundles, and usually 
 left upright on the field till it becomes 
 dry, when the seeds are separated, either 
 by beating on a cloth or by passing the 
 stems through an iron comb. The pro- 
 cess of removing the seeds is called rip- 
 pling. The stalks are then retted or 
 rotted in water to free the flaxen fiber 
 from the woody core or boon of the stem. 
 Two operations are necessary to separate 
 the fibers from the woody part of the 
 stem. The flax is first broken by means 
 of a wmoden handle and grooved board, 
 or by revolving grooved rollers, and 
 then the boon or woody part is entirely 
 separated from the fiber by a broad flat 
 wooden blade called a scutching blade, 
 or by a machine in which a number of 
 knives attached to the arms of a vertical 
 
FLAXMAN 
 
 FLOCK 
 
 wheel strike the flax in the direction of 
 its length, and completely separate it. 
 The flax is next heckled, or combed with 
 a sort of ironAiomb, beginning with the 
 coarser and ending with the finer, and is 
 now ready for spinning. See Linen. 
 
 FLAXMAN, John, one of the most dis- 
 tinguished English sculptors, born at 
 York 1755, died in London 1826. His 
 earliest notions of art were derived from 
 casts in the shop of his father, who sold 
 
 John Flaxman. 
 
 plaster figures, from many of which 
 young Flaxman made models in clay. In 
 1770 he was admitted a student of the 
 Royal academy, and for some time 
 earned a living by producing designs for 
 Wedgwood the potter. In 1787 he went 
 to Italy, where he remained seven years, 
 and left many memorials of his genius, 
 besides executing designs in outline to 
 illustrate Homer, Dante, and ^schylus, 
 an extensive series for each. 
 
 FLEA, a name for several insects re- 
 garded by entomologists as constituting 
 a distinct order Aphaniptera, because the 
 wings are inconspicuous scales. All the 
 
 Common flea. (Line shows natural size') 
 
 species of the genus are very similar ft) 
 the common flea (Pulex irritans). It has 
 two eyes and six feet ; the feelers are like 
 threads; the oral appendages are modi- 
 fied into piercing stilets and a suctorial 
 proboscis. The flea is remarkable for its 
 agility, leaping to a surprising distance, 
 and its bite is very troublesome. 
 
 FLEA-BEETLE, the name' given to 
 different species of beetles which are de- 
 structive to plants. The turnip-flea, 
 whose larv£E are sometimes so destructive 
 to the turnip crops, furnishes an ex- 
 ample. 
 
 FLEMISH LANGUAGE AND LITERA- 
 TURE, the Flemish or Vlsemisch lan- 
 guage is a form of Low German, differing 
 only slightly in pronunciation and orthog- 
 raphy from the Dutch. It is spoken by 
 
 a considerable number of the inhabitants 
 of Belgium, especially in the provinces of 
 East Flanders, West Flanders, Antwerp, 
 Limburg, and Brabant. A fragment of a 
 prose translation of the Psalms upward 
 of a thousand years old is the oldest ex- 
 tant specimen of the Flemish. The 
 “father of Flemish poetry,” Jakob Van 
 Maerlant, wrote several romances deal- 
 ing with Merlin and the Holy Grail, The 
 Mirror of History, etc., in the 13th cen- 
 tury; and a version of Reynard the Fox 
 belongs to the same period. The 14th 
 century was remarkable for the number 
 of wandering poets, authors of knightly 
 romances. The translation of the Bible, 
 which is considered the standard for the 
 construction and orthography of the 
 language, was finished in 1618. The 18th 
 century produced several good writers on 
 philology, but was barren in poetic 
 genius. The French almost annihilated 
 the native literature, and it did not re- 
 vive till the revolution of 1830, since 
 which time it has been very vigorous. 
 The leaders in this revival were Willems, 
 Blommaert, Van Ryswyck, Conscience, 
 Van Duyse, Snellaert, Snieders, DeLaet, 
 Dedecker, David, and Bormans. 
 
 FLEMISH SCHOOL, of Painting. See 
 Painting. 
 
 FLESH, a compound substance form- 
 ing a large part of an animal, consisting 
 mainly of the muscles, with connective 
 tissue, and the blood-vessels and nerves, 
 etc., supplying them. It consists chiefly 
 of fibrin, with albumen, gelatin, haema- 
 tosin, fat, phosphate of sodium, phos- 
 phate of potassium, phosphate and car- 
 bonate of calcium, sulphate of potas- 
 sium, and chloride of sodium. The solid 
 part is, besides, permeated by an alka- 
 line fluid, called flesh-juice. It has a red 
 color, and contains dissolved a number 
 both of organic and inorganic substances. 
 The organic matter consists of albumen, 
 casein, creatine and creatinine, inosic 
 and several other acids; the inorganic, of 
 alkaline sulphates, chlorides, and phos- 
 phates, with lime, iron, and magnesia. 
 
 FLETCHER, John. See Beaumont and 
 Fletcher. 
 
 FLEUR-DE-LIS (fleur-de-le') Fr., 
 “flower of the lily”), in heraldry a bear- 
 ing as to the origin of which there is much 
 dispute, some authorities maintaining 
 
 Various forms of the fleur-de-lis 
 
 that it represents the lily, others that it 
 represents the head of a lance or some 
 such warlike weapon. The fleur-de-lis has 
 long been the distinctive bearing of the 
 kingdom of France. 
 
 FLEURY, Andr6 Hercule de, cardinal 
 and prime-minister of Louis XV., was 
 born in 1653, died in 1743. In 1698 Louis 
 XIV. gave him the bishopric of Frdjus, 
 and shortly before his death appointed 
 him instructor to Louis XV. After the 
 
 death of the regent in 1723 he proposed 
 the Due de Bourbon as first minister, but 
 in 1726 he overturned the government 
 which' he had himself set up, and from 
 that date kept the direction of affairs in 
 his own hands. In the same year he was 
 made a cardinal. The internal affairs of 
 France prospered under his administra- 
 tion, but his foreign policy was unfor- 
 tunate. 
 
 FLIGHT. See Flying. 
 
 FLINT, the county seat of Genesee co., 
 Mich., on Chi. and Gr. Trunk and Flint 
 and P. Marq. R. Rs. ; 61 miles N. W. of 
 Detroit. It is the seat of the Michigan 
 institution for the deaf and dumb. It 
 has a large number of steam saw-mills 
 (manufacturing about 60,000,000 feet of 
 lumber annually). Pop. 15,672. 
 
 FLINT, a variety of quartz of a yellow- 
 ish or bluish-gray or grayish-black color. 
 It is amorphous, and usually occurs in 
 nodules or rounded lumps. Its surface is 
 generally uneven, and covered with a 
 whitish rind or crust, the result of weath- 
 ering or of the action of water perco- 
 lating through the rocks. It is very hard, 
 strikes fire with steel, and is an ingredi- 
 ent in glass and in all fine pottery ware. 
 The fracture of flint is perfectly con- 
 choidal; though very hard it breaks 
 easily in every direction, and affords 
 very sharp-edged splintery fragments, 
 formerly made into arrow-heads, etc. 
 (See Flint Implements.) Its true native 
 place is the upper bed of the chalk 
 formation, in which it is formed as a 
 series of concretions, the silica in sponges 
 and in other marine animals which live 
 on the sea floor while the chalk was being 
 deposited being attracted into nodules. 
 
 FLINT-GLASS, a species of glass, so 
 called because pulverized flints were 
 originally employed in its manufacture. 
 It is extensively used for domestic pur- 
 poses. Its dispersive power in regard to 
 light renders it invaluable in the manu- 
 facture of the object-glasses of telescopes 
 and microscopes, as by combining a con- 
 cave lens of flint-glass with one or two 
 ■convex lenses of crown-glass, which 
 possesses a much less dispersive power, 
 a compound lens is formed in which the 
 prismatic colors arising from simple re- 
 fraction are destroyed, and the lens 
 rendered achromatic. Quartz and fine 
 sand are now substituted for flint in the 
 manufacture of this glass. 
 
 FLINT IMPLEMENTS, implements of 
 flint used by man while unacquainted 
 with the use of metals. For such imple- 
 ments granite, jade, serpentine, jasper, 
 basalt, and other hard stones were also 
 used, but the most numerous were 
 formed of flint. They consist of arrow- 
 heads, axe-heads, lance-heads, knives, 
 wedges, etc. (See Celts.) Flint imple- 
 ments are still used by some savage 
 tribes. ■" 
 
 FLINT-LOCK,'a musket-lock in which 
 fire is produced by a flint striking on the 
 steel pan, now superseded by locks on 
 the percussion principle. 
 
 FLOATING QUARTZ, or FLOAT- 
 STONE, a porous variety of quartz of a 
 spongy texture, whitish-gray in color, 
 so light as to float in water. It frequent- 
 ly contains a nucleus of common flint. 
 
 FLOCK, the refuse of cotton and wool, 
 or the shearing of woolen goods, etc., 
 used for stuffing mattresses, furniture, 
 
FLODDEN 
 
 FLORENCE 
 
 etc. Flockpaper is a kind of wall-paper, 
 having raised figures resembling cloth, 
 made of flock or of cloth cut up very fine, 
 and attached to the paper by size or 
 varnish. 
 
 FLODDEN, a village of England, in 
 Northumberland, about 5 miles s. e. of 
 Coldstream. Near it was fought the 
 celebrated battle in which James IV. of 
 Scotland was defeated by the Earl of 
 Surrey (Sept. 9, 1513). The loss of the 
 Scots was from 8,000 to 10,000 mefi, in- 
 cluding the king, the Archbishop of St. 
 Andrews, and a large number of the 
 nobles; that of the English from 6,000 to 
 7,000. At the beginning of the battle the 
 armies mustered respectively 30,000 and 
 32,000 men. The English victory was so 
 near a defeat that Surrey was unable to 
 prosecute the war with any vigor. 
 
 FLOQUET, (flo'ko',) Charles Thomas, 
 French statesman and journalist, born 
 at Saint-Jean-de-Luz in Basses-Pyr6- 
 n^es, in 1828. In the organization of the 
 government of national defense in 1870 
 and during the siege of Paris, Floquet 
 was extraordinarily active, and was later 
 chosen as representative to the national 
 assembly by the department of the Seine. 
 In 1876 he entered the chamber of depu- 
 ties, voting with the extreme left. He 
 was made prefect of the Seine in 1882, 
 but reentered the chamber soon after, 
 and from 1885 to 1888, when lie became 
 prime minister, was president of that 
 body. In February, 1889, on the defeat 
 of his projected constitutional amend- 
 ment, he resigned the premiership. The 
 Panama disclosures in 1892-93 impli- 
 cated Floquet and injured his political 
 standing, although he was elected to the 
 senate in 1894. He died January 18, 
 1896. 
 
 FLORA, the Roman goddess of flowers 
 and spring, whose worship was estab- 
 lished at Rome in the earliest times. Her 
 festival, the Floralia, was celebrated- 
 from April 28 to May 1 with much licen- 
 tiousness. In botany, flora signifies the 
 plants of a region collectively, as fauna 
 signifies the animals. 
 
 FLORENCE, a celebrated city of Italy, 
 capital of a province of same name, 143 
 miles northwest from Rome, and 50 
 miles e. n. e. from Leghorn. The city is 
 surrounded by hills, and is beautifully 
 situated on both banks of the Arno, but 
 the greater part of it lies on the right 
 bank. Six bridges connect the banks of 
 the Arno: the Ponte alle Grazie, con- 
 structed 1235, restored 1835; the Ponte 
 Vecchio, said to date from the Roman 
 period, reconstructed 1362, and con- 
 sisting of three arches, on which are rows 
 of shops, and over which a covered way 
 is carried to connect the Pitti Palace and 
 the UfEzi; the Ponte Santa Trinit^l, 
 erected soon after 1567, adorned with 
 statues; the Pontealla Carraja, 1218, re- 
 stored in 1337, and again in 1559. There 
 are, besides, two suspension bridges. On 
 either side of the Arno, is a spacious 
 quay called the Lung’ Arno, a favorite 
 promenade. The private dwellings are 
 mostly handsome, and the palaces, of 
 which there are many, are noble and im- 
 pressive structures. The city contains 
 numerous piazzas or squares, the most 
 important of which is the Piazza della 
 Signoria, surrounded by important 
 buildings, and adorned with a marble 
 P. E.— 31 
 
 fountain, and a bronze statue of Cosmo I. 
 by John of Bologna. In this piazza is 
 situated the Palazzo Vecchio, originally 
 the seat of the government of the re- 
 public, and subsequently the residence 
 of Cosmo I. The most remarkable build- 
 ing in Florence is the Duomo, or cathe- 
 
 dral of St. Maria del Fiore, erected 1298- 
 1474, but its facade not completed till 
 1887, surmounted by the magnificent 
 dome of Brunelleschi, and situated in a 
 spacious square nearly in the center of 
 the .city. Near the cathedral are the 
 camjianile designed by Giotto, and the 
 small church of St. John (San Giovanni) 
 the Baptistery, the three bronze gates 
 of which, with figures in high relief, are 
 celebrated as among the most beautifid 
 works of the kind extant. One of these 
 is by Andrea Pisano, the two others by 
 Ghiberti. The church of S. Croce is the 
 burial-place of many of the most emi- 
 nent Tuscans, contains much fine sculp- 
 ture and many interesting tombs, 
 amongst others those of Michael Angelo 
 Buonarotti, Galileo, Machiavelli, and 
 Alfieri. In the Piazza S. Croce stands 
 Dante’s monument by Pazzi, inaugu- 
 rated 1865. The chief art collection is 
 the Galleria degli Uffizi. In this gallery 
 are contained specimens of painting and 
 statuary by the greatest masters in these 
 arts. In statuary, among numerous an- 
 tiques may be specified the Venus de’ 
 Medici, the Apollino, the Knife-grinder, 
 the Dancing Faun, the Wrestlers, and 
 the Group of Niobe and Her Children'; 
 and in painting there are works by 
 Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, Fra 
 Angelico, Fra Bartolomeo, Andrea del 
 Sarto, Correggio, Guido, and numerous 
 others of the first names in various 
 schools. Other important art collections 
 are preserved in the various churches 
 and palaces, one of the principal being 
 that in Pitti Palace. 
 
 Florence was probably founded by 
 the Romans in the 1st century b.c., and 
 early attained considerable prosperity. 
 During the dark ages it was frequently 
 devastated, but it revived about the 
 
 beginning of the 11th century, at which 
 time the Florentines became extensive 
 European traders. Their silk and woolen 
 fabrics excelled, and their skill as workers 
 in gold and jewels was unsurpassed. 
 About this time Florence took an ac- 
 tive part in the feud which broke out 
 
 between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, 
 the town generally supporting the 
 former against the imperial party. In 
 1283 a species of republic was consti- 
 tuted; but about the year 1300 the 
 party struggles again burst forth be- 
 tween the same rival families under the 
 new names of the Whites and the Blacks, 
 in which the Blacks (the Guelphs) 'W'ere 
 eventually victorious, and the Whites, 
 among whom was the poet Dante, ban- 
 ished. In the course of these troubles a 
 family of merchants named the Medicis 
 rose to great influence in Florentine 
 politics. One of them, Cosmo, born 1389, 
 was the founder of the political great- 
 ness.of his house. His grandson Lorenzo, 
 surnamed II Magnifico, as a statesman, 
 scholar, and patron of art and literature, 
 attained the highest celebrity. Under 
 him Florence, which though calling itself 
 a republic, was in reality ruled by him, 
 rose to a great pitch of opulence and 
 power, and notwithstanding the hostility 
 of the pope he exercised a great influence 
 throughout Italy. On the fall of the re- 
 public in the 16th century a member of a 
 lateral branch of the Medici, the line of 
 Cosmo having become extinct, was 
 placed by Charles V. as Duke of Florence. 
 The ducal dynasty of Medici continued 
 to rule till the year 1737, when, becom- 
 ing extinct, they were succeeded by 
 Francis of Lorraine, afterward emperor 
 of Germany. From this period the his- 
 tory of Florence merges into that of Tus- 
 cany until its amalgamation with the 
 Kingdom of Italy. From 1865 till 1871 
 it held the dignity of capital of the king- 
 dom, the seat of government being trans- 
 ferred to it from Turin Among the 
 illustrious men it has produced are 
 Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Guicciar- 
 dini, Lorenzo de’ Medici, Galileo, Michael 
 
 Florence— Piazza della Signoria, Palazzo Vecchio, Loggia de Lanzl. 
 
FLORENCE 
 
 FLORIDA • 
 
 Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Benvenuto 
 Cellini, Andrea del Sarto, Amerigo Ves- 
 pucci, Macchiavelli, and others. Pop. 
 _£including suburbs) ,204,950. — The prov- 
 ince has an area of about 2262 English 
 square miles. The surface is beautifully 
 diversified by mountains, valleys, and 
 plains. The climate is generally mild and 
 healthy, and the soil very fertile. Pop. 
 937,786. 
 
 FLORENCE, William Jermyn, Amer- 
 ican comedian, born in 1831 at Albany. 
 In 1853 he married Mrs. Malvina Pray 
 Littell, with whom he won great ap- 
 plause in The Irish Boy and Yankee 
 Girl, repeated in London three years 
 later. Among his must successful char- 
 acters were Bardwell Slote in the 
 Mighty Dollar; Bob Brierley in The 
 Ticket-of -Leave Man; and Sir Lucius O’ 
 Trigger in The Rivals. This last he 
 played to the Bob Acres of Joseph 
 Jefferson. He died in 1891. 
 
 FLORENTINE WORK, a kind of 
 mosaic work, consisting of precious 
 stones and pieces of white and colored 
 marble, which has long been produced 
 in Florence. It is applied to jewelry, 
 and used for table tops, etc. 
 
 FLOR'IDA, one of the United States, 
 forming the southeastern extremity of 
 the country, and having the Gulf of 
 Mexico on the south and west, and the 
 Atlantic on the east. It consists partly of 
 a peninsula stretching s. for about 400 
 miles, partly of a long, narrow strip of 
 land running along the Gulf of Mexico to 
 a distance-of 350 miles from the Atlantic 
 coast-line. The peninsula is about 90 
 miles in width, and contains about four- 
 fifths of the total area, which is59,268 sq. 
 miles. The surface is in general level, 
 rising little above the sea, especially in 
 the southern parts, were itjs almost one 
 continued swamp or marsh. The north- 
 ern portion is more broken and elevated, 
 but the whole coast is flat. The principal 
 river is the St. John’s, flowing northward 
 through peninsular Florida to the At - 
 lantic. Its tributary, the Ocklawaha, has 
 its course so flat that for a long distance 
 it spreads out into the forest for half a 
 mile or more on either side, so that noth- 
 ing is seen but trees and water. The 
 Appalachicola, Suwanee, etc., flow into 
 the Gulf of Mexico. There are many 
 lakes throughout the peninsula, the 
 largest being Okeechobee (area 650 sq. 
 miles). Numerous islands are scattered 
 along the south and west coasts, the 
 most remarkable of which is a group, or 
 rather a long chain, called the Florida 
 Keys at the southern extremity of 
 Florida. The most important of these is 
 Key West, containing the city and naval 
 station of same name. The state pro- 
 duces tropical plants and fruits in great 
 perfection, especially oranges, lemons, 
 limes/. shaddock, etc. The planting of 
 orange groves has been carried on exten- 
 sively in recent times, and oranges are 
 now a speciality of Florida. Tobacco, 
 cotton, sugar, maize, potatoes, rice, oats, 
 etc., are among the other productions. 
 The forests form an important source of 
 wealth. The minerals are unimportant. 
 The wild animals comprise panthers, 
 cougars, wolves, bears, foxes, raccoons, 
 opossums, deer, etc. Birds are extremely 
 numerous and various. The coasts, 
 rivers, and lakes swarm with fish; tor- 
 
 toises and turtles also abound. The 
 swamps and other inland waters are in- 
 fested with alligators. Snakes are num- 
 erous, but most of them are harmless. 
 The climate in general is excellent, and 
 the state is much frequented as a winter 
 health resort for invalids, many large 
 and elegant hotels having been built for 
 the accommodation of visitors. Florida, 
 long in a backward condition, has re- 
 cently made great advances in prosper- 
 ity, being now well supplied with means 
 of communication, and towns and 
 villages rapidly springingup. Tallahassee 
 
 Seal of Florida. 
 
 is the capital and seat of government, 
 but the largest town is Key West (pop. 
 18,000); Jacksonville and Pensacola are 
 thriving ports; St. Augustine is the 
 oldest town in the United States. Pro- 
 posals have been Tnade to construct a 
 ship-canal through Florida as a short 
 route from the Atlantic to the Gulf of 
 Mexico. 
 
 Tallahassee is the capital of th^State. 
 Two representatives are sent to the 
 lower house of congress. 
 
 Florida was discovered on Easter 
 Sunday, 1512, by Ponce de Leon, who 
 landed near the site of the present Saint 
 Augustine in search of the Fountain of 
 Perpetual Youth. He failed to find the 
 fountain, and, returning in 1521, found 
 death instead. Ayllon carried off large 
 numbers of Indians from Florida as 
 slaves between 1520 and 1526, ''and in 
 1528 Panfilo Narvaez (q. v.) invaded the 
 country with a force of 400 men eager 
 for conquest and booty. Narvaez pushed 
 into the wilderness north of the Gulf, 
 and only survivors of his band, among 
 them Cabeza de Vaca, succeeded in 
 reaching Mexico after infinite hardships. 
 In 1539 Hernando De Soto (q. v.) 
 traversed the country. In 1559 a well- 
 equipped expedition of 1500 men under 
 Don Tristan de Luna sailed from Vera 
 Cruz, and landed, August 14, on the 
 shores of Santa Maria Bay, probabl}’’ the 
 Bay of Pensacola. The main body pene- 
 trated into the country for a distance of 
 forty days’ march, while a smaller de- 
 tachment explored the region as far as 
 the Coosa River in eastern Alabama. Dis- 
 couraged by the hardships encountered, 
 the expedition returned to Mexico, after 
 passing more than a year in the count rv. 
 
 Rene Goulaine de Laudonniere, who 
 had accompanied Jean Ribault in his 
 expedition to Port Royal (1562), landed 
 first at what is now St. Augustine, and 
 built Fort Caroline in 1564. The colo- 
 
 nists. who were Huguenots, were on the 
 point of abandoning the settlement 
 when reenforced by Ribault. Soon 
 after Menendez surprised and massa- 
 cred the garrison of Fort Caroline, 
 carrying out to the letter his barbarous 
 order to “gibbet and behead all Protest- 
 ants in those regions.” 
 
 On May 28,1586, Sir Francis Drake, 
 entered an inlet and came to the Fort 
 St. Juan de Pinos, from which the gar- 
 rison fled to St. Augustine ; and on the 
 approach of the English they also 
 abandoned this place. Drake pursued 
 his voyage to Virginia, where the queen ^ 
 had commanded him to afford relief to 
 Sir Walter Raleigh’s newly-planted 
 colony. 
 
 The English colonists of Georgia and 
 Carolina continued towage war against 
 the Spaniards in Florida. Governor 
 Moore of South Carolina made an un- 
 successful attempt on St. Augustine in 
 1702; and General Oglethorpe of 
 Georgia besieged it in 1740 with the 
 same result. Nearly a hundred years 
 later, in 1837, the United States en- 
 gineers found balls thrown by Ogle- 
 thorpe in the moat of the old Spanish 
 fortress. In 1763 Florida was ceded to 
 Great Britain in return for Havana, 
 captured by Albemarle the previous 
 year. Vigorous efforts were made by 
 the British Government to promote 
 settlement by liberal grants of land to 
 settlers. In 1781 Don Bernardo de Gal- 
 vez, Spanish governor of Louisiana, hav- 
 ing previously taken Mobile, besieged 
 and captured Pensacola, thus complet- 
 ing the conquest of West Florida. In 
 1783 Florida was ceded back to Spain. 
 
 In February, 1819, a treaty for the 
 cession of Florida to the United States 
 was concluded at Washington, and in 
 1821 was ratified by the king of Spain. 
 Possession was taken in July by Gen- 
 eral Jackson, who had been appointed 
 governor of the Floridas by the Gov- 
 ernment at Washington. Immigra- 
 tion flowed in rapidly from the south- 
 ern states, the Baliamas, and even the 
 North Atlantic States; but a 
 great drawback to the prosperity 
 of the newly-acquired territory 
 was found in the determined re- 
 sistance of the warlike nation of. , 
 Seminole Indians to the encroachments 
 of the whites upon their hunting- 
 grounds. A resolution on the part of 
 the United States Government to re- 
 move these Indians led to the long and 
 bloody struggle known as the Seminole 
 War, in which for seven years the 
 Indians successfully defied every effort .■ 
 to subdue them, retreading into the ] 
 fastnesses of the everglades when close- ! 
 ly pressed. Osceola, chieftain of the i 
 Seminoles, having been captured by J 
 treachery, the war ended in 1842. The { 
 remnant of the Indians were rempved .j| 
 beyond the Mississippi, and in three f 
 years after their expulsion (1845), j 
 Florida was admitted into the Union 1 
 as a state. ^ 
 
 On Jan. 10, 186r, Florida, by a con- 
 vention assembled on the third, seced- 
 ed from the Union. Fort Marion and i 
 the arsenals at' St. Augustine and 
 Chattahoochee were seized on the 7th, ■ 
 the forts and dockyards at Pensacola 
 on the 12th, except Fort Pickens, on ^ 
 
• FLORIDA, GULF OF 
 
 FLUORESCENCE 
 
 Santa Rosa Island, which was held by 
 the Utiited States forces. In April, 
 1865, President Johnson, by a proclam- 
 ation, declared the restrictions on com- 
 mercial intercourse with Florida re- 
 moved. A state ’convention assem- 
 bled in October at Tallahassee, which 
 repealed the ordinance of secession. 
 Civil government was practically re- 
 sumed the following year by the elec- 
 tion of state officers and a legislature. 
 A subsequent state convention met at 
 Tallahassee, Jan. 20, 1868, to form a 
 new constitution which was ratified by 
 the people in May. In 1876 the elec- 
 tion of Rutherford B. Hayes, Republi- 
 can, as president of the United States, 
 was determined by the electoral votes 
 of Florida and Louisiana, which, by a 
 decision of the extraordinary commis- 
 sion created by Congress, were counted 
 for the former. Since 1876 the state 
 has consistently gone Democratic. 
 Population 1909, 683,000. 
 
 FLO'RES, the most westerly island 
 of the Azores, about 30 miles long by 
 nine miles broad, with a hilly surface. 
 The chief products are wheat, pulse 
 and poultry, and great numbers of small 
 cattle are reared. Pop. about 10,000. 
 
 FLORID GOTHIC, that highly-en- 
 riched variety of Gothic architecture 
 which prevailed in England in the 15th 
 and at thebeginningof the 16th century ; 
 often called the Tudor style, as it pre- 
 vailed chiefly during the Tudor era. 
 
 FLORIDA, GULF OF, the narrow sea 
 between Florida, Cuba, and the Bahama 
 Islands. 
 
 FLORIDA KEYS. See Florida. 
 
 FLOSS-SILK, the portions of ravelled 
 silk broken off in reeling the silk from 
 the cocoons, carded and spun into a soft 
 coarse yarn, and used for common 
 fabrics, embroidery, etc. 
 
 FLOTOW (flo'to), Friedrich Adolphus 
 von, German musical composer, born 
 1812, died 1883. He studied music in 
 Paris, but his earlier operas did not find 
 favor with the Parisian opera-house 
 directors, so he had to content himself 
 with performances in the aristocratic 
 private theaters. He was director of the 
 court theater at Schwerin from 1855 to 
 1863; the last years of his life were chiefly 
 spent at Vienna. 
 
 FLOTSAM, Jetsam, and Ligan, in law. 
 Flotsam, or floatsam, is derelict or ship- 
 wrecked goods floating on the sea; jet- 
 sam, goods thrown overboard which 
 sink and remain under water; and ligan, 
 goods sunk with a wreck or attached to 
 a buoy, as a mark of ownership. When 
 found such goods may be returned to the 
 owner if he appear; if not, they are the 
 property of the state. 
 
 FLOUNDER, one of the most common 
 of the flat-fishes, is found in the sea and 
 
 Four-spotted flounder. 
 
 near the mouths of large rivers. Floun- 
 ders indeed have been successfully 
 transferred to fresh-water ponds. They 
 
 feed upon Crustacea, worms, and small 
 fishes, and are much used as food. 
 The Argus-flotmder is a native of the 
 American seas. 
 
 FLOUR, the edible part of wheat, or 
 any other grain, reduced to powder, and 
 separated from the bran and the other 
 coarser parts by sifting. The quality of 
 flour depends principally on the fineness 
 of the sieves through which it is passed 
 and the amount of bran which it con- 
 tains. The finest flour is obtained in the 
 first grinding of the wheat. The other 
 kinds — biscuit flour, middlings, seconds, 
 etc. — consist of the flour which remains 
 after the first grinding, ground and 
 passed through coarser sieves. 
 
 FLOWER, Roswell Pettibone, Ameri- 
 can capitalist and politician; was born 
 in 1835 in Jefferson county, N. Y. His 
 ability as a financier was proved before 
 removing to New York in 1869, where he 
 soon became a recognized power in Wall 
 Street, and was made director in various 
 corporations. In 1881 he was elected by 
 the democratic party to congress, and 
 was governor of the state for the term of 
 1892-94. His many benevolences in- 
 clude the building in New York City of 
 the Flower Hospital and of Saint 
 Thomas’ Home. He died in 1899. 
 
 FLOWER, in popular language, the 
 blossom of a plant, consisting chiefly of 
 delicate and gaily-colored leaves or 
 petals; in botany, the organs of repro- 
 duction in a phenogamous plant. A com- 
 
 plete flower consists of stamens and 
 pistils together with two sets of leaves 
 which surround and protect them, the 
 calyx and corolla. The stamens and 
 pistils are the essential organs of the 
 flower. They occupy Two circles or rows, 
 the one within the other, the stamens 
 being in the outer row. The stamens 
 consist of a stalk or filament supporting 
 a roundish body, the anther, which is 
 filled with a powdery substance called 
 the pollen. The pistil consists of a closed 
 cell or ovary at the base, containing 
 ovules, and covered by a style which 
 terminates in the stigma. These organs 
 are surrounded by the corolla and calyx, 
 which together are called the floral en- 
 velope, or when they both display rich 
 coloring the perianth. The leaves of the 
 corolla are called petals, and those of the 
 calyx fepals. Some flowers want the 
 floral envelope, and are called achlamy- 
 deos; others have the calyx but are 
 without the corolla, and are called 
 monochlamydeous. Flowers are gener- 
 ally bisexual, but some plants have uni- 
 sexual flowers ; that is, the pistils are in 
 one flower and the stamens in another. 
 See also Botany. The fi^re shows the 
 common wallflower :a, peduncle ; b, calyx ; 
 c, corolla; d, stamens; e, pistil. 
 
 FLOWER-DE-LIS. See Fleur-de-lis. 
 
 FLOWERS, Artificial, imitations of 
 real flowers, made of various materials. 
 
 These are not a modern invention. The 
 
 Romans excelled in the art of imitating 
 flowers in wax, and in this branch of the 
 art attained a high degree of perfection. 
 The Egyptian artificial flowers were 
 made of thin plates of horn stained in 
 different colors, sometimes also of leaves 
 of copper gilt or silvered over. In 
 modern times the Italians were the first 
 to acquire celebrity for the skill and 
 taste they displayed in this manufacture 
 but they are now far surpassed by Eng- 
 lish and French manufacturers, but more 
 especially by the latter. 
 
 FLOWERS, Language of: 
 
 Anemone — Frailty, 
 anticipation. 
 
 Apple-blossom— Pref- 
 erence. 
 
 Buttercups— Riches. 
 
 Calla — Magnificent 
 bfeauty. 
 
 Candytuft — Indiffer- 
 ence. 
 
 Cowslip — Youthful 
 beauty. 
 
 Daffodil— Unrequited 
 love. 
 
 Dandelion — Coquetry 
 
 Forget-me-not — True 
 love. 
 
 Foxglove — Insincer- 
 ity. 
 
 Geranium— Deceit. 
 
 Gentian — Virgin 
 pride. 
 
 Goldenrod — Encour- 
 agement. 
 
 Heliotrope — D e v o - 
 tioB. 
 
 Honeysuckle — Fidel- 
 ity. 
 
 Hyacinth— Sorrow. 
 
 Lilac— F a s.t i d i o u s- 
 ness. 
 
 Marigold— Contempt- 
 
 Lily — Majesty, pur- 
 ity. 
 
 Narcissus — Self-love. 
 
 Pansy — Thoughts. 
 
 Poppy— Oblivion. 
 
 Snow-drop — Friend 
 in need. 
 
 Sweet-William — 
 Gallantry. 
 
 White Violet — Mod- 
 esty. 
 
 FLOWERS, STATE, the following are 
 “State Flowers” as adopted in most in- 
 stances by the vote of the public school 
 scholars of the respective states: 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 New York 
 
 North Dakota. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 Rhode Island . 
 South Dakota, 
 
 Texas 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 Washington. , . 
 West Virginia. 
 
 Golden Rod 
 
 Apple Blossom 
 
 Eschscholtzia 
 
 Columbine 
 
 ...Peach Blossom 
 
 Syrlnga 
 
 Rose 
 
 Corn 
 
 Wild Rose 
 
 Sunflower 
 
 Golden Rod 
 
 Magnolia 
 
 Golden Rod 
 
 Apple Blossom 
 
 Moccasin 
 
 Magnolia 
 
 Golden Rod 
 
 Bitter Root 
 
 Golden Rod 
 
 Rose 
 
 ....Wild Rose 
 
 Scarlet Carnation 
 
 Oregon Grape 
 
 Golden Rod 
 
 Violet 
 
 Basque 
 
 Blue Bonnet 
 
 — Sego Lily 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 Rhododendron 
 
 Rhododendron 
 
 In England the primrose is worn on 
 the birthday of Lord Beaconsfield. On 
 the anniverasry \jf Parnell’s death his 
 followers wear a sprig of ivy. The Jacob- 
 ites wear white roses on June 10. In 
 France the Ofleanists wear white daisies 
 and the Bonapartists the violet.' 
 
 » FLUID, a body whose particles on the 
 slightest pressure move and change their 
 relative position without separation; a 
 liquid or a gas, as fopposed to a solid. 
 Fluids are divided into liquids, such as 
 water and bodies in the form of water; 
 and gaseous bodies or aeriform fluids. 
 Liquids have been also termed non- 
 elastic fluids, for although they are not 
 altogether void of elasticity, they possess 
 it only in a small degree. Air and aeri- 
 form bodies have been called elastic 
 fluids on account of their great elasticity. 
 
 FLUORES'CENgE, a name given to 
 the phenomena presented by the invisi- 
 
FLUORIDi: 
 
 FLYING-LEMUR 
 
 ble chemical rays of the blue end of the 
 solar spectrum when they become lumi- 
 nous and visible by being sent through 
 uranium glass, or solutions of quinine, 
 horse-chestnut bark, or Datura Stra- 
 monium. In this way green crystals, as 
 of fluor-spar, may give out blue rays, 
 due not to the color of the surface of the 
 body, but to its power of modifying the 
 rays incident on it. The phenomenon 
 appears to be identical with phosphor- 
 escence. It is due to the refrangibility 
 of the rays being lowered or degraded 
 by the action of the substance. The term 
 fluorescence is applied to the phenome- 
 non if it is ob-served while the body is 
 actually exposed to the source of light ; 
 phosphorescence to the effect of the 
 same kind, but usually less intense, which 
 is observed after the light from the 
 source is cut off. Both forms of the phe- 
 nomenon occur in a strongly-markea de- 
 gree in the same bodies. 
 
 FLU'ORIDE, in chemistry, a com- 
 pound obtained by heating hydrofluoric 
 acid with certain metals, by the action 
 of that acid on metallic oxides or car- 
 bonates, by heating electro-negative 
 metals, as antimony, with fluoride of 
 lead or fluoride of mercury, and in other 
 ways. 
 
 FLU'ORINE, a very widely dis- 
 tributed element, which is known chiefly 
 only in combination, though it has re- 
 cently been isolated by De Moissan as a 
 colorless gas, that attacks almost every 
 substance and is the most activ^e element 
 known. Its most abundant compound 
 is calcic fluoride, which not only exists 
 in the mineral kingdom as fluor-spar 
 (which see), but forms an essential part 
 of the bones and teeth of animals. 
 Fluorine has also been detected in the 
 blood, milk, and urine; in plants; in 
 volcanic sublimates; in rocks; in copro- 
 lites and mineral phosphates; and in a 
 variety of minerals. Combined with 
 hydrogen it forms hydrofluoric acid. 
 
 FLUOR-SPAR, DERBYSHIRE SPAR, 
 or FLUORINE, fluoride of calcium, a 
 common mineral found in great beauty 
 in various localities. It generally occurs 
 massive, but crystallizes in simple forms 
 of the monometric system — viz. the 
 cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, etc., 
 and in combinations of the cube and 
 octahedron. Pure fluor-spar contains 
 48'7 per cent fluorine, 51‘3 calcium. 
 It is of frequent occurrence, especially 
 in connection with metalliferous beds, 
 as of silver, tin, lead, and cobalt ores. 
 It is sometimes colorless and trans- 
 parent, but more frequently it exhibits 
 tints of yellow, green, blue, and red. 
 
 FLUTE, a portable musical instru- 
 ment, consisting of a tube furnished 
 with six holes for the Angers, and from 
 one to fourteen keys which open other 
 holes. The sound, which is soft and clear 
 in quality, is produced by blowing with 
 the mouth into an oval aperture at the 
 side of the thick end of the instrument. 
 Its useful compass is about two and a 
 half octaves, including the chromatic 
 tones. It is usually made in four pieces, 
 and of box or ebony, sometimes, how- 
 ever, of ivory, silver, or even of glass. 
 
 FLUTING, in architecture, channels 
 or furrows cut perpendicularly in the 
 shafts of columns. It is used in the 
 Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite 
 
 orders, but never in the Tuscan. When 
 the flutes are partially filled up by a 
 smaller round molding they are said to 
 be cabled. 
 
 FLY, a winged insect of various 
 genera and species, whose distinguish- 
 ing characteristics are that the wings are 
 transparent and have no cases or covers. 
 By these marks flies are distinguished 
 from beetles, butterflies, grasshoppers, 
 etc. The true flies or Diptera have only 
 two wings, viz.; the anterior pair. In 
 common language, fly is the house-fly, of 
 the genus Musca. The house-fly is found 
 wherever man is, and in hot weather 
 causes a good deal of annoyance. It is 
 furnished with a suctorial proboscis, 
 from which, when feeding on dry sub- 
 stances, it exudes a liquid, which, by 
 moistening them, flts them to be sucked. 
 From its feet being beset with hair, each 
 terminating in a disc which is supposed 
 to act as a sucker, it can walk on smooth 
 surfaces, as a ceiling, even with its back 
 down. The female lays her eggs in dung 
 or refuse; the larvae are small white 
 worms. They change into pupae without 
 casting their skins, and in from eight to 
 fourteen days the perfect fly emerges. 
 The very small flies and the very large 
 ones seen about houses belong to other 
 species. See Blow-fly, Bot-fly, Gad-fly. 
 
 FLY-CATCHER, a name originally 
 given to certain insessorial birds with a 
 bill flattened at the base, almost trian- 
 gular, notched at the upper mandible, 
 and beset with bristles, about the size of 
 
 White-collared fly-catcher. 
 
 a sparrow. They perch on a branch, 
 where they remain immovable watching 
 for insects, only leaving to make a sud- 
 den dart at a passing fly, which they 
 seize with a snap of the bill, and then 
 return. The white-collared fly-catcher is 
 a native of southern Europe. Numerous 
 other birds receive the name of fly- 
 catchers, and some, as the paradise fly- 
 catchers of the Old World, are brilliantly 
 colored. In America some of the tyrant 
 birds are named fly-catchers. 
 
 FLYING, the power of locomotion 
 through the air, possessed by various 
 animals in different degrees. Birds, 
 bats, and many insects can raise them- 
 selves into the air and sustain themselves 
 there at will. Squirrels, phalangers, 
 some lizards, one of the tree-frogs, and 
 flying-fish can move through the air in 
 one direction for a short time, but can- 
 not, strictly speaking, fly. The wing of 
 a bird or insect is an elastic flexible or- 
 gan, ^yith a thick anterior and a thin 
 posterior margin; hence the wing does 
 not act like a solid board, but is thrown 
 into a succession of curves. When a 
 bird rises from the ground it leaps up 
 with head stuck out and expanded tail, 
 so that the body is in the position of a 
 boy’s kite when thrown up. The wings 
 
 are strongly flapped, striking toi^ard 
 and downward, and the bird clUickly 
 ascends. It has been shown that the 
 wing describes a figure of 8 in its action, 
 the margin being brought down so that 
 the tip of the wing gives thfe last blow 
 after the part next the trunk has ceased 
 to strike; hence, standing in front of a 
 bird, the wing would be divided into 
 two, the upper surface of one half and 
 the lower surface of the other being 
 visible at-the same time. These portions 
 are reversed when the wing is drawn 
 back and toward the body, before be- 
 'ginning another stroke; but it will be 
 observed that during retraction the 
 wing is still sloped, so that the resem- 
 blance to a kite is maintained. There 
 are many varieties of flight among birds; 
 of these the most remarkable is the sail- 
 ing motion, in which the wings are but 
 slightly moved. Probably the original 
 impetus is maintained by the kite-like 
 slope of the wing, and advantage may be 
 taken of currents by a rotation of the 
 wing at the shoulder, a movement in- 
 visible at any distance. 
 
 FLYING. Artificial. See Aeronautics. 
 
 FLYING-BRIDGE, a bridge made of 
 pontoons, light boats, hollow beams, 
 casks, or the like. They are made as 
 occasion requires, chiefly for the passage 
 of troops. The term is also applied to a 
 kind of ferry in which the force of the 
 current of a river is applied to propel a 
 boat guided by a cable fastened from 
 the one side to the other. 
 
 FLYING DUTCHMAN, a phantom 
 ship said to be seen in stormy weather 
 off the Cape of Good Hope, and thought 
 to forebode ill luck. One form of the 
 legend has it that the ship is doomed 
 never to enter a port on account of a 
 horrible murder committed on 'board; 
 another, that the captain, a Dutchman, 
 swore a profane oath that he would 
 weather the cape though he should beat 
 there till the last day. He was taken at 
 his word, and there he still beats, but 
 never succeeds in round the point. 
 
 FLYING-FISH, a name common to 
 various fishes which have the power of 
 sustaining themselves for a time in the 
 air by means of their large pectoral fins. 
 Generally, however, the name is limited 
 
 Common flylng-flsh. 
 
 to mackerel-pikes. The pectoral fins, 
 which are very large, are the principal 
 instruments in their flight, serving to 
 sustain the fish temporarilj’’ in the air 
 after it has acquired an initial velocity in 
 its rush through the water. It can pass 
 through the air to a considerable dis- 
 tance, sometimes as much as 200 jmrds, 
 which it does to escape from the attacks 
 of other fishes, especially the dolphin. 
 It is most common between the tropics. 
 
 FLYING-LEMUR, a name given to in- 
 sectivorous mammals, natives of the 
 Indian Archipelago. They possess a fly- 
 ing membrane, which extends as a 
 broad expansion from the nape of the 
 neck to the tail. By means of this mem- 
 
FLYING-SQUIRREL 
 
 FOO-CHOW 
 
 'brane they can take extended leaps 
 from tree to tree. 
 
 FLYING-SQUIRREL, a genus of 
 rodent animals (squirrels), to which the 
 • skin of the flank, extending between the 
 
 European flying-squirrel. 
 
 fore and hind legs, imparts the faculty 
 of supporting themselves for a moment 
 in the air, as with a parachute, and of 
 making very great leaps. 
 
 FLY-WHEEL, a wheel with a heavy 
 rim placed on the revolving shaft of any 
 machinery put in motion by an irregu- 
 lar or intermitting force, for the purpose 
 of rendering the motion equable and 
 regular by means of its momentum. A 
 fly-wheel is also used as an accumulator 
 of force; thus, when a small stream- 
 engine sets in motion a very large fly- 
 wheel, the wheel acts as a reservoir of 
 all the small pressures which have been 
 communicated to it, and having thus 
 concentrated them can apply them all 
 together and at once when some great 
 effect is to be produced. 
 
 FO, the Chinese name of Buddha. See 
 Buddha. 
 
 FOCUS, (1) in optics, a point in which 
 any number of rays of light meet after 
 being reflected or refracted by a mirror 
 or a lens. (2) In geom. an important 
 
 E oint on the principal axis of the para- 
 ola, ellipse, and hyperbola. The ellipse 
 and hyperbola have each two foci, the 
 parabola one, though in the latter case 
 we may suppose a setSond focus at an 
 infinite distance. The foci were so called 
 from the fact that rays of light proceed- 
 ing from one focus and reflected from a 
 corresponding reflecting surface pass 
 through the other focus. 
 
 F(ETUS. See Fetus. 
 
 FOG, a cloud at or near the surface of 
 the earth, produced by the condensation 
 of the invisible vapor of the atmosphere 
 into minute watery particles, this con- 
 densation being caused by a cold current 
 of air, or the contiguity of a cold sur- 
 face. 
 
 FOGGIA (foj'a), a town of S. Italy, 
 province of Foggia, 79 miles n. e. of Na- 
 ples, with regular and spacious streets. 
 Pop. 53,351. — The province, which is 
 partly botlnded by the Adriatic, has an 
 area of 2954 sq.^. miles. It possesses 
 rich pastures, and produces saffron, 
 wine, etc. Pop. 418, 510. 
 
 FOG-SIGNALS, signals given by means 
 of sound to warn vessels during fogs, 
 when lights or other visible signals can- 
 not be perceived. Various kinds of fog' 
 signals are used, among which may be 
 mentioned bells, drums, gongs, guns, 
 compressed-air whistles, steam-whistles, 
 and fog trumpets or horns. 
 
 FOIL, a thin leaf of ipetal, as gold or 
 tin, used for various purposes. 
 
 FOIL, in fencing, a rod of steel, repre- 
 senting a sword, with a handle or hilt at 
 one end, and a leather button at the 
 
 other to prevent accidents. Foils 
 measure from 31 to 38 inches in length. 
 
 FOKIEN, a maritime province of 
 Southeastern China; area, 46,320 sq. 
 miles. The strait of Formosa separates 
 it from the island so named The prin- 
 cipal products are rice, wheat, barley, 
 tea, silk, sugar, indigo, camphor, and 
 tobacco. The capital is Foo-chow. Pop. 
 25 790 556 
 
 FOLC-lJ^D, that is Folkland, the 
 land of the people, that portion of An- 
 glo-Saxon England which was retained 
 on behalf of the community. See Feu- 
 dal System. 
 
 Siren fog-horn. 
 
 FOLK-LORE, a useful term of recent 
 introduction into the English language, 
 signifying a scientific study of popular 
 tales, traditions, primitive beliefs and 
 superstitions, popular customs, usages. 
 
 FONT, the vessel which contains the 
 water for baptism in a church. It is fre- 
 
 Font, Cathedral of Langres, France, end ot 
 13th century. 
 
 quently sculptured in stone or marble, 
 with richly decorative designs. 
 
 FONTAINE, Jean de la. See La 
 Fontaine. 
 
 FONTAINEBLEAU (fon-tan-blo), a 
 town of France, dep. Seine-et-Marne, 
 in the midst of the forest of same 
 name, about 2 miles from the Seine 
 and 37 miles s.s.e. Paris. It owes its 
 origin chiefly to the palace, and is a 
 quiet place, with broad, clean streets. 
 Pop. 13,340. The castle or palace of Fon 
 tainebleau is one of the most magnifi- 
 cent in France. It occupies the site of a 
 
 Palace of Fontainebleau. 
 
 festivals, games, etc. Folk-lore, though 
 it takes cognizance of many apparently 
 trivial matters, is of great importance 
 in the science of comparative mythol- 
 ogy, and helps to throw much light on 
 the relationships between races, and on 
 the origin and development of religious 
 beliefs and ceremonies. 
 
 FOMENTATION, in med. the applica- 
 tion of warm liquids to a part of the 
 body, by means of flannels or other cloths 
 dipped in hot water or medicated decoc- 
 tions, for the purpose of easing pain by 
 relaxing the skin or of discussing tumors. 
 
 FOND DU LAC, a city in Wisconsin, 
 at the mouth of Fond du Lac River, 
 which opens on Lake Winnebago, 148 
 milesn.n. w. of Chicago. It is the center 
 of several railways, and has a large trade. 
 The manufactures include iron-founding, 
 carriage and wagon making, tanning, 
 saw-milling, etc. Pop. 18,210. 
 
 fortified chateau founded by Louis VII. 
 in 1 162 ; this was converted into amagnif- 
 icent palace by Francis I.; much added 
 to by Henry IV., Napoleon I., Louis 
 Philippe, and Napoleon III. The park 
 is laid out like a vast garden, and adorned 
 with statues, temples, fountains, lakes, 
 and waterfalls. The forest, which is 
 about 50 miles in circumference, covers 
 an area of 42,500 acres, affords numerous 
 pleasant walks, and abounds with 
 game. 
 
 FONTENOY, a village in Belgium, 
 province of Hainaut, celebrated for the 
 battle of May 11, 1745, in which the 
 French under Marshal Saxe defeated the 
 British, Austrian, and Dutch allied 
 forces under the Duke of Cumberland. 
 
 FOO-CHOW, a town of China, capital 
 of the province of Fokien, on the Min, 
 125 miles n. e. of Amoy. Pop. estimated 
 at 630,000. 
 
FOOD 
 
 FOOD, PRESERVATION OP 
 
 FOOD. See Aliment and Dietetics. 
 
 FOOD, PRESERVATION OF, from 
 earliest times man’s thoughts have been 
 accupied in devising ways and means to 
 prevent articles of food from deteriora- 
 tion or putrefaction. In their natural 
 state most foods are seasonable only 
 during limited periods of the year, and 
 their consumption is restricted to cer- 
 tain localities. Their preservation in 
 such a manner as to make them palat- 
 able during the entire year, in all locali- 
 ties, has been the subject of much re- 
 search. 
 
 Independent experiments by such 
 well-known scientists as Cagnaird de la 
 Tour, Schwann, Helmholtz, Pasteur, 
 Schultz, and others established beyond 
 a doubt that the decomposition of food 
 is due to the presence of a living organ- 
 ism known as “ferment.” It was rea- 
 soned that anything that would kill this 
 organism or preclude its presence would 
 preserve the article treated. The known 
 processes that will accomplish this re- 
 sult, and at the same time preserve the 
 food, are desiccation, use of antiseptics, 
 refrigeration, and canning. Desiccation, 
 or drying, was undoubtedly the first 
 method used, but food preserved by this 
 means loses much of its natural flavor 
 and becomes tough in texture. The 
 same objection arises in the use of anti- 
 septics. Refrigerated foods, unless great 
 care is exercised in the thawing, are not 
 palatable. 
 
 Prior to 1795, drying and the use of 
 salt and sugar were the only methods 
 used to any extent in the preservation 
 of foods. At this time Nicholas Appert, 
 a Frenchman, who had spent most of 
 his life in the preparation and preserva- 
 tion of articles of food, being stimulated 
 in his work by the offer of a reward by 
 the French navy department for a 
 method of preservation of foods for sea- 
 service, submitted to his government an 
 exhaustive treatise bearing upon the 
 hermetic sealing of all kinds of food. 
 His method was to inclose fruit in a glass 
 jar, which was then corked, and sub- 
 jected to the action of boiling water for 
 a time, varying according to the nature 
 of the article treated. A description of 
 his process can be best summed up in 
 his own words, as follows: “It is obvious 
 that this new method of preserving 
 animal and vegetable substances pro- 
 ceeds from the simple principle of ap- 
 plying heat in a due degree to the several 
 substances after having deprived them a 
 as much as possilble of all contact with 
 the external air. It might, on the first 
 view of the subject, be thought that a 
 substance, either raw or previously 
 acted upon by fire, and afterward put 
 into hot bottles might, if a vacuum 
 were made in those bottles and they 
 were completely corked, be preserved 
 equally well with the application of 
 heat in the water bath. This would be 
 an error, for all trials I have made con- 
 vince me that the absolute privation of 
 the contact of external air (the internal 
 air being rendered of no effect by the 
 action of heat) and the application of 
 heat by means of the water bath, are 
 both indispensable to the complete 
 preservation of alimentary substances.” 
 Time has proved this method to be the 
 most satisfactory for preserving food in 
 
 its natural state. France purchased his 
 process and gave it to manufacturing 
 firms in France and England for the 
 production of the goods. By this means 
 the industry gradually spread over Eng- 
 land, Ireland, and France. 
 
 In the year 1810 Peter Durant se- 
 cured a patent from the English govern- 
 ment for the preservation of fruits, 
 vegetables, and fish in hermetically 
 sealed tin and glass cans. He did not 
 claim to be the discoverer of the process, 
 but said that it had been communicated 
 to him by a “foreigner residing abroad.” 
 The secret of the process was jealously 
 guarded, but the employees of the 
 different establishments became more 
 or less familiar with its essentials, and 
 in this manner the industry found its 
 way to America. 
 
 One of the first men to come to America 
 with a knowledge of the process gained 
 in its actual use was Ezra Daggett, who 
 arrived in New York some time between 
 the years 1815 and 1818. In the year 
 1819 he and his son-in-law, Thomas 
 Kensett, were engaged in the manu- 
 facture of hermetically sealed goods, 
 the principal foods packed being salmon, 
 lobsters and oysters. In the following 
 year the industry was launched in Bos- 
 ton by William Underwood and Charles 
 Mitchell, emigrants from England, where 
 they had been employed in canning 
 establishments. Their principal business 
 however, during the early days of their 
 establishment, was the preparations of 
 pickles, sauces, jellies, jams, and mus- 
 tard; but they also canned damsons, 
 quinces, cranberries, and currants. The 
 industry also owes much to Allen Tay- 
 lor, an Englishman, and M. Gallagher, 
 an Irishman, both of whom learned* 
 their trade* at Sligo, Ireland, the latter 
 having in his possession a copy of Ap- 
 pert’s treatise on the subject of canning. 
 These men came to America at about 
 the time as those mentioned above, and 
 were for a time employed in New York. 
 Prior to 1840 the industry was estab- 
 lished in Baltimore, and Kensett, Taylor 
 and Gallagher did much to place it upon 
 a permanent basis. 
 
 Glass jars were gradually abandoned, 
 as it was found that they could not 
 withstand the extremes of temperature 
 and were expensive, bulky, and costly 
 in transportation. In 1825, Thomas 
 Kensett secured a patent on the use of 
 tin cans in preserving food, and in the 
 same year began using the patented pro- 
 cess in his factory. Tin has been the 
 favorite material for the construction of 
 cans. Their early manufacture was by 
 hand and very .crude, the bodies being 
 cut with shears and the side seam made 
 with a plumb joint (that is, meeting, but 
 not overlapping) and then soldered to- 
 gether Heads were made to set into the 
 body, and were soldered in place in a 
 very crude manner. The construction of 
 the cans was slow and costly, the mak- 
 ing of 100 being considered a good day’s 
 work. In 1847 Allen Taylor invented 
 the stamp can, which proved a decided 
 improvement over the plumb-joint can 
 just described, and about two years 
 later Henry Evans, jr., of New Jersey, 
 invented the “pendulum” press for 
 making can tops. The latest importanf 
 improvement in can manufacture was 
 
 the invention of the key-opening can, 
 which by the genius of a Mr. Zimmer- 
 man has been so reduced in cost that it 
 has come into general use. 
 
 Can making is now a distinct indus- 
 try, and not usually carried on, as for- 
 merly, in connection withlhe actual can- 
 ning of the foods. It is estimated, how- 
 ever, that about 10 per cent of the cans 
 are still made by the canning establish- 
 ments. For the past fifteen years labor- 
 saving machines have been introduced 
 in' can manufacture until now all the 
 parts are made and put together by 
 mechanical devices. The tki cans are 
 made from Bessemer steel plates cut 
 into sheets 14 by 20 inches and weigh- 
 ing about one pound. They are then 
 subjected to an acid to remove all dirt, 
 grease, scales, etc., and coated with pure 
 tin by the acid process or the palm-oil 
 process, the latter being the safer and 
 better of the two methods. The objection 
 having been urged against the use of tin 
 cans that the natural acids of fruits, 
 vegetables, meats, and fish act upon the 
 tin and solder in such a way as to form 
 metallic salts or metallic compounds 
 that are injurious to the health; the 
 matter was carefully investigated by 
 expert chemists, who reported that the 
 objection is groundless if good tin is 
 used. In the poorer grades of tin injuri- 
 ous substances were found, but in such 
 small quantities that they were of no 
 consequence. 
 
 By the Appert process the goods were • 
 cooked in open kettles, the highest tem- 
 perature obtainable by this method 
 being 212° F., or the temperature of 
 boiling .water. The process was neces- 
 sarily slow, but gradually improvements 
 were made in the methods and a higher 
 degree of temperature was obtained by 
 the addition of common salt to the water. 
 This innovation was followed by the use 
 of chloride of calcium, which made pos- 
 sible a temperature of 240° F. The cans, 
 however, under this process become 
 discolored, involving considerable ex- 
 pense in cleaning them to make the 
 goods merchantable. In 1874 Mr. A. K. 
 Shriver, of Baltimore, invented a closed- 
 process kettle to cook the goods by 
 superheating water with steam. About 
 the same time Mr. John Fisher, of the 
 same city, invented a patent-process 
 kettle which secured the same results 
 by the use of dry steam. By these 
 methods, which are used at the present 
 time, any desired temperature can be 
 obtained and the heat regulated to meet 
 requirements. 
 
 The use of antiseptics in the preserva- 
 tion of food in its simplest form is found 
 in the employment of salt or strong 
 brine toiill the bacteria and this is the 
 method employed from primitive times 
 in curing meat or fish. More dangerous, 
 however, are the other antiseptics. The 
 U. States department- of agriculture has 
 recently issued strong warnings against 
 the use of formaldehyde, salicylic acid, 
 sulphites, borax and benzoic acid. 
 Their use is, however, almost universal 
 although their danger is recognized by 
 the national pure food laws which pro- 
 vide that preserved foods containing 
 such substances shall be labeled in 
 accordance with the preservatives used. 
 The use of salicylic acid and sulphites 
 
FOOL 
 
 FOOTE 
 
 is forbidden by many governments as 
 being generally regarded as more dan- 
 gerous than the benzoic acid and borax. 
 
 Cold storage, the most modern 
 method of preserving food dates from 
 the last quarter of the 19th century In 
 this process the use of other preserva- 
 tives than cold is unnecessary. The sub- 
 ject is discussed in the article on refriger- 
 ation and its economic importance will 
 be realized upon consulting the article 
 devoted to the Packing Industry. 
 
 FOOL. See Jester. 
 
 FOOLS, Feast of, the name given to 
 festivals regularly celebrated, from the 
 5th to the 16th century, in several coun- 
 tries of Europe, by the clergy and laity, 
 with the most absurd ceremonies. 
 
 FOOLSCAP, paper of the_ smallest 
 regular size but one (13 by 16 inches); 
 so called from its water-mark in early 
 times being the outline of a fool’s head 
 and cap. 
 
 FOO-SHAN, a town, China, prov. of 
 Quangtong, 21 miles s. w. of Canton, on 
 one of the branches of the delta of the 
 Si-kiang. Pop. 200,000. 
 
 FOOT, a measure of length, the name 
 of which is derived from the length of 
 the human foot, containing 12 linear 
 inches. — Square foot is a square whose 
 side is one foot ,and is therefore equal to 
 144 square inches. — Cubic foot is a cube 
 whose side is 1 foot, and the cube con- 
 tains 1728 cubic inches. The foot is a 
 common measure in various countries, 
 but its dimensions vary considerably. 
 
 FOOT, in prosody, a measure consist- 
 ing of a variety of syllables, two, three, 
 or four, in combinations of long and 
 short, or accented and unaccented. In 
 Greek and Latin verse the feet depend 
 on the quantity or length of the syllables 
 each foot having a distinctive name- 
 trochee, iamtris, dactyle, anapest, etc. 
 The same are applied to English meas- 
 ures, an accented syllable in English 
 being held to be equivalent to a long 
 syllable in Latin or Greek, and an unac- 
 cented syllable to a short. 
 
 FOOT, in animals, the lower extremity 
 of the leg ; the part of the leg which treads 
 the earth in standing or walking, and by 
 which the animal is sustained and en- 
 ables to step ; or that surface of the body 
 by which progression is effected among 
 
 Skeleton of the human foot. 
 
 o to 66, Tarsus. 6 6 to cc, Metatarsus, ccto 
 d, Phalanges. 1, Os calcls, calcaneum, or heel- 
 bone. 2, Astragalus 3. Scaphoid bone. 4, In- 
 ner cunold bone. 5, Middle cunoid bone. 6, 
 Outer cunoid bone. 7, Cuboid bone. 8 to 13, 
 Metatarsal bones. 13, First row of phalanges. 
 14, Last row of phalanges. 
 
 the mollusca. The foot of man is com- 
 posed of twenty-six bones, seven of 
 which constitute the tarsus or ankle, 
 which articulates with the leg and corre- 
 sponds to the carpus (wrist). Five 
 ybones form the metatarsus, which corre- 
 sponds to the metacarpus, and articu- 
 lates with the tarsus, behind, and with 
 the toes in front. The foot is narrow 
 and thick in its posterior part, thinner 
 (md broader anteriorly; it forms a right 
 
 angle with the leg, and rests upon the 
 ground at the extremities only. The 
 middle portion is in the form of an arch, 
 and, in consequence, resists shocks and 
 supports pressure much better than it 
 could if it were fiat and touched the 
 ground throughout its whole length. 
 
 FOOTA, a territory of Senegambia, 
 W. Africa, on tne lower Senegal, which 
 bounds it on the northeast. It includes 
 Foota Toro, and other districts. Area, 
 about 15,000 sq. miles; pop. estimated 
 at 400,000. 
 
 FOOTA-JALLON, a region of "West 
 Africa, intersected by lat. 11° n. and Iqn. 
 11° w. It is governed by an elective 
 chief under the protection of France. 
 
 FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE, a 
 highly contagious eczematous affection 
 which attacks the feet and mouths of 
 cattle, manifesting itself by lameness, 
 indisposition to eat, and general febrile 
 symptoms, with ultimately eruptions of 
 small vesicles on the parts affected, and 
 general indisposition of the animal. The 
 disease occasionally spreads to the udder 
 of milch-cattle, and it is believed that it 
 may be communicated to persons who 
 drink the milk of cows so affected. 
 
 FOOTBALL, an outdoor game of con- 
 siderable antiquity. In former times 
 towns and villages were often matched 
 against each other, the whole of the 
 able-bodied inhabitants taking part in 
 the struggle; the goals being often miles 
 apart, and usually consisting of natural 
 objects, as a brook or river. The modern 
 form of the game is played by two parties 
 of players, on a large level piece of 
 ground, generally oblong in shape, and 
 having in the middle of either of the 
 ends a goal formed by two upright posts 
 6 to 8 yards apart, with a bar or tape 
 extended between them at the height of 
 8 or 10 feet from the ground. There are 
 various styles of playing the game, 
 but those recognized in important 
 matches are the Rugby, the Football 
 Association and the American Asso- 
 ciation game. In both games the 
 main object is for either party to 
 drive the ball (which is kicked off in the 
 center of the field) through the goal that' 
 their opponents are guarding, and thus 
 count a goal against them. In the Rugby 
 game the goal-posts are 18 J feet apart, 
 and joined by a cross-bar at a height of 
 10 feet from the ground; and to score a 
 goal the ball must be kicked over this 
 bar by one of the opposite side. In the 
 Association game the upright poles are 
 8 yards apart, and joined at 8 feet from 
 the ground by a tape, under which the 
 ball must pass to secure a goal. The 
 Rugby game is much rougher and less 
 scientific than the Association game 
 which discourages rough play and relies 
 mainly on the skilful manceuvring of 
 the ball with the feet, it being forbidden 
 to touch the ball with the hands; while 
 by the Rugby rules the player may 
 catch the ball in his hands, run with it, 
 and kick it dropping. A regular game 
 lasts an hour and a half, and at half- 
 time the teams change ends in order 
 that inequalities of situation may be 
 neutralized. 
 
 The American Game. — The rules of 
 the English Rugby Union, as they were 
 in 1875, were adopted as the foundation 
 of the American game; but in 1876 they 
 
 were revised, so that in place of the 
 former play the man who happened to 
 have the ball when a “down” was made 
 played it to one particular man — the 
 “snap-back,” and its destination then 
 becomes part of a preconcerted and well- 
 rehearsed play. He puts the ball in play 
 behind him, and the men in his line act 
 in concert, in a general, prearranged at- 
 tack on the enemy’s line, with the ob- 
 ject of clearing a path for the man who 
 runs with the ball. The work of the 
 rushers has been specialized, light men 
 put where their qualifications are most 
 effective, and heavy men in the same 
 way; end men selected who could make 
 runs and free catches off short kicks. In 
 the same way, guards to protect the 
 quarter-back when he passed the ball, 
 and tackles to break up the opponents’ 
 play, were early specifically selected for 
 qualifications and specialized for the 
 work. Every year has brought new plays 
 to the fore, and every rule has been the 
 subject of infinite thought on the part 
 of the players, mainly to design some 
 method of meeting them, each play in 
 its turn resulting in still new rules — to 
 wit, the “block system” of the early 
 eighties was met by “the five-yard rule,” 
 designed to prevent one side keeping 
 possession of the ball unduly, without 
 material advance or retreat, by enacting 
 that if in three “downs,” or attempts to 
 advance the ball, the side doing so has 
 not made 5 yards toward the opponent’s 
 goal, or retreated 20 yards toward their 
 own goal, they should surrender pos- 
 session. 
 
 “Interference” was restrained but de- 
 veloped into “mass plays” — the group- 
 ing of a body of men some distance back 
 ot,the line and starting them before the 
 ball was put in play. This tendency 
 called into existence the rules committee 
 of the University Athletic Club, whose, 
 annual revisions have aimed, at the* 
 greater protection of a man on a fair 
 catch, and the encouragement of kick- 
 ing and of af more open game generally. 
 The time of play is two halves of thirty- 
 five minutes each, with ten minutes in- 
 termission. Any player injured can be 
 removed from the field and another 
 player substituted, in which respect the 
 American game differs from the British 
 play, where each team has to play the 
 game out with the members with which 
 which they start the game, or such of 
 them as are capable of play. These 
 differing rules may account for the 
 marked difference in the casualties in 
 the field; a captain who has no reserves 
 takes more care of his men than he who 
 can replace an injured player with a sub- 
 stitute. 
 
 FOOTE, Andrew Hull, a distinguished 
 officer of the U. States navy; was born 
 in New Haven, Conn., in 1806. He was 
 commissioned lieutenant on May 27, 
 1830; from 1837 to 1840 was executive 
 officer of the John Adams, of the East 
 India Squadron, during its cruise around 
 the world, and from 1841 to 1843 was 
 stationed-at the Naval Asylum in Phila- 
 delphia, of which during the last 
 two years he was in full charge. In 
 1852, he was promoted to the rank 
 of commander. On February 6, 1862, 
 he captured Fort Henry, and on the 
 14th he attacked Fort Donelson, before 
 
FOOT-GUARDS 
 
 FORENSIC SIEDICINE 
 
 which Grant with his army had arrived 
 two days earlier; but was repulsed, and 
 he himself was wounded. For several 
 months in 1862-63 he \Yas chief of the 
 bureau of equipment and recruiting, and 
 on June 4, 1863, was appointed to suc- 
 ceed Rear-Admiral Dupont as com- 
 mander of the fleet off Charleston, but 
 died at New York, on June 26, 1863. 
 
 FOOT-GUARDS. See Guards. 
 
 FOOT-LIGHTS, in theaters, the row of 
 lights placed on the front of the stage 
 and on a level with it, to light it up. 
 
 FOOT-POUND, in physics, the term 
 expressing the unit selected in measur- 
 ing the work done by a mechanical 
 force. A foot-pound represents 1 lb. 
 weight raised through a height of 1 foot ; 
 and a force equal to a certain number of 
 foot-pounds, fifty for example, is a force 
 capable of raising 50 lbs. through a 
 height of 1 foot. 
 
 FOOT-ROT, a disease in the feet of 
 sheep, the more common form of which 
 is an inordinate growth of hoof, which at 
 the toe, or round the margin, becomes 
 turned down, cracked, or torn, through 
 affording lodgment for sand and dirt. 
 In the second form of the disease the 
 foot becomes hot, tender, and swollen; 
 there are ulcerations between the toes, 
 followed by the sprouting of proud 
 flesh. 
 
 FOR'AKER, Joseph Benson, Ameri- 
 can politician and legislator, born at 
 Rainsboro, Ohio, in 1846. He studied 
 law and was admitted to the bar at Cin- 
 cinnati, where he practiced with success 
 until 1879, when he w'as elected a judge 
 of the superior court. He resigned from 
 the bench in 1882, and in 1885 was 
 elected governor of Ohio on the Repub- 
 lican ticket. He was reelected in 1887, 
 and was defeated for a third term, in 
 1889, by James E. Campbell, although 
 all the rest of the republican state ticket 
 was elected. From his defeat as gover- 
 nor in 1889 to 1897 he w'as engaged ac- 
 tively in the practice of law at Cincinnati 
 gaining a reputation as a corporation 
 attorney. In 1897 he became United 
 States senator, and was re-elected in 
 1902. In the senate he has taken an 
 active and aggressive part in the de- 
 bates, being one of the most radical 
 advocates in that body of the war with 
 Spain in 1898. 
 
 FORBES, James David, Scottish sci- 
 entist born 1809, died 1868. His fame 
 rests chiefly on his study of glaciers. 
 
 FORBIDDEN FRUIT, a name fanci- 
 fully given to the fruits of various trees 
 rown in tropical countries, as the shad- 
 ock, a sort of thick-skinned orange, 
 and the poisonous fruit of a tree of Cey- 
 lon, traditionally said to be the fruit of 
 which Adam and Eve ate at the time of 
 the fall in Eden. 
 
 FORCE, that which is the source of all 
 active phenomena occurring in the 
 material world, and of which motion, 
 gravitation, heat, light, electricity and 
 magnetism, cohesion, and chemical 
 affinity are believed to be exhibitions. 
 Mechanical force is the power which 
 produces or modifies motion or tends to 
 do so. It has its origin in three causes; 
 (1) gravitation; (2) the unknown cause 
 of the phenomena of light, heat, and 
 electricity ; and (3) life. Mechanical forces 
 
 are of two sorts: one of a body at rest, 
 being the same as pressure or tension; 
 the other of a body in motion, being the 
 same as impetus or momentum. When 
 two forces act on a body in the same line 
 of direction the resulting force, or resul- 
 tant as it is called, will be the sum of 
 both forces. If they act in opposite 
 directions the body will remain at rest if 
 the forces be equal; or, if the forces be 
 unequal, it will move with a force equiv- 
 alent to their difference in the direction 
 of thp greater. If the lines of direction 
 make an angle with each other the re- 
 sultant will be a mean force in an inter- 
 mediate direction. The composition of 
 forces is the combining of two or more 
 into one (actually or hypothetically), 
 which shall have the same effect when 
 acting in some given direction; the re- 
 solution of forces is the decomposing of a 
 single force into two or more forces, 
 which, acting in different directions, 
 shall be equivalent to the single force. 
 Forces have different denominations 
 according to their nature and the rnan- 
 ner in which they act; thus we have 
 accelerating forces, constant forces, 
 parallel forces, uniform and variable 
 forces, etc. The unit of force is a single 
 force in terms of which the amount of 
 any other force is ^certained. See 
 Dynamics, Energy. 
 
 FOR'CEPS, a general name for a two- 
 bladed instrument on the principle of 
 pincers or tongs, used for seizing and 
 holding, and for extracting objects, 
 which it would be impracticable thus to 
 treat with the fingers. 
 
 FORCE-PUMP. See Pump. 
 
 FORCING, a method of cultivation by 
 which plants, flowers, and fruits are 
 rajised at an earlier season than the 
 natural one by protecting them under 
 glass, in hot or cold frames, by using 
 stimulatiirg fertilizers, and other means. 
 
 FORD, John Thomson, American 
 theatrical manager, was born at Balti- 
 more in 1829. He was the owner of 
 Ford’s Theater, the scene of the assas- 
 sination of President Lincoln by Booth 
 on April 14, 1865, and on suspicion of 
 complicity was arrested and imprisoned 
 for 40 days. H- was then released as 
 absolutely no evidence was adduced 
 against him. He was long one of the 
 board of governors of the Maryland 
 penitentiary and at one time president 
 of the board of directors of the Baltimore 
 and Ohio Railway. He died in 1894. 
 
 FORD, Paul Leicester, American his- 
 torian and novelist, was born in Brook- 
 lyn, N. Y., in 1865. After traveling ex- 
 tensively in both hemispheres he de- 
 voted himself to investigations in the 
 sources of American history. He edited 
 the writings of Thomas Jefferson, the 
 writings of Thomas Dickinson and The 
 Federalist. These studies led to the 
 True George Washington, The Many 
 Sided Franklin, etc. His best known 
 works of fiction are: Janice Meredith, 
 Wanted: A Matchmaker, The Hon. 
 Peter Sterling. He died in 1902. 
 
 FORD’S THEATER, a Washington 
 theater, in which President I.incoln was 
 assassinated by Booth, April 14, 1865. 
 The building was purchased in 1866 by 
 the U. States government, and was used 
 until 1887 as the Army Medical Museum, 
 and later as the Pension and Records 
 
 Bureau of the War Department. It 
 collapsed, with the loss of many lives, on 
 June 9, 1893. 
 
 FOR'DUN, John, the father of Scot- 
 tish history, born probably at Fordoun 
 Kincardineshire, soon after 1300; died 
 about 1386. 
 
 FORE-AND-AFT, in ships, a term 
 meaning in a line with the keel. Fore- 
 ar^d-aft sails are those that are set on a 
 stay or gaff and boom, such as jibs, stay- 
 s^ils ©tc 
 
 FORECASTLE, a short deck in the 
 forepart of a ship of war, or forward of 
 the foremast, above the upper deck. In 
 merchant ships it is the forepart of the 
 vessel, where the sailors live. 
 
 FORECLOSURE, the process where- 
 by a mortgagor’s right, or “equity,” of 
 redemption is cut off and the mort- 
 gagee’s lien on the mortgaged lands or 
 goods enforced. It is available to the 
 mortgagee at any time after default, and 
 is instituted by a bill of foreclosure ask- 
 ing that an account may be taken of the 
 principal and interest due under the 
 mortgage, and that the mortgagor, on 
 failing to pay by a specified date, may. 
 forfeit his equity of redemption. If on 
 the day fixed for payment the money 
 be not forthcoming, the mortgagor will 
 be declared to have forfeited his equity 
 of redemption, and the mortgagee will 
 be allowed to retain the estate in per- 
 petuity. 
 
 In a few of the American states, the 
 mortgage has come to be regarded as a 
 mere lien, and not as a legal estate in the 
 mortgagee, a statutory process, knowm 
 also as a foreclosure, has Been adopted 
 in lieu of the foregoing process of 
 “strict” foreclosure. This differs from 
 the older method principally in the fact 
 that it involves the satisfaction of the 
 debt, not by a forfeiture, but by a sale 
 of the mortgaged premises. The suit, 
 which is also in equity, is instituted by 
 the mortgagee as plaintiff, the mort- 
 gagor and all creditors, subsequent 
 lienors, -and other parties in interest, be- 
 ing made defendants. The demand is 
 for a judgment that the defendants be 
 foreclosed and cut off from all their in- 
 terest in the mortgaged premises, and 
 that the same be sold to satisfy the mort- 
 gage debt. The sale is made upon notice 
 and is at public auction, generally by 
 the sheriff or a referee appointed by the 
 court. After the sale the money in the 
 hands of the referee will be applied to 
 the payinent of the mortgage, and any 
 surplus may be claimed b^y subsequent 
 mortgagees; or, if there is no other claim 
 upon it, it will be paid to the mortgagor. 
 
 FOREIGN OFFICE, that department 
 of the British government presided over 
 by the secretary of state for foreign 
 affairs, and having its locale in Downing 
 street, Westminster, London. It was 
 established in 1782, and has charge of 
 British interests in foreign countries. 
 The secretary for foreign affairs nego- 
 tiates treaties, appoints diplomatic oL 
 fic6I*S ©tc ^ 
 
 FOREN'SIC MEDICINE, the, branch 
 of medical education which applies the 
 
 E rinciples and practice of the different 
 ranches of medicine to the elucidation 
 of doubtful questions in a court of jus- 
 tice; otherwise called medical jurispru- 
 dence. 
 
FORESHORTENING 
 
 FORREST 
 
 FORESHORTENING, in drawing and 
 painting, the art of representing figures 
 in such a manner as to convey to the 
 mind the impression of the entire length 
 of any object which is pointing more or 
 
 Foreshortened (after figure by Raphael). 
 
 less directly toward the spectator stand- 
 ing in front of the picture. The project- 
 ing object is shortened in proportion to 
 its approach to the perpendicular to the 
 plane of the picture, and in consequence 
 appears of a just length. 
 
 FOREST, a term properly applied to 
 an extensive wood, or to a large tract of 
 mingled woodland and open and uncul- 
 tivated land; but also to a large tract of 
 hilly or mountain land wholly or chiefly 
 devoted to the purposes of the chase. 
 Forests proper are of much importance 
 in the general economy of the globe. 
 They greatly affect climate; and their 
 beneficial influence in a physical, eco- 
 nomical, and hygienic aspect is now re- 
 ceiving increased attention. In German 
 and various other European countries 
 forest science constitutes a separate 
 branch of education, but in Britain less 
 regard is paid to it. Forest regulations 
 did not for a time seem as necessary in 
 the U. States, with its great forest 
 wealth, as in Europe. However, with 
 the destructive methods of lumbering 
 and the enormous waste by forest fires, 
 the supply has been so encroached upon 
 that means have been taken to repair 
 the damage and to provide against 
 its continuance. Various states have 
 enacted laws designed to correct the 
 former abuses by granting bounties for 
 tree-planting and remission of taxes 
 upon purely forest areas. The general 
 government has also attempted to aid 
 by laws providing for the acquirement 
 of land upon the condition of planting a 
 
 E ortion to trees. Since the laws enacted 
 y the general government were im- 
 properly prepared, interpreted, and en- 
 forced, and have resulted in little good, 
 they have been repealed. .The greatest 
 good has probably come from the reser- 
 vation of extensive areas about the 
 watersheds and sources of some great 
 rivers. There are over 40 forest reserves 
 in the U. States, embracing more than 
 46,000,000 acres. 
 
 FORESTERS, Ancient order of, a 
 fraternal organization founded in 1745 
 and introduced into the U. States in 
 1832. The growth of the Order was slow 
 until 1864. In 1902 the courts numbered 
 approximately 9,000, with a total mem- 
 bership of nearly 1,000,000. The Order 
 is one of the largest beneficiary societies 
 in existence, with courts in 36 countries. 
 Funds are raised by fixed dues, and 
 
 more than $5,000,000 annually are dis- 
 tributed in benefits. 
 
 FORESTERS, Independent Order of, 
 a fraternal and benevolent society 
 founded at Newark, N. J., in 1874, and 
 reorganized in 1881. The Order is general 
 throughout the U. States and Canada. 
 Its government is vested in a Supreme 
 Court, with delegates from all the coun- 
 tries represented. High Courts, corres- 
 ponding to the grand lodges of other 
 societies, have supervision of the Order 
 in various states and countries. The 
 local bodies are called courts. The Order 
 has a membership of 200,000, has, paid 
 more than $13,000,000 in benefits since 
 its organization, and has a surplus fund 
 of nearly $6,000,000. 
 
 FOREST MARBLE, in geology, an 
 argillaceous laminated shelly limestone, 
 altercating with clays and calcareous 
 sandstones, and forming one of the 
 upper portions of the Lower Oolite: so 
 called from Whichwood Forest, in Eng- 
 land, where the finer bands are quarried 
 as marble. 
 
 FOR'FEITURE, a punishment an- 
 nexed to some illegal act or remissness 
 of an owner or tenant of property, 
 whereby he loses his interest therein, 
 together with his title, the same going 
 to the party injured by such act or re- 
 missness. 
 
 FORGE, a workshop or other estab- 
 lishment in which iron or other metal is 
 hammered and shaped by the aid of 
 heat; also, the works where iron is ren- 
 dered malleable by puddling and shing- 
 ling. For military purposes a traveling 
 forge is used by forces in the field. 
 
 FORGERY, at common law, the fraud- 
 ulent making or alteration of a writing 
 to the prejudice of another man’s rights, 
 or making, of any written instrument 
 for the purpose of fraud and deceit; the 
 word making, in this last definition, be- 
 ing considered as including every altera- 
 4;ion of or addition to a true instrument. 
 
 FORGET-ME-NOT, the name of a 
 common plant growing generally in 
 damp or wet places. Scorpion^grass is 
 also a name for it and others of its genus. 
 It is a very beautiful plant, and con- 
 sidered to be the emblem of friendship 
 in almost every part of the world. Its 
 flowers are bright blue with a yellow eye. 
 The dark-blue forget-me-not of the 
 Azores is now cultivated in greenhouses, 
 and is much esteemed for the brilliancy 
 of its flowers. 
 
 FORLI', a town of North Italy, capi- 
 tal of a province of same name, 38 miles 
 southeast of Bologna. Pop. 279,072. 
 
 FORLORN HOPE, a body of men, 
 usually volunteers, selected from dif- 
 ferent regiments, to lead an assault, enter 
 a breach, or perform other service at- 
 tended with uncommon peril. The term 
 is of Dutch origin; hope being from 
 Dutch hoop, a company. 
 
 FORMATION, in geology, any series 
 of rocks referred to a common origin or 
 period, whether they consist of the same 
 or different materials. Geological strata 
 are divided into certain groups of one 
 era of deposition, sometimes of very 
 dissimilar mineralogical character, but 
 inclosing the same fossil species; as, the 
 Carboniferous, Oolitic, Cretaceous, Silur- 
 ian, Laurentian, etc., formations. See 
 Geology. 
 
 FORMIC ACID, an acid obtained from 
 ants, when repeated quantities of them 
 have been infused in boiling water. It 
 is contained in human sweat and urine, 
 in the common nettle and other plants, 
 and may be prepared artificially in 
 various ways. It is a colorless volatile 
 liquid, with pungent odor, and produc- 
 ing intense irritation on the skin. 
 
 FORMO'SA, an island in the Chinese 
 Sea, separated from the Chinese prov. 
 of Fokien by a strait about 80 miles 
 wide where narrowest. The island is 
 about 250 miles in length and 70 in 
 average breadth. It is divided by a cen- 
 tral range of mountains (rising .to 14,000 
 feet) into a western and eastern part, the 
 former of which (mostly a plain) is 
 occupied by large numbers of immi- 
 grant Chinese, and highly cultivated, 
 producing in abundance corn, rice, 
 sugar, pepper, camphor, oranges, bana- 
 nas, etc. The eastern part is inhabited 
 mainly by wild tribes of Malayan race, 
 who are gradually disappearing before 
 the Chinese. Northern Formosa is 
 volcanic, and earthquakes occur. Several 
 ports have been opened to European 
 commerce, chiefly Tai-nan (the capital), 
 Tam-sui, Ke-lung, and Takow; and the 
 trade of the island since then has greatly 
 increased. The chief exports are coal, 
 tea, camphor, sugar, indigo, timber; the 
 imports are cottons, woolens, opium, 
 etc. Formosa now belongs to Japan. 
 Pop. 3,000,000. 
 
 FORMULA, a fixed form of words or 
 symbols. In theology it is a formal state- 
 ment of doctrines; in mathematics, a 
 general theorem, a rule or principle ex- 
 pressed in algebraic symbols. In chem- 
 istry it is a mode of expressing the con- 
 stituents of a compound by means of 
 symbols and letters. Thus water is rep- 
 resented by H 2 O, in which H 2 stands for 
 the two proportions of hydrogen and O 
 for the one of oxygen which are com- 
 bined to produce water. 
 
 FORNICATION, the illicit carnal 
 intercourse by an unmarried person 
 with one of the opposite sex, whether 
 married or unmarried. In most coun- 
 tries this offense has been brought w’ithin 
 the pale of positive law at some period 
 of their history, and prohibited by the 
 imposition of penalties more or less 
 severe; but it is now usually left to the 
 restraints which public opinion imposes 
 on it in every community which is 
 guided by the principles of morality and 
 religion. In a few of the U. States the 
 offense is made a misdemeanor by 
 statute, punishable by fine and im- 
 prisonment, but in most of the states 
 the common-law rule prevails. 
 
 FOR'REST, Edwin, American trage- 
 dian; was born in Philadelphia, in 1806. 
 He made his first regular appearance in 
 1820 at the Walnut Street Theater, in 
 Philadelphia, in Home’s Douglas. In 
 Shakespeare his best roles were Richard 
 III., Coriolanus, Lear and Othello, but 
 he was even more effective in Virginius, 
 Spartacus and characters of that range, 
 and in 1826, at the Park Theater, New 
 York, made a decided triumph in Othello. 
 Thenceforward his career was one of 
 distinction, both in this country and 
 in England, where he made his first ap- 
 pearance at Drury Lane in The Gladia- 
 tor in 1836. His last professional ap- 
 
FORREST 
 
 FORTIFICATION 
 
 pearance was in 1871. He died in De- 
 cember 12, 1872. 
 
 FORREST, Nathan Bedford, Ameri- 
 can soldier, was born near the site of 
 Chapel Hill, Tenn., in 1821 ; he removed 
 with his father in 1834 to Tippah 
 County, Miss. Though at first opposed 
 to a dissolution of the Union, he entered 
 the confederate army as a private in 
 June, 1861. In 1862, he was promoted 
 to be brigadier-general, and thereafter 
 served in Kentucky for some time un- 
 der General Bragg. On January 24, 
 1865, he was placed in command of the 
 cavalry in Alabama, Mississippi, and 
 east Louisiana; on February 28th be- 
 came a lieutenant-general ; in March was 
 defeated at Selma, Ala., by Gen. J. H. 
 Wilson; and in May surrendered at 
 Gainesville, his troops being included 
 in the arrangement made by Gen. Rich- 
 ard Taylor with General Canby. He 
 died in 1877. 
 
 FORT, a small fortified place sur- 
 rounded with a ditch, rampart, and 
 parapet, for the purpose of defending a 
 pass, river, road, harbor, etc. Forts are 
 made of different forms and extent ac- 
 cording to the exigencies of the case. 
 See Fortification. 
 
 FORT DODGE, the county seat of 
 Webster county, la., situated on Des 
 Moines river, the Chi., R. I. and Pac., 
 111. Cent., Mason City and Fort D., and 
 Minn, and St. Louis R. Rs.; 90 miles 
 n. of Des Moines. It has fine quarries of 
 building-stone, large deposits of gyp- 
 sum, coal, fire-clay, potter’s clay, and 
 water-lime, and various manufactures. 
 Pop. 14,519. 
 
 FORT MADISON, the county seat of 
 Lee county, la., situated on Mississippi 
 river, 23 miles below Burlington, and on 
 the Atch., Top. and S. F4, Burl. Route, 
 and Ch., Fort Mad. and Des Moines 
 R. Rs.; 237 miles s.w. of Chicago; con- 
 nected with Illinois by one of the finest 
 wagon and railway bridges on the river. 
 Pop. 11,215. 
 
 FORT SCOTT, the county seat of 
 Bourbon county, Kan.; situated on the 
 Marmaton river; 300 miles w. of St. 
 Louis and 98 miles s. of Kansas City, 
 Mo. Pop. 11,760. 
 
 FORT SMITH, one of the county seats 
 of Sebastian county. Ark., situated at 
 the confluence of Arkansas and Poteau 
 rivers; 158 miles w. by n. of Little Rock. 
 It has sawmills, planing-mills, furniture- 
 factories, eptton compress and oil-seed 
 mills, ice-factory, etc Pop. 14,320. 
 
 FORTH, a river of Central Scotland, 
 formed in Perthshire by the junction of 
 two streams, the Duchray and the Dhu, 
 about 1 mile w. of Aberfoyle. From 
 Aberfoyle the river flows southeast, 
 forming for^ considerable part of its 
 course the boundary between the 
 counties of Stirling and Perth, winding 
 in its lower course in a series of curves 
 known as the Links of Forth, and ex- 
 panding thereafter into the Firth of 
 Forth, which forms tlxe most important 
 harbor of refuge n. of the Humber. Its 
 chief ports are Leith, Granton, Bo’ness 
 and Grangemouth. The Forth is navi- 
 gable for the smaller class of vessels as 
 far up as Alloa. Its length is about 170 
 miles. It is a good salmon stream. There 
 are several isl6,nds in the estuary, on 
 two of which, the Isle of May and Inch- 
 
 keith, lighthouses are erected. The firth 
 is crossed at Queen’s ferry by a bridge. 
 
 FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL, a canal 
 in Scotland constructed in 1768-90, and 
 extending from the Forth at Grange- 
 mouth to the Clyde at Bowling, thus 
 giving communication by water from 
 the east to the west coast. It is 35 miles 
 long. The Union Canal, 31^ miles long, 
 joins it near Falkirk and connects it with 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 FORTIFICATION, the science of 
 strengthening positions in" such a way 
 that they may be defended by a body 
 of men much inferior in number to those 
 by whom they are attacked; and more 
 particularly, the science of strengthen- 
 ing positions so as that they may be 
 held against the assault of troops sup- 
 ported by artillery. Fortifications are 
 
 artillery on the ramparts. In the sec- 
 tional cut a is toward the interior of the 
 fort, b toward the open country. At 
 certain intervals there are often bas- 
 tions or projecting works at salient 
 angles, commanding by their fire the 
 curtain or straight portion of the forti- 
 fied line between them. The use of the 
 bastion has given the name to what is 
 called the bastionary system of fortifica- 
 tion, which has in modern times largely 
 given way to what is known as the poly- 
 gonal or German system, which is con- 
 sidered to have various advantages in 
 relation to the powerful artillery of the 
 present day. The polygonal system has 
 also been called the caponier system, 
 from the use of powerful casemated 
 caponiers constructed across the ditches^ 
 and serving instead of bastions for their 
 
 Section through line of fortifications. 
 
 Rampart.. 
 
 usually divided into permanent and 
 temporary. Permanent fortifications 
 are works required to remain effective 
 for any length of time, for the purpose 
 of defending important positions and 
 cities, dockyards, arsenals, etc. Tem- 
 porary fortifications are such as are de- 
 signed merely to throw temporary ob- 
 stacles in the way of the enemy, as field- 
 works, etc. The former are constructed 
 on the principle that each part must be 
 its fire support and be supported by 
 some other part; that the works must 
 protect the defenders from the enemy’s 
 fire as well as possible, wnd that the fire 
 of the fortress must completely sweep 
 all parts of the ground in front of the 
 fortified lines. The more important de- 
 tails of a regular fortification may be 
 briefly described as under: Around the 
 place to be defended is raised a mound or 
 bank of earth called a rampart, on the 
 upper surface of which, the terre-pleine 
 
 (a) , the troops and cannon are placed. 
 The terre-pleine is protected from the 
 enemy’s fire by a breastwork or parapet 
 
 (b) , about 8 feet high, sometimes pierced 
 at certain intervals with embrasures 
 through which the guns are fired. Be- 
 yond the rampart is the ditch, usually 
 about 12 feet in depth, but varying 
 greatly in width. The ditch is sometimes 
 filled with water; in other cases it is dry. 
 The scarp or escarp (c) is the inner wall 
 of the ditch, and it is faced with mason- 
 work or hurdles, sods, etc. (the revet- 
 ment) to retain the earth of the rampart 
 in its place. The counterscarp (d) is the 
 opposite or outer wall of the ditch. 
 From the top of the counterscarp out- 
 wards is a space about 30 feet wide (the 
 covered-way, (e) protected by a parapet, 
 the long superior outward slope of which 
 towards the open ground forms the 
 glacis. The use of the covered-way is to 
 allow the troops to be drawn up on it un- 
 seen by the besiegers for the purpose of 
 making a sortie; it also enables the de- 
 fenders to keep up a closer fire on the 
 attacking forces. The slope of the glacis 
 is so constructed as to bring the assail- 
 ants in the direct line of fire from the 
 
 defense. The general plan of the works 
 is polygonal, with the ramparts placed 
 on the sides of the polygon. The con- 
 necting line of fortifications surrounding 
 a place is called the fortified enciente, 
 and the works in a regular fortress form 
 a very complicated whole, including 
 works to which such names as ravelins, 
 demi-lunes, etc., are given. The fortified 
 enceinte immediately surrounding a 
 place is not n^w considered a sufficient 
 defense, on account mainly of the long 
 range of modern cannon. Hence it is 
 usual to surround a fortress with a line 
 of detached forts at some distance from 
 the enceinte, or there may be more than 
 one such line of advanced works. Forti- 
 fications intended to ward off attacks 
 by sea have their sea-faces now com- 
 monly protected by plates of iron or 
 steel. Scientific fortification piay be said 
 to commence .with the great French 
 engineer Vauban, who served under 
 Louis XIV. He developed the bastioned 
 system, which, as improved by Cor- 
 montaigne and others, is still the pre- 
 vailing type of French fortification. 
 
 Field Fortifications vary much ac- 
 cording to the time allowed for construc- 
 tion, and during which they may prove 
 useful. Among works of this nature are 
 the redan, which consists of two parapets 
 with a ditch in front, forming an angle 
 facing the enemy; the lunette, which is a 
 redan with short flanks; the redoubt, a 
 closed work with a ditch and parapet 
 all round. As none of those works has a 
 flanking fire in itself, they have to be 
 disposed so that they flank each other 
 within rifle range. To do this effectually, 
 and to strengthen the whole line, the 
 plan generally adopted is to form an in- 
 trenched camp by a line of square re- 
 doubts, flanking each other, and also a 
 line of simple redans in front of the inter- 
 vals of the redoubts. When the time is 
 not sufficient to throw up such works, 
 simple forms of intrenchment, such as 
 shelter trenches, are used to shelter 
 troops or oppose the enemy’s advance. 
 A very shallow trench, with the earth 
 thrown to the front, so as to afford shel- 
 
FORTISSIMO 
 
 FOURIER 
 
 ter to one man lying in it, may be made 
 in somewhat less than half an hour; 
 more elaborate forms in about one hour. 
 So that by placing a man at every 4 feet, 
 active troops can make good shelter for 
 themselves in an hour. To impede the 
 enemy’s advance an abattis of felled 
 trees may be used^ also wire entangle- 
 ments, chevaux-de-frise, etc. 
 
 FORTIS'SIMO (Ital.), in music, a 
 direction to sing wjth the utmost strength 
 or loudness. 
 
 FORTU'NA, the Roman goddess of 
 success, corresponding to the Greek 
 Tyche. She is generally delineated with 
 a rudder, emblem of her guiding power; 
 or later, with a bandage over her eyes 
 and a scepter in her hand, and sitting or 
 standing on a wheel or globe. 
 
 FORTUNA'TUS, the hero of an old 
 popular legend. He obtained a wishing- 
 cap and inexhaustible purse of gold, 
 which finally ruined him and his sons. 
 The first printed edition of the story ap- 
 peared in Germany in 1509, but in vari- 
 ous forms it has appeared in most of the 
 languages of Europe. 
 
 FORT WAYNE, a flourishing city in 
 Indiana, situated in a beautiful and well- 
 cultivated country at the junction of the 
 St. Mary’s and St. Joseph’s rivers, which 
 here unite to form the Maumee. It has 
 railroad and machine works, and derives 
 its name from a fort erected here-in 1794 
 by General Wayne. It is the seat of a 
 Roman Catholic episcopal see. Pop. 
 1909 estimated 65,000. 
 
 FORT WORTH, an important railway 
 center, the county seat of Tarrant co., 
 'Tex. ; situated on Trinity river, 32 miles 
 w. of Dallas and 210 miles n. of Austin. 
 Among industrial establishments' are 
 grain elevators, flouring-mills, iron 
 foundries, car-works, shops of the Fort 
 Worth and Denver, the Texas and 
 Pacific, and the Rio Grande Railways, 
 large stock-yards, and one of the largest 
 packing-houses in the Western U. States. 
 Pop. 31,490. 
 
 FORUM, among the Romans, any 
 open place where the markets and courts 
 of justice were held. There were a num- 
 ber of such places in Rome, by far the 
 most celebrated being the great Roman 
 forum between Mount Palatine and the 
 Capitoline Hill. This place, once adorned 
 with the most beautiful statues and 
 buildings, had become almost a waste 
 known as the Campo Vaccino, or cattle- 
 field, but of late years the government 
 have made clearances and excavations, 
 and taken charge of the valuable relics 
 which are still left. — In legal phrase 
 forum signifies the court or place where 
 an action is instituted. 
 
 FOSS, or FOSSE, in fortification, a 
 trench or ditch, often full of water, be- 
 low the rampart of a fortified place,' or a 
 post that is to be defended. See Fortifi- 
 cation. 
 
 FOSSIL, a term for the petrified forms 
 of plants and animals which occur in the 
 strata that compose the surface of our 
 globe. Most of these fossil species, many 
 of the genera, and some of the families, 
 are extinct. When these remains are 
 only partially fossilized, and occur in 
 superficial or recent deposits, the term 
 sub-fossil is employed. See Geology and 
 Palaeontology. 
 
 FOSTER, Birket, an English artist, 
 born at North Shieldsin 1825. He learned 
 wood-engraving under Landells, and in 
 early life became a draughtsman. He 
 soon achieved a high reputation as book 
 illustrator, and illustrated the works of 
 Goldsmith, Scott, Longfellow, Beattie, 
 etc. His landscape drawings on wood are 
 of great- excellence. He afterwards de- 
 voted himself to water-color painting, in 
 which his reproductions of rustic life 
 were very successful. He died in 1899. 
 
 FOSTER, Charles, American politician 
 and secretary of the treasury. He was 
 born in 1828 near Tiffin, Ohio. During 
 the Civil War he actively aided in *the 
 recruiting and equipment of the Ohio 
 troops. It was not until 1870 that he 
 entered political life. In that year he 
 was nominated by the republicans of his 
 district for congress, and was elected. 
 He was reelected in 1872, 1874, and 
 1876. In 1879 he was nominated for 
 governor of Ohio, and in 1881, was re- 
 elected, serving until January 1, 1884. 
 In 1889 Foster was appointed by Presi- 
 dent Harrison chairman of a commission 
 to draw up a treaty with the Sioux 
 Indians. In February, 1891, he suc- 
 ceeded William Windom as secretary of 
 the treasury in Harrison’s cabinet. He 
 died in 1904. 
 
 FOSTER, John Watson, American dip- 
 lomat, born in Pike co., Ind., in 1836. At 
 the beginning of the Civil War he entered 
 the Union service as^a major of volun- 
 teers, and after attaining the rank of 
 colonel headed a brigade in General 
 Burnside’s expedition to East Tennessee 
 and was the first to occupy Knoxville 
 (1863). During the Bering Sea contro- 
 versy he acted as agent of the United 
 States before the arbitration tribunal. 
 He succeeded to the secretaryship of 
 state (1892-93). Later he was legal ad- 
 viser to the Chinese plenipotentiaries in 
 their peace negotiations with Japan 
 (1895); again represented the United 
 States in the Bering Seai-question (1897) ; 
 and in 1898 was a member of the Anglo- 
 American joint high commission to settle 
 the disputes between Canada and the 
 United States. 
 
 FOSTER, Stephen Collins, Amer- 
 ican song composer, born in 1836 
 at Lawrenceville, near Pittsburg, Pa. 
 Many of his songs, the first of which, 
 “Open Thy Lattice, Love,” was pub- 
 lished in 1842, have become so popular 
 that they may be regarded as veritable 
 folk-songs; “Louisiana Belle,” “Old 
 Uncle Ned,” “My Old Kentucky Home,” 
 “Massa’s in the Cold, Cold Ground,” 
 “Ellen Boyne,” “Old Folks at Home” 
 (“Down on the Suwanee River”), “Come 
 Where My Love Lies Dreaming,” are 
 some of the most popular of Foster’s 175 
 published songs. He died in New York 
 in 1864. 
 
 FOUCHE (fo-sha), Joseph, Duke of 
 Otranto, a minister of Napoleon I., was 
 born in 1763. On the fall of Robespierre 
 (1794), Fouch6, who had for some time 
 tended towards the moderate party, 
 managed to make friends with Barras, 
 and was rewarded for his betrayal by 
 the ambassadorship to Milan. He was 
 minister of police at Napoleon’s final ab- 
 dication and played ah important part 
 in the arrangements. He remained in 
 office under Louis XVIII. for a time, but 
 
 the dislike of the royalist party at length 
 forced him to resign (1815). He went as 
 ambassador to Dresden, but afterward 
 retired to Prague, and latterly to Trieste, 
 where he died Dec. 25, 1820. 
 
 FOUNDATION, that part of a build- 
 ing which is under ground, or the portion 
 of the ground on which walls, piers, etc., 
 rest. Foundations are usually made by 
 providing a hard impermeable base for 
 the masonry by methods which vary ac- 
 cording to the position and soil. Where 
 there is rock below nothing more is 
 needed than a dressing for the surface. 
 Submerged foundations such as those 
 for breakwaters, bridges, etc., form 
 special cases for engineering. 
 
 FOUNDATION, a donation or legacy, 
 in money or lands, for the maintenance 
 or support of some useful charitable in- 
 stitution, as an hospital, a college, a 
 school, etc. 
 
 FOUNDLING HOSPITALS, institu- 
 tions for receiving children abandoned 
 by their parents and found by strangers. 
 Among such institutions are that of 
 Paris, institued in 1670, and that of 
 London in 1739. The latter was original- 
 ly a hospital for all exposed children; 
 but the enormous increase in abandon- 
 ments caused the hospital to be changed 
 in 1760 to one for poor illegitimate chil- 
 dren whose mothers are known. 
 
 FOUNT, or FONT, among printers, 
 etc., a quantity of types, in proportions 
 sorted for use, that includes ordinary 
 letters, large and small capitals, single 
 letters, double letters, points, commas, 
 lines', numerals^' etc. ; as a fount of Pica, 
 Bourgeois, etc, 
 
 FOUNTAIN, or ARTIFICIAL FOUN- 
 TAIN, a contrivance by which water is 
 made to spout from an artificial channel, 
 and often to rise up to a gr«i,t height in a 
 jet or jets. Rome, in particjplar, is noted 
 for its fountains. At Paris, also, the 
 fountains of the Place de la Concorde, 
 the Tuileries, and at Versailles, are splen- 
 did structures. 
 
 FOURIER (fo-ri-a), Fran9ois Marie 
 Charles, a French socialist and founder 
 of the system named i4fter him, was born 
 in 1772 at Besancon. He died Oct 10, 
 1837. In his social system Fourier holds 
 that the operations of industry should be 
 carried on by Phalansteries, or associa- 
 tions of 1800 members combining their 
 labor on a district of about a square 
 league in extent, under the control of 
 governors elected by each community. 
 In the distribution a certain minimum 
 is first assigned for the subsistence ot 
 every member of the society, whether 
 capable or not of labor. The remainder 
 of the produce is shared in certain pro- 
 portions to be previously determined 
 among the three elements, labor, capital, 
 and talent. The capital of the community 
 may be owned in unequal shares by 
 different members, who would in that 
 case receive, as in any other joint-stock 
 concern, proportional dividends. The 
 claim of each person on the share of the 
 produce apportioned to talent is esti- 
 mated by the grade which the individual 
 occupies in the several groups of laborers 
 to which he or she belongs, these grades 
 being in every case conferred by the 
 voice of his or her companions. The re- 
 muneration received would not of neces- 
 sity be expended in common. Separate 
 
t-OURTH 
 
 FOXE 
 
 rooms or sets of rooms would be set aside 
 for those who applied for them, no other 
 system of living together being con- 
 templated than such as would effect a 
 saving of. labor in building and the pro- 
 cesses of domestic life, and reducing the 
 enormous portion of the produce of 
 industry at present carried off by middle- 
 men and distributing traders to the nar- 
 rowest possible margin. 
 
 FOURTH, in music, a distance com- 
 prising three diatonic intervals, or two 
 tones and a half. Three full tones com- 
 pose a tritone or fourth redundant. The 
 diminished fourth consists of a whole 
 tone and two semi-tones. 
 
 FOWL, a word originally synonsunous 
 with bird, now used in a stricter sense to 
 designate the common domestic fowl. 
 The general form and characters of 
 the bill, etc., agree with those of the 
 pheasants, but the crown of the head is 
 generally naked and furnished with a 
 fleshy comb, the base of the lower man- 
 dibles also bearing fleshy lobes or wattles 
 — ehai’acters which are most conspicuous 
 in the males. The legs of the male are 
 furnished with spurs which are much 
 used in conflict, the cocks being very 
 pugnacious and unable to suffer the 
 presence of a rival. In the center of the 
 cock’s tall are two long feathers, which 
 fall backward in a graceful arch and 
 add great beauty to the whole aspect of 
 the fowl. Except in the pure white breed 
 the plumage of the cock is always more 
 splendid than that of the hen. Among 
 well-known varieties are the Cochin- 
 China Fowl, the Game Fowl, the Dark- 
 ing, the Spanish Fowl, and the Bantam. 
 
 FOWLER, Orson Squire, American 
 phrenologist, was born in Coshocton, N. Y. 
 in 1809. After graduating he settled in 
 New York, where he began writing and 
 lecturing on phrenology. In 1836 he 
 published his first book. Phrenology 
 Proved, Illustrated, and Applied, and in 
 1838 founded the American Phrenologi- 
 cal Journal. He was the founder of prac- 
 tical phrenology in the United States. 
 Among his numerous published works 
 are; Memory and Intellectual Improve- 
 ment; Matrimony, or Phrenology Ap- 
 plied to the Selection of Companions; 
 Love and Parentage; The Self-Instructor 
 in Phrenology and Physiology; Sexual 
 Science. He died in 1887. 
 
 FOX, an animal closely allied to the 
 dog, with a straight bushy tail, elongated 
 pupils, and erect ears. Foxes are natives 
 
 Red fox. 
 
 of almost every quarter of the globe, 
 and are everywhere among the most saga- 
 cious and wily of all beasts of prey, very 
 
 voracious, devouring birds and small 
 quadrupeds, and committing ravages 
 not only on animals, but on fruits, 
 honey, eggs, etc. The common fox 
 of America is well known. Among 
 other species there are the Arctic fox 
 celebrated for its glossy white winter 
 fur; the black fox, similar to the common 
 fox, but distinguishable by its rich, shin- 
 ing black fur, a native of the northern 
 parts of Asia and America; the gkay fox 
 has a thick tail containing at its tip a 
 tuft of stiff hairs, common through the 
 northern parts of America; the red fox 
 of America, generally of a pale-yellow 
 hue;*the crossed fox, fur a sort of gray, 
 muzzle and lower parts of body black, a 
 dark cross on the shoulders; the swift 
 fox, an inhabitant of the plains which lie 
 at the base of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 FOX, Charles James, an eminent Eng- 
 lish statesman, born January 24, 1749, 
 the second son of Henry, first Lord Hol- 
 
 Charles James Fox. 
 
 land. His father procured hirn a seat for 
 the borough of Midhurst in 1768, before 
 he was of legal age, and in 1770 he was 
 appointed one of the lords of the ad- 
 miralty, which situation he resigned in 
 1772, and was appointed a commissioner 
 of the treasury. After being a supporter 
 of the administration for six years, a 
 quarrel with Lord North threw Fox into 
 the ranks of the whig opposition, where 
 along with Burke and others, he steadily 
 assailed the government, especially on 
 the score of their American policy. In 
 1780 he was elected member for West- 
 minster, and on the defeat of the admin- 
 istration of Lord North, and the acces- 
 sion of that of the Marquis of Rocking- 
 ham, he obtained the office of secretary 
 of state for foreign affairs (1782). But 
 the death of the Marquis of Rocking- 
 ham suddenly divided the party; and 
 when the Earl of Shelburne became first 
 lord of the treasury Fox retired. Soon 
 after a union took place between his 
 friends and those of Lord North, known 
 as the coalition ministry, which was 
 overthrown by Fox’s famous East India 
 Bill (1783). He welcomed the breaking 
 out of the French revolution, and his 
 views on this subject led to a memorable 
 break between him and his old friend 
 Burke. Fox firmly opposed the principle 
 on which the war against France was be- 
 gun, and strenuously argued for peace 
 on every occasion; but eventually, on 
 becoming secretary for foreign affairs in 
 1806, acquiesced in its propriety. His 
 
 health, which had been impaired by his 
 loose manner of living, now began 
 rapidly to decline, and he died the same 
 year a few months after the death of 
 Pitt, his great rival, in 1806. 
 
 FOX, George, the founder of the 
 Society of Friends, or Quakers, was 
 born at Drayton, in Leicestershire, in 
 1624. He was educated religiously, and 
 at the age of nineteen pursuaded himself 
 that he had received a divine command 
 to forsake everything else and devote 
 himself wholly to religion. In 1648 he 
 commenced to preach publicly at Man- 
 chester, gbout which time he also 
 adopted the peculiar language and man- 
 ners of Quakerism. At Derby his fol- 
 lowers were first denominated Quakers, 
 in consequence of their trembling mode 
 of delivery, and calls on the magistracy 
 to tremble before the Lord. In 1655 he 
 Was sent a prisoner to Cromwell, who, 
 having ascertained the pacific tendency 
 of his doctrines, had him set at liberty. 
 In 1666 he set about forming the people 
 who had followed his doctrines into a 
 formal and united society. In 1669 he 
 married the widow of Judge Fell, and 
 soon after went to America, where he 
 remained two years, which he employed 
 in making proselytes. On his return he 
 was thrown into Worcester jail, but was. 
 quickly released, and went to Holland.. 
 In 1684 he again visited the continent. 
 He died in 1691, the Society of Friends: 
 having by that time acquired consider- 
 able importance. The writings of Fox 
 have been collected into three volumes. 
 
 FOX, George L., American comedian, 
 born in Boston in 1825. Inspired by the 
 famous Ravel Brothers to undertake 
 pantomime, he created a distinct place 
 for that kind of entertainment in New 
 York City, first at the National Theater 
 and later at the New Bowery, of which 
 he was for a time lessee and manager. 
 His principal role was that of the clown 
 in Humpty Dumpty, and no one has 
 ever equaled him in this character, 
 which he may be said to have created. 
 He was scarcely less distinguished in his 
 burlesques on the famous tragedians of 
 the day, and his resemblance to Booth 
 in the character of Hamlet was remark- 
 able. He died in 1877. 
 
 FOX-BATS, or FLYING-FOXES, a 
 name given to the fruit-eating bats in- 
 cluding some of the largest oif the bat 
 tribe, one species, or kalong, attaining 
 a length of from 4 to 5 feet from the tip 
 of one wing to the tip of the other. 
 They inhabit Australia, Java, Sumatra, 
 Borneo, etc., as well as the continents 
 of Asia and Africa. 
 
 FOXE, John, an English church his- 
 torian, born in 1517. He studied at 
 Oxford, and was elected a fellow of 
 Magdalen in 1543, from which he was 
 expelled two years later on a charge of 
 heresy. In the reign of Edward VI. he 
 was restored to his fellowship, but dur- 
 ing Mary’s reign again went abroad, to 
 Basel. On the accession of Elizabeth he 
 returned to his native country, and was 
 received in the most friendly manner by 
 his former pupil, the Duke of Norfolk, 
 who settled a pension on him. Secretary 
 Cecil also obtained for him a prebend 
 in the church of Salisbury ; and he might 
 have received much higher preferment 
 if he would have subscribed to the 
 
FOXGLOVE 
 
 PRANCE 
 
 articles enforced by the ecclesiastical 
 commissioners. He died in 1587. His 
 principal work is the History of the Acts 
 and Monuments of the Church, com- 
 monly called Foxe’s Book of Martyrs, 
 first printed in 1563, in one vol. folio. 
 
 FOX'GLOVE, a common plant grow- 
 ing on banks, pastures, etc., in hilly and 
 especially subalpine and rocky countries 
 in Europe. Its flowers are campanulate, 
 and somewhat resembling the finger of 
 a glove. It is one of the most stately 
 and beautiful of the herbaceous plants, 
 and one that has great reputation as a 
 medicinal plant, being employed as a 
 sedative, narcotic, and diuretic in dis- 
 eases of the heart and in dropsy. Its 
 medicinal properties are due to the 
 poisonous substance known as digitalin. 
 A decoction or infusion of the leaves is 
 what is generally used. 
 
 FOXHOUND, a hound for chasing 
 foxes, a variety of hound in which are 
 combined, in the highest degree of ex- 
 cellence, fleetness, strength, spirit, fine 
 scent, perseverance, and subordination. 
 The foxhound is smaller than the stag- 
 hound, its average height being from 
 20 to 22 inches. It is supposed to be a 
 mixed breed between the staghound or 
 the bloodhound and the greyhound. It- 
 is commonly of a white color with patches 
 of black and tan. 
 
 FOX INDIANS, a tribe of N. American 
 Indians, belonging to the Algonquin 
 family, now few in numbers and scat- 
 tered over the Indian territories, Iowa, 
 Kansas, and Nebraska. ■ 
 
 FOXTAIL-GRASS, the common name 
 given to certain grasses because of the 
 close cylindrical panicle in which the 
 spikelets of flowers are arranged, having 
 somewhat the shape of a fox’s tail. 
 
 FOY (fwa), Maximilian Sebastian, a 
 French general, born in 1775. In 1812, 
 after the defeat of the French at Sala- 
 manca, he succeeded Marmont as com- 
 mander-in-chief, and showed much 
 talent in his conduct of the operations 
 on the Douro. He was present in all the 
 battles of the Pyrenees, until he was 
 dangerously wounded at Orthez in 1814. 
 In 1815 he commanded a division at 
 Waterloo, where he was wounded for 
 the fifteenth time. In 1819 he was ap- 
 pointed division-inspector of infantry, 
 and the same year was elected deputy 
 by the department of the Aisne. He at 
 once distinguished himself as one of the 
 leading orators of the liberal party and 
 became very popular. He died at Paris, 
 Nov. 28, 1825. 
 
 FRA, an Italian prefix, derived from 
 th? word frate, brother, and used before 
 the names of monks; for instance. Fra 
 Giovanni, brother John. 
 
 FRACTION, in arithmetic and algebra 
 a combination of numbers representing 
 one or more parts of a unit or integer, 
 thus, four-fifths | is a fraction formea 
 by dividing a unit into five equal Mrts, 
 and taking one part four times. Frac- 
 tions are divided into vulgar and deci- 
 mal. Vulgar fractions are expressed by 
 two numbers, one above another, with 
 a line between them. T^a^lower, the 
 denominator, indicates into how many 
 equal parts the unit is divided; and the 
 number above the line, called the nu- 
 merator, indicates how many of such 
 parts are taken. A proper fraction is one 
 
 whose nuftierator is less than its de- 
 nominator. An improper fraction is one 
 whose numerator is not less than its de- 
 nominator, as f, |. A simple fraction 
 expresses one or more of the equal parts 
 into which the unit is divided, without 
 reference to any other fraction. A com- 
 pound fraction expresses one or more 
 of the equal parts into which another 
 fraction or a mixed number'is divided. 
 Compound fractions have the word of 
 interposed between the simple fractions 
 of which they are composed: thus, ^ of 
 6 of 1 1 is a compound fraction. A com- 
 plex fraction is that which has a 
 fraction either in its numerator or de- 
 nominator, or in each of them: thus, 
 
 and ~ are complex fractions. In 
 
 decimal fractions the denominator is 10, 
 or some number produced by the con- 
 tinued multiplication of 10 as a factor, 
 such as 100, 1000, etc.; hence, there is 
 no necessity for writing the denominator, 
 and the fraction is usually expressed by 
 putting a point (') before the numerator, 
 as ’5 = -nr ; ‘25 = '05 = The ex- 
 
 pression 542'461 would thus be equiva- 
 lent to 542^Vtr- All calculations are 
 much simplified in decimal fractions; 
 yet, simple as the system is, it was dis- 
 covered first in the 15th century by the 
 German mathematician Regiomontanus. 
 
 FRACTURE, in mineralogy, is the 
 manner in which a mineral breaks, and 
 by which its texture is displayed; thus, 
 an even fracture shows a level face or 
 plane of some extent; uneven, when the 
 surface is rough and broken ; conchoidal, 
 when one side is convex and the other 
 concave, as in a molluscous shell; fib- 
 rous, when the separated edges have 
 the appearance of torn filaments ; hackly 
 when there are many fine sharp points 
 or inequalities. 
 
 FRACTURE, in surgery, is the break- 
 ing of a bone. It is simple when the 
 bone is only divided; compound when 
 there is also a wnund of the soft parts 
 leading down to the fracture. A fracture 
 is termed transverse, longitudinal, or 
 oblique according to its direction in re- 
 garmto the axis of the bone. It is called 
 complicated if accompanied with dis- 
 location, severe contusions, wounded 
 blood-vessels, or aaiy disease which pre- 
 vents the union of the bones and causes 
 them to be very easily broken. A com- 
 minuted fracture is one in which the bone 
 is broken into several small pieces at the 
 point of rupture. An incomplete frac- 
 ture is one in which only a portion of the 
 fibers is broken. A stellate fracture is a 
 series of fractures radiating from a cen- 
 ter. When a fracture takes place there is 
 a pouring out of fluid — lymph — and 
 cells from the blood contained in the 
 vessels of the lining membrane of the 
 bone as well as from the vessels of the 
 soft parts which have also suflered in- 
 jury. This materigtl surrounds the 
 broken ends of the bone, becomes firm 
 and consolidated, and in about three 
 weeks is hard enough to keep the broken 
 ends in position. A formation of bone 
 then takes place round the seat of frac- 
 ture. This is called “provisional callus,” 
 because, when the process of repair is 
 completed and true none has formed to 
 unite the break, it is re-absorbed and 
 ' gradually disappears. Meanwhile a 
 
 rocess of repair goes on between the 
 roken ends, uniting them by the for- 
 mation of true bone or “definite callus.” 
 The more quickly and accurately after 
 the break the broken ends are brought 
 together, the more rapid will be the 
 reunion. The treatment of a simple 
 fractured bone is to bring the portions 
 into Hieir natural position and to keep 
 them 'permanently thus, by splints of 
 some kind, pasteboard splints, for in- 
 stance, dipped in warm water, with 
 wooden ones exterior to them; or a mass 
 of plaster of Paris may be used for the 
 same purpose. 
 
 FRA DIAV'OLO, a celebrated Nea- 
 politan brigand, whose real name was 
 Michele Pezza. 
 
 FRANC, a modern French silver coin, 
 but the name was given to two ancient 
 coins in France, one of gold and the 
 other of silver. The value of the gold 
 franc was about $2.75. The silver franc 
 was in value a third of the gold one. 
 The name was given from the device 
 Francorum Rex, king of the French, on 
 the coin when first struck by King John 
 in 1360. The modern French franc is a 
 silver coin and money of account which 
 since 1795 has formed the unit of the 
 French monetary system, and has also 
 been adopted as the unit of currency by 
 Switzerland and Belgium. It is of the 
 value of a little over 19 cents, and is 
 divided into 100 centimes. 
 
 FRANCE (anciently Gallia), a mari- 
 time country in .the west of Europe, 
 forming one of its most .extensive, most 
 populous, and most influential states. 
 It is situated between lat. 42° 20' and 
 51° 5' n. ; and Ion. 4° 50' w. and 7° 40' e., 
 and is bounded n. by the Straits of 
 Dover and the English Channel; w. by 
 the Atlantic (Bay of Biscay) ; s. bj^ Spain 
 and the Mediterranean Sea; e. and n.e. 
 by Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and 
 Belgium. Its greatest length from north 
 to south is 600 miles, and its greatest 
 breadth 547 miles. The coast-line on the 
 whole is considerably diversified by 
 bays, estuaries, and indentations of 
 various kinds, and presents numerous 
 good harbors and roadsteads. It is 
 studded by a number of islands, espe- 
 cially in the northwest and west, the 
 largest being Oleron, Re, and Belle Isle. 
 The total area (including Corsica) is 
 204,092 sq. miles. The capital is Paris; 
 the other large towns in order of popula- 
 tion are Lyons, Marseilles, Bordeaux, 
 Lille, Toulouse, Nantes, St. Etienne, 
 Havre. The interior is traversed from 
 southwest to northeast by successive 
 chains of mountains, commencing with 
 the Pyrenees andincludingthe Cevenness, 
 the Cote d’Or, the Vosges, and others, 
 forming the water-shed, on one side of 
 which the rivers flow west and north into 
 the Atlantic and the English Channel, 
 on the other side east and south into the 
 Mediterranean. At fits northeastern ex- 
 tremity this system is met by the Alps 
 and the Jura. A considerable portion 
 of the "W^estern Alps belongs to south- 
 eastern France. Mt. Blanc itself (15,781 
 feet) is mostly within the French bound- 
 ary-line. 
 
 The four great rivers of France are the 
 Loire, Seine, Rhone, and Garonne. 
 France has in all more than 200 naviga- 
 ble streams, with a total navigation of 
 
FRANCE 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 about 6000 miles. Lakes are few, and 
 individually very limited in extent. 
 
 About nine-tenths of the soil of France 
 is productive, and about one-half of the 
 whole is under the plough. The cereals 
 forming the great bulk of the cultivated 
 crops are wheat, oats, rye, and barley. 
 The crops next in importance to these 
 are potatoes, hemp, rape, corn, buck- 
 wheat, flax, and beet. Beet iS culti- 
 vated extensively in some departments, 
 especially in that of Nord, for the 
 manufacture of sugar. The cultiva- 
 tion of tobacco is monopolized by the 
 government, and is confined to certain 
 departments. The rearing of sheep is 
 successfuj, much of the wool being 
 scarcely inferior to merino wool. Excel- 
 lent horses are bred in the north. Asses 
 and mules, generally of a superior de- 
 scription, are much employed. The culti^ 
 vation of the vine is one of the most im- 
 portant branches of French agriculture, 
 the total quantity of land in vineyards 
 being nearly a twenty-fifth of the whole 
 surface. In everything relating to this 
 branch of culture the French are unsur- 
 passed, the various first-class wines 
 which they produce under the names of 
 Champagne, Burgundy, Bordeaux, etc., 
 being universally known. It is estimated 
 that in good years France produces 
 about one-half of the whole wine pro- 
 duction of the world. The forests occupy 
 about one-seventh of the whole territory. 
 
 Coal-fields are numerous, but only 
 two are really of importance — that of 
 Valenciennes in the northeast, forming 
 the western extremity of the great Bel- 
 gian coal-field and that of St. Etienne 
 in the southeast, to which the manufac- 
 tures of that town, Lyons, and the sur- 
 rounding districts, are indebted for 
 much of their prosperity. The annual 
 output falls so far short of the annual 
 consumption that a large import takes 
 place from England and Belgium, par- 
 ticularly the latter, and wood continues 
 to be the common fuel throughout 
 France, at least for domestic purposes. 
 The coal-fields contain seams of iron, 
 which are extensively worked, and fur- 
 nish ore to a great number of blast- 
 furnaces; but of the total amount of ore 
 smelted in the country a considerable 
 proportion is imported. Other metals, 
 such as lead, zinc, manganese, copper, 
 etc., are obtained to some extent. 
 
 The most important of the textile 
 manufactures is that of silk goods, hav- 
 ing its chief seat at Lyons and the sur- 
 rounding districts. It employs about 
 two millions of persons, and furnishes 
 about 27 per cent in value of the whole 
 of the manufactured products of France. 
 After silk goods, though at a consider- 
 able distance, follow cotton stuffs and 
 woolens, made largely at Rheims, 
 Amiens, and Beauvais; carpets at Abbe- 
 ville; tapestry at Paris and Beauvais; 
 linens, including fine muslin, gauze, and 
 lace at St. Quentin, etc. The fisheries 
 of France are important. Among the 
 principal is that of sardines on the coast 
 of the Bay of Biscay; that of herring, 
 maclserel, turbot, salmon, etc., in the 
 English Channel and the North Sea; 
 that of tunnies and anchovies on the 
 coasts of the Mediterranean. Oyster- 
 breeding is largely engaged in, the most 
 extensive oyster-beds being those of the 
 
 basin of Arcachon in the department of 
 the Gironde. Cod-fishing is carried on 
 actively near the Newfoundland banks 
 by French fishermen, and also near Ice- 
 land. 
 
 The principal towns from which the 
 internal commerce emanates are Paris, 
 Lyons, Rouen, Lille, St. Etienne, Tou- 
 louse, Nimes, Nancy, Perpignan, etc. 
 The shipping of France is much below 
 what might be expected from the de- 
 velopment of its foreign commerce, 
 considerably more than one-half of 
 which is carried by foreign vessels. The 
 chief seaports are Marseilles, Havre, 
 Bordeaux, Rouen, Nantes (including St. 
 Nazaire), Dunkirk, Calais, Boulogne, 
 Dieppe. 
 
 France possesses about 3000 miles of 
 canals in addition to about 6000 miles 
 of navigable rivers, giving a total equal 
 to about 1 mile of internal navigation 
 for every 25 sq. miles of surface. The 
 railways in France partly belong to the 
 state, and partly have been granted to 
 private companies for a limited period, 
 at the end of which they become state 
 property. 
 
 In France the superintendence of 
 education in all its branches is expressly 
 committed to a high functionary, who 
 takes the name of minister of public 
 instruction and fine arts and is assisted 
 by an educational council. For a good 
 part of last century France had only one 
 university, the University of France, 
 embracing a series of “faculties” (fac- 
 ult^s), which were a sort of university 
 colleges, each specially devoted to litera- 
 ture, law, medicine, theology, etc. Since 
 1896 a number of local universities have 
 been formed from these institutions, and 
 university education is now in a flourish- 
 ing state. Paris has again a university 
 of her own, besides the College de France 
 Ecole Polytechniqne, Ecole Normale 
 Sup^rieure, etc. Secondary instruction, 
 either classical or commercial and in- 
 dustrial, is given by the state in the 
 lyceums, by the communes in the com- 
 munal colleges, or in certain other sem- 
 inaries. There are about 90 lyceums, 
 enerally situated in the capitals of the 
 epartments; and over 250 colleges. 
 Primary instruction is given in the com- 
 munal schools, being compulsory and 
 free. Religion, in like manner, is taken 
 under the cognizance of the state, and 
 falls within the province of the minister 
 of justice and religion. The state de- 
 clares that the Roman Catholic is the 
 religion of the majority, but does not 
 establish it ; on the contrary, it places all 
 forms of religion which have more than 
 100,000 adherents, and are not obviously 
 subversive of social order, on an equal 
 footing, and professes to deal impar- 
 tially with all by paying salaries t^neir 
 ministers. The Protestants are less than 
 2 Mr cent of the whole population. 
 
 By law military service is declared to 
 be obligatory upon every Frenchman 
 who is not pronounced unfit for military 
 service. They have to serve first in the 
 army (arm6e active) for three years, then 
 in the reserve of the regular army for 
 ten years, next in the territorial army 
 for six years, and finally in the reserve 
 of the territorial army for six years. 
 This gives France on a peace footing an 
 army of more than half a million, which 
 
 on a war footing may be brought up to 
 two and a half millions or even more. 
 The French navy is manned partly by 
 conscription and partly by voluntary 
 enrollment. In 1906 the effective war 
 navy of France included 47 heavy fight- 
 ing vessels, of which, however, some, 
 though launched, were not completed; 
 13 more were for coast service, besides 
 other iron-clads still on the stocks. 
 
 France has now a larger revenue, ex- 
 penditure' and public debt than any 
 other country in the world. The esti- 
 mate gross revenue for 1900 was fully 
 $710,000,000, the expenditure being 
 estimated at somewhat less. The con- 
 solidated debts amount to about $4,400,- 
 000,000, while the total national debt 
 is at least about $6,000,000,000. The 
 chief items of revenue are excise and 
 customs, registration, stamps, posts and 
 telegraphs, and other state monopolies, 
 land tax, licenses, etc. 
 
 France has been a republic since the 
 overthrow of the second empire on the 
 4th of September, 1870. The details of 
 the constitution were fixed by a law 
 passed by a national assembly which 
 met in 1871 (some revision having been 
 made since). This law places the legis- 
 lative authority in the hands of an 
 assembly composed of two chambers, 
 the chamber of deputies and the senate. 
 The chamber of deputies is elected by 
 universal suffrage, each arrondissement 
 forming an electoral district and a mem- 
 ber being elected for every 70,000- in- 
 habitants. The deputies are elected for 
 four years. The senate consists of 300 
 members, of whom 75 were originally 
 elected for life ; but in 1884 it was enacted 
 that vacancies among the Kfe senator- 
 ships should be filled up as they arose 
 by the election of ordinary nine-year 
 senators. Both senators and deputies 
 are paid. The head of the government is 
 a president, elected for seven years by 
 ar majority of votes of the members of 
 the two chambers sitting as one. The 
 president is assisted by a body of min- 
 isters appointed by him. He has the 
 appointment to all civil and military 
 po^ts. The total French dominions are 
 as follows: 
 
 Area in 
 
 Sq. Miles. Population. 
 
 France 207,054 39,118,995 
 
 Colonies 4,089,076 53,412,340 
 
 4,296,130 92,531,335 
 
 France or Gaul, at the earliest period 
 of which anything is known with regard 
 to it, was inhabited by a number of 
 independent tribes, who appear to have 
 been mainly Celtic in race. In the lal;J;er 
 half of the 2d century b.c. the Romans 
 conquered a portion of the southeast, 
 and under Julius Caesar the conquest of 
 all Gaul was completed between 58 and 
 51 B.c. In the decline -of the Roman 
 empire German tribes began to make 
 settlements in Gaul, and it was from a 
 body of these knovm as Franks, that the 
 name France arose. Toward the end of 
 the 5th century Clovis, chief of the 
 Salian Franks, made himself master 
 not only of almost all France, but also 
 of a considerable territory east of the 
 Rhine. The dynasty which he founded 
 was called the Merovingian from his 
 grandfather Merovaeus. Clovis died in 
 511, leaving his kingdom to be divided 
 among his four sons as subsequent rulers 
 
FRANCE 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 often did. It was reunited under Charle- 
 magne who became sole ruler, and con- 
 quered and organized an empire which 
 extended from the Atlantic on the west 
 to the Elbe, the Saale, and the Bohe- 
 mian mount ainsontheeast,andembraced 
 also three-fourths of Italy, and Spain as 
 far as the Ebro. By Pope Leo III. on 
 Cliristmas-day in the year 800 he .was 
 crowned in the name of the Roman peo- 
 ple as Emperor of the West. There was 
 as yet, strictly speaking, no kingdom 
 of France, and Charlemagne was a Ger- 
 man, and his empire a German one. 
 
 To Charlemagne succeeded in 814 
 his youngest son Louis the Pious. At 
 the death of the latter the-empire, after 
 many disputes, was eventually divided 
 by the Treaty of Verdun in 843 among his 
 sons, the portion nearly corresponding 
 to modern France falling to Charles the 
 Bald. From this time the separate his- 
 tory of France properly begins, the his- 
 tory of the French language being also 
 traced to the same period, while the 
 eastern portion of the old Frankish ter- 
 ritory remained German. The growth of 
 French nationality^’ began when upon 
 the extinction of the descendants of 
 Charlemagne, Hugh Capet, Duke of 
 France, who had held the real power 
 Under three weak kings, mounted the 
 throne himself, and thus became the 
 founder of the Capetian dynasty. The 
 Capets made Paris the center of the ^n^ew 
 monarchy. 
 
 The first task of the Capetian line was 
 to reconquer the royal prerogatives from 
 the great vahsals, but for two centuries 
 Xvithout much success until the growth 
 cf the towns ultimately became the 
 allies of the kings, as a powerful check 
 on the nobles. 
 
 Early in the 13th century the stability 
 of the French throne was endangered 
 by the influence acquired in France by 
 Henry II. of England, who possessed, 
 either by inheritance or by his marriage 
 with Eleanor of Aquitaine, the whole of 
 the west of France except Brittany. 
 Louis was succeeded by his son Philip 
 Augustus (Philip II.), who did much to 
 strengthen the throne, depriving John, 
 king of England, of Normandy, Maine, 
 and Anjou. Under the wise rule of Louis 
 lx. (St. Louis), and his successors, the . 
 influence of the crown went on increas- 
 ing until the outbreak of the wars with 
 England. 
 
 The first branch of the Capetian line 
 of kings became extinct on the death of 
 Charles IV., the last of the sons of Philip 
 the Fair, the Salic law excluding the 
 female succession. The crown thus fell 
 to Philip of Valois, a cousin, who be- 
 came king as Philip VI. His claim was 
 'disputed by Edward III. of England, 
 and the dispute led to a series of wars 
 wdiich were not terminated for more 
 than 120 jmars. During this period 
 France was reduced to a state of great 
 misery. Edward compelled the surrender 
 to England of some of the finest prov- 
 inces of France while the country was 
 plundered bj'’ banditti, and the Jac- 
 querie, a mass of furious peasants (about 
 1358), satiated their spirit of vengeance 
 in the blood of the nobility. Charles (V.) 
 the Wise, who succeeded John the Good 
 in 1364, and his constable, Du Guesclin, 
 were able to restore order only for a 
 
 short time, although during this reign 
 the English were driven out of most of 
 their possessions in France. Then came 
 the loiTg and unhappy reign of the im- 
 becile Charles VI. (1380-1422), during 
 which Henry V. of England, reviving 
 the claim of Edward III. to tlie French 
 crown, invaded France, won the field 
 of Agincourt, and obtained a treaty 
 (Treaty of Troye.s), acknowledged the 
 right of succession to the French crown 
 in himself and his descendants. Charles 
 VI. died in 1422, a few weeks after 
 Henry V., whose son, Henry VI., a 
 minor, was acknowledged as king by the 
 greater part of France. But between 
 1429 and 1431 the peasant girl Joan of 
 Arc animated the French in the cause 
 of the dauphin, who was crowned as 
 Charles VII. at Rheims in 1429, and in 
 1451 the English had lost all their pos- 
 sessions in France, e.xcept Calais, which 
 remained English until 1558. The 
 slircwdness and perfidy of Louis XI. 
 (1461-83) completed the subjugation 
 of the great barons, and laid the founda- 
 tion of absolute monarcJiy. 
 
 During the next hundred years five 
 wars were fought with Germany in 
 efforts to obtain territory. 
 
 The foundation of the national debt, 
 the weight of which broke down the 
 throne 250 years later, was laid in this 
 period. Intrigue and corruption gave to 
 women a dangerous infiuenee at court 
 and in public affairs, lender the admin- 
 istration of Charles IX. (conducted dur- 
 ing his minority by the queen-mother, 
 Catherine de’ Medici) France was inun- 
 dated with the blood of Frenchmen, shed 
 in the religious wars from 1562. (See 
 Bartholomew’s Day.) When Henry IV. 
 went over to the Catholic Church (1593), 
 having hitherto been the leader of the 
 Huguenots. 
 
 Henry IV. was the first Fi-enclj sov- 
 ereigrTof the house of Bourbon, which in- 
 herited its right to the throne from a son 
 of Louis IX. He united to the crown of 
 France the Kingdom of Navarre, which 
 
 he had inherited from ^his mother, 
 
 Jeanne d’ Albret. In his government of 
 France Henry showed all the qualities 
 of a great prince and a great statesman, 
 establishing religious toleration (Edict of 
 Nantes, 1598), and laboring diligently 
 for the welfare of the state. He was cut 
 off prematurely by the dagger of the 
 fanatic Ravaillac (1610). During the 
 minority of Henry’s son Louis XIII. the 
 French policy was at first wavering, 
 until the prime-minister. Cardinal Riche- 
 lieu, gave it a steady direction. Here- 
 stored the French influence in Italy and 
 the Netherlands, humbled Austria and 
 Spain, and created that domestic gov- 
 ernment which rendered the government 
 completely absolute. 
 
 Louis 'XIII. died in 1643, the year 
 after his great minister, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Louis XIV., “le Grand Monar- 
 que.” Th« policy of Richelieu was carried 
 on by Mazarin during the regency of 
 Anne of Austria, while Louis was still a 
 minor, and also for some years after 
 Louis was declared of age. During his 
 ministry France obtained by the Peace 
 of Westphalia (1648) the German prov- 
 ince of Alsace, and by the Peace of the 
 Pyrenees (1659) parts of Flanders, 
 Hainault, Luxembourg, etc. After the 
 
 death of Mazarin, in 1661, Louis XIV. 
 took the government into his own hands, 
 and ruled with an absolute sway. The 
 period which immediately followed was 
 the most brilliant in French history. His 
 ministers, especially Colbert, and his 
 generals, Tu^enne, Conde, Luxembourg, 
 and the military engineer Vauban, were 
 alike the greatest of their tim^ the 
 writers of the period were also ^nong 
 the greatest in French literature. But 
 Louis XIV.’s love of costly display upon 
 which his reputation was built involved 
 France in hopeless debt. Louis XV., the 
 grandson of Louis XIV., succeeded in 
 1715 at the age of five years. During his 
 minority the regent, the Duke of Orleans 
 squandered the revenues in the most 
 reckless manner, and matters went from 
 bad to worse. In 1723 Louis was de- 
 clared of age, but he sank under the 
 pernicious influences of mistresses like 
 Pompadour and DuBarry into extrav- 
 agance and license, entering into use- 
 less and costly wars and contracting 
 enormous debts. During this reign two 
 important acquisitions were made by 
 France, namely, Lorraine and Corsica. 
 
 With the reign of Louis XVI. began 
 the period of expiation for the misdeeds 
 of the French monarchy and aristocracy, 
 which had culminated in the preceding 
 reign. The king himself was amiable, 
 but the whole administration was rotten, 
 and the court, the nobility, and the 
 clergy formed only one privileged class 
 united to oppress the people. The good 
 intentions of Louis were neutralized by 
 a total lack of energy and firmness. The 
 first difficulty of his government, and 
 the rock on which it split, was the hope- 
 less condition of the public finances, with 
 which Turgot, Necker, Calonne, Brienne, 
 and again Necker tried in vain succes- 
 sively to grapple. Finding all ordinary 
 measures unavailing, Necker demanded 
 the ’convocation of the states general 
 which had not met since 1614. They 
 met on 5th May, 1789, but as the nobles 
 and clergy refused to conduct business 
 so as to give the third estate its due 
 weight, the deputies of this body as- 
 sumed the title of the national constit- 
 uent assembly, and resolved not to 
 separate till they had given a constitu- 
 tion to France. The clergy and nobles 
 then yielded, and the fusion of the 
 three orders was effected on 27th June. 
 Foreign troops, however, were broright 
 to Paris to overawe the assembly. 'The 
 people now demanded arms, which the 
 municipality of Paris supplied; and on 
 14th July .the bastille was captured and 
 destroyed. Lafayette was made eom- 
 mander of the newly -established national 
 guard. On the 4th August a decisive step 
 was taken by the abolition of all feudal 
 rights and privileges. On 5th October 
 Versailles was attacked by the mob, and 
 the royal family, virtually prisoners, 
 were taken to Paris by Lafayette. The 
 king tried to obtain the aid of some of 
 the foreign powers again.st his subjects, 
 and made his escape from Paeis (20th 
 June, 1791); but he was recognizecl, ar- 
 rested at Varennes, and brought back to 
 Paris. On 30th September, 1791, the as- 
 sembly brought its work to a finish by 
 producing a new constitution, which was 
 sworn to by the king on 14th September, 
 and he was then reinstated in his func- 
 
FRANCE 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 tions. This constitution deprived the 
 king of arbitrary powers, provided 
 liberty of worship and freedom of the 
 press, of commerce, of industry ; abolished 
 the laws of primogeniture and entail as 
 Well as titles. 
 
 The constitutionalists and monarch- 
 ists invoked the aid of the Emperor of 
 Germany and the King of Prussia, on 
 behalf of the king, and on 20th 
 April 1792, the assembly declared war 
 against Austria and Prussia. Reverses 
 to the French troops caused a popular 
 rising, and the Tuileries, after a sanguin- 
 ary combat, were taken and sacked. 
 The king took refuge with his family in 
 the assembly, which was invaded and 
 compelled to submit to the dictation of 
 the victors by assenting to the suspen- 
 sion of the king and the convocation of a 
 national convention in place of the 
 assembly. The first act of the conven- 
 tion was to proclaim a republic. On 3d 
 December the King was cited to appear 
 before it. On 20th January, 1793, he was 
 sentenced to death within twenty-four 
 hours, and on the 21st the sentence was 
 executed. This violent inauguration of 
 the republic shocked public opinion 
 throughout Europe, and armed the 
 neutral states against France. England, 
 Holland, and Spain joined the coalition. 
 The extremists in France only grew more 
 violent, a committee of public safety, 
 with sovereign authority, was appointed 
 6th April, and the reign of terror begun. 
 Christianity was formally abolished. 
 Risings against the government were 
 put down with frightful bloodshed. Both 
 in Paris and the provinces executions 
 and massacres of persons alleged to be 
 disaffected to the party in power fol- 
 lowed each other daily. The queen was 
 executed on 16th October, 1793, the 
 Girondists on 31st October, and others 
 followed, Robespierre being foremost in 
 the bloody work. At length the I'eign of 
 terror came to an end by the execution 
 of Robespierre and his associates on 
 27th and 28th July, 1794. Danton and 
 Hebert, Iris old allies, he had already 
 brought to the scaffold. Marat, another 
 man of blood, had perished by assassin- 
 ation. The campaigns of 1793 and 1794 
 resulted favorably to the French arms, 
 which were carried beyond the French 
 frontier, Belgium and Holland being 
 occupied, Spain being invaded, and the 
 allies being driven across the Rhine. 
 These successes induced Prussia and 
 Spain to sign the treaties of Basel (1795), 
 recognizing the French republic. In 
 1795 the convention gave the republic a 
 new constitution, a chamber of five 
 hundred to propose the laws, a cham- 
 ber of ancients to approve them, an 
 executive of five members, one elected 
 annually, called the directory. The 
 convention was dissolved on 26th 
 October. 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte now began to be 
 the most prominent figure in French 
 affairs; ana after his brilliant successes 
 against the Austrians both north and 
 south of the Alps, and his empty con- 
 quest of Egypt, it was not difficult for 
 him to overthrow the government of the 
 directory. This was accomplished in the 
 revolution 18th and 19th Brumaire (9th 
 10th Nov. 1799), the directory being 
 succeeded by the consulate, Bonaparte 
 
 himself being appointed first consul 
 for ten years. The other two consuls, 
 were to have consultative voices only. 
 Under the appearance of a republic it 
 really established a military monarchy. 
 The history of France for the next six- 
 teen years is virtually the history of 
 Napoleon. (See Napoleon I.) In 1802 the 
 constitution, was amended, Napoleon 
 being made consul for life, with the right 
 of appointing his successor. In 1804 he 
 was proclaimed emperor, this being con- 
 firmed by a popular vote of 3,572,329 
 against 2569. The emperor was^ conse- 
 crated at Paris by Pius VII., and in 1805 
 he was also crowned King of Italy. For 
 years the continental powers, whether 
 singly or in coalitions, were unable to 
 stand against him, though at sea France 
 was powerless after the great victory by 
 Nelson over the French and Spanish 
 fleets at Trafalgar (1805). The Austrians 
 and Russians were decisively defeated 
 at the great battle of Austerlitz (1805); 
 the king of Naples was dethroned and 
 Napoleon’s brother Joseph put in his 
 .place ;,another brother, Louis, was made 
 king of Holland; while for a third, 
 Jerome, the kingdom of Westphalia was 
 erected (1807). Prussia was conquered 
 and compelled to accede to humiliating 
 terms. Napoleon was at the height of 
 his power in 1810 and 1811, his empire 
 then extending from Denmark to 
 Naples, with capitals at Paris, Rome, 
 and Amsterdam. By this time, however, 
 the Peninsular War (see that art.) had 
 broken out, which was one immediate 
 cause of his downfall, the disastrous Rus- 
 sian campaign of 1812 being another. 
 The latter cost the French the loss of at 
 least 300,000 men. A new coalition was 
 now formed against Napoleon, and in 
 1813 he was disastrously defeated by the 
 allies at the great battle of Leipzig. By 
 this time the Peninsular war was drawing 
 to a close and Southern France w'as 
 actually invaded by Wellington. The 
 allies entered Paris on 31st March, 1814. 
 Napoleon abdicated and received the 
 island of Elba as a sovereign principality. 
 Louis XVIII. was proclaimed king of 
 France, and concluded the Peace of 
 Paris (May 30, 1814). A congress of the 
 great powers had assembled at Vienna 
 to adjust European affairs, when it was 
 announced that Napoleon had left Elba, 
 returned to Paris 20th March, 1 81 5, and 
 been reinstated without resistance in his 
 former authority. The allied sovereigns 
 proclaimed him an outlaw and renewed 
 their alliance against him. Napoleon, 
 anticipating the attack, crossed the 
 Sambre with 130,000 men, defeated 
 Bliicher in the battle of Ligny, and 
 marched against the British, who had 
 taken position at Waterloo. Here on the 
 18th was fought the decisive battle 
 which resulted in his final overthrow. 
 On the 7th July the allies entered Paris 
 for the second time. Napoleon surren- 
 dered to the British and was sent to St. 
 Helena as a prisoner. 
 
 Louis XVIII. at first governed with 
 the support of a moderate liberal party, 
 but the reactionary spirit of the aristo- 
 crats and returned toigres soon got the 
 upper hand; the country, however, was 
 prosperous. Louisbavingdied 16thSept., 
 1824, his brother, Charles X., succeeded. 
 On 26th July, 1830, the Polignac minis- 
 
 try, strongly reactionary in its tendencies 
 published ordinances suppressing the 
 liberty of the press and creating a new 
 system of elections. The result was an 
 insurrection during the three days 27th- 
 29th July by which Charles X. was over- 
 thrown and Louis Philippe of Orleans 
 proclaimed king 9th August, 1830. On 
 24th February, 1848, another revolution 
 drove Louis Philippe into exile. A re- 
 public was proclaimed, and on the 10th 
 December, 1848, Louis Napoleon, 
 nephew of the great Napoleon was elected 
 president for four years. The president, 
 having gained the favor of the army, 
 dissolved the legislative assembly on 2d 
 December, 1851, put down all resistance 
 in blood, and by this coup d’etat estab- 
 lished himself as president for the 
 term of ten years. On 2d December the 
 president W'as declared emperor under 
 the title of Napoleon III. (a son of the 
 great Napoleon being counted as Na- 
 poleon II.). In 1870 the uneasiness of 
 Napoleon and the French at the steady 
 aggrandizement of Prussia broke out 
 into flame at the offer of the Spanish 
 crown to a prince of the house of Hohen- 
 zollern. France, not satisfied with the 
 renunciation of the German prince, de- 
 manded a guarantee from the King of 
 Prussia that the candidature should 
 never be resumed. This being refused 
 France declared war. (See Franco-Ger- 
 man War.) One French army was driven 
 back by the Germans and cooped up in 
 Metz, another was pushed northward to 
 Sedan, and so hemmed in that it had to 
 surrender wuth the emperor at its head. 
 On the news of this disaster reaching 
 Paris the republic was proclaimed. 
 After an almost uninterrupted series of 
 victories the Germans became masters 
 of the French capital (28th January, 
 1871), and the war ended in France giv- 
 ing up to Germany Alsace and a part of 
 Lorraine, and paying a war indemnity of 
 five milliards of francs (81,000,000, 000). 
 Meanw’hile civil w'ar had broken out in 
 Paris, which was suppressed with great 
 difficulty. (See Commune of Paris.) The 
 assembly elected in 1871 for the ratifi- 
 cation of peace wuth Germany found it 
 expedient to continue their functions, 
 Thiers being the head of the adminis- 
 tration. In 1873 the Thiers administra- 
 tion was overthrown and replaced by one 
 under Marshal MacMahon. In 1875 a 
 republican constitution was drawn up. 
 In 1879 MacMahon resigned his presi- 
 dentship before its legal expiry, being 
 succeeded by Jules Grevy, who has been 
 followed by Carnot (assassinated), Casi- 
 mir-Perier, Faure, Loubet, and Fallieres. 
 In 1881 France bccupiod Tunis as a pro- 
 tectorate ; the same year Primary Ed- 
 ucation was made compulsory and free; 
 in 1883-84 France took possession of 
 Tonquin, which led to hostilities 
 with China. In 18^5 Madagascar was 
 reduced to submission. In 19i'6 .\rmand 
 Fallieres was elected president. In 
 1997 the law separating church and 
 state went into effect. 
 
 .A.t the time of the conquest of Gaul by 
 Julius Caesar, the principal dialects 
 spoken by the inhabitants w’ere Celtic. 
 After the conejuest of Gaul by the Ro- 
 mans all these dialects were gradually 
 supplanted by Latin except in Brittany, 
 where a Celtic dialect still holds its 
 
FRANX'E, L' l.E OF 
 
 FRANCIS I 
 
 ground. The popular Latin of Gaul of 
 course exhibited considerable differences 
 from the written and classic Latin. It 
 was still further modified by the in- 
 fluences introduced with the Teutonic 
 invasions. The half-barbarous con- 
 cjuerors, incapable of mastering the in- 
 tricacy of Latin inflections, mostly neg- 
 lected them, using only the simpler 
 forms. They enlarged the vocabulary 
 also by a number of words, mostly terms 
 of war, hunting, etc. After the Franks 
 in Gaul had abandoned their native 
 language and adopted this new Romanic 
 or Romance tongue it became known as 
 the Francisca, later Franceis, from 
 which the modern term French is de- 
 rived. At the beginning of the 16th cen- 
 tury Francis I. prohibited the use of 
 Latin at court and in the public tribunal 
 and formally recognized the French 
 as the national language. As one of 
 the Romance languages it is a sister 
 tongue of Italian, Spanish, and Por- 
 tuguese. 
 
 French literature proper begins in the 
 11th century with the epic or narrative 
 poems known as chansons de geste, and 
 produced by the class of poets known as 
 'TrouvSres. These poems belong to 
 northern France and are very numerous. 
 They are usually divided into three 
 heads: poems relating to French history, 
 in particular to the deeds of Charle- 
 magne, his descendants and vassals; 
 poems relating to Alexander the Great 
 and to ancient history ; and poems of the 
 Arthurian cycle, or relating to King 
 Arthur. They are generally written in 
 verses of ten or twelve syllables, and are 
 of a length varying from 1000 to 20,000 
 lines. One of the oldest and best ex- 
 amples of the first class is the Chanson 
 de Roland, or Song of Roland. 
 
 An abundant lyric poetry flourished 
 from the 11th century. This song litera- 
 ture is manily of a sentimental charac- 
 ter, and is usually divided into two 
 classes, romances and pastourrelles. It is 
 in general remarkable for its lyric grace 
 and skilful melody. Fran 5 ois Villon 
 (1431-1500), the greatest of French 
 poets before the renaissance, wrote two 
 compositions known as the Great and the 
 Little Testament, interspersed with 
 lyrical compositions of great poetic 
 merit. 
 
 The revival of classical learning and 
 the reformation of religion exercised a 
 powerful influence on the French litera- 
 ture of the 16th century. Rabelais (1483 
 -1553), a profound but often gross 
 humorist, and Montaigne (1533-92), an 
 interesting and instructive, though 
 somewhat sceptical essayist, hold the 
 first rank. Calvin (1509-64) did much 
 by his great theological work. Institution 
 de la Religion Chr6tienne, to mould 
 French prose in the direction of strength 
 and gravity. With the renaissance 
 translations of the classic dramas ap- 
 peared, and a member of the PRiade, 
 Jodelle (1532-1573), wrote the first regu- 
 lar tragedy (CRopatre) and comedy 
 (Eugene). Pierre Corneille (1606-84), 
 with his Cid, Cinna, Horace, and Poly- 
 eucte, brought French tragedy to a 
 .depree of grandeur which it has not sur-, 
 passed. Of seventeenth century prose 
 writers Pascal (1628-62) is vigorous and 
 eatjrical in his Lettres Proyinciales; pro- 
 
 I found, if sometimes mystical, in his 
 Pensdes. Descartes (1596-1650) showed 
 in his Discours sur la Mdthode that the 
 language was mow equal to the highest 
 philosophical subjects. 
 
 The age of Louis XIV. is known as 
 the golden age of French literature. Be- 
 sides Corneille, Racine (1639-99) repre- 
 sented the tragic drama, and Molidre 
 (1639-93) brought his great masterpieces 
 of comedy on the stage. The “inimit- 
 able” La Fontaine (1621-95) wrought 
 his Contes and the most charming col- 
 lections of fables. For his critical in- 
 fluence, if not for his poetry, Boileau 
 (1636-1711) holds a prominent place. In 
 eloquence the sermons and funeral ora- 
 tions of Bossuet, Bourdaloue, and Mas- 
 sillon take the first rank. Bossuet is also 
 celebrated as a controversialist and theo- 
 logical historian. Very important, too, 
 are the memoir and maxim writers of 
 this time. Among the former are the 
 Cardinal de Retz, Madame de Motteville, 
 Madame de Sdvignd (1627-96), and 
 others; among the latter are La Roche- 
 foucauld (1613-80), St. Evremond (1613 
 -1703), La Bruydre (1639-99). In fiction 
 Le Sage, who also wrote comedies, 
 produced his immortal Gil Bias and 
 the Diable Boiteux; and the versatile 
 Fontenelle wrote his Dialogues des 
 Morts. 
 
 Among the writers of the 18th cen- 
 tury Voltaire holds the first place. He 
 claims notice as an epic, lyrical, and 
 comic poet, as a tragic and comic drama- 
 tist, as a historian, novelist, and philoso- 
 pher, and he remained at the head of the 
 republic cf letters for more than half a 
 century. Next to him in immediate in- 
 fluence on the age stands Jean Jacques 
 Rousseau (1712-78), a writer of an elo- 
 quent sentimental vein, well represented 
 by his Nouvelle H^loise and his. famous 
 Confessions. His new theories of politics 
 and education are embodied in his Con- 
 trat Sociafand Emile. Buffon (1707-88) 
 devoted himself to the production of 
 his immense natural history. Montes- 
 quieu (1689-1755), commencing with 
 the Lettres Persanes, a satire on French 
 manners and government, followed with 
 a historical masterpiece, Considerations 
 sur la Grandeur et la Decadence des 
 Remains, and finally with his great 
 work, the'Esprit des Lois. Diderot (1713 
 — 83), a powerful and suggestive writer 
 in many departments, and D’Alembert 
 (1717-83), a great geometrician, founded 
 the Encyclopedie, a vast review of hu- 
 man knowledge, often hostile to social 
 order and always to religion. Among the 
 writers of fiction Bernardia de St. Pierre 
 (1737-1814), author of Paul et Virginie, 
 and Prdvost (1697-1763), author of 
 Manon Lescaut, are particularly worthy 
 of mention ; while dramatic literature 
 was enriched by the Barbier de Seville 
 and the Mariage de Figaro of Beau- 
 marchais (1732-99). 
 
 Neither the revolution nor the first 
 empire was favorable to literature. 
 Chateaubriand (1768-1848) and Madame 
 de Stael (1766-1817) gave a new turn to 
 the taste and sentiment of the time, the 
 former in his G6nie du Christianisme and 
 his Martyres, clothing the history of 
 Christianity in the romantic hues of his 
 imagination, the latter in her Corinne 
 ' and De I’Allemagne introducing the 
 
 idealistic spirit and thought of the Ger- 
 mans to her countrymen. 
 
 Later on in the 19th century the influ- 
 ence of Goethe, Schiller, Shakespeare, 
 Scott, and Byron began to be felt, and a 
 new school, called the romantic, as op- 
 posed to the old or classic, sprung up, 
 headed by Victor Hugo (1802-85), who 
 promulgated the new theories in the pref- 
 ace to his drama of Cromwell, and carried 
 them into practice in numerous poems. 
 On the stage the dramas of Alexandre 
 Dumas, the eldw (1803-74L though 
 melodramatic and of inferior literary 
 value, served as rallying points for the 
 new school. To English readers, how- 
 ever, he is best known by his novels, 
 Bdranger (1780-1857), the greatest of 
 French song-writers may be considered 
 as belonging to neither of the two 
 schools, nor can the sparkling comedies 
 and vaudevilles of Eugene Scribe be 
 claimed by any of the rival parties. 
 
 Among novelists, Balzac (1799-1850), 
 by his astonishing series of works, in- 
 tended to Cover the whole ground of 
 human life, has established his claim to 
 th^ first place. The novels of George 
 Sand (Madame Dudevant, 1804-76), 
 perhaps equally famous, have gained her 
 the reputation of possessing the finest 
 style of any contemporary writer. Low 
 life in Paris was vividly depicted by 
 Eugene Sue (1804-57) in the Mysteres 
 de Paris, etc. Of a healty tone are the; 
 novels of Fr^d^ric Soulie, Emile Sou-- 
 vestre, and Edmond About (1828-85), 
 and the stories of the two novelists, con- 
 joined in work as in name, Erckmann- 
 Chatrian. The younger Dumas, Vic- 
 torien Sardou, Octave Feuillet, Ernest 
 Feydeau, Henri Murger, Gustave Flau- 
 bert have developed a realistic st 3 de of 
 novel in which social problems are treated 
 with more candor than delicacy. Of late 
 years a school of writers has arisen who 
 strive to outdo the most realistic of^their 
 predecessors. The chiefs of this school 
 are Emile Zola, Emile Gaboriau, Victor 
 Cherbuliez, Alphonse Daudet, etc. 
 
 FRANCE, Isle of, an ancient province 
 of France, so called because it was origi- 
 nally bounded by the Seine, Marne, 
 Ourcq, Aisne, and Oise, and formed al- 
 most an island. 
 
 FRANCESCA DA RIMINI (fran-ches'’ 
 ka da re'mi-ne), an Italian lady, daugh- 
 ter of Guido da Polenta, lord of Ravenna 
 lived in the latter part of the 13th cen- 
 tury. She was married to Lanciotto, the 
 deformed son of the lord of Rimini, who, 
 discovering an intimacy between her 
 and his brother Paolo, put them both 
 to death. The story forms an episode in 
 Dante’s Inferno, and is alluded to by 
 Petrarch; it is the subject of a poem by 
 Leigh Hunt and a tragedy by Silvio 
 Pellico. 
 
 FRANCHISE, in a general and legal 
 sense, a particular privilege or right 
 granted by a prince, sovereign, or gov- 
 ernment to an individual, or to a number 
 of persons. In politics, in regard to 
 which the term is most commonly used, 
 it is the right of voting for representa- 
 tives to a legislative assembly or to a 
 municipal body. 
 
 FRANCIS I., King of France, was 
 born 1494; died 1547. He ascended the 
 throne in 1515, having succeeded his. 
 uncle, Lqqig XII. 
 
FRANCIS II 
 
 FRANCO-GERMAN WAR 
 
 FRANCIS II., King of France, son of 
 Henry II. and Catherine of Medici, born 
 at Fontainebleau in 1544, ascended the 
 throne on the death of his father, 1559. 
 
 The year previous he had married Mary 
 Stuart, only child of James V., king of 
 Scotland. Francis, died in December, 
 1560. 
 
 FRANCIS I., Emperor of Germany, 
 eldest son of Leopold, duke of Lorraine 
 was born in 1708. In 1736 he married 
 Maria Theresa, daughter of the Emperor 
 Charles VI. After the death of Charles 
 VI. (1740) he was declared by his wife 
 co-regent of all the hereditary states of 
 Austria, but without being permitted 
 to take any part in the administration. 
 After the death of Charles VII. he was 
 elected emperor in 1745. He died in 
 1765. 
 
 FRANCIS I., Emperor of Austria 
 (previously Francis II., emperor of Ger- 
 many)," was born 1768, died 1835. He 
 was the son of the Emperor Leopold II. 
 and Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles 
 III., ’King of Spain. He succeeded his 
 father in 1792. France having been de- 
 clared an empire in 1804, he assumed 
 the title of hereditary Emperor of 
 Austria; and on the establishment of 
 the confederacy of the Rhine in 1806, 
 he renounced the title of Emperor of 
 Germany. 
 
 FRANCIS OF ASSISI, ST., founder of 
 the Franciscans, was born at Assisi, in 
 Umbria, in 1182, where he died in 1226. 
 In youth Francis did not refrain from 
 the pleasures of the world; but after a 
 serious illness he became enthusiastically 
 devout, left the paternal roof, and in 
 1208 gave himself to a life of the most 
 rigorous poverty. His followers were at 
 first few, but when they reached the 
 number of eleven he formed them into 
 a new order, made a rule for them, and 
 got it sanctioned, though at first only 
 verbally, in 1210, by Pope Innocent III. 
 In 1212 he received from the Benedic- 
 tines a church in the vicinity of Assisi, 
 which now became the home of the order 
 of the Francisans or Minorites. Francis 
 afterward obtained a bull in confirma- 
 tion of his order, from Pope Honorius 
 III. After an unsuccessful attempt to 
 convert the Sultan Meledin he returned 
 to Assisi, when the qrder of St. Clara 
 was founded under his direction, and a 
 third order, called the Tertiaries, de- 
 signed for penitents of both sexes. He 
 
 was canonized by Pope Gregory IX. in 
 1228. His festival is on the 4th of Octo- 
 ber. See Franciscans. 
 
 FRANCIS OF PAULA, ST., was born 
 in 1416 in the city of Paula, in Calabria; 
 died in France 1507". To the three usual 
 vows of a monk Francis added a fourth, 
 that of keeping the Lenten fast during 
 the whole year. Twelve years after his 
 death he was canonized by Leo X., and 
 the Catholic Church celebrates his festi- 
 val April 2. 
 
 FRANCIS, Sir Philip, one of the many 
 political writers to whom the authorship 
 of Junius’ Letters has been ascribed, 
 was born in Ireland in 1740, died 1818. 
 See Junius. 
 
 FRANCIS'CANS, are the members of 
 the religious order established by St. 
 Francis of Assisi about 1210. They are 
 also called Minorites, or Fratres Minores 
 (“lesser friars”), which was the name 
 given them by their founder in token of 
 humility, and sometimes Gray Friars, 
 from the color of their garment. The 
 order was distinguished by vows of 
 absolute poverty and a renunciation of 
 the pleasures of the world, and was in- 
 tended to serve the church by its care 
 of the religious state of the people. The 
 rule of the order destined them to beg 
 and to preach. The popes granted them 
 extensive privileges, and they had an 
 evil repute as spies, frequenting' the 
 courts of princes and the houses of 
 noblemen, gentry, etc. Early in the 
 
 Franciscan or gray friar (conventual), 
 
 15th century they split up into two 
 branches, the Conventuals and the 
 Observants or Sabotiers. The former 
 went barefooted, wore a long gray cas- 
 sock and cloak and hood of large dimen- 
 sions, covering the breast and back, and 
 a knotted girdle. The Observants wore 
 wooden sandals, a cassock, a narrow 
 hood, a short cloak with a wooden clasp, 
 and a brown robe. In France the mem- 
 bers of the order not belonging to any 
 particular sect are called Cordeliers, 
 from the cord which they tie about 
 them. The Capuchins, so called from 
 the peculiar kind of hood or cowl 
 (capuce) which they wear, originated in 
 a reform introduced among the Obser- 
 vantists by Matthew of Baschi in the 
 early part of the 16th century. 
 
 St. Francis himself collected nuns in 
 1209. St. Clara was their prioress j hence 
 
 they were called the nuns of St. Clara. 
 The nuns were also divided into 
 branches, according to the severity of 
 their rules. The Urb^anists were a branch 
 founded by Pope Urban IV.; they 
 revered St. Isabelle, daughter of Louis 
 VIII. of France, as their mother. St. 
 Francis also founded in 1221 a third 
 order, of both sexes, for persons who 
 did not wish to take the monastic vows, 
 and yet desired to a^pt a few of the 
 easier observances. They are called 
 Tertiarians or Tertiarise, and were very 
 numerous in the 13th century. From 
 them proceeded several heretical fra- 
 ternities, as the Fraticelli and Beghards. 
 The whole number of Franciscans and 
 Capuchins in the 18th century amounted 
 to 115,000 monks, in 7000 convents. 
 At the dissolution of the monasteries in 
 England there were sixty-five houses of 
 the Franciscans. The order has given 
 five popes and more than fifty cardinals 
 to the church. 
 
 FRANCIS JOSEPH I., Emperor of 
 Austria and King of Hungary and Bo- 
 hemia, born 1830; succeeded his uncle, 
 Ferdinand, who abdicated in 1849. 
 
 FRANCIS- JOSEPH LAND. See Franz- 
 Joseph Land. 
 
 FRANCIS XAVIER, ST. See Xavier. 
 
 FRANCO-GERMAN WAR OF 1870-71. 
 
 The immediate occasion of this war was 
 an offer made in June, 1870, by General 
 Prim, then at the head of affairs in 
 Spain, of the crown of that country to 
 Leopold of Hohenzollern, a prince be- 
 longing to the reigning house of Prussia. 
 The government of Napoleon III. de- 
 manded of the King of Prussia that he 
 should forbid the candidature of the 
 prince, and when the prince voluntarily 
 retired from his candidature, still in- 
 sisted that this renunciation should be 
 formally made by the king, and a guar- 
 antee given that the candidature would 
 not be revived. This demand was re- 
 fused, and a formal declaration of war 
 by France against Prussia was received 
 by Count Bismarck, the Chancellor of the 
 North German confederation, on the 
 19th of July. The French were the first 
 in getting their troops to the frontier; 
 but it soon became manifest that in- 
 stead of being in a complete state of 
 readiness for war, as the minister of war 
 had declared, the French army was de- 
 fective in almost everything essential to 
 the equipment of an army. 
 
 In Germany everything formed a 
 complete contrast to this state of mat- 
 ters. Each section of the arm^ was com- 
 pletely organized in the head-quarters 
 of the district which it occujJied in time 
 of peace, and was only sent to the fron- 
 tiers after being furnished with every 
 thing it required. In addition to this 
 Prussia, against which country alone 
 the war had been declared, was not only 
 joined, according do treaty, by all the 
 states of the Nortn German confedera- 
 tion, but also by those of the south, upon 
 whose neutrality, perhaps even upon 
 whose alliance, Napoleon and the French 
 had counted. 
 
 The German forces w’ere'diJ-uded about 
 the end of July into three armies, one of 
 which, known as the first army, had its 
 headquarters at Treves under General 
 Steinmetz; another of which, known as 
 the second army, occupied the Bavarian 
 
FRANK 
 
 Palatinate under Prince Frederick 
 Charles; while the third army, under 
 the Crown-prince of Prussia, was sta- 
 tioned in Northern Baden. The com- 
 mander- in-chief of the whole forces was 
 King William of Prussia, who was sup- 
 ported by a staff of general officers, with 
 Von Moltke at their head. The French 
 army, under Napoleon himself, had its 
 head-quarters at Metz, and two ad- 
 vanced divisions were stationed on the 
 borders of France and Gennany, the one 
 in the north on the Saar, under General 
 Frossard, the other further south at 
 Weissenburg, under General Douay. 
 The victories of the third army, under 
 the crown-prince, at Weissenburg (Aug. 
 4) and at Worth (Aug. 6), and of the first 
 and second armies at Forbach (Aug. 6), 
 put the French army in retreat along its 
 whole line, the southern half in the direc- 
 tion of Nancy, and the northern of Metz. 
 The northern army under Bazaine was 
 overtaken by those of Steinmetz and 
 Frederick Charles on the 14th of August, 
 when an engagement at Courcelles took 
 place, in which the Germans were again 
 victorious. This was followed by the 
 battles of Vionville, or Mars-la-Tour, and 
 Gravelotte, the result being that Bazaine 
 withdrew his army under the protection 
 of the fortifications of Metz, which was 
 now surrounded by an army under 
 the command of Prince Frederick 
 Charles. 
 
 Meantime the Crown-prince of Prussia 
 had advanced as far as Nancy, and was 
 there awaiting the result of the battles 
 around Metz. He had still the army of 
 MacMahon to deal with, which had now 
 reached ChMons, where it had been re- 
 organized and strengthened to such a de- 
 gree that the army of the Crown-prince 
 was no longer able to cope with it un- 
 aided. Accordingly, out of three corps 
 d’armSe belonging to the second army, 
 a new army was formed, which was 
 afterward called the army of the Meuse, 
 and was placed under the Crown-prince 
 of Saxony. About the 20th of August 
 these two armies set out on parallel 
 routes in the direction of ChMons in 
 order to engage the army of MacMahon, 
 which it was expected would now re- 
 treat on Paris. Instead of this, however 
 Count Palikao, minister of war at Paris, 
 issued an order to Marshal MacMahon 
 to strike northward to the Belgian fron- 
 tier that he might thence make a de- 
 scent upon Metz and relieve Bazaine. 
 On the 27th of August, at Buzancy, an 
 advanced detachment of cavalry belong- 
 ing to the army of the MeU^e dispersed 
 a body of French chasseurs, and on the 
 days immediately succeeding a number 
 of engagements and strategic move- 
 ments ensued, the result of which was 
 that on the 1st of September the army 
 of MacMahon was surrounded at Sedan 
 by a force of overwhelmingly greater 
 numbers, and on the following day both 
 army and fortress surrendered by capitu- 
 lation. On this occasion 50 generals, 
 5000 other officers, and 84,000 private 
 soldiers became prisoners of war. Among 
 these was Napoleon III., who was 
 unexpectedly found to have been 
 present with the army of MacMahon. 
 He had a personal interview on the day 
 after the battle with King William of 
 Prussia, who assigned to him Wilhelms- 
 
 hohe, near Cassel, as his place of resi- 
 dence during his captivity. 
 
 One of the first consequences of this 
 defeat was an outburst of rage on the 
 part of the Parisians against the Napo- 
 leon dynasty, which on the 4th of Sep- 
 tember was declared by Gambetta and 
 some members of the corps legislatif 
 belonging to the left to be dethroned. 
 The same members then proclaimed a 
 republic. A government of national de- 
 fense was formed, at the head of which 
 was placed General Trochu. Meantime 
 France had no availalble army which 
 was strong enough to stand its ground 
 for an instant before the German armies 
 that were now enabled to continue their 
 march upon Paris. The investment of 
 the city was completed on the 19th of 
 September. It was not till about the be- 
 ginning of October that the French were 
 able to organize a new army after the 
 loss of that of MacMahon, and by the 
 beginning of November the war in the 
 open field had been resumed in different 
 centers; but the capitulation of Metz 
 with the army of Bazaine (28th Oct.), 
 and that of Strasburg (27th Sept.), had 
 set free -for further operations large 
 numbers of German troops, and the 
 utmost efforts of the French could not 
 relieve Paris. 
 
 The city had held out for a much 
 longer period than even the most san- 
 guine on the side of the French had at 
 first expected that it would' be able to do. 
 Sallies were made at intervals by the 
 garrison (Oct. 12, Oct. 21, etc.; Jan. 13, 
 14, 15, and 19), but not sufficiently often 
 or in sufficient strength to have any 
 decisive effect. On the failure of the last 
 sally, which took place on the west side 
 from Mont Val4rien on the 19th of Jan., 
 it was seen that a capitulation was in- 
 evitable. On 21st Feo. M. Thiers, head 
 of the executive, arrived at Versailles 
 along with a diplomatic commission, 
 and preliminaries of peace were signed 
 at Versailles on the 26th of Feb., and 
 accepted by the assembly at Bordeaux 
 on the 1st of March. The principal terms 
 were the following: — 1. That France 
 should cede to Germany one-fifth part of 
 Lorraine, including Metz, together with 
 the whole of Alsace except Belfort and 
 the surrounding district. 2. That France 
 should pay to Germany a war indemnity 
 of five milliards of francs ($1,000,000,- 
 000). 3. That certain departments of 
 France should remain in the occupation 
 of the Germans, and should not be fully 
 evacuated until after the payment of the 
 whole indemnity. The definitive treaty 
 of peace, which was signed at Frankfort 
 on the 10th of May, and ratified on the 
 21st, confirmed in all essential particu- 
 lars the preliminaries of Versailles. The 
 last installment of the war indemnity 
 was pai3 on the 5th of Sept., 1873, and 
 France completely evacuated by the 
 Germans on the 13th of the same month. 
 
 FRANK, the signature; of a person 
 possessing the privilege of sending let- 
 ters free of postage. 
 
 FRANKFORT, capital of Kentucky 
 and of Franklin county, situated in a 
 group of hills on both sides of the Ken- 
 tucky river, and on the Louisville and 
 Nashville and the Kentucky Midland 
 Railway; 65 miles by rail e. of Louis- 
 ville. Pop. 11,400. 
 
 FRANKINCENSE 
 
 man, Frankfurt am Main), a town of 
 Prussia, in the province of Hessen- 
 Nassau, 20 miles n.e. of Mayence(Mainz) 
 It was formerly a free town of the em- 
 pire, and down to 1866 one of the' free 
 towns of the German confederation and 
 the seat of the diet. Frankfort is rich in 
 collections connected with literature and 
 art, and in establishments intended to 
 promote them. The chief of these are 
 
 The Opera House, Frankfort. 
 
 the Historical Museum (in the Archive- 
 building), the Stadel Art Institute (in 
 Sachsenbausen), containing a fine gallery 
 of pictures and other collections; the 
 Senckenberg Museum of Natural His- 
 tory; the town library, possessing over 
 150,000 printed volumes. There is also 
 a Zoological garden and the Palm gar- 
 den, both favorite places of resort. The 
 manufactures comprise chemicals, orna- 
 mental articles of metal, sewing-ma- 
 chines, straw hats, soap, perfumery, 
 beer, etc. Pop. 288,489. 
 
 FRANKFORT - ON - THE - ODER, a 
 town of Prussia, province of Branden- 
 burg, on the Oder, 52 miles e.s.e. Berlin. 
 Pop. 61,852. 
 
 FRANK'INCENSE, a name given to the 
 oleoresinous exudations from different 
 species of conifers. American frankin- 
 cense is got as a soft, yellow, resinous 
 solid, with a characteristic turpentine 
 odor. Another kind is exuded by the 
 spruce fir, and forms a soft solid, the 
 color of which varies from white to 
 violet red. From this Burgundy pitch is 
 prepared by melting in water and strain- 
 ing through a cloth. The frankincense 
 
 State Capitol, Frankfort, Ky. 
 
 employed in religious ceremonies (called 
 also incense) is a gum-resin obtained 
 from a tree somewhat resembling the 
 sumach and inhabiting the mountains 
 of India. It comes to us in semi-trans- 
 parent yellowish tears, or sometimes in 
 masses, of specific gravity, 1’22, it pos- 
 sesses a bitter and nauseous taste, and is 
 capable of being pulverized. When 
 burned it exhales a strong aromatic 
 odor, on which account it was much 
 employed in the ancient temples, and still 
 continues to be used in Catholic 
 churches. 
 
FRANKLIN 
 
 FRANKLIN, Benjamin, American 
 writer and statesman, born at Boston 
 Jan. 17, 1706, died at Philadelphia April 
 17, 1790. He was placed with his 
 brother, a printer, to serve an appren- 
 ticeship to that trade, and his brother 
 having started the New England Cour- 
 ant, Franklin secretly wrote some pieces 
 for it, and had the satisfaction to find 
 them well received. But, on this coming 
 to the knowledge of his brother, he was 
 severely lectured for his presumption, 
 and treated with great harshness. Soon 
 after he quitted his brother’s employ- 
 ment, and at the age of seventeen 
 started for Philadelphia, where he ob- 
 
 Benjamin Franklin. 
 
 tained employment as a compositor. 
 Here he attracted the notice of Sir 
 William Keith, the governor of Pennsyl- 
 vania, who induced him to go to Eng- 
 land for the purpose of purchasing type 
 to establish himself in business.. He got 
 work in a printing-office, and after a 
 residence of eighteen months in London 
 returned to Philadelphia. Here he re- 
 turned to his trade, and in a short time 
 formed an establishment in connection 
 with a person who supplied the neces- 
 sary capital. They printed a newspaper, 
 which was managed with much ability, 
 and acquired Franklin much reputation. 
 By his exertions a public library, im- 
 proved systems of education, a scheme 
 of insurance, etc., were established in 
 Philadelphia. In 1732 he published his 
 Poor Richard’s Almanack, which con- 
 tinued to be issued till 1757. Being in 
 Boston in 1746 he saw, for the first 
 time, some experiments in electricity, 
 which led him to begin those investiga- 
 tions which resulted in the identification 
 of lightning and electricity, and the in- 
 vention of the lightning conductor. As 
 member of the provincial assembly of 
 Pennsylvania he showed himself very 
 active, and he was sent out (in 1757) to 
 the mother country as the agent of the 
 rovince. His reputation was now such, 
 oth at home and abroad, that he was 
 appointed agent of the provinces of 
 Massachusetts, Maryland, and Georgia. 
 Oxford and Edinburgh conferred on 
 him their highest academical degrees, 
 and the Royal Society elected him a 
 feilow. In 1762 he returned to America 
 
 but was again appointed agent in 1764, 
 and brought to England a remonstrance 
 against the project of taxing the colonies. 
 He opposed the stamp-act, and in 1774 
 presented to the king the petition of the 
 first American congress. On bis return 
 he was elected member of the congress, 
 and exerted all his influence in favor of 
 the declaration of independence. In 
 1776 he was sent to France as commis- 
 sioner plenipotentiary, to obtain sup- 
 plies from that court. After the surren- 
 der of Burgoyne he concluded with 
 France the first treaty of the new states 
 with a foregin power (1778), and was 
 subsequently named one of the com- 
 missioners for negotiating the peace 
 with the mother country. On his return 
 to his native country he filled the office 
 of president of Pennsylvania, and served 
 as a delegate in the federal convention 
 in 1787, and approved the constitution 
 then formed. His works include his un- 
 finished autobiography, and a great 
 number of political, anti-slavery, finan- 
 cial, economic, and scientific papers. 
 
 FRANKLIN, Sir John, an English 
 Arctic voyager, born in Lincolnshire in 
 1786, died near Lancaster Sound 1847. 
 He entered the navy as a midshipman 
 at the age of fourteen, and was present 
 at the battle of Copenhagen in 1801. 
 He afterward accompanied Captain 
 Flinders on his voyage to the coast of 
 Australia (1801-03). Shortly after his 
 return he was appointed to the Bellero- 
 phon, and had charge of her signals 
 during the battle of Trafalgar. His arc- 
 tic work began in 1819, when he con- 
 ducted an overland expedition for the 
 exploration of the n. coast of America 
 from Hudson’s Bay to the mouth of 
 the Coppermine river. In a second 
 expedition he surveyed the coast from 
 the mouth of the Coppermine west to 
 Point Beechy, thus traversing in his 
 two expeditions about a third of the 
 distance between The Atlantic and the 
 Pacific. In 1845 he took command of 
 the Erebus and Terror in what proved 
 his last Polar Expedition. The problem 
 was an arctic water-way between the 
 Atlantic and the Pacific. The expedition 
 was seen in Melville Bay two months 
 later, but from that time no direct 
 tidings were received from it. Many 
 expeditions were sent in search of him 
 both from Britain and America, but 
 with little success. At last an expedition, 
 sent out under McClintock in 1857, dis- 
 covered in 1859, at Point Victory, in 
 King William’s Land, a document 
 which had been deposited in a cairn 
 thirteen years before, and gave the 
 latest details of the ill-fated expedition. 
 This paper stated that Sir John died 
 11th June, 1847; that the ships were 
 abandoned in April, 1848; and that the 
 crews, 105 in number, had started for 
 the Great Fish River. None survived, 
 but many relics of the party have been 
 recovered. 
 
 FRANKS, a Germanic tribe or aggre- 
 gate of tribes which overthrew the 
 Roman dominion in Gaul, and gave 
 origin to the name France. See France. 
 
 FRANZ-JOSEPH LAND, an island 
 group in the Arctic Ocean, lying north 
 of Nova Zembla, and consisting of two 
 chief islands, much broke up by fiords, 
 and a number of smaller ones. 
 
 FRATERNITIES 
 
 FRASER RIVER, the principal river -4 
 in British Columbia, rising in the Rocky '■ 
 Mountains. It first flows northwest for . 
 about 270 miles, then turns south, and 1 
 after a total course of about 500 miles 
 falls into the Gulf of Georgia. Gold is 
 found both on the Fraser and its affluent , 
 and the salmon fisheries are important. 
 
 Its principal affluents are the Thompson, 
 Quesnelle, and Stuart rivers. New ’ 
 Westminster, Hope, Yale, and Lyttou 
 are on its banks. 
 
 FRATERNAL ORGANIZATIONS, Mem- 
 bership of, according to the last reports 
 of the supreme bodies of these organi- 
 zations, the menibership of the principal 
 fraternal organizations in the U. States ; 
 and Canada is as follows; - 
 
 Odd Fellows 1,521,095 : 
 
 Freemasons 1,229,001 ^ 
 
 Modern Woodmen of America 813,642: ' 
 
 Knights of Pythias 622,469 
 
 Independent Oi’der of Rechabites 488,000i 1 
 
 Woodmen of the World 450,211 ; 
 
 Improved Order of Red Men 406,774 i 
 
 Knights of the Maccabees 325,000- 1 
 
 Royal Arcanum 283,011 < 
 
 Ancient Order of United Workmen 275,603 1 
 
 Independent Order of Foresters 250,000 ■ 
 
 Order of Eagles 250,000 -j 
 
 Foresters of America 211,110 ; 
 
 Benevolent and ProtectiveOrder of Elks 215,000 ■ 
 
 Ancient Order of Hibernians 210,000 3 
 
 Knights of Columbus 166,494 ] 
 
 Junior Order United Amer. Mechanics. 163,205 11 
 
 Ladles of the Maccabees. 145,293 i 
 
 Knights of the Modern Maccabees 125,000 J 
 
 Ladies Catholic Benevolent Association 95,.500 - j 
 
 Tribe of Ben Hur 92,500 9 
 
 Knights and Ladles of Honor 92,000 | 
 
 Improved Order of Hep tasophs 70,439 ^ 
 
 Knights of the Golden Eagle 70,431 A 
 
 National Union 62,444 j 
 
 Brotherhood of American Yeomen 61,671 
 
 Protected Home Circle 59,981 T 
 
 Catholic Mutual Benefit Association . , . 57,672 j 
 
 Order of Gleaners 56,000 1 
 
 Court of Honor 55,392 j 
 
 Brith Abraham Order 53,853 -a 
 
 New England Order of Protection 43,167 j 
 
 Knights of Honor 40,126 j 
 
 Ancient Order of Foresters 38,898 l 
 
 United Order of American Mechanics.. 36,554 
 
 Sons of Temperance 34,789 
 
 Independent Order of B’nal B’rith 28,539 
 
 Knights of Malta 27,000 
 
 Smaller organizations. 379,819 
 
 Total 9,6.56,280 
 
 FRATERNITIES, the name given to j 
 societies of students at American col- ^ 
 leges that are usually secret in charac- ^ 
 ter. They are called also Greek letter '' 
 societies because the Greek- alphabet j 
 usually is employed to designate them, ! 
 being known by the letters which are ; 
 the initials of their name. These ’ 
 societies usually are national in charac- ; 
 ter having branches at various colleges 
 which branches are known as chapters. ; 
 The first Greek letter society. Phi Beta i 
 Kappa, was organized at William and - 
 Mary (jollege in 1776. This society has 
 become an honorary scholarship organi- 
 zation somewhat different from the 
 more mysterious organizations of which '■ 
 the first was Kappa Alpha established £ 
 at Union College in 1825. The mysteries 2 
 in the fraternity are rarely very great * 
 and for the most part their only function ^ 
 is to cement ties of friendship among 
 groups of students. Often the fraterni- : 
 ties have club-houses known as chapter. 
 houses. At these initiations take place w 
 which are more or less formidable. Until 
 recent years there was some oppositioa k 
 among the college authorities to the . 
 fraternities but with the abolition of 
 some abuses in initiation the attitude t 
 of the faculty has changed. 
 
FRATERNITY 
 
 FREDERICK II 
 
 FRATERTHTY, an association of men 
 who unite to promote their common 
 interest, business or pleasure. In this 
 wide sense it includes all secret and 
 benevolent societies, the monastic and 
 sacerdotal congregations, the orders of 
 knighthood, and also guilds, trades- 
 unions, and the like. In a limited sense 
 it is applied to religious societies for 
 pious practices and benevolent objects. 
 They were often formed during the mid- 
 dle ages, from a desire of imitating the 
 holy orders. Many of these societies 
 which did not obtain or did not seek the 
 acknowledgment of the church, had the 
 appearance of separatists, which sub- 
 jected them to the charge of heresy. 
 The pious fraternities which were formed 
 under the direction of the church, or 
 were acknowledged by it, were either 
 required by their rules to afford assist- 
 ance to travelers, to the unfortunate, 
 the distressed, the sick, and the deserted, 
 on account of the inefficiency of the 
 police, and the want of institutions for 
 the poor, or to perform certian acts of 
 penitence and devotion. Of this descrip- 
 tion were the Fratres Pontifices, a 
 brotherhood that originated in Tuscany 
 in the 12th century, where they main- 
 tained establishments on the banks of 
 the Arno, to enable travelers to cross 
 the river, and to succor them in case of 
 distress. A similar society was after- 
 ward formed in France, where they 
 built bridges and hospitals, maintained 
 ferries, kept the roads in repair, and pro- 
 vided for the security of the highways. 
 Similar to these were the Knights and 
 Companions of the Santa Hermandad 
 (or Holy Brotherhood) ih Spain; the 
 Familiars and Cross-bearers in the ser- 
 vice of the Spanish Inquisition; the 
 'Calendar Brothers in Germany the 
 Alexians in Germany, Poland, and the 
 Netherlands, etc. The professed object 
 of the Alexians, so called from Alexius, 
 their parton saint, was to visit the sick 
 and imprisoned; to collect alms for dis- 
 tribution; to console criminals, and ac- 
 company them to the place of execution ; 
 to bury the dead, and to cause masses 
 to be said for those who had been exe- 
 cuted, or for persons found dead. There 
 were also Gray Penitents (an old frater- 
 nity of an order existing as early as 1264 
 in Rome, and introduced into France 
 under Henry HI.), the black fraternities 
 ■of Mercy and of Death; the Red, the 
 Blue, the Green, and the Violet Peni- 
 tents, so called from the color of their 
 cowl; the divisions of each were known 
 by the colors of the girdle or mantle. 
 The fraternity of the Holy Trinity, was 
 founded at Rome in 1548 by Philip de’ 
 Neri for the relief of pilgrims and the 
 cured dismissed from the hospitals. The 
 Brothers and Sisters of Charity are an- 
 other fraternity whose hospitals are 
 found in all the principal cities of Catho- 
 lic Christendom. 
 
 FRAUD, an act or course of deception 
 deliberately practiced with the view of 
 gaining an unlawful or unfair advantage 
 such as the obtaining of goods under 
 false pretenses, and the like. All frauds 
 or attempts to defraud, which cannot 
 be guarded against by common prudence 
 are indictable at common law, and pun- 
 ishable arbitrarily according to the 
 heinousness of the offense. Every species 
 
 of fraud which the law takes cognizance 
 of renders voidable every transaction 
 into which it enters as a constituent 
 material element. Fraud may be by 
 false representation, concealment of 
 material circumstances that ought to be 
 revealed, underhand dealing, and by 
 taking advantage of imbecility or in- 
 toxication. A constructive fraud in law 
 is such fraud as is involved in an act or 
 contract which, though not originating 
 in any actual evil or fraudulent design, 
 yet has a tendency to deceive or mislead 
 other persons, or to violate public or 
 private confidence, or to impair or injure 
 the public interests. 
 
 FRAUNHOFER (froun'ho-fer), Joseph 
 von, German optician, born 1787, died 
 1826. He ultimately became a partner 
 in a manufactory of optical instruments 
 at Munich. His many improvements in 
 glass-making, in optical instruments, 
 and in the polishing of lenses, have been 
 eclipsed by his investigation of the in- 
 numerable dark fixed lines in the solar 
 spectrum, known as Fraunhofer’s Lines. 
 The importance of this discovery can 
 scarcely be overestimated. It led to the 
 invention and use of the spectroscope, 
 to the science of spectroscopy, and to all 
 our present knowledge of solar and 
 stellar chemistry. See Spectrum, Spec- 
 troscope, etc. 
 
 FRAZER, Persifor, American geolo- 
 gist, born in 1844 in Philadelphia, Pa. 
 He was an aide on the U. States coast 
 survey in 1862-63; in 1869-70 he was 
 mineralogist and metallurgist on the U. 
 States geological survey; in 1870-74 
 was professor of chemistry in the Uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania, and from 1874 
 to 1882 was assistant in connection with 
 the second geological survey of Pennsyl- 
 vania. Among his contributions to 
 science may be cited his explanation of 
 the cause of the white color of the moon 
 as observed by day. He was elected to 
 the American philosophical society in 
 1871. 
 
 FRED'ERIC, Harold, American nov- 
 elist, was born in Utica, N. Y., in 1856. 
 His first important story, Seth’s 
 Brother’s Wife, was followed by The 
 Lawton Girl, The Return of the 
 O’Mahoney; The Copperhead, a story 
 of the civil war; and Marsena, a collec- 
 tion of keenly humorous character 
 stories. The Damnation of Theron Ware, 
 a brilliant analysis of religious life min- 
 utely realistic in detail, clever in con- 
 versation, and unfailing in psychic in- 
 sight, was immediately recognized by 
 the public as a human document. His 
 last works are Gloria3Iundi, and In the 
 Marketplace. He died in 1898. 
 
 FREDERICK, a town in Maryland, 
 44 miles n.w. of Baltimore. It has an 
 extensive trade, chiefly in live stock, 
 grain, flour, tobacco, wool, etc. During 
 the civil war it was occupied on different 
 occasions by the opposing armies. Pop. 
 10,160. 
 
 FREDERICK I., Barbarossa (or, as 
 the Germans call him, Rothbart, both 
 surnames meaning “Red-beard”), Ger- 
 man emperor, son of Frederick, duke of 
 Suabia, was born 1121, and received the 
 imperial crown in 1152 on the death of 
 his uncle the Emperor Conrad III. His 
 principal efforts were directed to the 
 extension and confirmation of his power 
 
 in Italy. In his first expedition to Italy 
 in 1154 he subdued the towns of North- 
 ern Italy, and then got himself Crowned 
 at Pa^■ia with the iron crown of Lom- 
 bardy (April 115.5), and afterward at 
 Rome by Pope Adrian IV. with the im- 
 perial crown (June 1155). In 1188 he 
 assumed the cross, and with an army 
 of 150,000 men and several thousand 
 volunteers set out for Palestine. After 
 leading his army with success into Syria 
 he was drowned in crossing the river 
 Kalybadnus (now Selef), 1190. 
 
 FREDERICK II., Hohenstaufen, 
 grandson of the preceding, born 1194, 
 was son of the Emperor Henry VI. and 
 of the Norman Princess Constance, 
 heiress of the two Sicilies. He remained 
 under the guardianship of Innocent III. 
 till 1209, when he took upon himself the 
 government of Lower Italy and Sicily. 
 The imperial crown of Germany was now 
 worn by a rival, Otho IV., whose de- 
 feat at the battle of Bouvines opened 
 the way to Frederick, who in 1215, after 
 pledging himself to undertake a crusade, 
 was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. He 
 died in the midst of his wars in 12^0. 
 He was one of the ablest and most ac- 
 complished of the long line of German 
 emperors, and art, literature, commerce, 
 and agriculture received every en- 
 couragement at his hands. He himself 
 was a good linguist, was acquainted 
 with natural history, was a minnesinger, 
 and a writer on philosophy. 
 
 FREDERICK I., King of Piussia, son 
 of the great elector, born 1657, died 
 1713. He succeeded his father as Elector 
 of Brandenburg, in 1688; became King 
 of Prussia in 1700; and was all his reign 
 bitterly opposed to France. 
 
 FREDERICK II., King of Prussia, 
 known as Frederick the Great, born 
 1712, died 1786. He was the son of 
 Frederick William I., and the Princess 
 Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, sister of 
 George II. of England. The death of his 
 father raised him to the throne in 1740. 
 and it was not long before he asserted 
 
 the claims of the house of Brandenburg 
 to a part of Silesia then held by Maria 
 Theresa. But his proposals being re- 
 jected, he occupied Lower Silesia in 
 December, 1740, defeated the Austrians 
 near Mollwitz, and at Czaslau (Chotusitz) 
 and the first Silesian war was termi- 
 nated by the peace signed at Berlin 
 July 28, 1742, leaving Frederick in pos- 
 session of Silesia. Soon the second 
 Silesian war broke out, the result of 
 which was equally favorable for Freder- 
 ick. By the Peace of Dresden (Decern- 
 
FREDERICK III 
 
 FREE CONGREGATIONS 
 
 ber 15, 1745) he retained Silesia and 
 acknowledged the husband of Maria 
 Theresa, Francis I., as emperor. During 
 the eleven following years of peace Fred- 
 erick devoted himself to the domestic 
 administration, to the improvement of 
 the army, and at the same time to the 
 muses. He encouraged agriculture, the 
 arts, manufactures, and commerce, re- 
 formed the law, increased the revenues 
 of the state, and perfected the organiza- 
 tion of his army, which was increased to 
 160,000 men. Secret information of an 
 alliance between Austria, Russia, and 
 Saxony gave him reason to fear an 
 attack and the loss of Silesia. He has- 
 tened to anticipate his enemies by the 
 invasion of Saxony (1756), with which 
 the Seven Years’ war, or third Silesian 
 war, commenced. This was a far more 
 severe struggle than either of the former. 
 In it Frederick had against him Austria, 
 Russia, France, Sweden, and greater part 
 of Germany, though Britain and some of 
 the German states were on his side. He 
 gained victories at Prague, Rossbach, 
 Leuthen, Zorndorf, Torgau, Freiberg, 
 but suffered severe defeats in the battles 
 of Kollin, Hochkirch and Kunersdorf. 
 The Peace of Hubertsburg (1763) ter- 
 minated this war, Frederick keeping 
 Silesia and ceding nothing. On the par- 
 tition of Poland in 1772 Frederick re- 
 ceived a large accession to his dominion. 
 In 1778-79 he frustrated the designs of 
 the Emperor Joseph II. on Bavaria, ana 
 the war of the Bavarian Succession was 
 terminated without a battle by the Peace 
 of Teschen (May 13, 1779). Austria con- 
 sented to the union of the principalities 
 of Franconia with Prussia, and renounced 
 the feudal claims of Bohemia to those 
 countries. In the evening of his active 
 life Frederick concluded, in connection 
 with Saxony and Hanover, the confed- 
 eration of the German princes, July 23, 
 1785. An incurable dropsy hastened the 
 death of Frederick, who left to his 
 nephew, Frederick William II., a king- 
 dom increased by 29,000 square miles, 
 a well-filled treasury, an army of 200,000 
 men, great credit with all the Euro- 
 pean powers, and a state distinguished 
 for population, industry, wealth and 
 science. 
 
 FREDERICK III., Emperor of Ger- 
 many, born 1831, succeeded William I. 
 March 9, 1888, died June 15, 1888. In 
 1858 he married the Princess-Royal 
 of Britain, eldest daughter of Queen 
 Victoria. He commanded the army of 
 the Oder in the war with Austria (1866), 
 and in the Franco-German war he led 
 the army which ultimately forced Na- 
 poleon HI. and his army to surrender 
 at Sedan. He also took a prominent part 
 in the siege of Paris. In 1887 he was 
 attacked by a serious throat affection, 
 which turned out to be of a cancerous 
 character, and which after a series of 
 relapses proved fatal. His renown as a 
 military commander, his liberal views, 
 his patience and fortitaide under trouble, 
 and his many lovable qualities made him 
 extremely popular. 
 
 FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II. and III., 
 electors of Saxony and kings of Poland. 
 See Augustus. 
 
 FREDERICK CHARLES, Prince, 
 known as the “Red Prince,” born 1828, 
 died 1885. He was nephew to the Em- 
 
 peror William I., and gained fame for 
 his military exploits during the wars of 
 1866 and 1870. Sadowa, Thionville, 
 Gravelotte, and St. Privat are among 
 his chief achievements. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM, of Prus^a, 
 generally called the Great Elector, was 
 born in 1620, died 1688. At the age of 
 twenty he succeeded his father as elector 
 of Brandenburg. He must be considered 
 as the founder of the Prussian greatness, 
 and as the creator of a military spirit 
 among his subjects. His reign began 
 when the unhappy Thirty Years’ war was 
 was still raging in Germany, and his con- 
 duct toward both parties was prudent. 
 He succeeded in freeing Prussia from 
 feudal subjection to Poland; and ob- 
 tained possession of Pomerania in 1648. 
 In 1672 he concluded a treaty with the 
 Dutch Republic, when this state was 
 threatened by Louis XIV. In 1673 he 
 concluded a treaty by which France 
 promised to evacuate Westphalia, and 
 to pay 800,000 livres to the elector, who, 
 in return, broke off his treaty with Hol- 
 land, and promised not to render any 
 aid to the enemies of France. In 1674 
 the German Empire declared war 
 against France. The elector marched 
 16,000 men into Alsace, but a Swedish 
 army having been induced to invade 
 Prussia, Frederick turned back and 
 totally defeated them at Fehrbellin 
 (1675). Some years after the Swedes 
 again invaded his territories, but were 
 driven back. France, however, de- 
 manded the restoration of all the con- 
 quered territories to Sweden. The 
 elector, having refused compliance, 
 formed an alliance with Denmark, and 
 waged a new war against Sweden, but 
 was at last obliged to submit. He paid 
 great attention to the promotion of agri- 
 culture and horticulture, and, by affording 
 protection to the French refugees, gained 
 20,01)0 industrious manufacturers, who 
 were of the greatest advantage to the 
 north of Germany. Berlin was much im- 
 proved during his reign. . He left to his 
 son a country much enlarged and im- 
 proved, an army of 28,000 men, and a 
 well-supplied treasury. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM I., King of 
 Prussia, son of Frederick I. and father 
 of Frederick the Great (II.), was born 
 in 1688, died 1740. While crown-prince 
 (1706) he married Sophia Dorothea, 
 daughter of the Elector of Hanover, 
 afterward George I. of England. On 
 his accession to the throne, in 1713, he 
 endeavored to increase the army and 
 reform the finances, and became the 
 founder of the exact discipline and reg- 
 ularity which have since characterized 
 the Prussian soldiers. He was very 
 miserly, eccentric, and arbitrary. He 
 opposed Charles XII., and was the pro- 
 tector of the neighboring protestant 
 states. His ridiculous fondness for tall 
 men is well known. He left behind him 
 an abundant treasury, and an army of 
 about 70,000 men. His affairs were in 
 the greatest order and regularity, and to 
 his energy Prussia was much indebted 
 for that prosperity and success which 
 distinguished her till she was humbled 
 by the power of Napoleon. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM H., King of 
 Prussia, born 1744, died 1797. He suc- 
 ceeded his uncle Frederick the Great in 
 
 1786, and shared in the second partition 
 of Poland. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM III., son of 
 Frederick Williatn II., born 1770, died 
 1840. During his reign Prussia suffered 
 much at the hands of Napoleon, includ- 
 ing defeats at Jena, Eylau, Friedland, 
 etc., and lost a large portion of territory, 
 which, however, was recovered after 
 the fall of Napoleon. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM IV., King of 
 Prussia, son of Frederick William III., 
 was born 1795, died 1861. He was care- 
 fully trained by the best masters in all 
 the leading branches of knowledge and 
 art, civil and military. He took part, 
 though without any active command, 
 in the campaigns of 1813 — 14. When 
 he succeeded to the throne by the death 
 of his father in 1840 his first proceedings 
 were both of a popular and praiseworthy 
 character. He soon, however, began to 
 pursue a retrograde and absolutist 
 policy. The popular movement which 
 followed the French revolution of 1848 
 was at first met by the king with firm- 
 ness, but on the demand of the people 
 that the troops should be withdrawn 
 from the capital, backed by an attack on 
 the arsenal, the king offered concessions, 
 which, however, he retracted on his 
 power becoming more secure. Latterly 
 Ids mind gave way, and he sank into- a 
 state of hopeless imbecility, which ren- 
 dered it necessary to appoint this 
 brother William regent of the' kingdom 
 He died without issue, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother, who ten years 
 later 'became emperor of united Ger- 
 many. • 
 
 FREDERICTON, the eapital of New 
 Brunswick, Dominion of Canada, on the 
 river St. John, about 84 miles from its 
 mouth, and 54 miles n.n.w. of the town 
 of St. John. It is well laid out, and has 
 handsome public buildings, including 
 the government house, the provincial 
 buildings, court-house, town-hall, cathe- 
 dral, university, etc.. The trade is ex- 
 tensive and increasing, the river being 
 navigable for large steamers. Pop. 
 8117. 
 
 FREE CITIES, cities having an inde- 
 pendent government of their own, and 
 virtually forming states by themselves; 
 a name given to certain cities of Ger- 
 many which were members of the Ger- 
 man confederation, and exercised sov- 
 ereign jurisdiction within their own 
 boundaries. At the time of the French 
 Revolution the free or “imperial” cities 
 numbered no fewer than fifty-one; but 
 with the exception of Hamburg, Liibeck, 
 and Bremen they have all been deprived 
 of their privileges as the result of vari- 
 ous political changes. 
 
 FREE COMPANIES, Free Lances, 
 names given to the troops of private 
 adventurers, who, in the middle ages, 
 organized themselves into bands of 
 mercenary soldiers, and let out their 
 services to the highest bidder. They 
 played their most conspicuous part in 
 Italy, where they were called Con- 
 dottieri. 
 
 FREE CONGREGATIONS, sometimes 
 called “Protestant Friends,” a sect of 
 German rationalists, who at first pro- 
 fessed to be Christians, but now reject 
 the^^doctrines of miraculous revelation 
 and a personal deity. There are upward 
 
PREEDMEN 
 
 FREEZING 
 
 of 120 congregations of them iiK-Ger- 
 many, and a few in the U. States. 
 
 FREEDMEN, was the name applied 
 by the Romans to those persons who had 
 been released from a state of servitude. 
 The freedman wore a cap or hat as a 
 sign of freedom (hence the origin of the 
 cap of liberty), assumed the name of his 
 master, and received from him a white 
 garment and a ring. With his freedom 
 he obtained the rights and privileges of 
 a Roman citizen of the plebian rank, but 
 could not be raised to any office of honor. 
 
 FREEDOM OF THE CITY, distin- 
 guished visitors are sometimes the re- 
 cipients of this honor which is in effect 
 the making of such persons an honorary 
 citizen. The custom of such a grant is a 
 survival from medieval times when 
 cities were close corporations and the 
 right of citizenship could not be ac- 
 quired until after a long term of resi- 
 dence usually seven years after enroll- 
 ment. In those days when it was de- 
 sired to honor a man by the abolition 
 of the apprenticeship the magistrates 
 would confer the freedom of the city by 
 vote. 
 
 FREEHOLD, in law, an estate in real 
 property, held either" in fee-simple or fee- 
 tail, in which case it is a freehold of in- 
 heritance, or for the term of the owner’s 
 life; also, the tenure by which such an 
 estate is held. 
 
 FREE LANCES. See Free Companies. 
 
 FREE LIBRARIES. See Libraries. 
 
 FREEMAN, Edward Augustus, Eng- 
 lish historian and archaeologist, born 
 1823, died in 1892. His works, which are 
 very voluminous, include History of 
 Architecture, 1849; History and Con- 
 quests of the "Saracens, 1656; History of 
 Federal Government, 1863; Old English 
 History, 1869; Growth of the English 
 Constitution, 1872; Historical Essays, 
 1872-79; History of the Norman Con- 
 quest, 1867-76; Historical Geography of 
 Europe, 1881 ; the Reign of William 
 Rufus, 1882; History of Sicily (unfin- 
 ished), 1891-92; etc. 
 
 FREEMASONRY, a term applied to 
 the organization of a society calling 
 themselves free and accepted masons, 
 and all the mysteries therewith con- 
 nected. This society, if we can reckon 
 as one a number of societies, many of 
 which are unconnected with each other, 
 though they have the same origin and a 
 great similarity in their constitution, 
 extends over almost all parts of the 
 globe, and is consequently of the great- 
 est service to travelers who are members 
 of the craft. According to its own pecu- 
 liar language it is founded on the practice 
 of social and moral virtue. It claims the 
 character of charity in the most ex- 
 tended se^iSfe; and brotherly love, relief, 
 and truth are inculcated in it. Fable 
 and imagination have traced back the 
 origin of freemasonry to the Roman 
 Empire, to the Pharaohs, the temple of 
 Solomon, the Tower of Babel, and even 
 to the building of Noah’s ark. In reality 
 it took its rise in the middle ages along 
 with other incorporated crafts. Skilled 
 masons moved from place to place to 
 assist in building the magnificent sacred 
 structures — cathedrals, abbeys, etc. — 
 which had their origin in these times, 
 and it was essential for them to havfe 
 some signs, by which, on coming to a 
 
 strange place, they could be recognized as 
 real craftsmen and not imposters. Free- 
 masonry in its modified and more 
 modern form dates only from the 17th 
 century. The modern ritual is said to 
 have been partly borrowed from the 
 Rosicrucians and knights templars, and 
 partly devised by Elias Ashmole, the 
 founder of the Ashmolean Museum. 
 Freemasonry, thus modified, soon began 
 to spread over the world. In 1725 it was 
 introduced into France by Lord Der- 
 wentwater; and in 1733 the first Ameri- 
 can lodge was established. The United 
 Grand Lodge of England recognizes only 
 two species of Freemasonry — the Craft 
 and the Royal Arch; Scotch, Irish, 
 American, and Continental lodges ac- 
 knowledge higher degrees; but these, 
 with the exception of the mark degree, 
 are not universal. In ordinary free- 
 masonry there are three grades — those 
 of apprentice, fellow-craft, and master- 
 mason — each of which has its peculiar 
 initiatory ceremonies; the last of these 
 grades, however, is necessary to the 
 attainment of the full rightg/and privi- 
 leges of brotherhood. 
 
 FREEPORT, county seat of Stephen- 
 son CO., 111., 120 miles w. by n. of Chi- 
 cago; the seat of a Presbyterian college, 
 and manufactures machinery, carpets, 
 etc. Pop. 16,210. 
 
 FREE SOIL PARTY, one of the an- 
 cestors of the republican party with 
 which it was merged in 1856. During 
 its eight years existence the free soil 
 party’s purpose was to prevent the ex- 
 tension of slavery- in the territories. 
 Displeased with the refusal of the demo- 
 cratic and whig national conventions to 
 take a stand on the question of the free 
 soil advocates held a national conven- 
 tion at Buffalo in August, 1848, and 
 nominated a presidential ticket which 
 received 291,263 popular votes but no 
 electoral votes. Among its leaders were 
 Chase and Sumner. 
 
 FREESTONE. See Sandstone. 
 
 FREETHINKERS, an epithet applied 
 to the English Deists of the 17th and 
 18th centuries who argued for natural 
 as against revealed religion. Anthony 
 Collins (who first made it a name of a 
 party by his Discourse of Free-thinking, 
 London, 1713), and his friend, John 
 Toland, are among the chief of the early 
 freethinkers. Another able writer on the 
 same side was Math. Tindal fdied 1733), 
 whose Christianity as Old as the Creation 
 (1730) caused a great sensation. Lord 
 Bolingbroke and Hume take the lead 
 among advanced freethinkers. In France 
 Voltaire and the encyclopedists D’ 
 Alembert, Diderot, and Helvetius led 
 the opposition against revealed religion. 
 The same spirit became fashionable in 
 Germany in the reign of Frederick the 
 Great. The term is now generally ap- 
 plied to designate Rationalists in general 
 who are to be found among Christians 
 as well as non-Christians. 
 
 FREE-TRADE, the term applied to 
 national commerce when relieved from 
 such interference as is intended to im- 
 prove or otherwise influence it; that is, 
 unrestricted by laws or tariffs, and not 
 unduly stimulated by bounties. In all 
 countries it was long held to be of im- 
 portance to encourage native produc- 
 tion and manufactures by excluding 
 
 from their own markets, and from the 
 colonial markets over which they had 
 control the competing produce and 
 manufactures of other countries. On 
 this theory the great body of British 
 commercial legislation was founded 
 until 1846, when the policy of free-trade 
 was introduced in grain, and afterward 
 gradually extended by the repeal of the 
 naviga^-ion laws in 1849 and other great 
 measures, until nearly' all British com- 
 mercial legislation has been brought into 
 conformity with it. Free-trade can 
 hardly yet be said to have been adopted 
 as a principle of commercial policy by 
 any nation except Great Britain. As an 
 economical principle free-trade is the 
 direct opposite to the principle or sys- 
 tem of protection, which maintains that 
 a state can reach a high degree of ma- 
 terial prosperity only by protecting its 
 domestic industries from the competi- 
 tion of all similar foreign industries. 
 To effect this protecting countries either 
 prohibit the importation of foreign 
 goods by direct legislation, or impose 
 such duties as shall, by enhancing the 
 price, check the introduction of foreign 
 goods. The advocates of what is called 
 fair trade in Britain profess a preference 
 for free-trade were it universal or even 
 common; but seeing that Britain is 
 almost the sole free-trade country in the 
 world, declare that a policy of reciproc- 
 ity is required for the protection of 
 British traders and manufacturers. 
 The progress made by Britain since 
 1846 is adduced as a striking proof of 
 the wisdom of a free-trade policy, even 
 without reciprocity. 
 
 FREEZING, CONGELATION, or 
 SOLIDIFICATION, the transformation 
 of a liquid into a solid under the in- 
 fluence of cold. Each liquid always 
 solidifies at the same temperature, 
 which is called its freezing-point, and 
 the solid also melts again at the same 
 temperature. Thus the freezing-point 
 and the melting point, or point of fusion, 
 are the same, and the point is always the 
 same for the same substance. Conse- 
 quently the freezing-point of water, or 
 the melting-point of ice (32° Fahr.); is 
 taken for one of the fixed points in 
 thermometry. The freezing-point of 
 mercury is 39° below zero, of sulphuric 
 ether 46° below zero, of alcohol 203° be- 
 low zero Fahr. It has been shown that 
 the increase of pressure upon water, 
 and upon all substances which expand 
 in freezing, will lower the freezing-point; 
 and that such substances as wax, sper- 
 maceti, sulphur, and paraffin, which con- 
 tract in freezing, have the freezing-point 
 raised by pressure. Artificial freezing is 
 attained by the liquefaction of solids or 
 the evaporation of liquids. These pro- 
 cesses absorb heat, and by abstracting it 
 from the surrounding substances freeze 
 the latter. Among freezing-mixtures 
 are; (1) two parts of pounded ice or 
 fresh snow and one part of common 
 salt, which causes the thermometer to 
 fall to -4°; (2) equal parts of water, of 
 powdered crystallized nitrate of am- 
 monia, and of powdered crystallized 
 carbonate of soda, which produces a 
 cold of -7°; (3) three parts of snow with 
 four parts of crystallized chloride of 
 calcium, producing a temperature of 
 -54°; while (4) with a mixture of liquid 
 
FREEZING 
 
 FRICTION 
 
 nitrous oxide and carbon disulphide a 
 temperature of -220° is reached. 
 
 FREEZING, FUSING, and BOILING 
 POINTS: 
 
 Substances. 
 
 Reau- 
 
 mur. 
 
 Centi- 
 
 Grade. 
 
 Fahren- 
 
 heit. 
 
 Bromine freezes at 
 
 — 17.6° 
 
 ~ 22® 
 
 - 7.6° 
 
 Olive Oil freezes at 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 Quicksilver freezes at. . 
 
 - 31.5 
 
 - 39.4 
 
 - 39 
 
 Water freezes at 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 32 
 
 Bismuth metal fuses at 
 
 311 
 
 264 
 
 507 
 
 Copper fuses at 
 
 963 
 
 1,204 
 
 2,200 
 
 Gold fuses at 
 
 1,105 
 
 1.380 
 
 2,518 
 
 Iron fuses at 
 
 1,330 
 
 1,538 
 
 2,800 
 
 Lead fuses at 
 
 260 
 
 325 
 
 617 
 
 Potassium fuses at 
 
 60 
 
 62.5 
 
 144.5 
 
 Silver fuses at. 
 
 800 
 
 1,000 
 
 1.832 
 
 Sodium fuses at 
 
 76.5 
 
 95.6 
 
 204 
 
 Sulphur fuses at 
 
 93 
 
 115 
 
 239 
 
 Tin fuses at. 
 
 183 
 
 228 
 
 443 
 
 Zinc fuses at 
 
 329.6 
 
 413 
 
 773 
 
 Alcohol boils at 
 
 63 
 
 74.4 
 
 167 
 
 Bromine boils at 
 
 50 
 
 63 
 
 145 
 
 Ether bolls at 
 
 28.4 
 
 35.5 
 
 96 
 
 Iodine boils at. 
 
 140 
 
 175 
 
 347 
 
 Water boils at 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 212 
 
 Authorities vary on some of thesQ 
 points. The best are given. 
 
 FRELINGHUYSEN, Frederick Theo- 
 dore, American lawyer and political 
 leader was born in Millstone, N. J., in 
 1817. In 1866 he was appointed by Gov- 
 ernor Ward a U. Stat^ senator, to fill 
 the vacancy caused by the death of 
 William Wright. In 1871 he was elected 
 to the U. States senate. After the dis- 
 puted election of 1876 he was one of the 
 framers of the bill creating the electoral 
 commission, and after the commission 
 was constituted, in 1877, served as one 
 of its members. After several years 
 spent in the active practice of his pro- 
 fession, he again entered political life, 
 as the successor of James G. Blaine as 
 secretary of state in the cabinet of 
 President Arthur. He died in May, 
 1885. 
 
 FREMONT, county seat and capital 
 of Sandusky co., Ohio. It has a con- 
 siderable trade, lines of steamers run- 
 ning from the city, which stands at the 
 head of steam navigation on the river 
 Sandusky, to the principal ports of Lake 
 Erie. Pop. 11,417. 
 
 FREMONT, John Charles, American 
 explorer, born at Savannah, Georgia, 
 1813. He conducted five separate and 
 adventurous expeditions which explored 
 the passes of the Rocky Mountains, and 
 practically opened up the great far west. 
 He took an active part in the conquest 
 of Upper California, and served in the 
 civil war. Latterly he became a lawyer 
 and an active promoter of railroads. 
 He died in 1890. 
 
 FRENCH BEANS, or KIDNEY- 
 BEANS, the haricots of the French, are 
 the products of a native of the East 
 Indies, but now commonly cultivated 
 in all parts of the globe. This plant is a 
 twining annual, bearing alternative 
 leaves, on footstalks, composed of three 
 oval pubescent folioles. The flowers are 
 whitish, somewhat resembling those of 
 the pea. The seeds are more or less 
 kidney-shaped. 
 
 FRENCH, Daniel Chester, American 
 sculptor, born at Exeter, N. H., 1850. 
 The Minute Man, and the Gallaudet 
 Monument in Washington and his relief 
 Death and the Sculptor exhibited at the 
 World’s Fair in Chicago are among 
 
 his best known works, but his monu- 
 ments are scattered throughout the 
 country. 
 
 FRENCH HONEYSUCKLE, the in- 
 appropriate name of a leguminous plant, 
 a common perennial in gardens, where 
 it is grown for the sake of its beautiful 
 scarlet flowers. In Sicily and Spain it is 
 largely cultivated as a green crop, yield- 
 ing an enormous quantity of herbage. 
 
 FRENCH POLISH, a solution of shell- 
 lac in alcohol, used for giving a smooth 
 surface-coating to furniture and cabinet 
 work. The most common of the var- 
 nishes known under the name of French 
 polish are prepared as follows: Pale 
 shell-lac, 5J oz.; finest wood-naphtha, 1 
 pint : dissolve. Or pale shell-lac, 3 lb. ; 
 wood-naptha, 1 gallon. Methylated 
 spirit (68 o.p.) may be substituted for 
 the naptha in the above formulae. These 
 varnishes are sometimes colored to 
 modify the character of the wood. A 
 reddish tinge is imparted by dragon’s- 
 blood or red sanders-wood, and a yel- 
 lowish tinge by gamboge or turmeric- 
 root. 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTION. See France. 
 
 FRENEAU' (fre-no'), Philip, the first 
 genuine American poet of marked 
 ability. His poetry is largely satirical. 
 The beautiful lyric “The Indian Bury- 
 ing Ground,’’ “The Wild Honeysuckle,’’ 
 and “Eutaw Springs’’ have had a per- 
 manent and enduring fame. He died in 
 1832 
 
 FRESCO PAINTING, a method of 
 mural painting in water colors on fresh 
 or wet grounds of lime or gypsum. Min- 
 eral or earthy pigments are -employed, 
 which resist the chemical action of lime. 
 In drying, the colors are incorporated 
 with the plaster, and are thereby ren- 
 dered as permanent &s itself. In pro- 
 ducing fresco paintings, a finished draw- 
 ing on paper, called a cartoon, exactly 
 the size of the intended picture, is first 
 made, to serve as a model. The artist 
 then has a limited portion of the wall 
 covered over with a fine sort of plaster, 
 and upon this he traces from his cartoon 
 the part of the design suited for the 
 space. As it is necessary to the success 
 and permanency of his work that the 
 colors should be applied while the plas- 
 ter is yet damp, no more of the surface is 
 plastered at one time than what the 
 artist can finish in one day. A portion of 
 the picture once commenced, needs to 
 be completely finished before leaving it, 
 as fresco does not admit of retouching 
 after the plaster has become dry. On 
 completing a day’s work, any unpainted 
 part of the plaster is removed, cutting it 
 neatly along the outline of a figure or 
 other definite form, so that the joining 
 of the plaster for the next day’s work 
 may be concealed. The art is very an- 
 cient, remains of it being found in India, 
 Egypt, Mexico, etc. Examples of Roman 
 frescoes are found in Pompeii and other 
 places. After the beginning of the 16th 
 century fresco painting became the 
 favorite process of the greatest Italian 
 masters, and many of their noblest 
 pictorial efforts are frescoes on the walls 
 of palaces and churches. Some ancient 
 wall-paintings ai’e executed in what is 
 called Fresco Secco, which is distin- 
 guished from true fresco by being execu- 
 cuted on dry plaster, which is moistened 
 
 with lime water before the colors are 
 applied. 
 
 FRESNEL (fra-nel), Augustin Jean, 
 French physicist, born 1788, died 1827. 
 He did much to establish the undulatory 
 theory of light, made several important 
 discoveries in the polarizing of light,, 
 and greatly improved the apparatus for 
 lighting lighthouses. 
 
 FRESNO, a city and county seat of 
 Fresno county. Cal., 270 miles southeast 
 of San Francisco, on the Southern Pa- 
 cific and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa 
 Fe railroads. Pop. 14,514. 
 
 FRETS, certain short wood, ivory, or 
 metal cross-bars on the finger-boards of 
 stringed instruments, as the guitar, etc., 
 which regulate the pitch of the notes. 
 By pressing the string down to the finger 
 board behind a fret only so much of the 
 string can be set in vibration as lies be- 
 tween the fret and the bridge. 
 
 FREYCINET (fra-si-na), Charles Louis 
 de Saulces de, French statesman, born 
 at Foix (Ari^ge) 1828. He was trained 
 as an engineer, and held several im- 
 portant appointments; he was elected 
 to the senate in 1876; was minister of 
 public works 1877; minister for foreign 
 affairs 1877-79; and president of the 
 council and minister for foreign affairs 
 for longer or shorter periods in 1879, 
 1880, 1882, 1885, and 1886. He is the 
 author of several important works on 
 engineering. 
 
 FREYTAG (fri'tah), Gustav, German 
 poet, dramatist, and novelist, born 1816. 
 He was editor of the Leipzig Grenzboten 
 from 1848 to 1870, and has produced 
 numerous successful plays, tales, and 
 poems. Among his more famous works 
 are : Debit and Credit ; Pictures from the 
 German Past; The Lost Manuscript; 
 and Our Ancestors, a series of six ro- 
 mances illustrative of old German life. 
 He died in 1895. 
 
 FRIAR, in the Roman Catholic 
 Church an appellation common to the 
 members of all religious orders, but 
 more especially to those of the four 
 mendicant orders, viz. (1) Minors, Gray 
 Friars, or Franciscans, (2) Augustines; 
 (3) Dominicans or Black Friars; (4)' 
 White Friars or Carmelites. 
 
 FRICASSEE (fri-kas-se'), a dish of 
 food made by cutting chickens, rabbits, 
 or other small animals into pieces, ana 
 dressing them with a strong sauce in a 
 frying-pan or a like utensil. 
 
 FMCTION, in physics, the effect of 
 rubbing, or the resistance which a mov- 
 ing body meets with from the surface on 
 which it moves. Friction arises from 
 the roughness of the surface of the body 
 moved on and that of the moving body. 
 No such thing can be found as perfect 
 smoothness of_ surface in bodies. In 
 every case there is, to a less or greater 
 extent, a roughness or unevenness of the 
 parts of the surface, arising from pecu- 
 liar texture, porosity, and other causes 
 and therefore when two surfaces come 
 together the prominent parts of the one 
 fall into the cavities of the other. This 
 tends to prevent or retard moticn, for in 
 dragging the one body over the other an 
 exertion must be used to lift the promi- 
 nences over the parts which oppose them. 
 What is called the coefficient of friction 
 for any two surfaces is the ratio that sub- 
 sists between the force necessary to 
 
FRICTION-ROLLERS 
 
 FRISIANS 
 
 move one of these surfaces hori^^ontally 
 over the other, and the pressure be- 
 tween the two surfaces. Thus the co- 
 efficient of friction for oak and cast-iron 
 is 38:100, or '38. Friction plays a most 
 important part in nature and art; for 
 instance, but for it threads could not 
 be made nor textile fabrics manufac- 
 tured. 
 
 FRICTION-ROLLERS, a name com- 
 mon to any small rollers or cylinders 
 employed to convert sliding motion into 
 rolling motion. Such cylinders are often 
 placed under heavy bodies when they 
 are required to be moved any short dis- 
 tance on the surface of the ground; and, 
 in machinery, the same method is 
 occasionally employed to diminish the 
 friction of a heavily-loaded' axis. In that 
 case a number of small cylinders are 
 inclosed round the axis, and partake of 
 its motion. 
 
 FRICTION-WHEELS, in machinery, 
 two simple wheels or cylinders intended 
 to assist in diminishing the friction of a 
 horizontal axis. The wheels are simply 
 plain cylinders a, a, carried on parallel 
 
 Friction- wheels. 
 
 and independent axes b, b. They are 
 disposed so as to overlap pair and pair 
 at each end of the main axis c, which 
 rests in the angles thus formed by the 
 circumferences. The axis, instead pf 
 sliding on a fixed surface, as in ordinary 
 cases,*carries round the circumferences 
 of the wheels on which it is supported 
 with the same velocity as it possesses 
 itself, and in consequence of the friction 
 of the system is proportionately les- 
 sened. 
 
 FRIDAY, the^sixth day of the week, 
 from the Anglo-Sax. Frige-daeg, the day 
 sacred to Frigga or to Freya, the Saxon 
 Venus. See Good Friday. 
 
 FRIEDRICH, the German form of 
 Frederick. 
 
 FRIENDLY ISLANDS, or TONGA 
 ISLANDS, a cluster in the South Pacific 
 Ocean, between lat. 18° and 23° s., and 
 Ion. 173° and 176° w. They consist of 
 three groups, which are divided from 
 each other by two narrow channels, and 
 number altogether about 150, with a 
 collective area of about 400 sq. miles 
 The islands are nearly all volcanic, with 
 coral reefs and rocks about them ; earth- 
 quakes and volcanic eruptions are fre- 
 quent, during one of which, in Oct., 
 1885, a new island 2 miles in circum- 
 ference suddenly appeared. These islands 
 were discovered in 1643 by Tasman, but 
 received their collective name from 
 Cook. They are now governed by a 
 native Christian prince. The trade is 
 considerable, the chief exports being 
 copra, coffee, and wool. Pop. estimated 
 at 17,500. 
 
 FRIENDLY SOCIETY, the name of 
 English benefit associations established 
 by the workingmen themselves for cer- 
 tain forms of self-help, but now de- 
 'veloped into mutual insurance societies. 
 
 The benefits given by friendly so- 
 cieties are generally for sickness and 
 funeral allowances. Other forms of bene- 
 fit sometimes found are ; endowments, in- 
 surance for shipwrecks, loss or damage 
 to boats, tools, or implements, medical 
 aid dispensaries, widows’ and orphans’ 
 funds, convalescent homes, asylums for 
 the aged, and traveling relief for those 
 out of employment. The strongly cen- 
 tralized societies have no social union, 
 but only a business relationship with 
 their members, as the dues are paid 
 through agents or the post-office. 
 
 FRIENDS, THE SOCIETY OF, the 
 denomination of Christians known as 
 Quakers, dating from about 1647. In 
 spite of cruel and severe persecutions, 
 the Friends succeeded in establishing 
 themselves in Europe and America. They 
 have never been numerically powerful, 
 having at no time exceeded, if indeed 
 they have ever reached, 200,000 mem- 
 bers; but the purity of life which has so 
 honorably distinguished them as a class, 
 has unquestionably exercised a salutary 
 influence on the public at large; while 
 in respeet to certain great questions 
 affecting the interests of mankind, such 
 as war, slavery, and oaths, they have, 
 beyond all doubt, originated or empha- 
 sized opinions and tendencies which are 
 no longer confined to themselves, but 
 have widely leavened the' mind of 
 Christendom. 
 
 FRIENDS. See Quakers. 
 
 FRIESLAND, the most northerly prov- 
 ince of Holland, sometimes called West 
 Friesland to distinguish it from East 
 Friesland, now the district of Aurich in 
 Hanover. It is generally flat, and parts 
 of it are below sea-level. The area is 1281 
 sq. miles, four-fifths of which are under 
 cultivation. Leeuwarden is the capital. 
 Pop. 333,435. See Frisians. 
 
 FRIEZE (frez), a kind of coarse 
 woolen stuff or cloth, with a nap on one 
 side. 
 
 FRIEZE (frez), in architecture, that 
 part of the entablature of columns which 
 lies between the architrave and cornice. 
 It is a flat member or face, usually en- 
 riched with figures or other ornaments of 
 sculpture. See Entablature. 
 
 FRIG'ATE, in the navy, among ships 
 of war of the older class, a vessel of a 
 size larger than a sloop or brig and less 
 than a ship of the line ; usually carrying 
 her guns (which varied from about 
 thirty to fifty or sixty in number) on the 
 main deck and on a raised quarter-deck 
 and forecastle, or having two decks. 
 Such ships were often fast sailers, and 
 were much employed as cruisers in the 
 great wars of the 18th and early part of 
 the 19th centuries. Since the introduc- 
 tion of iron-clad vessels the term crusier 
 has been applied to ships taking the 
 place of the frigates of former days. 
 
 FRIGATE-;BIRD, or MAN-OF-WAR 
 BIRD, a tropfcal web-footed bird of the 
 family Pelecanida;. Including the long 
 tail the male bird reaches 3 feet in length, 
 but the body is comparatively small. 
 The bill is longer than the head, strong, 
 hooked at the point, and sharp. In pro- 
 portion to their size their wings are 
 longer than in any other bird, having 
 an extent of 7 feet or more. Their flight 
 is powerful and graceful; they neither 
 swim nor wade, but catch the flying- 
 
 fishes in the air, and cause fishing-birds 
 to disgorge their prey, which they dex- 
 terously seize as it falls. 
 
 FRIGGA, or FRIGG, in northern 
 mythology, the wife of the god Odin, 
 the goddess after whom Friday is named. 
 She is a goddess in some respects cor- 
 responding with Venus. 
 
 FRILLED LIZARD, an Australian 
 lizard, so called from a curious mem- 
 brane-like ruff or tippet round its neck, 
 covering- its shoulders, and which lies 
 
 Frilled-lizard. 
 
 back in plaits when the animal is tran- 
 quil, but which elevates itself when it is 
 irritated or frightened. A full-grown 
 specimen is about 3 feet in length. 
 
 FRINGE-TREE, a small tree belong- 
 ing to the same natural family with the 
 olive, and having snow-white flowers 
 which hang down like a fringe, inhabit- 
 ing, America from lat. 39° to the Gulf of 
 Mexico. It is frequently cultivated in 
 gardens as an ornamental plant. Four 
 other species are known, two of which 
 inhabit the West Indies, the tliird 
 Ceylon, and the fourth Australia. ' 
 
 FRISIANS, a German tribe who, 
 about the beginning of the Christian 
 era, occupied the territory between the 
 mouths of the Rhine and the Ems. 
 They became tributaries of Rome under 
 Drusus, and lived for some time on 
 friendly terms with their conquerors, 
 but were driven to hostilities by oppres- 
 sion. In time they extended as far east- 
 ward as Slesvig, and even made settle- 
 ments on the Firth of Forth, and 
 probably in other parts of Nortliern 
 Britain. About the end of the 7th cen- 
 tury the Frisians in the southwest were 
 subdued by the Franks under Pepin 
 d’H6ristal, who compelled them to 
 accept Christianity. A century later 
 the eastern branch of the tribe was con- 
 
FROEBEL 
 
 FUCHSIA 
 
 quered and christianized by Charle- 
 magne. Their country was divided into 
 three districts, two of which were an- 
 nexed on the division of the Carlovingian 
 Empire to the possessions of Louis the 
 German, and the other to those of 
 Charles the Bald. The latter part was 
 called West, Frisia (W. Friesland), and 
 the two former East Frisia (E. Fries- 
 land). Their modern history is chiefly 
 connected with Holland and Hanover. 
 The Frisian language holds in some re- 
 spects an intermediate position between 
 Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse. Of all the 
 Teutonic dialects it is the most nearly 
 related to English. Its ancient form 
 exists only in some remarkable collec- 
 tions of laws. Three dialects of it are 
 now recognized: the West Frisian, 
 spoken in the Dutch province of Fries- 
 land, about Leeuwarden, Bolsward, etc., 
 and used to some extent in litei'ature; 
 the East, Frisian, spoken between the 
 mouths of the Ems and Weser; and the 
 North Frisian, spoken on the west coast 
 of Schleswig, and South Jutland, and on 
 the islands Sylt, Fohr, Amrun, etc. 
 
 FROEBEL (freu'bel), Friedrich Wil- 
 helm August, German educationist, 
 born 1782, died 1852. After an unsettled 
 and aimless youth, and with somewhat 
 imperfect culture, he started teaching, 
 and soon developed a system which has 
 become famous under the name of 
 Kindergarten. He is the author of 
 Human Education, and Mutter-und- 
 Kose-lieder, a book of poetry and pic- 
 tures for children. 
 
 FROG, the common English name of a 
 number of animals belonging to the class 
 Amphibia, having four legs with four 
 toes on the fore feet and five on the hind, 
 more or less webbed, a naked body, no 
 ribs, and no tail. Owing to the last 
 peculiarity frogs belong to the order of 
 amphibians known as Anura or tailless 
 Amphibia. The tongue is fleshy, ^nd is 
 attached in front to the jaw, but is free 
 
 Frog and its metamorphoses. 
 
 1 , 2, 3. 4, Various stages of tadpole state; 5. 
 fully formed animal. 
 
 behind, so that the hinder extremity of 
 the tongue can be protruded. Frogs are 
 remarkable for the transformation they 
 undergo before arriving at maturity. 
 In the spring the spawn is deposited in 
 ponds and other stagnant waters in 
 large masses, of gelatinous matter. 
 These masses, with black globules scat- 
 tered through them, soon manifest 
 change, and after a time the young 
 escapes as a tadpole, as an animal with 
 short body, circular suctional mouth, 
 and long tail, compressed from side to 
 side. Gills project on either side of the 
 head from a cleft which answers in posi- 
 tion to the gill opening of fishes. The 
 hind limbs first appear as buds, later the 
 ore limbs project, the gills disappear. 
 
 the lungs becoming more fully de- 
 veloped; the tail gradually shrinks and 
 disappears, and the animal, which was 
 at first fish-like, then closely resembled 
 a newt (or tailed Amphibian), finally 
 assumes the adult or tailless form. The 
 mature frog breathes by lungs, and can- 
 not exist in water without coming to the 
 surface for air. The only British species 
 is the common frog, but the tribe is very 
 numerous, other varieties being the 
 edible frog of the south of Europe, eaten 
 in France and south Germany, the hind 
 quarters being the part chiefly used; 
 the bull-frog of America, 8 to 12 inches 
 long, so named from its voice resembling 
 the lowing of a bull; the blacksmith frog 
 of Janeiro; the Argus frog of America, 
 etc. Frogs swim with rapidity, and 
 move by long bounds, being able from 
 the power of the muscles of their hind- 
 legs to leap many times their own length. 
 
 FROH'MAN, Charles, American the- 
 atrical manager, was born in Sandusky, 
 Ohio, in 1858. After having become an 
 independent manager of various com- 
 panies “on the road,” he established him- 
 self in 1893 at the Empire Theater, New 
 York, and in the season of 1895-96 
 formed with several managerial firms 
 the “syndicate,” which has gradually 
 strengthened its position till in many 
 parts of the country it has a practical 
 monopoly of playhouses. He has brought 
 out as stars Maude Adams, Julia Mar- 
 lowe, John Drew, and other well-known 
 actors. 
 
 FROHMAN, Daniel, American the- 
 atrical manager, born in Sandusky, Ohio, 
 in 1853. He has managed the Fifth 
 Avenue, Madison Square, the Lyceum 
 and Daly’s Theaters, besides the Daniel 
 Frohman Stock Company and various 
 special attractions. 
 
 FROISSART (frwa-sar), Jean, a French 
 poet and historian, was born in 1337 
 at Valenciennes, died in Flanders be- 
 tween 1400 and 1410. At the age of 
 eighteen he went to England, where, 
 having already the reputation of being 
 a gay poet and narrator of chivalric 
 deeds, he was received with great favor, 
 Philippa of Hainault, wife of Edward 
 III., declaring herself his patroness. 
 
 FRONDE (frond), a French party dur- 
 ing the minority of Louis XIV., which 
 waged civil war against the court party 
 on account of the heavy fiscal imposi- 
 tions laid on the people by Cardinal 
 Mazarin, whom the queen-mother had 
 appointed prime-minister after the de- 
 cease of Louis XIII. (1648U At the 
 head of the Fronde stood the Cardi- 
 nal de Retz, and latterly the Prince 
 Louis Cond4. The result of this 
 contest, which lasted from 1648 to 1654, 
 served only to strengthen the royal 
 power. The name is from Fr. Fronde, 
 “a sling,” a member of the parliament 
 having likened the party to boys sling- 
 ing stones in the streets, but who dis- 
 persed on the appearance of the author- 
 ities. 
 
 FROST; 'the name we give to the 
 state of the weather when the tempera- 
 ture is below the freezing-point of water 
 (32° F.). The intensity of the cold in 
 frost is conveniently indicated by the 
 popular expression so many degrees of 
 frost, which means that the temperature 
 of the atmosphere is so many degrees 
 
 "below the point at which the freezing of 
 water commences. Frost is often very 
 destructive to vegetation, owing to the 
 fact that water, which is generally the 
 chief constituent of the juices of plants, 
 expands when freezing, and bursts, and 
 thus destroys^ the vesicles of the plant. 
 In the same way rain-water, freezing in 
 the crevices of rocks, breaks up their 
 surfaces, and often detaches large frag- 
 ments. Hoar-frost is frozen dew. It 
 may either freeze while it is. falling, 
 when it is found loosely scattered on the 
 ground ; or being deposited as dew in the 
 early part of the night it may freeze 
 during a subsequent part of it, owing to 
 radiation. It is generally seen most pro- 
 fusely in spring and autumn; because 
 at those times, while on clear nights the 
 cold is sufficient to freeze the dew, the 
 days are at the same time sufficiently 
 warm to cause a very considerable 
 quantity of moisture to evaporate into 
 'the air. 
 
 FROST-BITE, a condition caused by 
 the action of frost on the human 
 economy. It is generally local and par- 
 tial, varying from ordinary chilblain to 
 complete death of the part frozen. The 
 simplest treatment consists in coaxing 
 back the vitality of the part affected by 
 means of friction. 
 
 FROSTED-GLASS, glass roughened on 
 the surface, so as to destroy its tran- 
 parency, in consequence of which the 
 surface has somewhat the appearance 
 of hoar-frost. — The term frosted is also 
 applied to the dead or lusterless appear- 
 ance of gold and silver jewelry when 
 polishing the surface is omitted. 
 
 FROUDE (frod), James Anthony, - 
 historian and miscellaneous writer, born 
 at Totness, Devonshire, 1818. He was 
 educated at Oxford, was elected^ellow 
 of Exeter College, and received deacon’s 
 orders. He resigned his fellowship and 
 withdrew from orders on the publica- 
 tion of his Nemesis of Faith, 1848. 
 Between the years 1856 and 1869 ap- 
 peared his great work The History of 
 England from the Fall oKWolsey to the 
 Defeat of the Spanish Armada, which 
 was very popular, though it received but 
 doubtful approval from historians. He 
 was made literary executor to Carlyle, 
 and his Life of Carlyle, and Carlyle’s 
 Reminiscences, and Letters and Memor- 
 ials of Jane Welsh Carlyle, as edited by 
 him, provoked an extraordinary amount 
 of interest and controversy. Among his 
 other works are Short Studies on Great 
 Subjects; English in Ireland in the 
 Eighteenth Century; Julius Caesar; 
 Oceana, or England and her Colonies; 
 The English in the West Indies, etc. He , 
 died in 1894. 
 
 FRUIT, in botany, the seed of a plant, 
 or the mature ovary, composed essen- 
 tially of two parts, the pericarp and the 
 seed. In a more general sense the term is 
 applied to the edible succulent products 
 of certain plants, generally covering and 
 including their seeds. 
 
 FU-CHOW. SeeFoo-chow. 
 
 FUCHSIA (fu'shi-a), a genus of beau- 
 tiful flowering shrubs, natives of South 
 America, Mexico, and New Zealand, 
 nat. order Onagraceae, characterized by 
 having a funnel-shaped, colored, de- 
 ciduous, four-parted calyx, sometimes 
 with a verj' long tube; four petals set in 
 
FUEL 
 
 FULLER 
 
 the mouth of the calyx -tube and alter- 
 nating with its segments; eight exserted 
 stamens, and a long style with a capitate 
 stigma. This is one of our most common 
 decorative greenhouse plants, while the 
 hardy varieties out of doors in the open 
 border form an important feature -with 
 their drooping elegant habit and their 
 wonderful profusion of flowers. 
 
 FUEL, carbonaceous matter, which 
 may be in the solid, the liquid, or the 
 gaseous condition, and which, in com- 
 bining with oxygen, gives rise to the 
 phenomenon of neat, the heat being 
 made use for domestic, manufactur- 
 ing, or other purposes. The most im- 
 portant of the gaseous fuels is common 
 coal-gas, which is now commonly ap- 
 plied for the heating of rooms by means 
 of gas-fires and gas-stoves. For such 
 purposes the coal-gas should be mixed 
 with air just below the point at which it 
 is burned. It then gives a blue, hot, and 
 smokeless flame. A gas-fire may be 
 obtained in an ordinary grate by filling 
 it with asbestos, which is heated to in- 
 candescence by gas properly applied. 
 Gas-stoves of various constructions are 
 also used for heating apartments, cook- 
 ing, etc. Another gaseous fuel now 
 coming into use for industrial purposes is 
 water-gas, obtained by the decomposi- 
 tion of water. The principal liquid fuels 
 are petroleum, shale-oil, creosote, the 
 various animal a^id vegetable oils, and 
 alcohol. It is only the mineral oils that 
 are used to any great extent for produc- 
 ing heat. Alcohol is only employed in 
 operations requiring the application .of 
 a ^all volume of heat, and in such it is 
 as convenient and manageable a fuel as 
 can be desired. Successful attempts have 
 been made in recent times to discover 
 methods by which liquid fuel, and more 
 especially petroleum, may be applied to 
 the heating of steam-boilers. In some 
 of the systems it is the combustion of 
 the oil itself, supplied in the form of 
 spray, that produces the heat ; in others 
 the oil is volatilized by means of super- 
 heated steam, and the gas is burned in 
 the furnace from ordinary pipes as in a 
 gas-stove. The heating power of petro- 
 leum is considerably greater than that of 
 coal, and in a ship, for instance, it would 
 occupy less space, while the laborious 
 process of stoking would be dispensed 
 with. Creasote has been successfully 
 employed as fuel in the process of armor- 
 plate bending. Peat is used as a domes- 
 tic fuel in many places, but, compared 
 with the more solid fuels, it is unfit to be 
 employed for producing very strong 
 heats. An improvement in the use of it 
 as a fuel, however, has been introduced 
 by employing a process of compression, 
 which gives it almost the solidity of 
 coal. It is also sometimes soaked in oil 
 or tar, and then used in the form of 
 bricks. Wood, is in some countries 
 almost the only sort of fuel to 6e had. 
 In France, Germany, etc., it is exten- 
 sively used in metallurgy as well as for 
 domestic purposes. Before it is suited 
 for making satisfactory fuel, wood must 
 be dried for a considerable, time ejther 
 in the open air or under cover, but the 
 latter method is better, as little or no 
 decomposition of the wood goes on. 
 Woods that have a close and compact 
 texture, such as the oak, beech, or elm, 
 
 burn much more slowly and with less 
 flame than soft woods like the lime, 
 horse-chestnut, oi pine; the latter are 
 consequently preferred as fuel for some 
 purposes. Coal, as is well known, is of 
 vegetable origin, and this is clearly seen 
 in that variety of it known as lignite, 
 which still retains its woody strueture, 
 even to the eye. Wood charcoal is an- 
 other kind of fuel which is extensively 
 used in metallurgy, chemistry, and in 
 various industrial arts. It kindles 
 quickly, emits few watery or other 
 vapors while burning, and, when con- 
 sumed, leaves few ashes, and those very 
 light. They are, therefore, easily blown 
 away, so that the fire continues open, or 
 pervious to the eurrent of air which must 
 pass through it to keep it burning. This 
 sort of fuel, too, is capable of producing 
 as intense a heat as can be obtained by 
 any; but in violent heats it is quickly 
 consumed, and needs to be frequently 
 supplied. Coke or pit-coal charred is a 
 fuel which possesses in many respects 
 the same properties as charcoal of wood. 
 It is employed for producing intense 
 melting heats. Various kinds of artificial 
 fuel are manufactured. These are com- 
 posed of different ingr.edients, of which 
 coal slack or dust is the most important. 
 The coal-dust is mixed with some ad- 
 hesive substance, such as clay, lime, 
 coal-tar, etc., and compressed into 
 bricks. Slack-coal has also been em- 
 ployed as fuel in an entirely different 
 mode. It is ground as fine as possible, 
 and blown into the furnace, where it 
 burns much in the same way as the spray 
 of liquid fuel. 
 
 FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS, the sur- 
 render of escaped slaves and criminals 
 was authorized by a law passed in 1793 
 under a elause in article 4 of the United 
 States constitution. The compromise 
 of 1850 provided a new a^d more 
 stringent law under which a marshal 
 was liable to a fine for a refusal to exe- 
 cute writs under the act, and he was 
 made liable for the value of a slave escap- 
 ing from his custody. The testimony 
 of the person claimed to be a slave was 
 not to be considered. The commissioner 
 was given a fee of $10 if the prisoner 
 were adjudged a slave but only $5 were 
 he declared free. Under this law the 
 kidnaping of free negroes in the north 
 became frequent and many cases of 
 cruelty occurred. The law met with little 
 support in the north, many of the states 
 enabting legislation which rendered it 
 nugatory and the south of course re- 
 garded this as a breach of faith. The 
 fugitive slave laws were repealed in 
 1864. 
 
 FUGUE (fug), a musical term derived 
 from the Latin word fuga (a flight), and 
 signifying a polyphonic composition 
 constructed on one or more short sub- 
 jects or themes, which are harmonized 
 according to the laws of counterpoint, 
 and introduced from time to time with 
 various contrapuntal devices, the in- 
 terest in these frequently-heard themes 
 being sustained by diminishing the in- 
 terval of time at which they follow each 
 other, and monotony being avoided by 
 the occasional use of episodes, or pas- 
 sages open to free treatment. 
 
 FUJI-YAMA or FUSI-YAMA, a dor- 
 mant volcano of a symmetrical cone- 
 
 like shape, in the island of Hondo, Japan, 
 the sacred mountain of the Japanese. 
 It has been quiescent since 1707; is 
 12,400 feet in height, and is visible in 
 clear weather for a distance of nearly a 
 hundred miles. 
 
 FULCRUM, in mechanics, the sup- 
 port or fixed point about which a lever 
 turns. See Lever. 
 
 FUL'GURITE, any rocky substance 
 which has been fused or vitrified by 
 lightning. More strictly a vitrified tube 
 of sand formed by the intense heat of 
 lightning penetrating the sand, and fus- 
 ing a portion of the materials through 
 which it passes. 
 
 FULHAM (ful'am), one of the London 
 mun. and pari, boroughs, bounded by 
 theThames,and the boroughs of Chelsea, 
 Kensington, and Hammersmith. It 
 contains the palace of the Bishop of 
 London, and returns one member to 
 parliament. Pop. of mun. bor. 137,289. 
 
 FULLER, George, American figure, 
 portrait, and landscape painter, was 
 born at Deerfield, Mass., in 1822. He 
 spent several years in Boston, portrait 
 painting, then removed to New York, 
 and continued his studies at the 
 academy. He was elected associate of 
 the National academyan 1857. He went 
 south for three years, making many 
 studies of negro life. In 1860 he went 
 to Europe. His later works show his 
 keen appreciation of nature. -In 1876 
 he exhibited fourteen pictures in Boston 
 which were received with enthusiasm. 
 This was followed by frequent exhibi- 
 tions at the Academy. In 1879 Mr. 
 Fuller showed the Romany Girl, and 
 She Was a Witch. In 1880, the Quad- 
 roon, and in 1881, the loveliest of all 
 his works — the “Winifred Dysart.” 
 “Turkey Pasture in Kentucky” is one 
 of his finest examples. He died in 1884. 
 
 FULLER, Melville Weston, American 
 jurist, a chief justice of the supreme 
 court of the U. States, was born in Aug- 
 usta, Me., in 1833. In 1856 he established 
 himself at Chicago, 111., where he con- 
 tinued to practice law until 1888. He 
 was a member of the Illinois state con- 
 stitutional convention of 1862, and in 
 1863 sat in the lower house of the 
 Illinois legislature. In 1888 he was 
 appointed by President Cleveland chief 
 justice of the U. States supreme court, 
 to succeed M. R. Waite, deceased. His 
 term witnessed an expansion of the 
 federal powers by means of the decision 
 asserting the implied authority of the 
 executive to protect the federal judges 
 on occasions when there is just reason 
 to believe that, while in the exercise of 
 official duties, they are exposed to per- 
 sonal danger. In 1899 he was a member 
 of the arbitration commission convened 
 at Paris for the adjustment of the Anglo- 
 Venezuelan boundary question. 
 
 FULLER, Sarah Margaret (Ossoli), 
 American critic and essayist, born at 
 Cambridgeport,'^ Mass., in 1810. She 
 conducted the transcendental organ. 
 The Dial (1840-42), made translations 
 from the German, and published in 
 1844 her first volume. Summer on the 
 Lakes, the record of a season of travel 
 in 1843. In December (1844) she went 
 to New York as literary critic of the 
 Tribune, taking active part in the philan- 
 thropic, literary and artistic life of the 
 
FULLER’S EARTH 
 
 FUNERAL RITES 
 
 city. In 1846 she went to Europe, where 
 she was received by social, political and 
 literary leaders, residing for some time 
 at Rome, where she married (December, 
 1847) Giovanni Angelo, Marquis d’ 
 Ossoli, by whom she had one child. She 
 took an active part in the Italian strug- 
 gle for independence, and served heroi- 
 cally in the hospitals during the French 
 siege of Rome. On its capture (July 
 1849) she took refuge with her husband 
 first in the mountains of Abruzzi, then 
 at Florence, and on May 17, 1850, sailed 
 for America. The voyage was most dis- 
 astrous, The captain died of smallpox, 
 her son was taken with the disease, and 
 she and her husband and son were 
 drowned off Fire Island Beach just as 
 they were approaching New York on 
 July 16. 
 
 FULLER’S EARTH, a variety of clay 
 or marl, compact but friable, unctuous 
 to the touch, and of various colors, 
 usually with a shade of green. It is use- 
 ful in scouring and cleansing cloth, as it 
 imbibes the grease and oil used in pre- 
 paring wool. It consists of silica 50 per 
 cent, alumina 20, water 24, and small 
 quantities of magnesia, lime, and perox- 
 ide of iron. There are very extensive 
 beds of this earth in several counties 
 in England. 
 
 FULLING-MILL, a mill for fulling 
 cloth by means of pestles or stampers, 
 which beat and press it to a close or com- 
 pact state, and cleanse it. The principal 
 parts of a fulling-mill are the wheel, 
 with its trundle, which gives motion to 
 the tree or spindle, whose teeth com- 
 municate that motion to the pestles or 
 stampers, which fall into troughs, 
 wherein the cloth is put, with fuller’s- 
 earth, to be scoured and thickened by 
 this process of beating. 
 
 FULMAR, a natatorial or swimming 
 oceanic bird about the size of a large 
 duck. It inhabits the northern seas in 
 prodigious numbers, breeding in Iceland 
 Greenland, Spitzbergen, the Shetland 
 and Orkney Islands, the Hebrides, etc. 
 It feeds on fish, the blubber of whales. 
 
 Fulmar. 
 
 and any fat, putrid, floating substance 
 that comes in its way. It makes its nest 
 on sea-cliffs, in which it lays only one 
 egg. The natives of St. Kilda value the 
 eggs above those of any other bird. The 
 fulmar is also valued for its feathers and 
 down, and for the oil found in its 
 stomach, which is one of the principal 
 products of St. Kilda. When caught or 
 assailed it lightens itself by disgorging 
 the oil fron^ its stomach. There is an- 
 other and larger species found in the 
 
 P n r"'! fi p O p p n n 
 
 Culmination, a term used in 
 chemistry to denote the sudden decom- 
 position of a body by heat or percussion 
 accompanied by a flash of light and a 
 
 loud report. Fulminating compounds, 
 or fulminates, are explosive compounds 
 of fulminic acid with various bases, such 
 as gold, mercury, platinum, and silver. 
 The old fulminating powder is a mixture 
 of sulphur, nitre, ancl potash. Fulminate 
 of mercury forms the priming of per- 
 cussion-caps. 
 
 FULIVJINIC ACID, a peculiar acid 
 known only in combination with certain 
 bases, and first discovered along with 
 mercury and silver, with which it forms 
 powerfully detonating compounds. 
 
 FULTON, Robert, an American en- 
 gineer, the introducer of steam naviga- 
 tion on American waters, was oorn in 
 Pennsylvania in 1765, died 1815. In his 
 twenty-second year he went to England 
 and became acquainted with the Duke of 
 Bridgewater, Earl Stanhope, and James 
 
 Watt, and was led to devote himself to 
 mechanical engineering. In 1794 he took 
 a patent for a double inclined plane, 
 which was intended to supersede locks 
 on canals; and he also patented a mill 
 for sawing marble, machines for spin- 
 ning flax and making ropes, a dredging- 
 machine, etc. In 1797 he went to Paris, 
 where he produced the first panorama 
 that was exhibited there. He also, after 
 some trials, was successful in introduc- 
 ing a boat propelled by steam upon the 
 Seine. During a visit to Scotland he 
 had seen and obtained drawings of the 
 Charlotte Dundas, a steam-vessel which 
 had plied with success on the Forth and 
 Clyde Canal. His chief occupation in 
 Paris, however, was the invention of 
 torpedoes for naval warfare. He re- 
 turned to America in 1806, and built a 
 steam-boat of considerable dimensions, 
 which began to navigate the Hudson 
 river in 1807. Its progress through the 
 water was at the rate of 5 miles an hour. 
 In 1814 he constructed the first war 
 steamship, and was engaged upon an 
 improvement of his submarine torpedo 
 when he died. 
 
 FUNCTION, in math, a quantity so 
 connected with another that no change 
 can be made in the latter without pro- 
 ducing a corresponding change in the 
 former, in which case the dependent 
 quantity is said to be a function of the 
 other; thus, the circumference of a circle 
 
 is a function of the diameter; the area of 
 a triangle is a function of any two of the 
 sides and the angle they contain. In 
 order to indicate in a general way that 
 one quantity y is a function of another 
 X the notation y = f (x), or something 
 similar, is adopted; thus, if u be the area 
 of a triangle, x and y two of the sides, 
 and Q the contained angle, we should 
 write u = 0 (x,y, ^). 
 
 FUNCTION, the specific office or 
 action which any organ or system of 
 organs is fitted to perform in the animal 
 or vegetable economy. — Vital functions,, 
 functions immediately necessary to life, 
 as those of the brain, heart, lungs, etc. — 
 Natural or vegetative functions, func- 
 tions less instantly necessary to life, as, 
 digestion, absorption, assimilation, ex- 
 pulsion, etc. — Animal functions, those 
 which relate to the external world, as the; 
 senses, voluntary motions, etc. 
 
 FUNDAMENTAL NOTE, in music, the: 
 lowest or gravest note that a string or- 
 pipe can sound. — Fundamental tones: 
 are the tones from which harmonies are; 
 generated. 
 
 FUNDS AND FUNDING, money or- 
 other form of wealth accumulated and', 
 devoted to, or available for, some special;' 
 purpose or enterprise. In Great Britain, 
 the securities issued for the national debt, 
 are known as the public funds, or simply 
 as the funds. The process of funding a- 
 debt consists in dividing it into parts or- 
 shares (bonds) with stated times of pay- 
 ment of interest and principal, the 
 latter usually at a remote date. The; 
 substitution of bonds of lower rate for 
 those of higher rate is often called refund- 
 ing; provision, made by agreement, from 
 year to year, for the pa5anent of tin 
 principal is known as a sinking fund 
 Funded debt is opposed to floating debt,, 
 which consists of notes and overdue bills 
 and to current debt, which consists of 
 bills and other adverse balances already 
 incurred but not yet overdue. 
 
 FUNDY, Bay of, a large inlet of the: 
 Atlantic, on the east coast of North 
 America, separating Nova Scotia from 
 New Brunswick. It is noted for its im- 
 petuous tides, which cause a rise and 
 fall of from 12 to 70 feet, and the naviga-- 
 tion is dangerous. A ship-railway is be- 
 ing constructed to connect Chignecto 
 Bay with Northumberland Strait. 
 
 FU'NEN, the largest of the Danish 
 islands except Seeland, from which it is 
 separated by the Great Belt, and from 
 Jutland by the Little Belt; circuit, 
 about 185 miles; area, 1132 sq. miles. 
 The chief towns are Odense, Svendborg, 
 and Nyborg. The population is 279,501. 
 
 FUNERAL RITES, the rites and cere- 
 monies connected with the disposing of 
 the dead. Among the ancient Egyptians 
 the friends af the deceased put on mourn- 
 ing habits, and abstained from gaiety 
 and entertainments for from forty to 
 seventy days, during which time the 
 body was embalmed. Among the an- 
 cient Jews great regard was paid to a due 
 performance of the rites of sepulture- 
 and among the ancient Greeks and 
 Romans to be deprived of the proper 
 rites was considered the greatest mis- 
 fortune that could happen. The decorus 
 interring of the dead with religious cere- 
 monies indicative of hopes of a resur- 
 r*ction is characteristic of all Christian 
 
PUNFKIRCHEN 
 
 FURZE 
 
 aiations. With Roman Catholics the 
 fcody is the object of solemn ceremonial 
 j,from the moment of death until inter- 
 r. aeut. The Church of England funeral 
 s( mvice is too well known to require any 
 n( )tice. Among other Protestant bodies 
 th ere is usually no formal service, but 
 pr. »yer is offered up or an ordinary reli- 
 gio us service held before the interment 
 in Ahe house of the deceased or his rela- 
 tivtis, or, in the case of a public funeral, 
 in some public place. The practice of de- 
 livering funeral orations at the interment 
 of the dead by laymen is common in 
 France, and not unfrequent in America. 
 The wake, or watching, is celebrated in 
 some parts of the world particularly in 
 its remoter districts. 
 
 FURFKIRCHEN, a town of the Aus- 
 trian Empire, in Hungary, on the slope of 
 a hill, 105 miles s.s.w. Budapest. Pop. 
 43,982. 
 
 FUNGI (fun'jl), a large natural order of 
 cryptogamous or flowerless plants, com- 
 prehending not only the various races 
 of mushrooms, toad-stools, and simi- 
 lar plants, but a largfe number of 
 microscopic plants growing upon other 
 plants, and substances which are known 
 as moulds, wildew, smut, rust, brand, 
 dry-rot, etc. Fungi agree with algae and 
 lichens in their cellular structure, which 
 is, with very few exceptions, void of 
 anything resembling vascular tissue; but 
 differ from them in deriving their nutri- 
 ment from the body on which they grow, 
 not from the medium by which they are 
 surrounded. They are among the lowest 
 forms of vegetable life, and, from the 
 readiness with which they spring up in 
 certain conditions, their germs are sup- 
 posed to be floating in the atmosphere 
 in incalculable numbers. Some diseases 
 are produced by fungi. Fungi differ from 
 other plants in being nitrogenous in 
 composition, and in inhaling oxygen 
 and giving out carbonic acid gas. Berke- 
 ley divides fungi into two great sections, 
 the first having the spores naked, and 
 comprising agarics, boleti, puff-balls, 
 rust, smut, and mildew; the second com- 
 prising the murels, truffles, certain 
 moulds, etc., in which the spores are in 
 sacs. These are again subdivided into 
 six principal orders, all formed on the 
 mode in which the spores are borne. 
 Fungi occur in every part of the earth 
 where the cold is not too intense to de- 
 stroy the spawn, though they abound 
 most in moist temperate regions where 
 the summer is warm. Several species 
 afford excellent and abundant food, 
 others are valuable in medicine, while 
 many are among the greatest pests of 
 the cultivator. 
 
 FUNK, Isaac Kauffman, American 
 clergyman, publisher and editor, born 
 at Clifton, Ohio, 1839. Pastor of St. 
 Matthew’s English Lutheran church in 
 Brooklyn for seven years. Founder of 
 the Literary Digest (1889), Standard 
 Dictionary (1895), and Jewish Ency- 
 clopedia (1901). 
 
 FUNNEL, the shaft or hollow channel 
 of a chimney through which smoke 
 ascends; especially in steam -ships, a 
 cylindrical iron chimney for the boiler- 
 furnaces rising above the deck. 
 
 FUNNY BONE, the ulnar nerve is so 
 slightly protected in the groove where it 
 passes behind the internal condyle of 
 
 the humerus that it is often affected by 
 blows on that part. A peculiar electric 
 thrill passes along the arm to the fingers 
 whenever the nerve is struck or pressed. 
 
 FUNSTON, Frederick, American sol- 
 dier, was born in Newcarlisle, Ohio, in 
 1865. He distinguished himself as a 
 soldier in the war for the independence 
 of Cuba, rising after many wounds in 
 the insurgent army, to the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-colonel. At the outbreak of the 
 Spanish American war he organized the 
 20th Kansas volunteers of whom he be- 
 came colonel. Fighting in the Philip- 
 pines his bravery at Calumpit won him 
 a commission as brigadier-general of vol- 
 unteers. March 23, 1901, he captured 
 Aguinaldo the Filipino insurgent leader 
 and as a reward was commissioned brig- 
 adier-general U. S. A. 
 
 FUR, is the fine soft hairy cover- 
 ing of certain animals, especially the 
 winter covering of animals belonging to 
 northern latitudes. The term fur is 
 sometimes distinctively applied to such 
 coverings when prepared for being made 
 into articles of dress, etc., while the 
 name of peltry is given to them in an 
 unprepared state or when merely dried. 
 The animals chiefly sought after for the 
 sake of their furs are the beaver, raccoon, 
 musk-rat, squirrel, hare, rabbit, the 
 chinchilla, bear (black, gray, and brown) 
 otter, sea-otter, seal, wolf, wolverine or 
 glutton, marten, ermine, lynx, coypou 
 (nutria), polecat (fitch), opossum, fox,- 
 etc. (Seeunder proper headings.) All the 
 preparation that skins require before 
 being sent to the market is to make them 
 perfectly dry, so as to prevent them from 
 putrefying. This is done by exposing 
 them to the heat of the sun or a fire. 
 The small skins are sometimes previously 
 steeped in a solution of alum. When 
 stored in large quantities they must be 
 carefully preserved from dampness, as 
 well as from moths. The fur-dresser, on 
 receiving the skins, first subjects them 
 to a softening process. He next cleans 
 them from loose pieces of the integu- 
 ment by scraping them with an iron 
 blade. Finally, the fur is cleaned and 
 combed, after which it is handed over to 
 the cutter, who cuts the furs out into 
 the various shapes required to make 
 different articles. 
 
 The principal North American fur- 
 bearing animals are beaver, muskrat, 
 hare, and squirrel ; the mink, sable, fisher, 
 ermine, weasel, raccoon, badger, and 
 skunk; the lynx, northern and southern 
 bears of several kinds; foxes of three or 
 four varieties; two wolves; and most 
 valuable of all, musk-ox, seal and sea- 
 otter. Of foreign fur-bearing animals 
 the most highly prized are the chin- 
 chilla, coypu (nutria), and various 
 monkeys, marsupials (opossum, kan- 
 garoo, etc.), and cats. 
 
 FURIES, Eumenides, Erinnyes (among 
 the Romans, Furiae and Dirse), deities in 
 the Greek mythology, who were the 
 avengers of murder, perjury, and filial 
 ingratitude. Later mythologists reckon 
 three of them, and call them Alecto, 
 Megsera, and Tisiphone. ZEschylus, in- 
 his celebrated tragedy of the Eumenides, 
 introduced fifty furies, and with them 
 Fear and Horror, upon the stage. They 
 were regarded with great dread, and the 
 Athenians hardly dared to speak their 
 
 names, but called them the A'enerable 
 goddesses. It was by a similar euphemism 
 the name Eumenides, signifying the 
 toothed or well-pleased goddesses, was 
 introduced. Erinnyes, tlie more ancient 
 signifies the hunters or persecutors of 
 the criminal, or the angry goddesses. 
 
 FURLONG, a measure of length, 40 
 rods, roles, or perches, equal to 220 
 yards, the eiglith part of a mile. 
 
 FURLOUGH (fer'16), a military term 
 signifying leave of absence given by the 
 commanding officer to an officer or 
 soldier under his command. 
 
 FURNACE, a place where a vehement 
 fire and heat may be made and main- 
 tained, as for melting ores or metals, 
 heating the boiler of a steam-engine, 
 warming a house, baking pottery or 
 bread, and otlier such purposes. Fur- 
 naces are constructed in a great variety 
 of ways, according to tlie different pur- 
 poses to which they are applied. In 
 constructing furnaces the following 
 objects are kept in view: (1) To obtain 
 the greatest quantity of heat from a 
 given quantity of fuel. (2) To prevent 
 the dissipation of the heat after it is 
 produced. (3) To concentrate the heat 
 and direct it as much as possible to the 
 substances to be acted upon. (4) To be 
 able to regulate at pleasure the necessary 
 degree of heat and have it wholly under 
 the operator’s management. An air- 
 furnace is one in which the flames are 
 urged only by the natural draft; a 
 blast-furnace, one in which the heat is 
 intensified by the injection of a strong- 
 current of air by artificial means; a 
 reverberatory furnace, one in which the 
 flames in passing to the chimney are 
 thrown down by a low-arched roof upon 
 the objects which it is intended to ex- 
 pose to their action. 
 
 FURNEAUX ISLANDS (fer'no), a 
 group belonging to Tasmania, at the 
 east end of Bass Strait, including 
 Flinders Island with an area of 513,000 
 acres; Cape Barren Island, 110,000 acres, 
 and Clarke Island, 20,000 acres. The 
 inhabitants, who number about 620, 
 many of them “half-castes,” procure a 
 living by seal-fishing and preserving 
 mutton-birds, a species of petrel. 
 
 FUR'NESS, Horace Howard, Ameri- 
 can Shakespearean scholar, was born in 
 Philadelphia in 1833. His Variorum 
 Shakespeare issued in thirteen volumes, 
 1871-1891 is everywhere received as a 
 monument of scholarship. Associated 
 with him in his work was his wife, her- 
 self author of a concordance to Shake- 
 speare’s poems and his son Horace 
 H-oward Furness, Jr. 
 
 FUR-SEAL, a name given to several 
 of the Otariidee or “eared” seals which 
 have a dense covering of fine under fur. 
 The best known and most valuable is the 
 fur-seal or sea-bear of some of the islands 
 connected with Alaska, especially St. 
 Paul’s and St. George’s, where it breeds. 
 
 FURTH (furt), a town in Bavaria, 6 
 miles w.n.w. of Nurnberg, at the con- 
 fluence of the Pegnitz with the Rednitz. 
 Pop. 54,820. 
 
 FURZE, the common furze is a low 
 shrubby plant, very hardy, and very 
 abundant in barren, heathy, sandy, and 
 gravelly soils throughout the west of 
 Europe. The stem is generally 2 or 3 
 feet high, much branched and most of 
 
FUSE 
 
 GABORIAU 
 
 the leaves converted into spines. The 
 flowers are solitary and yellow. It often 
 covers exclusively large tracts of coun- 
 try, and makes a splendid appearance 
 when in flower. It is used as fuel, and | 
 soinetimes the tops of the branches are 
 used (especially the young tops) as fod- 
 der for horses and cattle, after having 
 been beaten or bruised to soften the 
 prickles. 
 
 FUSE, a tube filled with combustible 
 matter, used in blasting, or in discharg- 
 ing hollow projectiles, etc. There are 
 many varieties in use, such as the fuse 
 used in mining and quarrying, which 
 usually consists of a tube filled with a 
 slow-burning composition, which grad- 
 ually burns down to the charge; the con- 
 cussion and percussion fuses for hollow 
 projectiles, which explode the charge 
 when an object is struck; the electric 
 fuse, which is ignited by the passage of 
 an electric spark through it ; and time or 
 mechanical fuses, used in some forms of 
 torpedo, and with such explosives as 
 dynamite and gun-cotton. 
 
 FUSEE', the cone or conical part of a 
 watch or clock, round which is wound 
 the chain or cord. It is a mechanical 
 contrivance for equalizing the power of 
 the mainspring; for as the action of a 
 spring varies with its degree of tension. 
 
 Bari'el and fusee of a watch. 
 
 the power derived from the force of a 
 spring requires to be modified according 
 to circumstances before it can become a 
 proper substitute for a uniform power 
 In order, therefore, to correct this irregu- 
 lar action of the mainspring, the fusee on 
 which the chain or catgut acts is made 
 
 G, the seventh letter in the English 
 alphabet. English g hard is a gutteral 
 mute, the “voiced” or soft or sonant 
 sound corresponding to the “breathed” 
 or hard or surd sound k (or c hard). This 
 sound of g is what the letter always has 
 before a (except in gaol), o, u, and when 
 initial also before e and i in all words of 
 English origin, and when final. The soft 
 sound of g, or that which it more com- 
 monly has before e, i, and y, as in gem, 
 gin, gymnastics, is a palatal sound the 
 same as that of j, and did not occur in 
 the oldest English or Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 G, in music, (a) the fifth note, and dom- 
 inant of the normal scale of C, called 
 also sol; (b) the lowest note of the grave 
 hexachord; in the Guidonian system 
 gamma ut; (c) a name of the treble clef, 
 which is seated on the G or second line 
 of the treble staff, and which formerly 
 had the form of G. 
 
 GA'BION, a large wickerwork basket 
 of cylindrical form, but without bottom. 
 In a siege, when forming a trench, a row 
 of gabions is placed on the outside 
 nearest the fortress, and filled with earth 
 as it is thrown from the trench, so as to 
 
 somewhat conical, so that its radius at 
 every point may be adapted to the 
 strength of the spring. 
 
 FUSEL-OIL, a heavy oily inflamma- 
 ble fluid with a high boiling-point, dis- 
 agreeable cutting odor, and pungent 
 taste, which is separated in the rectifica- 
 tion of ordinary spirit distilled from 
 grain, malt, potatoes, molasses, beet- 
 root, etc. The composition of this fluid 
 depends on the materials used in the 
 manufacture of the spirit, but it may be 
 said to consist to a large extent of ethylic 
 and amylic alcohol. Fusel-oil acts very 
 deleteriously on the animal system, and 
 ,this is the reason why inferior spirits are 
 so injurious in their effects. 
 
 FUSIBLE METAL, an alloy, usually 
 of lead, tin, and bismuth, compounded 
 in such definite proportions as to melt at 
 a given low temperature. In steam- 
 engines, a plug of fusible metal is place'd 
 in the skin oUthe boiler, so as to melt 
 and allow the steam to escape when a 
 dangerous heat is reached. 
 
 FUSIBLE PORCELAIN, a silicate of 
 alumina and soda obtained from cryo- 
 lite and sand, fused and worked as 
 glass. 
 
 FUSILIERS, formerly soldiers armed 
 with a fusil or light flint-lock musket 
 closely resembling a carbine. The name 
 is given to nine or ten regiments in the 
 British army, which differ from other 
 regiments of the line chiefly in the busby 
 worn by officers and non-commissioned 
 officers. 
 
 FUSING-POINT, the degree of tem- 
 perature at which a substance melts or 
 liquefies. This point is very different for 
 different metals. Thus potassium fuses 
 at 136° Fahr., bismuth at 504°, lead at 
 619°, zinc at 680°, silver 1832°, gold 
 2282°. Malleable iron requires the 
 highest heat of a smith’s forge (2912°); 
 while cerium, platinum, and some other 
 metals are infusible in the heat of a 
 
 smith’s forge, but are fusible before the 
 oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe. See F reezing, 
 Fusing and Boiling Points. 
 
 FUSION, the conversion of a solid 
 body into the liquid state by direct 
 heat, as distinguished from solution, in 
 which the effect is produced by means 
 of a liquid. It is difficult, however, to 
 draw a line between the two, for the 
 main difference is in the temperature, 
 and when a flux is employed all distinc- 
 tion disappears. The term is specially 
 applied to the action of heat on the 
 metals, but it is extended to any solid 
 matter; thus the passage of ice into 
 water at 32° F. is true fusion. There are 
 bodies like carbon, lime, magnesia, 
 zirconia, and other metallic oxides, 
 which are practically, if not absolutely, 
 infusible. See Fusing-point. 
 
 FUST, Johann, a goldsmith of Mainz, 
 associated with Gutenberg and Schoffer 
 in connection with the origin of printing. 
 He probably died of the plague in 1466. 
 See Printing. 
 
 FUSTIAN, a cotton or mixed linen and 
 cotton fabric "with a pile like that of 
 velvet but shorter. It includes corduroy, 
 moleskin, velveteen, etc. 
 
 FUSTIC, the wood of a tree of the mul- 
 berry order growing in the West Indies. 
 It is a large and handsome tree, anti the 
 timber, though, like most other dye- 
 woods, brittle, or at least easily splin- 
 tered, is hard and strong. It is exten- 
 sively used as an ingredient in the dye- 
 ing of yellow, and is largely imported 
 for that purpose. — Young Fustic is the 
 wood of the Venice sumach, a south 
 European shrub with smooth leaves and 
 a remarkable feathery inflorescence. It 
 yields a fine orange color, which, how- 
 ever, is not durable without a mor- 
 dant. 
 
 FYZABAD, or FAIZABAD, a town in 
 British India. Pop., including canton- 
 ments, in 1901, 75,085. 
 
 G 
 
 form a protection against the fire of the 
 besieged. Each gabion is about 20 
 inches in diameter and 33 inches in 
 
 Part of trench with gabions fascines. 
 
 height, but this height is usually in- 
 creased by placing a row of fascines on 
 the top after the interior has been filled 
 up. 
 
 GABLE, the triangular end of a house, 
 or other building, from the eaves to the 
 top; gable door, a door pointed Tit top 
 like a gable. 
 
 GABORIAU, Emile, a French novelist, 
 born 1834, died in Paris 1873. After 
 
 Gable of the south transcept door of Notre 
 Paris; 13th century. 
 
 contributing to the smaller Parisian 
 journals short sketches he achieved a 
 
GABRIEL 
 
 GAGE 
 
 considerable success by his novel Dossier 
 No 113 (1866). He continued to work 
 this vein in a series of clever stories deal- 
 ing with crime and its detection ; Le 
 I Crime d’Orcival, L’ Affaire Lerouge, Les 
 Esclaves de Paris, La Vie Infernale, La 
 Corde au Cou, L’ Argent des Autres, etc. 
 
 GAB'RIEL (“hero or man of God”), 
 according to Biblical history, the angel 
 who announced to Zacharias the birth 
 of John, and to Mary the birth of the 
 Savior. In Jewish mythology he is one 
 of the seven archangels. The rabbins 
 say he is the angel of death for the 
 Israelites, and according to the Talmud 
 he is a prince of fire, who presides over 
 thunder and the ripening of fruits. In 
 Mohammedan theology he is one of the 
 four angels employed in writing the 
 divine decrees, and the angel of revela- 
 tion, in which capacity he dictated the 
 Koran to Mohammed. 
 
 GAD (“a troop”), one of the twelve 
 tribes of Israel, which took its name 
 from Gad, the son of Jacob and Zillah. 
 At the time of the exodus the tribe num- 
 bered 45,650 men of twenty years old 
 and upwards; and as being a pastoral 
 tribe they were assigned a rich district in 
 Gilead between Reuben and Manasseh. 
 See Josh. xiii. 24-28. 
 
 GADFLY, a name commonly applied 
 to various insects, is about 7 lines in 
 length; thorax yellow, with a black 
 band; abdomen white; terminal seg- 
 ments fulvous; wings dusky. This 
 
 Gadfly, natural size. 
 
 species attacks the horse also, the female 
 depositing her eggs in the skin of these 
 animals in considerable numbers. In a 
 short time the eggs are matured, ■ and 
 produce a larva or worm, which im- 
 mediately pierces the skin, raising large 
 lumps or tumors filled with pus, upon 
 which the larva feeds. It deposits its eggs 
 upon such parts of the skin of horses as 
 are subject to be much licked by the 
 .animal, and thus they are conveyed to 
 the stomach, where the heat speedily 
 hatches the larvae, too well known under 
 the name of botts. Another species de- 
 posits its eggs in the nostrils of sheep, 
 where the larva is hatched, and im- 
 mediately ascends into the frontal 
 sinuses, attaching itself very firmly to 
 the lining membrance by means of two 
 strong hooks situated at its mouth. 
 Other species infest the buffalo, camel, 
 stag, etc. Even rhinoceroses and ele- 
 phants are said not to be altogether 
 exempt from their attacks. The char- 
 acteristics of the genus are two enor- 
 mous eyes, usually of a greenish-yellow 
 colored, rayed or spotted with purple, 
 antennae scarcely longer than the head. 
 
 I the last joint with five divisions. These 
 insects suck the blood of horned cattle, 
 horses, and sometimes even of men. 
 
 GAD'OLINITE, a mineral, a silicate of 
 yttrium, with a considerable proportion 
 of lime and magnesia, of the oxides of 
 iron, cerium, lanthanum, glucinum, and 
 sometimes of other bases It is usually 
 found in dull, amorphous ^masses dis- 
 seminated through granite;*is black, or 
 very dark green, with a resinous luster. 
 It was named after the mineralogist 
 Gadolin, professor at Abo, 1785-1822. 
 
 GADSDEN, Christopher, American 
 patriot; was born in Charleston, S. C., in 
 1724. He was, in 1765, elected a dele- 
 gate to the Intercolonial convention 
 held in New York City to protest against 
 the stamp act. In 1774 he was a mem- 
 ber of the first Continental congress in 
 Philadelphia. In 1778 he was a member 
 of the State Constitutional convention 
 of South Carolina. Elected lieutenant- 
 governor of the state, he signed the 
 capitulation of Charleston when that 
 city fell into the hands of Sir Henry 
 Clinton, in May, 1780. In 1782 he was 
 elected governor of South Carolina, but 
 refused to accept the office, pleading 
 that he was too old. He died in 1805. 
 
 GADSDEN, James, American soldier 
 and diplomatist, t'Orn in Charleston, 
 S. C., in 1788. He served with marked 
 efficiency in the War of 1812, was ap- 
 pointed aide-de-camp to General Jack- 
 son in 1818, participated in the Seminole 
 war, was appointed military inspector 
 of the southern division in 1820, and 
 subsequently conducted the removal of 
 the Seminole Indians to the southern 
 part of Florida. In 1853 he was sent to 
 Mexico as U. States minister,, and in 
 December of that year concluded the 
 treaty which provided for che readjusl- 
 ment of the boundary between the two 
 counties, and the acquisition by the 
 U. States of the tract of land subse- 
 quently known as the “Gadsden pur- 
 chO/SG 
 
 GADSDEN PURCHASE, the, tract of 
 land lying partly within the present 
 New Mexico and partly within the 
 present Arizona, purchased from Mexico 
 by the U. States in 1874. It embraces 
 45,535 sq. miles, is bounded on the north 
 by the Gila river, on the east by the Rio 
 Grande, and on the west by the Colorado 
 and has an extreme breadth from north 
 to south of 120 miles. For this the U. 
 States gave the sum of $10,000,000, 
 while Mexico, besides making the ces- 
 sion, agreed (1) to the abrogation of the 
 eleventh article of the treaty of Guada- 
 lupe Hidalgo (q. v.), and (2) to the 
 abandonment of all damage claims aris- 
 ing from Indian incursions between 1848 
 and 1853. The land was regarded as of 
 little use for agricultural purposes, and 
 was purchased largely with a view to 
 settling boundary disputes in that quar- 
 ter between, the two governments and to 
 secure a desirable route for the projected 
 Southern pacific railroad. The treaty 
 of sale was negotiated with Santa Anna 
 by James Gadsden (q.v.), then minister 
 to Mexico, in December, 1853, and, after 
 undergoing modifications in the U. 
 States senate, was finally ratified and 
 proclaimed on June 30, 1854, congress 
 passing the necessary legislation ■ on 
 August 5th. The «3le met with much ' 
 
 opposition in Mexico, and caused the 
 banishment of Santa Anna in 1855. 
 
 GADWALL', the common name of a 
 species of duck not so large as the mal- 
 lard, with long pointed wings and a vig- 
 orous and rapid flight. North America 
 as far down as South Carolina is its 
 favorite habitat. 
 
 GAEL (gal), the name of a branch of 
 the Celts inhabiting the Highlands of 
 Scotland, Ireland, and the Isle of Man. 
 Gadhel or Gael is the only name by 
 which tho.se who speak ihe Gaelic lan- 
 guage are known to themselves. By 
 way of distinction the Highlanders of 
 Scotland call themselves Gael Albinnich 
 (Gaels of Albin) and the Celtic popula- 
 tion oi, Ireland call themselves Gael 
 Erinnich (Gaels of Erin). 
 
 Gaelic is the name now generally re- 
 stricted to that dialect of the Celtic lan- 
 guage which is spoken in the Highlands 
 of Scotlands, and hence distinguished 
 from Manx and Irish, the other two 
 kindred dialects, which scholars of the 
 present day include under the name (or 
 rather spelling) Gaedhelic. The modern 
 Gaelic differs to some extent from the 
 Irish in pronunciation, in grammar, in 
 .idioms, and in vocabulary; The litera- 
 ture of the Gaelic language is somewhat 
 scanty, and is much less ancient and 
 important than the Irish. The earliest 
 written specimens of Gaelic are scraps 
 contained in the Book of Deer, a religious 
 manual belonging to the early part of 
 the 12th century. To the 14th and 15th 
 centuries a considerable number of 
 pieces belong. A collection of the older 
 poetry, ascribed to Ossian and others, 
 was made in the first half of the 16th 
 century by Sir James Maegregor, dean of 
 Lismore — hence called “The Dean of 
 Lismore’s Book.” Robert Calder 
 Mackay, or Robb Donn, and Duncan 
 Ban Mlintyre, of Glenorchy, are the two 
 most noteworthy poets among the 
 Scottish Highlanders in imodern times. 
 They both belong to the 18th century. 
 This century also saw the publication of 
 the Bible in Gaelic, the Irish Bible hav- 
 ing been previously well known in the 
 Highlands. The so-called poems of 
 Ossian appeared about the same time, 
 but in English, and it was not till 1818 
 that the corresponding Gaelic text 
 appeared. A series of tales and legends 
 of the Highlands of Scotland have been 
 collected and published by J. F. Camp- 
 bell. Various English -works have been 
 translated into Gaelic, and several col- 
 lections of Gaelic poetry were published 
 in the 19th century, as well as Gaelic 
 periodicals. Gaelic poetry still continues 
 to be written not only in Scotland but 
 even in America. 
 
 GAFF, a spar used in ships to extend 
 the upper edge of fore-and-aft sail 
 which are not set on stays. The fore-end 
 of the gaff, where it embraces the mast, 
 is termed the jaw, the outer end the 
 peak. The jaw forms a semicircle, and is 
 secured in its position by a jaw-rope pass- 
 ing round the mast. 
 
 GAGE, Lyman Judson, American 
 financier was born in De Ruyter, Mad- 
 ison CO., N. Y., in 1836. In 1868 he be- 
 came assistant cashier of the First 
 national bank of Chicago, and in 1891 
 became its president. In 1892 he was 
 elected president of the board of directors 
 
GAGfi 
 
 of the World’s Columbian exposition. 
 In 1897 he was appointed by President 
 McKinley secretary of the treasury, 
 which office he continued to hold in 
 McKinley’s second administration and 
 in that of President Roosevelt’s up to 
 January, 1902, when he resigned. 
 
 GAGE, Thomas, Lord, was born in 
 England in 1720. He entered the army 
 at an early age, was made major-general 
 and governor of Montreal in 1761 and 
 in 1763 succeeded to the command of 
 the British forces in America. In 1774 
 
 General Gage. 
 
 he was appointed governor of Massa- 
 chusetts and in that capacity was in- 
 trusted with carrying into effect the Bos- 
 ton Port Act. The battle of Lexington 
 in which a detachment sent by him on 
 April 18, 1775, to destroy the cannon 
 and ammunition at Concord was de- 
 feated, inaugurated the American Rev- 
 olutionary War. Although Gage gained 
 the nominal victory at Bunker Hill he 
 was unable to raise the siege at Bcfston 
 and he was shortly after superseded by 
 General Howe. He died in 1787. 
 
 GAG RULES, the name given to 
 the resolutions passed by the house 
 of representatives in 1837 against 
 the reading, referring, debating or 
 printing of any petition praying for 
 the interference of the national govern- 
 ment with the institution of slavery in 
 any part of the United States. Each 
 year at the opening of congress an effort 
 was made to rescind the rule but not 
 not until 1844 was it successful. 
 
 GAHNITE, a name given to auto- 
 molite after Gahn. It is a native alumi- 
 nate of zinc, crystallizes in octa- and 
 tetra-hedrons, is of dark green or black 
 color, and is not affected by the blow- 
 pipe, or by acids or alkalies. 
 
 GAINSBOROUGH, Thomas, an Eng- 
 lish painter was born at Sudbury, in 
 Suffolk, in 1727. He was one of the 
 original thirty-six academicians. He 
 rivaled Sir Joshua Reynolds as a por- 
 trait-painter, and showed no less original- 
 ity in landscape. His works are now 
 very highly esteemed,' more so than at 
 any previous time. His death took place 
 in 1788. 
 
 GAIUS, or CAIUS, a Roman lawyer of 
 the time of Adrian and Antoninus Pius, 
 of whose life very little is known. Of his 
 numerous works, his Institutes are par- 
 ticularly important; first, as having been 
 for centuries, down to the time of Jus- 
 tinian, one of the most common manuals 
 of law; secondly, as having been the 
 foundation of the official compendium 
 of tI:o law which occupies an important 
 place in the refonn of the judicial system 
 by Juetiiiian; and thirdly, as tlie only 
 
 tolerably full, systematic, and well- 
 arranged source of the old Roman law. 
 The bulk of the work in MSS. was dis- 
 covered in 1816 by Niebuhr. 
 
 GALAP'AGOS, a group of thirteen 
 islands of volcanic origin in the North 
 Pacific Ocean, about 600 miles west of 
 the coast of Ecuador, to which they be- 
 long; area, 2950 sq. miles. The most im- 
 portant are Albemarle, 60 miles long by 
 15 broad, and rising 4700 feet above the 
 sea; Indefatigable, Chatham, Charles, 
 James, and Narborough. Of these some 
 are used by the Republic of Ecuador as 
 penal settlements. Many of the fauna 
 and flora of the islands are peculiar to 
 them, the most remarkable being a large 
 lizard and the^elephant tortoise. 
 
 GALATE'A, in classic mythology, the 
 daughter of Nereus and Doris, who re- 
 jected the suit of the Cyclops Poly- 
 phemus and gave herself to the Sicilian 
 shepherd Acis. The monster having 
 surprised them crushed Acis beneath a 
 rock. 
 
 GALATIA, the ancient name of an 
 extensive region in Asia Minor, so called 
 from its Gallic inhabitartts, who in the 
 first place formed part of the invading 
 ffiordes of Gauls under Brennus in the 3d 
 century b.c. These were compelled by 
 Attalus, king of Pergamos, to settle 
 within well-defined limits between Paph- 
 lagonia, Pontus, Cappadocia, Lycaonia, 
 Phrygia, and Bithynia. With the Gauls 
 were intermingled a considerable pro- 
 portion of Greeks; heUce the inhabitants 
 were often called Gallogrseci, as well as 
 Galatians. 
 
 GALATIANS, Epistle to the, one of the 
 most important epistles of St. Paul, 
 written probably about 56 a.d., soon 
 after his second visit to Galatia, recorded 
 in Acts xviii. 23. It was directed against 
 the spread of Judaistic practices in the 
 Galatian churches and especially against 
 the practice of circumcision. It has been 
 the subject of numerous commentaries 
 by Luther, Winer, Meyer, Ellicott, 
 Alford, and others. 
 
 GALATZ, or GALACZ, a town and 
 port in Roumania, in Moldavia, on the 
 left bank of the Danube, between the 
 confluence of the Sereth and Pruth. 
 When made a free port in 1834 it had 
 only 8000 inhabitants, but the popula- 
 tion has since grown to 80,000. It 
 ceased to be a free port in 1883. 
 
 GAL'AXY, in astronomy, that long 
 luminous track which is seen at night 
 stretching across the heavens from 
 horizon to horizon, and which, when 
 fully traced, is found to encompass the 
 heavenly sphere like a girdle. This 
 luminous appearance is occasioned by a 
 multitude of stars so distant and blended 
 as to be distinguishable only by the 
 most powerful telescopes. At one part of 
 its course it divides into two great 
 branches, which remain apart for a dis- 
 tance of 150° and then reunite; there are 
 also many other smaller branches that 
 it gives off. At one point it spreads out 
 very widely, exhibiting a fan-like ex- 
 panse of interlacing branches nearly 20° 
 broad; this terminates abruptly and 
 leaves here a kind of gap. At seyeral 
 points are seen dark spots in the midst of 
 some of the brightest portions; one of the 
 most easily distinguished of these dark 
 spots has long been known as the “coal- 
 
 GALIGIA 
 
 sack.” , According to Herschel’s hypo- 
 thesis, our sun and planetary system"^ 
 form part of the milky way. 
 
 GALEN, properly Claudius Galenus, a 
 Greek physician, born .^..o. 130, at Perga- 
 mus in Asia Minor. The most valuable 
 of his works were those dealing with 
 anatomy and physiology, and he was 
 the first to establish the consultation of 
 the pulse in diagnosis and prognosis. 
 Till the middle of the 16th century his 
 authority in medicine was supreme. 
 
 GALE'NA, the sulphide of lead, found 
 both in masses and crystallized in cubes, 
 but sometimes in truncated octahedra; 
 its color is bluish-gray,- like lead, but 
 brighter ; luster metallic ; texture foliated, 
 fragments cubical; soft, but brittle; 
 specific gravity, 7'22 to 7'759; effer- 
 vesces with nitric and hydrochloric acids. 
 For the most part it contains about 86'6 
 per cent of lead and 13'4 of sulphur, 
 generally some silver, and also anti- 
 mony, zinc, iron, and bismuth. Where 
 the proportion of silver is high it is 
 known as argentiferous galena, and 
 worked with a view to the extraction of 
 this metal. Galena occurs principally in, 
 the older or primary rocks, being found 
 in England mainly in the mountain 
 limestone (base of the carboniferous 
 formation). In the U. States it is very 
 abundant, the dep'osit of galena in wliich 
 the mines of Illinois are situated being 
 the most extensive and important 
 hitherto discovered. 
 
 GALENA, a city of remarkable growth 
 during the last ten years in Cherokee 
 CO., Kan., seven miles west of Joplin, 
 Mo., on the Saint Louis and San Fran- ■ 
 cisco and the Kansas City, Fort Scott 
 and Memphis railroads. It is en- 
 gaged chiefly in mining, being the center 
 of an important lead and zinc region. 
 Pop. 12,000. 
 
 GALERIUS, a Roman emperor. See 
 Maximianus. 
 
 GALESBURG, a city in Knox co., 
 Illinois. It has railroad workshops, iron 
 foundries, manufactures of agricultural - 
 implements, etc. ICnox college and 
 Lombard university are situated here. 
 Pop. 20,000. 
 
 . GALICIA, Kingdom of, a province of 
 Austria, bounded by Russia, Bukowina, 
 Hungary, and Moravia; area, 30,312 sq. 
 miles; pop. (Polish in the west, Russniak 
 in the east) 7,295,538. The great physi- 
 cal features of the country are, in a 
 manner, determined by the Carpathians, 
 which form a long and irregular curve 
 on the south, and send out branches into 
 Galicia. Farther to the north the hills 
 subside rapidly, and finally merge into 
 vast plains. It' has several considerable 
 rivers, those on the west being affluents 
 of the Vistula, those in the east, of the . 
 Danube and Dniester. The climate is 
 severe, particularly in the south, where 
 more than one of the Carpathian summits 
 rise beyond the snow-line. The summers 
 are very warm but comparative! 3 ’’ short. 
 The soil in general is fertile, and 3 ’ields 
 abundant crops of cereals, hemp, flax, 
 tobacco, etc. The domestic animals in- j 
 elude great numbers of horned cattle 
 and a fine hardy breed of horses. Sheep 
 are in general neglected; but goats, 
 swine, and poultry abound, and bee- 
 keeping is practiced on a large scale. 
 Bears and wolves are still found in the. 
 
GALICIA 
 
 t 
 
 GALLEON 
 
 forests; and all the lesser kinds of game 
 are in abundance. The minerals include 
 marble, alabaster, copper, calamine, 
 coal, iron, and rock-salt. Only the last 
 two are of much importance. 
 
 GALICIA, one of the old provinces of 
 Spain, situated in the n.w., and bounded 
 n. and w. by the Atlantic, s. by Portugal, 
 and e. by the old provinces of Asturias 
 and Leon. It is now divided into the 
 provinces of Coruna, Lugo, Orense, and 
 Pontevedra; area, 11,212 sq. miles. 
 The peasantry are very poor, and many 
 leave for service in other parts of Spain. 
 Pop. 1,941,023. 
 
 GALILEE , in the time of Jesus Christ, 
 the most northern provirfce of Palestine, 
 bounded on the e. by the river Jordan, 
 on the s. by Samaria, on the w. by the 
 Mediterranean Sea and Phcenicia, and 
 on the n. by Syria and the Mountains of 
 Lebanon. It was in some sense the cradle 
 of Christianity, Nazareth, Cana, Caper- 
 naum, Nain, and other places being in- 
 timately associated with the life of 
 Christ. The inhabitants of this country, 
 mostly poor fishermen, on account of 
 theirignorance and simplicity of manners 
 were despised by the Jews, who, by way 
 of contempt, called Christians, at first, 
 Galileans. At present Galilee is included 
 in the vilayet of Syria. 
 
 GALILEE, Sea of, also called Sea of 
 Chinnereth or Chinneroth, and the Lake 
 of Gennesaret or Tiberias, a pear- 
 shaped fresh-water lake in Central 
 Palestine, 12J miles long by 7^ broad. 
 It was apparently formed by subsidence 
 attended with volcanic disturbance; 
 and is 682 feet below the level of the 
 Mediterranean. On the east the coasts 
 are nearly 2000 feet high, deeply fur- 
 rowed by ravines but flat along the 
 summit. The whole basin is bleak and 
 monotonous, and has a scathed volcanic 
 look, the cliffs and rocks along the shore 
 being of hard porous basalt. At the 
 time of Christ ^here were on its shores 
 nine flourishing cities, of which seven 
 are now uninhabited ruins, while Mag- 
 dala and Tiberias are both in a poverty- 
 stricken condition. The lake still 
 abounds in fish, but the fishery is neg- 
 l6Ct6Ci. 
 
 GALILEI (gal-i-la'e), Galileo, a most 
 distinguished Italian physicist, born 
 18th Feb., 1564, as Pisa. His father 
 Vincenzo Galilei, a nobleman of Florence 
 procured him an excellent education in 
 literature and the arts, and in 1581 he 
 entered the University of Pisa. At 
 nineteen the swinging of a lamp in Pisa 
 cathedral led him to investigate the 
 laws of the oscillation of the pendulum, 
 which he subsequently applied in the 
 measurement of time; and in 1586 the 
 works of Archimedes suggested his in- 
 vention of the hydrostatic balance. He 
 now devoted his attention exclusively 
 to mathematics and natural science, 
 and in 1589 was made professor of 
 mathematics in the University of Pisa^ 
 In 1592 he was appointed professor of 
 mathematics in Padua, where he con- 
 tinued eighteen years, and his lectures 
 acquired European fame. Here ho made 
 the important discovery that the spaces 
 through which a body falls, in equal 
 the numbers 1, b, 5, V. 
 ♦V. invent he improved the 
 
 thermometer, and made some interest- 
 
 P. E.— S3 
 
 ing observations on the magnet. To the 
 telescope, which in Holland remained 
 not only imperfect but useless, be gave a 
 new importance. He noted the irregu- 
 larity of the moon’s surface, and taught 
 his scholars to measure the height of its 
 mountains by their shadow. A particular 
 nebula he resolved into individual stars, 
 and conjectured that the milky way 
 might be resolved in the same manner. 
 His most remarkable discovery was that 
 of Jupiter’s satellites (1610), and he ob- 
 served, though imperfectly, the ring of 
 Saturn. He also detected the sun’s 
 spots, and inferred, from their regular 
 advance from east to west, the rotation 
 of the sun, and the inclination of its 
 axis to the plane of the ecliptic. In 1610 
 Cosmo II., Grand-duke of Tuscany, ap- 
 pointed him grand-ducal mathematician 
 and philosopher, and with increased 
 leisure he lived sometimes in Florence, 
 and sometimes at the country seat of his 
 friend Salviata, where he gained a de- 
 cisive victory for the Copernican system 
 by the discovery of the varying phases 
 of Mercury, Venus, and Mars. In 1611 he 
 visited Rome for the first time, where he 
 was honorably received; but on his re- 
 turn to Florence he became more and 
 more involved in controversy, which 
 gradually took a theological turn. The 
 monks preached against him, and in 
 1616 he found himself again obliged 
 to proceed to Rome, where he is doubt- 
 fully said to have pledged himself to 
 abstain from promulgating his astro- 
 nomical views. In 1623 Galileo replied 
 to an attack upon him in his Saggiatore, 
 a masterpiece of eloquence, which drew 
 upon him the fury of the Jesuits. In 1632 
 with the permission of the pope, he pub- 
 lished a dialogue expounding the Coper- 
 nican system as against the Ptolemaic. 
 A congregation of cardinals, monks, and 
 mathematicians, all sworn enemies of 
 Galileo, examined his work, condemned 
 it as highly dangerous, and summoned 
 him before the tribunal of the inquisi- 
 tion. The veteran philosopher was com- 
 pelled to go to Rome early in 1633, and 
 was condemned to renounce upon his 
 knees the truths he had maintained. At 
 the moment when he arose, he is said 
 (but this is doubtful) to have exclaimed, 
 in an undertone, stamping his foot, 
 “E pur si muove/’ (and yet it moves). 
 Upon this he was sentenced to the dun- 
 geons of the inquisition for an indefinite 
 time, and every week, for tEree years, 
 was to repeat the seven penitential 
 psalms of David. After a few days’ de- 
 tention his sentence of imprisonment 
 swas commuted to banishment to the 
 villa of the grand-duke of Tuscany at 
 Rome, and then to the archiepiscopal 
 palace at Sienna. He was afterward 
 allowed tfi return to his residence at 
 Arcetri, near Florence, where he em- 
 ployed his last years principally in the 
 .study of mechanics and projectiles. The 
 results are found in two important works 
 on the laws of motion, the foundation of 
 the present system of physics and astron- 
 omy. At the same time he tried to make 
 use of Jupiter’s satellites for the calcula- 
 tion of longitudes; and though he 
 brought nothing to perfection in this 
 branch, hj was the first who reflected 
 systematically on such a method of 
 fixing geographical longitudes. He was 
 
 at this time afflicted with a disease in his 
 eyes, one of which was wholly blind, and 
 the other almost useless, when, in 1637, 
 he discovered the libration of the moon. 
 Domestic troubles and disease em- 
 bittered the last years of Galileo’s life. 
 He died 8th Jan., 1642 (the year New- 
 ton was born). His remains were ulti- 
 mately deposited in the church of Sta. 
 Croce, at Florence. 
 
 GALL, in the animal economy. See 
 Gall-bladder, Bile. 
 
 GALL, Franz Joseph, the founder of 
 phrenology, born in 1758 in Tiefenbrunn 
 in Baden. After a series of comparisons 
 of the skulls both of men and animals he 
 was led to assign the particular location 
 of twenty organs. Gall’s discoveries, 
 which met with severe criticism at least 
 gave an impulse to the accurate anatom- 
 ical study of the brain. Dr. Gall died 
 in 1828. 
 
 GALL, St. (German, St. Gallen), a 
 northeastern frontier canton in Switzer- 
 land, abutting on Lake Constance, 
 partly bounded by the Rhine, and in- 
 closing the canton of Appenzell. Its 
 area is 780 sq. miles. In the south it is 
 one of the loftiest Alpine districts of 
 Switzerland, and in other quarters is 
 more or less mountainous. It belongs 
 wholly to the basin of the Rhine, in the 
 valley of which the climate is compara- 
 tively mild, in the mountainous districts 
 it is very rigorous. The constitution is 
 one of the most democratic in Switzer- 
 land. German is the language spoken. 
 Pop. 228,174. — St. Gall, the capital and 
 the see of a bishop, is situated on the 
 Steinach, 2,165 feet above sea-level. 
 Pop. 36,344. 
 
 GALLAIT (gal-la), Louis, Belgian 
 historical painter, born 1812, died 1887. 
 
 GALLAND (gal-an), Antoine, a French 
 oriental scholar, born in Picardy in 
 1646, principally known for his transla- 
 tion of the Arabian Nights Entertain- 
 ments (1704-1717), the first into any 
 European language. He died in 1715 
 while engaged in translating the Koran. 
 
 GALLATIN, Albert, American states- 
 man and financier, was born in Geneva, 
 Switzerland, in 1761; came to U. States 
 in 1780 and after poor success in trade 
 became a teacher of French. After serv- 
 ing in Pennsylvania legislature became a 
 member of congress and was a leading 
 critic of the poor state of the national 
 finances. Jefferson in 1801 made him 
 secretary of the treasury and in the 
 eleven succeeding years he prevented the 
 disorganization of the public financial 
 system and laid the foundations of 
 business-like administration. From 
 1816 to 1823 he was minister to France 
 and afterwards minister to London. He 
 died in 1849. 
 
 GALL-BLADDER, a small membra- 
 nous sac, shaped like a pear, whic h re- 
 ceives the gall or bile from the liver by the 
 cystic duct. It is situated on the inferior 
 surface of the right lobe of the liver. 
 
 GALLE (gal), a seaport near the south- 
 west extremity of Ceylon, on a low 
 rocky projecting point of land. Pop. 
 37,326. 
 
 GAL'LEON, formerly a kind of vessel 
 of war, used by the Spaniards and Portu- 
 guese, with f,om three to four decks. 
 In more lecent times those vessels were 
 called galleons in which the Spaniards 
 
GALLERY 
 
 GALVANIC BATTERY 
 
 transported treasure from their Ameri- 
 can colonies. 
 
 GAL'LERY, in architecture, a long, 
 narrow room, the length of which is at 
 least three times its width, often built to 
 receive a collection of picture’s. Among 
 the most renowned European art- 
 galleries are those of the Louvre at Paris, 
 that of Versailles, the National Gallery 
 in London, the Pitti and Uffizi galleries 
 at Florence, the Dresden Gallery, the 
 Real Museo of the Prado at Madrid, the 
 Hermitage at St. Petersburg, the gallery 
 of Berlin, the gallery of the Museo 
 Borbonico at Naples, those at Venice, 
 Antwerp, Turin, etfc. The term gallery is 
 also sometimes applied to what is more 
 properly termed a corridor, likewise to 
 a platform projecting from the walls of 
 a building supported by piers, pillars, 
 brackets, or consoles, and in churches, 
 theaters, and similar buildings, to the 
 upper floors going round the building 
 next the wall. 
 
 GALLEY, a low, flat-built vessel with 
 one deck, and navigated with sails 
 and oars, once commonly used in the 
 Mediterranean. The common galleys 
 varied from 100 to 200 feet in length, 
 those of smaller sizes being known re- 
 spectively as half-galleys and quarter 
 galleys. They carried as many as twenty 
 oars on each side, each oar worked by 
 one or more men, and they had com- 
 monly two masts with lateen sails. 
 Raised structures in the stern, and even 
 in the prow, were not uncommon. These, 
 however, were more fully developed in 
 the kind of galley known as the galleass, 
 which carried three masts, from 200 to 
 300 rowers, and sometimes twenty guns. 
 France formerly had a number of 
 galleys for service in the Mediterran- 
 ean, in which convicts were forced to 
 labor. The term galley is also applied to 
 the ships of the ancient Greeks and 
 Romans, especially to their war-ships, 
 which were propelled chiefly by oars. 
 
 GALLEY-SLAVE, a person condemned 
 to work at the oar on board a galley, 
 being chained to the deck. This mode of 
 punishment was common in France 
 previous to 1748. 
 
 GALL-FLY, a name for several insects 
 which form the morbid products known 
 as galls, each species seeming to be ad- 
 dicted to a particular plant and a par- 
 ticular part of the plant. The tumor or 
 gall is due to the morbid action of an 
 irritating fluid deposited with the egg of 
 the insect. The large galls at the base of 
 oak leaves are produced by a fly of a 
 brown color, with black antennse, chest- 
 nut brown legs, and white wings. The 
 small galls on the under surface of oak 
 leaves are due to another species. See 
 Galls. 
 
 GALLIC ACID, an acid which derives 
 its name from the gall-nut, whence it 
 was first procured by Scheele in 1786. 
 It exists ready formed in the seeds of the 
 mango, has been found besides in many 
 other plants, in acorns, colchicum, 
 divi-divi, hellebore root, sumach, tea, 
 walnuts, etc., and is a product of the de- 
 composition of tannic acid. It crystal- 
 lizes in brilliant prisms, generally of a 
 pale-yellow color. It colors the persalts 
 of iron of a deep bluish black. It is of 
 extensive use in the art of dyeing, as it 
 constitutes one of the principal ingredi- 
 
 ents in all the shades of black, and is em- 
 ployed to fix or improve several other 
 colors. It is well known as an ingredient 
 in ink. See Ink. 
 
 GAL'LICAN CHURCH, a distinctive 
 name applied to the Roman Catholic 
 Church in France. Latterly, and espe- 
 cially since the Vatican Council of 1870 
 the position of the Galilean Church 
 toward the popes has essentially changed 
 and the older Gallicanism may now be 
 said to be represented by the Old Catho- 
 lics of France. 
 
 GAL'LIOT, a Dutch or Flemish vessel 
 for cargoes, with very rounded ribs and 
 flattened bottom, with a mizzen-mast 
 
 Dutch galliot. 
 
 placed near the stern, carrying a square 
 main-sail and main-top-sail, a forestay^ 
 to the main-mast (there being no fore- 
 mast), with forestay-sail and jibs. 
 
 GALLIP'OLI, a town in European 
 Turkey, on a peninsula of the same name 
 at the northeast end of the Dardanelles, 
 128 miles w.s.w. of Constantinople. Pop. 
 about 50,000. 
 
 GAL'LIUM, a rare malleable metal, 
 discovered by spectrum analysis in 1875 
 by De Boisbaudrai> in the zinc-blende 
 of Pierre-fitte in the Pyrenees. It is of a 
 grayish-white color, has a brilliant luster, 
 and is fused by the mere warmth of the 
 hand. In its properties it is related to 
 aluminium. 
 
 GALLON, a standardmeasureof capac- 
 ity, containing 277.27384 cubic inches 
 being equal to 4 quarts or 8 pints. In 
 England formerly three different gal- 
 lons were in use, the old corn-gallon of 
 268.8 cubic inches, the old wine-gallon 
 of 231 cubic inches, and the old beer- 
 gallon of 282 cubic inches. The gallon 
 of 231 cubic inches has been adopted the 
 standard of the U. States. 
 
 GALLS, gall-nuts or nut-galls, a vege- 
 table excrescence produced by the de- 
 posit of the egg of an insect in the bark 
 or leaves of a plant. The galls of com- 
 merce are produced b}' a species of 
 Cynips in the tender shoots of a species 
 of oak, abundant in Asia Minor, Syria, 
 Persia, etc. They are spherical and 
 tubercular, and vary in magnitude from 
 the size of a pea to that of a hazel-nut. 
 White, green, and blue varieties are 
 recognized, the latter kinds being the 
 best. They are inodorous, but are 
 strongly astringent from the tannin'and 
 gallic acid which they contain, and 
 which are their chief products. Gall-nuts 
 are extensively used in dyeing and in the 
 manufacture of ink, and they are also 
 frequently used in medicine. They are 
 
 chiefly imported from Aleppo, Tripoli,* 
 and Smyrna. The Chinese galls, or woo-? 
 pei-tsze, differ from the foregoing in that' J 
 they are really an unusually massive^ 
 
 Aleppo gall and gall-fly. 
 
 1, Gall split to show the cell in which -the 
 larva exists. 2, Exterior of the gall, showing 
 the opening by which the perfect insect es- 
 capes. 
 
 kind of crust or cocoon, such as the 
 aphides form on the surface of a plant; 
 the tissues of the plant are not affected. 
 Since the opening of the Japanese ports 
 these have been imported in consider- 
 able quantities. 
 
 GALVANI, Luigi, Italian physician 
 and physiologist, born at Bologna 1737, 
 died 1798. He practiced medicine in 
 Bologna, and was in 1762 appointed pro- 
 fessor of anatomy at the university. 
 He gained repute as a comparative 
 anatomist; but his fame rests on his 
 theory of animal electricity, enunciated 
 in the treatise De Viribus Electricitatis 
 in Motu Muscular! Commentarius, pub-»- 
 lished in 1791. Twenty years before the 
 publication of this treatise he had been 
 making experiments on the relations of 
 animal functions to electricity. In 1797 
 he was deprived of his chair for refusing 
 to take the oath of allegiance to the 
 Cisalpine republic, but was restored to I 
 it in less than a year. 
 
 GALVANIC BATTERY, a combina- ! 
 tion of galvanic cells. In a galvanic cell i 
 chemical action takes place between a I 
 liquid and a metal — usually zinc— < 
 which is partially immersed in it; and : 
 there is another metal, or solid conduct- 
 
 Fig. 1.— Simple galvanic battery. 
 
 ing substance of some kind, also par- 
 tially immersed. The zinc and the other 
 solid conductor are called the two plates 
 of the cell. The plates must not be al- 
 lowed to touch each other in the liquid; 
 but a current through an external con- 
 ductor can be obtained by connecting ite 
 ends with the two plates. When this 
 connection is made there is a complete 
 circuit round which the current flows, . 
 its course being from the zinc plate i 
 through the liquid to the other plate, 
 and from this latter through the exter- 
 nal conductor to the zinc plate again. \ 
 There is a continual circulation of posi- , 
 tive electricity in this direction as longj 
 as the chemical action continues, or, | 
 what is the same thing, there is a con-i 
 
GALVANIZED IRON 
 
 GALVANOMETER 
 
 v. 
 
 tinual circulation of negative electricity 
 in the opposite direction. The second or 
 inactive plate is usually either of copper, 
 of platinum, or still more frequently of 
 gas carbon, that is, the carbon which is 
 deposited in the retorts at gas-works. 
 The liquid which acts on the zinc is most 
 frequently dilute sulphuric acid — 1 part 
 of acid to 6 or 8 of winter. In some of the 
 best kinds of cell there are two liquids — 
 one in contact with the zinc and the 
 other with the inactive plate, with a 
 
 — Fig. 2. — Bunsen’s battery. 
 
 porous partition of unglazed earthenware 
 between them. Fig. 1 shows a battery of 
 four cells of the simplest kind, each con- 
 taining a plate of zinc and a plate of 
 copper immersed (except their upper 
 portions) in dilute acid contained in a 
 glass vessel. It will be observed that 
 the copper (c) of each cell is connected 
 with the zinc (z) of the next. The arrows 
 show the direction of the current. Fig. 2 
 represents a very common form of 
 battery called Bunsen’s. The zinc plate 
 consists of a slit cylinder surrounding 
 the porous vessel in which the carbon 
 plate stands, the whole being contained 
 in a glass jar. The liquid in which the 
 zinc is immersed is dilute sulphuric acid, 
 and the liquid in contact with the carbon 
 is strong nitric acid. Fig. 3 represents 
 a Danieli’s cell, which differs from Bun- 
 sen’s in the contents of the porous cell. 
 The plate within the porous cell is of 
 copper, and the liquid in contact with 
 the copper is a saturated solution of 
 sulphate of copper, crystals of which are 
 seen heaped up round the top. These 
 
 Fig. 3.— Daulell’s celL 
 
 crystals are supported by a cage of cop- 
 per wire, and are intended for keeping 
 the solution saturated. 
 
 In the simpler forms of galvanic cell, 
 such as that represented in Fig. 1, there 
 is a continual evolution of hydrogen at 
 the inactive plate, while an equivalent 
 quantity of oxygen enters into combina- 
 tion with the zinc plate, and goes to 
 form sulphate of zinc. Some of the 
 evolved hydrogen adheres to the copper 
 plate and produces a rapid falling off in 
 the eletromotive force of the cell. This 
 
 action, which is the principal cause of 
 the rapid weakening of the current in 
 batteries composed of such cells, is 
 called polarization. The purpose of the 
 two-fluid arrangement illustrated in Figs. 
 2 and 3, is to intercept the hydrogen 
 and prevent it from being deposited on 
 the copper or carbon plate. In Daniell’s 
 battery, which was the first of the kind, 
 the hydrogen is taken up by the solution 
 of sulphate of copper, and displaces 
 copper, which is deposited on the cop- 
 per plate. In Bunsen’s it is taken up by 
 the nitric acid, which is thus gradually 
 converted into nitrous acid. 
 
 It is usual to amalgamate the zinc 
 plates of a battery, by washing them 
 with acid, and then rubbing them with 
 mercury. The reason for this operation 
 is, that when ordinary commercial zinc 
 is used without amalgamation, local 
 currents are formed between different 
 portions of the same plate, owing to 
 inequalities or impurities. This local 
 action, as it is called, eats away the 
 plates without contributing to the cur- 
 rent in the general circuit. Amalgama- 
 tion renders the surface uniform and 
 prevents this injurious action. 
 
 The strength of the current given by a 
 battery depends partly on the electro- 
 motive force of the battery and partly 
 on its resistance. If two batteries are 
 .connected into one circuit in such a way 
 that they tend to drive currents round 
 it in opposite directions, the one which 
 prevails is said to have the greater elec- 
 tromotive force. The electromotive force 
 is proportional to the number of cells, 
 and is independent of their size. As 
 regards resistance, the current will be 
 strongest when the resistance is least, 
 that is when the plates are very large 
 and very near together. 
 
 Whenever chemical action takes place, 
 heat is produced; but in the ordinary use 
 of a galvanic battery only a portion of 
 this heat is produced in the cell them- 
 selves; the rest of it is produced in the 
 external conductor. When we heat a 
 wire by sending the current of a battery 
 through it, the heat generated in the 
 wire is a portion of the heat due to the 
 chemical action in the cells. In cells of 
 high electromotive force the heat due to 
 the chemical action is greater (for the 
 
 first cleansed by friction and the action 
 of dilute sulphuric acid, and then 
 plunged into a bath composed of melted 
 zinc and other substance^, as sal- 
 ammoniac, or mercury and potassium; 
 more properly the name is given to 
 sheets of iron coated first with tin by a 
 galvanic process, and then with zinc by 
 immersion in a bath containing fluid 
 zinc covered with sal-ammoniac mixed 
 with earthy matter. So long as the coat- 
 ing is entire, and so long as it is not ex- 
 posed to corrosive substances, galvan- 
 ized iron is very durable. 
 
 GALVANOMETER, an instrument for 
 measuring an electric current by the de- 
 
 Flg. 1.— Astatic galvanometer. 
 
 flection of a magnetic needle. The cur- 
 rent flows through a wire coiled usually 
 into the form of a circle, which is placed 
 vertically in the magnetic meridian and 
 surrounds the needle. When no current 
 is passing the needle points north and 
 south, and the galvanometer should be 
 so placed that the needle when so point- 
 ing lies in the plane of the coil. When a 
 current passes through the coil, it exerts 
 a force upon the needle tending to set it 
 at right angles to the plane of the coil — • 
 that is, to set it east and west. The action 
 of the earth on the other hand tends to 
 set it north and south, and it will 
 actually take an intermediate position 
 
 same quantity of zinc dissolved) than 
 in cells of low electromotive force. It 
 is much higher for a Bunsen than for a 
 Daniell cell. 
 
 GALVANIZED IRON, a name loosely 
 iven to sheets of iron coated with zinc 
 y a non-galvanic process, the iron being 
 
 which varies with the strength of the 
 current. This position is read off on a 
 graduated circle usually by means of a 
 long light pointer which is attached to 
 the needle at right angles. In some 
 galvanometers, as in that represented in 
 Figure 2, the coil can be turned till it 
 
GALVESTON 
 
 GAME LAWS 
 
 overtakes the needle. The lower grad- 
 uated circle is for the purpose of meas- 
 urinar the amount of this rotation. 
 
 For iheasuring very feeble currents, it 
 is more usual to employ the astatic 
 galvanometer, represented in lig. 1. it 
 
 has two needles, a b, a b (Fig. 3), as 
 nearly equal as possible, fastened to one 
 upright stem, with their poles pointing 
 opposite ways. The directive actions of 
 the earth on the two needles are opposite, 
 and hence the resultant directive action 
 of the earth on the two combined is very 
 small. The coil of the galvanometer, on 
 the other hand, is so placed that the 
 current tends to deflect both needles 
 
 the same way. The coil, which is shovm 
 in section in Fig. 3, is approximately 
 rectangular, its longest dimension being 
 horizontal. One of the needles a b is 
 just above, and the other a b is below 
 the upper part of the coil. The current 
 in this part of the coil would urge them 
 opposite ways if their poles were simi- 
 larly directed, but as their poles are op- 
 positely directed it urges them the same 
 way. The current in the lower part and 
 ends of the coil assists in deflecting the 
 lower needle, and is too distant froip 
 the upper needle to have -jnuch effect 
 upon it. The coil is thus placed m a 
 position of great advantage as com- 
 pared with the earth, and the deflection 
 is proportionately large. 
 
 Much greater sensitiveness can be ob- 
 tained by the use of the mirror-galvano- 
 meter, Fig. 4. The round box in the cen- 
 ter contains a coil of some hundreds of 
 convolutions, with a very small needle 
 fastened to a little glass mirror sus- 
 pended in its center by a silk fiber, i he 
 mirror, with the needle fastened to its 
 back, is shown at m in Fig. 5. Light from 
 a lamp 1 comes through the hole s and 
 falls upon the mirror, which, being 
 slightly concave, reflects it to a focus on 
 the scale aa, where a bright image of the 
 flame is accordingly seen. The smallest 
 angular movement of the mirror caqses 
 a very visible movement of the bright 
 image on the scale. The curved bar m 
 in Fig. 4 is a magnet (called the controll- 
 ing magnet), which can be raised or 
 lowered, and turned round. One use of 
 it is to bring the needle into the plane 
 of the coil when the coil is not standing 
 north and south. It is better, however, 
 to keep the coil north and south, and 
 then the magnet m can be used to annul 
 the earth’s magnetism, thus conferring 
 the same advantage which is obtamei 
 by the use of two needles in the astatic 
 galvanometer. 
 
 For the general principle which gov- 
 erns the deflection of a needle by a cur- 
 rent, see Electromagnetism. 
 
 GAL'VESTON, a city and seaport of 
 - Texas, at the northeast extremity of 
 Galveston Island, at the mouth of Gal- 
 veston Bay, about 450 miles south ly 
 west from New Orleans. It is one of tlie 
 
 most flourishing ports in the Gulf of 
 Mexico. Large quantities of cotton are 
 shipped, the export to Great Britain 
 alone being-over 400,000 bales annually. 
 The chief buildings are the custom 
 and market houses, the town-lmll, a 
 number of churches, including a Gothic 
 Episcopal Church and Roman Catholic 
 cathedral, and the Roman Catholic 
 university of St. Mary. Immense loss of 
 life and damage to property was caused 
 by a hurricane in 1900. Pop. 39,000. 
 
 GAL'WAY, a seaport of Western Ire- 
 land, prov. of Connaught, capital of 
 county of same name, at the mouth of 
 the Corrib, in Galway Bay, 117 nmes 
 wes’t of Dublin. Pop. 13,414. The 
 county, which is washed by the Atlantic, 
 has an area of 1,502,362 acres, of which 
 one-eighth is under crops. In the north- 
 west, or district of_ Connemara, it is 
 rugged and mountainous; in the east, 
 level but extensively covered with bog; 
 and ip the south, fertile and tolerably 
 well cultivated, producing wheat, bar- 
 ley, and oats. Lough Corrib, which lies 
 wholly within it, dividing the county 
 into the e. and w. districts, is the third 
 largest lake in Ireland. The minerals 
 include lead, linaestone, marble, and 
 beautiful serpentine. The fisheries are 
 valuable, but much neglected. The 
 principal manufactures are coarse wool 
 ens and linens. Pop. 192;146. 
 
 GAMA, Dorn Vasco da, the first navi- 
 gator who made the voyage to the East 
 Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, was 
 born in 1450 at Sines, Portugal, of a 
 noble family. The voyage had been pro- 
 jected under John II., and his successor, 
 Emmanuel the Fortunate, having fitted 
 out four vessels, intrusted Gama with 
 the chief command. He sailed from 
 Lisbon on July 8th, 1497, and doubling 
 the Cape, visited Mozambique, Mom- 
 baza, Melinda, and Calicut, returning to 
 Lisbon in 1479. For this exploit he was 
 named Admiral of the Indies and re- 
 ceived the title of Dom, with^ an annual 
 pension and extensive privileges in 
 Indian commerce. In the year 1502 lie 
 was placed at the head of a powerful 
 fleet, with which he provided for the 
 security of future voyagers by founding 
 establishments at Mozambique and 
 Sofala. He also inflicted signal reprisals 
 on the town of Calicut, where the Portu- 
 guese residents had been massacred, and 
 established the first Portuguese factory 
 in the Indies. He re-entered Lisbon in 
 1503, and passed the next twenty years 
 in obscurity. In 1524 he was appointed 
 Viceroy of India by King John III., but 
 his administration lasted only three 
 months, his death taking place at Goa 
 in December of that year. 
 
 GAMA'LIEL, the name of two persons 
 mentioned in Bible history, of whom the 
 first, Gamaliel, the son of Pedahzui 
 (Numbers i. 10; ii. 20; vii. 54, 59; x. 23), 
 was prince or head of the tribe of Manas- 
 seh. The other and better known Gama- 
 liel is mentioned twice in the Acts of the 
 Apostles, as a learned doctor of the law, 
 ofdhe sect of the Pharisees. 
 
 GAMBET'TA, L6on Michel, a French 
 orator and statesman, born in 1838 at 
 Cahors, of a family of Genoese extrac- 
 tion. On the downfall of the empire, 
 afior the surrender of Sedan in 1870, a 
 ko\ ci'.riiicnt for the national defense was 
 
 formed, in which Gambetta was nomi- 
 nated minister of the interior. The 
 accidental dischpge of a pistol caused 
 his death at Paris in December, 1882. 
 
 GAMBIA, a British colony and pro- 
 tectorate in West Africa. Pep. 90, 000 
 (14,000 in colony). 
 
 GAMBIER ISLANDS, a group of small 
 coral islands in the South Pacific, about 
 lat. 23° 8' s. and Ion. 134° 55' w.; be- 
 longing to France. Pop. about 2300. 
 
 GAMBLING, or GAMING, the practice 
 of indulging in games involving some 
 element of chance or hazard with a view 
 to pecuniary gain. In many countries 
 such games, and the collateral practices 
 of betting on events, taking shares in 
 lotteries, etc., are legally prohibited or 
 restricted as. frequently associated \yith 
 fraud and as themselves demoralizing. 
 At other times governments, tempted 
 by the prospect of gain, have openly en- 
 couraged gambling by licensing garning- 
 houses, or instituting lotteries under 
 their own authority. (See Lottery.) In 
 France public gaming-tables were sup- 
 pressed from 1st January, 1838, but 
 lotteries are still sometimes carried on. 
 Previous to the formation of the Germp 
 Empire gambling was encouraged in 
 both of the ways referred to in several 
 of the principalities of Germany. Baden- 
 Baden, in the Grand-duchy of Baden, 
 and Homburg, in Hesse-Homburg, were 
 the two most famous resorts in Europe 
 of the frequenters of gaming-tables. 
 After the formation of the empire gam- 
 ' ing was suppressed in these places (31st 
 December, 1872), and since that time 
 the Italian principality of Monaco has 
 become the last public resort of tl^s 
 species of gambling. 
 
 In the U. States one who keeps a 
 gambling house is indictable at common 
 law for maintaining a nuisance, and one 
 who wins another’s money with false 
 dice, or the like, is punishable as a com- 
 mon law cheat. 
 
 GAMBOGE, a concrete, vegetable, in- 
 spissated juice or sap, or gum-resiin 
 yielded by several specibs of trees, with 
 handsome laurel like foliage and small 
 yellow flowers. As a drug it has drastic 
 purgative properties, but it is seldom ad- 
 ministered alone. In doses of a drachm 
 or even less it produces death. 
 
 GAME LAWS, laws relating to the 
 killing of certain wild animals pursued 
 for sport, and called game. Formerly in 
 Britain certain qualifications of rank 
 or property were needed to constitute 
 the right to kill game; but by the Game 
 Act of Will. IV. the necessity for any 
 qualification except the possession of a 
 game certificate was abolished, and the 
 right given to any one to kill 'game on 
 his own land, or on that of another with 
 his permission. "7 . 
 
 In the U. States the chief restrictions 
 are in regard to killing wild animals 
 during the breeding season. 
 
 The following table show's the close 
 season for all game in the U. States, v i i 
 the exception of mountain sheep and 
 goat ancl a few unimportant species. 
 Where no dates are given kind of game 
 does not exist or close season at all f 
 The first date of the close season and tne 
 first date of the open season are given 
 Open season may be found by reversing 
 Uhe dates. 
 
GAME LAWS OF THE SEVERAL STATES 
 
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 GAME LAWS 
 
 GAME LAWS 
 
 
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GAMES 
 
 GAN.YMEDE 
 
 GAMES, a name of certain sports or 
 amusements carried on under regular 
 rules and methods, as with cards or dice, 
 billiards, baseball, tennis, etc. Among 
 the ancients there were public games or 
 sports, exhibited on solemn occasions, 
 in which various kinds of contests were 
 introduced. The Grecian games were 
 national festivals attended by spectators 
 and competitors from all parts of Greece, 
 the chief being the Olympic, Pjdhian, 
 Nemean, and Isthmian. They consisted 
 of chariot races, running, wrestling, and 
 boxing matches, etc., and to be victori- 
 ous in one of these contests was esteemed 
 one of the highest honors of a Greek 
 citizen. The Roman games were held 
 chiefly at the festivals of the gods. They 
 might, however, be exhibited by private 
 persons to please the people, as the 
 combats of gladiators, theatrical repre- 
 sentations, combats of wild beasts in the 
 amphitheater, etc. 
 
 GAM'UT, or GAMMUT, in music, the 
 entire series of musical tones in the 
 natural order of ascent or descent. With 
 the musicians of the 11th century A rep- 
 resented the lowest note in their instru- 
 ments, and a lower note having been 
 introduced, the Greek gamma (f) was 
 taken to represent it. From its promi- 
 nent place as first note of the scale its 
 name was taken to represent the whole. 
 
 GANDO, a kingdom of the Western 
 Soudan, intersected by the Niger, and 
 inhabited chiefly by Fellatahs, with a 
 capital of some name. It is most fertile, 
 and has a population of perhaps 5,000,- 
 000 Mohammedanism is the prevalent 
 religion. The territory is now partly 
 British, partly French. 
 
 GANESA (ga-na'sa), an Indian god, 
 the son of Siva and Parvati, represented 
 
 Ganesa. 
 
 by a figure half man half elephant, hav- 
 ing an elephant’s head. 
 
 GANGA. in Hindu mythology, the 
 personified goddess of the river Ganges. 
 
 GANGES (gan'jez), a river of Hindu- 
 stan, one of the greatest rivers of Asia, 
 rising in the Himalaya Mountains, in 
 Garhwal state, and formed by the junc- 
 tion of two head streams, the Bliagirathi 
 and the Alaknanda, which unite at 
 Deoprag, 10 miles below Srinagar, 1500 
 feet above sea level. The Bliagirathi, as 
 being a sacred stream, is usually con- 
 sidered the source of the Ganges, rising 
 at the height of 13,800 feet, but the 
 
 Alaknanada flows further and brings a 
 larger volume of water to the junction. 
 In the rainy season the flat country of 
 Bengal is overflowed to the extent of 100 
 miles imbreadth, the water beginning to 
 recede after the middle of August. The 
 Ganges is navigable for boats of a large 
 size nearly 1500 miles from its mouths 
 and it forms a great channel for traffic. 
 It is an imperative duty of the Hindus 
 to bathe in the Ganges, or at least to 
 wash themselves with its waters, and to 
 distribute alms, on certain days. The 
 Hindus believe that whoever dies on its 
 banks, and drinks of its waters before 
 death, is exempted from the necessity 
 of returning into this world and com- 
 mencing a new life. The sick are there- 
 fore carried to the bank of the Ganges, 
 and its waters (s a considerable article 
 of commerce in the remoter parts of 
 India. 
 
 GANGES CANAL, Upper, a lateral 
 canal in Northern India (N. W. Prov- 
 inces), constructed for purposes of irri- 
 gation and supplementary navigation, 
 extending on the right of the Ganges 
 from Hardwar to CaWnpore. The trunk 
 of the canal measures 445 miles. The 
 Lower Ganges Canal is a sort of con- 
 tinuation of the Upper, intended for 
 irrigation purposes. 
 
 GANG'LION, in anat^an enlargement 
 occurring somewhere in the course of a 
 nerve, and containing nerve cells in 
 addition to nerve filaments. There are 
 two systems of nerves which have 
 ganglia upon them. First, those of com- 
 mon sensation, whose ganglia are near 
 to the origin of the nerve in the spinal 
 cord. Secondly, the great sympathetic 
 nerve, which has ganglia on various 
 parts of it. In the invertebrates ganglia 
 are centers of nervous force, and are dis- 
 tributed through the body in pairs, one 
 for each ring of the body, connected by 
 fibers as in the figure. The cerebral 
 ganglia of vertebrates are the brain it- 
 self, the masses of gray matter at the base 
 of the brain, as the optic thalamus, etc. 
 
 . GANGPUR', a native state of Bengal, 
 in Chota Nagpur, consisting mainly of 
 hills, forest, and jungle; area, 2484 sq. 
 miles; pop. 107,965. 
 
 GANGRENE (gang'gren), the death of 
 some part of a living body, wherein the 
 tissues begin to be in a state of morti- 
 fication, there being also complete in- 
 sensibility. A gangrened part must be 
 removed either by amputation or by 
 natural process, but if a vital part is so 
 affected death will ensue. 
 
 GANGWAY, a narrow platform or 
 bridge of planks along the upper part 
 of a ship’s side for communication fore 
 and aft ; also a sort of platform by which 
 persons enter and leave a vessel. 
 
 GANJAM, a decayed town of India, 
 in the Madras Presidency, formerly 
 capital in the district of same name, 
 near the coast of the Bay of Bengal. 
 The district, one of the five Circars, is 
 one of the most productive under the 
 Madras Presidency, yielding rice, cotton, 
 sugar, rum, and pulse, etc. Area, 8313 
 sq. miles; pop. 1,896,803. 
 
 GANNET, the solan goose, is about 
 3 feet in length, and 6 in breadth of 
 wings from tip to tip; the whole plum- 
 age, a dirty white, inclining to gray; the 
 eyes, a pale yellow, surrounded with a 
 
 naked skin Of a fine blue color; the bill 
 straight, 6 inches long, and furnished be- ' 
 neath with a kind of pouch. The gan- * 
 nets are birds of passage, arriving in / 
 Great Britain about March and depart- 
 ing in August or September, their move- 
 
 Gannet or solan goose. 
 
 ments being partially determined by 
 those of the herring, on which they feed. 
 They migrate to the southward in the 
 winter, and appear on the coast of 
 Portugal. In the breeding season they 
 retire to high rocks on unfrequented 
 islands — the Hebrides, Orkneys, St. 
 Kilda, Ailsa Craig, and the Bass Rock. 
 The nests are generally formed of sea- 
 weed. The female lays only one egg, 
 though, if it be removed, she will de- 
 posit another. The young, which are 
 much darker than the old birds, remain ■ 
 in the nest until nearly their full size, be- ) 
 coming extremely fat. In St. Kilda they' 
 form part of the food of the inhabitants, 
 being taken by men lowered from the 
 top of the cliffs. 
 
 GANNETT, Henry, an American geog- 
 rapher, was born in Bath, Maine, in' 
 1846. In 1882 he became chief topog-- 
 rapher of the U. States geological., 
 survey. He cohtributed much of the 
 geographical matter to the present edi- 
 tion of the New International Encyclo- 
 paedia. His publications include: A' ’ 
 Manual of Topographic Methods; Dic- 
 tionary of Altitudes; and Building of a 
 Nation. 
 
 GAN'OIDS, the second order of fishes i 
 according to Agassiz. The families of I 
 this order are chiefly characterized by j: 
 angular, rhomboidal, polygonal, or cir- ('i 
 cular scales composed of horny or bony j' 
 
 Scales of ganoid fishes. i 
 
 1, Lepldosteus. 3, Cheiracanthus. 3, Palseon- I 
 iscus. 4, Cephalaspis. 5, Dipterus. j 
 
 6, Acipenser. 
 
 plates covered with a thick plate of 
 glossy enamel-like substance. The 
 ganoids were most numerous in Palaeo- 
 zoic and early Mesozoic times, but are 
 now represented by seven genera. 
 
 GAN'YMEDE (-med), in Grecian my- 
 thology, great-grandson of Dardanus, 
 the founder of 'tioy, and son of Trds 
 and of Callirrhoe, daughter of Scaman- 
 der. Zeus sent his eagle to carry him off 
 from Mount Ida to Olympus, where he 
 held the office of cup-bearer to the im- 
 mortals in succession to Hebe. 
 
GAPES 
 
 GARLAND 
 
 GAPES, a disease of fowls and other 
 Rasorial birds, arising from the presence 
 in the windpipe of srpall parasitic worms 
 which cause the bird to continually 
 open its beak. They may be dislodged 
 with an oiled feather, or by mixing a 
 little epsom salts with the food. 
 
 Ganymede and the Eagle— Museo Nazionale, 
 Naples. 
 
 GARCILASO DE LA VEGA, called the 
 prince of Spanish poets, born at Toledo 
 in 1500 or 1503. His name is associated 
 with that of his contemporary Boscan in 
 the impetus given to Spanish literature 
 by the imitation of the Italian poetic 
 style as exemplified in Petrarch, Aristo 
 and Sannazaro. His works, which con- 
 sist of eclogues, epistles, odes, songs, 
 sonnets, etc., are graceful and musical. 
 He died in 1536. 
 
 GARD (gar), a department of southern 
 France, abutting on the Gulf of Lyons; 
 area, 2256 sq. miles. Pop. 417,099. 
 
 GARDE RATIONALE (nd-syo-nal), a 
 guard of armed citizens instituted at 
 Paris, July 13, 1789, for the purpose of 
 preserving order and protecting liberty. 
 
 GARDENING. See Horticulture. 
 
 GARDNER-GUN. See Machine-gun. 
 
 GARFIELD, James Abram, the twen- 
 tieth president of the U. States, was born 
 in Ohio, where he worked on a farm till 
 
 James A. Garfield. 
 
 his fourteenth .year. He acquired a good 
 education, however, studied law, and in 
 1859 was elected to the Ohio state senat^. 
 In 1861 he entered the army, was ap- 
 
 pointed colonel, became chief of staff to 
 Rosecranz, and major-general of volun- 
 teers. He resigned his command on his 
 election to congress in 1863. He sat in 
 nine congresses for the same constit- 
 uency, serving on important committees 
 and winning ground no less by strong 
 intelligence than uncompromising hon- 
 esty. In lv880 he was elected to the 
 senate, and in the same year became 
 president of the U. States. Many re- 
 forms seemed about to be inaugurated, 
 when he was shot by a disappointed 
 office-seeker named Guiteau in the rail - 
 way station at Washington. He lin- 
 gered eighty days, dying at Long Branch, 
 Sept. 19, 1881. 
 
 GAR-FISH, SEA-PIKE, or GAR- 
 PIKE, a fish, known also as the sea- 
 needle, making its appearance on the 
 American coasts in summer, a short 
 time before the mackerel. 
 
 GAR'GARA, the highest mountain of 
 the ridge of Ida, in Asia Minor, near the 
 Gulf of Adramyti, on the north. 
 
 GARGLE, a liquid application to the 
 throat. In using a gargle the head 
 should be thrown well back so as to 
 keep the liquid in contact with the 
 throat, and by expelling the air from 
 the lungs through the liquid the pas- 
 sage may be thoroughly washed. (3are 
 should be taken not to swallow the 
 gargle. 
 
 GAR'GOYLE, in Gothic architecture, 
 a projecting spout, for throwing the 
 
 Gargoyle, Stony-Stratford. 
 
 water from the gutter of a building, 
 usually of some grotesque form, such 
 as the head or figure of an animal or 
 monster. 
 
 GAR'HWAL (gar-hwaP), or GUR- 
 HWAL, a district of India, in the United 
 Provinces, bounded on the north by 
 Tibet, ea4t by Kumaun, south by Bij- 
 naur district, and west by the Garhwal 
 state; area, 5500 sq. miles; pop. 407,818. 
 There are good roads, and a considerable 
 trade with Tibet. 
 
 GARHWAL, or TEHRI, a native In- 
 dian state under British protection, 
 west of the district of the same name 
 (see above); area, 4164 sq. miles; pop. 
 241,242. Chief town, Tehri; chief river, 
 the Alaknanda and other head-waters 
 of the Ganges. 
 
 GARIBAL'DI, Giuseppe, Italian pa- 
 triot and hero, was born at Nice, 1807 
 his father being a poor fisherman. In 
 1834 he became a member of the “Young 
 Italy” party, and being condemned to 
 death for his share in the schemes of 
 Mazzini, escaped to Marseilles, took 
 service in the fleet of the Bey of Tunis 
 and finally went to South America. In 
 
 1848 he returned to Italy, raised a band 
 of volunteers, and harassed the Austrians 
 until the cessation of hostilities and re- 
 establishment of Austrian supremacy in 
 Lombardy. He then retired to Switzer- 
 land, but in the spring of 1849 proceeded 
 to Rome to support Mazzini’s republic. 
 He was appointed to command the 
 
 Giuseppe Garibaldi. 
 
 forces, but the odds were overwhelming, 
 and after a desperate defense of thirty 
 days Garibaldi escaped from Rome with 
 4000 of his followers. He then purchased 
 a part of the small island of Caprera, on 
 the north coast of Sardinia, and made 
 this his home for the rest of his' life. 
 Latterly the subscriptions of his ad- 
 mirers enabled him to become owner of 
 the whole island. In the war of 1859, in 
 which Sardinia recovered Lombardy, 
 Garibaldi and his chasseurs of the Alps 
 did splendid service; and on the revolt 
 of the Sicilians in 1860 he crossed to the 
 island, wrested it after a fierce struggle 
 from the King of Naples, recrossed to 
 the mainland and occupied Naples, 
 where he was procliamed dictator of 
 the Two Sicilies. It was now feared that 
 Garibaldi might prove untrue to his 
 motto — Italy and Victor Emmanuel — 
 but he really acquiesced in the annexa- 
 tion of the Two Sicilies to Italy, and de- 
 clining all honors retired to his island 
 farm. In 1864 he received an enthusiastic 
 welcome in Britain. In 1870 he gave his 
 services to the French republican govern- 
 ment against the Germans, and with his 
 20,000 men rendered valuable assistance 
 in the southeast. At the end of the war 
 he was elected a member of the French 
 assembly, but speedily resigned his seat 
 and returned to Caprera. Rome now 
 became the capital of the united Italy, 
 and here in January, 1875, Garibaldi took 
 his seat in the Italian parliament. The 
 latter part of his life was spent quietly at 
 Caprera. After 1870 he wrote two or 
 three novels — very mediocre produc- 
 tions.' He died somewhat suddenly June 
 2, 1882. His autobiography has been 
 published in English. 
 
 GAR'LAND, Augustus Hill, American 
 politician, was born in Tipton county, 
 Tenn., in 1832, but when less than a 
 year old was taken by his parents to 
 Arkansas. He was elected to the pro- 
 visional congress of the confederate 
 states in 1861; was re-elected to the 
 house of the same congress in 1862, and 
 was afterward elected to the confeder- 
 ate senate, of which he continued to be 
 a member until the close of the war. He 
 then devoted himself to his profession 
 
GARLIC 
 
 I 
 
 GARTER 
 
 and in 1874 was elected governor of 
 Arkansas, under the new constitution. 
 He was a member of the U. States 
 senate from 1877 to 1885, and from 1885 
 to 1889 was attorney-general of the U. 
 States in the cabinet of President Cleve- 
 land, after which, until his death, in 
 1899, he practiced law in Washington, 
 D. C. 
 
 GARLIC, a hardy, perennial allied to 
 the onion, indigenous to the south of 
 Europe, and forming a favorable con- 
 diment among several nations. The 
 leaves are grass-like, and differ from 
 those of the common onion in not being 
 fistulous; the stem is about 2 feet high; 
 the flowers are white; and the root is a 
 compound bulb, consisting of several 
 smaller bulbs, commonly denominated 
 cloves, enveloped by a common mem- 
 brane. It has a strong, penetrating 
 odor, and a pungent acrid taste. Used 
 as a medicine it is stimulent, tonic, and 
 promotes digestion; it has also diuretic 
 and sudorific r;ualities, and is a good ex- 
 pectorant. — Oil of garlic is^a sulphide of 
 allyl, a colorless, strongly^melling oil, 
 exceedingly irritant to the palate and 
 the skin. It is contained also in the 
 onion, leek, asafoctida, etc. 
 
 GARNET, a beautiful mineral, or 
 group of minei’als, classed among the 
 gems, and occurring generally in mica- 
 slate, hornblende-slate, gneiss, and 
 granite, usually as more or less regular 
 crystals of from twelve to sixty or even 
 eighty-four sides. The prevailing color 
 is red of various shades, but often brown 
 and sometimes green, yellow, or black. 
 They vary considerably in composition, 
 but admit of classification into three 
 principal groups according to their chief 
 sesquioxide basic components, viz. 
 alumina, iron, and chrome garnets. 
 Among the varieties are common gar- 
 net, pyrope, alamandine, precious or 
 oriental garnet, allochroite, melanite or 
 black garnet, etc. By jewelers garnets 
 are classed as Syrian, Bohemian, or 
 Cinghalese, rather, however, from their 
 relative value and fineness than as 
 necessarily implying that they came 
 from these places. The first, named after 
 Syrian, in Pegu, long the chief mart for 
 garnets, are the most esteemed, being a 
 violet-purple unmixed with black and 
 taking an orange tint by artificial light. 
 The Bohemian garnet is usually a dull 
 poppy red with hyacinth orange tint 
 when held between the eye and the 
 light; the pyrope is a fuU crimson form 
 of this class. Coarse garnets reduced to 
 powder are sometimes used in place of 
 emery for polishing metals. 
 
 GARNISHMENT, a process by which 
 chattels, rights, of credits belonging to 
 the defendant in aq action, but which 
 are in the possession of a third person 
 are seized and applied to the plaintiff’s 
 claim. It is not a common-law process 
 and is regulated by statute in the states 
 where it exists. Such statutes are, as a 
 rule, strictly construed, and their re- 
 quirements must be fully and fairly 
 complied with by a plaintiff who would 
 take advantage of them. It is held that 
 only such property in the hands of the 
 third party — the garnishee — is liable to 
 this process as is not incumbered with 
 trusts, and such as may be handed over 
 or paid by the officer executing the proc- 
 
 ess, under the order of thet;ourt and free 
 from incumbrances, which can be prop- 
 erly determined and adjusted only by 
 equity tribunals. Garmshment proceed- 
 ings reach only such debts as are owing 
 to the defendant at the time the process 
 is served. A judgment obtained in a 
 fedaral court cannot be garnisheecLin an 
 action in a state court. Such garnish- 
 ment would operate to oust the federal 
 court of its proper control over its own 
 judgments. 
 
 GARONNE', a river of s.w. France, 
 rising in the vale of Aran, in the Spanish 
 Pyrenees; length, about 350 miles. 
 
 GARONNE, HAUTE, a department, 
 south of France, one of the five separated 
 by the Pyrenees from Spain. Capital of 
 department, Toulouse. Area, 2,529 sq. 
 miles. Pop. 439,769. 
 
 GARRICK, David, actor, born at 
 Hereford, Eng., Feb. 20, 1717. He had a 
 strong passion for acting, and in 1741 
 joined Giffard’s company at Ipswich 
 under the name of Lyddal. At Giffard’s 
 theater in Goodman’s-fields he achieved 
 a great success as Richard III., and in 
 1742 was not less successful at Drury 
 Lane. In 1745 he became joint manager 
 with Mr. Sheridan of a theater in Dublin, 
 and after a season at Covent Garden 
 (1746) purchased Drury Lane in con- 
 junction with Mr. Lacy, opening it 15th 
 September, 1747, with the Merchant of 
 Venice, to which Dr. Johnson furnished 
 a prologue. From this period may be 
 dated a comparative revival 'of Shake- 
 speare, and a reform both in the con- 
 duct and license of the drama. In 1763 
 he visited the Continent for a yean and a 
 half. He had ah-eady written his farces 
 of The Lying Valet, Lethe, and Miss in 
 her Teens; and in 1766 he composed, 
 jointly with Colman,-the excellent 
 comedy of the Clandestine Marriage. 
 After the death of Lacy, in 1773, the 
 sole management of the theater de- 
 volved upon Garrick, until 1776, when 
 he' sold his moiety of the theater for 
 £37,000, performed his last part, Don 
 Felix in The Wonder, for the benefit of 
 the theatrical fund, and bade an im- 
 pressive farewell to the stage. He died 
 January 20, 1779, and was buried with 
 great pomp in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 GAR'RISON, William Lloyd, Ameri- 
 can journalist and founder of the anti- 
 slavery movement in the U. States, born 
 1805. He was apprenticed to a shoe- 
 maker, but eventually became a com- 
 positor on the Newburyport Hera^l. In 
 1827 he became editor of the National 
 Philanthropist, the first American tem- 
 perance journal, and afterward of a 
 journal in support of the election of John 
 Quincy Adams. With Mr. Lundy, a 
 Quaker, he then started the paper called 
 the Genius of Universal Emancipation 
 (1829), his denunciations of slave-traders 
 leading to his imprisonment for libel. 
 On his release he commenced lecturing 
 in Boston, started the Liberator (1831), 
 published weekly with the aid of one 
 assistant and a negro boy. In 1832 ap- 
 peared his Thoughts on African Coloniza- 
 tion, and in the same year he established 
 the American anti-slavery society. ,He 
 subsequently visited England, where 
 he wa's welcomed by Wilberforce, 
 Brougham, Buxton, and others. In 1835 
 he was saved with diflicultv from a 
 
 Boston mob; but his principles made 
 steady progress until 1865, when the 
 anti-slavery society was dissolved with 
 its work accomplished. He died at New 
 York, 1879. .A volume of sonnets (1843) 
 and one of selections (1852) bear his 
 name. \ 
 
 GARROTE (gar-ro'ta), a mode of pun- 
 ishment in Spain by strangulation, the 
 victim being placed -on a stool with a 
 post or stake (Spanish, garrote) behind, 
 to which is affixed an iron collar with a 
 screw; this collar is made to clasp the 
 neck of the criminal, and drawn tighter 
 by means of the screw till life becomes 
 extinct. This word, with the French 
 spelling and pronunciation garrote, has 
 become naturalized in G^eat Britain as a 
 term for a species of robbery effected by 
 throttling the victim and stripping him 
 while insensible. 
 
 GARTER, Order of the, the highest 
 and most ancient order of knighthood in 
 Great Britain. The origin of the order, 
 though sometimes assigned to Richard 
 
 1., is generally attributed to Edward 
 
 111., the legend being that Countess of 
 
 Insignia of the garter. 
 
 Salisbury having dropped her garter 
 while dancing, the king restored it, 
 after putting it round his own leg, with 
 the words, which became the motto of 
 the order, “Honi soit qui mal y pense” — 
 Shame be to him who thinks evil of it. 
 The date' of the foundation or restora- 
 tion by Edward III. of the order, as 
 given by Froissart, is 1344, while other 
 authorities, founding on the statutes of 
 the order, assign it to 1350. The statutes 
 of the order have been repeatedly re- 
 vised, more particularly in the reigns of 
 Henry V., Henry VIII., Edward VI., 
 and George III. — the last in 1805. Ladies 
 are saicb to have been admitted up till 
 the reign of Edward IV. Until the reign 
 of Edward VI. the common title of the 
 order was the Order of St. George, and 
 it still bears this title, as well as that of 
 the Garter. The original number of 
 knights was twenty-six, including the 
 sovereign, -who was its permanent head; 
 and this number is still retained, except 
 that by a statute passed in 1786 princes 
 of the blood acft admitted as supernu- 
 merary members. The peculiar emblem 
 of the order, the garter (5), a dark-blue 
 ribbon edged with gold, bearing the 
 motto and with a gold buckle and pen- 
 dant, is worn on the left leg below the 
 ' knee. The mantle is of blue velvet, lined 
 
GARTER-SNAKE 
 
 GAS 
 
 with white taffeta, the surcoat and ho^d 
 of crimson velvet, the hat of black velvet 
 with plume of white ostrich feathers, 
 having it the center a tuft of black 
 heron’s feathers. The collar of gold (3) 
 consists of knots alternating with garters 
 inclosing roses, with the badge of the 
 order, called the George (4), pendent 
 from it. This consists of a figure of St. 
 George on horseback fighting the 
 dragon. The lesser George (2) is worn on 
 a broad blue ribbon over the left shoul- 
 der. The star G); formerly only a cross, 
 is of silver, and consists of eight points, 
 with the cross of St. George in the cenj,er, 
 encircled by the garter. A star is worn 
 by the knights on the left side when not 
 in the dress of the order. 
 
 .# GARTER-SNAKE, an elastic name 
 given in North America to any of various 
 small snakes, but properly applied to 
 striped species, which includes those 
 most often seen of all our serpents. 
 Several of these are very slender, mainly 
 green with lighter stripes, and are 
 popularly distinguished as ribbon- 
 snakes. One Oregon species is black, 
 and some semi-tropical species have the 
 stripes broken so as to form series of 
 spots or cross-bars. The best-known 
 species is the ordinary garter-snake, 
 which is distributed over the whole U. 
 States, Southern Canada, and the low- 
 lands of Mexico and Guatemala. 
 
 GARY, IND., founded in 1906 on 
 Lake Michigan at the mouth of the 
 Calumet river near Chicago. The town 
 was made to order as the home of a 
 $76,000,000 plant for the United States 
 steel corporation. Estimated pop- 
 ulation, 40,000. 
 
 GAS, an elastic aeriform fluid, a term 
 originally synonymous Avith air, but 
 afterward restricted to such bodies as 
 were supposed to be incapable of being 
 reduced to a liquid or solid state. Under 
 
 guished from liquids by the name of 
 elastic fluids; while liquids are termed 
 non-elastic, because they have, com- 
 paratively, no elasticity. But the most 
 prominent distinction is the following: — 
 Liquids are compressible to a certain de- 
 gree, and expand into their former state 
 when the pressure is removed; and in so 
 far they are elastic, but gases appear to 
 be in a continued state of compression, 
 for when left unconfined they expand in 
 every direction to an extent which has 
 not hitherto been determined. In respect 
 of this indefinite expansiveness, all 
 gaseous bodies obey more or less strictly 
 two laws, commonly called the “gaseous 
 laws.” The first, known as the law of 
 Boyle and Mariotte, given first by 
 Robert Boyle in 1662, and then by 
 Mariotte in 1676, is that; — The volume 
 of a given mass of gas varies inversely 
 with the pressure to which the gas is 
 subjected; or, in other words, the density 
 of a given mass of gas is in direct pro- 
 portion to the pressure that the gas is 
 subjected to. The second of the gaseous 
 laws is commonly called the law of Dal- 
 ton and Gay-Lussac. It is, however, 
 properly called Charles’ law. Dalton 
 published it in 1801 ; but Gay-Lussac, 
 who stated it in 1802, gives the credit 
 of having discovered it, fifteen years 
 previously, to Citizen Charles. The law 
 may be stated as follows: — The volume 
 of a gas maintained under constant pres- 
 sure increases for equal increments of 
 temperature by a constant fraction of 
 its original volume; and this fraction is 
 the same whatever js tlie nature of the 
 gas. A mass of gas, whose volume is 
 1000 at 0° C., becomes, at 100° C., 
 1366' 5, the pressure remaining constant. 
 In virtue of these laws a gas may now 
 be defined to be a substance possessing 
 the condition of perfect fluid elasticity, 
 and presenting under a constant pres- 
 
 this supposition gas was “a term applied 
 to all permanently elastic fluids or airs 
 differing from common air.” After the 
 liquefaction of gases by Faraday, the old 
 distinction between gas and vapor, viz. 
 that the latter could be reduced to a 
 liquid or solid condition by reduction *of 
 temperature and increase of pressure, 
 while a gas could not be so altered, was 
 no longer tenable, so that the term has 
 resumed nearly its original signification, 
 and designates any substance in an 
 elastic aeriform state. Gases are distin- 
 
 sure a uniform state of expansion for 
 equal increments of temperature — a 
 property distinguishing it from vapor. 
 There is, however, no known gas that 
 obeys these two laws perfectly: thus, 
 of the six gases whose liquefaction has 
 been attended with most diflBculty 
 (oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbonic 
 oxide, nitric oxide, and light carburetted 
 hydrogen) , all except hydrogen are more 
 compressible than they should be theo- 
 retically, while hydrogen deviates slightly 
 in the opposite direction, being less com- 
 
 pressible than Boyle’s law would in- 
 dicate. The other gases exhibit even 
 greater deviations from Boyle’s law, 
 and the amount of the deviation rapidly 
 increases as the gas is brought nearer 
 and nearer to liquefaction. The law of 
 Dalton Of Charles which gives for equal 
 elevation of temperature equal incre- 
 ments of volume is also deviated from 
 by every gas, and more and more so as 
 the point of liquefaction is approached. 
 
 The liquefaction of gases is effected by 
 the application of cold or pressure, or 
 both combined. For any given pressure 
 there is a particular temperature at 
 which the gas liquefies. At a certain 
 point, however, called by Andrews the 
 critical point of temperature, the distinc- 
 tion between liquid and gas appears 
 completely lost. At and above this tem- 
 perature no pressure that can be applied 
 will convert the fluid into the form of a 
 liquid even though the volume is dimin- 
 ished by pressure so much as to make 
 the density of the fluid greater than that 
 of the liquid obtained at lower tempera- 
 tures. By 1878 all gases had been 
 liquefied. 
 
 The power of motion inherent in all 
 parts of aeriform matter is accounted for 
 by the kinetic theory of gases, according 
 to which a gas consists of an enormous 
 number of molecules moving about with 
 very great velocity. Grbat as is their 
 number, however, the molecules are 
 sparsely distributed through space, in 
 comparison with their distribution when 
 the substance is in the solid or liquid 
 condition. A molecule of a gas flying 
 g^out moves on in a stright line till it 
 meets another molecule, or till it im- 
 pinges on a side of the containing vessel. 
 Meeting another molecule the two turn 
 each other aside, just as two billiard 
 balls when they come into collision are 
 both deflected from their preAuous patlis. 
 Passing thence each flies on in a straight 
 line till it meets a fresh molecule, and 
 each is again deflected. When the mole- 
 cules impinge on the side of the vessel 
 that contains the gas they rebound as a 
 billiard ball does from the cushion of the 
 billiard table; and the perpetual shower 
 of molecules that strike and rebound 
 from the sides gives rise to the phenome- 
 non of gaseous pressure, just as an 
 umbrella held out in a hail-storm is 
 pressed downward owing to the numer- 
 ous impulsive blows that act upon it. 
 When the temperature of a gas is raised 
 the energy of the molecules is increased. 
 They strike with greater velocity, and the 
 number of blows on thh side of the'Vessel 
 is also increased. The pressure is there- 
 fore greater; and the law of Dalton or 
 Charles is easily shown to be a conse- 
 quence of the kinetic theory. Boyle’s 
 law also follows very simply from it; 
 for if we diminish the volume of the con- 
 taining vessel to one-half, one-third, or 
 to any other fraction of its original 
 volume, we increase the number of mole- 
 cules in a given space, a cubic inch for 
 instance, in the same ratio. Consequently 
 the number of impacts on a square 
 inch of the surface of the containing 
 vessel will also be increased in the same 
 ratio, and the pressure will thus be in- 
 creased in that ratio too. It is estimated 
 that in a cubic centimeter of gas at 
 standard temperature and pressure there 
 
GASCONY 
 
 GAS ENGINE 
 
 are nineteen million million million 
 molecules. 
 
 In 1739 the Rev. Mr. Clayton pub- 
 lished a paper in the Philosophical Trans- 
 actions, on the inflammable nature of 
 the gases obtained by the decomposition 
 of pit-coal in heated close vessels; but no 
 practical application of this discovery 
 was made before 1792, when Mr. W. 
 Murdoch, a native of Ayrshire, in the 
 employ of Messrs. Watt and Boulton, 
 lighted his own house and offices at 
 Redruth on this principle. In 1798 he 
 erected a gas apparatus on a large scale 
 at Soho Foundry, Birmingham, and in 
 1802 M Le Bon lighted his house in 
 Paris by gas, and made a proposal to 
 supply the whole city. In 1803 Mr. 
 Winsor exhibited gas illuminations at 
 London in the Lyceum, and afterward 
 raised the sum of $250,000 from a num- 
 ber of subscribers who formed them- 
 selves into a National Light and Heat 
 Company (1810). With this money Mr. 
 Winsor lighted Pall Mall, but was soon 
 succeeded by Mr. Samuel Gleg, who in- 
 vented the hydraulic main, the wet- 
 lime purifier, and the wet gas-meter. 
 From this time coal gas became the 
 most common illuminating agent wher- 
 ever it could be prepared economically. 
 
 Gas is obtained from coal, the best 
 sorts being bituminous coals. The 
 coal is distilled in retorts of cast-iron 
 (a), or now more generally of fire-clay, 
 heated to a bright red heat. As they 
 issue from the retort into the hydraulic 
 main (b) the products of distillation con- 
 tain vapors of tar and naptha, together 
 with steam impregnated with carbonate 
 of ammonia and hydrosulphate of sul- 
 phide of ammonium. These vapors would 
 condense in the pipes in which the gas 
 must be distributed, and would clog 
 them up; they must therefore be so far 
 removed by previous cooling as to cause 
 no inconvenient condensation at ordi- 
 nary temperatures. The crude gas con- 
 tains, besides, sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 the combustion of which would exhale 
 an offensive odor. Carbonic acid weak- 
 ens the illuminating power of the gas, 
 and has also to be removed. In the 
 hydraulic main — a large horizontal pipe 
 at first about half-filled with water — 
 some separation is effected between the 
 liquid products of distillation and the 
 gaseous, which bubble up through the 
 liquid into the upper portion of the 
 main. At the end of the main the liquids 
 fall by their greater gravity into the 
 sunk reservoir known as the tar-well, 
 while the gas is conducted to the con- 
 denser Or refrigerator (c), a series of bent 
 iron tubes kept cool either by exposure 
 to currents of air or by allowing water 
 to flow over them. In these there is a 
 further deposit of tar and water, and the 
 gas passes on to the washer, a series of 
 cells in which the gas is forced through 
 water or exposed to water spray for the 
 removal of ammonia. The scrubber (d), 
 which is sometimes used in place of the 
 washer, is a large chamber filled with 
 coke kept constantly wet with sprays of 
 water. The~gas in passing up the scrub- 
 ber leaves its last traces of ammonia 
 and its compounds, and then enters the 
 purifiers (e), which are iron chambers 
 containing a series of perforated trays on 
 which are spread slaked lime (in the form 
 
 of dry hydrate), or a mixture of sawdust 
 and oxide of iron. These remove car- 
 bonic acid and the greater portion of the 
 sulphur compounds, and the gas is then 
 conveyed by means of a pipe (f ) to the 
 gas-holder (g) a store-house or reservoir, 
 in which it is subjected to uniform pres- 
 sure, and from which it is discharged (f) 
 into the street or other mains in the 
 constant stream necessary to produce a 
 steady flame from the burners in the 
 houses of those using it. The gas-holder, 
 sometimes called a gasometer, is usually 
 a very large cylindrical air-tight struc- 
 ture of iron plates, closed at top, open 
 below, and having the lower end im- 
 mersed in a water reservoir. It is sup- 
 ported by chains passing over pulleys on 
 iron columns, the greater part of the 
 weight of the gas-holder being counter- 
 balanced by weights attached to the 
 chains, so that it can exercise a certain 
 regelated pressure on the gas contained 
 in it. 
 
 The quantity of gas used by each con- 
 sumer is measured by an instrument 
 called a meter, of which there are two 
 classes — the wet and the dry. The wet 
 meter is composed of an outer box about 
 three-fifths filled with water. Within 
 this is a revolving four-chambered drum, 
 each chamber being capable of contain- 
 ing a definite quantity of gas, which is 
 admitted through a pipe in the center of 
 the meter, and, owing to the arrange- 
 ment of the partitions of the chambers, 
 causes the drum to maintain a constant 
 revolution. This sets in motion a train 
 of wheels carrying the hands over the 
 dials which mark the quantity of gas 
 consumed. The dry meter consists of 
 two or three chambers, , each divided by 
 
 a flexible partition or diaphragm, by the 
 motion of which the capacity on one 
 side is diminished while that on the 
 other is increased. By means of slide- 
 valves, like those of a steam-engine, 
 worked by the movement of the dia- 
 phragms, the gas to be measured passes 
 alternately in and out of each space. 
 The contractions and expansions set in 
 motion in clockwork which marks the 
 rate of consumption. The diaphragms in 
 all the chambers are so connected that 
 they move in concert. 
 
 The profitable consumption of gas, 
 whereby the strongest liqr’* '^•an be had 
 at the least expenditure oi '^'^ends 
 considerably upon the form ot the 
 burner, and the mode by which tna 
 flame is fed with the air necessary for its 
 combustion. There must be a sufficient 
 supply of oxygen to convert the carbon 
 of the gas into carbonic acid, and the 
 hydrogen into w'ater. If there is not a 
 sufficient supply of oxygen, the flame 
 will be smoky from excess of carbon. 
 
 In this case the remedy is either to re-' 
 duce the supply of gas or increase the 
 supply of air. This may be effected by 
 modifying the form of the burner, or in 
 the case of the Argand burner by hav- 
 ing a different shape of glass chimney. 
 As to the form of the burner, it has been 
 found that a plain jet J inch in diameter 
 
 Form and size of flames from a 5-foot fish-tail, 
 lava-tip burner. 
 
 at the orifice, will not give a flame free 
 from smoke of a greater height than 2J 
 inches; but the same quantity of gas 
 which would give a smoky flame from a 
 plain jet, will produce a clear bright 
 flame by extending or dividing the 
 aperture of the jet so as to expose a 
 larger surface of flame to the atmos- 
 phere. It is not, however, necessary to 
 increase the superficial area of the flame; 
 it may even be diminished with a more 
 intensely luminous effect by having in- 
 stead of one aperture two small ones 
 pierced at an angle to each other, so that 
 the jets may cross each other. This 
 forms the union jet. Another form is the 
 slit or batwing burner, in which a clean 
 slit is cut across the top of the beak. 
 In the Argand burner a circle of small 
 holes supplies the gas, and a current of 
 air is admitted through the center of the 
 flame, which is surrounded by a glass 
 chimney. In the Welsbach incandescent 
 lamp the light' is produced by causing 
 the burning gas to raise to white, heat 
 what is known as the mantle, suspended 
 over the burner. The mantle consists 
 essentially of cotton yarn steeped in a 
 solutign of salts of such metals as 
 thorium, cerium, yttrium, lanthanum, 
 magnesium, etc., and when the thread 
 has been burned away there remains a 
 skeleton of the oxides of the metals used. 
 
 GAS'CONY, an old division of France, 
 between the Garonne, the sea, and the 
 Pyr4n6es, It composes the departments 
 of Hautes Pyr^n^es, Gers, and Landes, 
 with part of those of Bas Pyr4n4es, 
 Haute Garonne, Lot-et-Garonne, and 
 Tarn-et-Garonne. The Gascons, who are 
 of mixed Basque and Gothic descent, 
 u-^ed to have the character of being 
 bra^ ; faithful, and peculiarly tenacious 
 of purpu- ■ much given to boasting, 
 whence the wo. ’ gasconnade. 
 
 GAS ENGINE, au “njrine in which the 
 movement of the piston i.: -'oused by the 
 explosive energy of a mi>'»->..'' ^ ia- 
 
GASKELL 
 
 GAUL 
 
 flammable gas with atmospheric air. 
 After various attempts by Huyghens, 
 Pepin, and others to utilize explosive 
 agents like gunpowder in working ma- 
 chines, a French artisan, Lebon, patented 
 in 1799 an engine in which energy was 
 obtained by exploding charges of coal- 
 gas mixed with air on each side of the 
 piston alternately, the explosion being 
 effected by an electric spark. Modifica- 
 tions of this engine were patented by 
 Lenoir in 1860, by Hugon, and by Messrs. 
 Siemens. The most satisfactory are 
 probably those known as Brayton’s 
 high-pressure gas engine, and Otto’s 
 gas engine. The latter consists of an 
 upright cylinder in which works a heavy 
 piston, the rod of which forms a rack- 
 gearing with a cog-wheel on the shaft of 
 the fly-wheel. As the piston ascends the 
 cog-wheel slips loosely on the shaft ; as it 
 descends its energy is transferred to the 
 shaft through the cog-wheel, the force 
 of the down-stroke being due to the 
 rapid condensation of the gases after the 
 explosion aided by the weight of the 
 piston itself. The mixed gases — coal- 
 gas and air — are introduced ^ t]ie base 
 of the cylinder and fired, as iiTHugon’s 
 patent, by communication with a gas- 
 jet kept constantly burning. The great 
 objection to this engine — its noise in 
 working— has been overcome in the Otto 
 silent gas engine, in which the working 
 cylinder is horizontal and considerably 
 shorter than in the old form. 
 
 GAS'KELL, Elizabeth Cleghorn, novel- 
 ist,' daughter of William Stevenson, 
 editor of Scott’s Magazine, born at 
 Chelsea in 1810. In 1857 appeared her 
 admirable Life of Charlotte Bronte, and 
 in 1860 Sylvia’s Lovers. Wives and 
 Daughters appeared posthumously in 
 1866. The work that she is best known 
 by is Cranford, a delightful story of 
 village life, classed by literary critics as 
 one of the classics. 
 
 GASKETS, cords fastened to the sail- 
 yards of a ship, and used to furl or tie 
 up the sail firmly to the yard by wrap- 
 - ping round both. 
 
 GAS'TEROPODS, a class of molluscs, 
 consisting of animals inhabiting a uni- 
 valve shell, although some of the group 
 |_are wholly destitute of a shell. The shell 
 
 A gasteropod. 
 
 Common garden-snail. /, J’oot extending the 
 whole length ot the under side of the. body. 
 
 ^ is either a small internal plate, as in 
 slugs; or cone-shaped and spiral, as in 
 the majority; or multivalve, the pieces 
 following each other along the middle 
 line, as in the chitons. No known gas- 
 teropod has a bivalve shell. The distin- 
 guishing characteristic is the foot, which 
 IS broad, muscular, and disc-like, and 
 attached to the ventral surface. The 
 class is divided into two sub-classes, the 
 Branchiata or Branchiogasteropoda, 
 breathing water by gills, and the Pul- 
 rnonata or Pulmogasteropoda, breathing 
 aiv by a sort of lung apparatus. The 
 former includes whelks and periwinkles. 
 
 etc. ; the latter include the ordinary land- 
 snajls, slugs, pond-snails, etc. 
 
 GASTON DE FOIX (fwa), Duke of 
 Nemours, French soldier, born 1489, 
 son of John de Foix, count d’Estampes, 
 and Mary of Orleans, sister of Louis 
 XII., whose favorite he became. At the 
 age of twenty-three he routed a Swiss 
 army rapidly crossed four rivers, drove 
 the pope from Bologna, and won the 
 celebrated battle of Ravenna (1512), but 
 was killed while attempting to cut off 
 a body of retreating Spaniards. 
 
 GASTRIC JUICE, a clear colorless 
 fluid with a saline taste and sour odor 
 secreted by the mucous membrane of the 
 stomach, and chief agent in the process 
 of digestion. It is acid, and contains 
 pepsin, its essential nitrogenous prin- 
 ciple. The activity of the fluid has been 
 ascribed to various acids present, lactic, 
 acetic, and butyric ; but it appears that 
 free hydrochloric acid is that which is 
 secreted by the stomach, the others being 
 the products of change of food under- 
 going digestion. The acid is necessary 
 for the pepsin to exercise its properties, 
 which are limited to the conversion of 
 nitrogenous substances into peptones, 
 fatty matters not being affected by it. 
 (See Pepsin.) Gastric juice also holds in 
 solution various inorganic salts, chiefly 
 chlorides and phosphates, occasionally 
 also abnormal substances such as urea, 
 ammonia, salts, and biliary acids. It 
 is not possessed of any marked reactions 
 with ordinary chemical reagents, does 
 not become turpid by boiling, and gives 
 no striking precipitates with acids, 
 alkalies, or mineral salts. The amount 
 secreted daily in the human adult is 
 estimated to be about 14 pounds, but as 
 it is continually re-absorbed, there is no 
 great quantity present at any one time. 
 
 GASTRIC SYSTEM, all the parts of 
 the body which contribute to digestion. 
 
 GASTRITIS, or GASTRO-ENTERI- 
 TIS. See Enteritis. 
 
 GASTROCNE'MIUS, the most exter- 
 nal of three superficial muscles forming 
 the calf of the leg and terminating above 
 the heel in the tendo Achillis. 
 
 GATES, Horatio, an American officer 
 during the revolutionary war, born in 
 England in 1728. He rose to the rank of 
 major by merit alone. At the capture of 
 Martinique he was aide-de-camp to 
 General Monkton, and he was with 
 
 General Gates. 
 
 Braddock when the latter was defeated 
 in 1755. On the conclusion of peace he 
 purchased an estate in Virginia, on 
 which he resided until the revolutionary 
 war in 1775, when he was appointed 
 
 adjutant-general by congress, with the 
 rank of brigadier. At the head of the 
 American army of the north he com- 
 pelled the British general Burgoyne to 
 surrender his whole army at Saratoga 
 (1777).' In 1780, after the capture of 
 General Lincoln, Gates received the 
 chief command of the southern districts, 
 but was defeated two months later by 
 Cornwallis at Camden. He was then 
 superseded by General Greene and 
 brought to court-martial, but was 
 finally acquitted, and reinstated in his 
 command in 1782 after the capture of 
 Cornwallis. He then retired to Virginia,, 
 and in 1790, having emancipated all his 
 slaves, he removed to New York, where, 
 he died in 1806. 
 
 GATESHEAD, mun., county, and 
 parliamentary borough, England, county 
 Durham, on the right bank of the Tyne,, 
 opposite Newcastle, of which it is prac- 
 tically part, being connected with itby' 
 three bridges. Pop. 109,887. 
 
 GATH (Hebrew, “wine-press”), one of 
 the five royal cities of the Philistines,, 
 which, from its situation on the borders 
 of Judah, was of much importance in the 
 wars of the Jews and Philistines. 
 
 GATLING-GUN. See Machine-gun. 
 
 GAUGE (or Gage), Steam and Water, 
 the instruments fixed to engine boilers 
 for registering the force of steam and the 
 level of the water. 
 
 GAUGE, a standard of measurement. 
 As applied to railways, gauge signifies 
 the distance between the centers of each 
 pair of rails, which in England and the 
 -United States or narrow gauge is 4 feet 
 8| inches. The broad gauge is 7 feet ; the 
 Irish, Indian, and Spanish gauge is 5 feet 
 6 inches. Special narrow gauges have 
 recently been adopted for mountain and 
 mineral lines, such as the 3 feet 6 inch 
 gauge of the Norwegian lines. Gauge is 
 also the name applied to various contriv- 
 ances for measuring any special di- 
 mensions, such as the wire-gauge, an 
 oblong plate of steel, with notches of 
 different widths cut on the edge and 
 numbered, the size of the wire being 
 determined by trying it in the different 
 notches until one is found which it 
 exactly fits. The thickness of sheet- 
 metal is tried by a similar gauge. 
 
 GAUL, Gallia, in ancient geography, 
 the country of the Gauls, the chief 
 branch of the great original stock of 
 Celts. It extended at one time from the 
 Pyrenees to the Rhine, and included also 
 a part of Italy. Hence it was divided into 
 Gaul on- this side (the Roman side) of 
 the Alps, or Gallia Cisalpina, and Gaul 
 beyond the Alps, or Gallia Transalpina. 
 
 More than a century after the burning 
 of Rome, the eastern Gauls, in 280-278 
 B.C., made three destructive irruptions 
 into Macedonia and Greece. Several 
 tribes pursued their course into Asia 
 Minor, where, under the name of 
 Galatians, they long retained their 
 nat.ional peculiarities. After these mi- 
 grations the Gauls along the banks of 
 the Danube and in the south of Ger- 
 many disappear. Tribes of German 
 origin occupy the whole country as far 
 as the Rhine, and even beyond that 
 river. The Belgse, who were partly Ger- 
 man, occupied the northern part of 
 Gaul, from the Seine and Marne to the 
 British Channel and the Rhine, from 
 
GAUSS 
 
 GELATIN PROCESS 
 
 whence colonists passed over into Brit- 
 ain, and settled on the coast districts. 
 The Celts in Gaul had attained some de- 
 gree of cultivation by intercourse with 
 the Greeks and Carthaginians before 
 they came in contact with the Romans. 
 On the appointment of Julius Cffisar to 
 the proconsulsliip over the countries 
 bordering on Gaul, he resolved to sub- 
 ject all Gaul, and executed his purpose 
 in less than nine years (58-50) (b.c.), in 
 eight bloody campaigns. The dominion 
 of the Romans in Gaul was confirmed by 
 colonies, and "the liberal grant of the 
 Roman citizenship to several Gallic 
 tribes. The religion of the Druids, being 
 suppressed in Gaul by Tiberius and 
 Claudius, gradually retreated into Brit- 
 ain, soon also conquered by the Romans. 
 After the extinction of the Csesars, the 
 Gauls once more attempted to recover 
 their liberty by aid of the Germans, but 
 after this last effort became entirely 
 Romanized, even their ancient language, 
 the Celtic, being supplanted by a corrupt 
 Latin dialecU About the year 486 the 
 Franks subdued the greater part of Gaul, 
 and put a period to the dominion of the 
 Romans in that country. See France. 
 
 GAUSS (gous), Karl Friedrich, a Ger- 
 man mathematician, born 1777. In 1801 
 he published his Disquisitiones Arith- 
 meticae, treating of indeterminate analy- 
 sis or transcendental arithmetic, and 
 containing, in addition to many new 
 theroems,a demonstration of the theroem 
 of Fermat concerning triangular num- 
 bers. He also calculated, by a new 
 method, the orbit of the planets Ceres 
 and Pallas. In 1807 he became professor 
 of mathematics and director of the ob- 
 servatory at Gottingen, a position which 
 he held till his death in 1855. 
 
 GAUTAMA, a name of Buddha, the 
 founder of Buddhism. See Buddha. 
 
 GAUTIER (go-ti-a), Theophile, French 
 poet and critic, born 1811 at Tarbes 
 (Hautes-Pyrendes). In 1832 appeared 
 his poem Albertus; but his first great 
 success was the romance Mademoiselle 
 de Maupin, which led to his engagement 
 by Balzac as secretary. In 1872 he was 
 sent by the republican government on a 
 literary mission to Italy, and died in the 
 same year. 
 
 GAUZEj a thin transparent stuff of 
 silk, linen, or cotton. It is either plain or 
 figured, the latter being sometimes 
 worked with flowers of silver or gold. 
 
 GA'VIAL, the Indian crocodile, char- 
 acterized by the narrow, almost cylin- 
 drical jaws which form an exceedingly 
 elongated muzzle. The teeth (about 120 
 
 Head of gavial, or gangetic crocodile. 
 
 in number) are of equal length, and the 
 feet are completely webbed. The males 
 he distinguished from the females 
 ♦.he shape of the muzzle, which is 
 much smaller at the extremity. The 
 
 only extant species occurs in South and 
 Eastern Asia, especially in the Ganges. 
 It feeds on fishes and small prey. 
 
 GAVOTTE', an air for a dance with 
 two strains, each of four or eight bars, 
 in f or i time, the starting notes occupy- 
 ing half a bar. Like the minuet, it has 
 been introduced for free treatment into 
 suites, sonatas, etc. The name is said to 
 be derived from the Gavots, the in- 
 habitants of the Gap, in France. 
 
 GAY, John, English poet, born near 
 Barnstaple in 1688, and apprenticed to a 
 silk mercer in London. In 1712 he be- 
 came secretary to Anne, Duchess of 
 Monmouth. In 1713 he published his 
 Rural Sports, which he dedicated to 
 Pope, with whom he formed a close 
 -friendship. In 1720 he published his 
 poems by subscription, in 1724 his 
 tragedy. The Captives, and in 1727 his 
 well-known Fables. His Beggar’s Opera, 
 the notion of which seems to have been 
 afforded by Srvift, was first acted in 
 1728, at Lincoln’s Inn Fields. Pie also 
 wrote the pastoral Acis and Galatea and 
 the opera Achilles. He died in 1732. 
 
 GAYA, the chief town of a district of 
 the same name in Bengal, on the right 
 bank of the Phalgu, a tributary of the 
 Ganges, 260 miles n.w. of Calcutta. Pop. 
 71,288. The district has an area of 4712 
 sq. miles, and pop. 2,138,331. 
 
 GAY-LUSSAC (ga-lus-ak), Louis 
 Joseph, French chemist and physicist;, 
 born at St. Leonard (Haute-Vienne) 
 1778, died at Paris 1850. He was educa- 
 ted in the Ecole Polytechnique from 
 1797 to 1800, and afterward in the 
 Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees, but pre- 
 ferring chemistry, he entered Berthollet’s 
 Ecole Laboratory. In 1802 he returned 
 to the Polytechnique as demonstrator of 
 chemistry, and in 1804 performed his 
 two balloon ascents for scientific pur- 
 poses, the first with Biot, the secpnd by 
 himself, an account of which appeared 
 in the Journal de Physique. In 1806 he 
 was elected to the Academy of Sciences. 
 He was especially celebrated for his re- 
 searches into the chemical and physical 
 properties of gases and vapors. 
 
 GAZELLE', the type of a sub-family 
 of antelopes (Gazellinse), which includes 
 some 23 species of small, mostly desert- 
 
 Gazelles. 
 
 loving forms. Its color is a light fawn 
 upon the back, deepening into dark- 
 brown in a wide band which edges the 
 flanks and forms a line of demarcation 
 between the color of the upper portions 
 of the body and the pure white of the 
 abdomen. The eye of the gazelle is large, 
 soft, and lustrous. Both sexes are pro- 
 vided with horns, round, black, and 
 lyrated, about 13 inches long. It seems 
 to be confined to the north side of the 
 Atlas Mountains, Egypt, Abj^ssinia, 
 Sj'ria, Arabia, and South Persia. 
 
 GAZETTEER', a geographical dic- 
 tionary; a book containing descriptions 
 of natural and political divisions, coun- 
 tries, cities, towns, rivers, mountains, 
 etc., alphabetically arranged. 
 
 GAZ'OGENE, an apparatus used for 
 manufacturing aerated water on a small 
 scale for domestic use, by the combina- 
 tion of an alkali and an acid, as car- 
 bonate of soda and tartaric acid, which 
 yield carbonic acid when mixed with 
 water. 
 
 GEARING, in machinery, the parts 
 collectively by which motion communi- 
 cated to one portion of a machine is 
 transmitted to another, generally a train 
 of toothed wheels. There are two chief 
 sorts of wheel gearing, viz. ; super-gearing 
 and beveled gearing. In the former the 
 teeth are arranged round either the con- 
 cave or convex surface of a cylindrical 
 wheel in the direction of radii from the 
 center of the wheel, and are of equal 
 depth throughout. In beveled gearing 
 the teeth are placed upon a b^eveled 
 surface round a wheel which if the slope 
 of the bevel were continued would form 
 a cone, the teeth sloping similarly. 
 
 GEBER (ge'bcr), Arabian chemist or 
 alchemist, often designated the father 
 of chemistry, flourished during the 8th 
 century. He was acquainted with nearly 
 all the chemical processes in' use down to 
 the 18th century. His writings describe 
 various kinds of furnaces and other ap- 
 paratus, and cupellation, distillation, 
 and other chemical processes; the puri- 
 fication, composition, and properties 
 of the metals then known — gold, silver, 
 copper, lead, tin, and iron, and the func- 
 tions of mercury, sulphur, and arsenic. 
 He is the reputed author of an immense 
 number of works as well on meta- 
 physics, language, astronomy, etc., as 
 on chemistry. 
 
 GED (ged), William, inventor of stereo- 
 typing, born in Edinburgh about" the, 
 begiiming of the 18th century, died in 
 poor circumstances in 1749. He first 
 practiced his great improvement in the 
 art of printing in 1725; and some years 
 later he entered into a partnership in 
 London, the result of which was the 
 production of two prayer-books only. 
 He returned to Scotland in 1733, and 
 published a stereotype edition of 
 Sallust. 
 
 GEHEN'NA, a term used in the New 
 Testament as equivalent to place of fire 
 or torment, and rendered in the author- 
 ized (and the revised) version by hell and 
 hell-fire. 
 
 GEIBEL (gi'bl), Emanuel, German 
 poet, born at Liibeck 1815, died 1884. 
 He wrote Brunhild, a tragedy; The 
 Loreley, an opera in rhyme, and several 
 other plays, but his fame rests on his 
 lyrics, which are immensely popular. 
 
 GELATIN PROCESS, is used in many 
 photographic and photo-mechanical 
 processes as a vehicle for certain 
 chemicals which either alone or in com- 
 bination are sensitive 'to the action 
 of light, and under its influence ex- 
 perience changes in their condition. 
 The substitution of the gelatin film of 
 the dry plate for the collodion surface 
 of the wet plate was an important de' 
 velopmcnt in photography, while the 
 f.act that gelatin mixed with bichromate 
 I of potash becomes insoluble when acted 
 
 1 : 
 
 I 
 
 • ^ 
 
 § 
 
 i 
 
GELATINE 
 
 GENERAL LIEN 
 
 upo:i by light furnishes the basis for 
 many photographic processes. 
 
 GELATINE (jel'a-tin), a concrete 
 animal substance, transparent, and 
 soluble slowly in cold water, but rapidly 
 in warm water. It is confmod to the 
 solid parts of the body, such as tendons, 
 ligaments, cartilages, and bones, and 
 exists nearly pure in the skin, but it is 
 not contained in any healthy animal 
 fluid. Its leading character is the forma- 
 tion of a tremulous jelly when its solution- 
 in boiling water cools. Gelatine does 
 not exist as such in the animal tissues, 
 but is formed by the action of boiling 
 water. The coarser forms of gelatine 
 from hoofs, hides, etc., are called glue; 
 that from skin and finer membranes is 
 called size; and the purest gelatine, from 
 the air-bladders and other membranes of 
 fish, is called isinglass. With tannin a 
 yellowish white precipitate is thrown 
 down from a solution of gelatine, which 
 forms an elastic adhesive mass, not un- 
 like vegetable gluten, and is a compound 
 of tannin and gelatine. It is this action 
 of tannin on gelatine that is the founda- 
 tion of the art of tanning leather. 
 Gelatine when acted upon by sulphuric 
 acid yields gelatine sugar on glycocoll. 
 When treated with potash it is said to 
 yield plycocoll and leucine. Gelatine is 
 nearly related to the proteids. No chem- 
 ical formula has yet been deduced for 
 it. It is a nutritious article of food, 
 and as part of the diet in hospitals pro- 
 duces the best effects; but animals fed 
 exclusively on it die with the symp- 
 toms of starvation, as it cannot yield 
 albumen, fibrine, orcaseine. Its ultimate 
 components are 47'8 carbon, 7'9 hydro- 
 gen, 16’9 nitrogen, 27’4 oxygen. 
 
 GELDERLAND, GUELDERLAND 
 (gel'), a province of the Netherlands; 
 area, 1,963 English sq. miles. Pop. 
 566,549. 
 
 GEMINI (jem'-ini), the Twins, the 
 third sign of the zodiac, so named from 
 its two brightest stars. Castor, of the first 
 magnitude, farthest to the west, and 
 Pollux, of the second, farthest to the 
 east. Its constituent stars form a binary 
 ^stem revolving in about 250 years. 
 'The sun iS^n Gemini from about the 21st 
 May till about the 21st June, or the 
 longest day. 
 
 GEMMATION, in zool. a mode of re- 
 production among certain animals of 
 low type, w^hich consists in the produc- 
 tion of a bud or buds, generally from 
 the exterior, but sometimes from the in- 
 terior, of the body of the animal, which 
 buds are developed into independent 
 beings that may or may not remain 
 attached to the parent organism. This 
 mode of reproduction is seen in the sea- 
 mats, the fresh-water polyp, etc. 
 
 GEMS, or precious stones, are some- 
 times found crystalized in regular shapes 
 and with a natural polish, more com- 
 monly of irregular shapes and with a 
 rough coat. The term gem often denotes 
 more particularly a stone that is cut, 
 polished, or engraved, and it also in- 
 cludes pearls and various artificial pro- 
 ductions. The first and most valuable 
 class of gems includes diamonds, emer- 
 alds, rubies, sapphires, and a few others; 
 the second class includes the amethyst, 
 topaz, garnet, etc ; while agate, lapis- 
 lazuli, cornelian, etc.; though much 
 
 used for ornament, can scarcely^ be 
 called gems. The various precious stones 
 are deseribed under their proper heads. 
 The fabrication of artificial gems is now 
 prosecuted with skill and capital, and 
 has become an important industrial 
 art. The base of one class of imitations 
 is a peculiar kind of glass of considerable 
 hardness, brilliancy and refractive powder 
 called paste or strass, which is distin- 
 guished from ordinary glass by the 
 presence of 50 per cent of oxide of lead 
 among its eonstituents. When the strass 
 is obtained very pure it is melted and 
 mixed with substances having a metallic 
 base, generally oxides, which com- 
 municate to the mass tlie most varied 
 colors. Another class, called semi- 
 stones or doublets, are made by affixing 
 thin slices of real gem to an under part 
 of strass by means of an invisible cement. 
 In some cases an imitation is made by 
 setting uncolored strass or cjuartz in 
 jewelry with some colored “foil” at the 
 back of it. Attempts have within recent 
 years been made with a fair measure of 
 success to manufacture true gems by 
 artificial processes. The French chem- 
 ists Becquercl, Ebelman, Gaudin, Des- 
 pretz, and others have done much in 
 this direction. In 1858 MM. Deville and 
 Caron communicated to the Academy 
 of Sciences, Paris, a process for the pro- 
 duction of a number of gems of the 
 corundum class, as rubies, sapphires, etc. 
 The process essentially consisted in ex- 
 posing the fluoride of aluminium, to- 
 gether with a little charcoal and boracic 
 acid, in a plumbago crucible protected 
 from the action of the air, to a w'hite 
 heat for about an hour. Many experi- 
 ments with a view to producing dia- 
 monds artificially have also been made. 
 From hydrocarbons, subjected to a very 
 intense heat and enormous pressure, 
 minute fragments of crystalline carbon, 
 differing fi-om natural diamond in no 
 respect save brilliancy, have been pro- 
 duced. In art and archaeology the term 
 gem is usually applied to a precious 
 stone, cut or engraved in ornamental 
 designs, or with inscriptions. Stones on 
 which the design is raised above the 
 general surface are called cameos; those 
 having the design sunk below the sur- 
 face are called intaglios. Early speci- 
 mens of cut gems are seen in the scajabaei 
 or beetle-shaped signets worn in rings 
 by the ancient Egyptians. Among the 
 Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans gem- 
 sculpture held a high place, reaching its 
 liighest point under Augustus. Modern 
 gem-engraving dates from the beginning 
 of the 15th century, the chief seats of 
 the art being Italy and Germany. Rome 
 is now the headquarters of the seal- 
 engraving art. The tools of the en- 
 graver consist of a lathe, and a series 
 of little rods with heads of different 
 shapes, all of which can be adjusted 
 to the lathe. The axis of the lathe 
 is pierced at the center with an orifice, 
 into ■^lich the tools for cutting the 
 stone are firmly fixed by means of a 
 screw. The engraver wets the extremity 
 of the mounted rod with diamond dust 
 made into a paste with olive-oil, and as 
 the wheel is in motion he applies the 
 stone, firmly cemented to a piece of reed, 
 to the revolving tool. The cliamond dust 
 enables the tool to cut into the stone 
 
 with ease. As the design is frequently 
 very elaborate and of the greatest deli- 
 cacy, the tools are necessarily multi- 
 form. The stones used for cameo- 
 cutting often exhibit layers of different 
 colors, so that the raised design has a 
 tint distinct from the ground. Intaglio* 
 are very often executed in transparent 
 stones, and the subjects treated in this 
 manner are more limited in number. 
 They are chiefly such as seals, devices, 
 coats of arms, etc. 
 
 GENDARMES (zhan'darm), the name 
 originally given in France to the whole 
 body of armed men, but after the in- 
 troduction of standing armies to a body 
 of heavy-armed cavalrjq which com- 
 posed the chief strength of the forces. 
 
 GENDER, in gram, one of those 
 classes or categor,ies into which words 
 are divided according to the sex, natural 
 or metaphorical, of the beings or things 
 they denote. It may be exhibited by a 
 class of words marked by similarity in 
 termination, the termination having 
 attached to it a distinction in sex, as seen 
 in nouns, adjectives, participles, etc. 
 There are three genders in all : masculine 
 feminine, and neuter, but these distinc- 
 tions only exist in some languages. 
 
 GENEAL'OGY, the systematical in- 
 vestigation and exhiLition of the origin, 
 descent, and relations of families (or 
 their pedigree). Persons descended 
 from a eommon father constitute a 
 family. Under the idea of degree of 
 relationship is denoted the nearness or 
 remoteness of relationship in which one 
 person stands with respect to another. 
 A series of several persons, descended 
 from a common progenitor, is called a 
 line. A line is either direct or collateral. 
 The collateral lines comprehend the 
 several lines which unite in a common 
 progenitor. For illustrating descent 
 and relationship genealogical tables 
 are constructed, tlie order of which de- 
 pends on the end in view. The common 
 form of genealogical tables places the 
 common stock at the head, and shows 
 the degree of each descendant by lines. 
 Some tables, however, have been con- 
 structed in the form of a tree, in which 
 the progenitor (German, Stammvater) 
 is placed beneath, as if for a root. 
 
 GENERAL, a military rank and title 
 denoting an officer holding a general 
 command, or a rank and grade equiva- 
 lent thereto. In modern armies, prac- 
 tically every officer commanding an 
 organization of troops larger than a 
 regiment is a general officer. In the U. 
 States the rank has the following 
 grades; brigadier-general, major-general 
 and one lieutenant-general in supreme 
 active eommand of the army as a whole. 
 Officers of other ranks are sometimes 
 given the temporary and relative rank 
 of general, as inspector-general, judge 
 advocate-general, quarter-master-gen - 
 eral, etc. In European armies the rank 
 of general is a step higher than that ot 
 lieutenant-general, and is the next in 
 importance to field-marshal in England, 
 and to marshal in the armies of Con- 
 tinental Europe. 
 
 GENERAL LIEN, in law, the right to 
 retain possession of a chattel until pay- 
 ment be made, not only of any debt due 
 in respect of that particular chattel, but 
 I of^ any balance that inay be due on 
 
GENERAL SERVICE AND STAFF COLLEGE 
 
 GENEVA, LAKE OF 
 
 eneral account in the same line of 
 usiness. General liens do not exist at 
 common law, but depend entirely upon 
 contract, express or implied from the 
 special usage of dealing between the 
 parties. 
 
 GENERAL SERVICE AND STAFF 
 COLLEGE, a military school for the 
 further technical and professional 
 education of military officers of the U. 
 States Army, situated at Fort Leaven- 
 worth, Kan. The staff of the college 
 detailed to assist the commandant, who 
 is also the commanding officer of the 
 post of Fort Leavenworth, consists of 
 n.n assistant commandant, and the in- 
 structors in charge of departments. 
 The instructors are detailed by the war 
 department, and there are four depart- 
 ments — tactics, engineering, military 
 law, military sanitation and hygiene. 
 The course of instruction covers one 
 year of two terms, the first term be- 
 ginning on the 1st of September, unless 
 that date fall on Saturday or Sunday, 
 in which case the course begins on the 
 following Monday. It ends on the 21st 
 of December, concluding with the semi- 
 annual examinations. The second term 
 embraces the period from the 4th of 
 January to the 30th of June following, 
 concluding with the final examinations. 
 The students are all graded in one class, 
 which is divided into sections of con- 
 venient size and adaptation. The staff 
 of the college note the names of stu- 
 dents who have shown marked pro- 
 ficiency in any branch, with a view to 
 the student’s projessional employment 
 in that particular branch. 
 
 GENERAL STAFF, an organization of 
 superior or selected officers, appointed 
 to the staff of a general officer command- 
 ing, whose duties may be generally de- 
 scribed as converting the ideas of their 
 chief into orders, not only by conveying 
 them to the troops, but by working out 
 all necessary matters of detail. The 
 general staff organization was originally 
 peculiar to Germany, but is now being 
 generally adopted throughout Continen- 
 tal Europe. 
 
 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL SEMI- 
 NARY, the leading seminary in the U. 
 States of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church. The seminary was established 
 by order of the general convention in 
 1817, and instruction was begun in New 
 York City in 1819. The theological 
 course proper extends over three years, 
 and there is also a post-graduate course. 
 The degrees of D.D. and B.D. are con- 
 ferred; the former is both a higher aca- 
 demic and an honorary degree, while 
 the latter is usually conferred in course 
 on students holding prior academic 
 degrees, who have completed the regular 
 course in high standing. The control 
 of the seminary is vested in a board of 
 trustees composed of the bishops of the 
 church, twenty-five members elected by 
 the general convention, and certain 
 other members elected by the various 
 dioceses, principally that of New Y’'ork. 
 The student attendance is approxi- 
 mately 150. No tuition fee is charged, 
 and many prizes of value are offered. 
 Within twenty-five years the student 
 body has largely increased, and exten- 
 sive buildings have been elected, includ- 
 ing the library, Hoffman Hall, the 
 
 Chapel of the Good Shepherd, and nine 
 dormitories. 
 
 GENERATION, a single succession of 
 human beings (or animals) who are born, 
 grow up, and reproduce their kind; 
 hence, an age or period of time between 
 one succession and the next, as the third, 
 the fourth, or the tenth generation. 
 The length of a generation is usually 
 estimated at about thirty years. 
 
 GENERATION, SPONTANEOUS, or 
 ABIO-GENESIS, the doctrine that living 
 matter may originate spontaneously, 
 “that under certain circumstances dead 
 matter may build itself up into living- 
 matter without the intervention of 
 already existing protoplasm.” In the 
 17th century this was the dominant 
 view, sanctioned alike by antiquity and 
 authority, and was first assailed by 
 Redi, an Italian philosopher. Buffon 
 held the doctrine in a very modified de- 
 gree. He held that life is the indefeasi- 
 ble property of certain indestructible 
 molecules of matter which exist in all 
 living things, and have inherent acti- 
 vities by which they are distinguished 
 from not-living matter, each individual 
 living organism being formed by their 
 temporary combination. Of course it is 
 only animals or plants of very low type 
 and minute size that have been sup- 
 posed thus to be produced spontaneously 
 from dead matter; and the readiness 
 with which such appear, in circumstances 
 in which one might suppose no germs 
 of them could be present, OTves some 
 countenance to the belief. Thus even 
 at the present day authorities are 
 found who still declare their adherence 
 to the doctrine of spontaneous genera- 
 tion, but there is every reason to believe 
 that, -whatever may have been the case 
 with the first beginnings of life, living 
 matter is now invariably derived from 
 pre-existent living matter. 
 
 GENERIC NAME, in natural history, 
 the denomination which comprehends 
 all the species of a genus; thus, Canis is 
 the generic name of animals of the dog 
 kind. 
 
 GENESEE (jen-e-se'), a river which 
 rises in Pennsylvania, flows north through 
 New York, and falls into Lake Ontario 
 6 miles below Rochester, after a course 
 of 145 miles. It is notable for its varied 
 and romantic scenery, and its extra- 
 ordinary falls. These falls are five in 
 number; three of them occur about 90 
 miles from the mouth of the river, and 
 are respectively 60, 90, and 110 feet 
 high. The other two are near Rochester, 
 and are both about 100 feet high. 
 
 GENESIS, (Greek, creation, birth, 
 origin), the first book of the Bible and 
 of the Pentateuch, named in the 
 Hebrew canon B’reshith (in the be- 
 ginning), from the term with which it 
 commences. From the Greek translators 
 it received the name it is now commonly 
 Imown by. Genesis consists of two great 
 but closely-connected divisions: — (1) 
 The history of the creation, the fall of 
 man, the flood, the dispersion of the 
 human race, chap, i.-xi. (2) The history 
 of the fathers of the Jewish race, chap, 
 xii.-l. A certain apparent difference of 
 style and language, the occurrence of 
 what seem gaps on the one hand, and 
 repetitions and contradictions on the 
 other, and the different use of the term 
 
 for the divine name (Jehovah, Ever- 
 lasting; and Elohim, Almighty), led 
 very early to the question of the integ- 
 rity of the book, and various critics have- 
 assumed larger or smaller interpola- 
 tions. 
 
 GENEVA, a town in Switzerland, capi- 
 tal of the canton of the same name 7-' 
 situated at the western extremity of the 
 Lake of Geneva, where the Rhone issues, 
 here crossed by several bridges, and 
 dividing the town into two portions, 
 the larger and more important of which , 
 is on the left or south bank. The more ? 
 important public buildings are the V 
 cathedral or church of St. Pierre, a 
 Gothic structure of the 10th, 11th, and 
 12th centuries, occupying the highest ■ 
 site in the town, and by its three towers ' 
 forming the most conspicuous object . 
 within it, somewhat defaced externally ~ 
 by a very incongruous Greek peristyle; '■ 
 the town-house in the Florentine style; 
 the Mus^e Rath, containing a collection • 
 of pictures and other works of art; the • 
 university building, nearly opposite the ■ 
 botanic garden, rebuilt in 1867-71, and 
 containing the public library, founded 
 by Bonivard, the prisoner of Clhillon, in 
 1551, and now numbering 90,000 vols.; - 
 and the museum of natural history. The 
 only important manufactures of Geneva 
 are that of watches, musical-boxes, and 
 jewelry. Geneva has ample railway com- 
 munication, and is one of the principal 
 entrances for tourists and travelers into 
 Switzerland. Pop. 105,139. — The canton ■’ 
 is bounded by the canton of Vaud and 
 the Lake of Geneva, and by France. 
 Area, 109 sq. miles. Manufactures con- s 
 sist chiefly of clocks and watches, musical 
 boxes, mathematical instruments, gold, 
 silver, and other metal wares, w-^olen 
 cloths, and silk cloths of various descrip- 
 tions, hats, leather, and articles in 
 leather; and there are numerous cotton 
 mills, calico-printing works, and dye- • 
 works. The territory of Geneva having, . 
 by the arrangements of the congress of 
 Vienna, obtained an accession of fifteen 
 communes, detached from France and 
 Savoy, was admitted a member of the 
 Swiss confederation in 1814, and ranks r 
 as the twenty -second canton. Its con- 
 stitution of 1848 is the most democratic 
 in the federation. All religious denomi- ■' 
 nations are declared to have perfect 
 freedom, but two of them are paid by the 
 state — the Roman Catholics, amounting • 
 to rather more than a third of the popu- ' 
 lation, and the Protestant National " 
 Church. The language spoken is French. 
 Pop. 131,674. 
 
 GENEVA, a city in Ontario co., N. Y'., 
 on Seneca Lake, the Seneca and Cayuga 
 Canal and the Fall Brook, the Lehigh .. 
 Valley, and the N. Y. C. and H. R. rail- 
 roads. It is the seat of Hobart college, 
 the State agricultural experiment sta- 
 tion. Pop. 11,543. 
 
 GENEVA, LAKE OF, or LAKE 7 
 LEMAN, the largest of the Swiss lakes, J- 
 extending in the form of a orescent, with 
 its horns pointing southward, between 
 France on the south, and the cantons of 
 Geneva, Vaud, and Valais: length, 7 
 measured on its north shore, 55 miles, a 
 and on its soutlTshore 40 miles; central » 
 breadth, about 6 miles; area, 331 sq- 
 miles; greatest depth, 900 feet. It is ^ 
 1150 feet above the sea. 
 
GENEVA BIBLE 
 
 GENRE 
 
 GENEVA BIBLE, a copy of the Bible 
 in English, printed at Geneva; first in 
 1560. This version was in common use 
 till the version made by order of James 
 I was introduced. 
 
 GENEVA CONVENTION, an agree- 
 ment concluded at an international con- 
 ference held in Geneva in 1864, for the 
 succor of the sick and wounded in time 
 of actual warfare. The neutrality of 
 hospitals, ambulances, and the persons 
 attending on them was provided for; 
 and the use of the red cross on a white 
 ground as a sign of neutrality, has re- 
 ceived the adhesion of all civilized 
 powers. 
 
 GENEVIEVE, the name of two female 
 saints. — 1. St. Genevieve, the patron 
 saint of Paris; born at Nanterre, about 
 5 miles from Paris, in the year 42.3; died 
 ut Paris about the beginning of the 6th 
 century. 2. St. Genevieve, by birth 
 Duchess of Brabant, wife of Siegfried, 
 count palatine in the reign of Charles 
 Martel (about 570). 
 
 GENGHIS KHAN, or JENGHIS KHAN 
 '(jen'gis), Mongol conqueror, born about 
 1160, died 1227. His father was chief 
 over thirty or forty clans, but paid 
 tribute to the T^irtar Khan. He suc- 
 
 ' ceeded his father when only fourteen 
 years of age, and made himself master of 
 the neighboring tribes. A great number 
 
 ■ of tribes now combined their forces 
 
 ■ against him. But he found a powerful 
 protector in the great Khan of the Kara- 
 ite Mongols, Oung, or Ung, who gave 
 him his daughter in marriage. After 
 
 );t»uOh intestine warfare with various 
 Tartar tribes Genghis was proclaimed 
 ^han of the United Mongol and Tartar 
 tribes. He now professed to have a 
 divine call to conquer the world, and 
 the idea so animated the spirit of his 
 soldiers that they were easily led on to 
 new wars. The country of the Uigurs, 
 in the center of Tartary, had long ex- 
 cited his ambition. This nation was 
 easily subdued, and Genghis Khan was 
 now master of the greatest part of Tar- 
 tary. Soon after several Tartar tribes 
 put themselves under his dominion, and 
 in 1209 he passed the great wall of China. 
 The conquest of China occupied the 
 Mongols more than six years. The capi- 
 tal, then called Yenking, now Peking, 
 was taken by storm in 1215 and plun- 
 dered. The murder of the ambassadors 
 •whom Genghis Khan had sent to the 
 King of Kharism (now Khiva) occasioned 
 t.he invasion of Turkestan in 1218 with 
 .•an army of 700,000 men; and the two 
 icities of Bokhara and Samarcand were 
 istormed, pillaged, and burned. Seven 
 ears in succession was the conqueror 
 usy in the work of destruction, pillage, 
 
 ■ and subjugation, and extended his 
 ravages to the banks of the Dnieper. 
 In 1225, though more than sixty years 
 
 ^•old, he marched in person at the head of 
 his whole army against the King of 
 Tangut (Southwestern China), who had 
 iven shelter to two of his enemies, and 
 ad refused to give them up. A great 
 battle was fought, in which the King of 
 Tangut was totally defeated with the 
 loss of 300,000 men. The victor re- 
 mained some time in his newly-subdued 
 provinces, from which he also sent two 
 of his sons to complete the conquest of 
 Northern China. At his death his im- 
 
 mense dominions were divided among 
 his four sons. 
 
 GENIUS, a tutelary deity; the ruling 
 and protecting power of men, places, or 
 things; a good or evil spirit supposed to 
 be attached to a person and influence 
 his actions. The Genii of the Romans 
 were the same as the Daimones (Demons) 
 of the Greeks. According to the belief 
 of the Romans, which was common to 
 almost all nations, every person had his 
 own Genius; that is, a spiritual being 
 which introduced him into life, accom- 
 panied him during the course of it, and 
 again conducted him out of the world 
 at the close of his career. The Genii of 
 ■women were called Junones. The Genii 
 were wholly distinct from the Manes, 
 Lares, and Penates, though they were 
 allied in one important feature — the 
 protection of mortals. 
 
 The term genii (with the singular 
 genie) is also used as equivalent to the 
 jinn (singular jinnee) of Arabic tales. 
 These are supposed to be a class of in- 
 termediate beings. See Jinn. 
 
 GENLIS (zhan'les), Stephanie F61icit6 
 Ducrest de St. Aubin, Countess de, French 
 authoress, born near .Vutun 1746, died 
 at Paris 1830. 
 
 GENOA (jen'o-a), a seaport of N. 
 Italy, the chief commercial city of the 
 kingdom, on the coast of the Mediter- 
 ranean, at the head of the gulf of the 
 same name, 75 miles s.e. of Turin. It 
 
 Strada Balbi, Genoa. 
 
 is beautifully situated at the foot and on 
 the slope of the Ligurian Alps, the lower 
 hills of w'hich form a background to the 
 city. In the newer quart^ers many of 
 them are spacious, and are lined with 
 palaces and other noble edifices. Some 
 of the palaces are filled with works of 
 art by the greatest masters. The prin- 
 cipal are — the Ducal palace (now con- 
 taining the law-courts and various public 
 offices), the Palazzo del Municipio or 
 town-hall, the Palazzo Brignole or Rosso 
 (with the largest picture-gallery in 
 Genoa), the Palazzo Pallavicini, the 
 Palazzo Reale, built in the 16th cen- 
 tury for the Durazzo family, was pur- 
 chased in 1815 by the royal family, and 
 the palaces of Doria, Serra, Cambasio, 
 Balbi, and Duracco. The most remark- 
 
 able of the churches is the Duomo, or 
 Cathedral of St. Lorenzo, founded in the 
 11th century, but not completed till the 
 beginning of the 12th; S. Maria in Carig- 
 nano, built in imitation of the original 
 plan of St. Peter’s at Rome; S. Stefano, 
 a Gothic church, the oldest parts of 
 which date from the end of the 12th 
 century; S. Ambrogio, containing two 
 paintings by Rubens, and the Assump- 
 tion of Guido Reni. The principal chari- 
 table institution is the Albergo de’ 
 Poveri, in which 1600 individuals, 
 orphans and old people, find shelter. 
 Others are the Ospedale del Pammatone 
 founded in 1430; and a hospital recently 
 built by the Galliera family. Among the 
 theaters of the city may be mentioned 
 the Teatro Carlo Felice, an elegant 
 structure, with a splendidly fitted up 
 interior. Besides the university, founded 
 in 1775, the chief educational institu- 
 tions are the theological seminary, the 
 school of fine arts, the royal marine 
 school, and the navigation school. It 
 contains fine mortuary buildings and 
 much statuary in white marble. The 
 manufactures of Genoa include cotton 
 and silk goods, gold, silver, paper and 
 leather goods, sugar, and preserved 
 fruits. The principal articles of ex- 
 port are cereals, oils, fruit, cheese, 
 rags, the products of its manufactures, 
 etc. Many emigrants embark here. Im- 
 ports — cotton, wool, W'heat, sugar, coffee, 
 coal, hides, iron, etc. — Under the 
 Romans Genoa was famous as a seaport. 
 After the breaking up of the empire of 
 Charlemagne, it constitued itself a re- 
 public, presided over by doges. From 
 1119 it was almost constantly at war 
 with Pisa down to 1284, when Genoa 
 inflicted a crushing defeat on Pisa. The 
 Genoese obtained the supremacy over 
 Corsica, and nominally over Sardinia, 
 possessed settlements in the Levant, on 
 the shores of the Black Sea, on the 
 Spanish and Barbary coasts, and had a 
 very flourishing commerce. The rivalry 
 between Genoa and Venice was. a fruit- 
 ful source of wars during the 12th-14th 
 centuries. Meanwhile the city was 
 internally convulsed by civil discord and 
 party spirit. The hostility of the demo- 
 crats and aristocrats, and the different 
 parties among the latter, occasioned 
 continual disorder. From the contests of 
 noble rivals, in which the names of Doria, 
 Spinola, Grimaldi, and Fieschiare prom- 
 inent, Genoa was drawn into the Guelph 
 and Ghibelline contest. In the absence 
 of internal tranquility the city some- 
 times submitted to a foreign yoke in 
 order to get rid of anarchy. Pop. 
 234,800. 
 
 GENOA, Gulf of, a large indentation of 
 the Mediterranean, in North Italy, at the 
 head of which lies the city and port of 
 Genoa. No precise points can be named 
 as marking its entrance; but it may, per- 
 haps, be generally said to comprise the 
 entire space north of lat. 43° 40' n. 
 
 GENRE (zhan'r’) PAINTING, a term 
 used in art to denote that class of sub- 
 jects which portray the intimate and 
 every-day life of any people This class 
 of painting is characteristic of the Dutch 
 school by which it was first largely prac- 
 ticed. Its chief masters in that school 
 were Terburg, Brower, Ostade, Rem- 
 I brandt, the younger Teniers, Metzu, 
 
GENSERIC 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Gerard Dow, Frans Hals, and others. 
 Their subjects were the familiar life of 
 the family; street scenes and sports; 
 festivals and picnics, tavern scenes— 
 that goes to make up the occupations of 
 a people. These-might be comic, serious, 
 or pathetic, but genre painting, strictly, 
 speaking, always includes as a dominent 
 note the human element. Pictures of 
 this class are usually of small dimensions 
 but they are always valuable and inter- 
 esting records of contemporary life. 
 In British art Wilkie and Hogarth are 
 prominent examples of genre painters. 
 Hogarth was probably the greatest 
 master in English genre painting and 
 his pictures portraying the weaknesses 
 and follies of the life of his time are 
 powerful parables, and full of artistic 
 strength. Genre work was done in Spain 
 by Velasquez and Murillo, and in France 
 during the 18th century by Watteau, 
 Greuze, and others. There was a general 
 revival of this kind of subject during 
 the 19th century, and among the many 
 painters of all nations who have prac- 
 ticed it we need only mention such 
 names as Meissonier in France, Fortuny 
 in Spain, Kraus, Defregger, and Grutz- 
 ner in Germany. 
 
 GENSERIC (jen'), a king of the Van- 
 dals, who, having obtained joint posses- 
 sion of the throne of Spain with his 
 brother Gonderic, crossed the Straits of 
 Gibraltar with 50,000 men, a.d. 429, on 
 the invitation of Bonifacius, the Roman 
 governor of Africa, to assist him against 
 the Moors. Two unsuccessful attempts 
 were made by the eastern and western 
 emperors to overthrow his power, but 
 Genseric secured all his conquests, and, 
 notwithstanding all his cruelties, was 
 permitted to die in peace a.d. 477. 
 
 GENTIAN, a large genus of bitter 
 herbaceous plants, having opposite, 
 often strongly ribbed, leaves, and blue, 
 
 Yellow gentian. 
 
 yellow, or red, often showy flowers. 
 The root has a yellowish brown color 
 and a very bitter taste, and is exported 
 in considerable quantities, and is used 
 medicinally, and also as an ingredient of 
 cattle foods. 
 
 GENTILE, in Scripture, anyone be- 
 longing to the non-Jewish nations and 
 not a Christian ; a heathen. The Hebrews 
 included in the term goim, or nations, all 
 the tribes, of men who had not received 
 the true faith, and were not circumcised. 
 The Christians translated goim by the L. 
 gentes, nations, and imitated the Jews 
 in giving the name gentiles to all nations 
 who were not Jews or Christians. In 
 civil affairs the denomination was given 
 to all nations who were not Romans. 
 
 GENUFLEXION, the act of bending 
 the knees in worship. There are fre- 
 quent allusions to genuflexion in the Old 
 
 and New Testaments, and it would ap- 
 pear that the use was continued among 
 the early Christians. Genuflexion ob- 
 tains, both by rule and prescription, in 
 various places in the offices of the Roman 
 Catholic Church, and at different parts 
 of the services of the Church of England. 
 
 GENUS, in scientific classification, an 
 assemblage of species possessing certain 
 characters in common, by which they 
 are distinguished from all others. It is 
 subordinate to order, tribe, and family. 
 A single species, possessing certain 
 pecular characters which belong to no 
 other species, may also constitute a 
 genus, as the giraffe. 
 
 GEODESY (je-od'e-si), the science of 
 surveying extended to large tracts of 
 country; the branch of applied mathe- 
 matics which determines the general 
 figure and dimensions of the earth, the 
 variations of the intensity of gravity in 
 different regions, etc., by means of direct 
 observation and measurement. 
 
 GEOFFROY ST. HILAIRE (zhof-rwS, 
 san te-lar), Etienne, French naturalist, 
 born in 1772, died in 1844. Asamember 
 of the Egyptian expedition in 1798 he 
 founded the Institute of Cairo, and re- 
 turned about the end of 1801 with a rich 
 collection of zoological specimens. In 
 1807 he was made a member of the Insti- 
 tute, and in 1809 professor of zoology 
 at the Faculty of Sciences. He devoted 
 himself especially to the philosophy of 
 natural history. The fundamental idea 
 brought conspicuously forward in all 
 his works is, that in the organization of 
 animals there is only one general plan, 
 one original type, which is modified in 
 particular points so as to present differ- 
 ences of genera. This view met with 
 strong opposition from Cuvier. Among 
 his principal works are Sur le Principe 
 de I’UnitI de Composition Organique; 
 Philosophie Anatomique; Historic Na- 
 turelle des Mammiferes, written in con- 
 junction with Cuvier; Notions de Phil- 
 osophie Naturelle (1838). 
 
 GEOFFROY ST. HILAIRE, Isidore, 
 physiologist and naturalist, son of the 
 preceding, was born at Paris 1805, died 
 1861. He devoted himself to natural 
 history, and in 1824 was appointed 
 assistant to his father at the Jardin des 
 Plantes. He was the means of founding 
 the Acclimatization Society of Paris. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETIES, are 
 associations formed with the view of 
 obtaining and disseminating geographi- 
 cal knowledge. In point of seniority the 
 first of these associations is the SociSt6 
 de Geographie of Paris, founded in 1821. 
 The Prussian Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde 
 held its first sittings in Berlin in 1828. 
 The Royal Geographical Society, estab- 
 lished in London in 1830, The Royal 
 Scottish Geographical Society, founded 
 in 1884. The Russian Geographical 
 Society, founded at St. Petersburg in 
 1845, has greatly extended our knowl- 
 edge of Asia, and especially Asiatic 
 Russia. The American Geographical 
 Society was founded at New Y"ork in 
 1852, and the National Geographical 
 Society at Washington in 1888. Italy 
 has her Society Geografica, founded at 
 Florence in 1867. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, the science which 
 treats of the world and its inhabitants 
 giving an account of the earth as a whole 
 
 and of the divisions of its surface, natural 
 and artificial, describing the different 
 countries, states, provinces, islands, 
 cities, etc. It may be regarded as em- 
 bracing several departments or branches. 
 Mathematical Geography is that branch 
 of the general science which is derived 
 from the application of mathematical 
 truths to the figure of the earth, and 
 which determines the relative positions 
 of places, their longitudes and latitudes, 
 the different lines and circles imagined 
 to be drawn upon the earth’s surface, 
 thejj measurement, distance, etc. Phy- 
 sicm Geography treats of the physical 
 condition of the earth, its great natural 
 divisions of land and water, the atmos- 
 phere, and the movements o,f oceanic 
 and aerial currents; the geological struc- 
 ture of the earth; and the natural prod- 
 ucts of the earth, vegetable and animal. 
 It is concerned chiefly with general laws 
 and principles, as they are manifested 
 upon a grand scale, and in the organic 
 kingdom with the existence of groups of 
 animals and plants. This branch aji- 
 proaches at various points the sciences 
 of geology, hydrology, meteorology, 
 botany, zoology, and ethnology. Politi- 
 cal Geography embraces the 'description 
 of the political or arbitrary divisions and 
 limits of empires, kingdoms, and states; 
 and treats of their government, laws, 
 social organization, etc. 
 
 The earliest idea of the earth formed 
 by mankind seems to have been that it 
 was an immense disc, in. the center of 
 which their own land was situated, sur- 
 rounded by the ocean, and covered by 
 the sky as with a canopy. The Phoeni- 
 cians were the first people who made any 
 great progress in extending the bounds 
 of geographical knowledge. They seem to 
 have explored all the shores of the Medi- 
 terranean, and at an early period to have 
 assed the Pillars of Hercules (the 
 traits of Gibraltar), and visited to some 
 extent the Atlantic shores of Europe and 
 Africa, extending their voyages as far 
 north as Britain, and as far south as the 
 Tropic of Capricorn. In the Homeric 
 poems (which may be regarded as rep- 
 resentative of the ideas entertained by 
 the Greeks about the commencement of 
 the 9th century n.c.) the earth is sup- 
 posed to resemble a circular shield sur- 
 rounded by a belt of water which was 
 the source of all other streams. The 
 world of Herodotus (born 484 n.c.) ex- 
 tended from the Atlantic to the western 
 boundary of Persia, and from the Red 
 Sea or Indian Ocean to the amber lands 
 of the Baltic. The Indian expedition of 
 Alexander the Great (330 n.c.) greatly 
 enlarged the ancient knowledge of 
 Northern and Eastern Asia. About 320 
 B.c. Pytheas, a seaman of Massilia 
 (ancient Marseilles), a Greek colony, 
 sailed along the western coasts of Spain 
 and Gaul, visited Britain, and, pursuing 
 his voyage, discovered an island, hence- 
 forward famous as Ultima Thule, which 
 is supposed to have been Iceland. 
 Eratosthenes (276-196 b.c) first used 
 parallels of latitude and longitude, and 
 constructed maps on mathematical 
 principles. He considered the world to 
 be a sphere revolving with its surround- 
 ing atmosphere on one and the same 
 axis, and having one center The Geog- 
 raphy of Strabo, a Greek of Pontus, 
 
GEOLOGY 
 
 GEOLOGY 
 
 written about the beginning of the Chris- 
 tian era, embodies all that was known of 
 the science at that period. The countries 
 Ij'ing round the Mediterranean were 
 known with tolerable accuracy, but the 
 Atlantic shores of Europe were very 
 vaguely comprehended, w'hile of the 
 northern and eastern portions the mosj; 
 erroncous'notions prevailed. Pomponius 
 Mela, an early Roman geographer, wrote 
 about the time of the emperor Claudius. 
 He divided the world into two hemis- 
 pheres, the Northern or known and the 
 Southern or unknown; the former com- 
 prising Europe n. of the Mediterranean 
 and w. of the Tanis (Don); Africa s. of 
 the Mediterranean and w. of the Nile; 
 and Asia. The next famous geographer is 
 Ptolemy, who lived at Alexandria about 
 the middle of the 2d century a.d. 
 In Europe, Spain and Gaul were now 
 correctly delineated, together with the 
 southern shores of Britain. Northern 
 Germany and the southern shores of the 
 Baltic were pretty well known, as also 
 some portion of Russia in the neighbor- 
 hood of that sea, and the southern part 
 of European Russia. In Asia it was con- 
 sidered certain that there were wide re- 
 gions inhabited by nomadic tribes called 
 Scythians, while from the far east came 
 some vague reports of China. The geog- 
 raphy of Ptolemy remained the ac- 
 knowledged authority during the whole 
 of the middle ages. From his time up 
 till the 13th century no advance was 
 made in geographical knowledge until 
 Marco Polo opened up new fields of in- 
 quiry. The account of his travels first 
 made known to Europe the existence 
 of Japan and of many of the East Indian 
 islands and countries. Then followed 
 the discovery of America in 1492, and 
 from this time forward the progress of 
 discovery was extremely rapid. In 1497 
 the Cape of Good Hope was doubled by 
 Vasco da Gama, four years after its 
 discovery by Bartholomew Diaz. Within 
 thirty years from the date of the first 
 voyage of Columbus the whole of the 
 east coast of America''from Greenland 
 to Cape Horn had been explored. In 1520 
 Magellan passed the straits which bear 
 his name, and his vessel, crossing the 
 Pacific and Indian Oceans, returned to 
 Europe by way of the Cape of Good 
 Hope, being the first that had circum- 
 navigated the globe. The west coast of 
 America was explored as far as the Bay 
 of San Francisco about the middle of 
 the 16th century. At the same time dis- 
 covery in the east advanced with rapid 
 strides. Within twenty years of Gama’s 
 arrival in India the coasts of East Africa, 
 Arabia, Persia, and Hindustan had been 
 explored, and many of the islands of the 
 great Archipelago discovered. The ex- 
 peditions of Willoughby and Frobisher 
 in 1553 and 1576, of Davis in 15S5, of 
 Hudson in 1607, and of Baffin in 1616, 
 though they failed in their object of 
 finding a n.w. passage to India, materi- 
 ally enlarged our knowledge of the Arctic 
 regions. By the middle of the 17th cen- 
 tury the Dutch, under Tasman and Van 
 Dicm:in, made the Australian Islands 
 known to the world. Late in the follow- 
 i:'-g century Captain Cook added largely 
 to geographical knowledge by his survey 
 of the Pacific and its innumerable 
 islands. The Antarctic continent vas 
 r. E.— 34 
 
 discovered in 1840 by American, Eng- 
 lish, and French expeditions, and the 
 northwest passage round N. America 
 was found by McClure in 1S50. 'The 
 travels of Humboldt, Spix and Martius, 
 Lewis and Clark, Fremont, and others, 
 have made us acquainted with the gen- 
 eral features of the American continent. 
 In Asia numerous travelers have con- 
 tributed much to render our knowledge 
 certain and precise* in respect to a great 
 part of the continent. The interior of 
 Australia has been exploi'od by Sturt, 
 Eyre, Leichhardt, Burke, Wills, King, 
 McDouall Stuart, etc. The opening up 
 of the African interior has been materi- 
 ally advanced by the explorations of a 
 host of travelers, including Bruce, Park, 
 Denham, Clapperton, the Landers, 
 Burton, Speke, Grant, Baker, Barth, 
 Livingstone, Rohlfs, Schweinfurth, Cam- 
 eron, Stanley, etc. The progress which 
 has marked recent discovery has been 
 materially assisted by tlie governments 
 of various countries, and by the numer- 
 ous geographical societies formed during 
 the 19th century. The scientific study 
 and teaching of geography are becoming 
 more and more recognized to be of high 
 impoi'tance, and in both at present Ger- 
 many takes the lead. See also Geograph- 
 ical Societies, the articles on the different 
 countries, and such articles as Earth 
 Climate, etc. 
 
 GEOLOGY, is the science which treats 
 of the history of the earth, as ascer- 
 tained by the study of its exterior or 
 crust, investigating the successive 
 changes which have taken place in the 
 rock-massescomposing it, their relations, 
 structure and origin, and discussing also 
 the main features of the animal and 
 vegetable life of the past as bearing on 
 the earth’s history. The present con- 
 dition and conformation of the earth is 
 the result of vast changes in the past 
 and of agencies working through im- 
 mense periods of time, and the same or 
 similar agencies may still be seen at 
 work producing similar changes. Thus 
 rocks, both aqueous and igneous, are 
 still being formed. The former receive 
 their name from owing their origin mainly 
 to water, which acts both chemically 
 and mechanically on the crust of the 
 earth, in wearing down rocks and soils 
 and carrjdng the debris often to con- 
 siderable distances. The sediments thus 
 carried to sea, or into iakes and estu- 
 aries, are spread abroad in the water, 
 and form stratified deposits, which in 
 course of time solidify into rock. With 
 sufficient time all land would thus be 
 eventually degraded beneath the sea, 
 wei-e it not that the loss is compensated 
 by disturbance and elevation of land 
 always slowly taking place over great 
 portions of the continents and islands of 
 the world. Such disturbances have pro-- 
 duced strange phenomena among the 
 stratified rocks, which may be con- 
 torted, tilted up, dislocated, or other- 
 wise changed from their original arrange- 
 ment. The strata resulting from aqueous 
 deposits are consolidated (petrified) 
 t hiefly by pressure and chemical decom- 
 position and recomposil ign. -^ume forma- 
 tions are many thoUfaccE o! f'ct in 
 thickness. Coid r.-ict iee o' th ■ e'-nst. -ff 
 the earth due :o rad'.eiou (,f tk- ; ;m' 
 i the earth kdu space, hc'' a! • ' ’ i:..- 
 
 mense effects, the result being that over 
 broad areas rocky masses have been 
 contorted and compressed to a great 
 degree, and mountain ranges upheaved. 
 
 Igneous rocks also form a considerable 
 portion of the visible crust of the earth, 
 though much smaller in amount than 
 those of sedimentary origin. Some of 
 the igneous .rocks consist of beds of 
 volcanic ashes, others of old lavas, others 
 of masses of matter which were intruded 
 in a melted state from below among the 
 strata. Granite is the most important 
 and widely-spread of the igneous rocks, 
 and is generally regarded as the funda- 
 mental rock of the earth’s crust. Rocks 
 that have been melted are known to be 
 igneous by their structure, and also by 
 the effects they have produced on the 
 strata with which they are associated. 
 Shales, sandstones, etc., are often hard- 
 ened, bleached, and even vitrified at the 
 points of junction with greenstone, 
 basaltic, and felspathic dykes, or old 
 lava beds, and the same kir^d of altera- 
 tion takes place on a greater scale when 
 large masses of igneous rocks have been 
 intruded on the strata. 
 
 That the rocks which form the crust of 
 the earth had the same general origin 
 with the igneous rocks and sedimentary 
 strata now forming has been well estab- 
 lished, and that there is a regular succes- 
 sion of strata from the older to the newer 
 the oldest being normally lowermost, 
 the newest uppermost, is also well ascer- 
 tained. A corresponding succession in 
 regard to the animal and vegtable life 
 of former ages has also been proved by 
 the fossils that accompany the succes- 
 sive strata. This superposition of strata 
 and the succession of life in time are two 
 cardinal doctrines in geology. Obser- 
 vation and experiment alike established 
 the doctrine of superposition. Thus at 
 the edges of the strata on which London 
 stands', the rocks known as the Wool- 
 wich and Reading beds are seen to lie on 
 the chalk. Far within these edges, well- 
 sinkers are well aware that often after 
 sinking several hundred feet through the 
 London clay the chalk is reached. In 
 like manner proceeding westward across 
 the middle of England, it is found that 
 the Chalk rests on the Green-sands, the 
 Green-sands on the Upper Oolites, the 
 Lower Oolites on the Lias, the Lias on 
 the New Red marl, and so on through 
 lower members of the geological series 
 of English rocks. Each great group of 
 rocks consists of several subdivisions 
 called formations, and each group, and 
 even to a considerable extent each minor 
 subdivision, is characterized by the pres- 
 ence of distinct assemblages of organic 
 remains. The successive appearance of 
 such remains, which constitutes the 
 succession of life in time, was the great 
 discovery of Wm. Smith, made nearly a 
 century ago. 
 
 Igneous rocks also are associated in 
 different localities with the systems 
 named in the following table. 
 
 In the small area of Great Britain a 
 more complete series of rocks exists than 
 in any other part of the earth’s surface 
 of eqiuil dimensions — so far as is known, 
 'flic f;rea'. r part of the European serie.s 
 i.s, in ■ fd, noaily com]ffete in England 
 ■n.d t\'ale.-; a.h'ne; and since the da.ys of 
 ' '>\iui.,,:; Sn.ith, the Ui.i;h,li rocks have 
 
GEOLOGY 
 
 GEOLOGY 
 
 generally been the types to which for- 
 mations in other parts of the world have 
 been referred. 
 
 The main rock-systems into which 
 the earth’s crust is divided, and which 
 are based on the characteristics of the 
 organic remains contained in them, are 
 shown in the following table in ascend- 
 ing order: 
 
 Life Periods. Rock Systems. 
 
 Recent— Alluvium, Peat, etc. 
 Pleistocene. 
 
 Pliocene. 
 
 Miocene. 
 
 Oligocene. 
 
 Eocene. 
 
 Cretaceous. 
 
 Jurassic. ] 
 
 Trlassic. 
 
 Permian. 
 
 Carboniferous. 
 
 Devonian and Old Red Sand- 
 stone. 
 
 Silurian. 
 
 Cambrian. 
 
 Fundamental Gneiss. 
 
 Archaean, Pre-Cambrian, or Lauren- 
 tian Rocks. — The Laurentian are the 
 oldest known of the sedimentary rocks. 
 They are metamorphic (that is, changed 
 from their original structure), and mostly 
 gneissic in character, and were for long 
 classed as granitic and igneous rocks till 
 their true nature was shown by Sir Will- 
 iam Logan. They occupy vast tracts of 
 country in Labrador and Canada. They 
 there consist of two divisions. Lower 
 and Upper Laurentian. The gneiss of 
 the lower division is interstratified with 
 several thick bands of crystalline lime- 
 stone, in one of which a remarkable struc- 
 ture believed by Dawson, Carpenter, 
 and others to be a foraminifer and called 
 Eozoon jCanadense was found. This is 
 the oldest known fossil, if indeed it be a 
 true fossil. In the Outer Hebrides and 
 on the west coast of the North High- 
 lands, rocks occur of highly metamor- 
 phic gneiss, which are probably of 
 Laurentian age. The term Pre-Cambrian 
 or Archaean Is now applied to these 
 rocks in the British area; they crop out 
 also in North and South Wales, in the 
 Malvern Hills, and in Charnwood Forest 
 in Leicestershire. No fossils have yet 
 been observed in these rocks. The 
 Huronian Rocks of N. .America are pos- 
 sibly intermediate in age between the 
 Laurentian and the rocks next men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Cambrian. — These rocks come next in 
 succession to the Laurentian strata. 
 The term Cambrian has been used differ- 
 ently by geologists. In most places they 
 are unfossiliferous (or only doubtfully 
 so), but at St. David’s, in North Pem- 
 brokeshire, numerous fossils in purple 
 shales among the lowest beds of the 
 series have been found, including a small 
 bivalve crustacean and two brachiopods. 
 In a higher part of the series two sponges 
 and varied trilobites have been found. 
 In Sutherlandshire, red Cambrian con- 
 glomerates lie on the Laurentain strata 
 uncomformably. Cambrian strata also 
 occur in the hills of the Longmynd of 
 Shropshire, in South Staffordshire, etc. 
 
 The Silurian Rocks, were first worked 
 out in detail in South Wales and the 
 bordering counties by Sir Roderick 
 Murchison, and an account of them pub- 
 lished in the year 1839 in his Silurian 
 
 Post-Tertiary or | 
 Quaternary . . . 1 
 
 Tertiary or Kal- 
 nozoic 
 
 i 
 
 Secondary or J 
 Mesozoic .... ^ 
 
 Primary or Pal- 
 Eozoic 
 
 Archaean, Laur- 
 entian, or EO--J 
 zoic 
 
 System. The Silurian is divided into 
 the Lower and Upper Silurian. The 
 former comprises in ascending order the 
 Lingula beds (so named from a charac- 
 teristic fossil shell), the Tremadoc slate, 
 the Llandeilo flags, and the Caradoc 
 or Bala beds. The Lingula flags (Pots- 
 dam sandstone of North America) rest, 
 conformably on, and in fact pass by 
 gradations into the Cambrian rocks. 
 They are best developed in Wales, in 
 Merionethshire, Carnarvonshire, and at 
 St. David’s, and consist of black and 
 gray slaty rocks with beds of grit. Th^ 
 mass of hills that extends across the 
 south of Scotland, from Wigtonshire on 
 the southwest to St. Abb’s Head on the 
 eastern coast, is mostly formed of Lower 
 Silurinan strata. They chiefly consist of 
 gray grits and gray and black shales here 
 and there containing fossils. Further 
 south, in Cumberland, Westmoreland, 
 and North Lancashire, Lower Silurian 
 strata form the chief mass of the moun- 
 tains known as the Cumbrian region. The 
 Skiddaw region consists of black slates. 
 Above these there lies a great series of 
 volcanic rocks, consisting of felspathic 
 lavas and ashes, commonly known as 
 the green slates and porphyries. The 
 Llandeilo flags in North Wales are 
 named from the town of Llandeilo in 
 Carmarthenshire, where they occur in a 
 typical form. Above and passing into 
 these lie the Caradoc or Bala beds. 
 (Trenton limestone of N. America). 
 'The most characteristic fossils of the 
 LowerSilurian are thecrustaceansknown 
 as trilobites, of which more than 200 
 species are known to belong to these 
 rocks. Other fossils include hydrozoa, 
 corals, echinodermata, numerous mol- 
 lusca (brachiopods in particular, also 
 lamellibranchiates, pteropods, gastero- 
 pods, cephalopods or cuttle-fishes). No 
 fishes nor any other vertebrate animals 
 have yet been found in the Lo|Wer 
 Silurian rocks. The Lower Silurian 
 rocks in the British and in some other 
 areas were upheaved, contorted, and 
 denuded before the deposition of the 
 Upper Silurian strata, which, therefore, 
 lie generally unconformably upon them. 
 The chief groups forming the Upper 
 Silurian are, in ascending order, the 
 Pentamerus beds (so called from the 
 brachiopod Pentamerus oblongus), the 
 Tarannon shale, Woolhope limestone, 
 Wenlock shale, Wenlock limestone, and 
 Ludlow rocks, in the middle of which is 
 the Aymestry limestone. In North 
 America the Oriskany and Niagara beds 
 are of this age. The Upper Silurian 
 limestones are absent in Scotland and 
 over the greater part of Wales. All of 
 these formations are in general terms 
 fossiliferous. The Wenlock limestone is 
 in great part formed of corals, encrinites, 
 shells, and trilobites, corals predominat- 
 ing. Near the top of the Upper Ludlow 
 strata there are several thin bone-beds 
 containing small teeth and scales and 
 defenses of placoid fish : with the excep- 
 tion of a fragment of a fish found in the 
 Lower Ludlow beds in Shropshire, these 
 are the oldest known fishes. Many 
 geologists now classify the Silurian 
 system very differently from the above 
 method. They assign the Tremadoc and 
 Lingula beds to the Cambrian formation ; 
 and the Llandeilo and Caradoc beds are 
 
 put into a distinct formation called the 
 Ordovician. 
 
 Old Red Sandstone and Devonian. — 
 Old Red Sandstone first received that 
 name in contradistinction to the New 
 Red Sandstone, the former occurring 
 below, and the latter above the Carbonif- 
 erous strata. Where the uppermost 
 Silurian strata join the Old Red Sand- 
 stone there is a gradual passage between 
 them. A broad belt of Old Red Sand- 
 stone crosses Scotland in a northeast 
 direction between the Firth of Clyde and 
 Montrose and Stonehaven. This broad 
 tract lies uncomformably on Lower 
 Silurian clay-slates, and dips to the south- 
 east under the Carboniferous or coal- 
 bearing rocks that occupy the great 
 central depression through which the 
 Forth and Clyde chiefly run. On the 
 southeast side of this broad undulating 
 hollow the Old Red Sandstone again 
 rises from beneath the Coal-measures 
 wdth a general northwest dip, and skirt- 
 ing the Lammermuir Hills, strikes 
 southwest into the sea south of Ayr. On 
 the south side of the Lammermuirs it 
 again appears on the hills between Ber- 
 wick and Hawick, dipping under the 
 Carboniferous rocks that, without a 
 break, stretch from Berwick to the 
 neighborhood of Derby. The first com- 
 pendious account of the Old Red Sand- 
 stone of Scotland was given by Hugh 
 Miller, those rocks and the remarkable 
 forms of fish (Pterichthys, Cephalaspis, 
 etc.) they contain being till his time 
 almost unknown. In North Wales and 
 Cumberland narrow streaks of red 
 sandstone here and there show them- 
 selves between the Silurian rocks and 
 Carboniferous limestone. South of 
 Coalbrookdale it ranges, in great force, 
 through parts of Shropshire, Hereford- 
 shire,^ and Gloucestershire, into South 
 Wales, where it stretches westward to 
 the west coast of Pembrokeshire, the 
 whole being about 8000 feet in thickness. 
 These English and Welsh rocks are 
 united by their fossils to the Old Red 
 Sandstone of Scotland. The absence of 
 marine shells and the nature of the fossil 
 fishes of the Old Red Sandstone indicate 
 that the formation was deposited, not 
 in the sea, but in a great fresh-water 
 lake, or in a series of lakes, for the near- 
 est living analogues of many of the fish 
 are the Polypterus of the African rivers, 
 the Ceratodus of Australia, and in less 
 degree the Lepidosteusof North America. 
 In Canada, the sapdstones of Gasp6 are 
 of Devonian age, as is found by their 
 containing Cephalaspis. 
 
 The name Devonian has been given to 
 a series of rocks in Devonshire bearing 
 fossils intermediate in character between 
 those of the Upper Silurian and those of 
 the Carboniferous limestone, and which 
 are considered as the equivalents of the 
 Old Red Sandstone of the west of Eng- 
 land and of Scotland. The terms De- 
 vonian and Old Red Sandstone are thus 
 generally considered equivalent in point 
 of time. These rocks haAm been divided 
 into Lower, Middle, and Upper Devon- 
 ian. The lower beds chiefly consist of 
 slaty beds, and green and purple sand- 
 stones, with brachiopods. The middle 
 group, which includes the Plymouth 
 limestone, contains numerous corals. 
 The Upper Devonian group contains 
 
GEOLOGY 
 
 GEOLOGY 
 
 land plants (Stigmaria, etc., and many 
 shells), some of which arc identical with 
 those found in the Lower Carboniferous 
 limestone-shades. 
 
 Carboniferous Rocks. — In the south 
 and middle of England, and in Ireland 
 the Carboniferous Rocks so named on 
 account of the masses of coal contained 
 in them, consist chiefly of limestone at 
 the base and Coal-measures above. 
 Including the South Wales, the Forest 
 of Dean, and the Somersetshire areas, 
 a typical section of the beds is as follows : 
 
 Feet. Feet. 
 
 Coal-Measures 1,000 to 12,000 
 
 Millstone grit 500 “ 1,000 
 
 Yoredale rocks 100 “ 1,000 
 
 Carboniferous or Mountain) c.nn >. <> cm 
 
 limestone f 
 
 Carboniferous limestone shale. .. 100 “ 500 
 
 Yellow Sandstone, with plants. .. 100 “ 200 
 
 Generally resting on Old Ked Sandstone, 
 
 The Yellow Sandstone beds form a 
 kind of passage from the Old Red Sand- 
 stone to the Carboniferous rocks, and the 
 plants have carboniferous affinities. 
 The overlying shales in Pembrokeshire, 
 etc., contain numerous fish-teeth, Spiri" 
 fers Productas, and a few Lingulas (all 
 brachiopods) ; and the limestone, which 
 is more than 2000 feet thick in South 
 Wales, near Bristol, and in Somerset- 
 shire, is also so highly fossiliferous that 
 it may be stated that the whole of this 
 limestone has once formed parts of ani- 
 mals. The Yoredale rocks of Yorkshire 
 consist chiefly of shales and sandstones, 
 with marine shells and occasional land- 
 plants. The Millstone grit of South 
 Wales is comparatively unfossiliferous, 
 but sometimes contains the remains of 
 plants, and more rarely marine shells. 
 The Coal-measures and Millstone grit of 
 Monmouthshire, Glamorganshire, and 
 Pembrokeshire, lie in a great oval basin, 
 encircled by a rim of limestone, beneath 
 which lies the Old Red Sandstone. The 
 Coal-measure beds consist of alterna- 
 tions of sandstone, shale, fire-clay or 
 under-clay coal, and ironstone. Under- 
 neath each bed of coal is a bed of under- 
 clay with the roots known as Stig- 
 marise,. forming the soil in which the 
 plants were rooted, by the decay of 
 which, passing into peat, material was 
 supplied for the production of coal. The 
 Gloucestershire and Somersetshire coal- 
 field was originally joined to the South 
 Wales Carboniferous rocks. The Coal- 
 measures of the Bristol and Somerset- 
 shire coal-field are altogether about 7000 
 feet thick, and contain in all about forty- 
 six beds of coal, with a total thickness of 
 about 98 feet. The Coalbrookdale coal- 
 field contains several bands of good 
 nodular ironstone. There are in places 
 twenty-two beds of coal, about ten of 
 which are workable, some of them from 
 3 to 6 feet thick. The North Wales coal- 
 field lies on a great thickness of Carbon- 
 iferous limestone. The Denbighshire part 
 contains at least seventeen beds of coal, 
 most of which are worked, and the Flint- 
 shire part at least twelve beds. The base- 
 ment beds of the South Staffordshire 
 coal-field rest directly upon Upper 
 Silurian rocks. This field, in the northern 
 part, contains fourteen beds of coal. In 
 the south several of these coalesce to 
 form the thick coal, in places 40 feet in 
 thickness, with two thin partings. The 
 Warwickshire coal-field contains six beds 
 of workable coal, besides ironstone. 
 
 The Ashby-de-la-Zouch coal-field con- 
 tains fifteen beds of coal. The Coal- 
 brookdale, South Staffordshire, and 
 Warwickshire coal-fields present so 
 many points of resemblance, that un- 
 doubtedly they were all originally 
 formed as one coal-field. North of this 
 coal-field the Carboniferous rocks are 
 somewhat modified in details. The Lan- 
 cashire and Cheshire and North Stafford- 
 shire coal-fields, exclusive of the Mill 
 stone grit, vary from about 3500 to 750 
 feet in thickness, including about forty- 
 six coal beds in North Staffordshire, and 
 fourteen in Lancashire. There are also 
 many beds of ironstone. The Notting- 
 ham, Derbyshire, and Yorkshire coal- 
 fields united give about fifteen beds of 
 workable coal. All these are ironstone 
 areas, and North Staffordshire is also the 
 great pottery district of England. The 
 Newcastle coal-field is about 1600 feet 
 thick, and contains about sixteen beds 
 of coal throughout the district. The 
 lower coal-field of Northumberland is 
 of the date of the Mountain limestone. 
 A smaller coal-field overlies the Carbonif- 
 erous limestone northeast of White- 
 haven in Cumberland. The Whitehaven 
 Coal-measures, which lie on the Car- 
 boniferous limestone, have fourteen 
 beds of coal. The great Scottish coal- 
 fields lie in a broad synclinal hollow, in 
 which are the valleys of the Clyde and 
 Forth. ^The whole tract is about 100 
 miles in length, by 40 to 50 in breadth. 
 The Carboniferous strata of the Loth- 
 ians cross the Firth of Forth beneath the 
 sea, and form great part of Kinross and 
 Fife. By far the larger part of the sur- 
 face of Ireland, from the southern coast 
 to Lough Neagh and Donegal Day, con- 
 sists of the Carboniferous limestone 
 series, lying sometimes on Old Red 
 Sandstone, sometimes on Silurian rocks. 
 There are a few small coal-fields, but 
 these are merely the relics of one great 
 coal-field that originally overspread the 
 Carboniferous limestone of Ireland. 
 
 In the Carboniferous rocks more than 
 500 species of fossil plants have been 
 named, a large proportion of which are 
 ferns, including some tree-ferns. The 
 remaining chief plants are gigantic club- 
 mosses known as Calamites, Lepidoden- 
 dron, and Sigillaria. Coniferous trees 
 also occur, as do the wings and wing- 
 cases of beetles and other insects, spiders 
 etc., and some reptile forms. In the 
 purely marine series of rocks, of which 
 the Carboniferous limestone forms the 
 most important part, we find corals, 
 very numerous crinoids, brachiopods, 
 also exceedingly numerous, and Lamel- 
 libranchiate molluscs. Many cuttle- 
 fishes and numerous fish also occur; 
 trilobites are scarce. 
 
 Coal-fields occur in France, Belgium, 
 European Turkey, Hungary, Russia, 
 India, China, Borneo, New Zealand, 
 Australia, etc. The largest known coal- 
 fields in the world are in the U. States. 
 See Coal. 
 
 The Permian series succeeds the Car- 
 boniferous rocks, and were long con- 
 sidered as part of the New Red Sand- 
 stone. They were named Permian by 
 Sir Roderick Murchison, from the gov- 
 ernment of Perm, in European Russia, 
 where they largely occur. They consist 
 of sandstone, red marl, etc., and contain 
 
 a bed of the Magnesian limestone. Be- 
 tween the north of the Tyne and the 
 neighborhood of Nottingham the Per- 
 mian rocks skirt the Carboniferous rocks 
 and lie on them unconformably. In 
 Lancashire and Cheshire they chiefly 
 consist of red marl and sandstone. The 
 same rocks generally skirt the South 
 Staffordshire coal-field, and the south 
 part of the North Wales coal-field, and 
 the east side of Coalbrookdale, is also 
 bordered by Permian marls and sand- 
 stones. The fossils of the Permian group 
 are generically and specifially few in 
 number, but as a whole their affinities and 
 grouping are decidedly Palaeozoic. All 
 the Permian fish have heterocercal tails, 
 like the majority of the Palaeozoic 
 genera, in which the vertebral column 
 is prolonged into the upper lobe of the 
 tail, whereas in the modern fishes the 
 vertebral column is not prolonged into 
 either lobf. Excepting the Magnesia 
 limestone, all the Permian rocks are 
 red, and all, including this limestone, 
 seem to have been deposited, not in the 
 sea, but in an island salt lake, or in lakes. 
 
 The New Red Sandstone, or Trias, 
 succeeds the Permian strata. It has re- 
 ceived the name of Trias from the fact 
 that when fully developed, as in Ger- 
 many, it consists of three great divisions 
 of Keuper, Muschelkalk, and Bunter 
 Sandstein. Few old genera and no 
 species pass thus far upward. The ma- 
 jority of the genera of Brachiopoda dis- 
 appear, and the whole grouping of the 
 fossils now ceases to be Paleozoic, and 
 assumes a character common to the 
 Secondary rocks. Triassic rocljs extend 
 from Devonshire along the Severn, 
 round the eastern borders of the Palaeo- 
 zoie rocks of Herefordshire and North 
 Wales. From thence they stretch east- 
 ward to thte Permian and Carboniferous 
 rocksof Lancashire, NorthStaffordshire, 
 and Derbyshire. They surround all the 
 midland coal-fields and Permian beds be- 
 tween Shrewsbury, Coventry, and 
 Derby, and, everywhere unconformably 
 overlying the Permian rocks, stretch 
 north in a long band from Nottingham 
 to the river Tees. In its greatest develop- 
 ment in England, the Bunter series (of 
 soft red standsone and quartz conglom- 
 erate) is about 3000 feet thick. The 
 Muschelkalk (absent in Britain) may be 
 well seen, among other places, near 
 Gotha, and at Eisenach in Thuringia. 
 It is a gray shelly limestone, rich in fossil 
 mollusca. No fossils are known in the 
 Bunter Sandstones of England, though 
 a few are found in equivalent strata on 
 the Continent. In England, above the 
 upper soft red sandstone are beds of red, 
 white, and brown Keuper sandstone, 
 and red marl, often ripple-marked, and 
 containing bones and footprints, chiefly 
 of Labyrinthodont reptiles, together 
 with a few plants, and a peculiar fish. 
 The rock-salt of England lies in the 
 Triassic red marls of the plains of Lanca- 
 shire, Cheshire, and Worcestershire. 
 This rock-salt was deposited in super- 
 saturated salt lakes during the Keuper 
 period; and this could only have been 
 done by the evaporation due to solar 
 heat acting on the waters of salt lakes 
 which had no outflow, like the Great Salt 
 Lake of Utah, for example, or the salt 
 lakes of Central Asia. The Keuper red 
 
GEOLOQY 
 
 / 
 
 GEOLOGY 
 
 marl (Upper Trias) vai-ies from 500 to 
 2000 feet in thickness, and contains, be- 
 sides other fossils, footprints and bones' 
 of reptiles. In the U. States the Triassic 
 rocks of Virginia and N. Carolina con- 
 tain workable beds of coal. The red 
 sandstone of the Connecticut valley is of 
 Bunter age. .\bove the Keuper strata 
 occur a series of beds called the Rhaetic 
 beds, from similar strata in the Rhaetic 
 Alps. All over England, wherever the 
 base of the Lower Lias is well seen, the 
 Rhaetic beds, rarely more than 50 or 100 
 feet thick, are found to lie between the 
 Lias above and the New Red Marl of the 
 Trias below. They must be considered 
 as true beds of passage between the red 
 marl and the next series of strata. At 
 the base of the Rhaetic beds have been 
 found minute teeth of the earliest known 
 mammal (Microlestes rhaeticus), a small 
 insect-eating marsupial. 
 
 The Lias and Oolite seri^ succeed the 
 New Red and Rhaetic beds. On the Con- 
 itnent of Europe the Lias and Oolite 
 together are termed Jurassic, because in 
 a typical form they are largely developed 
 in the range of the Jura. The Lias in 
 England consists, in descending order, 
 of the Upper Lias shale, or clay; Marl- 
 stone; Lower Lias shale, or clay and lime- 
 stone. The Lower Lias is about 900 feet 
 thick, and consists of beds of blue clay 
 interstratified with beds of blue argil- 
 laceous limestone, which is largely quar- 
 ried in Leicestershire, Warwickshire, 
 etc., for hydraulic lime. The Lower Lias 
 is well exposed in the coast section at 
 Lyme-Regis. From thence the Lower 
 Lias strikes north to the junction -of the 
 Severn, and Avon, and again n.e. and n. 
 to the sea-coast of Yorkshire, e. of the 
 river Tees. The Lower Lias clay and 
 lime, as a whole, is rich in the remains of 
 life. These include crinoids, decapod 
 crustaceans, Terebratulte, and other 
 Brachiopoda, and numerous Lamelli- 
 branchiate molluscs. Cephalopoda, such 
 as ammonites and belemnites, are espe- 
 cially numerous, together with species 
 of nautilus. Fish are numerous, and 
 there appear in the Lower Lias a great 
 number of remarkable reptiles, some of 
 gigantic size, as the Ichthyosaurus, the 
 Plesiosaurus, and the well-known Ptero- 
 dactyle. The Marlstone series, or Middle 
 Lias, which is generally a brown, fer- 
 ruginuos, soft, sandy rock, is rich in 
 many forms of ammonite-and belemnite, 
 etc. From the Upper Lias clay much 
 alum shale, as also the well-known 
 Whitby jet, is obtained. It is a stiff un- 
 fertile 'dark-blue clay. In Yorkshire, at 
 the top of the "Lower Lias and in the 
 Marlstone, there are the well-known 
 beds of ironstone so extensively worked 
 at Middlesborough. 
 
 The Oolitic strata as a whole stretch 
 across England from southwest to north- 
 east, or from Portland Bill to North 
 Yorkshire. The Inferior Oolite, the 
 lowest member of the Lower Oolite, 
 chiefly consists of beds of yellow lime- 
 stone. Much of the limestone is oolitic 
 that is to say, it is formed of small con- 
 cretionary bodies, like the roe of a fish 
 cemented together in a calcareous 
 matrix. Above the Inferior Oolite lime- 
 stone lies the Fuller’s earth, so name 
 because it contains in places beds of that 
 substance. The formation consists of 
 
 stiff blue clay, which varies in thickness 
 from a few feet to 200 feet near Bath. 
 The Great or Bath Oolite succeeds, and 
 consists of Great Ooolite, covered by 
 Forest Marble, and passing downward 
 into Stonesfleld Slate, which forms its 
 base. The Stonesfleld slate consists of 
 beds of shelly laminated and oolitic 
 limestone, with numerous fossils among 
 them remains of mammals, viz.: the 
 lower jawbones of four genera of small 
 insectivorous marcupials. The Bath 
 Oolite, of which the Forest Marble forms 
 the upper part, is best developed near 
 Bath, , where it jdelds the celebrated 
 stone of which that city is built. Among 
 fossils of the Bath or Great Oolite are 
 reptiles of the genera Teleosaurus and 
 Megalosaurus, together with the gigantic 
 Ceteosaurus (or whale-lizard), probably 
 about 50 feet in length. During this part 
 of the Oolitic epoch, while in the south 
 of England the strata were exclusively 
 marine, in the middle and north they 
 were to a great extent estuarine, fresh- 
 water, and terrestrial. 
 
 The Middle Oolite consists of the 
 Upper Calcareous Grit, Coral Rag, Lower 
 Calcareous Grit, Oxford Clay, and the 
 Kellowgy Rock. The Oxford Clay is a 
 dark blue clay, about GOO feet thick 
 where best developed, rumjtng in a long', 
 band of varying width from the coast of 
 Dorsetshire to the Derwent, in Y"orkshire. 
 The Kelloway Rock is an occasional 
 thin band of calcareous sandstone near 
 its base. The Coral, Rag is a rubbly 
 limestone, trending, with occasional 
 interruptions, from Som^sctshire to 
 Y^orkshire. It is associated in places with 
 sandy strata known as the Calcareous 
 Grits, and is often almost entirely com- 
 posed of broken shells and sea-urchins. 
 
 The Upper Oolite consists of the Port- 
 land Limestone and Sand and Kim- 
 meridge Clay. The Kimmeridge Clay is 
 well exposed in Kimmeridge Bay, on the 
 Dorsetshire coast, whence its name. 
 Occasionally interrupted, it runs from 
 thence north into Yorkshire. In places 
 it is 500 or 600 feet thick, and consists of 
 a stiff blue and Sometimes black clay or 
 shale. The Portland Limestone and 
 Sand are best seen in the Isle of Port- 
 land. The celebrated Portland stone has 
 been used in many public buildings, in- 
 cluding St. Paul’s. Like those of all the 
 other Oolite formations it is cream- 
 colored, and generally fossiliferous. 
 
 In Scotland the Lias, Inferior Oolite, 
 Middle Oolite, and Oxford Clay occur 
 in the Islands of Skye and ]\Iull. On the 
 east of Scotland, at ahd near Brora, in 
 Sutherland, the Liassic and Oolitic 
 strata have been long known. Oolitic 
 rocks, known by the name of Juriassic, 
 almost identical with those of Britain, 
 occur largely. in France; and the moun- 
 tain range of the Jura, dividing France 
 and Switzerland, is chiefly formed of 
 Liassic and-Oolitic rocks. From thence 
 they range interruptedly northward 
 and eastward, covering a large part of 
 the plains of European Russia, and ex- 
 tending along the Himalayas. 
 
 As regards the fossil remains of the 
 Lias and Oolite, a remarkable feature is 
 the vast development of Cephalopoda, 
 especially of the genera Belemnites, 
 Nautilus, Ammonites, and Ancyloceras. 
 There are also many genera and species 
 
 of fishes, chiefly in the Lias, and the 
 genera and species of reptiles are so 
 numerous that this life-period has been 
 sometimes called “the age of reptiles.” 
 The plants include ferns, horse-tails, 
 conifers, cycads, etc. Viewed as a whole, 
 the Liassic and Oolitic strata seem to 
 have been deposited in warm seas round 
 groups of i.slands formed of the older 
 Palreozoic rocks of Europe, of which the 
 Highlands of Scotland, Cumberland, 
 and Wales formed parts, and from which 
 rivers flowed, at the mouths of which the 
 estuarine and fresh-water deposits of the 
 north of England and Scotland were 
 accumulated. 
 
 Purbeck and Wealden Strata. — These 
 form a series of transition strata between 
 the Oolite and the Cretaceous systems. 
 They belong chiefly to the district of 
 Kent and Sussex known as the Weald, 
 and comprise the Weald clay, the Hast- 
 ings sands and cla 3 ^s, and the Purbeck 
 limestones, marls, and clays. The Pur- 
 beck beds, which succeed the Portland 
 stone, are chiefly fresh-water strata, and 
 the Hastings sand and Weald clay are 
 almost exclusively fresh-water beds. 
 Severab remarkable reptiles occur in the 
 Weald, including the Iguanodon, Plesio- 
 saurus, and Pterodactjde, together with 
 a number of Crocodiles. 
 
 The Cretaceous Formation is divided 
 into a lower and an upper series of strata. 
 The chief member of the former is the 
 Lower Green-sand, forming a series of 
 strata overlying the Wealden beds, and 
 occurring in magnificent sections along 
 the southern cliffs of the Isle of Wight, 
 and elsewhere round the Wealden area. 
 The general characters of the whole 
 formation are white, yellow, ferruginous, 
 and gray and green sands. 
 
 The Gault, which forms the base of 
 the Upper Cretaceous series, is a stiff 
 blue clay about 300 feet thick in its 
 thickest development. It appears in the 
 Isle of Wight, ranges round the escarp- 
 ment of the Weald, and in the center of 
 England, from the neighborhood of 
 Devizes to the Wash in Norfolk. In 
 general lithological characters, theLfpper 
 Green-sand in places somewhat re- 
 sembles the Lower Green-sand. In part 
 of the Wealden area it is diflfitfult to 
 separate from the Gault, there being a 
 passage from one to the other. In Wilt- 
 shire the LTpper Green-sand is about 
 200 feet thick. 
 
 The Chalk, from its familiar characters 
 and uniformity of structure, is the most 
 easily recognizable of all the British 
 formations. From west to east it 
 stretches from the neighborhood of 
 Beaminster, in Dorsetshire, to Beachy 
 Head and the North Foreland, and from 
 thence north to Speeton, in Y'orkshire. 
 Its area in Europe and Asia is immense. 
 It consists of a soft white limestone, and 
 on examination with the microscope, 
 much of it is found to consist of 
 shells of Foraminifera, Diatomacea, 
 spiculaj and other remains of sponges, 
 Polyzoa, and shells, highly comminuted. 
 Somewhat similar deposits are now form- 
 ing in the open Atlantic at great depths, 
 chiefly of Foraminifera of the genus 
 Globingerina. In its thickest develop- 
 ment in England the Chalk is about 
 1200 feet thick (in Dorsetshire, Hamp- 
 shire, etc.). The Lower Chalk usually 
 
GEOMETRY 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERK 
 
 contains no flints, and is somewhat 
 marly at the base, while the Upper 
 Chalk is interstratified with many beds 
 of interrupted flints. As a whole, the 
 Chalk dips gently from its western 
 escarpment to the east and south, un- 
 derlying the Tertiary strata of the 
 Hampshire and London basins, and 
 reappearing with precisely the same 
 characters on the coast of France. Be- 
 yond England it stretches through 
 France, northward into Sweden, and 
 eastward into Asia. Plants are com- 
 paratively few in the Chalk, but animal 
 remains are very numerous. More than 
 eighty species of fish are known; various 
 great reptile forms, as the Mosasaurus, 
 Plesiosaurus, and Ichthyosaurus, Ptero- 
 dactyles, etc. In England, and generally 
 in Europe, there is a marked discor.d 
 ance between the fossils of the Chalk 
 and those of the overlying Tiertary 
 rocks; no fossils (except, perhaps, one 
 Terebratula) being common to the two 
 groups. In America the Cretaceous 
 epoch presents some extraordinary 
 reptilian forms of immense size, also 
 various birds. The sands and marls of 
 Njew Jersey, U. States, are of this age, 
 and similar beds occupy extensive 
 tracts in the western regions; but there is 
 iTo true white chalk in America. 
 
 Of the Tertiary strata the Eocene 
 Rocks form the lowest division. In 
 England these lie in two basins, those of 
 London and Hampshire, both sur- 
 rounded and underlaid by the Chalk. 
 The strata are divided into the Lower 
 Eocene and the Upper Eocene or Oligo- 
 cene. The Lower Eocene rocks lie some- 
 times on upper beds of Chalk, and some- 
 times on beds lower in the series. They 
 are therefore highly uneonformable, and 
 in this we have the reason of the com- 
 plete difference in the species of the Cre- 
 taceous and Eocene rocks, for great con- 
 tinental areas of Chalk were upheaved 
 above the sea, and remained as dry land 
 for a period of time so long that when 
 they were again submerged the life of 
 Cretaceous times had died out, and other 
 forms appeared. To the Lower Eocene 
 belong the Thanet Sand, the Woolwich 
 and Reading beds, the London Clay, and 
 the Bagshot Sands and Clays. The 
 London Clay usually consists of brown 
 and bluish-gray clay, and in the London 
 basin varies in thickness from 50 to 480 
 feet. Its fossil remains include various 
 palm-nuts and other fruits and leaves. 
 Remains ^occur of birds allied to the 
 vulture and kingfisher, and a small 
 swimming-bird with tooth-like serratures 
 on the bill; turtles and river tortoises are 
 numerous. The Upper Eocene or Oligo- 
 cene includes the Headon Hill Sands, 
 the Osborne Beds, Bembridge Beds, and 
 Hempstead Beds, groups of strata be 
 longing to Hampshire and the Isle of 
 Wight. In these beds various Ungulate 
 rnammalia are found, such as the Ano- 
 plotherium, Palffiotherium, a kind of 
 river-hog, tapirs, etc. In France, in the 
 Paris basin, the Eocene strata are largely 
 develop.od. The Wahsatch, Bridger and 
 Uinta beds of N. America are of Eocene 
 age. 
 
 The Miocene Rocks are not found in 
 Britain, but are well represented by 
 strata (mostly of fresh-water origin in 
 Central France (Auvergne, etc.) and 
 
 Switzerland. Over many parts of 
 Europe, Asia, and America there are 
 other Miocene strata, each more or less 
 possessing peculiarities. 
 
 The Pliocene strata in Britain consist 
 in descending order of the Cromer 
 Forest Bed, Chillesford Clay, Mammalif- 
 erous or Norwich Crag, the Red Crag 
 and the Coralline or White Crag of 
 Suffolk. The Coralline or White Crag 
 lies on the London clay in Suffolk, and 
 consists of a patch of about 20 miles in 
 length, and generally of less than 100 
 feet in thickness. It is rich in Polyzoa 
 (formerly called Corallines, whence the 
 name Coralline Crag). The general char- 
 acter of the climate seems to have been 
 milder than at present. The Red Crag 
 often lies in denuded hollows on the 
 Coralline Crag, and is chiefl}^ a ferrugin- 
 ous, shelly sand, very irregularly bedded. 
 Many of its shells now live in British 
 seas, and there are many reasons for 
 believing that during the later part of the 
 Eocene and through the Miocene epoch 
 the area now called Britain was joined 
 to the Continent. The Mammaliferous 
 or Norwich Crag consists of sands, 
 gravels, and shells, afi’d contains remains 
 of species of mastodon, elephant, hip- 
 popotamus, and horse, as also of the 
 common otter, deer, etc. From the 
 nature of the fossils it is believed to have- 
 accumulated near the mouth of a river. 
 
 The Post-tertiary or Quaternary 
 Epoch is that immediately before the 
 period in wdiich we now are (the recent). 
 It is characterized especially by various 
 glacial phenomena, and in particular by 
 numerous evidences of a glacial period, 
 whqn the northern hemisphere was sub- 
 jected to a climate of the utmost rigor. 
 During this period what is now the 
 British Islands was in great part covered 
 by glacier ice, probably as thick as that 
 of the north of Greenland at the present 
 day. When the most extreme cold pre- 
 vailed, the mountains of Scotland and 
 Wales were literally smothered in ice. 
 Much of the boulder clay which is found 
 more or less all over the British Islands 
 north of the Thames valley is simply the 
 moraine matter of clay and boulders 
 that in places lay below the ice, and was 
 more or less urged forward by the ad- 
 vancing glacier mass. (See Glaciers.) 
 It is believed that subsequently a slow 
 submersion of the land took place, and 
 that then icebergs deposited the stones, 
 earth, etc., carried by them over part of 
 what is now the low lands of England 
 and other regions, and of neighboring 
 seas; hence the presence of sands, gravels 
 and clays, full of boulders and ice- 
 scratched stones, intermingled with 
 shells of arctic or semi-arctic type some- 
 times lying at heights of from 800 to 
 1200 and 1400 feet above the present 
 sea-level. The same kind of phenomena 
 are more or less universal over great part 
 of North&rn Europe and North America. 
 On the elevation of the country after 
 the cold had passed away Britain was 
 reunited to the Continent and Ireland 
 to Britain, by plains of boulder-drift 
 across which many mammalia (includ- 
 ing the mammoth), migrated into the 
 countrjq some of them for the second 
 time. Man also migrated into the British 
 area along with such mammalia. Among 
 Post -tertiary plants there are Scotcli 
 
 firs, pines, yews, oaks, alders. 'ITie 
 mammalian remains include those of 
 elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamus, 
 the common horse, bison, aurochs, red 
 deer, roe-deer, Irish elk, Machairodus 
 Ca tiger?), etc. Many of these .animals 
 remains are found in the celtebrated bone 
 caves, several notable examj^s of 
 which have been investigated in Britain. 
 (See Cave.) In these have been found 
 not only such remains as those of the 
 cave bear, cave hyena, fox, wolf, cat, 
 lion, reindeer, Irish elk, bison, rhinoceros 
 elephant, etc., but also the works of 
 man, such as flint implements, and on~ 
 the Continent of Europe his skull and 
 other bones associated with the above- 
 named mammalia. 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMER- 
 ICA, an organization for the promotion 
 of the science of geology in North 
 America, formed in 1888 as an out- 
 growth of the geological section of the 
 American association for the advance- 
 ment of science. The society is almost 
 strictly professional with a membership 
 of about 300. The organization issues 
 the bulletin of the geological society of 
 America. 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, U. States, a 
 bureau of the department of the interior, 
 organized in 1879 as a consolidation of 
 the independent surveys that had been 
 active for several years in exploring the 
 Western states and territories. 
 
 The functions of the geological sur- 
 vey, as originally outlined by law of 
 congress, with subsequent modifications, 
 include the preparation of a topographic 
 map of the LT. States; the investigation 
 and mapping of the areal geology; the 
 examination of mineral deposits; the 
 collection of mineral statistics; the study 
 of hydrography with reference to water- 
 power and the irrigation of arid regions; 
 and ihe classification of public lands. 
 The preparation of the topographic 
 map, a necessary preliminary to the 
 geologic and hydrographic work, is 
 carried on by the topographic branch 
 of the survey. When completed the 
 topographic map will give an accurate 
 presentation of the surface features of 
 the country. The geologic branch of the 
 survey investigates the maps of the geo- 
 logical formations. The map.^as rapidly 
 as completed, is issued in folios; it shows 
 the areal distribution of the various 
 rocks, their geological structure, and 
 the location of mineral resources For 
 the purpose of conducting special in- 
 vestigations of scientific or economic 
 value, the geologic branch is organized 
 in divisions, each of which covers a par- 
 ticular field. 
 
 GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION, a 
 
 series of numbers which increase or de- 
 crease by ecjual ratios: as, 2, 4, 8, 16, or 
 16, 8, 4, 2. 
 
 GEOMETRY, as its, name implies, was 
 primarily the mathematical science 
 which has for its object the measurement 
 of portioiis of the earth’s surface; but 
 now geometry may be termed the science 
 which treats of the properties and rela- 
 tions of definite portions of space, such 
 as surfaces, volumes^ angles, lines. The 
 relation between the parts of the same 
 figure may be of twoTcinds, — of position 
 or of magnitude; for e.xamplc, two points 
 in a"' straight line, four points on tho 
 
GEORGE 
 
 GEORGE III 
 
 same circle, two straight lines perpen- 
 dicular to one another, a straight line 
 tangent to a circle, are relations of posi- 
 tion. On the other hand, the propor- 
 tionality of homologous lines of two 
 similar figures, the equality of the square 
 constructed on the hypotenuse of a 
 right-angled triangle to the sum of the 
 squares constructed on the sides con- 
 taining the right angle, that of the 
 volumes of two pyramids on equal bases 
 and of the same height, are relations of 
 dimension. But the relations of posi- 
 tion govern the relations of dimension, 
 and vice versa; that is, the one set of 
 relations depend upon the other. Thus 
 it is because a triangle is rectangular 
 that the square constructed on one of its 
 sides is equivalent to the sum of the 
 squares constructed on the other two, 
 ifnd, vice versa, that relation between 
 the magnitudes of the squares on the 
 three sides depends on the triangle being 
 right-angled. The geometer may draw 
 indifferently from the study of a figure 
 either the knowledge of the relations of 
 position or that of the relations of di- 
 mension, on tlie condition that he 
 knows how to apply relations of the one 
 kind to those of the other; and the prin- 
 cipal aim of geometry is to examine into 
 the connection between the relations of 
 magnitude and those of position. 
 
 Geometry may be conveniently di- 
 vided into several principal sections — 
 elementary geometry, practical geome- 
 try, analytical geometry, infinitesimal 
 geometry, etc. Elementary geometry 
 comprehends two parts — plane geome- 
 try, the object of which is the study 
 of the simplest figures formed on a 
 plane by straight lines and circles; 
 and solid geometry or geometry of 
 three dimensions, which treats of 
 straight lines and planes considered in 
 any relative position whatever, of figures 
 terminated by planes, of the cylinder, 
 of the cone, and of the sphere. Ana- 
 lytical geometry, either plane or solid, 
 makes use of the method of co-ordinates 
 introduced by Descartes and primarily 
 applied to curves. In ancient times, 
 though curves were studied and the 
 principal properties of conic sections 
 known, still no connection existed be- 
 tween these curves, nor was there any 
 means of establishing one, so that the 
 study of one was of no value to that of 
 another. The first question in introduc- 
 ing the analytic method was then to fix 
 upon some means which should serve to 
 construct every curve by successive 
 points as numerous and as closely 
 brought together as is necessary in order 
 to lay dowp the curve. Now the position 
 of a point in a plane may be determined 
 by two Intersecting perpendiculars 
 drawn from* two fixed lines — the co- 
 ordinates axes — at right angles to each 
 other. An equation may then be found 
 which states the relation between the 
 co-ordinates of any point, that is, its 
 distance from the two co-oridnate axes. 
 (See Co-ordinates.) The study of the 
 curves will thus be simply the study of 
 their equations. In this way a typical 
 equation for a curve in a certain system 
 may be got, so that if at another time 
 the curve is represented under another 
 definition in investigating its equation 
 in the same system of co-ordinates, 
 
 particularized so as to simplify as much 
 as possible the calculations, it will 
 suffice to compare the particular equa- 
 tion with the general one to verify the 
 identity of the curve, to give it its name, 
 and to know all the properties of it 
 which have been studied previously. 
 In a similar way the analytical geometry 
 of solid bodies is based on the fact that 
 the position of any point in space can 
 be determined by reference to three in- 
 tersectingplanes. Infinitesimal geometry 
 is simply a continuation of the analytical 
 goemetry of Descartes, of which it may 
 indeed be said it forms a part; the dif- 
 ference consists simply in the nature of 
 the questions which, as they involve the 
 measurement of magnitudes, the inces- 
 santly variable elements of which can- 
 not be summed up by finite parts, re- 
 quire the use of the infinitesimal calcu- 
 lus. Descriptive geometry consists in 
 the application of geometrical rules to 
 the representation of the figures and the 
 various relations of the forms of bodies 
 according to certain conventional meth- 
 ods. In the descriptive geometry the 
 situation of points in space is repre- 
 sented by their orthographical projec- 
 tions, on two planes at right angles to 
 each other called the planes of pro^ 
 jection. 
 
 GEORGE, Henry, American econo- 
 mist, born in 1839 in Philadelphia, Pa. 
 In 1865 he began to write for the press 
 and one of his earliest productions urges 
 workingmen to think about political and 
 social conditions, to find if it be possible 
 to “check the tendency of society to re- 
 solve itself into classes that have too" 
 much or too little.” At this time he was 
 engaged as a reporter on the San Fran- 
 cisco Times, where he was quickly pro- 
 moted to the position of chief of staff. 
 The great fortunes acquired in Califor- 
 nia through the rapid increase in the 
 value of land fixed his attention upon 
 the land problem; and in a pamphlet 
 published in 1871, entitled Our Land 
 Policy, he advanced most of the ideas 
 that later appear in Progress and Pov- 
 erty, his most important work— that the 
 value of land represents in the main a 
 monopoly power, and that the entire 
 burden of taxation should be levied upon 
 it, thus freeing industry from taxation, 
 and equalizing opportunities by destroy- 
 ing monopoly advantages. 
 
 In 1886 George became a candidate 
 for themayorality of New York City, but 
 was defeated by Abram S. Hewitt. In 
 1896 he again ran for mayor, but died 
 before election day. 
 
 GEORGE, St.,. a saint venerated both 
 in the eastern and western churches, 
 and the patron saint 'of England. He 
 was canonized in 494 or 496 by Pope 
 Gelasius. His origin is very obscure, one 
 of many legends representing him as a 
 prince of Cappadocia, martyred by 
 Diocletian. Gibbon has sought to iden- 
 tify this legendary saint with the notori- 
 ous and turbulent Arian heretic George 
 of Cappadocia, who was slain in 361 in a 
 rising of the populace who had been in- 
 furiated by his oppression and his 
 violence against pagans and orthodox. 
 But the most eminent scholars, both 
 Roman Catholic and Protestant, are of 
 opinion that the veneration of St. George 
 has been traced up to so early a period as 
 
 to make it very improbable that a 
 notorious Arian could. have been foisted 
 on the Catholic Church as a saint and 
 martyr. The killing of a dragon that 
 was about to swallow a maiden is a 
 legendary feat attributed to him. He 
 was adopted by the Genoese as their 
 patron saint, and in 1222 the Council of 
 Oxford ordered that his day (the 23d of 
 April) should be observed as a national 
 holiday in England; in 1350 he was made 
 the patron of the order of the garter by 
 Edward III. 
 
 GEORGE I., King of Great Britain, 
 and Elector of Hanover, was the son of 
 the Elector Ernest Augustus, by Sophia, 
 daughter of Frederick, elector palatine, 
 and grand-daughter to James I. He 
 was born May 28, 1660, and in 1682 was 
 married to Sophia Dorothea of Zell, 
 whom, in 1694, on account of a sus- 
 pected intrigue with Count Konigsmark, 
 he caused to be imprisoned and kept in 
 confinement for the rest of her life. 
 In 1698 he succeeded his father as 
 elector. He commanded the imperial 
 army in 1707 during the war of the 
 Spanish succession; and ascended the 
 throne of Great Britain on the death of 
 Queen Anne in 1714. Among the nota- 
 able events of his reign were the rising 
 of the Scottish Jacobites (1715-16); the 
 Triple and Quadruple Alliances against 
 Spain (1717 and 1718); the failure of the 
 South Sea Company (1720). The private 
 character of George I. was bad, but he 
 showed much good sense and prudence 
 in government, especially of his German 
 dominions. By Sophia Dorothea he had 
 a son, George, afterwards George II. of 
 England, and a daughter, Sophia, the 
 mother of Frederick the Great. He died 
 in 1727. 
 
 GEORGE I., “King of the Hellenes,” 
 was born at Copenhagen Dec. 24, 1845, 
 second son of the King of Denmark. In 
 1863 he was elected king by the Greek 
 national assembly. In 1867 he married 
 the Princess Olga, a niece of the Russian 
 czar. 
 
 GEORGE II., King of Great Britain, 
 son of George I., was born Oct. 30, 1683. 
 He married in 1705 Wilhelmina Caro- 
 lina of Brandenburg-Anspach. In 1708, 
 then only electoral prince of Hanover, 
 he distinguished himself at Oudenarde 
 under Marlborough. In 1727 he suc- 
 ceeded his father on the English throne, 
 but inherited -to the full the predilection 
 of George I. for Hanover. His reign is 
 notable for the great events with which 
 it is filled, and for the number of men 
 great in art, letters, war, and diplomacy 
 which then adorned England. The war 
 of the Austrian succession, in which 
 George II. himself took part at Dettin- 
 gen, the Jacobite rebellion of 1745, the 
 conquest of Canada, and the growth of 
 the British empire in India are among 
 the chief events of his reign. George 
 II. died suddenly Oct. 25, 1760. He 
 was a prince of very moderate abilities, 
 regardless of science or literature; of 
 obstinate temper and vicious habits; but 
 honest and open in his disposition. 
 
 GEORGE III., King of Great Britain, 
 born in 1738, was the eldest son of 
 Erederick, prince of Wales, by the 
 Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, and 
 succeeded his grandfather, George II., 
 in 1760. In the following year he mar- 
 
GEORGE IV 
 
 GEORGIA 
 
 ried the Princess Charlotte Sophia of 
 Mecklenhurg-Strelitz. Tlie sixty year's 
 of his reign are filled with great events, 
 among wliich are the Wilkes’ contro- 
 versy, the American revolution, 1775- 
 83; the French revolution, 1789, and the 
 
 Napoleonic wars which followea; the 
 Irish rebellion, 1798, etc. His private 
 life was very exemplary. In 1810 the 
 king’s mind, which had already given 
 way several times, finally broke down, 
 and from that time to his death on Jan. 
 29, 1820, his biography is a blank. 
 
 GEORGE IV., King of England, son 
 of George III. and the Princess Charlotte' 
 of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, born in 1762, 
 died June 26, 1830. In 1811 George 
 became regent, and, on the death of 
 George III. in 1820, king. The most im- 
 portant event after his attaining the 
 throne was the passing of the Catholic 
 emancipation act, by the Wellington 
 ministry, in 1829. George IV. left no 
 descendants, his only daughter, the 
 Princess Charlotte, wife of Leopold of 
 Saxe-Coburg, having died childless in 
 1817. He was therefore succeeded by 
 his brother, William, duke of Clarence 
 CNVilliam IV.) See Britain. 
 
 GEORGETO'WN, a suburb of Wash- 
 ington, D. C., contains the Georgetown 
 college (the oldest Catholic college in the 
 U. States), the Peabody library, etc. 
 The Chesapeake and Ohio canal com 
 
 TTiAnppQ nPrA 
 
 GEORGETOWN, or DEMERARA, the 
 capital of British Guiana, at the mouth 
 of the Demerara. The chief exports are 
 sugar, rum, and coffee. Pop. 53,176, 
 about one-seventh being whites. 
 
 GEORGIA, was formerly a kingdom, 
 but is now included in the Russian gov- 
 ernment of Tiflis, though the name is 
 sometimes loosely employed to desig- 
 nate a much larger portion of the terri- 
 tory possessed by Russia south of the 
 Caucasus. In the latter sense it has an 
 area of say 34,000 sq. miles, but Georgia 
 proper does not excepd about 15,000 sq. 
 miles. The natives are a fine-looking 
 race, the Georgian women, like the Cir- 
 cassians, being celebrated for their 
 beauty. The Georgian language, to- 
 gether with that of the Mingrelains, 
 Lazes, and other Caucasian peoples, 
 seems, according to the latest researches 
 to form a perfectly distinct linguistic 
 family. It possesses a not unimportant 
 literature, commencing with the intro- 
 duction of Christianity, into the coun- 
 try. Tho history of the Georgians first 
 becomes trustworthy about the time of 
 Alexander the Great, to whom they be- 
 came subject. .Aliout b.c. 324 they 
 gained their independence under Phar- 
 navas. They l:ecamc Christianized 
 toward the end of the 41 h century. 
 
 After yielding for a time to the suprem- 
 acy of the Arabian caliphs Georgia 
 regained its independence toward the 
 end of the 10th century, which it retained 
 till 1799, w'hen Heraclius, successor of 
 George XL, formally ceded his domin- 
 ions to the Russian emperor Pau. 
 
 GEORGIA, one of the southern U. 
 States, bounded n. by Tennessee and 
 North Carolina, e. by South Carolina and 
 the Atlantic, s. by Florida, and w. by 
 Alabama; length, north to soxith, 320 
 miles; breadth, 255 miles; area, about 
 58,000 sq. miles (same as England and 
 Wales). The coast is bordered by a 
 chain of islands, separated from the 
 mainland by narrow lagoons or sounds. 
 On them the famous sea-island cotton is 
 raised. The land is low toward the coast, 
 beginning as a salt marsh, grown over 
 with tall reeds, continuing next as 
 swampy rice plantations and then as 
 “pine barrens’’ about 60 or 90 miles 
 inland, latWrly gradually rising as a 
 sandy district, interspersed with fertile 
 tracts, till it reaches the lower falls of 
 the Savannah, Ogechee, Oconee, and 
 other rivers. Here the hilly and finally 
 mountainous region called the Upper 
 Country begins, a fertile and salubrious 
 region extending north and west till it 
 rises into the Appalachian mountain 
 chaiix. Of the rivers the Chattahoochee, 
 which flows under the name of the 
 Appalachicola into the Gulf of Mexico, 
 is navigable for steamers for 300 miles; 
 the Savannah is naA'igable for steamers 
 part of the year for 250 miles; and the 
 
 Seal ot Georgia. 
 
 Altamaha and its affluents are navigable 
 for small vessels 300 miles upwards. The 
 climate is mild, but unhealthy in the low 
 country during July, August, and Sep- 
 tember. The soil in many^ parts is very 
 rich. Cotton, rice, maize, and the sugar- 
 cane are the staple productions; but 
 tobacco, the sweet potato, and other 
 crops are cultivated with success. The 
 fruits, which include peaches, apples, 
 melons, oranges, bananas, etc., are of 
 the finest. Copper and iron, also gold in 
 considerable quantities, are found in 
 the northern parts. Atlanta is the seat 
 of the legislature and the largest town; 
 the other principal towns are Savannah 
 (the chief .seaport), .\ugusta, Macon, and 
 Columbus. A charter for the foundation 
 of a colony in the territory now called 
 Georgia was- obtained in 1732 by Gen- 
 eral Gglethorpe from George 11. , after 
 Avhom the state was named. Georgia 
 .was one of the thirteen original states. 
 
 The first English settlement in thd 
 state was made in 1733, by a band of 
 immigrants under the direction of Gen. 
 James Oglethorpe, who first landed at 
 Savannah. The relations between the 
 Indians (of wliom there were two pow- 
 erful tribes — the Cherokees and the 
 Creeks) and the settlers at first were 
 amicable, and were never disturbed un- 
 til the French and Indian war, during 
 which the Cherokees plundered and 
 burned some of the remote frontier 
 hamlets and killed a few' of the settlers. 
 The extent of the territory comprised 
 in the original colony was much greater 
 than the area of the present state, and 
 by treaty with France and Spain at 
 one time it extended to the Mississippi 
 River on the west and included a good- 
 ly portion of Florida on tlie south. 
 When the revolutionary war began, 
 Georgia was in a flourishing condition, 
 having a population , including negroes 
 (slavery having been introduced in 
 1750), estimated at over 75,0u0. The 
 state was destined to become the scene 
 of important military operations 
 during the pi’ogress of the Avar, 
 and several hard-fought battles be- 
 tween the British on the one side, 
 and the French and Americans on the 
 other, took place, those of greatest 
 magnitude being at Augusta and Sa- 
 vannalu Although defeated and com- 
 pelled to abandon Augusta at first, the 
 British i-ecaptured the toAA n, and held 
 Savannah and the entire state in sub- 
 jection (with the exception of minor 
 guerrilla AA'arfare) until General Greene 
 succeeded in foi’cing them to retire, 
 in 1782, after the surrender of Corn- 
 wallis, and before the signing of the 
 treaty of peace between England and 
 America. In 1803 two nevi' territories 
 were erected out of her domains, and 
 these were afterward admitted to the 
 Union as the States of Mississippi and 
 Alabama, which loss of territory was, 
 in a measure, compensated by posses- 
 sion of the large tract of country before 
 that time occupied by the Creek 
 Indians, who ceded it to the state in 
 1804. From 1815 to 1825 . the troubles 
 between the Avhites and Indians were 
 of a nature so serious that the general 
 government had to interfere and re- 
 move the Indians beyond the Mississip- 
 pi- 
 
 When the civil war broke out, in 
 1861, Georgia passed the ordinance of 
 secession, being the fifth state in order 
 of priority to leave the Union. At- 
 lanta fell- before the victorious arms of 
 Sherman, in September, 1864, and 
 thence that general took up his ‘ ‘march 
 to the sea,” appearing before Savannah, 
 December 10, 1804. After two weeks’ 
 hard fighting he succeeded in capturing 
 the defenses and occupied the city. 
 After the fall of the Confederacy Jeffer- 
 son Davis fled to Georgia, and was cap- 
 tured near IMacon by a detachment of 
 Federal cavalry, which had previously 
 invaded the state and taken various 
 points of importance. 
 
 The history of Georgia, since the 
 war, has been one of steady progress. 
 In the fail of 1865, the ordinance of 
 secession from the statute book was re- 
 pudiated, ac, quiesced in and ratified the 
 emancipation proclamation of the 
 
GEORGIA BARK 
 
 german silver 
 
 president, and voided all public debts I 
 on account of the war. In 1868 a con- ' 
 stitution was framed and the state 
 government was organized. Five years 
 after the war Georgia was in full posses- 
 sion of all her rights as a State of the 
 union, and her reconstruction was com- 
 plete. With energy and pluck her 
 people-went to work to retrieve their 
 fallen fortunes and at present no soutli- 
 ern state has a brightei future. In 
 national elections the state has invaria- 
 bly gone Democratic. In 1908, a law 
 prohibiting the sale of alcoholic bever- 
 ages became effective. 
 
 The Cotton Exposition of 1881, a.nd the 
 Cotton States and International Ex- 
 position of 1898, both lield at Atlanta, 
 testified to the prosperity of the state. 
 The division of races continued clean- 
 cut; and though there was no disposition 
 among the better class of whites to 
 hinder the negro in the exercise of his 
 civil rights, political equality was be- 
 grudged him, and social equality abso- 
 lutely denied. As late as 1891 the legis- 
 lature decreed that separate public con- 
 veyances be provided for whites and 
 negroes, and as late as 1897 the ap- 
 pointment of a negro as postmaster was 
 made impossible by public opinion. 
 Instances of mob law and racial feud 
 w'ere frequent after 1894. 
 
 In national politics the state was 
 democratic throughout the nineteenth 
 century, except in 1840 and 1848, when 
 it cast its electoral vote for the whig 
 candidate. In state politics, Georgia, 
 since 1874, has been immaculately 
 democratic, and since 1882 the repub- 
 licans have not participated in the state 
 elections. From 1890 to 1898, however 
 the populist ]3art3^ was very powerful. 
 The present constitution .ivas adopted 
 in 1877, when Atlanta was made the 
 capital. Poj). 19’ 9, 2,675,0iiti. 
 
 GEORGIA BARK, a small tree of the 
 southern states closely resembling ’ the 
 cinchona or Peruvian bark, and belong- 
 ing to the natural order Cinchonacese. 
 It has pretty large white flowers, with 
 longitudinal stripes of rose-color, dis- 
 posed in beautiful clusters at the ex- 
 tremities of the branches; each flower 
 is accompanied with a floral leaf, bor- 
 dered with rose-color near the upper 
 margin; the corolla is tubular; the 
 stamens five, with a single style ; and the 
 capsule contains two cells and numerous 
 seeds. The w'ood is soft and unfit for use 
 in the arts. The inner bark is extremely 
 bitter, and is employed with succe.ss in 
 intermittent fevers. 
 
 GEORGIA, GULF OF, a large gulf of 
 the North Pacific Ocean, between the 
 continent of North America and Van- 
 couver’s Island; about 120 miles in 
 length from north to south; the breadth 
 varies greatly in its difl'erent jiarts, from 
 6 miles.to 20 . It communicates with the 
 ocean on the north by Queen Charlotte’s 
 Sound, and on the south by the Strait of 
 Juan de Fuca. 
 
 GEORGIA, University of, an institu- 
 tion of higher education, chartered in 
 178.6, and formallj'^ opened at Athems, Ga. 
 in 1801. Its government is vested in a 
 board of truste^js appointed by the 
 governor. The proc.ccils of (he .sales of 
 lands received bj' Georgia under the IT. 
 States land grant act of 1862 were 
 
 ti'ansferred to the university in 1872, 
 and the university, which in its incep- 
 tion was designed as a classical school 
 has, broadened its scope, and in 1902 
 comprised: Franklin College; the State 
 College of Agriculture; the Graduate 
 School; the Law School; the North 
 Georgia Agricultural College, situated 
 at .Dahlonega; the Medical College, sit- 
 uated at Augusta; the School of Tech- 
 nology situated at Atlanta; the Normal 
 and Industrial School for Girls, situated 
 at Milledgeville ; the State Normal Scbool ; 
 and the Industrial College for colored 
 persons, which includes a well-equipped 
 trade department. 
 
 GEORGIAN BAY, formerly called 
 Lake Manitoulin, the northeastern part 
 of Lake Huron, partly separated from 
 the main body of the lake by the penin- 
 sula of Cabot’s Head and the island of 
 Great Manitoulin. It is about 120 miles 
 long and 50 broad. * 
 
 GEOT'ROPISM, in botany, a dispo- 
 sition or tendency to turn lor 
 incline towards the earth, 'as 
 the characteristic exhibited in a 
 young plant when deprived of the 
 counter-acting influence of light, of 
 directing its growth towards the earth. 
 
 GEOTRU'PID.dE, a family of bur- 
 rowing lamellicorn beetles. They in- 
 habit temperate climates, and are use- 
 ful in removing disgusting substances. 
 When alarmed they feign death. The 
 watchman-beetle of Britain, is the tpye 
 of the family. 
 
 GERANIUM, popular name crane’s- 
 bill. They have usually palmately 
 divided leaves and regular flowers with 
 ten .stamens and five carpels. An Ameri- 
 can species, from its astringency called 
 “alum-root,” is used medicinally as a 
 gargle qnd otherwise. Cultivation has 
 produced many varieties, which from 
 their beauty are great favorites. 
 
 GERARD (zha'rar), Frangois Pasc.al, 
 Baron, a French historical and portrait- 
 painter, born at Rome in 1770; went to 
 Paris (1786), and studied under David. 
 In 1795 he exhibited his first notable 
 painting, Belisarius. He was much 
 patronized bj' -Napoleon, for whom he 
 painted the battle of Austerlitz, and w-as 
 made a baron by Louis XVIII., after 
 completing his large painting of the 
 Entrance of Henr}'^ IV. into Paris. 
 Among his portraits the most famous 
 are those of Tallyrand, Talma, Louis 
 Philip])e, Madame Recamier, Mdle. 
 IMars, etc. He died in 1837. 
 
 GERBA, or JERBA, an island in the 
 Gulf of Cabes, off the coast of Tunis. It 
 is about 20 miles long and 14 broad. The 
 surface is level and fertile, and occupied 
 by a population of 30,000, mostly 
 Berbers. 
 
 GERHARD (ger'hart), Edmard, 
 German archosologist, born 1795, died 
 1867. Among his numerous works are 
 the following; — Antike Bildwerke (with 
 140 plates) ; Auserlesene Griechische 
 Vasenbilder (330 plates) ; Etruskische 
 und Campani.sche Vasenbilder, Gi-iech- 
 ische Mj'thologie, etc. 
 
 GERHARDT (ger'hart), Karl Fried- 
 rich, German chemist, born 1816. Hd 
 was the fir.st to introduce the new com- 
 bining weights, or rather to subject more 
 completely combination by weight to 
 combination bj' volume; to originate the 
 
 theory of types, and to furnish new ideas 
 on classification, homologjq and similar 
 subjects. The methods he originated 
 have Jhad a great influence on modern 
 chemistry. He died in 1856. 
 
 GERHARDT, Paul, the greatest of 
 German hymn-writers, born in 1607. 
 In 1668 he was made archdeacon in 
 Ltibben, where he died in 1670. His 
 excellent book of hymns appeared at 
 Berlin in 1667 (Geistliche andachten). 
 Many particular hymns have found 
 English translators. 
 
 GERM, in physiol, the earliest form 
 under which any organism appears, that 
 is the rudimentary or embryonic form 
 of an organism. The name is also given 
 to certain minute organisms which give 
 rise to disease. See Germ Theory. 
 
 GERMAIN (zher-man), St., the name 
 of a number of places in France, among 
 which is St. Germain-en-Laye, a town in 
 the department of Seine-et-Oise, about 6 
 miles north from Versailles and 11 miles 
 w.n.w. from Paris, on the left bank of 
 the Seine. The most remarkable build- 
 ing is the royal palace, commenced by 
 Charles V. in 1370, and embellished by 
 several of his successors, especially 
 Francis I. and Louis XI V. It was used 
 as a prison during the revolution, after- 
 ward as a school for cavalry officers, 
 and was ultimately restored in 1862 by 
 Napdleon III., who established in it a 
 museum of Gallo-Roman antiquities. 
 The forest of St. Germain is one of the 
 finest in France, extending over 10,000 
 acres. Pop. 14,280. 
 
 GERMAN'ICUS, Caesar, a distin- 
 guished Roman, son of Nero Claudius 
 , Drusus and the younger Antonia, a 
 niece of Augustus, was born b.c. 15. 
 He was adopted by Tiberius, his pater- 
 nal uncle, and married Agrippina, the 
 grand-daughter of Augustus. When 
 Augustus died, in a.d. 14, Germanicus 
 was invited by the rebellious legions on 
 the Rhine to assume the sovereignty, 
 but refused, and quelled the revolt. He 
 then crossed the Rhine, surprised and 
 defeated the Marsi with great slaughter. 
 Next year (.\.d. 15) a campaign against 
 the Catti and the Germans, led by 
 Arminius, resulted in a series of vic- 
 tories. The following year he again 
 made his way into German jq defeated the 
 Cherusci twice, and made an incursion 
 into the country of the Marsi. Tiberius 
 now became jealous of the glory, of 
 Germanicus, called him home under 
 pretense of granting him a triumph, 
 then, to get rid of him, sent him into 
 the East to compose the disturbances in 
 Armenia and Cappadocia. This he. per- 
 formed in A.D. 18, visited Egypt the fol- 
 lowing 5 'ear, and died on his return to 
 Syria (a.d. 19) under some suspicion of 
 having been poisoned by Cn. Piso, the 
 governor of Syria. 
 
 GERMAN OCEAN. See North Sea. 
 
 GERMAN SARSAPARILLA, a name 
 given to certain roots or rhizomes from 
 their being occasional!}' used in Ger- 
 many as a substitute for sarsaparilla. 
 
 GERMAN SILVER, Nickel Silver, or 
 Packfong, is an alloy of copper, nickel, 
 and zinc in different proportions, among 
 which the following may be mentioned: 
 Spoons and forks are made from 2 parts 
 copper, 1 nickel, 1 zinc; knife and fork 
 handles from 5 co.Dner. 2 nickel, 2 zinc. 
 
GERMAN TINDER 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 a mixture closely resembling alloyed 
 silver; addition of lead produces an alloy 
 which appears well fitted for casts, and 
 for making candlesticks, etc.; iron or 
 steel, on the other hand, makes the alloy 
 whiter, harder, and more brittle. Ger- 
 man silver is harder than silver, and 
 takes a high polish. It melts at a red 
 hea\, the zinc being volatilized in the 
 open air. It is attacked by the strong 
 acids, but it is also affected by common 
 organic acids, such as vinegar, and by 
 some saline solutions. _ 
 
 GERMAN TINDER, or AMADOU, is 
 prepared from a fungus growing on the 
 oak, birch, willow, cherry, plum, and 
 other trees. The fungus is removed with 
 a sharp knife, washed, boiled in a strong 
 solution of saltpeter, beaten with a 
 mallet, and dried. In surgery it is some- 
 times used to stop local bleeding. 
 
 GERMANTOWN, a northern suburb, 
 of Philadelphia, pleasantly situated on 
 high ground, and containing numerous 
 elegant residences. Here the British, un- 
 der General How'e, defeated the Amer- 
 icans under Washington, 4th Oct., 1777. 
 
 GERMANY, the name given collect- 
 ively to the states in Central Europe 
 which constitute the German Empire. 
 The limits of Germany have varied 
 ^greatly at different times; and at present 
 there are large numbers of people Ger- 
 mans in race ail'd language not included 
 w'ithin the boundaries of the empire, 
 many being .natives of Austria and 
 Switzerland. On the other hand, the 
 political boundaries of Germany contain 
 several millions of Slavs, Lithuanians, 
 Poles, etc. As one of the Teutonic peo- 
 ples the Germans are akin by race to the 
 Dutch, English, and Scandinavian peo- 
 ples. The capital of Germany is Berlin; 
 other large towns are Hamburg, Bres- 
 lau, Munich, Dresden, Leip'zig, Cologne. 
 As each state is described under its own 
 name, the description given below is 
 confined to leading features w'hich be- 
 long to Germany as a w'hole. The fol- 
 lowing table shows the component parts 
 of the empire : — 
 
 % 
 
 Area in 
 square 
 miles. 
 
 Popula- 
 
 tion. 
 
 Kingdoms. 
 
 
 
 1. Prussia 
 
 134,506 
 
 34,472,509 
 
 2. Bavaria 
 
 29,283 
 
 6,176,057 
 
 3. Wiirtemberg 
 
 7,530 
 
 2,169,480 
 
 4. Saxony 
 
 5,788 
 
 4,202,216 
 
 Territory. 
 
 5. Alsace-Corraine 
 
 5,600 
 
 1,719,470 
 
 Grand-duchies. « 
 
 6. Baden 
 
 5,824 
 
 1,867,944 
 
 7. Hesse 
 
 2,965 
 
 1,119,893 
 
 8. Mecklenburg-Schwerin . .. 
 
 5,080 
 
 607,770 
 
 9. Mecklenburg-Strelitz 
 
 1,130 
 
 102,602 
 
 10. Oldenburg 
 
 2,479 
 
 399,180 
 
 11. Saxe-Weiinar 
 
 1,390 
 
 362,873 
 
 Duchies. 
 
 12. Brunswick 
 
 1,424 
 
 464,333 
 
 13. Saxe-Meiningen 
 
 953 
 
 250,731 
 
 14. Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. . . 
 
 755 
 
 229,550 
 
 15. Sase-Aitenburg. 
 
 511 
 
 194,914 
 
 16. Anhalt. 
 
 885 
 
 316,085 
 
 Principalities. 
 
 
 17. Waldeck 
 
 433 
 
 57,918 
 
 18. Lippe 
 
 469 
 
 138,952 
 
 19. Schaumburg-Lippe. 
 
 130 
 
 43,132 
 
 20. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt.. 
 
 362 
 
 93,059 
 
 21. Schwarzburg-Sonders- 
 
 
 hausen 
 
 332 
 
 80,89? 
 
 22. Reuss (elder line) 
 
 122 
 
 68,396 
 
 23. Reuss (younger line) 
 
 3U 
 
 139,210 
 
 Free Towns. 
 
 
 
 24. Bremen 
 
 98 
 
 224,882 
 
 25. Hamburg 
 
 160 
 
 768,349 
 
 28. Liibeck. 
 
 115 
 
 96,775 
 
 
 208,626 
 
 56,367,178 
 
 Germany, as regards its surface, may 
 be divided into three different regions. 
 Farthest south is the Alpine region 
 along the southern frontier, comprising 
 parts of Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and 
 Baden lying next to Austria and Switzer- 
 land. North of this the Suabian-Bava- 
 rian plateau extends to the mountain 
 region of Central Germany, where the 
 chain known as the Fichtelgebirge is 
 continued east by the Erzgebirge and 
 the Riesengebirge forming the boundary 
 next Austria; west by the Thtiringer- 
 wald, Rhongebirge, and Spessart; far- 
 ther north lie the Harz Mountains. The 
 great plain in the north extends without 
 interruption to the German Ocean and 
 the Baltic. Germany is remarkably well 
 Watered. Its central mountain region 
 and plateau forms part of the great 
 water-shed of Europe. The Danube 
 .proceeds across it in an eastern direc- 
 tion, -and the Rhine, though it neither 
 rises nor terminates within Germany 
 flows within it for the greater part of its 
 course. "^After these come the Elbe, 
 Oder, 'Vistula, Weser, Main, Neckar, 
 Mosel, Ems, and Eider — all of them 
 navigable. Germany possesses much and 
 varied mineral riches, the most impor- 
 tant minerals being common coal and 
 brown coal, iron, zinc, lead, and salt. 
 Germany is likewise extremely rich in 
 mineral waters, especially in the south- 
 ern parts. Though the country extends 
 over 8i° of latitude, its mean annual 
 temperature is remarkably uniform. 
 This is owing mainly to the different 
 elevations of the surface, the low’ plains 
 of the north having a higher, while the 
 hills and plateaux of the south have a 
 lower temperature than their latitudes 
 might seem to indicate. The mildest 
 climate is enjoyed by the valleys of the 
 Rhine and the Main. 
 
 Agricultural products are varied and 
 numerous. With exception of the loftier 
 mountain districts, where the surface is 
 fit only for pasture, the growth of all the 
 ordinary cereals is universal. Potatoes, 
 hemp, and flax also ftwpi most important 
 crops, and in many parts sugar-beet, 
 tobacco, and hops are cultivated on an 
 extensive scale. Wine is produced in 
 many districts. The cultivation of the 
 vine diminishes in importance from 
 southwest to northeast, but is carried 
 on to some extent even in the Prussian 
 provinces of Saxony, Brandenburg, and 
 Posen. The forests are of great extent 
 and value, particularly in the mountain 
 districts. ' 
 
 Linens are made in every part of 
 Germany, but more especially in West- 
 phalia, Silesia, Bohemia, and Saxony; 
 woolens in the Prussian provinces of the 
 Rhine, Saxony, Brandenburg, and Sjle- 
 sia, in the kingdom of Saxony, and in 
 Alsace; the cotton manufacture con- 
 stitutes the chief manufacturing indus- 
 try in Alsace-Lorraine, the kingdoms of 
 Saxony and Wiirtemberg, and the grand- 
 duchy of Baden, and flourishes in 
 Bavaria, Prussia, and other parts, the 
 silk manufacture flourishes in the Rhine 
 provinces and in Baden; iron manufac- 
 tures are carried on in most of the states, 
 but principally in Prussia, Alsace- 
 Lorraine, Bavaria, and Saxony; steel 
 is largely manufactured in the Rhine 
 provinces. The manufactures of be»*- 
 
 sugar, of leather, of metals, porcelain, 
 glass, fancy flowers, hats, musical in- 
 struments, watches, clocks, wooden 
 wares, including toys, etc., are likewise 
 important ; and breweries and distilleries 
 are to be met with everywhere. 
 
 The commerce is very extensive, and 
 is administered and guided by special 
 laws of a union called the zollverein or 
 customs union, which embraces the 
 whole of Germany and also the grand- 
 duchy of Luxemburg. The exports and 
 imports comprise a great variety of 
 manufactured goods and raw products. 
 The manufactures of Germany are now 
 sent to all parts of--the world. By far 
 the principal seaport is Hamburg; others 
 are Bremen and Bremerhaven, Stettin, 
 Konigsberg, Danzig, Liibeck, etc. The 
 total length of^raihvays is about 28,000 
 English miles, live-sixths of which are 
 state railways. By the law of Dec. 4, 
 1871, a uniform gold standard was in- 
 troduced for the monetary system of the 
 whole German empire. The denomi- 
 national unit is the mark, nearly equal 
 to 25 cents and divided into a hundred 
 pfennige. Since 1872 the French metri- 
 cal system of weights and measures has 
 been in force throughout the German 
 empire. / 
 
 The revenue is derived principally 
 from the customs duties collected 
 throughout the zollverein from excise 
 duties on beet-sugar, salt, tobacco, and 
 malt, and from the contributions made 
 by each state in proportion to its popu- 
 lation. The debt of the empire is about 
 $600,000,000. 
 
 The constitution of the German 
 empire is based upon the decree of the 
 16th of April, 1871, which took effect on 
 the 4th of May following. The presi- 
 dency of the empire belongs to the crown 
 of Prussia, to which is now attadwd the 
 title of German Emperor (Deutscher 
 Kaiser). The prerogatives of the em- 
 peror are to represent the empire in its 
 relation to other sta<!^s, to declare war 
 if defensive, and conclude peace ' in 
 name of the empire, to contract alliances 
 etc. The emperor has also the supreme 
 command of the army and the navy, 
 appoints and dismisses officials of the 
 empire, appoints consuls, and super- 
 intends the entire consulate of the em- 
 pire. The legislative authority is vested 
 in the bundesrath (federal council) and 
 the reichlstag (imperial diet) tlie former 
 consisting of 58 representatives of the 
 different states of the empire, namely, 
 17 from Prussia, 6 from Bavaria, 4 each 
 from Saxony and Wiirtemberg, 3 each 
 from Baden and Hesse, 1 each from 
 Saxe-Weimer and others. The reiche- 
 tag consists of 397 deputies elected by 
 ballot and universal suffrage in all the 
 states of the empire. On the average one 
 member is returned to the reichstag for 
 every 124,500 of the inhabitants. 
 
 Service in the army or navy is obliga- 
 tory on every man in Germany who is not 
 morally or physically unfit, and no sub- 
 stitution is allowed. Liability to serve 
 begins from the completion of the seven- 
 teenth year, but as a rule, the six years’ 
 service required in the standing army 
 (seven in the cavalry and field artillery) 
 is from the twentieth to the twenty- 
 seventh year. Two of the six years (or 
 three as the case may be) must be spent 
 
 / 
 
GERMANY 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 in active service, and the remaining four 
 in the reserve. After quitting the army 
 of reserve the next five years are passed 
 in the first-class of the landwehr, and 
 seven in the second. All able-bodied 
 men, from seventeen to forty-five, who 
 are not in the line, the reserve, or the 
 landwehr, must belong to the land- 
 sturm, which is called out only in case 
 of invasion of the territory of the em- 
 pire. Educated young men above 
 seventeen years of age who volunteer 
 for active service, and equip and main- 
 tain themselves during their service, 
 are admitted into the reserve after one 
 year’s continuous service. The peace 
 strength of the army is about 584, 000 
 men, and the total war strength of 
 drained soldiers 3,000,000. The German 
 navy has been greatly strengthened in 
 recent years, and this is still going on 
 the chief naval bases being Kiel and 
 Wilhelm shaven. 
 
 Education is compulsory throughout 
 Germany. Every commune or parish 
 must support at its own cost a pri- 
 mary school. Every town in addition 
 must maintain one or more middle 
 schools, which supply a higher education 
 than the elementary schools. Above 
 these are real schools (realschulen) 
 giving a still higher education, nearly 
 corresponding to the American high 
 school; institutions of similar standing 
 called gymnasiums, giving an education 
 in which the ancient languages form a 
 more important element; and, above all, 
 the universities, of which there are 21 
 in the country, the chief being those of 
 Berlin, Leipzig, and Munich. The Ger- 
 mans as a whole are perhaps the best- 
 educated people in the world. 
 
 The date of the first arrival of the 
 Germanic or Teutonic races in Europe 
 is unknown. At the close of the 2nd 
 century b.c. Germanic tribes called 
 Cimbri and Teutones left their homes in 
 the Danish peninsula, and descending 
 upon Italy were defeated by Marius at 
 Aquce Sextiae (Aix in Provence) and 
 Vercellae in Northern Italy. The Romans 
 did not come again in contact with the 
 Germans till Caesar’s invasion of Gaul 
 brought on a contest with the Suevian 
 prince Ariovistus (58 b.c.) At that time 
 several German tribes had crossed the 
 Rhine and settled in the district between 
 that river and the Vosges Mountains, 
 while others had pushed their way 
 through what is now Belgium. The 
 Germans on the left bank of the Rhine 
 were soon subjugated, and two expedi- 
 tions were made by Caesar across the 
 Rhine. Under Augustus a systematic 
 attempt was made to subjugate the vast 
 and little-known region Germania, ex- 
 tending between the Rhine and the 
 Vistula, and from the Danube to the 
 North Sea. Tiberius reduced all the 
 tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe, 
 but a few years later there was a revolt, 
 in which three Roman legions under 
 Varus were annihilated by Arminius, 
 leader of the Cherusci, about 9 a.d. The 
 attempt to subjugate the Germans was 
 given up by Augustus- and Germanicus, 
 although he avenged the defeat of Varus 
 by a siiccession of campaigns, failed to 
 recover the Roman ascendency. About 
 this time each tribe or nation among 
 the Germans is described as having been 
 
 divided into four classes : — 1 . The nobles, 
 from whom the kings and chiefs of the 
 districts were chosen. 2. The freemen, 
 who, with the nobles, had the right to 
 choose their residence and hold heritable 
 property, who formed the chief strength 
 of the armies and voted in the popular 
 assemblies. 3. The freedmen, a middle 
 class between freemen and slaves, had 
 no landed property, but farmed the 
 land; they were not admitted to the 
 popular assemblies. 4. The slaves, who 
 were entirely in the power of their 
 masters. In religion the Germans were 
 polytheists. Among their great gods 
 were Woden (or Odin), Donar (Thor), 
 Thiu (Tyr), Ffigga, etc. They erected 
 no temples and had no idols, but be- 
 lieved in a future life and in eternal 
 justice. 
 
 As the aggressive force of the Roman 
 empire abated, it continued to be more 
 and more subject to the incursions of the 
 Germans, who by the end of the 5th 
 century had overrun Gaul, Italy, Spain, 
 and part of Africa. After this Germany 
 itself continued in a divided state till it 
 came under the single rule of Charle- 
 magne. (See France.) The history of 
 the German empire properly commences 
 with the Treaty of Verdun (843 a.d.), 
 which separated the land of the Eastern 
 Franks under Ludwig the German from 
 that of the Western and Central Franks. 
 Out of Ludwig’s kingdom was developed 
 the German nationality. Charles the 
 Fat became emperor in 881, and three 
 years later was also elected king of the 
 West Franks, thus again uniting under 
 one scepter the monarchy of Charle- 
 magne. After his deposition in 887 the 
 two territories of the Eastern and West- 
 ern Franks were again separated. 
 
 Under Henry III., whose reign began 
 in 1039, the imperial power was at its 
 highest point, and he exercised more 
 despotic authority in Germany than 
 any of his predecessors. The fruits of 
 his policy were lost by his son Henry 
 IV. (1056-1106), who was passionate and 
 weak. In his reign occurred the famous 
 quarrel with the pope regarding in- 
 vestitures, which ended in Henry having 
 to humble himself before the pope at 
 Canossa. 
 
 Succeeding monarchs were less and 
 less powerful, the internal divisions of 
 Germany deprived the office of all 
 authority, and until 1273 the German 
 Empire had no real head. 
 
 Rudolph, count of Hapsburg and 
 Cyburg, the most powerful prince in 
 Helvetia, was chosen emperor (1272). 
 He enriched his own family by his 
 victories over the King of Bohemia, 
 and acquired Austria, Styria, and Car- 
 inthia as imperial fiefs for his sons 
 Albert and Rudolph. Frederick HI., 
 (1439-93) was the last emperor who was 
 crovTied in Rome. Henceforth the Ger- 
 man emperors were always of the house 
 of Austria. 
 
 Since its rise the empire had under- 
 gone many changes. At the extinction 
 of the Carlovingian dynasty Germany 
 was divided into five nations or duke- 
 doms — Franconia, Suabia, Bavaria, 
 Saxony, and Lorraine. Henry the 
 Fowler and the Ottos added the marches 
 of Austria and Misnia; Henry the Lion 
 and Albert of Brandenburg, Mecklen- 
 
 burg and Pomerania. The house of 
 Austria added Styria, Carinthia, Car- 
 niola, and the Tyrol. But Switzerland 
 had been lost, and the old Burgundian 
 territories of the empire, Tranche Comt6 
 the Lyonnais, and Provence, had gone 
 to consolidate the French monarchy 
 under Louis XI. Bohemia and Hungary, 
 and many of the Italian cities, especially 
 in the north, were also connected with 
 the empire, but the connection was more 
 formal than real, and ten circles estab- 
 lished by the Diet of Cologne (1512) 
 represented at that time the estates of 
 the empire, viz.; 1. Austria, 2. Bavaria, 
 3. Suabia, 4. Franconia, 5. the Upper 
 Rhine (Lorraine, Hesse, etc.), 6. the 
 Lower Rhine, or the Electorates (Mainz, 
 Trier, Cologne), 7. Burgundy (Nether- 
 lands), 8. Westphalia, 9. Lov^er Saxony 
 (BruTiswick, Liineburg, Lauenburg, Hol- 
 stein, etc.), 10. Upper Saxony (Saxony, 
 Brandenburg, Pomerania, etc.). 
 
 The chief political machinery of the 
 empire was connected with the diet. 
 The exact constitution of the early 
 German diets is not known. In the 12th 
 century the counts of the empire became 
 distinguished from the princes, and lost 
 the right of voting in the diets. The 
 election of an emperor was at first under- 
 taken by the whole diet. In the 13th 
 century the number of .electors was 
 restricted to seven, to which two 
 more were afterward added. The 
 diets were called by the emperor at 
 his own pleasure, but as they had the 
 power of granting supplies their meet- 
 ings were frequent ; and as their author- 
 ity over the different states was partial, 
 and their policy could only be carried 
 jout by the executive force of the em- 
 peror, they can hardly be regarded as an 
 independent power in the state. Neither 
 the time nor the place of meeting of the 
 diets was at first fixed. From an early 
 period the cities of Germany were rep- 
 resented in the diet. In early times they 
 generally supported the authority of the 
 emperor, as their interest was common 
 with his in diminishing the power of the 
 greater vassals. Municipalities were at 
 first established about^the reign of 
 Frederick I., and soon began to assert 
 their independence. The predatory 
 habits of the nobles, besides the claims 
 of superiority over entire cities or par- 
 ticular citizens asserted by the princes 
 involved the cities in continual warfare 
 with the feudal nobility, and often also 
 with their ecclesiastical superiors. The 
 necessity of defending their privileges 
 compelled them to enter into leagues 
 among themselves. Among the earliest 
 of these combinations was the Hanseatic 
 league, formed to resist both the op- 
 pression of rulers and the depredations 
 of land and sea robbers. A league was 
 formed in 1255 by more than sixty cities 
 in the Rhine, headed by the three ecclesi- 
 astical electors, to resist the depreda- 
 tions of the lesser nobles. The Suabian 
 League, formed in 1376, was of similar 
 origin. These leagues were met by 
 counter associations of nobles and 
 princes. 
 
 The reign of Charles, the most im- 
 portant in the German annals and the 
 most brilliant in the 16th century, was 
 divided among three great conflicts — the 
 continued struggle between France and 
 
GERMANY 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 Germany, the conflict with the encroach- 
 ing Ottoman empire, and that with the 
 Reformation. Germany was devastated 
 for thirty years by a religious war, hence 
 called the Thirty Years’ war. 
 
 The invasion of Germany by Christian 
 IV. of Denmark in 162.5, the peace of 
 Liibeck (1629), the invasion of Gustavus 
 Adolphus (1630), the battles of Leipzig 
 in 1631, of the Lech and Liltzen in 1632, 
 of Nordlingen in 1634, the war with 
 France in 1635, belong to the history of 
 the Thirty Years’ war (which see). As 
 its outcome greater power was given to 
 the Protestants; and the right of the 
 princes ai>d states to make war and 
 alliances among themselves or 'with 
 foreigners was recognized. 
 
 The league of Augsburg, in which the 
 emperor, Leopold I., joined, led to a pro- 
 tracted war with France, which was con- 
 cluded by the Peace of Ryswick. In 
 1692 the emperor erected Hanover into 
 an electorate, and in 1700 he permitted 
 the Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick 
 III., to take the title of King of Prussia. 
 The war of the Spanish Succession, in 
 which Great Britain, Holland, and the 
 empire were leagued against France, 
 was begun in 1702. To it belong the 
 victories of Marlborough and Eugene 
 (Blenheim, Oudenarde, Malplaquet). 
 'The alliance against France was dis- 
 solved by the Peace of Utrecht in 1713, 
 to which the emperor refused to accede, 
 and was left alone against France. After 
 a brief campaign between Prince Eugene 
 and Villars he acceded to the Treaty of 
 Rastadt, negotiate(^ between these com- 
 manders, 7th March, 1714. The Spanish 
 Netherlands, and Naples, Milan, Sar- 
 dinia, and other Italian conquests were 
 left to the emperor. Having no male 
 heirs Charles had promulgated in 1713 
 the Pragmatic Sanction, regulating the 
 succession to his hereditary dominions 
 in favor of his daughters in preference 
 to those of his brother, Joseph I. He 
 died in 1740. Charles Albert, elector of 
 Bavaria, son-in-law of Leopold I., got 
 himself chosen emperor (as Charles 
 VII). in 1742. He laid claim to the 
 hereditary possessions of the House of 
 Austria, and entered into an alliance 
 w’ith France, Spain, Prussia, etc., against 
 Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI. 
 But he died in 1745, and Francis I., 
 grand-duke of Tuscany, the husband of 
 Maria Theresa, was elected emperor; 
 thus the house of Hapsburg-Lorraine, 
 which had succeeded to the hereditary 
 possessions of Austria, was recognized 
 as the head of the empire. After a brief 
 interval took place the Seven Years’ 
 war (1756-63), in which Austria, Russia, 
 France, and Saxony combined against 
 Prussia, then ruled by Frederick the 
 Great. The peace of Hubertsburg 
 (1.5th Feb., 1763) concluded the war, 
 Prussia retaining her acquisitions. In 
 1804 Francis II. took the title of heredi- 
 tary Emperor of Austria, renouncing 
 two years later that of head of the Ger- 
 man Empire, which, indeed, had ceased 
 to exist, owing to the conquests of 
 Napoleon. 
 
 The States of Germany were again 
 united by the treaty of Vienna (1815),' 
 in a confederation called the German 
 confederation (der Deutsche Bund). In 
 1818 a general commercial league, called 
 
 the zollverein, was projected by Prussia, 
 and was gradually joined by most of 
 the German states, exclusively of 
 Austria. Revolutionary outbreaks 
 caused great disturbances in various 
 German states in 1830 and 1848, par- 
 ticularly the latter. The German diet was 
 restored in 1851 by the efforts of Prussia 
 and Austria, who were latterly rivals for 
 the supremacy in the confederation. In 
 1866 the majority of the diet supported 
 Austria in her dispute with Prussia re- 
 specting the dispo.sal of the duchies of 
 Schleswig and Holstein, whereupon 
 Prussia withdrew from the confedera- 
 tion and declared it dissolved. The 
 Seven Weeks’ war between Austria and 
 Prussia ended in the defeat of the former 
 the loss of her Italian possessions, and 
 her exclusion from the German con- 
 federation, which was re-formed by 
 Prussia under the title of the North 
 German confederation. After the 
 Franco-German war (which see), in 
 which the South German States, as well 
 as the North German confederation, 
 supported Prussia, the King of Prussia 
 was proclaimed German Emperor at 
 Versailles on 18th January, 1871. The 
 parliament of the new German Empire 
 met at Berlin on 21st March, and 
 adopted the new constitution. Since the 
 unity of the empire was attained en- 
 deavors have been made to establish a 
 colonial empire, principally in Africa. 
 In Polynesia Germany has acquired a 
 portion of New Guinea, the chief Samoan 
 islands, and other groups. In recent 
 years the manufacturing industries and 
 foreign trade of the empire have de- 
 veloped greatly, and the present em- 
 peror (William II.) is bent on making 
 Germany a great naval power. 
 
 German is one of the Teutonic family 
 of languages, of the Aryan or Indo- 
 European stock, and hence is a sister 
 tongue with Gothic, Anglo-Saxon and 
 English, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, and 
 Icelandic. The German dialects spoken 
 in the lower and more northern localities 
 have long exhibited considerable dif- 
 ferences from those spoken in the higher 
 and more inland, thus giving rise to the 
 distinction between High German and 
 Low German. What is ordinarily called 
 German (called Deutsch by the Germans) 
 is High German. Low German includes 
 Dutch, Frisian, etc. 
 
 German literature received its first 
 impulse from the fondness of the early 
 Germanic races for celebrating the deeds 
 of their gods and heroes. According to 
 Tacitus the warriors would advance to 
 attack chanting wild war-songs, with 
 their shields held close to their mouths, 
 which added to the discordant effect of 
 the unknown and uncouth tongue. Of 
 these early songs nothing even in a 
 translated form has been handed down 
 to us. The legends immediately con- 
 nected with the Gothic, Frankish, and 
 Burgundian warriors of the period of 
 national migration — Dietrich (Theo- 
 doric), Siegfried, Hildebrand, etc. — 
 have for the most part some historical 
 foundations, and many of them were 
 evenlually incorporated in the Nibelun- 
 genlied, the most celebrated in produc- 
 tion of German mediaeval poetry. 
 
 In the 13th century under the cultured 
 emperors of the house of Hohenstaufen, 
 
 ' the first bloom of German literature 
 came. Many of the poets of this period 
 were nobles by birth, some of then even 
 princes. Heinrich von Weldeke was the 
 first to introduce into his heroic poem 
 Eneit that spirit of devotion to women, 
 called by the old Germans Minne (Love, 
 hence the name Minnesinger, Love- 
 Minstrel). A still greater name is that of 
 Wolfram von Eschenbach, the author 
 of Parsival, a poem embodying the 
 legends of King Arthur, the Knights of 
 the Round Table, and the San Graal 
 (Holy Grail). These traditions, together 
 with the exploits of Charlemagne, of 
 Alexander the Great, and the Trojan 
 heroes, inspired also the lays of Gottfried 
 of Strasburg, Hartman von der Aue, and 
 others. These subjects were all taken 
 from the romances of the French trou- 
 veres, and treated in a style closely re- 
 sembling theirs. But we have besides 
 real national epics in the Nibelungenlied 
 and Gudrun. The lyrics or minnesohgs 
 of this period are not less remarkable 
 than its romances and epics. Perhaps the 
 most gifted lyrist is the celebrated 
 Walther von der Vogelweide. Several 
 hundreds of these poets were engaged in 
 traveling from palace to palace and from 
 castle to castle. During the troublous 
 times of the interregnum (1256-73) 
 poetry passed to the homes of the pri- 
 vate citizen and the workshops. These 
 plebeian songsters formed them .selves 
 into guilds in the imperial cities — Niirn- 
 berg, Frankfort, Strasburg, Mainz, etc., 
 and were called Meistersiinger, in con- 
 tradistinction to the knightly Minne- 
 sanger. 
 
 The invention of printing caused an 
 increasing literary activity, and the 
 works printed in Germany between 1470 
 and 1500 amounted to several thousand 
 editions. 
 
 In the 16th century a new era opens in 
 literature with Luther’s translation of 
 the Bible. The writings of Luther, 
 Zwingli (1484-1531), Sebastian Frank 
 (1500-45?), Melanchthon (1497-1560), 
 Ulrich von Hutton (1488-1523), one of 
 the chief writers of the Epistolae Ob- 
 scurorum Virorum, constitute the prin- 
 cipal theologic literature of the Refor- 
 mation. History was now written in a 
 superior style, and with greater com- 
 prehensiveness, by Frank in the Zeit- 
 buch and Weltbuch, and by Sebastian 
 Munster (1489-1552) in his ' Kosmo- 
 graphie; also by Tschudi (1505-72) in 
 Chronicles of Switzerland, and by 
 Aventinus (14777-1534), the Bavarian 
 chronicler. 
 
 By the beginning of the 17th century 
 literature was on the decline. This cen- 
 tury is known in German literature as 
 the period of imitation. Most of the 
 poets were graduates of universities; 
 and learned societies were formed for 
 the purpose of improving the language 
 and literature. 
 
 In the 18th century poetry revived 
 with Haller (1708-77), remarkable as a 
 descriptive poet, and Hagedorn (1706- 
 54), a lyrist of considerable merit, 'rhe 
 Saxon school headed by Gottsched 
 (1700-66) aimed at a reformation of 
 German poetry in the direction of 
 French clearness and correctness, model- 
 ing the drama as far as possible on the 
 works of Corneille and Racine. 
 
GERMINAL VESICLE 
 
 GERM THEORY OF DISEASE 
 
 Gotthold Ephriam Lessing (1729-81) 
 gave a new direction to German litera- 
 ture. He established a new school of 
 criticism and dealt the fatal blow at 
 French^ influence. His tragedy, Emilia 
 Galotti, his comedy of Minna von Rarn- 
 helm, and his philosophic drama Nathan 
 der Weise, were the best models of dra- 
 matic composition which German litera- 
 ture had yet produced, and his direction 
 of the German mind toward Shakespeare 
 and the English drama was not the least 
 of the many inapulses he contributed to 
 the literary growth of his countrymen. 
 Herder (1744-1803), with his universal 
 knowledge and many-sided activity, 
 followed Lessing as another great in- 
 fluence in the literary world. The re- 
 searches of Winckelmann (1717-68) in 
 ancient sculpture led to a new under- 
 standing of art, as those of Heyne in 
 ancient literature mark the development 
 of modern German scholarship. 
 
 This period was followed by a time of 
 transition and excitement known in 
 Germany as the sturm-und-drang pe- 
 riode (storm and stress period), which 
 found its fullest expression in an early 
 work of Goethe’s (1749-1832), the 
 Sorrows of Werther. The literary ex- 
 citement was raised to the highest pitch 
 by the Rauber (Robbers) of Schiller 
 (1759-1805), afterward the friend and 
 coadjutor of Goethe. By the joint exer- 
 tions of these two great men German 
 IffSrature was brought to that classical 
 erfection, which, fi-om a purely local, 
 as since given it a universal influence. 
 Of a highly individual character are the 
 works of Jean Paul Richter (1763- 
 1825), a writer of profound humor and 
 pathos. 
 
 Partly produced by the influence of 
 the sturm-und-drang period, and partly 
 trained in the laws of art laid down and 
 worked out by Goethe and Schiller, the 
 so-called romantic school, distinguished 
 by its enthusiasm for mediaeval sub- 
 jects and its love of what is mysterious 
 and transcendental in life or thought, 
 gradually succeeded in gaining public 
 attention about this epoch. 
 
 The war of liberation against Napol- 
 eon I. introduced a strong manly en- 
 thusiasm for a time into the hitherto 
 gloomy and melancholy productions of 
 the romanticists. Among the patriotic 
 poets of the time Ernst Moritz Arndt 
 (1769-1860) and Theodor Korner (1791- 
 1813) hftld the first place. The ballads 
 and metrical romances of Ludwig 
 Uhland (1787-1872) have brought him a 
 world-wide fame. During the excite- 
 ment produced by the July Revolution 
 in France (1830) a school of writers arose 
 in whose works the social and political 
 ideas of the time were strongly reflected. 
 The most prominent names among this 
 party .are Ludwig Borne (1786-1837) 
 and Heinrich Heine (1799-1856), whose 
 writings combine the keenest satire and 
 the finest pathos. As in England and 
 France of late, the novel, especially the 
 novel, of a social or political character, 
 has taken a prominent place in litera- 
 ture. Most distinguished are Freytag, 
 Spielhagen, Heyse, Auerbach, Fanny 
 Lewald, Hacklander, Reuter, Jensen, 
 Storm, Rosegger, etc. Of late, however, 
 science and learning rather than litera- 
 ture and the arts have produced th» 
 
 names of most eminence. Alexander 
 von Humboldt (1769-1859) gave a great 
 impulse to almost all branches of knowl- 
 edge by his Cosmos, his Travels, and his 
 Views of Nature, and by the general 
 suggestiveness of his labors. In history, 
 Niebuhr and Theod. Mommsen, the his- 
 torians of Rome; Leopold Ranke, the 
 historian of the Popes; Dalilmann, 
 Giesobrecht, Julian Schmidt, H. Kurz, 
 and others may be mentioned. German 
 modern theology and biblical criticism 
 had lately much influence in the religious 
 world. Gaur, Bleek, and Ewald, are 
 among the widely-known names. His- 
 tories of art have been written by 
 Kugler, Burckhardt, Liibke, and others. 
 The brothers Grimm — Jakob (1785- 
 1863), Wilhelm (1786-1859), were the 
 founders of a new branch of philo- 
 logical and poetic investigation in 
 ancient German literature. Eminent 
 names in general philological science are 
 those of Bopp, Pott, Schleicher, Stein- 
 thal, and Karl Brugmann. In natural 
 sciences Oken, Burmeister, Cams, Cotta, 
 Liebig, Helmholtz, Virchow, Schleiden, 
 Grisebach, Vogt, Bessel, Brehm, Hackel, 
 Bastian, etc., are the eminent names; 
 in philosophy, Schopenhauer, Feuerbach, 
 Rosenkranz, Kuno Fischer, von Hart- 
 mann, Lotze, etc. Among recent poets 
 Anastasius Griin (pen-name of Count 
 von Auersperg) and Nikolas Lenau 
 among Austrian, and Meissner and Hart- 
 mann, natives of Bohemia, have a con- 
 siderable reputation. Hervegh, Hoff- 
 mann, von Fallerslebgn, Freiligrath, 
 and Franz Dingelstedt infuse strong 
 political sentiments into their poetry. 
 Emmanuel Geibel, Von Scheffel, Boden- 
 stedt, and others represent a poetry 
 more comprehensive in its aims and 
 tendencies. 
 
 GERMINAL VESICLE, (a) in animal 
 physiol, the nucleus of the ovum or egg 
 of animals. It contains within it a nu- 
 cleolus called also the germinal spot. 
 The germinal vesicle undergoes imp'ort- 
 ant changes in the early stages of the 
 development of the egg into the embryo, 
 (b) In bot. a cell contained in the embryo 
 sac, from which the embryo is developed. 
 
 GERMINATION, the first act _ of 
 growth by an embryo plant. The im- 
 mediate causes of germination are the 
 presence of moisture and atmospheric 
 
 Seeds germinating. (In centre a plant ■which 
 has newly appeared above ground.) 
 
 air and a certain elevation of tempera- 
 ture. Moisture softens the integuments 
 of the seed and relaxes the tissue of the 
 embryo; atmospheric air supplies oxygen 
 and nitrogen; and a temperature which 
 must be at least as high as 32° Fahr., by 
 exciting the vitality of the embryo, 
 enables it to take advantage of the 
 
 agents with which it is in contact. Dur- 
 ing germination various changes take 
 place in the chemical constituents of the 
 seed, and are usually accompanied with 
 increase of temperature, as is seen in the 
 process x)f malting. Along with these 
 other changes commonly take place; 
 a root is produced, which strikes per- 
 pendicularly downward' ! and, fixing 
 itself in the soil, begins to absorb food; 
 a growth upward then commences and 
 ends in the protrusion of a stem and 
 leaves. 
 
 GERM THEORY OF DISEASE, the 
 
 theory that certain diseases are com- 
 municated from an infected person to an 
 uninfected one by living organisms 
 which gain access to the body of the 
 afflicted person by the air or food, or 
 drink, and which, growing and multiply- 
 ing in the body they invade, produce the 
 ch&nges characteristic of the particular 
 disease. The period during which the 
 living particles of contagious matter 
 retain their vitality, like the rate of 
 their growth and multiplication, varies 
 in different eases, but is limited in 
 all. Few, if any, resist the destruc- 
 tive influence of a temperature of 
 300° Fahr., while most succumb at the 
 temperature of 200° or even less, 
 particularly if ^exposed for sometime. 
 Animal poisons generally are de- 
 stroyed by boiling, and clothes, sheets, 
 etc., infected, may be rendered pure by 
 being exposed to a temperature of 300° 
 Fahr. These living organisms are 
 grouped together as microbes or micro- 
 organisms, and are di-\^ided into different 
 classes. The micrococcus is a round form 
 about the 32,000th of an inch in size, 
 and multiplies by fission. The bacterium 
 is rod-shaped, about the 10,000th of an 
 inch long, with rounded ends; it also 
 multiplies by fission. The bacillus is a 
 third form also rod-shaped, and some- 
 what larger than the bacterium. They 
 often fornf long chains or threads, and 
 increase by division and by spore forma- 
 tion. Vibrio and spirillum are somewhat 
 similar forms; and, like the others, in- 
 crease wdth a rapidity beyond concep- 
 tion. The connection between these 
 micro-organisms and the various forms 
 of zymotic disease has been thoroughly 
 established. The only method of in- 
 vestigation that yields reliable results 
 is to separate the organism supposed to 
 be the cause of the disease, and cultivate 
 it outside of the body. Thus a drop of 
 blood from a person suffering from a 
 special disease, which contains the 
 bacteria, or bacilli, etc., believed to be 
 the producers of the disease , is placed in 
 a flask containing a nourishing material, 
 care having been taken to destroy all 
 other organisms in the flask. The special 
 microbe flourishes there, let us suppose. 
 It is then cultivated in one flask after 
 another through successive generations, 
 only a single minute drop of the material 
 in one flask being used to inoculate a 
 succeeding one. In this way a purs 
 cultivation is obtained, a cultivation, 
 that is, containing the particular microbe 
 and none other. If this is the true cause 
 of the disease, then a drop of the solu- 
 tion containing it introduced into the. 
 body of an animal, capable of the disease 
 ought to produce it, and the particular 
 organism introduced should be found 
 
GEROME 
 
 I 
 
 GETTYSBURG 
 
 multiplying in the blood and tissues of 
 the inflected animal. Such a demonstra- 
 tion has been given of the cause of a 
 few diseases. Dr. Koch, of Berlin, pub- 
 lished in 1876 a paper giving a full ac- 
 count of the life history of the bacillus 
 organism which had been observed in 
 animals dead of splenic fever; and in 
 1877 the great French chemist, Pasteur, 
 proceeded to investigate the subject, and 
 his investigations conclusively support 
 the germ theory of disease. In 1882 Dr. 
 Koch, of Berlin, announced the discovery 
 of a micro-organism in tuberculosis, a 
 disease believed to be the chief, if not 
 the only, cause of consumption of the 
 lungs. These microbes are found not 
 only in the lungs of persons who have 
 died of tubercle, but also in the spit of 
 tubercular and consumptive patients, 
 and multiply also by spores. Thus it is 
 that the spit of a consumptive patient, 
 even after it has dried up, may be capa- 
 bly of imparting the disease, owing to 
 spores being scattered in the air. After 
 tne epidemic of cholera in Egypt in 1 883 
 which spread to France and Italy, 
 investigations were undertaken by 
 French, German, and British commis- 
 sioners;^ Dr. Koch detected a peculiar 
 bacillus, shaped like a comma (,h in the 
 intestines of persons who had died of 
 cholera, in the discharges from cholera 
 
 E atients, etc. He believed that this 
 acillus was the- active agent in the pro- 
 duction of the disease; but other authori- 
 ties were unable to accept Dr. Koch’s 
 view that the comma-bacillus was the 
 cause of the disorder. All investigation, 
 however, seems to point to the fact that 
 every infectious or contagious disease is 
 due to some form of micro-organism, 
 and that there is one particular organ- 
 ism for each particular disease. Each 
 organism produces its own disease and 
 none other; and the special disease can- 
 not arise unless its germ has gained en- 
 trance to the body. The channels 
 through which these germs obtain en- 
 trance are innumerable, but they have 
 one origin and one only, and that is a 
 preceding case of disease. The “germ” 
 ^theory affords the hope and suggestion 
 of a method of diminishing, if not of 
 getting rid of, such diseases altogether, 
 and to some extent also indicates the 
 direction which in their cure is to be 
 sought. If the particular microbe of 
 each contagious disease were known, 
 the condition of its life and activity 
 understood, there is great probability 
 that its multiplication in the living 
 body could be arrested, and the disease 
 thus cured. Even without such knowl- 
 edge, however, the germ theory indi- 
 cates that the means for arresting th©- 
 spread of contagioui^ diseases and di- 
 minishing their occurrence consist in 
 preventing the spread of the germs from 
 an existing case of disease. See Disin- 
 fectant. 
 
 GEROME (zha-r5m), Jean L4on, a 
 French painter, born in 1824 at Vesoul. 
 Among the chief works of G4r6me are: 
 Louis XIV. and Moli4re, Death of Csesar, 
 The Plague at Marseilles, Rex Tibicen, 
 L’Eminence Grise, and various scenes 
 from Oriental life. M. G4r6me received 
 the Prussian order of the Red Eagle and 
 was a commander of the legion of honor. 
 He died in 1904. 
 
 GERONA (ha-ro'nS,), a fortified town 
 of n.e. Spain, capital of the province of 
 Gerona, in Catalonia, at the confluence 
 of the Ofia and the Ter, 52 miles north- 
 east of Barcelona. Pop. 16,081. — The 
 Province, area 2270 sq. miles, abuts on 
 the Mediterranean, is mountainous and 
 mostly rugged, but with many fertile 
 valleys. Pop. 299,287. 
 
 Jean L4on G6r6me. , 
 
 GERRY (gSr'rl), Elbridge, American 
 statesman, Was born at Marblehead, 
 Mass., in 1744. In May^ 1772, he entered 
 upon his long political career as a mem- 
 ber of the general court of Massachusetts 
 and here immediately identified him- 
 self with the partiot party. «He was 
 re-elected in 1773; was soon afterward 
 appointed by the legislature, with 
 Hancock and Orne, a member of the 
 committee of correspondence. In 1776 
 Gerry was elected to the continental 
 congress, and was conspicuous as a 
 vigorous advocate of the declaration of 
 independence, which he signed. In 1787 
 was sent as one of the Massachusetts 
 delegates to the constitutional conven- 
 tion at Philadelphia, where he was prom- 
 inent as an opponent of the constitution 
 as finally adopted, refusing, along with 
 Randolph and Mason7to affix his signa- 
 ture. He was several times defeated for 
 governor of ^Massachusetts, but was 
 successful in 1810, and in 1811 was re- 
 elected. His administration was fiercely 
 criticised by the federalists on the ground 
 of its alleged partisanship, and color 
 was given to the charge by the enact- 
 ment by the republican legislature of a 
 law, which Gerry signed, but of which 
 he seems to have disapproved, for re- 
 districting the state in such a manner as 
 to annihilate the federalist majorities 
 in several counties. (See Gerrymander.) 
 From 1813 until his death, on Novem- 
 ber 23, 1814, he was vice-president of 
 the United States. 
 
 GERRY, Elbridge Thomas, American 
 lawyer and philanthropast, born in New 
 York City in 1837. He became promi- 
 nently connected with numerous re- 
 formatory and benevolent organizations, 
 and in 1874 founded the society for the 
 prevention of cruelty to children. In 
 1886 he was chairman of the commission 
 which advocated the abolition of the 
 gallows and the substitution of elec- 
 tricity for capital punishment in New 
 York. 
 
 GERRYMANDER. (gSr'rl-man'der), a 
 word belonging to the political vocabu- 
 lary of the U. States, and used to denote 
 an unfair division of the electoral dis- 
 tricts in a state, made in the interest of 
 one of the political parties. The word 
 
 was coined in 1812, though the practice 
 probably originated earlier. At that 
 time the federalist and republican 
 parties in Massachusetts were nearly 
 evenly balanced in numerical strength, 
 but the republicans took advantage of a 
 temporary majority in the legislature to 
 divide the state into new senatorial dis- 
 tricts in such a manner that those sec- 
 tions which gave a large number of 
 federalist votes might be brought into 
 one district. Previously each county 
 had constituted a senatorial district, 
 and the power of rearranging old dis- 
 tricts or creating new ones, bestowed on 
 the legislature by the state constitution, 
 had never been exercised. Elbridge 
 Gerry was at that time governor, and 
 through his signature, though he seems 
 not to have wholly approved the meas- 
 ure, the work of the legislature became a 
 law. The form of one of the districts 
 into which Essex County was divided 
 was somewhat like that of a monstrous 
 animal, and when some one suggested 
 that it looked like a salamander, the 
 name “gerrymander” was given to it, 
 instead. The passage of the law caused 
 a great outcry from the federalists, and 
 early in 1813, this party having again 
 secured a majority and elected a gover- 
 nor to succeed Gerry, the law was re- 
 
 E ealed. The device, however, has since 
 een repeatedly used in various states. 
 GERS (zhar), a department in the s.w. 
 of France, separated from the Bay of 
 Biscay by the department of Landes; 
 area, 2425 sq. miles. The southern part 
 is covered with ramifications of the 
 Pyrenees separated by valleys, each of 
 which is watered by its own stream. 
 The chief of these are the Gers, Losse, 
 Save, etc. Auch is the capital. Pop. 
 238,448. 
 
 GESNER (ges'n4r), Konrad von, Ger- 
 man scholar, born at Zurich in 1516, 
 studied at Strasburg, Bourges, and Paris 
 and became schoolmaster in his native 
 town. His Historia Animalium must be 
 regarded as the foundation of zoology; 
 and in botany he was the inventor of 
 the method of classifying the vegetable 
 kingdom according to the characters of 
 the seeds and flowers. He died of the 
 plague at Zurich, 1565. 
 
 GESSLER. See Tell. 
 
 GESTATION, in physiology, the name 
 given to the interval which elapses be- 
 tween the impregnation of any of the 
 mammalia and the period of birth. This 
 period varies from 25 days, in the case 
 of the mouse, to 620, in that of the ele- 
 phant. 
 
 GETHSEMANE, an olive- garden or 
 orchard in the neighborhood of Jerusa- 
 lem, memorable as the scene of the last 
 sufferings of Christ. The traditionary 
 site of this garden places it on the east 
 side of the city, a very little beyond the 
 Kedron, near the base of Mt. Olivet. It 
 contains some very old olive-trees, 
 piously regarded as having stood there 
 in the time of our Lord. 
 
 GETTYSBURG, the capital of Adams 
 CO., Pennsylvania. Here are the Penn- 
 sylvanian college (Lutheran), founded 
 in 1832; the national cemetery for Union 
 soldiers, and a national homestead for 
 the orphans of Union soldiers. At Gettys- 
 burg a battle was fought (July 1, 2, and 
 3, 1863,) between the Union forces under 
 
geysers 
 
 GHOSTS 
 
 General Meade and the _ confederate 
 forces under General Lee, in which the 
 letter suffered a disastrous defeat. 
 
 GEYSERS, a slight alteration of the 
 Icelandic name geysir, from geysa, to 
 gush or rush forth, and applied to 
 natural springs of hot water of the kind 
 that were first observed in Iceland. The 
 geysers of Iceland, about a hundred in 
 number, lie about 30 miles n.w. of Mount 
 Hecla, in a plain covered by hot-springs 
 and steaming apertures. The two most 
 remarkable are the Great Geyser and 
 the New Geyser or Strokkur (churn), 
 the former of which throws up at times 
 a column of hot water to the height of 
 from SO to 200''feet. The basin of the 
 Great Geyser is about 70 feet across at 
 its greatest diameter. The New Geyser 
 which is only 100 yards distant, is much 
 inferior in size. The springs are sup- 
 posed to be connected with Mount Hecla 
 and the phenomenon of eruption has 
 been explained by Tyndall as due to the 
 heating of the walls of a fissure, whereby 
 the water is slowly raised to the boiling 
 point under pressure, and explodes into 
 steam, an interval being required for the 
 process to be repeated. The geysers of 
 Iceland, however, have been surpassed 
 by those discovered in the Rocky 
 Mountains in the Yellowstone Region 
 of Wyoming Territory, the largest of 
 which throw up jets of water from 90 to 
 250 feet high. (See Yellowstone.) The 
 hot-lake district of Auckland, New Zea- 
 land, is also famous in possessing some 
 of the most remarkable geyser scenery 
 
 Giant geyser, Yellowstone national park. 
 
 in the world. These phenomena are of 
 three kinds: the puias (fire-springs), 
 geysers continually or intermittently 
 active; ngawhas or inactive puias, which 
 emit steam, but do not throw up columns 
 of water; and waiariki or hot-water cis- 
 terns. This region is remarkable for the 
 number of natural terraces containing 
 hot-water pools or cisterns, and its 
 lakes all filled at intervals by the boiling 
 geysers and thermal springs, but the 
 configuration of the country was con- 
 siderably altered by the disastrous 
 volcanic outbreak of 1886. Ngahapu 
 or Ohopia, a circular rocky basin, 40 
 feet in diameter, in which a violent 
 geyser is constantly boiling up to the 
 Eeight of 10 or 12 feet, emitting dense 
 
 clouds of steam, Is one of the natural 
 wonders of the southern hemisphere. 
 
 GHATS (gats), or GHALTS, a Hindu 
 term employed to designate landing- 
 stairs on a river, especially when larg» 
 and substantially constructed. These 
 
 Ghoosla ghat, Benares. 
 
 ghats are very numerous on the Ganges, 
 and are great places of resort by the 
 people of the towns where they are 
 situated. Some of them are noteworthy 
 from an architectural point of view, 
 having temples, bathing-houses, etc., 
 at the top. 
 
 GHATS, or GHAUTS, Eastern and 
 Western, two ranges of mountains in the 
 peninsular portion of Hindustan, the 
 former running down the east side of 
 India, but leaving broad tracts between 
 their base and the coast; the latter 
 running down the west side, but leaving 
 only a narrow strip between them and 
 the shore. ’ Both meet near Cape Co- 
 morin. The general elevation of the 
 Western Ghats varies from 4000 to 7000 
 feet. The Eastern Gh5ts are of consider- 
 ably less elevation, on the average about 
 1500 feet, and have none of the beauty 
 of the western range. They are, how- 
 ever, rich in metals. 
 
 GHAZIPUR, a town in Hindustan, 
 headquarters of the Ghazipur District, 
 in the United Provinces, about 44 miles 
 northeast of the town of Benares. Pop. 
 39,429. 
 
 GHEE (ge), or GHI, a peculiar kind of 
 butter in use among the Hindus. It is 
 made from the milk of the buffalo or the 
 cow. The milk is boiled for an hour or so, 
 and cooled, after which a little curdled 
 milk is added. Next morning the curdled 
 mass is churned for half an hour; some 
 hot water is then added, and the churn- 
 ing continued for another half-hour, 
 when the butter forms. When, after a 
 few days, it becomes rancid, it is boiled 
 till all the water is expelled, and a little 
 more curdled milk added with some salt 
 or betel-leaves, after which it is put into 
 pots. In this state it will keep for a long 
 time. It is too strong for European 
 taste, but is a favorite article of con- 
 sumption among rich Hindus. 
 
 GHENT, a town in Belgium, capital of 
 the province of East Flanders, in a fer- 
 tile plain at the confluence of the Lys 
 with the Scheldt. It is upwards of 6 
 miles in circumference, and is divided 
 by canals into a number of islands con- 
 nected with each other by bridges. In 
 some of the older parts it is well built, 
 and has a number of fine promenades 
 and many notable buildings. Among 
 the latter are the cathedral of St. 
 Bavon, a vast and richly-decorated 
 
 structure, dating Irom the 13th cen- 
 tury; the ‘church of St. Nicholas, the 
 oldest in Ghent; the church of St. 
 Michael, with a celebrated Crucifixion 
 by Vandyk; the university, a handsome 
 modern structure, with a library of about ■ 
 200,000 volumes and 2500 MSS.; the 
 hotel-de-ville; the belfry, a lofty square 
 tower surmounted by a gilded dragon, 
 and containing a fine set of chimes 
 consisting of forty-four bells, one of 
 which is the famous “Roland of Ghent;” 
 the new palais-de-justice; the march6 
 du vendredi, an extensive square, in- 
 teresting as the scene of many impor- 
 tant historical events; and les beguin- 
 ages, extensive nunneries founded in 
 the 13th century, the principal occu- 
 pation of whose members is lace-mak- 
 ing. Ghent has long been celebrated 
 as a manufacturing town, especially 
 for its cotton and linen goods and lace. 
 Pop. 160,848. 
 
 GHENT, Treaty of, a treaty between 
 the U. States and Great Britain which 
 ended the war between the two countries 
 known as the “War of 1812.” The 
 American negotiators were John Quincy 
 Adams, James A. Bayard, Henry Clay, 
 Jonathan Russell, and Albert Gallatin, 
 The British representatives were Lord 
 Gambler, Henry Goulburn, and William 
 Adams. The treaty was signed on De- 
 cember 24, 1814, was ratified by the U. 
 States senate on February 17, 1815, 
 and was formally proclaimed by Presi- 
 dent Madison on the following day. 
 
 GHETTO (get 'to), a name used in dif- 
 ferent towns of Italy, -Germany, and 
 other countries to indicate the quarter 
 set apart for the residence of Jews. 
 
 GHIBERTI (ge-ber'te), Lorenzo, Ital- 
 ian statuary, borfi about 1378 at Flor- 
 ence. HeVas engaged in painting fres- 
 coes at Rimini, in the palace of Pandolfo 
 Malatesta, when the priori of the society 
 of merchants at Florence invited artists 
 to propose models for one of the bronze 
 doors of the baptistery of San Giovanni. 
 The judges selected the works of Dona- 
 tello and Ghiberti as the best ( according 
 to Vasari, also that of Brunelleschi, who 
 is not mentioned by Ghiberti himself as 
 one of the competitors) ; but the former 
 voluntarily withdrew his claims, giving 
 the preference to Ghiberti. After twenty 
 one years’ labor Ghiberti completed the 
 door, and, at the request of the priori, 
 executed a second, after almost as long 
 a period. Michael Angelo said of these, 
 that they were worthy of adorning the 
 entrance to paradise. During these ’ 
 forty years Ghiberti also completed 
 other works, bas-reliefs, statues, and 
 some excellent paintings on glass, most 
 of which may be seen in the cathedral 
 and the church of Or San Michele at 
 Florence. He died about 1455. 
 
 GHILAN (gi-lan'), a province of Persia 
 on the soutliwest shore of the Caspian 
 Sea; area, about 4250 sq. miles. The 
 province is rich in metals and very 
 fertile. The capital is Resht. Pop. about 
 150,000. 
 
 GHOST, HOLY. See Holy Ghost. 
 
 GHOSTS, the belief in ghosts is one 
 of the earliest of all religious phenomena. 
 It is found in one form or another at 
 all ages and among all peoples. To such 
 an extent does belief in ghosts prevail, 
 that one school of comparative religion 
 
GIANT POWDEH 
 
 GIBBON 
 
 of whom Herbert Spencer and Julius 
 Lippert are the chief representatives, 
 has sought to find the origin of all reli- 
 gion in ghost-cults. The importance 
 of ghost-worship as a religious factor 
 cannot be denied, and it is certainly one 
 of the main sources of religious belief. 
 Its chief development is found in the 
 widespread existence of ancestor-wor- 
 ship. 
 
 The ghost idea in its most primitive 
 form seems to be as follows: The 
 phenomenon of dreams is one of the 
 starting-points. According to the reason- 
 ing of the primitive mind, the self, while 
 the body is unconscious and inert, wan- 
 ders to places familiar or even unknown, 
 experiences pleasure and pain, converses 
 with friends perhaps dead, and per- 
 forms other things which have no con- 
 nection with the body. From sleep and 
 dreams the savage proceeds by analogy 
 to death. To him the distinction between 
 slumber and death is one of degree 
 rather than of kind, and it is well known 
 how universal is the belief that sleep 
 and death are near akin. As in slumber 
 the soul left the body for a time, but 
 returned to it, so in the long sleep, as the 
 primitive mind regards it, of death, the 
 soul is supposed to remain near the body. 
 As it is obviously impossible To keep a 
 corpse from dissolution, and as the 
 progress of decay renders the body more 
 and more uninhabitable for the spirit 
 which has left it, the soul, or the ghost 
 as it may now be called,, becomes a 
 source of much anxiety to the kinsman 
 and other friends of the dead. In primi- 
 tive religion the element of terror is one 
 of the most important factors, and at 
 first exercises a far greater influence 
 than hope. The ghost is, then, more 
 terrible than was the man whose body 
 it had animated. It is no longer limited 
 by bodily restrictions, it can traverse 
 space with infinite speed, and may be 
 invisible. Fortunately, and somewhat 
 curiously, the ghost, like demons gen- 
 erally, is rather stupid, and is adso bound 
 by certain limitations. Upon such an 
 apparently flimsy foundation, which is, 
 however, logical to the primitive man, 
 is built a complicated system of mor- 
 tuary custofhs, and the idea of immor- 
 tality. The ghost, which, as has been 
 said, delights to hover around its earthly 
 home, is not a cheerful companion to the 
 living, and must therefore be kept away. 
 This is accomplished by various methods 
 as by building a new hut for the sur- 
 vivors, or, more easily, by carrying the 
 corpse out by a hole broken in the side 
 of the dwelling, which is subsequently 
 walled up. The ghost is then unable 
 to find its way back, and the house is 
 safe from its invasion. The superstition 
 here noted still survives. The so-called 
 haunted houses and haunted rooms are 
 cases in point, and it is important to 
 note that it is the malignant ghosts, 
 chiefly those who have been involved in 
 murder or other evil acts, which espe- 
 cially linger around the scene of their 
 earthly activities. To avert the influence 
 of maleficent ghosts, various forms of 
 sacrifice and magic are employed. These 
 ceremonies have as their primary ob- 
 ject the satisfaction of the ghost’s wants. 
 Thus the bow and arrows are laid with 
 the warrior, a woman’s jewelry is buried 
 
 with her, and a child’s toys rest beside its 
 body. It was also common in many 
 places, notably in Dahomey and Poly- 
 nesia, to sacrifice slaves to attend their 
 master in the spirit world, while among 
 the ancient Germans horses and even 
 wives (as in the Indian suttee) were often, 
 slain at the funeral pyre. It is also 
 probable that to wish to appease ghosts 
 many of the elaborate mourning customs 
 of primitive peoples may be traced. 
 Under this category come such acts as 
 shaving the hair, cutting the flesh, 
 fasting, neglect of the toilet, use of un- 
 becoming clothing, and the like. It is, 
 of course, true that at a comparatively 
 early time the development of civiliza- 
 tion rendered mourning for the dead an 
 act of affection and not of fear; but it is 
 hard to believe that the savage who put 
 to death the aged members of his tribe 
 was moved by any high ideals in the 
 beginning of mortuary customs. In 
 line with mourning are the offerings of 
 food, drink, clothing, and, as in China, 
 of money to the deceased. 
 
 GIANT POWDER, a name for dyna- 
 mite. 
 
 GIANTS, people of extraordinary 
 stature. History, both sacred and pro- 
 fane, makes mention of giants, and even 
 of races of giants, but this in general 
 occurs only at an early stage of civiliza- 
 tion when the national mind is apt to 
 exaggerate anything unusual. The first 
 mention of giants in the Bible is in Gen. 
 vi. 4, where the Hebrew word used is 
 nephilim, a word which occurs in only 
 one other passage, where it is applied 
 to the sons of Anak, who dwelt about 
 Hebron, and who were described by the 
 terrified spies as of such size that com- 
 pared with them they appeared in their 
 own sight as grasshoppers. A race of 
 giants called the Rephaim is frequently 
 mentioned in the Bible, and in Gen. 
 xiv. and xv. appear as a distinct tribe, 
 of whom Og, king of Bashan, is said to 
 have been the last. Other races of giants 
 are mentioned, such as the Emim, the 
 Zuzim, and the Zamzummim. The 
 giants of old Greek or of Norse mythol- 
 ogy have, of course, merely a symbolic 
 existence, representing benignant or 
 adverse forces of nature on which man 
 might count in his struggle to reduce 
 the world around him into some kind 
 of order. The tales of old writers re- 
 garding gigantic human skeletons have 
 now no importance, it being most cer- 
 tainly that these bones do not belong to 
 giants, but to animals of the primitive 
 world which, from ignorance of anatomy 
 were taken for human bones. The 
 ordinary height of men is between 5 and 
 G feet ; among the Patagonians of South 
 America, however, the average seems 
 to be considerably higher, though not so 
 high as to entitle them to be considered 
 a race of giants. Notable deviations 
 from this medium height are not at all 
 uncommon, especially among the Teu- 
 tonic peoples. As a rule giants are com- 
 paratively feeble in body and mind, and 
 are short-lived. Gigantic stature is 
 ggnerally accompanied by a want of 
 proportion in parts, some parts growing 
 too quickly for others, or continuing to 
 grow after the others have ceased. The 
 relation between the upper and lower 
 half of the body is not disturbed^ but 
 
 the skull, brain, and forehead are rela- 
 tively small, the jaws very large, the 
 shoulders, breast, and haunches very 
 broad, and the muscular system com- 
 paratively weak. 
 
 GIANT’S CAUSEWAY, an extensive 
 and extraordinary assemblage of poly- 
 gonal and basaltic columns on the north 
 coast of Ireland, in the county of Antrim 
 between Bengore Head and Port Rush. 
 The name is sometimes given to the 
 whole range of basalt cliffs along the 
 coast, some of which reach the height of 
 400 or 500 feet; but it is more properly 
 restricted to a small portion of it where 
 a platform of closely arranged basalt 
 columns from 15 to 36 feet in height 
 runs down into the sea in three divisions, 
 known as the Little, the Middle, and the 
 Grand Causeway. The last is from 20 
 to 30 feet wide, and stretches some 900 
 feet into the sea. The Giant’s Causeway 
 derives its name from the legend that it 
 was built by giants as a road which was 
 to stretch across the sea to Scotland. 
 There are similar formations on the west 
 coast of Scotland, on the islands of 
 Staffa. 
 
 GIBBON, a name common to the apes 
 which inhabit the islands of the Indian 
 Archipelago. It is distinguished from 
 other quadrumanous animals by the 
 
 Gibbon. 
 
 slenderness of its form, but more par- 
 ticularly by the extraordinary length of 
 its arms, which, when the animal is 
 standing, reaches nearly to the ankles, 
 and which enables it to swing itself from 
 tree to tree with wonderful agility. Its 
 color is black, but its face is commonly 
 surrounded with a white or gray beard. 
 
 GIBBON, Edward, an eminent Eng- 
 lish historian, was born at Putney in 
 Surrey, April 27, 1737. In 1770 he pub- 
 lished a pamphlet entitled Critical Ob- 
 servations on the Sixth Book of the 
 ^neid. In 1776 the first quarto volume 
 of his Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire was published, and at once made 
 a public reputation for its author. In 
 1778 he drew up on behalf of the Eng- 
 lish government a Memoire Justification 
 in answer to the manifesto of the French 
 court, and for this service he was made 
 one of the lords of trade. On the retire- 
 ment of North he lost his appointment, 
 and soon after withdrew to Lausanne 
 (1783), where, in the course of four years, 
 he completed the three remaining 
 volumes of his history, which were pub- 
 lished together in 1788. In 1793 he re- 
 turned to England, where he died 16th 
 
GINGER-ALE 
 
 GIRGENTI 
 
 cunfections, infusions, pills, etc. The 
 special preparations are the tincture 
 and the essence of ginger; syrup, pre- 
 pared by mixing twenty-five parts of 
 
 Ginger plant. 
 
 syrup with one of the strong tincture. 
 Infusion of ginger is a preparation useful 
 for flatulence. 
 
 GINGER-ALE, an aerated water made 
 in the same way as lemonade, but 
 flavored with ginger instead of lemon. 
 
 GINGER-BEER, a pleasant, non- 
 alcoholic, effervescing beverage, made 
 by mixing together ginger, cf-eam of 
 tartar, sugar, yeast, and water and 
 allowing the whole to ferment for a time, 
 then bottling. Ginger-beer may also be 
 prepared thus; Add to each gallon of 
 water 1 lb. of refined sugar, and ^ oz. of 
 ground ginger. Boil for an hour, add 
 the white of two eggs, remove the scum. 
 Strain into a vessel to cool, cask it up 
 with the juice and peel of a lemon. Add 
 a very small amount of brewer’s yeast, 
 and bung up tightly for a fortnight. 
 
 GINGER-BREAD, a well-known cake 
 made in many ways, the chief ingredi- 
 ents being flour and treacle, with ginger 
 butter, eggs, etc. 
 
 GINGER-CORDIAL, or GINGER-, 
 WINE, a beverage made from raisins, 
 lemon rind, ginger, sugar, and water, 
 with some whisky or brandy. 
 
 GINGHAM (ging'am), a cotton fabric 
 distinguished from calico by having the 
 colors woven with the fabric, not printed 
 on it. The patterns are various; some- 
 times fancy designs, sometimes checkered 
 and sometimes striped. Umbrella ging- 
 hams are all of one color. 
 
 GINSENG (jin'seng), a plant of North- 
 ern Asia, herbaceous, and about 1 foot 
 high. Its root is regarded as a sort of 
 
 Ginseng. 
 
 panacea among the Chinese, and is 
 largely imported, but it appears to be 
 really of very little efficacy • the taste is 
 sweet and mucilaginous, and also accom- 
 panied with some bitterness, and also 
 slightly aromatic. Another species of 
 ginseng inhabits Canada and the north- 
 
 eastern pa^ts of the U. States. Quan- 
 tities of its root are sent to China. 
 
 GIPSY. See Gypsies. 
 
 GIRAFFE, a ruminant animal in- 
 habiting Africa, and constituting the 
 only species of its genus and family. 
 It is the tallest of all animals, a full- 
 grown male reaching the height of 18 or 
 20 feet. This great stature is mainly due 
 to the extrabrdinary length of the neck, 
 in which, however, there are but seven 
 vertebrae, though these are extremely 
 elongated. It has two body excrescences 
 on its head resembling horns. Its great 
 height is admirably suited with its 
 habit of feeding on the leaves of trees, 
 and in this the animal is further aided by 
 its tongue, which is both prehensile and 
 capable of being remarkably elongated 
 or contracted at will. When it browses 
 the herbage on the ground it stretches 
 
 Giraffe. 
 
 out its fore-legs as wide as possible till it 
 can reach the ground by means of its 
 long neck. Its color is usually light fawn, 
 marked with darker spots. It is a mild 
 and in'offensive animal, and in captivity 
 is very gentle and playful. The giraffe 
 is a native of a great part of Africa, from 
 Abyssinia and Sennaar to Senegal and 
 the regions adjacent to the Cape Col- 
 ony. 
 
 GIRARD COLLEGE, an institution in 
 Philadelphia, Pa., founded by the be- 
 quest of about $8,000,000, left by 
 Stephen Girard, for the benefit of poor 
 white male orphans, who are admitted 
 between the a^es of six and ten, and, 
 according to the wilt of the founder, are 
 to be apprenticed to some industrial 
 occupation when between the ages of 
 fourteen and eighteen. The buildings 
 are situated 2 miles n. w. of the old 
 State-house, in a fine enclosure of 41 
 acres. The principal building (169 feet 
 long. 111 feet wide, and 97 feet high, 
 with fine Corinthian columns, each 55 
 feet high) is by far the best specimen of 
 Greek architecture in the U. States. It 
 is built mainly of white marble, with no 
 inflammable material, as nearly as pos- 
 sible in accordance with the minute 
 directions left by Mr. Girard, according 
 to whose will no minister or ecclesiastic 
 of any sect or church is allowed to visit 
 the premises on any pretext or to have 
 any connection with the institution. 
 The construction of the buildings was 
 begun in 1833, and finished in 1848. 
 
 In 1900 the value of the residuary fund 
 was $15,958,293 and the building ac- 
 commodated about 2,000 boys. 
 
 GIRARD, Stephen, philanthropist, 
 born near Bordeaux, France, May 24, 
 1750; became a saUor, and before the 
 revolution in North America engaged as 
 the master of vessels in the American 
 coasting and West India trade; and 
 during the revolution was a grocer, 
 sutler, and liquor-seller in and near 
 Philadelphia In 1812 he became a 
 private banker, and was later a director 
 of the second U. States bank. He was 
 for years by far the wealthiest man in 
 the U. States. He was very eccentfic in 
 his habits, a freethinker, ungracious in 
 manner, ill-tempered, and lived and 
 died without a friend; but was always a 
 liberal benefactor of the public charities 
 and even of churches, which he despised. 
 During several yellow fever seasons in 
 Philadelphia he was active in relieving 
 distress by free expenditure of money 
 and personal care of the sick; and at 
 •his death nearly all his estate was be- 
 queathed to various charitable and 
 municipal institutions of Philadelphia 
 and New Orleans, and to the founding 
 of the Girard college for orphan boys. 
 He died in Philadelphia, Dec. 26, 1831. 
 
 GIRDER, a main roam, either of wood 
 or iron, resting upon a wall or pier at 
 each end, employed for supporting a 
 superstructure, or a superincumbent 
 weight, as a floor, the upper wall of a 
 house when the lower part is sustained 
 by pillars, the roadway of a bridge, and 
 the like. Wooden girders are sometimes 
 cut in two longitudinally and an iron 
 plate inserted between the pieces, and , 
 the whole bolted together. This species ; 
 of girder is called a sandwich-girder. For' . 
 bridges cast-iron girders are sometimes ! 
 cast in lengths of 40 feet and upward, ‘ 
 but when the span to be crossed is much 
 greater than 40 feet, recourse is had to 
 wrought-iron, or to trussed, lattice, or 
 box girders, and cast-iron is now little 
 used. A trussed-girder is a wooden 
 girder strengthened with iron. A lattice- 
 girder is a girder consisting of two hori- 
 zontal beams united by diagonal crossing 
 bars, somewhat resembling wooden lat- 
 tice-work. A box-girder is a kind of 
 girder resembling a large box, such as 
 those employed in tubular bridges. ] 
 There are also bowstring-girders, which i 
 are varieties of the lattice-girder, and 
 consist of an arched beam, a horizontal ' 
 tie resisting tension and holding to- ' 
 gether the ends of the arched rib, a j 
 series of vertical suspending bars by i 
 which the platform is hung from the I 
 arched rib, and a series of diagonal j 
 braces between the suspending bars. I 
 
 GIRDLE OF VENUS, an animal be- 
 longing to the Ctenophora, found in the i 
 Mediterranean. In shape it resembles I 
 a ribbon, and it is apparently propelled | 
 by the cilia which fringe its e^e. The | 
 mouth is situated on the inferior edge, j 
 It is iridescent by day, and brilliantly 
 phosphorescent at night. 
 
 GIRGEH (jir'je), town, formerly capi- 
 tal, of Upper Egypt, on the left bank of 
 the Nile. It possesses a Roman Catholic 
 convent, the oldest in Egypt. Pop. ■ 
 10 , 000 . 
 
 GIRGENTI (jir-jen'te), a town in the 
 southwest of Sicily, capital of the prov- ■ 
 
GIRONDE 
 
 / 
 
 GLACIER TABLES 
 
 
 ince of same name. The province has 
 an area of 1490 sq. miles, and is rather 
 mountainous in character. Pop. 371,471. 
 
 GIRONDE (zhe-rond), a department 
 of France, on the Bay of Biscay, named 
 from the Gironde estuary; area, 3610 
 sq. miles. Bordeaux is the capital. Pop. 
 820 781 ^ 
 
 GIRONDE, River. See Garonne. 
 
 GIRONDISTS (Girondins), one of the 
 great political parties of the first French 
 revolution. The Girondists were repub- 
 licans, but were more distinguished for 
 visionary idetjils than for a well-defined 
 policy; hence they fell an easy prey to 
 the party of the Mountain. Their 
 leaders were three of the deputies of the 
 Gironde — Verginaud, Guadet, and Gen- 
 Bonn6, hence the name. Louis XVI. was 
 obliged, in 1792, to select a ministry 
 from among the Girondists, but it was 
 short-lived. In the convention their 
 strug^fes with the MontagAards forced 
 them into extreme measures which they 
 would otherwise have avoided. They 
 wished to save the king, but many of 
 them, from a mistaken policy, voted for 
 his death. Their fall dates from their 
 unsuccessful impeachment of Marat 
 (1793), soon after which a large number 
 of them were proscribed, and twenty- 
 one of them were condemned and 
 executed. 
 
 GIRTY (ger'ti) Simon, renegade leader 
 of the Indians, was born in Penn- 
 sylvania in 1741, was captured by the 
 Indians, along with the rest of his 
 family at Fort Granville, in 1756; was 
 released in 1759, and acted as an inter- 
 preter for some time after the conspiracy 
 of Pontiac. In Lord Dunmore’s war he 
 served against the Indians, and for a 
 short time thereafter was a second lieu- 
 tenant in the Virginia militia. In 1776 
 he was appointed an Indian interpreter 
 for the U. States., but was soon dis- 
 charged, after which he enlisted troops 
 in the vicinity of Fort Pitt for service 
 against the English. He went over to 
 ■ the English in April, 1776, was attainted 
 of high treason by the Pennsylvania 
 legislature in July, and became an in- 
 terpreter in the employ of the British 
 Indian department. He commanded 
 the Indians who attacked Dunlap’s 
 Station, on the Great Miami, in Feb- 
 ruary, 1791; led the Wyandots at the 
 defeat of Saint Clair; commanded the 
 Indians who attacked Fort Jefferson, on 
 the Mississippi, in June, 1791; and in 
 1794 participated in the battle of 
 FaiMen Timbers. He died in 1818. 
 
 GIULIO ROMANO (joTe-o ro-ma'no), 
 or GULIIO PIPPIjNitalian painter, archi- 
 tect, and engineer, the most distin- 
 guished of Raphael’s scholars, born at 
 Rome near the end of the 15th century. 
 After the death of Raphael he gave him- 
 self up to his own- imagination, and 
 astonished all by the boldness of his 
 style, by the grandeur of his designs, by 
 the fire of his composition, by the lofti- 
 ness of his poetical ideas, and his power- 
 ful expression. 
 
 GIZZARD, a strong muscular part of 
 the alimentary canal of birds, which 
 enables them to grind their food. A 
 gizzard occurs also in many gasteropoda, 
 and in certain cephalopoda and crusta- 
 ceans. In birds it is lined by a thick 
 muscular coat, and usually contains 
 
 pieces of gravel, etc., to facilitate the 
 grinding process. 
 
 GLACIAL PERIOD, or ICE AGE, in 
 
 geology, denotes that portion of the 
 posf-tertiary period, in which Britain, 
 Europe, and, in short, all parts of the 
 Old and the New World north of latitude 
 50°-40° were subjected to intense cold, 
 and covered with ice and glaciers. This 
 phenomenon has been demonstrated 
 from a study of the actual effects of 
 glaciers in the Alps, etc. The traces of 
 ancient glacial action are abundantly 
 discoverable in the Highlands of Scot- 
 land, in England, in the Scandinavian 
 range, the Jura, the Black Forest, etc. 
 In Asia they are perceptible in the 
 Himalaya, while North America abounds 
 with them. See Geology. 
 
 GLACIERS, icy masses of great bulk, 
 harder than snow, yet not exactly like 
 common ice, which cover the summits 
 and sides of mountains above tht< snow- 
 line, They are found in Switzerland, 
 Scandinavia, the Andes, etc. They 
 extend down into the valleys often far 
 
 Glacier of Zermatt, S-vvitzerland. 
 
 below the snow-line, and bear a con- 
 siderable resemblance to a frozen tor- 
 rent. They take their origin in the higher 
 valleys, where they are formed by the 
 congelation and compression of masses 
 of snow in that condition called by 
 French writers n4v4, by German authors 
 firn. The ice of glaciers differs from 
 that produced by the freezing of still 
 water, and is composed of thin layers 
 filled -with air-bubbles. It is likewise 
 more brittle and less transparent. The 
 glaciers are continually moving down- 
 ward, and not unfrequently reach the 
 borders of cultivation. The rate at 
 which a glacier moves generally varies 
 from .18 to 24 inches in twenty-four 
 hours. At its lower end it is generally 
 very steep and inaccessible. In its 
 middle course it resembles a frozen 
 stream with an undulating surface, 
 broken up by fissures or crevasses. As 
 it descends it experiences a gradual 
 diminution from the action of the sun 
 and rain, and from the heat of the earth. 
 Hence a phenomenon universally at- 
 tendant on glaciers — the issue of a stream 
 of ice-cold turbid water from their lower 
 extremity. The descent of glaciers is 
 shown by changes in the position of 
 masses of rock at their sides and on their 
 surface. A remarkable glacier phenome- 
 non is that of moraines, as they are 
 called, consisting of accumulations of 
 stones and detritus piled up on the sides 
 of the glacier, or scattered along the 
 
 surface. They are composed of fragments 
 of rocks detached by the action of frost 
 and other causes. The fissures or 
 crevasses by which glaciers are traversed 
 are sometimes more than 100 feet in 
 depth, and from being often covered 
 with snow are exceedingly dangerous 
 to travelers. One of the most famous 
 glaciers of the Alps is the Mfer de Glace, 
 belonging to Mont Blanc, in the valley 
 of Chamouni, about 5700 feet above the 
 level of the sea. It is more especially, 
 however, in the chain of Monte Rosa 
 that the phenomena of glaciers are ex- 
 hibited in their greatest sublimity, as 
 also in their most interesting phases 
 from a scientific point'of view. Glaciers 
 exist in all zones in which mountains rise 
 above the snow-line. Those of Norway 
 are well known, and they abound in 
 Iceland and Spitzbergen. Hooker and 
 other travelers have given accounts of 
 those of the Himalaya. They are con- 
 spicuous on the Andes, while the South- 
 ern Alps of New Zealand rival in this 
 respect the Alpine regions of Switzer- 
 land. 
 
 The problem of the descent of the 
 glaciers is of extraordinary interest, and 
 various theories have been put forward 
 to account for it. It was shown by Pro- 
 fessor J. D. Forbes, of Edinburgh, that a 
 glacier moves very much like a river; 
 the middle and upper parts faster than 
 the sides and the bottom ; and he showed 
 that glacier motion was analogous to the 
 way in which a mass of thick mortar or a 
 quantity of pitch flows down in an in- 
 clined trough. His theory is known as the 
 viscious theory of glaciers, which pre- 
 supposes that ice is a plastic body, and 
 this plasticity has been satisfactorily 
 explained by Professor James Thomson 
 of Glasgow by the phenomenon of the 
 melting and refreezing of ice. Water, he 
 discovered, when subjected to pressure, 
 freezes at -a lower temperature than 
 when the pressure is removed. Conse- 
 quently when ice is subjected to pressure 
 it melts; if it is relieved of pressure the 
 water again solidifies. —Therefore if t-wo 
 pieces of ice are pressed together, they 
 tend to relieve themselves by melting 
 at their points of contact, and the water 
 thus produced immediately solidifies on 
 its escape. If ice is strained in any way 
 it similarly relieves itself at the strained 
 parts, and a similar regelation follows. 
 This, when applied to the glaciers, gives 
 a complete explanation of their plas- 
 ticity. Pressed downward by the vast 
 superincumbent mass, the ice gradually 
 yields. Melting and refreezing takes place 
 at some parts, at others the gradual 
 yielding at strained points goes on. In 
 the latter process there is no visible melt- 
 ing but there is the gradual yielding 
 from point to point to the pressure above 
 and there is the transference relatively 
 to each other of the molecules that con- 
 stitute the, at first sight, solid mass. If 
 however, at certain points the strain is 
 intense, the ice becomes extremely 
 brittle. The latter fact disposes of 
 Tyndall’s objection to Forbes’ theory, 
 which was based on the fact that cre- 
 vasses proved the brittleness, and not 
 the viscosity of ice. 
 
 GLACIER TABLES, large stones found 
 on glaciers supported on pedestals of ice. 
 The stones attain this peculiar position 
 
GLADBACH 
 
 GLASGOW 
 
 by the melting away of the ice around 
 them, and the depression of its general 
 surface by the action of the sun and rain. 
 The block, like an umbrella, protects the 
 ice below it from both; and accordingly 
 its elevation measures the level of the 
 glacier at a former period. By and by 
 the stone table becomes too heavy 
 for the column of ice on which it rests, 
 or its equilibrium becomes unstable, 
 whereupon it topples over, and falling 
 on the surface of the glacier defends a 
 new space of ice, and begins to mount 
 afresh. 
 
 GLADBACH (Monchen-), a town of 
 Prussia, province of Rheinland, 16 miles 
 west of Diisseldorf, with extensive 
 manufactures of cotton and mixed 
 cotton goods, etc. Pop. 58,023. 
 
 GLADIATORS, combatants who 
 fought at the public games in Rome for 
 the entertainment of the spectators. 
 The first instance known of gladiators 
 being exhibited was in b.c. 264, by 
 Marcus and Decimus Brutus at the 
 funeral of their father. They were at 
 first prisoners, slaves, or condemned 
 criminals; but afterward freemen 
 fought in the arena, either for hire or 
 from choice; and latterly men of sena- 
 torial rank, and even women, fought. 
 The regular gladiators w'ere instructed 
 in schools (ludi), and the overseer 
 (lanista) purchased the gladiators and 
 maintained them. Men of position some- 
 times kept gladiatorial schools and 
 lanistae of their own. The gladiators 
 fought in the schools with wooden 
 swords. In the public exhibitions, if a 
 vanquished gladiator was not killed in 
 the combat, his fate was decided by the 
 people. If they wished his death, per- 
 haps because he had not shown sufficient 
 skill or bravery, they held up their 
 thumbs; the opposite motion was the 
 signal to save him. The victor received 
 a branch of palm or a garland. The 
 gladiators were classified according to 
 their arms and mode of fighting; thus 
 there were retiarii who carried a trident 
 and a net (L. rete) in which they tried to 
 entangle their opponent; Thracians, 
 who were armed with the round Thrac- 
 ian buckler and a short sword ; secutores, 
 who were pitted against the retiarii; etc. 
 
 GLADSTONE, Right Hon. WUliam 
 Ewart, a great British statesman, was 
 born at Liverpool in 1809, and died at 
 Hawarden in 1898. In 1832 the first 
 reform act was passed, and Mr. Glad- 
 stone’s public career commenced by his 
 being returned for Newark, and when 
 Peel assumed office in 1834 he accepted 
 the post of junior lord of the treasury. 
 He took part with Peel in the repeal of 
 the corn-laws, a course which cost him 
 his seat for Newark. In 1847 he was re- 
 turned for Oxford university, and he 
 then supported the bill for the removal 
 of Jewish disabilities, the repeal of the 
 navigation laws, etc. He now began to 
 develop remarkable ability as a financier 
 and fiercely attacked Mr. Disraeli’s 
 budget of 1852. The same year he be- 
 came chancellor of the exchequer under 
 the Earl of Aberdeen, a post which he 
 also held for a short time in 1855 under 
 Lord Palmerston. In 1858 he became 
 high commissioner extraordinary to 
 the Ionian Islands, and his Studies on 
 Homer appeared about the same time. 
 
 In 1859 h« again took office as chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer under Lord Pal- 
 merston. At the general election of 1865 
 Mr. Gladstone was returned for South 
 Lancashire, and on the decease of Lord 
 Palmerston he became the liberal leader 
 in the commons in the Russell adminis- 
 tration, still continuing to hold the 
 chancellorship of the exchequer. The 
 government, being defeated on the re- 
 form question, went out in 1866, and 
 Lord Derby came into power. Parlia- 
 ment was dissolved in 1874, and the 
 conservatives ousted Mr. Gladstone 
 from office, as they had secured a good 
 majority. During Lord Beaconsfield’s 
 
 Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone. 
 
 tenure of office Mr. Gladstone denounced 
 the Bulgarian atrocities, the Anglo- 
 Turkish treaty, and the Afghan war, 
 and his speeches during his candidature 
 for Midlothian greatly helped to render 
 the government unpopular. In 1880 the 
 general election reinstated Mr. Glad- 
 stone firmly into power (Midlothian be- 
 ing now _ his constituency), and his 
 second Irish land bill became law in 
 the following year. In 1882 a prevention 
 of crimes and an arrears act for Ire- 
 land were passed, and in 1883 measures 
 relating to bankruptcy, etc., were also 
 carried. In 1884 the bill extending 
 household suffrage to the counties was 
 carried, and the Gladstone ministry fell 
 the next year. Lord Salisbury, who had 
 formed an administration, got the re- 
 distribution of seats bill passed, and 
 under it took place the general election 
 of 1885, Mr. Gladstone still continuing 
 to represent Midlothian. Next year 
 Lord Salisbury resigned after an ad- 
 verse vote in the commons, and Mr. 
 Gladstone again came into power. He 
 now introduced a home rule bill for 
 Ireland (April 8, 1886). It failed to pass 
 the commons, and the result of the 
 general election which followed was 
 emphatically adverse to Mr. Gladstone’s 
 proposals. He had to make way for 
 Lord Salisbury, but in 1892 he again 
 became premier. After passing a home 
 rule bill through the commons he re- 
 signed office in 1894, and next year 
 retired from political life. His works in- 
 clude The State in its Relations with the 
 Church (1838); Studies on Homer and 
 the Homeric Age; Juventus Mundi; 
 Homeric Synchronism; Landmarks of 
 Homeric Study; The Impregnable Rock 
 of Holy Scripture, etc. 
 
 GLAMOR'GAN, or GLAMORGAN- 
 SHIRE, a colinty in South Wales; area, 
 547,070 acres. The north and northeast 
 parts of the county are extremely moun- 
 tainous, and often exhibit scenes of the 
 most romantic beauty. The southern 
 portion is comparatively level and very 
 fertile, particularly the vale of Gla- 
 morgan. Towns: Cardiff, the capital; 
 Merthyr-Tydfil, Swansea, and Neath. 
 Pop. 860,022. 
 
 GLANDERS, one of the most formi- 
 dable diseases to which horses are sub- 
 ject, indicated -by a discharge of puru- 
 lent matter from one or both nostrils, 
 with a hard enlargement of the sub- 
 niaxilliary glands. In acute glanders the 
 discharge, by its copiousness, impedes 
 respiration and ultimately produces 
 suffocation. The disease is highly in- 
 fectious, and may even be communicated 
 to man by the purulent matter coming 
 in contact with any part where the skin 
 is broken. The disease is rarely if ever 
 cured. 
 
 GLANDS, a certain class of structures 
 in animals, some of them forming organs 
 which are the seat of an excretion, and 
 provided with an excretory canal. In 
 man there are two lachrymal glands, 
 situated at the external angle of the eyes 
 tinder the upper eyelid; six salivary, of 
 v/hich three are on each side, behind 
 and under the lower jaw; two parotid, 
 two submaxillary, two sublingual, two 
 mammary, 'confined to the female (the 
 breasts in women); the liver, the pan- 
 creas, the two kidneys, etc. The 
 lymphatic glands, -^which take up and 
 elaborate the lymph, are somewhat 
 different from these in character; and 
 still more different are certain other 
 bodies so denominated, as the spleen, 
 thymus, pineal, etc. Botanists have 
 given the name of glands to small bodies 
 observed upon the surfaces of plants, 
 and many of which seem to secrete cer- 
 tain fluids. 
 
 GLAS'GOW, the largest city in Scot- 
 land, and the second largest in the 
 United Kingdom, is situated mainly in 
 the county of Lanark (but is now a 
 
 The Trongate, Glasgow. 
 
 county of itself), on both banks of the 
 Clyde, the largest and more important 
 {iart of it on the right or north bank. 
 The southern portion is mainly built 
 
GLASGOW UNIVERSITY 
 
 GLASS PAPER 
 
 on low-lying level ground, the northern 
 portion to a great extent on a series of 
 elevations of varying heights. The river 
 is crossed by ten bridges (including rail- 
 way bridges), as also by ferries; and 
 there are also tunnels under it. Glasgow 
 has several large and attractive public 
 parks. There are also botanic gardens 
 with extensive hot-houses. There is a 
 public museum, and a collection of 
 pictures belonging to the city, contain- 
 ing a number of very valuable works 
 _especially of the Venetian school. The 
 principal libraries are the University 
 Library, the Mitchell Free Library, the 
 libraries of the Faculty of Medicine and 
 of the Faculty of Procurators, and the 
 combined Glasgow and Stirling’s Li- 
 braries. Among educational institutions 
 after the university are Anderson’s 
 College Medical School, St. Mungo’s 
 College, the Glasgow and West of Scot- 
 land Technical College, the U. F. Church 
 College, Queen Margaret College for 
 Women, the normal institutions of the 
 Established and United Free Churches, 
 the Glasgow School of Art, the Veterin- 
 ary College, the High School, under the 
 management of the school board, and 
 the Glasgow Academy. The industries 
 are unequaled for variety by any town 
 in the kingdom, with the exception, 
 perhaps, of London. They embrace 
 cotton, linen, woolen, silk and jute, in all 
 the processes of manufacture; calico- 
 printing, dyeing, and bleaching; pig and 
 malleable iron and steel, and machinery 
 and metal goods of all descriptions; 
 shipbuilding, which might almost be 
 called a staple, over 400,000 tons of 
 shipping having been launched in some 
 years on the Clyde; extensive chemical 
 works, potteries, glass-works, brick- 
 works, breweries, distilleries, tanneries, 
 tobacco-works, sugar-refining works, etc. 
 The commerce is commensurate in ex- 
 tent with the manufactures. The river 
 itself, the chief highway of this com- 
 merce, has been made navigable for 
 large vessels up to the heart of the city, 
 and the harbor accommodations is still 
 being extended by the construction of 
 docks, quays, etc. In a sanitary point 
 of view Glasgow has greatly improved 
 in recent times, but it still remains less 
 healthy than it might be; and its at- 
 mosphere is polluted with smoke, soot, 
 and vapors from the public works, and 
 its river with sewage. There is, however, 
 a great difference between the sanitary 
 conditions of different districts. The city 
 is excellently supplied with water from 
 Loch Katrine, a distance of about 30 
 miles. The works are capable of supply- 
 ing 60,000,000 gallons daily. Pop. in 
 1901, 761,709. 
 
 GLASGOW UNIVERSITY, was founded 
 by a bull of Pope Nicholas V., 1450-51, 
 which conferred not only the power of 
 creating masters and doctors, but privi- 
 leges and immunities identical with 
 those of the University of Bologna. In 
 1577 James VI. prescribed rules for the 
 government of the university, giving it 
 a new charter. It has been reconstituted 
 by the Scottish universities acts of 
 1858 and 1889, and its constitution is 
 sirnilar to that of the others. The old 
 university buildings and ground were 
 sold to the Glasgow Union railway co. 
 in 1864 for $500,000, a sum which, sup- 
 
 plemented by university funds, govern- 
 ment grant, public subscriptions and 
 donations, has enabled upward of 
 13,000,000 to be e.xpended on fine new 
 buildings in the west end of Glasgow. 
 The university comprises five faculties, 
 viz., art, science, divinity, law, and 
 medicine, each of which embraces a 
 suitable equipment of chairs and pro- 
 fessors, the latter numbering 31 in all, 
 besides a number of lecturers. With it is 
 incorporated Queen Margaret College 
 for women. The university library num- 
 bers about 175,000 volumes. 
 
 GLASS, an artificial substance, hard, 
 brittle, and in its finest qualities quite 
 transparent, formed by the fusion of 
 silicious matters with an alkali. Of the 
 origin of its manufacture nothing is 
 known, but the ancient Egyptians car- 
 ried the art to great perfection, and are 
 known to have practiced it as early as 
 2000 B.C., if not earlier. The Assyrians, 
 the Phoenicians, the Greeks and Etrus- 
 cans were all acquainted with the manu- 
 facture. The Romans attained peculiar 
 excellence in glass-making, and among 
 them it was applied to a great variety 
 of purposes. Among the most beau- 
 tiful specimens of their art are the vases 
 adorned with engraved figures in relief ; 
 they were sometimes transparent, some- 
 times of different colors on a dark ground 
 and very delicately executed. The Port- 
 land or Barberini vase is almost the only 
 surviving specimen of this kind. The 
 mode of preparing glass was known long 
 before it was thought of making windows 
 of it. The first mention of this mode of 
 using glass is to be found in Lactantius, 
 in the 3rd century after Christ. St. 
 Jerome also speaks of it being so used 
 (422 A.D.). Benedict Biscop introduced 
 glass windows into Britain in a.d. 674. 
 In church windows it was used from the 
 3d century. The Venetians were long 
 celebrated for their glass manufacture, 
 which was established before 700 a.d. 
 Britain did not become distinguished for 
 glass until about the commencement of 
 the 16th century. Glass is largely made 
 in France, Germany, Belgium, and 
 the United States. For colored glass 
 Bohemia has long had a high reputa- 
 tion. 
 
 Glass is formed by the fusion of 
 silicious matter, such as powdered flint 
 or fine sand, together with some alkali, 
 alkaline earth, salt, or metallic oxide. 
 The nature of the glass will depend upon 
 the quality and proportion of the in- 
 gredients of which it is formed; and thus 
 an infinite variety of kinds of glass may 
 be made, but in commerce five kinds are 
 usually recognized ; 1. Bottle or coarse 
 green glass. 2. Broad, spread, or sheet 
 window-glass. 3. Crown-glass, or the 
 best window-glass. 4. Plate-glass, or 
 glass of pure soda. 5. Flint-glass, or 
 glass of lead. Colored glass may be 
 mentioned as a sixth kind. The physical 
 properties of glass are of the highest 
 importance. Perhaps the chief of these 
 is its transparency, and next to that 
 its resistance to acids (except hydro- 
 fluoric). It preserves its transparency 
 in a considerable heat, and its expansi- 
 bility is less than that of any other 
 known solid. Its great ductility, When 
 heated.'is also a remarkable property. 
 It can, in this state, be drawn into all 
 
 shapes, and even be spun into the finest 
 threads. It is a bad conductor of heat, 
 and is very brittle. It is usually cut by 
 the diamond. 
 
 The works in which glass is made are 
 called glass-houses. They are commonly 
 constructed of brick, and made of coni- 
 cal form. A large vault is made in the 
 interior of the cone, extending from side 
 to side, and of . sufficient height to allow 
 workmen to wheel in and out rubbish 
 from beneath the furnace, which is 
 placed over the vault, and separated 
 from it by an iron grating. The materials 
 used for the formation of the glass are 
 sometimes calcined in a calcar or fritting 
 furnace, and a chemical union between 
 the ingredients commenced, forming a 
 frit. But this process is not essential,and 
 the materials, after being ground and 
 thoroughly mixed up together, are now 
 usually placed at once in melting pots or 
 crucibles made of Stourbridge fire-clajq 
 or other similar material, the melting- 
 pots being then placed in the melting 
 furnace or oven. This is a kind of rever- 
 beratory furnace, is often circular in 
 form, arched or domed above, and 
 capable of keeping up an intense heat. 
 The crucibles are placed in the furnace at 
 equal distances from each other round 
 the circumference, each pot being op- 
 posite to an opening in the wall of the 
 furnace in order that the crucible may 
 be charged or discharged by the work- 
 man from without. In recent times a 
 furnace called a tank furnace has come 
 into use and enables melting pots to be 
 dispensed with, as the material can be — 
 melted in and worked from the furnace 
 directly. The use of the annealing fur- 
 nace, is also essential in glass-making, 
 the process of allowing the glass to cool 
 there being called annealing. Unless 
 this process be carefully managed, the 
 articles formed in the glass-house can be 
 of no use, from their liability to break 
 by the slightest scratch or change of 
 temperature. 
 
 GLASS-PAINTING, the art of produc- 
 ing pictures upon glass with colors that 
 are burned in, or by the use of pieces of 
 colored glass, in which the color forms 
 part of the composition of the glass itself. 
 Originally there was but one method of 
 making ornamental glass windows, 
 which was by the latter process: the 
 pieces of stained or colored glass were 
 cut to the desired shape, and let into the 
 grooves of finely-made leaden frames 
 which formed the pattern in outline, so 
 that the pictures resembled mosaic 
 work. In the 16th century, the enamel 
 colors having been discovered, a new 
 process came into vogue, the designs 
 being now painted on the glass and 
 burned in. At the present day the two 
 methods, or a combination of the two, 
 are chiefly employed, the mosaic-enamel 
 method being the most common, and 
 consisting of a combination of these 
 two. The chief seats of the art in Britain 
 are Birmingham and Edinburgh; in 
 France, Paris and Sevres; and in Ger- 
 many, Munich and Niirnberg. 
 
 GLASS PAPER, or CLOTH, is made by 
 strewing finely pounded glass on a sheet 
 of paper or cloth which has been be- 
 smeared with a coat of thin glue, the 
 glue being still wet. It is much used for 
 polishing metal and wood-work. 
 
GLAUBER 
 
 GLOW-WORM 
 
 GLAUBER, John Rudolph, a German 
 chemist, born in 1603 or 1604. He is 
 chiefly remembered for his discovery of 
 sulphate of soda or Glauber’s Salt, 
 which he termed sal mirable, in conse- 
 quence of his great faith in its medicinal 
 qualities. 
 
 GLAUBER’S SALT, sulphate of so- 
 dium, so called because^ of the impor- 
 tance attached to its chemical and medi- 
 cinal properties by Glauber. It forms 
 large colorless monoclinic prisms, which 
 effloresce on exposure to the air. It is 
 soluble in water, and when heated melts 
 in its water of crystallization. It is 
 found in many localities, both dissolved 
 in the water of mineral-springs and of 
 salt lakes, round which it effloresces. 
 
 GLAUCO'MA, in med. an almost in- 
 curable disease of the eye, in which the 
 ■eyeball becomes of stony hardness by 
 the accumulation of fluid within, and 
 the consequent increase of pressure 
 causes disorganization of all the tissues. 
 Loss of sight is sometimes very rapid. 
 Called also Glaucosis. 
 
 GLAZING, is the covering of earthen- 
 ware vess€)k-with a vitreous coating in 
 order to prevent their being penetrated 
 by fluids. The materials of common 
 glass would afford the most perfect glaz-' 
 ing were it not that a glazing of this sort 
 is liable to cracks when exposed to 
 changes of temperature. A mixture of 
 equal parts of oxide of lead and ground 
 flint is found to be a durable glaze for the 
 common cream-colored ware, and is 
 generally used for that purpose. See 
 Pottery. — 
 
 'glee, in music, a composition in 
 three or more parts, generally consisting 
 of more than one movement, the sub- 
 ject of which may vary greatly, from 
 grave to gay, etc. Instrumental accom- 
 paniment is illegitimate. 
 
 GLEIWITZ (glT'vits), a town, Prussia, 
 province of Silesia, on the Klodnitz. It 
 has an extensive government iron-works, 
 foundries, machine-works, glass-works. 
 Worsted and other mills, etc. Pop. 
 52,362. 
 
 GLENS FALLS, The, Warren co., N. 
 Y., on the Hudson river, between Sara- 
 toga Springs and Lake George, and on 
 the Delaware and Hudson canal .com- 
 pany’s railroad: 50 miles n. of Albany. 
 Pop. 15,109. 
 
 GLOBE, a sphere, a round solid body, 
 which may be conceived to be generated 
 by the revolution of a semicircle about 
 its diameter. An artificial globe, in 
 geography and astronomy, is a globe of 
 metal, plaster, paper, pasteboard, etc., 
 on the surface of which is drawn a map, 
 or representation of either the earth or 
 the heavens, with the several circles 
 which are conceived upon them, the 
 former being called the terrestrial globe 
 and the latter the celestial globe. In the 
 terrestrial globe the wire on which it 
 turns represents th.e earth’s axis, the 
 extremities of it representing the poles. 
 The brazen meridian is a ■i>'ertical circle 
 in 'v^iich the artificial globe turns, 
 divided into 360 degrees, each degree 
 being divided into minutes and seconds. 
 The brass meridian receives the ends of 
 the axis on which the globe revolves. 
 At right angles to this, and consequently 
 horizontal, is a broad ring of wood or 
 brass representing the horizon; that is. 
 
 ✓ 
 
 the true horizon of the earth which lies 
 in a plane containing the earth’s center. 
 The horizon and brass meridian are con- 
 nected with the stand on which the 
 whole is supported. On the surface of the 
 globe, as on other maps, are marked 
 
 The globe. 
 
 parallels of latitude, meridians, etc. On 
 a globe of some size the meridians are 
 drawn through every 15° of the equator, 
 each answering to an hour’s difference 
 of time between two places. Hence they 
 are called the hour circles. A number of 
 problems or questions, many of them 
 more curious than useful, may be solved 
 by means of a terrestrial globe. Among 
 the most important are such as to find 
 the latitude and longitude of a place, 
 the difference of time between two 
 places, the time of the sun’s rising and 
 setting for a given day at a given place, 
 etc. 
 
 GLOBE-FISH, the name given to 
 several fishes remarkable for possessing 
 the power of^uddenly assuming a glob- 
 
 Pennant’s globe-fish. 
 
 ular form by swallowing air or water, 
 which, passing into a ventral sac, in- 
 flates the whole animal like a balloon. 
 
 GLOB'ULIN, a substance forming a 
 considerable proportion of the blood 
 globules, and also occurring, mixed with 
 albumen, in the cells of the crystalline 
 lens of the eye. It resembles albumen. 
 
 GLORIA IN EXCELSIS DEO, “glory 
 to God in the highest,” the initial words 
 (sung by the angels when the birth of 
 Christ was announced to the shepherds) 
 of a short Latin hymn known as the 
 greater doxology, and used in the service 
 of many Christian churches. 
 
 GLORIA PATRI, “glory be to the 
 Father,” the initial words of a short 
 formula or h3nmn of praise to the Trinity 
 known as the lesser doxology. 
 
 GLORIO'SA, a genus of tuberous- 
 rooted climbing herbs of the nat. order 
 Liliaceae, so named from the splendid 
 appearance of its flowers. They have 
 branched stems and flowers mostly of a 
 
 beautiful red and yellow color, with si.x 
 long lanceolate undulated segments, 
 which are entirely reflexed. 
 
 GLOS'SARY, a limited or partial dic- 
 tionary, a vocabulary of words used by 
 any author, especially in an old author, 
 or one writing in a provincial dialect or 
 of words occurring in a special class of 
 works, of the technical terms of any art 
 or science, of a dialect, and the like. 
 
 GLOTTIS, the opening at the upper 
 part of the trachea or windpipe, and be- 
 tween the vocal chords, which, by its 
 dilatation and contraction, contributes 
 to the modification of the voice. 
 
 GLOUCESTER (glos'ter), a city, 
 county of itself, parliamentary borough, 
 and river port, England, capital of the 
 county of same name, on the left bank 
 of the Severn, here divided into two 
 channels inclosing the Isle of Alney and 
 crossed by two fine bridges, 33 miles 
 north by east of Bristol, and 95 miles 
 west by north of London. It carries on a 
 considerable shipping trade, the Glouces- 
 ter and Berkeley canal giving access to 
 the docks. Pop. 47,943. The count^Ts 
 bounded by the Severn, Monmouth, 
 Hereford, Worcester, Warwick, Oxford, 
 Berks, Wilts, and Somerset; area, 
 804,977 acres, of which five-sixths are 
 under crops and pasture. Pop. 634,666. 
 
 GLOUCESTER, a town and port of 
 Essex CO., Mass., near the extremity of 
 Cape Ann, 28 miles n.n.e. of Boston. It 
 is a popular summer resort ; and fisheries 
 and granite quarrying are the chief in- 
 dustries. About two miles distant is 
 Norman’s Woe, the scene of the wreck 
 of the “Hesperus” celebrated by Long- 
 fellow. Pop. 31,430. 
 
 G,LOVERSVILLE, a /town in Fulton 
 CO., New York, 44 miles n.w. of Albany. 
 Glove-making is the principal business, 
 hence the name of the place. Pop. 21,615 
 
 GLOVES, coverings for the hand, or 
 for the hand and wrist, with a sepa- 
 rate sheath for each finger. They are 
 made of leather, fur, cloth, silk, linen, 
 thread, cotton, worsted, etc. iThe chief 
 leathers used in glove manufacture are 
 doe, buck, and calf -skins; sheep-skin for 
 military gloves; lamb-skin for much of 
 the so-called kid gloves; true kid for 
 the best and finest gloves; dog, rat, and 
 kangaroo skins, etc. The leather in all 
 cases undergoes a much lighter dressing 
 than when used for boots and shoes. 
 Leather gloves are usually cut out by 
 means of dies, and sewed by a machine 
 of peculiar construction. The best 
 woolen, thread, and silk gloves are made 
 by cutting and sewing, but commoner 
 gloves are made by knitting and weav- 
 ing. Gloves are a very ancient article of 
 dress, and many curious customs and 
 usages are connected with them. Throw- 
 ing the glove down before a person 
 amounted to a challenge to single com- 
 bat. The judges in England used to be 
 prohibited wearing gloves on the bench; 
 and it was only in case of a maiden assize 
 that the sheriffs were allowed to present 
 a judge with a pair of gloves. 
 
 GLOW-WORM, an insect, the name 
 being strictly applicable only to the 
 female, which is without wings, some- 
 what resembles a caterpillar, and emits 
 a shining green light from the extremity 
 of the abdomen. The male is winged, and 
 flies about in the evening, when it is 
 
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 1 
 
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GLOXINIA 
 
 GNEISS 
 
 attracted by the light of the female, out 
 gives out no light itself. It would seem 
 that the glow-worm possesses the power 
 of moderating or increasing the light at 
 will. Decapitated specimens retain their 
 
 Glow-worm. 
 
 1, Male. 2, Female, upper side. 3, Female, 
 under side, showing the three posterior seg- 
 ments (a) from which the light proceeds. 
 
 power of giving out light for a consider- 
 able time. In pure oxygen, warm water, 
 or when crushed, the light of the lumin- 
 ous organs is increased in intensity. The 
 larvte are very .voracious, living on 
 snails, which they attack and kill. 
 
 GLOXIN'IA, a genus of plants, distin- 
 guished by the corolla approaching to 
 bell-shaped, the upper lip shortest and 
 
 Gloxinias. 
 
 two-lobed, the^ower three-lobed, with 
 the middle lobe largest, and also by the 
 summit of the style being rounded and 
 hollowed. The species are natives of 
 tropical America,. 
 
 GLUCK (gluk), Christoph Wilibald, 
 Ritter von, German musical composer, 
 born in Bavaria in 1714; died at Vienna 
 1787. In 1740 he was employed to com- 
 pose an opera for the court theater of 
 Milan. The text chosen for him was the 
 Artaxerxes of Metastasio, and the opera 
 was a triumph, in spite of the innova- 
 tions of style which the author intro- 
 duced. In 1742 he wrote Demofoonte for 
 Milan; Demetrio and Ipermnestra for 
 Venice; in 1743 Artamene for Cremona, 
 and Siface for Milan; in 1744 Fedra for 
 the same theater; and in 1745 Allessan- 
 dro neir Indie for Turin, all founded on 
 classical subjects. Invited to London, he 
 produced La Caduta de Giganti (Fall of 
 the Giants), which was not a success. 
 In London Gluck became deeply im- 
 pressed with the majestic character of 
 Handel’s airs and choruses. The Trionfo 
 di Clelia (1762) was the last of his operas 
 in his first style. The composer found a 
 poet in the person of Raniero Calzabigi, 
 who sympathized with him in his ideas, 
 and the result of their co-operation was 
 the Orfeo ed Euridice, performed pub- 
 licly for the first time in 1762. This 
 opera marked a new era. The fame it 
 acquired at once it never lost. Various 
 works of lighter character filled up the 
 interval between this year and 1766, 
 when his second great opera of Alceste 
 was produced, which raised public feel- 
 ing to the point of enthusiam. A French- 
 
 man of culture and genius, Bailly du 
 Rollet, adapted Racine’s Iphigenie en 
 Aulide for musical treatment, and after 
 a considerable amount of opposRion 
 from the musical critics of the old Italian 
 and- French school, at that time rep- 
 resented in Paris by Paccini, the piece 
 was brought out in 1774. The intensest 
 excitement prevailed; all Paris took 
 sides, and for a long time the Gluckists 
 and Piccinists contended with much 
 bitterness, but ultimately the victory 
 remained with the Gluckists. Shortly 
 after the production of the Iphigenie, the 
 Orfeo was adapted for ancf put on the 
 French stage, and was followed by the 
 Armide in 1777, by the Iphig6nie en 
 Tauride in 1779, Gluck’s last important 
 work, and by many considered his 
 greatest. It ends the series of works 
 which gave a direction to the operatic 
 genius of M4hul and Cherubini in Francte, 
 and of Mozart and Beethoven in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 GLU'COSE, a variety of sugar, less 
 sweet than cane-sugar, existing in 
 grapes, and produced from cane-sugar, 
 starch, dextrin, cellylose, etc., by the 
 action of acids, certain ferments, and 
 other reagents. There are two varieties 
 of it, distinguished by their action on 
 polarized light, viz. dextro-glucose 
 .which turns the plane of polarization to 
 the right and laevo-glucose, which turns 
 it to the left. When heated up to 400° 
 it becomes caramel, and is used by cooks 
 and confectioners as a coloring matter. 
 It is called also grape-sugar and starch- 
 sugar, and is produced both in the solid 
 and in the liquid form, its manufacture 
 being now of considerable importance. 
 In the United States the liquid sugar, as 
 prepared from Indian corn starch, is what 
 is generally known as glucose, and it is 
 used for various purposes, as for con- 
 fectionery, canning fruits, rhaking artifi- 
 cial Roney, for table syrup, in brewing, 
 
 GLU'COSIDES, a large class of sub- 
 stances occurring in animal or vegetable 
 products, possessing the common prop- 
 erty of yielding glucose and other prod- 
 ucts when they are boiled with dilute 
 acids, or are acted on by certain fer- 
 ments. 
 
 GLUE, a gelatinous substance ob- 
 tained from different tissues of animals, 
 and used as a cement for uniting pieces 
 of wood or other material. The best 
 quality is obtained from fresh bones, 
 freed from fat by previous boiling, the 
 clippings and parings of ox-hides, the 
 older skins being preferred; but large 
 quantities are also got from the skins of 
 sheep, calves, cows, hares, dogs, cats, 
 etc., from the refuse of tanneries and 
 tawing works, from old gloves, from 
 .sinews, tendons, and other offal of ani- 
 mal origin. By a process of cleaning 
 and boiling the albuminoid elements of 
 the animal matter are changed into 
 gelatine. This in a soft jelly-like state 
 constitutes size; dried into hard, brittle, 
 glassy cakes, which before use must be 
 melted in hot water, it forms the well- 
 known glue of the joiner, etc. When a 
 solution is mixed with acetic or nitric 
 acid it remains liquid, but still retains 
 its power of cementing; in this state it is 
 called liquid glue. Marine glue is a 
 cement made by dissolving india-rubber 
 
 in oil of turpentine or coal-naptha, to 
 which an equal quantity of shellac is 
 added. 
 
 GLUTEN, a tough elastic substance of 
 a grayish color, which becomes brown 
 and brittle by drying, found in the flour 
 of wheat and other grain. It contributes 
 much to the nutritive quality of flour, and 
 gives tenacity to its paste. A 'similar 
 substance, is found in the juices of cer- 
 tain plants. 
 
 GLUTTON, a carnivorous quadruped, 
 about the size of a large badger, and 
 intermediate between the bear family 
 and the weasels, resembling the former 
 family in general structure and the 
 latter in dentition. It inhabits Northern 
 Europe and America, and is known also 
 by the name of wolverene or wolverine. 
 
 GLYCERINE, a transparent colorless 
 liquid, obtained from the by-products 
 of candle and soap factories by saponi- 
 fication with alkalies or by the action of 
 superheated steam. It sometimes solid- 
 ifies at a low temperature to a crystal- 
 line mass. It absorbs moisture from 
 the air, and dissolves in or mixes with 
 water and alcohol in all proportions, 
 but is insoluble in ether. It is the start- 
 ing-point of certain valuable chemical 
 products, one of the chief of which is 
 nitro-glycerine. 
 
 GLY'CON, an Athenian sculptor 
 known by his colossal marble statue of 
 Hercules, commonly called the “Farnese 
 Hercules,” now in the museum at Naples. 
 He probably lived in the 1st century 
 
 B.C. 
 
 GLYP'TODON, a gigantic fossil eden- 
 tate animal, closely allied to the arma- 
 dilloes, found in the upper tertiary 
 
 Glyptodon. 
 
 strata of South America. It was of the 
 size of an ox, and was protected by a 
 coat of mail formed of polygonal osseous 
 plates united by sutures. 
 
 GNAT, the name applied to several 
 species of insects. The common gnat is of 
 wide geographical distribution, and is 
 noted for its power of inflicting irritating 
 wounds. The female deposits her eggs 
 on the surface of stagnant water in a 
 long mass. After having remained in the 
 larva state for about twenty days, they 
 are transformed into chrysalids, in 
 which all the limbs of the perfect insect 
 are distinguishable, through the dia- 
 phanous robe with which they are then 
 shrouded. After remaining three or four 
 days wrapped up in this manner, they 
 become perfect insects. The trouble- 
 some mosquito belongs to the same 
 genus. 
 
 GNEISS (nis), a species of rock, com- 
 posed of quartz, felspar, and mica, ar- 
 ranged in layers. The layers, whether 
 straight or curved, are frequently thick, 
 but often vary considerably in the same 
 specimen. Gneiss passes on one side 
 into granite, from which it differs in its 
 foliated structure, and on the other into 
 mica slate. It is rich in metallic ores, 
 
GNOME 
 
 GOD 
 
 gold, silver, cobalt, antimony, copper, 
 iron, etc., occurringin this rock, but it con- 
 tains no fossil remains. In the United 
 States gneiss is a common rock, espe- 
 cially in New England and the eastern 
 and southern parts of New York. 
 
 GNOME (nom), a short, pithy saying, 
 often expressed in figurative language, 
 containing a reflection, a practical ob- 
 servation, or a moral maxim. Amongthe 
 Greeks Theognis, Phocylides, and others 
 are called the gnomic poets, from their 
 sententious manner of writing. 
 
 GNOME (nom), in the cabalistic and 
 mediaeval mythology, the name given 
 to the spirits which dwell in the interior 
 of the earth, where they watch over 
 mines, quarries, and hidden treasures. 
 They assume a variety of forms, but are 
 generally grotesque dwarfs, ugliness be- 
 ing their appropriate quality, though the 
 females, gnomides, are originally beau- 
 tiful. 
 
 GNOSTICS (nos'tiks), a general name 
 applied to early schools of speculators, 
 which combined the fantastic notions 
 of the oriental systems of religion with 
 the ideas of the Greek philosophers and 
 the doctrines of Christianity. They 
 nearly all agreed on the points that God 
 is incomprehensible; that matter is 
 eternal and antagonistic to God; that 
 creation is the work of the Demiurge, an 
 emanation from the Supreme lleity, 
 subordinate or opposed to God; and that 
 the human nature of Christ was a mere 
 deceptive appearance. Certain forms of 
 Gnosticism are mere adaptations of the 
 Persian dualism to the solution of the 
 problem of good and evil; while the 
 pantheism of India seems to have been a 
 pervading influence in others. Simon 
 the magician (Simon Magus), of whom 
 Luke speaks in the Acts of the Apostles, 
 is generally looked on as the first of the 
 Gnostics. There have been no Gnostic 
 sects since the 5th century ; but many of 
 the principles of their system of emana- 
 tions reappear in later philosophical sys- 
 tems, drawn from the same sources as 
 theirs. 
 
 GNU, the wildebeeste of the colonists, 
 the name given to two species of South 
 African antelope. The former species is 
 now rarely found south of the Vaal; its 
 form partakes of that of the antelope, 
 ox, or horse. Both sexes have horns 
 
 Common or white-tailed gnu. 
 
 projecting slightly outward and down- 
 ward, then forming an abrupt upward 
 bend. They have bristly black hair 
 about the face and muzzle, a white stiff 
 mane, and horse-like tail. They attain a 
 length of about nine feet, and stand 
 about four feet high at the shoulder. 
 They live in herds; are said to be fierce 
 
 when attacked, but when taken young 
 have been found to be eaffable of domes- 
 tication. The brindled gnu is larger than 
 the common gnu, has black stripes on 
 the neck and shoulders, and a black tail. 
 Both species wheel in a circle once or 
 twice before setting off when alarmed. 
 
 GOA, a city in Hindustan, on the 
 Malabar coast, capital of the Portuguese 
 territory of the same name. The name 
 is applied to two distinct places, namely. 
 Old Goa, and New Goa or Panjim. The 
 former was once the chief emporium of 
 commerce between the East and West, 
 and had a population of 200,000, but it 
 is now nearly deserted, though some 
 pains are taken to keep the ancient 
 churches and convents in repair. New 
 Gog, or Panjim was chosen as the resi- 
 dence of the Portuguese viceroy in 
 1759; and in 1843 it was made the capi- 
 tal of Portuguese India. The trade of 
 Goa, at one time the most extensive of 
 any place in India, is now inconsidera- 
 ble. Pop. 844-0. The territory around 
 Goa belonging to the Portuguese has an 
 area of 1062 sq. miles. It is well watered 
 and fertile. About two-thirds of the 
 total population, numbering 494,836, 
 are the descendants of Hindus converted 
 to Christianity on the subjugation of 
 the country by the Portuguese. 
 
 GOALPA'RA, a district of British 
 India, prov. of Assam; area 3897 sq. 
 miles: pop. 452,304. 
 
 GOAT, a well-known horned ruminant 
 quadruped. The horns are hollow, erect, 
 turned backward^ annular on the sur- 
 face, and scabrous. The male is generally 
 
 bearded under the chin. Goats are 
 nearly of the size of sheep, but stronger, 
 less timid, and more agile. They fre- 
 quent rocks and mountains, and subsist 
 on scanty coarse food. Their milk is 
 sweet, nourishing, and medicinal, and 
 their flesh furnishes food. Goats are of 
 almost interminable variety, and it is 
 not certainly known from which the 
 dohiestic goat is descended, though 
 opinion favors the wild goat of Western 
 Asia. Goats are generally subdivided 
 into ibexes and goats proper. They are 
 found in all parts of the world, and many 
 varieties are valued for their hair or 
 wool. The skin is prepared for a variety 
 of purposes, and yields the leather well 
 known under the name of morocco. The 
 cashmere goat, as its name indicates, is 
 a native of Cashmere; it is smaller than 
 the common domestic goat, and has long 
 silky, fine hair. The angora goat is also 
 furnished with soft silky hair of a silver 
 white color, hanging down in curling 
 locks 8 or 9 inches long. Its horns are in 
 a spiral form, and extand laterally. 
 
 GOATSUCKER, a name common to 
 certain birds, as also to all belonging to 
 the same family from the erroneous 
 opinion that they suck goats. The Euro- 
 pean goatsucker feeds upon nocturnal 
 insects, as moths, gnats, beetles, etc., 
 which it catches on the wing, flying with 
 its mouth open. Its mouth is compara- 
 
 Goatsucker. 
 
 tively large, and lined on the inside with 
 a glutinous substance to prevent the 
 escape of those insects which fly into it. 
 It has a light, soft plumage, minutely 
 mottled with gray and brown, and is 
 about 10 inches in length. The Ameri- 
 can chuckwill’s widow, whip-poor-will, 
 and night-hawk belong to the same 
 family. 
 
 GOBELINS (gob-lan), MANUFAC- 
 TORY, a tapestry manufactory at Paris, 
 established by Colbert in 1667, on the 
 site of a previously existing manufac- 
 tory which had been set up by Gilles 
 Gobelin, a celebrated dyer in the reign 
 of Francis I. Colbert collected into it 
 the ablest workmen in the divers arts 
 and manufactures connected with house 
 decoration and upholstery. The Gobe- 
 lins has since then continued to be the 
 first manufactory of the kind in the 
 world, Many celebrated paintings of the 
 old Italitan, French, and Spanish schools 
 have, in the most ingenious manner, 
 been transferred to tapestry. 
 
 GOBI, Desert of, the Shamo or “sand- 
 sea” of the Chinese, an immense tract 
 of desert country, occupying nearly the 
 center of the high table-land of Eastern 
 Asia, between lat. 37° and 48° n., and 
 long. 95° and 118°e., and extending over 
 a large portion of the Chinese territory 
 of Mongolia. Its length is probably 
 about 1000 miles; mean breadth, be- 
 tween 350 and 400 miles; area, 360,000 
 sq. miles. Its general elevation is over 
 4000 feet above sea-level. 
 
 GOD, the self-existent, eternal, and 
 Supreme Being, the creator and up- 
 holder of the universe, worshiped by 
 most civilized nations. The Christian 
 God is an infinite and absolute being; a 
 perfect personal spirit; eternal; immut- 
 able; omniscient; omnipotent; and per- 
 fectly good, true, and righteous. The 
 arguments for the existence of God have 
 been divided into the ontological, the 
 cosmological, the psychological, the 
 physico-teleological, and the moral. The 
 ontological argument starts from the 
 idea of God itself, and professes to 
 demonstrate the existence of God as a 
 necessary consequence from that idea. 
 This form of argument is, in some shape 
 or other, a very old one^ but was first 
 
GODAVARI 
 
 GOETHE 
 
 fully developed and applied by Anselm 
 in the 11th century. The manner in 
 which it was stated by Anselm is this: 
 “God must be thought of as that being 
 than whom none can be thought greater; 
 but this being the highest and most per- 
 fect that we can conceive, may be thought 
 as existing in actuality as well as in 
 thought — that is to say, may be thought 
 as something still greater; therefore, 
 God, or what is thought as greatest, must 
 exist not only in thought but in fact.” 
 This argument has been presented in 
 other forms. Descartes, while refuting 
 Anselm’s form of the ontological argu- 
 ment, revived it himself in another form. 
 Applying the test of truth which he 
 derived from his celebrated formula — 
 “I think, therefore I am,” that whatever 
 we clearly and distinctly perceive to be- 
 long to the true and unalterable nature 
 of a thing may be predicated of it, he 
 found on investigating God that exist- 
 ence belongs to his true and unalterable 
 nature, and therefore may legitimately 
 be predicated of him. Another argument 
 was adduced by Descartes to prove the 
 existence of God, which, although not 
 the same with the ontological argument, 
 appears to resemble it. It is called the 
 psychological argument. Like the onta- 
 logical argument, it starts from the idea 
 of a supreme and perfect being, but it 
 does not assert the objective existence 
 of that being as implied in its idea, but 
 infers such objective existence on the 
 ground that we could have acquired the 
 idea only from the being which corres- 
 ponds to it. The cosmological argument 
 starts not from an idea, but from a con- 
 tingent existence, and infers from it an 
 absolutely necessary being as its cause. 
 Stated syllogistically the argument is: 
 Every new thing and every change in a 
 previously existing thing must have a 
 cause sufficient and pre-existing. The 
 universe consists, of a system of changes. 
 Therefore the universe must have a 
 cause exterior and anterior to itself. 
 The argument called the physico- 
 teleological is that which is commonly 
 known as the argument from design, 
 M'hich has been so fully illustrated by 
 Paley in his Natural Theology. It is 
 simply this, that in nature there are 
 unmistakable evidences of the adapta- 
 tion of means to ends, which lead us 
 inevitably to the idea of one that planned 
 this adaptation, that is, of God. The 
 moral argument is derived from the 
 constitution and history of man and his 
 relations to the universe, being based on 
 such considerations as our recognition of 
 good and evil, right and wrong, the 
 monitions of conscience, and the fact 
 that a moral government of the world 
 may be observed. Another argument 
 is based on the (alleged) fact that a be- 
 lief in the existence of a Supreme Being 
 is everywhere found to be implanted in 
 the breast of man. This argument is 
 used among others by Cicero, and many 
 thinkers are inclined to give a good deal 
 of weight to it; still it is pronounced by 
 others to be at best only a probable 
 argument, if it may be accepted as valid 
 to prove anything at all. Others argue 
 the existence of God from the manifesta- 
 tions which he has made of himself to 
 .men, hut these, as well as miracles, it is 
 admitted even by Christians theists. 
 
 can only be accepted as real by such as 
 previously believed in the divine exist- 
 ence. 
 
 GODA'VARI, a large river of Central 
 India, which rises about 50 miles from 
 the shores of the Indian Ocean, flows 
 across the Deccan from the Western to 
 the Eastern Ghats in a general south- 
 easterly direction, and being joined by 
 several affluents, falls by three principal 
 mouths into the Bay of Bengal, after a 
 course of 900 miles. Before the river 
 divides there are three great obstacles 
 to navigation, caused by three rocky 
 barriers. — Godavari is also the name of 
 a British district of the Madras Presi- 
 dency; area, 7857 sq. miles; pop. 2,078,- 
 782. Coringa and Coconada are its chief 
 ports. 
 
 GODFREY OF BOUILLON, leader of 
 the first crusade, son of Eustace II., 
 count of Boulogne, born near Nivelles, 
 1061; died at Jerusalem, 1100. He dis- 
 tinguished himself while fighting for the 
 Emperor Henry IV. in Germany and 
 Italy, and was made Duke of Bouillon. In 
 order to expiate his sin of fighting against 
 the jmpe, he took the cross for the 
 Holy Land in 1095, and led 80,000 men 
 to the East by way of Constantinople. 
 The defeat of the Egyptians at Ascalon 
 placed him in possession of all the Holy 
 Land, excepting two or three places. 
 Godfrey now turned his attention to 
 the organization of his newly-estab- 
 lished government, and promulgated a 
 code of feudal laws called the Assize of 
 Jerusalem. Godfrey was a favorite sub- 
 ject of mediaeval poetry, and is the 
 central figure of Tasso’s “Jerusalem 
 Delivered.” 
 
 GODI'VA, the wife of Leofric, Earl of 
 Mercia and lord of Coventry in the 
 reign of Edward the Confessor, heroine 
 of a celebrated tradition. In 1040 cer- 
 tain exactions imposed on the inhabi- 
 tants bore heavily on them, and Godiva 
 interceded for their relief. Leofric, how- 
 ever, only laughed at her, and when she 
 persisted in her entreaties at last said 
 to her, half jocularly, that he would 
 grant her request if she would ride 
 naked through the town of Coventry. 
 Godiva took her husband at his word, 
 proclaimed that on a certain day no 
 one should leave his house before noon, 
 that all windows and other apertures 
 in the houses should be closed, and that 
 no one should even look out until noon 
 was past. She then mounted naked on 
 her palfrey, rode through the town, and 
 returned; and Leofric, in fulfillment of 
 his promise, freed the inhabitants from 
 the burdens he. had imposed on them. 
 Only one person, “Peeping Tom,” the 
 story says, attempted to look out, and 
 he was immediately struck blind. A 
 yearly pageant, in which a young woman 
 enacted the part of Godiva, was long 
 kept up at Coventry, and still occasion- 
 ally takes place. 'Tennyson’s poem on 
 Godiva is well known. 
 
 GOD'KIN, Edward Lawrence, Ameri- 
 can editor, was born in Moyne, County 
 Wicklow, Ireland, in 1831. In 185.6 he 
 came to the United States, where he read 
 law under David D. Field, was admitted 
 to the bar in 1859. In 1865 he estab- 
 lished and became the editor of the Na- 
 tion. In 1881 the Nation wasmerged with 
 the Evening Post, of which it became 
 
 the weekly edition, and was thereaftei 
 editor and proprietor of the combined 
 publications. His editorials in the 
 Nation from the first influenced in 
 manifold ways the best thought of the 
 time, and he made the Evening Post, 
 of which he became editor-in-chief in 
 1883, the leading independent American 
 daily. He died in 1902. 
 
 GODWIN, Earl of Wessex, an Anglo- 
 Saxon noble, born about 990; died 1052. 
 In 1018 he was created an earl by 
 Canute, and married the king’s niece 
 Gytha. During the reign of Edward the 
 Confessor, who married Godwin’s daugh- 
 ter, a quarrel arose between Godwiri and 
 the king, occasioned by the partiality 
 of Edward for Norman favorites, and 
 Godwin was compelled to quit the king- 
 dom. In 1052, however, he returned 
 with an army, forced Edward to enter 
 into negotiations with him, re-estab- 
 lished himself triumphantly in his old 
 supremacy, and caused the expulsion 
 from the kingdom of most of the Nor- 
 man intruders. He was the father of 
 Harold, the last Anglo-Saxon king. 
 
 GOE'THE (geu'te), Johann Wolfgang 
 von, the greatest figure in German 
 literature, was born August 28, 1749, 
 at Frankfort-on-the-Main, died at Wei- 
 mar, March 22, 1832. He was sent to 
 the University of Leipzig to prepare 
 himself for the legal profession, but he 
 did not follow any regular course of 
 studies. Goethe began at this period 
 what he practiced throixghout his life, 
 to embody in a poem, or in a poetical 
 form, whatever occupied his mind in- 
 tensely; and no one, perhaps, was ever 
 more in need of such an exercise, as his 
 nature continually hurried him from 
 one extreme to another. In 1768 he 
 left Leipzig, and after an illness of some 
 length went in 1770 to the University 
 of Strasburg, to pursue the study of 
 law, according to the wish of his father. 
 In 1771 he took the degree of doctor 
 of jurisprudence, and wrote a disserta- 
 tion on a legal subject. He then went 
 to Wetzlar to practice law, where he 
 found, in his OAvn love for a betrothed 
 lady, and in the fate of a young man 
 named Jerusalem, the subjects for his 
 striking work. The Sorrows of Werther, 
 which formed an epoch in German 
 literature. The attention of the public 
 had already been attracted to him, 
 however, by his drama Gotz von Ber- 
 lichingen (published 1773L Werther 
 appeared in 1774. Not long after the 
 publication of Werther, Charles Augus- 
 tus, the hereditary duke of Saxe- 
 Weimar, made the acquaintance of 
 Goethe on a jjurney, and when in 1775 
 he took the government into his own 
 hands, he invited Goethe to his court. 
 Goethe accepted the invitation, and on 
 the 7th of November, 1775, arrived at 
 Weimar.. In 1776 he was made privy- 
 councillor of legation, with a seat and 
 vote in the privy-council. In 1782 he 
 was made president of the chamber, and 
 ennobled. In 1786 he made a journey 
 to Italy, where he remained two years, 
 visited Sicily, and remained a long time 
 in Rome. This residence in Italy had 
 the effect of still further developing his 
 artistic powers. Here his Iphigenia was 
 matured, Egmont finished, and Tasso 
 projected. The first of these was pub- 
 
GOG AND MAGOG 
 
 GOLDEN AGE 
 
 lished in 1787, the second in 1788, and 
 the third in 1790. In the same jmar with 
 Tasso was published the earliest form 
 of the first part of Faust, with the title 
 Dr. Faust, ein Trauerspiel (Dr. Faust, 
 a Tragedy), a poem in a dramatic form, 
 which belongs rather to Goethe’s whole 
 life than to any particular period of it. 
 In 1794-96 Goethe published Wilhelm 
 Meister’s Lehrjahre (Wilhelm Meister’s 
 Apprenticeship), a novel which has be- 
 come well known to English readers 
 through the translation of Carlyle, and 
 which had as a continuation Wilhelm 
 Meister’s Wanderjahre (that is, his 
 travels as a journeyman; 1821). His next 
 work of importance was Hermann und 
 Dorothea (1797), a narrative poem, in 
 hexameter verse, the characters of 
 which are taken from humble life. In 
 1806 Goethe married- Christiane Vul- 
 pius, with whom he had lived since 1788, 
 and of whom he always spoke with 
 warmth and gratitude for tb^ degree 
 in which sue had contributed to his 
 domestic happiness. In 1808 he pub- 
 lished another edition of Faust in a 
 considerably altered form. In 1809 was 
 published Elective Affinities. In 1811-14 
 appeared Goethe’s autobiography, in 
 1819 the Westostlicher Divan, a remark- 
 able collection of oriental songs and 
 poems. Goethe’s last work was the 
 second part of Faust, which was com- 
 pleted on the evening before the last 
 anniversary of his birthday which he 
 lived to see. ' 
 
 ' GOG AND MAGOG, Ezekiel predicts 
 the destruction of Gog and Magog (ch. 
 xxxviii and xxxix,) by the Jews, and 
 mention is also made of them in Revela- 
 tion (ch. XX.). Interpreters generally 
 understand them to be symbolical ex- 
 pressions for the heathen nations of 
 Asia. Magog is mentioned as the second 
 son of Japheth in Genesis (ch. x, 2). 
 Gog and Magog are also the names given 
 to two reputed giants of early British 
 history, whose statues are erected in the 
 Guildhall in London. These statues are 
 supposed to have been originally made 
 for carrying about in pageants. The 
 present figures of Gog and Magog, which 
 are 14 feet high, were erected in 1708. 
 
 GOGAL, Nikolai Vassiljevich, Russian 
 author, born in the province of Poltava 
 1809, died in 1852. Among his most 
 notable works are — Evenings at the 
 Farm (1832); Mirgorod, a collection of 
 Tales (1834); the Dead Souls (1842), a 
 satirical novel, depicting the public 
 abuses and barbarism of manners prev- 
 alent in the provinces and Revisor, a 
 comedy. His later years were tinged 
 with religious mysticisnj, and he wrote 
 some curious Confessions. 
 
 GOITRE (goi'ter),orBRONCHOCELE, 
 a disease endemioin Derbyshire, Switzer- 
 land, some parts of France and South 
 America, and in many other parts of 
 the world , chiefly in valleys and elevated 
 plains in mountainous districts. It is a 
 morbid enlargement of the thyroid 
 gland, forming a soft and more or less 
 mobile tumor or swelling, without any 
 sign of inflammation, on the anterior 
 part of the neck. It sometimes grows to 
 such a size as to hang down over the 
 breast, and respiration and swallowing 
 may be impeded by it, though often it 
 causes little inconvenience. It is re- 
 
 { 
 
 garded as the result of a combination of 
 causes, among which malarial influences 
 probably concur with those of the drink- 
 ing water in developing the disease. 
 
 A female affected with goitre. 
 
 GOLD, a precious metal of a bright 
 yellow color, and the most ductile and 
 malleable of all the metals; symbol Au 
 (Lat. aurum); atomic weight, 196. It is 
 one of the heaviest of the metals, and 
 ■not being liable to be injured by ex- 
 posure to the air, is well fitted for coin 
 and jewerly. Its ductility and malle- 
 ability are very remarkable. It may be 
 beaten into leaves so exceedingly thin 
 that 1 grain in weight will cover 56 
 square inches, such leaves having the 
 thickness of only ^^VfFTfth part of an 
 inch. It is also extremely ductile; a 
 single grain may be drawn into a wire 
 500 feet long, and ah ounce of gold 
 covering a silver wire is capable of be- 
 ing extended upward of 1300 miles. 
 It may also be melted and remelted with 
 scarcely any diminution of its quantity. 
 It is soluble in nitro-muriatic acid or 
 aquatzegia, and in a solution of chlorine. 
 Its specific gravity is 19'3, or it is about 
 nineteen times heavier than water. The 
 fineness of gold is estimated by carats, 
 pure gold being 24 carats fine. Jeweler’s 
 gold is usually a mixture of gold and 
 copper in the proportions of three- 
 fourths of pure gold with one-fourth of 
 copper. Gold is seldom used for any 
 purpose in a state of perfect purity on 
 account of its softness, but is combined 
 with softie other metal to render it 
 harder. Articles of jewelry in gold are 
 made of every degree of fineness up to 
 18 carats, i. e. 18 parts of gold to 6 of 
 alloy. The alloy of gold and silver is 
 found already formed in nature, and 
 is that most generally known. It is dis- 
 tinguishable from that of copper by 
 possessing a paler yellow than pure 
 gold, while the copper alloy has a color 
 bordering upon reddish yellow. Palla- 
 dium, rhodium and tellurium are also 
 met with as alloys of gold. 
 
 Gold has been found in smaller or 
 larger quantities in nearly all parts of 
 the world. It is commonly found in 
 rfeefs or veins among quartz, and in 
 alluvial deposits. It is separated, in the 
 former case, by quarrying, crushing, 
 washing, and treatment with mercury. 
 The rock is crushed by machinery, and 
 then treated with mercury, which dis- 
 solves the gold, forming a liquid amal- 
 gam, after which the mercury is volatil- 
 ized and the gold left behind. Other 
 processes are also in use. In alluvial 
 deposits it is extracted by washing, in 
 dust, grains, laminae, or nuggets. Previ- 
 ous To the use of water, crushing may 
 have to be employed. In modern times 
 large supplies of gold were obtained after 
 the discovery of America from Peru, 
 
 Bolivia, and other parts of the New 
 World.- A chief source of the supply has 
 long been the Ural Mountains, whence 
 gold is still obtained. An immense in- 
 crease in the world’s production was 
 caused by the disco\'ery of gold in Cali- 
 fornia in 1848, and Australia in 1851. 
 Goldmines are also extensively worked 
 in New Zealand, and considerable quan- 
 tities of the precious metal have been 
 obtained in British Columbia, and else- 
 where in Canada. In the United States, 
 apart from California, gold in consider- 
 able quantities is found in several states 
 and territories (especially Colorado). 
 The production of both Australia ^nd 
 America has shown much fluctuation in 
 recent years, and lattejtly a very rich 
 source of supply has been discovered in 
 South Africa (the Transvaal). It is only 
 since 1886 that the Transvaal has risen 
 into importance as a gold-producing 
 country, the chief locality .where the 
 metal is mined being the Witwatersrand. 
 There are also gold-mines in India that 
 are worked with great success. In 
 Western Australia also many mines 
 have recently been opened (Coolgardie 
 being the chief center), and the Yukon 
 district of Canada (Klondike) is now 
 a recognized gold-field. British Guiana 
 also begins to promise well as a gold- 
 yielding country. Gold has been found 
 in various parts of the United Kingdom, 
 as in Sutherlandshire, the Wicklow 
 hills, and many places in Wales. The 
 total value of the gold produced through- 
 out the world, from 1493 to 1850, is 
 estimated at $3,314,500,000 and from 
 1851 to 1885, at $4,452,500,000. In 
 1887 the world’s productiocr'was esti- ' 
 mated at $110,000,000; in 1898 at about 
 300,000,000; in 1906, $400,245,300. 
 
 Enormous quantities of gold are con- 
 sumed in the arts and are lost by wear 
 of coin and jewelry. 
 
 GOLD-BEATING, the art or process of 
 producing the extremely thin leaves of 
 gold used in gilding, etc. The gold is cast 
 into ingots weighing about 2 oz. each, 
 and measuring about J of an inch broad. 
 These ingots are passed between steel 
 rollers till they form long ribbons of 
 such thinness that a square inch will 
 weigh 6| grains. Each one of these is 
 now cut into 150 pieces, each of which is 
 beaten on an anvil till it is about an 
 inch square. These 150 plates are inter- 
 laid with pieces of fine vellum about 4 
 inches square, and beaten till the gold 
 is extended nearly to the size of the 
 vellum leaves. Each leaf is then divided 
 into four, interlaid with gold-beater’s 
 skin, and beaten out to the dimensions 
 of the skin. Another similar division 
 and beating finishes the operation, after 
 which the eaves are placed in paper 
 books ready for use. 
 
 GOLD COAST, a British crown-colony 
 in West Africa, on the Guinea coast,., 
 extending from 3° 30' w. to 1° 30' e. . 
 Ion., between Germany Togoland and 
 the French Ivory Coast, and stretching 
 inland so as to include the Ashantee 
 country; estimated area, 75,000 sq. 
 miles. Pop. 1,486,000. 
 
 GOLDEN AGE, that early mythologi- 
 cal period in the history of almost all 
 races, fabled to have been one of prime- 
 val innocence and enjo 3 Tnent, in which 
 the earth was common property, and 
 
GOLDEN BEETLE 
 
 / 
 
 GONDOLA 
 
 brought forth spontaneously all things 
 necessary for happy existence, while 
 beasts of prey lived at peace with other 
 animals. The Romans referred this time 
 to the reign of Saturn. The so-called 
 “golden age” of Roman literature is 
 reckoned from the time of Livius An- 
 dronicus, 250 n.c., to the death of 
 Augustus Ctesar, a.d. 14. 
 
 GOLDEN-BEETLE, the popular name 
 of several beetles. There are some 
 British species, most are tropical. Their 
 most obvious characteristic is the great 
 brilliancy of their color. There are none 
 of large size.. 
 
 GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN, Golden- 
 crested Regulus, or Kinglet, a beautiful 
 bird distinguished by an orange crest. 
 It is the smallest of Ilritish birds, being 
 only about indies in length, is very 
 agile, and almost continually in motion. 
 The eggs are nine or ten in number. 
 
 GOLDEN FLEECE, in classical myth, 
 the' fleece of gold in quest of which 
 Jason undept<iok the Argonautic ex- 
 pedition to Coldiis. The fleece was sus- 
 pended in an oak tree in the grove of 
 Ares (Mars), and was guarded by a 
 dragon. When the Argonauts came to 
 Colchis for the fleece, Medea put the 
 dragon to sleep and Jason carried the 
 fleece away. 
 
 GOLDEN FLEECE, Order of the, the 
 Toison d’or, a military order instituted 
 by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, 
 in 1429, on the occasion of his marriage 
 with the Portuguese princess, Isabella. 
 The order now belongs to both Austria 
 and Spain. The knights carry suspended 
 from their collars the figure of a sheep 
 or fleece in gold. 
 
 GOLDEN HORN, the harbor of Con- 
 stantinople, an inlet of the Bosphorus, so 
 called from its shape and beauty. 
 
 GOLDEN-ROD, is a genus of plants, 
 chiefly natives of North America. Most 
 of the species have erect, rod-like, 
 scarcely-branched stems, with alternate 
 serrated leaves, and terminal spikes or 
 racemes of small yellow flowers. 
 
 GOLDFINCH, a bird belonging to the 
 Finch family. It is about five inches in 
 entire length, black, scarlet, yellow and 
 white being beautifully mingled in its 
 
 The common goldfinch. 
 
 plumage. The colors of the female are 
 duller than those of the male. Its bril- 
 liant plumage, soft and pleasant song 
 and docility make it a favorite cage- 
 bird. Gold-finches feed on various kinds 
 of seeds, particularly those of the thistle, 
 dandelion, and groundsel. 
 
 GOLDFISH, the name of a beautiful 
 species of carp, found in the fresh waters 
 of China. It is greenish in color in the 
 natural state, the golden yellow color 
 being found only in domesticated speci- 
 mens, and retained by artificial selec- 
 
 l ■ 
 
 tion. These fishes are reared by the 
 Chinese in small ponds, in basins, or 
 porcelain vessels, and kept for ornament. 
 By careful selection, many strange 
 varieties and monstrosities have been 
 propagated. They are now distributed 
 over nearly all the civilized parts of the 
 world, but in large ponds they readily 
 revert to the color of the original stock. 
 
 GOLD LACE, a fabric woven of silken 
 threads which are either themselves gilt 
 or are covered with fine gilt silver wire. 
 In the former tlie gold-leaf is fixed 
 directly on the threads by means of gum'. 
 In the latter and finer kind the fine gilt 
 silver wire is twisted compactly round 
 the silk threads, which are then ready 
 for being manufactured into lace. 
 
 GOLDSCHMIDT,MADAME. See Lind, 
 Jenny. 
 
 GOLDSMITH, Oliver, poet and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, born Nov. 10,1728, at 
 Pallas county Longford, Ireland, died in 
 London April 4, 1774. In 1701 he was 
 introduced to Dr. Johnson. In 1704 he 
 appeared as a poet by the publication of 
 
 Oliver Goldsmith, from the statue by Foley. 
 
 his Traveler. In 1700 appeared his 
 Vicar of Wakefield, which at once se- 
 cured merited applause. His poetical 
 fame was greatly enhanced by the pub- 
 lication of his Deserted Village in 1770. 
 In 1773 he produced his comedy of She 
 Stoops to Conquer, which was com- 
 pletely successful. He also compiled* 
 histories of England, Greece, and Rome; 
 and a History of the Earth and Ani- 
 mated Nature, a pleasing work, but one 
 of no scientific value. The manners of 
 Goldsmith were eccentric, even to 
 absurdity. As a poet, his Traveler and 
 Deserted Village have given him a de- 
 served reputation; and his Vicar of 
 Wakefield is one of the best known and 
 most delightful of English novels. 
 
 GOLF, a game played with clubs and 
 balls, generally over large commons, 
 downs, or links, where a series of small 
 round holes are cut in the turf at dis- 
 tances of from 100 to 500 yards from 
 each other, according to the nature of 
 the ground, so as to form a circuit or 
 round. The clubs are of different uses, 
 and have different names, according to 
 the purpose for which they are respec- 
 tively designed; as the driver, putter, 
 brassey, mashie, cleek, iron, niblick, etc. 
 The rival players are one on each side, 
 or two against two, in which case the 
 two partners strike the ball on their side 
 alternately. The object of the game is, 
 starting from the first hole, to drive the 
 ball into the next hole with as few 
 
 strokes as possible, and so on with all 
 the holes in succession, the sid^ which 
 “holes” its ball on any occasion with 
 the fewest strokes being said to-gain the 
 hole. The match is usually decided by 
 the greatest number of holes gained in 
 one or more rounds, or the aggregate 
 nurfiber of strokes taken to hole one or 
 more rounds. In medal play the score 
 is always reckoned by strokes. 
 
 GOL'GOTHA. See Calvary. 
 
 GOLI'ATH, a giant of Gath slain by 
 David (1 Sam. xvii.). His height was 
 “six cubits and a span,” which, taking 
 the cubit at 21 inches, would make him 
 a little over 11 feet. The Septuagint and 
 Josephus read, “four cubits and a span.” 
 
 GOLOSH'ES, a word introduced into 
 our language from the French galoche, 
 but originally derived from the Spanish 
 galocha, meaning a wooden shoe or clog. 
 It was formerly applied by the English 
 to a kind of wooden clog. The name is 
 now restricted to overshoes, now gen- 
 erally made of vulcanized india-rubber. 
 
 GOMEZ Y BAEZ, Maximo, Cuban, 
 general, born in 1826 at Bani, Santo 
 Domingo. He served in the Spanish 
 army in Santo Domingo and in Cuba. 
 He left the Spanish army, settled down 
 as a planter, and in the insurrection of 
 1868-78 joined the insurgents, and was 
 made colonel by the Cuban president 
 Cespedes. He became general-in-chief 
 of the forces of the Republic of Cuba in 
 1895, when the second revolution broke 
 out, and was especially active in Cama- 
 guey, where his perfect familiarity with 
 the country stood him in good stead. 
 He did little open fighting, but accom- 
 plished much by harassing the Spaniards 
 and destroying their supplies. He put 
 his small force at the disposal of the 
 Americans as soon as they landed in 
 Cuba, and was markedly friendly to this 
 country. In March, 1899, he was de- 
 posed from his supreme command by 
 the Cuban assembly for traitorously 
 receiving for his army the three million 
 of dollars voted by the United States 
 government. He died in 1906. 
 
 GOMOR'RAH. See Sodom and 
 Gomorrah. 
 
 GOM'PERS, Samuel, American labor 
 leader, born in London, England, in 
 1850. He came to the United States in 
 1863, and in 1864 became the first 
 registered member of the Cigar-makers’ 
 international union, of which he was 
 secretary and president, and which he 
 made one of the most successful of 
 American trades unions. He was elected 
 vice-president of the Federation of 
 labor in 1881, and from 1882, with the 
 exception of the year 1894, when he was 
 defeated by John McBride, representing 
 the coal-miners, was its president. 
 Among the state and federal laws passed 
 at his instance are the eight-hour law for 
 government work, the ten-hour law for 
 the employees of street railways, and 
 that making the first Monday of Sep- 
 tember a legal holiday with the title 
 “Labor Day.” His writing$ include 
 pamphlets on labor matters. 
 
 GON'DOLA, a sort of barge, curiously 
 ornamented, and navigated on the 
 canals of Venice. The middle-sized 
 gondolas are upwards of 30 feet long 
 and 4 broad; they always terminate at 
 each end in a very sharp point, which is 
 
gonfalon 
 
 GOPHER 
 
 raised perpendicularly to the height of 
 a man. Toward the center there is a 
 curtained chamber for passengers. 
 
 Gondola. 
 
 GON'FALON, an ensign or standard; 
 especially an ensign having two or three 
 streamers or tails, fixed on a frame made 
 to turn like a ship’s vane, or, as in the 
 case of the Papal gonfalon, suspended 
 
 Gonlalon. 
 
 from a pole similarly to a sail from a 
 mast. The person intrusted with the 
 gonfalon in many of the mediaeval re- 
 publican cities of Italy was often the 
 chief personage in the state. 
 
 GONG, a Chinese musical instrument 
 made of an alloy of copper (about 
 seventy-eight parts) and tin (about 
 twenty-two parts), in form like a round 
 flat dish with a rim 2 to 3 inches in 
 depth. It is struck by a kind of drum- 
 stick, the head of which is covered with 
 leather, and is used for the purpose of 
 making loud sonorous signals, of mark- 
 ing time, and of adding to the clangor 
 of martial instruments. 
 
 GONORRHOEA (gon-o-re'a), a specific 
 contagious inflammation of the male 
 urethra or the female vagina, attended, 
 from its early stages, with a profuse 
 secretion of much mucus intermingled 
 with matter. This secretion contains 
 the contagion of the disease. Though 
 termed a venereal disease, it is totally 
 distinct from syphilis. It is a painful 
 disease, and may result in the chronic 
 catarrh called gleet, or may lead to 
 stricture and other serious evils. 
 
 GONSAL'VO, Hernandez y Aguilar, 
 de Cordova, Spanish soldier, called the 
 great captain, was born at Montilla, 
 near Cordova, in 1453, died at Granada 
 1515. He distinguished himself in the 
 Portuguese war which began in 1475, 
 and in the great war with the Moors, 
 which ended with the conquest of 
 Granada in 1492. In 1495 he was sent 
 to assist Ferdinand II., king of Naples, 
 against the French, who occupied the 
 whole of that kingdom. In less than a 
 year Gonsalvo drove the French over 
 the Neapolitan frontiers, and returned 
 to Spain, where he was engaged in sub- 
 jecting the Moors in the Alpujarras, 
 
 when Louis XII. of France renewed the 
 war against Naples. Gonsalvo again 
 took the field, and by the victory near 
 Seminara in 1502 obtained possession 
 of both Calabrias. In 1503 he gained a 
 still more important victory near 
 Cerignola, in consequence of which 
 Abruzzo and Apulia submitted, and 
 Gonsalvo marched into Naples. He then 
 sat down before Gaeta. As the siege was 
 protracted, he gave up the command to 
 Don Pedro Navarro, and advanced to 
 meet the enemy. He defeated the Mar- 
 quis of Mantua; and on the Garigliano, 
 with 8000 men, obtained a complete 
 victory over 30,000 French, the con- 
 sequence of which was the fall of Gaeta. 
 The possession of Naples was now 
 secured. He-^'as viceroy in Italy until 
 1507, when, through the jealousy of the 
 king and the calumnies of the courtiers, 
 he was deprived of his office^ and retired 
 to Granada, where he died. 
 
 GONZAGA FAMILY, a famous Italian 
 family who ruled over Mantua for over 
 three centuries Many illustrious soldiers, 
 statesmen, churchmen, and promoters 
 and cultivators of arts, science, and 
 literature sprang from this stock. They 
 became extinct in 1708. 
 
 GOOD-FRIDAY, a fast of the Chris- 
 tian Church in memory of our Savior’s 
 crucifixion, kept on the Friday of 
 Passion-week, that is the Friday before 
 Easter. It has been celebrated from a 
 very early period. In the Roman Cath- 
 olic Church the celebration of this fast 
 includes prayers for all classes of people, 
 including heretics, schisftlatics, pagans, 
 and Jews, and the “Adoration of the 
 Cross,’’ but no mass is celebrated. In 
 Protestant churches, with but a few 
 exceptions, the day is observed with 
 more or less solemnity. The practice of 
 eating “cross-buns” on this day has 
 now no religious significance. 
 
 GOOD HOPE, Cape of. See Cape of 
 Good Hope. 
 
 GOODRICH, Samuel Griswold, Ameri- 
 can author, born at Ridgefield, Con- 
 necticut, 1793; died 1860. He is best 
 known as “Peter Parley,” a pseudonym 
 which he assumed in writing, editing, 
 and compiling upwards of 100 children’s 
 books. In 1851 he acted as American 
 consul at Paris, and published there in 
 French a treatise on American Geog- 
 raphy and History. He also wrote 
 Recollections of a Lifetime; Sketches 
 from a Student’s Window; A History of 
 •all Nations; The Outcast and other 
 Poems; and a general Natural History. 
 
 GOODS AND CHATTELS, a legal as 
 well as popular phrase, in common use, 
 to signify personal property. It is not 
 unfrequently used in wills, but seldom 
 in any other legal instrument ; and when 
 used in wills, it generally includes all the 
 personal property of the testator. The 
 two words are not identical in meaning, 
 however, the term chattels being the 
 more extensive in signification and in- 
 cluding the other. The term goods cor- 
 responds closely in meaning to the bona 
 of the common law, and to movables 
 of the civil law, whereas, chattels in- 
 cludes as well certain rights in land. 
 
 GOOD TEMPLARS, a temperance 
 brotherhood which combines the prin- 
 ciples of teetotalism with certain mystic 
 rites, imitated more or less from free 
 
 masonry, having secret signs, passwords, 
 and insignia peculiar to itself. It origin- 
 nated in New York in 1851, and ex- 
 tended to Britain in 1868. The organiza- 
 tion consists of local “subordinate” 
 lodges, county “district” lodges, national 
 “grand” lodges, and an international 
 “right worthy” grand lodge. A “juvenile 
 order” is also attached. 
 
 GOOD-WILL, the benefit derived from 
 a business beyond the mere value of the 
 capital, stock, funds, or property em- 
 ployed in it, in consequence of the 
 general public patronage and encourage- 
 ment which it receives from constant 
 and habitual customers. It is legally 
 considered a subject of sale along with 
 the stock, premises, fixtures, trade 
 debts, etc. 
 
 GOOSE, the common name of a well- 
 known family of natatorial birds. The 
 domestic goose lives chiefly on land and 
 feeds on grass ; there are many varieties, 
 but they do not differ widely from each 
 other. It is valued for the table, and 
 on account of its quills and fine soft 
 feathers. The common wild goose, or 
 grey-lag, which is imgratory, is believed 
 to be the original of the domestic goose. 
 The Snow-goose of North America is 
 2 feet 8 inches in length, and its wings 
 are 5 feet in extent. The bill of this 
 bird is very curious, the edges having 
 each twenty-three indentations or strong 
 teeth on each side. The inside or con- 
 cavity of the upper mandible has also 
 seven rows of strong, projecting teeth, 
 and the tongue, which is horny at the 
 extremity, is armed on each side with 
 thirteen long and sharp bony teeth. 
 The flesh of this species is excellent. 
 The I.aughing or White-fronted Goose 
 inhabits the northern parts of both 
 continents, and migrates to the more 
 temperate climates during the winter. 
 The Bean-goose is also common to both 
 continents. The Canada-goose is the 
 common wild goose of the United 
 States, and is known in every part of 
 North America. It is also found in 
 Europe, and even breeds in Britain. 
 
 GOOSEBERRY, a low, branching 
 shrub, growing wild in Siberia 'and the 
 north of Europe, other species being 
 found in N. America. The branches are 
 armed with numerous prickles, and 
 bear three to five lobed leaves and 
 inconspicuous flowers. The fruit is a 
 succulent berry, very wholesome and 
 agreeable, of various colors — whitish, 
 yellow, green, and red. Gooseberries 
 are popular fruits for preserving, and 
 are extensively cultivated, being of 
 very easy culture. They may be raised 
 from slips, which is the usual mode of 
 perpetuating varieties; new varieties 
 are raised from seed. The plant of 
 four years old produces the largest and 
 finest fruit; afterward the fruit be- 
 comes smaller but increases in quantity. ^ 
 An American species has fine white 
 fiowers, and is cultivated as an orna- 
 mental shrub. 
 
 GOPHER, the name of various bur- 
 , rowing animals, natives of N. America. 
 The pouched rat has large cheek-pouches" 
 extending from the mouth to the 
 shoulders, incisors protruding beyond 
 the lips, and broad, mole-like fore-feet. 
 Several .American burrowing squirrels 
 also get this name, as also a species of 
 
GOPHER-WOOD 
 
 GORTSCHAKOFF 
 
 burrowing land-tortoise of the Southern 
 States, whose eggs are valued for the 
 table. 
 
 GOPHER-WOOD, the wood of which 
 Noah’s ark was built, but whether it 
 was cypress, pine, or other wood is an 
 unsettled point. 
 
 GORAKHPUR, a town of Hindustan, 
 lUnited Provinces, and division of 
 Benares, capital of the district of same 
 name, on the left bank of the Rapti. 
 ■It has a considerable trade in grain and 
 ■timber, sent down the Rapti to the 
 'Gogra and the Ganges. Pop. 64,148. — 
 The district has an area of 4598 square 
 miles. It is generally flat, and traversed 
 by numerous streams of which the prin- 
 ■cipal are the Rapti and larger Gandak. 
 Pop. 2,994,057. 
 
 GORDIAN KNOT, See Gordius. 
 
 GORDIUS, in Greek legend, a Phry- 
 gian peasant, father of Midas, who was 
 raised to the Phrygian throne in 
 accordance with an oracle which 
 declared to its Phrygian consulters that 
 their seditions would cease if they 
 elected as king the first man they met, 
 mounted on a chariot, going to the 
 temple of Zeus. This was Gordius, 
 who, to evince his gratitude, conse- 
 crated his chariot to Zeus, and fastened 
 the pole with so ingenious a knot that 
 the oracle promised the dominion of the 
 world to him who should untie it. 
 Alexander the Great cut it with hLs 
 sword, and to “cut the Gordian knot’’ 
 became a proverb. 
 
 GORDON, Charles George, British 
 soldier, known also as “Chinese Gordon’’ 
 and Gordon Pasha, was born at Wool- 
 wich 1833, killed at Khartoum 1885. 
 He entered the Royal Engineers in 
 1852, and served in the Crimea (1854- 
 56). During the Taeping rebellion in 
 , China, Gordon succeeded in completely 
 crushing the revolt by means of a 
 specially-trained corps of Chinese, ex- 
 hibiting marvelous feats of skilful 
 soldiership. On his return to England 
 with the rank of colonel he was ap- 
 pointed chief engineer officer at Graves- 
 end, where his military talents and 
 philanthropy were conspicuously dis- 
 played. From 1874 to 1879 he was 
 governor of the Soudan under the 
 Khedive. For a few months in 1882 
 he held an appointment at the Cape, 
 and he had just accepted a mission to 
 the Congo from the king of the Belgians, 
 when he was sent to withdraw the 
 garrisons shut up in the Soudan by 
 the insurgent ^ahdi. He was shut up 
 in 'Khartoum by the rebels, and gal- 
 y lantly held that town for a whole year. 
 
 ^ A British expeditionary force under 
 
 Lord Wolseley was despatched for his 
 , relief; an advance corps of which 
 
 sighted Khartoum on 24th January, 
 1885, to find that the town bad been 
 ' treacherously betrayed into the hands 
 of the Mahdi two days before, and 
 - Gordon murdered. Gordon’s char- 
 
 *• acter was marked by strong religious 
 
 feelings, which latterly became so 
 intensified as to make him somewhat 
 ^ of a religious enthusiast and fatalist. 
 
 GORDON, John Brown, American 
 soldier and politician, was born in 
 Upson CO., Ga., in 1832. In 1861 he 
 ' entered the confederate army as cap- 
 tain of infantry, and rose to the grade of 
 
 lieutenant-general. At the time of 
 General Lee’s surrender at Appomattox, 
 General Gordon commanded one wing 
 of the- army. From 1873 to 1880, and 
 from 1891 to 1897, he was a member of 
 the United States senate, where he was 
 one of the leaders of the democratic 
 party, and was known as an eloquent 
 speaker^. From 1887 to 1890 he was 
 governor of Georgia. He died in 1904. 
 
 GORGET, a piece of body armor, 
 either scale work or plate, for the pro- 
 tection of the throat. The camail, or 
 throat covering of chain mail, which 
 is sometimes called the gorget of mail, 
 belonged more to the helmet than to 
 the body armor. 
 
 GORGONS, in Greek mythology, three 
 frightful goddesses whose names were 
 Stheno, Euryale, and Medusa. They 
 were all immortal, except Medusa. Their 
 hair was said to be entwined with ser- 
 pents, their hands were of brass, their 
 body was covered with impenetrable 
 scales, their brazen teeth were as long 
 as the tusks of a wild boar, and they 
 turned to stones all those who looked 
 upon them. 
 
 GORIL'LA, the largest animal of the 
 ape kind. It attains a height of about 
 5i feet or more, is found chiefly in the 
 woody equatorial regions of Western 
 Africa, is po.ssessed of great strength and 
 fierceness, is a great frequenter of trees. 
 
 Gorilla. 
 
 and feeds chiefly on vegetable sub- 
 stances, as roots and fruits. The erect 
 position is more readily assumed by the 
 gorilla than by most of the other 
 anthropoid apes, owing to the shape of 
 the sole of the foot, which is not inverted 
 and is shorter and broader; but the 
 ordinary gait is on all fours. It has a 
 ferocious and brutal cast of features, 
 due to the prognathism of the jaws, 
 the extremely prominent supra-orbital 
 ridges, and retreating forehead. Gorillas 
 make a sleeping-place somewhat like a 
 hammock, connecting the branches 
 of a tree by means of the long, tough, 
 slender stems of climbing plants, and 
 lining it with dried fronds of palms or 
 long grass. This abode is constructed at 
 different heights from the ground, but 
 there is never more than one such nest 
 in a tree. The gorilla, like the chimpan- 
 I zee, has thirteen ribs, whereas man and 
 
 the orang have twelve. The gorilla 
 and chimpanzee also have eight bones 
 in the carpus or wrist, while the others 
 have nine. The bones of the arm are 
 much longer than in man, and the upper 
 arm is longer than the forearm; the leg 
 bones are shorter than in man. In the 
 proportion of its molar teeth to the 
 incisors and in the form of its pelvis it 
 approaches somewhat closely the human 
 form. It is less intelligent and docile 
 than several other apes. The Phoenician 
 navigator Hanno found the name in 
 use in the 5th century b.c. in W. .\frica. 
 
 GOR'KY, Maxim, a Russian author, 
 was born at Nizhni-Novgorod in 1868. 
 His story “Maker Chudra’’ appeared in 
 the Tiflis Kavkaz in 1892, and was fol- 
 lowed by a rapid series of works, of 
 which Foma Gordy^eff, an international 
 success, was the most noteworthy. 
 Gorky’s collected works appeared at 
 Saint Petersburg in 1901. In 1906 he 
 paid a short visit to the United States. 
 
 GORLITZ (geur'lits), a town in the 
 Prussian government of Liegnitz, prov- 
 ince of Silesia, on the left bank of the 
 Neisse. It is well-built, having generally 
 substantial houses, several large squares 
 and spacious streets. Its industries' in- 
 clude weolens, linens, and cottons, 
 machinery, iron-founding, glass, porce- 
 lain, leather, soap, etc. The town was 
 an important place for three centuries 
 before the reformation; it afterward 
 declined, but has rapidly increased in 
 prosperity since the laying down of the 
 railways; the population, which in 1831 
 was only 8000, was in 1906, 84,931. 
 
 GORMAN, Arthur Pue, American 
 senator, was born in Howard co., Mary- 
 land, in 1839. In 1866 he was appointed 
 collector of interna! revenue in the 
 fifth district of Marjdand. In 1869 he 
 was made general superintendent of the 
 Chesapeake and Ohio canal company, 
 and in 1872 its president. He was 
 elected to the house of delegates in 
 Maryland in 1870, and by re-election he 
 held the office until 1875, during the last 
 part of his term serving as the speaker. 
 From 1875 to 1881 he was state senator. 
 He was then elected United States sen- 
 ator and continued in that office until 
 1899. After three years of private life, 
 he was again elected to the senate in 
 1902. He led the opposition to the force 
 bill in 1889, and was one of the demo- 
 cratic senators who remodeled the Wil- 
 son tariff bill in 1894. He died in 1906. 
 
 GORTSCHAKOFF, Alexander Michael- 
 ovitch, Russian diplomatist, was born 
 1798, died 1883. He entered the diplo- 
 matic service in 1824, as secretary to the 
 Russian embassy in London. His expe- 
 rience in diplomacy was extended in 
 Vienna, Florence, Stuttgart, etc , and he 
 showed considerable dexterity in secur- 
 ing the neutrality of Austria during the 
 Crimean war. In 1856 he became min- 
 ister of foreign affairs, and in 1862 chan- 
 cellor of the empire. He was a promi- 
 nent member of the Berlin Congress, 
 1878. 
 
 GORTSCHAKOFF, Prince Michael, 
 Russian general, born in 1792, died 
 1861. He took part as an artillery 
 officer in the battle of Borodino in 
 1812, and served in the subsequent 
 campaigns of the allies against the 
 French. He took a prominent part in. 
 
GOSCHEN 
 
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 
 
 fche Turkish war (1828-29); the Polish 
 war (1831); the invasion of Hungary 
 {1849); and in the war with Turkey 
 and the western powers (1853-55). 
 In the Crimea he held the command in 
 Sebastopol during the siege. After the 
 war he was made governor of Poland 
 
 GOSCHEN (go'shen), George Joachim, 
 politician and financier, born in London 
 1831, educated at Rugby and Oxford. 
 He entered parliament in 1863. In 1865 
 he was sworn of the privy-council on be- 
 coming a member of the Russell min- 
 istry. In 1868 he became president of 
 the poor law board, and subsequently 
 first lord of the admiralty. In 1886 he 
 succeeded Lord R. Churchill as chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer underJLord Salis- 
 bury, and in 1895 he again took office 
 under the same leader as first lord of the 
 admiralty. In 1900 he was raised to the 
 peerage as Viscount Goshen. 
 
 GOSHAWK, a raptorial bird of the 
 hawk kind. The general color of the 
 plumage is a deep brown, the breast and 
 belly white. A full-grown female is 23 
 or 24 inches in length, the male a good 
 deal smaller. It was formerly much used 
 in falconry. This bird flies low, and pur- 
 sues its prey in a line after it, or in the 
 manner called “raking” by falconers. 
 The female was generally flown by 
 falconers at rabbits, hares, etc., and the 
 larger-winged game, while the male was 
 usually flown at the smaller birds, and 
 principally at partridges. 
 
 GOSHEN, in ancient geography, a dis- 
 trict of Egypt, which Joseph procured 
 for his father and brethren. It is sup- 
 posed that the land of Goshen lay be- 
 tween the eastern part of the ancient 
 Delta and the western border of Pales- 
 tine. 
 
 GOSPEL, Gospels. The Greek word 
 for which gospel has been used as the 
 equivalent is evangelion, or rather 
 euaggelion, a good or joyful message. 
 In the New Testament it denotes pri- 
 marily the glad tidings respecting the 
 Messiah and his kingdom — this was 
 emphatically the gospel (Anglo-Saxon, 
 god-spell, good tidings). It was quite 
 naturally employed as a common title 
 for the historical accounts which record 
 the facts that constitute the basis of 
 Christianity. It may bb fairly saidtihat 
 the genuineness of the four narratives 
 written by Matthew, Mark, Luke and 
 John rests upon better evidence than 
 that of any other ancient writings. 
 They were all composed in the latter 
 half of the first century; those of 
 Matthew and Mark some years before 
 the destruction of Jerusalem; that of 
 Luke about the year 64; and that of St. 
 John about the close of the century. 
 Before the end of the 2d century we have 
 abundant evidence that the four gospels 
 as one collection, were generally used 
 and accepted. While the early existence 
 of these gospels has been admitted, 
 much discussion has taken place regard- 
 ing their origin, and their relation one to 
 another. They seem to have been viewed 
 as so many original and independent 
 sources, each one as much so as the 
 others. Phe critical spirit of modern 
 times has refused to halt at this point; 
 it has sought to get at, so to speak, the 
 genealogy of the several gospels with 
 their different degrees of relationship. 
 
 ( Each of the four gospels has in turn 
 been assumed by different critics to be 
 the first out of which the others arose; 
 and the theory has been more than once 
 propounded of some prior, more strictly 
 original document, no longer extant, 
 which formed the common basis of them 
 all. The supposition of an original docu- 
 ment from which the three synoptical 
 Gospels (those of Matthew, Mark, and 
 Luke) were drawn, each with more or 
 less modification, would naturally occur 
 to those who rejected the notion that the 
 evangelists copied from each other. The 
 fourth Gospel, as the narrative coincides 
 with that of the other three in a few 
 passages only, is not drawn in to the 
 discussion, and the received explanation 
 is the only satisfactory one with respect 
 to it, namely, that John, writing last, 
 had seen the other gospels, and pur- 
 posely abstained from writing anew 
 what had been sufficiently recorded. 
 Another conjecture is that the gospels 
 sprang out of a common oral tradition. 
 According to this view of the origin of 
 the gospels, that of Mark, if not the 
 oldest in composition, is yet probably 
 the most direct and primitive in form; 
 it is the testimony delivered by Peter, 
 possibly with little alteration. The 
 Gospels of. Matthew and Luke, again, 
 “represent the two great types of re- 
 cension to which it may be supposed 
 that the simple narrative was subjected. 
 Luke represents the Hellenic, and Mat- 
 thew the later Hebraic form of the tra- 
 dition, and in its present sha^ the latter 
 seems to give the last authentic record 
 of the primitive Gospel.” A comparison 
 of the three synoptical Gospels yields 
 some interesting results. If we suppose 
 the history they contain to be divided 
 into sections, in forty-two of these all 
 the three narratives coincide; twelve 
 more are given by Matthew and Mark 
 only, five by Mark and Luke only, and 
 fourteen by Matthew and Luke. To 
 these must be added five peculiar to 
 Matthew, two to Mark, and nine to Luke. 
 But this applies only to general coin- 
 cidence as to the facts narrated; the 
 number of passages either verbally the 
 same, or coinciding in the use of many 
 of the same wprds, is much smaller. 
 Bri^y stated the critical result is as 
 follows: There is a singular coincidence 
 in substance in the three synoptical 
 gospels. The verbal and material agi;ee- 
 ment is such as does not occur in 
 other authors who have written in- 
 dependently of one another. The agree- 
 ment would be no difficulty without the 
 differences; it would only mark the one 
 divine source from which they were all 
 derived. The difference of form and 
 style, without the agreement, would 
 offer no difficulty, since there may be a 
 substantial harmony between accounts 
 that differ greatly in mode of expression 
 and the very difference might be a 
 guarantee of independence. Several 
 biographies of Jesus and the holy family 
 written by unknown authors of the 2d, 
 3d and later centuries are known as 
 Apocryphal Gospels. They have no 
 historical nor doctrinal value whatever. 
 The titles of the best known of these are : 
 The Gospel of James, The Gospel of 
 Joseph the Carpenter; The Gospel of 
 Thomas, The Gospel of Nicodemus, The 
 
 Acts of Pilate, and his Letter to Tiber- 
 ias, etc. 
 
 GOS'SAMER, is the name of a fine 
 filmy substance, like cobweb, which is 
 seen to float in the air in clear days in 
 autumn, and is most observable in 
 stubble-fields, and upon furze and other 
 low bushes. This is formed by several 
 kinds of small spiders, and only, accord- 
 ing to some, when they are young. 
 
 GOTHARD, St., a mountain group, 
 Switzerland, on the confines of the 
 cantons Tessin and Uri, belonging to the 
 Lepontine or Helvetian Alps, which it 
 connects with the Bernese Alps. It 
 forms a kind of central nucleus in the 
 great watershed of Europe. Its cul- 
 minating point has a height of 10,600 
 feet. The Col of St. Gothard, at its 
 summit level, where the Hospice stands, 
 is 6808 feet high. Over it an excellent 
 carriage road was completed in 1832. A 
 railway tunnel has been pierced through 
 this mountain group between Goschenen 
 on the north and Airolo on the south, 
 thus directly connecting the railway 
 system of North Italy with those of 
 Switzerland and Western and Central 
 Germany. This tunnel is the longest in 
 the world, being of the total length of 
 16,295 yards, or rather more than 9J 
 miles. Its construction, begun in 1872, 
 was completed in 1881, and it was opened 
 for traffic early in 1882. 
 
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, a term 
 applied to the various styles of pointed 
 architecture prevalent in Western 
 Europe from the middle of the 12th cen- 
 tury to the revival of classic architecture 
 
 Gothic architecture— Salisbury cathedral. 
 
 in the 16th. The chief characteristics 
 of Gothic architecture are; The pre- 
 dominence of the pointed arch and the 
 subserviency and subordination of all 
 the other parts to this chief feature; 
 the tendency through the whole compo- 
 sition to the predominance and pro- 
 longation of vertical lines; the absence 
 of the column and entablature of classic 
 architecture, of square edges and rec- 
 tangular surfaces, and the substitution 
 of clustered shafts, contrasted surfaces, 
 and members multiplied in rich variety. 
 This style orginated in France and 
 
GOTHS 
 
 GOUNOD 
 
 spread very rapidly to England, Ger- 
 rnany, Italy, Spain, and the Scandina- 
 vian countries. In England it Was in- 
 troduced by William of Sens, who built 
 Canterbury Cathedral in 11‘74, and h§re 
 followed an independent course of de- 
 velopment. The Gothic architecture of 
 Britain has been divided into four prin- 
 cipal epochs — the Early English, or 
 
 quered the Gothic kingdom. After the 
 fall of the Western Roman Empire, by 
 the Invasion of Odoacer in 476, the 
 Eastern emperor, Zeno, persuaded 
 Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, to 
 invad^Italy in 489. The Goth became 
 king of Italy, in 493, and laid the foun- 
 dation of a new Ostrogothic kingdom, 
 which, together with Italy, comprised 
 
 abode f y 
 
 Gothic Architecture. 
 
 Eaiiy English windows, c, Transition, rf, Geometrical. «, Perfect decorated. 
 frj, Perpendicular. 
 
 general style of the 13th century; the 
 Decorated, or style of the 14th century; 
 the Perpendicular, practiced during the 
 15th and early part of the 16th century 
 (Flamboyant being the contemporary 
 style in France) ; and the Tudor, or 
 general style of the 16th century. 
 
 GOTHS, an ancient Teutonic tribe 
 occupying when first known to history 
 the region adjacent to the Black Sea 
 north of the lo.wer Danube. A people 
 of similar name is mentioned by Tacitus 
 as dwelling south of the Baltic, and 
 Geats or Gauts are known to us from the 
 the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf as in- 
 habitants of southern Sweden ; but there 
 is no necessary connection between these 
 and the Goths proper. About the middle 
 of the 3d century these began to en- 
 croach on the Roman Empire. Having 
 seized the Roman province of Dacia, 
 they were assailed by Decius, whom 
 they twice defeated. In 253 they cap- 
 tured Trebizond, where a large fleet of 
 ships fell into their hands. Wfth this 
 force they sailed down the ^gean and 
 plundered the coasts of Greece and Illy- 
 ria. They now began to threaten Italy, 
 but in 269 they were defeated with great 
 slaughter by the Emperor Claudius. ^His 
 successor Aurelian was, notwithstand- 
 ing, compelled to cede to them the large 
 province of Dacia, after which there 
 was comparative peace between them 
 for many years. In the 4th century the 
 great Gothic kingdom extended from 
 the Don to the Theiss, and from the 
 Black Sea to the Vistula and the Baltic. 
 About the year 369 internal commotions 
 produced the division of the Gothic 
 kingdom into the kingdom of the 
 Ostrogoths (eastern Goths) and the 
 kingdom of the Visigoths (western 
 Goths). In 396 Alaric, king of the Visi- 
 goths, made an irruption into Greece, 
 laid waste the Peloponnesus, and be- 
 came prefect of Illyria. "He invaded 
 Italy and sacked Rome in 409, and a 
 second time in 410. After his death (in 
 410) the Visigoths succeeded in estab- 
 'lishing a new kingdom in the southern 
 parts of Gaul and Spain, of which, 
 toward the end of the 5th century, 
 Provence, Languedoc, and Catalonia 
 were the principal provinces, and Tou- 
 louse the seat of government. The last 
 king, Roderick, died in 711 in battle 
 against the Moors, who had crossed 
 from Africa, and subsequently con- 
 
 Rhcetia (a part of Switzerland and the 
 Tyrol), Vindelicia (part of Bavaria and 
 Swabia), Noricum (Saltzburg, Stiria, 
 Carinthia, Austria), Dalmatia, Pannonia 
 (Further Hungary, Slavonia), and Dacia 
 beyond the Danube (Transylvania, 
 Walachia). This kingdom came to an 
 end in 554. Subsequently the Goths 
 both here and in Spain entirely dis- 
 appeared as a distinct people. 
 
 GOTTENBURG, or GOTHENBURG, a 
 seaport town in Sweden, the second in 
 respect of population and trade, capital 
 of the Ian of the same name, situated at 
 the mouth of the Gota, in the Kattegat, 
 
 255 miles w.s.w. Stockholm, intersected 
 by canals. It is one of the best built 
 towns in Sweden, and the seat of a 
 bishopric. It has manufactures of sail- 
 cloth, cotton, and other goods, and pos- 
 sesses ship-building yards, tobacco fac- 
 tories, breweries, sugar refineries, etc. 
 Pop. 130,619. , 
 
 GOTTINGEN \geut'ing-en), a town of 
 Prussia, province of Hanover, on the 
 Leine, 59 miles s.s.e. Hanover. Its chief 
 attraction is the university, founded in 
 1734 by George II. of England and 
 elector of Hanover, opened in 1737 and 
 which has a European reputation. It 
 has an average attendance of over 1000 
 students. Connected with the university 
 are a museum, an observatory, an ana- 
 tomical theater, botanical gapien, and a 
 library possessed of 500,000 printed 
 volumes and 5000 MSS. The manufac- 
 y 
 
 tures comprise woolens, chemicals, 
 scientific instruments, etc. Pop 30,234. 
 
 GOTTLAND, or GOTHLAND, an is- 
 land of the Baltic, belonging to and 55 
 miles east of the coast of Sweden. Pop. 
 52,570 
 
 GOULD, Benjamin Apthorp, Ameri- 
 can astronomer, was born in Boston, 
 Mass., in 1824. In 1852 he was appointed 
 director of the longitude determinations 
 nf the coast survey, and in 1867, after 
 having organized and greatly developed 
 this service, retired. From 1855 to 1859 
 he was director of the Dudley obser- 
 vatory, at Albany, N. Y., and in 1866 
 he established by means of the Atlantic 
 cable, the relations in longitude between 
 America and European stations. In 
 1870 he established at Cordoba, Argen- 
 tina, the National observatory, where 
 he accumulated the material for his 
 Uranometria Argentina and Catalogo de 
 Zonas Estelares, both classic in the 
 literature of astronomy. In 1872 with the 
 assistance of the Argentine government, 
 he further established a system of 
 meteorological stations extending south- 
 ward to Tierra del Fuego and eastward 
 to the Atlantic. He died in 1896. 
 
 GOULD, Helen Miller, American 
 philanthropist, was born in New York 
 City in 1868. At the commencement of 
 the Spanish-American war she pre- 
 sented $100,000 to the United States 
 government, and during the war, as a 
 member of the women’s national war re- 
 lief association, was prominently active. 
 She gave $50,000 for necessary supplies 
 for the care of soldiers in hospitals, and 
 at Camp Wyckoff, near Montauk point. 
 Long Island, did personal work in that 
 connection. Her benefactions to New 
 York university have also been notable, 
 and include the library building of the 
 university, with its well-known “Hall of 
 Fame.” 
 
 GOULD, Jay, an American capitalist, 
 born in 1836 in Roxbury, Delaware co., 
 N. Y. In the great financial depression 
 following the panic of 1857 he bought a 
 controlling interest in the Rutland and 
 Washington railroad running from 
 Troy, N-. Y., to Rutland, Vt., for 10 
 cents on the dollar. Of this company 
 he became president, treasurer, and 
 general manager, and subsequently 
 brought about a consolidation of his 
 road and the Rensselaer and Saratoga 
 Railroad. In 1859 he sold out his stock 
 in the consolidated roads at 120, and 
 removed to New York, where he em- 
 barked in the brokerage business. By 
 methods new in railway speculation 
 Gould secured control of the Erie rail- 
 road, and in 1868 was elected its presi- 
 dent. The manipulation of the Erie was 
 the first of a long series of speculations 
 by which Gould obtained the mastery 
 of some of the greatest railway corpora- 
 tions in the country. In 1880 he con- 
 trolled fully 10,000 miles of road, more 
 than one-ninth of the mileage of the 
 country. Gould also consolidated com- 
 peting telegraph lines into the Western 
 Union system in 1881, and obtained 
 control of the Manhattan elevated 
 railroad in the same year. He died in 
 1892. 
 
 GOUNOD (go-no), Charles Frangois, 
 French operatic composer, born at Paris, 
 1817; his first important work was 
 
GOURD 
 
 GRACCHUS 
 
 Faust (1859), which raised him to a high 
 rank among composers. Other operas 
 followed, among which are Mireille 
 (1864), Romeo et Juliette, Cinq Mars 
 (1877), and Polyeucte (1878). He wrote 
 also a Messe Solenhelle, a motet Gallia, 
 and other choral works and songs; 
 oratorios, Redemption (1882), Mors et 
 Vita (1885), and a Mass for the Jeanne 
 D’Arc festival (1887). He died in 
 1893. 
 
 GOURD (gord), the popular name of a 
 genus of plants. The same name is given 
 to the different kinds of fruit produced 
 by the various plants of this genus 
 These are held in high estimation in hot 
 countries; they attain a very large size 
 
 Flower and fruit of squash. 
 
 and most of them abound in wholesome 
 nutritious matter. The pumpkin, ac- 
 quires sometimes a diameter of 2 feet 
 Ihe squph is cultivated in America as 
 an article of food. The water melon 
 serves the Egyptians for meat, drink 
 and physic. The orange-fruited gourd 
 IS cultivated only as a curiosity, and is a 
 native of the East Indies. l\e bottle 
 ^urd, a native both of the East and 
 West Indies, is edible, and is often G feet 
 mng and 18 inches in circumference, 
 ine outer coat or rind serves for bottles 
 and Water-cups. 
 
 ^ arthritis, a constitu- 
 
 tional disorder giving rise to parox- 
 ysms of acute pain with a specific form 
 ot inflammation, appearing after puberty 
 
 returning 
 
 after intervals. It is often preceded bv 
 or alternates with, disorder of the diael’ 
 tive or other internal organs, and is 
 generally characterized by affection of 
 the first joint of the great toe, by 
 nocturnal exacerbations and morning 
 vascular plethora; 
 °^Sans, or parts bocom- 
 mg affected after repeated attacks with- 
 out passing into suppuration. It may 
 be acquired or hereditary. In the former 
 case It rarely apears before the agTof ' 
 thirty-five; in the latter, it is frequently 
 
 that the 
 
 disease is due to an excess of uric acid 
 
 in either being formed 
 
 m the body in too large quantity, or not 
 being removed from the blood by the 
 udneys m the urine as it ought to be 
 Indolence, inactivity, and too free use of 
 tartareous wines, fermented liquors and 
 very high-seasoned and nitro-renous 
 
 falfed? lccordiig1r,he 
 
 affect. Podagra (in the feet 1 
 
 J^^^ri?e%^o^ pefi?nr^AS Tr^ 
 
 chiefly composed of urate of soda 
 
 -treltmeSoS 
 
 GOV 'Ait j ii town of Scotland, county 
 of Latiark, dn the left bank of the Clyde, 
 to the west of Glasgow, of which it forms 
 
 M !• extensive 
 
 ship-building yards, engineering works, 
 dye-works, etc. Pop. of toivn S2,l?4. 
 
 GOVERNMENT, 19 a ivord used in 
 cominon speech in Various significations. 
 It denotes the ttet of governing, the 
 persons who govern, and the mode or 
 system according to which the Sovereign 
 powers of a nation, the le^isiatiVg, exec- 
 '^divc, and judicial powers are vested 
 and exercised. See Aristocracy, Democ- 
 racy, Monarchy, Oligarchy, Republic, 
 Local Government, etc-. 
 
 GOVERNlVtENt MnS, nil Idhd Wlthih 
 ■ '1 .Ubited Stlites the title to which is 
 hot ill a state or an individual. This in- 
 cludes all land bCcjipied fdt guVernmen- 
 tal purposes, as for military or naval 
 pOsts and stations^ p’^hlic buildings, etc., 
 but the term is popularly used as being 
 synonymous with “public lands.” In this 
 sense, only such land, owned by the gov- 
 ernment, as is uneurveyed and open to 
 sale or occiipatioh Under the “home- 
 stead laws,” is irt'eiuded, ibdhd ilihy h§ 
 government for public 
 use Under the pow'er of eminent domain 
 and property thus acquired would be 
 government land” in the broadest 
 sense, but not as the term is commonly 
 used, as such lands would not be open to 
 public occupation and pre-emption 
 GOVERNOR, the chief ^executive 
 officer in the states of the American 
 
 hand, when the engine goes too slow, the 
 balls fall down toward the spindle and 
 elevate the valve, thus increasing the 
 quantity of steam admitted into the cyl- 
 itider. By this Ingenious contrivance, 
 therefore, the quantity of steam admit* 
 t0d tfi tlig cylinder Is exactly pfopur^ 
 tioned to the resistance of the engine, and 
 the velocity kept constantly the same. A 
 similar contrivance is employed in mills 
 tu equaling tli&Mdtlort df the machinery. 
 When any paid of the machinery is 
 suddenly stopped, or suddenly Set 
 agoing, and the moving power remains 
 the same, an alteration in the velocity 
 df will take place, and it will 
 
 move faster Qf slower. The governor is 
 
 numerous small globular transparent 
 follicles found in the ovaries of mam- 
 mals. Each follicle contains one ovum, 
 whifch is expelled when it reaches 
 maturity. Small at first, and deeply 
 imbedded in the ovary, they gradually 
 approach the surface, and finally burst 
 ahd discharge the dvUill. 
 
 O^CeSvS, a .family, of tlie' 
 
 Sernproman gens, seveflil memher.s^bf 
 which have beedme historical. TiberiuJ 
 Semprpiuu§ Gi-acchus, a general of the^ 
 Second Punic war. Was consul 215 b.c., ‘ 
 defeated Hanrib 214 b^c., and was killed 
 212 B.c. — Another Tiberius Sempromus 
 Gracchus became consul 178 b.c., and 
 again 163 b.c. He married Cbinelia, a 
 
 union. Heiselecmd VA^^eopre'of thel Scipio Africanus, ahd Whs 
 state, and his rights and dutie^ are in oA/chi^ T’K^ the two most celebrated 
 general, those usually associated with t A 
 
 ' — vAuoico are, in 
 
 general, those usually associated with 
 the head of the executive department 
 in a republican form of government 
 namely, the appointment of certain 
 classes of officials, the exercise of the 
 pardoning power and the right of veto 
 and the command of the state militia. 
 I he term of office and the specific limita- 
 tions of the governor’s powers vary 
 naturally, from state to state, and will 
 be found under the heading Constitu- 
 tion, in the articles on the different 
 
 GOVERNOR, a contrivance in mills 
 and machinery for maintaining a uni- 
 form velocity with a varying resistance. 
 A common form of steam-engine gov- 
 
 Governor of a steam-engine. 
 
 ernor consists of a pair of balls A B sus- 
 pended from a vertical shaft kept in 
 motion by the engine. When the engine 
 goes too fast the balls fly farther asunder 
 and depress the end of a lever N P 
 which partly shuts a throttle-valve, p 
 
 thn u ana uaius, 
 
 the former born about 169 b.c., killed 
 
 191 A’ killed 
 
 brothers having lost their 
 
 from their mother 
 Cornelia a careful education. At a more 
 advanced age their minds were formed 
 and ennobled by the Greek philosophy 
 Tiberius early made himself conspk^us 
 
 the com- 
 mand of his brother-in-law, the younger 
 
 Wtlil A® served at the siege of Carthage. 
 While he was yet a mere youth he 
 received into the College 6f Augurs a ® 
 honor usually conferred only upon d ♦* 
 tinguished statesmen. He was s>- 
 quently quaestor to the Consul Mar 
 and was employed in the Nu' .*©{au 9 , 
 
 I be greatly dis^' ^Ahiitian 
 
 nimself by the conclusion of ytRguishfed 
 which he saved the lives r a treaty by 
 t who were entirely at thr 20,000 mea 
 Numantines. In 133 , mercy of the 
 
 candidat b.c., he offered 
 
 office r for the tribune* 
 
 whh if ^ ® .endered his person 
 
 wth it, and place as he was invested 
 advance his gre ,d him in a situation to 
 the ce plans for the improve* 
 Aa i, ^ Jhdition of the people in a 
 
 uie anstoc le was violently opposed by 
 Octavius cacy and the tribune^ MarcuV . 
 A^f f- - ^hose Yotq retarded the pas* 
 mam’' ’f'^b^ius, however, by 
 
 prerogative Of hjs Office) 
 ir bis bill, gnd three coni* 
 
 to®’ Av®^® appointed to carrv it 
 
 Tiberius hin>~ 
 
 1^’ A bis father-in . 
 
 ^i^^tidius. He was accused 
 
 j j f u • ^ He was accused 
 
 «i..r Ip/ 
 
grace 
 
 GRALLATORES 
 
 FMes. Ten years after the 
 ath-ofifigb'r'otl ‘ 
 
 death' 6? Ws b'rotliet' Tiberius, the younger 
 Gfacch.Us obtained 
 
 w . , , '-d (hftf — tribuneship. 
 
 beVerai popuhr measures gained him 
 great favhi' irjth the people, but the in 
 triffues of thft nr>hTtf,> iiU?rr. 
 
 trigues of the nobles nUnnately caused 
 his fall. A — (..'..t. . 1 -.. . 
 
 i -.--r -• -- tumult, in -ivliieh tt Hetoy of 
 upimius ■was killed, gave the scn&te 
 a pretense for empowering the consuls to' 
 take strong fneaSUres. Opimius made an 
 attack upon the supporters Of Gracchus 
 with a band of discipliiicd Soldiers, 
 Nearly 3000 were slain, and GracOhns 
 escaped to the grove of the Furies, where 
 he was slam at liis own request by a 
 slave, v/ho then killed himself, 
 
 GRACE, Days 0 /, Ifi commerce, a cer- 
 tain number of days I’mhlddiately fol- 
 lowing the day, specified on the face of 
 which it becomes due. 
 lid the expiry of these days payment is 
 h^ot Accessary. Iii Britain and America 
 the days of grace; _ are three, Austria 
 (three days) and Riissfa (ten days) are 
 the oniy Other coufltfiVs trhieb allo’W 
 days of gracd. " - 
 1 ^^reek, Charities, trafitP 
 
 Jated by the Rmuaws Gratise), the god- 
 desses of grace, from whom, according to 
 PmHay-. coxhes everything' beautiful 
 
 T Bindar, 
 
 L find agreeable; Accordlug to iHOsrpoets 
 ^ and fnythologists they were three m 
 - htimber, the daughtefsf of Zeus and 
 iiurynbm^, Aha Hesiod gives them the 
 ■f hames of Aglaiai- (brilliancy), Thalia (the 
 blooming), and Etmhroiy:}® (mirth).! 
 F Homer mentions them Ih , as | 
 
 V handmaids Of Hera (Juno); but in 
 f Odyssey as those of Aphrodite (Venu^,' 
 ^ who is attended by them in the bath, 
 etc. He coriceived them as forming' a 
 numerous troup of goddesses, whose 
 I office it was to render happy the days 
 ^ of the immortals. The three graces are 
 ■, Usually represented slightly draped or 
 I _ entirely nude, locked in each other’s 
 enibJ2,ces, Or hand in hand. 
 
 . GRA'DIENT, In rbads and railways, 
 a term used to signify the departure of 
 ^ the track from a perfect level, Usually 
 expressed as a fraction of the' length: 
 
 ^ thus 1 in 250 signifies a rise or fall of 1 
 ; tool in 250 feet measured along the 
 line. 
 
 GRADUATION, the art of dividing 
 ' into the necessary spaces the scales of 
 mathematical, astronomical, and other 
 ' philosophical instruments. Common 
 graduation is simply effected by copying 
 from a scale prepared by a higher pro- 
 . ' cess; original graduation is chiefly per- 
 formed either by stepping or bisection. 
 Stepping consists in ascertaining by 
 ^ repeated trial with finely-pointed spring 
 dividers-^which are made, as it were, 
 to proceed by successive steps — the S:lze 
 of the divisions required, their number 
 being known, and then finally marking 
 them. In bisection the .beam compasses 
 are used, an arc 'with a radius of nearly 
 half the line being described from either 
 end of the line, and the short distance 
 between the arcs bisected with the aid 
 of a magnifier and a fine pointer. The 
 process is repeated, for each of the two 
 halves thus obtained, until by sub- 
 division the required graduation is ob- 
 tained. Ordinary instruments are grad- 
 uated by machines, most of which are 
 b^ed upon the principle of that in- 
 ■yented by Ramsdeh in 1766, 
 
 . P. K— ^ 
 
 ’ GRADY^ Henry Woodfen, American 
 journalist, was born at Athens, Ga., in 
 1851. In 1880 he purchased an interest 
 in and became editor of the Atlanta 
 Constitution. In 1886 he defivered a 
 speech in New York on ‘"'The' New 
 South,” which attracted considerable 
 notice, Mr. Grady was one of the first 
 prou^ent representatives of the New 
 South to' express the willingness o’? that 
 generation find section to throw in their 
 lot with the pOsi of the nation. He 
 I in h889. 
 
 GRAFTING, art operation by which a 
 bud or scion of art mdlvidual plant is 
 mserted upprt another individual, so as 
 to become organically united with the 
 ^ock_ on which it has beert placed. 
 Grafting can only take plaee h^ween 
 plants which have a certam aMnfty, 
 individuals of the same species', gerttxS, 
 
 v»1)a le, in 
 
 end is inserted into the cleft r 
 ®apnle-grafting, the end of the 
 
 st .c& k is cut into the form of a wedge. 
 
 Spiles* 
 
 grafting’, 
 
 Saddle* 
 
 grafting. 
 
 Cleft* 
 
 grafting. 
 
 The e 
 with ti 
 
 
 rfift does not become 
 
 e stO(!h to which it is 
 
 united, .but fetains its own peculiarities 
 of variety pif speciof. The parts between 
 which graftirig is effected must be active- 
 ly vegetatihjg. The advantages derived 
 from grafting are the pTOgCnmtion of 
 remarkable varieties, whitth could not 
 be reproduced from seAdj the more 
 rapid multiplication of particul^ar Species 
 and the anticipation of the period of 
 fructification, which may thus Sd" 
 vanced by several years. The princi^M- 
 methods of grafting are — 1. By api-' 
 proach.—This process is intended to 
 unite at one or more points two plants 
 
 t rowing from separate roots. Plates of 
 ark of equal size are removed, the 
 wounds are kept together and protected 
 from air. Stems, branches, or roots may 
 be united in this way. 2. By scions. — 
 Under this head there are a variety of 
 methods, such as whip, splice, cleft, 
 saddle, crown grafting, etc. In whip- 
 grafting or tongue-grafting the stock is 
 cut obliquely across and a slit or very 
 narrow angular incision is made in its 
 center downward across the cut sur- 
 face, a similar deep incision is made in 
 the scion upward, at a corresponding 
 angle, and, a projecting tongue left, 
 which being inserted in the incision in 
 the stock., they are fastened closely 
 together. Splioe-grafting is performed 
 by cutting the ends of the scion and 
 stock completely across in an oblique 
 direction, in such a way that the sec- 
 tions are of the same shape, then laying 
 the oblique surfaces together eo that the 
 one exactly fits the other, and securing 
 them by tying or otherwise. In cleft- 
 grafting, the stock is cleft down, and 
 the graft; cut jn the shape of a wedge at 
 
 aji ■fi\ he base of the scion, slit up or cleft 
 for e purpose, is affixed. Crown- 
 graftK vor rmd-grafting is performed 
 by ctittfi ng the lower end of the scion in 
 a sl(^p}itk ' direction, while the head of 
 the stoBlk IS cut over horizontally and 
 .a sfA is ft ade through the inner bark 
 their A- piece ctlf wood, bone, ivory, or other 
 die4 j such subsitft ace, resembling the thinned 
 i end' of the; .ft 'ion, is inserted in the top 
 of the slit iU tween the alburnum and 
 in.rt'sr bark aaift pushed dovm in order to 
 raisvV the bar^ so that the thin end of 
 the siaj<Mi may be introduced without 
 being b.nrised. 1 he edges of the bark on 
 each side tha a brought close to the 
 scion, and .the who le is bound with mat- 
 , ting and a «• day put round it. 
 
 1 3, By buds.— -ThiM consists in trans- 
 I htfing to anothL^'r *tt ’ck a plate or bark, 
 t(7 Which one or’ ^'^ds adhere. 
 
 Bud-^&ifting is ti.'*? most commonly 
 practice^?/ especially' multiplying 
 
 fruit-trees ^fml roses,’ owing to the 
 facility with wf/reh it mW performed. 
 
 GRAIL, the IrtgendarSV ^dy vessel, 
 supposed to have bedmdff^ 'erald, from 
 which Ghrist dispensed dne at the 
 
 last supper. It was; said teP . 
 brought to England by Josephi ■ *^rima- 
 thea, but to have been talc^ back to 
 heaven until the appearance-^ tPt heroes 
 worthy to be its guari3ians. 3^ 'lurel, 
 a descendant of the Asiatic-’ ift. 
 Perillus, whose descendant^' bad^G^ '®d 
 themselves with the family of a ^ 
 
 sovereign, was chosen as itsf’' keepfep. 
 
 He erected for it a temple on th^modsjft 
 of that at Jerusalem, and organised -aa 
 band of guardians. It was visible -mly/ 
 to the baptizeci and pure of heart. W"Uh-i 
 this legend that of King Arthur W- - 
 came connected. Three of his knights, • 
 Galahadf Percival, and Bors, had sight ■ 
 of it, and on the death of Percival, its • 
 last guardian, it was again taken to 
 heaven. 
 
 GRAIN, includes all those kinefesf grass 
 Whitph a^e cultivated on account (ssf their 
 fer t he production of meal orfloxsar. 
 
 Ali‘ kind^ of grain contain in varyiiiig 
 quantititeff' the following element^; 
 gluten, f^ul'rt starch, a sweet muciP- 
 age, a digestihS# aromatic substance; 
 contained in the hulls, and moisture, , 
 which is predominant even in the driesti 
 grain, and serves-, after planting, tbi 
 stimulate the first motions of the germ.. 
 GRAIN elevator. See Elevator. 
 GRAIN-LEATHER, dressed horse- 
 hides, goat-skins, seal-skins, etc., blackedi 
 on the grain side, that is the hair sidfe:;, 
 for shoes, boots, etc. 
 
 GRAIN-MOTH, a minute moth whose; 
 larv® or grubs devour grain_in granaries.. 
 
 The moths have narrow, fringedU wings, , 
 of a satiny luster. 
 
 GRAINS OF PARADISE, CSlinea', 
 grains or Malaguetta pepper, a plant of ’ 
 tropical 'Western Africa. They are: 
 chiefly used in cattle medicines and lo* 
 give a fiery pungency to cordials. The^ 
 “Grain Coast” of Africa takes its name: 
 from the production of these seeds in 
 that region. 
 
 GRALLATO'RES, an order of birds 
 which formerly included the heron, ibis, 
 stork; but these are now put into an- 
 
GRAMMAR 
 
 GRAND RAPIDS 
 
 other order, and the Grallatores, prop- 
 erly so called, consist of the following 
 families, namely, those of the snipe, 
 stint, and ruff; the red-shanks, green- 
 shanks, and sand-pipers; the curlews, 
 phalaropes, stilts, and avocets; the 
 plovers, oyster'catchers, turnstones, lap- 
 
 Grallatores— Head and toot of crane. 
 
 wings, coursers; the jacanas, the bus- 
 tards; the rails and coots; and the 
 cranes. They are generally known as 
 wading-birds, as they frequent shores 
 and banks of streams,, marshes, etc., 
 and their legs and beak are commonly 
 rather long. 
 
 GRAMMAR, in reference to any lan- 
 guage, is the system of rules, principles, 
 and facts which must be known in order 
 to speak and write the language cor- 
 rectly. Comparative grammar treats of 
 the laws, customs, and forms which are 
 shown by comparison to be common to 
 various languages; general or universal 
 grammar, of those laws which, by logical 
 deduction, are demonstrated to be com- 
 mon to all. The divisions of grammar 
 vary with the class and also with the 
 method of treatment. In common 
 English grammars the division is gen- 
 erally fourfold: Orthography, which 
 treats of the proper spelling of words, 
 and includes orthoepy, treating of the 
 proper pronunciation ; et 3 miology, which 
 treats of their derivations and inflec- 
 tions; syntax, of the laws and forms of 
 construction common to compositions 
 in prose and verse; prosody, of the laws 
 peculiar to verse. Although the sys- 
 tematization of grammar had begun in 
 some sort in Plato’s time it was chiefly 
 to the Alexandrian writers tfiat it owed 
 its development. The first Greek gram- 
 mar for Roman students was that of 
 Dionysius Thrax, in use about 80 b.c. 
 Comparative grammar can only be said 
 to have existed from the beginning of 
 the last century, when the critical study 
 of Sanskrit established the affinities of 
 the languages of the Indo-European 
 group. The names of Bopp, Grimm, 
 Pott, Schleicher, Muller, etc., are espe- 
 cially associated with its development. 
 
 GRAMMAR-SCHOOLS, an old name 
 of a class of schools at which a secondary 
 education is given, as a preparation for 
 a university course. The term seems to 
 have arisen from the once almost exclu- 
 sive occupation of these schools in the 
 teaching of the elements or grammar of 
 the Latin and Greek languages. In 
 England the character of the teaching in 
 secondary schools, where not restricted 
 by endowments, is necessarily influ- 
 enced by the course of instruction in the 
 universities, in which the classical 
 element still preponderates. 
 
 The term Grammar School is now used 
 in the United States to designate the 
 upper grades, ordinarily the fourth to 
 the eighth, inclusive, of the common 
 
 school, in which not only grammar, but 
 also arithmetic, geography, history, 
 elements of natural science, usually 
 drawing, some form of manual training, 
 and sometimes elementary algebra or 
 geometry, with a foreign language, enter 
 into the curriculum. 
 
 GRAMME, the unit of weight in 
 France = 15.4323 grains. A deca- 
 gramme or ten grammes 5.644 drams; 
 a hectogramme (100 grammes) = 3.527 
 oz.; a kilogramme (1000 grammes) = 
 2.205 lbs.; a myriagramme (10,000 
 grammes) = 22.046 lbs. 
 
 GRAMPUS, a name for several marine 
 cetaceous mammals allied to the dol- 
 phins, especially those of the Atlantic and 
 North Sea, which grow to the length of 
 25 feet, and is remarkably thick in pro- 
 portion to its length. The spout-hole is 
 on the top of the'neck. The color of the 
 back is black; the belly is of a snowy 
 whiteness, and on each shoulder is a 
 large 'white spot. The grampus is 
 carnivorous and remarkably voracious, 
 even attacking the whale. 
 
 GRANADA (gra-na'da), a city in the 
 south of Spain, capital of the province 
 of Granada. The streets rise pic- 
 turesquely above each other, with a 
 number of turrets and gilded cupolas, 
 the whole being crowned by the Al- 
 hambra, or palace of the ancient Moorish 
 kings. In the background lies the Sierra 
 de Nevada, covered with snow. Its 
 university was founded about 1530, and 
 is attended by some 1000 students. 
 The city was founded by the Moors be- 
 fore 800, and from 1036 to 1234 was 
 included in the Kingdom of Cordova. 
 In 1235 it became the capital of the 
 Moorish kingdom of Granada, and 
 attained almost matchless splendor. 
 In 1491 it remained the last stronghold 
 of the Moors in Spain, but was taken 
 by the Spaniards under Ferdinand and 
 Isabella in 1492, along with the kingdom 
 having a population of perhaps 500,000. 
 Its prosperity continued almost without 
 diminution till 1610, when the decree 
 expelling the Moors from all parts of 
 /Spain told severely upon it, and it has 
 never recovered. Pop. 75,054. — The 
 province, which is partly bounded by 
 the Mediterranean, has an area of 5610 
 sq. miles. Pop. 478,846. 
 
 GRANADA, formerly a Moorish king- 
 dom in Spain, bordering on the Medi- 
 terranean, now represented by the three 
 provinces, Granada, Almeria, and Mal- 
 aga; area, 11,000 sq. miles. In 1492 it 
 passed into the possession of the 
 Spaniards. 
 
 GRAN CHACO, El, a territory of the 
 Argentine Republic, lying mainly be- 
 tween the Vermejo, Parana, and Salado. 
 It is inhabited by various Indian tribes, 
 the total Indian population being esti- 
 mated at from 20,000 to 40,000. 
 
 GRAND ARMY OF THE REPUBLIC, 
 shortly after the close of the civil war. 
 Dr. B. F. Stephenson, who had been a 
 surgeon in a volunteer regiment sug- 
 gested the organization of Union vet- 
 erans into a national association for 
 mutual assistance. The first post was 
 formed at Decatur, 111., April 6, 1866. 
 The objects of the orderwere“to main- 
 tain and strengthen the fraternal feel- 
 ings which bind together the soldiers, 
 sailors and marines who united to sup- 
 
 press the Rebellion; to perpetuate the 
 memory of those who have died and to 
 lend assistance to the needy veterans 
 and their widows and orphans.” The 
 “post” is the local organization, the 
 “department” is the state or territorial 
 organization. National annual meetings 
 called encampments are held. On these 
 occasions and in its parades the mem- 
 bers wear a dark blue uniform and 
 black slouch hat. The official badge 
 consists of a miniature strap and ribbon 
 showing the national flag from which is 
 hung the brass star of the membership 
 badge. Although in 1869 The Grand 
 Army declared against participation in 
 partisan politics, yet its close organiza- 
 tion and the preponderance of repub- 
 licans in its ranks made it a strong factor 
 in politics and every republican presi- 
 dent from Grant to McKinley was a 
 veteran of the civil war and polled 
 practically the entire Grand Army vote. 
 The organization also has influenced 
 
 E ension legislation. Its membership has 
 een dwindling rapidly through deaths 
 and it is now less than 200,000. 
 
 GRAND-DUKE, the title of the sover- 
 eign of several of the states of Germany, 
 who are considered to be of a rank be- 
 tween duke and king; also applied to 
 members of the imperial family of 
 Russia. 
 
 GRANDEE', In Spain a noble of the 
 first rank, which consisted partly of the 
 relatives of the royal house, and partly 
 of ’such members of the high feudal 
 nobility distinguished for their wealth 
 as had, by the grant of a banner received 
 from the king, the right to enlist soldiers 
 under their own colors. 
 
 GRAND JURY. See Jury. 
 
 GRAND jfURY, the institution of the 
 grand jjiry dates from the times of the 
 Saxons when it had much the same 
 function as now being present at the 
 opening of each term of court for the 
 purpose of inquiring into the charges 
 of offenses and returning to the court 
 its opinion thereof. Today in America 
 and in England its functions are prac- 
 tically as in the olden days. The 
 charges* against the accused are laid 
 before the grand jury and the duties of 
 the members is to inquire whether there 
 is sufficient prima facie evidence to re- 
 quire a trial. For this purpose it may 
 summon witnesses which are usually for 
 the prosecution, the witnesses for the de- 
 fense not appearing until the prisoner 
 is brought to trial, before the petit jury. 
 If the prima facie evidence is sufficient 
 a bill of indictment is returned. The 
 grand jury also is supposed to inquire 
 into all matters affecting the general 
 conditions of the public weal and often 
 makes investigations of public abuses 
 with recommendations for their reform. 
 
 GRAND PRE, a beautiful village on 
 the basin of Minas, King’s county. 
 Nova Scotia; the scene of Longfellow’s 
 Evangeline. The French settlers there 
 M’ere expelled by Virginian colonists in 
 1613. Pop. 1600. 
 
 GRAND RAPIDS, county seat of Kent 
 CO., Michigan, situated on the rapids of 
 the Grand river, 40 miles from its mouth. 
 It is handsomely built, and has a pleas- 
 ant and healthy situation. It is con- 
 nected with the railway system of the 
 United States and Canada, and is an 
 
GRANGE 
 
 GRANULATION 
 
 important center for the distribution of 
 
 f )ine and hard-wood lumber. It has 
 arge manufactures of furniture, wooden 
 ware, agricultural implements, brushes, 
 machinery, etc. Pop. 114,000. 
 
 GRANGE, in the United States, a com- 
 bination, society, or lodge of farmers for 
 the purpose of promoting the interests 
 of agriculture, more espe_ci&lly for 
 abolishing the restraints and burdens 
 imposed on it by the commercial classes, 
 the railroad and canal companies, etc., 
 and for doing away with middlemen. 
 Granges originated in the great agri- 
 cultural regions of the Mississippi, and 
 still prevail most generally ther^. 
 
 GRANGERS, the local lodges of the 
 patrons of husbandry organized in 1867 
 at Washington were called granges and 
 hence the nickname of {he secret society. 
 Its object was to aid the farmers by 
 enabling them to co-operate and pur- 
 chase their supplies at first hand and by 
 offering opportunities for social and in- 
 tellectual improvement. Lack of business 
 training caused financial reverses in 
 many of the enterprises which were 
 undertaken. Entering politics the asso- 
 ciation in the middle west threw its sup- 
 port to candidates representing their 
 theories and in 1873 and 1874 carried 
 the legislatures of Illinois and Wisconsin 
 which passed stringent law's directed 
 against “extortion and unjust discrimi- 
 nation in the rates charged for the trans- 
 portation of passengers and freights.” 
 The acts were subsequently repealed 
 when the grangers lost their influence. 
 
 GRANTLITE, indeterminate granite; 
 granite that contains more than three 
 constituent parts. 
 
 GRANIL'LA, the dust or small grains 
 of the cochineal insect. 
 
 GRANITE, an unstratified rock, com- 
 posed generally of the minerals quartz, 
 felspar, and mica, mixed up without 
 regular arrangement of the crystals. The 
 grains vary in size from that of a pin’s 
 head to a mass of 2 or 3 feet, but they 
 seldom exceed the size of a large gaming 
 die. When they are of this size or, larger, 
 the granite is said to be “coarse-grained.” 
 Granite is an igneous or fire-formed rock 
 which has been exposed to great heat 
 and pressure deep down in the earth. 
 It is one of the most abundant of the 
 igneous rocks seen at or near the surface 
 of the earth, and was formerly con- 
 sidered as the foundation rock of the 
 globe, or that upon wiiich all sedimen- 
 tary rocks repose; but it is now known to 
 belong to the various ages from the Pre- 
 Cambrian to the Tertiary, the Alps of 
 Europe containing granite of the later 
 age. In Alpine situations it presents the 
 appearance of having broken through 
 the more superficial strata; the beds of 
 other rocks in the vicinity rising toward 
 it at increasing angles of elevation as 
 they approach it. It forms some of the 
 most lofty of the mountain chains of the 
 eastern continent, and the central parts 
 of the principal mountain ranges of 
 'Scandinavia, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and 
 the Carpathian Mountains are of this 
 rock. Granite supplies the most durable 
 materials for building, as many of the 
 ancient Egyptian monuments testify. 
 It varies much in hardness as well as in 
 color, in accordance with the nature 
 and proportion of its constituent parts. 
 
 so that there is much room for care and 
 taste in its selection. Granite in which 
 felspar predominates is not well adapted 
 for buildings, as it cracks and crumbles 
 down in a few years. The Aberdeen 
 bluish-gray granite is celebrated for its 
 great durability, and also for its beauty. 
 The Peterhead red granite, the hue of 
 which is due to its felspar being the 
 flesh-colored potash variety called or- 
 thoclase, is highly esteemed for polished 
 work, as columns, pillars, graveyard 
 monuments, etc. Granite, in which 
 mica is replaced by hornblende is called 
 syenite; when both mica and hornblende 
 are present it is called syenitic granite ; 
 when talc ‘supplants mica it is called 
 protogene, talcose, or chloritic granite; 
 a mixture of quartz and hypersthene, 
 with scattered flakes of mica, is called 
 hypersthenic granite; and the name of 
 graphic granite, or gepmatite, is given 
 to a variety composed of felspar and 
 quartz, with a little white mica, so 
 arranged as to produce an irregular, 
 laminar structure. When a section 
 of this latter mineral is made at 
 right angles to the alternations of 
 the constituent materials, broken 
 lines resembling Hebrew characters 
 present themselves; hence the name. 
 Granite abounds in crystallized earthy 
 minerals; and these occur for the most 
 part in veins traversing the mass of the 
 rock. Of these minerals beryl, garnet, 
 and tourmaline are the most abundant. 
 It is not rich in metallic ores. The 
 oriental basalt, found in rolled masses 
 in the deserts of Egypt, and of which the 
 Egyptians made tneir statues, is a true 
 granite, its black color being caused by 
 the presence of hornblende and the 
 black shade of the mica. The oriental 
 red ganite chiefly found in Egypt, and 
 of which I Pompey’s Pillar and Cleo- 
 patra’s Needles were constructed, is 
 composed of large grains or imperfectly 
 formed crystals of flesh-colored felspar, 
 of transparent quartz, and of black 
 hornblende. 
 
 ^lANT, in law, a gift in writing of 
 suCn a thing as cannot be passed or con- 
 veyed by word only ; thus, a graUt is the 
 regular method by the common law of 
 transferring the property of incorporeal 
 hereditaments, or such things whereof 
 no actual delivery of possession can be 
 had. 
 
 GRANT, Ulysses S., general and presi- 
 dent of the United States, born in 1822 
 at Point Pleasant, in Clermont co., 
 Ohio. His real name was Hiram Ulysses 
 Grant, the name afterwards used by 
 him having arisen out of an error in 
 the registration of his c^adetship. After 
 having studied in the military academy 
 at West Point, he served during the 
 Mexican war, taking part in every battle 
 except Buena Vista, and being brevetted 
 captain for gallantry. In 1854 he re- 
 signed his commission and engaged first 
 in farming near St. Louis, and thgn in 
 the leather trade with his father at 
 Galena, Illinois. On the declaration of 
 war in 1861 he was chosen captain of a 
 company of volunteers, and was rapidly 
 promoted to a brigadier-generalship of 
 volunteers. He seized Paducah, com- 
 manding the Tennessee and Ohio navi- 
 gation, checked the departure of rein- 
 forcements from Belmont, captured 
 
 Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, and 
 won the two days’ battle of Shiloh. He 
 then gained a new victory at Juka, and 
 after repulsing the confederates before 
 Corinth commenced operations against 
 Vicksburg. After a siege of some montlis 
 in the course of which he took the town 
 of Jackson, and scattered an army under 
 Johnston, the town surrendered. For 
 this Grant was made major-general in 
 the regular army, and placed in com- 
 mand of the Mississippi division. The 
 battles of Chickamauga and Chatta- 
 nooga, which followed, opened the way 
 into Georgia for the federal troops. In 
 Feb. 1864, he was appointed lieutenant- 
 general, and assumed command of the 
 armies of the United States. In a suc- 
 cession of hotly-contested battles at the 
 Wilderness, Spottsylvania, North Anna, 
 and Cold Harbor, he steadily advanced 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant. 
 
 on Petersburg and Richmond. These 
 speedily fell, and Lee, defeated at Five 
 Forks and completely surrounded, sur- 
 rendered to Grant, April 9, 1865. Grant 
 returned to Washington, and in 1866 
 was made general of the armies of the 
 United States. After exercising an im- 
 portant influence during the presidency 
 of Johnson, Lincoln’s successor, he was 
 himself elected president in 1868. His 
 administration allayed the soreness 
 which still survived from the great 
 struggle between the states, and was 
 also noteworthy for the reduction of the 
 national debt and the settlement of the 
 Alabama dispute V'ith England. He 
 was re-elected in 1872. On his retirement 
 he spent some time in travel. Latterly 
 he became involved in a bubble com- 
 pany which exploited his name and left 
 him heavily in debt. He manfully en- 
 deavored to repair his fortune by writ- 
 ing and publishing his Memoirs, and in 
 this he was successful, though suffering 
 greatly from the cancerous disease of 
 which de died in 1885. 
 
 GRANULATION, the subdivision of a 
 metal into small pieces or thin Aims, 
 effected either by pouring the metal in a 
 fine stream or through a sieve into^ 
 water. It is employed in chemistry to* 
 
GRANULATION 
 
 GRATTAN 
 
 increase the surface, so as to render the 
 metal more susceptible to the action of 
 reagents, and in metallurgy for the sub- 
 division of a tough metal like eopper. 
 Small shot is made by a species of granu- 
 lation. 
 
 g:^nulation, in surgery, the for- 
 mation of little grain-like fleshy bodies 
 on the surfaces of ulcers and suppurating 
 "Wounds, serving both for filling up the 
 •cavities and bringing nearer together 
 ■and uniting their sides. The color of 
 healthy granulations is a deep florid red. 
 When livid they are unhealthy, and have 
 only a languid circulation. 
 
 GRAWVELLA, or GRANVELLE, An- 
 toine Perrenot, Cardinal de, minister of 
 state to Charles V. and Philip II. of 
 Spain, was born in 1517 near Besangon. 
 He studied at Padua and at Louvain, in 
 Ihis twenty-third year was appointed 
 Bishop of Arras, and was present at the 
 (diets at Worms and Ratisbon. In 1545 
 Ihe was sent to the Council of Trent, and 
 lon the death of his father in 1550 was 
 appointed by Charles V. to succeed him 
 in the office of chancellor. In 1552 he 
 negotiated the Treaty of Passau, and in 
 1553 arranged the marriage of Don 
 Philip with Mary Queen of England. 
 Under Philip II. he remained chief 
 minister, and in 1559 negotiated the 
 peace of Cateau-Cambr^sis. In 1570 
 Philip sent him to Rome to conclude an 
 alliance with the pope and the Venetians 
 against the Turks, and afterward to 
 Naples as viceroy. In 1575 he was re- 
 called to Spain, and placed at the head 
 of the government with the title of 
 president of the supreme council of 
 Italy and Castile. In 1584 he was created 
 Archbishop of Besangon, and died at 
 Madrid in 1586. 
 
 GRANVILLE, Granville George Leve- 
 .'son-Gower, 2d Earl, K. G., English 
 statesman, was born in London in 1815; 
 ■educated at Eton and Christ Church, 
 Oxford: entered parliament in 1836 for 
 Morpeth, afterward for Lichfield, both 
 in the liberal interest. In 1868 he was 
 • colonial secretary under Gladstone, and 
 on the death of Clarendon in 1870 suc- 
 ceeded to the secretaryship of foreign 
 affairs, which he held until 1874. During 
 this period he negotiated the treaty of 
 1870, guaranteeing the independence of 
 Belgium, and “protested” against the 
 Russian repudiation of the Black Sea 
 clause of the treaty of Paris. On the 
 return of Gladstone to office in 1880 Lord 
 Granville again became foregin secretary 
 until Lord Salisbury came into power in 
 1885. He died in 1891. 
 
 GRAPE. See Vine. 
 
 GRAPE-SHOT, a kin d of shot gen- 
 erally consisting of three tiers of cast 
 iron balls arranged, three in a tier, be- 
 tween four parallel iron discs connected 
 together by a central wrought-iron pin. 
 Case-shot is now more used than grape- 
 shot. 
 
 GRAPH'ITE, one of the forms under 
 which carbon occurs in nature, also 
 known under the names of Plumbago, 
 Black-lead, and Wad. It occurs not un- 
 frequently as a mineral produetion, and 
 is found in great purity at Borrowdale In 
 Cumberland, and in large quantities in 
 Canada, Ceylon, and Bohemia. Graphite 
 may be heated to any extent in close 
 vessels without change ; it is exceedingly 
 
 unchangeable in the air; it has an iron-: 
 gray color, metallic luster, and granular 
 texture, and is soft and unctuous to 
 the touch. It is used chiefly in the manu- 1 
 facture of pencils, crucibles, and portable j 
 furnaces, in burnishing iron to protect 
 it from rust, for giving a smooth surface 
 to casting moulds, for coating wax or 
 other impressions of objects designed to 
 be electrotyped, and for counteracting 
 friction between the rubbing surfaces 
 of M^ood or metal in machinery. 
 
 GRAPNEL, or GRAPLING, a sort of 
 small anchor, fitted with four or five 
 flukes or claws, and commonly used to 
 fasten boats or other small vessels. The 
 name was also given to the grappling- 
 iron formerly used in naval engagements 
 to hold one ship to another. 
 
 GRASS-CLOTH, the name of certain 
 beautiful light fabrics made in the East 
 from China grass. None of the plants 
 yielding the fiber are grasses. 
 
 GRASSES, a very extensive and im- 
 portant order of endogenous plants, 
 comprising about 250 genera and 4500 
 species, including many of the most 
 valuable pasture-plants, all those which 
 yield corn, the sugar-cane, the tall and 
 graceful bamboo, etc. The nutritious 
 herbage and farinaceous seed furnished 
 by many of them render them of in- 
 calculable importance, while the stems 
 and leaves are useful for various textile 
 and other purposes. The roots are 
 fibrous; the stem or culm is usually 
 cylindrical and jointed, varying in length 
 from a few inches to 80 or 90 feet, as in 
 the bamboo(in the sugar-eane the stem 
 is solid, but porous), and coated with 
 silex; leaves, one to each node or joint, 
 with a sheathing petiole; spikelets 
 terminal, panicled, racemose, or spiked; 
 flowers hermaphrodite or polygamous, 
 destitute of true calyx or corolla, sur- 
 rounded by a double set of bracts, the 
 outer constituting the glumes, the inner 
 thq palese; stamens hypogynous, three 
 or six ; filaments long and flaccid ; anthers 
 versatile; ovary solitary, simple, with 
 two (rarely three) styles, one-celled, 
 with a single ovule; fruit kno"wn as a 
 caryopsis, the seed and the pericarp 
 being inseparable from each other. The 
 more important divisions of the natural 
 order of grasses are; the millet, fundi, 
 Guinea^rass, the sugar-cane, dhurra, 
 lemon-grass, gama-grass, etc., (maize. 
 Job’s tears, canary-grass, foxtail- 
 grass, soft-grass, Timothy grass, rice, 
 feather-grass, (esparto) ; bent-grass, 
 oats, vernal grass; fescue, meadow- 
 grass, manna-grass, teff, cock’s-foot 
 grass, tussac grass, dog’s-tail grass; 
 bamboo; wheat, barley, rye, spelt, rye- 
 grass, l}mie-grass. In its popular use 
 the term grasses is ehiefly applied to the 
 pasture grasses as distinct from the 
 eereals, etc.; but it is also applied to 
 some herbs, which are not in any strict 
 sense grasses at all, e.g. rib-grass, scurvy 
 and whitlow grass. After the culture of 
 herbage and forage plants became an 
 important branch of husbandry, it be- 
 came customary to call the clovers, 
 trefoils, sainfoin, and other flowering 
 plants growns as fodder, artificial grasses 
 by way of distinction from the grasses 
 proper, which were termed natural 
 grasses. Of the pasture grasses, some 
 thrive in meadows, others in marshes, on 
 
 upland fields, or on bleak hills, and they S 
 by no means grow indiscriminately. * 
 GRASS'HOPPER, the name of various^, 
 leaping insects nearly akin to the locusts. T 
 They are characterized by very long and ^ 
 slender legs, the thighs of the hinder legs 
 being large and adapted for leaping, by 
 large and delicate wings, and by the 
 wing-covers extending far beyond the * 
 extremity of the abdomen. Grass- 
 hoppers form an extensive group of 
 insects, and are distinguished by the 4 
 power which they possess of leaping to a k 
 considerable distance, and by the stridu- 5 
 lous chirping noise the males produce by 4 
 rubbing their wing-covers together. 
 They are generally of a greenish color. f ’ 
 GRASS-OIL, Oil of Geranium, or Oil 
 of Spikenard, a fragrant volatile oil, ^ 
 used chiefly ift perfumery, and obtained * 
 from Indian grasses. 
 
 GRASS-TREE, the popular name of a .j 
 genus of Australian plants, having c 
 stubby stems -with tufts of long grass- < 
 like wiry foliage, from the center of K 
 which arise the tall flower-stalks, which 
 
 sometimes reach the height of 15 or 20 
 feet, and bear dense cylindrical spikes or % 
 blossoms at their summit. The base of ^ 
 the leaves forms, when roasted, an Js 
 agreeable article of diet,' and the leaves 
 themselves are used as fodder for all 
 kinds of cattle. A resin, known in com- X 
 merce as akaroid resin, is obtained from 
 all the species, which are also popularly j* 
 known as black-boys. S 
 
 GRATTAN, Henry, Irish orator and « 
 statesman, born at Dublin, in 1746; « 
 called to the Irish bar in 1772, and in M 
 
 Henry Grattan. 
 
 1775 elected member for Charlton in] 
 the parliament of Ireland. In 1780 he] 
 moved resolutions asserting the crown! 
 to be the only link between Britain anw 
 Ireland, and in 1782 led the volunteeq 
 movement, which w'as instrumental ini 
 securing the concession of independency 
 
GRATZ 
 
 ^to Ireland. In 1800 he came forward 
 as member for Wicklow to oppose the 
 union, and on the passage of Pitt’s 
 measure was returned to the imperial 
 parliament in 1805 for Malton in York- 
 shire, and in 1806 for Dublin. He sup- 
 ported the war policy of the administra- 
 tion, but was latterly chiefly occupied 
 in promoting catholic emancipation. 
 He died in 1820, and was interred in 
 Westminster Abbey. 
 
 GRATZ, or GRAZ, a town of Austria, 
 capital of Styria, pieturesquely situated 
 on the Mur, 90 miles south-west of 
 Vienna. ' The older town on the left 
 bank, is connected with the suburbs 
 Lend and Gries, on the right by several 
 bridges, besides a railway bridge. The 
 Schlossberg rises 400 feet above the 
 river, but the fortifications of the town 
 have given place to avenues and pleas- 
 ure grounds. The manufactures consist 
 of woolens, cotton, and silk tissues, ma- 
 chinery, steel, rails, wagons, soap, 
 leather, ironware, etc. Pop. 138,370. 
 
 GRAVEL, in pathology, small concre- 
 tions or calculi in the kidneys or blad- 
 der. 
 
 GRAVING, the act of cleaning and 
 repairing a ship’s bottom. At seaports 
 this is usually done in a dry-dock called 
 a graving-dock. See Docks. 
 
 GRAVITATION, the force by reason of 
 which all the bodies and particles of 
 matter in the universe tend toward one 
 another. According to the law of gravi- 
 tation discovered by Newton, every 
 portion of matter attracts every other 
 portion with a force directly proportional 
 to the product of the two masses, and 
 inversely proportional to the square of 
 the distance between them. Kepler had 
 given the laws, deduced from observa- 
 tion, according to which the planets de- 
 scribe their orbits. From these Newton 
 deduced the laws of the force in the case 
 of planets; and subsequently he general- 
 ized the statement of them, by showing 
 the identity of the nature of the force 
 that retains the moon in her orbit, with 
 that which attracts matter near to the 
 surface of the earth. The application of 
 , the grand law that he had discovered 
 subsequently occupied a large part of 
 the mathematical labors of Newton. 
 Attacking the problem of lunar in- 
 equalities, he accounted for them by 
 - considering the perturbations due to the 
 attraction of various bodies of the solar 
 system; and by accounting for all the 
 observed perturbations by means of his 
 newly-discovered law he confirmed the 
 truth of the law itself in such a way as to 
 put it beyond all question. The com- 
 putation of these various attractions has 
 , reached such a degree of accuracy in the 
 hands of mathematicians since Newton, 
 that the most complicated motions of 
 the heavenly bodies can be predicted. 
 The law has also been applied success- 
 fully in weighing the planets, explaining 
 the paths of comets, the motions of the 
 tidal wav&, etc. It has also been demon- 
 strated to hold good in the case of com- 
 paratively small bodies. Thus Maskelyn 
 determined the attraction of a particular 
 mountain, and Cavendish and Bailly 
 measured the attractions of a ball of 
 lead on light finely-balanced bodies, 
 ■ and thus determined the mean density 
 of the earth. 
 
 GRAVITY, the term applied to the 
 force with which the earth attracts every 
 particle of matter. The force of gravity 
 is least at the equator, and gradually 
 increases as we recede toward the poles. 
 Thus a given mass, if tested by means of 
 a spring-balance of sufficient delicacy, 
 would appear to weigh least at the 
 equator, and would seem to get heavier 
 and heavier as the latitude increases. 
 This is due to two causes : first, the centrif- 
 ugal force at the equator is greater than 
 that in high latitudes because of the 
 greater radius of the circle described at 
 that place; and, second, the attraction is 
 diminished by the greater distance of 
 objects on the surface from the earth’s 
 center. From both causes combined a 
 body which weighs 194 lbs. at the equator 
 would weigh 195 lbs. at either pole. 
 Experiments to determine the force of 
 gravity from point to point are made by 
 determining the length of a pendulum 
 that beats seconds at each place. By 
 experiments made by Captain Kater at 
 Leith Fort it was found that the force of 
 gravity at that place is such that a body, 
 unresisted by air or otherwise, would 
 acquire in one second, under its in- 
 fluence, a velocity of 32.207 feet per 
 second. At Greenwich the acceleration 
 is 32.1912 feet. 
 
 GRAVITY, Specific. See Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 GRAY, Asa, American botanist, born 
 1810. He was appointed Fisher profes- 
 sor of natural history in Harvard uni- 
 versity in 1842, and held 'the chair till 
 1873, when he retired from its more 
 active duties. His death took place in 
 1888. His works include Elements of 
 Botany (1836), A Manual of Botany 
 (1848), and other botanical text-books; 
 also portions of works on the flora of 
 North America and the Genera Boreali- 
 Americana, a Free Examination of Dar- 
 win’s Treatise (1861), a volume entitled 
 Darwiniana (1876), etc. 
 
 GRAY, Elisha, American inventor, 
 born in 1835 at Barnesville, in Ohio. 
 In 1867 he obtained his first patent, 
 which was for telegraphic apparatus. 
 Subsequently, he received nearly fifty 
 patents, relating principally to the 
 telephone and other electrical apparatus. 
 Claims were advanced in behalf of Gray 
 as one of the inventors of the speaking 
 telephone, for which he filed specifica- 
 tions, February 14, 1876; but the patent 
 was awarded to Alexander Graham Bell, 
 whose rights were sustained by the 
 supreme court.- Among his other in- 
 ventions wete a system of multiplex 
 telegraphy, a type-printing telegraph, 
 the telautograph, and numerous tele- 
 graphic and telephonic appliances and 
 adjuncts. He was for a number of years 
 engaged in the manufacture of tele- 
 graphic apparatus in Chicago and Cleve- 
 land. He died in 1901. 
 
 GRAY, Thomas, English poet, born in 
 London in 1716; educated at Eton with 
 Horace Walpole, and at Cambridge. 
 In 1747 his Ode on a Distant Prospect of 
 Eton College appeared, and in 1751 his 
 Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, 
 which went through four editions) in two 
 months. In 1757 he declined the 
 laureateship, and the same year pub- 
 lished his odes. On the Progress of 
 Poesy, and The Bard. He died in 1771, 
 
 GREAT FALL.'?. 
 
 and was buried at Stoke Pogis, Bucking-- 
 ham shire. 
 
 GRAY-LAG, a popular name for the 
 
 Gray-lag. 
 
 common wild goose. See Goose. 
 
 GRAYLING, a genus of fishes. The? 
 common grayling is found in many 
 English streams, and also in some in; 
 
 Gi-ayling. 
 
 Scotland. It is scattered over Europe 
 from Lapland to North Italy, and aDo 
 over part of Asia. 
 
 GREAT BAHAMA. See Bahama. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. See the articles 
 Britain, England, Scotland, and Wales. 
 
 GREAT CIRCLE SAILING, or TAN- 
 GENT SAILING, a method of navigating 
 a vessel according to which her course is 
 always kept as nearly as possible on a 
 great circle of the sphere, that is a 
 circle which has for its center the 
 center of the sphere. An arc o'? such a 
 circle joining two places gives the shortest 
 distance between them, consequently 
 the course of a vessel sailing on this arc 
 will be the shortest possible. A simple 
 instrument called a spherograph is 
 employed for finding the^ great circle 
 course between places, and this is ac- 
 companied by tables compiled for the 
 same purpose. 
 
 GREAT EASTERN, an iron steam- 
 ship, the largest vessel of her time, built 
 (1854-58) at Millwall, on the Thames; 
 length, feet; breadth, 82J, or, in- 
 cluding paddle-boxes, 118 feet; height, 
 58 feet (70 to top -of bulwarks). She 
 had six masts, five of iron and one of 
 wood, and could spread 7000 yards of 
 sail, besides having eight engines,, 
 divided between her screws and paddles,, 
 and capable of working at 11,000 horse- 
 power. From the first her career was 
 unfortunate, the launching process 
 alone lasting three months and costing 
 $300,000. After several unremunerative 
 trips to New York she was employed 
 first as a troopship, and then as a cable- 
 laying ship for which her size and steadi- 
 ness specially qualified her. Various 
 attempts were afterward made to utilize 
 her, but she at last came to be a mere 
 holiday spectacle, and was broken up in 
 1 888 
 
 GREAT FALLS, a city and port of 
 -entry; county seat of Cascade co., 
 Mont., at the junction of the Sun and 
 Missouri rivers, near the falls of Missouri, 
 I and on the G. F. and Canada, the Gt. 
 
GREAT LAKES 
 
 GREECE 
 
 Northern, and several branch railways. 
 It is in an agricultural region, and near 
 by are rich mines of gold, copper, silver, 
 lead, ore, and coal, and quarries of 
 sandstone. Fop. 17,430. 
 
 GREAT LAKES, comprising lakes 
 Superior, Michigan, Huron, Saint Clair, 
 Erie, -and Ontario. They lie on the 
 frontier of the United States and Canada 
 and are drained by the Saint Lawren'ce 
 river into the Atlantic. Their aggregate 
 area is over 90,000 sq. miles, exceed- 
 ing that of any other series of fresh- 
 water lakes in the world. Lake Superior, 
 the largest, has an area of about 31,000 
 sq. miles. The Great Lakes occupy 
 depressions that are only slightly de- 
 fined from the drainage system of the 
 Mississippi and from the depression of 
 Hudson Bay. Their elevation ranges 
 from about 600 feet in Lake Superior 
 to 250 feet in Lake Ontario, but from 
 Lake Superior to Lake Erie the fall is 
 less than 30 feet, so that almost the 
 entire descent is accomplished in the 
 Niagara and Saint Lawrence rivers. 
 The Great Lakes exercise a very bene- 
 ficial influence upon the climate of the 
 country, particularly by moderating the 
 temperature. This explains the exten- 
 ' sive development of fruit culture in part 
 of the Great Lake region, notably in the 
 vicinity of Lake Erie. 
 
 The magnitude and importance of 
 transportation upon the Great Lakes 
 are not generally realized. More than 
 one-half of the number of vessels regis- 
 tered in the United States are found 
 upon the Great Lakes. A greater ton- 
 nage annually passes through the Detroit 
 river than that which enters and clears 
 in the foreign trade of the Atlantic 
 and Pacific coast ports. No other arti- 
 ficial channel equals the canal at Saint 
 Mary’s Falls intheamountof trafficwhich 
 annually goes through it, the tonnage 
 even exceeding that of the Suez Canal 
 With respect to rapidity, economy, and 
 efficiency, the lake traffic excels that of 
 the ocean. The greatest significance of 
 the lakes is due to their relation to the 
 mining of iron ore and the manufacture 
 of iron products. Viewed in this light, 
 lake transportation is found to be the 
 key to the modern industrial progress 
 and supremacy of the United States. 
 It is generally admittedjjiat but for the 
 cheapness of the lake transportation the 
 iron ore resources of the Lake Superior 
 region would have been scarcely ex- 
 ploited. Without the supply of iron ore 
 many vast industries could not have 
 thrived. 
 
 There are numerous harbors along 
 the coast line of the lakes. Many of these 
 havens are shallow, and constant dredg- 
 ing is required to keep them accessible. 
 The national government has expended 
 large sums on harbor improvements. In 
 late years there has been a serious lower- 
 ing in the level of the lakes’ surface, to 
 the great detriment of the harbors. 
 Different plans have been projected for 
 preventing further harm in this respect. 
 Dams have been constructed across the 
 exit channels of the lakes. One of the 
 most serious advantages with which the 
 lake commerce has to contend is the 
 winter ice, which stops all traffic. The 
 cessation of general lake traffic begins 
 about the first of December and con- 
 
 tinues four or five months, about 222 
 days being the average annual time 
 during which the canals are open. Much 
 has recently been done to continue the 
 period of traffic by the construction of 
 boats -with special provisions for ice 
 crushing. A railroad ferryboat has also 
 been constructed which is able to crush 
 its way through three feet of ice. 
 
 The Great Lakes are valuable for their 
 fisheries. Nearly $4,500,000 of fish is 
 taken from them annually, considerably 
 over half by American fishermen. 
 
 GREAT SALT LAKE, a lake in the 
 state of Utah, 4000 feet above sea-level, 70 
 miles in length north to south and 48 
 miles east to west. Five gallons of its 
 water yield, by evaporation, 14 pints of 
 salt. It has several islands, which, with 
 its shores, are whitened by the salt ; 
 and it receives the Bear, the Utah, and 
 several other streams. It contains no 
 fish, but has several species of insects 
 and a crustacean, and is frequented by 
 immense flocks of gulls, ducks, geese, 
 and swans. 
 
 GREBE, the common name of the 
 birds characterized by a straight coni- 
 cal bill, no tail, tarsus short, toes 
 flattened, separate, but broadly fringed 
 at their edges by a firm membrane, and 
 
 Horned grebe. 
 
 legs set so far back that on land the 
 grebe assumes the upright position of 
 the penguin. The geographical distri- 
 bution is very wide, these birds haunt- 
 ing seas as well as ponds and rivers. 
 They are excellent swimmers and divers; 
 feed on small fishes, frogs, crustaceans, 
 and insects; and their nests, formed of a 
 large quantity of grass, etc., are generally 
 placed among reeds and sedges, and rise 
 and fall with the water. 
 
 GREECE, a country, now a kingdom, 
 of Southeastern Europe, the earliest 
 portion of this continent to attain a high 
 degree of civilization, and to produce 
 works of art and literature as yet unsur- 
 passed. It forms the southern ex- 
 tremity- of what is called the Balkan 
 Peninsula, and itself partly consists of a 
 well-marked peninsula, the Morea or 
 Peloponnesus, united to Northern 
 Greece by the Isthmus of Corinth. The 
 name Greece (Latin, Graecia) is of Roman 
 origin, the native name for the country 
 being Hellas, and the people calling 
 themselves Hellenes. Anciently Hellas 
 was used in a wider sense, so as to in- 
 clude both Greece itself and all countries 
 that had become Greek by colonization. 
 Modern Greece is separated from Turkey 
 on the north by a winding, mostly 
 artificial, boundary extending from the 
 Gulf of Arta on the west to the Gulf of 
 Salonica on the east, and comprising 
 rather less than ancient Greece, which 
 also took in part of what is now Albania. 
 Ancient Greece was divided into a num- 
 ber of independent states or territories, 
 namely, in Northern Greece, Thessaly, 
 Epirus (not in the modern kingdom), 
 Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, (Etolia, Acar- 
 
 nania, Attica, Megaris; in the Pelopon- 
 nesus, Corinth, Argolis, Achaia, Elis, 
 Messenia, Laconia (Sparta), and Arcadia 
 the last entirely inland These names 
 are still kept up, but the country is now 
 divided into nomes, or nomarchies, 
 some of which are formed of the Greek 
 islands, namely, Eubjea, Corfu, Ceph- 
 alonia, Zante, and the Cyclades. The 
 total area is 25,014 sq. miles; the pop. 
 2,433,806. 
 
 Greece proper is remarkable for the 
 extent of its coast-line, formed by 
 numerous gulfs which penetrate into it 
 in all directions. The largest, the Cor- 
 inthian Gulf, or Gulf of Lepanto, on the 
 east, and the Saronic Gulf, or Gulf of 
 .iEgina, on the west, which nearly meet 
 at the Isthmus of Corinth, separate 
 Northern Greece from the Morea.* An- 
 other striking feature is the mountain- 
 ous character of the interior. The rock 
 most largely developed in the moun- 
 tains of Greece is limestone, which often 
 assumes the form of the finest marble. 
 Granite occurs in patches. 
 
 The climate is generally mild, in the 
 parts exposed to the sea equable and 
 genial, but in the mountainous regions 
 of the interior ^metimes very cold. In 
 ancient times, when the country was 
 more thickly peopled and better culti- 
 vated, the climate seems to have been 
 better. ■* 
 
 Greece is mainly an agricultural 
 country, though agriculture is in a some- 
 what backward state. The land is 
 largely held by peasant proprietors. The 
 principal crops are wheat, barley, and 
 corn. The cultivated land produces all 
 the fruits of the latitude — figs, alnronds, 
 dates, oranges, citrons, melons, etc. The 
 vine also grows vigorously, as it did in 
 ancient Greece. But a much more im- 
 portant produce of Greece, especially 
 on the coasts of the Peloponnesus, and 
 in the islands of Cephalonia, Zante, 
 Ithaca, and Santa Maura, is the Corinth- 
 ian grape or currant. The olive is also 
 largely grown as in ancient times. The 
 domestic animals are neither numerous 
 nor of good breeds. Asses are almost 
 the only beasts of burden employed; 
 and dairy produce is obtained from the 
 sheep and the goat. 
 
 The manufactures are extremely 
 limited, but with all other branches of 
 industry in Greece are increasing. They 
 include cottons, woolens, earthenware, 
 leather, etc.; and ship-building is carried 
 on largely at various points of the coast, 
 and at the Piraeus. The greatest hin- 
 drance to the development of Greece at 
 the present time is the want of good 
 roads, but this is being gradually re- 
 remedied. The money unit of Greece is 
 the drachma of 100 lepta, which is 
 nominally 1 franc. 
 
 According to the present constitution 
 the throne is hereditary in the family of 
 King George (second son of the King of 
 Denmark). The legislative authority 
 is vested in a single chamber, called the 
 Boule, the members of which (propor- 
 tioned in number to the amount of the 
 population) are elected for four years, 
 ballot by manhood suffrage. The execu- 
 tive power rests with the king and min- 
 istry. The Greek Church alone is estab- 
 lished, but all forms of religion enjoy 
 toleration. Justice is administered, on 
 
GREECE 
 
 GREECE 
 
 the basis of the Erench civil code. 
 Greece has a large public debt, an esti- 
 mated total being 1115,000,000. All 
 able-bodied males are liable to military 
 service from the age of 21, the periods 
 being two years in the active army, ten 
 in the reserve, eight in the national 
 guard, and ten in the national guard 
 reserve. In 1900 the total nominal 
 strength of the army was 25,333. The 
 navy consisted of five ironclads (three of 
 them of some fighting power), and a 
 number of other vessels. Several vessels 
 are being added. 
 
 The ancient Greeks were an Aryan 
 race, pj?obably most closely akin to the 
 Italian peoples. They were noted for 
 physical beauty and intellectual gifts. 
 The present'population contains a con- 
 siderable intermixture of foreign stocks, 
 among which the Albanese, or Arnauts, 
 are the most numerous; but the great 
 majority, though not without some 
 taint in their blood, ar 9 of Greek extrac- 
 tion. While the population of Greece 
 proper is not more than 2,400,000, the 
 whole Greek nationality reaches nearly 
 8,000,000, of whom 3,500,000 are found 
 in European Turkey and 2,000,000._in 
 Asia Minor. Education in Greece is free 
 and compulsory in theory (from the 
 age of five to twelve), but a large propor- 
 tion of the people can neither read nor 
 write. The national dress of the Greeks 
 resembles the .Albanian costume. In 
 the men it consists of a tight jacket, 
 generally scarlet, wide trousers descend- 
 ing as far as the knee,-and embroidered 
 gaiters; in the women it consists of a 
 vest fitting close to the shape, and a 
 gown flowing loosely behind. 
 
 The earliest inhabitants of Greece 
 were the Pelasgians, of whom little or 
 nothing is knov/n with certainty. The 
 Pelasgians were sueceeded by the 
 Hellenes, or Greeks proper, who may 
 have been simply one of the Pelasgian 
 tribes or races. To the early period of the 
 Hellenic occupation of Greece belong 
 the legends of the Trojan War, of 
 Theseus, of Jason and the Argonauts, 
 etc. The Hellenes were divided into four 
 chief tribes — the .^olians, occupying 
 the northern parts of Greece (Thessaly, 
 Bseotia, etc.); the Dorians, occupying 
 originally a small region in the neigh- 
 borhood of Mount CEta;'the Achaeans, 
 occupying the greater part of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus; and the Ionians,''bccupying 
 the northern strip of the Peloponnesus 
 and Attica. Of the four principal tribes 
 the lonians were most Influential in the 
 development of Greece. The distribu- 
 tion of the Hellenic tribes was greatly 
 altered by the Dorian migration, some- 
 times called “the return of the Herac- 
 leidae” (descendants of Hercules), placed 
 by Thucydides about eighty years 
 after the fall of Troy or about B.c. 
 1104, according to the ordinary chron- 
 ology. 
 
 In course of time many Greek settle- 
 ments were made on the coasts of the 
 Hellespont, the Propontis (Sea of Mar- 
 mora), and the Black Sea, the most im- 
 portant being Byzantium (Constanti- 
 noi)le), Sinope, Cerasus, and Trapezus 
 (Trebizonde). There were also flourish- 
 ing Greek colonies on the coasts of 
 Thrace and Macedonia; for example, 
 Abdera, Amphipolis, Olyntlius, Po- 
 
 tidsca, etc.; and the Greek colonies in 
 Lower Italy were so numerous that the 
 inhabitants of the interior spoke Greek, 
 and the whole region received the name 
 of Greater Greece (Magna Graecia). 
 
 Although ancient Greece never formed 
 a single state, the various Greek tribes 
 always looked upon themselves as one 
 people, and classed all other nations as 
 barbaroi (foreigners). There were four 
 chief bonds of union between the Greek 
 tribes. First and chiefly they had a 
 common language, which, despite its 
 dialectic peculiarities, was understood 
 throughout all Hellas or the Greek 
 world. Secondly,, they had common 
 religious ideas and institutions, and 
 especially, in the oracle of Delphi, a 
 common religious sanctuary. Thirdly, 
 there was a general assembly, of the 
 Greeks, the amphictyonic league, in 
 which the whole people was represented 
 by tribes (not by states), and the chief 
 functions of which were to guard the 
 interests of the sanctuary of Delphi, and 
 to see that the wars between the sepa- 
 rate states of Greece were not too merci- 
 less. The fourth bond consisted in the 
 four groat national festivals or games, 
 the (jlympian. Isthmian, Nemean, and 
 Pythian, on the first of which the whole 
 of Greece based its calendar. 
 
 The various separate states of Greece 
 may be divided, according to the form 
 of their constitution, into the two great 
 classes of aristocratic and democratic. 
 Sparta or Lacedtemon, the chief town of 
 Laconia and of the Doric tribe, was the 
 leading aristocratic state; and Athens, 
 the capital of Attica and the chief town 
 of the Ionic tribe, was the leading 
 democratic state; and as a rule all the 
 Doric states, and subsequently all those 
 under the influence of Sparta, re- 
 sembled that city in their constitution; 
 and all the Ionic states, and those under 
 the influence of Athens, resembled it. 
 These two tribes or races are the only 
 ones that come into prominence during 
 the earlier part of Greek history sub- 
 sequent to the Doric migration. Sparta 
 is said to have derived its form of gov- 
 ernment, and all its institutions, in the 
 9th century b.c., from Lycurgus, whose 
 regulations developed a hardy and wab- 
 like spirit among the people, the results 
 of which were seen in their conquests 
 over surrounding states, especially over 
 the Messenians in the 8th and 7th cen- 
 turies n.c. 
 
 The constitution of Athens appears 
 from the legends of Theseus and Codrus 
 to have been at first monarchical, and 
 afterward aristocratic, and to have 
 first received a more or less democratic 
 character from Solon at the beginning 
 of the sixth century B.c. This was fol- 
 lowed about fifty years later by a 
 monarchical usurpation under Pisistra- 
 tus, and his sons Hippias and Hippar- 
 chus, the last survivor of whom, Hippias 
 reigned in Athens till 510 b.c. After 
 the expulsion of Hippias the republic 
 was restored, under the leadership of 
 Cleisthenes, in a more purely demo- 
 cratic form than at first. A brief struggle 
 with the Spartans, whose aid was in- 
 voked by some of the nobles, now took 
 place, and Athens emerged from it well 
 prepared for the new danger which 
 threatened Greece. 
 
 The Greek colonies in Asia Minor and 
 the adjacent islands, after being con-- 
 quered by Croesus, king of Lydia, fell 
 with the fall of Crcesus into the power of 
 Cyrus, king of Persia. In b.c. 500, how^ 
 ever, the lonians revolted with the 
 assistance of the Athenians and Ere-' 
 trians, and pillaged and burned Sardis, 
 The rebellion was soon crushed by 
 Darius, who destroyed Miletus, and 
 prepared to invade Greece. In 492 he 
 sent an expedition against the Greeks 
 under his son-in-law Mardonius, but 
 the fleet which carried his army was 
 destroyed in a storm off Mount Athos. 
 A second army, under the command of 
 Datis and Artaphernes, landed on 
 Eubcea, and after destroying Eretria, 
 crossed the Euripus into Attica; but it 
 was totally defeated in b.c. 490 on the 
 plain of Marathon by 10,000 Athenians 
 and 1000 Platjeans, under Miltiades. 
 In the midst of preparations for a third 
 expedition Darius died, leaving his plans 
 to be carried out by his son Xerxes, who, 
 with an army of 1,700,000 men, crossed 
 the Hellespont in 481 by means of two 
 bridges of boats, and marched through 
 Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, while 
 his fleet followed the line of coast. In 
 the pass of Thermopylce he was held in 
 check by Leonidas with 300 Spartans 
 and 700 Thespians; but the small band_ 
 was betrayed and annihilated (480 b.c.) ; 
 and the way through Phocis and Bceotia 
 being now open he advanced into Attica, 
 and laid Athens in ruins. The deliver- 
 ance of Greece was chiefly due to the 
 genius and courage of Themistocles. 
 The united fleet of the Greeks had 
 already contended with success against 
 that of the Persians off Artemisium, 
 and had then sailed into the Saronic 
 Gulf, followed by the enemy. Themisto- 
 clcs succeeded in inducing the Persians 
 to attack in the narrow strait between 
 Attica and Salamis, and totally defeated 
 them. 
 
 The brilliant part taken by the 
 Athenians under Themistocles in re- 
 pelling this invasion of Athens greatly 
 increased her influence throughout 
 Greece. From this date begins the 
 period of the leadership or hegemony 
 of Athens in Greece, which continued 
 to the close of the Peloponnesian war, 
 404 n.c. The first thing which Athens 
 exerted her influence to effect was the 
 forjjaation of a confederacy, including 
 the Greek islands and maritime towns, 
 to supply means for the continuance of 
 the war by payments into a common 
 treasury established on the island of 
 Delos, arid by furnishing ships. In this 
 way Athens gradually increased her 
 power so much that she was able to 
 render tributary several of the islands 
 and smaller maritime states. In 469 
 b.c. the series of victories won by the 
 Athenians over the Persians was crowned 
 by the double victory of Cimon over the 
 Persian fleet and army on the Euryme- 
 don, in Asia Minor, followed by the 
 Peace of Cimon, which secured the in- 
 dependence of all Greek towns and 
 islands. Shortly after followed the bril- 
 liant administration of Pericles, during 
 which Athens reached the height of her 
 grandeur. 
 
 The position of Athens, however, and 
 the arrogance and severity with which 
 
GREECE 
 
 GREECE 
 
 ete ireate^ it’lie states that came under 
 her power made her many enemies. 
 In the course of time two hostile con- 
 federacies were formed in Greece, one 
 consisting of Athens and the democratic 
 states of Greece ; the other of Sparta and 
 the aristocratic states. At last, in 431, 
 it was declared by Sparta on the com- 
 plaint of Corinth that Athens had fur- 
 nished assistance to Corcyra in its war 
 against the mother city; and on that of 
 Megara, that the Megarean ships and 
 merchandise were excluded from all the 
 ports and markets of Attica; and thus 
 began the Peloponnesian war which 
 for twenty-seven years devastated 
 Greece. 
 
 The period which follows the fall of 
 Athens is that of Sparta’s leadership or 
 hegemony in Greece, which lasted till 
 the battle of Leuctra, in 371 b.c. The 
 Spartan rule was not more liked than 
 that of Athens, and the character of the 
 Spartan state itself, with its increase of 
 wealth and power, underwent great 
 change. 
 
 Philip, the father of Alexander the 
 ' Great, became king of Macedonia, and 
 after the Locrian war (339-338) ac- 
 quired a firm hold in Greece. He then 
 collected an army for the invasion and 
 . conquest of the rotten empire of Persia, 
 and got himself declared commander- 
 in-chief by the amphictyonic league at 
 Corinth in 337 b.c.; but before he was 
 able to start he was assassinated, b.c. 
 336. 
 
 The design of Philip was taken up 
 and carried out by his son Alexander 
 the Great, during whose absence Anti- 
 pater was left behind as governor of 
 Macedonia and Greece. Soon after the 
 departure of Alexander, Agis III. of 
 Sparta headed a rising against Antipater 
 but was defeated at Megalopolis in 330 
 B.c., and no other attempt was made by 
 •the Greeks to recover their liberty for 
 :nearly a hundred years. At the close 
 of the wars which followed the death of 
 Alexander, and which resulted in the 
 (division of his empire, Greece remained 
 with Macedonia. 
 
 In the course of the first half of the 
 third century b.c. several of the Achaean 
 towns expelled the Macedonians, and 
 revived an ancient confederacy, which 
 was now known as the Archaean League. 
 'The league was at first -worsted, and 
 nvas onlj finally successful when Aratus 
 , -sacrificed the ultimate end of the league 
 iby calling in the aid of the Macedonians. 
 
 About this time the Romans, who had 
 ■just come out victorious from a second 
 Tvar with Carthage, found occasion to 
 interfere in the affairs of Greece. Philip 
 Y. of Macedon having allied himself 
 -with Hannibal, the Romans sent over 
 Elamininus to punish him, and in this 
 war with Philip the Romans were joined 
 Iby the Achrean League. Philip was de- 
 feated at Cynoscephalae in 197 b.c., and 
 was obliged to recognize the independ- 
 'ence of Greece. Tlie Achaean League 
 thus became supreme in Greece, having 
 been jpined by all the states of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus. But the league itself was in 
 reality subject to Rome, which found 
 ■constant ground for interference until 
 147 B.C., when the league openly re- 
 ■sisted the demand of the senate, that 
 Sparta, Corinth, Argos, and other pities. 
 
 should be separated from it. In the 
 war which ensued, which was concluded 
 in 146 B.c. by the capture of Corinth by 
 the Reman consul Mummius, Greece 
 completely lost its independence, and 
 was subsequently formed into a Roman 
 province. 
 
 On the division of the Roman Em- 
 pire Greece fell of course to the eastern 
 or Byzantine half. From 1204 to 1261 
 it formed a part of the Latin Empire of 
 the East, and was divided into a num- 
 ber of feudal principalities. In the latter 
 year it was reannexed to the Byzantine 
 Empire, with which it remained till it 
 was conquered by the Turks between 
 1460 and 1473. In 1699 the Morea was 
 ceded to the 'Venetians, but was recovered 
 by the Turks in 1715. From 1715 till 
 1821 the Greeks were without inter- 
 mission subject to the domination of 
 the Turks. The rising of the Greeks took 
 place on the 6th of Slarch, under Alex- 
 ander Ypsilanti, and on the 1st of 
 January, 1822, they published a declara- 
 tion of independence. In the same year 
 Ali was assassinated by the Turks, but 
 the Greeks, encouraged by most of the 
 European nations, continued the strug- 
 gle under various leaders, of whom the 
 chief were Marco Bozzaris, Capo d’ 
 Istria, Constantine Kanaris, Kolocot- 
 roni, etc. On the 3d of February, 1830, 
 
 protocol of the allied powers declared 
 the independence of Greece, which was 
 recognized by the Porte on the 25th 
 April of this year. The crown was offered 
 to Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, and 
 when he refused it, to Otho, a young 
 prince of Bavaria, who was proclaimed 
 king of the Hellenes at Nauplia in 1832 
 But his arbitrary measures, and the pre- 
 ponderance which he gave to Germans 
 in the government, made him unpopular 
 and although after a rebellion in 1843 
 a constitution was drawn up, he was 
 compelled by another rebellion in 1862 
 to abdicate. A provisional government 
 was then set up at Athens, and the 
 national assembly offered the vacant 
 throne in succession to Prince Alfred 
 of England and Prince 'William George 
 of Denmark. The latter accepted it, and 
 on Mai'ch 30, 1863, was proclaimed as 
 King George I. In 1864 the Ionian 
 Islands, which had hitherto formed an 
 independent republic under the protec- 
 tion of Britain, were annexed to Greece. 
 
 In 1897 an insurrection in Crete led to 
 the interference of the Greeks and to 
 war with Turkey, the result being the 
 speedy defeat of Greece, entailing the 
 payment of a heavy war indemnity 
 with some loss of territory on the Tessa- 
 lian frontier. 
 
 The- religion of the ancient Greeks 
 was polytheism, there being a great 
 number of divinities, many of whom 
 must be regarded as personifications 
 of natural powers, or of phenomena of 
 the external world, personified senti- 
 ments, etc. Thus there were gods cor- 
 responding to Earth and Heaven, the 
 Ocean, Night, etc. The Romans, when 
 they became acquainted with the litera- 
 ture and religion of the Greeks, identified 
 the Greek deities with those of their 
 own pantheon. In this way the Greek 
 and Roman deities came to be con- 
 founded together, and the names of the 
 latter even camp to supersede those of 
 
 the former. The supreme ruler among 
 the gods was Zeus (Roman Jupiter or 
 Juppiter), the son of Krones (Roman 
 Saturn), who after the subjugation of 
 the Titans and Giants ruled in Olympus, 
 while his brother Pluto reigned over 
 the lower ■w'orld (Hades, Tartarus), and 
 Poseidon (Neptune) ruled in the sea. 
 Like reverence was paid to Hera (Juno), 
 the sister and wife of Zeus, and the 
 queen of Heaven; to the virgin Pallas 
 Athene (Minerva) ; to the two children of 
 (Letona), namely, Apollo, the leader of 
 the Muses, and his sister the huntress 
 Artemis (Diana), the goddess of the 
 moon; to the beautiful daughter of Zeus, 
 Aphrodite (Venus), the goddess of love; 
 to Ares (Mars), the god of -n-ar, Hermes 
 (Mercury), the herald of the gods, and 
 others besides. In addition to these 
 there was an innumerable host of in- 
 ferior deities (N^pnphs, Nereids, Tritons, 
 Sirens, Dryads and Hamadryads, etc.) 
 who presided over woods and moun- 
 tains, fields and meadows, rivers and 
 lakes, the seasons, etc. There was also 
 a race of heroes or demigods (such as 
 Heracles or Hercules, Perseus etc.) 
 tracing their origin from Zeus, and 
 forming a connecting link between gods 
 and men, while on the other hand the 
 Satyrs formed a connecting link be- 
 tween the race of men and the lower 
 animals. 
 
 The true teachers of the Greek religion 
 were the poets and other writers, and it 
 is to the hj'mns, epics, dramas, and 
 histories of the Greeks that we must 
 turn in order to learn how they regarded 
 the'gods. No degree of consistency is to 
 be found in then>, however, the person- 
 ality and local origin of the writers 
 largely moulding their views. In their 
 general attitude toward men the gods 
 appears as inspired by a feeling of envy 
 or jealousy. Hence they had constantly 
 to be appeased, and their favor won by 
 sacrifices and offerings. The Greeks 
 appear to have had at all times some 
 belief in a future existence, but in the 
 earliest times this belief was far from 
 being clearly defined. 
 
 The Greek language belongs to the 
 Indo-European group, and is thus a 
 sister of the Sanskrit, Latin, Teutonic 
 and Celtic tongues. It is customary 
 to distinguish three leading dialects 
 according to the three leading branches 
 of the Greeks, the ^olic, the Doric, and 
 the Ionic, to which was afterward added 
 the mixed Attic dialect; besides these 
 there are several secondary dialects. 
 Akin to the lonic’is the co-called Epic 
 dialect, that in which the poems of 
 Homer and Hesiod are written, and 
 which was afterwards adopted by other 
 Epic writers. The Doric was hard and 
 harsh; the Ionic was the softest. In 
 each of these dialects there are cele- 
 brated-authors. The Ionian dialect is 
 found pure in Herodotus and Hippo- 
 crates. The Doric is used in the poem 
 of Pindar, Theocritus, Bion, and Mos- 
 chus. In .(Eolic we have fragments of 
 AIcjeus and Sappho. After Athens had 
 obtained the supremaej’’ of Greece, and 
 rendered itself the center of all literary 
 cultivation, the master-pieces of Hlschy- 
 lus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, 
 Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato, Aris- 
 totle, Isocrates, Demosthenes, - etc., 
 
GREECE 
 
 GREECE 
 
 made the Attic the common dialect of 
 literature. 
 
 At what time this language first be- 
 gan to be expressed in writing has long 
 been a subject of doubt. According to 
 the usual account of Cadmus the Phoeni- 
 cians introduced the alphabet into 
 Greece; and it is an undoubted fact that 
 the most of the Greek letters are derived 
 from the Phoenician ones. The Greek 
 alphabet possesses the following twenty- 
 four letters : 
 
 — A, a (alpha), a; B, 0 
 (beta), b; T, y (gamma), A, ^ (delta), d ; 
 E, e (e'p.silon), Z, f (zeta), z; H, (eta),'e; 
 0, 6, (theta), <7i; i (iota), t; K, k (kappa), 
 k-, A, X (lambda), 1-, M, /a (mu), to; N, v 
 (nu), n; S, ^ (xi), x\ 0, o (omicron, i.c. small 
 o), 5; rr, TT (pi), p-, P, p (rho), r; S, <r, s 
 (sigma), s\ T, t (tau), <; T, o (imsilon), v, 
 commonly transliterated by y\ v, <p (phi), 
 ph; X, X (chi), ch guttural (as in Scotch 
 loch); Sk, \f/ (psi), Q, u (omega, or great 
 o), 6. The alphabet originally introduced 
 into Greece is said to have consisted of but 
 sixteen letters; 0S4>XZH'^fi being 
 of later introduction. , 
 
 Modern Greek, as spoken by the un- 
 educated classes, is called Romaic, from 
 the fact that those who speak ' it con- 
 sidered themselves before the descent 
 of the Turks upon Europe as belonging 
 to the Roman Empire, and hence called 
 themselves Romaioi, or Romans. The 
 Greek of the educated classes, that used 
 in the newspapers and other literature 
 of the present day, is distinguished from 
 it by a greater resemblance to the Greek 
 of antiquity, which renders it easy for 
 any one who has a satisfactory acquaint- 
 ance with ancient Greek to read the 
 modern literary Greek. 
 
 The commencement of extant Greek 
 literature is to be found in the two epic 
 poems attributed to Homer, the Iliad 
 and the Odyssey, which it is commonly 
 believed took shape on the Ionian coast 
 or its islands somewhere between 950 
 and 850 b.c., and came thence to Greece 
 proper (but see Homer). The former 
 deals directly with the Trojan war, the 
 latter describes the wanderings of 
 Ulysses in returning from it. In Euro- 
 pean Greece there appeared about the 
 middle of the 9th century, at Ascra in 
 Bceotia, the poet Hesiod, who stood at 
 the head-of another epic school. Of the 
 sixteen works attributed to him there 
 have come down to us the Theogony or 
 Origin of the Gods, the Shield of Herac- 
 
 Altars— 1 , Assyrian, 2, Grecian. 3, Roman. 
 
 cles (a fragment of a larger poem of late 
 authorship), and, most important of all, 
 the Works and Days, a didactic work 
 on agriculture. The works of Homer 
 
 and Hesiod constituted in a certain de- 
 gree the foundation of youthful edu- 
 cation among the Greeks. Two principal 
 schools may be distinguished, the 
 dEoliaii and the Dorian. To the former 
 belong Alcaeus (611-580), Sappho (610), 
 and Anacreon (530), though the works 
 which now bear Anacreon’s name are 
 spurious. In the Dorian school the chief 
 was undoubtedly Pindar (522-443). 
 About this time began a new literary 
 development, that of the drama. The 
 performance at first, however, was 
 merely a sort of oratorio or choral enter- 
 tainment, until .iEschylus (525-456) 
 introduced a second actor, and subor- 
 dinated choral song to dialogue. A 
 third and even a fourth actor was added 
 by Sophocles (495-405 b.c.), who sup- 
 plemented the heroic tragedy of ^Eschy- 
 lus with the tragedy of human character 
 and the fundamental passions. Euripides 
 (480-406) brought new qualities of 
 picturesqueness, homeliness, and pathos 
 with a less rigid artistic method, and 
 formed a fitting third in the great tragic 
 triad. With this rapid growth of tragedy 
 there was a corresponding development 
 of comedy which assumed an artistic 
 form about 470 B.c. The names of 
 Cratinus (448) and Eupolis (430) are 
 overshadowed by that of Aristophanes 
 (448-385), who for nearly forty years was 
 the burlesque commentator upon the 
 life of the period. 
 
 Thucydides (471-400?) was the 
 founder of philosophic history, and 
 Xenophon (431-354), who has left ex- 
 
 Temple of Zeus at Olympia— Doric order. 
 
 cellent historic narratives, was also the 
 earliest Greek essayist. The oldest piece 
 of Attic prose is the essay on Athenian 
 polity wrongly assigned to Xenophon. 
 The study which oratory and rhetoric 
 received in Athens was an important 
 factor in shaping Attic prose, the chief 
 orators being Demosthenes (384-322) 
 with his contemporaries JEschines, 
 Lycurgus, and others,, and Demetrius 
 of Phalerum (318) who ushered in the 
 decline of oratory. Philosophy shared 
 the development of history and oratory, 
 reaching a rare elevation in Plato (429- 
 347), a rare comprehensiveness in Aris- 
 totle (384-322), the founders of the 
 academic and peripatetic schools. 
 
 From about the year 300 b.c. the 
 literary decadence may be held to date. 
 During this period philosophy is in the 
 main divided between Stoicism and 
 Neoplatonism, the former represented 
 by Epictetus (90 a.d.) and Marcus 
 Aurelius (170), the latter by Plotinus 
 (240), Porphyry, and lamblichus, 
 
 On the fall of Constantinople in 1453 
 the cultivated classes who still retained 
 the pure Greek either perished or took 
 to flight, or adopted the language of the 
 conquerors. The popular Greek, how- 
 ever, survived, and despite its vulgariza- 
 tion and the modification of its gram- 
 matical forms and syntax, it cannot be 
 said that Greek has been a dead lan- 
 guage at any period since Homer. 
 
 As in literature so in art the Greeks 
 attained the highest pitch of excellence, 
 and in architecture and sculpture fur- 
 nished models for the rest of the world. 
 
 Greek architecture— The Parthenon at Athens, 
 from the northwest. 
 
 In no other race has the artistic spirit 
 been so generally diffused throughout 
 the people, expressing itself in the minor 
 arts of life,/ in the practical application 
 of ornament in the forms of domestic 
 furniture, pottery, metal work, mosaics, 
 and the like, not less perfectly than in 
 the master-works of architecture and 
 sculpture. 
 
 Throughout the history of the art it is 
 the public buildings, more particularly 
 the temples, in which the genius of the 
 Greeks displayed itself.- The private 
 houses remained simple and even rude 
 in appearance, rarely rising above a 
 single story, and having no external 
 decoration. The temples were for the 
 most part rectangular, though the circu- 
 lar form sometimes occurs in the later 
 periods of Greek art. Three orders are 
 distinguished in Greek architecture ac- 
 cording to the treatment of the pillars 
 and of the entablature — the Doric, Ionic 
 and Corinthian (which see). The beauty 
 of the (Ireek buildings was heightened in 
 respect of form by a deviation from 
 ordinary rectilinear construction, in the 
 systematic substitution of delicately- 
 curved lines for straight lines in the 
 columns and steps of their temples, and 
 wherever the illusion attending the sight 
 of straight lines in perspective was 
 likely to prove an element of weakness. 
 The colonnades and porticoes, which 
 were usually built round market-places 
 and along quays in seaport towns, were 
 similar in style to the temples. See also 
 Architecture. 
 
 Greek sculpture has been divided into 
 five principal periods, namely, 1. The 
 Daedalian or Early (-580 b.c.). 2. The 
 /Eginetan or Archaic (580-480 b.c.). 
 
 3. The Phidian or Grand (480-400 b.c.). 
 
 4. The Praxitelean or Beautiful (400^ 
 
 250 B.C.). 5. The Decline (250 b.c. 
 
 onwards). The age of Daedalus marks an 
 advance from an earlier primitive 
 
GREEK CHURCH 
 
 GREELEY 
 
 sculpture in which blocks of wood and 
 stone were rudely fashioned into the 
 semblance of life, the imperfections of 
 the art being concealed by real hair and 
 adventitious draperies. To Phidias, be- 
 sides his statues of Athena and Zeus, 
 were due the designs for the sculptures 
 of the Parthenon, the actual work of 
 these, however, being probably done by 
 his pupils Alcamenes, Agoracritus, and 
 other artists of his time. To this age 
 belonged the sculptor and architect 
 Polycletus (about 452-412 b.c.), whose 
 statue of a youth holding a spear ob- 
 tained the name of The Canon, as being 
 a standard of form. About the same 
 time the Boeotian sculptor Myron 
 flourished, the famous Discobolus being 
 a reproduction in marble of one of his 
 bronzes. The Praxitelean period is 
 characterized by greater grace and 
 elegance in choice of subject and treat- 
 ment, together with more of the sensual 
 element making for ultimate decline. 
 Praxiteles excelled in female figures, his 
 Aphrodite at Cnidus in Caria being his 
 most famous work. His rival, Scopas of 
 Paros, was employed on the bas-reliefs 
 of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, and 
 was the sculptor of the famous group 
 representing the destruction of the chil- 
 dren of Niobe. In Lysippus of Sicyon, in 
 the time of Alexander the Great, the 
 Praxitelean school found its last great 
 figure prior to the decline of the art. 
 
 Painting in Greece is said to have had 
 its origin in Sicyon, apd to have existed, 
 as mere outline and monochrome until 
 Cimon of Cleonse introduced variety in 
 coloring, foreshortening, and a less rigid 
 art. The Greek artists worked in wax or 
 resin or in water-color, brought to the 
 required consistency by mixing with 
 gum, glue or white of egg; and they 
 painted upon wood, clay, plaster, stone, 
 parchment, and canvas. Until a late 
 period, however, they rarely painted 
 upon walls, usually painting upon panels 
 or tablets to be encased in walls. The 
 earlier masters appear to have used only 
 four colors — red, yellow, white, and 
 black, but by the time of Apelles and 
 Protogenes many other pigments were 
 in use. 
 
 GREEK CHURCH, or Holy Oriental 
 Orthodox Apostolic Church, that sec- 
 tion of the Christian Church dominant in 
 Eastern Europe and Western Asia, 
 especially in Turkey, Greece, Russia, and 
 some parts of Austria. In the first ages 
 of Christianity numerous churches were 
 founded by the apostles and their suc- 
 cessors in Greek-speaking countries; in 
 Greece itself, in Syria, Egypt, Mesopota- 
 mia, Asia Minor, Thrace, and Mace- 
 donia. These were subsequently called 
 Greek, in contradistinction to the 
 churches, in which the Latin tongue 
 prevailed. The removal of the seat of 
 empire by Constantine to Constanti- 
 nople, and the subsequent separation of 
 the eastern and western empires afforded 
 the opportunity for diversities of lan- 
 guage, modes of thinking, and customs 
 to manifest themselves, and added 
 political causes to the grounds of sepa- 
 ration. During the earliest period the 
 chief seats of influence in the Eastern 
 Church were Jerusalem, Antioch, "and 
 Alexandria, the seat of that mystical 
 philosophy, by which the oriental church 
 
 was distinguished. In 588 the phrase 
 “Filioque” (“and the Son”) was added 
 by the Latins to the Nicene creed (which 
 now read “proceeding from the father 
 and the soh”), an addition to which the 
 Greek Church was opposed. 
 
 The Greek Church is the only church 
 which holds that the Holy Ghost pro- 
 ceeds from the Father only; the Roman 
 Catholic and Protestant Churches de- 
 riving the Holy Ghost from the Father 
 and the Son. Like the Roman Catholic 
 Church it has seven sacraments — bap- 
 tism, chrism, penance, preceded by con- 
 fession; the eucharist; ordination; mar- 
 riage; and unction. But it is peculiar — 1, 
 in believing in baptism by tnreefold 
 immersion, the chrism (confirmation) 
 following immediately after it ; 2, in 
 adopting, as to the eucharist, the doc- 
 trine of the real presence and transub- 
 stantiation; but in ordering the bread 
 to be leavened, the wine to be* mixed 
 with water, and both elements to be 
 distributed to every one, even to chil- 
 dren; 3, the parochial clergy are re- 
 quired to be married, but only once and 
 to a virgin, and marriage must take 
 place before ordination; widowed clergy 
 are not permitted to retain their livings, 
 but go into a cloister, where they are 
 called hieromonachi. Rarely is a widowed 
 bishop allowed to preserve his diocese. 
 The Greek Church grants divorce in 
 case of proved adultery, but it does not 
 allow even the laity a fourth marriage. 
 It differs also from the Roman Catholic 
 Church in anointing with the holy oil, 
 not the dying but the sick, for the re- 
 storation of health, forgiveness, and 
 sanctification. It rejects the doctrine of 
 purgatory, works of supererogation, 
 indulgences, and dispensations, but 
 admits prayers for the dead, whose con- 
 dition appears to be considered undeter- 
 mined until the final judgment. It 
 recognizes no visible vicar of Christ on 
 earth, but the spiritual authority of a 
 patriarch is little inferior to that of the 
 pope. It allows no carved, sculptured, or 
 molten image of holy persons or sub- 
 jects; but the representations of Christ 
 (except in the crucifix), of Mary, and 
 the saints, must b§. merely painted, and 
 at most inlaid with precious stones. 
 In the Russian churches, however, 
 works oj sculpture* are found. In the 
 invocation of the saints, and especially 
 of the Virgin, -the Greeks resemble the 
 Latins. They also hold relics, graves, 
 and crosses sacred; and crossing in the 
 name of Jesus they consider as having a 
 wonderful and blessed influence. Among 
 the means of penance, fasts are par- 
 ticularly numerous with them. They fast 
 Wednesday and Friday of every week, 
 and besides observe four great annual 
 fasts, namely, forty days before Easter; 
 from Whitsuntide to the days of ^ Sts. 
 Peter and Paul; the fast of the virgin 
 Mary, from the 1st to the 15th of .\ugust 
 and the apostle Philip’s fast, from the 
 15th to the 26th of November; besides 
 the day of the beheading of John tlie 
 Baptist, and of the elevation of the cross. 
 The calendar of the Greek Church is in 
 the old style, their new year’s day fall- 
 ing on Jan. 13th. 
 
 The services of the Greek Church 
 consist almost entirely in outward forms. 
 Preaching and catechizing constitute 
 
 the least part of it. Instrumental music 
 is excluded altogether. The mass is con- 
 sidered of the first importance. The 
 convents conform for the most part, to 
 the strict rule of St. Basil. The Greek 
 abbot is termed higumenos, the abbess 
 higumene. The abbot of a Greek con- 
 vent which has several others under its 
 inspection is termed archimandrite, and 
 ranks next a bishop. The lower clergy 
 in the Greek Church consist of readers, 
 singers, deacons, etc., and of priests or 
 popes and protopopes or archpriests, 
 who are the first clergy in the cathedrals 
 and, metropolitan churches. The mem- 
 bers of the lower clergy can rise no 
 higher than protopopes, for the bishops 
 are chosen from among the monks, and 
 from the bishops are selected the arch- 
 bishops, metropolitans, and patriarchs. 
 In Russia there are twenty-four dioceses. 
 With which of them the archiepiscopal 
 dignity shall be united depends on the 
 will of the emperor. The seats of the four 
 metropolitans of the Russian Empire 
 are St. Petersburg, Kiev, Kason, and 
 Tobolsk. In the Turkish dominions the 
 dignities of Patriarch of Constantinople. 
 Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem 
 still subsist. The Patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople still possesses the ancient 
 authority of his see; the other three 
 patriarchs exercise a very limited juris- 
 diction, and live for the most part on the 
 aid afforded them by the Patriarch of 
 Constantinople. 
 
 GREEK FIRE, an imflammable and 
 destructive compound used in mediaeval 
 warfare, especially by the Byzantine 
 Greeks. It was poured from cauldrons 
 and ladles, vomited through long copper 
 tubes, or flung in pots, phials, and bar- 
 rels. The art of compounding it was 
 concealed at Constantinople with the 
 greatest care, but it appears that naph- 
 tha, sulphur, and niter entered into its 
 composition. 
 
 GREEK LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, 
 ETC., See under Greece. 
 
 GREELEY, Horace, American jour- 
 nalist and politician, born at Amherst, 
 N. H., in 1811; in 1831 he went to New 
 York, where, after an unsuccessful at- 
 tempt to start the Morning Post, the 
 
 Horace Greeley. 
 
 first penny paper, he commenced in 1834 
 to issu'e-the Weekly New Yorker, which 
 ran for seven years. The Log Cabin, 
 another weekly, established by him in 
 1840, reached a circulation of 80,000, 
 and gave him a reputation which ensured 
 
GREELY 
 
 GREENLAND 
 
 the success of his Daily Tribune, 
 founded ir 1841, and edited by him till 
 his death. In 1848 he was elected to 
 congress, but failed to impress his con- 
 stituents with the necessity of returning 
 him a second time. In 1851 jfhe visited 
 Europe, and was one of the jilrors in the 
 Great E.xhibition. He opposed the civil 
 war, but was a firm supporter of the 
 Union and of President Lincoln, and 
 at the close of the war advocated a 
 general amnesty and universal suffrage. 
 In 1872 he was nominated for the presi- 
 dency in opposition to General Grant, 
 but was defeated.. ^ The strain of elec- 
 tioneering and the death of his wife 
 brought on an illness, of which he died 
 a few weeks later. Chief among his 
 miscellaneous works are his Hints 
 toward Reforms (1850), Glances at 
 Europe (1851), History of the Struggle 
 for Slavery Extension (1856), The 
 American Conflict (1864) Recollections 
 of a Busy Life (1869). He died in 1872. 
 
 GREE'LY, Adolphus Washington, 
 American Arctic explorer and meteor- 
 ologist, was born in Newburyport, 
 Mass., in 1844. In July, 1861, he en- 
 listed as a private in the Ninteenth 
 Massachusetts volunteer infantry, in 
 which he served throughout the war. 
 In ,1867 he was appointed a second 
 lieutenant in the regular army. In 
 1881 he was appointed to command 
 the government expedition planned in 
 pursuance of the recommendations of 
 the International geographical congress 
 at Hamburg, in 1879, that thirteen 
 circumpolar stations be established in 
 the Arctic regions. The party wintered 
 two years at Discovery Harbor, Grinnell 
 Land, whence expeditions were sent 
 both into the interior of Grinnell Land, 
 and across the straits into Greenland, 
 one of the exploring parties under Lock- 
 wood and Brainard reaching, in May, 
 1882, latitude 83° 24', the farthest 
 north attained up to that time. He was 
 awarded the Founder’s medal of the 
 Royal geographical society, and the 
 Roquette medal by the Soci4t6 de g4og- 
 raphie, Paris, and was promoted to the 
 rank of captain in the United States 
 army. In 1887 he was appointed by 
 President Cleveland to succeed Gen. 
 W. B. Hazen as chief signal officer, with 
 the rank of brigadier-general. 
 
 GREEN, John Richard, historian, 
 born in 1837. For some time he wrote 
 constantly for the Saturday Review; 
 but he was comparatively little known 
 until the publication in 1874 of his 
 Short History of the English People, 
 which secured him immediate fame. 
 It was followed by a larger edition of 
 the same work entitled A History of the 
 English People (1877-80), a volume of 
 Stray Studies from England and Italy, 
 and the Making of England (1882). 
 Latterly his work was carried on in dis- 
 tressing conflict with lung disease, and 
 he died in 1883. The Conquest of Eng- 
 land, his last work, was publishoii 
 posthumously by his wife, being almost 
 complete at his death. 
 
 GREEN, Seth, American piscicul- 
 turist, was born in Rochester, N. Y., in 
 1817. He devoted his life to the artificial 
 propagation of fish and the breeding 
 of the better kinds for stocking lakes 
 and streams. He stocked the Connecti- 
 
 cut, the Hudson, the Potomac, and 
 many other streams with enormous 
 numbers of shad, trout, and other 
 species. He also introduced shad into 
 Pacific Coast waters. He. died in 1888. 
 
 GREENBACK PARTY, greenbacks is 
 the popular name given to non-interest 
 bearing notes unsecured by gold or 
 deposits of bonds, large numbers of 
 which notes wpre issued during the civil 
 war. Their issue resulted in an inflation 
 of the currency which naturally was 
 followed by an increase in prices espe- 
 cially of agricultural products. With the 
 contraction of the currency which fol- 
 lowed the limiting of unsecured paper 
 money there was a fall of prices. This 
 being coincident with a period of agri- 
 cultural and business depression a de- 
 mand for the retention of the green- 
 backs arose and the supporters of the 
 idea held a convention in 1874 at which 
 the government was asked to withdraw 
 all bank currency and issue only national 
 currency and to pay the national debt 
 in the “greenbacks.” Many democrats 
 favored the idea but as the party as a 
 whole refused to indorse these views the 
 Greenback Party was organized in 1876 
 with Peter Cooper, the New York 
 philanthropist as its candidate for the 
 presidency. The party polled 80,000 
 votes mainly in the middle west. Labor 
 troubles in 1878 led to the fusion with 
 local workingmen’s parties under the 
 name Greenback-Labor Party and in 
 that year they polled 1,000,000 votes 
 at the congressional elections electing 14 
 congressmen. James B. Weaver, the 
 presidential candidate in 1880 received 
 300,000 votes and eight congressmen 
 were elected. The last candidate of the 
 -party was General Benjamin F. Butler, 
 who in 1884 received 150,000 votes. 
 
 GREENBACKS, the popular name 
 given to the paper currency first issued 
 by the United States government in 
 186,2 during the civil war. It is some- 
 times used also to include United States 
 bank-notes. 
 
 GREEN BAY, a city in Wisconsin, on 
 Fox river, near the head of Green Bay. 
 It has a great trade in lumber and 
 various flourishing industries. Pop. 
 21,526. 
 
 GREENE, Nathaniel, a general of the 
 American revolutionary army, was 
 born at Potowhommet, Rhode Island, 
 in 1742. In 1770 he was elected to rep- 
 resent Coventry in the general assembly 
 of Rhode Island, and was soon after ex- 
 communicated by the Quakers for tak- 
 ing arms on the prospect of war with 
 Britain. In 1774 he joined the Kentish 
 Guards as a private, and in May, 1775 
 he was appointed brigadier-general 
 and commander of the Rhode Island 
 contingent in the army before Boston. 
 He gained at once the confidence of 
 Washington, was made major-general 
 and appointed to The command in New 
 Jersey. At Trenton (1776) and Prince- 
 ton (1777) he led a division, and in the 
 subsequent fighting he held important 
 commands, and repeatedly distinguished 
 himself. In 1778 he was quarter-master- 
 general, and in 1780 presided at the trial 
 of Major Andr4. In the same year he 
 was appointed to the command of the 
 southern army, and succeeded, after 
 repeated defeats, in wresting Georgia 
 
 and the Carolinas from the British. He 
 died in 1786. 
 
 GREEN EARTH, an opaque, dull, 
 olive-green, soft, earthy mass, generally 
 met with in cavities in amygdaloidal 
 rocks. It consists of silicate of iron and 
 aluminium, with potassium and sodium 
 in water. 
 
 GREEN-EBONY, an olive-green wood 
 obtained from a South American tree, 
 used for round rulers, turnery, marquetry 
 work, etc., and also much used for dye- 
 ing, yielding olive-green, brown, and 
 yellow colors. 
 
 GREENFINCH, GREEN-LINNET, or 
 GREEN GROSBEAK, a bird of the finch 
 family, and one of the most common of 
 British and European birds. It fre- 
 quents hedges, gardens, and small 
 plantations, and feeds on grain, seeds, 
 or insects. Its song is not melodious, but 
 it easily becomes tame. It builds in 
 he,dges, bushes, and low trees, the nest 
 being of green moss and coarse fibrous 
 roots, lined with finer roots, horse-hair, 
 and feathers. The eggs (four to six) are 
 bluish white, spotted at the larger end 
 with purplish gray and dark brown. 
 The general colors of the male are green 
 and yellow, those of the female inclining 
 to brown. 
 
 GREEN GAGE, a variety of the plum, 
 the reine claude of the French, intro- 
 duced into Britain by a person named 
 Gage. It is large, of a green or yellow- 
 ish color, and has a juicy, greenish pulp' 
 of exquisite flavor. 
 
 GREENLAND, an extensive island be- 
 longing to Denmark, situated on the 
 northeast of the continent of North 
 America, from which it is separated by 
 Davis’s Straits, Baffin’s Bay, and Smith’s 
 Sound. A small part of its northern and 
 precipitous eastern coast is yet unknown 
 but it does not extend further north than 
 about lat. 83°. Like the northern parts 
 of N. America generally, Greenland is 
 colder than the corresponding latitudes 
 on the east side of tW Atlantic. In 
 June and July the sun is constantly 
 above the horizon, the ice on the coast is 
 broken up and floats southward, and a 
 few small lakes are opened; but the 
 short summer is followed by a' long and 
 dreary winter. The interior, which is 
 lofty and has the appearance of one vast 
 glacier is uninhabitable, and all the 
 
GREEN MOUNTAINS 
 
 GREGORY 
 
 villages are confined to the coasts, which 
 are lined with numerous islands, and 
 deeply penetrated by fiords. The 
 Danish colony extends north, on the 
 W'estern coast, to the Bay of Disco, in 
 lat. 69° n. The inhabitants are largely 
 dependent upon huntitig and fishing. 
 Whale blubber and seal oil are used as 
 fuel. Despite the proximity of America 
 the flora and fauna are rather of an 
 European character. The land animals 
 are the Esquimaux dog, the reindeer, 
 the polar bear, the Arctic fox (blue and 
 white), the ermine, the Arctic hare, and 
 the musk ox. Among the amphibia the 
 walrus and several species of seal are 
 common. The-seas abound in fish, the 
 whale and cod fisheries being of special 
 importance. Sea-fowl are abundant in 
 summer, and largely killed. The chief 
 mineral product is cryolite, but graphite 
 and miocene lignitic coal are also found. 
 Oil, eider down, furs, and cryolite are 
 exported. The population, which is 
 chiefly Esquimaux, numbers about 
 10,000. 
 
 GREEN MOUNTAINS, a mountain 
 range, commencing near New Haven, 
 Connecticut, and extending north 
 through Massachusetts and Vermont, 
 between Lake Champlain and the Con- 
 necticut river. The highest summits are 
 Mansfield Mountain (4279 feet) and 
 Camel’s Hump (4188) feet, both in 
 Vermont. 
 
 GREENOCK, a parliamentary burgh 
 and seaport town of -Scotland, county 
 Renfrew, on the southern shore of the 
 estuary of the Clyde, here between 3 and 
 4 miles wide, about 20 miles w-est by 
 north of Glasgow. Pop. 68,142. 
 
 GREEN PAINTS, are for the most part 
 compounds of copper and of chromium. 
 The best known greens are the following : 
 Bremen green, or verditer, consisting 
 mainly of a basic carbonate of copper. 
 Brunswick green, a hydrated oxy- 
 chloride of copper; but the name is 
 sometimes given to a hydrated basic 
 carbonate, also known as mountain 
 green. Chrome and emerald green are 
 oxide of chromium. Emerald green 
 (which see) is also used as synonymous 
 with Schweinfurt green. English green 
 is a mixture of Scheele’s green - with 
 gypsum. Guignet’s green is oxide of 
 chromium prepared in a peculiar way. 
 Hungary green is a kind of malachite 
 found in Hungary. Rinman’s green is 
 got by heating zinc oxide with a cobalt 
 compound. Saxony green is an indigo 
 color used in printing. Scheele’s green is 
 arsenite of copper, and Schweinfurt 
 green, Veronese green, and Vienna 
 green, are also compounds of arsenic 
 and copper. Verdigris is a hydrated 
 basic carbonate of copper, often seen in 
 copper saucepans. Besides there are 
 green colors derived from plants. Of 
 these may be mentioned chlorophyll, 
 the green color of leaves; sap green, the 
 juice of Rhamnus catharticus or buck- 
 thorn, made into a green lake with 
 alumina; Chinese indigo-green, etc. 
 
 GREEN RIVER, a river in Kentucky, 
 flows generally west and north-Avest, and 
 enters the Ohio 200 miles below Louis- 
 ville. It is navigable for boats for about 
 200 miles. 
 
 GREENSBORO, the county seat of 
 Guilford co., N. C., on the Richmond ] 
 
 and Danville and- the Cape Fear and 
 Yad. Valley railways; 48 miles s.s.w. 
 of Danville, 81 miles w.n.w. of Raleigh. 
 It is in a tobacco, wheat, corn, oats, and 
 fruit region, with gold, copper, and iron 
 mines. Pop. 12,160. 
 
 GREENSHANK, a well-known species 
 of sand-piper often called the whistling 
 snipe from the shrill note it utters when 
 first flushed. The bird is about 12 inches 
 long, rather prettily marked, and has the 
 legs and toes olive-green. 
 
 GREEN-SICKNESS. See Chlorosis. 
 
 GREEN-TEA, a tea of a greenish color. 
 The green color should be due to the 
 mode in which the leaves of the tea 
 are treated in the process of drying. 
 
 GREENVILLE, the county seat of 
 Greenville co., S. C., on the Car., Knox, 
 and W., the Port Royal and W. Car., 
 and the Richmond and Danville Rail- 
 ways; 141 miles n. w. of Columbia, 158 
 miles e.n.e. of Atlanta, Ga. Pop. 14,170. 
 
 GREEN-VITRIOL, a name formerly 
 given to sulphate of iron. 
 
 GREENWICH (gren'ichj, a mun. and 
 pari. bor. in the county of London, on 
 the right bank of the Thames, about 
 5 miles s.e. of London bridge. There are 
 extensive iron foundries and engineering 
 W'orks, barge and boat-building yards, 
 boiler works, mast, block, and sail 
 works, telegraph cable works, roperies, 
 chemical factories, etc. The object of 
 greatest interest is the magnificent 
 hospital, the oldest portion of which 
 was . originally a palace of Charles II. 
 In 1865, it ceased to be an asylum for 
 seamen, and is now the seat of the Royal 
 naval college for the education of naval 
 officers. It also contains a naval museum 
 and picture gallery. Adjoining it are the 
 Royal naval school for boys, and an 
 infirmary for sick and disabled seamen. 
 The celebrated observatory of Green- 
 wich, erected by Charles II. for Flam- 
 steed, stands upon an eminence in the 
 park. The longitude of all British maps 
 and charts, also of those issued by the 
 government of the United States of 
 America, as well as many of those pub- 
 lished in other countries, is computed 
 from this observatory, which is 2° 2Q'23" 
 w. from the observatory of Paris, and 
 18° e. from the meridian of Ferro. Pop. 
 95,757. 
 
 GREG, William Rathbone, English 
 writer, born in 1809. Besides his mis- 
 cellaneous essays and pamphlets (col- 
 lected in 1881 and 1882) he was the 
 author of Sketches in Greece and Tur- 
 key (1833), The German Schism and the 
 Irish Priests (1845), The Creed of Chris- 
 tendom (1851), Essays in Political and 
 Social Science (1853), Enigmas of Life 
 (1872), Rocks Ahead (1874), and Liter- 
 ary and Social Judgments (1877). He 
 died in 1881. 
 
 GREGORIAN CALENDAR, the cal- 
 endar as reformed by Pope Gregory 
 XIII. in 1582. 
 
 GREGORY, the name of thirteen 
 popes, of whom we need notice only the 
 following; Gregory I., called also the 
 Great, born at Rofne, of noble family, 
 about 540. He became a member of the 
 senate, and was made a prefect of Rome 
 in 573. He expended his inheritance in 
 the foundation of monasteries and chari- 
 table institutions, and then took monas- 
 tic vows himself. Pope Pelagius II. sent 
 
 him on an embassy to Constantinople, 
 and afterward made him papal secre- 
 tary. On the death of Pelagius in 590 
 he was chosen his successor. He dis- 
 played great zeal for the conversion of 
 heretics, sending missionaries to Sicily, 
 Sardinia, Lombardy, England, etc., as 
 well as for the advancement of mon- 
 achism, and the enforcement of clerical 
 celibacy. He died in 604. The work 
 ascribed to him are very numerous; his 
 genuine writings consist of a treatise on 
 the Pastoral Duty, Letters, Scripture 
 Commentaries, etc. Gregory VII. (Hil- 
 debrand), born about 1020 at Soana, in 
 Tuscany; passed part of his early life in 
 Rome, became a monk at Cluny, and 
 then returned to Rome with Druno on 
 the election of the latter to the papal 
 chair. He exercised great influence over 
 Leo TX. (Pruno) and his successors, 
 Victor II., Nicholas II., and Alexander 
 11. ; and under Nicholas II. he succeeded 
 in depriving the clergy and people of 
 Rome of a voice in the election to the 
 pontificate by giving the power of 
 nomination to the cardinals alone. On 
 the death of Alexander II. (1073) he 
 was raised to the papal chair. His chief 
 aim was to found a theocracy in which 
 the pope should be the sovereign ruler, 
 in political as well as ecclesiastical 
 matters. He therefore prohibited 
 simony and the marriage of priests 
 (1074), and abolished lay investiture 
 (1075), the only remaining source of the 
 authority of princes over the clergy of 
 their dominions. The Emperor Henry 
 IV. refused to obey this decree, and 
 Gregory, after deposing several German 
 bishops who had bought their offices of 
 the emperor, and excommunicating five 
 imperial councillors concerned in his 
 transaction, summoned the emperor 
 before a council at Rome to defend him- 
 self against the charges brought against 
 hina. Henry then caused a sentence of 
 deposition to be passed against the pope 
 by a council assembled at Worms. The 
 pope, in return, excommunicated the 
 emperor, and Henry, finding himself in 
 difficulties, went to Italy and submitted 
 at Canossa (1077) to a humiliating 
 penance, and received absolution. After 
 defeating Rudolph of Suabia, however, 
 Henry caused the pope to be deposed by 
 the council of Birxen, and an anti-pope, ' 
 Clement III., to be elected in 1080, after 
 which he hastened to Rome and placed 
 the new pope on the throne. Gregory ' 
 passed three years as a prisoner in the 
 castle of St. Angelo, and though finally 
 liberated by Robert Guiscard, he was j 
 obliged to retire under the protection of I 
 Guiscard to Salerno, where he died in | 
 1085. Gregory XIII. (Ugo Buoncom- j 
 pagno), born at Bologna in 1502; 
 created cardinal in 1565; chosen sue- ; 
 cessor of Pius V. in the popedom in 1572. ) 
 
 He permitted the Cardinal of Lorraine ) 
 to make a public thanksgiving for the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew, encour- 
 aged plots against Queen Elizabeth, and 
 incited Philip II. to attack her. His 
 foreign policy cost him much money for 
 subsidies to excite enemies to the Turks 
 and heretics, and his financial expedi- 
 ents to fill his exchequer ruined the 
 trade and disturbed the peace of his own 
 dominions. He did much to encourage 
 education, his expenditure for this pur- 
 
GREGORY 
 
 GREY 
 
 pose exceeding two million Roman 
 crowns,, out of which many colleges at 
 Rome were endowed. He reformed the 
 Julian calendar (see Calendar). He died 
 10th April, 1585. 
 
 GREGORY, James, mathematician 
 and inventor of the reflecting telescope, 
 was born at Drumoak, in Aberdeen- 
 shire, about 1638. In 1663 he published 
 Optica Promota, explaining the idea of 
 the telescope which. bears his name. He 
 spent some years in Italy, and published 
 at Padua in 1667 a treatise on the Quad- 
 rature of the Circle and Hyperbola. He 
 died suddenly in 1675. 
 
 GRENA'DA, one of the British West 
 Indian Islands; about 85 miles north- 
 west of Trinidad; oblong in form, 24J 
 miles long, n. and s., and 10 miles broad; 
 area 133 sq. miles. Pop. 64,288 (about 
 900 whites). 
 
 GRENADE, a small hollow bullet or 
 ball of iron or other metal, or annealed 
 glass, about 2J inches in diameter, filled 
 with gunpowder, and fired by a fuse, so 
 as to cause it to burst when thrown 
 among the enemy. The term was first 
 used by Du Billey, in reference to the 
 siege of Arles (1536). Until about the 
 end of the 17th century, when musketry 
 became common, soldiers of the line 
 were trained to throw grenades by the 
 hand, hence the name grenadier. See 
 the following article. 
 
 GRENADIER, originally a soldier 
 destined to throw the hand-grenades. 
 Soldiers of long service and acknowl- 
 edged bravery were selected for this 
 service, so that they soon formed a kind 
 of 41ite. There were at first only a few 
 grenadiers in each regiment. Companies 
 of grenadiers were formed in France in 
 
 ■ 1670, in England a few years later. With 
 the development of the musket the 
 
 : name soon became only a souvenir of 
 : the ancient practice ; the troops so called 
 
 generally formed one battalion of a 
 regiment, distinguished by the height of 
 I the men and a particular dress, as, for 
 
 ■ instance, the high bear-skin cap. With 
 the British and French the grenadier 
 
 'i company was the first of each battalion, 
 f The name in the British army remains 
 • only in the regiment of Grenadier Guards . 
 f GREN'ADINE, a thin gauzy silk or 
 F woolen fabric, plain, colored, or em- 
 l broidered, used for ladies’ dresses, 
 I shawls, etc. 
 
 I GREN'ADINES, a chain of small 
 v islands and rocks. West Indies, between 
 L the islands of Grenada and St. Vincent; 
 5 principal island, Carriacou. They pro- 
 duce coffee, indigo, cotton, and sugar. 
 
 , Pop. about 7000. 
 
 ; GRENO'BLE, a fortified town of 
 
 V. southern France, capital of dep. IsSre, 
 finely and strongly placed on the Is^re, 
 60 miles s.e. Lyons. It has a cathedral, 
 and a noteworthy church (Saint-Andr6), 
 with th6 tomb of Bayard; a public 
 library of 170,000 volumes and 7500 
 JdSS.; a college, museum, bishop’s 
 palace, court-house, arsenal, and ex- 
 tensive public gardens. The manufac- 
 tures consist of gloves, linen goods, 
 liqueurs, leather, etc. Pop. 68,052. 
 
 GRENVILLE, George, a British minis- 
 ter, younger brother of Earl Temple, and 
 father of William Wyndham the first 
 Lord Grenville; born in 1712; died in 
 1770. He became treasurer of the navy 
 
 m 1754; secretary of state and sub- 
 sequently Irish lord of the admiralty in 
 1762; first lord of the treasury and 
 chancellor of the exchequer in 1763. In 
 1763 he introduced a scheme of colonial 
 
 George Grenville. 
 
 taxation, and in 1764 proposed a stamp 
 tax to be levied in the American colonies 
 which was one of the causes of the 
 American war of independence. In 1765 
 he was succeeded in office by Lord 
 Rockingham. 
 
 GRENVILLE, Sir Richard, one of 
 England’s naval heroes, a cousin of Sir 
 Walter Raleigh, born about 1541. Sir 
 Richard died in 1591. Tennyson’s grand 
 ballad of The Revenge is well known. 
 
 GRENVILLE, William Wyndham, 
 Lord, third son of George Grenville, was 
 born 1759. In 1783 he was appointed 
 paymaster-general of the army; in 1789 
 became speaker, and in the same year 
 became secretary of state for the home 
 department. In 1790 he was created 
 Baron Grenville, and from 1791 till 
 Pitt’s resignation in 1801 held the post 
 of foreign secretary. On the return of 
 Pitt to office in 1804 he declined to join 
 him, and continued in opposition till 
 Pitt’s death, when he became the head 
 of a coalition ministry, including Fox 
 and' Grey, 1806. This ministry resigned 
 in 1807, after having passed an act for 
 the abolition of the slave-trade. He 
 id jiot again take office. He died in 
 1834. 
 
 GRESHAM, Walter Quinton, Ameri- 
 can jurist and politician, was born near 
 Lanesville, Harrison co«, Ind.; was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1853, aifd in 1860 
 was elected as a republican to the state 
 legislature. ' In 1861 he enlisted as a 
 private in the Thirty-eighth volunteers. 
 For bravery at the siege of Vicksburg he 
 was promoted to be brigadier-general. 
 He was appointed in 1869 by President 
 Grant United States district judge for 
 Indiana, and in 1882 resigned his seat 
 on the bench in order to accept President 
 Arthur’s tender of the office of post- 
 master-general. In 1884 he was made 
 secretary of the treasury, a position 
 which he held for a few months, when 
 he was appointed United States circuit 
 judge for the seventh judicial circuit. 
 He was a candidate for the republican 
 nomination for president in 1884 and 
 1888. He was appointed secretary of 
 state by Cleveland in 1892. Died 1905. 
 
 GRETNA GREEN, a village of Scot- 
 land, in Dumfriesshire, on the Solway 
 Firth, 8 miles north of Carlisle, for nearly 
 
 a century notorious for the celebratiorl 
 of the marriages of fugitive lovers from 
 England. To conclude a lawful (though 
 i.>'regular) marriage in Scotland, it is 
 only necessary for an unmarried couple 
 to go and declare themselves man and 
 wife before witnesses, and it was in this 
 way that these runaway couples were 
 married : but such marriages were put an 
 end to in 1856, by an act declaring that 
 no irregular marriage in Scotland shall 
 be valid unless one of the parties has 
 resided in Scotland for tw'enty-one days 
 next preceding such marriage. 
 
 GREY, Charles, Earl, English states- 
 man, eldest .son of Charles, first Earl 
 Grey; born in 1764; died in 1845. He 
 was educated at Eton and at King’s 
 college, Cambridge. In 1786 he 'W’as re- 
 turned to parliament as member for 
 Netherlands. On the accession of the 
 Grenville ministry in 1806, Grey, now 
 Lord Howick, was made first lord of the 
 admiralty, and on the death of Fox 
 succeeded him as secretary for foreign 
 affairs and leader of the House of Com- 
 mons. The death of his father in 1807 
 raised him to the House of Peers, and 
 
 Earl Grey. 
 
 from this period up to 1830 he headed 
 the opposition in the lords, and espe- 
 cially opposed the proceedings against 
 Queen Caroline. On the accession of 
 William IV. and the retirement of the 
 Wellington ministry, Earl Grey was 
 summoned to office. The great event 
 which marks his administration is the 
 passing in 1832 of the first reform bill. 
 In 1834 Earl Grey resigned, and was 
 succeeded by Lord Melbourne. The re- 
 mainder of his life was chiefly spent in 
 retirement. 
 
 GREY, Lady Jane, an interesting 
 figure in English history, the daughter 
 of Henry Grey, marquis of Dorset, after- 
 ward duke of Suffolk, by Frances, 
 daughter of Charles Brandon, duke of 
 Suffolk, and Mary, younger sister of 
 Henry VIII., in whose reign Lady Jane 
 was born, in 1537. She displayed much 
 precocity of talent ; and under the tuition 
 of Aylmer, afterward bishop of London, 
 she acquired a knowledge of the learned 
 languages, as w'ell as French and Italian. 
 She wa,s married to Lord Guildford Dud- 
 
GREY FRIARS'^ 
 
 Grosbeak 
 
 ley, fourth son of the Duke of North- 
 umberland, in 1553. Edward VI., who 
 died in 1553, was induced on his death- 
 bed to settle on her the succession 
 to the crown. The council endeavored 
 to keep his death secret, with a view to 
 secure the persons of the princesses, 
 Mary and Elizabeth, and when Mary dis- 
 covered the design the council pro- 
 claimed Lady Jane queen. On the ap- 
 proach of Mary, however, the council 
 deserted Lady Jane, and Mary was pro- 
 claimed queen. She was beheaded on 
 Tower Hill, February 12, 1554, her hus- 
 band having previously suffered the 
 same day. 
 
 GREY FRIARS. See Franciscans. 
 
 GREYHOUND, a variety of dog, dis- 
 tinguished by a greater length of muzzle 
 than any other; very low forehead, short 
 lips, thin and long legs, small muscles, 
 contracted belly, and semipendent ears. 
 There are several varieties, as the Irish 
 greyhound, the Scottish, the Russian, 
 the Italian, and the Turkish. The com- 
 mon greyhound is of an elegant make of 
 body, and is universally known as the 
 fleetest of dogs. A good hound has a fine, 
 soft, flexible skin, with thin, silky hair, a 
 great length of nose, contracting grad- 
 ually from the eye to the nostril, a full, 
 clear, and penetrating eye, small ears, 
 erect head, long neck, chest capacious, 
 deep, but not wide, shoulders deep and 
 placed obliquely, ribs well arched, con- 
 tracted belly and flank, a great depth 
 from the hips to the hocks of the hind- 
 legs, fore-legs, straight ^nd shorter than 
 the hinder. The name appears to Imve 
 no reference to the color, but is derived 
 from the Icelandic grey, a dog. They 
 are chiefly used in the sport of coursing, 
 a work for which their peculiar shape, 
 strength, keenness of sight and speed 
 make them e.xceedingly well fitted. This 
 sport is preferred by many to horse- 
 racing and large kennels of greyhounds 
 are kept by several of the nobility and 
 gentry, who also further the sport by 
 preserving hares, and providing suitable 
 coursing grounds. The chief breeds are 
 the Newmarket, the Lancashire, and 
 the Scotch. 
 
 GRIFFIN, or GRYPHON, a fabulous 
 monster of antiquity, also common in 
 heraldry, commonly represented with 
 the body, the feet, and claws of a lion. 
 
 Medieval grirtSn.— Porch of the Duomo, 
 Verona, Italy. 
 
 and the head and wings of an eagle. 
 India, or Scythia, was anciently as- 
 signed as the native country of the 
 griffins; and it w.as allegeil that they 
 guarded tlie gold in tlie mountains. 
 
 GRIMAL'DI FAMILY, one of the four 
 families of the high nobility in Genoa. 
 
 The lordship of Monaco belonged, for 
 more than 600 years (beginning with 
 980), to the Grimaldi, and the ruler is 
 still a Grimaldi. With the Fieschi they 
 always played an important part in the 
 history of Genoa, especially in the dis- 
 putes between the Ghibellines and the 
 Guclfs, to which latter party both 
 families belonged. 
 
 GRIMTALDI'S FRINGES, a term in 
 optics given to the colored bands ob- 
 served when a beam of light passing 
 through a narrow slit falls on a screen. 
 
 GRINDING, a mechanical process in 
 which certain effects are produced- by 
 attrition. This process prevails in vari- 
 ous mechanical arts, as in grinding corn, 
 etc., the object of which is to reduce the 
 materials to a fine powder; or in grind- 
 ing metals for the purpose of giving them 
 a certain figure, polisli, or edge. In the 
 first case the grinding or crushing is 
 effected by rough stones, or, as in crush- 
 ing ores, between heavy metal cylinders, 
 by or a heavy stone or iron cylinder 
 revolving upon a smooth plate. . (See 
 Mill.) The grinding of cutlery is effected 
 by means of the grindstone (see below) ; 
 emery powder grinds glass lenses and 
 specula. Ornamental glass is ground 
 into facets by stones and lap-wheels. 
 Diamonds and other precious stones are 
 ground with diamond dust. What is 
 called dry grinding is the grinding of 
 steel with dry grindstones. The points of 
 needles are produced by this means, also 
 the finishing of steel pens. Sand-jet 
 grinding is a process in which abrasion is 
 effected by the percussion of small hard 
 particles on a plain surface, sharp 
 siliceous sand being impelled by a blast 
 artificially produced of steam or of air. 
 By the use of flexible jointed connecting 
 tubes the jet can be turned in any direc- 
 tion. 
 
 GRINDSTONE, a cylindrical stone, on 
 which sharpening, cutting, and abrasion 
 are effected by the convex surface while 
 the stone is revolving on its axis. They 
 are made of sandstone, or sandstone 
 grit of various degrees of fineness. Arti- 
 ficial grindstones have been snceessfully 
 tried. 
 
 GRIQUALAND EAST, a district of 
 South Africa, lying south of Natal be- 
 tween Pondoland and Basutoland ; fertile 
 and suited for stock-raising. It was in- 
 corporated with Cape Colony in 1874. 
 Area, 7480 sq. njiles. Pop. aboutl53,000. 
 
 GRIQIMLAND WEST, a district of 
 South Africa north of the Orange river, 
 and west of the Orange River colony; 
 180 miles from east to west, and 120 
 from north to south; area, about 17,800 
 sq. miles. The prevailing character of 
 the surface is that of undulating grassy 
 plains suitable for grazing. In 1870 
 large finds of diamonds in' that district 
 began to attract wide notice, and in 1871 
 Waterboer, the Griqua chief, ceded all 
 his rights to the British government, 
 and the territory was incorporated with 
 Cape Colony. The chief center of the 
 diamond-mining industry, and the seat 
 of government, is Kimberley. Pop. 
 estimated at 84,000. 
 
 GRISONS (gre-son), the largest and 
 most easterly canton of Switzerland, 
 bordering on Austria and Italy; area, 
 2773 sq. miles. The climate varies 
 greatly, ranging from the perpetual 
 
 winter of tfie mountains to the almost 
 Italian air of some of the valleys. The 
 canton is in general pastoral, feeding 
 large numbers of cattle and sheep. The 
 mountain forests supply much -timber. 
 A considerable transit trade is carried on 
 between Italy and Germany. The can- 
 ton was admitted into the confederation 
 so late as 1803. Both the protestant and 
 the Roman Catholic religion are estab- 
 lished. The language of the public acts is 
 German, and the people speak German, 
 Romanish, or Italian. Pop. 104,510. 
 
 GRISWOLD, Rufus Wilmot, D. D., 
 American writer, born in Vermont, 1815. 
 After having traveled extensively both 
 in his own country and in Europe, he 
 became successively a printer, a bap- 
 tist preacher, and a journalist. He was 
 the author of The Poets and Poetry of 
 America, etc.' He was one of the editors 
 of Edgar A. Poe’s works. He died in 1 857. 
 
 GRIT, is a sandstone, coarse-grained, 
 with particles more or less angular, con- 
 nected by a cement of a hard siliceous 
 nature. 
 
 GROATS, the seeds of oats prepared 
 as an article of food by being deprived 
 of their hulls. They are much used in 
 the preparation of gruel for invalids. 
 
 GRODNO, a town, Russian Poland, 
 capital of the government of same name, 
 on the Niemen, 160 miles, northeast of 
 Warsaw, Pop. 49,788. — The govern- 
 ment has an area of 14,931 sq. miles, 
 largely occupied by pine forests and 
 swamps. Pop. 1,321,157. 
 
 GROIN, the angular curve made by 
 the intersection of two semi-cylinders or 
 arches. It is either regular or irregular: 
 — regular, as when the intersecting 
 
 a a, Groin.s. 
 
 arches are of the same diameters , and 
 heights; and irregular, when one of the 
 arches is semi-circular, and the other 
 semi-elliptical. In Gothic architecture 
 groins are always ribbed. 
 
 GRONINGEN (gro'ning-en), a town of 
 Holland, capital of a province of same 
 name, situated on the river Huns, here 
 converted into a canal, 92 miles north- 
 east of Amsterdam. Pop. 67,563. — The 
 province forms the north-eastern por- 
 tion of Holland; area, 790 sq. miles. It is 
 protected against the encroachments of 
 the sea by' dykes, is very level, and is 
 intersected by innumerable canals. The 
 inhabitants, 302,681, nearly all belong 
 to the Calvinistic Church. 
 
 GROSBEAK, a general popular name 
 for birds of at least three groups belong- 
 ing to the conirostral division of the 
 Insessores. The first comprises the cross- 
 bills ; in the second group is . the East 
 Indian representative genus, with the 
 beak large and parrot-like, but not cross- 
 ing; the third group includes the pine 
 grosbeak and the bullfinch. The term 
 
 
GROTE 
 
 GUADELOUPE 
 
 rosbeak was given to birds which had 
 eaks proportionally larger than in the 
 most familiar forms. 
 
 GROTE, George, English historian 
 and politician, was born in 1794, died in 
 1871. In 1846 appeared the first two 
 volumes of his History of Greece. The 
 remaining ten volumes followed in rapid 
 succession, the final volume being pub- 
 lished in 1856. The work terminates 
 with the death of Alexander the Great, 
 and as a whole is a monument of erudi- 
 tion. In 1865 he published Plato and 
 the Other Companions of Socrates, and 
 was engaged at the time of his death on 
 an elaborate treatise on Aristotle and 
 the Peripatetics. In the latter part of his 
 life he was concerned in the management 
 of University college, the London uni- 
 versity, 'and the British museum. 
 
 GROTESQUE, in art, a capricious 
 variety of arabesque ornamentation, 
 whicn^ as a whole, has no type in nature, 
 the parts of animals, plants, and other 
 incongruous elements being combined 
 together; used by the Romans in decora- 
 tive painting and revived by the artists 
 of the renaissance. 
 
 GROUCHY (gro'she), Emmanuel, 
 Marquis, de, a noted French general, 
 born at Paris, 1766. He entered the 
 Royal life guards at the age of four- 
 teen, saw much service, and highly dis- 
 tinguished himself. In the war with 
 Prussia in 1806, and Russia (1807), and 
 at Wagram, he acquired increased re- 
 nown. In 1815 he defeated Blucher at 
 Ligny. Having been ordered to follow 
 the Prussian retreat, he was unable to 
 aid Napoleon at Waterloo. He was ban- 
 ished under the second restoration, and 
 lived for a few years at Philadelphia. He 
 returned to France in 1821, and died in 
 1847. 
 
 GROUND DOVE, a name of various 
 species of pigeons, which resemble the 
 
 Dwarf ground-dove. 
 
 gallinaceous birds in living mainly on 
 the ground, their feet being better suited 
 for walking than perching. 
 
 GROUND-HOG. Same as Aard-vark. 
 
 GROUND IVY, a common British 
 plant with a creeping stem and purple 
 flowers. Tea made from it is used by the 
 poor for pectoral complaints. It ^ 
 formerly employed to flavor ale. 
 
 GROUND-NUT, a term which d ./lotes 
 the seeds or pods of certain umbellifers 
 (earth-nuts)’ The nut or pod is situated 
 at the end of a stalk of some length and 
 is ripened under ground, this stalk hav- 
 ing the peculiarity after flowering of 
 bending down and pushing the fruit into 
 the earth. The plant is extensively culti- 
 vated in tropical countries. The nuts 
 have a flavor similar to almonds, and 
 yield an oil that may be used for olive- 
 Oil. See Peanut. 
 
 GROUND-PINE, a herbaceous labiate 
 plant, so called from its resinous smell. 
 Also a name given to some lycopods or 
 club-mosses. 
 
 GROUND-RENT, in English law, is 
 the rent paid to a landowner by a person 
 for the use of ground on which buildings 
 are erected. The usual arrangement is 
 
 for a specified time, generally ninety- 
 nine years. On the expiration of this 
 period the whole of the buildings be- 
 come the prp*perty of the ground-land- 
 lord. 
 
 GROUND SQUIRREL, the name of 
 squirrels somewhat resembling the mar- 
 mot. They differ from the common 
 squirrel in possessing cheek-pouches, 
 and in retreating into burrows. They 
 are well known in America, but species 
 are also found in Asia and Africa. 
 
 GROUSE, the general name of gallina- 
 ceous birds, whose distinguishing mark 
 is a naked band, often of a red color, in 
 place of an eyebrow. They are wild, shy, 
 and almost untamable. They live in 
 
 Red grouse. 
 
 families, in forests and barren regions, 
 and feed on berries, buds, and leaves. 
 They are polygamous, the male aban- 
 doning the female, and leaving to her 
 the whole care of the progeny. The eggs 
 number eight to fourteen. To this genus 
 belong several species peculiar to North 
 America, the most remarkable of which 
 is the pinnated grouse or prairie hen, 
 which inhabits open desert plains in 
 particular districts of the Union. The 
 male is furnished with wing-like ap- 
 pendages to his neck, covering two loose, 
 orange sacs, capable of being inflated. 
 Another species is the cock of the plains 
 (which see). See also Hazel Grouse, 
 Ruffed Grouse, Sand Grouse.^ 
 
 GROVES, among various ancient na- 
 tions groves have been, probably on 
 
 account of the mental impressions their 
 stillness is calculated to make, considered 
 as suitable localities for religious rites. 
 The Hebrew word asherah, translated 
 “grove” in the authorized version of 
 the Old Testament, seems to signify 
 some idol or idolatrous symbol. See 
 Asherah. 
 
 GROW, Galusha Aaron, American 
 politician, was born at Ashford, Conn., 
 in 1823. In 1851 he was elected to con- 
 gress from Pennsylvania and continued 
 to be a member of that body until 1863. 
 He was speaker of the -house of repre- 
 sentatives from 1861-1863. He declined 
 the Russian mission in 1879. From 1894 
 until his death in 1906 he was congress- 
 man at large from his state. 
 
 GRUB, the term applied to the soft, 
 wormlike larvae of coleopterous and 
 other insects. Some species do much in- 
 jury to the roots of plants, growing corn, 
 etc. 
 
 GRUBBER, an agricultural imple- 
 ment for tearing and loosening soil, and 
 for eradicating roots, etc. It consists of 
 an iron framework with handles and 
 wheels, and provided with curved tines 
 or teeth. In the most ajjproved kinds 
 the wheels are arranged three in front, 
 and two behind. The depth to which the 
 teeth may penetrate is regulated by 
 su it able mechanism . 
 
 GRUGRU, the larva of the palm 
 weevil, found in the tropical parts of 
 America. It is of the length and thick- 
 ness of a man’s thumb, burrows in cab- 
 bage-palms, and canes, and is, when 
 cooked, considered a great delicacy. 
 
 GRUNT, Grunter, an American fish, 
 also termed pig-fish and red-mouth. 
 The first of these names relates to the 
 sound it emits when taken out of the 
 water, the last to blood-red marks on 
 the gums or lips. The Growler, found in 
 America, also emits a grunting sound. 
 
 GRUS, the genus to which the crane 
 belongs. 
 
 GRYSBOK, a species of antelope 
 found in Southern Africa. It attains 
 about 3 feet in length, is feet high at 
 the shoulder, and its color is reddish- 
 gray. It is hunted for the sake of its 
 flesh. 
 
 GUACHARO, a bird of the goat- 
 sucker family, of nocturnal habits, a 
 native of South America, and found in 
 great numbers in certain caves of Vene- 
 zuela, Trinidad, and elsewhere. It is 
 about the size of a common fowl, with 
 a curved and toothed bill, wings long 
 and pointed. It is called also Oil-bird. 
 
 GUADALAJARA (gw&-da-la-ha'r4), a 
 town in Spain, capital of the province of 
 same name, on the Henares, 44 miles 
 northeast of Madrid. Pop. 8503. — The 
 province, area 7012 sq. miles, is moun- 
 tainous, or forms part of an elevated 
 plateau. Pop. 205,495. 
 
 GUADALAJABtA, a city of Mexico, 
 capital of the state of Jalisco, in the 
 fruitful valley of Atemajac, on the Rio 
 de Santiago; a large and handsome city, 
 with a fine cathedral and other good 
 buildings; a university, a mint, convents, 
 etc. Various manufactures are carried 
 on, as those of silversmiths’ ^ind gold- 
 smiths’ wares, paper, leather, hats, 
 pottery, cloth, etc. Pop. 95,000. 
 
 GUADELOUPE (ga-de-lop), one of the 
 French West Indies, composed of two 
 
GUAIACUM 
 
 GUATEMALA 
 
 portions, separated by a narrow arm of 
 the sea called Riviere Sal6e (Salt River). 
 The western and larger portion is Basse- 
 terre, or Guadeloupe Proper, 27 miles 
 long by about 15 miles broad. The 
 eastern portion, called Grande terre, is 
 nearly 30 miles long by 10 to 12 miles 
 broad. Guadeloupe Proper is of volcanic 
 formation, the culminating point being 
 La Soufriere, 5018 feet. Grande-terre, 
 on the other hand, is generally flat, and 
 of coral formation. Guadeloupe is 
 watered by a number of small streams 
 which become dry in summer. Grande- 
 terre has only a few springs of brackish 
 undrinkable water. The climate is hot 
 and unhealthy, with a remarkably humid 
 atmosphere, and hurricanes are fre- 
 quent and destructive. The soil is fertile. 
 The chief exports are sugar, coffee, dye 
 and cabinet woods, pepper, manioc, 
 tobacco, etc. The chief town is Bas- 
 terre. Pop. 172,097, or with depen- 
 dencies (Marie Galante, Desirade, etc.), 
 200,000. 
 
 GUAIACUM (gwi'a-kum), a genus of 
 plants, containing four or five arbores- 
 cent species, natives of the West Indies 
 and the tropical parts of America. 
 Among other uses it is. employed in the 
 
 Gualacum plant. 
 
 construction of ornamental articles of 
 furniture, being susceptible of a fine 
 polish. This tree yields the resin known 
 as guaiacum, which either flows spon- 
 taneously from the tree, or from incis- 
 ions or perforations in the stem, oris got 
 by extraction by means of spirit from 
 the wood. It is greenish-brown, has a 
 balsamic odor, taste somewhat bitter 
 and pungent, and it dissolves freely in 
 spirit, but it insoluble in water. Its chief 
 use is in medicine, the resin (as well as a 
 decoction of the bark and wood) acting 
 as a stimulant in chronic rheumatism, 
 and being used also in gout, scrofula, 
 syphilis, etc. 
 
 GUAIRA. See Guayra. 
 
 GUAM (gwiim), the largest of the 
 Ladrone Islands, lying in the Pacific 
 Ocean, and belonging to the United 
 States. It is about 1500 miles east of 
 Manila, and nearly the same distance 
 southeast of Yokohama. It is 31 miles 
 long and from 5 to 7 miles wide, and has 
 an area of about 195 sq. miles. The 
 climate is humid, with rain at all seasons 
 but not unhealthful. The cocoanut-palm 
 and the bread-fruit tree, rice, sugar, and 
 indigo are cultivated, and the farms are 
 well stocked with domestic animals. 
 The island is of little importance to the 
 United States except as a naval station 
 and port of transit between America and 
 Asia, to which end the barhor of Apra is 
 being extensively improved. The popu- 
 
 lation is about 9000, of whom more than 
 half live in the capital, Agana. Guam 
 was captured by the United States 
 cruiser Charleston on June 21, 1898, and 
 by the treaty of Paris was ceded by 
 Spain to the United States. 
 
 GU'AN, a gallinaceous bird. The 
 sides of the head and front of the throat 
 are naked and wattled, the wattles 
 capable of inflation. The name Guan 
 is more particularly applied to the 
 largest bird of the genus, measuring 
 about 30 inches. The guans perch on 
 trees, descending in search of grain and 
 fruits, and are natives of Brazil and 
 Guiana. 
 
 GUANACO (gwan-a'ko), a South 
 American ruminant, closely akin to the 
 llama, alpaca, etc. It abounds most in 
 Chili and Patagonia. 
 
 GUANAXUATO (gw4-na-hwa't6), a 
 city of Mexico, capital of the state of the 
 same name, 160 miles northwest of 
 Mexico. Pop. 56,000. — ^The state is 
 situated in the center of Mexico; area, 
 11,411 sq. miles; population, 968,113. 
 Its mines, once the richest in the world, 
 still yield a large amount of gold and sil- 
 ver. The surface is traversed by the 
 cordillera of Anahuac, 9711 feet in 
 height. 
 
 GUAN'O (Peruvian huano, dung), a 
 valuable manure, consisting of the 
 partially decomposed and dry excre- 
 ment of the fish-eating seabirds, which 
 has in some places accumulated in great 
 masses. The name has been also ex- 
 tended to accumulations of a similar 
 kind from land birds, and even from 
 bats in caverns. Owing to the fact that 
 rain washes such deposits away, great 
 accumulations of guano exist principally 
 in hot and dry tropical regions. The 
 most important of all were the deposits 
 on the Chincha Islands off the coast of 
 Peru, which yielded a considerable 
 revenue to the country, but are now 
 quite exhausted. From 1853 to 1872 
 about 8,000,000 tons were got from these 
 islands. Other deposits of less extent 
 have from time to time been found, and 
 Peru still remains the chief source of 
 supply, its deposits being now, however, 
 worked under the Chilian governinent. 
 Guano varies extremely in composition, 
 but it may be roughly_ divided into 
 nitrogenous and phosphatic. The first of 
 these contains about 21 per cent of 
 ammonia. This is the case with the 
 Peruvian variety, which contains almost 
 all the inorganic matter required by a 
 plant, and that in a highly available 
 form, so that it is looked upon as one of 
 the best of all fertilizing agents for 
 different crops. Its use as a manure was 
 was known to the native Peruvians cen- 
 turies ago, but nq,attention was paid to 
 the accounts by modern travelers of its 
 wonderful efficacy until A. von Hurn- 
 boldt brought some to Europe and had it 
 analyzed. It began to be brought to 
 Europe about 1846. It is used raw or in 
 its natural state, but most of the phos- 
 phatic guanos (some of which hardly de- 
 serve the name 'of guano) require to be 
 dissolved by sulphuric acid before using. 
 There are also manures known as fish 
 guano, prepared from fish or fish refuse, 
 flesh guano, blood guano, etc. Large 
 quantities of fish guano are made in the 
 
 United States from the menhaden, the 
 oil being first extracted. 
 
 GUAl^IAN, in law, the custodian of 
 persons incapable of directing them- 
 selves and especially of infants, that is 
 persons under 21 years of age. They 
 may be said to be of five kinds: 1st, tes- 
 tamentary, or appointed by will; 2d, 
 customary, by local usage ; 3d, ad litem, 
 or appointed by a court in order to con- 
 duct legal proceedings- 4th, by appoint- 
 ment of chancery; 5th, in tort, or by 
 intrusion. Guardianship lasts in the 
 case of the young until they have at- 
 tained the age of twenty-one. 
 
 GUAJRDIAJI ANGEL, the angelic 
 guardian who, by some, is supposed to 
 watch over every human being with a 
 view of preserving him or her from moral 
 evil. The notion is based on Gen. xlviii; 
 16, Matt, xviii: 10, and Heb. i: 14. 
 
 GUATEMALA (gwa-te-ma'la), a re- 
 public of Central America; area esti- 
 mated at 46,800 sq. miles; pop. (1900), 
 1,574,340. It is in general exceedingly 
 picturesque, and distinguished by a 
 luxuriant and varied vegetation. It is 
 wholly mountainous or elevated, the 
 main chain of the Central American 
 system traversing it southeast to north- 
 west, and sending off numerous branches. 
 Along the main chain are a considerable 
 numb^er of volcanoes, several of which 
 are said to be active — as Fuego and 
 Agua (14,890 feet high), which sends 
 forth torrents of water. The state is well 
 watered by numerous streams, none of 
 much importance. On the table-land, of 
 which a considerable portion of the state 
 is formed, the climate is mild; but in 
 more elevated situations the cold is in- 
 tense. There is much valuable timber. 
 The soil generally is of great fertility, 
 producing according to altitude, soil, 
 etc., corn, wheat, rice, coffee, cotton, 
 tobacco, sugar, cochineal, cacao, indigo, 
 vegetables, and tropical fruits in great 
 variety. Fiber plants are numerous, iii- 
 cluding ramie, henequen, and others. 
 The most important product is coffee, 
 and the other chief exports are skins, 
 'caoutchouc, cochineal, wool, etc. The 
 trade is chiefly carried on wHh Britain, 
 the United States, Germany, and France. 
 In the altos or mountainous parts of the 
 northwest considerable flocks of sheep 
 are raised, the wool of which is manu- 
 factured into coarse fabrics. Great at- 
 tention is now being paid to education, 
 the children, even Indians, in small and 
 remote villages being compelled to 
 attend school. The capital is Guatemala 
 la Nueva (New Guatemala). The chief 
 port is San Jos6 on the Pacific; Cham- 
 perico on the Pacific, and Livingston in 
 the Bay of Honduras are the other ports. 
 The legislative power is vested in a 
 national assembly elected for six years 
 by universal suffrage. The executive is 
 vested in a president, elected for four 
 years. — New Guatemala, or Santiago de 
 Guatemala, the capital, is situated about 
 5000 feet above the sea, and 80 miles 
 distant from the Pacific. Pop. 85,000. — 
 Old Guatemala, the former capital, is 10 
 miles southwest of New Guatemala. It 
 was founded by the Spanish in 1542, and 
 continued to be the capital till 1774, 
 when it was destroyed by a volcanic out- 
 break. It has been rebuilt, however, and 
 the population is now about 20,000. 
 
GUAVIARE 
 
 GUILDHALL 
 
 GUAVIARE (gwa-vi-ii'ra), a river of 
 Colombia, South America, an affluent of 
 the Orinoco; length, 900 miles. 
 
 GUAYAQUIL (gwi-a-kel'), a city and 
 seaport in Ecuador. It is the chief port 
 of Ecuador, and one of the best of the 
 west coast of South America. Its prin- 
 cipal exports are cacao, coffee, and ivory 
 nuts. Pop. estimated at 40,000. 
 
 GUDGEON, a fresh-water fish, be- 
 longing to the carp family. It has short 
 dorsal and anal fins, without spines; on 
 each side of the mouth there is a small 
 barbel; neither jaw is furnished with 
 teeth, but, at the entrance of the throat, 
 there are two triangular bones that per- 
 form the office of grinders. These fish 
 are taken in gentle streams, and measure 
 only about 6 inches. 
 
 GUELFS or GUELPHS, the name of a 
 distinguished princely family which 
 originated in Germany, but was also at 
 one time connected with Italy, and 
 which still flourishes in the two lines of 
 the house of Brunswick, the royal (to 
 which the reigning family in Britain be- 
 longs) and the ducal. The first who bore 
 the name is said to have been Welf, the 
 son of Isenbrand, whose grandfather 
 was a vassal of Charlemagne. See Bruns- 
 wick (Family of) and Guelfs and 
 Ghibellines. 
 
 GUERNSEY, (gern'zi), the second 
 largest and most western of the Channel 
 Islands, lying off the north coast of 
 France, 46 miles from Cherbourg,' and 
 about 68 miles from Start Point in 
 Devonshire. The principal exports are 
 cattle (the dairy cows being renowned), 
 fruits, vegetables in the early spring; 
 granite for paving, etc. Steamers ply 
 regularly between Guernsey and Lon- 
 don, Southampton, Pl 5 Tnouth, and 
 Weymouth. It is strongly fortified, and 
 has a well-organized militia. Pop. 
 35,339. See Channel Islands. 
 
 GUERRERO (ger-ra'ro), a state of 
 Mexico; area, 24,227 sq. miles. Its sur- 
 face is finely diversified by mountain 
 and valley, and partly covered by native 
 forests; and it is rich in minerals, includ- 
 ing gold, silver, copper, and iron. The 
 principal port is Acapulco. Pop. 474,- 
 594, mostly Indians. 
 
 GUERRILLAS (ge-ril'az), a name first 
 given in Spain to light, irregular troops, 
 consisting chiefly of peasants who fought 
 against the invading French in the early 
 
 art of the present century. The name 
 
 as now become quite a general term for 
 such irregular troops, and has traveled 
 far beyond Spain. 
 
 GUIANA (gl-an'a), British, a colony in 
 the north of South America, about 560 
 miles long, and about 200 miles broad, 
 having e. Dutch Guiana, w. Venezuela 
 and Brazil, n. and n.e. the Atlantic, and 
 s. Brazil; estimated area, 109,000 sq. 
 miles. It is divided into three settle- 
 ments — Berbice, Demerara, and Esse- 
 quibo. The coast tract forms a dreary 
 belt, 10 to 40 miles broad, of mud- 
 banks and shallows, and when drained 
 the surface sinks 1 foot below the sea- 
 level, hence strict attention must be paid 
 to dams and sluices. This alluvial deposit 
 is succeeded by a range of low hills not 
 exceeding 200 feet in height. Gold occurs 
 in various places, and is now mined with 
 success. Rock crystals and red agate are 
 met with; and very white clay is found 
 P. E.— 37 
 
 in the Essequibo. The extensive flats 
 along the shore are composed of alluvial 
 soil and clays, resting upon granite. The 
 chief rivers are the Essequibo, Demerara 
 Berbice, and Corentyn. The climate, 
 though moist and warm, is not on the 
 whole unhealthy. Among the animals 
 are the jaguar, tapir, armadillo, sloth, 
 vampire bat, alligator, etc., and many 
 species of birds, such as humming-birds, 
 parrots, etc. Snakes, some of them 
 
 Indians of Guiana. 
 
 venomous, and troublesome insects are 
 numerous. Guiana has two dry and two 
 wet seasons, each continuing for three 
 months: The mean annual temperature 
 is nearly 81° 2'. Sugar, rum, and mo- 
 lasses are the principal exports. Pop. 
 (1901), 300,748, of which a great pro- 
 portion are of African race or coolies 
 from India. 
 
 GUIANA BARK, the bark of Cin- 
 chona, considered to possess great value 
 as a febrifuge. 
 
 GUIANA, DUTCH, or SURINAM, a 
 
 Dutch colony in South America, situated 
 between English and French Guiana; 
 area, about 60,000 sq. miles. Only a 
 small part of the colony is under cultiva- 
 vation. On the Surinam river, about 10 
 miles from its mouth, is situated the 
 capital, Paramaribo. The principal ex- 
 ports are sugar, coffee, molasses, and 
 rum. The government is vested in a gov- 
 ernor-general and council. Pop. 72,533. 
 
 ■ GUIANA, FRENCH, a French colony 
 in South America, between Dutch 
 Guiana and Brazil; area, about 35,000 
 sq. miles. The colony comprises the 
 the island of Cayenne, celebrated for the 
 pepper bearing that name. Gold has 
 also been found in considerable quan- 
 tities. The French are said to have first 
 settled in Cayenne in 1604. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 GUIDON (gi'don), the little flag or 
 standard of a troop of cavalry. 
 
 GUIGNET’S GREEN (ge-nya), a pig- 
 ment prepared by heating in a rever- 
 beratory furnace a mixture of three parts 
 boracic acid and one of bichromate of 
 potassium, made into a thick paste with 
 water. This color is quite fixed — it does 
 not alter by light or reagents, and it is 
 quite harmless, so that it forms an ex- 
 cellent substitute for the greens which 
 contain arsenic and copper. 
 
 GUILD, a society or association for 
 carrying on commerce, a handicraft, or 
 some other undertaking. Such associa- 
 tions are known from very early times 
 in various countries. The societies of 
 
 tradesmen exclusively authorized to 
 practice their art, and governed by laws 
 of their own, played a very important 
 part in the middle ages. They often 
 formed a bulwark against the oppression 
 of the nobility, and were thus extremely 
 conducive to the growth of municipal 
 and civil liberty. Traces of these trade 
 societies are found in the' 10th century. 
 In Milan we find the mechanics united 
 under the name credentia. At Florence 
 the trades were federated into twenty- 
 one guilds or arti. These originated in 
 1282, on the overthrow of the nobility, 
 and every candidate for citizenship was 
 obliged to enter some particular guild. 
 With the view of destroying the political 
 influence which they had acquired the 
 emperor Frederick II. abolished them 
 by a decree issued in 1240; but the de- 
 cree remained without effect, as did also 
 the clauses inserted with a similar view 
 into the Golden Bull in 1356, and it was 
 not until the present century that un- 
 restricted freedom to practice any trade 
 was established in the German states. 
 In Austria this was done in 1860, and in 
 1868 it was done for all the states of the 
 North German confederation. In Britain 
 trade guilds long possessed an import- 
 ance which was mainly political. As the 
 right of voting was involved in the mem- 
 bership of a guild, many persons, not 
 mechanics, acquired the rights of “free- 
 men” by connecting themselves with 
 some body of this kind. These guilds, in 
 England, had no legal right to prevent 
 any man from exercising what trade he 
 pleased. The only restriction on the 
 exercise of trades was the statute of 
 Elizabeth, requiring seven years’ ap- 
 prenticeship. This the courts held to 
 extend to such trades only as were in 
 being at the time of the passing of that 
 statute.; but by an act passed in 1835, 
 every kind of restriction on artisans, 
 trades, etc., was abolished. The guilds 
 or companies qf the city of London 
 (among the oldest of which are the 
 weavers, founded in 1164; the parish 
 clerks, in 1232; the saddlers, in 1280, 
 the fishmongers, in 1284) are still very 
 important corporations, which give 
 relief to poor and decayed members, 
 and also manage vast funds bequeathed 
 for benevolent purposes. Besides the 
 secular guilds there were from a very 
 early period, in Britain, religious guilds. 
 The property of the religious guilds was 
 sequestrated in the reign of Henry VIII. 
 In France guild-privileges were sold by 
 the state from the 10th century till the 
 revolution of 1789, but at that date 
 guilds were entirely abolished. This 
 was done also at a later period in Bel- 
 gium, Holland, Italy, Sweden, and Den- 
 mark. Many of the trades-unions have 
 now somewhat of the character of the 
 ancient guilds. 
 
 GUILDHALL, the city hall of London, 
 Cheapside, first built in 1411, all but 
 consumed in the great fire of 1666; and 
 in 1669 rebuilt. The front was not 
 erected until 1789. The most remarkable 
 room is the hall, 153 feet long, 48 broad, 
 and 55 high, used for city feasts, etc. It 
 contains the curious wooden statues of 
 Gog and Magog. In the common-council 
 room is a collection of pictures, some of 
 them very valuable. There is also a 
 library in the Guildhall. 
 
GUILLEMOT 
 
 GUISE 
 
 GUILLEMOT (gil'e-mot), a name for 
 several web-footed birds belonging to 
 the family of auks. The guillemots have 
 a straight, compressed, and pointed bill, 
 covered with feathers as far as the nos- 
 
 Black guillemot. 
 
 trils, and have no hallux or hind-toe. 
 The wings are pointed and very short, 
 the legs also short, and placed far back. 
 They live on fish, and build on precipi- 
 tous rocks adjoining the sea. 
 
 GUILLOTINE, (gil-lo-ten'), an engine 
 for beheading persons at one stroke — an 
 invention of the middle ages — adopted 
 with improvements by the national 
 assembly of France during the first 
 revolution on the proposal of a Dr. 
 Guillotin, after whom it is named. In 
 this apparatus decapitation is effected 
 by means of a steel blade loaded v/ith a 
 a mass of lead, and sliding between two 
 upright posts, grooved on their inner 
 sides, the person’s neck being con- 
 fined in a circular opening between two 
 planks, the upper one of which also 
 
 Guillotine as used in Paris. 
 
 slides up or down. The condemned 
 is strapped to a board, which in the cut 
 is shown resting horizontally on the 
 table in front of the upright posts, but 
 which is easily drawn forward and set 
 upright when necessary, and again 
 canted over upon the table and rapidly 
 moved up so as to place the neck of the 
 condemned within the semicircle of the 
 lower plank, the other being raised for 
 the purpose. On the right of the table is 
 a large basket or trough of wicker-work 
 for the reception of the body. Under the 
 place where the head rests is an oblong 
 trough for its reception. The knife is 
 fixed to the cap or lintel on the top of the 
 posts by a claw in the form of an 8, the 
 
 lower part of which opens as the upper 
 closes. This claw is act ed upon by a lever 
 to which a cord is attached. When the 
 head of the condemned is in position the 
 cord is pulled, and by the action of the 
 lever the knife is set at lib erty , descending 
 by the grooves in the upright posts and 
 falling upon the neck of the condemned 
 just behind the planks which keep the 
 head in position. The scaffold, which is 
 surrounded by an open railing, is raised 
 6 or 7 feet from the ground. The same 
 name is given to a machine which cuts 
 by a knife descending between grooved 
 posts, much used for cutting paper, 
 straw, etc. 
 
 GUINEA (gin'e), a geographical divi- 
 sion of Western Africa, including the 
 Atlantic coast-line and an indefinite area 
 of the interior between the frontiers of 
 Senegambia and Cape Negro, or Cape 
 Frio (where German territory now be- 
 gins). It is divided into two districts, 
 lying north and south of Cape Lopez: 
 the former, called Upper Guinea, in- 
 cludes Sierra Leone, Liberia, the Grain, 
 Ivory, Gold, and Slave coasts, parts of 
 Nigeria, German Cameroon territory, 
 etc. ; the latter, called Lower Guinea, in- 
 cludes part of French Congo, Angola, etc. 
 See Africa, and the separate articles. 
 
 GUINEA, Gulf of, that portion of the 
 Atlantic which washes the shores of 
 Upper Guinea, between Cape Palmas 
 and Cape Lopez, and including the 
 bights of Benin and Biafra. The islands 
 of Fernando Po, Prince’s, and St. 
 Thomas, are within this gulf. 
 
 GUINEA, New. See New Guinea. 
 
 GUINEA-CORN, a name given to 
 durra, one of the grains also called millet. 
 In the United States it is cultivated 
 under the name of broom-corn. 
 
 GUINEA-FOWL, or PINTADO, a genus 
 of pheasants, originally all natives of 
 Africa. The common guinea-fowl, now 
 well known as a domestic fowl, has a 
 
 Guinea-fowl. 
 
 slate-colored plumage varied with round 
 white spots. It is about the size of a 
 common fowl, and is of a noisy and 
 quarrelsome disposition. Its eggs are 
 esteemed. 
 
 GUINEA-GRASS, a very tall species of 
 grass, a native of Africa, of the same 
 genus with the millet, often 6 and some- 
 times even 10 feet in height. It has been 
 naturalized in South America and the 
 West Indies, and largely cultivated for 
 fodder. It does not perish even in Brit- 
 ain, but there it is not so productive as 
 in warmer climates. 
 
 GUINEA PEPPER, a lofty tree of the 
 same family with the custard apple. Its 
 fruit, consisting of dry carpels, is used 
 as pepper, “negro pepper.” The term 
 Guinea Pepper is often used as an equiv- 
 alent for Grains of Paradise, or Mala- 
 guetta. See Caspsicum. 
 
 GUINEA-PIG, a well-known rodent 
 mammal. It is a native of South America 
 and resembles the pig only in its grunt- 
 ing voice. It is a timid little animal, ex- 
 tremely prolific, and it feeds on vege- 
 tables, especially parsley, bread, grain, 
 etc. It is very destitute of intelligence. 
 
 GUINEA-PLUM, the fruit of a West 
 African tree, growing to the height of 60 
 feet. 
 
 GUINEA- WORM, a parasitic of the 
 thickness of pack-thread, somewhat 
 attenuated at the hook-shaped posterior 
 extremity. It varies in length from 6 
 inches to several feet, and it is found in 
 the intertropical regions of the Old 
 World. 
 
 GUIPUZCOA (ge-puth'ko-a), one of 
 the three Basque provinces, in the n. e. 
 of Spain, bounded n. by the Bay of Bis- 
 cay; n. e. by France; area, 728 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 195,850. 
 
 GUISCARD (gis-kar), Robert, Duke of 
 Apulia and Calabria, a son of Tancred de 
 Hauteville, born in 1015. His brothers, 
 having acquired large possessions in 
 Italy, Robert followed them about 1053 
 and in the same year captured Pope 
 Leo IX. at Civitella. On the death of his 
 brother Humphrey he was proclaimed 
 count of Apulia in 1057. He then con- 
 quered Calabria, and Pope Nicholas II. 
 made him gonfalonier of the Church. 
 In 1074 he was excommunicated by 
 Gregory VII. for refusing to become his 
 vassal, but the ban was removed in 
 1080. As his daughter Helen was be- 
 trothed to the son of the Byzantine em- 
 peror, Michael VII., Guiscard, on the 
 latter’s deposition, took up arms in his 
 favor, and defeated Alexis Comnenus 
 at Durazzo (1082). He was upon the 
 point of advancing against Constanti- 
 nople, when he died in the island of 
 Cephalonia in 1085. 
 
 GUISE (gwez), a distinguished ducal 
 family of France, a branch of the house 
 of Lorraine. The founder was Claude, a 
 son of Ren6 II., duke of Lorraine, who in 
 1506 became naturalized in France. In 
 his favor the county of Guise was erected 
 in 1528 by Francis I. into a duchy. He 
 died in 1550, leaving behind him five 
 daughters eldest of whom, Marie, 
 married James V. of Scotland, and was 
 the mother of Mary, queen of Scots) and 
 six sons — Francois, who succeeded him, 
 Charles (Cardinal of Lorraine), Louis 
 (Cardinal of Guise), Claude, Frangois, 
 and Ren6. The family acquired great 
 political importance on the accession of 
 Francis II., who was married to Mary, 
 queen of Scots. The direct line became 
 extinct in 1675. In 1704 the title was 
 revived for the house of Cond6. — Two of 
 the dukes require particular mention. — 
 Frangois de Lorraine, the second duke, 
 born in 1519, early distinguished him- 
 self in war, especially at IMetz, which he 
 defended with success against Charles 
 V., and at the battle of Renti, 1544. In 
 his Italian expedition (1556-57) he failed 
 to conquer the kingdom of Naples. But ' 
 he was successful in that which resulted | 
 in the final annexation of Calais to 
 France. Under Henry II. and Francis 
 II. he was the virtual ruler of France. 
 On the death of Francis II. the factions 
 of Cond4 and Guise arose, the Protestant 
 (Huguenots) being on the side of the 
 former, the Catholics on that of the 
 
GUITAR 
 
 GUM 
 
 latter. When civil war broke out the 
 Duke of Guise took Rouen and Bourges, 
 and won the battle of Dreux in 1562. He 
 was prepai-ing for the siege of Orleans, 
 the central point of the protestant party, 
 when he was assassinated by a Hu- 
 guenot nobleman, Feb. 1563. He left 
 memoirs written by himself. — Henry, 
 third duke, eldest son of the preceding, 
 was born in 1550. He was a bitter op- 
 ponent of the Huguenots, and fought 
 against them at Jarnac and Moncontour, 
 and advised the massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholomew (1572). From revenge he per- 
 sonally conducted the assassins to the 
 house of Coligny. In 1576 was formed 
 the catholic league, first projected by 
 his uncle, the Cardinal of Lorraine. A 
 period of civil war followed, the party of 
 Guise proved too strong for his oppo- 
 nents, and having brought about a rising 
 of the catholics in Paris (May, 1588), he 
 entered the city in triumph. He might 
 now have made himself master of the 
 throne, but negotiations were set on 
 foot, and the duke’s displays of im- 
 prudent ambition led to his assassination 
 in the king’s cabinet, Dec. 23, 1588, at 
 Blois, whither the states had been sum- 
 moned in order finally to ratify the 
 treaty that had been arranged. 
 
 GUITAR (gi-tar'), a stringed instru- 
 ment with a hollow body, and a neck 
 somewhat similar to that of a violin, 
 used especially to accompany the voice. 
 The modern or Spanish guitar has six 
 
 1 , French guitar of 17th century. 
 
 2, Modern guitar. 
 
 strings, the three highest of gut, the 
 three lowest of silk covered with fine 
 wire, tuned respectively to the E in the 
 second space of the bass staff, A its 
 fourth, and the treble D, C, B, and E. 
 The intermediate intervals are produced 
 by bringing the stirngs, by the pressure 
 of the fingers of the left hand, into con- 
 tact with the frets fixed on the key- 
 board, while those of the right pluck or 
 twitch the strings. It is extremely popu- 
 lar in Spain. The Spaniards derived it 
 from the Moors, who brought it from 
 the east. 
 
 GUIZOT (ge-z6), Fran 9 ois Pierre Guil- 
 laume, French historian and statesman, 
 born at Nim6s, 1787, died 1874. In 1812 
 he married Mdlle. de Meulan, editor of the 
 Publiciste, and became professor of 
 history at the Sorbonne. In 1816 he 
 published Du Gouvernement Repr6sen- 
 tatif et de I’Etat Actuel de la France, and 
 Essai sur I’Instruction Publique. In 
 1820 the Due de Berry was assassinated, 
 and Guizot’s party fell before an ultra- 
 royalist reaction. In 1825 he was de- 
 prived of his chair on account of the 
 political character of his lectures, but it 
 
 was restored to him in 1828. In 1829 he 
 again became councillor of state, and in 
 1830 was elected deputy for the arron- 
 dissement of Lisieux. After the July 
 revolution he was appointed minister of 
 the interior, but resigned in 1831. After 
 the fall of Louis Philippe, Guizot escaped 
 and fled to England. Henceforth he 
 practically retired from public life. 
 Among his numerous works may be 
 mentioned Histoire de la Civilisation en 
 France, Histoire G4n6rale de la Civilisa- 
 tion en Europe; Histoire de la Revolu- 
 tion d’Angleterre; Was' Ington; Discours 
 Sur la Revolution d’ * ‘gleterre; Medita- 
 tions et Etudes Morales; Guillaume le 
 Conquerant; Memoires pour Servir k 
 I’Histoire de Mon Temps (1858-68); 
 Meditations sur I’Etat Actuel de la Re- 
 ligion Chretienne; Melanges Biograph- 
 iques et Litteraire; Histoire de France, 
 Racontee ^ Mes Petits Enfants, etc. 
 
 GUJERAT, GUJARAT, or GUZERAT, 
 a maritime province in Western Hin- 
 dustan, presidency of Bombay; total 
 area, 70,000 sq. miles; pop. 11,000,000. 
 Gujerat comprises a number of native 
 states within its area, the chief being 
 the scattered territories of the Gaek- 
 war or Guicowar of Baroda. The pop- 
 ulation presents an extraordinary as- 
 semblage of sects and castes. It gives 
 name to the vernacular language of 
 Northern Bombay — Gujarati. The area 
 of the British portiop, comprising the 
 districts of Surat, Broach, Kaira, Panch 
 Mahals, and Ahmedabad is 10,158 sq. 
 miles, and the pop. 3,098,197. 
 
 GUJRANWALA, a town of India, in 
 the Punjab, administrative headquar- 
 ters of district of same name. It has in- 
 considerable manufactures of country 
 wares, such as brass vessels, etc. Pop. 
 29,224. — Area of district, 3017 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 690,169. 
 
 GUJRAT, a district of India in the 
 lieutenant-governorship of the Punjab, 
 in the Rawal Pindi division between the 
 Jehlam and the Chenab. Pop. 760,875. 
 — Gujrat, the capital, 5 miles from the 
 Chenab, is a commercial center. Its 
 manufactures are principally of cotton 
 and of Gujrat ware, that is inlaid work 
 in gold and iron. Pop. 18,743. 
 
 GULF STREAM, one of the most cele- 
 brated of the oceanic currents, so called 
 because it issues from the Gulf of Mexico. 
 It owes its origin to the fact that the 
 westward-moving waters of the tropical 
 portion of the Atlantic, encountering 
 the eastward projection of South Ameri- 
 ca, become divided into two currents, 
 one setting southAvard along the Brazil- 
 ian coast, and the other northward past 
 the mouths of the Amazon and Orinoco, 
 into the Caribbean Sea. It then enters 
 the Gulf of Mexico, and thence emerges 
 through the Channel of Florida as the 
 Gulf Stream. Its course is next to the 
 north and eastward, in a direction 
 parallel to the coast of the United States, 
 past Cape Hatteras (lat. 35° 13'), along 
 the southern edge of the “great banks’’ 
 of Nantucket and Newfoundland (be- 
 tween the meridians of 48° and 60° 
 west), after which its course as a distinct 
 current cannot be traced. In the earlier 
 part of its course, especially when round- 
 ing the extremity of Florida, the Gulf 
 Stream forms a well-defined current, 
 distinguished by its high temperature 
 
 and its deep blue or indiga .color. On 
 account of the descent of the polar op 
 Baffin Bay current along the coast in a 
 direction opposite to that of the Gulf 
 Stream, the water on its inland side ia 
 colder than that to the eastward of it. 
 The difference of temperature between 
 the Gulf Stream and this cold current 
 sometimes amounts to 20° (or even 30°) 
 Fahr. The velocity of the Gulf Stream 
 varies with its course. Within the 
 Florida Channel it attains a mean of 65 
 miles per day, this sinks to 56 miles off 
 Charleston, becomes 36 miles to 46 off 
 Nantucket, and 28 miles to the south of 
 the Newfoundland banks; 300 miles to 
 the eastward of NeAvfoundland its move- 
 ment is hardly perceptible. At the 
 bottom of the Flordia Channel the ob- 
 served temperature is 34°, that of the 
 surface from 80° to 84°. Geographers 
 have greatly exaggerated the influence 
 of the Gulf Stream on the temperature 
 of Europe. If it possesses any direct in- 
 fluence such must be extremely small, 
 as the current is both too narrow and too 
 shallow, and its slight amount of su- 
 perior heat probably vanishes after it ha« 
 passed Cape Hatteras. The relatively 
 high temperature of western and north- 
 western Europe must rather be referred 
 to the general set of the tropical waters 
 to the northeast, and to the warm winds 
 blowing in the same direction, and not 
 to the Gulf Stream exclusively. 
 
 GULF-WEED, a genus of sea-weeds 
 which grows on tropical coasts, and 
 accumulates in great floating beds, but 
 does not propagate when detached. 
 
 GULL, the general name of a family of 
 birds distinguished by their straight 
 bill, bending downward toward the 
 point, and marked below the under 
 mandible by a triangular prominence, 
 
 Lesser black-backed gull. 
 
 by their large wings, slender legs, pal- 
 mated feet, and small hind toe. Gen- 
 erally seen in large flocks, the larger 
 species frequent the sea, the smaller, 
 lakes or rivers. They swim well, but are 
 incapable of diving. Their flight is rapid 
 and long sustained. They are extremely 
 voracious, and feed on every kind of 
 animal food, putrid or fresh. Their prin- 
 cipal food is fish, which they catch with 
 great agility, darting down like an arrow. 
 They breed only once a year, laying two 
 to four eggs. The species are exceedingly 
 numerous, and resemble each other 
 greatly. Among the principal are the 
 common gull which breeds on the coast, 
 or inland in moory districts; the lesser 
 black-backed gull, the black-headed 
 ull, the ivory gull, the Iceland gull, 
 istinguished by its v\rhite quill feathers 
 from the herring gull, the great black- 
 backed gull; the burgomaster; the little 
 gull ; sabine’s gull ; the kittiwake, etc. 
 
 GUM, a substance of various proper- 
 ties which exudes spontaneously from 
 
GUM-ARABIC 
 
 i UNNERY 
 
 the bark of certain trees, such as the 
 plum, the peach, etc.; or from incisions 
 made in the bark to facilitate the flow. 
 Gums form non-crystalline rounded 
 drops Or tears, the purest varieties be- 
 ing transparent or translucent, of a pale 
 yellow but sometimes of a dark color. 
 When dissolved in water gum forms a 
 thick, smooth fluid, with considerable 
 viscosity. Some gums, such as gum- 
 arabic, dissolve in water; others, like 
 tragacanth, are only partially soluble; 
 they are insoluble in alcohol. By being 
 insoluble in alcohol gums are distin- 
 guished from resins. They have no odor, 
 and only a very faint taste. The dif- 
 ferent kinds of gums receive their names 
 from the countries from which they are 
 imported — such as gum-arabic, gum- 
 senegal, Earbary gum. East India gum, 
 etc., and from individual features, as 
 cherry-tree gum, tragacanth, etc. Gum- 
 resins require water and alcohol to dis- 
 solve them. See Gum-resins. 
 
 GUM-ARABIC, is the purest form of 
 gum, and may be regarded as typical. 
 It comes from various species of Acacia. 
 The gum exudes spontaneously, and its 
 appearance is an indication of the tree 
 being in an unhealthy condition ; but in 
 order to get it in sufficient quantity in- 
 cisions are made in the bark. Gum- 
 arabic is very largely employed in the 
 finishing and dressing of fabrics; for 
 thickening the colors in calico-printing; 
 in pharmacy; as a cement; in ink-mak- 
 ing; for making crayons and water- 
 color cakes, and for many other pur- 
 poses. The purest gum-arabic is in 
 round tears, transparent, and almost 
 colorless, faintly odorous, completely 
 soluble in water, the solution being 
 feebly acid. 
 
 GUM-BOIL, an abscess in the gum 
 generally the result of toothache or of 
 the presence of decayed teeth or stumps. 
 The carious tooth or stump, if the in- 
 flammation proceeds from this cause, 
 should be removed. The purulent mat- 
 ter should be evacuated by a free in- 
 cision, and the mouth frequently washed 
 with tincture of myrrh and water. 
 
 GUM-ELASTIC, caoutchouc or india- 
 rubber. 
 
 GUM-JUNIPER, the resin of a conif- 
 erous tree of Barberry, used in varnish 
 etc. 
 
 GUMMING, a disease of certain fruit- 
 trees, as cherries, plums, apricots, 
 peaches, etc., consisting in a morbid 
 exudition of gum, and generally result- 
 ing in the death of the tree. 
 
 GUM-RESINS, solidified juices ob- 
 tained from plants. They contain a gum, 
 which is soluble in water, and a resin, 
 which dissolves in spirit, so that the 
 body usually is nearly quite soluble in 
 dilute alcohol; but there are usually 
 present in addition essential oil, and a 
 variety of impurities. The gum-resins 
 have frequently a strong and character- 
 istic taste and smell. They are solid, 
 opaque, and brittle. The common gum- 
 resins are aloes, ammoniacum, asafoet- 
 ida, bdellium, galbanum, gamboge, 
 myrrh, olibanum, opoponax, sagape- 
 num, and scammony. 
 
 GUN, a missile weapon, causing de- 
 struction by the discharge of a ball, 
 bullet, or other substance, through a 
 cylindrical tube, along which it is pro- 
 
 pelled by the action of gunpowder or 
 other explosive substance. One of the 
 famous guns of history is the great 
 “Mons Meg,'' which was made at Mons, 
 Brittany, in 1486, and which was burst 
 in 1682 w’hile firing a salute. It was 
 made of iron bars, hooped together. 
 Another is the “Tsar Cannon,” or 
 “King of Cannons,” preserved in the 
 Kremlin at Moscow. Other noted guns 
 are the Turkish pieces guarding the 
 Dardanelles, the gun at Dover, an 
 inscription on which says: 
 
 “Load me well and keep me clean 
 And I’ll land a ball at Calais green.” 
 
 In recent times progress has been 
 made by the improvement of the 
 breech-loading method, in the method 
 of rifling, and in the size of ordnance, 
 particularly the monster guns made by 
 the Krupp company at Essen, Ger- 
 many. Machine guns of the Gatling 
 type were introduced half a century 
 ago, and the first automatic gun was 
 devised by Maxim, on the principle of 
 using the recoil to reload and fire. See 
 Cannon, Rifle, Machine-gun, etc. 
 
 GUN-BOAT, a term applied to small 
 war-vessels mounting often only a 
 single heavy gun, and employed in 
 coast defense or in attacking large and 
 heavy-armored vessels. Some gun- 
 boats have their one gun on the deck 
 mounted so as to be turned in any 
 direction by means of a pivot. In 
 others the single gun is placed on a 
 platform, which can be raised to the 
 deck or lowered to the hold. The gun 
 in this case does not turn on a pivot, the 
 manoeuvring being effected entirely by 
 the turning of the vessel. Some of the 
 gun-boats of the present day are armed 
 with several powerful breech-loading 
 guns besides quick-firing and machine 
 guns; and they may also be fitted for 
 discharging torpedoes. Many of them 
 are very swift. 
 
 GUN-CARRIAGE, the structure on 
 which a cannon is mounted, and on 
 which it is fired. Gun-carriages are of 
 very various constructions. In the case 
 of a field or siege piece the carriage is 
 united, for traveling, with a two- 
 wheeled fore-part, termed a limber, to 
 which the horses are attached, so as to 
 form a single four-wheeled carriage. In 
 action the gun is unlimbered, and then 
 rests on its pair of wheels, and on a 
 strong support termed the trail. A gun 
 in a fortress has its carriage commonly 
 mounted on what is termed a traversing 
 platform, that is, a strong framework 
 supported on metal trucks or small 
 wheels. In mortars a cast-iron bed 
 takes the place of a carriage. 
 
 GUN-COTTON, or Pyroxyline, is an 
 explosive substance formed by the 
 action of nitric acid on cotton. In the 
 process of manufacture sulphuric acid 
 is mixed with the nitric, its function 
 being to absorb the water formed by 
 the weakening of the nitric acid as it 
 gradually combines with the cotton. 
 The product of this process is a chemical 
 compound of four or five times the ex- 
 plosive power of gunpowder. The cot- 
 ton is generally reduced to a finely 
 divided condition, and the gun-cotton 
 moulded into disks of suitable sizes. 
 
 Wlien ignited in a free state it burns 
 with a strong flame; it is only when fired 
 by a detonat' ng fuse or when heated in 
 confinement ;hat it explodes. The pres- 
 ence of water and other substances does 
 not interfere with this kind of explosion. 
 From this follows the important fact 
 that it can be kept wet with safety 
 while in a condition in which it may be 
 exploded by means of a detonator. In 
 short, when wet it is quite safe and yet 
 quite ready for work at a moments no- 
 tice ; for, while it refuses to burn even 
 in the heat of a powerful flame, the ap- 
 plication of a large or of a small detona- 
 tor inserted in one dry disk of gun-cotton 
 causes the wet mass to explode with its 
 full violence. Bursters of gun-cotton and 
 water have been used in shells for cer- 
 tain purposes. When exploded it pro- 
 duces little smoke and a very small 
 amount of residual matter. There are 
 also preparations allied to gun-cotton 
 with wood-fiber as a basis, such as 
 Schulze’s powder, sawdust powder, etc. 
 An imperfect chemical form of gun- 
 cotton termed collodion, soluble in a 
 mixture of ether and alcohol, is used in 
 photography. 
 
 GUNNERY, the science of conducting 
 the fire of artillery. Gunnery may be 
 divided into the theoretical and practi- 
 cal branches. The former consists 
 chiefly in the application of mathe- 
 
 Gatling gun. 
 
 matics to the solution of the problems 
 in dynamics involved in the consider- 
 ation of the motion of shot through the 
 air, and is essential to the design of 
 good systems of rifling and well-pro- 
 portioned projectiles. Practical gun- 
 nery, which deals with the actual firing, 
 has reference rather to the use of 
 individual guns than to the handling 
 of artillery on a large scale. Theoreti- 
 cal gunnery would be simple were the 
 projectiles fired in vacuo, as gravity 
 alone would, in such a case, require to 
 be taken into account, and the path of 
 projectiles would simply describe a 
 parabola. The line taken by a pro- 
 jectile (or its trajectory as it is called) is, 
 however, subject to modifications caused 
 by the resistance of the air, the form of 
 the shot, etc. Among things to be con- 
 sidered in gunnery are the velocity of the 
 projectile, initial and subsequent, the 
 angle of elevation of the piece, the range 
 or distance to which the projectile is 
 carried, etc. With cast-iron spherical 
 shot the chief complication arises from 
 the centre of gravity never falling 
 exactly in the centre of the figure. 
 Rifled guns, however, fire projectiles 
 with a certain known rotation, and in the 
 
GUNNY-BAGS 
 
 GUSTAVUS II 
 
 case of elongated shot, these are more 
 accurately centerd in the bore by the 
 action of the grooves, and possess the 
 faculty of traveling point first, and of 
 thus overcoming the resistance of the 
 air. One mechanical disadvantage be- 
 longs to rifled shot — namely, the wild 
 irregularity of their ricochet — a dis- 
 advantage which, however, does not 
 apply to shells burst on the instant of 
 graze by percussion fuzes, or before con- 
 tact by time fuzes. All the British serv- 
 ice projectiles have their centres of 
 gravity nearly half way along their axes. 
 
 Krupp’s 15.6 breech- loading gun. 
 Breech open. 
 
 and in flight they carry toward the 
 right hand of the person laying the gun 
 — a species of deviation to which the 
 name of drift or deflexion is given. In 
 determining the velocity of projectiles 
 various instruments are used. Among 
 these are Wheatstone’s electromagnetic 
 chronoscope, the Bashforth chrono- 
 graph, the Noble chronoscope, etc. In 
 ordinary artillery fire the charge is a 
 fixed one, and the elevation is varied 
 according to the range. Horizontal fire 
 against the front of a column or line of 
 works is termed direct fire; that which 
 sweeps along a line of men or earth- 
 works, enfilade fire; vertical fire is when 
 the piece is fired at a high angle of eleva- 
 tion. 
 
 GUNNY-BAGS, are bags made of a 
 coarse cloth or sacking manufactured in 
 India of some native fiber, chiefly j'ute. 
 They are extensively used in India in 
 packing rice, sago, spices, etc., for ex- 
 port, and in America for bales of cotton. 
 
 GUNPOWDER, is a mixture of salt- 
 peter, sulphur, and charcoal. We hear 
 of gunpowder from a very early period. 
 It appears to have been used in China 
 at, if not before, the Christian era. 
 Marcus Graecus, who lived about the 
 9th century, describes its composition, 
 which was also known to Roger Bacon, 
 who refers to it in 1267. It was also 
 apparently known to the Arabs at an 
 early period. In 1342 the Moors em- 
 ployed it in the siege of Algesiras. 
 According to the common story the 
 discovery of its propulsive power was 
 due to the German monk Barthold 
 Schwartz between 1290 and 1320. Guns 
 are said to have been employed by 
 Edward III. in 1327, on his invasion of 
 Scotland. It is also asserted that gun- 
 powder was employed in 1346 by the 
 English at Cr4cy. It was not, however, 
 until the 16th century that its use in 
 warfare became general. The propor- 
 tion of the ingredients in the composition 
 of gunpowder is different in different 
 countries. In Britain the proportions 
 for different kinds, such as sporting and 
 
 mining powdeio, differ slightly. The 
 gunpowder of the mills at Waltham 
 Abbey contains 75 saltpeter, 15 char- 
 coal, and 10 sulphur. The crude salt- 
 etre is dissolved in an equal weight of 
 oiling water in a copper boiler, filtered, 
 and allowed to cool and crystalize in a 
 trough in order to purify it from nitrates 
 of soda and lime, chlorides of potassium 
 and sodium, etc., the liquid being con- 
 tinually agitated, so that the crystals 
 may be formed small and pure. They 
 are then washed and allowed to drain. 
 The sulphur is purified and ground. The 
 charcoal is obtained from alder or willow 
 wood, or from dogwood for the finest 
 powder. These ingredients are first 
 roughly mixed, then sprinkled with 
 water and incorporated under rollers in 
 a mill, and formed into a cake termed 
 “mill cake.” This is broken up under 
 grooved rollers, and brought by pressure 
 into “press cake.” After this it is gran- 
 ulated, by being passed between toothed 
 rollers, and separated into classes by 
 sieves of different sizes of mesh. Latterly 
 a very large grain has been adopted for 
 the heaviest charges; this is termed 
 pellet or pebble powder. “Pellet” 
 powder is made by filling the cylindrical 
 holes in a thick gun-metal plate with 
 mealed powder, and by means of pistons 
 under a hydraulic press, forming them 
 into short cylinders or “pellets,” with a 
 small cavity at one end to catch a flame 
 the more readily. “Pebble” Dowder is 
 made by cutting or pressing edges which 
 divide the press cake into small cubes; 
 these, like pebbles, have their corners 
 rubbed off and rounded by friction. 
 The largest pebble powder consists of 
 cubes of IJ inches. There is also a gun- 
 powder known as “prismatic,” the 
 grains forming large hexagonal prisms 
 with a hole through tho center. “Cocoa” 
 powders are made with other kinds of 
 carbon than wood charcoal. Smokeless 
 powder has been introduced (“cordite” 
 may here be named), but has not yet 
 been properly tested in war. Gun-cotton 
 is the base or an important ingredient of 
 all the well-known smokeless powders. 
 As it is necessary that the flame must 
 traverse the interstices between the 
 grains of powder, the grains must be 
 suited to the size of the charge of the 
 gun. The greatest precautions must be 
 taken to prevent fire or water from com- 
 ing into contact with gunpowder. Hence 
 it is usually kept in magazines which are 
 of great strength in defensive works, 
 although lighter and well-ventilated 
 buildings suffice under other conditions. 
 In the transportation of gunpowder, the 
 casks should be dust-proof, and the 
 carriages and vessels containing it 
 should be water-tight. As iron vessels 
 are dangerous, gunpowder is usually 
 packed in copper-hooped barrels made 
 with copper nails. The explosive powder 
 of gunpowder is very great. It is, how- 
 ever, necessary to place it within a con- 
 fined space, as, when it is heaped up in 
 the open air, it explodes without report 
 or much effect. As the result of experi- 
 ments it appears that the weight of the 
 gases produced by inflaming gunpowder 
 is about xuths of that of the powder, 
 and their volume 288 times its bulk, 
 when they have attained an elasticity 
 equal to that of the air. If the effect of 
 
 heat evolved during the combusiton be 
 added, the elastic fbrce is increased to 
 1000 atmospheres in round numbers, i.e. 
 a pressure of about 6J tons to the sq. 
 inch. 
 
 GUNPOWDER PLOT, a conspiracy 
 formed in England in 1604, the second 
 year of the reign of James I., by some 
 Roman Catholics, to blow up the king 
 and parliament in order to be revenged 
 on the government for its severities 
 against their religion. The time ulti- 
 mately fixed for the exegution of the 
 plot was the 5th of November, 1605, 
 when parliament was to be opened by 
 the king in person. The plot originated 
 with Robert Catesby, Thomas Winter, 
 and John Wright, and was at once made 
 known to Guido Fawkes, a zealous 
 Catholic, who had served in the Spanish 
 army in Flanders, and to Thomas Percy, 
 a relation of the Earl of Northumberland. 
 The plot was subsequently communi- 
 cated to Sir Everard Digby, Ambrose 
 Rookwood. Francis Tresham, Thomas 
 Keyes, and to some Jesuit fathers and 
 others.. Fawkes, Rookwood, Winter, 
 and others were tried at Westminster 
 on 27th of Jan., 1906, and executed on 
 the 30th and 31st. 
 
 GUNTER’S CHAIN, the chain in com- 
 mon use for measuring land; so called 
 from its inventor, Edmund Gunter. Its 
 length is 66 feet, or 22 yards, or 4 poles 
 of 5i yards each; and it is divided into 
 100 links of 7.92 inches each. 100,000 
 square links make 1 acre. 
 
 GUNTER’S SCALE, a scale having 
 various lines upon it, of great use in 
 working problems in navigation. This 
 scale is usually 2 feet long and about 1^ 
 inches broad. On the one side are the 
 natural lines, and on the other the artifi- 
 cial or logarithmic ones, 
 
 GUR'NARD, or GURNET, the popular 
 name of acanthopterous fishes. The 
 head is angular, and wholly covered 
 with bony plates. The body is elongated, 
 nearly round and tapering; there are two 
 dorsal fins; the pectoral fins are large; 
 the teeth are small and numerous. 
 
 GUSTAF V. GUSTAF, Adolf, King 
 of Sweden, son of Oscar II., was born in 
 1857. He was trained for the army and 
 has been inspector general of the mili- 
 tary schools of Sweden. In 1881^ he 
 married Princess Victoria of Baden, 
 a cousin of Emperor William of Ger- 
 many. He became king in 1907, on 
 the death of his father, Oscar II. 
 
 GUSTA'VUS I., commonly called 
 Gustavus Vasa, was born in 1490, or, 
 according to others, in 1496. He roused 
 the peasants to resist Danish oppression, 
 defeated the Danes, took Upsala and 
 other towns, and in 1523 was elected 
 king. In 1529 he procured the abolition 
 of the Roman Catholic religion in 
 Sweden, and established Protestantism. 
 He died in 1560. 
 
 GUSTAVUS II., Gustavus Adolphus, 
 King of Sweden, a grandson of Gustavus 
 Vasa, was born in 1594. He was trained 
 to war under experienced generals, took 
 his place in the state councils at the age 
 of sixteen, and was in command of the 
 army in his seventeenth year during the 
 war with Denmark, which was concluded 
 in 1613, and by which Sweden recovered 
 important possessions on the Baltic. He 
 
GUSTAVUS III 
 
 . GWALIOR 
 
 then turned his arms against the Rus- 
 sians, drove them from Ingria, Karelia, 
 and a part of Livonia, which were 
 secured to him by the peace of Stolbova 
 in 1617. After taking many fortified 
 towns, repeatedly defeating the im- 
 
 E erial generals, at Leipzig (1631), Wurz- 
 urg (1631), Passage of the Lech (1632), 
 and conquering a great part of Germany, 
 he was killed in the battle of Lutzen, 
 against Wallenstein, 16th November, 
 1632. (See Thirty Years’ War.) 
 
 GUSTAVUS III., King of Sweden, born 
 in 1746, succeeded his father, Adolphus 
 Frederick, in 1771. In 1788 he took com- 
 mand of the army against Russia and 
 Denmark, and stormed the defenses of 
 Frederickshall, destroying a great num- 
 ber of vessels. On the outbreak of the 
 French revolution he made strenuous 
 exertions to form a coalition between 
 Russia, Denmark, Sweden, and Spain, 
 but while preparations were making a 
 conspiracy of the nobles was formed 
 against him, and he was shot at a mas- 
 querade by Ankarstroem, a disbanded 
 oflScer, on 16th March, 1792. He died 
 on 29th March. 
 
 GUSTAVUS IV., (Adolphus), King of 
 Sweden, was born on 1st November, 
 1778, and succeeded his father, 29th 
 March, 1792. After the Peace of Tilsit 
 he exposed himself to a war with Russia 
 while he was at war with France, by 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden. 
 
 refusing to join the continental blockade 
 and opening his ports to England; and 
 in 1808 he quarreled with England, his 
 only ally. Finland was lost to Sweden, 
 and in 1809 a revolution took place. 
 Gustavus was dethroned, and his uncle, 
 the Duke of Sudermania, proclaimed 
 king under the title of Charles XIII. 
 Gustavus died February 7th, 1837. 
 
 GUTENBERG, Johan, the reputed 
 inventor of printing with movable types, 
 was born at Mayence or Mainz, about 
 the end of the 14th century. In 1850 he 
 formed a copartnership with Johann 
 Fust, and established mainly with the 
 money of the latter, a press, in which the 
 Mazarin Bible, the Letters of Indulgence 
 and the Appeal against the Turks were 
 printed. After five years this connection 
 was dissolved, and Fust sued Gutenberg 
 for large advances which he could not 
 pay, and by a judgment at law obtained 
 possession of most of the printing ma- 
 terials, with which, in company with his 
 
 son-in-law Schoffer, he continued to 
 print books. After this, according to 
 some, Gutenberg carried on a separate 
 printing establishment; but this is 
 doubtful, and there is no book or printed 
 matter which can certainly be ascribed 
 to Gutenberg after the date 1454. Guten- 
 berg seems to have died at Mainz in 
 1468. 
 
 GUTHRIE, the county seat of Okla- 
 homa Territory and of Logan co., on 
 the Cottonwood river and on the Atch., 
 Topeka and S. F4, Eastern Oklahoma, 
 and Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific 
 railroads. Pop. 12,160. 
 
 GUTTA-PERCHA, (per'cha; Malay 
 name, meaning “gum-tree”), a substance 
 resembling caoutchouc in many of its 
 properties, but stronger, more soluble, 
 and less elastic. It is the inspissated 
 milky juice of trees of the nat. order 
 
 Sapotacese. It chiefly comes from Mal- 
 acca, Borneo, and other islands of the 
 Indian Archipelago. When pure, gutta- 
 percha is of a brownish-red color. Be- 
 low the temperature of 50° it is as 
 hard as wood and excessively tough. By 
 an increase of heat it becomes more 
 flexible, until at a temperature of 115° 
 F. it becomes pasty, and between this 
 and 140° or 150° it may be moulded into 
 all varieties of forms with the greatest 
 ease, retaining precisely the same form as 
 
 in oil of turpentine and naphtha. It is 
 not attacked by solutions of alkalies nor 
 by hydrofluoric acid, but it is acted on 
 by sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric 
 acids. Gutta-percha has been applied to 
 a variety of purposes : as a substitute for 
 leather, especially in the soles of shoes, 
 etc., as an insulating coating for the 
 copper wires of submarine telegraph 
 cables, as an ingredent in mastics and 
 cements, for the manufacture of flexible 
 hose-tubes, bottles, etc. 
 
 GUY OF WARWICK, an old English 
 metrical romance, whose hero is an 
 Anglo-Danish knight said to have been 
 the son of Siward, baron of Walling- 
 ford, to have become Earl of Warwick, 
 and to have slain in single combat the 
 Danish giant Colbrand, the Dun-Cow of 
 Dunsmore, and the dragon of Northum- 
 berland, and many other wonderful 
 feats. He is said ultimately to have be- 
 come a hermit in Warwick. 
 
 GUYOT (ge-yo), Arnold, geographer 
 and physicist, born in Switzerland in 
 1807, died in the United States in 1884. 
 He studied theology at Berlin, then took 
 up natural science, and became pro- 
 fessor of history and physical geography 
 in the Academy of Neufchatel. He 
 shared in Agassiz’s investigations of 
 glacier phenomena of the Alps. In 1848 
 he emigrated to the United States and 
 delivered lectures in Boston, which 
 afterward appeared under the title 
 Earth and Man. He rendered much ser- 
 vice to meteorological science in connec- 
 tion with the Smithsonian Institution, 
 and traveled extensively in the United 
 States. In 1855 he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of geology and physical geography 
 in the College of New Jersey, Princeton. 
 
 GWAL'IOR, a city and fortress of 
 Hindustan, capital of the state of Gwal- 
 ior, situated 65 miles south from Agra. 
 The fortress is the largest, the strongest, 
 and the most magnificent in India. It 
 stands on an isolated rock about 350 feet 
 high and nearly perpendicular in the 
 upper part. The fortress contains wells 
 and reservoirs of water, and is inaccessi- 
 
 The Fortress of Gwalior.— From an original sketch. 
 
 it cools and hardens to its previous state I ble except by steps up the side of the 
 of rigidity. It is insoluble in water, rock. Old Gwalior, the town at the 
 soluble with difficulty in ether and other northern angle of the base of the rock, is 
 caoutchouc solvents, but very readily I built of stone, and has some remarkable 
 
GWYNN 
 
 GYROSCOPE 
 
 ruins of temples and an interesting ex- 
 ample of old Hindu palace architecture. 
 Pop. about 25,000. The new town, 
 known as New Gwalior or Lashkar (the 
 camp), the residenceof the ruler. Mahara- 
 jah Sindhia, has sprung up recently on 
 the southeastern skirt of the rock, but 
 is already a flourishing city with a popu- 
 lation of 89,154, of whom the majority 
 are Hindus. — The state of Gwalior, in 
 political relationship with the govern- 
 ment of India, consists of several por- 
 tions of territory, otherwise known as 
 Sindhia’s Dominions, the largest and 
 most compact portion, usually known as 
 Gwalior, being the one containing the 
 above town and fortress. The total area 
 of Gwalior is 29,067 sq. miles. Gwalior 
 is not as a whole very fertile; one of its 
 most notable products is opium. The 
 drainage is chiefly taken by the Cham- 
 bal. Pop. 3,525,233. 
 
 GWYNN, Eleanor, better known by 
 the name of Nell, a celebrated mistress 
 of King Charles II., was at first an 
 orange girl, and also gained her bread by 
 singing from tavern to tavern. About 
 1667 she became the mistress of Lord 
 Buckhurst, who surrendered her about 
 1670 to the king. As mistress of the king 
 she had an establishment, and was made 
 lady of the privy chamber to Queen 
 Catherine. She was merry and open- 
 hearted, is said to have been faithful to 
 Charles, mindful of old friends, and a 
 liberal patroness of the poets Dryden, 
 Lee, Otway, and Butler. From her are 
 sprung the dukes of St. Albans. She 
 died, according to some accounts, in 
 1687, according to others in 1691. 
 
 GT^NA'SIUM (jim-), the name given 
 by the Greeks to the public building 
 where the young men, quite without 
 clothes (hence the name, from gymnos, 
 naked), exercised themselves in leaping, 
 running, throwing the discus and spear, 
 wrestling, and pugilism. Its objects, 
 however, were extended also to the 
 exercise of the mind; for here philoso- 
 phers, rhetoricians, and teachers of 
 other branches of knowledge delivered 
 their lectures. Gymnasia were at first 
 only open level places, surrounded by a 
 wall, and partitioned off for the dif- 
 ferent games. Latterly they were com- 
 posed of a number of connected build- 
 ings, spacious enough to admit many 
 thousands. See Gymnastics. 
 
 GYMNASIUM, a term applied in Ger- 
 many to a class of schools corresponding 
 pretty nearly to the American small 
 college. 
 
 GYMNASTICS, (for derivation, see 
 Gymnasium) is the technical term used 
 to designate any system of exercises 
 specially designed to promote the de- 
 velopment of physical, and especially of 
 muscular powers. An excellent gymnas- 
 tic training is given by baseball, cricket, 
 football, rowing, and similar amuse- 
 ments, but the special value of formal 
 
 gymnastic exercises is that they are 
 capable of being scientifically arranged 
 so as to secure not only a general de- 
 velopment of muscular power, but also 
 an accurate knowledge of the uses of 
 the various muscles, and further that 
 they are capable of being applied to each 
 individual case, so as to meet, allow for, 
 and as far as possible overcome defects 
 in physical organization. For these pur- 
 poses an elementary course of gymnas- 
 tics is of great value to all, especially to 
 the sedentary student. In regard to 
 gjfmnastic exercises two general rules 
 may be laid down, which will form an 
 efficient guide in self-imposed exercises. 
 The first is the universal rule in me- 
 chanics that the strength of any ma- 
 chine is the strength of its weakest part ; 
 the second is the fundamental law of 
 muscular exercise, that it is exercise 
 within the extreme power of the muscle 
 which develops and improves, while 
 straining weakens and injures, and ex- 
 cessive exercise develops particular 
 muscles abnormally at the expense of 
 the general health. It is quite possible, 
 indeed, to carry physical exercises as a 
 whole too far, and to develop muscular 
 power at the expense of vital strength. 
 Till the age of twelve the ordinary 
 games and pastimes of childhood are 
 generally quite sufficient exercise; after 
 that some very light system of gym- 
 nastics may be adopted to aid the de- 
 velopment of the system. After the age 
 of thirty-five unusual muscular efforts 
 are apt to leave persistent strains, and 
 moderate exercise becomes the safest 
 means of developing and giving tone to 
 the muscular system. 
 
 GYPSIES, (from Egyptians, the name 
 by which they were called in the Eng- 
 lish statutes), a wandering nation, whose 
 physical characteristics, language, and 
 customs differ much from those of 
 European nations. They call them- 
 selves Rommany, from rom (man). This 
 race is slowly melting away. Its present 
 total number hardly reaches 500,000; of 
 whom there are about 120,000 in Euro- 
 pean Turkey; 140,000 in Hungary; 
 
 60.000 in Transylvania; 40,000 in Spain; 
 
 40.000 spread over Germany, France, 
 and Italy; 18,000 in Britain, of whom, 
 however, only a small number are tent- 
 gypsies, preserving the language and 
 traditions of their race; and the re- 
 mainder scattered over other countries. 
 The gypsies are now considered to have 
 come from India, the main body of their 
 language, though mixed with a great 
 numberof borrowed words, having a close 
 affinity with some of the Indian lan- 
 guages. Gypsies are remarkable for the 
 yellow brown, or rather olive color, of 
 their skin ; the jet-black of their hair and 
 eyes, the extreme whiteness of their 
 teeth, and generally for the S5mimetry 
 of their limbs. The typical gypsies 
 rarely settle permanently anywhere. 
 
 but live in tents, wandering about work- 
 ing in wood and iron, making domestic 
 utensils, telling fortunes, practicing 
 tricks, etc. Their talent for music is re- 
 markable, and some of their melodies 
 have become the much-valued property 
 of other nations, or are incorporated in 
 some of our favorite operas. They have 
 no peculiar religion. Among the Turks 
 they are Mohammedans; and in Spain 
 at least, as well as in Transylvania, they 
 follow the forms of the Christian religion, 
 without, however, caring for instruction, 
 or having any real interest in religion. 
 The marriage ceremony is of the simplest 
 kind. If the husband becomes tired of 
 his wife, he will turn her off without 
 ceremony. There is no idea of education 
 among them. The children grow up in 
 idleness and the habits of stealing and 
 cheating. 
 
 GYPSUM (jip'sum), a monoclinic min- 
 eral, chemically a hydrated calcic sul- 
 phate. It is found in a compact state 
 as alabaster, or crystallized as selenite, 
 or in the form of a soft chalky stone, 
 which in a very moderate heat gives out 
 its water of crystallization, and becomes 
 a very fine white powder, extensively 
 used under the name of plaster of Paris 
 (which see). 
 
 GYPSY-WORT, a labiate plant found 
 in Britain in ditches and on river banks. 
 It yields a dye said to be used by the 
 gypsies to render their skin darker. 
 
 GYROSCOPE, an apparatus, consist- 
 ing of a rotating disc mounted by very 
 accurately fitted pivots in a ring or 
 rings (forming a sort of gimbals), for 
 illustrating the, properties of rotation 
 generally. The fundamental principle of 
 
 the whole is the resistance which a disc 
 in rapid motion presents to any change 
 of direction in the axis of rotation. Some 
 curious phenomena may be exhibited 
 by it difficult to explain without resort- 
 ing to mathematical formulae. The fig- 
 ure shows a simple gyroscope. If the 
 disc A which revolves on an axis within 
 the ring b is set very rapidly in motion 
 by the unwinding of a string round the 
 axis, and if the part c is then rested on 
 a pivot at the top of the upright support 
 D, the apparatus instead of falling will 
 go slowly round in the direction shown 
 by the arrows. 
 
 H, the eighth letter of the English 
 alphabet, often called the aspirate, as 
 being a mere aspiration or breathing, 
 though not the only aspirated letter in 
 
 H 
 
 English. The sound that distinctly be- 
 longs to it is that which it has at the 
 beginning of a syllable before a vowel, 
 as in hard, heavy. It is very commonly 
 
 joined to other consonants to represent 
 sounds for which there are no special 
 letters in the alphabet, as in the di- 
 graphs ch, sh, th (child, ship, thin, this), 
 
HAARLEM 
 
 HAG 
 
 or in other consonantal combinations of 
 various origins and values, as in the 
 words enough (gh =■ f), plough (eh silent), 
 philosophy (ph =• f), rhetoric (n silent), 
 etc. Ch is common in words taken from 
 the Greek, but in this case it generally 
 has the k sound, as in chemistry, chyle, 
 logomachy, etc. 
 
 HAARLEM (har'lem), a town of Hol- 
 land, province N. Holland, 10 miles w. 
 Amsterdam, intersected by the Spaarne, 
 which is joined by canals from Leyden 
 and Amsterdam, and along which a con- 
 siderable trafBc is maintained. Pop. 
 64,836. 
 
 HABEAS CORPUS, in law, a writ ad- 
 dressed to one who has a person in cus- 
 tody, commanding him to produce the 
 body of the person named at a certain 
 place and time. 
 
 HABITANTS, or HABITANS, a name 
 applied to the inhabitants of Canada, 
 especially in Quebec province, who are 
 of French extraction, still speak the 
 French language and preserve French 
 costumes. See Canada. 
 
 HACKBERRY, the popular name of 
 the North American varieties of the net- 
 tle-tree, belonging to the nettle family 
 TJrticS'CCSB 
 
 HACKENSACK, the capital of Bergen 
 CO., N. J., on the Hackensack river, and 
 the N. J. and N. Y., the N. Y., Susq. 
 and W., and the W. Shore railways; 8 
 miles s.e. of Paterson, 13 miles n. of 
 New York. Pop. 11,741. 
 
 HACKNEY, a municipal and parlia- 
 mentary borough of London, 3 miles 
 n.n.e. of St. Paul’s. Pop. 253,215. 
 
 HACKNEY COACH, a coach let out 
 for hire. Hackney coaches began first to 
 ply under this name in London in 1625, 
 when they were twenty in number. 
 Hackney coachmen are generally put 
 under police regulations, and a tariff of 
 fares imposed upon them. Cabs are now 
 the common kind of hackney coaches. 
 
 HADDOCK, a well-known fish of the 
 cod family. It is smaller than the cod, 
 which it much resembles, but it has a 
 dark spot on each side of the body just 
 behind the head. This fish commonly 
 ^ V 
 
 weighs from 2 to 6 lbs., though some- 
 times as high as 10 lbs. It breeds in im- 
 mense numbers in the northern seas in 
 February and March, and constitutes 
 a considerable article of food. 
 
 HADES (ha'dez), originally the Greek 
 name of the lord of the lower or invisible 
 world, afterward called Pluto; but in 
 later times, as in the Greek Scriptures, 
 it is applied to the region itself. With 
 the ancients Hades was the common re- 
 ceptacle of departed spirits, of good as 
 well as bad. 
 
 HADJ, the Mohammedan pilgrimage 
 to Mecca, which every Mohammedan 
 ought to perform once in his life, and 
 after which he is entitled to prcfi.x Hadji 
 
 to his name. The pilgrimage has been 
 made in disguise by Burckhardt in 1814, 
 by Burton in 1853, and by T. F. Keane 
 in 1878, each of whom has published 
 accounts of his journey. 
 
 HADLEY, Arthur Twining, American 
 educator, was born at New Haven, Conn., 
 in 1856. In 1879-83 he was tutor in 
 Yale college. He was university lecturer 
 on railroad transportation from 1883 to 
 1886; commissioner of labor statistics 
 for Connecticut from 1885 to 1887; pro- 
 fessor of political science at Yale un- 
 iversity, 1886-98; and in 1899 was made 
 p^resident. In 1885 he published Railroad 
 Transportation: Its History and Its 
 Laws, which at once gained him the 
 position of an authority on the subject; 
 It was translated into Russian in 1886, 
 and into French in 1887. He also pub- 
 lished: Report on the Labor Question; 
 Report on the System of Weekly Pay- 
 ments; Economics; Education of the 
 American Citizen. President Hadley’s 
 writings place him in the first rank among 
 American economists. 
 
 HADLEY, John, English astronomer, 
 born toward the end of the 17th century. 
 He is the reputed inventor of the quad- 
 rant that goes by his name, though the 
 honor is also claimed for Newton, from 
 whom Hadley got a description of the 
 instrument in 1727, and for Thomas 
 Godfrey of Philadelphia, who produced 
 his instrument about the same time as 
 Hadley in 1731. The Royal Society de- 
 cided that Godfrey and Hadley were 
 both entitled to the honor of the inven- 
 tion. Hadley also invented the sextant. 
 He died in 1744. 
 
 HA'DRIAN, in full, Publius .iElius 
 Hadrianus, the fourteenth in the series 
 of Roman emperors, born at Rome, 
 24th Jan., 76 a.d. His father, who was 
 cousin to the emperor Trajan, died when 
 he was ten years old, and left him under 
 
 Coin of Hadrian. 
 
 the charge of his illustrations kinsman. 
 He married Sabina, Trajan’sgrand-niece, 
 accompanied the emperor on his ex- 
 peditions, filled the highest offices of 
 state, and, on the death of Trajan, 
 assumed the government as his adopted 
 son (117). Hadrian’s policy was a peace- 
 ful one, because he saw that the further 
 extension of the empire only weakened 
 it. Although avoiding war as much as 
 he could, he kept the armies in excellent 
 condition, fortified the frontiers in Ger- 
 many, and, crossing over into Britain, 
 constructed the wall known as Hadrian’s 
 Wall (or that of Severus), which pro- 
 tected the Roman province from the 
 barbarous tribes of the norh. In 131 he 
 promulgated the Edictum Perpetuum, 
 a fixed code of laws, which forms an im- 
 portant epoch in the development of 
 lloman law. Hadrian died at Baise in 
 
 1 r*s' 
 
 loo. 
 
 HADROSAURUS, a genus of large ex- 
 tinct reptiles, whos^ remains have been 
 found in the newer cretaceous strata of 
 the United States. It appears to have 
 
 Skeleton of hadrosaurus. 
 
 resembled the gigantic iguanodon of 
 Europe in its enormous dimensions, her- 
 bivorous habits, and anatomical struc- 
 ture. 
 
 H.£CKEL (hek'l), Ernst, a German 
 naturalist, born at Potsdam in 1834, 
 studied medicine and science at Berlin, 
 Wurzburg, and Vienna; traveled in Nor- 
 way and Italy, became professor of 
 zoology at Jena in 1865. He is the most 
 prominent exponent of the Darwinian 
 theories in Germany. Among his works 
 we may mention The Radiolarite (1862), 
 The History of Creation (1868), Anthro- 
 pology (1874), History of the Evolution 
 of Man (1875), Collected Popular Dis- 
 courses on the Development Theory 
 (1878-79), Origin and Development of 
 Animal Tissues (1884), etc. 
 
 HiE'MATIN, HEMATINE, the red col- 
 oring matter of the blood occurring in 
 solution in the interior of the blood 
 corpuscles or cells. It is the only struc- 
 ture of the body, except hair, which con- 
 tains iron. 
 
 HjE'MATITE, Red and Brown. See 
 Hematite and Iron. 
 
 H®MOG'LOBIN,H.EMOGLOB'ULIN, 
 the semi-fluid or quite fluid matter of a 
 red color contained in the red corpuscles 
 of the blood. It can be resolved into an 
 albuminous substance called globulin 
 and the coloring matter hsematin. 
 
 H.ffiMOP'TYSIS, the coughing up of 
 blood, sometimes produced by fulness 
 of the blood-vessels of the lungs or 
 throat, or by the rupture of blood- 
 vessels as a consequence of ulceration. 
 It is distinguished from blood coming 
 from the stomach by the comparative 
 smallness of its quantity, and by its 
 usually florid color. It occurs in heart 
 disease, in pneumonia, and tubercular 
 disease. It is sometimes a case of vicari- 
 ous menstruation. 
 
 HEMORRHAGE. See Hemorrhage. 
 
 HEMORRHOIDS. See Hemorrhoids. 
 
 HAG, the name of fishes, which, with 
 the allied lampreys, constitute the order 
 of Marsipobranchii. They are of worm- 
 like form, and have no eyes or scales, 
 the mouth is formed for suction, is with- 
 out lips, and furnished w'itli fleshy fila- 
 ments or barbels. There is a single fang 
 upon the palate and other horny teeth 
 by which the hag eats its Avay into the 
 interior of other fishes, such as the cod, 
 ling, or haddock. 
 
I 
 
 
 HAGEN 
 
 HAIL 
 
 HAGEN (hii'gen), a thriving manufac- 
 turing town of Prussia, in Westphalia, 
 at the confluence of the Volme and 
 Ennene. It has iron and steel works, 
 manufactures of metal goods, textiles, 
 etc. Pop. 50,012. 
 
 HAGERSTOWN, a town in Maryland, 
 6 miles north of the Potomac river. 
 Pop. 14,785. 
 
 HAGGARD, Henry Rider, English nov- 
 elist, born in 1850; held several civil 
 appointments in South Africa, and has 
 made Africa the scene of some of his 
 novels. He became widely known by 
 King Solomon’s Mines (1880), and still 
 more by his romantic She (1887), which 
 have been followed by Allan Quater- 
 main, Jess, Maiwa’s Revenge, Cleopatra, 
 Eric Bright-eyes, Montezuma’s Daugh- 
 ter, Joan Haste, etc. His tales are strong 
 in incident and adventure, but weak in 
 character-drawing. 
 
 HAGUE, THE, practically, though 
 not formally, the capital of the Nether- 
 lands, in the province of South Holland, 
 33 miles southwest from Amsterdam, 
 and within 3 miles of the sea. It is the 
 residence of the king and of the foreign 
 
 the Czar of Russia principal states 
 
 of the civilized world, an international 
 conference of delegates which assembled 
 at The Hague on May 18, 1899, with a 
 view to concerted action for the main- 
 tenance of a general peace and the 
 amelioration of the hardships of war, 
 and with a view to the possible reduc- 
 tion of the military and naval arma- 
 ments of the world. One hundred dele- 
 gates representing the United States, 
 Mexico, China, Japan, Persia, Siam, 
 and twenty-one European powers were 
 present. No delegates from the Central 
 or South American republics attended. 
 The conference was in session from May 
 18 to July 29, and was presided over by 
 Baron de Staal of the Russian delegation. 
 
 President Roosevelt in his annual 
 message to congress, December 5, 1905, 
 made the following statement of the 
 status of The Hague Peace Conference 
 question: 
 
 The first conference of nations held 
 at The Hague in 1899, being unable to 
 dispose of all the business before it, 
 recommended the consideration and 
 settlement of a number of important 
 
 The Hague— The Blnnenhof on the Vijver or Pond. 
 
 ambassadors, and the seat of the states- 
 L general of the Netherlands. It is pleas- 
 
 ^ antly situated, and is distinguished for 
 
 \ — width and straightness of streets, and 
 general elegance of public buildings. 
 Among the most important structures 
 ’ are the royal palace, the palace of the 
 Prince of Orange, the Binnenhof, a large 
 irregular building, founded in 1249, and 
 containing the hall of assembly of the 
 states-general, and various government 
 offices; also the provincial government- 
 house, a large roomy edifice, the town 
 hall, royal library (200,000 vols.); the 
 Groote Kerk, or Church of St. James, 
 with hexagonal tower and finely vaulted 
 interior; the Mauritshuis, built by Prince 
 Jolm Maurice of Nassau, now converted 
 into a museum containing some of the 
 finest works of the Dutch masters. The 
 Hague arose as a hunting-seat of the 
 Counts of Holland in 1250, and became 
 the political capital of the states in the 
 16th century. Pop. 205,328. 
 
 HAGUE PEACE CONFERENCE, In 
 response to an invitation addressed by 
 
 questions by another conference to be 
 called subsequently and at an early date. 
 These questions were the following: 
 
 (1) The rights and duties of neutrals; 
 
 (2) the limitations of the armed forces 
 on land and sea, and of military budg- 
 ets; (3) the use of new types and calibers 
 of military and naval guns; (4) the in- 
 violability of private property at sea in 
 times of war; (5) the bombardment of 
 ports, cities and villages by naval forces. 
 In October, 1904, at the instance of the 
 Interparliamentary Union, which at a 
 conference held in the United States and 
 attended by the lawmakers of 15 dif- 
 ferent nations, had reiterated the de- 
 mand for a second conference of nations, 
 I issued invitations to all the powers 
 signatory to The Hague Convention to 
 send delegates to such a conference, and 
 suggested that it be again held at The 
 Hague. In its note of December 16, 
 1904, the United States government 
 communicated to the representatives of 
 foreign governments its belief that the 
 conference could be best arranged under 
 
 the provisions of the present Hague 
 treaty. 
 
 From all the powers acceptance was 
 received, coupled in some cases with the 
 condition that we should wait pntil the 
 end of the war then waging between 
 Russia and Japan. The emperor of Rus- 
 sia, immediately after the treaty of 
 peace which so happily terminated this 
 war, in a note presented to the president 
 on September 13, through Ambassador 
 Rosen, took the initiative in recom- 
 mending that the conference be now 
 called. The United States government in 
 response expressed its cordial acquies- 
 cence and stated that it would, as a 
 matter of course, take part in the new 
 conference and endeavor to further its 
 aims. We assume that all civilized 
 governments will support the movement 
 and that the conference is now an 
 assured fact. This government will do 
 everything in its power to secure the 
 success of the conference to the end that 
 substantial progress may be made in 
 the case of international peace, justice, 
 and good will. 
 
 HAHNEMANN (hii'ne-man), Samuel 
 Christian Friedrich, the founder of the 
 homoeopathic system, born at Meissen 
 in 1755. After practicing in various 
 places, he published in 1810 his Organon 
 der Rationellen Heilkunde, which fully 
 explained his new system of curing 
 any disorder by employing a medicine 
 which produces a similar disorder. (See 
 Homoeopathy.) Hahnemann was driven 
 from Saxony by the government pro- 
 hibiting him from dispensing medicines, 
 but found an asylum ultimately in Paris, 
 where his system was authorized by the 
 government and acquired a certain pop- 
 ularity. He died at Paris in 1843. Among 
 his works notice is due to his Dictionary 
 of Materia Medica, his Essays on Poison- 
 ing by Arsenic, and on the Effects of 
 Coffee, and his Treatise on Chronic Affec- 
 tions. 
 
 ^IDUCKS, or HAIDUKS, a term 
 originally applied to the herdsmen of 
 Hungary, and afterwards to the bands 
 of Magyar foot soldiers, who placed 
 themselves at the service of any poten- 
 tate who was willing and able to pay 
 them. 
 
 HAIL, small masses of ice or frozen 
 rain falling from the clouds in showers 
 
 Forms of Hailstones. 
 
 Fig. 1. o, Hailstone which fell at Bonn in 
 1822; diameter IH inch, weight 300 grains. 6 c. 
 Sections of differently shaped hailstones which 
 fell on the same occasion. Fig 2. a. Section 
 of hailstone with minute pyramids on its sur- 
 face. bade, Fragments of do. when burst 
 asunder. 
 
 or storms, varying in their form, being 
 either angular, pyramidal, or stellated, 
 as well as in their consistency, being 
 
HAINAN 
 
 HALBERD 
 
 sometimes as hard as ice and sometimes 
 as soft as snow. At the center there is 
 generally an opaque spongy mass, re- 
 sembling sleet in its composition, and 
 round this a semi-transparent congealed 
 mass, consisting of a succession of layers 
 or strata, is formed. Properly there are 
 two kinds of hail — the small grains 
 which generally fall in winter and usually 
 before snow; and the large hail which 
 occurs chiefly in spring and summer, and 
 is most severe in very hot climates. The 
 small-grained hail is probably formed 
 by the freezing of rain-drops as they pass 
 in falling through colder air than that 
 from which they started. The large or 
 common hail is probably due to the 
 meeting of two currents of air, of very 
 unequal temperature and electric ten- 
 sion. The usual size of hailstones is 
 about i inch in diameter, but they are 
 frequently of much larger dimensions, 
 sometimes even 3 or 4 inches in diameter. 
 In hot climates they are very destruc- 
 tive to crops. 
 
 HAINAN, an island of China, belong- 
 ing to the province of Quang-Tung, be- 
 tween the China Sea and the Gulf of 
 Tonquin, and separated from the main- 
 land by a channel of 15 miles, encum- 
 bered with shoals and coral reefs. It is 
 almost oval in shape, and has an area of 
 over 16,000 sq. miles. The fertile low- 
 lands on the northern and western 
 coasts are occupied by immigrant 
 Chinese, to the number of about 1,500,- 
 000, who cultivate rice, sugar, tobacco, 
 etc. The fisheries are also productve. 
 The interior, which is mountainous and 
 covered with forests, is inhabited by a 
 distinct race still in a very primitive 
 stage. The capital is Kiang-chow, on 
 the northern coast, a large seaport. 
 
 HAINAUT, or HAINAULT, province 
 of Belgium, bounded on the south and 
 west by France; area, 1406 sq. miles. 
 About three-fourths of the whole sur- 
 face is arable, and scarcely a hundredth 
 part is waste. The soil is generally fertile 
 and there are extensive coal-fields, coal, 
 together with flax, linen, hemp, to- 
 bacco, and porcelain being the chief 
 articles of export. Manufactures, chiefly 
 cutlery, woolen and linen goods, etc., 
 are carried on to a great extent. The 
 capital is Mons. Pop. 1,029,885. 
 
 HAIR, the fine, threadlike, more or 
 less elastic substance, of various form 
 and color, which constitutes the cover- 
 ing of the skin in the class of mammalia. 
 It has the same use as feathers in birds, 
 and scales in fishes and reptiles. No 
 species of mammalia is without hair in 
 an adult state, not even the whales. 
 In quadrupeds it is of the most various 
 conformation, from the finest wool to the 
 quills of a porcupine or the bristles of 
 the hog. The human body is naturally 
 covered with long hair only on a few 
 parts; yet the parts which we should 
 generally describe as destitute of it pro- 
 duce a fine, short, colorless, sometimes 
 hardly perceptible hair. The only places 
 entirely free from it are the palms of the 
 hands and the soles of the feet; but the 
 body of the male often produces hair, 
 like that of the head on the breast, 
 shoulders, arms, etc. Each hair con- 
 sists of a shaft and a root. The color of 
 the hair is a race character; and the 
 shape of the shaft has likewise been used 
 
 in this way, transverse sections showing 
 circular, oval, flat, or reniform outlines. 
 The human hair varies according to age, 
 sex, country, and circumstances. At 
 birth an infant generally has light hair 
 It always grows darker and stiffer with 
 age. The same is the case with the eye- 
 lashes and eyebrows. At the age of 
 
 Hairs of various animals magnified. 
 
 A, Indian bat. b, Mouse, c, Sable, d, Human. 
 
 puberty the hair grows in the aijmpits, 
 etc., of both sexes, and on the chin of the 
 male. The hair of men is stronger and 
 stiffer; that of females longer (even in a 
 state of nature), thicker, and not so 
 liable to be shed. Connected with the 
 hairs are small glands which secrete an 
 oily substance, serving as a lubricant to 
 the skin as well as the hair. These are 
 called sebaceous glands. If the root is 
 destroyed there is no means of repro- 
 ducing the hair; but if it falls out with- 
 out the root being destroyed, as is often 
 the case after nervous fevers, the hair 
 grows out again of itself. Each hair, 
 indeed, lasts only a certain time, after 
 which it falls out and is replaced by 
 another as long as the papilla is not 
 weakened. Grayness of hair is caused 
 by a deficient amount of pigment gran- 
 ules in the hair cells. The deficiency 
 arises at the hair bulb where the cells are 
 produced. Any influences that affect the 
 nutrition of the bulb may thus affect the 
 color as well as the growth of the hair. 
 Baldness is caused by atrophy of the 
 papilla, generally due to lessened circu- 
 lation of the blood in the scalp. For 
 some diseases which have a close con- 
 nection with the hair, see Plica Polonica, 
 Ringworm, Sycosis. Under ordinary 
 circumstances hair is a very stable sub- 
 stance. It is the last thing which decays, 
 and it often grows after death and lasts 
 for centuries. Hair is not acted on by 
 water, but heated in it under pressure it 
 decomposes, evolves sulphuretted hy- 
 drogen, and dissolves; it is also dissolved 
 by alkalies and acids. When burned it 
 emits a disagreeable odor as of burning 
 horn. 
 
 Hair for manufacture is furnished 
 chiefly from the horse, the ox, the hog, 
 the goat, especially the Angora or Mo- 
 hair goat, the camel, and the alpaca. 
 That of the first three is most used for 
 upholstery purposes, the short hair be- 
 ing manufactured into curled hair for 
 stuffing, and the long straight hairmanu- 
 factofed into hair-cloth for seating. The 
 long hair is also reserved for the manu- 
 facture of fishing-lines, brushes, etc. 
 White hair is of the most value, being 
 most adapted for dyeing and for the 
 manufacture of fancy articles. The 
 horse-hair used for weaving comes 
 chiefly from Russia, Germany, Belgium, 
 South America, and Australia. Russia 
 chiefly furnislies the bristles, so largely 
 used for brushes. The sable, the minni- 
 
 ver, the martin, the badger supply the 
 finer brushes on hair-pencils of painters. 
 The hair of the goat, the camel, and the 
 alpaca is chiefly used in combination 
 with or subordinated to wool and other 
 fibers for spinning and weaving into 
 dress fabrics. Human hair is used 
 chiefly for the manufacture of wigs, 
 curls, beards, chignons, etc. Most of the 
 supply comes from France, Germany, 
 and Italy, where the peasant girls sell 
 their hair to itinerant dealers. In every 
 case, and for any purpose, hair is always 
 best taken from the living subject, dead 
 hair being much inferior. 
 
 HAIR-DYES, substances for giving 
 hair some particular color desired. The 
 numerous preparations sold for this 
 purpose have generally a basis of lead 
 or nitrate of silver. Bismuth, pyrogallic 
 acid, sulphur, the juice of green walnut 
 shells and other astringent vegetable 
 juices, are also employed. 
 
 HAIR-GRASS, a genus of grasses be- 
 longing to that division of the order in 
 which the spikelets have two or more 
 florets, .and the inflorescence is a loose 
 panicle. It is of little use for cattle, 
 which dislike it, but may serve where 
 covert is wanted for game. 
 
 HAIR-POWDER, a preparation of 
 pulverized starch and some perfume, 
 formerly much used to whiten the head. 
 Sometimes the powder was colored. 
 The custom of wearing it was introduced 
 from France into England in the reign 
 of Charles II. To make the powder hold, 
 the hair was usually greased with po- 
 made. It is now scarcely to be seen 
 except on the heads of footmen in at- 
 tendance on people of rank or wealth. 
 
 HAIR-SPRING, in watches, the fine 
 hair-like spring made of steel, which is 
 attached to the axle of the balance wheel 
 and serves by its resisting power to 
 equalize the vibrations of the escape- 
 ment wheel. 
 
 HAKE, a species of North American 
 fishes belonging to that division of the 
 cod family or Gadidae, which has the 
 
 Hake. 
 
 head much flattened, and two dorsal 
 and one long anal fin. The European 
 hake is known in some places as king of 
 the herrings, on which it preys. 
 
 HAKODATE, a city of Japan, near 
 the south end of the island of Yesso, at 
 the foot of a hill on the shore of a beau- 
 tiful and spacious bay, which forms one 
 of the best harbors in the world. Hako- 
 date is one of the ports opened to British 
 commerce through Lord Elgin’s treaty 
 with the Japanese government in 1858. 
 Pop. 78,040. 
 
 HALBERD, or HALBERT, an offen- 
 sive weapon consisting of a pole or shaft 
 about 6 feet long, having its head armed 
 with a steel point edged on both sides. 
 Near the head was a cross piece of steel 
 somewhat in the form of an axe, with a 
 spike or hook at the back. It was much 
 used in the English army in the 16th cen- 
 tury, and gave its name to troops called 
 halberdiers, to whom was confided the 
 defense of the colors, and other special 
 
HALCYON 
 
 HALFTONE ENGRAVING 
 
 duties. It is now used only on ceremonial 
 occasions. 
 
 HAL'CYON, an old or poetical name 
 of the kingfisher. It was fabled to lay its 
 eggs in nests that floated on the sea, 
 about the winter solstice, and to have 
 the power of charming the winds and 
 waves during the period of incubation, 
 so that the weather was then calm; 
 whence the term, halcyon days. 
 
 HALE, Edward Everett, American 
 author and clergyman, was born in 1823. 
 He was a Unitarian pastor at Worcester 
 from 184G to 1850. He contributed 
 voluminously to magazines and news- 
 papers, and edited several of them. He 
 also took great interest in history, and 
 edited Lingard’s England, wrote a 
 Chautauquan History of the United 
 States; a Life of Washington, and other 
 works. He is best known for his short 
 story, the famous and effective Man 
 Without a Country. But his most in- 
 fluential book is his Ten Times One is 
 Ten (1870), which led to the formation 
 of many charitable organizations. His 
 Memories of a Hundred Years appeared 
 in 1902. 
 
 HALE, Eugene, American legislator, 
 was born in Maine in 1836. He was 
 elected to the forty-first congress in 1868 
 and was four times re-elected. He de- 
 clined the post-oflice folio in Grant’s 
 second cabinet and the post of secretary 
 of the navy offered to him by President 
 Hayes. He was elected to the senate in 
 1881 and has served continuously until 
 the present time, his term ending in 1911. 
 
 HALE, John P., a statesman and 
 Free-soil candidate for the presidency, 
 was born in New Hampshire in 1806. 
 Elected to congress in 1842, he became 
 prominent in his opposition to slavery. 
 In 1846 he was chosen United States 
 senator. In 1847 he was nominated for 
 the presidency by the national liberty 
 party, and in 1852 by the free-soil party. 
 His speeches were replete with humor 
 and pathos. His sixteen years in the 
 senate were devoted to the agitation of 
 the slavery question. He was appointed 
 by President Lincoln minister to Spain, 
 where he served four years. He died in 
 1873. 
 
 HALE, Nathan, soldier and hero, was 
 bom in Coventry, Conn., in 1755. He 
 tnlisted as a volunteer in the revolution- 
 ary war, and became lieutenant in 
 
 Colonel Webb’s regiment. On Washing- 
 ton’s call for a volunteer to enter the 
 British line and procure intelligence, he 
 responded. Disguised as a schoolmaster, 
 he visited all the enemy’s camps in New 
 York and Long Island. He obtained the 
 information required and was about to 
 return when he was arrested as a spy, 
 tried, and condemned to be hanged. The 
 execution took place in New York City. 
 His last words were: “I only regret that 
 I have but one life to lose for my 
 country.” He died in 1776. 
 
 HALEVY (a-la-ve), Jacques Franyois 
 Fromental Elie, a French musical com- 
 poser, born of Jewish parentage at Paris, 
 1799. The first of his pieces performed 
 was a little comic opera, L’Artisan, 
 given at the The&tre Feydau in Paris, in 
 1827. His chefd’ceuvre. La Juive, ap- 
 peared in 1835, and rapidly obtained a 
 European celebrity. Among his other 
 works are L’Eclaire, Guido et Ginevra, 
 La Reine de Chypre, Le Val d’Andorre, 
 La F6e aux Roses. He died at Nice in 
 1862. 
 
 HALF-BLOOD, in law, relationship by 
 being born of the same father, but not 
 of the same mother (consanguinean re- 
 lationship) ; or born of the same mother, 
 but not of the same father (uterine re- 
 lationship). In the succession to real or 
 landed property in England, the half- 
 blood relations by the fathers’ side suc- 
 ceed after the full-blood relations; and 
 next, the half-blood relations by the 
 mother’s side. 
 
 HALF-BREEDS, a nickname given in 
 1881 to members of a faction in the 
 republican party in the state of New 
 York, which favored the administration 
 in the controversy between President 
 Garfield and Senators Platt and Conk- 
 ling, and opposed the regular republican 
 candidate for the governorship of the 
 state, Folger, thus bringing about the 
 election of the democratic candidate, 
 Grover Cleveland. The name was given 
 in derision, as denoting those who were 
 but half republican, by the members of 
 the opposite faction denominated “stal- 
 warts”. 
 
 HALFTONE ENGRAVING, a process 
 of engraving plates in relief. These 
 plates have a surface broken into num- 
 erous fine square or round dots. These 
 dots are small and separated from each 
 other by wider spaces in the high lights 
 of the picture, are larger and tend to 
 merge into each other in the middle 
 tones, and run together into solid sur- 
 faces in the deepest shadows, only 
 broken by very small white points, or 
 even quite devoid of them and in places 
 yielding solid blacks when printed. 
 When viewed at ordinary distances the 
 print from such a plate appears to pass 
 by insensible gradations from white into 
 black, the same as a photograph or 
 photogravure, but closer examination 
 shows the fine texture of dots, usually 
 square, running all over the plate. The 
 method of making these plates is simple 
 in theory but complicated in practice, 
 and involves the use of many of the 
 most recent discoveries of science. The 
 process of negative making is usually the 
 “wet” or collodion method of the early 
 days of photography, as negatives made 
 in this way are more plastic, easier modi- 
 fied, intensified, or reduced. Essential 
 
 to the process is the presence in the 
 camera of a grating or “screen” made 
 by ruling very fine lines upon a plate of 
 glass. In practice two plates are ruled 
 with these lines diagonally from corner 
 to corner, and are then cemented to each 
 other with the two sets of ruled lines 
 crossing at right angles. The number of 
 lines to the inch is determined by the 
 fineness of engraving desired. The range 
 of screens is from 75 to 200 lines to the 
 inch. This screen is placed in the camera 
 quite close in front of the sensitive plate, 
 so that the image thrown thereon by the 
 lens passes through the openings of the 
 crossed lines. Each of these microscopic 
 openings acts as a separate lens pro- 
 jecting upon the sensitive plate its sepa- 
 rate image of the stop opening in the 
 large lens in front. The effect of diffrac- 
 tion causes those openings opposite the 
 most brilliant parts of the image to cast 
 larger as well as more brilliant micro- 
 images or dots upon the plate, while the 
 lesser amount of light passing through 
 the openings opposite the dark parts of 
 the picture produces correspondingly 
 smaller and weaker dots, or even has 
 no perceptible effect. Consequently 
 when the negative is developed it is 
 found to consist of a great number of 
 small dots of sizes graduated in propor- 
 tion to the light and shade of the picture. 
 The process of reversing the negative 
 to printing upon metal is the same as in 
 zinc etching. The negative is, when dry 
 coated first with a solution of rubber to 
 make it insoluble in the succeeding 
 treatment, and when this is set is again 
 coated with a thick pellicle of plain 
 collodion to give it body and strength 
 It is then, when dry, cut around the 
 edges and laid in a tray of acidulated 
 water. After a few moments the film 
 loosens from the glass and by cautious 
 handling is peeled from its support and 
 laid face downward upon another plate 
 of glass. It is thus reversed to bring the 
 print upon metal in the proper position 
 to give direct impression when printed. 
 If this were not done, the picture would 
 face the wrong way when completed. 
 In some cases a reversed negative is 
 made in the first instance by using a 
 reflecting prism or a mirror in front of or 
 behind the lens. The metal used for 
 halftone plates is usually copper, but 
 zinc and brass are sometimes employed. 
 It is finely polished, placed upon a whirl- 
 ing machine and coated with a solution 
 of fish glue, albumen, water, and 
 bichromate of ammonia, and dried by 
 gentle heat. It is then locked down upon 
 the negative in a strong printing frame 
 and printed from five to twenty-five 
 minutes by electric light. The develop- 
 ment varies with different operators but 
 consists essentially in soaking in running 
 water until the soluble parts of the coat- 
 ing are washed away, leaving a faintly 
 visible image formed of dots of insoluble 
 glue upon the plate. This is burned in 
 over a gas furnace until the metal passes 
 into a silvery hue and the image shows 
 brilliantly in a clear, deep maroon color. 
 The etching is rapidly done by the use of 
 various acid solutions, the one most 
 used being the acid perchloride of iron 
 When fully etched, the plate is proved 
 and if satisfactory given to the finisher 
 to receive any needed hand engraving or 
 
HALIAETUS 
 
 HALLELUIA 
 
 corrections, after which the edges are 
 beveled upon a beveling machine, it is 
 nailed upon a block of wood, the edges 
 of the black trimmed square, the back 
 shaved off to type height, and it is then 
 ready for the press. The most recent and 
 most rapid of modern engraving methods 
 it is also one requiring the highest skill 
 and technical as well as artistic knowl- 
 edge to produce satisfactory results. 
 
 HALIAETUS (hal-i-a'e-tus), the genus 
 of birds to which belong the white- 
 tailed sea-eagle of Britain, and the white- 
 headed or bald eagle of America, the 
 chosen symbol of the United States. 
 See Eagle. 
 
 HAL'IBURTON, Thomas Chandler, 
 Anglo-American humorous writer, born 
 at Windsor, Nova Scotia, in 1796. He 
 practiced as a barrister in Halifax, 
 wrote a Historical and Statistical Ac- 
 count of Nova Scotia, in 1829, and con- 
 tributed a series of humorous letters to 
 Halifax newspapersunder the pseudonym 
 of “Sam Slick.” These were published 
 in book form and were augmented by 
 others, forming The Clockmaker, or 
 Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick. 
 He died in 1865. 
 
 HALTBUT, or HOLTBUT, one of the 
 largest of the Pleuronectidae or flat-fish 
 family, sometimes weighing more than 
 300 lbs. The fish has a compressed body. 
 
 Halibut. 
 
 one side resembling the back and an- 
 other the belly, and both eyes on the 
 same side of the head. It is caught on 
 both sides of the Atlantic, and is much 
 prized for the table. 
 
 HALICARNAS'SUS, in ancient geog- 
 raphy, the capital of Caria, in Asia 
 Minor, once an important city. Halicar- 
 nassus was the native place of Herodo- 
 tus. 
 
 HAL'IFAX, a municipal, pari., and 
 county borough of England, in the 
 county of York (West Riding), on the 
 Hebble, 36 miles w.s.w. York. Halifax 
 commands abundant supplies of coal 
 and water, and an extensive inland 
 navigation connecting it with Hull and 
 Liverpool. It is one of the centers of the 
 woolen and worsted manufactures in 
 Yorkshire, a great variety of goods be- 
 ing produced. There are also iron, 
 chemical, and machine-making works. 
 Pop. 104,933. 
 
 HALIFAX, a city, and the capital of 
 Nova Scotia, situated on the slope of a 
 commanding hill, on the western side of 
 Halifax harbor. The harbor is one of the 
 best and most spacious in America. It 
 is easy of access at all seasons of the year. 
 Its length from north to south is about 
 16 miles, and it terminates in a beautiful 
 sheet of water called Bedford Basin, 
 within which are 10 square miles of good 
 anchorage. The harbor is well fortified, 
 and has an extensive government dock- 
 yard. It is the principal naval station of 
 British America, has an extensive foreign 
 and coasting trade, and exports large 
 quantities of fish, lumber, and coals. 
 There are also considerable manufac- 
 
 tures embracing iron castings, machinery, 
 nails, soap, leather, tobacco, paper, etc. 
 Pop. 40,832. 
 
 HALIFAX, Charles Montague, Earl 
 of, an English poet and statesman, born 
 1661. He became first lord of the treas- 
 ury in 1714, and died in 1715. His 
 character was a mixture of meanness 
 and arrogance, but his taste in literature 
 and the arts was good, and he had a 
 great talent for finance. 
 
 HALL, Asaph, an American astrono- 
 mer, was born in 1829 at Goshen, Conn. 
 He studied under Driinnow at Ann 
 Arbor, where he made his first acquaint- 
 ance with astronomy, and in 1857 went 
 to Cambridge as assistant to Professor 
 Bond. In 1862 he took a civil-service 
 examination and became an aid, and a 
 year afterward professor of mathe- 
 matics in the United States naval 
 observatory. His greatest fame came 
 from his discovery in 1877 of the two 
 satellites of Mars, which he called Deimos 
 and Phobos. In recognition of this dis- 
 covery he received a gold medal from 
 the Royal astronomical society, and 
 the award of the Lalande prize from the 
 Paris academy. In 1902 he was presi- 
 dent of the American association for the 
 advancement of science. 
 
 HALL, Charles Francis, an Arctic ex- 
 plorer, born at Rochester, New Hamp- 
 shire, United States, in 1821. He began 
 life as a blacksmith, became a journalist 
 in Cincinnati; in 1860 organized an Arc- 
 tic expedition in search of Franklin, an 
 remained among the Esquimos two 
 years, acquiring their language and 
 habits. In 1864 he undertook a second 
 expedition to the same regions, where 
 he remained till 1869. In 1871, at the 
 instigation of Hall, the United States 
 government fitted out the Polaris for an 
 expedition to the North Pole, and placed 
 Captain Hail in command. The Polaris 
 sailed from New York June 29, 1871, 
 and on 30th Aug. reached lat. 82° 16' n., 
 and then turned back to winter in a 
 sheltered bay, lat. 81° 38', where Hall 
 died on Nov. 8. The Polaris was ulti- 
 mately abandoned by her crew, who 
 reached home only after experiencing 
 many privations and adventures. An 
 account of his first expedition was given 
 by Capt. Hall in his Arctic Researches 
 and Life among the Esquimos. 
 
 HALL, Edward, an English chronicler, 
 born in London about 1495. He was a 
 lawyer by profession, and attained the 
 rank of a sergeant, and the office of a 
 judge in the sheriff’s court. He had a 
 seat in the House of Commons, and was 
 
 a zealous Catholic. His death took 
 place in 1547. Hall’s Chronicle was 
 published in 1548, and is a curious 
 picture of the manners and customs of 
 the age. 
 
 HALLAM, Henry, English historian, 
 a son of the dean of Bristol, born at 
 Windsor in 1777. His contributions to 
 the Edinburgh Review brought him 
 into notice, and his View of the State of 
 "Europe, during the Middle Ages, which 
 appeared in 1818, at once established 
 his reputation. His next work, the Con- 
 stitutional History of England, pub- 
 lished in 1827, showed like the first the 
 solid learning, patient research, ac- 
 curacy and impartiality of statement, 
 which are the characteristics of Jlr. 
 Hallam’s work. In 1837-39 appeared 
 his last great work, the introduction to 
 the Literature of Europe, He died in 
 1859. 
 
 HALLE (hal'le), usually called Halle 
 an der Saale (Halle on the Saale), to dij- 
 tinguish it from other places of the same 
 name, an important German town in ti.e 
 Prussian province of Saxony, about 20 
 miles northwest of Leipzig, on the river 
 Saale. The older streets are narrow and 
 crooked, but the appearance of the town 
 has of late been much improved. Halle 
 is mentioned as early as 806. It was 
 long a powerful member of the Hanseatic 
 League. Pop. 156,611. 
 
 HALLECK, Fitz Greene, an American 
 poet, born in 1790. He became a clerk 
 in a New York banking-house, and for 
 years was in the employment of John 
 Jacob Astor. In 1809 poems by him 
 and a friend (J. R. Drake) appeared in 
 the New York Evening Post under the 
 signature of Croaker & Co., and at- 
 tracted some attention. In 1820 he pub- 
 lished Fanny, his longest poem, a satire 
 on the follies and fashions of the day. 
 In 1822 he visited Europe. Among his 
 best poems are Marco Bozzaris, To the 
 Memory of Burns, Alnwick Castle, and 
 Red Jacket. He died in 1867. 
 
 HALLECK, Henry Wager, an Ameri- 
 can general, born at Utica, near New 
 York, in 1815, was educated for the 
 army at West Point, and entered the 
 engineers in 1839. In 1846 he published 
 Elements of Military Art and Science, 
 and he was raised to the rank of captain 
 for his services in the Mexican war. 
 In 1854 he left the army and settled in 
 San Francisco as a lawyer and director 
 of a mining company. On the outbreak 
 of the civil war in 1861 he was created 
 major-general in the United States army. 
 After the victories at Paducah, Fort 
 Henry, Fort Donelson, and the capture 
 of Corinth, be became in 1862 com- 
 mander-in-chief till superseded by Gen- 
 eral Grant in 1864. Ultimately he re- 
 ceived the command of the South Di- 
 vision at Louisville, where he died in 
 1872. Among his writings are two works 
 on International Law. 
 
 HALLELUIA, or HALLELUJAH, or 
 ALLELUIA (praise ye the Lord), a 
 Hebrew formula of praise often occur- 
 ring in the Psalms, and which is retained 
 in the translations of the various Chris- 
 tian churches, probably on account of 
 its full and fine sound, so proper for 
 public religious services. The Great 
 Halleluja is the name given by the Jews 
 to Psalms cxiii. — cxvii., which are sung 
 
HALLER 
 
 HAMBURG 
 
 on the feasts of the Passover and Taber- 
 nacles. 
 
 HALLEY, Edmund, an English mathe- 
 matician and astronomer, born in 1656. 
 In 1682 he discovered the comet which 
 bears his name, and his prediction of 
 its return in 1759 was the first of its kind 
 that proved correct. In 1713 he was 
 made secretary of the Royal society, and 
 astronomer-royal in 1719. He died in 
 1742. 
 
 HALLEY’S COMET, discovered in 
 1682 by Edmund Halley. Halley’s dem- 
 onstration that this comet was the 
 same with the comet of 1456, 1531, and 
 1607 first fixed the identity of comets. It 
 performs its revolution in about 75 
 years. Its last appearance was in 1835. 
 
 HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, James Or- 
 chard, originally J. O. Halliwell, Shake- 
 spearean scholar, born 1820, d’ed 1889. 
 His chief Shakespearean publications are 
 a Life of Shakespeare (1848), the Works 
 of Shakespeare in 16 folio volumes, only 
 150 copies printed, and a great number 
 of pamphlets on Shakespeare. He also 
 published a valuable Dictionary of 
 Archaic and Provincial words. 
 
 HALL OF FAME, AMERICAN. “The 
 Hall of Fame for Great Americans” .‘s 
 the name of a building on University 
 Heights in New York city, in which are 
 inscribed on bronze tablets the names of 
 famous American men and women. 
 Nominations for the honor are made by 
 the public and are submitted to a com- 
 mittee of 100 eminent citizens. In the 
 
 case of men fifty-one votes are required, 
 and in the case of women forty-seven. 
 The first balloting took place in Octo- 
 ber, 1900. The following have been 
 chosen : 
 
 George Washington. 
 Abraham Lincoln. 
 Daniel Webster. 
 Benjamin Franklin. 
 Ulysses S. Grant. 
 John Marshall. 
 Thomas Jefferson. 
 Ralph W. Emerson. 
 H. W. Longfellow. 
 Robert Fulton. 
 Washington Irving. 
 Jonathan Edwards. 
 Samuel F. B. Morse. 
 David G. Farragut. 
 Henry Clay. 
 
 Nath. Hawthorne. 
 George Peabody. 
 Robert E. Lee. 
 
 Peter Cooper, 
 
 Ell Whitney. 
 
 John J. Audubon. 
 
 Horace Mann. 
 
 Henry W. Beecher. 
 James Kent. 
 
 Joseph Story. 
 
 John Adams. 
 
 Wm. E. Channlng. 
 Gilbert Stuart. 
 
 Asa Gray. 
 
 Chosen In 1905: 
 John Quincy Adams. 
 Jas. Russell Lowell. 
 Wm. T. Sherman. 
 James Madison. 
 
 John Quincy Adams. 
 John G. Whittier. 
 Alex. Hamilton. 
 Louis Agassiz. 
 
 John Paul Jones. 
 Mary Lyon. 
 
 Emma Willard. 
 Maria Mitchell. 
 
 HALLOW-EVEN, or HALLOWE’EN, 
 
 the evening of the 31st of October, so 
 called as being the eve or vigil of All 
 Hallows, or All Saints, which falls on 
 the 1st of November. It is associated in 
 the popular imagination with the prev- 
 alence of supernatural influences, and 
 in Scotland is frequently celebrated by 
 meetings of young people, with the per- 
 formance of various mystical ceremonies 
 humorously described by Burns in his 
 poem Hallowe’en. 
 
 HALLUCINATIONS, according to Es- 
 quirol, are morbid conditions of mind in 
 which the patient is conscious of a per- 
 ception without any impression having 
 been made on the external organs of 
 sense. Hallucinations are to be dis- 
 tinguished from delusions, for in these 
 there are real sensations, though they 
 are erroneously interpreted. Pinel was 
 the first who connected hallucinations 
 with a disturbance of the phenomena 
 
 of sensation, and the investigation has 
 been pursued further by Esquirol, 
 Maury, BriSre de Boismont, and others. 
 All the senses are not equally subject' 
 to hallucinations; the most frequent are 
 those of hearing; next, according to 
 many, come those of sight, smell, touch, 
 and taste; and hallucinations of several 
 senses may exist simultaneously in the 
 same individual, and also be complicated 
 with certain delusions. The simplest 
 form of hallucinations of hearing is the 
 tingling of the ears; but the striking of 
 clocks, the sounds of musical instru- 
 ments and of the human voice are often 
 heard, and in these instances, as in those 
 of the perturbations of the other senses, 
 there must be a diseased sensorium, 
 though there should be no structural 
 derangement of the nerves. Hallucina- 
 tions are not confined to those whose 
 mental faculties have been alienated, but 
 occasionally assail and torment even 
 the sane. Occasionally hallucinations 
 supervene where the system is healthy, 
 and the individual fully conscious of the 
 unreality of the objects that address his 
 senses, and this disorder is often asso- 
 ciated with much ability and wisdom 
 in the conduct of life. 
 
 HA'LO, the name given to colored 
 circles of light sometimes seen round the 
 sun or moon, and to other connected 
 luminous appearances. These phe- 
 nomena are classified as: (1) halos proper 
 consisting of complicated arrangements 
 of arcs and circles of light surrounding 
 the sun or moon, accompanied by others 
 tangent to or intersecting them; (2) 
 coronas, simple rings, generally some- 
 what colored; (3) aureolas, the name 
 given to the kind of halo surrounding a 
 shadow projected upon a cloud or fog- 
 bank, or to the colored rings observed by 
 aeronauts on the upper surface of clouds. 
 All these appearances are the result of 
 
 HALSTEAD, MURAT, journalist; 
 born in Butler Co., O., 1829. Began 
 newspaper work on a literary weekly ; 
 joined staff of Cincinnati Commercial, 
 later consolidated with Gazette as 
 Commercial Gazette, of which he be- 
 came editor-in-chief. Author: The 
 Story of Cuba ; Life of William Mc- 
 Kinley; The Story of the Philippines; 
 The War [ between Russia and Japan, 
 1906. He died in 1908. 
 
 HALYARDS, HALLIARDS, or HAUL- 
 YARDS, the ropes or tackles usually em- 
 ployed to hoist or lower any sail upon its 
 respective yard, gaff, or stay. 
 
 HAM, one of the three sons of Noah. 
 He had four sons — Cush, Mizraim, Phut, 
 and Canaan — from the first three of 
 whom sprang the tribes that peopled 
 the African continent, as Canaan be- 
 came the father of the tribes that prin- 
 cipally occupied the territory of Phoenicia 
 and Palestine. 
 
 HAM, the inner angle of the joint 
 which unites the thigh and the leg of an 
 animal, but more generally understood 
 to mean the cured and smoked thigh of 
 the ox, sheep, or hog, especially the last. 
 Usually the meat is first well rubbed 
 with salt, and a few days after it is 
 rubbed again with a mixture of salt, 
 saltpeter, and sugar, though sometimes 
 the saltpeter is omitted. After lying for 
 eight or ten days it is ready for drying. 
 The smoking of hams consists in sub- 
 jecting them to the smoke of a fire, wood 
 being used in preference to coal in the 
 process of smoking. A good ham should 
 have the recently-cut fat hard and 
 white, the lean fine-grained and of a 
 lively red. 
 
 HAM'ADRYAD, in Greek mythology, 
 a kind of wood-nj^ph conceived to in- 
 habit each a particular tree, with which 
 they were born and with which they 
 perished. 
 
 view In Hamburg lower harbor. 
 
 certain modifications which light under- 
 goes by reflection, refraction, dispersion, 
 diffraction, and interference when it falls 
 upon the crystals of ice, the raindrops, 
 or the minute particles that constitute 
 clouds. 
 
 HAMBURG, one of the free cities of 
 Germany, a member of the Germanic 
 Empire, and the greatest commercial 
 port on the continent of Europe, is 
 situated about 80 miles from the North 
 Sea, on the north branch of the Elbe, 
 
HAMILCAR 
 
 HAMMER-BEAM 
 
 which is navigable for large vessels. The 
 town of Altona adjoins it on the west 
 From the Elbe proceed canals which 
 intersect the eastern and lower part of 
 the city in all directions, and it is also 
 intersected by the Alster, which here 
 forms two fine lakes, the Binnenalster 
 and Aussenalster. The quays and 
 harbors accommodation are very ex- 
 tensive. After the destructive fire of 
 1842 whole streets were rebuilt in a 
 magnificent and expensive style. Ham- 
 burg is not, however, very rich in notable 
 buddings. Among the most important 
 are the church of St. Nicholas, a noble 
 Gothic structure with a lofty tower and 
 mire., built between 1845 and 1874; St. 
 Peter's, another lofty Gothic edifice; St 
 Michael’s, the largest of the churches; St. 
 Catharine’s, an ancient edifice; St. 
 James’, erected in 1354, but surmounted 
 by a modern tower; an elegant Jewish 
 temple; an exchange, a noble edifice, 
 consisting chiefly of a magnificent hall, 
 surrounded by a fine colonnade. There 
 are also the Johanneum institution, con- 
 taining an ancient college, museums, 
 and the city library, with about 300,000 
 volumes; several well -endowed hospitals, 
 zoological and botanic gardens; the 
 Kunsthalle, a large collection of pictures 
 and sculpture; theaters, etc. Hamburg 
 is of most importance on account of its 
 great shipping trade and the business of 
 banking, exchange, marine insurance, 
 etc., carried on in connection with that 
 Its manufactures, though large, are less 
 important, including ship-building, to- 
 bacco and cigar making, iron-founding, 
 brewing, etc. A great many emigrants 
 embark here. The state of Hamburg 
 embraces a territory of 160 sq. mdes, 
 and consists of two divisions, viz: — City 
 of Hamburg, with a population of 705,- 
 738; outlying towns and bailiwicks 
 (Cuxhaven, Ritzebiittel, etc.), pop 
 62,611. The legislative power belongs 
 in common to the senate and the house 
 of burgesses, but the executive power is 
 vested chiefly in the senate, which is 
 composed of eighteen members, of 
 whom nine must have studied law or 
 finance, and of the other nine seven 
 must belong to the commercial class. 
 The members are elected for life. The 
 house of burgesses consists of 160 mem- 
 bers, half of whom are elected every 
 three years by the votes of all tax-paying 
 citizens, while the other half are chosen 
 partly by a much-restricted franchise, 
 and {partly deputed by guilds and cor- 
 porations. In 1815 it joined the Ger- 
 manic confederation as a free city. In 
 1888 the city was included in the Zoll- 
 verein or German customs union. 
 
 HAMIL'CAR, the name of several 
 Carthaginian generals, of whom the 
 most celebrated was Hamilcar, sur- 
 named Garca (the lightning), the father 
 of the great Hannibal. While quite a 
 young man he was appointed to the 
 command of the Carthaginian forces in 
 Sicily, in the eighteenth year of the first 
 Punic war, n.c. 247, when the Romans 
 were masters of almost the whole island. 
 For two years he defied all the efforts 
 of the Romans to dislodge him ; but the 
 Carthaginian admiral, Hanno, having 
 been totally defeated off the iEgates, 
 B.c. 241, he reluctantly consented to 
 evacuate Sicily. A revolt of the re- 
 
 turned troops, joined by the native 
 Africans, was successfully repressed by 
 Hamilcar. He then entered on a series 
 of campaigns in Spain, where he founded 
 a new empire for Carthage. Here he 
 passed nine years, and had brought the 
 whole southern and eastern part of the 
 country under Carthaginian rule when 
 he was slain in battle against the Vet- 
 tones, B.c. 229. His great design of mak- 
 ing Spain a point of attack against Rome 
 was ablj"^ carried out by his son Hannibal. 
 
 HAMILTON, a thriving town of 
 Canada, in the province of Ontario, 
 county of Wentworth, on the south side 
 of Burlington Bay, Lake Ontario, the 
 principal part being built about 1 mile 
 from the bay. It is the seat of an active 
 and increasing trade, and has manufac- 
 tures of paper, soap, iron goods, glass, 
 carriages, etc. Pop. 52,634. 
 
 HAMILTON, a town in Ohio, county 
 seat of Butler county, on the Miami 
 river, 25 miles n. of Cincinnati. It is a 
 prosperous manufacturing place, has 
 woolen and cotton factories, paper and 
 saw mills, and iron-foundries. Pop. 
 28,564. 
 
 HAMILTON, Alexander, a distin- 
 guished American officer and legislator 
 during the contest for independence, 
 was born in 1757 in the island of Nevis, 
 West Indies. At the age of sixteen he be- 
 
 came a student of Columbia College, 
 New York. On the outbreak of the war 
 he received (1776) a commission as cap- 
 tain of artillery, and soon attracted the 
 attention of Washington, who appointed 
 him his aide-de-camp and employed him 
 in the most delicate and difficult affairs. 
 In 1781 he left the service, studied law, 
 became a delegate from the state of New 
 York in 1782, and in 1787 was one of the 
 delegates who revi.sed the articles of 
 confederation. He was a strong sup- 
 porter of the federal party, and by the 
 letters which he wrote to the Daily 
 Advertiser of New York, afterward 
 published under the title of 'The Federal- 
 ist, contributed greatly to the success of 
 the party. On the organization of the 
 federal government in 1789, with Wash- 
 ington at its head, Hamilton was ap- 
 pointed secretary of the treasury. This 
 office he held till 1795, when he resigned 
 and retired into private life. In 1798 he 
 was appointed second in command of the 
 provisional army raised under the ap- 
 prehension of a French invasion, and 
 on the death of Washington, in 1799, 
 
 he became commander-in-chief. In 1804 
 he became involved in a political dispute 
 with Mr. Aaron Burr, then candidate 
 for the governorship of New York, 
 accepted a challenge from that gentleman 
 man, and was shot by him July 11, 1804. 
 
 HAMILTON, Family of, a family long 
 connected with Scotland, though prob- 
 ably of English origin, the name being 
 evidently territorial. The first person of 
 the name in Scotland of whom we have 
 information was Walter Fitz-Gilbert of 
 Hamilton, who, in 1296, swore fealty to 
 Edward I. of England for lands in 
 Lanarkshire, and held Bothwell Castle for 
 the English at the time of the battle of 
 Bannockburn. For his early surrender 
 of this fortress King Robert Bruce gave 
 him important grants of land. He con- 
 tinued faithful to King David Bruce, 
 and had a command at Halidon Hill 
 under the Stewart of Scotland. In 1445 
 the family was ennobled in the person of 
 Sir James Hamilton of Cadyow, who was 
 created Lord Hamilton of Cadyow. 
 
 HAMILTON, GAIL. See Dodge, Mary 
 Abigail. 
 
 HAMILTON, Sir William, a meta- 
 physician, the most acute logician and 
 most learned philosopher of the Scottish 
 school, was born in 1788 at Glasgow, 
 where his father and grandfather held in 
 succession the chairs of anatomy and 
 botany. In 1846 he published an anno- 
 tated edition of the works of Thomas 
 Reid, and in 1854 the first volume of a 
 similar edition of the works of Dugald 
 Stewart. He died suddenly at Edin- 
 burgh in 1856. His lectures on logic and 
 metaphysics were collected and edited 
 by Dean Mansel and Professor Veitch. 
 
 HAMITES (descendants of Ham), the 
 name given to a number of races in 
 North Africa, who are regarded as of 
 kindred origin and speak allied tongues. 
 They include the ancient Egyptians and 
 their modern descendants, the Copets, 
 the Berbers, Tuaregs, Kabyles, the 
 Gallas, Falashas, Somali, Dankali, etc. 
 
 HAMLET, Prince of Denmark, the 
 hero of Shakespeare’s famous tragedy. 
 The story is founded on an old tradition, 
 related, among others, by Saxo-Gram- 
 maticus, of a Danish prince, Harnlet, 
 who lived about 500 b.c., but essentially 
 altered in details and conclusion. 
 
 HAMLIN, Hannibal, American states- 
 man, was born in Maine in 1809. He 
 served in, and was speaker of the lower 
 house of the Maine legislature, and in 
 1843 was elected to congress. From 1848 
 to 1857 he was United States senator, 
 for a short time governor of Maine 
 (1857), and again senator. He was 
 elected vice-president of the United 
 States on the ticket with Lincoln m 
 1860; in 1865 became collector of cus- 
 toms at Boston, and 1869-81 served 
 again in the senate. Later he became 
 minister to Spain. He died in 1891. 
 
 HAMMER, a well-known tool used by 
 mechanics, of which there are various 
 sorts, but they all consist of an iron or 
 steel head fixed crosswise to a handle of 
 wood. See Steam-hammer. 
 
 HAMMER-BEAM, a short beam at- 
 tached to the foot of a principal rafter 
 in a roof, in the place of the tie-beam. 
 Hammer-beams are used in pairs, and 
 project from the wall, extending less 
 than half-way across the apartments. 
 
HAMMER-CLOTH 
 
 HAND 
 
 The hammer-beam is generally sup- 
 ported by a rib rising up from a corbel 
 below; and in its turn forms the sup- 
 port of another rib, constituting with 
 
 that springing from the opposite ham- 
 mer-beam an arch. 
 
 HAMMER-CLOTH, a cloth sometimes 
 used to cover the box-seat of a private 
 carriage. It usually bears the coat of 
 arms of the owner of the carriage. 
 
 HAMMERSMITH, a municipal and 
 parliamentary borough of London, about 
 6 miles w.s.w. of the general post-office. 
 The Thames is here crossed by a fine 
 suspension bridge. Pop. 112,245. 
 
 HAMMOCK, a rectangular piece of 
 cloth or netting about 6 feet long and 4 
 feet wide, gathered together at the two 
 ends and slung horizontally, forming a 
 sort of bed or place in which one may 
 recline for pleasure. Hammocks are in 
 common use on board ships of war. The 
 word is said to be of Caribbean origin, 
 and the Caribs certainly make use of 
 similar hanging beds. 
 
 HAMMOND, a city in Lake co., Ind., 
 21 miles south by east of Chicago, 111. 
 The industries include extensive steel- 
 spring and chemical works, nail-mills, 
 a slaughtering and meat-packing plant, 
 flour-mills, carriage-works, a distillery, 
 starch-works, a glue-factory, brick- 
 yards, etc. Pop. 14,670. 
 
 HAMMOND, John Hays, an American 
 mining engineer, born in 1855 at San 
 Francisco. In 1893 he was appointed 
 consulting engineer to various mining 
 companies operated by a London firm 
 in South Africa, and later to the British 
 South Africa company, known as the 
 Chartered company, to the Consolidated 
 Gold Fields company, and other organi- 
 zations of promoters acting in that 
 region. While in South Africa he was 
 connected with the Jameson raid, was 
 tried for complicity in the revolt against 
 the South African republic, and was sen- 
 tenced to death. This sentence was com- 
 muted to fifteen years’ imprisonment. 
 Hammond was later released by the 
 Boer authorities upon the payment of 
 a fine of $125,000. Afterward he estab- 
 lished himself in London, whence he 
 directed mining interests in Mexico and 
 the United States. 
 
 HAMPDEN, John, celebrated for his 
 patriotic opposition to taxation by pre- 
 rogative, was born in London in 1594, 
 being cousin-german by the mother’s 
 side to Oliver Cromwell. Although for 
 some years a uniform opposer of the 
 arbitrary practices in church and state, 
 it was not till 1636 that his resistance to 
 Charles’ demand for ship-money made 
 
 him the argument of all tongues. Al- 
 though the decision in the court of ex- 
 chequer was given against him by 
 seven voices to five, the victory, as far 
 as regarded public opinion, was his. 
 In the following year (1637) he was one 
 of those who meditated emigration to 
 America, which they were prevented 
 from carrying out by an order in 
 council detaining them. Henceforward 
 he took a prominent part in the great 
 contest between the crown and the par- 
 liament, and was one of the five mem- 
 bers whom the king, in 1642, so impru- 
 dently attempted, in person, to seize 
 in the House of Commons. When the 
 appeal was made to the sword, Hampden 
 accepted the command of a regiment in 
 the parliamentary army under the Earl 
 of Essex, and was fatally wounded on 
 Chalgrove Field, 24th June, 1643. 
 
 HAMPSHIRE, Hants, or Southamp- 
 tonshire, a maritime county, including 
 the Isle of Wight, in the south of Eng- 
 land ; area, 1 ,037,764 acres. Pop. 798,756. 
 
 HAMPSTEAD, a municipal and par- 
 liamentary borough of London. Hamp- 
 stead Heath crowns the summit of the 
 hill, and is now sprinkled over with 
 handsome villas. Pop. 82,329. 
 
 HAMPTON, Wade, American soldier 
 and politician, was born at Columbia, 
 S. C., in 1818. With the secession of his 
 state from the union, he entered en- 
 thusiastically into the movement for 
 the establishment of the confederacy, 
 and raised and equipped from his private 
 means the command which, under the 
 name of “Hampton’s Legion,” did good 
 service for the confederate cause through- 
 out the war. He was engaged in oppos- 
 ing the advance of Sheridan in the 
 Shenandoah Valley in 1864, where he 
 showed such high qualities as a cavalry 
 commander that he was in August of 
 that year commissioned lieutenant- 
 general and placed in command of all 
 Lee’s cavalry. Later he commanded 
 the cavalry in Johnson’s army, which 
 opposed Sherman’s advance from Savan- 
 nah in 1865. In 1876 he was elected 
 governor, and served until 1878, when 
 he was elected to the United States sen- 
 
 ate. There he served by reelection until 
 1891. From 1893 to 1897 he was United 
 States commissioner of railroads, to 
 which office he was appointed by Presi- 
 dent Cleveland. He died in 1902. 
 
 HANCOCK, John, American patriot 
 of the revolutionary period, was born at 
 Quincy, Mass., in 1737. In 1774 Han- 
 cock was president of the provincial 
 congress, and from 1775 to 1777 of the 
 general congress at Philadelphia, where 
 he was the first to sign the declaration 
 of independence. Returning to Massa- 
 chusetts, he assisted in framing its con- 
 stitution, and in 1780 was chosen first 
 governor. He was annually elected to 
 this dignity till 1785, and again from 1787 
 to 1793, sitting as an ordinary member 
 of the legislature in the interval. He 
 died in 1793. 
 
 HANCOCK, Winfield Scott, distin- 
 guished American soldier, was born in 
 Pennsylvania, in 1824, graduated from 
 West Point in 1844, and served as lieu- 
 tenant in the Mexican war. He was 
 
 appointed brigadier-general of vol- 
 unteers in 1861, fought at Antietam and 
 Fredericksburg, and commanded a 
 corps at Gettysburg, where he was 
 severely wounded. At Spotsylvania, 
 May 12, 1864, he captured 4,000 pris- 
 oners and many cannon. After the war 
 he rose to be major-general (1866), and 
 held several department commands, the 
 last being that of the department of the 
 east, with headquarters at New York. 
 In 1880 he was made the democratic 
 nominee for the presidency, but was de- 
 feated by General Garfield. He died 
 Feb. 9, 1886. 
 
 HAND, the part of the body which 
 terminates the arm, consisting of the 
 palm and fingers, connected with the 
 arm at the wrist; the principal organ of 
 touch and prehension. The human hand 
 is composed of twenty-seven bones, 
 namely eight bones of the carpus or 
 wrist arranged in two rows of four each, 
 the row next the fore-arm containing 
 the scaphoid, the semilunar, the cunei- 
 form, and the pisiform, and that next 
 the metacarpus, the trapezium, th« 
 trapezoid, the os magnum, and the 
 unciform. The metacarpus consists of 
 the five bones which form the palm, the 
 first being that of the thumb, the others 
 that of the fingers in succession. Lastly, 
 the fingers proper contain fourteen 
 bones called phalanges, of which the 
 thumb has but two, all the other digits 
 having three each. These bones are 
 jointed so as to admit of a variety of 
 movements, the more peculiar being 
 those by which the hand is flexed back- 
 ward, forward, and sideway, and by 
 which the thumb and fingers are moved 
 in different ways. The chief muscles 
 which determine these movements are 
 the flexors, which pass down the fore- 
 
HANDBALL 
 
 HANKOW 
 
 arm, are attached by tendons to the 
 phalanges of the fingers, and serve to 
 flex or bend the fingers; and the exten- 
 sors for extending the fingers. There are 
 two muscles which flex all the fingers 
 except the thumb. The thumb has a 
 separate long and short flexor. There is 
 a common extensor for the Angers which 
 passes down the back of the fore-arm 
 and divides at the wrist into four ten- 
 
 Skeleton of Human Hand and Wrist. 
 
 1 . Scaphoid bone. 2, Semilunar hone. 3, Cu- 
 neiform bone. 4, Pisiform bone. 5, Os trape- 
 zium. 6, Os trapezoides. 7, Os magnum. 8, 
 Unciform bone. 9, Metacarpal bones of thumb 
 and Angers. 10, First row of phalanges of 
 thumb and fingers. 11, Second row of pha- 
 langes of fingers. 13, Third I’ow of phalanges 
 of thumb and fingers, 
 
 dons, one for each finger, each being 
 attached to all three phalanges. The 
 forefinger and little finger have, in ad- 
 dition, each an extensor of its own, and 
 the thumb has both a short and a long 
 extensor. The tendons of the muscles 
 of the hand are interlaced and bound 
 together by bands and aponeurotic 
 fibers, and from this results a more or 
 less complete unity of action. It is some- 
 times difficult to make a movement with 
 a single finger without the others taking 
 part in it, as in executing instrumental 
 music, for instance; but practice gives 
 to these movements perfect independ- 
 ence. Of all the movements of the hand 
 the opposition of the thumb to the 
 other fingers, alone or united, especially 
 characterizes the human hand. This 
 action of the thumb results from its 
 length, from the first metacarpal bone 
 not being placed on the same plane as 
 the other four, as is the case in the 
 monkey, and from the action of a muscle 
 — the long flexor of the thumb — peculiar 
 to the human hand. This muscle com- 
 pletes the action of the other motor of 
 the thumb, and permits man to hold a 
 pen, a graver, or a needle; it gives to his 
 hand the dexterity necessary in the 
 execution of the most delicate work. 
 Properly speaking then, the hand, with 
 its highly specialized muscles, belong to 
 man alone. It cannot be considered, as 
 in the ape, as a normal organ of locomo- 
 tion. It is essentially the organs of touch 
 and prehension. It moulds itself to a 
 body to ascertain its form ; it comes to 
 the aid of the eye in completing or 
 rectifying its impressions. The functions 
 of touch devolve principally upon its 
 anterior or palmar face, the nervous 
 papillae abounding specially at the ends 
 of the fingers. A layer of adipose tissue, 
 very close in texture, protects, without 
 lessening its power or its delicacy, the 
 network of muscles, vessels, and nerves, 
 w'ith which this remarkable organ is 
 equipped. 
 
 HANDBALL, a variety of “Fives” 
 practiced in the United States chiefly 
 on account of its physical benefits in 
 training for contests of endurance, though 
 
 it is also one of the sports under the 
 regulations of the Amateur Athletic 
 union. In its simplest form it consists of 
 scoring the ball against a single back 
 wall, with a lined-out space in front ; but 
 in its home, Ireland, the court or “alley” 
 on which it is played has also side walls 
 extending the length of the court (60 
 feet). The floor is 60 x 28 feet, and about 
 the center of it, parallel with the end 
 wall, a line is drawn called the “short 
 line.” Sixty feet from the end wall an- 
 other line is drawn, called the “over 
 line,” and every service coming off the 
 wall must fall between these two lines 
 to be in play. The game is started by 
 one player “tossing” out the ball on to 
 the ground and hitting it on the re- 
 bound, with his hand, against the end 
 wall. It it falls inside the short line, 
 and the other player fails to return it, it 
 counts an “ace” to the server. Should 
 it be returned and the original server 
 fail to return it, it is a “hand out.” Then 
 the service changes, and the game goes 
 on alternately. The game is won by the 
 player who first gets 15 or 20 aces, as 
 agreed. 
 
 HANDCUFFS, an instrument formed 
 of two iron rings connected by a short 
 chain or fixed on a hinge on the ends of 
 a very short iron bar, which, being 
 locked over the wrists of a malefactor, 
 prevents his using his hands. 
 
 HANDEL (properly Haendel), George 
 Frederick, a great German composer 
 born at Halle on the Saale, February 23, 
 1685. In 1696 he was sent to Berlin, 
 where he heard the music of Bononcini 
 and Ariosti, then at the head of the 
 
 George Frederick HandeL 
 
 Berlin Opera House. He returned to 
 Halle, but soon felt to visit Hanover and 
 Hamburg. At Hamburg he played 
 second violin in the orchestra, and 
 brought out in 1704 his first work, an 
 oratorio on the Passion, and his first 
 opera, Almira, followed in February by 
 his Nero, and subsequently by his 
 Florinda and Daphne. In 1706 he went 
 to Italy, visiting Florence, Venice, 
 Naples, and Rome. On his return to 
 Germany he entered the service of the 
 Elector of Hanover, afterward George 
 I. of England, as musical director. He 
 visited England twice, and ultimately 
 having received a pension from Queen 
 Anne, settled down there. Among the 
 operas which he had composed up to 
 this date (1735) are : Dadamisto, Ottone, 
 
 Giulio Cesare, Flavio, Tamerlano, Scipio, 
 Ricardo I., Orlando, Ariadne, etc. His 
 last opera was performed in 1740. By 
 this time he had begun to devote him- 
 self chiefly to music of a serious nature, 
 especially the oratorio. The approval 
 which his first works of this kind (Esther 
 1731 ; Deborah, 1732; Athalia, 1733) had 
 met with encouraged him to new efforts; 
 and he produced in succession Israel 
 in Egypt, L’ Allegro and II Penseroso, 
 Saul, and The Messiah. The last-men- 
 tioned, which is his chief work, W'as 
 brought out in 1741, for the benefit of the 
 Foundling hospital. In 1742 the Sam- 
 son appeared, in 1746 the Judas Macca- 
 bseus, in 1748 the Solomon, and in 1752 
 the Jephthah. In 1752 he became blind, 
 but did not lose his spirits, continuing 
 to perform in public and even to com- 
 pose. He died at London, 13th April, 
 1759. 
 
 HANDICAPPING, in horse-racing and 
 various other games and sports, a sys- 
 tem of equalizing the chances of victory 
 in favor of each of the competitors by 
 allowing certain advantages to an inferior 
 competitor, as, in horse-racing, the 
 making of the best horses carry heavier 
 weights proportionably to the racing 
 qualities, or, in chess-playing, the 
 stronger player giving up one or more 
 of his men at the beginning of the game. 
 
 HANDS, Laying on of. This rite, as a 
 token of blessing, or the communication 
 of spiritual gifts, or of something else 
 which could not be literally delivered 
 into the hands of another, has been in 
 use from the earliest times. It occurs in 
 Scripture as a patriarchal usage, ap- 
 propriate and becoming perhaps rather 
 than strictly religious, but later assumes 
 more of the character of a formal rite, 
 as in the ritual of animal sacrifice among 
 the Jews, when the officer was required 
 to lay his hands on the victim while still 
 alive, except in the case of the paschal 
 lamb. In the early church this rite was 
 used in benediction, absolution, the 
 unction of the sick, and the reconcilia- 
 tion of penitents as well as in ordination 
 and confirmation. The rite is still re- 
 tained by most western churches in the 
 ceremony of ordination, and in the 
 Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Luth- 
 eran churches both in confirmation and 
 ordination. 
 
 HANG-CHOW, or HANG-CHOO, a 
 
 Chinese treaty port, capital of the prov- 
 ince of Chekiang, on the estuary of 
 the Tsien-tang-kiang. It is one of the 
 handsomest cities of China, with many 
 magnificent temples, monuments, and 
 triumphal arches. It has extensive man- 
 ufactures in silks, furs, gold and silver 
 ornaments, tapestries, lacquered w'are, 
 fans, etc., and a large trade. The larger 
 portion of the inhabitants live without 
 the walls in the beautiful suburbs and 
 in boats on the river. It is also a great 
 center of literary and ecclesiastical life. 
 Pop. estimated at 800,000. 
 
 HANGING-BUTTRESS, in arch., a 
 buttress not standing solid on a founda- 
 tion, but supported on a corbel. It is 
 applied chiefly as a decoration. 
 
 HANKOW' (“Mouth of the Han”), a 
 town and river port in China, in the prov- 
 ince of Hupeh, at the junction of the 
 Han with the Yang-tse-kiang; Hanyang 
 being on the opposite bank of the Han, 
 
HANLEY 
 
 HANOVER 
 
 and Wuchang on the other side of the 
 Yang-tse. The port was opened to foreign 
 trade in 1862, and has become the chief 
 emporium for the great tea districts in 
 the central provinces, which formerly 
 sent their produce for export to Canton. 
 Large steamers ascend to the town. In 
 
 Hanging-buttress. 
 
 1857 Hankow fell into the hands of 
 the Taiping rebels, and was almost com- 
 pletely demolished by them. Pop. 
 750,000. 
 
 HAN'LEY, a municipal, pari., and 
 county borough of North Staffordshire, 
 England, pleasantly situated on rising 
 round near the Trent, 18 miles north 
 y west of the county town of Stafford. 
 Pop. of CO. bor., 61,524; pari., bor. 
 100,290. 
 
 HAN'NA, Marcus Alonzo, American 
 manufacturer and politician, born in 
 1837 at Lisbon, Columbiana co., Ohio. 
 In 1896 he suddenly acquired national 
 prominence by the part he took in 
 securing the nomination of William 
 McKinley for the presidency at the re- 
 publican national convention at Saint 
 Louis. Immediately after the conven- 
 tion he became chairman of the repub- 
 lican national committee. In March, 
 1897, he was appointed United States 
 senator from Ohio. In the senate he did 
 not take a prominent part either as a 
 debater or a legislator; but up to the 
 death of President McKinley he was 
 recognized as one of the most influential 
 advisers of the administration. He died 
 in 1906. 
 
 HAN'NIBAL, or AN'NIBAL, one of the 
 greatest generals of antiquity, born b.c. 
 247, was the son of Hamilcar Barca, also 
 a general and leader of the popular party 
 among the Carthaginians. He was but 
 nine years of age when his father made 
 him swear at the altar eternal hatred to 
 the Romans. He grew up in his father’s 
 camp in Spain (see Hamilcar), but re- 
 turned to Carthage when his father fell 
 in battle, in 229 b.c. At the age of 
 twenty-two he returned to the army in 
 Spain, then commanded by his brother- 
 in-law Hasdrubal, and three years after, 
 on the murder of Hasdrubal, received 
 the chief command by acclamation. 
 Hannibal now prepared to carry out his 
 great designs against Rome. His siege 
 and capture of Saguntum, a city in 
 P. E.— 38 
 
 alliance with Rome, led to a declaration 
 of war from the Romans, who made prep- 
 arations to carry on the war in Spain. 
 But Hannibal, judging that Rome could 
 be overthrown only in Italy, undertook 
 his great march on Rome across the 
 Pyrenees, the Rhone, and the Alps. 
 He set out with 90,000 foot-soldiers, 40 
 elephants, and 12,000 horsemen. When 
 he reached the northern foot of the 
 Alps he had still 50,000 foot-soldiers, 
 9000 horse, and 37 elephants. When he 
 arrived at the southern foot, after 15 
 days of incredible toils, his force had 
 diminished to 20,000 foot-soldiers and 
 6000 horse. The point at which he 
 crossed is generally believed to have been 
 the Little St. Bernard. On the banks 
 of the Ticino he first encountered a 
 Roman army under Publius Scipio, and 
 defeated it mainly by the superiority 
 of his Numidian cavalry, 218 b.c. 
 
 Shortly after another Roman army, 
 under Sempronius, was totally routed 
 on the Trebia. After wintering in Cisal- 
 pine Gaul, Hannibal opened next year’s 
 campaign (217) by defeating the Roman 
 general Flaminius, whom he enticed into 
 an ambush at Lake Thrasymenus. In 
 this battle half the Roman army per- 
 ished, and the rest were taken prisoners. 
 Hannibal now marched into Apulia, 
 spreading terror wherever he approached. 
 Rome, in consternation, proclaimed 
 Fabius Maximus dictator, who saga- 
 ciously resolved to hazard no more open 
 battles, but exhaust the strength of the 
 Carthaginians by delay. But for some- 
 time the wisdom of this policy was not 
 understood by his countrymen, who, 
 dissatisfied with his inactivity, ap- 
 pointed Minutius Felix his colleague. 
 The result was that the latter was drawn 
 into a battle by Hannibal, and would 
 have perished but for the aid of Fabius. 
 After this the Roman generals avoided 
 engagements, and Hannibal at this 
 
 critical period saw his army wasting 
 away in inactivity. Next year (216), 
 however, the rashness of the new consul 
 Terentius Varro gave Hannibal the last 
 of his great victories. The battle was 
 fought at Cannae, the Romans under L. 
 .^Imilius Paulus and Varro numbering 
 more than 80,000 men, the Carthagin- 
 ians about 50,000, and ended in a total 
 defeat of the Romans, 40,000 or 50,000 
 of whom were slain and the rest scat- 
 tered. Instead of marching on Rome, 
 Hannibal now sought quarters in Capua, 
 where luxurious living undermined the 
 discipline and health of his troops. The 
 campaigns of 215, 214, and 213 were 
 comparatively unimportant. While 
 
 Hannibal was seizing Tarentum (21^, 
 Capua was invested by two Roman 
 armies. To relieve Capua Hannibal 
 marched on Rome, and. actually ap- 
 peared before its gates (211), but the 
 diversion remained fruitless, and Capua 
 fell. In 207 a reinforcement tardily sent 
 by the Carthaginians to Hannibal, un- 
 der command of his brother Hasdrubal, 
 was intercepted by the Romans and de- 
 stroyed at the Metaurus. Hannibal now 
 retired to Bruttium (the toe of Italy), 
 where he still maintained the contest 
 against overwhelming odds, till, in 203, 
 he was recalled to defend his country, 
 invaded by Scipio. In Africa he was de- 
 feated by the Romans at Zama (202 
 B.c.), and the second Punic war ended, 
 after a bloody contest of eighteen years, 
 in Carthage having to accept the most 
 humiliating conditions of peace. Han- 
 nibal now devoted himself as civil 
 magistrate to restoring the resources of 
 Carthage, and was working at reforms 
 of administration and finance when the 
 jealous Romans sent ambassadors to 
 demand his surrender. He fled to the 
 court of Antiochus of Syria, and offered 
 his services for the war then commencing 
 against the Romans. They were ac- 
 cepted, but Hannibal’s advice for the 
 conduct of the war was not followed, 
 and he himself as commander of the 
 Syrian fleet failed in an expedition 
 against the Rhodians. In 190 b.c. 
 .'Vntiochus was forced to conclude a dis- 
 graceful peace with the Romans, one of 
 the terms of which was that Hannibal 
 should be delivered up. Hannibal, 
 again obliged to flee, took refuge with 
 Prusias, king of Bithynia, and is said to 
 have gained several victories for Prusias 
 against Eumenes, king of Pergamus, ar 
 ally of the Romans. But the Roman 
 senate once more sent to demand the 
 surrender of their inveterate enemy, 
 and Hannibal, finding that Prusias could 
 not protect him, took poison rather than 
 fall into the hands of the Romans. He 
 died in b.c. 183. 
 
 HANNIBAL, a town in Marion co., 
 Mo., on the right bank of the Mississippi, 
 150 miles above St. Louis. It has to- 
 bacco factories, machine-shops, foun- 
 dries, pork-packing establishments, saw 
 and flour mills, and an extensive trade 
 in lumber. Pop. 15,267. 
 
 HANOI', or KESH'O, capital of Ton- 
 quin, on the river Song-ka, in a fruitful 
 plain. Gold and silver filagree, lac- 
 quered wares, silks, mat and basket 
 weaving are its principal industries. 
 Although the river is navigable only for 
 small vessels to the trade of Hanoi is 
 considerable, chiefly with the southern 
 provinces of China. Pop. variously esti- 
 mated from 80,000 to 150, 000. 
 
 HAN'OVER, formerly a kingdom in 
 the north-west of Germany, now a prov- 
 ince of Prussia. The total area is 
 14,857 sq. miles. For administrative 
 purposes it is divided into six districts — 
 Hanover, Hildesheim, Liineburg, Stade, 
 Osnabruck, Aurich. The surface in the 
 south is covered by the Hartz moun- 
 tains, but the rest of the country is a 
 low, monotonous flat, with a gentle slope 
 to the North Sea. 
 
 HANOVER, capital of the Prussian 
 province of Hanover, situated in an ex- 
 tensive plain on the Leine, which here 
 
HANSOM-CAB 
 
 HARE 
 
 receives the Ihme and becomes navi- 
 gable. There are fine promenades, and 
 a large wood with beautiful walks, the 
 Eilenriede, lies on the eastern side of the 
 city. Among the principal buildings are 
 the Market Church, the old town-house, 
 the theater, one of the finest in Ger- 
 many, the royal palace, the museum of 
 art and science, the royal library, con- 
 taining 175,000 volumes, the central 
 railway station, the Waterloo monu- 
 ment, etc About a mile to the n.w. is 
 Schloss Herrenhausen, the favorite res'- 
 dences of George I., George II., and 
 George V. Nearer the town is the colossal 
 Gelfenschloss, or palace of the Guelphs, 
 now fitted up as a polytechnic school. 
 Hanover is a manufacturing town of 
 some importance, has cotton-spinning 
 machine-works, iron-foundries, chemical 
 works, tobacco and cigar factories, etc. 
 Hanover is first mentioned in 1163. It 
 joined the Hanseatic league in 1481. It 
 became the residence of the dukes of 
 Brunswick-Liineburg, and capital of the 
 principality in 1636. Pop. 235,666. 
 
 HANSOM-CAB, a two-wheeled hack- 
 ney-carriage or cabriolet and named after 
 the inventor. It holds two persons be- 
 sides the driver, who sits on an elevated 
 seat behind the body of the carriage, 
 the reins being brought over the top. 
 
 HAR'AKIRI, or SEP'PUKU, a mode 
 of inflicting death upon themselves 
 allowed in Japan to criminals of the 
 Samurai or two-sworded class as more 
 honorable than public execution. It 
 consists in cutting open the body so as 
 to disembowel it ■ by means of a wound 
 made with one sword perpendicularly 
 down the front and another with the 
 other sword horizontally. It is (or was) 
 frequently resorted to to save dishonor 
 or exposure. 
 
 HARAR, a town of Northeastern 
 Africa, included in the Abyssinian ter- 
 ritories, about 150 miles from the coast 
 of the Gulf of Aden, now reached by a 
 railway from the French port of Jibouti. 
 The inhabitants are strict Mohamme- 
 dans. Pop. estimated at from 35,000 to 
 40,000. 
 
 HARBOR, a general name given to 
 any bay, creek, or inlet of the sea afford- 
 ing accommodation for ships and pro- 
 tection against the wind and sea. The 
 great requisites of a good harbor are 
 accessibility, adequate depth of water, 
 and shelter from violence of wind and 
 water. Harbors are either natural or 
 artificial, the latter being made wholly 
 or partly by the construction of moles 
 or breakwaters. In connection with the 
 more important harbors there are 
 usually docks, in which the water is kept 
 as nearly as possible at the same level, 
 thus giving facility in loading and un- 
 loading. See Breakwater and Docks. 
 
 HARCOURT, Sir William George 
 Granville Venables Vernon, lawyer and 
 politician, was born in 1827. Was called 
 to the bar in 1854, became queen’s 
 counsel in 1866; was returned for Ox- 
 ford city in 1869 in the liberal in- 
 terest; distinguished Ipmself by his 
 powers of satire and ridicule in debate; 
 was made solicitor-general in Mr. Glad- 
 stone’s ministry, Nov. 1873; home secre- 
 tary in 1880, when he lost his scat for 
 Oxford but was returned for Derby. 
 In Feb., 1886, be became chancellor of 
 
 the exchequer under Mr. Gladstone, and 
 he held the same office under the same 
 leader and subsequently under Lord 
 Rosebery in 1892-95, when a change of 
 government took place. He died in 1904. 
 
 HARDICANUTE, or HARTHCANUT, 
 King of England and Denmark, was the 
 only legitimate son of Canute. At the 
 time of his father’s death, in 1036, he 
 was in Denmark, where he was immedi- 
 ately recognized as king. His half-brother 
 Harold, however, who happened to be 
 in England at the time, laid claim to the 
 throne of that part of their father’s 
 dominions, and succeeded in getting 
 possession of Mercia, Northumbria, and 
 Wessex, but died in 1040, when Hardi- 
 canute peacefully succeeded him. He 
 reigned till 1042, leaving the govern- 
 ment almost entirely in the hands of his 
 mother and the powerful Earl Godwin, 
 while he gave himself up to feasts and 
 
 Q T’lVl 1 G0 1 C 
 
 HARDINGE (har'ding), Henry, Vis- 
 count, English commander, was born in 
 1785. He was gazetted ensign in 1798, 
 and was present at all the great battles 
 and sieges in the Peninsula. He lost his 
 
 Viscount Hardinge. 
 
 left hand at the battle of Ligny. He be- 
 came M. P. for Durham in 1820, was 
 made secretary-at-war, secretary for 
 Ireland, and in 1844 succeeded Lord 
 Ellenborough as governor-general of 
 India. Being forced into war by an 
 invasion of Sikhs he took a command 
 under Lord Gough, and after the great 
 battles of Mudki, Ferozeshah, and 
 Bobraon dictated a peace in the Sikh 
 capital of Lahore. In reward of his ser- 
 vices he was created Viscount Hardinge. 
 In 1852, on the death of the Duke of 
 Wellington, he succeeded to the post of 
 commander-in-chief. In 1855 be was 
 made a field-marshal, and he died in 
 1856. 
 
 HARD LABOR, a form of criminal 
 punishment that is comparatively mod- 
 ern. It was introduced in England as an 
 alternative to transportation and penal 
 servitude. It is the creation of statute 
 law both in Great Britain and in this 
 country. A court has no right to sen- 
 tence a convicted criminal to hard labor, 
 in addition to other punishment, unless 
 a statute gives authority therefor. Hard 
 labor is generally authorized by federal 
 as well as state legislation, however, in 
 most cases where the convicted criminal 
 is subject to imprisonment in a state 
 prison or penitentiary. The kind and 
 amount of labor required of the sen 
 
 tenced criminal are regulated by statute 
 or by prison rules. 
 
 HARDNESS, the quality of bodies 
 which enables them to resist abrasion of 
 their surfaces. In mineralogy a scale is 
 used in which a set of standard bodies 
 are arranged and numbered, and other 
 bodies are referred to this scale with 
 respect to hardness. The following is the 
 scale given by F. Mohs: — talc. 1, rock- 
 salt 2, calc spar 3, fluor spar 4, apatite 5, 
 felspar 6, quartz or rock-crystal 7, topaz 
 8, corundum 9, diamond 10. Materials, 
 according to this arrangement, which 
 are scratched by rock-crystal and are 
 not scratched by felspar are said to have 
 a hardness between 6 and 7. 
 
 HARDPAN, the hard stratum of 
 earth beneath the layer of surface soil, 
 especially noticeable in alkali soils. 
 Sometimes this is produced in arable 
 lands by the pressing of the plow and 
 the trampling of the team ; but it may be 
 prevented or destroyed when formed, 
 by plowing at varying depths. 
 
 HARD’WARE, the name usually given 
 to the commoner articles made of iron, 
 brass, and copper. 
 
 HARDWOODED TREES, are usually 
 trees of slow growth, such as the oak, 
 beach, witch-elm, ash, service-tree, waL 
 nut, chestnut, acacia, etc. They are dis- 
 tinguished from soft-wooded trees such 
 as the willow, poplar, etc., and resinous 
 trees such as the pine, fir, cedar, larch, 
 etc. 
 
 HARDY, Thomas, novelist, born in 
 Dorsetshire, England, 1840. He served 
 an apprenticeship as an ecclesiastical 
 architect; published his first novel. 
 Desperate Remedies, in 1872, and has 
 since continued a series of favorite 
 fictions. Among his best-known works 
 are Far from the Madding Crowd, The 
 Hand of Ethelberta, 'The Trumpet 
 Major, The Woodlanders, The Return of 
 the Native, The Mayor of Casterbridge, 
 Tess of the D’Urbervilles, Jude the 
 Obscure, etc. 
 
 HARE, the common name of the 
 rodent quadrupeds with long ears, long 
 hind limbs, a short tail, soft hair, and a 
 divided upper lip; its dental formula is; 
 incisors 4, canines g, molars 4 — | = 28; 
 the two fore-feet have five and the 
 hinder four toes. They run by a kind of 
 leaping pace. The females produce 
 litters of three to six about four times a 
 
 American varying hare. 
 
 ear. The young leverets have their eyes 
 ipen at birth. The common hare is 
 ound throughout Europe and some 
 )arts of Asia. It is tawny red on the 
 )ack and white on the belly, and is about 
 ! feet long The mountain hare or varj" 
 ng hare confined to Northern Europe 
 ind the mountainous regions of the 
 iouth, is smaller than the common hare, 
 
HAREBELL 
 
 HARMONICS 
 
 and becomes white in winter. The Amer- 
 ican hare is not much larger than a rab- 
 bit, is found in most parts of North 
 America. In North America there are 
 also the polar hare, a variety of the 
 varying hare, but of superior size and 
 purer color; and the prairie hare, one of 
 the species known as jackass hares or 
 Jack-rabbits, from their size and length 
 of limb. The hare, which has no courage 
 and little cunning, is protected from its 
 enemies mainly by the acuteness of its 
 sight and hearing and its extraordinary 
 swiftness of foot. Its voice is never 
 heard except when seized or wounded 
 when it utters a sharp loud cry, not very 
 unlike that of a child. Its flesh is rather 
 dry, but is much prized for its peculiar 
 flavor. 
 
 HAREBELL, the Scotch Bluebell, a 
 plant common on dry and hilly pastures, 
 etc., with a bell-shaped blue (some- 
 times white) flower. The radical leaves 
 are cordate or reniform, the stem-leaves 
 partly ovate or lanceolate, partly linear. 
 Its slender steam is from 4 to 6 inches 
 high, and bears sometimes a single 
 flower, but more commonly more than 
 one, in a panicle. 
 
 HARE-LIP, a malformation consist- 
 ing in a fissure or vertical division of the 
 upper lip, sometimes extending also to 
 the palate. Children are frequently born 
 with this malformation, and the cleft is 
 occasionally double The name is given 
 from the imagined resemblance which 
 the part has to the upper lip of a hare. 
 The cure of hare-lip is performed by 
 cutting off quite smoothly the opposite 
 edges of the fissure, and then bringing 
 them together and maintaining them 
 in accurate apposition till they have 
 firmly united. 
 
 HA'REM, Hareem', is used by Mus- 
 selmans to signify the women’s apart- 
 ments in a household establishment, for- 
 bidden to every man except the hus- 
 band and near relations. The women of 
 the harem may consist simply of a wife 
 and her attendants, or there may be 
 several wives and an indefinite number 
 of concubines or female slaves, with 
 black eunuchs, etc. The greatest harem 
 is that of the Sultan of Turkey. The 
 women of the imperial harem are all 
 slaves, generally Circassians or Geor- 
 gians Their life is spent in bathing, 
 dressing, walking in the gardens, wit- 
 nessing the voluptuous dances per- 
 formed by their slaves, etc. The women 
 of other Turks enjoy the society of their 
 friends at the baths or in each other’s 
 houses, and appear in public accompanied 
 by slaves and eunuchs; but the women 
 of the sultan’s harem have none of these 
 privileges. It is of course only the richer 
 Moslems who can maintain harems; the 
 poorer classes have generally but one 
 wife. 
 
 HARGREAVES (har'grevz), James, 
 English inventor, author of two im- 
 portant improvements in the art of 
 cotton-spinning, was born near Black- 
 burn about 1720, died 1778 In 1760 he 
 invented a machine for carding, and 
 some years after the spinning-jenny, 
 by which he was able to spin with 
 several spindles at once. Suspecting 
 that he employed machinery, his neigh- 
 bors broke into his dwelling and de- 
 stroyed his machine; and on the repeti- 
 
 tion of this kind of persecution Har- 
 greaves removed in 1768 to Notting- 
 ham. In 1770 he obtained a patent for 
 his invention, but it was after all de- 
 clared invalid on the ground that he had 
 sold several of the machines before 
 taking out the patent. For the rest of 
 his life he carried on business as a manu- 
 facturer. 
 
 HAR'ICOT, a general term for various 
 species of kidney-bean. They constitute 
 a palatable and nutritious article of 
 diet. 
 
 HARLAN, John Marshall, American 
 jurist, was born in Kentucky in 1833. 
 He served in the federal army from 1861 
 to 1863 as colonel in the 10th Kentucky 
 infantry. In 1877 he was appointed an 
 associate justice of the United States 
 supreme court, which position he still 
 holds. He was one of the American 
 arbitrators on the Bering Sea tribunal 
 which met in Paris in 1893. 
 
 HARLEQUIN, a character of the Ital- 
 ian comedy introduced on the stage of 
 other countries. On the Italian stage he 
 is a comic character, full of drolleries, 
 tricks and knaveries, and somewhat re- 
 sembles the English clown. The har- 
 lequin of British pantomimes is quite 
 different. He is supposed to be the lover 
 of the columbine, and possesses a won- 
 der-working wand, with which he pro- 
 tects his mistress against the clown and 
 pantaloon, who pursue and endeavor to 
 capture her, until the pursuit is brought 
 to a termination by a good fairy. The 
 harlequin wears a tight dress of bright 
 colors, and glittering with spangles. 
 
 HARLEQUIN DUCK, a species of 
 duck, so called on account of its parti- 
 colored plumage of white, gray, and 
 
 Harlequin duck. 
 
 black. It inhabits the Arctic regions, 
 and on rare occasions it visits the British 
 Islands in winter. In length it is about 
 17 inches. 
 
 HARLEY, Robert, Earl of Oxford, 
 English minister, born 1661, died 1724. 
 After the accession of Anne he and his 
 colleague St. John, afterward Lord 
 Bolingbroke, became leaders of the 
 Tories. Harley was chosen leader of the 
 House of Commons in 1702 under Roch- 
 ester, and in 1704 was appointed chief 
 secretary of state, but resigned in 1708. 
 After the fall of Marlborough Harley 
 became chancellor of the exchequer in 
 1710, and next year was created Earl 
 of Oxford He and Bolingbroke secured 
 the Tre;»ty of Utrecht (171.3). lie made 
 a valuable collection of books and MSS. 
 which latter are preserved in the British 
 Museum, where they form the Biblio- 
 theca Harleiana. Those which have been 
 
 printed constitute the Harleian Mis- 
 cellany. 
 
 Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford. 
 
 HARMON'ICA, Franklin’s name for 
 a musical instrument constructed with 
 glasses of different sizes, revolving by 
 means of mechanism worked by the 
 foot, and played upon by touching the 
 
 rim of the glasses with the moistened 
 finger. It constituted the “musical 
 glasses” of Goldsmith’s era. The name 
 is now usually applied to an instrument 
 consisting of a series of glass keys played 
 by two small hammers. 
 
 HARMON'ICS, the accessory sounds 
 accompanying the predominant and 
 apparently simple tone of any string, 
 pipe, or other sonorous body. No 
 purely simple sound, i.e. no sound 
 whose vibrations are all in the same 
 period, is producible in nature. When 
 a sound is produced by the vibration 
 of an open string, the whole string 
 vibrates as a unity, giving rise to a tone 
 called the fundamental. The string, 
 however, further divides into various 
 sections, which vibrate separately and 
 more rapidly, and produce sounds dif- 
 fering from the fundamental, but bear- 
 ing certain fixed proportions to it. The 
 first harmonic of the fundamental note 
 of any string is that produced by h alf 
 the string, and is the octave of the first ; 
 the second harmonic is given by the 
 third of the string, and is the fifth or 
 dominant of the fundamental note, 
 and so on, the complete series of har- 
 monics containing all the notes of the 
 musical scale. But, while harmonics 
 enter into the composition of any 
 musical sound from any vibrating 
 body whatsoever, the different structure 
 of different instruments suppresses now 
 some, now others, of the succession of 
 harmonics, and a different body of 
 tone is thus produced, distinguishing 
 a note in one instrument from the same 
 note in another. These differences are 
 called in English quality, in French 
 timbre, in German klangfarbe. 
 
HARMONISTS 
 
 HARPOON 
 
 HAR'MONISTS, a religious sect found- 
 ed at Wurtemberg about the year 1788 
 by two brothers called George and 
 Frederick Rapp. George Rapp died 
 in 1847, but the community still exists. 
 
 HARMO'NIUM, a musical instru- 
 ment of modern invention, producing 
 sounds somewhat resembling those of 
 the organ, resulting from the pressure 
 of wind on a series of vibrating metallic 
 reeds. By the action of bellows, to 
 which the feet communicate a more 
 or less rapid movement, the air is made 
 to impinge against tliin tongues of 
 metal (here termed reeds), and to set 
 them vibrating. These metal tongues 
 are fitted into a slit in the top of a small 
 box or sonorous cavity, called a wind- 
 box, and are enabled to vibrate by 
 being fixed only at one end. The dis- 
 covery that the form of the wind-boxes 
 determines the quality of the sound 
 produced by the vibration of these 
 metallic tongues contributed very much 
 to the development of the harmonium, 
 as it enabled the player to imitate the 
 sound of the oboe, flute, etc. The 
 instrument has a keyboard like that 
 of a piano, and when one of the keys is 
 pressed down a valve is opened, which 
 allows the wind from the bellows to 
 rush through one of the wind-boxes and 
 act on the vibrator. There are several 
 stops, by means of which the performer 
 can direct the stream of wind into the 
 wind-boxes which produce a flute, 
 clarionet, or any other sound. There is 
 also a knee action, which either serves 
 as an expression stop, or brings all the 
 stops of the instrument into play at 
 once, and what is called the percussion 
 action, which consists in the appli- 
 cation of a small hammer, which strikes 
 the vibrator as soon as the key is pressed 
 down, and thus aids the action of the 
 wind. The better class of harmoniums 
 have now usually two or more extra 
 rows of vibrators, which, acted upon by 
 separate stops, add so many octaves to 
 the compass. 
 
 HARNESS, the various articles which 
 are requited to yoke a horse or another 
 animal to any vehicle, or to control 
 and suit them for any kind of work. 
 See Bit, Bridle, Collar, Saddle, etc. 
 
 HAROLD (or Harald) I., King of 
 Norway, one of the greatest monarchs 
 of that country, succeeded his father in 
 863. He brought all the Norwegian 
 ]arls under his power, and completely 
 subjected the country, allowing his hair 
 to remain uncut for twenty years until 
 he attained this object (885). He fixed 
 his residence at Trondhjem, and died 
 there in 933. 
 
 HAROLD HI., King of Norway, the 
 son of Sigurd, a descendant of Harold 
 Haarfager. In his youth he went to 
 Constantinople, joined the Varangian 
 Guard, and took part in the expedition 
 to Italy and Sicily against the African 
 pirates. About 1042 he returned to 
 Norway, after having, on his way 
 through Russia, married the daughter 
 of the Grand-duke Jaroslav. In 1047 
 he succeeded his nephew, Magnus the 
 Good, as sole king of Norway. In 1066 
 he joined Tostig, the brother of Harold 
 II. of England, in an invasion of that 
 country, but was defeated and slain 
 at the battle of Stamford Bridge. 
 
 HAROLD I., surnamed Harefoot, 
 Danish king of England, succeeded his 
 father Canute in 1035 as Idng of the 
 provinces north of the Thames, and 
 became king of all England in 1037. 
 After a reign of four years Harold died, 
 in 1040. 
 
 HAROLD II., King of England, born 
 about 1022, was the second son of God- 
 win, earl of Kent. On the death of 
 Edward the Confessor, Jan. 5, 1066, he 
 stepped without opposition into the 
 vacant throne, without attending to the 
 claim of Edgar Atheling, or the asserted 
 bequest of Edward in favor of the Duke 
 of Normandy. He was killed in battle 
 Oct. 14, 1066, and the crown of England 
 passed to William. 
 
 HARP, a stringed instrument of great 
 antiquity, found among the Assyrians, 
 Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, Irish, 
 Welsh, and other nations. Its variety of 
 form and construction was only equalled 
 by its universality. The modern instru- 
 ment is well known: its form is nearly 
 
 Ancient Harps. 
 
 1, 2, Egyptian. 3, Assyrian. 4, Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 triangular, and the strings distended 
 from the upper part to one of the sides. 
 It stands erect, and is played with both 
 hands, the strings being struck or 
 pulled with both fingers and thumbs. 
 The instrument in its ancient forms 
 was very defective. Egyptian harps 
 are represented with four, seven, ten, 
 twenty, or more strings, but we have 
 little idea of the scale to which they 
 were tuned. The frames are depicted 
 as being curved in various forms, 
 and the front pillars are wanting. 
 The harps of the Hebrews were prob- 
 ably similar to the Egyptian instru- 
 ments. It is probable that the various 
 Celtic harps were derived from some 
 oriental pattern. Among the Anglo- 
 S.axons the harp was a favorite instru- 
 ment. The modern harp was by no 
 means an efiicient instrument, until 
 pedals were invented, an invention 
 finally perfected by Sebastian Erard, 
 whose patent was taken out in 1795. In 
 1810 he patented a double-action harp 
 with seven pedals, each effecting two 
 changes in the pitch of the strings. The 
 harp thus constructed contains forty- 
 three strings tuned according to the 
 
 diatonic scale, every eighth string being 
 a replicate in another octave of the one 
 counted from. 
 
 HARPER, William Rainey, American 
 educator, was born in New Concord, 
 Ohio, in 1856. He graduated at Muskin- 
 gum college in 1870, and in 1875 re- 
 ceived the doctor’s degree from Yale. 
 In 1879 he became professor of Hebrew 
 in the Baptist Union theological semi- 
 nary in Chicago. While here he perfected 
 a system of teaching Hebrew by corres- 
 pondence. In 1886 he was elected pro- 
 fessor of Semitic languages in the grad- 
 uate faculty of Yale, and in 1889 also 
 professor of biblical literature. In 1891 
 he was elected to the presidency of the 
 newly founded University of Chicago, 
 which he held until his death in 1906. 
 His published works include : Elements of 
 Hebrew; Hebrew Vocabularies; Hebrew 
 Method and Manual; Elements of He- 
 brew Syntax. Died, 1906. 
 
 HARPER’S FERRY, a village. United 
 States, West Virginia, on the Potomac, 
 at its junction with the Shenandoah, 
 and formerly a United States depot of 
 military stores. It is famous as the 
 scene of the unsuccessful rising headed 
 by John Brown with a view to destroy 
 slavery (Oct. 16, 1859). The rising was 
 suppressed, and Brown was executed. 
 Harper’s Ferry is the seat of Stover 
 college for colored students. Pop. 764. 
 
 HARPIES, the ancient Greek goddesses 
 of storms. Their parentage, ages, ap- 
 pearance, names, and number are very 
 differently given by the poets. In the 
 Homeric poems they are merely storm- 
 winds. Hesiod represents them as two 
 
 Harpy, from an antique gem. 
 
 young virgins of great beauty called 
 Aello and Ocypete. The later poets and 
 artists vied with each other in depicting 
 them under the most hideous forms, 
 covered with filth and polluting every 
 thing in contact with them. They are 
 often represented as having female faces. 
 
 HARPOON, a hunting weapon univer- 
 sally used to catch whales or large fish. 
 The harpoon is generally thrown by 
 hand, but often it is fired from a gun. 
 The modern harpoon is a development 
 from an ancient form such as is now 
 used by savages, and was common not 
 long ago among the North American 
 Indians. Explosive harpoons are some- 
 times used by modern whalers, and 
 with this weapon the animal is 
 killed. The non-explosive weapon is a 
 triangular, arrow-shaped instrument 
 with strong barbs and a shank about 
 three feet long. This is thrown by 
 means of a long rope and the whale 
 thus snared is played until exhausted, 
 when it is easily dranm up to the boat 
 and lanced to death. In recent times 
 a modified form of weapon with only 
 one barb is used. The harpoon outfit of 
 
HARPSICHORD 
 
 HARRISON 
 
 a whaling boat consists of six w.eapons, 
 in the use of which whalers become 
 
 Harpoon of Makah Indians, Washington. 
 
 exceedingly expert. The modern ex- 
 plosive harpoon, which has a bomb 
 
 in its head and kills the animal, is 
 not a harpoon in the real meaning of 
 the word. 
 
 HARP'SICHORD, a keyed, stringed 
 instrument formerly in use, in appear- 
 ance and construction similar to a grand 
 pianoforte. In the front the keys were 
 disposed, the long ones being the 
 naturals, and the short ones the sharps 
 and flats. These keys being pressed by 
 the fingers, their inclosed extremities 
 raised little, upright, oblong slips of 
 wood called jacks, hirnished with crow- 
 quill plectrums which struck the wires, 
 instead of the hammers o^the modern 
 pianoforte. 
 
 HARPY-EAGLE, a rapacious bird 
 which inhabits tropical America from 
 Southern Mexico to Southern Brazil. It 
 is an extremely powerful bird, and in 
 
 'f 
 
 total length slightly in excess of the 
 golden eagle. It has, however, a some- 
 what shorter expanse of wing. Its 
 shoulder muscles possess enormous 
 strength. Its bill is powerful and 
 
 Harpy-eagle. 
 
 crooked, and its claws are extremely 
 strong and sharp. The harpy-eagle feeds 
 on birds, sloths, fawns, raccoons, etc., 
 as well as on fish, water-snakes, and the 
 eggs of the tortoise. 
 
 HARRIS, Joel Chandler, American 
 journalist and author, was born at 
 Eatonton, Ga., in 184^ In 1876 he 
 joined the staff of the Atlanta Constitu- 
 tion and became its editor in 1890. His 
 successful contributions to this paper 
 collected and issued in 1880 under the 
 
 title of Uncle Remus, His Songs and His 
 Sayings have become classic. Among 
 his other well known books are Nights 
 with Uncle Remus, Mingo, and other 
 sketches, etc. He died in 1908. 
 
 HARRISBURG, the capital of Penn- 
 sylvania, 110 miles north of Washing- 
 ton, on the Susquehanna, over which 
 there are three railway bridges besides 
 
 a bridge for ordinary traffic. It occupies 
 an elevated and commanding site, and 
 has important industries connected with 
 iron and steel and goods manufactured 
 from them, various other industries, and 
 an active trade. Pop. 1909. SO.ooo. 
 
 HARRISON, Benjamin, American rev- 
 olutionary patriot, one of the signers of 
 the declaration of independence, was 
 born at Berkeley, Va., in 1740. From 
 1774 to 1777 he was one of Virg-nia’s 
 representatives in the continental con- 
 gress. From 1782 to 1785 he was gov- 
 ernor of the state. In 1788 he was a 
 member of the Virginia convention which 
 ratified the federal constitution. He 
 died in 1791. 
 
 HARRISON, Benjamin, the twenty- 
 third president of the United States, 
 was born in North Bend, Ohio, in 1833. 
 He entered the Union army as lieu- 
 
 tenant, was promoted to colonel and 
 organized the Seventeenth Indiana 
 volunteers. He fought in the Atlanta 
 campaign and at the close of the war 
 held the rank of brigadier-general. In 
 1876 he was nominated by the republi- 
 can party for governor of Indiana, but 
 was defeated at the polls. He was elected 
 United States senator in 1881, serving 
 six years. He was nominated for presi- 
 dent of the United States in 1888 by the 
 republican national convention at Chi- 
 cago, and was elected, receiving 233 
 electoral votes to 168 for Grover Cleve- 
 land. Some of the important meas- 
 ures adopted during his presidency 
 were the McKinley tariff bill, the sus- 
 pension of the Louisiana lottery, the 
 establishment of the reciprocity policy, 
 the extension of the navy, the settle- 
 ment of troubles in Chile, and the 
 Bering Sea fisheries arbitration. Mr. 
 Harrison was nominated for a second 
 term in 1892 by the republicans but 
 was defeated by Cleveland. He re- 
 turned to Indianapolis, Ind., and re- 
 sumed the practice of law. He was one 
 of the counselors for Venezuela in the 
 boundary dispute with Great Britain in 
 1899 He died March 13, 1901. 
 
 HARRISON, Carter Henry, American 
 politician, was born near Lexington, 
 Ky., in 1825, and, was a descendant 
 of the Virginia Harrisons. In 1855 he 
 removed to Chicago. In 1871 he was 
 elected county commissioner of Cook 
 CO., and from 1874 to 1878 was a demo- 
 cratic member of congress. In 1879 he 
 was chosen mayor of Chicago, and was 
 reelected for biennial terms in 1881, 
 1883, and 1885. In 1884 he was the 
 democratic candidate for governor of 
 Illinois, but was defeated by Governor 
 Oglesby. In 1893 the year of the World’s 
 Fair when an able, high-minded admin- 
 
HARRISON 
 
 HARVARD 
 
 
 istration was deemed necessary, he was 
 again elected mayor. He was assas- 
 sinated on October 29th following, one 
 of the closing days of the great exposi- 
 tion. 
 
 His son. Carter Henry, was born in 
 Chicago in 1860. He was elected mayor 
 of Chicago in 1897, 1899, 1901, and 1903. 
 
 HARMSON, William Henry, ninth 
 president of the United States, was born 
 in Charles City co., Va., in 1773. His 
 father, Benjamin Harrison, was one of 
 the signers of the declaration of inde- 
 
 pendence. He showed great gallantry at 
 the battle on the Miami (1794). He 
 represented the northwest territory as 
 a delegate in congress in 1799-1800. 
 When Indiana territory was formed 
 (1800), including the present states of 
 Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wiscon- 
 sin, besides parts of Minnesota and Ohio, 
 he was appointed its governor. He en- 
 deavored to avert war with the Indians, 
 but was compelled to quell Tecumseh’s 
 outbreak, and beat off a fierce and 
 treacherous attack, ending in an im- 
 portant battle at Tippecanoe (Nov. 7, 
 1811). In the war of 1812-14 he was 
 appointed to the chief command in the 
 northwest, repulsed the British force 
 under Proctor, and by the victory of 
 Perry on Lake Erie was enabled to pur- 
 sue the invaders into Canada where, on 
 Oct. 5, 1813, he totally routed them in 
 the battle of the Thames. In 1816 he 
 was elected to congress, and in 1824 be- 
 came a United States senator. In 1828 
 he went as minister to Colombia, but 
 was recalled in 1829, and for twelve 
 years was clerk of a county court in 
 Ohio. He received 73 electoral votes for 
 the presidency of the United States in 
 1836 against Van Buren’s 170; but four 
 years later the Whig party having 
 united, they defeated Van Buren, obtain- 
 ing 234 electoral votes to the latter’s 60. 
 Harrison died a month after his inaugu- 
 ration in 1841. 
 
 HARRISON, a city in Hudson co., 
 N. J., on the Passaic river and on the 
 Pennsylvania, the Lackawana and the 
 Erie railroads. It is a suburb of New 
 York and is the seat of the State soldier’s 
 home. Pop. 12,460. 
 
 HARROW, an agricultural imple- 
 ment, employed for smoothing land 
 which has been plowed. It consists of a 
 frame of woodwork, or of iron, in which 
 are fixed rows of iron teeth. There are 
 several varieties of this implement, 
 
 such as the "brake” for breaking down 
 rough land; the “drill harrow” for pul- 
 
 Set of iron harrows. 
 
 verizing between furrows of green crops, 
 the “grubber” for pulverizing land be- 
 fore the deposition of seed. 
 
 HARTE, Francis Bret, American nov- 
 elist and poet, born at Albany, N. Y., 
 1839. He went to California in 1854, and 
 figured as a coal-dealer, a teacher, and a 
 type-setter on the Golden Era, in which 
 appeared some of his earliest literary 
 efforts. He next became editor of the 
 Californian, and in 1864 secretary to the 
 United States Mint at San Francisco. 
 In 1868 he became editor of the Over- 
 land Monthly, in which appeared, in 
 1869, the humorous poem of The 
 Heathen [Chinee. In 1878 he became 
 
 United States consul at Crefeld, whence 
 he was transferred to Glasgow in 1880, 
 and remained there until 1885. Among 
 his best-known works are The Luck of 
 Roaring Camp; The Outcasts of Poker 
 Flat; The Argonauts of ’49; Two Men of 
 Sandy Bar; Gabriel Conroy ; Mrs. Skagg’s 
 Husbands; In the Carquinez Woods; 
 Maruja; Crusade of the Excelsior; A 
 Waif of the Plains; Clarence; etc. He 
 died in 1902. 
 
 HARTFORD, the capital of Connecti- 
 cut, on the Connecticut river, 50 miles 
 above its mouth. It is pleasantly situ- 
 uated, is built with great regularity, and 
 has among its edifices the state-house 
 (built at a cost of 24 million dollars), 
 city-hall, deaf and dumb and lunatic 
 asylums. Trinity College (Episcopal), 
 R. C. Cathedral, the Wadsworth Athen- 
 £Eum, etc. Both manufactures and trade 
 are of large extent, the former embrac- 
 ing carpets, linen, silk, edge-tools, etc.. 
 
 and it is the seat of the Colt Firearms 
 co. It is a great center of the insurance 
 business. The American asylum for the 
 education and instruction of the deaf 
 
 New state capitol, Hartford, Conn. 
 
 and dumb at Hartford was started in 
 1817. Hartford was settled in 1635 by 
 colonists from Massachusetts. Pop. 
 1909, estimated at 105,000. 
 
 HARTINGTON, Right Hon. Spencer 
 Compton Cavendish, Marquis of, born 
 1833, eldest surviving son of the seventh 
 Duke of Devonshire. He strenuously 
 opposed Mr. Gladstone’s Home Rule 
 scheme of 1886, and became the leader 
 of the liberal-unionist party. In 1891 he 
 succeeded to the dukedom. In 1895 he 
 joined the cabinet of Lord Salisbury as 
 president of the council 
 
 HARTLEY, David, an English phy- 
 sician, principally celebrated as a writer 
 on metaphysics and morals, born 1705, 
 died 1757. He became a fellow of Jesus 
 College, Cambridge, and finally prac- 
 ticed medicine at Newark, Bury St. 
 Edmund’s, and in London, and ended 
 his days at Bath. In his Observations on 
 Man (1749, two vols.) he formulates his 
 hypothesis of nervous vibration and of 
 the association of ideas. 
 
 HARTSHORN, in pharmacy, the horn 
 of the common stag, from which sub- 
 stances deemed of high medicinal value 
 were formerly prepared by distillation, 
 such as spirits of hartshorn, oil of harts- 
 horn, and salt of hartshorn The active 
 ingredient of these was ammonia, which 
 is now obtained from gas-liquor and other 
 sources. 
 
 HARUN AL RASHID (ha, ron' al-ra- 
 shed), a celebrated caliph of the Sara- 
 cens, 786-809. The popular fame of this 
 caliph is evinced by the Arabian Nights’ 
 Entertainments, in which Harun, his 
 wife Zobeide, his vizier Giaffer, and his 
 chief eunuch Mesrur are conspicuous 
 
 n pf PT*Q 
 
 HAR'VARD, John, English clergy- 
 man in New England^ the principal 
 founder of Harvard College, was born 
 in Southwark, London, in 1607. In 1637 
 he removed to New England and settled 
 at Charlestown, on Massachusetts Bay. 
 His health soon gave way, however, and 
 he died of consumption on September 
 18, 1638, after a residence in the Colony 
 of little more than a year. By his will he 
 left his library of 260 volumes and a sum 
 of about $2000 to the college at “New 
 Towne,” later Cambridge. A year after 
 the young clergyman’s death, in com- 
 memorat on of his benefaction, the 
 
 
HARVARD UNIVERSITY 
 
 HAT 
 
 name of Harvard was conferred upon 
 the institution. 
 
 HARVARD UNIVERSITY, the oldest 
 university in the United States, situated 
 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The prin- 
 cipal college buildings number twenty- 
 five, and include several halls, such as 
 University Hall, Harvard Hall, etc. The 
 libraries contain about 450,000 volumes. 
 There are about 80 professors, exclusive 
 of assistants, and the number of stu- 
 dents is over 3000. An entrance exami- 
 nation is required in one of two sets of 
 subjects, of which classics predominate 
 in the one, mathematics and science in 
 the other. After the first year’s course, 
 which embraces a prescribed series of 
 studies, the student has a large number 
 of different courses to select from in 
 order to qualify for the degree of Bache- 
 lor of Arts, the course of study extend- 
 ing to four years. Among the depart- 
 ments connected with the university are ; 
 1. The Law School; 2. The Lawrence 
 Scientific School; 3. The Divinity School; 
 4. The Medical School; 5. The Dental 
 School; 6 The Bussey Institution of 
 Agriculture; 7. The Veterinary School. 
 We was also mention the Museum of 
 Comparative Zoology (the Agassiz Mu- 
 seum), the Botanical Garden, the Pea- 
 body Museum of American Archaeology 
 and Ethnology, and the Radcliffe Col- 
 lege for women. 
 
 HARVEST-MOON, a name which de- 
 notes a peculiarity in the apparent 
 motion of the full moon, by which in 
 high latitudes generally it rises about 
 the same time in the harvest season (or 
 about the autumnal equinox in Sep- 
 tember) for several successive evenings. 
 In southern latitudes this phenomenon 
 occurs in March. It is owing to the fact 
 that the moon is then traveling in that 
 part of her orbit at which it makes the 
 least possible angle with the ecliptic. 
 
 HARVEST-MOUSE, the smallest Brit- 
 ish quadruped, first made known to 
 science by White of Selborne. It builds 
 a globular nest usually suspended among 
 stalks of wheat, etc. 
 
 HARVEST SPIDER, a British spider 
 abounding in autumn, and possessing 
 legs of unusual length. When irritated 
 it has the peculiar property of throwing 
 off one or more of its legs. 
 
 HARVEY, William, an English phy- 
 sician, the discoverer of the true theory 
 
 William Harvey. 
 
 of the circulation of the blood, was born 
 at Folkestone 1573, died 1657. He 
 entered Caius College, Cambridge, in 
 1593, and about 1599 proceeded to 
 
 Padua, then the most celebrated school 
 of medicine in Europe, and attended 
 lectures on anatomy, surgery, and other 
 branches of medical science. He took the 
 degree of M.D., and returned to England 
 in 1602. He settled in London, was ad- 
 mitted Fellow of the College of Phy- 
 sicians, elected physician of St. Bartho- 
 lomew’s Hospital, and in 1615 was 
 chosen Lumleian lecturer. His views on 
 the circulation of the blood were for- 
 mally given to the world in his Exer- 
 citatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et 
 Sanguinis in Animalibus (On the Move- 
 ment of the Heart and Blood in Animals) 
 published at Amsterdam in 1628, in 
 which he claims to have expounded and 
 demonstrated them for upward of nine 
 years. Harvey’s theory was attacked by 
 several foreign physicians; but from the 
 commencement his views were widely 
 received. In 1623 he was appointed phy- 
 sician extraordinary to James I. and in 
 1632 he became physician in ordinary to 
 Charles I. He was present at the battle 
 of Edgehill, and afterward accompanied 
 Charles to Oxford. Here he received the 
 degree of M.D., and was elected Master 
 of Merton College, an office which he 
 lost on the surrender of Oxford to the 
 parliament. He returned to London in 
 1646, and spent the remainder of his life 
 in retirement. Of Harvey’s works, the 
 next in importance to the De Motu is 
 his Exercitationes de Generatione Ani- 
 malium (On the Generation of Animals; 
 1651). 
 
 HARZ, or HARTZ (harts), the Hercy- 
 nia Silva of the Romans, the most north- 
 erthly mountain chain of Germany, 
 from which an extensive plain stretches 
 to the North Sea and the Baltic. It 
 extends from southeast to northwest, 
 and comprises an extent of about 60 
 miles in length and nearly 20 in breadth, 
 embracing the towns of Klausthal, 
 Goslar, Blankenburg, Wernigerode, etc. 
 The Brocken, its highest summit, is 3742 
 feet high. That part of the Harz which 
 includes the Brocken, with the neigh- 
 boring high summits, is called the Upper 
 Harz, and consists entirely of granite. 
 The southeast portion is called the 
 Lower Harz. The Harz abounds in 
 woods and fine pastures; and is rich in 
 minerals, including silver, iron, lead, 
 copper, zinc, arsenic, manganese, granite, 
 porphyry, slate, marble, alabaster, etc. 
 
 HASHISH, an intoxicating prepara- 
 tion made in eastern countries from 
 common hemp or rather from the Indian 
 variety of it ; also a name for this plant 
 itself or for its tender shoots. The juice 
 of the plant has powerful narcotic prop- 
 erties, and is variously made use of. A 
 resin which the plant gives out is often 
 gathered and kneaded and formed into 
 small balls called churrus, and from this 
 a narcotic is prepared. It has the ap- 
 pearance of a tenacious ointment of a 
 greenish-yellow color, with an acrid 
 savor and a nauseous smell. Hashish 
 produces a kind of intoxication, accom- 
 panied with ecstasies and hallucinations. 
 When dried and smoked as tobacco the 
 plant is called bhang; or this name is 
 given to a drink prepared from the 
 leaves and shoots. Ganja or Gunja is the 
 dried shoots of the female plant with the 
 resin on them. Hashish in several forms 
 is employed in medicine. 
 
 HASTINGS (has'tingz), a pari., co., 
 and mun. bor., and market town of Eng- 
 land, county of Sussex, one of the Cin- 
 que Ports, pleasantly situated on the 
 sea-coast, and including the suburb of 
 St. Leonards-on-Sea. Pop. of parlia- 
 mentary and municipal borough re- 
 spectively, in 1901, 62,913 and 65,528. 
 
 HASTINGS, Warren, first governor- 
 general of India, was born at Daylesford 
 in Worcestershire 1732, and died there 
 1818. He was grandson of the rector of 
 Daylesford. He was educated at West- 
 minster school, and in 1750 he set out for 
 
 Warren Hastings. 
 
 Bengal in the capacity of a writer in the 
 service of the East India company. 
 When stationed at Cossimbazar he was 
 taken prisoner by Surajah Dowlah on 
 the capture of the place (1756). Having 
 made his escape, he served as a volunteer 
 under Clive in 1757. He was represen- 
 tative of the company at Moorshedabad 
 from 1758 to 1761. In the latter year he 
 removed to Calcutta, having obtained a 
 seat in the Bengal council, but returned 
 to England in 1764. He left India in 
 
 1785, and was impeached by Burke in 
 
 1786, being charged with acts of injus- 
 tice and oppression, with maladminis- 
 tration, receiving of bribes, etc. This 
 celebrated trial, in which Burke, Fox, 
 and Sheridan thundered against him, 
 began in 1788, and terminated in 1795 
 with his acquittal, but cost him his for- 
 tune. 
 
 HAT, an outdoor covering for the head 
 of various shapes and materials (as felt, 
 silk, wool, straw), but having a brim as 
 its most distinctive and general feature. 
 Hats are of ancient origin. Among the 
 Greeks, for instance, the petasos was 
 worn, which had a brim, and was similar 
 to The round felt now worn. The shape 
 of the hat has varied extremely in 
 Europe at different periods. The dress 
 hat or silk hat with a smooth nap out- 
 side is the most important form of this 
 article at present, though felt hats are 
 perhaps in more general wear. (See 
 Felt). The silk hat was invented at 
 Florence about 1760 The manufacture, 
 however, did not make much progress 
 till 1828. Up to and ever after this time 
 beaver fur was the chief material for 
 hats. A silk hat is composed of a skele- 
 ton, to which the silk plush is glued. 
 The skeleton, consisting of three parts, 
 the cylindrical part or body, the crown, 
 and the brim, is usually made of linen, 
 covered with gum-lac, and to the 
 cylindrical part of the crown is gummed 
 
HATCHWAY 
 
 HAWFINCH 
 
 The cylindrical part is made by gum- 
 ming together the edges of a piece of 
 cloth shaped on a cylinder. The brim is 
 composed of superposed layers of stifler 
 cloth, and made with a flat projecting 
 surface round its inner edge, which is 
 gummed to the skeleton. For covering 
 the hat a sort of hood of silk plush is 
 made, cut across in an oblique line. This 
 
 Forms of hats in 16th, I7th, and 18th centuries. 
 
 1, 2, Time of Henry VIII. 3, Time of Mary, 
 4, Time of Elizabeth. 5, 6, Time of James and 
 Charles 1. 7, 8, Time of commonwealth. 9,10, 
 Time of William III. 11-16, Eighteenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 cover is drawn over the skeleton on the 
 block, and fitted exactly to it by the ap- 
 plication of a hot iron. The heat of the 
 iron melts the gum-lac, which on cooling 
 cements the covering to the skeleton. 
 The edges of the oblique cut are also 
 coated with gum-lac. The hat is finally 
 shaped on the block or form, and the 
 plush damped and polished, while the 
 hat revolves on a turning-lathe. In the 
 manufacture of straw hats the straw 
 commonly used is that of wheat or bar- 
 ley. The best comes from Italy, and par- 
 ticularly from Tuscany, but straw hats 
 are largely made in England. Palm-leaf 
 hats are imported from China and 
 Manila, and are also machine-made in 
 the United States. 
 
 HATCHWAY, a square or oblong 
 opening in the deck of a ship, affording a 
 passage from one deck to another, or 
 into the hold. The after-hatchway is 
 placed near the stern, the fore-hatchway 
 toward the bows, the main-hatchway is 
 placed near the mainmast. 
 
 HAUBERK, a kind of coat of mail, 
 comprising the small and the large 
 hauberk, the former consisting of a 
 jacket in scales descending to the hips, 
 with loose sleeves not reaching to the 
 elbow; the latter with a camail or hood, 
 reached to the knee, the sleeves extend- 
 ing a little below the elbow. 
 
 HAVAN'A, an important maritime 
 city, capital of Cuba, on the northwest 
 side of the island, with an extensive and 
 excellent natural harbor. Havana is the 
 see of a bishop, and the seat of the 
 governor. The cathedral long contained 
 
 the ashes _ of Columbus, which were 
 brought hither from San Domingo in 
 1796. Among the other buildings are the 
 governor’s house, the admiralty, the uni- 
 versity, the exchange, the opera-house, 
 etc. The staple manufacture is that of 
 its celebrated cigars. The other manu- 
 factures, consisting chiefly of chocolate, 
 straw-hats, and woolen fabrics, are not 
 of much consequence. The trade is ex- 
 tensive, the most important articles 
 
 of export being sugar and tobacco, un- 
 manufactured Or in the form of cigars 
 and cigarettes ; other exports aremolasses 
 coffee, wax, honey, rum. The United 
 States have the principal share of the 
 trade, and Spain and England rank next. 
 Several railways start from Havana. 
 The town was founded in 1511, but was 
 only fairly begun in 1519. For a long 
 time Spain derived the chief part of her 
 fleet from the building-yards of Havana. 
 Pop. 235,981. 
 
 HAVELOCK (havTok), Sir Henry, 
 K. C. B., major-general in the British 
 army, was born at Bishop-Wearmouth, 
 near Sunderland, on 5th April, 1795. 
 
 Sir Henry Havelock. 
 
 Having entered the army, he served with 
 distinction in the Burmese war (1824 — 
 26). On the outbreak of the Indian 
 mutiny he was despatched to Allahabad 
 in order to support Sir H. Lawrence at 
 Lucknow and Sir H. Wheeler at Cawn- 
 pore. On his march to Cawnpore he de- 
 feated the rebels at Fattihpur, Aong, 
 Pandunadi, and Maharajpur. He died of 
 dysentery at Dilkusha on Nov. 24, 1857. 
 He was raised to the rank of major-gen- 
 eral, made a K. C. B., and (before his 
 death was known) created a baronet. 
 
 HAV'ERHILL, a town in Massachu- 
 setts, on the Merrimac, with extensive 
 manufactures of boots and shoes. Pop. 
 estimated in 1909 at 42,000. 
 
 HAV'ERSACK, a bag of strong cloth 
 with a strap fitting over the shoulder, 
 
 worn by soldiers in marching order, for 
 carrying their provisions. 
 
 HAVRE (a-vr), Le, a seaport of 
 Northern France, dep. Seine-Inferieure, 
 on the north side of the estuary of the 
 Seine, 108 miles northwest of Paris, 
 built of brick or stone in straight, wide 
 streets. The importance of Havre dates 
 from the early part of the 16th century. 
 Pop. 129,014. 
 
 HAWAII, or the SANDWICH IS- 
 LANDS, a cluster of islands, thirteen in 
 number, situated in the North Pacific,; 
 total area, 6677 square miles, annexed 
 to the United States in 1898. Five of 
 them are mere islets ; all the other eight 
 are inhabited, but only four are of con- 
 siderable size. They are generally of 
 volcanic origin, and mountainous, with 
 many lofty summits of which Mauna-Kea 
 on Hawaii is 13,953 feet high. Mauna- 
 Loa (13,760 feet), another peak on the 
 same island, is a volcano still active; the 
 last eruption took place in 1881. The 
 surface of the islands is generally rugged, 
 but there are many fertile valleys. The 
 coasts are for the most part precipitous 
 and lofty, and have few good harbors. 
 Hawaii, the largest island, has an area of 
 4372 square miles, with 46,843 inhabi- 
 tants. The second largest is Maui, con- 
 sisting of two peninsulas connected by a 
 low isthmus ; area, 488 square miles ; pop . 
 25,416. The chief island is Oahu, area, 
 647 square miles, pop. 58,504. Honolulu, 
 the capital and chief port of the islands, 
 is situated on Oahu. The remaining large 
 islands are Kauai and Niihau, with an 
 area of 657 square miles, and 20,734 in- 
 habitants. The island of Molokai is a 
 leper colony. The inhabitants of the 
 group belong to the light-colored Oceanic 
 stock, and have been civilized and con- 
 verted to Christianity. The islands 
 were officially designated as the “King- 
 dom of the Hawaiian Islands.” A 
 new constitution was proclaimed by 
 King Kalakaua I. July 6th, 1887. There 
 are several high-class and numerous ele- 
 mentary schools. All religions are tol- 
 erated; Protestantism predominating. 
 Railways have been built on Hawaii, 
 Oahu, and Maui. Honolulu, the capital, 
 has become an important entrepot, and 
 in it almost the whole trade of the islands 
 is centered. The chief exports are sugar, 
 rice, coffee, bananas, tallow, and hides- 
 the imports are chiefly manufactured 
 goods, provisions, grain, and timber. The 
 currency is mostly that of the United 
 States. The islands were discovered by 
 Cook in 1778, who afterward lost his life 
 on Hawaii. Population, 154,001. King 
 Kalakaua died in 1891. Jan. 14, 1893, 
 Queen Liliuokalani was deposed and a 
 provisional government formed. Over- 
 tures for annexation were made to the 
 United States. On July 4, 1894, the 
 Hawaiian Republic was proclaimed and 
 the provisional government went out of 
 existence. President Sanford B. Dole be- 
 coming president of the new republic. 
 July, 1898, by a resolution of congress 
 and the concurrence of the president, 
 Hawaii was annexed to the United 
 States and the Philadelphia dispatched 
 to take formal possession. United States 
 domestic postal rates are in force. 
 
 HAWFINCH, a species of grossbeak, 
 so called from the belief that it subsisted 
 principally on the fruit of the hawthorn. 
 
HAWK 
 
 HAY 
 
 It is one of the largest of the finches. It 
 resembles the chaffinch in color, but is 
 distinguished from it by its enormous 
 
 Hawfinch. 
 
 beak, larger size, and bill-hook forma- 
 tion of some of its wing-feathers. It feeds 
 on all kinds of berries. 
 
 HAWK, a name often applied to all 
 birds of prey except the eagles, vultures, 
 and owls. It thus includes the falcons as 
 well as the hawks proper, the latter being 
 distinguished from the former chiefly 
 by their shorter wings, which do not 
 reach the extremity of the tail, and have 
 the fourth quill longest and the first 
 short; their beaks also are less robust, 
 and want the tooth-like notch of the 
 former. 
 
 HAWK-MOTH, one of the sphinx 
 moths, so called from its hovering mo- 
 
 Hawk-moth. 
 
 tion, which resembles that of a hawk 
 looking for its prey. 
 
 HAWLEY, Joseph Roswell, American 
 politician and legislator was born in 
 Stewartsville, N. C., in 1826, and in 1837 
 removed with his father to Connecticut. 
 In 1861 he recruited the first company of 
 volunteers raised in the state. In 1864 he 
 was made brigadier-general of volunteers 
 and was in 1866 mustered out of service, 
 with the rank of major-general. In the 
 same year he was elected governor of 
 Connecticut, He was elected to fill a 
 vacancy in congress in 1872 and re- 
 elected for the full term of the 43rd con- 
 gress in 1873. He was again elected to 
 congress in 1878 and at the expiration of 
 his term was elected to the United States 
 senate to which he was re-elected in 1887, 
 1893, and 1899. In 1884 he was a candi- 
 date for the presidential nomination be- 
 fore the republican national convention. 
 He died in 1905. 
 
 HAWSE, that part of a vessel’s bow 
 where holes called the hawse-holes are 
 cut for the cables going through; also, 
 the hole cut in the vessel’s bow. 
 
 HAWSER, in ships, a small cable or a 
 large rope, in size between a cable and a 
 tow-line, used in warping, etc. 
 
 HAWTHORN, or WHITEHORN, a 
 small spiny tree, rising sometimes to the 
 height of 20 to 25 feet. The leaves are 
 alternate, obovate, 3 to 5 lobed; the 
 flowers are white, sometimes with a red- 
 dish tinge, disposed in corymbs, and pos- 
 sess an agreeable perfume j the fruit is a 
 drupe of a red color, and is edible. The 
 species are about fifty in number, all 
 
 shrubs or small trees. When young the 
 hawthorn springs up rapidly, and if 
 pruned grows into a tnick hedge. When 
 it arrives at the height of a tree, however 
 it makes wood very slowly. The timber 
 is hard and durable, and fit for many 
 purposes of utility. The double-flower 
 kind is one of the most ornamental for 
 shrubberies. 
 
 HAWTHORNE, Nathaniel, American 
 author of remarkable originality, born at 
 Salem, Massachusetts, 1804, died 1864. 
 In 1837 appeared his Twicetold Tales, a 
 collection of stories which he had contrib- 
 
 Nathaniel Hawthorne. 
 
 uted to various American periodicals. 
 In 1838 he was appointed a weigher in 
 the Boston custom-house, a post which 
 he held for a few years. In 1846 he pub- 
 lished his Mosses from an Old Manse; in 
 1850 The Scarlet Letter; in 1851 The 
 House of the Seven Gables; and in 1852 
 The Life of President Pierce, and the 
 Blithedale Romance. In 1853 he became 
 American consul at Liverpool, a post 
 which he held until 1857. He died at Ply- 
 mouth, New Hampshire. Other works 
 are his Transformation (I860), Our Old 
 Home (1863), etc. — Julian, son of the 
 above, born 1846, also a novelist. In 
 addition to a biography of his father, he 
 has written the novels of Bressant, Idola- 
 try, Fortune’s Fool, etc. 
 
 HAY, the stems and leaves of grasses 
 and other plants cut for fodder, dried in 
 the sun, and stored usually in stacks. 
 The time most suitable for mowing grass 
 intended for hay is that in which the sac- 
 charine matter is most abundant in the 
 plants, viz., when the grass is in full flow- 
 
 Hay-tedder. 
 
 er. For the operation of mowing, dry 
 weather, and, if possible, that in which 
 sunshine prevails, is chosen. The making 
 of the grass into hay generally takes 
 three or four days to get it ready for 
 stacking. This period is principally oc- 
 cupied in alternately tedding (i. e. shak- 
 ing out the grass loosely) and gathering 
 it up into cocks or small heaps, previous 
 to stacking. Care must be taken to avoid 
 
 haymaking either under a scorching sun 
 or during the prevalence of rain, and the 
 cocks should never be opened in the 
 morning until the disappearance of the 
 dew. In stacking the great object is to 
 preserve the freshness of the herbage, 
 and to induce a slight degree of fermenta- 
 tion. If the weather has been wet a few 
 layers of straw may be inserted at inter- 
 vals. Salting is also recommended. On 
 large farms the tedding is performed by 
 a tedding or haymaking machine drawn 
 by a horse. 
 
 HAY, John, distinguished American 
 statesman and author was born in 
 Salem, Ind., in 1838. He studied law in 
 Springfield, 111., where he became ac- 
 quainted with Abraham Lincoln and 
 was taken into his office. He accom- 
 panied Lincoln to Washington and 
 served as his private secretary until his 
 assassination. He served as secretary of 
 legation at Paris from 1865 to 1867 and 
 was then charg6 d'affaires at Vienna and 
 at Madrid. From 1879 to 1881 he was 
 first assistant secretary of state under 
 President Hayes and in 1897 was ap- 
 pointed ambassador to Great Britain By 
 President McKinley. In 1898 he was ap- 
 pointed secretary of state, and on the 
 death of McKinley was reappointed by 
 President Roosevelt, and reappointed by 
 
 Roosevelt in 1904. Among his diplo- 
 matic triumphs was the maintenance of 
 the “open door” policy in China, the 
 settlement of the Samoan dispute by 
 which the United States secured Tutuila 
 with an excellent harbor in the Pacific; 
 the settlement of the Alaskan boundary 
 dispute, the negotiation of recipocity 
 treaties with Argentina, France, Ger- 
 many, Cuba, and the British West 
 Indies and the negotiation of a treaty 
 with Great Britain relative to the con- 
 struction of an outer oceanic canal (See 
 Hay Paunceforte Treaty) new treaties 
 with Spain and one with Denmark for 
 the cession of the Danish West Indies. 
 His Pike County Ballads brought him 
 literary disinction. With John G. Hay, 
 
HAYDN 
 
 HAZELINE 
 
 lie wrote an authoritative life of Lincoln. 
 The anonymous novel, The Bread Win- 
 ners, is generally attributed to him. He 
 died in 1905. 
 
 HAYDN (hi'dn) Joseph, a celebrated 
 German musical composer, born at Roh- 
 rau, on the borders of Hungary and Aus- 
 tria, 1732, died 1809. Haydn’s principal 
 merit consists in his opening up a new de- 
 velopment of instrumental composition, 
 of which his 125 orchestral symphonies 
 furnish abundant proof. In 1798 he 
 published his oratorio of the Creation, 
 and in 1800 that of the Seasons. He may 
 be said to be the originator of the sym- 
 phony and of the stringed quartette. 
 
 HAYES, Isaac Israel, American Arctic 
 explorer, born 1832, died 1881. He was a 
 member of the expedition of 1853-55 
 under Dr. Kane, and himself commanded 
 an expedition in 1860-61. He served as 
 an army doctor during the war, and in 
 1869 he visited Greenland. He wrote 
 The Open Polar Sea, and The Land of 
 Desolation. 
 
 HAYES, Rutherford B., nineteenth 
 president of the United States, was born 
 in Delaware, Ohio, in 1822. At the out- 
 break of the civil war, he was made a 
 
 Rutherford B. Hayes. 
 
 major of volunteers. His conduct on the 
 field was marked by conspicuous gal- 
 lantry, and he attained the rank of brevet- 
 major-general. In 1865 he was elected a 
 member of congress, where he won the 
 reputation of a working member. In 
 1867, 1869, and 1875 he was elected 
 governor of Ohio. In 1876 he was nomi- 
 nated for the presidency. An electoral 
 commission, appointed by congress, was 
 required to decide the result of the elec- 
 tion, which declared in favor of Mr. 
 Hayes. His administration was concilia- 
 tory toward the South, and earnest in its 
 efforts for the reform of the civil service. 
 After his retirement from the presidency 
 his life was spent in the cause of temper- 
 ance and prison reform. He was a mem- 
 ber of the Peabody education board for 
 the instruction of freedmen. He died in 
 1893. 
 
 HAY-FEVER, or HAY-ASTHMA, a 
 
 complaint caused by the odors of flower- 
 ing grasses, of a stable, or of certain drugs 
 such as ipecacuanha. The disease varies 
 from the symptons of a severe cold up to 
 those of spasmodic asthma. The patient 
 is tormented with headaches, his eyes 
 are suffused, he sneezes violently, and 
 there is an acrid discharge from the nose, 
 with harassing cough. Removal from the 
 cause of the disease is beneficial, so are 
 
 the smoking of tobacco, the inhalation 
 of vapor of creosote, etc. Helmholtz 
 has discovered vibriones in the mucus of 
 patients afflicted with hay-fever. 
 
 HAYNE, Paul Hamilton, American 
 poet, was born in Charleston, S. C., 
 1831. He published several volumes of 
 poems which won for him a genuine 
 reputation as a poet. Among his later 
 productions are Legends and Lyrics 
 and The Mountain Lovers. He died in 
 1886. 
 
 HAYNE, Robert Young, American 
 political leader, was born in South Caro- 
 lina in 1791. In the war of 1812 he was 
 captain of the Third South Carolina 
 regiment. In 1823 he was elected as a 
 states rights democrat to the United 
 States senate. He is best known for his 
 great debate with Daniel Webster cover- 
 ing the question of the relation of the 
 states to the federal government. He 
 was one of the committee of 21 that re- 
 ported the ordinance of nullification. 
 In 1832 he was elected governor of 
 South Carolina. He died in 1839. 
 
 HAY-PAUNCEFOTE TREATY, the 
 treaty negotiated in 1901 by John Hay 
 on the part of the United States, and 
 Lord Pauncefote on the part of Great 
 Britain, which superseded the Clayton- 
 Bulwer treaty and declared the policy 
 which would control the United States 
 in the construction and maintenance of 
 an isthmian canal between the Atlantic 
 and Pacific oceans. The treaty trans- 
 mitted to the United States senate by 
 President McKinley provided: (1) For 
 the construction of the canal by or under 
 the auspices of the United States gov- 
 ernment ; (2) for its neutralization on the 
 same basis as the Suez canal ; and (3) for 
 an invitation to other powers to join in 
 guaranteeing such neutrality. The 
 treaty was ratified by the senate with 
 three amendments, the first of which 
 provided that the restrictions con- 
 tained in the second article, based on 
 the Suez convention, should not apply 
 to such measures as the United States 
 might find it necessary to take for their 
 own defense and the maintenance of 
 public order; the second explicitly stated 
 that the Clayton-Bulwer treaty was 
 thereby suspended; and the third struck 
 out the provision in regard to the guar- 
 antee to be asked of other non-construct- 
 ing powers. In its amended shape Great 
 Britain refused to ratify the convention, 
 and it expired by limitation on March 5, 
 1901. A new treaty was transmitted to 
 the senate by President Roosevelt and 
 ratified by that body. The principal 
 differences between the first and final 
 treaties were three in number: (1) No 
 guarantees of the canal’s neutrality 
 were to be asked either of Great Britain 
 or any other power; (2) the Clayton- 
 Bulwer treaty was specifically abro- 
 gated, although the general principle of 
 neutrality contained therein was re- 
 tained; (3) certain undefined rights of 
 control were to be allowed to the United 
 States in time of war, the exact nature 
 and extent of which was not spec’fied, 
 but there was no requirement that the 
 canal should be kept 'open and free in 
 time of war as in time of peace, nor 
 was there a prohibition of the erection 
 of fortifications commanding the canal 
 or its adjacent waters, 
 
 
 f 
 
 HAYTI, HAITI, or SAN DOMINGO, ( 
 
 (originally Espanola ; Latin, Hispaniola), ; “ 
 one of the West Indies, after Cuba the 
 largest and one of the most fertile of 
 these islands. It lies southeast from 
 Cuba, and is separated from it by the i 
 Windward passage, 50 miles broad. Its 
 length is 400, and breadth 150 miles; 
 area, about 28,000 sq. miles, or nearly ^ 
 as large as Scotland. • 
 
 Hayti was discovered by Columbus in 7 
 1492. It was then inhabited by perhaps ! ’ 
 2,000,000 natives, but so ruthlessly did v 
 the Spaniards deal with the aborigines 
 that within a century they practically : 
 exterminated them, having introduced ^ 
 negro slaves in their place. In 1630 the -i, 
 French settled in the western part of the 
 island, and in 1697 the western portion 
 was ceded to them, while the eastern 
 remained Spanish. It now comprises the ’• 
 Republic of Hayti on the west side of the ^ 
 island, and the Dominican Republic on - 
 the east. Port-au-Prince is the capital of 'I 
 Hayti, and the population of the repub- V 
 lie is roughly estimated at 960,000, con- • 
 sisting of negroes and mulattoes. San 
 Domingo is the capital of the Dominican j 
 Republic, and the population of the 
 latter state is estimated at 500,000, con- 
 sisting also of negroes and mulattoes, \ 
 with a considerable admixture of whites. , 
 In Hayti French is the prevailing dia- 
 lect; in the Dominican Republic, Span- + 
 ish. The area of the former comprises 
 10,204 sq. miles; that of the latter, ■ 
 18,045 sq. miles. The state of society ,• 
 in Hayti is represented as deplorable, 
 cannibalism being said to be common. ■* 
 
 HAZ'ARD, a game at dice played for ^ 
 money. The player is called the caster, ^ 
 and his opponent, who bets with him, is 
 called the setter. The former calls a ^ 
 main, i. e. any number from 5 to 9 inclu- . 
 sive. He then throws with two dice, v 
 and wins if he “nicks.” Five is a nick to ^ 
 5; 6 and 12 are nicks to 6; 7 and 11 to A 
 7, etc. The caster loses or “throws out” J 
 if he throws aces, or deuce ace (called 4; 
 crabs). Hazard is a game involving ^ 
 nice calculations. A 
 
 HAZEL, a genus of shrubs or small 3 
 trees indigenous to Europe, North Africa, S 
 Asia and North America. The leaves are S 
 roundish-cordate, alternate, and shortly V 
 petiolate. The European hazel produces A 
 the nuts called filberts, and grows best S 
 in a tolerably dry soil. It bears male and 
 female flowers, the former composing 3 
 cylindrical catkins. The hazel-nut oil is '1 
 little inferior in flavor to that of almonds. S 
 Hazel branches form excellent walking- 3 
 sticks, fishing-rods, etc., and the wood ¥ 
 produces good charcoal, often employed S 
 by painters. The American hazel very 3 
 much resembles the European. The roots j 
 are used by cabinet-makers for veneer- .h 
 ing; and in Italy the chips are some- 5 
 times put into turbid wine for the pur- M 
 pose of fining it. 
 
 HA'ZELINE, an alcoholic liquid dis- i' 
 tilled from the fresh leaves of the witch ® 
 hazel, native of the United States. It is tp 
 exceedingly useful as an application to r 
 wounds, staunching the bleeding and 
 promoting healing. It is equally useful ' 
 for bruises, inflammatory swellings, 
 sprains, and the like. It is applied on a ■ 
 pledget of lint to bleeding piles. In inter- 
 nal bleeding, whether from the lungs, 
 stomach, or bowels, it gives very satis- 
 
HAZELTON 
 
 HEART 
 
 factory results. There are several offi- 
 cinal preparations of the witch-hazel, 
 a fluid extract and a tincture, the dose of 
 the former being 15 to 60 drops, and of 
 the latter 2 to 5. Hazeline is the name 
 ivegn to a clear colorless liquid prepared 
 by certain chemists, but not officinal, 
 of which a tea-spoonful may be given. 
 The American patent medicine. Pond’s 
 Extract, is the same as is also Witch 
 Hazel, used for its cooling and sooth- 
 ing effect. 
 
 HAZELTON (ha'z’l-tun), a city in 
 Luzerne co.. Pa., on the Penn, and the 
 Lehigh Val. Railways; 80 miles n.n.w. of 
 Philadelphia. It has valuable anthracite 
 coal-mining interests, is principally en- 
 gaged in mining and hatting. Pop. 
 17,140. 
 
 HEAD, the term applied to the an- 
 terior part of the body of an animal when 
 marked off by a difference in size, or by 
 a constriction (neck). A gradual in- 
 crease of complexity in the structure of 
 the head is observable as we ascend from 
 the lowest to the highest forms of life. 
 In the Protozoa, Infusoria, and Coelen- 
 terates nothing that can be regarded as 
 a head is found, and it is not until we 
 ascend to the worms proper, the articu- 
 lated animals (crustaceans, myriapods, 
 spiders, and insects), the land and fresh- 
 water gasteropods (snails and whelks), 
 and the cuttle-fishes, that a head proper 
 is found. The cuttle-fishes have a re- 
 markable cartilaginous box, which, like 
 a skull, protects their anterior nervous 
 ganglia and gives support to the muscles. 
 The head of the vertebrated animals 
 presents a regular series of increasing 
 complexity from the lancelet upward, 
 and as the anterior nervous mass en- 
 larges, and its ganglia increase in com- 
 plexity, so do the anterior vertebrae 
 change their character; as the brain be- 
 comes specialized, so does the brain-case 
 or skull, attaining its highest develop- 
 ment in man. In man, and in the higher 
 vertebrates, the head consists of an 
 upper chamber, lodging the brain, the 
 eyes, and other sense organs, and a 
 lower, lodging the first portion of the 
 alimentary canal. In proportion as the 
 vertebrates become developed, the 
 brain increases in size, and its position 
 advances anteriorly, until, in man, it 
 comes to overhang the face. The head, 
 is the seat of intelligence and of con- 
 sciousness, as it contains the brain and 
 the organs of sense, touch being the 
 only sense not limited to it. 
 
 HEADACHE, arises from a variety of 
 causes. The principal forms it assumes 
 are: (1) Congestive Headache, arising 
 from over-fulness of blood. It may be 
 cured by purgatives, while reduction of 
 the diet and saline medicines are bene- 
 ficial. (2) Anaemic Headache, which 
 arises from a deficiency of blood, and 
 occurs in persons badly fed or in weak 
 girls. Good food and iron tonic, with 
 application of cold to the head, are often 
 of service in such cases. (3) Nervous 
 Headache, which often attacks the 
 studious, and which is relieved by nerve 
 tonics, and especially by phosphorus 
 pills. (4) Neuralgic Headache, which is 
 often due to exposure to cold. What is 
 called Hemicrania or Megrim, which is 
 the limitation of the headache to one- 
 half or less of the head, is often treated 
 
 with bromide of potassium. In cases in 
 which headache arises from disease of 
 the liver, nausea results, and this char- 
 acterizes bilious headache. Impurity of 
 blood and gouty affections, as well as 
 disease of the kidneys, are frequent 
 sources of headache. 
 
 HEALTH, is that condition of the 
 living body in which all the bodily 
 functions are performed easily and per- 
 fectly, and unattended with pam. The 
 most perfect state of health is generally 
 connected with a certain condition of 
 the bodily organs, and well marked by 
 certain external signs. See Sanitary 
 
 HEARSE. See Herse. 
 
 HEART, a hollow muscular organ, the 
 function of which is to maintain the cir- 
 culation of the blood, the organs of cir- 
 culation being the heart, the arteries, the 
 veins, and the capillary vessels. The 
 heart in men, quadrupeds, birds, and 
 some reptiles is composed of four cavities, 
 two auricles and two ventricles. It is en- 
 veloped in a membrane called the peri- 
 cardium, and is situated toward the left 
 of the cavity of the chest, between the 
 lungs. With each beat the apex of the 
 heart strikes against the wall of the chest 
 
 Human Heart. 
 
 Pig. 1, Exterior. A, Right auricle, b, Left 
 auricle, c. Right ventricle, n, Left ventricle. 
 B, Vena cava superior. F, Aorta, g, Pulmon- 
 ary artery. H, Brachiocephalic trunk, i. Left 
 primitive carotid artery, k, Left subclavian 
 artery, l, Left coronary artery. 
 
 Pig. 2, Section, right side, c, d, b, f, g as in 
 Pig. 1. a, Cavity of right auricle, b. Interior 
 vena cava, c. Coronary valve, d. Entrance of 
 the auriculo-ventricular opening, e. Valve of 
 the pulmonary artery. /, Possa ovalis. 
 
 in the space between the 5th and 6th 
 ribs, a little below and to the right of the 
 left nipple. The right auricle communi- 
 cates with the right ventricle, besides 
 which there are in it three openings, that 
 of the vena cava inferior, that of the vena 
 cava superior, and that of the coronary 
 vein. The communication between this 
 auricle and ventricle is closed by a 
 valve when the ventricle contracts. 
 The right ventricje communicates with 
 the pulmonary artery, the opening 
 into the artery being guarded by a 
 valve formed of three flaps. When 
 these are brought together they in- 
 terrupt the communication between 
 the ventricle, and the artery. The left 
 auricle communicates through a valved 
 opening with the left ventricle, and con- 
 tains the orifices of the four pulmonary 
 veins. The left ventricle, besides the 
 communication with the left auricle, 
 contains the orifice of the aorta, also pro- 
 vided with a valve similar to that of the 
 pulmonary artery. The auricles and ven- 
 tricle of one side are separated from 
 those of the other by a complete muscu- 
 lar partition, the septum cordis. The 
 valves at the openings of the arteries are 
 called semilunar, that at the orifice of 
 
 the right auricle tricuspid, that at the 
 orifice of the left auricle mitral, and that 
 at the orifice of the vena cava inferior 
 the Eustachian valve. The heart is 
 formed of a firm thick muscular tissue, 
 composed of fibers interlacing so as to 
 form a figure of eight. It also contains 
 nerves and vessels. The arteries carry 
 the blood from the heart to all parts of 
 the body. They terminate in the capil- 
 lary vessels, a series of extremely minute 
 tubes which pass over into the veins. 
 The veins are the channels by which the 
 blood passes back from the body to the 
 right auricle of the heart. The blood 
 which is returned from the veins is pur- 
 plish red, from excess of carbonic acid 
 gas and deficiency in oxygen, and is 
 callefd venous; that which leaves the 
 heart is bright red, being oxygenated, 
 and is called arterial. The venous blood 
 parts with its excess of carbonic acid and 
 receives new' supplies of oxygen in the 
 capillary system of the lungs, flows into 
 the pulmonary veins, thence into the left 
 cavities of the heart, thence it passes into 
 the aorta, and is transmitted to all parts 
 of the body, returning to the veins by 
 the capillary system. It is now become 
 venous, passes through the veins from 
 the extrimities toward the heart, re- 
 ceiving the chyle and the Ijmiph, and is 
 emptied into the right cavities of that 
 organ, which returns it through the pul- 
 monary artery to the capillary vessels of 
 the lungs, wffiere it is subjected to the in- 
 fluence of the air, resumes the qualities 
 of red or arterial blood, and is ready for 
 a new course. 
 
 The mechanism of the circulation is as 
 follows: — The blood contained in the 
 two venae cavae is poured into the 
 right auricle, which contracts, and thus 
 forces the fluid to escape; but the 
 venae cavae oppose to its backward 
 passage the column of blood which 
 they contain, and it must therefore 
 pass into the right ventricle. The ven- 
 tricle then contracts, and the tricus- 
 pid valve closing the passage through 
 which the liquid entered, it is forced 
 into the pulmonary artery, along which 
 it must flow (return to the ventr'cle 
 being prevented by the semilunar 
 valve) into the capillary system of the 
 lungs, whence it passes mtfi the pul- 
 monary veins, which pour it imo the left 
 auricle by four ‘orifices. The contraction 
 of the auricle impels it into the left ven- 
 tricle, by which it is driven forward into 
 the aorta (the mitral valve preventing 
 its return into the auricle), and thence 
 into the general circulation. The two 
 auricles contract and relax simultane- 
 ously with each other, as do also the two 
 ventricles. The relaxation is called dia- 
 stole; the contractian systole. The 
 quantity of blood projected at each 
 systole is generally estimated at six 
 ounces. The causes of the alternate con- 
 traction and relaxation are entirely in- 
 voluntary and dependent on the nervous 
 system to a large extent. The systole of 
 the ventricles is the cause of the motion 
 of the blood in the arteries, which dilate 
 with each wave driven into them. 
 
 The heart is the seat of various and 
 generally dangerous diseases. One of 
 these is pericarditis or inflammation of 
 the pericardium, the double lining mem- 
 brane or bag enveloping the heart. The 
 
 
HEAT 
 
 HEAT 
 
 cause of this disease may be exposure to 
 cold, or an injury, or it may be compli- 
 cated with other diseases. Inflammation 
 of the inner lining is termed endocarditis. 
 Valvular disease is a common affection, 
 of the heart, the valves becoming thick- 
 ened, contracted, rigid, or otherwise af- 
 fected, so that they cannot properly per- 
 form their duty. The mitral valve, for 
 instance, may become too narrow and 
 contracted, and the result is that all the 
 blood does not pass into the aorta. In 
 other cases of valvular disease, the same 
 result follows, viz., imperfect depletion of 
 the ventricles and auricles, the return of 
 blood being termed regurgitation. The 
 heart consequentlv becomes weak- 
 ened, while the entire system suffers. 
 Overgrowth or hypertrophy and dila- 
 tion are frequent results of valvular dis- 
 ease. In such cases the avoidance of vio- 
 lent exercises and emotions is necessary. 
 The use of digitalis is often successful in 
 strengthening and Soothing the heart. 
 Certain diseases produce atrophy, in 
 which the heart becomes feeble in action, 
 while fatty degeneration occurs, when 
 the muscular fibers are replaced by 
 oleaginous particles. This renders the 
 heart peculiarly liable to rupture under 
 any strain or violent emotion, hence such 
 should be carefully avoided by patients. 
 Among other organic diseases of the 
 heart are angina pectoris (the cause of 
 which is uncertain), distinguished by a 
 sense of strangling or suffocation in the 
 breast. Neuralgia of the heart is similar 
 in symptons to angina. A very common 
 heart ailment is palpitation, often 
 caused by indigestion, and the excessive 
 use of tea and tobacco. Syncope or faint- 
 ing results from the sudden cessation of 
 the heart’s action, and may be caused by 
 excitement, emotion or shock of some 
 kind. Some of the above forms of heart 
 disease can be discovered only by auscul- 
 tation or percussion ; others are very evi- 
 dent to non-professional observers. 
 
 HEAT, the name given to a peculiar 
 sensation, and also to die agent which 
 produces it, this being now believed to be 
 a certain motion in the minute molecules 
 of which all bodies are composed. 
 
 One of the most obvious effects of heat 
 is to alter the temperature of bodies. In 
 almost |il cases when heat is supplied to 
 a bodyy the temperature of the body 
 rises, and when heat is removed the 
 temperature of the body falls. If the 
 increase of temperature is evident, and 
 such as may be noted by the thermom- 
 eter, the heat is then termed sensible; 
 if not, as in the case of ice immediately 
 melted, it is termed latent. Temperature 
 is, in fact, the tendency that a body has 
 to impart heat to other bodies. If two 
 bodies impart no heat to each other 
 when in contact, they are said to have 
 the same temperature. When the one 
 possesses more heat than the other there 
 is an impartation of heat from the former 
 until the temperature is equalized. Dif- 
 ferent bodies require very different 
 amounts of heat in order to raise their 
 temperature through the same number 
 of degrees. Thus it requires about thirty 
 times as much heat to raise the tempera- 
 ture of 1 lb. of water 1° as to raise the 
 temperature of 1 lb. of mercury by the 
 same amount. The terms capacity for 
 heat and specific heat are used in relation 
 
 to this property of bodies. The capacity 
 for heat of a body is the quantity of heat 
 required to raise its temperature 1° from 
 some fixed point, as from 0° C., or from 
 32° Fah. The specific heat of a substance 
 is the ratio between the quantity of heat 
 required to raise the temperature of the 
 substance 1° from some fixed point and 
 the quantity of heat required to raise 
 the temperature of an equal mass of 
 distilled water 1° from 0° C. 
 
 Heat changesthe dimensions of bodies. 
 Increase of volume is the normal effect, 
 although the reverse is observed in water 
 between 0° C. and 4° C., and in iron and 
 bismuth. Between moderate limits 
 bodies expand nearly regularly with the 
 temperature, but this does not hold good 
 of the more extreme limits. (See Expan- 
 sion.) Addition of heat liquefies solid 
 bodies, and converts liquids into gases. 
 During the conversion of a solid into a 
 liquid, or a liquid into a gas, a consider- 
 able quantity of heat is absorbed, and in 
 the reverse process heat is given out ; but 
 this is one of the cases in which, though 
 heat is taken in or given out, the tem- 
 perature is not altered. Hence the heat 
 is said to be made latent. Heat also alters 
 the power of bodies for conducting elec- 
 tricity. In solids the conductivity is 
 diminished to a great extent by an in- 
 crease of a few degrees in the tempera- 
 ture. In liquids, on the other hand, in- 
 crease of temperature increases the con- 
 ductivity. The magnetic properties of 
 bodies are also changed by heat. For 
 example, an iron bar that has been mag- 
 netized suddenly loses the whole of its 
 magnetism at a particular temperature. 
 Heat possesses the power of altering the 
 chemical properties of bodies. In some 
 cases it breaks up chemical compounds, 
 but in general it favors chemical com- 
 bination. 
 
 In measuring quantities of heat vari- 
 ous units may be adopted, as, for in- 
 stance, the quantity necessary to melt a 
 pound of ice. But the unit quantity of 
 heat now generally fixed on (the Centi- 
 grade thermometer and metrical system 
 being employed) is the quantity of heat 
 which will raise the temperature of 1 
 gramme of distilled water frqm 0° C. to 
 1° C.; or 1 lb. of water may be used in- 
 stead of 1 gramme, and one degree 
 Fahrenheit instead of one degree Centi- 
 grade. Calorimetry is the technical 
 name given to the part of the subject 
 that deals with the practical measure- 
 ment of quantities of heat. 
 
 When heat is applied to one end of a 
 bar of iron it is propagated through the 
 substance of the bar, producing a rise of 
 temperature which is first perceptible at 
 near, and afterward at remote portions. 
 This transmission of heat is called con- 
 ductivity. The best conductors are 
 metals, but all bodies conduct more or 
 less. The best conductor is silver, next 
 follow in order of their conductivity 
 copper, gold, brass, zinc, tin, steel, iron, 
 lead. With the exception of mercury and 
 other melted metals, liquids are exceed- 
 ingly bad conductors of heat. This can 
 be shown by heating the upper part of a 
 column of liquid and observing the varia- 
 fions of temperature below. These will 
 be found to be scarcely perceptible and 
 to be very slowly produced. If the heat 
 were applied below we should have the 
 
 process called the convection of heat; 
 the lower layers of liquid would rise to 
 the surface, and be replaced by others 
 which would rise in their turn, thus pro- 
 ducing a circulation and a general heat- 
 ing of the liquid. When the heat is ap- 
 plied above the expanded layers remain 
 in their place, and the rest of the liquid 
 can be heated by conduction and radia- 
 tion only. 
 
 Radiation of heat consists in the pro- - 
 pagation of heat from a hotter body to a 
 colder one through an intervening 
 medium which is not heated during the 
 process. The heat is transmitted by the 
 same medium that transmits light from 
 a luminous body. Radiant heat and 
 light are, in fact, the same thing, namely 
 vibrations of an elastic medium, the 
 luminiferous ether, supposed to fill all 
 space, and they obey the same laws of 
 reflection, refraction, interference, and 
 polarization. They also obey the general 
 laws of wave-motion. A luminous body 
 excites in the ether waves or undulations 
 of a great many different wave-lengths, 
 some of them -capable of affecting the 
 eye as light, and others not. Heat rays 
 need not be at all luminous; they may 
 have no light-giving power, but may be 
 what are known as rays of dark heat, 
 capable of being detected by the ther- 
 mometer, but not perceptible to the eye. 
 Other rays are purely chemical in their 
 effect (as in photography), and are called 
 actinic rays. The general effect of radia- 
 tion is to equalize the temperature of 
 any system of bodies so placed as to be 
 capable of radiating one to the other. 
 Every body of the system is constantly 
 sending forth heat-rays in all directions, 
 and receiving the heat radiated from the 
 other bodies. But the hotter bodies emit 
 more than they receive, while the colder 
 bodies receive more than they emit, and 
 the temperature of the system is thus ■ 
 gradually equalized. The rapidity or 
 otherwise of radiation differs much in 
 different bodies. The radiation depends 
 on the nature of the surface of the body, 
 and the power of a body to radiate heat 
 is intimately connected with its power 
 of absorbing heat radiated to it, and with 
 its power of reflecting heat. Surfaces that 
 are good radiators are good absorbers, 
 and surfaces that absorb heat readily re- 
 flect it badly. Thus, a kettle covered 
 with soot loses, when filled with hot 
 water, heat more rapidly than one with a 
 brightly polished surface. The best ab- 
 sorber of all is a surface covered with a 
 thin coating of lamp-black. Brightly 
 polished metals are the worst absorbers 
 among bodies that are not transparent 
 to radiant heat. 
 
 The transmission of radiant heat ' 
 through various substances is a subject 
 of great importance. In this connection 
 the terms diathermanous and ather- 
 manous correspond to tran.sparent and 
 opaque in the case of light. One of the 
 chief diathermanous bodies is rock-salt. 
 Common white glass transmits rays of 
 high refrangibility, stopping those of low 
 refrangibility. Hence its use as a fire- 
 screen. ■ For the greater part of the heat y 
 of a common fire is of the dark kind, 
 and is nearly all stopped by the glass; 
 but glass does not screen from the heat 
 of the sun, a great part of which con- ■- 
 sists of heat of high refrangibility. On 
 
HEAT SPECTRUM 
 
 HEBRIDES 
 
 the other hand, smoked rock-salt trans- 
 mits very little of the heat of high re- 
 frangibility, though it is almost perfectly 
 diathermanous to dark heat. 
 
 The nature of heat was long a subject 
 of active controversy. The common 
 theory.during the 18th century, andin the 
 early part of the 19th was the material- 
 istic, or that by which heat was regarded 
 as an imponderable fluid (caloric), which 
 could permeate all matter, and which, 
 uniting with the particles of bodies, pro- 
 duced the phenomena associated with 
 heat. The materialistic theory was held 
 by Black and Lavoisier, but it was ex- 
 ploded by the experiments of Rumford 
 and Davy. Among the contributions 
 of Davy to the science was his cele- 
 brated experiment of rubbing together 
 two pieces of ice, while surrounded by 
 an ice-cold atmosphere, until they 
 melted away completely. He concluded 
 that “the immediate cause of the phe- 
 nomenon of heat is motion, and the 
 laws of its communication are pre- 
 cisely the same as the laws of the com- 
 munication of motion.” Between 1840 
 and 1843 Joule conclusively established 
 the truth of this theory — the dynamical 
 theory of heat — by measuring the 
 amount of energy required to produce a 
 definite heating effect, and by showing 
 that the quantity of heat obtained by 
 expending a definite amount of energy 
 in friction is the same whatever is the 
 nature of the body in which the friction 
 takes place. The conclusions arrived at 
 by him are thus given: — ■ 
 
 1st. The quantity of heat produced 
 by the friction of bodies, whether solid 
 or liquid, is always proportional to the 
 quantity of work expended. i 
 
 2d. The quantity of heat capable of 
 increasing the temperature of 1 lb. of 
 water by 1° Fah. requires for its evolution 
 the expenditure of mechanical energy 
 represented by the fall of 772 lbs. 
 through 1 foot. This amount of energy 
 or work, equal to 772 foot-pounds, is 
 called the dynamical equivalent of heat. 
 
 HEAT SPECTRUM, the part of the 
 spectrum from an incandescent body 
 that contains invisible heat rays. To 
 produce to the heat spectrum properly 
 lenses and prisms of rock-salt must be 
 employed. When the spectrum from the 
 sun is examined it is found that the 
 maximum heat intensity is in the dark- 
 heat spectrum at a considerable distance 
 from the place where light ceases to be 
 perceptible. 
 
 HEAVEN (probably signifying that 
 which is heaved up or elevated), in a 
 physical sense, the azure vault which 
 spreads above us like a hollow hemi- 
 sphere, and appears to rest on the 
 earth at the horizon. It is in reality 
 merely the appearance presented to us 
 by the immeasurable space in which the 
 heavenly bodies move. According to 
 some its azure color is due to the light of 
 the celestial bodies reflected from the 
 earth to the air, and thence back again. 
 According to others the reflection is not 
 from the air, but from its contained 
 vapors. A theory recently broached as- 
 signs the azure color to the presence of 
 particles of dust in the air. In theology, 
 this word denotes a region of the universe 
 where God’s presence is especially mani- 
 fested, in contrast with the earth. Ac- 
 
 cording to the Hebrew scriptures heaven 
 consisted of three regions; — (1) That of 
 the clouds, or air; (2) that of the stars; 
 and (3) the abode of God. They also 
 divide it into two parts, “The Heaven”, 
 and the “ Heaven of Heavens.” Among 
 the Greeks the gods were supposed 
 to reside on Olympus, and the classic 
 poets placed the abode of the just 
 in the Elysian fields. The heaven of 
 Islam is a scene of sensuous enjoyment, 
 while that of the Buddhist consists in 
 Nirvana, regarded by some as meaning 
 the absorption of individual existence in 
 the great ocean of being. The ancient 
 German had his Walhalla, and the 
 American Indian has- his happy hunting 
 grounds. Among Christians the general 
 opinion is that heaven is the residence of 
 the Most High, the holy angels, and the 
 spirits of just men made perfect, that 
 this abode is eternal, and its joys intense- 
 ly spiritual. 
 
 HEAVES, or BROKEN WIND, a dis- 
 ease or unsoundness of the respiratory 
 organs of the horse. 
 
 A broken-winded horse is lean, and 
 has a dependent belly, the muscles of 
 which are usually active as expiratory 
 muscles. The symptoms are best ob- 
 served when the horse is exercised. The 
 breathing becomes labored, the nostrils 
 dilated, the eyes bloodshot. On watch- 
 ing the chest and flank, the ribs are 
 observed very actively moved, and after 
 collapsing, when the air is expelled from 
 the lungs, are further depressed by a 
 spasmodic jerk brought about by the 
 abdominal muscles. It has a hollow 
 cough and when the animal is oppressed 
 by fast work, or by dragging a load up a 
 hill, the pulse is excessively rapid, a 
 symptom regarded by some as indicat- 
 ing disease of the heart, and by others 
 an affected diaphragm. It is a dietetic 
 disease, due to the irritation in the 
 stomach caused by indigestible food. 
 On post-mortem examination the stom- 
 ach is found to be much distended with 
 food of a dry nature, and to have thinner 
 walls than is normal. The lungs are 
 lighter in color, and float much more 
 buoyantly than in health; little or no 
 blood is seen in them, but they contain a 
 large quantity of air, which makes them 
 crackle when pressed. 
 
 The treatment of heaves is very un- 
 satisfactory, and a palliation of the 
 symptoms by keeping the alimentary 
 canal in proper order, administering 
 occasional purgatives, and feeding on a 
 proper quantity of the best oats, which 
 should always be bruised, are all that 
 can be recommended as remedies; but 
 turning out to pasture, or feeding on 
 cornstalks or other laxative food, some- 
 times produced a cure in mild cases. 
 Only the best quality of hay should be 
 fed, and that in small quantities. 
 
 HEBE, in Greek mythology, the god- 
 dess of youth, and the cupbearer to the 
 gods, until replaced by Ganymede; a 
 daughter of Zeus and Hera, who gave 
 her as a wife to Heracles. In the arts 
 she is represented with the cup in which 
 she presents the nectar, under the figure 
 of a charming young girl, her dress 
 adorned with roses, and wearing a 
 wreath of flowers. 
 
 HEBER, Reginald, D.D., an English 
 ' poet and bishop, was born 1783, died 
 
 1826. In addition to his hymns, his best 
 known productions are Palestine; an 
 edition of the works of Jeremy Taylor 
 (with Life); Poems and Translations. 
 
 Hebe, statue by Canova. 
 
 HEBERT (a-bar), Jacques Ren6, 
 notorious during the French revolution, 
 was born at Alencon in 1757, executed 
 1794. Having denounced Danton, the 
 latter, in conjunction with Robespierre, 
 secured his destruction by the guillotine 
 in 1794. 
 
 HEBREW LANGUAGE AND LITER- 
 ATURE, the language and literature of 
 the Jews, Israelites, or Hebrews, espe- 
 cially at that period when they formed 
 a compact nation inhabiting Canaan or 
 Palestine. (For a sketch of the history 
 of the people see Jews.) The Hebrew 
 language forms a branch of the Semitic 
 family of languages, being akin to the 
 Aramaic (Chaldee and Syriac), Arabic, 
 Ethiopic, and Assyrian. In the antiquity 
 of its extant literary remains Hebrew 
 far surpasses the other Semitic idioms, 
 and in richness and development is only 
 inferior to the Arabic. The language is 
 deficient in grammatical technicalities, 
 specially in moods and tenses of the 
 verb, in the absence of the neuter gen- 
 der, etc. Its roots are triliteral (con- 
 sisting of three consonants), and words 
 are derived from them by the reduplica- 
 tion of the letters of the root, and by the 
 addition of formative elements before 
 and after the roots. The alphabet is 
 composed of twenty-two consonants, the 
 vowels being expressed by marks above 
 or below these letters. The accents and 
 marks of punctuation amount to about 
 forty. The writing is from right to left. 
 There are three kinds of Hebrew alpha- 
 bet now in use — the square or Assyrian 
 (properly called the Babylonian), the 
 most common ; the rabbinical, or mediae- 
 val ; and the cursive, or alphabet used in 
 ordinary writing. 
 
 HEBREWS, Epistle to the, one of the 
 books of the New Testament, the 
 canonicity and authorship of which 
 have been much discussed. The im- 
 mediate successors of the apostles 
 (Clement of Rome, Justin Martyr, etc.) 
 seem to have considered it as of canoni- 
 cal authority. Its canonicity was also 
 maintained by St. Jerome, by the 
 almost universal consent of the Latin 
 and Greek churches, and by Ambrose of 
 Milan; while in 416 a decretal of Inno- 
 cent III. was issued in favor of this view. 
 As to the authorship, the early Roman 
 church denied its Pauline origin. 
 
 HEB'RIDES, or WESTERN ISLANDS 
 (the Heboudai of Ptolemy, and Hebudes 
 of Pliny, the r being an erroneous inser- 
 
HECATOMB 
 
 HEIGHTS 
 
 tlon), a series of islands and islets off the 
 west coast of Scotland, usually divided 
 into the Outer Hebrides (popularly 
 called the Long Island), of which the 
 principal are Lewis and Harris, North 
 Uist, Bengecula, South List, and Barra; 
 and the Inner Hebrides — Skye, Mull, 
 Islay, Jura, Coll, Rum, Tiree, Colonsay, 
 etc. The islands within the Firth of 
 Clyde (Arran, Bute, the Cumbraes, etc.) 
 are not now considered as part of the 
 Hebrides. They number upward of 
 400 in all, but only about 90 are in- 
 habited; area, about 2800 sq. miles; pop. 
 79,159. 
 
 HEC'ATOMB, an ancient Greek wor- 
 ship literally a sacrifice of a hundred 
 oxen, but applied generally to the sacri- 
 fice of any large number. It was neces- 
 sary that the victims should be without 
 blemish. Only parts such as the thighs, 
 legs^ or hide were burned, the rest fur- 
 nishing the festive meal at the close of 
 the sacrifice. 
 
 HECLA, or HEKLA, a volcano of Ice- 
 land, about 20 miles from its southwest 
 coast, about 5000 feet in height, and 
 having several craters. It is composed 
 chiefly of basalt and lava, and is always 
 covered with snow. Many eruptions are 
 on record. One of the most tremendous 
 occurred in 1783, after which the volcano 
 remained quiescent till September, 1845, 
 when it again became active, and con- 
 tinued with little intermission till No- 
 vember, 1846, to discharge ashes, some 
 masses of pumice-stone, and a torrent 
 of lava. The last outbreak was in 1878. 
 
 HECTOR, the son of Priam and Hec- 
 uba, the bravest of the Trojans, whose 
 forces he commanded. His wife was 
 Andromache. His exploits are cele- 
 brated in the Iliad. Having slain Patro- 
 clus, the friend of Achilles, the latter 
 sought revenge, and Hector was slain by 
 him. The body of Hector was dragged 
 at the chariot wheels of the conqueror; 
 but afterward it was delivered to Priam 
 for a ransom, who gave it a solemn 
 burial. Hector is the most attractive 
 warrior in Homer’s Iliad, in which one 
 of the finest episodes is his parting from 
 Andromache before his last combat. 
 
 HEC'UBA, of Phrygia, in Greek legend 
 the second wife of Priam, king of Troy, 
 to whom she bore Hector, Paris, Cas- 
 sandra, Troilus, and other children. 
 After the fall of Troy she was given as a 
 slave to Odysseus, and, according to one 
 form of the legend, in despair leaped into 
 the Hellespont. 
 
 HEDGEHOG, an insectivorous ani- 
 mal, covered with spines in lieu of hair. 
 
 Hedgehog. 
 
 By means of a special muscle it is able 
 to roll itself into a ball, and in this form 
 can defy most of its enemies. It has a 
 
 rudimentary tall, elongated nose, short 
 ears, with a cranium comparatively 
 broad. The hind feet have five toes, and 
 strong coarse hair covers some parts of 
 the body. The teeth are numerous. In- 
 cluding the tail, it attains a length of 1 1 
 inches. It usually resides in small 
 thickets, and feeds on fruits, roots, and 
 insects. It is fond of raw or roasted 
 flesh, and devours cockroaches in large 
 numbers when kept in houses. It hiber- 
 nates in winter. The female bears four 
 to eight young at a birth, the young soon 
 becoming covered with prickles. 
 
 HEDGE- WARBLER, or HEDGE- 
 SPARROW, a bird common in the Brit- 
 ish' Islands and all the temperate parts 
 of Europe. The song of the male is short 
 and plaintive. The length of the bird is 
 about 5}4 inches. 
 
 HEGEL (ha'gl), Georg Wilhelm Fried- 
 rich, a celebrated German metaphysi- 
 cian, born at Stuttgart 1770, died 1831. 
 Among his works the most important 
 are his Phanomenologie des Geistes 
 (1807), Wissenschaft der Logik (1812- 
 16), Encyclopadie der Philosophischen 
 Wissenschaften (1817), and Grundlinien 
 der Philosophie des Rechts oder Na- 
 turrecht und Staatswissenschaft (1821). 
 
 HEIDELBERG (hl'dl-berg), a town of 
 Baden, beautifully situated on the left 
 bank of the Neckar, here crossed by two 
 bridges, in one of the loveliest districts 
 
 of Germany. The principal buildings 
 are: the church of St. Peter; the church 
 of the Holy Ghost ; the castle, anciently 
 the residence of the Electors Palatine; 
 the university founded in 1386, and now 
 possessed of a library of 500,000 vol- 
 umes and attended by about 1000 stu- 
 dents; the towm-house, etc. The castle, 
 begun in the end of the 13th century, 
 and exhibiting elaborate examples of 
 early and late renaissance architecture, 
 is the most remarkable edifice in Heidel- 
 berg. It is now an ivy-clad ruin, but is 
 carefully preserved from further decay. 
 The principal industry is brewing. One 
 of the greatest curiosities of the place is 
 the Heidelberg tun, kept in a cellar 
 under the castle. It is 36 feet in length, 
 26 in diameter, and capable of holding 
 800 hogsheads. Pop. 40,121. 
 
 HEIGHTS, Measurement of, or Hyp- 
 sometry, is that department of geodesy 
 which treats of the measurements of the 
 absolute or relative heights of various 
 points on the earth’s surface. In all 
 cases in which great accuracy is essen- 
 tial, trigonometrical methods must be 
 employed, but in other cases sufficiently 
 accurate results may be obtained by 
 levelling, by the use of the barometer, or 
 by the boiling-point of water as given 
 by the thermometer. The trigonometri- 
 cal method is often the only one avail- 
 able, as the height to be measured may 
 be quite inaccessible. The barometric 
 method is based on the fact that as the 
 mercurial column is supported by the 
 atmospheric pressure, it must fall when 
 conveyed from a lower to a higher level, 
 as in the latter case the pressure is di- 
 minished. Were the atmosphere uniform 
 in density throughout, nothing could be 
 simpler than the measurement of heights 
 by the barometer, but gases being very 
 compressible, the lower strata of the 
 atmosphere are denser than the upper 
 strata, being exposed to greater pres- 
 sure. Thus a column of air 100 feet high, 
 has far greater weight at the sea-level 
 than a similar column at the top of a 
 mountain 4000 feet high; and the effect 
 on the barometric column of rising 100 
 feet from sea-level is corresponding 
 greater than the effect of rising 100 feet 
 
 from a height of 4000 feet above the level 
 of the sea. Moreover, increase of tem- 
 perature affects the density of the mer- 
 cury in the barometer, and also that of 
 the air, and further complicates the 
 problem. Hence for the greatest ac- 
 curacy in determining the difference of 
 levels two mercurial barometers and 
 four thermometers are required. Two 
 of the thermometers are used for deter- 
 mining the temperature of the air at 
 the stations, and two are attached to 
 the barometers for determining the 
 temperature of the mercury. The ob- 
 servations are made simultaneously. 
 The aneroid barometer is in some re- 
 spects more suitable than the mercurial, 
 being much more portable, and requir- 
 ing two thermometers only. After the 
 necessary observations are made the 
 
 Castle and town of Heidelberg. 
 
HEINE 
 
 HELIOS 
 
 required height may be calculated by 
 the use of certain logarithmic formula?, 
 or by the rough method stated under 
 Barometer. Tables obviating the use of 
 logarithms are often supplied by in- 
 strument makers along with aneroid 
 barometers. The method in which use is 
 made of the principle that water boils 
 at the temperature of 212° under the 
 full pressure of the atmosphere but at a 
 lower temperature with a smaller at- 
 mospheric pressure, such as is given 
 by an elevated position, is simple and 
 sufficiently accurate for many purposes. 
 It has been found that if water at the 
 sea-level boils at 212° on rising 510 feet 
 it will boil at 211°, and so on. 
 
 HEINE (hi'ne), Heinrich, a German 
 poet and author, was born of Jewish 
 parents at Diisseldorf, 1.3th December, 
 1799, and died at Paris 17th Feb., 1856. 
 Of the numerous literary works of Heine 
 may be mentioned in particillar Gedichte 
 (Poems); Reisebilder (Pictures of 
 Travel); Buch der Lieder (Book of 
 Songs) ; Deutschland Ein Wintermarchen 
 (Germany, a Winter Tale) ; Shakespeare’s 
 Madchen und Frauen (Maidens and 
 Wives) ; Die Romantische Schule; Letzte 
 Gedichte und Gedanken (Last Poems 
 and Thoughts); Atta Troll; Romanzero, 
 etc. 
 
 HEIR-APPARENT, the person who 
 necessarily succeeds to the ancestor if 
 he survives him, because no other person 
 can ever gain precedence over him, as an 
 eldest son. Compare Heir-presumptive. 
 
 HEIR-PRESUMPTIVE, is one who, if 
 the ancestor should die immediately, 
 would, under existing circumstances, be 
 his heir, but whose right of inheritance 
 may be defeated by some nearer heir 
 being born, as an only daughter, who is 
 displaced by the birth of a son. Com- 
 pare Heir-apparent. 
 
 HEJRA, HEJIRA, or HEGIRA, an 
 Arabic word signifying emigration. The 
 Mohammedans designate by it the flight 
 of Mohammed their prophet from Mecca 
 to Medina. From this flight, which hap- 
 pened on the 13th of September, 622 
 A.D., but which they fix on the 16th of 
 July, of the same year, they begin their 
 computation of time. 
 
 HELEN, or HEL'ENA, in ancient 
 Greek legend, the most beautiful woman 
 of her age, daughter of Zeus by Leda. 
 By advice of Ulysses her numerous 
 suitors were bound by oath to respect 
 her choice of a husband, and to main- 
 tain it even by arms. She chose Mene- 
 laus, but was afterward carried off to 
 Troy by Paris, the Trojan war arising 
 from the claim made by Menelaus for the 
 fulfilment of the oath. After the death 
 of Paris she married his brother Deip- 
 hobus. On the fall of Troy she returned 
 to Sparta with Menelaus, but at his 
 death was driven from the country, and 
 was murdered at Rhodes by the queen 
 of the island. 
 
 HEL'ENA, the name of several saints, 
 of whom the chief was the mother of the 
 Emperor Constantine the Great, a 
 woman of humble origin, and a native 
 either of Bithynia or of Britain. 
 
 HELENA, the capital of Montana, on 
 the w. side of the valley of Prickly Pear, 
 and Ten Mile creeks, at the foot of the 
 Rocky Mountains, 15 miles w. of Mis- 
 souri river, and 110 miles n. of Virginia 
 
 City. It is chiefly supported by the rich 
 quartz and placer gold mines in the 
 
 state capitol, Helena, Mont. 
 
 vicinity. In the vicinity are hot medi- 
 cinal springs. Pop. 16,464. 
 
 HELE'NA, St., an island in the South 
 Atlantic, belonging to Britain, about 
 850 miles southeast of the island of 
 Ascension, 1150 miles west from the 
 west coast of South Africa, and 2000 
 miles from the east coast of Brazil; 
 greatest length, 10^ miles; greatest 
 breadth, 7 miles; area, about 47 sq. 
 miles. Its position, in the ocean thorough- 
 fare from Europe to the East, has made 
 it a place of call for vessels, while it has 
 acquired special celebrity as the place of 
 
 The island of St. Helena. 
 
 Napoleon’s banishment, and where he 
 resided from 1816 till his death in 1821. 
 It has precipitous and almost inaccessi- 
 ble coasts, particularly on the north, 
 where almost perpendicular cliffs rise to 
 from 600 to 1200 feet. The only town on 
 the island is James’ Town, which has a 
 fine natural harbor, and affords ex- 
 cellent anchorage in 12 fathoms. Pop. 
 5195. 
 
 HEL'ICON, a mountain range of 
 Greece, in the west of Boeotia, in some 
 sense a continuation of the range of 
 Parnassus. It was the favorite seaT of 
 the Muses, who, with Apollo, had tem- 
 ples here. In it also were the fountains 
 of Aganippe and Hippocrene. The 
 highest summit, now called Paleovuni, 
 is barely 5000 feet high. 
 
 HELIGOLAND, an island belonging to 
 Germany, in the North Sea, about 40 
 miles from the mouth of the Elbe; IJ 
 mile long and J mile broad; highest 
 point, 200 feet. Pop. 2307. 
 
 HELIODO'RUS, a Greek romance 
 writer, born at Emesa, in Syria, in the 
 4th century. 
 
 HE'LIOGRAPH, or HELIOSTAT, a 
 
 name given to various contrivances for 
 reflecting the sun’s light either tempo- 
 rarily or continuously to an observer at 
 a distance. The simplest heliostat is a 
 
 mirror hung up at a distant station so as 
 to reflect a flash to the observer whose 
 station may be many miles from it. 
 This mirror is generally so adjusted that 
 the flash occurs exactly at some pre- 
 arranged hour, and by being in readi- 
 ness the observer can get an observation 
 with precision as regards time. Some 
 
 Heliostat. M, mirror. 
 
 heliostats are visible for 80 miles. By 
 being fitted with an adjustment of clock- 
 work, the mirror can be made to revolve 
 with the sun, and so to reflect a beam of 
 sunlight steadily in one direction, being 
 then called also heliotrope. The heliostat 
 has been used for signalling in war. 
 
 HELIOGRAVURE, or PHOTOGRA- 
 VURE, is a photo-mechanical printing 
 process. A photograph of any object, as 
 a painting, etc., is taken, and from the 
 negative so obtained a positive print is 
 made on gelatinized paper. This print 
 is transferred upon a highly polished 
 copper plate, and a solution of ter- 
 chloride of iron is poured upon it, which 
 penetrates through the gelatine and 
 etches the picture upon the copper. The 
 final result is the production, of a photo- 
 etched copper-plate, from which a large 
 number of impressions can be taken. 
 
 HELIOM'ETER, an instrument for 
 measuring small distances on the sky, 
 particularly the apparent diameters of 
 the sun and of the moon. It was in- 
 vented by Bouguer in 1747, and im- 
 proved by Dollond and Fraunhofer. 
 
 HELIOP'OLIS, the On, Rameses, or 
 Beth-shemesh of the Hebrew Scrip- 
 tures; now called Matarieh; situated 
 a little north of Memphis, and one of the 
 most ancient and extensive cities of 
 Egypt under the Pharaohs. It had a 
 magnificent temple dedicated to Re; 
 and communicated with the Nile by 
 lakes and canals. During the flourishing 
 ages of the Egyptian monarchy the 
 priests taught within the precincts of its 
 temples, and both Eudoxus and Plato 
 visited its famous schools. Here Joseph 
 and Mary are said to have rested with 
 the infant Christ. Near the village 
 stands the Pillar of On, supposed to be 
 the oldest Egyptian obelisk, 67)^ feet 
 high, and 6 feet broad at base. The 
 Turks were defeated here by the French 
 in 1800. 
 
 HE'LIOS, the god of the sun (Latin, 
 Sol) in the Greek mythology; son of 
 Hyperion and Theia, and brother of Eos 
 (.Aurora, the dawn) and Selene (Luna, 
 the moon). He dwells wdth Eos in the 
 ocean behind Colchis, from which he 
 
Helioscope 
 
 HELMONT 
 
 issues in the morning, and to wliicL te 
 returns at night. His worship was ex- 
 tensively diffused, and he had temples in 
 Corinth, Argos, Troezene, Elis, but par- 
 ticularly in Rhodes, the Colossus of 
 which was representation of Helios. 
 
 HE'LIOSCOPE, a telescope fitted for 
 viewing the sun without distressing the 
 eyes, as when the image of the sun is re- 
 ceived upon mirrors formed simply of 
 surfaces of transparent glass which re- 
 flect only a small portion of the light. 
 
 HE'LIOSTAT. See Heliograph. 
 
 HE'LIOTROPE, a genus of plants, 
 natural order Boraiginaceae. The species 
 are herbs or undershrubs, mostly natives 
 of the warmer parts of the world, and 
 
 Heliotrope. 
 
 have alternate leaves and small flower 
 usually disposed in scorpioid cymes. 
 The common heliotrope, is indigenous in 
 the south and west of Europe, and has 
 small white or pale red flowers with a 
 fruit of four drupes under a thin fleshy 
 covering. 
 
 HELIOTROPE, the bloodstone, a 
 variety of quartz, partaking of the char- 
 acter of jasper or of chalcedony. It is of 
 a deep green color, and covered with red 
 spots. It is hard, and is used for bur- 
 nishers; the more finely-marked stones 
 are prized for seals, signet -rings, etc. 
 It is found in Tartary, Persia, Siberia; in 
 the island of Rum, Scotland, and else- 
 where. It received the name heliotrope, 
 or elitropia, because it was said that if 
 the mineral were put into water in a 
 basin rubbed with the juice of the plant 
 heliotrope, and were exposed to the sun, 
 the water would appear red and the sun 
 blood-like, as if it were eclipsed. The 
 stone rubbed with the juice of the plant 
 was said to render its wearer invisible. 
 
 HE'LIOTYPE, a photographic proc-' 
 ess by which pictures can be printed in 
 the same manner as lithographs, de- 
 pending on the fact that a dried film of 
 gelatine and bichromate of potash, 
 when exposed to light, is afterward in- 
 soluble in water, while the portion not so 
 exposed swells when steeped. A mixture 
 of gelatine, bichromate of potash, 
 chrome alum, and water is poured on a 
 plate of glass, where it shortly settles 
 into a film. When dried the film con- 
 tracts and separates from the glass. A 
 picture is then printed on it from a 
 negative, after which it is attached to a 
 plate of zinc, and copies are taken from 
 it by inking it with lithographic ink 
 exactly as in the ordinary lithographic 
 process. The films are technically called 
 “skins.” Sometimes a gutta-percha 
 mould is prepared from the film, and 
 copper deposited on it by the electro- 
 type process, the plate thus produced 
 being printed from in the ordinary way. 
 
 Helix, (l) a spiral line as of wire in a 
 coil, or such a curve as is described by 
 every point of a screw that is turned 
 round in a fixed nut . (2) In arch, a small 
 
 Helices ol corinthian capital. 
 
 volute or twist under the abacus of the 
 Corinthian capital, of which in every 
 perfect capital there are sixteen, two at 
 each angle, and two meeting under the 
 middle of each face of the abacus. 
 
 HELL, signifies originally the covered 
 or invisible place. In the English Bible 
 the word is used to translate the Hebrew 
 Sheol (g ’,ve or pit) and Gehenna (proper- 
 ly the valley of Hinnom), as well as the 
 Greek Hades (the unseen). In the Re- 
 vised Version of the New Testament, 
 however, hell is used only to translate 
 Gehenna, Hades being left where it 
 stands in the Greek. In common usage 
 hell signfies the place of punishment of 
 the wicked after death, its earlier mean- 
 ing being lost. The distinctive Scripture 
 term for the place of future punishment 
 of the wicked is Gehenna, which, unlike 
 Sheol and Hades, never has an intermedi- 
 ate signification ; and Christ adopting on 
 this point the current language of the 
 time gave the sanction of his authority 
 to the leading ideas involved in it. 
 Gehenna, or hell, is with him the place 
 of final torment. The Eastern and West- 
 ern churches are as one as to the punish- 
 ment of hell beingpartly ‘ ‘a pain of loss,” 
 that is, the consciousness of being de- 
 barred the presence of God, and partly a 
 “pain of sense,” that is, real physical suf- 
 fering. The prevailing idea among 
 modern theologians is that the “fire” and 
 the “worm” are significant emblems to 
 give us the most correct and living con- 
 ceptions of the reality that we can pos- 
 sibly attain in our present circumstances. 
 
 HEL'LEBORE, a genus of plants, con- 
 sisting of perennial low-growing plants 
 with palmate or pedate leathery leaves, 
 
 Black hellebore or Christmas-rose. 
 
 yellowish, greenish, or white flowers, 
 h; iving five conspicuous persistent sepals, 
 eight to ten small tubular petals, and 
 sdveral many-seeded carpels. 
 
 HELL GATE, a formerly dangerous 
 f )ass in East river, the strait which con- 
 nects New York bay with Long Island 
 s ound. Rocks here used to form an ob- 
 s^^ction much dreaded by mariners, 
 
 but by extensive submarine mining 
 operations and the use of the most 
 powerful explosives, the passage has 
 been practically cleared. 
 
 HELM, the contrivance by which a 
 vessel is steered, usually composed of 
 three parts, viz., the rudder, the tiller, 
 and the wheel, except in small vessels, 
 where the wheel is unnecessary. See 
 Steering. 
 
 HELMET, an article of armor for the 
 protection of the head, composed of 
 leather or of metals. Some of Homer’s 
 heroes are represented as wearing brazen 
 helmets, with towering crests. Among 
 the Romans the cassis was a metallic hel- 
 met; the galea, a leathern one. The 
 earlier Greek and Roman helmets did 
 not protect the face. During the middle 
 ages helmets were made of steel, fre- 
 quently inlaid with gold, and provided 
 with bars and flaps to cover the face in 
 battle and to allow of being opened at 
 other times. The full-barred helmet en- 
 tirely covered the head, face, and neck, 
 having in front perforations for the ad- 
 mission of air, and slits through which 
 the wearer might see the objects around 
 him. The open helmet covered only the 
 head, ears, and neck, leaving the face 
 unguarded. Some open helmetshadabar 
 or bars from the forehead to the chin, to 
 
 Full-barred helmet, Open helmet. 
 
 guard against the transverse cut of a 
 broadsword. The modern military hel- 
 mets afford no protection for the face. 
 Firemen wear a heavy headpiece of 
 leather and brass, or other materials, to 
 protect them as far as possible from fall- 
 ing ruins at conflagrations. Helmets of 
 white felt, with folds of linen wrapped 
 round them, are worn in India and other 
 hot climates as a protection against the 
 sun. The name helmet is also given to a 
 kind of hat worn by policemen. In 
 heraldry the helmet is borne over a coat 
 of arms, and the form and position of it 
 vary according to the quality or dignity 
 of the bearer. See Heraldry. 
 
 HELMHOLTZ, Hermann-Ludwig Fer- 
 dinand, German physiologist and physi- 
 cist, born 1821 at Potsdam, and edu- 
 cated at Berlin. His work has been 
 chiefly in those departments of physics 
 which are in closest relation with phy- 
 siology, notably in acoustics and optics. 
 Of his many publications the best 
 known are: The Conservation of Force 
 (1847), Manual of Optics (1856-^06), 
 Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects 
 (London, 1873 and 1881). and Sensations 
 of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the 
 Theory of Music (1862, London 1875). 
 He was ennobled by the German em- 
 peror in 1883, He died in 1894. 
 
 HELMONT, John Baptist Van, born 
 in 1577 at Brussels; in his seventeenth 
 year gave public lectures on surgery at 
 Louvain. He was probably the first to 
 introduce the term gas into science, and 
 was also first to observe the acid re- 
 
HELOISE 
 
 HEME 
 
 action of the gastric juice. He died in 
 1864. 
 
 HELOISE, Eloisc (el-o-ez), celebrated 
 for her beauty and wit, but still more on 
 account of her lo ve f or Abelard ; was born 
 in Paris in 1101. After the mutilation of 
 her lover she was persuaded by him to 
 take the veil at Argenteuil, and ulimate- 
 ly became prioress of the convent there 
 until 1129, when she entered, with some 
 of her nuns, the oratory of the Paraclete, 
 built by Abelard at Nogent-on-the- 
 Seine, where she lived in exemplary 
 piety. She died in 1164. Contemporary 
 writers speak in high terms of her genius. 
 She understood Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
 was familiar with the ancients, and well 
 read in philosophy and theology. 
 
 HE'LOTS, slaves in ancient Sparta. 
 They were the property of the state, 
 which alone had the disposal of their life 
 and freedom, and which assigned them 
 to certain citizens, by whom they were 
 employed in private labors. They 
 several times rose against their masters, 
 but were always and finally reduced. 
 
 HELSINGFORS, a seaport of Russia, 
 capital of Finland, on a peninsula^ in the 
 gulf of that name, 180 miles w. n. w. St. 
 Petersburg. Pop. 88,711. 
 
 HELVETIUS, Claude Adrien, French 
 philosophical writer, born in 1715. In 
 1758 he published his one important 
 book, De I’Esprit (On the Mind), the 
 materialism of which drew upon him 
 many attacks. It was condemned by the 
 Sorbonne, and publicly burned by de- 
 cree of the parliament of Paris. He died 
 in 1771 in Paris. He also wrote a work, 
 De I’Homme, and an allegorical poem, 
 Le Bonheur. 
 
 HE'MANS, Felicia Dorothea, English 
 poetess, born at Liverpool in 1793; 
 maiden name Brown. Her death took 
 place in 1835. Her poetry is essentially 
 lyrical and descriptive, and is always 
 sweet, natural, and pleasing. In her 
 earlier pieces she was imitative, but she 
 ultimately asserted her independence, 
 and produced many short poems of 
 great beauty and pathos, and evidently 
 destined to live. 
 
 HEM'ATINE, or H^MATINE, the red 
 coloring matter of the blood occurring in 
 solution in the interior of the blood cor- 
 puscles or cells. It is the only structure 
 of the body, except hair, which contains 
 iron. 
 
 HEM'ATITE, a name applied to two 
 ores of iron, red hematite and brown 
 hematite. They are both of a fibrous 
 structure, and the fibers, though some- 
 times nearly parallel, usually diverge or 
 even radiate from a center. They rarely 
 occur amorphous, but almost always in 
 concretions, reniform, globular, bot- 
 ryoidal, stalactitic, etc. The red hema- 
 tite is a variety of the red oxide, and is 
 one of the most important iron-ores. 
 The brown hematite is a variety of the 
 brown oxide or hydrate; its streak and 
 
 E owder are always of a brownish yellow, 
 ee Iron. 
 
 HEM'ISPHERE, half a sphere, es- 
 pecially one of the halves into which the 
 earth may be supposed to be divided. 
 It is_ common to speak of the eastern 
 hemisphere and the western hemisphere, 
 the former, also called the Old World, 
 comprising Europe, Asia, Africa, Aus- 
 tralia, etc.; the latter. North and South 
 
 P. E— 39 
 
 America, etc. The boundary between 
 the two is quite arbitrary, and a more 
 natural division of the earth is into the 
 northern and the southern hemisphere, 
 the equator forming the dividing line. 
 
 HEMLOCK, a poisonous plant, sup- 
 posed to be identical with the plant 
 koneion of the Greeks. It is a tall, erect, 
 branching biennial, with a smooth, shin- 
 ing, hollow stem, usually marked with 
 purplish spots, elegant, much-divided 
 leaves, which when bruised emit a nause- 
 ous odor, and white flowers in com- 
 
 pound umbels of ten or more rays, sur- 
 rounded by a general involucre of three 
 to seven leaflets. It is found in Britain 
 and throughout Europe and temperate 
 Asia in waste places, banks, and under 
 walls. It is said to be fatal to cows when 
 they eat it, but that horses, goats, and 
 sheep may feed upon it without danger. 
 In the human subject it causes paralysis, 
 convulsions, and death. The poison ad- 
 ministered to Socrates is supposed to 
 have been a decoction of it, though 
 others are of opinion that the potion was 
 obtained from water-hemlock (Cicuta 
 virosa). Hemlock is a powerful sedative, 
 and is used medicinally. The extract is 
 considered the best preparation. It is 
 often serviceable as a substitute for, or 
 an accompaniment to opium. It has 
 been found very useful in chronic rheu- 
 matism and in whooping-cough, allaying 
 the pain of irritable sores and eancerous 
 ulcers. The virtues of hemlock reside in 
 an alkaline principle termed conia or 
 coniine. 
 
 HEMLOCK, or HEMLOCK SPRUCE, 
 a name given to an American fir from its 
 branches resembling in tenuity and 
 position the common hemlock. 
 
 HEM'ORRHAGE, a flux of blood 
 from the vessels containing it whether 
 from a rupture or any other cause. A 
 hemorrhage from the lungs is called 
 hemoptysis; from the urinary organs, 
 hematuria; from the stomach, hema- 
 temesis; from the nose, epistaxis; the 
 treatment of course varying with the 
 cause and seat of the mischief. 
 
 HEM'ORRHOIDS, signifying an af- 
 fection of the rectum, otherwise called 
 piles. In general, hemorrhoids manifest 
 themselves between the period of puberty 
 and old age, although infants and aged 
 people are not entirely exempt from at- 
 tacks. In some cases they appear to be 
 the effect of a certain hereditary dis- 
 position, but any circumstance which 
 produces a tendency or stagnation of the 
 blood at the extremity of the rectum is 
 to be reckoned among the local causes. 
 The accumulation of fecal matter in the 
 intestines, efforts to expel urine, the ob- 
 
 struetion of any of the viscera, especially 
 of the liver, the frequent use of hot bath- 
 ing, of drastic purges, long continuance 
 in a sitting posture, riding on horseback, 
 pregnancy — such are some of the ordi- 
 nary causes of hemorrhoids. They are 
 distinguished into several sorts, as ex- 
 ternal, when apparent at the anus; in- 
 ternal, when concealed within the orifice; 
 blind or open, regular or irregular, active 
 or passive, periodical or anomalous, etc. 
 The best mode of treatment is to recur 
 to hygienic rather than medicinal in- 
 fluences. The subject should avoid vio- 
 lent exercise; the food should not be too 
 stimulating or nutritious. Traveling, or 
 an aetive life, should succeed to seden- 
 tary habits. Constipation should be 
 remedied by laxatives or gentle purga- 
 tives. Any thing which may be produc- 
 tive of a local heat should be avoided; as 
 warm seats, soft beds, too mueh sleep. 
 If the pain is considerable recourse 
 should be had to sedatives, gentle bleed- 
 ing, leeches. The use of suppositories 
 containnig drugs, such as tannic acid or 
 extract of witch-hazel (hazeline), will be 
 found very useful; in mild cases iodo- 
 form suppositories may be curative. If 
 the disease appears under a more severe 
 form a surgical operation may become 
 necessary. 
 
 HEMP, an annual herbaceous plant. 
 The hemp fiber is tough and strong, and 
 peculiarly adapted for w’eaving into 
 coarse fabrics such as sail-cloth, and for 
 twisting into ropes and cables. Immense 
 quantities are exported from Russia. 
 The finer sorts are used for shirtings, 
 sheetings, etc., which, though coarser 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 than that made from flax, are very much 
 stronger and equally susceptible of being 
 bleached. The hemp of England is very 
 superior, but the plant does not pay the 
 farmer, and very little of it is grown. In 
 some of the United States it is a crop of 
 considerable importance. The seed must 
 be sown thin, not more than 1 to 2 
 bushels to an acre. Small paths are often 
 left open along the field lengthwise, at 
 about 7 feet distant from eacn other, to 
 allow the plucking of the male plants 
 first, as the female require to remain 
 standing a month longer to admit of the 
 seed becoming ripe. But in some parts 
 the whole crop is cut at once, plants for 
 seed being separately cultivated. The 
 plant being stripped of its leaves, and 
 dried in the open air, may be stored, but 
 when steeped green it turns out of a 
 better color. The steeping takes from 
 four to eleven days, and the operation is 
 known to be completed by the inner reed 
 or woody fiber separating easily from the 
 fibers of the outer bark. When thoroughl 
 
HENBANE 
 
 HENRY IV 
 
 steeped it is taken out of the water and 
 spread out in rows on the grass to bleach. 
 This takes three weeks or more, during 
 which period it requires constant turning 
 with a light, long pole. After drying it is 
 scutched or broken by breaks and 
 scutching-stocks, resembling those em- 
 ployed for flax. Beating is the next 
 operation, which separates the “boon” 
 from the flber. The hemp is now ready 
 for being heckled, after which it may be 
 spun. Hemp-seed is much used as food 
 for cage-birds, and also yields an oil. 
 Sisal hemp or “henequen” and Manila 
 hemp are not true hemps. 
 
 HENBANE, a plant of Europe and 
 Northern Asia. It is a coarse erect bien- 
 nial herb, found in waste ground and 
 loose dry soil, having soft, clammy, hairy 
 foliage of disagreeable odor, pale yellow- 
 ish-brown flowers streaked with purple 
 
 veins, and a five-toothed cal 3 :x. The ex- 
 pressed juice of the leaves and seeds is 
 often used as a sedative, antispasmodic, 
 and narcotic, having in many cases the 
 great advantage over laudanum of not 
 producing constipation. When taken in 
 considerable quantity it proves quickly 
 fatal to man and most animals, particu- 
 larly to domestic fowls, whence the 
 name. Called also Stinking Nightshade. 
 
 HENDERSON, the county seat of 
 Henderson co., Ky., on the Ohio river, 
 and the Lv. and N., the Lv., St. L. and 
 Tex., and the Ohio Val. railways; 143 
 miles w. s. w. of Louisville. It has large 
 tobacco-stemming interests, a cotton- 
 mill, woolen-mill, whisky distilleries, 
 foundry, carriage and wagon factories. 
 Pop. 12,120. 
 
 HENDERSON, David Bremner, Amer- 
 ican statesman, born at Old Deer, Aber- 
 deenshire, Scotland, in 1840. He went to 
 Illinois in 1846, to Iowa in 1849, gradu- 
 ated at Upper Iowa university, studied 
 law in an office at Dubuque, and was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1865. In 1861 
 he enlisted as a private in the Twelfth 
 Regiment Iowa volunteer infantry, w’as 
 elected and commissioned first lieu- 
 tenant of Company C, and served until 
 discharged, February 26, 1863, owing to 
 the loss of a leg at the battle of Corinth. 
 He was elected to the Federal house of 
 representatives in 1882, as a republican 
 from the Third Iowa district, was chair- 
 man of the committee on judiciary, and 
 a member of committee on rules in the 
 fifty-fourth and fifty-fifth congresses, 
 and in 1899, at the organization of the 
 fifty-sixth congress, was elected speaker 
 of the house. He was also chairman of 
 the Iowa delegation at three national re- 
 publican conventions. Died 1906. ' 
 
 HEN'DRICKS, Thomas Andrews, 
 American politician, was born near 
 Zanesville, Ohio, in 1819, was a member 
 of the Indiana legislature and the state 
 constitutional convention of 1851; was a 
 member of congress from 1851 to 1855. 
 United States senator from 1863 to 1869, 
 and in 1868 was a candidate for the 
 democratic nomination for president. 
 He was governor of Indiana from 1873 
 to 1877. He ran for vice-president of the 
 United States on the ticket with Samuel 
 J. Tilden in 1876, and was elected vice- 
 president in 1884 on the ticket with 
 Grover Cleveland. He died in 1885. 
 
 HEN-HAWK, the species commonly 
 called hen-hawks include two birds, the 
 red-tailed and the red-shouldered hawk. 
 The redtail is one of the largest, most nu- 
 merous, and most widely distributed of 
 North American buzzard-hawks. It is 
 from 19 to 25 inches long, and its spread 
 of wings is from 49 to 58 inches. In 
 maturity the upper surface is blackish- 
 brown, variegated with whitish and dull 
 rust-color, the last tint growing brighter 
 on the upper surface of the tail, which 
 has a blackish cross-band near the end. 
 The under surface of the body is buffy 
 white, the belly marked with dark 
 streaks. The majority of them leave the 
 northern states in winter, and migrate 
 in large flocks. They build their nests in 
 tall trees. Their food includes all the 
 mammals from size of a squirrel down- 
 ward, and all sorts of birds from grouse 
 and rails to sparrows; but this larger 
 game is far outnumbered by the smaller 
 gophers, mice, frogs, insects, and carrion 
 upon which they principally subsist. 
 
 The red-shouldered hawk, is a species 
 rather less in size than the redtail, and 
 generally more reddish in plumage, es- 
 pecially bright on the shoulders, while 
 the lower parts (whitish in the young) 
 are everywhere rust yin color, transverse- 
 ly barred with a darker tint. The tail is 
 black, covered by about six bands of 
 white. It is a rather heavy, sluggish bird, 
 and lives throughout the year south of 
 the Great Lakes, frequenting lowlands 
 and marshes, except in the spring, when 
 it retires to the woods for breeding pur- 
 poses. It preys principally on mice, and 
 never attacks poultry, so that its repu- 
 tation as a hen-hawk is. undeserved. 
 
 HENNA, a shrub, bearing opposite en- 
 
 tire leaves and numerous small white 
 fragrant flowers disposed in terminal 
 
 panicles. It grows in moist situations 
 throughout North Africa, Arabia, Persia 
 and the East Indies, and has acquired 
 celebrity from being used by the in- 
 habitants of those countries to dye 
 yellow the nails of their fingers and the 
 manes, hoofs, etc., of their horses. It is 
 cultivated extensively in Egypt and the 
 powdered leaves form a large article of 
 export to Persia and the Turkish pos- 
 sessions. It may be used for dyeing 
 woolens, not only yellow, but brown, 
 when alum and sulphate of iron are em- 
 ployed. 
 
 HENRIETTAMARIA, queen of Charles 
 I. of England; youngest child of Henry 
 IV. of France, by his second wife, Maria 
 
 Henrietta Maria. 
 
 de’ Medici; born is Paris 1609. Her 
 bigotry, and despotic ideas as to divine 
 right did much to bring Charles I. to 
 the block. She died in 1669. 
 
 HENRY I., of Germany, was born in 
 876; the son of Otho the Illustrious, duke 
 of Saxony. Henry, on the death of his 
 father, became Duke of Saxony and 
 Thuringia. He was elected emperor of 
 Germany in 919, and was the true found- 
 er of the empire. By his prudence and 
 activity Suabia and Bavaria were forced 
 to tender allegiance, and Lorraine was 
 reunited to the German Empire in 925. 
 Besides his military reforms he dimin- 
 ished the feudal privileges, and granted 
 to the cities of the empire their first 
 municipal charters. He died in 936. 
 
 HENRY II., the saint, emperor of Ger- 
 many, born 972, was a son of Henry the 
 Quarreler of Bavaria, and great-grand- 
 son of the Emperor Henry I. He in- 
 herited Bavaria in 995, and on the death 
 of Otho III. in 1002 laid claim and was 
 elected to the empire. He died in 1024. 
 
 HENRY III., Emperor of Germany, 
 the second belonging to the house of the 
 Salian Franks, son of the Emperor 
 Conrad II. ; born in 1017 ; chosen king in 
 1026; succeeded his father in the im- 
 perial dignity 1039. He died in 1055. 
 His first wife was a daughter of Canute 
 the Great of England. 
 
 HENRY IV., German emperor, son of 
 Henry III., was born in 1050, and at the 
 death of his father was only five years 
 old. His whole life was a series of 
 troubles, partly of his own causing. His 
 severe treatment of the Saxons led to a 
 rising which was cruelly punished. His 
 treatment of the conquered people was 
 such that they complained to the pope, 
 and Gregory VH. (Hildebrand), accord- 
 ingly summoned Henry, in 1076, to ap- 
 
HENRY V 
 
 Henry vi 
 
 pear before him at Rome and answer the 
 charges, at the same time forbidding the 
 sale of ecclesiastical dignities. Henry not 
 only disregarded the threat, but insti- 
 gated the bishops, assembled by his 
 order at Worms, to renounce their obedi- 
 ence to the pope. Gregory, however, pro- 
 nounced sentence of excommunication 
 against him, and Henry, finding himself 
 deserted, was obliged to go to Italy and 
 make his submission to the pope (1077). 
 Henry IV. ended his life and his sorrows 
 in neglect at Liege in 1106. 
 
 HENRY V., Emperor of Germany, the 
 son and successor of Henry IV. (see 
 above), was born in 1081. On his ascen- 
 sion the question of investiture dis- 
 tracted the empire anew. Pope Pascal 
 would only confer the imperial crown 
 upon condition that the rights claimed 
 by Gregory should be formally conceded. 
 Henry therefore seized the pope at the 
 altar and imprisoned him until he 
 yielded two months later, and crowned 
 Henry in April, 1811. He died at Ut- 
 recht in 1125 and was the last of the 
 yalic or Frankish family of emperors, 
 which was succeeded by the Suabian 
 house. He married Matilda, a daughter 
 of Henry I. of England. 
 
 HENRY VI., German emperor, son of 
 Frederick I. and Beatrice of Burgundy, 
 the third emperor of the house of Hohen- 
 staufen, born in 1165, crowned king in 
 1169, succeeded his father as emperor in 
 1190. He kept Richard Cceur de Lion in 
 prison, and obtained a large ransom for 
 him. He died in 1197. 
 
 HENRY VII., Emperor of Germany, 
 born in 1262, was chosen emperor in 
 1308. Among the first acts of his reign 
 were recognition of the independence 
 of the Swiss cantons of Schwyz, Uri, 
 and Unterwalden, and the granting of 
 the kingdom of Bohemia to his son John. 
 He compelled the Milanese to give him 
 the iron crown of Lombardy, suppressed 
 by force the revolt which then broke 
 out in Upper Italy, captured part of 
 Rome, which was in the hands of Nea- 
 p^olitan troops, and was crowned Roman 
 Emperor by two cardinals. He died 
 suddenly in 1313. 
 
 HENRY II., King of France, born in 
 1519, succeeded his father, Francis I., 
 in 1547. Throughout his reign his mis- 
 tress, Diana of Poitiers, exercised an im- 
 portant influence over king ,and court. 
 Henry was mortally wounded by a 
 splinter from the lance of Lord Mont- 
 gomery, captain of the Scottish guard. 
 He was succeeded in 1559 by his eldest 
 son, Francis II. 
 
 HENRY III., King of France, third 
 son of Henry II. and Catherine de 
 Medici, born in 1551; succeeded his 
 brother, Charles IX., in 1574. He was 
 the last of the branch of Orl6ans- 
 Angouleme of the stock of the Valois, 
 and was succeeded by Henry of Navarre, 
 the first of the housfe of Bourbon. 
 
 HENRY rV., King of France was son of 
 Anthonj)- of Bourbon, duke of Vendome, 
 and of Jeanne d’Albret, daughter of 
 Henry, king of Navarre, and herself 
 afterward queen of Navarre. In 1572 
 he married Margaret of Valois, sister of 
 Charles IX., and after the massacre of 
 St. _ Bartholomew, which took place 
 during the marriage festivities, was 
 forced to adopt the Catholic creed. In 
 
 1576 he escaped from Paris, retracted at 
 Tours his enforced abjuration of Calvan- 
 ism, put himself at the head of the 
 Huguenots, and took a leading part in 
 all the subsequent religious wars. He 
 was obliged, however, to raise the siege 
 of Paris; and convinced that a peacefid 
 occupation of the throne was impossible 
 without his professing the Catholic 
 faith, he became nominally a Catholic in 
 1593. After his formal coronation in 
 1594 only three provinces held out 
 against him — Burgundy, reduced by the 
 victory of Fontaine-Fran^aise in 1595; 
 Picardy, reduced by the capture of 
 Amiens in 1596; and Brittany, which 
 came into his hands by the submission 
 of the Duke of Mercceur in the spring of 
 1598. The war against Spain was con- 
 cluded in 1598 by the Peace of Vervins 
 to the advantage of France. The same 
 year was signalized by the granting of 
 the edict of Nantss, which secured to the 
 Protestants entire- religious liberty. He 
 made use of the tranquility which fol- 
 lowed to restore the internal prosperity 
 of his kingdom, and particularly the 
 wasted finances, in which he was success- 
 ful with the aid of his prime-minister 
 Sully. At the instance of Sully Henry 
 divorced Margaret of Valois, and in 
 1600 married Maria de’ Medici, niece of 
 the Grank-duke of Tuscany, mother of 
 Louis XIII. She was crowned at St. 
 Denis in 1610, but on the following day 
 Henry was stabbed by a fanatic named 
 Ravaillac, while examining the prepa- 
 rations for the queen’s entry into Paris. 
 The great benefits which Henry IV. 
 bestowed upon France entitle him to the 
 designation which he himself assumed 
 at an assembly of the Notables at Rouen 
 in 1596, the Regenator of France 
 (Restaurateur de la France). 
 
 HENRY I., King of England, sur- 
 named Beauclerc (“fine scholar’’) young- 
 est son of William the Conqueror, was 
 born at Selby in Yorkshire, in 1068. 
 He was hunting with William Rufus 
 when that prince was killed, in 1100, 
 and instantly riding to London, caused 
 himself to be proclaimed king, to the 
 prejudice of his elder brother Robert, 
 then absent as a crusader. Henry died 
 at Rouen in 1135, and was succeeded by 
 Stephen. 
 
 HENRY n., King of England, first of 
 the Plantagenet line, born in Normandy 
 in 1133, was son of Geoffrey, count of 
 Anjou, and Matilda, daughter of Henry 
 I. He was invested with the Duchy of 
 Normandy, by the consent of his mother, 
 in 1150; in 1151 he succeeded to Anjou 
 and Maine, and by a marriage with 
 Eleanor of Guienne gained Guienne and 
 Poitou. In 1152 he invaded England, 
 but a compromise was effected, by 
 which Stephen was to retain the crown, 
 and Henry to succeed at his death, which 
 took place in 1154. He died at Chinon 
 in 1189. He ranks among the greatest 
 English kings both in soldiership and 
 siatescraft. He partitioned England 
 into four Judiciary districts, an l ap- 
 pointed itinerant justices to make 
 regular excursions through them; re- 
 vived trial by jury, discouraged that by 
 combat, and demolished all the newly 
 elected castles as “dens of thieves.” 
 
 HENRY III., King of England, son of 
 John by Isabel of Angouleme; born at 
 
 Winchester in 1207 ; succeeded his father 
 in 1216. He died in 1272. His son Ed- 
 ward I. succeeded him. 
 
 Henry II., King of England. From his tomb. 
 
 HENRY IV., King of England, first 
 king of the house of Lancaster; born in 
 1366; was eldest son of John of Gaunt, 
 duke of Lancaster, third son of Henry 
 III. by the heiress of Edmund, earl of 
 Lancaster, second son of Henry III. In 
 the reign of Richard II. he was made 
 earl of Derby and Duke of Hereford, 
 but having in 1398 preferred a charge of 
 treason against Mowbray, duke of Nor- 
 folk, he was banished with his adver- 
 sary. On the death of John of Gaunt in 
 1399 Richard withheld Henry’s inheri- 
 tance, and Henry, landing in England, 
 gained possession of Richard’s person. 
 The deposition of Richard by parlia- 
 ment, and the election of Henry, was 
 followed by the murder of the late king. 
 Henry died in 1413, and was succeeded 
 by Henry V. 
 
 HENRY V., King of England, born at 
 Monmouth in 1388. On succeeding his 
 father, Henry IV., in 1413, he showed a 
 wisdom in marked contrast to a some- 
 what reckless youth. He restored their 
 estates to the Percies, and liberated the 
 earl of March, but in other respects 
 based his internal administration upon 
 that of his father. The persecution of the 
 Lollards is the chief blot upon the early 
 part of his reign. The struggle in France 
 between the factions of the dukes of 
 Orleans and Burgundy afforded Henry a 
 teinpting opportunity for reviving the 
 claims of his predecessors to the French 
 crown. He returned in triumph to Eng- 
 land, but on the defeat of his brother, 
 the duke of Clarence, in Normandy by 
 the earl of Buchan, he again set out for 
 France, drove back the army of the 
 dauphin, and entered Paris. A son was 
 at this time born to him, and all his 
 great projects seemed about to be real- 
 ized, when he died of fever at Vincennes 
 in August, 1422, at the age of thirty- 
 four, and in the tenth year of his reign. 
 He was succeeded by his son Henry VI. 
 
 HENRY VI., King of England, born 
 ' at Windsor, in 1421, was crowned at 
 
Henry vil 
 
 HENSON 
 
 Westminster in 1429, at Paris in 1430. 
 As he was an infant not nine months old 
 at the death of his father Henry V., his 
 uncle John, duke of Bedford, was ap- 
 p>ointed regent of France; and his uncle 
 Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, made 
 protector of the realm of England. He 
 was a gentle, pious, well-intentioned, 
 hopelessly incompetent king, whose 
 best reputation is that of founder of 
 Eton college and King’s college, Cam- 
 bridge. 
 
 HENRY Vn., King of England, first 
 sovereign of the race of Tudor, born in 
 1456. He was the son of Edmund, earl 
 of Richmond, son of Owen Tudor and 
 Catherine of France, widow of Henry V. 
 In 1486 he rnarried Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Edward IV. and heiress of the house 
 of York, and thus united the claims 
 of the rival houses of York and Lancas- 
 ter. The reign of Henry VII. was 
 troubled by repeated insurrections, of 
 which the chief were that headed by 
 Lord Lovel and the Staffords (1486), 
 and the impostures of Lambert Simnel 
 (1487) and Perkin Warbeck (1496-99). 
 Henry died at Richmond in 1509. 
 
 HENRY VIII., King of England, son 
 of the preceding, born in 1491, succeeded 
 his father in 1509. From 1515 until 1529 
 the government was practically in the 
 hands of W’olsey, no parliament being 
 summoned in that period until 1523. 
 After the election of Charles V. to the 
 German Empire, both Charles and the 
 French king, Francis I., sought the al- 
 liance of England. A friendly meeting 
 took place between Henry and Francis 
 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520), 
 but the interest of Charles prepon- 
 derated, and Henry declared war against 
 France, though with no important re- 
 sults. Now came the determination of 
 the king to divorce his wife Catherine. 
 Wolsey, for his own ends, had at first 
 been active in promoting the divorce, 
 but drew back and procrastinated when 
 it became apparent that Anne Boleyn 
 would be Catherine’s successor. This de- 
 lay cost Wolsey his power and the 
 papacy its authority in England. Henry 
 in disgust eagerly caught at the advice 
 of Thomas Cranmer, afterward Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, to refer the case 
 to the universities, from which he soon 
 got the decision that he desired. In 1533 
 his marriage with Catherine was de- 
 clared null and an anticipatory private 
 marriage wiJi Anne Boleyn declared 
 lawful; and as these decisions were not 
 recognized by the pope, two acts of par- 
 liament were obtained, one in 1534 set- 
 ting aside the authority of the chief 
 pontiff in England, the other in 1535 
 declaring Henry the supreme head of the 
 church. Finding that the monks and 
 friars in England were the most direct 
 advocates of the papal authority, and a 
 constant source of disaffection, he sup- 
 pressed the monasteries by act of par- 
 liament, and therebj’’ inflic; ed an in- 
 curable wound upon the Catholic re- 
 ligion in England. The fall of Anr.e 
 Boleyn was, liowever, unfavorable for a 
 time to the reformers. Henry then 
 married Jane Seymour, and the birth of 
 Prince Edward in 1537 fulfilled his wish 
 for a male heir The death of the queen 
 was followed in 1540 by Henry’s mar- 
 riage with Aune of Cleves, the negotia- 
 
 tions of which were conducted by Crom- 
 well. The king’s dislike to his wife, 
 which resulted in another divorce, be- 
 came extended to the minister who had 
 proposed the union, and Cromwell’s dis- 
 grace and death soon followed. A mar- 
 riage with Catherine Howard in 1541 
 proved no happier, and in 1542 she was 
 executed on a charge of infidelity. In 
 1543 he married his sixth wife, Catherine 
 Parr, a lady secretly inclined to the Re- 
 formation, who survived the king. In the 
 meantime Scotland and France had re- 
 newed their alliance, and England be- 
 came again involved in war. James V. 
 ravaged the borders, but was defeated 
 at Solway Moss in 1542, and in 1544 
 Boulogne was captured, Henry having 
 again allied himself with Charles V. 
 Charles, however, soon withdrew, and 
 Henry maintained the war alone until 
 1546. Disease now so much aggravated 
 the natural violence of Henry that his 
 oldest friends fell victims to his tyranny. 
 The duke of Norfolk was committed to 
 the Tower, and his son the earl of Sur- 
 rey was executed. Henry died on Jan. 
 28, 1547, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Edward VI. 
 
 HEKRY, Joseph, American physicist, 
 was born at Albany, N. Y., in 1799. He 
 was a great experimenter and did much 
 toward the development of the science of 
 electricity. In 1831 he sent a current 
 through a mile of copper wire and caused 
 the armature of the electro magnet to be 
 attracted and strike a bell which was the 
 first electro-magnet telegraph and he is 
 to be, regarded as the inventor of the 
 principle now applied in modern prac- 
 tice. In 1846 he was chosen secretary of 
 the Smithsonian Institution, a position 
 that he held until his death in 1878. 
 
 HENRY, Patrick, American orator 
 and patriot, was born in Hanover co., 
 Va., in 1736. In 1764 having been em- 
 ployed to plead the cause of the people 
 against an unpopular tax, his great 
 eloquence seemed suddenly to develop 
 
 itself and he was at once placed in the 
 front rank of American orators, and his 
 later speeches advanced him to their 
 head. From amid the sullen mur- 
 
 murs and remonstrances that the paS* 
 sage of the stamp act evoked, his voice 
 it was that first rose in a clear, bold call 
 to resistance. A storm of opposition fol- 
 lowed his resolutions, setting forth that 
 the governor had the exclusive right to 
 lay taxes and imports upon the people 
 of the colony. In the debate he startled 
 all by his historic outburst “Caesar had 
 his Brutus, Charles the First his Crom- 
 well, and Cieorge the Third — ’’ (here hf 
 was interrupted with cries of treason! 
 treason!) “may profit by their example,’’ 
 calmly said the orator, completing the 
 sentence, adding, “If this be treason 
 make the most of it.’’ Th.vaghout the 
 war of independence he was a zealous 
 patriot. He was a delegate to the first 
 Continental congress, which met at 
 Philadelphia in 1774, and delivered the 
 first speech in that assembly — a speech 
 that for fiery eloquence and lofty tone 
 was worthy of so momentous a meeting. 
 In 1776 he carried the vote of the Vir- 
 ginia convention for independence; and 
 in the same year he became governor of 
 the new state. He was afterward four 
 times re-elected. In 1791 he retired from 
 public life, and returned to his practice; 
 in 1795 he declined the secretaryship of 
 state offered him by Washington. Henry 
 was an able administrator, a wise and 
 far-seeing legislator; but it is as their 
 greatest orator that his memory lives 
 in the minds of Americans. He died in 
 1799. 
 
 HENRY THE LION, Duke of Saxony, 
 the most remarkable prince of Germany 
 in the 12th century, was born in 1129. 
 He succeeded his father, Henry the 
 Proud, in 1139, assuming the govern- 
 ment of Saxony himself in 1146. At the 
 diet of princes in Frankfort (1147) he 
 demanded restitution of Bavaria, taken 
 from his father by Conrad VIL; but was 
 worsted in the war which followed. It 
 was restored to him, however, in 1154, 
 after the death of Conrad, by the Em- 
 peror Frederick, Henry’s cousin. His 
 possessions then extended from the 
 Baltic and the North Sea to the Adriatic, 
 and he was successful in opposing the 
 league formed against him at Merseburg 
 in 1166. Henry died at Brunswick 
 1195. He was much, in advance of his 
 age in fostering industry, science, com- 
 merce, and the arts. 
 
 HENRY THE NAVIGATOR, fourth 
 son of King John I. of Portugal, born in 
 1394. From time to time he sent vessels 
 on voyages to the coasts of Barbary and 
 Guinea; resulting in the discovery of the 
 islands of Puerto Santo and Madeira, 
 and some years later of the Azores. In 
 1433 Gilianez, one of his navigators, 
 safely doubled Cape Bojador, and other 
 adventurers, pushing still further south, 
 discovered Cape Blanco in 1441 and 
 Cape Verd in 1445. A profitable com- 
 merce with the natives of West Africa 
 was soon developed, and the Senegal 
 and Gambia partially explored. After 
 acting as general against the Moors in 
 1458 Henry died at Sagres on the 13th 
 of November, 1458. His efforts not only 
 laid the foundations of the commerce 
 and colonial possessions of Portugal, 
 but gave a new direction to navigation 
 and commerical enterprise. 
 
 HEN'SON, Josiah, American clergy- 
 man and lecturer, born a slave in Port 
 
HEPH^STUS 
 
 HERALDRY 
 
 Tobacco, Md., in 1787. His early career 
 is remarkable for the hardships he was 
 forced to endure. He escaped into 
 Canada in 1828, and became a Methodist 
 preacher at Dresden. Mrs. Harriet 
 Beecher Stowe met him, and drew from 
 the story of his life her character of 
 Uncle Tom. Henson lectured throughout 
 the United States, and made three trips 
 to England during the last years of his 
 life. While upon his final tour in 1876 he 
 was entertained at Windsor Castle by 
 Queen Victoria. He died in 1883. 
 
 HEPH.®S'TUS, a god of the ancient 
 Greeks, identified by the Romans with 
 their Vulcanus. He presided over fire, 
 and was the patron of all artists who 
 worked in iron and metals. 
 
 HEPTATEUCH, a name sometimes 
 given to the five books of Moses or 
 Pentateuch, together with the books of 
 Joshua and Judges. 
 
 HERA, an ancient Greek goddess, 
 identified by the Romans with their 
 Juno, the sister and wife of Zeus (Jupi- 
 ter), and daughter of Kronos (Saturn, 
 and Rhea. The poets represent Zeus as 
 an unfaithful husband, and Hera as an 
 
 Hera.— Antique statue. 
 
 obstinate and jealous wife, the result of 
 which is frequent strife between them. 
 She was worshiped in all Greece, but 
 her principal seats were at Argos and at 
 Samos. The Companions af Hera were 
 the Nymphs, Graces, and Hours. Iris 
 was her particular servant. 
 
 HER'ACLES, called by the Romans 
 Hercules, the most celebrated hero or 
 semi-divine personage of Greek myth- 
 ology, was the son of Zeus (Jupiter) by 
 Alcmena, the wife of Amphitryon. He 
 was brought up at Thebes, and before 
 he had completed his eighth month 
 strangled two snakes sent by the jealous 
 Hera (Juno) to devour him. In youth 
 he had several distinguished instructors, 
 among them the Centaur Cherion. Early 
 in life he had, at the command of Zeus, 
 to subject himself for twelve years to the 
 will of Eurystheus, on the understand- 
 ing that after he had acquitted himself 
 of this duty he should be reckoned in 
 the number of the gods. He became the 
 husband of Dejanira, who unwittingly 
 brought about his death by giving him a 
 tunic poisoned with the blood of the 
 Centaur Nessus, which she innocently 
 believed would retain for her Heracles 
 
 love. The poison took effect whenever 
 the garment was put on, and as the dis- 
 temper was incurable, Hercales placed 
 himself on a burning pile on the top of 
 Mount CEta, was received up into heaven, 
 and being there reconciled to Hera, re- 
 ceived her daughter Hebe in marriage. 
 In ancient works of art Hercales is gen- 
 erally represented naked, with strong 
 and well proportioned limbs ; he is some- 
 times covered with the skin of the 
 Nemjean lion, and holds a knotted club 
 in his hand, on which he often leans. 
 The principal ancient statue of him 
 which remains is the Farnese Hercules 
 at Rome, a work of the Athenian Glycon. 
 The myth of Hercules is believed by 
 many writers to represent the course of 
 the sun through the twelve signs of the 
 zodiac. His marriage with Hebe was 
 explained even by the ancients as 
 symbolic of the renewing of the sun’s 
 course after its completion. 
 
 HERACLI'US, Roman emperor of the 
 East, born in Cappadocia about 575 
 A.D.; the son of Heraclius, exarch of 
 Africa. He died in 641, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Constantine III. 
 
 HER'ALD, an officer whose functions 
 originally were to carry messages of 
 courtesy or defiance between soverei^s 
 or persons of knightly rank, to superin- 
 tend and register the results of trial by 
 battle, tournaments, and other chivalric 
 exercises, to record the valiant deeds of 
 combatants, proclaim war or peace, 
 marshal processions and public cere- 
 monials, and especially, in later times, 
 to regulate and determine all matters 
 connected with the use of armorial 
 bearings. Heralds began to appear 
 about the 12th century, and assumed 
 the functions which ultimately belonged 
 to their office gradually. 
 
 HER'ALDRY, the whole science of a 
 herald’s duties, or more commonly the 
 knowledge of the forms, terms, and laws 
 which pertain to the use of armorial 
 bearings or coats of arms. Badges and 
 emblems on shields, helms, banners, etc., 
 naturally occurred in the earliest times, 
 and the s3nnbols were sometimes heredi- 
 tary. The origin of heraldic arms, 
 properly so called, is, however, to be 
 attributed to the necessity which arose 
 during the crusades of distinguishing 
 the leaders of the numerous and motly 
 bands of warriors which constituted the 
 Christian armies. One of the oldest 
 specimens of heraldic bearings extant is 
 the shield at Mans of Geoffrey Plantage- 
 net, who died in 1150. Rolls of arms in 
 England are extant from the reigns of 
 Henry III., Edward I., and Edward II. 
 The use of arms on the Great Seal of 
 England was introduced by Richard I. 
 The bearing of coat-armor by private 
 persons was prohibited by proclamation 
 in the reign of Henry V. The chief courts 
 of jurisdiction in questions of heraldry 
 are the Herald’s college in England, and 
 the Lyon court in Scotland. (See 
 Herald.) The rules of heraldry now 
 practiced at the Heralds’ college are 
 comparatively modern, and differ in 
 some respects from those of other Euro- 
 pean courts. A coat of arms consists of 
 the figure of a shield marked and colored 
 in a vast variety of ways, so as to be dis- 
 tinctive of an individual, a family, or a 
 community. The shield or escutcheon 
 
 represents the original shield used in 
 war, and on which arms were anciently 
 borne. The surface of the escutcheon is 
 termed the field, and the several parts 
 or points of it have particular names, 
 so that the figures which the field con- 
 tains may be precisely located. In the 
 accompanying illustration a B c marks 
 the part of the shield called the chief, 
 which is the highest and most honorable 
 part of the shield, a is the dexter chief 
 or upper right-hand side of the shield; 
 B, the middle chief; and c, the sinister 
 chief, or upper left-hand side of the 
 shield; e, the center or fesse point; G h i, 
 the base, that is, g, the dexter or right- 
 hand base; h, the middle base; and i, 
 the sinister of left-hand base. Color is 
 given in the coat of arms by means of 
 tinctures, two of which are metals — or 
 and argent, that is, gold and silver — the 
 rest colors proper. These colors are, in 
 heraldic terminology: azure, blue; gules, 
 red; sable, black; vert, green; purpure, 
 purple ; tenney, orange; sanguine, blood- 
 color. The two last are comparatively 
 uncommon. An object represented in its 
 natural colors is said to be proper. When 
 not given in colors or by actual gilding 
 the tinctures are represented by points 
 and lines in black and white. Or is dis- 
 tinguished by small dots covering the 
 part; argent is represented by leaving 
 the space blank; azure is shown by 
 horizontal lines; gules, by perpendicular 
 lines; sable, by perpendicular and hori- 
 zontal lines crossing each other; vert, 
 by diagonal lines running from the 
 dexter chief to the sinister base ; purpure 
 by diagonal lines running from the 
 sinister chief to the dexter base. An- 
 other class of tinctures are the furs, of 
 which the two principal are ermine and 
 vair, and which have also their special 
 method of representation. The figures 
 borne on the shield may be either purely 
 artificial and conventional, or may 
 represent real objects, animals, plants, 
 etc. Of the former the most common are 
 known as ordinaries, and have the fol- 
 fowing names: Chief, Pale, Bend, Fesse, 
 Bar, Chevron, Cross, and Saltire. The 
 chief is a portion of the shield at the top 
 marked off by a horizontal line, and 
 covers the upper third part of the field. 
 The pale occupies the middle third part 
 of the field perpendicularly. The bend is 
 drawn diagonally from the dexter chief 
 to the sinister base in the form of a belt, 
 and also occupies the third of the field. 
 A dimunutive of the bend is the bendlet. 
 The fesse occupies the middle third of 
 the field horizontally. The bar is formed 
 after the manner of a fesse, but occupies 
 only a fifth of the field, and is not con- 
 fined to any particular part of it, except 
 when there is only one bar, when it is 
 put in the place of a fesse. Bars are 
 mostly two in a field, sometimes three or 
 more. A diminutive is the barrulet. 
 The chevron may be regarded as made 
 of a bend dexter and sinister issuing 
 from the right and left base points of the 
 escutcheon and meeting like two rafters. 
 The cross is the ordinary cross of St. 
 George. The saltire is the equally well- 
 known cross of St. Andrew. The shield 
 is often divided by lines running similar- 
 ly to the ordinaries; hence when divided 
 by a perpendicular line it is said to be 
 party per pale, when by a horizontal 
 
HERAT 
 
 HERCULANEUM 
 
 line party per fesse, when by a diagonal 
 line party per bend. Similarly, when it 
 seems to bear several pales or bends or 
 bars, it is said to be paly, bendy, or 
 barry of so many pieces, “paly of six 
 argent and gules” for instance, as in 
 illustration. Charges are the figures of 
 natural and artificial things, and include 
 animals and plants, implements and 
 objects of all sorts, and various imagin- 
 ary monsters, being drawn either on the 
 field or on one of the ordinaries. It is a 
 
 rule in heraldry that metal must not be 
 put on metal nor color on color; hence, 
 if the field say is argent, it cannot have 
 a charge or an ordinary tinctured or 
 directly upon it. Various technical 
 terms describe the position of animals; 
 thus, a lion is rampant when he is erect 
 standing on one of his hind legs; sejant, 
 when sitting; couchant, when lying at 
 rest, with tlie liead erect; passant, in a 
 walking position; gardant, looking full- 
 faced; rampant gardant, erect and full- 
 
 faced; salient, in a leaping posture. So 
 trippant is said of thestagwhen trotting; 
 lodged, of the stag when at rest on the 
 ground; volant, of birds in general in a 
 flying posture; rising, of a bird that is 
 preparing to fly; displayed, of birds seen 
 frontwise with outspread wings; naiant, 
 of fishes when swimming; and so on. 
 The teeth and claws of lions and other 
 ravenous beasts are called their arms; 
 and when these have a special tincture 
 the animal is said to be armed of such a 
 
 tincture; similarly if their tongue be of a 
 special tincture, they are said to be 
 be languaged of this tincture. Often two 
 or more coats of arms are united to- 
 gether on one shield, so that the whole 
 may be a very complicated affair. The 
 art of arranging arms in this way is 
 known as marshalling, and when the 
 shield is divided up into squares for the 
 reception of different coats, it is said to 
 be quartered. There are also certain 
 exterior ornaments of the shield or 
 
 escutcheon, namely, the helmet, mant- 
 ling, crest, wreath, motto, and sup- 
 porters. The helmet, which is placed on 
 the top of the escutcheon, varies both in 
 form and materials. Those of sovereign 
 princes are of gold, those of the nobility 
 of silver, and those of gentlemen of 
 polished steel. The full-faced helmet, 
 with six bars, is for the king and princes 
 of the blood ; the side-long helmet, with 
 five bars, is for dukes and marquises, 
 etc.; the full-faced helmet of steel, with 
 its beaver or visor open, is for knights; 
 and the sidelong helmet, with the visor 
 shut, for the esquire. The mantling or 
 mantle was anciently fixed to the helmet 
 to which it served as a covering. Mant- 
 lings are now used like cloaks, to cover 
 the whole achievement. The crest is 
 placed above the helmet, with the 
 wreath serving as a kind of support ; the 
 latter is composed of two colors wreath- 
 ed or twisted together. The motto con- 
 sists of the word or phrase carried in a 
 scroll under or above the arms. Sup- 
 porters were originally only ancient 
 devices or badges, which by custom 
 came to embellish armorial ensigns. 
 They are called supporters because they 
 hold the shield, as the lion and the uni- 
 corn in the well-known royal arms of 
 England. The present royal arms of 
 Britain exhibit the arms of England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland in the four quar- 
 ters of the shiefd; that is: Quarterly, 
 1 and 4, England; 2, Scotland; 3, Ire- 
 land. The arms of England are: Gules, 
 three lions passant gardant in pale or; 
 Scotland, Or, a lion rampant within a 
 double tressure flory counter-flory gules; 
 Ireland, Azure, a harp or, stringed ar- 
 gent. 
 
 HERAT', a city in the northwest of 
 Afghanistan, about 370 miles west of 
 Cabul. The most important manufac- 
 tures are carpets, sword-blades, shoes, 
 cloaks, and sheepskin caps. Herat was 
 long the capital of the empire founded 
 by Tamerlane. Pop. about 45,000. 
 
 HERAULT (a-ro), a department of 
 France, on the Mediterranean coast; 
 area, 2393 sq. miles. In the northwest 
 it is covered by the Cevennes, but it 
 descends rapidly towards the coast, 
 which is lined by lagoons. Capital Mont- 
 pellier. Pop. 441,527. 
 
 HERCULA'NEUM, an ancient city 
 about 5 miles s.e. from Naples, com- 
 pletely buried with Pompeii, Stabiae, 
 etc., by lava and ashes during an erup- 
 tion of Vesuvius in the reign of Titus, 
 A.D. 79. The site had been long sought in 
 vain, when in 1713 three statues were 
 found in digging a well at the village of 
 Portici. In 1738 the well was dug deeper, 
 and traces of buildings were found. The 
 theater was then discovered, but though 
 the excavations were continued for 
 many years it is now the only building 
 to be seen underground, as the successive 
 excavations were immediately filled up 
 with rubbish from a new digging. A 
 number of public buildings and private 
 dwellings were laid bare, and many 
 objects of great value discovered, such 
 as statues, busts, beautiful mosaics, 
 wall paintings, charred pap3^rus manu- 
 scripts, etc. One of the houses dis- 
 covered contained a quantity of pro- 
 visions, consisting of fruits, corn, oil, 
 pease, lentils, pies, and hams. Few 
 
 ' A B C 
 
 ' '' 
 
 
 7 \ 
 
 
 f 1 
 
 r 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [g H Ij 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Poista of the Shield. Or. 
 
 Argent. 
 
 Gules. 
 
 W 
 
 Sable. 
 
 Vert. 
 
 .y.y. 
 
 Ermioe. 
 
 duel 
 
 7 ^ 
 
 7 N 
 
 7 V 
 
 Pale. 
 
 Bend. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Rampant Trippant. 
 
 Volant- 
 
 Naiant. Displayed. 
 
 Noble. 
 
 Knight. 
 
HERCULES 
 
 HERNIA 
 
 skeletons have been found either in 
 Pompeii or Herculaneum, so that it is 
 probable most of the inhabitants had 
 time to save themselves by flight. 
 Among the most interesting objects dis- 
 covered here were the papyri, over 1750 
 of which are now in the Naples Museum 
 but hardly a third have yet been un- 
 rolled, the process presenting great 
 difficulties from the tendency of the 
 MSS. to crumble. The knowledge of 
 ancient art has, however, gained more 
 by the discoveries made here than litera- 
 ture. 
 
 HERCULES. See Heracles. 
 
 HERCULES, one of Ptolemy’s north- 
 ern constellations, including 113 stars. 
 The point to which the sun, with its 
 
 Hercules slaying the hydra.— From sculpture 
 at Florence. 
 
 accompanying system of planets, is 
 traveling at present is situated in this 
 constellation, which includes some re- 
 markable star groups and nebulie. 
 
 HERCULES, Pillars* of, the ancient 
 name of the two promontories, Calpe 
 (Gibralter) and.Abyla (Ceuta), at the 
 entrance to the Mediterranean. 
 
 HERDER, Johann Gottfried von, 
 German author, born in poor circum- 
 stances in 1744. His greatest work is his 
 Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte 
 der Menschheit (Ideas on the Philosophy 
 of the History of Man; 1785 et seq.). 
 He is the author of some pleasing songs, 
 and of an epic entitled The Cid. He died 
 in 1803. 
 
 HEREDITARY DISEASES. See Dis- 
 eases. 
 
 HERED'ITY, the transmission from 
 parent to offspring of physical and in- 
 tellectual characters. This has been at all 
 times believed in, but it is only in recent 
 times that the conviction has, in the 
 hands of Darwin, Herbert Spencer, and 
 Wallace, been methodized so as to em- 
 body an important zoological doctrine. 
 The modern view of evolution in biology 
 rests upon the belief that acquired 
 peculiarities, or differences which may 
 arise between parent and offspring, can 
 be transmitted with some probability 
 of permanence, especially if the varia- 
 tion presented by the young is deter- 
 mined by external conditions, or if it is 
 such as to adapt the possessor more 
 thoroughly to the conditions under 
 which it is placed. On the other hand, 
 while variations may be thus perma- 
 nently transmitted by heredity, yet this 
 very tendency of the young to repeat 
 the characters of the parent is also a 
 check on variability, or the tendency of 
 structure and attributes to change with 
 the environment. It may be noted that 
 
 while the strong tendency to hereditary 
 transmission works in the majority of 
 cases so as to perpetuate those most 
 fitted to survive, it secures the same 
 result in other cases by a converse ac- 
 tion. The descent of disease in families 
 tends ultimately to purify the race by 
 accumulating incapacities which end in 
 the extinction of the enfeebled strain. 
 
 HEREFORD (he're-ford), a city and 
 parliamentary borough of England, 
 capital of county of same name, on the 
 left bank of the Wye. Pop. 21,382. — 
 The county, which is entirely inland, 
 and borders on Wales, has an area of 
 532,898 acres, of which about 500,000 
 are arable, meadow, and pasture. 
 Wheat is the principal crop, but barley, 
 oats, beans, pease, hops, and turnips are 
 also extensively cultivated. Orchards 
 are numerous, and a large quantity of 
 excellent cider is made. Pop. 114,401. 
 
 HERETIC , one who embraces a heresy, 
 that is, one who holds some theological 
 doctrine which conflicts with the be- 
 liefs of the Catholic or universal church, 
 but who, at the same time, calls himself 
 a Christian. As early as 385 Priscillian 
 was condemned to death as a heretic by 
 the Spanish bishops at the council of 
 Treves; but the persecutions of heretics, 
 properly so called, began in the pontifi- 
 cate of Gregory VII., in the 11th century. 
 Spain, Italy, and France, from the 13th 
 century, suffered much from these perse- 
 cutions, but the states of Germany 
 showed greater moderation. In Eng- 
 land the burning of heretics was prac- 
 ticed before 1200, and long continued. 
 Heresy is now left entirely to the cogni- 
 zance of the ecclesiastical courts. 
 
 HERMAPH'RODITE, an animal in 
 which the characteristics of both sexea 
 are either really or apparently com- 
 bined, especially an animal having the 
 parts of generation both of male and 
 female, so that reproduction can take 
 place without the union of two individ- 
 uals. Hermaphrodites are divided into 
 true and spurious, the first exhibiting a 
 real combination of the characteristic 
 of the two sexes ; while in the second the 
 combination is only apparent. The 
 animals in which the organs of the two 
 sexes are normally combined in the same 
 individual are confined to the inverte- 
 brate division of the animal kingdom, 
 as for example certain groups of the 
 inferior worms, molluscs, barnacles, etc. 
 There are no real hermaphrodites in the 
 human species. 
 
 HERMES, called by the Romans 
 Mercurius, in Greek mythology the son 
 of Zeus and Maia, the daughter of Atlas. 
 He was born in Arcadia, and soon after 
 his birth left his cradle and invented 
 the lyre by stringing the shell of a tor- 
 toise with three or seven strings. The 
 lyre, however, he resigned to Apollo, 
 with whom it was ever after identified. 
 Hermes also invented the Pandean pipe. 
 The ancients represent Hermes as the 
 herald and messengers of the gods. He 
 conducted the souls of the departed to 
 the lower world. He was the ideal em- 
 bodiment of grace, dignity, and per- 
 suasiveness, but also of prudence, cun- 
 ning, fraud, perjury, theft, and robbery. 
 His cunning was frequently of service 
 both to the gods and the heroes, and 
 even to Zeus himself. Later writers 
 
 ascribe to him the invention of dice, 
 music, geometry, letters, etc. He was 
 worshiped in all the cities of Greece, 
 but Arcadia was the chief place of his 
 worship, his festivals being called 
 Hermsea. In the monuments he is rep- 
 
 Hermes.— Wall painting, Pompeii. 
 
 resented as in the flower of youth, or in 
 the full power of early manhood. He 
 often appears with small wings attached 
 to his head and to his ankles. Among 
 his symbols are the cock, the tortoise, a 
 purse, etc., and especially his winged 
 rod, the caduceus. 
 
 HERMES TRISMEGIS'TUS, a mythi- 
 cal personage, the reputed author of a 
 great variety of works, probably written 
 by Egyptian Neo-Platonists, who as- 
 cribed the authorship of the highest 
 attainments of the human mind to 
 Thoth, the Egyptian Hermes; regarding 
 him as the source of all knowledge and 
 inventions, the Logos incarnate, thrice 
 greatest (Gr. tris megistos). 
 
 HERMETIC SEALING, the term used 
 to denote a very old process in which a 
 glass vessel, such as a tube or flask, has 
 its neck so fused together that no part of 
 the contained matter can escape, and 
 nothing foreign can get in. 
 
 HERMIT-CRAB, a name common to a 
 family of well-knowm decapod crusta- 
 ceans. These crabs take possession of 
 and occupy the cast-off univalve shells 
 of various molluscs, carrying this habi- 
 tation about with them, and changing it 
 for a larger one as they increase in size. 
 
 HERMON, a mountain of Syria, be- 
 longing to tlie Anti-Lebanon, about 
 9400 feet high. 
 
 HERNANDIA, a genus of large East 
 Indian trees. They have alternate 
 entire leaves and flowers arranged in 
 axillary or terminal spikes or corymbs. 
 H. Sonora, or Jack-in-the-box, is so 
 called from the noise made by the wind 
 whistling through its persistent in- 
 volucels. The fibrous roots chewed and 
 applied to wounds caused by the Macas- 
 sar poison form an effectual cure, and 
 the juice of the leaves is a powerful 
 depilatory. 
 
 HERNIA, in surgery, a tumor formed 
 by the displacement of a soft part, which 
 protrudes by a natural or accidental 
 opening from the cavity in which it is 
 contained. The brain, the heart, the 
 lung3, and most of the abdominal viscera 
 may become totally or partially dis- 
 placed, and thus give rise to the forma- 
 tion of hernial tumors. But the term is 
 ordinarily applied to abdominal hernia. 
 
HERO 
 
 HERRING 
 
 Every part of the abdomen may become 
 the seat of hernia, but it most commonly 
 appears in the anterior and inferior 
 region, which, being destitute in a great 
 measure of muscular fibers, and con- 
 taining the natural openings, offers less 
 resistance to the displacement of the 
 viscera. Most of the viscera, when dis- 
 placed, push the peritoneum forward 
 
 Ilernaadia Sonora (Jack-ln-tbe-box). 
 
 before them: (his membrane thus formed 
 an envelope of the hernia, which is called 
 the hernial sac. The hernia itself is 
 usually a loop of the small bowel, and 
 though it has been pushed through the 
 wall of the abdomen, forming a tumor 
 under the skin, the faeces still pass along 
 it. If the hernia can be returned to the 
 abdomen, it is said to be reducible; if, 
 from its size or other cause, it cannot be 
 replaced, it is irreducible. A hernia is 
 said to be strangulated when it is not 
 only irreducible, but also subjected to a 
 continual constriction, which interferes 
 with the circulation through the blood- 
 vessels of the part and the passage of the 
 faeces. It may be rapidly fatal. Con- 
 striction may be produced by different 
 causes, but generally occurs at the 
 margins of the opening through which 
 the hernia protrudes. As soon as a pa- 
 tient perceives that he is affected with a 
 hernia he should have recoursetomedical 
 advice, for the disease is then in its most 
 favorable state for treatment. The 
 hernia when it is reduced must be”pre- 
 vented from recurring by the constant 
 pressure of a pad or truss. An irreducible 
 hernia must be supported with great 
 care. All violent exercises, and excess in 
 diet, must be avoided. The strangulated 
 hernia requires prompt relief, and may 
 necessitate an operation. 
 
 HERO, a Greek priestess of Aphrodite 
 at Sestos, on the coast of Thrace, for 
 love of whom Leander, a youth of Aby- 
 dos, swam every night across the Helles- 
 pont, guided by a torch from her tower. 
 He was at length drowned in the 
 attempt and his body washed ashore, 
 when Hero, overcome with anguish, 
 threw herself from the tower on the 
 corpse of her lover, and perished. There 
 is a Greek poem by Musajus on this sub- 
 ject. 
 
 HER'OD, called the Great, King of 
 the Jews, was a native of Ascalon, in 
 Judea, where he was born about 74 b.c. 
 The birth of Jesus Christ is said to have 
 taken place in the last year of the reign 
 of Herod, viz. b.c. 4, the year also sig- 
 nalized by the massacre of the children 
 of Bethlehem. Herod’s policy and in- 
 fluence gave a great temporary splendor 
 to the Jewish nation, but he was also the 
 first to shake the foundation of the 
 Jewish government, by dissolving the 
 national council, and appointing the 
 
 high-priests and removing them at pleas- 
 ure, without regard to the laws of sue- 
 CGssion 
 
 HEROD AGRIPPA I., son of Aristo- 
 bulus by Bernice, daughter of Herod 
 the Great. From his attachment to 
 Caligula he was imprisoned by Tiberius, 
 but on the accession of Caligula (a.d. 37) 
 he received the government of part of 
 Palestine, and latterly all the dominions 
 of Herod the Great. To please the Jews, 
 with whom his rule was very pbpular, he 
 caused St. James to be put to death, 
 and imprisoned St. Peter. He died in 
 the circumstances related in Acts xii., 
 in A.D. 44. 
 
 HEROD AGRIPPA II., son of the pre- 
 ceding, and last of the Herodian line. 
 He is supposed to have died in Rome, 
 A.D. 94. 
 
 HEROD AN'TIPAS, son of Herod the 
 Great by his fifth wife, Cleopatra, was 
 appointed tetrarch of Galilee on his 
 death (b.c. 4). This was the Herod who 
 put to death St. John the Baptist, in 
 compliment to his wife Herodias in re- 
 venge for his reproaches of their incestu- 
 ous union. Having visited Rome he was 
 accused of having been concerned in the 
 conspiracy of Sejanus, and was stripped 
 of his dominions, and sent (a.d. 39) with 
 his wife into exile at Lugdunum (Lyons), 
 or, as some say, to Spain, where he died. 
 
 HEROD'OTUS, the oldest Greek his- 
 torian whose works have come down to 
 us, the “father of history,” born at 
 Halicarnassus in Asia Minor about B.c. 
 484. Before writing his history he 
 traveled extensively, visiting the shores 
 of the Hellespont and the Euxine, 
 Scythia, Syria, Palestine, Babylon and 
 Ecbatana, Egypt as far as Elephantine 
 and other parts of northern Africa, 
 everywhere investigating the manners,' 
 customs, and religion of the people, the 
 historyof the country, productions of the 
 soil, etc. On returning home he found 
 that Lygdamis had usurped the supreme 
 authority in Halicarnassus, and put to 
 death the noblest citizens, among others 
 his uncle, the epic poet Panyasis, and 
 Herodotus was forced to seek an asylum 
 in the island of Samos. Having formed 
 a conspiracy with several exiles he 
 returned to Halicarnassiie and drove 
 out the usurper, but the nobles who had 
 acted with him immediately formed an 
 aristocracy more oppressive than the 
 government of the banished tyrant, and 
 Herodotus withdrew to the recently 
 founded colony of Thurii, in Italy, where 
 he seems to have spent most of his re- 
 maining life. Here, at an advanced age, 
 we are told by Pliny, he wrote his im- 
 mortal work, a statement strengthened 
 by the fact that events are noticed in the 
 body of the book which occurred so late 
 as 409 B.C., while its abrupt ending 
 proves almost beyond question that he 
 was prevented by death from complet- 
 ing it. The history is divided into nine 
 books, each bearing the name of a muse, 
 and is written in the Ionic dialect. 
 
 HEROES, a name applied by the 
 Greeks to mythical personages who 
 formed an intermediate link between 
 men and gods. There were six great 
 heroic races, descended respectively 
 from Prometheusand Deucalion, Inachus, 
 Agenor, Danaus, Pelops or Tantalus, 
 and Cecrops. Individual families as. 
 
 for instance, the ^acidae, Atridae, Hera- 
 clidae, belong to one or another of these 
 races. 
 
 HERON, the name common of birds 
 constituting with the bitterns type of 
 what is now commonly regarded as a 
 separate order of birds, the Herodiones. 
 The herons are very numerous, and al- 
 
 Common heron. 
 
 most universally spread over the globe.* 
 They are distinguished by having a long 
 bill cleft beneath the eyes, a compressed 
 body, long slender legs naked above the 
 tarsal joint, three toes in front, the two 
 outer united by a membrane, and by 
 moderate wings. The tail is short, 
 rounded, and composed of ten or twelve 
 feathers. The common heron is about 
 3 feet in length from the point of the bill 
 to the end of the tail, builds its nest in 
 high trees, many being sometimes on 
 one tree. 
 
 HERRICK, Robert, an English poet, 
 born in London, 1591, died in Oct., 
 1674. His compositions were published 
 in 1648, under the title of Hesperides, 
 or the Works, both Humane and Divine, 
 of Robert Herrick. It is a delightful 
 collection of love lyrics, epigrams, 
 sketches of rural scenery, etc. 
 
 HERRING, the general name of the 
 common herring. It is of wide distribu- 
 tion in the North Atlantic, 45° n. lat. 
 being about the southern limit. It 
 measures from 10 to 12 inches in length, 
 with blue-green back and brilliant sil- 
 very white under parts. It has small 
 teeth in both jaws, and is of an elegant 
 shape, the body being much compressed. 
 It was formerly supposed that the her- 
 rings migrated in two great shoals every 
 summer from the Polar Seas to the 
 coasts of Britain and France, returning 
 in the winter, but the migration is 
 probably only from a deeper part of the 
 ocean to a shallower. The feeding ground 
 of the herring is probably the mud 
 deposits found in the deeper parts of the 
 sea, and it seems to be a fact that during 
 their visits to the shallower waters of 
 the coast for the purpose of spawning 
 they do not feed, or feed very little. In 
 summer the herring leaves the deep 
 water where it has passed the winter and 
 spring months, and seeks the coast 
 where it may deposit its ova, and where 
 they may be exposed to the influence of 
 oxygen, heat, and sun-light, which are 
 essential to their development. They 
 are generally followed by multitudes of 
 hakes, dog-fishes, etc., and gulls and 
 other sea-birds hover over the shoals. 
 They swim near the surface, and are 
 therefore easily taken by net. So great 
 is their fecundity that the enormous 
 number taken appears to produce no 
 
HERSCHEL 
 
 HEWITT 
 
 diminution of their abundance, as many 
 as 68,000 eggs having been counted in 
 the roe of one female. 
 
 HERSCHEL, Sir John Frederick Will- 
 iam, only son of Sir William Herschel, 
 was born in 1792 at Slough, near Wind- 
 sor, died in 1871. In 1834 he established 
 at his own expense, an observatory at 
 Feldhuysen, near Cape Town, his object 
 being to discover whether the distribu- 
 tion of the stars in the southern hemi- 
 sphere correspond with the results of his 
 father’s labors in the north. He re- 
 turned to England in 1838, and in 1847 
 was published Results of Astronomical 
 Observations made during 1834-38 at 
 the Cape of Good Hope, being the 
 Completion of a Telescopic Survey of 
 the Whole Surface of the Visible 
 Heavens. 
 
 HERSCHEL, Sir William, astronomer, 
 son of a musician of Hanover, born 
 1738, died 1822. He came to England in 
 1757, and was employed in the forma- 
 tion of a military band, and in conduct- 
 
 sir William Herschel. 
 
 ii.g, while organist at Bath, several con- 
 certs, oratorios, etc. Although enthusi- 
 astically fond of music, he had for some 
 time devoted his leisure hours to the 
 study of mathematics and astronomy; 
 and being dissatisfied with the only tele- 
 scopes within his reach, he set about con- 
 structing instruments for himself. Late 
 in 1779 he began a regular survey of the 
 heavens, star by star, with a 7-foot re- 
 flector, and discovered, March 13, 1781, 
 a new primary planet, named by him the 
 Georgium Sidus, but now known as 
 Uranus. This discovery extended his 
 fame throughout the world, and brought 
 him a pension of $2,000 a year, with the 
 title of private astronomer to the king. 
 Assiduously continuing his observa- 
 tions, he measured the rotation of 
 Saturn, discovered two of his satellites, 
 and observed the phenomena of its 
 rings. He also discovered the satellites 
 of Uranus, and observed the volcanic 
 structure of the lunar mountains. At 
 Slough, near Windsor, he erected a 
 telescope of 40 feet length, and com- 
 pleted it in 1787. Herschel received 
 much assistance in making and record- 
 ing observations from his sister Caroline ; 
 and latterly his brother, a skilful optical 
 instrument maker, lent him valuable aid. 
 In 1802 he laid before the Royal Society 
 a catalogue of 5000 nebulae and clusters 
 of stars which he had discovered. He 
 ,was made D.C.L. by the University of 
 .Oxford, and in 1816 was knighted. ' 
 
 HERSE, Hearse, a framework where- 
 on lighted candles were placed at the 
 obsequies of distinguished persons. The 
 funeral herse of the middle ages was a 
 temporary canopy covered with wax- 
 
 lights, and set up in the church; the 
 coffin was placed under the herse dur- 
 ing the funeral ceremonies. Sometimes 
 it was a very elaborate structure. The 
 name has been transferred to the modern 
 carriage for bearing a dead body to the 
 grave. 
 
 HERTFORD, town and former pari, 
 borough of England, capital of the 
 county of same name, on the Lea, 19 
 miles north of London. Pop. 9322. — 
 The county of Hertford is bounded by 
 Cambridgeshire, Essex, Middlesex, Buck- 
 ingham, and Bedford; area, 405,141 
 acres, of which about five-sixths are 
 arable, meadow, and pasture. The 
 general aspect of the county is pleasing, 
 being diversified by hill and valley, 
 pasture lands, arable farms, and pic- 
 turesque parks and woods. The prin- 
 cipal rivers are the Lea and Colne, both 
 of which have numerous tributaries. 
 Agriculture employs a large number of 
 the inhabitants. Pop. 250,350. 
 
 HERZEGOVINA (hert-se-go-ve'na), a 
 province of the Balkan peninsula, now 
 under the Austrian sway, bounded on 
 the n. by Croatia and Bosnia, on the e. 
 by Novibazar, on the s.e. by Montene- 
 gro, and on the s. and w. by Dalmatia; 
 area, 700 sq. miles. The surface is gen- 
 erally mountainous, but contains many 
 fertile valleys. Pop. about 220,000. 
 
 HESPER'IDES (-dez), in Greek myth- 
 ology, certain nymphs who lived in gar- 
 dens, of rather uncertain locality, as 
 guardians of the golden apples that grew 
 there, being assisted in the charge by a 
 dragon. 
 
 HES'PERUS, among the ancient 
 Greeks, a name of the evening star (the 
 planet Venus). 
 
 HESSE, or HESSEN, Grand-duchy of, 
 formerly known as Hessen-Darmstadt, 
 an independent state of South Germany, 
 consisting of sundry distinct portions. 
 Area of whole grand-duchy, 2964 sq. 
 miles. About two-thirds of the inhab- 
 itants are protestants. Pop. 1,119,893. 
 
 HESSE-NASSAU,orHESSEN-NASSAU, 
 a province of Prussia, formed out of the 
 former Principality of Hesse-Cassel, the 
 Duchy of Nassau, the Landgraviate of 
 Hesse-Homburg, the territory and town 
 of Frankfort, etc. It borders on the 
 ' Prussian provinces of Westphalia, Han- 
 
 over, Saxony, and the Rhineland, the 
 Kingdom of Bavaria, etc., and incloses 
 Upper Hesse. The boundary is partly 
 formed by the Rhine, Main, Weser, and 
 Werra. Other rivers are the Lahn and 
 Eulda. The greater part of .this prov- 
 ince belongs to the central German pla- 
 teau, and has a rugged surface, partly 
 covered by branches of the Harz. Still, 
 about 40 per cent of the whole is arable, 
 while about the same is under wood. 
 The chief mineral is iron. Mineral 
 springs are numerous. The manufac- 
 tures consist chiefly of woolens, cottons, 
 and linen. The principal towns are 
 Cassell, the capital, Wiesbaden, and 
 Frankfort. Pop. 1,897,981. 
 
 HESSIAN FLY, a fly, the larva of 
 which is very destructive to wheat, 
 barley, and rye crops (it does not attack 
 oats). It is so named from the un- 
 founded belief, prevalent in America, 
 where it is specially destructive, that it 
 was brought over to that country in the 
 baggage of the Hessian mercenaries em- 
 ployed against the Americans in the war 
 of independence. The female fly is 
 about the eighth of an inch in length, 
 
 Hessian-fly. 
 
 a, Male (natural size). 6, Male (magnified) 
 c. Pup® fixed on the joint of the wheat-stalk. 
 
 with a wing expanse of about a quarter 
 of an inch. Its body is brown, with the 
 upper parts, the thorax, and the head of 
 a darker shade, approaching to black. 
 The wings are of a dusky gray, and are 
 surrounded with fringes. The male is 
 somewhat smaller than the female and 
 has longer antennae. The female flies 
 usually lay their eggs on the young 
 plants twice in the year, in May and 
 September, out of which eggs the mag- 
 gots hatch in from four to fourteen days. 
 These work themselves in between the 
 leaf-sheath and the steam, and fix them- 
 selves near the lowest joints, often near 
 the root, and suck the juices of the stem, 
 so that the ear falls down at a sharp 
 angle. These maggots turn to pupoe, 
 from which the flies develop in about 
 ten days. 
 
 HETMAN, or ATAMAN, the title of 
 the head (general) of the Cossacks. This 
 dignity was abolished among the Cos- 
 sacks of the Ukraine by Catharine the 
 Great, and although the Cossacks of the 
 Don still retain their hetman, the former 
 freedom of election is gone, and the title 
 of chief hetman is now held by the Rus- 
 sian heir-apparent to the crown. 
 
 HEWITT (ha'It), Abram Stevens, 
 American manufacturer and politic’an, 
 was born in I 'j22 at Haverstraw, N. Y. 
 lie studied law and was admitted to the 
 bar in 1844. He served in congress in 
 1871-79 and 1881-86, and was chair- 
 man of the national democratic com- 
 
HEXAMETER 
 
 HIEROGLA'PHICS 
 
 mittee which directed the Tilden cam- 
 paign in 1876. In 1886 he was elected 
 mayor of New York City, defeating 
 Henry George and Theodore Roosevelt. 
 He was chosen chairman of the trustees 
 of the Carnegie institution at its organ- 
 ization in 1901. He died in 1903. 
 
 HEXAM'ETER, a verse of six feet, the 
 heroic or epic measure of the Greeks 
 and Romans. The sixth foot is always a 
 spondee (two long syllables) or a trochee 
 (a long and a short). The five first may 
 be all dactyls (two short syllables and one 
 long), or all spondees, or a mixture of 
 both. The scheme of this verse then is — 
 
 with all the varieties which the mingling 
 of the two kinds of feet affords. In 
 modern poetry the hexameters has been 
 frequently used. In English hexameters 
 accent is almost entirely substituted for 
 length, and trochees generally take the 
 place of spondees. Longfellow in his 
 Evangeline, Kingsley in his Andromeda, 
 and Clough in his Bothie have adopted 
 this form of verse. The following lines 
 are specimens of Clough’s English hex- 
 ameters : 
 
 O let us I try, he | answered, the | waters them | 
 selves will sup | port us, | 
 
 Yea very | ripples and | waves will I form to a | 
 boat under | neath us. 
 
 HEX'ASTYLE, in architecture, a term 
 
 Hexastyle front of the ancient Roman temple 
 called the Malson Carree, at Nimes, France. 
 
 applied to a portico or temple which has 
 six columns in front. 
 
 HEYSE (hi'ze), Paul Johann Ludwig, 
 German novelist and dramatist, born at 
 Berlin 1830, settled at Munich in 1854. 
 He has written many plays, and short 
 stories for newspapers and magazines, 
 but his fame rests on his great novels. 
 Die Kinder der Welt (The Children of 
 the World), 1872; and Im Paradiese 
 (The Paradise Club), 1875; generally 
 recognised as among the most powerful 
 and artistic works of modern German 
 fiction. 
 
 HEZEKI'AH, the twelfth, and one of 
 the best of the kings of Judah. He suc- 
 ceeded Ahaz about 717 b.c., and died 
 about 698 b.c. 
 
 HIBERNATION. See Dormant State. 
 
 HIBER'NIA, the ancient name of Ire- 
 land, applied to it first by Julius Caesar. 
 Aristotle mentions this island by the 
 name of lerne; Pomponius Mela calls it 
 Iverna; Ptolemy, luvernia. 
 
 HIBERNIANS, Ancient Order of, a 
 society instituted originally for the 
 protection of the Catholic priesthood 
 and religion in Ireland, but it has now 
 as its main object “the advancement of 
 the principles of Irish nationality.” 
 According to some authorities the order 
 was first instituted in 1642, following 
 
 the great uprising in the north ; accord- 
 ing to others, in 1651, when Ciromwell 
 had proclaimed nearly the whole native 
 population outlawed, and had put a 
 price upon the head of every priest and 
 made it death to attend a Catholic ser- 
 vice. The founder was Rory Og O’Moo, 
 and the society was at first known as 
 The Defenders. On the establishment of 
 Catholic emancipation, in 1829, the 
 society was reorganized under its present 
 name as a beneficial and nationalist 
 organization. It was introduced into the 
 United States in 1836. Its membership 
 is restricted to persons of Irish birth or 
 descent and of Catholic faith. Military 
 drill is a prominent feature in some of 
 the branches. The order is an active 
 supporter of the present Gaelic move- 
 ment, having endowed a Celtic chair at 
 the Catholic University of America, and 
 contributed generously toward the sup- 
 port of Gaelic organizers in Ireland. 
 
 HIBIS'CUS, an extensive genus of 
 plants, chiefly natives of tropical cli- 
 mates. They have large showy flowers, 
 borne singly upon stalks toward the 
 ends of the branches, these flowers hav- 
 
 Hibiscus. 
 
 a. Flower cut longitudinally. 6, Stamen, c. 
 Fruit, d. Embryo. 
 
 ing an outer calyx of numerous leaves 
 in addition to the true five-lobed persist- 
 ent calyx. They are chiefly shrubs, one 
 or two being herbs, and a few attaining 
 the dimensions of trees. The species are 
 remarkable for abounding in mucilage 
 and for the tenacity of the fiber of their 
 bark, whence several are employed for 
 many economical purposes in the dif- 
 ferent countries where they are in- 
 digenous. 
 
 HICCUP, or HICCOUGH, is a convul- 
 sive catch of the respiratory muscles, 
 with sonorous inspiration, repeated at 
 short intervals. Though generally a 
 trivial and transient inconvenience, its 
 occurrence in the last stages of acute 
 disease is a grave, and often a fatal 
 symptom. The frequent swallowing of 
 small pieces of ice, or small doses of 
 anti-spasmodic medicines, usually re- 
 lieves a severe fit. 
 
 HICK'ORY, the name given to several 
 species of timber-trees. They are natives 
 of North America, and are remarkable 
 for stateliness and general beauty. The 
 wood is heavy, strong, and tenacious, 
 and is used for making carriage-shafts, 
 screws, whip-handles, cogged wheels. 
 
 etc. The shag-bark yields the hickory- 
 nut of commerce, and its wood is very 
 valuable. 
 
 Flowering branch and fruit of hickory. 
 a, Male flower, 6, Female flower. 
 
 HIDALGO, a Spanish nobleman of the 
 lower class. There were hidalgos de 
 naturaleza, of noble birth, and hidalgos 
 de privilegio, that is, those on whom the 
 king had conferred nobility, and those 
 who purchased nobility. The title is now 
 obsolete. 
 
 HIDES, the skins of animals, either 
 raw or dressed; but the name is more 
 commonly given to the undressed skins 
 of the larger domestic animals, as oxen, 
 horses, etc., the smaller being called 
 skins. The hide trade is now an im- 
 portant one. 
 
 HI'ERARCHY, sacred government, 
 sometimes the church, sometimes the 
 rule which the ecclesiastical governing 
 body exercised as at once priests and 
 civil magistrates. In the former sense 
 the hierarchy arose with the establish- 
 ment of the Christian church as an in- 
 dependent society. In the middle ages 
 the papal hierarchy gathered great 
 strength, and the pope became a spirit- 
 ual monarch, ruling western Christen- 
 dom with power but feebly limited by 
 princes and councils. A reactionary 
 movement began in the 14th century, 
 and the general tendency of subsequent 
 events has always been to make the civil 
 and hierarchical power more and more 
 independent of each other. The term 
 hierarchy as used to denote the govern- 
 ing and ministering body in the church, 
 according to its several gradations, can 
 strictly be applied only to those churches 
 which are ruled by bishops, such as the 
 Roman Catholic Church and the Angli- 
 can Church, which also holds the theory 
 of a hierarchical gradation of rank and 
 authority. Both these churches com- 
 prise the three orders of bishops, priests, 
 
 HIEROGLYPHICS, a term originally 
 applied to the inscriptions sculptured on 
 buildings in Egypt, in the belief that the 
 writing was confined to sacred subjects, 
 and legible only to the priests. The term 
 has also been applied to picture-writing 
 in general, such as that of the Mexicans 
 and the still ruder pictures of the North 
 American Indians. Three different 
 modes of writing were used by the an- 
 cient Egyptians, the Hieroglyphic, the 
 Hieratic, and the Demotic. Pure hiero- 
 glyphic writing is the earliest, and con- 
 
HIGGINS 
 
 HIGH -PRIEST 
 
 sists of figures of material objects from 
 every sphere of nature and art, with cer- 
 tain mathematical and arbitrary sym- 
 bols. Next was developed the hieratic or 
 p^riestly writing, the form in which most 
 Egyptian literature is written, and in 
 which the symbols almost cease to be 
 recognizable as figures of objects. Hier- 
 atic writings of the third millennium 
 B.c. are extant. In the demotic or en- 
 chorial writing, derived directly from 
 the hieratic, the symbols are still more 
 obscured. The demotic was first used in 
 the 9th century b.c., and was chiefly 
 employed in social and commercial in- 
 tercourse. Down to the end of the 18th 
 century scholars failed to find a clue to 
 the hieroglyphic writings. In 1799, how- 
 
 Cartoucheof Cleopatra. 
 
 ever, M. Bouchard, a French captain of 
 engineers, discovered at Rosetta the 
 celebrated stone which afforded Euro- 
 pean scholars a key to the language and 
 writing of the ancient Egyptians. It 
 contained a trilingual inscription in 
 hieroglyphics, demotic characters, and 
 Greek, which turned out to be a decree 
 of the priests in honor of Ptolemy V., 
 issued in 195 b.c. The last paragraph 
 of the Greek inscription stated that two 
 translations, one in the sacred and the 
 other in the popular Egyptian language, 
 would be found adjacent to it. The dis- 
 covery of an alphabet was the first task. 
 The demotic part of the inscription was 
 first examined by De Sacy and Akerblad, 
 and the signification of a number of the 
 symbols ascertained. The hieroglyphic 
 part was next carefully examined and 
 compared with the demotic and Greek. 
 At last after much study Champollion 
 and Dr. Thomas Young, independently 
 of each other, discovered the method of 
 reading the characters (1822), and thus 
 provided a clue to the decipherment of 
 the ancient Egyptian writing. 
 
 Hieroglyphic characters are either 
 ideographic, i.e. using well-known ob- 
 jects as symbols of conceptions, or 
 phonetic, i. e. representing words by 
 symbols standing for their sounds. The 
 phonetic signs are again divided into 
 alphabetical signs and syllabic signs. 
 Many of the ideographic characters are 
 simple enough; thus the figure of a man, 
 a woman, a calf, indicate simply those 
 objects. Others, however, are less sim- 
 ple, and convey their meaning figura- 
 tively or symbolically. Water was ex- 
 pressed by three zigzag lines, one above 
 the other, to represent waves or ripples 
 of running water, milk by a milk-jar, oil 
 by an oil-jar, fishing by a pelican seizing 
 a fish; i.e. fishing - seeing and sight by an 
 eye; and so on. The nature of the pho- 
 netic hieroglyphs, which represent sim- 
 
 ply sounds, will be understood from an 
 explanation of the accompanying cuts. 
 
 l.«The first hieroglyph in the name 
 of Kleopatra is a knee, which is kne or 
 kle in Coptic, and represents the K of 
 Kleopatra. K does not occur in the 
 name Ptolemaios. 2. The second hiero- 
 glyph in Kleopatra is a lion couchant, 
 which is laboi in Coptic, and labu in the 
 old Egyptian, and represents the L of 
 both names. In Kleopatra it occupies [ 
 the second place, and in Ptolemaios the 
 fourth. 3. The third hieroglyph in 
 Kleopatra is a reed, which is ak4 in 
 Coptic and aak in the old Egyptian, and 
 represents the E of Kleopatra. The reed 
 is doubled in Ptolemaios and occupies 
 the sixth and seventh places, where it 
 represents the diphthong ai of Ptolemaios. 
 4. The fourth hieroglyph in Kleopatra is 
 a noose, which represents the O of both 
 names, and occurs in the third place of 
 Ptolemaios. 5. The fifth hieroglyph in 
 Kleopatra is a mat, which represents the 
 P of both names, and is the initial of 
 Ptolemaios. 6. The sixth hieroglyph in 
 Kleopatra is an eagle, which is akhoom 
 in Coptic, and represents the A, which 
 is found twice in the name Kleopatra, 
 but does not occur in the name Ptole- 
 maios, although the diphthong ai occurs 
 as described above. No. 3. 7. The 
 
 seventh hieroglyph in Kleopatra is a 
 hand, which is toot in Coptic, and rep- 
 resents the T of Kleopatra, but does not 
 occur in Ptolemaios, where it might be 
 expected to occupy the second place. 
 The second place of Ptolemaios is 
 occupied by a semicircle, which is found 
 at the end of feminine proper names, and 
 is the Coptic feminine article T. The 
 researches of Champollion satisfied him 
 
 Cartouche ot Ptolemy. 
 
 of the existence of homophones, or 
 characters having the same phonetic 
 value and which might be interchanged 
 in writing proper names. 8. The eighth 
 hieroglyph in Kleopatra is a mouth, 
 which is ro in Coptic, and represents the 
 R of Kleopatra. 9. The ninth hiero- 
 glyphic in Kleopatra is the eagle, which 
 is explained in No. 6 above. 10. The 
 semicircle is the T of Ptolemaios, which 
 with 11, the egg found at the end of proper 
 names of women, is a feminine affix. 
 In the name of Ptolemaios there is still 
 the M and the S to account for. The 
 fifth hieroglyph in the cartouche of 
 Ptolemaios is a geometrical figure, con- 
 sisting of three sides of (probably?) a 
 parallelogram, but now called a hole, 
 because the Coptic mu has that signifi- 
 cation, and represents the M. The hook 
 represents the S of the word Ptolemaios. 
 Vowels were only regarded by the 
 Egyptians as they were needed to avoid 
 ambiguous writing. 
 
 There are groups of hieroglyphs of 
 which one element is an ideographicl 
 sign, to which a phonetic complement is 
 added to indicate the pronunciation of 
 the ideographic sign. The words of a 
 text could be written in hieroglyphs in 
 three ways — 1. By phonetic hieroglyphs;; 
 
 2. By ideographic hieroglyphs; and 3. 
 By a combination of both. According to 
 Ebers, in the perfected system of hiero- 
 glyphics the s 3 mibols for sounds and 
 syllables are to be regarded as the foun- 
 dation of the writing, while symbols 
 for ideas are interspersed with them, 
 partly to render the meaning more in- 
 intelligible, and partly for ornamental 
 purposes, or with a view to keep up the 
 mystic character of the hieroglyphics. 
 
 HIGGINS, CHARLES; editor; born 
 in Brooklyn, N. Y., 1860; began his 
 career as editor in Toronto, Canada; 
 removed to Chicago in 1878, managing 
 editor of Americanized Encyclopaedia; 
 editor World’s History and its Makers. 
 
 HIGH CHURCH, a term applied to a 
 party in the Church of England. It was 
 applied first to a party among the 
 younger clergy during the latter part of 
 the reign of Elizabeth who asserted that 
 Calvanism was inconsistent with the 
 ancient doctrine and constitution of the 
 primitive church, and who claimed a 
 divine right for episcopacy. Bishop 
 Andrewes was the chief writer of this 
 party, and Laud became its most active 
 leader. The term now generally refers 
 to those who exalt the authority and 
 jurisdiction of the church, and attach 
 great value to ecclesiastical dignities 
 
 HIGH GERMAN, originally the Teu- 
 tonic dialect spoken in the southern and 
 elevated parts of Germany, as distin- 
 guished from Platt Deutsch or Low 
 German, spoken in the northern and more 
 lowland portions of Germany. See 
 Germany. 
 
 HIGHLANDS OF SCOTLAND, a some- 
 what vague and indefinite geographical 
 division of Scotland, n. and w. of a line 
 running n.e. from Dumbarton on the 
 Clyde through the counties of Dum- 
 barton, Stirling, Perth, Forfar, Kincar- 
 dine; then n.w. through Aberdeen, Banff, 
 Moray, and Nairn to the shores of the 
 Moray Firth. The Highlands are gen- 
 erally subdivided into two parts, the 
 West Highlands and the North High- 
 lands ; the former of which contains the 
 shires of Argyll and Bute, the Southern 
 Hebrides, and part of Perth and Dum- 
 barton . 
 
 HIGH PLACES, in scripture, emi- 
 nences or mounds on which sacrifices 
 were offered. Altars and places of wor- 
 ship were erected from early times on 
 high places, for the worship of Jehovah. 
 Latterly such a practice, as leading to 
 idolatrous observances, was strictly for- 
 bidden among the Jews. High places 
 are frequently mentioned in conjunction 
 with groves. 
 
 HIGH-PRIEST, the head of the Jewish 
 priesthood. In the books of Moses the 
 holder of this dignity is simply desig- 
 nated the priest ; the epithet high occurs 
 on one or two occasions, but as a dis- 
 tinctive epithet it appears to have been 
 added subsequently. The formal con- 
 secration of Aaron, the brother of Moses, 
 together with his sons, to a hereditary 
 priesthood, is recorded in Exod. xxviii. 
 The high-priesthood continued in the 
 tine of Aaron, sometimes in one, and 
 sometimes in another branch of it, until 
 the coming of Christ. From b.c. 153 
 till the time of Herod the Great the regal 
 and priestly authority were united in 
 members of the Asmonaean family (the 
 
HIGH-SEAS 
 
 HIMALAYA 
 
 Maccabees). After the subjugation of 
 the Jews the high-priesthood was often 
 arbitrarily conferred by the foreign 
 masters. In the time of our Saviour it 
 appears to have been held by several 
 priests alternately. 
 
 HIGH-SEAS, the open sea or ocean. 
 The claims of various nations to exclu- 
 sive rights and superiority over exten- 
 sive tracts of the ocean-highway have 
 been settled after much controversy by 
 a general international law. The prin- 
 ciple now accepted is that the jurisdic- 
 tion of maritime states extends only for 
 3 miles, or within cannon range of their 
 own coasts; the remainder of the seas 
 being high-seas, accessible on equal 
 terms to all nations. Inland seas and 
 estuaries, of course, are excepted. 
 
 HIL'DRETH, Richard, American his- 
 torian, was born at Deerfield, Mass., 
 in 1807. He graduated at Harvard 
 college in 1826, studied law, and began 
 to practice in Iloston in 1830. In 1832, 
 however, he abandoned his profession 
 to become editor of the Boston Atlas. 
 In 1840 appeared his Despotism in 
 America, a work on the political, eco- 
 nomical, and social aspects of slavery. 
 The work however, for which he is most 
 remembered is his History of the United 
 States, in six volumes (1849-56), in 
 which he presents the founders of the 
 republic in their true character, without 
 trying to heighten their virtues or dis- 
 guise their mistakes and faults. In 1855 
 Hildreth published Japan as It Was and 
 Is, and in 1856 Atrocious Judges, based 
 on Campbell’s Lives. For several years, 
 ending with the inauguration of Lincoln 
 as president, he was engaged on the 
 staff of the New York Tribune. He went 
 abroad in the summer of 1861 as United 
 States consul at Triest, and died in 
 Florence in 1865. 
 
 HILL, Ambrose Powell, American 
 soldier, was born in Culpepper co., Va., 
 in 1825. He graduated at the United 
 States military academy in 1847, en- 
 tered the first artillery, and was made 
 second lieutenant. He served in the 
 Mexican war and afterward on the 
 frontier and in Florida. Later he was 
 promoted to captain. At the outbreak 
 of the civil war he entered the confed- 
 erate service, was appointed colonel of 
 the thirteenth regiment Virginia vol- 
 unteers, and ordered to Harper’s Ferry. 
 He fought at the first battle of Bull Run, 
 and at Chancellorville it was his troops 
 who, on being moved to the front, mis- 
 took Jackson’s escort for federals and 
 fired the fatal volley that caused Jack- 
 son’s death. On the reorganization of 
 his army in 1863 Lee gave one corps to 
 Hill and at the same time made him 
 lieutenant-general. He was killed in 
 1865 at Petersburg while reconnoitering. 
 
 HILL, Daniel Harvey, American sol- 
 dier and educator, was born in South 
 Carolina in 1821. He served in the Mexi- 
 can war and was bre vetted major. In 
 1861 He entered the confederate service 
 and commanded at the battle of Big 
 Bethel, and was soon afterward pro- 
 moted to brigadier-general. He was ap- 
 pointed lieutenant-general in 1863 and 
 was placed in command of a corps in 
 General Bragg’s army. From 1877 until 
 1884 he was president of the Arkansas 
 industrial university, and from 1885 
 
 until his death of the Middle Georgia 
 military and agricultural college. He 
 died in 1889. 
 
 HILL, David Bennett, American 
 politician, was born in Havana, N. Y., 
 in 1843. He was admitted to the bar in 
 1864, and in 1870-71 served in the state 
 legislature. In 1882 he was elected 
 mayor of Elmira; in November of the 
 same year, lieutenant-governor of New 
 York state, and in 1884, when Grover 
 Cleveland resigned the position of gov- 
 ernor, Mr. Hill took his place. In 1885 
 he was elected governor for the term 
 expiring in 1888, and was re-elected in 
 that year. He was a prominent can- 
 didate for the presidency on the demo- 
 cratic ticket in 1892. He became United 
 States senator for New York state, but 
 failed of re-election because the state 
 legislature elected in 1896 was republi- 
 can. 
 
 HILL, James J., American railway 
 promoter, was born near Guelph, Ont., 
 in 1838. In 1870 he formed the Red 
 River transportation company, which 
 was the first to open communication 
 between Saint Paul and Winnipeg. 
 Eight years afterward he helped to 
 form the syndicate which, under an- 
 other name, ultimately built the Cana- 
 dian Pacific railway. From 1883 to 1893 
 he interested himself in the building of 
 the Great Northern railway, extending 
 from Lake Superior to Puget Sound, 
 with northern and southern branches 
 and a direct steamship connection with 
 China and Japan, 
 
 HILL, Sir Rowland, K.C.B., English 
 postal reformer, born at Kidderminster 
 1795, died 1879. In 1837 he published a 
 pamphlet recommending the adoption 
 of a low and uniform rate of postage 
 throughout the United Kingdom. The 
 scheme was approved by a committee 
 of the House of Commons, which ex- 
 amined its details in 1838, and early in 
 1840 the penny postage system was 
 carried into effect with the assistance of 
 Mr. Hill, who, for this purpose, received 
 an appointment in the treasury. In 
 1846 he received a public testimonial 
 of the value of upward of $65,000. In 
 1846, he was made secretary to the post- 
 master-general, and in 1854 chief secre- 
 tary to the post office. In 1860 he be- 
 came K.C.B. He retired from the post 
 office four years later with a pension of 
 $10,000, besides a grant of $100,000 
 voted by parliament. 
 
 HILL, Rowland (Viscount Hill), Brit- 
 ish general, born 1772, died 1842. He 
 entered the army in his sixteenth year, 
 obtained the rank of captain in 1793, 
 and became colonel of the 90th Regi- 
 ment in 1800. He took part in the 
 Egyptian campaign, and in 1806 was 
 made major-general. In 1809 he became 
 lieutenant-general; in 1812 he was made 
 a K.B.; and in 1814, a peer by the title 
 of Baron of Almarez, and of Hawkstone. 
 At Waterloo he comnianded the right 
 wing of the British, md he was per- 
 sonally thanked by Wellington for his 
 services. In 1828 he was appointed 
 general commanding-in-chief of the 
 British army, a post which he held till 
 1842, when he retired and was made a 
 viscount. 
 
 HILLEL, Jewish rabbi, born at Baby- 
 lon about B.c. 112. He came to Jerusa 
 
 lem, it is said, at about forty years of 
 age, became president of the Sanhedrim 
 and founder of the school of Hillel. 
 Shammai, another member of the San- 
 hedrim, became the head of a rival and 
 hostile school. Hillel’s party was the 
 more liberal of the two, and became the 
 dominant one. 
 
 Viscount Hill. 
 
 HIMALAYA, a chain of snowy moun- 
 tains in Asia, the most elevated on the 
 earth, which separates the Indian Penin- 
 sula from the plateau of Tibet, between 
 the 72d and 96th degrees of e. Ion., or 
 between the Indus on the west and the 
 Brahmaputra on the east ; length about 
 1500 miles, average breadth about 180 
 miles. The great plains of India, south 
 of the Himalaya, has a general elevation 
 of 1000 feet above the sea. The general 
 height of the Himalayas is double that 
 of the Alps; the passes over the former 
 ordinarily exceed, often by half a mile, 
 the elevation of Mont Blanc. The Ibi- 
 Gamin pass in Garhwal, the highest of 
 all, is 20,457 feet, the Mustagh 19,019 
 feet, the Parangla 18,500 feet, the Kron- 
 brung 18,313 feet, and the Dura Ghat 
 17,750 feet high. There are several 
 summits in the Himalaya which ap- 
 proach closely to double the absolute 
 elevation of the highest of the Alps, 
 and 120 of them are stated to be above 
 
 20.000 feet. The rivers of the Punjab 
 (“Five Waters’’) spring from a portion 
 of the great chain which may be con- 
 sidered a distinct group under the title 
 of the northwestern Himalaya. Some of 
 the peaks here rise to a height of 24,000 
 to 25,000 feet; or to 28,278 feet if the 
 Karakorum is regarded as part of the 
 Himalayas. In the Central or Middle 
 Himalaya rise the sources of the Ganges 
 and Jumna, in a region regarded by the 
 Hindus as holy ground. Farther east- 
 ward, in Nepal, is the highest part of the 
 Himalya, as far as it is known and 
 measured. Dhawalagiri has an eleva- 
 tion of 26,826 feet, the Gaurisankar or 
 Mount Everest, the highest known 
 mountain in the world, is 29,002 feet; 
 the Yassa group rises to the height of 
 26,680 feet, the Ibjibia group to 26,306. 
 Going farther east, in Sikkim, or on its 
 borders, we find Kanchinjinga, the 
 western peak of which is 28,156 feet 
 high, the eastern, 27,815 feet, while the 
 Kabru ridge rises to 24,015 feet. Sikkim 
 forms a comparative!)' narrow but in- 
 teresting territory, walled in on three 
 sides by stupendous mountains from 
 
 17.000 to 28,000 feet high. Here ter- 
 
HINDUS 
 
 HIPPOPOTAMUS 
 
 minates the region of the Middle Hima- 
 laya, most of the streams from which 
 unite in the Ganges. The eastern Hima- 
 laya, which extends from Sikkim east 
 to the Brahmaputra and completes the 
 chain, sends all its waters to the last- 
 named river, and is all comprised in 
 Bhutan. A little to the east of Sikkim, 
 Chamalari attains the height of 23,944 
 feet. About 250 miles further east a con- 
 
 HIP- JOINT, the joint of the hip, a 
 ball-and-socket joint formed by the 
 reception of the globular head of the 
 femur or thigh-bone into the socket or 
 acetabulum of the os innominatum. 
 For flexion, extension, rotation, and 
 strength combined it is the most perfect 
 joint in the body. 
 
 HIPPAR'CHUS, ancient Greek as- 
 tronomer, was born at Nicsea in Bithy- 
 
 The snowy range of Himalayas, from Marma. 
 
 spicuous group has been observed with 
 two peaks, named the Gemini or Twins, 
 21,500 feet high. Thence toward the 
 east the mountains sink rapidly, but 
 the range may be traced beyond the 
 right bank of the Brahmaputra. This 
 stream, as well as the Indus, rises on the 
 little-known north side of the Himalaya, 
 their sources not being far apart. The 
 snowy ridge of the Himalayas, as far as 
 examined, consists everywhere of gran- 
 ite, with which are immediately asso- 
 ciated gneiss and mica-slate, followed, 
 in descending, by metamorphic and 
 secondary rocks till we arrive at the 
 more recent alluvial deposits. Earth- 
 quakes are still frequent within this 
 region; and hot springs gush forth in 
 abundance, even from beneath the 
 snow. The limit of perpetual snow in the 
 middle division (Ion. 78° e.) is stated to 
 be about 15,500 feet on the south side 
 and 18,500 feet on the northern. In 
 Sikkim the snow-line descends on the 
 south side to 14,500 feet, while on the 
 north it rises to a level of 19,600 feet. 
 Immense glaciers exist at various parts. 
 The vegetation of the Himalayas is very 
 rich, there being forests of pine, spruce, 
 silver-fir, and deodar cedar at suitable 
 elevations, with rhododendrons in pro- 
 fusion. Among the more characteristic 
 animals are the yak, musk-deer, wild 
 shcGp ©tc 
 
 HINDUS, or HINDOOS. See India. 
 
 HINDUSTAN', the name commonly 
 given to the whole Indian empire, but 
 which properly applies only to the Pun- 
 jab and the valley of the Ganges. See 
 India. 
 
 HINDUSTA'NI, one of the chief lan- 
 guages of India, having various forms 
 or dialects. When written in the Persian 
 character, and containing many Persian 
 words and phrases, it is known as Urdu; 
 another form of it is Hindi. 
 
 nia, and lived about B.c. 160-125. He 
 resided for some time at Rhodes, but 
 afterward went to Alexandria, then 
 the great school of science. A commen- 
 tary on Aratus is the only work of his 
 extant. He first ascertained the true 
 length of the year, discovered the preces- 
 sion of the equinoxes, determined the 
 revolutions and mean motions of the 
 planets, prepared a catalogue of the 
 fixed stars, etc. 
 
 HIP'PIAS, ruler of Athens, son of 
 Pisistratus, after whose death (b.c. 527) 
 he assumed the government, in conjunc- 
 tion with his brother Hipparchus. His 
 tyranny became at last unbearable, and 
 he was expelled from the city b.c. 510. 
 
 HIPPOCAM'PUS, a genus of fishes, 
 closely allied to the pipe-fishes, of sin- 
 gular construction and peculiar habits; 
 the upper parts have some resemblance 
 
 Hippocampus. 
 
 to the head and neck of a horse in mina- 
 ture, which has suggested the name. 
 When swimming they maintain a ver- 
 tical position; their general length is 
 from 6 to 10 inches, and they occur in 
 the Mediterranean and Atlantic. 
 
 HIPPOC'RATES, the most famous 
 among the Greek physicians, the father 
 of medicine, born in the island of Cos 
 B.c. 460. Besides practicing and teach- 
 ing his profession at home he traveled on 
 the continent of Greece, and died at an 
 
 advanced age b.c. 357, at Larissa, in 
 Thessaly. 
 
 Hippocrates. —Antique bust. 
 
 HIP'PODROME, the Greek name for 
 the public place where the horse and 
 chariot races were held. In Byzantine 
 times the hippodrome at Constantinople 
 acquired great renown, and factions 
 originating in the hippodrome caused 
 perpetual confusion in all departments 
 of the public service. The name is some- 
 times applied to a modern circus. 
 
 HIPPOGRIFF, a fabulous animal or 
 monster, half-horse, and half-griffin. 
 
 HIPPOL'YTUS, in Greek mythology, 
 son of Theseus, whose stepmother, 
 Phsedra, fell in love with him, and ac- 
 cused him to his father in order to 
 avenge herself for his indifference. He 
 was put to death, but his innocence 
 being afterward established, Phsedra 
 destroyed herself. See Phaedra. 
 
 HIPPOPOT'AMUS, the typical genus 
 of a family of Ungulates, of which two 
 living species are known. One species is 
 of large size, and is common throughout 
 
 Hippopotamus. 
 
 the greater part of Africa; the other, 
 is not only smaller, but has other im- 
 portant differences, and is found only in 
 the African west coast rivers, and those 
 flowing into Lake Tchad. The former 
 species has a thick and square head, a 
 very large muzzle, small eyes and ears, 
 thick and heavy body, short legs ter- 
 minated by four toes, a short tail, two 
 ventral teats, skin about 2 inches thick 
 on the back and sides, and without hair, 
 except at the extremity of the tail. The 
 incisors and canines of the lower jaw 
 are of great strength and size, the 
 canines or tusks being long and curved 
 forward. These tusks sometimes reach 
 the length of 2 feet and more, and weigh 
 upward of 6 lbs. The.animal is killed 
 by the natives partly as food, but also 
 on account of the tusks and teeth, their 
 hardness being superior to that of ivory, 
 and less liable to turn yellow. The 
 hippopotamus has been found of the 
 length of 17 feet, and stands about 5 
 feet high. It delights in water, living 
 
HIP-ROOF 
 
 HOCHE 
 
 in lakes, rivers, and estuaries, and feed- 
 ing on water-plants or on the herbage 
 growing near the water. It is an excel- 
 lent swimmer and diver, and can remain 
 under water a considerable time. The 
 behemoth of Job is considered by com- 
 mentators to be the hippopotamus, as 
 the description of his size, manners, 
 food, and haunts it not unlike those of 
 the latter animal. Among the ancient 
 Egyptians it was revered as a divinity, 
 as it is among the negroes in some 
 localities. Several extinct species are 
 found in old-world tertiary and diluvial 
 formations. 
 
 HIP-ROOF, a roof, the ends of which 
 slope so as to have the same inclination 
 
 to the horizon as its other two sides, 
 being thus of a triangular form. 
 
 HISPANIA. See Spain. 
 
 HISPANIO'LA. See Hayti. 
 
 HISSAR', a town of Hindustan, in the 
 Punjab, administrative headquarters of 
 district of the same name, on the western 
 Jumma canal, 102 miles w. of Delhi. 
 Pop. 17,000. The district has an area of 
 5163 sq. miles. Pop. 776,006. 
 
 HISTOL'OGY, the study of the tissues 
 which enter into the formation of ani- 
 mals and plants, and their various 
 organs, by means of the microscope and 
 chemical and physical reagents. It may 
 be described as a kind of minute anat- 
 omy. It comprehends the structure and 
 mode of development of the various 
 tissues, and is divided into animal 
 histology and vegetable histology. 
 
 HISTORY, is used by Herodotus in 
 the sense which it has since retained, of 
 a narrative of events and circumstances 
 relating to man in his social or civic 
 condition. A record of bare facts by 
 themselves does not constitute history. 
 Such a record (forming a chronicle or 
 annals) is chronologically valuable; but 
 to attain the dignity of history we must 
 have social events and evolution de- 
 tailed with considerable fulness, and the 
 growth and movements of society, from 
 one phase to another, distinctly traced 
 and recorded. The modern school of 
 historians devote much attention to the 
 social life of the people; their method 
 being further characterized by the ut- 
 most accuracy, of research the extreme 
 importance assigned to contemporary 
 documentary evidence, and careful 
 weighing of data. 
 
 HITCHCOCK, Edward, American 
 geologist, born 1793, died 1864. He was 
 connected with the state survey of 
 Massachusetts, Vermont, and part of 
 New York, valuable reports on which 
 he published. He was author of various 
 other works, some geological and some 
 of miscellaneous character. These in- 
 clude Geology of the Connecticut Valley, 
 a highly popular work on Elementary 
 Geology, Illustrations of Surface Geol- 
 ogy, Religion of Geology and its Con- 
 nected Sciences, and Reminiscences, 
 published shortly before his death. 
 
 HITCHCOCK, Roswell Dwight, D.D., 
 LL.D., American theologian, born 1817, 
 died 1887. He entered Andover theo- 
 logical seminary in 1838, and was succes- 
 sively professor of natural and revealed 
 religion in Bowdoin, of church history at 
 New York, president of the American 
 Palestine exploration society, and presi- 
 dent of Union theological seminary. 
 
 HITTITES, a Canaanitish nation first 
 mentioned in connection with Abraham, 
 who bought the field and cave of Mach- 
 pelah from them. There are notices of 
 them in Palestine during and after the 
 captivity. Egyptian and Assyrian in- 
 scriptions seem to indicate that the 
 nation consisted of a confederacy ruled 
 by a number of chiefs, and at one time 
 there was a Hittite empire extending 
 over a large area in Asia Minor and 
 Syria. Their chief territory was in the 
 Orontes Valley. 
 
 HOANG-HO, or YELLOW RIVER, a 
 
 large river in China, the sources of which 
 are in mountains in the Koko-Nor 
 territory, north from Tibet. After a 
 winding course of several hundred miles, 
 it proceeds nearly due north to about 
 lat. 41°; then east for nearly 200 miles, 
 when it suddenly bends round, and flows 
 directly southforaboutanother200miles; 
 then turns abruptly east, and flows in 
 that direction till it reaches Lung-men- 
 kau, when it diverges to the north-east, 
 and falls into the Gulf of Peche-le about 
 lat. 37° 30', and Ion. 118° 30'. From the 
 13th century till 1853 the Hoang-Ho 
 entered the sea in lat. 34°, south of the 
 peninsula of Shan-tung, but at the latter 
 date it took its present course. Since 
 then vast sums have been spent in 
 watching and strengthening the banks of 
 the river, which is constantly over- 
 flowing at some point. In the autumn 
 of 1887 the whole body of the river 
 burst its banks about 300 miles from its 
 mouth, and flooded about one-sixth of 
 the province of Ho-nan, destroying 
 towns and villages and causing a loss of 
 life, the lowest estimate of which is one 
 million. Its length is estimated at about 
 2600 miles. It derives its name from the 
 vast quantities of yellow earth held in a 
 state of solution by its waters. 
 
 HOAR, George Frisbie, American 
 legislator, was born at Concord, Mass., 
 in 1826. He was elected to congress in 
 1869 and was a member until 1877, 
 when he was chosen senator and con- 
 tinuously re-elected until his death in 
 1904. 'Though he supported President 
 McKinley for re-election, he strongly 
 opposed his policy in the Philippines, 
 which he considered subversive of 
 American ideals. 
 
 HOARSENESS, an affection of the 
 throat causing harshnesss and roughness 
 of voice, due to irregular and imperfect 
 bringing together of the vocal chords, 
 most frequently from swelling of the 
 mucous membrane of the chords, and 
 excessive secretion of mucus in their 
 neighborhood. It arises from a variety 
 of causes, the most common of which 
 is catarrh or cold. Simple hoarseness is 
 treated with soothing remedies, the 
 inhalation of the steam of boiling water, ' 
 warm poultices to the neck, etc. 
 
 HOBART, Garret Augustus, American 
 lawyer and politician, was born at Long 
 Branch, N. J., in 1844. He was a mem- 
 
 ber of the state assembly from 1873 to 
 1878 and of the state senate from 1879 
 to 1885. He was* successively delegate 
 at large for five times to the republican 
 national convention. He was nominated 
 at St. Louis in 1896 for vice-president on 
 with McKinley and was elected to that 
 office. He died in 1899. 
 
 HOBBES, Thomas, English moral and 
 political philosopher, born 1588 at 
 Malmesbury, died 1679. The most re- 
 markable of his works is his Leviathan, 
 or the Matter, Form, and Power of a 
 Commonwealth (1651). Other works are 
 De Give (1642), De Corpore Politico 
 (1650), De Libertate, Necessitate et 
 Casu (1654), and Behemoth, a history of 
 the civil war, published after his death. 
 He also published a metrical version of 
 the Iliad and Odyssey. 
 
 HO'BOKEN, a city in New Jersey, on 
 the Hudson river, and close to Jersey 
 City, which stretches immediately to the 
 south. It lies opposite New York, ^rith 
 which it is connected by steam ferries. 
 It has various manufactories, and 
 among the public institutions is the 
 Steven’s institute of technology, with 
 library and valuable scientific appara- 
 tus. Pop. 1909, about 75,000. 
 
 HOBSON, Richard Pearson, an Ameri- 
 can naval constructor, was born in 1870 
 in Greensboro, Ala. He entered the 
 Southern university in 1882, but three 
 years afterward accepted an appoint- 
 ment to the United States naval acad- 
 emy, where he graduated in 1889. 
 During the war with Spain he was 
 present at the bombardment of Matan- 
 zas, and took part in the expedition 
 against San Juan de Puerto Rico; but 
 his great achievement was the sinking 
 of tha collier Merrimac across the en- 
 trance to Santiago harbor before day- 
 light, on June 3, 1898, in order to 
 “bottle up” Cervera’s fleet. After the 
 war he raised and refitted several of the 
 Spanish warships which had been sunk. 
 He resigned from the navy in 1903. 
 Among his publications are 'The Disap- 
 pearing Gun Afloat, and the Sinking of 
 the Merrimac. In 19i'6 he was elected 
 to the United States Congress. 
 
 HOCHE, (osh), Lazare, general in the 
 French revolutionary war, born 1768. 
 He took service in the French guards 
 when sixteen years old, and at the 
 revolution joined the popular party. 
 He greatly distinguished himself at the 
 siege of Thionville and the defense of 
 Dunkirk, and shortly aftert\'ard, when 
 scarcely twenty-five years of age, re- 
 ceived the command of the army on the 
 Moselle. In 1793 he drove the Austrians 
 out of Alsace, and soon after was 
 arrested by the Jacobins and imprisoned 
 at Paris. In 1794 he was released, and 
 appointed commander of the army 
 destined to quell the rising in the west, 
 and afterward to that in La Vendee. 
 In 1796 he conceived the plan of attack- 
 ing Britain, by making a descent on 
 Ireland. He accordingly set sail in De- 
 cember from Brest, but the expedition 
 utterly failed, and he was obliged to 
 return without having even effected a 
 landing. After his return he received 
 the command of the army of the Sambre 
 and Meuse. He opened the campaign 
 of 1797 by a bold passage over the 
 Rhine, and had defeated the Austrians 
 
HOCK 
 
 HOLLAND 
 
 is several engagements, when he was 
 stopped in the path of victory by the 
 news of the armistice concluded in 
 Italy. He died suddenly in September 
 same year (1797). 
 
 HOCK, the name given to the Ger- 
 man wines grown in the Hochheim dis- 
 trict (see Hochheim). It is a white still 
 wine, but is sometimes rendered spark- 
 ling. The name is also loosely applied to 
 all the Rhenish wines. 
 
 HOCKEY, a game at ball known as 
 shinty in Scotland, and hurling in Ire- 
 land. It is played with a club curved 
 at the lower end, by a number of per- 
 sons divided into two parties or sides; 
 and the object of each side is to drive 
 the ball into that part of the field marked 
 off as their opponents’ goal. 
 
 HOE, an instrument for cutting up 
 weeds and loosening the earth in fields 
 and gardens, in shape something like an 
 adze, being a plate of iron, with ^n eye 
 for a handle, which is set at a convenient 
 
 Horse-hoe. 
 
 • 
 
 angle with the plate. The Dutch hoe 
 differs from the common hand hoe in 
 having the cutting blade set like the 
 blade of a spade. A horse-hoe is a frame 
 wheel-mounted, and furnished with 
 ranges of shares spaced so as to work 
 in the intervals between the rows of 
 turnips, potatoes, etc. It is used on 
 farms for the same purpose as the hand 
 hoe, and worked by horse-power. 
 
 HOG, a general name for the ungulate 
 or hoofed animals, or swine. The head 
 is prolonged into a pointed or trun- 
 cated snout; the feet have four toes, two 
 of which reach the ground; and the skin 
 is very thick, and mostly covered with 
 stiff bristles. The common hog in a tame 
 state, is almost universal, except in very 
 high latitudes. The prevailing color of 
 the domestic animal is a dull yellowish 
 white, sometimes marked irregularly 
 with black, and sometimes totally black. 
 It is omnivorous in its habits, devouring 
 almost any vegetable or animal sub- 
 stance. It is also very prolific, has 
 usually two litters in a year, a litter con- 
 sisting of from ten to even twenty. The 
 wild-boar, from which most of our 
 domesticated varieties are derived, is 
 found in most parts of Europe and Asia. 
 In size the wild animal considerably 
 exceeds the domesticated hog, the legs 
 are longer and more muscular, and the 
 back therefore much higher. Hunting 
 this animal has always been a favorite 
 amusement, and can still be practiced 
 in various parts of Europfe. 
 
 HO'GARTH, William, painter and 
 satirical artist, born in London, 1697, 
 died 1764. In 1729 he married the 
 daughter of Sir James Thornhill, the 
 painter, against her father’s wishes, who 
 is said, however, to have been mollified 
 when Hogarth produced his celebrated 
 series of pictures ealled the Harlot’s 
 Progress, a work which brought his 
 
 great powers fairly before the public. 
 The engravings of these, which became 
 exceedingly popular, were published in 
 1734. This was followed by the Rake’s 
 Progress and Marriage 4 la Mode, two 
 similarseries of paintings andengravings. 
 Industry and Idleness, Beer Street and 
 
 William Hogarth. 
 
 Gin Lane, The Election, The Enraged 
 Musician, The Country-Inn Yard, The 
 March to Finchley, Strolling Actresses 
 Dressing in a Barn, Four Stages of 
 Cruelty, and a host of other engravings, 
 which all evinced his extraordinary 
 powers of satire, wit, and imagination. 
 The best edition of his works is that pub- 
 is hed by Boydell (London, 1790), the 
 plates of which, retouched by Heath 
 and others, have been repeatedly pub- 
 lished sinee. 
 
 HOGSHEAD, an obsolete measure of 
 capacity containing 63 old wine gallons, 
 or 52J imperial gallons. For beer it was 
 54 gallons, for rum 45 to 50 gallons, for 
 brandy 45 to 60 gallons. In the United 
 States the measure is still in use, being 
 equivalent to 63 American gallons or- 
 52.485 imperial gallons; for tobacco it 
 varies from 750 lbs. in some states to 
 1200 lbs. in others. 
 
 HOHENZOLLERN (ho-en-tsol'ern), a 
 small territory of Germany, since 1852 
 administrative division of Prussia. It 
 consists of a long, narrow, irregular strip 
 of country, entirely surrounded by 
 Wiirtemberg and Baden. Area, 450 sq. 
 miles. Pop. 66,720. The princely family 
 of Hohenzollern dates from Thassilo, 
 Count of Zollern, who died about 800 
 A.D. There have been several lines and 
 branches, the main one being repre- 
 sented by the present imperial family of 
 Germany. 
 
 HOLBACH (hol'bah), Paul Heinrich 
 Dietrich, Baron von, philosopher, born 
 at Heidelsheim, in the Palatinate, in 
 1723. He was educated in Paris, where 
 he passed the greater part of his life, 
 and died in 1789. He contributed many 
 papers on natural history, politics and 
 philosophy to the Encyclop4die. His 
 principal work was the System of Na- 
 ture. According to Holbach matter is 
 one form of existence and everything is 
 the effect of a blind necessTy. 
 
 HOLBEIN (hol'bln), Hans, an eminent 
 German painter, born at Augsburg in 
 1497. He studied under his father, Hans 
 Holbein the elder, a painter of con- 
 siderable merit (1450-1526), and at an 
 early age settled at Basel, where he 
 
 exercised his art till about 1526. He 
 then came to England, where letters 
 from his friend Arasmus, whose Panegy- 
 ric on Folly he had illustrated by a series 
 of drawings, procured him the patronage 
 of the chancellor Sir Thomas More. He 
 was appointed court painter by Henry 
 VIII.; and in the Windsor collection has 
 left portraits of all the eminent English- 
 men of the time. The most celebrated of 
 his pictures are the Madonna at Darm- 
 stadt (better known through the replica 
 at Dresden), representing the Burgo- 
 master Meyer and his wives kneeling to 
 the Virgin; and the Solothurn Madonna. 
 His famous Dance of Death has only 
 been preserved in the engraving of 
 Liitzelburger. There are a considerable 
 number of engravings on wood and 
 copper from Holbein’s designs. He died 
 at Whitehall of the plague in 1543. 
 
 HOLBERG, Ludwig, Baron, the father 
 of modern Danish literature, was born 
 at Bergen, in Norway, then part of the 
 Danish dominions, in 1684; died at 
 Copenhagen January 27, 1754. His 
 works may be divided into four classes — 
 poems, stage pieces, philosophical treat- 
 ises, and historical works. His poems are 
 
 Hans Holbein, the younger. 
 
 chiefly of a satirical nature. The most 
 celebrated is Peder Paars, a comic heroic 
 poem in fourteen cantos, which is still 
 regarded throughout the Scandinavian 
 countries as a masterpiece. Almost 
 equally famous is his Nicolas Klimm’s 
 Subterraneous Travels, a satirical ro- 
 mance in prose. 
 
 HOLD, the whole interior cavity or 
 belly of a ship, or all that part of her 
 inside which is comprehended between 
 the floor and the lower deck throughout 
 her length. 
 
 HOLIBUT. See Halibut. 
 
 HOLIDAY, any day set apart as a 
 religious or national festival ; in a general 
 sense a day or a number of days during 
 which a person is released from his every 
 day labors. 
 
 HOLLAND, a fine and close kind of 
 linen, so called from its being first manu- 
 factured in Holland; also a coarser linen 
 fabric, unbleached or dyed brown, used 
 for covering furniture, books, carpets, 
 etc., or for making window-blinds or 
 the like. 
 
 HOLLAND, North, and Holland, 
 South, two provinces of the Nether- 
 lands. The greater part of the former 
 consists of a peninsula, bounded by the 
 North Sea on the w. and the Zuider-Zee 
 on the e. Area, 1051 sq. miles. It lies 
 
HOLLY 
 
 HOLY PLACES OF JERUSALEM 
 
 very low, some portions of it being at 
 least partially below the level of the sea, 
 and it is generally fertile. A broad 
 margin of downs or sand-hills protects it 
 from the sea on the west. Besides rivers 
 (Vecht, Amstel, Zaan, etc.), it is inter- 
 sected by the Great North Holland canal. 
 The chief towns are Amsterdam, Alk- 
 maar, Haarlem, Helder, and Zaandam. 
 Pop. 96S.105. — South Holland, the 
 most populous province of the Nether- 
 lands, is bounded on the north by 
 North Holland, on the west by the Ger- 
 man Ocean. The southern part of the 
 province is broken up into several is- 
 lands. Area, 1155 sq. miles. Like North 
 Holland, it is a flat and depressed tract, 
 and it also is protected from the sea on 
 the v/est by a margin of downs or sand- 
 hills. The chief river is the Rhine, with 
 its numerous branches. The lakes were 
 formerly numerous, but most of them 
 are now drained. The soil is fertile and 
 well cultivated. The principal towns are 
 Delft, Dort, Gorkum, Gouda, Leyden, 
 Rotterdam, Schiedam, ’s Gravenhage 
 (the Hague). Pop. 1,114,401. 
 
 HOLLY, a genus of plants embracing 
 a number of evergreen trees or shi-ubs. 
 The common holly is common in Britain 
 and the Continent of Europe. It is a 
 handsome, conical evergreen tree, grow- 
 ing to the height of 20 or 30 feet. Its 
 leaves are dark-green, shining, and 
 leathery, abdndantly armed with prickles 
 on the lower branches, but free from 
 
 them on the upper, or on very old trees. 
 The flowers are white, appearing in 
 May; the fruit is red, ripening in Sep- 
 tember, and remaining on the tree al- 
 the winter. A good many varieties are 
 known , distinguished by the shape and 
 color of the leaves, which are sometimes 
 spotted or edged with yellow, etc. It is 
 excellently adapted for hedges and 
 fences, as it bears clipping. The wood is 
 hard and wdiite, and is employed for 
 turnery work, knife handles, etc. The 
 bark yields a mucilaginous substance, 
 from which birdlime is made. Among 
 the Romans it was customary to send 
 boughs of holly to friends, with new- 
 year’s gifts, as emblematical of good 
 wishes; and it is used to decorate houses 
 at Christmas. The American holly is 
 widely diffused throughout the United 
 States. It sometimes attains the height 
 of 80 feet, with a trunk 4 feet in diameter. 
 
 HOLLYHOCK, a biennial plant, a 
 native of China, and is a frequent orna- 
 ment of gardens. There are many vari- 
 eties, with single and double flowers, 
 characterized by the tints of yellow, 
 
 red, purple, and dark purple approach- 
 ing to black. 
 
 HOLME3, Mary Jane, American nov- 
 elist, was born in Brookfield, Mass., 1839. 
 Her first novel. Tempest and Sunshine 
 (1854), was followed by a book almost 
 every year, and the circulation of her 
 books has exceeded two millions. Died 
 1907. 
 
 HOLMES (homz), Oliver Wendell, 
 M.D., LL.D., American writer born at 
 Cambridge, Mass., 1809, and educated 
 at Harvard university. He began the 
 study of law, but in a short time relin- 
 quished it for that of medicine. In 1839 
 
 
 he became professor of anatomy and 
 physiology in Dartmouth college, N. 
 H., but resigned after two years’ serv- 
 ice in order to devote himself to prac- 
 tice in Boston. In 1847 he was appointed 
 to the chair of anatomy at Harvard, a 
 position which he filled till 1882. He 
 was a voluminous writer both in prose 
 and verse, and shone as a prominent 
 figure in the famous group associated 
 with the Atlantic Monthly. His chief 
 works, besides several volun es of poems, 
 and treatises on medicine, are The 
 Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, The 
 Professor at the Breakfast Table, and 
 The Poet at The Breakfast Table; Elsie 
 Venner, The Guardian Angel, A Mortal 
 Antipathy, and Memoirs of Motley and 
 Emerson. A visit to Europe in 1886 pro- 
 duced a charming record: A Hundred 
 Days in Europe. He died in 1894. 
 
 HOLY ALLIANCE, a league con- 
 cluded at Paris, Sept. 26, 1815, between 
 Alexander I., emperor of Russia, Francis, 
 of Austria, and Frederick William III. 
 of Prussia, and signed with their own 
 hands, and without the countersign of a 
 minister. It consisted of a declaration, 
 that, in accordance with the precepts of 
 the gospel of Jesus Christ, the principles 
 of justice, charity, and peace should 
 be the basis of their internal admin- 
 istration, and of their international 
 relations, and that the happiness and 
 religious welfare of their subjects should 
 be their great object. Its real aim, how- 
 ever, was to maintain the power and in- 
 fluence of the existing dynasties. It 
 was offered for signature to all the 
 European powers except the pope and 
 the sultan of Turkey, and accepted by 
 all except Britain. The events of 1848 
 broke up the Holy Alliance. 
 
 HOLY COAT OF TREVES, a relic pre- 
 served in the cathedral of Treves, and 
 said to be the identical seamless coat worn 
 by our Saviour at his crucifixion, and 
 for which the soldiers cast lots. It was 
 the gift of the Empress Helena, by whom 
 it was discovered in her visit to Palestine 
 in the 4th century. It has been exhibited 
 to vast numbers of pilgrims at irregular 
 intervals. The same claim is made for 
 several coats kept in other places. 
 
 HOLY FAMILY, in art, representa- 
 tions of the infant Saviour and his 
 mother, accompanied by one or more 
 members of his family. 
 
 HOLY GHOST, according to Trini- 
 tarians, the third person in the Holy 
 Trinity; according to the Socinians, a 
 Biblical metaphor, to designate the 
 divine influence. The doctrine of the 
 Athanasian creed adopted by Roman 
 Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists 
 alike^is that the Holy Ghost proceeded 
 from both Son and Father, and is co- 
 eternal and equal with both. The East- 
 ern Church, however, following the 
 Council of Alexandria held in 362, as- 
 serts that the Holy Ghost proceeds from 
 the Father alone. 
 
 HOLY GHOST, Order of, an order of 
 male and female hospitallers, founded by 
 Guy, son of William, Count of Mont- 
 pellier, toward the end of the 12th cen- 
 tury, for the relief of the poor, infirm 
 and foundlings. 
 
 HOLYHEAD, an island and seaport 
 town of North Wales, in the county of 
 Anglesey. The island is about 7 miles 
 long and 5 miles broad at the widest part, 
 
 is situated off the west side of Anglesey, 
 and is connected with the mainland by a 
 causeway. The town is on the northeast 
 side of the island, and owes its pros- 
 perity to the railway and steamboat 
 traffic between England and Dublin, 
 The harbor of refuge (Victoria harbor), 
 opened in 1873, is formed by a break- 
 water which is 7860 feet in length, the 
 whole cost, including some minor works, 
 being $7,500,000. Pop. 11,414. 
 
 HOLY LAND. See Palestine. 
 
 HOLYOKE, a city in Hampden co.. 
 Mass., on the w. bank of the Connecticut 
 river. It has manufactures of paper, 
 cotton, wool, wire, machine works, etc. 
 Pop. 1909, about 54.000. 
 
 HOLY PLACES OF JERUSALEM, a 
 term meant to apply more particularly 
 to that group of localities of which the 
 Church of the Holy Sepulcher is the 
 
 . ..... . 
 
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 
 
 HOMICIDAL MANIA 
 
 center, some of the other more cele- 
 brated objects being the Garden of 
 Gethsemane, the Church of the Ascen- 
 sion, the Tomb of the Virgin, etc., all 
 connected with the life and passion of 
 our Saviour. The guardiansliip of the 
 holy places has been a cause of much 
 contention between the Greek and Latin 
 churches. They were formerly under the 
 control of the latter, but since 1757 they 
 have been committed to the care of the 
 Greek Church by imperial ordinance of 
 the Porte. Demands made respecting 
 the holy places and the protection of 
 Greek Christians in Turkey, led to the 
 Crimean war of 1854-76. 
 
 HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, a title which 
 the German Empire received in 962 when 
 Otho I. was crowned at Rome by Pope 
 John XII. It came to an end when 
 Francis II. becime hereditary emperor 
 of Austria in 1804. 
 
 HOLYROOD, Palace and Abbey of, 
 in Edinburgh, at the eastern extremity 
 of the old town. The abbey church, 
 founded in 1128 by David I., containing 
 the royal vault, with the ashes of nu- 
 merous members of the Scottish royal 
 race, is now mostly in ruin. 
 
 HOLY SEPULCHER, Knights of the, 
 an order of knighthood founded by God- 
 frey of Bouillon, 1099, for the guardian- 
 ship of the Holy Sepulcher at Jerusalem, 
 and for the protection of pilgrims. It 
 was revived by Pope Alexander VI., 
 1496, and reorganized in 1847 and 1868. 
 
 HOLY WATER, in the Greek and 
 Roman Catholic Church, salted water 
 which has been consecrated by prayers, 
 exorcism, and other ceremonies, to 
 sprinkle the faithful and things used for 
 the church. It is placed at the door 
 of churches, so that worshipers may 
 sprinkle themselves with it as they enter, 
 and it is used in nearly every blessing 
 w'hich the church gives. Sprinkling the 
 people with holy water seems to date 
 from the 9th century, and it is con- 
 sidered efficacious not from any virtue 
 of its own, but from the effect of the 
 church’s prayers at the time of using. 
 
 HOLY WEEK, or PASSION WEEK, is 
 that which immediately precedes Easter, 
 and is devoted especially to commem- 
 orate the passion of our Lord. The days 
 more especially solemnized during it are 
 Spy Wednesday, Maundy Thursday, 
 Good Friday, and Holy Saturday. It is 
 an institution of very early origin, and is 
 known as Great Week, Silent Week, 
 Penitent Week, etc. Spy Wednesday 
 was a name given in allusion to the be- 
 trayal of Christ by Judas Iscariot. 
 Maundy or Holy Thursday specially 
 commemorates the institution of the 
 Eucharist. 
 
 HOMAGE, in feudal law, a formal ac- 
 knowledgment made by a feudal tenant 
 to and in presence of his lord on receiv- 
 ing the investiture of a fief or coming to 
 it by succession, that he was his vassal. 
 The tenant, being ungirt and uncovered, 
 kneeled and held up both his hands be- 
 tween those of the Lord, who sat before 
 him, and there professed that “he did 
 become his man, from that day forth, 
 of life and limb, and earthly honor,” and 
 then received a kiss from his lord. 
 
 HOMER, an ancient Greek epic poet, 
 of whom nothing is known with cer- 
 tainty, some even doubting whether he 
 
 P. E,— 40 
 
 ever existed. The most probable opinion 
 is that he was a native of some locality 
 on the sea-board of Asia Minor, and that 
 he flourished between 950 and 850 n.c. 
 The earliest mention of the name of 
 Homer is found in Xenophanes (6th 
 century n.c.). The common statement 
 that he was blind may safely be dis- 
 carded. The poems that have been gen- 
 
 erally attributed to Homer are the Iliad 
 and Odyssey. The Batrachomyomachia, 
 of Battle of the Frogs and Mice, and cer- 
 tain hymns to the gods also passed un- 
 der his name, though belonging to a 
 later period. The Iliad in its present 
 form consists of twenty-four books, and 
 tells the story of the siege of Troy from 
 the quarrel of Achilles with Agamemnon 
 to the burial of Hector, with subordinate 
 episodes. The Odyssey is also in twenty- 
 four books, and records the adventures 
 of Odysseus (Ulysses) on his return 
 voyage to his home in Ithaca after the 
 fall of Troy. Even as early as the be- 
 ginning of the Christian era, certain 
 Greek critics (the Separatists) main- 
 tained that the two poems were the 
 work of different poets, but the general 
 belief continued to be that there was one 
 author for both. The entire system of 
 Homeric criticism, however, was revolu- 
 tionized in 1795 by F. A. Wolf in his 
 Prolegomena to Homer. He asserted 
 that the Iliad and Odyssey were not 
 originally committed to writing, and 
 were not two complete and independent 
 poems, but originally a series of songs of 
 different poets (Homer and others), cele- 
 brating single exploits of heroes and 
 first connected as wholes by Pisistratus, 
 about 540 b.c. Some of Wolf’s argu- 
 ments have been proved erroneous, but 
 since his time the old views in regard to 
 the Iliad and Odyssey have been held 
 by comparatively few of the ablest 
 scholars, though what theory is now the 
 most common is difficult to say. Among 
 the most conservative theories is that 
 which assigns to Homer a central or 
 basal portion of both Iliad and Odyssey, 
 to which additions by other poets were 
 gradually united; but generally the 
 Odyssey is regarded as of somewhat 
 later date than the Iliad, and not by the 
 poet who produced the Iliad in its origi- 
 nal form. 
 
 HOME RULE, in British politics, a 
 measure which has been more especially 
 advocated in regard to Ireland. The 
 leading feature of the Irish home rule 
 party seems to be the establishment of a 
 native parliament in Ireland to conduct 
 all local and internal legislation, leaving 
 
 the general political government of the 
 empire to an imperial parliament. The 
 movement originated in the formation 
 of the Home Government association 
 at Dublin, in 1870, under the presidency 
 of Mr. Isaac Butt. At the general elec- 
 tion of 1874 the party succeeded in send- 
 ing 60 home rule members to parliament 
 for Irish constituencies. The elections of 
 1885 and 1886 still further strengthened 
 the party, 86 members following the 
 lead of Mr. Parnell (which see). The 
 Original scheme has been materially 
 modified since Butt’s time, and there are 
 not wanting Irishmen who declare open- 
 ly for absolute independence, which 
 many believe to be the ultimate aim of 
 the whole party. The conversion of Mr. 
 Gladstone and many members of the 
 liberal party to home rule principles has 
 added immense strength to the move- 
 ment. Similar schemes for Scotland and 
 Wales have been agitated. 
 
 HOME-SICKNESS, in medicine. Nos- 
 talgia, a disease arising from an intense 
 and uncontrolled feeling of grief at a 
 separation from one’s home or native 
 land. It is most frequent among persons 
 who leave mountainous and go to flat 
 eountries, as the Seotch Highlanders and 
 Swiss, or among those who change 
 from the country to the town. It com- 
 mences by a deep melancholy, is some- 
 times accompanied by low, nervous, 
 hectie fever, or occasionally changes 
 into phthisis, and may terminate fatally. 
 
 HOMESTEAD, a city in Allegheny 
 CO., Pa., on the Monongahela river, and 
 the Penn, and the Pitts, and Lake Erie 
 railways; 8 miles s.e. of Pittsburg. It 
 contains one of the largest steel-manu- 
 facturing plants in the United States. It 
 also has manufacturers of glass and fire- 
 brick. Pop. 14,974. 
 
 HOMESTEAD LAWS, the laws of the 
 United States give to every citizen who 
 is the head of a family, or who has ar- 
 rived at the age of twenty-one years, the 
 right to a homestead of 160 acres, to be 
 selected at will from any of the surveyed 
 and otherwise unappropriated public 
 lands, without cost, except entry fees. 
 The tract thus taken as a homestead 
 must be located in a compact body, upon 
 land which is agricultural in character, 
 and must conform to the legal subdivi- 
 sions established by the official survey. 
 To obtain a homestead the applicant 
 must make an affidavit that he is over 
 the age of twenty-one years, or the head 
 of a family; that he is a citizen of the 
 United States, or has declared his inten- 
 tion to become such; and that the entry 
 is made for his exclusive use and benefit, 
 and for actual settlement and cultiva- 
 tion. Where homestead entries are made 
 by soldiers and sailors who served ninety 
 days or more in the United States army 
 or navy during the war of the rebellion, 
 the period of their service, or, if they 
 were discharged on account of wounds 
 or disability incurred in the line of duty, 
 the entire term of enlistment, not to ex- 
 ceed four years, is deducted from the 
 five years’ residence required by law. 
 But no one can receive a title to his 
 homestead under any circumstances 
 without having lived upon it at least one 
 year. 
 
 HOMICI'DAL MANIA, a species of 
 mania in which a sudden irresistible im* 
 
HOMICIDE 
 
 HONG-KONG 
 
 pulse to destroy life seizes the patient. 
 It is independent of hatred toward the 
 victim, or of any appreciable motive, 
 and its causes are obscure. 
 
 HOMICIDE, the killing of one man or 
 human being by another. In law, homi- 
 cide is of three kinds — justifiable, excus- 
 able, and felonious; justifiable, when it 
 proceeds from unavoidable necessity, as 
 where the proper officer inflicts capital 
 punishment, where an officer of justice 
 kills an offender who assaults or resists 
 him and who cannot otherwise be cap- 
 tured, or where persons are killed in the 
 dispersion of rebellious or riotous as- 
 semblies; excusable, when it happens 
 from misadventure, as where a man in 
 doing a lawful act by accident kills an- 
 other, or in self-defense, as where a man 
 kills another in defense of the life of him- 
 self, his wife, children, parent, servant, 
 etc.; felonious, when it proceeds from 
 malice, or is done in the prosecution of 
 some unlawful act, or in a sudden pas- 
 sion. Self-murder also is felonious homi- 
 cide. Felonious homicide comprehends 
 murder and manslaughter. 
 
 HOMILET'ICS, the art of preaching; 
 that branch of practical theology which 
 teaches the principles of adapting the 
 discourses of the pulpit to the spiritual 
 benefit of the hearers, and the best 
 methods which ministers of the gospel 
 should pursue for instructing their 
 hearers by their doctrines and example. 
 
 HOMILY, a discourse or sermon read 
 or pronounced to an audience on some 
 subject of religion; a discourse pro- 
 nounced in the church by the minister 
 to the congregation. The ancient homily 
 was sometimes simply a conversation, 
 the prelate talking to the people and in- 
 terrogating them, "and they in turn talk- 
 ing to and interrogating him. 
 
 HOMCEOP'ATHY, the name of a sys- 
 tem of medicine introduced by Samuel 
 Hahnemann of Leipzic (died 1843). It is 
 a system founded upon the belief that 
 drugs have the power of curing morbid 
 conditions similar to those they have 
 the power to excite, an old belief long 
 ago expressed in the Latin phrase 
 “similia similibus curantur” (like is 
 cured by like). In contradistinction to 
 this system the more common method of 
 treating diseases has been termed heter- 
 opathy or allopathy. In practice homoe- 
 opathy is associated with the system of 
 administering infinitesimal doses. 
 
 HONAN', a once populous city of 
 China, in the province of same name, on 
 an affluent of the Hoang-ho. The prov- 
 ince has an area of 65,104 square miles. 
 It is generally level, and is watered by 
 the Hoang-ho and its affluents. The soil 
 is fertile and carefully cultivated; the 
 forests in the west supply timber; and 
 mines yield tutenag or Chinese copper, 
 cinnabar, mica, etc. Honan suffered 
 severely from the inundation of the 
 Hoang-ho in 1887; capital, Kai-fung. 
 Pop. 22,117,036. 
 
 HONDO, the name given by the 
 Japanese to the chief island in their 
 empire. In many geographical works 
 Nippon or Niphon is the distinctive ap- 
 pellation of this island, but by the Japa- 
 nese themselves that name is applied to 
 the whole country. The area of the is- 
 land is 87,425 sq. miles, and the pop. 
 33,327,935. See Japan. 
 
 HONDU'RAS, a republican state of 
 Central America; area, 39,600 sq. miles. 
 Its surface is hilly with numerous fertile 
 valleys. Its mineral wealth is very con- 
 siderable, and includes gold, silver, lead, 
 and copper. The chief rivers are the 
 Chamelicon, Ulua, and Aguan, flowing 
 to the Caribbean Sea, and the Choluteca, 
 an affluent of the Pacific. There are ex- 
 tensive forests abounding in fine tim- 
 ber. The principal cultivated produc- 
 tions are corn, beans, some wheat, rice, 
 plantains, and tobacco. Since 1880 the 
 capital has been Tegucigalpa, the prin- 
 cipal ports are Truxillo on the Caribbean 
 Sea, and Port San Lorenzo, in the Pacific. 
 The constitution of the state gives the 
 legislature power to a congress of depu- 
 ties composed of thirty-seven members. 
 The executive authority is in the hands 
 of the president. The resources of the 
 country are undeveloped, and the finan- 
 ces are in a very disordered state. Pop. 
 590,000. 
 
 HONDURAS, BRITISH, or BELIZE, a 
 
 British colony of Central America, hav- 
 ing north and west, Yucatan; west and 
 south, Guatemala; and east, the Bay of 
 Honduras. Area, 7562 sq. miles. Pop. 
 32,899 including about 400 whites. 
 
 HONE, the name given to several 
 varieties of slaty stones employed in 
 whetting knives, razors, or other edge- 
 tools. They are usually pieces of hard 
 close-grained clay-slate, containing mi- 
 nute particles of quartz, with a uniform 
 consistence. The best-known varieties 
 are the Ayr stone, so called from being 
 found in the river Ayr, in Scotland; the 
 Charnley Forest stone, found in Charn- 
 wood Forest, Leicestershire; the German 
 hone, the Canada oil-stone, Turkey oil- 
 stone, etc. 
 
 HONEY, a vegetable product, with 
 saccharine properties, collected by bees 
 from the blossoms of flowers, and de- 
 posited in the cells of their combs. The 
 best is clear and transparent, and solidi- 
 fies when kept for some time into a 
 granular, white mass. Some varieties of 
 it are dark yellow or brownish in color. 
 Spring honey is more esteemed than 
 summer honey; and the latter more than 
 that of autumn. Virgin honey is taken 
 from hives in which the bees have never 
 swarmed, and it is of a white color. 
 Yellow honey is extracted from all sorts 
 of combs. The flavor of honey largely 
 depends on the plants from which it is 
 collected. Honey is obtained in large 
 quantities in many countries, partly 
 from wild bees, but chiefly from those 
 kept in hives. In addition to its ordi- 
 nary domestic uses, it is employed 
 medicinally as a promoter of expectora- 
 tion, to sweeten certain medicines, to 
 make a gargle with vinegar, etc. It is 
 also used in making mead. The ancients 
 used it as we do sugar, and made of it 
 and wine a mixture very much liked. 
 
 HONEY-ANT, inhabiting Mexico, and 
 living in communities in subterranean 
 galleries. In summer a certain number 
 of these insects secrete a kind of honey 
 in their abdomens which become so dis- 
 tended as to appear like small pellucid 
 grapes. Later in the season when food 
 is scarce these ants are devoured by 
 the others, and they are also dug up 
 and eaten by ,the inhabitants of the 
 country. 
 
 HONEY-COMB, a waxen cellular struc- 
 ture framed by the bees to deposit their 
 honey and eggs in. The wax is secreted 
 by the insect in the form of small and 
 thin oval scales in the folds of the abdo- 
 men. The comb is composed of a num- 
 ber of cells, most of them exactly hex- 
 agonal ahd arranged in two layers placed 
 end to end, the openings of the layers 
 being in opposite directions. The comb 
 is placed vertically, the cells being there- 
 fore horizontal. The sides of the cells are 
 very thin, and yet the whole structure is 
 of considerable strength. Some cells are 
 destined for the exclusive reception of 
 honey; others for the reception of larvae. 
 
 HONEY-DEW, a sweet saccharine 
 substance found on the leaves of trees 
 and other plants in small drops like dew. 
 There are two kinds; one secreted from 
 the plants, and the other deposited by 
 aphides. Different kinds of manna are 
 the dried honey-dew or saccharine ex- 
 udations of certain plants. 
 
 HONEY-EATER, the name given to a 
 nurnber of insessorial birds forming the 
 family Meliphagidae, of the tribe Tenuir- 
 ostres. They form a numerous group, 
 feeding principally on honey and the 
 
 Wattled honey-eater. 
 
 nectar of flowers. They are natives of 
 Australia and the adjacent islands. They 
 have long curved sharp bills, with ton- 
 gues terminating in a pencil of delicate 
 filaments, to enable them the better to 
 extract the juice of flowers. 
 
 HONEY-LOCUST, SWEET LOCUST, 
 or BLACK LOCUST, a forest tree be- 
 longing to the United States. The leaves 
 are pinnated, divided into numerous 
 small leaflets and the foliage has a light 
 and elegant appearance; the flowers are 
 greenish, and are succeeded by long, 
 often twisted pods, containing large 
 brown seeds, enveloped in a sweet pulp. 
 This tree is especially remarkable for its 
 formidable thorns, on which account it 
 has been recommended for hedges. 
 
 HONEYSUCKLE, or WOODBINE, the 
 common honeysuckle of Britain, a twin- 
 ing shrub, wi.h distinct leaves and red 
 berries, is indigenous in Great Britain; 
 but two others have been naturalized. 
 The honeysuckle family is represented 
 in North America by nine different 
 species. 
 
 HONG-KONG, an island off the s.e. 
 coast of China, belonging to the British, 
 at the mouth of the estuary that leads to 
 Canton, from which it is distant 75 miles. 
 It is about 10 miles in extreme length, 
 and 7jj miles in extreme breadth, sepa- 
 rated from the mainland by a narrow 
 strait, and with Cowloon on the main- 
 land forms a crown colony, area 32 sq. 
 
HONOLULU 
 
 HOOSAC TUNNEL 
 
 miles. Hong-Kong is a great entrepot 
 for the foreign commerce of China, and 
 is a free port without customs’ dues. It 
 is also a station of the British fleet. The 
 revenue of the government is derived 
 from the land rents, licenses to sell 
 opium, spirits, etc., taxes, postages, 
 fines, fees of office, etc. Hong-Kong was 
 ceded to Britain in 1842; some 200 sq. 
 miles additional were leased in 1898. 
 Pop. about 246,000; more than nine- 
 tenths being Chinese, and 11,000 whites. 
 
 HONOLU'LU, the capital of the Sand- 
 wich Islands, south side of the island of 
 Oahu. Its most notable edifices are the 
 royal palace, the Roman Catholic cathe- 
 dral, the treasury, the parliament house, 
 etc. There is a fine natural harbor. Hono- 
 lulu is a rapidly improving place. Pop. 
 45,670. 
 
 HONOR, Knights and Ladies of, a 
 fraternal benevolent society organized 
 in Kentucky in 1877 for social and bene- 
 ficial purposes. The central authority is 
 the supreme lodge, and the chief officer 
 has the title of supreme protector. The 
 order has sixteen grand lodges and 1160 
 subordinate lodges, representing a total 
 membership of 63,000. 
 
 HONOR, Maids of, ladies in the serv- 
 ice of European queens, w'ho attend 
 their mistress when she appears in pub- 
 lic. In England they are eight in number. 
 
 HONOl^BLE, Right Honorable and 
 Most Honorable, titles given in the 
 United Kingdom to peers, their families, 
 and certain public functionaries. (See 
 Address, Forms of.) In America the 
 governors of states, judges, members of 
 congress, and others holding offices of 
 dignity and trust, are styled honorable. 
 
 HONORS, Military, compliments or 
 salutes paid by troops to royalty, officers 
 of rank, etc., or given at funerals to all 
 grades of the army. 
 
 HOOBLY, or Hubli, a town of India 
 in Dhirwir district, Bombay Presidency, 
 a great centre of the cotton trade. Pop. 
 60,214. 
 
 HOOD, John Bell, American soldier, 
 was born in Owingsville, Ky., in 1831. 
 In 1861 he entered the confederate army 
 and during the first years of the war 
 took part in the';Virginia campaigns. He 
 lost a leg at Chicamauga and in the fol- 
 lowing spring he again took the field and 
 was made lieutenant-general. After be- 
 ing repeatedly defeated and repulsed by 
 both Sherman and Thomas, and after 
 his army had been driven in utter rout 
 by Thomas, Hood was relieved of his 
 command at his own request. He died 
 in 1879. 
 
 HOOD, Robin, a celebrated outlaw, 
 who, according to the popular account, 
 with his followers, inhabited Sherwood 
 Forest, in Nottinghamshire, and also the 
 woodlands of Barnsdale in the adjoining 
 West Riding. What basis of fact there is 
 for the story of Robin Hood is doubtful. 
 Grimm maintained that he was one with 
 the Teutonic god Woden. Other theories 
 suppose him to have been a rebel yeo- 
 man in Lancaster’s rebellion under Ed- 
 ward II.; a Saxon chief who defied the 
 Normans; and a fugutive follower of Sir 
 Simon de Montfort after the battle of 
 Evesham. 
 
 HOOD, Samuel, Viscount, a British 
 admiral, born 1724, died 1816. He joined 
 the navy as a midshipman in 1740, and 
 
 attained the rank of post-captain in 
 1759. Having become rear-admiral, he 
 preserved the island of St. Christopher’s 
 from being taken by De Grasse, assisted 
 in the defeat of De Grasse by Rodney in 
 1782, and was rewarded with the title of 
 Baron Hood of Catherington in the Irish 
 peerage. In 1793 he commanded against 
 the French in the Mediterranean, and 
 captured Toulon and Corsica. In 1796 
 he was made an English peer, with the 
 title of Viscount Hood. 
 
 HOOD, Thomas, an English poet and 
 humorist, of Scotch extraction, born at 
 London, 1799, died 1845. It was during 
 his last illness that he contributed to 
 Punch The Song of a Shirt, The Bridge of 
 Sighs, and The Lay of a Laborer. Hood 
 is unrivaled as a punster, and he pos- 
 sesses a singular power of combining the 
 humorous with the pathetic. He had the 
 satisfaction of knowing that the pension 
 of $500 conferred upon him on his last 
 illness by Sir Robert Peel was to be 
 transferred to his wife. 
 
 HOOD, MOUNT, a peak of the Cascade 
 range on the western border of Wasco 
 CO., Ore. It is 50 miles east by south of 
 Portland. It has an altitude of 11,934 
 feet and there are no formidable ob- 
 stacles to its ascent. The summit com- 
 mands an extensive and magnificent 
 view. 
 
 HOODED SEAL, a species of seal, the 
 male of which possesses a movable, in- 
 flatable muscular bag, stretching from 
 the muzzle to about five inches behind 
 the eyes. The prevailing color is bluish 
 black — the head and limbs being uni- 
 formly black. Its usual range extends 
 in America southward to Newfound- 
 land, and in Europe to Southern Nor- 
 way. 
 
 HOODED SNAKE. See Cobra de 
 Capello. 
 
 HOOFS, the horny tissues which con- 
 stitute the external part of the feet of 
 certain animals, mostly herbivorous. 
 They may be regarded as homologues of 
 the toe-nails of other animals. They are 
 composed of epithelium cells, aggluti- 
 nated and dried, and of intercellular sub- 
 stance and cell contents. Chemically 
 they consist of keratin. 
 
 HOOKER, Joseph, American soldier, 
 was born at Hadley, Mass., in 1814. He 
 served against the Seminoles and in the 
 Mexican war. He accompanied the army 
 from Vera Cruz to Mexico City and was 
 brevetted major. At Chapultepec he 
 was brevetted lieutenant-colonel. He 
 was engaged at the siege of Yorktown, 
 and on the day after its evacuation was 
 appointed a major-general of volunteers. 
 Later he became division commander 
 in the army of Gen. Pope, Virginia. On 
 the failure of Gen. Pope to advance 
 against the enemy, the army of the 
 Potomac was again led by Gen. McClel- 
 lan, and Gen. Hooker took command 
 of the first corps. He was shot through 
 the foot, and soon afterward was ap- 
 pointed brigadier-general in the regular 
 army. He was placed on the retired 
 list in 1868, with the full rank of major- 
 general. He died in 1879. 
 
 HOOKER, MOUNT, one of the loftiest 
 peaks of the Rocky Mountains. It has 
 estimated elevation of 15,700 feet. 
 
 HOOPER, John, an English reformer, 
 1 born 1495, burnt 1555. His works con- 
 
 sist chiefly of a Godly Confession and 
 Protestation of the Christian Faith, Lec- 
 tures on the Creed, Sermons on the Book 
 of Jonah, Annotations on the Thirteenth 
 Chapter of the Romans, and expositions 
 of several psalms. 
 
 HOOPING-COUGH, or WHOOPING- 
 COUGH, a disease known by a rapid 
 series of coughs ending in a long-drawn 
 breath, during which a shrill whistling 
 sound, the hoop, is produced. Two or 
 three such fits of coughing follow one 
 another, until some phlegm is expelled, 
 and vomiting maj^ occur. During a severe 
 spasm the face becomes swollen and 
 purplish, as if suffocation were threaten- 
 ed. It is evidently due to a poison acting 
 as an irritant on the pneumogastric 
 nerve. It is contagious, and most com- 
 monly attacks children, and generally 
 only once in their lives. The whooping- 
 cough usually comes on with a difficulty 
 of breathing, and other slight febrile 
 symptoms, which are succeeded by a 
 hoarseness, cough, and difficulty of ex- 
 pectoration. After a fortnight or more 
 the cough becomes convulsive, and is 
 attended by the hoop. After four or five 
 weeks the expectoration becomes loose, 
 and the fits of coughing gradually dimin- 
 ish ia frequency and duration. Hooping- 
 cough is seldom fatal to adults, but is the 
 most fatal disease in the first year of 
 childhood. Bronchitis and pneumonia 
 are the most serious complications. 
 
 HOOPOE, a bird forming the type of a 
 family generally classed with the bee- 
 eaters or the honey-eaters, but also with 
 with hornbills. The European hoopoe 
 (U. epops) is about 12 inches Kng; it has 
 
 Hoopoe. 
 
 a fine crest of pale cinnamon-red feathers 
 tipped wiuh black; upper surface on the 
 whole ashy-brown; wings black, the 
 coverts having white bars; throat and 
 breast pale fawn; abdomen white, with 
 black streaks and dashes. It has a very 
 wide range, from Burmah to the British 
 Islands and Africa. It is a ground-feeder, 
 preying chiefly on insects, and seems to 
 delight in filth; it nests in cavities of 
 trees or walls, and its eggs vary from four 
 to seven. The hoopoe utters a loud 
 double or treble hoop, whence its name. 
 
 HOOSAC TUNNEL, the longest rail- 
 way tunnel in America, in the western 
 part of Massachusetts, on the railway 
 from Boston to Troy, N. Y. It pierces 
 the Hoosac Mountain, the summit range 
 extending southward through Massa- 
 chusetts from the Green Mountains of 
 Vermont. It is 4J miles long, and has a 
 double line of rails. 
 
HOP 
 
 HORN 
 
 HOP, a plant of Europe, and of the 
 United States, where it occurs wild. The 
 root is perennial, giving out several 
 herbaceous, rough, twining stems, with 
 large lobed leaves; the fertile flowers are 
 green; the fruit is a catkin, and the plant 
 is cultivated for the sake of the catkins, 
 which are employed to communicate to 
 beer its aromatic bitter. The young 
 shoots are sometimes boiled and eaten 
 
 Hop. 
 
 like asparagus; the fibers of the old 
 stems make good cords. The cultivation 
 of the hop is more carefully attended to 
 in England than in any other country, 
 Kent being the chief county in which it 
 is grown; but the plant is also exten- 
 sively reared in other parts of Europe, as 
 also in North America, Australia, New 
 Zealand, etc. The use of the hop catkins 
 dep)ends upon a peculiar bitter sub- 
 stance which they contain, called lupulin 
 which is a yellow powder, containing a 
 bitter principle and a volatile oil. The 
 lupulin constitutes from 10 to 12 per 
 cent by weight of the catkin, and the 
 bitter principle forms from 8 to 12 per 
 cent of the lupulin. Having tonic, 
 stomachic, and narcotic properties hops 
 are often used medicinally. Pillows 
 stuffed with hops are used to induce 
 sleep. 
 
 HOP-FLY, a species of plant-louse 
 very destructive to the hop. The winged 
 female is green with a black head and 
 bands and spots of black on the body; 
 the legs and wings are long. A few 
 winged females make their first ap- 
 pearance about the middle of May, and 
 wingless myriads by the middle of June. 
 The insects suck the under side of the 
 upper leaflets, and there deposit their 
 young on the most suculent part of the 
 lant. Myriads perish by means of lady- 
 irds and other insects, as well as by 
 their extreme susceptibility to atmos- 
 pheric changes. 
 
 HOPKINS, Johns, American financier 
 and philanthropist, was born in Anne 
 Arundel co., Md., in 1795. In addition 
 to minor gifts to individuals and chari- 
 ties, he founded and endowed two great 
 institutions which perpetuate his name 
 — the Johns Hopkins university and 
 Johns Hopkins hospital, whose activi- 
 ties are united in the Johns Hopkins 
 medical school. He died in 1873. 
 
 HORACE. See Horatius Flaccus. 
 
 HORiE, in classical mythology, the 
 goddesses of the seasons and the order of 
 nature. Their number was indefinite; in 
 Athens two only were worshipped. They 
 are represented as blooming maidens 
 carrying the different products of the 
 seasons. 
 
 HORATII, three Roman brothers, 
 who, according to tradition, in the reign * 
 
 of Tullus Hostilius engaged three Alban 
 brothers (the Curiatii), in order to decide 
 the supremacy between Rome and Alba. 
 Victory went to Rome, and the sole sur- 
 viving Horatius was triumphantly con- 
 ducted back to the city. But his sister 
 had been bethrothed to one of the Cur- 
 iatii, and her demonstrative grief so en- 
 raged Horatius that he stabbed her. For 
 this he was condemned to death, but his 
 father and the people begged him off. 
 
 HORATIUS COCLES, a hero of an- 
 cient Rome. The Tarquins having, after 
 their banishment, sought refuge with 
 the Etrurian king Porsenna, the latter 
 advanced against Rome (b.c. 507) to 
 restore them. According to tradition 
 Hqratius Codes, along with two com- 
 panions, held the Sublician bridge 
 against the enemy, while the Romans 
 broke it down behind them. When this 
 was nearly finished he sent back his two 
 companions, and as the bridge fell he 
 plunged into the Tiber with his armor 
 and safely reached the opposite bank. 
 
 HORATIUS FLACCUS, Quintus, com- 
 monly known as Horace, the greatest of 
 Latin lyric poets, was born nearVenusia, 
 in southern Italy, b.c. 65. His father 
 was a freedman, a collector of taxes, and 
 had purchased the farm at which his 
 son was born. His poems procured 
 him the friendship of Virgil and Varius, 
 and to them he was indebted for his first 
 acquaintance with Mcecenas, who was 
 the friend and confident of Augustus 
 Ctesar, and who expended his wealth for 
 the encouragement of literature and the 
 arts. His works consist of four books of 
 odes; a book of epodes or short poems; 
 two books of satires; and two books of 
 epistles, one of which is often cited as a 
 separate work, under the title of Ars 
 Poetica. 
 
 HOREHOUND, a labiate plant, with 
 whitish, downy leaves and stem ; flowers 
 small, nearly white, in crowded whorls, 
 possessing an aromatic smell and bitter 
 
 Horehound. 
 
 flavor. It is a popular remedy for coughs 
 and colds, usually as an infusion. Black 
 horehound, also a labiate plant, is a 
 malodorous and unattractive weed. 
 
 HORI'ZON, in ordinary speech the 
 line where earth and sky seem to meet, 
 or the circle which bounds that part of 
 the earth’s surface visible to a spectator 
 from a given point. This is termed the 
 sensible, visible, or apparent horizon, as 
 distinguished from the rational or celes- 
 tial horizon, an imaginary great circle 
 parallel to the sensible horizon, whose 
 plane passes through the earth’s center, 
 whose poles are the zenith and the nadir, 
 and which divides the sphere into two 
 equal hemispheres. In observations 
 with the sextant at sea, when the real 
 horizon is invisible a small basin con- 
 taining mercury may serve as an artifi- 
 cial horizon. The observation that isthen 
 
 made is the angle between the sun or 
 star and the image of the sun or star in 
 the basin of mercury, and it is easily 
 seen that half this angle is the altitude of 
 the object above the real horizon. In 
 geology, the term is applied to any well- 
 marked formation which suffices as a 
 starting point from which to study the 
 rest. 
 
 HORN, a general term applied to all 
 hard and pointed appendages of the 
 head, as in deer, cattle, etc., but as a 
 a term denoting a particular kind of 
 s\ibstance nothing should be called horn 
 which is not derived from the epidermis 
 or outer, layer of the integument, 
 whether on the trunk, hoofs, or head. 
 Horn is a tough, flexible, semi-trans- 
 parent substance, most liberally de- 
 veloped in the horns of bovine animals, 
 but also found in connection with the 
 “shell” of the tortoise, the nails, claws, 
 and hoofs of animals, the beak of bird 
 and turtle, etc. Horn is softened very 
 completely by heat, so as to become 
 readily flexible, and to adhere to other 
 pieces similarly softened. True horn 
 consists principally of an albuminoid 
 principle, keratin, with a small portion 
 of gelatine and a little phosphate of 
 lime. In some species of animals the 
 males only have horns, as for instance 
 the stag. In cattle both male and female 
 have horns, though there are also horn- 
 less cattle. Horns differ widely in the 
 case of different animals. Thus the horns 
 of deer consist of bone, and are decidu- 
 ous; those of the giraffe are independent 
 bones, with a covering of hairy skin; 
 those of oxen, sheep, and antelopes con- 
 sist of a hony core covered by a horny 
 sheath. The horns of /he rhinoceros 
 alone consist exclusively of horny mat- 
 ter. The horns of oxen, sheep, goats, 
 antelopes are never shod, except in the 
 case of the prong-horned antelope. The 
 number never normally exceeds four, 
 and in th'e case of deer the horns are 
 branchedf 
 
 The A'arious kinds of horns are em- 
 ployed for many purposes. The princi- 
 pal used in the arts are those of the ox, 
 buffalo, sheep, and goat. Deer horns are 
 almost exclusively employed for the 
 handles of knives and of sticks and 
 umbrellas. Those which furnish true 
 horn can be softened by heat (usually in 
 boiling water), cut into sheets of various 
 thickness, which sheets may be soldered 
 or welded together at the edges so as to 
 form plates of large dimensions, and 
 polished and dyed so as to imitate the 
 much more expensive tortoise-shell. 
 The clippings of horn may be welded to- 
 gether in the same manner, and made 
 into snuff-boxes, powder horns, handles 
 for umbrellas, knives, forks, etc. As 
 horn has the valuable property of taking 
 on and retaining a sharp impression 
 from a die, many highly ornamental ar- 
 ticles may be turned out. Combs for the 
 hair are made from the flattened sheets, 
 and out of the solid parts of buffalo 
 horns beautiful carvings are made. 
 
 HORN, a musical instrument, origin- 
 ally formed, as the name denotes, from 
 the horn of an animal. The name in- 
 cludes a large family of wind-instru- 
 ments, manj' of which have fallen into 
 disuse. The French horn, or simply the 
 horfi, consists of a metalic tube of about 
 
HORNBILLS 
 
 HORSE 
 
 10 feet in length, very narrow at top, 
 bent into rings, and gradually widening 
 toward the end whence the sound issues, 
 called the bell. It is l)lown through a 
 cup-shaped mouthpiece of brass or silver 
 and the sounds arc regulated by the 
 player’s lips, the pressure of his breath, 
 and by the insertion of the hand in the 
 
 1, Coaching-horn. 2, French or orchestral 
 horn. 3, PUigelhorn, or keyed bugle. 4, Post- 
 horn. 5, Hunting-horn. 
 
 bell of the instrument. As a simple tube, 
 unprovided with holes, the horn yields 
 only the generating note, and of course 
 would be confined to one key; but by 
 means of crooks the tube can be length- 
 ened, and transposed into any key. 
 By inserting the hand into the bell, 
 which flattens a note, the sounds awant- 
 ing are produced. The compass of the 
 instrument is three octaves. Music for 
 the horn is always written in the key of 
 C, an octave higher than it is played, 
 with the key of composition marked at 
 the beginning of each movement; thus 
 “corni (or horns) in D” directs the per- 
 former which crook he must use to play 
 the notes in the key indicated. The bugle, 
 cornet-a-piston, and sax-horn are allied 
 instruments. 
 
 HORNBILLS, a remarkable group of 
 birds confined to Southern Asia and 
 Africa, akin to the kingfishers and the 
 
 Rhinoceros hornblll. 
 
 toucans, remarkable for the very large 
 size of the bill, and for an extraordinary 
 horny protuberance by which it is sur- 
 mounted, nearly as large as the bill 
 itself, and of cellular structure within. 
 The rhinoceros hornbill is almost the 
 
 size of a turkey, of a black color, ex- 
 cept on the lower part of the bellj 
 and tip of the tail, which are white 
 It has a sharp-pointed, slightly-curved 
 
 bill, about 10 inches long and fur- 
 nished at the base of the upper mandi- 
 ble with an immense appendage in the 
 form of an inverted horn. The skele- 
 ton though bulky is very light, being 
 permeated with air to an unusual 
 degree. During incubation the female is 
 plastered up in the hollow of a tree and 
 fed by the male through a small aper- 
 ture left for the purpose. The hornbill’s 
 are of arboreal habit, and feed on fruits; 
 but in captivity they take small rep- 
 tiles, and the Abyssinian species even 
 attack snakes. 
 
 HORNBLENDE (-blend), or Amphi- 
 bole, one of the most abundant and 
 widely diffused of minerals, remarkable 
 on account of the various forms and 
 compositions of its crystals and crystal- 
 line particles, and of its exceedingly 
 diversified colors, thus giving rise to 
 almost numberless varieties, many of 
 which have obtained distinct appella- 
 tions. It is sometimes in regular dis- 
 tinct crystals, more generally the result 
 of confused crystallization, appearing in 
 masses composed of laminte, acicular 
 crystals, or fibers, variously aggregated. 
 It enters largely into the composition 
 and forms a constituent part of several 
 of the trap-rocks, and is an important 
 constituent of several species of meta- 
 morphic rocks, as gneiss and granite. In 
 color hornblende exhibits various shades 
 of green, often inclining to brown, white, 
 and black, with every intermediate 
 shade; it is nearly transparent in some 
 varieties, in others opaque; hardness 
 about the same with felspar; specific 
 gravity, 3.00. Its chief constituents are 
 silica, magnesia, and alumina. The prin- 
 cipal varieties are hornblende proper, 
 divided into three sub-varities, basaltic 
 hornblende, common hornblende, and 
 hornblende slate; tremolite, actinolite, 
 nephrite, pargasite, and asbestos. 
 
 HORNBOOK, in former times the 
 first book of children, or that in which 
 they learned their letters: so called from 
 
 Hornbook. 
 
 the transparent horn covering placed 
 over the single page of which it usually 
 consisted, the whole being fixed to a 
 wooden frame with a handle. It gen- 
 erally contained the alphabet in Roman 
 and small letters, several rows of mono- 
 syllables, and the Lord’s Prayer. The 
 alphabet was usually prefaced with a 
 cross, or was printed in the form of. a 
 cross; hence the term Christ-cross row, 
 corrupted into criss-cross row, applied 
 to the alphabet, and by extension to 
 the hornbook. 
 
 HORNED-TOAD, a name given to a 
 genus of lizards of toad-like appearance, 
 found in America, west of the Mississippi. 
 There are nine different species, all more 
 or less covered with spine-like scales. 
 
 HORNELLSVILLE, a city in Steuben 
 CO., N. Y., on the Canisteo river and the 
 Cent. N. Y. and W. and the N. Y., L. E, 
 
 and W. railways; 58 miles s. of Roches- 
 ter. The N. Y., L. E. and W. railway 
 has extensive shops here. Pop. 13,218. 
 
 HORNET, an insect much larger and 
 stronger than the ordinary wasp. It is 
 very voracious, feeding on fruit, honey, 
 etc., and preying on other insects. They 
 form their nest of a kind of paper-work 
 in hollow trees and walls, and are able 
 with their sting to inflict a painful 
 wound, usually accompanied with con- 
 siderable swelling. 
 
 HOROL'OGY, the construction of 
 clocks and watches, or branch of knowl- 
 edge dealing with such. 
 
 HO'ROSCOPE, in astrology, a scheme 
 or figure of the twelve houses, or twelve 
 signs of the zodiac, in which is marked 
 the disposition of the heavens at a given 
 time and place, and by v/hich astrolo- 
 gers formerly told the fortunes of per- 
 sons, according to the position of the 
 stars at the time of their birth. To each 
 of the houses was assigned a particular 
 virtue or influence. The ascendant was 
 that part of the heavens which was 
 rising in the east at the moment ; this was 
 the first and most important house, or 
 house of life, and contained the five de- 
 grees above the horizon and the twenty- 
 five beneath it. Other houses were those 
 of riches, marriage, death, etc. 
 
 HORR, Roswell G., American politi- 
 cian, was born in Vermont in 1830. He 
 was elected in 1872 from Michigan to 
 the United States congress and was 
 re-elected in 1880 and 1882. He was one 
 of the best known campaign speakers in 
 the republican party and in the presi- 
 dential campaigns of 1884, 1888, 1892, 
 and 1896, toured the country from 
 Maine to California. He died in 1896. 
 
 HORSE, a well-known quadruped be- 
 longing to the family Equidse, order 
 Ungalata (hoofed animals); character- 
 
 Horse — Terms applied to different parts. 
 
 o, Muzzle. 6, Gullet, c, Crest, d. Withers. 
 e. Chest. /, Loins, gg. Girth, h. Hip or 
 ilium, i. Croup, k. Haunch or quarters. I, 
 Thigh, m, Hock, n, Shank or cannon, o, Pet- 
 lock. p, Pastern, q. Shoulder-bone or scap- 
 ula. r. Elbow. «, Pore thigh or arm. t. Knee. 
 M. Coronet, v. Hoof, w. Point of hock, x. 
 Hamstring, zz, Height. 
 
 ized by an undivided hoof formed by 
 the third toe and its enlarged horny 
 nail, a simple stomach, a mane on the 
 neck, and by six incisor teeth in each 
 jaw, seven molars on either side of both 
 jaws, and by two small canine teeth in 
 the upper jaw of the male, rarely in the 
 female. 'The family includes also the 
 asses and zebras, and original types ap- 
 pear to have been at one time common 
 in both the Old World and the American 
 continent. No horses existed in America 
 
HORSE-CHESTNUT 
 
 HORSE-RACING 
 
 when it was discovered by Columbus, 
 those now found in a wild state there, 
 being descendants of those introduced 
 by the Spaniards. But a number of 
 fossil species have been described from 
 America — one of them standing only 
 two and a half feet in height. The de- 
 scent of the present horse can be traced 
 through several fossil forms back to an 
 animal only about the size of a fox, and 
 having four separate digits or toes on 
 the feet. Subsequent forms show how 
 the third toe developed at the expense 
 of the others till latterly a form identical 
 with the common horse appeared. It is 
 doubtful whether the horse is now any- 
 where to be found in its native state, the 
 wild horses of the steppes of Tartary 
 and other regions of the Old World be- 
 ing possibly descendants of animals 
 escaped from domestication. The horse 
 was probably first domesticated in Asia, 
 and it varies much in form, size, and 
 character with the climate and nature 
 of the district it inhabits. Arabia pro- 
 duces perhaps the most beautiful breed, 
 which is also swift, courageous, endur- 
 ant, and persevering. As bred in America 
 the horse has attained high perfection. 
 Two breeds — namely, the large, power- 
 ful, black breed of Flanders, and the 
 Arabian — have contributed more than 
 all others to develop the present varie- 
 ties from the original, comparatively 
 light-limbed, wiry race. The former laid 
 the foundation of size, strength, and 
 vigor for draught-horses and for those 
 anciently used in war, while the latter 
 conferred speed and endurance. The 
 ladies’ palfrey is largely derived from 
 the Spanish genet, a small, beautiful, 
 fleet variety of the Moorish barb. The 
 hunter, characterized by speed, strength, 
 and endurance, represents the old Eng- 
 lish, Flanders, and Arabian breeds. The 
 race-horse has less of Flemish and more 
 of Arabian blood. Carriage, riding, and 
 other horses combine the above breeds 
 in varying degrees, as speed, strength, 
 size, etc., are required. Horses are said 
 to have “blood” or “breeding” in pro- 
 portion as they have a greater or less 
 strain of Arab blood. At the age of two 
 years the horse is in a condition to 
 propogate. The mare carries her young 
 eleven months and some days, con- 
 tinues to breed till the age of sixteen or 
 eighteen years, and lives on an average 
 between twenty and thirty years. The 
 various species of the horse family have 
 been artificially crossed by man, and 
 are found to be fertile with each other; 
 the offspring, however, are generally 
 sterile. The horse is, strictly speaking, 
 an herbivorous animal, and is more 
 scrupulous in the choice of his food than 
 most other domestic quadrupeds. The 
 staple diet on which horses are kept is 
 oats and hay, with beans added for 
 horses subjected to heavy work. As a 
 substitute for, or an addition to the 
 regular food, bran, linseed, and carrots 
 are used. The age of a horse can be told 
 by the marks on its teeth, which change 
 a little yearly until the animal is about 
 nine years old, after which period it 
 is difficult to determine the age by 
 mark. In some countries the flesh of 
 the horse is used as food; the hide is 
 made into leather; and the hair of 
 the mane and tail is used for making 
 
 haircloth, for upholsterers* stuffing, 
 
 HORSE-CHESTNUT, a handsome 
 genus of trees or shrubs having large 
 opposite digitate leaves, and terminal 
 panicles of showy white, yellow, or red 
 flowers. The common horse-chestnut 
 is familiar to every one. The seeds are 
 large and farinaceous, and have been 
 us(m as food for animals; they are bitter, 
 and the bark also is bitter, astringent, 
 and febrifugal. The tree is said to nave 
 been brought from Constantinople to 
 England in the beginning of the 16th 
 century, and is supposed to be a native 
 of Northern Asia. Three other species 
 are found in North America, where they 
 are popularly known under the name of 
 Buck-eye. 
 
 HORSE-POWER, the power of a 
 horse or its equivalent; the force with 
 which a horse acts when drawing. The 
 mode of ascertaining a horse’s power is 
 to find what weight he can raise and to 
 what height in a given time, the horse 
 being supposed to pull horizontally. 
 From a variety of experiments of this 
 sort it is found that a horse, at an aver- 
 age, can raise 160 lbs. weight at the 
 velocity of 2i miles per hour. The power 
 of a horse exerted in this way is made 
 the standard for estimating the power 
 of a steam-engine. Thus we speak of an 
 engine of 60 or 80 horse-power, each 
 horse-power being estimated as equiva- 
 lent to 33,000 lbs. raised one foot high 
 per minute. Engineers differ widely in 
 their estimate of the work a horse is able 
 to execute. That given above is the 
 estimate of Boulton and Watt based on 
 the work of London dray-horses, but it 
 is considered much too high, 17,400 
 foot-pounds per minute being generally 
 considered nearer the truth. As it mat- 
 ters little, however, what standard be 
 assumed, provided it be uniformly used, 
 that of Watt has been generally adopted. 
 The general rule for estimating the power 
 of a steam-engine in terms of this unit 
 is to multiply together the pressure in 
 pounds on a square inch of the piston, 
 the area of the piston in inches, the 
 length of the stroke in feet, and the 
 number of strokes per minute, the result 
 divided by 33,000 will give the horse- 
 power, deducting one-tenth for friction. 
 As a horse can exert its full force only 
 for about six hours a day, one horse- 
 power of machinery is equal to that of 
 4.4 horses. Nominal or calculated horse- 
 power is a term still used, but of little 
 real value, from its being calculated on 
 steam at a pressure much below the real 
 power exerted. Sometimes the real, 
 actual, or indicated horse-power ex- 
 ceeds the nominal by as much as three 
 to one. 
 
 HORSE-RACING, a sport of ancient 
 origin, having been practiced among 
 the Greeks and Romans. The institution 
 of horse-races in England belongs to a 
 very remote period. The first regular 
 horse-races, however, did not take place 
 till the reign of James I. The prize then 
 consisted of a gold or silver bell, whence 
 we have the expression “to bear away 
 the bell.” The successors of James I. 
 down to Queen Anne were all more or 
 less attached to the sport. Under George 
 I. horse-racing became more and more 
 flourishing, and the sport continued to 
 
 grow in importance during the remainder 
 of the century. The two most celebrated 
 horses of that period were Flying 
 Childers (foaled in 1715) and Eclipse 
 (foaled in 1764), which long had the 
 reputation of being the fleetest horses 
 that ever ran. The former ran four miles 
 in 6 min. 48 sec., carrying 9 st. 2 lbs. 
 The latter was never beaten. None of 
 the English sovereigns was more de- 
 voted to horse-racing than George IV. 
 Between 1784 and 1792, while yet 
 Prince of Wales, he gained 185 prizes, 
 including the Derby of 1788. Horse- 
 racing was introduced into France from 
 England, and during the reign of Louis 
 XIV., and still more during that of 
 Louis XV., was pursued with the otmost 
 enthusiasm. The revolution put an end 
 to it for a time, but the sport was re- 
 vived by Napoleon. Horse-races, mostly 
 upon the English model, have also been 
 introduced into various other countries. 
 The principal varieties of horse-racing 
 are flat-racing, or racing on level ground ; 
 steeple-chasing, or racing over ground 
 not specially prepared for the purpose; 
 hurdle-racing, in which the horses have 
 to leap over obstacles purposely placed 
 in the way; and match trotting. This 
 last kind of race is a very favorite one 
 in America, where the best trotting 
 horses are to be found, but in England 
 it is not much practiced. Steeple-chases 
 and hurdle-races take place in the win- 
 ter months, the chief English event of the 
 season being the Grand National steeple 
 chase, run over a course of 4 miles 1000 
 yards at Aintree, near Liverpool. For- 
 merly all races were what is called 
 weight-for-age races, that is, a specified 
 difference in weight was conceded by the 
 older horses. But it was found that 
 when races were conducted on this plan 
 the best horses came to be known, and 
 the inferior ones withdrew, not ventur- 
 ing to compete with them, so that the 
 race resulted in a walk-over. Hence 
 arose the practice of handicapping, that 
 is, of adjusting as nearly as possible the 
 weight to be carried to the previously 
 ascertained powers of the horse, so as to 
 reduce the chances of all the horses 
 entered to an exact equality. Since the 
 introduction of this practice handicap 
 races have become a very favorite sport. 
 The breeding of thoroughbred horses is 
 often a very profitable business. The 
 pedigrees of all thoroughbred horses are 
 registered in the stud-book, so that if 
 any particular animal is omitted in that 
 register the inference is that its pedigree 
 is not without some blemish more or less 
 remote. 
 
 In the United States horse-racing is 
 now a national sport. Morris Park, in 
 Westchester Co., N. Y., and Brighton 
 Beach fairgrounds at Coney Island fur- 
 nish good race-courses. The trotting- 
 horse of America is really a distinct 
 variety of the equine race. The best 
 American trotters are descended from 
 an imported English horse. Messenger. 
 Remarkable running time, one mile in 
 one minute 35J seconds, was made by 
 “Salvator,” Monmouth Park, in 1890; 
 in heat racing one mile was made by 
 “Guido.” in one minute 41J seconds, 
 Washington Park, Chicago, in 1891; at 
 Memphis in 1905 “Lou Dillon” trotted a 
 mile in one minute and 58J seconds; the 
 
HORSE-KADISH 
 
 HOSPITAL 
 
 best pacing time for one mile at St. Paul, 
 Minn., by “Dan Patch” in one minute 
 and 55 seconds. 
 
 HORSE-RADISH, a plant inhabiting 
 the temperate parts of America in moist 
 situations. The root is cylindrical, whit- 
 ish in color, and forms a well-known 
 condiment, possessing a pungent taste 
 and odor. It is also employed medicin- 
 ally, as a stomachic, diaphoretic, and 
 diuretic, and externally as a rubefacient. 
 
 HORSE-SHOE, a shoe for horses, con- 
 sisting commonly of a narrow plate of 
 iron bent into a form somewhat re- 
 sembling the letter U, so as to accom- 
 modate itself to the shape of the horse’s 
 foot. Horse-shoes do not appear to have 
 been known to the ancients. Xenophon, 
 Vegetius, and others mention various 
 processes for hardening the hoofs so as 
 to make them stronger, but say nothing 
 of any protection like the horse-shoe. 
 Iron horse-shoes are mentioned as being 
 in use in Europe in the 9th century of 
 our era. They seem to have been intro- 
 duced into England by the Normans. 
 
 HORSE-TAIL, among the Turks and 
 other Eastern nations, the tail of a horse 
 mounted on a lance, and used as a 
 standard of rank and honor. The three 
 
 Horse-tail standard of Pasha. 
 
 grades of pashas are distinguished by 
 the number of tails borne on their 
 standards, three being allotted to the 
 highest dignitaries or viziers, two to the 
 governors of the more important prov- 
 inces, and one to those of less important 
 dist)ric^s 
 
 HORTENSE, Eugenie de Beauharnais. 
 See under Beauharnais. 
 
 HORTENSIUS, Quintus, Roman ora- 
 tor, born of an equestrian family, b.c. 
 114, died b.c. 50. His speeches are all 
 lost. 
 
 HORTICULTURE, or GARDENING, 
 
 includes, in its most extensive significa- 
 tion, the cultivation of esculent vege- 
 tables, fruits, and ornamental plants. 
 In large gardens there are genera ly 
 separate departments for flowers, fruits, 
 and vegetables; but in small gardens 
 they are usually more or less combined. 
 A garden should be either on a level, 
 but admitting of effectual drainage, or 
 on a gentle slope, preferably on the 
 lower portion of a slope facing the sun. 
 It should be wel. sheltered, either 
 naturally from situation, or artistically 
 by means of plantations, walls, etc. 
 The character of the soil is of much im- 
 portance. good loam, or a sandy loam 
 
 mixed with humus, is the best. The 
 former is better fitted for fruit-trees, 
 but for early crops the sandy loam is de- 
 sirable. While the greater part of a 
 garden should consist of such soil, either 
 naturally or artificially formed, it is use- 
 ful to have a portion stronger and an- 
 other much lighter in order to suit the 
 requirements of different plants. The 
 nature of the subsoil is also important. 
 The best is a dry bed of clay overlying 
 sandstone. Digging, plowing, and pul- 
 verizing the soil, and exposing the 
 surface to the action of the summer sun 
 and the winter’s frost are highly useful 
 operations, by which the tenacity of stiff 
 soils is overcome, weeds and insects are 
 destroyed, and a quantity of air is ad- 
 mitted into the ground. Nutritive mat- 
 ter is frequently supplied to plants in the 
 form of manure, either organic or in- 
 organic. After the soil is properly dry 
 and pulverized, the seeds are deposited, 
 and this should always be done in dry 
 weather, for a dry soil is especially re- 
 quisite for covering in the seeds. Water- 
 ing is often necessary as a means of 
 nourishment to growing plants, espe- 
 cially as a support to newly transplanted 
 vegetables, and for cleaning the leaves 
 and destroying insects. The methods of 
 propogating plants are various. For an 
 account of the processes of budding and 
 grafting see these articles. Another 
 mode of propagation is that by means of 
 cuttings, or shoots cut off and planted 
 in the soil, where they take root. This 
 process is exceedingly simple and easy 
 in the case of many trees, as the willows 
 and poplars; but requires some man- 
 agement in the heaths, myrtles, and 
 other shrubs. In growing ornamental 
 plants and flowers and exotic fruits, 
 plant-houses of various kinds are neces- 
 sary. These comprise the numerous 
 forms of conservatory, plant-stove, 
 green-house, pits, and frames. Horti- 
 cultural tools, instruments, implements, 
 and machinery are very various. 
 
 HORUS, the Latinized form of Har, 
 the day, or the sun’s path, an Egyptian 
 divinity. Two gods were latterly recog- 
 nized under the name. The elder Horus 
 was the son of Seb (identified by the 
 Greeks with Kronos) and Nu (Rhea) 
 and brother of Osiris. The other Horus 
 was the son of Osiris and Isis, and is 
 supposed to have come into the world 
 soon after the birth of his parents. On 
 the death of Osiris he was his avenger, 
 defeating the serpent Typho, and ena- 
 bling Isis to thwart his wicked designs. 
 Both the elder and younger Horus were 
 regarded as symbols of the sun. 
 
 HO'SEA, the first in order among the 
 minor prophets of the Old Testament, 
 but probably the third in order of time, 
 flourishing about 750 b.c. Nothing is 
 known of his life, except that he was the 
 son of Beeri, and that his ministry be- 
 longed to the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, 
 Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. The 
 nation generally and the ten tribes in 
 particular are reproved, exhorted, and 
 threatened in his prophecy. He predicts 
 the approaching exile of his countrymen, 
 and the consoling promise of the final 
 return of an improved people 
 
 HOSHANGABAD, chief town and 
 headquarters of district of the same 
 name. Central Provinces of India, on 
 
 the Nerbudda. It is a chief seat of the 
 British piece-goods trade, and does 
 business in cotton, grain, etc Pop. 
 13,500. The district has an area of 4437 
 sq. miles, and a pop. of 529,945. 
 
 H03HIARPUR, chief town and seat 
 of administration of district of same 
 name, Punjab, India. Pop. 21,552. The 
 district has an area of 2244 sq. miles, 
 and a pop. of 1,011,659. 
 
 HOSIERY, a general term for all kinds 
 of knitted articles, including drawers, 
 petticoats, night-dresses, etc., and fancy 
 articles such as head-dresses, hoods, 
 shawls, neckerchiefs, watch-guards, 
 cravats, etc. The materials used for the 
 purpose are cotton, linen, and wool, the 
 last of which is sometimes mixed with 
 cotton or silk. Silk is also frequently 
 used alone. Nearly all articles of hosiery, 
 except some fancy articles, are now 
 made by a knitting-frame of some kind 
 or other. 
 
 HOSPICE, signifies either a little con- 
 vent belonging to a religious order, oc- 
 cupied by a few monks, and destined to 
 receive and entertain traveling monks; 
 or houses of refuge and entertainment 
 for travelers on some difficult road or 
 pass, as the Hospice of the Great St. 
 Bernard. 
 
 HOSPITAL, any building appro- 
 priated for the reception of any class of 
 persons who are unable to supply their 
 own wants, and are more or less de- 
 pendent upon public help to have those 
 wants supplied. Hence hospitals are of 
 various kinds, according to the nature 
 of the wants they supply and the class of 
 persons for whom they are intended. A 
 large number of hospitals are medical; 
 others are for the reception of incurables; 
 others for the aged and infirm; others 
 for the education of children of people 
 in reduced circumstances; others for 
 the reception of the wounded in battle; 
 and so on. The first establishments of 
 this nature are believed to belong to the 
 4th century after Christ. Their primary 
 object was to afford a shelter to stran- 
 gers and travelers, and it was only 
 occasionally that the sick and infirm 
 were admitted. One of the earliest hos- 
 pitals of which we have any satisfactory 
 information was that established by the 
 emperor Valens at Cssarea about the 
 end of the 4th century, and which was 
 conducted on a very large scale. The 
 Arabs in Spain, at an early period of 
 their occupation of that country, founded 
 a magnificent hospital at Cordova, 
 where physicians were trained, who did 
 a vast deal to advance the study of med- 
 icine. The Arabs have also the credit of 
 having founded the first lunatic asylum 
 in Europe, which was erected in the city 
 of Granada. The majority of hospitals 
 everywhere are medical, often called in- 
 firmaries. These may be divided into 
 general and special hospitals, the former 
 class admitting cases of all kinds; the 
 latter class admitting only patients suf- 
 fering from some special trouble. Thus 
 there are lying-in hosiptals, cancer, con- 
 sumption, ophthalmic, lock (for venereal 
 diseases), fever, and small-pox hospi- 
 tals. There are also hospitals for chil- 
 dren, and for persons suffering from 
 incurable diseases. Such institutions 
 serve a double purpose, inasmuch as 
 they not only afford the best medical 
 
HOSPITAL FEVER 
 
 HOUSE-FLY 
 
 advice and treatment to the poor, who 
 would otherwise be unable to obtain it, 
 but also supply the best means of giving 
 instruction in medicine and surgery, as 
 in them students have the opportunity 
 of witnessing cases of nearly every 
 variety of disease, and observing how 
 they are treated by the most skilled 
 physicians and surgeons. For this rea- 
 son a good infirmary or medical hospital 
 is an indispensable adjunct to every 
 school of medicine and surgery. Hospi- 
 tals for the sick and hurt are usually 
 divided into wards, each containing a 
 larger or smaller number of beds. Med- 
 ical and surgical wards are usually kept 
 separate, and all contagious diseases are 
 treated by themselves in distinct build- 
 ings. Each hospital has a matron, house 
 surgeon, and apothecary resident within 
 its walls. The duties of the matron con- 
 sist in regulating the night and day 
 nurses, and the washing and laundry 
 department, as well as the purchase of 
 the necessary supplies of provisions, 
 and keeping a general superintendence 
 over the kitchen and messes of the sick. 
 The house surgeon takes care of all 
 casualties and accidents in the absence 
 of the principal surgeons. The apothe- 
 cary takes care of the pharmacy and 
 prepares all the medicines prescribed 
 from time to time by the surgeons and 
 physicians. There is a well-lighted room 
 set apart for the performance of opera- 
 tions, and a mortuary for the reception 
 of corpses previous to interment. The 
 nurses relieve each other day and night 
 in a regular manner. Particular wards 
 are set aside for the reception of persons 
 laboring under various and peculiar 
 denominations of disease. 
 
 Military and Naval Hospitals, or es- 
 tablishments for the reception and care 
 of sick and wounded soldiers and sea- 
 men, have been in existence in all civil- 
 ized countries for a long period. Military 
 hospitals are either permanent or tem- 
 porary establishments. 
 
 HOSPITAL FEVER, a malignant form 
 of typhus fever, so called from its being 
 most frequently met with in military 
 and other large hospitals. See Typhus 
 Fever. 
 
 HOSPITALLERS, charitable brother- 
 hoods who devote themselves to tend 
 the sick in hospitals. The name is spe- 
 cially applied to an order of knights, the 
 Knights of St. John. See John, Knights 
 of St. 
 
 HOST, a term used for the bread (or 
 wafer) and wine in the eucharist, as con- 
 taining the body and blood of Christ. 
 As the wafer alone is givefi to laymen 
 in the Roman Catholic church, as con- 
 taining both the body and blood of the 
 Redeemer, the term host is usually 
 applied to the consecrated wafer. See 
 Elevation, Mass. 
 
 HOSTAGF a person left as a pledge or 
 surety for the performance of the articles 
 or conditions of a treaty. The taking or 
 giving of hostages is now scarcely known 
 in the relations of modern communities, 
 but was formerly almost universal, and, 
 many questions in the law of nations 
 arose out of the practice. If the stipu- 
 lated terms were observed the hostages 
 were returned on each side, but if the 
 terms were violated or evaded the hos- 
 tages might be put to death. 
 
 HOT-BED, in gardening, a bed of 
 earth heated by fermenting substances, 
 such as fresh stable dung, tanners’ bark, 
 leaves of trees, etc., and covered with 
 glass to defend it from the cold air, in- 
 tended for raising early plants, or for 
 nourishing exotic plants of warm cli- 
 mates, which will not thrive in cool or 
 temperate air. 
 
 HOTCH'KISS, Benjamin Berkely, 
 American inventor, born in Watertown, 
 Conn., in 1826. During the civil war he 
 was engaged in the manufacture of 
 ordnance in New York, and later in- 
 vented the Hotchkiss magazine gun, 
 used by the United States troops in the 
 west and the United States marine 
 corps. This was followed in 1882 by the 
 Hotchkiss machine gun, for use in the 
 fighting tops of war-vessels. He was also 
 the inventor of several important im- 
 provements in projectiles and heavy 
 ordnance. His guns were in general use 
 throughout the armies and navies of the 
 world until displaced in the more ad- 
 vanced nations by later inventions. He 
 died in 1885. 
 
 HOTHOUSE, a building for the culti- 
 vation of plants too delicate to grow in 
 the open air. It is built chiefly of glass, 
 and resembles a greenhouse in its struc- 
 ture, and arrangements except that 
 artificial heat is kept up all the year 
 round. Some are heated by steam, others 
 by hot water in tubes, and others by the 
 introduction of hot air. 
 
 HOT SPRINGS, the county-seat of 
 Garland co.. Ark., SO miles west by 
 south of Little Rock. It is widely noted 
 for the hot waters that flow from 72 
 springs, including a space of 10 acres on 
 the west side of Hot Springs Mountain. 
 The waters of these springs range in 
 temperature from 76° to 157° Fahr., and 
 are beneficial in a multitude of diseases. 
 In 1832 four sections of land, the ther- 
 mal springs being in the center of the 
 district, were set off by congress as a 
 government reservation. Since then the 
 government has established on the 
 mountain the Army and Navy general 
 hospital, and expended large sums in 
 improving and developing the reserva- 
 tion. It has over 100,000 visitors an- 
 nually. Pop. 11,800. 
 
 HOT'TENTOTS, peculiar African race, 
 supposed to be the aboriginal occupants 
 of the south end of that continent, at 
 and near the Cape of Good Hope. Their 
 limits may be said to have been the river 
 Orange on the north and northeast, and 
 the Kei on the east. When young they 
 are of remarkable symmetry; but their 
 faces are ugly, and this ugliness increases 
 with age. The complexion is a pale olive, 
 the cheek-bones project, the chin is nar- 
 row and pointed, arid the face conse- 
 quently is triangular. The lips are thick, 
 the nose flat, the nostrils wide, the hair 
 woolly, and the beard scanty. When the 
 Dutch first settled at the Cape in the 
 middle of the 17th century the Hotten- 
 tots were a numerous nation, of pastoral 
 and partially nomadic habits, and 
 occupied a territory of 100,000 square 
 njiles. At the present day this race is 
 nearly extinct within the wide territory 
 which formerly belonged to it, having 
 been entirely hunted out and dispersed 
 by the Boers. 
 
 HOUND, a name given generally to 
 hunting dogs; but restricted by scientific 
 writers to such as hunt by scent, a def- 
 inition which excludes the greyhound. 
 Among the varieties are the bloodhound, 
 
 Deer-hound. 
 
 deerhound, foxhound, harrier, and bea- 
 gle. Hounds are distinguished not only 
 by their fineness of scent, but by docility 
 and sagacity. Of the rough-haired and 
 smooth-haired varieties the former mani- 
 fest the greatest affection for man. 
 
 HOU-PE. HU-PEH, or HOO-PE, 
 (North of the Lakes), a central province 
 of China. It is intersected by tne Han- 
 kiang and the Yang-tse-kiang, and is 
 considered one of the most fertile parts 
 of the empire. Pop. 33,365,005. 
 
 HOUR, the twenty-fourth part of a 
 day. In most countries the hours are 
 counted from midnight to mid-day, and 
 twelve hours are twice reckoned. But 
 in some parts of Italy twenty-four hours 
 are counted, beginning with sunset, so 
 that noon and midnight are every day at 
 different hours. Each hour is divided 
 into sixty minutes, and each minute 
 into sixty seconds. 
 
 HOUR-GLASS, an instrument for 
 measuring time, consisting usually of 
 two hollow bulbs placed one above the 
 other, and having a narrow neck of com- 
 munication through which a certain 
 quantity of dry sand, water or mercury 
 is allowed to run from the upper to the 
 lower bulb, the quantity of sand being 
 adjusted so as to occupy an hour in 
 passing from one bulb to the other. The 
 hour-glass was commonly used in 
 churches during the 16th and 17th cen- 
 turies to regulate the length of the ser- 
 mon. 
 
 HOURIS (hou'riz or ho'riz), the 
 “black-eyed” nymphs of Paradise, whose 
 company, according to the Koran, is to 
 be one of the rewards of the faithful. 
 They are described as most beautiful 
 virgins, endowed with perpetual youth, 
 and subject to no impurity. They dwell 
 in beautiful gardens, by flowing streams, 
 and the very meanest of the faithful will 
 have at least seventy-two of them. 
 
 HOUSE, in point of law the common 
 expression, “an Englislunan’s house is 
 his castle,” is in most instances true. 
 Except where there has been a criminal 
 offense, an Englishman can hold his 
 house against all comers. No bailiff can 
 break open his door to arrest him, or 
 seize his goods for debt, nor can any 
 court give him this power; but if a bailiff 
 is once permitted to enter he cannot be 
 expelled. The same conditions govern 
 in the United States. 
 
 HOUSE-BREAKING. See Burglary. 
 
 HOUSE-FLY. See Fly. 
 
HOUSEHOLD GODS 
 
 HOWE 
 
 HOUSEHOLD GODS, among the 
 Romans, deities known as the Lares 
 and Penates, and presiding over the for- 
 tunes of the house or family. 
 
 HOUSEMAID’S KNEE, an acute in- 
 flammation of the bursa or sac between 
 the kneepan and the skin, so called be- 
 cause it is common among housemaids 
 from their kneeling on hard damp stones. 
 It is treated like other local inflamma- 
 tions by fomentations, and if necessary 
 leeches. Mild purgatives are also useful, 
 and the limb ought to h^ve complete 
 
 HOUSE OF COMMONS. See Britain— 
 section Parliament. 
 
 HOUSE OF CORRECTION, a prison 
 for idle and disorderly persons, and cer- 
 tain classes of criminals, such as prison- 
 ers convicted of felony or misdemeanor, 
 vagrancy, etc., or committed on charge 
 of such. Originally vagrants, trespassers, 
 and convicted persons were detained in 
 these houses that they might be com- 
 pelled to work. They are sometimes 
 called bridewells. 
 
 HOUSE OF LORDS. See Britain; also 
 Parliament. 
 
 HOUSTON, a town in Texas, capital 
 of Harris co., at the head of steamboat 
 navigation on Buffalo bayou, 48 miles 
 northwest of the important seaport of 
 
 Galveston, and the great railway center 
 of the state. It stands in an excellent 
 grazing district, and contains iron- 
 foundries, cotton-presses, machine-shops 
 and other industrial establishments. It 
 is a great shipping port for cotton. Pop. 
 1909, estimated at about 90,000. 
 
 HOUSTON, Samuel, American gen- 
 eral and president of the Republic of 
 Texas, was born in Lexington, Va., in 
 1793. When quite young he moved to 
 Tennessee. A part of his youth was 
 spent among the Cherokee Indians, by 
 whom he was named “Colonel.” In 1813 
 he enlisted in the United States army, 
 and while serving under General Jack- 
 son, was wounded in an engagement 
 with the Creek Indians. He studied law 
 in Nashville, Tenn., and served his state 
 in congress from 1823-1827, when he 
 became governor of the state. His mar- 
 riage in 1829 was unfortunate; he sepa- 
 rated from his wife, and went to live 
 among the Arkansas Indians, and was 
 sent to Washington to represent their 
 interests. He visited Texas in 1832, and 
 accepted the invitation to take up his 
 residence there, and to become leader of 
 the colonists in the struggle for their 
 
 rights. The Texans sought union with 
 the United States, but were denied. 
 Santa Anna demanded that they sur- 
 render their arms, which they refused 
 to do. Houston became commander-in- 
 chief of the army organized to oppose 
 the demand of Mexico. Santa Anna was 
 captured in the battle of San Jacinto, 
 April, 1836, and the independence of 
 Texas secured. General Houston was 
 the first president of the Republic of 
 Texas. On the admission of Texas to 
 the union, Houston represented the 
 state as senator for twelve years. When 
 the civil war broke out, he opposed 
 secession and was compelled to leave 
 Texas. He was of fine presence and a 
 natural orator. He died in 1863. 
 
 HOWARD, Oliver Otis, American sol- 
 dier, was born in Leeds, Maine in 1830. 
 In 1861 he became colonel of the Third 
 Maine volunteers, and commanded a 
 brigade in the first battle of Bull Run. 
 He took a prominent part in the battle 
 of Antietam ; was promoted to be major- 
 general of volunteers in November; and 
 was engaged in the battle of Fredericks- 
 burg. In April, 1863, he was placed in 
 command of the Eleventh army corps, 
 and as such took a conspicuous part in 
 the battles of Chancellorsville and Get- 
 tysburg. In December, 1864, he was 
 appointed brigadier-general in the regu- 
 lar army, and in March, 1865, was 
 brevetted major-general for services 
 at Ezra Church and during the Atlanta 
 campaign. In 1874 Howard was placed 
 in command of the Department of the 
 Columbia, and in this capacity con- 
 ducted the operations against the Nez 
 Perc6s Indians in 1877, and against the 
 Bannocks in 1878. In 1886 he was ap- 
 pointed major-general in the regular 
 army, and in November, 1894, retired 
 from the service. 
 
 HOWE, Elias, an American inventor, 
 was born in Spencer, Massachusetts, in 
 1819, died at Brooklyn in 1867. He con- 
 structed a sewing-machine in 1846, and 
 was for several years involved in expen- 
 sive and harassing lawsuits to establish 
 his right to reap the benefits of his own 
 ingenuity. Immense numbers of the 
 Howe sewing-machine are now manu- 
 factured and sold in America, Great 
 Britain, and elsewhere. 
 
 HOWE, Julia Ward, American poet 
 and sociological writer, was born in New 
 York in 1819. She edited with her hus- 
 band, Dr. S. G. Howe, the Boston Com- 
 monwealth, an anti-slavery journal. 
 After the war she became a noted ad- 
 vocate of female suffrage. She is best 
 known by her immensely popular Battle 
 Hymn of the Republic, which was writ- 
 ten in 1861. 
 
 HOWE, Richard, Earl Howe, English 
 admiral, was the second son of Emanuel 
 Scrope, second Viscount Howe, and was 
 born in 1725, died 1799. In 1783 he 
 accepted the post of first lord of the 
 admiralty, which, with a partial inter- 
 mission, he continued to hold until 1793, 
 when, on the breaking out of the war 
 with France, he took the command of 
 the British fleet, and bringing the enemy 
 to an action on June 1, 1794, he obtained 
 over them a decisive victory, for which 
 he received the thanks of parliament 
 and other honors. In 1797 Lord Howe 
 exerted himself with great success to 
 
 quell the mutiny among the seamen at 
 Portsmouth. 
 
 Lord Howe. 
 
 HOWE, Samuel Gridley, American 
 philanthropist, was born in Boston in 
 1801. He served with the Greeks in 
 their struggle for freedom and took part 
 in the July revolution in Paris. He then 
 became interested in the education of 
 the blind, the subject which his name 
 will be longest connected, and the 
 Perkins institute in Boston became the 
 greatest school of its kind in the world. 
 He was the inventor of many improve- 
 ments in method as well as in the pro- 
 cesses of printing books in raised types. 
 At the Perkins institute his most re- 
 markable achievement was in the 
 education of Laura Bridgman. During 
 the civil war he was one of the directors 
 of the sanitary commission. He was 
 the originator of the state board of 
 charities of Massachusetts in 1863, the 
 first board of the sort in America. He 
 died in 1876. 
 
 HOWE, S’r William, British soldier, 
 was born in 1729. He was a younger 
 brother of Richard, Earl Howe, whom 
 he succeeded as fifth Viscount Howe in 
 1799. In 1757, he was placed in com- 
 mand of the Fifty-eighth Foot, and sent 
 with it to America, where he took part 
 in the siege and capture of Louisburg 
 and accompan-'ed Wolfe on his expedi- 
 tion to Quebec. He commanded the 
 reenforcements sent to General Gage at 
 Boston in March, 1775. He commanded 
 the British in the battle of Bunker Hill, 
 
 General Sir William Howe. 
 
 on June 17th following. He succeeded 
 Gage in command of all the troops in 
 America outside of Canada, with the 
 local rank of general. Besieged in Bos- 
 ton by Washington during the winter 
 of 1775-76, and, being compelled to 
 abandon the city, he withdrew his troops 
 to Halifax, and afterward transferred 
 his command to Staten Island, whence 
 he moved on New York, winning the 
 battle of Long Island on August 27, 
 1776, and occupying the city on Sep- 
 tember 15th. On October 28th he de- 
 feated Washington at White Plains, and 
 
HOWELLS 
 
 HUELVA 
 
 afterward captured Forts Washington 
 and Lee. He defeated Washington at 
 the Brandywine on September 11th, and 
 on September 27th occupied Philadel- 
 phia. Howe sent in his resignation 
 shortly after taking Philadelphia, and 
 Sir Henry Clinton was appointed to 
 succeed him. In 1782 he became lieu- 
 tenant-general of ordnance, and at- 
 tained the rank of full general in the 
 following year. He died in 1814. 
 
 HOWELLS, William Dean, an Ameri- 
 can novelist, born at Martinsville, Ohio, 
 in 1837. He learned the printer’s trade 
 with his father; was afterward assistant 
 editor on the Ohio State Journal; pub- 
 lished a life of Abraham Lincoln and a 
 
 volume of poems; was appointed in 1861 
 United States consul at Venice. On his 
 return to America in 1865 he joined the 
 staff of the Nation, became afterward 
 editor of the Atlantic Monthly (1871- 
 81), but made himself known chiefly as 
 a writer of novels. Among his works are 
 Venetian Life, Italian Journeys, A 
 Chance Acquaintance, A Foregone Con- 
 clusion, The Lady of the Aroostook, Dr. 
 Breen’s Practice, A Modern Instance, 
 The Rise of Silas Lapham, Indian Sum- 
 mer, The Flight of Pony Baker, The 
 Kentons, ets. 
 
 HOWITZER, a short piece of ord- 
 nance, usually having a chamber for the 
 powder narrower than the bore, specially 
 designed for the horizontal firing of 
 
 
 Brass howitzer (24 pounder). 
 
 shells with small charges, combining in 
 some degree the accuracy of the cannon 
 with the caliber of the mortar, but much 
 lighter than any gun of the same capac- 
 ity. The rifled gun, throwing a shell of 
 the same capacity from a smaller bore, 
 
 and with much greater power, has super- 
 seded the howitzer for general purposes. 
 
 HOWLER MONKEY, a genus of South 
 American monkeys, characterized by a 
 remarkable loudness of voice, which is 
 
 Howler. 
 
 due to the presence of a large chamber 
 within the hyoid bone and the enlarge- 
 ment of the ventricles of the larynx. In 
 the tropical forests of America their 
 hideous howls, probably a kind of 
 amorous concert, may be heard during 
 the night more than a mile away. They 
 are prehensile-tailed, large, and heavy 
 of body, with a high pyramidal head 
 flattened on the summit. 
 
 HOWRAH, a town of India, on the 
 right bank of the Hugli, opposite Calcutta , 
 of which it is practically a suburb, and 
 with which it communicates by a float- 
 ing bridge. It has large dockyards, jute 
 and saw mills, and various manufac- 
 tories. Pop. 157,594. 
 
 HUCKLEBERRY, an American name 
 for the whortleberry, which see. 
 
 HUDDERSFIELD, a flourishing man- 
 ufacturing town, in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, England, 16J miles south- 
 west of Leeds, The plan of the town is 
 very regular, and the houses are well 
 though somewhat uniformly built. Some 
 of the public buildings are elegant struc- 
 tures. Among its institutions are two 
 colleges for higher education, a techni- 
 cal school, etc. The town is the chief 
 center of the fancy woolen trade. Broad- 
 cloths, doeskins, trouserings are also 
 manufactured, and there are manu- 
 factories of steam-engines, machinery, 
 etc. Pop. 95,056. 
 
 HUDSON, a town and port, ' in the 
 state of and 116 miles north of New 
 York, on the left bank of the Hudson. 
 It is regularly built, and has large iron- 
 smelting works, foundries, breweries, 
 etc. Pop. 13,374. 
 
 HUDSON, Henry, English navigator 
 date of birth unknown. He sailed from 
 London in the year 1607 in a small vessel 
 with only ten men and a boy, to dis- 
 cover the Northeast Passage, and pro- 
 ceeded beyond the 80th degree of lati- 
 tude. In a second voyage he landed at 
 Nova Zembla, but could get no further 
 eastward. In 1609 he sailed for North 
 America, and discovered the Hudson 
 river, which he ascended about 50 
 leagues. In 1610 he sailed in an English 
 ship named the Discovery, and dis- 
 covered Hudson Strait and Hudson’s 
 Bay, where he wintered; but his crew, 
 after suffering many hardships, mutinied 
 
 and set him adrift in a boat along with 
 his son John and seven of the most in- 
 firm of the crew, none of whom were 
 ever again heard of. Hudson published 
 Divers Voyages and Northern Discover- 
 ies (1607), and a Second Voyage (1608). 
 
 HUDSON BAY, or HUDSON’S BAY, 
 an extensive bay, or rather an inlanci 
 sea. Dominion of Canada, extending be- 
 tween lat. 51° and 64° n., and Ion. 77° 
 and 95° w. ; length, north to south, about 
 800 miles; greatest breadth, about 600 
 miles. Hudson bay is navigable for 4J 
 months in summer (from middle of June 
 to end of October), being obstructed by 
 drift-ice during the rest of the year. 
 There are many islands, reefs, and sand- 
 banks. The shores on the east are high 
 and bold; but those on the west, espe- 
 cially toward the south, are low and 
 level, and much of the land here is favor-' 
 able for stock and dairy farming. The 
 white whale is found in its waters, and 
 there is a considerable summer fishery. 
 
 HUDSON RIVER, a river in the United 
 States. It rises, by two branches, in the 
 northern part of the state of New York, 
 in the Adirondack mountains, about lat. 
 44° n. Two small streams unite to form 
 the river, which is afterward joined by 
 the Schroon and Sacondaga. At Glen’s 
 Falls it has a fall of 50 feet, after which 
 it runs almost due south to its mouth in 
 New York bay. Its whole course is over 
 300 miles; it is navigable as far as Hud- 
 son, 118 miles, for the largest vessels. 
 The banks of the Upper Hudson are 
 high and rocky; and the scenery very 
 picturesque. 
 
 HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY, an Eng- 
 lish trading company, chartered May 
 2,1670. It had long a monopoly of the 
 trade throughout the whole territory of 
 North America whose streams flow into 
 Hudson’s Bay, and at one time as far 
 westward as the Pacific, with rights of 
 governing and making war. In 1870 its 
 authority was transferred by act of 
 paliament to the crown, and its terri- 
 tories incorporated in the Dominion of 
 Canada. Its trade in furs is still very 
 large. 
 
 HUE AND CRY, in English law, the 
 pursuit of a felon or offender, with loud 
 outcries or clamor to give an alarm. 
 This procedure is taken by a person 
 robbed, or otherwise injured, to pursue 
 and get possession of the culprit’s per- 
 son. At common law, a private person 
 who has been robbed, or who knows that 
 a felony is committed, is bound to raise 
 a hue and cry under pain of fine and im- 
 prisonment. This is generally done by 
 informing the nearest constable; and 
 this process is still recognized by the 
 law of England as a means of arresting 
 felons without the warrant of a justice 
 of the peace. The same name is also 
 applied to a paper circulated by the 
 secretary of state for the home depart- 
 ment announcing the perpetration of 
 offenses. 
 
 HUELVA, a seaport town of South- 
 western Spain, capital of the province 
 of same name in Andalusia. It has wide 
 and well-built streets. There are manu- 
 factures of matting, ropes, sails, etc., a 
 large trade in the exportation of copper 
 ore; also in fruits and wine. The fisher- 
 ies, mainly sardine and tunny, are of con- 
 siderable value. Pop. 19,686. — The 
 
HUESCA 
 
 HUGUENOTS 
 
 province of Huelva is mountainous and 
 well wooded in the north, and contains 
 celebrated copper mines. In the south 
 
 it is comparatively level, and has a rich 
 alluvial soil. Pop. 253,970. 
 
 HUG'GINS, Sir William, English 
 astronomer, was born in London in 1824. 
 In 1856 he built an observatory in which 
 he mounted a telescope of eight-inch 
 aperture, and made careful drawings |of 
 Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. His atten- 
 tion was engaged in observations of 
 spectrum analysis. His first discovery 
 in this line was presented to the Royal 
 society in a paper on the Lines of Some 
 of the Fixed Stars. 
 
 He introduced photography into 
 astronomy, which, enabled the astrono- 
 mer by long exposure to obtain good 
 pictures of celestial objects, too faint to 
 be seen even with the most powerful 
 telescope. Huggins also invented a 
 spectroscopic method for studying the 
 red prominences of the sun, and proved, 
 through a laboratory experiment, the 
 existence of calcium in the solar promi- 
 nences and chromosphere. He was 
 president of the Royal astronomical so- 
 ciety from 1876 to 1878, of the British 
 association for the advancement of 
 science in 1891. He was chosen presi- 
 dent of the royal society in 1900, and 
 has at different times received the Royal, 
 the Copley and Rumford medals. 
 
 HUGHES,CHARLES EVANS, born 
 Apr, 11, 1862, Glen Falls, N. Y., where 
 his father was Baptist pastor. He grad- 
 uated from Brown Univ. and Columbia 
 Law School; was prof, of law Cornell 
 Univ. 1891-3, lecturer 1893-95. and of N. 
 Y. Law School from 1893; was counsel 
 on the legislative investigations of life- 
 insurance companies 1905, elected Gov- 
 ernor of New York State 1906. 
 
 HUGHES, Thomas, an English bar- 
 rister, author, and philanthropist, born, 
 at Uffington, Berkshire, in 1823. He is 
 widely known by his novel, Tom Brown’s 
 School-days, a picture of school life at 
 Rugby, published in 1856. It was fol- 
 lowed by Tom Brown at Oxford (1861), 
 A Layman’s Faith (1868), Alfred the 
 Great (1869), The Manliness of Christ, 
 and other writings. He was one w'ho 
 devoted much time to the social eleva- 
 tion of the working-class, encouraging 
 in particular the co-operative system. 
 In 1865-68 he was member of parlia- 
 ment for Lambeth, and in 1868-74 for 
 
 Frome. He was latterly a county-court 
 judge_ In 1880 he took a prominent 
 part in the socialistic settlement at 
 Rugby, Tenn. He died in 1896. 
 
 HUGLI, or HOOGHLY (hogTi), a river 
 of Hindustan, in Bengal, formed by the 
 junction of the Bhagirathi and the 
 Jalangi at Nadi j a, about 55 miles a'oove 
 Calcutta. Ships drawing 26 feet ascend 
 as far as Calcutta. 
 
 HUGO (ii-go), Victor Marie, a French 
 poet and novelist, born February 26, 
 1802, at Besangon, where his father, 
 then Major Hugo, was stationed in com- 
 mand of a brigade. At the age of twelve 
 he was already writing verses, and in 1823 
 his first novel, Han d’Islande, appeared, 
 followed in 1825 by Bug Jargal. In 1828 
 a complete edition of his Odes et Bal- 
 lades appeared. After the coup d’etat, 
 December 2, 1851, he was one of those 
 who kept up the struggle in the streets 
 against Napoleon to the last. He then 
 fled to Brussels, where he published the 
 first of his bitter satires on the founder 
 of the second empire, Napoleon le 
 Petit. In the following year ^853) the 
 second, the famous volume of Les 
 ChS,timents, a wonderful mixture of 
 satirical invective, lyrical passion and 
 pathos appeared. Hugo now went to live 
 in Jersey, was expelled along with the 
 
 Victor Hugo. 
 
 other French exiles in 1855 by the Eng- 
 lish government, and finally settled in 
 Guernsey. It was in the comparative 
 solitude and quietness of the Channel 
 islands that he wrote most of the great 
 works of his later years, Les Contempla- 
 tions (1856), La Legende des Slides, 
 1st series (1859), Chansons des Rues et 
 des Bois (1865), and his celebrated 
 series of social novels, Les Mis4rables 
 (1862) Les Travailleurs de la Mer 
 (1866), L’Homme qui Rit (1869). In 
 1870, after the fall of the empire, 
 Victor Hugo returned to Paris, where 
 he spent the remaining years of a re- 
 markably vigorous old age in occasional 
 attendances at the senate, and in adding 
 to the already long list of his literary 
 works. Among these latest productions 
 we may mention Quatre-vingt-treize 
 (1872), L’Art d’Etre Grand-pere (1877), 
 L’Histoire d’un Crime (1877), Le Pape 
 (1878), La Pitie Supreme (1879), Re- 
 ligions et Religion (1880), Les Quatre 
 Vents de I’Esprit (1881), La Legende 
 des SiScles (last series 1883), Torque- 
 mada (1882). He died on May 2, 1885. 
 
 HUGUENOT SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 
 
 The, an hereditary patriotic society, 
 organized in New York City on April 12, 
 1883, and incorporated on June 12, 
 1885. Its objects are to perpetuate the 
 memory and to foster and promote the 
 principles and virtues of the Huguenots; 
 to publicly commemorate at stated times 
 the principal events in the history of 
 the Huguenots; and to collect and pre- 
 serve all existing documents, monuments 
 etc., relating to the genealogy or history 
 of the Huguenots of America. Member- 
 ship is extended to descendants of 
 Huguenot families which emigrated to 
 America or to other countries prior to 
 the promulgation of the Edict of Tolera- 
 tion, November 28, 1787, as well as to 
 writers who have made the history of the 
 Huguenots a special subject of study. 
 
 HUGUENOTS (hu'ge-nots), a term of 
 unknown origin, applied by the Roman 
 Catholics to the Protestants of France 
 during the religious struggles of the 16th 
 and 17th centuries. During the early 
 part of the 16th century the doctrines 
 of Calvin, notwithstanding the oppo- 
 sition of Francis I., spread widely in 
 France. Under his successor Henry II., 
 1547-59, the Protestant party grew 
 strong, and under Francis II. became 
 a political force headed by the Bourbon 
 family, especially the King of Navarre 
 and the Prince of Cond6. At the head of 
 the Catholic party stood the Guises, and 
 through their influence with the weak, 
 young king, a fanatical persecution of 
 the Huguenots commenced. The result 
 was that a Huguenot conspiracy, headed 
 by Prince Louis of Conde, was formed 
 for the purpose of compelling the king 
 to dismiss the Guises and accept the 
 Prince of Cond6 as regent of the realm. 
 But the plot was betrayed and many 
 of the Huguenots were executed or 
 imprisoned. In 1560 Francis died, and 
 during the minority of the next king, 
 Charles IX., it was the policy of the 
 queen mother, Catharine de Medici, 
 to encourage the Protestants in the 
 free exercise of their religion in order 
 to curb the Guises. But in 1562 an 
 attack on a Protestant meeting made 
 by the followers of the Duke of Guise 
 commenced a series of religious wars 
 which desolated France almost to the 
 end of the century. Catherine, however, 
 began to fear that Protestantism might 
 become a permanent power in the coun- 
 try, and suddenly making au alliance 
 with the Guises between them they pro- 
 jected and carried out the massacre of 
 St. Bartholomew’s (August 25, 1572). 
 The Protestants fled to their fortified 
 towns and carried on a war with varying 
 success. On the death of Charles IX., 
 Henry III., a feeble sovereign, found 
 himself compelled to unite with the 
 King of Navarre, head of the house of 
 Bourbon and heir-apparent of the 
 French crown, against the ambitious 
 Guises, who openly aimed at the throne, 
 and had excited the people against him 
 to such a degree that he was on the point 
 of losing the crown. After the assassina- 
 tion of Henry III. the King of Navarre 
 was obliged to maintain a severe strug- 
 gle for the vacant throne; and not until 
 he had, by the advice of Sully, embraced 
 the Catholic religion (1593), did he en- 
 joy quiet possession of the kingdom as 
 
HULK 
 
 HUNGARY 
 
 Henry IV. Five years afterward he 
 secured to the Huguenots their civil 
 rights by the Edict of Nantes, which 
 confirmed to them the free exercise of 
 their religion, and gave them equal 
 claims with the Catholics to all offices 
 and diginities. The Edict of Nantes was 
 revoked in 1685, and by this act more 
 than 500,000 Protestant subjects were 
 driven out to carry their industryj 
 wealth, and skill to other countries. 
 In the reign of Louis XV. a new edict 
 was issued repressive of Protestantism, 
 but so many voices were raised in favor 
 of toleration that it had to be revoked. 
 The revolution first put the Protestants 
 on an equality with their Catholic 
 neighbors. 
 
 HULK, the name applied to old ships 
 laid by as unfit for further sea-going 
 service, and used as depots for coals, 
 sailors, etc. The hulks formerly often 
 heard of in England consisted of old 
 ships to which convicts were sent pre- 
 viously to their transportation. 
 
 HULL, Isaac, American marine officer, 
 was born at Derby, Conn., in 1773. 
 While on his way from Annapolis to 
 New York, by masterly seamanship he 
 escaped from a squadron of five British 
 men of war that pursued him for several 
 days. His celebrated victory over the 
 Guerriere, a slightly weaker British 
 frigate, which was forced to surrender, 
 was the first victory obtained by the 
 Americans over the British in the war 
 and aroused great enthusiasm. He is 
 regarded as the ablest single ship com- 
 mander on either side during the war of 
 1812. He died in 1843. 
 
 HULL, or KINGSTON-ON-HULL, a 
 river port, municipal and parliamentary 
 borough of England, and a county of 
 itself, locally situated in the East Riding 
 of York at the influx of the Hull into 
 the estuary of the Humber. Pop. 
 240,618. 
 
 HUMANE ASSOCIATION, American 
 federation of societies of the United 
 States for the prevention of cruelty to 
 animals and children, was formed at 
 Cleveland, Ohio, in 1877. It investigated 
 the abuses which prevailed on lines of 
 railways transporting cattle, and offered 
 a prize of $5000 for the best model of a 
 cattle-car that would make possible the 
 feeding, watering, and resting of cattle 
 in transit, the result of which was that 
 many improved cars were brought into 
 use. 
 
 HUMANITA'RIANS, a term some- 
 times applied to the various classes of 
 anti-trinitarians, who regard Christ as a 
 mere man. Their opinions must not be 
 confounded with Arianism, which ad- 
 mits the pre-existence of Christ, and his 
 pre-eminence among God’s creatures. 
 The term is also applied to the followers 
 of St. Simon, who maintained the per- 
 fectibility of human nature without the 
 aid of supernatural grace. 
 
 HUMANITIES, a term for humane or 
 polite literature, including the study of 
 the ancient classics, in opposition to 
 philosophy and science. In the Scotch 
 universities humanity is applied to the 
 study of the Latin language and litera- 
 ture alone. 
 
 HUMBER, a large river, or rather 
 estuary, on tne east side of England, be- 
 tween the counties of York and Lincoln, 
 
 HUMBERT I., Umberto, King of 
 Italy, born March 14, 1844, eldest son of 
 Victor Emmanuel. In the War of 1866, 
 in which Italy joined Prussia against 
 Austria, he took the field in command of 
 a division, and distinguished himself by 
 his bravery in the disastrous battle of 
 Custozza. In 1868 he married his cousin, 
 Margherita, daughter of Duke Ferdi- 
 nand of Genoa. He succeeded his father 
 on January 9, 1878, and was assas- 
 sinated in July, 1900. 
 
 HUMBOLDT (hum'bolt), Friedrich 
 Heinrich Alexander, Baron von, a Ger- 
 man traveler and naturalist, was born 
 September 14, 1769, at Berlin. In 1797 
 he resolved to make a scientific journey 
 in the tropical zones along with a friend, 
 Aim4 Bonpland. They landed at Cu- 
 mana, in South America, in July, 1799, 
 and spent five years in exploring scien- 
 tifically the region of the Orinoco and 
 the upper part of the Rio Negro, the 
 district between Quito and Lima, the 
 city of Mexico, and the surrounding 
 country, and the island of Cuba. In 
 1829, under the patronage of the Czar 
 Nicholas, he made an expedition to 
 Siberia and Central Asia, which resulted 
 in some valuable discoveries, published 
 in his Asie Centrale. Humboldt died m 
 1859. 
 
 HUME, David, an eminent historian 
 and philosopher, was born at Edinburgh 
 on the 26th April, 1711. We was des- 
 tined for the law, but was drawn away 
 
 David Hume. 
 
 by his love of literature and philosophy; 
 and retired to France, where during three 
 years of quiet and studious life he com- 
 posed his Treatise upon Human Nature. 
 The work was published at London in 
 1738, but, in his own words, “fell dead- 
 born from the press.” His next work. 
 Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary 
 (Edinburgh, 1742), met with a better 
 reception. In 1745 he became com- 
 panion to the insane Marquis of Annan- 
 dale; and he accompanied General Sin- 
 clair in 1746 and 1747 in his expedition 
 against France and in a military em- 
 bassy to Vienna and Turin. He now 
 published a recasting of his Treatise 
 upon Human Nature, under the title of 
 an Inquiry Concerning the Human Un- 
 derstanding (1747). In 1752 he pub- 
 lished his Political Discourses, which 
 were well received, and his Inquiry Con- 
 cerning the Principles of Morals. The 
 same year he obtained the appointment 
 of librarian of the Advocates’ library 
 at Edinburgh, and began to write his 
 
 History of England, of which the first 
 volume appeared in 1754. In 1767 he 
 was appointed under-secretary of state, 
 a post which he held till 1769, when he 
 retired to Edinburgh. Here he lived till 
 his death on August 25, 1776. 
 
 HUMMING-BIRDS, the name given to 
 a family of minute and beautiful birds, 
 so called from the sound of their wings 
 in flight. The beak is slender, generally 
 long, sometimes straight and sometimes 
 
 Tufted-necked kumming-bird. 
 
 curved; the tongue is long, filiform, 
 bified at the point, and capable of being 
 protruded to a considerable distance. 
 In size humming-birds vary from that of 
 a wren to that of a bumble-bee. They 
 never light to take food, but feed while 
 on the wing, hovering before a flower, 
 supported by a rapid vibratory move- 
 ment of the wings which produces the 
 humming noise. Insects form a great 
 proportion of their food. These b^eau- 
 tiful birds are peculiar to America, and 
 almost exclusively tropical. One species 
 the ruby-throated humming-bird, is 
 pretty common in the northeast of the 
 United States. The only note of the 
 humming-bird is a single chirp, not 
 louder than that of a cricket. It is very 
 fearless and irascible, two males scarcely 
 ever meeting without a contest. Among 
 the more remarkable of these birds is 
 the tufted-necked humming-bird of 
 Guiana and Northern Brazil. In this 
 species the crest, outer tail-feathers, and 
 neck-plumes are reddish chestnut, the 
 latter tipped with green, the throat and 
 upper part of the breast are emerald 
 green, the back bronze green. Perhaps 
 four hundred species of humming-birds 
 are now known. 
 
 HUNGARY (Hungarian name, Mag- 
 yar-Orszag, Land of the Magyars), a 
 kingdom in the southeast of Europe, 
 forming, together with Austria, the 
 Austro-Hungarian monarchy. It in- 
 cludes Hungary Proper, with Tran- 
 sylvania, Slavonia, Croatia, the Croato- 
 Slavonian Military Frontiers, etc.; total 
 area, 124,400 sq. miles, with a pop. of 
 19,203,531. Hungary Proper (including 
 Transylvania), with an area of 108,000 
 sq. miles and a pop. of 16,653,332, may 
 be considered as a large basin surrounded 
 by mountains on every side except the 
 south. Of these the principal are the 
 Carpathians, which cover the northern 
 and eastern parts of the country with 
 their ramifications. The Danube and 
 the Theiss, with their affluents, are the 
 chief rivers. Hungary is one of the 
 healthiest countries in Europe, and gen- 
 erally has a fertile soil. All kinds of 
 grain, especially wheat, wines, fruits, 
 
HUNGARY 
 
 HUNGER 
 
 tobacco, hemp, flax, hops, saffron, woacl, 
 madder, sumach, coitoii, are among the 
 products of Hungary. Horses, cattle, 
 sheep, hogs, game (In the north bears), 
 poultry, fish (especially the sturgeon 
 and salmon), bees, and silk-worms are 
 among the productions of the animal 
 kingdom. Among tho minerals are gold, 
 silver, copper, iron, lead, zinc, cobalt, 
 antimony, sulphur, arsenic, salt, etc., 
 with coals and peat. The situation of 
 Hungary, which occupies an area where 
 the various races of Europe meet and 
 interlace, accounts for the variety of 
 nationalities it contains. These com- 
 prise, besides the Hungarians or Mag- 
 yars (over 7,000,000 in number), Rou- 
 manians, Slavocks, Germans, Servians, 
 Ruthenians, etc. The Magyars, who are 
 the dominant race, are located for the 
 most part compactly in the center of 
 the kingdom. They are brave, high- 
 spirited, and sincere, in many respects 
 resembling their kinsmen the Turks. A 
 decided majority are Roman Catholics, 
 the rest Protestants, chiefly Calvinists, 
 with a few Greek Catholics. The Ger- 
 mans have settled ad over the country, 
 and there is scarcely a town of Hun 
 gary which is not at least partly 
 inhabited by Germans, while some are 
 essentially German. Science, litera- 
 ture, the press, trade and industry, 
 are for the greater part in their 
 hands. The Hungarian has a natural in- 
 clination to agriculture and the breeding 
 of cattle, and the fertility of the soil 
 making up for some deficiencies in 
 methods has made Hungary one of the 
 chief corn-growing countries of Europe. 
 It is also celebrated for its wines, the 
 finest variety of which is the Tokay. 
 There are few extensive manufactures 
 in Hungary. Iron and steel works, pot- 
 teries, glass manufactories, sugar-re- 
 fineries, soap and tallow works, are 
 amongst the principal. The production 
 of coal and iron is increasing and the an- 
 nual value of the mining products is 
 about $12,500,000. With regard to popu- 
 lar education Hungary is behind the 
 Austrian part of the empire, but educa- 
 tion was made compulsory in 1868. There 
 are universities at Budapest, Klausen- 
 burg, and Agram. The Hungarian lan- 
 guage is nearly allied to the Turkish and 
 Finnish, but not to any other tongue 
 spoken in Europe. It has latterly been 
 carefully cultivated, and Hungarians 
 have distinguished themselves in all 
 branches of literature. Among modern 
 names we can only mention those of 
 Andrew Horvath, Eotvos, A. and C. 
 Kisfaludy, Garay, Vorosmarty, Petofi, 
 Ker4ny, Arany, Josika, and Jokay. Be- 
 side its representation in the controlling 
 body of delegations (see Austria) Hun- 
 gary since 1867 has an independent diet, 
 consisting of an upper and lower house 
 the first composed of hereditary and life 
 peers, church dignitaries and state digni- 
 taries', the second of representatives 
 elected by vote. The Austrian emperor 
 is only_ king of Hungary Croatia and 
 Slavonia have a common diet of their 
 ovm for the management of internal af- 
 fairs. 
 
 The Magyars, an Asiatic people of 
 Turanian race, allied to the Finns and 
 the Turks, dwelt in what is now South- 
 ern Russia before they descended under 
 
 Arpad into the plain of the Danube, 
 toward the end of the 9th century, and 
 conquered the whole of Hungary and 
 Transylvania. During the first half of 
 the 10th century their invasions and in- 
 cursions spread terror throughout Ger- 
 many, France, and Italy; but at length 
 their total defeat by Otho I. of Germany 
 put an end to their maraudings, and 
 under their native dynasty of Arpads 
 they settled down to learn agriculture 
 and the arts of peace. Stephen I. (997- 
 1030) was the first who was successful 
 in extending Christianity generally 
 among the Hungarians, and was re- 
 warded by a crown from Pope Sylvester 
 II. and with the title of apostolic king 
 (1000). In 1089 King Ladislaus ex- 
 tended the boundaries of Hungary by 
 the conquest of Croatia and Slavonia, 
 and King Coloman by that of Dalmatia 
 in 1102. About the middle of the 13th 
 century King Bela induced many Ger- 
 mans to settle in the country which had 
 been depopulated by the Mongol in- 
 vasions. With Andrew III. (,1290-1301) 
 the male line of the Arpad dynasty be- 
 came extinct, and the royal dignity now 
 became purely elective. Charles Robert 
 of Anjou was the first elected (1309). 
 Louis I. (1342-82) added Poland, Red 
 Russia, Moldavia, and a part of Servia, 
 to his kindgom. The reign of Sigismund 
 (1387-1437h who was elected emperor 
 of Germany, is interesting from the in- 
 vasion of Hungary by the Turks (1391), 
 and the war with the Hussites. Mat- 
 thias Corvinus (1458-90), combining the 
 talents of a diplomatist and general, is 
 even yet remembered by the popular 
 mind as the ideal of a just and firm 
 ruler. During the reigns of Ladislaus 
 II. (1490-1516) and Louis II. (1516-26) 
 the rapacity of the magnates and do- 
 mestic troubles brought the power of 
 Hungary low, and the battle of Mohacs 
 (1526) made a great part of the country 
 a Turkish province for 160 years. The 
 rest was left in dispute between Fer- 
 dinand of Austria and John Zapolya; 
 but eventually by the help of the Prot- 
 estants passed to the former, and has 
 since remained under the scepter of the 
 Hapsburgs. In 1686 Leopold I. took 
 Buda and recovered most of Hungary 
 and Transylvania. In 1724 Charles VI. 
 secured by the Pragmatic Sanction the 
 Hungarian crown to the female de- 
 scendants of the House of Hapsburg, 
 and the loyalty of the Hungarians to his 
 daughter, Maria Theresa, saved the 
 dynasty from ruin. Maria Theresa did 
 much for the improvement of Hungary 
 by the promulgation of the rural code 
 called Urbarium, and by the formation 
 of village schools. On the advent of the 
 French revolution, and during the wars 
 which ensued, the Hungarians once 
 more played a prominent part in sup- 
 port of the Hapsburg crown. Napoleon 
 fell, but the revolution had given an 
 impetus to ideas of national and popular 
 rights which the Hungarians, long stifled 
 under the Germanic traditions and ten- 
 dencies of their rulers, were among the 
 first to feel. For a time Francis I. and 
 Metternich stood stiffly out against all 
 concessions, and tried to govern by pure 
 absolutism, but ended by summoning in 
 1825 a new diet. The diet distinguished 
 itself by adopting the ^l^g 3 ’^ar language 
 
 in its debates instead of the Latin to 
 which it had been accustomed. Suc- 
 ceeding diets in 1830 and 1832 made 
 new demands in the direction of religious 
 equality, a popular suffrage, and abro- 
 gation of the privileges of the nobles. 
 The Austrian government attempted to 
 repress the Hungarian national move- 
 ment by imprisoning Deak, Kossuth, 
 and others of the leaders. The struggle 
 continued till 1848, when the French 
 revolution of that year gave the im- 
 pulse for a similar rising in Vienna. 
 Prince Metternich fled to London, and 
 the Viennese court made a formal con- 
 cession of all important demands; but 
 these had no sooner been granted than 
 the government began secretly to work 
 against their being put in operation. 
 The dependencies of the Hungarian 
 crown, the Croats and the Wallachians 
 of Transylvania were privately en- 
 couraged to revolt, and in December of 
 the same year an Austrian army took 
 the field with the avowed object of an- 
 nihilating the independence of Hungary; 
 but a series of pitched battles resulted on 
 the whole so much in favor of the Hun- 
 garians that Austria was obliged to call 
 in the aid of Russia, which was at once 
 granted. After a heroic struggle the 
 Hungarians had to succumb. The na- 
 tion was reduced to the position of a 
 province, and some of the greatest 
 statesmen and soldiers of Hungary 
 perished on the scaffold. But the strug- 
 gle was continued by the Hungarians 
 in the form of a constitutional agitation, 
 and at last, when the battle of Sadowa 
 in 1866 separated Austria from Ger- 
 many, Austria, left face to face with a 
 nation almost as powerful and niunerous 
 as itself, felt compelled to submit. In 
 1867 a separate constitution and ad- 
 ministration for Hungary was decreed, 
 and on 8th June the emperor and em- 
 press were crowned king and queen of 
 Hungary with the utmost pomp, accord- 
 ing to the ancient ceremonies of a Hun- 
 garian coronation. The dualism of the 
 Austrian empire was thus finally con- 
 stituted. It was indeed but the partial 
 recognition of the fact that the empire 
 was a heterogeneous assemblage of com- 
 munities differing widely in race, lan- 
 guage, social habits and customs, and 
 bound together only by the accident of 
 having fallen to the house of Hapsburg. 
 
 HUNGER, a craving for food. It is a 
 sensation partly arising in the stomach, 
 since it may be relieved temporarily by 
 the introduction into the stomach of 
 material which is incapable of yielding 
 any nutriment to the body. It may be 
 due to a condition of fulness of the 
 vessels of the stomach, relieved by any 
 stimulus which, acting on the lining 
 membrane, induces a flow of fluid from 
 the glands. But it also arises from a 
 condition of the system since the intro- 
 duction of nutriment into the blood, 
 apart altogether from the stomach, will 
 relieve it. This is also evident from the 
 fact that hunger may be experienced 
 even when the stomach is full of food, 
 and when food is supplied in abundance, 
 if some disease prevents the absorption 
 of the nourishment, or quiekly drains it 
 from the blood. Hunger may be par- 
 tially allayed by sleep or by the use of 
 narcotics, tobacco, and alcohol, all of 
 
HUNS 
 
 HURON 
 
 which tend to diminish the disintegra- 
 tion of tissue. 
 
 HUNS, a nomadic and warlike people 
 of Asia, of Mongolian race, part of 
 whom entered Europe, probably in the 
 4th century after Christ, conquered the 
 Alans, and drove the Goths out of Dacia. 
 They continued to extend their domin- 
 ion along the Danube till the time of 
 Attila (434 a.d.), who, uniting the whole 
 Hunnish power in one hand became the 
 most powerful prince of his time. His 
 defeat near Chalons was the commence- 
 ment of the decline of the power of the 
 Huns, and within a generation after his 
 death in 453, the great Hunnish empire 
 had completely disappeared, and the 
 race been absorbed among other bar- 
 barous peoples. The term Huns was 
 used by ancient and mediaeval writers 
 in a very vague way to indicate barbar- 
 ous hordes invading Europe from the 
 northeast. The Huns are described as a 
 race of dark complexion with small black 
 eyes, flat noses, and broad shoulders. 
 
 HUNT, James Henry Leigh, an Eng- 
 lish poet and essayist, born in 1784. 
 Among his works may be mentioned, A 
 Legend of Florence, a play represented 
 with some success at Covent Garden in 
 1840; Stories from the Italian Poets 
 (two vols. 1846); Men, Women, and 
 Books (1847); A Jar of Honey from 
 Mount Hybla (1847); the Town, its 
 Memorable Characters and Events 
 (1848) ; Autobiography (three vols. 1850) ; 
 Table Talk (1850). In 1842 Mrs. Shelley 
 settled an annuity of $600 upon Leigh 
 Hunt, and in 1847 a government pen- 
 sion of $1,000 a year was bestowed on 
 him. He died in 1859. 
 
 HUNT, Richard Morris, American 
 architect, was born at Brattleboro, Vt., 
 in 1828. He was the architect of the 
 capitol extension at Washington, the 
 Lenox library, the Tribune building. 
 New York, the United States naval 
 observatory at Washington, the Divinity 
 college building at Yale, the administra- 
 tion building for the World’s Fair, Chi- 
 cago, and the Yorktown monument. 
 Among private houses by him are: W. 
 K. Vanderbilt’s, New York; the country 
 house of George Vanderbilt, Biltmore, 
 N. C.; and several beautiful summer 
 houses at Newport, R. I., including the 
 “Marble House” and the “Breakers.” 
 He was one of the founders, and in 1888 
 became president of, the Institute of 
 Architects. He was a knight of the 
 Legion of Honor and a foreign associ- 
 ate of the Institute of France. He died 
 in 1895. 
 
 HUNT, William Holman, an English 
 painter, born in 1827 at London. In 
 1853 his Claudio and Isabella first 
 attracted public attention, followed 
 next year by the Light of the World 
 (Christ teaching in the temple). Outside 
 of Biblical subjects Mr. Hunt has 
 painted some notable pictures: Isabella 
 and the Pot of Basil, The After-Glow, 
 The Festival of St. Swithin, etc. 
 
 HUNTER, John, surgeon and physi- 
 ologist, was born at Long Calderwood, 
 Lanarkshire, in 1728. He died in 1793. 
 Hunter contributed greatly to the high 
 development of English surgery, as well 
 as to the advance of anatomy. 
 
 HUNTER, Robert Mercer Taliaferro, 
 American politician, born in Essex co., 
 
 Va., in 1809. He was elected to the 
 state legislature in 1833 and to congress 
 in 1837, and was re-elected with the 
 exception of the twenty-eighth con- 
 gress (1843-45) until 1847, when he took 
 his seat in the senate. He was expelled 
 from the senate in 1861 after the seces- 
 sion of Virginia. From July, 1861, to 
 February, 1862, he was secretary of 
 state in Jefferson Davis’ cabinet. He 
 also represented Virginia in the Rich- 
 mond senate 1862-65. He died in 1887. 
 
 W. Holman Hunt. 
 
 HUNTING DOG, this animal which in- 
 habits all the more open parts of Africa 
 south of the Sahara and Abyssinia, is an 
 aberrant species of dog, distinguished 
 from the typical Canis by having four 
 toes on each foot, and other structural 
 peculiarities. It is about as tall as a 
 grayhound, its legs being relatively long 
 and slender, and adapted to the swift 
 and enduring speed upon which it must 
 depend for a livelihood. The head is 
 broad and flat, with a short muzzle 
 armed with massive teeth, rather large 
 upstanding furry ears, and a suggestion 
 of the hyena in the physiognomy; hence 
 it is sometimes called “hyena-dog,” 
 though the likeness is wholly superficial. 
 The fur is short, thick, and smooth, and 
 grows more shaggy about the cheeks 
 and throat ; and the tail is long and wolf- 
 like. In general color this dog is yellowish 
 gray, but it is marked most irregularly 
 with a variety of colors, such as a com- 
 bination of red, white, yellow, and black 
 spots, so that the hyena-dog may be re- 
 garded as the most parti-colored of all 
 mammalia. 
 
 HUNTINGDON (contracted Hunts), a 
 small inland county of England, sur- 
 rounded by the counties of Northamp- 
 ton, Cambridge and Bedford; area, 
 229,515 acres. Pop. 57,772. 
 
 HUNTINGTON, the county seat of 
 Huntington co., Ind., on the Little 
 river, the Wabash and Erie canal, and 
 the Wabash and the Erie railroads; 24 
 miles s.w. of Fort Wayne, 118 s.w. of 
 Toledo. It is the commercial center of 
 the Upper Wabash valley, and the place 
 of manufacture of the famous Hunting- 
 ton white lime. The shops and division 
 headquarters of the Erie railway are 
 here. Pop. 11,291. 
 
 HUNTINGTON, village; Suffolk co., 
 N. Y., on Huntington Bay, which opens 
 into Long Island Sound, and on the 
 Long Island railroad; 38 miles e. of New 
 York. The town of the same name in- 
 
 clude., Lloyd’s Neck and several villages. 
 Pop. 11,260. 
 
 HUNTINGTON, the county seat of 
 Cabell CO., West Va., on the Ohio river, 
 and the Ches. and 0., the Newport News 
 and Miss. Val., and the Ohio river rails 
 ways; 52 miles w. of Charleston, the 
 state capital. Pop. 14,323. 
 
 HURA, a genus of tropical American 
 plants, the sand-box tree, is remarkable 
 for the loud report with which its seed- 
 
 Sand-box tree. 
 
 vessel bursts. It is a large branching 
 tree with glossy poplar-like leaves, in- 
 conspicuous dioecious flowers, and large, 
 furrowed, roundish fruits of the size of 
 an orange. 
 
 HURDLES, frames formed of perpen- 
 dicular stakes with horizontal bars, and 
 braced with diagonal pieces for the pur- 
 pose of forming temporary fences. In 
 fortification the name is given to a col- 
 lection of twigs or sticks closely inter- 
 woven and sustained by long stakes, 
 and serving to render works firm, or to 
 cover traverses and lodgments for the 
 defense of workmen against fireworks 
 or stones. 
 
 HURDY-GURDY, a stringed instru- 
 ment, played by turning a handle. Its 
 tones are produced by the friction of a 
 wheel acting the part of a bow against 
 
 Hurdy-gurdy. 
 
 four strings, two of which are pressed by 
 the fingers or by keys. The other two 
 strings are tuned a fifth apart to produce 
 a drone bass, and are not stopped by 
 the fingers or keys. 
 
 HURON, Lake, one of the five great 
 lakes on the frontiers of the United 
 States and Canada. It is the third in 
 size, being 218 miles long north and 
 south, and (including Georgian Bay) 
 180 miles broad at its widest part, with 
 an area of about 21,000 miles. It lies 578 
 feet above sea-level. The lake contains 
 several thousand islands, varying in size 
 from a few square feet to huge islands 
 like the Great Manitoulin, which is about 
 
HURONIAN-ROCKS 
 
 HYBRID 
 
 107 miles long and from 4 to 25 miles 
 wide, and is the only one inhabited. 
 The waters are very clear and pure, 
 abound in fish, and have a depth averag- 
 ing from 800 to 1000 feet. 
 
 HURONIAN-ROCKS, in geology, a 
 term applied to certain rocks on the 
 banks of Lake Huron, consisting of 
 quartzite, with masses of chloritic schist. 
 They occupy the same relative position 
 as the upper parts of the Archaean rocks 
 of Britain. 
 
 HUSBAND AND WIFE, recent legisla- 
 tion in most countries has been in the 
 direction of putting husband and wife 
 on an equality, whereas formerly the 
 wife to a great extent lost her separate 
 status on marriage. Thus, for instance, 
 by the English common law her per- 
 sonal property passed at once to her 
 husband on marriage, though this 
 might be obviated by special settle- 
 ments, etc. But the law no longer stands 
 so, especially since the act of 1882. By 
 this statute a married woman can ac- 
 quire, hold, and dispose by will or other- 
 wise, of property as if she were an un- 
 married woman, and may enter into 
 any contract, and sue or be sued without 
 the participation of her husband. A 
 woman carrying on a business separately 
 from her husband is subject to the 
 bankruptcy laws as if she were un- 
 married. Every married woman has, 
 even against her husband, the same civil 
 remedies, and also the same remedies 
 by way of criminal proceedings for the 
 protection and security of her own 
 property as if she were unmarried; but 
 she cannot take criminal proceedings 
 against her husband while they are liv- 
 ing together. Generally a husband is not 
 bound by the contracts of his wife unless 
 they are made by his express or implied 
 authority. See also Marriage, Divorce, 
 Adultery, etc. 
 
 HUSS, or HUS, John, Bohemian 
 religious reformer, born about 1373. He 
 studied at the University of Prague, 
 took the degree of Master of Arts in 
 1396, and in 1398 began to lecture on 
 theology and philosophy. In 1401 he 
 was made dean of the faculty of philoso- 
 phy, became the leader of the Bohemian 
 in opposition to the German professors 
 and academicians, and after the with- 
 drawal of the' latter to Leipzig, was 
 made rector of the university (1409). 
 Since 1391 he had been acquainted with 
 the writings of Wickliff e, and his denunci- 
 ation of the papal indulgences, of masses 
 for the dead, of auricular confession, 
 etc., alarmed Archbishop Sbynko of 
 Prague, who had 200 volumes of Wick- 
 liffe’s writings burned (1410) in the 
 archiepiscopal palace, and the preaching 
 in Bohemian prohibited. He was sen- 
 tenced to death on July 6, 1415, and 
 burned alive the same day, and his 
 ashes thrown into the Rhine. 
 
 HUSSARS', originally the name of the 
 Hungarian cavalry, raised by Matthias 
 I. in 1458. Every twenty houses were 
 obliged to furnish a man, and thus from 
 the Hungarian word husz (twenty) was 
 formed the name Huszar, Hussar, after- 
 wards applied generally to light cavalry, 
 similarly dressed and armed, of other 
 E u*op ean armies. 
 
 HUSSITES, the followers of John 
 Huss. After the death of Huss, his ad- 
 
 herents took up arms for the defense of 
 their principles, and under the leader- 
 ship of Johann Ziska, captured Prague, 
 fortified Mount Tabor, and repeatedly 
 defeated the troops sent against them by 
 the Emperor Sigismund, who had suc- 
 ceeded to the crown of Bohemia. Ziska 
 died in 1424, and was succeeded by Pro- 
 copius, who also distinguished himself 
 by many victories. 
 
 HUSTINGS, (1) a name given to a 
 court formerly held in many cities of 
 England, as York, Winchester, Lincoln, 
 but especially applied to the county 
 court of the city of London held before 
 the lord-mayor, recorder, and sheriffs. 
 (2) The platform from which candidates 
 for political preferment address their 
 constituents. 
 
 HUTCHINSON, the county seat of 
 Reno CO., Kan., on the Arkansas river, 
 here spanned by four bridges, and the 
 Atch., Top. and S. F4, the Chi., R. Is. 
 and Pac., the Hutch. S., and the Mo. 
 Pac. railways; 168 miles w. by s. of 
 Topeka. It contains the largest and 
 purest deposit of rock salt in the United 
 States. It is the seat of the state re- 
 formatory. Pop. 11,189. 
 
 HUTTON, James, Scottish geologist, 
 born at Edinburgh in 1726. Among his 
 numerous works are an Investigation of 
 the Principles of Knowledge, Theory of 
 Rain, Theory of the Earth, with Proofs 
 and Illustrations (1795). He died in 
 1797. 
 
 HUXLEY, Thomas Henry, English 
 naturalist, born May 4, 1825. He 
 graduated M. B. at the University of 
 London in 1845, and entered the royal 
 navy as assistant-surgeon in 1846. He 
 
 Vll ' 
 
 Thomas Henry Huxley. 
 
 sailed with H.M.S. Rattlesnake on a 
 surveying expedition to Australasia, dur- 
 ing which he sent a number of valuable 
 papers to the Royal Society. After being 
 professor of natural history in the School 
 of Mines, Fullerian professor of physi- 
 ology to the Royal Institution, Hun- 
 terian professor in the Royal College of 
 Surgeons, president of the British Asso- 
 ciation meeting held at Liverpool in 
 1870, lord-rector of Aberdeen University 
 in 1872, secretary of the Royal Society, 
 substitute professor of natural history 
 for Professor Wyville Thompson at 
 Edinburgh in 1875 and 1876, a member 
 of various royal commissions on fisheries 
 vivisection, universities, etc., and in- 
 spector of salmon fisheries, he resigned 
 this and almost all his other offices in 
 1885 on account of ill health. Among 
 his works are The Oceanic Hydrozoa 
 
 (1857), On the Theory of the Vertebrate 
 Skull, Man’s Place in Nature (1863), On 
 Our Knov/ledge of the Causes of the 
 Phenomena of Organic Nature, a series 
 of lectures to working-men delivered in 
 1862, Elements of Comparative Anato- 
 my (1864), Elementary Physiology 
 (1866), Intpduction to the Classifica- 
 tion of Animals (1869), Lay Sermons, 
 Addresses, and Reviews (1870), Critiques 
 and Addresses (1873), American Ad- 
 dresses (1877), Physiography (1877), 
 Anatomy of Invertebrate Animals 
 (1877), The Crayfish (1879), Science and 
 Culture (1882), etc. He died at East- 
 bourne, June 29, .1894. 
 
 HUYGENS (hoi'gens), Christian, Dutch 
 mathematician and physicist, born 
 in 1629. He died at the Hague in 
 1695. Among his most important con- 
 tributions to science are his investiga- 
 tions on the oscillations of the pendulum 
 and his System of Saturn, in which he 
 first proved that the ring completely 
 surrounds the planet, and determined 
 the inclination of its plane to that of the 
 ecliptic. In 1690 he published important 
 treatises on light and on weight. His 
 Trait6 de la Lumidre was founded on 
 the undulation theory, but in conse- 
 quence of the prevalence of the New- 
 tonian theory it was long neglected till 
 later researches established its credit. 
 
 HY'ACINTH, a genus of liliaceous 
 bulbous plants, including about thirty 
 species, among which the garden hya- 
 cinth is celebrated for the immense 
 varieties which culture has .produced 
 from it. It is a native of the Levant, 
 and was first cultivated as a garden 
 flower by the Dutch about the begin- 
 ning of the 16th century. 
 
 HY'ACINTH, or JACINTH, a variety 
 of the mineral zircon, whose crystals, 
 when distinct, have the form of a four- 
 sided prism, terminated by four rhombic 
 planes, which stand on the lateral edges. 
 Its prevailing color is a red, more or less 
 tinged with yellow or brovm. The name 
 hyacinth is also given to varieties of the 
 garnet or cinnamon stone, the sapphire, 
 and topaz. 
 
 HY'ADES, a cluster of five stars in the 
 constellation Taurus, supposed by the 
 ancients to indicate the approach of 
 rainy weather when they rose with the 
 sun. 
 
 HYBRID, the produce of a female 
 animal or plant which has been impreg- 
 nated by a male of a different but nearly 
 allied species or genus. Much uncer- 
 tainty prevails respecting the produc- 
 tive crossing of species, but it seems to 
 be established that while the crossing 
 of different genera may result in off- 
 spring, that of different orders will not. 
 Hybrids are obtained among fishes from 
 different species of carp; among birds, 
 from the goldfinch and canary, the 
 swan and the goose, etc.; among mam- 
 mals, from the horse and the zebra, the 
 horse and the ass, the produce of the 
 last two being the mule proper; from 
 the lion and tiger, the dog and wolf, the 
 dog and fox, the goat and ibex. In- 
 stances of hybrids between animals of 
 different genera have been furnished by 
 the union of the goat and the antelope, 
 and of the stag and the cow. It used 
 formerly to be considered that the 
 propagative power of hybrids was eithet 
 
HYCSOS 
 
 hyduochloric acid 
 
 j,bsolutely null, or that they propagated 
 only with an individual of the pure 
 breed; but the experiments of Mr. Dar- 
 win and other recent researches have 
 shown that although infertility to some 
 degree generally attends sexual inter- 
 course between different species, yet in 
 such intercourse every degree of differ- 
 ence from absolute sterility up to com- 
 plete fertility is found. The results 
 hitherto obtained may be summarized as 
 follows: The crossing of species of 
 
 different families is in almost every case 
 infertile; allied species are capable of 
 producing offspring, and this capability 
 is in indefinite ratio to the degree of their 
 likeness; hybrids are frequently fertile 
 with their parents, but more rarely 
 among themselves; there is no fixed 
 relation between the degree of fertility 
 manifested by the parent species when 
 crossed and that which is manifested by 
 their hybrid progeny. In many cases 
 two pure species can be crossed with 
 unusual facility, while the resulting 
 hybrids are remarkably sterile'; and, on 
 the other hand, there are species which 
 can only be crossed with extreme diffi- 
 culty, though the hybrids when pro- 
 duced are very fertile. 
 
 HYCSOS, or HYKSHOS, or Shepherd 
 Kings, wandering tribes of Semitic de- 
 scent, who conquered the whole of 
 Egypt about 2100 b.c., and were driven 
 out some five hundred years afterward. 
 The only detailed account of them in 
 any ancient writer is a passage of a lost 
 work of Manetho, cited by Josephus. 
 Their epoch covers the 13th to the 17th 
 dynasties. 
 
 HYDERABAD, or HAIDARABAD, a 
 
 state of Hindustan, which comprehends 
 the greater part of that central plateau 
 of Southern India known as the Deccan, 
 and is in possession of a Mohammedan 
 prince, the Nizam; area, 80,000 sq. 
 miles, exclusive of the Berar or Hydera- 
 bad Assigned Districts under British 
 administration. The chief products are 
 rice, wheat, maize, sugar-cane, tobacco, 
 cotton, indigo, fruits, and timber Pop. 
 11,357,040. The ruler of Hyderabad be- 
 longs to a dynasty founded by Asaf Jah, 
 a distinguished soldier, whom the Em- 
 peror Aurungzeb made rank the first 
 Mohammedan ruler in India, with a 
 regular army of about 15,000, besides 
 numerous irregulars. — Hyderabad, the 
 capital is situated on the river Musi, at 
 an elevation of 1672 feet above the sea. 
 There are manufactures of silks, trink- 
 ets, and turbans. Pop. of city and sub- 
 urbs, 448,466. 
 
 HYDERABAD, or HAIDARABAD, a 
 
 town of Hindustan, capital of Hydera- 
 bad, District Sind. It is situated on a 
 rocky eminence about 3 miles from the 
 eastern bank of the Indus. The prin- 
 cipal manufactures are arms, silks, 
 cottons, and lacquered ware. Pop. 
 69,378. — The district has an area of 9030 
 sq. miles; the pop. is 918,646. 
 
 HYDER ALI, a distinguished Indian 
 prince, born in 1728, son of a general in 
 the service of the Rajah of Mysore. By 
 his military talents he became the actual 
 ruler of Mysore, and in 1762 deposed 
 Kandih Rao, and had himself chosen 
 Rajah. In 1780 he formed an alliance 
 with the Mahrattas against the English, 
 look Arcot, but was defeated by Sir 
 
 Eyre Coote, June 1, 1781. The Mah- 
 rattas now joining in a league against 
 him, he carried on a disadvantageous 
 
 Hyder All. 
 
 war, during the continuance of which 
 he died, in 1782. He was succeeded by 
 his son, Tippoo Saib. 
 
 HYDRA, in Greek mythology, a eele- 
 brated monster, which infested the 
 neighborhood of Lake Lerna in the 
 Peloponnesus. Some accounts give it a 
 hundred heads, others fifty, others nine. 
 As soon as one of these heads was cut off 
 two immediately grew up if the wound 
 was not stopped by fire. It was one of 
 the labors of Heracles to destroy this 
 monster, and this he effected with the 
 assistance of lolaus, who applied a burn- 
 ing iron to the wounds as soon as one 
 head was cut off. 
 
 HYDRANGEA (hi-dran'je-a), a genus 
 of shrubs containing about thirty-three 
 species, natives of Asia and America. 
 The garden hydrangea is a native of 
 China. It is a favorite for the beauty 
 and size of its flowers. 
 
 HYDRAULIC CRANE, a crane wrought 
 by the pressure of water applied on 
 the principle of the hydraulic or hydro- 
 static press. The mechanism consists of 
 one or more such presses, with sheaves 
 or pulleys and chains for the purpose of 
 obtaining an extended motion in the 
 chain from a comparatively short stroke 
 of the piston. The power is applied not 
 only for lifting the load, but also for 
 swinging the jib, which latter object is 
 effected by means of a rack or chain 
 operating on the base of the movable 
 part of the crane, and connected either 
 with a cylinder and piston having alter- 
 nate motion, like that of a steam-engine, 
 or with two presses applied to produce 
 the same effect by alternate action. 
 
 HYDRAULIC PRESS, known also as 
 Hydrostatic Press or Bramah’s Press. 
 See Hydrostatic Press. 
 
 HYDRAULTC RAM, a machine for 
 raising water, and depending for its 
 action on the impulse of flowing water. 
 The water falling from a reservoir passes 
 into a pipe or chamber (b), at the end of 
 which there is a ball valve (c). The rush 
 of supply water at first 'closes this, and 
 the water finding no exit there acquires 
 pressure enough to open another valve 
 (d) and pass into an air-vessel placed 
 over it (f). The cessation of pressure at 
 valve c allows it to fall again ; an outrush 
 of water takes place there, relieving 
 
 valve d, which again closes. The pres- 
 sure of the flowing water upon valve c 
 once more closes this valve, and valve 
 d again opens, and an additional quan- 
 tity of water is forced into the air-vessel 
 
 -t 
 
 Hydraulic ram. 
 
 and so on by a series of pulsations which 
 send the water along the service pipe, 
 and, in properly arranged machines, 
 raises it to a very considerable height, 
 although the impulse is derived only 
 from the fall of a few feet. 
 
 HYDRAUL'ICS, that part of mechani- 
 cal science which has to do with con- 
 ducting, raising, and confining water, or 
 of applying it as a motive power. It thus 
 has to do with the flow of water in pipes 
 or channels, and with the various ma- 
 chines in which water is utilized, such as 
 water-wheels, pumps, turbines, the 
 archimedean screw, the Barker’s mill, 
 the hydraulic ram, the hydraulic crane, 
 the hydraulic or hydrostatic press, etc. 
 
 HYDROCARBONS, in chem., a series 
 of compounds which consist of carbon 
 and hydrogen only. They are produced 
 chiefly by the decomposition of organic 
 substances, either slowly by natural 
 causes, or by artificial means, as in the 
 case of the destructive distillation of 
 coal for the purpose of making gas. 
 Certain of the hydrocarbons are also 
 found in the gums which exude from 
 trees. Among the best known are paraffin 
 benzine, turpentine. 
 
 HYDROCELE, a collection of serous • 
 fluid in some of the coverings ol the 
 testiclS or spermatic cord, or in the 
 areolar texture of the scrotum. It is 
 generally the result of a strain or an 
 inflammation of the testes. A large 
 tumor is formed, filled with fluid, which 
 has often to be drawn off three or four 
 times a year. A radical cure may be 
 effected by setting up an inflammation 
 which brings the opposite surfaces of the 
 sac into adhesion, and thus obliterates 
 the cavity. 
 
 HYDROCEPH'ALUS, an accumula- 
 tion of fluid within the cavity of the 
 cranium; dropsy of the brain. 
 
 HYDROCHLORIC ACID, or MURI- 
 ATIC ACID, a gaseous compound of 
 equal volumes of hydrogen and chlorine. 
 
 It is' evolved during volcanic eruptions, 
 and is found in the water which collects 
 in the crevices of mountains, as well as 
 in rivers which take their rise in volcanic 
 
hydrocyanic acid 
 
 HYDROPHOBIA 
 
 formations, especially in South America. 
 It may be produced by decomposing 
 common salt with sulphuric acid, or by 
 bringing equal volumes of chlorine and 
 hydrogen together and exposing the 
 mixture to diffused daylight without 
 condensation. It explodes in direct sun- 
 light. Hydrochloric acid is colorless, 
 has a pungent odor, and an acid taste. 
 It is quite irrespirable, extinguishes 
 flame, and dissolves very readily in 
 water. The chief use of hydrochloric 
 acid in the arts is to supply chlorine to 
 the bleaching-powder manufacturer. It 
 is also used in the preparation of glue, 
 phosphorus, carbonic acid, artificial 
 waters, etc. In medicine it is used diluted 
 as a tonic and astringent. In a concen- 
 trated form it is a powerful caustic. 
 
 HYDROCYANIC ACID. Same as Prus- 
 sic Acid. 
 
 HYDRODYNAMICS, a branch of the 
 general science of dynamics, treating 
 specially of the laws of force as applied 
 to fluids. It is divided into hydro- 
 statics, which is concerned with forces 
 applied to fluids at rest, and hydro- 
 kinetics, which treats of the application 
 of forces so as to produce motion in 
 fluids. The term liydrodynamics is, 
 however, very often used in the latter 
 sense, being thus opposed to hydro- 
 statics. The name Hydraulics is given 
 to the subject when considered with 
 respect to its practical bearing on 
 engineering science. 
 
 HYDRO-ELECTRIC MACHINE, a 
 machine in which electricity is generated 
 by the friction of steam against the 
 sides of orifices through which it is 
 allowed to escape under high pressure. 
 
 HYDROFLUORTC ACID, or FLUO- 
 HYDRIC ACID, an acid which may be 
 obtained either in the liquid form or in 
 the anhydrous form, as a colorless gas. 
 Both the dry and the liquid form act 
 upon the skin with great virulence. 
 Hydrofluoric acid is used chiefly for 
 etching upon glass. The glass is covered 
 with a thin coating of etching wax, and 
 the design is traced through the wax 
 down to the glass with a fine-pointed 
 instrument. The plate is then treated 
 either with an aqueous solution of the 
 acid or is exposed to the gas itself. 
 After a sufficient length of time the wax 
 is dissolved away and the design be- 
 comes visible. In chemistry hydro- 
 fluoric acid is used to decompose and 
 dissolve silicates in mineral analysis. 
 
 HY'DROGEN, an important elemen- 
 tary substance, one of the elements of 
 water and a component of all vegetable 
 and animal products. It may be ob- 
 tained by passing the vapor of water 
 over red-hot iron filings, or by sub- 
 mitting water to the action of an electric 
 current, whereby it is decomposed into 
 its elements hydrogen and oxygen. Pure 
 hydrogen is a colorless, tasteless, in- 
 odorous gas: it is very inflammable, 
 burning with a pale, very slightly 
 luminous, but intensely hot flame; it is 
 a powerful refractor of light; the least 
 dense and the most rapidly diffusible of 
 all the gases and the lightest body in 
 nature, being about 14J tim6s lighter 
 than atmospheric air, with a specific 
 gravity of .0603. In consequence of its 
 extreme lightness it is the recognized 
 standard of unity in referring to the 
 
 P. E.— 41 
 
 atomic weight of bodies, and it has also 
 been assumed as the unit in speaking of 
 the specific gravity of gases, although 
 common air is the more generally re- 
 ceived standard. Hydrogen cannot sup- 
 port respiration, but is not directly 
 poisonous, death ensuing from mere 
 absense of oxygen. Two volumes of 
 hydrogen with six of air form an ex- 
 plosive mixture. The most intense heat 
 that can be produced is caused by the 
 burning of hydrogen in oxygen gas, and 
 this principle has been applied to in- 
 crease the temperature of blast-furnaces 
 in iron-works by making the gases pass 
 separately through heated tubes to the 
 furnace. Hydrogen is only slightly 
 soluble in water, nor is there any other 
 liquid which is capable of dissolving it 
 in great quantity. Hydrogen gas can be 
 liquefied by exposure to 650 atmospheres 
 pressure, and 140° c., but remains liquid 
 at 320 atmospheres pressure, the tem- 
 perature remaining the same. It unites 
 with all other elementary gaseous bodies, 
 and forms with them compounds, not 
 only of great curiosity, but of vast im- 
 portance and utility: with nitrogen it 
 forms ammonia; with chlorine, hydro- 
 chloric acid; with fluorine, hydrofluoric 
 3'Cld 0tc 
 
 HYDROG'RAPHY, that branch of 
 geographical science which has for its 
 object the description and natural 
 phenomena of the water on the surface 
 of the globe, whether in seas, lakes, or 
 rivers. It may deal with the rivers, 
 watersheds, lakes, etc., of a particular 
 country; and it also embraces the de- 
 termination of winds, currents, and 
 other departments of marine-surveying. 
 In Britain, France, the United States, 
 etc., there are hydrographic depart- 
 ments kept up by government, which 
 publish accurate charts of coasts, issue 
 sailing directions, etc. 
 
 HYDROKINETTCS, that branch of 
 hydrodynamics which treats of the ap- 
 plication of forces producing motion in 
 fluids, having thus to do with the flow 
 of liquids in pipes, its issue from orifices 
 under certain pressures, etc. 
 
 HYDROM'ETER, an instrument pri- 
 marily for determining the specific 
 gravity of fluids, though some of thefti 
 can also determine the specific gravity 
 of solids. The hydrostatic principle on 
 
 Hydrometer. 
 
 which the use of the hydrometer de- 
 pends is the well-known one that when a 
 solid body floats in a liquid, and thus 
 displaces a quantity of the liquid, the 
 weight of the solid body is equal to the 
 weight of the liquid that it displaces. 
 The density of the liquid is determined 
 either by observing the depths to which 
 the hydrometer sinks in the liquid (the 
 hydrometer of variable immersion) or 
 the weights required to make it sink to a 
 
 given depth (the hydrometer of con- 
 stant immersion). Of the second kind 
 of hydrometer Nicholson’s is a good 
 example. It consists of a hollow cylinder 
 of metal, surmounted with a very fine 
 metallic stem, to the top of which there 
 is attached a plate or pan for weights. 
 From the bottom of the metallic cylinder 
 hangs a kind of cup or basket. The 
 whole instrument is weighted so as to 
 float upright. On the fine metallic stem 
 there is a marked point: and by putting 
 weights on the upper pan the hydrom- 
 eter is always made to sink precisely 
 to this point. Thus the volume immersed 
 is always the same. From what was 
 said above, it is seen at once that differ- 
 ent weights are required to sink it to the 
 marked point in different liquids, the 
 denser the liquid the greater being the 
 weight required : and if the weight of the 
 instrument itself is known, and also the 
 standard weight, or w'eight required to 
 sink it to the marked point in distilled 
 water, the calculation of the specific 
 gravity of any liquid from an observa- 
 tion with the instrument is very easy. But 
 the specific gravity of solids can also be 
 found by means of Nicholson’s hydrom- 
 eter, for which purpose the instrument 
 is placed in distilled water and the solid 
 body is put on the upper pan. Weights 
 are then added till the hydrometer sinks 
 to the marked point. But the standard 
 weight of the instrument being known, 
 it is plain that the difference between it 
 and the weights that must be added on 
 the upper pan to the weight of the body 
 whose specific gravity is to be deter- 
 mined must be the weight in air of that 
 body. The body is now transferred to 
 the basket below the instrument, and 
 the additional weights which must now 
 be placed in the dish represent the 
 weight of water displaced by the solid; 
 and the weight of the solid itself divided 
 by this weight is the specific gravity re- 
 quired. Hydrometers of variable immer- 
 sion are usually made of glass. Each of 
 them has a large hollow bulb, below 
 which there is a smaller bulb weighted 
 with mercury to make the instrument 
 float upright. The stem is cylindrical 
 and is graduated, the divisions being 
 frequently marked on a piece of paper 
 inclosed within the stem. The depth to 
 which the hydrometer sinks in the 
 liquid gives the density. 
 
 HYDROP'ATHY, a method of treat- 
 ing diseases by the use of pure water 
 both internally and externally. The 
 system was originated by Vincent 
 Priessnitz, a Silesian peasant, who in 
 1829 established at his native village of 
 Grafenberg an institution for the hydro- 
 pathic treatment of diseases, and in- 
 vented a variety of forms in which the 
 water cure might be applied, such as 
 the wet-sheet pack, the dry blanket or 
 sweating pack, the sitz, douche, plunge, 
 wave, etc., baths. 
 
 HYDROPHO'BIA, a specific disease 
 arising from the bite of a rabid animal. 
 The animals most liable to be afflicted 
 with madness are dogs; but cats, wolves, 
 foxes, etc., are also subject to it. The 
 early sjunptoms of rabies in the dog are 
 such as restlessness and general uneasi- 
 ness, irritability, sullenness, an inclina- 
 tion for indigestible and unnatural food, 
 and often a propensity to lap its own 
 
Hydrostatic frrsS 
 
 HYENA 
 
 urine. As the disease proceeds the eyes 
 become red, briglit, and fierce, with 
 some degree of strabismus or squinting; 
 twitchings occur round the eye, and 
 gradually spread over the whole face. 
 After the second day the dog usually 
 begins to lose perfect control over the 
 voluntary muscles. He catches at his 
 food, and either bolts it almost un- 
 chewed, or, in the attempt to chew it, 
 suffers it to drop from his mouth. This 
 want of power over the muscles of the 
 jaw, tongue, and throat increases until 
 the lower jaw becomes dependent, the 
 tongue protrudes from the mouth, and 
 is of a dark, and almost black color. A 
 peculiar kind of delirium also comes on, 
 and the animal snaps at imaginary ob- 
 jects. His thirst is excessive, although 
 there is occasionally a want of power to 
 lap. His desire to do mischief depends 
 much on his previous disposition and 
 habits. He utters also a peculiar howl, 
 and his bark is altogether dissimilar 
 Horn his usual tone. In the latter stages 
 of the disease a viscid saliva flows from 
 his mouth, and his breathing is attended 
 with a harsh, grating sound. The loss of 
 power over the voluntary muscles ex- 
 tends after the third day, throughout 
 his whole frame, he staggers in his gait, 
 and frequently falls. On the fourth or 
 fifth day of the disease the dog dies, 
 sometimes in convulsions, but more fre- 
 quently without a struggle. In regard 
 to man the rabid virus seems to be more 
 violent when it proceeds from wolves 
 than from dogs. It appears to be con- 
 tained solely in the saliva of the animal, 
 and does not produce any effect on the 
 healthy skin. But if the skin is deprived 
 of the epidermis, or if the virus is applied 
 to a wound, the innoculation will take 
 effect. The development of the rabid 
 symptoms is rarely immediate; it sel- 
 dom takes place before the fortieth or 
 after the sixtieth day, but in some cases 
 has occurred after six months or even 
 longer. It begins with a slight pain in 
 the scar of the bite, sometimes attended 
 with a chill; the pain extends and 
 reaches the base of the breast, if the bite 
 was on the lower limbs, or the throat, 
 if on the upper extremities. The patient 
 becomes dejected, morose, and taci- 
 turn; He prefers solitude, and avoids 
 bright light; frightful dreams disturb 
 his sleep; the eyes become brilliant; 
 pains in the neck and throat ensue. 
 These symptoms precede the rabid 
 symptoms two or three days. They are 
 followed by a general shuddering at the 
 approach of any liquid or smooth body, 
 attended with a sensation of oppression, 
 deep sighs and convulsive starts, in 
 which the muscular strength is much 
 increased. A foamy, viscid slaver is dis- 
 charged from the mouth; the deglutition 
 of solid matters is difficult ; the respira- 
 tion hard; the skin warm, burning, and 
 afterward covered with sweat ; the 
 pulse strong; the fit is often followed by 
 a syncope; the fits return at first every 
 few hours, then at shorter intervals, and 
 death takes place generally on the sec- 
 ond or third day. No means have yet 
 been found of arresting the progress of 
 the poisonous virus after it has once de- 
 veloped in the S 3 ’’stem. The treatment, 
 therefore, consists in preventing its de- 
 velopment, which may be effected by 
 
 applying a ligature, where possible, to 
 impede the circulation from the wound, 
 by sucking it, and thoroughly cauteriz- 
 ing it either with nitrate of silver or with 
 iron heated to a white heat, the pain of 
 cautery being less as the temperature is 
 greater. If these means are not available 
 any burning substance and most acids 
 may be used. Within a quite recent 
 period M. Pasteur put forward a method 
 of preventing the development of the 
 disease by a system of successive inocu- 
 lations with rabid virus of greater and 
 greater intensity; the inoculation being 
 made the first day with marrow which 
 has been extracted from the rabid ani- 
 mal, 12, 10, and 8 days; then the second 
 day with marrow extracted 6, 4, and 2 
 days; the third day with one day’s 
 marrow, etc. M. Pasteur’s method has 
 been favorably reported on by an 
 English commission but there is per- 
 haps some room for doubts regarding 
 the number of cures really performed. 
 As a sharp critic of the Rasteur system 
 has remarked, every one who is bitten 
 and inoculated is counted in the list 
 of cures, though there is nothing to 
 prove that he ever contracted the 
 r£tbi©s 
 
 HYDROSTATTC PRESS, or BRA- 
 MAH’S PRESS, a hydrostatic apparatus 
 which in its practical application was 
 invented by Bramah in 1796. It will be 
 understood from the accompanying 
 figure. By means of a suction and force 
 pump a a, worked by the lever or handle 
 1 turning about the point o, water is 
 
 drawn from the reservoir b' b' and forced 
 along the tube c c into the cistern v 
 through the top of which a heavy metal 
 plunger a a works. On the upper end of 
 the plunger is a large plate b b upon 
 which the goods to be pressed are placed. 
 When water is pumped from the reser- 
 voir b b into the cistern v, the pressure 
 exerted by the plunger of the pump is 
 transmitted according to the well- 
 known hydrostatic principle to the bot- 
 tom of the plunger a, which accordingly 
 rises and carries the objects placed on 
 plate b' b' up against the top of a fixed 
 frame d d. It was the invention by 
 Bramah of a water-tight leather collar 
 surrounding the piston that made the 
 use of the press practicable; before his 
 invention not much power could be de- 
 veloped from the escape of the water 
 round the piston. The collar consists 
 of a leather ring bent so as to have a 
 semi-circular section, so that the water 
 passing between the piston and cylinder 
 fills the concavity of the collar, and by 
 pressure produces a packing which fits 
 the tighter as the pressure on the piston 
 increases. The hydrostatic press may be 
 constructed to give pressures of two or 
 three hundred tons, and is extensively 
 
 employed where very great force is re- 
 quired, as in testing anchors or raising 
 very heavy weights. 
 
 HYDROSTATICS', is that part of the 
 general science of hydrodynamics that 
 treats of the application of forces to 
 fluids at rest. Among the chief princi- 
 
 Pascal’s principle. 
 
 pies of hydrostatics may be mentioned 
 the following: (1) The intensity of pres- 
 sure at any point of a fluid is the same in 
 all directions; it is the same whether the 
 surface that receives the pressure faces 
 upward, downward, horizontally or 
 obliquely. (2) When a fluid is confined, 
 if the intensity of pressure in one part be 
 increased, as by forcing in a piston or by 
 any other means, an equal increase will 
 be produced in the intensity of pressure 
 at all other parts: in other words, pres- 
 sure applied to any one part is trans- 
 mitted without any change in its inten- 
 sity to all other parts. The diagram will 
 aid in the understanding of this. If 
 pressure is applied to p it will be trans- 
 mitted in all directions through the 
 liquid. If other openings are made, and 
 if they are fitted with pistons, the pres- 
 sure that must be applied to any piston 
 equal in area to the area of p is equal to 
 the pressure on p ; and if the area of one 
 of the other pistons is greater or less than 
 the area of p, the pressure required to 
 keep it in its place is proportionately 
 greater than or less than the pressure 
 that is applied to p. This principle, 
 which is known as Pascal’s principle 
 from being distinctly formulated by 
 him, is the most important in hydro- 
 statics, and finds a practical application 
 in the Hydrostatic, or Bramah’s Press 
 (see above). (3) Not only is pressure 
 transmitted out to the surface or en- 
 velope of the liquid, but within the 
 fluid itself the particles are all pressed 
 together. When a solid is immersed in 
 the liquid it is pressed at every point of 
 its surface in the direction perpendicu- 
 lar to the surface at that point. 
 
 HYDROSULPHU'RIC ACID, or sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen or hydrothionic 
 acid is a colorless imflammable gas pro- 
 duced by the putrefaction of sulphurous 
 organic matters. Many mineral waters 
 contain it naturally. It may be artifi- 
 cially produced by burning sulphur 
 vapor in hydrogen, or by passing hydro- 
 gen through sulphur. It has a sweet 
 taste but a very nauseous odor as of 
 rotten eggs. It has poisonous effects j 
 when breathed, and experiments have ' 
 shown that birds perished in air which 
 contained part of the gas. 
 
 HYE'NA, a genus of digitigrade car- 
 nivorous quadrupeds, constituting a 
 family which unites the skull characters 
 of the Felidae (cats) with the skeleton 
 
ttYGIElA 
 
 ftYPERBOLE 
 
 and gregarious habits of the Canidae 
 (dogs). The characters of this genus are 
 five molars above, and five or four be- 
 low, on each side, the three anterior 
 molars being conical, smooth, and re- 
 markably large, adapted for breaking 
 the bones of their prey; the tongue is 
 rough; the legs are each terminated by 
 
 Striped hyena. 
 
 four claws; the forelegs are longer than 
 than the hind legs; the eyes large and 
 prominent; the ears long and acute; the 
 jaws are remarkable for the strength of 
 their muscles, and can crush the hardest 
 and most massive bones with ease. 
 The genus is confined to Africa and 
 Asia. There are three species known — 
 the striped, the spotted, and the brown 
 hyena. They are nocturnal animals, ex- 
 tremely voracious, feeding chiefly on 
 carrion, and thus being of great utility 
 in the countires where they live; to 
 obtain dead bodies they will even dig up 
 graves. 
 
 HYGIEIA (hl-ji-e' ya), the Greek god- 
 dess of health, daughter of Asclepius, or 
 iEsculapius. Her temple was placed 
 near that of ^Esculapius, and her statues 
 
 Hygleia, from antique statue. 
 
 were even erected in it. She is repre- 
 sented as a blooming maid with a bowl 
 in her hand, from which she is feeding 
 a snake, the symbol of health. 
 
 HYGIENE (hi' ji-en), the department of 
 medicine which treats of the preserva- 
 tion of health, and the duration of life 
 prolonged by a due attention to physio- 
 logical or natural laws. It is usually di- 
 vided into public and private hygiene, 
 the former having to do with measures 
 for excluding causes of disease, methods 
 of securing cleanliness in the streets and 
 dwellings, methods of maintaining the 
 purity of the supply of food and drink; 
 the latter may "be considered to embrace 
 such subjects as alimentation, clothing, 
 exercise and muscular development, etc. 
 
 HYGROM'ETER, an instrument for 
 measuring the degree of moisture of the 
 atmosphere. The chief classes of hy- 
 grometers depend either upon absorp- 
 tion or upon condensation. Of the 
 former kind is the hygrometer of Saus- 
 
 sure, in which a hair, that expands and 
 contracts in length according as the air 
 is more or less moist, is made to move an 
 i.idex. Of the latter sort is Daniell’s 
 hygrometer. This instrument consists of 
 a bent glass tube, terminating in two 
 bulbs, the bulb a being two-thirds filled 
 with sulphuric ether, and the bulb b be- 
 ing at the commencement of an experi- 
 ment, empty. The latter is covered with 
 muslin. In process of construction the 
 tube is exhausted of air, and is thus filled 
 with vapor of ether through its entire 
 length. A thermometer (t) whose bulb 
 is immersed in the ether of the lower 
 arm, is inserted in the tube to register 
 variation of temperature, and a second 
 thermometer (t') is attached to the stand 
 of the instrument, to show the tempera- 
 ture of the outer air. If sulphuric ether 
 be dropped on the bulb b, as it evaporates 
 the bulb is cooled, and the vapor of 
 
 Daniell's hygrometer. 
 
 ether is condensed within it from the 
 bulb a; while owing to the evaporation 
 from a into b the temperature of the 
 former gradually falls. The operation is 
 carried on till the temperature of a is so 
 far reduced that dew from the surround- 
 ing air just begins to condense upon it. 
 By means of the thermometer contained 
 in a the temperature is read off at the 
 instant at which vapor begins to con- 
 dense, and the dew-point is thus ob- 
 tained. The hygrometric condition, 
 that is, the ratio between the quantity of 
 moisture that the air actually contains 
 and the quantity which it is capable of 
 containing at the existing temperature, 
 is then easily deduced. Regnault’s hy- 
 grometer is a modification of the prin- 
 ciple of Daniell’s instrument, the ether 
 beingevaporatedbyforcingairthroughit. 
 
 HYKSHOS. See Hycsos. 
 
 HY'MEN, Hymenffius, the god of 
 marriage in Grecian mythology. No 
 marriage took place without his being 
 invoked to sanction it. He is described 
 as having around his brows the flowers 
 of majoram, in his left hand the flame- 
 colored nuptial veil, in his right the 
 nuptial torch, and on his feet golden 
 sandals. He is a taller and more serious 
 Eros, and is accompanied by song and 
 dance. 
 
 HYMENOP'TERA, an extensive order 
 of insects, comprising bees, wasps, ants, 
 ichneumon-flies, gall-flies, saw-flies and 
 allied insects. They are character- 
 ized by four membranous naked wings 
 which have comparatively few veins. 
 The second pair of wings is always 
 smaller than the first. The mouth parts 
 are provided with biting jaws and a 
 suctorial organ. The head is freely mov- 
 able, and besides the lateral compound 
 eyes, there are usually three ocelli on 
 
 the top of the head. The Hymenoptera 
 undergo complete metamorphosis. Fe- 
 males have the extremity of the ab- 
 domen furnished either with an ovi- 
 positor, forming a boring organ, or a 
 
 Hymenoptera. o, Ovipositor of female. 
 
 sting. Hence the two sub-orders into 
 ■ which Hymenoptera are divided are 
 that comprising the saw-flies, gall-flies, 
 ichneumon-flies, etc., and that which 
 include the bees, wasps, ants, hornets, 
 etc. 
 
 HYMN, originally a song of praise 
 sung in honor of gods and heroes on 
 festivals, with the accompaniments of 
 music and dancing. Among the Hindus 
 the hymns of the Rig-Veda, among the 
 Hebrews the psalms, and among the 
 Greeks the so-called Orphic and Homeric 
 hymns are good examples. The early 
 Christian hymns are full of devotional 
 feeling. Their use dates from the first 
 days of the church. The use of hymns 
 was sanctioned by the fourth council, 
 at Toledo, in 633. Several of them have 
 names derived from the words with 
 which they begin, as the Te Deum, 
 Adeste Fideles, etc 
 
 HYPA'TIA, a (Ireek female philoso- 
 pher of the eclectic school, the daughter 
 of Theon, a celebrated astronomer and 
 mathematician of Alexandria toward 
 the close of the 4th century after Christ, 
 at which period she was born. The Rev. 
 C. Kingsley has chosen the story of 
 Hypatia as the subject of a romance. 
 
 HYPER'BOLA, in geometry, a curve 
 formed by cutting a cone in a direction 
 parallel to its axis, or so that the cutting 
 
 Hyperbola— D B E, gah, are opposite hyper- 
 bolas; F,/, foci; c, center; a b, transverse axis; 
 a b, conjugate axis ; n c p, diameter. 
 
 plane makes a greater angle with the 
 base than the sides of the cone makes 
 and when produced cuts also the oppo- 
 site cone, or the cone which is the con- 
 tinuation of the former, on the opposite 
 side of the vortex, thus producing an- 
 other hyperbola, which is called the op- 
 posite hyperbola to the former. 
 
 HYPER'BOLE (-bo-le), a rhetorical 
 figure, in which an idea is expressed 
 with a fanciful exaggeration of phrase 
 which is not to be taken too literally, 
 but only as representing a certain 
 warmth of admiration or emphasis. 
 
HYPER IDES 
 
 IBIS 
 
 “Plis fame reaches to the stars” is an 
 example of hyperbole. 
 
 HYPERI'DES, an Athenian orator, 
 the pupil of Plato and Isocrates, born 
 about 400 B.c. We was murdered at 
 .(Egina by the emissaries of Antipater 
 in 322 B.c. Of his orations one has 
 reached us nearly entire; the others only 
 in fragments. * 
 
 HYPERION (hl-per-I'on or hi-pe'ri- 
 on), in the most ancient mythology of 
 Greece, the god of the sun, afterward 
 identified with Apollo; also one of the 
 Titans. 
 
 HYPOCHOND'RIA, a disorder arising 
 from a disturbance of the functions of 
 the nervous system. It is a form of 
 melancholia. The sufferer lives under 
 the generally groundless apprehensions 
 of different diseases. Uninterruptedly 
 occupied with the state of his body he 
 takes notice of every feeling, and wishes 
 to have every trifling pain explained, 
 considering every one as a sjuuptom of a 
 serious disease. For everything he wants 
 physic. Hypochondria is, physically 
 considered, not a dangerous disease, al- 
 though it makes the life of the sufferer 
 a torment to himself and his friends. It 
 is occasioned mainly by too great mental 
 exertion, by too sedentary a life, by 
 sexual indulgence or excess in exciting 
 liquors; and also by want of exercise of 
 the physical and mental powers produc- 
 ing ennui. It can be cured, but slowly, 
 by the avoidance of the habits likely to 
 occasion it, by the adoption of a steady 
 and regular life, with moderate exercise 
 for the mind and body, and the help of 
 cheerful society. 
 
 HYPODER'MIC INJECTIONS, injec- 
 tions of some substance beneath the 
 skin; a method adopted in medicine 
 when the condition of the stomach or 
 other organs renders the use of drugs 
 by the mouth objectionable, or when 
 rapidity of action is desired. The medi- 
 cine is introduced by a small glass 
 syringe fitted with a long, hollow, needle 
 shaped point of steel. 
 
 HYPOPHOS'PHITES, salts of hypo- 
 phosphorous acid, especially certain 
 medicinal salts, chiefly the hypophos- 
 phites of potassium, sodium, and cal- 
 
 cium. They have been used with con- 
 siderable aavantage in disorders of the 
 blood and the digestive organs, and have 
 also been found of benefit in consump- 
 tion, although failing to effect a cure. 
 
 HYPOSUL'PHITES, salts of hypo- 
 sulphurous acid. Among the most im- 
 portant are the hyposulphites of sodium 
 and calcium, the former of which is used 
 in medicine as an external remedy in 
 paracitic skin disorders and an internal 
 one in checking fermentation in zymotic 
 diseases. It is variously used in bleach- 
 ing, photography, and other arts as an 
 antichlore, a dissolvent of bromide and 
 iodide of silver, etc. 
 
 HYPOT'ENUSE, in geometry, the 
 longest side in a right-angled triangle, 
 namely that one which subtends or is 
 opposite to the right angle. One of the 
 most important propositions of Euclid’s 
 
 a 
 
 Elements is the forty-seventh of the first 
 book, discovered by Pythagoras, which 
 proves that the square described on the 
 hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the 
 squares described on the other two sides. 
 
 HYPOTHECATION, the act of assign- 
 ing something in security without giving 
 up the possession of it. 
 
 HYPOTH'ESIS, etymologically a sup- 
 position, is popularly used to denote 
 something not proved, but assumed for 
 the sake of argument. In scientific and 
 philosophical usage it denotes either a 
 probable theory of phenomena not yet 
 fully explained, or a strictly scientific 
 theory which accounts for all the known 
 facts of the case, and which only needs 
 the verification of subsequent observa- 
 tions and deductions to become a cer- 
 tainty. Thus the conjecture of Newton 
 that the force of gravity, as exemplified 
 on the earth, might extend to the moon, 
 was in its first stage a probable hypoth- 
 
 esis; but when it was found to account 
 for all the facts, it became a scientific 
 hypothesis or theory. 
 
 HYSSOP, a perennial shrubby plant 
 rising to the height of 2 feet, a native of 
 Siberia and the mountainous parts of 
 Austria. It flowers from June to Sep- 
 
 Hyssop. 
 
 tember. The leaves have an agreeable 
 aromatic odor, and a slightly bitter and 
 somewhat warm taste. Its was once 
 esteemed as a medicine, but has now 
 fallen into disuse. 
 
 HYSTE'RIA, a nervous affection to 
 which women are subject, generally 
 occurring in paroxysms, characterized by 
 alternate fits of laughing and crying, 
 convulsive struggling alternately re- 
 mitting and exacerbating, sense of suffo- 
 cation, palpitation of the heart, the sen- 
 sation of a ball ascending from the pit 
 of the stomach, occasioning a^feeling of 
 strangulation (globus hystericus), etc. 
 Women of a delicate habit, and whose 
 nervous system is extremely sensitive 
 are the most subject to hysterical affec- 
 tions; and the habit which predisposes 
 to these attacks is acquired by inactivity 
 and a sedentary life, grief, anxiety, and 
 various physical disorders. They are 
 readily excited, in those who are sub- 
 ject to them, by strong emotions, espe- 
 cially if sudden. Hysterical complaints 
 are best prevented by a judicious care 
 of the moral and physical education of 
 girls. Men are sometimes, but rarely, 
 subject to disorders not essentially 
 different. 
 
 I, the ninth letter and the third vov^el 
 of the English alphabet, in which it rep- 
 resents not only several vowel sounds 
 but also the consonantal sound of y. 
 The two principal sounds represented by 
 it in English are the short sound as in 
 pit, pin, fin, and the long as in pine, 
 fine, wine, the latter being really a 
 diphthongal sound. It has also three 
 other sounds, viz., that heard in first, 
 dirk (e, the neutral vowel) ; that heard in 
 machine, intrigue (which, however, can 
 scarcely be considered a modern Eng- 
 lish sound); and the consonant sound 
 heard in many words when it precedes a 
 vowel, as in million, opinion, trunnion. 
 I and J were formerly regarded as one 
 character. 
 
 lAM'BUS, in prosody, a foot of two 
 syllables, a short and a long one (■-^ — ), 
 or an unaccented syllable followed by 
 
 I 
 
 an accented one. The iambic meter is 
 the fundamental rhythm of many Eng- 
 
 Ibex. 
 
 lish verses. The verse of five iambic feet 
 is a favorite meter, being the heroic 
 
 verse of English, German, and Italian 
 poetry. 
 
 IB'ADAN, a town of Western Africa, 
 in the colony of Lagos, 122 miles from 
 Lagos by railway. Pop. 100,000. 
 
 I'BEX, a name of two or three species 
 of goats. The horns of the male are 
 flattened, have two longitudinal ridges 
 at the sides, and are crossed by numer- 
 ous transverse knots. The horns of the 
 female are short, more erect, with three 
 or four knots in front. The best-known 
 varieties are of the Alps and Apennines, 
 the steinbock of the Alps, and the 
 Pyrenean steinbock. Another species 
 inhabits the lofty rocky peaks of Mount 
 Caucasus. 
 
 I'BIS, a genus of birds allied to the 
 storks, the most remarkable species be- 
 ing the sacred ibis. This is found 
 throughout .\frica. It is about the size 
 
IBSEN 
 
 ICHNEUMON 
 
 of a common fowl, with head and neck 
 bare, and white plumage, the primaries 
 of the wings being tipped with black and 
 the secondaries being bright black, 
 glossed with green and violet. It was 
 reared in the temples of ancient Egypt 
 
 Sacred ibis of Egypt. 
 
 with a degree of respect bordering on 
 adoration, and after death was pre- 
 served in a mummified condition The 
 cause of its being deemed sacred was no 
 doubt because it appeared in Egypt 
 with the rise of the Nile; but it is now 
 rare in that country, living farther south. 
 
 IB'SEN, Henrik, Norwegian dramatist 
 and lyric poet, born in 1828. His first 
 play, Catilina, was produced in Chris- 
 tiania in 1850. He was successively 
 director of the theater at Bergen and of 
 the Norske theater at Christiania, 
 which he managed in 1857-62. In 1864 
 he left his native country and up till 
 1892 he resided chiefly abroad. On his 
 seventieth birthday Ibsen received gifts 
 and greetings from all parts of the 
 world. His dramas are partly in prose, 
 partly in verse, and include historical 
 plays and satirical comedies of modern 
 life. His works include The Pretender, 
 Peer Gynt, The Pillars of Society, A 
 Doll's House, Hedda Gabler, When We 
 Dead Awaken, etc. He died in 1906. 
 
 ICE, v/ater frozen into a solid mass. 
 Water freezes when its temperature is 
 reduced below a certain point, which is 
 by universal consent made a fixed point 
 on thermometers. That point is called 
 zero on the Centigrade and R4aumur 
 scales, and .32° on the Fahrenheit scale. 
 Water near the freezing-point presents 
 the curious anomaly of expanding in- 
 stead of contracting as the cooling pro- 
 cess goes on. At 4°.l Centigrade (39°. 
 Fahr.) water has its maximum density- 
 point. At temperatures below 4°.l the 
 volume of the water increases as the 
 temperature falls, and decreases as the 
 temperature rises; and at the moment 
 of solidifying the volume of the mass 
 suddenly increases to a very consider- 
 able extent, so that ice at the tempera- 
 ture of freezing is one-ninth greater in 
 volume than the water from which it is 
 formed is at 4°.l. It is on this account 
 that water freezes at the top first, and 
 that ice when frozen floats at the top of 
 the water. The temperature at w’hich 
 pure water becomes ice is very nearly 
 constant under ordinary circumstances; 
 and it is this fact, along with the ease of 
 procuring water at the freezing tern- 1 
 
 perature, or rather ice at the point of 
 liquefaction, that has caused this tem- 
 perature to be adopted as one of the 
 fixed points in thermometers. The 
 freezing-point is, however, slightly in- 
 fluenced by pressure. Increase of pres- 
 sure lowers it, and the removal of pres- 
 sure raises it. Salt water requires a 
 lower temperature to freeze it than 
 fresh water, and in the process a large 
 part of the salt is rejectee!. Hence water 
 obtained from the melting of sea-ice 
 is nearly fresh. If water is kept per- 
 fectly at rest it may be" reduced in tem- 
 perature far below the freezing-point 
 without turning into ice; but particles of 
 solid matter such as dust must also be 
 kept from falling into it. The expansion 
 of water on its conversion into ice often 
 gives rise to the exhibition of very great 
 force, and produces very remarkable 
 effects in nature. Much of the disinte- 
 gration observed in rocks and stones 
 during or immediately after frost is due 
 to it, water having entered into their 
 pores and cavities and burst off particles 
 by its expansion. Ice, though it is very 
 brittle, possesses the property of plas- 
 ticity to a very remarkable degree, and 
 can be moulded into any form by the 
 application of pressure. 
 
 ICEBERGS, large masses of ice which 
 have become detached from the shores 
 of the arctic regions, and float about in 
 the ocean at the mercy of the winds and 
 currents. They are in fact pieces of 
 glaciers detached from the parent mass 
 by the action of the sea and by their 
 own accumulating weight. They present 
 the strangest and most picturesque 
 forms, are sometimes miles in length, 
 and rise to a height of perhaps 250 or 
 300 feet above the sea, the portion abov 
 water being calculated at about an 
 eighth of the whole. 
 
 ICELAND, an island belonging t o 
 Denmark, situated between the North 
 Atlantic and the Arctic Oceans, 250 
 miles from Greenland and about 600 
 miles west of Norway; greatest length, 
 east to west, 300 miles; central breadth, 
 about 200 miles; area with adjacent 
 isles, 40,000 sq. miles. The interior has 
 generally a very wild and desolate ap- 
 pearance, being covered by Jofty moun- 
 tain masses of volcanic origin, many of 
 them crowned with perpetual snow and 
 ice, which, stretching down their sides 
 into the intervening valleys, form im- 
 mense glaciers. Among the volcanoes 
 the most celebrated is Mount Hecla, in 
 the south, about 5000 feet high. Nu- 
 merous hot springs or geysers are scat- 
 tered throughout the island, but are 
 found more especially in the southwest, 
 to the northeast of Reikjavik. The 
 most valuable mineral product is sul- 
 phur, of which the supply appears to be 
 inexhaustible; the other minerals de- 
 serving of notice are chalcedonies, rock 
 crystals, and the well-known double- 
 refracting spar, for which the island has 
 long been famous. In the southern parts 
 the longest day is twenty hours, and the 
 shortest four, but in the most northern 
 extremity the sun at midsummer con- 
 tinues above the horizon a whole week, 
 and of course during a corresponding 
 period in winter never rises. There are 
 various flowering plants, among which 
 saxifrages, sedums, thrift or sea-pink, 
 
 etc., are common. Heath and bilberry 
 cover large stretches. Among mosses or 
 lichens are the edible Iceland-moss. 
 Cole, potatoes, turnips, radishes, and 
 similar roots thrive tolerab,y well. But 
 by far the most valuable crop is grass, 
 on which considerable numbers of live 
 stock (sheep, cattle, ponies) are fed. The 
 reindeer, though not introduced before 
 1770, has multiplied greatly and forms 
 large herds in the interior; but they are 
 of little importance economically. Wild- 
 fowl, including the eider-duck whose 
 down forms an important article of com- 
 merce, are abundant; the streams are 
 well supplied with salmon, and on the 
 coasts valuable fisheries of cod and 
 herrings are carried on. Manufactures 
 are entirely domestic, and consist chiefly 
 of coarse woolens, mittens, stockings, 
 etc. The exports are wool, oil, fish, 
 horses, feathers, worsted stockings and 
 mittens, sulphur, and Iceland-moss. 
 
 The inhabitants are of Scandinavian 
 origin, and speak a Scandinavian dialect, 
 which still represents the old Norse or 
 Norwegian in great purity. They are of 
 the protestant religion. Iceland has a 
 constitution and administration of its 
 own dating from 1874. There is an 
 althing or parliament, which meets 
 twice a year at Reikjavik, the capital, 
 and consists of 36 members, of w'hom 
 30 are chosen by popular suffrage, and 6 
 nominated by the king. A minister for 
 Iceland, nominated by the king, is at 
 the head of the administration, but the 
 highest local authority is vested in the 
 governor. Pop. 78,470. 
 
 ICELAND-MOSS, a species of lichen 
 found in the arctic regions, and on the 
 upper parts of lofty mountains, as for 
 instance in Scotland. It is used in 
 
 Iceland-moss. 
 
 medicine as a mucilaginous bitter, and 
 in Iceland is collected as a nutritious 
 article of diet. When boiled with milk 
 or water it forms a jelly. Its bitterness 
 may be removed by steeping. 
 
 ICELAND-SPAR, the transparent va- 
 riety of calc-spar, a mineral noted for 
 its property of exhibiting in a remark- 
 abledegree thedouble refraction of light. 
 
 ICE-PLANT, a plant which has re- 
 ceived the above appellation from the 
 transparent vesicles which cover its 
 whole surface, and have the appearance 
 of granules of ice. It is a native of South 
 Africa and the Canaries, and is also 
 found in Greece. 
 
 ICH DIEN (eh den; German, “I 
 serve”), motto of the Prince of Wales, 
 assumed from that of the King of 
 Bohemia, slain at the battle of Cressy, 
 in which he served as a volunteer in the 
 French army. 
 
 ICHNEU'MON, a genus of digitigrade 
 carnivorous animals belonging to the 
 civet family. They have a long slender 
 body, a sharp and pointed muzzle, and 
 
ICHNEUMON-FLIES 
 
 ICHTHYORNIS 
 
 short legs. The most celebrated species 
 inhabits Egypt, where it is called Pha- 
 raoh’s rat. It was adored by the ancient 
 Egyptians on account of its antipathy 
 to crocodiles, whose eggs it digs out of 
 the sand and sucks. It is expert in seiz- 
 
 Egytlan iclmeumon. 
 
 ing serpents by the neck so as to avoid 
 any injury to itself. It is domesticated 
 in Egj^t, and more useful than a cat in 
 destroying rats and mice. Their dis- 
 advantage, as domestic animals, is their 
 predilection for poultry. The mungoos, 
 or Indian ichneumon, is another species, 
 not so large as the Egyptian, which it 
 resembles in habits, being kept in many 
 families as a useful domestic animal. 
 
 ICHNEUMON-FLIES, a large family of 
 hymenopterous insects, which all agree 
 in one particular, that they deposit their 
 
 eggs either in or on the bodies, eggs, or 
 larvae of other insects. These apparently 
 insignificant creatures confer inestimable 
 benefits on man, as they destroy hosts 
 of insects injurious to crops. 
 
 ICHTHYOL'OGY, that branch of 
 zoology which treats of fishes. Fishes 
 form the lowest of the five classes into 
 which the great sub-kingdom Verta- 
 brata is divided. They may be shortly 
 described as vertebrate animals living in 
 water and respiring the air therein con- 
 tained by means of ‘gills or branchiae, 
 having cold red blood, and a heart con- 
 sisting of one auricle and one ventricle 
 and having those organs W’hich take the 
 form of limbs in the higher vertebrata 
 represented by fins. Their bodies are 
 generally covered with scales overlap- 
 ping each other, and their usual form 
 (though with much diversity) is length- 
 ened, compressed laterally, and tapering 
 toward both extremities. The scales of 
 fishes assume various forms, which have 
 been classed under the four types of 
 cycloid, ctenoid, ganoid, and placoid. 
 Cycloid scales are of a rounded form, 
 and are those met with in the most 
 familiar fishes. Ctenoid scales, like 
 those of the perch, have spinous pro- 
 
 — \ 
 
 jections from their posterior margin. 
 Ganoid scales are in the form of thick 
 bony plates covered with a superficial 
 layer of enamel. Placoid scales form 
 detached masses of various shapes often 
 provided with spines. The skeleton 
 presents great variations, from the 
 amphioxus, in which vertebrae are only 
 foreshadowed, to the well-ossified skele- 
 ton of teleostean fishes. The vertebrae 
 are biconcave or “amphicoelous,” the 
 opposed surfaces forming cups, and they 
 vary in number«from seventeen to more 
 than 200. The spinal column is pro- 
 longed into the tail, which is two-lobed, 
 the lobes either being equal (a homo- 
 cercaltail) or unequal (heterocercal). The 
 skull varies greatly; it may be ossified 
 throughout as in the cod-fish, or the 
 cartilaginous cranium may persist, as in 
 the lamprey, sharks, and rays. The skull 
 is small compared to the size of the ani- 
 mals themselves. The limbs, when 
 present, are four in number. The anterior 
 or first part are called the pectoral fins. 
 The ventral fins, or second pair of limbs, 
 are variable in position, and not always 
 present; they may be beneath the pec- 
 torals, when they are jugular ; behind the 
 pectorals, when they are thoracic; or 
 farther back, abdominal. The pelvis is 
 represented by two triangular bones, 
 which have no relation to the spinal 
 column, and to which the fin-rays are 
 directly attached. The median or ver- 
 tical fins, that is, those situated on the 
 back, are characteristic of fishes, and 
 they may extend nearly from the head 
 continuously to the anal aperture, as in 
 eels; they may be broken up into several 
 dorsals, caudal, and one or more anals, 
 as in the cod; or the number of dorsals 
 may be increased greatly, as in the 
 mackerel. The fins may be wholly soft 
 and flexible, or they may be in part 
 rigid spines; or a series of soft fin-rays 
 may be preceded by rigid and often 
 formidable spines, which sometimes 
 have a beautiful mechanism for eleva- 
 tion and depression. The teeth of fishes 
 are generally very numerous, and may 
 be placed on any part of the interior of 
 the mouth, sometimes on the tongue. 
 They are quite different in character 
 from the mammalian teeth. The muscu- 
 lar pharynx and oesophagus lead into a 
 stomach usually well defined, but some- 
 times only slightly differing in caliber 
 from the intestine. The liver is propor- 
 tionally large, and has usually a gall- 
 bladder. The heart consists of a single 
 auricle and ventricle, which is continued 
 forward by a dilated vessel called the 
 arterial bulb (bulbus arteriosus). From 
 this vessel the blood is sent right and 
 left along the gills, which are the organs 
 of respiration, and from the gills the 
 aerated blood goes to the body. The 
 gills or branchi® are either free on one 
 margin, as in ordinary fishes, or attached 
 at both extremities. In the lepidosiren 
 another structure appears, namely, 
 lungs, which stretch through great part 
 of the body and open on the posterior 
 wall of the pharynx. A peculiar feature 
 of fishes is the air-sac or swim-bladder, 
 called also the sound. Anatomicallj' its 
 origin is identical with that of a lung; 
 but it does not perform the functions of 
 a lung. Its function is probably to serve 
 as an aid in rising and sinking; but in 
 
 some fishes it is prolonged so as to ap- 
 proach or even come in contact with the 
 internal organs of hearing, perhaps as an 
 organ of resonance. Reproduction is 
 by ova or eggs, which in a few cases are 
 re'tained in the body of the female till 
 hatched. But the ova are usually fer- 
 tilized outside the body, and the hatching 
 process is usually left to take place with- 
 out aid. The eggs are, in fhost cases, in 
 enormous numbers, as in the roe of the 
 herring and salmon. Among the sharks 
 the number is much less, and each ovum 
 acquires, before exclusion, a horny 
 sheath of various shape, but usually pro- 
 vided with cirri, by which it moors itself 
 to some fixed object. In the pipe-fishes 
 the male has a marsupium or pouch 
 formed by folds of the abdominal in- 
 tegument, and in this pouch the eggs, 
 transferred thither on exclusion, are 
 hatched. The nervous system of fishes 
 presents considerable variety. The 
 amphioxus has no enlargement of the 
 nervous trunk comparable to a brain; 
 but in all the others the division into 
 fore, mid, and hind brain is clearly 
 marked. The olfactory organs are, in 
 most cases, pits or sacs, on whose walls 
 the olfactory filaments are spread out. 
 The sense of taste seems less provided 
 for, the tongue and palate being mostly 
 firm, and often set with teeth. There 
 is no external ear, and the internal ap- 
 paratus is not wholly inclosed in bone, 
 as in the higher vertebrates, but is 
 partly free in the cavity of the skull. 
 The eye is, in most cases, relatively large 
 and flattened externally, the sight being 
 keen. Special organs of touch are want- 
 ing for the most part, though the labial 
 filaments, seen in the cod, whiting, 
 mullet, and sturgeon, are of this nature. 
 Among the most curious appliances 
 with which fishes are provided, are the 
 electrical apparatus that appear in some 
 species, as in the torpedo or electric ray 
 and the electric eel, both of which posses 
 batteries capable of giving a shock of 
 considerable power. Some fishes in- 
 habit exclusively either fresh or salt 
 water; others, as the salmon, migrate 
 periodically from the one to the other. 
 
 ICHTHYOR'NIS, a fossil genus of 
 carnivorous and probably aquatic birds, 
 one of the earliest known American 
 
 Fig. 1, Ichthyornis dispar, restored. Pig.’ 8, 
 Right jaw, inner view ; half natural size. 
 
 forms. It is so named from the character 
 of the vertebr®, which, even in the 
 cervical region, have their articular 
 faces biconcave as in fishes. It is also 
 characterized by having teeth set in 
 distinct sockets. Its wings were well de- 
 veloped, and the scapular arch and 
 bones of the legs conformed closely to 
 the true bird type. 
 
ICONOCLASTS 
 
 IDOLATRY 
 
 ICON'OCLASTS, image-breakers, the 
 party in the early Christian Church that 
 would not tolerate images, much less 
 the adoration of them. At first images 
 of martyrs and bishops were placed in 
 the churches merely to keep their mem^ 
 ory fresh, but latterly (in the 6th cen- 
 tury) they began to be worshiped, 
 lights being burned before them and 
 incense offered in their honor. The 
 eastern emperor Leo III. issued an edict 
 in 726 ordering the people to abstain 
 from the worship of such images, and 
 soon after he decreed their destruction. 
 This caused great commotion, and there 
 arose two parties in the church, the 
 image-worshipers and the iconoclasts 
 or image-breakers, who each in turn 
 persecuted the other. In 754 a council 
 at Constantinople condemned image- 
 worship; in 787 the second council of 
 Nice (Nicaea) asserted and defined the 
 doctrine. The controversy lasted over a 
 century, coming to an end when, under 
 the Empress Theodora, a council held at 
 Constantinople (842) declared in favor 
 of the worship of images among the 
 Greeks, a decision which was confirmed 
 by a second council, held 869-870, in 
 the same place. In the western empire 
 also images were at first retained only to 
 preserve the memory of pious men, but 
 the decision of the pope, which allowed 
 the worship of images, finally prevailed 
 in the western church. 
 
 I'DAHO, one of the United States on 
 the western slope of the Rocky moun- 
 tains, having Montana and Wyoming on 
 the east, and Washington and Oregon 
 on the west, Utah and Nevada on the 
 south, and British Columbia on the 
 north; area, 84,800 sq. miles. Idaho 
 owes its rise and importance to its rich 
 gold-fields, previous to the discovery of 
 which, in 1860 and subsequently, it was 
 inhabited only by Indians. The surface 
 is largely mountainous, the highest sum- 
 mits rising to 12,000 and 13,000 feet. 
 In the center of the state are the Salmon 
 River mountains, to which belongs the 
 picturesque and lofty Saw-tooth range. 
 The chief rivers are the Lewis or Snake 
 river and the Salmon river, the latter 
 a tributary of the former, which again 
 joins the Columbia. Along the course of 
 the Snake river in the s.e. and s. is a 
 desert tract 400 miles long by 40 to 60 
 broad. The climate is severe in the 
 more elevated parts. The rainfall in the 
 south is light but it increases toward the 
 north and east where the elevated ranges 
 arrest the moist winds. Agriculture is 
 limited to the mountain valleys and to 
 the basins of the large rivers. The min- 
 ing industry has created a market for 
 farm produce sufficient to justify irriga- 
 tion and extensive farming. The soil 
 being very fertile when sufficiently 
 watered the yield of all crops is very 
 large. Hay and forage is the most valu- 
 able crop, while that of alfalfa is very 
 large. Wheat, oats, barley, and flaxseed 
 are the most important cereals. Apples 
 and prunes are the chief varieties of 
 orchard fruit. There are 7,000,000 acres 
 of timber land situated almost wholly in 
 the northern part of the state; the 
 Alpine fir, yellow pine and the red fir are 
 the principal varieties. There are 
 25,000,000 acres of pasture land in the 
 state and therefore grazing has been 
 
 more extensively utilized than farming. 
 Sheep, cattle, horses, and swine are 
 raised. The Union Pacific passes through 
 the southern part of the state and the 
 Great Northern and Northern Pacific 
 through the northern portion. 
 
 There are valuable forests, but they 
 extend only over a small area. The 
 scenery along the Salmon river in some 
 places is grand, the stream flowing be- 
 tween perpendicular walls of rock from 
 500 to 2000 feet high. Gold has been 
 found in many places, and there are also 
 valuable silver mines. Coal, copper, iron, 
 and salt are likewise found in many 
 localities. The wild animals include the 
 grizzly bear. The first white explorers of 
 Idaho were Lewis and Clark. Early in the 
 19th century, a mission was established 
 in 1842 at Coeur d’Alene. In 1863 
 Idaho was organized as a territory with 
 an area three times as large as at present 
 including Montana and nearly all of 
 Wyoming. In 1882 gold was discovered 
 at Coeur d’ Alene which was followed by 
 a large immigration. In 1889 a new con- 
 stitution was adopted and in 1890 Idaho 
 was admitted into the Union. At the 
 head of the institutions of highei educa- 
 tion is the University of Idaho at Mos- 
 cow, the normal schools at Albion, and 
 Lewiston and the agricultural and 
 mechanical college at Idaho falls. In 
 national elections Idaho has been carried 
 by the democrats or the democrats and 
 populists in fusion. In 19c4 and 1908 it 
 was carried by the Republicans. The 
 mineral and other resources of the state 
 has induced a rapid growth in popula- 
 tion. Boise is the capital. Pop. 350,000. 
 
 IDAHO, University of, at Moscow, 
 was founded in 1889, and opened for the 
 reception of students in 1892. It 
 offers free instruction to students of 
 both sexes. It comprises a course of 
 letters and science, schools of agricul- 
 ture and applied science, and a prepara- 
 tory school. It maintains an agricultural 
 experiment station. Military drill is 
 required of preparatory Istudents, and of 
 freshmen and sophomores in the uni- 
 versity. The degrees of B.A., B.S., 
 B.M., B.E.M., B.E.E., and B.C.E. are 
 conferred. 
 
 IDEA, as a term in mental philosophy, 
 has been used in various senses. Plato 
 regarded ideas as the archetypes or 
 original models of things, as existing 
 from eternity and constituting the pat- 
 terns according to which the deity 
 fashioned the various things of which 
 we become cognizant by our senses. 
 According to Plato, ideas were inde- 
 pendent of matter, and it was they that 
 were the only objects of true knowledge. 
 Aristotle opposed Plato’s doctrine of 
 independent ideas, but held the doc- 
 trine of ideas being types or patterns 
 accompanying material things. By 
 Descartes and many modern philoso- 
 phers the word is employed to signify 
 all our mental representations, all the 
 notions which the mind frames of things. 
 See also Idealism. 
 
 IDE'ALISM, the philosophical term 
 which, in contradistinction to realism, 
 expresses the view that subjective or 
 ideal existence is not only the original 
 but the only true being, and according 
 to which there is allowed to sensible 
 objects merely a phenomenal existence 
 
 dependent upon the mind of a thinking 
 subject. In modern times idealism has 
 been maintained by Descartes, Berkeley, 
 Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. 
 
 IDEN'TITY, a person in point of law 
 must often be proved in legal proceed- 
 ings, as in proving a thief, etc. The 
 usual proof is the oath of one who was 
 cognizant of the facts at the time re- 
 ferred to. A common defense of persons 
 accused of crime is that it is a case of 
 mistaken identity, in which case the 
 prisoner must usually prove an alibi — 
 i.e. that he was in some other place at 
 the time specified. 
 
 IDES, Latin Idus, with the Romans, 
 the 15th day of March, May, July, and 
 October. In the other months the 13th 
 was the ides. The ides of March, on 
 account of Caesar’s assassination having 
 taken place on that day, was an ater 
 dies or black day, and the senate was 
 not allowed to sit. See Calendar. 
 
 IDIOM, a term used to denote a phrase 
 or form of words approved by the gen- 
 eral usage of a language, while in many 
 cases it will admit of neither grammati- 
 cal nor logical analysis. In a broader 
 sense, it denotes the genius or peculiar 
 cast of a language; hence it is often ap- 
 plied to a peculiar form or variation of 
 a language, a dialect. 
 
 IDIOSYN'CRASY, a distinctive pe- 
 culiarity of the mental or bodily con- 
 stitution of any person, -or that constitu- 
 tion or temperament which is peculiar 
 to any person. 
 
 IDTOT, a person who, from original 
 defect, is almost destitute of intelligence, 
 or in whom the intellect seems to be 
 almost wholly wanting. In some cases 
 the intellectual development is so low 
 that there appears to be little more than 
 a vegetative life. Others not quite so 
 low in the intellectual scale recognize 
 the persons with whom they live, are 
 capable of being affected by certain 
 emotions, understand a few questions, 
 articulate a few words, and are able to 
 take their own food, but are quite unable 
 to do any kind of work. Those endowed 
 with a little more intelligence may some- 
 times be employed in some kinds of 
 labor which present no complicity or 
 difficulty, but they are incapable of per- 
 forming any intricate calculation or 
 going through any long train of reason- 
 ing. The brain of idiots is sometimes 
 sufficiently regular in its conformation, 
 although in the great majority of cases 
 there is something abnormal. The fore- 
 head is often depressed, receding, and 
 flattened; sometimes the back parts of 
 the head disproportionately large. The 
 majority of idiots are of small stature 
 and of weak constitution, rarely living 
 beyond forty years. The causes of idiocy 
 are not well known. It may be heredi- 
 tary. 
 
 IDOL'ATRY, the worship of an image, 
 object, or symbol as having in itself 
 some divine or supernatural power, and 
 being able in some way to respond to 
 the worship paid to it, such images or 
 objects being called idols; or the adora- 
 tion of something merely natural as 
 something supernatural and divine. 
 Many have regarded idolatry as a de- 
 clension from the one true God, and have 
 seen in the various forms of heathen 
 worship only more or less complete de- 
 
IGNATIEFF 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 gradations of an original revelation. 
 Others see in idolatry an innate search- 
 ing after God, and regard it as the first 
 stage of human development, the neces- 
 sary beginning of a knowledge of God. 
 Idolatry may assume various forms; 
 it may consist in a worship of the powers 
 of nature, or of the heavenly bodies, or 
 in animal worship, or in the worship of 
 images representing mere fanciful and 
 imaginary deities, or in the still lower 
 fetichism. 
 
 IGNATIEFF, Nicholas Paulovitch, 
 Russian soldier and diplomatist, born 
 in St. Petersburg 1828. He served in the 
 Crimean war, and was made a colonel 
 1856. In 1858 he was sent on a special 
 mission to Bokhara and Khiva, and 
 afterward as ambassador to Peking 1860. 
 He was appointed minister at Constan- 
 tinople 1864, and was envoy extraordi- 
 nary 1867-78. He represented the party 
 in favor of war, in opposition to Prince 
 Gortschakoff. He was subsequently 
 made governor-general of Irkutsk. 
 
 IGNEOUS ROCKS, in geology, rocks 
 which are seen to owe their special char- 
 acter or structure to their materials hav- 
 ing been once in a state of fusion, as lava, 
 basalt, granite, etc. Such rocks are not 
 stratified, and may occur in connection 
 with sedimentary rocks of any age, hav- 
 ing usually been forced up from below. 
 
 IGNIS FAT'UUS, a luminous appear- 
 ance seen floating over marshy places at 
 night, and sometimes, it is said, in 
 churchyards. It is probably due to 
 some gaseous mixture capable of ignit- 
 ing spontaneously, but it has never been 
 satisfactorily explained. Other names 
 are Will-o’-the-wisp and Jack-a-lantern. 
 
 IGUAN'A, a genus of lizards, the type 
 of the family Iguanidse, a native of 
 Brazil, Guiana, and neighboring locali- 
 ties. It has an average length of about 
 
 Common iguana. 
 
 4 feet. Its food consists almost entirely 
 of fruits, fungi, and other vegetable sub- 
 stances. Its head is large, the mouth 
 wide Along the whole length of the 
 back to the tip of the tail there is a crest 
 of elevated, compressed, pointed scales; 
 the lower part of the head and neck is 
 furnished with a dew-lap or throat- 
 pouch. The toes are furnished wth 
 sharp claws, which enable it to climb 
 trees with ease, while a rapid serpentine 
 movement of its tail propels it swiftly 
 through the water. Its usual color is 
 dark olive-green. Its flesh is considered 
 a delicacy, being tender and delicately- 
 flavored, resembling that of a chicken. 
 The eggs, of which the female lays from 
 four to six dozen, are also eaten, having 
 an excellent flavor. They are about the 
 size of those of a pigeon, are laid in the 
 sand, and hatchedf by the heat of the sun. 
 
 IGUANTD^E, a family of lizards of 
 which the iguana is the type. They have 
 the body rounded, sometimes laterally 
 compressed and furnished with a ridge 
 or serrated crest along the middle line 
 
 of the back from snout to tip of tail, 
 sometimes a throat-pouch or dew-lap 
 present. 
 
 ILLE-ET-VILAINE, a maritime de- 
 partment in the n.w. of France, lying 
 between the English channel and the 
 department of Loire-Inf^rieure. Rennes 
 is the capital; St. Malo the chief seaport. 
 Pop. 615,480. 
 
 ILLEGITIMACY, according to the 
 civil and statute law as found in many 
 states the status of children born out of 
 wedlock. In New York the children of a 
 man and woman cohabiting professedly 
 as husband and wife have been held as 
 legitimate. In most of the states upon 
 complaint of the mother an inquiry may 
 be had as to the identity of the putative 
 father, and upon sufficient proof an order 
 of affiliation made whereby the father is 
 adjudged to pay for the support of the 
 child. Under common law, an illegiti- 
 mate child cannot inherit or transmit 
 property. The legitimation of children 
 born out of wedlock follows upon the 
 intermarriage of the parents and ac- 
 knowledgment of the ehildren in most 
 of the states. 
 
 IL'LINOIS (il'i-noi or -nois), one of 
 the United States, bounded on the north 
 by Wisconsin, east by Lake Michigan 
 and Indiana, southeast by Kentucky, 
 from which it is separated by the Ohio, 
 and west by the Mississippi, separating 
 it from Missouri and Iowa; greatest 
 length, 370 miles; greatest breadth, 160; 
 area, 56,650 sq. miles. The surface is 
 somewhat hilly near the Ohio, and un- 
 dulating toward the west; and a range 
 of bluffs runs for a considerable distance 
 along the margin of the Mississippi; but 
 with these exceptions the state is one 
 continuous plain, with a gentle inclina- 
 tion toward the southwest, and with 
 the exception of Louisiana and Dela- 
 ware is the most level state of the 
 Union. It has a greater proportion of 
 arable land than any other state. The 
 only part of the state thickly wooded 
 is the extreme south portion. The chief 
 rivers are the Illinois, which traverses 
 the state diagonally northeast to south- 
 west, Rock, Kaskaskia, and Wabash. 
 Indian corn and wheat are the chief 
 objects of cultivation, but rye, oats 
 buckwheat, potatoes, turnips, cotton, 
 hemp, flax, tobacco, castor-beans, etc., 
 are also produced, and the cultivation of 
 the vine is making considerable progress. 
 The common domestic animals are 
 abundant, and immense numbers of 
 swine are reared on the mast of the 
 forests. Lead is found in vast quantities, 
 and the ore (argentiferous galena) con- 
 tains a considerable percentage of silver; 
 the metal is found chiefly near the Wis- 
 consin frontier, Galena being the center 
 of the mining district. Bituminous coal 
 abounds, and is raised in considerable 
 quantities, and several valuable salt 
 springs are found in the east and south. 
 The rocks mostly are limestone, gypsum, 
 and sandstone. The climate, although 
 somewhat humid, is generally healthy; 
 the winters being severe owing to the 
 northerly winds which have an un- 
 obstructed sweep over the prairies. 
 Illinois is the most important manufac- 
 turing state west of the Alleghany moun- 
 tains and is surpassed by only two states 
 in the Union; New York and Pennsyl- 
 
 vania. It is the collecting and distribut- 
 ing center for the west and northwest. 
 Chicago produces 70 per cent of the total 
 manufactured product of the state. It is 
 the most important stock market and 
 
 Seal of Illinois. 
 
 is the greatest slaughtering and meat 
 packing center of the world. Only two 
 states exceed Illinois in the manufacture 
 of steel and iron and the value of its 
 agricultural implements is more than 
 three times that of any other state. 
 Pennsylvania alone exceeds Illinois in 
 the manufacture of cars and other rail- 
 road supplies. The railroads are more 
 numerous and have a greater extent of 
 track than any other state. The state 
 has water communication with the Mis- 
 sissippi valley and a southern outlet to 
 the Atlantic. Lake Michigan, which * 
 touches the state at the northeast corner 
 gives water communication with Canada 
 and an eastern outlet to the Atlantic. 
 The Illinois and Michigan canal con- 
 nects Lake Michigan at Chicago with the 
 Illinois at LaSalle (distance 96 miles), 
 and enables vessels of some size to pass 
 from the Gulf of Mexico to the St. Law- 
 rence. There is a well-organized school 
 system. At the head of the institutions of 
 higher education are the University of Ch i- 
 cago, which has attracted attention by 
 its original features and the eminence of 
 the scholars who have been called to fill 
 its chairs: the University of Illinois at 
 Urbana, the Northwestern university, 
 the Armour school of technology. Rush 
 medical college, all situated at Chicago, 
 Knox college at Galesburg, Illinois and 
 Wesleyan university at Bloomington. 
 Father Marquette in 1673 ascended the 
 Illinois river and LaSalle entered the 
 river in 1679 and named it from the tribe 
 of Indians inhabiting the region. French 
 traders established themselves at Kas- 
 kaskia, Cahokia, and other Indian vil- 
 lages between 1683 and 1690. There 
 were six important settlements by 1751. 
 
 In 1778-79 a force of Virginians, under 
 George Rogers Clark, captured Kaskas- 
 kia and subdued the province. Virginia 
 ceded its claims to the southern part of 
 the region in 1784, Massachusetts and 
 Connecticut in the following year, and 
 in 1787 the region became part of the 
 northwest territory. In 1800 Ohio, in 
 1802, Indiana and in 1805 Michigan were 
 set apart and the remainder was organ- 
 ized in 1809 as the Illinois territory. 
 
 In 1812 the garrison at Fort Dearborn 
 (Chicago) was massacred. In 1818 the 
 first constitution was adopted and Illi- 
 nois was admitted to the Union. The 
 
ILLINOIS 
 
 IMMORTALITY 
 
 Illinois and Michigan canal was begun 
 in 1834 and was built with the proceeds 
 of the sale of public lands. In 1850 con- 
 gress made an extensive cession of pub- 
 lic lands to aid in the construction of the 
 Illinois Central railroad, an enterprise 
 which added greatly to the development 
 of the state. In 1858 the great contest 
 for the United States senatorship took 
 place between Stephen A. Douglas and 
 Abraham Lincoln. The state furnished 
 
 260.000 men as its quota of troops during 
 the civil war. In 1871 a large part of 
 Chicago was laid waste by fire and over 
 
 100.000 people were made homeless. 
 The loss was estimated at $300,000,000. 
 In 1885-6 owing to a general feeling of 
 unrest bitter and bloody strikes took 
 place; in Chicago an anarchist crowd 
 attacked the police with dynamite, kill- 
 ing and wounding a large number. In 
 1892 the Chicago drainage canal for the 
 removal of Chicago’s sewage was started. 
 In 1893 the Columbian World’s Fair 
 was held in Chicago. In 1894 a strike of 
 the Pullman palace car company par- 
 ticipated a general strike of railway em- 
 ployees. Interference with the United 
 States mails led to the intervention of 
 the Federal government. In national 
 politics Illinois was democratic before 
 1860 and since that year with the excep- 
 tion of 1892, when it voted for Grover 
 Cleveland, it has been consistently 
 republican. Springfield is the capital. 
 Pop. 5,39!.3 :0. 
 
 IL'LINOIS, a river in the United 
 States, formed by the union of the Kan- 
 kakee and Desplaines, in the n.e. part 
 of the state of Illinois. It flows thence 
 S.W., and falls into the Mississippi about 
 20 miles above the mouth of the Mis- 
 souri. It is 500 miles long, half of it be- 
 ing navigable. A canal connects the 
 river with Chicago. See above article. 
 
 ILLINOIS, University of, the State 
 University of Illinois, between the cities 
 of Urbana and Champaign, was char- 
 tered in 1867 as the Illinois industrial 
 university, and assumed its present 
 name in 1885. The university is divided 
 into six colleges: literature and arts, 
 science, engineering, agriculture, law 
 and medicine, including schools of 
 library and science, art and design, 
 music, military science, and pedagogy, 
 and preparatory and graduate depart- 
 ments. The state laboratory of natural 
 history and the United States agricul- 
 tural experiment station for Illinois are 
 departments of the university, but have 
 separate financial support. The schools 
 dT pharmacy, medicine, and dentistry 
 are situated in Chicago. 
 
 ILLITERACY, the condition of one 
 who cannot read and write his own lan- 
 guage. As used in the United States 
 census, the term includes all those who 
 can read but not write. 
 
 The report of the United States com- 
 missioner of education for 1900 con- 
 tains the following table for the different 
 
 countries: 
 
 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Germany.. . 
 
 .. 0.11 
 
 Hungary. . 
 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 .. 0.30 
 
 Greece 
 
 30.00 
 
 Scotland 
 
 .. 3. ,57 
 
 Italy 
 
 38.30 
 
 Holland 
 
 .. 4.00 
 
 Russia . . . 
 
 61 70 
 
 Prance 
 
 .. 4.90 
 
 Spain 
 
 68.10 
 
 England. 
 
 
 Portugal... 
 
 
 United States.. 
 
 ..10. 70 
 
 Servia 
 
 86.00 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 Rumania . 
 
 89.00 
 
 Ireland 
 
 ..17.00 
 
 Austria . . . . 
 
 23,80 
 
 ILLYR'IA, Illyr'icum, a name for- 
 merly rather loosely applied to a large 
 tract of country on the east side of the 
 Adriatic, the ancient Illyrians being the 
 ancestors of the modern Albanians. 
 
 ILOCOS NORTE (e-lo'kos nor'ta), a 
 Philippine province occupying the north- 
 western corner of the island of Luzon. 
 Its area is 1873 sq. miles. The principal 
 river being the Pagsan or Laoag, and the 
 valleys are very fertile, producing grains 
 and fruits, a fine quality of rice, good 
 cotton and tobacco, and sugar. Iron ore 
 is abundant. Pop. 156,700. 
 
 ILOCOS SUR, (soor), a Philippine 
 province, situated in the northwestern 
 part of the island of Luzon. It is crossed 
 by the large river Agra, and a number of 
 smaller streams; the soil is very fertile, 
 producing indigo, sugar, and cocoanuts. 
 Pop. 172,836. The capital is Bigan. 
 
 ILOILO (e'l6-e'l6), a province com- 
 prising the southern half of the island of 
 Panay in the Philippines and about 
 thirty, mostly small, outlying islands, 
 one of which, however, Guimaras, is 30 
 miles long by 10 miles wide. The area of 
 the province is 2600 sq. miles, and its 
 population 472,798. The level lands, 
 which constitute the greater part of the 
 area of the province, are very productive 
 all kinds of tropical fruits flourishing; 
 but the inhabitants are chiefly given to 
 the cultivation of sugar and tobacco. 
 
 ILOILO, the capital of the province 
 of Iloilo, situated on the southeastern 
 shore of the island of Panay, on the 
 strait separating Guimaras island from 
 the mainland. It has an excellent har- 
 bor, and is, next to Manila, the chief com- 
 mercial center of the Philippines. Its 
 chief exports are sugar, tobacco, rice, 
 coffee, and dyewoods. Pop. 10,400. 
 
 ILO'RIN, a town in West Africa, 
 Nigeria, about 150 miles n.e. of the 
 Bight of Benin in Nupe, a great center 
 of trade; pop. 150,000, mostly Moham- 
 medans. 
 
 IMAGE, in optics, the spectrum or 
 appearance of an object made by reflec- 
 tion or refraction. It is by means of 
 optical images that vision is effected, or 
 that the telescope and microscope are of 
 use. See the articles Optics, Eye, etc. 
 
 IMAGINATION, literally that faculty 
 of the mind by which we can form mental 
 images of things. Besides the power of 
 preserving and recalling such concep- 
 tions, the imagination has the power to 
 combine different conceptions, and thus 
 create new images or mental pictures. 
 It is this faculty which is more strictly 
 termed imagination. In the creation of 
 new images, or more properly in the 
 combining of images which have pre- 
 viously been derived from objects of 
 perception, the imagination operates 
 according to the laws of the association 
 of ideas. Its operations are nevertheless 
 not wholly independent of the will, for 
 by directing the attention to some lead- 
 ing thought, the will can determine the 
 limits within which the laws of associa- 
 tion are to act. Such free and yet regu- 
 lated action of the imagination alone 
 can give birth to the productions of the 
 fine arts. 
 
 IMBECILITY, weakness of mind, such 
 as puts a person considerably below the 
 general run of mankind, but is not so 
 great as to be called actual lunacy or 
 
 idiocy, nor so well marked perhaps as 
 to be classed under any one of the forms 
 of insanity. Imbeciles sometimes dis- 
 play a considerable amount of intelli- 
 genoe in certain directions, and are often 
 very cunning. They may be interesting, 
 amusing, and even useful members of a 
 community. In the United States there 
 are no special legal provisions in regard 
 to imbeciles. As a general rule the court 
 is ready to support the obligation of any 
 contract that a person of weak mind has 
 entered into, unless it is of such a nature 
 that a person of sound mind would not 
 have agreed to it, or unless there is sus- 
 picion of fraud. An imbecile person may 
 be summoned as a witness, but the 
 degree of credulity attaching to his 
 evidence naturally depends very much 
 on the amount of intelligence he dis- 
 plays, and on the nature of the circum- 
 stances regarding which his evidence i ^ 
 offered. 
 
 IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. See 
 
 Conception (Immaculate). 
 
 IMMERSION, in astronomy, the di.s- 
 appearance of one heavenly body behind 
 another or into its shadow. Immersion 
 occurs at the beginning, and emergence 
 at the end of an occultation or an 
 ©clipSG 
 
 IMMORTALITY, exemption from 
 death; the state of everlasting life. The 
 dogma of the immortality of the soul is 
 very ancient. It is connected with almost 
 all religions, though under an infinite 
 variety of conceptions. By the im- 
 mortality of the soul we understand the 
 endless continuation of our personality, 
 our consciousness, and will. There are so 
 many reasons to render immortality 
 probable, that wdth most nations the 
 belief is as clear and firm as the belief 
 in a god; in fact the two dogmas are in- 
 timately connected in the minds of most 
 men. The hope of immortality must be 
 considered a religious conviction. Rea- 
 son and religion command man to strive 
 for continued perfection. This duty 
 man cannot relinquish without aban- 
 doning at the same time his whole 
 dignity as a reasonable being and a free 
 agent. He must, therefore, expect that 
 a continuation of his better part, as the 
 necessary condition of his progress in 
 perfection, will not be denied to him. 
 Hence the belief in immortality becomes 
 intimately connected with our belief in 
 the existence and goodness of God. 
 Among rude peoples the life after death 
 is usually regarded as a state of being 
 not essentially different from the present 
 — one in which the hunter shall renew 
 his chase, and his corporeal senses shall 
 have their accustomed gratifications. 
 Among the ancient Greeks and Romans 
 the spirits of the dead were believed to 
 live in the other world as a sort of shad- 
 ows, and the life after death was also 
 considered as a shadow of the present. 
 Among some peoples the imagination 
 attributes changes of condition to the 
 future life, and the doctrine of trans- 
 migration, or the progress of the mind 
 or soul in different stages, is developed. 
 Connected with the belief in the im- 
 mortality of the soul is the belief in a 
 state where souls are purified after 
 death, as existing among the Egyptians 
 and many Christians. See Purgatory, 
 Soul. 
 
IMMORTELLES 
 
 INCEST 
 
 IMMORTELLES, a name for flowers, 
 also known as everlasting flowers, and 
 often made into wreaths for adorning 
 graves. 
 
 IMPALEMENT, the putting to death 
 by thrusting a stake through the body. 
 This manner of inflicting death was 
 known to the Romans, though not prac- 
 ticed by them. It is still practiced in 
 some half-civilized countries. 
 
 IMPAN'EL, to form a jury by enter- 
 ing the names on the roll or impanel. 
 See Jury. 
 
 IMPEACHMENT, an accusation and 
 prosecution for a crime or misdemeanor, 
 in which the House of Commons are the 
 prosecutors and the House of Lords the 
 judges. The necessity of some tribunal 
 distinct from the ordinary courts, for the 
 trial of certain offenses, or for any high 
 misdemeanor in certain officers, is ap- 
 parent, since the judges of the highest 
 courts cannot in all cases safely be in- 
 trusted with the trial of each other. 
 Impeachment is, however, seldom used, 
 the last instance being that of Lord 
 Melville in 1805. After sentence, the 
 crown may pardon the offender. The 
 question of guilty or not guilty is decided 
 by a majority of votes. — In the United 
 States the procedure is similar to that of 
 England, the house of representatives 
 being the accusers and the votes of two- 
 thirds of the senate being necessary for 
 a conviction. 
 
 IMPENETRABILITY, in physics, that 
 
 E roperty of matter which prevents two 
 odies from occupying the same space 
 at the same time; or that property of 
 matter by which it excludes all other 
 matter from the space it occupies. 
 
 IMPERA'TOR, among the ancient 
 Romans, a term originally applied to a 
 military commander, one who held the 
 imperium, or military power. In later 
 times no one received this title who had 
 not defeated a hostile force of at least 
 10,000 men. After the overthrow of the 
 republic imperator became the highest 
 title of the supreme ruler, and acquired 
 the signification which we attach to the 
 word emperor. It was still given, how- 
 ever, to triumphant generals, and, in 
 this case, has its old signification. The 
 emperors appear to have used it because 
 they were considered as superior to all 
 the generals. See Emperor. 
 
 IMPERIAL, pertaining to an emperor 
 or empire; thus, the imperial parlia- 
 ment is that of the United Kingdom. 
 A size of paper 30 in. by 22, is called 
 imperial. 
 
 IMPERIALISM, a term given to that 
 form of government known as an em- 
 pire and connoting absolute power in 
 the hands of a single ruler. The term 
 lately has been used to describe the 
 policy of various nations of estab- 
 lishing world powers through the ex- 
 tension of their rule over other and 
 especially inferior races. In the United 
 States at the close of the Spanish Ameri- 
 can war a group of citizens who vigor- 
 ously opposed the acquistion of the 
 Philippines and Porto Rico became 
 known as anti-imperialists. 
 
 IMPEY PHEASANT, a bird of the 
 pheasant family remarkable for its 
 splendid plumage. It is found in the 
 higher regions of the Himalayas, and 
 ie of the size of a small turkey. Lady 
 
 Impey attempted (unsuccessfully) to 
 introduce the bird into Europe, hence 
 the name. 
 
 IMPLU'yiUM, in ancient architecture 
 a term which denoted, in the houses of 
 the ancient Romans, a basin in the 
 
 Roman atrium. 
 
 A, Impluvlum; b, Compluvlum. 
 
 middle of the atrium or entrance-hall, 
 below the compluvium or open space 
 in the roof, to receive the rain. See 
 Atrium. 
 
 IM'POST, (1) a tax, tribute, or duty, 
 particularly a duty or tax laid by gov- 
 ernment on goods imported. (2) In 
 architecture, the point of junction be- 
 tween an arch and the column, pier, or 
 wall on which it rests. It is often marked 
 by horizontal mouldings, though these 
 may be absent. Imposts have received 
 various names, according to their 
 
 1 2 ■ 3 
 
 tmpoetD. 
 
 CoDtinbous. Discootinuoas. 3* Shafted. 
 
 character. - Thus, a continuous impost 
 is where the mouldings are carried 
 down a pier; a discontinuous impost 
 where there are no mouldings, but the 
 pier is of a different section from the 
 arch ; shafted imposts are where the arch 
 mouldings spring from a capital and 
 differ from those of the pier. 
 
 IMPOUNDING CATTLE. See Pound. 
 
 IMPRESSMENT OF SEAMEN, the act 
 of compelling persons, especially sea- 
 faring men, to serve in the English navy. 
 The power of impressing seamen, though 
 still existing, has fallen into abeyance 
 since the conclusion of the general war 
 of 1815. Impressment was of ancient 
 date, and uniformly practiced through- 
 out a long series of years. It is also 
 recognized in many statutes, such, for 
 instance, as exempted certain persons 
 from impressment, though the power of 
 impressing is not expressly granted in 
 any acts of parliament. 
 
 IMPRIMATUR (Latin, “let it be 
 printed”), the word by which the 
 licenser allows a book to be printed in 
 countries where the censorship of books 
 is exercised in its rigor 
 
 IMPRISONMENT, the restraint of a 
 person’s liberty, whether in a prison, 
 the stocks, or by merely keeping in 
 custody. It is usually inflicted by way 
 of punishment, the power of sentencing 
 to imprisonment being conferred on 
 certain courts or magistrates, and 
 stricty limited by law. A person may 
 be imprisoned, however, who is merely 
 accused of a crime, in which case he can 
 demand to be released on bail. Im- 
 prisonment for ordinary debt is now 
 practically abolished. 
 
 IMPUTATION, as a term in Christian 
 theology, is used to signify, on the one 
 hand, the reckoning of the sins of man 
 to Christ, and, on the other hand, the 
 reckoning of the righteousness of Christ 
 to believers. 
 
 INCA, or YNCA, a word signifying 
 “chief,” which the natives of Peru gave 
 to their kings and princes of the blood 
 before the Spanish conquest. See Peru. 
 
 INCANTATION, a certain formula of 
 words, supposed to have some magical 
 effect, especially if uttered with the ac- 
 companiment of certain ceremonies. 
 Incantations are still common as a part 
 of popular medicine among the negroes 
 and Indians of this country and also 
 among the uneducated of all countries 
 and among barbarous peoples gener- 
 ally. 
 
 INCARNATION, a word used to ex- 
 press the manifestation of the deity in 
 the flesh under the human form; thus 
 we speak of the incarnation of (jhrist. 
 The Hindus believe in innumerable in- 
 carnations of their deities. The most 
 celebrated are the nine incarnations of 
 Vishnu. 
 
 IN'CENSE, aromatic substances 
 burned in religious rites on account of 
 the sweet odor they emit. The custom 
 of burning incense is ancient and widely 
 spread. Among the Jews the practice 
 was enjoined as part of the worship of 
 the sanctuary (Ex. xxx. 27), the in- 
 gredients of the incense also being laid 
 down, and it was to be burned on a 
 special altar called the altar of incense. 
 This altar was made of acacia (shittim) 
 wood, and was overlaid with gold, hence 
 it was also called the golden altar, as 
 distinguished from the altar of burnt- 
 offering, which was made of brass. The 
 incense was burned daily — morning 
 and evening. In ancient Egypt, Assyria, 
 Babylonia, India, Greece, and Rome 
 incense-burning was part of the worship 
 of the gods, and it is still employed as 
 part of the Buddhist ceremonial. Both 
 the Greek and the Latin churches use 
 incense in worship, but the practice 
 cannot be shown to have existed among 
 Christians till after the first four cen- 
 turies. Among Catholics it is used at 
 every high mass, at consecrations of 
 churches, in processions, funerals, etc. 
 In the English Church it is only em- 
 ployed by the high ritualistic section, 
 but its use has never been prohibited. 
 
 IN'CEST, sexual intercourse within 
 the prohibited degrees founded on the 
 Levitical code, and include degrees both 
 of consanguinity and of affinity. (See 
 Leviticus, chap, xviii.) In England 
 incest is an ecclesiastical offense, and is 
 left to the jurisdiction of the spiritual 
 courts. In Scotland and some of the 
 United States it is a criminal offense. 
 
INCLINATION 
 
 INDIA 
 
 INCLINATION, Magnetic, or Mag- 
 netic Dip. See Dipping Needle. 
 
 INCLINATION COMPASS, same as 
 Dipping Needle. 
 
 INCLINED PLANE, a plane forming 
 with the horizontal plane any angle 
 whatever excepting a right angle. It is 
 one of the mechanical powers by which 
 a small force under certain conditions is 
 used to overcome a greater force. When 
 a body lies on an inclined plane part of 
 its weight is supported, so that if a cord 
 be fastened to it and pulled, a force less 
 than the weight of the body acting in a 
 direction parallel to the plane will pre- 
 vent it from sliding, or will move it up 
 the plane. Thus a heavy wagon is raised 
 on an inclined road by a horse which 
 would be quite unable to exert a pull 
 equal to a quarter of the weight of the 
 wagon. Neglecting friction, the force 
 parallel to the plane necessary to raise 
 the body is equal to the weight of 
 the body multiplied by the vertical 
 height through which it is lifted, di- 
 vided by the distance it is moved along 
 the plane. 
 
 INCOMBUSTIBLE CLOTH, cloth ren- 
 dered uninflammable by artificial means. 
 This may be done by steeping the fabric 
 in borax, phosphate of soda or ammonia, 
 alum or sal-ammoniac; but these salts 
 are not suitable for fine fabrics, and that 
 which has been found to answer the pur- 
 pose most effectually is tungstate of 
 soda. A solution containing 20 per cent 
 of this salt, along with 3 per cent of 
 phosphate of soda, renders a fabric per- 
 fectly non-inflammable, and does not 
 interfere with the ironing. 
 
 INCOME TAX, a tax levied directly 
 from income of every description, 
 whether derived from land, capital, or 
 industry. 
 
 INCOMMEN'SURABLE, in mathe- 
 matics, a term applied to two magni- 
 tudes when they cannot both be meas- 
 ured by the same quantity, that is, when 
 they do not contain it one or more times 
 exactly. The diagonal and side of a 
 square are an example. 
 
 INCUBATION (pathology), the period 
 between the introduction of the morbific 
 principle and the outbreak of the dis- 
 ease. It is then gathering head in the 
 system, and indicated only by such 
 general symptoms as loss of appetite or 
 sleep, etc. In epidemic and contagious 
 diseases the period of incubation is well 
 defined. 
 
 INCUBATION, the mode in which 
 birds commonly bring forth their young, 
 that of sitting on the eggs till they are 
 hatched by the natural heat of the body. 
 In general it is the female which under- 
 goes the labor of incubation, but among 
 some species, chiefly of monogamous 
 birds, the male relieves the female while 
 she seeks her nourishment ; in others the 
 male feeds her. Some birds, like the 
 cuckoo, abandon their eggs to be hatched 
 by others. In a state of nature birds 
 generally commence to sit in spring. 
 The time of incubation varies with dif- 
 ferent species, but is always the same 
 with the same species. In the humming- 
 birds it is 12 to 14 days; in the swallow 
 and lark 15; the canary, from 15 to 18; 
 crow, 20; common hen, 21; pheasant, 
 partridge, etc., 22; peacock and turkey, 
 30j swan, 40-45; cassowary, 62. 
 
 INDEM'NITY, a term frequently em- 
 ployed in politics and jurisprudence. It 
 is used in various significations, but is 
 usually applied to an act of the legisla- 
 ture passed for the purpose of relieving 
 individuals, especially in an official 
 position, from the penalties to which they 
 may have rendered themselves liable 
 by some violation of the law whether 
 by act or omission or in case of members 
 of government in consequence of exceed- 
 ing the limits of their strict constitutional 
 powers. 
 
 INDEPENDENCE, Declaration of. See 
 Declaration of Independence. 
 
 INDEPENDENCE DAY, fourth day of 
 July, the United States national holiday. 
 
 INDEPENDENCE HALL, a brick 
 building in Philadelphia, built in 1729- 
 34. In it the continental congress met, 
 Washington was made commander-in- 
 chief of the American army in 1775, 
 and the declaration of independence 
 was adopted on July 4, 1776, and read 
 to the people assembled in the street. 
 It is now a museum of revolut’onary and 
 historical relics. 
 
 INDETERMINATE, in mathematics, 
 having an indefinite number of values 
 or solutions. Indeterminate analysis is a 
 branch of algebra in which there are 
 always given a greater number of un- 
 known quantities than there are inde- 
 pendent equations, by which means the 
 number of solutions is indefinite. 
 
 INDEX LIBRORUM PROHIBI- 
 TORUM (“list of prohibited books”), 
 in the Roman Catholic Church, a title 
 used to designate the catalogue or list 
 of books pn^ibitgd by ecclesiastical 
 authority, J^^count of the heretical 
 opinions suj^Bpd to be contained in 
 them, or maintained by the authors or 
 editors of them : when the list or cato- 
 logue is of books allowed to be read after 
 correction or alteration, agreeably to the 
 orders of the papal authorities, it is 
 termed Index Expurgatorius. Such pro- 
 hibitory catalogues have been in use 
 from a very early period in the history 
 of the church, commencing with a list 
 of prohibited books drawn up by a 
 council held at Rome in 494, or even 
 earlier with the proscription of the 
 writings of Arius. These prohibitions, 
 in fact, were often issued by other than 
 the papal authorities. In 1408 a synod 
 at London prohibited the reading of the 
 books of Wickliffe. The most important 
 editions are those of Alexander VII. in 
 1664, and of Benedict XIV. in 1758. 
 The latest edition appeared in 1881, 
 with a supplement in 1884. 
 
 INDIA, a name properly applicable to 
 the whole of the British Indian Empire, 
 which includes Burmah, but popularly 
 restricted to the great central peninsula 
 of Southern Asia. Its length north and 
 south, and its greatest breadth, east and 
 west, are both about 1900 miles. Within 
 these borders is an area of about 
 1,300,000 sq. miles, with a population 
 of about 295,000,000. India may be re- 
 garded as consisting of three separate 
 regions, well defined by differences of 
 soil, climate, productions, and popula- 
 tion. The first is the region of the Hima- 
 layas. Immediately south of the Hima- 
 layas lies the vast North Indian plain, 
 containing the most fertile and densely- 
 populated portions of the empire. South 
 
 of the northern plain rises the third 
 region of India, the triangular plateau of 
 the Deccan, which has a general eleva- 
 tion of from 2000 to 3000 feet. Its 
 northern scarp is formed by a number of 
 hilt ranges known as the Vindhya moun- 
 tains. The other two sides of the Deccan 
 are formed by the Eastern and Western 
 Gh&ts, which stretch southward along 
 the eastern and western coasts of India, 
 the latter rising in the Nilghiris or 
 Neitgherries to the height of 8760 feet. 
 The vast North Indian plain is watered 
 by three distinct river systems, which 
 collect the drainage of both the northern 
 and southern slopes of the Himalayas. 
 The Ganges for thousands of years has 
 occupied a prominent place in Indian 
 civilization, and was the sole channel of 
 traffic between Upper India and the 
 seaboard until the opening of the railway 
 system in 1855. The Indian rivers in 
 the lower portions of their courses afford 
 a natural system of irrigation, but in the 
 higher parts an extensive system of 
 canal irrigation is required. The Ganges 
 and Jumna canals alone irrigate an 
 aggregate area of about three million 
 acres. The coasts of India have very few 
 indentations, and consequently few 
 good natural harbors. There are no 
 lakes of any extent, Chilka and Kolair 
 on the east coast being the largest. 
 
 In Southern India the climate, of 
 course, is tropical, and generally the 
 heat is very great. Among the highest 
 elevations of the Himalayas an Alpine 
 climate prevails. The Indian plains are, 
 especially in summer, sultry, unhealthy, 
 and partly barren. The Deccan and the 
 slopes of the Himalayas enjoy a tem- 
 perate climate. The climate of the 
 Nilghiris is healthy and pleasant, and 
 several sanatoria for Europeans have 
 been established there, as well as on the 
 Himalayas. Throughout the entire 
 country there are only two annual sea- 
 sons, the dry season and the rainy sea- 
 son. The rainfall depends upon the 
 monsoons. On the western coast the 
 rainy season begins with the southwest 
 monsoon, and lasts from May till No- 
 vember; on the east coast the rainy 
 season, following the southeast mon- 
 soon, lasts from November till March. 
 The rainfall, however, is distributed 
 with great irregularity. 
 
 The flora of India offers nothing very 
 distinctive. Many plants of temperate 
 climates, such as wheat, barley, Euro- 
 pean vegetables, etc., are grown in the 
 northwestern and other parts, while 
 various products of warmer regions are 
 also cultivated, such as cotton, rice, 
 indigo, oil-seeds, jute, tobacco, sugar- 
 cane, cocoanut, date, and other palms, 
 spices, etc. Coffee, tea, and cinchona 
 are now extensively cultivated, the first 
 particularly on the slopes of the western 
 Gh^its and in the Nilghiris. The tea- 
 plant is also grown in the south, but 
 especially in Assam and along the lower 
 slopes of the Himalayas. European 
 fruits abound, and among cultivated 
 fruits may be mentioned the mango, 
 plantain, pomegranate, citron, orange, 
 lime, melon, fig, almond, pineapple, 
 guava, jack, and tamarind. Among 
 trees the teak forests under the protec- 
 tion of the government are of most 
 economic value. The bamboo, the 
 
INDIA 
 
 INDIA 
 
 banyan, the sappan, the saul, etc., are 
 all characteristic of Indian forest 
 scenery. Opium is cultivated in Bahar, 
 Benares, and Malwa. The vast forests 
 of India are tenanted by great numbers 
 of wild animals, birds, and reptiles. 
 Large herds of elephants are still met 
 with in Nepaul, Eastei-n Bengal, and the 
 Nilghiris; the bear, the wild boar, and 
 rhinoceros chiefly in the woods of the 
 Eastern Himalayas; the tiger is found 
 in every part of the country; the lion is 
 now almost extinct. Other carnivorous 
 mammals are the leopard or panther, 
 cheetah, wolf, fox, jackal, and hyena. 
 Several antelopes and deer, wild sheep 
 and goats, the wild ass, the great gaur 
 ox or “bison,” the wild buffalo, are 
 among the fauna. Snakes and reptiles 
 in all varieties are very numerous, and 
 the cobra and other snakes cause 
 numerous deaths. Among domestic 
 animals are oxen, camels, horses, mules, 
 sheep, and goats. Of birds, eagles, vul- 
 tures, the peacock, parrakeets, the ad- 
 jutant-bird, etc., are characteristic 
 species. Fish are plentiful and in great 
 variety. 
 
 India is richly endowed with min- 
 erals; hardly a single metal seems to be 
 wanting; but they are not worked to 
 any extent. Coal, iron, gold, and salt 
 receive most attention. 
 
 In 1858 the administration of the 
 British possessions in India was trans- 
 ferred from the East India company to 
 the crown, and in 1877 the British queen 
 assumed the title of Empress of India. 
 The country has long been divided into 
 the three presidencies of Bengal, Madras, 
 and Bombay; but the first of these was 
 latterly subdivided into several prov- 
 inces, and its name has now little or no 
 administrative significance. The lieu- 
 tenant-governors, chief -commissioners, 
 and other officers at the head of the 
 various divisions are subordinate to the 
 governor-general or viceroy, represent- 
 ing and appointed by the crown, but 
 each has a large measure of independ- 
 ence. The governor-general in council 
 has power to make laws for all persons 
 within the Indian territories under 
 British rule, and for all subjects of the 
 crown within the allied native states. 
 He acts under the orders of the secretary 
 of state for India, who is assisted by a 
 council of fifteen and is always a mem- 
 ber of the British cabinet. In India the 
 supreme executive and legislative author- 
 ity is vested in the governor-general, 
 the capital being Calcutta. There are 
 also a number of native or feudatory 
 states, the relations of which to British 
 rule are somewhat varied. Their area is 
 679,393 sq. miles, and their population 
 62,461,549. Among the most important 
 of such native states are Haidarabad, 
 Cashmere, Mysore, Travancore, Baroda, 
 Gwalior, Indor, Jeypore, and Jodhpore. 
 
 The total European and native army 
 numbers 220,000, the native army 
 (146,000) being officered by Europeans. 
 The armies of the feudatory or inde- 
 pendent states of India number 350,000 
 men. 
 
 The chief source of revenue is the 
 land-tax, which yields from $90,000,000 
 to $100,000,000 annually. About 70 per 
 cent of the population are engaged in 
 cultivating the soil, while onlv about 3 
 
 per cent reside in towns of over 50,000 
 inhabitants. Opium, which forms a gov- 
 ernment monopoly, and salt, on which 
 a considerable duty is levied, are the 
 other two important sources of revenue. 
 The chief money denomination is the 
 rupee, which is divided into 16 annas, 
 the anna again being equivalent to 4 
 pice. The primary standard of weight, 
 called the ser, is equal to the French 
 kilogramme, or 2.205 lbs. A weight in 
 common use is the maund, in Bengal 
 82 lbs., in Bombay 28 lbs., in Madras 
 25 lbs. By an act passed in 1889 the 
 imperial yard is made the standard 
 measure of length. 
 
 Some of the irrigation canals as well 
 as the rivers supply means of internal 
 navigation, but the construction of rail- 
 ways has been the most important step 
 taken to render the internal communica- 
 tions of India permanently efficient. 
 The total railway mileage open for 
 traffic in 1900 was nearly 23,000 miles. 
 There is an extensive system of posts 
 and telegraphs, the length of telegraph 
 lines being 45,000 miles. 
 
 The early history of India is obscurely 
 written in the myths of Sanskrit litera- 
 ture, but the first fact of any certainty 
 is that about the year 2000 B.C., or even 
 earlier, an Aryan people of compara- 
 tively high civilization descended from 
 the mountain regions of the northwest 
 into the plains of India and subdued the 
 original inhabitants there. The expedi- 
 tion of Alexander the Great to the Indus 
 in B.c. 326 gives us a momentary glimpse 
 of that part of India; but between his 
 invasion and the Mohja^edan con- 
 quest there is little auJ^^ic political 
 history of India. In 3rd century 
 B.c. Buddhism was established through- 
 out India, but it afterward entirely 
 gave way to Brahmanism. The first six 
 centuries of the Christian era were 
 occupied by struggles between the 
 native dynasties and invaders from the 
 northwest. In the 8th century the tide 
 of Mohammedan conquest began with 
 Kasim’s advance into Sind (711 a.d.). 
 But the Mohammedans were again 
 driven out in 828, and for more than 150 
 years afterward the strong feudal and 
 tribal organizations of the northern 
 Hindu kingdoms were a barrier to the 
 Musselman advance. At length in the 
 year 1001 Mahmud of Ghazni reduced 
 the Punjab to a province of Ghazni, 
 and the Mohammedan power was 
 gradually extended into Soutliern India. 
 In 1398 Timur or Tamerlane led a great 
 Mogul (or Mongol) invasion of India, and 
 after sacking Delhi retired into Central 
 Asia. In 1526 Sultan Baber, a descend- 
 ant of Tamerlane, founded the Mogul 
 Empire in India. His grandson Akbar 
 reigned from 1556 to 1607, and extended 
 his power over most of the peninsula, 
 being distinguished by his justiee and 
 his tolerance in matters of religion. His 
 son Jehanghir reeeived an ambassador 
 from James I. in 1615. During the reign 
 of his successor, Shah Jehan, famous for 
 his architectural magnificence, the Mah- 
 rattas began to be formidable in South- 
 ern India. Shah Jehan was deposed in 
 1658 by his youngest son Aurengzebe, 
 who made war successfully with the 
 Afghans, the Rajputana tribes, and 
 the rising power of the Mahrattas. The 
 
 Sikhs, a Hindu sect, formed a religious 
 and military commonwealth in the 
 Punjab in 1675. On the death of Aureng- 
 zebe in 1707 the Mogul empire began to 
 decline. 
 
 The English early came into collision 
 with the French in India, whose first 
 settlements were founded in 1604. The 
 first conflict with the French took place 
 in 1746, when the English lost Madras, 
 which was, however, restored by the 
 treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1751 Du- 
 pleix, the French governor at Pondi- 
 cherry, was powerful enough to place 
 creatures of his own on the thrones of 
 the Deccan and the Carnatic. The Eng- 
 lish supported rival candidates, and the 
 result was a second war, which left Eng- 
 lish influence predominant in the Car- 
 natic, though the French still controlled 
 the Deccan. The most memorable in- 
 cident in this war was Clive’s capture of 
 Arcot. About this time important events 
 took place in Bengal, then a subordinate 
 presidency to that of Madras. The 
 Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula (Sura- 
 jah Dowlah), attacked the English 
 settlement at Calcutta with a large army, 
 forced it to capitulate, and thrust the 
 prisoners, to the number of 146, into the 
 Black Hole or common prison of the 
 garrison, a room 18 feet square, with 
 two small windows. After a night of 
 unparalleled suffering only twenty- 
 three were found alive in the morning. 
 Clive was at once sent vuth an armament 
 from Madras, recovered Calcutta, at- 
 tacked and took the French settlement 
 at Chandernagore, routed the Nawab’s 
 army at the battle of Plassey (23d June, 
 1757), and placed Mir Jaffier on the vice- 
 regal throne, with consent of the Mogul 
 court. In the south the English were 
 equally victorious. A force despatched 
 by Clive took Masulipatam, and the 
 victory gained by Coote at Wandawash 
 on 22d January, 1760, completed the 
 destruction of the French power in 
 India. 
 
 The system of double government 
 established by Clive was abolished in 
 1772 by Warren Hastings, who ap- 
 pointed English officers to collect the 
 revenues and preside in the courts, and 
 thus laid the foundations of the present 
 system of British administration in 
 India. In 1774 Hastings was made 
 governor-general of India. In 1786 Lord 
 (jornwallis succeeded Hastings as gover- 
 nor. His rule is memorable chiefly for 
 the war with Tippoo Sultan of Mysore, 
 which terminated in the sultan having 
 to surrender one-half of his dominions to 
 the British and their allies. Sir John 
 Shore succeeded as governor-general in 
 1793. He was followed by the Marquis of 
 Wellesley, who arrived in 1798, and 
 whose policy eventually made the 
 British power paramount from the 
 Himalayas to Cape Comorin. Under 
 him Tippoo of Mysore was completely 
 overthrown (1799) and the second 
 Mahratta war successfully concluded. 
 Sir Arthur Wellesley (latterly Duke of 
 Wellington) having won the victory of 
 Assaye (23d Sept. 1803), and General 
 Lake that of Laswarce (Ist Nov. 1803). 
 In 1838 the Afghan war broke out, and 
 terminated in the disastrous British 
 retreat. (See Afghanistan.) In 1849, the 
 Punjab was annexed to the British 
 
INDIA 
 
 INDIANA 
 
 dominions. This was immediately fol- 
 lowed by the Burmese war, ending in 
 the annexation of Pegu, 20th June, 1853. 
 The Indian states of Sattara, Jhansi, and 
 Nagpur were, on the failure of the native 
 succession, annexed to the British pos- 
 sessions, 1852-56, and Oudh also brought 
 directly under British rule. 
 
 The administration of Viscount Can- 
 ning (1856-61) was distinguished by a 
 short war with Persia, and especially by 
 the great Sepoy mutiny. Several out- 
 breaks among the native soldiers took 
 place during March, 1857. The first 
 formidable revolt, however, was at 
 Meerut on 10th May, where the Sepoys 
 of the 3d light cavalry, assisted by the 
 11th and 20th regiments of infantry, 
 rose and massacred the Europeans. At 
 Cawnpore the revolted Sepoys were 
 headed by Nana Sahib, the heir of the 
 last Peshwa of the Mahrattas. After 
 a heroic but fruitless attempt to defend 
 themselves, the Europeans capitulated 
 on the sworn promise of Nana Sahib to 
 allow them to retire to Allahabad. On 
 the 27th the survivors, about 450 in 
 number, were embarking when they 
 were attacked by the Nana’s troops, 
 and the men indiscriminately massacred. 
 The women and children, 125 in number, 
 were carried back to Cawnpore and kept 
 till the 15th of July, when they wnre all 
 cut to pieces on the approach of Have- 
 lock’s army. Cawnpore was stormed 
 the day following. 
 
 In 1858 the direct sovereignty of 
 India, and the powers of government 
 hitherto vested in the East Indian com- 
 pany, were vested in the British crown. 
 In 1877 Queen Victoria was proclaimed 
 Empress of India at Delhi. In 1877-78 
 another disastrous famine occurred, and 
 despite the most strenuous efforts of 
 the government over five million per- 
 sons are said to have perished. In 1878 
 the intrigues of Shir Ali, amir of Af- 
 ghanistan, with Russia, led to a declar- 
 ation of war on the part of the British. 
 After two campaigns Abdurrahman 
 Khan was established on the Afghan 
 throne by British arms. In 1880 Lord 
 Ripon succeeded as viceroy; being fol- 
 lowed in 1884 by Lord Dufferin, under 
 whose rule took place the annexation of 
 
 Insignia ol the Order of the Star of India. 
 
 Upper Burmah on January 1, 1866. He 
 was followed by the Marquis of Lans- 
 downe, the Earl of Elgin, the Viscount 
 Curzon, and the Earl of Minto. 
 
 INDIA, Orders of Elnighthood in, con- 
 sist of The Most Exalted Order of the 
 Star of India, instituted in 1861, and 
 
 comprising the Viceroy of India as 
 Grand Master, and a number of Knights 
 Grand Commanders (G.C.S.I.), Knights 
 Commanders (K.C.S.I.), and Compan- 
 ions (C. S. I.) ; The Most Eminent Order 
 of the Indian Empire, instituted 1st 
 Jan. 1878, and comprising the Viceroy 
 of India as Grand Master, a. number of 
 Knights Grand Commanders (G.C.I.E.), 
 Knights Commanders (K.C.I.E.), and 
 Companions (C.I.E.); and The Imperial 
 Order of the Crown of India, instituted 
 1st Jan., 1878, and comprising the 
 Princess of Wales and the princesses of 
 the royal-blood, and other British and 
 Indian ladies. 
 
 INDIANA, one of the United States, is 
 bounded on the east by the state of 
 Ohio, on the south by the Ohio river; 
 on the west by Illinois; on the north by 
 the state of Michigan and Lake Michigan. 
 The extreme length of the state is 276 
 
 Seal of Indiana. 
 
 miles, with an average breadth of 145 
 miles; and the area is 33,809 sq. miles. 
 
 Indiana occupies a table-land, gently 
 undulating, except along the Ohio. There 
 are no mountains or mountain ranges. 
 With the exception of a small portion, 
 the whole state inclines toward the 
 southwest. The mean altitude of the 
 state is estimated at 735 feet above 
 sea-level. It is well watered. The 
 Wabash is the largest river, and, with its 
 branches, it drains three-fourths of 
 the surface. The country south of the 
 Wabash was originally covered with 
 heavy forests of oak, beech, maple, 
 walnut, ash and other hard woods ; north 
 of that river was principally prairie, in- 
 terspersed with small lakes. 
 
 The coal-measures occupy over 7000 
 sq. miles in the western and south- 
 western parts, furnishing workable 
 seams, at a depth of 50 to 220 feet; the 
 seams vary in thickness from two and a 
 half to eleven feet; an area of 600 sq. 
 miles in this field yields a superior 
 “block” or splint coal. This is used in 
 blast furnaces without coking, and is 
 well adapted for the preparation of 
 Bessemer steel. Natural gas has been dis- 
 covered and utilized as a fuel and illumi- 
 nating agent in various portions of the 
 state and the supply is apparently very 
 great. 
 
 Inexhaustible beds of fireclay, potter’s 
 clay, kaolin, lime and paving and build- 
 ing stone are found in tne southern parts 
 of the state. The climate is equable 
 and healthy. The mean height of the 
 barometer is 30.010 inches. The pre- 
 
 vailing winds are from the south and 
 west in summer, veering round to the 
 north in winter. The temperature has 
 not as great a range as some of the 
 neighboring states, averaging 20° in 
 winter and 95° in summer. Indian corn, 
 wheat, oats, barley, tobacco, and pota- 
 toes are the chief agricultural products. 
 Molasses, cider, wine, honey, cheese, 
 milk, are also plentifully produced. 
 Immense herds of cattle and swine are 
 reared. Woolens, cottons, lumber, ag- 
 ricultural implements, manufactures of 
 iron, paper, and leather, are leading in- 
 dustries. The Ohio, White river, Wa- 
 bash, and the Miami are the principal 
 rivers. A canal 467 miles in len^h, from 
 Evansvide to Toledo, unites the Ohio, 
 the Wabash, and Lake Erie. 
 
 So completely does the railway system 
 cover the state that one can go from 
 the capital to almost any county and 
 return the same day. The geographical 
 position of the state is such that all the 
 main railroad through-lines between 
 the east and west have to cross Indiana. 
 
 At the head of the institutions of 
 higher education is the state university 
 at Bloomington. Perdue university, at 
 Lafayette, is the state agricultural col- 
 lege. There are a number of colleges, 
 mainly under the control of religious 
 societies, chief among which are Asbury 
 university (Methodist) at Greencastle, 
 Wabash college (Presbyterian) at Craw- 
 fordsville, Butler university (Christian) 
 at Irvington (near Indianapolis), Notre 
 Dame (Catholic) at South Bend, and 
 Earlham college (Friends) at Richmond. 
 
 Indiana originally constituted a part 
 of New France. It was visited by the 
 Jesuits as early as 1672. At the begin- 
 ning of the 18th century the French 
 opened a line of communication between 
 the lakes and the Mississippi by way of 
 the Maumee, Wabash, and Ohio rivers. 
 Trading posts for barter with the 
 natives were established at the head of 
 the Maumee, where is now the city of 
 Fort Wayne; at Ouantenon, on the Wea 
 Prairie, near the city of Lafayette; and 
 at Vincennes on the Wabash. Mission- 
 ary stations were also established by 
 the Jesuit fathers, in their endeavor to 
 convert the Indians. At the close of the 
 French war in 1763-4, the territory east 
 of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio 
 passed under British dominion. Pend- 
 ing the war between Great Britain and 
 the American colonies. Col. George 
 Rogers Clark of Virginia, with an armed 
 force, took possession of the territory, 
 raising the American flag at Vincennes in 
 1778. By the treaty of 1783 between 
 England and the United States this ter- 
 ritory was recognized as belonging to the 
 latter; inasmuch as Virginia had fitted 
 out Clark’s expedition, she was entitled 
 by the law of conquest to claim this vast 
 dominion. During the colonial war 
 congress recommended the several states 
 to cede their claims to unappropriated 
 lands in the western country to the 
 general government for the common 
 benefit of the Union. Virginia, in pur- 
 suance of this request, yielded up her 
 claims to the territory northwest of the 
 Ohio. The deed of cession, executed on 
 March 1, 1784, was signed by Thomas 
 Jefferson, James Monroe, Arthur Lee, 
 and Samuel Hardy. In 1787 congress 
 
INDIANAPOLIS 
 
 INDIANS 
 
 passed an ordinance for the government 
 of the northwest territory, which pro- 
 vided, among other things, that not 
 more than five states should ever be 
 formed therefrom, prohibiting slavery, 
 and declaring that “religion, morality, 
 and knowledge being necessary to good 
 government and the happiness of man- 
 kind, schools and the means of educa- 
 tion shall forever be encouraged.” This 
 territory was subsequently divided into 
 the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
 Michigan, and Wisconsin. The capital 
 was moved from Vincennes to Corydon 
 in 1813, and to Indianapolis in 1825 
 In 1811 Gen. William H. Harrison 
 crushed the Indian tribes under Te- 
 cumseh at the battle of Tippecanoe. 
 Indiana was admitted into the Union as 
 a state by congress on April 19, 1816, 
 being the sixth state received after the 
 formation of the government by the 
 thirteen original states and the adoption 
 in 1787 of the present constitution. Its 
 
 f )rosperity since the civil war has been 
 argely due to the discovery of exten- 
 sive coal, iron and gas fields and valu- 
 
 able deposits of building stone in differ- 
 ent parts of the state, and to the 
 construction of the Wabash and Erie 
 canals. 
 
 In national elections the state was 
 democratic up to 1860 with the excep- 
 tion of the years 1836 and 1840, when 
 it cast its vote for the whig candidate, 
 William H. Harrison. It was republican 
 from 1860 to 1872, democratic in 1876- 
 1884 and 1892 and republican again in 
 1880-1888 1896-190(1-1904 and 1908. The 
 principal towns are Indianapolis (the 
 capital), Evansville, Fort Wayne, Terre 
 Haute, New Albany, Lafayette, South 
 Bend, Madison, etc. I’op. 2,775,000. 
 
 INDIANAPOLIS, the largest city in 
 and the capital of Indiana, the county 
 seat of Marion county on the White 
 river near the center of the state, mostly 
 situated on a plain. It is 111 miles north- 
 west of Cincinnati and 183 miles south- 
 east of Chicago. It is the center of 
 numerous railroads and is surrounded 
 by rich agricultural and mineral regions. 
 It is a place of great trade and its manu- 
 
 facturing interests are large. It is also 
 an important market for grain, live 
 stock, timber, etc., and carries on pork 
 packing, the production of iron goods of 
 various kinds, agricultural implements, 
 woolens, flour, etc. The city is noted 
 for the beauty of its streets which range 
 from 40 to 120 feet wide. In the heart of 
 the city is a circular plaza known as 
 Monument place from which radiate 
 four avenues to the four corners of the 
 city. The most notable structure in the 
 city is the soldiers and sailors monu- 
 ment. The notable buildings are the 
 capitol 492 by 185 feet, built of Indiana 
 limestone, manual training high school, 
 the Claypole hotel, and the public 
 library. The park system comprises 
 1250 acres and includes Riverside, Gar- 
 field, Brookside, Saint Clair and Uni- 
 versity parks. Educational and benevo- 
 lent institutions are numerous, the 
 former including the University of 
 Indiana. Pop. 1909, 213.000. 
 
 INDIANA UNIVERSITY, a co-educa- 
 tional institution of learning, situated 
 at Bloomington, Ind. The university is 
 
 part of the state public school system 
 and admits pupils from high schools 
 without examination. It maintains a 
 professional school of law, and confers 
 the degrees of bachelor of arts, bachelor 
 of laws, master of arts, and doctor of 
 philosophy. The summer school, for- 
 merly privately conducted, is now a 
 part of the university. 
 
 INDIAN CORN. See Maize. 
 
 INDIAN INK, a practically indelible 
 Writing ink of which there are two prin- 
 cipal kinds — one prepared in Italy, 
 Turkey, and Asia from certain cuttle- 
 fishes, the other in China by mixing fine 
 lamp-black with glue or size and a little 
 camphor. The former when submitted 
 to the action of an alkali becomes brown 
 sepia. 
 
 INDIAN MUTINY. See India (His- 
 tory). 
 
 INDIAN OCEAN, that great body of 
 water which has Asia on the north, the 
 Sunda isles and Australia on the east, 
 .Africa on the west, and the Antarctic 
 ocean on the south. The Cape of Good 
 
 Hope and the southern extremity of 
 Tasmania may be considered its ex- 
 treme southern limits on the west and 
 east. Its length from north to south 
 somewhat exceeds 6500 miles, its breadth 
 varies from 6000 to 4000 miles. It is 
 traversed by the equatorial current 
 flowing east to west, and its navigation 
 by sailing vessels is more or less modified 
 by the periodic trade-winds and mon- 
 soons. Its greatest known depth is 3393 
 fathoms. Its chief arms are the Bay of 
 Bengal on the east of India, and the 
 Arabian sea on the west, extensions of 
 the latter being the Persian gulf and 
 Red sea. Madagascar, Ceylon, Mauritius 
 etc., are among the islands. 
 
 INDIANS, American, the collective 
 name given ,to the tribes inhabiting the 
 continent at the time of the discovery 
 by Columbus, and to such of their de- 
 scendants as still survive. The name 
 of Indians was first given to these races 
 from the notion that the newly-dis- 
 covered continent formed part of India 
 The Esquimos or Innuit, the most 
 northerly of the American tribes, are not 
 usually classed among the Indians. Next 
 below them are the allied Kenai and 
 Athabascan groups, the former repre- 
 sented chiefly by the YelloW Knife or 
 Atna tribe on the Yukon river. The 
 Athabascans are chiefly found between 
 Hudson’s bay and the Rocky moun- 
 tains, but includes besides the Chippe- 
 ways, Coppermine, Dogrib, and Beaver 
 Indians; the Tlatskanai, Unkwa, and 
 Hoopah Indians of the Oregon coast; 
 the Navaho tribe of the Highlands of 
 New Mexico; the Apache^ ranging from 
 the western Colorado to Chihuahua and 
 Coahuila; and the Lipani, north of the 
 mouth of the Rio Grande del Norte. 
 Canada and the United States east of 
 the Misissippi were formerly inhabited 
 by the Algonquin-Lenappe and the 
 Iroquois, generally at war with each 
 other. The extreme west of the Algon- 
 quin region was occupied by the Black- 
 feet Indians; the Ojibeways held the 
 shores of Lake Superior; south and west 
 of Hudson’s bay were the Crees. The 
 Leni-Lenappe section of the Algonquin- 
 Lenappe group comprised the five 
 nations of the Delawares, including the 
 Mohicans. The Iroquois included the 
 Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Oneidas, 
 and Mohawks, who formed a league of 
 five nations, afterward joined by the 
 Tuscaroras. The Hurons were of the 
 Iroquois group. The Dacotah or Sioux 
 group occupied the plains between the 
 Rocky mountains and the Mississippi as 
 far south as Arkansas, and included the 
 Assiniboins, Winnepegs, lowas, Omahas, 
 Osages, Kansas, Arkansas, Menitarees, 
 Crows, and Mandans. West of the Mis- 
 sissippi also were the Pawnees and Ric- 
 caras about the Nebraska or Platte 
 river, and to the southeast were the 
 Choctaws and Chickasaws. In the 
 Rocky mountain regions were the 
 Shoshone or Snake Indians, including 
 the Comanches and others. The Chero- 
 kee tribes, which inhabited South and 
 North Carolina, formed a detached 
 group, and the Texas Indians were com- 
 prised in many small and diverse tribes. 
 Below these, in New Mexico, a more ad- 
 vanced and distinct family is found 
 called Moquis or Pueblo Indians. Of the 
 
 State capitol, Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
INDIAN, AMERICAN, THE 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY 
 
 numerous families occupying Mexico 
 the Nahuatls or Aztecs were the most 
 powerful and civilized. The Otomis, 
 speaking a peculiar language, were also a 
 numerous people in Mexico. In Central 
 America the predominating family was 
 the Maya, including the Quiches, Kachi- 
 quels, etc. Portions of the Aztec tribes 
 were also found in Central America. In 
 South America the leading and more 
 advanced families were those that made 
 up the Peruvian Empire, among which 
 the Inca race and the Aymaras were the 
 chief. The Araucanians, to the south of 
 these, in Chili, had a considerable re- 
 semblance to the Algonquins and Iro- 
 quois of North America. The remaining 
 portions of the eontinent, including the 
 great alluvial tracts of the Atlantic 
 slope, were prineipally occupied by the 
 Guaranis; but along its northern coast 
 were found the Caribs, who spread also 
 over the Antilles and most of the West 
 Indian Islands. In the extreme southern 
 part of the continent live the tall Pata- 
 gonians or Tehuelches, and squalid 
 families in some respects resembling the 
 more debasedAustralians. 
 
 By some ethnologists the American 
 Indians are considered an aboriginal and 
 single stock; by others a mixture of 
 Mongolian, Polynesian, and Caucasian 
 types; and by others as derived from 
 the grafting of Old World races on a true 
 American race. They are generally 
 characterized as having long, black, and 
 straight hair, scanty beard, heavy brows 
 receding forehead, dull and sleepy eyes, 
 a salient and dilated nose, full and com- 
 pressed lips, and the face broad across 
 the cheeks, which are prominent, but less 
 angular than in the Mongolian. The 
 facial angle is about 75 ° (about 5 ° less 
 than the European average) ; the hands 
 and feet are small and well proportioned. 
 The complexion varies from dark-brown 
 to almost white ; a somewhat reddish tint 
 is common. The North American Indian 
 is described as of haughty demeanor, 
 taciturn and stoical; cunning, brave, 
 and often ferocious in. war; his tempera- 
 ment poetic and imaginative, and his 
 simple eloquence of great dignity and 
 beauty. The Mexico-Peruvians wor- 
 shiped the sun with human sacrifices 
 and the grossest rites. Those of the 
 United States and Canada believe in the 
 two antagonistic principles of good and 
 evil, and have a general belief in mani- 
 tous, or spiritual beings, one of them 
 being spoken of as the Gitche Manitou, 
 or Great Spirit. They believe in the 
 transmigration of the soul into other 
 men and into animals, and in demons, 
 witchcraft, and magic. They believe in 
 life after death, where the spirit is sur- 
 rounded with the pleasures of the 
 “happy hunting grounds,” though they 
 have no idea that the acts of their present 
 life can have any connection with their 
 future happiness. They adopt a totem 
 or symbol of the name of the progenitor 
 of the family; this is generally some 
 animal (the turtle, bear, and wolf being 
 favorites), which is the mark of families 
 even when expanded into tribes. No 
 marriage rite is necessary beyond the 
 consent of the parties and their parents; 
 but the wife may be dismissed for trifling 
 causes, and polygamy is allowed. In 
 ancient times the body was covered with 
 
 furs and skins according to the seasons, 
 but now the white man’s clothes and 
 blanket have generally superseded the 
 native dress ; though the moccasin of deer 
 or moose hide, and in the wilder tribes 
 the ornamental leggings and head- 
 dresses, are largely retained. Their 
 dwellings are made of bark, skins, and 
 mattings of their own making, stretched 
 on poles fixed in the ground. Their arms 
 consist of the bow and arrow, the spear, 
 tomahawk, and club, to which have 
 been added the gun and knife of the 
 whites. Canoes are made of logs hol- 
 lowed out, or of birch bark stretched 
 over a light frame, skilfully fastened 
 with deers’ sinews, and rendered water- 
 tight by pitch. The antiquities found in 
 Mexico and Peru, and the ruins of 
 elaborate buildings in Central America, 
 prove that the semi-civilized races there 
 existing had made considerable progress 
 in sculpture and architecture. 
 
 INDIAN, AMERICAN, THE. The 
 annual reports of the agents of the 
 United States Bureau of Indian Affairs 
 in 1905 show that the Indian population 
 was 284,079, distributed in the several 
 states as follows: 
 
 Arizona 38,725 
 
 California 16,519 
 
 Colorado 887 
 
 Florida 358 
 
 Idaho 3,560 
 
 Indian Ter 93,333 
 
 Iowa. 342 
 
 Kansas 1,182 
 
 Michigan 6,333 
 
 Minnesota 9,164 
 
 Montana 10,324 
 
 Nebraska 3,639 
 
 Nevada 5,437 
 
 New Mexico .... 18,129 
 
 New York 5,290 
 
 North Carolina 1 ,455 
 
 North Dakota 7,741 
 
 Oklahoma 13„562 
 
 Oregon 5,913 
 
 South Dakota 19,601 
 
 Utah 1,953 
 
 Washington 9,798 
 
 Wisconsin 10,9.57 
 
 Wyoming 1,691 
 
 Miscellaneous 1,183 
 
 Total 284,079 
 
 Of the 274,706 Indian population in 
 1907, 116,333 wore citizens’ dress and 
 43,602 wore a mixture of Indian and 
 civilized clothing. Those who could read 
 numbered 63,147 and 69,209 could carry 
 on an ordinary converastion in English. 
 
 The total Indian population of the 
 United States, exclusive of Alaska, 
 numbered 284,079 in 1907. The ex- 
 penditures of the United States on 
 account of the Indians in tlie fiscal year 
 ended June 30, )9i,6, were $14,236,- 
 078,71; in the fiscal vearended June 30, 
 1907, they were $12,746,859. The ex- 
 penditures from 1789 to 1907, inclusive, 
 have been $450, 282, 361. 
 
 The appropriation made by congress 
 for Indian schools for the fiscal year 
 ending June 30, 1907, was $9,405,199,98. 
 The government supports 115 boarding 
 schools, and 146 day schools. Indians 
 incidentally under the Indian office and 
 self-supporting: 
 
 The five civilized tribes, Indians and col- 
 ored — Cherokees, 36,782; Chlckasaws, 
 10,767; Choctaws, 25,116; Creeks, 1.5,923; 
 Semlnoles, 3,049. Total Indians, 71,018; 
 
 total colored, 20.619; grand total 91,637 
 
 Pueblos of New Mexico 8,874 
 
 Six Nations, Saint Regis, and other In- 
 dians of New York 5,295 
 
 Eastern Cherokees of North Carolina 1,465 
 
 Indians under control of the War Depart- 
 ment, prisoners of war (Apaches at Ft. 
 
 Sill. Okla.) 298 
 
 INDIAN SUMMER, the name given to 
 a period of mild summer weather tvhich 
 generally occurs toward the end of 
 autumn in North America. 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY, a tract of 
 country allotted for the residence of cer- 
 tain of the Indian tribes who were partly 
 removed from the southeast states of 
 the Union. It is bounded mainly by 
 Kansas, Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkan- 
 sas, the southern boundary being 
 formed by the Red river; area, 31,400 
 sq. miles. The chief rivers are the Arkan- 
 sas and its tributaries (Canadian river 
 Neosho, etc.) and the Red river and its 
 tributaries. The greater portion is fertile 
 and suited for stock-rearing. The Indian 
 tribes or “nations” among which this 
 territory has been apportioned are the 
 Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, 
 and Chickasaws, all of whom have made 
 considerable advances in civilization, 
 having schools, churches, newspapers, 
 etc. The white inhabitants are increasing 
 since the opening of coal-mines and the 
 construction of railways. The territory 
 possesses a coal-field of 20,000 sq. miles. 
 Cultivation is now rapidly extending. 
 The Indian Territory was formerly more 
 than double its present size, but was 
 reduced in 1889 and subsequently, by 
 the loss of Oklahoma. The Indians of 
 the territory, though not full citizens 
 of the republic, are subject to the 
 revenue laws and pay taxes. The Indian 
 territory was part of the French posses- 
 sions which the United States procured 
 by the Louisiana purchase in 1803. The 
 first Indians to settle here were the 
 Creeks, Cherokees, Chickasaws, and 
 Choctaws in 1834. The various tribes 
 hold their reservations in common and 
 govern themselves in accordance with 
 their established customs, each nation 
 having its own governor, legislature, 
 judicial system, etc. With the great 
 increase of the number of whites who 
 have come into the territory, this plan 
 of government has become inadequate, 
 and gradually the tribal governments 
 are being displaced by a general govern- 
 ment. In 1893 a commission, known as 
 the “Dawes Commission,” to the five 
 civilized tribes was appointed and has 
 accomplished the following ’ general 
 results: The partial abolition of the 
 Indian tribes and local governments 
 (this is to be extended to total abolition), 
 a survey of the lands ; the enrollment of 
 all Indians with a view to making an 
 allotment of land to each one who is 
 entitled ^to it ; the establishment of a 
 judicial system for the whole territory; 
 the ' founding of a system of public 
 schools, etc. In 1898 a bill “for the pro- 
 tection of the people of the Indian Ter- 
 ritory,” known as the Curtis bill was 
 passed by congress. This act provides 
 that the control of tribal funds is placed 
 in the hands of the United States officers 
 and also that white residents of the ter- 
 ritory may incorporate t05vns within the 
 Indian nations. As soon as the survey 
 and enrollment are finished lands will 
 be allotted and citizenship granted to 
 each Indian in the territory and a gen- 
 eral territorial government will be 
 formed. On the 1st of January, 1898, 
 the jurisdiction of the United States 
 courts was established in the territory 
 over the five civilized tribes. This had 
 
INDIA-RUBBER 
 
 INDUCTION 
 
 the effect practically of abolishing the 
 tribal court and in reality the substance 
 of their individual governments. 
 
 Differences of conditions have pre- 
 vented a uniform application of the 
 policy. An agreement with the Semi- 
 noles permits the continuance of the 
 Seminole government in a limited way 
 and an agreement with the Choctaws and 
 Chickasaws, until March 4, 1906. Pop. 
 450,000, With Oklahoma, Indian Ter- 
 ritory was incorporated into the State 
 of Oklahoma in 1907. See Oklahoma. 
 
 INDIA-RUBBER, a peculiar elastic 
 substance composed of carbon and hy- 
 drogen, found in suspension in the milky 
 juice of many different families of plants. 
 The crude rubber is usually prepared 
 where the juice is collected, by drying 
 the juice over a fire or in the sun on 
 moulds of clay, paddles, or lasts; by 
 evaporating the juice in the sun and 
 removing the successive pellicles formed 
 on the surface; or by coagulating the 
 juice, as in Nicaragua, by an application 
 of the juice of the bejuca vine, and 
 kneading and rolling the coagulated 
 mass. Most of the rubber of commerce 
 is derived from South America, from 
 Para, Central America, Mexico, Cartha- 
 gena, etc. ; smaller quantities from Java, 
 Penang, Singapore, Assam, and South 
 Africa. The purest comes from Para in 
 large bottles and thick plates. When 
 combined with a small quantity of sul- 
 phur, etc., it is used for the manufacture 
 of overshoes, boots, gloves, life-pre- 
 servers, gas-bags, steam and water pack- 
 ing, belting, fire-hose, tubing, springs, 
 tires, artificial sponges, etc. With a 
 larger proportion of sulphur, and cured 
 or vulcanized by exposure to a high tem- 
 perature, it is used for the manufacture 
 of combs, pen and pencil holders, rulers, 
 inkstands, buttons, canes, syringes, 
 jewelry, and, when colored with ver- 
 milion, for mountings for artificial 
 teeth, etc. In combination with asphalts, 
 oils, and sulphur, etc., and vulcanized 
 (kerite) it is used for covering telegraph 
 wires. 
 
 INDIC'ATIVE, that mood of the verb 
 in which something is said positively; 
 hence it has also been called the positive 
 mood, as distinguished from the sub- 
 junctive and potential. 
 
 IN'DICATOR, (1) an instrument for 
 ascertaining and recording the pressure 
 of steam in the cylinder of a steam- 
 engine, in contradistinction to the 
 steam-gauge, which shows the pressure 
 of the steam in the boiler. (2) An ap- 
 paratus or appliance in a telegraph for 
 giving signals or on which messages are 
 recorded, as the dial and index hand of 
 the alphabetic telegraph. (3) A genus 
 of African birds, the honey-guides or 
 honey-guide cuckoos. 
 
 INDICTMENT (in-dit'ment), in law, 
 a written accusation of one or more per- 
 sons for a crime or misdemeanor, pre- 
 ferred to and presented upon oath by a 
 grand-jury to a court. 
 
 INDIGESTION. See Dyspepsia, 
 
 IN'DIGO, a blue vegetable dye, ex- 
 tensively employed in dyeing and calico- 
 printing; an important commercial prod- 
 uct in the East and West Indies, Mex- 
 ico, Brazil, Egpyt, etc. It is chiefly ob- 
 tained from various leguminous plants, 
 herbaceous or shrubby plants, with 
 
 pinnate leaves, and small, blue, purple, 
 or white pea-shaped flowers disposed in 
 axillary racemes. They are very numer- 
 ous in the equatorial regions of the 
 globe. The greater part of the indigo 
 used at the present day comes from 
 India, especially from the provinces of 
 
 Ind go-plant. 
 
 Bengal, Oude and Madras. The color 
 varies from light-blue to blackish-blue; 
 when rubbed with the nail a copper- 
 colored streak is formed on the surface 
 of the mass. Indigo is insoluble in water, 
 but when exposed to the action of cer- 
 tain deoxidizing agents it becomes 
 soluble in alkaline solutions, losing its 
 blue color and forming a green solution 
 from which it is precipitated by acids 
 white, but it instantly becomes blue on 
 exposure to the air. Commercial indigo 
 contains about 50 to 60 per cent of pure 
 indigo blue, the remainder consisting 
 of substances called indigo gluten, 
 indigo yellow, indigo red, etc. 
 
 IN'DIUM, a- metal discovered by 
 Reich and Richter in 1863 by means of 
 spectroscopic analysis in the zinc-blende 
 of Freiburg. It has been isolated in 
 small quantities, and is of a silver-white 
 color, soft, and marks paper like lead; 
 specific gravity, 7.421 at 16°. 8. The 
 metal is related to cadmium and zinc, 
 and its spectrum exhibits two character- 
 istic lines, one violet and another blue. 
 
 INDO-CHINA, a name sometimes 
 given to the southeastern peninsula of 
 Asia, comprising Burmah, Siam, Cam- 
 bodia, Cochin-China, Tonquin, Anam, 
 
 INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES, also 
 called Aryan or Indo-Germanic, the 
 most important of the great families into 
 which human speech has been divided, 
 spoken by various peoples in Asia and 
 Europe. The chief branches of this 
 family are the Teutonic or Germanic, 
 including English, German, Dutch, 
 Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and the ex- 
 tinct Gothic; the Slavonic (Polish, Rus- 
 sian, Bohemian); the Lithuanian; the 
 Celtic (Welsh, Irish, Gaelic, Breton); the 
 Latin or Italic, and the Romance tongues 
 descended from it (French, Italian, 
 Spanish, Portuguese); the Greek, the 
 Armenian, the Persian, and the Sans- 
 krit. All these tongues are regarded as 
 being descended from a common ances- 
 tral tongue or parent speech, spoken at 
 some remote period in Central Asia, 
 whence the ancestors of the modern 
 peoples speaking these tongues spread 
 into India, Western Asia, and Europe. 
 See_ Philology. 
 
 INDORE, or INDOR, a protected 
 native state of Hindustan, connected 
 with Central India, and consisting of 
 several detached portions, the largest 
 being bisected by the Narbada; total 
 area, 8400 sq. miles. Pop. 86,686. 
 
 INDORSEMENT, or ENDORSEMENT, 
 See Bill. 
 
 INDRA, a Hindu deity, originally rep- 
 resenting the sky or heavens, and wor- 
 shiped in the Verdic period as the 
 supreme god, though he afterward 
 assumed a subordinate place in the 
 Pantheon. He is commonly represented 
 
 Indra— Coleman’s Hindu mythology. 
 
 with four arms and hands riding on an 
 elephant. When painted he is covered 
 with eyes. He is at once beneficent 
 as giving rain and shade, and awful and 
 powerful in the storm as wielding the 
 thunderbolt. In one aspect he is lord of 
 Swarga, the beautiful paradise where 
 the inferior gods and pious men dwell 
 in full and uninterrupted sensuous 
 felicity. 
 
 INDRE (andr), a department of Cen- 
 tral France; area, 2622 sq. miles. Chfl- 
 teauroux is the capital. Pop. 288,788. 
 
 INDRE-ET- LOIRE (andr-e-lwar), a 
 department of Central France; area, 
 2362 sq. miles. Tours is the capital. 
 Pop. 335,541. 
 
 INDUCED CURRENT, the current of 
 electricity which is produced or excited 
 in a conductor when the magnetic field 
 in which it is placed is altered in any 
 way; that is, 1st, when the strength of 
 the current in a neighboring conductor 
 is altered; or 2d, when a neighboring 
 conductor in which a current flows is 
 altered in position; or 3d, when a 
 neighboring magnet is moved; or 4th, 
 when the magnetization of a neighbor- 
 ing magnet is altered. Thus if there is a 
 closed circuit, say a coil of wire with its 
 ends joined, through which no current 
 is passing, the motion of a magnet in its 
 neighborhood will induce a current in it, 
 the direction of this current being al- 
 ways such as to oppose the motion. 
 
 INDUCTION, in logic, is that process 
 of reasoning by which we rise from the 
 particular to the general, and is the 
 counter-process to deduction. In in- 
 duction particulars are not only raised 
 into generals, but these into still higher 
 generalities. In following this method 
 we proceed from the known to the un- 
 known, and obtain a conclusion much 
 wider than the premises. Thus a person 
 who has had any experience easily 
 arrives by induction at the conclusion 
 that fire burns wood, and when any 
 piece of wood whatever is presented to 
 him he will have no’ hesitation in saying 
 that fire will burn it. As it is impossible 
 that all particulars can be observed, 
 there is always a certain risk of error, 
 and the inductive method must be 
 worked with extreme caution; but 
 science properly so called would be im- 
 possible if we did not presuppose a 
 faculty of arriving from experience at 
 the knowledge of truths not contained 
 in that experience. Hence the ground 
 
INDUCTION 
 
 INFECTION 
 
 of induction is the established fact that 
 nature is uniform. 
 
 INDUCTION, Electromagnetic, the 
 action by which a current of electricity 
 is produced in a conductor when the 
 magnetic field in which it is placed is 
 altered inany way. See Induced Current. 
 
 INDUCTION, Electrostatic, the action 
 by which the distribution of a charge of 
 electricity on a conductor is altered by 
 the approach of an electrified body. 
 When a body charged with one kind of 
 electricity is approached toward an in- 
 sulated conductor which originally had 
 no charge, a charge similar to that of the 
 influencing body is produced on the re- 
 mote side, and an equal charge of the op- 
 
 f iosite kind on the near side of the insu- 
 ated conductor. It is to the mutual in- 
 duction between the two coatings, one 
 charged positively and the other nega- 
 tively, that the Leyden-jar is indebted 
 for its large electrical capacity. 
 
 INDUCTION, Magnetic, the action by 
 which iron and other substances become 
 magnetic when in a magnetic field, that 
 is, when in the neighborhood of magnets 
 or currents of electricity. See Electro- 
 magnetism, Magnetism. 
 
 INDUCTION-COIL, an instrument in- 
 vented by Ruhmkorff, in which rapid 
 breaking and making of the current of 
 electricity in a primary short coil of wire 
 gives rise to a succession of induced cur- 
 
 Inductlon-coil. 
 
 rents (see Induced Current) of very great 
 electromotive force in a long secondary 
 coil. In the figure the secondary coil is 
 the one shown wound up in a cylindrical 
 form. Such a coil often consists of a 
 copper wire many miles in length, and a 
 succession of powerful sparks passes be- 
 tween its terminals when the primary 
 current is rapidly made and broken. 
 
 INDULGENCE, in the Roman Catholic 
 system, is the remission granted by the 
 church to a repentant sinner of the tem- 
 poral punishment due to his sin, whether 
 this punishment be the pains of purga- 
 tory, or penance which the church has 
 the right to impose according to the 
 gravity of the sin. It must be understood 
 that the indulgence is never to be con- 
 sidered as constituting a remission of the 
 sin itself. The principle of indulgences 
 rests on that of good works. Many saints 
 and pious men have done more good 
 wmrks and suffered more than was re- 
 quired for the remission of their sins; 
 these are known as works of supereroga- 
 tion, and the sum of this surplus consti- 
 tutes a treasure for the church, of which 
 the pope has the keys, and is authorized 
 to distribute as much or little as he 
 pleases in exchange for pious works or 
 guts. Indulgences are of two kinds; 
 pl^aiy, when considered an equivalent 
 substitute for all penance; and partial, 
 when only a portion of penitential works 
 ^®l^xed. Local indulgences are at- 
 tached to particular places, real indul- 
 gences to crucifixes, medals, etc, The 
 
 P. E.— 42 
 
 historical origin of indulgences is traced 
 to the public penances and the canonical 
 punishments which the early Christian 
 church imposed on offenders, especially 
 on those who were guilty of any grievous 
 crime, such as apostasy, murder, and 
 adultery. When ecclesiastical discipline 
 became milder it was allowed to com- 
 mute these punishments into fines for the 
 benefit of the church. The abuse of the 
 system of granting indulgences inflamed 
 the zeal of Luther, and the Protestant 
 theologians have always found indul- 
 gences one of the most vulnerable points 
 of the Roman Catholic system. 
 
 INDUS, the chief river of the north- 
 west of Hindustan, It has a length of 
 about 1800 miles, drains an area of about 
 370,000 sq. miles, and rises in Tibet on 
 the north of the Himalaya mountains. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. See Ex- 
 hibition. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, a class of 
 schools, of a philanthropic, reformatory, 
 or experimental nature, in which indus- 
 trial work is taught to boys and girls. 
 The primary purpose of the industrial 
 instruction varies from the mere desire 
 to keep boys off the streets to the serious 
 effort to teach a trade. Broom and brush 
 making, chair-seating, or basketry, are 
 prominent in such schools. 
 
 INEBRJ'ETY, habitual or chronic 
 drunkenness. See Drunkenness, Delirium 
 Tremens, Intoxication, Dipsomania. 
 
 INERTIA, the passiveness of matter, 
 or its indifference to rest or motion. 
 Newton’s first law treats of this property 
 in virtue of which a body at rest will re- 
 main at rest, and a body in motion will 
 continue to move in a straight line and 
 with a uniform velocity unless some force 
 acts upon it. 
 
 INFALLIBILITY, exemption from the 
 possibility of error in regard to matters 
 of religion and morals — a claim made by 
 the Roman Catholic Church both on its 
 own behalf and on that of the pope when 
 speaking ex cathedra, or in his official 
 capacity. The infallibility of the church 
 is of two kinds, active, and passive; the 
 former signifying the function of the 
 church of permanently teaching the 
 truths of God, and of authoritatively 
 settling doctrinal disputes ; and the latter 
 that property Inherent in the church in 
 virtue of which she can never receive or 
 embrace erroneous doctrine. The infalli- 
 bility of the pope, long taught, was only 
 settled as an article of faith in the Vati- 
 can Council of 1870. 
 
 INFANT, a term in the English and 
 American law for persons who have not 
 attained their majority, that is, the age 
 of twenty-one years, and are under 
 guardianship. In general, contracts 
 made by infants are not binding, ex- 
 cept for necessaries suited to their station 
 in life. Being an infant is no bar to crimi- 
 nal proceedings; but young persons are 
 not punished for offenses if they have 
 not knowledge and discretion to distin- 
 guish them to be such. Infants require 
 the consent of parents or guardians to 
 marry. The jurisdiction in respect to in- 
 fants is generally vested in either pro- 
 bate or orphans’ courts. These courts ap- 
 point guardians to take charge of the 
 property of infants, and, in case of the 
 decease of the father, to take charge of 
 their persons; but during the life of the 
 
 father he has the guardianship and con- 
 trol of the persons of his children until 
 they are twenty-one years of age. 
 
 INFANTE (in-fan-ta) or infant, the 
 title given in Spain and Portugal to the 
 princes of the royal house. The prin- 
 cesses are called infanta. 
 
 INFAN'TICIDE, the murder of an in- 
 fant, a crime that is especially common 
 in the case of illegitimate children, the 
 main cause being shame; but infanticide 
 is sometimes the result of puerperal in- 
 sanity. In trial for infanticide it must be 
 proved that the child was fully born 
 alive. Infanticide was prevalent in 
 Greece and Rome. In modern times 
 many barbarous nations are guilty of 
 wholesale child-murder. Among the 
 South Sea Islanders and aboriginal Aus- 
 tralians the destruction of infant life is 
 systematized. The Hindus destroy 
 female children -without compunction, 
 and abortion is common among the 
 Mohammedans. In China, also, infanti- 
 cide is supposed to be frightfully com- 
 mon. 
 
 IN'FANTRY, foot-soldiers collectively. 
 Except among semi-barbarous nations, 
 and during the prevalence of the institu- 
 tions of chivalry, infantry has always 
 been considered the most important 
 military arm, and this has been peculiar- 
 ly the case since the formation of stand- 
 ing armies, and since war has become 
 a science. Infantry may be divided into 
 various classes, and most commonly into 
 light infantry and infantry of the line, to 
 which should also be added mounted in- 
 fantry, a force which from its mobility 
 has proved itself of immense value in 
 special circumstances. Under equal con- 
 ditions well-trained infantry is almost 
 universally successful against any other 
 kind of troops. 
 
 INFANT SCHOOLS, schools, the ob- 
 ject of which is to amuse, interest, and 
 instruct children from their third to their 
 sixth year. Jean Frederic Oberlin, Pro- 
 testant pastor of Waldbach, in Alsace, is 
 regarded as their founder. In 1812 
 Robert Owen established one at New 
 Lanark, in Scotland, the first attempt of 
 the kind in Great Britain. A second was 
 set on foot in Westminster in 1819, of 
 which Samuel Wilderspin (1792-1866) 
 was one of the first teachers. In England 
 infant schools are more popular, and pro- 
 portionally more numerous, than in Scot- 
 land. In Germany there are numerous 
 Kleinkinderschulen, or Kindergarten; 
 in France, under the name of “Asylums,” 
 they are wide-spread; and the kinder- 
 garten system (founded about 1840) is 
 acquiring high credit both in Great 
 Britain and in the United States. In 
 dealing with infants of tender years a 
 frequent mistake of teachers is to at- 
 tempt too much. Physical more than 
 intellectual development should be aimed 
 at ; the moral faculties should be trained 
 by an enlightened, judicious, and sym- 
 pathetic teacher. The school should be a 
 playground, and elementary instruction 
 should be simple, pleasing, and as much 
 as possible imparted by means of models, 
 pictures, and simultaneous singing. 
 
 INFECTION, a terra sometimes used 
 to signify the communication of disease 
 through the atmosphere, as contrasted 
 with contagion (con, and tango, to 
 touch), communication of disease through 
 
INFECTIOUS DISEASES 
 
 INFUSORIA 
 
 the medium of touch. In many cases In- 
 fection and Contagion are used assynoni- 
 mous. 
 
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES. See Con- 
 tagion. 
 
 INFERIOR PLANET, a planet whose 
 orbit lies within that of the earth. Mer- 
 cury and Venus are the inferior planets. 
 
 INFINITES'IMAL, in mathematics, an 
 infinitely small quantity, or one which 
 is so small as to be incomparable with 
 any finite quantity whatever, or which 
 is less than any assignable quantity. The 
 infinitesimal calculus is a department of 
 the higher mathematics which embraces 
 both the differential and the integral 
 calculus. 
 
 INFINTTIVE, the indefinite mood of a 
 verb, or that in which the verb is repre- 
 sented without a subject; the mere name 
 form of the verb. As the verb expresses 
 an action, or a state, it generally belongs 
 to a subject whose action or state is ex- 
 pressed; but if we wish to express the 
 mere idea of this action or state we use 
 the infinitive, which, therefore, in many 
 languages is employed without further 
 change as a substantive — for instance, 
 the Greek and German — only preceded by 
 the neuter article. The infinitive may be 
 regarded as the point of transition from 
 a verb to a substantive, and is often used 
 as the subject of a proposition. 
 
 INFIRMARY. See Hospital. 
 
 INFLAMMA'TION, a vague term for a 
 morbid process, of which the most ob- 
 vious phenomena are pain, swelling of 
 the affected part, perceptible increase of 
 heat to the patient, and redness beyond 
 the natural degree, often followed by 
 febrile symptoms. Inflammations may 
 arise from external injuries, or may be 
 brought on by morbid or poisonous 
 matters in the system, sudden changes 
 of temperature, etc. The three common- 
 ly described terminations of inflamma- 
 tion are resolution, suppuration, and 
 mortification or sloughing. Resolution 
 is that recovery from the disorder which 
 is effected without the intervention of 
 any disorganizing process and when the 
 vessels return to their normal condition 
 on the exciting cause of the disorder be- 
 ing withdrawn, and this is the most 
 favorable mode of termination. If in- 
 flammation cannot be resolved it must 
 go on to suppuration, when the skin is 
 either divided by the knife or breaks of 
 itself, and there is an escape of a yellow 
 cream-like fluid, after which the symp- 
 toms rapidly abate. The tendency to 
 suppuration is marked by the pain be- 
 coming full and throbbing, while the 
 pulse becomes more full without being 
 less frequent. Mortification is accom- 
 panied by the sudden cessation of pain, 
 and there is the actual death of the part 
 affected. When the circumstances are 
 favorable this dead part sloughs off by a 
 vital process known as ulcerations, and 
 the cavity gradually fills up and heals. 
 In many cases inflammation may rather 
 be considered as a salutary process than as 
 a disease, for it frequently prevents evils 
 which would occasion either serious or 
 fatal consequences. The most important 
 remedy in cases of severe inflammation 
 is hot fomentations, blisters, blood- 
 letting, the warm bath, combined with 
 low diet and perfect quietude. As to in- 
 flammation of the intestines, see En- 
 
 teritis; of the eye, see Iritis; of the bowels 
 see Peritonitis; of the brain, see Men- 
 ingitis; of the lungs, see Pneumonia. 
 
 INFLORES'CENCE, in botany, the 
 mode of flowering of any species of plant, 
 that is, the manner in which its blossoms 
 
 4, Panicle. 5, Whorl. 6, Umbel— a, simple, 
 6, compound. 7, Cyme. 8, Corymb. 9, Thyr- 
 sus. 10, Head or capitulum. 11. Fasciculus or 
 fascicle. 12, Spadix. 13, Anthodium. 
 
 are grouped together, and in some cases 
 in which they successively open. The 
 principal forms of inflorescence are the 
 amentum, corymb, C3rme, head or capi- 
 tulum, fascicle, raceme, panicle, thyrsus, 
 spike, whorl (see those terms) ; centrifu- 
 gal and centripetal are also terms ap- 
 plied to two kinds of inflorescence. 
 
 INFLUEN'ZA (Italian influence), a 
 term used to denote an epidemic catarrh 
 of a rather severe character, the symp- 
 toms of which are those of what is usual- 
 ly called a cold, with others such as lassi- 
 tude and general depression, loss of 
 sleep, feverishness, nausea, loss of appe- 
 tite, sometimes vomiting, often an in- 
 flammatory state of the throat and 
 pharynx, bronchitis, or other complica- 
 tions. It is not usually fatal, the patient 
 generally recovering in a week or ten 
 days, but it sometimes leaves behind 
 chronic bronchitis or consumption. It 
 has at various times spread more rapidly 
 and extensively than any other disorder. 
 
 INFRINGEMENT, any violation of a 
 law or invasion of a legal right which 
 gives rise to a cause of action, in law or 
 equity, in favor of the person injured 
 thereby. The term is commonly em- 
 ployed in a technical sense to describe 
 an^unlawful appropriation of ideas, prin- 
 ciples, or rights when protected by copy- 
 rights, patents or trademarks. The remedy 
 for an invasion of these statutory rights 
 is an action at law for the damages sus- 
 tained; or a court of equity will, upon 
 application, enjoin the infringement, 
 thus securing an absolute enjojunent or 
 monopoly of the principles or ideas em- 
 braced in the work or device so pro- 
 tected. 
 
 The manufacture, use, or sale of a 
 thing, the subject matter of which is the 
 principle or novelty of a patented in- 
 vention, constitutes an infringement of 
 the latter. To prove that an alleged 
 new device incorporates the substance 
 of an invention so protected, it is neces- 
 sary to establish that the same result is 
 
 accomplished, the same functions per- 
 formed, and that the mode of operation 
 is substantially the same. If these 
 characteristics are present a mere change 
 in the form or in the location of the parts 
 of a patented article will not save the 
 device thus constructed from being an 
 infringement of the patentee’s rights. 
 
 The unlawful use of a mark or device 
 which another has registered to provide 
 a means of identification of his goods 
 for the general public is an infringement 
 of a trademark. Any device which is so 
 similar to a registered trademark as to 
 deceive or mislead the public constitutes 
 an infringement thereof, even though it 
 would not be difficult to distinguish the 
 two when placed together. The remedy 
 for such infringement is by injunction. 
 
 INFUSION, a solution of some vege- 
 table substance in hot or cold water, 
 such as are often used for medicinal pur- 
 poses. The water employed may be at 
 boiling heat, but if the substance is itself 
 boiled the result is a decoction. In pre- 
 paring certain infusions cold water is. 
 preferable, a sbringing out the constit- 
 uent desired. The process of making an 
 infusion is much the same as that of 
 making tea. 
 
 INFUSORIA, a class of minute, mostly 
 microscopic, animals, so named from 
 being frequently developed in organic 
 infusions, provisionally regarded as the 
 highest class of the Protozoa. They are 
 provided with a mouth, are destitute of 
 pseudopodia, but are furnished with 
 vibratile cilia. Most are free-swimming 
 but some form colonies by budding, and 
 are fixed to a solid object in their adult 
 condition. The body consists of an outer 
 
 Magnified drop of water, showing infusoria, etc. 
 
 1, Volvox glohator (a plant, a low form of 
 Algse). 2, Stentor polymorphus. S, Urceolaris 
 scyphina. 4, Stylonychia mytilus. 5, Zoos- 
 permos ferussacl. 6, Trichoda carinum. 7, 
 Monas termo. 8, Pandorina morum. 9, Bur- 
 saria truncatella. 10, Vaglnlcola crystallina. 
 11, Cercarla glbba. 12, Zoospermos decumanus. 
 13, Amphileptus fasciola. 14, Vorticella con- 
 vallarla. 15, Euptotes truncatus. 16, Trach- 
 elocerca olor. 
 
 transparent cuticle, a layer of firm sar* 
 code called the cortical layer, and a cen- 
 tral mass of semiliquid sarcode which 
 acts as a stomach. A nucleus, which is 
 supposed to be an ovarjq having attached 
 to its outside a spherical particle called 
 the nucleolus, and supposed to be a sper- 
 matic gland, is imbedded in the cortical 
 layer. Contractions of the body are ef- 
 fected by sarcode fibers. The cilia, with 
 which most are furnished, are not only 
 organs of locomotion, but form currents 
 by which food is carried into the mouth. 
 Reproduction takes place variously. 
 They are divided into three orders, 
 Ciliata, Suctoria, and Flagellata, in ac- 
 cordance lYith the character of their 
 
INGALLS 
 
 INK 
 
 cilia or contractile filaments. Many of 
 the organisms included by the older zo- 
 ologists among infusoria are now general- 
 ly regarded as vegetable. 
 
 INGALLS, (In'galz), John James, Amer- 
 ican politician, born at Middletown, 
 Conn., in 1833. In 1858 he removed to 
 Atchison, Kansas, and began the prac- 
 tiee of law. After the admission of 
 Kansas to the Union in 1861 he became 
 secretary of the new state senate, and in 
 1862 was a member of the senate. In 
 1873 be was elected to the United States 
 senate, and was re-elected in 1879 and 
 1885. He died in 1900. 
 
 INGELOW. (in'je-lo), Jean, English 
 poetess, was born in 1820. In 1863 she 
 published a volume of poems, which ran 
 through fourteen editions in five years, 
 and her popularity has since increased 
 both through her prose writings and her 
 poetry. In prose she has written novels 
 and tales for children, including Mopsa 
 the Fairy, Studies for Stories, Off the 
 Skelligs, Sarah de Berenger, Don John, 
 etc. She died in 1897. 
 
 INGERSOLL, Robert Green, Ameri- 
 can lawyer and lecturer, was born at 
 Dresden, N. Y., in 1833. He removed 
 with his family to Illinois in 1845. In 
 1862 he went to the war as colonel of 
 the Eleventh Illinois cavalry. In 1868 
 he was appointed attorney-general of 
 Illinois. In 1876 a speech in favor of the 
 candidacy of James G. Blaine at the 
 republican presidential convention won 
 for him a national reputation and from 
 this time he was recognized as one of the 
 foremost orators of the day. He soon 
 after entered the lecture field, adopting 
 religious topics as his subjects, attacked 
 the Bible, the personal nature of the 
 deity and the existence of hell. He died 
 in 1899. 
 
 INGOT (ing'got), a small bar of metal 
 made of a certain form and size by cast- 
 ing it in moulds. The term is chiefly 
 applied to the small masses or bars of 
 gold and silver intended either for coin- 
 ing or exportation to foreign countries. 
 
 INHALER, an apparatus for inhaling 
 vapors, and volatile substances, as steam 
 of hot water, vapor of chloroform, 
 iodine, etc. The cut shows an inhaler of 
 
 improved t 3 ^e. It consists of a tin can 
 containing a small spirit-lamp, and 
 above this a small kettle for hot water, 
 the steam of which is driven out with 
 some force when the apparatus is used. 
 Attached to the can is a receptacle for 
 receiving a small phial containing the 
 substance whose vapor is to be inhaled, 
 this being drawn off and forced through 
 the funnel by the steam. 
 
 INHERITANCE. See Descent. 
 
 INHERITANCE TAX LAWS, a law 
 taxing the right to inherit personal prop- 
 erty by will or interstate law was passed 
 by congress July 6, 1797. The rate was 
 25 cents on amounts from $50 to $100, 
 
 50 cents on amounts from $100 to $500, 
 “and for every further sum of $500, the 
 additional smn of one dollar.” This act 
 continued in force until June 30, 1802, 
 when it was repealed. A national legacy 
 tax law was again enacted July 1, 1862, 
 amended in 1864, and again in 1866, 
 and repealed in 1870, five years after 
 the close of the civil war. 
 
 Again, June 13, 1898, congress enacted 
 a legacy tax law which was amended in 
 1901 and continued in force until re- 
 pealed July 1, 1902. Under the acts of 
 1898 and 1901, the sum of $21,603,- 
 699.02 was collected and paid into the 
 national treasury up to Jume 30, 1904. 
 
 Pennsylvania enacted a legacy tax 
 law April 6, 1826, which law as amended 
 from time to time, is still in force. 
 Legacy tax laws were enacted in Mary- 
 land in 1844, and Delaware in 1869. 
 They were enacted in North Carolina in 
 1846, and repealed in 1883. They were 
 enacted in Virginia in 1844, repealed 
 in 1855, re-enacted in 1863, and again 
 repealed in 1874. Since • 1885 legacy 
 tax laws have been enacted in twenty- 
 nine different states, namely : Arkansas, 
 California, Colorado, Connecticut, Illi- 
 nois, Iowa, Louisiana, Kentucky (1906), 
 Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Min- 
 nesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, 
 New Hampshire (1905), New Jersey, 
 New York, North Dakota, Ohio (repealed 
 1906). Oregon, Tennessee, Utah, Ver- 
 mont, Virginia, Washington, West Vir- 
 ginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming. 
 
 The following table shows the amount 
 of legacy tax collected from the estates 
 of some of the prominent and wealthy 
 decedents, some of whom were of na- 
 tional reputation : 
 
 *George Smith, resident of England 
 
 (paid in New York) $1,934,753.07 
 
 Coins P. Huntington, New York . . . 665,000.00 
 
 Jay Gould, New York 600,000.00 
 
 Cornelius V anderbilt. New York. . . 450,052.90 
 
 Cornelia M. Stewart, New York.... 300,410.32 
 Winfield S. Stratton, Denver, Colo. 300,000.00 
 
 Wilson G. Hunt, New York 285,000.00 
 
 Joshua Jones, New York 284,937.56 
 
 Emma A. Schley, New York 261,490.67 
 
 Henrietta A. Lenox, New York 234,635.70 
 
 Wliliam Whitewright, New York. 223,141.52 
 
 Robert G. Dun, New York 178,730.68 
 
 Catherine L. Wolfe, New York 159,599.38 
 
 Daniel B. Fayerweather, New York 158,296.19 
 
 George M. Pullman, Illinois 158,282.04 
 
 John Knower, New York 152,319.72 
 
 Daniel Edgar Crouse, Syracuse, 
 
 New York 150,882.48 
 
 Timothy B. Blackstone, New York 
 
 and Illinois 150,661.01 
 
 Henry B. Plant, New York 140,000.00 
 
 Ezra G. Benedict, Albany, N. Y. . . . 131,122.99 
 
 Mary J. Walker, New York 119,223.83 
 
 Joseph C. Hoagland, New York.... 119,211.80 
 
 Gustav W. Swift, Illinois 1 13,885.27 
 
 Jonathan Scoville, New York 112,758.08 
 
 Mary J. Winthrop, New York 1 10.169.55 
 
 Leonard Lewlsohn, New York 107,634,36 
 
 William Astor, New York 106,536.97 
 
 William H. Vanderbilt, New York. 103,612.59 
 
 Mary Eichler, New York 102,866.94 
 
 W. W. Kimball, Illinois 86,700.24 
 
 A. M. Billings, Illinois 85,724.75 
 
 Potter Palmer, New York and Illi- 
 nois 78,063.99 
 
 Ernest J. Lehman, Illinois 71,097.16 
 
 Silas B. Cobb, Illinois 63,298.32 
 
 Levi Z. Leiter, Illinois 48,29.5.83 
 
 Sidney Kent, Illinois 38,070.09 
 
 Peter Pahrney, Illinois 37,982.88 
 
 Jacob Rosenberg, Illinois 37,667.32 
 
 Charles W. Fullerton, Illinois 36,461.02 
 
 Catherine M. White, Illinois 25,236.38 
 
 Columbus R. Cummings, Illinois.. 21,864.40 
 
 Joseph Medill, Illinois 16,048.46 
 
 Phillip D. Armour, Illinois 15,786.91 
 
 Lucius B. Otis, Illinois 15,699.41 
 
 *The transfer of all property, real, 
 personal, or mixed, within the jurisdic- 
 
 tion of the state at date of death is sub- 
 ject to the tax, whether the decedent 
 was a resident or non-resident. The tax 
 is not a tax on property, but the right 
 which the state grants to the legatee to 
 inherit property. 
 
 INTA, a genus of Cetacea belonging to 
 the dolphin family, containing only one 
 known species, remarkable for the dis- 
 tance at which it is found from the sea, 
 
 Inia boliviensis. 
 
 frequenting the remote tributaries of the 
 river Amazon, and even some of the 
 elevated lakes of Peru. It has bristly 
 hairs on its snout, and is from 7 to 12 
 or 14 feet long. 
 
 INJECTIONS, in surgery, fluids, dif- 
 ferent, according to the different effects 
 desired to be produced, thrown by 
 means of a small syringe into the natural 
 cavities of the body, or those occasioned 
 by disease. Wounds and sores are 
 usually cleansed in this way when they 
 extend far below the skin. In diseases 
 of the nose, the ears, the bladder, and 
 urethra, the uterus, etc., injections are 
 often used. Pure warm water is injected 
 with the highest success for the removal 
 of pus, blood, or even foreign bodies. 
 Sometimes astringent medicines, to re- 
 strain excessive evacuations, sometimes 
 stimulating ones, sometimes soothing 
 medicaments, to mitigate pain, etc., are 
 added to the water. 
 
 INJECTOR, an apparatus for supply- 
 ing the boilers of steam-engines, espe- 
 cially locomotive-engines, with water. 
 It works equally well whether the engine 
 is running or at rest. 
 
 INJUNCTION, in law, a prohibitory 
 writ, restraining a person from doing 
 some act which appears to be against 
 equity, and the commission of which is 
 not punishable by criminal law. It is 
 either provisional, until the coming in 
 of the defendant’s answer, or perpetual, 
 that is, perpetually restraining the de- 
 fendant from the commission of an act 
 contrary to equity. Disobedience to an 
 injunction constitutes contempt of 
 court, and is punishable accordingly. 
 
 INK, a liquid or pigment used for 
 writing or printing. All ordinary writing 
 inks owe their properties to the presence 
 of gallate or tannate of iron held in sus- 
 pension by means of §um. Gall-nuts con- 
 tain gallotannic acid, which gives a 
 black precipitate with persalts of iron; 
 they also contain pectose, which con- 
 verts gallotannic acid, when exposed to 
 the air, into gallic acid. This latter acid 
 colors ferric salts a much deeper black 
 than the former acid. The essential 
 points in the preparation of a good 
 writing ink are therefore the presence of 
 an iron salt, an infusion of gall-nuts and 
 gum, and the allowing the mixture to 
 remain for some time exposed to the air. 
 All other substances which are added to 
 ordinary ink as coloring matters in the 
 place of gall-nuts only impair its quality. 
 As ink is liable to become moldy it is 
 customary to add a small quantity of 
 such substances as essential oils, carbolic 
 
INLAND REVENUE 
 
 INQUEST 
 
 acid, crushed cloves, or sometimes cor- 
 rosive sublimate, in order to prevent 
 this result. For copying ink a little sugar 
 is added, which prevents its drying 
 rapidly and perfectly. Colored writing- 
 inks, as red, blue, etc., are simply solu- 
 tions of some coloring materials, cochi- 
 neal and Brazil-wood being used for red, 
 Prussian blue for blue, etc. Gold and 
 silver inks consist of a fine powder of 
 the metals suspended in a solution of 
 gum-arabic. — Marking ink usually con- 
 sists of a solution of silver nitrate 
 thickened with gum and sometimes 
 colored by means of sap-green. — Print- 
 ing-ink may be made by boiling linseed- 
 oil and burning it about a minute, and 
 mixing it with lamp black, with an 
 addition of soap and resin. If ft be 
 wished to obtain colored printing inks, 
 this may be done by adding the neces- 
 sary pigments to the oil while it is being 
 heated. Vermilion is used to give a red 
 color, ultra-marine for blues, and lead 
 chromate for yellows. — Lithographic ink 
 used in printing from the stone, is 
 usually composed of virgin wax, dry 
 whfte soap, tallow or lard, shellac, 
 mastic, and lamp or Paris black. — 
 Sympathetic inks have been sometimes 
 used in secret correspondence. They are 
 of various kinds. For instance, charac- 
 ters written in solutions of cobalt, 
 lemon juice, and dilute sulphuric acid 
 make no appearance on the paper, but 
 become visible when treated with some 
 other solution or exposed to the action 
 of heat. See also Indian Ink. 
 
 INLAND REVENUE, that depart- 
 oiefit of the revenue which includes 
 the branches of excise, taxes, and 
 Stamps. 
 
 INLAYING is the art of ornamenting 
 flat surfaces of one substance by insert- 
 ing into cavities cut in them pieces of 
 some other substance. Various kinds of 
 metal or wood, or pearl, ivory, etc., are 
 employed in this process. 
 
 INN, a house where travelers are fur- 
 nished for the profit of the provider, with 
 everything they have occasion for 
 while on their journey. They may be 
 set up without license by any person, 
 provided he refrains from selling ex- 
 cisable liquors, which of course require 
 a license. Public-houses, taverns, vic- 
 tualling-houses, and coffee-houses are 
 all inns when the keepers of them make 
 it their business to furnish travelers with 
 food and lodging; otherwise they are not. 
 Innkeepers are bound to take in all 
 travelers and wayfaring persons, and to 
 entertain them if they have accommo- 
 dations for them (and they are only 
 bound to give such accommodation as 
 they have), at reasonable charges, pro- 
 vided they behave themselves prop- 
 erly. 
 
 INNATE IDEAS, certain primary 
 notions or impressions, supposed by 
 some philosophers to be given to the 
 mind of man when it first receives its 
 being, and to be brought into the world 
 with it. Descartes distinguished ideas 
 into innate, adventitious, and factitious. 
 An innate idea he described as not one 
 that presents itself always to our 
 thought, for there could be no such idea; 
 but one that we have within ourselves 
 the faculty of producing. He did not 
 enumerate such ideas, however. What 
 
 the followers of Descartes designate 
 innate ideas, those of Cousin term uni- 
 versal, necessary, and absolute. 
 
 INNESS (in es), George, American 
 landscape painter, was born at New- 
 burgh, N. Y., in 1825. Innes is con- 
 sidered the greatest of American land- 
 scape painters. His subjects included 
 sunrise, high noon, sunset, and evening. 
 A notable exhibition of his paintings 
 numbering two hundred and forty was 
 held in New York in 1894. Among his 
 most important works are: Under the 
 Greenwood, Close of a Stormy Day, An 
 Autumn Morning, Moonrise, Winter 
 Morning. He died in 1894. 
 
 INNOCENT, the name of thirteen 
 popes, of whom only the following need 
 be particularly dealt with: — Innocent I. 
 succeeded Anastasius I. as Bishop of 
 Rome in 402. He supported St. Chrysos- 
 tom, and renounced the communion 
 with the Eastern churches on account of 
 their ti-eatment of that eminent man. 
 In 409 he was sent to obtain terms of 
 peace from Alaric, but without success. 
 He died in 417, and is one of the most 
 distinguished saints, his day being July 
 28. — Innocent II., a Roman of noble 
 birth, elected pope in 1130 by a part of 
 the cardinals, while the others elected 
 Peter of Leon, who took the name of 
 Anacletus. Innocent fled to France, 
 where he was acknowledged by Louis 
 VI. and by Henry II. of England; also 
 by the Emperor Lothaire, who con- 
 ducted him in 1133 to Rome, where 
 Anacletus also maintained his claims 
 as pope. Innocent was obliged to retire, 
 and though reinstated in 1137 Anacletus 
 maintained himself until his death in 
 1138. Innocent in 1139 held the second 
 Oecumenical Council in the Lateran, 
 which condemned the opinions of 
 Arnold of Brescia, and declared the de- 
 crees of Anacletus null. Innocent died in 
 1143. — Innocent III., Lothario, Count 
 of Segni, born in 1161, was unanimously 
 elected pope at the age of thirty-seven. 
 He displayed great energy, and much 
 enhanced the papal power. He ex- 
 communicated Philip Augustus, king of 
 France, and laid his kingdom under an 
 interdict in 1200 because Philip had 
 repudiated his wife, and obliged the king 
 to submit. He extorted a similar sub- 
 mission from John, king of England, 
 who refused to confirm the election of 
 Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 by laying the kingdom under an inter- 
 dict, and in 1212 formally deposing him. 
 Almost all Christendom was now subject 
 to the pope, two crusades were under- 
 taken at his order, and his influence ex- 
 tended even to Constantinople. The 
 cruel persecution of the Albigenses and 
 the establishment in 1198 of the in- 
 quisitorial tribunals, from which the 
 inquisition itself originated, were note- 
 worthy events of his pontificate. In 1215 
 he held a council by which transubstan- 
 tiation and auricular confession were 
 established as do^as, and the Fran- 
 ciscan and Dominican orders were con- 
 firmed. Innocent died in 1216. He left 
 various works on legal and theological 
 subjects; and the Stabat Mater^ Veni 
 Sancte Spiritus, and other sacred hjrons, 
 are said to have been written by him. — 
 Innocent XI., Benedetto Odescalchi, 
 born in 1611, served in his youth as a 
 
 soldier, took orders at a later period, 
 and rose through many important posts, 
 until he was elected pope in 1676, on the 
 death of Clement X. He was eminent 
 for probity and austerity. Though 
 hostile to the Jesuits, whose opinions he 
 attacked in the decree Super quibusdam 
 axiomatis moralibus, yet he was obliged 
 to condemn Molinus and the Quietists. 
 Being involved in a dispute with Louis 
 XIV., the authority of the pope in 
 France and elsewhere received a severe 
 blow in the IV. Propositiones Cleri Gal- 
 licani (Four propositions of the Galli- 
 can clergy, 1682). These disputes were 
 highly favorable to the English revolu- 
 tion, as it induced the pope in 1689 to 
 unite with the allies against James II., 
 in order to lower the influence of Louis 
 XIV. He died in 1689, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Alexander VIII. 
 
 INNS OF COURT, four very ancient 
 societies in London exclusively invested 
 with the right to call to the English bar; 
 also the buildings belonging to these 
 societies, in which the members dine 
 and barristers have chambers. The 
 gentlemen belonging to these societies 
 may be divided into benchers, outer 
 barristers, inner barristers, and students. 
 The benchers are the highest in rank, 
 being usually queen’s counsel; and it is 
 they who have the right of granting or 
 refusing a call to the bar, or of disbarring 
 persons unfit to practice. The four inns 
 of court are the Inner temple and 
 Middle temple (formerly the dwelling of 
 the knights templars, and purchased by 
 some professors of law more than three 
 centuries since); Lincoln’s inn and 
 Gray’s inn (anciently belonging to the 
 earls of Lincoln and Gray). 
 
 INOCULATION, in medicine, the in- 
 troduction, by a surgical operation, of a 
 minute portion of infective matter into 
 contact with the true skin, for the pur- 
 pose of exciting artificially a milder 
 form of some contagious disease, and 
 thereby protecting the human system 
 against similar attacks in future; keep- 
 ing in mind, however, that such a pro- 
 cess can be only of efficacy in regard to 
 diseases which attack us only once in 
 the course of our lives, such, for instance, 
 as small-pox. The term is chiefly used 
 in connection with small-pox. The 
 practice of inoculation with the matter 
 of small-pox, although long followed in 
 some parts of Wales, seems to have been 
 scarcely known throughout England 
 till the early 18th century, and its adop- 
 tion was chiefly due to the exertions of 
 Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, who be- 
 came acquainted with it in Tuf-key. For 
 many years the practice met with the 
 greatest opposition, both from the medi- 
 cal profession and the clergy; but latter- 
 ly it came extensively into vogue, the 
 small-pox thus induced being of a milder 
 and much less often fatal type than ordi- 
 nary small-pox. The great objection to 
 it was that it tended to spread this 
 serious disease, inoculated small-pox be- 
 ing equally infectious with the other 
 kind. After the discovery of vaccina- 
 tion by Jenner in 1798 inoculation was 
 gradually superseded, and the British 
 legislature even prohibited the latter, 
 while vaccination is compulsory. See 
 Small-pox and Vaccination. 
 
 INQUEST. See Coroner. 
 
INQUlSITlOxN 
 
 INSESxSORES 
 
 INQUISITION, in the Roman Catholic I 
 Church, a court or tribunal established 
 for the examination and punishment of 
 heretics. The institution was founded in 
 the 12th century by Father Dominic, 
 who was charged by Pope Innocent III. 
 with orders to incite Catholic princes 
 and people to extirpate heretics. Pope 
 Gregory IX. in 1233 completed the de- 
 sign of his predecessors, and the inquisi- 
 tion was successively introduced into 
 several parts of Italy, and, with certain 
 limitations, into some provinces of 
 France. The tribunals of faith were ad- 
 mitted into Spain in the middle of the 
 13th century; it became firmly estab- 
 lished toward the end of the 15th cen- 
 tury, under Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 who used it as a weapon to break the 
 strength of the nobles, and to render the 
 royal authority absolute. In the as- 
 sembly of the states held at Toledo, 1480, 
 the erection of the new tribunal was 
 urged by the cardinal, and after some 
 opposition established under the name 
 of the general or supreme inquisition. 
 The new court was opened in Seville in 
 1481. Torquemada, prior of the Domini- 
 can convent at Segovia, and father-con- 
 fessor to the Cardinal Mendoza, had 
 already been appointed by Ferdinand 
 and Isabella the first grand inquisitor in 
 1478. The Dominican monastery at 
 Seville soon became insufficient to con- 
 tain the numerous prisoners, and more 
 than 2000 persons are said to have been 
 burned alive in the first year or two. 
 The pope, however, opposed the estab- 
 lishment of the Spanish inquisition as 
 the conversion of an ecclesiastical into 
 a secular tribunal, and repeatedly sum- 
 moned the inquisitor-general to Rome. 
 Torquemada, instead of obeying, sent a 
 friend to defend his cause, and in 1483 
 Sixtus IV. was obliged to yield and ac- 
 knowledge Torquemada as inquisitor- 
 general of Castile and Leon, and a later 
 bull subjected Aragon, Valencia, and 
 Sicily to the inquisitor-general of Castile. 
 It is computed that there were in Spain 
 above 20,000 officers of the inquisition, 
 called familiars, who served as spies and 
 informers. These posts were sought even 
 by persons of rank, on account of the 
 great privileges connected with them. 
 The supreme tribunal, under the in- 
 quisitor-general, sat at Madrid. He was 
 assisted by a council of six or seven, and 
 there were various officials belonging to 
 the court, the one specially appointed to 
 carry on prosecutions being called the 
 fiscal. As soon as an accuser appeared, 
 and the fiscal had called upon the court 
 to exercise their authority, an order 
 was issued to seize the accused. If he 
 did not appear at the third summons he 
 was excommunicated. From the mo- 
 ment that the prisoner was in the power 
 of the court he was cut off from the 
 world. The advocate who was appointed 
 to defend him could not speak to him 
 except in the presence of the inquisitors. 
 The accused was not confronted with 
 the accuser nor the witnesses before the 
 court, neither were they made known to 
 him ; and he was often subjected to the 
 torture to extort a confession, or to 
 explain circumstances which had not 
 been fully explained by the witnesses. 
 Imprisonment, often for life, scourging, 
 and the loss of property, were the pun- 
 
 ishments to which the penitent was 
 subjected. When sentence of death was 
 pronounced against the accused the 
 auto da fe, or ceremony of burning the 
 heretic in public, was ordered. This 
 usually took place on Sunday, between 
 Trinity Sunday and Advent As “the 
 church never pollutes herself with 
 blood,” a servant of the inquisition, at 
 the close of the procession and ecclesias- 
 tical ceremonial preceding the execution 
 of the sentence, gave each of those who 
 had been sentenced a blow with the 
 hand, to signify that the inquisition had 
 no longer any power Over them, and that 
 the victims were abandoned (relaxados) 
 to the secular arm. A civil officer, “who 
 was affectionately charged to treat them 
 kindly and mercifully,” now received 
 the condemned, bound them with 
 chains, and led them to the place of 
 execution. They were then asked in 
 what faith they would die. Those who 
 answered the Catholic werefirst strangled; 
 the rest were burned alive. The powers 
 of the inquisition latterly became more 
 limited, however, by various restrictions 
 and at last, under Joseph Bonaparte, 
 it was abolished altogether in 1808. It 
 was re-established in 1814 by Ferdinand 
 VII., but on the adoption of the consti- 
 tution of the Cortes in 1820 it was again 
 abolished. According to the estimate of 
 its historian, Llorente, the number of 
 victims of the Spanish Inquisition from 
 1481 to 1808 amounted to 341,021. Of 
 these nearly 32,000 were burned. 
 
 INSANITY, a general term comprising 
 every form of intellectual disorder, 
 whether consisting in a total want or 
 alienation of understanding, as in idiocy, 
 or in the diseased state of one or several 
 of the faculties. Medical writers have 
 adopted different systems of classifica- 
 tion in their treatment of this subject; 
 but perhaps the most convenient is that 
 which comprises all mental diseases un- 
 der the four heads of mania, melancholy, 
 dementia or fatuity, and idiocy. Idiocy 
 is either a congenital or an acquired de- 
 fect of the intellectual faculties. Con- 
 genital idiocy may originate from a 
 malformation of the cranium, or of the 
 brain itself. Acquired idiocy proceeds 
 from mechanical injury of the cranium, 
 or from injury or disease of the brain 
 from excess in sexual indulgences, etc. 
 (See Idiot.) Dementia is marked con- 
 fusion of thoughts, loss of memory, 
 childishness, a diminution or loss of the 
 powers of volition, and general weak- 
 mindedness; it differs from idiocy in 
 being curable. Cretinism, sometimes 
 given as a separate category, is a form 
 of idiocy associated with a characteristic 
 malformation of the body. Mania is a 
 species of mental derangement charac- 
 terized by the disorder of one or several 
 of the faculties, or by a blind impulse to 
 acts of fury. Adults are the principal 
 subjects. Females are more exposed to 
 it than males. Violent emotions, a dis- 
 sipated life; excess in any indulgence, 
 sometimes produce it. It is sometimes 
 cured, but sometimes remains station- 
 ary, and sometimes is converted into 
 dementia. Melancholy is a species of 
 mental disorder consisting in a depres- 
 sion of spirits. Some dark or mournful 
 idea occupies the mind exclusively, so 
 that by degrees it becomes unable to 
 
 judge rightly of existing circumstances, 
 and the faculties are disturbed in their 
 functions. Several kinds of melancholy 
 are distinguished; the distinctions are 
 founded, however, mostly on the causes 
 of the disease, among the more import- 
 ant of which are love, religious views, 
 repeated failures to reach an earnestly 
 desired end, a sudden nervous shock, 
 and the like. The course of the disease 
 is various; sometimes it lasts a series of 
 years; sometimes it ceases of itself, or is 
 cured by medical aid. Very frequently 
 melancholic patients commit suicide, 
 a tendency that is not to be overlooked. 
 In it also bodily health is likely to be 
 neglected, thus leading to certain other 
 diseases. See Lunatic Asylum, Lunacy, 
 Non compos mentis, etc. 
 
 INSECTIV'ORA, an order of mam- 
 mals living to a great extent on insects. 
 They are plantigrade, and have a well- 
 developed cavicle, a discoidal placenta, 
 incisor teeth larger than the canine, and 
 molar teeth set with sharp conical cusps. 
 They are usually of small size, and many 
 of them live underground, hibernating 
 for some months. They are found 
 throughout the world, with the excep- 
 tion of Australia and South America. 
 The chief insectivorous families are the 
 Talidae ormoles, the Soricidm or shrew- 
 mice and the Erinaceidae or hedgehogs. 
 
 INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS, plants 
 which derive nourishment directly from 
 the bodies of insects entrapped by them 
 in various ways. See Dionsea, Sun-dew, 
 Pitcher-plant. 
 
 INSECT POWDER, a brownish yellow 
 powder obtained by grinding the dried 
 flower head’s of two species of chrysan- 
 themum. The volatile oil then obtained 
 acts upon the insects by asphy:xiation; 
 upon man and other animals it has no 
 serious effect. 
 
 INSECTS. See Entomology. 
 
 INSESSO'RES, in ornitliology, the 
 perchers or passerine birds, an exten- 
 sive order of birds comprehending all 
 those which live habitually among trees, 
 with the exception of the birds of prey 
 and the climbing birds. The toes, which 
 are three before and one behind, are 
 specially adapted for perching and nest- 
 building. These birds live in pairs, build 
 in trees, and generally display great art 
 in the construction of their nests. In 
 them the organ of the voice attains its 
 utmost complexity, and all our singing 
 birds belong to the order. The form of 
 the beak varies widely, and this hassled 
 to the establislunent of four important 
 subordinate groups. (1) The Conirostres, 
 or “conical beaked” Insessores; (2) The 
 Dentirostresor “tooth-beaked” perchers; 
 (3) The Tenuirostres, or slender-beaked 
 perchers; (4) The Fissirostres or cleft- 
 beaks (swallows, swifts, goat-suckers, 
 etc.). In modern classification the Fis- 
 sirostres are generally excluded from the 
 order, which is also divided otherwise. 
 Two main divisions, the Acromyodi or 
 singing-birds and the Mesomyodi or 
 songless birds, are now generally recog- 
 nized, the distinctive characters being 
 based on the structure of the larynx. 
 The former, again, are divided into the 
 Turdiformes, or thrush-like birds; the 
 Fringilliformes, or finch-like birds; and 
 the Sturniformes, or starling-like birds. 
 See also Ornithology. 
 
INSOMNIA 
 
 INSURANCE 
 
 INSOMNIA, or SLEEPLESSNESS, 
 
 caused by mental or physical exhaus- 
 tion, toxic conditions (as from alcohol or 
 from disordered digestion), grief, etc. It 
 is best treated by attacking and remov- 
 ing the cause, if this can be ascertained. 
 Hygienic measures, as hot baths, mas- 
 sage, ingesting hot food, applying heat 
 to the extremities, ventilating he sleep- 
 ing apartment, etc., should be tried be- 
 fore resorting to drugs, to overcome the 
 condition. 
 
 INSPIRATION, in theology, is the in- 
 fusion of ideas into the human mind by 
 the Holy Spirit. By the inspiration of 
 the scriptures is meant the influence of 
 the Holy Spirit exercised on the under- 
 standings, imaginations, memories, and 
 other mental faculties of the writers, by 
 means of which they were qualified for 
 communicating to the world divine reve- 
 lation, or the knowledge of the will of 
 God. 
 
 INSTINCT, the power by which, inde- 
 pendently of all instruction or experi- 
 ence, and without deliberation, animals 
 are directed to do spontaneously what- 
 ever is necessary for the preservation of 
 the individual, or the continuation of the 
 kind. Three main theories have been 
 held with regard to instinctive actions; 
 — (1) That these various impulses and 
 faculties were bestowed by the Creator 
 upon each species as its necessary and 
 characteristic outfit. (2) That instinct 
 is the accumulated results of individual 
 experience, fixed by repetition, and 
 transmitted as an inheritance to suc- 
 ceeding races. In this view instinct is 
 intelligent in its origin, an organized ex- 
 perience, a “lapsed intelligence.” (3) 
 That the greater number of complex in- 
 stincts arise through the natural selec- 
 tion of variations of simpler instinctive 
 actions — variations arising from un- 
 known causes The last theory is that of 
 Darwin. 
 
 INSTITUTE OF FRANCE, the prin- 
 cipal philosophical and literary society of 
 France, organized after the first storm of 
 the French Revolution in 1795, to re- 
 place the Academie Fran5aise,the'Acad6- 
 mie des Sciences, and the Academie des 
 Belles Lettres et Inscriptions, its object 
 being the advancement of the arts and 
 sciences. The Institute now embraces 
 five distinct divisions or academies, each 
 having a separate field of knowledge or 
 thought (1) The Academie Frangaise, 
 originally established early in the 17th 
 century. Its department is the French 
 language and literature, and its ordinary 
 members number 40. (2) The Academie 
 des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres; ordi- 
 nary members, 40. (3) The Acad4mie des 
 Sciences; ordinary members, 65. (4) 
 
 The Academie des Beaux Arts; ordinary 
 members, 40. (5) The Academie des 
 Sciences, Morales, et Politiques; ordinary 
 members, 40. Each academy has an in- 
 dependent organization and a free dis- 
 position of the funds committed to it. 
 Members are elected for life by ballot, 
 and have an annual salary of 1500 francs. 
 To each academy are attached a certain 
 number of honorary members and 
 foreign associates. Admission into the 
 Academie Frangaise is a great object of 
 ambition with most French literary men. 
 The name of this distinguished body 
 was changed in 1848 to Institut de France 
 
 having previously been called National, 
 Imperial, and Royal at different times. 
 
 INSTRUMENT, in music, any mechan- 
 ical contrivance for the production of 
 musical sound. Musical instruments are 
 divided into three kinds — wind-instru- 
 ments, stringed instruments, and instru- 
 ments of percussion. The chief modern 
 stringed instruments are the violin, viola, 
 violoncello, and double bass, the harp, 
 mandolin, guitar, and piano: the chief 
 wind-instruments, the. flute, oboe, bas- 
 soon, clarinet, basset-horn, serpent horn, 
 trumpet, trombone, ophicleide, and 
 organ; the chief percussion instruments, 
 the drum, tambourine, cymbals, and 
 triangle. 
 
 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC, music pro- 
 duced ))y instruments, as contradistin- 
 guished from vocal music. Instrumenta- 
 tion is quite a modern art, and may be, 
 said to have been first cultivated to any 
 purpose among the Italians, who up till 
 the middle of last century, however, 
 used only instruments of the viol kind, 
 and who even yet are sparing in their 
 use of wind-instruments. In Italy, Leo, 
 Durante, Jomelli, and Majo; in France, 
 Rameau; in Germany, Haydn and 
 Mozart, deserve the credit of carrying 
 the art to a perfection up to their time 
 undreamed of. Further developments of 
 an important character are due to Berlioz 
 and Wagner. 
 
 IN'SULATOR, a body used to separate 
 an electrified conductor from other 
 bodies, and which offers very great re- 
 sistance to the passage of electricity. 
 
 Icsulatop 
 
 Glass, shellac, resins, sulphur, ebonite, 
 gutta-percha, silk, and baked wood are 
 notable insulating materials. The cut 
 shows the usual forms of insulators in 
 telegraph lines to support the wires on 
 the posts. They are usually made of por- 
 celain or glass. 
 
 INSU'RAlNCE, a contract by which an 
 association, copartnership, or corpora- 
 tion engages for the payment of so much 
 money, to insure the loser against loss of 
 property by disaster at sea, earthquake, 
 fire, or flood, against accident, or against 
 ill-health. Life insurance is a contract 
 under which the party insured receives 
 either an annuity or a specified sum of 
 money after the payment of annual pre- 
 miums for a certain specified term of 
 years; or under which his estate or 
 any person he may name as his bene- 
 ficiary will receive a specified sum after 
 his death. 
 
 Insurance in the modern meaning of 
 the word is divided into several classes, 
 viz.: Marine, fire, accident, health, and 
 life. Each of these subdivisions has been 
 built up along certain generally recog- 
 nized financial laws. 
 
 Life Insurance has been a recognized 
 factor in social economy for more than 
 300 years. The first life insurance policy 
 of which there is any record was issued 
 in London in 1583, insuring the life of 
 one William Gybbons for a period of 
 
 twelves months, at the rate of $80 per 
 $1,000. This policy was underwritten by 
 thirteen persons acting individually. It 
 was not until 1699, however, that a life 
 insurance company was formed. In that 
 year the members of the Mercers com- 
 pany, of London, formed a mutual asso- 
 ciation for the payment of benefits to 
 widows and orphans of the members of 
 the company. In 1706 the Amicable 
 Society for a perpetual insurance was 
 founded in London, and this company 
 continued in existence until 1867, a 
 period of 161 years. The London assur- 
 ance corporation and the Royal ex- 
 changeassurance corporation began busi- 
 ness in London in 1721 and still survives. 
 
 The first life insurance company to be 
 established in the United States was 
 founded in Philadelphia in 1759. It was 
 called the Presbyterian Annuity & Life 
 Insurance company, and under the name 
 of the Presbyterian Ministers’ Fund 
 Life Insurance company it still exists. 
 Other ministerial companies were es- 
 
 1907 1900 
 
 1880 1890 
 
 I — I PAYwcwTa r^ mcottt 
 
 Income and payments to policy holders. 
 
 tablished in 1769, and in 1784. The first 
 general life insurance company, the 
 Pennsylvania company for insurance 
 upon lives and granting annuities, 
 v^as chartered in Philadelphia in 1812. 
 The Massachusetts Hospital Life Insur- 
 ance company was chartered at Boston 
 in 1818. Beginning with the year 1840 
 some of the now existing life insurance 
 companies were chartered, including; 
 Mutual Life of New York, 1842; State 
 Mutual of Worcester, Mass., 1844; Nau- 
 tilus insurance company (now the New 
 York Life), 1845; Connecticut Mutual of 
 Hartford, 1846; Pennsylvania Mutual of 
 Philadelphia, 1847. 
 
 From these beginnings the business of 
 life insurance has made such enormous 
 strides in the United States that already 
 it overshadows all other financial inter- 
 ests. There are eighty life insurance 
 companies in the United States. On 
 Dec. 31, 19(i6, they had outstanding 
 policies representing 813,706,797,784:. 
 Their aggregate annual premium re- 
 ceipts were 86' 2.446,618. 
 
 Life insurance, from a crude beginning 
 has been developed into one of the most 
 exacting sciences known in the realm of 
 finance. In fact, it is a science in itself. 
 It is a science based on natural laws gov- 
 
INSURANCE, EIRE 
 
 INSURANCE SCANDALS 
 
 erning the mortality of the human race, 
 by which may be computed the average 
 lifetime, and the premium to be paid on 
 the policy. Included in the science of 
 life insurance are mortality tables, the 
 calculation of premiums, the loading of 
 premiums, the medical examination, 
 termination of policies, lapses and sur- 
 renders, surplus, reserve, nonforfeiture 
 laws, tontines and surrender privileges. 
 
 Mortality Tables — As a result of a 
 systematic study of mortality records, 
 life insurance companies have incor- 
 porated the results of their computations 
 into what are called mortality tables. 
 
 or 20 years, if living, or his estate re- 
 ceives it upon his death at any time pre- 
 vious to the specified term. 
 
 (c) Endowment, another name for ten, 
 fifteen, or twenty payment policies. 
 
 The Premium is the amount of money 
 the insured pays to the company annu- 
 ally. It is computed by means of the 
 mortality tables and is fixed at an 
 amount designed to cover the mortality 
 losses of the company, the expenses, etc. 
 The premium is composed of two parts, 
 viz., the net premium, and the loading, 
 both constituting what is known techni- 
 cally as the gross premium. The net pre- 
 
 AMEEICAN EXPERIENCE TABLE OF MORTALITT. 
 
 Com- 
 
 pleted 
 
 Age. 
 
 Number 
 Surviring at 
 Each Age. 
 
 Deaths 
 in Each 
 Tear. 
 
 Number of 
 Years Ex- 
 pectation. 
 
 Number 
 Dying An- 
 nually Out of 
 Each 1,000. 
 
 Com- 
 
 pleted 
 
 Age. 
 
 Number 
 Surriving at 
 Each Age. 
 
 Deaths 
 in Each 
 Tear. 
 
 Number of 
 Years Ex- 
 pectation* 
 
 Number 
 Dying An- 
 nually Out of 
 Bach 1,000. 
 
 10 
 
 100.000 
 
 749 
 
 48.7 
 
 7.49 
 
 55 
 
 64,563 
 
 1,199 
 
 17.4 
 
 18.67 
 
 11 
 
 99,251 
 
 746 
 
 48.1 
 
 7.52 
 
 56 
 
 63.364 
 
 1,26(1 
 
 16.7 
 
 19.89 
 
 12 
 
 98.505 
 
 743 
 
 47.4 
 
 7.54 
 
 67 
 
 62,104 
 
 1,325 
 
 16.1 
 
 21.34 
 
 13 
 
 97.762 
 
 740 
 
 46.8 
 
 7.57 
 
 68 
 
 60,779 
 
 1,394 
 
 15.4 
 
 22.94 
 
 14 
 
 97.022 
 
 737 
 
 46.2 
 
 7.60 
 
 59 
 
 69,385 
 
 1,468 
 
 14.7 
 
 24.72 
 
 10 
 
 96,285 
 
 735 
 
 45.5 
 
 7.03 
 
 60 
 
 67.917 
 
 1,646 
 
 14.1 
 
 26.69 
 
 16 
 
 95.550 
 
 732 
 
 44.9 
 
 7.06 
 
 61 
 
 66.371 
 
 1,628 
 
 13.3 
 
 28.88 
 
 17 
 
 94,818 
 
 728 
 
 44.2 
 
 7.09 
 
 62 
 
 64,743 
 
 1.713 
 
 12.9 
 
 31.29 
 
 18 
 
 94,089 
 
 727 
 
 43 5 
 
 7.73 
 
 63 
 
 53.030 
 
 1.800 
 
 12.3 
 
 33.94 
 
 19 
 
 93,362 
 
 725 
 
 42.9 
 
 7.7T 
 
 G4 
 
 61.230 
 
 1,889 
 
 11.7 
 
 36.87 
 
 20 
 
 92,637 
 
 723 
 
 42.2 
 
 7.81 
 
 65 
 
 49.341 
 
 1,980 
 
 11.1 
 
 40.13 
 
 21 
 
 91.914 
 
 722 
 
 41.5 
 
 7.86 
 
 66 
 
 47..361 
 
 2,070 
 
 10.5 
 
 43.71 
 
 22 
 
 91,192 
 
 721 
 
 40.9 
 
 7.91 
 
 67 
 
 45,291 
 
 2,158 
 
 lO.O 
 
 47.65 
 
 23 
 
 90,471 
 
 720 
 
 40,2 
 
 7.96 
 
 68 
 
 43,1.33 
 
 2,243 
 
 9.5 
 
 52.00 
 
 24 
 
 89.751 
 
 719 
 
 39.5 
 
 8.01 
 
 69 
 
 40,890 
 
 2,321 
 
 9.0 
 
 66.76 
 
 25 
 
 89.032 
 
 718 
 
 38.8 
 
 8.07 
 
 70 
 
 38,669 
 
 2,391 
 
 8.6 
 
 61.99 
 
 28 
 
 88,314 
 
 718 
 
 38.1 
 
 8.13 
 
 71 
 
 36.178 
 
 2.448 
 
 8.0 
 
 67.67 
 
 27 
 
 87,596 
 
 718 
 
 37.4 
 
 8.20 
 
 72 
 
 33.730 
 
 2,487 
 
 7.6 
 
 73.73 
 
 28 
 
 86,878 
 
 718 
 
 36.7 
 
 8.26 
 
 73 
 
 31,243 
 
 2.505 
 
 7.1 
 
 80.18 
 
 20 
 
 86.160 
 
 719 
 
 30.0 
 
 8.35 
 
 74 
 
 28.738 
 
 2,501 
 
 6.7 
 
 87.03 
 
 30 
 
 85.441 
 
 720 
 
 35.3 
 
 8.43 
 
 75 
 
 26.237 
 
 2,478 
 
 6.3 
 
 04,37 
 
 SI 
 
 84,721 
 
 721 
 
 34.6 
 
 8.51 
 
 76 
 
 23,761 
 
 2,431 
 
 6.9 
 
 102.31 
 
 32 
 
 84.000 
 
 723 
 
 33.9 
 
 8.61 
 
 77 
 
 21.330 
 
 2,369 
 
 5.5 
 
 111.06 
 
 83 
 
 83.277 
 
 726 
 
 33.2 
 
 8.72 
 
 78 
 
 18,981 
 
 2,291 
 
 6.1 
 
 120.83 
 
 34 
 
 62.651 
 
 729 
 
 82.5 
 
 8.83 
 
 79 
 
 16,670 
 
 2,196 
 
 4.8 
 
 131.73 
 
 35 
 
 81,822 
 
 732 
 
 31.8 
 
 8.95 
 
 80 
 
 14.474 
 
 2,091 
 
 4.4 
 
 144.47 
 
 36 
 
 81,090 
 
 737 
 
 31.1 
 
 9.09 
 
 81 
 
 12,383 
 
 1.964 
 
 4.1 
 
 158.61 
 
 37 
 
 80.353 
 
 747 
 
 30.4 
 
 9.23 
 
 82 
 
 10,419 
 
 1,816 
 
 3.7 
 
 174.30 
 
 88 
 
 79,611 
 
 749 
 
 29.6 
 
 9.41 
 
 83 
 
 8.603 
 
 1,648 
 
 3.4 
 
 191.58 
 
 89 
 
 78,862 
 
 756 
 
 28.9 
 
 9.59 
 
 84 
 
 6,955 
 
 1.470 
 
 3.1 
 
 211.36 
 
 40 
 
 78,106 
 
 765 
 
 28.2 
 
 9.79 
 
 85 
 
 5,485 
 
 1.292 
 
 2.8 
 
 236.55 
 
 41 
 
 77,341 
 
 774 
 
 27.5 
 
 10.01 
 
 86 
 
 4,193 
 
 1,114 
 
 2.6 
 
 265.68 
 
 42 
 
 76,507 
 
 785 
 
 26.7 
 
 10.25 
 
 87 
 
 3.079 
 
 933 
 
 2.2 
 
 303.02 
 
 43 
 
 75.782 
 
 797 
 
 26.0 
 
 10.52 
 
 88 
 
 2.146 
 
 744 
 
 1.9 
 
 346.69 
 
 44 
 
 74.985 
 
 812 
 
 25.3 
 
 10.83 
 
 89 
 
 1,402 
 
 555 
 
 l.T 
 
 395.86 
 
 46 
 
 74.173 
 
 828 
 
 24.5 
 
 11.16 
 
 90 
 
 847 
 
 385 
 
 1.4 
 
 454.55 
 
 46 
 
 73,345 
 
 848 
 
 23.8 
 
 11.56 
 
 91 
 
 462 
 
 246 
 
 1.2 
 
 632.47 
 
 47 
 
 72,497 
 
 870 
 
 23.1 
 
 12.00 
 
 92 
 
 216 
 
 137 
 
 1.0 
 
 634.26 
 
 48 
 
 71,627 
 
 896 
 
 22.4 
 
 12.51 
 
 93 
 
 79 
 
 58 
 
 .8 
 
 734.18 
 
 49 
 
 70.731 
 
 927 
 
 21.6 
 
 13.11 
 
 94 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 .6 
 
 857.14 
 
 50 
 
 60.804 
 
 9G2 
 
 20.9 
 
 13.78 
 
 95 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 .5 
 
 I.OOO.OO 
 
 51 
 
 68,842 
 
 1.001 
 
 20.2 
 
 14.54 
 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 67.841 
 
 1,044 
 
 19.5 
 
 15.39 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 66.797 
 
 1.091 
 
 18.8 
 
 16.33 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 65.706 
 
 1.143 
 
 18.1 
 
 17.40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 These tables reveal at a glance the inex- 
 orable wordings of natural laws govern- 
 ing the length of human life. They show 
 how many in any large number of persons 
 born will live to reach the age of 30, how 
 many to 36, to 40, to 60, in fact, to any 
 reasonable age. They also show the 
 number that will die at each age, and the 
 average lifetime remaining to those who 
 live. 
 
 By means of these mortuary tables all 
 the other problems pertaining to life in- 
 surance are worked out. The mortuary 
 tables, therefore, form the foundations 
 of the life insurance business. The mor- 
 tality table commonly in use in the 
 United States is known as the American 
 Experience Table of Mortality. TheEng- 
 lish companies use what is known as the 
 Actuaries, or Combined, Experience 
 Tables. 
 
 The Policy — There are many forms 
 and varieties of policies, many com- 
 panies having policies containing special 
 features. The principal forms of policies 
 in general use, however, may be desig- 
 nated as follows: 
 
 (a) Straight life, or limited life, in 
 which the amount is paid to the estate 
 of the insured at his death. 
 
 (b) Ten, fifteen, or twenty payment 
 in which the insured receives the full 
 amount of his policy at the end of 10, 15, 
 
 mium is the amount which is mathemat- 
 ically necessary for the creation of a fund 
 large enough to enable the company to 
 pay the policy in full at maturity. The 
 loading is the amount added to the net 
 premium to provide not only for the 
 easily ascertained expenses, such as 
 salaries for officers and commissions 
 for agents, but to provide for all contin- 
 gencies, such as a mortality in excess of 
 the tabular rate, depreciation in the 
 value of securities, and loss of invested 
 funds. 
 
 The Reserve in life insurance is simply 
 the insurance or mortality fund of the 
 company from which all losses are paid. 
 It is made up of the net annual premium 
 and the money these premiums will earn 
 at per cent compound interest. The 
 reserve can be used for no other purpose 
 than the payment of death claims. The 
 legal reserve is the amount the law re- 
 quires the company to hold in order ot 
 be solvent. 
 
 Medical Examination — Life insur- 
 ance companies depend largely upon 
 medical examinations to protect the mor- 
 tality tables from deviation which might 
 be caused by the admission of applicants 
 whose average expectation of life might 
 be lessened by unfavorable physical con- 
 ditions. Among the facts elicited by 
 medical examination are: Occupation, 
 
 hereditary influence, existence of pul- 
 monary tuberculosis or insanity, and 
 evident tendency to disease. 
 
 Lapses and Surrenders — A policy is 
 said to lapse when the insured fails to 
 pay a premium when it becomes due. A 
 policy is surrendered when the insured 
 gives formal notice of his desire to termi- 
 nate the policy and receive its surrender 
 value. Down to 1860 a policy holder who 
 permitted his policy to lapse lost both 
 surplus and reserve. Since 1861 legisla- 
 tion and competition protects the policy 
 against such loss. Most, if not all, com- 
 panies guarantee the policy holder his 
 share of the reserve or the surrender 
 value of his policy after three premiums 
 have been paid. 
 
 INSURANCE, FIRE. See Fire Insur- 
 ance. 
 
 INSURANCE SCANDALS, the revela- 
 tions of extravagance and mismanage- 
 ment in the conduct of the big life in- 
 surance companies of the United States 
 during the years 1905-6 led to drastic 
 reorganization, and changes in methods. 
 The disclosures began in February, 1905, 
 in a struggle between two factions for the 
 control of the Equitable life assurance 
 society, of New York James W. Alex- 
 ander, president of the company, led the 
 faction of the stock and policy holders 
 which demanded that the company be 
 mutualized so that the policy holders 
 could be represented on the board of 
 directors. This demand was resisted by 
 a faction led by James Hazen Hyde, 
 vice-president of the company, and son 
 of its founder. 
 
 The struggle brought to public light a 
 scandalous state of affairs, showing that 
 funds had been used to further stock 
 jobbing schemes in Wall street and for 
 other questionable transactions. As a 
 result, Alexander and Hyde both were 
 forced out of the company. Hyde, who 
 owned a majority of the stock, sold it to 
 Thomas F. Ryan, a New York capitalist, 
 who placed it in the hands of three 
 trustees, Grover Cleveland, Morgan T. 
 O’Brien, and George Westinghouse. 
 Paul Morton was elected president of 
 the company on July 26. He reorganized 
 its methods and instituted many re- 
 forms. 
 
 On Sept. 6, 1905, a New York legis- 
 lative committee, toown as the Arm- 
 strong committee, with Charles E. 
 Hughes, a New York attorney, as chief 
 counsel, began a general investigation of 
 all the big life insurance companies char- 
 tered by the state of New York. 
 
 The principal companies subjected to 
 a searching investigation were the 
 Equitable, the Mutual and the New 
 York Life. The disclosures startled the 
 whole country. It was shown that the 
 New York Life had contributed $150,- 
 000 to political campaign funds; that it 
 had permitted one Andrew Hamilton to 
 expend $1,347,382 for work in “in- 
 fluencing” legislation. The revelations 
 involved John H. McCall, president of 
 the company. He sold everything he had 
 in the world, repaid $235,000 and died a 
 broken-hearted, penniless man. 
 
 It was shown that President Richard 
 A. McCurdy, of the Mutual was drawing 
 a salary of $150,000 per annum and that 
 the funds of the company were being 
 used by banks and trust companies con- 
 
INTAGLIO 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW 
 
 trolled by McCurdy. His son Robert and 
 his son-in-law, L. A. Thebaud, had been 
 paid millions in “commissions.” As a 
 result the McCurdy family was ousted 
 from the Mutual. Charles A. Peabody 
 was elected president. 
 
 The Armstrong committee made an 
 exhaustive report and recommended 
 the passage of nine laws to prevent a 
 recurrence of the scandals. The laws are 
 now on the New York statute books. 
 
 INTAGLIO (in-tal'yo), a stone or gem 
 on which a figure is hollowed out so that 
 the impression from it may be in relief; 
 the opposite of cameo. 
 
 IN'TEGRAL CALCULUS. See Cal- 
 culus. 
 
 INTELLECT, the name for the think- 
 ing portion of our mental constitution. 
 Mind contains three elementary con- 
 stituents, — emotion or feeling, volition 
 or the will, and intelligence or thought. 
 The intellectual powers are explained in 
 part by their contrast with feeling and 
 will. When we enjoy pleasure or suffer 
 pain, we are said to feel; when we act to 
 procure one or avoid the other, we put 
 forth voluntary energy; when we re- 
 member, compare, reason, our intelli- 
 gence is exerted. The powers of the in- 
 tellect have been variously classified. 
 Among the commonly recognized desig- 
 nations for them, me may mention 
 memory, reason, and imagination, which 
 imply three very distinct applications of 
 our mental forces. Reid classified them 
 as follows: Perception by the senses, 
 memory, conception, abstraction, judg- 
 ment, reasoning. Stewart added con- 
 sciousness, to denote the power of recog- 
 nizing our mental states, as sensation 
 and perception make us cognizant of the 
 outer world; likewise attention (a purely 
 voluntary function, although exerted in 
 the domain of intelligence), imagination, 
 and the association of ideas. 
 
 INTEMPERANCE, See Temperance. 
 
 INTERCESSION, DOCTRINE OF.— 
 Scripture, in many places, represents 
 Christ, after having finished his redemp- 
 tive work on earth, and ascended into 
 his state of glory and exaltation, as ever 
 pleading with God on behalf of those 
 whom he has redeemed by the shedding 
 of his blood (Rom. viii, 34; Heb. vii, 25; 
 I. John ii, 1). Theologians say, however, 
 that we are not to suppose that God 
 needs to be interceded with, as if he were 
 still reluctant to forgive men, or that 
 Christ’s intercession makes him more 
 merciful than before. They tell us, that 
 since it is evident from the whole tenor 
 of the New Testament, as well as from a 
 multitude of special passages, that the 
 penal sacrifice of Christ on Calvary re- 
 conciled God to man, we must regard the 
 intercessory work of Christ rather as 
 serving to illustrate the eternal holiness 
 of God and the changeless love of the 
 Savior, and as intended to keep con- 
 tinually in view the sacrifice of atone- 
 ment on which it is founded. The doc- 
 trine of the intercession of Christ is held 
 both by Protestants and Roman Catho- 
 lics; but the latter, in addition, believe 
 in the efficacy of the intercession of the 
 Virgin and the saints, who, however, do 
 not directly intercede for men with God, 
 but with the Savior, the sinless One, who 
 alone has the ear of the King of the uni- 
 verse. 
 
 IN'TERDICT, an ecclesiastical censure 
 in the Roman Catholic Church, the effect 
 of which, taken in its most extended 
 sense, is, that no kind of divine service 
 is celebrated in the place or country un- 
 der the sentence; the sacraments are not 
 administered, the dead not buried with 
 the rites of the church. This interdict is 
 called real or local, whilst the personal 
 interdict regards only one or more per- 
 sons. Gregory VII., though not the 
 inventor of this engine of ecclesiastical 
 power, used it oftener and more tyranni- 
 cally than any of his predecessors. The 
 11th century was pre-eminently the 
 century of interdicts, but they gradually 
 lost power; and when Paul V. laid Venice 
 under an interdict in 1606 the churches 
 were not closed nor divine service inter- 
 rupted, and only a minority of the bish- 
 ops acknowledged it. The interdict 
 must be announced, like the excom- 
 munication, in writing, with the causes, 
 and is not to be imposed until after three 
 admonitions. The penalty of disobedi- 
 ence to an interdict is excommunication. 
 Writers of the Gallican Church say that 
 the pope has no right to lay France 
 under an interdict, and the parliaments 
 refused to register them. Interdicts are 
 not to be confounded with the simple 
 cessatio a divinis, or the disuse of religi- 
 ous ceremonies, which takes place when 
 a church has been polluted, for example, 
 by a murder committed in it. 
 
 INTEREST, is the allowance made for 
 the loan or retention of a sum of money 
 which is lent for, or becomes due at, a 
 certain time; this allowance being gen- 
 erally estimated at so much per cent per 
 annum. The money lent is called the 
 principal; the sum paid for the use of it, 
 the interest. The interest of $100 for one 
 year is called the rate per cent, and the 
 sum of any principal and its interest 
 together, the amount. Interest is either 
 simple or compound. Simple interest is 
 that which is allowed upon the principal 
 only, for the whole time of the loan. 
 Compound interest is that which arises 
 fromi any sum or principal in a given 
 time by increasing the principal, at fixed 
 eriods, by the interest then due, and 
 ence obtaining interest upon both in- 
 terest and principal. The rate of interest 
 supposing the security for the principal 
 to be equal, depends obviously upon 
 what may be made by the employment 
 of money in various industrious under- 
 takings, or on the rate of profit. Where 
 profits are high, interest is high, and 
 vice versa; in fact, the rate of interest is 
 simply the net profit on capital. Besides 
 this, however, the interest on each par- 
 ticular loan must further vary according 
 to the supposed risk of the lender, the 
 supposed solvency of the borrower, etc. 
 
 INTERFE'RENCE, in physics, the 
 mutual action of waves of any kind 
 (whether those in water, or sound, heat, 
 or light waves) upon each other, by 
 which, in certain circumstances, the 
 vibrations and their effects are increased, 
 diminished, or neutralized. When two 
 minute pencils of light, radiating from 
 two different luminous points, and mak- 
 ing a small angle with each other, fall 
 upon the same spot of a screen or a piece 
 of paper, it is found that in some cases 
 they illuminate the paper or screen more 
 strongly than either would have done 
 
 singly, and sometimes they destroy each 
 other’s effects and produce a black spot 
 or fringe. Such phenomena have been 
 explained in accordance with the un- 
 dulatory theory of light, and furnish a 
 strong argument in favor of that theory. 
 The interference of waves of sound is a 
 phenomenon which may be frequently 
 observed in the beat of the tone of the 
 heavier organ pipes. Again, to a person 
 situated in the middle of a bell the sound 
 waves from the vibrating segments of 
 the bell interfere and produce only a 
 moderate loudness, whereas to a person 
 at a short distance outside the edge the 
 loudness is intolerable. 
 
 INTERIOR, Department of the, one 
 of the ten executive departments of the 
 United States government, whose chiefs 
 constitute the president’s cabinet. It 
 was organized in 1849. It has super- 
 vision of Indian affairs; of the public 
 lands, including mines; of pensions; of 
 patents; of the census, when directed by 
 law; of the geological survey; of educa- 
 tion; of the custody and distribution of 
 public docmnents; of railroads which 
 have received subsidies from the United 
 States; of the territories; of national 
 parks and reservations; of some charita- 
 ble and penal institutions in the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia; of the returns office in 
 which are filed returns of contracts made 
 by the secretary of war, the secretary of 
 the navy, and the secretary of the in- 
 terior, and of some other miscellaneous 
 business. 
 
 INTERMARRIAGE, the intermarriage 
 of near relations has been universally 
 believed to result in degeneration upon 
 the offspring. The gradual deterioration 
 of the slave population of America have 
 been attributed to consanguineous al- 
 liances. The same is true of deaf- 
 mutism or idiocy; of 235 deaf and dumb 
 children whose parentage could be 
 traced 30 per cent were the offspring of 
 the intermarriage of blood-relations. 
 Insanity follows consanguineous mar- 
 riages where the contracting parties in- 
 herit the same tendencies of a neurotic 
 nature. 
 
 INTER'MENT. See Burial. 
 
 INTERMITTENT FEVER. See Ague. 
 
 INTERNATIONAL LAW, the law of 
 
 nations; those rules or maxims which in- 
 dependent political societies or states 
 observe, or ought to observe, in their 
 conduct toward one another. Inter- 
 national law is divisible into two heads, 
 the one which regulates the rights, in- 
 tercourse, and obligations of nations, as 
 such, with each other; the other, 
 which regulates the rights and obliga- 
 tions more immediately belonging to 
 their respective subjects. Thus the 
 rights and duties of ambassadors belong 
 to that head which respects the nation in 
 its sovereign capacity; and the rights 
 of the subjects of one nation to property 
 situated within the territory of another 
 nation, belong to the latter head. Some 
 of the maxims regarding the rights and 
 duties of nations during a state of peace 
 are : — (1) Everynationisboundto abstain 
 from all interference with the domains 
 of other nations. (2) All nations have 
 equal and common rights on the high 
 seas, and they are not bound to admit 
 any superiority there. The sea which 
 washes the coast of a nation, to the 
 
INTERNATIONAL PEACE CONFERENCE 
 
 INTESTINE 
 
 extent of three miles, is now deemed to 
 be a part of the territory of the nation, 
 over which it may exercise an exclusive 
 jurisdiction. And, in respect to persons 
 subjected to its laws, every nation now 
 claims a right to exercise jurisdiction on 
 the high seas, for the purpose of enforc- 
 ing both international law and its own 
 municipal regulations. (3) No nation 
 has a right to persue any criminal or 
 fugitive from justice in a foreign coun- 
 try; its claim, if any, is a mere right to 
 demand him from the nation in which 
 he has taken refuge. (4) Every nation 
 has a right to regulate its own inter- 
 course and commerce with other nations. 
 (5) Foreigners are bound to obey the 
 laws of a country as long as they reside 
 within it, and under its protection; and 
 the property held by foreigners within 
 a country ought to be protected in the 
 same manner as that of natives. (6) 
 Every nation has a right to send and to 
 receive ambassadors and other public 
 ministers; and this right of embassy has 
 always been deemed peculiarly sacred. 
 Their persons are held sacred and in- 
 violable. Their property and servants, 
 and retinue enjoy a like privilege. (See 
 Ambassador.) (7) It is through the 
 medium of ambassadors and other pub- 
 lic ministers that treaties, conventions, 
 and other compacts between nations are 
 usually negotiated, thus forming a 
 positive code for the regulation of their 
 mutual rights, duties, and interests. In 
 the modern practice of nations such 
 treaties and compacts are not generally 
 deemed final ana conclusive until they 
 have been ratified by the respective gov- 
 ernments to which the negotiators be- 
 long. 
 
 War introduces an entirely new order 
 of rules. The right of declaring war re- 
 sults from the right of a nation to pre- 
 serve its own existence, its own liberties, 
 and its own essential interests. In a 
 state of nature men have a right to em- 
 ploy force in self-defense; and when they 
 enter into society this right is trans- 
 ferred to the government, and is an in- 
 cident to sovereignty. What are just 
 causes for entering into a war is a ques- 
 tion which has been much discussed by 
 publicists. Defensive wars are neces- 
 sarily justifiable from the fact that they 
 involve the existence or safety of the 
 nation and its interests. But offensive 
 wars are of a very different character, 
 and can be justified only in case of 
 aggravated wrongs or vital injuries. 
 The first effect of a declaration of war 
 is to put all the subjects of each of the 
 nations in a state of hostility to each 
 other. All the property belonging to 
 each is deemed hostile. If it be personal 
 property it may be captured as prize; 
 if lands, k may be seized and confiscatea 
 at the pleasure of the sovereign; if it be 
 merely in debts or stock it may, in the 
 extreme exercise of the laws of war, be 
 equally liable to confiscation. As soon as 
 a battle is over the conquerors are bound 
 to treat the wounded with kindness, 
 and the prisoners with a decent human- 
 ity. And there are some things which 
 seem positively prohibited from their 
 cruelty and brutal barbarity; such are the 
 violation of female captives, the tortur- 
 ing of prisoners, the poisoning of wells, 
 the use of inhuman instruments of war. 
 
 In time of war there is occasionally an 
 intercourse between the belligerents 
 which should always be held sacred. 
 Thus the interchange of prisoners by 
 cartels; the temporary suspension of 
 hostilities by truces; the passage of flags 
 of truce; the engaging in treaties of 
 capitulation. When any conquest of 
 territory is made the inhabitants pass 
 under the dominion of the conqueror, 
 and are subject to such laws as he 
 chooses to impose upon them. There 
 are also certain rights which war confers 
 on the belligerents in respect to neu- 
 trals. Thus they have a right to blockade 
 the ports or besiege the cities of their 
 enemies, and to interdict all trade by 
 neutrals with them. But no blockade is 
 to be recognized unless “the besieging 
 force can apply its power to every point 
 in thp blockaded state.” They have a 
 right also to insist that neutrals shall con- 
 duct themselves with good faith , and 
 abstain from all interference in the con-^ 
 test by supplying their enemy with 
 things contraband of war. And hence 
 arises the incidental right of search of 
 ships on the high seas for the detection 
 of contraband goods. A neutral nation 
 is bound to observe entire impartiality 
 between the belligerents. Neutral 
 nations are, strictly speaking, bound to 
 compel their subjects to abstain from 
 every interference in the war, as by 
 carrying contraband goods, serving in 
 the hostile army, furnishing supplies, 
 etc. Subject to the exceptions above 
 referred to, a neutral has a right to insist 
 upon carrying on its ordinary commerce 
 with each of the belligerents in the same 
 manner as in times of peace. See Neu- 
 trality. 
 
 INTERNATIONAL PEACE CONFER- 
 ENCE, a conference of one hundred and 
 one delegates representing twenty-six 
 countries of the world, held at The 
 Hague from May 18 to July 29, 1899, 
 in response of an invitation by the 
 Czar of Russia to the governments of 
 the principal states of the world for the 
 purpose of concerted action with regard 
 to international questions of peace and 
 war, and to secure, if possible, a gradual 
 reduction of the military and naval 
 armaments of the states represented. 
 See Hague Conference. 
 
 INTERNATIONAL PRISON CON- 
 GRESS, the first prison conference held 
 in 1845 at Frankfort, the second in 
 1857. In 1870 the first American prison 
 congress was held, and President Grant 
 appointed Dr. Wines commissioner to 
 arrange an international conference. 
 The congress met in London in 1872. 
 Meetings are now held at intervals of 
 five years. The programmes are ar- 
 ranged by a permanent committee, the 
 International penitentiary commission. 
 Papers by experts are printed in ad- 
 vance, and form the bases of the dis- 
 cussions. The congresses have been held 
 in various capitals, and have been pro- 
 ductive of great good. 
 
 INTES'TACY, in law, the condition of 
 a person who dies without having left 
 any will at all, or having left one not 
 legally valid, or such a will that nobody 
 becomes heir under it. The general prin- 
 ciple in Britain and the United States is 
 that the law provides an heir or next of 
 kin if the owner himself has not done so. 
 
 In the case of a person dying partially 
 intestate, the property not included in 
 the settlement goes to the heir-at-law or 
 next of kin according as it is real or per- 
 sonal estate. 
 
 INTES'TINE, the name given to the 
 convoluted membranous tube which 
 extends from the right or pyloric orifice 
 of the stomach to the anus, and which 
 receives the ingested food from the 
 stomach, retains it for a longer or 
 
 Human stomach and Intestinal tube, 
 a, Stomach.— 6 to d, Small Intestine. 6, Duo- 
 denum. c, Jejunum with convolutions, d, 
 Ileum, with do. — e toff. Large Intestine. «, 
 Coecum, //, Colon, y, Rectum. 
 
 shorter period, mixes it with the bile, 
 pancreatic juice, and intestinal secre- 
 tions, gives origin to the lacteal or 
 absorbent vessels which take up the 
 chyle and convey it into the current of 
 the blood, and which, lastly, conveys 
 the faecal or indigestible products from 
 the system. In man it is usually divided 
 into the small intestine, which compre- 
 hends the duodenum, jejunum, and 
 ileum; and the large intestine, compre- 
 hending the coecum, colon, and rectum. 
 Three distinct coats are to be distin- 
 guished in the structure of the small 
 intestine; these, named from without 
 inward, are known as the serous, mus- 
 cular, and mucous coats. The innermost 
 or mucous coat presents several inter- 
 esting structures. Among these are the 
 valvulae conniventes, or closely folded 
 transverse plaits of the mucous mem- 
 brane, the functions of which would 
 appear to be those of serving materially 
 to increase the digestive surface or area 
 of the intestine, and thoroughly mingle 
 the ingesta with the secretions. The 
 surface of the membrane is covered with 
 innumerable fine projections termed 
 villi, which give to it almost a velvety 
 texture. 
 
 Each villus is found under the micro- 
 scope to be an outstanding process of the 
 mucous membrane, containing inter- 
 nally an artery giving off minute rami- 
 fications, a vein by which the venous 
 blood is returned, and, lastly, the lacteal 
 or absorbent vessel. The function of the 
 villi, which are most numerous in the 
 duodenum, is pre-eminently that of the 
 absorption of the chyle or fluid product 
 of digestion, as a preliminary to its 
 transmission to the current of the blood 
 or circulation. Four varieties of glands 
 are also connected with the small in- 
 testine, the first three being named after 
 their respective discoverers, Lieberktihn, 
 Peyer, and Brunner, and the other 
 variety occurring singly — the “solitary” 
 
INTOXICATION 
 
 IODINE 
 
 glands — and in groups — Peyer’s patches. 
 The exact functions of these bodies are 
 not well known. The duodenum lies in 
 the epigastric region, and makes three 
 turnings, receiving by a common open- 
 ing between its first and second flexure 
 the bile-duct and the pancreatic-duct. 
 The conversion of the chyme from the 
 stomach into chyle is thus accomplished 
 in the duodenum. The jejunum, com- 
 mencing at the left side of the second 
 lumbar vertebra, becomes insensibly 
 and gradually continuouswith the ileum, 
 which, terminating the small intertine, 
 becomes continuous with the large in- 
 testine in the right iliac fossa, and opens 
 into the colon, or first portion of the 
 large intestine, which is divided from 
 the large intestines by the ileo-coecal 
 valve. Below the point at which the 
 ileum opens into the colon we find a 
 short blind sac continuous with the 
 colon, and known as the coecum; and 
 attached to the lower extremity of the 
 ccecum, and communicating with the 
 coecal cavity, we find a little closed tube, 
 to which the name of appendix vermi- 
 formis is applied. We next find the 
 colon to ascend in the right lumbar 
 region, in front of the kidney. This 
 portion is known as the ascending colon. 
 It then crosses the abdominal cavity 
 to the left side, and becomes the trans- 
 verse colon; and finally descends as the 
 descending colon, in front of the left 
 kidney into the left groin, where, after 
 making a curve like the letter S — sig- 
 moid flexure of the colon — it terminates 
 in the last portion of the intestinal tract. 
 This last portion, known as the rectum, 
 finally terminates in the anus. The 
 large intestine measures from 5 to 6 
 feet in length ; the small intestine meas- 
 ures from 16 to about 24 or 26 feet in 
 length; so that the entire intestinal 
 tract may be regarded as being about 
 five or six times the length of the body 
 itself. The three coats of the small in- 
 testine are repeated in the large intestine. 
 The mucous or inner coat is not elevated 
 to form villi in the large, as in the small 
 intestine, and only two kinds of glands, 
 the glands of Lieberkuhn, and the soli- 
 tary glands, are to be distinguished in 
 the large intestine. The function of the 
 large intestine is chiefly excretory, but 
 a certain power of absorption is also 
 exercised by its vessels. The food is pro- 
 pelled along the entire intestinal tract by 
 the alternate contraction of the longi- 
 tudinal muscular fibers, by which means 
 it is gradually pushed along the tube with 
 a vermicular or peristaltic movement. 
 The ileo-coecal valve serves to prevent 
 regurgitation of matters into the small 
 intestine, after they have passed into 
 the colon. The mesentery is the term 
 given to the fold of peritoneum by 
 means of which the small intertines are 
 attached to the spine. The blood-vessels 
 supplying the intestinal tube are the 
 superior and inferior mesenteric arteries 
 and their branches, derived from the 
 abdominal aorta. The veins of the in- 
 testines empty their contents into the 
 vena portse, which distributes itself 
 through the liver, and from the blood of 
 which the bile is secreted by the hepatic 
 or liver cells. The nerves of the intes- 
 tines are derived from the sympathetic 
 or ganglionic system of nerves, and 
 
 also have a connection with the eighth 
 cranial nerve— the pneumogastric nerve 
 of the right side. 
 
 INTOXICATION, the state produced 
 by the excessive use of alcoholic liquids. 
 In the first stage the circulation of the 
 blood becomes somewhat more rapid, 
 and all the functions of the body and 
 mind are exercised with more freedom. 
 In the second stage the effect on the 
 brain is more decided. The peculiarities 
 of character, the faults of temperament, 
 manifest themselves without reserve; 
 the secret thoughts are disclosed, and 
 the sense of propriety is lost. In the 
 next degree consciousness is still more 
 weakened; the ideas lose their connec- 
 tion; vertigo, double vision and other 
 discomforts supervene; until finally the 
 excitement partakes of the nature of 
 delirium, and is followed by a more or 
 less prolonged stupor, often by dangerous 
 coma. In cases of extreme intoxication 
 the stomach-pump should be employed, 
 if ordinary emetics fail to overcome the 
 torpor of the stomach. Among the best 
 antidotes are preparations of ammonia 
 and strong infusions of coffee and green 
 tea. The body should be kept warm. 
 
 INTRENCHMENT, any work that 
 fortifies a post against the attack of an 
 enemy. The word is generally used to 
 denote a ditch or trench with a parapet. 
 
 INTUI'TION, in philosophy, the act by 
 which the mind perceives the agreement 
 or disagreement of two ideas, or the 
 truth of propositions, immediately, or 
 the moment they are presented, without 
 the intervention of other ideas, or with- 
 out reasoning and deduction. 
 
 INV ABIDES (an-va-led), Hotel des, a 
 splendid hospital for disabled soldiers 
 at Paris, in the suburb of St. Germain, 
 erected by Louis XIV. between 1670 
 and 1673. A soldier must have served 
 ten years to be received into this hospi- 
 tal on account of poverty or infirmity. 
 In vaults under the dome lie the remains 
 of Turenne and several othfer great 
 French commanders, including those of 
 Napoleon I., deposited here December 
 15, 1840. 
 
 INVENTION OF THE CROSS. See 
 
 Cross. 
 
 IN'VENTORY, a list containing a 
 short description, together with the 
 values, of goods and chattels, made on 
 various occasions, as on the sale of 
 goods, transfer of movables for pecun- 
 iary considerations, decease of a per- 
 son, etc. 
 
 INVERNESS', a royal, parliamentary, 
 and municipal burgh in Scotland, capi- 
 tal of the county of the same name, and 
 chief town in the Highlands. Pop. 
 21,193. — The county is the largest in 
 Scotland. Area, 4255 sq. miles, or 2,723,- 
 000 acres, of which only about 100,000 
 are under tillage. Pop. 90,182. 
 
 INVERTEBRA'TA, a collective term 
 for the five great lower divisions or sub- 
 kingdoms of the animal series, which 
 agree in not having a vertebral column 
 or back-bone, used in contradistinction 
 to the highest group of the animal king- 
 dom, to which the name Vertebrata or 
 Vertebrate animals is given, all of which 
 possess a vertebral column. In inverte- 
 brates no structure analogous to the 
 vertebrate spine is found. Where hard 
 parts exist in them they are generally 
 
 placed on the outside of the body, and 
 thus constitute an exo-skeleton, or outer 
 skeleton — as opposed to the endo- 
 skeleton, or internal skeleton of the 
 vertebrata. The shell of the crab or 
 lobster is a familiar example. The limbs 
 or vertebrates are never more than four 
 in number, while those of the inverte- 
 brata may be very numerous. Among 
 vertebrates also reproducton is purely 
 and solely sexual; but in invertebrata 
 asexual reproduction is common, many 
 of them reproducing their species by 
 gemmation or budding, and by fission. 
 
 IN'VOICE, an account in writing of 
 the particulars of merchandise trans- 
 mitted to a purchaser, giving price and 
 quantity, note of charges, and any other 
 needful details. By sending an invoice 
 along with goods a merchant gives offi- 
 cial advice to his correspondent of the 
 understood terms of a contract. If the 
 goods are received and the invoice re- 
 tained this will be held valid evidence in 
 law of the contract. 
 
 INVOLU'CRE, in botany, a collection 
 of bracts round a circle of flowers. In 
 umbelliferous plants it consists of sepa- 
 rate narrow bracts placed in a single 
 
 Hemlock plant— a. Involucre, id, Involucels. 
 
 whorl; in many composite plants these 
 organs are imbricated in several rows. 
 The same name is also given to the 
 covering of the sori of ferns. 
 
 I'ODINE, a peculiar non-metallic ele- 
 mentary solid substance. It exists in the 
 water of the ocean and mineral springs, 
 in marine molluscous animals, and in 
 sea-weeds, from the ashes of which it is 
 chiefly procured (see Kelp). It exists 
 also in certain land-plants and in cod- 
 liver oil. It is found in certain minerals, 
 the water of certain rivers, and the rain- 
 water of several towns. At the ordinary 
 temperature of the atmosphere it is a 
 solid crystalline body. It unites readily 
 with chlorine, potassium, etc., with 
 the emission of light and great heat. 
 It is a non-conductor of electricity, and, 
 like oxygen and chlorine, is a negative 
 electric. Like chlorine, it destroys vege- 
 table colors, but with less energy. Its 
 color is bluish black or grayish black, of 
 a metallic lustre. It is often in scales, re- 
 sembling those of micaceous iron ore; 
 sometimes in brilliant rhomboidal plates 
 or in elongated octahedrons. Its vapor 
 is an exceedingly rich violet color, a 
 character to which it owes its name. 
 This vapor is remarkably dense. Iodine 
 has a very acrid taste, and its odor re- 
 sembles that of chlorine. It is an irritant 
 poison; but in small doses has been of 
 great service in certain forms of glandu- 
 lar disease. It is largely used in photog- 
 raphy, in the preparation of aniline 
 colors, and in other ways. It is very 
 sparingly soluble in water, but dissolves 
 copiously in alcohol and in ether, form- 
 ing dark brown liquids. It possesses 
 
IODOFORM 
 
 IOWA 
 
 Btrong powers of combination, and forms, 
 with the pure metals, and most of the 
 simple non-metallic substances, com- 
 pounds which are termed iodides. With 
 hydrogen and oxygen it forme iodic acid; 
 combined with hydrogen it forms hydri- 
 odic acid. This is a colorless gas, which 
 strongly reddens litmus, and decomposes 
 many chlorides. Starch is a characteris- 
 tic test of iodine, forming with it a com- 
 pound of a deep blue color. This test is so 
 delicate that a solution of starch dropped 
 into water containing less than a mil- 
 lionth part of iodine is tinged blue by it. 
 The great consumption of iodine is in 
 medicine; it is employed in its pure state, 
 but much more frequently in the form of 
 iodide of potassium, which has been 
 found of great benefit in goitre, scrofula,, 
 disease of the liver and spleen, in syphil- 
 itic affections, rheumatism, etc., as well 
 as in lead-poisoning. Iodide of iron is 
 another useful medicine, being employed 
 in chlorosis, anaemia, scrofula, and 
 glandular affections. 
 
 lOD'OFORM, a substance analogous 
 to chloroform in composition, but in 
 w’hich iodine replaces chlorine. It is in 
 the form of small, solid yellow crystals, 
 and is prepared by the action of alcohol 
 and other bodies on iodine and potash. 
 It is nearly' insoluble in water, but dis- 
 solves in ether oils and alcohol. It is used 
 in medicine as an antiseptic, and acts 
 slightly as an anodyne; it is successfully 
 applied to ulcers and sores of various 
 * kinds, and is used as a snuff for cold in 
 the head. It may be prepared as an 
 ointment. 
 
 IONIA, that part of. the seaboard of 
 Asia Minor which was inhabited by 
 Ionian Greeks, a beautiful and fertile 
 country opposite the islands of Samos 
 and Chios, which also belonged to it. 
 According to tradition the Greek colon- 
 ists came over from Attica about the 
 middle of the 11th century b. c., and 
 founded twelve to'vvns, which, though 
 mutually independent, formed a con- 
 federacy for common purposes. These 
 included Phocaea, Ephesus, Miletus, etc., 
 and latterly Smyrna. Commerce, navi- 
 gation, and agriculture early rendered 
 them wealthy and flourishing, but the 
 country was made tributary by Croesus, 
 king of Lydia, and later by Cyrus, king 
 of Persia (557 b. c.). With an interval of 
 independence they remained under Persia 
 until this empire was overthrown by 
 Alexander the Great, 334-331 b. c., 
 when they became a part of the Mace- 
 donian Empire. Ionia, at a later period, 
 .became part of the Roman province of 
 Asia. It was afterward totally devas- 
 tated by the Saracens, so that few ves- 
 tiges of its ancient civilization remain. 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS, a number of Greek 
 islands in the Ionian sea, extending along 
 the western and southern shores of 
 Greece, of which the largest are Corfu, 
 Cephalonia, Zante, and Cerigo, others 
 being Ithaca or Thiaki, Paxos, and 
 Santa Maura; area, 1097 sq. miles. Pop. 
 252,000. 
 
 IONIC ORDER, one of the orders of 
 Classic architecture, the distinguishing 
 characteristic of which is the volutes of 
 its capital. In the Grecian Ionic (1) the 
 stylobate consists of three receding equal 
 steps the combined height of which is 
 from four-fifths to a whole diameter; 
 
 (2) the column, which includes band, 
 shaft, and capital, is rather more than 
 nine diameters in height, the shaft being 
 fluted with twenty-four flutes and alter- 
 nating fillets; while (3) the entablature 
 
 Ionic order— Grecian. 
 
 is rather more than two diameters in 
 height. The volutes are connected on 
 the flanks by a peculiar roll-moulding, 
 called the baluster or bolster. In the 
 Roman Ionic, a modification of the latter 
 style, the stylobate is lofty and not 
 graduated; the shaft diminishes one- 
 
 The Erechtheum at Athens— Ionic order. 
 
 tenth of a diameter and has twenty 
 fillets and flutes; the capital, which is 
 two-fifths of a diameter, has its volutes 
 a little lower than the other, and a square 
 abacus with moulded edges covers the 
 whole. The chief examples of the 
 Grecian Ionic are those of the Athenian 
 
 Ionic architecture— Temple of Wingless Vic- 
 tory, on the Acropolis of Athens. 
 
 Acropolis; while those of the Roman 
 Ionic are found in the temple of Fortuna 
 Virilis and the Coliseum at Rome. 
 
 lOU, a written acknowledgment of 
 debt, usually made in this form : — “To 
 
 Mr. A, B. 10 U Ten dollars. — C. D. May 
 12th, 1898.” An acknowledginent of 
 debt made in this form requires no 
 stamp. It is not negotiable. The letters 
 lOU are of course used instead of the 
 words “I owe you.” 
 
 rOWA, one of the central United 
 States, bounded on the north by Min- 
 nesota; east by Wisconsin and Illinois, 
 from which it is separated by the Missis- 
 sippi; south by Missouri; and west by 
 Nebraska and Dakota, from which it is 
 separated by the river Missouri; area, 
 56,025 sq. miles. It is well watered, its 
 streams being all affluents of the large 
 rivers which bound it on the west and 
 east. To the Mississippi flow the Wap- 
 sipincon, Iowa, Cedar, Skunk, and Des 
 Moines ,with a general s. e. course To 
 the Missouri flow the Big and Little 
 Sioux and other streams. The surface is 
 undulating, nearly four-fifths consisting 
 of prairies covered with a rich coat of 
 coarse grass, forming excellent pasturage. 
 The climate is very healthy, and winter 
 continues from December to March; the 
 summer heat is tempered by frequent 
 showers. The soil is in general very 
 good, consisting of a deep black mould, 
 intermingled in the prairies with sand, 
 red clay, and gravel. The eastern por- 
 tion is rich in minerals. 
 
 lowa’smost valuable mineral resources 
 are the bituminous coal beds in the south- 
 
 Seal of Iowa. 
 
 eastern quarter of the state, the lead and 
 zinc ores in the Galena limestone of the 
 lower Silurian formation of the north- 
 east. Extensive deposits of gypsum are 
 also found, and various other minerals. 
 The limestones of the Devonian and 
 upper Silurian formations furnish an in- 
 exhaustible supply of building-stone of 
 the finest quality. Clays suitable for 
 brick manufacture are abundant and are 
 extensively ulitized. Small quantities of 
 zinc and gypsum are mined. 
 
 The area occupied by forests and 
 woodland is about 5,000,000 acres. 
 
 Iowa is pre-eminently an agricultural 
 state. Of its total land area, 97.4 percent 
 is included in farms, and of this, 86.5 
 per cent is improved. The soil is well 
 drained, producing abundantly without 
 the aid of artificial fertilizers. The state 
 is noted especially for its corn crops, the 
 acreage for which amounts to over one- 
 fourth of its total area, and contributes 
 about one-half of the total value for all 
 crops. Oats rank next in importance, 
 with about one-half the acreage and one- 
 third the value of corn. The stateusually 
 takes first place in the production of this 
 cereal. Wheat is raised most extensively 
 
IOWA 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 in the northern and northwestern count- 
 ies. The state ranks second in the pro- 
 duction of barley, this crop also being 
 most extensively grown in the northern 
 part. Less important cereals are rye and 
 buckwheat. The soil is well adapted to 
 vegetables, and the state ranks second 
 in the production of Irish potatoes. The 
 fruit industry is rapidly developing. 
 Over 71 per cent of the total are apple- 
 trees. Grapes and small fruits are suc- 
 cessfully grown. 
 
 Stock-raising holds a higher rank than 
 the raising of crops. Texas alone rivals 
 Iowa in the value of live stock, and is 
 the only state which exceeds it in the 
 number of cattle. Iowa is far in ad- 
 vance of all others in the number of 
 swine, and leads also in the number of 
 horses. Other industries include the 
 manufacture of farm implements, flour- 
 milling, pork-packing, machinery, smelt- 
 ing-works, etc. The length of railways 
 open for traffic is over 10,000 miles. It 
 possesses exceptional advantages for 
 river trade, and the smaller streams 
 supply abundant water-power. Educa- 
 tion is well attended to. There is a 
 state university (at Iowa City) and a 
 flourishing state agricultural college. 
 
 Marquette and Joliet, in 1673, and 
 Hennepin, in 1680, touched on the 
 boarders of the'state. In 1803 the region 
 passed to the United States as a part of 
 the Louisiana cession, and Indian titles 
 to the land were extinguished by treaties 
 in the years 1804, 1832, and subsequent- 
 ly. It formed, in turn, a part of the 
 territories of - Louisiana (organized in 
 1804), Missouri, Michigan, and Wiscon- 
 sin. On June 12, 1838, it was organized 
 as the Iowa territory. In 1839 the gov- 
 ernment was removed to Iowa City, and 
 in 1844 a state constitution was framed 
 and admission to the Union sought for. 
 The state was admitted to the Union on 
 December 28, 1846. In 1857 the original 
 constitution of 1846 was revised and 
 Des Moines was made the capital. In 
 the civil war, Iowa, whose fundamental 
 law prohibited slavery, took a zealous 
 part. The two most important questions 
 of public moment since 1870 have been 
 railway legislation and prohibition. The 
 development of the state was greatly 
 accelerated by the building of railroads, 
 of which there were, in 1900, nearly 
 10,000 miles, but with the rise of powerful 
 railway corporations, there ensued a 
 continuous conflict between the legis- 
 lature and the companies in regard to 
 the taxation of railway property and the 
 regulation of rates. In 1872 an act tax- 
 ing railway property was passed, and in 
 1873 a powerful agitation stirred up by 
 the patrons of husbandry against the 
 extortionate rates imposed by the com- 
 panies led to the creation of a board of 
 railroad comissioners for the purpose of 
 determining a maximum rate and pre- 
 venting discrimination. Radical action 
 on the part of the commissioners caused 
 repeated appeals to the courts, and 
 though many concessions were wrung 
 from the companies, the advantage in 
 general remained with them. A prohi- 
 bition amendment adopted in 1882 was 
 promptly declared unconstitutional by 
 the courts. A new law went into effect 
 in 1884, and for some years proved fairly 
 adequate. A very large part of the popu- 
 
 lation, however, was opposed to sumptu- 
 ary legislation, and in 1890, under the 
 protection of the interstate commerce 
 laws, a successful attempt was made to 
 evade the anti-liquor regulations by the 
 importation of alcoholic products from 
 other states. In 1894 the courts declared 
 the prohibitory laws unconstitutional. 
 From 1846 to 1854 the state was Demo- 
 cratic both in national and state politics. 
 Since 1854 its vote in national elections 
 has always been cast for the republican 
 candidate. The capital is Des Moines; 
 the principal towns being Dubuque, 
 Davenport, Burlington, Council Bluffs, 
 Sioux City, Cedar Rapids, and Keokuk, 
 Pop. 1909 2.232,000. 
 
 IOWA, a river in the state of Iowa, 
 rising in Hancock co., near the Min- 
 nesota line, and flowing southeast into 
 the Mississippi, 35 miles north of Bur- 
 lington. It is 100 miles long and 
 navigable to Iowa City, 800 miles from 
 its mouth. 
 
 IOWA, State University of, an 
 educational institution for both sexes 
 in Iowa City, Iowa. The institution 
 was opened in 1855 and re-organized in 
 1860. The work of the university is 
 organized in a college of liberal arts, 
 colleges of lajv, medicine, homeopathic 
 medicine, dentistry and pharmacy, a 
 graduate department, the Iowa school 
 of political and social science, and two 
 hospitals. The college of liberal arts 
 confers the degrees of B.A., B.Ph., and 
 B.S. The graduate college confers the 
 degrees of M.A., M.S., Ph.D., civil en- 
 gineer, and electrical engineer. The 
 college of liberal arts maintains a sum- 
 mer session for teachers and a summer 
 school for library training. The univer- 
 sity provides public lectures and exten- 
 sion courses, and is in close touch with 
 the educational institutions of the state 
 through its system of accredited high 
 schools. 
 
 IOWA CITY, a city, the capital of 
 Johnson co., Iowa, on the river Iowa, 
 at the head of navigation. It contains 
 the state university, and was once the 
 state capital. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 IOWA COLLEGE, the oldest collegiate 
 institution in the state of Iowa, founded 
 in 1846 by an association of congrega- 
 tionalists and presbyterians at Daven- 
 port, and incorporated in the following 
 year. The college was opened in 1848, 
 and in 1859 it was removed to its present 
 situation in Grinnell. The institution 
 includes three departments, the college, 
 the academy, and the school of music, 
 since 1857 open to both sexes. In 1895 
 the collegiate courses were arranged on 
 the group system, and lead to the de- 
 grees of B.A. and B.Ph. 
 
 IOWA STATE COLLEGE OF AGRI- 
 CULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS, a 
 cd-educational institution at Ames, Iowa, 
 established in 1858. In 1862 a grant of 
 public lands was bestowed on the college 
 by a general act of congress for the pur- 
 pose of fostering agricultural and me- 
 chanic education. It is a college of ad- 
 vanced technology, and organized in 
 divisions of agriculture, engineering, 
 veterinary medicine and science A 
 well stockedfarm providespractical work 
 and the Iowa experiment station gives 
 opportunity for original investigations 
 
 of agricultural problems. Tuition is free 
 to residents of Iowa, those from other 
 states paying an annual fee of $24 00 
 IPECACUAN'HA, a substance used in 
 medicine, of a nauseous odor and re- 
 pulsive bitterish taste, the dried root of 
 several plants growing in South America. 
 All the kinds have nearly the same in- 
 
 Ipecacuanha plant. 
 
 gredients, but differ in the amount of 
 the active principle which they contain. 
 The best is the annulated, yielded by 
 a small shrubby plant, a native of Brazil, 
 Colombia, and other parts of South 
 America. When given in very small 
 doses ipecacuanha improves the appe- 
 tite and digestive powers ; in a somewhat 
 larger dose it may be given to increase 
 the secretion from the mucous mem- 
 brane of the air-passages; and in a still 
 larger, from 15 to 20 grains, it occasions 
 vomiting. It is also capable, by being 
 combined with other substances, of pro- 
 ducing increased perspiration, as in the 
 well-known Dover’s powder. 
 
 IPHIGENIA (if-i-je-ni'a), in Greek 
 legend and poetry, daughter of Aga- 
 memnon and Clytemnestra. To avert the 
 wrath of ArtSmis, whom Agamemnon 
 had enraged by killing a consecrated 
 hind, and who detained the Greek fleet 
 at Aulis that had been prepared for the 
 Trojan war, Iphigenia was to be sac- 
 rificed on the altar; but a hart was 
 miraculously substituted for her, and 
 she was conveyed in a cloud to Tauris. 
 She became priestess here to ArtSmis, 
 and saved her brother Orestes when on 
 the point of being sacrificed. 
 
 IPSWICH (ip'sich), a pari., county, 
 and municipal borough and river-port 
 in England, capital of Suffolk, on the 
 Orwell. Pop. 66,622. 
 
 IQUIQUE (i-ke'ka), a seaport of Chile, 
 province of Tarapaca, a considerable 
 town with an important trade, its rise 
 being due to the extensive deposits of 
 nitrate of soda and borax, and the silver- 
 mines, etc., in its neighborhood. It has 
 suffered much from earthquakes, and in 
 1879 was blockaded, bombarded, and 
 finally captured by Chile. 
 
 IRADE (i-ra'de) , a decree or command 
 of the sultan of Turkey, directed to the 
 grand vizier, whose duty it is to pro- 
 mulgate it to the public. 
 
 IRAK AJ'EMI, an interior province of 
 Persia, separated from the Caspian sea 
 by Ghilan and Mazanderan; area, about 
 138,000 sq. miles, a large part of which in 
 the east is occupied by salt deserts, the 
 rest being largely mountainous, with 
 some valleys and rich plains. The chief 
 towns are the capital, Teheran, and 
 Ispahan. 
 
 IRELAND (in Irish, Erin; in Latin, 
 Hibernia), the more western and smaller 
 of the two principal islands of which the 
 United Kingdom is composed, is sepa- 
 rated from Great Britain on the east by 
 the Irish sea, and surrounded on all 
 
IRELAND 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 other sides by the North Atlantic ocean. 
 The area is 32,551 sq. miles. Ireland is 
 divided into the four provinces of 
 Leinster, Ulster, Munster, and Con- 
 naught, and into 32 counties. 
 
 The population in 1841 was 8,175,124; 
 in 1851, 6,552,385, the decrease being 
 partly owing to the famine resulting 
 from the potato disease in 1846-47, and 
 partly to emigration. Since 1851 over 
 3,800,000 emigrants have left the coun- 
 try. Pop. in 1891, 4,704,750; in 1901, 
 4,458,775. The capital is Dublin; the 
 other chief towns are Belfast, Cork, 
 Limerick, and Londonderry. 
 
 The coast, forming a line of nearly 
 3000 miles, is, in general, bold and 
 rugged, and is diversified by numerous 
 indentations, some of which run far into 
 the land and form excellent natural 
 harbors. There are a considerable num- 
 ber of islands, chiefly on the west coast, 
 the largest being Achill. The moun- 
 tains, generally speaking, rise in isolated 
 masses at a short distance from the 
 coast, the interior having the form of a 
 vast plain, in which are extensive tracts 
 of bog. Rivers are not only numerous 
 but are very equally distributed over 
 the surface. The Shannon, in the west, 
 the largest river of Ireland if not of the 
 United Kingdom, is navigable to its 
 source in Lough Allen, forming a water- 
 way of 240 miles. The other rivers of 
 most importance are the Bandon, Lee, 
 Blackwater, Suir, and Barrow, which 
 enter the sea on the south, the last two 
 by the union of their streams forming 
 the broad estuary of Waterford har- 
 bor; the Slaney, in the southeast angle, 
 which expands into Wexford Haven; the 
 Liffey and the Boyne, entering the sea 
 on the east, the former having the capi- 
 tal at its mouth, the latter being the 
 largest river which discharges itself into 
 the Irish sea on the east coast; and the 
 Bann and the Foyle, which have their 
 mouths at no great distance from each 
 other on tlie north coast. Ireland pos- 
 sesses a vast, number of lakes, among 
 which the lakes of Killarney, in the 
 southwest, are pre-eminent for beauty, 
 and attract numerous visitors. 
 
 Granite, coal, iron, lead ore, slate, 
 alum, salt, etc., are found. 
 
 The climate is on the whole moist, 
 mild, and equable. It is highly favor- 
 able to vegetation and allows plants to 
 winter in the open air; some species of 
 plants also being peculiar in Ireland 
 alone of the British isles, as for instance 
 the strawberry-tree or arbutus, found 
 in the southwest. 
 
 As regards agriculture Ireland has 
 great advantages, for though there is a 
 great extent of moorland, there is also 
 a vast area of arable surface, covered 
 with a deep friable loam of remarkable 
 richness. The rearing of live stock and 
 dairy-farming are largely carried on. 
 By far the largest grain crop is oats; 
 the chief green crop is potatoes. An- 
 other staple crop, especially in the north, 
 is flax. 
 
 Of industrial employments the linen 
 manufacture is the chief. It has increased 
 in a remarkable manner, and Belfast, its 
 center, has become the second city 
 of Ireland. The brewing of porter and 
 distillation of whisky form important 
 industries. The fisheries employ a con- 
 
 siderable number of persons, but far 
 fewer than they should. The salmon 
 fisheries are valuable, and are increasing 
 in value. The trade is only of a moderate 
 bulk. The railway system has attained 
 a total length of 3044 miles. 
 
 The prevailing religion is the Roman 
 Catholic. The reformation never made 
 much progress, and though the Prot- 
 estant Episcopal Church was estab- 
 lished by law it was only the church of a 
 small minority. In 1869 an act was 
 assed for its disestablishment. At the 
 ead of the Roman Catholic Church are 
 four archbishops and twenty-four bish- 
 ops. The whole of the Irish Roman 
 Catholic clergy are supported solely 
 by voluntary contributions. The num- 
 ber of priests is 3200, more than half 
 being curates. There are numerous 
 monasteries and convents. The Presby- 
 terian Church is chiefly confined to 
 Ulster, where it may be said, especially 
 in the counties of Down and Antriui, to 
 be the leading religious denomination. 
 Its ministers are supported by voluntary 
 contributions, seat-rents, and church 
 funds. According to the census of 1901 
 there were in Ireland 3,308,661 Roman 
 Catholics, 581,089 Episcopalians, 443,- 
 276 Presbyterians, 62,006 Methodists, 
 and 63,743 members of other per- 
 suasions. 
 
 The principal educational institutions 
 are Dublin university and the three 
 Queen’s colleges of Belfast, Cork and 
 Galway. The Royal college of science, 
 established in 1867, supplies a complete 
 course of instruction in science applica- 
 ble to the industrial arts. The Catholic 
 University of Ireland, established in 
 1854, consists of University college, 
 Dublin, St. Patrick’s college, Maynooth, 
 and several other colleges. The semina- 
 ries for the education of the Catholic 
 priesthood are numerous, the most 
 prominent being the College of May- 
 nooth, founded in 1795. The General 
 Assembly’s theological college, Belfast, 
 and the Magee college, Londonderry, 
 are Presbyterian colleges. The chief 
 elementary schools are those under the 
 superintendence of the commissioners 
 of national education, the majority of 
 them now being free. 
 
 Ireland, by the act of union, became 
 in 1801 an integral part of the United 
 Kingdom, and shares in its legislation 
 by means of twenty-eight representa- 
 tive peers in the House of Lords, and 103 
 representatives in the House of Commons. 
 The representative peers are elected for 
 life by the whole body of Irish peers. 
 The lord-lieutenant, who represents the 
 sovereign, is the head of the executive, 
 and holds his court in Dublin castle. 
 He is assisted by a privy-council and a 
 chief-secretary, who takes the most 
 active part in the administration of 
 affairs. 
 
 The beginning of the history of Ire- 
 land is enveloped in fable. As in west- 
 ern Europe generally, the earliest in- 
 habitants are believed to have been of 
 Iberian race, and, therefore, akin to the 
 modern Basques. They were followed 
 by the Celts, different tribes of whom 
 probably arrived at different times, 
 giving rise to such names as Firbolgs, 
 Milesians, etc. Among these the Scots 
 were the latest, and latterly got the 
 
 upper hand, so that their name became 
 generally applied to all the inhabitants. 
 There is no evidence that the Irish had 
 the use of letters before the middle of 
 the 5th century, wheruChristianity and 
 Christian literature wS-e introduced by 
 St. Patrick. Subsequently Ireland be- 
 came the seat of western learning; and 
 its monasteries were the schools whence 
 missionaries proceeded throughout con- 
 tinental Europe. Its internal condition, 
 however, was far from satisfactory. 
 Divided among a number of hostile 
 kings or chiefs, it had been long torn by 
 internal wars, and for nearly two cen- 
 turies ravaged by the Danes, numbers 
 of whom settled in the country, when, 
 in the beginning of the 11th century, 
 Brian Boroimh6 united the greater part 
 of the island under his scepter, restored 
 tranquility, and subdued the northern 
 invaders. 
 
 After the death of Brian at the close 
 of the battle of Clontarf, 1014, gained 
 against the Danes and their Irish allies, 
 the island relapsed into its former state 
 of division and anarchy. In this state of 
 matters Henry II. of England obtained 
 a papal bull giving him the right to sub- 
 due it. In 1172 Henry entered Ireland 
 himself, and the clergy and the great 
 princes acknowledged his supremacy. 
 In 1315 Edward Bruce, brother of the 
 Scotch king, landed at the head of a 
 large force, and was crowned king, but 
 was defeated by the English in 1317 
 near Dundalk. At the beginning of the 
 16th century the greater part of the 
 island still remained unconquered by the 
 English. The native Irish lived accord- 
 ing to their old customs under their 
 own chiefs, and in manners and mode of 
 life still totally uncivilized. 
 
 In 1641 there began an attempt to 
 shake off the English yoke, in which 
 great atrocities were perpetrated on 
 both sides. In 1649 Cromwell was ap- 
 pointed lieutenant, and energetically, 
 but cruelly, reduced the whole country 
 within nine months. The next struggle 
 was that which followed the revolution, 
 when James II. landed in 1689, and 
 hoped to regain his crown by French 
 and Irish aid. In the following year 
 Q690) William III. arrived, and on the 
 1st of July gained a decisive victory over 
 the forces of James 09 the Boyne, near 
 Drogheda. In 1691 another victory was 
 gained over the Irish at Aughrim in Gal- 
 way, and in October Limerick, the last 
 place that held out for James, capitu- 
 lated. 
 
 The French revolution had a great 
 effect on the minds of the Irish people, 
 and it was partly through this influence 
 that the Society of United Irishmen was 
 . formed, and that rebellion broke out in 
 1798. Great atrocities were perpetrated, 
 but the rising was speedily crushed 
 
 The British government now resolved 
 to unite the Irish and English parlia- 
 ments, and an act providing for the 
 legislative union of the two countries 
 passed the Irish parliament in May, 
 1800, and the British parliament in 
 July of the same year, in virtue of which 
 the union was effected on the 1st of 
 January, 1801. In 1829, mainly through 
 the efforts of O’Connell, the Catholic 
 emancipation act was passed under 
 which Catholics could take a seat in 
 
Ireland 
 
 IRON 
 
 parliament, and were admitted to most 
 public offices. (See Catholic Emancipa- 
 tion.) The Irish national party now 
 tried to repeal the union, for which pur- 
 pose O’Connell founded the repeal 
 association. Thi^novement collapsed 
 in 1843, and afterward the potato 
 famine in 1845, and again in 1846, cast 
 all other interests into the background. 
 To mitigate this calamity parliament 
 granted enormous sums of money, yet 
 thousands died from starvation, and 
 hundreds of thousands emigrated to 
 America. 
 
 The year 1865 witnessed a new con- 
 spiracy designed to separate England 
 and Ireland. This originated in the 
 United States, when the numerous Irish 
 during the civil war in that country 
 hoped for a rupture between it and 
 England, of which they might take 
 advantage. This conspiracy, the mem- 
 bers of which called themselves Fenians 
 (see Fenians), soon spread to Ireland; 
 but before they could take any overt 
 action in that island their design was 
 stifled by the British government (1865- 
 66). The ministry resolved to render 
 the Irish people loyal and contented; 
 and accordingly the Irish Episcopal 
 Church was disestablished in 1869, and 
 another act was passed to improve the 
 tenure of land, in 1870. 
 
 Since 1871 an agitation for what is 
 called home rule has made itself promi- 
 nent. Its chief supporters, designated 
 “nationalists,” profess not to desire the 
 severance of Ireland from Britain ; what 
 they mainly want, is to have an Irish 
 parliament for matters exclusively Irish. 
 In 1880 Ireland became the scene of an 
 agitation carried on mainly by a body 
 known as the land league. The move- 
 ment was so lawless that two special 
 acts, a “coercion” act and a peace pres- 
 ervation act, were passed. Still further 
 to redress Irish grievances a land act 
 was also passed in 1881, the chief pro- 
 visions of which have already been men- 
 tioned. The land league was sup- 
 pressed, but a body called the national 
 league was soon organized in its place. 
 In 1885, 86 nationalist members (under 
 the leadership of Mr. Parnell) were re- 
 turned to parliament, and their pressure 
 on the government led to Mr. Glad- 
 stone’s scheme in 1886 by which Ire- 
 land was to receive a parliament of her 
 own and the Irish members to be with- 
 drawn from the imperial parliament. 
 This and the accompanying scheme 
 for the buying out of Irish landlords 
 were rejected by parliament and 
 the majority of the constituencies, 
 thus bringing a conservative govern- 
 ment under Lord Salisbury into power. 
 A permanent act for the repression of 
 crime was passed in 1887, and an act 
 (Lord Ashbourne’s) for the benefit of 
 Irish tenants. A home rule bill passed 
 the Commons but not the Lords in 1893. 
 The local government act of''’1898 
 established local councils similar to 
 those in Great Britain. The land pur- 
 chase act of 1903 is intended to put an 
 end to dual ownership, by enabling 
 tenants to buy their farms. 
 
 The Irish language belongs to the 
 Gaelic or Gaedhelic branch of the Celtic 
 stem of languages, being closely akin to 
 the Gaelic of Scotland and the Manx, 
 
 and more remotely allied to the British 
 dialects (Welsh, Cornish, and Armoric). 
 The modern dialects or varieties of 
 Irish, which differ very much from the 
 ancient, are spoken by the rural classes 
 in Connaught and Munster, and parts 
 of Ulster. Gaehc is a comparatively 
 modern form of Irish, which, both 
 linguistically and from the extent and 
 antiquity of its literature, is far more 
 important than Gaelic. 
 
 Irish literature is rather varied and ex- 
 tensive, including history, legendary 
 and actual, in prose and verse, annals, 
 genealogies, and pedigrees, mytho- 
 logical and imaginative tales, lyric 
 poetry, satire, fives of saints, treatises 
 on law, science, grammar, etc. Some 
 of these may be as old as the 5th century 
 of our era. 
 
 IRELAND, John, an American Roman 
 Catholic prelate, archbishop of St. Paul. 
 He is a native of County Kilkenny, 
 Irela);id, and was born Sept. 11, 1838. 
 At eleven years of age he settled at 
 
 St. Paul with his parents, was edu- 
 cated in France, and entered the priest- 
 hood in 1861. Having served as chap- 
 lain during the civil war Dr. Ireland 
 became coadjutor of St. Paul in 1875, 
 was made bishop in 1884 and arch- 
 bishop in 1888. He has been prominent 
 as a liberal Roman Catholic, has inter- 
 ested himself in national politics as a 
 republican and has been several times 
 mentioned as a candidate for cardinal. 
 
 IRETON, Henry, a parliamentary 
 general, was born in Nottinghamshire 
 in 1610. When the civil contest com- 
 menced he joined the parliamentary 
 army, and by the interest of Cromwell, 
 whose daughter Bridget he married 
 in 164^ he became commissary-gen- 
 eral. lie commanded the left wing at 
 Naseby, which was defeated. He was 
 an implacable enemy of the king, had 
 a principal hand in framing the or- 
 dinance for his trial, and sat himself 
 as one of the judges. Ireton accom- 
 panied Cromwell to Ireland in 1649, 
 and was left by him as lord-deputy. 
 He deduced the natives to obedience 
 with great vigor, but cruelly. He died 
 
 of the plague before the walls of Lim- 
 erick, 1651, and was buried in Westmin- 
 ster Abbey 1652. 
 
 IRIDIUM, a metal of a whitish color, 
 not malleable, discovered in the black 
 scales which remain when native 
 platinum is dissolved in aqua regia; 
 specific gravity about 22.4, symbol Ir. 
 It takes its name from the variety of 
 colors it exhibits while dissolving in 
 hydrochloric acid. It is the most in- 
 fusible of metals. It forms a number of 
 alloys, one of which, iridosmine, occurs 
 native. The alloy with gold is malleable 
 and much resembles gold hi appearance, 
 that with copper is very hard, pale red 
 in cqlor, and ductile. 
 
 I'RIS, in Greek mythology, the fleet, 
 golden-winged messenger of the Olym- 
 pian gods. Iris was originally the per- 
 sonification of the rainbow, though she 
 does not appear as such in the Homeric 
 poems. She is represented with wings 
 attached to her shoulders and a herald’s 
 staff in her left hand, representative of 
 her office of messenger. 
 
 IRIS, the muscular curtain stretched 
 vertically in the anterior part of the eye, 
 perforated by and forming the colored 
 circle around the pupil. 
 
 IRIS, a plant that gives name to the 
 natural order Iridacese, and is also 
 called flag and fleur-de-fis. The plants 
 of the genus Iris, some of which are 
 medicinal and others merely orna- 
 mental, are found in many localities over 
 Europe, Asia, and America. They 
 usually grow in wet places, bearing 
 flowers of various colors, but the pre- 
 vailing tint is blue. Orris-root consists 
 of the root-stock of some species, as 
 I. florentina; and the root-stock of this 
 and other species are cathartic or 
 emetic. 
 
 IRISH SEA, the sea between Great 
 Britain and Ireland, north of St, 
 George’s channel and south of the 
 North channel, 130 miles long and 
 about 60 miles wide. It contains the 
 islands of Anglesey and Man. 
 
 IRI'TIS, inflammation of the iris of 
 the eye. The symptoms of iritis are a 
 zone of a pale pink color round the 
 cornea, formed by vessels traversing 
 the sclerotic ; and the iris itself under- 
 goes a remarkable change of color. The 
 patient experiences pain in the orbit 
 of the eye, in the forehead, and side of 
 the head, which frequently grows more 
 intense at night. Iritis may arise from 
 wounds in the iris, from tod prolonged 
 continuous use of the eye, or from 
 constitutional predisposition induced 
 by syphilis, scrofula, etc. It may be 
 treated according to circumstances by 
 blood-letting, belladonna, and mer- 
 cury. 
 
 IRKUTSK', a town in Southern 
 Siberia, capital of government of same 
 name, at the junction of the Irkut with 
 the Angara, about 40 miles from Lake 
 Baikal. Pop. 51,434. — The govern- 
 ment has an area of 309,190 sq. miles, 
 and a pop. of 540,535. 
 
 IRON, the most universally distrib- 
 uted and . the most generally applied 
 of all the metals. It is the most tena- 
 cious of the metals, having a breaking 
 strain of 106,000 lbs. per sq. inch of 
 section; and two pieces can be per- 
 fectly welded together when raised to a , 
 
iron-bark 
 
 IRON Mask 
 
 white heat. It is so ductile that it can 
 be drawn into wire as fine as the human 
 hair. It occurs chiefly in the earth’s 
 crust in combination with oxygen, but 
 it is also found in combination with 
 several other elements, and sometimes, 
 although rarely, native or in the metallic 
 state. 
 
 It is from one or other of its ores that 
 the iron of commerce is obtained. The 
 ores of iron are very numerous, but the 
 oxides, carbonates, and sulphides are 
 the most important. 
 
 Before the ores pass into the smelter’s 
 hands they are subjected to the prelim- 
 inary process of calcination or roasting. 
 The object of this operation is to sepa- 
 rate water, carbonic acid, sulphur, and 
 other volatilizable substances from the 
 ore, and at the same time to render the 
 ore more porous. This is now generally 
 effected by placing the ironstone over 
 a coal-fire at the bottom of a kiln ; when 
 the ore is red-hot a fresh layer, 8 or 9 
 inches in depth and mixed with coal, 
 is added, and so on until the kiln is 
 filled. When the bottom layer is cold 
 it can be withdrawn, and the process 
 thus becomes continuous. 
 
 The smelting of the iron is the next 
 process, that is, the production of the 
 metallic iron from the ore. Until the 
 beginning of the 17th century char- 
 coal was exclusively used for iron- 
 smelting, but coal and coke have now 
 taken its place, except in those countries 
 where forests still abound and charcoal 
 can be procured readily and cheaply. 
 Chief among iron-smelting appliances 
 is the blast-furnace, and the great prog- 
 ress made in the production of pig-iron 
 is largely due to better constructed fur- 
 naces. 
 
 To obtain malleable or wrought iron, 
 it is necessary to free the pig-iron from 
 the sulphur, phosphorus, silicon, and 
 excess of carbon it contains, as these 
 substances lessen the tenacity of the 
 iron, and render it unfit for rolling into 
 bars or plates. But a small quantity of 
 carbon (under 1 per cent) is essential to 
 the formation of good malleable iron; 
 perfectly pure iron would be too soft. 
 
 By the Siemens regenerative and 
 other similarly constructed furnaces, 
 'malleable iron and steel are now pre- 
 pared directly from the ore. In recent 
 years “malleable castings” have been 
 introduced. 
 
 If iron is heated frequently or care- 
 lessly, it ceases to be fibrous and loses 
 its tenacity; it is then said to be burnt. 
 To restore it to its original condition, a 
 fresh and very careful forging is gener- 
 ally needed. This may also be done by 
 heating the piece of iron to bright red- 
 ness, and plunging it into a boiling 
 saturated solution of sea-salt until it 
 is of the same temperature, about 
 230° Fahr. After this operation the 
 metal can be easily doubled in the 
 cold. 
 
 It is not always easy to draw the line 
 between iron and steel, and many 
 varieties of metal come into the market 
 under the name of steel which in reality 
 are alloys of iron with other metals, 
 such as wolfram, manganese, chrome, 
 etc. It is admitted by all metallurgists 
 that one of the characteristics of true 
 steel is that it hardens when heated 
 
 '{ 
 
 and then suddenly cooled in water; 
 but wolfram steel, for instance, exhibits 
 the very opposite property. Expe- 
 rienced workmen can distinguish iron 
 from steel by the musical note emitted 
 on striking. A more certain method 
 consists in treating the metal with 
 diluted nitric or sulphuric acid. If the 
 surface remains unaltered, or nearly so, 
 when touched with a drop of either acid, 
 the metal is iron; in the case of steel a 
 black mark will be left, owing to the 
 liberation of carbon. 
 
 Pure iron is a silver white metal, 
 with a strong lustre, very tenacious, 
 capable of receiving a high polish, and 
 so soft as to be easily cut with a knife. 
 It may be obtained by heating nitride of 
 iron in a stream of hydrogen, or by 
 electrolytic precipitation; but, accord- 
 ing to Matthiessen, however metallic 
 iron is obtained it always contains a 
 trace of sulphur. In its chemical anal- 
 ogies iron is closely related to the 
 metals cobalt, nickel, and chromium; 
 it belongs to the hexad group of metals, 
 and forms a large series of salts. The 
 atomic weight of iron is 55.9 or 56. Iron 
 dissolves slowly in dilute nitric acid; 
 if not diluted, this acid rapidly oxidizes 
 it. Dilute sulphuric acid dissolves this 
 metal easily, but if concentrated, it 
 has no action in the cold, whereas, on 
 heating to ebullition, the iron is dis- 
 solved with evolution of sulphurous 
 acid gas. Iron is also dissolved in 
 hydrochloric acid and in aqua regia, 
 
 IRON-BARK, an Australian tree 
 growing to the height of 100-150 feet, 
 with heavy, strong, and durable timber, 
 difficult to work and apt to be “shaky.” 
 
 IRON-CLADS, see Navy. 
 
 IRON-CLAD VESSELS, or ARMOR- 
 CLAD-VESSELS, a term applied in 
 England to all vessels protected from 
 the fire of heavy guns by thick plates of 
 iron orsteel,usuallybackedby wood. The 
 iron-elad is comparatively a modern in- 
 vention, and it was not until 1859 that 
 Britain began to introduce such vessels 
 
 A, Iron plating, b. Teak backing, 
 c, Ship’s side. 
 
 into her navy; but since that time greater 
 changes have taken place in the con- 
 struction of war-ships than in all pre- 
 vious ages. Before the 19th century we 
 have no record of vessels being fortified 
 with iron plates, and the idea was first 
 practicallv applied to some floating 
 batteries by the French in the Crimean 
 war. The improved shells played such 
 havoc in the crowded ’tween decks of 
 the line-of-battle ships then in use, that 
 some extra protection became absolutely 
 necessary. The first iron-clad. La Gloire, 
 was constructed by the French in 1858, 
 a wooden ship sheathed from end to 
 end in 4j-in. iron plates, an armor then 
 
 considered invulnerable. It was evident 
 that Britain must not only take up the 
 idea of the French, but also improve 
 upon it, and this led to a period of un- 
 exampled activity in the naval yards of 
 both countries. No sooner had France 
 launched an - iron-clad than Britain re- 
 plied with another, although the former 
 managed to keep the lead for some 
 years. The first British iron-clad, the 
 Warrior, was launched in the Thames in 
 December, 1860, an iron frigate with 
 air-tight compartments, 4i-in. iron 
 armor and 18-in. wood backing, the two 
 ends of the vessel unprotected. The 
 French continued to build their vessels 
 of wood for some years, while the British 
 started at once with iron, which gave 
 the advantage of extra lightness for the 
 same strength Iron-el ads may be 
 divided into the three chief classes of 
 broadside, turret, and barbette vessels. 
 La Gloire and the Warrior carried their 
 guns on the broadside like old wooden 
 frigates, but as the number of guns car- 
 ried was reduced as ordnance grew 
 heavier, and all-round firing was found 
 expedient, it was deemed necessary to 
 limit the masses of armor by applying it 
 to the most vulnerable parts only, and 
 adopting various methods for attaining 
 all-round firing. This brought about an 
 entire new departure in ship-building— 
 the construction of turret ships, or ships 
 having a revolving covered turret or 
 turrets rising above the deck and con- 
 taining the chief guns, the turrets being 
 of great strength, and having openings 
 for the muzzles of the guns. The turret- 
 ship is the invention of Ericsson in 
 1861-64 for the United States navy, and 
 the advantages of his system were fully 
 demonstrated in the successful conflict 
 of the turret-ship Monitor wdth the 
 broadside-ship Merrimac, in the Ameri- 
 can civil war. Ships on the barbette 
 system have open towers or turrets 
 rising above the deck, containing heavy 
 guns which fire over the edge of the 
 turrets (thus giving an extensive range). 
 The manner in which the armor is dis- 
 tributed varies greatly in different ships. 
 Battleships are of the first, second, or 
 third class, according to their value as 
 fighting-ships, which is gauged by the 
 extent and resisting powers of their 
 armor, the number, range, and penetrat- 
 ing power of their guns, their maximum 
 speed and radius of action. It generally 
 follows that the size of the ship is great- 
 est in the first class and least in the third 
 
 IRON MASK, The man with the, 
 unknown personage kept in various 
 French prisons, who for a long time ex- 
 cited much curiosity. All that is known 
 of him is that he was above middle 
 height, of a fine and noble figure, and 
 delicate brownish skin; that he had a 
 pleasant voice was well educated, and 
 fond of reading and guitar playing, and 
 that he died in the Bastile 1703. The 
 mask he w'ore seems to have been of 
 black velvet, not iron Conjecture has 
 given him many names. He was stated 
 to be in turn the Count of 'Vermandois 
 (a natural son of Louis XIV. and de la 
 ValliSre), the Duke of Beaufort, the 
 Duke of Monmouth, the son of Anne of 
 Austria (mother of Louis XIV.) by some 
 favorite, and twin-brother of Louis XIV. 
 
IRON mountain 
 
 IRVING 
 
 but all these assertions have been un- 
 able to stand the test of thorough in- 
 vestigation. What seems most probable 
 is that he was Count Birolamo Matthioli, 
 first minister of the Duke of Mantua, 
 who had betrayed the interests of Louis 
 XIV. by failing to secure for him, as he 
 had pledged himself to do, in considera- 
 tion of a large bribe, possession of the 
 fortress of Cassale, which gave access to 
 the whole of Lombardy. For this offense 
 the court of Versailles lured him to the 
 French frontier, secretly arrested and 
 imprisoned him in the fortress of Pig- 
 nerolo. The secret was preserved so care- 
 fully, on the supposition that Matthioli 
 was the ill-fated prisoner, because his 
 seizure and detention were flagrant 
 violations of international law. 
 
 IRON MOUNTAIN, capital of Dickin- 
 son CO., Mich., on the Menoninee river 
 and the Chi. and N. W. and the Chi., 
 Mil. and St. P. railways; 208 miles 
 n. of Milwaukee, Wis. It has large 
 iron-mining interests; pop. 11,140. 
 
 IRON MOUNTAIN, or IRON MOUNT, 
 a famous iron mountain in St. Francois 
 CO., Mo.; 81 miles s.w of St. Louis. It 
 is 228 feet high, covers 500 acres, is of 
 mammillary shape, and consists chiefly 
 of an iron ore which yields 55 or 60 per 
 cent of excellent iron. The amount of 
 ore in Iron Mountain seems to be im- 
 mense, the main body having a thick- 
 ness of 50 feet, and continuing indef- 
 initely in depth. 
 
 IRONTON, capital of Lawrence co., 
 Ohio, on the Ohio river, and the Cin., 
 Day. and Iron., the Iron, and the Nor- 
 folk and West, railways; 50 miles s.w. 
 of Pomeroy; 145 miles s. by e. of Cin- 
 cinnati. It is in an iron and bituminous 
 coal region. The principal manufac- 
 tures are machinery, boilers, foundry 
 products, rolled iron, nails, stoves, fire- 
 brick, and furniture Pop. 13,255. 
 
 IRONWOOD, a city in Gogebic co., 
 Mich., on the Mil., Lake S. and W. and 
 the Wis. Cent, railways; 39 miles e. by s. 
 of Ashland, Wis., 150 miles w. of Mar- 
 quette. It is in the celebrated Gogebic 
 iron-mining region, and has four news- 
 papers Pop. 11,750. 
 
 IRON- WOOD, a name given to vari- 
 ous trees from the quality of their tim- 
 ber The iron-wood or hop-hornbeam 
 Qf America, is a tree with a trunk not 
 
 exceeding 6 in. in diameter, with very 
 hard wood, so heavy that it sinks in 
 water, and foliage resembling that of 
 birch. 
 
 I'RONY, a form of speech in which the 
 meaning intended to be conveyed is 
 contrary to the natural meaning of the 
 
 words. Irony, as a rhetorical device, 
 becomes a most effective weapon for 
 ridiculing an antagonist. 
 
 IROQUOIS (i'ro-kwa), the joint name 
 given by the French to a once power- 
 ful confederacy of six North American 
 Indian tribes (Mohawks, Oneidas, Sen- 
 ecas, etc.). They formerly resided on 
 the Mohawk river, and extended their 
 conquests to the Mississippi, and be- 
 yond the St. Lawrence. It is prob- 
 able that but for the settlement of the 
 whites they would have secured do- 
 minion from Canada to the Gulf of 
 Mexico. Some of the tribes are now 
 extinct; some have made considerable 
 advances in civilization, while others 
 have fallen into a state of squalid misery. 
 Part of the Canadian Indians are 
 Iroquois. 
 
 IRRADIATION, that effect on the eye 
 through which brilliantly illuminated 
 white surfaces and self-luminous bodies, 
 when emitting white light, appear to 
 the eye much larger than they really are. 
 
 IRRAWAD'DY, Irawadi, a large river 
 traversing Lower and Upper Burmah 
 from north to south, falling into the 
 Indian ocean by various mouths and 
 forming a great delta. 
 
 IRRIGATION, the art of increasing 
 the productiveness of soils by the arti- 
 ficial supply of water to them. This is 
 as old as agriculture, and references to it 
 exist in very early records, especially in 
 Egypt, India, and China. In countries 
 with very small rainfall, and subject to 
 droughts, agriculture without irrigation 
 would be uncertain and unprofitable. 
 For this reason the British government 
 has promoted extensive irrigation works 
 in India, and, although financially a loss, 
 they are a great boon to the agricultural 
 population, and do much to mitigate 
 those famines which have been so com- 
 mon among them. In Sind 80 per cent 
 of the cultivated area is irrigated, in 
 the United (n.w.) provinces 32 per cent. 
 The greatest irrigation-work is the 
 Ganges canal, 445 miles long. In the 
 south of Europe, particularly in Italy 
 and Spain, irrigation works of a high 
 order have existed from ancient times, 
 and it is supposed that the Romans in- 
 troduced similar works into Britain, 
 where it is extensively practiced in some 
 parts especially for the growing of 
 grass. In California and elsewhere in the 
 western states and territories of America 
 it is largely employed for crops also, of 
 various kinds. The water not only sup- 
 plies the moisture so necessary to vege- 
 tation, but it fertilizes the soil by fur- 
 nishing such mineral constituents as 
 salts of potash and soda, sulphates of 
 lime, soluble silica, etc., all of which act 
 on the soil, especially if the water be 
 rich in them, like a dressing of bone- 
 manure. Sewage water is more valuable 
 than pure water, from the large amount 
 of putrified animal and vegetable matter 
 it carries, and the drainage of many 
 towns finds thus profitable application. 
 There are various systems of distribut- 
 ing the water in irrigation to suit the 
 special requirements of different sur- 
 faces, positions, and uses of land. 
 
 IRVING, Sir Henry (originally John 
 Henry Brodribb), a celebrated English 
 actor, born in 1838. After playing for 
 nearly three years in Edinburgh he ap- 
 
 peared at the Princess’ theater, Lon- 
 don, in 1859. After a short stay here, 
 and a few months in Glasgow, he went 
 to Manchester, where he remained for 
 five or six years. Having returned to 
 London in 1866 he took part in the 
 Belle’s Stratagem, Hunted Down, Uncle 
 Dick’s Darling, etc. ; but his first marked 
 success was as Digby Grant in Albery’s 
 Two Roses (in 1870), which was fol- 
 lowed by his powerful impersonation of 
 Mathias in The Bells (founded on Erck- 
 mann-Chatrian’s Polish Jew). His next 
 noteworthy parts were Charles I., 
 Eugene Aram, and Richelieu, in the 
 plays so named. In 1874, at the Lyceum 
 theater, he sustained the part of Ham- 
 let so successfully as to raise himself to 
 the first place among English actors. 
 His chief Shakespearean parts subse- 
 quently played are Macbeth, Othello, 
 and Richard III. In 1878 he leased the 
 Lyceum theater for himself, and has 
 since put on the stage in excellent style 
 Othello, The Merchant of Venice, Much 
 Ado About Nothing, Romeo and Juliet, 
 Twelfth Night, Faust, Macbeth, etc., 
 playing in them the principal ch^acter 
 along with Miss Ellen Terry. His re- 
 eated visits to the United States have 
 een very successful. Hehascontributed 
 a few papers to the magazines on sub- 
 jects connected with his art, and has de- 
 livered addresses at Oxford and Har- 
 vard universities. He was knighted in 
 1895. He died in 1905. 
 
 IRVING, Washington, one of the best 
 American writers, born in New York 3d 
 April, 1783; died 28th November, 1859, 
 at Sunnyside, on the Hudson. In 1802 
 his Letters of Jonathan Oldstyle ap- 
 peared in the New York Morning Chroni- 
 cle. Shortly afterward, he sailed for 
 Europe, visited most continental coun- 
 
 tries, and did not return to .America until 
 March, 1806. His sketches of Dutch 
 character, in his Knickerbocker’s His- 
 tory of New York, which made its ap- 
 pearance in December, 1809, proved him 
 possessed of quaint and genial humor 
 to a high degree. In 1815 he visited 
 England to follow literature as a pro- 
 fession, and settled in London. A 
 seriesof papersentitledThe Sketch Book, 
 first published at New York, 1818, met 
 with such success that an enlarged edi- 
 tion was published in London two years 
 later. For seventeen years until 1832 
 
IRWIN 
 
 ISLAND 
 
 Irving resided in Europe, principally in 
 England, France, and Spain. This was 
 a period of great literary activity, and 
 brought forth some of his most famous 
 works, such as Bracebridge Hall, The 
 Tales of a Traveler, and The Life of 
 Columbus, for which 5,000, 7,500, and 
 15,000 dollars respectively were paid 
 him by the publishers. He also acted for 
 a time as secretary to the American 
 embassy in London, and the University 
 of Oxford honored him in 1831 with the 
 degree of D.C.L. Having returned to 
 New York in the spring of 1832 he ac- 
 companied the expedition for the re- 
 moval of the Indian tribes beyond the 
 Mississippi, and collected the material 
 for his Tour on the Prairies, published in 
 1835. From 1842 to 1846 he acted as 
 United States ambassador at Madrid, 
 and on his return in that year he retired 
 to his country-seat at Sunnyside. His 
 biography of Oliver Goldsmith, Mahom- 
 med and his Successors, and the Life of 
 Washington (1855-56) occupied his last 
 years. Other works of his are: The Con- 
 quest of Granada, Tales of the Alham- 
 bra, Legends of the Conquest of Spain, 
 Voyages of the Companions of Columbus, 
 Adventures of Captain Bonneville, and 
 Astoria. His famous story of Rip van 
 Winkle belongs to the Sketch Book. 
 
 IRWIN, May, American actress, born 
 at Whitby, Ont., in 1862. As a star 
 she appeared in The Widow Jones, The 
 Belle of Bridgeport, Madge Smith, 
 Attorney, and other light pieces. 
 
 ISAAC (Heb. “he will laugh”), one of 
 the Hebrew patriarchs, the son of 
 Abraham by Sarah, so called to denote 
 the laughter and gladness occasioned by 
 his birth. He is remarkable as the off- 
 spring of very old age, Sarah being 
 ninety and Abraham a hundred years 
 old at the time of his birth; for his 
 miraculous escape from death as a 
 burnt-offering; and for the fraud per- 
 petrated upon him, at his wife Rebecca’s 
 instigation, by his son Jacob, to the in- 
 jury of Esau. He died at Hebron 180 
 years old, and was buried in the cavern 
 of Machpelah, the resting-place of Sarah 
 and Abraham, and of Rebecca. 
 
 ISABELLA OF CASTILE, daughter of 
 King John II. of Castile and Leon, con- 
 sort of Ferdinand the Catholic, was born 
 1451, married 1469, and died 1504. She 
 was a woman of great charms, courage, 
 and sagacity, and contributed no small 
 share to the many remarkable events of 
 the reign of Ferdinand V., including the 
 introduction of the inquisition, 1480, 
 the discovery of America by Columbus, 
 1492, and the final expulsion of the 
 Moors after the conquest of Granada. 
 
 ISABELLA n., ex-queen of Spain, 
 daughter of Ferdinand III., was born in 
 1830, and succeeded her father three 
 years after, her mother being appointed 
 queen-regent. The early years of her 
 reign were disturbed by a rising in 
 favor of her uncle, Don Carlos, who, if 
 the Salic law had not been set aside, 
 would have ascended the throne instead 
 of her; but this was finally quelled in 
 1839. She was declared of age in 1843, 
 and in 1846 was married to her cousin, 
 Don Francisco d’ Assisi. Her reign was 
 so despotic that a revolution took place 
 in 1868, which drove her from the coun- 
 try. She resigned her claims to the 
 
 P. E.-43 
 
 crown in favor of her son Alfonso, who 
 ascended the throne in 1875. She lives 
 sometimes in Spain, sometimes in Paris. 
 
 ISAIAH, the first of the great Hebrew 
 prophets. He began his predictions in 
 the last -years of Uzziah’s reign. Of his 
 father, Amoz, w'e know nothing, and of 
 the circumstances of his life but little. 
 We know, however, that he had great 
 influence over the kings and people of 
 Judah, and he is supposed to have died 
 at a good old age at Jerusalem, at the 
 beginning of Manasseh’s reign. The first 
 portion of the writings that pass under 
 his name consists chiefly of declarations 
 of sins and threatenings of judgments, 
 while the last 27 chapters, together with 
 some previous ones, hold out promises 
 of a glorious future for Israel. The 
 style throughout is clear and simple, yet 
 dignified and sublime in the highest de- 
 gree. His authorship of the last 27 
 chapters is denied by some eminent 
 critics, who unite in ascribing them to a 
 later prophet, perhaps alsocalled Isaiah, 
 while others believe that the name 
 Isaiah stands for a school of prophets ; 
 but the integrity of the book has still 
 many able defenders. 
 
 ISERE, a department of southeastern 
 France; area, 3815 sq. miles. Grenoble 
 is the capital. Pop. 568,693. 
 
 ISHMAEL, the son of Abraham by 
 Hagar. He married an Egyptian wife, 
 and had twelve sons and X)ne daughter, 
 who became the wife of Bsau. He died 
 when 137 years old. It was predicted 
 that he was to become “a great nation,” 
 and the Arabs, especially the Bedouins, 
 are often regarded as descendants of 
 Ishmael. 
 
 ISHMAELITES, ISMAELITES, or IS- 
 MAELIENS, a Mohammedan sect origi- 
 nating in the 1st century of the Hegira, 
 and deriving its name from Ishmael or 
 Ismael, one of All’s descendants. From 
 the 8th to the 12th century they were 
 powerful in the east, made many con- 
 quests, and under various chiefs and 
 names distributed themselves over Irak, 
 Syria, Persia, and Egypt. A small 
 remnant of them still dwell in Syria. 
 The Assassins (which see) were a branch 
 of this sect. 
 
 ISH'PEMING, a city in Marquette co., 
 Mich., on the Chi. and N. W., and the 
 Duluth, S. Shore and Atlantic railways, 
 15 miles w.s.w. of Marquette. It is the 
 center of the great Lake Superior iron- 
 ore region, and is on the Marquette 
 range, the most productive of the four 
 iron ranges. Pop. 15,460. 
 
 ISINGLASS, a gelatinous substance, 
 of which the best kind is prepared from 
 the swimming-bladder or sound of the 
 sturgeon, dried and cut into fine shreds, 
 while the American article is obtained 
 from the same part in the cod, hake, etc. 
 It is the basis of the Russian glue, which 
 is preferredtoall other kinds for strength. 
 A test solution is also prepared from it, 
 by means of which tannic acid may be 
 distinguished and separated from gallic 
 acid, the former giving it a yellowish- 
 white precipitate. Isinglass boiled in 
 milk forms a nutritious jelly, and a 
 solution in water, with a very small pro- 
 portion of some balsam, spread on black 
 silk, is the court plaster of the shops. 
 It is also used in fining sherries and other 
 white wines, and in making mock-pearls, 
 
 stiffening linens, silks, gauzes, etc. With 
 brandy ft forms a cement for porcelain 
 and glass. 
 
 I'SIS, the principal goddess of the 
 Egyptians, the sister and wife of Osiris, 
 representing the moon, as Osiris did the 
 sun. The Egyptians believed that Isis 
 first taught them agriculture, and as the 
 Greeks offered the first ears gathered to 
 Ceres, so did the Egyptians to Isis. She 
 is represented under various forms. In 
 
 Isis. 
 
 one representation she has the form of a 
 woman, with the horns of a cow, as the 
 cow was sacred to her. She is also known 
 by the attributes of the lotus on her 
 head, and the sistrum in her hand, a 
 musical instrument which the Egypt- 
 ians used in the worship of the gods. 
 She is often accompanied by her infant 
 son Horus. In one celebrated Egyptian 
 statue she was shown with her face 
 veiled. She was particularly worshiped 
 in Memphis, but at a later period 
 throughout all Egypt. From Egypt her 
 worship passed over to Greece and 
 Rome, and the abuses which it occas- 
 ioned at Rome caused its frequent pro- 
 hibition there. It was, however, re- 
 peatedly revived. The Romans never 
 considered the worship, which was in- 
 trodmeed among them by Sulla (b.c. 86), 
 altogether reputable, and its attendant 
 immorality was vigorously lashed in the 
 satire of Juvenal. 
 
 ISLAM (is-lam), that is complete resig- 
 nation and submission to the will of God, 
 is the name given in Arabic to the religion 
 originated by Mohammed. The funda- 
 mental doctrine of Islamism, and the 
 only one it is necessary to profess to be 
 a Moslem, is expressed in the common 
 formula of faith: “There is no God but 
 Allah, and Mohammed is his prophet,” 
 to which the Shiahs or Shiites, that is 
 the majority of Persian and Indian 
 Moslems, add “and Ali is the vicar of 
 God.” See Mohammedanism. 
 
 ISLAND, a portion of land entirely 
 surrounded by water, and smaller in size 
 than the great masses of land known 
 as continents. Islands are of all sizes, 
 from mere dots of land or rock in the 
 sea to a great mass like Australia, which 
 is often spoken of as a continent. Is- 
 lands are divided into two distinct 
 classes: continental islands, lying in 
 proximity to continents, and pelagic or 
 oceanic, from their position in the 
 oceans. Continental islands occur along 
 the margin of the continents, and are 
 generally of the same geological struc- 
 ture. Pelagic islands are mostly of 
 volcanic or coral formation. A cluster 
 
ISLE OF MAM 
 
 of islands, such as the West Indies, the 
 Canaries, the Hebrides, etc., are called 
 an archipelago. 
 
 ISLE OF MAN. See Man. 
 
 ISLE OF PINES, an island lying south 
 of the western portion of Cuba, to which 
 it belongs, 40 miles by 34, with good 
 pastures and valuable timber. 
 
 ISLE OF WIGHT. See Wight. 
 
 IS'LINGTON, a mun. and pari, 
 borough in the north of London. Pop. 
 334,928. 
 
 ISMAELITES, a Mohammedan sect. 
 See Ishmaelites. 
 
 ISOBARTC LINES, lines drawn on a 
 map or globe through all places where 
 the barometer is at the same height at a 
 certain time. Telegraphic communica- 
 tion enables these lines to be drawn 
 with some accuracy. 
 
 ISOCHEIMAL LINES. See Isother- 
 mal Lines. 
 
 ISOCH'RONISM, the property by 
 which a pendulum, or a balance-wheel, 
 or an oscillating particle (as of air) con- 
 veying sound vibrates through longer 
 or shorter arcs in the same time (or 
 nearly so). Given a certain length of 
 spring, all the vibrations, large or small, 
 are isochronous. If the spring is short- 
 ened the large vibrations take place 
 quicker than the short ones; if, on the 
 contrary, the spring is lengthened, the 
 small arcs are performed quicker than 
 the large ones. For small oscillations a 
 endulum is almost exactly isochronous, 
 ut it is only with the cycloidal pendu- 
 liun that perfect isochronism is ob- 
 tained. 
 
 ISOCLINIC LINES. See Isogonic Lines. 
 
 ISOGONTC LINES, lines drawn on a 
 map through all places where the de- 
 clination of the magnetic needle is the 
 same. Isoclinic lines are drawn through 
 places where the inclination or dip of 
 magnetic needle is the same; the zero 
 isoclinic line drawn through places 
 where there is no dip) is called the 
 magnetic equator. 
 
 ISOTHER'MAL LINES, lines drawn on 
 a map or globe through places which 
 have the same mean annual tempera- 
 ture. (See Climate.) Isotheral lines are 
 drawn through places having the same 
 mean temperature during the hottest 
 month of the year. Isocheimenal or 
 isocheimal lines are drawn through 
 places having the same mean tempera- 
 ture during the coldest month in the 
 year. 
 
 ISPAHAN (is-pa-hanO, or ISFAHAN, 
 a very ancient city of Persia, and for 
 centuries its capital, in the province of 
 Irak-Ajemi, on the river Zendarud, 210 
 miles south of Teheran, the present 
 Per ian capital. It was once one of the 
 most important and magnificent cities 
 in the east, but little is now left of its 
 former splendor, the largest part of the 
 city being in ruins. Much opium is grown 
 in the neighborhood, as also tobacco, 
 madder, etc., forming important articles 
 of trade. Ispahan is the emporium of 
 the inland commerce of Persia. Pop. 
 90,000. 
 
 ISRAEL and Israelites. See Jews. 
 
 ISSUE, in law, the point or matter 
 depending in a suit on which two parties 
 join and put their cause to trial. It is a 
 single, definite, and material point issu- 
 ing out of the allegations of the parties. 
 
 and consisting regularly of an affirmative 
 and negative. It is either an issue in 
 law to be determined by the court, or in 
 fact to be ascertained by a jury. 
 ISTAMBOL. See Constantinople 
 ISTAR, the ancient Babylonian god- 
 dess of war and love. 
 
 Mosque of Sultan Hussein, Ispahan. 
 
 ISTHMUS, in geography, a neck of 
 land by which two continents are con- 
 nected, or a peninsula is united to the 
 mainland. Such as the Isthmus of 
 Panama, connecting North and South 
 America 
 
 IS'TRIA, a peninsula of triangular 
 form, projecting into the northeast cor- 
 ner of the Adriatic sea, part of the 
 Austro-Hungarian dominions, area 1900 
 sq. miles. Pop. 344,173. 
 
 ITALY, a kingdom in Southern Europe 
 consisting in the main of a large penin- 
 sula, having a singular resemblance to 
 a boot in shape, stretching southward 
 into the Mediterranean, but also includ- 
 ing a considerable portion of the main- 
 land and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, 
 Elba, Ischia, Lipari Islands, etc. It is 
 bounded on the north and northwest by 
 the Alps, which separate it from Austria, 
 Switzerland, and France, and on the 
 northeast by Austria; elsewhere it is 
 washed by the Mediterranean, or the 
 Adriatic, an arm of the latter. The area 
 is about 114,000 sq. miles. For adminis- 
 trative purposes it is divided into sixty- 
 nine provinces, which are grouped under 
 sixteen departments, some of them con- 
 sisting of only a single province. 
 
 From 1861, when the kingdom of 
 Italy was constituted until 1865, Turin 
 was the capital, Florence was then 
 selected, and in 1871 Rome. The largest 
 town is Naples; next in order are Rome, 
 Milan, Turin, Palermo, Genoa, Florence, 
 Venice Italy now possesses Massowah 
 and other territory on the east or Red 
 Sea coast of Africa. Pop. 32,475,263. 
 
 Among the principal physical fea- 
 tures of Italy are the Alps on its northern 
 frontiers, and the chain of the Apennines 
 which run down the middle of the penin- 
 sulathrough itswholelengthto theStraits 
 of Messina, while numerous branches are 
 thrown off laterally, and form an endless 
 succession of wooded hills, olive-clad 
 slopes, and fertile valleys. In the north. 
 
 ITALY 
 
 inclosed between the ranges of the Alps 
 and Apennines, is a vast and fertile plain 
 intersected by the Po and its tributaries. 
 Two active volcanoes belong to the king- 
 dom, Vesuvius in South ItalyandEtnain 
 Sicily. The only river of any magnitude 
 is the Po, which has a length of about 45 
 miles before it enters the Adriatic. In 
 the peninsular part of Italy are the Arno, 
 Tiber, Garigliano, Volturno, etc. There 
 are a number of lakes, of which the most 
 important are Lake Maggiore, Lugano, 
 Como, and Garda in the Alpine region; 
 Lakes Trasimeno, Bolsena, and Albano 
 in the Apennine region. Italy is rich in 
 useful minerals, but the. scarcity of coal 
 prevents the full development of mining 
 industry. Sulphur, salt, iron, and marble 
 are the chief, though small quantities of 
 lead, copper, zinc, silver, and borax are 
 also obtained. 
 
 In the south of Italy the climate re- 
 sembles that of Africa, being dry and 
 burning and subject, to the sirocco. In 
 the northern regions, the neighborhood 
 of the Alps, and the abundance of water- 
 courses, serve to maintain a pleasant 
 temperature. The Riviera or coast of the 
 Gulf of Genoa is a favorite winter resort 
 from more northern regions. 
 
 The natural productions of the soil of 
 Italy are various. In the Alpine regions 
 all plants belonging to temperate climate 
 flourish, while the southern regions pos- 
 sess almost a tropical flora. Agriculture 
 forms thechief support of the population, 
 and the land, where not mountainous, 
 is generally productive, although the sys- 
 tem of culture adopted is in most parts, 
 defective, and large areas remain untilled.. 
 The best cultivation, aided by an excellent 
 system of irrigation, is found in Lom- 
 bardy, Venetia, Piedmont, Tuscany,, 
 and the parts of Emilia adjoining the Po. 
 Most kinds of cereals, including wheat,, 
 rice and corn, are cultivated. Hemp, 
 madder, flax, tobacco, hops, saffron, and 
 in the extreme south, cotton and sugar- 
 cane are cultivated. Fruitsarethe object 
 of attention everywhere ; and in the culti- 
 vation of the olive in particular Italy 
 surpasses all other European states. The 
 fruits include oranges and lemons in the 
 warm regions of the south, besides fig,, 
 peaches, apricots, almonds, etc. There is 
 a very large production of wine, but only 
 a few of the wines have any reputation 
 in other countries. The rearing of live- 
 stock is an important industry. The 
 cheese of Italy is famous, especially the 
 Gorgonzola and the Parmesan. 
 
 Since the consolidation of the Italian 
 kingdom, the manufactures of the coun- 
 try have made considerable advances. 
 The most important of these are the silk 
 manufactures, Italy as regards the pro- 
 duction of raw silk being in advance of 
 all the other countries of Europe. Lom- 
 bardy, Piedmont, and Venetia are the 
 great centers for its preparation. The 
 cotton manufactures are centered in 
 Upper Italy, chiefly in Lombardy. 
 Woolen manufactures are chiefly carried 
 on in Upper Italy. In the iron industry 
 the department of Lombardy stands at 
 thehead; more particularly the provinces 
 of Brescia, Como, and Milan. Tanning, 
 the manufacture of linen, of paper, gold 
 and silver wares, articles in bronze, 
 musical instruments, the making of 
 gloves, boots and shoes, felt and silk hats 
 
ITALV 
 
 ITALY 
 
 iire also considerable industries. The 
 manufacture of tobacco is a state monop- 
 oly. Of special repute are the cameos and 
 mosaics of Rome, Naples, and Florence; 
 the filigree and coral work of Genoa ; the 
 plaited straw and the earthenware manu- 
 factures of Italy generally. 
 
 The foreign trade is mainly with 
 France and Algeria, Great Britain, 
 Austria, and Germany. The chief im- 
 ports are wheat, raw cotton, and cotton 
 manufactures, coal, iron, and machinery, 
 wool, sugar, coffee; the chief exports, 
 raw silk, olive-oil, wine, fruits, eggs, 
 coral, hemp, marble, rice, sulphur. The 
 principal ports are Genoa, Leghorn, 
 Messina, Naples, Palermo, Venice, Brin- 
 disi, and Catania. The total length of 
 railways opened for traffic in 1903, was 
 9960 miles; of telegraph-lines, 24,346 
 miles, nearly two-thirds of the whole 
 belonging to the government. 
 
 The constitution of the Kingdom of 
 Italy is a limited monarchy, based upon 
 the fundamental statute granted by 
 King Charles Albert to his Sardinian 
 subjects March 4, 1848. The king, who is 
 hereditary, exercises the power of legis- 
 lation only in conjunction with a na- 
 tional parliament, consisting of two 
 chambers. The first chamber is called 
 the senate, and is composed of the 
 princes of the blood, and an indefinite 
 number of members appointed for life 
 by the king. The second chamber is 
 called the chamber of deputies, and con- 
 sists of 508 members, who are elected by 
 a majority of all the citizens above 
 twenty-one years of age who are in the 
 enjoyment of civil and political rights. 
 Each province has the right of inde- 
 pendent administration, and the execu- 
 tive power is intrusted to a provincial 
 council. In each province the power of 
 the state is represented by a prefect, 
 who is supported by a council. The 
 executive power of the state is exer- 
 cised by the king through responsible 
 ministers. 
 
 All men capable of bearing arms are 
 under obligation of military service 
 from their twenty-first to the end of 
 their thirty-ninth year. The strength of 
 the standing army on a war footing is in 
 all 793,113. The mobile militia number 
 307,696, and the territorial militia 
 2,222,637, giving a grand total for the 
 whole military service of 3,323,446 men. 
 Including vessels afloat or building, the 
 navy numbered 14 battle-ships, several 
 of the newest being among the fastest 
 and most powerful yet constructed any- 
 where. 
 
 The Roman Catholic is the state 
 religion, but all other creeds are tolerated 
 and adherents of all religions have equal 
 municipal and political rights. The 
 pope has his seat at Rome, and his 
 palaces of the Vatican and the Lateran, 
 and his villa of Castel Gandolfo, are not 
 under the jurisdiction of the state. In 
 1861 the law annihilating ecclesiastical 
 jurisdiction and the privileges of the 
 clergy was extended to the whole of the 
 kingdom, and in 1866 a bill was passed 
 for the suppression (with certain ex- 
 ceptions) of religious houses throughout 
 the kingdom. Elementary education is 
 nominally compulsory, and is entirely 
 supported from the municipal rates ; 
 but the number who can neither read 
 
 nor write still remains very large. For 
 secondary instruction there are a large 
 number of gymnasia and technical 
 schools, and for the higher education 
 there are no less than twenty-one uni- 
 versities, many of them of ancient foun- 
 dation, and at one time of considerable 
 renown. 
 
 The ancient history of Italy will be 
 found under Rome. The modern history 
 begins with 476 a.d., when Odoacer, 
 chief of the Herulians, a German tribe 
 who had invaded the country, was pro- 
 claimed king of Italy. After a reign of 
 twelve years he and his followers were 
 overpowered by the Ostrogoths under 
 Theodoric the Great. The Ostrogoths 
 were in turn subdued by Byzantine 
 troops, and Italy came under the do- 
 minion of the eastern emperors, who 
 ruled through an exarch residing at 
 Ravenna. In 568 the Lombards (Lan- 
 gobardi), a German people originally 
 from the Elbe, led by their king, Alboin, 
 conquered the Po basin, and founded a 
 kingdom which had its capital at Pavia. 
 The kingdom of the Lombards included 
 Upper Italy, Tuscany, and Umbria, 
 with some outlying districts. But on 
 the northeast coast the inhabitants of 
 the lagoons still retained their independ- 
 ence, and in 697 elected their first doge, 
 and founded the republic of Venice. 
 (See Venice.) Ravenna, the seat of the 
 exarch, with Romagna, Rimini, Ancona, 
 and other maritime cities on the Adriatic 
 and almost all the coasts of Lower Italy, 
 remained unconquered, together with 
 Sicily and Rome. The slight dependence 
 of this part of Italy on the court of 
 Byzantium disappeared almost entirely 
 in the beginning of the 8th century. The 
 power of the pope, though at first recog- 
 nized only as a kind of paternal author- 
 ity of the bishop, grew steadily in these 
 troubled times, especially in the struggle 
 against the Lombard kings. In con- 
 sideration of the aid expected against 
 King Astolphus, Pope Stephen III. 
 (754) not only anointed the king of the 
 Franks, Pepin, but appointed him 
 patrician or governor of Rome. In re- 
 turn Pepin presented the exarchate of 
 Ravenna, with the five maritime cities, 
 to the pope, thus laying the foundation 
 of the temporal power of the holy see. 
 At the invitation of Pope Hadrian I. 
 Charlemagne made war upon Desiderius, 
 the king of the Lombards, took him 
 prisoner in his capital, Pavia (774), and 
 united his empire with the Frankisk 
 monarchy. Italy, was the exception of 
 the Duchy of Benevento and the re- 
 publics of Lower Italy, thus became a 
 constituent of part the Frankish mon- 
 archy, and the imperial crown of the 
 west was bestowed on Charlemagne 
 (800). On the breaking up of the Carlo- 
 vingian empire Italy became a separate 
 kingdom, and the scene of strife between 
 Teutonic invaders. At length Otto the 
 Great was crowned emperor at Rome 
 (961), and the year after became em- 
 peror of what was henceforth known as 
 the Holy Roman Empire. 
 
 During the following centuries the 
 towns and districts of North and Middle 
 Italy gradually made themselves inde- 
 pendent of the empire, and either formed 
 themselves into separate republics or 
 fell under the power of princes bearing 
 
 various titles, A large part of Middle' 
 Italy at the same time was under the 
 dominion of the popes, including the' 
 territory granted by Pepin, which was^ 
 afterward enlarged on several occasions^ 
 In South Italy there were in the time of 
 Charlemagne several independent states. 
 In the 9th century this part of the penin- 
 sula, as well as Sicily, was overrun by 
 Saracens, and in the 11th century by 
 Normans, who ultimately founded a 
 kingdom which embraced both Lower 
 Italy and Sicily, and which, though it 
 more than once changed masters, con- 
 tinued to exist as an undivided king- 
 dom till 1282. In that year Sicily freed 
 herself from the oppression of the then 
 rulers, the French, by the aid of Pedro of 
 Aragon (see Sicilian Vespers), and re- 
 mained separate till 1435. It was again 
 separate from 1458 to 1504, when both 
 divisions were united with the cro'wn of 
 Spain. With Spain the kingdom re- 
 mained till 1713, when Naples and Sicily 
 were divided by the Treaty of Utrecht, 
 the former being given to Austria, the 
 latter to the Duke of Savoy. In 1720 
 they were again united under Austria, 
 but in 1734 were conquered from Austria 
 and passed under the dominion of a 
 separate dynasty belonging to the 
 Spanish house of Bourbon. See Sicilies, 
 Kingdom of the Two. 
 
 The history of mediaeval Italy is much 
 taken up with the party quarrels of the 
 Guelfs and Ghibellines, and the quarrels 
 and rivalries of the free republics of 
 Middle and Upper Italy. In Tuscany 
 the party of the Guelfs formed them- 
 selves into a league for the maintenance 
 of the national freedom under the 
 leadership of Florence: only Pisa and 
 Arezzo remained attached to the Ghibel- 
 line cause. In Lombardy it was different. 
 Milan, Novara, Lodi, Vercelli, Asti, and 
 Cremona formed a Guelf confederacy, 
 while the Ghibelline league comprised 
 Verona, Mantua, Treviso, Parma, Pia- 
 cenza, Reggio, Modena, and Brescia. 
 Commercial rivalry impelled the mari- 
 time republicstomutual wars. AtMeloria 
 the Genoese annihilated (1284) the navy 
 of the Pisans, and completed their do- 
 minion of the sea by a, victory over the : 
 Venetians at Curzola. (1298). See Popes,, 
 Genoa, Florence, etc. 
 
 Up till the time of the Napoleonic 
 wars Italy remained subject to foreign 
 domination, or split up into separate 
 republics and principalities. The dif- 
 ferent states were bandied to and fro by 
 the chances and intrigues of war and 
 diplomacy between Austria, Spain, and 
 the House of Savoy. During the career 
 of Napoleon numerous changes took 
 place in the map of Italy, and according 
 to an act of the congress of Vienna in 
 1815 the country was parceled out 
 among the following states: — (1) The 
 Kingdom of Sardinia, consisting of the 
 island of Sardinia, Savoy, and Piedmont, 
 to which the Genoese territory was now 
 added. (2) Austria, which received the 
 provinces of Lombardy and Venetia, 
 these having already been acquired by 
 her either before or during the time of 
 Napoleon. (3) The Duchy of Modena. 
 (4) The Duchy of Parma. (5) The 
 Grand-duchy of Tuscany. (6) The 
 Duchy of Lucca. (7) The States of the 
 Church. (8) The Kingdom of the Two 
 
ITCH 
 
 ITO 
 
 Sicilies. (9) The Republic of San Marino 
 (10) The Principality of Monaco. The 
 desire for unic.n and independence had 
 long existed in the hearts of the Italian 
 people, and the governments at Naples, 
 Rome, Lombardy, and other centers of 
 tyranny were in continual conflict with 
 secret political societies. The leading 
 spirit in these agitations in the second 
 quarter of the 19th centurywas Giuseppe 
 Mazzini, who in the end contributed 
 much to the liberation of his country. 
 The French revolution of 1848 brought 
 a crisis. The population of Lombardy, 
 Venetia, Parma, and Modena took up 
 arms and drove the Austrian troops in 
 retreat to Verona. Charles Albert, King 
 of Sardinia, then declared war against 
 Austria, and was at first successful, but 
 his forces were severely defeated at 
 Novara (March, 1849), when Charles 
 Albert abdicated in favor of his so.i 
 Victor Emmanuel. Meanwliile the pope 
 had been driven from Rome, and a 
 Roman republic had been established 
 under Mazzini and Garibaldi, the leader 
 of the volunteer bands of Italian pa- 
 triots. Rome was, however, captured by 
 the French, who came to the aid of the 
 pope (July, 1849), who resumed his 
 power in .4.pril, 1850, under the protec- 
 tion of the French, and the old absolut- 
 ism was restored. Similar attempts at 
 revolution in Sicily and Naples were 
 also crushed, but the secret societies of 
 the patriots contin^ied their operations. 
 In 1859, after the war of the French and 
 Sardinians against Austria, the latter 
 power was compelled to cede Lombardy 
 to Sardinia, and in the same year 
 Romagna, Modena, Parma, and Pia- 
 cenza were annexed to that kingdom, 
 which was, however, obliged to cede the 
 provinces of Savoy and Nice to France. 
 In the south the Sicilians revolted, and 
 supported by a thousand volunteers, 
 with whom Garibaldi sailed from Genoa 
 to their aid, overthrew the Bourbon 
 government in Sicily. Garibaldi was 
 proclaimed dictator in the name of 
 Victor Emmanuel. In August Garibaldi 
 crossed to Naples, defeated the royal 
 army there, drove Francis II. to Gaeta, 
 and entered the capital on the 7th Sep- 
 tember. Sardinia intervened and com- 
 pleted the revolution, when Garibaldi, 
 handing over his conquests to the royal 
 troops, retired to Caprera. A plebiscite 
 confirmed the union with Piedmont, 
 and Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed 
 king of Italy, thus suddenly united 
 almost in Mazzini’s phrase, “from the 
 Alps to the sea.” Only the province of 
 Venice and the Roman territory still 
 remained outside. The former was won 
 by Italy’s alliance with Prussia in 1866 
 ag.ainst Austria. The temporal power 
 of the pope was still secured by French 
 troops at Rome, till the French garrison 
 was withdrawn at the outbreak of the 
 Franco-German war in 1S70, when 
 Italian troops took ])o.5.se 'sion of tlm city 
 in name of King Victor Em’nanuel. On 
 30th June, 1871, the sea; .T government 
 was formally removed from Florence to 
 Rome. In 1878 Victor Emmanuel died, 
 and was succeeded by his son Humbert 
 I. In 1900 Humbert was assassinated, 
 and his son Victor Emmanuel HI. 
 ascended the throne. For some years 
 Italy has been in league with Austria 
 
 and Germany, an alliance Intended to 
 preserve the peace of Europe. 
 
 The Italian language is one of the 
 Romance tongues, or tongues derived 
 from the Latin, and is therefore a 
 sister of French, Spanish, and Portu- 
 guese. The oldest monuments of Italian 
 literature go little further back than the 
 beginning of the 13th century. The 
 great luminary of this period, and by 
 far the greatest poetic genius which 
 Italy has produced, was Dante (1265- 
 1321). (See Dante.) Francesco Petrarca 
 (Petrarch; 1304-74), another of the 
 great lights of Italian literature, ex- 
 hibits in his sonnets and canzoni a vein 
 less profound and transcendental than 
 Dante’s, but more humanly tender and 
 passionate. Boccaccio (1313-75), a writer 
 of great erudi'.ion and fertility, who pro- 
 duced classical translations, biographies, 
 poems, etc., is Italy’s first great story- 
 teller. His great work is the Decamer- 
 one, a collection of a hundred tales. 
 
 During the 15th century the intel- 
 lectual energy of Italy was almost en- 
 tirely absorbed in the study of the 
 ancient classics. This period is known as 
 the renaissance, or the revival of arts 
 and letters. 
 
 During the first half of the 16th cen- 
 tury the renaissance movement per- 
 fected itself in every kind of art. In his- 
 tory the most noted names are Machia- 
 celli, (1469-1527), and Francesco Guic- 
 viardini (1482-1540). Among the great 
 poets of the period are Lodovico Ariosto 
 (1474-1533), author of Orlando Furioso, 
 a romantic epic, written in continuation 
 of the Orlando Innamorato of Boiardo, 
 and Torejuato Tasso (1544-9.5), whose 
 Gerusalemme Liberata is Italy’s chief 
 heroic poem. Among the lyrists of this 
 century we may mention Guidiccioni of 
 Lucca, Pietro Bembo, Michelangelo 
 Buonarroti, and Vittoria Colonna, Ben- 
 venuto Cellini (1500-70) the famous 
 artist in metal, whose autobiography is 
 one of the most instructive lights on the 
 ^irit and manners of the age, and 
 Giordano Bruno (1550-1600), a bold 
 speculator and undaunted champion of 
 lioerty of thought. Of exceptional power 
 was Alessandro Tassoni (1565-1635), 
 who wrote the Secchia Rapita, a bur- 
 lesque epic, and unquestionably the 
 most important poetical production in 
 Italian of the 17th century. The most 
 eminent names of this period are those 
 of scientific and philos^hic writers. 
 Among the former are Galileo Galilei 
 (1564-1642), Torricelli (1698-1647), 
 Viviani (1622-1703); among the latter 
 are Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), 
 and Gia.mbassista Vico (1668-1744). 
 .A.mcng historians the names of Sarpi, 
 Davila, Bentivoglio, and Pietro Gian- 
 none deserve mention. 
 
 About the middle of the 18th century 
 a complete revolution took place in 
 Iialian literature, which was preceded 
 and accompanied by a general elevation 
 of public life. The influence of English 
 and German literature began to com- 
 municate a more healthy tone to the 
 n;-‘!unal literature. Toward the end of 
 the centurj' the writings of the publicists 
 Gaetano Filangieri and Cesare Beccaria 
 indicate the growth of a social science 
 under the cover of treatises on legislation 
 and penal laws. 
 
 Prom the intellectual and political 
 ferment which arose about the beginning 
 of the 19th century Italy in particular 
 recevied a much-needed stimulus. Ales- 
 sandro Manzoni (1784-1883) has given 
 Italy a few lyrics of the first rank, but the 
 work which has most contributed to 
 give him the high place he holds in 
 literature is his novel, I Promessi Sposi. 
 An equally high, if not a higher place, is 
 due to the poetry of Leopardi. His 
 prose is among the best that Italy has 
 produced. The historico-political writ- 
 ings of Vincenzo Gioberti (1801-52) and 
 Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-72) contributed 
 powerfully to stimulate the national 
 feeling and to shape the coTirse of events. 
 In history proper Amari (I Vespri Sicili- 
 ani), Gino Capponi (Republica di 
 Firenze), Ricotti, Zamboni, and others 
 are the best known names. Among later 
 and contemporary authors we may 
 notice the poet, critic, and essajdst 
 Giosue Caraucci; and Francesco de 
 Sanctis (1818-86), the Sainte-Beuve and 
 Matthew Arnold of Italy. Ruggero 
 Bonghi, a biographer and essayist of 
 superior rank and a frequent contributor 
 to the periodicals; Edmondo de Amicis, 
 a descriptive writer of considerable 
 power; Angelo de Gubernatis, a writer of 
 literary biographies, etc., are among the 
 best known writers of the day. 
 
 ITCH, a contagious cutaneous disease, 
 appearing in small watery pustules on 
 the skin, accompanied with uneasiness 
 or irritation that inclines the patient to 
 rub or scratch. It is occasioned by a 
 small insect, which burrows within the 
 epidermis; and is cured by sulphur, 
 which should be applied externally in 
 the form of ointment,. 
 
 ITCH-MITE, a microscopic insect of 
 the class Arachnida, which produces itch 
 in man. The female burrows in the skin, 
 in which she deposits her eggs, which are 
 hatched in about ten days, giving rise to 
 this troublesome affection. 
 
 ITHACA, a city and county-seat of 
 Tompkins co., N. Y., 60 miles southwest 
 of Syracuse, at the head of Ca 3 ruga lake, 
 and on the Lackawanna, the Lehigh 
 Valley, and other railroads. Cornell 
 university is situated on Cornell heights 
 about 400 feet above the cit 3 ''. Ithaca is 
 in a productive farming region. Its coal 
 trade is extensive, and there are manu- 
 factures of castings, machinery, agricul- 
 tural implements, guns, calendar clocks, 
 salt, glass, wall-paper, etc. Pop. 16,460. 
 
 ITO (e'to), Hirobumi, Marquis Japan- 
 ese statesman, born in the province of 
 Choshin in 1840. He eluded the vigilance 
 of the Yedo spies and spent two years in 
 England. He returned to Japan to dis- 
 suade the Choshin officers from war with 
 the combined fleet of British, United 
 States, French, and Dutch men-of-war 
 at Shimonoseki. In 1871 he studied the 
 coinage system of the United States and 
 his report resulted in the adoption of a 
 decimal system of money and the estab- 
 lishment of the mint at Osaka. As one 
 of the Nice ambassadors he accompanied 
 Iwakena round the world in 1872, in an 
 effort to obtain from the powers some 
 modification of the treaties. In 1886 the 
 cabinet was reconstructed according to 
 modern ideas. Ito became minister- 
 president of state. For many years he 
 superintended the reconstruction of law 
 
IVAN 
 
 JACKAL 
 
 and the formation of codes no longer 
 based on Chinese models, but in harmony 
 with those in Christendom. He per- 
 suaded the court to adopt foreign dress. 
 Ito introduced a new constitution more 
 liberal in its provisions, than some Euro- 
 pean governments allow. Called to the 
 premiership again in 1892, he carried the 
 nation through the Chino-Japanese war 
 of 1894-95. He was again summoned by 
 the emperor to the premiership, and 
 under his direction Japan joined the 
 allies in the rescue of the legations in 
 Peking. He visited the United States on 
 his way to Europe in 1901, received the 
 degree of LL D. from Yale university, 
 and was everywhere welcomed and 
 recognized as one of the profoundest 
 constructive statesmen of modern times. 
 Again called to the premiership he 
 guided the nation through the Russian- 
 Japanese war of 1904-5. In 1904 he 
 was the emperor’s special envoy in Ko- 
 rea to consummate the alliance of the 
 two countries. He died in 1906. 
 
 I'VAN, or IWAN, the name of several 
 rulers distinguished in Russian history. 
 — Ivan III. (or I.), grand-prince of Mos- 
 cow, was born 1440, ascended the throne 
 1462, died 1505. He greatly enlarged 
 his hereditary possessions, and married 
 Sophia, niece of the last Byzantine em- 
 peror, thus introducing the double- 
 
 ' J, the tenth letter in the English alpha- 
 bet, and the seventh consonant. The 
 sound of this letter coincides exactly 
 with that of g in genius. It is therefore 
 classed as a palatal, and is the voiced 
 sound corresponding to the breathed 
 sound ch (as in church) . The sound does 
 not occur in Anglo-Saxon, and was in- 
 troduced through the French. As a 
 character it was formerly used inter- 
 changeably with i, and the separation of 
 these two letters in English dictionaries 
 is of comparatively recent date. 
 
 American Jabiru. 
 
 JABALPUR (ja-bal-p6r), Jubbulpore, 
 a town of Hindustan, capital of Jabal- 
 pur district. Central Provinces. Pop. 
 90,316. The district has an area of 
 3918 sq. miles, a pop. of 748,146. A 
 division or commissionership of the 
 Central Provinces has also the same 
 
 headed Byzantine eagle into the Russian 
 coat of arms. He was the first that bore 
 the title of Czar of Great Russia, and pro- 
 claimed the unity and the indivisibility 
 of the Russian dominions. — Ivan IV. 
 (or II.), grandson of the former, was born 
 1530, succeeded in 1534, was crowned in 
 1547, died 1584. His atrocities gained 
 him the name of The Terrible. Yet he 
 did much to civilize and improve his 
 people, introduced learned men, artists, 
 and mechanics into Russia, and con- 
 cluded a commercial treaty with Eng- 
 land. He killed his eldest son in a fit of 
 rage. 
 
 IVORY, the osseous matter of the 
 tusks of the elephant, and Of the teeth or 
 tusks of the hippopotamus, walrus, and 
 narwhal. Ivory is esteemed for its beau- 
 tiful white or cream color, its hardness, 
 the fineness of its grain, and its suscepti- 
 bility of a high polish. That of the Afri- 
 can elephant is most esteemed by the 
 manufacturer for its density and white- 
 ness. The medium weight of an ele- 
 phant’s tusk is 60 lbs., but some are 
 found weighing 170. 
 
 IVORY, Vegetable. See Ivory-palm. 
 
 IVORY-BLACK, a fine kind of soft 
 black pigment, prepared from ivory 
 dust by calcination, in the same way as 
 bone-black. 
 
 IVORY COAST, part of the coast of 
 
 J 
 
 name. It has an area of 19,040 sq. 
 miles, a pop. of 2,375,642. 
 
 JAB'IRU, a name of wading birds of 
 the crane kind, resembling the stork, 
 and inhabiting South America, Africa, 
 and Australia. 
 
 JACAMAR', a genus of brilliant birds 
 nearly allied to theking fishers, differing, 
 however, by the form of their beaks and 
 
 Jacamar. 
 
 feet. They live in damp woods, and feed 
 on insects. Most if not all are natives of 
 tropical America. 
 
 JAC'ANA, the common name of gral- 
 latorial orwading birds, having long toes 
 with very long nails, so that they can 
 stand and walk on the leaves of aquatic 
 plants when in search of their food, 
 which consists of worms, small fishes, 
 and insects. They inhabit marshes in 
 hot climates, and somewhat resemble 
 the moorhen, to which they are very 
 closely allied. 
 
 JAC'KAL, an animal of the dog genus 
 reseinbling a dog and a fox, a native of 
 
 West Africa, now giving name to a 
 French colony north of the Gulf of 
 Guinea. 
 
 IVORY-NUTS. See Ivory-palm. 
 
 IVORY-PALM, a low-growing, palm- 
 like plant, order Pandanacese, native of 
 the warmer parts of South America. It 
 has a creeping caudex or trunk, terminal 
 pinnatifid leaves of immense size, male 
 and female flowers on different plants, and 
 fruit in the form of a cluster of drupes, 
 weighing about 25 lbs. when ripe. Each 
 drupe contains 6 to 9 seeds, as large as a 
 hen’s egg, the albumen of which when 
 ripe is close-grained and very hard, re- 
 sembling the finest ivory in texture and 
 color. It is therefore often wrought into 
 buttons, knobs for doors or drawers, 
 umbrella handles, and other articles, and 
 is called vegetable ivory. The seeds are 
 also known as Corozo-nuts, and are ex- 
 ported in considerable qualities 
 
 IVY, a climbing plant. The leaves are 
 smooth and shining, varying much in 
 form from oval entire to three and five 
 lobed; and their perpetual verdure gives 
 the plant a beautiful appearance. The 
 flowers are greenish and inconspicuous, 
 disposed in globose umbels, and are suc- 
 ceeded by deep green or almost blackish 
 berries. The ivy attains a great age, and 
 ultimately becomes several inches th'ck 
 and capable of supporting its own stem. 
 
 Asia and Africa. The general color is a 
 dirty yellow. The jackal is gregarious. 
 
 Mexican jacana. 
 
 hunting in packs, rarely attacking the 
 larger quadrupeds. They feed chiefly on 
 
 Black-backed jackal. 
 
 carrion, and are nocturnal in habits. 
 The jackal interbreeds with the common 
 dog, and may be domesticated. 
 
JACK-A-LANTERN 
 
 JACOBINS 
 
 JACK-A-LANTERN. See Ignis Fatuus. 
 
 JACKASS, Laughing. See Laughing 
 Jackass. 
 
 JACKDAW, a common bird of the crow 
 family, smaller than the rook, having a 
 comparatively short bill and whitish 
 eyes ; hinder part of the head and neck of 
 a grayish color, back and wings glossy 
 
 Jackdaw. 
 
 black. The average Ifength is about 12 
 inches. The nests are built in towers, 
 spires, and like elevated situations, and 
 often in towns. The eggs, from five to 
 six, are of a greenish color. Its food con- 
 sists of worms, insects, and larvae. Like 
 their neighbors the rooks, they are gre- 
 garious. They are readily domesti- 
 cated, and may be taught to pronounce 
 words distinctly. Like the magpies, 
 they have attained a notoriety for thiev- 
 ing. 
 
 JACKSON, a flourishing town in 
 Michigan, 76 miles west of Detroit, an 
 important railway center, with coal- 
 mines, foundries, engine-works, various 
 manufactures, and the state prison. 
 Pop. 28,000. 
 
 JACKSON, a town in Tennessee, with 
 a baptist university and trade in cotton. 
 Pop. 16,400. 
 
 JACKSON, the capital of Mississippi, 
 on the Pearl river, 45 miles east of 
 Vicksburg, with a handsome state house. 
 Pop. 9,100. 
 
 JACKSON, Andrew, president of the 
 United States from 1829 to 1837, was 
 born in South Carolina in 1767, his 
 father, by origin a Scotchman, having 
 
 died before his birth. In his fourteenth 
 year, on the outbreak of the American 
 revolution, he joined a regiment of 
 volunteers to fight in the cause of in- 
 dependence. After losing two brothers 
 jn the struggle, he retired from military 
 
 service and devoted himself to law. He 
 became a judge of the supreme court, 
 representative of Tennessee in congress, 
 and senator. When, in 1812, war was 
 declared against England, he was made 
 major-general of the Tennessee militia. 
 In 1813 he defeated the Creek Indians, 
 who were wasting the country with fire 
 and sword, and made himself master 
 of Pensacola. While engaged in the de- 
 fense of New Orleans, he established his 
 military reputation by his repulse of the 
 British there in 1815. From 1817-18 
 he was employed against the Seminole 
 Indians. In 1828 and again in 1832 
 he was elected president, and the 
 eight years during which he held his 
 office were marked by the rapid exten- 
 sion of democratic tendencies. In 
 1837 he retired to his estate in Tennessee, 
 and there he died in 1845. 
 
 JACKSON, Charles Thomas, Ameri- 
 can scientist, born at Plymouth, Mass., 
 in 1805. He spent three years studying 
 in Paris, varied by occasional trips to 
 Germany and Italy. He was state 
 geologist of Maine in 1836, of Rhode 
 Island in 1839, and of New Hampshire 
 in 1840. He claimed to be the discoverer 
 of the anjEsthetic properties of ether, 
 which involved him in a dispute with 
 Dr. W. T. G. Morton. His claim was 
 supported by many Boston physicians, 
 and a committee appointed by the 
 French academy of sciences to investi- 
 gate the matter decided that both men 
 were entitled to recognition. He died 
 in 1880. 
 
 JACKSON, Helen Fiske Hunt, Ameri- 
 can poet and novelist, known by the 
 pen-name of “H. H.” was born at Am- 
 herst, Mass., in 1831. In 1870 she pub- 
 lished a voliune of “Verses by H. H.,” 
 which was widely read. From this 
 time her pen was constantly employed. 
 The most important of her works are 
 the novels Mercy Philbrick’s Choice, 
 Hetty’s Strange History and Ramona. 
 She also wrote books for children. Sev- 
 eral posthumous volumes were brought 
 out shortly after her death among them 
 Sonnets and Lyrics. She died in 1885. 
 
 JACKSON, Thomas Jonathan, better 
 known as Stonewall Jackson, an Ameri- 
 can general, born in 1824 in Virginia. 
 In 1842 he entered the military academy 
 at West Point as cadet. Four years later 
 he received a second-lieutenant’s com- 
 mission, and was engaged in the Mexi- 
 can war, and for his gallantry was made 
 a captain, and afterward raised to the 
 rank of major. In 1852 he resigned his 
 commission and was appointed pro- 
 fessor of mathematics and artHlery 
 tactics in the military institute at Lex- 
 ington, Virginia. On the outbreak of 
 the civil war in 1861 he entered the 
 southern army with the rank of briga- 
 dier-general. He commanded the re- 
 serve at Bull’s Run, and acquired his 
 cognomen of “Stonewall” by the firm- 
 ness of his troops and his own coolness in 
 the heat of the action. By the end of the 
 year he was made major-general. In 
 June, 1862, he was defeated by General 
 Banks at Cross Keys, but made a mas- 
 terly retreat. In August he gained the 
 second battle of Bull’s Run, and cap- 
 tured Harper’s Ferry in September. 
 In the same month he supported Lee at 
 Antietam, and again at Fredericksburg 
 
 in December. In 1863 he took a promi- 
 nent part in the battle of Chancellors- 
 ville. On the evening of the battle he 
 died of wounds inadvertently received 
 from his own men, 9th May, 1863. He 
 
 • ‘Stonewall" Jackson. 
 
 was a man of indomitable energy and 
 deep religious feeling. 
 
 JACKSONVILLE, a town in Illinois, on 
 a fertile prairie, near a small affluent of 
 Illinois river. It has some elegant public 
 buildings, and various educational and 
 charitable institutions, including the 
 Illinois college, and state asylums for 
 the blind, insane, and deaf and dumb. 
 Pop. 18,400. 
 
 JACKSONVILLE, a tovm in Florida, 
 the principal port on the river St. John, 
 25 miles from its mouth, with an active 
 steamboat traffic and a large trade in 
 lumber, cotton, etc. Pop. 1909, 62,000. 
 
 JACOB, the son of Isaac, and the 
 grandson of Abraham, the last of the 
 Jewish patriarchs, and the true ancestor 
 of the Jews. Having craftily obtained 
 from the blind and infirm Isaac the 
 blessing of the first-born in place of his 
 brother Esau, he was obliged to flee 
 from the anger of his brother, and took 
 up his abode with his uncle Laban. Here 
 he served twenty years, and obtained 
 Leah and Rachel as his wives. On his 
 return to Canaan he was met by an 
 angel, with whom he wrestled all night, 
 and having gained the victory was 
 thereafter named Israel, that is, the 
 hero, of God. Hence the Hebrews from 
 him are called Israelites. A severe blow 
 to him in his old age was the loss of his 
 favorite son Joseph, whose brothers had 
 sold him to Ishmaelite merchants, and 
 led Joseph to believe that he had been 
 devoured by wild beasts. Joseph subse- 
 quently became the highest officer at 
 the court of Pharaoh in Egypt, and thus 
 was the means of bringing the whole 
 house of his father to that country. 
 Jacob died, aged 147 years, approxi- 
 mately about 1860 b.c., and according 
 to his wish was buried in the tomb of 
 Abraham, before Mamre in Canaan. 
 
 JACO'BEAN ARCHITECTURE, a 
 term applied to the later style of Eliza- 
 bethan architecture from its prevailing 
 in the time of James I. (L. Jacobus, 
 James). It differed from the pure 
 Elizabethan chiefly in having a greater 
 admixture of debased Italian forms. 
 
 JAC'OBINS, the most famous of the 
 clubs of the first French revolution. 
 When the states-general assembled at 
 Versailles in 1789, it was formed and 
 called the Club Breton. On the removal 
 of the court and national assembl}' to 
 Paris it acquired importance and rapidly 
 increased. It adopted the name of 
 Soci6t6 des .\mis de la Constitution, but 
 

 ••'Tf 
 
 ; JACOBITES 
 
 JAMAICA 
 
 as it met in a hall of the former Jacobin 
 convent in Paris, it was called the 
 Jacobin Club. It gradually became the 
 controlling power of the revolution, and 
 spread its influence over France, 1200 
 branch societies being established before 
 1791, and obeying orders from the head- 
 
 Jacobean archltecture-Waterstonhall, Dorset. 
 
 quarters in Paris. In 1791 the publica- 
 tion of the Journal de la Soci6t6 des 
 Amis de la Constitution increased the 
 zeal and number of the societies. The 
 Jacobins were foremost in the insur- 
 rectionary movements of June 20 and 
 August 10, 1792; they originated the 
 formidable commune de Paris, and 
 changed their former name to Les Amis 
 de la Liberty et de l’Egalit6. For a 
 while they ruled supreme, and the con- 
 vention itself was but their tool. Robes- 
 
 E ierre was their most influential mem- 
 er; they ruled through him during the 
 reign of terror, and were overthrown 
 f after his downfall in 1794. In that year 
 ' the convention forbade the affiliation of 
 f societies; the Jacobin club was sus- 
 ^ pended and its hall was closed. The 
 r term Jacobin is now often used to desig- 
 [ nate anyone holding extreme views in 
 - politics. 
 
 JAC'OBITES, Monophysite Christians 
 in the east, who were united by a 
 Syrian monk, Jacobus Bardai (578), 
 _ during the reign of Justinian, into a 
 - distinct religious sect. The Jacobites, so 
 styled from their founder, consist of 
 about 30,000 or 40,000 families, and are 
 governed by two patriarchs, appointed 
 by the Turkish governors, one of whom, 
 with the title of the Patriarch of Antioch 
 has his seat at Diarbekir; the other re- 
 sides in a monastery near Mardin, under 
 the style of Patriarch of Jerusalem. 
 Circumcision before baptism and the 
 doctrine of the single nature of Christ 
 (hence their name monophysites) are 
 common to them with the Copts and 
 Abyssinians; but in other respects they 
 deviate less than the other monophy- 
 sites from the discipline ana liturgy of 
 the orthodox Greek Church. 
 
 JACQUARD (zhak-ar), Joseph Marie, 
 the inventor of the famous machine for 
 figured weaving named after him, was 
 ■ born at Lyons in 1752. The subsequent 
 prosperity of Lyons is largely attribut- 
 
 able to his invention, and a more en- 
 lightened generation erected a statue to 
 him on the very spot where his loom was 
 publicly destroyed. He died in 1834. 
 
 JACQUARD LOOM, a form of loom, 
 the characteristic of which is a contriv- 
 ance appended to it for weaving figured 
 goods in various colors. See Weaving. 
 
 JAFFA (anciently Joppa), a maritime 
 town in Palestine, 31 miles northwest of 
 Jerusalem, picturesquely situated upon 
 an eminence the port of Nablus and 
 Jerusalem, with which latter it is now 
 connected by railway. Pop. about 
 30,000. 
 
 JAGANNATHA (jag-an-nat'ha), often 
 written Juggernaut, the name given 
 to the Indian god Krishna, the eighth 
 incarnation of Vishnu, and to a very 
 celebrated idol of this deity in a temple 
 specially dedicated to Jagann5,tha at 
 Purwa town in Orissa, on the Bay of 
 Ben^l. Great numbers of pilgrims, 
 sometimes a hundred thousand, at the 
 time of the festivals of Jagannfitha, as- 
 semble from all quarters of India to 
 pay their devotions at his shrine. On 
 these occasions the idol is mounted on 
 a huge car resting on sixteen wheels, 
 which is drawn by the pilgrims; and 
 formerly, it is said, people were wont 
 to throw themselves under the wheels, 
 to be crushed to death, believing that 
 they would thus immediately enter 
 heaven. This practice, however, is now 
 of rare occurrence; and indeed com- 
 petent authorities maintain that such 
 deaths were always accidental. 
 
 JAGUAR (ja-gwar'), the American 
 tiger, a carnivorous animal of South a,nd 
 Central America, sometimes equalling 
 a tiger in size, of a yellowish or fawn 
 color, marked with large dark spots and 
 
 Jaguar. 
 
 rings, the latter with a dark spot in the 
 center of each. It rarely attacks man 
 unless hard pressed by hunger or driven 
 to bay. The skin is valuable, and the 
 animal is hunted by the South American 
 in various ways. 
 
 JAIPUR (jl-p6r'), or Jeypore, a state 
 in Rajputana, Hindustan, governed by 
 a maharajah, under the political super- 
 intendence of the Jeypore Residency; 
 area about 15,350 sq. miles. The capital 
 Jaipur is one of the finest of modern 
 Hindu cities. Pop. 160,167. 
 
 JAISALMER (ji-sal-mar'), or Jeysul- 
 meer, a state of India in Rajputana, 
 under the political superintendence of 
 the western states agency; area, 16,447 
 sq. miles. Pop. 115,701. Jaisalmer, the 
 capital, is situated on a rocky ridge. 
 
 JALANDHAR (jal-an-dhar'), a town 
 of Hindustan, headquarters of district 
 of same name, in the Punjab; pop. 
 67,735. The district, a fertile tract be- 
 tween the Sutlej and the Beas, has an 
 area of 1433 sq. miles, a pop. of 907,583. 
 
 A division or commissionership has also 
 this name; area, 19,006 sq miles; pop. 
 4,217,670. 
 
 JAL'AP, the name given to the tuber- 
 ous roots of a twining herbaceous plant, 
 with sharply auricled leaves, and ele- 
 gant salver-shaped deep pink flowers, 
 growing naturally on the eastern de- 
 clivities of the Mexican Andes, at an 
 elevation of from 5000 to 8000 feet. The 
 jalap of commerce consists of irregular 
 
 Jalap plant. 
 
 ovoid dark-brown roots, varying from 
 the size of an egg to that of a hazel-nut, 
 but occasionally as large as a man’s fist. 
 The drug jalap is one of the most com- 
 mon purgatives, but is apt to gripe and 
 nauseate. It has little smell or taste, but 
 produces a slight degree of pungency in 
 the mouth. 
 
 JALA'UN, a town in a district of the 
 same name in the United Provinces of 
 India, 110 miles s.e. of Agra, in a 
 swampy and unhealthy locality. Pop. 
 10,057. — The district consists of a plain 
 west of the Jumna; area, 1469; sq. miles; 
 pop. 418,142. 
 
 JALISCO (ha-lis'ko), or GUADALA- 
 ARA, a state of the Republic of Mexico, 
 ounded on the west by the Pacific. It 
 is chiefly mountainous, but well watered 
 and wooded, and the climate is healthy. 
 The soil is fertile, and wheat and barley 
 are abundantly produced. The capital 
 is Guadalajara. Pop. 1,153,891. 
 
 JALPAIGURI (jal-pl-gu-re'), a town 
 of Hindustan, headquarters of district 
 of same name, in Bengal, on the Teesta,; 
 pop. 9700. — The district lies south of 
 Bhutan and north of Kuch Behar; area, 
 2882 sq. miles; pop. 681,352. 
 
 JAMAICA, one of the West India 
 Islands, 80 or 90 miles s. of Cuba, the 
 third in extent, and the most valuable 
 of those belonging to the British; 146 
 miles in length east to west, and 49 
 miles broad at the widest part; area, 
 4256 sq. miles. Among the indigenous 
 forest trees are mahogany, lignum-vitee, 
 iron-wood, logwood, braziletto, etc. 
 The native fruits are numerous, and 
 many of them delicious; they include 
 the plantain, guava, custard-apple 
 pine-apple, sour-sop, sweet-sop, papaw, 
 cashew-apple, etc. The orange, lime, 
 lemon, mango, grape, bread-fruit tree, 
 and cinnamon-tree have all been natur- 
 alized in the island. The chief cultivated 
 vegetable products are sugar, coffee 
 corn, pimento, bananas and other 
 fruits, ginger, arrow-root. Sweet-po- 
 tatoes, plantains, and bananas form the 
 chief food of the blacks. The cinchona- 
 tree has been introduced and is spreading. 
 Of wild animals only the agouti and 
 monkey are numerous. Domestic fowls 
 thrive well, and cattle-raising has be- 
 come profitable. Fish abound in the 
 
JAMES 
 
 JAMES 
 
 sea and rivers. The government is vested 
 in the governor, assisted by a privy- 
 council, and a legislative council com- 
 posed of fifteen members, nine elected, 
 and other nominated or ex officio. 
 Education is rapidly extending; but the 
 general state of morality seems to be 
 low, judging from the fact that the 
 illegitimate births are between 50 and 60 
 per cent. Population, 755,730. 
 
 Jamaica was discovered by Columbus 
 in 1494, in his second expedition to the 
 New World. In half a century the cruelty 
 of the Spanish conquerors exterminated 
 the natives. It was taken by Cromwell in 
 1655, and ceded to England by the 
 treaty of Madrid in 1670. Since the 
 abolition of slavery the prosperity of 
 Jamaica has greatly decreased. Of late 
 many Chinese and, coolies have been 
 employed in agriculture. In 1865 a 
 serious revolt broke out among the 
 blacks at Morant bay, and was put 
 down with considerable severity, by 
 Governor Eyre. Since that time signs 
 of disaffection have disappeared, and a 
 greater state of comfort is said to pre- 
 vail among the inhabitants generally. 
 Politically dependent on Jamaica are the 
 Cayman islands, and the Turks and 
 Caicos islands. 
 
 JAMES, St., called the Greater, the 
 son of Zebedee and the brother of John 
 the evangelist. Christ gave the brothers 
 the name of Boanerges, or sons of 
 thunder. They witnessed the trans- 
 figuration, the restoration to life of 
 Jairus’ daughter, the agony in the gar- 
 den of Gethsemane, and the ascension. 
 St. James was the first of the apostles 
 who suffered martyrdom, having been 
 slain by Herod Agrippa a.d. 44. There is 
 a tradition that he went to Spain, of 
 which country he is the tutelary saint. 
 
 JAMES, St., called the Less, the 
 brother or cousin of our Lord, who 
 appeared to him in particular after His 
 resurrection. He is called in scripture 
 the Just, and is probably the apostle 
 described as the son of Alphseus. He was 
 the first bishop of Jerusalem, and in the 
 first apostolic council spoke against 
 those wishing to make the law of Moses 
 binding upon Christians. The progress 
 of Christianity under him alarmed the 
 Jews, and he was put to death by 
 Ananias, the high-priest, about a.d. 62. 
 He was the author of the epistle which 
 bears his name. 
 
 JAMES I., of Scotland, one of the 
 Stuart kings, born in 1394, was the son 
 of Robert III. by Annabella Drummond. 
 In 1405 he was taken by an English 
 squadron, and the prince was carried 
 prisoner to London. Here he received 
 an excellent education from Henry IV. 
 Robert III. died in 1406, but James was 
 not allowed to return to his kingdom till 
 1424. On his return to Scotland he 
 caused the Duke of Albany and his son 
 Murdoch to be executed as traitors, and 
 proceeded to carry on vigorous reforms, 
 and, above all, to improve his revenue 
 and curb the ambition and lawlessness 
 of the nobles. The nobility, exasperated 
 by the decline of their authority, formed 
 a plot against his life, and assassinated 
 him at Perth in 1437. 
 
 JAMES II., King of Scotland, son of 
 James I., when his father was assassi- 
 nated in 1437 was only seven years of 
 
 age. James allied himself with the 
 Douglases, but being deprived of all real 
 power, he resolved to free himself from 
 the galling yoke. This he did in 1452 
 by inducing the Earl of Douglas to come 
 to Stirling Castle, where he stabbed him 
 with his own hand. He then quelled a 
 powerful insurrection headed by the 
 next earl, whose lands were confiscated. 
 In 1460 he infringed a truce with Eng- 
 land by besieging the castle of Roxburgh 
 and was killed by the bursting of a 
 cannon in the 29th year of his age. 
 
 JAMES III., King of Scotland, son of 
 James II., was born in 1453. A plot was 
 formed to dethrone the king, and though 
 many peers remained loyal to him the 
 royal army wa defeated at Sauchie, near 
 Stirling, in 1488, the king’s son being on 
 the side of the victorious nobles. James 
 escaped from the field, but was mur- 
 dered during his flight. Q 
 
 JAMES IV., King of Scotland, born 
 1472, son of James III. Henry VII., 
 then king of England, tried to obtain a 
 union with Scotland by politic measures, 
 and in 1503 James married his daughter, 
 Margaret. A period of peace and pros- 
 perity followed. French influence, how- 
 ever, and the hostility of the border 
 chieftains led to angry negotiations, 
 which ended in war. James invaded 
 England with a large force, and himself 
 andf many of his nobles perished at 
 Flodden Field in 1513. 
 
 JAMES :v., of Scotland, born in 1512, 
 succeeded in 1513, at the death of his 
 father, James IV., though only eighteen 
 months old. His mother, Margaret of 
 England, governed during his childhood, 
 Henry VIII., having broken with Rome, 
 and eager to gain over his nephew to his 
 views, proposed an interview at York; 
 but James never came, and this neglect 
 enraged Henry. A rupture took place 
 between the two kingdoms, but James 
 was ill supported by his people, and the 
 disgraceful rout of his troops at Solway 
 Moss broke his heart. He died in 1542, 
 seven days after the birth of his unfor- 
 tunate daughter Mary. 
 
 JAMES I., of England and VI. of Scot- 
 land, the only son of Mary, queen of 
 Scotland, by her cousin Henry, Lord 
 Darnley, was born at Edinburgh castle 
 in 1566. In 1567 his mother being forced 
 
 
 James I. of England. 
 
 to resign the crown he was crowned at 
 Stirling. When his mother’s life was in 
 danger be exerted himself in her behalf 
 (1587)f but her execution took place, 
 and he did not venture upon war. In 
 
 1589 he married Princess Anne of Den- 
 mark. In 1603 he succeeded to the 
 crown of England, on the death of 
 Elizabeth, and proceeded to London. 
 One of the early events of his reign was 
 the Gunpowder plot. In 1606 he estab- 
 lished episcopacy in Scotland. In 1613 
 his daughter Elizabeth was married to 
 the elector palatine, an alliance which 
 ultimately brought the present royal 
 family to the throne. He wished to 
 marry his son Charles, prince of Wales, 
 to a Spanish princess, out this project 
 failed, and war was declared against 
 Spain. The king, however, died soon 
 after in 1625. His name is sullied by the 
 part he played in bringing Raleigh to the 
 block, in his reign the authorized trans- 
 lation of the Bible was executed. 
 
 JAMES II., of England, second son of 
 Charles I. and of Henrietta Maria of 
 France, was born in 1633, and immedi- 
 ately declared Duke of York. At the 
 restoration in 1660 he got the command 
 of the fleet as lord high-admiral. He had 
 previously married Anne, daughter of 
 Chancellor Hyde, afterward Lord Clar- 
 endon. In 1671 she died, leaving two 
 daughters, who became successively 
 queens of England. He succeeded his 
 brother as king in 1685, and at once set 
 himself to attain absolute power He 
 accepted a pension from Louis XIV. that 
 he might more readily effect his purposes 
 especially that of restoring the Roman 
 Catholic religion. The result of this 
 action was the revolution of 1688, and 
 the arrival of William, prince of Orange. 
 Soon James found himself completely 
 deserted, and he repaired to France, 
 where he was received with great kind- 
 ness and hospitality by Louis XIV. 
 Assisted by Louis he was enabled in 
 1689 to attempt the recovery of Ireland; 
 but the battle of the Boyne, fou^t in 
 1690, compelled him to return to France. ' 
 All succeeding projects for his restora- - 
 tion proved equally abortive, and he _• 
 spent the last years of his life in acts of 
 ascetic devotion. He died at St. Ger- '? 
 main’s in 1701. - 
 
 JAMES in., the Pretender. See 
 Stuart (James Edward Francis). 
 
 JAMES, George Payne Rainsford, 
 English novelist, born in London in 
 1801. While still very young he mani- 
 fested a considerable turn for literary 
 composition, and produced, in 1822, a 
 Life of Edward the Black Prince. Some 
 years afterward he composed his first 
 novel, Richelieu, which was shown in 
 manuscript to Sir Walter Scott, and 
 published in 1829. Its success deter- 
 mined him toward fiction, and a series of 
 novels, above sixty in number, followed 
 from his pen in rapid succession, besides 
 several historical and other works 
 Latterly he accepted the office of British 
 consul, first at Richmond, Virginia, and 
 afterwards at Venice, where he died 
 in 1860. 
 
 JAMES, Henry, American novelist 
 and essayist, born in New York in 1843^ 
 He has lived much on the European con- 
 tinent and in England. His novels and 
 tales which depend for their interest on 
 the portrayal of character rather than on^ 
 incident, are numerous. Among them^ 
 are: Daisy Miller, A Passionate Pilgrim,' 
 Roderick Hudson, The Portrait of 
 Lady, Tales of Three Cities, The Boe-1 
 
 
JAMES 
 
 JAPAN 
 
 tonians, Princess Casamassima. He has 
 also written the life of Hawthorne in the 
 English Men of Letters series, French 
 Poets and Novelists, etc. 
 
 JAMES, Jesse W., American outlaw, 
 born in Clay co.. Mo., in 1847. During 
 the civil war he joined Quantrills guer- 
 rillas and won a reputation for reckless 
 daring. In 1866 he was outlawed and 
 was constantly pursued by officers of 
 the law. He earned a world-wide notor- 
 iety by the crimes he committed, his 
 romantic adventures and his almost in- 
 variable success. Governor Crittenden 
 offered a reward of $10,000 for his 
 capture, dead or alive, and two members 
 of his own band tempted by the bribe, 
 killed him in his home at St. Joseph, 
 Mo., in 1882. 
 
 JAMES RIVER, a river in Virginia, 
 which passes the towns of Lynchburg 
 and Richmond, and communicates, 
 through Hampton roads and the mouth 
 of theChesapeake bay, with the Atlantic. 
 Its general course is south of east, and 
 its length is 450 miles. The first English 
 settlement in America was formed at 
 Jamestown, 32 miles from the mouth of 
 this river, in 1607. 
 
 JAMES’ BAY, the southern extension 
 of Hudson’s bay, called from Captain 
 James, who wintered here in 1631-32 
 while trying to find the n.w. passage. 
 It has numerous rocks and islands, and 
 its navigation is dangerous. 
 
 JAMESTOWN, a city in Chautauqua 
 CO., N. Y., on the outlet of Chautauqua 
 Lake, which supplies water-power, and 
 is employed in several mills. It has 
 manufactories of woolens, alpaca, etc. 
 Pop. 26,890. 
 
 JAMESTOWN EXPOSITION, which 
 opened April 26, 1907, was held to com- 
 memorate the tercentennary of the first 
 permanent English colony in America 
 which was made by 105 persons in 1607. 
 The importance of this date in American 
 colonial history made the exposition one 
 in which historical significance was the 
 most prominent feature and the ex- 
 hibit of the national government was 
 largely designed for that purpose, 
 $1,500,000 being appropriated for that 
 end. The buildings erected by the states 
 were also for the most part replicas of 
 historic structures, that of Pennsylvania 
 being a duplicate of Independence hall 
 and Kentucky of the home of 
 Daniel Boone and so on throughout. 
 One of the chief attractions was 
 a naval display in which not only vessels 
 of the American navy but of Great 
 Britain, France, Germany, Japan, Por- 
 tugal, and Italy took part. The total 
 cost of the exposition is estimated at 
 $ 10 , 000 , 000 . 
 
 JANESVILLE, a city in Wisconsin, on 
 both sides of Rock river, with active 
 trade and manufactures. Pop. 15,460. 
 
 JANTZARIES (Turkish, Jeni-tcheri, 
 new soldiers), an Ottoman infantry force 
 somewhat analogous to the Roman 
 praetorians, part of them forming the 
 guard of the sultan. They were origin- 
 ally organized about 1330, and subse- 
 quently obtained special privileges, 
 which in time became dangerously great. 
 The regular janizaries once amounted to 
 60,000, but their numbers were after- 
 ward reduced to 25,000. The irregular 
 troops amounted to 300,000 or 400,000. 
 
 Their power became so dangerous and 
 their insurrections so frequent that 
 several unsuccessful attempts were made 
 to reform or disband them. At various 
 times sultans had been deposed, insulted 
 and murdered by the insurgent janiza- 
 ries. At last, in June, 1826, they rebelled 
 on account of a proposal to form a new 
 militia, when the sultan, Mahmoud II., 
 having displayed the flag of the prophet, 
 and being supported by their aga or 
 commander-in-chief, defeated the rebels 
 and burned their barracks, when 8000 
 of them perished in the flames. The 
 corps was abolished, and a curse laid 
 upon the name. As many as 15,000 were 
 executed, and fully 20,000 were ban- 
 ished. 
 
 JAN'UARY, the first month of the 
 year, consisting of 31 days. It was by 
 the Romans held sacred to Janus, from 
 whom the name was derived. The 
 Roman year originally began with 
 March, and consisted of only ten months. 
 Numa is said to have added January 
 and February. See Calendar. 
 
 JANUS, an ancient Latin divinity, 
 after whom the first month of the year 
 was named. He was held in great 
 reverence by the Romans, and was rep- 
 resented with two faces, one looking for- 
 ward, the other backward. All doors, 
 passages, and beginnings were under his 
 care. His principal festival was New 
 Year’s Day, when people gave each 
 other presents. The temple of Janus, 
 which was open in time of war and closed 
 in time of peace, was shut only three 
 times in the long space of 700 years — 
 once in the reign of Numa, again after 
 the first Punic war, and the third time 
 under the reign of Augustus a.u.c. 744. 
 Vespasian also closed it in a.d. 71. 
 
 JAPAN', ,an island empire in the 
 North Pacific ocean, lying off the east 
 coast of Asia. It comprises four large 
 mountainous and volcanic islands ; viz. : 
 Hondo, Kiushiu, Shikoku, and Yesso, 
 besides many other islands and islets, 
 and in particular the Loo-choo and the 
 Kurile groups, and latterly also Formosa. 
 The largest island, Hondo or Niphon, is 
 800 miles long, and from 50 to 100 miles 
 broad. By the Japanese Niphon or 
 Nipon is employed to describe the whole 
 empire. The name “Jipun,” altered by 
 Europeans to Japan, is the Chinese 
 designation. The area of the Japanese 
 islands (excluding Formosa) is 147,600 
 sq. miles (a fifth more than Britain), 
 with a pop. of 43,760,754. 
 
 The Japanese; islands form part of the 
 line of volcanic action commencing with 
 the Aleutian isles and terminating in 
 the islands of southeastern Asia. The 
 coasts of the larger islands are extremely 
 irregular, being deeply indented with 
 gulfs, bays, and inlets, which form mag- 
 nificent harbors. The surface also is 
 generally uneven, and in .many instances 
 rises into mountains of great elevation. 
 The island of Hondo is traversed 
 throughout its whole length by a chain 
 of mountains, the highest peak being 
 Fusi-yama (12,230 feet), a dormant 
 volcano covered with perpetual snow. 
 The volcanic vents are numerous in 
 Yesso, Hondo, and Kiushiu, and earth- 
 quakes are frequent. The minerals com- 
 prise copper, lead, iron, antimony, and 
 sulphur; gold and silver are found. 
 
 though not to a great extent. Coal is 
 mined in various parte. The rivers are of 
 no great length ; Tonegawa, the longest, 
 is only about 172 miles. Biwa, in the 
 south of Hondo is the principal lake, 
 being some 50 miles in length, with an 
 extreme breadth of 20 miles. The har- 
 bors most frequented by foreign vessels 
 are the ports of Yokohama, Hiogo (or 
 Kob6), Nagasaki, Hakodate, Niigata, 
 and Osaka. 
 
 The climate ranges from an almost 
 Arctic cold in the north to a nearly 
 tropical heat in the south. In the 
 island of Yesso winter begins about 
 October and continues to April, its 
 course being marked by severe frosts and 
 snowstorms; while in Yokohama, again, 
 the winter is genial, with a bright sky, 
 and a temperature much like England. 
 From July to September the thermom- 
 eter often ranges as high as 95° in the 
 shade. 
 
 The vegetation'of Japan is very varied 
 in consequence of its wide range of tem- 
 perature. Rice of excellent quality, as 
 also wheat, barley, sugar-cane, and 
 millet are largely grown; while ginger, 
 pepper, cotton, and tobacco are culti- 
 vated in considerable quantities. Tea 
 has been extensively planted lately. 
 The Japanese are skilful gardeners, and 
 the fruits raised include strawberries, 
 melons, plums, persimmons, figs, lo- 
 quats, and oranges. Of flowers and 
 flowering shrubs the camellia, azelea, 
 hydrangea, lilies, peonies, the chrysan- 
 themum, daphne, and wistaria are in- 
 digenous. The forests are extensive; in 
 the south the palm, banana, and bam- 
 boo flourish; while in the north, cedar, 
 pine, maple, camphor, and the kadsi or 
 paper-tree are abundant. The chief do- 
 mestic animals are the horse, which is 
 small and hardy; the ox, which is used 
 as a beast of burden; the dog, which is 
 held sacred; and the cat, which is of a 
 short-tailed species. Rabbits and 
 guinea-pigs are household pets. Bantam 
 fowls, chickens, ducks, and pigeons are 
 reared for food. Of the wild animals, 
 deer are numerous in the north, bears 
 are to be found in Yesso, while boars, 
 wolves, badgers, foxes, monkeys, and 
 hares are not uncommon. Birds are 
 plentiful; falcons, pheasants, ducks, 
 geese, teal, storks, pigeons, ravens, larks, 
 pelicans, cranes, herons, etc. Fish is 
 one of the chief foods, the principal 
 varieties being salmon, cod, herring, 
 sole and mullet. There are also tortoises, 
 lizards, scorpions, and centipedes; and 
 of the insect tribes there are white-ants, 
 winged grasshoppers, and several beau- 
 tiful varieties of moths. A considerable 
 number of the Japanese animals are the 
 same as those of Britain, or little different. 
 
 The Japanese may be regarded as be- 
 longing to the great Mongolian family, 
 though ethnologists recognize more than 
 one element in the population. They are 
 generally distinguished by broad skulls 
 and high cheek-bones; small black eyes, 
 obliquely set; long black hair, and a 
 yellow or light-olive complexion; some 
 are good-looking, and many are well- 
 made, active, and nimble. They are a 
 frugal, skilful, persevering, courageous 
 race, who combine these characteristics 
 with much frankness, good humor, and 
 courtesy. A Japanese gentleman’s dress 
 
JAPAN 
 
 JASMINE 
 
 18 a loose garment made of silk, gathered 
 in at the waist by a girdle, and extending 
 from neck to ankle; while over this is 
 thrown a wide-sleeved jacket. In the 
 country a short cotton gown is worn, 
 while the lower classes generally wear 
 but scant clothing. The hair is shaved 
 off the front part of the head, while on 
 the back and sides it is gathered up into 
 a knot and fastened with long pins. As 
 regards both clothing and hair-dressing 
 the women very much resemble the men. 
 They also paint and powder themselves 
 to excess. Polygamy is not practiced, 
 but a husband can have as many con- 
 cubines as he can afford. The Japanese 
 are a holiday-loving people, and delight 
 in the theater. Their two principle re- 
 ligions are Buddhism and Shintoism. 
 The chief observances of Shintoism are 
 ancestral worship and sacrifice to de- 
 parted heroes. Buddhism is the popular 
 religion. The Japanese language is dual 
 in its nature. Originally a polysyllabic 
 Mongolian tongue, it has been greatly 
 enriched by the addition of many Chi- 
 nese words, the latter being much used 
 by the literary and governmental classes. 
 The literature of Japan is extensive, and 
 includes all departments — historical 
 scientific, biographical, but is especially 
 copious in poetry and romance. Contact 
 with Europe has affected literary pro- 
 ductions; European and not native 
 writings are now mostly read. 
 
 In native and imitative manufactures 
 the Japanese are exceedingly ingenious. 
 Their artistic treatment of copper, iron, 
 bronze, silver, and gold is of the finest; 
 while in stone carvings, mosaics, wicker, 
 tortoise-shell, crystal, leather, and espe- 
 cially in wood lacquer-work, they are 
 skilful in the highest degree. Of textile 
 fabrics they excel in cotton-goods, 
 crapes, camlet, brocades, but chiefly in 
 
 Japanese work-people. 
 
 figured silk. Paper is largely made, and 
 its uses — from a house to a handker- 
 chief — aremanifold. Japanese decorative 
 art is remarkable for patient but facile 
 treatment of bird, beast, and flower; the 
 absence of perspective and chiaro-oscuro 
 seems even to add to its effect. The 
 modern art productions, however, have 
 been debased by imitations of bad 
 European work. The chief export is silk, 
 tea coming next, while the imports are 
 mostly textile fabrics, sugar, raw cotton, 
 etc. The standard money unit is the yen 
 or dollar, of the value of 49 cents, divided 
 into 100 sens. The coinage consists of 
 
 gold,silver nickel, and copper pleces,from 
 the value of 20 yens to ^>5 sen. There is 
 also a paper currency. The principal 
 weight is the picul =133 lbs. avoirdu- 
 pois. 
 
 The government of Japan till recently 
 was an absolute monarchy, but a new 
 constitution was proclaimed in Feb- 
 ruary, 1889, providing for the establish- 
 ment of a House of Peers, partly heridi- 
 tary, partly elective, partly nominated 
 by the emperor or Mikado (as the ruler 
 is called), and of a House of Commons of 
 300 members, elected by all men 25 years 
 of age and paying taxes to the amount 
 of 25 dollars annually. There is also a 
 cabinet which includes the prime- 
 minister and the statesmen at the head 
 respectively of the foreign office, the 
 treasury, war, navy, education, public 
 works, religion, justice, and the imperial 
 household. There are resident ministers 
 in most European countries and in the 
 United States. Railways have a length 
 of more than 1900 miles, with nearly 
 10,000 miles of telegraph-line, while the 
 postal system is excellent. Education is 
 compulsory, the school age being from 
 6th to 14th year. There is a university 
 at Tokyo, with affiliated colleges. Con- 
 scription is the rule, and the army num- 
 bers 65,000 men in peace, with a war 
 establishment of 265,000. The navy 
 ranks fifth in effective fighting strength 
 among the navies of the world. 
 
 The Japanese profess to have an 
 accurate chronology from 660 b.c., but 
 little confidence can be placed in their 
 annals previous to the 10th century 
 after Christ. A long line of emperors or 
 Mikados reigned over Japan, but for 
 some three hundred years all real power 
 was in the hands of the Shogun or chief 
 minister. Japan was first made known 
 to Europe by Marco Polo. In 1542 it 
 was visited by Mendez Pinto, represent- 
 ing the Portuguese; and in 1549 the 
 Jesuit missionary, St. Francis Xavier, 
 arrived and converted many of the 
 natives. From the overbearing charac- 
 ter of the Portuguese traders on the one 
 hand and the jealousy of the Japanese 
 priests, an edict was issued excluding 
 missionaries from the country, and in 
 1640 the Portuguese were finally ex- 
 pelled. The Dutch established com- 
 mercial relations in 1600. In 1854 the 
 first modern treaty was made with the 
 United States, and in the same year an- 
 other was concluded on behalf of Great 
 Britain. A more important treaty with 
 Britain was secured by Lord Elgin in 
 1858, whereby five ports were fully 
 opened to trade. In 1868 a revolution 
 overthrew the power and office of the 
 Shogun, and the Mikado was restored to 
 his ancient position. All former treaties 
 with European powers were ratified, 
 while the Japanese rapidly became con- 
 verted to western ideas. The first line 
 of railways was opened from Tokyo to 
 Yokohama in 1872, and the telegraph 
 and telephone have come into common 
 use. Industries of the Eurpean type 
 have been successfully started. In 1894 
 war broke out with China in connection 
 with Corea. The Chinese were driven 
 out of Corea and their country invaded 
 by the Japanese, and when the war 
 ended in 1895, China had to cede For- 
 mosa and pay a large war indemnity to 
 
 Japan. The virtual annexation of Man- 
 churia by Russia, and her threatened 
 absorption of Corea, led to war between 
 Japan and Russia in February, 1904. 
 The Japanese soon gained command of 
 the sea, and after a striking victory on 
 the Yalu river isolated and invested 
 Port Arthur, and inflicted a series of 
 defeats on the Russians in Manchuria, 
 altogether showing remarkable military 
 and naval skill. (See Russia-Japanese 
 War.) 
 
 Peace was re-established Sept. 5, 
 1905, Japan strengthening her position 
 with a new treaty with Great Britain. 
 In August, 1907, Japan, with the con- 
 sent of the other powers assumed a 
 protectorate over Corea. 
 
 JAPAN CLOVER, a perennial plant 
 with trifoliate leaves, indigenous to 
 China and Japan. Introduced into the 
 United States about 1850, it now forms 
 a valuable forage plant there. 
 
 JAPAN CURRENT. See Kuro Siwo. 
 
 JAPANNING, is the act of applying 
 varnish to such articles as wood, metal, 
 leather and papier-mach4, in imitation 
 of the lacquered work of Japan and 
 China. The article to be japanned, being 
 made thoroughly dry, is first brushed 
 ovef with two or three coats of seed-lac 
 varnish to form the priming. The next 
 coat of varnish is mixed with the ground 
 tint, desired and where a design is in- 
 tended it is now painted with colors. 
 The whole is then covered with addi- 
 tional coats of varnish, which are dried 
 and polished as applied. Shell-lac var- 
 nish or mastic varnish is employed, 
 unless where the fineness or durability 
 of the work requires the use of copal 
 dissolved in alcohol. See Lacquering, 
 
 JA'PHETH, the second son of Noah 
 (Gen. ix. 24). His descendants, accord- 
 ing to Gen. X. 5, peopled the isles of the 
 Gentiles, and thus Japheth is often 
 considered the ancestor of most Euro- 
 pean races. 
 
 JARDINIERE (zhar-den-yar), an or- 
 namental stand for growing plants, used 
 in decoration of an apartment. 
 
 JAROSLAV, a town in Russia, capital 
 of the government of same name, on the 
 Volga, 162 miles northeast of Moscow. 
 Pop. 70,610. — The government has an 
 area of 13,000 sq. miles and a population 
 of 1,095,636. 
 
 JAS'MINE, Jas'min, the popular name 
 of plants of the genus Jasminum. They 
 
 are elegant, branched, erect or climbing 
 shrubs, with imparipinnate, trifoliolate, 
 
JASON 
 
 JEFFERSON 
 
 or simple leaves, and (usually cymose) 
 white or yellow flowers, from some of 
 which delicious perfumes are extracted. 
 Also written Jessamine. 
 
 JASON, in Greek legend, king of 
 lolcos in Thessaly, celebrated for his 
 share in the Argonautic expedition. On 
 his return to lolcos with Medea as his 
 wife, he avenged the murder of his 
 parents and his brother by putting 
 Pelias to death. Unable to retain pos- 
 session of his throne, however, he fled 
 to Corinth, where, after some time, he 
 married Glauce (or Creusa), daughter of 
 the king, and put away Medea and her 
 children. (See Medea.) Different ac- 
 counts are given of his death. See 
 Argonauts. 
 
 JASPER, an impure opaque colored 
 quartz, less hard than flint or even than 
 common quartz, but which gives fire 
 with steel. It is entirely opaque, or 
 sometimes feebly translucent at the 
 edges, and presents almost every variety 
 of color. It is found in metamorphic 
 rocks, and often occurs in very large 
 masses. It admits of an elegant polish, 
 and is used for vases, seals, snuff-boxes, 
 etc. There are several varieties, as red, 
 brown, blackish, bluish, Egpytian. — 
 Agate jasper is jasper in layers with 
 chalcedony. — Porcelain jasper is only 
 baked clay. 
 
 JASSY (yish'shi), a town of Rou- 
 mania, in Moldavia, on the Bachlui, sev- 
 eral miles from the Pruth. Pop. 90,000, 
 55,000 being Jews. 
 
 JAUNDICE, is not specifically a dis- 
 ease, but is rather the indication of bile- 
 coloring matter in the blood, shown by 
 a greenish-yellow color of the skin. This 
 is caused either by disease of the liver, 
 which prevents that organ from separat- 
 ing bile pigments from the blood, or is 
 due to some obstruction in the bile ducts 
 leading to the intestines. The accom- 
 panying symptoms are constipation, 
 colic pains, nausea, headache, languor, 
 and itching of the skin. The yellow 
 color first appears on the whiter parts 
 of the body, as the eye, the neck, the 
 chest, etc. From being a mere tinge of 
 yellow it deepens to a dark orange, and 
 sometimes greenish hue. Whether these 
 symptoms are trifling or serious depends 
 entirely on the cause; due attention to 
 diet, with mild laxative medicines, will 
 often prove beneficial. Besides the 
 milder, there is also a malignant form of 
 jaundice which usually ends fatally. 
 
 JAUNPUR (joun-por'), a town of In- 
 dia, United Provinces, on the river 
 Gumti, over which there is a fine bridge. 
 Pop 42,771. — The district has an area 
 of 1554 sq. miles; pop 1,209,663. 
 
 JAUNTING-CAR, a light car used in 
 Ireland in which the passengers ride back 
 to back on folding-down seats placed at 
 right angles to the axle, the occupants 
 having their feet near the ground. There 
 is generally a “well” between the seats 
 for receiving luggage, and a seat in front 
 for the driver. 
 
 JAVA, an island in the Indian Archi- 
 pelago, the chief of the Dutch colonial 
 possessions; capital, Batavia. Area, 
 48,830 sq. miles. Pop. 28,745,698. Rice 
 is the chief cereal, but coffee and sugar 
 are the staple products; spices are also 
 grown, and some cotton is raised. Other 
 products are cochineal, pepper, tobacco. 
 
 tea. The famed poison-tree, or upas, is a 
 noted Javanese plant. The forests con- 
 sist mainly of teak. There are about 100 
 kinds of mammalia inhabiting Java. 
 These include the one-horned rhinoceros, 
 tiger, panther, tiger-cat, wild hog, 
 several kinds of deer, several monkeys 
 (but not the orang-utan), and enormous 
 bats. The ox, the buffalo, the goat, are 
 among the domestic animals. Birds are 
 numerous. Serpents of a venomous kind 
 are frequent, as also are crocodiles, 
 lizards, and the land tortoise The native 
 population belong to the Malay race, 
 and are brownish-yellow in complexion 
 with long thick black hair. They are 
 sober, patient, and industrious, but 
 quick to avenge affront. In religion they 
 are nominally Mohamm-edan. The great 
 mass are devoted to agriculture, living 
 in villages each governed by a native 
 chief. A governor-general rules Java 
 and the whole of the Dutch East Indies. 
 The history of Java is unknown previous 
 to the 11th century, when the Windus 
 founded a dynasty and converted the 
 natives to Brahmanism. This was over- 
 thrown by an invasion of the Moham- 
 medans in 1478. Islamism was suc- 
 ceeded by the Portuguese, who arrived 
 in 1511. They were followed by the 
 Dutch in 1595, who wrested from them 
 the supremacy. 
 
 JAV'ELIN, a short spear thrown from 
 the hand, and in ancient warfare used 
 by both horse and foot soldiers. The 
 Roman javelin had a barbed iron head 
 and a wooden shaft, the whole length 
 being nearly 7 feet. 
 
 JAY, a genus and sub-family of birds 
 belonging to the family of the crows. 
 The jays have the upper mandible or bill 
 notched or indented near Its tip, and the 
 feathers on the top of the head are 
 erectile, and can be elevated at will, to 
 form a kind of crest. These birds are 
 readily domesticated, possess a harsh 
 grating note, and are admirable mimics. 
 They feed on fruits, seeds, worms, in- 
 sects, and the eggs and young of other 
 
 The European jay. 
 
 birds, etc. The common jay is the size 
 of an ordinary pigeon, the general color 
 is a light brown inclining to red, whilst 
 the larger or primary wing-feathers are 
 of a brilliant blue, marked out by bands 
 of black. The blue color reaches its 
 highest brilliancy in the North American 
 blue jay which otherwise closely imitates 
 its European representative both in size 
 and habits. The blue jay is exceedingly 
 
 well known in the United States. An- 
 other American jay is the Canada jay or 
 “whisky jack,” a bird of rather somber 
 coloring, but of the bold, noisy, and 
 active habits of others of the jays. 
 
 JAY, John, American jurist and 
 statesman, born in 1745, died in 1829. 
 In 1768 he was admitted to the bar, and 
 in 1774 was chosen a delegate to the 
 first American congress, which met at 
 Philadelphia. In 1776 he was chosen 
 president of congress, and in 1779 he was 
 appointed minister plenipotentiary to 
 Spain. In 1782 he was appointed one of 
 the commissioners to negotiate a peace 
 with Britain, and, along with Adams 
 
 and Franklin, concluded a treaty with 
 the British. Returning to the United 
 States he was appointed head of foreign 
 affairs, and afterward chief-justice. 
 In 1794 he was sent as envoy extraor- 
 dinary to Great Britain, and concluded 
 a treaty which has been called after his 
 name, and by which $1,000,000 was given 
 to Americans as compensation on ac- 
 count of the illegal captures by British 
 vessels, the eastern boundary of Maine 
 was fixed, etc. 
 
 JEDDO. See Yeddo. 
 
 JEFFERSON, Joseph, American come- 
 dian, was born in Philadelphia in 1829. 
 He appeared as Cora’s child in Pizarro 
 when only three years old. In 1856 he 
 made his first trip to Europe. In 1857 
 he became a member of Laura Keene’s 
 company, playing Dr. Pangloss in The 
 Heir at Law. In 1858 he played with 
 E. A. Sothern in Our American Cousin, 
 creating the part of Asa Trenchard. He 
 played Rip Van Winkle for the first 
 time in London in 1865, and it became 
 his most famous role. Since then Dr. 
 Pangloss, Bob Acres in the Rivals, and 
 Rip Van Winkle have been the principal 
 ones in his repertory. He died in 1905. 
 
 JEFFERSON, Thomas, the third presi- 
 dent of the United States of America, 
 was born April 2, 1743, at Shadwell, in 
 Albemarle co., Virginia. He studied for 
 two years at the college of William and 
 Mary, Williamsburg, and then com- 
 menced the study of law. In 1760 he was 
 elected a member of the provincial legis- 
 lature, and in 1775 he took his seat for 
 
JEFFERSON CITY 
 
 JEREMIAH 
 
 the first time in congress. It was he who 
 drew up the draft of the declaration of 
 independence, which (in a slightly modi- 
 fied form) was signed on July 4, 1776. 
 In 1779-81 he was governor of Virginia. 
 In May, 1784, congress elected him min- 
 ister plenipotentiary to France, in ad- 
 dition to Adams and Franklin; next 
 year he was appointed sole minister, 
 and his residence in Europe lasted about 
 five years. On his return he was ap- 
 pointed secretary of state by Washing- 
 ton, an office which he continued to fill 
 until the end of 1793, when he resigned. 
 In 1797 he was elected vice-president of 
 the United States; but he was seldom 
 consulted by the president, and he was 
 out of harmony with the government. 
 
 In 1800 he was elected president. One 
 of the public acts of his administration 
 was the purchase of Louisiana from 
 France, thus greatly extending the 
 boundaries of the United States. In 1809 
 he retired to private life at his residence 
 of Monticello, in Virginia, where he died 
 on the 4th of July, 1826, the fiftieth an- 
 niversary of the declaration of indepen- 
 dence, almost at the same hour as John 
 Adams, the second president. Jefferson 
 was the acknowledged head of the 
 republican party from the period of its 
 organization. He published Notes on 
 Virginia, and various essays on political 
 and philosophical subjects, and a 
 Manual of Parliamentary Practice, for 
 the use of the senate of the United 
 States. 
 
 JEFFERSON CITY, the capital of 
 Missouri and county-seat of Cole co., 
 near the geograpical center of the state 
 and 125 miles west of St. Louis; on 
 the south bank of the Missouri river; on 
 the Missouri Pacific, and reached by the 
 Chicago and Alton and the Missouri, 
 Kansas and Texas railroads. Pop. 
 11 , 122 . 
 
 JEF'FERSONVILLE, the county seat 
 of Clark co., Ind , on the Ohio river, 
 opposite Louisville, Ky., with which it 
 is connected by two railroad bridges, 
 and on the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore 
 and Ohio Southwestern, the Cleveland, 
 Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis, and 
 other railroads. Pop. 13,124. 
 
 JEHOSH'APHAT, son of Asa, and 
 
 fourth king of Judah, 915-890 b.c. He 
 was noteworthy in his strenuous en- 
 deavors to abolish the use of idols. 
 Jehoshaphat denotes “Jehovah’s judg- 
 ment.” 
 
 JEHO'VAH (Heb. Yahveh), the popu- 
 lar pronunciation of the sacred name of 
 God among the Hebrews, represented in 
 the text of the Old Testament by the 
 four consonants J (or Y), H, V, H. The 
 Hebrews cherished the most profound 
 awe for this name, and this sentiment 
 led them to avoid pronouncing it, and 
 to substitute the word Adonai, which 
 signifies the Lord, which custom still 
 prevails among the Jews. In some por- 
 tions of the Pentateuch Jehovah is the 
 name regularly applied to God, in others 
 Elohim : this has led to a theory of two 
 authors respectively for these portions. 
 See Elohim. 
 
 JELLY, a name for such substances as 
 are liquid when warm, but which coagu- 
 late into a gelatinous mass when cold. 
 Animal jelly is prepared from the soft 
 parts of animals, and even from bones 
 when sufficiently crushed. It is a color- 
 less, elastic, transparent substance with- 
 out taste or smell, and which is soluble 
 in warm water. Analysis shows that its 
 constituents are carbon, hydrogen, 
 nitrogen, with a possibility of sulphur. 
 Vegetable jelly is prepared from the 
 juice of unripe fruit heated in a solution 
 of water to 40° C. This extract when 
 boiled with sugar forms a pleasant and 
 wholesome substance. Doctors now 
 incline to the opinion that animal jelly 
 is less nourishing than ordinary animal 
 food. 
 
 JELLY-FISHES, the popular name of 
 certain animals, found in the sea, and 
 often familiarly called sea-blubbers and 
 sea-nettles, from their appearance and 
 stinging property. When in the water 
 they present a singularly beautiful ap- 
 pearance, one of the most common re- 
 sembling a clear crystalline bell, which 
 swims gracefully through the water by 
 alternately expanding and contracting 
 its body. They are very voracious, and 
 move upon their prey (minute animals) 
 with great rapidity, seizing it with their 
 long stinging tentacles. The phosphores- 
 cence of the sea is to some extent ex- 
 plained by the pale light which they 
 diffuse in the darkness. 
 
 JENA (ya'ni), a town of Germany, in 
 the grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar, 12 
 miles east of Weimar, on the Saale, a 
 place of little Importance except for its 
 university, which was opened in 1558. It 
 has about 60 professors or lecturers, an 
 anatomical theater, botanical garden, 
 zoological museum and other scientific 
 collections, observatory, library of 200,- 
 000 volumes, and about 600 students. 
 On 14th Oct. 1806, the Prussians (70,- 
 000 men) under Prince Hohenlohe were 
 defeated here by the French under 
 Napoleon (90,000 men). Pop. 20,686. 
 
 JENNER, Edward, an English phy- 
 sician, celebrated for having introduced 
 the practice of vaccination as a preven- 
 tive of the small-pox. He was born at 
 Berkeley in Gloucestershire in 1749; 
 studied at London under the celebrated 
 anatomist John Hunter, and afterward 
 settled in Gloucestershire as a medical 
 practitioner. About 1776 the belief 
 common among the peasants that casual 
 
 cow-pox acquired in milking cows was a 
 preventive of small-pox, caused him to 
 direct his inquiries to the subject, and 
 led to the introduction of the process of 
 vaccination in 1796. His method at first 
 met with great opposition from the 
 medical profession, but was ultimately 
 universally accepted both by his own 
 and foreign nations. He died at Berkeley 
 in 1823. Hepublishedan Inquiryintothe 
 Causes and Effects of Cow-pox (1798); 
 Further Observations on Variolae Vac- 
 cinae or Cow-pox (1799) ; and a celebrated 
 paper on the Cuckoo in the Philosophical 
 Transactions. See Vaccination. 
 
 TEPHTHAH, one of the Hebrew 
 judges, who defeated the Ammonites, 
 out having rashly made a vow that if he 
 was victorious he would sacrifice to God 
 as a burnt-offering whatever should first 
 come to meet him from his house, he was 
 met on his return by his daughter, his 
 only child, whom he sacrificed, in con- 
 sequence, to the Lord (Judges xi. 29, 
 40), Some commentators have main- 
 tained that this meant devoting her to 
 perpetual virginity in the tabernacle. 
 Jephthah ruled six years as a judge and 
 general (Judges xi., xii.). The sacrifice 
 of Jephthah’s daughter is the subject 
 of Handel’s last oratorio, and of a Latin 
 drama oy George Buchanan. 
 
 JER'BOA, a genus of small animals 
 belonging to the order Rodentia or 
 Gnawers, having extremely long hind 
 limbs, which gives them an extraordi- 
 nary power of leaping, so that their 
 movements seem more like flying than 
 running. The fore limbs are armed with 
 short powerful claws, with which they 
 
 Jerboas. 
 
 excavate their burrows and extract the 
 roots on which they chiefly live. They 
 are gregarious and nocturnal in their 
 habits, and hibernate during the colder 
 seasons. The jerboas are found chiefly 
 in Asia and Northern Africa. The 
 typical species is the Egyptian form. 
 
 JEREMI'AH, the second of the great 
 prophets of the Old Testament, flour- 
 ished during the darkest period of the 
 Kingdom of Judah, under Josiah, 
 Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jeconiah, and 
 Zedekiah. He was called to theprophetic 
 office about 629 b.c., in the reign of 
 Josiah, and lived to see the capture of 
 Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 
 B.C., who offered him a home at Babylon 
 but he preferred to stay among the 
 wretched remnant of the people left in 
 Judah. He is said to have been stoned 
 to death in Egypt by some of his coun- 
 trymen, who were irritated by his re- 
 
JER-FALCON 
 
 JERUSALEM 
 
 bukes. He wrote two Old Testament 
 books, the prophecies of Jeremiah and 
 the Lamentations. The text of the 
 prophecies is in a somewhat confused 
 state, there being no chronological order. 
 Jeremiah wants the dignity and splendor 
 of Isaiah, but exhibits great tenderness 
 and elegiac beauty of sentiment. Some 
 critics also attribute to him the book of 
 Deuteronomy and several of the Psalms. 
 See also Jews. 
 
 JER-FALCON. See Falcon. 
 
 JERICHO (j er'-i-ko), a considerable 
 town of ancient Judea, on a plain about 
 18 miles n.e. of Jerusalem, noted, espe- 
 cially in Solomon’s time, for its balsam- 
 gardens and its thickets of palm-trees 
 and roses, and carrying on a flourishing 
 trade in balsam and spices. It was the 
 key of Palestine, and was therefore in- 
 vested by the Israelites who had passed 
 the Jordan under Joshua to conquer this 
 country. Its site is now occupied by the 
 small village of Riha. 
 
 JERKED BEEF, from the Chilian 
 word charqui, beef cut into strips of 
 about an inch thick, and dried in the sun 
 to preserve it. It is used in Chile and 
 other parts of South America, and has 
 been tried in Australia. When well pre- 
 pared it will keep for a great length of 
 time. 
 
 JERKIN-HEAD, in architecture, the 
 end of a roof when it is formed into a 
 shape intermediate between a gable and 
 
 Jerkin-head roof. 
 
 a hip, the gable rising about halfway to 
 the ridge, so as to have a truncated 
 shape, and the roof being hipped or 
 inclined backward from this level. 
 
 JEROBO'AM, the name of two kings 
 of Israel. — Jeroboam I., the son of 
 Nebat, on Solomon’s death (973 b.c.) 
 was made king of the ten tribes who 
 separated from Judah and Benjamin. 
 He made Shechem his capital, forbade 
 his subjects to resort to the temple at 
 Jerusalem, and set up golden calves at 
 the shrines of Dan and Bethel. He died 
 in the 22d year of his reign. — Jeroboam 
 II., the most prosperous of the kings of 
 Israel, reigned 823-782 b.c. He repelled 
 the Syrians, took their cities of Damas- 
 cus and Hamath, and reconquered 
 Ammon and Moab. But licentiousness 
 and idolatry were prevalent during his 
 reign. The authorities for the history of 
 his time are 2 Kings, 1 Chron., Amos, 
 and Hosea. 
 
 JER'OME, St., full name Eusebius 
 Hieronymus Sopbronius, one of the most 
 learned fathers of the Latin Church, was 
 born sometime between 331 and 345 in 
 Dalmatia, of wealthy parents. Died 
 about 420. His Latin version of the 
 Old Testament from the original lan- 
 guage was the foundation of thevulgate. 
 
 He took an active part in many con- 
 troversies, notably those regarding the 
 doctrines of Origen and Pelagius. 
 
 JER'ROLD, Douglas, English humor- 
 ist and play-writer, born in 1803. His 
 first play. More Frightened than Hurt 
 (1818), was not at first successful, but 
 his Black-eyed Susan (1822) ran for 300 
 successive nights at the Surrey theater. 
 Jerrold’s subsequent dramas were the 
 Rent-day, Nell Gwynne, the House- 
 keeper, the Prisoner of War, Bubbles of 
 a Day, Time Works Wonders, St. Cupid, 
 the Catspaw, the Heart of Gold, and 
 several others. He contributed exten- 
 sively to periodical literature. To Punch 
 he contributed his inimitable Mrs. 
 Caudle’s Curtain Lectures, Punch’s 
 Letters to his Son, etc. Though a terrible 
 master of satire and repartee his sayings 
 had no personal malevolence. He died 
 in 1857. 
 
 JER'SEY, the largest and most valu- 
 able of the Channel islands, about 15 
 miles off the northwest coast of France; 
 greatest length, east and west, about 12 
 miles; greatest breadth, 7 miles; area. 
 
 comprise glass works, boiler works, 
 foundries, steel works, breweries, sugar 
 refineries, chemical works, watch works, 
 tobacco works, potteries, etc. Its pop- 
 ulation is largely made up of the over- 
 flow of New York. Pop. 1909, 251,000. 
 
 JERSEY, NEW. See New Jersey. 
 
 JERUSALEM , one of the most ancient 
 and interesting cities in the world, in 
 Palestine, in the Turkish province of 
 Syria. It stands on an elevated site 
 (about 2500 feet above the sea) within 
 the fork of two ravines, the Valley of 
 Jehoshaphat on the east, and the Valley 
 of Hinnom on the south and west, while 
 a third ravine or valley — the Tyropoeon 
 — partially traverses it from south to 
 north. On the east side of this valley is 
 Mount Moriah, now the Mohammedan 
 quarter of the city, where anciently 
 stood the palace ancl temple of Solomon. 
 Immediately south of this stood the 
 mountain fortress of Zion, known as the 
 City of David, and later as the Akra ol 
 Lower City. This part of the city is now 
 waste. According to another view, how- 
 ever, the “City of David” is the Upper 
 
 Jerusalem in her decay. 
 
 28,717 acres or 44. 87sq. miles. The island 
 is fertile, abundantly wooded, and well 
 cultivated. The climate is peculiarly 
 mild and agreeable. Wheat is the prin- 
 cipal cereal raised, and large quantities 
 of grapes, peaches, melons, pears, and 
 other fruits are exported, as also vege- 
 tables, and especially early potatoes for 
 the London market. Cows of the famous 
 Jersey or Alderney breed are reared and 
 exported in great numbers. The lower 
 classes speak a sort of old Norman- 
 French dialect, while French is the lan- 
 guage of the upper classes and the law 
 courts. Jersey has its own legislature, 
 known as the “States.” Appeals lie to 
 the queen in council. The island is 
 attached to the diocese of Winchester. 
 Principal town, St. Helier. Pop. 52,796. 
 See Channel Islands. 
 
 JERSEY CITY, the capital of Hudson 
 CO., New Jersey, on the Hudson, oppo- 
 site New York, from which it is about a 
 mile distant and with which it is con- 
 nected by ferries. The manufacturing 
 establishments are very numerous, and 
 
 City on theopposite’or western side of the 
 Tyropoeon Valley, and to this the name 
 of Zion is given by current tradition. 
 This part is where the quarter of the 
 Armenians, the citadel, and the pro- 
 testant church now are. Of the three 
 walls which Jerusalem latterly possessed 
 the first wall, that of David, was for the 
 defense of this Upper City (the tradi- 
 tional but probably not the ancient 
 Zion). The second wall took in a con- 
 siderable area on the east and northeast, 
 while a new town or suburb, Bezetha, 
 which grew up on the north of this, was 
 enclosed by a third wall, built by 
 Agrippa I. The present limits are much 
 the same as those indicated by the third 
 wall, only that the old Lower City and 
 the southern part of the old Upper City 
 are unpopulated places outside the 
 modern walls. Of the seven gates only 
 five are now used. The interior of the 
 city is much occupied by mosques, 
 churches, and convents. The houses are 
 substantially built of stone, and present 
 in most cases no windows to the streets. 
 
JESTER 
 
 JESUS CHRIST 
 
 which accordingly — generally narrow, 
 illpaved, and sloping to the center — are 
 merely long lanes with dead walls on 
 each side of them. In the northwest 
 quarter is the Church of the Holy Sepul- 
 cher, so called because alleged to contain 
 under its roof the very grave in which 
 the Savior lay. This church, which was 
 built by Helena, the mother of Constan- 
 tine the Great, is remarkable for the 
 richness of its decorations and the num- 
 ber of pilgrims by whom it is visited. 
 A large area in the east of the city is 
 occupied by the inclosure known as El 
 Haram-Esh-Sherif (The Noble Sanc- 
 tuary), which is in the form of a regular 
 parallelogram surrounded on all sides by 
 a lofty wall. The mostconspicuousbuild- 
 ing within is the Mosque of Omar, called 
 also Kubbet-es-Sakhrah (Dome of the 
 Rock), a splendid structure of octagonal 
 form which occupies the site of the 
 Jewish temple. Among the notable 
 convents are the Latin convent, and the 
 still more extensive Armenian convent 
 capable of accommodating 1000 pil- 
 grims. The population is 41,500, of 
 whom 10,000 are Christians, 25,000 
 Jews, and 6000 Mohammedans. 
 
 Jerusalem is not mentioned by name 
 till B.c. 1500, when it was in the hands of 
 the Jebusites. The lower part was 
 wrested from them by Joshua, but the 
 upper part continued in their possession 
 till the time of David, who took up his 
 residence in the stronghold of Zion, and 
 made Jerusalem the capital of his king- 
 dom. It reached the height of its glory 
 under Solomon, after whose time it de- 
 clined. In 586 Nebuchadnezzar took 
 and destroyed the city after a long siege, 
 and carried off those of the inhabitants 
 whom the sword had spared as captives to 
 Babylon. On the return from the cap- 
 tivity the temple was rebuilt, b.c. 515. 
 The walls were not rebuilt till the time 
 of Ezra and Nehemiah, 455 b.c. The 
 city had regained a considerable degree 
 of prosperity, when it was sacked and its 
 walls levelled by Antiochus of Syria in 
 168. Under the Maccabees, Jerusalem, in 
 common with Judea, became once more 
 independent, 165 b.c. It next became 
 tributary to Rome, and had been greatly 
 beautified and enriched with a fine new 
 temple by Herod when the Saviour ap- 
 eared. In a.d. 66 Jerusalem was taken 
 y a party of Jews who had revolted 
 against Rome. Titus, the son of the em- 
 peror Vespasian, regained it in the year 
 70, after a terrible siege; the temple was 
 burned, and the city razed to the ground. 
 In 131 Hadrian ordered the city to be 
 rebuilt, but it continued depressed till 
 the beginning of the 4th century, when, 
 Rome having become Christian, Jerusa- 
 lem shared in the benefit, and assumed 
 the appearance of a distinguished Chris- 
 tian city, under the fostering care of 
 Helena, mother of Constantine the 
 Great. This period of prosperity, pro- 
 longed by a succession of Christian em- 
 perors, was suddenly terminated in 636, 
 by the conquest of the Mohammedans, 
 under the Arabian Caliph Omar. In 
 1099 the Crusaders took Jerusalem by 
 storm, and made it the capital of a Chris- 
 tian monarchy, which with difficulty 
 maintained its existence till 1187, when 
 it was finally overthrown by Saladin. 
 In 1517 Jerusalem fell into the hands of 
 
 the Turks, and has remained to this day 
 a part of the Ottoman empire. 
 
 JESTER, or COURTFOOL, a buffoon 
 or person maintained by the noble and 
 wealthy to make sport by jests and 
 merry conceits for them and their 
 
 friends. In Britain the last jester regu- 
 larly attached to the royal household 
 seems to have been Archie Armstrong, 
 the jester of James I. and Charles I. 
 
 JES'UITS, or SOCIETY OF JESUS, 
 the most celebrated of all the Roman 
 Catholic religious orders, founded in the 
 16th century by Ignatius Loyola, and 
 established by a papal bull in 1540, the 
 founder being the first general of the 
 order. The members, in addition to the 
 usual vows of poverty, chastity, and im- 
 plicit obedience to their superiors, were 
 bound by a fourth, viz. to go whitherso- 
 ever the pope should send them, as mis- 
 sionaries for the conversion of infidels 
 and heretics, or for the service of the 
 church in any other way. The popes 
 Paul III. and Julius III., seeing what a 
 support they might have in the Jesuits 
 against the reformation, granted to 
 them privileges such as no body of men, 
 in church or state, had ever before 
 obtained. They were permitted to enjoy 
 all the rights of the medicant and secular 
 orders; to be exempt from all episcopal 
 and civil jurisdiction and taxes, so that 
 they acknowledge no authority but that 
 of the pope and the superiors of their 
 order; to exercise every priestly func- 
 tion, parochial rights notwithstanding, 
 among all classes of men, even during 
 an interdict; and they could absolve 
 from all sins and ecclesiastical penalties 
 dispense themselves from the observance 
 of fasts and prohibition of meats, and 
 even from the use of the breviary. Their 
 general was invested with unlimited 
 power over the members, the dispersion 
 of whom throughout society, with the 
 most entire union and subordination, 
 was made the basis of the ordei. The 
 constitution of the body was drawn up 
 in great part by Loyola himself, but the 
 second general, Laynez, had much to do 
 in directing its early movements. 
 
 JESUS CHRIST, the founder of the 
 Christian religion; born in Bethlehem 
 according to the received chronology in 
 the year of Rome 754, but in reality 
 some four years earlier, that is, in 4 b.c. 
 He was born of the Virgin Mary, of the 
 
 tribe of Judah, who was betrothed to 
 Joseph, by occupation a carpenter. Two 
 genealogies of Joseph differing very 
 much after the time of David are given, 
 one by Matthew, chap, i.; the other by 
 Luke, chap. iv. Our information con- 
 cerning him is derived almost entirely 
 from the accounts of his life written by 
 the four evangelists Matthew, Mark, 
 Luke and John, and incidental notices 
 in other parts of the New Testament. 
 Before the birth of the Holy Child, 
 Joseph and Mary, then residing in 
 Nazareth, went to Bethlehem to be 
 taxed, and it was there, in a manger, 
 the inm being full, that Jesus was born. 
 
 On the night of his birth an angel an- 
 nounced the coming of a Saviour to 
 shepherds tending their flocks by night 
 in the field. On the eighth day he was 
 circumcised according to the law of 
 Moses. Soon after his birth he was hailed 
 by the adoration of the Magi or wise 
 men of the East, who were miraculously 
 directed to the house where the young 
 child was, and presented royal gifts. 
 Herod, alarmed at hearing of the birth 
 of one who was to be King of the Jews, 
 determined to destroy all the male chil- 
 dren of Bethlehem and its vicinity of the 
 age of less than two years, for the pur- 
 pose of effecting the death of Jesus. But 
 Joseph, being miraculously warned of 
 the danger, fled to Egypt with the virgin 
 and her child, and on his return, after 
 the death of Herod, went to reside at 
 Nazareth in Galilee, whence Jesus was 
 often called a Nazarene. We have no 
 further accounts of Jesus till his twelfth 
 year, when his parents took him with 
 them to Jerusalem. Here after being 
 lost for three days he was found in the 
 temple sitting among the doctors hear- 
 ing them and asking them questions. 
 Regarding the following eighteen years 
 of his life the evangelists are silent. He 
 probably during this period followed his 
 occupation as a carpenter. At the age of 
 about thirty he appeared as a public 
 preacher, having been baptized in the 
 Jordan by John, who recognized him as 
 the Messiah. He then retired to the 
 wilderness, where he passed forty days 
 in fasting, meditation, and prayer previ- 
 ous to being tempted of the devil as de- 
 scribed by the evangelists. He then 
 began to select his disciples, to teach 
 publicly, and perform miracles. Among 
 the notable Incidents of his public career 
 are, the changing water into wine at the 
 marriage in Cana of Galilee (his first 
 miracle) ; the driving of the traders out 
 of the temple during the feast of the 
 passover ; the curing by a word a noble- 
 man’s son lying ill at Capernaum; his 
 scornful reception as a preacher in the 
 city of Nazareth on account of hishumble 
 parentage; the calling of the twelve 
 apostles ; the sermon on the mount ; the 
 healing of the centurion’s servant and 
 the restoration of the widow’s son at 
 Nain to life ; the healing of the man at the 
 pool of Bethesda; the miraculous feed- 
 ing of 5000 persons with five loaves and 
 two fishes; the calming of the tempest 
 on the lake of Gennesaret; his healing '■ 
 the Syrophenician woman’s daughter of 
 an unclean spirit ; the transfiguration on 
 the mountain; the raising of Lazarus at , 
 Bethany; the cure of blind Eartimaeus ^ 
 at Jericho; the entry with triumph into 
 
JET 
 
 JEWS 
 
 
 Jerusalem ; the fourth feast of tne pass- 
 over with his disciples, known as the 
 Last Supper; the agony in the garden of 
 Gethsemane; the betrayal and the con- 
 demnation before the sanhedrim; the 
 trial before Pilate, and the crucifixion on 
 Golgotha or Mount Calvary. The body 
 of Jesus was taken down from the cross 
 by Joseph of Arimathea, and placed in a 
 tomb about which the Jewish priests set 
 a guard. But on the third day, i.e., on 
 the day thence called the Lord’s day 
 and made first day of the week, he rose 
 from the dead, appeared to his disciples 
 and others, and on the fortieth day after 
 his resurrection, while with his dis- 
 ciples on the Mount of Olives, was 
 visibly taken up into heaven. These 
 events of his public life are generally 
 considered to have occupied three years. 
 
 JET, a solid, dry, black, inflammable 
 fossil substance, harder than asphalt, 
 susceptible of a good polish, and glossy 
 in its fracture, which is conchoidal or 
 undulating. In Great Britain it is found 
 chiefly at Whitby in beds of the Upper 
 Lias shale. It is the altered fossilized 
 wood of coniferous trees. It is wrought 
 into buttons and personal ornaments 
 of various kinds. 
 
 JET'SAM, or JETTISON, goods thrown 
 overboard from a ship in danger. See 
 Flotsam. 
 
 JETTY, a kind of pier or artificial 
 projection of stone, brick, wood, or other 
 material, affording a convenient place 
 for landing from and discharging vessels 
 or boats, or serving as a protection from 
 the violence of the waves ; or a jetty may 
 be built out from the bank of a stream 
 obliquely to its course, and employed 
 either to direct a current on an obstruc- 
 tion to be removed, as a bed of sand or 
 gravel, or to deflect it from the bank 
 which it tends to undermine or other- 
 wise injure. In this last sense jetties 
 have been successfully used to deepen 
 river mouths or retard the advance of a 
 bar, as at the mouths of the Mississippi, 
 the Maas, the Danube, the Vistula, and 
 other rivers. Many harbors, such as 
 Calais, Ostend, etc., depend on jetties 
 for their existence. 
 
 JEW, The Wandering, a legendary 
 personage regarding whom there are 
 several traditions. One of the most com- 
 mon is that he was a cobbler in Jerusa- 
 lem by name Ahasuerus, at whose house 
 Jesus, overcome with the weight of the 
 cross, stopped to rest, but who drove 
 him away with curses. Jesus is said to 
 have replied, “Truly, I go away and that 
 quickly; but tarry thou till I come.” 
 Since then, driven by fear and remorse, 
 the Jew has wandered, according to the 
 command of the Lord, from place to 
 place, and has never yet been able to 
 find a grave. The legend has been made 
 use of by Shelley, Lewis, Croly, and Mrs. 
 Norton in England, Schubart and 
 Schlegel in Germany, and Sue in France. 
 
 JEWS, a Semitic race of people also 
 known as Hebrews, and Israelites, and 
 whose early history is identified with 
 that of Palestine or the Holy Land. The 
 main authority for the early history of 
 this people is the Old Testament. But 
 the chronology is obscure and difficult 
 to harmonize. Jewish history may be 
 considered as beginning with the emigra- 
 tion of the patriarch Abraham, ances- 
 
 tor of the race, from Ur of the Chaldees, 
 probably about 2000 b.c. Abraham re- 
 moved to the southeast of Palestine, 
 where we find his descendants flourish- 
 ing when they were led to emigrate to 
 Goshen, in Egypt. The interval is filled 
 up with the history of the patriarchs, 
 Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Joseph, ason 
 of Jacob had become viceroy of Egypt, 
 an d his father and brotherswere received 
 with high favor by the Pharaoh who then 
 ruled in this country. But in course of 
 time the condition of the Israelites, 
 under the rule of the Pharaohs, changed 
 for the worse. They were treated as 
 bondmen, and forced labor exacted of 
 them in an unreasonable degree. Accord- 
 ing to some authorities the Pharaoh who 
 began to oppress the Israelites was 
 Rameses II., and their deliverance took 
 place under his son. It was perhaps 
 about 1320 b.c., others say 1491, b.c., 
 that a deliverer in the person of Moses 
 led the Israelites out of the land of 
 bondage, where they resided for some 
 400 years. By this time they formed a 
 community of several millions, divided 
 into twelve tribes, named respe’ctively 
 after Reuben, Simeon, Judah, Issachar, 
 Zebulun, Benjamin, Dan, Naphtali, Gad 
 and Asher, sons of Jacob, and Manasseh 
 and Ephriam, sons of Joseph. Under his 
 leadership they went forth into the wil- 
 derness; through him they received the 
 law of the ten commandments on 
 Mount Sinai, and the whole polity by 
 which they were to be governed as a 
 people. A ceremonial of sacrifice was 
 instituted, and Aaron, the elder brother 
 of Moses, and his sons consecrated as a 
 hereditary priesthood, the priestly func- 
 tions thus falling to the tribe of Levi. 
 The nation was established as a theoc- 
 racy, and this principle, however often 
 forgotten in times of repose, continued 
 henceforward to be the inspiring idea of 
 national unity throughout the frequent 
 crises of Jewish history. The emigrants 
 first settled at Kadesh on the southern 
 borders of Palestine, where they re- 
 mained for many years, this being the 
 period spoken of in the scriptures as 
 the forty years’ wandering in the wilder- 
 ness. They now marched northward to 
 find new settlements in Palestine, which 
 they had to wrest by force from the 
 Canaanites. Moses died before entering 
 the promised land, and was succeeded as 
 leader by Joshua, under whom the 
 Israelites advanced to the conquest of 
 the territories of the Canaanites west of 
 Jordan. The former inhabitants, how- 
 ever, were not entirely subjugated, but 
 retained possession of a number of 
 cities, and the twelve tribes settled in 
 districts which were more or less cut off 
 from one another, and which formed an 
 exceedingly loose union of small states 
 under tribal chiefs, at times hard pressed 
 by neighboring peoples. It was only 
 long after, and by a gradual process of 
 absorption, that the Canaanite terri- 
 tories and their inhabitants became 
 amalgamated with the Israelites. 
 
 After the death of Joshua, about 1220, 
 or according to another chronology 1427 
 B.C., a succession of judges or military 
 leaders arose. Among the more remark- 
 able of these judges were Barak, Debor- 
 rah the prophetess, Gideon, Jephthah, 
 Samson, and Samuel. About 1070 the 
 
 Philistines, who inhabited the coast and 
 the low-lying plains west of the moun- 
 tains of Judah, had defeated the Israel- 
 ites and subjugated part of the country 
 when Samuel, the “last judge in Israel,” 
 was inspired to declare to Saul, a Ben- 
 jamite, his destiny to become king, and 
 anointed him as such. Saul soon proved 
 his fitness for the post by his successful 
 leadership of the Israelites, and he con- 
 tinued to organize the forces of Israel, 
 and to fight with varying success against 
 their enemies till his disastrous defeat 
 and death at Mount Gilboa, after which 
 the power of the Philistines again pre- 
 dominated on the west side of Joruan. 
 On the other side of the river the mili- 
 tary skill of Abner still preserved a king- 
 dom for Saul’s son, Ishbosheth, and 
 gradually reasserted with some success 
 his authority in Ephraim and Benjamin. 
 But in Judah, David, a native of Bethle- 
 hem, a warrior whom Saul’s jealousy had 
 driven into exile and alliance with 'the 
 Philistines, and who had previously been 
 anointed king in place of Saul, estab- 
 lished a separate principality, the capi- 
 tal of which was at Hebron. For several 
 years a hot war was waged between the 
 two Hebrew states, and ended only with 
 the murder of Abner and Ishbosheth, 
 when all the tribes acknowledged David 
 as king. David now transferred his resi- 
 dence from Hebron to Jebus, a fortified 
 city which he wrested from the Canaan- 
 ites, and called the city of David, after- 
 ward Jerusalem. He assailed and sub- 
 dued the Philistines, Moabites, Edom- 
 ites, Ammonities, and other surround- 
 ing nations, till all the country from the 
 n.e. end of the Red Sea to Damascus 
 acknowledged his authority. To this 
 prosperous kingdom succeeded his son 
 Solomon (b.c. 993, or by the long chro- 
 nology 1015). His reign, owing to the 
 warlike reputation which the nation had 
 acquired under David, was entirely 
 peaceful. He had no military tenden- 
 cies, but he took great pains to arrange, 
 the administration of the kingdom in an 
 orderly way, and his wisdom as a ruler 
 and judge became proverbial. His 
 alliances with Tyre and Egypt enabled 
 him to carry on an extensive and lucra- 
 tive commerce. He built the celebrated 
 temple in Jerusalem, and extended and 
 improved the city. His harem contained 
 700 wives that were princesses, besides 
 300 concubines. But with these, and 
 with the extended commerce of the 
 kingdom, it was inevitable that foreign 
 elements should be introduced into the 
 Jewish national life. Thus Solomon 
 erected altars for the deities and the 
 worship of the Moabites, the Ammonites 
 the Sidonians, and other nations; and 
 the severe simplicity of old Hebrew 
 manners gave place to luxury and craft. 
 
 The splendor of Solomon’s reign had 
 entailed heavy exactions upon his peo- 
 ple. When Rehoboam, Solomon’s son, 
 succeeded, they came with Jeroboam 
 at their head and demanded that he 
 should make their yoke lighter. Reho- 
 boam answered scornfully, whereupon 
 ten tribes revolted and set up Jeroboam 
 as king of a separate kingdom of Israel, 
 with its capital first at Sichem, later at 
 Samaria. Judah, along with a part of 
 Benjamin and the tribe of the Levites, 
 remained loyal to the dynasty of David. 
 
JEWS 
 
 JEWS 
 
 After an unsuccessful attempt to recon- 
 quer the kingdom of Isreal, Rehoboam 
 was forced by an invasion of Shishak of 
 Egypt to give up the hope of uniting the 
 two kingdoms. In the next generation 
 things had changed so much that Asa, 
 king of Judah, was obliged to seek the 
 help of Benhadad of Syria against King 
 Baasha of Israel. Baasha was succeeded 
 by Elah, Elah by Zimri, and Zimri by 
 Omri, under whom the kingdom of Israel 
 seems to have grown powerful. Omri 
 established the capital of the kingdom 
 at Samaria (about 906 b.c.), and sub- 
 jugated the Moabites. The son of Omri, 
 Ahab, married Jezebel, princess of Tyre, 
 an event which led to the extension of 
 Phoenician idolatry in Israel. As Solo- 
 mon had done before, Ahab built a tem- 
 ple for the Syrian Baal in his capital. 
 In his reign and subsequently the great 
 prophets Elijah and Elisha played an 
 important part. Ahab was slain at 
 Ramoth-Gilead 'in battle against the 
 Syrians. He was succeeded by Ahaziah 
 (853-851), and Joram (851-843). The 
 latter was slain by Jehu, a captain of the 
 army, who had been anointed king by 
 command of Elisha. Jehu (843-815) 
 now made a clearance in Samaria of 
 Syrian idolatries, destroying the temple 
 of Baal and putting the priests to death. 
 Under Jeroboam II., fourth in the line 
 of Jehu, the kingdom reached a high 
 point of prosperity (790-749). After 
 Jeroboam’s death there was a quick 
 succession of kings, Zachariah, Shallum, 
 Menahem, Pekaniah, Pekah; none of 
 any significance. Under Pekah the 
 kingdom of Israel became tributary to 
 the Assyrians. (See Assyria). Hosea, 
 Pekah’s successor, made an ineffectual 
 attempt to free the country from the 
 Assyrian yoke; but finally, in 722, 
 Samaria was captured by the Assyrian 
 king, Sargon, the kingdom of Israel 
 virtually destroyed, and the chief in- 
 habitants carried away and settled in 
 Assyria and Media. 
 
 Generally while the kingdom of Israel 
 had been flourishing, that of Judah had 
 stood in the background. Rehoboam was 
 succeeded by Abijam, Asa, Jehoshaphat, 
 the last a powerful and fortunate king. 
 In the hope of putting an end to the war 
 with the kingdom of Israel, Jehoshaphat 
 married his son Jehoram (848-844) to 
 Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab of Israel. 
 After the murder of her son Ahaziah by 
 Jehu, Athaliah seized the supreme power 
 in Jerusalem, and put to death her own 
 grandchildren in order to destroy the 
 line of David, Joash alone being miracu- 
 lously rescued. Athaliah was over- 
 thrown and put to death and the young 
 Joash raised to the throne (837-797). 
 His successors were; Amaziah (797- 
 792), Uzziah (792-740), Jotham, Ahaz, 
 and Hezekiah (727-699). Under Ahaz 
 and Hezekiah Isaiah delivered his sub- 
 lime prophecies Hezekiah was one of 
 the greatest reforming kings; his in- 
 fluence extended widely over the king- 
 dom of Israel, now in extreme decline. 
 He was miraculously delivered from an 
 invasion of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 
 by the destruction of the Assyrian army. 
 (See Assyria.) Josiah (641-610) was tJiB 
 last of the pious kings of Judali. H^* 
 was killed in battle against Necho, king 
 of Egypt. After him there was an un- 
 
 interrupted succession of weak and in- 
 capable monarchs, till under Zedekiah 
 (599-588) the capture of Jerusalem by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, b.c. 588, put an end 
 to the monarchy, Jerusalem being de- 
 stroyed and many of the people being 
 carried captive to Babylon. The prophet 
 Jeremiah flourished from the reign of 
 Josiah to the captivity. 
 
 In 538 Babylon was taken by Cyrus 
 king of Persia, who restored the Jews 
 and appointed Zerubbabel, governor of 
 Judsea, as a Persian province. The great 
 majority of the Jews remained in Persia, 
 however, only about 42,000 returned, and 
 settled chiefly in the vicinity of Jerusa- 
 lem. About 458 a second return of exiles 
 was led from Persia by Ezra. Along with 
 Nehemiah, who had been appointed 
 Persian governor ©f Judaea, Ezra pro- 
 mulgated the new law-book, practically 
 identical with the Pentateuch. From 
 the time of Nehemiah to the fall of the 
 Persian empire the Jews continued to 
 live in peace as Persian subjects, but en- 
 joying their own institutions. When 
 Alexander the Great overthrew the 
 Persian empire the Jews readily sub- 
 mitted on being promised the free exer- 
 cise of their religion (b.c. 332). After the 
 division of Alexander’s empire Palestine 
 was long a possession of the Ptolemies of 
 Egypt, under whom it enjoyed a period 
 of tranquility. It was under the patron- 
 age of Ptolemy (II.) Philadelphus 
 (reigned b.c. 285-247), according to tra- 
 dition, that the Septaugint or Greek 
 version of the Old Testament scriptures 
 was made. After the death of Ptolemy 
 Philopator Antiochus the Great of Syria 
 became master of Palestine (b.c. 198). 
 An Egyptian and a Syrian party now 
 arose among the Jews, and gave occa- 
 sion to civil dissentions, which led 
 Antiochus IV. (Epiphanes) to invade 
 Judtea (b.c. 170), when he took Jerusa- 
 lem by storm and slaughtered the in- 
 habitants without distinction of age 
 or sex, and endeavored to compel the 
 Jews to give up their religion. At length 
 under the leadership of the Maccabees or 
 Asmonaean family resistance arose, and 
 after a struggle of nearly fourteen years 
 was successful. In 135 b.c. John 
 Hyracnus, ‘son of Simon, a brother of 
 Judas Maccabaeus, completed the in- 
 dependence of Judaea, and extended his 
 dominion over the ancient limits of the 
 Hold Land. During his reign the rival 
 sects of the Pharisees and Sadducees be- 
 came established. Aristobulus I., the son 
 of Hyrcanus, assumed the title of king, 
 which was held by his successors. In 
 b.c. 63 Pompey, called in to help the 
 Pharisees, took Jerusalem, and made 
 the Jews tributary to the Romans. 
 Latterly Herod the Great, who entirely 
 threw off Jewish manners and cultivated 
 the favor of the Romans, was recognized 
 as King of Judsea by the Roman senate. 
 It was in b.c. 4, the last year of his 
 reign, that the birth of Christ took place 
 at Bethlehem. In 6 a.d. Judcea and 
 Samaria became a Roman province 
 under a procurator, who had his seat at 
 Ctesarea, and was subordinate to the pre- 
 fect of Syria. Pontius Pilate, under 
 wliorn our Lord’s public ministry and 
 crucifixion occurred, was made pro- 
 curator A.D. 26. For a time tlie country 
 was again ruled by a king, Herod 
 
 Agrippa, a.d. 41-44. He persecuted the 
 Christians and put the Apostle James to 
 death. In a.d. 65 a party of the Jews 
 revolted from the Roman yoke and 
 roused the whole of Palestine to insur- 
 rection. Vespasian was sent by Nero to 
 suppress it, but before the war was fin- 
 ished was called to the empire and left 
 his son Titus to conclude it. The result 
 ■ was the capture and destruction of 
 Jerusalem, a.d. 70, an event that de- 
 prived the Jews of the center of unity to 
 which their national life had hitherto 
 clung. After an insurrection headed by 
 Bar-Cochba, 132-135, Hadrian razed 
 the remains of Jerusalem left by Titus to 
 the ground, and erected in their place a 
 Gentile city, with the title .Elia Capi- 
 tolina. Jews were forbidden to enter 
 this city on pain of death, and the name 
 of Jerusalem was not revived till the 
 time of Constantine. 
 
 Henceforth the Jews became more 
 and more a scattered people, without a 
 country they could call their own. 
 Under the Roman emperors their treat- 
 ment varied. Under the Emperor Julian 
 they ventured to make preparations for 
 a new temple in Jerusalem. Although 
 this attempt failed, they derived great 
 advantages from their sanhedrim, re- 
 vived at Tiberias, and their patriarch- 
 ates (presidencies of the sanhedrim), 
 which were established — one at Tiberias 
 for the western Jews (429) ; the other for 
 the Jews beyond the Euphrates, latterly 
 at Bagdad. These two patriarchates be- 
 came points of union, and flourishing 
 Jewish academies arose in the east to 
 serve as seminaries for their learned 
 rabbins. One of the works of these 
 scholars was the collection of the tra- 
 ditionary expositions of the Old Testa- 
 ment, and additions to it, which was 
 completed a.d. 500, and received, under 
 the name of the Talmud, as a rule of 
 faith by the scattered communities of 
 Jews. In time the scattered Jews made 
 themselves masters of the commerce of 
 of the Old World, and, as money- 
 lenders and brokers, were often of great 
 importance to princes and nobles. Even 
 during the dreadful persecutions which 
 they underwent from the cruelty of the 
 Christians they still continued pros- 
 perous in Christian countries. They 
 lived more happily, however, among 
 the Mohammedans, although they were 
 distinguished by dishonorable badges 
 and oppressed by heavy taxes; and dur- 
 ing the Moorish supremacy in Spain 
 their prosperity was great and their 
 learning flourishing. In the cities of 
 France, Germany, and Italy, after the 
 11th century, particular streets and in- 
 closed places were assigned to them as a 
 sort of outcast, in consequence of 
 which, in the persecutions during the 
 crusades, thousands often fell victims at 
 once to the popular fury. They were 
 generally pronounced incapable of civil 
 rights and public offices. In Spain arid 
 Portugal during the 15th century they 
 yielded to force, and multitudes suf- 
 fered themselves to be baptized, many 
 were put to death by the inquisition, 
 and at last they were banished from the 
 peninsula. It was only in the end of the 
 18th century that the Jews began to be 
 put on a level with other citizens, 
 France leading the way after the revolu- 
 
JEWETT 
 
 JOB 
 
 tion, and Prussia following (1811). After 
 repeated unsuccessful attempts to pro- 
 cure their admission into the British 
 parliament, the object was at last effected 
 in 1858. The most remarkable circum- 
 stances connected with the modern 
 Jews is the tenacity with which they 
 cling to their ancient religion, and the 
 purity in which on the whole they have 
 retained their racial characteristics in 
 the midst of alien peoples. In modern 
 times they have produced some of the 
 greatest names in letters and arts, as 
 Spinoza, Moses Mendelssohn, Heinrich 
 Heine, Meyerbeer, etc. The total number 
 of Jews throughout the world is esti- 
 mated at 8,000,000, the greater number 
 being in Russia and Austria-Hungary. 
 
 JEWETT, Charles Coffin, American 
 librarian, was born in Lebanon, Me., in 
 1816. He became librarian at Brown 
 university in 1841 and from 1843 to 
 1848 was professor of modern languages. 
 He then became librarian of the Smith- 
 sonian institution and from 1855 to 
 1868 was superintendent of the Boston 
 public library. He was the first of the 
 modern school of librarians. At Boston 
 he prepared the card catalogue, one of 
 the first instances of the use of the card 
 catalogue in public libraries. He died 
 in 1868. 
 
 JEWETT, Sarah Orme, American 
 author; was born in South Berwick, 
 Me., in 1849. Her best known works are 
 Country By-ways, A Country Doctor, 
 Deep Haven, The King of Folly Island, 
 and Other People. Most of her works 
 consists of short stories noted for their 
 sympathetic portrayal of New England 
 life. 
 
 JEWS’-HARP, a toy musical instru- 
 ment held between the teeth, which 
 
 Jews’-harp. 
 
 gives a sound by the motion of a tongue 
 of steel, which, being struck by the hand, 
 plays against the breath. 
 
 JHALAWAR, Indian native state in 
 Rajputana; area, 3043 sq. miles; pop 
 343,601. Capital, Jhalra Patan, or 
 Patan;pop. 12,000. 
 
 JHANG, town of Hindustan, in the 
 Punjab, about 3 miles from the Chenab. 
 Pop. (with adjoining Maghiana), 24,382. 
 — Jhang district has an area of 5871 sq. 
 miles; pop. 436,841. 
 
 JHANSI (jhan'se), a fortified town in 
 Hindustan, in Gwalior state. Central 
 India. Pop. 55,724. 
 
 JIB, a triangular fore-and-aft sail ex- 
 tended on a stay stretching from a bow- 
 sprit or jib boom to a mast, the jib boom 
 being a continuation of the bowsprit by 
 a spar run out from the extremity of it. 
 
 JIG, a light quick tune or air in f , |, |, 
 I. I) I. or ¥ time, to be found in the 
 sonatas of suites of Corelli, Handel, and 
 other composers till toward the middle 
 of the 18th century. The Irish jig, 
 played to a dance also called a jig, is a 
 lively tune of two or three sections 
 written in f time. 
 
 P. E.— 44 
 
 JINGOISM, during the winter of 1877- 
 78, when England was undecided to in- 
 terfere forcibly in the war between 
 Prussia and Turkey the excitement in 
 London became intense, and the fighting 
 spirit found vent in a doggerel: 
 
 “We don’t want to fight, but by Jingo, If we do, 
 We’ve got the ships, we’ve got the men, we’ve 
 got the money too.” 
 
 The term, corresponding to “spread- 
 eagleism” in America, has ever since 
 been applied to the warlike advocates 
 of British imperial sway, and has been 
 taken up with the same meaning in the 
 United States. 
 
 JINN, Jinnee being the singular, in 
 Mohammedan mythology, a race of 
 genii, angels, or demons, fabled to have 
 been created several thousand years be- 
 fore Adam. They are not immortal; 
 they are to survive mankind, but to die 
 before the general resurrection. Some 
 are good and obedient to the will of God; 
 others are disobedient and malignant. 
 They can assume the shape of the lower 
 animals, and are visible or invisible as 
 they please. Their chief residence is the 
 mountain K3,f in Arabia. 
 
 JIT'OMIR, a town of Russia, capital 
 of the government of Volbynia, on the 
 left bank of the Teterew, 80 miles w. of 
 Kiev. Pop. 55,875. 
 
 JOACHIM (yo'i-kem), Joseph, Hun- 
 garian violinist, was born at Kittsu, near 
 Pressburg, Hungary, in 1831. When 
 only seven years old he made his first 
 public appearance at Budapest. In 1844 
 he visited England and was enthusias- 
 tically received. He was appointed con- 
 cert meister in 1849 of the orchestra at 
 Weimar. In 1854 he accepted the post 
 of concert conductor and solo violinist 
 at the court of Hanover. In 1868 he was 
 appointed head of the hoch schule fiir 
 ausiibende tonkunst. His most im- 
 portant work is the Hungarian concerto 
 in D minor. He is best known as the 
 greatest master of style, repose and tone 
 of his day and generation. He died in 
 1907. 
 
 JOAN, the female pope, according to a 
 story long believed, but now acknowl- 
 edged to be a fiction, was said to have 
 been a native of Mainz, who, falling in 
 love with an Englishman at Fulda, 
 traveled with him in man’s attire, studied 
 at Athens, and visited Rome. Under the 
 name of Johannes Anglicus, she rose by 
 her talents from the station of a notary 
 till she was elected to the papal chair 
 under the name of John VIII. (854 to 
 856, between Leo IV. and Benedict 
 III.). She governed well, but having 
 become pregnant she was delivered in a 
 solemn procession, and died on the spot. 
 
 JOAN OF ARC, the Maid of Orleans, a 
 heroine in French and English history, 
 was born in the village of Domr4my, 
 Basse Lorraine, now department of the 
 Vosges, in 1409 (some say 1412). While 
 she was still a girl she began to be deeply 
 affected by the woes of her country, 
 much of which was conquered by the 
 English, leaving only a small portion to 
 the French king, Charles VII. In 1427 
 Orleans was being besieged by the Eng- 
 lish, and its fall would have ruined the 
 cause of Charles. At this time Joan, who 
 had been noted for her solitary medita- 
 tions and pious enthusiasm, began, as 
 
 she declared, to see visions and hear 
 angelic voices, which ultimately called 
 upon her to take up arms for Charles; 
 to raise the siege of Orleans, and conduct 
 Charles to Rheims to be crowned. At 
 first she was regarded as insane, but 
 eventually she found her way to the 
 king and his councillors, and having 
 persuaded them of her sincerity, re- 
 ceived permission to hasten with Dunois 
 to the deliverance of Orleans. In a male 
 dress, fully armed, she bore the sword 
 and the sacred banner, as the signal of 
 victory, at the head of the army. The 
 first enterprise was successful. With 
 10,000 men she marched from Blois, and 
 on the 29th April, 1429, entered Orleans 
 with supplies. By bold sallies, to which 
 she animated the besieged, the English 
 were forced from their entrenchments, 
 and Suffolk abandoned the siege (May 
 8, 1429). Other successes followed- 
 Charles entered Rheims in triumph; and 
 at the anointing and coronation of the 
 king, July 17, Joan stood at his side. 
 
 She was wounded in the attack on 
 Paris, where Bedford repulsed the 
 French troops, but continued to take 
 part in the war till May 25, 1430, when 
 she was taken prisoner by the Burgun- 
 dians, and sold to the English. She was 
 taken to Rouen, and after a long trial, 
 accompanied with many shameful cir- 
 cumstances, condemned to death by the 
 church as a sorceress. On submitting to 
 the church, however, and declaring her 
 revelations to be the work of Satan, her 
 punishment was commuted to perpetual 
 imprisonment. But pretexts were soon 
 found to treat her as a relapsed criminal, 
 and as such she was burned at Rouen, 
 May 30, 1431, and her ashes were thrown 
 into the Seine. She died with undaunted 
 fortitude. Five years after, a court 
 specially constituted by Pope Calixtua 
 III. to examine the charges against the 
 Maid of Orleans, pronounced her inno- 
 cent. Voltaire, in a notorious burlesque, 
 Southey, Schiller, and others have made 
 her the subject of their verse. Schiller’s 
 drama still remains the worthiest monu- 
 ment of her fame. 
 
 JOB, the hero of an ancient Hebrew 
 poem, which forms one of the books of 
 the Old Testament. Job, an upright 
 man, with a family of seven sons and 
 three daughters, with large herds and 
 numerous servants, is suddenly, with 
 the permission of Jehovah and by the 
 agency of Satan, deprived of his pos- 
 sessions and his children, and smitten 
 with a sore disease, yet submits patiently 
 to the divine will. Three friends come to 
 console him, and a large part of the 
 oem is occupied with the speeches of 
 is f riends, who attribute his misfortunes 
 to wickedness and hypocrisy, and his 
 replies to them, until near the close, 
 when God himself is introduced answer- 
 ing Job out of a whirlwind. In the 
 sequel Job is delivered from his calami- 
 ties, lives 140 years, becomes richer than 
 he had been before, and begets seven 
 sons and three daughters. The design of 
 the book seems to be to enlarge men’s 
 views of the providence of God. It was 
 probably written between the 7th and 
 the 5th centuries b.c., and is certainly 
 not earlier than the time of David. The 
 basis of the story was probably tra- 
 ditional. 
 
JODHPUR 
 
 JOHN 
 
 JODHPUR (jod-por'), a town of Hin- 
 dustan, capital of the state of Jodhpur. 
 Pop. 60,437. — The state of Jodhpur or 
 Marwar is the largest in Rajputana, hav- 
 ing an area of 37^,445 sq. miles. Pop. 
 2,521,727. 
 
 JOE MILLER, the name attached to a 
 well-known collection of jests, first pub- 
 lished in 1739. The name belonged to a 
 comic actor, who had then a great repu- 
 tation at a wit and humorist. The real 
 compiler, however, was a John Mottley, 
 an obscure author who died in 1750. 
 
 JOHAN'NESBURG, a town in the 
 Transvaal, recognized as the central 
 point of the goldfields of the district 
 stretching southwest from Pretoria to 
 Potchefstrom, and known as the Wit- 
 watersrand. The South African war 
 temporarily almost ruined the place. 
 Estimated pop. over 70,000. 
 
 JOHN, one of the apostles, often dis- 
 tinguished as St. John the Evangelist, 
 the reputed author of the fourth gospel, 
 three epistles, and the Revelation, was 
 the son of Zebedee and Salome, and the 
 brother of James. Previous to his call 
 by Jesus he was a fisherman on the Sea 
 of Galilee, together with his father, his 
 brother, and Simon Peter and Andrew, 
 who were his partners. John, together 
 with Peter and James, was admitted to a 
 more confidential intercourse with Jesus 
 than the other apostles, and he is re- 
 peatedly spoken of as “the disciple 
 whom Jesus loved.” His gospel was 
 written later than any of the others — 
 according to some critics to refute par- 
 ticular heresies, and contains fuller de- 
 tails of our Lord’s conversations and dis- 
 courses than the other gospels, and is 
 also more doctrinal in character. Of the 
 three epistles the first had much resem- 
 blance to the gospel ; but the other two 
 were considerred doubtful even by the 
 early fathers. After the death of Jesus, 
 John continued at Jerusalem, and we 
 afterward find him at Samaria (Acts 
 iii. 1425). Tradition handed down by 
 the fathers make him die at Ephesus, 
 and if he wrote the Revelation he must 
 have been banished to Patmos. The 
 time of his death is unknown, 
 
 JOHN, called the Baptist, the fore- 
 runner of Christ, was born six months 
 before Jesus (their mothers were cous- 
 ins), of a Levitical family in Judaea. He 
 lived an austere life, given up to solitary 
 meditations, till a.d. 26, when he began 
 to preach in the deserts of Judaea, an- 
 nouncing that the kingdom of heaven 
 was at hand, and proclaiming himself 
 the harbinger of the Messiah. He bap- 
 tized many converts, and testified to the 
 higher mission of Jesus at the time of his 
 baptism in the Jordan. To gratify a 
 vindictive woman Herod Antipas, te- 
 trarch of Galilee, caused him to be be- 
 headed in prison. 
 
 JOHN, the name of twenty three 
 opes, among whom are the following; — 
 ohn I. (St. Johii), pope in 523-526. 
 Theodoric sent him to Constantinople, 
 to induce the Emperor Justin to adopt 
 milder measures toward the Arians, and 
 on his returning without success Theo- 
 doric threw him into prison, where he 
 died. — John XII. succeeded Pope Agape- 
 tus II. in 956, when only eighteen years 
 old. He w^is the first pope who changed 
 hie name on his accession to the papal 
 
 dignity. His life was so licentious and 
 disorderly that the Emperor Otho had 
 him deposed by a council in 963, and 
 Leo VIII. elected in his stead. But on 
 Otho’s departure John returned to the 
 city with a strong body of followers and 
 drove out Leo. He died in 964. — John 
 XXII., a native of Cahors, was elected 
 pope at Lyons in 1316, after the death of 
 Clement V. He resided at Avignon, and 
 took an active part in the disputes of the 
 emperors Louis of Bavaria and Frederick 
 of Austria. He died in 1334. — John 
 XXIII. (Balthasar Cossa), born in 
 Naples, was a pirate in bis youth, after- 
 ward studied at Bologna, and was 
 elected pope in 1410, by the council 
 of Pisa, after the death of Alexander 
 V., on condition that, if Gregory XII. 
 and Benedict XIII. would resign, he 
 would also retire to end the schism. 
 He summoned the council of Constance, 
 demanded by the Emperor Sigismund, 
 in 1415, and was deposed by this council 
 as guilty of a long list of heinous crimes. 
 For some years he remained in custody, 
 but was ultimately pardoned by Pope 
 Martin V., and made a cardinal. He 
 died in 1419. 
 
 JOHN, King of England, born in 1166, 
 was the youngest son of Henry II., by 
 Eleanor of Guienne. He obtained the 
 crown on the death of Richard in 1199, 
 although the French provinces of Anjou, 
 Touraine, and Maine declared for’ his 
 nephew, Arthur of Brittany, who was 
 lineally the rightful heir, then with the 
 King of France. In 1205 his great quarrel 
 with the pope began regarding the elec- 
 tion to the see of Canterbury, to which 
 the pope had nominated Stephen Lahg- 
 ton. The result was that Innocent III. 
 laid the whole kingdom under an inter- 
 dict, and in 1211 issued a bull deposing 
 John. Philip of France was commis- 
 sioned to execute the decree, and was 
 already preparing an expedition when 
 John made abject submission to the 
 pope, even agreeing to hold his kingdom 
 as a vassal of the pope (1213). John’s 
 arbitrary proceedings led to a rising of 
 his nobles, and he was compelled to sign 
 the Magna Charta or Great Charter, 
 June 15, 1215. But John did not mean 
 to keep the agreement, and obtaining 
 a bull from the pope annulling the char- 
 ter, he raised an army of mercenaries, and 
 commenced war. The barons, in despair, 
 offered the crown of England to the 
 dauphin Louis, who accordingly landed 
 at Sandwich, 30th May, 1216, and was 
 received as lawful sovereign. The issue 
 was still doubtful when John was taken 
 ill and died at Newark, October, 1216, in 
 the forty-ninth year of his age. 
 
 JOHN II., King of France (1319-64). 
 In 1356 he was defeated and taken 
 
 C risoner by the Black Prince at the 
 attle of Poitiers, and was detained at 
 Bordeaux and at London, where he died 
 in 1364. 
 
 JOHN III. (Sobieski), King of Poland, 
 was born at Olesko, in Galicia, in 1624, 
 served in the French army, returned to 
 Poland to repel the Russians in 1648, 
 and greatly distinguished himself in 
 several campaigns against Cossacks, 
 Tartars, and Turks, especially by his 
 defeat of the last in the great battle of 
 Choczim, in 1673 The year after, on the 
 death of Michael Corybut, he was chosen 
 
 king. His most celebrated achievement 
 was the relief of Vienna, besieged by a 
 great army of Turks, whom he decisively 
 defeated 12th Sept. 1683. He died 17th 
 June, 1696. 
 
 JOHN BROWN’S BODY, one of the 
 marching songs of the war. The melody 
 was heard in a southern colored church 
 and fitted to the words of Say, Brothers, 
 Will you Meet Us? 
 
 JOHN BULL, a name first used by Dr. 
 Arnuthnot, and since popularized as a 
 typical name suggesting a humorous 
 or burlesque representation of the Eng- 
 lish character. He is represented as a 
 bluff, jolly, bull-headed farmer. 
 
 JOHN, Knights of St., or Knights 
 Hospitallers of St. John, afterward called 
 Knights of Rhodes, and finally Kiiights 
 of Malta, were a celebrated military 
 religious order, originating in a monas- 
 tery founded at Jerusalem in 1048 by 
 some merchants from Amalfi. The 
 monastery was dedicated to St. John 
 the Baptist, and the monks, who were 
 called Brothers of St. John or Hospi- 
 tallers, had the duty of caring for the 
 poor and sick, and in general of assisting 
 pilgrims. In 1118 the order was regu- 
 larly instituted as a military order, with 
 the duty, in addition to their vows of 
 
 Knight of St. John. 
 
 chastity, obedience, and poverty, of de- 
 fending the church against infidels. 
 The brethren were divided into three 
 classes, knights, chaplains, and serving 
 brothers, these last having specially the 
 duties of looking after the sick, and 
 accompanying pilgrims. In 1291 the 
 order was driven from Palestine by the 
 conquests of the Saracens, and after 
 holding Cyprus for a time they occupied 
 Rhodes in 1309, from which they were 
 ultimately driven by Sultan Soliman II 
 in 1522. After that the knights retired 
 to Candia and other places, but finally 
 to Malta, which Charles V. granted them 
 in 1530. In peace they wore a long black 
 mantle and a gold cross of eight points, 
 enameled white ; in war they wore a red 
 jacket or tabard, charged with a white 
 cross. In 1798 Malta was unexpectedly 
 attacked and taken by Bonaparte, and 
 about the same time the extensive prop- 
 erties belonging to the order in various 
 countries were confiscated. This may be 
 considered the end of the order as a 
 vital institution, although shortly after 
 the capture of Malta, Paul I., who had 
 been chosen grand-master, took the 
 order under his protection, and it still 
 exists nominally at least. After the 
 
JOHN OF AUSTRIA 
 
 JOHNSTON 
 
 death of Paul the nomination of the head 
 of the order, was vested in the pope. 
 
 JOHN OF AUSTRIA, commonly called 
 Don John of Austria, the natural son of 
 the emperor Charles V., was born at 
 Ratisbon in 1545. In 1570 he conducted 
 a campaign against the recalcitrant 
 Moors of Granada with great vigor and 
 relentlessness, and in the following year 
 he commanded the allied fleet which 
 won the great naval battle of Lepanto 
 over the Turks (7th Oct., 1571). In 1576 
 he was appointed governor of the 
 Netherlands, and had just won along 
 with the Prince of Parma the victory 
 of Gemblours (1578) over William the 
 Silent, when he died, not without sus- 
 picion of having been poisoned by his 
 jealous half-brother, Philip II. 
 
 JOHN OF GAUNT, a corruption of 
 Ghent, where he was born in 1340, was 
 fourth son of Edward III. and his queen 
 Philippa, daughter of the Earl of Hain- 
 aut. He was created Duke of Lancaster, 
 in 1362; served in the French wars, and 
 became governor of Guienne. He 
 assumed in right of his wife the title of 
 King of Castile, invaded the kingdom 
 to assert his claims, but subsequently 
 relinquished them in favor of Prince 
 Henry of Castile, who had become his 
 son-in-law. His eldest son Bolingbroke 
 became king of England as Henry IV. 
 He died 3d February, 1399. 
 
 JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, one 
 of the foremost universities of the 
 United States, in Baltimore, Maryland, 
 endowed by Johns Hopkins, a merchant 
 of Baltimore, with more than $3,000,000 
 and opened in 1876. Besides the library 
 there are well-equipped laboratories 
 for chemistry, biology, etc. There is an 
 extensive teaching staff, and instruc- 
 tion is given to two grades of stu- 
 dents, graduates and undergraduates. 
 The former are such as have taken a de- 
 gree here (that of B.A.) or elsewhere, 
 and wish to carry their studies further. 
 This university gives special attention to 
 advanced studies of various kinds, as 
 well as to original research. A number 
 of periodicals are issued in connection 
 with the university. There are, besides 
 numerous scholarships, about twenty 
 fellowships, each of the value of $500 
 annually. A hospital, also endowed by 
 Johns Hopkins, is connected with this 
 institution. 
 
 JOHNSON, Andrew, 17th president of 
 the United States, born in North Caro- 
 lina, 1808, died 1875. He was self- 
 
 Andrew Johnson. 
 
 educated; entered congress as a demo- 
 crat in 1843, and the senate in 1857. 
 On Lincoln’s election he became vice- 
 president, and thus became president 
 upon the assassination of Lincoln in 
 
 April, 1865. Duimg his term of office 
 he was in constant conflict with the 
 senate, and was impeached by the house 
 of representatives of high crimes and 
 misdemeanors (Feb 1868), the trial end- 
 ing in a techincal acquittal. A general 
 amnesty to the rebels was his last pres- 
 idential act. 
 
 JOHNSON, Reverdy, American jurist, 
 born at Annapolis, Md., in 1796. In 1817 
 he removed to Baltimore, and was suc- 
 cessively deputy attorney-general of 
 Maryland and for four years a state 
 senator. He represented his native 
 state in the United States senate from 
 1845 to 1849, when he resigned his seat 
 to enter President Taylor’s cabinet as 
 attorney-general. In 1863 he was again 
 elected to the United States senate, but 
 before the expiration of his term was 
 appointed minister to England in 1868. 
 He died in 1876. 
 
 JOHNSON, Richard Mentor, American 
 soldier, was born in Kentucky in 1781; 
 he entered the state legislature in 1804, 
 and three years later was elected to 
 congress as a republican. He sat in con- 
 gress for twelve years, but during the 
 war with Great Britain left his legis- 
 lative duties to assist in the campaign. 
 He took part in the engagement at 
 Chatham, Ontario, and at the battle of 
 the Thames, October 5, 1814, killed an 
 Indian chief, and was himself severely 
 wounded. From 1819 to 1829 Mr. John- 
 son served in the United States senate, 
 and from 1829 to 1837 again in the lower 
 house of congress. He was a candidate 
 for vice-president on the ticket with Van 
 Buren in 1836, failed to obtain a major- 
 ity of the electoral votes, but was chosen 
 by congress. He was a member of the 
 legislature of Kentucky at the time of 
 his death in 1850. 
 
 JOHNSON, Rossiter, American author, 
 was born in Rochester, in 1840; was 
 graduated at the University of Roches- 
 ter in 1863. From 1864 until 1868 he was 
 co-editor of the Rochester Democrat, a 
 republican newspaper, and from 1869 
 until 1872 edited the Concord (N, H.) 
 Statesman. From 1873 until 1877 he 
 was one of the editors of the American 
 Cyclopaedia, and in 1879-80 assisted 
 Mr. Sidney H. Gay in preparing the last 
 two volumes of the so-called Bryant’s 
 History of the United States. In 1883- 
 1890 he was editor of the Annual 
 Cyclopaedia. His original publications 
 include Idler and Poet, A History of the 
 French War, A History of the War Be- 
 tween the United States and Great 
 Britain and a History of the United 
 States. 
 
 JOHNSON, Dr. Samuel, eminent Eng- 
 lish author, was born at Lichfield 1709, 
 died at London, 1784. Rasselas (1759), 
 written in a week to pay for his mother’s 
 funeral, is one of the most interesting 
 and characteristic of his works. For 
 eighty years from 1747 Johnson’s atten- 
 tion was chiefly engaged by his Diction- 
 ary of the English Language, a work 
 which appeared in 1755, and is highly 
 honorable to the author in the circum- 
 stances in which it was produced, but is 
 of little real philological value. In 
 1765 appeared his long-promised edition 
 of Shakespeare. In 1773 Johnson made 
 a tour to the Hebrides in company with 
 his friend Boswell, of which he gives a 
 
 highly instructive account in his Jour- 
 ney to the Western Isles of Scotland. 
 In 1775 he received the diploma of 
 D.C.L. from the University of Oxford, 
 and soon after visited France in com- 
 pany with the Thrales. His last literary 
 
 Samuel Johnson. 
 
 undertaking was his Lives of the Poets, 
 which was completed in 1781. He was 
 buried in Westminster Abbey. Bos- 
 well’s Life may be said to convey a more 
 favorable impression of Johnson’s real 
 strength, both in thought and language, 
 than anything in the works which he 
 wrote and published. 
 
 JOHNSTON, Albert Sidney, American 
 soldier, was born in Kentucky in 1803. 
 After graduating at West Point in 1826 
 he served for eight years in the United 
 States army, emigrated to Texas in 
 1834, and entered the Texan service as 
 private in 1836. His promotion was so 
 rapid that in 1838 he was appointed 
 commander-in-chief, and till 1840 acted 
 as secretary of war. From 1840 till 1846 
 he lived in retirement on his farm in 
 Texas; but in the latter year he accepted 
 the colonelcy of a regiment of Texan 
 volunteers to serve against Mexico. As 
 a staff-officer he was present at the battle 
 of Monterey in September, 1846. Texas 
 joined the Union in 1846; and in 1849 
 
 A. S. Johnston. 
 
 Johnston received a major’s commission 
 in the United States army. After various 
 services he won the rank of brevet 
 brigadier-general by his skilful conduct 
 of the expedition sent to Utah in 1857 
 to bring the Mormons to order. In 
 January, 1861, he was transferred from 
 the command of the Texas department 
 to that of the Pacific department; but 
 in April he was superseded, probably 
 on account of his secessionist sympa- 
 thies. He resigned his national com- 
 mission in May, 1861, and accepted a 
 command in the confederate army. 
 While acting as commandei-in-chief at 
 the battle of Shiloh, he was killed, April 
 6, 1862. 
 
 JOHNSTON, Joseph Eccleston, Ameri- 
 can soldier, was born in Prince Edward 
 CO., Va., in 1807. He graduated at the 
 
JOHNSTOWN 
 
 JONES 
 
 military academy at West Point in 
 1829, and served in various military 
 capacities, chiefly in the topographical 
 engineers, until the outbreak of the civil 
 war, at which time he was made quar- 
 termaster-general, with the rank of 
 brigadier-general. He resigned his com- 
 mission April 22, 1861, and entered the 
 confederate service as major-general. 
 During the earlier part of the campaign 
 of 1862 he was in command of all the 
 confederate forces in Virginia, and was 
 severely wounded at the battle of Fair 
 Oaks, near Richmond, May 31st. In 
 November, having been made lieuten- 
 ant-general, he was assigned to the com- 
 mand of the military department of 
 Tennessee, and in the following spring 
 made an ineffectual effort to relieve 
 Vicksburg, on the Mississippi, which 
 was then besieged by General Grant. 
 
 J. E. Johnston. 
 
 After the defeat of General Bragg, at 
 Chattanooga, November 25, 1863, John- 
 ston was assigned to the command of all 
 the confederate forces in the southwest, 
 with the rank of general. In 1864 he 
 was at the head of the forces which 
 opposed Sherman in his famous “march 
 to the sea.” Having learned that Lee 
 had surrendered the army of Virginia to 
 Grant, Johnston capitulated to Sherman 
 at Burham’s station, N. C. In March, 
 1885, he was appointed commissioner 
 of railroads by President Cleveland. 
 He published a narrative of military 
 operations conducted by him during the 
 war between the states. He died March 
 21 1891 
 
 JOHNSTOWN, a town in Cambria 
 CO., Pennsylvania, situated on the Cone- 
 maugh river about 89 miles s.e. of Pitts- 
 burg. It is the center of a flourishing 
 manufacturing district, and the town 
 and neighborhood in great part belong 
 to the Cambria Iron co., who are said, 
 to employ some 5000 people in their 
 iron-mills. In 1889 Johnstown and dis- 
 trict was laid waste by the bursting of 
 Conemaugh lake and reservoir, situ- 
 ated about 10 miles above the town. 
 Houses, churches, and factories were 
 driven by the flood into a mass of ruin, 
 which was finally piled up against the 
 railway bridge at Johnstown, and its 
 destruction completed by the outbreak 
 of fire. About 9000 people perished. 
 Pop. 40,125. 
 
 JOHORE, a native state under British 
 protection at the s. extremity of the 
 Malay peninsula; area, 9000 sq. miles; 
 pop. 200,000. 
 
 JOISTS, in carpentry, are the beams 
 of timber to which the flooring of rooms 
 and the laths of a ceiling are nailed, and 
 which rest on the walls or girders, and 
 sometimes on both. They are laid hori- 
 
 zontally, and in parallel equi-distant 
 rows. 
 
 JOKAI (y5'ka-i), Mor, Hungarian 
 novelist, born at Komorn 1825. His first 
 novel. Working Days, was published in 
 1845, and since then he has produced 
 about 200 volumes of romances and 
 novels, dramatic poems, humorous es- 
 says, etc. Died in 1904. 
 
 JO'LIET, capital of Will co., Illinois, 
 37 miles s.w. of Chicago. It has an im- 
 portant state prison, large limestone 
 quarries, and steel and iron works, etc. 
 Pop. 32,650. 
 
 JOLIET, Louis, an explorer of the 
 Mississippi valley, was born in Quebec 
 in 1645. In 1672 Governor Frontenac 
 and Talon made an effort to trace the 
 course of the Mississippi river, which 
 was then supposed to discharge itself 
 into the Sea of California. Joliet was 
 intrusted with this enterprise. He de- 
 scended the AVisconsin and Illinois 
 rivers, and on June 17, 1673, entered the 
 Mississippi. After visiting several Indian 
 villages on its banks, he became assured 
 that the river emptied its waters into 
 the Gulf of Mexico, and began his 
 return journey. He reached Lake 
 Winnipeg at the end of September, 
 where he spent the winter at the mission 
 of St. Francis Xavier, and in 1674 re- 
 turned to Quebec. On the way Joliet 
 lost his map and papers by the upsetting 
 of his canoe in the Lachine rapids of 
 the Niagara river. He was thereafter 
 made governor of the colony, and was 
 married. About 1680 he was granted 
 Anticosti Island, where he built a fort, 
 which was destroyed by the British, 
 and his wife taken prisoner. Later 
 Joliet explored Labrador, and on April 
 30, 1697, was granted the seigniory of 
 Joliet, near Quebec. He died in 1700. 
 
 JOLLY-BOAT, one of the smaller 
 boats carried by a vessel, and used 
 especially for communicating with the 
 shore. See Boat. 
 
 JONAH, one of the minor prophets, 
 son of Amittai, and according to 2 
 Kings xiv. 25, a conten^orary of Jero- 
 boam II., was born at Gath-Hepher, in 
 Galilee. The book which bears his name 
 is historical rather than prophetical, and 
 the miraculous event of Jonah remaining 
 three days and three nights in the belly 
 of a fish has been regarded by some as 
 an allegory. Orthodox theologians, how- 
 ever, are generally of opinion that the 
 mention of it by Christ (Mat. xii. 39), 
 obliges us to regard the event as really 
 historical. Jonah’s grave is shown at 
 Mosul, the ancient Nineveh, and also at 
 Gath. 
 
 JONES, John Paul, a commander in 
 the American naval service, was born 
 in Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland, in 
 1747. His father, whose name was John 
 Paul, was gardener to the Earl of Selkirk. 
 He entered the merchant service, was 
 engaged in the American and West 
 Indian trade, and is said to have realized 
 a handsome fortune. On the outbreak 
 of war between the colonies and mother 
 country he offered his services to the 
 former, and in 1778, being then in com- 
 mand of the Ranger, he made a descent 
 on AVhitehavcn, set fire to the shipping, 
 and plundered the Earl of Selkirk’s 
 mansion. Next j'ear, in command of the 
 Bon Homme Richard (42 guns) and a 
 
 small squadron, he threatened Leith, 
 and captured the British sloop of war 
 Serapis after a bloody engagement off 
 Flambqrough Head. Jones, upon his 
 arrival in Paris was presented by Louis 
 XIV. with a gold mounted sword and 
 was decorated with the Cross of the 
 Order of Military Merit. Congress 
 voted him a gold metal, passed a reso- 
 lution commending his “zeal,” prud- 
 ence, and intrepidity,” assigned him to 
 
 the command of a new ship of the line 
 then building, and proposed to create 
 for him the rank of rear-admiral. He 
 also received a complimentary letter 
 from General Washington. In 1788 
 entered the Russian service with the 
 rank of rear-admiral, but owing to 
 the jealousy of Russian commanders 
 soon retired from this service. He re- 
 turned to Paris, where he died in 1792. 
 He was given a public funeral by the 
 National Assembly. In 1906 his _ re- 
 mains were brought to the United 
 States in an American warship and 
 buried with imposing ceremonies. 
 
 JONES, John Percival, American 
 legislator and politician, born in Here- 
 fordshire, England, in 1830. He was 
 brought to the United States in 1831 by 
 his parents, who settled in northern 
 Ohio. From 1863 to 1867 he was a 
 member of the California state senate. 
 In 1867 he removed to Nevada, and 
 became superintendent and part owner 
 of the famous “Crown Point” silver- 
 mine, the subsequent development of 
 which brought him a large fortune. 
 In 1873 he was elected by the Nevada 
 legislature to succeed James Nye in the 
 United States senate, and was reelected 
 as a republican in 1879, 1885, and 1891, 
 and as a “Silverite” in 1897. He favored 
 the free coinage of silver without regard 
 to the rest of the world, and on that 
 issue left the republican party and sup- 
 ported Bryan in 1896. During the cam- 
 paign of 1900 he returned to the repub- 
 lican party, though without giving up 
 his free-silver theories. 
 
 JONES, Samuel Porter, commonly 
 known as “Sam Jones,” an evangelist of 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church South. 
 AAvas born in Chambers co., Ala., in 
 1847. He was converted in 1872 an«* 
 
JONSON 
 
 JOSHUA 
 
 Ordained the same year and at once 
 began preaching. His success was re- 
 markable and he became widely known. 
 Many of his sermons have been pub- 
 lished in his works, Sermons and Sayings 
 by Sam Jones, Quit Your Meanness, 
 Sam Jones’ Own Book. He died in 1906. 
 
 JONSON, Ben or Benjamin, a cele- 
 brated English poet, the contemporary 
 and friend of Shakespeare. We was born 
 June 11, 1574, at Westminster. In 1599 
 he brought out his comedy of Every 
 Man out of his Humor, which was fol- 
 lowed by Cynthia’s Revels (1600); the 
 Poetaster (1602); Sejanus, a tragedy 
 (1603). In 1605 his comedy of Volpone 
 or the Fox appeared; in 1609 Eipccene 
 or The Silent Woman; in 1610 the Alche- 
 mist; in 1611 Catiline, a tragedy; and in 
 1614 Bartholomew Fair, a complete pic- 
 ture of Elizabethan low life. In 1619 
 he received the honorary degree of A.M. 
 
 Ben Jonson. 
 
 from Oxford University, and on the 
 death of the poet laureate was appointed 
 his successor, and the salary raised to 
 the sum of $500 by Charles I. His latter 
 days were Spent, not perhaps in much 
 pecuniary prosperity, but certainly in 
 fame and honor, as the acknowledged 
 chief of English literature. He died 
 Aug. 6, 1637. He was buried in West- 
 minster Abbey, where a monument was 
 erected to his memory with the inscrip- 
 tion, “O rare Ben Jonson.” Jonson’s 
 best dramas are excellent in plot and 
 development, have strongly conceived 
 characters and excellent traits of humor. 
 
 JOPPA, See Jaffa. 
 
 JOPLIN, a city in Jasper co.. Mo., on 
 the Mo., St. L. and S. Fran., the K. C., 
 Ft. S. and Mem., the K. C., Pitt, and 
 Gulf, and the Mo. Pac. railways; 168 
 miles s. of Kansas City. It is the center 
 of the Southwest Missouri lead and zinc 
 district. Pop. 31,400. 
 
 JORDAN, David Starr, American 
 educator, born at Gainesville, New York, 
 in 1851. In 1872 he became an assistant 
 to the United States Fish Commission, 
 and began the study of fishes. He is one 
 of the foremost ichthyologists in the 
 world. From 1875 to 1879 he was'pro- 
 fessor of biology at Butler University, 
 Indianapolis, Ind., and in the latter 
 year was elected to the chair of zoology 
 at the University of Indiana at Bloom- 
 ington, of which he became president in 
 1885. In 1891, on the founding of 
 Leland Stanford Junior University, he 
 became its first president, and under his 
 able superv^ision the institution was 
 successfully organized. In 1897 he was 
 a special United Stajtes commissioner 
 
 to Investigate the fur-seal fisheries in 
 
 Alaska. 
 
 JORDAN, the largest river in Palestine 
 and one of the most celebrated rivers in 
 the world. It rises from several sources, 
 uniting in Bahr el-Huleh, or the Waters 
 of Merom. From this point it flows with 
 a rapid current in a narrow rocky bed 
 and falls after a southerly course of 
 about 10 miles into Lake Tiberias. 
 Shortly after leaving the south end of 
 this lake it enters a broad valley or ghor, 
 called in the Bible “the plain;” and con- 
 tinuing a southerly but singularly 
 crooked course of about 70 miles direct 
 distance, or 200 including windings, 
 falls into the north end of the Dead Sea, 
 having received the Zerka or Jabbok, 
 also on the left, and numerous smaller 
 affluents. The upper part of the valley 
 of the Jordan is hilly, arid, and barren, 
 but it becomes more level and fertile as 
 it approaches the Zerka. The valley of 
 the Jordan forms one of the most re- 
 markable depressions iii the world, the 
 Dead Sea being 1312 feet below sea- 
 level, and the total fall of the river being 
 about 2300 feet. 
 
 JOSEF'FY, Rafael, Hungarian-Ameri- 
 can pianist, composer, and teacher, born 
 at Miskolcz, Hungary, in 1853. He 
 established himself in New York in 1880 
 and afterward came to be recognized as 
 one of the leading teachers and concert 
 virtuosos. He published upward of a 
 score of piano compositions. 
 
 JOSEPH, one of the two sons of the 
 patriarch Jacob by his favorite wife 
 Rachel. His father’s preference for him 
 drew down the enmity of his elder 
 brothers, who sold him to some Ish- 
 maelitish slave-dealers, by whom he 
 was sold to Potiphar, a distinguished 
 officer in Egypt. The story of his eleva- 
 1 ion to the position of vice-regent of 
 Egypt and the settlement of his father 
 and brothers there is well known (Gen. 
 xxxvii.-l.). Authorities still differ as to 
 the period in Egyptian history to which 
 Joseph’s life belongs, some placing it 
 before, others under, and others after 
 the time of the Hyksos or shepherd 
 kings. 
 
 JOSEPH, the husband of Mary the 
 mother of Jesus, was a descendant of the 
 house of David though resident at 
 Nazareth, where he followed the trade 
 of a carpenter. Early tradition repre- 
 sents him as an old man at the time of 
 his marriage, and he seems to have died 
 before the commencement of the public 
 ministry of Jesus. His day in the Roman 
 Catholic calendar is the 19th March. 
 
 JOSEPH I., Emperor of Germany, 
 eldest son of Leopold I., born 1678; be- 
 came emperor in 1705. He was a zealous 
 member of the alliance against France in 
 the war of the Spanish succession, in 
 which the victories of Marlborough and 
 Eugene won glory for the imperial arms. 
 He died in 1711. 
 
 JOSEPH II., German emperor, son of 
 Francis I. and Maria Theresa, was born 
 March 13, 1741. He was elected king of 
 the Romans in 1764, and on the death of 
 his father, 1765, German emperor, suc- 
 ceeding his mother, however, in the 
 hereditary estates of the House of 
 Austria only in 1780. He at once com- 
 menced an extensive scheme of reforms, 
 but the country was not prepared for 
 
 such sudden changes, and he was com- 
 pelled to give up most of his plans. In 
 1788 he visited Catherine II. at Cherson, 
 and in league with her made war against 
 Turkey. He died in 1790. 
 
 JOSEPHINE (zho-sa-fen). Empress of 
 the French, was born in Martinique 
 June 24, 1763, being the daughter of 
 Lieutenant Tascher de la Pagerie. She 
 married in 1779 Vicomte Alexandre 
 Beauharnais, by whom she had two 
 children, Eugene and Hortense. In 1794 
 her husband, who had been commander 
 of the army of the Rhine, was executed 
 by order of the convention. She herself 
 had a narrow escape, having been in- 
 cluded in the list of proscription. After 
 the fall of Robespierre she paid a visit 
 to Napoleon to thank him for restoring 
 the sword of her husband, and so pleased 
 him that he soon after married her 
 (1796). She became a beneficial element 
 in his life, and her amiable manners won 
 the hearts of everybody and helped to 
 secure her husband’s position. When 
 Napoleon ascended the throne in 1804 
 she was crowned along with him. But 
 the fact that the union was childless 
 stood in the way of Napoleon’s ambition 
 to become the founder of a dynasty, and 
 in 1809 Josephine was divorced, retiring 
 to her beautiful seat of Malmaison, with 
 the title of empress-queen-dowager 
 and an annual grant of two million 
 francs. She died May 29, 1814. 
 
 JOSE'PHUS, Flavius, the historian of 
 the Jews, was born at Jerusalem 37 a.d., 
 and was carefully educated. In 64 a.d. 
 he made a journey to Rome, and was 
 introduced to Poppsea, the wife of Nero. 
 On his return he found his countrymen 
 preparing to throw off the Roman yoke, 
 and having tried in vain to persuade 
 them of the hopelessness of such a strug- 
 gle, he accepted the post of defending 
 the province of Galilee, and actually held 
 the fortified town of Jotapata against 
 the whole Roman army for forty-seven 
 days. He was captured at the fall of the 
 city, was afterward present in the 
 Roman army at the destruction of 
 Jerusalem (a.d. 70), and went with 
 Titus to Rome, where, assuming the 
 family name of his patron, Flavius, he 
 lived in learned leisure. Here he wrote 
 (in Greek) The History of the Jewish 
 War ; The Antiquities of the Jews, giving 
 a history of the Jews from the earliest 
 times to the reign of Nero; an Auto- 
 biography, mostly relating, however, to 
 the time of his military activity; a work 
 on the Antiquity of the Jewish People, 
 directed against Apion, an Alexandrian 
 grammarian. The date of his death is 
 uncertain. He certainly saw the end of 
 the century. 
 
 JOSH'UA, the successor of Moses in 
 the command of the Israelites, was the 
 son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephriam. 
 His name was at first Hoshea (help), but 
 was changed by Moses into Joshua 
 (Jehovah’s help), of which Jesus is the 
 Greek form. He was the only one, with 
 the exception of Caleb, who brought 
 back an encouraging report from the 
 land of Canaan. He was nominated by 
 Moses to succeed him in the command of 
 the army of Israel, led the Isrealites over 
 the Jordan, and in the course of seven 
 years conquered the greater part of 
 Palestine, and divided the country 
 
JOSUH 
 
 JUDGMEXT 
 
 among the tribes. He died at Timnath- 
 Serah in Mount Ephraim at the age of 
 110. His history is contained in the 
 canonical book which bears his name, 
 and of which he has been usually re- 
 garded as the author ; but modern critics 
 have shown that it is a composite nar- 
 rative, and contains references to many 
 events which took place after Joshua’s 
 death. 
 
 JOSI'AH, King of Judah, succeeded 
 his father Amon at the age of eight 
 years (639 b.c.). He is characterized in 
 the Scriptures as doing “that which was 
 right in the sight of the Lord.” He took 
 an active part in the reform of public 
 worship, and commenced the restoration 
 of the temple, during the progress of 
 which the high-priest Hilkiah discovered 
 the book of the law, thought by some 
 to be substantially the same as the book 
 of Deuteronomy. The prescriptions it 
 contained gave a decided direction to 
 the reform movement which the king 
 conducted with great vigor. In his 
 thirty-first year, prompted probably by 
 friendship to the King of Assyria, he 
 marched out against Pharaoh Necho, 
 who was on his way to attack that king- 
 dom. The two armies met at Megiddo, 
 where Josiah was slain. 
 
 JOSS-STICK, in China, a small reed 
 covered with the dust of odoriferous 
 woods, and burned before an idol. 
 
 JOUGS (jugz), an instrument of pun- 
 bmnent formerly used in Scotland, con- 
 
 Jougs. 
 
 sisting of an iron collar which surrounded 
 the neck of the criminal, and was fas- 
 tened to a wall or tree by an iron chain. 
 
 JOULE (jol), James Prescott, English 
 physicist, born in 1818. His most im- 
 portant achievement has been that of 
 settling the mechanical equivalent of 
 heat, which established that the quan- 
 tity of heat capable of increasing the 
 temperature of 1 lb. of water by one 
 degree Fahrenheit, requires for its evolu- 
 tion the expenditure of mechanical 
 energy represented by the fall of 772 
 lbs. through the space of one foot. He 
 died in 1889. See Heat. 
 
 JOURDAN (zhor-dan), Jean Baptiste, 
 Count, marshal and peer of France, 
 born 1762, died 1833. He distinguished 
 himself under Dumouriez, was made a 
 general of division in 1793, defeated 
 the Austrians at Wattignies and at 
 Fleurus. In 1803 he became a mem- 
 ber of the senate, and in 1804, on 
 the establishment of the empire, ob- 
 tained the rank of marshal, the title of 
 count, and a seat in the council of state. 
 After the restoration he was raised to 
 the peerage. 
 
 JOURNALISM. See Newspapers. 
 
 JUAN RERNAN^EZ, so called from 
 the name of its discoverer, also some- 
 times Mas-a-Tierra, an island in the 
 South Pacific Ocean, about 400 miles 
 off the coast of Chile, to which it belongs. 
 It is 12J miles long and 5 miles broad at 
 the broadest part, mountainous, and of 
 rugged aspect. De Foe is said to have 
 founded his Robinson Crusoe on the 
 history of the solitary residence here 
 for over four years (1704-9) of a Scotch 
 sailor, Alexander Selkirk. 
 
 JUAREZ (hu-a-reth'), Benito Pablo, 
 
 resident of the Mexican Republic, was 
 
 orn of pure Indian parentage in 1806, 
 and was elected president in 1861. He 
 declared the suspension of public pay- 
 ments for two years to Europeans, a 
 step which occasioned the interference 
 of Britain, Spain, and France. Troops 
 were landed in Mexico, in 1862, but 
 Britain and Spain soon retired, leaving 
 Napoleon III. to carry out his views 
 alone. Maximilian of Austria came on 
 Napoleon’s invitation to assume the 
 throne, but Juarez, in spite Of defeats 
 and losses, continued to head a resist- 
 ance, and when Napoleon under pres- 
 sure from the American government 
 withdrew his troops in 1866, the repub- 
 licans carried all before them. Maxi- 
 milian was captured and shot after a 
 mock trial, and Juarez was re-elected to 
 the presidency (1867), which he held 
 till he died (1872). 
 
 JUD.$'A, a term applied after the re- 
 turn of the Jews from exile to that part 
 of Palestine bounded east by the Jordan 
 and the Dead Sea, north by Samaria, 
 west by the Mediterranean, and south by 
 Arabia Petraea. See Palestine. 
 
 JUDAH. the fourth son of the patri- 
 arch Jacob by his wife Leah, the pro- 
 genitor of one of the twelve tribes. See 
 Jews. 
 
 JUDAS, surnamed Iscariot, meaning, 
 perhaps, the man of Kerioth, a village of 
 Judaea, was one of the twelve apostles of 
 Jesus, and betrayed his Master into the 
 hands of the Jewish priests for thirty 
 pieces of silver. Remorse for his crime 
 led him to suicide. The vCainites, Cerin- 
 thians, and some other heretics held him 
 in great veneration, believing that he 
 alone saw the necessity for bringing 
 about the fulfilment of prophecy and the 
 atonement for humanity. Others have 
 thought that his object was to oblige his 
 Master to use his miraculous power to 
 defeat his enemies and establish the new 
 earthly kingdom of the Messiah, in 
 which Judas expected to have a high 
 place. 
 
 JUDAS, or JUDE, brother of James, 
 one of the twelve apostles. Matthew 
 and Mark called him Thaddaeus sur- 
 named Lebbseus. Nothing is known of 
 his life. By many he is considered the 
 author of the epistle of Jude. See Jude, 
 Epistle of. 
 
 JUDAS MACCAB.®US. See Maccabees. 
 
 JUDAS-TREE, natural order Legu- 
 minosae, is a native of the Levant, Spain, 
 south of France, Italy, etc. It grows 
 to a height of about 20 feet with pale 
 green leaves and beautiful purple flow- 
 ers. Another, though smaller, species 
 grows in the United States and Canada. 
 
 JUDE, Epistle of, one of the books of 
 the New Testament. Its canonicity was 
 questioned by the primitive church, and 
 
 often since. The Asiatic churches did 
 not make use of it till the 4th century, 
 nor was it known in the west till toward 
 the close of the second. Its quotation 
 from the apocryphal book of Enoch 
 raised a prejudice against it, but it was 
 eventually allowed to take its place as a 
 portion of the sacred canon. It is a pas- 
 sionate denunciation of heretics and 
 false teachers, and has been supposed by 
 some to be written by Judas, the brother 
 of the Savior, and not by Judas the 
 brother of James (see above). 
 
 JUDGE, a person duly invested with 
 authority to determine causes or ques- 
 tions between parties according to law. 
 The term is quite a general one, being 
 applicable to any one appointed to sit 
 in a court of law and try causes; but 
 certain judges are designated by some 
 particular title, as justice, lord-justice, 
 etc. The judge at common law decides 
 points of law, and enables the jury 
 rightly to decide questions of fact, while 
 in equity he decides both classes of 
 questions. A judge cannot be prosecuted 
 for the consequences of his decisions, 
 except in the case where he may have 
 acted without jurisdiction, nor can he 
 officiate in a case where he has a personal 
 interest, unless it be merely his common 
 interest as a citizen, ratepayer, etc. 
 
 JUDGE ADVOCATE, an officer ap- 
 pointed to preside at the proceedings of 
 court-martial, his duties being to sum- 
 mon witnesses, administer oaths, take 
 a minute of the proceedings, advise the 
 court on points of law, etc. In Britain 
 (as also in the United States) there is an 
 official called the judge advocate-general 
 to whom the proceedings of courts- 
 martial are transmitted. He has also to 
 advise the commander-in-chief and sec- 
 retary of state for war in legal matters. 
 The judge advocate-general must be a 
 member of the House of Commons and 
 of the ministry. Under him is a deputy 
 whose office is permanent. 
 
 JUDGES, in Hebrew history. See 
 Jews. 
 
 JUDGES, Book of, a canonical book 
 of the Old Testament, so called because 
 the greater part of the narrative is 
 occupied with the history of the judges 
 who were raised up to deliver their 
 countrymen from the oppressions of the 
 neighbors. The first chapter, although 
 formally connected with the book of 
 Joshua by the opening sentence, evi- 
 dently contains a separate portion of the 
 history of the Israelitish invasion of 
 Canaan, the first settlement, indeed, 
 west of the Jordan, in which the tribes of 
 Judah and Simeon play a distinct part in 
 the conquest. The 6th verse of the 2d 
 chapter again connects the work with 
 the concluding part of the book of Joshua 
 and in the chapters which follow the 
 history of the nation is written from an 
 ideal and poetic point of view, which 
 gives it unity, the judges being repre- 
 sented as successive rulers, although in 
 most cases their history and influence 
 were merely local. The third part of the 
 book begins at chap, xvii., and has no 
 formal or chronological connection with 
 what has gone before, and has some- 
 times been called an appendix. 
 
 JUDGMENT, in law, the judicial de- 
 termination and decision of a court in an 
 action. It is either interlocutory or final. 
 
JUDGMENT-DEBT 
 
 JUNIUS 
 
 In the former case it is given only on 
 some particular point or proceeding, and 
 does not complete the action in the same 
 way as the final judgment, upon which, 
 unless it be appealed against, suspended, 
 or recalled, execution may follow. 
 
 JUDGMENT-DEBT, in law, a debt 
 secured to the creditor by a judge’s or- 
 der, and in respect of which he can at 
 any time attach the debtor’s goods and 
 chattels. Such debts have the prefer- 
 ence of being paid in full, as compared 
 with simple contract debts. 
 
 JUDITH, widow of Manasses, a Jew- 
 ish heroine of great beauty, virtue, cour- 
 age, and piety, whose history is given in 
 the apocryphal book which bears her 
 name, the author and age of which are 
 unknown. Judith is represented as going 
 out to the tent of Holofernes, an Assyrian 
 general who was besieging Bethulia, the 
 city in which she lived, charming him 
 with her beauty, and taking advantage 
 of thejadinission to his tent, thus afforded 
 to her, to cut off his head with his own 
 sword, while he slept. 
 
 JUDSON, Adoniram, pioneer Ameri- 
 can missionary, was born at Malden, 
 Mass, in 1788. In 1812 he was ordained 
 a missionary to Burmah under the 
 auspices of the Congregational board of 
 Foreign Missions. Having after his 
 arrival in India adopted Baptist views, 
 he was appointed to labor in Burmah by 
 the American Baptist missionary union 
 in 1814. His translations of the Bible 
 into Burmese appeared in 1835, and his 
 Burmese and English dictionary in 
 1852. He died April 12, 1850. Both in 
 his literary and his missionary labor 
 he was greatly assisted by the three 
 ladies whom he successively married, of 
 whom, as well as of Judson, biographers 
 have been published. 
 
 JUDY. See Punch and Judy. 
 
 JUGGERNAUT. See Jagann^tha. 
 
 JUGGLING. See Legerdemain. 
 
 JU'GULAR VEIN, one of the large 
 trunks by which the greater part of the 
 blood that has circulated in the head, 
 face, and neck is returned to the heart. 
 There are two on each side, an external 
 or superficial, and an internal or deeper. 
 
 JU'JUBE, the popular name of a 
 genus of spiny and deciduous shrubs or 
 small trees. The species are numerous 
 and of several the fruit, which is blood- 
 red or saffron-colored with a sweet 
 granular pulp, is wholesome and pleas- 
 
 Jujube. 
 
 ant to eat. The common jujube is a 
 native of Syria. The fruit is dried, and 
 forms an article of commerce. The name 
 jujube is also given to a confection made 
 of gum-arabic or gelatin, sweetened and 
 
 Savored so as to resemble the jujube 
 fruit. 
 
 JUJUY (hu-ho'i), a town of the Ar- 
 gentine Republic. Pop. 5000. — ^The 
 province has an area of 27,000 sq. miles, 
 and a pop. of 90,000. 
 
 JULEP, a sweet drink; specifically, in 
 medicine, a solution of sugar in aromatic 
 water, but not so concentrated as syrup. 
 In the United States the name is given to 
 a drink composed of spirituous liquor 
 as brandy or whisky, sugar, pounded ice, 
 and .. seasoning of mint. It is also called 
 mint-julep. 
 
 JULIAN CALENDAR. See Calendar 
 and Epoch. 
 
 JULIUS, the name of three popes. — 
 Julius I., born in Rome, chosen pope in 
 337 ; died in 352. He summoned a coun- 
 cil which approved his conduct in sus- 
 taining Athanasius in his contest against 
 the Arians in 342. — Julius II. (Giuliano 
 della Rovere), was elevated by his uncle 
 Sixtus IV. to the rank of a bishop and 
 cardinal, was appointed papal legate to 
 France, in 1503 was elevated pope, and 
 died 1513. Immediately on his elevation 
 to the pontificate he planned the com- 
 plete re-establishment of the papal sov- 
 ereignty in its ancient territory, and the 
 extinction of foreign domination and in- 
 fluence in Italy. Refusing to attend the 
 Council of Pisa convened by the King of 
 France, he in 1511 formed the “Holy 
 League,’’ to which Spain, England, and 
 Switzerland were parties. In 1512 he 
 made open war against Louis XII. The 
 French defeated the papal army near 
 Ravenna, but were soon after driven out 
 of Italy. He is considered one of the 
 most immoral of the popes, but was a 
 far-sighted and patriotic sovereign, and 
 a liberal and judicious patron of art and 
 literature. To procure means for build- 
 ing St. Peter’s he ordered the sale of in- 
 dulgences, which was one of the imme- 
 diate causes of the reformation. — Julius 
 III. (Giovanni Maria Giocchi), a Roman 
 of low birth, was made cardinal by Paul 
 III. in 1536, took an active part in the 
 council of Trent as papal legate, was 
 elected pope in 1550, and in the following 
 year reopened the council of Trent, 
 which had been suspended for upward 
 of two years. He endeavored to effect a 
 union with the Nestorians, and com- 
 missioned Cardinal Pole to organize, in 
 conjunction with Mary, the reunion of 
 England with Rome. He died in 1555. 
 
 JULIUS C^SAR. See Csesar. 
 
 JULY', the seventh month in our 
 calendar, having 31 days. In the Roman 
 year it bore the name of Quintllis, as 
 originally the fifth month. Its change of 
 name to Julius was in honor of Julius 
 Caesar, who was born on the 12th of the 
 month. 
 
 JUMPING-DEER, the black-tailed 
 deer found in the United States to the 
 west of the Mississippi. 
 
 JUMPING-HARE, a species of jerboa 
 found in Southern Africa, and so named 
 from its general resemblance to a hare, 
 while its jumping mode of progression, 
 necessitated by the elongated nature of 
 the hind legs, have procured for it its 
 generic and popular distinction. 
 
 JUMPING-MOUSE, is found in Lab- 
 rador and North America generally, but 
 is especially an inhabitant of the fur ter- 
 ritories. Like the jumping-hare, it is 
 
 classified by some along with the jerboaa 
 and is one of the smallest of these forms. 
 
 JUNA'GARH, a native state of India, 
 in Gujarat, Bombay presidency; area 
 3283 sq. miles. Pop. 387,499. — The capi- 
 tal, Junagarh, is one of the most pic- 
 turesque cities in India, pop. 34,251. 
 
 JUNE, 'the sixth month in our calendar. 
 It consisted originally of twenty-six 
 days, to which it is said Romulus 
 added four, and Niuna took away one. 
 Julius Caesar again lengthened it to 
 thirty days, and it has ever since re- 
 mained unaltered. 
 
 JUNGF^U (yqng'frou; “Maiden”), 
 a mountain of Switzerland. It is one of 
 the most magnificent of the Swiss moun- 
 tains, height 13,670 feet. It was first 
 ascended in 1804; the ascent may now 
 be made by railway. 
 
 JUNGLE (jung'gl), properly an Indian 
 term applied to a desert and unculti- 
 vated region whether covered with wood 
 and dense vegetation or not, but in 
 English it is applied to land covered with 
 forest trees, thick impenetrable brush- 
 wood, or any coarse rank vegetation. 
 
 JUNGLE-FEVER, a disease prevalent 
 in the East Indies and other tropical 
 regions, a severe variety of remittent 
 fever. It is characterized by the recur- 
 rence of paroxysms and of cold and hot 
 stages. The remissions occur usually in 
 the morning and last from eight to 
 twelve hours, the fever being mostly 
 typically developed at night. 
 
 JUNIN (ho-nen'), a department of 
 Peru, embracing the wildest parts of the 
 Cordilleras ; area about 28,000 sq. milesj 
 pop. 395,000. 
 
 JU'NIPER, the name of hardy exogen- 
 ous evergreen trees and shrubs chiefly 
 natives of the northern parts of the 
 world. About twenty species are known. 
 The berries require two years to come to 
 
 Juniper. 
 
 maturity, when they assume a bluish- 
 black color. They are used extensively 
 in Holland in the preparation of gin, 
 which owes its characteristic flavor to 
 them. They yield an essential oil, which 
 is a powerful diuretic. 
 
 JU'NIUS, a signature attached to cer- 
 tain letters on public affairs which first 
 appeared in The Public Advertiser, a 
 London paper published by Woodfall, 
 from which they were copied into most 
 of the other journals of the time. The 
 earliest bears date January 21, 1769; 
 the last, January 21, 1772. After they 
 were completed they were collected and 
 published by Woodfall, with a dedica- 
 tion to the English nation and a preface 
 by the author. Other letters bearing the 
 same characteristics, but having differ- 
 ent signatures, appeared between April 
 28, 1767, and May 12, 1772, and are 
 given in the younger Woodfall’s edition 
 
JUNK 
 
 JURY AND JURY TRIALS 
 
 as the Miscellaneous Letters. This edi- 
 tion was published in 1812 in three vols., 
 and included Junius’ private letters to 
 Mr. H. S. Woodfall, and a preliminary 
 essay by Dr. J. Mason Good. Although 
 fully a century has elapsed since the pub- 
 lication of these papers, their authorship 
 seems as far from being settled as ever. 
 
 JUNK, a flat-bottomed ship used in 
 the waters of China and Japan, some- 
 times reaching 1000 tons. It has a high 
 forecastle and poop, and ordinarily three 
 
 Chinese Junks. 
 
 masts of considerable height, each mast 
 being in one piece, with a lug-sail, gen- 
 erally of bamboo splits. The bow is bluff 
 the stern full, ancl there is a very large 
 rudder. 
 
 JUNO, the most exalted divinity of 
 the Latin races in Italy next to Jupiter, 
 of whom she was the sister and wife. She 
 was the queen of heaven, and under the 
 name of Regina (queen) was worshipped 
 in Italy at an early period. She bore the 
 
 Juno of Lanuvlum. — Colossal statue in 
 the Vatican Museum, Rome. 
 
 same relation to woman that Jupiter did 
 to men. She was regarded as the special 
 protectress of whatever was connected 
 with marriage, and females from birth 
 to death had her as a tutelary genius. 
 She was also the guardian of the national 
 finances, and a temple, which contained 
 
 the mint, was erected to her under the 
 name of Juno Moneta on the Capitoline. 
 
 JUNOT (zhil-no), Andoche, Duke of 
 Abrantes, French marshal, was born in 
 1771 and died 1813. At the siege of 
 Toulon, in 1793, he became secretary to 
 Napoleon, who afterward took him 
 with him into Italy and Egypt in the 
 capacity of aide-de-camp. In 1807 he 
 was sent with an army into Portugal, 
 and made his entry without opposition 
 into Lisbon, his success being rewarded 
 with the title of Duke of Abrantes. On 
 the arrival of the British he first allowed 
 himself to be defeated at Vimeira. Al- 
 though he subsequently took part in the 
 campaigns (1809) against Austria, (1810) 
 against Spain, and (1812) against Rus- 
 sia, he failed to retrieve his reputation. 
 In 1813 he became insane, and lost his 
 life by leaping from a window. 
 
 JUNTA (Spanish, an assembly), in 
 Spain, a high council of state. It was 
 originally applied to an Irregularly sum- 
 moned assembly of the states, as dis- 
 tinguished from the Cortes or parliament 
 regularly called together by the au- 
 thority of the king. 
 
 JU'PITER, or JUPPITER, the su- 
 preme deity of the Latin races in ancient 
 Italy, the same as the Greek Zeus, and 
 the Sanskrit dyaus (which means the 
 sky) ; the second part being the same as 
 the Latin pater, father. As the supreme 
 deity Jupiter received from the Romans 
 the title of optimus maximus (best 
 greatest), and as the deity presiding over 
 the sky he was considered as the origi- 
 nator of all the changes that took place 
 in the sky. From him accordingly pro- 
 ceeded rain, hail, and the thunderbolt, 
 and he it was that restored serenity to 
 the sky after it had been obscured by 
 clouds. Hence the epithets of Pluvius 
 (rainy), Tonans (thundering), etc., were 
 applied to him. The most celebrated of 
 his temples was that on the Capitoline 
 Hill dedicated to him as Jupiter Opti- 
 mus Maximus, jointly with Juno and 
 Minerva. He was represented with a 
 scepter as symbolical of his supreme 
 authority. He maintained the sanctity 
 of oaths ; he was the guardian of all prop- 
 erty; and every Roman was believed to 
 be under his protection, and that of his 
 consort Juno, the queen of heaven. 
 White animals were offered up to him in 
 sacrifice, his priests wore white caps, 
 and his chariot was represented as drawn 
 by four white horses. 
 
 JUPITER, is the largest planet of the 
 solar system, and the fifth (excluding 
 the asteroids) in order of distance from 
 the sun. His mean diameter is about 
 
 85.000 miles; his polar diameter about 
 82,200; his mean distance from the sun 
 
 475.692.000 miles; his period of revolu- 
 tion round the sun 11 years lOJ months; 
 his orbit is inclined to the ecliptic at the 
 angle 1° 18' 40". 3. The inclination of his 
 axis is very small (3° 5' 30"), so that 
 changes in the seasons must be almost 
 unknown ; his volume is 1233 times that 
 of the earth, but his mass is only 300.857 
 times. His surface shows belts of dark 
 and light shade, which are usually, but 
 not always parallel to each other, under- 
 go quick changes, and seem as though 
 they merged into one another. To 
 account for these rapid changes in his 
 atmosphere it seems reasonable to be- 
 
 lieve that his interior mass is intensely 
 heated similarly to that of the sun, hence 
 the intense light proceeding from this 
 planet. Jupiter has four moons, lo, 
 Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto; they 
 were discovered by Galileo in 1610 ; they 
 are at average distances of from 267,380 
 to 1,192,820 miles from the planet ; they 
 appear, like our moon, to make one revo- 
 lution on their axis while passing once 
 round the planet, the time of one revolu- 
 tion being from 1 day 18 hours 27 min- 
 utes to 16 days 16 hours 32 minutes. 
 Europa, the smallest, has a diameter of 
 2099 miles; Ganymede, the largest, has 
 
 Jupiter. 
 
 a diameter of 3436 miles. The moons 
 appear from the earth to move in nearly 
 straight lines from one side of the planet 
 to the other, so that the planes of their 
 orbits are nearly the same as the ecliptic 
 and the orbit of Jupiter; they are 
 eclipsed in the shadow of the planet, 
 and their own shadows may be seen 
 passing over the planet’s surface. From 
 observation of the eclipses of Jupiter’s 
 satellites Romer discovered that the 
 propagation of light is not instantane- 
 ous, and thus calculated its velocity. 
 
 JURA (zhil-ra), a department in the 
 east of France, bordering on Switzer- 
 land; area, 1938 sq. miles. Pop. 
 261,288. 
 
 JURA, a chain of mountains in Cen- 
 tral Europe, partly belonging to France, 
 partly to Switzerland, between which 
 they form a sort of natural barrier, ex- 
 .■tending from southwest to northwest, 
 and exhibiting a number of parallel 
 ridges. 
 
 JURISPRUDENCE, the science of 
 law. — Medical jurisprudence, forensic 
 medicine (which see). 
 
 JURY AND JURY TRIALS, the origin 
 of trial by jury is not traceable to any 
 single legislator or any particular period. 
 It seems to have had its beginning in cer- 
 tain primitive customs of the northern 
 European races, and received special de- 
 velopments from different nations. By 
 the Anglo-Saxons a person who was 
 accused of crime was permitted to sum- 
 mon twelve of his neighbors, called 
 compurgators, who swore to his inno- 
 cence. This was the origin of an institu- 
 tion which took settled and vigorous 
 form after the Norman Conquest, grad- 
 ually developing into its present form. 
 
 In criminal trials two juries act, the 
 grand jury and the petit jury. The 
 
JUSTICE 
 
 JUTE 
 
 grand jury mitj consist of any number 
 more than eleve» and less than twenty- 
 four men, who hs.v^e been summoned by 
 amandate from ths sheriff of the county. 
 Their names are returned on a piece of 
 parchment which is called a panel. The 
 oath having been administered, they 
 are usually instructed by the presiding 
 judge in the nature and number of the 
 offenses about to be brought beforethem. 
 They then proceed to consider in private 
 the statement or indictment which is 
 brought against the accused by the pros- 
 ecution. Should they agree to the num- 
 ber of twelve, that the accusation has a 
 basis of truth, they bring into court what 
 is called “a true bill.” If, on the con- 
 trary, they find that there is not sufficient 
 foundation for the accusation, they 
 ignore the bill, and require the dismissal 
 of the accused. When a true bill is found 
 by the grand jury it usually forms the 
 basis of the subsequent prosecution. 
 
 Petty or petit juries consist of twelve 
 persons, and no more, for the trial of all 
 criminal offenses, and of all issues of 
 fact in civil cases at the common law. 
 If all the jurors do not appear, or any of 
 them are justly objected to and set 
 aside, in virtue of the right of challenge 
 exercised by the parties to a suit, the 
 deficiency may be supplied from among 
 the bystanders having suitable qualifi- 
 cations. The jury being then sworn is 
 placed in the jurybox, and the evidence 
 given. No juror is at liberty to leave 
 the box without permission of the court. 
 Unless the case be a criminal one in 
 which the prisoner is charged with a 
 misdemeanor, the jury are allowed to 
 go home on engaging not to allow them- 
 selves to be spoken to on any subject con- 
 nected with the trial. When the prisoner 
 is charged with treason or felony the 
 jury are usually allowed to retire only 
 in custody of the sheriff and his officers, 
 who are sworn to keep them together, 
 and not to speak to them with reference 
 to the trial. When the evidence has been 
 led it is usual for the presiding judge 
 to instruct the jury in the points of law 
 which apply to it. It is thus that their 
 duties are divided — the jury dealing 
 with the facts, and the judge with the 
 law of the case. The jury usually form 
 an independent judgment upon the facts 
 and their finding is considered final. To 
 consider their verdict they usually with- 
 draw to a private room, where no inter- 
 course with other persons is permitted, 
 and where, when the session is pro- 
 tracted, food and other necessaries are 
 supplied. Upon returning into court they 
 publicly assent to such verdict as they 
 have agreed upon. If they fail to agree 
 among themselves the jursmien are dis- 
 charged by the judge, and the cause, if 
 it is civil, can be tried anew. When it is 
 a criminal case no new trial is possible. 
 
 Another kind of jury is the coroner’s 
 jury, summoned to inquire into cases of 
 sudden or violent deatb. The inquiry is 
 made in presence of the body, and at the 
 place where the death happened. The 
 jury may consist of any number above 
 eleven, and usually numbers twenty- 
 three; twelve must concur in the find- 
 ing. The persons found guilty are re- 
 served for trial by a petty jury. 
 
 In the United States, in Canada, and 
 the other British colonies, jury trials are 
 
 essentially the same as in England. In 
 France they are only applicable to 
 criminal cases, and the verdict is re- 
 turned by a majority. Trial by jury is in 
 force in Italy, and in the German empire. 
 
 JUSTICE, a common term for a judge 
 or legal official appointed to hold court 
 and administer justice, especially given 
 to judges of superior courts. Thus in 
 England the judges in the common law 
 and chancery divisions of the high court 
 of justice are so called, the head of the 
 common law division being the lord 
 chief-justice of England. The term is 
 similarly used in the United States. 
 
 JUSTICE, High Court of. See Su- 
 preme Court. 
 
 JUSTICE, Lord Chief. See Chief- 
 justice. 
 
 JUSTICE, Department of, one of the 
 ten executive departments of the United 
 States, the head of which is the attorney- 
 general, appointed by the president for 
 a term of four years. The attorney- 
 general is the chief law officer of the 
 government, and, as a member of the 
 cabinet, ranks fourth in the line of suc- 
 cession to the presidency. It is his duty 
 to advise the president on any questions 
 of law that may arise in the course of 
 the administration, and also to give his 
 opinion when requested by any of the 
 heads of departments upon legal ques- 
 tions concerning matters affecting their 
 departments. The opinions rendered by 
 the attorney-general are from time to 
 time published by the government, and 
 next to the decisions of the courts they 
 are regarded as authority on the points 
 covered. The attorney-general is the 
 legal representative of the government 
 in all cases at law to which the United 
 States is a party, and may appear in 
 court in person or direct which one of the 
 assistant attorney-generals shall appear, 
 and may employ special counsel to aid 
 in the conduct of the cases in which the 
 government is interested. 
 
 JUSTICE OF THE PEACE, a judicial 
 magistrate intrusted with the conserva- 
 tion of the peace. The first judicial pro- 
 ceedings are held before him in regard 
 to arresting persons accused of grave 
 offenses; and his jurisdiction extends to 
 trial and adjudication for small offenses. 
 In case of the commission of a crime or a 
 breach of the peace a complaint is made 
 to one of these magistrates. If he is 
 satisfied with the evidence of a commis- 
 sion of some offense, he issues a warrant 
 directed to a constable, tries the party, 
 if the offense be within his jurisdiction, 
 and acquits him or awards punishment. 
 In the United States the office is held 
 only by special appointment, and the 
 tenure is different in different states; 
 but the, commission is usually for three 
 or four years, or some other specific 
 limited period. Their position is similar 
 to that of the justices in Britain. In 
 some of the states they have a right to 
 celebrate marriages. 
 
 JUSTIFIABLE HOMICIDE. See 
 Homicide. 
 
 JUSTIN, Justi'nus, the name of two 
 emperors of the east. — Justin I., born 
 450, died 523 a.d., a peasant of Dacia, 
 rose from a common soldier to be com- 
 mander of the imperial guard, and on 
 the death of Anastasius in 518 became 
 emperor. He relegated the civil admin- 
 
 istration to the quaestor Proclus, and be- 
 tween them the empire was governed 
 with a fair amount of success. — Justin 
 II. ascended the throne on the death of 
 his uncle Justinian I. in 565. Beset with 
 enemies outside the empire and harassed 
 with internal discord, he in 574 solved 
 his difficulties by abdicating in favor 
 of Tiberius, captain of the guard. He 
 died in 578. 
 
 JUSTIN'IAN I., Flavius Anicius Jus- 
 tinianus, surnamed the Great, nephew 
 of Justin I., emperor of the east, cele- 
 brated as a lawgiver, was born of an 
 obscure family in 483 a.d., and died in 
 563. Patronized by his uncle, who, from 
 a Thracian peasant, had become em- 
 peror, he so flattered the senate and 
 dazzled the people that he was made 
 consul, and took the title of Nobilissi- 
 mus. On the death of his uncle, with 
 whom he had latterly shared the im- 
 perial power, he was proclaimed em- 
 peror and married an actress named 
 Theodora. Aided by his generals, he was 
 able subsequently to restore to the 
 Roman empire a part of its former pos- 
 sessions, as when Belisarius in 523 and 
 529 defeated the Persians, and achieved 
 victories in Africa, and when Narses, 
 another of his generals, put an end to the 
 Ostrogoth rule in Italy. Turning his 
 attention to the laws, Justinian com- 
 missioned ten learned civilians to draw 
 up a new code, and the result was the 
 Corpus Juris Civllis, or body of civil law. 
 His reign of thirty-eight years was a 
 great period in the empire’s history, but 
 the emperor himself was by no means 
 great. 
 
 JUSTIN MARTYR, an early Christian 
 writer, born in Palestine about 100 a.d., 
 suffered for his faith about 165. Born a 
 heathen but converted to Christianity, 
 he went to Rome, where he wrote an 
 Apology for Christianity, with a sup- 
 plementary or second Apology, a Dia- 
 logue with Trj’’pho the Jew, all still ex- 
 tant, besides other works. He is of im- 
 portance in the history of Christian 
 dogma. 
 
 JUTE, a textile fabric obtained from 
 Corchorus capsularis, a plant belonging 
 to the natural order Tiliacese (lime or 
 
 linden). The jute plant is a native of th^ 
 warmer parts of India, where its culti- 
 vation is caried on, especially in Bengal, 
 on an extensive scale. It is an annual 
 plant, growing to a height of 12 or 14 
 feet. The fiber forms the inner bark of 
 the plant, and possesses in an eminent 
 degree the tenacity common to the bark 
 
JUTLAND 
 
 KALMUCKS 
 
 -of the plants of this order. The fiber is 
 fine, and has a shining surface; it is in- 
 jured by exposure to water, and hence 
 is not well adapted for cordage and can- 
 vas, but it is in extensive use for making 
 bags, and it serves many other useful 
 
 purposes, being often mixed with hemp 
 for cordage, and even with silk in the 
 manufacture of cheap satins, although 
 its principal use is in the manufacture of 
 coarse cloth for bagging,andinmakingthe 
 foundation of inferior carpets, mats, etc. 
 
 JUTLAND, the peninsular and most 
 important portion of Denmark, sur- 
 rounded on three sides by the sea — the 
 Skagerrack, the Kattegat, and the North 
 Sea, on the south by Schleswig; area, 
 9755 sq. miles. Pop. 1,063,792. 
 
 K 
 
 K,> the eleventh letter of the English 
 alphabet, representing a gutteral articu- 
 lation, the surd consonant correspond- 
 ing to the sonant g. In Anglo-Saxon 
 this letter was only used occasionally, 
 c being regularly used instead. So also in 
 Latin, k, borrowed from the Greeks, was 
 little used, its place being supplied by c. 
 The Italians, Spaniards, and Portuguese 
 have banished the letter entirely from 
 their alphabet. The French use it only 
 in a few words derived from the Greek, 
 foreign proper names, etc. At the be- 
 ginning of a word or syllable k is not 
 pronounced when followed by n, as 
 knife, knee, know. 
 
 KABUL. See Cabul 
 
 KAFFA, a mountainous territory to 
 the south of Abyssinia, inhabited by 
 one of the Galla tribes. It is supposed to 
 be the home of the coffee-plant, which 
 grows wild on the slopes of the Kaffa 
 hills. The chief town is Bonga. 
 
 KAFFIR OX, the Cape buffalo. See 
 Buffalo. 
 
 KAFFIRS, the principal race inhabit- 
 ing Southeastern Africa, a branch of the 
 great Bantu family. The name is now 
 chiefly restricted to the tribes occupying 
 the coast districts between Cape Colony 
 and Delagoa Bay. They differ from the 
 negroes in the shape of the head, it be- 
 ing more like that of Europeans; in the 
 high nose, frizzled hair, and brown com- 
 
 Kaffir chief of the Zulu tribe. 
 
 plexion, which becomes lighter in shade 
 in the tribes of the more southern dis- 
 tricts. They are a tall, muscular race, 
 the average height being from 5 feet 9 
 inches to 5 feet 11 inches, and frugal and 
 simple in their habits. Their chief 
 occupation is raising and tending cattle, 
 and hunting; garden and field work is 
 
 1 Where the reader may fail to find articles 
 under K, he is referred to C. 
 
 mainly performed by women. They are 
 of a peaceful disposition, but in times of 
 war they display considerable bravery, 
 tactical skill, and dexterity in the hand- 
 ling of their assagais or spears, shields 
 and clubs, as has been shown in their 
 engagements with the British forces. 
 Frequent hostilities have taken place 
 between the British and one or other of 
 the Kaffir tribes, beginning almost with 
 the first acquisition by Britain of the 
 Cape Colony. The first Kaffir war was 
 in 1811-12, the next in 1818-19. In 
 
 The kahau, or long-nosed monkey. 
 
 1834-35 a serious Kaffir war was carried 
 on, resulting in the expulsion of the 
 Kaffirs beyond the Great Kei, but they 
 were soon allowed to return. Another 
 war (the fourth) broke out in 1846, and 
 lasted nearly two years, with much 
 suffering to both colonists and Kaffirs. 
 Its result was an extension of territory 
 in the north and east, a portion between 
 the Cape Colony and the Kei being re- 
 served for the natives, and called British 
 Kaffraria. In 1850 a Kaffir outbreak 
 took place, and a bloody war followed 
 ending in 1853, soon after which British 
 Kaffraria was made a crown colony. A 
 sixth war occurred in 1877-78, owing 
 jits origin to disputes between the two 
 I tribes of the Fingoes and Gcalekas. For 
 a subsequent war see Zululand. 
 
 KA'HAU, or BLANDA, the native 
 name for a large, odd-looking monkey 
 peculiar to Borneo, better known as the 
 proboscis monkey from its long, pend- 
 ent nose, which in old animals reaches a 
 length of 3 or 4 inches. The face is 
 cinnamon brown, the body reddish with 
 conspicuous markings of white. It asso- 
 ciates in small troops, is usually found 
 over or near the water, and is very shy. 
 
 KAISER ((ki'zer), the German word 
 for emperor, fyom L. Caesar. 
 
 KAISERSLAUTERN (ki'zerz-lou-tern) , 
 a town in the Bavarian Palatinate, 
 on the Lauter. Pop. 48,310. 
 
 KAISER-WILHELM CANAL. See 
 Norfh Sea and Baltic Canal. 
 
 KAISER-WILHELMS-LAND. See 
 
 New Guinea. 
 
 KALAMAZOO', a town, county, and 
 river of Michigan. The city is 144 miles 
 e.n.e. of Chicago, situated in a fertile 
 agricultural district, on the river of the 
 same name, which supplies some of its 
 numerous factories with water power; 
 chief manufactures: paper, flour, furni- 
 ture, and agricultural implements. Pop. 
 19(19, estimated at about 45,000. 
 
 KALE. See Cabbage. 
 
 KALEIDOSCOPE (ka-li'-), a well- 
 known optical toy invented by Sir 
 David Brewster, by which an infinite 
 variety of symmetrical, and often beau- 
 tiful, colored designs is obtained. The 
 ordinary kaleidoscope consists of a tube 
 containing two glass plates acting as 
 mirrors, which extend along its -ymole 
 length and make an angle of 60° with 
 one another. One end of the tube is 
 closed by a metal plate with a small hole 
 at its center, to which the eye is applied ; 
 at the other end there are two plates, one 
 of ground the other of clear glass (the 
 latter being next the eye), with a num- 
 ber of pieces of colored glass or beads 
 lying loosely between them. When the 
 eye is applied to the aperture the mirrors 
 produce a beautiful symmetrical figure, 
 and when the tube is turned about or 
 shaken, new images, always symmetrical 
 are formed. This arrangement may be 
 modified in various ways. The instru- 
 ment has been used by designers of 
 patterns for printed calicoes, etc. 
 
 KALENDAR. See Calendar. 
 
 KALIF. See Caliph. 
 
 KALISCH (kii'lish), or Kalisz, a town 
 and government in Russian Poland, 
 near the Prussian frontier. Area of gov- 
 ernment 4392 sq. miles, pop. 846,719. 
 The town is an important trade center, 
 and the capital of the province. Pop. 
 21,680. 
 
 KAL 'MUCKS, a nomadic and warlike 
 Mongol race, originally natives of the 
 
 Kalmuck. 
 
 territory of Central Asia between the 
 Koko-Nor and Tibet, but now' inhabiting 
 not only parts of the Chinese empire, 
 but also occupying districts of Siberia 
 
KALUGA 
 
 KANSAS 
 
 and European Russia. They are in- 
 trepid soldiers, splendid horsemen, and 
 troops of them are attached to almost 
 every Cossack regiment. Physically the 
 Kalmucks are small of stature, broad- 
 shouldered, with small round heads, 
 and the narrow oblique eyes character- 
 istic of the Mongolian race. They num- 
 ber altogether perhaps 700,000, of whom 
 more than half are under Chinese rule. 
 
 KALU'GA, a town and government of 
 European Russia. Pop. 40,252. 
 
 KAMA, the largest tributary of the 
 Volga, rises in the Russian government 
 Viatka, and after a course of 1150 miles 
 flows into the Volga, 40 miles south of 
 Kasan. Part of it is navigable for 
 steamers, and ordinary barges can pro- 
 ceed as far as Perm. 
 
 KAMA (ka'ma), the Hindu god of love 
 corresponding, generally speaking, to 
 the Greek Eros and Roman Cupid. He 
 appears as a beautiful youth riding on a 
 parrot, generally carrying a bow with a 
 string formed of bees, and having five 
 
 Kama or Kamadeva. 
 
 arrows, each tipped with a flower that is 
 supposed to have some amorous in- 
 fluence. Dancing girls or nymphs bear 
 him company, and one carries his ban- 
 ner, the emblem on which is a fish or 
 marine monster on a red ground. 
 
 KAM'ALA, a drug long known, under 
 various names, to Indian and Arab 
 physicians, as a specific against the tape- 
 worm, introduced in the British Phar- 
 macopoeia in 1864 as a vermifuge, in 
 doses of 30 grains to a quarter of an 
 ounce in syrup or gruel. It occurs as a 
 brick-red powder, adherent to the fruit 
 of the Rottl6ra tinctoria, formed by 
 minute roundish, semi-transparent gran- 
 ules mixed with stellate hairs, and is 
 largely collected in the forests of Mad- 
 ras, where it forms an important source 
 of revenue. The active principle of the 
 powder lies in the 80 per cent of resin 
 it contains, which also supply the color- 
 ing matter, called rottlerin, used as a 
 silk dye. 
 
 KAMRUP (kam-rop'), a district of 
 Assam, in the Brahmaputra valley; 
 area, 3857 sq. miles. Pop. 634,249. 
 
 KAMTCHAT'KA, a large peninsula in 
 the northeast of Asia. On the east it has 
 the North Pacific Ocean, and on the 
 west the Sea of Okhotsk; it is upward 
 of 800 miles in length and 190 in average 
 breadth; sq. miles, 85,000. The entire 
 population is about 11,500. The capital, 
 Petropaulovsk, has a pop. of about 
 1000 . 
 
 KANAZA'WA, a town of Japan, near 
 
 the northwest coast of the island of 
 Hondo (Niphon), with manufactures of 
 silks, porcelain, etc. Pop. 91,531 
 
 KANDAHAR', or CANDAHAR, a town 
 of considerable commercial and.strategi- 
 cal importance in the south of Afghani- 
 stan, on the direct route to India. The 
 town lies 3484 feet above the sea, has a 
 large transit trade, and a pop. of 60,000. 
 
 KANE, Elisha Kent, a surgeon, trav- 
 eler, and Arctic explorer, born at Phila- 
 delphia 1820, died at Havana 1857. In 
 1846 he rendered important service as a 
 volunteer in the United States army in 
 Mexico, in 1850 by his survey of the Gulf 
 of Mexico, and in the same year joined 
 the Grinell expedition, as medical and 
 scientific member, in the unsuccessful 
 search for Sir John Franklin. His ob- 
 servations led him to the belief that there 
 was a large open sea near the pole, and 
 with a view to penetrate it he organized 
 and commanded a second expedition, 
 which left New York in the Advance in 
 May, 1853. He succeeded in getting as 
 far as 78° 43' n. lat., where he was frozen 
 up for twenty-one months, and being 
 harassed by scurvy and want of pro- 
 visions was obliged to abandon the 
 vessel. A perilous journey of 1300 miles 
 in boats and sledges brought him back 
 to Greenland, and he again reached New 
 York in November, 1855. Much broken 
 in health, he sailed for Cuba to recruit, 
 but died there. The accounts of his two 
 expeditions added much to our knowl- 
 edge of the Arctic regions. 
 
 KANGAROO, the common name of a 
 number of animals belonging to the 
 marsupial order of mammals, indigen- 
 ous to Australia, and first made known 
 to Europe by Captain Cook. The most 
 noticeable feature about the kangaroo 
 
 is the disproportion between the upper 
 and lower I»rts of the body. The head is 
 small, deer-Tike in shape, with large ears; 
 the forelegs small and five-toed; the 
 hindlegs very large and powerful, with 
 four toes only on the feet. The tail is 
 long, thick at the base, and helps to 
 support the animal when sitting erect, 
 the usual posture when not feeding; it 
 also assists the hindlegs in their long 
 leaps (from 10 to 15 feet). The young 
 are born very immature, and protected 
 and nourished for about eight months in 
 the marsupium, or pouch, into which the 
 nipples of the mammary glands open. 
 Kangaroos are herbivorous, and, where 
 
 still plentiful, a serious pest to squatters, 
 whose rifles have, however, consider- 
 ably reduced their number. The hind- 
 quarters of the large species supply a 
 tolerable substitute for venison, while 
 their tails make excellent soup, and 
 their skins good rugs and leather. The 
 kangaroo includes many species, varying 
 in size from a hare to a large sheep, and 
 remains of still larger and extinct species 
 have been found in the pleistocene de- 
 posits of Australia. 
 
 KANKAKEE, the county-seat of 
 Kankakee co.. 111., 56 miles south of 
 Chicago; on the Kankakee river, and on 
 the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, and 
 St. Louis, the Illinois Central, the 
 Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa and other 
 railroads. The river, broad and deep at 
 this point, furnishes water-power, for 
 manufacturing purposes, as well as for 
 generating electricity for city lighting 
 and the operation of street railways. 
 The most important manufactures are 
 plows, buggies, starch, and iron beds. 
 Pop. 16,400. 
 
 KANGRA, a large district of Hindu- 
 stan, in the Punjab, belonging mainly to 
 the Himalayan chain; area, 9069 sq. 
 miles. About a ninth is under cultiva- 
 tion, and large tracts are covered with 
 forests. The inhabitants are a good- 
 looking, fair-complexioned race, mild 
 and peaceable, and much attached to 
 their country. Pop. 763,030. 
 
 KAN'SAS,' one of the United States, 
 bounded n. by Nebraska, e. by Missouri, 
 s. by Oklahoma and Indian Territory, 
 w. by Colorado; area, 82,080, sq. miles. 
 It ranks tenth in size among the 
 states of the Union. It consists 
 chiefly of undulating plains, well 
 watered by the Kansas and Arkan- 
 
 sas and other rivers, the Missouri form- 
 ing the boundary on the northeast. 
 Kansas is pre-eminently an agricultural 
 state, the total farm land being over 
 80 per cent of its surface, of which over 
 60 per cent is improved. It has risen 
 with great rapidity to the front ranks of 
 the agricultural states. In 1900 only 
 one state, Iowa, had a larger acreage of 
 crops. In the last census year the rank 
 in acreage of corn was third, wheat 
 fourth, and hay third. Potatoes and 
 other vegetables are also raised in large 
 uantities. It also raises a great abun- 
 ance of orchard fruits. The bright 
 climate and pure atmosphere are ad- 
 
 Kangaroo. 
 
KANSAS CITY 
 
 KANT 
 
 mirably adapted to the growth of the 
 apple, pear, peach, plum, grape and cher- 
 ry. Creameries are numerous. Kansas 
 ranks second in the production of broom- 
 corn and is important in the production 
 of castor-beans. The raising of enormous 
 crops of corn and other stock feed has 
 resulted in the development of a large 
 stock raising industry, extensive areas of 
 prairie land in the western part of the 
 state being used for grazing grounds. 
 Timber is abundant along the streams 
 in the eastern section of the state but 
 is less plentiful in the central portion 
 and very scarce in some parts of the 
 west. The varieties of timber embrace 
 oak, elm, black walnut, cottonwood, 
 mulberry, box elder, willow, hickory, 
 sycamore, white ash and other hard 
 and soft woods. 
 
 The climate of Kansas is in general 
 very pleasant; the air is clear and dry, 
 and sunny days by far predominate. 
 The mean annual temperature ranges 
 from 52° in the north to 58° in the south. 
 The mean rainfall for the whole state is 
 26.42 inches, but it ranges from 40 
 inches in the east to 15 in the west. 
 
 Seal of Kansas. 
 
 With irrigation of the western lands 
 there is very little soil in Kansas unfit 
 for agriculture. The rich bottom-lands 
 of the numerous rivers occupy a large 
 area, and beyond these the prairies are 
 everywhere extremely fertile, especially 
 in the eastern half of the state, where it 
 is rich and black, gradually becoming 
 lighter and browner toward the west. 
 
 Deposits of bituminous coal probably 
 underlie more than half of the state. 
 Natural gas occurs in the south- 
 eastern part. Lead and zinc ores occur 
 in association in the limestone of the 
 lower carboniferous in the southeast. 
 The ores are chiefly galena and blende. 
 Running north and south through the 
 center of the state are extensive de- 
 posits of rock salt and gypsum. Large 
 deposits of chalk and clay are found. 
 Equally inexhaustible are the building- 
 stones. 
 
 In 1541 a small force of Spaniards and 
 Indians under Coronado traversed the 
 region from southwest to northeast; 
 but no results followed this expedition. 
 The country remained unexplored till 
 1719 when it was visited by French- 
 men from Louisiana. In 1803 the 
 greater portion of what is now Kansas 
 passed into the possession of the United 
 States as a part of the Louisiana Pur- 
 chase; the southwestern section of the 
 
 state was ceded by Texas to the Federal 
 Government in 1850. The region was 
 explored by Lewis and Clark in 1804, 
 Lieutenant Pike in 1806-07, and Lieu- 
 tenant Long in 1819. 
 
 In the civil war Kansas sent into the 
 field a larger number of soldiers, in pro- 
 portion to its population, than any other 
 state. The eastern part of the state lay 
 exposed to the incursions of confederates 
 from Missouri. On August 23, 1863, 
 Quantrell’s guerrillas raided the town of 
 Lawrence and killed a large number of 
 the inhabitants. The cessation of war 
 was followed immediately by a great 
 influx of immigrants, who swept steadily 
 westward, unchecked by the repeated 
 assaults of the hostile Indian tribes. 
 Railway development began in 1868, 
 and by 1872 there were more than 2000 
 miles of railway track in operation. 
 Prohibition became an important ques- 
 tion in politics after 1880; the movement 
 encountered great opposition in the be- 
 ginning, but by 1890 the principle was 
 well established in the state, though in 
 the large cities the anti-liquor laws were 
 not zealously enforced. Education is 
 well provided for, and there is a state 
 university, an agricultural college, and 
 other colleges and normal schools. It 
 has over 5000 miles of railroad. The chief 
 towns are Leavenworth, Lawrence, Tope- 
 ka, and Atchison ; Topeka being the state 
 capital. In politics Kansas belongs to 
 the republicans. They have carried the 
 state with only three exceptions since 
 the civil war; in 1882, 1892, and 1896. 
 Pop. 1909, 1 ,700,000. 
 
 KANSAS CITY, the largest and most 
 important city of Kansas, and the 
 county seat of Wyandotte co., on both 
 sides of the Kansas river at its con- 
 fluence with the Missouri, opposite and 
 joining Kansas City, Mo. It is an im- 
 portant railroad center, the Missouri 
 Pacific, the Union Pacific, the Atchison, 
 Topeka and Santa F6, the Mexico and 
 Orient and the Chicago, Rock Island 
 and Pacific entering the city. Several 
 bridges across the Kansas river unite 
 the east and west sections of the city, 
 which is closely connected also with 
 Kansas City, Mo., by elevated, electric 
 and cable roads. It is noted for its im- 
 portant live stock slaughtering and 
 meat packing interests in all of which it 
 is allied with the adjacent city — the 
 stock yards and packing house plants 
 on both sides of the Kansas-Missouri 
 boundary forming the second largest 
 live stock center in the United States. 
 It is also an important grain and flour 
 market. Pop. 60,000. 
 
 KANSAS CITY, the second city of 
 Missouri, and an important railroad and 
 commercial center, in Jackson co., at 
 the junction of the Kansas and Missouri 
 rivers ; on the Kansas-Missouri boundary 
 line, adjoining Kansas City, Kan., and 
 235 miles west by north of St. Louis. 
 Many of the most prominent railroads 
 of the country pass through or have a 
 terminus in the city. Three great bridges 
 have been constructed across the Mis- 
 souri river, and a terminal circular rail- 
 way, 30 miles in length, furnishes inter- 
 communication among the several roads. 
 Most of the roads use in common a large 
 union depot. 
 
 Kansas City is highly important as a 
 
 commercial center. As the distributing 
 point for a vast agricultural region to 
 the west and south it controls laige 
 wholesale interests, its jobbing trade in 
 farming implements ranking among the 
 most extensive in the United States. In 
 the grain, live-stock, and meat-packing 
 business, Kansas City is closely allied 
 with Kansas City, Kan., the two munici- 
 palities forming practically one indus- 
 trial and commercial community. The 
 elevators have a storage capacity of 
 over 6,200,000 bushels, and a handling 
 capacity of 1,425,000 bushels. The 
 Kansas City stock yards handle an- 
 nually 125,000 cars of live stock valued 
 at over $130,000,000, including 2,000,- 
 
 000 head of cattle and 3,700,000 hogs, 
 besides large numbers of sheep, calves, 
 horses and mules. The mills have a total 
 output of over 1,825,000 barrels of flour 
 (1,430,000 barrels), oatmeal,, and corn- 
 meal. 
 
 The first permanent settlement at 
 Kansas City was made in 1821 by a small 
 company of French fur traders, headed 
 by Frangois Chomteau. In 1838 a town 
 was laid out, and in 1853 it was incor- 
 porated as a city. It was the starting- 
 point of the first railroad across the 
 plains, and received its first commercial 
 impetus in 1865, when the Missouri 
 Pacific railroad reached it. After this 
 date its growth was exceedingly rapid. 
 Pop. 1909, estimated at 300,000. 
 
 KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL 
 COLLEGE, a coeducational institution 
 of learning at Manhattan, Kan. The 
 college owns 323 acres of land, valued at 
 $39,700, and leases 221 acres in addition, 
 the greater part of these grounds being 
 used for experimental work. The courses 
 embrace English, general and domestic 
 science, mechanical and electrical en- 
 gineering, and agriculture, leading to 
 the degree of bachelor of science, a pre- 
 paratory department, a musical de- 
 partment, and apprentice courses, de- 
 signed for those who wish to learn a 
 
 KANSAS, UNIVERSITY OF, a coedu- 
 cational state institution at Lawrence, 
 Kan., established by act of the legisla- 
 ture in 1864 and opened in 1866. The 
 university comprises a graduate school; 
 school of arts, law, medicine, pharmacy, 
 engineering and fine arts; and the 
 university geological survey It confers 
 the bachelor’s degree in arts, science, law, 
 medicine, music and painting; the mas- 
 ter’s degree in arts and science, the 
 doctor’s degree in philosophy; and the 
 degree of civil and electrical engineer 
 Tuition is free to residents of Kansas. 
 
 KANSAS RIVER, a river of Kansas, 
 formed by the junction of the Solomon 
 and Smoky Hill (the latter rising in the 
 Rocky Mountains), traverses the state 
 in an easterly direction, and falls into 
 the Missouri near Kansas City. 
 
 KANSOO', or KANSU, an inland prov- 
 ince in the north of China; area, 86,608 
 sq. miles. Pop. 5,411,188. 
 
 KANT, Immanuel, a celebrated Ger- .. 
 man philosopher, the founder of the # 
 “critical” or Kantian philosophy, born 
 at Konigsberg, Prussia, 1724, died at 
 the same place 1804. It is impossible 
 within our space to give anything like ..v 
 an exposition of the philosophy of Kant, ? 
 
 1 which has profoundly influenced all eub* - 
 
 
KAOLIN 
 
 KAULBACH 
 
 sequent philosophical speculations. Dis- 
 satisfied with the dogmatisms of Wolff 
 and the scepticism of Hume, he set him- 
 self to investigate thefieldof metaphysics 
 for himself, and in the first place pro- 
 ceeded to the examination of the origin, 
 extent, and limits of human knowledge. 
 According to him, part of our knowledge 
 is knowledge a priori, or original, trans- 
 cendental, and independent of experi- 
 ence; part of it is a posteriori, or based 
 on experience. What he calls the “pure 
 reason” has to do with the former. His 
 great work named the Critique of Pure 
 Reason (first edition, Riga, 1781), con- 
 tains the foundation for his whole sys- 
 tem of philosophy. In the preface to a 
 later work, the Criticiue of the Power of 
 Judgment (Berlin, 1790), he defines 
 “pure reason” thus: Pure reason is the 
 faculty to understand by a priori princi- 
 ples; and the discussion of the possibility 
 of these principles, and the delimitation 
 of this faculty, constitutes the critique 
 of pure reason. In the first rank of such 
 ideas as we do not derive from ex- 
 perience are space and time. Kant shows 
 that all our perceptions are submitted 
 to these two forms, hence he concludes 
 that they are within us, and not in the 
 objects; they are necessary and pure 
 intuitions of the internal sense. The 
 three original faculties, through the 
 medium of which we acquire knowledge, 
 are sense, understanding, reason. Sense, 
 
 Immanuel Kant. 
 
 a passive and receptive faculty, has, as 
 already stated, for its forms or condi- 
 tions space and time. Understanding is 
 an active or spontaneous faculty, and 
 consists in the power of forming con- 
 ceptions according to such categories 
 as unity, plurality, casuality, etc., which 
 categories are applied to objects of 
 experience through the medium of the 
 two forms of perception, space and 
 time. Reason is the third or highest de- 
 gree of mental spontaneity, and consists 
 in the power of forming ideas. As it is 
 the province of the understanding to 
 form the intuitions of sense into con- 
 ceptions, so it is the business of reason to 
 form conceptions into ideas. Far from 
 rejecting experience, Kant considers 
 the work of all our life but the action of 
 our innate faculties on the conceptions 
 which come to us from without. He 
 proceeds in a similar way with morality; 
 the idea of good and bad is a necessary 
 coiidition, an original basis of morals, 
 which is supposed in every one of our 
 moral reflections, and not obtained by 
 experience. He treats this part of his 
 philosophy in his Critique of Practical 
 Reason (1788). 
 
 KA'OLIN, a name first given by the 
 Chinese to a pure white clay used by 
 
 them in the manufacture of porcelain. 
 Kaolin is the result of the decomposition 
 of granitic rock, containing felspar, mica, 
 and quartz. Similar clays, differing 
 slightly in color and in the percentage of 
 constituents, are found at Schneeberg in 
 Saxony, furnishing the material of 
 Dresden china; at Limoges, in France, 
 employed for Ifimoges ware; and at St. 
 Austell, in Cornwall, the source of supply 
 for the British potteries. It is also found 
 in Nebraska and some of the eastern 
 states. In its natural state kaolin some- 
 what resembles mortar; by sorting and 
 repeated filtration it is freed from all 
 coarse ingredients, then dried in pans 
 and sheds, and sent into the market cut 
 into blocks. 
 
 KAPURTHALA (ka-p6rt'ha-la), na- 
 tive state of India, province Punjab; 
 area 598 sq. miles; pop. 299,690. The 
 capital, Kapurthala. Pop. 17,000. 
 
 KARAM'SIN, Nicolai Michailovitch, 
 imperial Russian historiographer, born 
 in a village of the government of Oren- 
 burg in 1765, died at St. Petersburg 
 1826. His title to fame rests on his 
 History of the Russian Empire (12 vols., 
 St. Petersburg, 1816-24), a work written 
 in fine style, with impartiality and pene- 
 tration, and translated into several other 
 languages, including an English edition. 
 
 KARAULI', a town of India. Pop. 
 23,124. — The state, which is under the 
 superintendence of the Bhurtpore and 
 Karauli agency, has an area of 1208 sq. 
 miles, and a population of 148,670. 
 
 KARLSBAD. See Carlsbad. 
 
 KARNAK. See Thebes. 
 
 KARNAL (kar-naP), an Indian town 
 and district, in the Punjab; area of dis- 
 trict, 2396 sq. miles; pop. 683,718. 
 Karnal, the headquarters of the district, 
 trades largely with Delhi and Umballa. 
 Pop. 23,559. 
 
 KARNUL', or KARNOOL', a town in 
 India, in the presidency of Madras, 
 situated in the fork formed by the junc- 
 tion of the Hundri with the Tungab- 
 hadra, with a dismantled fort. Pop. 
 25,376. — The district has an area of 7514 
 sq. miles; a pop. of 817,811. 
 
 KARS, a town on the Russo-Turkish 
 frontier in Asia. Captured and annexed 
 by the Russians in November, 1878, it 
 has become the capital of a Russian 
 province of the same name; area, 7175 
 sq. miles, pop. 292,498. It has since been 
 connected with Batoum and Tiflis by 
 military roads, and the fortifications 
 have been much enlarged and strength- 
 ened. Pop. 20,891. 
 
 KASHGAR', a Chinese town of Cen- 
 tral Asia, in Eastern Turkestan on a 
 river of the same name, with consider- 
 able manufactures of cotton, linen, gold 
 and silver cloths, carpets, etc., and an 
 extensive trade, its position at the junc- 
 tion of several great routes making it 
 the emporium of much of the commerce 
 of Central Asia. Pop. estimated at from 
 40,000 to 80,000. 
 
 KAS'SON, John Adam, an American 
 diplomat, born in 1822 at Charlotte, Vt., 
 of Irish ancestry. In 1857 he removed to 
 Iowa, where he entered politics, and in 
 1860, as chairman of the republican 
 state committee, managed the Lincoln 
 campaign, and was appointed first as- 
 sistant postmaster-general. In 1863 he 
 was sent as United States commissioner 
 
 to the first international postal congress 
 at Paris. From 1863 to 1867 he was a 
 republican member of congress from 
 Iowa. From 1873 to 1877 again sat in 
 congress. In 1877 appointed minister to 
 Austria-Hungary by President Hayes. 
 He returned to America in 1881, was 
 again sent to congress, was reelected in 
 1883. President Arthur, in 1884, ap- 
 pointed him minister to Germany, 
 where he served also as the United States 
 representative at the international Congo 
 conference at Berlin. In 1887 he was 
 president of the international constitu- 
 tional centennial commission at Phila- 
 delphia, and in 1889 was chairman of the 
 United States commission to the inter- 
 national Samoan conference at Berlin. 
 In 1897 he was appointed commissioner 
 plenipotentiary to negotiate reciprocity 
 treaties with foreign powers under the 
 provisions of the Dingley act. In 1898 
 he was a member of the American- 
 Canadian joint high commission. 
 
 KA'TYDID, a species of grasshopper 
 of a pale green color, body about an inch 
 long, found in some parts of North 
 America, and so named from the sound 
 of its note. This is produced by the 
 friction of the taborets in the triangular 
 overlapping portion of each wing-cover 
 against the other, and is strengthened by 
 the escape of air from the sacs of the 
 body, so as to be heard on a quiet night 
 at a quarter of a mile distance. The 
 females are noiseless. 
 
 KAULBACH (koul'bah), Wilhelm von, 
 one of the greatest of modern German 
 painters, born at Arolsen, Waldeck, in 
 1805; died at Munich of cholera in 1874. 
 The desire of King Ludwig of Bavaria to 
 make Munich the center of German art 
 afforded free scope for his genius, and he 
 was long engaged in the decoration of 
 
 
 W. von Kaulbach. 
 
 theHofgarten, the Odeon, the palaces of 
 Maximilian and Ludwig, and the new 
 Pinacothek, for which he did the series 
 of designs of contemporary groups of 
 artists, architects, etc., executed in 
 fresco on the exterior. His most am- 
 bitious pictures, with the exception of 
 the Madhouse (1828), are to be found in 
 a series (utilized in the decoration of the 
 Berlin Museum) seeking to depict the 
 progress of the human race in typical 
 scenes from the great historic periods 
 and comprising the Tower of Babel, 
 Age of Homer, Destruction of Jerusa- 
 lem, Battle of the Huns and Romans, 
 the Crusades, and the Reformation 
 (1834-63). Besides these, however, he 
 left a large number of portraits, designs, 
 
KAZAN 
 
 KELLY 
 
 aucl illustrations of books, including the 
 Reineke Fuchs, the Gospels, and the 
 works of Shakespeare, Goethe, and 
 Schiller. 
 
 KAZAN', a city of European Russia, 
 capital of the gov. of same name, sit- 
 uated on the Kasanka, about 4 miles 
 above its junction with the Volga. Pop. 
 140,726. — The gov. is surrounded by 
 the governments of Viatka, Orenburg, 
 Nijni-Novgorod, and Simbirsk; area, 
 24,601, pop. 1,992,985. 
 
 KEAN, Charles John, actor, son of the 
 celebrated Edmund Kean, born at 
 Waterford 1811, died at London 1868. 
 He was educated at Eton, but being 
 thrown on his own resources in 1827 he 
 took to the stage, and made his debut at 
 Drury Lane as Young Norval. He 
 married the accomplished actress Ellen 
 Tree in 1842, and in 1851 became sole 
 lessee of the Princess’ Theater, London, 
 where he put some of Shakespeare’s plays 
 on the stage with a splendor never be- 
 fore attempted. He inherited little of 
 his father’s genius, and his success was 
 largely due to effective staging. 
 
 KEAN, Edmund, the most brilliant 
 tragic actor of his age, was born in Lon- 
 don in 1787, died at Richmond 1833. 
 His parents were poor and connected in 
 a low capacity with the theatrical pro- 
 fession. At two years of age he was 
 placed in a pantomime, at seven he went 
 to school, but ran away, and for a short 
 time he was a cabin-boy in a vessel. 
 Returning to the boards he ultimately 
 obtained an engagement at one of the 
 minor London theaters. When not yet 
 thirteen years of age he managed to 
 please his country audiences as Hamlet, 
 Cato, etc., and in Windsor he gained the 
 applause of the royal family in Richard 
 III. He married Miss Chambers, an 
 actress in his company, in 1808. In 1814 
 he appeared at Drury Lane first as Shy- 
 lock and then as Richard III. Hissuccess 
 was sudden and unexampled, and was 
 equally great in other parts, including 
 Othello, Hamlet, Macbeth, lago, Lear, 
 etc. Visits to the provinces, to Paris, and 
 the United States brought him fresh 
 fame and profit. 
 
 KEARNEY, Denis, American labor 
 agitator, was born in Oakmont, Ireland, 
 in 1847. In 1877 he began to incite the 
 laboring men of San Francisco against 
 the wealthier classes; gi'eat meetings 
 were held on the “Sand Lots’’ near the 
 city, where Kearney ruled supreme, and 
 soon attracted attention by his savage 
 attacks upon capital, Chinese labor, and 
 various other alleged grievances. His 
 influence rapidly increased, until his 
 adherents were strong enough to pack 
 a constitutional convention and force 
 the adoption of a new state constitution 
 which was largely in their own interest 
 and was most detrimental to capital 
 and vested interests generally. His 
 followers, however, gradually drew 
 away from him and he himself soon 
 relapsed into insignificance. He died in 
 1907. 
 
 KEARNY, (kar'ni), a town in Hudson 
 CO., N. J., on the Possaic river, opposite 
 Newark, and on the Erie and other rail- 
 roads. It is a residential suburb of 
 Newark and New York. Pop. 12,302. 
 
 KEARNY, Phillip, American soldier, 
 was born in New York City in 1815. 
 
 In 1837 lie entered the United States 
 army as lieutenant in the first dragoons, 
 and two years later was one of three 
 officers sent by the United States gov- 
 ernment to study the French cavalry 
 service. In 1840 he was then successively 
 aide-de-camp to General Macomb, gen- 
 eral in chief of the United States army 
 from 1840 to 1841 and to General Scott 
 from 1841 to 1844. In 1859 he entered 
 the French army as a volunteer in the 
 Italian war and for his conspicuous 
 bravery throughout the campaign he 
 received the cross of the Legion of 
 Honor. He returned to the United 
 States and in 1862 was placed in com- 
 mand of the army of the Potomac. 
 He was in the battles of Williams- 
 burg and Seven Pines, and in 1862 was 
 commissioned major-general of volun- 
 teers. He subsequently participated in 
 the second battle of Bull Run and on 
 September 1, 1862, was killed at Chan- 
 tilly while reconnoitering. 
 
 KEATS, John, English poet, was born 
 in London 31st October, 1795; died at 
 Rome 24th February, 1821. His first 
 volume of poems came out in 1817. 
 Endymion, a Poetic Romance, ap- 
 peared in 1818; his last volume of poetry 
 containing Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of 
 St. Agnes, Hyperion, and other poems 
 
 John Keats. 
 
 in 1820. Keats charms by his love of 
 nature, his keen sensuous perception, 
 and his sweet harmony ; but his beautiful 
 thoughts are often hidden by wild 
 fancies, while errors of taste and faults 
 of diction abound in his poetry. But his 
 later works are free of many of the faults 
 of the earlier productions, and place him 
 in the front rank of the poets of his age. 
 
 KE'BLE, John, an English divine and 
 poet, born 1792, died 1866. His reputfC- 
 tion is chiefly due to his well-known 
 volume of hymns. The Christian Year. 
 He also wrote Lyra Innocentium, a 
 series of poems on children. Sermons, etc. 
 Keble College, Oxford, was established 
 in honor of his memory. 
 
 KE'BLE COLLEGE, one of the col- 
 leges of Oxford University, built by sub- 
 scription as a memorial of the Rev. 
 John Keble, and incorporated in 1870 
 by royal charter. 
 
 KECSKEMET (kech'ke-met), one of 
 the largest market towns of Hungary, 
 50 miles southeast of Budapest. Pop, 
 56,951. 
 
 KEDGE, a small anchor used to keep 
 a ship steady and clear from her bower 
 anchor, while she rides in a harbor or 
 
 river, also in removing her from ond 
 part of a harbor to another. See Anchor. 
 
 KEEL, the bottom timber in a wooden 
 vessel which forms the main support and 
 connection of the whole fabric. It is 
 generally composed of several thick 
 pieces of timber placed lengthways, 
 scarfed and bolted together. A piece 
 bolted to the bottom of the keel is called 
 the false keel, and an internal piece, 
 also bolted to the keel, is called the 
 keelson. In iron vessels the arrangement 
 of parts is altogether different. 
 
 KEELEY, Leslie, American physician 
 born in St. Lawrence co., N. Y., in 
 1836. In 1880 he opened a sanitarium 
 at Dwight, 111., for persons addicted to 
 the immoderate use of liquor and 
 opium. His success was so great that he 
 opened similar institutions in different 
 parts of the country. His cure consists 
 of a secret preparation containing bi- 
 chloride of gold, and he claimed that 
 95 per cent of the patients treated were 
 permanently cured. He died in 1900. 
 
 KEELEY MOTOR, a machine claim- 
 ing to furnish power at a minimum ex- 
 penditure of energy. Its inventor, John 
 W. Keeley, who was born in Phila- 
 delphia in 1837, and died there in 1898, 
 made startling claims for the success of 
 his motors. Various exhibitions were 
 given with remarkable features but the 
 promised developments never appeared 
 and after the inventor’s death the fraud 
 was thoroughly exposed, it being shown 
 that the force was supplied by a hidden 
 compressed air apparatus. 
 
 KEENE, the county seat of Cheshire 
 co., N. H., 43 miles southwest of Con- 
 cord; on the Ashuelot river, and on the 
 Boston and Maine railroad. Pop. 10,425. 
 
 KEENE, Laura, the stage name of 
 Miss Mary Moss, an actress, born in 1820 
 in England. Her greatest success before 
 coming to this country was as Pauline in 
 The Lady of Lyons. Her most celebrated 
 production was Our American Cousin, 
 which she brought out in 1858, with 
 Joseph Jefferson as Asa Trenchard and 
 E. A. Sothern as Lord Dundreary. She 
 afterwards toured with it, and it was 
 during one of her presentations of this 
 play in 1865 that President Lincoln was 
 assassinated. She died in 1873. 
 
 KEEWAT'IN. See Kewatin. 
 
 KELLER, Helen Adams, an American 
 girl remarkable for her intellectual ac- 
 complishments acquired in spite of be- 
 ing deaf, dumb, and blind, was born in 
 1880 in Tuscumbia, Ala. When nineteen 
 months old she was attacked by scarlet 
 fever, which left her without the senses 
 of sight and hearing. When eight years 
 old she was placed under the care of 
 Miss Anna Sullivan, and from that time 
 her progress was remarkable. When she 
 had learned to read and write and to use 
 the finger alphabet, she determined that 
 she would learn to speak, and so rapid 
 was her progress that in less than a 
 month she was able to talk intelligibly. 
 After studying for some years she 
 entered Radcliffe College in 1900 and 
 graduated in 1904. She contributes to 
 a number of magazines and is the au- 
 thor of The Story of My Life. 
 
 KELLY, John, American politician, 
 was born in New York City in 1821. 
 He became a member of the Tammany 
 General Committee in 1849; and in 1854 
 
KELP 
 
 KENTUCKY 
 
 waselected alderman from the fourteenth 
 ward. He served in congress from 1855 
 to 1858. From 1872 to 1884 he was 
 dictator of the Tammany organization. 
 He was appointed comptroller by Mayor 
 Wickham, but was subsequently re- 
 moved by Mayor Cooper. In 1884 made 
 a stubborn but unsuccessful effort to 
 prevent the nomination of Grover Cleve- 
 land for the presidency. He died in 1886. 
 
 KELP, in commerce, the crude alka- 
 line substance obtained by burning sea- 
 weeds. The sea-weed is gathered dur- 
 ing the summer, dried on the shore, then 
 stacked under shelter for some weeks 
 until it becomes covered with a white 
 saline efflorescence, when it is ready for 
 burning, which is effected in a round 
 
 Kelp, or devil’s apron. 
 
 brick-lined pit, or oblong kiln. As the 
 weed softens, it is well stirred with a 
 heated iron until it becomes a semi- 
 fluid mass; it is then cooled and broken 
 into pieces ready for the market. Kelp 
 is now chiefly used for the production of 
 iodine and chloride of potassium ; a ton 
 of kelp yields about 8 lbs. of iodine. 
 
 KELTS. See Celts. 
 
 KELUNG', a town and seaport now 
 belonging to Japan, in the northern part 
 of the island of Formosa. Pop. 70,000. 
 
 KELVIN, Lord. See Thomson, Sir 
 William. 
 
 KEMBLE, Charles, English actor, 
 born 1775, died 1854, a younger brother 
 of John Phillip Kemble. He married the 
 favorite actress Miss de Camp in 1806, 
 by whom he was the father of John 
 Mitchell Kei^ible, Frances Anne Kemble, 
 and Adelaide Kemble. 
 
 KEMBLE, Frances Anne, popularly 
 known as Fanny Kemble, writer and 
 actress, eldest daughter of Charles Kem- 
 ble, and niece of Mrs. Siddons, was born 
 at London 1809. Her father being in 
 financial difficulties she was induced to 
 appear on the stage, which she did in 
 1829 at Covent Garden as Juliet, and 
 her success was so great that in the 
 course of three years she managed to 
 relieve the fallen fortunes of the family. 
 Her trip to America in company with 
 her father was also a splendid triumph. 
 She returned to London in 1847, and 
 from that time resided alternately in 
 America, England, and the Continent, 
 appearing at intervals as a public reader. 
 She died in 1893. As an actress she ex- 
 celled in the characters of Portia, Bea- 
 trice, Lady Macbeth, Lady Teazle, and of 
 Julia in the Hunchback. 
 
 KEMBLE, John Phillip, one of the 
 most eminent tragedians of the British 
 stage, born at Preston 1757, died at 
 Lausanne 1823. He selected the stage 
 as a profession, made his first appear- 
 ance at Drury Lane in 1783, and became 
 at once popular. He was afterward 
 manager of this theater in 1788-1802. 
 
 From 1801 to 1803 he made a most 
 successful tour in France and Spain, and 
 on his return to London purchased a 
 share in the Covent Garden theater, and 
 made himself a splendid reputation in 
 the characters of Julius Csesar, Hamlet, 
 Macbeth, Coriolanus, etc. His statue 
 was placed in Westminster Abbey in 
 1833. His acting was distinguished for 
 dignity, precision, and studious prepara- 
 tion, but was wanting in fire and pathos. 
 His sister, Sarah, was the celebrated 
 Mrs. Siddons. 
 
 KEMPIS, Thomas A. See Thomas k 
 Kempis. 
 
 KENTLWORTH, a town of England, 
 in Warwickshire. Kenilworth Castle, 
 now a magnificent ivy-covered ruin, 
 was founded in the reign of Henry I. 
 The gorgeous entertainment given here 
 in 1575 to Queen Elizabeth by the Earl 
 of Leicester is familiar to all from Scott’s 
 romance of Kenilworth. Pop. 4544. 
 
 KEN'NAN, George, American jour- 
 nalist and traveler, was born at Nor- 
 walk, Ohio, in 1845. In December of 
 1864 he began his travels by a journey 
 to Kamtchatka. In 1870 he explored 
 the eastern Caucasus, Daghestan, Chech- 
 nia, and the course of the Volga to the 
 Caspian; again in 1885-86 he made a 
 journey of 15,000 miles through North- 
 ern Russia and Siberia, investigating the 
 convict, prison, and exile system, and 
 exploring the Russian Altai. He was 
 expelled from the Russian Empire while 
 carrying on further social and political 
 studies there in 1901. In 1902 he went 
 as correspondent for a New York news- 
 paper to the island of Martinique, after 
 the devastating eruptions of Mont 
 Pel4e, and climbed the still active 
 volcano, which he describes in his book 
 The Tragedy of Pel4e. In 1904 he went 
 to Japan to describe the Russian-Jap- 
 anese war. 
 
 KENNEBEC, a river of the United 
 States, Maine, rises in Moosehead Lake, 
 and after a course of 150 miles, mostly 
 e.s.e., empties itself into the Atlantic 12 
 miles below Bath. It is navigable for 
 ships as far as Bath, for steamers to 
 Hallowell, 40 miles. 
 
 KENOSHA, capital of Kenosha co., 
 Wis., on Lake Michigan, and the Chi. 
 and N. W. railway; 34 miles s. of Mil- 
 waukee, 52 miles n. of Chicago. It has 
 an excellent harbor. It is in a dairy and 
 agricultural region, and manufactures 
 carriages, wagons, furniture, and other 
 wooden goods. Pop. 13,960. 
 
 KENT, a maritime county of England, 
 forming the southeast extremity of the 
 kingdom; area, 995,392 acres, of which 
 nearly the whole is arable, meadow, or 
 pasture. Pop. 1,351,849. 
 
 KENT, James, an eminent American 
 jurist, born 1763, died 1847. He was 
 educated at Yale College, studied law, 
 and was admitted an attorney in 1785. 
 After practicing at Poughkeepsie he 
 settled in New York, and became pro- 
 fessor of law at Columbia College (1794- 
 98). He was successively appointed 
 master in chancery, recorder, judge of 
 the supreme court, chief justice (1804- 
 14), and latterly chancellor of New 
 York (1814-23). He again accepted the 
 law professorship at Columbia College in 
 1824-25. His Commentaries on Ameri- 
 can Law (1826-30) at once became a 
 
 standard work, while his aecisions were 
 quoted in the courts as of the highest 
 authority. 
 
 KENTON, Simon, American pioneer, 
 was born in Fauquier co., Va., in 1755. 
 At the age of eighteen he came in con- 
 tact with Simon Girty and other traders, 
 hunters, and backwoodsmen, and even- 
 tually he joined Daniel Boone as a hunter 
 and explorer. Later, he was employed 
 by the colonial governor, Dunmore, as a 
 spy, and among other daring exploits 
 saved the life of Boone. In 1778 he 
 joined Gen. George R. Clark at the falls 
 of the Ohio, and was with him at the 
 surprise of Kaskaskia. He was captured 
 by the Indians during that year and 
 taken prisoner to the British commander 
 at Detroit, from whom he escaped. In 
 1782 he visited his native place, and in 
 1784 went back with his parents to Ken- 
 tucky, settling near Maysville. There- 
 after he was actively engaged in con- 
 flicts with the Indians until peace was 
 established in 1793. Previously Kenton 
 had been promoted major. In 1805 he 
 became brigadier-general of Ohio militia 
 and in 1813 fought at the battle of the 
 Thames. In 1824 he appeared in Frank- 
 fort, Ky., before the legislature, in 
 tattered garments, petitioning for relief, 
 which was granted, and an annual pen- 
 sion of $240 procured for him from con- 
 gress. He died in 1836. 
 
 KENTUCK'Y, one of the United 
 States, bounded n. by Ohio and Indiana, 
 n.w. by Illinois, w. by Missouri, s. by 
 Tennessee, and e. by Virginia and West 
 Virginia; area, 40,400 sq. miles. The 
 surface of the state is gently undulating, 
 excepting the southeast, which is some- 
 what mountainous. Few states are better 
 provided with water communication. 
 The Ohio forms the boundary on the 
 north, and receives from within the 
 state numerous tributaries, of which the 
 most important are the Cumberland, 
 Kentucky, and Tennessee; the Missis- 
 sippi, after receiving the Ohio, forms 
 the boundary on the west. The climate 
 is salubrious, the soil fertile, the prin- 
 cipal crops being wheat, Indian corn, 
 
 Seal of Kentucky. 
 
 but oats, barley, hemp, and fruit are 
 extensively raised. 
 
 Kentucky is densely wooded, except 
 in those places that are under cultiva- 
 tion; at present about two-thirds of 
 the state is covered with virgin forest. 
 Among the prevailing ^epecies of trees 
 are the blue ash, black walnut, various 
 kinds of oak, the pine, maple, tulip 
 
KENTUCKY RlVEK 
 
 KEPLER 
 
 tree, and sweet g:um. Some cotton is 
 raised west of the Tennessee River. 
 Potatoes and hay are important crops. 
 Kentucky is the principal tobacco-pro- 
 ducing state in the Union. 
 
 It has always been a center for rear- 
 ing domestic animals, and for breeding 
 the finest grades of stock. A large 
 percentage of the successful race horses 
 of the United States have been bred in 
 Kentucky. The peculiar advantages 
 for stock raising are due in part to the 
 excellent quality of the grass, and in 
 part to the mild, salubrious climate, 
 which permits the cattle to remain un- 
 housed in the pastures during the 
 greater part of the winter. 
 
 Kentucky is rich in coal, iron ore, and 
 fire clay. The coal measures cover an 
 area of m.ore than 10,400 sq. mi. with 
 elevation ranging from 650 to 1,400 
 feet, and are the result of several alter- 
 nate exposures and submersions. They 
 average at least ten good beds of coal. 
 The eastern coal field is a prolongation 
 of the Appalachian deposits. The 
 western belongs to the Illinois tract. 
 The coal is bituminous, and some ex- 
 cellent cannel occurs. Next in import- 
 ance to coal are the iron ores, which 
 are of excellent quality, and are found 
 throughout a district of 20,000 sq. mi. 
 in extent. Galena is found in some 
 sections; valuable building stone occurs 
 almost everywhere; and salt is obtained 
 by boring in the coal and oil regions. 
 
 The state has a good school system 
 and many colleges and institutions for 
 higher education. Kentucky Univer- 
 sity, located at Lexington, was founded 
 in 1798. There are separate schools 
 for colored pupils. 
 
 The chief manufacturing industries 
 comprise tobacco, cotton -and woolen 
 factories, iron-works, and tanneries. 
 The central position of the state, and 
 the abundant water and railway com- 
 munication, have secured it a rapid 
 commercial development. 
 
 Kentucky was originally n portion of 
 Virginia. In 1769 Daniel Boone and five 
 companions from the Yadkin settle- 
 ments came to eastern Kentucky, but it 
 was not until 1774 that the first effort 
 to plant a colony was undertaken. It 
 was located in what is now I.Iercer Co., 
 and was given the name of Harrodsburg. 
 In 1775 Daniel Boone planted a settle- 
 ment to which he gave the name of 
 Boonesborough. In 1774 a Virginian 
 force administered a crushing defeat to 
 the Northwestern Indians at Point 
 Pleasant, and forced them to retire be- 
 yond the Ohio. In 1776 by act of the 
 legislature, the country was organized 
 under the name of Kentucky co., v/ith 
 Harrodsburg as the county seat, and 
 with separate representatives in the 
 Virginia legislature. In 1782 a desperate 
 battle with the Indians was fought at 
 the Blue Lick Springs, resulting in the 
 defeat of the whites and the death of over 
 sixty of their men, about one-tenth of the 
 fighting population. By this time agita- 
 tion for separation from Virginia and 
 independent state government was well 
 under way. In 1784 and 1785 conven- 
 tions were held at Danville to discuss 
 the question but it was not until 1792 
 that Kentucky was admitted to the 
 union. 
 
 In April, 1792, a convention met at 
 Danville and adopted a constitution of 
 government; Isaac Shelby was chosen 
 as the first governor ; and, after a spirited 
 struggle, Frankfort was chosen as the 
 capital. In J\ily, 1799, a new constitu- 
 tion was adopted which made the gover- 
 nor and other state officers elective by 
 the people instead of by electors. In 
 the war of 1812 Kentucky took a dis- 
 tinguished part. Seven thousand vol- 
 unteers, far more than Kentucky’s 
 quota, offered their services, and her 
 troops fought gallantly in most of the 
 battles in the northern part of the United 
 States and in Canada, and about one- 
 fourth of Jackson’s army at New Orleans 
 consisted of Kentucky riflemen. In the 
 Mexican war, as in the war of 1812, 
 Kentucky took an honorable part. 
 Although her quota was but 2400, more 
 than 10,000 volunteered and Kentucky 
 troops participated in most of the battles 
 fought on Mexican soil. In 1850 a new 
 constitution was adopted which made 
 all judges and county officers elective. 
 
 Upon the outbreak of the civil war 
 Kentucky attempted to maintain a 
 position of neutrality, but the geo- 
 graphical position of the state rendered 
 the scheme impossible. The governor' 
 rejected President Lincoln’s call for 
 troops, and when the confederate and 
 union armies began to pour into the 
 state from opposite directions formal 
 demands were made for their with- 
 drawal. The union armies soon took 
 possession, and by 1862 the confederate 
 forces had evacuated the state. Ken- 
 tucky furnished more than 90,000 troops 
 to the union army, and 40,000 to the 
 confederacy. Kentucky escaped from 
 the carpetbag and military regimes, the 
 civil authority having been reestab- 
 lished in October, 1865. In national 
 elections Kentucky was a democratic 
 state from the date of its admission till 
 the formation of parties about 1828. It 
 voted for Clay in 1824 and for Jackson 
 in 1828, but from this time till 1852 it 
 was one of the strongest whig states. 
 It cast its vote for Buchanan in 1856 
 and for Bell in 1860. Since that time it 
 has been democratic with the exception 
 of the year 1896, when it cast 12 of its 
 electoral votes for Mr. McKinley and one 
 for Mr. Bryan. The seat of government 
 is Frankfort, a comparatively small 
 place; the oldest town is Lexington; but 
 the largest and most important is 
 Louisville. 
 
 At the head of the higher institutions 
 of learning are the Kentucky University 
 at Georgetown, the Kentucky State 
 Agricultural and Mechanical College at 
 Lexington, and a number of denomina- 
 tional colleges and universities. Pop. 
 1909, 2.2,50,000. 
 
 KENTUCKY ^ER, a river of the 
 United States, rises in the Cumberland 
 Mountains, traverses the state of Ken- 
 tucky, and after a course of 260 miles 
 flows into the Ohio at Carrollton. By a 
 series of improvements the lower portion 
 has been rendered continuously navig- 
 able for steamers. 
 
 KENTUCKY STATE AGRICUL- 
 TURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, 
 
 a non-sectarian, coeducational institution 
 at Lexington, Ky., established in 1865, 
 
 I and reorganized in 1880 under its present 
 
 title. It offers preparatory, collegiate, 
 engineering, scientific and agricultural 
 courses leading to the bachelor’s degree. 
 Connected with the college is an agri- 
 cultural experimental station, with a 
 farm of 48 acres. 
 
 KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY, an insti- 
 tution of higher learning chartered in 
 1837 as Bacon College at Georgetown, 
 Ky. It was removed to Harrodsburg in 
 1839, and in 1858 was reorganized as 
 Kentucky University under an amended 
 charter. It was consolidated with 
 Transylvania University founded in 
 1783 and took possession of that institu- 
 tion’s property at Lexington. The uni- 
 versity comprises four colleges; The 
 College of Liberal Arts, the College of 
 the Bible, and the Commercial College, 
 at Lexington; and the Medical Depart- 
 ment at Louisville. Of these the Com- 
 mercial and Liberal Arts departments 
 are open to women. The Kentucky 
 Agricultural and Mechanical College 
 was one of the colleges of the university 
 from 1865 until 1878, when it began an 
 independent existence. The university 
 is under the control of the Disciples of 
 Christ. 
 
 KE'OKUK, a town in Iowa, at the 
 foot of the lower rapids of the Mississippi 
 2 miles above the confluence of the Des 
 Moines. It is an important business 
 center, and has numerous flour and saw 
 mills, foundries, pork-packing establish- 
 ments, etc. Pop. 17,345. 
 
 KEPLER, Johann, a great German 
 mathematician and astronomer, born 
 1571, near Weil (Wiirtemberg), died at 
 Ratisbon 1630. He studied at the Uni- 
 versity of Tubingen, and in 1593 he was 
 appointed a teacher of mathematics at 
 Gratz (Styria). Here he devoted himself 
 with much ardor to the study of as- 
 tronomy; but in 1599 the religious per- 
 secutions commenced in Styria, and 
 Kepler, being a Protestant, gladly 
 accepted Tycho Brahe’s invitation to 
 Prague, to assist in the preparation of 
 the new astronomical tables, called the 
 
 Johann Kepler. 
 
 Rodolphine Tables. Tycho died in 1601, 
 and Kepler continued the work alone, 
 being appointed imperial mathematician 
 and astronomer. After twenty-five 
 years’ incessant tabor the tables were 
 published in 1627 at Ulm. Kepler had 
 
 become the happy possessor of all 
 
 Tycho’s papers, and the mass of obser 
 vations made by that astronomer during 
 twenty years, with a precision till then 
 unsurpassed, enabled Kepler to estab- 
 lish his three laws which have proved so 
 fruitful in the development of astronomi- 
 cal science. He wrote much, but the 
 
 A 
 
 
KEPLER’S LAWS 
 
 KEYBOARD 
 
 Vork that has rendered him immortal 
 is his New Astronomy, or Celestial 
 Physics delivered in Commentaries on 
 the Motions of Mars; Prague, 1609, folio. 
 
 KEPLER’S LAWS, in astronomy, 
 three laws discovered by Kepler on 
 which were founded Newton’s discover- 
 ies, as well as the whole modern theory 
 of the planets; — 1. Every planet de- 
 scribes an ellipse, the sun occupying its 
 focus. 2. The radius vector (line joining 
 the center of the sun with the center of 
 the planet) of each planet sweeps over 
 equal areas in equaltimes. 3. Thesquares 
 of the periodic times (the periods of 
 complete revolution round the sun) of 
 two planets are proportional to the cubes 
 of their mean distance^ from the sun. 
 These laws enabled Newton to deter- 
 mine the laws of the attraction of gravi- 
 tation. , 
 
 KEPP'LER, Joseph, American car- 
 toonist, was born in Vienna in 1838. 
 In 1868 he came to the United States 
 and went to St. Louis, where he estab- 
 lished the German Puck, the failure of 
 which caused him to move to New York, 
 where he was employed as caricaturist 
 for Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper 
 from 1872 to 1877. In 1875 he started 
 another German Puck, in partnership 
 with Adolph Schwartzman. The colored 
 political cartoons of this paper became 
 famous, and in 1877 the English edition 
 appeared. He was the first artist in- 
 troduce colored cartoons. Died, 1894. 
 
 KERGUELEN’S LAND, Kerguelen 
 Island (kerg'len), an uninhabited moun- 
 tainous island in the Indian Ocean about 
 midway between the Cape of Good Hope 
 and Australia, discovered by the French 
 navigator Kerguelen in 1772, annexed 
 by France in 1893. It is of irregular 
 shape, being much cut up by fjords and 
 inlets and surrounded by islets ; greatest 
 length about 100 miles, highest summit 
 6166 feet. The scenery is picturesque 
 and often magnificent; glaciers and 
 snow-fields occupy a considerable area. 
 The climate is wet and stormy, the tem- 
 perature never very high nor very low. 
 The island is only occasionally visited 
 by whalers and sealers. Cook visited it 
 in 1777, Ross in 1840, the Challenger 
 Expedition in 1874, and in 1874-75 
 parlies from Britain, Germany, and the 
 United States were stationed here to 
 observe the transit of Venus. 
 
 KERMAN', KIRMAN', or SIRGAN, a 
 town in Persia, capital of a province of 
 the same name. Pop. estimated at 40,- 
 000. The province of Kerman, in the 
 southeast of Persia, has an area of 50,000 
 sq. miles and a iiopulation of 600,000. 
 
 KERN, JOHN WORTH, born at 
 Alto, Ind., Dec. 20, 1849; elected Su- 
 preme Court Recorder in 1885; elected 
 state senator in 1892; Democratic can- 
 didate for governor in 1900 and 1904, 
 but defeated ; nominated for vice pres- 
 ident of the United States by Dem- 
 ocratic National Convention at Denver 
 in 1908. 
 
 KER'OSENE, an illuminating oil ob- 
 tained by refining crude petroleum. 
 The bulk of kerosene is supplied by the 
 United States and Russia. America con- 
 trolled the kerosene market for many 
 years, but Baku, on the Caspian, has 
 now become a formidable rival, not only 
 driving American kerosene out of the 
 
 P. E.— 45 
 
 Russian market, but also ' supplanting 
 it in other countries. See Petroleum. 
 
 KER'RY, a martime county of Ire- 
 land, on the southwest coast, in the 
 province of Munster; area, 1,185,918 
 acres, of which about one-tenth is under 
 tillage. The coast is much indented by 
 bays and inlets (Dingle Bay, Kenmare 
 river, etc.); the interior presents much 
 fine scenery, including the picturesque 
 lakes of Killarney. Iron ore, copper, and 
 lead exist, and a superior kind of slate 
 and flagstone are obtained in great 
 quantities in the island of Valentia. Pop. 
 165,331. 
 
 KER'SEYMERE, or CASSIMERE 
 
 (from the town Cashmere), the name 
 given to a light fabric woven from the 
 finest wools, principally in the west of 
 England, and at Elbeuf, France. It is 
 chiefly used for ladies’ jackets and gen- 
 tlemen’s gaiters. 
 
 KESTREL, or WINDHOVER, a species 
 of the falcon tribe, widely distributed 
 in Europe. It is remarkable for its habit 
 of remaining suspended in the air by 
 means of rapid wing motion, being at 
 this time on the look-out for mice, which 
 
 Kestrel. 
 
 are its chief food. At times it will also 
 eat small birds, and insects frequently. 
 It varies from 12 to 15 inches in length; 
 it nests in trees, also in old towers and 
 buildings, and often utilizes an old 
 crow’s nest. In winter it migrates to 
 North Africa and India. 
 
 KETCHUP, or CATSUP, a pungent 
 sauce employed as a seasoning for 
 gravies, meat and fish. It was formerly 
 prepared from mushrooms only, but 
 numerous other products are now used 
 for the same purpose. The best ketchup 
 is obtained from mushrooms, walnuts, 
 and tomatotes. 
 
 KETTLE-DRUM, a metallic kettle 
 made of copper with a head of vellum 
 lapped over an iron ring, and fitted out- 
 side of the kettle. By means of screws 
 the head may be tightened or loosened. 
 The drams are played by means of a 
 
 Kettle-drums. 
 
 mallet covered with felt or leather. By 
 means of the screws the instruments can 
 be tuned. In modern orchestras there 
 are generally three kettle-drums, tuned 
 in the tonic, dominant, and subdomi- 
 nant. The larger of the two drams is tuned 
 
 in F, the smaller in Bb. By means of a 
 pedal any interval within a perfect fifth 
 can be obtained ; so that the larger drum 
 can produce all tones between F and c, 
 and the smaller all tones between Bb and 
 f, giving the performer the possibility 
 of producing any chromatic interval 
 between F and f. The chief use of the 
 kettledrum is to emphasize rhythmic 
 figures. 
 
 KEWANEE (ke-wa'ne), a city in 
 Henry co.,' 111., 50 miles north by west 
 of Peoria; on the Chicago, Burlington 
 and Quincy railroad. Pop. 10,145. 
 
 KEWATIN (ke-wat'in), or KEEWAT- 
 
 IN, a large Canadian territory under the 
 jurisdiction of Manitoba, and stretching 
 from Manitoba and Ontario to Hudson’s 
 Bay. The country is not much opened 
 as yet; it is mostly densely wooded, and 
 in many parts swampy, but rich in 
 minerals, and game abounds. With a 
 view to open up a new route via Hud- 
 son’s Bay a railway through the territory 
 has been begun. 
 
 KEW-KIANG, or KIU-KIANG, a town 
 and seaport of China, province Kiangsi, 
 on the south bank of the Yang-tse- 
 kiang. The port was opened to foreign 
 trade in 1862, when the population was 
 
 IO, 000; it is now over 50,000. 
 
 KEY, or KEY-NOTE, in music, the 
 principal or fundamental note or tone, to 
 which the whole of a movement has a 
 certain relation, to which all its modula- 
 tions are referred and accommodated, 
 and in which it generally both begins 
 and ends. See Music. 
 
 KEY, Francis Scott, American lawyer, 
 was born in Frederick co., Md , 1780. 
 During the attack of the British on Bal- 
 timore in 1814, he watched the progress 
 of the bombardment of Fort Henry, the 
 defense of Baltimore from the British 
 ship, to which he had been sent on an 
 errand under a flag of truce, during the 
 night, and in the morning, seeing the 
 Stars and Stripes still waving trium- 
 phantly, composed his famous song. 
 The Star Spangled Banner. This was 
 at once printed and became almost in- 
 stantly popular, and is to-day perhaps 
 the favorite heroic song of America. He 
 died in 1843. 
 
 KEYBOARD, a frame containing a set 
 of keys, placed in the front part of the 
 pianoforte or organ. The natural keys 
 are of wood covered with white ivory 
 and the raised keys, touched to produce 
 sharps and flats, are blocks of ebony or 
 other hard black wood. The earliest 
 keyboard of which we have record was 
 that of the hydraulic or water organ, a 
 Greek invention of the second century. 
 In this the keys, eighteen in number, 
 were all level. Strange to say, the prin- 
 ciple of the balanced key, which had to 
 be rediscovered in the 17th century, was 
 then well known. Our modern chromatic 
 keyboard was in use as early as 1361, 
 though the keys were so large that they 
 had to be struck with the fist. Their 
 width was, however, gradually lessened, 
 and in the spinet made by Pasi, of 
 Modena, in 1490, and in the organ of 
 Saint Blaise at Brunswick (1499), the 
 compass was approximately that of our 
 present keyboard. In most of the early 
 instruments the natural notes are black 
 and the sharps and flats white. The 
 principal objection to all rearrangement 
 
KEY-STONE 
 
 KIDNEYS 
 
 is the fact that there is a mass of beau- 
 tiful music, written for the modern 
 pianoforte, which could not be adapted 
 to an improved instrument. 
 
 KEY-STONE, in architecture, the last 
 put in stone of an arch or vault, which 
 locks or keys the whole together, whence 
 the name. See Arch. 
 
 KEY WEST, a small, low-lying coral 
 island south of Flordia, 60 miles s.w. of 
 Cape Sable, and comm.anding the en- 
 trance to the Florida Passage and the 
 Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 KEY WEST CITY, a port of entry 
 and militarystation of the United States, 
 has a safe and accessible harbor de- 
 fended by a fort. Pop. 20,406. 
 
 KHAN, a title given by Tartars, Per- 
 sians, and other eastern nations to 
 princes, chieftains, commanders, and 
 governors, but now generally reserved 
 for governors of cities and provinces, 
 these provinces being called khanates. 
 Khan is also another term for caravan- 
 sary, of which there are two kinds; one 
 for pilgrims and travelers, with gratui- 
 tous entry, another, more commodious 
 and with locked apartments, for traders, 
 subject to a nominal charge. 
 
 KHANDESH (khan-dash'), a district 
 of British India, Bombay presidency; 
 area, 10,907 sq. miles; pop. 1,460,851. 
 
 KHARKOFF (har-kof'), or CHAR- 
 KOV, a government of the south of 
 Russia; area, 21,041 sq.miles; pop. 2,- 
 243,643. The capital, Kharkoff, has a 
 considerable trade in cattle, grain, etc. 
 and manufactures beet-sugar, soap, 
 candles, and leather. A bed of coal of 
 immense extent in its vicinity is doing 
 much to foster industries. The Univer- 
 sity of Kharkoff is an important educa- 
 tional center. Pop. 195,000. 
 
 KHARTOUM (har-tom), a town in the 
 eastern Soudan, on the left bank of the 
 Blue Nile, near its junction with the 
 White Nile. Having sprung up since 
 1830, it became the capital and largest 
 town in the Egyptian Soudan, and a 
 great emporium of trade. It was the 
 scene of Gordon’s heroic defense and 
 death in fight against the Mahdists in 
 1885. Latterly the adjacent Omdurman 
 supplanted it, but it is again reviving, 
 and has become the seat of the Gordon 
 College, for the Soudanese. 
 
 KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS, an ad- 
 ministrative district of Assam; area, 
 6157 sq. miles; pop. 197,904. 
 
 KHAT. See Catha. 
 
 KHATMANDU (khat-man-do'), capi- 
 tal of the Kingdom of Nepdl, in Northern 
 India. Pop. about 50,000. 
 
 KHEDIVE (ke-dev'), a word signify- 
 ing lord, the title of the rulers of Egypt, 
 originally granted by a firman from 
 the sultan in 1866 to Ismail Pasha, then 
 Vali or viceroy of Egypt. 
 
 KHERSON (her'son), or CHERSON, a 
 maritime government of Southern Rus- 
 sia; area, 27,523 sq.miles; pop. 2,732,832. 
 
 KHIVA (he'va), or CHIVA, semi- 
 independent khanate of Central Asia, 
 forming part of Turkestan. The total 
 population is about 500,000. — The capi- 
 tal, Khiva, lies on an alluvial flat at the 
 junction of two canals, 50 miles west of 
 the west bank of the Amu. Pop. about 
 20 , 000 . 
 
 KHOKAND, or KOKAND, formerly 
 indej)endent khanate of Central Asia, 
 
 but since 1876 forming the province of 
 Fergh3,na in Russian Turkestan. Its 
 present area is 29,650 sq. miles. The 
 capital, Khokand, is situated on both 
 sides of the Sir. Pop. 82,054. 
 
 KHORASAN (ho-ra-san'), a province 
 of Persia, bordering on Afghanistan; 
 area, 140,000 sq. miles; pop. 860,000. 
 
 KHUZISTAN (hu-zis-tan'), or ARAB- 
 ISTAN, a province of Persia; area, 38,600 
 sq. miles, pop. 500,000. 
 
 KHYBER (khi'ber), a famous moun- 
 tain pass between Indiaand Afghanistan, 
 the chief gate to the latter country from 
 Peshawur, by means of which India has 
 been invaded from time to time, and the 
 scene of severe conflicts in the recent 
 Afghan war. Its position renders it of 
 the greatest importance to British India, 
 and it is now under the jurisdiction of 
 the lieut .-governor of the Punjab. It is 
 3373 feet above sea-level, about 50 miles 
 long, and inclosed on each side by preci- 
 pices from 600 to 1200 feet high. 
 
 KIANG-SI, one of the central prov- 
 inces of China; area, 72,176 sq. miles; 
 pop. 24,534,118. 
 
 KIANG-SU, the richest of the central 
 provs. of China; area, 44,500 sq. miles; 
 pop. 20,905,171. The chief port is 
 Nanking. 
 
 KIBIT'KA, a tent of the nomad tribes 
 of the Kirghiz Tartars. The frame con- 
 sists of twelve stakes, each 5^ feet high, 
 set up in a circle 12 feet in diameter, on 
 which is laid a wheel-shaped roof-frame, 
 consisting also of twelve stakes, united 
 at one extremity but free at the other, 
 so that the stakes radiate like spokes. 
 
 Kibitka or Kirghiz tent. 
 
 The whole is covered with thick cloth, 
 made of sheep’s wool, with the excep- 
 tion of an aperture in the center for the 
 escape of smoke. The door is formed 
 by the removal of a stake. — The name 
 is also given to a carriage generally with- 
 out springs, used by all classes in Russia, 
 and which is covered by some kind of 
 cover to afford protection from the 
 weather. 
 
 KIDD, William, a celebrated pirate, 
 known as Captain Kidd, born about the 
 middle of the 17th century, and origi- 
 nally a shipmaster of New York. In 1696 
 he was appointed captain of the ship 
 Adventure Galley of thirty guns by 
 William III., for the suppression of 
 piracy. In America he collected some 
 150 recruits, sailed for the East Indies; 
 took to pirating in the Indian Ocean, 
 and returned with his booty to New 
 York in 1698. He was arrested and 
 arraigned in England for piracy; but the 
 charge could not be brought home to 
 him ; he was then tried for the murder of 
 one of his crew, sentenced and hanged. 
 
 in 1701. The story that he buried im- 
 mense treasure on the shores of Long 
 Island Sound, or the banks of the Hud- 
 son river, gave rise to one of Edgar 
 Allen Poe’s tales. 
 
 KIDNAPPING, the act of getting 
 forcible and illegal possession of the 
 person, an offense of varied degree, but 
 always punishable by fine or imprison- 
 ment. 
 
 KIDNEY-BEANS. See French Beans. 
 
 KIDNEYS, two of the abdominal 
 viscera, in the form of two glands, the 
 function of which is to secrete the urine 
 from the blood. They are situated one 
 on each side of the vertebral column at 
 
 e 
 
 SECTION OF HUMAN KIDNEY. 
 
 a, Supra-renal capsule, resting above the 
 kidney, b. Cortex or cortical portion of kid- 
 ney. cc. Medullary portion, consisting of 
 cones, d d. Apices of the pyramids, promoting 
 into their corresponding calyces eee. /.Pelvis. 
 g. Ureter: 
 
 the back part of the abdominal cavity 
 on a level with the last dorsal and two 
 upper lumbar vertebrae. The right 
 kidney lies at a slightly lower level than 
 the left. They are of the well-known 
 “kidney-bean” shape. The concave 
 side of each kidney is turned inward 
 and toward the spine. The depression 
 on the inner side is termed the hilum, 
 and from this notch the excretory duct 
 or ureter proceeds, while the blood- 
 vessels of the kidney enter and leave 
 the gland at this point. The weight of 
 each male kidney is about 5 oz.; those 
 of the female weigh each somewhat less. 
 Each gland is covered by a thin sheath 
 of fibrous tissue, which has no extension 
 into the substance of the organ. The 
 internal substance is divided into an 
 outer deeper-colored cortical portion or 
 cortex, and an inner hghter-colored or 
 medullary portion. Both portions con- 
 sist of tubes (tubuli uriniferi), which run 
 a very tortuous course in the cortex, 
 but continue as straight tubes in the 
 medulla. The latter is formed into a 
 series of conical fleshy masses, about 
 twelve in number, called pyramids of 
 Malpighi. These project into a cavity 
 formed at the hilum by the expansion 
 of the excretory duct, and called the 
 pelvis of the kidney. Prolongations of 
 the expanded ureter, called the calyces, 
 invest the apices of the pyramids and , 
 dip in between them like funnel-shaped { 
 tubes. Now in the cortex the end of a ' 
 tubule is dilated into a sac or capsule; 
 into this a small branch of the renal 
 artery enters, and then breaks up into 
 a tuft of capillary blood vessels. This 
 tuft is called the glomerulus, and it and 
 its capsule form a Malpighian corpuscle 
 
KIEL 
 
 KINETOSCOPE 
 
 about lioth of an inch in aiameter. So 
 that a tubule, beginning at its dilated 
 end, runs a tortuous course in the cor- 
 tex, reaching the medulla becomes 
 straight, and finally opens into the 
 
 E elvis on the apex of a pyramid. The 
 lood vessels of the kidney consist of 
 the renal artery, derived from the aorta, 
 and the renal vein. The branches of the 
 artery enter the gland at the hilum, and 
 
 C ass into the substance of the gland 
 etween the papillae. Finally they 
 reach the cortical portion, and therein 
 subdivide into minute vessels, which 
 form the glomeruli of the Malpighian 
 bodies. The renal veins leave the kid- 
 ney also at the hilum, and pour their 
 contents into the great main vein of the 
 lower parts of the body (vena cava in- 
 ferior). The nervous supply of the kid- 
 ney is derived from the renal plexus, 
 and from the solar plexus or large sym- 
 pathetic mass of the abdomen. The 
 separation from the blood of the con- 
 stituents of the urine is accomplished 
 in the glomeruli, and by the uriniferous 
 tubules, the former straining off the 
 watery parts of the blood, while the 
 latter remove the more solid matters. 
 Gradually, the secreted urine passes 
 through the tubules, into the pelvis of 
 the kidney, thence into the ureters, 
 which in turn open into the bladder be- 
 hind its orifice or neck. The urine is 
 constantly entering the bladder, drop 
 by drop. 
 
 Inflammation of the kidneys is 
 known as nephritis. Occasionally con- 
 cretions of mineral substances accumu- 
 late in the kidney, and cause, in their 
 passage from the gland and through the 
 ureter, most excruciating pain. 
 
 KIEL (kel), a town of Prussia, in 
 Schleswig-Holstein, beautifully situated 
 
 on a deep bay of the Baltic, 54 miles 
 north by east from Hamburg. The most 
 notable buildings are the university, 
 and the royal palace (containing the 
 university library). As a fortified naval 
 port of Germany, with an imperial 
 dockyard, and as the station of the 
 greater part of the imperial fleet, Kiel 
 is rapidly rising in importance. Besides 
 ship building, it has iron foundries, 
 engineering works, oil mills, tan works, 
 tobacco works', etc. By the great ship- 
 
 canal it is now connected with the Elbe. 
 Pop. 121,790. 
 
 KIELCE (ki-eltse), a government 
 and town in Russian Poland ; area of the 
 former, 3897 sq. miles; pop. 763,746. 
 The capital, Kielce, is an ancient town 
 about 50 miles northeast of Crocow. 
 Pop. 23,189. 
 
 KIEV (ki-ev'), or Kieff (ki-ef'), a gov- 
 ernment of s.w. Russia; area, 19,691 sq. 
 miles; pop. 3,576,125. Kieff, the cap- 
 ital, is picturesquely situated on the 
 right bank of the Dnieper, which is here 
 navigable, and crossed by a suspension 
 bridge half a mile in length, one of the 
 finest in Europe. Its university is one 
 of the most important of the empire. 
 The connection by rail with Odessa and 
 Kursk has done much to stimulate the 
 trade of the town. Pop. 249,830. 
 
 KILAUEA, an active volcano in 
 Hawaii, one of the Sandwich Islands. 
 It has an oval crater, 9 miles in circum- 
 ference, with a lake of red and boiling 
 lava at the bottom, over 1000 feet below 
 the crater’s mouth. 
 
 KILDARE', an inland county of Ire- 
 land, in the province of Leinster; 
 length, 40 miles; breadth, 27 miles; 
 area, 418,496 acres. Pop. 63,469. The 
 town of Kildare stands on an eminence 
 30 miles s.w. from Dublin. 
 
 KIL'IMA-NJARO (the Great Moun- 
 tain), a double-peaked, snow-clad moun- 
 tain of Africa, in the territory of the 
 German East African Company, about 
 100 miles inland from the port of Mom- 
 basa, on the Suaheli coast. The highest 
 peak, estimated at 19,270 feet, is the 
 highest known in the African continent. 
 
 KILKEN'NY, a city, parliamentary 
 borough, and county of itself, in Ireland, 
 locally in Kilkenny county, of which it 
 is the capital, 73 miles s.w. from Dublin, 
 delightfully situated on both sides of the 
 Nore. Pop. 13,242. The county, which 
 is in the province of Leinster, has an area 
 of 796 sq. miles. Pop. 79,159. 
 
 KILLAR'NEY, a market town of Ire- 
 land, in the county of Kerry, in the 
 midst of beautiful scenery, within a 
 mile of the celebrated lakes to which it 
 gives its name. These lakes are three 
 in number, the lower 4^ miles long by 2 
 broad, the middle IJ miles long and i 
 broad, the upper 3 miles long. They 
 are interspersed with wooded islands, 
 and the lofty banks are also richly 
 wooded. In summer Killarney is 
 thronged with visitors. Pop. 5656. 
 
 KILMAR'NOCK, a parliamentary and 
 municipal burgh of Scotland, in the 
 county of Ayr, 19 miles s.w. from Glas- 
 gow. Pop. 34,165. 
 
 KILN, a structure of brick or stone 
 used for drying, baking, burning, an- 
 nealing and calcining various sub- 
 stances and articles, such as corn, hops, 
 malt, cement, limestone, iron ore, glass, 
 bricks, pottery, etc. The construction 
 of kilns naturally varies with the special 
 object for which they are designed, but 
 the same principle is involved in all, 
 that is, the generation of ample and 
 regular heat with the least expenditure 
 of fuel. 
 
 KILOGRAMME, a French weight con- 
 taining 1000 grammes — 2.2 lbs. Simi- 
 larly kilometer — 1000 meters or 0.621 
 miles. See Metrical Sytsem. 
 
 KILOGRAMMETER, a unit employed 
 
 in the measurement of mechanical work; 
 it is the mechanical work expended in 
 raising a body whose weight is 1 kilo- 
 gramme (2.2046 lbs.) through the verti- 
 cal height of 1 meter (3.2809 feet), and 
 is equal to 7.233 foot-pounds. See Foot- 
 pound. 
 
 KIM'BERLEY, the capital of Griqua- 
 land West, Cape Colony, and the center 
 of the South African diamond fields. 
 It is connected by rail with Port Eliza- 
 beth and Cape Town. There are four 
 chief mines — -Kimberley, Dutoitspan, 
 De Beer’s and Bultfontein. It success- 
 fully withstood a four months’ siege by 
 the Boers in 1899-1900. Pop. 28,643. 
 
 KIN. See Descent. 
 KINCAR'DINESHIRE, a maritime 
 county on the east coast of Scotland; 
 area, 248,284 acres. Pop. 40,918. 
 
 KIN'DERGARTEN, a German word 
 signifying “children’s garden,’’ and the 
 name given to a system of infant educa- 
 tion introduced by Friedrich Froebel, 
 who was largely assisted in its propaga- 
 tion by the Baroness Marenholz-Biilow. 
 The system is intended to bring out the 
 moral and intellectual capabilities of 
 very young children chiefly by observa- 
 tion; pictures, toys, tools, etc., suitable 
 for the purpose, being introduced, so as 
 to convert schooling into play, which 
 according to Froebel is the child’s most 
 serious business. The first kindergarten 
 was opened in 1840 at Blankenburg 
 (Prussia), and like most other innova- 
 tions met at first with little encourage- 
 ment, and even with opposition, but it 
 gradually gained a footing in the best 
 educated countries, and the progress in 
 recent years has been great and rapid. 
 Froebel Societies for the training of 
 teachers exist now in various countries. 
 The system is most widely spread in the 
 United States and Belgium, while 
 Switzerland, France, and Austria are 
 grafting it on their elementary schools. 
 
 KINEMAT'ICS, a branch of mathe- 
 matics which treats of the motions of 
 bodies Independently of the forces which 
 produce them. 
 
 KINET'ICS, that branch of the science 
 of dynamics which treats of forces caus- 
 ing motion in bodies. See Dynamics. 
 
 KINETOSCOPE, a device for repro- 
 ducing movable pictures from photo- 
 graphs, invented by Thomas A. Edison, 
 in 1894. In shape it is a cabinet form, 
 and the pictures are viewed from above 
 through suitable lenses. The pictures 
 come within the field of vision on a 
 transparent film beneath which is an 
 electric incandescent light. The result 
 is an optical illusion, in that a series of 
 pictures pass before the eye so rapidly 
 that the effect is that of continuous 
 motion. Thus a kinetoscopic view of a 
 boxing match shows theboxers as though 
 the observer were really looking at the 
 originals through the small end of an 
 opera glass. 
 
 The original protograph is taken by 
 means of a specially arranged camera. 
 In this camera the shutter is a slotted 
 disk which is revolved by mechanism so 
 as to open and shut 42 times a second. 
 Back of the shutter is a continuous nar- 
 row film about two inches in width. 
 This is arranged to run from one roller to 
 another, so that one roller is giving off 
 the film while the other is winding it up. 
 
KING 
 
 1 
 
 KINGFISHER 
 
 The roller is such that a new sensitive 
 area is exposed at every opening of the 
 slotted shutter. In other words, 42 fields 
 are exposed to the light and receive the 
 image. This film is developed, and from 
 that negative a continuous positive is 
 printed by the usual photographic proc- 
 ess with the modifications necessary to 
 enable the photographer to handle the 
 long, ribbonlike film. In the kinetoscope 
 proper, this film passes before the object- 
 glass at such a speed that lifelike motions 
 are faithfully reproduced. The modifi- 
 cations of the kinetoscope for use in 
 stereopticon exhibits are the cinemato- 
 graph, veriscope, and vitascope. In 
 these devices the ribbonlike film is made 
 to pass before a calcium or electric arc- 
 liglit. A series of photographs are en- 
 larged by means of the ordinary stere- 
 opticon lenses, and thrown upon a sheet 
 in a theater or hall, giving lifesize, life- 
 like continuous pictures. Such scenes 
 as the charge of a cavalry squadron, 
 prize fights, stage dancing, boxing, 
 horses running, fast express trains, etc., 
 have been reproduced by the kineto- 
 scope. 
 
 KING, a person invested with supreme 
 power over a state, nation, or people, 
 whether tins power be acquired by in- 
 heritance, election, or otherwise. It is 
 dilHcult to define what essentially con- 
 si itutes a king, or to say in what he 
 differs from an emperor. 
 
 KING, Charles, American soldier and 
 novelist, W'as born at .Albany, N. Y., in 
 1S44. He served in the artillery and 
 cavalry; was retired as captain for 
 wounds received in action (1879); was 
 inspector and instructor of the Wiscon- 
 sin National Guard (1882-89), colonel 
 (1890), adjutant-general (1895), and 
 brigadier-general, U. S. V. (1898). He 
 afterward served in the Philippines. 
 Among his best known books are 
 Famous and Decisive Battles, Cam- 
 paigning with Crook, Between the Lines, 
 The Colonel’s Daughter, A War-Time 
 Wooing, Kitty’s Conquest, A Tame 
 Surrender, Foes in Ambush, Fort Wayne, 
 An Apache Princess, Medal of Honor. 
 
 KING, Clarence, American geologist, 
 was born in 1842. In 1863 he started on 
 a trip across the continent. He arrived 
 in California and became attached as 
 assistant to the Geological Survey. 
 His investigations included the deter- 
 mination of the age of the gold-bearing 
 rocks, surveys of Mount-Whitney and 
 the Yosemite Valley, and the collection 
 of evidence in support of the glaciation 
 of the Sierras. In 1879, he was appointed 
 the first director of the United States 
 geological survey. The most important 
 of Ids publications are the following. 
 Mountaineering in the Sierras, On the 
 Discovery of Actual Glaciers on the 
 Mountains of the Pacific Slope, Syste- 
 matic Geology, and The Age of the 
 Earth. He died in 1901. 
 
 KING, Rufus, American political 
 leader, born in 1755, at Scarborough, 
 Maine. In 1783 he took his seat in the 
 general court of Massachusetts. He be- 
 came a member of the Continental 
 congress in December, 1784, being re- 
 elected in 1785 and 1786. He took a 
 prominent part in the proceedings of the 
 convention of 1787 which framed the 
 federal constitution, and in the Massa- 
 
 chusetts convention called to decide 
 upon the adoption or rejection of that 
 instrument he was instrumental in 
 securing ratification. In 1786 he re- 
 moved to New York City, where he was 
 elected to the state assembly in 1789 
 and in the same year was elected to the 
 United States senate, where he at once 
 
 took a high place as a leader of the 
 federalists. King was re-elected in 1795 
 and in 1796 ha accepted from President 
 Washington the responsible post of 
 Minister to England. He distinguished 
 himself highly iu the diplomatic service, 
 in which he continued until 1803. As the 
 federal candidate for vice-president he 
 received fourteen votes. Again in 1808 
 he was the federalist candidate for the 
 same office, receiving 47 votes. In 1813 
 and in 1819 he was elected to the United 
 States senate. In 1825-26 he was again 
 minister to England. He died in 1827. 
 
 KING, William Rufus, American 
 statesman, was born in Sampson co., 
 N. C., in 1786. In 1806 he was elected to 
 the state legislature, serving until his 
 election, as a democrat, to the United 
 States congress ‘n 1810. In 1818, he 
 settled as a cotton planter in Dallas 
 CO., Ala., was a member of the conven- 
 tion which drew up the constitution for 
 the proposed state in that year, and 
 after its admission in 1819 took his seat 
 in the United States senate as one of the 
 first senators from Alabama. He re- 
 mained in the senate by re-election until 
 1844, serving after 1838 as president pro 
 tempore. In 1844 he accepted from 
 President Tyler an appointment as 
 minister to France. In 1846 he was re- 
 turned to the senate to fill an unexpired 
 term, was re-elected for a full term, and 
 served until 1853, presiding over the 
 body in the last three years as president 
 pro tempore. In 1852 King, who had 
 been a candidate for the democratic 
 nomination for the vice-presidency ever 
 si^ce 1840, was finally named for that 
 officelonthe Piercetick8t,and was elected. 
 Before the inauguration, however, his 
 health began to fail rapidly, and he went 
 to Havana, Cuba, where by special act 
 of congress he was allowed to take the 
 
 oath of office on March 4, 1853. He 
 never entered upon the duties of his 
 office, however, but died shortly after 
 his return to Alabama in the April 
 following. 
 
 KING-CRAB, a peculiar genus of crabs 
 included in the order Xiphosura (sword- 
 tailed), of the class Crustacea. They are 
 found on the coasts of northern and 
 tropical America and the Antilles, in the 
 eastern Archipelago and Japan. The 
 head resembles a broad horse-shoe 
 shaped shield, with two pairs of eyes 
 upon the upper surface, the second pair 
 being the larger and forming the true 
 
 King-crab. 
 
 visual organs. The mouth opens on the 
 lower surface, and around it are six 
 pairs of limbs with spinous joints at- 
 tached. A second shield somewhat 
 hexagonal in shape covers the abdominal 
 part, and beneath it are tlie gills, or 
 branchiae, borne upon five pairs of ap- 
 pendages which represent the .abdominal 
 feet of the crab. The average length is 
 about 2 feet. These crabs are destitute of 
 swimming powers, and if placed on their 
 backs they appear, like turtles, unable to 
 recover their natural position. The 
 commonest species is the Limulus 
 polyphemus, found chiefly on the North 
 American coasts. The upper surface of 
 the tail, as in other species, bears numer- 
 ous spines. The Limulus moluccanus, of 
 the Moluccas, possesses a strongly 
 serrated tail. This latter species is 
 largely eaten. 
 
 KINGFISHER, the name of a family 
 of insessorial birds distinguished by the 
 elongated stoutly formed, tetragonal 
 bill, broad at the base, and terminating 
 in a finely acute point; tarsi short, feet 
 strong, toes somewhat elongated. The 
 common kingfisher has the upper part 
 
 The European kingfisher. 
 
 of the head, the sides of the neck, and 
 the coverts of the wings green, spotted 
 with blue. The back is dark green in 
 color, the lower back and rump being 
 of a bright blue. The throat is white, 
 
KINGLAKE 
 
 KISSINGEN 
 
 and the under surface of the body a pale- 
 brown color. It frequents the banks of 
 rivers, and, perched on the bough of a 
 tree, watches for fish. When the prey is 
 perceived it dives into the water, secures 
 the fish with its feet, and carries it to 
 land, where it kills the prey and swal- 
 lows it entire. It is about 7 inches in 
 length. This bird has been greatly cele- 
 brated in ancient poetic and legendary 
 lore, and is the subject of many super- 
 stitions. The American kingfisher is of a 
 bluish-slate color, with an iron-colored 
 band on the breast, while the head 
 bears a crest of feathers. The spotted 
 kingfisher is a native of the Himalayas, 
 where it is called the fish-tiger. A large 
 Australian species is known as the laugh- 
 ing-jackass (which see). 
 
 KINGLAKE, Alexander William, an 
 English historian, born 1811, and edu- 
 cated at Eton and Cambridge. The first 
 volume of his Invasion of the Crimea 
 appeared in 1863, and at once estab- 
 lished his reputation as a brilliant his- 
 torian; seven volumes followed at in- 
 tervals, the eighth and completing vol- 
 ume in 1887, and they form together a 
 magnificent record of this war. He died 
 in 1891. 
 
 KING OF (or at) ARMS, in England, 
 an officer whose business is to direct the 
 heralds, preside at their chapters, and 
 have the jurisdiction of arms. There are 
 three kings of arms in England — Garter, 
 Clarencieux, Norroy, and an officer 
 styled Bath King of Arms, attached to 
 the order of the Bath. There are also 
 Lion King at Arms for Scotland, and 
 Ulster King of Arms for Ireland. 
 
 KINGS, Books of, form two books in 
 the English and one book in the Hebrew 
 canon of the Old Testament. Besides 
 their own unity the books of Kings are 
 closely connected with first and second 
 of Samuel, and, following these, form 
 the third and fourth in what is known 
 as the four books of the kingdom. From 
 internal evidence it would seem that 
 these were written by a series of con- 
 temporaries, with additions and glosses 
 made by a later writer. The history, 
 as related in the books of Kings, begins 
 with the close of David’s reign, and 
 carries the events onward to the cap- 
 ture of Jerusalem and the destruction of 
 the temple. This embraces, according 
 to the received chronology, a period of 
 upward of 400 years (b.c. ipi5-588), 
 and includes the history of both the 
 kingdoms of Judah and Israel. This 
 chronology, however, is unsatisfactory, 
 and has been much disputed. In com- 
 paring these books with the Chronicles 
 i't is found that while the former de- 
 scribes the divided kingdom of Israel 
 and Judah, the latter is occupied almost 
 exclusively with Judah ; and further, that 
 the books of Kings seem to have been 
 compiled under prophetic, and the 
 Chronicles under priestly influence. 
 
 KING’S COUNTY, an inland county, 
 Ireland, province of Leinster; area, 
 493,985 acres, of which 351,495 are 
 arable. Pop. 60,129. 
 
 KINGSLEY, Rev. Charles, English 
 clergyman, novelist and poet, born in 
 1819, died 1875. In 1853 was published 
 Hypatia, and in 1855 Westward Ho, 
 both brilliant historical novels, the 
 former dealing with the early Christian 
 
 church, the later with the South Ameri- 
 can adventurers of the Elizabethan era. 
 Among his other well-known works are 
 Two Years Ago, Hereward the Last of 
 the English, Glaucus, and The Water 
 Babies. 
 
 KINGSTON, a city of Ontario, Canada. 
 The trade is very considerable, and the 
 harbor is accessible to ships of large size. 
 Kingston was founded in 1783, on the 
 ground formerly occupied by Fort 
 Frontenac. It was incorporated in 1838. 
 The government penitentiary is situated 
 here. Pop. 19,043. 
 
 KINGSTON, the capital of the island 
 of Jamaica, on the south coast, with 
 straight and regular streets and houses 
 generally of brick. The principal build- 
 ings are the old parish church, town-hall, 
 Jamaica Institute, hospital, court-house. 
 
 theater, penitentiary, barracks, and jail. 
 The harbor, which is 6 miles long by 2 
 miles wide, is separated from the sea by 
 a narrow slip of low land, and forms an 
 excellent anchorage for vessels of any 
 size. It is defended by several forts. 
 Pop. 48,504. See the map. 
 
 Kingston, a city in New York state, 
 90 miles north of New York, on the 
 Hudson, by which and by railroad and 
 canal it carries on a large trade. It 
 has carriage factories, iron-foundries 
 and machine shops, cement manufac- 
 tory, etc. Pop. 27,175. 
 
 KING-VULTURE, the Sarcorhampus 
 Papa of the intertropical regions of 
 America. It is about 2J feet in length, 
 and upwards of 5 feet across the ex- 
 panded wings. The other vultures are 
 said to stand quietly by until this, their 
 monarch, has finished his repast. 
 
 KING-WOOD, a Brazilian wood from 
 a leguminous tree. It is beautifully 
 streaked with violet tints or West Indian 
 ebony, and is used in turning and small 
 cabinet-work. Called also Violet-wood. 
 
 Kinkajou. 
 
 KINK'AJOU, a plantigrade carnivor- 
 ous mammal of northern South America, 
 
 allied to the bear family. In habits it is 
 omnivorous, nocturnal, and docile when 
 captured. In shape it resembles the 
 lemur, the legs are short, fur close and 
 woolly, tail long and prehensile. Being 
 fond of honey they make frequent forays 
 upon the nests of bees. 
 
 KIOSK', a Turkish word signifying a 
 kind of open pavilion or summer-house, 
 supported by pillars. It has been intro- 
 duced from the east into the gardens, 
 parks, etc., of Western Europe. 
 
 KIO'TO, a large city of Japan, in the 
 island of Hondo, formerly the residence 
 of the Mikado, and the ecclesiastical 
 capital of Japan. It is the center of 
 learning and of artistic manufactures. 
 Pop. 317,270. 
 
 KIPLING, Rudyard, English writer, 
 born in Bombay, 1865; After an educa- 
 tion in England he returned to India, 
 became connected with the press, and 
 soon became known by short stories con- 
 tributed to Indian periodicals. In 1890 
 some of these were brought prominently 
 before the British public, and his reputa- 
 tion was at once secured. Indian and 
 Anglo-Indian life, and especially the life 
 of the European soldier in India, are 
 depicted by him with much graphic 
 power and originality. Among his writ- 
 ings are Soldiers Three, Plain Tales 
 from the Hills, The Light that Failed, 
 Many Inventions, The Jungle Book, 
 Second Jungle Book, Kim, The Days’ 
 Work, Stalky & Co., etc. He has written 
 a good deal of verse, including Depart- 
 mental Ditties, and Barrack-room Bal- 
 lads. 
 
 KIRCHHOFF (kirh'hof), Robert, Ger- 
 man physicist, born 1824, died 1887. 
 He devoted his attention to the sub- 
 jects of heat, elasticity, and magnetism. 
 Conjointly with Bunsen he discovered 
 the spectroscope. 
 
 KIRGHIZ, Kirghis(kir'gez), a nomadic 
 Mongol-Tartar race, numbering in its 
 various branches about 3,000,000, and 
 inhabiting the steppes that extend from 
 the lower Volga and the Caspian Sea in 
 the west to the Altai and Thian-Shan 
 Mountains in the east, and from the Sea 
 of Aral and the Syr Daria in the south to 
 tlie Tobol and Irtish on the north. 
 
 KIRIN, a division or province and 
 town of the Chinese territory Manchuria. 
 The town, also called Kirinoola or Girin, 
 has a pop. of 120,000. 
 
 KIRKCALDY (kir-ka'di) , known as the 
 “Lang Toun,” a royal and parliamentary 
 burgh and seaport, Scotland, county of 
 Fife, on the north shore of the Firth of 
 Forth. Pop. of royal burgh, 34,063] 
 pari, burgh, 22,346. 
 
 KIRKCUDBRIGHT (kir-k6ffiri),'Stew- 
 artry of, a maritime county, in the 
 south of Scotland; bounded north by 
 county Ayr, west by Wigtown, north 
 and east by Dumfries, and south by the 
 Solway Firth and Wigtown Bay; area, 
 582,982, acres. Pop. 39,407. — The county 
 town is a royal burgh. Pop. 2386. 
 
 KISH'INEV, or KISHENAU, a town 
 of Russia, capital of the government of 
 Bessarabia, on the Byk, a tributary of 
 the Dniester. Pop. about 130,000. 
 
 KISSINGEN (kis'ing-en) , a watering- 
 place of Bavaria, on the Saale, 30 miles 
 north of Wurzburg. The springs, which 
 are cold, and all saline, contain a large 
 quantity of [carbonic acid gas, and 
 
KITCHENER 
 
 KNEIPP 
 
 are used both internally and as 
 baths. 
 
 KITCHENER, Sir Horatio Herbert, 
 Viscount Kitchener or Khartum, British 
 general, born 1850; educated at the 
 Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; 
 entered the Royal Engineers 1871; en- 
 gaged in survey of Palestine 1874-78; 
 surveyed Cyprus 1880-82; commanded 
 the Egyptian cavalry in 1882-84, and 
 served in the Soudan campaign of 1883- 
 85; was adjutant-general and second in 
 command of the Egyptian army 1888- 
 92; and in 1892 succeeded Sir Francis 
 Grenfell as Sirdar. As such he recovered 
 Dongola (1896), and by the victories of 
 the Atbara and Omdurman (1898) re- 
 gained for Egypt the lost southern prov- 
 inces. For these services he was created 
 a baron, and in 1899 he became gover- 
 nor-general of the Egyptian Soudan. In 
 January, 1900, he arrived in South 
 Africa as chief of the staff to Lord 
 Roberts in the Boer war, and inDecember 
 be became commander-in-chief there. 
 He ended the war by the treaty of 
 Vereeniging on May 31, 1902, and for 
 his services he was created a viscount, 
 and presented with $250,000 by a vote 
 of the House of Commons. 
 
 KITCHEN-MIDDENS, the name given 
 to certain mounds, from 3 to 10 feet in 
 height and 100 to 1000 feet in length, 
 found in Denmark, the north of Scot- 
 land, etc., consisting chiefly of the shells 
 of oysters, cockles, and other edible 
 shell-fish. They are the refuse heaps of 
 a pre-historic people unacquainted with 
 the use of metals, all the .implements 
 found in them being of stone, bone, horn, 
 or wood. Fragments of rude pottery 
 occur. The bones are all those of wild 
 animals, with the exception of those of 
 the dog. Similar shell deposits occur on 
 the eastern shores of the United States, 
 formed by the Red Indians. 
 
 KITE, a raptorial bird of the falcon 
 family, differing from the true falcons in 
 having a somewhat long forked tail, 
 long wings, short legs, and weak bill and 
 talons. This last peculiarity renders it 
 
 Kite. 
 
 the least formidable of the birds of prey. 
 The common kite, glead, or glede preys 
 chiefly on the smaller quadrupeds, birds, 
 young chickens, etc. It usually builds 
 ' in the fork of a tree in a thick wood. 
 
 KITE, a light framework covered with 
 paper or other light material and held 
 by a string in such a way that the wind 
 
 raises it to a greater or less height above 
 the ground. Kites have been used for 
 centuries by the Japanese and Chinese 
 as a toy made in the form of birds, bats, 
 dragons, and other creatures, the frame- 
 work being covered with silk or paper 
 having ornamental designs. Kites have 
 recently come into quite extended use 
 in meteorological observations and for 
 other useful purposes, also to hold sus- 
 pended in mid air banners for adver- 
 tising purposes and for taking photo- 
 graphs. 
 
 KITTIWAKE, a species of gull found 
 in great abundance in all the northern 
 parts of the world wherever the coast is 
 high and rocky. 
 
 KLEPTOMA'NIA, a supposed species 
 of insanity manifesting itself in a desire 
 to pilfer. In admitting the plea of klep- 
 tomania great caution is needed. The 
 best way to arrive at a judgment is to 
 consider the previous character and per- 
 sonal Interests of the person charged ; to 
 determine the value and usefulness of 
 the article appropriated ; the methods of 
 the appropriation and its probable 
 motive. 
 
 KLONDIKE, a tributary of the Yukon 
 river. The Klondike placer mines are 
 located in the beds and along the banks 
 of the Bonanza, El Dorado, and other 
 tributary streams and creeks of the 
 Klondike river. This district is in the 
 northwest territories of British America 
 just east of the Alaskan border-line, 
 2200miles from the mouth of the Yukon 
 river. Gold was discovered in this dis- 
 trict by George Carmack, a native of 
 Illinois, in August, 1886. The gold lies 
 all the way through a frozen bed of 
 muck, fine and coarse gravel from 23 to 
 26 feet deep. The gold is free in large 
 grains and nuggets. The precious de- 
 posit is extremely rich, and miners have 
 panned out over $300 worth of gold per 
 pan. The world at large learned of the 
 rich Klondike mines in July, 1897, and 
 before the middle of August 6,000 men 
 were on their way to the Klondike dis- 
 trict, and by the summer of 1898 there 
 were over 40,000 people in the Klondike 
 region. The richest deposits are found on 
 the Bonanza, ElDorado, Gold Bottom, 
 Adams, Bear, Hunker, and Too Much 
 Gold creeks. Dawson City, N. W. T., at 
 the junction of the Klondike and Yukon 
 rivers, is the chief trading post of that 
 district. The total production of the 
 Klondike region is over one hundred and 
 thirty-five millions. Mining operations 
 are seriously embarrassed by the short 
 summer period; three months is the 
 limit of outdoor work. Miners excavate 
 pay-dirt during the winter months and 
 wash the dirt during summer. The dis- 
 covery of gold at Cape Nome drew many 
 miners from the Klondike in 1899 and 
 1900. A large number of the small 
 streams that drain the southern side of 
 the peninsula have been worked, includ- 
 ing Anvil, Cripple, Eldorado, Ophir, 
 Solomon and Kugruk creeks, each of 
 which gives its name to a local district. 
 The coastal plain in the vicinity of 
 N ome is covered with a hea\’y growth of 
 moss, and beneath this there are layers 
 of gravel from 40 to 80 feet thick which 
 carry gold. The methods employed in 
 mining these deposits are similar to 
 those used lo working the creek gravels. 
 
 Most of the excavation is done with the 
 aid of steam for thawing the frozen 
 ravels. The production of the Nome 
 istrict from its discovery is over 
 $40,000,000. 
 
 KLOPSTOCK, Friedrich Gottlieb, a 
 celebrated German poet, born in 1724, 
 died in 1803; famous as the author of 
 the scared epic. The Messiah. He also 
 wrote a number of odes, etc. His repu- 
 tation was greater in his own day than 
 has since been the case, but he is ad- 
 mitted to have done great service to 
 German literature in assisting to free it 
 from foreign, especially French influence. 
 
 KNAPSACK, a bag of leather or strong 
 cloth for carrying a soldier’s necessaries, 
 and closely strapped to the back be- 
 tween the shoulders. 
 
 KNEE, or KNEE-JOINT, that joint in 
 the lower limbs of man which corre- 
 sponds to the elbow in the upper, and is 
 formed by the articulation of the femur 
 or thigh-bone with the tibia, or large 
 bone of the leg. The lower end of the 
 femur terminates in two oblong rounded 
 masses, called the condyles of the femur, 
 which rest in two cavities in the upper 
 part of the tibia; interposed between the 
 
 Human knee-joint. 
 
 1, Right knee-joint laid open from the front, 
 to show the internal ligaments, a. Cartilagin- 
 ous surface of lower extremity of the femur, 
 with its two condyles, b, Anterior crucial 
 ligament, c, Posterior do. d. Internal semi- 
 lunar fibro-cartilage. e. External fihro-carti- 
 lage. f. Part of the ligament of the patella 
 turned down, g, Bursa or sac containing syn- 
 ovial fluid laid open. 
 
 2, Longitudinal section of the left knee-joint. 
 
 а, Cancellus structure of lower part of femur. 
 
 б, Tendon of extensor muscles of leg. c. Pa- 
 tella. i Ligament of the patella, e. Cancellous 
 structure of head of tibia. /, Anterior crucial 
 ligament, g. Posterior ligament, h. Mass of 
 fat projecting into the cavity of the joint below 
 the patella, i, Bursa. 
 
 two bones are the semilunar cartilages, 
 which diminish the pressure of the 
 femur on the tibia, and prevent the dis- 
 placement of the former. In front of the 
 knee-joint is the patella or knee-pan. 
 The joint is capable of flexion and ex- 
 tension, and of a very slight rotary 
 movement. The accompanying fibres 
 and explanations will enable the joint 
 and its chief features to be thoroughly 
 understood. See also Leg. 
 
 KNEIPP (knip), Sebastian, a German 
 priest, the inventor of a special kind of 
 “water-cure,” was born in 1821 in 
 Stefansried, Bavaria, Germany. A 
 trifling accident led to systematic ex- 
 periments in his water-cure treatment, 
 of which one feature is that patients are 
 compelled to walk barefooted in the 
 snow in winter and on the wet grass in 
 summer. Sunshine, fresh air, water, and 
 a definite object at stated hours, are the 
 chief factors in the Kneipp treatment. 
 Societies bearing his name exist in 
 different parts of the M'orld, He died 
 in 1897. 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KOBE 
 
 KNIGHT, in feudal times, a man ad- 
 mitted to a certain military rank, with 
 special ceremonies. See Chivalry. In 
 British usage one who holds from the 
 sovereign a certain dignity entitling him 
 10 have the title Sir prefixed to his 
 Christian name, but not hereditary like 
 a baronetcy called a knight bachelor 
 if not a member of any order. Wives of 
 knights have the legal designation Dame 
 for which Lady is usually substituted. 
 See Knighthood, orders of. 
 
 KNIGHT, Charles, English editor and 
 publisher, born 1791, died 1873. He did 
 a great deal of valuable work, superin- 
 tending and publishing the Library of 
 Entertaining Knowledge; the Penny 
 Magazine and the Penny Cyclopaedia, 
 afterward remodelled as the English 
 Cyclopaedia, etc. Other publications of 
 his were the Pictorial Bible, the Pictorial 
 Prayer-book, the Thousand and One 
 Nights, Shakespeare, and many others. 
 The Shakespeare was edited by Mr. 
 Knight himself, and has, both for its 
 text and notes, taken a high place among 
 the numerous editions of the great 
 dramatist. The most important of his 
 own writings, the Popular History of 
 England, occupied him seven years, 
 1854-61. An autobiography. Passages 
 of a Working Life During Half a Cen- 
 tury, appeared in 1863-65. 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD, Orders of, the name 
 given to organized and duly constituted 
 bodies of knights. The orders of knight- 
 hood are of two classes — either they are 
 associations or fraternities, possessing 
 property and rights of their own as in- 
 dependent bodies, or they are merely 
 honorary associations established by 
 sovereigns within their respective do- 
 minions. To the former class belong the 
 three celebrated religious orders founded 
 during the Crusades — Templars, Hos- 
 pitallers, and Teutonic Knights. The 
 other class, consisting of orders merely 
 titular, embraces most of the existing 
 European orders, such as the order of 
 the Golden Fleece, the order of the Holy 
 Ghost, the order of St. Michael. The 
 British orders are the Garter, the Thistle, 
 St. Patrick, the Bath, St. Michael and 
 St. George, the Star of India, the Indian 
 Empire, and the Royal Victorian Order. 
 The various orders have each their ap- 
 propriate insignia, which generally in- 
 clude a badge or jewel, a collar, a ribbon 
 of a certain color, and a star. 
 
 KNIGHTS OF LABOR, a labor organ- 
 ization founded at Philadelphia in 1869. 
 Its operations are secret, but its pro- 
 fessed object is the amelioration and 
 protection of the laboring classes. This 
 body comprehends the intelligences of 
 the wage workers of the United States. 
 Of late years the membership has largely 
 decreased, through internal dissentions 
 and ill-advised strikes. 
 
 KNIGHTS OF ST. JOHN. See John 
 (Knights of St.) 
 
 KNIGHTS TEMPLARS. See Temp- 
 lars. 
 
 KNITTING, an industrial and orna- 
 mental art allied to weaving, but of 
 much later origin. It consists in forming 
 a series of loops with a single thread, 
 through which another row of loops is 
 passed, and so on consecutively; differ- 
 ing from crochet in so far as the series 
 pf loops are not thrown pff and finished 
 
 successively. In hand-knitting steel 
 wires are used to form the loops on. For 
 manufacturing purposes hand-knitting 
 has been entirely superseded by machin- 
 ery. 
 
 KNOT, a complication of a thread, cord 
 or rope, or of two or more threads, cords, 
 or ropes by tying, knitting, or entang- 
 ling. Knots expressly made as means 
 Of fastening differ as to form, size, and 
 name according to their uses, as over- 
 hand-knot, reef-knot, half-hitch, close- 
 hitch, timber-hitch, fisherman’s-bend, 
 carrick-bend, sheet-bend, single-wall 
 knot, double-wall knot, etc. The term 
 knot is also applied on shipboard to a 
 division of the log-line which is the same 
 fraction of a mile as half a minute is of 
 an hour, that is, it is the hundred and 
 twentieth part of a nautical mile; hence, 
 the number of knots run off the reel in 
 half a minute shows the vessel’s speed 
 per hour in miles, so that when a ship 
 goes 8 miles an hour, she is said to go 
 8 knots. Hence, the word has come to 
 mean also a nautical mile or 6086.7 feet. 
 
 KNOUT, a kind of whip or scourge 
 serving as an instrument of punishment 
 in Russia. It was formerly in use in the 
 army, but a few strokes only are now 
 inflicted, as a disgrace, in case of dis- 
 missal. It is still sometimes used for 
 criminals. The nobles were exempted 
 from the knout, but the exemption was 
 not always observed. 
 
 KNOW NOTHINGS, the popular name 
 for the Native American party, which 
 was formed in 1852. It aimed through 
 naturalization laws to make politically 
 powerless the large number of immi- 
 grants then settling in the country. It 
 had entirely disappeared by 1860. 
 
 KNOX, John, the chief promoter of 
 the reformation in Scotland, was born 
 at Gifford, in East Lothian, in 1505; 
 died at Edinburgh in 1572. He became 
 an avowed advocate of the reformed 
 faith about 1542. In 1546-47 he 
 preached to the beleaguered protestants 
 in the castle of St. Andrews, and when 
 it was taken by the French Knox was 
 sent to France with the other prisoners, 
 and put to the galleys, from which he 
 was released in 1549. He passed over 
 to England, and, arriving in London, 
 was licensed either by Cranmer or the 
 Protector Somerset, and appointed 
 preacher, first at Berwick, and after- 
 ward at Newcastle. In 1551 he was 
 appointed chaplain to Edward VI., and 
 preached before the king at West- 
 minster, who recommended Cranmer to 
 give him the living of Allhallows, in 
 London, which Knox dechned, not 
 choosing to conform to the English 
 liturgy. It is said that he also refused 
 a bishopric. On the accession of Mary, 
 in 1554, he quitted England, and sought 
 refuge at Geneva. He ventured, in 
 1555, to pay a short visit to his native 
 country. He again retired to Geneva, 
 where he wrote the First Blast of the 
 Trumpet against the Monstrous Regi- 
 men of Women, chiefly aimed at the 
 cruel government of Queen Mary of 
 England, and at the attempt of the 
 queen regent of Scotland to rule without 
 a parliament. A Second Blast was to 
 have followed; but the accession of 
 Queen Elizabeth to the throne of Eng- 
 land, who was expected to be friendly 
 
 to the Protestant cause, prevented it. 
 In May, 1559, he returned to Scotland, 
 and immediatelyjoined the Lords of the 
 Congregation. Being appointed min- 
 ister of Edinburgh, he took a prominent 
 part in the proceedings of the Protestant 
 leaders from this time onward, and had 
 the principal share of the work in draw- 
 ing up the Confession of Faith, which 
 was accepted in 1 560 by the parliament. 
 In 1561 the unfortunate Mary arrived 
 in Scotland. She immediately began 
 the regular celebration of mass in the 
 royal chapel, which, being much fre- 
 quented, excited the zeal of Knox, who 
 openly declared from the pulpit, “that 
 one mass was more frightful to him 
 than 10,000 armed enemies landed in 
 any part of the realm.” He preached 
 with equal openness against the mar- 
 riage of Mary and Darnley, giving so 
 much offense that he was called before 
 the council and inhibited from preach- 
 ing. After the death of Murray, in 
 1569, Knox retired for a time to St. 
 Andrews. In 1572 his constitution was 
 quite broken, and he received an addi- 
 tional shock by the news of the massacre 
 of St. Bartholomew. He had, however, 
 strength enough to preach against it, 
 but soon after took to his bed, and died. 
 He was twice married, first to Marjory 
 Bowes in 1555, and secondly, in 1564, 
 to Margaret Stewart, daughter of Lord 
 ^)ch litre© 
 
 KNOXVILLE, a town of the United 
 States, capital of Knox co., Tennessee, 
 an important commercial and manu- 
 facturing center at the head of steamboat 
 navigation on the Holston river, 165 
 miles east of Nashville. It contains the 
 East Tennessee university, the Knox- 
 ville university, the State agricultural 
 college, and other educational and liter- 
 ary institutions. Pop. 32,637. 
 
 KOA'LA, a curious arboreal marsupial 
 of Australia. It is about 2 feet in 
 length, tailless, stoutly built, and clothed 
 with thick, ash-gray, woolly hair. In 
 the fore feet the first and second digits 
 
 Koala. 
 
 are opposable to the remaining three; in 
 the hind feet the great toe is opposable. 
 The animal is nocturnal in habit, and 
 brings forth a single cub, which is car- 
 ried for some time in the pouch and 
 afterward on the mother’s back. 
 
 KOBE, a seaport of Japan, adjoining 
 Hiogo so closely as to form one town 
 with it. It is of more recent origin than 
 Hiogo, and is strictly the port opened 
 by treaty to foreign commerce. Com- 
 bined pop, 215,780, 
 
KOCH 
 
 KORAN 
 
 KOCH, Robert, a German bacteri- 
 ologist, and founder of the germ theory 
 of disease. He was born at Clansthal, 
 Hanover, in 1843, and was educated at 
 Gottingen. He began his researches 
 in 1872, and ten years later succeeded 
 in isolating the bacillus of tuberculosis. 
 His chief services in bacteriology are the 
 methods he invented for demonstrating 
 
 Dr. Robert Koch. 
 
 the presence of germs, particularly his 
 methods of staining bacteria so as to 
 make them visible. In 1890, while 
 Koch was experimenting his lymph- 
 cure for tuberculosis a student prema- 
 turely reported it and Koch was placed 
 in a false position as having made 
 claims of which he had no knowledge. 
 The value of the lymph is problematical. 
 In 1885 Koch was made professor at 
 Berlin. 
 
 KOCK, Charles-Paul de, French nov- 
 elist, born 1794, died 1871. He wrote 
 an immense number of novels which had 
 a great popularity, and have yet a cer- 
 tain value as pictures of low and middle- 
 class Parisian life during the first half of 
 the 19th century. Besides his novels, 
 he wrote some dramas, chiefly taken 
 from them. 
 
 KOHAT', a town of India, head- 
 quarters of district of the same name in 
 the new Northwest Frontier Province. 
 Pop., including suburbs and canton- 
 ments, 30,762. The district has an area 
 of 2771 sq. miles, and a pop. of 203,175. 
 
 KOH-I-NOOR. See Diamond. 
 
 Kohl-rabi. 
 
 KOHL-RABI, a cultivated variety of 
 the cabbage, distinguished by a swelling 
 
 at the neck of the root, which is eaten, 
 and in its qualities much resembles 
 Swedish turnip. It is valuable as a 
 cattle food. 
 
 KO'KOMO, the county-seat of Howard 
 CO., Ind., 54 miles north of Indianapolis; 
 on the Wildcat river, and on the Pitts- 
 burg, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis, 
 the Toledo, St. Louis and Kansas City, 
 and the Lake Erie and Western railroads. 
 Pop. 12,195. 
 
 KOLA, Cola, a genus of plants, a 
 native of Western Tropical Africa. The 
 Kola produces a fruit which consists of 
 two, sometimes more, separate pods 
 containing several seeds about the size 
 of horse-chestnuts. The seeds have 
 been found to contain caffeine, the 
 active principle of coffee, as also the 
 same active principle as cocoa with less 
 fatty matter. A drink prepared from- 
 them is largely used and is said to have 
 digestive, refreshing, and invigorating 
 properties. The tree has been intro- 
 duced into the West Indies and Brazil. 
 
 KOLA'BA, a British Indian district 
 in the southern division of the Bombay 
 Presidency; area, 1872 sq. miles; pop. 
 509,584. 
 
 KOLAPOOR'. See Kolhapur. 
 
 KOLAR', a district of the native state 
 of Mysore, Southern India; area, 3059 
 sq. miles; pop. 591,030. The chief town 
 is called Kolar. Pop. 11,172. 
 
 KOLHAPUR (kol-ha-por'), a native 
 Indian state, Bombay Presidency; area, 
 2816 miles; pop. 913,131. Kolhapur is 
 the chief town. Pop. 54,373. 
 
 KONIGSBERG (keu'nihs-berg), a for- 
 tified seaport town of Prussia, capital 
 of the province of East Prussia. The 
 principal public buildings are the cathe- 
 dral, a Gothic structure, begun in 1333, 
 restored in 1856, situated on the Kneip- 
 hof; the Schloss, or palace, begun in 
 1255, formerly the residence of the 
 grand-masters of the Teutonic order, 
 and now containing apartments for the 
 royal family, government offices, etc.; 
 the Schlosskirche, or palace church, 
 occupying a wing of the palace; the new 
 university, completed in 1862; the old 
 university; the exchange, a fine modern 
 building; the city museum, theater, etc. 
 The university, founded in 1544 by the 
 Margrave Albert, and has connected 
 with it a library of 220,000 vols., a 
 zoological museum, and other valuable 
 collections. The manufactures of 
 Konigsberg are various. The chief 
 trade is in grain, flax and hemp, timber, 
 tea, etc. Pop. 187,897. 
 
 KONIGSHUTTE (keu'nihs-hut-6), a 
 town of Prussia, province of Silesia, 49 
 miles e.s.e. of Oppeln. Pop. 57,919. 
 
 KONRAD. See Conrad. 
 
 KOODOO (native name), the striped 
 antelope, a native of South Africa, the 
 male of which is distinguished by its 
 fine horns, which are nearly 4 feet long, 
 and beautifully twisted in a wide spiral. 
 The koodoo is of a grayish-brown color, 
 with a narrow white stripe along the 
 back, and eight or ten similar stripes 
 proceeding from it down either side. 
 It is about 4 feet in height, and fully 
 8 in length. 
 
 KOORIA MOORIA ISLANDS, a group 
 of five islands on the southeastern co.ast 
 of Arabia, belonging to Britain. There 
 was a considerable deposit of guano on 
 
 the largest island ; but it was not of very 
 good quality, and is now exhausted. 
 
 KOPEK. See Copeck. 
 
 KO'RAN (Al-Koran, that is the 
 Koran, which means originally “the 
 reading, or that which is to be read”), 
 the book containing the religious and 
 moral code of the Mohammedans, and 
 by which, indeed, all their transactions, 
 civil, legal, military, etc., are regulated. 
 According to the Mohammedan belief 
 it was written from the beginning in 
 golden rays on a gigantic tablet in the 
 highest heavens, and portions were com- 
 municated by the angel Gabriel to 
 Mohammed at intervals during twenty- 
 three years. These were dictated by 
 Mohammed to a scribe and kept for the 
 use of his followers. After Mohammed’s 
 death they were collected into a volume, 
 at the command of Mohammed’s father- 
 in-law and successor Abu Bekr. This 
 form of the Koran, however, was con- 
 sidered to contain erroneous readings, 
 and in order to remove these Caliph 
 Othman caused a new copy to be made 
 from the original fragments in the 
 thirtieth year of the Hejra (652 A.D.), 
 and then ordered all the old copies to be 
 
 Koodoo, or striped antelope. 
 
 destroyed. The leading doctrine of the 
 Koran is the Oneness of God, clearly 
 laid down in the symbol of the Moslem — 
 “God is God, and Mohammed is his 
 prophet.” To Christ it assigns a place 
 in the seventh or highest heaven, in the 
 immediate presence of God, but he is 
 simply regarded as one of the prophets 
 — Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus 
 and Mohammed. The doctrines of good 
 and bad angels, and of the resurrection 
 and final judgment, are fully set forth, 
 as is also God’s mercy, which secures 
 entrance into heaven and not the merits 
 or good works of a man. The joys of 
 heaven range from music and women to 
 the supreme joy of beholding God’s face, 
 while the pains of hell are depicted in 
 vivid colors. Idolatry and the deifica- 
 tion of created beings are severely con- 
 demned. Another dogma is set forth in 
 the Koran, yet not explicitly, that of the 
 unchangeable decrees of God. Moham- 
 med used the doctrine of predestination 
 with great success to infuse into his ad- 
 herents undaunted courage, which ele- 
 vated them above all perils. The Koran 
 prescribes prayer, fasting, alms, and the 
 pilgrimage to Mecca and Mount Arafat. 
 
KORDOFAN 
 
 KROPOTKINE 
 
 The great fast is that of Ramadan 
 (which see). He prescribed prayer five 
 times a day with the face turned toward 
 Mecca. Purification must precede prayer 
 and where water is unattainable dry 
 dust or sand may be used. To give alms 
 was always a particular trait of the 
 Arabians, but Mohammed made it 
 obligatory. The pilgrimage or something 
 similar had existed with most sects be- 
 fore him. In respect to the civil laws 
 relating to polygamy, divorce, inheri- 
 tance, etc., Mohammed followed step 
 for step the laws of Moses and the de- 
 cisions of the rabbis, only adapting them 
 to the customs and prejudices of his 
 countrymen. The Koran is written in 
 prose, but the different parts of a sen- 
 tence end in ryhmes. In size it is about 
 equal to the New Testament; it is 
 divided into 114 surahs or chapters of 
 unequal length, each of which begins 
 with the phrase, “In the name of God.” 
 As the work was written at different 
 times, in different moods, and on differ- 
 ent occasions, there is naturally great 
 diversity in the style of different pas- 
 sages. The language is considered the 
 purest Arabic. It is, however, very 
 different from the spoken Arabic of 
 modern times. Commentaries on the 
 Koran are exceedingly numerous. 
 
 KORDOFAN', a country of Africa, 
 in the Eastern Soudan between Darfur 
 and the Nile. Pop. estimated at 400,000. 
 The chief town is El Obeid. 
 
 KOREA. See Corea. 
 
 KORNER (keur'ner), Karl Theodor, 
 German poet, born at Dresden 1791, 
 killed 1813. He owes his fame to his 
 celebrated patriotic lyrics, which are all 
 national in Germany. In 1813, when 
 Germany took up arms against Napo- 
 leon, Kbrner joined the famous Liitzow 
 corps of black huzzars, and was fatally 
 wounded in a skirmish fought in the 
 neighborhood of Gadebusch, in Meck- 
 lenburg-Schwerin. The collection of 
 songs published soon after his death as 
 Leyer und Schwert (Lyre and Sword) 
 contains some of the finest war-songs 
 in any language. 
 
 KOSCIUSKO (kos-si-us'ko, or kosh- 
 tsyush'ko), Thaddeus, Polish patriot, 
 was born in Lithuania of an ancient and 
 noble family in 1746, and died at Soleure 
 (Solothurn) 1817. He was educated in 
 the military school at Warsaw, and was 
 afterward sent at the expense of the 
 state in the capacity of sub-lieutenant to 
 complete his studies in France. On his 
 return to Poland he became tutor to the 
 daughter of Gosnovski, marshal of 
 Lithuania, but having conceived a pas- 
 sion for his pupil, and being disap- 
 pointed in his suit, he quitted his native 
 country and betook himself to America 
 (1777), where he attracted the notice of 
 Washington, was appointed by him en- 
 gineer, with the rank of colonel, and 
 afterward general of brigade. He did 
 not return to Europe till three years 
 after the conclusion of the peace of 1783. 
 For some years after his return he lived 
 in retirement, but after serving in his 
 own country under Poniatovski, he was 
 appointed in 1794 generalissimo of the 
 insurgent forces. He defeated the Rus- 
 sians at Raclavice, near Cracow, but at 
 the battle of Maciejovice his army was 
 defeated and he himself wounded and 
 
 taken prisoner. He remained in eap- 
 tivity for two years, but was liberated 
 on the accession of Paul I. of Russia in 
 1796. After visiting England and 
 America, he ultimately settled at Soleure 
 in Switzerland, where he continued to 
 live in quiet retirement. In 1817 he 
 issued from here a letter of emancipa- 
 tion to the serfs on his estate in Poland. 
 In 1818 his body was removed at the 
 expense of the Emperor Alexander of 
 Russia to Cracow, where it was buried 
 in the cathedral, and where a monu- 
 ment was erected to him. A mound 150 
 feet in height, formed of earth from all 
 the principal battle-fields of Poland, 
 was also raised to his memory in the 
 vicinity of Cracow. 
 
 KOSSUTH (kosh'shut), Lajos (Louis), 
 Hungarian patriot, born at Monok in the 
 county of Zemplin, Hungary, 1802. 
 He studied law, and in 1832 entered the 
 Presburg parliament. For persisting in 
 publishing the debates of the diet, he 
 was condemned to four years’ imprison- 
 ment. In 1841 he became editor of the 
 Pesth Journal, and in 1844 he founded 
 a national league in opposition to the 
 Viennese government. In 1847 he was 
 elected to the diet by the national party, 
 and secured the appointment of a re- 
 sponsible Hungarian ministry, in which 
 he became minister of finance. During 
 the Hungarian war for liberty he was 
 chosen governor or dictator, but the 
 intervention of Russia rendered all the 
 efforts of the Hungarians unavailing. 
 Kossuth resigned, was succeeded by 
 Gorgey whom he accused of treachery, 
 and was interned in Turkey. He was 
 released through the intervention of 
 Britain and the United States; visited 
 these countries and met with an en- 
 thusiastic reception. He was long re- 
 garded as the leader of the irreconcilable 
 party, but in 1884 he became reconciled 
 to the Llapsburg rule. His chief resi- 
 dence in his latter years was at Turin, 
 where he died in 1894. 
 
 KOSTROMA', an inland government 
 of Russia, area 30,811 sq. miles. Pop. 
 1,429,228. — Kostroma, the capital is an 
 ancient place, and has a fine old cathe- 
 dral situated in the Kreml or former 
 citadel. Pop. 41,268. 
 
 KOTAH, an Indian native state in 
 Rajputdna. Area, 3797 sq. miles, pop. 
 526,267. — Kotah, the chief town, is 
 situated on the river Chambal, and has 
 a pop. of 33,657. 
 
 KOUMISS, or KUMISS, a preparation 
 of milk, whether cow’s, mare’s ass’s, 
 goat’s, which is said to possess wonder- 
 ful nutritive and assimilable properties. 
 It consists essentially of milk in which 
 alcoholic fermentation has been de- 
 veloped. On the A!3iatic steppes, where 
 it has been long used as a beverage, it is 
 made of mare’s milk; but koumiss of 
 mare’s milk or goat’s milk has a some- 
 what unpleasant smell. 
 
 KOVNO, a town in Russian Poland. 
 The population, a great part of which 
 consists of Jews, is 73,543. — The gov- 
 ernment has an area of 15,602 sq. miles, 
 and its population is 1,549,444. 
 
 KRAAL, a South African native vil- 
 lage or town, usually a collection of huts 
 surrounded by a palisade. Sometimes 
 the term is applied to a single hut. 
 
 KRAKATO'A, a small uninhabited 
 
 volcanic island situated in the Sunda 
 straits, about equally distant from Java 
 and Sumatra. In May of 1883 intima- 
 tions of volcanic activity were observed, 
 and on August 27th a gigantic explosion 
 took place which actually blew away a 
 large part of Krakotoa, and entirely 
 altered the physical features of the is- 
 land and the neighboring coasts. An 
 immense wave swept over the shores of 
 the neighboring islands occasioning a 
 loss of life variously estimated at from 
 15,000 to 50,000. To the north two new 
 islands appeared where the morning 
 previous there had been from 30 to 40 
 fathoms of water. 
 
 KREASOTE. See Creasote. 
 
 KREFELD (kra'felt), a town in 
 Rhenish Prussia, in the government of 
 Diisseldorf and 12 miles northwest of 
 the town of Diisseldorf. Pop. 109,119. 
 
 KREMENTCHUG, a town in Russia, 
 government of Poltava. Pop. 58,648. 
 
 KREMLIN, a fortress, in Russia the 
 citadel of a town or city specifically 
 applied to the ancient citadel of Mos- 
 cow. See Moscow. 
 
 KREUTZER, KREUZER (kroit'ser) 
 an old South German copper coin, equal 
 to the sixtieth part of the gulden or 
 florin, or about two-thirds of a cent. The 
 Austrian current coin bearing this name 
 is the hundredth part of a florin, or 
 equivalent to nearly one-half of a cent. 
 
 KRISHNA, in Hindu mythology, the 
 eighth avatar of Vishnu and the most 
 popular deity in the Hindu pantheon. 
 He was ostensibly the son of Vasudeva 
 and Devaki of the royal family of the 
 Bhoja reigning at Mathura. The reign- 
 ing prince at the time of his birth was 
 Kansa, who, to prevent the fulfilment of 
 a prophecy, sought to destroy the young 
 child, but his parents, assisted by divine 
 
 Krishna. 
 
 power, succeeded in baffling all his 
 efforts. Every year of his life furnishes 
 the subject of some legend, his story 
 showing a remarkable resemblance to 
 those of the Greek Heracles and Apollo. 
 After a series of amorous and heroic 
 exploits, detailed at length in the Pur- 
 anas, he slew Kahsa, mounted the 
 throne, and was at last killed by the 
 arrow of a hunter, shooting unawares 
 in a thicket. 
 
 KROPOT'KINE, Prince Peter Alex- 
 eievitch, Russian anarchist, born at 
 
KRUGER 
 
 KYRIE ELEISON 
 
 Moscow, 1842. He entered the corps of 
 pages and then the army, traveled ex- 
 tensively in Siberia and Manchuria, 
 studied some years at St. Petersburg, 
 and wrote several esteemed books. In 
 1872 he joined the International Society, 
 and began pushing his revolutionary 
 ideas in Russia. He was arrested and 
 imprisoned, but made his escape and 
 took up residence in Switzerland. Ex- 
 pelled from Switzerland he took refuge 
 in France, and was, in 1883, condemned 
 to five years’ imprisonment for com- 
 plicity in outrages at Lyons, but was 
 pardoned in 1886, when he went to 
 England. He is an eloquent speaker 
 and writer, and has made valuable con- 
 tributions to several branches of knowl- 
 edge. 
 
 KRUGER (kro'ger), Stephen John 
 Paul, president of the South African 
 Republic (Transvaal), was born in Cape 
 Colony in 1825, migrated in the “great 
 trek” of the Boers in 1837, and latterly 
 settled in the Transvaal, where he soon 
 became prominent in military and civil 
 affairs. He was president from 1883 till 
 the annexation in 1900, and died in 
 Holland in 1904. 
 
 KRUPP (krup), Alfred, German en- 
 gineer and iron manufacturer, born at 
 Essen 1812, died 1887. He succeeded his 
 father as proprietor of a small metal 
 foundry at Essen, which he gradually 
 developed to an enormous extent. He 
 discovered a new method of casting 
 steel in large masses, which he exhibited 
 in 1851. This led him to the manufac- 
 ture of heavy steel ordnance, and espe- 
 cially to the construction of heavy 
 
 Alfred Krupp. 
 
 breech-loading guns of a type invented 
 by himself, the first of these being 
 produced in 1864, but great improve- 
 ments being subsequently effected, and 
 the size being immensely increased. 
 Though his name is popularly associated 
 with the manufacture of these large guns 
 the extensive works at Essen turn out 
 also immense quantitiesjof gun-carriages, 
 shot, boiler-plates, axles, wheels, rails, 
 screw-shafts for steamers, etc. 
 
 KUBAN, a Russian territory in the 
 Caucasus. Area, 36,251 sq. miles; pop. 
 1,922,773. 
 
 KUBLAI (ko'bla) KHAN (more prop- 
 erly Khilbilai Khan), Mongol emperor 
 founder of the 20th Chinese dynasty. 
 
 that of the Mongols or Yuen; born 1214, 
 died 1294. In 1259 he succeeded his 
 brother as Grand Khan of the Mongols, 
 and in 1260 he conquered the whole of 
 Northern China, driving out the Tartar 
 or Kin dynasty. He then ruled over the 
 conquered territory himself, and nine- 
 teen years later added to it Southern 
 China, driving out the Tartars from 
 the north. Kfiblia thus became sole 
 ruler of an empire extending over a large 
 part of Asia, as well as over those parts 
 of Europe that had belonged to the do- 
 minions of Genghis Khan. Marco Polo, 
 who lived at the court of this prince, 
 describes the splendor of his court and 
 entertainments, his palaces and hunting 
 expeditions, his revenues, his extra 7 
 ordinary paper currency, his elaborate 
 system of posts, etc. Khblai Khan is the 
 subject of a poetical fragment by Cole- 
 ridge. 
 
 KUKU, or KUKAWA, a town in 
 Western Africa, Pop. (estimate), 
 60,000. 
 
 KU-KLUX-KLAN, a secret society of 
 a socio-political nature, bitterly op- 
 posed to the reconstruction measures 
 which the government of the United 
 States passed with reference to the rebel 
 states of the south which had been sub- 
 dued in the war of 1861-64. They num- 
 bered at one time about 550,000 mem- 
 bers, spread over nearly all the states 
 of the south, but especially South Caro- 
 lina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, 
 Kentucky, and Tennessee. The mem- 
 bers did not hesitate to commit any act 
 of violence, even murder and arson. 
 Strong measures were taken for the 
 suppression of the society in 1871, and 
 it soon after died away. 
 
 KUMA'ON, or KUMA'UN, a British 
 district of Northern India, in the United 
 Provinces, belonging to the Himalayas. 
 Area, 7151 sq. miles; pop. 563,181. It 
 forms with the districts of Garhwal and 
 Tarai the division or commissionership 
 of Kumaon, which has an area of 13,743 
 sq. miles, and a pop. of 1,181,567. 
 
 KURDISTAN (kur-dl-stan'; “Land of 
 the Kurds”), an extensive territory of 
 Western Asia. As it does not form a 
 separate political division, its exact 
 limits are not ascertained. The Kurds, 
 to whom the territory owes its name, are 
 not confined within its limits, but are 
 found in considerable numbers eastward 
 in Khorasan and over the hilly region of 
 Mesopotamia, as far west as Aleppo 
 and the Taurus. They are a stout, dark 
 race, well formed, with dark hair, small 
 eyes, wide mouth, and a fierce look. 
 On their own mountains they live as 
 shepherds, cultivators of the soil, and 
 bandits. Their language is a dialect of 
 Persian, now much mixed with Arabic 
 and Syriac; their religion Sunnite Mo- 
 hammedanism. The Kurds owe but 
 slight allegiance to either Turkey or 
 Persia, living in tribes under their own 
 chiefs, who commonly exact duties on 
 the merchandise which passes over their 
 territory. Their numbers have been 
 estimated at 1,800,000. 
 
 KURO SIVO, or JAPAN CURRENT, 
 the gulf-stream of the Pacific, is the 
 offspring of the great equatorial current, 
 flows past Formosa, Japan, the Kuriles, 
 
 the Aleutian Islands, and thence bends 
 southward to California. It is much 
 inferior to the gulf-stream both in vol- 
 ume and high temperature. 
 
 KURRACHEE (ka-ra'she), or Karachi 
 an important seaport of India, on 
 the coast of Sind, Bombay presidency, 
 at the northern (or western) angle of the 
 Indus delta, situated on a large, and 
 commodious creek or inlet, forming a 
 good haven, perfectly safe in all winds, 
 and out of the track of cyclones. The 
 harbor is formed by a long narrow strip 
 
 of sand on the west, ending with a rocky 
 promontory called Manora Head, on 
 which is a lighthouse; and by the Island 
 of Kiamari on the east. The town was 
 taken possession of by the British in 
 1842, and its extensive commerce, fine 
 harbor works, and numerous flourishing 
 institutions have all sprung up since 
 that time. Pop. 115,407. 
 
 KURSK (kursk), a government of 
 southern Russia, area 18,901 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 52,896. 
 
 KUSTENLAND (kiis'ten-lant), an ad- 
 ministrative division of the Austrian 
 Empire; area, 3084 sq. miles. The ma- 
 jority of the inhabitants are of Slavonic 
 origin, but there is also a large propor- 
 tion of Italians and a considerable num- 
 ber of Germans. Pop. 755,183. 
 
 KUTAIS (ku-ta'is), a Russian town. 
 Pop. 32,492. — The government has an 
 area of 8039 sq. miles, and pop. of 
 1,075,861. 
 
 KUTA'YA, a town in Asiatic Turkey, 
 180 miles northeast of Smyrna, on the 
 route between Constantinople and Konia. 
 Estimated pop. 60,000. 
 
 KWANGSI, a province of China. Rice 
 is largely grown, and gold, silver, and 
 mercury are mined. Area, 78,250 sq. 
 miles; pop. 5,151,327. 
 
 KWANGTUNG, the most southerly 
 province of China. The capital is Can- 
 ton ; other ports are Swatow and Pakhoi. 
 Area, 79,456 sq. miles; pop. 29,706,249. 
 
 KWEICHOW, a province of s.w. 
 China. It produces rice, tobacco and 
 timber, and has mines of copper, iron, 
 lead, and mercury. Area, 64,554 sq. 
 miles; pop. 7,669,181. 
 
 KYRIE ELEISON (ki'ri-e e-li'son; 
 from the Greek Kyrie eleeson, “Lord, 
 have mercy”), a kind of invocation used 
 in parts of the Roman Catholic Church 
 service. It is almost the only part of the 
 liturgy in which the Latin Church has 
 retained the use of Greek words. 
 
L 
 
 LABYRINTH 
 
 
 L, the twelfth letter of the English 
 alphabet, is usually denominated a semi- 
 vowel or a liquid. L has only one sound 
 in English. The nearest ally of 1 is r, 
 the pronunciation of which differs from 
 that of 1 only in being accompanied by a 
 vibration of the tip of the tongue. There 
 is no letter, accordingly, with which 1 is 
 more frequently interchanged. Instances 
 of the change of 1 into r and of r into 1 
 being both very common in various 
 languages. In fact in the history of the 
 Indo-European alphabet 1 is considered 
 to be a later modification of r. 
 
 LA, in music, the sixth of the seven 
 syllables — ut or do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si — 
 representing the seven sounds in the 
 diatonic scale. 
 
 LAAGER (lii'ger), in South Africa, an 
 encampment more or less fortified. The 
 original Boer laager is an inclosure made 
 of the wagons of a traveling party for 
 defense against enemies. 
 
 LAALAND (lol'lan), or LOLLAND, an 
 island in Denmark. Pop. 70,596. 
 
 LA'BIALS, letters or characters rep- 
 resenting a sound or articulation formed 
 or uttered chiefly by the lips, as b, f, 
 m, p, V. 
 
 LABIA'TjE, the mint tribe, a very 
 important and extensive natural order 
 of exogenous plants, with a gamopetal- 
 ous corolla presenting a prominent upper 
 and lower lip, and a four-lobed ovary, 
 changing to four seed-like monosperm- 
 ous fruits. This order contains about 
 2600 species, mostly herbs, under-shrubs 
 or shrubs with opposite or whorled 
 leaves, usually square stems, and a 
 thyrsoid or whorled inflorescence. They 
 are spread throughout the world, and 
 abound in all temperate latitudes. Many 
 are valued for their fragrance, as laven- 
 der and thyme; others for their stimu- 
 lating qualities, as mint and pepper- 
 mint; others as aromatics, as savory, 
 basil, and marjoram; several are used 
 as febrifuges. Betony, ground ivy, 
 horehound, and others possess bitter 
 tonic qualities. 
 
 LAB'ORATORY, a building or work- 
 shop designed for investigation and 
 experiment in chemistry, physics, etc. 
 It may be for special research and 
 analyses, or for quite general work. To 
 the former class belong the laboratories 
 which are attached to dyeworks, color 
 works, chemical, and similar works. 
 Laboratories are also attached to mining 
 and metallurgical schools, to mints, to 
 arsenals, etc. A general laboratory, such 
 as might be attached to a school or uni- 
 versity, has to include a variety of 
 specialties, partly because the whole 
 science and its applications have to be 
 taken into account and exhibited, partly 
 because students with very different 
 aims frequent such places. 
 
 LABOUCHERE (lab'u-shar), Henry, 
 English politician and writer, was born 
 1831. He was in the diplomatic service 
 from 1854 to 1864; became member of 
 parliament in the radical interest for 
 Windsor (1865-66), Middlesex (1867- 
 68), and Northampton since 1880. He 
 contributed Letters of a Besieged Presi- 
 dent in Paris to the Daily News — of 
 which he was part proprietor — during 
 
 the Franco-German war. In 1877 he 
 started Truth, a weekly society paper. 
 
 LABOULAYE (la-bo-la), Edouard 
 Ren4 Lefebvre, French publicist, born 
 1811, died 1883. He attained a high 
 position as a writer of historical, social, 
 and playfully satirical works. Among 
 his best-known writings are History of 
 Landed Property in Europe; History of 
 the United States; Germany, and the 
 Slavic States; Paris in America; The 
 New Bluebeard; The Poodle Prince; 
 Prince Caniche, etc., etc. 
 
 LABOR. See Birth. 
 
 LABOR, American Federation of, a 
 confederation of trades unions for the 
 improvement in the conditions and 
 wages of labor; the establishment of 
 self-governing unions in every trade; 
 the formation of public opinion by 
 platform, press, and legislation and the 
 furtherance of a civilization based upon 
 industrial progress by securing a reduc- 
 tion in the hours of labor. Among the 
 affiliated unions are the Brotherhood of 
 Carpenters and Joiners, the Interna- 
 tional Typographical Union of North 
 America, the Cigar Makers’ Interna- 
 tional Union, and the Granite Cutters’ 
 National Union of the United States of 
 America. The largest affiliated union is 
 the United Mine Workers of America. 
 The American Federation of Labor is 
 growing very rapidly, and has a mem- 
 bership of nearly 1,500,000. It has 
 practically taken the place of its old 
 rival, the Knights of Labor. 
 
 LABOR AND COMMERCE, Depart- 
 ment of, one of the nine executive de- 
 partments of the federal government 
 created by act of congress February 11, 
 1903. It is presided over by a secretary, 
 who is also a member of the cabinet. 
 The act of congress creating the new 
 department charges it with the duty of 
 fostering, promoting, and developing 
 the foreign and domestic commerce of 
 the United States, mining, manufac- 
 turing, and fishery industries, the inter- 
 ests of labor. Improvement of transporta- 
 tion facilities, and the supervision of the 
 business of insurance. The organization 
 of the department consists of a bureau of 
 corporations, a bureau of manufactures, 
 the bureau of labor, the lighthouse 
 board, the lighthouse establishment, 
 the steamboat-inspection service, the 
 bureau of navigation, the bureau of 
 standards, the coast and Goedetic sur- 
 vey, the immigration service, including 
 the enforcement of the Chinese exclusion 
 acts, the bureau of statistics of the 
 treasury department, the shipping com- 
 missioner, the bureau of foreign com- 
 merce (formerly in the department of 
 state), the census bureau, and the fish 
 commission, including control of the 
 fur-seal, salmon, and other fisheries of 
 Alaska. An entirely new feature is the 
 bureau of corporations which is given 
 partial jurisdiction of the control of 
 trusts and trade combinations. 
 
 LABOR, Bureau of, the United 
 States Department of Labor was organ- 
 ized in 1885 as one of the bureaus of the 
 department of the interior. After it had 
 been in existence three years it was 
 changed to the department of labor with 
 
 independent functions. Since 1895 a 
 bi-monthly bulletin has been published. 
 Thirty-one states have bureaus of labor, 
 several of them conducting free employ- 
 ment agencies and the inspection of 
 factories and mines is an important 
 function of many of them. 
 
 LABOR DAY, a day set apart as a 
 legal holiday in nearly all of the states 
 and territories of the United States. 
 In 1884, on the resolution of George R. 
 Lloyd, one of the Knights of Labor, it 
 was decided that all future parades 
 should be held on the first day of Sep- 
 tember, and that the day should be 
 known as Labor Day. Workingmen’s 
 organizations all over the country then 
 began an agitation to induce the state 
 legislatures to declare the day a legal 
 holiday, and on March 15, 1887, Colo- 
 rado led the way, to be quickly followed 
 by New Jersey, New York, and Massa- 
 chusetts. The great majority of the 
 states have selected the first Monday in 
 September as Labor Day. In 1903 the 
 only states in which Labor Day was not 
 a legal holiday were Mississippi, Nevada, 
 North Dakota and Louisiana. 
 
 LAB'RADOR, a tract of land on the 
 east coast of British North America, 
 between Canada and the Atlantic, under 
 the government of Newfoundland. The 
 interior consists mostly of a table-land 
 2000 or more feet high. There are a 
 number of lakes drained partly by 
 rivers flowing toward Hudson’s Strait, 
 partly by others (such as Grand river), 
 reaching the Atlantic in the southeast. 
 The wild animals include the caribou or 
 reindeer, bears, wolves, foxes, martens, 
 and other fur-bearing animals. The 
 climate is rigorous, there being about 
 nine months of winter. No ordinary 
 cereal can ripen in the climate, though 
 barley cut green is used as fodder, and 
 potatoes and some culinary vegetables 
 can be grown. The population (about 
 8000 in all) consists of Indians, Eski- 
 mos, and half-breeds, with a few whites 
 on the coast. In summer it is increased 
 by some 30,000 persons, chiefly from 
 Newfoundland and connected with the 
 fisheries. The Moravians have a number 
 of missions along the coast, the Church 
 of England one or two. The Hudson’s 
 Bay company has several posts. Labra- 
 dor is also the name given to the whole 
 peninsula between the Atlantic, Hud- 
 son Strait and Hudson Bay and the St. 
 Lawrence. See Canada, Northeast Ter- 
 ritory, Quebec. 
 
 LAB'YRINTH, a structure having 
 numerous intricate winding passages, 
 which render it difficult to find the way 
 through it. The legendary labyrinth of 
 Crete, out of which no one could find his 
 way, but became the prey of the Mino- 
 taur, was said to have been constructed 
 by Daedalus. The hint of this legend was 
 probably given by the fact that the 
 rocks of Crete are full of winding caves. 
 The Egyptian labyrinth was a building 
 situated in Central Egypt, above Lake 
 Moeris, not far from Crocodilopolis 
 (Arsinoe), in the district now called the 
 Fayoum. The building, half above and 
 half below the ground, contained 3000 
 rooms. It was probably a place of burial. 
 
LAfe\TllNTHODON 
 
 LAFAYETTE 
 
 The labyrinth at Clusium, in Italy, was 
 elected by the Etruscans, according to 
 Varro, for the sepulcher of King Por- 
 senna. 
 
 LABYRINTH'ODON, a genus of fossil 
 amphibians, whose remains are found 
 in the carboniferous, permian, and trias 
 formations, those of the trias being 
 found in England, India, and Africa. 
 They were allied to the crocodile and to 
 
 Labjrrinthodon Salamandroides (restored). 
 
 the frog, and were 10 to 12 feet long. 
 The name is derived from the labyrinth- 
 ine structure of a section of the tooth, 
 when seen under the microscope. The 
 hypothetical cheirotherium has been 
 identified with the Labyrinthodon. 
 
 LAC, or LAK, from the Sanskrit 
 laksh^ or laksha, that is, 100,000. In 
 the East Indies it is applied to the com- 
 putation of money. Thus, a lac of rupees 
 is 100,000. 
 
 LACE, a delicate kind of net-work, 
 formed of silk, flax, or cotton thread, 
 and used for the ornamenting of female 
 dresses. It is made either by hand or 
 machine, the former being produced by 
 the needle, or made on the pillow. 
 Needle laces are called point, those made 
 on the pillow, cushion, boblain, or bone 
 laces. A prominent feature in all laces 
 is the pattern or ornament; this may be 
 workea with or without a groundwork. 
 Pillow lace consists of hexagonal meshes, 
 four of the sides of each mesh being 
 formed by twisting two threads round 
 each other, and the other two sides by 
 the simple crossing of two threads over 
 each other. The pattern on parchment 
 or vellum is attached to the pillow, and 
 pins are stuck in the lines of the pattern, 
 round which the threads are plaited and 
 twisted so as to form the required de- 
 sign. Among the laces of this class are 
 Honiton, Buckingham, Mechlin, Val- 
 enciennes, etc. Point laces, made en- 
 tirely by the needle and single thread 
 are known as Brussels, Alen 5 on, Mal- 
 tese, etc. Guipure lace consists of a net- 
 work ground on which patterns are 
 wrought in various stitches with silk, 
 etc. It was originally a lace made in silk, 
 thread, etc., on little strips of parch- 
 ment or vellum. At Nottingham and 
 elsewhere imitations of lace are produced 
 by machines, called point net and warp 
 net, from the names of the machines in 
 which they are made. They are both a 
 species of chain work, and the machines 
 are varieties of the stocking-frame. The 
 manufacture of lace appears to have 
 existed from a considerably remote 
 antiquity, as in the representations of 
 Grecian female costume which have 
 come down to us the dresses are fre- 
 quently ornamented with lace of beau- 
 tiful patterns. In modern times point 
 lace originated in Italy, from whicn the 
 manufacture spread to Spain and 
 
 Flanders. Pillow lace was first made in 
 the low countries. 
 
 LACHRYMAL ORGANS. See Eye. 
 
 LACQUER (lak'er), a varnish usually 
 consisting of a solution of shellac (some- 
 times sandarach, mastic, etc.,) in alcohol 
 colored by arnotto, gamboge, saffron, 
 and other coloring matters, for coating 
 brass and some other metals, to give 
 them a golden color, to preserve their 
 luster, and to secure them against rust. 
 Lacquered brass appears as if gilt, and 
 tin is made yellow. Lacquering is also 
 applied to the coating with varnish of 
 goods in wood and papier-mfLch4. The 
 Japanese and Chinese excel in works of 
 this kind. 
 
 LA CROSSE, a city in Wisconsin, on 
 the Mississippi at the mouth of the 
 Black river and La Crosse, a great seat 
 of the lumber trade. Pop. 32,460. 
 
 LA CROSSE, a game at ball, originat- 
 ing with the Indians of Canada, played 
 somewhat on the principle of football, 
 except that the ball is carried on an im- 
 plement called the crosse, the player 
 
 Crosse. 
 
 in possession running with it toward the 
 enemy’s goal, and when on the point of 
 being caught, passing it by tossing to 
 one of his own side, or throwing it over 
 his head as far in the direction of the 
 goal as possible. 
 
 LAC'TEALS, numerous minute tubes 
 which absorb or take up the chyle or 
 milk-fluid from the alimentary canal, 
 and convey it to the thoracic duct. 
 
 LACTIC ACID, an acid found in 
 several animal liquids, and particularly 
 in human urine. It is not only formed 
 in milk when it becomes sour, but also 
 in the fermentation of several vegetable 
 juices, and in the putrefaction of some 
 animal matters. It is a colorless, inodor- 
 ous, very sour liquid, of a syrupy con- 
 sistence. It coagulates milk. 
 
 LATCINE, Lactose, sugar of milk, a 
 substance obtained by evaporating 
 whey, filtering through animal charcoal, 
 and crystallizing. It forms hard, white, 
 semi-transparent trimetric crystals, 
 which have a slightly sweet taste, and 
 grate between the teeth. It is convert- 
 ible like starch into glucose by boiling 
 with very dilute sulphuric acid. 
 
 LACTOM'ETER, or GALACTOME- 
 TER, an instrument for ascertaining the 
 different qualities of milk. Several in- 
 struments of this sort have been in- 
 vented. One eonsists of a glass tube 1 
 foot long, graduated into 100 parts. 
 New milk is filled into it and allowed to 
 stand until the cream has fully separated 
 when its relative quantity^is shown by 
 
 the number of parts in the 100 wliicli It 
 occupies. 
 
 LAd RONES (la-dronz', or la-dro^nes), 
 or Marianne Islands, a group of sixteen 
 islands in the North Pacific ocean, east 
 of the Philippines and the Caroline 
 islands. Guam is the southernmost and 
 largest; next in importance is Rota. The 
 islands are mostly of volcanic origin, and 
 are very rugged, but their general aspect 
 is picturesque, being densely wooded 
 and covered with a perpetual verdure; 
 the soil also is extremely fertile. The 
 climate is humid but moderately warm 
 and not unhealthful. The cocoanut and 
 breadfruit trees are indigenous but sugar, 
 corn, coffee, tobacco and indigo are 
 cultivated. The islands were discovered 
 by Magelhaens in 1521, and long be- 
 longed to Spain, but Guam is now 
 American, and others German. Pop. 
 8000. 
 
 LADY-BIRD, the name of a number of 
 small coleopterous insects, or beetles, 
 common on trees and plants in gardens. 
 More than fifty species are known. They 
 are of great service to cultivators on 
 account of the number of aphides or 
 plant-lice which they destroy. 
 
 LADYSMITH, a town of Natal, about 
 80 miles n.n.w. Maritsburg, on a slope 
 near Klip river, and on the railway to 
 Johannesburg, where joined by that to 
 Harrismith. It is famous for the long 
 siege which it stood in the South African 
 war of 1899-1901. Pop. 4500. 
 
 LAFAYETTE, Marie Paul Jean Roch 
 Yves Gilbert Motier, Marquis de, was 
 born in Auvergne 1757, died 1834. He 
 commenced his career at the court of 
 Louis XV., at the period when hostilities 
 were commencing between Britain and 
 her American colonies. In 1777 he left 
 France for America, having fitted out a 
 vessel for himself, and was received by 
 Washington and his army with accla- 
 mation. He joined their ranks as a 
 volunteer, was wounded near Phila- 
 delphia, and commanded the vanguard 
 of the American army at the capture of 
 New York. He returned to France on 
 
 Marquis de Lafayette. 
 
 the close of the campaign; was called to 
 the Assembly of the Notables in 1787, 
 and was elected a member of the States- 
 General, which took the name of Na- 
 tional Assembly (1789) Two days after 
 the attack on the Bastille he was ap- 
 pointed (July 15) commander-in-chief of 
 the national guards of Paris. It was 
 through his means that the lives of the 
 king and queen were saved from the 
 mob that had taken possession of the 
 palace at Versailles. In 1792 he was ap- 
 pointed one of the three majors-generals 
 in the command of the French armies. 
 He declined the dignity of senator 
 
LA FAYETTE 
 
 LAMAISM 
 
 offered him by Bonaparte, and gave his 
 vote against the consulate for life 
 In 1818 he was chosen member of the 
 chamber of deputies, and was a con- 
 stant advocate of liberal measures. In 
 1824 he visited the United States, and 
 was received with great enthusiasm. 
 Congress voted him 200,000 dollars and 
 a township of land. During the revolu- 
 tion of July, 1830, he was appointed 
 general of the National Guards of Paris, 
 and it was chiefly to Lafayette that 
 Louis Philippe owed his elevation to the 
 throne. 
 
 LA FAYETTE, a city in Indiana, on 
 the Wabash river and Wabash and Erie 
 Canal, and at the intersection of several 
 railways, 63 miles northwest of Indian- 
 apolis. It is the seat of the state agri- 
 cultural college, and has a number of mis- 
 cellaneous manufactures. Pop. 21,670. 
 
 LAFAYETTE COLLEGE, a flourishing 
 institution at Easton, Pennsylvania, 
 chartered in 1826. It has six degree 
 courses of four years each — three general 
 and scientific, and three technical. 
 
 LA FOLLETTE (la-f61-16t'), Robert 
 Marion, American politician, born at 
 Primrose, Wis., in 1855. In 1880 he was 
 nominated by the republicans and 
 elected district attorney of Dane county, 
 of which Madison is the county-seat. 
 This position he held until 1884, after 
 which he practiced law privately until 
 1887, when he became a member of con- 
 gress. In 1900 he was nominated and 
 elected governor. His administration 
 was marked by his determined effort to 
 secure reforms for which he had become 
 the champion, namely a primary elec- 
 tion law, a reform of taxes on corpora- 
 tions and the regulation of the railroads. 
 In 1902 he was re-elected governor and 
 in 1905 he was elected to the United 
 States senate. 
 
 LAFONTAINE (la-f on-tan), Jean de, 
 French writer, born at Ch^teau-Thierry 
 in 1621, died 1695. The first volume of 
 his Contes or Tales appeared in 1664, 
 a second in 1671. They are full of fine 
 touches of genius, but are grossly in- 
 decent. Of his Fables (in which animals 
 are represented speaking and acting) 
 innumerable editions have been printed, 
 and it is through them that he is uni- 
 versally known. 
 
 LAGER (la'ger) BEER, a light beer, 
 not so intoxicating as the English pale 
 ales, largely brewed in Germany and 
 Austria. A similar beer is now made by 
 British brewers, and it has for long been 
 largely produced in the United States. 
 
 LAGOON, a name given particularly 
 to shallow lakes connected with the sea, 
 which are found along some low-lying 
 coasts, as on that of the Adriatic near 
 Venice. 
 
 LAGRANGE (la-granzh), Joseph Louis, 
 a celebrated mathematician, was born at 
 Turin 1736, and died at Paris 1813. 
 When scarcely nineteen years of age 
 Lagrange was made mathematical pro- 
 fessor in the artillery school at Turin. 
 In 1764 he obtained the j^ize of the 
 Acamedy of Sciences in Paris for a 
 treatise on the libration of the moon, 
 and in 1776 for another on the theory of 
 the satellites of Jupiter. About this 
 time he made a visit to Paris, where he 
 became personally acquainted with 
 D’Alembert, Clairaut, Condorcet, and 
 
 other savants. Soon after his return he 
 received an invitation from Frederick the 
 Great, to whom he had been recom- 
 mended by D’Alembert, to go to Berlin, 
 with the title of Director of the Academy 
 Here he lived for twenty years, and 
 wrote his great work La M4canique 
 Analytique. After Frederick’s death 
 (1786) the persuasion of Mirabeau and 
 the offer of a pension induced him to 
 settle in Paris. He was the first professor 
 of geometry in the Polytechnic school, 
 and was the first insci’ibed member of 
 the Institute. In 1794 he was appointed 
 professor in the newly-established Nor- 
 mal School (Ecole Normale Sup6rieure) 
 at Paris (1794), as well as in the Ecole 
 Polytechnique. The most important of 
 his works are his Mecanique Analytique 
 (1788); Theorie des Fonctions Analyti- 
 ques (1797); Resolutions des Equations 
 Numeriques (1798) ; Legons sur le Calcul 
 des Fonctions; and Essai d’Arithm6tique 
 Politique. 
 
 LAHORE', a city of Hindustan, capi- 
 tal of the ifunjab, on the left bank of the 
 Ravi, 265 miles northwest of Delhi. The 
 city proper covers an area of 640 acres, 
 and is surrounded by a brick wall 16 
 feet high, flanked by bastions. Pop. 
 202,964. — Lahore division (commission- 
 ership) has an area of 24,872 sq. miles, 
 and pop. 4,579,794. The Lahore district 
 has an area of 3648 sq. miles; pop. 1,075, 
 379. 
 
 LAISSER-FAIRE (la-sa-far), in eco- 
 nomics, a term applied to the theory that 
 a public authority should interfere in 
 the concerns of a community as little as 
 possible; that wealth tends to be pro- 
 duced most amply and economically 
 where a government leaves individuals 
 free to produce and transfer on mutually 
 arranged terms, confining itself to the 
 protection of property and person and 
 the enforcement of contracts. This rule 
 in practice is limited by various excep- 
 tions, as in •government interference in 
 the matters of education and the em- 
 ployment of children; in the promotion 
 of health or morality; and in the private 
 economic interests of certain industrial 
 classes. 
 
 LAKE, a large sheet or body of water, 
 wholly surrounded by land, and having 
 no direct or immediate communication 
 with the ocean, or with any seas, or 
 having so only by means of rivers. It 
 differs from a pond in being larger. Lakes 
 are divided into four classes: (1) Those 
 which have no outlet, and receive no 
 running water, usually very small. (2) 
 Those which have an outlet, but receive 
 no superficial running waters and are 
 consequently fed by springs. (3) Those 
 which receive and discharge streams of 
 water (by far the most numerous class). 
 (4) Those which receive streams, and 
 which have no visible outlet, being gen- 
 erally salt, as the Caspian Sea and Lake 
 Aral. Lakes are also divided into moun- 
 tain lakes and plain or plateau lakes. 
 
 LAKE-DWELLINGS, the name given 
 to habitations built on small artificial or 
 partly artificial islands in lakes, or on 
 platforms supported by piles near the 
 shores of lakes. The use of habitations 
 of this nature is a subject which has 
 engaged the attention of archaeologists 
 and others very largely since the dis- 
 . covery of the remains of a lake-dwelling 
 
 in Ireland in 1839, of similar ones in 
 Switzerland in 1854, and subsequently of 
 numbers of others elsewhere. The 
 archaeological interest thus attaching to 
 these lacustrine remains has drawn 
 attention to the fact of similar dwellings 
 being still used in various parts of the 
 world, in Russia, the Malay Archipelago 
 (Borneo and New Guinea), the Caroline 
 Islands, Lake Maracaybo in Venezuela, 
 New Zealand, and in a modified form in 
 some parts of Central Africa. The first 
 who is known to have described lake- 
 dwellings is Herodotus, who mentions 
 certain dwellings of this kind on Lake 
 Prasias in Thrace as being approached 
 
 Lake-dwellings (restored). 
 
 by a narrow bridge, each habitation 
 having a trap-door in the floor, giving 
 access to the water beneath, through 
 which fish were caught. A great number 
 of these pile structures have been dis- 
 covered in the Swiss lakes, some be- 
 longing to the iron age, some few even to 
 Roman times; but the greatest number 
 appear to be divided in about equal pro- 
 portions between the stone and bronze 
 ages. The relics found in these historic 
 buildings have thrown much light on 
 prehistoric man, large populations hav- 
 ing occupied these pile-buildings during 
 extended periods of time. 
 
 LAKES, pigments consisting of a 
 coloring matter combined with a metal- 
 lic oxide. They are obtained by mixing 
 with a solution of the coloring matter a 
 solution of alum or of a salt of tin, tung- 
 sten, zinc, lead or other metal and then 
 adding an alkali or alkaline carbonate. 
 Among the pigments prepared in this 
 way may be mentioned blue lake, con- 
 sisting of cobalt, blue, indigo, or ultra 
 marine and alumina; madder lake, of 
 madder and alumina; orange lake, of 
 turmeric and alumina; carmine lake, of 
 cochineal and alumina; purple lake, of 
 log wood and alumina; and so on. Lake 
 pigments are used in painting, calico- 
 printing, and in the manufacture of wall- 
 paper. 
 
 LAKHIMPUR (lak-him-por') , a Brit- 
 ish district of India, occupying the ex- 
 treme eastern portion of Assam ; area, 
 3724 sq. miles. Pop. 254,053. 
 
 LAMA, in zoology. See Llama. 
 
 LA'MAISM, a variety of Buddhism, 
 dating from the 7th century after Christ, 
 and chiefly prevailing in Tibet and Mon- 
 golia; so called from the lamas or priests 
 belonging to it. The highest object of 
 worship is Buddha, who is regarded as 
 the founder of the religion, and the first 
 in rank among the saints. The other 
 saints comprise all those recognized in 
 Buddhism, besides hosts of religious 
 teachers and pious men canonized after 
 their death. The clergy are the repre- 
 sentatives or re-incarnations of these 
 saints on earth, and receive the homage 
 
f 
 
 LAMAR 
 
 LAMP 
 
 due to them. Besides these saints a 
 number of inferior gods or spirits are 
 recognized by Lamaism, and receive a 
 certain worship. The Lamaists have a 
 hierarchy in some respects resembling 
 that of the Roman Catholic Church, and 
 they have also monasteries and nun- 
 neries, auricular confession, litanies, etc., 
 and believe in the intercession of the 
 saints and in the saying of masses for the 
 dead. In the hierarchy there are two 
 supreme heads, the Dalai-lama and the 
 Tesho-lama in whom Buddha is supposed 
 to be incarnate. Next in rank to these 
 two grand-lamas are the incarnations of 
 saints, after which follow those of 
 patrons or founders of lamaseries, or 
 Buddhistic monasteries, and then the 
 lower ranks, distinguished merely by 
 talents or learning. The Dalai-lama and 
 
 Lama of Tibet. 
 
 Tesho-lama are nominally co-equal in 
 rank and authority; but the former from 
 possessing a much larger territory is in 
 reality much the more powerful. The 
 former, whose residence is at Potala 
 near Lassa, is the acknowledged head of 
 the Buddhists not only in Tibet, but 
 throughout Mongolia and China. When 
 either of the two lamas dies, his place 
 may be filled according to directions 
 given by himself before his death, stating 
 into what family he purposed trans- 
 migrating. If such directions have not 
 been given, the other procures the names 
 of male children born at the time of the 
 death in order to discover where the de- 
 ceased has incarnated himself. The 
 (juestion is decided by lot in presence of 
 the surviving grand-lama, and the 
 Chinese political resident and the child 
 whose name is drawn becomes the 
 grand-lama. 
 
 LAMAR, Lucius Q. C., American 
 jurist, was born in Putnam co., Ga., in 
 1825. Was educated at Emery college. 
 He moved to Mississippi, and was elected 
 representative in 1856. In 1861 he re- 
 signed and joined the confederate army 
 as colonel. He was professor of law in 
 the University of Mississippi, (1867-1872), 
 when he was again sent to congress. In 
 1876 he was elected senator and was re- 
 elected in 1882. In 1885 he became sec- 
 retary of the interior in President Cleve- 
 land’s cabinet, and in 1887 was appointed 
 associate justice of the supreme court of 
 the United States. He (.lied in 1893. 
 
 LAMARCK, .lean Baptiste Pierre An- 
 toine de Monet, Chevalier de, French 
 
 naturalist, born in Picardy 1744, died at 
 Paris 1829. He became botanist of the 
 Jardin du Roi in 1788, and professor of 
 zoology at the Museum of Natural His- 
 tory in 1793. Other chief works are 
 Philosophie Zoologique, in which he 
 promulgated a theory foreshadowing 
 what is now known as the law of evolu- 
 tion; Histoire Naturelle des Animaux 
 sans Vertebres, Tableau Encyclopedique 
 de la Botanique, etc. He held the doc- 
 trine of spontaneous generation, and his 
 religious beliefs have been described as a 
 curious mixture of pantheism and deism. 
 
 LAMARTINE (la-mar-ten), Alphonse 
 Marie Louis Prat de, French poet and 
 statesman, born at Macon 1790; died at 
 Passy, near Paris, in 1869. By his 
 first production. Meditations Poetiques 
 (1820), he at once obtained a high place 
 among the poets of the day. In 1820 
 he was attached to the legation at 
 Naples, and married a rich English lady, 
 Eliza Marianna Birch. The Nouvelles 
 Meditations Po(''tiques (1823), and the 
 Harmonies Po6tiques et Religieuses 
 (1828), established his poetic fame, and 
 obtained for him admission into the 
 French Academy. (1830). After the 
 revolution of July he traveled in the east 
 and on his return published Voyage en 
 Orient, Souvenirs, Impressions, Pens^es 
 et Paysages (Paris, four vols. 183,5). 
 During his absence he had been elected 
 a member of the Chamber of Deputies, 
 and thenceforward Id's career was as 
 much political as literary. In 1847 he 
 published his Histoire des Girondins 
 (Paris, eight vols.), in which he mani- 
 fested strong republican leanings. 
 
 LAMB, Charles, English essayist and 
 humorist, born in London 1775, died at 
 Edmonton 1834. His first appearance 
 as an author was in 1798, when he pub- 
 lished a volume of poems in conjunction 
 with his friends Coleridge and Lloyd. 
 His love for 17th century literature bore 
 fruit in theTalesfromShakespeare(1807) 
 and Specimens of English Dramatic 
 Poets who lived about the time of Shake- 
 speare (1808). He made two attempts at 
 the drama: John Woodvil, written in 
 imitation of the early English drama- 
 tists; and a farce entitled Mr. H. which 
 was performed at Drury Lane in 1806, 
 and proved a failure. On the other hand, 
 his tale of Rosamund Gray (Lond. 1798) 
 was well received when it appeared, and 
 is still a favorite. He owes his literary 
 distinction to his delightful Essays of 
 Elia, chiefly contributed to the London 
 Magazine. They have been frequently 
 republished in a collected form. Here, 
 in a style ever happy and original, he 
 has carried the short humorous essay to 
 a point of excellence perhaps never be- 
 fore attained. — His sister Mary Anne 
 (born 1765, died 1847) was joint author 
 with her brother of Tales from Shake- 
 speare, and Poetry for Children. 
 
 LAMBAYEQUE (lam-ba-ya'ka), a 
 town in Peru, capital of the department 
 of the same name. Pop. 6248. — Area of 
 department, 17,939 sq. miles; pop. 
 85,984. 
 
 LAMBERT, Daniel, noted for his 
 extraordinary size, was born in Leices- 
 ter 1770, died 1809. He was exhibited in 
 London and the principal towns of 
 England, and at flu; time of his death 
 was 5 feet 11 inches in height, weighed 
 
 739 lbs. (over 52 J stones), and measured 
 9 feet 4 inches round the body, and 3 
 feet 1 inch round the leg. 
 
 LAMBERT’S PINE, a North American 
 pine growing in California, and some- 
 times reaching the height of 300 feet. 
 It yields when burned a sugary sub- 
 stance known as California manna. The 
 leaves are in fives; the cones are 14 to 18 
 inches long, and contain edible seeds. 
 
 LAM'BETH, a mun. and pari, borough 
 of South London, opposite to Westmin- 
 ster, with which it is connected by a 
 bridge 1040 feet long. Lambeth Palace, 
 the official residence of the archbishops 
 of Canterbury, contains a library with 
 30,000 volumes and upward of 14,000 
 manuscripts. St. Thomas’s hospital is 
 situated on the Albert embankment, op- 
 posite the houses of parliament. Pop. 
 301 873 
 
 LAMENTATIONS, the name given in 
 the authorized version of the Scriptures 
 to a pathetic poem made up of five dis- 
 tinct elegies. They appear in the Hebrew 
 canon with no name attached, but an- 
 cient tradition, internal evidence, and a 
 prefatory verse which appears in the 
 Septuagint point to the authorship of 
 Jeremiah. The first four of the dirges 
 are alphabetical acrostics, successive 
 verses, or in chap. iii. successive sets of 
 three verses, beginning alphabetically. 
 Chap. V. is not in acrostic form. Ac- 
 cording to Josephus, Jerome, and also 
 some modern critics these poems were 
 written on the death of King Josiah 
 (see 2 Chron. xxxv. 25), but the con- 
 tents of the book itself plainly show that 
 a national calamity — the destruction of 
 Jerusalem and the overthrow of the 
 Judean state by the Chaldeans — is 
 referred to. 
 
 LAMMERGEIER (lem'er-gl-er ; Ger- 
 man, “lamb vulture’’), the bearded vul- 
 ture, a bird of prey of the genus 
 Gypaetos, family Vulturidae, forming 
 a link between the vultures and the 
 eagles. It inhabits the Swiss and Ger- 
 man Alps, as well as the higher moun- 
 tains of Asia and Africa, and is the 
 largest European bird of prejq measur- 
 ing upward of 4 feet from beak to tail, 
 and 9 or 10 m the expanse of its wings. 
 Besides eating carrion, it preys on living 
 chamois, lambs, kids, hares, and such 
 like animals, but it does not disdain 
 when pressed rats, mice, and other small 
 quadrupeds. 
 
 LAMONT (la-mont'), Daniel Scott, 
 American politician and cabinet officer, 
 was born at Cortlandville, N. Y., in 
 1851. In 1883 he became private secre- 
 tary to Grover Cleveland, then governor 
 of New A'ork. When Cleveland became 
 president in 1885, Lament accompanied 
 him to Washington, where he remained 
 until Harrison’s inauguration. From 
 1889 to 1893 he engaged in various busi- 
 ness enterprises in New A'ork City, and 
 in the latter year became secretary of 
 war in President Cleveland’s second 
 cabinet. In 1897 he became vice-presi- 
 dent of the Northern Pacific Railway. 
 He died in 1905. 
 
 LAMP, a eontrivance for producing 
 artificial light, whether by means of an 
 imflammable liquid, or of gas, or elec- 
 tricity; but usually the term applied to a 
 vessel for containing oil or other liquid 
 inflammable substance, to be bumecl by 
 
AMPBLACK 
 
 LAND 
 
 1 means of a wick. Baked cartli was 
 
 f probably the substance of which the 
 
 : earliest lamps were composed, but sub- 
 
 sequently we find them of various 
 I metals — of bronze more particularly. 
 
 Modern lamps vary in form and princi- 
 ple widely, and of late have been con- 
 structed in a variety of materials. The 
 requisite properties of a perfect lamp 
 ' are these: — 1st, It must be supplied 
 with carbonaceous matter and with 
 oxygen; 2d, It must convert the former 
 into a gaseous state; and 3d, It must 
 bring the gas so produced in contact with 
 oxygen at such a temperature that the 
 carbon will combine with the oxygen in 
 the fullest degree to produce the greatest 
 qiiantity of flame without any smoke. 
 Until 1784 all the lamps in use were far 
 from meeting all these requirements. 
 In that year an improved scientific 
 lamp was constructed by Aim4 Argand 
 of Geneva, and called after him the 
 Argand lamp. In this lamp defective 
 consumption is remedied by using a cir- 
 cular wick, the flame of which is nour- 
 ished by an internal as well as an exter- 
 nal current of air, and by placing a glass 
 chimney above the flame so as to in- 
 crease the draught. A special arrange- 
 ment ensures a unifomi supply of oil. 
 In the improved lamps that have suc- 
 ceeded that of Argand, the Argand 
 burner has generally been retained, and 
 the alterations have chiefly been made 
 in the mode of keeping up a uniform 
 ' supply of oil. For petroleum, paraffin, 
 and other mineral oils, which have of 
 late years come into very extensive use 
 for illuminating purposes, a very simple 
 kind of lamp is used. The oil-vessel is 
 placed below the burner, which usually 
 consists of a simple slit, down which a 
 broad wick passes into the oil. The 
 wick may be raised or depressed by a 
 screw, and when the lamp is burning is 
 , kept a short distance below the opening 
 of the slit. The oil is sucked up by the 
 wick by the action of capillarity. A 
 chimney is fitted on to the lamp, and 
 creates so powerful a draft that the flame 
 is kept perfectly steady, and the gas 
 proceeding from the heating of the oil is 
 ’ - completely consumed. There is an end- 
 , less vai'iety of lamps of this kind, the 
 special features aimed at being increase 
 of light by improved burners and im- 
 — munityfrom explosion. Safety-lamps are 
 r used for mines (see Safety-lamp). Hydro 
 ; carbon lamps are used for magic- 
 lanterns, etc. The magnesium lamp, 
 “ chiefly used by photographers is one 
 constructed for the combustion of mag- 
 nesium wire. A lantern is a form of lamp, 
 > generally a case inclosing a light and 
 protecting it from wind and rain, some- 
 times portable and sometimes fixed. 
 
 ^ LAMPBLACK, a fine soot formed by 
 the condensation of the smoke of burn- 
 „ ing oil, pitch, or resinous substances in a 
 R, chimney terminating in a cone of cloth. 
 
 It is used in the manufacture of pig- 
 ^ ments, blacking, and printing inks. See 
 B Carbon. 
 
 ■* LAM'PREY, the name of several ell- 
 like, scaleless fishes which inhabit both 
 ^ fresh and salt water. The lampreys have 
 seven spiracles or apertiires on each side 
 & of the neck, and a fistula or aperture on 
 Jr the top of the head; they have no pec- 
 iSf. ,, total or ventral fins. The mouth is in 
 
 the form of a sucker, lined with strong 
 teeth and cutting plates, and the river 
 lampreys are often seen clinging to 
 stones by it. The marine or sea lam- 
 prey is sometimes found so large as to 
 weigh 4 or 5 lbs. It is of a dusky brown, 
 marbled with yellowish patches. It 
 ascends rivers in the spring for the pur- 
 pose of spawning, and was formerly 
 
 Sea Lamprey. 
 
 much valued as an article of food. The 
 river lamprey or lampern is a smaller 
 species, and abounds in the fresh-water 
 lakes and rivers of northern countries. 
 It is colored black on its upper, and of a 
 silvery hue on its under surface. Lam- 
 preys attach themselves to other fishes 
 and stick their blood; they also eat soft 
 animal matter of any kind. 
 
 LAN'ARK, Lanarkshire, or Clydes- 
 dale, a southwestern county of Scotland, 
 and the most populous in the country. 
 It is bounded by the counties of Dum- 
 barton, Stirling, Linlithgow, Edinburgh, 
 Peebles, Dumfries, Ayr, and Renfrew; 
 area, 504,284 acres, of which about one- 
 third is under cultivation. Pop. 1,339,- 
 327. — Lanark, the town, is a royal and 
 parliamentary burgh. Pop. 6440. 
 
 LAN'CASHIRE, or the county pala- 
 tine of Lancaster, a maritime county in 
 the n.w. of England, bounded by West- 
 moreland, Cumberland, A^orkshire, Ches- 
 hire, and the Irish Sea, a part of it in the 
 north, called Furness, being cut off from 
 the rest by Morecambe Bay; area, 
 1,207,926 acres, of which over 800,000 
 acres are in cultivation. Lancashire is 
 the grand seat of the cotton manufac- 
 ture, not only of England, but also of the 
 world, Manchester being the principal 
 center. Woolen goods are also largely 
 produced, as are also machinery of ail 
 descriptions, and a vast vai-iety of other 
 articles. Liverpool is the great ship- 
 ping port of the county and of England. 
 Lancaster is the county town, but there 
 are a great many others far larger, such 
 as Liverpool, Manchester and Salford, 
 Oldham, Bolton, Blackburn, Preston, 
 etc. Pop. 4,406,787. 
 
 LAN'CASTER, a municipal borough 
 and river-port, England, the county 
 town of Lancashire, on the left bank of 
 the Lune, 45 miles north by east of 
 Liverpool. Pop. 40,329. m 
 
 LANCASTER, a city in Pennsylvania, 
 capital of Pennsylvania county, 68 miles 
 west of Philadelphia. It is a pleasant 
 residential city ;hasvery extensive manu- 
 facturing interests, and is a chief to- 
 bacco-leaf market. It is also the center 
 of a rich wheat district, and carries on 
 an extensive lumber trade. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 LANCASTER, the capital of Fairfield 
 CO., Ohio, on the Hocking river, about 
 32 miles s.e. of Columbus. It has iron- 
 foundries, flouring-mills, and manufac- 
 tures of machines and agricultural im- 
 plements. Pop. 10,760. 
 
 LANCASTER, House of, the name 
 given in English history to designate the 
 line of kings — Henry IV., V. and VI,, 
 immediately descended from John of 
 
 Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III. Ed- 
 mund, second son of Henry III., was 
 created Earl of Lancaster and Leicester. 
 His son Thomas added Derby and Lin- 
 coln to his titles, became leader of the 
 baronial opposition to Edward II., and 
 was beheaded for treason. His grandson 
 was advanced to the dignity of a duke, 
 and dying without male issue, the in- 
 heritance fell to his daughter Blanche, 
 who became the W'ife of John of Gaunt. 
 
 LANCASTER, John of Gaunt, Duke 
 of. See John of Gaunt. 
 
 LANCASTER SOUND, a passage lead- 
 ing from the northwe.st of Baffin’s Bay 
 west to Barrow’s Strait. It was dis- 
 covered by Baffin in KilO, is about 250 
 miles long, with a central breadth of 
 about 65 miles. 
 
 LANCE, a weapon consisting of a long 
 shaft with a sharp point, much used be- 
 fore the invention of firearms, and still in 
 use. It was common among the Greeks 
 and Romans. The Macedonian phalanx 
 was armed with it, and it was the chief 
 weapon of the Roman infantry. The 
 javelin, or pilum, was but secondary. 
 The lance was the chief weapon in the 
 middle ages, and was especially the arm 
 of knighthood. The introduction of fire- 
 arms gradually led to the disuse of the 
 lance in the West of Europe, though it 
 continued among the Turks, Albanians, 
 Tartars, Cossacks, Poles, and Russians' 
 and other Slavonic tribes. Napoleon 
 organized several regiments of Polish 
 lancers for service in his army, and now 
 most of the armies of Europe have regi- 
 ments of LHilans or lancers. 
 
 LANCERS. See Lance. 
 
 LAND forms an important kind of 
 natural wealth susceptible of appropria- 
 tion, and forming at the same time the 
 principal deposit of the accumulated 
 capital derived from the labor of pre- 
 ceding generations. In Britain, from 
 various causes, among others the enor- 
 mous cost of transfer, the land is in the 
 hands of comparatively a few owners, 
 and the properties are generally large. 
 One-half of the land of the United King- 
 dom is in the hands of 7400 individuals; 
 the other half being owned by 312,500 
 individuals. Barely one in a hundred of 
 the population owns more than an acre 
 of soil. The cultivable land is usually 
 let out to tenant-farmers, who cultivate 
 it at their OAvn expense. These number 
 upwards of 1,160,000 in Great Britain 
 and Ireland, more than three-fourths of 
 whom occupy farms of less than 15 acres. 
 In the British colonies small properties 
 rather than large is the rule. In France 
 there are about 3,000,000 properties 
 under 25 acres, and only 150,000 above 
 100 acres; 1,750,000 of the population 
 cultivate their own land. Small holdings 
 cultivated by the owners are common 
 in Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, 
 Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and other 
 parts of Europe. In the United States 
 the land is chiefly cultivated by small 
 owners. There are still aboxit 1,000,- 
 000,000 acres undisposed of notwith- 
 standing that over 700,000,000 acres 
 have been withdrawn by the govern- 
 ment from the public domain. 
 
 LAND/J 'enure of. The various species 
 of tenures and customs relating to prop- 
 erty in land are noticed under the par- 
 ticular heads. See Allodium Feudnl 
 
LAND-CRABS 
 
 BANNER 
 
 System, Freehold, Copyhold, Entail, 
 etc. 
 
 LAND-CRABS, crabs so called from 
 their semi-terrestrial mode of life; their 
 habits leading them to live on land, and 
 away from the sea, even for considerable 
 periods of time. The true land-crabs 
 occur in Asia, particularly in the Eastern 
 Archipelago; in America, and specially 
 in the West Indian Islands; and in Aus- 
 tralia also. The best-known species is 
 found in the higher parts of Jamaica, 
 which often proves very destructive to 
 the sugar plantations. The crabs of the 
 genus represented by the common 
 species and inhabiting the West Indian 
 mangrove swamps and marshes, ap- 
 pears to feed upon both vegetable and 
 animal diet. 
 
 LANDES, a maritime department of 
 France, bounded by the Bay of Biscay 
 and by the departments of Gironde, 
 Lot-et-Garonne, Gers, and Basses- 
 Pyr6nees. It has an area of 3599 sq. 
 miles. Pop. 291,586. 
 
 LANDGRAVE, in Germany, originally 
 about the 12th century, the title of dis- 
 trict or provincial governors deputed by 
 the emperor and given them to distin- 
 guish them from the inferior counts 
 under their' jurisdiction. 
 
 LAND LEAGUE, an organization pro- 
 jected by Mr. Parnell, the leader of the 
 Irish national movement, in 1879, the 
 ostensible object of which was to pur- 
 chase the land of Ireland for the people 
 of Ireland. Funds were largely sub- 
 scribed, especially in America, but the 
 stringent rules against landlords and 
 tenants holding aloof from it, and the 
 alleged complicity of its members with 
 many terrible outrages, caused it to be 
 suppressed in 1881. 
 
 LANDLORD AND TENANT, the land- 
 lord in relation to a tenant is the person 
 from whom lands or tenements are 
 taken on lease or by some other contract 
 or agreement. The tenant is the person 
 who holds lands or tenements of another 
 by any kind of contract or agreement, 
 usually for a periodical rent. In the 
 absence of express agreement a tenant 
 may sublet the property, but he is still 
 liable to the landlord for the rent, unless 
 the landlord relieves him by accepting 
 the sub-tenant as a tenant-in-chief. 
 Rent may be recovered by action at law, 
 by ejectment, or by distress on the 
 premises. The landlord is responsible 
 for maintaining a house in a fit state of 
 repair, and if he neglects to do so the 
 tenant may withhold the rent or deduct 
 the expense of repairs. The landlord has 
 a hypothec over the furniture for rent 
 occurring before the term of payment 
 has arrived, and may prevent its re- 
 moval but he has no lien over the goods 
 of a sub-tenant who has paid his rent to 
 his immediate landlord. 
 
 LANDOR, Walter Savage, an English 
 poet and prose writer, born at Ipsley 
 Court, Warwickshire, 1775; died 1864. 
 His fame chiefly rests on his Imaginary 
 Conversations, between celebrated per- 
 sons of ancient and modern times, which 
 is a model of a pure, vigorous finished 
 English style. 
 
 LANDSCAPE, a term applied to a por- 
 tion of land or territory which the eye 
 can comprehend in a single view, and to 
 a painting of such. See Painting. 
 
 LANDSCAPE GARDENING, is the art 
 
 of laying out grounds, arranging trees, 
 shrubbery, etc., so as to bring into har- 
 monious combination all the varied 
 characteristics and surroundings. It 
 disposes flowering plants, shrubs, and 
 trees over varying levels in such a man- 
 ner as to produce the most pleasing 
 effects, it shuts out undesirable views by 
 means of judicious planting, and intro- 
 duces rock-work, water, and other 
 artistic eknbellishments where the local 
 peculiarities of the ground permit. 
 
 LANDSEER, Sir Edwin, painter, born 
 in London 1802, died 1873. He began 
 to draw animals when a mere child; at 
 thirteen he exhibited at the Academy, 
 and the year following became a student. 
 Henceforward he exhibited regularly at 
 the Academy and the British Institu- 
 tion. In 1826 he was elected A.R.A.; 
 in 1830 R.A.; in 1850 he was knighted, 
 and in 1865 he declined the presidency 
 of the Academy. He takes the very 
 highest rank among animal painters; 
 and though he has been blamed for in- 
 troducing too human a sentiment and 
 expression into some of his animals, the 
 humor and pathos of animal nature has 
 had no finer exponent. 
 
 LANDSLIP, the slipping or sliding of a 
 considerable tract of land or earth from 
 a higher to a lower level. Landslips are 
 due to a variety of causes, chiefly the de- 
 cay of supporting strata, or excessive 
 saturation of the soil by rain. Among 
 the more disastrous occurrences of this 
 kind are the slip of the Rossberg Moun- 
 tain behind the Rigi in Switzerland in 
 1806, burying villages and hamlets with 
 over 800 inhabitants; and that at Naini 
 Tal, a sanitary hill-station in the Hima- 
 layas, in 1880, when 230 lives were lost. 
 
 LAND-SURVEYING, See Surveying. 
 
 LAND-TAX, a tax levied on land. 
 What is known as the land-tax in Brit- 
 ain was imposed in the reign of William 
 III. as a substitute for escuage, talliage, 
 fifteenths, and other contributions. It 
 was imposed annually from 1693 to 1798 
 at a varying rate, oftenest $1.00 per lb. 
 In the latter year it produced about 
 $10,000,000, when it was replaced by a 
 perpetual rent charge on land, with 
 power of redemption, and a tax annu- 
 ally imposed on personal property, the 
 latter tax abolished in 1833. The land- 
 tax now produces rather more than 
 $5,000,000 annually. In the United 
 States land bears a large share of local 
 taxation either under the general prop- 
 ei;ty tax or under a tax upon real estate. 
 In the general property tax no distinc- 
 tion is made between landed property 
 and other possessions. 
 
 LAND TORTOISE, the land tortoises 
 are easily recognized by their feet, in 
 which the toes are short, without webs, 
 and the hinder ones “clubbed,” while 
 the front of the fore limbs is protected by 
 strong horny scales, or frequently by 
 dermal ossifications. The carapace of 
 the shell is usually heavy and highly 
 arched, and the plastron is firmly 
 united to it at the sides of the body. The 
 top of the strong shell is covered with 
 shields, the tail is short. 
 
 LANDWEHR (lint'var), that portion 
 of the military force of Germany and 
 other European nations which in time 
 of peace follow their ordinary occupa- 
 
 tions, excepting when called out for 
 occasional training. The landwehr in 
 some respects resembles a militia, with 
 this important difference, that all the 
 soldiers of the landwehr have served in 
 the regular army. This system has re- 
 ceived its fullest development in Ger- 
 many, in which country it adds enor- 
 mously, and at comparatively little cost, 
 to the military power of the state. 
 
 LANGLEY, Samuel Pierpont, Ameri- 
 can astronomer, born at Roxbury, 
 Mass., in 1834. In 1867 he became pro- 
 fessor of astronomy at the Western 
 University of Pennsylvania and secre- 
 tary of the Smithsonian Institution in 
 1887. His solar observations, made at 
 Pike’s Peak in 1878, at IVlount Etna in 
 1878-79, and at Mount Whitney, Cal., 
 in 1881, added greatly to our knowledge 
 of the phenomena of solar heat. He 
 invented the bolometer, a very delicate 
 instrument for the measurement of 
 radiant heat. In 1886 he became presi- 
 dent of the American Association for the 
 Advancement of Science, and in 1894 
 received the degree of D.C.L. from Ox- 
 ford University. He is also a member 
 of the Royal Society of London, and 
 many other foreign societies. He has 
 been awarded the Janssen medal of the 
 Institute of France and the Rumford 
 medal of the Royal Society of London. 
 He died in 1906. 
 
 LANGTRY, Mrs. Lillie, English actress 
 born at Le Breton in 1852. She was 
 noted for her beauty as the Jersey Lily. 
 She made her debut in 1881 at the Hay- 
 market theater, London, in She Stoops 
 to Conquer. In 1882 she made her first 
 appearance in America with a popular 
 success which has been repeated on 
 subsequent occasions. 
 
 LANIER, Sidney, American poet, was 
 born in Macon, Ga., in 1842. He served 
 in the confederate army during the war. 
 In 1876 he prepared an ode for the cen- 
 tennial exhibition at Philadelphia, and 
 in October, 1877, settled in Baltimore, 
 where he delivered lectures on English 
 literature. In 1879 he was appointed 
 lecturer on English literature at Johns 
 Hopkins University. His two notable 
 books are his Science of English Verse, 
 and his Poems. He died in 1881. 
 
 LANGUAGE. See Philology. 
 
 Lanner. 
 
 LANNER, the Falco laniarius, a 
 species of hawk, especially the female of 
 
LANSDOWNE 
 
 LARCENY 
 
 the species, the male being called a 
 lanneret. It is a native of Southern 
 Europe, . North Africa, and Southwest 
 Asia, and was much valued in falconry. 
 
 LANSDOWNE, Henry Charles Keith 
 Fitz-Maurice, Marquis of, was born 1845, 
 ana succeeded to the marquisate in 
 1866. He has been a lord of the treasury 
 and under-secretary for war and for 
 India. Governor-general of Canada in 
 1883-88, of India, in 1888-93, secretary 
 for war in 1895-1900, he became foreign 
 secretary in 1900. 
 
 LANSING, the capital of Michigan, on 
 Grand river, 85 miles n.w. of Detroit. 
 It contains a large and handsome state- 
 
 state capltol, Lansing, Mleh. 
 
 house, an agricultural college, etc., and 
 is an important manufacturing center. 
 Pop. 19,645. 
 
 LANSINGBURGH, a town, in New 
 York, Rennselaer co., on the east bank 
 of the Hudson, nearly opposite its con- 
 fluence with the Mohawk. Pop. 14,040. 
 
 LANTERN. See Lamp. 
 
 LANTERN-FLIES, insects forming a 
 family remarkable for the prolongation 
 of their forehead into an empty vesicu- 
 lar expansion. The lantern -fly proper is 
 a native of South America. It is more 
 than 3 inches in length, and 5 across the 
 wings. It has been asserted that it emits 
 a strong light from the inflated expan- 
 sion of the forehead, but the evidence of 
 this luminosity is more than doubtful. 
 They are in fact reported to fly only dur- 
 ing sunlight and not to appear abroad 
 during dark. 
 
 LAOCOON (la-ok'o-on), in ancient 
 Greek legend, a priest of Poseidon (Nep- 
 tune), among the Trojans, who, along 
 with his two sons, was killed by two 
 enormous serpents sent by Apollo. The 
 story has frequently furnished a sub- 
 ject to the poets, but it is chiefly in- 
 teresting as having served as the sub- 
 ject of one of the most beautiful groups 
 of sculpture in the whole history of an- 
 cient art. It was discovered at Rome 
 among the ruins of the palace of Titus 
 in 1506, and is now placed in the Vati- 
 can. It is supposed to be the group de- 
 scribed by Pliny as the work of three 
 sculptors of Rhodes, a father and two 
 sons, Agesander, Polydorus, and Ath- 
 enodorus, but doubts exist as to its 
 date. 
 
 LA PAZ, or LA PAZ DE AYACUCHO, 
 
 a town of Bolivia, capital of a depart- 
 ment of the same name. Pop. 60,000. — 
 The department has an area of 45,000 
 sq. miles and a population estimated at 
 365,000 
 
 LAPLACE (la-plas), Pierre Simon, 
 Marquis de, a celebrated French mathe- 
 matician and astronomer, born 1749 
 died 1827. At the early age of twenty- 
 four was admitted into the Academy of 
 Sciences. Besides his mathematical 
 work he was associated with Lavoisier 
 in chemical research. In 1816 he was 
 named a member of the French Acad- 
 emy. Almost any one of Laplace’s 
 original researches is alone sufficient to 
 stamp him as one of the greatest of 
 mathematicians. The discovery of the 
 invariability of the major axes of the 
 planetary orbits, the explanation of the 
 great inequality in the motions of Jupi- 
 ter and Saturn, the solution of the prob- 
 lem of the acceleration of the mean 
 motion of the moon, the theory of Jupi- 
 ter’s satellites, and other important 
 laws are due to Laplace. The most im- 
 portant of his works are the M6canique 
 Celeste; Syst4me du Monde, a resmn6 
 of all modern astronomy; Th4orie 
 analytique des Probability; Essai sur 
 les Probability. 
 
 LAP'LAND,the land of the Lapps, an 
 extensive territory in the north of 
 Europe, stretching between lat. 64° and 
 71 ° n., and from the shores of Norway 
 east to those of the White Sea; area 
 about 130,000 sq. miles, of which more 
 than a half belongs to Russia, and the 
 remainder is shared, in nearly equal 
 proportions, between Sweden and Nor- 
 way. The climate for nine months of a 
 dark winter is excessively cold; spring 
 
 Republic, situated on the shores of a fine 
 natural harbor called Ensenada, in the 
 La Plata estuary, 40 miles below the 
 city of Buenos Ayres, and connected with 
 it by rail. Although recently founded as 
 the capital of Buenos Ayres province, 
 it has already become an important 
 commercial center, having a palace for 
 the legislative assembly, a cathedral, 
 law courts, theater, public park, etc. 
 Pop. estimated at 45,410. 
 
 LAPORTE, the capital of Laporte co., 
 Indiana, 60 miles southeast of Chicago. 
 The neighborhood has become a favorite 
 resort of summer visitors on account of 
 its beautiful lakes. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 LAPWING, a bird belonging to the 
 family of plovers. The common lapwing 
 
 Lapwing. 
 
 is about the size of a pigeon ; it is often 
 called the peewit from its particular cry. 
 In the breeding season these birds dis- 
 perse themselves over the interior of the 
 country, where they lay their eggs in a 
 small depression of the ground, in cul- 
 
 Laplanders. 
 
 and autumn are short ; and the summer 
 of two months, when the sun never sets, 
 is extremely hot. Vegetation is scanty 
 except in the form of birch, pine, fir, 
 and the abundant mosses which supply 
 food for the herds of reindeer. The 
 Lapps belong to the Finnic branch of 
 the Turanian family. They are a small, 
 muscular, large-headed race, with high 
 cheek-bones, wide mouth, flat nose, and 
 scanty beard. Many of them are no- 
 madic, owing their subsistence to their 
 herds of reindeer; others support them- 
 selves by fishing. They are generally 
 imorant, simple-hearted, and hospitable. 
 The Norwegian Lapps belong to the 
 Lutheran, and the Russian Lapps to the 
 Greek Church, Their numbers do not 
 exceed 27,000. 
 
 LA PLATA. See Argentine Republic. 
 
 LA PLATA, a city of the Argentine 
 
 tivated fields, moors, etc. In winter 
 they retire to the sea-coast. Their eggs 
 are esteemed a great luxury. 
 
 LAR'AMIE, a town of Wyoming, in 
 the southeast of the state in an elevated 
 region, at the height of 7100 feet. Here 
 are the Laramie plains, river, and moun- 
 tains. Pop. 11,200. 
 
 LARBOARD, the left side of a ship 
 looking toward the stem, now called the 
 port side. 
 
 LAR'CENY, is the fraudulent appro- 
 priation of the personal property of 
 another person without that person’s 
 consent. To constitute this crime the 
 removal of the goods to any distance is 
 not necessary, but it requires to be 
 shown that the article has completely 
 passed, for however short a time, into 
 possession of the criminal. Concerning 
 the kinds of things the appropriation of 
 
 P. E,— 48 
 
LARCH 
 
 LA SALLE 
 
 which is larceny, the common law re- 
 stricted them to personal property as 
 distinguished from real estate, but this 
 distinction has been largely abolished by 
 recent statues. Larceny was formerly 
 divided into two kinds, grand and petty, 
 or the difference between articles above 
 and below the value of a shilling, but 
 this distinction has now been abolished. 
 At one time the punishment for grand 
 larceny was death p later it was re- 
 stricted to transportation ; now the pun- 
 ishment for larceny is imprisonment or 
 penal servitude, and depends on the 
 previous character of the prisoner. 
 
 LARCH, the common name of trees 
 having deciduous leaves, small erect oval 
 blunt-pointed cones, and irregularly 
 margined scales. This genus is now 
 usually xinited to Abies. 
 
 LAR'COM, Lucy, American poetess, 
 born at Beverly, Mass., in 1826. She 
 contributed to the Lowell Offering, a 
 periodical which existed about 1840-45 
 as a literary journal for the mill opera- 
 tives. Her work attracted the notice 
 of Whittier, with whom she afterward 
 compiled Child-Life and Songs of Three 
 Centuries. In 1865 she became assistant 
 editor (and from 1866 to 1874 editor) of 
 Our Young Folks, since merged in the 
 Saint Nicholas. She died 1893. 
 
 LARD, is obtained from the fat of 
 swine when it is heated to boiling point 
 and then strained. It- is chiefly com- 
 posed of oleine and stearine, and is now 
 largely used in the manufacture of 
 candles, soap, pomades, etc. The best 
 quality is found in the fat which sur- 
 rounds the kidneys, and this is em- 
 ployed in pharmacy for the preparation 
 of unguents. When subjected to pressure 
 the oleine is liberated, forming lard-oil, 
 which is much used as a lubricant for 
 machinery. 
 
 LAREDO (la-ra'do), the county-seat 
 of Webb CO., Texas, 153 miles south- 
 west of San Antonio; on the Rio Grande, 
 opposite Nuevo Laredo, with which it is 
 connected by bridges, and on the Inter- 
 national and Great Northern, the Mexi- 
 can National, and other railroads. Pop. 
 15,560. 
 
 LARE'DO, the capital of Webb co., 
 Tex., on the Rio Grande river, and the 
 Int. and Gt. N., the Mex. Nat. and the 
 Rio G. and Eagle Pass railways; op- 
 posite Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, with 
 which it is connected by two steel 
 bridges; 153 miles w. of San Antonio. It 
 is in the Rio Grande coal region. Pop. 
 14,675. 
 
 LARK, the common name of birds 
 characterized by a short, strong bill- 
 nostrils covered with feathers; forked 
 tongue; long, straight hind-claw; and 
 the power to raise the feathers on the 
 back part of the head in the form of a 
 crest. Their distribution throughout the 
 Old World is general, but the only species 
 found in America is the Shore-lark.' They 
 are terrestrial in their habits, feed upon 
 worms, larvae, etc., nest upon the ground 
 and bring forth a brood twice in the year. 
 The best known is the sky-lark, which is 
 celebrated for the prolonged beauty of 
 its song. The wood-lark is less common 
 than the sky-lark, and is known by its 
 smaller size and less distinct colors. It 
 perches upon trees, and is found chiefly 
 in fields near the borders of woods. It 
 
 sings during the night, and on this ac- 
 count has been mistaken for the night- 
 ingale. 
 
 LARKSPUR, sometimes called Lark’s- 
 heel, a genus of plants distinguished by 
 its petaloid calyx, the superior sepal of 
 which terminates in a long spur. The 
 Upright Larkspur and the Branching 
 Larkspur are well-known garden flowers. 
 
 LA ROCHEFOUCAULD (rosh-fo-ko), 
 Francois, due de. Prince de Marsillac, a 
 distinguished courtier and man of let- 
 ters under Louis XIV., was born at Paris 
 in 1613, died 1680. His Memoires, pub- 
 lished in 1662, and his Reflexions ou 
 Sentences et Maximes Morales, pub- 
 lished anonymously in 1665, were the 
 fruits of his literary activity. For its 
 brilliancy of style, it is still considered a 
 French classic. 
 
 LA ROCHELLE. See Rochelle. 
 
 LARVA, the term applied in natural 
 history to the first stage in the meta- 
 morphosis of insects, and certain other 
 of the lower invertebrates. In insects 
 it is equivalent to the grub or caterpillar 
 stage. Many of the Crustacea, as crabs 
 and barnacles, and even vertebrata, as 
 in frogs and newts, pass through larval 
 forms. The larval crab was for long de- 
 scribed as a distinct crustacean with the 
 name of Zoea. See Metamorphosis. 
 
 LARYNGI'TIS, inflammation of the 
 mucous membrane lining the larynx. 
 It may be acute or chronic. The first 
 usually arises from a cold. 
 
 LARYN'GOSCOPE, a contrivance for 
 examining the larynx and commence- 
 ment of the trachea. It consists of a 
 plane mirror introduced into the mouth, 
 and placed at such an angle that the 
 light thrown on it from a concave re- 
 flector, in the center of which is an 
 aperture, is made to illuminate the 
 larynx, the image of which is again 
 reflected through the aperture in the 
 reflector to the eye of the observer. 
 
 LARYNX, the organ by which the 
 voice is produced, situated at the upper 
 part of the trachea or windpipe. The 
 larynx is formed mainly of two pieces of 
 cartilage, called the thyroid and the 
 cricoid, one placed above the other. 
 The thyroid is formed of two extended 
 wings meeting at the middle line in front 
 in a ridge ; above and from the sides two 
 horns project upward, which are con- 
 nected by bands to the hyoid bone, 
 from which the larynx is suspended. 
 The thyroid cartilage rests and is mov- 
 able upon the cricoid, moving back- 
 ward or forward, but not from side to 
 side. The cricoid cartilage is shaped like 
 a signet-ring, the narrow part of the ring 
 being in front. The cricoid carries, 
 perched on its upper edge behind, the 
 arytenoid cartilages, which are of great 
 importance in the production of the 
 voice. These various cartilages form a 
 framework upon which muscles and 
 mucous membranes are disposed. The 
 mucous membrane which lines the 
 larynx is thrown into various folds. 
 These folds are called the true vocal 
 cords, and by their movements the voice 
 is produced. They are called true, as 
 distinct from the false vocal chords which 
 are above them, but take no part in pro- 
 ducing the voice. The true vocal cords 
 projecting toward the middle form a 
 chink, which is called the glottis. By 
 
 the contraction of various muscles this 
 chink can be so brought together that 
 the air forced through it throws the 
 edges of the membrane into vibration 
 and so produce sounds. Variations in 
 the form of the chink will affect changes 
 in the sound. Thus the production of 
 voice is the same as in musical instru- 
 meiRs, the arrangements in the larynx 
 being such as to produce (1) the vibra- 
 tory sounds, (2) to regulate the sound, 
 (3) to vary the pitch, and (4) to deter- 
 mine the quality of the sound. The 
 rapid, delicate, muscular movements 
 involved are produced by nervous 
 stimuli reaching the muscles from the 
 brain. Thus the voice is produced in the 
 
 Larynx internally (1) and externally (2). 
 
 larynx, and is modified by the rest of the 
 respiratory passages. (See Voice.) In 
 the act of swallowing, the glottis is 
 covered by a cartilaginous plate called 
 the epiglottis. — In the accompanying 
 cut, fig. 1 shows c the larynx internally, 
 B being the epiglottis situated above the 
 glottis or entrance to the larynx, aa the 
 trachea, and d the oesophagus or gullet. 
 In fig. 2 j is the trachea, B the hyoid 
 bone, NN the thyreo hyoid membrane, 
 o the thyreo-hyoid ligament, g the 
 thyreoid cartilage, h the cricoid cartil- 
 age, p the crico-thyreoid ligament. 
 
 LA SALLE, a thriving city, the capital 
 of La Salle co., Illinois, on the north 
 bank of the Illinois river, 100 miles 
 southwest of Chicago. It has zinc smelt- 
 ing works and rolling-mills. There is a 
 good supply of bituminous coal in the 
 neighborhood. Pop. 12,446. 
 
 LA SALLE, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de, 
 a French explorer in North America, 
 was born at Rouen in 1643. He became 
 a settler in Carrada, and about 1669 he 
 
 La Salle. 
 
 sought to reach China by way of the 
 Ohio, supposing, from the reports of 
 Indians, this river to flow into the Pacific. 
 He made explorations of the country 
 between the Ohio and the lakes, but, 
 when Joliet and Marquette made it evi- 
 dent that the main river Mississippi 
 
LASCAR 
 
 LATHS AND LATHWOOD 
 
 emptied in the Gulf of Mexico, he con- 
 ceived a vast project for extending the 
 French power in the lower Mississippi 
 valley. Toward the close of 1681 La 
 Salle reached the head of Lake Michi- 
 gan, at the present site of Chicago, and, 
 making the long portage to the Illinois, 
 descended it to the Mississippi, which 
 he followed to its mouth, where he set 
 up a cross and the arms of France, April 
 9, 1682. La Salle fell sick on his voyage 
 up the river, and sent on intelligence of 
 his success, which was carried to France 
 by Father Membr6, and was published 
 in Hennepin’s work in 1683. When La 
 Salle reached France, projects were 
 taken up by the government for an ex- 
 pedition against the rich mining country 
 of northern Mexico. Plans were sub- 
 mitted by La Salle and by Penalosa, a 
 renegade Spaniard, who, while governor 
 of New Mexico in 1662, had penetrated 
 apparently to the Mississippi. La Salle 
 was accordingly sent out in July, 1684, 
 with four vessels and a small body of 
 soldiers, ostensibly to found an estab- 
 lishment at the mouth of the Mississippi, 
 but really to push on and secure a favor- 
 able base of operations, and gain the aid 
 of the Indians against the Spaniards, 
 while awaiting a more powerful force 
 under Penalosa. The design was so well 
 masked, and subsequently misrepre- 
 sented, that he is generally said to have 
 been carried beyond the Mississippi by 
 the treachery of Beaujeau, a naval officer 
 commanding one of the vessels. After 
 running along the coast. La Salle re- 
 turned to Espiritu Santo Bay, Texas. 
 There he landed his soldiers, but lost one 
 vessel with valuable stores. He refused 
 Beaujeau’s offer to obtain aid for him 
 from the West Indies, and when that 
 officer, according to his orders, sailed 
 back. La Salle put up a rude fort. Then 
 for two years, from January, 1685, to 
 January, 1687, he wasted the time in 
 aimless excursions by land, never getting 
 beyond the present limits of Texas, and 
 making no attempt to explore the coast 
 or reach the Mississippi with his remain- 
 ing vessel. His colonists and soldiery 
 dwindled away; no reenforcements or 
 expedition under Penalosa arrived; and 
 in January, 1687, leaving part of his 
 force at Fort St. Louis, he set out with 
 the rest to reach Canada by way of the 
 Mississippi to obtain relief. His harsh- 
 ness and arbitrary manner had pro- 
 voked a bitter feeling among his fol- 
 lowers, and he was assassinated on 
 March 19th, near the Trinity river. 
 Some of the survivors reached Tonty’s 
 post on the Arkansas, and returned to 
 France by way of Canada The party 
 left at the fort were nearly all cut off by 
 the Indians, a few survivors having been 
 rescued by a Spanish force sent to root 
 out the French. 
 
 LASCAR, the name applied by Euro- 
 peans to native East Indian sailors, 
 many of whom are now employed in the 
 mercantile marine. 
 
 LAS CASAS, Bartolom6 de, a Spanish 
 prelate, known as the Apostle of the 
 Indians, born 1474, died 1556. He 
 accompanied Columbus to Hispaniola in 
 1498, and on the conquest of Cuba re- 
 ceived charge as priest there, and dis- 
 tinguished himself for his humane treat- 
 ment of the natives. In his zeal for the 
 
 Indians he returned to Spain several 
 times and obtained decrees in their 
 favor, which, however, were of little 
 avail. In the cause of religion h.e visited 
 various parts of the New World, includ- 
 ing Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, etc. In 
 1542 he wrote his famous Brevissima 
 Relacion de la Destruccion de las Indias. 
 He died at Madrid. 
 
 LAS CASES (las ciis), Emmanuel Au- 
 guste Dieudonn6 Marin Joseph, Comte 
 de, French writer, born in 1766, died in 
 1842. After Waterloo he shared Napo- 
 leon’s imprisonment in St. Helena, where 
 the emperor dictated part of his Memoirs 
 to Las Cases, and took lessons from him 
 in English. Removed to the Cape of 
 Good Hope from St. Helena for sending 
 out a secret letter, he was permitted to 
 return to France after Napoleon’s 
 death, where he published the M6morial 
 de St. Helene in his Atlas Historique. 
 
 LASSA, or LHASSA, the capital of 
 Tibet, situated on the Kitchu, a tribu- 
 tary of the Brahmaputra. Pop. of city 
 and suburbs estimated at 50,000. 
 
 LASSALLE (la'sal-le), Ferdinand, a no- 
 table German socialist, born at Breslau 
 1825, of Jewish parents; studied at Berlin 
 university; first made himself known as 
 a leader during the democratic troubles 
 of 1848, and was imprisoned for a year. 
 In 1861 he published his System of Ac- 
 quired Rights. Thereafter he pro- 
 ceeded to organize the working-classes, 
 which caused the government to accuse 
 him of sedition, and he was imprisoned 
 for four months. In May, 1863, he 
 founded a Labor Union, and began that 
 socialist propaganda which has since 
 become so wide-spread in Germany. 
 In the summer of 1864 he sought rest in 
 Switzerland, and was there killed in a 
 duel occasioned by a love affair. 
 
 LASSO, a contrivance used in Spanish 
 America, consisting of a long rope of 
 plaited rawhide, at one end of which is 
 a small metal ring. By means of this 
 ring a noose is readily formed, and the 
 lasso, or lariat, is then used for catching 
 wild cattle, the rope being east over the 
 animal’s head or leg while the hunter is 
 in full gallop. 
 
 LAS VEGAS (las-va'gas), the county- 
 seat of San Miguel co., N. M., 83 miles 
 (40 in a direct line) east of Santa Fe; on 
 the Gallinas, a branch of the Pecos river, 
 and on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa 
 Fe railroad. It includes two parts solidly 
 built together — an unorganized section, 
 the old Mexican town, which is the 
 county-seat; and, lying to the east, the 
 modern quarter, incorporated in 1888 
 under the name East Las Vegas, this 
 town in 1896 becoming the city of Las 
 Vegas. Las Vegas is an important wool 
 market, and the commercial center for 
 the adjacent country, which is interested 
 principally in farming and stock-raising. 
 The famous Las Vegas Hot Springs, a 
 popular health resort 6765 feet above 
 sea level, is six miles distant. Pop. 
 10 , 121 . 
 
 LATEEN' SAIL, is a triangular sail 
 used in xebecs, feluccas, etc., in the 
 Mediterranean, and in the dahabeahs of 
 the Nile. It is extended by a lateen 
 yard, which is slung across a mast so as 
 to make an angle of about 45 degrees 
 with it, the lower portion of the yard 
 being about a third of the whole. 
 
 LATENT HEAT, that portion of heat 
 which exists in any body without pro- 
 ducing any effect upon another or upon 
 the thermometer; termed also insensible 
 as distinct from sensible heat. It be- 
 comes sensible during the conversion of 
 vapors into liquids, and of liquids into 
 solids; and on the other hand a portion 
 of sensible heat disappears or becomes 
 latent when a body changes its form 
 from the solid to the liquid, or from the 
 liquid to the gaseous state. 
 
 LATHE, a machine for turning and 
 polishing flat, round, cylindrical, oval, 
 and every intermediate form of body in 
 wood, ivory, metals, etc., the object 
 worked on receiving a rotary motion ; it 
 is also used in glass-cutting and earthen- 
 ware manufacture. It may be turned by 
 
 Lateen sail. 
 
 the hand, the foot, steam-power, water, 
 etc. A duplex lathe is one which works 
 on two turning tools at once; Blanch- 
 ard’s lathe is one for turning objects of 
 an irregular form, as lasts, gun-stocks, 
 etc. A throw-lathe is one in which the 
 mechanic drives the lathe with one 
 hand, holding the cutting tool with the 
 other. — The term is also applied to the 
 batten or lay of a loom in which the reed 
 is fixed, and by the movements of which 
 the weft-threads are laid parallel to each 
 other, shot after shot, in the process of 
 weaving. 
 
 LA'THROP, George Parsons, Ameri- 
 can journalist and poet, born at Oahu, 
 Sandwich Islands in, 1851. He was from 
 1875 to 1877 assistant editor of the 
 Atlantic Monthly; then till 1879 editor 
 of the Boston Courier. He published: 
 Rose and Roof Tree, poems; Study of 
 Hawthorne; Afterglow, a novel; A 
 Masque of Poets; an edition of Nathaniel 
 Hawthorne’s Works, with a biography; 
 Spanish Vistas; Gold of Pleasure; 
 Dreams and Days. He died in 1898. 
 
 LATHROP, Rose Hawthorne, Ameri- 
 can poet and philanthropist, was born 
 at Lenox, Mass., in 1851. She married 
 George Parsons Lathrop in 1871. She 
 wrote many stories and sketches; a 
 volume of poems. Along the Shore and 
 Memories of Hawthorne, with her hus- 
 band. In 1896 she established in New 
 York City Saint Rose’s Free Home for 
 Cancer; and soon after, with the title of 
 Mother Mary Alphonsa, she became 
 head of a Dominican community of the 
 Third Order and director of a charitable 
 home in that city. 
 
 LATHS AND LATHWOOD. Small 
 strips of wood, thin and narrow. They 
 are of various lengths, rarely more than 
 four feet, and are made either by split- 
 ting lathwood, which is the Norway 
 
LATIMER 
 
 LAUREATE 
 
 spruce fir, or else they are sawn from the 
 small portions of the lumber. Laths 
 are used for nailing to the uprights of 
 partition walls, and to the rafters of 
 ceilings; they are placed slightly apart 
 to receive the plaster, which, by being 
 pressed into the intervals between the 
 laths, is retained, and when dry is held 
 securely on the wall. 
 
 LAT'IMER, Hugh, D.D an English 
 prelate, reformer, and martyr, born 
 about 1490. He was made chaplain to 
 Henry VIII. in 1530, and during the 
 ascendency of Anne Boleyn in 1535 he 
 was appointed bishop of Worcester. 
 In 1538 he resigned his bishopric, not 
 being able to accept the Six Articles, 
 and was put in prison, but on the acces- 
 sion of Edward VI. he was released and 
 became highly popular at court. This 
 continued until Mary ascended the 
 throne, when Latimer was cited to ap- 
 pear, along with Cranmer and Ridley, 
 before a council at Oxford, and con- 
 demned. After much delay and a second 
 trial, Latimer and Ridley were burned at 
 the stake, Oct. 16, 1555. His preaching 
 was popular in his own time for its pith, 
 simplicity, and quaintness. 
 
 LATIN CHURCH, the Roman Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 LATIN EMPIRE. See Byzantine Em- 
 pire. 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE AND LITERA- 
 TURE. See Rome. 
 
 LATITUDE, in geography, the dis- 
 tance of any place on the globe north or 
 south of the equator measured on its 
 
 meridian. It is called north or south 
 according as the place is on the north or 
 south of the equator. The highest or 
 greatest latitude is 90°, that is, at the 
 poles; the lowest or smallest 0°, at the 
 equator, between which and the poles 
 any number of parallel circles called 
 arallels of latitude may be supposed to 
 e drawn. One method of finding the 
 latitude of a place is by measuring the 
 altitude of the pole-star. When the 
 latitude and longitude of a place are 
 given its position on a map is easily 
 found. See Longitude. 
 
 LATTICE-GIRDER, a girder of which 
 the web consists of d.iagonal pieces ar- 
 ranged like lattice-work. Lattice-bridge 
 is the name given when the cross-fram- 
 ing is made to resemble lattice-work. 
 
 LATTICE-LEAF, Lattice-plant, a very 
 remarkable aquatic plant of Madagascar 
 noteworthy for the structure of its 
 leaves. The blade resembles lattice- 
 work or open needle-work, the longi- 
 tunidal ribs being crossed by tendrils, 
 and the interstices between them open. 
 
 LAUD, William, Archbishop of Can- 
 
 terbury in the reign of Charles I., was 
 born at Reading in Berkshire, 1573. 
 After the accession of Charles I. Laud 
 was translated to the see of Bath and 
 Wells, and in 1628 to that of London, 
 while his influence seemed to increase. 
 In 1630 he was elected chancellor of the 
 University of Oxford, which he en- 
 riched with a valuable collection of 
 manuscripts, establishing also a pro- 
 fessorship of Arabic. In 1633 he was 
 promoted to the see of Canterbury. In 
 
 Lattice plant. 
 
 1634 he instituted rigorous proceedings 
 against all who would not conform to 
 the Church of England. By means of 
 spies he hunted out the Puritans, and 
 sought to extinguish all forms of dissent 
 by means of fines, imprisonment, and 
 exile. He prosecuted Prynne, Burton, 
 and Bastwick for libel, and to him is 
 attributed the severe sentences which 
 they received. When the Long Parlia- 
 ment met (1640) the archbishop was 
 impeached for high treason at the bar 
 of the House of Lords by enzil Holies 
 and committed to the Tower. After three 
 years he was brought to trial, but the 
 lords deferred giving judgment. The 
 House of Commons, however, passed a 
 bill of attainder (January, 1644), de- 
 clared him guilty of high treason, and 
 condemned him to death. Accordingly 
 he met his end on the scaffold at Tower 
 Hill with great firmness. An edition of 
 his works was published by Parker 
 (Oxford, 1857-60). 
 
 LAU'DANUM, tincture of opium. 
 See Opium. 
 
 LAUGHING-GAS, nitrous ovide, or 
 nitrogen monoxide, or protoxide of 
 nitrogen; so called because, when in- 
 haled, it usually produces exhilaration. 
 See Nitrogen. 
 
 LAUGHING JACKASS, or GIANT 
 KINGFISHER, a bird allied to the king- 
 
 Laughing Jackass. 
 
 fisher, deriving its former title from the 
 singularly strange character of its cry. 
 It is an inhabitant of Australia, being 
 found chiefly in the southeastern por- 
 tion of that country. It makes no nest 
 
 but deposits its eggs in the decayed hol- 
 low of a gum-tree. In length about 18 
 inches, it has a dark-brown crest, its 
 back and upper surface is olive-brown, 
 wings brown-black, and the breast and 
 under portions white, crossed by faint 
 bars of pale brown. The tail is longish, 
 with a rounded extremity, tipped with 
 white; its color is a rich chestnut, with 
 deep black bars. 
 
 LAUGHTER, the outward expression 
 of a certain emotion or excited condition 
 of the nervous system, manifested 
 chiefly in certain convulsive and partly 
 involuntary actions of the muscles of 
 respiration, by means of which the air, 
 being expelled from the chest in a series 
 of jerks, produces a succession of short 
 abrupt sounds; certain movements of 
 the muscles of the face, and often of 
 other parts of the body also taking place. 
 Laughter is generally excited by things 
 which are of a ridiculous or ludicrous 
 nature, the ultimate cause being usually 
 attributed to the perception of some 
 incongruity, though mere incongruity 
 is not always sufficient. It may also be 
 caused, especially in the young, by 
 tickling; it also accompanies hysteria 
 and sometimes extreme grief. 
 
 LAUNCH, the largest boat carried 
 by a man of war; both steam and sail. 
 Launches from 40 to 60 feet are carried 
 and used for picket boats to guard 
 against surprise by torpedo boats, by 
 battle ships and large armored cruisers. 
 
 LAUNCHING, the process of remov- 
 ing a ship from the land to the water. 
 The keel is laid upon a number of wooden 
 blocks placed 6 or 7 feet apart and built 
 up 3 or 4 feet from the ground, the tops 
 of which slope downward to the water. 
 When the ship is ready for launching, 
 “ways” of timber and planking are laid 
 down parallel to the keel, and at some 
 little distance on each side of it, under 
 the bilges of the ship; they extend into 
 the water a considerable distance below 
 high-water mark. A “cradle” is then 
 built under the ship, of which the bot- 
 tom is formed of smooth timbers resting 
 upon the ways. Before launching, the 
 under sides of these timbers and the 
 upper sides of the ways are well greased, 
 and the weight of the ship is transferred 
 from the keel-blocks to the cradle and 
 ways. Timbers, called “dog-shores,” 
 are placed so as to resist the tendency 
 of the ship to slide down until the right 
 moment, when the dog-shores are 
 knocked away. Many large battle ships 
 and some other vessels have been built 
 in dry docks and floated out when ready, 
 instead of being launched. This system 
 is economical, if the dry docks are not 
 needed for other purposes. On the Great 
 Lakes the practice of launching ships 
 sidewise is very common. 
 
 LAU'REATE, Poet, a designation first 
 applied to poets who were honored by 
 the gift of a laurel wreath. It is now the 
 name of an official connected with the 
 royal household of Great Britain, the 
 patent for which appears to have been 
 granted by Charles I. 1630, although 
 Ben Jonson and others are said to have 
 held the title previously. It was the 
 chief duty of the laureate to furnish an 
 ode on the birthday of the king or upon 
 the occasion of a national victory, the 
 emolument attached to the office beinjt 
 
LAUREL 
 
 LAWRENCE 
 
 
 $500 a year with a tierce of caQary. 
 Since the reign of George III. there ha,ve 
 been no special duties connected with 
 the office. From the time of Charles II. 
 the following poets have in succession 
 held the office of laureate: — John Dry- 
 den, Nahum Tate, Nicholas Rowe, 
 Lawrence Eusden, Colley Cibber, Wil- 
 liam Whitehead, Thomas Warton, Henry 
 James Pye, Robert Southey, William 
 Wordsworth, Lord Tennyson, and Alfred 
 Austin. 
 
 LAUREL, a plant belonging to the 
 genus Laurus, nat. order Lauraceee, to 
 which it gives the name. The sweet-bay 
 or laurel is a native of the north of 
 Africa and south of Europe, and is cul- 
 tivated in gardens not only on account 
 of its elegant appearance, but also for 
 the aromatic fragrance of its evergreen 
 leaves. The fruit, which is of a purple 
 color, and also the leaves, have long 
 been used in medicine as stimulants and 
 carminatives. The name is also given to 
 other plants, as in America to the 
 Rhododendron maximum. In ancinet 
 times heroes and scholars were crowned 
 with wreaths of bay leaves, whence the 
 terms laurels in sense of honors and 
 laureate. From the fruit of the sweet- 
 bay or laurel several oily substances 
 have been extracted. Thus there is the 
 oil of laurel, a yellowish oil with an odor 
 of laurel and a strong bitter taste; laurel 
 fat, a yellowish-green buttery substance, 
 used for embrocations in rheumatism, 
 paralysis, deafness, etc. The cherry- 
 laurel also yields a volatile poisonous 
 oil when its leaves are distilled in water. 
 Notwithstanding this cherry-laurel 
 leaves are often employed in cookery for 
 their flavoring qualities. But caution 
 requires to be exercised in their use, 
 as death has resulted from an over- 
 supply in custards, puddings, etc., and 
 it is better to use bay leaves instead. 
 From the cherry-laurel laurel-water is 
 produced from the leaves by distillation. 
 See Laurel-water. 
 
 LAUREL-WATER, a fluid obtained 
 by maceration and distillation from the 
 leaves of the cherry-laurel, being a 
 watery solution of the volatile oil con- 
 tained in the plant. It contains prussic 
 acid and is therefore poisonous, but is 
 used medicinally. See above article. 
 
 LAURENTIAN, in geology, a term 
 applied to a vast series of stratified and 
 crystalline rocks of gneiss, mica-schist, 
 quartzite, serpentine, and limestone, 
 about 40,000 feet in thickness, lying 
 northward of the St. Lawrence in 
 Canada. The Laurentian is the lowest 
 fossiliferous system of rocks, if its char- 
 acteristic and only fossil, the Eozoon 
 canadense, can be ranked as a fossil. 
 (See Eozoon.) The terms Archsean and 
 Pre-Cambrian are used in Britain for 
 rocks occupying a similar position to the 
 Laurentain. See Geology. 
 
 LAURENTAIN MOUNTAINS, a range 
 in Canada extending for over 3000 miles 
 from Labrador to the Arctic Ocean, 
 forming the watershed between Hud- 
 son’s Bay, the St. Lawrence, and the 
 great lakes, and dividing the same bay 
 from the sources of the Mackenzie river. 
 The average elevation is about 1500 feet, 
 while some of the peaks attain a height 
 of 4000 feet. 
 
 LAVA, the general term for all rock- 
 
 matter that flows, or has flowed, in a 
 molten state from valcanoes, and which 
 when cooled down forms varieties of 
 tufa, trachyte, trachytic greenstone, 
 and basalt, according to tire varying 
 proportions of felspar, hornblende, 
 augite, etc., which enter into the com- 
 position of the mass, and according to 
 the slowness or rapidity with which it 
 has cooled. The more rapidly this proc- 
 ess of cooling goes on the more compact 
 is the rock. — Lava beds are of two kinds, 
 namely, contemporaneous and intrusive. 
 A contemporaneous lava bed is one 
 which has been poured out over the sur- 
 face of one deposit, and covered by sub- 
 sequent deposits. Such a bed is in its 
 natural position, and usually alters only 
 the bed beneath it. Intrusive beds are 
 those which have been forced up in a 
 molten state through or between strata, 
 altering those on both sides. 
 
 LA VALLIERE (val-yar), Louise 
 Fran9oise de la Baume le Blanc de, was 
 born in Touraine in 1644, died 1710. 
 The descendant of an ancient family, 
 she was brought to court by her mother, 
 became mistress to Louis XIV., and bore 
 him four children. The king raised the 
 estate of Vaujour into a duchy and a 
 peerage in favor of her and her children. 
 Superseded at court by Madame de 
 Montespan she retired to a Carmelite 
 convent in 1674, where she died. 
 
 LAV'ENDER, a delightfully fragrant 
 shrub 3-4 feet high, a native of the south 
 of Europe. Under favorable conditions 
 it contains one-fourth of its own weight 
 in camphor. It also produces a volatile 
 oil, which is much in demand as an ex- 
 cellent perfume. This oil is got by dis- 
 tilling the flowers. It has a pale-yellow 
 color, aromatic odor, and a hot taste. 
 Besides being employed as a perfume, 
 it is used in medicine as a stimulant in 
 hysteria, colic, and other affections. 
 Spirit of Lavender is prepared by digest- 
 ing the fresh flowers in rectified spirits 
 and distilling. Lavender-water is a 
 solution of oil of lavender in spirit along 
 with otto of roses, bergamot, musk, 
 cloves, rosemary, etc. This preparation 
 after standing for some time is strained 
 and mixed with a certain proportion of 
 distilled water. Enough oil is produced 
 annually in England to make 30,000 
 gallons of lavender-water. 
 
 LAVOISIER (la-vwa-si-a) , Antoine 
 Laurent, a celebrated French chemist, 
 was born at Paris 1743. Conspicuous 
 in all respects, when to be conspicuous 
 was a crime, Lavoisier was accused 
 before the convention as an ex-farmer- 
 general and guillotined, 8th May, l’794. 
 He was the first to organize the methods 
 of chemistry and establish its terminol- 
 ogy. His most important discoveries 
 are to be found in his Trait6 de 
 Chimie and Memoires de Physique et 
 de Chimie. 
 
 LAW. See Commercial Law, Canon 
 Law, Civil Law, Common Law, Inter- 
 national Law, etc. 
 
 LAW, John, of Lauriston, a celebrated 
 financial projector, son of a goldsmith of 
 Edinburgh, born 1671, died 1729. He 
 was bred to no profession, but being 
 skilled in accounts he made various pro- 
 posals to the Scottish parliament to 
 remedy the currency, which were re- 
 jected. Subsequently he fled from his 
 
 country in consequence of a duel ; vi.sited 
 Genoa and Venice, where he accumulated 
 a fortune by gambling; settled in France, 
 where he received royal patronage and 
 started a private bank, and floated his 
 celebrated Mississippi company. His 
 immediate success was so great that he 
 was made a councillor of state and comp- 
 troller-general, but the large amount of 
 paper-money issued depreciated the 
 shares, and led to the collapse of his 
 schemes. Having had to flee from 
 France, he wandered about Europe as a 
 gambler, and died at Venice in poverty. 
 A volume entitled (Euvres de J. Law 
 was published at Paris in 1790, 8vo. 
 
 LAWN TENNIS is a modified develop- 
 ment of an old English game, and is 
 played with rackets and india-rubber 
 balls. The players number two, four, 
 or more, forming even sides. The ground 
 on which the game is played is usually 
 78 feet long by 30 feet broad. Thir jace 
 is divided by a net 24 feet wide, feet 
 high at the ends, and 4 feet in the center! 
 the extreme ends of the area are called 
 the base lines. The space on either side 
 of the net thus marked off is called 
 a court. This court has two lines 
 running through it: one of which is 
 called the central line, and runs 
 lengthwise; the other is known as the 
 service line, and runs parallel to, 
 and 30 feet distant from, the central net. 
 The ground thus divided is called the 
 right and left courts. The mode of play- 
 ing with two is, that one is called the 
 server or “hand-in,” while the other is 
 “hand-out.” When the ball is served 
 by “hand-in” the server must stand 
 with one foot outside the base line of the 
 court, beginning on the right side, and 
 his aim is to pitch the ball across the 
 net and into the court diagonally op- 
 posed. If the server fails to do this it is 
 called “a fault,” and he must serve 
 again. When the ball is properly served 
 it is the opponent’s duty to return it 
 across the net before it touches the 
 ground a second time. Should the ball 
 not be returned, “hand-in” scores a 
 point; on the contrary, should the ball 
 not be properly served, “hand-out” 
 scores. The player who first scores 
 fifteen wins the game, but if both 
 players are equal at fourteen the score 
 is called “deuce.” It is here that “van- 
 tage” is introduced, and in order to 
 score game the player must win two 
 successive points, otherwise the score 
 returns to “deuce.” 
 
 LAW OF NATIONS. See International 
 Law. 
 
 LAWRENCE, a town in Essex co., 
 Massachusetts, on both sides of the 
 Merrimac river, 26 miles north from 
 Boston. The principal buildings are 
 the courthouse, state university, opera 
 house, etc. It is principally supported by 
 its extensive cotton and woolen factories, 
 paper-mills, and manufactures of steam- 
 engines, etc. Pop. 1909, about 76,000. 
 
 LAWRENCE, the capital of Douglas 
 CO., Kan.; on both sides of the Kansas 
 river, and on the Atch., Top. and S. F6, 
 the Kan. City, Wyo. and N. W., and the 
 Union Pac. railways; 38 miles w. of 
 Kansas City. It is the seat of the State 
 University and of Haskell Institute 
 which, next to that at Carlisle, Pa., ia 
 
LAWRENCE, ST. 
 
 LEAD 
 
 the largest Indian training-school in the 
 United States. Pop. 12,100. 
 
 LAWRENCE, ST., one of the largest 
 rivers in the world, which rises under the 
 name of the St. Louis, and drains the 
 great chain of North American lakes. In 
 different parts of its course it is known 
 by different names. From the sea to 
 Lake Ontario it is called St. Lawrence; 
 between Lakes Ontario and Ei-ie it is 
 called Niagara river; between Lakes 
 Erie and St. Clair, Detroit river; be- 
 tween Lakes St. Clair and Huron, St. 
 Clair’s river; between Lakes Huron and 
 Superior, St. Mary’s river or the Nar- 
 rows, forming thus an uninterrupted 
 waterway of upward of 2000 miles. 
 It receives the Ottawa, its principal 
 auxiliary, at Montreal, as also the St. 
 Maurice, the Saguenay, and numerous 
 other large rivers from the north. The 
 river is navigable for Atlantic steamers 
 to the city of Montreal, 600 miles up, 
 and from Montreal upward by river and 
 lake steamers. The rapids between 
 Montreal and Lake Ontario are passed 
 by means of canals, and Niagara Falls 
 by the Welland Canal. The river’s 
 breadth between Montreal and Quebec 
 is from J to 4 miles; the average breadth, 
 about 2 miles. Below Quebec it gradually 
 widens till it enters the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence. From the beginning of De- 
 cember to the middle of April the navi- 
 gation is totally suspended by ice. In 
 part of its course it forms the boundary 
 between the United States and Canada. 
 
 LAWRENCE, ST., Gulf of, a large 
 inlet of the North Atlantic in British 
 North America, forming the continua- 
 tion of the estuary of the river St. 
 Lawrence, and separated from the 
 Atlantic chiefly by the island of New- 
 foundland, Cape Breton, and Nova 
 Scotia. It communicates with the ocean 
 by the opening betwixt Newfoundland 
 and Cape Breton, about 65 miles wide, 
 by the Strait of Belle Isle and the Gut 
 of Canso. It contains numerous islands, 
 the principal of which are Anticosti, 
 Prince Edward’s, and the Magdalens. 
 
 LAWRENCE, JAMES, American naval 
 officer, was born in Burlington, Vt., 
 in 1781. He distinguished himself in 
 the war with Tripoli. In 1808 he served 
 as first lieutenant on the Constitution 
 and then commanded successively the 
 
 Argus, the Vixen and the Wasp. In 
 1811 he was made captain of the 
 Hornet, and in 1813 defeated the Brit- 
 ish brig-of-war Peacock Congress gave 
 him a gold medal as a reward for this 
 victory, and he was also given command 
 of the Chesapeake. On June 1, 1813, 
 he attacked the British frigate Shannon 
 
 and a bloody engagement took place, 
 the Chesapeake was captured and 
 Lawrence mortally wounded. While 
 being carried below he uttered the 
 words, “Don’t give up the ship,” which 
 soon became a motto in the navy. 
 
 LAWRENCE, John Laird Mair, Lord, 
 Governor-general of India, born in York- 
 shire 1811, died in London 1879. Edu- 
 cated at the college of Haileybury, he 
 went to India, in 1829 where his rare 
 administrative ability attracted atten- 
 tion, and caused him to receive the 
 appointment of chief-commissioner of 
 the Punjab in 1853, after he had served 
 in minor posts. The entire wisdom of 
 this appointment was demonstrated 
 during the Indian Mutiny of 1857. By 
 
 John, Jjord Lawrence. 
 
 the influence which he had gained over 
 the Sikhs, Lawrence was able not only 
 to keep the Punjab quiet, but to collect 
 native forces and send them to assist 
 in the early capture of Delhi. He was 
 known as the savior of India, and his 
 services were rewarded by his being made 
 governor-general in 1863. On his return 
 to England in 1868 he was raised to the 
 peerage under the' title of Baron Law- 
 rence of the Punjab and of Grately. 
 
 LAWSON’S CYPRESS, a species of 
 cypress found in the valleys of Northern 
 California, where it grows to the height 
 of 100 feet. The branches are numerous 
 and are drooping, slender, and regularly 
 disposed, forming a symmetrical colum- 
 nar mass of rich green spray. 
 
 LAWTON, Henry Ware, American 
 soldier, was born in Lucas co., Ohio, in 
 1843. He served in the civil war and 
 rose to the rank of brevet-colonel. His 
 operations against the Indians, against 
 Geronimo especially, were successful. 
 In the war with Spain he was commis- 
 sioned brigadier-general; he was in 
 command of the second division of the 
 fifth corps in the operations against 
 Santiago. After the fall of Santiago he 
 was made major-general and given com- 
 mand of the department of Santiago. 
 In 1898 he was sent to the Philippines 
 as second in command under General 
 Otis. He fell in battle at San Mateo, 
 Luzon in 1899. 
 
 LAY'ARD, Sir Austin Henry, G.C.B., 
 English traveler, archaeologist, and dip- 
 lomatist, was born in 1817. He was 
 appointed attache to the British em- 
 bassy at Constantinople in 1849. In 
 1852 lie entered parliament in the liberal 
 interest; became under-secretary for 
 foreign affairs in 1860, commissioner of 
 
 works in 1869, and ambassador to the 
 Porte in 1877 under Lord Beaconsfield’s 
 government, when he accomplished the 
 annexation of Cyprus. He wrote Nine- 
 veh and its Remains, Discoveries in the 
 Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, and / 
 Early Adventures in Persia, etc. He 
 died in 1894. 
 
 LAY BROTHERS are an inferior class 
 of monksemployed asservants in monas- 
 teries. Though not in holy orders they 
 are bound by the three monastic vows 
 of poverty, chastity, and obedience. 
 They wear a dress somewhat different 
 from that of the other monks. In nun- 
 neries a similar distinction prevails be- 
 tween the nuns proper and the lay sisters. 
 
 LAYERING, in gardening, the propa- 
 gation of plants by bending the shoot of 
 a living stem into the soil, the shoot 
 striking root while being fed by the 
 parent plant. ’ The figure shows the 
 
 branch to be layered bent down and 
 kept in the ground by a hooked peg, the 
 young rootlets, and a stick supporting 
 the extremity of the shoot in an up- 
 right position. 
 
 LAY-FIGURE, a jointed human figure 
 used by painters, made of wood or cork, 
 which can be placed in any attitude, 
 and serves when clothed as a model for 
 draperies, etc. 
 
 LEAD, a metal of a bluish-gray 
 color; when recently cut it has a strong 
 metallic luster, but soon tarnishes by 
 exposure to the air owing to the forma- 
 tion of a coating of carbonate of lead. 
 
 It is soft, flexible, and inelastic. It is 
 both malleable and ductile, possessing 
 the former quality to a considerable 
 extent, but in tenacity it is inferior to 
 all ductile metals. It fuses at about 612°, 
 and when slowly cooled forms octohedral 
 crystals. It is an abundant and widely . 
 distributed metal. It is a constituent of j 
 a very large number of minerals, all of 
 which could be used as sources of it if ! 
 they could be obtained in sufficient . 
 quantity. In practice the metal is got 
 from only a few of these minerals, espe- 1 
 daily from the sulphide, carbonate, and 1 
 one or two others. The most important 1 
 of all the ores of lead is the sulphide or f 
 lead glance, which has been described j 
 under the term Galena. The carbonate, > 
 also called cerusite, or leadspar, like all | 
 all the salts of lead, is perfectly un-, j 
 metallic in its appearance, and is not. • 
 unfrequently rejected from among com- 
 mon lead ore as an earthy mineral. It 
 occurs in veins in primitive and sec- ' 
 ondary rocks, accompanying galena, and ; 
 other ores of lead. It is abundant in 
 European countries, in Britain, in Ire- 
 land, and it has been found at different 
 localities in the United Sates. The sul- 
 phate of lead, anglesite, or lead vitrol, 
 was found originally at Anglesey. Chro- 
 mate of lead, crocoisite, or crocoite was 
 originally found in Siberia; it has since 
 been met with in the Philippine Islands, 
 
LEAD 
 
 LEATHER 
 
 in Brazil, and in Hungary. It was in this 
 mineral that chromium was first dis- 
 covered. Phosphate of lead is found 
 accompanying the common ores of lead, 
 though rarely in any considerable quan- 
 tity. Finely crystallized varieties are 
 found at Leadhills in Scotland, and in 
 Cornwall. In the ores of lead silver is a 
 very common constituent. Of the salts 
 formed by the action of acids on lead or 
 on the protoxide, the carbonate or white- 
 lead and the acetate or sugar of lead are 
 the most important. The protoxide is 
 also employed for glazing earthenware 
 and porcelain. Carbonate of lead is the 
 basis of white oil-paint and a number of 
 other colors. The salts of lead are 
 poisonous, but the carbonate is by far 
 the most virulent poison. Lead is one 
 of the most easily reducible metals, and 
 from the native carbonate can be got by 
 simply heating with coal or charcoal. 
 The sulphide, however, which is the 
 most abundant of its ores, is not so 
 readily acted on by coal, and a rever- 
 beratory furnace, or a special variety of 
 blast-furnace, is employed. Lead ob- 
 tained in this way is usually too hard 
 for use, and it has to be subjected to a 
 process of purification. This is effected 
 by roasting the lead, sometimes for 
 several weeks, in a reverberatory fur- 
 nace. By this process the antimony, 
 which is the chief impurity, is burned 
 off, and the dross, which consists of the 
 oxide, of that metal with oxide of lead, 
 is afterward reduced and utilized as a 
 source of antimony. The lead, when 
 judged sufficiently pure, is then cast into 
 ingots or pigs of lead. Prepared in this 
 way the lead retains all the silver present 
 in the original ore, and as that is always 
 of value it used to be extracted when- 
 ever the quantity of silver present 
 amounted to above 10 oz. per ton. 1 
 part of tin and 2 of lead form an alloy 
 fusible at 3^0° Fahr., which is used by 
 tinmen under the name of soft solder. 
 Lead also forms an imperfect alloy with 
 copper. With antimony lead forms the 
 important alloy called type-metal. Pew- 
 ter is a hard alloy of four parts of tin 
 and 1 of lead. In these proportions the 
 lead is not attacked by organic acids 
 such as the acetic. For the poisonous 
 effects of lead see Lead-poisoning. 
 
 LEAD, an instrument used on ship- 
 board for discovering the depth of water. 
 It is composed of a large piece of lead 
 shaped like an elongated clock-weight, 
 from 7 to 11 lbs. in weight, and is 
 attachedto a line, generally of 20 fathoms 
 length, called the lead-line, which is 
 marked at certain distances to ascertain 
 the depth in fathoms. When the depth 
 is great the deep-sea lead, weighing from 
 25 to 30 lbs., is used. The line, which is 
 much longer than the former, and called 
 the deep-sea line, is marked by knots 
 every 10 fathoms, and by a smaller 
 knot every 5. 
 
 LEAD-POISONING, a disease caused 
 by the presence of lead in some quan- 
 tity in the system. It may be due to lead 
 which has been taken up by water or 
 other beverage from lead pipes or vessels 
 in which it has been contained. The 
 use of lead in the arts is also a frequent 
 cause of painful, and sometimes of fatal 
 effects, from the metal finding its way 
 into the system. The glazing of culinary 
 
 vessels with lead; the coloring of con- 
 fectionary with the chromate, chlo- 
 ride, or carbonate of lead; the sweeten- 
 ing of sour wine by litharge or oxide of 
 lead, may all produce lead-poisoning 
 more or less serious. But the most fre- 
 quent and virulent cases occur among 
 painters and persons engaged in white- 
 lead factories; and four forms of disease, 
 either simple or complicated, are apt to 
 manifest themselves — 1, Lead or paint- 
 ers’ colic, or dry belly-ache; 2, Lead 
 rheumatism or arthralgia; 3, Lead 
 palsy or paralysis, more particularly of 
 the muscles of the fore-arm; and 4, 
 Disease of the brain, manifested by 
 delirium, coma, or convulsions — a form, 
 however, of rare occurrence. Opium and 
 cathartics are the chief medicines ad- 
 ministered. 
 
 LEADVILLE, the capital of Lake co., 
 Colorado, 130 miles w.s.w. of Denver, 
 situated on a plateau over 10,000 feet 
 above sea-level. The city owes its origin 
 to the rich argentiferous lead and silver 
 mines in the neighborhood. The mineral 
 output of Leadville exceeds $200,000,- 
 000. Pop. 13,700. 
 
 LEADWORT, a name for the plants 
 typical of the order Plumbaginacese. 
 
 LEAF, the green deciduous part of a 
 plant, usually shooting from the sides 
 of the stem and branches, but some- 
 times from the root, by which the sap is 
 supposed to be elaborated or fitted for 
 the nourishment of the plant by being 
 exposed to air and light on its extensive 
 surface. When fully developed the leaf 
 generally consists of two parts, an ex- 
 panded part, called the blade or limb, 
 and a stalk supporting that part, called 
 the petiole or leaf -stalk. Frequently, 
 however, the petiole is wanting, in 
 which case the leaf is said to be sessile. 
 Leaves are produced by an expansion of 
 the bark at a node of the stem, and 
 generally consist of vascular tissue in the 
 veins or ribs, with cellular tissue or 
 parenchyma filling up the interstices, 
 and an epidermis over all. Some leaves, 
 however, as those of the mosses, are 
 entirely cellular. See Botany. 
 
 LEAGUE, a measure of length vary- 
 ing in different countries. The English 
 land league is 3 statute miles, and the 
 nautical league 3 equatorial miles, or 
 3.457875 statute miles. The French 
 metric league is reckoned as equal to 4 
 kilom4tres or 4374 yards. 
 
 LEANING TOWER, a tower which 
 overhangs its base on one side. The 
 most celebrated example is the Cam- 
 panile of Pisa, which has an obliquity 
 of 13 feet in a height of 179. It is built 
 in the Romanesque style, to correspond 
 with the cathedral, and is surrounded by 
 open arcades of columns. Other well- 
 known examples are in Bologna, the 
 Torre Asonelli, and the Torre Garisenda, 
 both built of brick, the latter well known 
 through a passage in Dante’s Inferno. 
 It is a disputed question as to whether 
 the slant of these towers is accidental. 
 That of Pisa shows an increased height 
 in each successive story on the leaning 
 side which has been attributed by some 
 to attempts of the architects to rectify a 
 sinking while the tower was being built. 
 Others have advanced arguments to 
 show that the slant here and elsewhere 
 
 was intentional. The latter is the pre- 
 vailing opinion. 
 
 LEAP-YEAR, one of the years which 
 contain 366 days, being every fourth 
 year, which leaps over a day more than 
 a common year. Thus in common years, 
 if the first day of March is on Monday 
 the present year, it will the next year fall 
 on Tuesday, but in leap-year it will leap 
 to Wednesday, for leap-year contains a 
 day more than a common year, a day 
 being added to the month of February, 
 Every year is a leap-year which is 
 divisible by 4 without remainder, ex- 
 cept the concluding years of centuries, 
 every fourth only of which is a leap- 
 year; thus the years 1800 and 1900 are 
 not leap-years, but 2000 and 2400 are. 
 
 LEAR, Edward, English artist and 
 poet, born at Holloway, in London, in 
 1812. Among his best known and popu- 
 lar works are: Book of Nonsense, Non- 
 sense Songs, More Nonsense Songs, 
 Laughing Lyrics. He died in 1888. 
 
 LEANDER. See Hero. 
 
 LEA'OTONG, or SHING-KING, a 
 Chinese prov. in Manchuria (but now 
 reckoned as part of China proper), 
 stretching into the Yellow Sea between 
 the gulfs of Leaotong and Corea. It has 
 an area of 37,000 sq. miles, a pleasant 
 climate, and is generally fertile. Pop. 
 6 , 000 , 000 . 
 
 LEASE, a permission to occupy lands 
 or tenements for life or a certain num- 
 ber of years, or during the pleasure of 
 the parties making the contract. The 
 party letting the lands or tenements is 
 called the lessor, the party to whom they 
 are let the lessee, and the compensation 
 or consideration for the lease the rent. 
 A lease for a period not exceeding three 
 years may be by verbal contract. If, 
 however, the term be longer than three 
 years, the lease must be by deed. A 
 breach of any of the covenants con- 
 tained in a lease was formerly sufficient 
 to render it void, but now any breach 
 may be compensated by a money pay- 
 ment. The power to lease necessarily 
 depends upon the extent of the lessor’s 
 estate in the land or tenement to be 
 leased. A proprietor who has only a life- 
 estate can of course lease his property 
 only during his life. 
 
 LEATHER, the skins of animals 
 dressed and prepared for use by tanning, 
 tawing, or other processes, which pre- 
 serve them from putrefaction and render 
 them pliable and tough. The skins em- 
 ployed are chiefly those of cattle, though 
 the skins of horses, asses, sheep, pigs, 
 and goats are also converted into leather. 
 Before subjection to the process of 
 tanning, the cured hides require to be 
 brought back as far as possible to the 
 condition of fresh hides by soaking and 
 softening in water, to which sometimes 
 salt or carbolic acid or sulphide of sod- 
 ium is added. The softening is now 
 generally assisted by machines, which 
 subject the skins to a kneading process. 
 They are then unhaired by the agency of 
 lime, the customary method of liming 
 being to spread out the hides flat in milk 
 of lime in large pits, the hides being 
 “hauled” or drawn out once or twice a 
 day, and the liquor stirred up; but there 
 are several variations upon this method 
 of liming. In America and on the Euro- 
 pean continent the hair is loosened by 
 
LEATHER 
 
 LEE 
 
 ‘‘sweating/’ which induces a partial 
 putrefaction, attacking the root-sheaths 
 without injuring the hide substance 
 proper. In the old method of warm 
 sweating, the hides were simply laid in a 
 pile and covered, if necessary, with fer- 
 menting tan ; the preferable cold method 
 consists in hanging the hides in a moist 
 chamber at a uniform temperature of 
 60° or 70° F. When the hair is sufficiently 
 loosened the hides are usually thrown 
 into the “stocks,” where the slime and 
 most of the hair is worked out of them. 
 Other unhairing processes consist in 
 treatment with alkaline sulphides, espe- 
 cially sulphide of sodium or sulphide of 
 arsenic. To remove the loosened hair, 
 the hide is generally thrown over a 
 beam and scraped with a blunt two- 
 handled knife, but several unhairing 
 machines have been invented. After 
 unhairing, the loose flesh and fat are 
 scraped, brushed, or pared from the 
 inner side, and the hides intended for 
 sole leather are rounded or separated 
 into “butts” and “offal” — the latter the 
 thinner parts, including the cheeks, 
 shanks, and belly pieces. The butts are 
 then suspended for from twelve to 
 twenty-four hours in soft fresh-water, 
 and frequently shaken in it to remove 
 lime or dirt prior to undergoing the proc- 
 ess of tanning (see Tanning) and currying 
 (see Currying). The brilliant smooth 
 surface of patent, enameled, lacquered, 
 varnished, or japanned leather is due to 
 the mode of finishing by stretching the 
 tanned hides on wooden frames and 
 applying successive coats of varnish, 
 each coat being dried and rubbed smooth 
 with pumice-stone. Other special kinds 
 of leather are seal leather, Russia and 
 Morocco leathers (which see). Tawed 
 leathers (see Tawing) consist chiefly of 
 the skins of sheep, lambs, kids, and 
 goats treated with alum, or some of the 
 simple aluminous salts, the principal 
 tawing industries being the manufacture 
 of calf-kid for boots and glove-kid. 
 Shamoy, or oil-leather, is prepared by 
 impregnating hides and skins with oil 
 (see Shamoy). The chief markets for 
 leather in Britain aie at London, Leeds, 
 and Bristol. Important European centers 
 are Antwerp, Havre, Paris, Marseilles, 
 Vienna, and Berlin ; while in the United 
 States, New York, Chicago, Boston, 
 and Philadelphia are the chief centers. 
 
 LEATHER, Artificial, the general 
 name of certain fabrics possessing some 
 of the qualities, and often the appear- 
 ance of leather. One of the earliest 
 methods of fabrication consisted in ap- 
 plying oily pigments to cloth which was 
 subsequently rolled and coated with a 
 sort of enamel paint. An article of this 
 sort, known under the name of leather- 
 cloth, was first produced in America 
 about 1849. Another kind consists of 
 leather parings and shavings reduced 
 to a pulp, and thenmouldedinto buckets, 
 machinery-bands, picture-frames, and 
 other useful and ornamental objects. 
 A so-called vegetable leather consists 
 of caoutchouc dissolved in naphtha, 
 spread upon a backing of linen. It is of 
 considerable strength and durability, 
 and is used for table-covers, carriage- 
 aprons, soldiers’ belts, harness, book- 
 binding, etc. Various other substitutes 
 for leather have been recently intro- 
 
 duced, one consisting of cloth ‘with a 
 thin facing of leather ;but the commonest 
 material is still obtained by varnishing 
 textiles with coatings of some resinous 
 substance, and then painting or em- 
 bossing them. 
 
 LEAVEN, dough in which fermenta- 
 tion has commenced, employed to fer- 
 ment and render light the fresh dough 
 with which it is mingled. Its use dates 
 from remotest antiquity; the addition 
 of yeast or barm being of modern date. 
 
 LEAVENWORTH (Ifiv'en-wurth), the 
 county-seat of Leavenworth co., Kan., 
 26 miles northwest of Kansas City. 
 There are coal-mining interests and ex- 
 tensive manufactures, including vitri- 
 fied and building brick, stoves, furniture, 
 machinery, flour, wagons, etc. In the 
 suburbs are the United States and state 
 penitentiaries, a home for disabled vol- 
 unteers and Fort Leavenworth, one of 
 the most important military posts of 
 the West. Pop. 22,135. 
 
 LEB'ANON, a town in Lebanon co., 
 Pennsylvania. It is a seat of iron and 
 other industries. Pop. 19,160. 
 
 LEB'ANON, Mountains of, two nearly 
 parallel mountain ranges in the north of 
 Palestine, stretching from southwest to 
 northeast, and inclosing between them a 
 valley about 70 miles long by 15 miles 
 wide. In the south part of the chain the 
 Upper Jordan has its source. The 
 habitable districts are occupied toward 
 the north by the Maronite Christians, 
 and toward the south by the Druses. 
 The forests of cedar for which Lebanon 
 was famed have to a large extent dis- 
 appeared. 
 
 LECKY, Will. Ed. Hartpole, English 
 historical writer, born in Dublin 1838. 
 He has written The Leaders of Public 
 Opinion in Ireland; History of the Rise 
 and Influence of the Spirit of Rational- 
 ism in Europe; History of European 
 Morals from Agustus to Charlemagne; 
 History of England in the Eighteenth 
 Century. He died in 1903. 
 
 LEE, in nautical language, refers to 
 the side toward which the wind is blow- 
 ing, leeward and windward being op- 
 posite terms. A lee shore is one to lee- 
 ward of a vessel. — A vessel’s leeway is 
 the amount that she drifts from her 
 proper course. 
 
 LEE, Ann, founder of the Shaker 
 sect; was born in Manchester, England, 
 in 1736. In 1758 she joined the Manches- 
 ter Society of Friends, and preached 
 against lustful gratification. In 1770 
 she was imprisoned for creating religious 
 disturbance among the lower orders, 
 after her release was deemed by many 
 their spiritual mother in Christ. She 
 then claimed to have had direct revela- 
 tion from Christ, declared the wrath of 
 the Almighty against marriage, and was 
 eventually incarcerated in a mad-house. 
 Thereafter she declared she had a special 
 revelation to go to the United States, 
 and, with a number of her followers, 
 arrived in New York City in May, 1774. 
 After some vicissitudes she founded a 
 settlement at Watervliet, near Albany, 
 N. Y. Here she was accused of witch- 
 craft, and later, on a charge of high 
 treason, was arrested and imprisoned 
 in Albany during the summer of 1776. 
 In 1780 her society began to increase, 
 and during a religious rivival at New 
 
 Lebanon many persons united with he* 
 followers. In 1781, in company with 
 several of her elders, she visited the 
 New England states, preaching at many 
 places, and founded a new society at 
 Harvard, Mass. She died in 1784. 
 
 LEE, Arthur, one of the American 
 representatives in Europe during the 
 revolutionary war. He was born in 
 Stratford, Westmoreland co., Va., in 
 1740. Upon Franklin’s return to America 
 early in 1775, Lee succeeded him as the 
 agent of Massachusetts, and he wae 
 appointed by the committee of secret 
 correspondence of the continental con- 
 gress as its secret agent in London. 
 He was one of the negotiators of the 
 treaties concluded with France in 
 February, 1778. In 1781 Prince William 
 County sent him to the Virginia legis- 
 lature, by which body, at the close of 
 the year, he was sent to the continental 
 congress, where he remained until 1785. 
 On the establishment of the new national 
 government he retired finally to private 
 life, and died after a brief illness Decem- 
 ber 12, 1792. 
 
 LEE, Charles, soldier, was bom in 
 Dernhall, England, in 1731. In 1754 
 his regiment was ordered to America 
 to take part in Braddock’s western ex- 
 pedition. Lee served in later campaigns 
 as captain of grenadiers, and was present 
 at several conferences of Sir William 
 Johnson with the Indians. His relations 
 with the Mohawks became so friendly 
 that he was adopted as one of their tribe. 
 In 1775 congress appointed him second 
 major-general in the continental army. 
 In July, 1775, Lee joined the army at 
 Cambridge, and was placed in command 
 of the left wing. On October 14th Lee 
 arrived in New York City and took com- 
 mand of the right wing of Washington’s 
 army, on Harlem Heights. While 
 separated from his forces, on December 
 13th, General Lee was surprised and 
 captured by a party of dragoons. In 
 May, 1778, he was exchanged for Gen- 
 eral Prescott, and joined the American 
 army at Valley Forge. On June 28th 
 Lee overtook the enemy, who were re- 
 treating from Philadelphia to New York, 
 at Monmouth, N. J. When Washington 
 arrived for his support, he was aston- 
 ished to find his division in disorderly 
 retreat, pursued by the British. It was 
 then the commander-in-chief lost his 
 temper, and in round terms swore at Lee 
 in the hearing of his soldiers. Rallying 
 his forces, he soon repelled the enemy 
 and sent Lee to the rear. Afterward Lee 
 was tried for insubordination, and 
 ordered to be suspended from command 
 for a year. For his disrespect to Wash- 
 ington, he was challenged by Col. John 
 Laurens, Washington’s aide-de-camp, 
 and in the subsequent duel was shot in 
 the arm. Thereafter he wrote an offen- 
 sive letter to congress, for which he was 
 dismissed from the anny. He retired to 
 his estate in the Shenandoah Valley. 
 He died in 1782. 
 
 LEE, Fitzhugh, American soldier, 
 nephew of Robert E. Lee. He was born 
 in Clermont, Va., in 1835. He entered 
 the confederate army, and was adiutant- 
 general in General Ewell’s brigade. He 
 served as colonel of a cavalry regiment 
 in nearly all the important operations 
 of the army of northern Virginia; was 
 
LEE 
 
 LEECH 
 
 appointed brigadier-general in 1862, and I 
 major-general in 1863; was severely 
 wounded at Winchester, Va., 1864; and 
 from March, 1865, until his surrender to 
 General Meade at Farmville, was in 
 command of all the cavalry of the army 
 of northern Virginia. From 1886 to 1890 
 he was Governor of Virginia. He was 
 appointed collector of internal revenue 
 for the western district of Virginia in 
 1895, and in 1896 was sent to Cuba by 
 President Cleveland as consul-general 
 at Havana. In 1898 he was appointed 
 major-general of volunteers and placed 
 in command of the seventh army corps. 
 In January, 1899, he became military 
 governor of Havana, and subseq^uently 
 was placed in command of the depart- 
 ment of Missouri. He died in 1905. 
 
 LEE, Francis Lightfoot, was born in 
 Westmoreland co., Va., in 1734. After 
 serving in the Virginia house of burgesses 
 from London and Richmond counties, 
 he was, in August, 1775, elected to the 
 continental congress, in which he served 
 until 1779. He signed the Declaration of 
 Independence, and assisted in drawing 
 up the articles of confederation. He 
 died in 1797. 
 
 LEE, George W. C., eldest son of 
 General Robert E. Lee, was born at 
 Arlington, Va., in 1832. He rose to a 
 major-general’s commission, and com- 
 manded a division of the army of north- 
 ern Virginia. In February, 1871, he 
 succeeded his father as president of 
 Washington College, Va., (now Wash- 
 ington and Lee University). 
 
 LEE, Henry, an American revolu- 
 tionary general, born in Westmoreland 
 co., Virginia, 1756; educated at Prince- 
 ton College, and in 1776 appointed cap- 
 tain of a company of cavalry in Colonel 
 Bland’s Virginia regiment. In the 
 memorable retreat of Greene before Lord 
 Cornwallis, Lee’s legion acquired fame 
 as the rear-guard of the American army, 
 the post of the greatest danger. At the 
 battles of Guildford courthouse and 
 Eutaw, and in other affairs, Lee spe- 
 cially distinguished himself. On the 
 conclusion of the war he was sent to 
 congress as a delegate from Virginia, 
 and in 1792 was chosen governor of that 
 state. In 1801 he retired from public 
 life. He died in 1816. 
 
 LEE, John Doyle, Mormon official, 
 born at Kaskaskia, 111., in 1812. In 1837 
 he came under Mormon influence and 
 moved to Davies co.. Mo., where he 
 joined the church. He was accused of 
 having incited the massacre of the 
 Arkansas emigrants at Mountain Mead- 
 ows in 1857. On his first trial before 
 the United States court in 1875 the jury 
 disagreed, but on the second trial in 
 1876 he was found guilty. He w’as shot 
 on the scene of the outrage, March 23, 
 1877. After his second trial he declared 
 that he had acted under instructions 
 from Brigham Young and other high 
 Mormon officials, who had made him the 
 scape-goat. 
 
 LEE, Richard Henry, a distinguished 
 American, born 1732 at Stratford, West- 
 moreland CO., Virginia. He received 
 part of his education in England, and 
 after his return to his native country 
 was chosen a delegate to the house of 
 Burgesses from Westmoreland county. 
 In the opposition to unjust British 
 
 claims he played throughout a most 
 important part, and on being sent as 
 delegate from Virginia to the first 
 American congress at Philadelphia 
 (1774) was at once recognized as a leader 
 in that assembly. He drew up most of 
 those addresses to the king and the 
 English people which were admitted 
 by his political opponents to be unsur- 
 passed by any of the state papers of the 
 time. When war became inevitable 
 Lee was placed on the various com- 
 mittees appointed to organize resistance. 
 On the 7th of June, 1776, he introduced 
 the motion finally breaking political 
 connection with Britain. In 1784 he 
 was unanimously elected president of the 
 congress, and when the federal con- 
 stitution was established he entered the 
 senate for his native state. In 1792 he 
 retired into private life, and died in 
 Virginia in 1794. 
 
 LEE, Robert Edmund, American gen- 
 eral, commander-in-chief of the confed- 
 erate anny, and one of the most skilful 
 tacticians who took part in the great 
 civil war, was born in Virginia in 1808. 
 In 1829 he left the military academy of 
 West Point with the rank of secondlieu- 
 tenant of engineers. After making a 
 tour in Europe he obtained a captaincy 
 in 1838, and in 1847 was appointed 
 
 Kobert E. Lee. 
 
 engineer-in-chief of the army for the 
 Mexican campaign, in which his bril- 
 liant services at Cerro-Gordo, Contreras, 
 Cherubusco, and Chapultepec (where 
 he was wounded) speedily gained for 
 him the rank of colonel. From 1852 to 
 1855 he was superintendent of military 
 studies at West Point. In 1861 he be- 
 came colonel of his regiment, but on the 
 secession of Virginia from the union he 
 threw up his commission, was intrusted 
 with the command of the Virginia army, 
 and subsequently was selected by 
 President Davis as commander-in-chief. 
 In June, 1862, he defeated the federal 
 army under McClellan, and, aided by 
 Stonewall Jackson, defeated Pope in a 
 series of engagements commencing 20th 
 August, and ending with the victory 
 of Manassas Junction on the 30th. Lee 
 now crossed the Potomac into Mary- 
 land to threaten Washington itself, 
 but a series of checks obliged him to 
 
 withdraw behind the Rappahannock. 
 On the 13th December he routed the 
 federalists under Burnside at Fredericks- 
 burg, and on the 2d and 3d May, 1863, 
 gained the splendid victory of Chan- 
 cellbrsville over Hooker. After this Lee 
 resolved to push on to Washington, but 
 was beaten by Meade at Gettysburg, 
 July 1st and 3d, and forced to retreat 
 into Virginia. In the autumn of that 
 year he collected all his forces, defeated 
 Meade on Nov. 7, and in May, 1864, 
 advanced upon Fredericksburg, while 
 Grant at the head of a large army en- 
 tered Virginia. A series of sanguinary 
 engagements took place at Spottsyl- 
 vania (5th to 10th May), in which Lee 
 was worsted, but on June 3d he defeated 
 Grant at Chickahominy. The federals, 
 however, with their great superiority of 
 men and material, gradually hemmed 
 in the confederate forces, and on April 
 9th Lee and his army surrendered to 
 Grant at Burkesville. General Lee then 
 retired into private life, was elected 
 president of Washington College, Lex- 
 ington, Virginia, in 1865, where he died 
 on the 12th October, 1870. 
 
 LEE, William Henry Fitzhugh, second 
 son of Robert E. Lee, was born at Ar- 
 lington, Va., in 1837. He was appointed 
 lieutenant in 1857 and served in the 
 Utah campaign. In 1861 he joined the 
 confederate forces, became a briga- 
 dier-general in October, 1862, was cap- 
 tured and exchanged, and in April, 1864, 
 was promoted major-general of cavalry 
 and led his division from the Rapidan 
 to Appomattox. In 1886 he was elected 
 to congress and re-elected in 1888 as a 
 democrat. He died in 1906. 
 
 LEECH, a name for those worms, the 
 distinctive feature of which consists in 
 the presence of one or two sucking-discs. 
 The rings of the body are very numer- 
 ous and closely set. Usually leeches 
 breathe either by the general surface 
 of the body or by little sac-like pouches 
 known as the respiratory sacculi. They 
 chiefly inhabit fresh-water ponds, though 
 some live among moist grass, and some 
 are marine. The familiar horse-leeches 
 of fresh-water ponds and ditches are in- 
 cluded in this group. The land-leeches 
 of Ceylon are terrestrial in habits, living 
 among damp foliage, and in like situa- 
 tions. They fasten on man and beast, 
 and are a serious pest to travelers. The 
 species generally employed for medical 
 purposes belong to the genus Sanguisuga 
 and are usually either the Hungarian 
 or green leech, used in the south of 
 Europe, or the brown-speckled or Eng- 
 lish leech, used in the north of Europe. 
 The latter variety, however, is now rare 
 in England, owing to the drainage of 
 bogs and ponds. The mouth, situated 
 in the middle of the anterior sucker, is 
 provided with three small white teeth, 
 serrated along the edges, and capable 
 of inflicting a peculiar Y-shaped wound, 
 which, like that produced by the sol- 
 dier’s bayonet, is difficult to close, and 
 ermits a large and continuous flow of 
 lood. From 4 drachms to 1 oz. may 
 be stated to be the average quantity of i 
 blood that can be drawn by a leech. 
 After detaching themselves, leeches are 
 made to disgorge the blood they have 
 drawn by being placed in a weak solu- 
 tion of salt, or by having a little salt 
 
LEECH 
 
 LEIBNITZ 
 
 sprinkled over them. Leeches appear to 
 hybernate in winter, burying themselves 
 in the mud at the bottom of the pools, 
 and coming forth in the spring. 
 
 LEECH, the border or edge of a sail 
 which is sloping or perpendicular. 
 
 LEEDS, a municipal, parliamentary, 
 and county borough and manufacturing 
 town of England, in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, on the river Aire, which here 
 becomes navigable, and is crossed by 
 eight bridges; 185| miles by railway 
 n.n.w. from London. The Leeds and 
 Liverpool Canal communicates with the 
 Aire, which again gives water com- 
 munication with Hull, etc. The town 
 extends for about 7^ miles from east to 
 west, and about 7 from north to south. 
 Leeds has been for generations the chief 
 seat of the woolen manufacture of York- 
 shire. The other chief industries are; 
 boot and shoe factories, the leather 
 trade, color-printing works, tobacco 
 manufactories, ch%mical and glass works, 
 works for making drainage pipes, fire- 
 bricks, terra-cotta, pottery, etc. Nearly 
 a hundred collieries are worked in the 
 district. Pop. 428,953. 
 
 LEEK, a mild kind of onion much 
 cultivated for culinary purposes. The 
 stem is rather tall, and the flowers are 
 disposed in large compact balls, sup- 
 ported on purple peduncles. 
 
 LEEUWENHOECK (la'u-ven-hok), 
 Antony van, Dutch microscopist, born 
 1632, died 1723. He completed Harvey’s 
 discovery of the circulation of the blood 
 by showing that it passes from the 
 arteries to the veins through the capil- 
 laries. He also discovered the red cor- 
 puscles of the blood, the spermatozoa, 
 the infusorial animalcules, etc. He con- 
 tributed papers to the Philosophical 
 Transactions of the Royal Society, 
 London. 
 
 LEEWARD, in nautical phraseology, 
 a term that refers to the quarter toward 
 which the wind blows. See Lee. 
 
 LEEWARD ISLANDS. See West 
 Indies. 
 
 LEG, any limb of an animal that is 
 used in supporting the body, and in 
 
 Bones of the human leg. 
 
 A, femur: l, Head; 2, Neck; 3, Shaft; 4, Ex- 
 ternal condyle; 5 Internal do. B, Patella: 1, 
 Apex of the bone; 2, Surface of articulation 
 with external condyle of the femur; 3, Do, 
 with internal condyle. C, Fibula: 6, Shaft; 9, 
 Lower extremity, the external malleolus; 10, 
 Upper extremity. D, Tibia: 1, Spinous proc- 
 ess: 2, Inner tuberosity; 3, Outer do; 4, 
 Tubercle; 5, Shaft; 7, Internal surface of shaft; 
 the sharp border between 5 and 7 the crest of 
 tibia; 8, Internal malleolus. 
 
 walking and running; in a narrower 
 sense that part of the buman limb from 
 the knee to the foot. The human leg has 
 two bones, the inner called the tibia or 
 shin-bone, the outer called the fibula or 
 clasp-bone. The tibia is much the larger 
 
 of the two, and above is connected with 
 the thigh-bone to form the knee-joint, 
 the fibula being attached to the outer 
 side of its head. In front of the knee- 
 joint, situated within a tendon, is the 
 knee-cap or patella. (See Knee.) The 
 lower-end of the tibia and of the fibula 
 enter into the ankle-joint, the weigh! 
 being conducted to the foot by the tibia. 
 (See Foot.) In the foreleg are muscles 
 which extend the foot, and on the back 
 of the leg are two large muscles which 
 form the bulk of the calf of the leg, and 
 which unite in a thick tendon, the tendo 
 Achillis. These muscles are used in walk- 
 ing, jumping, etc. 
 
 LeG'ACY, a gift of personal property 
 by will. It is a general rule that if a 
 legatee die in the lifetime of the testator, 
 the legacy lapses and falls into the 
 residue of the estate, unless when the 
 legatee has been a child of the testator, 
 and has left children. All legacies are 
 postponed to the claims of creditors. 
 
 LE'GATES, persons sent by the pope 
 as ambassadors to foreign courts. Legate 
 a latere, the highest in rank, were sent 
 on particularly important missions, and 
 were taken from the college of cardinals 
 only. 
 
 LEGATION, the body of official per- 
 sons attached to an embassy. Formerly 
 in Italy legation signified a division of 
 the states of the church. 
 
 LeGA'TO, in music, a word used in 
 opposition to staccato, and implying 
 that the notes of the movement, or pas- 
 sage to which it is affixed, are to be per- 
 formed in a close, smooth, and gliding 
 manner, each note being held till the 
 next note is struck. 
 
 LE'GEND, originally the title of a 
 book containing the lessons that were to 
 be read daily in the service of the early 
 church. The term legend was afterward 
 applied to collections of biographies of 
 saints and martyrs, or of remarkable 
 stories relating to them, because they 
 were read at matins and in the refectories 
 of cloisters, and were earnestly recom- 
 mended to the perusal of the laity. 
 The Roman breviaries contain histories 
 of the lives of saints and martyrs, which 
 were read on the days of the saints whom 
 they commemorated. They originated 
 in the 12th or 13th century, and they 
 contributed much to the extinction of 
 the old German (heathen) heroic tra- 
 ditions. The tenn is used in a general 
 sense for any remarkable story handed 
 down from early times, and is also ap-1 
 plied to the motto or words engraved in 
 a circular manner round the head or 
 other figure upon a medal or coin. 
 
 LEGERDEMAIN (lej-er-de-mto'), or 
 CONJURING, a popular amusement or 
 exhibition, consisting of tricks per- 
 formed with such art and adroitness that 
 the manner or art eludes observation. 
 All the phenomena of legerdemain are 
 referrible to sleight of hand, mechanical 
 contrivances, confederacy, or some com- 
 bination of these. In the more elaborate 
 phases of the art the aid of optical, 
 chemical, and other sciences is utilized. 
 
 LEGHORN, a seaport of Northern 
 Italy, in the province of Leghorn or 
 Livorno, on the Mediterranean, 12 miles 
 s.s.w. of Pisa and 50 miles w.s.w. of 
 Florence. Pop. 96,937. 
 
 LEGHORN, a kind of plait for bonnets 
 
 and hats made from the straw of bearded 
 wheat cut green and bleached ; so named 
 from being imported from Leghorn. 
 
 LEGION, in ancient Roman armies a 
 body of infantry consisting of different 
 numbers of men at different periods, 
 from 3000 to above 6000, often with a 
 complement of cavalry. Each legion wag 
 divided into ten cohorts, each cohort" 
 into three maniples, and each maniple 
 into two centuries. Every legion had 
 sixty centurions, and the same number 
 of optiones or lieutenants and standard- 
 bearers. The standard of the legion was 
 an eagle. 
 
 LEGION OF HONOR, a French order 
 for the recognition of military and civil 
 merit, instituted by Napoleon while 
 consul. May 19, 1802, and inaugurated 
 14th July, 1804. The decoration origin- 
 ally consisted of a star containing the 
 portrait of Napoleon surrounded by a 
 wreath of oak and laurel, with the 
 legend, “Napoleon empereur des Fran- 
 5ais;’’ on the reverse was the French 
 eagle with a thunderbolt in his talons, 
 and the legend, “Honneur et patrie.” 
 The order has been remodeled several 
 times, the last occasion being subse- 
 quent to the downfall of the second 
 empire. There are now five ranks or 
 classes; ordinary chevaliers or knights, 
 officers, commanders, grand - officers, 
 grand-crosses. The profuse granting of 
 the decoration of the order latterly 
 brought the institution into discredit, 
 and the number of chevaliers is now 
 restricted to 25,000, the officers to 4000, 
 the commanders to 1000, the grand- 
 officers to 200, and the grand-crosses to 
 70. The star now bears a figure em- 
 blematic of the republic, with the in- 
 scription “R^publique Frangaise, 1870,” 
 on the reverse two flags, with the in- 
 scription “Honneur et Patrie.” 
 
 LEGUMINO'S.®, one of the largest 
 and most important natural orders of 
 plants, including about seven thousand 
 species, which are dispersed throughout 
 the world. They are trees, shrubs, or 
 herbs, differing widely in habit, with 
 stipulate, alternate (rarely opposite), 
 pinnate, digitately compound or simple 
 leaves, and axillary or terminal one or 
 many flowered peduncles of often showy 
 flowers, which are succeeded by a legu- 
 minous fruit. Four sub-orders are recog- 
 nized; Papilionacere, Swartziese, Caesal- 
 piniese, and Mimosese. It contains a 
 great variety of useful and beautiful 
 species, as peas, beans, lentils, clover, 
 lucern, sainfoin, vetches, indigo, log- 
 wood, and many other dyeing plants, 
 acacias, senna, tamarinds, etc. 
 
 LEHIgH river, a river of the United 
 States, in Pennsylvania, rising in Pike 
 county and joining the Delaware at 
 Easton after a course of 100 miles, of 
 which 70 are navigable. 
 
 LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, an institution 
 of the LTnited States, at South Bethle- 
 hem, Pa., founded and liberally en- 
 dowed by Asa Packer for the instruction 
 (without charge) of young men from 
 any part of the country or of the world. 
 It has fine buildings, a library of over 
 50,000 vols., etc. It gives instruction in 
 the various branches of general litera- 
 ture and technology. 
 
 LEIBNITZ (lib'nits), Gottfried "Wil- 
 helm, Baron von, German scholar and 
 
LEIDY 
 
 LEITRIM 
 
 philosopher, born in 1646 at Leipzig. 
 He studied law, mathematics, and phil- 
 osophy at the university of his native 
 town, where he published a philosophical 
 dissertation, De Principio Individui, as 
 early as 1663. This was followed by 
 several legal treatises, for example De 
 Conditionibus (1665), and by a remark- 
 able philosophico-mathematical trea- 
 tise, De Arte Combinatoria (1666). 
 After holding political appointments un- 
 der the elector of Mainz he went to 
 Paris in 1672, and there applied himself 
 particularly to mathematics. He also 
 
 
 Leguminosae. 
 
 1, Paplllonacese : a, Flower of the pea; 
 Standard; w. Wings; k. Keel; 6, Stamina, nine 
 connected, one free; c. Legume, seeds fixed to 
 the upper suture in one row. 2, Swartziese: a. 
 Flower of Swartzia grandiflbra, with its single 
 petal and hypogynous stamens; b. Calyx; c, 
 Legume. 3, Caesalpinle®: a. Flower of Poin 
 ciana pulcherrima showing its difform Interior 
 upper petal; 6, Calyx; c. Legume. 4, Mlmoseae; 
 a. One flower of common sensitive plant 
 {Mimosa pudica) showing its regular coralla; 
 0 . Stamina, hypogynous; c. Legume exterior; 
 d. Legume interior; «, Legume of Acacia 
 arablca. a. Curved radicle, as in Papilonaceae. 
 B, Straight radicle, as in Swartzieae and Cae- 
 salpinieae. 
 
 went to England, where he was elected 
 a member of the Royal Society, and 
 made the acquaintance of Boyle and 
 Newton. About this time he made his 
 discovery of the differential calculus. 
 
 : Having assisted the elector of Branden- 
 ' burg (afterward Frederick I. of Prus- 
 ; sia) to establish the Royal Academy of 
 1 Sciences at Berlin, he was made presi- 
 i dent for life (1700). He was also made a 
 ' privy-councillor by the Czar Peter the 
 Great. In 1710 he published his cele- 
 brated Essai de Th4odic6e, on the good- 
 ness of God, human liberty, and the 
 origin of evil, in which he maintained 
 the doctrines of pre-established har- 
 mony and optimism, and which was fol- 
 lowed by his Nouveaux Essais sur 
 I’Entendement Humain. A sketch of 
 . his philosophy was given by him in his 
 ■ Monadologie, 1714. His controversy 
 with Newton concerning the discovery 
 of the differential calculus, and the pains 
 of the gout, embittered the close of his 
 active life. He died in 1716. The prin- 
 cipal metaphysical speculations of Lieb- 
 nitz are contained in his Th6odic4e, 
 Nouveaux Essais, Syst^me nouveau de 
 
 la Nature, De Ipsa Natura Monadologie, 
 and in portions of his correspondence. 
 He controverted Locke’s rejection of 
 innate ideas, holding that there are 
 necessary truths which cannot be 
 learned from experience, but are innate 
 in the soul, not, indeed, actually form- 
 ing objects of knowledge, but capable 
 of being called forth by circumstances. 
 Authorities seem generally agreed that 
 Liebnitz discovered the differential cal- 
 culus independently of any knowledge 
 of Newton’s method of fluxions, so that 
 each of these great men in reality at- 
 tained the same result for himself. 
 
 LEIDY, Joseph, American naturalist, 
 was born in Philadelphia in 1823. He 
 held chairs of anatomy in several Penn- 
 sylvania colleges; was an army surgeon 
 during the civil war, and, in 1871, be- 
 came professor of natural histoy in 
 Swarthmore College. He was a member 
 of numerous scientific societies, includ- 
 ing the National Academy of Sciences, 
 and was president of the Philadelphia 
 Academy of Natural Sciences. Harvard 
 made him LL.D. in 1886. He has 
 written many hundred papers on biology 
 and kindred subjects. He died in 1891 
 
 LEICESTER, (les'ter) a municipal, 
 pari., and county borough of England, 
 county town and near the center of 
 Leicestershire, on the right bank of the 
 Soar. The staple manufactures are cot- 
 ton and worsted hosiery, elastic webs 
 ironware, boots and shoes, shawls, lace, 
 thread, etc. Pop. 211,574. — Leicester- 
 shire is bounded by Notts, Derby, 
 Warwick, Northampton, Rutland, and 
 Lincoln; area, 511,907 acres, almost 
 all arable land, meadow, and pasture. 
 Dairy farms are numerous, and the 
 cheese known as Stilton is chiefly made 
 in Leicestershire. Pop. 433,994. 
 
 LEICESTER, Robert Dudley, Earl of, 
 fifth son of John Dudley, Duke of North- 
 umberland, born 1532, died 1588. In 
 1549 he was married to Amy Robsart, 
 daughter of a Devonshire gentleman, and 
 is said to have been accessory to her 
 murder in 1560. Elizabeth created him 
 Earl of Leicester and privy-councillor, 
 and bestowed titles and estates on him 
 lavishly. Her fondn,ess for him caused 
 his marriage with her to be regarded as 
 certain. He, however, excited the 
 violent anger of the queen by his mar- 
 riage with the Countess of Essex in 1578. 
 He successfully commanded an army in 
 the Low Countries, and when England 
 was threatened by the Spanish Armada, 
 in 1588, he was appointed lieutenant- 
 general. He is characterized as an am- 
 bitious and unscrupulous courtier, com- 
 bining in himself the worst qualities of 
 both sexes. 
 
 LEIGHTON (la'ton), Frederick, Lord 
 Leighton, painter, president of the 
 Royal Academy, born at Scarborough 
 in 1830, died in 1896. In 1864 he was 
 elected an associate of the Royal 
 Academy, and in 1869 an Academician. 
 In 1878 he succeeded Sir Francis Grant 
 as president of the Academy; was 
 knighted, and was named an officer of 
 the Legion of Honor. In 1886 he was 
 made a baronet, and on January 1, 1896, 
 he was made a peer. From the long list 
 of his works special mention may be 
 made of his Hercules Wrestling with 
 Death (1871), the Daphnephoria (1876), 
 
 the Music Lesson (1877), Sister’s Kiss 
 (1880), Phryne (1882), Cymon and Iphi- 
 genia (1884), Captive Andromache 
 (1888), and Ball Players (1889); and 
 the large frescoes at the South Kensing- 
 ton Museum, representing the Industrial 
 Arts applied to War, and the Arts of 
 Peace. In addition to his pictures he has 
 achieved a high place as a sculptor by 
 his Athlete Strangling a Python (1876), 
 and his Sluggard (1886). The special 
 
 Lord Leighton. 
 
 merit of his work lies in the perfection 
 of his draughtsmanship and design, his 
 coloring, though possessing unfailing 
 charm of harmonious arrangement, be- 
 ing only thoroughly satisfactory from 
 the decorative point of view. A fine 
 poetic quality, conjoined with elegance 
 in drawing and great refinement in 
 execution, marks his whole work. 
 
 LEINSTER (lin'.ster), a province of 
 Ireland, divided into twelve counties — • 
 Wexford, Kilkenny, Carlow, Wicklow, 
 Dublin, Kildare, Queen’s County, King’s 
 County, Westmeath, Longford, Meath, 
 and Louth; area, 7620 sq. miles. Lein- 
 ster is the most favored of the four prov- 
 inces of Ireland in the extent of its 
 tillage and pasture lands, and its wealth 
 in minerals. Pop. 1,152,829. 
 
 LEIPZIG (lip'zih), or LEIPSIC, the 
 second city of the kingdom of Saxony, 
 and one of the chief seats of commerce 
 in Germany, 64 miles w.n.w. from 
 Dresden. The university, founded in 
 1409, is the second in importance in 
 Germany (that of Berlin being first), 
 and has over 3000 students, and a library 
 of 350,000 vols. Schools are numerous 
 and good, the conservatory of music 
 being of some celebrity. Besides being 
 the center of the book and publishing 
 trade of Germany, Leipzig possesses 
 considerable manufactures, and has im- 
 portant general commerce, carried on 
 especially through its three noted fairs 
 at the New-year, Easter, and Michael- 
 mas. Pop. 455,089. 
 
 LEITH (leth), a seaport and parlia- 
 mentary burgh in the county of Mid- 
 lothian, Scotland, about 1^ mile from 
 the center of Edinburgh. Pop. 77,439. 
 
 LEITRIM (le'trim), a county of Ire- 
 land, bounded by Donegal Bay and the 
 counties of Donegal, Fermanagh, Cavan, 
 Longford, Roscommon, and Sligo, about 
 51 miles long by 21 broad; area, 
 392,363 acres. 'The surface in the north is 
 somewhat rugged and mountainous, but 
 elsewhere generally flat and in part 
 
LELAND 
 
 LENORMANT 
 
 1 
 
 moorish. In the valleys the soil, resting 
 generally on limestone, is fertile. The 
 principal crops are oats and potatoes. 
 The minerals include iron, lead, and 
 copper, all at one time worked, and coal, 
 still raised to some extent. It sends two 
 members to parliament. Pop. 69,201. 
 
 LELAND, Charles Godfrey, American 
 humorist, was born at Philadelphia in 
 1824. He was admitted to the bar in 
 1851, but soon relinquished law for 
 literature, and contributed largely to 
 periodicals. His works, many of which 
 are of a humorous or burlesque char- 
 acter, include: The Poetry and Mystery 
 of Dreams, Pictures of Travels, a trans- 
 lation of Heine’s Reisebilder, Sunshine 
 in Thought, Legends of Birds, Hans 
 Breitmann’s Ballads, The English Gip- 
 sies andTheir Language, Fu-Sang; or,the 
 Discovery of America by Chinese 
 Buddhist Priests in the Fifth Century, 
 English Gipsy Songs, Johnnykin and 
 the Goblins, Pidgin-English Sing-Song, 
 Abraham Lincoln. He is best known by 
 his Hans Breitmann’s Ballads. He died 
 in 1903. 
 
 LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNI- 
 VERSITY, Was founded by Leland Stan- 
 ford and his wife, Jane Lathrop Stan- 
 ford, in memory of their only son Leland 
 Stanford, Jr., who died in 1884. It is 
 33 miles southeast of San Francisco. 
 
 The university maintains departments 
 of Greek, Latin, Germanic languages, 
 Romance languages, English, philosophy 
 psychology, education, history, eco- 
 nomics and social science, law, drawing, 
 mathematics, phyisics, chemistry, bot- 
 any, physiology and hygiene, zoology, 
 geology and mining, and civil, mechani- 
 cal, and electrical engineering. The 
 Hopkins Laboratory of Natural History 
 at Pacific Grove, on the Bay of Monterey 
 is a branch of the biological work of the 
 university. The degrees conferred are 
 Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Laws, 
 Master of Arts, Engineer, and Doctor 
 of Philosophy. No honorary degrees are 
 given. The ordinary class divisions are 
 not recognized by the university, and 
 degrees are conferred without regard 
 to the time spent, whenever the re- 
 quirements are met. Each student 
 selects as his major subject the work of 
 some one department, to which, to- 
 gether with the necessary minor sub- 
 jects, he is required to devote about a 
 third of his under-graduate course. 
 All the rest of the undergraduate work 
 is elective, but the professor in charge 
 of the major subject acts as the stu- 
 dent’s educational advisor. These sub- 
 jects include, besides those usually re- 
 quired for entrance examinations, Span- 
 ish, the natural sciences, physiography, 
 mechanical and free-hand drawing, 
 wood-working, forge work, foundry 
 work, and machine-shop work. The 
 university has a philological and a 
 science association, and offers frequent 
 public lectures on subjects of general 
 interest. The building up and develop- 
 ment of the university is due largely to 
 the work of David Starr Jordan, who 
 has been its only president. 
 
 LE'LY, Sir Peter, painter, born at 
 Soest, in Westphalia, in 1617 or 1618. 
 Lely or Le Lys was properly a nickname 
 borne by his father, whose family name 
 y?as Van der Taes, Tic w.as fir.st in- 
 
 structed by Peter Grebber at Haarlem 
 but came to England in 1641, and com- 
 menced portrait-painting. He finished 
 portraits both of Charles I. and of Crom- 
 well ; but it was not until the Restoration 
 that he rose to the height of his fame. 
 He fell in with the voluptuous taste of 
 the new court, and was in great favor 
 with Charles II., who knighted him. 
 He died in 1680. The Hampton Court 
 collection of portraits of the ladies of the 
 court of Charles II. contains some of his 
 best work; the finest of his few historical 
 works being the Susannah and the. 
 Elders, at Burleigh House. 
 
 LEMBERG, a city of Austria, capital 
 of the kingdom of Galicia, on the Peltew, 
 365 miles e.n.e. from Vienna. Pop. 
 159,618. 
 
 Norway lemming. 
 
 LEMMING, a rodent mammal very 
 nearly allied to the mouse and rat. There 
 are several species, found in Norway, 
 Lapland, Siberia, and the northern parts 
 of America. The most noted species is 
 the common or European lemming. 
 
 LEM'ON, the fruit of the lemon-tree, 
 originally brought from the tropical 
 parts of Asia, but now cultivated ex- 
 tensively in the south of Europe and 
 in the United States, especially in 
 California. It is of the same genus 
 as the orange and citron, and dif- 
 fers little from the lime. It is a knotty- 
 wooded tree of rather irregular growth, 
 about 8 feet high; the leaves are oval, 
 and contain scattered glands which are 
 filled with a volatile oil. The shape of 
 the fruit is oblong, and its internal struc- 
 ture is similar to that of the orange. 
 The juice is acid and agreeable; and in 
 addition to its use in beverages is em- 
 ployed by calico-printers to discharge 
 colors. As expressed from the ripe fruit 
 it has a specific gravity of 1.04, and con- 
 tains about 1.5 per cent of citric acid. It 
 also contains sugar, albuminous and 
 vegetable matters, and some mineral 
 matter, nearly half of which consists of 
 potash. The oil of lemon is a volatile oil 
 of yellow or greenish color got from the 
 fresh rind of the lemon. It is used in 
 perfumery, and in medicine as a stimu- 
 lant and rubefacient; it also forms an 
 ingredient of syrup of lemon and tinc- 
 ture of lemon. 
 
 LEMONADE, a drink made of water, 
 sugar, and the juice of lemons A good 
 recipe is; two sliced lemons, oz. of 
 sugar, boiling water, I J pint; mix, cover 
 up the vessel, let it stand, with occasional 
 stirring, till cold, then strain off the 
 liquid. Aerated bottled lemonade may 
 be prepared by putting lemon syrup 
 into a bottle, and filling up with aerated 
 water at a bottling machine. 
 
 LEMON-KALI, a name sometimes 
 
 given to the effervescing beverage formed 
 by mixing lemon-juice with dissolved 
 bicarbonate of potash. 
 
 LE'MUR, a name popularly given to 
 a sub-order of monkeys. Their zoologi- 
 cal position has been a matter of con- 
 siderable debate, as they possess char- 
 acteristics which distinguish them from 
 the monkeys, and ally them with the 
 insectivores and rodents. The simplest 
 classification places them, however, 
 with the lower Quadrumana. The Lemu- 
 ridre or True Lemurs are specially dis- 
 tinguished by the habitually four-footed 
 or quadrupedal mode of progression. 
 The tail (except in the short-tailed 
 Indris) is elongated and furry, but is 
 never prehensile. The hind limbs are 
 longer than the fore limbs; the second 
 toe in the hind foot being long and claw- 
 like, and the nails of all the other toes 
 being flat. The fourth digit of the hand 
 and especially of the foot, is longer than 
 the others. The thumb can always be 
 opposed to the other fingers, and has a 
 broad, flattened nail. The ears are small 
 and the eyes large. The incisor teeth 
 are generally four, the canines, two, and 
 the molars twelve in each jaw. The true 
 lemurs are exclusively confined to Mada- 
 gascar and neighboring islands, but 
 other members of the family are found 
 in Africa and as far east as the Philip- 
 pines. They are all arboreal in their 
 habits, and subsist chiefly upon a vege- 
 table diet, but also eat insects, and the 
 smaller birds and their eggs. 
 
 Varied lemur. ^ 
 
 LENA, a river of Siberia, one of the*^ 
 largest in the world, rising on the north- , 
 western side of the mountains which y 
 skirt the western shore of Lake Baikal,*? 
 about 70 miles e.n.e. of Irkutsk. Itjrt 
 flows in a winding course, and discharges w 
 itself through several branches into the||7 
 Arctic Ocean in lat. 73° n., and lon.-j, 
 about 128° e. Its course, windings in-V 
 eluded, is about 2770 miles. 4., 
 
 LENNI-LENAPE, the name by which” 
 the Delaware Indians call themselves.^ 
 See Delaware. 
 
 LENORMANT, Frangois, French arch- 
 aeologist, born 1837. After traveling in 
 the east he became, in 1874, professor of 
 archeology at the Bibliotheque Nation- 
 ale. He died in 1883. He was an author-* 
 ity on the Cuneiform inscriptions ^dV 
 the Accadian language. 
 
LENS 
 
 LEOPARi) 
 
 LEWS, a transparent substance, Us- 
 ually glass, so formed that rays of 
 liglit passing through it are made to 
 change their direction, and to magnify 
 or diminish objects at a certain distance. 
 Lenses are double convex, or convex on 
 both sides; double-concave, or concave 
 on both sides; plano-convex, or plano- 
 concave, that is, with one side plane 
 and the other convex or concave, or 
 convex on one side and concave on the 
 other. If the convexity be greater than 
 the concavity, or if the two surfaces 
 would meet if produced, the lens is called 
 a meniscus; and if the concavity be 
 greater than the convexity, the lens is 
 termed concavo-c-onvex. See Ojitics, 
 Microscope, Telescope. 
 
 LENT, the forty days’ fast in spring, 
 beginning with Ash Wednesday and 
 ending with Easter Sunday. In the 
 Lai in Church Lent formerly lasted but 
 thirty-six days; in the 5th century four 
 days were added, in imitation of the 
 forty days’ fast of the Savior, and this 
 usage 'became general in the western 
 church. The close of Lent is celebrated 
 in Eoman Caiholic countries with great 
 rejoicings, and the carnival is held just 
 before it beginfe. The English Church 
 has retained Lent and many other fasts, 
 but gives no directions respecting ab- 
 stinence from food. 
 
 LENTIL, a plant cultivated in South- 
 ern and Central Europe. It is an annual, 
 rising with weak stalks about 18 inches, 
 and with whitislr flowers hanging from 
 the axils of the leaves. I'wo varieties 
 are cultivated — the -htrge garden lentil 
 
 Lentil. 
 
 and the common field lentil — the former 
 distinguished by its size and the greater 
 quantity of mealy substance which it 
 will afford. The straw of lentils makes 
 good fodder. As food for man the seeds 
 are very nutritious, and in Egypt, Syria, 
 etc., are a chief article of diet. 
 
 LEO, the Lion, the fifth sign of the 
 zodiac, between Cancer and Virgo. The 
 sun enters it about July 22, and leaves 
 it about August 23. The constellation 
 contains 95 stars, and is noteworthy for 
 its remarkable nebulae. There is also a 
 constellation of the northern hemisphere 
 known as Leo Minor, and containing 
 53 stars. 
 
 LEO I., St. Leo, called the Great, pope 
 ^ born about 390. The Popes Celestine I. 
 ; and Sixtus III. employed him in im- 
 * 
 
 portant ecclesiastical affairs, and on the 
 death of Sixtus III. in 440 he was ele- 
 vated to the papal chair. He was em- 
 ployed by Valentinian to intercede for 
 peace with Attila, who, at his request, 
 evacuated Italy. His death took place 
 in 461. He is the first pope whose writ- 
 ings — sermons, letters, etc. — have been 
 preserved. In his main ambition to 
 estal)li.sh the supremacy of the Apostolic 
 chair over the whole Christian Church he 
 was defeated at the council of Chalcedon 
 (451), which affirmed the independence 
 of the see of Constantinople. 
 
 LEO III., a Roman by birth, elected 
 pope on the death of Adrian I. in 795. 
 He commenced his rule by making sub- 
 mission to Charlemagne, so that when 
 driven from Rome in 799 by his rival 
 Paschal, Charlemagne re-established 
 him on his throne, receiving from him 
 in 800 the imperial crown. Leo died in 
 816. 
 
 LEO X., Giovanni de’ Medici, second 
 son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, born at 
 Florence in 1475, received the tonsure 
 in his seventh year, and was loaded with 
 benefices. In 1488, when only thirteen 
 years old, he was made a cardinal, and 
 in 1492 took his seat as a member of the 
 Holy College at Rome. Pope Julius II. 
 made him governor of Perugia, and in 
 1511 placed him, with the title of Legate 
 of Bologna, at the head of his forces in 
 the holy league against France. After 
 contributing to the re-establishment of 
 the Medici he remained at Florence until 
 the death of Julius II. recalled him to 
 Rome. Although only a deacon, he was 
 chosen to succeed Julius in 1513. In 
 1515 he had an interview with Francis I. 
 at Bologna, and formed with him a con- 
 cordat, which remained in force nearly 
 three hundred years, and gave to the 
 king the right to nominate bishops in 
 his own dominions. To procure money, 
 particularly for the completion of St. 
 Peter’s, he encouraged the sale of indul- 
 gences, an abuse which incidentally pro- 
 moted the Reformation, in calling forth 
 the attacks of Luther. Leo died suddenly 
 in 1521. 
 
 LEO XIII., Pope, the 258 Roman 
 Pontiff and 257 successor of Peter, was 
 born at Carpineto in 1810. He was 
 created and proclaimed a cardinal by 
 Pius IX. in the consistory of December 
 19, 1853. He was a member of several of 
 the congregations of cardinals — among 
 them those of the Council of Rites and 
 of Bishops and Regulars. In September, 
 1877, he was selected by Pope Pius IX. 
 to fill the important office of cardinal 
 camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church, 
 which post had become vacant by the 
 death of Cardinal De Angelis. In that 
 capacity, after the death of Pius IX. 
 (February 7, 1878), he acted as head of 
 the church in temporal matters, made 
 the arrangements for the last solemn 
 obsequies of the pontiff, received the 
 Catholic ambassadors, and superin- 
 tended the preparations for the con- 
 clave. Sixty-two cardinals attended the 
 conclave, which was closed in the Vati- 
 can on Monday, February 18, 1878, and 
 the cardinal camerlengo was made Pope 
 by the acclamation of all on Wednesday, 
 February 20, 1878, and his Holiness 
 assumed the name of Leo XIII. Leo 
 XIII. had throughout behaved with 
 
 perfect consistency. He had nevef 
 quitted the Vatican, but had religiously 
 kept up the fiction of his being held there 
 a prisoner. He refused the income voted 
 to him, as to his predecessor, by the 
 Italian parliament, and has never recog- 
 nized the Law of Guarantees. He has 
 protested from time to time against 
 “godless” schools, and against tolerated 
 heresy in Rome. But in his relations 
 with foreign powers he has always been 
 moderate and dexterous. He died in 
 1903. 
 
 LEON, a town of Spain, capital of the 
 province and ancient kingdom of the 
 same name, 176 miles northwest of 
 Madrid. Pop. 15,300. — The province 
 has the Asturias as its northern bound- 
 ary, a branch of which mountains divides 
 it into two portions. The western por- 
 tion is adapted rather for pasture than 
 tillage, but the eastern has wide and 
 undulating plains, on which the vine 
 and various grain crops are successfully 
 cultivated. Area, 6166 sq. miles. Pop. 
 
 370.000. 
 
 LEON, a town of Central America, 
 capital of the department of Leon, state 
 of Nicaragua, on a large and fertile plain 
 near the Pacific coast. It is regularly 
 built, and the public buildings which 
 are considered among the finest in Cen- 
 tral .America, include a massive cathe- 
 dral, an old episcopal palace, a new 
 episcopal palace, and several churches. 
 A railway connects it with the coast 
 at Corinto. The town has suffered a 
 good deal from the civil wars. Pop. 
 
 45.000. 
 
 LEON, a town of Mexico, state of 
 Guanajuato, on a fertile plain more than 
 6000 feet above sea-level, a well-built 
 place, with flourishing industries of 
 various kinds, which its railway con- 
 nections are helping to develop. Pop. 
 
 80.000. 
 
 LEONTDAS, in Greek history, a king 
 of Sparta, who ascended the throne 491 
 B.c. When Xerxes invaded Greece, the 
 Greek congress assigned to Leonidas the 
 command of the force destined to defend 
 the pass of Thermopylae. His force, 
 according to Herodotus, amounted to 
 over 5000 men, of whom 300 were 
 Spartans. After the Persians had made 
 several vain attempts to force the pass, 
 a Greek named Ephialtes betrayed to 
 them a mountain path by which Leonidas 
 was assailed from the rear, and he and 
 his followers fell after a desperate re- 
 sistance (b.c. 480). 
 
 LEOPARD, a carnivorous mammal 
 
 Leopard. 
 
 inhabiting Africa, Persia, India, China, 
 etc., by some regarded as identical with 
 
LEOPOLD 
 
 LESLIE 
 
 the panther. The ground or general 
 body-color of both is a yellowish fawn, 
 which is slightly paler on the sides, and 
 becomes white under the body. Both 
 are also marked with black spots of 
 various sizes, irregularly dispersed, a 
 number of them being ring-shaped. The 
 African animal seems to have these ring- 
 spots chiefly on the back, and to this 
 form some would specially assign the 
 name of leopard. It preys upon ante- 
 lopes, monkeys, and the smaller quad- 
 rupeds, rarely attacking man unless it- 
 self attacked. It can ascend trees with 
 great ease, often using them both for 
 refuge and ambush. It is not infre- 
 quently trapped by means of pitfalls. 
 Besides the common leopard there is 
 also a useful and docile Asiatic species, 
 chetah or hunting leopard. See Chetah. 
 
 LE'OPOLD I., King of the Belgians, 
 son of a Duke of Saxe-Coburg, was born 
 in 1790. In 1816 he married the Princess 
 Charlotte, heir-apparent of Great Brit- 
 ain, who died in 1817. In 1831 he ac- 
 cepted the crown of Belgium. He mar- 
 ried a daughter of King Louis Philippe 
 of France, by whom he became the 
 father of Leopold II., the present Bel- 
 gium sovereign. After a prosperous and 
 uneventful reign he died in 1865. 
 
 LEOPOLD, II., Louis Philippe Marie 
 Victor, King of the Belgians, was born 
 in 1835. He ascended the throne on 
 the death of his father in 1865. In 
 1876 he effected at Brussels the organi- 
 zation of the African International As- 
 sociation with a view of making use of 
 the recent discoveries in Africa. He 
 promoted this work with great energy, 
 supplying largely from his own re- 
 sources the means for Stanley’s explo- 
 ration of the Congo. The Congo Free 
 State was established and the sover- 
 eignty of it was given to IjCopold by 
 the Berlin Congress in 1885. 
 
 Leper. See Leprosy. 
 
 LEPER-HOUSES, houses for the 
 treatment of leprosy; once very numer- 
 ous in England, nearly every important 
 town having one or more of these houses. 
 The house of Burton Lazars in Leices- 
 tershire, built by a general subscription 
 raised over England in the time of King 
 Stephen, was the 'head of all lazar- 
 houses in England. It was dependent on 
 the leper-house at Jerusalem. From the 
 Crusades until the reformation these 
 houses flourished and multiplied. Gradu- 
 ally, however, as better habits and 
 treatment began to diminish diseases of 
 the class for which they were used, these 
 houses declined, and were abondoned 
 or appropriated to other objects. 
 
 LEPIDOP'TERA, the scientific name 
 of the order of insects which includes 
 the butterflies and moths (which see), 
 and which is so named from the pres- 
 ence of innumerable small membranous 
 scales, which come off like fine dust or 
 powder when the wings (four in number) 
 are touched by the finger. The scales 
 are merely modifications of the hairs 
 with which the wings of most other 
 insects are covered; and from the pres- 
 ence of these scales the beautiful tints 
 and colors of the lepid’opterous insects 
 are derived. The butterflies form the 
 diurnal; while the moths, flying about 
 chiefly at twilight or during the night, 
 arc termed nocturnal Lepidoptera. 
 
 Lepidoptera. 
 
 1, Butterfly— marbled white butterfly. 2, 
 Hawk-moth or sphinx— humming-bird hawk- 
 moth. 3, Moth— magpie moth. 4, Palpi and 
 spiral mouth of butterfly. 5, Antenn®— a, 
 Butterfly's; b. Sphinx’s; c. Moth’s. 6. Portion 
 of wing of cabbage-butterfly, with part of the 
 scales removed. 7, Scales of do, magnified. 
 
 LEP'ROSY, a name applied at one 
 time to several different skin diseases 
 characterized by roughness or scaliness. 
 True leprosy is the elephantiasis of the 
 Greeks, the lepra of the Arabs, whose 
 old Engli.sh name was the myckle ail or 
 great disease. It is to be distinguished 
 from the elephantiasis of the Arabs, 
 which is a local overgrowth of skin and 
 subcutaneous tissue, chiefly of the ex- 
 tremities and genital organs, and is non- 
 contagious. Of true leprosy there are 
 several well-marked types. The first is 
 characterized by the formation of 
 nodules or tubercles in the skin, common 
 about the eyebrows, where they destroy 
 the hair, and produce a frowning or 
 leonine aspect. After a time the nodules 
 break down, forming ulcers, which dis- 
 charge for a time, and may cause exten- 
 sive destruction and deformity. The 
 tubercles may form in the nostrils, in 
 the throat altering the voice, on the 
 eyelids extending into and destroying 
 the eyeball. In the second type the chief 
 features are insensibility and numbness 
 of parts of the skin, accompanied by 
 deep-.seated pains, causing sleeplessness 
 and restlessness. In a third variety 
 much mutilation occurs owing to the 
 loss of bones, chiefly of the limbs, a 
 portion of a limb being frequently 
 lopped off painlessly at a joint. All these 
 varieties begin with the appearance on 
 the skin of blotches of a dull coppery or 
 purplish tint, the affected part being 
 thickened, puffy, and coarse-looking. 
 When the redness disappears a stain is 
 left, or a white blotch. Leprosy is now 
 believed to be caused by a minute 
 organism — a bacillus (see Germ Theory 
 of Disease), and to be contagious. 
 Though the disease is not so widespread 
 as at one time it was, it still prevails in 
 Norway and Iceland, the coasts of the 
 Black Sea and Mediterranean, in Mada- 
 gascar, Mauritius, Madeira, the Greek 
 Archipelago, East and West Indies, 
 Palestine, the Pacific Islands, etc. 
 
 LERTDA, a town of Spain, province 
 of Lerida, Catalonia, on the right bank 
 of the Segre, here crossed by a hand- 
 some bridge of seven arches, 84 miles 
 w.n.w. of Barcelona. As the key of 
 Aragon and Catalonia it was early for- 
 tified, and still continues to be one of the 
 most important military points in Spain. 
 Pop. 21,337. — ^I'he province, bounded 
 north by France, has an area of 4774 
 
 S()l. hmles, traversed by ramifications ol 
 the Pyrenees. Pop. 291,624. 
 
 LE SAGE, or LESAGE (le-sazh), 
 Alain Ren6, French novelist anddramatic 
 writer, born in 1668 at Sarzeau, in 
 Brittany. He translated Avellaneda’s 
 continuation of the Adventures of Don 
 Quixote, and a comedy of Calderon ; but 
 his first success was with his Crispin 
 Ri-^al de son Maitre (1707). In 1715 he 
 published the first two volumes of Gil 
 Bias, one of the best romances in the 
 French language, the third volume ap- 
 pearing in 1724, the fourth in 1735. 
 
 In 1732 he published Les Adventures de 
 Guzman d’Alfarache (based on Aleman’s 
 work) ; and the following year Les Ad- 
 ventures de Robert, dit le Chevalier de 
 Beauchesne, containing the real history 
 of a freebooter, from papers furn^hed 
 by his widow. In 1734 appeared L’ 
 Histoire d’Estevanille Gonzales. The 
 last of his novels was Le Bachelier de 
 Salamanque (1738). He died in 1747. 
 
 He wrote also many theatrical pieces, 
 etc. t 
 
 LESBOS, a Greek Island situated off 
 the northwest coast of Asia Minor, now 
 called Mitylene, from the capital. In 
 shape it is nearly triangular; has an 
 area of 276 sq. miles, and a population 
 of about 40,000, and now belongs to 
 Turkey. The island formerly contained 
 nine cities, the chief being Mitylene. ' 
 
 LESGHIANS, a Tartar people of the 
 Mohammedan religion, inhabiting the 
 eastern Caucasus, and forming the chief 
 portion of the inhabitants of Daghestan. 
 They were among the most stubborn of 
 the Caucasian peoples in their resistance 
 to the Russians. 
 
 LESLIE, Frank, the name assumed 
 by Henry Carter, an American pub- 
 lisher and journalist, born in Ipswich, 
 England, in 1821. He showed a natural 
 bent for art, and contributed sketches! 
 to the Illustrated London News, signing 
 them Frank Leslie. In 1848 he came to 
 the United States, and in 1854 began 
 publishing the first of his many illus- 
 trated journalistic ventures. The Gazette i 
 of Fashion. The New York Journal soon 
 followed with Frank Leslie’s Illustrated 
 Newspaper (1855), The Boy’s and Girl’s j 
 Weekly, The Budget of Fun, and many 
 others. He was commissioner to the | 
 Paris exposition of 1867, and was given , 
 a prize there for his artistic services. , 
 He died in 1880, and his 'wife took, by ! 
 legislative act, the name" Frank Leslie,” j 
 and for some years conducted the busi- 
 ness with conspicuous success. I 
 
 LESLIE, Sir John, Scottish physicist 
 and mathematician, born at Largo, 
 Fife, in 1766. He invented the differ- 
 ential thermometer about the year 1800, 
 and four years later published his Essay 
 on the Nature and Propagation of Heat. 
 Through one of his contrivances, his 
 hygrometer, he arrived in 1810 at the 
 discovery of a process of artificial con- 
 gelation, which enabled him to freeze 
 mercury. In 1809 he published his 
 Elements of Geometry; in 1813 an 
 Account of Experiments and Instru- 
 ments depending on the relation of Air 
 to Heat and Moisture; in 1817 his Philo- 
 sophy of Aritlmietic ; in 1821 his Geomet- 
 rical Analysis and Geometry of Curved | 
 Lines; in 1822 a volume of Elements of j 
 ' Natural Philosophy; and in 1828 ms i 
 
LESSEPft 
 
 LEVELLINd 
 
 Rudiments of Geometry. He died in 
 1832, having been knighted not long 
 before. 
 
 LE33EP3, Ferdinand, Vicomte de, 
 French diplomatist and engineer, born 
 in 1805. After holding several consular 
 and diplomatic posts he retired from 
 the government service, and in 1854 
 went to Egypt, and proposed to the 
 viceroy the cutting of a canal across the 
 Isthmus of Suez. This great work was 
 successfully completed in 1859-09, un- 
 der his supervision, and brought him 
 high honors of various kinds. He sub- 
 sequently proposed several other grand 
 schemes; but the only one really taken 
 in hand was the Panama Canal (which 
 see). He died in 1894. 
 
 LESSING, Gotthold Ephraim, Ger- 
 man critic, dramatist, and scholar, born 
 1729 at Kamentz, in Upper Lusatia. 
 In 1755 appeared Miss Sara. Sampson, a 
 tragedy dealing with English life. In 
 1765 he published the Laocoon, or on 
 the Limits of Painting and Poetry, and 
 his comedy Minna von Barnhelm. About 
 1767 he became director of the National 
 theater at Hamburg. While here he 
 wrote his Dramaturgie. Besides those 
 mentioned, he wrote another drama, 
 Emilia Galotti (1772). He died at 
 Brunswick in 1781. 
 
 LESTRANGE, Sir Roger, political 
 controversialist, journalist, and trans- 
 lator, born at Hunstanton Hall, Nor- 
 folk, in 1616. He died in 1704. He was 
 the author of a great number of coarse 
 and virulent political tracts, and trans- 
 lated Josephus, Cicero’s Offices, Sene- 
 ca’s Morals, Quevedo’s Visions, etc. 
 
 LETH'ARGY, an unnatural tendency 
 to sleep, closely connected with languor 
 and debility, and much resembling 
 apoplexy in character. It may rise from 
 a plethoric habit, from deficient circu- 
 lation in the brain, from nervous ex- 
 haustion of that organ, from a poisoned 
 state of the blood, or from a suppression 
 of urine. When it is the consequence 
 of alcoholic intoxication, or of the action 
 of narcotics, it should be treated as 
 apoplexy. 
 
 LETHE, the River of Oblivion, one 
 of the streams of the lower regions cele- 
 brated in ancient mythology, whose 
 water had the power of making those 
 who drank of it forget the whole of their 
 former existence. Souls before passing 
 into Elysium drank to forget their 
 earthly sorrows; souls rethrning to the 
 upper world drank to forget the pleasure 
 of Elysium. 
 
 LETTER OF CREDIT. See Credit. 
 
 LETTER OF MARQUE. See Marque. 
 
 LETTERS. See Alphabet, Consonant, 
 Vowel, Writings, etc. 
 
 LETTERS-PATENT, letters of the 
 British sovereign sealed below with the 
 great seal, conferring on a person or a 
 public company some special or peculiar 
 privilege. Letters-patent are issued to 
 protect new inventions, and from the 
 latter procedure is derived what is called 
 patent-right. See Patent. 
 
 LETTRES DE CACHET are really 
 lettres closes, that is, letters sealed in 
 such a way that they cannot be opened 
 without breaking the seal, and which 
 were originally always addressed to in- 
 dividuals in contradistinction to lettres 
 patentes, or letters patent, beginning 
 
 “know all m6n by these presents.” 
 Lettres closes interfering with the ad- 
 ministration of justice or the liberty of 
 the subject were forbidden by numerous 
 edicts in the 14th, 15th, and 16th cen- 
 turies, and the term lettres de cachet, as 
 synonymous with lettres closes, is first 
 found in the ordinance of Orleans in 
 1560. The convenience of such .i means 
 to consign one’s enemies to prison was 
 seen by Richelieu and Mazarin, who fol- 
 lowed the Guise Government in using 
 them frequently, despite numerous prot- 
 estations on the part of the parlements, 
 of which the most notable was when, in 
 1648, an ordinance was registered that 
 no man should be kept in prison three 
 days without interrogation. When once 
 Louis XIV. had begun to rule, he made 
 frequent use of lettres de cachet both 
 for state purposes and to control and 
 disorganize his nobility, and he boldly 
 justified their use in an edict of 1705. 
 But the most marked jutisfication is to 
 be found in the circular letter addressed 
 to the parlements of France in reply to 
 protests against arbitrary imprisonment 
 in 1759, in which the king says that “he 
 reserves arbitrary orders — in other 
 words, lettres de cachet — for occasions 
 wherein they may be necessary for the 
 public good and the interests of fam- 
 ilies.” It was the custom for the king to 
 sign a number of blank lettres de cachet 
 which his ministers gave away to whom- 
 ever they pleased. Thus they often fell 
 into hands of people who used them to 
 gratify private hate; fathers obtained 
 them and inserted the names of their 
 sons, wives inserted the names of their 
 husbands, opera dancers those of lovers 
 who had spurned them. The evil grew 
 to such a height that Turgot and Lam- 
 oignon de Malesherbes refused to enter 
 the ministry of Louis XVI. unless they 
 might see the contents of the orders 
 they countersigned, and know the 
 causes for which men were to be im- 
 prisoned. It is needless to say that when 
 the cahiers of the primary assemblies 
 were prepared, to instruct the deputies 
 to the states-general in the wishes of 
 their constituents, abolition of lettres de 
 cachet were demanded in almost all the 
 cahiers of the noblese and tiers 4tat. 
 The subject was mentioned in the early 
 debates of the constituent assembly, 
 but lettres de cachet were not formally 
 abolished till January 15, 1790, and on 
 March 13th of the same year all im- 
 prisoned under them were ordered to be 
 set at liberty 
 
 LETTUCE, a smooth, herbaceous, 
 annual plant, containing a milky juice, 
 and in general use as a salad. The stem 
 grows to the height of about 2 feet, and 
 bears small pale-yellow flowers; the in- 
 ferior leaves are sessile, and undulate 
 on the margin. The young plant only is 
 eaten, as the lettuce is narcotic and 
 poisonous when in flower. A number of 
 species are known from various parts of 
 the globe. Lactucarium, or lettuce 
 opium, the inspissated juice of the let- 
 tuce, is used medicinally as an ano- 
 dyne. 
 
 LEUCO'MA, a white opacity of the 
 cornea of the eye, the result of acute 
 inflammation. 
 
 LEUCORRHCE'A, in medicine, a mor- 
 bid discharge of a white, yellowish, or 
 
 greenish mucus from the female genital 
 organs. 
 
 LEVANT', a term applied in the widest 
 sense to all the regions eastward from 
 Italy as far as the Euphrates and the 
 Nile, and in a more contracted sense to 
 the Asiatic coasts of the Mediterranean 
 and the adjacent countries from Con- 
 stantinople to Alexandria in Egypt. 
 
 LEV'EE, a morning reception held by 
 a prince or great personage. The term is 
 chiefly applied in Britain to the stated 
 public occasions on which the sovereign 
 receives visits from such persons as are 
 entitled by rank or fortune to the honor. 
 It is distinguished from a drawing-room 
 in this respect, that while at the former 
 gentlemen alone appear (with the ex- 
 ception of the chief ladies of the court), 
 both ladies and gentlemen are admitted 
 to the latter. 
 
 LEVEE, in America, an embankment 
 on the margin of a river, to confine it 
 within its natural channel, such as may 
 be seen on the banks of the lower Mis- 
 sissippi. 
 
 LEVEL, an instrument by which to 
 And or draw a straight line parallel to 
 the plane of the horizon, and by this 
 means to determine the true level or the 
 difference of ascent or descent between 
 several places, for various purposes in 
 architecture, agriculture, engineering, 
 hydraulics, surveying, etc. There is a 
 great variety of instruments for this pur- 
 pose, differently constructed and of 
 different materials, according to the par- 
 ticular purposes to which they are ap- 
 plied, as the carpenter’s level, mason’s 
 level, gunner’s level, balance level, water 
 level, mercurial level, spirit level, sur- 
 veying level, etc. All such instruments, 
 however, may be reduced to three 
 classes: (L) Those in which the vertical 
 line is determined by a suspended plumb 
 line or balance weight, and the horizon- 
 tal indicated by a line perpendicular to 
 it. Such are the carpenter’s and mason’s 
 levels. (2) Those which determine a hori- 
 zontal line by the surface of a fluid at 
 rest, as water and mercurial levels. (3) 
 Those which point out the direction of a 
 horizontal line by a bubble of air float- 
 ing in a fluid contained in a glass tube. 
 Such are spirit-levels, which are by far 
 the most convenient and accurate. All 
 levels depend on the same principle, 
 namely, the action of terrestrial gravity. 
 
 LEVELLING, the art or operation of 
 ascertaining the different elevations of 
 objects on the surface of the earth, or of 
 flnding how much any assigned point 
 included in a survey is higher or lower 
 than another assigned point. It is a 
 branch of surveying of great importance 
 in making roads, determining the proper 
 lines for railways, conducting water, 
 draining low grounds, rendering rivers 
 navigable, forming canals, and the like. 
 In ordinary cases of leveling (for ex- 
 ample, for canals, railways, etc.) the 
 instruments commonly employed are a 
 spirit-level with a telescope attached to 
 it, and a stand for mounting them on, 
 and a pair of leveling staves. A leveling 
 staff is an instrument used in conjunc- 
 tion with a spirit-level and telescope. 
 It is variously constructed, but con- 
 sists essentially of a graduated pole with 
 a vane sliding upon it so as to mark the 
 height at any particular distance above 
 
LEVER 
 
 LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION 
 
 the ground. In leveling two of them are 
 used together, and being set up at any- 
 required distance the surveyor, by 
 means of a telescope placed between 
 them perfectly horizontallj^, is enabled 
 to compare the relative heights of the 
 two places. 
 
 LEVER, a bar of metal, wood, or other 
 substance turning on a support called 
 the fulcrum or prop, and used to over- 
 come a certain resistance (called the 
 weight) encountered at one part of the 
 bar by means of a force (called the power) 
 applied at another part. It is one of the 
 mechanical powers, and is of three 
 kinds, viz.: (1) When the fulcrum is be- 
 tween the weight and the power, as in 
 the hand-spike, crow-bar, etc. In this 
 case the parts of the lever on each side 
 of the fulcrum are called the arms, and 
 these arms may either be equal as in the 
 balance, or unequal as in the steelyard. 
 
 (2) When the weight is between the 
 ower and the fulcrum, as in rowing a 
 oat. where the fulcrum is the water. 
 
 (3) When the power isbetween theweight 
 and the fulcrum, as in raising a ladder 
 from the ground by applying the hand 
 to one of the lower rounds, the fulcrum 
 in this case being the foot of the ladder. 
 The law which holds in the lever is: 
 the power multiplied by its arm is equal 
 to the weight multiplied by its arm. It 
 is evident that when the power has a 
 very large arm, and the weight a very 
 small one, a very small power will 
 overcome a great resistance. In the 
 lever, as in all machines when a small 
 force overcomes a great one, the small 
 force acts through a much greater dis- 
 tance than that through which the 
 great force is overcome, or as is some- 
 times said, “What is gained in power is 
 lost in time.” 
 
 LE'VER, Charles James, an Irish 
 novelist, born at Dublin in 1806. Harry 
 Lorrequer appeared in 1837. His 
 Charles O’Malley, Tom Burke, Jack Hin- 
 ton, etc., constituted a literature en- 
 tirely of its own kind, unique. His 
 later novels were more thoughtful and 
 artistic. He obtained a diplomatic post 
 at Florence about 184.5, was appointed 
 vice-consul at Spezzia in 1858, and in 
 1867 at Trieste, where he died in 1872. 
 
 LEVERRIER, Urbain Jean Joseph, 
 French astronomer, born at Saint-L6 
 (Manche) 1811, died at Paris 1S77. His 
 observations on the transit of Mercury 
 in 1845 procured him admission into the 
 Academy of Sciences. His great work 
 was his investigation of the irregularities 
 in the movements of the planet Uranus, 
 carried on simultaneously but independ- 
 ently with those in the same line by 
 John Couch Adams, which led to the 
 discovery of the planet Neptune. He 
 entered political life in 1849, and was 
 made a senator by Napoleon III. He 
 succeeded Arago as director of the ob- 
 servatory. His tables of suns and planet 
 are in general use among astronomers. 
 
 LEVI, the third son of Jacob and 
 Leah. The chief incident recorded of 
 him, as apart from his brethren, is the 
 part which he played in the massacre 
 of the Shechemites. Three sons went 
 down with him to _ Egypt — Gershon, 
 Kohath, and Merari (Gen. xlvi. 2). 
 Moses and Aaron were of this tribe. 
 
 LEVI'ATHAN, a form of the Hebrew 
 
 word livyathan, meaning a long-jointed 
 monster, applied in Job xli. and else- 
 where in Scripture to an aquatic animal 
 variously held to be the crocodile, the 
 whale, or some species of serpent. 
 
 LEV'IRATE, the custom among the 
 Jews of a man’s marrying the widow of 
 a brother who died without issue. The 
 same custom or law prevails in some 
 parts of India. 
 
 LE'VITES, the name generally em- 
 ployed to designate not the whole Jewish 
 tribe that traced its descent from Levi, 
 but a division within the tribe itself, in 
 contradistinction to the priests, who are 
 otherwise called the “sons of Aaron.” 
 They were the ministers of worship, 
 specially singled out for the service of 
 the sanctuary. Together with the priests 
 they formed the sacerdotal tribe. A 
 permanent organization was made for 
 their maintenance. In placp of territor- 
 ial possessions they were to receive 
 tithes of the produce of the land, and in 
 their turn to offer a tithe to the priests. 
 After the settlement in Caanan, to the 
 tribe of Levi were assigned forty-eight 
 cities, six of which were cities of refuge, 
 thirteen of the total number being set 
 apart for the priests. To the Levites 
 was to belong the office of preserving, 
 transcribing, and interpreting the law, 
 and they were to read it every seventh 
 year at the feast of tabernacles. Their 
 position was much changed by the 
 revolt of the ten tribes, and they are 
 seldom mentioned in the New Testament 
 where they appear as the types of for- 
 mal, heartless worship. 
 
 LEVITTCUS, the name of the third 
 book of the Pentateuch, as called from 
 the first word of its contents. By the 
 later Jews it was called the “Law of the 
 Priests,” and sometimes the “Law of 
 Offerings.” It consists of seven prin- 
 cipal sections, but it may be generally de- 
 scribed as containing the laws and ordi- 
 nances relating to Levites, priests, and 
 sacrifices. The integrity of the book is 
 very generally admitted, the Elohist, or 
 author of the original document (see 
 Elohim), being credited with having 
 written nearly the whole of it, and the 
 rest being considered originally Elohistic. 
 
 LEVY, the seizure and taking posses- 
 sion of the property of a person, by a 
 proper officer, under a writ or other proc- 
 ess of law. To constitute a valid levy 
 the officer must take actual possession 
 of the property. In case of personal 
 property he should retain actual custody 
 of it, either by locking it up or putting 
 a deputy in charge of it ; in case of real 
 property he should enter and show by 
 open and unequivocal acts that he has 
 taken legal possession under his process, 
 but in most states the judgment debtor 
 is not ejected from the property, as his 
 possession is subject to the levy and 
 subsequent sale. 
 
 The term levy is also applied to the 
 seizure of property under a writ of at- 
 tachment. The rules as to taking pos- 
 session of the property of the person 
 named prevailing under this writ are 
 similar to those under an execution 
 against property. 
 
 LEWES (jo'es), George Henry, philo- 
 sophical writer and contributor to most 
 departments of literature, born in Lon- 
 don in 1817. His first important work 
 
 was his Biographical History of Philos- 
 ophy from Thales to Comte, originally 
 published in 1845, and subsequently 
 much extended and altered — a work 
 written more or less from a Positivist 
 point of view, and sufficiently proving 
 his ability as a thinker and writer. His 
 Life of Goethe, which won him a Euro- 
 pean reputation, was published in 1855. 
 In 1864 he published a study on Aris- 
 totle, and in 1865 founded the Fort- 
 nightly Review. The chief work of his 
 life, aiming at the systematic develop- 
 ment of his philosophical views, is 
 entitled Problems of Life and Mind 
 (1873-77). He died in 1878. Besides the 
 works already mentioned he wrote The 
 Spanish drama; Lope de Vega and 
 Calderon (1846) ; two novels, Ranthorpe 
 (1847) and Rose, Blanche, and Violet 
 (1847). His relations with George Eliot 
 are well known. See Eliot, George. 
 
 LEWIS (lo'is), the largest of the Heb- 
 rides, separated from the mainland of 
 Scotland by a sea 30 to 35 miles wide, 
 called the Minch. The south portion of 
 the island, called Harris, is in Inverness- 
 shire, the northern and largest portion 
 being in Ross-shire. The entire length of 
 the island, southwest to northeast, is 52 
 miles; breadth, varying from 30 miles 
 to 5 and 10 miles; area, nearly 700,000 
 acres. The principal town is Stornoway. 
 Pop. of entire island, 32,160. 
 
 LEWIS, Meriwether, American ex- 
 plorer, born near Charlottesville, Va., 
 in 1774. In 1801 he became President 
 Jefferson’s private secretary. When in 
 1803 it was decided to send an exploring 
 expedition into the Louisiana country, 
 for which the United States was then 
 negotiating with France, the president 
 accepted the promptly offered services 
 of the secretary. Lewis chose as his com- 
 panion Capt. William Clark, an old army 
 friend. The party left the Mississippi in 
 May, 1804, and proceeded up the Mis- 
 souri to its headwaters, crossed the 
 Great Divide, and, landing on one of the 
 tributaries of the Columbia, followed 
 it and then the Columbia to the Pacific. 
 After a dreary winter on the coast they 
 returned to the United States by much 
 the same route, and reached St. Louis in 
 September, 1806. (See Lewis and Clark 
 Expedition.) He died in 1809. 
 
 LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION, 
 an expedition under the command of 
 Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, 
 which in 1804-06 penetrated from the 
 Mississippi river, through territory now 
 forming parts of Missouri, Kansas, Ne- 
 braska, South Dakota, North Dakota, 
 Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Ore- 
 gon, to the Pacific Ocean. The members 
 of the party were the first white men to 
 cross the continent between the Spanish 
 possessions to the south and the British 
 possession to the north. The expedition 
 was sent out by President Jefferson for 
 the purpose of exploring the Louisiana 
 territory, immediately after its pur- 
 chase from France. At times the ex- 
 plorers suffered terrible hardships, and 
 were shut off from all communication 
 from the world. Lewis and Clark col- 
 lected a mass of valuable information 
 concerning the physical characteristics, 
 the fauna and flora, the climate, and the 
 various Indian tribes of the territory 
 traversed. 
 
LEWIS RIVER 
 
 LIBERTY 
 
 LEWIS RIVER, or SNAKE RIVER, a 
 
 river of North America, which rises in 
 the Rocky mountains, and runs north- 
 west into the Columbia, 413 miles from 
 its mouth; length, about 900 miles. Its 
 eourse lies partly in Idaho, partly be- 
 tween Idaho and Oregon, and partly in 
 Washington. 
 
 LEWISTON, a city of Maine, on the 
 Androscoggin river, which here has a 
 fall of 50 feet, the water power being 
 utilized by several manufactories (chiefly 
 of cotton and woolen goods) and ex- 
 tensive saw-mills. Pop. 25,170. 
 
 LEXICON. See Dictionary. 
 
 LEXINGTON, a city in Kentucky, 23 
 miles e.s.e. of Frankfort. It is the oldest 
 town in the state (having been founded 
 in 1775), and was once the capital. It is 
 more a place of fashionable residence 
 than of trade. There is here the Ken- 
 tucky State university. Pop. 28,000. 
 
 LEXINGTON, a small town in Massa- 
 chusetts, where the first British blood 
 was shed in armed resistance to the 
 mother country. On April 18, 1775, the 
 advance of a detachment of British 
 troops, sent from Boston to seize some 
 provincial stores at Concord, was op- 
 posed by the Lexington militia (70 men) 
 who were dispersed with a loss of seven 
 killed and three wounded. Pop. 3197. 
 
 LEYDEN, a town in Holland, 22 
 miles southwest of Amsterdam, on both 
 sides of the Old Rhine. The most im- 
 portant educational institution is the 
 university, formerly one of the most 
 famed in Europe. It is attended on the 
 average by about 700 students, nearly 
 one-half studying law. Leyden has 
 cloth and other manufactures. The pop- 
 ulation, about 100,000 in the 17th cen- 
 tury, is now 54,421. 
 
 LEYDEN, Jan, or John of. See article 
 Anabaptists. 
 
 LEYDEN-JAR, an early form of elec- 
 tric accumulator, introduced to the 
 scientific world by Muschenbroek of 
 Leyden in 1746, hence its name. It con- 
 sists of a glass phial or jar coated inside 
 and outside, usually with tin-foil, to 
 within a third of the top. A metallic rod, 
 having a knob at the top, is fixed into 
 the mouth of the jar, and is ifiade to 
 communicate with the inside coating, 
 and when the jar is to be charged the 
 knob of this rod is applied to the prime 
 
 conductor of an electric machine. As 
 the electric fluid passes to the inside of 
 the jar an equal quantity passes from 
 the outside, so that the two coatings are 
 brought into opposite states, the inside 
 being positive and the outside negative. 
 The jar is discharged by establishing a 
 communication between the outside 
 coating and the knob. When a number 
 of jars are placed in a box lined with tin- 
 foil connected with the earth, their 
 knobs being joined together, they form 
 a battery; a quantity of electricity equal 
 
 P. E.— 47 
 
 to the sum of the charges which would be 
 received by each jar can be collected in 
 such a battery, capable of melting fine 
 metallic wires, puncturing plates of 
 glass or card-board, killing animals, 
 rupturing bad conductors, etc. 
 
 LEZE MAJESTY, any crime against 
 the sovereign authority of a state ; 
 treason. 
 
 LHASSA. See Lassa. 
 
 LI, LE, or CASH, the only copper coin 
 of China, with a square hole in the 
 middle, and an inscription on one side. 
 Ten lis make one candareen, 100 a mace, 
 1000 a Hang or tael, the only Chinese 
 silver cn=n, average value about .‘51.25. 
 Li is also a Chinese measure of length 
 equal to about J of an English mile. 
 
 LIABILITY, any obligatibn enforce- 
 able at law or in equity, including legal 
 obligations to perform acts other than 
 the payment of money. The term is 
 generally used, however, in a narrower 
 sense as meaning a legal obligation to 
 pay money : either a sum certain due and 
 owing, as in the case of a debt, or an un- 
 liquidated sum, as in case of damages 
 due upon tort or upon breach of contract. 
 
 LIAS, in geology, the name given to 
 that series of strata, consisting prin- 
 cipally of thin layers of limestone im- 
 bedded in thick masses of blue argillace- 
 ous clay, lying at the base of the Oolitic 
 or Jurassic series, and above the Triassic 
 or New Red Sandstone. The formation 
 is highly fossiliferous, ammonites being 
 found in such quantities and varieties 
 as to be called into use in the classifica- 
 tion of the different beds. Gryphites and 
 belemnites are also very common mol- 
 luscs. Fish remains are frequent; but of 
 all its fossil remains by far the most im- 
 portant are those of the great reptiles, 
 of which the ichthyosaurus, plesiosaurus, 
 and enaliosaurus are representatives. 
 Numerous remains of plants occur in 
 the lias. See Geology. 
 
 LIBAU (le'bou), an important seaport 
 of Russia, government of Courland, at 
 the mouth of the lake of the same name, 
 on the Baltic. Its trade in corn, flax, 
 hemp, etc., is considerable. Pop. 64,505. 
 
 LIBEL, in law, the act of publishing 
 malicious statements with intent to ex- 
 pose persons or institutions to public 
 hatred, contempt, or ridicule, and 
 thereby provoking them to anger, caus- 
 ing a breach of the peace, injury to 
 reputation, business, etc. The difference 
 between libel and slander is, that in the 
 former case the defamation must have 
 been effected in writing, printing, or 
 some other visible manner, while in the 
 latter the offense is committed verbally. 
 Publication is held to have taken place 
 if the libel is seen but by one person 
 other than the person libeled. The law 
 distinguishes defamatory, seditious, and 
 obscene libel. A defamatory libel may 
 result in civil and criminal proceedings 
 against both the publisher and the 
 writer, but to come under this category 
 it is essential that the libel be false, 
 malicious (the law presuming malice in 
 every injury done intentionally and 
 without justification), have a tendency 
 to provoke hatred or contempt, and that 
 it be non-privileged. In criminal law it 
 is a misdemeanor to publish or threaten 
 to publish a libel; or as a means of ex- 
 tortion, to offer to abstain from or to 
 
 prevent others from publishing a libel. 
 A seditious libel is one directed against 
 the head of the state, the legislature, 
 the courts of justice, etc., and its pub- 
 lication constitutes also a misdemeanor. 
 The term obscene libel comprises any 
 obscene publication, and the publisher 
 thereof is liable to imprisonment with 
 hard labor. If the charges contained in 
 the libel are true a civil action cannot 
 be maintained, but the truth of the 
 libelous matter is no defense at common 
 law; at the same time it generally secures 
 the defendant the merciful considera- 
 tion of the court. In a civil action the 
 plaintiff recovers damages, the amount 
 of which is settled by the jury; upon an 
 indictment, the jury has merely to acquit 
 the defendant or to find him guilty, 
 after which the court passes judgment, 
 and awards punishment, generally fine 
 or imprisonment, or both. Recent legis- 
 lation and decisions in this branch of 
 law in Breat Britain and the United 
 States (the American laws differ but 
 little from those of Great Britain) have 
 a tendency to limit liability for action 
 to purely false, scandalous, and mali- 
 ciouslibels. Truth, if published withgood 
 motives and for justifiable ends, is now 
 admitted as a good defense, and even 
 motive alone, though the statements 
 may prove untrue. 
 
 LIBERAL ARTS. See Arts. 
 
 LIBE'RIA, a negro republic on the 
 west coast of Africa, founded in 1820 by 
 liberated American slaves under the 
 auspices of the American Colonization 
 Society, and recognized as an independ- 
 ent state in 1847. It lies between the 
 rivers San Pedro and Manna, has 500 
 miles of seaboard, and extends some 100 
 miles inland; area 14,000 to 15, 000 sq. 
 miles. The soil is fertile, well watered, 
 and highly adapted to the cultivation of 
 all tropical products. The chief crop is 
 coffee, increasing quantities of which are 
 grown from year to year and exported, 
 other exports being palm-oil, ground- 
 nuts, caoutchouc, and ivory. The cli- 
 mate is very unhealthy for Europeans 
 British weights, measures, and money 
 are mostly in use. The English language 
 predominates among the governing 
 class, Protestant churches and schools 
 are amply provided, and civilization is 
 making rapid strides among the natives. 
 The population consists of some 20,000 
 immigrants from the United States and 
 their descendants, and about 1,000,000 
 natives; Monrovia is the capital. The 
 government of the republic is on the 
 model of the United States. 
 
 “LIBERTY,” Bartholdi’s statue, pre- 
 sented to the United States by the 
 French people in 1885, is the largest 
 statue ever built. Its conception is due 
 to the great French sculptor whose name 
 it bears. It is said to be a likeness of his 
 mother. Eight years of time were con- 
 sumed in the construction of this gigan- 
 tic brazen image. Its weight is 440,000 
 pounds, of which 146,000 pounds are 
 copper, the remainder iron and steel. 
 The major part of the iron and steel are 
 used in constructing the skeleton frame 
 work for the inside. The mammoth 
 electric light held in the hands of the 
 giantess is 305 feet above tide-water. 
 The height of the figure is 1521 feet; the 
 pedestal 91 feet, and the foundation 52 
 
LIBERTY BELL 
 
 LICENSE 
 
 feet and 10 inches. Forty persons can 
 find standing-room within the mighty 
 head, which is 14J feet in diameter. 
 A six-foot man standing on the lower 
 lip could hardly reach the e3^es. The 
 index finger is eight feet in length and 
 the nose 31 feet. The Colossus of Rhodes 
 was a pigmy compared with this latter- 
 day wonder. 
 
 LIBERTY BELL, the bell which first 
 rang to celebrate the adoption of the 
 Declaration of Independence, July 4, 
 1776. It was brought to Philadelphia 
 from England in 1752, and was recast 
 in April and again in June, 1753, when 
 the words “Proclaim liberty throughout 
 all the land, unto all the inhabitants 
 thereof” (Lev. xxv. 10), were inscribed 
 on it. For many jmars it was rung 
 annuall}’' on the Fourth of Jul3% but on 
 July 8, 1835, while being tolle(l in mem- 
 ory of Chief Justice Marshall, it was 
 broken. It now hangs in the hallway 
 of the old state house in Philadelphia. 
 
 LIBERTY, CAP OF, a cap used as a 
 symbol of liberty. In ancient times 
 Roman manumitted slaves put on what 
 was termed the Phrygian cap, in token 
 of their freedom. In modern times the 
 name cap of liberty was given to a red 
 cap worn b3’' French and other revolu- 
 tionaries. 
 
 LIBERTY OF THE PRESS. See Press. 
 
 LI'BRA, the seventh sign of the 
 zodiac. At its first point the ecliptic 
 crosses the equator to the southern hemi- 
 sphere and we have then the autumnal 
 equinox. 
 
 LIBRARY, the name given to a collec- 
 tion of books, and to the building in 
 which it is located. Libraries existed in 
 ancient Egypt and Assyria, and Pisis- 
 tratus is credited with the honor of in- 
 troducing a public library at Athens 
 about B.c. 337. Cicero and various 
 wealthy Romans made collections of 
 books, and several Roman emperors 
 established libraries, partly with books 
 obtained as spoils of war. By far the 
 most celebrated library of antiquity was 
 the Alexandrian. In the West libraries 
 of any note were founded in the second 
 half of the 8th century by the encourage- 
 ment of Charlemagne. In France one 
 of the most celebrated was that in the 
 abbey St. Germain des Pres, near Paris. 
 In Germany the libraries of Fulda, Cor- 
 vey, and in the 11th century that of 
 Hirschau, were valuable. In Spain, in 
 the 12th century, the Moors had seventy 
 public libraries, of which that of Cor- 
 dova contained 250.000 volumes. In 
 Britain and Italy libraries were also 
 founded with great zeal, particularly in 
 the former country, by Richard Aunger- 
 ville; in the latter by Petrarch, Boccac- 
 cio, and others. After tlie invention of 
 the art of printing this was done more 
 easily and at less expen.se. The principal 
 libraries of modern times are the Na- 
 tional Library at Paris, with fully 
 
 2.500.000 of books and 100,000 MSS., 
 and the British Museum library, Lon- 
 don, with over 2,000,000 books and 
 
 100.000 MSS. The central court library 
 at Munich, the imperial library at St. 
 Petersburg, and the royal library at 
 Berlin have each over a million volumes 
 and thousands of MSS. Other large and 
 valuable libraries are the imperial li- 
 brary .at. Vienna; the royal libraries at 
 
 Stuttgart, Dresden, and Copenhagen; 
 the university libraries of Genoa, Prague 
 Gottingen, Upsal, Oxford, Cambridge, 
 and Dublin ; also the libraries of Moscow, 
 Venice, Florence, Milan, Bologna, Naples 
 and the Advocates’, Edinburgh. The 
 Vatican library, Rome, and the Bod- 
 leian, O-xford, are particularly valuable 
 in rare books and MSS. The spread of 
 education, and the consequent growing 
 taste for knowledge, has called into 
 existence innumerable smaller libraries, 
 ready of access, and providing such 
 literature as the special class of reader 
 demand. This public library system has 
 naturally been ipost developed in highly 
 educated countries such as Germany, 
 France, Great Britain, and the United 
 States. The French government has 
 established over 25,000 popular libraries 
 in connection with primary schools. 
 The Bureau of Education of the United 
 States records nearly 4000 libraries with 
 over 20 million volumes. The Con- 
 gressional Library, Washington, has over 
 a million volumes, and the public library 
 of Bpston over half a million books, 
 while the libraries of Harvard university, 
 Cambridge, Yale university, Newhaven, 
 the .\stor library, and the Mercantile 
 Library Association, New York, possess 
 each .several hundred thousand volumes. 
 
 LIBRARIES, statistics of tw'enty 
 leading libraries in the United States 
 show that, of over 1500,000 spent, a little 
 more than 1170,000 was devoted to 
 books, while other expenses consumed 
 S358,000. In the Mercantile liibrary of 
 New York City it costs 14 cents to cir- 
 culate a volume; in the .\stor, 144 cents 
 are spent on each volume, or 27" cents 
 on each reader; in Columbia College 
 Library, 21J cents per reader; in the 
 Library Company of Philadelphia, 26 
 cents per volume, or 10 cents per head. 
 The largest librai-y in the world is the 
 National Library of France, founded by 
 Louis XIV., which now contains 1,400,- 
 000 books, 30,000 pamphlets, 175,000 
 manuscripts, 300.000 maps and charts, 
 
 150,000 coins and medals, 1,300,000 en- 
 gravings, and 100,000 portraits. The 
 Library of Congress is the largest in this 
 country, containing over one million 
 volumes. There are in the United 
 States about 6,000 libraries. 
 
 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, The (the 
 National Library of the United States), 
 established in 1800, destroyed in 1814 
 by the burning of the capitol, after- 
 ward replenished by the purchase by 
 congress of the library of ex-President 
 Jefferson, suffered again by a fire in 
 1851, which reduced it to 20,000 vol- 
 umes. The collection- has now come to 
 be the largest in the Western Hemis- 
 phere and one of the half-dozen largest 
 in the world, containing over one million 
 printed books and phamphlets, over one 
 hundred thousand manuscripts, 65,000 
 maps and charts, 35.000 pieces of music 
 ami 135,000 prints. It is rich in histor3q 
 political and social science, public docu- 
 ments, and in Americana, including 
 important files of American newspapers 
 and original manuscripts. From 1800 
 to 1897 it remained at the capitol; in 
 1897 it was removed to the building 
 erected for it under acts of congress. It is 
 the largest and most magnificent library 
 building in the world. It has a floor 
 
 space of nearly eight acres; book-stacks 
 which contain about forty-five miles of 
 shelving and space for 2,200,000 octavo 
 volumes, able to be so extended as to 
 accommodate over 4,000,000 volumes; 
 and provision for nearly a thousand 
 readers at a time. The library is open 
 from 9 a.m. to 10 p.m. on every week- 
 day, and from 2 p.m. until 10 p.m. on 
 Sundays and most holidays. For refer- 
 ence it is freely accessible without for- 
 mality; but the privilege of drawing 
 books for home use is at present in 
 general limited to members of Congress 
 and certain other classes. 
 
 LIBRATION, in astronomy, an ap- 
 parent oscillatory motion of the moon, 
 arising from the fact that it does not 
 move round the earth with a uniform 
 angular velocity exactly equal to its 
 angular velocity of rotation on its axis, 
 and that its axis is not at right angles to 
 the plane of its orbit, but is inclined 1° 
 
 32' 9". In this way instead of seeing 
 exactly one-half of the moon’s surface 
 we see about -^ths, parts at the edge of 
 the disc and also at the poles being 
 sometimes visible and sometimes out of 
 sight. 
 
 LIB'YA, an ancient name for all 
 Africa west of Egypt, or used as equiva- 
 lent to Africa, the real shape and dimen- 
 sions of which were unknown. 
 
 LICE, wingless insects which occur 
 as parasites upon the bodies of birds 
 and mammals. Two distinct groups are 
 recognized among the forms united 
 under the common name lice: the one, 
 the bird-lice, forming a distinct order, 
 the others which occur upon mammals 
 being included as a group. The bird- 
 lice havetheirjawsfitted for biting. 'They 
 live almost exclusively upon birds, each 
 species of which has its peculiar parasite. 
 They feed upon the feathers and dead 
 skin, and it is to rid themselves of these 
 pests that hens, etc., roll themselves in 
 the dust. In a few cases, as the goat and 
 sheep, they feed upon the wool or hair. 
 
 The true lice hav’e the mouth-parts, like 
 those of the true bugs, fitted for piercing 
 the skin and sucking the blood of their 
 host. In some eases they manage to 
 burrow entirely under the skin. Their 
 feet are shaped something like pipe- 
 tongs, enabling them to hold firmly to 
 the hairs among which they move. 
 They lay their eggs in firm capsules 
 attached to the hairs, and the 3mung 
 pass through various changes. Man is 
 subject to thfe attacks of three different 
 species of lice: the head-louse, the body- 
 louse, and the crab-louse. Other mam- 
 mals have their own parasites. The best 
 remedy for these pests is cleanliness. 
 
 LICENSE, in law, the grant of per- 
 mission to do some lawful act, also the 
 document conferring such authority. 
 
 All civilized countries require that per- 
 sons should not carry on certain trades 
 or professions, or do certain acts, with- 
 out previous grant of license, and such 
 licenses may be imposed for the sake of t 
 regulating traffic or raising revenue. ( ‘ 
 
 Most numerous are licenses issued to em- '■ • 
 
 power persons to sell certain articles. ' 
 The articles not to be dealt in without j 
 a license include: beer, cider, wines and ^ 
 spirits, tobacco and snuff, patent medi- ^ 
 cines, gold and silver, game,, sweets; ir 
 besides these there are licenses for G 
 
LICHEN 
 
 LIEUTENANT-GENERAL 
 
 9 
 
 
 ► 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 ‘ 
 
 : 
 
 ' 
 
 f 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 t- 
 
 i 
 
 t* 
 
 auctioneers, appraisers, armorial bear- 
 ings, carriages, dogs, guns, hawkers 
 and pedlars, male servants, pawnbrokers 
 ete. 
 
 LICHEN (li'ken or lich'en), in medi- 
 cine, a skin disease affecting adults. 
 It consists of a number of pimples, red 
 or white in color, either clustered or dis- 
 seminated over the surface of the skin, 
 with or without fever, or derangement 
 of the digestive organs, usually ter- 
 minating in slight desquamation, and 
 very liable to recur, though not con- 
 tagious. There are several varieties of 
 this eruption, but in the milder forms 
 all that is necessary is to avoid excess, 
 especially in rich food and the use of 
 stimulants, and to take a light diet, with 
 diluent drinks, and a gentle laxative 
 occasionally. Strong external applica- 
 tions should not be employed, but lo- 
 tions of lime-water, or weak solutions 
 of the bicarbonate of ammonia, afford 
 relief. The prickly heat so well known to 
 dwellers in tropical climates, is a species 
 of lichen. 
 
 LICHENS, a very extensive order of 
 flowerless plants. According to a 
 modern theory lichens are not simple 
 plants, but are fungi parasitic on algiE, 
 the two being mutually dependent. 
 They have neither stem nor leaves, but 
 consist mainly of a thallus deriving its 
 nourishment from the air. They are 
 reproduced by spores contained in fruits 
 called apothecia, which are regarded as 
 the fungi of the particular lichen. They 
 are common everywhere, commonly in 
 the form of flat crusts, sometimes of 
 foliaceous expansions, adhering to rocks, 
 the trunks of trees, barren soil, etc. They 
 are found flourishing to the very edge 
 of perpetual snow, and one species, the 
 reindeer-moss, grows in the greatest pro- 
 fusion in the Arctic regions, where it 
 forms the reindeer’s chief sustenance. 
 The Iceland-moss is also abundant in 
 the Arctic regions, and often affords 
 aliment to the inhabitants. Several 
 other lichens afford dyes of various 
 colors, these being chiefly obtained from 
 rocks in the Azores and Canaries. Lit- 
 mus is also obtained from a lichen. 
 
 LICK, James, American philanthrop- 
 ist, born in Fredericksburg, Lebanon 
 CO., Pa., in 1796. In 1847 he settled in 
 California, where he invested in real 
 estate and became very wealthy. He 
 gave $700,000 to the Llniversity of Cali- 
 fornia for the erection of an observa- 
 tory, and procuring therefor a telescope 
 superior to and more powerful than any 
 ever before constructed, and made other 
 worthy bequests. He died in 1876. 
 
 LICK OBSERVATORY, an American 
 observatory on Mount Hamilton (4200 
 feet), 60 miles s.e. of San Francisco, Cali- 
 fornia, founded by James Lick, a piano 
 manufacturer (1796-1876), and for- 
 mally handed over to the University of 
 California in 1888. It is supplied with 
 instruments of the most perfect kind, 
 and in particular possesses a refracting 
 telescope with an object-glass 36 inches 
 in diameter, being the next largest lens 
 in existence. 
 
 LICTORS, in Rome, were the public 
 servants who attended upon the chief 
 magistrates, consuls, praetors, etc., to 
 clear the way for them, and cause due 
 respect to be paid to them. They carried ' 
 
 axes tied up in bundles of rods, called 
 fasces, as ensigns of office, and were 
 selected from the lower class of free 
 men. The number of lictors preceding 
 the state dignitaries depended upon the 
 rank of the latter. 
 
 LIEBER, Francis, a German -Ameri- 
 can writer, born at Berlin 1800, died at 
 New York 1872. In 1827 he ed- 
 ited the Cyclopedia Americana, based 
 
 on the German Conversations-Lexikon. 
 The South Carolina College, Columbia, 
 elected him in 1835 professor of history 
 and political economy, a post he held 
 until 1856, when he accepted a similar 
 appointment in Columbia College, New 
 York. He has written many books and 
 pamphlets on morals, education, and 
 political economy, and some of them 
 have been translated into French and 
 German. 
 
 LIEBIG (le'bih), Justus, Baron von, 
 one of the most eminent of modern 
 chemists, born at Darmstadt 1803, died 
 at Munich 1873. He first secured the 
 attention of the chemical world in 1824 
 by reading a paper before the French 
 Academy of Sciences on fulminic acid 
 and the fulminates, the true composition 
 of which were until then unknown. This 
 also gained him the favor of Humboldt, 
 and through the latter’s influence he 
 was appointed extraordinary, and in 
 1825 ordinary professor of chemistry at 
 the University of Giessen, a chair he 
 held for 25 years. In 1850 he replaced 
 Professor Gmelin at Heidelberg, and in 
 1852 he accepted the chemistry chair at 
 Munich, with charge of the laboratory. 
 The Munich Academy of Sciences 
 elected him president in 1860. Liebig is 
 regarded as the founder of organic 
 chemistry, owing to the many discoveries 
 he made in this department. He did 
 much to improve the methods of analy- 
 sis; his Chemistry of Food has brought 
 about a more rational mode of cooking 
 and use of food; w'hile agriculture owes 
 much to his application of chemistry to 
 soils and manures. 
 
 LIEGE (li-azh), a town of Belgium, 
 capital of the province of same name, 54 
 niiles east by south of Brussels. Liege 
 is the principal manufacturing town of 
 Belgium, its foundries, firearms, metal, 
 
 and tool manufactures being very ex- 
 tensive; besides these there are import- 
 ant woolen-mills, tanneries, and print- 
 ing-offices. It has many fine examples 
 of Gothic architecture, including its 
 cathedrals, the church of St. Jacques, 
 and others, and its public buildings are 
 mostly elegant structures. The town 
 is rich in collections of various kinds, 
 and has a university with a large library. 
 Pop. 157,760. — The province has an 
 area of 1117 sq. miles, with a population 
 of 835,800. Until 1795 it was an inde- 
 pendent state, governed by prince- 
 bishops of the German empire; in that 
 year France included it in the depart- 
 ment of the Ourthe, but it was restored 
 to Belgium in 1815, excepting certain 
 portions annexed to Prussia. 
 
 LIEGNITZ (leh'-nits), a town of Prus- 
 sia, in the province of Selisia, 40 miles 
 w.n.w. of Breslau. Pop. 54,839. 
 
 LI'EN, in law, in its most usual 
 acceptation, signifies “the right which 
 one person, in certain cases, possesses of 
 detaining property placed in his posses- 
 sion belonging to another, until some 
 demand which the former has is satis- 
 fied. Liens are of two kinds: 1, partic- 
 ular liens, that is, where the person in 
 possession of goods may detain them 
 until a claim, which accrues to him from 
 those identical goods, is satisfied; 2, 
 general liens, that is, where the person 
 in possession may detain the goods, not 
 only for his claim accruing from them, 
 but also for the general balance of his 
 account with the owners. See Mechanics 
 Lien. 
 
 LIEUTENANT, in military language, 
 the officer next below a captain. The 
 distinction between first and second 
 lieutenants exists in the British army 
 and in that of the United States. A 
 lieutenant in the navy is the officer next 
 in command to the captain of the ship. 
 He takes rank both in the British and 
 United States’ services with a captain 
 in the army. 
 
 LIEUTENANT-COLONEL, the inter- 
 mediate rank between major and colonel. 
 In the United States army his duties are 
 to assist the colonel in command of the 
 regiment. 
 
 LIEUTENANT-COMMANDER, an offi- 
 cer of the United States navy above 
 the rank of lieutenant and below that of 
 commander. The grade was established 
 upon the reorganization of the navy in 
 1862. Lieutenant-commanders rank 
 with majors in the army and have the 
 same pay when at sea, but on shore duty 
 their pay is 15 per cent less. 
 
 LIEUTENANT-GENERAL, in Feb- 
 ruary, 1864, an act of congress was 
 passed directing that the grade of lieu- 
 tenant-general be again revived (Gen- 
 eral Scott having retired in 1861). On 
 March 2, 1864, Major-Gen. U. S. Grant 
 received the appointment, followed on 
 July 25, 1866, by Major-Gen. W. T. 
 Sherman, the grade of general having 
 been revived for Lieutenant-General 
 Grant. When the latter was elected 
 president of the United States, Lieu- 
 tenant-general Sherman was made gen- 
 eral, Major-Gen. P. H. Sheridan becom- 
 ing lieutenant-general. An act of con- 
 gress, 1870, abolished the office of lieu- 
 tenant-general and general as soon as 
 vacated. Major-Gen. J. M. Schofield 
 
LIFE 
 
 LIGHT 
 
 was promoted to the grade of lieutenant- 
 general by act of congress on February 
 5, 1895, retiring from active service as 
 such on September 29, 1895. Major- 
 Gen. N. A. Miles succeeded as command- 
 ing general of the army, the rank of 
 lieutenant-general being again revived 
 and conferred on him in 1900. 
 
 LIFE, to give an unobjectionable 
 definition of life is impossible, as what- 
 ever the definition may be it will prob- 
 ably err either from redundancy or 
 defect. Life has been defined as: “the 
 sum total of the forces that resist 
 death,” “the constant uniformity of 
 phenomena with diversity of external 
 influences,” “the special activity of 
 organized bodies,” “organization in 
 action,” “a collection of phenomena that 
 succeed each other during a limited 
 time in an organized body,” “the two- 
 fold internal movement of composition 
 and decomposition, at once general and 
 continuous.” Herbert Spencer’s con- 
 ception of life is: “The definite combina- 
 tion of heterogeneous changes, both 
 simultaneous and successive in corre- 
 spondence with external coexistences and 
 sequences.” Mr. G. H. Lewes suggests 
 the definition : “Life is a series of definite 
 and successive changes, both of structure 
 and composition, which take place 
 within an individual without destroying 
 its identity.” 
 
 LIFE-ASSURANCE. See Insurance. 
 
 LIFE-BOAT, a boat for saving persons 
 from shipwreck. The first life-boat was 
 patented in Great Britain by Lukin in 
 1785, but Henry Greathead introduced 
 an improved form in 1789 which proved 
 very successful, and till 1851 was almost 
 the only one in use. A boat approved by 
 the Royal National Life-boat Institu- 
 tion of Britain is now the recognized 
 English model, and possesses in the 
 highest degree all the qualities which it 
 is desirable that a life-boat should pos- 
 
 DecU plan of life-boat. 
 
 A, Deck; B, Relieving tubes; C, Side air-cases; 
 D, End air-chambers: E, Ballast; F, Air- 
 scuttles: G, Scuttle for air and pump. 
 
 Midship section. 
 
 A, Side air-cases: B, Relieving tubes; C, .Spaces 
 packed with cork; d, Ventilation 
 scuttle. 
 
 sess: — 1. Great lateral stability, or re- 
 sistance to upsetting. 2. Speed against a 
 heavy sea. 3. Facility for launching and 
 taking the shore. 4. Immediate self- 
 discharge of any water breaking into 
 her. 5. The important advantage of self- 
 righting if upset. 6. Strength. 7. Stow- 
 ag&-room f6r a large number of passen- 
 
 gers. The life-boat transporting carriage 
 is an important auxiliary to the boat. 
 The life-boat is kept on this carriage in 
 the boat-house ready for immediate 
 transportation to the spot most favor- 
 able for launching to the wreck. In this 
 way a greater extent of coast can secure 
 the benefits of the life-boat than could 
 otherwise be the case; besides, a boat 
 can be readily launched from a carriage 
 through a high surf, when without a 
 carriage she could not be got off the 
 beach. The machine is admirably con- 
 trived, and the boat may be launched 
 from it in an upright position with her 
 crew on board. The life-saving service of 
 the United States is chief among the 
 life-boat societies of the world. It is 
 supported by government funds, and 
 the Atlantic and some of the lake coasts 
 are now studded with life-saving sta- 
 tions, provided with suitable boats, ap- 
 pliances, and houses of refuge for the 
 saved. 
 
 LIFE-BUOYS, LIFE-RAFTS, ETC. 
 
 Various kinds of buoys or other appara- 
 tus for the preservation of human life in 
 
 Seaman with life-belt (of cork) . 
 
 cases of shipwreck or danger from drown- 
 ing in other circumstances have been in- 
 troduced from time to time, constructed 
 in all sorts of shapes and materials. In- 
 dia-rubber has been largely used in the 
 construction of life-buoys, generally in 
 the form of belts which can be easily 
 inflated by the wearer in the course of 
 a few seconds.. They are very buoyant 
 and portable, but easily punctured or 
 torn, and soon decay if put aside while 
 damp. Hence the interior has come to 
 be divided into cells, so that the rupture 
 of one affects only a partial damage. 
 Another sort is in the form of a waist- 
 coat; and inflated pillows and mat- 
 tresses made on the same principle have 
 been found very effective. Naval officers 
 have also strongly recommended mat- 
 tresses stuffed with cork. The life-buoy 
 most favored by seamen of late years 
 is composed of slices of cork so neatly 
 arranged that they form a buoyant zone 
 about 32 inches in diameter, 6 inches 
 wide, and 4 inches thick. It contains 
 about 12 lbs. of cork, is compactly 
 covered with painted canvas to protect 
 it from being injured by the water, and 
 furnished with looped life-lines, that 
 several, if necessary, may at once have 
 a convenient hold. The belts in use by 
 the llojml Life-boat Institution are 
 made of cork fastened in canvas, secur- 
 ing great buojmncy with strength, while 
 they afford at the same time a certain 
 amount of protection in cases of contact 
 with rock or wreck, and some degree of 
 
 warmth. Various new life-saving suits 
 have been shown at recent exhibitions. 
 
 LIFE-INSURANCE. See Insurance. 
 
 LIFE-ROCKETS, projectiles by means 
 of which a rope is thrown either from 
 a ship in distress to the shore or 
 from the shore to the ship, generally the 
 latter. The most reliable missiles are 
 those that are discharged from a mortar 
 or gun by gunpowder, having a line 
 attached to them. The life-mortar of 
 Captain Manby, invented in 1807, is 
 practically still that in use, though 
 variations in details have been made on 
 it from time to time. His missile was a 
 shot with curved barbs, resembling the 
 flukes of an anchor, to grapple the rig- 
 ging or the bulwarks of a ship. An in- 
 genious rocket-apparatus now in use is 
 Rogers’ life-anchor. It consists of a 
 three-fluked anchor, 12 lbs. in weight, 
 having the flukes so hinged that they 
 pack closely together. When the anchor 
 has been shot out from a mortar 100 or 
 200 yards, the flukes open and fasten 
 to the beach or to a ship, and thus estab- 
 lish a communication between the two 
 for dragging boats or men ashore. The 
 best lines are those made of loosely- 
 spun Italian hemp. There are several 
 ways of arranging or faking the line so 
 that it may run out quickly without 
 Kinking or entangling. The sling life- 
 buoy is employed in conjunction with 
 the rocket apparatus, after communica- 
 tion has been established by a rope from 
 the shore to the vessel. It consists of a 
 circular cork life-buoy, having a pair of 
 canvas breeches attached to it. The 
 legs of the occupant protrude below the 
 breeches, while his armpits rest on the 
 buoy. The shipwrecked are by this 
 means brought to the shore one by one, 
 the buoy being drawn backward and 
 forward by means of a traveling block. 
 Or the life-car, a sort of covered boat, 
 may be used to convey the men ashore. 
 
 LIFTS, Hydraulic, etc.,' contrivances 
 now in common use for raising goods or 
 persons from one story of a building to 
 another. They consist usually of a cage 
 or platform suspended by a rope or 
 chain, and rising vertically in a shaft 
 within the building, the motive power 
 being the pressure of water on the 
 plunger of a hydraulic press. Ships also 
 are lifted for repair by means of con- 
 trivances called lifts, which are either 
 screws, hydraulic-presses, or balance- 
 pontoons. Many lifts are worked entirely 
 by steam-power, and have no water- 
 ram. The lifts in mills, grain and wool 
 stores, etc., are now generally called 
 elevators; and in the United States this 
 term is applied to almost every descrip- 
 tion of lift. 
 
 LIGAMENT, in anatomy, the strong, 
 tendinous, inelastic white bodies which 
 surround the joints, and connect bones, 
 or strengthen the attachments of vari- 
 ous organs, or keep them together. 
 Every joint is surrounded by a capsular 
 ligament; the tendons at the wrist and 
 ankle are bound down by what are called 
 the annular ligaments. In dislocations 
 of joints the capsular ligament is often 
 broken. 
 
 LIGHT, the agent which enables us 
 through the organ of sight to take cog- 
 nizance of objects; it has a heating and 
 chemical action which is all-important to 
 
LIGH-T 
 
 LIGHT 
 
 animals and plants; without it there 
 would probably be neither animal nor 
 plant life. The sun, the fixed stars, 
 nebula, certain meteors, and terrestrial 
 bodies in a state of incandescence or 
 phosphorescence are self-luminous. The 
 origin of light has been explained by two 
 main theories, the emission or corpuscu- 
 lar theory adapted and developed by 
 Newton, and the undulatory or wave 
 theory, the fundamental principles of 
 which were laid down by Huygens and 
 Euler. Newton held that the sun and 
 other light-giving bodies threw oft', with 
 immenie velocity, vast numbers of in- 
 finitely minute particles of matter, 
 which passed into space, and by their 
 mechanical action upon the eye brought 
 about the sensation of light. Numbers 
 of distinguished men accepted this 
 theory, and many of the phenomena of 
 light were plausibly explained by it. 
 Huygens suggested that light was due 
 to some sort of wave motion trans- 
 mitted through a medium. His theory, 
 offered toward the end of the 17th cen- 
 tury, made little progress until the be- 
 ginning of the present century, when its 
 truth was amply established by the 
 labors of Young, Fresnel, and others; 
 and it is now universally accepted. 
 Though we are warranted in recognizing 
 the existence of the transmitting med- 
 ium called ether, of its nature we know 
 as yet next to nothing. Rays of light 
 proceed in straight lines, and when a 
 screen is removed to twice or three times 
 its distance from a luminous point it 
 receives only one-fourth or one-ninth of 
 the light per unit of area which it re- 
 ceived formerly. This is the law of in- 
 verse squares, or, — the intensity of the 
 light received from a luminous point is 
 inversely proportional to the square of 
 the distance from the point. Advantage 
 is taken of this fact in determining the 
 relative illuminating powers of two 
 sources of light by means of the photo- 
 meter. In 1676 Roemer discovered that 
 light is not instantaneously propagated 
 from luminous bodies to the eye; and he 
 calculated its velocity. Bradley, Fou- 
 cault, Fizeau, Cornu, etc., made similar 
 measurements, and it has been deter- 
 mined that light travels at the rate of 
 about 186,000 miles per second. 
 
 When light falls upon the surface of a 
 body part of it is reflected. When the 
 surface is smooth and regular an eye 
 placed to receive the reflected rays 
 generally observes an image of the 
 source of light, and the surface may be 
 called a mirror. When it is not smooth 
 the light which falls upon it is scattered 
 in all directions, so that the surface itself 
 becomes visible; planets and nearly all 
 terrestrial objects become visible in this 
 way by means of reflected solar light. 
 While part of the light which falls upon 
 the surface of a body is reflected part 
 enters into the body, which absorbs or 
 destroys a certain amount of it and may 
 allow the rest to pass through. When 
 light falls nearly vertically on a glass 
 surface very little of it is reflected, but 
 as the incidence becomes more and more 
 oblique a greater and greater proportion 
 of the light is reflected. Polished metals, 
 particularly silver, are good reflectors of 
 light at all incidences, and hence metallic 
 surfaces are most commonly used as mir- 
 
 rors. The law of reflection was known 
 to Archimedes; it is — the incident and 
 reflected rays make equal angles with a 
 perpendicular to the surface, and lie in 
 the same plane with it. When a ray has 
 passed obliquely from air into water, 
 although in the water as in the air it is a 
 straight line, this is not a mere continua- 
 tion of its old path; it is bent to some 
 extent at the point where it enters the 
 new medium, the bending of the ray 
 being called refraction. This bending of 
 a ray when it passes from one medium, 
 such as air, into another homogeneous 
 medium, such as glass or water, or from 
 air into denser air, is subject to a par- 
 ticular law. The law of refraction was 
 discovered in the 17th century; it is — 
 whatever be the obliquity of a ray pass- 
 ing from one medium to another, the 
 sines of the angles made by the incident 
 and refracted rays with the perpendicu- 
 lar to the refracting surface are in a con- 
 stant ratio, which has been called the 
 index of refraction. When a ray of light 
 passes through a medium, such as the 
 atmosphere, which continuously varies 
 in density from place to place, its direc- 
 tion continuously changes, so that it is a 
 curved line, a fact to which the phenoni- 
 enon of the mirage is due. The appli- 
 cation of mathematics to the two laws 
 of reflection and refraction is called 
 optics; this science includes the forma- 
 tion of images by mirrors and lenses, the 
 eye, microscopes, telescopes, etc. See 
 Optics. 
 
 Newton found that red light is not so 
 much refracted as blue light when it 
 passes from one medium to another. 
 When a ray of solar light is refracted in 
 passing through a glass prism he found 
 that a great number of rays of different 
 colors left the prism, the blue ray being 
 most bent from its former path and the 
 red ray least. (See Prism, Rainbow.) 
 Letting these rays fall upon a screen he 
 obtained a band of colors which he 
 called a spectrum. Thus he had decom- 
 posed solar light and found it to consist 
 of a mixture of lights of every gradation 
 of refrangibility. On permitting all the 
 colored rays to pass through a lens before 
 falling on the screen they combined and 
 became white light again. Newton failed 
 to observe one peculiar feature of the 
 spectrum which has since been studied, 
 and has led to important results — 
 namely, that it was not really continu- 
 ous, but was crossed by a number of 
 dark lines. From this has arisen the in- 
 strument called the spectroscope and 
 the branch of physics called spectrum 
 analysis. See these arts. 
 
 In Newton’s experiment with solar 
 light and the prism we find that the blue 
 and green rays very slightly affect a 
 thermometer, the yellow rays affect it 
 slightly, and the extreme red rays possess 
 great heating properties; moreover, 
 when the thermometer is passed beyond 
 the red into a space in which there are 
 no' luminous rays a maximum heating 
 effect is produced. Again, the red and 
 yellow rays are all but incapable of 
 blackening photographic paper, whereas 
 the blue and violet rays exert a rapid 
 chemical action, and this is even ex- 
 ceeded by the invisible rays beyond the 
 violet. It is evident then that (1) some 
 of the solar rays which pass through the 
 
 prism do not affect the retina; these rays 
 are either less refrangible than red light, 
 or are more refrangible than violet; (2) 
 the least refrangible solar rays possess 
 most heating power; (3) the most re- 
 frangible rays are capable of exerting the 
 most powerful chemical action. As glass 
 prisms absorb many of the heat rays it is 
 convenient to use prisms of rock-salt 
 in examining the heat (red) end of the 
 spectrum. 
 
 Young showed that two rays of light 
 may destroy each other’s effects and 
 produce darkness. He applied this dis- 
 covery to the explanation of many 
 natural phenomena, such as the colors 
 in mother-of-pearl, on soap-bubbles, 
 etc. It has also been shown that rays of 
 light may bend round obstacles. 'When 
 a ray of light enters Iceland-spar it 
 divides into two rays which travel in 
 different directions; these two rays 
 possess peculiar properties which are not 
 exhibited by ordinary rays of light, and 
 are said to be polarized. These polarized 
 rays cannot be made to interfere or de- 
 stroy each other’s effects, but either of 
 them may be divided into two inter- 
 fering rays. These and other allied 
 phenomena are accepted by physicists 
 as proofs that (1) there exists through- 
 out all space a very elastic medium of 
 small density, known as the ether; (2) 
 the particles of all bodies are in a state 
 of vibration; a rise in temperature of a 
 body indicates an increase in the 
 rapidity of vibration of its particles; 
 (3) radiation of heat consists in the 
 communication of these vibrations from 
 the particles of a body by the ether to 
 all parts of space; (4) when these vibra- 
 tions communicated by the ether be- 
 come rapid enough they are able to affect 
 the retina of the eye and are then called 
 light; (5) lights differ in color when their 
 vibrations are not executed in equal 
 times; (6) the vibrations of particles of 
 the ether are all executed at right angles 
 to the direction of propagation of the 
 light; (7) in a ray of polarized light the 
 vibrations are all executed at right 
 angles to a certain plane called the plane 
 of polarization ; (8) the planes of polariza- 
 tion of the two rays in Iceland-spar men- 
 tioned above are at right angles to one 
 another. 
 
 LIGHT. See Aberration. 
 
 LIGHT, Artificial, any kind of illu- 
 minant for supplementing the light of 
 the sun. Some form of artificial light 
 must have been in use for domestic 
 purposes from the very earliest times, 
 but, though large cities and a high state 
 of civilization existed among the Egyp- 
 tians, Greeks, and Romans, the sys- 
 tematic lighting of streets was unknown 
 to them. From the writings of Libanius, 
 however, who lived in the beginning of 
 the 4th century after Christ, we may 
 conclude that the streets of his native 
 city, Antioch, were lighted by lamps, 
 and Edessa, in Syria, was similarly 
 illuminated about a.d. 500. Of modern 
 cities Paris was the first to light its 
 streets. In the beginning of the 16th 
 century it was much infested with 
 robbers and incendiaries, so that the 
 inhabitants were ordered, in 1524, to 
 keep lights burning after nine in the 
 evening, before all houses fronting a 
 street. In 1558 falots (a large vase 
 
LIGHT 
 
 LIGHTNING 
 
 filled with pitch, rosin, and other 
 combustibles) were erected at the 
 corners of the streets. In London the 
 inhabitants were instructed to hang 
 out candles in 1668. A more definite 
 order was issued in 1690. Every house- 
 keeper was required to hang a light or 
 lamp, every night as soon as it was 
 dark, between Michaelmas and Lady- 
 day, and to keep it burning till the hour 
 of twelve at night. Successive acts of 
 parliament and orders of the common 
 council provided from time to time 
 for the better lighting of London. 
 The Hague commenced street lighting 
 in 1552, Hamburg in 1675, Berhn in 
 1679, Copenhagen in 1681, Vienna in 
 1684, Hanover in 1696, Leipzig in 1702, 
 and Dresden in 1705. The application 
 of coal gas to economical purposes by 
 Murdoch in 1805 opened a new era in 
 artificial lighting. See Electric Light, 
 Gas, Paraffin, Petroleum. 
 
 LIGHT, Electric. See Electric Light. 
 
 LIGHT CAVALRY, or Horse. See 
 Cavalry. 
 
 LIGHTER, a large, open, flat-bot- 
 tomed vessel, employed to carry goods 
 to or from a ship. 
 
 LIGHTHOUSE, a tower or other lofty 
 structure with a powerful light at top, 
 erected at the entrance of a port or on 
 some rock or headland, and serving as a 
 guide or warning of danger to navigators 
 at night. The Pharos of Alexandria, 
 founded about 300 b.c., is the earliest 
 building erected expressly as a light- 
 house of which we have any authentic 
 record. It is stated to have been 550 
 feet high. Lighthouses are supposed 
 to have been erected by the Romans at 
 Flamborough Head, Dover, and Bou- 
 logne. In modern times the first im- 
 portant lighthouse erected was the 
 Tour de Cordouan, at the mouth of the 
 Garonne in France, founded in 1584 
 and completed in 1610, altered and 
 improved in 1727. It is 197 feet in 
 height, and in architecture surpasses 
 all other lighthouses in the world. In 
 the United States the lighthouses are 
 under the Lighthouse Board, which 
 has charge of all buoys, beacons, etc., 
 on the coasts and waters of the States. 
 The earlier lights were simply of wood, 
 and later fires of coal exposed in open 
 chauffers upon the top of a tower. When 
 oil was first introduced as an illuminant 
 is not known. An immense improve- 
 ment in lighting was made a few years 
 previous to the French revolution by 
 the introduction of parabolic reflectors, 
 which concentrate and throw forward 
 in a horizontal direction the rays of 
 light proceeding from lamps placed in 
 their foci. At the same time the re- 
 volving frame carrying the lamps and 
 reflectors was introduced, which has 
 proved of the greatest utility in estab- 
 lishing a distinction between lights. 
 The reflectors are composed of sheet- 
 copper plated with silver, and formed 
 into a parabolic curve by a laborious 
 and delicate process. 
 
 To enable seamen to distinguish one 
 lighthouse from another, lights in 
 proximity are arranged to exhibit 
 different characters. The characters in 
 common use are: fixed light; flashing 
 light, showing one flash at intervals of 
 
 few seconds; group-flashing lights, 
 
 showing two or more flashes in quick 
 succession followed by a longer period 
 of darkness; occulting lights, which 
 show a fixed light and are eclipsed for 
 a few seconds at regular intervals. 
 A system of alternate flashes and 
 eclipses (on the Morse alphabet prin- 
 ciple) has been in some cases adopted 
 to mark particular lights. Colored 
 lights, red and green, are also used 
 with any of the foregoing characters to 
 produce further distinctions, but in 
 general only to mark danger arcs, or 
 in conjunction with a white flash, as 
 the tinted-glass shades required serious- 
 ly impair the power of the light, the 
 color of which, moreover, is not easily 
 distinguishable in foggy weather. The 
 use of flashing and occulting lights is 
 becoming more and more common, few 
 fixed lights being now set up, and many 
 
 months; a luminous paint has also 
 recently been applied with advantage to 
 buoys. The electric light has been 
 adopted for a number of lighthouses, 
 and recent experiments prove it to be 
 the most powerful and penetrative of all 
 lights. 
 
 LIGHTNING, a sudden illumination 
 of the sky caused by a discharge of 
 electricity from one cloud to another, 
 from a cloud to the earth, or from the 
 earth to the cloud. The last-mentioned 
 discharge is called the “backstroke.” 
 Lightning comes and goes so quickly 
 that even while we see the stroke it is 
 no longer there. What we see is the 
 image that has been produced on the 
 retina. Lightning never travels back- 
 ward. The zigzag pictures one often 
 sees, in which the streak returns on 
 itself, is the pure imagination of the 
 
 Revolving trioptric LIGHTHOUSE, 
 
 apparatus. 
 
 Fixed catadioptric 
 apparatus. 
 
 having been converted. To produce 
 the various characters requires the 
 use of a revolving apparatus bearing 
 the lenses. 
 
 Oil, particularly mineral oil, is com- 
 monly employed at present, and it is 
 likely to remain in use in isolated light- 
 houses. Gas has been substituted for 
 oil in some lighthouses. With gas an 
 eclipse can be simply produced by a 
 partial stoppage in the supply pipes, 
 and there is no such waste of light as 
 when oil is employed. Gas has been 
 successfully employed in illuminating 
 buoys for the guidance of vessels. The 
 buoys (which, of course, are gas and 
 water tight) are charged to a pi-essurc 
 of perhaps ten atmospheres, giving 
 a continuous light for three or four 
 
 artist. The speed at which the current 
 travels is 186,000 miles a second — about 
 the same speed of light itself. For a long 
 time it was believed that the thunder 
 which accompanies lightning was caused 
 by the collapse of the air, as in an ordi- 
 nary explosion. This is a wrong notion. 
 To understand why this is so, we must 
 first understand what lightning really is. 
 The flash 'we see is not electricity at all. 
 Electric currents are ■wholly invisible. 
 The flash is caused by the air being 
 heated so highly by the discharge that it 
 becomes brilliant along the line of the 
 discharge. A lightning flash, therefore, 
 is nothing but a gigantic electric spark, 
 precisely the same as the spark one 
 j draws with his finger when he touches 
 I a live wire. It is the air which is heated. 
 
LIGHTNING-ROD 
 
 LIME 
 
 The iishlniuK stroke is made by the 
 heating of a large quantity of air, the 
 spark by the lieating a small quantity. 
 And the crack which accompanies the 
 spark is produced by the same cause 
 which produces the thunder clap. Both 
 are precisel}^ the same in nature. 
 
 Now the difference between the thun- 
 der peal and the noise made by a cannon, 
 or other explosion is shown by the fact 
 that the explosion will shatter glass and 
 even throw down buildings, while a 
 thunder peal, even when much louder, 
 does not break glass at all. This is due 
 to the fact that in the ligiitning stroke 
 there is no collapse of air worth mention, 
 but only a molecular agitation which 
 produces sound waves. 
 
 The different kinds of lightinng such 
 as “fork,” “sheet,” and “chain” light- 
 ning are due to the degree in which the 
 clouds reflect the stroke. 
 
 LIGHTNING-ROD. See Conductor. 
 
 LIGHT-SHIP, or LIGHT-BOAT, a 
 vessel, usually single-masted, serving as 
 a lighthouse in positions where a fixed 
 structure is impracticable. Octagonal 
 lanterns, fitted with Argand lamps 
 placed in the foci of parabolic reflectors, 
 are usually hoisted on the mast; but 
 they are less efficient and more expen- 
 sive in maintenance than land lights. 
 
 LI HUNG CHANG (le hung chang), 
 Chinese statesman, born in Lu-chow- 
 Ngan-hwei Province in 1823 (or 1819). 
 In 1861 he became governor of the 
 Kiang Provinces, in which capacity he 
 was intrusted with the task of put- 
 ting down the Taiping rebels Avho 
 had continued to hold their own. Li 
 Hung Chang was successful in sup- 
 pressing the rebellion. Li now became 
 successively commander of the Chi- 
 nese Imperial forces, an earl, head of 
 the naval administration, and viceroy 
 of the capital province of Chi-li. This 
 last appointment placed him practically 
 next the throne, and he held it for the 
 exceptional period of twentj^-four years, 
 from 1870 to 1895. The war with Japan 
 found him in a position of great respon- 
 sibility. He had been instrumental in 
 bringing on the war, and he had to bear 
 the brunt of the defeat which followed. 
 In 1896 he represented China at the 
 coronation of Emperor Nicholas II. of 
 Russia, and then made a tour of the 
 world, passing through Germany, 
 France, England, and the United States, 
 received everywhere with high honors. 
 Upon his return to China he became the 
 virtual head of the Tsung-li-A"amen or 
 foreign office. He returned to the gov- 
 ernorship of the Kiang Provinces in 
 
 1900, but was soon recalled to the gov- 
 ernorship of Chi-li and his former exten- 
 sive power, because he was the only man 
 who could be relied upon to meet the 
 emergency in the foreign relations of the 
 empire produced by the Boxer out- 
 break. His last public task was the 
 settlement with the European powers and 
 the United States of the issues raised by 
 that trouble. He died November 7, 
 
 1901. 
 
 LIGUORI (lig-u-6're), Alphonso Maria 
 de, an Italian prelate, born 1696, died 
 1787, the founder of the sect called 
 Redemptorists, or Ligorists. In 1732 he 
 founded a monastery at Villa Scala 
 (Principato Citra) with the approbation 
 
 of the pope, the membei-s of which, 
 forming the Order of the most Holy Ite- 
 deerner, were to be emplo 5 'ed in the in- 
 struction of tlie people. In 1762 he was 
 appointed bishop of Santa Agata de’ 
 Gotici (in the Principato Ultra) by Cle- 
 ment XIII., which office he held until 
 his retirement in 1775 to Nocera de' 
 Pagani, the chief seat of his order. 
 Since 1816 his name has been enrolled 
 among Roman Catholic saints. 
 
 LIGU'RIA, one of the larger divisions 
 (compartimenti) of Italy; area, 2055 sq. 
 miles; pop. 1,077,473. It includes the 
 towns of Genoa, Spezzia, and St. Remo, 
 and is the most important maritime 
 division. 
 
 LIGUS'TRUM. See Privet. 
 
 LILAC, a familiar fragrant-flowered 
 shrub, 8-10 feet high. There are several 
 varieties, the most common color of the 
 flowers being lilac, but some are white. 
 
 LILITH, according to Rabbinical 
 legends Adam’s first wife, mother of 
 giants and demons. 
 
 LILIUOK ALANI (le'le-oo'e-ka-lii'ne) , 
 Lydia Kamekeha, Queen of the Hawaiian 
 Islands, sister of King Kalakaua, whom 
 she succeeded in 1891, was born in 1838. 
 She secured the passage of bills authoriz- 
 ing the importation of opium and the 
 establishment of the Louisiana lottery, 
 and endeavored to substitute a reaction- 
 ary constitution for the liberal one of 
 1887. This last measure aroused the 
 white population of the islands, who 
 would have been disfranchised under 
 the proposed constitution, and on 
 January 30, 1893, they deposed her and 
 set up a provisional government which 
 soon became a republic, with Sanford B. 
 Dole at its head. The new government 
 immediately sought to secure the an- 
 nexation of the islands to the LTnited 
 States, but President Cleveland opposed 
 this policy, and on the ground that 
 United States forces had been used to 
 dethrone the queen, demanded that the 
 republican government restore her to 
 power. This Dole and his advisors re- 
 fused to do, and after a show of force. 
 President Cleveland was compelled to 
 acquiesce. The ex-queen visited the 
 United States in order to plead her 
 c.ause, and then retired to her private 
 estate in Honolulu. 
 
 LILLE (lei), a town of France, capital 
 of the department Nord, and chief fort- 
 ress of the northeast of France, near the 
 Belgian frontier. Pop. 232,568. 
 
 LILY, a genus of plaftts, natural order 
 Lilacece. The root is a scaly bulb; the 
 leaves simple, scattered, or verticillate ; 
 the stem herbaceous, simple, and bear- 
 ing at the summit very large and ele- 
 gantly-formed flowers. The flower con- 
 sists of six petaloid sepals, the calyx and 
 corolla being alike in form and color. 
 There are many species, the white, 
 orange, and scarlet lilies, the tiger lily, 
 etc. The common white lily is a native 
 of Syria, Persia, and other eastern coun- 
 tries. The finest American species grow 
 in marshes to the height of 6 or 8 feet, 
 bearing reflexed orange flowers spotted 
 with black. A well known Japanese lily 
 is one of the noblest flowering plants in 
 existence, and high.ly fragrant. It grows 
 to the height of 12 feet. In the middle 
 ages and in modern times the white lily 
 has been the emblem of chastity, hence 
 
 the Virgin Mary is often represented 
 with a lily in her hand or by her side. 
 
 LILY-OF-THE-V ALLEY, a plant, dis- 
 tinguished for its beautiful bell-shape 
 flowers. It is found in Europe, Asia, and 
 North America. The flowers, generally 
 white, form a terminal unilateral raceme 
 on a curved stalk; and their odor is 
 agreeable. 
 
 LIMA, the capital of Peru, is situated 
 at the foot of granitic hills, 7 miles from 
 Callao, its port on the Pacific, on the 
 small river Riman; Tlie climate is very 
 agreeable, but the locality is subject to 
 earthfiuakes, the most destructive being 
 that of 1746. Lima was founded in 1535 
 by Pizzaro, and called Ciudad de los 
 Reyes (City of the Kings). In January, 
 1881, Lima capitulatecl to the Chilians, 
 who occupied it for upward of two 
 years. Pop. estimated at 100,000. 
 
 LIMA, the capital of Allen co., Ohio, 
 on the Ottawa river, and the Cin., Ham. 
 and Dayton, the Erie, the Lake E. and 
 W., and the Penn, railways; 130 miles 
 n. by e. of Cincinnati. It is the center of 
 the great Ohio peti-oleum and natural- 
 gas fields, and since 1885, when petrol- 
 eum was first discovered in the city, it 
 has become one of the largest petroleum 
 shipping-points in the country. Pop. 
 26,260. 
 
 LIMBOURG, or LIMBURG, a province 
 of Belgium, separated by the Maas from 
 Dutch Limburg; area, 931 sq. miles; 
 pop. 220,658. Hasselt is the capital. 
 
 LIMBURG, a province of Holland, 
 partly intersected by the Maas; area, 
 850 sq. miles; pop. 254,846. 
 
 LIME, the oxide of the metal calcium. 
 This oxide, which in a state of combina- 
 tion is one of the most abundant bodies 
 in nature, has been known and used from 
 the remotest antiquity. The forms in 
 which it occurs native are very numer- 
 ous, but it does not exist in a pure state 
 in nature, its affinity for carbonic acid 
 being such, that it absorbs it from the 
 atmosphere, when it becomes converted 
 into carbonate of lime. Combined with 
 carbonic, sulphuric, phosphoric and 
 other acids it constitutes large rock 
 masses, and even mountains; it is present 
 in sea and other waters; it is a constituent 
 of most soils and of a great number of 
 minerals; and is essential to plants and 
 animals. 
 
 Ordinary lime is obtained with most 
 facility from the carbonate (see Lime- 
 stone), from which by a strong heat the 
 carbonic acid may be expelled. This 
 process is coJiducted on a large scale 
 with the different varieties of limestone, 
 which are calcined or burned in order to 
 obtain the caustic earth, or quicklime, 
 as it is called. The lime thus obtained, 
 however, is rarely pure enough for 
 chemical purposes. Pure lime is a soft, 
 white substance, of the specific gravity 
 of 2.3. It is quite infusible, but when 
 heated in the oxyhydrogen blowpipe it 
 emits one of the intensest of artificial 
 lights, and it has accordingly been em- 
 ployed for a signal light and for facilitat- 
 ing the observation of distant stations 
 in geodetical operations. It is soluble in 
 about 700 parts of cold water. The 
 solubility is diminished by heat. If a 
 little water be sprinkled on new burned 
 lime it is rapidly absorbed, with the 
 evolution of much heat and vapor. This 
 
LIME 
 
 LINCOLN 
 
 constitutes the phenomenon of slacking. 
 The heat proceeds from the combina- 
 tion of the water with the lime, forming 
 a hydrate, as the slacked lime is called. 
 This is a compound of 56 parts of lime 
 with 18 of W'ater, or rather more than 3 
 tol. The water may be expelled by a red 
 heat. Lime-water is astringent and 
 somewhat acrid to the taste. It renders 
 vegetable blues green, and yellows 
 brown ; and restores to reddened litmus 
 its usual purple color. Lime, submitted 
 to the action of galvanism in high in- 
 tensity, afforded Sir H. Davy satisfac- 
 tory evidence that, in common with the 
 other earths, it consists of a metal, 
 W'hich he denominated calicum, and 
 oxygen, the proportions being 72 of 
 calcium and 28 of oxygen. (See Calcium.) 
 Chlorine combines directly with lime, 
 forming the very important substance 
 used in bleaching, called chloride of lime 
 or bleaching-powder. It is formed by 
 passing chlorine gas over slacked lime. 
 Chloride of lime is also used as a dis- 
 infectant. 
 
 The uses of lime are almost too numer- 
 ous to mention, for there is hardly any 
 operation in the arts for which lime is 
 not at some part indispensable. In the 
 manufacture of basic Bessemer steel 
 (see Steel) it forms about one-half of 
 what is called “Thomas slag,” which, 
 when ground, makes a cheap and efficient 
 fertilizer; it is employed in the early 
 stages of leather dressing to remove hair, 
 fat, etc., from the hides; it is used in 
 metallurgy as a flux; in soap-boiling to 
 causticize the alkaline liquors; in the 
 manufacture of washing soda; for neu- 
 tralizing acids; for making mortars and 
 cements; in agriculture to destroy inert 
 or noxious vegetable matter, and to de- 
 compose heavy clay soils; and in the 
 materia medica, chiefly as an antacid. 
 
 LIME, or LINDEN, a large tree, with 
 alternate, simple, and cordate leaves, 
 and sweet-scented flowers, disposed on a 
 common peduncle. The common linden 
 is a well-known tree. The inner bark of 
 all the species is very tenacious; it is 
 called bast, and mats are made of it in 
 Russia in large quantities. The wood is 
 rather soft, close-grained, and much 
 used by turners. The American lime, 
 or bass-w'ood is a large and beautiful 
 tree, resembling the European species. 
 
 LIME, a small globular shaped lemon, 
 the fruit of a shrub about 8 feet high. 
 It is a native of India and China, but was 
 introduced into Europe long before the 
 orange, and is now extensively culti- 
 vated. in the south of Europe, the West 
 Indies, and some parts of Southern 
 America. The fruit is agreeably acid, 
 and its juice is employed in the produc- 
 tion of citric acid, in beverages, etc. 
 
 LIME LIGHT. See Oxyhydrogen 
 Light. 
 
 LIM'ERICK, a city of Ireland, capi- 
 tal of Limerick county, and a county of 
 itself, is situated at the interior ex- 
 tremity of the estuary of the Shannon. 
 The industries include the curing of 
 bacon, the preparation of butterine, 
 flax spinning and w'eaving, and lace- 
 making. Pop. 38,085. — The county be- 
 longs to the province of Munster, area, 
 680,842 acres, of which one-fourth is 
 under tillage. Pop. 146,018. 
 
 LIMESTONE, a species of mineral 
 
 comprising numerous varieties of car- 
 bonate of lime, differing considerably 
 in external appearance, structure, and 
 composition. It is, if pure, essentially 
 composed of 57 parts of lime and 43 of 
 carbonic acid; but in some rocks the 
 limestone is intermixed with magnesia, 
 alumina, silica, iron, etc. All limestones 
 give readily to the knife. They are in- 
 fusible ; but when impure, by an admix- 
 ture with a portion of other earths, they 
 vitrify in burning. All limestones effer- 
 vesce when a drop of strong acid is ap- 
 plied on the surface, and they dissolve 
 entirely in nitric or hydrochloric acid. 
 Limestone is found both in primary and 
 in secondary rocks, but most abun- 
 dantly in the last. It is also not uncom- 
 mon in alluvial deposits, when it is 
 called calcareous tufa. Limestone has 
 frequently a granular structure; and the 
 size of the grains is variable, in some 
 degree corresponding with the relative 
 age of the mineral. Thus limestone which 
 occurs in beds in gneiss, has usually a 
 coarse texture, and large granular con- 
 cretions; but when its beds exist in mica 
 slate, or argillite, its texture becomes 
 more finely grained, and its color less 
 uniform. Silurian and Devonian lime- 
 stones have a texture more or less com- 
 pact; the colors are often variegated; 
 and they often contain fossils. Sec- 
 ondary limestone has a compact tex- 
 ture, a dull fracture, and usually con- 
 tains shells, and sometimes other organic 
 remains. It is always stratified. Com- 
 pact limestone passes into chalk when 
 the particles are somewhat loosely con- 
 nected with each other, so that the 
 whole assumes an earthy character. A 
 variety of very fine-grained compact 
 limestone is used in lithography the best 
 being that obtained near Pappenheim 
 and Solenhofen in Bavaria. 
 
 LIMITATION, in English law, a cer- 
 tain time, assigned by statute, within 
 which an action must be brought, vary- 
 ing according to the subject of action. 
 This matter is regulated by certain acts 
 of parliament, called Statutes of Limita- 
 tions. According to those now in force, 
 actions are limited as follows: — Actions 
 for the recovery of land, rent-charge, or 
 redemption of mortgages, to 12 years 
 after right accrued; of debt or covenant, 
 if founded on a deed, to 20 years, on less 
 formal agreement, to 6 years after 
 breach; bills, promissory notes, trade 
 accounts, arrears of rent or dower, to 6 
 years. In the case of persons under dis- 
 abilities, as infancy, coverture, idiocy, 
 lunacy, or absence beyond seas, the 
 action may be brought within 12 years 
 of its accruing, or within 6 years of the 
 disability ending or the disabled person 
 dying, but in no case does the limit 
 allowed exceed 30 years. Actions for 
 slander are barred after 2 years; actions 
 on penal statutes, if brought by the 
 party injured after 2 years, if brought 
 by a common informer after 1 year. 
 Actions by the crown are limited to 60 
 years. An -action for assault, battery, 
 etc., must be brought within 4 years, 
 an action for death by accident within 1 
 year. In a charge of murder the injured 
 person must have died within a year 
 and a day of the time when the injury 
 was inflicted. These limitations do not 
 apply to prosecutions for crime, or foi 
 
 breach of trust on the part of trustees, 
 these may be instituted at any time. 
 The American law is mainly based on 
 the English statutes. 
 
 LIMOGES (li-mozh), a town of Western 
 France, capital of the department of 
 Haute-Vienne, and former capital of 
 Limousin. The principal industry is the 
 manufacture of artistic porcelain, known 
 as Limoges ware, and employing over 
 6000 hands. Pop. 83,569. 
 
 LI'MONITE, a very important ore of 
 iron, varieties of which are bog iron ore 
 and brown haematite. It is a hydrated 
 oxide of a brownish color, occurring in 
 mammillated or botryoidal masses, and 
 found in various parts of England, and 
 abundantly on the Continent and in 
 America. 
 
 LINA'CE.®, the flax family, a small 
 natural order of exogenous plants, 
 scattered more or less over most parts 
 of the globe, those in temperate and 
 southern regions being herbs, while the 
 tropical representatives are trees or 
 shrubs. They are principally character- 
 ized by their regular flowers, with im- 
 bricate glandular sepals having a disc 
 of five glands outside the staminal tube; 
 the ovary is three to five celled, with 
 two ovules in each cell; the albumen is 
 fleshy; the leaves are simple, usually 
 stipulate, rarely opposite. The tenacity 
 of the fibre and the mucilage of the 
 diuretic seeds of certain species of the 
 common flax are well known. 
 
 LINCOLN (ling'kon), a city of England 
 and a county in itself, capital of Lincoln- 
 shire, 120 miles north of London, situ- 
 ated on the Witham, and at the junc- 
 tion of several railways. Pop. 48,783. — 
 Lincolnshire is a large maritime county 
 on the east coast, bounded by the 
 Humber, the German Ocean, and the 
 Wash, and by the counties of Cam- 
 bridge, Northampton, Rutland, Leices- 
 ter, Nottingham, and York; area, 1,767,- 
 879 acres. Pop. 498,781. 
 
 LINCOLN, capital of Nebraska, on the 
 right bank of Salt Creek, a tributary of 
 the river Platte. The public buildings 
 include the United States revenue offices. 
 
 State Capitol, Lincoln, Neb. 
 
 court-house, and post-office, in one 
 building; state-house, university, schools 
 and churches. It has a large trade in all 
 kinds of merchandise, grain, live-stock, 
 and lumber. Pop. 48,169. 
 
 LINCOLN, Abraham, the sixteenth 
 president of the United States of Ameri- 
 ca, born in Kentucky 1809. He removed 
 
LING 
 
 LINCOLN’S INN 
 
 f with his family in 1816 to Spencer co., 
 Indiana, and for the next ten years was 
 engaged in laborious work of various 
 
 ' kinds, having only about a year’s school- 
 ing at intervals. On the breaking out of 
 the Black Hawk war in 1832 he joined 
 a volunteer company, and as captain he 
 served three months in the campaign. 
 He next opened a country store, was 
 appointed postmaster of New Salem, 
 Illinois, began to study law, and at the 
 same time turned amateur land-sur- 
 veyor. In 1834 he was elected a 
 member of the Illinois legislature, to 
 which he was again returned at the three 
 following biennial elections, and in 1836 
 he was licensed to practice law. In 1846 
 he was elected a representative in con- 
 gress for the central district of Illinois, 
 and voted steadily in congress with the 
 anti-slavery party. In 1849 and again in 
 1858 he was unsuccessful in attempts to 
 enter the senate. In the republican 
 national convention held at Chicago in 
 May, 1860, he was nominated as a can- 
 didate for the presidency, and after 
 several votes he gained a majority, and 
 was eventually chosen unanimously. 
 The Southern states, exasperated at this 
 defeat, and alarmed at the aggressive 
 anti-slavery policy which many of the 
 
 I Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 leading republicans had proclaimed 
 ■ their determination to follow, refused 
 to acquiesce in Lincoln’s election, and 
 ; began one after another to announce 
 their secession, and to organize the 
 “ means of resisting the enforcement of 
 the claims of the central government. 
 
 . The election of Lincoln took place in 
 November, 1860, and he assumed office 
 - on the 4th of March, 1861. It was the 
 s intention of Lincoln to use every means 
 
 1 ’ of conciliation consistent with the policy 
 he deemed it essential to the national 
 interest to pursue. On one point, how- 
 ever, his resolution was steadfast, to 
 admit no secession, and before his as- 
 1 sumption of office secession was as 
 resolutely determined on on the other 
 : side. On the 4th of February the south- 
 ern confederacy had been constituted, 
 ' and on the 14th 45f April the first blow 
 in the civil war was struck by the cap- 
 . ture of Fort Sumter by the confederates, 
 dj. The events of the civil war during the 
 next four years in Lincoln’s career be- 
 
 t long to the history of the United States. 
 , Lincoln’s persistence in raising and 
 
 pouring in fresh troops after every dis- 
 aster finally enabled the federal govern- 
 ment to subdue the secession. The 
 toleration of slavery was always, in 
 Lincoln’s opinion, an unhappy necessity; 
 and when the southern states had by 
 their rebellion forfeited all claim to the 
 protection of their peculiar institution, 
 it was an easy transition from this view 
 to its withdrawal. The successive stages 
 by which this was effected — the emanci- 
 pation of the staves of rebels, and the 
 offer of compensation for voluntary 
 emancipation, followed by the constitu- 
 tional amendment and unconditional 
 emancipation without compensation — 
 were only the natural steps by which a 
 change involving consequences of such 
 vast extent was reached. The determi- 
 nation of the northern states to pursue 
 the war to its conclusion on the original 
 issue led to the re-election of Lincoln as 
 president in 1864. The decisive victory 
 of Grant over Lee on 2d April, 1865, 
 speedily followed by the surrender of the 
 latter, had just afforded the pi aspect of 
 an immediate termination of this long 
 struggle, when, on the 14th of the same 
 month. President Lincoln was shot in 
 Ford’s Theater, Washington, by an 
 assassin named John Wilkes Booth, and 
 expired on the following day. In the 
 affections of the Americans Lincoln 
 holds a place second only to Washing- 
 ton. 
 
 LINCOLN’S INN. See Inns of Court. 
 
 LINCOLN, Robert Todd, American 
 politician, son of Abraham Lincoln, 
 born at Springfield, 111., in 1843. At the 
 close of the civil war he settled in Chi- 
 cago, and practiced law until 1881, when 
 he entered Garfield’s cabinet as secretary 
 of war. He was retained in this position 
 by President Arthur, and in 1884 was 
 mentioned for the presidential can- 
 didacy, but refused to oppose Arthur 
 in the convention. From 1889 to 1893 
 he was minister of the United States to 
 Great Britain. He was counsel for the 
 Pullman Palace Car Company, and after 
 the death of George M. Pullman became 
 its president. 
 
 LINCRUS'TA-WAL'TON, an em- 
 bossed wall-covering, designed as a sub- 
 stitute for wall-papers, natural woods, 
 or plaster modeling. The material con- 
 sists of linseed oil with which is mixed 
 wood-fibre, cork, cellulose, paper, or 
 other thickening substance. The mix- 
 ture after being treated chemically is 
 made into sheets, which are then backed 
 with light canvas and stamped in an 
 ornamental pattern. It is waterproof, 
 warm, and washable. The original color 
 is light brown or gray, but when mounted 
 on the wall it may be painted, bronzed, 
 or gilt. The figures may be stamped in 
 high relief with striking effect. Lin- 
 crusta is really a variety of linoleum. 
 
 LIND, Jenny (Madame Otto Gold- 
 schmid), singer, born in Stockholm 1820, 
 died 1887. She received part of her 
 musical training under Garcia at Paris; 
 achieved her first success in Berlin in 
 1845, and subsequently was received 
 with a great ovation in her native city of 
 Stockholm. She made her first appear- 
 ance in London at Covent Garden in 
 1847 before an enthusiastic audience; 
 went to the United States, where she 
 married Herr Goldschmid in 1852; re- 
 
 turned to Europe and made an exten- 
 sive tour, finally settling in England. In 
 recent years she seldom came before the 
 public, but as professor in the Royal 
 Academy of Music, and as trainer of the 
 female voices in the Bach choir con- 
 ducted by her husband, her talents were 
 not lost. 
 
 LINDEN, a handsome forest tree. See 
 Lime. 
 
 LINEN, cloth made of flax, has had a 
 very ancient and extensive use. On the 
 early monuments of Egypt artistic 
 representations of the various processes 
 of linen manufacture have been found, 
 and the fine linen fabric in which the 
 Egyptians wrapped their embalmed 
 dead still gives evidence of the skill 
 which they possessed. The Jews took 
 with them into Canaan a knowledge of 
 the manufacture; Tyre, Sidon, and 
 Carthage seem also to have acquired the 
 industry; while at an early period the 
 manufacture of linen appears to have 
 been common in Greece and Rome. In 
 the middle ages linen and woolen were 
 the chief articles of dress in all European 
 countries, and among the Flemings in 
 particular the flax manufacture rose to 
 great importance. The linen manufac- 
 ture has been known in England, Ire- 
 land, and Scotland for a long period. 
 As early as the 7th century the Anglo- 
 Saxon women were skilled in the weav- 
 ing of this fabric, and fine linen was made 
 in Wilts and Sussex in the 13th century. 
 Since the extensive introduction of 
 cotton, however, the linen industry has 
 decreased in relative importance, this 
 result having come about mainly within 
 the present century. The chief center 
 of the manufacture in England is Leeds 
 and neighborhood. In Ireland the manu- 
 facture of linen was well established in 
 the 17th century; subsequently it de- 
 clined; but lately it has again obtained 
 a flourishing position, Belfast being the 
 center of the manufacture. Dundee is 
 the chief center in Scotland for linen 
 (especially coarse fabrics) as well as the 
 allied jute manufacture. Dunfermline is 
 celebrated for its table linens. The 
 machinery used both in spinning and 
 weaving linen is in general, with the ex- 
 ception of some special adaptations, the 
 same as that used for cotton. (See Cot- 
 ton Spinning and Weaving, also Flax.) 
 The chief varieties of linen now manu- 
 factured are; lawn, which is of fine 
 quality and mostly produced in Ireland; 
 plain cloths for shirtings, bedding, etc.; 
 damasks, table-cloths, and other orna- 
 mental fabrics; and cambric, which is 
 the finest of all linen fabrics. 
 
 LING, a species of sea-fish allied to the 
 cod family, and measuring from 3 to 4 
 feet in length. It abounds around the 
 British coasts, and is caught with hook 
 
 Ling. 
 
 and line, and preserved in immense 
 quantities in a dried state. From the 
 beginning of February to May the ling is 
 in highest perfection ; the spawning sea- 
 son commencing in June. 
 
LINGARD 
 
 LIQUEUR 
 
 LINGARD, John, an English historian, 
 born at Winchester 1771; died at 
 Hornby 1851. His Antiquities of the 
 Anglo-Saxon Church appeared in 1858, 
 and his great work on The History of 
 England from the Invasion of the 
 Romans to the year 1688 was first 
 printed in 1819-25, and reached a fifth 
 edition in 1850. Lingard’s History is 
 considered a standard work from the 
 Roman Catholic stand-point. 
 
 LIN'IMENT, in medicine, a species of 
 soft ointment of a consistence somewhat 
 thinner than an unguent, but thicker 
 than oil. The term is also applied to 
 spirituous and other stimulating appli- 
 cations for external use. 
 
 LINK, in land-measuring, a division of 
 Gunter’s chain, having a length of 7.92 
 inches. The chain is divided into 100 
 links, and is 66 feet in length. 100,000 
 square links make an imperial acre. 
 
 LINLITH'GOW, a royal and parlia- 
 mentary burgh of Scotland, capital of 
 Linlithgowshire, 17 miles west of Edin- 
 burgh. Pop. 4279. — The county of Lin- 
 lithgow, or West Lothian, is bounded by 
 the Firth of Forth, Edinburghshire, 
 Stirling, and Lanark ; area, 76,806 acres. 
 This county is one of the richest in Scot- 
 land in minerals, including coal, shales, 
 ironstone, freestone, limestone. Pop. 
 65,699. 
 
 LINN.®'A, a genus of plants of the 
 natural order Caprifoliacese (honey- 
 suckles). It contains but one species, a 
 creeping evergreen plant found in woods 
 and in mountainous places in Scotland 
 and other northern countries, including 
 North America as far south as Mary- 
 land, bearing two beautiful drooping 
 fragrant bell-shaped pink flowers on each 
 
 fl /^TirQT»_e^" o 1 IT 
 
 LINNiEAN SOCIETY, a society in 
 London, instituted in 1788 by Dr. (after- 
 ward Sir) J. E. Smith, and incorporated 
 in 1802, for the promotion of the study 
 of all departments of botany and zoology. 
 It has an excellent library, a museum, 
 and herbarium, the nucleus of which were 
 formed by the collection of Linnaeus 
 himself. Fellows take the initials F.L.S. 
 
 LINN.®'US. See next article. 
 
 LINNE' (lin'na), Karl von, commonly 
 called Linnaeus, the greatest botanist of 
 his age, was born at Rashult, Sweden, 
 1707, and died at Upsala in 1778. Aided 
 by the Academy of Sciences at Upsala 
 Linn6 made a journey through Lapland, 
 the result of which was shown in his 
 Flora Lapponica, published 1735. In 
 this year he went to the University of 
 Harderwyk in Holland and took an 
 M.D. degree; afterward visited Leyden, 
 where he published the first sketch of his 
 Systema Naturae and Fundamenta Bo- 
 tanica. In 1736 he visited England, went 
 to Paris in 1738, and afterward settled 
 in Stockholm as a physician. He be- 
 came professor of medicine at Upsala in 
 1741, and then of botany and natural 
 history; was made a knight of the Polar 
 Star with the rank of nobility; and died 
 on his estate near Upsala from apoplexy. 
 The great merit of Linn6 as a botanist 
 was that he arranged plants on a simple 
 system of sexual relationship and pre- 
 pared the way for the more natural and 
 satisfactory classification which has 
 superseded the Linnsean system. 
 
 LINNET, a small singing bird of the 
 
 finch family. Its general plumage is 
 brownish, the top of the head and breast 
 being reddish in the breeding season. 
 
 Linnet. 
 
 They are cheerful and lively birds, and 
 very sweet and pleasing songsters. 
 
 LINO'LEUM, a preparation of linseed- 
 oil with chloride of sulphur, by which it 
 is rendered solid and useful in many 
 ways. When rolled into sheets it is used 
 as a substitute for india-rubber or gutta- 
 percha; dissolved it is used as a varnish 
 for waterproof textile fabrics, table- 
 covers, felt carpets, and the like; as a 
 paint it is useful both for iron and wood, 
 and for ships’ bottoms; as a cement it 
 possesses some of the qualities of glue; 
 vulcanized or rendered hard by heat it 
 may be carved and polished like wood 
 for mouldings, knife-handles, etc.'; and 
 mixed with ground cork and pressed 
 upon canvas it forms floor-cloth. 
 
 LrNOTYPE, a recently-invented print- 
 ing-machine, in which types are dis- 
 carded, and matrices used instead, these 
 being brought to the ^proper places 
 by touching corresponding keys, the 
 rows of matrices being then automatic- 
 ally filled with molten metal so as to 
 produce solid bars or lines of type, and 
 then automatically returned to their 
 places. The linotype is used almost 
 exclusively in newspaper and magazine 
 work and for the cheaper grades of 
 book work. 
 
 LINSEED-OIL, the oil got from the 
 seeds of flax either by pressure in the 
 cold or by heating to about 200° Fahr. 
 It is of a pale to dark yellow color; may 
 or may not have a smell, and remains 
 liquid even at zero Fahr. Linseed-oil 
 is largely used in the arts, for painting, 
 for printer’s-ink, etc.; and in medicine, 
 especially for burns. Linseed-cake is the 
 solid mass or cake which remains when 
 oil is expressed from flax-seed. It is 
 much used as food for cattle and sheep, 
 and is called also oil-cake. 
 
 LINT, in surgery, is the scrapings of 
 fine linen, used by surgeons in dressing 
 wounds. Lint made up in an oval or 
 orbicular form is called a pledget ; if in a 
 cylindrical form, or in shape of a date or 
 olive stone, it is called a dossil. 
 
 LION, a quadruped of the cat genus, 
 the most majestic of all carnivorous 
 animals, distinguished by its tawny or 
 yellow color, a full flowing mane in the 
 male, and a tufted tail with a sort of 
 sharp nail at the end of it. The largest 
 lions are from 8 to 9 feet in length. The 
 period of gestation is five months ; one 
 brood is produced annually, with from 
 
 two to four at a birth, and the mother 
 nourishes the whelps for about a year. 
 The mane of the male lion begins to 
 grow when it is three years old ; the adult 
 age is reached about six or seven; and the 
 extreme age is about twenty-two, al- 
 though authorities differ from this esti- 
 mate. The lion is a native of Africa and 
 parts of Western and Central Asia. He 
 preys chiefly in the night and on live 
 animals, avoiding carrion, unless im- 
 pelled by intense hunger. He ap- 
 proaches his prey with a stealthy pace, 
 crouching when at a proper distance, 
 when he springs upon it with fearful 
 velocity and force. The whole frame is 
 extremely muscular, the foreparts being 
 
 E articularly so, giving with the large 
 ead, flashing eye, and copious mane, a 
 noble appearance to the animal, which 
 has led to his being called the “king of 
 beasts,” and to fancies of its noble and 
 generous nature which have no real 
 
 Head of maneless lion. 
 
 foundation. Of the African lion there 
 are several varieites, as the Barbary 
 lion, Gambian lion. Cape lion. The 
 Asiatic varieties are generally smaller 
 and may want the mane, as the maneless 
 
 — , 
 
 Head of Gambian lion. 
 
 lion of Gujerat. The American lion is ^ 
 the puma. i 
 
 LIPPE (lip'pe),or incorrectly Lippe- Ij 
 Detmold, a principality of north Ger- i 
 many, bounded chiefly by Rhenish Prus- ' 
 sia and Wanover ; area, 438 sq. miles. I 
 Pop. 139,238. i 
 
 LIQUATION, or ELIQUATION, the 
 process of separating by a regulated heat .'"J 
 an easily fusible metal from an alloy in 
 which is a metal difficult to fusion. A! 
 Thus in the refining of tin to remove » 
 slag, iron, copper, and other metals, the * 
 ingots are heated in a reverberatory S 
 furnace to a temperature just sufficient M. 
 to melt the tin, which is allowed to run X 
 into a basin, while the impurities are left * 
 behind on the hearth. # 
 
 LIQUEUR (li-keuri ; the French name), K 
 a palatable spirituous drink com- S 
 posed of water, alcohol, sugar, and an 9 
 aromatic infusion, extracted from fruits, 
 seeds, etc. The best-known liqueurs jH 
 are absinthe, anisette, chartreuse, cur- « 
 a 9 oa, maraschino kiimmel, and noyau. 
 
LIQUID 
 
 LIQUID. See Gas, Hydraulics, Hy- 
 drostatics, etc. 
 
 LIQ'UORICE, a name for herbs grow- 
 ing in S. Europe, Asia, and Africa. One 
 species is a perennial plant with herba- 
 ceous stalks and bluish papilionaceous 
 flowers. The well-known liquorice juice, 
 used as a demulcent and expectorant, is 
 extracted from the root as well as from 
 that of others. , 
 
 LISBON, the capital and principal 
 seaport of Portugal, on the right bank 
 of the Tagus, about 9 miles above its 
 mouth. The western quarter of the city, 
 called Buenos Ayres, is airy and pleasant 
 and chiefly occupiea by foreigners. The 
 town of Belem, still farther to the west, 
 forms a sort of suburb to Lisbon. Above 
 it stands the royal palace of Ajuda, 
 a conspicuous edifice of white marble. 
 Among the chief buildings are the castle 
 of St. George or citadel, the cathedral, 
 the church do Cora5oa de Jesus, the 
 custom-house and other government 
 buildings on the Pra?a do Commercio, 
 the town-hall, etc. But the most re- 
 markable specimen of architecture of 
 
 which Lisbon can boast is the aqueduct 
 which conveys water to the city from 
 springs about lOJ miles distant. The 
 scientific and literary institutions com- 
 prise the Royal Academy of Sciences, 
 Polytechnic School, National Museum 
 and Picture gallery. National Library, 
 containing about 200,000 vols. The 
 harbor is one of the finest in the world, 
 and the quays extend between 2 and 3 
 miles along the bank of the river. In 
 1755 it was visited by an earthquake, 
 which threw down a considerable portion 
 of the city, and destroyed above 30,000 
 of its inhabitants. Pop. 357,000. 
 
 LISTER, Sir Joseph, Baron, English 
 surgeon, was born at Upton, Essex, in 
 1827. His name is more especially con- 
 nected with the successful application of 
 the antiseptic treatment in surgery, 
 which inaugurated a new era in this 
 branch of medical science. He received 
 the prize of the Academy of Paris; the 
 medal of the Royal Society; was made 
 an LL.D. of Glasgow University and of 
 Cambridge; D.C.L. of Oxford. Made a 
 baronet in 1883, he was raised to the 
 peerage in 1897. He died in 1902. 
 
 LISZT, Abb4 Franz, distinguished 
 pianist and composer, was born in Hun- 
 gary in 1811, and died in 1886. He made 
 his first public appearance in his ninth 
 year; studied in Vienna and Paris; pro- 
 duced an opera in 1825, and became 
 director of the Court Theater at Weimar 
 in 1849. This gave him the opportunity 
 to introduce the music of Wagner, Ber- 
 lioz, Schuman, and the writers of what 
 
 LITHUANIA 
 
 is known as “the music of the future.” 
 In 1861 he took up his residence in 
 Rome, where he joined the priesthood. 
 In 1870 he became director of the Con- 
 servatory of Music at Pest. His chief 
 works are the Faust and Dante sym- 
 phonies, and the oratorios St. Eliza- 
 beth and Christus. 
 
 LIT'ANY, a term generally applied to 
 a series of snort prayers or supplications 
 together forming one whole. The best- 
 known litany at the present day is that 
 of the Angelican Church. It is chanted 
 in the morning service, the priest utter- 
 ing one prayer, and the people respond- 
 ing with another alternately. 
 
 LITH'ARGE, the yellow or reddish 
 protoxide of lead partially fused. It is ex- 
 tensively used in the manufacture of 
 glass, of enamels, of artificial gems, of 
 lead plaster and lead soap, of sugar of 
 lead, white and red lead, and other 
 compounds. See Lead. 
 
 LITH'IA, the only known oxide of 
 the metal lithium, which was at first 
 found in a mineral called petalite. It is 
 of a white color, very soluble in water, 
 acrid, caustic, and acts on colors like 
 other alkalies. 
 
 LITHIC ACID. See Uric Acid. 
 
 LITHOG'RAPHY, the art of drawing 
 upon and printing from stone. The 
 facility with which this is accomplished 
 arises from the antagonistic qualities 
 of grease and water. The processes of the 
 art depend on the adhesion to a grained 
 or polished stone of a certain greasy 
 composition which forms the lines of the 
 drawing, etc.; on the power acquired by 
 those parts penetrated by the greasy 
 composition of attracting and becoming 
 covered with a specially prepared ink; 
 on the interposition of water, which 
 prevents the ink adhering to the parts 
 not impregnated with the grease ; and on 
 pressure, which transfers to paper the 
 greasy tracings or drawings. 
 
 The lithographic stone most suitable 
 for the purposes of lithography is found 
 in the district of Kellheim, Bavaria, is a 
 species of slaty lime-stone; its color in 
 the best quality is pale yellowish drab, 
 and for printing purposes its thickness 
 must be from IJ to 4 inches. In pre- 
 paring stones for the printer they are 
 squared, leveled, ground, and polished. 
 
 Lithographic ink is made of wax, 
 white soap, tal ow, shellac, mastic, and 
 lamp-black. What are called chalks are 
 made from much the same materials; 
 these ingredients being subjected to 
 heat until they are fused, poured out on 
 a slab to cool, and then cut into the 
 required sizes. 
 
 There are various styles in which 
 drawings on the stone are executed. 
 Drawing on the smooth stone is exe- 
 cuted with steel pens and sable-hair 
 brushes. The design, etc., is drawn on 
 the stone in reverse, after which it is 
 slightly etched with dilute acid. In chalk 
 drawing the surface of the stone is 
 roughed or grained, after which the 
 drawing is traced upon the stone. The 
 tinting or shading follows. When com- 
 pleted the drawing is etched, after 
 which it is put into the hands of the 
 printer for printing. In engraving on 
 stone the stone is first prepared with a 
 solution of acid and gum. It is then 
 washed with water, and a dry red or 
 
 black powder rubbed over it. The 
 drawing is produced by lines scratched 
 through this ground into the stone. 
 These lines are then spread with linseed- 
 oil, and afterward charged with print- 
 ing ink, from which impressions are 
 taken. Etching on stone is in most 
 respects similar to etching on copper. 
 The stone is prepared in the same man- 
 ner, the biting-in is effected with dilute 
 acetic acid, and the lines filled in with 
 printing-ink. The method of drawing 
 directly on the stone has been largely 
 superseded by the use of prepared paper, 
 both grained and smooth, on which the 
 drawing is executed, and afterward 
 transferred to the stone Tinting and 
 chromo-lithography is much practised 
 in the reproduction of works of an artis- 
 tic character. See Color-printing and 
 also Photo-Lithography, under Photog- 
 raphy. 
 
 In the year 1850 steam-power began 
 to supersede manual labor in driving the 
 lithographic press, and afterward a 
 cylinder machine was introduced, which 
 from time to time has been greatly im- 
 proved. This machine, running at 500 
 revolutions in the hour, can produce 
 good work, but for printing fine chalk 
 drawings of large size the hand-press is 
 still preferred. The number of good im- 
 pressions that can be taken from one 
 drawing or transfer ranges from 500 to 
 5000; chalk drawings producing few and 
 ink drawings many copies. The drawing 
 or writing can also be preserved good on 
 the stone for any length of time by 
 rolling it with a special kind of ink and 
 covering it with gum mixed with sugar- 
 candy. For similar purposes zinc has 
 been treated in much the same manner 
 as stone. See Zincography. 
 
 LITHOT'OMY, in surgery, the tech- 
 nical name for the operation popularly 
 called cutting for the stone. As usually 
 performed it consists in cutting through 
 the perineum in front and to the left of 
 the anus, so as to reach and divide the 
 urethra and neck of the bladder where it 
 is surrounded by the prostate gland. A 
 grooved and curved staff is introduced 
 into the bladder first, and then the in- 
 cision is made in the perineum to reach 
 the bladder, the groove in the staff serv- 
 ing as a guide to the knife. When thus 
 performed, the operation requires sel- 
 dom more than three minutes, and in 
 favorable cases the wound heals in the 
 course of a month. 
 
 LITHOT'RITY, in surgery, the opera- 
 tion of crushing a stone in the bladder 
 into fragments of such a size that they 
 may be expelled by the urethra. The 
 instrument by which the stone is broken 
 up is introduced in the same manner as 
 a catheter or sound into the bladder, 
 and after catching the stone either 
 crushes, bores, or hammers it to pieces. 
 The instrument, which is called a litho- 
 trite, has two movable blades at the 
 extremity, which are brought together 
 to crush the stone by means of a power- 
 ful screw. 
 
 LITHUA'NIA, a region in eastern 
 Europe which formed a grand-duchy in 
 the llth century; became united to 
 Poland in the 14th century; and at the 
 dismemberment of that kingdom, in 
 1773-95, was nearly all appropriated by 
 Russia, now forming the governments 
 
LITRE 
 
 LIVERPOOL 
 
 of Mohilev, Vitepsk, Minsk, Vilna, and 
 Grodno; area about 100,000 sq. miles, 
 of which 6700 are in Prussia. The 
 Lithuanians are a race of people closely 
 akin to the Letts. They are fair-haired, 
 blue-eyed, and light-skinned; of mild 
 disposition, and chiefly occupied in 
 agriculture. Their language is akin to 
 the Lettic and Old Prussian, and forms 
 with these the Lithuanian or Lettic 
 branch of the Aryan family of tongues. 
 Their literature consists chiefly of popu- 
 lar songs and hymns, religious works, 
 tales, etc. 
 
 LITRE, the French standard measure 
 of capacity in the decimal system. The 
 litre is a cubic decimetre; that is, a cube, 
 each of the sides of which is 3.937 Eng- 
 lish inches; it contains 60,028 English 
 cubic inches; the English imperial gallon 
 is equal to fully 4^ litres, or more exactly 
 4.54345797 litres. 
 
 LITTLE FALLS, a city in Herkimer 
 CO., N. Y., 21 miles east by south of 
 Utica, on the Mohawk river, the Erie 
 Canal, and the New York Central and 
 Hudson rivers and the West Shore rail- 
 roads. Pop. 12,160. 
 
 LITTLE ROCK, the largest city in and 
 capital of Arkansas, on the right bank of 
 the Arkansas, here navigable, 250 miles 
 from its mouth. It stands on a rocky 
 bluff, rising about 50 feet above the river. 
 It has the usual variety of churches, 
 a state-house, court-house, jail, theater, 
 military college, etc. Pop. 1909, 60,000. 
 
 LIT'URGY, a special series of prayers, 
 hymns, pieces of Scripture, or other de- 
 votional matter, arranged and pre- 
 scribed for use in worship ; or in a nar- 
 rower sense a prescribed service for the 
 celebration of the eucharist; hence in 
 the Roman Catholic Church equivalent 
 to the mass or service contained in the 
 Missal. There are a number of ancient 
 liturgies connected with various places 
 or names of various persons, but there 
 seems to have been no written liturgy 
 earlier than the 5th century. The chief 
 liturgical books in the Roman Catholic 
 Church are the Missal and the Breviary, 
 both in Latin. The English Book of 
 Common Prayer dates from the reign of 
 Edward VI. (See Common Prayer.) It 
 was based on the Roman Breviary. In 
 the portions of Scripture contained in 
 the prayer book the authorized version 
 was latterly adopted, except in the 
 Psalms, which are according to Cover- 
 dale’s Bible. The liturgy of the Episco- 
 pal Church in Scotland is the same as 
 that of the Church of England, except 
 that there is a different communion 
 office, which, however, is used only in 
 some of the Scotch churches. The Kirk 
 of Scotland, or the Scotch Presbyterian 
 Church, has no liturgy, the Directory 
 for the Public Worship of God being only 
 certain general rules for the conduct of 
 public worship. The Book of Common 
 Prayer of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church in the United States was adopted 
 in 1789 with some minor deviations 
 from the English. 
 
 LIUTPRAND, or LUITPRAND, his- 
 torian, prelate, and diplomatist, was 
 born at Pavia about 920, and died at 
 Cremona about 972. Besides an interest- 
 ing narrative of a mission to Constanti- 
 nople, he has left us a History of Otto; 
 and his Antapodosis, a history of Europe 
 
 in six books, from 886 to 950. These 
 works are the chief historical authority 
 for that period. 
 
 LIVER, the glandular structure, which 
 secretes the bile. This gland is not 
 confined to the Vertebrate animals, 
 all of which — save the Amphioxus or 
 lancelet — possess a well-developed liver, 
 but is found in many Invertebrata. In 
 man the liver is part of the alimentary 
 apparatus, and is situated just below 
 the diaphragm on the right side, ex- 
 tending across the middle line of the 
 body toward the left side. Its front 
 border reaches just below the border 
 of the chest when the posture is sitting 
 or standing; but when the person lies 
 down the liver passes slightly up so as to 
 be completely under cover of the ribs, 
 except a small portion which extends 
 beyond the lower end of the breast-bone. 
 From its position it is extremely liable 
 to compression and injury. It is the 
 largest gland in the body, and weighs 
 from 50 to 60 ounces avoirdupois. In 
 its general form the liver is flat, broad, 
 and thick toward the right side, be- 
 coming narrow and thin toward the left 
 side. Its upper surface is convex or 
 arched and fits into the concave surface 
 of the diaphragm, while its lower sur- 
 face is irregularly divided into certain 
 “lobes,” five in number, and separated 
 by clefts or fissures. These lobes are 
 known as the right, left, spegelian, 
 caudatus and quadrate lobes. 
 
 When microscopically examined the 
 entire mass of the liver is found to con- 
 sist mainly of large many-sided cells 
 containing granular protoplasm. They 
 are arranged in groups or masses, each 
 little mass being called a lobule, and 
 each lobule slightly mapped off by con- 
 nective tissue and containing a mesh- 
 work of blood-vessels and ducts. These 
 blood-vessels are branches of the portal 
 vein. This vein receives the blood which 
 has circulated in the stomach and in- 
 testines and carries it throughout the 
 entire liver by a net-work of finely sub- 
 divided veins. It is from this supply of 
 blood that the bile is secreted. The 
 blood passes off from the liver by the 
 hepatic vein, formed by the union of 
 small vessels which begin in the center 
 of the lobules. The connective tissue of 
 the liver is supplied with arterial blood 
 by the hepatic artery. This blood, like 
 that which has entered through the 
 portal vein, is drained off into the 
 hepatic vein. There is, however, another 
 set of vessels which ramify through the 
 liver, namely the bile ducts, whose busi- 
 ness it is to carry off the bile produced 
 in the gland. These ducts intersect and 
 unite until in the end two channels are 
 formed, one from the right and the other 
 from the left of the liver, which ultimate- 
 ly form one common exit into the small 
 intestine called the common bile duct. 
 Thus, when the bile has been secreted 
 by the liver-cells, it is transferred by 
 way of this hepatic duct into the small 
 intestine, where it mingles with the food. 
 When this flow of bile ceases, as it does 
 when intestinal digestion is interrupted, 
 the supply which still continues is stored 
 in the gall-bladder, which forms a kind 
 of reservoir situated under the liver. 
 
 The functions of the liver would seem 
 to be, at least, threefold. It serves (1) 
 
 to secrete from the blood received from 
 the stomach and intestines that amount 
 of bile which is necessary for the pur- 
 poses of digestion. The bile, however, 
 contains waste matter, which has been 
 separated from the blood. The liver 
 therefore (2) has a direct function in 
 separating and casting forth the waste 
 impurities of the blood. Further, it 
 appears from recent investigation that 
 (3) the liver secretes a substance which 
 is called glycogen or animal starch. The 
 use of this substance, which is readily 
 converted into sugar, would seem to be 
 to supply the tissues with material for 
 their energy and heat. The functions of 
 the liver, however, still form the sub- 
 ject of dispute and investigation among 
 physiologists. See Bile and Gall-bladder. 
 
 There are many diseases connected 
 with this important gland. There is 
 congestion of the liver, which indicates 
 that the structure is surcharged and 
 choked with blood. This arises from 
 various causes; heart disease, disease of 
 the lungs, or even excess in food or 
 drink will produce congestion. The 
 symptoms are excessive weight, fulness, 
 and a tenderness in the organ which 
 may be proved by a slight push in the 
 region beyond the breast-bone. Inflam- 
 mation of the liver is frequent in hot 
 countries; is closely connected with 
 dysentery, and its symptoms are similar 
 to those connected with congestion. 
 Cirrhosis of the liver or drunkard’s liver 
 is frequently caused by excessive spirit- 
 drinking — but not necessarily so, as it 
 has been known to occur in children. 
 The symptoms are many and not easily 
 recognized; and the disease may remain 
 for years before a fatal issue. Fatty 
 degeneration of the liver occurs when 
 the cells become crowded with globules 
 of oil, and it becomes large and pale. 
 This result usually arises from over- 
 feeding or drinking and want of exercise. 
 See Jaundice. 
 
 LIVERPOOL, an episcopal city, pari., 
 county, and municipal borough, and 
 seaport of England, county of Lan- 
 caster, on the right bank of the Mersey, 
 about 4 miles from its confluence with 
 the Irish Sea, 185 miles northwest from 
 London. The chief public buildings are 
 the town hall, municipal offices, revenue 
 buildings, St. George’s hall, exchange, 
 public library and museum, art gallery, 
 Picton reading-room, the Wellington 
 rooms, government offices, and law 
 courts. The free public library and 
 museum accommodate a central techni- 
 cal school, while one portion is occupied 
 by the reference library of 120,000 
 volumes, and another section by the 
 museum. Near the library is a gallery of 
 art for the unrestricted use of the people. 
 There are altogether upward of 300 
 places of worship in Liverpool, and 
 many of the churches and chapels are 
 very handsome buildings. When Liver- 
 pool was constituted a bishop’s see in 
 1880, the parish church of St. Peter was 
 made the cathedral. The charitable and 
 benevolent institutions, such as hospi- 
 tals, and infirmaries, etc., are numerous. 
 The educational institutions include 
 University College (affiliated to the 
 Victoria University, Manchester), Liver- 
 pool College, the Royal Institution, the 
 Liverpool Institute, School of Art and 
 
LIVINGSTONE 
 
 LIVINGSTON 
 
 Gallery of Art, etc. Next to London it 
 is the chief seaport in the United King- 
 dom, or indeed in the world. Among 
 the imports cotton holds the chief place, 
 followed by provisions and live-stock, 
 cereals, fruits, hides, palm and olive-oil, 
 wine and spirits, tobacco, etc. Cotton 
 goods form by far the principal export; 
 other exports are machinery, woolens. 
 
 etc. Manufacturing industries are varied, 
 and include engineering, iron- and brass- 
 founding, chemicals, sugar-refining, 
 brewing, rope-making, etc. Liverpool is 
 the chief port in Britain for the depart- 
 ure of emigrants. There are five ap- 
 proaches to the town by railway, and by 
 the opening of the tunnel under the 
 Mersey the railway facilities have been 
 
 materially increased. Liverpool is, next 
 to London, the largest town in England. 
 Pop. 685,276. 
 
 LIVINGSTONE, David, missionary 
 and African traveler, was born at 
 Blantyre, Lanarkshire, 1813, and died 
 near Lake Bangweolo, Africa, 1st May, 
 1873. His parents had settled in the 
 neighborhood of the cotton mills near 
 
 Blantyre, where David became a 
 “piecer” at the age of ten. While at 
 work in the mill he learned Latin and 
 read extensively, and having attended 
 the medical and Greek classes at Glas- 
 gow University during the winter 
 months, he finally became a licentiate 
 of the Faculty of Physicians and Sur- 
 geons of Glasgow. Under the auspices 
 
 of the London Missionary Society he 
 proceeded in 1840 to South Africa, 
 where he joined Robert Moffat in the 
 missionary field. His first station was 
 in the Bechuana territory, and here his 
 labors for nine years were associated 
 with Mr. Moffat, whose’ daughter he 
 married. Having heard from the natives 
 that there was a large lake north of the 
 
 Kalahari desert, he proceeded to explore 
 that region, and discovered the valley of 
 the Zouga and Lake Ngami. After mak- 
 ing various journeys and exploring the 
 Lake Nyassa and Zambesi region, 
 Livingstone set forth in 1865 to set at 
 rest the question of the sources of the 
 Nile. From this time till his death he 
 was engaged hi laborious explorations 
 
 in the lake region of South Africa, espe- 
 cially to the w’estward of Nyassa and 
 Tanganyika, where he discovered Lakes 
 Bangweolo and Moero, the Upper Congo, 
 etc. For about three years no communi- 
 cation had come from him, and the 
 doubts regarding the traveler’s safety 
 were only set at rest when it was known 
 that H/ M. Stanley, the special corre- 
 spondent of the New York Herald, had 
 seen and assisted Livingstone at Ujiji, 
 on Lake Tanganyika. They parted in 
 March, 1872, Livingstone going to ex- 
 plore the southern end of Tanganyika, 
 and Stanley proceeding to Zanzibar. 
 After another year’s wanderings he was 
 attacked with dysentery near Lake 
 Bangweolo, and there he died. His body 
 was buried in Westminster Abbey, 
 having been conveyed to the coast, 
 rudely preserved in salt, by his faithful 
 followers. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Edward, American 
 jurist and statesman, was born in 1764, 
 at Clermont, Columbia co., N. Y. From 
 1795 to 1801 he was a member of con- 
 gress. In 1801 he was appointed United 
 States attorney for the district of New 
 York, and during the same year was 
 elected mayor of the city of New York. 
 In December, 1803, he- sailed for New 
 Orleans, and early in 1804 became a 
 member of the bar there. During the 
 second war with Great Britain he served 
 for a time as secretary and confidential 
 adviser to General Jackson. In 1820 he 
 was elected to the lower house of the 
 Louisiana legislature, and with two 
 other members was commissioned to 
 prepare a civil code for the state. 
 In 1822 he was elected to congress. He 
 was twice reelected, serving until 1829,. 
 when he was transferred to the United 
 States senate, where he took high rank. 
 In 1831 President Jackson appointed 
 him secretary of state, and in 1833 sent 
 him as minister plenipotentiary to 
 France to demand the payment by the 
 French government of an indemnity of 
 a million Stirling on account of depreda- 
 tions upon American commerce. He 
 was entirely successful. He died in 1836. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Robert R., American 
 
 St. George's Hall and Lime street station, Liverpool. 
 
LIVIUS 
 
 LOBLOLLY-PINE 
 
 continental congress, and served on the 
 committee which was appointed to draw 
 up the Declaration of Independence. 
 He was a member of the committee 
 which drafted the constitution for the 
 State of New York in 1777, and upon its 
 adoption became the first chancellor of 
 the state. It was in this capacity that 
 he administered the oath of office to 
 Washington, on the occasion of his first 
 inauguration to the presidency, in New 
 York City. In 1794 President Washing- 
 ton tendered him the post of Minister 
 to France, which he declined; but in 
 1801, upon receiving a second tender 
 of the same office, he accepted, and 
 began the negotiations for the purchase 
 of Louisiana, which, after the arrival of 
 Monroe was carried to a successful con- 
 clusion. He died in 1813. 
 
 LIV'IUS, Titus, Patavinus, often 
 called Livy, a celebrated Roman his- 
 torian, born at Patavium (Padua) in the 
 year 59 b.c. Nothing is known of his life 
 except that he came to Rome, secured 
 the favor of Augustus, and became a 
 person of some consequence at court, 
 that he was married, and had at least two 
 children, and that he died in his native 
 town, according to some authorities, 
 
 A. D. 11, and to others, a.d. 16 or 17. 
 
 His Roman history begins at the land- 
 ing of AHneas in Italy, and comes down 
 to the year of the city 744 (n.c. 9). His 
 whole work consisted of 140 or 142 
 books, of which we have remaining 
 only the first ten, and those from the 
 twenty-first to the forty-fifth, or the 
 first, third, and fourth decades, and half 
 of the fifth. Of all the books, however, 
 except two, we possess short epitomes 
 or tables of contents. In the first ten 
 books the history extends from the 
 foundation of Rome b.c. 753 to the year 
 294 B.C.; the portion between the 
 
 twenty-first and forty-fifth books con- 
 tains the account of the second Punic 
 war and the history of the city between 
 
 B. c. 219 and 201. The fourth and the 
 half of the fifth decade bring down the 
 history to the year b.c. 167. Livy makes 
 no pretensions to the character of a 
 critical historian ; his grand purpose was 
 to glorify his country, and he adopted 
 all the legends of the early history 
 without troubling his mind about their 
 authenticity. 
 
 LIVO'NIA, or RIGA, a government of 
 Russia, including the island of Oesel, 
 bounded west by the Baltic; area, 
 17,609 sq. miles. The inhabitants are 
 almost all Protestants. The capital is 
 Riga. Pop. 1,207,887. 
 
 LIVRA (le-vr), an old French money 
 of account, not now in use, having been 
 superseded by the franc. 
 
 LIVY. See Livius. 
 
 LIZARD is the popular name of 
 numerous reptiles having usually two 
 pair of limbs and an elongated body 
 terminating in a tail. The lizards num- 
 ber more than a thousand species, ac- 
 commodating themselves to all con- 
 ditions except cold, and increasing in 
 size and number in tropical regions. 
 In some the tongue is thick and fleshy 
 and in others it is divided, while in most 
 cases it is protrusible. Some lizards are 
 vegetable feeders, but for the most part 
 they are carnivorous and live upon 
 small birds, insects, etc. The eggs are 
 
 deposited and left to be hatched without 
 care from the parents. 
 
 Nimble lizard. 
 
 LLAMA (la'ma or lya'ma), an un- 
 gulate ruminating quadruped found in 
 South America, closely allied to the 
 camel, and included in the family Tylo- 
 poda. They differ from the camel in 
 having no hump upon the back, in 
 having a deeper cleft between the toes, 
 the callous pad of the foot is less de- 
 veloped, and the interval between the 
 canine and the back teeth is greater. 
 The tail being short and the hair long 
 and thick, the llama has the general 
 appearance of a long-necked sheep. 
 
 Llama. 
 
 standing about 3 feet at the shoulder. 
 Of the four known species the guanaco 
 and the vicuna are found in a wild con- 
 dition, while the llama and the alpaca 
 have long been domesticated. The llama 
 is used by the inhabitants of Chile and 
 Peru to carry burdens after the manner 
 of a camel. When loaded with about a 
 hundredweight it can travel some 14 
 miles a day across the mountain passes. 
 They are gentle and docile creatures. 
 
 LLANOS (lya'nos), the Spanish name 
 given to the vast plains situated in the 
 north part of South America, particu- 
 larly in Colombia and the basin of the 
 Orinoco. During the dry season the 
 vegetation is burned up by the sun, 
 while in the rainy period they are flooded 
 with water. Between these two seasons 
 the llanos are covered with thick grass 
 and ranged by vast herds of cattle and 
 horses. Farther south such plains are 
 called pampas, and in North America 
 savannahs. 
 
 LLANQUIHUE (lyan-ke'wa), a south- 
 ern province of Chile, situated between 
 the Andes and the Pacific Ocean. Its 
 area of nearly 8000 sq. miles is extremely 
 fertile, yielding abundant harvests to its 
 inhabitants, who are mostly Germans; 
 capital, Puerto Montt. Pop. 91,000. 
 
 LLOYD, Henry Demarest, American 
 author, born in New York City in 1847. 
 From 1872 to 1885 he was connected 
 with the Tribune of Chicago. He also 
 held the secretaryship of the American 
 Free Trade League. The first of his 
 publications was A Strike of Millionaires 
 Against Miner. His Wealth Against 
 Commonwealth is an examination of 
 the methods of the Standard Oil Com- 
 pany. His other works are; Labor Co- 
 partnership, Notes of a Visit to Cooper- 
 ative Workshops, Factories and Farms 
 in Great Britain and Ireland (1898); 
 Newest England; Notes of a Democratic 
 Traveller in New Zealand; and A Coun- 
 try Without Strikes; A Visit to the 
 Compulsory Arbitration Court of New 
 Zealand. He died in 1903. 
 
 LLOYD’S, an incorporated society of 
 persons engaged in marine insurance in 
 London, or otherwise connected with 
 shipping, having rooms in the London 
 Royal Exchange. Members are admitted 
 by subscription, and the affairs of the 
 institution are conducted by a com- 
 mittee. Reports are received daily from 
 all foreign ports, and this information is 
 posted in the common or merchants’ 
 room. Besides this, there are other 
 rooms for the use of the underwriters and 
 for ship-auctions, a library, restaurant, 
 etc., Lloyd’s List, containing shipping 
 reports, is published daily, and Lloyd’s 
 Register of shipping is issued annually. 
 Originally the London underwriters 
 met at Lloyd’s Coffee-house, hence, the 
 name. See Insurance. , 
 
 LOADSTONE, an ore of iron, con- 
 sisting of the protoxide and peroxide in 
 a state of combination and frequently 
 called the magnetic oxide of iron. It was 
 known to the ancients, and they were 
 acquainted with the singular property 
 which it has of attracting iron. See Iron, 
 magnet. 
 
 LOAM, a soil compounded of various 
 earths, of which the chief are sand, clay, 
 and carbonate of lime or chalk, the clay 
 predominating. Decayed vegetable and 
 animal matter, in the form of humus, is 
 often found in loams in considerable 
 quantities, and the soil is fertile in pro- 
 portion. 
 
 LOAN, anything lent or given to an- 
 other on condition of return or payment. 
 In law loans are considere'd to be of two 
 kinds — mutuum and commodate; the 
 former term being applied to the loan of 
 such articles as are consumed in the use, 
 as provisions, or money ; the latter to the 
 loan of such articles as must be indi- 
 vidually returned to the lender. The 
 acknowledgment of a loan of money 
 may be made by giving a bond, a prom- 
 issory note, or an 1. O. U., 
 
 LOBE'LIA, a very extensive genus of 
 beautiful herbs, natives of almost all 
 parts of the world, especially of the 
 warmer parts of America. One species 
 is the Indian tobacco, which is culti- 
 vated in North America, and is em- 
 ployed in medicine. 
 
 LOBLOLLY-BAY, the popular name 
 of an elegant ornamental evergreen tree 
 of the maritime parts of the southern 
 LTnited States, having large and showy 
 white flowers. It grows to the height 
 of 50 or 60 feet. 
 
 LOBLOLLY-PINE, an American pine, 
 ne-xt to the white pine the loftiest in 
 
LOBSTER 
 
 LODGE 
 
 North America. Its leaves are 6 inches 
 long, united by threes or fours. Its 
 timber is of little value. 
 
 LOBSTER, the common name of 
 long-tailed, ten-footed, stalk-eyed crus- 
 taceans. The first pair of ambulatory 
 limbs bear the well-known and for- 
 midable lobster-claws. The abdomen 
 has rudimentary limbs on its under side, 
 among which are lodged the newly 
 excluded spawn. The tail consists of 
 several flat shelly plates capable of 
 being spread like a fan, and used as a 
 swimming organ. They inhabit the 
 clearest water, living in the crevices of a 
 rocky bottom. Lobsters are esteemed 
 a very rich and nourishing aliment, 
 but dangerous unless fresh and in good 
 condition. They are generally in their 
 best season from the middle of October 
 till the beginning of May. The fresh- 
 water lobster is the crawfish or crayfish. 
 
 LOCAL OPTION, a term applied to the 
 principle by which a certain majority 
 of the inhabitants or ratepayers of a 
 certain locality may decide as to whether 
 any, or how many, shops for the sale of 
 intoxicating liquors shall exist in the 
 locality. 
 
 LOCK, an inclosure in a canal, with 
 gates at each end, used in raising or 
 lowering boats as they pass from one 
 level to another. When a vessel is de- 
 scending, water is let into the lock till 
 it is on a level with the higher water, and 
 thus permits the vessel to enter; the 
 upper gates of the lock are then closed, 
 and by the lower gates being gradually 
 opened, the water in the lock falls to 
 the level of the lower water, and the 
 vessel passes out. In ascending the 
 operation is reversed, that is, the vessel 
 enters the lock, the lower gates are 
 closed, and water is admitted by the 
 upper gates, which, as it fills the lock, 
 raises the vessel to the height of the 
 ■higher water. 
 
 LOCKOUT. See Strikes- and Lockouts. 
 
 LOCKE, John, eminent English phil- 
 osopher, was born at Wrington, in 
 Somersetshire, 1632, and died 1704 at 
 Oates in Essex. So early as 1670 Locke 
 had formed the plan of his famous Essay 
 on the Human Understanding, a plan 
 which he had carefully elaborated, and 
 which he published in its completed 
 
 John Locke. 
 
 form in 1690. It was received with much 
 opposition, notably by the University of 
 Oxford, who resolved to discourage it; 
 but despite this it acquired a great repu- 
 tation throughout Europe, and was 
 translated into French and Latin. 
 Briefly, it may be stated that the chief 
 purpose of Locke’s celebrated Essay 
 
 was to find the original sources and the 
 scope of human knowledge. The con- 
 clusions he arrived at were that there 
 is no such thing as an “innate idea;” 
 that the human mind is a sheet of white 
 paper prepared to be written upon ; that 
 the knowledge thereon written is sup- 
 plied by experience; and that “sensa- 
 tion” and “reflection” are the two 
 sources of all our ideas. 
 
 LOCKPORT, a flourishing manufac- 
 turing town in New York, near a series 
 of locks on the Erie Canal, 25 miles from 
 Buffalo. Pop. 18,120. 
 
 LOCK'WOOD, Belva Ann (Bennett), 
 American lawyer and refonner, was 
 born at Royalton, N. Y., in 1830. In 
 1879, under a law admitting women, 
 which she had been instrumental in get- 
 ting passed, she was admitted to prac- 
 tice before the supreme court. She lect- 
 ured frequently and became prominent 
 in peace, woman suffrage, and temper- 
 ance movements. In 1884 and in 1888 
 she was nominated for president by the 
 equal rights party, and in 1896 repre- 
 sented the United States under a com- 
 mission from the secretary of state at 
 the congress of charities and corrections 
 held at Geneva, Switzerland. 
 
 LOCKWOOD, James Booth, Ameri- 
 can Arctic explorer, was born at Annap- 
 olis, Md., in 1852. In 1881 he accom- 
 panied Adolphus W. Greely on his ex- 
 pedition to Lady Franklin Bay. His 
 magnetic observations were among the 
 most important results achieved by the 
 expedition. On April 3, 1882, he started 
 on his trip to the North Greenland 
 coast, reaching on May 13th, the land 
 called in his honor Lockwood Island, in 
 latitude 83° 24', the nearest point to the 
 pole which had been reached up to that 
 time, and added 125 miles of coast-line 
 to the map of Greenland. He died in 
 1884. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. See Steam 
 Engine. 
 
 LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA, is a peculiar 
 disease of the nervous system, deriving 
 its name from the fact that the sufferer 
 from it cannot order the movements of 
 his limbs for definite purposes. The 
 patient requires to guide his feet and 
 legs by means of his sight, and even then 
 the feet are jerked out and brought 
 down in a violent way. This difficulty of 
 movement is called “want of co-ordina- 
 tion of movement.” The causes of the 
 disease are obscure, its progress usually 
 extends over a number of years, and 
 recovery is rare. 
 
 LOCUST, the name of several insects 
 allied to the grasshoppers and crickets. 
 Their hind-legs are large and powerful, 
 which leaves them a great power of 
 leaping. Their mandibles and maxillae 
 are strong, sharp, and jagged, and their 
 food consists of the leaves and green 
 stalks of plants. They fly well, but are 
 often conveyed by winds where their 
 own powers of flight could not have 
 carried them. The most celebrated 
 species is the migratory locust. It is 
 about 2^ inches in length, greenish, with 
 brown wing-covers marked with black. 
 Migratory locusts are most usually 
 found in Asia and Africa, where they 
 frequently swarm in countless numbers 
 darkening the air in their excursions, 
 and devouring every blade of the vegeta- 
 
 tion of the land they light on. They are 
 destructive both in the larval, nymph, 
 and perfect conditions. The Arabs and 
 others use them as food. When dried in 
 the sun they are pounded up and baked 
 into bread, or fried in oil as a delicacy. 
 In America locusts are usually known as 
 
 Locust. 
 
 “grasshoppers.” There are two spe- 
 cially destructive species, one of which 
 is found in Northern New England and 
 Canada; and the other breeds abund- 
 antly west of the Mississippi. In the 
 summer months this latter species com- 
 mits widespread ravages in Texas, 
 Kansas, and Colorado. 
 
 LOCUST-TREE is found in the East- 
 ern states, but grows to its best in Ken- 
 tucky and Tennessee. There it acquires 
 a girth of 4 feet and a height of 80 feet. 
 The leaves are pinnate, smooth, prickly 
 at the base; the flowers grow in pendul- 
 ous racemes, white, fragrant, and pro- 
 ducing smooth pods. The wood of the 
 locust-tree is highly valued for certain 
 purposes, being close-grained, tough, 
 light, and elastic in the best variety; it 
 is reddish-tinted. 
 
 LODGE, Henry Cabot, American 
 politician and man of letters, was born 
 in Boston in 1850. From 1873 to 1786 he 
 edited the North American Review, and 
 the following three years was lecturer 
 on American history at Harvard. He 
 then (1879) became editor of the Inter- 
 national Review, which post he held till 
 1881. He was elected to the Massa- 
 chusetts legislature, 1880-81, and was a 
 
 Henry Cabot Lodge. 
 
 delegate to the republican national con- 
 ventions of 1880 and 1884. In 1886 he 
 was elected to the national house of 
 representatives. He was reelected in 
 1888, and in 1893 succeeded Mr. Dawes 
 as United States senator from Massa- 
 chusetts. He was reelected in 1899, and 
 in 1905. He has written a Short His- 
 tory of the English Colonies in America; 
 The Story of the American Revolution; 
 and The War with Spain. The “.\meri- 
 
LODI 
 
 LOGARITHMS 
 
 can Statesmen Series” owes to him the 
 lives of Hamilton, Webster, and Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 LODI, a town in North Italy, in the 
 province of Milan, in a fertile plain on 
 the right bank of the Adda, 18 miles 
 southeast of Milan. The principal build- 
 ings are the cathedral, a Gothic struc- 
 ture of the 12th century, and the Church 
 of the Incoronata. The manufactures 
 consist of majolica, silk, linen, and the 
 great article of trade is Parmesan cheese. 
 Here Napoleon effected the famous 
 passage of the Bridge of Lodi against 
 the Austrians, on the 10th of May, 
 1796. Pop. 27,811. 
 
 LODZ, a town in Russian Poland, in 
 the government of Piotrokow, 76 miles 
 southwest of Warsaw. Pop. 315,209. 
 
 LOEB (leb), Jacques, German-Ameri- 
 can physiologist and experimental biolo- 
 gist, was born in 1859. He was ap- 
 pointed state examiner at Strassburg in 
 1885, was assistant in physiology at the 
 University of Wurzburg in 1886-88, 
 and held a similar position in the Uni- 
 versity of Strassburg in 1888-90. He 
 made researches in animal physiology at 
 the Naples Zoological station in 1889- 
 91. In 1902 he was elected professor of 
 physiology in the University of Cali- 
 fornia. Professor Loeb is the pioneer in 
 the study of the physiology of cells and 
 tissues, including the effects of salt 
 solutions on the muscles of the heart in 
 different animals. He has made ex- 
 periments on the mechanism of the 
 reflex activities of the lower animals, 
 with especial relation to the different 
 kinds of tropisms and the mode of 
 orientation of organisms. Although the 
 true basis of instinctive acts as inherited 
 reflexes was first pointed out by Her- 
 bert Spencer, Loeb has done much by 
 his experiments to show the slight line 
 of demarcation existing between the 
 lower instincts and reflex actions. He 
 has also m.ade notable contributions to 
 other problems in physiological psychol- 
 ogy. His essays have appeared in 
 Pifluger’s Archiv, and in The American 
 Journal of Physiology. In his book 
 Comparative Physiology of the Brain 
 and Comparative Psychology (1902) 
 will be found the titles of other papers. 
 
 LOG, a contrivance used to measure 
 the rate of a ship’s velocity through the 
 water. For this purpose there are 
 several inventions, but the one most 
 generally used is the following, called 
 the common log. It is a piece of thin 
 
 Ship’s log. 
 
 board, forming the quadrant of a circle 
 of about 6 indies radius, and balanced 
 by a small plate of lead nailed on the 
 circular part, so as to swim perpendicu- 
 larly in the water, with the greater part 
 immersed. One end of a line, called the 
 jog-line, is fastened to the log, while the 
 
 other is wound round a reel. When the 
 log is thrown out of the ship while sailing, 
 as soon as it touches the water it ceases 
 to partake of the ship’s motion, so that 
 the ship goes on and leaves it behind, 
 while the line is unwound from the reel, 
 so that the length of line unwound in a 
 given time gives the rate of the ship’s 
 sailing. This is calculated by knots 
 made on the line at certain distances, 
 while the time is measured by a sand- 
 glass running a certain number of sec- 
 onds. The length between the knots is so 
 proportioned to the time of the glass 
 that the number of knots unwound 
 while the glass runs down shows the 
 number of nautical miles the ship is sail- 
 ing per hour. Thus, if the glass be a 
 half-minute one, it will run down 120 
 times in an hour. Now, since a nautical 
 mile contains about 6076 feet, the 120th 
 part of this is about 50§ feet; so that if 
 the spaces between the knots be 50f 
 feet, the number of knots and parts of a 
 knot unwound from the reel in half a 
 minute is the number of miles and parts 
 of a mile the ship runs in one hour. 
 
 LOG. See Log-book. 
 
 LOGAN, John. A famous Indian 
 chief, the son of Shikellamy, a Cayuga 
 chief noted for his friendship with the 
 whites. In April, 1774, several whites, 
 headed by a man named Greathouse, 
 the keeper of a whisky shop, murdered 
 nearly the whole of Logan’s family in 
 cold blood at Yellow Creek. Logan, 
 frenzied by this blow, incited the already 
 restive Indians forthwith to attack the 
 whites, and in the brief war which en- 
 sued was himself conspicuous for ferocity 
 and cruelty, taking with his own hands 
 as many as thirty scalps. He disdained 
 to sue for peace along with the other 
 chiefs, after the battle of Point Pleasant, 
 and instead sent to Lord Dunmore, by a 
 trader named John Gibson, a message 
 which is regarded as one of the finest ex- 
 amples of Indian eloquence, though its 
 authenticity has been called into ques- 
 tion. Jefferson in his Notes on Virginia 
 quoted it, and first directed general at- 
 tention to it. 
 
 LOGAN, John Alexander, American 
 soldier and political leader, was born in 
 Jackson co.. 111., in 1826. At the out- 
 break of th'3 war with Mexico he en- 
 listed as a private, and became quarter- 
 master of his regiment, with the rank of 
 first lieute’aant. He was a member of 
 the Illinois legislature in 1852-53 and in 
 1856-57, was prosecuting attorney from 
 1853 to 1857, and was elected to con- 
 gress in 1858 as a Douglas democrat. 
 He was reelected in 1860, but resigned 
 his seat in 1861 to enter the army. He 
 was made colonel of the Thirty-first 
 Illinois volunteers, and led the regiment 
 at Belmont, Fort Henry, and Fort 
 Donelson; was wounded in the latter 
 engagement and in 1862 was appointed 
 brigadier-general and a few months 
 later major-general of volunteers. In 
 1863 he was put in command of the 
 fifteenth corps which he led until the 
 death of McPherson, when he took 
 for a time the command of the army 
 of the Tennessee. After the war he 
 was twice elected to congress and in 
 1871 he was elected to the United 
 States senate. He was a candidate for 
 the presidential nomination at Chicago 
 
 in 1884 but after the unanimous nomi- 
 nation of James G. Blaine was an- 
 nounced he was nominated by acclama- 
 tion for vice-president. He died in 1886. 
 
 LOGAN, MOUNT, the second highest 
 peak of North America. It is situated 
 in the southwestern corner of Yukon 
 territory, Canada, close to the Alaskan 
 boundary. Its height is 19,500 feet. 
 
 LOGANSPORT, the capital of Cass 
 CO., Ind., at the junction of the Wabash 
 and Eel rivers; on the Pitts., Cin., Chi. 
 and St. L., the Vandalia, and the Wa- 
 bash railways; 70 miles n. of Indian- 
 apolis. The principal manufactures are 
 galvanized iron, linseed oil, wind- 
 pumps, paper, hubs and spokes, flour, 
 and plow-handles. Pop. 19,140. 
 
 LOG'ARITHMS, the common logar- 
 ithm of a number is the index of the 
 power to which 10 must be raised to be 
 equal to the number. Thus 10® = 1000, 
 so that the logarithm of 1000 (usually 
 written log. 1000) is 3. Now 10^ = 10, 
 102 =. 100, 10® = 1000, 10®= 1,000,000, 
 and it is well known that 10® = 1, 10-* 
 = O’l, 102- = O'Ol, etc., thus — 
 
 Log. 0-001 = —3 
 Log. 0-01 = —3 
 Log. 0-1 = —1 
 
 Log. 1 = —0 
 
 Log. 10 = 1 
 Log. 100 = 3 
 Log. 1000 = 3 
 Log. 10,000 = 4 
 
 It is evident that the logarithm of any 
 number greater than 1 and less than 10 
 is fractional ; the logarithm of any num- 
 ber greater than 10 and less than 100 is 
 greater than 1 and less than 2. Again, 
 the logarithm of any number less than 1 
 is negative. Suppose we wish to know 
 the logarithm of the number 18.1. In a 
 book of tables we only find the fractional 
 part of the logarithm, it is ’257679. 
 Now 1 8’ 1 is greater than 1 0 and less than 
 100, so that its logarithm is greater than 
 1 and less than 2; hence log. 18’ 1 = 
 1’257679. The integral part of a log- 
 arithm is called its characteristic, the 
 fractional part its mantissa. Logarithms 
 make arithmetical computation more 
 easy, for by means of a table of them 
 the operations of multiplication, di- 
 vision, involution or the finding of 
 powers, and evolution or the finding of 
 roots, are changed to those of addition, 
 subtraction, multiplication, and division 
 respectively. For instance, if x and y 
 are the logarithms of any two numbers, 
 the numbers are 10* and 10” now the 
 product of these numbers is 10* + y, so 
 that the logarithm of the product of two 
 numbers is the sum of the logaritluns of 
 the numbers. Again, the quotient of the 
 numbers is 10* — y ; so that the logarithm 
 of the quotient of two numbers is the 
 difference of the logarithms of the num- 
 bers. Again, 10* raised to the nth power 
 is lO"**; so that the logarithm of the nth 
 power of a number is n times the log- 
 arithm of the number. Logaritluns of 
 this kind are common logarithms, and 
 were invented by Briggs; their base, as it 
 is called, is 10. Logarithms were first used 
 by Napier of Merchiston (see Napier, 
 John) and he employed a base which is 
 smaller than 10, namely, the number 
 2’7182818 or the sum of the in- 
 
 finite series 2 + 4 + ^ 4- J .5 + etc. This 
 base is denoted by e in mathematical 
 treatises, and the Napierian logarithm 
 of any number, say 7, is loge 7, to dis- 
 tinguish it from log. 7, which is the 
 common logaritlun, whose base is 10. 
 
LOG BOOK 
 
 LOLLARDS 
 
 The common logarithm of a number is 
 found from the Napierian by multiply- 
 ing by 0'43429448. Napierian logarithms 
 are of great importance in the higher 
 mathemat ics. 
 
 LOG-BOOK, a book kept in ships and 
 into which the direction of the wind, 
 course of the ship, state of the weather 
 at all hours of the day, are daily trans- 
 cribed at noon, together with every cir- 
 cumstance deserving notice that may 
 happen to the ship or within her cog- 
 nizance, either at sea or in a harbor, etc. 
 
 LOGGIA (loj'a), a word used in 
 Italian architecture with several signifi- 
 cations. First, it is applied to a hall 
 open on two or more sides, where there 
 are pillars to support the roof, such as 
 the Loggia de’ Lanzi in Florence. It is 
 also applied to an open colonnade or 
 arcade surrounding a court, or to an 
 
 Mill 1 . i. 
 
 
 
 
 MfhtM U 1 L-L 
 
 u 
 
 W 
 
 :i 
 
 nn 
 
 
 Loggia, palace at Montepulciano. 
 
 open gallery at the height of one or 
 more stories in a building, as seen in the 
 figure. The name loggia is also given to 
 the large ornamental window, consisting 
 of several parts, which is often seen in 
 old Venetian palaces; and lastly, it is 
 used to designate a small airy hall, 
 usually open on all sides, constructed on 
 the roof of an edifice. 
 
 LOGIC, a department or division of 
 mental science which has been differently 
 defined by authorities. The older school 
 of logicians agreed on the whole in con- 
 sidering it as mainly treating of reason- 
 ing and the operations of mind subsidary 
 to reasoning; and this definition suf- 
 ficiently indicates the view of the science 
 held by such logicians as Whately and 
 Hamilton. According to them logic 
 dealt only with the form of thought, 
 that is, with what is common to all 
 reasonings, judgments, and concepts 
 respectively, and had nothing to do with 
 the matter, that is, the subject or con- 
 tent of reasonings, judgments, etc. In 
 this view the science of logic was merely 
 deductive, and the .syllogistic process, or 
 the intellectual act performed in deduc- 
 ing particular truths from general truths 
 already given, was the main subject of 
 the science. It is evident, however, that 
 in practical research there is another 
 movement or process of the mind of at 
 least equal importance — viz., the process 
 by which the mind reaches general 
 truths from the observation of particu- 
 lars. This latter is the inductive proc- 
 ess, and on it, regarded as the more im- 
 portant element in inference and the 
 ascertainment of truth, John Stuart 
 Mill founded his new system of inductive 
 logic. The nature of scientific evidence, 
 the methods and principles involved in 
 scientific research, are the chief sub- 
 jects of study in this system of logic. 
 
 E.— 48 
 
 Very different from both of these are 
 the conceptions of logic given by the 
 chief German philosophers. Kant, in de- 
 claring that only the matter (not the 
 form) of experience was given to the 
 mind, had recognized thought as the 
 essential factor of cognition, and had 
 initiated a new co-called transcendental 
 logic, which was an analysis of the gen- 
 eral conditions under which the objective 
 world became cognizable. Thus the 
 foundation was laid for a view of reality 
 as in its very nature constituted by 
 thought. Thought or the ego is itself 
 the real, and there being no separate 
 reality logic becomes the system of the 
 forms in and through which thought or 
 intelligence is realized. Logic thus 
 appears, as in Hegel, a complete theory 
 of knowledge and a metaphysic. The 
 earliest work on logic is the Organon of 
 Aristotle, who practically gave the 
 science the shape it possesses. See De- 
 duction, Induction, Fallacy, Syllogism, 
 etc. 
 
 LOGOMA'NIA, a disease of the faculty 
 of language generally associated with 
 organic disease of the nervous structure, 
 as in paralysis. In this disease, while 
 conceptions and ideas remain clear, the 
 power of associating these with the word 
 by which they are expressed is lost, and 
 the patient can either not give any 
 names to his conceptions at all or ex- 
 presses them erroneously. Sometimes 
 one class of words is lost and others re- 
 tained. Thus a patient may forget his 
 own name, or nouns only, and remember 
 all other words. Sometimes he forgets 
 only parts of the word, as terminations 
 and not unfrequently in another form 
 of the disease he inverts his phrases. 
 
 LOGRONO (lo-gron'yo), a town in 
 Spain, capital of the province of same 
 name. Area,1944sq. miles; pop. 186, 223. 
 
 LOGWOOD, a popular name for a 
 tree, which grows in moist and swampy 
 places in Central America, and particu- 
 larly round the Bay of Campeachy; but 
 is now naturalized in Jamaica and many 
 of the West Indian islands. The tree is 
 usually from 40 to 50 feet high, with pin- 
 nate leaves and small yellowish flowers. 
 The wood is red in color, tinged with 
 orange and black, so heavy as to sink in 
 water, and susceptible of receiving a 
 
 good polish. It is used chiefly as a dye- 
 wood, the trees being cut down, the bark 
 and alburnum removed, and the hard 
 center parts cut into 3-foot-long logs. To 
 obtain the coloring matter it is hewn 
 into much smaller pieces, and ground or 
 rasped to small chips, or to a coarse pow- 
 der. The equeous extract is muddy and 
 
 of a reddish-brown color. B}' acids the 
 red color is made paler; by alkalies i. is 
 converted to purple. By mordanting the 
 fabric with iron, black is produced; with 
 alumina, violet and lilac; with copper, 
 blue; and with chromium, a black or 
 green. The coloring power of logwood 
 depends chiefly on a crystalline ingre- 
 dient called haematoxylin. It is employed 
 in calico-printing to give a black or 
 brown color, and also in the preparation 
 of sorqe lakes. An extract of logwood is 
 used in medicine as an astringent. 
 
 LOH'ENGRIN, the hero of a German 
 poem of the end of the 13th century 
 represented as the son of Parcival and one 
 of the guardians of the Holy Grail. Sent 
 by King Arthur to help the Princess 
 Elsa of Brabant, he arrives in a vehicle 
 drawn by a swan, delivers the princess 
 from captivity, and marries her; accom- 
 panies the emperor in a campaign against 
 the Hungarians, and fights against the 
 Saracens. He then returns to his bride at 
 Cologne, but being pressed by her to 
 state his origin he is prevailed upon to 
 tell it, after which he must, in terms of 
 his vow, return home to the Grail. The 
 legend has been made the subject of a 
 well-known opera by Wagner. 
 
 LOIRE (Iwar), the largest river of 
 France, which it divides into two nearly 
 equal portions. It rises on the western 
 slope of the Cevennes, in the depart- 
 ment of Ardeche, and flows generally 
 n. n. w. and w. till it falls into the Bay 
 of Biscay below Nantes. Its whole 
 course is about 645 miles, of which 
 about 450 miles are navigable. 
 
 LOIRE, a central department of 
 France; area, 1837 sq. miles. The de- 
 partment occupies the upper part of the 
 Loire basin, and consists of the fertile 
 plains which extend on both sides of the 
 river, forming its valley, and long ridges 
 of the Cevennes, which hem the valley in 
 on every side. The capital and great 
 center of industry is St. Etienne; other 
 towns are Roanne and Montbrison. 
 Pop. 647,633. 
 
 LOIRE, Haute (ot-lwar; Upper Loire), 
 a department of Southeastern France; 
 area 1915 sq. miles. Le Puy is the 
 capital. Pop. 314,058. 
 
 LOIRE-INFERIEURE (Iwar-an-fa-ri- 
 eur; Lower Loire), a western maritime 
 department of France, intersected by 
 the lower Loire and its estuary; area, 
 2653 sq. miles. Nantes is the capital. 
 Pop. 664,971. 
 
 LOIRET (Iwa-ra), a central depart- 
 ment of France; area, 2614 sq. miles. 
 Orleans is the chief town. Pop. 366,660. 
 
 LOIR-ET-CHER (Iwar-e-shar), a cen- 
 tral department of France; area 2451 
 sq. miles. The capital is Blois. Pop. 
 275,538. 
 
 LOK, or LOKI, in Scandinavian my- 
 thology, the evil deity, father of Hel or 
 Hela, goddess of the infernal regions. 
 He is a personification of the principle of 
 evil, described as of handsome appear- 
 ance, but perpetually engaged in works of 
 wickedness partly directed against the 
 other gods. 
 
 LOLLARDS, a name which arose in 
 the Netherlands about the beginning of 
 the 14th century, and was applied as a 
 term of contempt to various sects or 
 fraternities deemed heretical, being prob- 
 ably derived from the Low German 
 
LOMBARD 
 
 LONDON 
 
 ways has a pleasing effect, and is very 
 often highly artistic and beautiful.” As 
 examples of Lombard architecture may 
 be mentioned the church of St. Michael, 
 Pavia; San Zenoni, Verona; and the 
 atrium of San Ambrogio, Milan. 
 
 LOM'BARDS, LONGOBARDI,or LAN- 
 GOBARDI, a Germanic of Teutonic peo- 
 ple who at the beginning of the Chris- 
 tian era were dwellingon the Lower Elbe. 
 They make little appearance in history 
 till the 6th century, when, under their 
 king Alboin, they entered Italy in April 
 568, and, with the help of Saxons and 
 others, conquered the northern portion, 
 which hence received the name of Lom- 
 bardy. Alboin was assassinated in 573 
 (see Alboin), and after some years of 
 great confusion Autharis was recognized 
 in 585 as king. He was a warlike and 
 politic ruler, who gained the good-will of 
 the subject Roman population, and in- 
 
 eight provinces (Bergamo, Brescia, 
 Como, Cremona, Mantua, Milan, Pavia, 
 and Sondrio), containing an area of 9086 
 sq. miles and a population of 4,282,728. 
 
 LOMBOK, an island, belonging to the 
 Dutch, in the Indian Archipelago. The 
 capital is Mataram on the west coast. 
 Pop. 650,000. 
 
 LOMBROSO, CESARE (cha'za-re 16m- 
 bro'zo), Italian Scientist, was born in 
 Verona in 1836. In 1862 he became pro- 
 fessor of psychiatry at Paris and later 
 of medical jurisprudence and psychiatry 
 at Turin. He became widely known 
 through his investigations of the abnor- 
 mal human being and through his 
 theories deduced therefrom; theories 
 which encountered great opposition and 
 are not yet entirely accepted but which 
 formed in part the basis for the present 
 criminal anthropology. His published 
 works are: The Criminal, The Man of 
 
 London.— (1) The Thames embankment, 
 minster bridges, the houses of parliament, 
 embankment, Waterloo bridge, St. Paul’s, etc.. 
 Savoy hotel. 
 
 stituted a better system of government 
 than had heitherto existed. He married 
 Theodelinde, a Frankish princess, who 
 began the process of converting the 
 Lombards from Arianism to the ortho- 
 dox faith. The only king of note among 
 the successors of her family was Rothari, 
 who in 643 promulgated a system of 
 laws, which, with subsequent additions, 
 became among German jurists the basis 
 of the study of law during the middle 
 ages. From 713 to 744 the Lombards had 
 a powerful king in the person of Liut- 
 prant, who extended his sway, at least 
 temporarily, over the whole of Italy. 
 From that time the power of the Lom- 
 bards gradually declined, and finally 
 Charlemagne captured Pavia after a six 
 months’ siege, and put an end to the 
 Lombard Kingdom (773 or 774), the last 
 monarch being Desiderius. 
 
 LOM'BARDY, the part of Upper Italy 
 which took its name from the Lombards 
 and which at first extended from the 
 Adriatic to the Savoyan Alps. Lom- 
 bardy is now the name of an Italian de- 
 partment (compartimento), embracing 
 
 Cleopatra’s needle. Charing Cross and West- 
 etc., looking up the river. (2) The Thames 
 , looking down the river. Both views from the 
 
 Genius, The Anarchist, The Cause of and 
 Contest Against Crime. He died in 1907. 
 
 LOMZA, a town of Russian Poland, 
 capital of the government of the same 
 name. Pop. 18,000. The government of 
 Lomza covers an area of 4760 sq. miles, 
 mostly flat and of a fertile soil. Pop. 
 608,000. 
 
 London, the capital of the British 
 Empire and the largest city in the world, 
 is situated in the southeast of England on 
 both sides of the River Thames, which 
 winds through it from west to east. The 
 1 ‘iver is crossed by numerous bridges, and 
 is deep enough to allow large vessels to 
 come up to London Bridge, the lowest of 
 these (except themovable Tower Bridge), 
 where it is 266 yards wide. London may 
 be said to stretch from east to west about 
 14 miles, from north to south about 10. 
 Its area may be stated at 74,672 acres, 
 this being the area to which the registrar 
 general’s tables of mortality refer. The 
 population within this area was 4,228,- 
 317 in 1891, and 4,536,063 in 1901. This 
 is also the area of the administrative 
 county, and of the school board district 
 
 lollen, to sing in a low tone. The name 
 became well known in England about 
 the end of the 14th century, when it was 
 applied to the followers of Wickliffe, and 
 to others more or less influenced by his 
 teaching. The Wat Tyler revolt of 1381 
 was directly connected with Lollardism, 
 and latterly the Lollards drew upon 
 themselves the enmity of civil powers, 
 and numbers of them were put to death 
 especially during the reign of Henry V., 
 when apparently another revolt was in- 
 tended. 
 
 LOMBARD, Peter, or Petrus Lombar- 
 dus, one of the most celebrated of the 
 schoolmen, born near Novara, in Lom- 
 bardy, about the year 1100. He was a 
 scholar of Abelard in the University of 
 Paris, became a teacher of theology, 
 and at last, in 1159, bishop of Paris, 
 where he seems to have died in 1164. 
 His work Sententiarum Libri Quatuor 
 is a classified collection of the opinions 
 of the fathers on points of doctrine, with 
 a statement of the objections made to 
 them, and the answers given by church 
 authorities. Hence he is known as the 
 Master of Sentences. 
 
 LOMBARD ARCHITECTURE, the 
 form which the Romanesque style of 
 architecture assumed under the hands of 
 the Gothic invaders and colonists of the 
 north of Italy, comprising the buildings 
 erected from about the beginning of the 
 9th to the beginning of the 13th century. 
 It forms a connecting link between the 
 romanized architecture of Italy and the 
 Gothic of more northern countries. The 
 most characteristic feature of the 
 churches built in this style is the 
 general introduction and artistic de- 
 velopment of the vault, that feature 
 which afterward became the for- 
 mative principle of the whole Gothic 
 style. In the Lombard architecture 
 also pillars consisting of several 
 shafts arranged round a central mass, 
 and buttresses of small projection, ap- 
 pear to have been first employed. The 
 tendency to the prevalence of vertical 
 lines throughout the design, instead of 
 the horizontal lines of the classic archi- 
 
 Lombard architecture. Transept, apse, and 
 dome of St. Michael, Pavla. 
 
 tecture, is also characteristic, as well as 
 the use of the dome to surmount the in- 
 tersection of the choir, nave, and tran- 
 septs. Mr. Fergusson remarks: “General- 
 ly speaking the most beautiful part of a 
 Lombard church is its eastern end. The 
 apse with its gallery, the transepts, and, 
 above all, the dome that almost invari- 
 ably surmounts their intersection with 
 the choir, constitute a group which al- 
 
 1 
 
LONDON 
 
 LONDON 
 
 of London. The area embraced by the 
 Metropolitan and City police districts, 
 including all parishes within 15 miles of 
 Charing Cross, is spoken of as Greater 
 London ; it covers 443, 252 acres; pop. in 
 1891,5,633,806; in 1907, 7,000.009. As 
 regards population London is thus on a 
 level with Scotland, Holland, Portugal, 
 or Sweden. 
 
 The greater portion of London lies on 
 the north side of the Thames, in the 
 counties of Middlesex and Essex, mainly 
 the former, on a site gradually rising 
 from the river, and marked by several 
 inequalities of no great height, except in 
 the northern suburbs, where the eleva- 
 tion of 430feet is reached; on the opposite 
 bank, in the county of Surrey and partly 
 in Kent, the more densely built parts 
 cover an extensive and nearly uniform 
 flat, in some places below the level of the 
 highest tides, while the outskirts are 
 mostly elevated. The nucleus of London 
 was formed by what is still distinctively 
 the City of London, situated in the heart 
 of the metropolis on the north bank of 
 the Thames. The city is a separate mu- 
 nicipality, having a civic corporation of 
 its own, at its head being the Lord- 
 mayor of London. The city occupies 
 only 671 acres, and has a resident popu- 
 lation of only 27,000. Westminster, 
 another portion|of old London, associated 
 with the sovereigns, the parliaments, 
 and the supreme courts of justice of Eng- 
 land for over 800 years, borders with the 
 city on the west; while across the river 
 from the city lies the ancient quarter of 
 Southwark, or “The Borough ” 
 
 As the capital of the British Empire 
 London is from time to time the resi- 
 dence of the sovereign and court. It 
 contains the buildings for the accom- 
 modation of parliament and all the 
 great government departments. It is the 
 chief intellectual center of Britain, if 
 not of the world, and is equally great as 
 a center of commerce, banking, and 
 finance generally. 
 
 Although in the different districts of 
 London, with the exception of the parts 
 most recently built, there are numerous 
 narrow and crooked streets, yet the 
 whole extent of the metropolis is well 
 united by trunk lines of streets in the 
 principal directions, which render it 
 comparatively easy for a stranger to 
 find his way from one district to another 
 Piccadilly and Pall Mall ; the Strand and 
 its continuation. Fleet street; Oxford 
 street and its continuations, Holborn, 
 Holborn Viaduct, and Cheapside, are 
 among noteworthy streets running east 
 and west; while of those running north 
 and south. Regent street, perhaps the 
 handsomest street in London, and the 
 location of fashionable shops, is the 
 chief. The Thames embankment on the 
 north or Middlesex side, known as the 
 Victoria embankment, also forms a 
 magnificent thoroughfare, adorned by 
 important buildings, and at different 
 points with ornamental grounds and 
 statues. A number of magnificent 
 bridges cross the Thames. A consider- 
 able traffic passes under the river by 
 means of tunnels or underground pas- 
 sages, some of them for electric railways. 
 The old Thames Tunnel, 2 miles below 
 London Bridge, opened in 1843, is now 
 traversed by a railway. 
 
 The chief parks are in the western 
 portion of the metropolis, the largest 
 being Hyde Park and Regent’s Park, 
 which, together with St. James’s Park 
 and the Green Park, are royal parks 
 The most fashionable is Hyde Park, 
 containing about 400 acres. Regent’s 
 Park, in the northwest of London, north 
 of Hyde Park, containing the gardens of 
 the Zoological Society and those of the 
 Royal Botanic Society, covers an area of 
 470 acres. The Zoological Gardens con- 
 tain the largest collection in the world. 
 Of the squares the most central and 
 noteworthy is Trafalgar Square, with 
 Charing Cross adjoining. Among the 
 public monuments are “The Monument” 
 on Fish Street Hill, London Bridge, 
 a fluted Doric column 202 feet high, 
 erected in 1677 in commemoration of 
 the great fire of London; the York 
 Column, in Waterloo Place, 124 feet 
 high; the Guard’s Memorial (those who 
 fell in the Crimea), same place; the Nel- 
 son Column, in Trafalgar Square, 176^ 
 
 Ludgate Hill and St. Paul’s, London. 
 
 feet high, with four colossal Hons by Sir 
 E. Landseer at its base; the national 
 memorial to Prince Albert in Hyde 
 Park, probably one of the finest monu- 
 ments in Europe, being a Gothic struc- 
 ture 176 feet high, with a colossal statue 
 of the prince seated under a lofty can- 
 opy; Cleopatra’s Needle on the Thames 
 Embankment ; a handsome modern 
 “cross” at Charing Cross; numerous 
 statues of public men, etc. 
 
 Among the royal palaces are St. 
 James’s, erected by Henry VIII.; 
 Buckingham Palace, the King’s London 
 residence, built by George IV.; Marl- 
 borough House, the residence of the 
 Prince and Princess of Wales; Kensing- 
 ton Palace, the birthplace of Queen 
 Victoria. These are all in the west of 
 London. Lambeth Palace, the residence 
 of the Archbishops of Canterbury, is 
 situated on the Surrey side of the river. 
 On the north bank of the Thames stand 
 the houses of parliament, a magnificent 
 structure in the Tudor Gothic style, 
 with two lofty towers. The buildings 
 
 cover about 8 acres, and cost 115,000,000 
 Westminster Hall, adjacent to the 
 houses of parliament, was formerly the 
 place in which the supreme courts of 
 justice sat, but is now merely a prome- 
 nade for members of parliament. In and 
 near Whitehall in the same quarter are 
 the government offices, comprising the 
 foreign, home, colonial, and India offices, 
 the horse guards and admiralty. Somer- 
 set House, which contains some of the 
 public offices, is in the Strand. The post- 
 office in the city occupies two spacious 
 and handsome buildings. Adjoining 
 the city on the east is the Tower, the 
 ancient citadel of London, which 
 occupies an area of 12 acres on the banks 
 of the Thames. The most ancient part 
 is the White Tower, erected about 1078 
 for William the Conqueror. One of the 
 most important of recent public build- 
 ings is the new Law Courts, a Gothic 
 building at the junction of the Strand 
 and Fleet street. Other noteworthy 
 buildings are the Bank of England; the 
 Royal Exchange; the Mansion House, 
 the official residence of the lord-mayor; 
 the Guildhall, the seat of municipal 
 government of the city ; the four Inns of 
 Court (Inner and Middle Temple, Lin- 
 coln’s Inn, Gray’s Inn) ; etc. 
 
 Among the churches the chief is St. 
 Paul’s Cathedral, completed in 1710 by 
 Sir Christopher Wren. Westminster 
 Abbey dates from the reign of Henry 
 III. and Edward I. It adjoins the 
 houses of parliament. Here the kings 
 and queens of England have been 
 crowned, from Edward the Confessor to 
 Edward VII. In the south transept are 
 the tombs and monuments of great 
 poets from Chaucer downward, whence 
 it is called “Poet Corner;” arid in other 
 parts are numerous sculptured monu- 
 ments to sovereigns, statesmen, war- 
 riors, philosophers, divines, patriots, and 
 eminent individuals generally, many of 
 whom are interred within its walls. 
 
 Among the museums and galleries the 
 principal is the British Museum, the 
 great national collection. It contains an 
 immense collection of books, manu- 
 scripts, engravings, drawings, sculptures 
 coins, etc. The South Kensington 
 Museum is a capacious series of build- 
 ings containing valuable collections in 
 science and the fine and decorative arts, 
 and there is a branch museum from it in 
 Bethnal Green, in the East End. The 
 chief picture-galleries are the National 
 Gallery, in Trafalgar Square, the Na- 
 tional Gallery of British Art, the collec- 
 tion in South Kensington Museum, and 
 the National Portrait Gallery. 
 
 London is one of the healthiest of the 
 large cities of the world, the annual 
 death-rate per lOOO being in recent 
 years about 18 or 19. The sewerage 
 system is necessarily gigantic, there be- 
 ing altogether about 250 miles of sewers. 
 There is no single system of water sup- 
 ply, the water being furnished by several 
 companies from the Thames, the Lea, 
 and other sources. 
 
 The city of London proper is gov- 
 erned by a lord-mayor, chosen annually, 
 and by twenty-five aldermen, four 
 sheriffs, and two hundred and thirty- 
 two common councilmen. The lord- 
 mayor is elected by the members of the 
 city guilds or companies, known as the 
 
LONDON 
 
 LONGFELLOW 
 
 liverymen, and numbering about 7000. 
 A body known as the Metropolitan 
 Board of Works, created in 1855, took 
 charge of all general improvements, 
 and had the management of all public 
 works in which the ratepayers of the 
 metropolis had a common interest up to 
 1889, when it was superseded by the 
 London County Council under the Local 
 Government Act of 1888. The adminis- 
 trative county of London comprehends 
 the whole of the metropolitan parlia- 
 mentary boroughs, which elect 118 
 oouncillors; there being also 19 aider- 
 men (or a number not to exceed one- 
 sixth of the councillors). The city of 
 London is unaffected by this change, 
 except that its sheriffs are no longer 
 sheriffs of Middlesex, and the right of 
 appointing certain judicial officers is 
 transferred from the corporation to the 
 crown. By the London government Act 
 of 1899 the county was divided into 
 separate boroughs, each under its own 
 mayor, aldermen, and council. The 
 metropolitan police forcenumbersnearly 
 16,000, the city police over 1000. 
 
 LONDON, a town of Canada, the capi- 
 tal of Middlesex co., Ontario, on the 
 Thames and the Great Western Rail- 
 way, 121 miles west of Toronto. There 
 are extensive oil-refining works, iron- 
 foundries, chemical works, and other 
 manufacturing establishments. It is 
 the center of a fine agricultural region, 
 and carries on an active trade in wheat 
 and agricultural produce. Pop. 37,981. 
 
 LONDON, University of, was origin- 
 ally established as a joint-stock under- 
 taking in 1825. In 1836 two charters 
 were granted, one to London University, 
 with power merely to examine and grant 
 degrees, another to a teaching body, 
 which took the name of University 
 College. Supplementary charters were 
 granted in 1858, 1863, and 1878, the last 
 admitting women to all degrees and 
 prizes. The university itself still con- 
 tinued to confer degrees simply, but by 
 an act passed in 1898 provision was 
 made for its reconstruction, whereby it 
 should become both a teaching and an 
 examining body ; and in accordance with 
 regulations, coming in force in 1900, the 
 university embraces a number of insti- 
 tutions, in which students receive instruc- 
 tion in all branches of knowledge. These 
 include University College, King’s Col- 
 lege, and a number of metropolitan in- 
 stitutions, medical, theological, scientific, 
 etc. ; the faculties of the university being 
 eight in number. The university still 
 continues to confer degrees on all comers 
 after examination, admitting as a can- 
 didate any person who is above sixteen 
 years of age. Provincial examinations 
 are carried on simultaneously with the 
 London ones. 
 
 LONDONDERRY, a city and seaport 
 in the north of Ireland, capital of the 
 county of the same name, on the river 
 Foyle, which is here crossed by an iron 
 bridge 1200 feet long. The harbor is 
 commodious, and vessels of large ton- 
 nage can discharge at the town. Pop. 
 39,892. — The county is bounded on the 
 north by Lough Foyle and the Atlantic 
 Ocean, elsewhere by Tyrone, Lough 
 Neagh, and Antrim ; area, 522,315 acres. 
 Pop. 144,404. 
 
 LONDONDERRY, Robert Stewart, 
 
 Second Marquis of, British statesman, 
 born in county Down, 1769. In 1796 he 
 became Lord Castlereagh, and, being a 
 member of the Irish parliament, next 
 year he was made keeper of the privy- 
 seal for that kingdom, and the year after 
 chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant. 
 In 1812 he became foreign secretary 
 and he was a member of the congress of 
 Vienna in 1814. He became very un- 
 popular through his conduct on this 
 occasion and his support of the Floly 
 Alliance; and the responsibilities which 
 he had to assume as virtual prime- 
 minister in connection with repressive 
 measures for the protection of order, and 
 the fatigues of an arduous session, seem 
 to have unhinged his mind, leading him 
 to commit suicide in 1822. He had suc- 
 ceeded his father the year before as 
 Marquis of Londonderry. 
 
 LONG, Crawford W., American sur- 
 geon, probably the first to use ether 
 antesthesia in surgery, was born in 
 Danielsville, Ga., in 1815. Having 
 learned of the insensibility produced by 
 inhaling ether vapor. Long experi- 
 mented upon himself, and in March, 
 1842, administered ether and during the 
 patient’s unconsciousness excised a 
 tumor from his neck. In 1902 the Geor- 
 gia Medical Association began to collect 
 funds with which to erect a statue of 
 Long in the Capitol at Washington, as 
 “the discoverer of anaesthesia.” He 
 died in 1878. 
 
 LONG, Edwin, an English artist, born 
 in 1839, died 1891, gained a high reputa- 
 tion as a painter of historical scenes from 
 Eastern history. Among his more im- 
 portant works we may mention, Baby- 
 lonian Marriage Market (1875), An 
 Egyptian Feast (1877), Gods and Their 
 Makers (1878), Esther and Vashti (1879), 
 Why Tarry the Wheels of his Chariots 
 (1882), Judith, Thisbe, Anno Domini 
 (1884), Callista the Image Maker (1887). 
 Mr. Long has also achieved considerable 
 success in portraiture. He was elected a 
 member of the Royal Academy in 1882. 
 
 LONG, George, English scholar, born 
 1800, died 1879. He was one of the 
 founders of the Royal Georgaphical 
 Society, and did much work in connec- 
 tion with the Society for the Diffusion of 
 Useful Knowledge, including the editing 
 of the Penny Cyclopedia. 
 
 LONG, Stephen Harriman, American 
 engineer and explorer, born at Hopkin- 
 ton, N. H., in 1784. In 1814 he was ap- 
 pointed second lieutenant, U. S. A., in 
 the Corps of Engineers, from 1814 to 
 1816 was assistant professor of mathe- 
 matics at the United States Military 
 Academy. In 1816 he made under great 
 'difficulties a survey of the Mississippi and 
 its branches, and soon after led an ex- 
 pedition from the Mississippi to the 
 Rocky Mountains, one of the noblest 
 peaks of which bears his name. In 1861 
 he was appointed chief of topographical 
 engineers with rank of colonel, and in 
 1863 retired from the army. He died in 
 1864. 
 
 LONG-BOAT, a large ship’s boat, 
 carvel built, from 32 to 40 feet long, 
 having a beam from .29 to .25 of its 
 length. 
 
 LONG-BOW. See Bow. 
 
 LONG BRANCH, a fashionable water- 
 ing-place in New Jersey, 30 miles 
 
 south of New York City. It has wide 
 avenues with numerous hotels, board- 
 ing-houses, and cottages. The perma- 
 nent population is about 9000, but during 
 summer is sometimes increased by 
 50,000. 
 
 LONGEVITY, a term which is used 
 both for average or probable duration of 
 life in a community, or for great length 
 of life reached by particular individuals. 
 When the sexes are considered sepa- 
 rately the average duration of life is 
 somewhat higher in women than in men. 
 The question of the extreme limit to 
 which human life may possibly attain is 
 also of great interest. Ordinary observa- 
 tion leads to the conclusion that a com- 
 parativelysmall number of men reach the 
 age of 70, a very much diminished num- 
 ber attain ito 80, while 90 is rare. There 
 are, however, well-authenticated cases 
 of persons who have reached 100 years 
 and even a few years more; but such 
 cases as that of Thomas Parr, said to 
 have been 152 years old, and Henry 
 Jenkins, said to have been 169, rest on 
 merely unreliable assertion. See Mor- 
 tality-table in Insurance Life. 
 
 LONGFELLOW, Henry Wadsworth, 
 American poet, was born at Portland, 
 Maine, 1807; died 1882. In 1833 he pub- 
 lished a volume of translations from 
 Coplas de Manrique, with an essay on 
 the Moral and Devotional Poetry of 
 Spain; in 1835 appeared Outre Mer, a 
 volume of prose sketches, and in the 
 same year he was elected to the chair of 
 modern languages and literature in Har- 
 vard University. In 1839 he published 
 
 Hyperion, a Romance, and Voices of the 
 Night, a series of poems. Ballads and 
 other Poems and a small volume of 
 Poems on Slavery appeared in 1842; the 
 Spanish Student, a drama in three acts, 
 in 1843; the Belfry of Bruges in 1846; 
 Evangeline in 1847. In 1849 he pub- 
 lished Kavanagh, a tale in idyllic prose; 
 in 1850 the Seaside and the Fireside; in 
 1851 The Golden Legend; in 1855 
 Hiawatha; in 1858 the Courtship of 
 Miles Staudish; in 1863 Tales of a Way- 
 
LONGFORD 
 
 
 LORAIN 
 
 side Inn; in 1866 Flower de Luce; in 
 1867-70 an excellent poetical transla- 
 tion of Dante; in 1869 New England 
 Tragedies; in 1871 the Divine Tragedy; 
 in 1872 Three Books of Song; in 1874 
 the Hanging of the Crane; in 1875 
 Morituri Salutamus and the. Masque of 
 Pandora; and in 1878 Keramos. He 
 resigned his chair at Harvard in 1854. 
 In 1868-69 he again traveled in Europe, 
 and received the degree of LL.D. and 
 D.C.L. from the Universities of Cam- 
 bridge and Oxford respectively. His 
 poems are equally popular on both sides 
 of the Atlantic. 
 
 LONGFORD, an inland county of 
 Ireland, in the province of Leinster 
 bounded on the west by the Shannon 
 and Lough Ree; area, 269,409. acres. 
 Pop. 46,581. 
 
 LONGICORN BEETLES, a family of 
 Coleoptera, including a vast number of 
 large and beautiful beetles, all remark- 
 able for the length of their antennije, 
 which, in the males of some of the 
 
 Longii’oru beetle. 
 
 species, are several times longer than 
 their bodies. The females deposit their 
 eggs beneath the bark of trees by means 
 of a long, tubular, horny ovipositor, and 
 the larvae are very destructive to wood. 
 
 LONG ISLAND, an island belonging 
 to the state of New York, extending 118 
 miles in length, and varying fi-om 12 to 
 23 miles in breadth; area, 1682 sq. miles. 
 It is connected with New York City by 
 two great suspension bridges carrietl 
 across East river, and is separated from 
 Connecticut by Long Island Sound. 
 There are considerable tracts covered 
 with timber; the most fertile portions 
 are carefully cultivated, and much pro- 
 duce is sent to New York and Brooklyn. 
 Railways are numerous. The chief city 
 is Brooklyn, but there are many popular 
 seaside resorts along the coast. Pop. 
 1,600,000. 
 
 LONG ISLAND CITY, a town on the 
 west coast of Long Island, and separated 
 from Brooklyn by Newtown Creek. The 
 city contains extensive warehouses, 
 oil-refineries, timber-yards, machine- 
 shops, manufactures of carpets, etc. 
 Since 1898 it has been part of Greater 
 New York. Pop. 48,272. 
 
 LONG ISLAND SOUND, an arm of the 
 sea between Long Island and the state of 
 Connecticut, about 115 miles long and 
 generally about 20 miles wide. It is 
 connected with New York Bay by the 
 strait called East river. See East River, 
 Hell Gate. 
 
 LONGITUDE, in geography, the dis- 
 tance of a place due east or west from a 
 meridian taken as a starting-point, this 
 distance being measured along the 
 equator or a parallel of latitude ; in other 
 words, it is the angle between the merid- 
 
 ian plane of one place and some fixed 
 meridian plane. Longitudes are generally 
 reckoned from the meridian of Green- 
 wich; the meridians of Paris, Ferro, and 
 
 Washington are or have been also em- 
 ployed. (See Meridian.) Since the 
 parallels of latitude get smaller toward 
 the poles, at which all the meridians 
 converge, it is evident that degrees of 
 longitude which are 69i statute miles 
 long at the equator get shorter toward 
 the poles, at which they finally become 0, 
 as will be understood from the accom- 
 panying cut. As the earth makes one 
 revolution on its axis, that is turns 
 through 360° of longitude from west to 
 east, in twenty-four hours, if the sun or 
 a star is on the meridian of any place at 
 a particular time it will be on the merid- 
 ian of another place 15° west of the first 
 in one hour. Thus 15° of longitude 
 represent one hour of difference in time, 
 and hence longitude may be easily de- 
 termined by the use of the chronometer 
 set to Greenwich time, which is the 
 method commonly employed at sea. 
 Longitude is reckoned to 180° eastward 
 or westward of the fixed meridian. The 
 latitude and longitude of a place are 
 what enables us to fix its exact position 
 on a map or globe. Celestial longitude is 
 quite analogous to terrestrial. 
 
 LONGSTREET, General James, Ameri- 
 can soldier, born in South Carolina 1821. 
 He graduated at the Military Academy 
 in 1842; saw much service on the Mexi- 
 can frontier, and took a prominent part 
 on the confederate side during the civil 
 war. Since the close of the war he has 
 occupied several important offices, in- 
 cluding that of ambassador to Constanti- 
 nople. He died in 1904. 
 
 LONG'WORTH, Nicholas, American 
 horticulturist, born in Newark, N. J., 
 1783. He is especially noted for his 
 efforts to establish grape-growing in the 
 Ohio valley. So successful was he that 
 he has been called “ The Father of 
 American Grape Culture.” Not only 
 was he a pioneer and leading horti- 
 cultural expert in his section, but was 
 recognized as an authority in national 
 horticultural matters. He died in 1863. 
 
 LOO-CHOO, LEW-CHEW, LIU-KIU 
 (Japanese, Riu-Kiu), a chain of islands 
 in the Pacific between Japan and For- 
 mosa, and between lat. 24° 10' and 28° 
 40' n.; but the name is sometimes ex- 
 tended also to the group further north, 
 properly known as the Linschoten 
 Islands. The largest island is Okinaw, 
 or Great Loo-Choo (area about 500 sq. 
 
 miles). Oshima the island next in size, 
 has an area of 300 sq. miles. Since 1874 
 the archipelago has belonged to the 
 Japanese empire. Confucianism is the 
 prevailing religion, but Buddhism has a 
 considerable number of adherents. Pop. 
 460,000. 
 
 LOOM. See Weaving. 
 
 LOON, or GREAT NORTHERN 
 DIVER, popular name of a swimming 
 bird of the family Urinatoridse, found in 
 both hemispheres. It is a large, solitary 
 bird, 32 inches long, very difficult to 
 shoot. It is a fine diver, perfectly at 
 home in air or water, but by no means 
 so on the land, its feet being set so far 
 back that it can not walk at all, but 
 
 Great northern diver. 
 
 scrambles along scraping its breast on 
 the ground. 
 
 LOPE DE VEGA. See Vega. 
 
 LOPEZ, Francisco Solano, President 
 of Paraguay, born at Asuncion in 1827, 
 son of Don Carlos Antonio Lopez, then 
 president. He filled some of the principal 
 offices of state, and was sent to Europe 
 in 1853, accredited to the chief courts 
 there. In 1855 he returned to Paraguay, 
 became minister of war, and on the 
 death of his father, in 1862, president 
 for ten years. He had long been aiming 
 at the foundation of a great inland 
 empire, and as his military preparations 
 were now complete, and his army super- 
 ior to that of any of the South American 
 states, he took opportunity in 1864 to 
 commence hostilities against Brazil. 
 The Argentine Republic and Uruguay 
 allied themselves with Brazil, and after 
 five years’ conflict Lopez was reduced to 
 extremities, and was finally surprised 
 on the banks of the Aquidaban by a 
 troop of Brazilian cavalry and slain, 
 1st March, 1870. 
 
 LOPHOBRANCHII, the sub-order of 
 Teleostean fishes, including the peculiar 
 “Sea-horses” and the “Pipe-fishes.” See 
 Pipe-fishes and Sea-horses. 
 
 LOQUAT, a Japan fruit-tree. The 
 fruit is about the size of a large goose- 
 berry, of a fine yellow color. The tree 
 is a beautiful evergreen, whose white 
 flowers have a fragrance like that of 
 hawthorn blossom. It attains a height 
 of from 20 to 30 feet, but when culti- 
 vated it is not allowed to exceed 12 feet. 
 
 LORAIN a town in Lorain co., Ohio, 
 on Lake Erie, at the mouth of the Black 
 river, and on the N. Y., Chi. and St. L 
 and the Cleve., Lorain and Wheel, 
 railways; 26 miles, w. of Cleveland. Pop. 
 19,356. 
 
LORCA 
 
 LORIS-MELIKOFF 
 
 LORCA, a town of Southern Spain, 
 in the province and 42 miles southwest 
 of Murcia, consists of an old Moorish 
 town on a slope crowned by a castle, 
 and a lower modern town. There are 
 manufactures of coarse woolens, linens, 
 leather, soap, and earthenware, and an 
 important annual fair which lasts four- 
 teen days. In the vicinity are lead- 
 mines. Pop. 69,836. 
 
 LORCHA, a light Chinese sailing ves- 
 sel, carrying guns, and built after the 
 
 Loi'cha. 
 
 European model, but rigged like a 
 Chinese junk. 
 
 LORD (Anglo-Saxon hldford, for 
 hlafweard, that is bread -keeper) ,• a title 
 of honor or dignity, used in different 
 senses. In the feudal times a lord was 
 the grantor or proprietor of land, who 
 retained the dominium or ultimate prop- 
 erty of the land or fee, the use only being 
 granted to the tenant. A person who has 
 had the fee of a manor, and consequently 
 the homage of his tenants, is called the 
 lord of the manor. Loosely all who are 
 noble by birth or creation, as the peers 
 of Britain, may be called lords. The 
 lords temporal, in contradistinction to 
 the lords spiritual, are the peers who sit 
 together in the house of lords, as op- 
 posed to the bishops who have seats in 
 the house. Lord is sometimes only an 
 official title, as lord advocate, lord 
 mayor, etc. It is also applied, but only 
 by courtesy, to the sbns of dukes and 
 marquises, and to the eldest sons of 
 earls. 
 
 LORD MAYOR, the title given to the 
 chief magistrates of London, Dublin, 
 York, etc., during the year for which 
 they hold office. 
 
 LORD-MAYOR’S-DAY, the 9th of 
 
 November, on which a great procession 
 accompanying the newly-elected Lord 
 Mayor of London, from Westminster 
 to Guildhall, takes place. The proces- 
 sion, formerly famous for its historical 
 and allegorical devices, has now much 
 dwindled. 
 
 LORDS, House of. See Parliament; 
 also Britain, Peerage. 
 
 LORD’S PRAYER, a formula of prayer 
 enunciated by Christ on two different 
 occasions, for which see Matt. vi. 5-13, 
 Luke _xi. 1 - 4 . Among the earliest 
 Christians it was accepted as the stand- 
 ard form of prayer, and its use in the 
 liturgy is frequently mentioned by the 
 early fathers. The concluding clause of 
 the prayer, known as the doxology, 
 “For Thine is the kingdom,” etc., is not 
 found in St. Luke’s gospel, and even in 
 that of St. Matthew it is only found in 
 some of the later manuscripts, in which 
 
 it is generally held to be an interpola- 
 tion. It is generally retained by Prot- 
 estants, but is discarded by Roman 
 Catholics. 
 
 LORD’S SUPPER, one of the sacra- 
 ments of the Christian religion : so named 
 because it was instituted by our Saviour 
 when he took his last meal with his dis- 
 ciples, on the occasion of celebrating the 
 Passover. It has also the names of 
 eucharist and communion, and among 
 the Catholics that of the mass or sacri- 
 fice of the mass. It has undoubtedly 
 been celebrated, with certain differences, 
 ever since its institution, and still is 
 celebrated by all sects of Christians ex- 
 cept the Quakers, however much their 
 views may differ as to its nature and 
 virtue. The chief controversies regard- 
 ing the nature of the rite have been 
 chiefly on the question of the “real 
 presence” of Christ’s body and blood and 
 the doctrine of transubstantiation. The 
 doctrine of transubstantiation, first 
 started by Paschasius Radbertus in the 
 9th century, was soon generally received 
 and at last v'as officially approved by 
 the Council of R ome in 1079, and solemn- 
 ly confirmed in 1215 by the fourth 
 Lateran Council. According to this doc- 
 trine the whole substance of the bread 
 and wine in changed into the body and 
 blood of Christ, only the appearance of 
 bread and wine remaining; and the 
 Roman Catholic Church further main- 
 tains that Christ is given wholly and en- 
 tirely both under the form of the bread 
 and under that of the wine. From the 
 doctrine of transubstantiation sprang 
 the adoration of the host (or sacred 
 bread), as well as the custom of refusing 
 the cup in the communion to the laity 
 and non-officiating priests, a practice 
 first authoritatively sanctioned at the 
 Council of Constance, 1415. At the Ref- 
 ormation both the German and Swiss 
 reformers agreed in rejecting the doc- 
 trine of transubstantiation and the 
 mass, and maintaining that the 
 Lord’s supper ought to be cele- 
 brated before the whole congregation, 
 and with the administration of both 
 bread and wine. In explaining the words 
 by which the supper was instituted 
 Luther and Zuinglius differed, and their 
 different opinions on this subject formed 
 the principal subject of dissension be- 
 tween the Lutheran and Calvinistic 
 churches. Luther took the words, “This 
 is my body,” etc., in their literal sense, 
 and thought that the body and blood of 
 Jesus Christ are united, in a mysterious 
 way, with the bread and wine, which, 
 however, remain unchanged, so that the 
 communicant receives, in, with and under 
 the bread and wine, the real body and 
 blood of the Redeemer. Zuinglius, on 
 the other side, understood the words in 
 a figurative sense and maintained that 
 the Lord’s supper was a mere commemo- 
 ration of the death of Christ, and a pro- 
 fession of belonging to his church. This 
 view is in substance adopted by the 
 Socinians, Arminians, and some others. 
 The opinion advanced by Calvin, by 
 which a spiritual presence of the body 
 and blood of Christ is supposed in the 
 communion, by partaking of which the 
 faithful receiver is brought into union 
 with Christ, through the medium of the 
 Holy Ghost, though it came nearer to 
 
 the Lutheran doctrine than that of 
 Zuinglius did, yet was essentially dif- 
 ferent. The Greek Church has not adopt- 
 ed the doctrine of transubstantiation in 
 its whole extent ; yet her doctrine, which 
 was defined and sanctioned by the Synod 
 of Jerusalem in 1672, comes nearer to 
 this dogma than to that of the Reformed 
 church. The Anglican Confessions in- 
 cline more to the view of Zuinglius, The 
 28th Article of the Church of England de- 
 clares that “the body of Christ is given, 
 taken, and eaten in the supper only after 
 an heavenly and spiritual manner.” The 
 doctrine adopted by the Presbyterian 
 Church of Scotland in the main agrees 
 with that propounded by Calvin. 
 
 LORELEI (1 I6're-li), a precipitous cliff 
 on the Rhine, about 450 feet high, half 
 a mile above St. Goar. Legend gives it 
 as the abode of a siren, who by her 
 singing enticed boatmen thither to 
 their destruction. 
 
 LORENZ (lo'rfints), Adolf, Austrian 
 orthopaedic surgeon was born in 1854. 
 He graduated from the University of 
 Vienna in 1880. The operatoin which 
 made him famous — the so-called “blood- 
 less” reduction of congenital dislocation 
 of the hip-joint — was developed only 
 after years of experiment. Beginning 
 with the “open” method of Haifa, he 
 modified it by stretching and parting, 
 instead of cutting the muscles — the 
 Haffa-Lorenz operation — and finally in 
 1892 conceived the idea of reducing the 
 hip by manipulation alone. In 1895 he 
 demonstrated the method before the 
 medical congress at Berlin, and it found 
 general acceptance. In 1902 he visited 
 the United States and England; he 
 demonstrated his methods in both coun- 
 tries. He devised several other ortho- 
 paedic operations besides that for the 
 reduction of hip dislocations, notably 
 one for the straightening of club-foot, 
 and has invented several instruments. 
 
 LORIS, a genus of quadrumanous 
 mammals allied to the lemurs. Two 
 species only are known, the short-limbed 
 lorls and the slender loris, both natives of 
 
 Slender loris. 
 
 the East Indies. They are not muck 
 larger than rats, and are nocturnal and 
 arboreal in their habits. 
 
 LORIS-MELIKOFF, Michael Tarielo- 
 vitch Tainoff, Count, Russian general, 
 born 1826 at Tiflis, died 1888. Was made 
 lieutenant-general in 1863; commander 
 of the army in Armenia in 1876. In 1878 
 
 ri 
 
 If 
 
 f 
 
 .4 
 
 4-, 
 
 <■ 
 
 
 I 
 
 j 
 
 ‘A 
 
LORNE 
 
 LOUIS IX 
 
 he was made a count; in 1879 governor- 
 general of Charkow, in which post he 
 suppressed the Nihilistic conspiracies 
 with much vigor. In 1880 he was 'ap- 
 pointed minister of the interior, in which 
 post he showed a tendency towards 
 measures of a wide remedial kind, and 
 had persuaded the czar, Alexander II., 
 to call a kind of national representative 
 assembly, when the assassination of the 
 latter occurred, March, 1881. On the 
 accession of Alexander III. Loris- 
 Melikoff’s position became untenable, 
 and he resigned in 1881. 
 
 LORNE, Right Hon. John George 
 Douglas Sutherland Campbell, Marquis 
 of, born in 1845, married the Princess 
 Louise in 1871, and was governor-gen- 
 eral of Canada from 1878 to 1883. He 
 succeeded to the dukedom on his father’s 
 death in 1900. 
 
 LORRAINE, a territory now divided 
 between Germany and France, was 
 originally so named as being the king- 
 dom of Lothaire II. It was afterward 
 divided into two parts. Upper and Lower 
 Lorraine. The latter, between the Rhine 
 Meuse, and Scheldt, became the duchy, 
 of Brabant, and ultimately a part of 
 Belgium. Upper Lorraine, between the 
 Rhine, Saone, and Meuse, was for long 
 an independent duchy, but was ceded to 
 France in 1736. The inhabitants, though 
 of German origin, speak the French 
 language, except those of the district be- 
 tween Metz and the Vosges, which was 
 on that account called German Lorraine. 
 At the end of the war between France 
 and Germany in 1870-71 a considerable 
 portion of Lorraine, including the for- 
 tresses of Metz and Thionville, was an- 
 nexed to Germany, and now forms part 
 of the imperial territory of Alsace- 
 Lorraine (which see). 
 
 LORRAINE, Claude. See Claude 
 Lorraine. 
 
 LORY, a group of scansorial birds, 
 having broad tails, and dense soft plum- 
 age, the colors of which are extremely 
 brilliant. They are found mostly in the 
 
 Purple-capped lory. 
 
 Eastern Archipelago, but also in New 
 Guinea, Borneo, and the South Sea 
 Islands. 
 
 LOS ANGELES (16s an'je-les), the 
 capital of Los Angeles county, California 
 on the river of the same name, about 1 5 
 miles from the Pacific coast. It has ex- 
 tensive vineyards, orange and olive 
 plantations, corn-mills, paper-mills, dis- 
 tilleries, iron-foundries, and an active 
 commerce. Gold, silver, copper, and 
 zinc are found in the neighboring moun- 
 tains. Pop. 1909, about 300,000. 
 
 LOT (16), a department in the south of 
 France; area, 2020 sq. miles. The capital 
 is Cahors. Pop. 271,514. 
 
 LOT-ET-GARONNE (lo-e-ga-ron), a 
 department in the southwest of France ; 
 area, 2050 sq. miles. Capital Agen. 
 Pop. 278,740. 
 
 LOTI (16'te'), Pierre, name assumed 
 by Louis Marie Julien Viaud. A French 
 novelist and naval officer, was born at 
 Rochefort, in 1850. He entered the 
 marine service in 1867 and traveled ex- 
 tensively, resigning his naval office in 
 1898 with the rank of lieutenant. His 
 novels include; AziyadS, Rarahu (or 
 Le Mariagede Loti, Le roman d’un spahi, 
 Mon fr6re Yves, Lepecheur d’Islande, Le 
 Kasbah, Madame ChrysanthSme, Ra- 
 muntcho, Au Maroc, Le D6sert, Galil4e. 
 He was elected a member of the French 
 Academy in 1897. 
 
 LOTIONS, liquid remedies, consisting 
 principally of distilled or filtered soft 
 water holding in solution various medi- 
 cal substances, and applied externally. 
 Lotions are either cooling, stimulating, 
 astringent, soothing, or sedative. 
 
 LOT'TERY, a scheme for the distribu- 
 tion of prizes by chance, the plan being 
 generally to have a certain number of 
 prizes and a much greater number of 
 tickets, the prizes being allotted accord- 
 ing as the drawing of numbered tickets 
 from a suitable receptacle shall decide. 
 Lotteries on the large scale originated in 
 Italy, from which they passed into 
 France. In England the first public 
 lottery occurred in 1569, the proceeds 
 being devoted to public works. In 1612 
 a lottery was granted in behalf of the 
 Virginia Company. In 1709 the rage for 
 private, and, in many instances, most 
 fraudulent lotteries, was at its height in 
 England, and toward the close of the 
 year an existing act of parliament was 
 put in force for the suppression of such 
 lotteries as public nuisances. Govern- 
 ment lotteries still continued, however, 
 and large sums of money were raised by 
 them ; but in 1826 lotteries were entirely 
 abolished in Britain, except in the case 
 of art-unions, which are permitted from 
 their supposed good effects inencouraging 
 art. In France the demoralizing influence 
 of lotteries caused their suppression in 
 1836, with the effect of largely increasing 
 in the following year the deposits in the 
 savings-bank. They are still exception- 
 ally permitted. Lotteries for merchan- 
 dise of all kinds, from estates to pictures, 
 are common in Germany; and in Italy 
 and Austria the governments draw an 
 important part of the revenue from their 
 management of money lotteries. In most 
 of the United States lotteries formerly 
 very commonly resorted to as means of 
 assisting colleges or benevolent institu- 
 tions, have been abolished, or at least 
 require a special authorization from the 
 legislature. 
 
 LOTUS, a name applied to a number 
 of different plants, from the lotus fam- 
 ous in Greek legend. One of these is a 
 native of Northern Africa and Southern 
 Europe. It is a shrub 2 or 3 feet high, 
 bearing a fruit, the jujube, which is a 
 drupe of the size of a wild plum. The 
 name lotus was also given to several 
 species of water-lily, as the blue water- 
 lily, the Egyptian water-lily, and to the 
 nelumbo, which grow in stagnant or 
 slow running waters. Lotus are often 
 found figured on Egyptian buildings, 
 columns, etc., and the nelumbo, or 
 
 Hindu and Chinese lotus, bears a promi- 
 nent part in the mythology of these 
 countries. The name is also given to a 
 genus of plants consisting of creeping 
 herbs and undershrubs, chiefly natives 
 of temperate regions throughout the 
 world. 
 
 LOUBET (Idb'ba'), Emile, a French 
 statesman, seventh president of the 
 French republic, was born at Marsanne, 
 in the department of Drome, Southern 
 France, in 1838. In 1876 he was elected 
 to the chamber of deputies. Here he 
 joined the group known as the Republi- 
 can Left. He was reelected to the lower 
 house in 1877 and 1881, and in 1885 was 
 chosen senator. In December, 1887, he 
 entered the cabinet of M. Tirard as 
 minister of public works, but retired 
 with his colleagues in April following. 
 On February 29, 1892, he became 
 premier by appointment of President 
 Carnot, who was his personal friend, 
 succeeding M. de Freycinet. He him- 
 self took the portfolio of the interior. 
 Reelected to the senate, he was chosen 
 president of that body in 1896 and again 
 in 1898. On February 16, 1899, occurred 
 the sudden death of President F6lix 
 Faure, and two days later the national 
 assembly, comprising both houses of 
 parliament, met in joint session and on 
 the first ballot chose M. Loubet as 
 president of the republic. His presidency 
 strengthened the republic, and became 
 marked by an almost total disappear- 
 ance of the Monarchists as a party. 
 
 LOUIS I., or as a German name Lud- 
 wig, surnamed Le Debonnaire, or the 
 Pious, the son of Charlemagne, born in 
 778, succeeded his father in 814 as king 
 of the Franks and emperor of the West. 
 He died in 840. He was succeeded as 
 emperor by his son Lothaire I.; and by 
 the treaty of Verdun in 843 his son 
 Charles the Bald obtained the territories 
 from which France as a separate nation- 
 ality developed; while another son, 
 Louis the German, obtained territories 
 from which the distinctive German 
 nationality developed. 
 
 LOUIS VII. of France (counting from 
 the above Louis I.), born in 1120, suc- 
 ceeded his father Louis VI. in 1137. 
 He joined the second crusade to Pales- 
 tine in 1147, but returned two years 
 afterward, having suffered many dis- 
 asters and lost most of his men. He 
 died in 1180, and was succeeded by his 
 son Philip Augustus. 
 
 LOUIS IX. (St. Louis), King of France, 
 eldest son of Louis VIII., born in 1215, 
 succeeded to the throne in 1226, In the 
 year 1244, when sick of a dangerous dis- 
 order, he made a vow to undertake a 
 crusade to Palestine; and in August, 
 1248, sailed with his wife, his brothers, 
 and 80,000 men to Cyprus, and in the 
 following year proceeded to Egypt. 
 Landing at Damietta, in 1249, he took 
 this city, and afterward twice defeated 
 the Sultan of Egypt, to whom Palestine 
 was subject. But famine and contagious 
 disorders soon compelled him to retreat • 
 his army was almost entirely destroyed 
 by the Saracens, and himself and his 
 followers carried into captivity. In 1270 
 he determined to undertake another 
 crusade. He sailed to Africa, besieged 
 Tunis, and took its citadel. But a con- 
 tagious disorder broke out, to which he 
 
LOUIS XI 
 
 LOUISIANA 
 
 himself (1270), together with a great 
 part of his army, fell a sacrifice. In 1297 
 he was canonized by Boniface VIII. 
 
 LOUIS XI., King of France, eldest son 
 of Charles VII., was born in 1423, and on 
 his father’s death in 1461 he assumed 
 the crown. In 1481 Louis, who had been 
 twice affected by apoplexy, haunted by 
 the fear of death, shut himself up in his 
 castle of Plessisles-Tours, and gave him- 
 self over to superstitious and ascetic 
 practices. He died in 1482. The great 
 object of Louis was the consolidation of 
 France, the establishment of the royal 
 power, and the overthrow of that of the 
 great vassals, and in achieving this end 
 he was very successful, although by 
 most unscrupulous means. He encour- 
 aged manufactures and trade, and did 
 much for the good of his kingdom, but 
 was cold-hearted, cruel, and suspicious. 
 Louis XI. was the first French monarch 
 who assumed the title of Most Christian 
 King, given him by the pope 1469. 
 
 LOUIS XII., King of France from 1498 
 to 1515, was born in 1462. He was the 
 son of Charles, duke of Orleans, grand- 
 son of Charles V. He divorced his first 
 wife Jeanne, daughter of Louis XI., and 
 married the widow of Charles VIII., 
 thus uniting the Duchy of Brittany with 
 the crown. At the age of fifty-three he 
 married a second wife, Mary, the sister 
 of Henry VIII. of England, and died 
 about three months afterwards (1515) 
 without male issue. He was succeeded 
 by Francis I. 
 
 LOUIS XIII., King of France, sur- 
 named the Just, the son of Henry IV., 
 born 1601. He ascended the throne 
 (1610) after the murder of his father, his 
 mother (Maria de’ Medici) being made 
 guardian of her son and regent of the 
 kingdom. In 1614 Louis was declared 
 of age, and married the year following 
 Anne, daughter of Philip HI. of Spain. 
 Louis gave himself up to the guidance 
 of Cardinal Richelieu. He died in 1643. 
 
 LOUIS XIV., King of France, known 
 as Louis the Great, son of Louis XIII. 
 and Anne of Austria, was born at St. 
 Germain-en-La 5 ^e 1638, and succeeded 
 his father in 1643. In 1659 peace was 
 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 concluded with Spain, and Louis married 
 Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV. 
 of Spain. On the death of Mazariii in 
 1661 Louis resolved to rule without a 
 minister. He reformed the administra- 
 tion and the taxes, and made the fam- 
 ous Colbert superintendent, who ac- 
 
 complished a series of financial reforms, 
 created the Company of the Indies, 
 made roads, canals, and founded manu- 
 factures. In 1672 he declared war with 
 Holland, and in a few weeks he had con- 
 quered three provinces; but the forma- 
 tion of the Grande Alliance between the 
 Emperor, William of Orange, Spain, 
 Denmark, etc., checked his ambition. 
 Still the Treaty of Nimeguen (1678) left 
 Louis in possession of Franche-Comt6 
 and a part of Flanders. Maria Theresa 
 having died in 1683, he secretly married 
 Madame de Maintenon about 1684 or 
 1685. The League of Augsburg was now 
 formed against Louis by Spain, Holland, 
 England, Sweden, etc. A general war 
 continued with frequent and severe losses 
 to the French till the Peace of Ryswick 
 (1697), by which Louis was to restore all 
 his recent conquests and most of the 
 acquisitions made since the Peace of 
 Nimeguen. The question of the Spanish 
 Succession once more brought Louis 
 into conflict with a united Europe. The 
 principal episodes of the war were the 
 victories of Blenheim, Ramillies, and 
 Malplaquet, gained by Marlborough 
 and Prince Eugene. Hostilities were 
 terminated by the Peace of Utrecht in 
 1713, without altering the relative posi- 
 tion of the combatants. Louis died on 
 the 1st of September, 1715, and was 
 succeeded by his great-grandson Louis 
 XV. 
 
 LOUIS XV., the great-grandson of 
 Louis XIV., was born 1710; commenced 
 his reign in 1715, but did not actually 
 assume the government himself till 
 1723. In 1726 Louis placed his tutor 
 Cardinal Fleury at the head of the ad- 
 ministration. In 1725 he had married 
 Maria, daughter of Stanislaus Leezynski, 
 the dethroned king of Poland. After 
 1748 Louis began to sink into the 
 grossest indolence and sensuality, aban- 
 doning the management of state affairs 
 to Madame de Pompadour, who reckless- 
 ly squandered the public money. From 
 
 1769 he was governed by Madame du 
 Barry, who is said to have cost the royal 
 treasury in five years 180,000,000 livres. 
 The Seven Years’ war (1756-63), in 
 which France was involved, brought 
 severe losses and humiliations on the 
 country, and transferred to Great 
 Britain Canada, Cape Breton, and other 
 territories. Louis died in 1774 of small- 
 pox, leaving a debt of $800,000,000 and 
 a demoralized kingdom. 
 
 LOUIS XVI., King of France, grand- 
 son of Louis XV., was born 1754, and in 
 
 1770 married Marie Antoinette of 
 Austria. He ascended the throne in 
 1774. His weakness and want of decision 
 made him unfit to rule a great country at 
 a critical period. In 1789, all the griev- 
 ances and discontents v/hich had been 
 gathering during a long period of misrule 
 found vent; the populace attacked and 
 destroyed the Bastille; and the revolu- 
 tion was accomplished. On January 16, 
 1793, he was declared guilty of a con- 
 spiracy against the freedom of the 
 nation, by a vote of 690 out of 719; on 
 the 17th he was condemned to death, by 
 a majority of only five in 721, and on the 
 21st he was guillotined. 
 
 LOUIS XVII., King of France, second 
 son of Louis XVI., was born in 1785. 
 On the death of his elder brother in 1789 
 
 
 he became dauphin, was proclaimed 
 king by the royalists on the death of 
 Louis XVI. He died in 1795. 
 
 LOUIS XVIII., King of France, third 
 son of the dauphin, the son of Louis XV., 
 was born in 1755, and died 1824. At the 
 accession of his brother Louis XVI. in 
 1774 he received the title of Monsieur. 
 After the death of Louis XVI. Monsieur 
 proclaimed his nephew King of France 
 as Louis XVII., and in 1795 he was him- 
 self proclaimed by the emigrants King 
 of France and of Navarre. For many 
 years he led a wandering life, supported 
 by foreign courts and by some friends of 
 the house of Bourbon. He at last took 
 refuge in England in 1807, and lived 
 there till the fall of Napoleon opened the 
 way for him to the French throne. He 
 entered Paris in May, 1814; had to fly 
 on Napoleon’s escape from Elba, but 
 was replaced on the throne by the 
 Allies after Waterloo. 
 
 LOUIS, St., a city of the United States 
 See St. Louis. 
 
 LOUIS D’OR (l6-e-dor), or simply 
 Louis, a gold coin of France, first 
 struck in 1640, in the reign of Louis 
 XIII., and continuing to be coined till 
 1795. In 1810 the louis d’or was re- 
 placed by the napoleon of 20 francs, 
 and when the coin was again struck 
 under the restoration the same value 
 (20 francs) was retained. 
 
 LOUISIANA (l6-iz-i-an'a), one of the 
 southern United States of America, 
 bounded north by Arkansas, northeast 
 and east by Mississippi, from which it is 
 partly separated by the river of that 
 name, southeast and south by the Gulf of 
 Mexico, and west by Texas, from which 
 it is separated chiefly by the Sabine. 
 It has an area of 48,720 sq. miles. The 
 surface is generally flat and low ; the 
 delta of the Mississippi, and the land 
 along that river, having to be protected 
 from inundation by levies or artificial 
 embankments. The coast is a low swampy 
 
 Seal of Louisiana. 
 
 region producing large quantities of rice 
 and sugar-cane; toward the north and 
 northwest, where the highest elevation is 
 reached, the land is less productive, but 
 bears valuable timber. The chief rivers 
 are the Mississippi, which runs for about 
 OOOmiles along the border of and through 
 the state; the Red river, which crosses 
 the state diagonally and forms an im- 
 portant avenue of inland commerce; 
 the Washita, Sabine, Pearl, etc., all 
 navigable. There are also numerous 
 “bayous” or secondary outlets of the 
 
 
LOUISIANA PURCHASE 
 
 LOUISVILLE 
 
 rivers of much importance for both navi- 
 gation and drainage purposes, the chief 
 o^f which are the Atchafalaya with its 
 series of lakes, the bayou Teche, bayou 
 de Large, bayou La Fourche, and bayou 
 Boeuf. Numerous lakes and lagoons are 
 scattered over the state, mostly land- 
 locked bays and expansions of rivers. 
 The climate is semi-tropical, and the 
 rain-fall heavy along the coast. Coal, 
 iron, sulphur, and rock-salt are found; 
 the chief agricultural products are 
 cotton, sugar, rice, corn, and tobacco. 
 Louisiana ranks second among the gulf 
 states in the total value of its fisheries. 
 The Louisiana forests are exceeded in 
 area and value by those of but few 
 states. The most valuable variety is the 
 long leaf pine. There are also very 
 extensive areas of short leaf pine, inter- 
 mixed with deciduous varieties. The 
 dense and heavy cypress forests in the 
 deltaic regions as yet have been scarce- 
 ly touched. The port of New Orleans 
 is the most important one on the South- 
 ern coast of the United States and 
 is exceeded only by New York and 
 Boston in the amount of its foreign 
 trade. 
 
 Free education is established, and the 
 University of Louisiana, at Baton 
 Rouge, and other institutions are de- 
 voted to the higher education. There 
 are about 3000 miles of railway. The 
 capital is Baton Rouge, but New 
 Orleans is much the largest town. 
 Louisiana became a state in 1812, the 
 territory now included within its limits 
 having previously belonged to France 
 and Spain, and having been acquired 
 by purchase from Napoleon I. The 
 earliest historical record of explorations 
 by white men, is 1541, when De Soto, 
 the Spanish explorer, landing on the 
 Florida coast, made his way through 
 trackless forests and swamps to the 
 Mississippi. Marquette and Joliet in 
 1673 descended the Mississippi to the 
 mouth of the Arkansas, and in 1682 
 Robert Cavelier de La Salle navigated 
 the great river from the Illinois to the 
 Gulf of Mexico. The early settlements 
 proved unsuccessful, and it was not 
 until 1700 that the French, under the 
 leadership of Iberville, founded a per- 
 manent colony. Under the treaty of 
 Utrecht the territory of Louisiana, 
 which nominally extended over the 
 whole valley of the Mississippi, and 
 westward to the Pacific, or at least to 
 the Rocky mountains, passed into the 
 hands of France. New Orleans was 
 founded in 1718, and the territory, at 
 first governed by a French appointee, 
 came into the jurisdiction of John 
 Law, the originator of the great Missis- 
 sippi scheme. In 1762, Spain acquired 
 the province by a secret treaty with 
 France, but did not take full possession 
 until 1769i In 1763 all of Louisiana east 
 of the Mississippi, from its source to the 
 river Iberville, was ceded to Great 
 Britain and counted with Florida. By 
 the treaty of 1783, which closed the war 
 with Great Britain, the newly consti- 
 tuted United States came into posses- 
 sion of the eastern bank of the Mississippi 
 south as far as the thirty-first parallel, 
 while Spain held the other bank, and 
 claimed complete possession of the river 
 WUth of the thirty-first parallel. Spain 
 
 ceded this territory back to France in 
 1800, and three years later Napoleon 
 Bonaparte, being unable to hold the 
 country himself, and desirous of damag- 
 ing Great Britain, sold the whole coun- 
 try to the United States for $12,000,000. 
 The arrangement was made by Thomas 
 Jefferson, and he was denounced on all 
 hands for his alleged unconstitutional 
 action in making the bargain. 
 
 In 1804 a territory known as Orleans 
 was formed, including most of what now 
 is called Louisiana, and in 1812 the 
 state was admitted to the union with its 
 present boundaries. On January 8, 
 1815, was fought the great battle of 
 New Orleans, when General Jackson at 
 the head of some raw levies of Tennessee 
 and Mississippi militia defeated General 
 Pakenham and his peninsular regulars. 
 Louisiana advanced rapidly in material 
 prosperity during the forty-five years 
 from this time until the outbreak of the 
 civil war, and New Orleans became the 
 most important port of the south, and 
 the center of the cotton-shipping trade. 
 The state went with the south and se- 
 ceded from the union in December, 1860. 
 It became the theater of war by land and 
 river, and in April, 1862, Admiral Farra- 
 gut passed the forts and compelled the 
 surrender of the city. From this time 
 on the federal forces practically con- 
 trolled Louisiana. The state passed 
 through a stormy time in the days of 
 reconstruction, and it was not until 1877 
 that its administration was rescued 
 from the hands of the carpet bag ele- 
 ment. By the so-called grandfather 
 clause in the constitution of 1898 which 
 laid down the qualification for suffrage, 
 the vast majority of the negroes were 
 disfranchised. In 1900 out of 150,000 
 registered votes it was estimated only 
 7000 were colored, though the negro 
 population almost equals the white. 
 
 In national politics Louisiana has 
 been democratic, republican, and demo- 
 cratic except in 1840 and 1848, when it 
 voted for the whig candidates and 1876 
 when its electoral vote was given by the 
 electoral commission to Hayes. Since 
 then it has invariably been Democratic. 
 Pop. 1909, 1,700,000, about a half being 
 colored. 
 
 LOUISIANA PURCHASE, the pur- 
 chase by the United States from France 
 in 1803 of the “Province of Louisiana.” 
 In 1802 news reached the United States 
 that Spain had retroceded Louisiana to 
 France. President Jefferson declared 
 that the day she took possession the 
 ancient friendship between the United 
 States and France would be at an end, 
 and the United States must henceforth 
 ally itself with the British nation. The 
 war between France and England had 
 ]ust been renewed, and Napoleon 
 doubled the ability of France to hold 
 Louisiana and therefore, proposed to 
 sell the entire Province of Louisiana, 
 and asked for an offer. The price finally 
 agreed upon was 80,000,000 francs, in- 
 cluding 20 000,000 for the debts which 
 the Unitea States was to assume. The 
 total cost of Louisiana, principal, inter- 
 est, and debts assumed, was $27,267,621. 
 The area purchased exceeded 1,000,000 
 square miles. The population did not 
 exceed 90,000, including about 40,000 
 slaves. The rest of the population con- 
 
 sisted of French, Spanish creoles, Ameri- 
 cans, English, and Germans. 
 
 LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY 
 AND AGRICULTURAL AND ME- 
 CHANICAL COLLEGE, a State institu- 
 tion at Baton Rouge, La., chartered in 
 1877. The Agricultural and Mechanical 
 College, opened at New Orleans in 1874, 
 was merged with the University in 
 1877. In 1886 the United States Gov- 
 ernment gave the use of the buildings 
 and grounds of the military garrison at 
 Baton Rouge, and in 1902 the full title 
 to the property was vested in the in- 
 stitution. The courses offered are 
 literature, Latin-scientific, general 
 science, commerce, agriculture and 
 sugar-raising, mechanical and civil en- 
 gineering. The degrees conferred are 
 B. A., B.S., M.S., C.E., M.E., and 
 M.A. The university has, three ex- 
 periment stations, at New Orleans, 
 Baton Rouge and Calhoun. The discip- 
 line is military. 
 
 LOUIS NAPOLEON. See Napoleon 
 III. 
 
 LOUIS PHILIPPE, King of the 
 French, born at Paris 1773; died at 
 Claremont, England, 1850. He was the 
 eldest son of Duke Louis Philippe Joseph 
 of Orleans, surnamed Egalit6 (see 
 Orleans), and during his father’s life- 
 time he was known as Duke of Chartres. 
 He entered the army in 1791, and favor- 
 ing the popular cause in the revolution 
 he took part in the battles of Valmy and 
 Jemappes; was present at the bombard- 
 ment of Venloo and Maestricht, and 
 distinguished himself at Neerwinden. 
 Dumouriez had formed a scheme for 
 placing him on the throne as a constitu- 
 tional monarch, and being included in 
 the order of arrest directed against 
 Dumouriez, in 1793, he took refuge 
 within the Austrian territory. For 
 twenty-one years he remained exiled 
 from France, living in various European 
 countries, and in America. He had be- 
 come Duke of Orleans on the death of 
 his father in 1793, and in 1809 he mar- 
 ried the daughter of Ferdinand IV. of 
 Naples. After the fall of Napoleon I. 
 he returned to France, and was rein- 
 stated in his rank and property. At the 
 revolution of July, 1830, he was made 
 “lieutenant-general of the kingdom,” 
 and in August became king of the 
 French. He. reigned for eighteen years, 
 when the revolution of 1848 drove 
 him from the throne to England where 
 he remained till his death. 
 
 LOUISVILLE (I6'i-vil or lo'is-vil), the 
 commercial capital of Kentucky and 
 county seat of Jefferson county, on the 
 south bank of the Ohio, immediately 
 above the falls. It has a river frontage of 
 8 miles, and is connected with the towns 
 of New Albany and Jeffersonville on the 
 opposite bank of the river, in the state 
 of Indiana, by a bridge 5^8 feet long. 
 A canal 2J miles long carries the river 
 traffic round the falls or rapids. In ad- 
 dition to the river traffic an enormous 
 trade is carried on by railway, tobacco, 
 whisky, pork, and flour being among the 
 chief articles. The manufactures are 
 important and varied. The principal 
 public buildings are a fine court-house 
 the city-hall, the public library, the jail, 
 a custom-house, and four spacious 
 market-houses, besides churches, asy- 
 
LOUSE 
 
 LOWELL 
 
 lums, and literary and scientific institu-l 
 tions. There are four medical colleges. ! 
 An artesian well 2066 feet deep, having I 
 a daily flow of 330,000 gallons, forms 1 
 part of the city water-works. Pop. 
 1009, estimated at 275,000. 
 
 LOUSE, the common name of insect 
 parasitic on man and other animals. The 
 common louse is furnished with a simple 
 eye or ocellus, on each side of a dis- 
 tinctly differentiated head, the under 
 surface of which bears a suctorial mouth. 
 There is little distinction between the 
 thorax and abdomen, but the segments 
 of the former carry three pairs of legs 
 The legs are short, with short claws or 
 with two opposing hooks, affording a 
 very firm hold. The body is flattened 
 and nearly transparent, composed of 
 eleven or twelve distinct segments. The 
 
 Fig. 1. Hen-louse. 
 
 young pass through no metamorphosis, 
 and their multiplication is extremely 
 rapid. Most, if not all, mammals are 
 infested by lice, each having generally 
 its own peculiar species, and sometimes 
 having two or three. Three species are 
 
 Fig. 2. Body-louse. 
 
 said to belong to man, viz.: body-louse, 
 head-louse, and crab-louse. 
 
 LOUTH, the smallest county in Ire- 
 land, in the province of Leinster, com- 
 prising 204,123 acres. Pop. 65,741. 
 
 LOUVOIS (l6-vwa), Francois Michel 
 Letellier, Marquis de, minister of war to 
 Louis XIV., born at Paris 1641, died 
 1691. He effected quite a revolution 
 in the art of disciplining, distributing, 
 equipping, and provisioning armies, and 
 his administration was brilliant. It was 
 partly by his advice that the Edict of 
 Nantes was revoked in 1685, and the 
 Palatinate was devastated in 1689. 
 Louvois’s organization of the army 
 lasted till the Empire; but he also undid 
 the work of Colbert, and destroyed the 
 commerce of France. 
 
 LOUVRE (lo'ver), a dome-turret ris- 
 ing from the' roof of a hall or other apart- 
 ment, formerly open at the sides, but 
 now generally glazed. Louvres were 
 
 originally intended to allow the smoke 
 to escape when the fire was kindled in 
 the middle of the room. Louvre window 
 is the name given to a window in a 
 
 Louvre. 
 
 church tower, partially closed by slabs 
 or sloping boards or bars called louvre 
 boards (corrupted into luffer or lever 
 boards), which are placed across to ex- 
 clude the rain, while allowing the sound 
 of the bell to pass. 
 
 LOUVRE, the old royal palace at. 
 Paris, said to have been a royal resi- 
 dence in the reign of Dagobert, 628. 
 Francis I. erected that part of the palace 
 which is now called the old Louvre, and 
 the buildings have been enlarged and 
 adorned by successive kings, particularly 
 Louis XIV. The new Louvre begun by 
 Napoleon I. was completed by Napoleon 
 III. in 1857. The whole group of build- 
 ings is distinguished by its great extent, 
 and by its elegant and sumptuous archi- 
 tecture. It contains museums of paint- 
 ings, drawings, engravings, bronze an- 
 tiques, sculptures, ancient and modern, 
 together with special collections of an- 
 tiquities, and an ethnographical collec- 
 tion. It was greatly injured by the Com- 
 munists in May, 1871, the Richelieu 
 pavilion, containing the imperial library 
 of 90,000 volumes and man 3 ’- precious 
 MSS., having been entirely destroyed. 
 
 LOVE-BIRD, a name given to a genus 
 of the parrot family. They are a beauti- 
 ful group consisting of very diminutive 
 
 Love-bird. 
 
 species, found in America, Africa, and 
 Australia. They receive their name 
 from the great attachment shown to 
 each other by the male and female birds. 
 
 LOVEJOY, Elijah Parish, was born 
 in Maine in 1802. He became a Presbj'- 
 terian minister, and edited the St. Louis 
 Observer and other abolitionist papers. 
 
 Arousea by burning of a negro murderer 
 he wrote an editorial that excited the ! 
 
 wrath of the pro-slavery element. He : 
 
 removed his press to Alton, 111., where 
 It was siezed by a mob and thrown into • 
 the river. Several other presses which 
 he secured were destroyed. A mob again 
 attacked his office at midnight on No- 
 veinber 7, 1837, and an attempt being 
 made to set fire to the building, Lovejoy 
 stepped out and was shot. 
 
 LOVEJOY, Owen, brother of the fore- 
 going, was born in Albion, Me., in 1811. 
 
 He was pastor of a Congregational 
 church in Illinois; was present when his 
 brother was murdered, and was often 
 fined for holding anti-slavery meetings. 
 
 He served in the Illinois legislature, and 
 from 1856 until his death sat in congress 
 as a republican. He died in 1864. 
 
 LOW, Seth, American educator and 
 administrator, was born in Brooklyn in 
 1850. In 1882 he was elected mayor of 
 Brooklyn on an independent ticket. ' 
 His administration was characterized 
 by his application of the civil-service 
 system to city offices and the impartial ■' 
 maintenance of efficient service among 
 appointees. In 1884 he was elected to a 
 second term. In 1890 he was elected to 
 the presidency of Columbia College. He ' 
 jnade to the university a gift of $1,000,- 
 000, to be used for the erection of a * 
 library building In 1897 he received 7 
 150,000 votes as independent candidate 
 for mayor of New York City. He was ' 
 a member of the .\meriean delegation to -t 
 the Czar’s Peace Conference at The ; 
 Hague in 1899, and at various times held S 
 other posts of public trust. In 1901 he t 
 was elected mayor of New York City. *' 
 He was a founder and th6 first president y 
 of the Bureau of Charities of Brooklyn, - 
 and was elected vice-president of the 
 New York Academy of Sciences and ‘.j 
 president of the American Archseo- .■ 
 logical Institute. His academic dignities , ; 
 include, among others, the degree of 
 LL.D., conferred by the University of 
 the State of New York, Harvard, and 
 Princeton. 
 
 LOVER, Samuel, novelist, poet, and 1 
 musical composer, was born in Dublin, 
 in 1797, and died in 1868. Among his 4 
 works are Legends and Stories of Ire- 9 
 land (1832-34); Rory O’More, a novel 
 (1837) ; Songs and Ballads (1839) ; Handj" I 
 Andy, a novel (1842); Treasure Trove, a f 
 novel (1844). The Angels Whisper, 3 
 Molly Bawn, and the Low-backed Car 3 
 are among his most popular songs. ■» 
 
 LOW CHURCH, a name given to a 4 
 section of the Church of England whose 1 
 opinions are opposed to those of the a 
 H igh Church party, and are especially f 
 hostile to ritualism and sacerdotalism. * 
 See High Church. j| 
 
 LOW COUNTRIES. See Netherlands. ■ 
 
 LOWE (l6). Sir Hudson, lieutenant- ■ 
 general in the British armj’^; born atB 
 Galway 1769, died 1844. On the fallfl 
 of Napoleon he was appointed governor® 
 of St. Helena, and intrusted with the® 
 care of the ex-emperor. ® 
 
 LOW'ELL, a city in Massachusetts, on « 
 the right bank of the Merrimac, 25® 
 miles n.n.w. from Boston, neatly andH 
 substantially built of brick, and chiefly® 
 remarkable for being a leading seat of® 
 the cotton manufacture. There are also® 
 extensive bleacheries, , large machine^B 
 
LOWELL 
 
 LUCKNOW 
 
 shops, paper and chemical works, etc. 
 Its machinery is largely driven by water- 
 
 E ower supplied by the Merrimac, which 
 ere falls 33 feet. Seven railways center 
 in the place. Pop. 1909, about 100,000. 
 
 LOWELL, James Russell, American 
 author, born in 1819 at Cambridge, 
 Massachusetts. In 1855 succeeded Long- 
 fellow as professor of modern languages 
 and belles-lettres at Harvard. From 
 1857 to 1862 he wrote many essays for 
 the Atlantic Monthly, founded by 
 Holmes, Longfellow, Emerson, and him- 
 self, and of which he was the first editor. 
 He was joint-editor of the North Ameri- 
 can Review from 1863 to 1872. In 1877 
 he was appointed American minister at 
 Madrid, and in 1880 he was transferred to 
 London, whence he was recalled in 1885. 
 He was very popular in Britain, was 
 made D. C. L. of Oxford, LL.D. of Cam- 
 bridge, and rector of St. Andrews Uni- 
 versity. He died in 1891. Besides his 
 poems, of which numerous editions have 
 been published, and the Biglow Papers, 
 his chief works are; Conversations on 
 some of the Old Poets ; Among my Books ; 
 
 My Study Windows; Democracy, and 
 other Addresses, etc. His first wife, 
 Maria White Lowtll (1821-1853), was a 
 poet of considerable merit; a volume of 
 her poems was privately printed after 
 her death. 
 
 LOYO'LA, Ignatius, original name 
 Inigo Lopez de Recalde, the founder of 
 the order of the Jesuits, was born at the 
 castle of Loyola, Guipuscoa, in 1491, 
 died 1556. When still a young man he 
 entered the army, and during the de- 
 fense of Pampeluma in 1521 against the 
 French he was severely wounded, and a 
 long and tedious confinement was the 
 result. The only books he found to re- 
 lieve its tedium were books of devotion 
 and the lives of saints. This course of 
 reading induced a fit of mystical devo- 
 tion in which he renounced the world, 
 made a formal visit to the shrine of the 
 Virgin at Montserrat, and vowed him- 
 self her knight (1522). After his dedica- 
 tion he made a pilgrimage to Rome and 
 Jersualem, and from 1524 to 1527 at- 
 
 tended the schools and universities of 
 Barcelona, Alcala, and Salamanca. In 
 1528 he went to Paris, where he went 
 through a seven years’ course of general 
 and theological training. Here in 1534 
 
 Ignatius Loyola. 
 
 he formed the first nucleus of the society 
 which afterward became so famous, 
 Francois Xavier, professor of philosophy 
 Lainez, and others having in conjunction 
 with Loyola bound themselves together 
 to devote themselves to the care of the 
 church and the conversion of infidels. 
 Rome ultimately became their head- 
 quarters, when Loyola submitted the 
 plans of his new order to Paul III., who 
 under certain limitations, confirmed it 
 in 1540. (See Jesuits.) Loyola continued 
 to reside in Rome and govern the society 
 he had constituted till his death. He was 
 beatified in 1607 by Paul V., and can- 
 onized in 1622 by Gregory XV. 
 
 LOZERE (lo-zar), a department of 
 Southern France, bounded by Haute- 
 Loire, Cantal, Ard^che, Gard, and Avey- 
 ron; area, 1996 sq. miles. The capital is 
 Mende. Pop. 128,866. 
 
 LUBECK (lii'bek), one of the free 
 towns of Germany, and a constituent of 
 the German empire, stands on a low 
 ridge at the confluence of the Wackenitz 
 with the Trave, 38 miles northeast of 
 Hamburg, and 12 miles from the Gulf of 
 Ltibeck, a bay of the Baltic. Pop. of the 
 town, 82,098; of the territory, 96,775. 
 
 LUBLIN, a town of Russian Poland, 
 capital of the government of Lublin, 60 
 miles southeast of Warsaw. Pop. 53,137. 
 — The government has an area of 6499 
 sq. miles; pop. 931,597. 
 
 LUBRICANT, any substance applied 
 to surfaces that work against each other, 
 to diminish friction. Lubricants may be 
 either solid, semi-liquid, or liquid. Plum- 
 bago, grease, animal, vegetable, and 
 mineral oils, simple or variously com- 
 pounded, are the substances used. 
 
 LUCAN, George Charles Bingham, 
 Earl of, born 1800, died 1888. His name 
 is conspicuously associated with the 
 Balaklava charge of the Light Brigade. 
 He was lieutenant-general in 1858; gen- 
 eral in 1865; and field-marshal in 1887. 
 
 LUCCA, a town of Italy, capital of a 
 province of same name, stands near the 
 left bank of the Serchio, 37 miles n.n.w. 
 Florence. Pop. 72,971. The province of 
 Lucca is bound n. by Massa e Carrara 
 and Modena, e. by Firenze, s. by Pisa, w. 
 
 by the Mediterranean; area, 577 sq. 
 miles. Pop. 318,610. 
 
 LUCE, Stephen Bleecker, American 
 naval officer, born in 1827 in Alban j', 
 N. Y. He entered the United States 
 Navy in 1841, was commissioned lieu- 
 tenant in 1855, and in 1862 as lieutenant 
 commander aided in the blockade of 
 South Carolina ports, participating in 
 the battles of Hatteras Inlet and Port 
 Royal. In 1872 he became captain, in 
 1881 commodore, and in 1885 rear- 
 admiral. From 1884 to 1886 he was 
 president of the United States Naval 
 War College, of which he was a founder, 
 and in 1889 he was retired. In 1892 he 
 represented the United States as com- 
 missioner-general at the Columbian cele- 
 bration held at Madrid to commemorate 
 the four hundredth anni’/ersary of the 
 discovery of America. He died in 1905. 
 
 LUCERNE, Luzern (l6-sern,' lo'tsern), 
 a city of Switzerland, capital of a canton 
 of the same name, beautifully situated 
 on the margin of Lake Lucerne and on 
 the Reuss. The “Lion of Lucerne,” a 
 monument by Thorwaldsen to the Swiss 
 guards who fell in Paris in 1792 while de- 
 fending the Tuileries, and the glacier- 
 garden, containing relics of the ice period 
 are objects of interest. Pop. 29,633. — 
 The canton is bounded by the cantons 
 of Aargau, Zug, Schwyz, Unterwalden, 
 and Bern ; area, 587 square miles. Pop. 
 146,474. 
 
 LUCERNE, Lake of, a Swiss lake 
 bounded by the cantons of Uri, Schw 3 ’z, 
 Unterwalden, and Lucerne, and noted 
 for its magnificent scenery and histori- 
 cal associations. 
 
 LUCIA, St., one of the British West 
 India Islands, about 80 miles northwest 
 of Barbadoes; area about 240 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 49,895, of whom about 1000 are 
 white. 
 
 LUCIFER, a name anciently given to 
 the planet Venus as the morning star. 
 The term is used figuratively by Isaiah 
 (xiv. 12) and applied to the Babylonian 
 king, but it was mistaken by the com- 
 mentators for a reference to Satan. 
 
 LUCIFER-MATCH. See Matches. 
 
 LUCKNOW', a city of Hindustan, 
 capital of Oude, 610 miles w. n. w. of 
 Calcutta, on both banks of the Gumti, 
 here crossed by four bridges, two *of 
 which were built by native rulers, and 
 two by the British since 1856. Lucknow 
 was one of the chief scenes of the Sepoy 
 mutiny. At the beginning of the mutiny 
 the Residency was fortified by Sir Henry 
 Lawrence, and aft er his death (4th July, 
 1857) it was closely besieged by the 
 rebels till relief was brought by Havelock 
 and Outram. The relieving force was 
 only a small one, however, and the 
 British were again besieged, partly in the 
 Residency, partly in a walled garden 
 called the Alambagh. In the middle of 
 October Sir Colin Campbell gainedposses- 
 sion of the place after severe fightings 
 but as it seemed impossible to hold it 
 with the troops at his disposal he left Sir 
 James Outram to defend the Alambagh. 
 and removed the civilians, women and 
 children to Cawnpore. At last, in March 
 1858, Sir Colin returned with a sufficient 
 force, completely defeated the rebels, 
 and permanently recovered the tow 
 Population, 264,049. 
 
LUCRETIA 
 
 LUNGS 
 
 LUCRE'TIA, in Roman legendary 1 
 history, a lady of distinguished virtue 
 who was outraged by Sextus, son of 
 Tarquinius Superbus, king of Rome. 
 She stabbed herself, and her death was 
 the signal for a revolution, by which the 
 Tarquins were expelled from Rome and 
 a republic formed. 
 
 LUCRETIUS, Carus, Titus, Roman 
 philosophic poet, born about 98 b.c., 
 died 55 b.c. He is said to have died by 
 his own hand, but about his life almost 
 nothing is known. He is admitted to be 
 one of the greatest of Roman poets for 
 descriptive beauty and elevated senti- 
 ment. We possess of his composition a 
 didactic poem, in six books, De Rerum 
 Natura (On the Nature of Things), in 
 which he exhibits the cosmical princi- 
 ples of the Epicurean philosophy. 
 
 LUDLOW, William, American sol- 
 dier, was born at Islip, Long Island, N. 
 Y., in 1843. He graduated at West 
 Point in 1864, and served under General 
 Hooker in the Atlanta campaign as 
 chief engineer of the Twentieth Army 
 Corps, Army of the Cumberland. He 
 was assistant engineer to General Sher- 
 man’s army during the famous “march 
 to the sea.” In May, 1898, on the out- 
 break of the Spanish-American war, he 
 was appointed brigadier-general of vol- 
 unteers. In December, 1898, he was 
 appointed military governor of Havana, 
 On May 1, 1900, he was relieved, having 
 previously, however (in January), been 
 promoted to be brigadier-general in the 
 regular army, the first engineer since 
 the civil war to receive a line brigadier- 
 generalship. He died in 1901. 
 
 LUDWIGSHAFEN (lud'vihs-hii-vn), a 
 town of Rhenish Bavaria, on the left 
 bank of the Rhine. Pop. 61,905. 
 
 LUGGER, a vessel having either two 
 or three masts and a running bowsprit, 
 
 Lugger. 
 
 the masts carrying each one or two lug- 
 sails. There are also two or three jibs. 
 
 LUGO, a town of Northern Spain, 
 capital of province of same name. Pop. 
 25,568. — The province has an area of 
 3788 sq. miles; pop. 465,386. 
 
 LUKE, ST., the evangelist, author of 
 the Gospel which bears his name and of 
 the Acts of the Apostles. He was prob- 
 ably born at Antioch in Syria; was 
 taught the science of medicine, but the 
 tradition that he was also a painter is 
 doubtful. The date of his conversion is 
 uncertain; he is supposed to have been 
 one of the seventy disciples, and also 
 one of the two who journeyed to 
 Emmaus with the risen Savior. He was 
 for several years a companion of the 
 
 ' 1 
 
 apostle Paul in his travels, so that in the 
 Acts of the Apostles he relates what he 
 himself had seen and participated in. 
 (See Acts of the Apostles.) Luke is 
 apparently mentioned three times in the 
 New Testament: Col. iv. 14; 2 Tim. iv. 
 
 1 1 ; Philem. 24. He lived to an advanced 
 age, but whether he suffered martyrdom 
 or died a natural death it is impossible 
 to determine. The Gospel of St. Luke 
 was written probably about 58-60. It 
 is addressed to a certain Theophilus, 
 and records various facts connected with 
 the early life of Jesus which were prob- 
 ably furnished to the writer by Mary 
 herself. It is first quoted by the church 
 writers Justin Martyr and the author 
 of the Clementine Homilies, and at the 
 time of Irenaeus and Tertullian the gos- 
 pel in its present form was fully accepted. 
 See Gospel. 
 
 LULLY, Jean Baptiste, musical com- 
 poser, born at Florence 1633, died at 
 Paris, 1687. In 1672 he had the direc- 
 tion of the Royal Academy of Music, 
 from which time dates the foundation 
 of the grand opera. His fame now 
 chiefly rests on his overtures, a species 
 of composition of which he is said to 
 have been the inventor. 
 
 LUMBA'GO, rheumatism or rheu- 
 matic pains affecting the lumbar region, 
 and often disabling a person. See Rheu- 
 matism. 
 
 LUMBER, the common term in North 
 America for timber sawn up for market, 
 including laths, deals, planks, shingles. 
 
 LUMINIFEROUS ETHER, a hypo- 
 thetical medium of extreme tenuity and 
 elasticity, supposed to be diffused 
 throughout all space, as well as among 
 the molecules of which solid bodies are 
 composed, and to be the medium of the 
 transmission of light, heat, and other 
 forms of energy. From the extreme 
 facility with which bodies move about 
 in this medium it might be called a 
 fluid; but the undulations which it 
 serves to propagate are not such as can 
 be propagated by fluids. Its elastic 
 properties are rather those of a solid; 
 and its waves are analogous to the pulses 
 which travel along the wires of a piano 
 rather than to the waves of extension 
 and compression by which sound is 
 propagated through air. See Undulatory 
 Theory. 
 
 LUMINOSITY. See Flame and Phos- 
 phorescence. 
 
 LUNA, the Latin name for the moon, 
 among the Greeks Selene. Her worship 
 is said to have been introduced among 
 the Romans in the time of Romulus. 
 
 LUNACY. See Insanity. 
 
 LUNACY, in law. Lunatics are not 
 legally responsible for their acts, but 
 before the law, all persons are con- 
 sidered sane until the contrary is proved. 
 When the plea of lunacy is sustained the 
 person accused is acquitted of guilt and 
 kept in custody. 
 
 LUNAR CAUSTIC, nitrate of silver. 
 See Silver. 
 
 LUNAR THEORY, the mathematical 
 treatment of perturbations in the 
 moon’s motion due to the attraction of 
 the sun, the earth, and the planets. 
 
 LUNAR YEAR. See Year. 
 
 LUNATIC ASYLUMS, houses estab- 
 lished for the treatment of insane per- 
 
 sons. Some are established bylaw, others 
 by the endowments of charitable donors, 
 while others are private establishments. 
 Until near the close of the 18th century 
 many lunatics were allowed to wander 
 at large, exposed to all the arbitrary 
 cruelty to which their defenseless con- 
 dition made them liable, while those 
 who were confined in asylums were in a 
 still worse case. Chains, whipping, and 
 confinement in dark dungeons were 
 among the ordinary discipline of these 
 establishments. The reformation of this 
 unnatural system was begun in France 
 by Philippe Pinel, a benevolent physi- 
 cian; and in England a parliamentary 
 inquiry in 1815 into the barbarities 
 hitherto practiced in lunatic asylums 
 led to a slow but gradual improvement. 
 Lunatic asylums, whether public or 
 private, are now under the control of 
 officers appointed under special statues, 
 and lunatics must be visited at least once 
 a year by medical and legal advisers. 
 The general conduct of lunatic asylums 
 is now brought more into harmony with 
 humanity and common sense. Violence 
 and undue coercion have been generally 
 abandoned, and persuasion and address 
 are relied on for the control of the 
 patients. Religious services are pro- 
 vided, and recreations of various kinds 
 are also commonly and sometimes freely 
 provided. 
 
 LUNGS, the sole breathing organs of 
 reptiles, birds, mammals, and in part of 
 amphibians (frogs, newts, etc.), the 
 latter forms breathing in early life by 
 branchiae or gills, and afterward partly 
 or entirely by lungs. The essential idea 
 of a lung is that of a sac communicating 
 with the atmosphere by means of a 
 tube, the trachea or windpipe, through 
 which air is admitted to the organ, and 
 
 Human lungs, heart and great vessels. 
 
 A, Lungs with the anterior edges turned 
 back to show the heart and bronchi, b. Heart, 
 c, Aorta. D, Pulmonary artery, e. Ascending • 
 vena cava. F, Trachea, g g, Bronchi, h h, 
 Carotid arteries. 1 1, Jugular veins, jj, Sub- 
 clavian arteries. K k. Subclavian veins. P p. 
 Costal cartilages. Q, Anterior cardiac artery. V 
 B, Right auricle. Z 
 
 through structural peculiarities to its ® 
 intimate parts, the air serving to supply 
 oxygen to the blood and to remove car- 
 bonic acid. In the Mammalia, including 3 
 man, the lungs are confined to and 
 freely suspended in the cavity of the ^ 
 thorax or chest, which is completely g 
 separated from the abdominal cavity by S 
 the muscular diaphragm or “midriff.” aH 
 In man the lungs are made up of honey- M 
 comb-like cells which receive their .sup- ^ 
 ply of air through the bronchial tubes. 
 
LUPULIN 
 
 LUZON 
 
 If a bronchial tube is traced it is found 
 to lead into a passage which divides and 
 subdivides, leading off into air-cells. 
 The walls of these air-cells consist of 
 thin, elastic, connective tissue, through 
 which run small blood-vessels in connec- 
 tion with the pulmonary artery and 
 veins. By this ai’rangement the blood 
 is brought into contact with, and be- 
 comes purified by means of the air. 
 The impure blood enters at the root of 
 the lung through the pulmonary artery 
 at the right side of the heart, and passes 
 out purified through the pulmonary 
 veins toward the left side of the heart. 
 Both lungs are inclosed in a delicate 
 membrane called the pleura, which 
 forms a kind of double sac that on one 
 side lines the ribs and part of the breast- 
 bone, and on the other side surrounds 
 the lung. Pleurisy arises from inflam- 
 mation of this membrane. The lungs 
 are situated one on each side of the 
 heart, the upper part of each fits into 
 the upper corner of the chest, about an 
 inch above the collar-bone, while the 
 base of each rests upon the diaphragm. 
 The right lung is shorter and broader 
 than the left, which extends downward 
 further by the breadth of a rib. Each 
 lung exhibits a broad division into an 
 upper and lower portion or lobe, the 
 division being marked by a deep cleft 
 which runs downward obliquely to the 
 front of the organ ; and in the case of the 
 right lung there is a further division at 
 right angles to the main .cleft. Thus the 
 left lung has two, while the right lung 
 has three lobes. These again are divided 
 into lobules which measure from i to 
 inch in diameter, and consist of air-cells, 
 blood-vessels, nerves, lymphatic vessels, 
 and the tissue by which the lobules 
 themselves are bound together. The 
 elasticity of the lungs by which they ex- 
 pand and expel the air is due to the 
 contractile tissues found in the bronchial 
 tubes and air-cells, this elasticity being 
 aided by a delicate, elastic, surface- 
 tissue. (See Respiration.) The lungs are 
 popularly termed “lights,” because they 
 are the lightest organs in the body, and 
 float when placed in water, except when 
 they are diseased; a characteristic this 
 which is applied in medical jurispru- 
 dence as a test whether an infant has 
 respired or not. Among the diseases 
 which affect this organ are pleurisy, 
 pneumonia, pleuro - pneumonia, con- 
 sumption, etc. See those terms. 
 
 LU'PULIN, the fine yellow powder of 
 hops, which contains the bitter principle. 
 It consists of little round glands, which 
 are found upon the stipules and fruit, 
 and is obtained by drying, heating, and 
 then sifting the hops. It is largely used 
 in medicine. 
 
 LUPUS, in medicine, a slow non- 
 contagious tubercular affection, occur- 
 ing especially about the face, and com- 
 monly ending in ragged ulcerations of 
 the nose, cheeks, forehead, eyelids, and 
 lips. 
 
 LURAY CAVERN, a remarkable cav- 
 ern in the state of Virginia, near the 
 village Luray. It eontains many cham- 
 bers, and is exceedingly rich in stalactite 
 formations. 
 
 LUTE, a stringed musical instrument 
 of the guitar kind, formerly very popu- 
 lar in Europe. It consists of four parts, 
 
 viz.: the table or belly with a large 
 sound-hole in the middle; the body, 
 ribbed like a melon, having nine or ten 
 ribs or divisions; the neck, which has 
 nine or ten stops or frets which divide 
 the strings into semitones; and the head 
 or cross, in which are fitted the pegs or 
 screws for tuning the strings, of which 
 there are five or six pairs, each pair 
 tuned in octaves or unisons. The strings 
 are struck by the fingers of the right 
 hand and stopped on the frets by those 
 of the left. 
 
 LUTHER (lo'ther), Martin, the great 
 religious reformer of Germany, was born 
 at Eisleben, November 10, 1483,and died 
 there on the 18th Feb., 1546. In 1501 
 he entered the University of Erfurt ; 
 and in 1505 received the degree of 
 ma.ster. About this time he discovered 
 in the library of the university a Latin 
 Bible and found, to his no small delight, 
 that it contained more than the excerpts 
 in common use. Contrary to the wishes 
 of his father he entered the monastery 
 of the Augustines at Erfurt in 1505. 
 In 1507 he was consecrated priest, and 
 in 1508, by the influence of his patron, 
 Staupitz, who was provincial of the 
 order, he was made professor of phil- 
 osophy in the new University of Witten- 
 berg. In 1510 he visited the court of 
 Pope Leo X. at Rome on business con- 
 nected with the order. Returning to 
 Wittenberg he was made a Doctor of 
 
 Theology in 1512, and here his profound 
 learning and powerful eloquence drew 
 large audiences. At that time he had no 
 controversy with the pope or the church, 
 but the arrival in 1517 of John Tetzel in 
 Wittenberg selling indulgences for sins 
 roused the fiery energy of Luther, and 
 caused him to draw up his famous pro- 
 test in ninety-five propositions, which he 
 nailed to the church-door in Witten- 
 berg. The result was that the sale of 
 indulgences ceased, Tetzel fled, and a 
 great religious commotion spread rapidly 
 through Germany. Luther was sum- 
 moned to Rome to explain his heretical 
 proceedings, but refused to go; nor were 
 the efforts of Cardinal Cajetan able to 
 effect a reconciliation between him and 
 the pope. His dispute with Dr. Eck at 
 Leipzig in 1519, in which he denounced 
 indulgences, and questioned the author- 
 ity of the pope, was followed in 1520 by 
 a bull of anathema — a document which 
 Luther straightway burned publicly in 
 Wittenberg. This open defiance of 
 Rome required him to vindicate his con- 
 duct, which he did in a pamphlet ad- 
 dressed to the Christian Nobles of Ger- 
 many, with the result that many of the 
 worthiest rallied to his aid. When sum- 
 
 moned to appear before the German 
 emperor, Charles V., at the Diet of 
 Worms (1521), Luther appeared, ac- 
 knowledged his writings, made an 
 eloquent defense, but refused to recant. 
 When he retired in triumph from Worms 
 he was met by a friendly troop of sol- 
 diers belonging to Frederick the Elector 
 of Saxony, who conveyed him to the 
 castle of Wart burg, where he lay in con- 
 eealment for nearly a year. Here he 
 employed his time in translating the 
 New Testament into German, but when 
 he heard that disturbances had been 
 excited in Wittenberg on the question 
 of images, he could no longer bear the 
 restraint of inaction. Returning sud- 
 denly, and at great danger to himself, 
 Luther succeeded in quieting the people 
 by means of a wise and patient modera- 
 tion. In 1524 he laid aside his cowl as a 
 priest of the Roman Church, and in 
 1525 married Catharina von Bora, one 
 of nine nuns who had renounced their 
 religious vows under his teaching. The 
 wisdom of this marriage was doubted by 
 his friends, but his home-life and the 
 birth of six children, contributed greatly 
 to the happiness of the reformer. From 
 the year 1521 Luther had been busy 
 translating the Bible into German with 
 the aid of Melanchthon and others, and 
 the great task was completed in 1534. 
 This important work, taken in connec- 
 tion with the Protestant Confession 
 made at Augsburg in 1530, served to 
 establish the reformer’s doctrines in 
 Germany, and closed the important 
 part of his public life. The massive 
 character of the German reformer lay 
 along simple lines, and found its full 
 and direct expression in his work. A 
 vivid practice insight enabled him to 
 mark the abuses of the Roman Church, 
 and his fervid energy urged him to re- 
 form them. 
 
 LUTHERANS, theadherentsof Luther, 
 a term now applied to one of the great 
 sections into which the Protestant 
 Church is divided, the other being known 
 as the Reformed or Calvanists. The 
 doctrinial system of the Lutheran Church 
 is contained in the Augsburg Confession, 
 and other documents, including the two 
 catechisms of Luther. The fundamental 
 doctrine is that we are justified before 
 God, not through any merits of our 
 own, but through faith in His Son. In 
 the eucharist the belief of the Lutherans 
 isknownasconsubstantiation. Lutheran- 
 ism extended in the time of its founder 
 over the greater part of Germany, and 
 became also the established religion of 
 Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. The 
 membership of the Lutherans is esti- 
 mated at 45,000,000. In America they 
 have a membership of about 1,230,000. 
 
 LUTRA, a genus of carnivorous ani- 
 mals, comprising the otters. 
 
 LUXEMBURG, Grand-duchy of, a 
 small independent state of Western 
 Europe, bounded north and east by 
 Rhenish Prussia, south by France, and 
 west by Belgium ; greatest length, north 
 to south, 55 miles; greatest breadth, 34 
 miles; area, 998 sq. miles. Pop. 236,543. 
 
 LUXEMBURG, the capital of the 
 above grand-duchy, 117 miles southeast 
 of Brussels. Pop. 20,928. 
 
 LUZON', the largest of the Philippine 
 group of islands. Its greatest length is 
 
LYCEUM 
 
 LYON 
 
 about 540 miles; its greatest breadth 
 about 125 miles; area estimated at 
 57,500 sq. miles. Two great mountain 
 chains, the Sierra Madre and Cordillera 
 de Caravallos, run north and south, 
 and rise to a height in some cases of more 
 than 7000 feet. They are of volcanic 
 origin, and many disastrous eruptions 
 have taken place. Rivers and lakes are 
 numerous. Vegetation is luxuriant, and 
 the vast forests contain ebony, cedar, 
 and other valuable trees. Luzon also 
 produces abundant crops of rice, Manila 
 hemp, tobacco, coffee, ginger, and 
 pepper. There are few wild animals 
 except the buffalo, which is also domes- 
 ticated; but oxen, sheep, and swine are 
 reared. The population consists of the 
 aboriginal Negritos, and of Malays, 
 Chinese, Spaniards, etc., and the whole 
 is estimated at about 3,400,000. The 
 capital is Manila. 
 
 LYCE'UM, an, academy at Athens in 
 which Aristotle explainedhis philosophy. 
 In modern times the name of lyceum 
 has been given to the schools intended to 
 prepare young men for the universities. 
 
 LY'COPODS, the club-moss tribe, 
 chiefly inhabiting boggy heaths, moors, 
 and woods. They are intermediate in 
 their general appearance between the 
 mosses and the ferns, and are in some 
 respects allied to the Coniferae. The 
 lycopods occur in all parts of the globe, 
 but grow most luxuriantly in tropical or 
 mild climates. In the carboniferous era 
 they attained a very large size, rivalling 
 trees in their height and the thickness 
 of their stems. 
 
 Lycopodium Selago. a. Leaf; 6, Sporangium 
 
 in the axii of bract; c, Spores— magnified. 
 
 LYCUR'GUS, the great legislator of 
 the Lacedaemonians, was the son of 
 Eunomus, king of Sparta. His history 
 commences with the year 898 b.c., when 
 he might have usurped the throne on 
 the death of his brother, but preferring 
 to guard the kingdom for the unborn 
 child of the latter, he devoted himself 
 to the study of legislation. On his 
 nephew becoming of age, Lycurgus 
 traveled into Crete, Egypt, and Asia, 
 and thus prepared himself to give 
 Sparta the laws which have rendered 
 his name immortal. His object was to 
 regulate the manners as well as the 
 government, and to form a warrior 
 nation, in which no private interest 
 should prevail over the public good. 
 It is said that Lycurgus persuaded tlie 
 Spartans to swear that they would 
 observe these laws till his return from 
 another, journey, and that he then de- 
 parted, and they never heard of him 
 more. One account states that he 
 starved himself to death, but it is more 
 probable that he retired to private life, 
 and died naturally, as Lucian records, 
 at the age of eighty-five. 
 
 LYDDITE, a high explosive, receiving 
 
 its name from Lydd in Wales, the place 
 of its first manufacture. It is used as a 
 bursting charge for shells, its reputed 
 destructive power being due to the 
 shock of air-concussion, rather than to 
 the fragments produced by the rupture 
 of the shell. It is supposed to kill by 
 shock, or suffocate by its fumes, every 
 living thing witRin a radius of twenty- 
 five yards of the bursting-point. It is a 
 very stable compound under changes of 
 temperature, and is said to be fully as 
 effective against masonry as black 
 powder, and twice as effective against 
 sand or earth. It was extensively used 
 against the Boers in the war of 1899- 
 1902, but, owing to the character and 
 conformation of the. positions usually 
 selected by the Boers, it did not prove 
 very destructive. 
 
 LYE, water impregnated with alka- 
 line salt imbibed from the ashes of wood, 
 or any solution of an alkali used for 
 cleaning purposes, as for types after 
 printing, ink-rollers, etc. 
 
 sir Charles Lyell. 
 
 LY'ELL, Sir Charles, Bart., geologist, 
 born at Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 1797, 
 died in London 1875. His first important 
 work was the Principles of Geology 
 (1830-33), and a portion of this book 
 afterward formed the basis of the 
 Elements of Geology. Another import- 
 ant work was the Antiquity of Man 
 (1863), in which he summarized the 
 evidence in favor of the theory that 
 the race of man was much older than 
 was currently believed. Lyell was 
 knighted in 1848, and made a baronet 
 in 1864. His Life and Letters were pub- 
 lished in 1881. 
 
 LYMPH, in physiology, the fluid 
 resulting primarily from the assimilation 
 of food, and also obtained from the 
 blood and tissues, and which is con- 
 tained within a system of vessels called 
 lymphatics and lacteals. The clearest 
 and simplest view of the lymphatic 
 system is to consider these vessels as the 
 media through which matters are 
 absorbed from the alimentary canal on 
 the one hand, and from the blood and 
 tissues on the other. The matters so 
 absorbed are elaborated and converted 
 in the lymphatic glands into lymph, a 
 fluid which presents the essential fea- 
 tures of the more highly elaborated 
 blood, and which is ultimately poured 
 into the blood mainly through the 
 thoracic duct. Through this system the 
 continual loss which the blood and body 
 suffer is made good. The lymph as it 
 
 exists in the lymphatic vessels is a color- 
 less, transparent fluid, destitute of 
 smell. The lymphatic glands are highly 
 important structures, for it is only after 
 passing through them that the lymph 
 is fully elaborated and ready to enter 
 the blood. Their average size is that of 
 a small almond, and they are generally 
 arranged in groups. As distinguished 
 from the lymphatics the lacteals are the 
 vessels by which the chyle is absorbed 
 from the small intestine and elaborated 
 in the lymphatic glands of the mesentery 
 to be afterward poured into the thoracic 
 duct. This duct pours its contents into 
 a large vein at the root of the neck. 
 Lymphatic vessels and glands are num- 
 erous throughout the body. 
 
 LYNCHBURG, a town in Campbell 
 CO., Virginia, on James’ river, 120 miles 
 west by south of Richmond. It contains 
 iron and brass foundries, a large cotton 
 factory, several flour mills, and exten- 
 sive tobacco manufactories. Pop. 22,160 
 
 LYNCH-LAW, the practice of pun- 
 ishing men for crimes or offenses by 
 private unauthorized persons without a 
 legal trial. The origin of the phrase, 
 used chiefly in the United States has 
 been variously accounted for, but it is 
 evidently derived from some person 
 named Lynch, who adopted a rough and 
 ready mode of punishing offenders. 
 
 LYNN, a town in Essex co., Massa- 
 chusetts, on the north side of Massa- 
 chusetts Bay, about 10 miles northeast 
 from Boston. The town has some fine 
 public buildings, including the city-hall, 
 music-hall. Oddfellows’ hall, etc. Its 
 chief industry is the manufacture of 
 boots and shoes, of which upward of 
 15,000,000 pairs are stated to be an- 
 nually made. Pop. 1909, about 88,000. 
 
 LYNX, the popular name of several 
 species of feline carnivora, resembling 
 the common cat, but with ears longer 
 and tufted with a pencil of hair, and tail 
 shorter. The lynxes have been long 
 
 Lynx. 
 
 famed for their sharp sight, which 
 character they probably owe to their 
 habit of prowling about at night and 
 their brilliant eyes. 
 
 LYON, Mary, American Educator 
 through whose influence the movement 
 for the higher education of women was 
 begun, was born in Buckland, Mass., 
 February, in 1797. From 1824 until 
 1834 she taught successively at London- 
 derry and Ipswich, Mass. In November, 
 1837, she founded Mount Holyoke Fe- 
 male Seminary, at South Hadley, Mass., 
 and from that time until her death was 
 its principal. Miss Lyon taught more 
 than 3,000 pupils, many of whom be- 
 came missionaries. In 1840 she pub- 
 lished a pamphlet entitled Tendencies 
 of the Principles embraced and the Sys- 
 tems adopted in the Mount Holyoke 
 
LVON 
 
 LYTTON 
 
 Seminar}’, and also The Missionary Offer- 
 ing. She died in ISlfl. 
 
 LYON, Nathaniel, American soldier, 
 was born in Ashford, Conn., in 1818. 
 In the Mexican war he was present at 
 the siege of Vera Cruz, and brevetted 
 captain ; at the assault on the Mexican 
 capital he was wounded. At the close of 
 that war he was ordered to California, 
 where in 1851 he was promoted captain. 
 Returning to the east in 1853, he sym- 
 pathized with the Free State party, lie 
 was on duty in Kansas in 1859, and with 
 Gen. William S. Harney in December, 
 
 1860, when the governor sent a brigade 
 of militia to cooperate with the national 
 troops in arresting .lames Montgomery, 
 the Free State leader. In February he 
 was ordered to St. Louis, Mo. There he 
 began to drill and organize the home- 
 guards, and had charge of the arsenal, 
 where his ability and vigilance did mucli 
 for the Union cause. The home-guards 
 were nearly all German recruits, as the 
 native population and the Irishmen 
 were mostly secessionists. On June 10, 
 
 1861, at the head of a body of these 
 
 is built partly on a peninsula between the 
 Saone and the Rhone, and partly on the 
 opposite banks of the rivers on either 
 side. The rivers are crossed by about a 
 score of bridges, and the city is sur- 
 rounded by a number of detached 
 forts. 
 
 Among the chief buildings are the ca- 
 thedral, mostly of the 13th century; the 
 cfeurch of St. Martin d’.Ainay, with a 
 cupola supported by ancient Roman 
 columns and a crypt believed to be of the 
 9th century; the church of St. Nizier, a 
 fine example of flamboyant Gothic; the 
 Hotel de Ville, Palais de Justice, etc. In 
 the archiepiscopal palace, situated near 
 tlie cathedral, 1000 Protestants were 
 butchered in 1572 as a sequel to St. 
 Bartholomew. The Hotel de Ville is con- 
 sidered one of the finest edifices of the 
 kind in France. The public library 
 has 180,000 volumes. Lyons carries on 
 various industries, but its chief glory is 
 that of being the greatest center of the 
 silk manufacture in the world, giving 
 employment in the town or surrounding 
 neighborhood to 240,000 people. During 
 
 General view of Lyoii.s. 
 
 German troops, he took possession of j 
 Camp Jackson, a secessionist rendez- 
 vous. A weekTater he was promoted to 
 brigadier-general of volunteers, and I 
 soon afterward was placed in com- ! 
 mand of the department. He next ] 
 dispersed the Confederate force at j 
 Polosi, and on June 17th defeated aj 
 body of Governor Jackson’s State militia. 
 On August 2d he defeated General | 
 McCulloch at Dry Springs, and eight 
 days later attacked a formidable force ! 
 under Generals McCulloch and Price at 
 Wilson’s Creek, when he was defeated. | 
 Here, in the ardor of action, he was twice | 
 wounde'l; nevertheless, keeping his 
 saddle, ne led his men to renewed at- 
 tacks, until his hor.se was killed and him- 
 self shot in the breast by a rninie rifle- 
 oall. His death was deeply lamented j 
 throughout the Union. I 
 
 LY'ONS, the second city in France, i 
 'apiial of the department of the Rhone, [ 
 240 miles .■s.s.e. of Paris, and 170 miles 
 north of the Mediterranean. The town I 
 
 the revolut ion the city suffered severely 
 by the paralysis of its industry, and by 
 the murderous excesses of the emissaries 
 of the Paris convention, whom the citi- 
 zens had defied, the chief buildings being 
 destroyed and many of the inhabitants 
 butchered. Pop. 453.155. 
 
 LYRE, one of the most ancient stringed 
 instruments of music, consisting of a 
 body with two horn-like pieces rising 
 from it, and a cross piece between the 
 horns, from which to the lower part the 
 strings were stretched. It was used by 
 the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Greeks. 
 It is said to have had originally only 
 three strings, but the number was after- 
 ward increased to seven, then to eleven, 
 and finally to sixteen. It was played 
 with the plectrum or lyre-stick of ivory 
 or polished wood, also with the fingers, 
 and was used chiefly as an accompani- 
 ment to the voice. The body of the lyre 
 was hollow, to increase the sound. A 
 musical instrument of similar construc- 
 tion is still to be met with in the hands of 
 
 the shepherds of Greece and among cer- 
 tain tribes of Africa. 
 
 Various forms of Egyptian, Assyrian and 
 Greek lyres. 
 
 LYRE-BIRD, an insessorial bird of 
 New South Wales, somewhat smaller 
 than a pheasant. The tail of the male is 
 remarkable for the three sorts of feathers 
 that compose it, which by their shape 
 and arrangement resemble the form of 
 an ancient Greek lyre. It has a pleasing 
 song, and is said to be capable of imita- 
 ting the voices of other birds. 
 
 Lyric poetry, originally, poetry 
 sung to or suited for the lyre; in modern 
 usage, that class of poetry in which are 
 expressed the poet’s own thoughts and 
 feelings, or the emotions attributed to 
 another, as opposed to epic or dramatic 
 poetry, to which action is essential. 
 
 LYSAN'DER, an ancient Greek gen- 
 eral who was appointed to the command 
 of the Spartan fleet off the coasts of Asia 
 Minor in 407 b.c., during the Pelopon- 
 nesian war. In 405 b. c. he defeated and 
 captured the Athenian fleet off HUgospo- 
 tamos, and thus put an end to the war. 
 He was killed in abattlewiththeThebans 
 305 B. c. 
 
 LYTLE (lit’l), William Haines, Ameri- 
 can soldier and poet, was born in Cin- 
 cinnati, Ohio, in 1826. He volunteered 
 for the Mexican War, was chosen cap- 
 tain of the Second Ohio Regiment, and 
 soon after the war was elected to the 
 state legislature. Before the civil war he 
 had become major-general in the state 
 militia, and in 1861 was commissioned 
 colonel of the tenth Ohio. He was killed 
 leading a charge of his brigade at Chicka- 
 mauga, Ga., in 1863. Lytle is also well 
 remembered as a poet through his 
 effective Address of Antony to Cleo- 
 patra, beginning “I am dying, Egypt, 
 dying.” 
 
 LYTTON, Edward George Earle Lyt- 
 ton Bulwer-Lytton, Baron, was born in 
 1805, died 1873. He published poetry 
 at an early age, but first gained reputa- 
 tion by the novels Pelham and the Dis- 
 owned (1828), Devereux (1829), and 
 Paul Clifford (1830). These were followed 
 up with the popular romances of Eugene 
 .\ram, the Pilgrims of the Rhine, The 
 Last Days of Pompeii, Rienzi, and 
 Ernest Mall ravers with its seciuel Alice. 
 In connection with Macready’s manage- 
 ment at Covent Garden Bulwer-Lytton 
 produced his Duchess de la Valliere, 
 which proved a failure, but this was re- 
 trieved by the instant success of the 
 Lady of Lyons, Richelieu, and Money. 
 When he had thus shown his quick 
 adaptability of talent he returned to 
 
LYl'ToN 
 
 Macbeth 
 
 novel-writing, and published in steady 
 succession — -Night and Morning, Zanoni, 
 The Last of the Barons, Lucretia, Harold, 
 The Caxtons, My Novel, and What will 
 He Do with It? He entered parliament 
 for St. Ives in 1831, and supported the 
 reform bill as a Wig; he changed his 
 opinions and latterly supported the con- 
 servatives. Under Lord Derby’s minis- 
 try he was colonial secretary, and in 1866 
 entered the House of Lords as Baron 
 Lytton. He was elected rector of Glas- 
 gow University in 1856. His later 
 literary works were The Coming Race, 
 published anonymouly (1871), The Pari- 
 
 sians (187‘2), and Keneim Chillingly 
 (1873). Among his poetic works were 
 the epic King Arthur; the Lost Tales of 
 Miletus; Brutus, a drama, etc. 
 
 LYTTON, The Right Hon. Edward 
 Robert Bulwer-Lytton, Earl of, G. C. B., 
 son of the novelist and politician, was 
 born in 1831 ; educated at Harrow and 
 Bonn; entered the diplomatic service in 
 1849 as attach^ at Washington, and suc- 
 cessively served in the embassies of 
 Florence, Paris, the Hague, Copenhagen, 
 Athens, Madrid, Vienna, Paris, and 
 Lisbon. He was appointed Viceroy of 
 
 India by Lord Beasonsfield in 1876, and ■ 
 during his administration the queen was M 
 proclaimed Empress of India, and war S 
 was waged with Afghanistan. In 1880 * 
 
 he resigned and was created an earl. He * 
 early attained reputation as a poet under 3 
 the pen name of “Owen Meredith”; and :J 
 wrote Clymnestra and other Poems, ' 
 Lucile, Tannhauser, or the Battle of the 
 Bards, Fables in Song, King Poppy, ; 
 Glenaveril, besides prose works. He also > 
 published the life and letters of his 
 father. He was appointed ambassador 
 to Paris in 1888, and died there in 1891. 
 
 M 
 
 M is the thirteenth letter and tenth 
 consonant of the English alphabet. It 
 represents a labial and nasal articulation 
 the compression of the lips being accom- 
 panied with the fall of the uvula so as to 
 allow the voice to form a humming sound 
 through the nose, which constitutes the 
 difference between this letter and b. 
 
 MAARTENS (mar'tfinsL Maarten, a 
 novelist of Dutch birth and English 
 training, whose real name is J. M. M. 
 van der Poorten-Schwartz, was born 
 in 1858. His first novel. The Sin of 
 Joost Avelingh, was clever and success- 
 ful both with critics and the public. An 
 Old Maid’s Love, A Question of Taste, 
 God’s Fool, are other works of merit. 
 The Greater Glory was first to gain for 
 Maartens that general recognition that 
 has been accorded also to My Lady No- 
 body and to his later novels. 
 
 MAB, a mythical personage often re- 
 presented as queen of the fairies. 
 
 MACAD'AM, John Loudon, the great 
 improver of roads, was born at Ayr, 
 probably in 1756, and died in 1836. 
 Having spent his early years in the 
 United States he returned to Great 
 Britain and was appointed agent for 
 victualling thenavy in thewestern ports. 
 In 1815 he was appointed surveyor of 
 the Bristol roads, and thus received the 
 opportunity to put his road-making im- 
 provements into practice. He was so 
 successful in this that the House of 
 Commons presented him with a sum of 
 $10,000, and his mode of road-making is 
 still known as Macadamization. This 
 method consists in covering the road- 
 way or forming the road-crust with 
 small broken stones to a considerable 
 depth, and consolidating them by heavy 
 rollers, so as to form a hard, firm, and 
 smooth surface. 
 
 MACARO'NI, Maccaroni, preparation 
 of wheaten flour, used as food, usually 
 simply boiled and served up with grated 
 cheese, or in soups, etc. Macaroni is 
 generally made in tubular pieces resem- 
 bling a long pipe-stalk by pressing it 
 through holes in a metal plate. Vermi- 
 celli is a similar preparation, but is more 
 thread-like. Macaroni is a wholesome 
 food, made best in the neighborhood of 
 Naples, and considered a national dish of 
 the Italians. — Macaroni was used as a 
 popular term for a coxcomb or dandy 
 about 1770-1775. 
 
 MACAR'THUR, Arthur, American 
 soldier was born in Massachusetts in 
 1845. He took part in the battles of 
 
 Perryville, Stone River, and Chatta- 
 nooga, and in the Atlanta campaign. In 
 February, 1866, he entered the regular 
 army as first lieutenant, and in July, 
 1889, he became assistant adjutant- 
 general, with the rank of major. He was 
 appointed brigadier-general of volun- 
 teers in May, 1898, and major-general of 
 volunteers in August of the same year, 
 and in 1898-99 was engaged on special 
 duty in Havana, Cuba. In 1899 he was 
 sent tothe Philippine Islands, and in 1900 
 succeeded General Otis as commander 
 of the Division of the Philippines and 
 military governor of the islands. In 
 January, 1900, he was promoted to be a 
 brigadier-general in the regular army, 
 and in February, 1901, to be major- 
 general. Upon his return to the United 
 States he was placed in command of the 
 Department of the Lakes, whence he 
 was transferred to the Department of 
 California. 
 
 MACAU'LAY, Thomas Babington, 
 Lord, historian, essayist, and politician, 
 was born 1800 at Rothley Temple, 
 Leicestershire, and died at Kensington 
 1859. In 1818 he entered Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, where he obtained the Chan- 
 cellor’s medal for a poem on Pompeii, 
 and a second time for a poem on Even- 
 ing; received a fellowship, and took his 
 M. A. degree in 1825. Before this he be- 
 gan to contribute to Knight’s Quarterly 
 Magazine, in which appeared his poems 
 of the Armada, Ivry, and the Battle of 
 the League ; and in 1 825 he inaugurated 
 
 Lord Macaulay. 
 
 his brilliant career in the Edinburgh 
 Review by his article on Milton. He was 
 called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1826. 
 He entered parliament in 1830 as mem- 
 
 ber for Caine, and made his first speech 
 in support of freedom for the Jews in f 
 England. During his political career 
 Macaulay had continued his literary - 
 labors. In 1842 he published his Lays of 
 Ancient Rome; and in 1848 appeared 
 the first two of the five volumes of his 
 History of England, which covers the 
 period between the accession of James 
 II. and the death of William III This 
 brilliant rhetorical exposition, although 
 touched with partisanship and with a 
 tendency to paradox, has attained the 
 position of an English classic. He was 
 created a peer in 1857, and at his death 
 he was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 The Life and Letters of Macaulay has 
 been published by his nephew. Sir Geo. 
 Otto Trevelyan. 
 
 MACAW', a genus of beautiful birds 
 of the parrot tribe. The macaws are 
 magnificent birds, distinguished by 
 
 having their cheeks destitute of feathers, 
 and their tail-feathers long. They are 
 all natives of the tropical regions of 
 South America. The largest and most 
 splendid in regard to color is the great 
 scarlet or red and blue macaw. The great 
 green macaw and the blue-and-yellow 
 macaw are somewhat smaller. 
 
 MACAW-TREE, the name given to 
 several species of trees of the genus 
 Acrocomia, natives of tropical America, >■ 
 the fruit of one species yields an oil of a 
 yellowish color of the consistence of but- 
 ter, with a sweetish taste and an odor of > 
 violets, used by the natives of the West ? 
 Indies as an emollient in painful affec- 
 tions of the joints. 
 
 MACBETH,' MACBEDA, or MAC- 
 BETHAD, son of Finnelaech, a king of 
 Scotland who reigned from 1040 to 1057. 
 During the reign of Duncan he was 
 
MACCABEES 
 
 M’CULLOCa 
 
 “morrhaer” of Moray by inheritatlce, 
 and by his marriage with Gruoch, grand- 
 daughter of Kenneth IV. This Duncan, 
 in his attempt to subdue the independ- 
 ent chiefs of the north, was slain by 
 Macbeth at “Bothgowan,” which is 
 supposed to be near Elgin. By this 
 means Macbeth became king, and, ac- 
 cording to all accounts, his reign was 
 fairly successful. In 1050 he is said to 
 have gone on a pilgrimage to Rome. 
 At the death of their father the sons of 
 Duncan had taken refuge with their 
 uncle Siward, earl of Northumberland, 
 and with his aid they invaded Scotland 
 in 1054; a battle was fought at Dunsi- 
 nane, but it was not until 1057 that 
 Macbeth was finally defeated and slain 
 at Lumphanan in Aberdeen. The 
 legends which gradually gathered round 
 the name of Macbeth were collected by 
 John of Fordun and Hector Boece, 
 and reproduced by Holinshed in his 
 Chronicle, and there found, as is sup- 
 posed, by Shakespeare, who has made 
 such splendid use of them. 
 
 MACCABEES, Books of, treat of the 
 Jewish history under the Maccabean 
 princes; they are five in number, the 
 first two of which are included in the 
 English Apocrypha, and are accounted 
 canonical by the Roman and Greek 
 churches. 
 
 M’CARTHY, Justin, M. P., novelist, 
 historian, and politician, was born at 
 Cork in 1830. His novels are numerous, 
 and his historical writings include A 
 History of Our Own Times, History of 
 the Four Georges, etc. He was a Home 
 Rule representative for Longford from 
 1879 till 1900. He died in 1904. His 
 son, Justin Huntley McCarthy (born 
 1859), has also been an M. P. of the 
 same party, and is favorably known in 
 literature as the author of If I Were King. 
 
 MACCLELLAN, George Brinton, an 
 American general, born at Philadelphia 
 1826, died 1885. He was trained at the 
 West Point Military School; served in 
 the Mexican war; joined the Red river 
 expedition as engineer; and in 1855 was 
 
 George B. MacClellan. 
 
 appointed to the commission which 
 reported on the condition of European 
 armies, and watched the military opera- 
 tions during the Crimean war. At the 
 outbreak of the civil war in the states he 
 superseded McDowell after the first 
 battle of Bull’s Run; and became com- 
 P. E.— 49 
 
 mander-in-chief on the 1st November, 
 1861. In this capacity he organized the 
 raw levies of the North and advanced 
 against Richmond the following spring, 
 but was relieved from his supreme com- 
 mand by President Lincoln in 1862, and 
 thenceforth led the army of the Potomac 
 in a series of engagements which term- 
 inated in the Seven Days’ Battle, 
 when he had to retire from his lines in 
 front of Richmond. Afterward, when 
 Lee advanced into Maryland, Mac- 
 Clellan fought the battles of South 
 Mountain and Antietam (September 
 14-17, 1862), and compelled the con- 
 federate forces to retire. The political 
 authorities being dissatisfied with his 
 apparent slackness in following up this 
 victory, MacClellan was relieved from 
 his command and retired from the army. 
 In 1864 he was nominated for the 
 presidency, but was overwhelmingly 
 defeated by Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 M’CLERNAND, John Alexander, 
 American soldier, was born in Kentucky 
 in 1812. He removed to Illinois, and 
 practiced law, and for some years edited 
 a newspaper at Shawneetown. In 1836- 
 40 and in 1812 he served in the state 
 legislature, and from 1843 to 1851 sat in 
 congresss as a democrat. In 1859 he was 
 reelected to congress, but resigned at the 
 beginning of the civil war to raise a 
 brigade of which he was given command. 
 He commanded the right of the line at 
 Fort Donelson, led a division at Shiloh, 
 and was at Champion Hill, Vicksburg, 
 and other battles. Afterward he com- 
 manded the thirteenth army corps until 
 relieved in July, 1863, and in Novem- 
 ber, 1864, he resigned from the army. 
 He died in 1900. 
 
 MACCLINTOCK, Vice-Admiral Sir 
 Francis Leopold, K. C. B., born at Dun- 
 dalk 1819; entered the navy in 1831; 
 became a lieutenant in 1845; and in 
 1848 joined the expedition sent out by 
 the British government in search of Sir 
 John Franklin, the Arctic explorer. In 
 1850, and again in 1852, he went out 
 with other Arctic expeditions, and on 
 the latter occasion was instrumental in 
 rescuing MacClure and his companions. 
 MacClintock set forth again in 1857 as 
 commander of the Fox, a vessel equipped 
 by Lady Franklin, and discovered 
 documentary and other evidence of the 
 death of Franklin. For these services 
 the explorer was knighted in 1860. He 
 died in 1887. 
 
 MACCLURE, Vice-Admiral Sir Robert 
 John Le Mesurier, C. B., born in 1807, 
 died in 1873. He entered the navy in 
 1824; joined an Arctic expedition in 
 1836; accompanied Sir John Ross into 
 the same region in 1848; and himself 
 took command of an Arctic expedition 
 in 1850. He penetrated as far north as 
 Melville Sound, and there discovered a 
 passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific, 
 which he named Prince of Wales Strait. 
 
 M’CLURE (ma-kloor'), Alexander 
 Kelly, American journalist, was born in 
 Sherman Valley, Perry co.. Pa., in 1828. 
 He was state superintendent of printing 
 in 1855, a member of the state conven- 
 tion of 1855, which met at Pittsburg to 
 organize the republican party. As a 
 leader of the Pennsylvania delegation in 
 the republican national convention of 
 1860 he aided in the nomination of 
 
 Abraham Lincoln. In 1875 he estab- 
 lished the Philadelphia Times of which 
 he was editor in chief till 1891. He has 
 published Three Thousand Miles Through 
 the Rocky Mountains, Our 'Presidents 
 and How We Make Them. Recollec- 
 tions of Half a Century. 
 
 M’CLURE, Samuel Sidney, American 
 editor and publisher, was born in 
 County Antrim, Ireland, in 1857. In 
 1884 he established a newspaper syndi- 
 cate which has grown to great propor- 
 tions. In 1893 he founded McClure’s 
 Magazine and in 1899 the publishing 
 house of McClure, Phillips & Company, 
 New York. He is the president also of 
 the S. S. McClure Company of the same 
 city. 
 
 M’COOK, Alexander McD., American 
 soldier, was born in Ohio in 1831. He 
 served against the Apaches, and from 
 1858 to 1861 was instructor of infantry 
 tactics at West Point. He commanded a 
 regiment at the first battle of Bull Run, 
 and a division of the army of the Ohio in 
 the Tennessee and Mississippi cam- 
 paigns. He was brevetted colonel for 
 services at Shiloh, and finally brigadier- 
 general and major-general United States 
 army for gallant and meritorious services 
 at Perrysville and elsewhere. At the 
 close of the war he was brevetted briga- 
 dier-general in the regular army for 
 “gallant and meritorious services at the 
 battle of Perryville’’ and major-general 
 for “gallant and meritorious services in 
 the field during the rebellion,’’ and in 
 March, 1867, reentered the regular serv- 
 ice as lieutenant-colonel. He became 
 a brigadier-general in 1890 and a major- 
 general in 1894, was retired from 
 service in 1895, represented the United 
 States at the coronation of the Czar in 
 May, 1896, and from September, 1898, 
 to February, 1899, served on a com- 
 mission appointed by President Mc- 
 Kinley to investigate the administration 
 of the war department during the Span- 
 ish-American war. He died in 1903. 
 
 M’CORMICK, Cyrus Hall, American 
 inventor and manufacturer, was born 
 in Virginia in 1809. He moved to Chi- 
 cago in 1847. In 1831 he constructed 
 the reaping machine which has become 
 known all over the world. In 1859 he 
 contributed largely to the establish- 
 ment at Chicago of the Presbyterian 
 Theological Seminary of the Northwest, 
 and afterward endowed a professor’s 
 chair in Washington and Lee University, 
 Lexington, Va. He died in 1884. 
 
 M’COSH, James, a Scottish-American 
 philosopher, was born in Ayrshire, Scot- 
 land, in 1811. In 1868 he came to Amer- 
 ica and became president of Princeton 
 College of New Jersey, and took a promi- 
 nent place among American divines and 
 educators. He resigned the presidency 
 in 1888 owing to advancing age but 
 retained the chair of philosophy and 
 continued to live in Princeton until his 
 death. Besides numerous contributions 
 to British and American reviews, he has 
 published many philosophical works 
 and essays, and some occasional sermons 
 and addresses. He died in 1894. 
 
 M’CULLOCH, Ben, American soldier, 
 was born in Rutherford co., Tenn., in 
 1811; In 1835 he started to join the 
 
M’CULLOCH 
 
 M’DOWELL 
 
 In the war between the United States 
 and Mexico he won distinction as an 
 officer of the Texas rangers. He was 
 particularly successful as a scout and 
 was made quarter-master with the rank 
 of major. In 1849 Major McCulloch 
 settled at Sacramento, Cal., where he 
 was chosen sheriff of the county. In 
 1852 he returned to Texas, where he 
 was appointed United States marshal 
 under the democratic administration, 
 and later spent several years in Wash- 
 ington. At the outbreak of the war be- 
 tween the states he resigned his govern- 
 ment emplo 3 unent and joined the con- 
 federates, and was commissioned brig- 
 adier-general on May 14, 1861. He 
 gathered a force of men, and marched 
 through Arkansas toward Missouri, 
 formed a junction with the troops under 
 Gen. Sterling Price and encountered 
 the national troops under Gens. Nathan- 
 iel Lyon and Franz Sigel. The battle of 
 Wilson’s Creek was the result, where the 
 confederates were victorious. Later he 
 led a division at the battle of Pea Ridge 
 and, while riding forward to reconnoiter, 
 was killed by a bullet. 
 
 M’CULLOCH, Hugh, American finan- 
 cier, was born in Maine in 1808. In 1863 
 he became comptroller of the currency 
 and assisted Secretary Chase in carrying 
 out the provisions of the act organizing 
 national banks. In March, 1865, he be- 
 came secretary of the treasury, which 
 office he held for four years He was 
 instrumental in converting the debt 
 and took strong ground in favor of a 
 resumption of specie payments and the 
 reduction of the national debt. From 
 1871 until 1878 he was at the head of a 
 banking institution in England, and in 
 October, 1884, he succeeded Judge 
 Gresham as secretary of the treasury. 
 He resigned in March following. He died 
 in 1895. 
 
 M’CLOSKEY, John, cardinal, was 
 born in Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1810. In 
 1834 he was ordained to the Roman 
 Catholic priesthood. In 1837 he became 
 pastor of St. Joseph’s Church in New 
 York City, and in June, 1841, when 
 Bishop Hughes opened St. John’s Col- 
 lege in Fordham, N. Y., he was ap- 
 pointed its president. In 1844 he was 
 translated to the new Roman Catholic 
 diocese of Albany, N. Y., where he con- 
 tinued seventeen years, and built the 
 cathedral. In May, 1864, he succeeded 
 Dr. John Hughes as archbishop of New 
 York. Here he built the new St Pat- 
 rick’s cathedral, and in 1875 was created 
 cardinal-priest, being the first American 
 elevated to that dignity. On several 
 occasions he was called on to confer with 
 the propaganda at the Vatican; and he 
 took part in the election of Leo XIII. 
 He died in 1885. 
 
 MACDONALD, George, LL.D., novel- 
 ist and poet, was born at Huntly in 
 1824. Among his numerous novels are 
 David Elginbrod, Alec Forbes, Annals of 
 a Quiet Neighborhood, Robert Falconer, 
 Malcolm, The Marquis of Lossie, Castle 
 Warlock, etc. He died in 1905. 
 
 MACDONALD, Sir John Alexander, 
 K.C.B., D.C.L., Canadian statesman, 
 was bom in Scotland in 1815. Being 
 taken to Canada, he was educated at 
 Kingston; admitted to the bar in 1835; 
 entered parliament for Kingston in 1844; 
 
 and became successively a member of 
 the executive council, receiver-general, 
 commissioner of crown lands, and 
 attorney-general. He became premier 
 in 18167, a position which he held until 
 1873 when he resigned over the Pacific 
 Railway charges, but resumed the office 
 again in 1878, and held it till his death in 
 1891. He was an active promote, of the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian 
 confederation, and was leader of the con- 
 servatives. 
 
 MACDUFF. See Banff. 
 
 MACE, a weapon of wa. in use in 
 Europe as late as the 16th century. It 
 consisted of a staff about 5 feet long, 
 with a heavy metal head, which as- 
 sumed a variety of forms, but was fre- 
 quently in the form of a spiked ball. 
 Another kind of mace is a sort of heavy 
 ornamental staff used as an emblem of 
 authority in universities, courts of law, 
 parliament, etc. 
 
 MACE, a spice, the dried aril or cover- 
 ing of the seed of the nutmeg, this 
 covering being a fleshy net-like envelope 
 somewhat resembling the husk of a 
 Albert. When fresh it is of a beautiful 
 crimson hue. It is extremely fragrant 
 and aromatic, and is chiefly used in 
 cooking or in pickles. 
 
 M’CULLOUGH (m’-kul'lo), John Ed- 
 ward, American tragedian, was born 
 at Blakes, Londonderry, Ireland, in 
 1837. He came to the United States 
 in 1853, and first appeared on the 
 stage in a minor part at the Arch 
 Street Theater, Philadelphia, in 1857. 
 In 1866-68 he traveled with Edwin 
 Forrest, whose methods he imitated. 
 He took many notable roles, in- 
 cluding Laertes, lago, Edgar, Macduff, 
 Richmond, Hamlet, Richelieu, Falcon- 
 bridge, Pierre, De Mauprat, Richmond, 
 Spartacus. His chief part, however, 
 was Virginius, in which, indeed, he was 
 unrivaled during his time. His inter- 
 pretations were of the heroic type. He 
 died in 1885. 
 
 MACDONOUGH(ma,k-d6n'o), Thomas, 
 American naval officer, was born at 
 Macdonough, Del., in 1783. He entered 
 the United States navy as a midship- 
 man in 1800; served on the Constellation 
 under Commodore Murray, in 1801-02; 
 and in 1803 started for Tripoli in the 
 Philadelphia, Commodore Bainbridge, 
 but at Gibraltar was placed in charge of 
 a captured Moorish frigate, and thus 
 escaped capture and imprisonment at 
 the hands of the Tripolitans when the 
 Philadelphia ran aground on November 
 1, 1803. In the war of 1812 he served as 
 first lieutenant on the Constitution, and 
 in September, 1812, was placed in com 
 mand of the United States naval force 
 on Lake Champlain. In the following 
 year he was promoted to be master 
 commander, and in Plattsburg harbor, 
 on Sunday, September 11, 1814, with a 
 fleet of 14 vessels, carrying 86 guns and 
 about 800 men, he completely defeated 
 a British fleet of 16 vessels, carrying 95 
 guns and about 1000 men under Capt. 
 George Downie. For this victory he 
 was commissioned captain, then the 
 highest rank in the United States navy, 
 and received a gold medal from congress 
 and an estate on Cumberland Head, 
 near Plattsburg, from the legislature of 
 Vermont. He died in 1825. 
 
 MACEDO'l^, in ancient geography, 
 a territory lying to the north of Greece, 
 which first became powerful under its 
 king Philip, the father of Alexander the 
 Great, and conqueror of Greece Alexan- 
 der the Great added immensely to the 
 empire of Macedonia, and made, what 
 had only been a petty province, mistress 
 of half the world. After his death the 
 empire was divided; dominion was lost 
 over Greece; and the result of the bat- 
 ■’es of Cynoscephalae (197 b.c.) and 
 X ^ dna (168 B.c.) was to reduce the 
 ancient kingdom to a Roman province. 
 Macedonia now forms a part of Turkey 
 in Europe, and is inhabited by Walla- 
 chians. Turks, Greeks, and Albanias. 
 
 MACERATA (md-che-ra'ta), a town in 
 Italy. Pop. 20,263. — The province, 
 bounded north by Ancona, west by 
 Umbria, south by Ascoli, and east by 
 the Adriatic, has an area of 1056 sq. 
 miles, produces much corn, fruit, and 
 hemp, and rears great numbers of sheep 
 and cattle. Pop. 250,368. 
 
 MACFAR'REN, Sir George Alexander, 
 musical composer, born in London 1813, 
 died 1887. His chief operas are The 
 Devil’s Opera, Don Quixote, Robin 
 Hood. He also essayed the cantata in 
 Lenore, and the Lady of the Lake, 
 while his oratorios are St. Jchn the 
 Baptist, The Resurrection, Joseph, and 
 King David. He also wrote several 
 musical treatises. 
 
 MACGAHAN (mak-ga'han), J. A., 
 American journalist and traveler, was 
 born in Perry co., Ohio, in 1844; died in 
 Turkey, June, 1878. In 1870, while 
 visiting in Europe, he was engaged as 
 special correspondent for the New York 
 Herald. Afterward he became special 
 correspondent for the Herald at St. 
 Petersburg, and reported the proceed- 
 ings of the Geneva conference. In 
 January, 1873, he started on his famous 
 expedition to Khiva. In 1874 he pub- 
 lished in London his Campaign on the 
 Oxus, and the Fall of Khiva. In the 
 same year he joined the Carlist forces in 
 Spain and for ten months contributed 
 letters to his paper from that country. 
 During the Russo-Turkish war, which 
 followed, he met with a severe accident, 
 but managed to keep in, the field, and 
 described the scenes of battle from the 
 fight at Shipka Pass to the surrender of 
 Plevna. He died at Pera, in 1878, a 
 suburb of Constantinople, of an epidemic 
 disease. 
 
 M’DOWELL, Irvin, American soldier 
 was born at Columbus, Ohio, in 1818. 
 On the breaking out of the civil war he 
 was made a brigadier-general and ap- 
 pointed to the command of the federal 
 troops at Washington. He was in com- 
 mand when the Union army was de- 
 feated at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 
 1861. General McClellan took the com- 
 mand soon after that battle, and General 
 McDowell was placed in charge of the 
 troops around Washington. He was 
 made a major-general of volunteers, 
 March 14th, and commander of the de f 
 partment of the Rappahannock, April 
 14, 1862. In 1863-64 he was president 
 of the court for investigating cotton 
 frauds, and of the board for retiring 
 disabled officers. In November, 1872, 
 he was made major-general of the 
 regular army, and successively had com- 
 
M'GEE 
 
 MACKAY 
 
 mand of the various military depart- 
 ments into which the United States is 
 divided, until he was placed on the 
 retired list in 1882. He died in San 
 Francisco May 4, 1885. 
 
 M’GEE, W. J., American geologist, 
 anthropologist, and ethnologist, was 
 born near Dubuque, Iowa, in 1853. He 
 began the study of archaiology and geol- 
 ogy in 1875, and in 1877-81 executed a 
 topographic and geological survey of 
 17,000 square miles in northeastern 
 Iowa. In 1881 he was appointed geolo- 
 gist in the United States Geological 
 Survey, and in 1885 and 1892 compiled 
 standard geological maps. In 1893, 
 having resigned from the Geological 
 Survey, he was appointed ethnologist- 
 in-charge in the Bureau of ' American 
 Ethnology. In 1895 he explored the 
 Isla del Tiburon, Gulf of California, 
 home of the Seri Indians, a savage tribe 
 which until then had not been studied. 
 His publications include; The Pleisto- 
 cene History of Northeastern Iowa, The 
 Geology of Chesapeake Bay, The Siouan 
 Indians, Primitive Trephining, The 
 Seri Indians, Primitive Numbers, and 
 many other memoirs and minor papers. 
 
 M’GLYNN, Edward, American Roman 
 Catholic clergyman, was born in New 
 York City, in 1837. He was educated 
 at the public schools of New York City, 
 and for ten ypars, from 1851 to 1860, 
 studied theology at the college of the 
 Propaganda in Rome. In 1860 he was 
 ordained priest of the Roman Catholic 
 church, and on his return to the United 
 States became a hospital chaplain. In 
 1866 he became pastor of St. Stephen’s 
 church in New York City. His unwilling- 
 ness to establish a parochial school in 
 connection with his church brought him 
 into disfavor with the archbishop of his 
 diocese and his coadjutor. Mgr. Preston. 
 He also spoke in favorof thelandtheories 
 of Henry George on several public 
 occasions, for which he came under the 
 censure of his church, and was sus- 
 pended. In December, 1892, after a 
 hearing before the Apostolic Delegate, 
 Mgr. Satolli, he made his submission 
 and was restored to his priestly func- 
 tions. He died in 1900. 
 
 M’KINLEY, William, 25th president 
 of the United States, was born in Niles, 
 
 ■William McKinley. 
 
 Ohio, in 1843. After teaching school 
 for a short period, he enlisted, in June, 
 
 1861, in the twenty-third Ohio infantry, 
 under command of Colonel (subse- 
 quently General)W. S. Rosecrans, and 
 served through the war, gaining the 
 rank of brevet major. He returned to 
 Poland at the close of the war, began 
 the study of law, and was admitted to 
 the bar in 1867. Entering on the prac- 
 tice of law at Canton, Ohio, he soon 
 mingled in politics, and became a lead- 
 ing stump speaker in the state. He was 
 elected prosecutingattorney in 1869, and 
 in 1876 member of congress, and re- 
 elected successively until 1882. With 
 one exception he continued to hold his 
 seat in congress until 1890. He was 
 elected governor of Ohio in 1891, and 
 reelected in 1893 by a majority of 
 80,000. In June, 1896, he was nominated 
 by the republican national convention at 
 St. Louis for president, and elected by 
 a vote of 271 in the electoral college to 
 176 for William J. Bryan, his demo- 
 cratic opponent. In 1900 he was re- 
 elected by increased majorities both in 
 the popular vote and in the electoral 
 college, the latter giving him 292 votes 
 to 155 for W. J. Bryan. While holding 
 a public reception at the Pan-American 
 Exposition at Buffalo, Sept. 6, 1901, he 
 was shot through the stomach by an 
 anarchist named Leon Czolgosz, of 
 Cleveland, O. An operation was per- 
 formed immediately, and the President 
 was removed to the home of President 
 Milburn of the Exposition. For a week 
 the physicians announced steady im- 
 provement, and it seemed that he was 
 well out of danger, when he relapsed, 
 and died at 2:15 A. m.. Sept. 14. Gan- 
 grene had set in, and a post-mortem ex- 
 amination showed that from the first 
 there was no hope of recovery. He was 
 buried at Canton, O., Sept. 19. 
 
 MACGILL (-giP), James, born in Glas- 
 gow, Scotland, 1744, died at Montreal 
 1813. He emigrated to Canada, knd 
 ultimately became one of the chief mer- 
 chants in the city. He left property 
 valued at $150,000 (now enormously 
 increased in value), and $50,000 cash to 
 found the university in Montreal which 
 bears his name. 
 
 MACHIAVELLI (mak-ya-vel'le), Nic- 
 colo, a distinguished Italian statesman 
 and historian, born at Florence in 1469; 
 died in 1527. He became prominent in 
 public affairs in 1498, when he was ap- 
 pointed secretary to the Ten at Florence. 
 For more than fourteen years he guided 
 the destinies of the Florentine Republic, 
 undertook embassies, concluded treaties, 
 and jealously conserved tlje rights and 
 liberties of his native city. When the 
 Medici returned to power in 1512 by aid 
 of Pope Julius II., Machiavelli was de- 
 prived of his office, and imprisoned for 
 his supposed complicity in a plot to over- 
 turn the new authority, but being re- 
 leased after a time he retired to his coun- 
 try house of San Casciano. The name of 
 Machiavelli was for long synonymous 
 with all that is tortuous and treacherous 
 in state affairs. The more recent, as also 
 the more generous estimate of this 
 Italian statesman, is to regard his Prince 
 as a first honest but imperfect attempt 
 to construct a state out of the decayed 
 mediaeval institutions still lingering in 
 Italy, and that its defects on the ethical 
 side are due to tlie corrupt times in 
 
 which he lived, the conditions of political 
 dissimulation underwhich his experience 
 was gained, and the overmastering de- 
 sire he had to see his country unified and 
 made great. 
 
 MACHINE GUN, a name given to any 
 of tliose pieces of ordnance that are 
 loaded and fired mechanically, and can 
 deliver a number of projectiles simul- 
 taneously or in rapid succession, having 
 usually a number of separate barrels. 
 The first of these to come into promi- 
 nence in warfare was the French mitrail- 
 leuse, or mitrailleur, which was em- 
 ployed in the Franco-German war. The 
 Gatling gun first appeared in the United 
 States, and was speedily adopted by 
 Britain and other powers, with modifi- 
 cations. Other guns of this kind are the 
 Hotchkiss, the Nordenfeldt, and the 
 Gardner gun. Such guns, while having 
 their own use in warfare by land, are re- 
 garded as being of special value in marine 
 warfare, and are intended mainly for use 
 against torpedo-boats. The Nordenfeldt, 
 the Gatling, and the Gardner are all in 
 use in the British navy. The Gardner 
 gun may be mounted in various ways— 
 on a gun-carriage, or on a tripod stand, 
 the legs of which can be screwed down to 
 a ship’s deck. As to absolute rapidity of 
 fire the Nordenfeldt has slightly the 
 superiority; yet the two-barrel Gardner 
 can fire 236 rounds, the five-barrel 
 Gardner 330 rounds in half a minute, 
 while as regards reliabilityfor continuous 
 work and ease and rapidity of fire the 
 Gardner gun has manifested a marked 
 superiority over the Nordenfeldt. The 
 latter is fired by a handle with a recipro- 
 cating motion, while the Gardner is fired 
 by a handle with a rotary motion, which 
 is the same whatever the elevation or 
 depression of the gun. The Hotchkiss 
 gun fires heavier projectiles (hollow per- 
 cussion shells) than the other machine 
 guns, the fire being continuous. It may 
 be described as consisting of a gun-metal 
 frame in which five Whitworth steel bar- 
 rels revolve with intermittent motion, 
 having a single firing action and cast- 
 iron breech. The* barrels become sta- 
 tionary at the moment of firing, loading, 
 and extracting the empty cartridges. A 
 more recent machine gun is the Maxim, 
 which, after the first shot is fired by 
 hand power, continues to fire shot after 
 shot by means of the power derived from 
 the explosion of each successive cart- 
 ridge. 
 
 MACHINE TOOLS, a name given to 
 various machines constructed to perform 
 operations that otherwise would be done 
 by hand. They include planing machines, 
 drilling macliines, punching machines, 
 boring machines, steam hammers, Clc.; 
 and some of them are marvels of ac- 
 curacy and ingenuity. 
 
 MACKAY (ma-ke'), Charles, LL.D., 
 poet and miscellaneous writer, born at 
 Perth in 1812. He visited America on a 
 lecturing tour (1858), and represented 
 the Times in New York during the civil 
 war. His chief prose and poetical 
 works are: Songs and Poems (1834), The 
 Hope of the World and other Poeins 
 (1840). Voices from the Mountains 
 (1847), Forty Years’ Recollections, 1830 
 -1870 (1876), Poetry and Humor of the 
 Scottish Language (1882), The Founders 
 of the American Republic (1885), a work 
 
MACKAY 
 
 MACMAHON 
 
 on Celtic Etymology, and many other 
 works. He died in 1889. 
 
 MACELAY, John William, American 
 capitalist, born in Dublin, Ireland, in 
 1831. He came to New York City when 
 he was a boy. In 1851 he went to Cali- 
 fornia and in 1852 to Nevada, where 
 he secured a two-fifths share in the 
 Bananza mines of the Comstock Lode. 
 With Flood, Fair, and O’Brien, his 
 partners, he formed the Nevada Bank, 
 and was long its president, but with- 
 drew his capital after Flood’s disastrous 
 attempt to corner wheat. In 1884, 
 largely because of enmity to Jay Gould, 
 he formed with James Gordon Bennett 
 the Commercial Cable Company and 
 the Postal Telegraph Company to fight 
 the Western Union; laid the cable in 
 spite of many difficulties, and fought a 
 long fight with the old cable lines, which 
 cut the rate to 12 cents a word in a vain 
 attempt to force Mackay out. He died 
 in 1902. 
 
 MACKEN'ZIE, Sir Alexander, Cana- 
 dian explorer, born at Inverness, Scot- 
 land, 1755; died 1820. In the employ- 
 ment of the Northwest Fur Company he 
 explored the great river named after him 
 from the western end of Great Slave 
 Lake to the Arctic Ocean (1789) He 
 made another expedition to the western 
 coast (1792), and was the first white 
 man to cross the Rocky Mountains and 
 reach the Pacific coast. He returned to 
 Britain in 1801, and was knighted. 
 
 MACKENZIE, Alexander, Canadian 
 statesman, born in Logierait, Perth- 
 shire, Scotland, 1822. Originally a stone- 
 mason, he emigrated to Kingston, 
 Canada, in 1842, and began business as 
 a builder and contractor. In 1852 he 
 was editor of a liberal newspaper, and he 
 entered parliafiient in 1861, becoming 
 leader of the liberal party in 1873. On 
 the resignation of Sir John Macdonald 
 that same year he became premier, and 
 retained office with much success till 
 1878 He died in 1892. He more than 
 once declined the honor of knighthood. 
 
 MACKENZIE, Sir Alex. Campbell, 
 composer, born at Edinburgh 1847. 
 He became principal of the Royal 
 Academy of Music in 1888. He is the 
 author of the oratorio The Rose of 
 Sharon (1884), the operas Colomba 
 (1884), and The Troubadour (1886), the 
 cantata of the Story of Sayid (1886), 
 The Dream of Jubal (1889), etc. 
 
 MACKENZIE, Sir Morell, M.D., born 
 at Leytonstone, Essex, 1837'; educated 
 at London Medical College, Paris, and 
 Vienna; obtained the Jackson prize for 
 diseases of the L'-rynx ; became physician 
 to the London Hospital, and lecturer on 
 diseases of the throat. In 1887-88 he 
 was associated with the specialists of 
 Berlin and Vienna in the treatment of 
 the larynx disease of the Emperor 
 Frederick (at first, while he was Crown 
 Prince) of Germany He is the author 
 of a treatise on Diseases of the Throat 
 and Nose and several other works. Ho 
 died in 1892. 
 
 MACKEN'ZIE, a district of the North- 
 west Territories, Canada, created in 
 1895. It extends from Athabasca and 
 British Columbia on the south to the 
 Arctic waters on the north, and from 
 Keewatin on the east to Yukon on the 
 west, the western boundary line follow- 
 
 ing the line of the Rocky Mountain 
 Divide. It contains an area of 563,- 
 200 sq. miles, being the largest district 
 of Canada, and almost as large as the 
 territory of Alaska. It is hummocky and 
 broken throughout, with numerous 
 swamps and lakes. Great Bear Lake in 
 the north and Great Slave Lake in the 
 south are two of the largest lakes in the 
 dominion. The western half of the 
 district is drained by the Mackenzie 
 river. Among other streams are the 
 Copper-mine and the Great Fish, or 
 Back rivers. The winters are long and 
 severe, the summers short and warm. 
 
 MACKENZIE RIVER, a large river in 
 the Northwest Territories of Canada, 
 which flows out of Great Slave Lake, 
 first west, then north, finally northwest ; 
 and after a course of about 1200 miles 
 falls into the Arctic Ocean by numerous 
 mouths. It was discovered by Alexander 
 iMackenzie in 1789. 
 
 MACKEREL, one of the spiny finned 
 fishes, a well-known and excellent table 
 fish, which inhabits almost the whole 
 of the European seas. Mackerel, like 
 
 Mackerel. 
 
 herring, are caught only when they 
 approach the shore to spawn, nets being 
 chiefly used. The North American mack- 
 erel is also caught in great quantities oU 
 the Atlantic coasts. 
 
 MACLURE, William, the pioneer of 
 American geology, was born at Ayr in 
 Scotland, in 1763. In 1796 he came to 
 this country. In 1803 he visited France 
 as one of the commissioners appointed 
 to settle the claims of American citizens 
 on the French government for spolia- 
 tions committed during the revolution; 
 and during the few years then spent in 
 Europe he applied himself with enthusi- 
 asm to the study of geology. On his 
 return home he commenced the task of 
 making a geological su’-vey of the 
 United States. Almost every state in the 
 Union from St. Lawrence to the Gulf of 
 Mexico was traversed and mapped by 
 him, the Alleghany mountains being 
 crossed and recrossed some fifty times. 
 The results of his unaided labors were 
 submitted in a memoir to the American 
 Philosophical Society (1809), and pub- 
 lished in the Society’s Transactions 
 (vol. vi.), together with a geological 
 map. which thus antedates William 
 Smith’s great geological map of England 
 by six years. From 1817 to his death 
 Maclure was president of the Academy 
 of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 
 and much of the prosperity of the in- 
 stitution, was due to his devoted services. 
 He died in 1840. 
 
 M’KEESPORT, a city in Allegheny 
 CO., Pa., on the Monongahela river at 
 the nouth of the Youghiogheny river, 
 both of which are here navigable for 
 steamboats, and on the Balto. and 0., 
 the Penn., and the Pitts, and Lake 
 Erie railways; 14 miles s.e. of Pittsburg. 
 It is the center of the greatest bitumin- 
 ous coal region in the country and of the 
 
 natural-gas wells, and is a large manu- 
 facturing center. Pop. 42,175. 
 
 M’ALASTER, John Bach, American 
 historian, was born in Brooklyn, N. Y., 
 in 1852. In 1883 he was elected pro- 
 fessor of American history at the Uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania and in the same 
 year the first volume of a History of 
 the People of the United States was 
 published. It is designed to cover the 
 period from 1783 to 1861. Among his 
 other published works are Benjamin 
 Franklin as a Man, Origin, Meaning and 
 Application of the Monroe Doctrine, 
 A School History of the United States, 
 and Daniel Webster. 
 
 MACMONNIES (mak-mun'iz), Ameri- 
 can sculptor, was born in Brooklyn in 
 1863. The most important of his works 
 and the one which has done most to 
 secure his reputation was the colossal 
 fountain in the court of honor at the 
 Columbian Exhibition in Chicago in 
 1893. He also executed the Army and 
 Navy groups for the Soldiers’ and 
 Sailors’ monument at Indianapolis, the 
 decorations of the triumphal arch at the 
 main entrance to Prospect Park, Brook- 
 lyn, and the Battle Monument at West 
 Point He was made chevalier of the 
 Legion of Honor in 1898 and won a grand 
 prize of honor at the Paris exposition of 
 1900. 
 
 M’PHERSON, James Birdseye, .\meri- 
 ican soldier, was born in Sandusky, 
 Ohio, in 1828. At the beginning of the 
 civil war he applied for active duty, 
 was appointed lieutenant-colonel, No- 
 vember 12, 1861, and became major- 
 general of volunteers October 8, 1862. 
 In the early part of 1862 he was at- 
 tached to the staff of Gen. U. S. Grant, 
 and served as chief engineer at Fort 
 Henry, Fort Donelson, Shiloh and the 
 siege of Corinth. At the battle of Fort 
 Gibson part of his corps, led by himself, 
 decided the battle in favor of thefederals. 
 On May 12th his corps engaged part of 
 Gen. Joseph E. Johnson’s army at 
 Raymond, and routed it. On August 1, 
 1863, he was made brigadier-general in 
 the regular army. In 1864 General 
 McPherson was advanced to the com- 
 mand of the army of the Tennessee. 
 He assembled 25,000 men at Hunts- 
 ville, Ala., in April, 1864. From May 
 until June he had constant skirmishes 
 with the confederate forces, and led 
 several attacks that inflicted losses, but 
 led to no permanent results. On July 
 22nd General Hood massed the con- 
 federate forces and made an attack on 
 the left flank of General Sherman’s 
 army, commanded by General McPher- 
 son. The latter at the time was at 
 General Sherman’s headquarters, en- 
 gaged in consultation, and rode rapidly 
 to the threatened point. In attempting 
 to pass from one column to another, to 
 meet this attack, he unguardedly passed 
 into the enemy’s lines, and was killed. 
 As a general he showed remarkable 
 ability, being self-possessed, quick of 
 perception and of untiring activity. 
 In one of the public parks of Washing- 
 ton a statue is erected to his memory 
 by his comrades of the army of the 
 Tennessee. 
 
 MACMAHON (mak-ma-6n), Marie 
 Edm6 Patrick Maurice de, Duke of 
 Magenta and Marshal of France, born 
 
MACON 
 
 MADISON 
 
 t 
 
 '■ in 1808; educated at the military 
 ; college of St. Cyr; served with dis- 
 tinction in Algeria; became brigadier- 
 general in 1848; received command 
 of a division during the Crimean war, 
 and assisted in storming the Mala- 
 koff; took part in the campaign of 
 1859 against Austria, and won the battle 
 of Magenta by his prompt handling of 
 the left wing; and after the war became 
 governor-general of Algeria. At the out- 
 break of war between France and Ger- 
 many (1870) Macmahon was placed in 
 command of the 1st army corps, which 
 was defeated at Weissenburg, Worth, 
 and finally fell back upon Chalons. Here 
 I he rallied his forces, and proceeded 
 northeastward to relieve Bazaine, who 
 was besieged in Metz, but he was pur- 
 ' sued by the Germans, shut up by their 
 ^ encircling armies in the town of Sedan, 
 
 : and wounded in the battle before the 
 ? final surrender. After the armistice with 
 ! Germany he was eniployed by the Ver- 
 ; sailles government in putting down the 
 commune, and in 1873 he was elected 
 I president of the republic, a position 
 i which he occupied until 1879. He died 
 [. in 1893. 
 
 i MA'CON, a city in Georgia, on the 
 I Ocmulgee, the seat of a Baptist univer- 
 |t sity and a Wesleyan female college 
 i Pop. 26,172. 
 
 f MACREADY (mak-re'di), William 
 e Charles, English tragedian, born in 
 [[i London 1793, died at Cheltenham 1873. 
 'I He played in the provinces with con- 
 I siderable success, and appeared at 
 ^ Covent Garden in 1816. In 1826 he 
 I’ made his first visit to America, and in 
 jfe 1828 played in Paris, with great success 
 S in both countries. He undertook the 
 K management of Covent Garden in 1837, 
 if and Drury Lane in 1842. He revisited 
 K' the United States in 1849; returned to 
 England; gave a series of farewell per- 
 m formances, and finally retired from the 
 K stage in 1851. His Reminiscences ap- 
 K peared in 1875. 
 
 V M’VEAGH, Wayne, American lawyer 
 m and cabinet officer, was born at Chester 
 K CO., Penn., in 1833. In 1870 he was 
 B appointed United States minister to 
 H Turkey, and in 1877 he was a member 
 T of the commission which visited Louis- 
 iana by request of President Hayes. 
 At the accession of Mr. Garfield, in 
 F March, 1881, Mr. McVeagh was ap- 
 pointed attorney-general of the United 
 a otates. This position he resigned on the 
 .| accession of President Arthur. He 
 *1 supported Cleveland for the presidency 
 J in 1892 and from 1893 to 1897 was 
 ambassador to Italy. 
 
 _ MADAGASCAR, a large island in the 
 jf Indian Ocean, 230 miles distant from 
 jl the east coast of Africa, from which it is 
 I separated by Mozambique Channel; 
 t length, 975 miles; average breadth, 250 
 miles; area, about 228,500 sq. miles; 
 population, about 2,500,000. Mada- 
 gascar may be described as an elevated 
 region, with an average height of 3000 
 to 5000 feet, overlooked by mountains 
 rising in some cases to nearly 9000 feet. 
 The most striking feature in the vegeta- 
 tion is a belt of dense forest, with an 
 average breadth of 15 to 20 miles, 
 passing round the whole island. It is 
 found at all levels from 6000 feet to the 
 water’s edge, and the trees include 
 
 palms, ebony, mahogany, fig, cocoanut, 
 and the ravinala or traveler’s tree, 
 which when pierced yields a refreshing 
 juice. The vegetable products grown 
 for food include rice, manioc or cassava, 
 sweet-potatoes, ground-nuts, and yams. 
 Ginger, pepper, and indigo grow wild in 
 the woods; cotton, sugar-cane, coffee, 
 tobacco, and hemp are cultivated. 
 India-rubber, gum-copal, and dye- 
 woods are exported. Humped cattle are 
 found in immense herds, and form a 
 large part of the wealth of the inhabi- 
 tants, as also sheep, goats, swine, and 
 horses. The most characteristic of the 
 mammals are the lemurs. The birds are 
 numerous; snakes are rare; crocodiles, 
 lizards, chameleons abound. The native 
 government, till overthrown by the 
 French, was an absolute monarchy. 
 The army consisted of 20,000 men, raised 
 to 50,000 in the war with France. The 
 capital is Antananarivo, in the elevated 
 central region, with a population esti- 
 mated at 100,000. — Madagascar was 
 known to Marco Polo at the end of the 
 13th century, and in 1506 was visited 
 by the Portuguese, who gave it the 
 name of St. Lorenzo. Toward the end 
 of the 17th and during the most of the 
 18th century the French established 
 themselves in the island, but they were 
 only able after a hard struggle to retain 
 the islands of Ste. Marie on the east 
 coast and Nossi-b6 on the northwest. 
 In the year 1810 Radama I. became king 
 of the Hovas, and with his approval 
 Christian missionaries began to teach in 
 the capital in 1820, many converts were 
 made, the Bible was translated into 
 the Malagasy tongue, the language was 
 first reduced to a systematic written 
 form, and printing was introduced. 
 In, 1828 he was succeeded by his chief 
 wife, Ranavalona, a woman of cruel 
 disposition, who persecuted the Chris- 
 tians and closed the island to Europeans. 
 She was succeeded in 1861 by her son, 
 Radama II., who reopened it to the 
 missionaries and emancipated the Afri- 
 can slaves. He also granted extensive 
 territories and privileges to France, an 
 act which offended his chiefs and led to 
 his assassination in 1863. His wife 
 occupied the throne five years, and on 
 Ranavalona II. becoming queen in 
 1868, the French brought forward their 
 claims on the Malagasy territory, which 
 being refused, led to war. The result was 
 a treaty (1885) by which Madagascar 
 became a French protectorate. Since 
 then, by means of a military expedition, 
 the French have reduced the island to 
 the position of a colony (1895). 
 
 MADDER, a dye plant. It is a climb- 
 ing perennial, with whorls of dark green 
 leaves, and small yellowish cross-shaped 
 flowers. The prepared root is used as a 
 red dye-stuff. It yields colors of the 
 greatest permanence, and is employed 
 for dyeing both linen and cotton. Two 
 kinds of it are fixed upon cotton ; one is 
 simply called madder-red, and the 
 other, which possesses a much higher 
 degree of luster and fixity, is called 
 Turkey or Adrianople red, because it 
 was for a long time obtained entirely 
 from the Levant, where it was called 
 alizara. The coloring principle of madder 
 is termed alizarine, and as this can now 
 be obtained artificially from coal-tar, 
 
 the use of madder in dyeing is almost 
 entirely superseded by that of artificial 
 alizarine. 
 
 MADEIRA (ma-da'i-ra), a Portuguese 
 island in the North Atlantic, 360 miles 
 from the coast of Africa, 530 miles from 
 Lisbon, 1215 from Plymouth; length, 30 
 miles; breadth, 13 miles; area, about 
 313 sq. miles. The staple products of 
 Madeira are wine and sugar. The mean 
 annual temperature is 65°, the two 
 hottest months being August and Sep- 
 tember, and the three coldest January, 
 February, and March. The climate is 
 equable and the island is considered an 
 excellent sanitorium for chest diseases. 
 The Madeiras were known to the 
 Romans, and were rediscovered and 
 colonized by the Portuguese in 1431. 
 Pop. 148,172. 
 
 MAD'ISON, the capital of Wisconsin, 
 75 miles west of Milwaukee, situated 
 upon an isthmus between lakes Mendota 
 and Monona, and founded 1836. It con- 
 
 state capitol, Madison, Wls. 
 
 tains the state-house, the state univer- 
 sity dating from 1851, and has a lunatic 
 asylum, etc. It is a great railway center, 
 has important manufactures, a large 
 trade, and a population of 21,000. 
 
 MADISON, a city in Indiana, on the 
 right bank of the Ohio, 80 miles s.s.e. 
 Indianapolis. Pop. 11,165. 
 
 MADISON, James, fourth president 
 of the United States, 1809-17, born 
 in Virginia 1751, died 1836. He was 
 educated at Princeton; elected to the 
 Virginia convention in 1765; became a 
 member of the council of state ; took his 
 seat in the Continental congress in 1780 
 and was there made chairman of the 
 committee of foreign affairs. Under 
 the administration of Jefferson he be- 
 came secretary of state, and in 1809 
 he was elected president. During his 
 term of office war was declared with 
 
MADNESS 
 
 MAGALHAENS 
 
 Great Britain, which Madison prosecuted 
 for three years with alternate defeat 
 and success, until the decisive battle of 
 New Orleans was fought, and peace 
 
 signed in 1814. Madison retired into 
 private life in 1817. 
 
 MADNESS, See Insanity. 
 
 MADON'NA, an Italian term of ad- 
 dress equivalent to Madam. It is given 
 specifically to the Virgin Mary, like Our 
 Lady in English, and hence pictures 
 representing the Virgin are generally 
 called madonnas. 
 
 MADRAS', a maritime city of British 
 India, capital of the presidency of the 
 same name, on the Coromandel coast. 
 Altogether the municipality covers an 
 area of 27 sq. miles, the native and busi- 
 ness part being called the Black Town. 
 The chief objects of interest are the 
 citadel of Fort St. George, built in 1639, 
 the cathedral of St. George, Scotch 
 church government house, senate house, 
 revenue buildings, college, etc. There 
 are no manufactures to speak of, but 
 the export and import trade amounts 
 to 150,000,000 annually. Madras was 
 founded in 1639 by the English, and 
 soon became theirchief settlement on the 
 coast. Pop. 509,396. 
 
 MADRAS, Presidency of, includes 
 with its dependencies and the state of 
 Mysore the entire south of the peninsula 
 of India. Its extreme length is 950 
 miles, breadth 450 miles; area, 149,092 
 sq. miles. There are extensive forests 
 yielding teak, ebony, and other valuable 
 timber trees. The principal vegetable 
 products are rice, wheat, barley, corn, 
 and other grains; sugar-cane, areca, 
 yam, plantain, tamarind, jack-fruit, 
 mango, melons, cocoa-nuts, ginger, 
 tumeric, pepper, tobacco, oil seeds, 
 coffee, and cotton. The wild animals 
 met with are the elephant, tiger, chetah, 
 jackal, wild hog, etc. The Madras ad- 
 ministrative authority is vested in a 
 governor, with a council of three mem- 
 bers appointed by the queen, and of 
 whom one is the commander-in-chief. 
 For legislative purposes the council is 
 increased by nominations of the gover- 
 nor. In each of the 22 districts there is 
 a collector and a sessions judge. The 
 chief educational institution is the 
 
 Madras University, an examining body 
 granting degrees in arts, law, medicine, 
 and engineering. The population is 
 38,208,609, and the native protected 
 states have in addition a pop. of 4,190,- 
 322. The chief languages spoken are the 
 Dravidian, namely, Tamil, Telugu 
 (which are spoken by the great majority 
 of the inhabitants), Canarese, and 
 Malayalam, while Hindustani is the 
 language spoken by the Mohammedans. 
 
 MAD'REPORE,a coral-buildingpolyp, 
 forming coral of stony hardness and of a 
 spreading or branching form, hence called 
 tree-coral. Madrepore coral is of a white 
 color wrinkled on the surface and full of 
 little cavities, in each of which an in- 
 dividual polyp was lodged. These polyps 
 raise up walls and reefs of coral rocks 
 with astonishing rapidity in tropical 
 climates. The term is often applied also 
 to other branching corals. 
 
 MADRID (ma-drid'), thfe capital of 
 Spain, in New Castile, in the province of 
 Madrid, on the Manzanares, near the 
 center of the Iberian Peninsula. The 
 royal palace, a combination of Ionic and 
 Doric architecture, is one of the most 
 magnificent in the world, being 470 feet 
 each way, and 100 feet high. It contains 
 a small but splendid Corinthian chapel, a 
 library of nearly 100,000 volumes, and a 
 fine collection of ancient armor and 
 
 manufactures are of small importance. 
 Madrid only began to be a place of 
 importance under Charles V. and in 
 1560 Philip II. declared it to be 
 the capital. It is the creation of a 
 century, for it has not increased much 
 since the age of Philip IV. Pop. 512,150. 
 
 MAD'RIGAL, a short amorous poem, 
 consisting of not less than three or four 
 stanzas or strophes, and containing some 
 tender and delicate, though simple 
 thought, suitably expressed. The mad- 
 rigal was first cultivated in Italy, and 
 those of Tasso are among the finest 
 specimens of Italian poetry. The term 
 is also applied to an elaborate vocal com- 
 position now commonly of two or more 
 movements, and in five or six parts. The 
 musical madrigal was at first a simple 
 song, but afterward was suited to an 
 instrumental accompaniment. 
 
 MADURA', a district of India forming 
 part of the Madras presidency, mostly a 
 plain draindd by the Vaigai river ; skirted 
 on the southwest by the Travancore 
 Hills ; area 8808 sq. miles, pop. 2,608,404. 
 Tlietown has heen much improved under 
 British rule. Pop. 105,984. 
 
 MADU'RA, an island of the Indian 
 Archipelago, n. e. of Java, and separated 
 from it by the Strait of Madura; 105 
 miles long, and 30 miles broad; and be- 
 longing to the Dutch. Pop. 1,000,000. 
 
 Puerta del Sol In Madrid. 
 
 coins. Madrid has no cathedral, being 
 only a suffragan bishopric of Toledo, and 
 the churches are few and uninteresting. 
 The bull-fights take place in the Plaza de 
 Toros (bull-ring), a building which is 
 about 1100 feet in circumference, and 
 capable of containing 12,000 spectators. 
 The Prado, nearly 2 miles long, a boule- 
 vard on the east of the city, forms the 
 popular promenade, and beyond it is the 
 park. The Royal Museum of Painting 
 and sculpture, in the Prado, contains 
 more than 2000 pictures. The National 
 Library, founded by Philip V., contains 
 230,000 volumes. The University has an 
 average attendance of 5000 students, 
 and there are numerous colleges ami 
 schools, medical, military, law, etq. The 
 
 MAELSTROM, a celebrated whirlpool 
 off the coast of Norway, near the island 
 of Moskoe, one of the Lofoddens. With 
 a strong wind from the northwest the 
 whirlpool rages violently, so as to be 
 heard several miles, and to engulf small 
 vessels which approach it. 
 
 MAESTO'SO, an Italian musical term 
 meaning in a majestic or lofty style. 
 
 MAFEKING,a small town of Bechuana- 
 l.and, on the railway from Kimberley to 
 Buluwayo, famous for the long stand it 
 made under Col. Baden-Powell against 
 the Boers in the South .\frican war of 
 1899-1902. 
 
 MAGALHAENS (mag'al-j'a-ens), or 
 MAGELLAN (ma-gel'an), Fernando de, 
 a Portuguese navigator, who conducted 
 
MAGAZINE GUN 
 
 MAGNETISM 
 
 the first expedition round the world; 
 born about 1470; served under Albu- 
 querque in the East Indies ; distinguished 
 himself at the taking of Malacca, in 151 1 ; 
 in 1519 received the command of a fleet 
 of five ships from Charles V. of Spain, 
 with which he sailed westward entered 
 
 Magellan. 
 
 the strait since called after his name, and 
 discovered the Pacific Ocean. Sub- 
 sequently he was killed in a skirmish 
 with the natives on one of the Philip- 
 
 E ines, and his vessels were conducted to 
 pain by Juan Sebastian del Cano. 
 MAGAZINE GUN. See Gunnery. 
 MAGAZINES. See Periodicals. 
 MAG'DALEN, or MAGDALENE, Mary 
 that is, Mary of Magdaia, a woman 
 mentioned in the New Testament as 
 having had seven devils cast out of her, 
 as watching the crucifixion, and as hav- 
 ing come early to the sepulchre on the 
 resurrection morning. She was errone- 
 ously identified as the “woman who was 
 a sinner” (Luke vii. 37), and hence the 
 term Magdalen came to be equivalent to 
 a penitent fallen woman. 
 
 MAGDEBURG (mah'de-burh),the cap- 
 ital of Prussian Saxony, and a fortress 
 of the first class, on the Elbe, 76 miles 
 w.s.w. of Berlin, chiefly on the left 
 bank of the river, which here divides 
 into three arms. Magdeburg is a place 
 of great antiquity, being a trading center 
 in the 9th century . It early distinguished 
 itself in the Reformation. During the 
 Thirty Years’ war the town was besieged, 
 stormed, and sacked by Tilly, when 20,- 
 000 persons are said to have been mur- 
 dered. Pop. 229,663. 
 
 MAGELLAN. See Magalhaens. 
 MAGELLAN, Strait of, separates the 
 continent of South America from Tierra- 
 del-Fuego, 300 miles long; varies in 
 breadth from 5 to 50 miles, and forms 
 communication between the South At- 
 lantic and South Pacific Oceans. The 
 number of obstructing islands makes 
 the channel difficult of navigation. The 
 strait was discovered in 1520 by Fer- 
 nando Magalhaens. 
 
 MAGENTA, a brilliant blue-red color- 
 ing substance derived from aniline. 
 
 MAGI (ma'ji), the hereditary priests 
 among the Medes and Persians, set 
 apart to manage the sacred rites, and 
 preserve and propagate the sacred tradi- 
 tions, acting also as diviners and astrolo- 
 gers. They possessed great influence both 
 in public and private affairs, conducted 
 the education of the princes, etc. Their 
 order was reformed by Zoroaster. The 
 name came also to be applied to holy 
 men or sages in the East. 
 
 MAGIC, the art or pretended art or 
 
 E ractice of producing wonderful effects 
 y the aid of superhuman beings or of 
 departed spirits or the occult powers of 
 nature. A large proportion of magical 
 rites are connected with the religious 
 beliefs of those using them, their efficacy 
 
 being ascribed to supernatural beings. In 
 savage countries the native magician is 
 often sorcerer and priest, and sometimes 
 chief of the tribe. Among the ancient 
 Egyptians magic was worked into an 
 elaborate system and ritual, and it was 
 regularly practiced among the Baby- 
 lonians and Assyrians, as well as in 
 Greece and Rome. Alexandria, from the 
 2d to the 4th century, became the head- 
 quarters of theurgic magic, in which in- 
 vocations, sacrifices, diagrams, talis- 
 mans, etc., were systematically employed. 
 This system, influenced by Jewish magi- 
 cal speculation, had a strong hold in 
 mediaeval Europe, and many dis- 
 tinguished names are found among its 
 students and professors. The magic 
 which holds a place still among the illit- 
 erate and ignorant classes has come 
 down by tradition in popular folk-lore. 
 The name natural magic has been given 
 to the art of applying natural causes to 
 produce surprisingeffects. Itincludesthe 
 art of performing tricks and exhibiting 
 illusions by means of apparatus, the 
 performances of automaton figures, etc. 
 See Legerdemain. 
 
 MAGIC LANTERN, a kind of lantern 
 invented by Kircher, a German Jesuit 
 (1604-80), by means of which small 
 pictures or figures are represented. on the 
 wall of a dark room or on a white sheet, 
 magnified to any size at pleasure. It 
 consists of a closed lantern or box, in 
 which are placed a lamp and a concave 
 mirror (as at a), which reflects the light 
 of the lamp through the small hole of a 
 tube in the side of the lantern, which is 
 made to draw out. At the end of this 
 tube, next to the lamp, is fixed a plane 
 convex lens (b), and at the other a 
 double-convex lens (d). Between the 
 
 two lenses are successively placed (at c) 
 various slips of glass, with transparent 
 paintings, representing various subjects, 
 which are thrown in a magnified form on 
 the wall or screen opposite to the lantern 
 and spectators. It has been vastly im- 
 proved of late, and the substitutions of 
 the oxyhydrogen and electric lights for 
 the oil lamp has added much to the effec- 
 tiveness of its displays; while photog- 
 raphy applied to tlie production of 
 objects has almost indefinitely increased 
 its resources. 
 
 MAGISTRATE, a public civil officer 
 invested with the executive government 
 or some branch of it. In this sense a king 
 is the highest or first magistrate in a 
 monarchy, as is the president in a re- 
 public. But the word is more particular- 
 ly applied to subordinate officers, to 
 whom the executive power of the law is 
 committed, either wholly or in part, as 
 governors, intendants, prefects, mayors, 
 justices of the peace, and the like. 
 
 MAGNA CHARTA LIBERTA'TUM, 
 
 the Great Charter of Liberties, a docu- 
 ment forming part of the English con- 
 stitution, and regarded as one of the 
 mainstays of English liberty, extorted 
 from King John by the confederated 
 barons in 1215. Its most important 
 articles are those which provide that no ^ 
 freeman shall be taken, or imprisoned, 
 or proceeded against except by the law- 
 ful judgment of his peers or by the law 
 of the land; and that no scutage or aid 
 shall be imposed in the kingdom (except 
 certain feudal dues from tenants of the 
 crown), unless by the common council of 
 the kingdom. The remaining and greater 
 part of the charter is directed against 
 abuses of the king’s power as feudal 
 superior. It originally contained sixty- 
 three clauses; subsequent confirma- 
 tions altered the number of these till 
 1225 when it took its final and accepted 
 legal form with thirty-seven clauses. 
 The most accurate and complete copy 
 of the original charter is that preserved 
 in Lincoln Cathedral. The board of 
 commissioners on the public records 
 ordered a facsimile of it to be engraved, 
 and it has been frequently translated 
 into English. 
 
 MAGNE'SIA, a white, tasteless, earthy 
 substance, possessing alkaline proper- 
 ties. It is absorbent, antacid, mildly 
 cathartic, and almost insoluble. It is 
 found native in the state of hydrate 
 and carbonate, and exists as a compo- 
 nent part of several minerals. In com- 
 merce, pure magnesia is generally dis- 
 tinguished by the term calcined magnesia 
 and is readily obtained by exposing its 
 hydrated carbonate to a red heat. The 
 hydrated carbonate goes by the name of 
 magnesia or magnesia alba. The chief 
 use of magnesia and its carbonate is in 
 medicine. See Magnesium. 
 
 MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE, a yellow- 
 ish rock composed of carbonates of lime 
 and magnesia, the latter amounting in 
 some cases to nearly a half. There are 
 several varieties, more or less useful for 
 building or ornamental purposes, which 
 are included under the generic name 
 dolomite. The same name is also given 
 to the whole Permian formation, from 
 this rock being very largely developed 
 in it. 
 
 MAGNE'SIUM, the metallic base of 
 magnesia. It may be obtained by decom- 
 posing chloride of magnesium by means 
 of potassium. It is of a white color like 
 silver; its luster is metallic and brilliant; 
 it is very malleable, and fuses at a red 
 heat. Heated to redness in oxygen gas, 
 it burns with brilliancy, and combining 
 with oxygen becomes magnesia, or the 
 oxide of magnesium. The magnesium 
 light is rich in chemical rays, and is now 
 employed to some extent in photography. 
 The chief salts are the carbonate, the 
 chloride, the sulphate (Epsom -salt), the 
 phosphates and the silicates, among 
 which are such minerals as chrysolite, 
 meerschaum, soapstone, and serpentine. 
 
 MAGNET. See Magnetism. 
 
 MAGNETISM, the science which 
 treats of the phenomena exhibited by 
 magnets, — phenomena due to one of 
 those forces which, like electricity and 
 heat, are known only by their effects. 
 The phenomena of magnetism were first 
 observed in the loadstone or magnet 
 
MAGNETISM 
 
 MAGPIE 
 
 (so named from Magnesia in Asia 
 Minor). The loadstone is a kind of iron 
 ore (magnetic iron ore), and is found in 
 many parts of the world, especially in 
 the Scandinavian peninsula and in 
 Siberia. It has the power of attracting 
 small pieces of iron or steel, and when 
 suspended in such a way as to be able 
 to move freely, always points to what 
 are called the magnetic poles of the 
 earth, that is nearly north and south. 
 A piece of loadstone forms a natural 
 magnet, and has the further remarkable 
 power of giving all its own properties to 
 hard iron or steel when these bodies are 
 rubbed by it. A bar or mass of iron or 
 steel to which the peculiar properties 
 of a natural magnet have been imparted 
 by friction from other magnets or by 
 electric induction is called an artificial 
 magnet. When freely suspended, all 
 magnets, natural and artificial, rest 
 with their lengths in a northerly and 
 southerly direction, and this property 
 is utilized in the well-known compass. 
 They attract iron and other magnetic 
 substances with a force increasing from 
 the middle of the magnet to its extremi- 
 ties, which are called its poles. The 
 magnetism at the two poles is different, 
 that pole which points to the north is 
 distinguished as the north or north- 
 seeking or austral pole, or by the sign 
 plus ( + ) ; that which points to the south 
 as the south or south-seeking or boreal 
 pole, or by the sign minus ( — ). The 
 poles of the same denomination repel 
 each other while those of different 
 names have mutual attraction, thus 
 resembling the two electricities, posi- 
 tive and negative. The intensity of 
 this attraction and repulsion varies in- 
 versely as the square of the distance, 
 a law which also governs electrified 
 bodies. Magnetism pervades the earth 
 as electricity does the atmosphere. 
 It assumes a totally different form 
 in different substances’ the metals 
 iron, nickel, and cobalt being strongly 
 attracted by the magnet, others such as 
 bismuth, copper, silver, gold, etc., being 
 as strongly repelled. (See Diamagnetic.) 
 The space in the neighborhood of a 
 magnet is called the magnetic field; a 
 piece of soft iron brought into this space 
 becomes magnetic, but it loses its 
 magnetism as rapidly on removal from 
 the field. (See Induction, Magnetic.) 
 Steel has coercive force, in virtue of 
 which it requires time for magnetization, 
 and retains its magnetism on removal 
 from the field. Hard steel may be 
 made magnetic by rubbing it several 
 times in the same direction with a 
 powerful magnet, and hence it is easy to 
 multiply magnets. The most powerful 
 permanent magnets are produced by 
 rubbing bars of steel on electro-magnets 
 (see Electro-magnetism), or by moving 
 them backwards and forwards along 
 the axis of a coil of wire in which an 
 electric current is passing. A bar is 
 magnetized to saturation when its 
 magnetism is as great as it can retain 
 without future sensible loss. When a 
 magnet is broken into a number of 
 pieces each piece is found to be magnetic 
 and its north pole is found to have been 
 directed toward the north pole of the 
 unbroken magnet. When these pieces 
 are put together again poles placed in 
 
 contact nullify each other, and the 
 original magnet is reproduced. 
 
 Terrestrial magnetism, which per- 
 vades the whole earth, is extremely 
 complicated. It becomes manifest by its 
 influence on the magnetic needle, vary- 
 ing with time and place over the earth. 
 One pole of the needle points toward the 
 north, the other toward the south. There 
 are, however, only two lines on the sur- 
 face of the earth on which it points 
 directly north and south, and where the 
 magnetic and geographical meridians 
 appear to coincide. Elsewhere the 
 needle deviates more or less from the 
 true north. This is termed the declina- 
 tion of the needle, and varies from place 
 to place, and in the course of time at the 
 same place. (See Isogonic.) When a 
 needle is balanced on a horizontal axis 
 so that it can turn in a vertical plane, 
 the extremity attracted by the nearer 
 magnetic pole of the earth points 
 more or less downward. (See Dipping- 
 needle.) The angle thus made is called 
 the dip or inclination, and the lines 
 marking equal inclinations on a map are 
 called isoclinal lines. They inter- 
 sect the isogonal lines, and the dip in- 
 creases toward the perpendicular as the 
 magnetic poles are neared. The mag- 
 netic poles do not coincide with the 
 geographical poles, the northern being in 
 70° 5' n. and 96° 43' w. The southern is 
 probably at 73^° s. and 147^° e. There 
 are two foci of maximum force in the 
 northern hemisphere and two in the 
 southern. In the northern hemisphere 
 the stronger focus is assumed to be in 
 52° n. and 90° w., and the weaker in 70° 
 n. and 115° e. In the southern hemis- 
 phere the stronger focus is assumed to 
 be in 65° s. and 140° e., and the weaker 
 probably in 50° s. and 130° e. The 
 earth’s magnetism is subject to vast 
 unaccountable commotions or storms of 
 immense extent, which occur at irregu- 
 lar intervals and are of short duration. 
 They are often connected with mani- 
 festations of electrical phenomena, such 
 as the aurora borealis, or thunder- 
 storms. These disturbances are made 
 manifest by irregular motions of the 
 magneticneedle. Thevariousphenomena 
 connected with terrestrial magnetism 
 are now automatically recorded, and 
 systematized in the interests of meteor- 
 ology. The magnetic equator or line of 
 no dip crosses the terrestrial equator in 
 several places, extending alternately 
 on each side, but never deviating more 
 than 12° from it. 
 
 MAGNETISM, Animal. See Mesmer- 
 ism. 
 
 MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY treats of 
 the currents of electricity produced in a 
 conductor when its position is changed 
 relatively to a magnetic field (see Induced 
 Current), whereas electro-magnetism 
 (which see) treats of magnetization pro- 
 duced by currents. 
 
 MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINES. 
 In magneto-electric machines an electro- 
 magnet of compact form called the 
 armature is caused to rotate near the 
 poles of a powerful fixed magnet, in such 
 a manner that the core of the armature 
 becomes magnetized first in one direc- 
 tion and then in the opposite, bj”^ the 
 inductive action of the poles of the fixed 
 magnet. Every change in the magneti- 
 
 zation of the core induces a current in 
 the coil wound upon it. Hence currents 
 in alternately opposite directions are 
 excited in this coil, their strength in- 
 creasing with the speed of rotation. It 
 is now usual in powerful machines of 
 this class to employ electro-magnets as 
 the fixed magnets, and the current 
 which feeds these fixed magnets (called 
 the field magnets) is often the current 
 generated by the machine itself. The 
 machines in this case are called djmamo 
 machines. This name yas originally 
 confined to machines which thus supply 
 the current for their own field magnets; 
 but it is now applied to any machine in 
 which the field magnets are electro- 
 magnets. Such machines, of which there 
 is an enormous variety, driven by steam- 
 engines or other powerful motors, are 
 now almost universally employed when 
 electric currents are required on a large 
 scale, as in electric lighting. See 'he 
 articles Dynamo, Electric Light, Electro- 
 magnet, Electro-magnetism, Electro- 
 motors. 
 
 MAGNETOMETER, an instrument 
 employed for observing the magnetic 
 declination, and also for other absolute 
 magnetic measurements. They are of 
 various forms and are usually self- 
 recording. See Declinometer, Dipping- 
 needle. 
 
 MAGNIFICAT, the song of the Virgin 
 Mary, Luke i. 46-55: so called because 
 it commences with this word in the 
 Latin Vulgate. It is sung throughout 
 the Western Church at vespers or even- 
 song. 
 
 MAGNIFYING-GLASS. See Micro- 
 scope. 
 
 MAGNO'LIA, a genus of trees and 
 shrubs. The species, which chiefly in- 
 habit North America, Northern India, 
 China, Japan, and other parts of Asia, 
 are trees much admired on account of 
 the elegance of their flowers and foliage, 
 and are in great request in gardens. In 
 their native countries some of them at- 
 tain great height, and have flowers 10 
 inches across. 
 
 MAGOG. See Gog. 
 
 MAGPIE, a bird belonging to the crow 
 family. There are several species, two 
 
 Magpie. 
 
 of which belong to America. The com- 
 mon European magpie is about 18 inches 
 
MAGRUDER 
 
 MAINE 
 
 in length ; the plumage is black and white, 
 the black glossed with green and purple; 
 the bill is stout, and the tail is very long. 
 The magpies continue in pairs through- 
 out the year, and prey on a variety of 
 food, chiefly animal. They are deter- 
 mined robbers of other bird’s nests, de- 
 stroying the eggs and young birds. In 
 captivity they are celebrated for their 
 crafty instincts, their power of imitating 
 words, and their propensity to purloin 
 and secrete glittering articles. 
 
 MAGRUDER, John B., American 
 soldier, was born in Winchester, Va., in 
 1810. He served in the Mexican war, in 
 which he commanded a battalion, and 
 was bre vetted lieutenant-colonel. At 
 the beginning of the civil war he resigned 
 his commission of captain of artillery 
 and entered the service of the confeder- 
 acy. He won the battle of Big Bethel 
 and received a brigadier-general’s com- 
 mission. At Yorktown for several weeks 
 he prevented the advance of the na- 
 tional forces, was promoted major-general 
 and took part in the battle of Malvern 
 Hill. In October, 1862, he was given 
 command of the department of Texas, 
 and on January 1, 1863, he recaptured 
 Galveston from the Union forces. At 
 the close of the war he entered the army 
 of the usurper, Maximilian, in Mexico, 
 in which he held the rank of major- 
 general. After the execution of Maxi- 
 milian he returned to Texas and lived 
 in retirement. He died in 1871. 
 
 MAGYARS, the Hungarians. See 
 Hungary. 
 
 MAHAN, Alfred Thayer, American 
 naval officer and author, was born at 
 West Point, N. Y., in 1840. During the 
 civil war he saw service in the South 
 Atlantic and Gulf Squadrons. He was 
 made lieutenant-commander in 1865, 
 commander in 1872, and captain in 
 1885. From 1886 to 1889, and again 
 from 1892 to 1893, he was president of 
 the Naval War College at Newport. At 
 his own request he was retired from 
 active service in November, 1896, but 
 during the war with Spain served on the 
 Naval War Board, and in the following 
 year was one of the United States rep- 
 resentatives to the Peace Congress 
 at The Hague. Captain Mahan’s reputa- 
 tion rests largely upon his work as an 
 author. His great work. Influence of 
 Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783, 
 received recognition both at home and 
 abroad as a work of the utmost impor- 
 tance. Among his other works are The 
 Navy in the Civil War, Influence of Sea 
 Power upon the French Revolution 
 1793-1812, Life of Farragut, Life of 
 Nelson and The Interest of America in 
 Sea Power, Present and Future. 
 
 MAHA'LEB, a species of cherry, whose 
 fruit affords a violet dye and a fermented 
 liquor like kirsch-wasser. It is found in 
 the middle and south of Europe. Its 
 flowers and leaves are used by per- 
 fumers, and its wood by cabinet- 
 makers. 
 
 MAHANADI (ma-ha'na-de ; or Maha- 
 nuddy) RIVER, a river in Southern 
 Hindustan which flows through the 
 Central Provinces and Orissa, falling 
 by several mouths into the Bay of Ben- 
 gal, after a course of 520 miles. 
 
 MAHANOY, a town in Schuylkill co., 
 Pennsylvania, 80 miles from Philadel- 
 
 phia, in the middle of a rich anthracite 
 coal district. Pop. 16,175. 
 
 MAHARA'JAH (literally, a great 
 king), a title applied in courtesy to every 
 Indian rajah, or to any person of high 
 rank or deemed holy. 
 
 MAHDI (ma'de; Arabic, the director 
 or leader), a name assumed by some of 
 the successors of Mohammed, particu- 
 larly applied to the twelfth imam, the 
 lineal descendant of Mohammed, born 
 A.D. 868. He mysteriously disappeared, 
 being probably murdered by a rival, 
 and the belief was that he would remain 
 hidden until the “last days,” when he 
 would reappear, and at the head of the 
 faithful spread Mohammedanism over 
 the world. Many professed Mahdis have 
 appeared from time to time in Africa as 
 well as Asia, the latest being Mohammed 
 Ahmed, the leader of the Soudanese in- 
 surrection (1883-85). He was born at 
 Dongola in 1843, died 1885. He studied 
 Mohammedan theology at Khartoum 
 and Berber, and at 25 years of age he 
 retired to the island of Aba in the White 
 Nile, where he lived in solitude for 
 fifteen years. At the age of forty he 
 took up the prophetic role, and his short 
 victorious career began. See Egypt, 
 Soudan. 
 
 MAHMUD (ma'mud), Sultan of 
 Ghazna, the founder of the Mohamme- 
 dan Empire in India, born at Ghazna 
 about 970, died 1030. His father, Sabak- 
 tagin, governor of Ghazna, owed a 
 nominal allegiance to Persia, but was 
 really independent. On his death Mah- 
 mud put aside his elder brother; formed 
 an alliance against the Persian monarch, 
 overthrew his kingdom and laid the 
 foundation of an extensive empire in 
 Central Asia (999). He then turned his 
 attention to India, and in a series of 
 twelve invasions secured a great amount 
 of treasure, and vastly extended his 
 power. 
 
 MAHMUD I., Sultan of Turkey, born 
 1696; reigned 1730-50. — Mahmud II., 
 Sultan of Turkey, born 1785, died 1839; 
 placed on the throne by the Janizaries 
 after the murder of his predecessor, 
 1808. The chief events of his reign are 
 the war with Russia from 1808 to 1812, 
 which cost him Bessarabia and the 
 provinces of Servia, Moldavia, and 
 Wallachia, as settled by the treaty of 
 Bucharest; the war of Greek independ- 
 ence, which ended in the separation of 
 that country, and the destruction of the 
 Turkish fleet at Navarino, 1820-28; 
 the extermination of the Janizaries, 
 1826; the treaty of Adrianople, with the 
 Russians, who were on the point of 
 entering Constantinople, 1829; the in- 
 dependence of Egypt under Mehemet 
 Ali, and the new treaty of Unkiar- 
 Skelessi with the Russians, 1832-33. 
 
 MAHOG'ANY, the wood of a lofty and 
 beautiful tree, indigenous to Central 
 America and the West Indies. It grows 
 most abundantly and attains its greatest 
 development between 10° n. lat. and the 
 Tropic of Cancer. It reaches maturity 
 in about 200 years, and grows to a height 
 of 40 to 50 feet, diameter 6 to 12 feet. 
 The wood is hard, compact, reddish- 
 brown, and susceptible of a brilliant 
 polish. It is one of the best and most 
 ornamental woods known, and is of 
 universal use in the making of furniture. 
 
 It is imported chiefly from Mexico and 
 British Honduras. That which is im- 
 ported from the West Indies is called 
 
 Mahogany. 
 
 “Spanish” mahogany, and is the most 
 valued. 
 
 MAHOMET. See Mohammed. 
 
 MAIDENHAIR, the name given to an 
 elegant fern with a creeping scaly 
 rhizome, and bipinnate fronds, the 
 leaflets of which are between rhomboidal 
 and wedge-shaped, margined with ob- 
 long sori, and more or less deeply lobed. 
 
 MAIDENHAIR-TREE, a deciduous 
 tree of the yew family, a native of Japan, 
 so called from the likeness of its leaves 
 to the maidenhair fern. 
 
 MAID OF ORLEANS. See Joan of Arc. 
 
 MAIDS OF HONOR. See Honor, 
 Maids of. 
 
 MAIL, Coat of. See Arms and Armor. 
 
 MAIL-COACHES. See Coach. 
 
 MAIMANSINGH, a British district in 
 the Dacca division, Bengal; area, 6287 
 sq. miles. Pop. 3,472,186. 
 
 MAINE, one of the eastern and mari- 
 time United States of North America 
 bounded on the east and northeast by 
 New Brunswick, north and northwest by 
 Quebec, west by New Hampshire, and 
 southeast by the Atlantic Ocean ; area, 
 33,040 sq. miles. Maine is nearly as 
 large as all the rest of the New England 
 states combined, and is thirty-fifth in 
 size among the states of the Union. It is 
 mostly an elevated country, but hilly 
 rather than mountainous. The state is 
 almost completely traversed by navi- 
 gable rivers, the principal of which are 
 the Penobscot and Kennebec; and in the 
 
 Seal of Maine. 
 
 interior are numerous lakes. The coast 
 abounds with islands, the largest of 
 which is Mount Desert, 15 miles long 
 and 12 miles broad; and is indented with 
 
MAINE 
 
 MAJOR 
 
 numerous bays and inlets, the principal 
 of which are Penobscot, Casco, and 
 Passamaquoddy. Grass lands are ex- 
 tensive, and Indian corn, wheat, barley, 
 rye, and flax are the chief crops. The 
 leading industry is the production of 
 lumber. Not long ago the forests covered 
 about one-half the surface of the state, 
 but they are rapidly diminishing. 
 Marble, slate, limestone, and granite are 
 abundant, and iron, lead, tin, copper, 
 and zinc are found in considerable 
 quantities. The fisheries give employ- 
 ment to a large portion of the popula- 
 tion ; and other industries are ship-build- 
 ing, the manufacture of cotton and 
 woolen fabrics, etc. There are about 
 1100 miles of railways, and lines of 
 steamers ply regularly from the larger 
 ports. Augusta, on the Kennebec, is the 
 seat of government, but Portland is the 
 principal town, and a seaport of great 
 importance. Maine was admitted into 
 the Union on March 15, 1820, having 
 been until that time an integral part of 
 Massachusetts. The earliest explorers 
 of the territory were the Cabots in 1497, 
 followed by Verrazzano in 1524, and 
 Gomez a year later. Gomez gave the 
 name to Penobscot Bay and river, and 
 the French built a fort on the river in 
 1526. In 1603 Henry IV. of France, 
 granted to a Protestant nobleman, 
 named De Montz a charter, which, in 
 the liberal fashion of those days, pur- 
 orted to convey title to all the land 
 etween 40° and 46° n. latitude. Two 
 years later James I. of England gave to 
 an English company of adventurers a 
 charter covering everything from 34° to 
 45° n. latitude. These grants created a 
 double jurisdiction over the greater part 
 of Maine and gave rise to a series of con- 
 flicts which extended over a century. 
 In 1604 De Montz established a settle- 
 ment on Neutral Island in the St. Croix 
 river, and three years later the English 
 founded a town at the mouth of the 
 Kennebec. Here Capt. John Smith made 
 his headquarters and built a fleet of 
 boats, with which he explored New 
 England. In 1622 the New England 
 council gave to Sir Ferdinando Gorges 
 and Capt. John Mason the country be- 
 tween the Merrimac and the Kennebec, 
 and for sixty miles inland, which was 
 thenceforward known as Maine. Gorges 
 ruled as lord-palatine under a new 
 charter obtained from Charles I. of 
 England, in 1639, and established his 
 capital at Georgiana (now York), the 
 first chartered city in America. Troubles 
 grew out of the confusion of jurisdiction 
 and in the year 1677 Massachusetts 
 bought the shadowy title of Gorges 
 from his heirs for $6,250. In 1691 a 
 new charter given by William and Mary 
 merged all the provinces from Plymouth 
 to Acadia in the Province of Massa- 
 chusetts. For the next 120 years Maine 
 was practically merged in Massachu- 
 setts. Maine contributed men to the 
 revolutionary struggle and was repre- 
 sented in the Continental congress. 
 After the close of the war in 1812 Great 
 Britain claimed a great deal of territory 
 which had long been under the juris- 
 diction of Massachusetts, and the legiti- 
 mate limits of Maine were cut down 
 almost 6,000 sq. miles when a final 
 treaty was made. The only important 
 
 subject of legislation in the state of 
 other than local interest has been that 
 of prohibition. After some tentative 
 lawmaking, a stringent prohibitory law, 
 passed in 1858 was incorporated into the 
 constitution, and has remained in force 
 ever since. Prohibition on the whole has 
 not turned out entirely successful, and 
 evasions of the law are frequent Before 
 1856 Maine was generally democratic in 
 state elections, and only once (1840) 
 voted against the democratic candidate 
 in presidential elections. Since 1856 it 
 has been emphatically republican except 
 in the years 1878 and 1880, when the 
 democrats and greenback party in 
 fusion succeeded in electing their candi- 
 date for governor. In 1891 the Austra- 
 lian ballot law was passed. Pop. 756,000. 
 
 MAINE, University of, a co-educa- 
 tional state institution at Orono, Maine, 
 founded on the national land grant in 
 1865 under the name of the State Col- 
 lege of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. 
 The present name was assumed in 1897. 
 The university comprises the colleges 
 of arts and sciences, agriculture, engi- 
 neering, and pharmacy, and the school of 
 law. The Maine Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station is a department of the 
 university. The university confers the 
 bachelor’s and master’s degree in arts, 
 philosophy, science, and law, the de- 
 grees of civil, mechanial, and electrical 
 engineer, and pharmaceutical chemist. 
 Military instruction is required by law. 
 Students are admitted upon examina- 
 tion or on a certificate from an accredited 
 school. During 1902 courses were begun 
 in mining and naval engineering, a 
 summer school and a correspondence 
 course were established, and uniform 
 entrance requirements with all other 
 Maine colleges were adopted. 
 
 MAINTENON (man-t6-n6n), Fran- 
 9 oise D’ Aubign4, Marchioness de, wife 
 of Louis XIV. and grand-daughter of 
 Henry the Fourth’s friend Theodore 
 Agrippa D’Aubign5, was born in 1635. 
 Left quite destitute in her tenth year. 
 Mademoiselle D’Aubign6spent heryouth 
 in dependence on her rich relatives, and 
 was glad to contract a nominal marriage 
 with the famous wit Scarron, a deformed, 
 old, and infirm man. On Sc.vron’s 
 death she was intrusted with the charge 
 of the children born to Louis XIV. by 
 Madame de Montespan. She assumed 
 this office in 1669, and played her cards 
 so dexterously that the king married her 
 privately, probably in 1685, when her 
 age was fifty and his own forty-seven. 
 For the remaining years of his life she 
 was his most confidential advisor. She 
 was a virtuous woman, and a devout and 
 bigoted Catholic, ambitious and resolute 
 but disinterested and charitable. Her 
 published letters give her a creditable 
 place in French literature. She died in 
 1719, at the nunnery or school of Saint 
 Cyr, which she herself had founded. 
 
 MAINZ (mints; English, Mentz; 
 French, Mayence), a fortified town of 
 Germany, in the grand-duchy of Hesse, 
 finely situated on the left bank of the 
 Rhine, opposite the mouth of the Main, 
 20 miles w.s.w. Frankfort. Pop., in- 
 cluding garrison, 84,251. 
 
 MAITLAND, William, commonly 
 known as Secretary Lethington, a 
 Scottish statesman, eldest son of Sir 
 
 Richard Maitland, born about 1525, 
 died 1573. On Queen Mary’s arrival in 
 Scotland he was chosen one of her prin- 
 cipal ministers. After Damley’s murder 
 he conspired to effect Mary’s escape from 
 Lochleven. The regent Moray had him 
 arrested in 1569 as an accessory to 
 Damley’s murder. He was set at liberty 
 by Kirkcaldy of Grange, and after the 
 assassination of Moray he became the 
 life and soul of the queen’s party, and 
 kept up an active correspondence with 
 Mary. In 1571 he joined Kirkcaldy in 
 Edinburgh Castle; was proclaimed a 
 traitor by the parliament, and attainted 
 with his two brothers. On the surrender 
 of Edinburgh Castle Kirkcaldy and his 
 brother were hanged, but Maitland died 
 in prison in Leith, presumably by his 
 own hand. 
 
 MAIZE, Indian corn, a genus of plants 
 commonly cultivated in the warmer 
 parts of the world, where it answers a 
 purpose similar to that of wheat in more 
 northern countries. The common maize 
 or Indian corn is a monoecious grass, of 
 vigorous growth, with stems not more 
 than 2 feet high in some varieties, and 
 reaching the height of 8 or even 10 feet 
 in others. The grains are large, com- 
 pressed, and packed closely in regular 
 parallel rows along the sides of a recep- 
 tacle many inches long. In large varie- 
 ties the ear or cob is often 1 foot long and 
 2 or 3 inches in thickness. Maize is ex- 
 tensively cultivated in America, where 
 it forms almost the only bread eaten by 
 many of the people. Its flour, though 
 
 Maize. 
 
 exceedingly nourishing, is not glutinous, 
 and must accordingly be mixed with 
 wheat, rye, or other flour before it can be 
 baked. InjAmerica large quantities of un- 
 ripe grain are roasted till they split, and 
 are then eaten under the name of pop- 
 corn. From the green stems a syrup is 
 expressed, which is fermented and con- 
 verted into a kind of spirits. Paper has 
 been made from maize fibres. It is also 
 cultivated throughout a great part of 
 Asia and Africa, and in several countries 
 of the south of Europe, as Spain and 
 Italy. The green stems and leaves form 
 nutritious food for cattle, and it is sown 
 and cut green for this purpose. 
 
 MAJOLICA, or MAIOLICA. See Fai- 
 ence. 
 
 MAJOR, in music, designates in gen- 
 eral a larger in contradistinction to a 
 smaller interval of the same denomina- 
 tion, called a minor interval; thus a 
 major tone is the interval between two 
 tones having the proportion to each 
 
MAJOR 
 
 MALDIVE ISLANDS 
 
 other in number of vibrations of 8:9; a 
 minor tone the interval between two 
 tones in the ratio of 9:10; a major third 
 is an interval of two tones (major and 
 minor); a minor third an interval of a 
 tone and semitone. The major mode is 
 one of the two recognized modern 
 modes (or forms of the scale), in which 
 the first third in the scale is a major 
 third, in contradistinction to the minor 
 mode, in which the first third is a minor 
 third. 
 
 MAJOR, the rank next above a 
 captain, and below a lieutenant-colonel. 
 In the United States the command 
 appropriate to the grade is: Infantry, a 
 battalion ; cavalry, a squadron ; artillery, 
 two or more batteries. 
 
 MAJOR'CA, an island in the Mediter- 
 ranean belonging to Spain, the largest of 
 the Balearic group, between Iviga and 
 Minorca: greatest length, 58 miles; 
 greatest breadth, 45 miles; area, 1420 sq. 
 miles. Chief town, Palma. Pop. 244,265. 
 
 MAJOR-GENERAL, in the United 
 States Army, the rank next above that 
 of brigadier-general, and below that of 
 lieutenant-general. The command ap- 
 propriate to his grade is four regiments, 
 or in time of peace a department. In 
 war he would command a division or a 
 corps. 
 
 MAJORITY, the period when the 
 legal disabilities and peculiar advan- 
 tages and privileges incident to infancy 
 cease. A person upon attaining his 
 majority has a last opportunity to dis- 
 affirm and avoid legal transactions to 
 which he was a party during the period 
 of his minority, and which were voidable 
 because of his disability. Certain privi- 
 leges of citizenship, such as voting and 
 holding office, usually commence at this 
 time. 
 
 ^MALABAR', a maritime district of 
 British India, in the presidency of 
 Madras, on the west coast; area 5765 sq. 
 miles. Pop. 2,652,565. The name Mala- 
 bar is often applied to the whole extent 
 of coast country as far north as Bombay. 
 
 MALAC'CA, a territory and townform- 
 ing part of the British colony of the 
 Straits Settlements, on the west coast of 
 the Malay peninsula, on the Strait of 
 Malacca. It extends about 40 miles 
 along the shore of the strait, and about 
 25 miles inland. Area 875 sq. miles. 
 Pop. of town 15,000; of the district 
 95,487. 
 
 MALACCA, Strait of, the channel be- 
 tween the Malay peninsula and the 
 Island of Sumatra, extending from lati- 
 tude 1° to about 6° n. Entire length, 
 about 520 miles; breadth, varying from 
 25 miles to 200 miles. 
 
 MALACCA CANE, a cane made from 
 the wing-leaved, erect, slender, cane- 
 stemmed palm, which, when dressed, is 
 of a brown color, sometimes mottled or 
 clouded. It is brought from Singapore 
 and Malacca, but is chiefly produced in 
 Sumatra. 
 
 MALACHI (maPa-ki), the twelfth and 
 last of the minor prophets. Nothing is 
 known of the history of the writer, and 
 it is even doubtful if Malachi (Messenger 
 of Jehovah) be a proper name or an as- 
 sumed epithet. The book evidently be- 
 longs to the latter part of the governor- 
 ship of Nehemiah, about b. c. 420. It 
 contains denunciations of the sins of the 
 
 Israelites, and predicts the coming of the 
 Messiah and the conversion of the 
 Gentiles. 
 
 MALACHITE (mal'a-kit), a carbonate 
 of copper, a dark emerald-green color, 
 and of a laminated, fibrous, or massive 
 structure. The finest specimens are 
 obtained from Siberia, but it is found in 
 many places all over the world. Fibrous 
 malachite, when finely pulverized, is 
 used as a paint; massive malachite is 
 made into boxes, knife-handles, table- 
 slabs, and other ornamental articles, 
 and is susceptible of a beautiful polish. 
 Blue malachite or azurite contains a 
 larger proportion of carbonic acid. 
 
 MAL'AGA, a seaport of southern Spain, 
 in Andalusia, capital of a province of the 
 same name, on the Mediterranean. It 
 was anciently called Malaca. The climate 
 is one of the mildest and most equal in 
 Europe. Pop. 130,109. — The province of 
 Malaga has an area of 2822 sq. miles ;pop. 
 511,989. It is traversed in all directions 
 by offsets of the Sierra Nevada. The 
 valleys are fertile and generally well 
 cultivated, yielding cereals, grapes, 
 oranges, lemons, figs, almonds, sugar- 
 cane, etc. 
 
 MALAGA WINE, a sweet Spanish wine 
 produced in the province of Malaga. It 
 is one of the “muscatel” wines, and is 
 rich, luscious, and full of body. 
 
 MALA'RIA, air tainted by miasmata 
 or deleterious emanations from animal 
 or vegetable matter, especially the ex- 
 halations of marshy districts which pro- 
 duce fevers A class of diseases, among 
 which intermittent and remittent fevers 
 occupy a prominent place, have been 
 known from a very early period to be 
 especially prevalent in marshy districts, 
 where they are promoted at particular 
 seasons by certain conditions of heat and 
 moisture. The noxious agents by which 
 these results are produced have been at- 
 tributed to the products of vegetable 
 decomposition, the decomposition of 
 animal tissues being regarded as giving 
 rise to similar miasmata. Recent re- 
 search seems to show that, whatever de- 
 compositionmayhave to do with malaria, 
 the germs of malarial diseases are enabled 
 to enter the human system through the 
 bites of mosquitoes, and that the clear- 
 ance of these from malarial districts is 
 followed by the disappearance of ma- 
 1 ^1*1^1 foA^Grs 
 
 MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, also known 
 as the Indian, Asiatic, or Eastern, the 
 great group of islands situated to the 
 southeast of Asia, and washed on the 
 west by the Indian and east by the 
 Pacific Ocean. Within these limits lie 
 some of the largest and finest islands in 
 the world, as Borneo, Sumatra, Java, 
 Celebes, the Philippines, etc., but New 
 Guinea is not ranked as belonging to the 
 group. The chief of the smaller islands 
 are Moluccas or Spice Islands, Billiton, 
 Banca, Madura, Bali, Lombok, Sum- 
 bawa, Flores, Timor. The small islands 
 may be truly called innumerable. A 
 large portion of the archipelago is really 
 or nominally under the sway of Holland, 
 and this portion is frequently called the 
 Dutch East Indies. 
 
 MALAY PENINSULA, the most south- 
 ern part of continental Asia, the long, 
 narrow projection that stretches first s. 
 ' and then s. e. from Siam and Burmah. 
 
 It is connected with lower Siam by the 
 Isthmus of Kra, has on the e. the Gulf of 
 Siam and the China Sea, and on the w. 
 the Strait of Malacca. It varies in width 
 from 45 miles at the n. to about 210 miles. 
 The area is about 70,000 sq. miles, and 
 the pop. is variously estimated at from 
 650,000 to 1,000,000 including large 
 numbers of Chinese. 
 
 MALAYS, the name of a race of people 
 inhabiting the Malay Peninsula, and 
 spread over all the Asiatic Archipelago. 
 They claim to have had their native 
 country in the Highlands of Sumatra, 
 where they established the once power- 
 ful state of Menangkabo, now subject to 
 the Dutch. In physical appearance they 
 are rather under the middle height, light 
 brown in color, with black, straight hair, 
 high cheek-bones, black and slightly 
 oblique , eyes, and scanty or no beard. 
 The civilized Malays profess the Moham- 
 medan religion. They are said to be of a 
 taciturn, undemonstrative disposition; 
 naturally indolent, treacherous in their 
 alliances, and addicted to piracy. 
 
 MALCOLM (mal'kom) I., King of 
 Scotland, reigned from 943 to 954.— 
 Malcolm 11. succeeded Kenneth II. in 
 1005. In his reign Lothian and Strath- 
 clyde became parts of the Scottish king- 
 dom. He was assassinated at Glamis in 
 1034. He was the last direct male de- 
 scendant of Kenneth MacAlpine. — Mal- 
 colm III., surnamed Canmore (Great 
 Head), born about 1024, slain near Aln- 
 wick, 1093. His father, Duncan, being 
 slain by Macbeth (1040), he sought aid 
 from Siward of Northumbria, and was 
 also assisted by Edward the Confessor. 
 On the defeat and death of Macbeth he 
 was crowned at Scone in 1058. In 1068 
 he granted asylum to Edgar Atheling, 
 his mother, and two sisters (one of whom, 
 Margaret, he married in 1070), with a 
 number of Saxon exiles. His reign, 
 which was mostly taken up with wars 
 with England, had nevertheless an im- 
 portant bearing on the civilization and 
 consolidation of Scotland. — -Malcolm IV, 
 (the Maiden) succeeded his grandfather, 
 David I., in 1153. He surrendered 
 Northumberland and Cumberland to 
 Henry II. in 1157. Died at Jedburgh in 
 1165, at the age of twenty-four. See 
 Scotland. 
 
 MALCOLM, Sir John, a distinguished 
 soldier and diplomatist, was born near 
 Langholm, in Dumfriesshire, 1769; died 
 in London 1833. He entered in 1782, as 
 a cadet, the service of the East India 
 Company. He was three times ambassa- 
 dor to Persia, and did excellent service 
 in the pacification of India after the 
 wars of Holkar and the Peishwa. la 
 1827 he was appointed governor of 
 Bombay, which post he continued to 
 fill until 1831, when he finally returned 
 to Britain. He received the honor of 
 knighthood in 1812. 
 
 MALDEN, a city in Middlesex co., 
 Mass., 5 miles n. of Boston, on the 
 Malden river. It has extensive manu- 
 facturing industries, and a pop. of 
 40,160. 
 
 MAL'DIVE ISLANDS, a remarkable 
 chain of islands in the Indian ocean. 
 The larger islands are richly clothed 
 with wood, chiefly palm, and are fertile 
 I in fruit and in various kinds of edible 
 roots; they also produce millet, and 
 
MALEBRANCHE 
 
 MAMMALIA 
 
 abound in cocoa-nuts, fowls, and all 
 descriptions of fish. Pop. 150,000 to 
 200,000. 
 
 MALEBRANCHE (mil-briinsh), Nich- 
 olas, a French philosopher, born in 1638, 
 died 1715. In 1673 he published his 
 treatise De la Recherche de la V6rit6. 
 The doctrines of this celebrated work 
 are founded upon Cartesian principles. 
 
 MALLARD. See Duck. 
 
 MALLEABILITY, the property of 
 being susceptible of extension by beat- 
 ing; almost restricted to metals. The 
 following is the order of malleability of 
 the metals: Gold, silver, copper, plati- 
 num, iron, aluminium, tin, zinc, lead, 
 cadmium, nickel, cobalt. Ductility and 
 malleability are nearly allied, but they 
 are seldom possessed in the same pro- 
 portion by the same metal. 
 
 MAL'LORY, Stephen Russell, cabinet 
 officer in the confederacy, was born at 
 Trinidad, W. I., in 1813, and in 1832 
 was appointed by President Jackson 
 inspector of customs at Key West. 
 From 1851 to 1861 he represented 
 Florida in the United States senate. 
 In 1861. he was appointed secretary of 
 the confederate navy, then without a 
 ship. After the war he was taken 
 prisoner, but in 1866 was released on 
 parole. He died in 1873. 
 
 MALLOW, the mallow is a common and 
 widely diffused species of plants, possessed 
 of mucilaginous properties. The whole 
 plant is used in fomentations, cata- 
 plasms, and emollient enemas. When 
 fresh the flowers are reddish-purple, 
 
 but on drying become blue, and yield 
 their coloring principle both to water 
 and alcohol. The alcoholic tincture 
 furnishes one of the most delicate of 
 reagents for testing the presence of 
 alkalies or acids. 
 
 MALMAISON, a historic chateau in 
 France, department of the Seine, 5 miles 
 w. of Paris, once the property of Rich- 
 elieu. It was the favorite residence of 
 the Empress Josephine, wife of Napo- 
 leon I. 
 
 MALMO (mal'meu), a seaport of 
 Sweden, capital of the laen or prefecture 
 of Malmohus, situated on the eastern 
 shore of the Sound, opposite Copen- 
 hagen. The manufactures and other in- 
 dustries are considerable, and the ship- 
 ping trade of the port is large. Pop. 
 62,954. — The laen of Malmohus is very 
 fertile; has an area of 1781 sq. miles; 
 pop. 413,400. 
 
 MALT, grain, usually barley, steeped 
 in water and made to germinate, the 
 starch of the grain being thus converted 
 into saccharine matter, after which it 
 is dried in a kiln, and then used in the 
 
 brewing of porter, ale, or beer, and in 
 whisky distilling. One hundred parts of 
 barley yield about ninety-two parts of 
 air-dried malt. See Brewing. 
 
 MALTA, an island in the Mediterran- 
 ean belonging to Britain. The most 
 important indentation is the double 
 bay on which the capital, Valetta, 
 stands. The greatest elevation of the 
 island is about 750 feet. The soil is thin, 
 and rests on a calcareous rock; in some 
 parts earth has been brought from 
 Sicily and put down. Corn, cotton, 
 potatoes, and clover are the chief crops. 
 Both the vine and olive are cultivated, 
 and fruit, particularly figs and oranges, 
 is very abundant. The manufactures 
 consist of cotton goods, lace, jewelry, 
 etc. The central position of Malta in 
 the Mediterranean makes Valetta an in- 
 valuable naval station. It has, in con- 
 sequence, been provided with excellent 
 docks and very strong fortifications. 
 The climate is very hot in summer, but 
 pleasant and healthy in winter, attract- 
 ing many visitors at this season. Malta 
 passed successively through the hands 
 of the Phoenicians, Greeks, aind Cartha- 
 ginians, and was finally attached to 
 Rome during the second Punic war. 
 After the fall of the Roman Empire it 
 was siezed at different times by Vandals, 
 Gpths, and Saracens. From the last it 
 passed to Sicily, and followed its for- 
 tunes till 1522, when Charles V. granted 
 it to the order of St. John of Jerusalem. 
 In 1798 the grand-master surrendered it 
 without defense to Napoleon. It was 
 taken by the British in 1800, and finally 
 annexed by them in 1814. The execu- 
 tive government is in the hands of a 
 governor and council. By a new con- 
 stitution adopted in 1888 the legislative 
 council consists of the governor and the 
 members of council (6),' with 14 mem- 
 bers elected by the constituencies into 
 which Malta and the islands of Gozo 
 and Comino have been divided. The 
 people are mainly of Arabic race and 
 speak a kind of Arabic mixed with 
 Italian. Italian and English are also 
 spoken. The total pop., inclusive of the 
 garrison, is 192,000. 
 
 MALTESE CROSS. See Cross. 
 
 MALTESE DOG, a very small kind of 
 spaniel, with long silky, generally white 
 hair and round muzzle. They are lively 
 and good-tempered, and make agreeable 
 pets. 
 
 MALTHA, a variety of bitumen, 
 viscid and tenacious, like pitch. It is 
 unctuous to the touch, and exhales a 
 bituminous odor. 
 
 MALTHUS, Rev. Thomas Robert, 
 English political economist, born 1766; 
 died 1834. In 1798 he first published 
 the views with which his name is asso- 
 ciated in his Essay on the Principles of 
 Population as it Affects the Future 
 Improvement of Society. It was im- 
 proved and matured in subsequent 
 editions. His leading principle is that 
 population, when unchecked, goes on 
 increasing in a higher ratio than the 
 means of subsistence can, under the 
 most favorable circumstances, be made 
 to increase: that the great natural 
 checks to excessive increase of popula- 
 tion are vice, misery, and moral re- 
 straint : and the great business of the 
 enlightened legislator is to diminish the 
 
 first two and give every encouragement 
 to the last. 
 
 MALVA'CEiE, the mallows, a large 
 natural order of exogenous plants. A 
 large proportion of the order consists 
 of herbaceous or annual plants, inhabit- 
 ing all the milder parts of the world, 
 but found most plentifully in hot 
 countries. Several species are of essen- 
 tial service to man. As emollients they 
 are well known in medical practice. 
 The hairy covering of the seeds of the 
 various species forms raw cotton. The 
 inner bark of many species yields fibre 
 of considerable value. Many species are 
 splendid flowering plants. 
 
 MAM'ELUKES, or MAMALUKES 
 (Arabic, “slaves”), the former mounted 
 soldiery of Egypt, consisting originally 
 of Circassian slaves. As early as 1254 
 they became so powerful that they 
 made one of their own number sultan, 
 this dynasty continuing till 1517, when 
 it was overthrown by Selim I. They 
 still continued to be virtual masters of 
 the country, however. They suffered 
 severely in opposing the French at the 
 end of the 18th century, and in 1811 
 Mehemet Ali caused a general massacre 
 of them throughout Egypt. 
 
 MAMMA'LIA, the highest class at once 
 of the Vertebrata and of the animal 
 kingdom, including those warm-blooded 
 animals we familiarly term “quadru- 
 peds,” the whales and other fish-like 
 forms, and man himself. Their distinc- 
 tive characteristic is that the female 
 suckles the young on a secretion peculiar 
 to the class, furnished by the mammary 
 glands of the mother, and known as 
 milk. The skin is always more or less 
 covered with hairs, which are found 
 in many forms, from the finest wool or 
 silky down to large, coarse bristles and 
 even spines. The skeleton exhibits a 
 uniformity of essential structure, and in 
 most points agrees with that of man. 
 The cavity of the thorax or chest is 
 bounded by the ribs, which vary greatly 
 in number, but generally correspond to 
 that of the dorsal vertebrae. The skull 
 forms a single piece composed of bones 
 immovably fastened together, to which 
 is articulated the lower jaw, composed 
 of two halves united at the chin. The 
 skull is joined to the spine by means 
 of two condyles which fit into the first 
 cervical vertebra. The limbs, like those 
 of all other Vertebrata, are never more 
 than four. The front limbs are invaria- 
 bly present, but in cetaceans and such 
 allied forms as the dugongs and mana- 
 tees the hinder limbs are either com- 
 pletely suppressed or present only in a 
 rudimentary state. The limbs are gener- 
 ally well developed, and are most com- 
 monly adapted for terrestrial progres- 
 sion; some are suited for burrowing, 
 others for climbing, those of the ceta- 
 ceans and seals for swimming, while some 
 (the bats) have the fore limbs developed 
 into a kind of wing. Teeth are present 
 in most mammals; but they are only 
 represented in the embryo in the whale- 
 bone whales, and are entirely absent in 
 the anteater, pangolin, and echidna. 
 The chest or thorax in all mammals is 
 separated from the abdominal cavity, 
 by a complete diaphragm or “midriff,” 
 which thus constitutes a great muscular 
 ^ partition between these cavities, and 
 
MAMMARY GLANDS 
 
 MAN 
 
 also forms the most important agent in 
 effecting the movements of the chest 
 during respiration. Within the thorax 
 the heart and lungs are contained; 
 while the abdomen and its lesser pelvic 
 cavity contain the organs relating gen- 
 erally to digestion, excretion, and repro- 
 duction. The stomach, generally simple, 
 may, as in some monkeys, in the kan- 
 garoos, in the pig, and most of all in the 
 ruminants, exhibit a division into com- 
 partments. A liver and pancreas are 
 present in all Mammalia. The lungs agree 
 in essential structure with those of man, 
 as also does the heart with its four cham- 
 bers — right and left auricles and right 
 and left ventricles. The red corpuscles 
 of the blood are non-nucleated, and are 
 circular in shape exeept in the case of the 
 camels. All mammals with the excep- 
 tion of the monotremes are viviparous 
 but there are considerable differences 
 in the relations subsisting between 
 mother and young before birth, thus 
 leading to the division into placental 
 and aplacental mammals. Man and 
 all other mammals except the mono- 
 tremes and marsupials belong to the 
 latter division. All mammals possess 
 mammary or milk glands, which, how- 
 ever, may differ chiefly in number and 
 position throughout the class. In the 
 classification of this important group 
 authorities differ somewhat, but the 
 mammals may be divided into the fol- 
 lowing groups: man, apes and monkeys, 
 the prosimians or lemurs, the bats, the 
 insect-eaters, the flesh-eaters, the seals, 
 the whales and dolphins, the sea cows, 
 the elephants, the odd-toed ungulates, 
 the even-toed ungulates, the gnawers or 
 rodents, the edentates, the marsupials, 
 or pouch-bearing mammals, and the 
 monotremes. 
 
 MAMMARY GLANDS, the milk-pro- 
 ducing organs, the distinctive mark of 
 the mammals. These structures present 
 in man an essentially lobular structure. 
 The lobes are divisible into smaller 
 lobules, which consist ultimately of 
 groups of vesicles which open into 
 minute ducts converging into larger 
 channels which lead to the milk reser- 
 voirs at the nipple. The nipple itself is 
 composed of unstriped muscular fibres 
 and areolar tissue. It also possesses 
 erectile powers, and blood-vessels are in 
 consequence freely distributed to it. 
 These glands, save in exceptional in- 
 stances, are undeveloped in the male. 
 They are always in. pairs on some part 
 of the ventral surface of the body, but in 
 number and position they vary much in 
 the various groups. 
 
 MAMMEE'-TREE, or WEST INDIA 
 APRICOT, a tall handsome tree bearing 
 a fruit about the size of a cocoa-nut. 
 This has two rinds inclosing the pulp 
 which is firm, bright yellow, and has a 
 pleasant taste and smell. 
 
 MAMMON, a Syriac word used in St. 
 Mathew as a personation of riches or 
 worldliness. There does not appear to 
 have been any idol in the east receiving 
 divine honors under this name. 
 
 MAMMOTH, a species of extinct 
 elephant, the fossil remains of which are 
 found in European, Asiatic, and North 
 American formations. Geologically 
 speaking, the mammoth dates from the 
 Post-pliocene period. It survived the 
 
 glacial period, and lived into the earlier 
 portion of the human period; its remains 
 having been frequently found associated 
 with human remains, and its figure carved 
 on bone. I-t appears to have been widely 
 distributed over the northern hemis- 
 phere, but never south of a line drawn 
 through the Pyrenees, the Alps, the 
 northern shores of the Caspian, Lake 
 Baikal, Kamtchatka, and the Stanovoi 
 mountains. It has large curved tusks, 
 and shaggy hair. The bones and tusks 
 have been found in great abundance in 
 Siberia; and an entire carcass which had 
 
 Skeleton of mammoth. 
 
 been preserved in the ice and latterly 
 thawed out, was discovered near the 
 end of the 18th century on the banks 
 of the river Lena, in such a perfect state 
 that the flesh was eaten by dogs, wolves, 
 and bears. Its skin was perfectly pre- 
 served, and was seen to be clothed with 
 a furry wool of reddish color, inter- 
 spersed with black hairs. The skeleton 
 and other parts of this animal are pre- 
 served in the St. Petersburg Royal 
 Museum. It must have been twice aS; 
 bulky as the elephants at present living. 
 
 MAMMOTH CAVE, a stupendous 
 cave in Kentucky, near Green River, 
 about 80 miles s.s.w. of Louisville. 
 It is one of a large series of vast caverns 
 here formed in the limestone rock, and 
 which are found over an area of 6000 
 miles in Kentucky, Tennessee, and 
 Indiana. It has been penetrated 14 
 miles, and has many windings and off- 
 shots, some of them but imperfectly 
 explored. It is a dry cave, and the 
 remains of its stalactite and stalagmite 
 formations are dusty and dilapidated; 
 consequently it is more remarkable for 
 its extent, the size of its halls, and 
 height of its domes, than for the variety 
 or beauty of its scenery. It contains 
 several small lakes or rivers, the larg- 
 est, Echo river, being more than half a 
 mile long. It rises and falls accord- 
 ing as Green river is in flood or other- 
 wise, there being an underground con- 
 nection between them. The animals of 
 the cave include blind wingless grass- 
 hoppers, beetles, rats, etc., and the 
 viviparous blind fish Amblyopsis. 
 
 MAMMOTH TREES. See Sequoia. 
 
 MAN, the most highly organized 
 member of the animal world. The en- 
 deavor has often been made in classifi- 
 cation to separate man from the brute 
 creation. One system, expressing a vast 
 gap between the Quadrumana and man, 
 classifies man in the order Bimana 
 (“two-handed”), the highest division 
 of the Mammalian class; and relegates 
 the monkeys and apes to the lower and 
 distinct order — that of the Quadrumana 
 (“four-handed”). The more recent 
 arrangements, however, classify man 
 and the monkeys in one order, making 
 
 man the highest family or group of this 
 order. From the purely anatomical 
 point of view the differences which 
 separate the anthropoid . apes from 
 man are in some respects less than those 
 which separate these higher apes from 
 apes lower in the scale. But the mental 
 or psychical endowments of man oblige 
 us to remove him far above the highest 
 Quadrumana; and even the characters 
 by which he is anatomically separated 
 from the highest apes form a very dis- 
 tinct and appreciable series. The first 
 grand characteristic of man is his erect 
 position and bipedal progression. The 
 lower limbs, with the feet broad and 
 plantigrade and the well-developed heel, 
 are devoted exclusively to progression 
 and supporting the weight of the body; 
 while the upper limbs have nothing to 
 do with progression, but subserve pre- 
 hension entirely. The bones of the face 
 in man do not project forward, while 
 they are elongated in a downward direc- 
 tion; and the face and forehead are in 
 the more civilized races situated nearly 
 in the same plane, so that the face im- 
 mediately underlies the brain. Similarly 
 the development of a distinct chin is 
 also a peculiarly human feature, and 
 one which in the highest varieties of 
 mankind becomes most marked. The 
 great cranial capacity of man, or the 
 greater size of the cranial or brain 
 portion as compared with the facial 
 portion of the skull, forms another note- 
 worthy and distinctive character of the 
 human form. The brain convolutions 
 also are more numerous and complex 
 than is the case with any other mammal. 
 ,,The teeth of man are arranged in a con- 
 tinuous series, and without any dia- 
 st§ma or interval. The development 
 of hair too is very partial. The gorilla 
 presents of all the apes the nearest 
 approach to the human type taken in its 
 entirety; but it differs in the relative 
 number of vertebrae (13 dorsal and 4 
 lumbar, to 12 and 5 respectively in 
 man), in the order of dental succession 
 and in the presence of the interval or 
 diastema, in the less prominent muscu- 
 lar development of the buttocks and 
 calves, and in other minor differences. 
 The orangs most closely approach man’s 
 structure in the number of ribs and in 
 the form of the cerebrum, while they 
 exhibit the greatest differences from 
 him in the relative length of the limbs. 
 The chimpanzees are most anthropoid 
 in the shape of the cranium, in the 
 arrangement and succession of the 
 teeth, and in the length of the arms as 
 compared with that of the legs. Of the 
 higher apes the gibbons are those fur- 
 thest removed from the human type 
 of structure. Chief among the psychical 
 features, or rather among the results 
 of the operation of the principle of mind, 
 we note the possession of the moral 
 sense of right and wrong. The posses- 
 sion of an articulate language, by which 
 he can communicate his thoughts, is 
 also the exclusive possession of man, and 
 draws a sharp line of separation between 
 him and all other animals. With regard 
 to the geological history of man, the ear- 
 liest traces yet discovered belong to the 
 Post-pliocene deposits in conjunction 
 with existing species of shells and some 
 extinct species of mammals. Man’s 
 
MAN 
 
 MANCHESTER 
 
 advent upon the earth is consequently 
 referred to a period much anterior to 
 that which former limits and theological 
 ideas prescribed. Among the modern 
 theories regarding the origin of man 
 may be noted those of (1) Darwin; that 
 man is directly descended from an 
 extinct form of anthropoid ape, with a 
 tail and pointed ears, arboreal in its 
 habits and an inhabitant of the Old 
 World; further, that man has diverged 
 into different races or sub-species, but 
 that all the races agree in so many un- 
 important details of structure, and in 
 so many mental peculiarities, that they 
 can be accounted for only through in- 
 heritance from a common progenitor. 
 (2) Wallace also affirms the original 
 unity of man, and places him apart as 
 not only the head and culminating 
 point of the grand series of organic 
 nature, but as, in some degree, a new 
 and distinct order of being; maintaining 
 that a superior intelligence has guided 
 the development of man in a definite 
 direction and for a special purpose, just 
 as man guides the development of many 
 animals and vegetable forms. (3) Carl 
 Vogt holds a plurality of the race; 
 adopts Darwin’s idea of natural selec- 
 tion accounting for the origin and en- 
 dowments of man, but rejects Wallace’s 
 ideaof the highercontrollingintelligence. 
 (4) Mivart propounds a theory of a 
 natural evolution of man as to his body, 
 combined with a supernatural creation 
 as to his soul. 
 
 MAN, Isle of, an island in the Irish 
 Sea, equidistant about 27 miles from 
 England and Ireland, and 16 miles 
 from Scotland; greatest length, n.e. to 
 S.W., 33 miles, greatest breadth, e. to w., 
 12 miles; area, 145,325 acres. There is a 
 small island, the Calf of Man (800 acres), 
 at the s.w. extremity of Man. Lead and 
 zinc are found in considerable quan- 
 tities, especially the former. Fishing 
 is an important industry, but the manu- 
 factures are almost entirely domestic. 
 The island is governed by an independ- 
 ent legislature called the Tynwald, 
 consisting of two branches — the gover- 
 nor and council and the house of keys. 
 Two judges or “deemsters” try civil 
 and criminal oases. The Manx language, 
 a Celtic dialect, is still in use, although 
 all the inhabitants speak En^ish. The 
 principal towns are Douglas, Castle- 
 town, Peel, and Ramsey. This island 
 was taken by the Norwegians in 1098, 
 sold to the Scots in 1266, and was re- 
 peatedly occupied by the English and 
 Soots up till 1344, whan it remained in 
 possession of the former. It was latterly 
 
 Golden-winged manakin. 
 
 held as a feudal sovereignty by the earls 
 of Derby, and more recently by the 
 dukes of Athole, from whom it was 
 purchased for the British crown. Pop. 
 54 , 758 . 
 
 MAN'AKIN, the name given to the 
 dentirostral insessorial birds forming 
 the sub-family Piprinje. They are gen- 
 erally small and of brilliant plumage 
 and are mostly confined to South 
 America, a few species being found in 
 Central America and Mexico. The 
 typical genus is Pipra, which includes 
 the bearded manakin and several others. 
 An allied species is the beautiful orange 
 manakin or cock-of-the-rock. 
 
 MANAS'SEH, (1) eldest son of Joseph, 
 born in Egypt. His descendants formed 
 a tribe, which, in the Promised Land, 
 was settled half way east of the Jordan 
 and half to the west of this river. (2) 
 King of Judah, son of Hezekiah, whom 
 he succeeded at twelve years of age, 697 
 B.c. He became an open idolater; was 
 taken captive to Babylon; ultimately 
 repented and was restored to his king- 
 dom. He reigned for fifty-five years. 
 
 MANATEE', the sea-cow or lamantin, 
 a gregarious aquatic mammal found on 
 
 The manatee. 
 
 the coasts of South America, Africa, 
 and Australia. They generally frequent 
 the mouths of rivers and estuaries, and 
 feed on algse and such littoral land 
 vegetation as they can reach at high 
 
 tide. Their anterior limbs or swimming 
 paws are furnished with nails, by means 
 of which they drag themselves along 
 the shore. They are large awkward 
 animals, attaining a length of 8 to 10 
 feet as a rule, but sometimes growing 
 to 20 feet. The skin is of a grayish color, 
 sparsely covered with hairs. Their flesh 
 is excellent, and they furnish a soft, 
 clear oil, which does not become rancid. 
 There are several species, the principal 
 being the American manatee, which in- 
 habits the shallow waters of the east 
 coasts of South and North America, 
 and the African manatee. The dugong 
 belongs to the same order. 
 
 MANCHA, La, an ancient province of 
 Spain, in New Castile, forming the chief 
 
 part of the modern province of Ciudad- 
 Real; famous as the scene of Don 
 Quixote’s adventures. 
 
 MANCHE (mansh). La, a department 
 of Northern France, bounded on thew., 
 n., and n.e. by the English Channel, and 
 landward by the departments of Calva- 
 dos, Orne, and Mayenne. It is about 80 
 miles long by 30 broad, and has an area 
 of 2263 sq. miles. Principal towns, 
 Saint-L6, the chief town, Cherbourg, 
 Avaranches, Coutances, and Granville. 
 Pop. 491,372. 
 
 MAN'CHESTER, a mun., pari., and 
 county borough and city of Lancashire, 
 England, 188 miles n.n.w. from London 
 by railway, and 32 miles east by north of 
 Liverpool. Manchester charter of in- 
 corporation dates from 1838; in 1832 
 it war: made a parliamentary borough, 
 and in 1852 it became a city. Ainong 
 the chief public buildings are the town 
 hall or municipal buildings, behind them 
 being a well-arranged prison ; the Royal 
 Exchange; the Royal Infirmary; the 
 Free Trade Hall, used for public meet- 
 ings ; the Royal Institution, Salford town- 
 hall, new general postoffice, city court- 
 house, commercial buildings, etc. Among 
 the churches the first place is due to the 
 cathedral, a fine specimen of Perpen- 
 dicular Gothic, built in 1422. The chief 
 educational institution is Owens College, 
 the nucleus of the Victoria University, 
 founded in 1846. Cheetham’s hospital 
 was founded under the will of Humfrey 
 Cheetham in 1653 for the education of 
 poor boys. Attached to the institution 
 is a library of nearly 40,000 vols., the 
 first free library in Europe. The city 
 
 has also a number of denominatioral 
 colleges. The grammar school was 
 founded in 1520, and has exhibitions 
 at Oxford or Cambridge. There are 
 numerous literary, scientific, and philo- 
 sophical societies, some of them of con- 
 siderable standing. The free library, 
 established in 1851, has a reference 
 library in the main building of 100,000 
 vols., and six branches with upward 
 of 120,000 vols. Among the public 
 monuments the most noteworthy is the 
 Albert Memorial in front of the town- 
 hall. The chief manufacture is cotton, 
 though woolen and silk fabrics are also 
 produced. Metal manufactures, engi- 
 neering, and the making of all kinds of 
 machinery employ many hands. Rail- 
 
 Manckester— The Koyal Infirmary and Piccadilly, from the Queen’s Hotel. 
 
MANCHESTER 
 
 MANDIBLE 
 
 way communication is of the most ex- 
 tensive kind, the largest stations being 
 Victoria, London Road, Ex'change, and 
 Central. The commerce of the city has 
 been further facilitated by the corn- 
 pletion of the ship canal, connecting it 
 with the Mersey estuary, an under- 
 taking which altogether has cost 
 $75,000,000. It is 35^ miles long 26 feet 
 deep, has several locks, and connected 
 with it are docks at Manchester 100 
 acres in area. The manufacture of gas 
 and supply of water are in the hands of 
 the corporation, and an extensive scheme 
 for bringing an improved watdT supply 
 from Thirlmere in the Lake District 
 has recently been completed at a cost of 
 $20,000,000. The introduction of 
 machinery in cotton-spinning toward 
 the end of the 18th century gave power 
 and direction to the trade of modern 
 Manchester, and its progress since has 
 been extraordinarily rapid. A tempo- 
 rary check resulted from the civil war 
 in America, which led to a cotton famine 
 in 1862, causing the deepest distress in 
 South Lancashire. Pop. of Manchester 
 543,930; of Salford, 421,015. 
 
 MANCHESTER, a town in New 
 Hampshire, on the Merrimac, at the 
 Amoskeag Falls, 59 miles north-north- 
 west of Boston. It is one of the chief 
 manufacturing places in New England, 
 having the advantage of an unlimited 
 supply of water-power from the falls of 
 the Merrimac. The chief articles manu- 
 factured are cotton, woolens, fire- 
 engines, locomotives, edge-tools, castings 
 and paper. Pop. 1909, about 65,000. 
 
 MANCHESTER, a town in Chester- 
 field CO., Va., on the James river, and 
 the Richmond and Danville railroad; 
 opposite Richmond. Pop. 11,500. 
 
 MANCHU'RIA, or MANCHOORIA- 
 (Chinese Shing-fcng) a Chinese terri- 
 tory occupying the northeastern corner 
 of the empire, and abutting on Siberia 
 and Corea, its chief natural boundaries 
 being the Yellow Sea and Amur. It has 
 been occupied since the troubles of 1900 
 by Russian troops, the promise of evacu- 
 ation by Russia not having yet been 
 carried out. The trans-Siberian railway 
 crosses it. It is divided into three prov- 
 inces, Shing-King, Feng-Tien, or Leao- 
 tong in the south, of which Mukden is 
 the capital; Kirin in the center, with a 
 capital of the same name; and He-Lung- 
 Kiang in the north, with capital Tsitsi- 
 har. The total area is about 380,000 
 sq. miles. The administration is military, 
 the governors of the two northern prov- 
 inces being subordinate to the governor 
 of Mukden. The Manchus are a hardy 
 race, and their country has long been 
 the great recruiting ground for the 
 Chinese army; but of late years vast 
 numbers of Chinese proper have flocked 
 into it, so that now they by far out- 
 number the native race. In the 17th 
 century the Manchus invaded China 
 and placed their leader’s son upon the 
 throne. Since that time the Manchu 
 dynasty has continued to reign in 
 China, and the Manchu language has 
 become the court and official language. 
 The country is mountainous, but on the 
 whole fertile. The climate is good, for 
 though the winters are severe they are 
 healthy and bracing. The vast forests 
 of the north are rich in useful timber of 
 
 all kjnds. The principal food crops are 
 pulse, millet, barley, and wheat. The 
 vine, indigo, cotton, opium, tobacco, 
 etc., are cultivated. The chief seaport is 
 the treaty port Newchwang. In 1894 
 and 1895 Manchuria was the field of 
 war between China and Japan and in 
 1900 the Boxer movement was most 
 destructive, and in 1904 it became the 
 theater of war between Russia and 
 Japan. On February 9, Japan destroyed 
 the Russian ships Variag and Korietz in 
 the harbor of Chemulpo, and by a 
 torpedo attack disabled some of the 
 ships in Port Arthur. The Japanese 
 having gained practical control of the 
 sea landed their armies, and by their 
 brilliant naval and land campaigns had 
 destroyed Russia’s supremacy in Asiatic 
 waters, involved Port Arthur in a pro- 
 tracted siege and had driven the Rus- 
 sian army back on Mukden. 
 
 The persistent attempts of Admiral 
 Togo to block Port Arthur, the blowing 
 up of several Russian ships, the blowing 
 up and ramming of Japanese ships, the 
 destructive raids of the Vladivostok 
 squadroon on Japanese transports, the 
 practical annihilation of the Vladivostok 
 squadroon were some ofthemorestriking 
 events of the war by sea. By land, the ar- 
 miesledby Gens. Kuroki, Oku, and Nodzu, 
 notwithstanding desperate Russian re- 
 sistance, were irresistible in their on- 
 ward progress. May 1, Kuroki forced 
 the passage of the Yalu. May 20 Oku 
 stormed Kinchau and Nanshau Hill, 
 driving Gen. Stoessel back on Port 
 Arthur. June 14-16 Gen. Nodzu be- 
 leagured Port Arthur while Oku and 
 Kuroki defeated Gen. Stokelberg, who 
 had been dispatched with 30,000 men 
 to the relief of Port Arthur. The Jap- 
 anese occupied Yinkow at the port of 
 Newchwang, and on July 25 again de- 
 feated the Russians. One of the fiercest 
 battles in history began on August 30 
 when after three days of the severest 
 fighting Gen. Kuropatkin was compelled 
 to abandon Liao-yang and retire on 
 Mukden, the battle raging incessantly 
 during the five days retreat. 
 
 On September 18, the Japanese began 
 shelling the fortifications around Muk- 
 den. On October 4, Gen. Kuropatkin 
 assumed the offensive, pushing his army 
 across the Hun river. Here he was 
 faced by Oku, Nodzu, and Kuroki. 
 The battle of the Hun river lasting 
 11 days, and while the losses on both 
 sides were enormous, the net result 
 showed no gain to either side. During 
 these months operations by land and sea 
 before Port Arthur had been carried on 
 with varying success. On December 2 
 the Japanese took 203 Meter Hill at a 
 loss of 15,000 men, but it enabled them 
 to mount their heaviest siege guns on 
 a hill which commanded both the town 
 and the harbor. On January 2, 1905, 
 Gen. Stoessel was forced to surrender 
 the entire garrison and the ships within 
 the harbor. 
 
 With the fall of Port Arthur fighting 
 was resumed at Mukden . By the middle 
 of February Marshal Oyama had been 
 reinforced by an anny of 100,000 
 veterans under Gen. Nogi, the Japanese 
 army now numbering 400,000 and the 
 Russian 350,000. On February 20, a 
 general advance v/as made against the 
 
 Russians. On March 10 Mukden was 
 occupied by the Japanese and the Rus- 
 sian retreat turned into a rout. 
 
 On the capitulation of the Port Arthur 
 garrison in January, the Japanese fleet 
 under Togo was released from blockade 
 duty and lay in wait for the Baltic fleet 
 under Admiral Rojestvensky,and on May 
 27 surrounded the Russian fleet and 
 pounded it to pieces. 
 
 The campaign on land and sea was 
 again vigorously pushed, when, yielding 
 to the earnest requests of President 
 Roosevelt to stop the war if possible, 
 both Russia and Japan consented in the 
 latter part of June to hold a conference 
 with peace a possible outcome. Baron 
 J. Komura and Minister Takahira for 
 Japan and Serge Witte and Baron Rosen 
 for Russia were chosen as ambassadors 
 with full powers to arrange terms of 
 peace. The Portsmouth, N. H., navy- 
 yard was selected as the meeting place. 
 On August 29 the plenipotentiaries 
 reached a flnal agreement, the treaty was 
 drafted and signed on September 5. 
 Peace was concluded September 5, 1905, 
 by the intervention of President Roose- 
 velt by the treaty of Portsmouth. Pop. 
 estimated at 22,000,000. 
 
 MAN'DALAY, the capital of Burmah 
 from 1860 to 1886, and now that of 
 Upper Burmah, in a level plain about 2 
 miles from the left bank of the Irra- 
 waddy, 386 miles by rail from Rangoon. 
 Pop. 183,816. 
 
 MANDA'MUe, in law, a command or 
 writ issuing from a superior court, 
 directed to any person, corporation, or 
 inferior court, requiring them to do 
 some act therein specified which apper- 
 tains to their office and duty, as to admit 
 a person to an office or franchise, or to 
 deliver papers, etc. 
 
 MAN'DARIN, the term applied by 
 Europeans to government officials of 
 every grade in China. The Chinese 
 equivalent is kwan, which signifies 
 literally a public character. 
 
 MANDARIN DUCK, a beautiful spe- 
 cies of duck from Eastern Asia, the males 
 of which exhibit a highly variegated 
 plumage of green, purple, white, and 
 
 Mandarin duck. 
 
 chestnut, the females being colored a 
 more sober brown. The male loses his 
 fine plumage in summer. 
 
 MANDATS (man-da), a kind of paper- 
 money issued during the French revolu- 
 tion, differing from the assignats 
 in so far as specific pieces of prop- 
 erty, enumerated in a table, were 
 pledged for the redemption of the bills, 
 while the assignats furnished only a 
 general claim. 
 
 MAN'DIBLE, the term more espe- 
 
MANDOLIN 
 
 MANILA 
 
 cially applied to both the upper and 
 under jaws of birds. In mammals it is 
 applied only to the under jaw, and in 
 the Articulata to the upper or anterior 
 air of jaws, which are generally solid, 
 orny, biting organs. 
 
 MAN'DOLIN, a musical instrument 
 of the guitar kind. There are several 
 varieties, each with different tunings. 
 The Neapolitan has four strings tuned 
 like those of the violin, G, D, A, E; 
 The Milanese has five double strings 
 (each pair in unison) tuned G, C, A, D, 
 
 Mandolin. 
 
 E, A plectrum is used in the right hand, 
 the fingers of the left stopping the 
 strings on the fretted finger-board. 
 
 MANDRILL, a species of baboon 
 which is distinguished by the short or 
 rudimentary tail, by the elongated dog- 
 like muzzle, and by the presence of 
 buttock callosities which are generally 
 brightly colored. The mandrill inhabits 
 Western Africa, where they associate 
 in large troops. Full-grown males meas- 
 
 Mandrill. 
 
 ure about 5 feet ; they are exceedingly 
 strong and muscular, and fierce in dis- 
 position. It has cheek protuberances 
 colored with stripes of brilliant red and 
 blue. 
 
 MANFRED, king of the Two Sicilies; 
 born 1231, died 1266. A natural son of 
 the Emperor Frederick III., he was 
 regent in Italy first for his brother and 
 then for his nephew, on whose rumored 
 death he was crowned king. He refused 
 to resign in favor of his nephew, was 
 excommunicated, and his kingdom of 
 the Sicilies given as a papal fief to 
 Charles of Anjou. The latter marched 
 into Naples and gained a victory, in 
 which Manfred was killed. 
 
 MAN'GANESE, a metal of a dusky- 
 white or whitish-gray color, very hard 
 and difficult to fuse. Exposed to air it 
 speedily oxidizes; it decomposes water 
 with evolution of hydrogen. The com- 
 mon ore of manganese is the dioxide, 
 black oxide, or peroxide, a substance 
 largely employed in the preparation of 
 chlorine for the manufacture of bleach- 
 ing-powder or chlorate of lime. It is 
 employed in the manufacture of plate 
 
 glass, to correct the yellow color which 
 oxide of iron is apt to impart to the 
 glass. It is also used in making the 
 black enamel of pottery. Other oxides 
 are the protoxide, sesqui-oxide, the red 
 oxide, and permanganic acid. The latter 
 is only known in solution or in a state of 
 combination. It is largely used in an- 
 alytical chemistry. Metallic manganese 
 is obtained by reduction of the oxide 
 by means of heat and finely-divided 
 carbon. It resembles iron in appearance 
 and properties; is a constituent of many 
 mineral waters, and is employed in 
 medicine. In steel manufacture it is 
 used in certain proportions with ad- 
 vantage as regards the ductility of the 
 steel and ability to withstand forging, 
 and in other manufacturing operations 
 it forms an important element. 
 
 MANGANESE BRONZE, a kind of 
 bronze in which the copper forming the 
 base of the alloy is mixed with a certain 
 proportion of ferro-manganese, and 
 which has exceptional qualities in the 
 way of strength, hardness, toughness, 
 etc. Various qualities are manufactured, 
 each suited for certain special purposes. 
 One quality, in which the zinc alloyed 
 with the treated copper is considerably 
 in excess of the tin, is made into rods, 
 plates, etc., and when simply cast is said 
 to have a tensile strength of about 24 
 tons per square inch, with an elastic 
 limit of from 14 to 15 tons. Another 
 quality used in gun-founding has all the 
 characteristics of forged steel without 
 any of its defects. A third quality is 
 now in extensive use for toothed-wheels, 
 gearing, brackets, and all kinds of 
 machinery supports. From its non- 
 liability to corrosion it is largely em- 
 ployed in the manufacture of propellers. 
 
 MANGE, a cutaneous disease to which 
 dogs, horses, cattle, etc., are liable. It 
 resembles in some measure the itch in 
 the human subject, ordinary mange 
 being due to the presence of a burrow- 
 ing parasite. Both local application and 
 internal remedies are used in its cure. 
 
 MANGO, the fruit of the mango-tree, 
 a native of tropical Asia, but not widely 
 cultivated throughout the tropics. 
 Fine varieties produce a luscious, 
 slightly acid fruit much prized for 
 dessert. The large flat kernel of the 
 fruit is nutritious, and has been 
 cooked for food in times of scarcity. 
 The fruit forms a fleshy drupe about the 
 size of a hen’s egg or larger, somewhat 
 kidney-shaped and yellowish or reddish 
 in color, spotted with black on the out- 
 side. The fruit is much used for making 
 pickles, chutneys, and curries. ' Dried, it 
 forms a considerable article of commerce. 
 It yields by distillation a spirit said to 
 be not unlike whisky in flavor. The 
 tree grows to a considerable size, with 
 an erect trunk, and yields a timber that 
 is used for a variety of purposes for 
 which fine timber is not required, as for 
 packing-boxes, country carts, rough 
 furniture, house carpentry, etc. 
 
 MANGOSTEEN', a tree of the East 
 Indies. The tree grows to the height of 
 18 feet, and the fruit is about the size of 
 an orange, and contains a juicy white 
 pulp of a delicate, sweet, sub-acid flavor. 
 It is esteemed one of the most delicious 
 and wholesome of all known fruits. The 
 thick fleshy rind has astringent prop- 
 
 erties, and hence is used medicinally in 
 diarrhoea and dysentery. 
 
 MANGROVE, a genus of plants con- 
 sisting of trees or shrubs which grow in 
 tropical countries along the muddy 
 beaches of low coasts, where they form 
 impenetrable barriers for long distances. 
 They throw out numerous roots from 
 the lower part of the stem, and also send 
 down long slender roots from the 
 branches, like the Indian banyan-tree. 
 The seeds germinate in the seed vessel, 
 the root growing downward till it fixes 
 itself in the mud. By retaining mud and 
 vegetable matter among their roots 
 mangroves often help in the gaining of 
 land from the sea. The wood is dark- 
 red, hard, and durable, and the bark is 
 used for tanning. The fruit is said to be 
 sweet and edible, and the fermented 
 juice is made into a kind of light wine. 
 The name is also given to the verbena 
 family, which occupies large tracts of 
 shore in tropical countries, extending 
 as far south as New Zealand and Tas- 
 mania. 
 
 MANHATTAN ISLAND, an island at 
 the head of New York bay, forming the 
 borough of Manhattan in New York 
 City, and containing the commercial 
 and financial nucleus of the metropolis, 
 together with its main residence portion. 
 It is situated between the Hudson or 
 North river and the East river: Spuyten 
 Duyvil creek and the Harlem river 
 separate it from the mainland on the 
 north and northeast. The island, with 
 tapering northern and southern ex- 
 tremities, a few hundred yards wide, 
 is 13^ miles long, with a maximum 
 width, at Fourteenth street, of 2J miles, 
 and an area of 22 sq. miles. It has a 
 wharfage front of 22 miles, with a depth 
 of water sufficient for the largest vessels. 
 Three bridges connect Manhattan Island 
 with Long Island. A number of bridges 
 span the Harlem river and Spuyten 
 Duyvil creek, and numerous steam 
 ferries communicate with the adjacent 
 shores. The surface is undulating and 
 rocky, in the north rising from the Hud- 
 son to an altitude of 238 feet at Wash- 
 ington Heights, but sloping abruptly 
 toward the east, where is a level stretch 
 formerly known as the Harlem Flats. 
 The greater part of the city is built on 
 the 4-ock foundation ; pile foundations, 
 however, are resorted to in the deeper 
 glacial deposits and in the beach sand. 
 
 MANIA. See Insanity. 
 
 MAN'IFEST, is a document signed by 
 the master of a vessel at the place of 
 lading, to be exhibited at the custom- 
 house, containing a specific description 
 of the ship and her cargo, with the desti- 
 nation of the ship and of each package 
 of the goods, etc. 
 
 MANI'LA, or MANIL'LA, the capital 
 city of the island of Luzon and of all 
 the Philippine islands, see of the Roman 
 Catholic primate, and residence of the 
 United States governor, lies on the bay 
 of the same name, and at the mouth of 
 the river Pasig. It consists of an old 
 fortified city with extensive suburbs, in 
 which are the mass of the population, 
 and the business premises, factories, 
 and residences of the European inhabi- 
 tants. Manila is the center of commerce 
 of the Philippines, and exports sugar, 
 tobacco, cigars and cheroots, indigo, 
 
MANILLA 
 
 MANSARD 
 
 Manila hemp, coffee, mats, hides, tre- 
 pang, rice, etc. It imports British and 
 United States cloths, hardware, etc., and 
 a great variety of articles, tea, pottery, 
 etc., from China. The manufactures 
 consist chiefly of cigars and cheroots, 
 and hemp and cotton fabrics. Manila 
 
 was founded by the Spaniards in 1571. 
 It has frequently suffered from earth- 
 quakes. It has electric lighting and a 
 good water-supply, and is rapidly im- 
 proving under American rule, especially 
 in sanitation. Pop. 275,000. 
 
 MANILLA, or MANILA HEMP. See 
 Abaca. 
 
 MANIPUR (-por'), a native state of 
 Northeastern India, area, 8000 sq. miles; 
 pop. 283,957 ; capital, Imphal. 
 
 MANISTEE, a town in Michigan, on 
 Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the 
 Manistee. It is in the great fruit belt re- 
 gion. It has the largest vacuum evapora- 
 ting salt plant in the world. Pop. 17,362. 
 
 MANTTO, Man'itou, among certain 
 of the North American Indians, a name 
 given to whatever is an object of religi- 
 ous awe or reverence, whether a good or 
 evil spirit or a fetish. Two manitos or 
 spirits are spoken of by pre-eminence, 
 the one the spirit of good, the other the 
 spirit of evil. 
 
 MANITO'BA,a province of the Domin- 
 ion of Canada, is bounded on the north 
 by Saskatchewan and Kewatin, on the 
 east by the states of Minnesota and 
 North Dakota, and on the west by 
 Assiniboia, and Saskatchewan. It oc- 
 cupies a position nearly in the cen- 
 ter of the North American continent, and 
 extends from 49° to 52° 50' n. lat.; and 
 from 89° to 101° 20' w. Ion.; area, esti- 
 mated at 64,000 sq. miles. The climate 
 is warm in summer, but very cold in 
 winter. The summer mean is about 66°, 
 but in winter the thermometer sinks to 
 30°, 40°, and sometimes 50° below zero, 
 though this severe cold is mitigated by 
 a clear dry atmosphere. The summer 
 months are part of May, June, July, 
 August, and September. The principal 
 rivers are the Assiniboine and the Red 
 river, the latter having the greater part 
 of its course in the United States. The 
 largest lakes are Winnipeg, Winnipego- 
 sis, and Manitoba, the two former being 
 only partially included within the 
 boundaries of the province. The greater 
 part of the province consists of level 
 treeless prairie land, covered with a 
 
 P. E.— 50 
 
 rich vegetable growth in summer. The 
 banks of the streams, however, are lined 
 with a timber belt extending from about 
 half a mile to ten miles back. The soil 
 is generally a rich black mould, resting 
 partly on a limestone formation, and 
 partly on a thick coat of hard clay. 
 Wheat, oats, barley, Indian corn, hops, 
 flax, hemp, and all kinds of garden 
 vegetables produce excellent crops. For 
 wheat growing Manitoba presents pe- 
 culiar advantages. Potatoes and all 
 other root-crops thrive well, and the 
 prairie grasses furnish good hay. Game 
 is abundant, and the rivers and lakes 
 teem with fish. Manitoba is divided into 
 seven electoral districts for Dominion 
 elections, each sending one member to 
 the house of commons. The province 
 likewise sends four members to the 
 senate of the Dominion. The public 
 affairs are administered by a lieutenant- 
 governor, an executive council of five 
 members, and a legislative assembly of 
 forty members elected for four years. 
 The school system established by law is 
 now undenominational, and is supported 
 by local assessments, supplemented by 
 legislative grants. The capital of the 
 province is Winnipeg, situated at the 
 junction of the Assiniboine and Red 
 rivers; other towns are Portage la 
 Prairie, Brandon, Selkirk, and Emerson. 
 The nucleus of Manitoba was the Red 
 river settlement established in 1812, but 
 little progress was made till the territory 
 became part of Canada in 1870. The 
 trade of the province has been greatly 
 increased since 1878, when Winnipeg 
 was connected with the railway system 
 of the United States; and the construc- 
 tion of the Canadian Pacific railway, 
 which crosses the province from east to 
 west, has added materially to its prog- 
 ress and prosperity. Pop. 294,947. 
 
 MANITOBA LAKE, a lake of Canada, 
 province of Manitoba, 30 or 40 miles 
 s.w. of Lake Winnipeg, about 120 miles 
 in length by about 25 miles in breadth; 
 area, 1900 sq. miles. It receives the 
 waters of several lakes at its northern 
 extremity, and at its southern White 
 Mud river. It discharges into Lake 
 Winnipeg through the Dauphin river. 
 
 MANITOU. See Manito. 
 
 MANITOU'LIN ISLANDS, a group of 
 North American islands in Lake Huron, 
 consisting of Grand Manitoulin, 80 
 miles long by 5 to 30 broad. Little 
 Manitoulin, and Drummond island. 
 The two former belong to Canada, the 
 latter to the United States (Michigan). 
 Pop. about 2000, more than one-half 
 being Indians. 
 
 MANITOWOC, the county-seat of 
 Manitowoc co., Wisconsin, on Lake 
 Michigan, at the mouth of a river of the 
 same name. It has a good harbor and 
 considerable trade. Pop. 13,640. 
 
 MANKA'TO, a town in Minnesota, 70 
 miles s.w. of St. Paul. It is a thriving 
 center of a large agricultural district; 
 has various manufactures and a good 
 trade. Pop. 12,615. 
 
 MANNA, the sweet concrete juice 
 which is obtained by incisions made in 
 the stem of a species of ash, a native of 
 Sicily, Calabria, and other parts of the 
 south of Europe. The manna of com- 
 merce is collected in Sicily, where the 
 
 manna-ash is cultivated for the purpose 
 in regular plantations. The best luaiiua 
 is in oblong pieces or flakes of a whitish 
 or pale-yellow color, light, friable, and 
 somewhat transparent. It has a slight 
 peculiar odor, and a sweetish taste 
 mixed with a slight degree of bitterness, 
 and is employed as a gentle laxative 
 for children or persons of weak habit. 
 It is, however, generally used as an 
 adjunct to other more active medicines. 
 In Scripture we are told that a substance 
 called manna was miraculously fur- 
 nished as food for the Israelites in their 
 journey through the Arabian wilderness. 
 
 MANNA-ASH. See Manna. 
 
 MANNHEIM, (man'him) a town of 
 Germany, grand-duchy of Baden, on the 
 right bank of the Rhine, near the con- 
 fluence of that river with the Neckar. 
 The principal buildings are the Schloss 
 or castle, the theater, arsenal, Jesuits’ 
 church, etc. The town has suffered 
 severely from war, especially in the 
 siege of 1795. Pop. 140,384. 
 
 MANNING, Daniel, American jour- 
 nalist and politician, was born in Al- 
 bany, N. Y., in 1831. In 1876 be became 
 a member of the New York Democratic 
 State Committee, was chosen secretary 
 in 1879 and chairman in 1881. In 1882 
 he contributed greatly to the election 
 of Grover Cleveland as governor of 
 New York and it was Manning’s astute- 
 ness and tact that made possible the 
 successful presentation of Cleveland’s 
 name as a candidate for the presidency 
 in 1884. In the latter year his personal 
 supervision contributed greatly to the 
 success of the democratic ticket in the 
 pivotal state of New York. From 1885 
 to 1887 he was secretary of the treasury 
 in Cleveland’s cabinet, from which he 
 retired on account of ill health shortly 
 before his death in 1887. 
 
 MANNING, Henry Edward, Cardinal, 
 born at Totteridge, Hertfordshire, 1808. 
 He took an active part in the Tractarian 
 movement, and in 1851 joined the Church 
 of Rome, and was ordained priest. On 
 the death of Cardinal Wiseman he suc- 
 ceeded him as Archbishop of Westmin- 
 ster (1865), and ten years after he was 
 made cardinal. He died in 1892. 
 
 MANCEUVRES, the movements and 
 evolutions of any large body of troops or 
 fleet of ships, for the purpose of testing 
 the efficiency of the various bodies of the 
 service under the conditions of actual 
 warfare, and for the purpose of instruct- 
 ing officers in tactics, and officers and 
 men in their various duties. For these 
 purposes mimic warfare is carried on 
 periodicallyunder the name of military or 
 naval manoeuvres. 
 
 MAN-OF-WAR BIRD, See Albatross. 
 
 MANOM'ETER, an instrument to 
 measure or show the alterations in the 
 rarity or density of the air, or to measure 
 the rarity of any gas. Such instruments 
 as measure the elastic force of steam are 
 also properly termed manometers. They 
 are variously constructed. 
 
 MANS, LE (le man), a town of France, 
 capital of department Sarthe, on a 
 height above the Sarthe, 115 miles south- 
 west of Paris. Pop. 62,948. 
 
 MANSARD (m&n-sar), Francois, 
 French architect, born in Paris 1598, 
 died 1666. The roof known by his name 
 
MANSARD ROOF 
 
 MANUSCRIPTS 
 
 was his invention. His nephew, Jules 
 Hardouin, who assumed his name (1645- 
 1708), attained great fame as an archi- 
 tect. The Palais de Versailles, Hotel des 
 
 A, Tie-beam, b, Collar-beajm. cc, Rafters. 
 
 Invalides, the Place Vendome, and other 
 works of the reign of Louis XIV., were 
 from his designs. 
 
 MANSARD ROOF, a roof formed with 
 an upper and under set of rafters on each 
 side, the under set approaching more 
 nearly to the perpendicular than the 
 upper. 
 
 MANSFIELD, the capital of Richland 
 CO., O., on the Balt, and O., the Erie, 
 the Penn., and the Pitts., Cin., Chi. and 
 St. L. railways; 180 miles n. e. of Cincin- 
 nati. It is in an agricultural region; has 
 manufactories of agricultural imple- 
 ments, flour, stoves, pumps, and numer- 
 ous minor articles. Pop. 21,625. 
 
 MANSFIELD, Richard, American 
 actorwas born in the island of Heligoland 
 in 1857. When about seventeen years of 
 age he came to the United States. His 
 first appearance on the stage was as 
 Baron Chevrial in A Parisian Romance, 
 and was a great success. Among his 
 parts have been Doctor Jekyll and Mr. 
 Hyde, Richard III., Beau Brummell, 
 Cyrano de Bergerac, Monsieur Beaucaire 
 and Brutus. He died in 1907. 
 
 MANSLAUGHTER. See Homicide. 
 
 MANTCHOOS. See Manchuria. 
 
 MANTELL', Gideon Algernon, geolo- 
 gist and palaeontologist, born at Lewes, 
 in Sussex, 1790, died in London 1852. 
 Through his investigations the fossilized 
 skeletons of those gigantic reptiles the 
 Iguanodon and Hylaeosaurus were dis- 
 covered. He was a popular lecturer on 
 geology, and published The Fossils of the 
 South Downs, Illustrations of the Geol- 
 ogy of Sussex, Wonders of Geology, and 
 Medals of Creation. 
 
 MANTEUFFEL (man'toi-fl), Edwin, 
 Baron von, German field-marshal, born 
 1809, died 1885. He played a distin- 
 guished part in the Franco-German war, 
 especially in several actions around Metz 
 at Amiens, and in driving Bourbaki’s 
 army across the frontier into Switzer- 
 land. From June, 1871, to July, 1873, he 
 commanded the army of occupation in 
 France, and was made field-marshal. In 
 1879 he was appointed governor-general 
 of Alsace-Lorraine. 
 
 MANTIS, a genus of orthopterous in- 
 sects, remarkable for their grotesque 
 forms. They frequent trees and plants. 
 
 Praying-mantis. 
 
 and the forms and colors of their bodies 
 and wings are so like the leaves and 
 twigs which surround them as to give 
 them remarkable power to elude obser- 
 
 vation. The praying-mantis has re- 
 ceived its name from the peculiar posi- 
 tion of the anterior pair of legs, resem- 
 bling that of a person’s hands at prayer. 
 In their habits they are very voracious, 
 killing insects and cutting them to 
 pieces. They are natives chiefly of tropi- 
 cal regions, but are also found in France, 
 Spain, and the warmer parts of Europe. 
 They are very pugnacious, and are kept 
 by the Chinese for the purpose of watch- 
 ing them fight. 
 
 MAN'TUA, a strongly fortified town of 
 Northern Italy, one of four forming the 
 Quadrilateral, capital of the province of 
 the same name, 80 miles e. s. e.of Milan. 
 Virgil was born at the adjoining village 
 of Andes, supposed to be the modern 
 Pietole. Pop. 28,048. — The province, 
 which is intersected by the Po, Mincio, 
 and other streams, produces rice, wheat, 
 silk, wine, etc.; area, 961 sq. miles; pop. 
 315,314. 
 
 MAN'U, an early Sanskrit writer, 
 author of a book of laws, civil and relig- 
 ious, called Dharma-Shastra, still extant. 
 
 MANUAL ALPHABET. See deaf and 
 Dumb. 
 
 MANUAL OF ARMS, a text-book of 
 rules and explanations for the instruc- 
 tion of military recruits in the use of 
 their arms and their care and preserva- 
 tion. In the United States Army all 
 drills begin and end with an examina- 
 tion of cartridge chambers, and for pur- 
 poses of instruction the movements are 
 divided into motions, and executed in 
 detail. The command of execution de- 
 termines the prompt execution of the 
 first motion, and the commands Two, 
 Three, etc., the other motions. The eom- 
 mands and movements of the manual of 
 arms are given after the soldier is in 
 position with rifle at the order, and are 
 as follows: (1) Order arms; (2) carry 
 arms; (3) present arms; (4) right shoulder 
 arms; (5) port arms. Other movements 
 are: (6) Parade-rest; (7) fix bayonets; 
 (8) charge bayonets. 
 
 MANUMISSION, among the Romans, 
 the solemn ceremony by which a slave 
 was emancipated. 
 
 MANURES, vegetable, animal, and 
 mineral matters introduced into the soil 
 to accelerate vegetation and increase the 
 production of crops; substances used to 
 improve the natural soil, or to restore to 
 it tne fertility which is diminished by the 
 crops annually carried away. Animal 
 substances employed as manures com- 
 prehend the putrefying carcasses of 
 animals, ground bones, blood, the excre- 
 ments of animals, as the dung of horses, 
 cattle, sheep, poultry, etc. ; urine, guano 
 (the decomposed excrement of aquatic 
 birds) ; thescrapings of leather, horn, and 
 the refuse of the shambles; the hair or 
 wool of animals. Liquid manure, con- 
 sisting of town sewage, the drainings of 
 dung-heaps, stables, and cow-houses, is 
 largely employed in many districts. Al- 
 most every kind of vegetable substance, 
 in one state or another, isused as manure. 
 The principal mineral substances em- 
 ployed as manures are lime, chalk, 
 sand, clay, marl; sulphates of potash, 
 soda, ammonia, and magnesia; nitrates 
 of potash and soda; and phosphates 
 of lime. It is from containing one or 
 other of these substances that apatite. 
 
 basic slag, cubic nitre, kainite, etc , 
 are so valuable. Modern researches upon 
 plant nutrition, and the chemistry of 
 agriculture in general, have shown us 
 that the food of plants may be classed 
 under the two headings of air food and 
 mineral food. Air food consists of am- 
 monia, water, and carbon dioxide; min- 
 eral food, of those substances which re- 
 main as ash when the plant is ignited. 
 The former class of food is supplied to 
 the plant partly from the atmosphere 
 and partly from the soil, the latter from 
 the soil entirely. In the production of 
 food by natural processes of plant- 
 growth a certain amount of air food and 
 also of mineral food is abstracted from 
 the soil, those amounts varying for dif- 
 ferent species of plants; if this food be 
 returned to the soil, then a further 
 growth of plants may be expected; if, 
 however, seed is sown in the partially 
 impoverished soil, there must be a de- 
 erease in the amo.unt of crop obtained 
 from that soil. As the plants serve to 
 nourish animals, it follows that the sub- 
 stances which have been withdrawn 
 from the soil by the plants may be re- 
 turned to it in the shape partly of ani- 
 mal excreta, and partly of ground bones, 
 etc. Different plants require different 
 kinds of food; if, therefore, the kind of 
 crop grown on the same land be varied 
 from year to year, and if the soil be tilled 
 so as to unlock its natural supplies of 
 mineral food, it will be found that the 
 average yield of crops may be main- 
 tained simply by the restitution to the 
 land of that amount of food which has 
 been removed from it by the plants. 
 
 MANUSCRIPTS, are literally writings 
 of any kind, whether on paper or any 
 other material, in contradistinction to 
 printed matter. Previous to the intro- 
 duction of printing all literature was 
 contained in manuscripts, and the de- 
 ciphering and proper use of these form 
 an important part in the science of 
 palaeography. All the existing ancient 
 manuscripts are written on parchment 
 or on paper. The paper is sometimes 
 Egyptian (prepared from the real pa- 
 pyrus shrub), sometimes cotton or silk 
 paper. The most common ink is the 
 black, which is very old. Red ink of a 
 dazzling beauty is also found in ancient 
 times in manuscripts. With it were 
 written the initial letters, the first lines, 
 and the titles, which were thence called 
 rubrics. Blue, green, and yellow inks 
 were more rarely used. On rare oc- 
 casions gold and silver were the medi- 
 ums, though from their cost they are 
 oftenest confined to initial letters. With 
 respect to external form, manuscripts 
 are divided into rolls, and into stitched 
 books or volumes (properly codices). 
 The most ancient manuscripts still pre- 
 served are those written on papyrus 
 which have been found in Egyptian 
 tombs. Several of these are of date con- 
 siderably before the Christian era: not- 
 ably fragments of the Iliad and a papy- 
 rus containing the orations of Lycophron 
 and Euxenippus, 11 feet in length and 
 containing 49 columns of writing. Next 
 to them in point of age are the Latin 
 manuscripts found at Herculaneum. It 
 was a common custom in the middle 
 ages to obliterate and erase writings on 
 
MANUTIUS 
 
 MARBLING 
 
 parchment, for the purpose of writing on 
 the materials anew, manuscripts thus 
 treated being called palimpsests. 
 
 The art of illuminating manuscripts 
 ' dates from the remotest antiquity. The 
 Egyptian papyri were ornamented with 
 vignettes or miniatures attached to the 
 chapters, either designed in black out- 
 lines Or painted in primary colors in dis- 
 temper. The oldest ornamented Greek 
 and Roman manuscripts that have sur- 
 vived are the Diosorides of Vienna and 
 the Virgil of the Vatican, both of the 4th 
 century, and having vignettes or pic- 
 tures in a Byzantine style of art. From 
 the 8th to the 11th century the initial 
 letters in use were composed of figures 
 of men, quadrupeds, fishes, birds, etc. 
 
 MANUTIUS, Aldus, or Aldo Manuzio, 
 Italian printer, born about 1447, died 
 1515. In 1488 he established himself as 
 a printer at Venice, but the first work 
 which he finished was not published till 
 1494. In the course of the ensuing 
 twenty years he printed the works of the 
 most ancient Latin and Greek authors 
 extant, as well as many productions of 
 his contemporaries, and some treatises 
 of his own composition. He was the in- 
 ventor of the italic or cursive character, 
 hence called Aldine. 
 
 MANZO'NI, Alessandro, an Italian 
 poet and novelist, was born 1784, died 
 1873. He was the son of Count Pietro 
 Manzoni and of the Marchioness Giulia 
 Beccaria, daughter of the Marquis Cesare 
 Beccaria, author of the well-known 
 treatise on Crimes and their Punishment. 
 After his father’s death in 1805 he lived 
 for some time in Paris with his mother, 
 and in 1808 he married the daughter of a 
 Genoese banker, under whose influence 
 he settled down into the fervent Catholi 
 cism which colored all the rest of his life. 
 His chief works are the Inni Sacri, a 
 series of sacred lyrics; II Cinque Maggio, 
 a powerful ode on the death of N apoleon ; 
 the tragedies II Conte di Carmagnola, 
 and Adelchi; and his great novel I 
 Proraessi Sposi (The Betrothed). 
 
 MAORIS (ma'o-riz), the name given to 
 themselvesby thenativesof New Zealand. 
 
 MAP, a projection on a plane surface 
 of the whole or a part of the earth’s sur- 
 face, showing its main features in more or 
 less detail. The earth being a spheroid, 
 its surface cannot be made to coincide 
 rigorously with a plane ; and it therefore 
 becomes necessary to have recourse to a 
 projection, that is, a plan on a plane sur- 
 face, which indicates with sufficient 
 correctness the relative positions, dimen- 
 sions, etc., of the different parts of the 
 spherical surface. There are five prin- 
 cipal projections, the orthographic, the 
 stereographic, the globular, the conical, 
 and the cylindrical or Mercator’s dis- 
 tinguished from each other by the dif- 
 ferent positions of the point of projec- 
 tion, or that in which the eye is sup- 
 posed to be placed. The last named 
 gives a very erroneous idea of the rela- 
 tive size of the different portions of the 
 earth’s surface, especially toward the 
 poles, but is very useful to mariners, in 
 enabling them to lay off a course that 
 can be steered by compass in straight 
 lines. (See Mercator’s Projection.) A 
 nautical map is usually called a chart 
 (which see). 
 
 MA'PLE, a name for trees, peculiar to 
 the northern and temperate parts of the 
 globe. About fifty species are known, 
 distributed through Europe, North 
 America, and different parts of Asia. 
 They are small or large trees, with a 
 sweetish, rarely milky, sap, opposite 
 deciduous, simple, usually lobed leaves, 
 and axillary and terminal racemes or 
 corymbs of small greenish flowers. The 
 characteristic form of the fruit is shown 
 in the figure. The wood is valuable for 
 various purposes, as for carving, turnery, 
 musical instruments, wooden dishes, 
 etc. Another well-known species is the 
 Norway maple. The wood of several 
 American species is also applied to 
 various uses. The sugar or rock maple 
 is the most important species; this yields 
 maple-sugar, which in many parts of the 
 United States is an important article of 
 manufacture. A tree of ordinarysize will 
 yield from 15 to 30 gallons of sap yearly, 
 from which are made from 2 to 4 lbs. of 
 
 Sugar maple. 
 
 sugar. The knotted parts of the sugar- 
 maple furnish the pretty bird’s-eye 
 maple of cabinet-makers. Some other 
 American species are the white maple, 
 the red or swamp maple, the striped 
 maple or moose wood, the mountain 
 maple, the vine maple, and the large- 
 leafed maple. 
 
 MAQUI (mak'we), an evergreen or 
 subevergreen shrub found in Chile, from 
 the juice of whose fruit the Chilians 
 make a kind of wine. 
 
 MARASCHINO (ma-ras-ke'no), a fine 
 liquor distilled from a small black wild 
 variety of cherry. The best-known kinds 
 are the maraschino de Zara, from Zara 
 in Dalmatia, and that from Corsica. An 
 inferior kind is made in Germany. 
 
 MARAS'MUS, a wasting of the flesh 
 without fever or apparent disease; often, 
 however, dependent on disease of the 
 mesenteric glands, or some obstruction 
 in the course of the chyle. 
 
 MARAT (ma-ra), Jean Paul, one of the 
 most infamous leaders of the French 
 revolution, born near Neufch&tel in 1744. 
 The first breath of the revolution, brought 
 him to the front, and when Danton in- 
 stituted the club of the Cordeliers, Marat 
 became the editor of the Publiciste 
 Parisien, better know under its later 
 title L’Amidu Peuple, which was again 
 changed to tlie Journal de la R^publique 
 Frangaise, a journal which was the organ 
 of that society, and soon became the 
 oracle of the mob. His paper was issued 
 from various places of concealment until 
 the 10th August, 1792, after which he 
 Took his seat at the commune, and 
 
 played a leading part in the assassina- 
 tions of September (1792). He was a 
 member of the terrible committee of 
 public safety, and of the convention 
 
 Jean Paul Marat. 
 
 where General Dumouriez and the 
 Girondists, who endeavored at first to 
 prevent his taking his seat, were the 
 special objects of his attack. The es- 
 tablishment of the revolutionary tri- 
 bunal, and of the committee for arrest- 
 ing the suspected, was adopted on his 
 motions. On the approach of May 31, as 
 president of the Jacobin Club he signed 
 an address instigating the people to an 
 insurrection, and to massacre all traitors. 
 For this Marat was delivered over to the 
 revolutionary tribunal, which acquitted 
 him; and the people received him in 
 triumph and covered him with wreaths. 
 He was assassinated shortly after by 
 Charlotte Corday, July 13, 1793. His 
 remains were deposited in the Pantheon 
 with national honors, but were subse- 
 quently removed. 
 
 MAR'ATHON, a village of ancient 
 Greece, in Attica, about 20 miles north- 
 east of Athens. It was situated (prob- 
 ably on the site of the modern Vrana) on 
 a plain which extends for about 6 miles 
 along the seashore, with a breadth of 
 from 1 J to 3 miles. It is famous for the 
 overthrow of the Persians by the Athen- 
 ians under Miltiades, 490 b.c. 
 
 MARAT'TI, Carlo, Italian painter and 
 engraver, born in 1625. Louis XIV. em- 
 ployed him to paint his celebrated pic- 
 ture of Daphne. Clement IX., whose 
 portrait he painted, appointed him over- 
 seer of the Vatican gallery. He has been 
 styled the last painter of the Roman 
 school. His Madonnas were particularly 
 admired. He died in 1713 at Rome, 
 where his chief works are to be found. 
 
 MARBLE, the name given to certain 
 varieties of limestone capable of re- 
 ceiving a brilliant polish, and which, 
 both from their durability and the beauty 
 of the tints of many of them, have at all 
 periods of the world been greatly in re- 
 quest for purposes of art or ornament. 
 White statuary marble is a pure car- 
 bonate of calcium. Marbles have been 
 divided into seven varieties or classes. 
 
 MARBLING, in bookbinding, a pro- 
 cess of ornamenting the edges of books 
 by dipping them, when cut, in a trough 
 about 2 inches deep and filled with gum- 
 water on the surface of which colored 
 pigments have been thrown and disposed 
 in various forms with a quill and comb. 
 
MARCASITE 
 
 MARIA THERESA 
 
 The colors adhering to the edge of the 
 book are set by dashing cold water over 
 them. Marbled papers for the sides of 
 books are made in the same manner. 
 
 MAR'CASITE, iron pyrites or bisul- 
 phide of iron. It is of a paler color than 
 ordinary pyrites, being nearly of the 
 color of tin, and its luster is more strong- 
 ly metallic. 
 
 MARCELLUS, Marcus Claudius, a 
 Roman general, five times consul (222, 
 215, 214, 210, and 208 b.c.); the first 
 Roman who successfully encountered 
 Hannibal in the second Punic war; and 
 the conqueror of Syracuse (212 b.c.). 
 He was killed in a skirmish with the 
 Carthaginians in 208 b.c. 
 
 MARCH, originally the first month of 
 the Roman year. Till the adoption of the 
 new style in Britain (1752), the 25th of 
 March was the first day of the legal year; 
 hence January, February, and the first 
 twenty-four days of March have fre- 
 quently two years appended, as January 
 1, 170i, or 1701-2. 
 
 MARCO POLO. See Polo. 
 
 MARCONI, Guglielmo, Italian elec- 
 trician was born near Bologna at Grif- 
 fone in 1875. At the university of Bo- 
 logna he became interested in the nature 
 of the Hertzian wares, and saw the 
 possibilities of using these wares for the 
 transmission of messages. He made 
 several successful experiments in 1895 
 and 1896. In 1897 The Marconi Wireless 
 Telegraph Company was started with 
 large capital. In 1899 signals were suc- 
 cessfully exchanged across the English 
 
 channel. In 1901 from St. John, N. F., 
 Marconi sent a signal to the Irish coast 
 and on December 9, 1902, succeeded in 
 sending a message. In February, 1902, on 
 hisway tothe United States, Marconi re- 
 ceived signals on board ship at a distance 
 of 2099 miles. In January, 1903, Marconi 
 sent a message from President Roose- 
 velt to King Edward from Cape Cod, 
 Mass., direct to Poldhu a distance of 
 3000 miles. See Wireless Telegraphy. 
 
 MARCUS AURELIUS. See Aurelius 
 Antoninus. 
 
 MARCY, William Learned, American 
 politician, was born at Sturbridge, Mass., 
 in 1786. He soon became a leading 
 democratic politician, and one of the 
 “Albany regency” which was supposed 
 to control the action of the party in 
 
 New York State. He was United States 
 senator in 1831-32, and during his term 
 he incidentally made use of the phrase so 
 frequently afterward heard, “To the 
 victors belong the spoils.” He resigned 
 to become governor of New York, 1833 
 — 39. He was secretary of war under 
 Polk, 1845-49, and secretary of state 
 under Pierce, 1853-57. As secretary of 
 state he conducted with success the 
 Koszta case in 1854, involving a collision 
 with Austria on the subject of the right 
 of expatriation. All his political leanings 
 were to that branch of the democratic 
 party in New York which made the 
 strength of the new republican party in 
 1856, and he would have been its natural 
 leader if he had followed his own convic- 
 tions on the Kansas-Nebraska bill. He 
 hesitated, and other men. took his place. 
 He died at Ballston Spa,N.Y., July 4,1857. 
 
 MARGARET, Queen of Denmark, 
 Norway, and Sweden, called the North- 
 ern Semiramis, the daughter of Walde- 
 mar III., king of Denmark; born at 
 Copenhagen in 1353, married to Hakon, 
 king of Norway, in 1363. The death of 
 her husband in 1380 placed Norway in 
 her hands; that of her son Olaf in 1387 
 enabled her to secure the throne of Den- 
 mark, to which she had previously 
 brought about his election ; and after de- 
 feating Albert, the Swedish king, she also 
 obtained possession of the throne of 
 Sweden. She endeavored to place the 
 union of the three kingdoms on a per- 
 manent basis by the celebrated Act of 
 Union, or Treaty of Calmar (1397). She 
 died in 1412, after having raised herself 
 to a degree of power then unequalled in 
 Europe from the time of Charlemagne. 
 
 MARGARET OF ANJOU, daughter of 
 Ren6, titular king of Sicily, was born at 
 Pont-^-Mousson, in Lorraine, in 1425, 
 and married in 1443 to Henry VI. of 
 England. The imbecility of the king 
 made her practically regent, and her 
 power being contested by the Duke of 
 York, a claimant of the throne by an 
 elder line, the protracted wars of the 
 roses commenced. At first victorious she 
 was afterward compelled to flee to 
 Scotland, but raising an army in the 
 north, she secured, by the battles of 
 Wakefield (1460) and St. Albans (1461), 
 the death of York and the release of the 
 king. Her army, however, was soon 
 afterward annihilated at Towton (1461) 
 and Edward (IV.), the son of the late 
 Duke of York, was declared king. She 
 succeeded in obtaining assistance from 
 Louis XI. of France, but was once more 
 defeated, and took refuge in France. 
 Warwick then became embroiled with 
 the young king, and determined to re- 
 place Henry on the throne. Edward was 
 in turn obliged to escape to the continent 
 but obtaining assistance from the Duke 
 of Burgundy, returned and defeated 
 Warwick at Barnet (1471). Margaret, 
 collecting her partisans, fought the 
 battle of Tewkesbury (1471), but was 
 totally defeated. She and her son were 
 made prisoners, and the latter, when led 
 into the presence of the royal victor, 
 was killed. Henry soon after died or was 
 murdered in the Tower, and Margaret 
 remained in prison four years. Louis XI. 
 ransomed her for 50,000 crowns, and in 
 1482 she died. 
 
 MARGARET OF VALOIS, Queen of 
 Navarre, sister to Francis I. of France, 
 was born at Angouleme in 1492. She 
 was brought up at the court of Louis 
 XII., and married the Duke of Alengon 
 in 1509, became a widow in 1525, and in 
 1527 was espoused to Henry d’Albret, 
 count of B6arn and titular king of 
 Navarre. From this time she resided at 
 Bearn, assisting in the development of 
 the resources of the small kingdom, and 
 making it a center of liberal influence. 
 Many Protestants took rpfuge in her 
 territories; andher name is closelylinked 
 with those of Rabelais, Dolet, Marot, 
 and the leading men of the period. She 
 herself possessed no ordinary culture, 
 being credited with a knowledge of six 
 languages and the authorship of several 
 works, of which the chief were Le Miroir 
 de I’Ame P^cheresse, printed in 1533 
 and condemned by the Sorbonne for its 
 Protestant tendencies; the Heptameron, 
 a collection of Tales in imitation of the 
 Decamerone of Boccaccio, and first 
 printed inl559; and acollectionof poems 
 published in 1547 under the title of 
 Marguerites de la Marguerite des Prin- 
 cesses. She died in 1549, leaving one 
 child, Jeanne d’Albret, afterwards 
 mother of Henry IV. 
 
 MAR'GARINE, a mixture of stearine 
 and palmitine, obtained from beef fat, 
 lard, etc., and formerly regarded as a 
 simple fat. The name is now applied to 
 an imitation of butter. See Butterine. 
 
 MAR'GRAVE, originally a commander 
 intrusted with the protection of a mark, 
 or country on the frontier. The mar- 
 graVes acquired the rank of princes, and 
 stood between counts and dukes in the 
 German Empire. 
 
 MARIA LOUISA, second wife of 
 Napoleon I.; born in 1791 ; eldest daugh- 
 ter of the Emperor Francis I. of Austria. 
 Her marriage with Napoleon took place 
 in 1810 after the divorce of Josephine, 
 and in 1811 she bore him a son. After 
 his everthrow she received in 1816 the 
 duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guas- 
 talla, which she governed till her death 
 in 1847. At Napolean’s death she made 
 a morganatic marriage with her cham- 
 berlain, Count Neipperg. 
 
 MARIANA (or Marianne) ISLES. See 
 Ladrones. 
 
 MARIA THERESA, Queen of Hungary 
 and Bohemia, Arch-duchess of Austria, 
 and Empress of Germany, daughter of 
 the Emperor Charles VI., was born at 
 Vienna 1717, and in 1736 married 
 Francis Stephen, grand-duke of Tuscany. 
 On the death of her father in 1740 she 
 ascended the throne of Hungary, 
 Bohemia, and Austria, and a little later 
 declared her husband joint ruler. Her 
 accession was in accordance with the 
 Pragmatic Sanction, but her claims were 
 at once contested. Frederick the Great 
 made himself master of Silesia; Spain 
 and Naples gained possession of the 
 Austrian territory in Italy; and the 
 French, Bavarians, and Saxons marched 
 into Bohemia, carrying all before them. 
 Charles Albert was proclaimed Arch- 
 duke of .\ustria, and shortly after Em- 
 peror of Germany; .and the young queen 
 fled to Presburg, where she convoked the 
 dietand threwherself uponthes 3 Tnpathy 
 of her Hungarian subjects. The French 
 
MARIE ANTOINETTE 
 
 MARK, ST. 
 
 and Bavarians were speedily driven 
 from her hereditary states; Prussia made 
 a secret peace with the queen, who un- 
 willingly abandoned Silesia and Glatz 
 to Frederick; and though by the Treaty 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) she was also 
 compelled to give* up the duchies of 
 Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla to 
 Spain, her husbandwas elected emperor. 
 During the time of peace which followed 
 Maria Theresa, with the aid of her hus- 
 band and the minister Kaunitz, made 
 great financial reforms; agriculture, 
 manufactures, and commerce flourished, 
 the national revenue greatly increased, 
 and the burdens were diminished. The 
 Seven Years’ war again reduced Austria 
 to a state of great exhaustion, but on its 
 conclusion the empress renewed her 
 efforts to promote the prosperity of her 
 dominions. Her son Joseph was elected 
 king of the Romans in 1764, and on the 
 death of her husband, in 1765, she asso- 
 ciated the young prince with herself in 
 the government. In 1772 she joined in 
 the dismemberment of Poland, obtaining 
 Galicia and Lodomeria, while in 1777 she 
 acquired Bukowina from the Porte, and 
 in 1779, by the Pe?ice of Teschen, gained 
 the Inn valley. She died in 1780. Of the 
 sixteen children which she bore to the 
 emperor ten survived her, one of whom 
 was the unfortunate Marie Antoinette. 
 
 MARIE ANTOINETTE. See Antoi- 
 nette. 
 
 MARIE DE MEDICI (ma-re de med'i- 
 che), the daughter of Francis II. of 
 Tuscany, born 1573, married in 1600 to 
 Henry IV. of France. On the assassina- 
 tion of Henry she became regent, but 
 proved utterly incompetent to rule. 
 Her partiality for unworthy favorites 
 caused her deposition and imprisonment. 
 She became reconciled to her son, the 
 weak Louis XIII., through Richelieu, 
 who had possessed himself of the highest 
 power, but was again imprisoned at 
 Compi^gne in 1630. Thence she escaped, 
 and after wandering through several 
 countries died in misery at Cologne 
 (1642). 
 
 MARIETTA, a town, in Washington 
 county, Ohio, the oldest town in the 
 state. It is the seat of Marietta college, 
 founded in 1835. Pop. 15,162. 
 
 MARIGOLD, a name of several com- 
 posite plants. The common marigold is 
 a native of France and of the more 
 southern parts of Europe. It is an an- 
 nual, from 1 to 2 feet high, with large 
 deep-yellow flowers. It is as prolific as 
 any weed, and was formerly usedin broths 
 and soups, partly to give color, and part- 
 ly as an aromatic seasoning. It had also 
 many medicinal virtues assigned to it. 
 A number of species of this genus are in- 
 digenous to the Cape of Good Hope. 
 The so-called African marigold and 
 French marigold, common in flower 
 borders, are both Mexican species, and 
 have brilliant flowers. 
 
 MARINE CORPS, a body of soldiers 
 enlisted for service in the navy, either on 
 board ship or on shore at naval stations 
 Or elsewhere. Marines, as these soldiers 
 are called in the United States and 
 British navies, are a relic of the days 
 when ships were manned by soldiers as 
 their fighting complement. Instead of 
 constituting the greater part of a ship’s 
 
 company, they now form usually less 
 than 15 per cent, of it. At the present 
 time marines are used in the United 
 States Navy on board ship and to guard 
 naval stations at home and in the insular 
 possessions; and when on board ship they 
 constitute a quickly available infantry 
 force for service abroad. Sailors are also 
 drilled as infantry and artillery, but as 
 their chief duties are connected with the 
 ship, when they are landed the fighting 
 efficiency of the ship is greatly reduced. 
 
 MARINE HOSPITAL SERVICE, a 
 bureau in the treasury department of the 
 United States, charged with the manage- 
 ment of marine hospitals and relief 
 stations for the cure of sick and disabled 
 seamen of the American merchant 
 marine. It has also under its supervision 
 the national quarantine stations, the 
 supervision of local quarantines, the 
 investigation and suppression of epi- 
 demics and plagues, the collection and 
 dissemination of mortality statistics and 
 sanitary information, the scientific in- 
 vestigation of sanitary problems, and 
 the examination of immigrants under 
 the laws excluding those affected with 
 contagious diseases. At present there 
 are 23 marine hospitals, a' sanitarium for 
 consumptive seamen in New Mexico, 
 and 115 relief stations. 
 
 MARINE LAW. See Commercial Law, 
 International Law. 
 
 MARINER’S COMPASS. See Compass. 
 
 MARINES, a military force drilled as 
 infantry, whose especial duty is to serve 
 on board ships of war when on commis- 
 sion, and also on shore under certain 
 circumstances. They are trained to sea- 
 men’s duties, but do not go aloft, being 
 mainly employed in sentry duty, etc. 
 The force was first embodied by an order 
 in council in 1664, as a nursery for sea- 
 men to man the fleet. The United States 
 is the only other nation which employs 
 marines in the same manner as Britain. 
 
 MARINETTE, the capital of Marinette 
 CO., Wis., on Green Bay, at the mouth 
 of the Menominee river, and on the Chi. 
 and N. W. and the Chi., Mil. and St. P. 
 railways; 49 miles n. by e. of Green 
 Bay. The city has a large lake traffic, 
 and is principally engaged in the lumber 
 industry, and in pulp and paper making. 
 Pop. 19,260. 
 
 MARINO, San, a town and small inde- 
 pendent republic in Italy. The territory 
 consists of a craggy tract, with an area 
 of about 22 sq. miles, on the borders of 
 the provinces of Forli and Urbino, near 
 the Adriatic coast. It is the last sur- 
 viving representative of the Italian re- 
 publics. At the head of the government 
 are two “captains regent” elected for six 
 months. There is a militia of 950 men. 
 The town San Marino occupies the crest 
 of a rocky hill 2200 feet in height, and 
 is accessible only by the road from 
 Rimini. The principal inhabitants, how- 
 ever, reside in the hamlet of II Borgo, 
 at its foot. Pop. of the town about 1200; 
 of republic, 9600. 
 
 MARION, the capital of Grant co., 
 Ind., on the Mississinewa river, and the 
 Cleve., Gin., Chi., and St. L.,the Pitts., 
 Gin., Chi, and St. L., and the Toledo, St. 
 L. and Kan. City railways; 41 miles s. e. 
 of Logansport, 67 miles n. e. of Indian- 
 apolis. Pop. 20,761. 
 
 MARION, the capital of Marion co., 
 0., on the Cleve., Gin., Chi. and St. L., 
 the Col., Hock. Val. and Toledo, the 
 Col., Sandusky and Hock. Val., and the 
 Erie railways; 40 miles n. of Columbus. 
 Pop. 14,261. 
 
 MARION, Francis, American general, 
 was born in 1732 at Winyah, near George- 
 town, S. C. He was made lieutenant- 
 colonel after the defense of Fort Moultrie 
 at the entrance of Charleston harbor 
 (June 28, 1776), and was present at the 
 unsuccessful attack on Savannah, Sept. 
 1779. In August he joined Gates, but 
 was detached a few days before Gates’ 
 defeat at Camden on August 16th; at 
 Nelson’s Ferry, on the 20th, he rescued 
 150 of the prisoners from a strong guard. 
 He soon received a general’s commission. 
 In April Lee and Marion took Fort 
 Watson, and in May Fort Motte. At 
 Eutaw Springs he commanded the right 
 
 under Greene. Alter the British retreat 
 to Charleston, Marion went to an im- 
 portant session of the colonial assembly; 
 on the very day that he returned to his 
 brigade, February 24, 1782, |t was sur- 
 prised and dispersed, Marion arriving 
 too late to recover the day. After the 
 war he occupied himself with farming. 
 He died February 27, 1795. 
 
 MARIONETTES. See Puppet-shows. 
 
 MARK, St., the Evangelist, according 
 to the old ecclesiastical writers, the 
 person known in the Acts of the Apostle 
 as “John, whose surname was Mark” 
 (Acts xii. 12, 25), for many years the 
 companion of Paul and Peter on their 
 journeys. His mother, Mary, was gen- 
 erally in the train of Jesus, and Mark 
 was himself present at a part' of the 
 events which he relates in his gospel, and 
 received his information partly from 
 eye-witnesses. He was the cousin of 
 Barnabas (Col. iv. 10), and accompanied 
 Paul and him to Antioch, Cyprus, and 
 Perga in Pamphylia. He returned to 
 Jerusalem, whence he afterward went 
 to Cyprus, and thence to Rome. He was 
 the cause of the memorable “sharp con- 
 
MARK ANTONY 
 
 MARMOSE 
 
 tention” between Paul and Barnabas. 
 Of the close of his career nothing is 
 known; and it is by no means certain 
 even that the various passages, on which 
 the church has based the biographical 
 notes already cited, uniformly refer to 
 the same individual. See Gospels. 
 
 MARK ANTONY. See Antonius. 
 
 MARKETS. See Fairs. 
 
 MARKET VALUE, the value of an 
 article as established by public sales of 
 such property in a particular locality. 
 At times this value is proved by regular 
 market quotations. It is also proved by 
 persons familiar with the price at which 
 such property sells regularly in the 
 market. If the market price is abnor- 
 mally enhanced or depressed at the time 
 and place for delivery of any goods, by 
 wrongful combinations or by an illegal 
 monopoly, other evidence than the 
 market sales may be resorted to for the 
 purpose of showing the fair value of the 
 property in question. 
 
 MARK TWAIN. The nom-de-plume 
 of S. L. Clemens. 
 
 MARLBORO, a city in Middlesex 
 CO., Mass.; on the Fitchburg and the 
 N. Y., N. H. and Hart, railways; 15 
 miles e. of Worcester, 25 miles w. of 
 Boston. It is in a choice fruit-growing 
 region, and is widely noted for its ex- 
 tensive manufacture of boots and shoes. 
 Pop. 15,725. 
 
 MARLBOROUGH, John Churchill, 
 Duke of, English general and statesman, 
 second son of Sir Winston Churchill ; 
 born at Ashe, in Devonshire, in 1650. 
 At the siege of Maestricht he distin- 
 guished himself so highly as to obtain 
 the public thanks of the King of Francev 
 He had a regiment of dragoons pre- 
 sented to him, and strengthened his in- 
 fluence at court by his marriage with 
 Sarah Jennings, an attendant upon the 
 princess, afterward Queen Anne. On 
 the accession of James II. he was sent 
 ambassador to France, and soon after 
 his return was created Baron Churchill 
 of Sundridge, and raised to the rank of 
 general. In 1691 he was suddenly dis- 
 missed from all his employments and 
 committed to the Tower on the charge 
 
 Duke of Marlborough. 
 
 of high treason, but soon obtained his 
 release; though it appears that the sus- 
 picions against him were not without 
 foundation. On the death of Queen 
 Mary he was made a privy-councillor, 
 and appointed governor to the young 
 
 Duke of Gloucester; and in 1701 was 
 created by King William commander- 
 in-chief of the English forces in Holland, 
 and also ambassador plenipotentiary to 
 the states-general. In 1702 he drove the 
 French out of Spanish Guelders, and 
 took Li6ge and other towns, for which 
 he was created Duke of Marlborough. 
 In 1704 he stormed the French and 
 Bavarian lines at Donauworth, and in 
 the same year, in conjunction with 
 Prince Eugene, gained the victory bf 
 Blenheim over the French and Bava- 
 rians, headed by Marshal Tallard and 
 the Elector of Bavaria. On the victory 
 of Ramillies, 1706, a bill was passed to 
 settle his honors upon the male and 
 female issue of his daughters. In the 
 campaign of 1707 his antagonist was the 
 famous Duke de Vend6me,5over whom he 
 'gained no advantage, and on his return, 
 found that his popularity at court was on 
 the decline. Early in 1710 he returned 
 to the army, and with Prince Eugene 
 gained another victory over Villars. 
 During his absence a new ministry, 
 hostile to himself, was chosen, and on 
 his return his command was taken from 
 him. He repaired in disgust to the Low 
 Countries in 1712 and on the accession 
 of George I. was reinstated in the su- 
 preme military command. Retiring 
 from all public employments, his men- 
 tal faculties gradually decayed, and he 
 died at Windsor Lodge in 1722. His 
 duchess, Sarah Jennings, born 1660, 
 died 1744, has been almost equally cele- 
 brated for her boundless ambition and 
 avarice. The title fell to the descend- 
 ants of one of their daughters who have 
 assumed the name of Churchill. 
 
 MARLINE-SPIKE, an iron pin taper- 
 ing to a point, and principally used on 
 board- ship to separate the strands of a 
 rope in order to introduce the ends of 
 some other through the intervals in the 
 act of knotting or splicing; it is also used 
 as a lever in various operations. 
 
 MARLOWE, Christopher, an Eng- 
 lish poet and dramatist, born at Can- 
 terbury 1564. Besides six tragedies of his 
 own composition, the best known of 
 which are Tamburlaine the Great, Ed- 
 ward II., Dr. Faustus, and the Jew of 
 Malta, he left a translation of the Rape 
 of Helen, by Coluthus; some of Ovid’s 
 Elegies; the first book of Lucan’s 
 Pharsalia; and the Hero and Leander of 
 Musseus, completed by George Chapman. 
 He appears to have led a reckless, dis- 
 sipated life, and died in 1593 from a 
 wound received in a quarrel with a 
 serving-man at Deptford. Marlowe was 
 by far the greatest dramatic writer be- 
 fore Shakespeare. 
 
 MARLOWE, Julia, American actress, 
 born near Keswick, England, in 1870. 
 She came with her parents to this coun- 
 try when five years old. In 1887 she 
 appeared in New York, but it was in 
 Boston, in December, 1888, that she 
 won, as Parthenia in Ingomar, an as- 
 sured place as a star. She is an actress 
 of unusual personal charm, and soon be- 
 came a popular favorite in a variety of 
 roles, especially as Viola in Twelfth 
 Night and as Rosalind in As You Like 
 It Among Miss Marlowe’s successes in 
 modern plays may be mentioned Bar- 
 bara Frietchie in Clyde Fitch’s play of 
 
 that name (1899) ; and Charlotte Durand 
 in the dramatization of Cable’s Cavalier 
 (1902). 
 
 MAR'MALADE, a jellied preparation 
 made from quinces, peaches, apricots, 
 oranges, etc., and portions of their rinds, 
 the most common kind being made from 
 bitter or Seville oranges. 
 
 MARMALADE-TREE, Marmalade- 
 plum, a tree of the order Sapotaceae, a 
 native of the West Indies and tropical 
 America, valued for its fruit, the pulp 
 of which resembles marmalade. It is 
 also called Mammee-sapota. 
 
 Marmalade-tree. 
 
 MARMONT (mar-mon), Auguste Fred- 
 eric Louis Viesse de, Duke of Ragusa 
 and Marshal of France, was born in 1774, 
 and entered the army as a lieutenant of 
 infantry in his fifteenth year. In 1792 he 
 changed to the artillery, and at Toulon 
 became acquainted with Bonaparte, 
 who chose him for his aide-de-camp. 
 He obtained the title of Duke of Ragusa 
 for his defense of Ragusan territory 
 against the Russians and Montenegrins. 
 He was present at Wagram, and after 
 the truce of Znaim was made field- 
 marshal. In 1814 he fought a final battle 
 under the walls of Paris, but opposition 
 appearing fruitless he surrendered to the 
 allies. This proceeding was one main 
 cause of Napoleon’s immediate abdica- 
 tion, and brought Marmont into favor 
 with the Bourbons. After the restora- 
 tion Louis XVIII. made him a peer of 
 France, but he was compelled to with- 
 draw from Paris by the revolution of 
 1830, and his name was struck off the 
 army list. He accompanied Charles X. 
 in his exile, and afterward traveled, 
 publishing the results of his travels in 
 1837-39. He also wrote Esprit des In- 
 stitutions Militaires and his own mem- 
 oirs. He died at Venice in 1852. 
 
 MARMOSE, a marsupial quadruped 
 resembling the opossum, but less, being 
 
 only about 6 inches in length exclusive 
 of the tail. It carries its young about 
 1 with it on its back. 
 
MARMOSET 
 
 MARRIED WOMAN 
 
 MAR'MOSET, a name of several small I 
 South American monkeys, the smallest 
 of the monkey tribe. They are agile in 
 their movements, possess long, non- 
 prehensile tails, and have a thick woolly 
 fur. They bear a close resemblance to 
 squirrels in general appearance, feed 
 upon fruit and insects, and occasionally 
 upon the smaller birds and their eggs. 
 
 MARMOT, a rodent quadruped classed 
 with the squirrels. They are thick- 
 bodied, have short tails and short 
 legs, and live in burrows, which are gen- 
 erally excavated in mountainous situa- 
 tions, and consist of a series of galleries 
 in which whole communities reside. 
 During the winter they lie dormant. The 
 marmots inhabit Europe, Northern 
 Asia, and North America. The prairie- 
 dog or prairie-marmot, or wistonwish, 
 of North America is the most familiar 
 American species. Another species is 
 the woodchuck of the middle states. 
 
 The marmoset. 
 
 MARNE, a department of France, 
 bounded by Ardennes, Aisne, Seine-et- 
 Marne, Aube, Haute-Marne, and Meuse; 
 67 miles long by 60 miles broad; area, 
 3158 sq. miles. Pop. 429,424. 
 
 MARNE, Haute (Upper Marne, a de- 
 partment of France, bounded by Meuse, 
 Marne, Aube, Cote d’Or, Haute-Saone, 
 and Vosges; area, 2401 sq. miles. Chau- 
 mont is the capital. Pop. 247,781. 
 
 MAROCCO. See Morocco. 
 
 MAROONS', the name given to run- 
 away negroes in Jamaica and in some 
 parts of South America. In many cases 
 they rendered themselves formidable to 
 the colonists. When Jamaica was con- 
 quered by the English in 1655 about 
 1500 slaves retreated to the mountains, 
 and continued to harass the island till 
 1795, when they were reduced by the 
 aid of blood-hounds. 
 
 MARQUE, Letters of, or Letters of 
 Marque and Reprisal, a license or extra- 
 ordinary commission granted by a 
 sovereign or the supreme power of one 
 state to the citizens of this state to make 
 reprisals at sea on the subjects of another 
 under pretence of indemnification for 
 injuries received ; that is, a license to en- 
 gage in privateering. Letters of marque 
 were abolished among European nations 
 by the Treaty of Paris of 1856. The 
 United States of America were invited 
 to accede to this agreement, but de- 
 clined. 
 
 MARQUETTE (mar-kSt'), the county- 
 seat of Marquette co., Mich., 170 miles 
 west of Sault Sainte Marie; on Mar- 
 
 quette Bay, an Inlet of Lake Superior, 
 and on the Duluth, South Shore and 
 Atlantic, and other railroads that con- 
 nect with the mining centers of the 
 Lake Superior mineral region. Pop. 
 12,315. 
 
 MARQUETTE, Jacques, a Jesuit mis- 
 sionary and explorer, was born in 1637, 
 at Laon in France, and died May 18, 
 1675, on the banks of a small stream, 
 now known as the Marquette, which has 
 its mouth on the eastern shore of Lake 
 Michigan. Having joined the Society of 
 Jesus, he sailed for Canada in 1666, 
 spent eighteen months in the vicinity of 
 Three Rivers, founded the mission of 
 Sault Sainte Marie, on Lake Superior, 
 in 1668, and followed the Hurons to 
 Mackinaw in 1671. It is mainly, how- 
 ever, as Joliet’s companion in his voyage 
 down the Mississippi in 1673, that 
 Marquette holds a permanent position 
 in the history of discovery in America. 
 His narrative, first published in Theve- 
 not’s Recueil de Voyages, is printed 
 along with other documents relating to 
 him in Shea’s Discovery and Explora- 
 tion of the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 MAR'QUETRY, inlaid cabinet-work 
 in which thin slices of different col- 
 ored wood, sometimes of ivory, pearl, 
 shell, or metal, are inlaid on a ground 
 usually of oak or fir, well seasoned to 
 prevent warping. At one time figures 
 and landscapes were represented by 
 means of marquetry, but it is now chiefly 
 disposed in regular geometrical figures. 
 
 MARQUIS, Marquess, a title of honor 
 next in dignity to that of duke, first 
 given to those who commanded on the 
 marches or frontiers of countries. The 
 title was first introduced into England 
 by King Richard II. in the year 1387, 
 but fell into disuse until the reign of 
 Edward VI., who created the Marquisate 
 of Winchester in 1551. The correspond- 
 ing female title is marchioness. 
 
 MARRIAGE, a solemn contract be- 
 tween a man and woman, by which they 
 are united for life and assume the legal 
 relation of husband and wife. Different 
 localities have different forms of the in- 
 stitution, the most broadly marked of 
 which are connected with the right to 
 have only one wife — monogamy, or a 
 plurality of wives — polygamy. Poly- 
 andry, by which a woman may have 
 several husbands, is known to have 
 existed in ancient times, and still exists 
 in various localities, as in Tibet. Among 
 the most civilized communities monog- 
 amy is the prevailing practice. Though 
 the church of Rome ranks marriage 
 among the sacraments, and religious 
 observances are almost everywhere 
 customary on its celebration, the law 
 regards it as nothing more than a civil 
 contract. To render valid the civil con- 
 tract constituting marriage it is requisite 
 that the free-will of each of the parties 
 should be spontaneously exercised, and 
 that each should be capable of giving an 
 intelligent consent. In males the age of 
 consent is sixteen, and in females four- 
 teen. A promise to marry given by a 
 person under twenty-one is not binding. 
 The legal disabilities are: (1) An undis- 
 solved prior marriage, and the former 
 husband or wife still living. (2) Being 
 within the prohibited degrees of con- 
 
 sanguinity or affinity, cousins-german 
 being the nearest relatives that may 
 marry. Marriage with a wife’s sister is 
 prohibited as with one’s own sister. (3) 
 Impotence or inability to consummate 
 the marriage. (4) The fraudulent sup- 
 pression or alteration of the name of one 
 or both in the publication of the banns; 
 but this does not invalidate a marriage 
 by license. Banns of marriage must be 
 published three Sundays in the parish 
 church or public chapel of the Estab- 
 lishment, in the parish wherein botn 
 parties reside, or in the parishes in 
 which each separately resides. Ordinar- 
 ily marriages must be celebrated in a 
 church by a clergyman of the Church of 
 England, or by a dissenting minister or 
 a Roman Catholic priest in a building 
 registered for marriages and in presence 
 of the registrar, or they may be cele- 
 brated before the registrar and in his 
 office. In the United States marriage is 
 regarded as being entirely based on 
 contract or on the present mutual con- 
 sent of the parties; solemnization by a 
 clergyman or by a magistrate, the pres- 
 ence of witnesses, and all the customary 
 forms and ceremonies being simply con- 
 venient means of perpetuating the evi- 
 dence of the contract. Marriage with a 
 deceased wife’s sister is not prohibited 
 The age at which a marriage may be 
 contracted is the same as in England. 
 
 MARRIED WOMAN, a woman by 
 marriage changes her legal status as to 
 her personal rights, her contractual, 
 property, and in some cases her political 
 rights and her rights before the criminal 
 law. After marriage, at common law, 
 she is in a less favorable position in these 
 respects than before, with the possible 
 exception of at the criminal law when 
 the presumption of her husband’s coer- 
 cion in case of criminal acts done in his 
 presence makes her responsible for such 
 acts except in the case of more serious 
 crimes. Her personal property in pos- 
 session and her chattels real, generally 
 speaking, become her husband’s or can 
 be disposed of by him ; in her real prop- 
 erty he has an estate for their joint lives 
 and may have an estate during his own 
 life. Her rights in his property during 
 their joint lives are practically limited 
 to her right to the necessaries of life, 
 and the control over his real property 
 that arises from her dower rights which 
 enable her as a matter of law to refuse 
 to release her dower right. The hard- 
 ship of these disabilities of the common 
 law has caused the courts of equity to 
 give certain equitable remedies against 
 the husband in order to protect her and 
 her children in the enjoyment of at least 
 a portion of her property, and to neglect 
 some of the legal formalities in giving 
 effect to agreements to create a separate 
 estate for the wife, and to protect her by 
 establishing the doctrine that the use 
 of the separate estate must be for its use 
 or her benefit, and that its income could 
 not be anticipated. Modern legislation 
 has removed some of these disabilities. 
 The first tendency was to free the wife 
 and her property from her husband’s 
 control but to make them jointly liable 
 for all obligations as arise from the mar- 
 riage relation . In most states the wife is 
 free from common law disabilities. 
 
marryat 
 
 MARSHALLTOWN 
 
 MAR'RYAT, Frederick, English nov- 
 elist and naval officer, born in 1792. His 
 first attempt in literature was made in 
 1829, by the publication of Frank Mild- 
 may. Its success led to an extensive 
 series of works of the like kind, including 
 The King’s Own, Peter Simple, Jacob 
 Faithful, Japhet in Search of a Father, 
 Newton Forster, Midshipman Easy, 
 Snarley-Yow or the Dog Fiend, Master- 
 man Ready, and others. He was also 
 the author of a Code of Signals for the 
 Merchant Service (1837). He died at his 
 residence, Langham, Norfolk, in 1848. 
 One of his daughters, Florence Marryat, 
 has gained distinction as a novelist. 
 
 MARS, the Roman god of war, at an 
 early period identified with the Greek 
 Ares, a diety of similar attributes. Like 
 Jupiter he was designated father, and 
 was regarded in particular as the father 
 of the Roman people, Romulus and 
 Remus being the fruit of his intercourse 
 with Rhea Sylvia. Several temples at 
 Rome were dedicated to him. His serv- 
 ice was celebrated not only by par- 
 ticular flamines devoted to him, but by 
 the College of the Salii, or priests of 
 Mars. The month of March, the first 
 month of the Roman year, was sacred to 
 him. As the tutelary deity of Rome 
 he was called Quirinus, in his character 
 as the god of war Gradivus (the striding). 
 Ares, the Greek god of war, was the son 
 of Zeus (Jupiter) and Hera (Juno). He 
 is represented as terrible in battle, but 
 not as invulnerable, since he was 
 wounded at various times by Heracles, 
 Diomedes, and Athena. He is repre- 
 sented as a youthful warrior of strong 
 fame, either naked or clothed with the 
 chlamys. The chief seats of the worship 
 of Ares were in Thrace and Scythia. 
 
 MARS, of the superior planets that 
 which lies nearest the sun, or next be- 
 yond the orbit of the earth. He moves 
 round the sun in 686.9797 of our mean 
 solar days, at the average distance of 
 
 139.312.000 miles, his greatest and least 
 distances being 152,284,000 and 126,- 
 
 340.000 miles; his orbit is inclined to the 
 ecliptic at an angle of 1° 51' 5"; his dis- 
 tance from the earth varies from about 
 35,000,000 to 244,000,000 miles; he 
 rotates on his axis in 24 hours 37 min- 
 utes 22 seconds; the inclination of his 
 axis, or the angle between his equator 
 and his orbit, is 28°; his diameter is 
 about 4400 miles. His surface resembles 
 that of the earth; but the seas, as the 
 parts which have a greenish tinge are 
 thought to be, cover a much smaller 
 area than the reddish parts or land. The 
 reddish hue of Mars is one of his char- 
 acteristic features. About every 8 years 
 7 months he is in perihelion and perigee 
 at the same time, and has a wonderful 
 brilliancy. At his poles are white por- 
 tions, which decrease and increase in size 
 at the beginning and end of the Martial 
 summer, so that the poles are supposed 
 to be surrounded with snow. In 1877 
 two satellites, both very small bodies 
 were discovered by Professor Hall of the 
 Naval Observatory, Washington. The 
 outer one, 14,500 miles distant from the 
 center of Mars, revolves round the planet 
 in a period of 30 hours 14 minutes; the 
 inner one, 5800 miles from the center of 
 Mars, has a period of 7 hours 38 minutes. 
 
 MARSEILLAISE HYMN (m&r-se-laz'), 
 the war-song of the French Republic. 
 The words, and, as is generally believed, 
 the music, were written in 1792 by 
 Rouget de I’Isle, an officer in garrison at 
 Strasburg, on the occasion of a body of 
 volunteers leaving that city for the war 
 against Austria and Prussia, and the 
 poem was entitled by him Chant de 
 Guerre de I’Armde du Rhin (War-song 
 of the Army of the Rhine). It was called 
 Marseillaise because first sung in Paris 
 by volunteers from Marseilles. 
 
 MARSEILLES, French Marseille 
 (mar-salz', mar-sa-ye), a city and the 
 principal commercial seaport of France, 
 on the Mediterranean, capital of the de- 
 partment of Bouches-du-Rhone. Though 
 a handsome city as a whole, Marseilles is 
 not rich in public edifices. The most de- 
 serving of notice are the large new cathe- 
 dral in the Byzantine style ; the church 
 of Notre Dame de la Garde, on a hill of 
 same name; the church of St. Victor; 
 the Hotel de Ville; the Prefecture; the 
 Palais des Arts de Longchamp, with 
 picture-gallery and natural history 
 museum; the exchange; public library 
 (100,000 vols.); and the triumphal arch 
 through which the town is entered on the 
 side of Aix. The most important manu- 
 factures are soap, soda, and other chemi- 
 cal products; also olive and other oils, 
 sugar, machinery, iron and brass work, 
 candles, glass, earthenware, etc. The 
 trade is chiefly in soap, olive-oil, wine, 
 brandy, corn, flour, dried fruits, tobacco, 
 wool, skins, iron, cotton. Pop. 494,769. 
 
 MARSH, George Perkin, American 
 scholar and diplomatist, born 1801. He 
 graduated at Dartmouth College, studied 
 law, and practiced at the bar. In 1842- 
 49 he was a member of congress, and in 
 1849 was appointed American minister 
 at Constantinople. Before returning in 
 1854 he made extensive travels in 
 Europe. From 1861 till his death in 
 1882 he was American minister to Italy. 
 Among his works are: Lectures on the 
 English Language ; Origin and History of 
 the English Language; Man and Nature; 
 
 MARSH, Othniel Charles, American 
 zoologist and paleontologist, was born in 
 1831 in Lockport, N. Y. Upon his re- 
 turn from Germany he was appointed 
 professor of paleontology and curator 
 of the geological museum at Yale, and 
 held these positions until his death. 
 Professor Marsh accomplished a great 
 amount of valuable scientific work in 
 the discovery and description of new 
 fossil vertebrates from the geological 
 formations of the Western states and 
 territories. His discoveries of the fossil 
 ancestors of the horse marked an epoch 
 in evolutionary science and have been 
 frequently employed as an illustration 
 of the principle of evolution. He served 
 as president of the American Associa- 
 tion for the Advancement of Science in 
 1878, and of the National Academy of 
 Sciences from 1883 to 1895. The 
 Geological Society of London, of which 
 he was a fellow, bestowed upon him the 
 first Bigsby medal in 1877. He also 
 received the Cuvier prize of the French 
 Academy of Sciences. His valuable col- 
 lection of fossil vertebrates was left to 
 Yale University. He died in 1899. 
 
 MARSHAL, French Mar4chal, a word 
 of German origin signifying originally a 
 man appointed to take care of horses. 
 A similar term is the French conn6table 
 or constable, from L. comes stabuli 
 (count or master of the stable). The 
 marshal of the German Empire derived 
 his origin from the Frankish monarchs, 
 and was equivalent to the comes stabuli 
 or conn^table. He had to superintend 
 the ceremonies at the coronation of the 
 emperor, and on other high occasions. 
 There is still a marshal at the head of the 
 households of German sovereigns. In 
 France mar4chal de France is the highest 
 military honor. In Germany general- 
 field-marshal is the highest military 
 honor. In England field-marshal is an 
 honorary rank given occasionally to 
 general officers. Another English title 
 is earl-marshal. Marshal also signifies a 
 person who regulates the ceremonies on 
 certain solemn celebrations. In the 
 United States a marshal is an executive 
 officer (resembling the sheriff) connected 
 with the United States courts. 
 
 MARSHALL, John, chief justice of the 
 United States, was born in Fauquier 
 CO., Va., in 1755. At various times from 
 1782 to 1798 he was elected a member 
 of the Virginia legislature, in 1788 a 
 member of the Virginia convention for 
 the ratification of the constitution; in 
 1797 he was envoy extraordinary to 
 France, and in 1799 a member of con- 
 gress; in 1800 he became secretary of 
 state; and on January 31, 1801, he was 
 
 appointed to the chief-justiceship,which 
 position he held until his death. Mar- 
 shall as a lawyer soon rose to the first 
 rank at the Virginia bar, and acquired 
 also a national reputation. In the Vir- 
 ginia convention of 1788 his influence 
 was second only to that of Madison in 
 securing the adoption of the constitu- 
 tion. But, unlike Madison, he continued 
 under the constitution, to support the 
 administration of Washington and fed- 
 eralist measures in general. It was as 
 chief justice of the supreme court of the 
 United States, however, that Marshall 
 won lasting fame. His reports, filling 
 about thirty volumes, form a work 
 which time will only render more valued. 
 He died in 1835. 
 
 MARSHALLTOWN, the county seat 
 of Marshall co., la., on the la. Cent., the 
 Chi. and N. W., and the Chi. and Gt. 
 
MARSH-MALLOW 
 
 MARY II. 
 
 West, railways; 70 miles w. of Cedar 
 Rapids. Pop. 13,275. 
 
 MARSH-MALLOW, a common plant, 
 growing in marshes, especially near the 
 sea, in great abundance. It is employed 
 medicinally as a demulcent, and is used 
 in the preparation of demulcent lozenges. 
 It is perennial, and has a white, fleshy, 
 carrot-shaped root, which may be used 
 as food. The stem is from 2 to 3 feet 
 high, both leaves and stem being covered 
 with a soft down. The flowers are flesh- 
 colored. Thehollyhock is another species. 
 
 MARSTON MOOR, in Yorkshire, 
 about 7 miles west of York, a locality 
 celebrated for the battle between the 
 royal forces under Prince Rupert and 
 the troops of the parliament under Fair- 
 fax and Cromwell (2d July, 1644), in 
 which the latter were victorious. 
 
 MARSUPIA'LIA, or MARSU'PIALS, 
 an extensive group of mammalia, differ- 
 ing from all others in their organization, 
 and including genera which correspond 
 to several orders of ordinary mammals. 
 They belong to the aplacental mammals, 
 and their most striking peculiarity is the 
 production of the young in an immature 
 state, a feature which renders necessary 
 the pouch in which the immature young 
 are placed immediately on their birth. 
 In this pouch are the mammae or teats, 
 and sheltered here the imperfect young 
 ones, attached to the nippleby the mouth 
 remain till fully developed. The mar- 
 supials link the mammals through the 
 Monotremata to the birds and reptiles. 
 There are many genera both herbivor- 
 ous and carnivorous, the great bulk of 
 them being confined to the Australian 
 region. The kangaroo and opossum are 
 familiar examples. 
 
 MARTEN, the name of several car- 
 nivorous quadrupeds. The body of the 
 marten, like that of the weasel, is 
 elongated and slender. The legs are 
 short, the feet being provided with five 
 toes, armed with sharp claws. In habit 
 the martens differ from the weasels in 
 being arboreal, these forms climbing 
 
 Kne-marten. 
 
 trees with great ease. The pine-marten 
 occurs chiefly in North America and in 
 the northern parts of Asia. It is of 
 smaller size than the common marten, 
 possesses a yellowish mark on the 
 throat, and has a finer fur largely used 
 for trimmings. It burrows in the ground. 
 The famous sable marten which fur- 
 nishes the valuable sable fur, is nearly 
 allied to the pine-marten. It inhabits 
 Siberia. 
 
 MARTHA’S VINEYARD, an island of 
 Massachusetts, on the south side of Cape 
 Cod, 12 miles west-north-west of Nan- 
 tucket, 19 miles long, and from 2 to 10 
 broad. It contains one or two seaside 
 resorts, 
 
 MARTIAL LAW, the law by which 
 the discipline of an army is maintained, 
 applying only to persons in actual mili- 
 tary service, and only to their conduct 
 in such service. The jurisdiction un- 
 der the law martial is in a distinct 
 tribunal, known as a court-martial ap- 
 pointed by some superior officer. Under 
 special circumstances of insurrection 
 or rebellion, where the ordinary law is 
 insufficient to protect life and property, 
 it is sometimes necessary to administer 
 the law according to the practice of 
 military courts, by an armed force 
 occupying the disturbed district. The 
 district is then said to be under martial 
 law. 
 
 MARTIN, a name applied to several 
 birds or swallows. It builds a globular 
 nest under the eaves of houses, or in the 
 upper angles of windows. In habits it 
 
 House-martin. 
 
 resembles the chimney-swallow, but its 
 tail is less markedly forked, while its 
 nest also differs, that of the chimney- 
 swallow being cup-shaped. 
 
 MARTINIQUE (mar-ti-nek'), one of 
 the French West India Islands, in the 
 Windward group, area, 380 sq. miles. 
 Its loftiest summit. Mount Pel4e, is 4450 
 feet high. The climate is hot, but not 
 unhealthy. Hurricanes and earth- 
 quakes are not unfrequent. The prin- 
 cipal town, St. Pierre, on the northwest 
 was destroyed by an eruption of Pel4e 
 in May, 1902, in which many thousand 
 people perished. Pop. 207,011. 
 
 MARTYRS, a name applied by the 
 Christian church to those persons in 
 
 articular, who in the early ages of 
 
 hristianity, and during the great perse- 
 cutions, suffered ignominy and death 
 rather than renounce their faith. Fes- 
 tivals in honor of the martyrs seem to 
 have been observed as early as the 
 second century. 
 
 MARX, Karl, German socialist, born 
 in 1818, studied law and philosophy at 
 Berlin. After editing the Rheinische 
 Zeitung at Cologne from 1841 till its 
 suppression, he went in 1844 to Paris, 
 where he took part in the publication of 
 the Deutsch-Franzosische Jahrbiicher, 
 and a newspaper, Vorwarts. Being com- 
 pelled to flee to Brussels, he there in 
 1848 became head of the central com- 
 mittee of the socialists. In the same 
 year he made an attempt at Cologne to 
 revive the Rheinische Zeitung, but re- 
 moved to London in 1849. In 1864 he 
 established the International, but after 
 the disruption in 1872, when he led the 
 extreme party, he removed from Lon- 
 
 don to New York. He died in 1883. 
 His chief work, the Bible of one group of 
 socialists, was Das Kapital, published 
 in 1867. 
 
 MARY, The Virgin, the mother of 
 Jesus, according to tradition embodied 
 in the apocryphal gospels the daughter 
 of Joachim and Anna (of Luke i. 32). 
 The story of her life so far as it is given 
 in the New Testament begins with her 
 betrothal to Joseph (Luke i.), and the 
 narrative of the birth of Christ. She is 
 thrice mentioned during Christ’s public 
 ministry (John ii.. Matt. xii. 47, John 
 xix. 25-27), and once after his death 
 (Acts i. 14). The title of Mary to adora- 
 tion did not become a tenet in the 
 orthodox Latin Church till the 6th cen- 
 tury, when the Christian Church began 
 to celebrate festivals in her honor, of 
 which the Purification, the Annuncia- 
 tion and the Visitation (the visit of Mary 
 to Elizabeth) are still retained in Prot- 
 estant countries. The Greek and Roman 
 Catholics, and the schismatic churches 
 in the east, observe several feasts be- 
 sides the above in honor of the Virgin; 
 for instance the birth of Mary, and her 
 death and reception into heaven (by 
 the Roman Catholics called the Assump- 
 tion) The festival of the Immaculate 
 Conception is celebrated only by the 
 Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 MARY I., Queen of England, daugh- 
 ter of Henry VIII. by Catherine of 
 Aragon, was born in 1516. After her 
 mother’s death she was declared illegiti- 
 mate, but was restored to her rights 
 when the succession was finally settled 
 in 1544. She was bred up by her mother 
 in the Roman Catholic faith, on which 
 account she was treated with rigor under 
 Edward VI. She ascended the throne 
 in 1553, after an abortive attempt to set 
 her aside in favor of Lady Jane Grey. 
 One of her first measures was the rein- 
 statement of the Roman Catholic prel- 
 ates who had been superseded in the 
 late reign. Her marriage to Philip II. 
 of Spain, united as it was with a com- 
 plete restoration of the Catholic wor- 
 ship, produced much discontent, insur- 
 rections broke out under Cave in Devon- 
 shire, and Wyat in Kent, which, although 
 suppressed, formed sufficient excuses 
 for the imprisonment of the Princess 
 Elizabeth in the Tower, and the execu- 
 tion of Lady Jane Grey and her husband 
 Lord Guildford Dudley. England was 
 now formally declared to be reconciled 
 to the pope; the sanguinary laws against 
 heretics were revived, and nearly 300 
 perished at the stake, including Cran- 
 mer, Latimer, and Ridley. Under 
 Philip’s influence a war began with 
 France, which ended in the loss of 
 Calais in 1558, after it had been held by 
 England for above 200 years. This dis- 
 grace told acutely upon Mary’s disor- 
 dered health, and she died in 1558. 
 
 MARY II., Queen of England, born in 
 1662, was daughter of James, duke of 
 York, afterwards James II., by his wife 
 Anne Hyde, daughter of Lord Clarendon. 
 She was married in 1677 to William, 
 prince of Orange; and v.^hen the revolu- 
 tion dethroned her father, Mary was 
 declared joint-possessor of the throne 
 with William, on whom all the adminis- 
 tration of the government devolved, 
 
MARYLAND 
 
 MARY STUART 
 
 During the absence of William in Ire- 
 land in 1690, and during his various 
 visits to the continent, Mary managed 
 at home with extreme prudence. She 
 was strongly attached to the Protestant 
 religion and the Church of England. 
 She died of small-pox in 1694. See 
 William III. 
 
 MARYLAND, one of the United States 
 of North America; bounded n. by Penn- 
 sylvania, e. by Delaware and the Atlan- 
 tic, s. by Virginia and Chesapeake bay 
 and w. by Virginia and West Virginia; 
 area, 12,210 sq. miles. The part of the 
 state lying to the east of Chesapeake bay 
 is called the Eastern shore, and the 
 other on the west the Western shore. 
 The Eastern shore has a low, flat, and 
 somewhat sandy surface, covered in 
 many places with stagnant water, which 
 makes ague and intermittent fever 
 prevalent. The Western shore gradually 
 
 Seal of Maryland. 
 
 rises toward the northwest, where it is 
 traversed by a lower branch of the Ap- 
 palachian chain, and attains the height 
 of 2000 feet above sea-level. Beyond 
 this the land again sinks, forming the 
 Hagerstown valley, part of the great 
 Appalachian valley. The chief rivers 
 are the Potomac, the Susquehanna, and 
 the Patapsco. Almost all the lower part 
 of Maryland is covered with alluvial 
 deposits. In the Hagerstown valley 
 there is a full development of the car- 
 boniferous system, with its valuable 
 seams of coal and ores of iron. There are 
 three important coal-fields in the state. 
 The most important crops are Indian 
 corn, wheat, and oats. Tobacco is very 
 largely grown. The fisheries are produc- 
 tive, and there are extensive oyster-beds. 
 The principal manufactures are cotton 
 goods, cordage, bricks, and articles in 
 iron; the trade, chiefly foreign, is exten- 
 sive. A large part of the foreign trade 
 consists in the exportation of canned 
 fruits, vegetables, and oysters. The 
 state sends six representatives and two 
 senators to congress. Annapolis is the 
 seat of government; but Baltimore is 
 the most important city of the state. 
 There is an excellent system of free 
 public schools, and among the higher 
 educational institutions may be noted 
 the St. John’s College at Annapolis, and 
 the Peabody Institute (founded in 1857), 
 and the Johns Hopkins University 
 (opened in 1876), both at Baltimore. 
 Maryland was one of the thirteen 
 original states of the Union, and was 
 first settled in 1634 by English Roman 
 
 Catholics under Leonard Calvert, a 
 brother of Lord Baltimore, who had 
 obtained a charter from Charles I., of 
 England. Unlike the Puritan colonists 
 of New England, the early settlers of 
 Maryland enacted laws granting tolera- 
 tion to all forms of religious belief. The 
 early history was greatly disturbed by 
 conflicts between Lord Baltimore’s 
 party and the traders who claimed under 
 William Claiborne of Virginia. The 
 Proprietary party finally established 
 their power. In 1688 Lord Baltimore’s 
 deputies declined to proclaim William 
 and Mary, and the result was a revolt 
 which led to the overthrow of the feudal 
 system, and Maryland became a crown 
 colony. The Church of England was 
 then established and disabilities were 
 imposed upon Catholics and dissenters. 
 In 1714 one of the Baltimore family be- 
 came a Protestant and was recognized 
 as the proprietor, and from this time 
 until 1776 the Baltimores held posses- 
 sion. The original charter limits of 
 Maryland, which was named after 
 Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I., 
 included all of Delaware and a consider- 
 able part of Pennsylvania, and con- 
 flicted with the grant to William Penn. 
 The controversy between the two 
 colonies lasted from 1682 to 1760, when 
 the Penn heirs proved successful and 
 Maryland assumed its present limits, 
 and Mason and Dixon’s line was es- 
 tablished to mark the boundaries in 
 1763-67. 
 
 In the war of independence Maryland 
 bore a conspicuous part and furnished 
 20,636 men to the continental armies. 
 In the war of 1812-14, the state had in 
 the service no less than 42,636 men, a 
 number only exceeded by the great 
 states of New York and Virginia. In the 
 war with Mexico Maryland’s contribu- 
 tion was 2,500 men. In 1844 the first 
 line of electric telegraph in the United 
 States was run from Baltimore to Wash- 
 ington. In the civil war the people of 
 Maryland were divided in sentiment. 
 Many of her people favored secession, 
 a large number entered the confederate 
 army, and in the first days of the war 
 the passage of Union troops through 
 Baltimore was opposed, several Massa- 
 chusetts soldiers being killed on April 
 19, 1861 ; but the strength of the Union 
 party, added to the efforts of the gover- 
 nor served to keep the state from seced- 
 ing. In national elections, Maryland 
 balanced with fair regularity before the 
 civil war between democrats and the 
 federalists and whigs. In 1864 it voted 
 for Lincoln, but from 1868 to 1892 was 
 steadily democratic. In 1896 and 1900 
 it was carried by the republicans, and 
 in 1904 it gave 7 electoral votes to 
 Parker and 1 to Roosevelt. In 1908 it 
 went Democratic. Pop. 1909,1,188,044. 
 
 MARY MAGDALEN. See Magdalen. 
 
 MARY STUART, Queen of Scots, was 
 born at Linlithgow Palace in 1542, and 
 was the daughter of James V. by his 
 queen, Mary of Lorraine, a princess of 
 the family of Guise. In the summer of 
 1548 the young queen was sent by her 
 mother to France, where she was edu- 
 cated in a French convent, and in 1558 
 was married to the dauphin, afterward 
 Francis II. He died seventeen months 
 
 after his accession to the crown, in 
 December, 1560, and in Augu..t,1561,the 
 widowed queen returned to Scotland. 
 The calamities of Mary began with her 
 second marriage, namely, to her cousin. 
 Lord Darnley, whom she married on 
 July 29, 1565. Darnley was a Roman 
 Catholic, and immediately after the 
 marriage the Earl of Moray and others 
 of the Protestant lords combined 
 against the new order of things. They 
 were compelled to take refuge in Eng- 
 land, and the popularity of Mary began 
 to decline. In addition to this Darnley 
 proved a weak and worthless profligate, 
 and almost entirely alienated the queen 
 by his complicity in the murder of 
 Rizzio (March 9, 1566), though a recon- 
 ciliation seemed to be effected between 
 them about the time of the birth of their 
 son, afterward James VI. of Scotland 
 and I. of England (19th of June, 1566). 
 About the close of the same year, how- 
 ever, Darnley withdrew from the court, 
 and in the meantine the Earl of Both- 
 well had risen high in the queen’s favor. 
 Once more, however, an apparent 
 reconciliation took place between the 
 king and queen. Darnley had fallen ill, 
 and was lying at Glasgow under the care 
 of his father. Mary visited him, and 
 took measures for his removal to Edin- 
 burgh, where he was lodged in a house 
 called Kirk-of-Field, close to the city 
 wall. He was there tended by the queen 
 herself ; but during the absence of Mary 
 at a masque at Holyrood the house in 
 which Darnley lay was blown up by gun- 
 powder, and he himself was afterward 
 found dead with marks of violence on 
 his person (February 9, 1567). The cir- 
 cumstances attending this crime were 
 very imperfectly investigated, but popu- 
 lar suspicion unequivocally pointed to 
 Bothwell as the ringleader in the out- 
 rage, and the queen herself was sus- 
 pected, suspicion becoming still stronger 
 when she was carried off by Bothwell, 
 with little show of resistance, to his 
 castle of Dunbar, and married to him on 
 the 15th of May. A number of the 
 nobles now banded together against 
 Bothwell, who succeeded in collecting a 
 force; but on Carberry Hill, where the 
 armies met on the 15th June, his army 
 melted away. The queen was forced to 
 surrender herself to her insurgent nobles, 
 Bothwell making his escape to Dunbar, 
 then to the Orkney Islands, and finally 
 to Denmark. The confederates first 
 conveyed the queen to Edinburgh, and 
 thence to Loch Leven Castle, where she 
 was placed in the custody of Lady 
 Douglas, mother of the Earl of Moray. 
 A few days after, on the 20th of June, 
 a casket containing eight letters and 
 some poetry, all said to be in the hand- 
 writing of the queen, fell into the hands 
 of the confederates. They were held by 
 the confederates to afford unmistakable 
 evidence of the queen’s guilt, and on the 
 24th of July she was forced to sign a 
 document renouncing the crown of Scot- 
 land in favor of her infant son, and ap- 
 pointing the Earl of Moray regent dur- 
 ing her son’s minority. After remaining 
 nearly a year in captivity Mary suc- 
 ceeded in making her escape from Loch 
 Leven (May 2, 1568), and, assisted by 
 the few friends who still remained 
 
MASCALONGE 
 
 MASQUE 
 
 attached to her, made an effort for the 
 recovery of her power. Defeated by the 
 regent’s forces at the battle of Landside 
 (May 13, 1568), she fled to England, and 
 wrote to Elizabeth entreating protection 
 and a personal interview; but this the 
 latter refused to grant until Mary should 
 have cleared herself of the charges 
 laid against her by her subjects. For 
 more than eighteen years she continued 
 to be the prisoner of Elizabeth, and in 
 that time the place of her imprisonment 
 was frequently changed, her final prison 
 being Fotheringhay Castle, Northamp- 
 tonshire. She was at last accused of be- 
 ing implicated in a plot by one Babing- 
 ton against Elizabeth’s life, and having 
 been tried by a court of Elizabeth’s ap- 
 pointing, was on the 25th of October, 
 1586, condemned to be executed. There 
 was a long delay before Elizabeth signed 
 the warrant, but this was at last done 
 on the 1st of February, 1587. Mary re- 
 ceived the news with great serenity, and 
 was beheaded a week later, on February 
 8, 1587, in the castle of Fotheringhay. 
 
 MAS'CALONGE, a fine North Ameri- 
 can fresh-water fish of the pike genus, 
 inhabiting the St. Lawrence basin. 
 
 MASCAGNI (mh-ska'nye), Pietro, 
 Italian composer, was born at Leghorn in 
 1863. In 1879 he wrote a sjunphony in 
 C minor, in 1881 a cantata. In 1890 
 the production in Rome of his opera 
 Cavalleria Rusticani raised him from 
 utter obscurity to the height of fame. 
 His subsequent works have met with 
 varying success. In 1895 he was ap- 
 pointed director of the Rossini conser- 
 vatory at Pesaro. In 1902 he made a 
 tour of America with limited success. 
 
 MAS'CARENE ISLANDS, the islands 
 of Bourbon, Mauritius, and Rodriguez, 
 so called from Mascarenhas, a Portu- 
 guese navigator, who discovered Bour- 
 bon in 1545. 
 
 MASHO'NALAND, the land of the 
 Mashonas, in South Africa, on the north- 
 east of Matabeleland and south of the 
 Zambesi, being part of the territory of 
 the British South Africa Company or 
 Southern Rhodesia. It consists largely 
 of open plains and table-lands, well- 
 watered and fertile, and is believed to be 
 very rich in gold. 'The Mashonas belong 
 to the Kaffir race, and were formerly 
 masters of a much wider territory, but 
 have been cooped up within their present 
 limits by the powerful Matabele. They 
 are a peaceful people, clever as smiths 
 and weavers. Salisbury is the chief place. 
 
 MASK, a covering for the face, often 
 shaped so as to form a rude representa- 
 tion of the human features. They have 
 been in use from the most ancient 
 times. Among the Greeks they were 
 used particularly in the processions 
 and ceremonies attending the worship 
 of Dionysus (Bacchus). As the origin of 
 Grecian tragedy was closely connected 
 with the worship of Dionysus, masks 
 were used in it even in the begin- 
 ning. The ancient masks usually cov- 
 ered the whole head, and accordingly 
 represented the features, head, hair, and 
 eyes. They had mostly very large open 
 mouths, and seem to have had some 
 effect in strengthening the voice of the 
 speaker, this being required by the 
 immense size of the ancient theaters. 
 
 The Roman theater differed little from 
 the Grecian in the use of the mask, 
 which the Italian popular theater, called 
 Commedia dell’ Arte, closely resembling 
 the old Roman mime and pantomime, 
 still retains. The mask used at masked 
 balls or masquerades is a covering for 
 the head and face made from a light 
 stuff, a common form being the half- 
 mask covering eyes and nose only. See 
 Masqued-ball. 
 
 MASK, The Iron. See Iron Mask. 
 
 MASKELONGE. See Mascalonge. 
 
 MAS'KELYNE, Nevil, English mathe- 
 matician and astronomer, born in 1732, 
 educated at Westminster and Cam- 
 bridge, chosen a fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and in 1761 deputed to proceed 
 to St. Helena to observe the transit of 
 Venus. In 1765 he became astronomer 
 royal; and in 1767 commenced the pub- 
 lication of the Nautical Almanac, which 
 he edited till his death. In 1774 he was 
 employed in observations on the eclipses 
 of Jupiter’s satellites; and the same year 
 went to Scotland to ascertain the grayi- 
 tative attraction of the mountain Schie- 
 hallien. He died in 1811. 
 
 MASON, Charles, born in England in 
 1730. For several years he served as 
 assistant in the Greenwich, England, 
 Observatory, and with Jeremiah Dixon, 
 made an observation of the transit of 
 Venus at the Cape of Good Hope in 1761 . 
 Two years later the two scientists were 
 instructed to survey the boundary line 
 between Pennsylvania and Maryland. 
 They spent four years on this work, and 
 the line then drawn became famous in 
 the history of the United States, as prac- 
 tically marking the northern limit of the 
 slave states. Mason and Dixon’s line, 
 however, must not be confounded with 
 the boundary of 36° 30', beyond which 
 slavery was not to be permitted in any 
 territories of the United States. He 
 died in 1777. 
 
 MASON, George, member of the fed- 
 eral convention of 1787, was born in Fair- 
 fax CO., Va., in 1726. He served in the 
 Virginia convention in 1775, and drafted 
 its declaration of rights and plan of gov- 
 ernment. His most conspicuous service 
 was in the federal convention of 1787, 
 of which he was a member. He died 
 October 7, 1792. 
 
 MASON, James Murray, born in Fair- 
 fax CO., Va., November 3, 1798. He 
 served many years in the Virginia house 
 of delegates, and sat in congress as a 
 democrat from 1837 to 1839. From 1847 
 to 1861 he sat in the United States sen- 
 ate from Virginia, but resigned to join 
 the confederacy. In the autumn of 1861 
 he was apponted with John Slidell as 
 commissioner from the confederate 
 states to England. They sailed from 
 Charleston, October 12th, for Cuba. Here 
 they took passage for England on the 
 British mail steamer Trent. This vessel 
 was overhauled by a United States ship 
 of war under the command of Com- 
 mander Charles Wilkes, who demanded 
 the bodies of Mason and Slidell, and the 
 steamer being unarmed, the captain 
 turned the men over to him They were 
 brought to Boston and confined in Fort 
 Warren, and congress passed a resolu- 
 tion of thanks to Wilkes for his prompt 
 action. The British government made 
 
 an immediate demand, and a peremp- 
 tory one, for the delivery of the men, 
 whom they claimed were protected by 
 the British flag. There was a great out- 
 cry against surrendering them, but 
 Abraham Lincoln showed his good sense 
 and political w'isdom by giving them up. 
 This occurrence, known as the Trent 
 affair, intensified the ill-feeling between 
 England and the United States, which 
 had grown out of the expressions of 
 sympathy made by the English aristo- 
 crats for the confederates. He died in 
 1871. 
 
 MASON, John Young, born in Vir- 
 ginia in April, 1799. He was graduated 
 at the University of North Carolina in 
 1816, and practiced law for many years 
 in his native state. He sat in the state 
 legislature and in congress from 1831 
 to 1837, then became a judge of the 
 United States district court, and in 1844 
 was appointed secretary of the navy. 
 In 1845 he became attorney general of 
 the United States, and a year later re- 
 turned to the navy department. From 
 1853 until his death he was minister to 
 France. He died in 1899. 
 
 MASON AND DIXON’S LINE, the line 
 of 39° 43' 26.3" north latitude, which 
 separates the states of Maryland and 
 Pennsylvania, in the L^nited States. 
 From the time of the grant of the latter 
 territory to William Penn by Charles II 
 in 1681 there were disputes between the 
 family of Penn and that of the Lords 
 Baltimore, the possessors of Maryland, 
 as to the boundary between the two 
 territories. An agreement was at last 
 come to in 1760, the line of demarcation 
 being named after the astronomers 
 Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, 
 who traced the greater part of it. 
 Milestones were set up along the whole 
 of this boundary line. 
 
 MASON-BEES,'a name given to insects 
 which construct their nests with sand or 
 gravel, agglutinated together by means 
 of a viscid saliva, and fix them on the 
 side of walls, etc., or avail themselves 
 of some cavity for that purpose The 
 mason-bees, like the carpenter-bees, 
 leaf-cutters, and other allied forms, are 
 solitary in habits, not living in com- 
 munities like the ordinary bees and 
 wasps. 
 
 MASONRY, Free. See Freemasonry. 
 
 MASON-SPIDER, a spider more com- 
 monly known as the “Trap-door Spider” 
 (which see). 
 
 MASON-WASP, a name given to cer- 
 tain hymenopterous, insects especially 
 from their ingenuity in excavating their 
 habitation in the sand. 
 
 MASQUE, or MASK, a dramatic en- 
 tertainment much in favor in the courts 
 of princes during the 16th and 17th 
 centuries, in the latter particularly in 
 England. In its earliest form it is per- 
 haps best described as a masquerade 
 with an arranged programme of music, 
 dancing, etc., and a banquet. The first 
 masque of this kind in England was 
 performed in 1510, and they were fre- 
 quently introduced into the plays of 
 Shakespeare, Beaumont and Fletcher. 
 The parts in the masques of the 16th 
 and i7th centuries w'ere usually repre- 
 sented by the first personages of the 
 kingdom ; if at, court the king, queen, and 
 
MASQUED-BALL 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 princes of the blood often performed in 
 them. 
 
 MASQUED-BALL, an entertainment, 
 generally of a public character, in which 
 the company are masked or otherwise 
 disguised by dominoes. The bal costume 
 in which the dancers appear in fancy 
 costumes, but unmasked, is the nearest 
 approach which American taste and law 
 allow to this species of entertainment, 
 which, from its nature, is peculiarly 
 liable to abuse. 
 
 MASS, in the Roman Catholic Church, 
 the prayers and ceremonies which ac- 
 company the consecration of the 
 eucharist. The word is used generally for 
 all that part of the Catholic service in 
 which the eucharist is offered. At 
 present the mass consists of four chief 
 parts; 1. The introduction; 2, the offer- 
 torium, or sacrifice ; 3, the consecration ; 
 4, the communion. These four chief 
 parts, of which the latter three are con- 
 sidered the most essential, are composed 
 of several smaller parts, each having its 
 proper denomination. They consist of 
 prayers, hymns, shorter and longer 
 passages of the Holy Scriptures, and a 
 number of ceremonies, which, as the 
 essential point of the mass is the sacri- 
 fice of the Lord, consist partly of sym- 
 bolical ceremonies commemorative of 
 important circumstances in the Savior’s 
 life, or signs of devotion and homage 
 paid to the presence of the Lord in the 
 host. The order of these ceremonies, 
 and of the whole celebration of the mass, 
 is given in the missal or mass-book. The 
 masses are modified according to many 
 circumstances, e.g. according to the saint 
 in honor of whom the mass is celebrated 
 or the seasons of the year connected 
 with different events in the Savior’s life, 
 or the purpose for which the mass is 
 said, as the missa pro defunctis (mass 
 for the dead). Votive mass is an ex- 
 traordinary mass, instead of that of the 
 day, rehearsed on some special occasion . 
 Low mass is the ordinary mass per- 
 formed by the priest, without music. 
 High mass is celebrated by the priest, 
 assisted by a deacon and sub-deacon or 
 other clergy, and sung by the choristers, 
 accompanied by the organ and other 
 musical instruments. Besides these 
 there are different masses according to 
 the different rites; the Greek mass, the 
 Latin mass, the Roman mass and Gre- 
 gorian mass, etc. 
 
 MASS, in physics, the quantity of 
 matter in any body, or the sum of all 
 the material particles of a body. The 
 mass of a body is estimated by its weight 
 whatever be its figure, or whether its 
 bulk or magnitude be great or small. 
 See Dynamics. 
 
 MASSA-CARRARA, formerly a small 
 state of Italy. In 1859 it was united 
 with those portions of the duchies of 
 Parma and Modena lying west of the 
 Apennines, and erected into the prov- 
 ince Massa e Carrara. The province is 
 celebrated for the Carrara marble. 
 Area, 685 sq. miles ; pop. 181,007. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS, one of the Atlan- 
 tic United States of North America, 
 bounded north by Vermont and New 
 Hampshire; east by the Atlantic; south 
 by the Atlantic, Rhode Island, and 
 Connecticut; and west by New York; 
 
 area, 8315 sq. miles; capital, Boston. 
 The coast-line of the state, which has a 
 length of about 250 miles, is indented 
 with deep and extensive bays, of which 
 Massachusetts Bay (which includes the 
 large bays of Boston and Cape Cod), 
 Buzzard and Nantucket Bays are the 
 most capacious. The indentations in 
 
 Seal of Massachusetts. 
 
 these bays form excellent harbors, the 
 most commodious of which are New- 
 buryport, Boston Harbor, and Marble- 
 head. The islands of Nantucket and 
 Martha’s Vineyard, with several others, 
 belong to Massachusetts. The west 
 part of the state is traversed by the 
 Green Mountain, whose loftiest peak 
 rises 3500 feet above sea-level. The 
 most considerable rivers are the Con- 
 necticut, Housatonic, and the Merrimac. 
 The soil is poor and sandy near the 
 coast, where salt marshes frequently 
 occur; but in the middle and western 
 parts it is very fertile and well cultivated. 
 Massachusetts has for many years been 
 the largest producer of granite. Lime- 
 stone is quarried and also an increasing 
 quantity of marble, iron pyrite, corun- 
 dum, iron manganese, tin, slate, and 
 tripoli are also produced. The fishing 
 industry is of great importance. Boston 
 began to export fish as early as 1633, 
 whales were caught off Nantucket in 
 1690 and New Bedford became famous 
 in the whale fisheries. The United 
 States Fish Commission and the state 
 have extensive hatcheries. The climate 
 is liable to extremes of heat and cold. 
 The mean annual temperature is about 
 48°. The principal vegetable productions 
 are Indian corn, rye, oats, potatoes, 
 hemp, flax, pease, hops, beans, and 
 pumpkins; wheat, buck-wheat, and bar- 
 ley are raised only in small quantities. 
 A considerable portion of the surface of 
 the ground is still covered with forests, 
 consisting of pine, oak, walnut, birch, 
 maple, ash, cedar, cherry, and chestnut. 
 All varieties of fruit-trees are culti- 
 vated with success. Massachusetts is the 
 fourth state in the Union in manufac- 
 turing, being excelled in this respect only 
 by New York, Pennsylvania, and Illi- 
 nois; but in proportion to its area and 
 population it is the first. Lowell is the 
 great center of the cotton manufac- 
 tures. In the manufacture of boots and 
 shoes — both leather and rubber — Massa- 
 chusettsholds firstrank. Worstedgoods, 
 hosiery, silks, linens, etc., are also largely 
 manufactured. There are numerous 
 
 forges and furnaces; machine-shops, 
 manufactures of edge-tools, agricultural 
 implements, cutlery, boots and shoes, 
 etc. Ship-building is carried on exten- 
 sively. In shipping Massachusetts is 
 superior to any other state of the Union 
 except New York. Themeansof internal 
 communication are ample. In connec- 
 tion with the railways may be mentioned 
 the Hoosac Tunnel piercing the Hoosac 
 mountain in the northwest corner of the 
 state, with a length of 5J miles. In 
 educational matters Massachusetts has 
 a high reputation, among its leading in- 
 stitutions being Harvard university, 
 the oldest in the Union, Boston univer- 
 sity, and. Amherst college. Massachusetts 
 is divided into fourteen counties; and 
 besides the capital, Boston, the chief 
 towns are Worcester, Lowell, Cam- 
 bridge, Fall River, Lawrence, and Lyim. 
 Massachusetts was one of the thirteen 
 original states of the Union. Its coasts 
 were known to the early Norsemen, but 
 its first authentic record is that of the 
 discovery of Cape Cod in 1602. John 
 Smith, of Pocahontas fame, explored it 
 to some extent in 1614, but it was not 
 until 1620 that the Puritans of the May- 
 flower effected their landing at Ply- 
 mouth on December 21st. The Massa- 
 chusetts Colony was established in 
 1628-30, and made the first settlement 
 of Boston in the autumn of 1630. The 
 early years of the colonists were made 
 uneasy by continued difficulties with the 
 Indians, who under Pequot, in 1637, 
 and King Philip, 1675-76, caused much 
 loss of life. The first settlers were Puri- 
 tans of the Church of England; the 
 religious liberty whichthey had sacrificed 
 so much to obtain for themselves they 
 denied to others and persecuted with im- 
 partiality Quakers, heretics. Catholics, 
 and Protestant Dissenters, not to speak 
 of burning women as witches. 
 
 Massachusetts was engaged in con- 
 stant struggle with the English crown. 
 In 1685, the crown finally annulled the 
 charter of the colony, and sent orders to 
 unite New York and New England under 
 one rule. On the occurrence of the 
 revolution of 1688, the people rose and 
 reestablished their colonial government. 
 The province of Maine was united in the 
 new provincial charter of 1691, and Sir 
 William Phips became the first royal 
 governor, the attempt to unite New 
 York with Massachusetts being aban- 
 doned. From this time until the acces- 
 sion of George III. to the English throne 
 the history of Massachusetts forms one 
 long record of struggle between the 
 popular party and the home govern- 
 ment as represented by the royalist 
 governors. 
 
 The Puritan colony led in the active 
 opposition to royal usurpation and the 
 imposition of the Stamp Act, and in 
 1770 occurred what is known as the 
 “Boston Massacre,’’ when the regular 
 troops fired into an unarmed crowd 
 which had gathered for a lawful purpose. 
 Three years later witnessed the Boston 
 “tea-party,” when a party of citizens, 
 disguised as Indians, threw the taxed 
 tea into the harbor. The British parlia- 
 ment retaliated by closing the port of 
 Boston, and Gen. Thomas Gage was 
 placed in command of the town, In 
 
Massachusetts college 
 
 MASTER IN CHANCERY 
 
 April, 1775, the first gun of the war was 
 fired at Lexington. The royal forces 
 were shut up in Boston, and the pro- 
 vincial troops, though technically de- 
 feated at Bunker Hill, won a great moral 
 victory. Washington, who had been 
 appointed to the chief command, com- 
 pelled the British to evacuate Boston in 
 March, 1776, and after this date there 
 was no more fighting within the limits of 
 Massachusetts. From 1776 until 1790 a 
 provisional government had charge, and 
 in the last-named yefar John Hancock 
 became the first governor of the state. 
 
 The federal constitution was accepted 
 by a small majority, but Massachusetts 
 afterward became a stronghold of the 
 federalist party. The state opposed the 
 war with England in 1812-14, but fur- 
 nished a large quota of seamen to the 
 federal navy. During the following half 
 century Massachusetts developed won- 
 derfully as a manufacturing state and 
 grew rapidly in power and influence. 
 It became the home of the advanced 
 thinkers who opposed slavery. Although 
 the people at large were righteously 
 opposed to the Mexican war, the state 
 sent a regiment of over 1000 men under 
 Caleb Cushing to aid in carrying it on. 
 The whig party of which Daniel Webster 
 was the chief exponent, supplanted the 
 federalists, and split to form the free 
 soilers and later the republican party. 
 To the civil war the state contributed 
 almost 160,000 troops and over $50,000,- 
 000. In national elections Massachusetts 
 has been federalist, whig, and republi- 
 can with the exception of the years 
 1804 (Jefferson), 1820 (Munroe), 1824- 
 1828 (John Quincy Adams). Pop. 1909, 
 ab^”' 8.258,422. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL 
 COLLEGE, a co-educational state insti- 
 tution at Amherst, Mass., chartered in 
 1863 and opened in 1867. Winter courses 
 are offered for those unable to take the 
 regular four years’ course and special 
 courses in botany, dairying, market 
 gardening, and other departments are 
 offered to women. The degrees con- 
 ferred are B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS BAY, a large bay 
 to the east of the central part of Massa- 
 chusetts; bounded on the north by Cape 
 Ann, and on the south by Cape Cod. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS HISTORICAL SO- 
 CIETY, the oldest historical society in 
 the country, having been organized in 
 1781 and incorporated in 1794. Its 
 objects are the collection, preservation, 
 and diffusion of the materials for Ameri- 
 can history. The first volume of “Col- 
 lections” was printed in 1792, and this 
 has been followed by fifty more, to- 
 gether with about twenty volumes of 
 “Proceedings.” The society has a 
 museum of relics and antiquities, and a 
 fine library of 30,000 books, 60,000 
 pamphlets, and many rare manuscripts, 
 including the Parkman collection of 
 thirty volumes of manuscripts relating 
 to the history of the French in Canada. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF 
 TECHNOLOGY, a school of industrial 
 science in Boston, Mass., established in 
 1861 for the purpose of instituting and 
 maintaining a society of arts, a museum 
 of arts, and a school of industrial science, 
 and aiding generally by suitable means 
 
 the advancement, development, and 
 practical application of science in con- 
 nection with arts, agriculture, manu- 
 facture, and commerce. Thirteen dis- 
 tinct courses are offered, each of four 
 years’ duration: Civil engineering, 
 
 mechanical engineering, miningengineer- 
 ing and metallurgy, architecture, chem- 
 istry, electrical engineering, biology, 
 physics, general studies, chemical en- 
 gineering, sanitary engineering, geology, 
 and naval architecture. Each of these 
 courses leads to the degree of Bachelor 
 of Science. Within most of the regular 
 courses a considerable latitude is per- 
 mitted in the selection of branches, a 
 partial choice of professional course be- 
 ing made at the middle of the first year, 
 while in the fourth year nearly the en- 
 tire time is devoted to professional sub- 
 jects. 
 
 MASSAGE (mas'azh), a form of medi- 
 cal treatment in which the body of the 
 patient, or some particular part of it, is 
 subjected at the hands of an attendant 
 to a variety of processes technically dis- 
 criminated as stroking, rubbing, knead- 
 ing, pinching, pressing, squeezing, and 
 hacking. The tendency of this treatment 
 is to assist and stimulate the circulation, 
 and to increase the waste-removing 
 action of the lymphatic vessels, and thus 
 to affect the nutrition, not only of the 
 parts acted upon, but of the whole body, 
 and promote the removal of local swell- 
 ings, inflammatory products, etc. The 
 process, for which half an hour daily is 
 usually sufficient, is performed upon the 
 naked skin by the bare hands of the 
 operator, no oil being used. The attend- 
 ant should have a sufficient knowledge 
 of anatomy to be able to separate out 
 with the fingers a single muscle or group 
 of muscles for treatment, and to trace 
 the direction of the larger vessels and 
 nerve-trunks and act upon them directly. 
 The principal movementsshould bechar- 
 acterized by a certain uniformity and 
 method. Thus in stroking with a steady 
 pressure the limbs of the patient, the 
 strokes should always be from the ex- 
 tremities toward the heart, not back- 
 ward and forward in a random way; 
 and in kneading the belly with the heel 
 of the hand, the movements are carried 
 round in the direction of the colon. The 
 treatment has been remarkably success- 
 ful in cases of nervous disorder of a 
 hysterical kind, and in cases of wasting 
 through imperfect nutrition dependent 
 upon disturbances of stomach, bowels, 
 or liver, and it has proved valuable in 
 diabetes, some of the special diseases of 
 women, and certain cases of paralyzed 
 and contracted muscles. 
 
 MASSENA (mas-a-na), Andr4, Marshal 
 of France, born in 1758 at Nice. In 1775 
 he entered the French army. During the 
 revolution he entered a battalion of 
 volunteers, was elected chief of his 
 battalion in 1792, and in 1793 made 
 general of brigade. In 1799 he defeated 
 the Austrian and Russian forces at 
 Zurich, and in 1800, by his defence of 
 Genoa for three months, gave Bona- 
 parte time to strike successfully at 
 Marengo. In 1804 he was created mar- 
 shal of the empire. In 1807 he was given 
 the command of the right wing of the 
 French army in Poland, and soon after 
 
 received the title of Duke of Rivoli. In 
 1809 he distinguished himself against 
 the Austrians, and at Esslingen his con- 
 stancy and firmness saved the French 
 army from total destruction. Napoleon 
 rewarded him with the dignity of Prince 
 of Esslingen. In 1810 he took command 
 of the army in Portugal, and forced 
 Wellington within the lines of Torres 
 Vedras, till want of provisions com- 
 pelled Mass4na to retire. In 1814 he was 
 made a peer by Louis XVIII., and 
 though on the return of the emperor he 
 acknowledged his authority, he took no 
 active part in the events of the hundred 
 days. He died in 1817. 
 
 MASSENET (mas-na), Jules, French 
 composer, born in 1842. He is the com- 
 poser of several operas, of which the best 
 known areHerodias, Don C6sar de Bazan, 
 and Manon Lescaut. His Scenes Pittor- 
 esques are also well known, and there 
 is a long list of works by him, includ- 
 ing the choral works Maria Magdalene, 
 Eva, La Vierge, etc. 
 
 MAS'SILLON, a city in Stark co., 
 Ohio, on the Tuscarawas river, the Ohio 
 Canal, and the Cleve., Lorain and 
 Wheel., the Pen^., and the Wheel, and 
 Lake Erie railways; 65 miles s. of Cleve- 
 land. It is in an agricultural, coal- 
 mining, and sandstone-quarrying region. 
 Pop. 13,325. 
 
 MASSILLON (m&s-e-yon), Jean Bap- 
 tiste, French pulpit orator, born in 1663 
 at Hy§res, in Provence. The applause 
 which he met with in Paris, even at 
 court, was almost without example. 
 Louis XIV. gave him special praise, and 
 the deaths of Bossuet and Bourdaloue 
 in 1704 left him at the head of the 
 French preachers. He pronounced the 
 funeral oration of Louis XIV. in 1715, 
 and in 1717 the regent appointed him to 
 the see of Clermont. In 1719 Massillon 
 was chosen a member of the Academy. 
 The same year he retired to his diocese, 
 where he acted the part of a model prel- 
 ate, and died in 1742. He was the great- 
 est pulpit orator France has produced. 
 
 MASSINGER (mas'in-jer), Philip, a 
 distinguished English dramatist, born at 
 Salisbury in 1583. Little is known of his 
 personal history beyond the fact that he 
 was associated with Fletcher, Middleton, 
 Rowley, and Dekker in the composition 
 of certain plays. A note of his burial 
 appears in the register of St. Savior’s, 
 Southwark; “March 20, 1639-1640, 
 
 buried Philip Massinger, a stranger.” 
 As a dramatist Massinger is more natural 
 in his characters and poetical in his dic- 
 tion than Jonson, and some critics rank 
 him next to Shakespeare. In tragedy, 
 however, he is rather eloquent and 
 forcible than pathetic, and he is de- 
 fective in humor. His best plays are 
 the Duke of Milan, A City Madam, A 
 Very Woman, The Fatal Dowry, A New 
 Way to Pay Old Debts. The last -men- 
 tioned still maintains its place on the 
 stage, chiefly on account of the charac- 
 ters Marrall and Overreach. 
 
 MAST. SeeShip. 
 
 MASTER IN CHANCERY, an officer of 
 a chancery or equity court, appointed to 
 assist the chancellor or judge. His duties 
 in general, are not prescribed by statute. 
 It is a common practice to refer causes 
 to a master for hearing, particularly 
 
MASTER OF ARTS 
 
 MATHER 
 
 Causes involving intricate accounts and 
 requiring computations. A master is 
 often appointed to examine witnesses, 
 to take depositions, to inquire into and 
 report the facts of a case to a chancellor 
 or judge of the court, to make settle- 
 ments under deeds, to discharge special 
 acts under the direction and in behalf 
 of the court, etc. 
 
 MASTER OF ARTS (M.A. or A.M.),an 
 academical honor conferred by the 
 universities of Britain, theUnited States, 
 Germany, etc., upon students after a 
 course of study and a previous examina- 
 tion in the chief branches of a liberal 
 education, particularly languages, phil- 
 osophy, mathematics, physics, and his- 
 tory. In the German universities the 
 title is merged in that of Doctor of Phil- 
 osophy (Ph.D.). 
 
 MASTICATION, the process of division 
 of the food effected in the mouth by the 
 combined action of the jaws and teeth, 
 the tongue, palate, and muscles of the 
 cheeks. This process is seen in its typical 
 perfection in the higher Vertebrata only. 
 By it the food, besides being triturated, 
 is mixed with the salivary fluid. Im- 
 perfect mastication is a fertile source of 
 indigestion. 
 
 MASTIFF, a race of large dogs found 
 under various names from Tibet to Eng- 
 land. The English mastiff is a noble- 
 looking dog with a large head, a broad 
 muzzle, lips thick and pendulous on each 
 side of the mouth, hanging ears and 
 smooth hair, the height at the shoulder 
 usually ranging from 25 to 29 inches. 
 The old English breed was brindled, 
 but the usual color to-day is some shade 
 of buff with dark muzzle and ears. The 
 Tibet mastiff, which is also a fine animal, 
 is common in Tibet and in Bhutan as a 
 house dog. 
 
 MAS'TODON, an extinct genus of 
 Proboscidea or elephants, the fossil re- 
 mains of which first occur in the Miocene 
 rocks of the Tertiary period, and which 
 persist through the Pliocene and Post- 
 pliocene epochs also. In general struc- 
 ture the mastodons bear a close resem- 
 blance to the existing species of ele- 
 
 Mastodon restored. 
 
 1 , Molar tooth, weighing 17 lbs. 2, Skull of 
 mastodon of miocene period. 
 
 phants. Their chief peculiarities consist 
 in the dentition and structure of the 
 teeth. The geographical range of the 
 mastodons included North America, 
 Europe, and Asia — one species in- 
 habited England, Germany, France and 
 Italy. A specimen, almost entire, from 
 the Pliocene deposits of Piedmont, 
 measured 17 feet from the tusks to the 
 
 tail; and an American specimen meas- 
 ured 18 feet in length and 11 feet 5 
 inches in height. 
 
 MATABE'LELAND, the land of the 
 Matabele, a warlike Kaffir race or people 
 inhabiting part of South Africa between 
 the Limpopo and Zambesi, north of the 
 Transvaal, into which they removed 
 from Natal in 1827 under their chief 
 Moselikatse. It is now being rapidly set- 
 tled and developed. Bulawayo is the 
 capital. 
 
 MATAN'ZAS, a seaport on the north- 
 west coast of Cuba, 52 miles east of 
 Havana, with one of the largest, safest 
 and most convenient harbors in America. 
 It has considerable commerce, exporting 
 sugar, molasses, and coffee, and ranking 
 in importance next to Havana. Pop. 
 about 40,000. 
 
 MATCHES, in the most common sense 
 of the term, are splints or small slips of 
 wood, one end of which is dipped into a 
 composition that ignites by friction or 
 other means. One of the first forms of 
 this article was the brimstone match, 
 which was a thin strip of resinous or dry 
 pinewood with pointed ends dipped in 
 sulphur, which were lighted with tinder 
 ignited by a flint and steel. The lucifer- 
 match was introduced in 1827, the in- 
 flammable substance being a mixture 
 of chlorate of potash and sulphide of 
 antimony, applied to the match, which 
 had been previously dipped into melted 
 sulphur. Safety matches were invented 
 in Sweden in 1855, and are now exten- 
 sivelyused. In the safety-match the com- 
 position is divided between the match 
 and the friction paper attached to the 
 box, so that the match can only be 
 lighted in brdinary circumstances by be- 
 ing rubbed on the prepared paper. The 
 compound put on the match consists 
 of chlorate and bichromate of potash, 
 red-lead, and sulphide of antimony, 
 while the friction paper is coated with a 
 mixture of amorphous phosphorus and 
 sulphide of antimony. 
 
 MATCHLOCK, an old form of musket 
 fired by means of a match. They were 
 invented in the first half of the 15th 
 century, and were succeeded by the 
 arquebus. See Musquet. 
 
 MATE (ma'ta), the plant that yields 
 Paraguay tea, a kind of holly. It has 
 smooth, ovate-lanceolate, unequally ser- 
 rated leaves, much branched racemes of 
 flowers, the subdivisions of which are 
 somewhat umbellate. In Brazil and other 
 parts of South America the leaves are 
 extensively used as a substitute for tea, 
 the name Mat6 having been transferred 
 to the plant from the gourd or calabash 
 in which the leaves are infused. Boiling 
 water is poured upon the powdered 
 leaves, then a lump of burned sugar and 
 sometimes a few drops of lemon juice 
 are added. It contains theine, and acts 
 as a slight aperient and diuretic. 
 
 MATERIALISM, in philosophy, that 
 system which denies the existence of a 
 spiritual or immaterial principle in man, 
 called the mind or soul, distinct from 
 matter; or in a more extended sense, the 
 doctrine that is founded on the hy- 
 pothesis that all existence (including, 
 of course, the conscious subject) may be 
 resolved into a modification of matter. 
 
 MATE'RIA MED'ICA, the collective 
 
 name given to the materials with which 
 physicians attempt to cure or alleviate 
 the numerous diseases of the human 
 body, and which comprehend a great 
 variety of substances taken from the 
 mineral, animal, and vegetable king- 
 doms — such as mercury, antimony, 
 arsenic, and zinc, from among the 
 metallic bodies; sulphur, lime, soda, 
 nitre, magnesia, borax, and several salts, 
 from among the other minerals; and 
 some 200 substances belonging to the 
 animal and vegetable kingdoms. 
 
 MATHEMATICS is the science in 
 which known relations between magni- 
 tudes are subjected to certain processes 
 which enable other relations to be de- 
 duced. Mathematical principles which 
 are deduced from axioms with the help 
 of certain definitions belong to pure 
 mathematics, and those which have been 
 deduced with the help of pure mathe- 
 matics from certain simple physical laws, 
 belong to mixed mathematics. Arithme- 
 tic, geometry, algebra, plane and spheri- 
 cal trigonometry, analytical or co- 
 ordinate geometry, the differential and 
 integral calculus, quaternions, the cal- 
 culus of finite differences, etc., are de- 
 partments of pure mathematics; the 
 dynamics of rigid bodies and the appli- 
 cation of its principles in astronomy and 
 in investigating the actions of forces on 
 ordinary matter, acoustics, the un- 
 dulatory theory of light, optics, thermo- 
 dynamics, electricity and magnetism, 
 etc., are departments of mixed mathe- 
 matics. See Algebra, Arithmetic, 
 Dynamics, Geometry, etc. 
 
 MATHER, Cotton, D.D., American 
 writer, born in Boston 1663. In 1685 
 he published his Memorable Providences 
 relating to Witchcraft and Possessions, 
 which was used as an authority in the 
 persecution and condemnation of nine- 
 teen victims burned for witchcraft at 
 Salem in 1692. He died in 1728 with the 
 reputation of having been the greatest 
 scholar and author that America had 
 then produced, his publications, some 
 of huge dimensions, amounting to 382. 
 
 MATHER, Increase, D.D., one of the 
 early presidents of Harvard College, 
 
 
 was bom at Dorchester, Massachusetts, 
 1639j graduated at Harvard in 1656; 
 
MATHEW 
 
 MAXIM 
 
 ordained a minister in 1G61; president 
 of Harvi^rd College from 1685 to 1701. 
 When King Charles II. signified his wish 
 that the charter of Massachusetts should 
 be resigned into his hands, in 1683. Dr. 
 Mather contended against a compliance. 
 In 1688 he was deputed to England, as 
 agent of the province, to procure redress 
 of grievances. He held conferences with 
 King James II., and with William and 
 Mary, and in 1692 returned to Boston 
 with a new charter from the crown, 
 settling the government of the province. 
 He died at Boston in 1723. 
 
 MATHEW, Rev. Theobald, popularly 
 known as Father Mathew, Irish apostle 
 of temperance, was born in 1790, studied 
 at Maynooth, and was ordained a priest 
 m 1814. Shortly afterward he was 
 appointed to a missionary charge at 
 Cork, and established a society, on the 
 model of those of St. Vincent de Paul, 
 for visiting the sick and distressed. A 
 more extended undertaking was the 
 celebrated temperance crusade, which 
 was so successful that in a few months 
 he had 150,000 converts in county Cork 
 alone. He died in 1856. 
 
 MATHEWS, Charles, an eminent Eng- 
 lish comedian, born in London 1776. He 
 made his debut at Richmond in 1793, 
 and after ten years’ acting in the prov- 
 inces made his first appearance in Lon- 
 don at the Haymarket Theater in 1803. 
 He instituted, in 1818, a species of en- 
 tertainment in the form of a monologue 
 which, under the title Mathews at 
 Home, for five successive seasons drew 
 crowded audiences to the English Opera 
 House. In 1822 he played in America, 
 and on his return in 1823 produced his 
 Trip to America, which was as favorably 
 received as his At Home. He continued 
 both entertainments for upward of ten 
 years. In 1834 he was again enthusiastic- 
 ally received in America, but was taken 
 ill on the return voyage, and died at 
 Plymouth in 1835. His powers of mim- 
 icry have perhaps never Been surpassed 
 on the stage. His son Charles James 
 (born 1803, died 1878) long held a promi- 
 nent place as a light comedian. His 
 first wife was Madame Vestris, the cele- 
 brated actress. In his sixty-sixth year 
 he made a tour of the world, gaining 
 everywhere great applause for the grace 
 and finish and exquisite humor of his 
 acting. 
 
 MATRIX, in mining and geology, the 
 rock or main substance in which any 
 accidental crystal, mineral, or fossil is 
 embedded. 
 
 MATTER, that which occupies space, 
 and through which force is manifested. 
 It is also that which makes itself known 
 to us by our bodily senses, though there 
 is believed to exist one kind of matter 
 at least which is too subtle to be per- 
 ceived by the senses, namely, the inter- 
 molecular and interstellar ether. 
 Roughly speaking, matter exists in one 
 of three states, solid, liquid, or gaseous, 
 but these are not marked off by any dis- 
 tinct line. Matter is commonly regarded 
 as the antithesis of mind. 
 
 MATTHEW, St., evangelist and apos- 
 tle, son of Alpheus; previous to his call a 
 publican or officer of the Roman customs 
 and, according to tradition, a native of 
 Nazareth. After the ascension of Christ 
 
 we find him at Jerusalem with the other 
 apostles, but this is the last notice of 
 him in Scripture. Tradition represents 
 him as preaching fifteen years in Jerusa- 
 lem, then visiting the Ethiopians, Mace- 
 donians, Persians, Syrians, etc., and 
 finally suffering martyrdom in Persia. 
 His (Jospel has been supposed by some 
 critics to have been originally written in 
 Hebrew, or rather Aramaic, but it is 
 only found in Greek. The chief aim of 
 this Gospel is evidently to prove the 
 Messianic character of Jesus. See Gospel. 
 
 MATTHEWS (James) Brander, Ameri- 
 can author was born in New Orleans in 
 1852. In 1892 he was made a professor in 
 Columbia, and soon won eminence in 
 America as a critic of dramatic litera- 
 ture. His writings consist of essays on 
 the theater, of comedies, and of short 
 stories. Among his best known works are 
 His Father’s Son, A Confidant of To- 
 morrow, Americanisms and Britticisms, 
 Margery’s Lovers, In the Vestibule 
 Limited, The Historical Novel and other 
 essays, Actors and i^tresses of the 
 United States, etc. 
 
 MATTOON, a city in Coles co.. 111., on 
 the 111. Cent., the Cleve., Cin., Chi. and 
 St. L., and the Peoria, Dec. and Evans, 
 railways; 56 miles w. of Terre Haute, 
 Ind., 172 miles s. by w of Chicago. It is 
 in a corn and broom-corn growing 
 region. Pop. 11,510. 
 
 MAUPASSANT (mo'pa'san'), Henri 
 Ren6 Albert Guy de, French novelist, 
 one of the greatest modern writers of 
 short stories. His first story, Boule de 
 Suif, published in 1881, revealed a fin- 
 ished master of the naturalistic school. 
 Among his well known works are La 
 Maison Tellier, Mile Fifi, Bel Ami, 
 Pierre et Jean, and Notre Coeur. He 
 died in 1893. 
 
 MAUREPAS (mor-pa), Jean Fr4d4ric 
 Ph61ippeaux, Count de, French states- 
 man, born in 1701. An epigram on Ma- 
 dame de Pompadour led to his banish- 
 ment from the court in 1749, but Louis 
 XVI. recalled him in 1774, and placed 
 him at the head of his ministry, and he 
 retained the confidence of the king till 
 his death in 1781. The restoration of 
 the parliaments was the principal meas- 
 ure of his later ministry. 
 
 MAURICE, of Saxony, Count. See 
 Saxe. 
 
 MAURICE OF NASSAU, Prince of 
 Orange, stadtholder of the Netherlands, 
 the youngest son of William the Silent, 
 was born 1567. He died at the Hague 
 in 1625, and was succeeded by his 
 brother Frederick Henry. 
 
 MAURICIUS, Flavius Tiberius, one of 
 the greatest Byzantine emperors, was 
 born about 539 a.d. He distinguished 
 himself in war against the Persians, 
 obtaining by his complete victory over 
 them in 581, the honor of a triumph at 
 Constantinople. A defeat of the Byzan- 
 tines by the Avars, and the massacre of 
 the Byzantine prisoners, whom Mauri- 
 cius declined to ransom, led to a revolt 
 of his troops on the Danube. They 
 marched on Constantinople under 
 Phocas, who was proclaimed emperor 
 (602), and Mauricius was seized and 
 executed in 603. 
 
 MAURITIUS, or ISLE OF FRANCE, 
 an island in the Indian Ocean, a colony 
 
 of Great Britain, 400 miles east front 
 Madagascar; area, 705 sq. miles. Pop. 
 371,655. 
 
 MAU'RY, Matthew Fontaine, Ameri- 
 can naval officer and hydrographer, 
 born in Spottsylvania co., Va., in 1806. 
 In 1839 he sustained a fracture of the 
 leg which made him a cripple for life. 
 This accident led to his being appointed 
 to the Naval Observatory and Hydro- 
 graphic office in Washington, where he 
 made a study of old ships’ logs, the 
 result of which was a series of Wind and 
 Current Charts that were of incalculable 
 benefit to navigators. Here also he pre- 
 pared his Physical Geography of the 
 Sea and Its Meteorology. He died in 
 1873. 
 
 MAUSER, (mou'zer), Paul, German 
 inventor, was born at Oberndorf, Wiirt- 
 temberg in 1838. In 1879 he invented 
 the Mauser revolver, and in 1882, in con- 
 junction with his brother, he succeeded 
 in securing the adoption by the Servian 
 government of an improved rifle known 
 as the “Mauser, 1882.” He is princi- 
 pally known, however, for his invention 
 of the Mauser magazine rifle, and a mag- 
 azine revolver. (See Small Arms.) His 
 weapon was distinguished for its low 
 trajectory, and the projectile which it 
 fired for its penetrative power. In 1898 
 he was elected a member of the Reich- 
 stag. 
 
 MAUSOLE'UM, a sepulchral monu- 
 ment, so named from Mausolus, a king 
 of Caria, to whom his wife Artemisia 
 erected a monument which became 
 so famous as to be esteemed the seventh 
 wonder of the world, and to give a 
 generic name to all superb sepulchres. 
 From Pliny we learn that its height was 
 140 feet. In modern times the term is 
 applied generally to a sepulchral edifice 
 erected for the reception of a monument, 
 or to contain tombs. 
 
 MAUVE, a beautiful purple dye ob- 
 tained from aniline, used for dyeing silks, 
 etc. In silk and wool the colors are per- 
 manent without the us^ of mordants. 
 
 MAXIL'LA, the term applied in com- 
 parative anatomy to the upper jaw- 
 bones of Vertebrates, in contradistinc- 
 tion to the mandible or lower jaw; and 
 in Invertebrata to the second or lesser 
 pair or pairs of jaws. Thus in insects, 
 spiders, crustaceans, etc., the maxillse 
 form definite and important organs in 
 the trituration and division of food. 
 
 MAX'IM, Sir Hiram Stevens, Ameri- 
 can civil, mechanical, and electrical 
 engineer, inventor of the automatic 
 system of firearms, was born in Sangers- 
 ville, Maine, in 1840. In 1878 he in- 
 vented an incandescent lamp capable of 
 burning for 1000 hours. Other impor- 
 tant inventions were “a method of flash- 
 ing electric carbons” and “a process to 
 standardize carbons for electric light- 
 ing.” In 1880 he went to Europe and 
 exhibited some of his inventions at the 
 Paris exposition of 1881. His most cele- 
 brated invention was the Maxim gun 
 (see Machine Guns). More than one hun- 
 dred international patents relating to 
 petroleum and other motors, explosives, 
 smokeless powders, and so on, were 
 taken out by him. Maximite powder, 
 a smokeless high explosive, was one of 
 his discoveries. He became a naturalized 
 
Maximianus 
 
 mazarin 
 
 citizen of Great Britain because of the 
 alleged unfair treatment of his inven- 
 tions by the United States government. 
 He was made a chevalier of the Legion 
 of Honor and was created a knight by 
 the English crown in 1901. 
 
 MAXIMIA'NUS, Marcus Aurelius Va- 
 lerius Herculius, a Roman emperor, 
 who became colleague of Diocletian in 
 the empire 286 a.d. He endeavored to 
 murder his rival Constantine, to whom 
 he had given his daughter Faustina in 
 marriage, and being frustrated by the 
 fidelity of the latter, strangled himself 
 310. He was the father and contem- 
 porary of Maxentius. 
 
 MAXIMIL'IAN I., Emperor of Ger- 
 many, son of the Emperor Frederick 
 III. and of Eleonora of Portugal, was 
 born in 1459; in 1486 was elected king 
 of the Romans, and emperor in 1493. 
 
 He first became an independent prince 
 by his marriage with Mary of Bur- 
 gundy, the daughter of Charles the Bold, 
 who was killed in 1477. He died in 1519, 
 and was succeeded by his grandson 
 Charles V. See Germany. 
 
 MAXIMILIAN II., Emperor of Ger- 
 many, born 1527, died 1576. He suc- 
 ceeded his father, Ferdinand I., in 1564. 
 
 MAXIMILIAN, Emperor of Mexico, 
 known in his earlier life as Ferdinand 
 Maximilian Joseph, Archduke of Aus- 
 tria, born at Vienna, 1832, was the 
 younger brother of Francis Joseph I. of 
 Austria. In 1863 he was induced by the 
 Emperor Napoleon, to accept the throne 
 of Mexico. With this intention he en- 
 tered Mexico in June, 1864. Having 
 become involved in financial and politi- 
 cal difficulties, Maximilian, with the ap- 
 proval of Napoleon, resolved to abdicate 
 (1866), and he had proceeded to Orizaba 
 when he was induced to return by the 
 conservative party in the state. The 
 fighting which followed culminated in 
 ^he capture and execution of the em- 
 peror and two of his chief generals, 
 19th June, 1867. 
 
 MAXIMILIAN JOSEPH, King of 
 Bavaria, born 1756, died 1825. He mar- 
 ried his daughter to Eugene Beauharnais, 
 son of Napoleon’s wife Josephine, and 
 had his duchy raised to a kingdom in 
 1806. In 1813 he joined the league 
 against France. 
 
 MAXIMI'NUS, Caius Julius Verus, 
 Roman emperor, the son of a peasant of 
 Thrace. He entered the Roman army 
 under Septimus Severus before 210, and 
 gradually rose in rank until, on the 
 death of Alexander Severus, he caused 
 himself to be proclaimed emperor, a.d. 
 
 235. He was successful in his German 
 campaigns, but his acts of barbarity 
 and tyranny provoked an insurrection, 
 in the attempt to quell which he was 
 assassinated by his own soldiery, a.d. 
 238. The emperor is represented as be- 
 ing of immense stature and strength. 
 
 MAXIMITE, an explosive used in the 
 bursting charge of shells. It is impossi- 
 ble to explode it by shock but is easily 
 detonated by a suitable fuse. It melts 
 at a temperature of 174 when heated 
 in air. When detonated the products 
 of combustion are almostwholly gaseous. 
 In an unconfined state it burns slowly 
 without explosion'; heated it melts and 
 evaporates rapidly but not explosively. 
 It was invented by Sir Hiram Maxim. 
 
 MAXIMUM, is the greatest quantity 
 or degree fixed, attainable, or attained, 
 in any given case as opposed to mini- 
 mum, the smallest. In mathematics and 
 physics maximum is used also for the 
 value which a varying quantity has at 
 the moment when it ceases to increase 
 and begins to decrease. 
 
 MAY, fifth month in the year, but 
 third in the old Roman calendar, has 
 thirty-one days. The Romans regarded 
 it as unlucky to contract marriages 
 during its course — a superstition still 
 prevalent in some parts of Europe. 
 On the 1st of May the old Celtic peoples 
 held a festival called Beltane. In 
 former days out-door sports and 
 pastimes on the first of May were very 
 common, and are not yet entirely 
 given up. They included the erection 
 of a May-pole decorated with flowers 
 and foliage, round which young men 
 and maidens danced, one of the latter 
 being chosen for her good looks as 
 queen of the festival, or “Queen of 
 the May.” 
 
 MAY-APPLE, a plant, a native of 
 North America, and its creeping root- 
 stalk affords an active catharticmedicine 
 
 May-apple. 
 
 known as podophyllin. The yellowish 
 pulpy fruit, of the size of a pigeon’s egg, 
 is slightly acid, and is sometimes eaten. 
 
 MAYENCE (ma-yans). See Mainz. 
 
 MAYENNE (ma-yen), a department 
 of northwestern France, named from 
 the small river Mayenne, which joins 
 with the Sarthe to form the Maine; area, 
 1996 sq. miles. Laval is the capital. 
 Pop. 313,103. 
 
 MAYO, a western maritime county of 
 Ireland, in Connaught; area, 1,360,731 
 acres, of which about an eighth is under 
 tillage. Principal towns, Castlebar (the 
 county town), Ballina, and Westport. 
 Pop. 199,166. 
 
 Mayo, Frank, American actor, was 
 born in Boston in 1839. In 1863 he be- 
 came a leading man in San Francisco 
 and in 1865 in Boston. He appeared in 
 Othello, Hamlet, Ferdinand in The 
 Tempest, and other classic roles, but his 
 greatest suceess was as Badger in The 
 Streets of New York, till in 1872 he 
 brought out Davy Crockett. Among 
 his later productions were his own 
 dramatization of Nordeck and of Mark 
 Twain’s Pudd’nhead Wilson, the latter 
 a character well suited to display his 
 peculiar gifts as a comedian. He died in 
 1896. 
 
 MAYO, Richard Southwell Bourke, 
 sixth Earl of, born 1822; entered parlia- 
 ment in 1847 under the title of Viscount 
 Naas; was made chief secretary for 
 Ireland under the Derby administration 
 (1852-68). He succeeded to the earldom 
 in 1867, and was appointed viceroy of 
 India by Mr. Disraeli in 1868. After a 
 successful career in this capacity, he 
 was assassinated at Port Blair in the 
 Andamans by a Mohammedan convict 
 in 1872. 
 
 MAYOR, the chief magistrate of a 
 city or corporate town in England, Ire- 
 land, the British colonies, and the 
 United States. The mayor is elected 
 by the people, and holds office for two 
 years. In some of the larger cities the 
 term has been lately extended to four 
 years. The mayors of London, York, 
 Dublin, and two or three other towns, 
 are called “lord-mayor;” the lord- 
 mayor of London having also the title of 
 “right honorable,” first allowed in 1354 
 by Edward III. Mayors are ex-officio 
 justices of the peace during both their 
 year of mayorality and the following 
 one. 
 
 MAZANDERAN, or MAZENDERAN, 
 
 a province of Persia, bounded on the 
 north by the Caspian Sea. The capital is 
 Sari, and the population of the province 
 is estimated at 300,000. 
 
 MAZARIN (ma-za-ran), Jules, or 
 GUILIO MAZARINI, first minister of 
 Louis XIV. and cardinal, an Italian by 
 origin, born in 1602, died 1661. He 
 entered the pope’s military service, and 
 distinguishea himself by diplomatic 
 ability, for which he was rewarded with 
 two canonries, and the appointment of 
 nuncio to the court of France (1634- 
 36). Here he gained the favor of Riche- 
 lieu; accepted service from the king, 
 and became a naturalized citizen of 
 France; was made a cardinal in recogni- 
 tion of his diplomatic services in Savoy 
 and in 1642, when Richelieu died, Maz- 
 arin promptly succeeded him. On the 
 death of Louis XIII. the queen, Anne 
 of Austria, became regent for her young 
 son, Louis XIV., and it was thought 
 that Mazarin would be dismissed; but 
 instead he gained over the queen-regent, 
 and made himself master of the nation. 
 The parliament of Paris denounced his 
 increasing taxation, while the nobility 
 dreaded his supremacy, and the com- 
 bination of these malcontents resulted 
 in the civil war of the Fronde (w’hich 
 see). As the immediate result of the con- 
 flict, Mazarin had to go into exile, but 
 finally returned to his position at court 
 in 1653. During the succeeding eight 
 years he remained all-powerful in 
 
MAZEPPA 
 
 MECHANICS 
 
 
 Prance. Just as his foreign policy was 
 successful, so was his home policy dis- 
 astrous. He dSd nothing for the people 
 but increase their taxes to fill an im- 
 poverished exchequer. Yet when he died 
 Mazarin left an enormous fortune to his 
 nieces, whom he had married into the 
 most powerful families of Italy and 
 France. 
 
 MAZEP'PA, John, Hetman of the 
 Cossacks, born about 1645. He became 
 page to the King of Poland, and being 
 detected in an intrigue with a Polish 
 lady of high rank, Mazeppa was bound 
 naked upon an untamed horse by her 
 husband and cast loose. He was found 
 and released by some peasants, and 
 afterward joined the Cossacks, where 
 his skill, sagacity, and strength pro- 
 cured him the position of hetman in 
 1687. He gained the confidence of Peter 
 the Great, who made him prince of the 
 Ukraine ; but having entered into a 
 treasonable intrigue with Charles XII. 
 he suffered defeat with the Swedish 
 monarch at Pultawa, fled to Bender, 
 and there died in 1709. He is the hero 
 of a poem by Lord Byron, and a drama 
 by Pushkin. 
 
 MAZUR'KA, or MAZOUR'KA, a 
 
 lively Polish round dance in J or J time, 
 and generally danced by four or eight 
 pairs. It is quicker than the polonaise. 
 The name is also applied to the music. 
 
 MAZZINI (mat-se'ne), Giuseppe, 
 Italian patriot, born at Genoa 180.5, 
 died at Pisa 1872. While he was an ad- 
 vocate he turned his attention to litera- 
 ture, his first significant essay being 
 ' Dante’s Love of Country. _ As his writ- 
 
 I ings grew more distinctly liberal in their 
 politics the government suppressed the 
 Indicatore Genovese and the I dicatore 
 Livornese, the papers in which they 
 appeared. He afterward joined the 
 Carbonari, and was imprisoned in 
 Savona for some months. On his release 
 (1832) he was exiled to Marseilles, but 
 he was compelled by the French govern- 
 ment to retire into Switzerland. During 
 the following five years he planned and 
 organized various unsuccessful revolu- 
 tionary movements, until, in 1837, he 
 ^ was expelled by the Swiss authorities 
 ^ and sought refuge in London. During 
 K the revolutionary movements of 1848 
 K he proceeded to Italy ; served for a time 
 S under Garibaldi, and when the pope 
 E fled from Rome he became president of 
 B its short-lived republic, made a heroic 
 ■ defense of the capital against the French, 
 B until compelled to surrender. From that 
 ■ time he continued to organize various 
 T risings in Italy, and the successful 
 S Sicilian expedition of Garibaldi in 1860 
 3 was due largely to his labors. 
 
 B MEADE, George Gordon, American 
 soldier, bom of American parentage at 
 Cadiz, Spain, in 1815. In October, 1836, 
 he resigned from the army and adopted 
 the profession of civil engineer. In 1842 
 . he was reappointed to the army as a 
 ; second lieutenant in the corps of topo- 
 graphical engineers. On the breaking 
 out of the war with Mexico, when Gen- 
 eral Taylor crossed the Rio Grande, he 
 was ordered to the front, and served 
 with distinction throughout the war. 
 At the outbreak of the civil war he Vas 
 . ordered to Washington; was commis- 
 
 > 4 : p. E.— 51 
 
 sioned brigadier-general of volunteers in 
 1861, and was placed in command of the 
 second brigade of the Pennsylvania re- 
 serve corps. In 1862 he was commis- 
 sioned major-general of volunteers. He 
 was engaged in the battles of Fredericks- 
 
 Gen. Geo. G. Meade. 
 
 burg and Chancellorsville, covering the 
 retreat at Chancellorsville with his 
 corps and guarding the crossingsuntilthe 
 entire anny was safely over the Rappa- 
 hannock. On June 28, 1863, he suc- 
 ceeded General Hooker in the command 
 of the Anny of the Potomac. On July 
 1st the hostile armies met at Gettys- 
 burg, and a three days’ battle ensued, 
 which resulted in the utter discomfiture 
 of Lee, who, however, was not pursued 
 with any vigor. For this victory Meade 
 was publicly thanked by a resolution of 
 congress, passed January 28, 1866. 
 From May 4, 1864, to April 9, 1865, 
 General Meade commanded the Army 
 of the Potomac, under General Grant, 
 through the bloody struggle in the 
 Wilderness, and until the surrender of 
 Lee. On August 18, 1864, he was com- 
 missioned a major-general in the United 
 States army. He died in 1872. 
 
 MEADOW-LARK, a North American 
 starling-like bird frequenting meadows 
 and open places. Few American song- 
 birds are more general favorites. It is 
 a near relative of the bobolink, oriole, 
 and blackbird. The common meadow 
 lark of the eastern states ranges in sum- 
 mer from New Brunswick to the Gulf of 
 Mexico, east of the Mississippi and even 
 in winter only retreats as far south as 
 Southern New England and Illinois. 
 The western meadow-lark occupies the 
 western half of the continent andextends 
 southward into Western Mexico, while 
 other subspecies occur in Cuba and 
 Mexico. They are somewhat less than 
 a foot in length, with large feet and a 
 long, straight, sharp bill. The feathers 
 of the upper surface are prevailingly 
 black, with rufous and buff borders and 
 tips, so that the whole upper surface is 
 variegated with those three colors. 
 The throat, breast, and anterior half of 
 the belly are bright yellow, with a 
 prominent black crescent about the 
 middle of the breast. The tail feathers 
 are narrow and short, and when the 
 bird takes to the wing the white outer 
 ones become very conspicuous. The 
 notes of the meadow-lark are clear and 
 strong — a sort of cheerful whistle — but 
 they differ in different localities, so that 
 the notes of the Florida birds are 
 markedly different from those heard in 
 the northern states. The notes of the 
 western meadow-lark are famous for 
 their musical quality. 
 
 MEADVILLE, a town in the north- 
 west of Pennsylvania, the seat of Alle- 
 gheny College (Methodist Episcopal) 
 
 and a Unitarian theological school. 
 Pop. 12,120. 
 
 MEAL-WORM, the larva of a beetle, 
 which infests granaries, corn-mills, bake- 
 houses, etc., and is very injurious to 
 flour, meal, and the like. 
 
 MEAN, in mathematics, a quantity 
 having a value intermediate between 
 those of two other quantities. The arith- 
 metical mean between two quantities is 
 equal to half their sum ; the geometrical 
 mean to the square-root of their prod- 
 uct; and the harmonic mean to twice 
 their product divided by their sum. 
 
 MEASLES, also called Rube'ola, an 
 acute infectious fever, chiefly affecting 
 children. In a period of from ten to 
 fourteen days after contagion symptoms 
 of the disease begin to appear in sneezing, 
 watering of the eyes, hoarseness, a hard 
 cough, and high temperature. On the 
 fourth day of the fever a rash appears 
 in blotches, crescentic in form, first 
 upon the temples, and gradually ex- 
 tends over the whole surface of the 
 body. It begins to fade about the 
 seventh day. The complications most 
 to be dreaded are inflammations of the 
 mucous membranes of the eye and 
 chest. The treatment consists in keeping 
 the patient confined to bed in a warm 
 room, relieving the chest by hot bathing 
 or warm packing, and preventing con- 
 stipation. During convalescence give 
 good nourishing food. 
 
 MEASURES, See Weights and Meas- 
 ures. 
 
 MEATH (meth), a county of Ireland, 
 province of Leinster, abutting on the 
 Irish sea; area, 579,861 acres. Pop. 
 67,463. 
 
 MECCA, or MEKKA, a city of Arabia, 
 about 60 miles from Jidda, its port on 
 the Red Sea, and the birth-place of 
 Mohammed, consequently the holiest 
 city of the Mohammedan world. In its 
 center is the Beitu-’llah (house Ci God) 
 or El-Haram (the inviolable) — the great 
 mosque inclosing the Kaaba, occupying 
 a square dividing the upper from the 
 lower town. The city is annually filled 
 at the time of the Hajj or pilgrimage to 
 the Kaaba. This pilgrimage, enjoined 
 by Mohammed on all his followers, is 
 the sole foundation of Mecca’s fame, 
 and the only source of its wealth and 
 occupation. The pop. is estimated at 
 50,000, with the periodical addition 
 of from 100,000 to 150,000 pilgrims. 
 
 MECHAIN (ma-shan), Pierre Fran- 
 cois Andre, French astronomer, born 
 1744, died 1804. His name is notably 
 connected with the measurement of a 
 degree of the meridian in order to get a 
 natural basis for the new French decimal 
 system of weights and measures. 
 
 MECHANICAL POWERS, the simple 
 instruments or elements of which every 
 machine, however complicated, must be 
 constructed; they are the lever, the 
 wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined 
 plane, the wedge, and the screw. See 
 those terms. 
 
 MECHANICS, the term originally 
 used to denote the general principles in- 
 volved in the construction of machinery. 
 Latterly the term became divorced from 
 all direct connection with practical ap- 
 plications, and dealt entirely with ab- 
 stract questions in which the laws of 
 
MECHANICS’ LIEN 
 
 MEDICI 
 
 force and motion were involved. In this 
 sense mechanics is usually divided into 
 dynamics, which treats of moving bodies 
 and the forces which produce their 
 motion; and statics, which treats of 
 forces compelling bodies to remain at 
 rest. See Dynamics, Statics. 
 
 MECHANICS’ LIEN, a statutory lien 
 or charge upon real estate to secure 
 payment for work and labor performed 
 on, or materials furnished for, buildings 
 or other improvements thereon, at the 
 request or with the consent, express or 
 implied, of the owner. With the de- 
 velopment of business customs much 
 work which was formerly done by per- 
 sons acting as servants for a master came 
 to be performed by independent con- 
 tractors who stood on an equal footing 
 with those who engaged them. For the 
 protection of such contractors and of 
 material men whose wares are used in 
 buildings and other improvements on 
 real estate, the statutes known as 
 “mechanics’ lien laws’’ have been 
 enacted in all the United States and in 
 Canada. The theory on which me- 
 chanics’ liens are given by statute is 
 that the value of the real estate has been 
 increased bythe addition of theimprove- 
 ments on which the work was performed 
 or materials furnished, and that the 
 property should accordingly be held 
 subject to such claims. This creates a 
 preference of these claims over those of 
 unsecured creditors of the owner, but a 
 mechanics’ lien is subject to valid prior 
 liens on the real estate, such as mort- 
 gages, judgments, taxes, etc. The term 
 mechanics’ lien is used in a general sense 
 to cover all liens for labor, whether 
 skilled or unskilled, and to describe 
 liens for materials furnished. These 
 liens give a right to look to the property 
 for compensation, but do not create a 
 personal claim against the owner. As a 
 general rule, the lien attaches both to 
 the building or improvement and to the 
 land on which it is erected; but if the 
 improvement is placed on the land with- 
 out the owner’s consent the lien will not 
 extend to the land, but will cover the 
 improvement to the extent of the in- 
 terest of the person who ordered the 
 work and materials. The lien only 
 attaches to the very property on which 
 the work was done, and will not affect 
 the other real estate of the owner. A 
 mechanics’ lien may be filed against 
 any title or interest in real estate, even 
 though it is quite limited, as a lease for a 
 year, provided it is such an interest as 
 may be sold on execution. 
 
 As a general rule the work to which 
 the owner is entitled under a contract 
 must be entirely performed before the 
 contractor can file a lien, but where an 
 owner defaults in his payments or 
 otherwise breaks his part of the con- 
 tract, the right to file a lien usually 
 attaches at once. In order to perfect a 
 mechanics’ lien the statutes of most 
 jurisdictions provide that a notice 
 setting forth the names of the owner and 
 the party claiming the lien, the char- 
 acter of the work done, a description 
 of the premises, the total contract 
 price, the amount paid thereon, the 
 amount still due, and the date when the 
 last item of work was performed, shall 
 
 be filed in the county clerk’s oflSce and 
 a copy thereof served on the owner of 
 the property affected. 
 
 MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN, a grand 
 duchy of the German Empire; bounded 
 on the north by the Baltic Sea, else- 
 where chiefly by Prussia and Mecklen- 
 burg-Strelitz; area, 4847 sq. miles. Pop. 
 607,835. 
 
 MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ, a grand 
 duchy of the German Empire. Pop. 
 102,628. 
 
 MECON'IC ACID, an acid with which 
 morphia is combined in opium. When 
 pure, meconic acid forms small white 
 crj'stals. Its aqueous solution forms a 
 deep red color with the persalts of iron, 
 which therefore are good tests for it. 
 
 MEDALLION, a term applied to the 
 large antique medals struck in Rome 
 and in the provinces by the emperors. 
 They were usually of gold or silver, and 
 exceeded in size the largest coins of 
 these metals of which the name and 
 value are known. They were probably 
 struck to commemorate persons or 
 events. In architecture the term is 
 applied to any circular or oval, and 
 sometimes square tablet, bearing on it 
 objects represented in relief, as figures, 
 heads, animals, flowers, etc. 
 
 MEDALS. See Numismatics. 
 
 MEDE'A, in Greek mythology, daugh- 
 ter of iEetes, king of Colchis, on the 
 eastern coast of the Black Sea. She 
 enabled Jason to obtain the celebrated 
 golden fleece and lived with him for ten 
 years, until he discarded her in favor of 
 Glauce or Creusa, daughter of King 
 Creon. In revenge she sent Glauce a 
 bridal robe which enveloped her in con- 
 suming flame, and thereafter she slew 
 her own children by Jason. There are 
 many versions of this Greek myth, and it 
 has been a favorite theme with painter 
 and dramatist. Euripides has a well- 
 known tragedy of this name. 
 
 MED'FORD, a city in Middlesex co.. 
 Mass., five miles north by west of Bos- 
 ton; on the Mystic river, and on the 
 southern and western divisions of the 
 Boston and Maine railroad. Pop. 21,280. 
 
 MEDIA, an ancient country in West- 
 ern Asia, formerly the seat of a powerful 
 kingdom, corresponding nearly to the 
 northwestern portion of modern Persia. 
 The Medes and Persians, from their near 
 resemblance to each other, appear to 
 have amalgamated readily after the 
 conquest or revolution which gave the 
 ascendency to the latter. Media hence- 
 forward formed part of the Persian 
 Empire, and shared its fate. 
 
 MEDIATIZATION, the term applied 
 to the annexation of the smaller German 
 sovereignties to larger contiguous states, 
 which took place on a large scale after 
 the dissolution of the German Empire 
 in 1806. 
 
 MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. See 
 
 Forensic Medicine. 
 
 MEDICI (ma'dl-che), a Florentine 
 family who rose to wealth and influence 
 by successful commerce, and who con- 
 tinued to combine the career of mer- 
 chants and bankers with the exercise of 
 political power, a princely display of 
 private munificence, and a liberal pat- 
 ronage of literature and art. The Medici 
 were associated with the history of the 
 
 Florentine republic from an early period, 
 but they first became prominent in the 
 person of Salvestro, who became gon- 
 falonier in 1378. Giovanni de’ Medici 
 (1360-1429) amassed great riches by 
 trade ; rendered great services to the city 
 and in 1421 became gonfalonier. He 
 was succeeded by his son Cosmo (the 
 elder, 1389-1464), surnamed the father 
 of his country. Cosmo acquired im- 
 mense wealth and influence, and laid 
 
 the foundation of his reputation by the 
 munificent patronage of art and letters, 
 and the conjunction of consummate 
 statesmanship with his commercial en- 
 terprise. He was for thirty-four years the 
 sole arbitrator of the republic and the 
 adviser of the sovereign houses of Italy. 
 His grandson Lorenzo the Magnificent 
 (1449-92) was the second great man of 
 the house of Medici. He governed the 
 state in conjunction with his brother 
 Giuliano (1453-78) till the latter was 
 assassinated by the Pazzi, a rival Floren- 
 tine family. Escaping from this massa- 
 cre he sustained a war with Ferdinand 
 of Naples, with whom he signed a defi- 
 nite peace in 1480. The rest of Lorenzo’s 
 reign was passed in peace and in those 
 acts of profuse liberality and magnifi- 
 cent patronage of arts and sciences, in 
 which he rivaled or excelled his grand- 
 father. He left three sons — Piero (1471- 
 1503), Giovanni (afterward Pope Leo 
 X.), and Giuliano, duke of Nemours. 
 Piero succeeded his father, but was de- 
 prived of his estates when the French 
 invaded Italy in 1494. He finished his 
 career in the service of France. His 
 eldest son Lorenzo came to power by the 
 abdication of his uncle Giuliano, who 
 became Duke of Urbino. He died in 
 1519, leaving a daughter, the famous. 
 Catherine de Medici, queen of France. 
 After several reverses in the family 
 Alessandro, an illegitimate son of the, 
 last named Lorenzo, was restored to 
 Florence by the troops of Charles V., 
 and by an imperial decree he was de-j 
 dared head of the republic, and after- ? 
 ward Duke of Florence. The next name ' 
 of importance in the family is that of 
 Cosmo “the great,’’ in 1537 proclaimed 
 Duke of Florence and afterward Grand- 
 duke of Tuscanj\ A learned man him- 
 self, he was a great patfon of learning 
 
MEDICINE 
 
 MEGAPODITIS 
 
 and art, a collector of paintings and 
 antiquities. He died in 1574. Francisco 
 Maria, his son, obtained from the Em- 
 peror Maximilian II., whose daughter 
 Joanna he had married, the confirma- 
 tion of his title of grand-duke in 1575 
 which continued in his family until it 
 became extinct in 1737 on the death of 
 Giovanni Gasto, who was succeeded by 
 Francis, duke of Lorraine. See Tuscany, 
 Catherine de Medici, Marie de Medici. 
 
 MEDICINE, the science of diseases, 
 and the art of preventing, healing, or 
 alleviating them. It deals with the facts 
 of disease, with the remedies appropriate 
 to various diseases, with the results of 
 accident or injury to the human body, 
 with the causes that affect the origin 
 and spread of diseases, and with the 
 general laws that regulate the health of 
 individuals and the health of com- 
 munities. It is broadly divided into two 
 great sections, surgery (which see) and 
 medicine proper; that is to say, the 
 diseases affecting the outer frame visible 
 to the eye are relegated to the care of 
 the surgeon, while those that affect the 
 internal organs belong to the province 
 of the physician. A department related 
 to both is obstetric medicine or mid- 
 wifery, dealing with child-bearing and 
 with the diseases peculiar to women. 
 With this department is closely con- 
 nected that which comprehends the 
 diseases of children. There are also de- 
 partments dealing with special organs, 
 such as those relating to diseases of the 
 eye, of the ear, of the throat, of the skin, 
 etc., each of which occupies its own 
 domain of knowledge, and is repre- 
 sented by highly-trained specialists. 
 The treatment of the insane, as it is 
 concerned with nervous diseases and 
 correlated states of other organs, is an 
 integral part of medical practice. War 
 also has given rise to special develop- 
 ments of medical and surgical science, 
 viz. ; military hygiene and military sur- 
 gery; and the administration of the law 
 has created a special branch — medical 
 jurisprudence or forensic medicine. 
 
 At first all diseases, in common with 
 other phenomena, were attributed to 
 supernatural causes, and the direct do- 
 ings of unseen beings; and had to be 
 exorcised by ceremonies, prayers, and 
 adjurations. In course of time it was 
 recognized that diseases were natural 
 phenomena, but at the same time each 
 was held to be a principle or entity dis- 
 tinct from its effects, and each disease 
 was supposed to have a specific remedy 
 — something that would actually cure 
 the disease. Such views led to the adop- 
 tion of various systems of treatment. 
 For instance, one school held that only 
 vegetable remedies were appropriate 
 to the treatment of diseases; another 
 school upheld the hydropathic system, 
 or the virtues of the bath in one or other 
 of its forms as a universal panacea for 
 all human ills. A third maintained the 
 application of the homoeopathic prin- 
 ciple that similars are cured by similars 
 that is to say, diseases are cured by sub- 
 stances having, in small doses, an action 
 on the body similar to that of the dis- 
 ease, so that one might treat diseases by 
 % series of fixed and specific formulae all 
 depending on this single principle. 
 
 Finally, even in orthodox medical 
 circles there is a strong disposition to 
 attribute success of treatment to •par- 
 ticular drugs, and to simply act on a 
 principle contrary to that of homoeop- 
 athy, viz.: that diseases are cured by 
 contraries, that is, by remedies having 
 an action on the body the reverse of that 
 of the disease. All these opinions de- 
 pend on a mistaken view of disease. 
 Anything that interferes with the free 
 and healthy action of any part of the 
 body produces a state of disease, and 
 the symptoms of the disturbance mani- 
 fest the disease. For instance, in the case 
 of zymotic diseases, they are caused by 
 the entrance into the body of living 
 germs which grow and multiply in the 
 blood and tissues, and interfere with the 
 various organs. These germs are, how- 
 ever, not the disease, but the cause of 
 the disease. Again many diseases are 
 due not to something that has entered 
 the body, but to a breaking down of a 
 certain part of the system. It is clear, 
 therefore, that no specific remedies can 
 be applied to such diseases. The object 
 of the physician is to restore as far as 
 possible the conditions of healthy action : 
 to remove if he can the causes of the 
 disease, to relieve pain, and to control 
 symptoms so as to direct them toward 
 recovery. 
 
 The chief departments of medical 
 science may be given as follows: The 
 science of health is called hygiene, or as 
 far as it relates to the regulation of the 
 diet, dietetics. Pathology is the science 
 of disease, of that in which it consists, 
 its origin, etc. Nosology treats of the 
 various sorts of diseases, their origin and 
 symptoms, and strives to arrange dis- 
 eases according to a scientific classifica- 
 tion. Pathological anatomy deals with 
 the mechanical alterations and changes 
 of structure. Therapeutics is the science 
 of the cure of diseases, often divided 
 into general, treating of the subject of 
 cure in general, its character, etc.; and 
 special, of the cures of the particular dis- 
 eases. Surgery treats of external dis- 
 eases and injuries, and the mode of re- 
 lieving derangements by operative 
 means. Obstetrics treats of the modes 
 of facilitating delivery. Materia medica 
 is the science of medicines, their exter- 
 nal appearance, history, and effects on 
 the human organization. Pharmacy 
 teaches how to preserve drugs, etc., and 
 to mix medicines. Clinics applies the 
 results of all these sciences at the bed- 
 side of the patient. (See the various 
 medical articles under separate heads.) 
 Among names famous in the history of 
 medicine, may be mentioned Hippocra- 
 tes, the father of medicine ; Celsus, Galen, 
 Avicenna, Paracelsus, Vesalius, Van Hel- 
 mont, Sylvius, Stahl, Harvey, Syden- 
 ham, Boerhaave, Hoffman, Cullen, 
 Brown, Hahnemann, etc. There are vari- 
 ous statutes having direct relation to 
 medicine: they may be divided into 
 four groups (1) those related to public 
 health; (2) those relating to lunacy (and 
 habitual drunkenness) ; (3) those relating 
 to the status of the medical profession, 
 to dentists, and to pharmaceutical chem- 
 ists; (4) those relating to restrictions 
 on the practice of anatomy and physi- 
 ology. See also Surgery. 
 
 MEDITERRANEAN SEA, the great 
 
 inland sea between Europe, Asia, and 
 Africa, about 2200 miles long and 1200 
 in extreme breadth. It communicates 
 on the west with the Atlantic Ocean by 
 the Strait of Gibraltar, and on the north- 
 east with the Black Sea through the Sea 
 of Marmara and the Straits of the 
 Dardanelles and Constantinople. The 
 
 principal rivers which discharge them- 
 selves directly into the Mediterranean 
 are the Ebro, Rhone, Po, and Nile. 
 The depth varies from 30 to 2150 fath- 
 oms. Owing to the very narrow channel 
 which connects the Mediterranean with 
 the main ocean, there is very little tide; 
 though on parts of the African coast, 
 etc., a rise of more than 6 feet sometimes 
 occurs. 
 
 MEERSCHAUM (mer-shum), a hy- 
 drated silicate of magnesium, consisting 
 of 60.9 parts silica, 26.1 magnesium, 
 and 12.0 water, occurring as a fine white 
 compact clay. It is found in Europe, 
 but more abundantly in Asia Minor, 
 and is manufactured into tobacco-pipes. 
 
 MEERUT', or MIRAT', a city, canton- 
 ment, and administrative center of the 
 United Provinces, India. Pop. 118,129. 
 The district of the same name occupies 
 an area of 2379 sq. miles. Pop. 1,391,458. 
 
 MEGAPO'DIUS, a genus of rasorial 
 birds, type of the family Megapodidse, 
 the best known and most remarkable 
 species of which is the Australian jungle- 
 fowl, a large bird remarkable for erect- 
 ing considerable mounds, composed of 
 earth, grass, decayed leaves, etc., some- 
 times 15 feet high and 150 in circum- 
 
 Nest of megapodius. 
 
 ference, and in the center of which, at a 
 depth of 2 or 3 feet, it deposits its eggs, 
 leaving them to be hatched by the heat 
 of the fermenting vegetable mass. 
 
MEGAPHONE 
 
 MELON 
 
 MEGAPHONE, a speaking-trumpet 
 used to render the voice audible at con- 
 siderable distances. It consists of a 
 large funnel of tin or papier-mach6, in 
 which the sound-waves are so re- 
 flected that they issue from its mouth in 
 approximately parallel directions. The 
 size and shape of the megaphone are so 
 regulated that the usual tones of the 
 voice undergo the largest possible 
 amount of strengthening. For this rea- 
 son a megaphone to be used with the 
 best effect by a woman would be differ- 
 ent in size from that suited to the deeper 
 notes of a man’s voice. The megaphone 
 has succeeded the old speaking-trumpet 
 for use at sea, and is generally employed 
 by naval officers and mariners for com- 
 municating with the shore or with a 
 distant vessel. 
 
 MEGAP'TERA, a genus of whales of 
 the family Balaenidse, including the 
 hump-backed whales. 
 
 MEGATHE'RIUM, a fossil genus of 
 edentate mammals, allied to the sloths, 
 but having feet adapted for walking on 
 the ground, found in the upper Tertiary 
 or pampas deposits of South America. It 
 was about 8 feet high, and its body 12 
 
 to 18 feet long. Its teeth prove that it 
 lived on vegetables, and its fore-feet, 
 about a yard in length and armed with 
 gigantic claws, show that roots were its 
 chief objects of search. 
 
 MEHEM'ET ALI, Viceroy of Egypt, 
 born at Kavala, in Macedonia, in 1769, 
 died 1849. He entered the Turkish army, 
 and served in Egypt against the French; 
 rose rapidly in military and political 
 importance; became pasha of Cairo, 
 Alexandria, and subsequently of all 
 Egypt. In 1811 he massacred the 
 Mamelukes to the number of 470 in 
 Cairo, and about 1200 over the country. 
 By means of a vigorous domestic policy 
 Mehemet reduced the finances to order; 
 organized an army and a navy; stimu- 
 lated agriculture, and encouraged manu- 
 factures. In 1824-27 he assisted the 
 sultan in endeavoring to reduce the 
 Morea, which led to the destruction of 
 his fleet by the allied European powers 
 at Navarino (1827). Subsequently he 
 turned his armies against the sultan, 
 and in his efforts to secure dominion 
 over Syria by armed invasion, he was 
 so far successful (see Ibrahim Pasha) 
 that the European powers had to inter- 
 fere and compel him to sign a treaty in 
 1839, which gave him the hereditary 
 pashalic of Egypt in lieu of Syria, Candia 
 and Hejaz. In his latter days he sank 
 into dotage. 
 
 MEISSONIER (ma-son-ya), Jean 
 Louis Ernest, French painter, born in 
 Lyons 1815; went to Paris in 1830; first 
 picture exhibited. The Visitors, 1834. 
 He first became known as an illustrator 
 of books, but rapidly became famous 
 for the singular perfection of his art. 
 His pictures, which, whether in genre 
 or in portraiture, are almost without 
 exception upon a small scale, are char- 
 acterized by great minuteness of execu- 
 
 J. L. E. Meissonier. 
 
 tion and high finish, but are at the 
 same time not less remarkable for their 
 excellence in composition and breadth 
 of treatment. They have the force of 
 appeal of large works. Among his 
 pictures, which possess an astonishing 
 market value, may be mentioned. The 
 Smoker (1839); La Partie des Boules 
 (1848) ; Napoleon III, at Solferino (1864) ; 
 the (Cavalry Charge (1867), sold for 
 
 150.000 francs; the picture entitled 
 “1807” (1875), representing Napoleon I, 
 in the battle of Friedland, sold for 
 
 300.000 francs; Le Guide (1883); Jena 
 (1889). He died in 1891. 
 
 MELANCHOLIA, Melancholy. See In- 
 sanity. 
 
 MELANCHTHON (me-langk'thon), 
 Philip, German reformer, born at 
 Bretten, in the Palatinate, 1497; died at 
 Wittenberg, 1560. In 1518, at the in- 
 stigation of Luther and Reuchlin, he was 
 invited by Frederick, elector of Saxony, 
 to fill the chair of Greek in the recently 
 founded University of Wittenberg. In 
 1519 he accompanied Luther to Leipzig, 
 in order to dispute with Dr. Eck, and in 
 1521 he published his famous Loci 
 Communes, an exposition of Protestant 
 dogmatics, which ran through some 
 sixty editions in his lifetime, and was 
 followed by other influential writings, 
 such as the Epitome Doctrinse Chris- 
 tianse (1524). 
 
 MEL'ANITE, a lime-iron variety of 
 garnet, of a velvet black or grayish 
 black, occurring always in crystals of a 
 dodecahedral form. See Garnet. 
 
 MELBOURNE, a city of Australia, 
 capital of the colony of Victoria. Mel- 
 bourne was founded in 1836 during the 
 premiership of Lord Melbourne, after 
 whom it was named. It was incorporated 
 in August, 1842, and in 1849 erected 
 into an episcopal see. The public build- 
 ings of Melbourne as a whole are hand- 
 some and substantial. Among them the 
 most remarkable are the houses of par- 
 liament, the treasury, the law-courts, 
 the free library, containing over 200,000 
 volumes; the mint, the university, with 
 an admirable museum attached. The 
 
 . s 
 
 chief industrial products are leather, 
 clothing, furniture, flour, ales, cigars. 
 
 ironware, woolens, etc. Population of 
 city proper, 66,391; inclusive of suburbs, 
 493,956. 
 
 MELODEON', the early American 
 organ, in which an exhaust or suction 
 bellows draws the air inward through 
 the reeds. The supply of wind for the 
 reeds is obtained by means of a pair of 
 treadles, worked by the performer, and 
 the reeds themselves are controlled by 
 stops and slider mechanism. The tone 
 of the instrument has been steadily im- 
 proved, and now successfully imitates a 
 number of orchestral instruments. 
 
 MELODRAMA, originally and strictly 
 that species of drama in which the dec- 
 lamation of certain passages is inter- 
 rupted by music, but now the term has 
 come to designate a romantic play, 
 generally of a serious character, in which 
 effect is sought by startling incidents, 
 striking situations, and exaggerated 
 sentiment, aided often by splendid 
 decoration and music. 
 
 MELODY, in the most general sense 
 of the word any successive connection 
 or series of tones; in a narrower sense, 
 a series of tones which please the ear by 
 their succession and variety; and in a 
 still narrower sense, the particular air 
 or tune of a musical piece. 
 
 MELON, a well known plant and fruit. 
 It is an herbaceous, succulent, climbing 
 or trailing annual, cultivated for its 
 fruit in hot eastern countries from time 
 immemorial. There are many varieties. 
 
 Melon. 
 
 as the Cantaloupe, which is reckoned the 
 best. The water-melon is much culti- 
 vated in the warmer parts of the world 
 on account of its refreshing juice, which, 
 however, is less sweet than that of the 
 common melon. 
 
MELOS 
 
 MENNONITES 
 
 MELOS, now MILOS or MILO, an 
 
 island belonging to Greece, in the Gre- 
 cian Archipelago. In 1820 a peasant 
 discovered here the celebrated statue 
 known as the Venus of Milo, now placed 
 in the museum of the Louvre at Paris. 
 
 MELROSE, a city in Middlesex co.. 
 Mass., on the Boston and Maine railroad; 
 7 miles n. of Boston. Pop. 15,160. 
 
 MELTING-POINT. See Fusing-point. 
 
 MELVILLE, George Wallace, Ameri- 
 can naval engineer, was born in New 
 York City in 1841. He entered the 
 United States navy as an engineer in 
 1861. Among his contributions to the 
 building up of the new navy are his 
 designs for the triple screw machinery 
 for the two cruisers Columbia and 
 Minneapolis. Melville sailed in- 1879 
 under Lieutenant De Long on the ill- 
 fated Jeannette expedition to discover 
 a northeast passage across the Polar 
 Sea. After the loss of the Jeannette he 
 brought to safety the crew of his own 
 boat, and subsequently conducted the 
 search which discovered the Jeannette 
 records and the bodies of De Long and 
 his companions. He was afterward a 
 member of the Greely Relief Expedi- 
 tion (1884). He was appointed chief 
 engineer in 1881, engineer-in-chief in 
 1887, and rear-admiral in 1899. He is 
 the author of “In the Lena Delta.” 
 
 MELVILLE ISLAND.— 1. An island 
 in the Polar Sea, north of America. 
 Captain Parry discovered it, and passed 
 the winter of 1819-20 there. 2. An 
 island oflf the north coast of Australia; 
 area, about 1800 sq. miles. 
 
 MEMBRANE, in anatomy, a texture 
 of the animal body, arranged in the 
 form of laminae, which covers organs, 
 lines the interior of cavities, or takes 
 part in the formation of the walls of 
 canals or tubes. Membrane is generally 
 divided into three kinds, mucous, serous 
 and fibrous. The lining of the nose, 
 trachea, oesophagus, stomach, intes- 
 tines, is of the first kind; the serous 
 membranes form the lining of the sacs 
 or closed cavities, as of the chest, ab- 
 domen, etc.; the fibrous membranes are 
 tough, inelastic, and tendinous, such as 
 the dura mater, the pericardium, the 
 capsules of joints. 
 
 MEMNON, a mythological personage 
 mentioned in the Homeric poems as the 
 beautiful son of Eos (the morning), and 
 in the post-Homeric accounts as the son 
 of Tithonus and nephew of Priam, whom 
 he assisted at the siege of Troy. He 
 slew Antilochus, but was himself slain 
 by .\chilles. His mother was filled with 
 grief at his death, which Zeus en- 
 deavored to soothe by making her son 
 immortal. The name of Memnon was 
 latterly connected with Egypt, and was 
 attached to a statue still standing at 
 Thebes, being one of two known from 
 their size as “the Colossi.” This statue 
 known as “the vocal Memmon,” was 
 celebrated in antiquity as emitting a 
 sound every morning at the rising of 
 the sun— perhaps through the craft of 
 the priests, though some think it was 
 owing to expansion caused by heat. 
 Both statues seem originally to have 
 been about 70 feet high. 
 
 MEMORY, the power or the capacity 
 of having what was once present to the 
 
 senses or the understanding suggested 
 again to the mind, accompanied by a 
 distinct consciousness that it has for- 
 merly been present to it; or the faculty 
 of the mind by which it retains the 
 knowledge of past events, or ideas which 
 are past. The word memory is not em- 
 ployed uniformly in the same precise 
 sense, but it always expresses some 
 modification of that faculty which 
 enables us to treasure up and preserve 
 for future use the knowledge which we 
 acquire; a faculty which is obviously 
 the great foundation of all intellectual 
 improvement. The word memory is 
 sometimes used to express a capacity of 
 retaining knowledge, and sometimes a 
 power of recalling it to our thoughts 
 when we have occasion to apply it to 
 use, the latter being more correctly 
 called recollection. See Mnemonics. 
 
 MEMPHIS, an ancient city of Egypt 
 on the left bank of the Nile, some 20 
 miles south of Cairo, said to have been 
 founded by Menes, the first king of 
 Egypt. It was a large, rich, splendid 
 city, and after the fall of Thebes, the 
 capital of Egypt. At the time of the con- 
 quest of Egypt by Cambyses (524 b.c.) 
 it was the chief commercial center of the 
 country, and was connected by canals 
 with the Lakes of Moeris and Mareotis. 
 With the rise of Alexandria the im- 
 portance of Memphis declined, and it 
 was finally destroyed by the Arabs in 
 the 7th century. The pyramids of 
 Sakkara and the colossal statue of 
 Rameses II., now mutilated and thrown 
 down, are the chief objects of anti- 
 quarian interest on the site. 
 
 MEMPHIS, a city and port in Ten- 
 nessee, on the Mississippi, just below 
 the junction of Wolf river, 209 miles 
 w.s.w. of Nashville. It stands upon a 
 bluff about 30 feet above the river in its 
 highest floods, and is fronted by a fine 
 esplanade. Its rapid growth is due to 
 its favorable position for trade, which is 
 largely carried on by rail and river, chief- 
 ly in cotton. Pop. 1909, about 175,000. 
 
 MENA'DO, the capital of a Dutch 
 residency of same name in the northeast 
 peninsula of Celebes. The town itself 
 has a population of about 6000, while 
 the inhabitants of the whole territory 
 number about 500,000. 
 
 MENDELSSOHN-EARTHOLDY, Felix, 
 distinguished composer, born at Ham- 
 burg, 1809, died at Leipzig, 1847. He 
 was the son of a wealthy Jew, who, 
 recognizing his son’s talent for music, 
 had him carefully trained. In his ninth 
 year he publicly appeared in Berlin as a 
 musician, and in his sixteenth year he 
 produced the well-known overture to 
 the Midsummer Night’s Dream. In 1829 
 he began an extensive tour through 
 England, Scotland, France, Italy, and 
 on his return to Germany he became 
 musical director in Dusseldorf. Here he 
 tried to establish a theater but without 
 success; and when he left that city in 
 1835 he became conductor of the fam- 
 ous concerts in the Gewandhaus of 
 Leipzig — a position which he main- 
 tained with several slight interruptions 
 until his death. In 1841 he was ap- 
 pointed musical director to the King of 
 Saxony; was afterward summoned to 
 Berlin by the King of Prussia to become 
 
 director of music at the Academy of 
 Arts; and journeyed repeatedly to Eng- 
 land, where he conducted his own music 
 at London and Birmingham. Of his 
 musical compositions the best known are 
 the oratorios Elijah and St. Paul; the 
 overture to Ruy Bias; and his Songs 
 without Words. He left unfinished the 
 oratorio of Christus and the opera of 
 Lorlei. 
 
 MENDICANT ORDERS. See Orders 
 
 (Religious). 
 
 MENDOZA, a province of the Argen- 
 tine Republic, on the eastern side of the 
 Andes, area, about 34,000 sq. miles. 
 The country is volcanic, the soil fertile 
 but requiring irrigation; chief products: 
 corn, wine, and fruits. Pop. 141,431. — 
 The capital, which has the same name, 
 is situated about 2891 feet above the 
 sea at the foot of the Cordilleras. It was 
 almost totally destroyed by an earth- 
 quake in 1861, over 13,000 lives being 
 lost, but has been rebuilt, and has now 
 about 29,500 inhabitants. 
 
 MENELA'US, in Greek mythology, 
 son of Atreus, brother of Agamemnon, 
 and husband of the beauteous Helen, 
 with whom he received the kingdom of 
 Sparta or Lacedaemon. His wife having 
 been abducted by Paris, son of Priam, 
 king of Troy, he summoned the Greek 
 princes to avenge the affront, and him- 
 self led sixty ships to the siege of Troy. 
 After its conquest he returned with 
 Helen to his native land in a devious 
 voyage which led him to Cypria, Phoe- 
 nicia, Egypt, and Libya during a period 
 of eight years. 
 
 MENES, or MENA, according to 
 Egyptian traditions, the first king of 
 Egypt. See Egypt. 
 
 MENINGITIS (-ji'tis), the term ap- 
 plied to inflammation of the two inner 
 membranes (meninges) which envelop 
 the brain — the arachnoid membrane and 
 the pia mater. There are two forms of 
 this disease called simple and tuber- 
 cular. The former may be caused by 
 injuries of the head, exposure to cold or 
 heat, disease of the ear, etc., and the 
 symptoms are, pain in the head, giddi- 
 ness, feverishness, and often vomiting; 
 while the latter is frequently due to a 
 scrofulous taint, and is also called acute 
 hydrocephalus or water in the head. 
 
 MENNO, Simons, the founder of the 
 sect known as the Mennonites, was born 
 in Friesland 1496, died 1561. He was 
 educated for the church, and became a 
 Roman Catholic priest; but about 1510 
 he joined the Anabaptists. After the 
 suppression of the disturbances at 
 Munster Menno collected the scattered 
 remnants of the sect, inculcated on them 
 more moderate views, and for many 
 years in Holland and the north of Ger- 
 many, as far as Livonia, labored to in- 
 crease the number of his followers, and 
 to disseminate his doctrines. In this he 
 was not unsuccessful, and there are still 
 a number of congregations in Holland, 
 Germany, and Russia who pass under 
 the name of Mennonites. These do not 
 believe in original sin, and object to 
 taking oaths, making war, or going to 
 law. The Mennonites are also found in 
 the United States, where they number 
 about 200,000. See Anabaptists. 
 
 MENNONITES. See above article. 
 
MENOMINEE 
 
 MERIDEN 
 
 MENOMINEE, the capital of Menomi- 
 nee CO., Mich., on Green Bay, at the 
 mouth of the Menominee river, and on 
 the Chi., Mil. and St. Paul and the Chi. 
 and N. W. railways; 52 miles n.n.e. of 
 Green Bay. It has numerous saw-mills, 
 and is an important Imnber shipping- 
 point. Pop. 15,710. 
 
 MENSCHIKOFF, ALEXANDER, Dan- 
 ilovitch, Russian minister, born at 
 Moscow in 1672, died 1729. He was born 
 in humble life, but ultimately became 
 a prince of the empire and first favorite 
 with Peter the Great. When that mon- 
 arch died his power under Catherine I. 
 was greatly increased. After two years she 
 was succeeded by her grandson, Peter 
 II., who came under the guardianship of 
 Menschikoff, and to whom he endeav- 
 ored to marry his daughter. His de- 
 signs, however, were frustrated by the 
 combined efforts of the Dolgorukis and 
 the young czar, and Menschikoff was 
 exiled to Siberia, where he died. 
 
 MENSTRUATION, or MENSES, the 
 periodical discharge of blood from the 
 generative organs of the human female. 
 The period at which menstruation begins 
 is usually between the 14th and 16th 
 year; it recurs at monthly intervals, 
 lasting for four to six days, and thus 
 continues until from the 45th to the 50th 
 year; the discharge at each period is 
 from 6 to 8 oz. All these conditions, 
 however, vary with each individual. 
 A discontinuance of this discharge is 
 one of the first signs of conception, and 
 the cessation usually continues during 
 the period of pregnancy and lactation. 
 
 MENSURATION is the practical ap- 
 plication of the simpler processes of 
 mathematics to the measurement of the 
 area of a plane figure, or the volume of 
 a solid, the result being expressed in 
 square or cubic inches, feet, yards, etc. 
 The area of any plane rectilineal figure 
 is easily found, since it can always be 
 dividedinto a certain number of triangles 
 and the area of every triangle is equal 
 to the base multiplied by half the per- 
 pendicular height. If the figure is a 
 parallelogram its area is equal to any 
 side multiplied by the perpendicular dis- 
 tance from this side to the opposite; if 
 a trapezium it is equal to half the sum 
 of two opposite sides multiplied by the 
 perpendicular distance between them. 
 Circumference of a circle = diameter 
 multiplied by 3.14159. Area of a circle 
 = square of radius multiplied by 3.14159 
 = radius multiplied by half circum- 
 ference. Volume of any rectangular 
 solid = length, breadth, and depth mul- 
 tiplied together. 
 
 MENTAL DERANGEMENT. See In- 
 sanity. 
 
 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. See Mind, 
 Metaphysics, Psychology. 
 
 MENTHOL, a white crystalline sub- 
 stance obtained from oil of peppermint 
 of which it smells strongly, used exter- 
 nally in cases of nervous headache. 
 
 MENTZ. See Mainz. 
 
 MENU. See Manu. 
 
 MEPHISTOPH'ELES, older forms 
 Mephistophilus, Mephistophilis, the 
 name of a demon in the old puppet- 
 plays, adopted and developed by Mar- 
 lowe in his tragical history of Dr.Faustus, 
 and more especially by Goethe in the 
 
 first part of Faust, where he becomes the 
 cultured personification of evil rather 
 than the Satan of popular belief. 
 
 MERCANTILE LAW. See Commer- 
 cial Law. 
 
 MERCATOR, Gerard, geographer, 
 born at Rupelmonde, in Flanders, 1512; 
 died 1594. He studied at Louvain; be- 
 came a lecturer on geography and 
 astronomy; entered into the service of 
 Charles V., for whom he made a celestial 
 and a terrestrial globe; and in 1559 he 
 retired to Duisburg as cosmographer to 
 the Duke of Juliers. He is the author of 
 a method of projection called by his 
 name (see next article), the principles of 
 which were applied practiaclly by Ed- 
 ward Wright, in 1599. He is also the 
 author of Tabulse Geographicae (Cologne, 
 1578). 
 
 MERCATOR’S PROpCTION, a meth- 
 od of projection used in map-making in 
 which the meridians and parallels of 
 latitude cut each other at right angles, 
 and are both represented by straight 
 lines. By means of this projection sea- 
 men are enabled to steer by compass in 
 straight lines, and not in the spiral 
 necessitated by the other projections. 
 It is constructed as follows; A line of 
 any length is drawn to represent the 
 equator. This line is divided into 36 or 
 18 equal parts for meridians at 10° or 20° 
 apart, and the meridians are then drawn 
 through these perpendicular to the 
 equator. From a table of meridional 
 parts take the distances of the parallels 
 and of the tropics and arctic circles from 
 the equator, marking them off above 
 and below it. Join these points, and the 
 projection is complete. 
 
 MERCIER, Honor4, Canadian politi- 
 cian, born 1840. He studied law, and 
 has been engaged in journalism. He sat 
 in the Dominion parliament from 1872 
 till 1874, and became solicitor-general in 
 the legislative assembly of Quebec in 
 1879, and attorney-general in 1887. 
 
 MERCURY, in mythology, the name 
 of a Roman divinity, identified in later 
 times with the Greek Hermes. As repre- 
 senting Hermes he was regarded as the 
 son of Jupiter and Maia, and was looked 
 upon as the god of eloquence, of com- 
 merce, and of robbers. He was also the 
 messenger, herald, and ambassador of 
 Jupiter. As a Roman divinity he was 
 merely the patron of commerce and 
 gain. See Hermes. 
 
 MERCURY, in astronomy, the planet 
 nearest the sun. He moves round the 
 sun in 87.9693 of our mean solar days, 
 at a mean distance of 35,392,000 miles; 
 his eccentricity of orbit is 0.205618; the 
 inclination of his orbit to the ecliptic is 
 70° 0' 8". 2, his diameter about 3050 
 miles. The period of his axial rotation is 
 the same as that of his revolution round 
 the sun. His volume is about jj that of 
 the earth ; his density xV greater than the 
 earth’s. He is visible to the naked eye in 
 the spring and autumn after sunset and 
 before sunrise. Transits of Mercury over 
 the sun’s disc take place at intervals of 
 13, 7, 10, 3, 10, 3, etc., years. 
 
 MERCURY, called also quicksilver, a 
 metal whose specific gravity is greater 
 than that of any other metal, except the 
 platinum metals, gold, and tungsten, 
 being 13.56, or thirteen times and a half 
 
 heavier than water. It is the only metal 
 which is liquid at common temperatures. 
 It freezes at a temperature of 39° or 40° 
 below the zero of Fahrenheit, that is, at 
 a temperature of 71° or 72° below the 
 freezing point of water. Under a heat of 
 660° it rises in fumes, and is gradually 
 converted into a red oxide. Mercury is 
 used in barometers to ascertain the 
 weight of the atmosphere, and in ther- 
 mometers to determine the temperature 
 of the air, for which purpose it is well 
 adapted by its expansibility, and the 
 extensive range between its freezing and 
 boiling points. Preparations of this 
 metal are among the most powerful 
 poisons, and are extensively used as 
 medicines. The preparation called 
 calomel or mercurious chloride is a most 
 efficacious deobstruent. Another valu- 
 able preparation is corrosive sublimate 
 or mercuric chloride. From the fluid 
 state in which mercury exists it readily 
 combines with most of the metals, to 
 which, if in sufficient quantity, it im- 
 parts a degree of fusibility or softness. 
 An alloy of mercury and any other metal 
 is termed an amalgam. Mercury is 
 chiefly found in the state of sulphide, 
 but it is also found native. The chief 
 mines of mercury are in Spain, but it 
 is also found in Germany, Italy, China, 
 California, Borneo, Mexico, and Peru. 
 
 MERCY, Sisters of, the name given to 
 members of female religious com- 
 munities founded for the purpose of 
 nursing the sick at their own homes, 
 visiting prisoners, attending lying-in 
 hospitals, superintending the education 
 of females, and the performance of 
 similar works of charity and mercy. 
 Communities of Sisters of Mercy are now 
 widely distributed over Europe and 
 America, some of them being connected 
 with the Church of England. 
 
 MEREDITH, George, poet and novel- 
 ist, born 1828 in Hampshire; studied for 
 the law, but essayed a literary career 
 with a volume of poems in 1851. This 
 was followed by others, among them 
 the following: Farina, a Legend of 
 Cologne; The Ordeal of Richard Feverel; 
 Poems and Ballads; The Egoist; Diana 
 of the Crossways; Ballads and Poems of 
 Tragic Life ; The Amazing Marriage. 
 
 MERGAN'SER, a genus of aquatic 
 birds belonging to the duck family. 
 
 Red-breasted merganser. 
 
 They inhabit lakes and the sea-coast, 
 migrate southward in winter, lay from 
 eight to fourteen eggs, and are gregari- 
 ous in habit. 
 
 MERTDEN, a town in Connecticut, 
 18 miles n.e. of New Haven. It is largely 
 engaged in the manufacture of iron- 
 castings, tinware, cutlery, brass-work, 
 glass, woolen goods, and plated ware. 
 
 I It contains a state reformatory. Pop. 
 
 ) 29,296. 
 
 ii 
 
MERIDIAN 
 
 MESMERISM 
 
 MERIDIAN, one of the innumerable 
 imaginary lines on the surface of the 
 earth, that may be conceived of as pass- 
 ing through both poles and through any 
 other given place, and serving to settle 
 the longitude of places and thus to mark 
 their exact position. There are also cor- 
 responding lines called astronomical or 
 celestial meridians, which are imaginary 
 circles of the celestial sphere passing 
 through the poles of the heavens and 
 the zenith of any place on the earth’s 
 surface. Every place on the globe has 
 its meridian, and when the sun arrives at 
 this line it is noon or mid-day, whence 
 the name (Latin meridianus — medius, 
 middle, and dies, day). The longitude 
 of a place is its distance — usually stated 
 in degrees, minutes, and seconds — east, 
 or west of any meridian selected as a 
 starting-point, just as its latitude is its 
 distance north or south of the equator. 
 In Britain it has long been the custom 
 to count from the meridian of Green- 
 wich as a starting-point; this meridian 
 being called the first meridian, and the 
 longitude of Greenwich being marked 0 
 or nothing. Other countries, however, 
 had selected their own meridian, with 
 the result that confusion arose among 
 geographers and navigators in localizing 
 any given place. This difficulty was dis- 
 cussed at a national conference held at 
 Washington October, 1884, and at last 
 Greenwich was selected as the geographi- 
 cal and astronomical reference meridian 
 of the world, longitude to be reckoned 
 east and west from this up to 180°. It 
 was also arranged that the astronomical 
 day should begin at midnight, 1st Janu- 
 ary, 1885, so that astronomers hence- 
 forth have one definite day over all the 
 world. See also Longitude, Day. 
 
 MERIDIAN, the capital of Lauder- 
 dale CO., Miss., on the E. Tenn., Va. and 
 Ga., the Mobile and Ohio, and the 
 Queen and Cresc. railways, 85 miles e. 
 of Jackson, 135 miles n. by w. of Mobile, 
 Ala. It is in an agricultural region, 
 chiefly producing cotton. Pop. 16,210. 
 
 MERIDIAN CIRCLE, a mural circle 
 or transit circle. 
 
 MERINO (me-re'no), a twilled woolen 
 tissue, dyed various colors, and often 
 also printed. In the better kind of goods 
 both the warp and the woof are of carded 
 woolen yarn, but in inferior sorts the 
 warp is of (jbtton. 
 
 MERINO SHEEP, a variety of sheep 
 originally peculiar to Spain, but now 
 
 Head of Merino ram, before and after shearing. 
 
 reared in other parts of Europe, in 
 Australia, New Zealand, etc. They are 
 
 raised chiefly for the sake of their long 
 fine wool, the mutton being but little 
 esteemed. 
 
 MERLIN, a legendary Welsh prophet 
 and magician, who is said to have lived 
 in the 5th century. He is said to have 
 been the offspring of a demon and a 
 Welsh princess, and became adviser to 
 the English kings Vortigern, Ambrosius, 
 Utherpendragon, and Arthur. There 
 was also a prophet connected with the 
 ancient kingdom of Strathclyde called 
 Merlin the Wild, or Merlinus Caledon- 
 ius, who is said to have lived in the 6th 
 century. His prophecies, containing also 
 those ascribed to the Welsh Merlin, were 
 published at Edinburgh in 1615. 
 
 MERLIN, the smallest of the British 
 falcons, being only about the size of a 
 black-bird, but very bold. It was for- 
 merly used in hawking quails, part- 
 ridges, larks, and such small game, and 
 is even yet occasionally trained. It is of 
 a bluish ash color above; reddish yellow 
 on the breast and belly, with longitudi- 
 nal dark spots, the throat of the adult 
 male white. It builds its nest on the 
 ground. 
 
 MERMAID AND MERMAN, were 
 legendary creatures who lived in the sea, 
 possessed a human body united to the 
 tail of a fish, and who were supposed 
 capable of entering into social relation- 
 ships with men and women. Under 
 various names they were known over 
 Northern Europe, the typical mermaid 
 being a lovely creature who combs her 
 long beautiful hair with one hand while 
 she holds a looking-glass with the other. 
 The origin of this myth is supposed to 
 rest in the human-like appearance of 
 certain aquatic animals, such as the seal. 
 The legends of mermaids and mermen 
 have been largely treated in poetry. 
 
 MERRIMAC, a river of the United 
 States in New Hampshire and Massa- 
 chusetts. The immense water-power 
 furnished by its falls has created the 
 towns of Lowell and Lawrence in Massa- 
 chusetts, and of Nashua and Manches- 
 ter in New Hampshire. 
 
 MERSEY, an important river of Eng- 
 land, expands into an estuary 17 miles 
 from its mouth at Runcorn; and its 
 entire length is 60 miles. The principal 
 towns on its banks are Warrington, 
 Stockport, Birkenhead, and Liverpool. 
 The Manchester Ship Canal comprises 
 part of the channel of the Mersey. 
 
 MERSEY TUNNEL, opened in 1886, 
 connects Liverpool and Birkenhead by 
 a railway under the river Mersey. It is 
 21 feet high, 26 feet wide, and 31 feet 
 below the bed of the river; is 4^ miles 
 long with the approaches, and is ven- 
 tilated by means of large fans and a 
 small tunnel which runs alongside. The 
 cost of construction is stated to have 
 been .$6,250,000. 
 
 MERTHYR-TYDVIL, a parliamentary 
 borough of South Wales, county of 
 Glamorgan, 24 miles n.n.w. of Cardiff, 
 on the Taff. Pop. (which includes Aber- 
 dare), 122,536; of town, 69,227. 
 
 MESMER, Friedrich Anton, German 
 physician, founder of the doctrine of 
 mesmerism or animal magnetism, was 
 born in 1733, died in 1815. He professed 
 to cure diseases by stroking with mag- 
 nets, but about 1776 he renounced their 
 use, and declared that his operations were 
 
 conducted solely by means of the mag- 
 netism peculiar to animal bodies. (See 
 Mesmerism.) He went to Paris in 1778, 
 where he achieved considerable success 
 and fame and made many converts to 
 his views, but was regarded by the 
 medical faculty as a charlatan. The 
 government at length appointed a com- 
 mittee of physicians and members of 
 the Academy of Sciences to investigate 
 his pretensions. The report was un- 
 favorable, and the system fell into dis- 
 repute. Mesmer retired to Swabia, 
 where he died. 
 
 MESMERISM, Animal Magnetism 
 (electro-biology, hypnotism), terms ap- 
 plied to certain peculiar nervous con- 
 ditions which may be artificially in- 
 duced, and in which the mind and body 
 of one individual may be peculiarly in- 
 fluenced by another apparently in- 
 dependently of his own will. The term 
 mesmerism is derived from Mesmer (see 
 preceding article), who professed to pro- 
 duce these conditions in others and to 
 cure diseases by the influence of a 
 mysterious occult force residing in him- 
 self. This force he called animal magnet- 
 ism. He held that it pervaded the whole 
 universe, and specially affected the 
 nervous system. The phenomena were 
 known from the earliest ages, when the 
 priests of most of the ancient civiliza- 
 tions affected to cure diseases by the 
 touch of the hand, or threw people into 
 deep sleeps, induced dreams, and pro- 
 duced many of the effects now referred 
 to mesmerism. While the phenomena 
 which Mesmer professed to produce 
 were probably in many cases genuine 
 his theory of animal magnetism rested 
 on no proper scientific basis. He has 
 been followed by many disciples, whose 
 success in producing the mesmeric con- 
 dition has left no doubt as to the reality 
 of many of the phenomena of mesmer- 
 ism; but modern scientific investigation, 
 while not fully explaining all these, has 
 shown that they are due to peculiar 
 nervous conditions, and that it is un- 
 necessary to presuppose any occult 
 force to account for them. The means 
 usually employed to produce the mes- 
 meric condition are such as touching 
 and stroking with the hands, according 
 to rule (manipulation), breathing on the 
 person, fixing the eyes on him, etc. It 
 may also, it is said, be produced by 
 causing the patient to stare at an object, 
 especially a bright one, placed in such a 
 position as to strain the eye, the effect 
 being completed by a few passes of the 
 hand over the face without touching it. 
 In the condition thus induced the patient 
 seems to be in a kind of sleep. The limbs 
 will remain in any position in which they 
 may be placed. By stroking the surface 
 of the body the muscles adjacent may 
 be rendered rigid as in a person suffering 
 from catalepsy. Reason and memory 
 are temporarily suspended, the will is 
 paralyzed, and the subject is irresistibly 
 impelled to act in accordance with sug- 
 gestion, however absurd. He can be 
 persuaded into any hallucination, such 
 as that he is some one other than himself, 
 or that he hears or sees, smells or tastes 
 something which has no existence before 
 him. As a therapeutic agent mesmerism 
 has been successfully employed in cer- 
 
MESOPOTAMIA 
 
 METAMORPHOSIS 
 
 tain forms of disease, especially in cases 
 of nervous irritation and sleeplessness, 
 and such diseases in general as have a 
 nervous origin. It has been claimed also 
 by professors of the art that the patient 
 when in this condition can determine 
 the nature of any disease from which he 
 may be suffering and the means of its 
 cure, that he can penetrate the mysteries 
 of the future and hold communication 
 with distant persons. But these last 
 statements cannot be regarded as 
 authenticated. 
 
 MESOPOTA'MIA, a name given by 
 the Greeks to the extensive region in- 
 closed by the Tigris and Euphrates, 
 anciently associated with the Assyrian 
 and Babylonian monarchies. Its Old 
 Testament name is Aram Naharaim, 
 or Padan Aram. The Greek title was 
 probably not in use till after Alexander 
 the Great invaded the east. This coun- 
 try is inhabited chiefly by Arabs, Kurds 
 and Armenians. Many of them are 
 nomadic, and their chief occupation is 
 the grazing of cattle. Mesopotamia is 
 now part of the Turkish Empire. 
 
 MESOZOTC PERIOD, the term ap- 
 plied by geologists to the geological 
 period between the Palseozoic and the 
 Cainozoic. It is coextensive with the 
 secondary formations, and includes the 
 rocks of the Triassic, Oolitic, and Creta- 
 ceous groups. 
 
 MESQUITE, a small tree allied to the 
 acacia, common in Mexico, Texas, and 
 other of the western states. It yields 
 a gum not much inferior to gum arabic; 
 its seeds are eaten, and a drink is pre- 
 pared from the mucilage of its pods. 
 Another species has pods that are eaten 
 by the Indians, being rich in saccharine 
 matter. They are of a twisted form, 
 hence the name “screw bean.” 
 
 MESSALI'NA, Valeria, the third wife 
 of the Roman emperor Claudius. She is 
 notorious in history on account of her 
 licentiousness and cruelty. She was 
 murdered a. d. 48. 
 
 MESSA'NA. See Messina. 
 
 MESSE'NIA, a country of ancient 
 Greece, in the southern part of the 
 Peloponnesus. Messenia gives name to 
 a monarchy in modern Greece, with an 
 area of 1221 sq. miles, and a pop. of 
 119,327. 
 
 MESSFAH, corresponding to the 
 Greek Christos of the New Testament, 
 that is, “anointed,” has in the Old Tes- 
 tament several applications, as to the 
 whole Jewish people, to the priests, to 
 the kings (“the Lord’s Anointed”), and 
 even to Gentile kings, as persons who 
 had been anointed with holy oil. The 
 designation, however, owes its special 
 importance to the application of it in 
 the prophetic books of the Old Testa- 
 ment to an ideal holy king and deliverer 
 whose advent they foretold. The whole 
 of the prophetic pictures agreed in 
 placing Jehovah in the central place of 
 the desired kingship. These prophecies, 
 which are called the Messianic prophe- 
 cies, had at the time of our Lord come 
 to be applied by the Jews to a temporal 
 king who should free them from foreign 
 oppression. They arc affirmed by Jesus 
 Christ and His apostles to apply to and 
 be fulfilled in Him ; and this is the belief 
 of the Christian Church, by which he is 
 
 called “The Messiah.” The rationalistic 
 school of theologians assert that Jesus 
 laid claim to the dignity either to meet 
 the preconceptions of his countrynien, 
 or because he felt that the truth which 
 he taught was the real kingdom never 
 to be destroyed which the God of Heaven 
 was to set up. 
 
 MESSI'NA, the chief commercial town 
 and seaport of Sicily, capital of the 
 province and on the strait of the same 
 name. Pop. 149,823, in 1908 when it 
 was destroyed by earthquake. (See 
 earthquake.) — The province of Messina 
 has an area of 1768 sq. miles, and a pop. 
 of 548,898. 
 
 MESSINA, Strait of, the strait which 
 separates Sicily from Italy. It has a 
 length of about 20 miles, and varies in 
 width from 2 miles in the north to 11 
 miles in the south, is very deep, and 
 has a strong tidal current. 
 
 MESTIZOS (mes-te'zos), people of 
 mixed origin in countries where Spanish 
 Europeans have settled and inter- 
 mingled with the natives. 
 
 METALLURGY (met'al-er-ji), the art 
 of working metals, comprehending the 
 whole process of separating them from 
 other matters in the ore, smelting, 
 refining, etc. 
 
 METALS, elementary substances have 
 been divided by chemists into two 
 classes, metals and non-metals or metal- 
 loids, but these merge one into the other 
 by gradations so imperceptible that it is 
 impossible to frame a definition which 
 will not either include some non-metallic 
 bodies or exclude some metallic. The 
 term metal is an ideal type, and is ap- 
 plied to those elementary substances 
 which in the combination of physical 
 characteristics which they present ap- 
 proach more or less nearly to it. The 
 following are the chief characteristics of 
 metals. They are opaque, having a 
 peculiar luster connected with their 
 opacity called metallic; insoluble in 
 water; solid, except in one instance, at 
 ordinary temperatures ; generally fusible 
 by heat; good conductors of heat and 
 electricity; capable, when in the state of 
 an oxide, of uniting with acids and form- 
 ing salts; and have the property, when 
 their compounds are submitted to 
 electrolysis, of generally appearing at 
 the negative pole of the battery. Many 
 of the metals are also malleable, or sus- 
 ceptible of being beaten or rolled out 
 into sheets or leaves, and some of them 
 are extremely ductile or capable of be- 
 ing drawn out into wires of great fineness. 
 They are sometimes found native or 
 pure, but more generally combined with 
 oxj'gen, sulphur, and some other ele- 
 ments, constituting ores. The great 
 difference in the malleability of the 
 metals gave rise to the old distinction of 
 metals and semi-metals, which is now 
 disregarded. The following — fifty-two 
 in number — are the principal substances 
 usually regarded as metals: aluminium, 
 antimony, barium, beryllium, or glu- 
 cinum, bismuth, cadmium, caesium, cal- 
 cium, cerium, chromium, cobalt, colum- 
 dium, or niobium, copper, didymium, 
 erbium, gallium, germanium, gold, in- 
 dium, iridium, iron, lanthanum, lead, 
 lithium, magnesium, manganese, mer- 
 cury, molybdenum, nickel, osmium. 
 
 palladium, platinum, potassium, rho- 
 dium, rubidium, ruthenium, scandium, 
 silver, sodium, strontium, tantalum, 
 tellurium, terbium, thallium, thorium, 
 tin, titanium, tungsten, uranium, van- 
 adium, yttrium, zinc, zirconium. Of 
 these gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, 
 zinc, platinum, iron, are the most 
 malleable; gold, which possesses the 
 quality in the greatest degree, being 
 capable of being beaten into leaves jolriyTr 
 of a millimetre in thickness. The fol- 
 lowing, given in the order of their duc- 
 tility, are the most ductile: platinum, 
 silver, iron, copper, gold, aluminium, 
 zinc, tin, lead, platinum wire having 
 been obtained of not more than ysW of 
 a millimetre in diameter. The majority 
 of the useful metals .are between seven 
 and eight times heavier than an equal 
 bulk of water; platinum, osmium, and 
 iridium are more than twenty times 
 heavier; while lithium, potassium, and 
 sodium are lighter. The metals become 
 liquid, or otherwise change their con- 
 dition, at very various temperatures: 
 platinum is hardly fusible at the highest 
 temperature of a furnace ; iron melts at a 
 little lowertemperature ; andsilver some- 
 what lower still; while potassium melts 
 below the boiling-point of water, and 
 becomes vapor at a red heat, and it and 
 sodium may be moulded like wax at 16° 
 C. (61° Fahr.). Mercury is liquid at 
 ordinary temperatures, and freezes only 
 at 39^° C. below zero (-39° Fahr.). 
 Osmium and telluriiun are also regarded 
 by some as non-metals. All the metals, 
 without exception, combine with oxygen 
 sulphur, and chlorine, forming oxides, 
 sulphides, and chlorides, and many of 
 them also combine with bromine, iodine, 
 fluorine. Several of the later discovered 
 metals exist in exceedingly minute 
 quantities, and were detected only by 
 spectrum analysis, and there is every 
 likelihood that research in this direction 
 will add to the present list of metals. 
 
 METAMOR'PHIC ROCKS, in geology, 
 stratified or unstratified rocks of any age 
 whose original texture has been altered 
 and rendered less or more crystalline by 
 subterranean heat, pressure, or chemi- 
 cal. agency. The name is given more 
 especially to the lowest and azoic, or 
 non-fossiliferous, stratified rocks, con- 
 sisting of crystalline chists, and embrac- 
 ing granitoid schist, gneiss, quartz-rock, 
 mica-schist, and clay-slate, most of 
 which were originally deposited from 
 water and crystallized by subsequent 
 agencies. They exhibit for the most part 
 cleavage, crumpling, and foliation, and 
 their lines of stratification are often in- 
 distinct or obliterated. 
 
 METAMOR'PHOSIS, any change of 
 form, shape, or structure. In ancient 
 m 3 d;hology the term is applied to the 
 transformations of human beings into 
 inanimate objects, with which ancient 
 fable abounds. In zoology it includes the 
 alterations which an animal undergoes 
 after its exclusion from the egg or ovum, 
 and which alter extensively the general 
 form and life of the individual. All the 
 changes which are undergone by a 
 butterfly in passing from the fecundated 
 ovum to the imago, or perfect insect, 
 constitute its development — each 
 change, from ovum to larva, from laiA'^a 
 
METAPHOR 
 
 METHODISTS 
 
 to pupa, and from pupa to imago, con- 
 stituting a metamorphosis. 
 
 MET'APHOR, a figure of speech 
 founded on the resemblance which one 
 object is supposed to bear, in some re- 
 spect to another, and by which a word 
 is transferred from an object to which 
 it properly belongs to another in such a 
 manner that a comparison is implied, 
 though not formally expressed. It may 
 be called a simile without any word ex- 
 pressing comparison. Thus, “that man is 
 a fox,” is a metaphor; but “that man 
 is like a fox,” is a simile. So we say, 
 a man bridles his anger; beauty awakens 
 love or tender passions; opposition fires 
 courage. 
 
 METAPHYS'ICS, a word first applied 
 to a certain group of the philosophical 
 dissertations of Aristotle which were 
 placed in a collection of his manuscripts 
 after his treatise on physics. As since 
 employed, it has had various significa- 
 tions, and latterly it has been understood 
 as applying to the science which inves- 
 tigatesthe ultimate principles that under- 
 lie and are presupposed in all being and 
 knowledge. In the part of the Aristo- 
 telian treatise alluded to the problems 
 were concerned with the contemplation 
 of being as being, and the attributes 
 which belong to it as such. This im- 
 plies that things in general must be 
 divided into beings or things as they are, 
 and into phenomena or things as they 
 appear. In modern usage metaphysics is 
 very frequently held as applying to the 
 former division, that is to the ultimate 
 grounds of being. To attain this end it 
 takes into account the correlative of 
 being, that is, knowledge, and of knowl- 
 edge not as coming within the province 
 of logic or of mental philosophy, but as 
 it is in relation to being or objective 
 reality. In this respect metaphysics is 
 synonymous with ontology. The science 
 has aiso been considered as synonymous 
 with psychology, and to denote that 
 branch of philosophy which investigates 
 the faculties, operations, and laws of the 
 human mind. 
 
 METAZOA (met-a-zo'a), one of the 
 two great sections into which Huxley 
 divides the animal kingdom, the other 
 being the Protozoa. The lowest of the 
 Metazoa are the Porifera or sponges. 
 That portion of the Metazoa which 
 possess a notochord, constitute the sub- 
 kingdom Vertebrata; the rest are in- 
 v©rt ©brSito 
 
 METEMPSYCHO'SIS, transmigration; 
 the passage of the soul from one body 
 to another. See Transmigration of the 
 Soul. 
 
 METEOR, a name originally given to 
 any atmospheric phenomenon ; it is now 
 more usually applied to the phenomena 
 known as shooting-stars, falling-stars, 
 fireballs, or bolides, aerolites, meteorol- 
 lites, meteoric stones, etc. It is now 
 generally believed that these phenomena 
 are all of the same nature, and are due 
 to the existence of a great number of 
 bodies, some of them very small indeed, 
 revolving roimd the sun, which, when 
 they happen to pass through the earth’s 
 atmosphere, are heated by friction and 
 become luminous. Under certain cir- 
 cumstances portions of these bodies 
 reach the earth’s surface, and these are 
 
 known as meteorites or meteoric stones. 
 These stones consist of known chemical 
 elements. They have this peculiarity, 
 that whereas native iron is extremely 
 rare among terrestrial minerals, it 
 usually forms a component part in 
 meteorites, and is known as meteoric 
 iron. Exceptionally large showers of 
 meteors appear in August and Novem- 
 ber every year, and the November 
 showers exhibit a maximum brilliancy 
 every 33 years. As to the connection of 
 meteors \Vith comets see Comets. 
 
 METEORIC IRON. See Iron (Native), 
 and Meteor. 
 
 METEORIC STONES. See Meteor. 
 
 METEOROLOGY, the science or 
 branch of knowledge that treats of at- 
 mospheric phenomena relating to wea- 
 ther and climate. The phenomena with 
 which it deals and the instruments used 
 in their observation are mainly these, 
 viz. : temperature (thermometer), humid- 
 ity (hygrometer), atmospheric pressure 
 (barometer), wind (anemometer), rain- 
 fall (rain-gauge), and clouds. These 
 phenomena are all referable to tlie 
 action of the sun, and accordingly pre- 
 sent variations depending upon locality 
 (including the infinitely varied physical 
 features of different places), the diurnal 
 revolution of the earth upon its axis, 
 and the annual revolution of the earth 
 roimd the sun. It is the business of 
 meteorology to examine the laws which 
 regulate these variations. It pursues its 
 inquiries in two directions, (1) with 
 reference to the variations observed at 
 different times in the same locality with 
 the view of obtaining average results 
 as to its climate — climatology, and (2) 
 with reference to the variations observed 
 in different localities at the same time 
 with the view of arriving at the laws 
 which regulate the changes in the 
 weather — weather study. In the prose- 
 cution of this study observations are 
 taken at the same hour of Greenwich 
 time at a number of stations situated 
 over a large extent of the earth’s sur- 
 face. These observations include read- 
 ings of barometer, thermometer, hygrom- 
 eter, rain-gauge, anemometer, etc., 
 with non-instrumental observation of 
 clouds. The results which indicate the 
 phenomena existing at that hour at the 
 several stations are tabulated, or regis- 
 tered, formed into weather charts, etc. 
 These charts are made by putting down 
 on a map readings taken at the same 
 moment over a large tract of country, 
 and joining by lines the points where the 
 readings agree. Since the general use 
 of the electric telegraph this branch has 
 assumed great practical importance. 
 By its means observations made at 
 many distant places may be imme- 
 diately communicated to one center, 
 and men of science are thus enabled to 
 forecast with considerable accuracy the 
 weather which may be expected in cer- 
 tain districts. Such forecastscanbe made 
 with great accuracy in tropical and sub- 
 tropical countries where the atmospheric 
 conditions are very constant, and varia- 
 tions from the average are consequently 
 easily observed. They are attended with 
 much more difficulty in temperate coun 
 tries. In the British Isles they are ex- 
 ceptionally difficult owing to the fact that 
 
 on the side from which nearly all 
 weather changes come, namely, the 
 west, thp existence of the Atlantic 
 Ocean renders telegraphic warning of 
 changes of weather impossible. The 
 fact that a storm is travelling eastward 
 may be telegraphed from America, but 
 there is always a chance of its being 
 dissipated or deflected long before it 
 reaches the coasts of Europe. It having 
 been observed, however, that a storm is 
 always preceded by a fall of the barom- 
 eter, the tendency to fall is observed 
 some time before the minimum depres- 
 sion occurs; the notice of this tehdency, 
 together with observations of the wind 
 and motions of cirrus clouds, enables 
 storm warnings to be sent from observ- 
 atories to the Meteorological office es- 
 ta,bllshed by government in London, 
 whence they are telegraphed to the 
 various parts of the United Kingdom. 
 The further eastward we travel in 
 Europe the easier does the forecasting 
 of the weather become. In the United 
 States, where the majority of storms 
 rise in the district to the west of the 
 Mississippi, and are thus capable of 
 easy observation, great accuracy has 
 been attained. In Great Britain, the 
 United States, and most civilized coun- 
 tries, systems of weather forecastinghave 
 now been established since about the 
 year 1860, the name of Admiral Fitzroy 
 being associated with the early days of 
 the system in England. The United 
 Kingdom is now divided into eleven 
 districts, and a forecast for each of these 
 is issued twice a day. Weather disturb- 
 ances are generally cyclonic or anti- 
 cyclonic in character. In the U.S., where 
 the majority of storms rise in the dis- 
 trict to the west of the Mississippi, and 
 are thus capable of easy observation, 
 great accuracy has been attained. The 
 Weather Bureau originated in 1870, as 
 an attachment to the Signal Service 
 Office of the War Department. In 1891 
 it was transferred by law to the Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, its functions being 
 closely allied to that interest. Its fore- 
 casts of the coming weather seldom ex- 
 tend beyond twenty-four to thirty-six 
 hours in advance, and are telegraphed 
 and published twice daily. See Cyclone, 
 Anti-cyclone, Climate, etc. 
 
 METH'ODISTS, a sect of Christians 
 founded by John Wesley, so called from 
 the fact that the name was applied to 
 Wesley and his companions by their 
 fellow-students at Oxford, on account 
 of the exact regularity of their lives, and 
 the strictness of their observance of 
 religious duties. The religious move- 
 ment which resulted in the foundation 
 of this sect began at Oxford in 1729, 
 the chief leaders besides John Wesley 
 being his brother Charles and George 
 Whitefield (see Wesley, Whitefield). 
 The first general conference of the 
 Methodists was held in 1744, and the 
 Methodists were constituted a legally 
 corporate body in 1784. Their doctrines 
 are substantially those of the Church of 
 England. The appointment of a minis- 
 ter of the body to any place is always 
 for three years. There are in addition to 
 the ordained ministers lay preachers, 
 leaders, trustees, and stewards. The 
 body is governed by an annual confer- 
 
METHYL 
 
 MEXICAN WAR 
 
 ence, having at its head a president and 
 secretary, whose term of office lasts but 
 for a year. In each district the ministers 
 hold half-yearly meetings, the several 
 chairmen being appointed by the con- 
 ference. There are also quarterly cir- 
 cuit meetings of ministers and lay 
 officers. The supreme legislative and 
 judicial power is vested in the conference 
 to which the half-yearly and quarterly 
 district and circuit meetings are sub- 
 ordinated. The number of members at 
 Wesley’s death was 76,968; but the de- 
 nomination has increased with such 
 marvelous rapidity, that there are said 
 to be in different parts of the world 
 above 28,000,000 adherents. The 
 Methodists are especially numerous in 
 North America, forming numerically 
 the leading denomination in the United 
 States. The Methodist Episcopal 
 Church is the oldest and leading Metho- 
 dist body in America. Since 1845 it has 
 been divided into two branches, the 
 Methodists of the southern states form- 
 ing what is called the Methodist Episco- 
 pal Church, South. 
 
 METH'YL, the name given to the 
 hypothetical radical of methyl alcohol 
 which is contained in wood spirit. It is 
 analogous to ethyl in its chemical char- 
 
 METHYLATED SPIRIT, spirit of wine 
 containing 10 per cent of wood naphtha, 
 which contains a large proportion of 
 methylic alcohol. The naphtha com- 
 municates a disagreeable flavor, which 
 renders it unfit for drinking, and for this 
 reason it is admitted duty free. It is of 
 much use in the arts as a solvent, for 
 preserving specimens, in manufacture 
 of varnishes, for burning in spirit- 
 lamps, etc. 
 
 METHYLIC ALCOHOL, alcohol ob- 
 tained by the destructive distillation of 
 wood. 
 
 METONIC CYCLE, METONIC YEAR, 
 
 the cycle of the moon, or period of 
 nineteen years, in which the lunations of 
 the moon return to the same days of the 
 month ; discovered by Meton, an Athen- 
 ian mathematician who flourished 432 
 
 B.C. 
 
 METRE, rhytlimical arrangement of 
 syllables into verses, stanzas, strophes, 
 etc. See Rhythm, Verse. 
 
 METRE, M6tre, a French measure of 
 length, equal to 39.37 English inches or 
 3.28 feet, the standard of linear measure, 
 being the ten-millionth part of the dis- 
 tance from the equator to the North 
 Pole, as ascertained by actual measure- 
 ment of an arc of the meridian. 
 
 METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS 
 AND MEASURES. See Decimal System. 
 
 METRIC SYSTEM SIMPLIFIED,THE, 
 the following tables of the metric 
 system of weights and measures have 
 been simplified as much as possible by 
 omitting such denominations as are not 
 in practical, everyday use in the coun- 
 tries where the system is used exclusively. 
 
 TABLES OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 Length.— The denominations in practical 
 use are millimetres (mm.), centimetres (cm.), 
 metres (m.), and kilometres (km.). 
 
 10 mm. = 1 cm; 100 cm. = 1 m. ; 1,000m, = 1km. 
 
 Note.— A decimetre is 10 cm. 
 
 Weight.— The denominations in use are 
 grams (g.), kilos* (kg.), and tons (metric tons). 
 
 1,000 g. r= 1 kg. ; 1,000 kg. = 1 metric ton. 
 
 Capacity.— The denominations in use are 
 cubic centimetres (c.c.) and litres (1.). 
 
 1,000 c.c. = 1 1. Note.— A hectolitre is 100 1. 
 (seldom used). 
 
 Relation of capacity and weight to length. A 
 cubic decimetre Is a litre and a litre of water 
 weighs a kilo. 
 
 APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENTS. 
 
 A metre is about a yard; a kilo is about 2 
 pounds; a litre is about a quart; a centimetre 
 is about >i-inch; a metric ton is about same as 
 a ton; a kilometre is about % mile; a cubic 
 centimetre is about a thimbleful; a nickel 
 weighs about 5 grams. 
 
 PRECISE EQUIVALENTS. 
 
 1 acre 
 
 — .am hectar 
 
 .4047 
 
 1 bushel 
 
 -35 
 
 litres 
 
 35.24 
 
 1 centimetre 
 
 = .39 
 
 inch 
 
 .3937 
 
 1 cubic centimetre 
 
 = .061 cubic inch. . 
 
 .0610 
 
 1 cubic foot 
 
 = . 028 cubic metre 
 
 .0285 
 
 1 cubic inch. 
 
 -16 
 
 cubic cent, t 16.39 
 
 1 cubic metre 
 
 = 35 
 
 cubic feet. .. 
 
 35.31 
 
 1 cubit metre 
 
 .= 1.3 
 
 cubic yards 
 
 1.308 
 
 1 cubic yard 
 
 - .76 
 
 cubic metre 
 
 .7615 
 
 i foot 
 
 .-30 
 
 centimetres. 30.48 
 
 1 gallon.. 
 
 - 3.81 
 
 litres 
 
 3.785 
 
 1 grain 
 
 - .065gram 
 
 .0648 
 
 1 gram 
 
 . = 15 
 
 grains 
 
 15.43 
 
 1 hectar 
 
 - 2.5 
 
 acres 
 
 2.471 
 
 1 inch 
 
 -25 
 
 millimetres . 25.40 
 
 I kilo 
 
 .- 2.2 
 
 pounds 
 
 2.205 
 
 1 kilometre 
 
 = .62 
 
 intie 
 
 .6214 
 
 1 litre 
 
 = .91 
 
 quart (dry) 
 
 .9081 
 
 1 litre 
 
 = 1.1 
 
 quarts (liq’(l)1.057 
 
 1 metre 
 
 = 3.3 
 
 feet. 
 
 3.281 
 
 1 mile 
 
 = 1.6 
 
 kilometres. 
 
 1.609 
 
 1 millimetre 
 
 .— .0391nch.. 
 
 .0394 
 
 1 ounce (av’d) 
 
 . = 28 
 
 grams 
 
 28.35 
 
 1 ounce (Troy) . . . 
 
 .=31 
 
 grams 
 
 31.10 
 
 1 'Deck 
 
 “ 8.8 
 
 litres 
 
 8.809 
 
 1 pint 
 
 = .47 
 
 litre 
 
 .4732 
 
 1 pound. 
 
 — .4l6 
 
 kilo . . .... 
 
 .4536 
 
 1 quart (dry) 
 
 = 1.1 
 
 litres 
 
 1.101 
 
 1 quart (liquid). .. 
 
 = .95 
 
 litre 
 
 .9464 
 
 1 sq. centimetre. . 
 
 = .15 
 
 sq. inch .... 
 
 .1550 
 
 1 sq. foot 
 
 = . 093 sq. metre.. . 
 
 .0929 
 
 1 sq. inch 
 
 = 6.5 
 
 sq. c’timetr’s 6.453 
 
 1 sq. metre 
 
 = 1.2 
 
 sq. yards. . . 
 
 1.196 
 
 1 sq. metre 
 
 .-11 
 
 sq. feet 
 
 10.76 
 
 1 sq. yard 
 
 = .84 
 
 sq. metre... 
 
 .8361 
 
 1 ton (2,0001bs).... 
 
 = .91 
 
 metric ton. 
 
 .9072 
 
 1 ton (2,240 lbs.) .. . 
 
 = 1 
 
 metric ton. 
 
 1.017 
 
 1 ton (metric) 
 
 = 1.1 
 
 ton (2, 000 lbs) 1.102 
 
 1 ton (metric) 
 
 = .98 
 
 ton (2,240 lbs) .9842 
 
 1 y^rd 
 
 = .91 
 
 metre 
 
 .9144 
 
 * Contraction for kilogram, t Centimetres. 
 
 MET'RONOME, an instrument con- 
 sisting of a weighted pendulum moving 
 on a pivot and set in motion by clock- 
 work; invented about 1814, for the pur- 
 pose of determining, by its vibrations, 
 the quickness or slowness with which 
 musical compositions are to be executed 
 
 Metronome, showing extent of vibrations. 
 
 so as to mark the time exactly. There is 
 a sliding weight attached to the pendu- 
 lum rod, by the shifting of which up or 
 down the vibrations may be made slower 
 or quicker. A scale indicates the number 
 of audible beats given per minute, and 
 this must be made to agree with the 
 number attached to the music by its 
 composer. 
 
 METROSIDE'ROS, a genus of trees 
 and shrubs, one species known as iron- 
 wood, is a tree, a native of Java and 
 
 Amboyna. The trees of this genus have 
 thick, opposite, entire leaves, and heads 
 of showy red or white flowers. 
 
 Iron-wood. 
 
 METTERNICH (met'ter-nih), Clemens 
 Lothar Wenzel, Prince von Metternich, 
 Austrian statesman, born 1773, died 
 1859. He represented Austria as am- 
 bassador at various European courts 
 between 1801 and 1809. In the latter 
 year he became minister of foreign 
 affairs. In this capacity he negotiated 
 the marriage of the Archduchess Maria 
 Louisa with Napoleon, and conducted 
 her to Paris. In 1813, after the French 
 reverses in Russia, Austria gave in her 
 adhesion to the other allied powers, 
 and declared war against France. From 
 this period the policy, not only of 
 Austria, but in a great measure that 
 also of the leading continental powers, 
 was shaped by Metternich. He was one 
 of the plenipotentiaries who signed the 
 Treaty of Paris, and he presided at the 
 congress of Vienna (1814). The object' 
 of his policy was to arrest the progress 
 of what were called revolutionary prin- 
 ciples. With this view he formed the 
 scheme kno'wn as the Holy Alliance. 
 He continued in power till, by the revo- 
 lution of 1848, he was driven from office, 
 and had to flee to England, where he 
 remained till 1851, when he returned 
 and lived in retirement at Vienna. 
 
 METZ, a town and important fortress 
 of Alsace-Lorraine, on the Moselle, which 
 here divides into several arms, 79 miles 
 northwest of Strasburg. Pop. 60,186. 
 
 MEURTHE-ET-MOSELLE (meurt-e 
 mo-zel), a department of northeast 
 France, formed in 1871 by uniting por- 
 tions of the old departments of Meurthe 
 and Moselle, in consequence of the 
 cession by France to Prussia of a portion 
 of her territory on the east under the 
 treaty of Frankfort (10th May, 1871) ; 
 area, 2024 sq. miles. The capital is 
 Nancy. Pop. 484,722. 
 
 MEUSE (meuz), a European river, 
 which rises in France, in the south of the 
 department Haute-Marne, and flows 
 through France, Belgium, and Holland. 
 Its length, including windings, is 580 
 miles. It is navigable for about 460 
 miles. 
 
 MEUSE, a northeast department of 
 France; area, 2404 sq. miles. Bar-le-Duc 
 is the capital Pop. 283,480. 
 
 MEXICAN WAR, a war between the 
 United States and Mexico in 1846-48, 
 was the result of outrages upon Ameri- 
 can citizens, the recognition of the in- 
 
MEXICAN WAR 
 
 MEXICO 
 
 dependence of Texas by the United 
 States (1837), the annexation (1845) of 
 Texas to the United States, in the face 
 of bitter opposition on the part of 
 Mexico, herself torn with revolution and 
 contending factions, and finally of a dis- 
 pute regarding the boundary of Texas, 
 the United States claiming the Rio 
 Grande as the boundary, while Mexico 
 held that Texas did not extend farther 
 south than the Nueces. 
 
 Gen. Zachary Taylor, with an army of 
 4000 men, arrived at the Rio Grande at 
 a point opposite Matamoros, on March 
 28, 1846, where he erected Fort Brown. 
 Gen. Ampudia, the Mexican commander 
 at Matamoros, sent a note to Taylor, 
 telling him to withdraw back to the 
 Nueces under the alternative of war. 
 Taylor refused, and in the meantime 
 Gen. Arista superseded Ampudia, and 
 sent part of his army across the river on 
 April 24 to attack Taylor. Capt. 
 Thornton, with a small party of Ameri- 
 can dragoons, sent up the river to watch 
 the Mexican’s movements, fell into an 
 ambuscade on the 25th, a few were 
 killed and the rest were captured. This 
 was the formal beginning of the war. A 
 messenger dispatched by Taylor soon 
 reached Washington, and on May 11 
 President Polk sent a message to con- 
 gress declaring that “Mexico has passed 
 the boundary of the United States, has 
 invaded our territory, and shed Ameri- 
 ican blood upon American soil. War 
 exists, and, notwithstanding all our 
 efforts to avoid it, exists by the act of 
 Mexico herself.” Taylor, on May 8, 
 with 3000 men, encountered Arista with 
 6000 at Palo Alta, defeating him, with a 
 loss of forty-four Americans, and 600 
 Mexicans. On the 9th Taylor met the 
 Mexicans at Reseca de la Palma, and 
 won another victory, the American loss 
 being 110 and the Mexican estimated at 
 1000. Taylor captured 100 prisoners, 
 eight pieces of artillery and a large 
 quantity of military stores. On the 18th 
 Taylor crossed the Rio Grande and took 
 possession of Matamoros, which had 
 been evacuated by the retreating Mexi- 
 cans. 
 
 Taylor, now promoted to be a major- 
 general, remained at Matamoros, getting 
 reinforcements, which were mostly 
 volunteers, and in September, 1846, 
 marched to Monterey. On the 19th the 
 army encamped before the city, an 
 attack was begun on the 20th, and after 
 desperate fighting Ampudia surrendered 
 the city on the 24th. An armistice of 
 eight weeks, subject to revocation by 
 either government at any time, was 
 then agreed to, the Mexicans being 
 allowed to take their army out of the 
 city. As Taylor was making prepara- 
 tions to march against San Luis Potosi, 
 orders came to him which stripped him 
 of most of his best troops, which were 
 sent to Gen. Scott, who was to invade 
 Mexico from Vera Cruz. Taylor, en- 
 camped at Auga Neva, near Saltillo, 
 learning that Santa Anna, who had been 
 put in command of the Mexican army in 
 the revolution which deposed President 
 Paredes in the summer of 1846, and who 
 became president in December of that 
 year, was marching with 20,000 men to 
 attack him, fell back a few miles to a 
 
 strong position at Buena Vista, with his 
 force of 5,000, mostly volunteers, who 
 had not participated in any of his bat- 
 tles. Here Taylor was assailed by Santa 
 Anna on February 22, 1847, but after 
 fierce fighting, Santa Anna retreated. 
 
 This was the end of the fighting under 
 Taylor, and closed the campaign in the 
 valley of the Rio Grande. Nevertheless, 
 it gave Taylor the prestige which gained 
 him the presidential nomination in the 
 whig convention of 1848, and the elec- 
 tion in that year. 
 
 Two months after Taylor’s first bat- 
 tle on the Rio Grande, it was deter- 
 mined to prosecute the war on a larger 
 scale, and General Winfield Scott, the 
 commanding general of the American 
 army, was sent to invade Mexico from 
 a base at Vera Cruz. Vera Cruz was 
 invested, and on the refusal of the Mexi- 
 can general, Landaro, in command of 
 the city, to capitulate, Scott opened 
 fire on March 22, and after a four days’ 
 terrific bombardment the city was sur- 
 rendered with 5000 prisoners and 400 
 pieces of artillery. 
 
 On April 8, 1847, Scott began his 
 memorable march to the City of Mexico. 
 At a position of great natural strength 
 in the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo, 
 Scott, with 8500 men, encountered 
 Santa Anna with 12,000 on April 17, 
 stormed Santa Anna’s position on the 
 18th, and captured 3000 prisoners, 
 4500 stand of arms and 43 cannon. 
 Scott paroled his prisoners, captured 
 Jalape without resistance on the 19th, 
 occupied Perote, on the summit of the 
 Cordilleras, on the 22d, and entered 
 Puebla on May 15 
 
 The arrival of Gen. Franklin Pierce 
 with re-inforcements of about 2500 
 men in August set Scott’s army again 
 in motion. On the 6th of that month the 
 march on the City of Mexico was re- 
 sumed. On the 20th, Contreras and 
 Cherubusco were captured after fierce 
 fighting, 3000 prisoners being taken, in- 
 cluding eight generals, two being ex- 
 presidents, and thirty-seven pieces of 
 artillery. An armistice was granted to 
 Santa Anna on August 23, and Nicholas 
 P. Trist, a special commissioner from 
 Polk, opened negotiations with the 
 Mexicans for peace. No agreement being 
 reached and Santa Anna utilizing the 
 cessation of operations by strengthening 
 his fortifications, Scott resumed hos- 
 tilities. On September 8 Molino del Rey 
 was stormed by Worth, and on the 12th, 
 after a two days’ battle, Chapultepec, 
 by Scott, was also carried by storm. 
 
 The Americans entered the City of 
 Mexico on the 14th, the Mexican gov- 
 ernment having abandoned it on the 
 previous day. There were some dis- 
 turbances in the city on that day, and 
 guerrilla fighting under Santa Anna’s 
 direction afterward, but the general 
 result could not be changed. On Feb- 
 ruary 2, 1848, at Guadalupe Hidalgo, a 
 small town near the city of Mexico, a 
 treaty of peace was signed by Trist, on 
 the part of the United States, and three 
 commissioners representing Mexico, 
 whereby the southwest boundary of 
 Texas was fixed at the Rio Grande, the 
 line claimed by Texas and the United 
 States, and New Mexico and California 
 
 were added to the United States, for 
 which this country paid $15,000,000 to 
 Mexico, and assumed the pa3rment of 
 claims amounting to $3,250,000 of 
 American citizens against Mexico. The 
 American flag was lowered in the city of 
 Mexico on June 12, 1848, and the Mexi- 
 can flag was run up. It was saluted by 
 the American troops, who at once 
 marched out of the city, and the evacu- 
 tion of Mexico began. An addition of 
 545,783 square miles to the country’s 
 domain was made and the boundary of 
 the United States was advanced to the 
 
 MEXTCO, or MEJICO (ma-tii-ko), a 
 republic of North America, between the 
 United States and Central America, and 
 having on the east the Gulf of Mexico, 
 on the west the Pacific Ocean ; area 
 estimated at 742,148 sq. miles. Nearly 
 one-half of this territory lies within the 
 torrid zone, but the peculiar geological 
 structure of the republic, that of an 
 elevated plateau rising into volcanic 
 peaks, supported by the two branches of 
 the Mexican Cordilleras, the northeast 
 and northwest, causes the greatest 
 diversity of climate. The largest river 
 is the Rio Grande del Norte, forming 
 part of the boundary with the United 
 States. Mexico is a country of great 
 natural resources. There is a vast 
 variety of usefid indigenous trees and 
 plants, and many others have been in- 
 troduced. The principal agricultural 
 products are maize and other corn, 
 sisal-hemp, tropical fruits, cotton, coffee, 
 sugar, tobacco, indigo, vanilla, cochineal, 
 etc. Large numbers of cattle are reared, 
 especially in the north. The chief in- 
 dustries (besides agriculture and mining) 
 are the manufacture of cottons and 
 woolens, pottery, tobacco and cigars, 
 leather, soap, sugar-refining, brewing, 
 and distilling (principally from the 
 agave or maguey), etc. Mexico is rich 
 in minerals, especially gold and silver, 
 which are far the most valuable of the 
 exports. 
 
 The republic is divided into twenty- 
 seven states; two territories; and what is 
 called the Federal District, which com- 
 prises Mexico, the capital of the repub- 
 lic, and a small portion of adjoin ing ter- 
 ritory . The population in 1908 was about 
 15,000,000. All religions are tolerated, 
 but no religious body can own landed 
 property. Primary education is com- 
 pulsory, but the law is not strictly en- 
 forced. The schools are supported partly 
 by the central and partly by the state 
 government, and partly by charitable 
 foundations supported by voluntary 
 subscriptions. The present form of gov- 
 ernment is that of a federal republic, 
 each member of which manages its own 
 internal concerns. The supreme execu- 
 tive power is vested in a president, who 
 has powers very similar to those of the 
 president of the United States. There is 
 an army numbering on the peace footing 
 some 30,000 men. The chief money unit 
 is the silver peso or dollar, nominal 
 value 50c. 
 
 Prior to 1521 Mexico was inhabited 
 by an Aztec race and ruled by native 
 emperors. (See Aztecs.) This race had 
 attained a remarkable degree of civiliza- 
 tion, and interesting remains of their 
 

 MEXICO 
 
 architecture are existent in the teocallis 
 or pyramids of Cholula, Pueblo, and 
 Papantla. In 1521 Mexico fell into the 
 hands of the Spaniards under Hernando 
 Cortez. Cortez called it New Spain, 
 and was created captain-general, but in 
 1535 was displaced by a viceroy. From 
 that date till 1821 the country was one 
 of the viceroyalties of Spanish America, 
 and governed by a series of viceroys 
 possessed of almost absolute-power. 
 The spirit of discontent engendered by 
 the selfishness of the Spanish rule mani- 
 fested itself in open rebellion, when, 
 in 1808 the deposition of King Ferdi- 
 nand by Napoleon and the unsettled state 
 of affairs in Spain afforded an oppor- 
 tunity. This rebellion, begun by a priest, 
 Hidalgo, and continued with more or 
 less vigor till 1821, secured in that year 
 the independence of Mexico. After an 
 unsuccessful attempt to secure a Bour- 
 bon prince for the throne, Iturbide, the 
 chief of the insurgents, caused himself 
 to be proclaimed emperor. May 18, 1822, 
 under the title of Augustin I., but was 
 forced to abdicate, March, 1823. A new 
 form of government, on federal repub- 
 lican principles, was then established, 
 the constitution being adopted and pro- 
 claimed in 1824. Since the acquisition 
 of its independence Mexico has had a 
 most unsettled history. The republican 
 form of government has been inter- 
 rupted by numerous dictatorships, and 
 by the brief rule of the Austrian arch- 
 duke Maximilian as emperor from 1864 
 till his execution in 1867; and till 
 recently there has been almost incessant 
 civil war. It has also been at war with 
 Spain (1829), the United States (1847- 
 48), the allied armies of Spain, France, 
 and England (1861), and with France 
 (1862). 
 
 MEXICO, capital of the republic of 
 Mexico, is situated within the state of 
 Mexico in the Federal district (461 sq. 
 miles), about 7400 feet above the level 
 of the sea, near several lakes. It is on 
 the site of the ancient city of Tenoch- 
 titlan, which was destroyed on the cap- 
 ture of Mexico by the Spaniards in 1521. 
 The principal public buildings are the 
 cathedral, the palace of government, the 
 college of mines, the mint, the town- 
 house, the university, etc. Mexico en- 
 joys a mild climate, and a pure and 
 healthy atmosphere. Pop. estimated at 
 350,000. 
 
 MEXICO, one of the states of the 
 Mexican republic; area, 7848 sq. miles. 
 It lies in the south of Mexico, and forms 
 an elevated region, one of the best cul- 
 tivated and most thickly peopled part 
 of the republic. Its capital is Toluca, 
 but it embraces within its boundaries 
 the city and Federal District of Mexico. 
 Pop. 924,457. 
 
 MEXICO, Gulf of, a large bay or gulf 
 of the Atlantic, oval in form, and nearly 
 surrounded by a continuous coast line 
 3000 miles in length, of the United 
 States and Meixco; estimated area, 
 800,000 sq. miles. It gives name to the 
 Gulf Stream, which issues from it by 
 the Strait of Flordia. 
 
 MEYERBEER (mi'6r-bar), Giacomo, 
 musical composer, born in Berlin 1791, 
 died at Paris 1864. His father was of 
 Jewish descent. He gave early proof 
 
 of his devotion to music, and at nine 
 was regarded as one of the best pianists 
 in Berlin. He studied under Bernhard 
 Anselm Weber at Berlin, and the Abbe 
 Volger at Darmstadt, wdiere he began 
 his life-long friendship with Karl Maria 
 von Weber. His first two operas, 
 Jephtha’s Daughter and Abimelek, the 
 one produced at Munich and the other 
 at Vienna, having failed, he went to 
 Italy. There he rapidly composed a 
 series of operas in the Italian style, 
 which were generally well received : 
 In 1826 he went to Paris. There he pro- 
 duced Robert le Diable (1831); Les 
 Huguenots (Paris, 1836) ; Le ProphSte 
 (1849) ; and L’Africaine (1865). In these 
 Parisian operas he ceases to be an 
 imitator of the Italians, and it is upon 
 them that his fame as a composer is 
 founded. Besides his operas Meyerbeer 
 wrote a great number of songs, an 
 oratorio, cantatas, a Te Deum, etc. 
 
 MEZZOTINT, a particular manner of 
 engraving on copper or steel in imitation 
 of painting in Indian ink, the lights and 
 gradations being scraped and burnished 
 out of a prepared dark ground. The 
 surface of the plate is first completely 
 covered with minute incisions, so that it 
 would give in this condition a uniform 
 black impression. The design is then 
 drawn on the face, and the dents are 
 erased from the parts where the lights of 
 the piece are to be, the parts which are 
 to represent shades being left untouched 
 or partially scraped according to the 
 depth of tone. 
 
 MIAMA (mi-a'mi), a river of the 
 United States, in Ohio, joining the Ohio 
 below Cincinnati; length 150 miles. 
 
 MIASMA. See Malaria. 
 
 MICA, a mineral of a foliated struc- 
 ture, consisting of thin flexible laminae 
 or scales, having a shining, pearly, and 
 almost metallic luster. These are some- 
 times parallel, sometimes interwoven, 
 sometimes wavy or undulated, some- 
 times representing filaments. The 
 laminae of mica are easily separated, 
 and are sometimes not more than the 
 300,000th part of an inch in thickness. 
 The plates are sometimes as large as 36 
 inches diameter. They are employed in 
 Russia for window panes, and in that 
 state are called muscovy-glass. Mica 
 enters into the composition of the 
 crystalline rocks, as granite, gneiss, 
 mica schists, chlorites, talcose rocks 
 and occurs in trappean and volcanic 
 products. It is found also in many sedi- 
 mentary rocks, as shales and sandstones, 
 giving them their laminated texture. 
 In the latter case, it is derived from the 
 disintegration of the crystalline rocks. 
 It is essentially a silicate of alumina, 
 with which are variously combined 
 small proportions of the silicates of 
 potash, soda, lithia, oxide of iron, oxide 
 of manganese, etc., in accordance with 
 which several species have been con- 
 stituted, as common or potash mica, 
 lithia mica, magnesia mica, pearl mica. 
 Regarded as minerals, varieties of mica 
 have received the names of biotite, 
 lepidolite, muscovite, lepidomelane, stea- 
 tite, etc. 
 
 MICACEOUS ROCKS, rocks of which 
 mica is the chief ingredient, as mica slate 
 and clay slate. 
 
 MICHIGAN t 
 
 MICAH, the sixth of the minor proph- 
 ets, a member of the tribe of Judah. 
 He prophesied in the reigns of Jotham, 
 Ahaz, and Hezekiah, and was a con- 
 temporary of Isaiah. His style is pure 
 and correct, his images bold and vivid. 
 
 MICA SCHIST, MICA SLATE, a meta- 
 morphic rock, composed of mica and 
 quartz ; it is highly fissile and passes by 
 insensible gradations into clay-slate. 
 
 MICHAEL, St. (Hebrew, “he who is 
 equal to God”), in Jewish theosophy, the 
 greatest of the angels (Daniel x. 13, 21j 
 xii. 1), one of the seven archangels. In 
 the New Testament he is spoken of as 
 the guardian angel of the church (Jude, 
 ver. 9; Rev. xii. 7). There is a festival 
 of St. Michael and All Angels in the 
 Western Church, held on 29th Septem- 
 ber. (See Michaelmas.) — The order of St. 
 Michael and St. George is a British 
 order of knighthood dating from 1818. 
 It consists of Knights Grand Cross*(G.C. 
 M.G.), Knights Commanders (K.C.M.G.) 
 and Companions (C.M.G.). The ribbon 
 of the order is blue with a red stripe 
 down the center. The badge is a white 
 star of seven double rays, having in the 
 center a representation of St. Michael 
 overcoming Satan. 
 
 MICHAEL, St. or SAG MIGUEL, the 
 
 largest of the Azores, famous for the pro- 
 duction of oranges and lemons, of which 
 it exports 120,000 boxes annually. The 
 population is about 115,000; capital, 
 Ponta Delgado. 
 
 MICHAEL ANGELO. See Buonarotti. 
 
 MICHAELMAS, the feast of St. 
 Michael the Archangel (see Michael, St.). 
 It falls on the 29th of September, and is 
 supposed to have been established to- 
 ward the close of the 5th century. 
 
 MICHIGAN (mish'i-gan), one of the 
 north-central United States; area, 58,915 
 sq. miles. It consists of two separate 
 peninsulas — one projecting eastward 
 between Lakes Superior, Huron, and 
 Michigan, and bounded inland by AVis- 
 consin ; the other projecting northward 
 between Lakes Michigan, Huron, St, 
 Clair, and Erie, and bounded on the 
 
 Seal of Michigan. 
 
 south by Ohio and Indiana. It has up- 
 ward of 1100 miles of lake-coast, with 
 numerous bays and excellent harbors 
 The northwestern peninsula, occupying 
 nearly a third of the whole surface, is 
 comparatively elevated, and presents a 
 succession of mountains an(l lakes, 
 plains, rivers, and forests. The surface 
 
MICHIGAN 
 
 MICROMETER 
 
 of the other peninsula is gently undulat- 
 ing, and rises gradually from the lakes 
 toward its center. It is mostly covered 
 with fine forests of timber, interspersed 
 with plains and prairies. Agriculture is 
 the staple industry, the chief cereals 
 being wheat and Indian corn. The re- 
 maining crops include barley, buck- 
 wheat, rye, hay, potatoes, tobacco, hops, 
 etc. After agriculture, lumbering is per- 
 haps the chief employment. The culti- 
 vation of fruit-trees is receiving in- 
 creasing attention, and considerable 
 quantities of apples and peaches are now 
 exported. The mines in the northwest- 
 ern peninsula produce haematite ore, 
 from which is obtained great quantities 
 of excellent iron; and here also are 
 seated very rich copper mines. Salt of 
 unsurpassed purity occurs in a basin 
 extending over 8000 sq. miles. Manu- 
 facturing industries are varied and im- 
 portant. The important commerce of 
 the state is greatly benefited by its large 
 navigable waters and by its extensive 
 system of railways, which measure some 
 7500 miles. The capital is Lansing, but 
 the commercial metropolis and much 
 the largest city is Detroit, Grand Rapids 
 being next in size. In the primary schools 
 education is free, but a fee may be re- 
 quired for advanced studies in higher 
 schools. At the head of the educational 
 institutions is the Michigan University, 
 situated at Ann Arbor. Remains of 
 ancient mines and mining implements 
 have been found within the present 
 limits of the state. The white discoverers 
 and first settlers were French mission- 
 aries and fur traders, some of whom 
 visited the site of Detroit as early as 
 1610. In 1641 French Jesuits found 
 their way to the falls of the Saint Mary. 
 The first actual settlement by Europeans 
 within the limits of the state was the 
 mission at Sault Sainte Marie, founded 
 by Father Marquette and others in 
 1668. Three years later Michilimacki- 
 nac (now Mackinac) was established. 
 In 1679 and 1686 forts were built at the 
 mouth of the Saint Joseph, and at the 
 outlet of Lake Huron, and in 1701 
 Antoine de la Mothe-Cadillac founded 
 Detroit. The territory, with other 
 French possessions, fell into the hands 
 ol the English at the end of the French 
 and Indian war. Detroit was occupied 
 in 1763, but early in May of that year 
 the Indians, loyal to the French, rose 
 under Pontiac, massacred the garrison 
 at Mackinac, and besieged Detroit for 
 about five months. During the revolu- 
 tion Detroit was the starting point for 
 many Indian expeditions which laid 
 waste the American frontier. After 
 1784 the Indians of the northwest, 
 deeming themselves unjustly treated 
 by the Americans, waged a bloody war- 
 fare against the western settlements 
 till they were brought to terms by 
 General Wayne in 1795. By the treaty 
 of peace concluded in that year, they 
 ceded large tracts of land on the eastern 
 shore of the southern peninsula of Michi- 
 gan and in the north to the LTnited 
 States. On June 30, 1805, Michigan was 
 set off as a separate territory, with sub- 
 stantially its present limits, and Gen. 
 William Hull was appointed governor. 
 During the war of 1812 the inhabitants 
 
 were harassed by the British and In- 
 dians; Mackinac was captured by the 
 British; Detroit was surrendered by 
 Governor Hull; and at Frenchtown, in 
 1813, a number of American prisoners 
 of war were massacred by the Indians. 
 In 1819 the territory was authorized to 
 send a delegate to congress, and in 1823 
 the system of rule by a governor and 
 three judges was replaced by that of a 
 governor and a council of nine, selected 
 from eighteen chosen by the people; 
 in 1825 the council was increased to 
 thirteen, and after 1827 the members 
 were elected by popular vote. In 1835 
 a state constitution was adopted by a 
 convention called for that purpose, but 
 the admission of Michigan into the 
 Union was delayed by a dispute with 
 Ohio concerning a strip of land on the 
 southern boundary. There was dd-nger 
 that the dispute would lead to blood- 
 shed, but in 1836 congress agreed to 
 admit Michigan upon condition that 
 she should surrender her claim to the 
 disputed territory and accept in lieu 
 thereof a larger area in the Upper Penin- 
 sula. The first convention called to con- 
 sider this proposal, January 26, 1836, 
 rejected it, but it was accepted by a 
 second in December, 1836, and on 
 January 26, 1837, Michigan was ad- 
 mitted into the Union. 
 
 The opening of the Erie canal (1825) 
 poured a vast stream of immigration 
 into Michigan. The first bank was estab- 
 lished at Detroit in 1818, and by 1837 
 there were fifteen such institutions. 
 The state undertook the building of 
 three railways across the Lower Penin- 
 sula, but after running greatly into debt 
 was forced in 1846 to sell them. In 
 1847 the capital was removed from 
 Detroit to Lansing. Legislation after the 
 civil war was concerned largely with the 
 taxation of corporations. In 1889 the 
 Australian ballot was adopted. A fac- 
 tory inspection act was enacted in 1894, 
 and a stringent anti-trust law in 1S99. 
 Michigan has consistently supported the 
 republican party since its formation, 
 except for three lapses — in 1882 and 
 1883, when the democrats and green- 
 back party in fusion elected their can- 
 didate for governor, and in 1890, when 
 the democrats alone carried the state. 
 Pop. 2,875,000. 
 
 MICHIGAN, Lake, the second largest 
 of the great lakes of North America. 
 It is wholly within the United States, 
 having the state of Michigan on the east 
 and northwest, Wisconsin and Illinois 
 on the west, and Indiana on the south. 
 On the northeast it communicates 
 with Lake Huron by the narrow strait 
 of Mackinaw. It is 350 miles long, and 
 on an average 60 miles broad; area, 
 estimated at 26,000 sq. miles. The lake 
 is 578 feet above sea-level; the greatest 
 ascertained depth is about 1000 feet. 
 
 MICHIGAN CITY, a city in Laporte 
 CO., Ind., 56 miles east of Chicago, 111.; 
 on Lake Michigan, and on the Lake 
 Erie and Western, the Chicago, Indian- 
 apolis and Louisville, and the Michigan 
 Central railroads. It is the seat of the 
 northern Indiana state prison, and has a 
 United States life-saving station. There 
 are good transportation facilities, to 
 which are du( the city’s large commer- 
 
 cial interests, the trade being principally 
 in lumber, salt, and iron ore. The manu- 
 factures of railroad cars, chairs, hosiery, 
 and knit goods, lumber and products of 
 lumber are important. Pop. 17,620. 
 
 MICHIGAN STATE AGRICULTURAL 
 COLLEGE a coeducational state insti- 
 tution at Lansing, Mich., the oldest 
 institution of its kind in the country. 
 It was established in pursuance of a 
 constitutional provision in 1855, and 
 was opened in 1857. There are three 
 courses, agricultural, mechanical, and 
 women’s or domestic science. Farmers’ 
 institutes are carried on annually in 
 each county of the state. 
 
 MICHIGAN, University of, a coeduca- 
 tional state institution at Ann Arbor, 
 Mich., chartered in 1837. The institution 
 was opened in 1841, graduating its first 
 class in 1845. It is intended primarily 
 for the higher education of residents of 
 the state, but receives students from all 
 parts of the country on payment of a 
 small tuition fee. The governing body is 
 a board of regents, elected for terms of 
 eight years. The university is organized 
 in seven departments: literature, sci- 
 ences, and the arts, engineering, medi- 
 cine and surgery, law, pharmacy, the 
 Homoeopathic Medical College, and 
 the College of Dental Surgery. Each 
 department has its special faculty, with 
 representation on the University Senate, 
 which considers questions of common 
 interest. The degrees conferred are 
 bachelor and master of arts, science, 
 and law; civil, mechanical, and electri- 
 cal engineer; and doctor of philosophy, 
 science, medicine, dental surgery, and 
 dental science. The university was a 
 pioneer in coeducation, women having 
 first been admitted in 1870. They now 
 constitute about one-fifth of the student 
 body. Coeducation at the university 
 has been uniformly successful. Entrance 
 is based upon examination or upon cer- 
 tificates from accredited schools. The 
 university has no dormitories and no 
 commons. Recent extension of the 
 elective system has resulted in a con- 
 siderable loss in the choice of Latin, 
 Greek, and mathematics, and a marked 
 gain in the modern languages. 
 
 MICHOACAN', one of the states of 
 Mexico, on the Pacific Coast; area, 
 25,689 sq. miles. It has rich mines of 
 gold, silver, and other minerals. Capital 
 Morelia. Pop. 930,033. 
 
 MICKIEWICZ (mits-kya'vich), Adam, 
 Polish poet; born 1798, died 1855. He 
 wrote several epics, and is regarded as 
 the chief national poet of his country. 
 
 MICMACS, a tribe of North American 
 Indians, mostly inhabiting New Bruns- 
 wick and Nova Scotia, and numbering 
 some 3600. Their language has been 
 reduced to writing, and a dictionary 
 of it has been compiled. 
 
 MICROM'ETER, an instrument used 
 with a telescope or microscope, for 
 measuring very small distances. Microm- 
 eters are variously constructed; but 
 in perhaps the most common form 
 (the filar micrometer) the principle of 
 operation is that the instrument moves 
 a fine thread or wire parallel to itself 
 in the plane of the image of an object, 
 formed in the focus of a telescope, the 
 wire or thread being moved by means of 
 
 
MICROPHONE 
 
 delicate screws with graduated heads, 
 60 that the distance traversed by the 
 wire can be measured with the greatest 
 precision. The micrometer is of the 
 utmost value to the astronomer, and 
 in trigonometrical surveys, and military 
 and naval operations. 
 
 MICROPHONE, an instrument to 
 make faint sounds more audible. The 
 most sensitive conductor of sound is 
 willow-charcoal, dipped when at white- 
 heat into a bath of mercury. A piece of 
 charcoal, thus prepared, placed vertical- 
 ly between two carbon-blocks which are 
 connected with a telephone, is a com- 
 mon form of microphone, and magnifies 
 sounds, otherwise inaudible, enormously. 
 
 MICROSC9PE, an optical instru- 
 ment consisting of a lens or combination 
 of lenses (in some cases mirrors also) 
 which magnifies objects and thus ren- 
 ders visible minute objects that can- 
 not be seen by the naked eye, or en- 
 larges the apparent magnitude of 
 small visible bodies, so as to enable us to 
 examine their minute texture or struc- 
 ture. For a good microscope an achro- 
 matic combination of lenses to form an 
 object-glass and a well-made eye-piece 
 are necessary. The magnifying power 
 of an instrument may be increased by 
 (1) increasing the magnifying power of 
 the object-glassg (2) increasing the 
 
 Compound microscope. 
 
 power of the eye-piece; (3) increasing 
 the distance between the objective and 
 the eye-piece. The simplest form of 
 microscope is nothing more than a lens 
 or sphere of any transparent substance, 
 in the focus of which minute objects are 
 placed. When a microscope consists of 
 two or more lenses, one of which forms 
 an enlarged image of objects, while the 
 rest magnify that image, it is called a 
 compound microscope. A binocular 
 microscope is a miscroscope with two 
 tubes starting from a point above the 
 
 object-glass, which is simple, and 
 gradually diverging to fit the eyes of the 
 observer. The rays of light arising from 
 the object under observation are caused 
 to diverge into the two tubes by a prism. 
 A solar microscope has a reflector and a 
 condenser connected with it, the former 
 being employed to throw the sun’s rays 
 on the latter, by which it is condensed 
 to illuminate the object placed in its 
 focus. A lucernal microscope is the 
 same in principle as the solar, except 
 that a lamp is used, instead of the sun, 
 to illuminate the object. When an 
 oxyhydrogen lime-light is used it is 
 called an oxyhydrogen microscope. 
 
 The magnifying power of a micro- 
 scope varies inversely with the size of 
 the objective, the smaller the objective 
 the larger being the magnification. 
 In looking into a compound microscope 
 the observer sees only two dimensions — 
 length and breadth. Magnification, there- 
 fore, is expressed in diameters, or areas. 
 An object which is magnified 1,000 
 diameters is really magnified 1,000,000 
 times, that is, 1,000] X 1,000 times, 1,000 
 being the diameter 'of the magnification. 
 The highest power lenses magnify 2,800 
 to 3,000 diameters. High powers lose 
 in definition, so that often a lower 
 power will show more detail than a 
 higher. 
 
 MICROTASIM'ETER, an instrument 
 for measuring extremely small varia- 
 tions, in the expansion or contraction 
 caused by heat, moisture, etc. It has 
 been used by astronomers to indicate 
 the altered radiation of heat from the 
 sun during an eclipse or when the at- 
 mosphere is filled with moisture. 
 
 MIDAS, in Greek mythology, king of 
 Phrygia, whose request that whatsoever 
 he touched should turn to gold was 
 granted by the god Dionysus (Bacchus). 
 In this way even his food became gold, 
 and it was not until he had bathed in 
 the Pactolus that the fatal gift was trans- 
 ferred to the river. Another legend is 
 that, in a musical contest between Pan 
 and Apollo, Midas, who was umpire, 
 decided in favor of the former; where- 
 upon the angry Apollo bestowed upon 
 the presumptuous critic a pair of ass’s 
 ears. 
 
 MIDDLE AGES, a term applied 
 loosely to that period in European 
 history which lies between the ancient 
 and modern c’vilizations. With some 
 writers the period began when the 
 western Roman Empire was over- 
 thrown by Odoacer in 476; with others 
 when Charlemagne was crowned em- 
 peror of the West in 800; while yet 
 others make it begin when the Frankish 
 Empire ended in 843. The end of the 
 period is variously conceived to have 
 closed with the Reformation in Ger- 
 many; with the discovery of America 
 by Columbus; with the invention of 
 printing; and with rhe end of the 
 Thirty Years’ war in the Peace of West- 
 phalia (1648). The outstanding political 
 events of Middle Ages include the rise 
 of the German, French, and Italian 
 nationalities; the rise of the Norman 
 power, and the conquest of England by 
 William of Normandy; the crusades; 
 and the establishment of the Holy 
 Roman (or German) Empire. The two 
 most characteristic uiititutions which 
 
 MIDWIFERY 
 
 grew up into widespread power during 
 the Middle Ages were the feudal system 
 (which see), the monastic institutions 
 and the power of the papal hierarchy. 
 
 MIDDLESBROUGH, a river port and 
 mun., pari., and county borough of 
 England. Pop. 91,300. 
 
 MIDDLESEX, the metropolitan coun- 
 ty of England, one of the smallest in 
 the kingdom, but among the most 
 important, from its containing the 
 greater portion of the city of London; 
 area, 181,317 acres. Pop. 3,585,139. 
 
 MIDDLETOWN, a city (settled in 
 1650, incorporated in 1784); formerly a 
 port of entry, and one of the county- 
 seats of Middlesex co.. Conn.; on the 
 Connecticut river opposite Portland, 
 with which it is connected by an iron 
 railway bridge, and on the N. Y., N. H., 
 and Hart, railroad; 15 miles s. of Hart- 
 ford, 24 miles n.e. of New Haven. Pop. 
 11,310. 
 
 MIDDLETOWN, a city in Orange co., 
 N. Y., on the Wallkill river, and the 
 Erie, the N. Y., Ont. and W., and the 
 N. Y., Sus. and West, railways; 24 
 miles w.s.w. of Newburg, 66 miles n.n.w. 
 of New York. It is in an agricultural 
 and dairy region, is the seat of the New 
 York Homoeopathic Hospital for the 
 insane. Pop. 17,315. 
 
 MIDDLETOWN, a city in Butler co., 
 Ohio, on the Miami river, and the Cin., 
 Ham. and Day., the Cleve., Cin., Chi, 
 and St. L., the Cin. and Day., and the 
 Middle, and Day. railways; 32 miles n. 
 of Cincinnati. There are paper-mills, 
 tobacco factories, paper-bag factories, 
 foundry, planing-mill, and flour-mills. 
 Pop. 11,140. 
 
 MIDGE, the ordinary name given 
 to numerous minute species of flies, re- 
 sembling the common gnat. The eggs 
 are deposited in water, where they 
 undergo metamorphosis. 
 
 MIDHAT PASHA, a Turkish states- 
 man, born 1822, died 1884. He was 
 educated in Constantinople; entered 
 the Turkish civil service; attracted 
 attention by his administrative capac- 
 ity; became governor of Bulgaria in 
 1862, and was ultimately in 1876 created 
 grand vizier. In this position he was 
 supreme in the palace, and caused 
 Abdul Aziz and Murad V. to be deposed. 
 In the following year, however, he was 
 himself banished; and in 1881, after 
 a judicial investigation into the murder 
 of Adbul Aziz, he was condemned and 
 exiled to Arabia, where he died. 
 
 MIDIANITES, an Arabian tribe, repre- 
 sented in the Old Testament as the 
 descendants of Midian, son of Abraham 
 by Keturah (Gen. xxv.2), and described 
 as engaged at an early period in 
 commerce with Egypt. They dwelt in 
 the land of Moab (Arabia Petraea), to 
 the southeast of Canaan. One portion of 
 them inhabited the country on the east 
 of the Dead Sea. 
 
 MIDNAPUR, an administrative dis- 
 trict of Bengal, with an area of 5082 sq. 
 miles. Pop. 2,517,802. 
 
 MIDRASH, is the general name given 
 among the Jews to the exposition of the 
 hidden meaning of the Scriptures. It 
 includes any and every ancient expo- 
 sition on the law, psalms, and prophets. 
 
 MIDWIFERY, a branch of medicine or 
 
MIGRATION OF ANIMALS 
 
 MILITARY ACADEMY 
 
 surgery, also called obstetrics, being the 
 art of aiding and facilitating childbirth, 
 and of providing for the preservation of 
 the health and life of the mother during 
 and after her delivery. 
 
 MIGRATION OF ANIMALS, the phe- 
 nomenon of certain animals moving, 
 either periodically or at irregular times 
 and seasons, from one locality or region 
 to another, sometimes far distant. 
 Migration has been observed in mam- 
 mals, birds, fishes, and insects, but it 
 probably occurs in other groups of the 
 animal world, the observation of which 
 is less easy than that of the higher forms. 
 The buffaloes or bisons of North America 
 used, it would seem, to migrate in herds 
 from one place to another. Many fishes 
 (for example salmon, lampreys, etc.) 
 make periodical journeys from the sea 
 toward fresh-water streams and 'rivers 
 for the purpose of depositing their eggs. 
 The migratory habits of locusts, and 
 those of certain species of ants, etc., 
 exemplify migration among insects; but 
 among the birds we meet with the best- 
 marked instances of migration. With 
 sea-birds (for example, puffins), the day 
 of arrival or that on which they appear 
 in certain localities may be prognosti- 
 cated with perfect safety; and similarly, 
 the day of departure appears in some 
 birds vfor example, swifts), to be almost 
 as accurately timed. Storks have been 
 known to return regularly to their old 
 nests, and the same has been observed 
 of swallows. The mode in which birds 
 migrate varies greatly even in the same 
 species of bird. The swallows migrate 
 in bodies comprising vast numbers, and 
 so also do cranes, wild ducks, geese, and 
 many other forms. The migratory flight 
 is generally made against the wind; and 
 certain species of birds, as quails for 
 instance, appear to wait for favoring 
 winds, and to delay their flight by rest- 
 ing on islands when the wind is un- 
 favorable. Regarding the causes of 
 migration, science cannot at present 
 definitely pronounce. Probably a com- 
 bination of causes, or different causes 
 in different cases, as scarcity or plenty 
 of food-supply, the powerful influences 
 of temperature, and the influence of the 
 breeding-season, may contribute to the 
 migratory “instinct.” It has been fur- 
 ther suggested by Mr. A. R. Wallace, 
 that this migratory habit or instinct 
 has gradually been acquired since a time 
 when the breeding and feeding grounds 
 of the animals were coincident, these 
 having been gradually separated by 
 climatic and geological changes. 
 
 MIKADO (mi-ka'do), the emperor of 
 Japan, the spiritual as well as temporal 
 head of the empire. See Japan. 
 
 MIL'AN, a city of Northern Italy, 
 capital of the province of its own name. 
 The city is entered by eleven gates, 
 several of which are magnificent. The 
 chief open space is the Piazza d’Armi 
 (Place of Arms), part of which has been 
 made into an amphitheater capable of 
 containing 30,000 spectators. The 
 castle, now a barrack, fronts the Piazza 
 d’Armi on one side; at the opposite side 
 is the Porta Sempione with the fine Arco 
 Sempione or Arco della Pace, built of 
 white marble. The Piazza del Duomo,in 
 front of the cathedral, is the center of 
 
 the traffic of Milan. Among the public 
 edifices the first place belongs to the 
 Duomo or cathedral, a magnificent 
 structure, inferior only in size to St. 
 Peter’s at Rome and the cathedral of 
 Seville. It was begun in 1386, and was 
 
 Milan— The Cathedral, from the Corso Vlttorla 
 Emanuele. 
 
 only completed in 1805. There are many 
 other fine edifices, among them being 
 Palazzo di Brera or Delle Scienze Lettere 
 ed Arte, containing the picture-gallery 
 and the library of the academy (200,- 
 000 vols.) ; and the Ambrosian Library, 
 the earliest, and still one of the most 
 valuable public libraries in Europe. 
 The chief theater is La Scala, accom- 
 modating 3600 spectators. The manu- 
 factures include silks, cottons, lace, 
 carpets, hats, earthenware, jewelry, etc. 
 Pop., including suburbs, 491,460. 
 
 MILDEW, a name given to various 
 minute parasitic fungi producing a state 
 of disease or decay in living and dead 
 vegetable matter, and in some manu- 
 factured products of vegetable matter, 
 such as cloth and paper. Numerous 
 cultivated crops, fruit-trees, etc., suffer 
 from mildew. 
 
 MILE, a measure of length or distance, 
 and used as an itinerary measure in 
 almost all countries of Europe. The 
 English statute mile contains 8 furlongs, 
 each 40 poles or perches, of yards. 
 The statute mile is therefore 1760 yards, 
 or 5280 feet. It is also 80 surveying 
 chains, of 22 yards each. The square 
 mile is 6400 square chains, or 640 acres. 
 The Roman mile was 1000 paces, each 
 5 feet; and a Roman foot Being equal 
 to 11.62 modern English inches, it 
 follows that the ancient Roman mile 
 was equal to 1614 English yards, or very 
 nearly H^bs of an English statute mile. 
 The ancient Scottish mile was 1984 
 yards = 1.127 English miles; the Irish 
 mile, 2240 yards = 1.273 English miles; 
 the German short mile is 3.897 English 
 miles, the German long mile 5.753. The 
 geographical or nautical mile is the 
 sixtieth part of a degree of latitude, or 
 2028 yards nearly. 
 
 MILES, Nelson j^pleton, American 
 soldier, was born at Westminster, Mass., 
 
 in 1839. He served in the battle of 
 Fredericksburg, was wounded at Chan- 
 cellorsville, and took part in the cam- 
 paign before Richmond in 1864. In 
 July, 1866, he was appointed colonel, 
 fortieth infantry, regular army; and on 
 March 2, 1867, he was bre vetted briga- 
 dier and major-general, U. S. A., for 
 bravery atChancellorsvilleand Spottsyl- 
 vania. During the succeeding year 
 General Miles’ chief service was against 
 the Indians in the west. In 1886 he made 
 a campaign against the Apaches and 
 compelled their chiefs, Geronimo and 
 Natchez, to surrender. In 1890 he be- 
 came a major-general, and in 1895, he 
 became the commanding general of the 
 army. In 1897 he represented the United 
 States army at Queen Victoria’s jubilee. 
 During the war of 1898 against Spain 
 he directed in person the occupation of 
 Porto Rico. He was raised to the rank 
 of lieutenant-general in February, 1901, 
 in "pursuance of an act of congress of 
 June 6, 1900. In 1902-03 he made a- 
 tour of inspection in the Philippine 
 Islands. 
 
 MILESIANS, a name sometimes given 
 to natives of Ireland, a portion of whose 
 inhabitants, according to Irish tradition 
 or legend, are descended from Milesius, 
 a fabulous king of Spain, whose two sons 
 conquered the island 1300 years before 
 Christ, establishing a new nobility. 
 
 MILHAU (me-yo). See Millau. 
 
 MILITARY LAW. See Martial Law. 
 
 MILITARY ORDERS. See Orders 
 (Military). 
 
 MILITARY SCHOOLS, may be divided 
 into two classes — regimental schools, 
 which give training in the ordinary 
 branches of education to soldiers and 
 their children; and schools which are 
 intended to prepare pupils for the duties 
 of military service. The Royal Academy 
 at Woolwich gives instruction in the 
 special duties of the artillery and engi- 
 neer branch of the service; the college 
 at Sandhurst for infantry and cavalry; 
 and the Greenwich Naval college for 
 marine artillery. Schools for practical 
 instruction to officers and men are also 
 established: for gunnery, at Shoebury- 
 ness; for military engineering, at Chat- 
 ham ; for musketry, at Hythe ; for army 
 surgeons, at Netley; and there are also 
 establishments for the education of 
 officers of the regular army and of the 
 auxiliary forces in the advanced bran- 
 ches of their profession in all the large 
 garrison towns of the United Kingdom. 
 Similar institutions exist in all European 
 countries, in the United States (the 
 Military Academy, West Point), and in 
 Canada, where there is a military col- 
 lege at Kingston, and eight military 
 schools in the different provinces. 
 
 MILITARY ACADEMY, United States, 
 at West Point. Each senator, congres- 
 sional district, and territory — also the 
 District of Columbia, Porto Rico and 
 Alaska — is entitled to have one cadet at 
 the academy. There are also forty ap- 
 pointments at large, specially conferred 
 by the president of the United States. 
 The number of students is thus limited 
 to 523. 
 
 Appointments are usually made one 
 year in advance of date of admission, by 
 the secretary of war, upon the nomina- 
 
MILITARY SERVICE 
 
 MILITIA 
 
 tion of the senator or representative. 
 These nominations may either be ma d 
 after competitive examination or given 
 direct, at the option of the representa- 
 tive. The representative may nominate 
 two legally qualified second candidates, 
 to be designated alternates. The alter- 
 nates will receive from the war depart- 
 ment a letter of appointment, and will 
 be examined with the regular appointee, 
 and the best qualified will be admitted 
 to the academy in the event of the fail- 
 ure of the principal to pass the pre- 
 scribed preliminary examinations. Ap- 
 
 E ointees to the Military Academy must 
 e between seventeen and twenty-two 
 years of age, free from any infirmity 
 which may render them unfit for mili- 
 tary service, and able to pass a careful 
 examination in reading, writing, spell- 
 ing, English grammar, English com- 
 position, English literature, arithmetic, 
 algebra through quadratic equations, 
 plane geometry, descriptive geography 
 and the elements of physical geography, 
 especially the geography of the United 
 States, United States history, the out- 
 lines of general history, and the general 
 principles of physiology and hygiene; or 
 in lieu thereof to submit a certificate of 
 graduation from a public high school or 
 state normal school, or a certificate that 
 the candidate is a regular student of an 
 incorporated college or university. 
 
 The course of instruction, which is 
 quite thorough, requires four years, and 
 is largely mathematical and professional. 
 The principal subjects taught are mathe- 
 matics, English, French, drawing, drill 
 regulations of all arms of the service, 
 natural and experimental philosophy, 
 chemistry, chemical physics, mineralogy, 
 geology, electricity, history, inter- 
 national, constitutional, and military 
 law, Spanish, civil and military engi- 
 neering, art and science of war, and 
 ordnance and gunnery. About one- 
 fourth of those appointed usually fail 
 to pass the preliminary examinations, 
 and but little over one-half the re- 
 mainder are finally graduated. The dis- 
 cipline is very strict — even more so than 
 in the army — and the enforcement of 
 penalties for offenses is inflexible rather 
 than severe. Academic duties begin 
 September 1 and continue until June 1. 
 Examinations are held in each Decem- 
 ber and June, and cadets found pro- 
 ficient in studies and correct in conduct 
 are given the particular standing in their 
 class to which their merits entitle them, 
 while those cadets deficient in either 
 conduct or studies are discharged. 
 
 From about the middle of June to the 
 end of August cadets live in camp, en- 
 gaged only in military duties and re- 
 ceiving practical military instruction. 
 Cadets are allowed but one leave of 
 absence during the four years’ course, 
 and this is granted at the expiration of 
 the first two years. The pay of a cadet 
 is $609.50 per year, and, with proper 
 economy, is sufficient for his support. 
 The number of students at the academy 
 is usually about four hundred and 
 seventy. 
 
 Upon graduating cadets are commis- 
 sioned as second lieutenants in the 
 United States army. The vffiole number 
 of graduates from 1802 to 1906, inclu- 
 
 sive, has been 4,530. It is virtually ab- 
 solutely necessary for a person seeking 
 an appointment to apply to his senator 
 or member of congress. The appoint- 
 ments by the president are usually re- 
 stricted to sons of officers of the army 
 and navy, who, by reason of their shift- 
 ing residence, due to the necessities of 
 the service, find it next to impossible 
 to obtain an appointment otherwise. 
 
 MILITARY SERVICE INSTITUTION 
 OF THE UNITED STATES, an organiza- 
 tion of officers of the United States 
 regular army and allied forces, asso- 
 ciated for professional improvement, the 
 interchange of views upon military 
 matters, and such topics in general as 
 may be calculated to promote the best 
 interests of the army of the United 
 States. The headquarters of the Institu- 
 tion are at Governor’s Island, N. Y. 
 The Journal of the Military Service 
 Institution published its first number 
 in January, 1880, and is devoted to 
 regimental histories and the discussion 
 of contemporary military questions, 
 domestic and foreign. 
 
 MILITIA, the United States militia 
 consists of every able-bodied male citi- 
 zen of the respective states, territories, 
 and the District of Columbia, and every 
 able-bodied citizen of foreign birth, who 
 has declared his intention to become a 
 citizen, who is more than eighteen and 
 less than forty-five years of age. It is 
 divided into two classes — the organized 
 militia, known as the National Guards 
 of the state, territory, or District of 
 Columbia, or by such other designation 
 as may be given them by the laws of the 
 respective states or territories, and the 
 remainder known as the reserve militia. 
 The organization, armament, and dis- 
 cipline are the same as those prescribed 
 for the regular and volunteer armies of 
 the United States. The president may 
 call out, for a period not exceeding nine 
 months, such numbers of the militia of 
 the states, territories, or District of 
 Columbia as he may deem necessary. 
 During their period of service they be- 
 come subject to the same rules and 
 articles of war as the regular forces. 
 Each state and territory and the Dis- 
 
 States and tkbritoeibs 
 
 Generals 
 
 and 
 
 General 
 
 Staff 
 
 Officers 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Artillery 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Total 
 
 Organized 
 
 Militia 
 
 Number 
 
 Available 
 
 for 
 
 Military 
 Duty (Un- 
 organized) 
 
 Alabama 
 
 9 
 
 67 
 
 136 
 
 2,084 
 
 2,296 
 
 72,000 
 
 Arizona 
 
 1 
 
 94 
 
 
 344 
 
 439 
 
 15,.500 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 1,126 
 
 1,165 
 
 255,000 
 
 California 
 
 30 
 
 *287 
 
 292 
 
 2,750 
 
 3,353 
 
 232,500 
 
 Colorado 
 
 13 
 
 *261 
 
 59 
 
 741 
 
 1,074 
 
 70,000 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 14 
 
 97 
 
 252 
 
 2,449 
 
 2,812 
 
 109,500 
 
 Delaware 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 381 
 
 388 
 
 41,500 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 14 
 
 t48 
 
 81 
 
 1,572 
 
 1,715 
 
 63,000 
 
 Florida. 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 1,539 
 
 1,554 
 
 189,500 
 
 Georgia.. 
 
 21 
 
 46i 
 
 257 
 
 2,233 
 
 2,912 
 
 306,000 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 5 
 
 46 
 
 
 469 
 
 510 
 
 8,250 
 
 Idaho. 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 670 
 
 676 
 
 52,000 
 
 Illinois 
 
 40 
 
 *507 
 
 00 
 
 6,052 
 
 5,780 
 
 757,500 
 
 Indiana 
 
 15 
 
 *tl30 
 
 252 
 
 1,865 
 
 2,262 
 
 515,000 
 
 Iowa 
 
 17 
 
 *54 
 
 
 2,089 
 
 2,160 
 
 324,000 
 
 Kansas 
 
 12 
 
 
 60 
 
 1,099 
 
 1,171 
 
 112,000 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 7 
 
 49 
 
 157 
 
 1,012 
 
 1,223 
 
 255,000 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 9 
 
 *251 
 
 420 
 
 640 
 
 1,320 
 
 138,000 
 
 Maine.. 
 
 8 
 
 *t32 
 
 
 1,196 
 
 1,236 
 
 106,000 
 
 Maryland.. 
 
 13 
 
 56 
 
 
 2,053 
 
 2,122 
 
 200,000 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 37 
 
 350 
 
 1,020 
 
 4,773 
 
 5.143 
 
 476,000 
 
 Michigan 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 2,973 
 
 2,390 
 
 290,000 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 10 
 
 
 2i5 
 
 1,667 
 
 1,692 
 
 216,000 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 1,186 
 
 1,205 
 
 269,000 
 
 Missouri 
 
 16 
 
 
 92 
 
 2,036 
 
 2,144 
 
 396,000 
 
 Montana 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 484 
 
 488 
 
 33,000 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 7 
 
 150 
 
 62 
 
 1,129 
 
 1,348 
 
 120,000 
 
 Nevada 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 129 
 
 136 
 
 7,400 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 16 
 
 
 65 
 
 1,074 
 
 1,155 
 
 38,000 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 46 
 
 *77i 
 
 129 
 
 4,944 
 
 4,290 
 
 420,000 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 3 
 
 69 
 
 
 338 
 
 410 
 
 39,100 
 
 New York. 
 
 70 
 
 *550 
 
 1,796 
 
 111,860 
 
 14,276 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 47 
 
 
 60 
 
 1,495 
 
 1,602 
 
 282,000 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 612 
 
 619 
 
 60.000 
 
 Ohio 
 
 30 
 
 i26 
 
 440 
 
 4,804 
 
 5,400 
 
 662,000 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 7 
 
 *131 
 
 
 474 
 
 612 
 
 67,000 
 
 Oregon 
 
 10 
 
 61 
 
 70 
 
 872 
 
 1,013 
 
 79,500 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 62 
 
 *290 
 
 143 
 
 8,536 
 
 9,021 
 
 963,000 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 20 
 
 150 
 
 96 
 
 652 
 
 916 
 
 68,000 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 2,236 
 
 2,254 
 
 100.000 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 769 
 
 772 
 
 60,000 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 7 
 
 
 42 
 
 1,797 
 
 1,846 
 
 170,000 
 
 Texas 
 
 44 
 
 *ffi2 
 
 
 2,095 
 
 2,351 
 
 425,000 
 
 
 18 
 
 41 
 
 
 220 
 
 279 
 
 30,500 
 
 Vermont 
 
 4 
 
 
 97 
 
 597 
 
 694 
 
 47,000 
 
 Virginia 
 
 12 
 
 51 
 
 140 
 
 1,769 
 
 1,972 
 
 309,000 
 
 Washington 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 710 
 
 717 
 
 154,000 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 998 
 
 1,009 
 
 130.000 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 9 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 2,480 
 
 2,624 
 
 385,000 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 7 
 
 53 
 
 
 230 
 
 290 
 
 12,000 
 
 Total 
 
 861 
 
 *4,780 
 
 6,684 
 
 95,253 
 
 107,578 
 
 11,086,750 
 
 * Includes Mounted Signal Corps, t Includes Ambulance Corps, t Includes Engineer Corps. 
 
 Alaska and Indian Territory have no militia, though provision is made for such it need 
 arises. Guam and Samoa each has a small provisional force used more for police purposes 
 than for military. The Philippines have a constabulary force which can be used either lor 
 police or war purposes, provided the latter is on the islands. So also Porto Rico has a pro- 
 visional force of 7C0 foot and 100 mounted men. 100 non-commissioned officers, and 26 officers, 
 the whole under command of a lieutenant-colonel of the United States Army. Numbers availa- 
 ble in the Southern States Include negroes capable of bearing arms. 
 
MILK 
 
 MILLER 
 
 r.'-i 
 
 trict of Columbia hasan adjutant-generd 
 who is charged with the duties as pre- 
 scribed by the state, and the rendering 
 of regular reports to tlie secretary of 
 war regarding the strength, condition, 
 etc., of the organized militia of the state 
 to which he belongs. 
 
 The table preceding is an abstract of 
 the militia force of the United States, 
 according to the records of the war de- 
 partment up to December 1, 1906. 
 
 MILK, the secretion peculiar to the 
 females of the class mammalia, which is 
 secreted in the marnmary glands, and 
 which is employed as the nutritive fluid 
 of the young mammal after its birth. 
 Examined by aid of the microscope, 
 milk is seen to consist of a clear fluid, 
 containing many globules, the average 
 size of which is about of an inch 
 
 in diameter, and each appears to consist 
 of oily matter invested by a thin layer 
 of albumin. When churned, the globules 
 in the milk are forced together en masse, 
 and form butter. The cream of milk is 
 formed by the globules rising to the top 
 of the milk without coalescing; the 
 “skim”-milk, or that left after the cream 
 is formed, being of a pale bluish color, 
 owing to its being deprived of its fatty 
 or oily particles. In itself, milk exhibits 
 the type of a perfect food. The casein of 
 milk represents the albuminous or flesh 
 constituents of food; the butter supplies 
 the fatty or oleaginous parts; the water 
 exists as such in milk, while it contains 
 the saccharine constituents in the form 
 of milk-sugar, and the inorganic parts in 
 the form of phosphates of lime and alka- 
 line chlorides, so necessary for the pro- 
 duction of bone. The milk of every 
 .animal has certain peculiarities which 
 distinguish it from all other milk, but 
 the general properties are the same in 
 all. In the making of butter, cream is 
 allowed to stand for some time, during 
 which an acid is generated. It is then 
 put into a churn and agitated, when the 
 butter gradually separates. The butter- 
 milk, or that left after the separation of 
 the butter by churning contains the 
 casein, sugar, etc., of the milk; and the 
 milk left after creaming also contains 
 the greater part of the casein and milk 
 sugar. Milk may be coagulated by 
 various substances, but rennet prepared 
 from the fourth stomach of the calf is 
 generally used for domestic purposes. 
 The result of coagulation is to separate 
 the milk into a thin fluid, or whey, and 
 a thick whitish deposit, the curd. (See 
 Butter, Cheese.) Whey has a pleasant 
 taste, and contains a large quantity of 
 the milk-sugar, hence it is frequently 
 used as drink, and from its nutritious 
 quality it is administered to delicate 
 people. It is also sometimes made to 
 undergo fermentation, by which a very 
 weak spirituous fluid is obtained. (See 
 Koumiss.) Condensed milk (which see) 
 is now largely used, and consists of 
 ordinary milk which has undergone a 
 process of evaporation and been mixed 
 with sugar. Milk is very liable to be in- 
 fected with the germs of disease, either 
 from disease in the cow, contamination 
 from unhealthy persons, or the use of 
 infected water in cleaning vessels; and 
 many epidemics of zymotic disease have 
 been traced to impure milk. 
 
 P. E.— 52 
 
 MILK-FEVER, a febrile state some- 
 times induced in women when the milk 
 begins to be secreted after parturition. 
 It is accompanied with severe pains and 
 throbbing in the head, flushing in the 
 face, thirst, heat and dryness of the skin. 
 The pulse is full, the tongue furred, 
 bowels costive, urine scanty, and light 
 and sound are painful. The treatment 
 consists in cooling saline purgatives, 
 good ventilation and moderate tempera- 
 ture in apartments, and encouraging the 
 free flow of milk. Milk-fever attacks the 
 lower animals, and in cows it is best 
 prevented by unstimulating diet, and by 
 milking the cow regularly ten days be- 
 fore calving. 
 
 MILK-SNAKE, a harmless snake of 
 the United States. 
 
 MILKY- WAY. See Galaxy. 
 
 MILL, originally, a machine for grind- 
 ing and reducing grain or other sub- 
 stance to fine particles; now applied 
 also to machines for grinding or polish- 
 ing by circular motion, and especially 
 to complicated machinery for working 
 up raw material and transforming it into 
 a condition in which it is fit for im- 
 mediate use or for employment in a 
 further stage of manufacture. In the 
 first sense of the word we have flour- 
 mills and meal-mills, cider-mills, coffee- 
 mills; in the second sense we speak of a 
 lapidary’s mill; and in the third sense 
 we speak of cotton-mills, spinning-mills, 
 weaving-mills, oil-mills, saw-mills, bark- 
 mills, fulling-mills, etc. The word com- 
 monly includes the building for the 
 special accommodation of the machinery, 
 as well as the machinery itself. The 
 oldest kind of flour or meal mill was the 
 hand-mill or quern. 
 
 MILL, John Stuart, son of James 
 Mill, was born in London 1806, died at 
 Avignon 1873. At the age of fourteen 
 he entered upon a course of political 
 economy. His fifteenth year was spent 
 in France; on his return he studied law 
 for a time, and in 1823 he obtained a 
 clerkship in the East India House, re- 
 maining in the company’s emlpoyment 
 till it was supplanted by the crown in 
 1858. In 1823 the Westminster Review 
 was begun by the followers of Bentham, 
 and young Mill was one of its earliest 
 contributors, while from 1835 to 1840 
 he was its principal conductor. In his 
 twenty-first year he edited Bentham’s 
 work On Evidence. In 1843 appeared 
 the first of his two chief works, A System 
 of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, 
 the second being Principles of Political 
 Economy, 1848. To these he afterward 
 added his work On Liberty, 1859; 
 Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform, 
 1861; Utilitarianism, 1862; the Exami- 
 nation of Sir William Hamilton’s Phil- 
 osophy, and a Study of Auguste Comte 
 and Positivism, 1865. His Autobiog- 
 raphy was published in 1873, and the 
 three essays. Nature, The Utility of 
 Religion, and Theism, in 1874. Mill’s 
 works on logic and political economy 
 are standard text-books. In the former 
 he placed the system of inductive logic 
 on a firm basis. See Logic. 
 
 MILLAIS (mil'as). Sir John Everett, 
 Bart., R. A., born at Southampton 1829. 
 In his earlier days he was a leader of the 
 Pre-Raphaelite School, but on attaining 
 maturity in art he abandoned the 
 
 peculiarities for which that school is 
 noted. As the result of this new depart- 
 ure Millais painted such pictures as 
 Ferdinand Lured by Ariel, Mariana in 
 the Moated Grange, The Huguenot 
 Lovers, The Black Brunswicker and 
 
 Ophelia, while its influence was also 
 apparent in his landscapes of Chill 
 October, The Fringe of the Moor, etc. 
 In portraiture he holds the foremost 
 rank and has painted a number of the 
 most distinguished men of the day. 
 He was made a baronet in 1885, and he 
 was also a member of the Legion of 
 Honor. Many of his works are well 
 known by engravings. He died in 1896. 
 
 MILLEN'NIUM, an aggregate of a 
 thousand years; a word used to denote 
 the thousand years mentioned in Rev. 
 XX. 1-5, during which period Satan will 
 be bound and restrained from seducing 
 men to sin, and during which, millennar- 
 ians believe, Christ will reign on earth 
 with his saints. The near approach of 
 the millennium has been often foretold. 
 
 MILLEPEDE, a name common to 
 animals resembling centipedes from the 
 number of their feet. The most common 
 is about 1^ inch long. The young when 
 hatched have only three pairs of legs, 
 the remainder being gradually acquired 
 till the number is complete, which is 
 usually about 120 pairs. 
 
 MILLER, Hugh, geologist, was born 
 at Cromarty in 1802. In 1840 he went to 
 Edinburgh as editor of the Witness 
 newspaper, after 1843 the chief organ 
 of the Free Church. In this paper he 
 printed the work subsequently pub- 
 lished under the title of The Old Red 
 Sandstone, which attracted the im- 
 mediate attention of the scientific world 
 and established his reputation as a 
 geologist. This was followed by First 
 Impressions of England and its People; 
 Footsteps of the Creator; My Schools 
 and Schoolmasters, a charming account 
 of his earlier life; and The Testimony of 
 the Rocks, in which he tried to reconcile 
 the Mosaic account of creation with the 
 teachings of geology. Having just fin- 
 ished this latter work, his brain collapsed 
 from over-pressure, and he died by a 
 pistol-shot from his own hand at Porto- 
 bello in 1856. His Schools and School- 
 masters was supplanted by the Life and 
 Letters, published in 1871. 
 
 MILLER, Joaquin, the pen-name of 
 Cincinnatus Heine Miller, born 1841 in 
 Indiana; spent some time in the Cali- 
 fornia mining districts; lived with the 
 Modoc Indians for five years; edited a 
 
MILLER 
 
 MILWAUKEE 
 
 / 
 
 newspaper called the democratic Regis- 
 ter; studied law and was called to the 
 bar in Oregon, and became district judge 
 in Canyon City, subsequently settled in 
 California. He has written Pacific Poems, 
 \ Songs of the Sierras, Songs of the Sun 
 Lands, Songs of the Desert, Songs of the 
 Mexican Seas, besides novels and dramas. 
 
 MILLER, Joseph, better known as 
 Joe Miller, was born in 1684, it is sup- 
 posed in London, and was a favorite 
 low comedian. He died in 1738. The 
 jests which have immortalized his name 
 were collected in 1738, by John Mottley, 
 author of the life of Peter the Great, 
 and other works. 
 
 MILLER, William, the founder of an 
 American religious sect holding peculiar 
 millennarian views, was born at Pitts- 
 field, Massachusetts, in 1781, and died in 
 1849. About 1843 the second coming of 
 Christ was expected by as many as 
 50,000 believers in the doctrines of 
 Miller; and, although the disappoint- 
 ment of their hopes somewhat dimin- 
 ished their numbers, many continued 
 their adherence to his tenets regarding 
 the nature of the millennium. 
 
 MILLET, a common name for various 
 species of cereals yielding abundance of 
 small seeds, cultivated in the East Indies, 
 China, Arabia, Syria, Egypt, etc., where 
 it is used as human food. The leaves and 
 panicles are given both green and dried 
 as fodder to cattle. German millet is 
 cultivated on account of its seeds, which 
 are used as food for cage-birds. Italian 
 millet is a closely allied species. 
 
 MILLET (mi-la), Jean Francois, French 
 artist, born at Gruchy, near Cher- 
 bourg, in 1814, died in 1875. He 
 worked with his peasant father in the 
 fields; studied drawing at the academy 
 of Cherbourg; from thence passed with 
 an allowance from this town to the 
 atelier of Delaroche in Paris, and ex- 
 hibited at the Salon in 1840. As a stu- 
 dent and until the death of his first wife 
 in 1844 he was frequently in the greatest 
 poverty, and his life subsequently was 
 by no means free from difficulty. In 
 1849 he left Paris and settled among the 
 peasants of Barbizon, on the edge of 
 Fontainebleau Forest, and devoted 
 himself totransferringtheir simpleevery- 
 day life to his canvases, which he did 
 with great truth of sentiment and sub- 
 dued poetic charm. Of his paintings 
 may be mentioned The Sheep-shearers, 
 The Gleaners, The Sower, The Shep- 
 herdess withher Flock, and The Angelus. 
 The last was sold by auction in Paris in 
 1889 for about $115,000. His works are 
 at present very highly esteemed. 
 
 MILLIGRAMME, a French weight, 
 the thousandth part of a gramme, or 
 .0154 of a grain. 
 
 MILLIMETRE, a French lineal meas- 
 ure containing the thousandth part of a 
 meter; equal to .03937 of an inch. 
 
 MILMAN, Henry Hart, D.D., born in 
 London 1791, died 1868. His principal 
 works are ; Samor, a legendary poem ; 
 The Fall of Jerusalem; The Martyr of 
 Antioch; History of the Jews; History 
 of Christianity to the Abolition of 
 Paganism; History of Latin Christian- 
 ity. 
 
 MILTI'ADES (dez), an Athenian gen- 
 eral of the 5th century b.c. When Greece 
 
 was invaded by the Persians he was 
 elected one of the ten generals, and drew 
 up the army on the field of Marathon, 
 where, b.c. 490, he gained a memorable 
 victory. Next year he persuaded the 
 Greeks to intrust him with a fleet of 
 seventy vessels, in order to follow up his 
 success. With this, to gratify a private 
 revenge, he attacked the island of Paros, 
 but was repulsed, and dangerously 
 wounded. On his return to Athens he 
 was impeached, and condemned to pay 
 a fine of fifty talents. Being unable to 
 pay, he was thrown into prison, where he 
 soon after died of his wound. 
 
 MILTON, John, English poet, was 
 born in London, Eng., Dec. 9, 1608; 
 died there, Nov. 8, 1674. At the age of 
 seventeen he entered Christ’s College, 
 Cambridge, where he resided for seven 
 years. It had been intended by his 
 parents that he should enter the church, 
 but their puritanical beliefs and his own 
 scruples regarding the oaths decided 
 otherwise. In 1637, on the death of his 
 mother, he made a continental journey, 
 
 Milton. 
 
 in which he visited Paris, where he was 
 introduced to Grotius, Florence, where 
 he met Galileo, Rome and Naples. After 
 remaining abroad for fifteen months he 
 returned to England. The home at 
 Horton having been broken up, Milton 
 settled in the metropolis. While settled 
 here his Paradise Lost was partially 
 sketched out. In the summer of 1643 
 Milton married Mary Powell, the daugh- 
 ter of a royalist family. Divided from 
 her kinsfolk by politics, he was also dis- 
 similar to his wife in age — she being little 
 more than seventeen, while he was 
 thirty-five. Moreover, she found his 
 habits austere and his house dull, with 
 the result that she returned to her father 
 about a month after marriage. In the 
 end, however, his wife returned in 1645, 
 bore him three daughters, and continued 
 to live with him until her death in 1653. 
 Wheti in 1649 Charles I. was executed 
 and arepublicestablished, Milton avowed 
 his adherence to it in his pamphlet 
 Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, and 
 was appointed foreign (Latin) secretary 
 to the commonwealth. In his literary 
 task his eyesight suffered so much that 
 in 1652 he became totally blind. In 1663 
 he began the writing of Paradise Lost. 
 This was published in 1667, the pub- 
 lisher agreeing to pay the author $25 
 down and a further $25 after the sale of 
 each edition of 1300 copies. In two 
 
 years a second edition, now arranged 
 into twelve books, was printed, and 
 Milton’s position as the greatest poet of 
 his time was established. In 1670 there 
 appeared his History of Britain to the 
 Norman Conquest, and in the following 
 year the continued vigor of his poetic 
 faculty was shown in Paradise Regained 
 and Samson Agonistes. In 1674, the last 
 year of his life, he printed his Epistolse 
 Familiares and Prolusiones Oratorise. 
 
 His death took place at his house in 
 Bunhill, and he was buried in the 
 church of St. Giles, Cripplegate. 
 
 MILLVILLE, a city in Cumberland 
 CO., N. J., on the Maurice river, here 
 navigable, and the W. Jersey railroad; 
 
 40 miles s. of Philadelphia. Pop. 11,790. 
 
 MILWAU'KEE, chief city and port of 
 Wisconsin, United States, on the west 
 shore of Lake Michigan, which here re- 
 ceives the united rivers Milwaukee and 
 Menomonee. It has an elevation of from 
 600 to 700 feet above sea level, rising 
 from 80 to 125 feet above Lake Michi- 
 gan, and reaching its greatest height in 
 Kilbourn Park, which affords a fine 
 view. The business quarter is near the 
 Milwaukee river, while the largest and 
 most beautiful residence sections lies to 
 the west and east, and are characterized 
 by handsomely shaded avenues and de- 
 tached houses. The accessibility of 
 popular health and pleasure resorts and 
 the beauty of its suburbs, add to the 
 attractions of Milwaukee. Among these 
 suburbs is the city of Wauwatosa — the 
 seat of the state fair grounds and of a 
 group of county institutions : almshouse, 
 hospital, hospital for the insane, chronic 
 insane asylum, and a children’s home. 
 The rivers are spanned by a number of 
 bridges, and there are three viaducts, 
 one of which, over the Menominee Valley 
 is nearly a mile long. 
 
 Among the most prominent buildings 
 are the city hall, the county court-house, 
 the United States government building, 
 and the public library and museum. 
 The library has 120,000 volumes and 
 maintains a number of branches in 
 various parts of the city. The Layton 
 Art Gallery is located in a fine building 
 and possesses a valuable collection. The 
 chamber of commerce, athenaeum, light- 
 house, squadron armory, and the Ger- 
 mania, Pabst, and Mitchell buildings 
 also are noteworthy structures. A mile 
 west of the city limits is a National 
 Soldier’s Home, accommodating 2400 
 inmates and surrounded by 400 acres of 
 well-kept grounds. 
 
 The Johnston emergency hospital, the 
 Milwaukee general hospital, the United 
 States marine hospital, and the state 
 industrial home for girls are among a 
 large number of charitable institutions 
 of various kinds. Owing to the large 
 population of German birth and de- 
 scent, Turner and musical societies play j 
 an unusually important part in the club I 
 and society life of the city. Milwaukee 
 is the seat of a Roman Catholic arch- 
 bishop and of a Protestant Episcopal 
 bishop. 
 
 The main element in the prosperity 
 of Milwaukee is its vast trade in grain, 
 and extensive industrial establishments 
 connected with iron, flour, leather, 
 lager-beer, agricultural implements, etc. 
 
MIMICRY 
 
 MINERALOGY 
 
 It has rapidly advanced from a popul- 
 tion in 1840 of 1700 to one of 400,000. 
 
 MIMICRY, the name given to that 
 condition or phenomenon which con- 
 sists in certain plants and animals ex- 
 hibiting a wonderful resemblance to 
 certain other plants or animals, or to 
 the natural objects in the midst of which 
 they live. This peculiar characteristic is 
 generally the chief means of protection 
 the animal has against its enemies. It 
 is well seen in the leaf-insects and in the 
 “walking-stick” insects. Certain tropi- 
 cal butterflies reproduce the appearance 
 of leaves so closely that even the para- 
 sitic fungi which grow upon the leaves 
 are imitated. So also a South American 
 moth has a most accurate resemblance 
 to a humming bird; while the cacti of 
 America and the euphorbias of Africa 
 might easily be mistaken for each other, 
 though widely different in structural 
 characters. The theoretical explanation 
 of this mimetic quality is attributed by 
 recent biologists to purposes of self 
 preservation. Thus, the form or color 
 which enables an animal to seize its prey 
 easily and to protect its own life by 
 deceptive resemblance to other objects, 
 is conceived to be that form and color 
 which is most likely to survive. The 
 term is used in a merely metaphorical 
 sense, and implies no act of volition on 
 the part of the animal or plant. 
 
 MIN'ARET, a slender lofty turret 
 rising by different stages or stories, sur- 
 rounded- by one or more projecting 
 balconies, commonly attached to mos- 
 ques in Mohammedan countries, and 
 frequently of very elegant design. 
 
 Minarets— Mosque of St. Sophia, 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Minarets are used by the priests for 
 summoning from the balconies the peo- 
 ple to prayers at stated times of the day ; 
 so that they answer the purpose of 
 belfries in Christian churches. 
 
 MINAS GERAES (me'nas je-ra'es), the 
 most populous of the Brazilian states, 
 bounded by Bahia, Espirito Santo, Rio 
 de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and Goyaz; area 
 246,700 sq. miles. The capital is Bello 
 Horizonte. Pop. 3,018,807. 
 
 MIND, a term that admits of no ex- 
 haustive scientific definition, but may be 
 said to indicate, generally, the power 
 possessed by each of us in virtue of 
 which we know, think, feel, and will. 
 Limited to the individual, and verifiable 
 only through individual experience, its 
 phenomena have long been held to rep- 
 resent .the immaterial as distinguished 
 from the material world, mind and 
 matter forming thus a direct antithesis. 
 Yet we have no experience of mind as 
 apart from matter, and many, instead 
 of regarding mind as a separate entity, 
 hold it rather to be akin to some func- 
 tion of the nervous system. The mental 
 powers or functions are generally classed 
 as three — intellect or understanding, 
 emotion or feeling, and volition or will. 
 Sometimes the term mind is specially 
 given to the first (the intellect), which 
 itself possesses several powers or 
 capacities, such as perception, memory, 
 reasoning, imagination. It is by the 
 intellect that we acquire knowledge, 
 investigate phenomena, and combine 
 means to ends, etc.; but the ultimate 
 analysis of our mental powers gives 
 different results with different investi- 
 gators, the classification of the faculties 
 of the mind being thus very various. 
 The science that has specially to do with 
 the investigation of mental phenomena 
 is generally known as psychology. See 
 also Emotion, Imagination, Will, etc. 
 
 MINDANA'O, one of the Philippine 
 Islands, next to Luzon in point of size, 
 about 300 miles long and 105 broad; 
 area, 34,250 sq. miles. All the country, 
 except upon the sea-coast, is mountain- 
 ous, the volcano of Apo being 8819 feet 
 high. The chief rivers are the Mindanao 
 and the Batuan, and there are several 
 lakes. Some coffee, cocoa, and colJton are 
 exported. The chief town is Zamboanga 
 or Samboangan, a port and naval station 
 at its western extremity. The total 
 population, according to a recent Ameri- 
 can estimate, is about 300,000. Min- 
 danao was ceded by Spain to the United 
 States in 1898. 
 
 MINDO'RO, one of the larger of the 
 Philippine Islands, situated south of 
 Luzon, from which it is separated by the 
 Strait of Manila; about 110 miles long 
 by about 53 broad. It is evidently 
 volcanic, the climate is hot, and the 
 rain almost incessant. Rice, cacao, and 
 wild cinnamon are among the products. 
 Pop. 61,900. 
 
 MINE, in military language a subter- 
 ranean passage dug under the wall or 
 rampart of a fortification, or under any 
 building or other object, for the purpose 
 of blowing it up by gunpowder or other 
 explosive. What are called submarine 
 mines are now used in the defense of 
 places liable to attack from a naval force. 
 Such a mine consists of a charge of some 
 powerful explosive inclosed in a suitable 
 case, which is anchored at the bottom of 
 the water, or at a suitable depth, and 
 may be exploded at will by means of 
 electricity so as to blow up a hostile 
 vessel, or the mere contact of a vessel 
 may cause it to explode. 
 
 In ordinary language a mine is a pit 
 or deep excavation in the earth, from 
 which coal, metallic ores, and other 
 mineral substances are taken. The pits 
 
 from which stones only are taken are 
 called quarries. See Mining and Mine 
 Inspection. 
 
 MINE WORKERS OF AMERICA, The 
 
 United, American labor union, the 
 largest in the country organized January 
 25, 1890, the object of which is to unite 
 mine employees that produce or handle 
 coal or coke in or around the mines and 
 ameliorate their condition by means of 
 conciliation, arbitration or strikes. The 
 national executive committee consists 
 of the president, vice-president, secre- 
 tary, treasurer, and one delegate from 
 each of the 25 districts. In the bitumi- 
 nous districts of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, 
 and Pennsylvania strikes have been 
 practically eliminated by the annual 
 joint conference, or collective bargain- 
 ing, between the miners and operatives, 
 in which a scale of prices for the follow- 
 ing year is adopted and the settlement 
 of further differences provided for by 
 local boards of arbitration. Mr. John 
 Mitchell was elected president in 1898 
 and has held that position constantly 
 since that time. 
 
 MINERAL'OGY, the science which 
 treats of the properties of mineral sub- 
 stances, and teaches us to characterize, 
 distinguish, and classify them according 
 to their properties. It comprehends the 
 study or science of all inorganic sub- 
 stances in the earth or on its surface. 
 As distinguished from geology, mineral- 
 ogy deals with the various mineral 
 bodies as separate constituents of the 
 earth’s crust, and examines their prop- 
 erties as such, while geology treats them 
 in the aggregate, as building up the crust 
 of the earth, and as forming masses and 
 presenting phenomena that have a his- 
 tory to be investigated. Minerals may be 
 described and classified either in accord- 
 ance with their chemical composition, 
 their crystallographic forms, or their 
 physical properties of hardness, fracture, 
 luster, etc., or a combination of all, and 
 thus various systems of classification 
 have been adopted. Most minerals 
 crystallize in definite forms, and this 
 form is one of the chief characteristics 
 of many mineral species. There are not 
 a few, however, which are not distinctly 
 crystalline, but are earthy or occur in 
 masses; the latter exhibiting important 
 varieties of structure, as laminated, 
 fibrous, granular reniform, botryoidal, 
 etc. Other distinctive characteristics are 
 color, which, however, varies even in the 
 same mineral; luster, the character of 
 the light reflected from the surface, and 
 described as adamantine, vitreous, 
 nacreous, greasy, silky, etc.; fracture, or 
 the character of the freshly-broken sur- 
 face; streak, or the appearance and color 
 of a furrow made in the mineral by a 
 hard-tempered knife or file; and hard- 
 ness, which is now determined by what 
 is called Mohs’s scale. In this scale cer- 
 tainminerals are represented bynumbers 
 from 1 to 10, viz. (1) talc, common 
 laminated light-green variety; (2) gyp- 
 sum, a crystallized variety; (2.5) mica; 
 (3) calcite, transparent varietyg (4) 
 fluorspar, crystalline variety ; (5) apatite, 
 transparent variety; (5.5) scapolite, 
 crystalline variety; (6) potash, felspar, 
 white cleavable variety; (7) quartz, 
 transparent; (8) topaz, transparent; (9) 
 
MINERAL WATERS 
 
 MINING 
 
 corundum ; (10) diamond. To determine 
 the hardness of a mineral, it is ascer- 
 tained by experiment which of these it 
 will scratch and which will scratch it; 
 thus if a mineral will scratch fluorspar 
 but not apatite, while the latter will 
 scratch it, its hardness is between 4 and 
 5. Diaphaneity, refraction, polarization, 
 electric properties, etc., are all distin- 
 guishing marks. In the classification of 
 minerals, their chemical composition, 
 though not to be regarded by itself, is of 
 much importance. Among famous 
 names in connection with mineralogy 
 may be noted those of Werner, Haiiy, 
 Mohs, Dana, etc 
 
 MINERAL WATERS is the term com- 
 monly applied to the spring-waters that 
 contain an unusual quantity of such sub- 
 stances as sodium, magnesia, iron, car- 
 bonic acid, and sulphur; but it cannot be 
 used in any absolute fashion. The most 
 popular European springs are those of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, Wiesbaden, Baden- 
 Baden, Carlsbad, Ahrweiler (Apollinaris) 
 Friedrichshall, Buda-Pesth (Hunyadi- 
 Janos), Vichy, and Bath. The most pop- 
 ular springs in the United States are 
 Congress, and Excelsior, at Saratoga, N 
 Y.; Warm Sulphur Springs, Virginia; 
 Hot Springs, Arkansas; Red Sulphur 
 Spring, Sharon, N. Y.; Las Vegas Hot 
 Springs, N. Mex.; Bethesda Spring, 
 Waukesha, Wis. The waters are usu- 
 aDy drunk at an early hour before 
 breakfast, and the curative effects are 
 greatly aided by early rising, moderate 
 exercise, mental relaxation, and com- 
 plete freedom from all kinds of excess. 
 It has not been found practical or useful 
 to classify mineral waters under their 
 chemical elements, but the attempt has 
 been made, as where the springs are de- 
 scribed as — salt, earthy, sulphur, iron, 
 alkaline, and alkaline-saline. Besides 
 the substances which these terms indi- 
 cate, the waters are frequently impreg- 
 nated with carbonic acid gas, which is 
 found to aid digestion while giving a 
 pleasant stimulus to the general system. 
 
 MINERAL WOOL, a substance which 
 is produced from the vitreous liquid slag 
 of a blast-furnace drawn out into fine 
 fibres under pressure of steam. The slag, 
 when in a molten condition, is driven by 
 the steam from the furnace through a 
 cresoent-shaped aperture, and suddenly 
 cools into long fibrous filaments. The 
 thin, glassy, thread-like substance thus 
 produced is useful as a non-conductor of 
 heat, and it has, therefore, been largely 
 employed as a covering for boilers and 
 steam-pipes, to prevent the freezing of 
 water in pipes, etc. 
 
 MINERVA, a daughter of Jupiter, and 
 one of the great divinities of the ancient 
 Romans. She was looked upon as the 
 patroness of all arts and trades, and her 
 annual festival, called Quinquatrus, 
 lasted from the 19th to the 23d of March 
 inclusive. This goddess was believed to 
 protect warriors in battle, and to her was 
 ascribed the invention of numbers, and 
 of musical instruments, especially wind- 
 instruments. At Rome a temple was 
 built for Minerva by Tarquin on the 
 capitol, where she was worshipped along 
 with Jupiter and Juno; and there was 
 also a temple on the Aventine dedicated 
 to herself alone. This deity is supposed 
 
 t 
 
 to be of Etruscan origin, and her char- 
 acter has much in common with the 
 Greek goddess Athena. 
 
 MINHO (min'yo), more fully Entre 
 Douro e Minho, a province of Portugal, 
 Pop. 1,014,768. 
 
 MIN'IATURE, a small painting, espe- 
 cially a portrait, executed with delicate 
 care, chiefly upon ivory, also upon vel- 
 lum, paper, etc. The term is from the 
 Italian miniatura, originally applied to a 
 small painting, such as those formerly 
 used to adorn manuscripts, from the 
 common use of minium or vermilion in 
 the ornamentation of the illuminated 
 manuscripts in the middle ages. The art 
 of miniature painting was carried to its 
 highest perfection, chiefly in France, 
 during the 18th century. 
 
 MINING is the term applied to the 
 underground engineering process by 
 which minerals are excavated and 
 brought to the earth’s surface. That this 
 process in a rude form was known to the 
 ancients is shown by references in the 
 book of Job, the records of the Phceni- 
 cians and Egyptians, and the signs of 
 supposed Roman excavations found in 
 
 the lode, and if the lode is going down 
 on a slope, the galleries in such case are 
 not vertical above one another. These 
 galleries are connected by vertical pas- 
 sages or “winzes;” and in this way they 
 are ventilated, and the material to be 
 excavated is divided into rectangulai 
 blocks. The metal ore after being ex- 
 cavated is broken up by the miner, put 
 into a barrow, wheeled to one of the 
 main galleries, thence transported in. 
 cars drawn on rails by men, mules, or 
 engines, to the main shaft. There it is 
 hoisted to the surface in an iron “kibble” 
 or a wooden “skip” which travels up 
 and down in guides fixed to the side of 
 the shaft. Access to many metalliferous 
 mines is still obtained by means of 
 ladders fixed almost vertically in the 
 sides of the shaft. This toilsome method 
 is averted in some mines by what is called 
 a “man-engine,” which consists of two 
 rods with platforms attached which 
 move up and down reciprocally the dis- 
 tance between two platforms, the miner 
 ascending or descending from the plat- 
 form of one rod to that of another alter- 
 nately. Besides the shafts there is 
 
 OBAWlNQ SHArr, 
 
 i HIMB 
 
 
 i 
 
 .'i' 
 
 1' 
 
 Section of part of copper mine. 
 
 The parts lightly shaded indicate where the mineral has been removed. 
 
 Britain. The development of mining has 
 been greatly advanced by the introduc- 
 tion of gunpowder for blasting purposes; 
 by the use of steam-engines for pumping 
 water from the mine and bringing ma- 
 terial to the surface; and by the aid of 
 improved ventilation, which now enables 
 mines to be carried to deeper levels. 
 
 Metalliferous mining has to deal with 
 a mineral which is found in lodes or 
 veins irregularly imbedded in rock- 
 fissures, the trend of which is uncertain 
 and the thickness variable. In preparing 
 to excavate this irregularly distributed 
 mineral two shafts are sunk in the 
 vicinity of the lodes, one of which is used 
 for pumping and ventilating the mine, 
 the other for drawing the material to 
 the surface. From these two shafts 
 horizontal galleries are driven at dis- 
 tances of 10 or more fathoms apart, an 
 additional gallery being driven at in- 
 tervals of 10 or 15 fathoms as the mine is 
 increased in depth. The galleries are 
 driven as far as possible on the course of 
 
 usually an entrance to the mine called v 
 an “adit” or “day-level” which is driven ' 
 straight into the mine from the nearest 'f 
 convenient depression or valley and is 
 mainly used for purposes of drainage. * 
 Adits are sometimes of great length. 
 
 Coal-mining has to deal with a mineral ■* 
 which is deposited in seams or beds, 
 sometimes nearly horizontal, at other 
 times nearly vertical. These seams are - 
 interstratified wdth layers of sandstone, 
 shale, clay, etc., and w-hen the beds are 
 tilted the coal has been frequentl 3 ' found 
 outcropping at the surface. In the chief ■ ; 
 coal-fields of the United Kingdom this V-' 
 outcrop coal has been exhausted, and h 
 it is now found necessary to approach ^ 
 the coal-seams by means of shafts, of a ^ 
 rectangular or circular shape, sunk into % 
 the earth. The rectangular shape, com-'M 
 monly IS feet by 6 feet, is that which i9:<S 
 used most frequently in Scotland, while 
 the circular shaft obtains in the large® 
 mines of Northumberland and Durham. S 
 Before sinking the shaft it is exj 
 
MINION 
 
 MINNESOTA 
 
 to bore down through the strata in order 
 to test the thickness and direction of the 
 coal-measures. The bore-hole is usually 
 begun by digging a small pit above 6 
 feet deep, and the old method was to 
 pierce the rock by means of a cutting- 
 tool attached to long rods and worked by 
 a lever with hand-power. Various im- 
 provements on this slow method have 
 been recently made, as where hydraulic 
 or steam power is used to drive the 
 boring-rods, and diamond drills em- 
 ployed instead of the steel tool. (See 
 Boring). When this boring test has 
 been found satisfactory the shaft is 
 then sunk. One shaft not unfre- 
 quently intersects a number of work- 
 able coal-seams, these being gener- 
 ally separated by shale, sandstone, and 
 limestone. Seams of coal vary in thick- 
 ness from 2 inches up to 30 feet as 
 in Staffordshire, or even to 90 feet as in a 
 small coal area at Johnstone, near Glas- 
 gow. The coal having been reached, the 
 mining engineer has to devise the safest 
 and most economical method of cutting 
 the coal and sending it to the surface. 
 There are two commonly adopted 
 methods of working out coal-seams, viz. 
 the “pillar-and-stall” or “stoop-and- 
 room” system, and the “longwall” or 
 “longwork” system. The former method 
 consists in excavating “rooms” in such a 
 manner as to divide the coal into rec- 
 tangular pillars or “stoops.” In the 
 early days of coal-mining the stalls were 
 made large and the upholding pillars 
 left small, no attempt being afterward 
 made to recover the coal in these pillars. 
 When the floor of the mine was of soft 
 clay or lime the weight of the roof drove 
 the pillars down, causing the floor to rise 
 in the center between the pillars, and 
 establishing an undulating movement 
 throughout the underlying strata called 
 by miners “the creep.” To prevent this 
 the coal is now left in wide barriers or 
 “pannels” which divide one part of the 
 workings from another. The pillars of 
 coal which are now left are recovered by 
 a second operation, which consists in 
 cutting them out after a division or 
 pannel has been excavated to its bound- 
 ary or by working them out when the 
 stalls have been driven the length of two 
 or three pillars. These pillars are, in 
 most cases,, about 20 yards square, and 
 in one panel of the mine there are often 
 600 such pillars. In the “longwall” 
 method the miner cuts into, or “holes” 
 into, the under part of the coal-bed for 
 two or three feet, and then, with the aid 
 of wedges driven in atop, he loosens and 
 extracts the mass of coal which has been 
 “holed.” By this system the entire coal- 
 seam is at once extracted, while the 
 empty space or “goaf” is filled in with 
 waste material as the work advances. 
 
 One of the most important matters 
 connected with coal-mining is ventila- 
 tion. To facilitate this there are two 
 openings into the mine, which are tech- 
 nically called the “intake” and “return” 
 air-passages. The necessary supply of 
 pure air is maintained either by the 
 natural heat of the mine causing a con- 
 stant inrush of cold air; by pumps or 
 fans forcing the air down the “downcast” 
 shaft or drawing it up the “upcast” 
 shaft; or by furnace ventilation. This 
 
 latter mode is considered the most 
 efficient. The furnace by its heat causes 
 a constant current up the upcast shaft, 
 thus drawing the vitiated air away from 
 the workings. Connected with ventila- 
 tion is the dangerous accumulation of 
 fire-damp which may take place in a 
 mine, to guard against which safety- 
 lamps have been introduced. See Fire- 
 damp, Safety-lamp. 
 
 The pumping of water out of the work- 
 ings is an essential part of mining. Some 
 of the largest pumping engines raise from 
 2000 to 3000 gallons of water per minute. 
 Air-engines are frequently in use for 
 subterranean haulage and for driving 
 the coal-cutting machines which are now 
 to some extent, employed. 
 
 MINION, a size of type between bre- 
 vier and nonpareil. See Printing. 
 
 MINISTERS, the name applied in 
 politics to the chief servants of the state 
 in the administration of its affairs, and 
 the chief representatives of a country at 
 a foreign court. The former are known 
 collectively as the ministry, and the head 
 of the administration is called the prime- 
 minister or premier. All the ministers 
 are appointed by the prime-ministers, 
 subject to the approval of the crown. 
 
 MINISTERS, Foreign, are those ac- 
 credited representatives which one coun- 
 try sends to another. Generally they are 
 divided into three classes. The highest 
 in rank is the ambassador extraordinary, 
 who can claim to represent his state or 
 sovereign in his own person, and receive 
 honors and enjoy privileges accordingly. 
 The legates and nuncios of the pope also 
 belong to this class. Envoys extra- 
 ordinary, internuncios, and ministers 
 plenipotentiary belong to the second 
 class, and neither hold the same degree 
 of power nor receive the same distinction 
 as the former. The third class includes 
 ministers resident, envoys, and charges 
 d’affaires, the last being sometimes re- 
 garded as a fourth class. Persons who 
 are sent merely to conduct, the private 
 affairs of their monarch or his subjects 
 in a foreign place are called agents or 
 residents; and where they are occupied 
 chiefly with subjects of a commercial 
 character they are called consuls. When 
 the foreign minister is accredited directly 
 to the sovereign of a state he can demand 
 an audience, his person is considered in- 
 violable, and he is freed from taxes and 
 territorial restrictions. See Ambassador, 
 Envoy, Consul. 
 
 MINK, an American and European 
 quadruped, allied to the polecat. It is 
 
 Minks. 
 
 semi-aquatic, burrowing on the banks 
 of rivers and ponds, living on frogs, 
 crayfishes, and fishes, which it pur.sues 
 in the water. It exhales a strong odor of 
 musk, and its fur is in considerable re- 
 quest. The European and American 
 minks are by some regarded as distinct 
 species. 
 
 MINNEAP'OLIS, a city of the United 
 States, capital of Hennepin co., Minne- 
 sota, on both sides of the Mississippi, at 
 the Falls of St. Anthony, 8 miles n.w. of 
 St. Paul. It is regularly laid out with 
 avenues 80 feet wide running east and 
 west, having double rows of trees on 
 each side. 
 
 Minneapolis stands on a gently un- 
 dulating plateau, 800 feet above sea- 
 level, jn a picturesque lake region much 
 frequented as a place of resort. There are 
 several lakes within the city limits and 
 of others in the immediate vicinity. Lake 
 Minnetonka isthe largestand most popu- 
 lar. An extensive park system has been 
 developed. There are some twenty 
 parks, comprising a proportionately 
 large area of 1581 acres. Minnehaha 
 Park, of 133 acres, is a picturesque tract, 
 embracing the Falls of Minnehaha, 50 
 feet in height, which have been immor- 
 talized by Longfellow’s Hiawatha. Ad- 
 joining the park are the beautiful 
 grounds of the State Soldier’s Home, 
 occupying 60 acres. Minneapolis has 
 many handsome edifices, both public 
 and private. The court house and city 
 hall was completed at a cost of more 
 than $3,000,000. 
 
 The principal industries are the manu- 
 facture of flour, engines, boilers, agricul- 
 tural implements, carriages, wagons, 
 and pork-packing. The city possesses a 
 territory of about 33 sq. miles, with the 
 celebrated falls of Minnehaha and several 
 fine lakes. 
 
 Among the railroads that contribute 
 to the high commercial and industrial 
 rank of Minneapolis are : the Chicago and 
 Northwestern; the Burlington Route; 
 the Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul; 
 the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific; 
 the Northern Pacific; the Great North- 
 ern; the Minneapolis, Saint Paul and 
 Sault Sainte Marie; the Chicago Great 
 Western ; and the Saint Paul and Duluth. 
 The Mississippi river is navigable to 
 Minneapolis, but vessels practically go 
 no higher than Saint Paul. Pop. 300,000. 
 
 MINNESO'TA, one of the United 
 States of America, bounded north by 
 Canada, east by Lake Superior and Wis- 
 consin, south by Iowa, and west by the 
 Dakotas; area, 83,360 sq. miles. The 
 chief towns are Minneapolis, and the 
 capital, St. Paul. This state occupies 
 the summit of a central plateau formed 
 by the conterminous basins of the Mis- 
 sissippi, the St. Lawrence, and Lake Win- 
 nipeg. The surface is generally an un- 
 dulating plain, with a general slope 
 southeast toward the basin of the Mis- 
 sissippi, which, with its affluents, drains 
 about two-thirds of the state. The Red 
 river of the north, which forms part 
 of the west boundary, also receives a 
 part of the drainage, and part is carried 
 by Rainy Lake river to the Lake of the 
 Woods, part to Lake Superior. Lakes 
 are numerous, including Leech lake. 
 Red lake. Vermilion lake. Mille Lacs, 
 
MINNESOTA RIVER 
 
 MINT 
 
 and part of Lake of the Woods and 
 Rainy lake. Iron and copper are among 
 the chief minerals. The soil for the most 
 part is good, and the Red river valley is 
 considered the finest wheat-growing 
 district in the state. A large forest 
 known as the “Big Woods” extends over 
 the center of Minnesota for the length of 
 100 miles and a breadth of 40 miles, and 
 the country, especially above lat. 46°, 
 is well wooded with pine, spruce, oak, 
 beech, elm, maple, while the prairies 
 have been planted with millions of trees 
 by the aid of state bounties. The climate 
 is on the whole excellent, the winters, 
 though cold, being clear and dry; and, 
 the temperature being equable, the 
 state has become a winter resort for in- 
 valids. 
 
 Although only a little over one-half 
 of the land area is included in farms, 
 the state has attained the first rank in 
 
 Seal of Minnesota. 
 
 the cultivation of certain crops. In the 
 Red river valley wheat-growing has 
 been extensively developed. With the 
 introduction of modern methods the 
 state mills became famous for the high 
 quality of their product. The cultiva- 
 tion of wheat increased rapidly, and in 
 1890 the state had become first in both 
 acreage and production. Oats has about 
 a third as great an acreage as wheat, 
 and ranks next to it in importance. 
 Both corn and oats are grown most ex- 
 tensively in the southwestern part of the 
 state. In barley and flaxseed raising 
 also, the state takes a high rank, and 
 increasing quantities of rye are produced. 
 Hay and forage crops cover about one- 
 half as great an acreage as is devoted to 
 wheat. Large quantities of Irish pota- 
 toes are raised, and the cultivation of 
 the sugar beet has been introduced. 
 Fruit culture is mainly confined to the 
 southern part of the state and is not yet 
 extensively developed. 
 
 Minnesota is one of the richest states 
 in forest resources, having a woodland 
 area of about 52,200 sq. miles. Hard- 
 wood forests border the prairies, while 
 farther north the white pine predomi- 
 nates, Norway pine and spruce being 
 also abundant. The lumber industry 
 has increased rapidly and it ranks third 
 in importance. There is a forest reserve 
 of 200,000 acres in Chippewa reserva- 
 tion. 
 
 Minnesota is favored with the ad- 
 vantages of both the Saint Lawrence 
 and the Mississippi systems of naviga- 
 
 tion. The latter is becoming relatively 
 less important owing to the develop- 
 ment of railroads. Duluth has become 
 one of the leading lake ports. It has 
 immense shipments of ore, grain, and 
 lumber. But few regions of the country 
 are better supplied with railroads than 
 are the southern and western parts of 
 the state. Minneapolis-Saint Paul is the 
 objective point of most of the great lines 
 northwest of Chicago, and the transcon- 
 tinental Great Northern and Northern 
 Pacific crosses the state from east to 
 west. Among the lines which have a 
 large mileage in the state are the Chi- 
 cago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul; the 
 Chicago and Northwestern ; the Chicago, 
 Saint Paul and Omaha'; the Eastern 
 Railway of Minnesota; and the Minne- 
 sota and St. Louis. The total mileage 
 has increased from 1092 miles in 1870 to 
 over 7000. 
 
 By the state constitution a portion of 
 land is set apart in each township to pro- 
 vide a perpetual education fund. The 
 state university is at Minneapolis. The 
 state sends two senators and three repre- 
 sentatives to the national congress. 
 
 The first European to visit the region 
 now included within the state was 
 Duluth, who, in 1678, built a fort at the 
 mouth of the Pigeon river, on the north 
 shore of Lake Superior. In 1680 the Falls 
 of Saint Anthony were discovered by 
 Louis Hennepin, a Franciscan priest 
 Before 1700 there were trading posts 
 situated on Lake Pepin and on the 
 Minnesota river. Minnesota formed a 
 part of the extensive territory ceded by 
 France to Great Britain in 1763. In 
 1766 it was explored by Capt. Johnathan 
 Carver, of Connecticut. In 1783 it be- 
 came a possession of the United States. 
 The exploring expedition of Lieutenant 
 Pike in 1805 was followed by many 
 others within the succeeding forty years ; 
 and with an increased knowledge of the 
 country came the first important be- 
 ginning of immigration. , The Indian 
 titles to the lands east of the Mississippi 
 were not extinguished until the year 
 1838, and it was not until March 3, 1849, 
 that the territory of Minnesota was 
 organized, with the Missouri river as its 
 western boundary. In 1851 the Indian 
 titles to the lands (except reservations) 
 between the Mississippi and the Red 
 River of the North were extinguished, 
 and immigration increased rapidly. On 
 May 11, 1858, Minnesota was admitted 
 as a state. In 1862 the Sioux Indians, 
 under Little Crow, angered at the con- 
 tinuous inroads made upon their lands, 
 attacked and destroyed many of the 
 frontier settlements. Over 500 white 
 settlers and soldiers were killed and 
 25,000 people were driven from their 
 homes. Legislation after the civil war 
 was concerned largely with the regula- 
 tion of railway corporations. 
 
 Since 1860 Minnesota has been stead- 
 ily republican, save for the election of 
 1898, when the democrats, populists, 
 and silver republicans elected their can- 
 didate for governor. Pop. 2,125,000. 
 
 MINNESOTA RIVER, a river in the 
 United States, which flows through 
 Minnesota and falls into the Mississippi 
 5 miles above St. Paul; length, 470 miles. 
 
 MINNESOTA, University of, a co- 
 
 educational state institution of higher 
 learning in Minneapolis, Minn., estab- 
 lished in 1851. Its government is vested 
 in a board of thirteen regents, nine 
 appointed by the governor of the state 
 and holding office for six years, and 
 three ex-oflBcio members, the governor, 
 the state superintendent of public in- 
 struction, and the president of the uni- 
 versity. The annual income of the uni- 
 versity is now, 1906, about $510,500, 
 received from various sources, as follows; 
 Permanent endowment fund, $53,000; 
 Hatch and Morrill bills, $40,000; state 
 tax of yVtt of a mill, $194,000; annual 
 state appropriation, $69,500, fees, $126,- 
 000; miscellaneous sources, $28,000. It 
 provides courses in general college work, 
 engineering, mining, chemistry, agri- 
 culture — including forestry, home eco- 
 nomics, short practical course in agri- 
 culture and dairying, law, medicine — 
 including homeopathic medicine, den- 
 tistry, pharmacy, leading to appropriate 
 degrees. The faculty numbers 350; 
 students 4,000; alumni 6148; buildings 
 35, valued at $2,200,000; campus 50 
 acres on east bank of Mississippi river 
 well wooded with native oaks, valued at 
 $300,000; experimental farm 200 acres, 
 valued at $400,000, and substations val- 
 ued at $30,000 Co-educational in all 
 departments. 
 
 MINNOW, a species of fish belonging 
 to the same genus as the carp. They 
 swim in shoals, seldom exceed 3 inches 
 in length, and make excellent bait for 
 trout. In America various small fish 
 receive this name. 
 
 MINOR, a person of either sex under 
 age, who is under the authority of his 
 parents or guardians, or who is not per- 
 mitted by law to make contracts aniT 
 manage his own property. See Age. 
 
 MINOR, in Music. See Major. 
 
 MIN'OTAUR, in Greek mythology, a 
 monster fabled to have had the body 
 of a man with the head of a bull, and to 
 have fed on human flesh, on which 
 account Minos shut him up in the laby- 
 rinth of Daedalus, and at first exposed 
 to him criminals, but afterward youths 
 and maidens yearly sent from Athens 
 as a tribute. He was slain by Theseus. 
 
 MINSK, a town of Russia, capital of 
 government of same name. Pop. 91,494. 
 The government, which has an area of 
 35,290 sq. miles, has extensive forests 
 and great stretches of marsh or swamp. 
 Pop. 2,156,123. 
 
 MINSTREL, a singer and musical per- 
 former on instruments. In the middle 
 ages minstrels were a class of men who 
 subsisted by the arts of poetry and music 
 and sang to the harp or other instrument 
 verses composed by themselves or others. 
 The person of the minstrel was sacred; 
 his profession was a passport; he was 
 “high placed in hall, a welcome guest.” 
 So long as the spirit of chivalry existed 
 the minstrels were protected and ca- 
 ressed but they afterward sank to so low 
 a level as to be classed, in the reign of 
 Queen Elizabeth, with beggars and 
 vagabonds. 
 
 MINT, the name given to several 
 aromatic plants. They are nearly all 
 perennial, having square stems which 
 bear opposite and simple leaves; they 
 are wiaely distributed throughout tem- 
 
MINT 
 
 MIRROR 
 
 perate regions; and tliey abound in 
 resinous dots which contain an essential 
 oil. Mint has an agreeable odor, and par- 
 takes in the highest degree of tonic and 
 stimulatingproperties. Spearmint is gen- 
 erally used, mixed with vinegar and 
 sugar, in sauce. Peppermint yields the 
 well-lmown stimulating oil of the same 
 name. Pennyroyal is used for the same 
 purposes as peppermint. 
 
 MINT, the place where a country’s 
 coinage is made and issued under special 
 regulations and with public authority. 
 In England there was formerly a mint 
 in almost every county; the sovereign, 
 barons, bishops, and principal monas- 
 teries exercised the right of coining 
 and it was not till the reign of William 
 III. that all the provincial mints were 
 abolished. The present mint on Tower 
 Hill, in London, was erected between 
 the years 1810 and 1815. In former 
 times the coinage was made by contract 
 at a fixed price. The English mint sup- 
 plies the whole of the coinage of the 
 British Empire, except Australia and 
 the East Indies, which are supplied from 
 branch mints at Sydney, Melbourne, 
 Calcutta, and Bombay. In the United 
 States, there are mints at Philadelphia, 
 San Francisco, Carson, and New Orleans. 
 In France, as in England, the number 
 of mints was at one time considerable. 
 See Coining. 
 
 MIN'UET, a slow graceful dance said 
 to have been invented in Poitou, in 
 France, about the middle of the 17th 
 century, performed in J or f time. The 
 term is also applied to a tune or air to 
 regulate the movements in the dance, 
 or composed in the same time. 
 
 MENUS, in algebra, the term applied 
 to the negative or subtractive sign -, 
 which, when placed between two quan- 
 tities, signifies that the latter is to be 
 taken from the former ; thus a - b (called 
 a minus b) signifies that b is to be sub- 
 tracted from a. Quantities which have 
 the sign minus before them are called 
 negative or minus quantities; as, -xy, 
 - 5 cd. 
 
 MIN'UTE, a division of time and of 
 angular measure. As a division of time 
 it is the sixtieth part of an hour. As a 
 division of angular measure it is the 
 sixtieth part of a degree. In astronomi- 
 cal works minutes of time are denoted 
 by the initial letter m, and minutes of a 
 degree or of angular space, by an acute 
 accent ('). 
 
 MI'OCENE, in geology, the name 
 given by Sir Charles Lyell to a subdivi- 
 sion of the tertiary strata. The terms 
 Mipcene and Pliocene are comparative, 
 the first meaning less recent and the 
 other more recent. The Miocene strata 
 contain fossil plants and shells which 
 indicate a warm climate. The mammals 
 are important, and foreshadow the 
 animal life of the present day. No strata 
 of Miocene age occur in the British Isles. 
 
 MIRABEAU (me-ra-bo), Gabriel Hon- 
 or4 Riquetti, Comte de, French states- 
 man, bom in 1749 at Bignon, near 
 Nemours; died at Paris April 2, 1791. 
 At an early age he manifested extra- 
 ordinary intelligence; but his youth 
 was a stormy ana licentious one, so much 
 so that on several occasions he was im- 
 prisoned by his father under a lettre de 
 
 cachet. It was during an imprisonment 
 at Vincennes, which lasted three years 
 and a half, that he wrote his Lettres ^ 
 Sophie, Lettres de Cachet, and L’Espion 
 D4-valis6. On his release from this prison 
 he lived for some time in Holland and 
 England, returning to France in 1785. 
 On the assembling of the states-general 
 Mirabeau, elected for Aix, soon became 
 prominent. When the king required 
 the tiers 6tat to vote apart from the 
 other two orders it was Mirabeau who 
 counseled resistance, demanded the 
 withdrawal of the troops, consolidated 
 the national assembly, and defied the 
 king’s orders. For some months he con- 
 tinued to lead, but he soon found that 
 
 Mirabeau. 
 
 the members of the assembly were 
 mostly impracticable and inexperienced 
 men, whose chief function was to discuss 
 an ideal constitution. As a practical 
 statesman Mirabeau desired action, and 
 for this reason he attempted to form 
 alliances with Lafayette, the Duke of 
 Orleans, Necker, and finally with the 
 queen. Correspondence with the latter 
 was maintained through La Marck, and 
 he received a subsidy from the royal 
 party. No practical result followed from 
 this secret alliance, for the queen rejected 
 Mirabeau’s counsel and suspected his 
 methods of government. Whether he 
 might ultimately have been able to 
 guide the revolution into peaceful ways 
 has always been a matter of conjecture 
 to historians, but this possibility was 
 prevented by his death in 1791. This 
 was regarded as almost a national 
 calamity, and the people buried him 
 with splendid pomp in the Pantheon. 
 
 MIRACLE, a suspension of, or devia- 
 tion from, the known laws of nature, 
 brought about by the direct interference 
 of a supreme supernatural Being. It is 
 in its nature, as the term applies, an 
 occurrence which is strange, marvelous, 
 inexplicable, and is usually connected 
 with some ulterior moral purpose. By 
 the elder theologians a miracle was con- 
 ceived to be the triumph of the Divine 
 Will over the work of His hands and the 
 laws of His making. In modern exegesis, 
 however, the miraculous element is not 
 considered to give evidence of opposing 
 forces. On the contrary, a miracle is 
 explained as a manifestation of the 
 Divine Power working through laws and 
 by methods unknown to us, and which. 
 
 upon a higher plane, are altogether 
 natural and orderly. 
 
 MIRAGE (mi-razh'), an optical illu- 
 sion, occasioned by the refraction of 
 light through contiguous masses of air 
 of different density; such refraction not 
 unfrequently producing the same sensi- 
 ble effect as direct reflection. It consists 
 in an apparent elevation or approxima- 
 tion of coasts, mountains, ships, and 
 other objects, accompanied by inverted 
 images. In deserts where the surface is 
 perfectly level a plain thus assumes the 
 appearance of a lake, reflecting the 
 shadows of objects within and around it. 
 The mirage is commonly vertical, that 
 is, presenting an appearance of one 
 object over another, like a ship above its 
 shadow in the water. Sometimes, how- 
 ever, the images are horizontal. Loom- 
 ing is a phenomenon of the same nature, 
 in which the objects appear to be lifted 
 above their true positions, so that an 
 observer sees objects which are beyond 
 the horizon. The cause is in both cases 
 the same, for while the mirage is pro- 
 duced in most instances by reflection 
 from the desert sand, looming is occa- 
 sioned by reflection from the sky. The 
 phenomenon called Fata Morgana which 
 is sometimes seen on the Calabrian 
 coast is a kind of mirage. By it men 
 and animals apparently of immense size 
 may sometimes be seen presented in the 
 air. 
 
 MIRROR, a smooth surface capable of 
 regularly reflecting a great proportion 
 of the rays of light that fall upon it. The 
 mirrors used by the ancients, and more 
 especially by the Etruscans, were made 
 of thin polished bronze. Small metal 
 mirrors were also used by the Greeks 
 and Romans, and specimens brought by 
 the latter have been found in Cornwall. 
 The making of glass mirrors, which had 
 their backs silvered with an amalgam 
 of mercury and tin, was early practiced 
 by the Venetians. In 1835 Liebig ob- 
 served that by heating aldehyde in a glass 
 vessel along with an ammonical solution 
 of nitrate of silver, a coating of brilliant 
 metallic silver was left upon the glass. 
 This has now been made use of in mirror- 
 making by what are known as the hot 
 and cold processes. In the hot process 
 the glass is first sensitized with a solution 
 of tin, which is then rinsed off and the 
 plate laid upon a flat, double-bottomed 
 metal table heated by steam to about 
 100° Fahr. In this position a solution of 
 nitrate of silver, ammonia, and tartaric 
 acid in distilled water is poured over it ; 
 and if the temperature is kept uniform 
 a thick deposit of silver will be formed 
 in about half an hour. When the silver 
 layer is carefully wiped this process is 
 repeated. In the cold process a solution 
 of nitrate of silver, nitrate of ammonium 
 and caustic soda dissolved in water, is 
 mixed with a solution of loaf-sugar, 
 vinegar, and water. This is poured 
 quickly and evenly over the glass plate, 
 and the silver is precipitated in a few 
 minutes, after which it is washed and the 
 process repeated. The silvering is then 
 protected by a coating of shellac or 
 copal varnish. More recently a solution 
 of bichloride of platinum is applied to 
 the surface of the glass and precipitated 
 with oil of lavender in the manufacture 
 
MIRZAPUR 
 
 MISSISSIPPI 
 
 of the cheapest mirrors. Mirrors may 
 be plane or spherical, and in the latter 
 case they may be either convex or con- 
 cave. The optical principles involved in 
 reflection from mirrors are simple. 
 
 MIRZAPUR, a city of India, capital of 
 a district of same name, in the United 
 Provinces, on the Ganges, 56 miles be- 
 low Allahabad and 45 above Benares. 
 Pop. 79,862. — The district has an area 
 of 5223 sq. miles. Pop. 1,161,508. 
 
 MISDEMEANOR, an offense of a less 
 atrocious nature than a crime, including 
 generally all indictable offenses which 
 do not amount to felony, as perjury, 
 libels, conspiracies, assaults, etc. 
 
 MISERE'RE, the name of a psalm in 
 the Roman Catholic church service, 
 taken from the fifty-first Psalm, be- 
 ginning in the Vulgate, “Miserere mei, 
 Domine” (“Pity me, O Lord”). The 
 name is also applied to a projecting 
 bracket on the under side of a hinged 
 seat in a stall of a church; or to the seat 
 and bracket together. The bracket served 
 as a rest for a person standing, the seat 
 being turned up. 
 
 MISSIONS, Missionaries. The first 
 Christian missionaries were the apostles, 
 and by them and their successors Chris- 
 tianity was in the course of a few cen- 
 turies spread over all parts of the Roman 
 Empire. In some parts, as in Britain, 
 it gave way again before the Germanic 
 invaders of the 5th and 6th centuries, 
 and some of the most noted mission- 
 aries were those who reintroduced their 
 faith among the German tribes. St. 
 Augustine or Austin, who was sent by 
 Gregory the Great with forty associates 
 to preach the gospel among the Saxons 
 of Britain at the end of the 6th century, 
 was the first of this missionary group. 
 Britain in its turn sent forth mission- 
 aries, such as St. Boniface, “the apostle 
 of Germany.” Germany also sent out 
 the missionaries who converted Den- 
 mark, Sweden and Norway, Poland, 
 Hungary, and Bohemia. The Crusades 
 opened up new spheres for missionary 
 efforts in the east, and two religious 
 orders founded at the beginning of the 
 13th century, the Dominicans and Fran- 
 ciscans, devoted themselves to preach- 
 ing among the Musselmans. Others ad- 
 vanced as far as Tartary, Tibet, and 
 China, but the persecutions there be- 
 came so violent that those countries had 
 to be abandoned. A new impulse was 
 given to missions by the discovery of 
 the New World. When the way had 
 been prepared by the Spanish and Por- 
 tuguese armies a crowd of friars of all 
 orders set out for the West Indies, Mexi- 
 co, Peru, and Brazil, to spread Catholi- 
 cism ; but very few, like Las Casas, pro- 
 tected- the natives from rapacity or 
 preached Christianity by their conduct. 
 The powerful order of the Jesuits, which 
 was founded in the 16th century, 
 turned their attention to the east, and 
 the celebrated Francis Xavier, a mem- 
 ber of the order, proceeded to India, 
 where his efforts were crowned with 
 success. From India Christianity was 
 introduced into Japan, where it had to 
 contend against terrible persecutions, 
 before which the missionaries were com- 
 pelled to retire. Father Ricci, another 
 Jesuit, penetrated to Peking, and suc- 
 
 ceeded about the end of the 16th cen- 
 tury in gaining a firm footing. At the 
 beginning of the 17th century some 
 Dominican missionaries made Tonquin 
 and Cochin China the center of their 
 efforts, and pushed out thence into all 
 the neighboring countries with consider- 
 able success. In 1622 Gregory XV. gave 
 a better organization to the Roman 
 Catholic missions by the foundation of 
 the Propaganda, and they are now very 
 widely spread and carried on with much 
 energy. 
 
 The earliest Protestant foreign mis- 
 sion appears to have been one which was 
 established in Brazil in 1555. Gustavus 
 Vasa, king of Sweden from 1523 to 1560, 
 toward the close of his reign sent forth 
 a mission to convert the Laplanders. 
 Shortly after the settlement of New 
 England in 1620 John Eliot took a deep 
 interest in the condition of the North 
 American Indians, and in 1646 began a 
 regular mission among that people. 
 But these were only isolated trivial 
 efforts, and it was not until the 18th 
 century that the true missionary spirit 
 awoke. The English took the lead in 
 this movement, but were speedily fol- 
 lowed by Danes and Germans, espe- 
 cially the Moravian Brethren. After the 
 missions of Great Britain the next in 
 importance are those of the United 
 States. The first missionary society of 
 this country was founded in 1810 under 
 the title of the American Board of Com- 
 missioners for Foreign Missions. The 
 American Baptist Missionary Union was 
 founded in 1814, the Methodist Episco- 
 pal Church Missionary Society in 1819, 
 the Protestant Episcopal Missionary 
 Society in 1820, the Presbyterian Board 
 of Foreign Missions in 1833. The Ameri- 
 can missionaries have naturally done 
 much in the conversion of the Indians 
 of this continent, but their missions are 
 widely spread elsewhere. 
 
 MISSISSIP'PI (“Great Water”), the 
 principal river of North America, and 
 one of the largest rivers in the world. 
 It has its source in Lake Itasca, state of 
 Minnesota, whence it issues about 12 
 feet wide and 2 feet deep ; from thence it 
 trends southward through a number of 
 lakes and over a series of rapids until 
 the Falls of St. Anthony are reached; 
 below this it receives the Iowa, the 
 Illinois, and the Missouri as tributaries, 
 but the latter is really the main stream, 
 having a length of 2908 miles before the 
 rivers unite, while that of the Mississippi 
 is only 1330 miles. From St. Louis, a 
 little below their confluence, the Mis- 
 sissippi becomes a broad, rapid, muddy 
 river, liable to overflow its banks; lower 
 down it receives in succession the Ohio, 
 Arkansas, and Red rivers, and it finally 
 enters the Gulf of Mexico through a large 
 delta with several “passes,” some dis- 
 tance belowNew Orleans. The combined 
 lengths of the Missouri and Mississippi 
 are about 4200 miles; the whole area 
 drained by the Mississippi is 1,246,000 
 sq. miles; the maximum flood volume 
 reaches 1,400,000 cubic feet per second 
 below the Ohio; and the sediment trans- 
 ported to the gulf annually would make 
 a solid block 1 mile square and 260 feet 
 high. Above its junction with the Ohio 
 at Cairo the river enters upon a large 
 
 alluvial basin, bounded on both sides 
 by high bluffs, and through this plain 
 the river winds for about 1150 miles. 
 The volume is usually smallest in Octo- 
 ber and greatest in April, and the low- 
 lying lands are subject to terrible flood- 
 ings during the spring freshets. At many 
 places attempts have been made to 
 secure the river within its banks and 
 save the country from loss and suffering 
 by building dykes, or levees as they are 
 called. The sediment carried down, 
 however, is continually raising the bed 
 of the river, and thus breaks are fre- 
 quently made in these levees. A recent 
 method of improving the river’s course, 
 sanctioned by congress and superin- 
 tended by Captain Eads, is to construct 
 light willow screens or dams on the 
 shoals and at the wide places on the 
 river where bars already exist. By this 
 a deposit is formed which in time will 
 act as a bank to hem in the river, while 
 the increased volume thus obtained 
 will help to scour out a deeper channel. 
 The most important towns on the river 
 banks are St. Paul, St. Louis, Cairo, 
 Memphis, Vicksburg, Natchez, and 
 New Orleans. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States 
 of America; bounded north by Tennes- 
 see, east by Alabama, south by the Gulf 
 of Mexico and Louisiana, and west by 
 Louisiana and Arkansas; area, 46,810 
 sq. miles. The Mississippi winds along 
 its western frontiers for 530 miles. Near 
 the Gulf of Mexico the country is low 
 and swampy, the central part is hilly 
 and mostly prairie-land, a large part of 
 the northeast is covered with forests, 
 while 7000 sq. miles along the Mississippi 
 consist of rich bottom-lands. This river 
 
 Seal of Mississippi. 
 
 receives the far larger part of the drain- 
 age. In the north the climate is toler- 
 ably mild and agreeable; but in the 
 south, below lat. 13°, and along the 
 swampy basin of the Mississippi, it i.s 
 both extremely hot and unhealthy. In 
 the southeast, where the pine forests 
 extend, the soil is light and compara- 
 tively barren, but large tracts of it are 
 well adapted for pasture. In the north- 
 west, on the borders of the Yazoo, the 
 soil is composed of rich black mould;', 
 and in the Mississippi bottom-lands, ; 
 where it is protected from inundation ' 
 by embankments or levees, it is of re- ) 
 markable fertility. The staple of the > 
 state is cotton, and the othc crops are j 
 chiefly Indian corn, bananas, sweet- | 
 
MISSISSIPPI 
 
 MISSISSIPPI SCHEME 
 
 potatoes, tobacco, and indigo; while 
 fruit is abundant. The predominant in- 
 dustry in the state is agriculture and it 
 is highly favored both by the nature of 
 the climate and the soil. The most de- 
 sirable region is included between the 
 Yazoo and the Mississippi rivers. Very 
 extensive areas are still covered with 
 forests, but it is nearly all susceptible of 
 cultivation. There are 18,240,736 acres, 
 or 61.5 per cent of the total area, in- 
 cluded in farms. Of this 41.6 percent 
 is improved, the improved area hav- 
 ing increased about 1,500,000 acres 
 since 1860, while the unimproved area 
 remains about the same. The change 
 in the system of agriculture incident 
 upon the cessation of slavery has de- 
 creased the average size of farms from 
 
 369.7 acres in 1860 to 82.6 in 1900. 
 In no other state is cotton so dominant 
 as in Mississippi. The acreage of cotton 
 is over half of the total crop acreage and 
 contributes 63.6 per cent of the value 
 of farm crops. The state ranks third in 
 the production of cotton. The greatest 
 production was reached in 1897-98, 
 when the output amounted to 1,600,000 
 bales, and only once in that decade did 
 the production fall below 1,000,000 
 bales. Aside from cotton the agricultural 
 interest of the state is almost wholly 
 centered in corn. The acreage of this 
 crop constitutes 95.9 per cent of the 
 total area devoted to cereals. The pro- 
 duction of oats has decreased. Com- 
 pared with its sister state across the 
 Mississippi river, remarkably little atten- 
 tion is paid to the growing of sugar cane, 
 and the crop of late years is almost 
 wholly converted into syrup and mo- 
 lasses. Small fruits and orchard fruits 
 are not extensively raised. In the de- 
 cade 1890-1900, however, the number 
 of trees almost doubled. In the latter 
 year the peach trees numbered 1,856,748 
 which was 53 per cent of the total num- 
 ber. 
 
 The manufacturing industry is prob- 
 ably less developed in Mississippi than 
 in any other of the older states of the 
 Union. On the other hand, the rate of 
 the recent increase has been ■ greater 
 than that of most of the other states. 
 In the decade 1880-1890 the value of 
 the manufactured product increased 
 
 148.8 per cent and in the decade 1890- 
 1900 increased 116.1 per cent. Having 
 no large transportation center, and the 
 water power and mineral resources be- 
 ing of little consequence, the state is at 
 a comparative industrial disadvantage. 
 But the products of her cotton fields 
 and forests supply an abundance of raw 
 materials. 
 
 The manufacture of cottonseed oil 
 and cake — experienced an increase 
 during the decade of 177.6 per cent. The 
 state contained the first mill of this 
 kind erected in the United States. A 
 less absolute but much larger per cent 
 of increase was made in cotton-ginning. 
 The export trade, carried on through 
 New Orleans and Mobile, is chiefly in 
 lumber and cotton, while the river and 
 coasting traffic is large. The railroads 
 extend to about 2500 miles. The state 
 supports a public school system with 
 separate schools for the white and col- 
 ored races, besides a state university 
 
 and other schools of high grade. The 
 capital is Jackson. The other principal 
 towns are Vicksburg and Natchez. 
 
 In 1539 Hernando de Soto, with a 
 band of Spanish adventurers, crossed 
 the northeastern part of what is now 
 the state, and in the early part of 1541 
 reached the Mississippi river, near the 
 present site of Memphis, Tenn. In 1673 
 the French explorers Joliet and Mar- 
 quette, passing down the Mississippi, 
 sailed as far as the mouth of the Arkan- 
 sas. In 1681-82 La Salle sailed down 
 the river to its mouth, and, taking 
 formal possession for the king of France, 
 Louis XIV., named the country Louis- 
 iana after him. The first attempt to 
 found a colony was made in 1699 by 
 Iberville, who brought 200 Immigrants 
 from France to Biloxi, on the eastern 
 shore of the Bay of Biloxi. 
 
 By the treaty of Paris, in 1763, France 
 ceded all her possessions east of the 
 Mississippi river to England, excepting 
 the island of New Orleans, ceded to 
 Spain. The British province of West 
 Florida at first extended eastward from 
 the Mississippi river along the Gulf 
 coasts, with its northern limit at the 
 31st parallel of north latitude. Soon 
 afterward the northern boundary was 
 , fixed at a line drawn eastward from the 
 point where the Yazoo river unites with 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 During the revolutionary war of the 
 Atlantic colonies, West Florida re- 
 mained undisturbed until 1779. In 
 1781 West Florida was conquered by 
 Spain. In 1798, the territory was ex- 
 tended from the Mississippi river east- 
 ward to the Chattahoochee river. By 
 the treaty of 1795 Spain ceded her claims 
 to the United States. In the war of 
 1812 the territory was well represented 
 at the battle of New Orleans. In March, 
 1817, congress passed an enabling act for 
 the admission of Mississippi to the Union 
 and the state was formally admitted 
 December 10, 1817. The most notable 
 features of the first constitution of 
 Mississippi were the high property 
 qualifications for holding office, the 
 short tenures of offices, and the large 
 appointing power of the governor and 
 legislature. The first governor was 
 David Holmes, and during his adminis- 
 tration the capital was permanently 
 located at Jackson, near the headwaters 
 of the Pearl river. Upon the outbreak 
 of the Mexican war Mississippi was 
 called upon to furnish one regiment of 
 volunteers, but more than enough men 
 for two regiments responded. The first 
 regiment was commanded by Col. 
 Jefferson Davis, who won great distinc- 
 tion at the battle of Buena Vista. In 
 1851 occurred the first important strug- 
 gle in Mississippi over the slavery ques- 
 tion, which had become serious on 
 account of the enactment by congress 
 of the so-called Compromise Measures 
 of 1850. It was left, however, for the 
 election of Lincoln to bring the secession 
 movement to a head. An ordinance of 
 secession was passed on January 9, 
 1861, by a convention, by a vote of 84 
 to 15, and the state constitution was 
 amended to bring it into conformity 
 with the constitution of the confederate 
 
 states. In 1870 the state was re-admitted 
 into the Union. By the constitution of 
 1890 the suffrage was restricted to those 
 able to read a section of the constitu- 
 tion, or to interpret any passage, if read 
 aloud, a provision aimed against the 
 negro voter, and sufficiently successful 
 in attaining its aim. In national elec- 
 tions Mississippi has been a democratic 
 state with the exception of the year 
 1840, when it voted for the whig candi- 
 date, and of 1872, when its vote was 
 given to Grant. In 1864 and 1868 its 
 vote was not counted. Pop. 1,750,612. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, University of, a state 
 university chartered in 1844 and opened 
 in 1848, at Oxford, Miss., and main- 
 tained until 1880 by annual grants by 
 the legislature. In 1872 the policy of 
 separate schools, with optional studies 
 and with courses leading to other de- 
 grees besides that of B.A., was adopted. 
 The work of the university is organized 
 in seven undergraduate courses, par- 
 tially elective, leading' to the bachelor’s 
 degree in arts, science, pedagogy, phi- 
 losophy, mining, and both civil and 
 electrical engineering. The university 
 also maintains a law school and a sum- 
 mer school, and confers the degree of 
 M.A. and Ph.D. In 1894 the preparatory 
 education was discontinued at the uni- 
 versity; and the requirements for ad- 
 mission are those adopted by the Asso- 
 ciation of Colleges and Preparatory 
 Schools of the Southern States, of which 
 the universityis one of the original mem- 
 bers. Students from approved high 
 schools are admitted without examina- 
 tion. Since 1882 women are admitted 
 to the classes, but are not permitted 
 to lodge on the campus. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI AGRICULTURAL AND 
 MECHANICAL COLLEGE, a state insti- 
 tution at Agricultural College, Miss., 
 founded in 1880 on the federal land 
 grant of 1862. It has a preparatory de- 
 partment and three courses of instruc- 
 tion, agricultural, mechanical, and tex- 
 tile, with provision for graduate work 
 and summer sessions. It confers the 
 degrees of Bachelor and Master of 
 Science, and the honorary degree of 
 Master of Progressive Agriculture. Tui- 
 tion is free to students residing in the 
 state; others pay an annual fee of $20. 
 The college has a military organization, 
 and all students are required to wear a 
 prescribed uniform within five miles of 
 the college buildings. The attendance 
 of women is permitted. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI SCHEME, a bubble 
 scheme projected by John Law at Paris 
 in 1717. Part of the scheme was for the 
 colonization and development of the 
 Mississippi valley, but combined with 
 this there was a banking scheme and a 
 scheme for the management of the 
 national debt, the whole being sup- 
 ported by the French government. 
 Such were the hopes raised by this 
 undertaking that the shares originally 
 issued at 500 livres (say $100) were 
 sold at ten, twenty, thirty, and even 
 forty times their value. People came 
 from all parts of France, and even 
 from foreign countries, in order to in- 
 vest in the company, and there was 
 a general mania of specidation. The 
 state took advantage of the popular 
 
MISSOURI 
 
 MISSOURI 
 
 frenzy to issue increased quantities of 
 paper-money, which was readily ac- 
 cepted by the public creditors and in- 
 vested in shares of Law’s company. 
 This went on till the value of the paper- 
 money became depreciated in value and 
 all the shares fell in price. All attempts 
 to check the downward course failed, 
 and when Law, the originator of the 
 bankrupt company, fled from France in 
 1720 the state acknowledged itself 
 debtor to the shareholders to the extent 
 of 1700 million livres. See Law, John. 
 
 MISSOURI (mi-s6're), a river of North 
 America, which is formed in the Rocky 
 Mountains, in Montana, winds circuit- 
 ously along the base of the mountains, 
 then east till it reaches the western 
 boundary of N. Dakota, and receives 
 the Yellowstone. Here it begins to flow 
 southeastward through N. and S. 
 Dakota, then forms the eastern bound- 
 ary of Nebraska, separating it from Iowa 
 and Missouri; separates for a short dis- 
 tance Kansas from Missouri, then strikes 
 eastward across the latter state, and 
 joins the Mississippi after a course of 
 2908 miles. It it navigable 2500 miles 
 from the Mississippi. Its affluents are 
 very numerous on both banks, but by 
 far the most important of them are the 
 Yellowstone, the Nebraska or Platte, 
 and the Kansas, all from the west. 
 
 MISSOURI, one of the United States 
 of America, bounded north by Iowa; 
 east by the Mississippi, which separates 
 it chiefly from Illinois, but partly also 
 from Kentucky and Tennessee; south 
 by Arkansas; and west by Kansas and 
 Nebraska, from which it is partly sepa- 
 rated by the Missouri, and by the Indian 
 Territory; area, 69,415 sq. miles. The 
 surface is traversed by numerous hills 
 and swelling ridges, but the southeast 
 comer is almost an alluvial flat. The 
 
 Seal of Missouri. 
 
 most important rivers are the Mississippi 
 and the Missouri, the latter of which 
 crosses the state from west to east, and 
 has several navigable tributaries — the 
 Lamine, Osage, Gasconade, the Grand, and 
 Charlton. The state is rich in minerals: 
 iron and lead are produced, the latter 
 in large quantities, and coal is raised to 
 the extent of some 4,000,000 tons 
 annually. Much of the soil is fertile, and 
 there is a great deal of valuable timber. 
 
 Agriculture is the leading industry, 
 33,997,873 acres, or 77.3 per cent of the 
 total area, is included in farms. The crop 
 production is characterized by the great 
 
 attention given to corn, which consti- 
 tutes over 71 per cent of the total cereal 
 crop, and places Missouri among the 
 leading corn states. Wheat is the next 
 most important of the cereals. A largely 
 increasing acreage is devoted to hay and 
 forage, which together rank next to corn 
 in area. A great deal of flax is raised 
 near the western border of the state 
 south of the Missouri river. In the 
 lowlands in the southeast corner of the 
 state, cotton is the leading crop. Po- 
 tatoes and iorghum cane are grown 
 throughout Missouri. The state pro- 
 duces watermelons, tomatoes, cab- 
 bages, and other vegetables. Broom 
 corn and castor beans receive some at- 1 
 tention. Both small fruits and orchard I 
 fruits are grown in abundance. 
 
 Red deer are found in every part of 
 the state, especially in the thinly set- 
 tled and mountainous districts. Wild 
 turkeys are numerous in the swampy 
 and mountainous districts, and are 
 found in all parts of the state. Prairie 
 chickens are found in the prairie portion 
 of Missouri, and are shipped in great 
 quantities to eastern markets. And in 
 all parts of Missouri are found the 
 quail or Virginia partridge. The rab- 
 bit, a species of hare, is so common as to 
 be considered a .pest. The gray squir- 
 rel and the red fox-squirrel are also 
 found in large numbers all over the 
 state. Black bass, perch, catfish, buf- 
 falo fish, suckers, and pike are the 
 leading varieties of native fish. 
 
 Missouri is the leading manufactur- 
 ing state west of the Mississippi. De- 
 velopment in this direction has been 
 favored by its location on the Mississip- 
 pi and Missouri rivers. The growing 
 of tobacco in the state gives rise to ex- 
 tensive manufactures of this product, 
 especially chewing and smoking tobac- 
 co and snuff. A large number of rail- 
 roads cross the Mississippi at St. Louis, 
 while Kansas City and St. Joseph on 
 the western border are also large rail- 
 road centers. Some of the leading lines 
 in Missouri are: The Missouri Pacific, 
 the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, the 
 St. Louis and San Francisco, St. Louis 
 Southwestern, the Chicago, Burlington 
 and Quincy, Chicago and Alton, the 
 Wabash, the St. Louis, Iron Moun- 
 tain and Southern. The climate is 
 generally healthy, but subject to 
 extremes. Education has been well 
 provided for, both by the state and by 
 the different religious bodies. Be- 
 sides the state university there are other 
 universities and colleges (medical and 
 other), normal schools, school of agri- 
 culture, school of mining and metal- 
 lurgy, etc. Jefferson City is the capital, 
 but St. Louis is the commercial metropo- 
 lis and largest city, and there are many 
 others more populous than Jefferson. 
 
 Missouri was part of the vast area of 
 Louisiana claimed by the French on the 
 ground of the discoveries of La Salle, 
 who descended the Mississippi to its 
 mouth in 1681-82. A few years before 
 La Salle, in 1673, Marquette and Joliet 
 had sailed down the river as far as the 
 mouth of the Arkansas. The territory 
 included within the present state was 
 traversed before 1720 by parties of 
 French explorers in search of mines of 
 
 lead and silver, and in 1723 a certain 
 Lieutenant Renaud received the grant 
 of a large tract of land in that region. 
 The foundation of Old Saint-Genevieve 
 is sometimes placed in the year 1735. 
 The second settlement within the state 
 was St. Louis, established as a trading- 
 post in 1764, a year after the cession of 
 Louisiana to Spain by the Peace of Paris. 
 After the acquisition of Louisiana by 
 the United States, in 1803, the entire 
 territory was divided into two by the 
 line of the 33d parallel of latitude, the 
 northern part being known as the dis- 
 trict and territory of Louisiana till 1812 
 and subsequently as the territory of 
 Missouri. In June, 1812, Missouri was 
 organized as a territory, with a gover- 
 nor and general assembly. In 1818 
 Missouri applied for admission to the 
 Union as a state. Two years of bitter 
 controversy followed a resolution in- 
 troduced into Congress of an anti-slav- 
 ery restriction. This was settled by 
 the adoption of the ‘ ‘Missouri compro- 
 mise,” which forbade slavery in all 
 that portion of the Louisiana purchase 
 lying north of 36° 30' except in Mis- 
 souri, and on July 19, 1820, Missouri was 
 admitted to the union. 
 
 In the first half of the nineteenth 
 century Missouri, though a slave state, 
 was not an ardent defender of slavery, 
 and a very large proportion of its citizens 
 were interested in movements look- 
 ing toward the gradual emancipation of 
 the slaves. With the rise of the abolition- 
 ists, however, Missouri became decidedly 
 a pro-slavery state. It favored the 
 annexation of Texas in 1845, and took 
 a very prominent share in the Mexican 
 war. General Kearny’s army of invasion 
 consisting largely of Missourians. In 
 1849 the legislature adopted the so- 
 called Jackson resolutions, in which the 
 right of congress to regulate slavery in 
 the territories was denied, and the prin- 
 ciple of squattersovereignty wasasserted. 
 In reply to President Lincoln’s call for 
 troops. Governor Jackson, who, with 
 the rest of the state government, was in 
 favor of secession, refused to participate 
 in the “unholy crusade,” and sum- 
 moned the state militia to arms. Be- 
 tween the state militia and the federal 
 troops, under Colonel Lyon aided by 
 the volunteer bands which the loyalists 
 of St. Louis had organized, civil war 
 ensued. The governor, together with a 
 majority of the legislature, fled to the 
 southern part of the state, and the 
 supreme power was assumed by the con- 
 vention, which declared all the offices 
 vacant and proceeded to install a pro- 
 visional government. With the fall of 
 the confederate power in Missouri the 
 regular state government was reorgan- 
 ized (1864), and in January, 1865, a con- 
 stitutional convention controlled by the 
 radical union party assembled in St. 
 Louis. Since the war the prosperity of 
 the state has been greatly increased by 
 the development of its mineral indus- 
 tries, and the growth of railroads. The 
 improvement of the navigation of the 
 Mississippi and the Missouri was carried 
 on actively for many years. In the 
 matter of public education there has 
 been exceedingly rapid progress, the 
 
MISSOURI COMPROMISE 
 
 MITRAILLEUSE 
 
 school fund of the state being one of the 
 largest in the Union. In 1903 an ex- 
 position was held at St. Louis to com- 
 memorate the one hundredth anniver- 
 sary of the acquisition of Louisiana. 
 
 From 1824 to the civil war Missouri 
 was always democratic, but the whig 
 minority was very strong. From 1864 
 to 1872 the republicans were in power, 
 but the defection of a large body of 
 liberal republicans who were opposed 
 to the vindictive policy pursued against 
 those who had participated in the re- 
 bellion led to the reestablishment of 
 democratic supremacy, which has re- 
 mained unbroken since, save for the elec- 
 tion of 1894, when the republicans secured 
 a majority in the legislature and the con- 
 gressional delegation. Pop. 3,575,862. 
 
 MISSOURI COMPROMISE, an act of 
 the American congress, passed in 1820, 
 by which Missouri was admitted into 
 the Union as a slave-holding state but 
 which enacted that slavery should never 
 be established in any future-formed 
 state north of lat. 36° 30'. 
 
 MISSOURI, University of, at Colum- 
 bia, in Boone county, is the oldest state 
 university west of the Mississippi river. 
 Its legal existence dates from Feb. 11, 
 1839, and the beginning of its courses of 
 instruction from April 14, 1841. The or- 
 ganization of the university comprises 
 nine departments: The college of lib- 
 eral arts; the Missouri teachers’ col- 
 lege, the college of agriculture and 
 mechanic arts (including the experi- 
 ment station), the college of engineer- 
 ing, the Missouri school of mines (at 
 Rolla), the department of law, the de- 
 partment of medicine, the Missouri state 
 military school, and the graduate de- 
 partment. All, excepting the military 
 school, are open to women. 178 profes- 
 sors, assistant professors, instructors, 
 and assistants were engaged in teaching 
 in the various faculties in 1906. Forty- 
 five states and eighteen foreign coun- 
 tries were represented in 1905-6 by 
 2,067 students, an increase in attend- 
 ance of more than 100% since 1901, 
 when the enrollment first reached 1,000. 
 No tuition is charged and the cost of 
 living is comparatively low. Excellent 
 laboratory facilities exist and in the 
 various general and special libraries 
 more than 120,000 books and pamphlets 
 are accessible to students. The build- 
 ings, grounds, books, and other equip- 
 ment are valued at $2,000,000, and the 
 income of the university in 1905-6 was 
 $510,000. There are 30 buildings — 23 at 
 Columbia and 7 at the School of Mines 
 at Rolla. 
 
 MISTLETOE, a plant growing para- 
 sitically on various trees, and celebrated 
 on account of the religious purposes to 
 which it was consecrated by the ancient 
 Celtic nations of Europe, being held in 
 great veneration by the Druids, par- 
 ticularly when it was found growing on 
 the oak. It is a small shrub, with sessile, 
 oblong, entire, somewhat leathery 
 leaves, and small, yellowish-green flow- 
 ers, the whole forming a pendent bush 
 covered in winter with small white ber- 
 ries, which contain a glutinous substance. 
 It is common enough on certain species 
 of trees, such as apple and pear trees, 
 hawthorn, maple, lime, and other 
 
 similar trees, but is very seldom found 
 on the oak. Its roots penetrate into the 
 substance of the tree on which it grows, 
 and latterly it kills the branch support- 
 ing it. 
 
 MISTRAL, a violent cold northwest 
 wind experienced in Provence and other 
 neighboring districts bordering on the 
 Mediterranean, and destroying crops, 
 fruit, blossom, etc. It blows with great- 
 est violence in autumn, winter, and 
 early spring. 
 
 MITCHEL, Ormsby McKnight, Ameri- 
 can astronomer, was born in Kentucky 
 in 1809. He was assigned to the artillery, 
 and until 1832 was assistant professor 
 of mathematics in the United States 
 military academy. He resigned from 
 the army and became professor of mathe- 
 matics, philosophy, and astronomy in 
 Cincinnati College in 1836. In 1844 he 
 succeeded in obtaining the construction 
 of an observatory in Cincinnati, of 
 which he vvas made first director. During 
 his incumbency of this office, which ex- 
 tended over many years, he made many 
 notable astronomical discoveries, in- 
 cluding, with exactness, that of the period 
 of rotation of the planet Mars, and in 
 1859 he took charge of the Dudley 
 University in Albany, N. Y. He was 
 promoted major-general of volunteers 
 in 1862. He died in 1862. 
 
 MITCHELL, Donald Grant (Ik Mar- 
 vel), American author, was born in 
 Norwich, Conn., in 1822. In 1850 
 and 1851 he wrote Reveries of a 
 Bachelor, and Dream Life, the books 
 most popularly associated with his 
 pseudonym, Ik Marvel. In 1848 he 
 again went abroad, traveling through 
 Great Britain, France, and Switzer- 
 land, and on his return published The 
 Lorgnette, a periodical in the manner 
 of Irving’s Salmagundi. In May, 1853, 
 Mr. Mitchell was appointed United 
 States consul at Venice, and on his re- 
 turn, in 1855, settled on a farm near 
 New Haven, Conn. In 1876 he received 
 the degree of LL.D. from Yale. He died 
 in 1907. 
 
 MITCHELL, John, labor representa- 
 tive, was born in Braidwood, 111., in 
 1869. He worked in the coal mines of 
 Illinois and joined the Knights of Labor 
 in 1885. He was secretary and treasurer 
 of United Mine Workers in 1895, na- 
 tional vice-president in 1898. He was 
 elected vice president of the American 
 Federation of Labor in 1900. He was 
 president of the United Mine Work- 
 ers from 1898, to Jan. 1908. He 
 directed the strike of the an- 
 thracite workers, and brought it, 
 through the intervention of President 
 Roosevelt, to a successful conclusion. 
 He is one of the most prominent laboi 
 representatives in the United States. 
 In 1902 he was appointed a member ot 
 the executive committee of the Indus- 
 trial Department of the National Civic 
 Federation . 
 
 MITCHELL, Margaret J. (Maggie), 
 American actress, was born at New 
 York City about 1832, and made her 
 first appearance when a child on the 
 stage of the old Bowery theater. She 
 became prominent as a soubrette during 
 1852, and later acquired a national rep- 
 utation in Fanchon the Cricket, of which 
 
 she is the original. She has played with 
 great success Little Barefoot, The Pearl 
 of Savoy, and other dramas adapted to 
 the requirements of her particular school. 
 
 MITCHELL, Silas Weir American 
 neurologist, was born in Virginia in 
 1829. His earliest work of importance 
 consisted of researches upon the chemi- 
 cal composition and physiological action 
 of venom snakes. He system of “Rest 
 Treatment” has been adopted the world 
 over. He is best known to the public 
 through his novels, Hugh Wynne, Free 
 Quaker, The Adventures of Fran5ois, 
 Dr. North and His Friends, etc. 
 
 MITE, a name common to numerous 
 small, in some cases microscopic, ani- 
 mals. Sometimes the name is given only 
 to those of the Acarida which have feet 
 formed for walking and the mouth not 
 furnished with a sucker formed of 
 lancet-like plates, as in the ticks, but 
 with mandibles. Some are of a wander- 
 ing character, and are found under 
 stones, leaves, the bark of trees; or in 
 provisions, as meal, cheese, pepper, etc.; 
 others are stationary and parasitic on 
 the skin of various animals sometimes 
 proving of serious injury to them. 
 
 MITFORD, Mary Russell, English 
 authoress, daughter of a physician at 
 Alresford, Hampshire, and born there 
 1786, died 1855. Her best-known work 
 is Our Village, a series of prose sketches 
 descriptive of English country life and 
 scenery, drawn from the village of Three 
 Mile Cross, near Reading. 
 
 MITHRIDA'TES, or MITHRADA'- 
 TES, king of Pontus, on the southern 
 shore of the Black Sea, surnamed the 
 Great. His father was murdered b.c. 
 120, and Mithridates ascended the 
 throne at the age of thirteen. Soon 
 after attaining his majority he com- 
 menced his career of conquest, which 
 made him master of nearly all Asia 
 Minor, besides Greece, and brought him 
 into conflict with Rome. For four years 
 Mithridates disputed possession of Asia, 
 but was at last compelled to succumb, 
 B.c. 84, After the death of Sulla, which 
 occurred in b.c. 78, Mithridates levied 
 another army with a determination to 
 expel the Romans from Asia. Being de- 
 feated by Lucullus, who was appointed 
 consul B.c. 74, he was followed by the 
 victorious Romans into his own states, 
 and driven to seek a refuge in Armenia, 
 then ruled by Tigranes, who refused to 
 deliver him up. Here Mithridates raised 
 a third great army, and in b.c. 67 com- 
 pletely defeated the Romans, and, fol- 
 lowing up his success, rapidly recovered 
 the larger part of his dominions. The 
 Romans now invested Pompey with 
 absolute power in the east, and by him, 
 in B.c. 66, the forces of Mithridates 
 were completely routed near the Eu- 
 phrates. The king retired to Bosporus 
 (the Crimea), where his troops, headed 
 by his son Pharnaces, broke out in 
 mutinv, and Mithridates killed himself 
 B.c. 63. 
 
 MITRAILLEUSE (mit-ra-yeuz), a 
 breech-loadUig machine-gun introduced 
 in France shortly before the Franco- 
 German war of 1870-71. It consists of 
 a number of rifled barrels, generally 
 thirty-seven, either bound together or 
 bored out of the solid, and mounted on 
 
MITRE 
 
 MODULATION 
 
 the same principle as an ordinary field- 
 piece. Plungers and springs are fixed in 
 connection with the breech ends of the 
 barrels that they may be fired in suc- 
 
 Mitrailleuse. 
 
 cession with great rapidity, so as to con- 
 centrate a deadly fire upon any desired 
 point. 
 
 MITRE, a sacerdotal ornament worn 
 on the head by bishops and archbishops 
 (including the pope), cardinals, and in 
 some instances by abbots, upon solemn 
 occasions, or by a Jewish high-priest. It 
 is a sort of cap pointed and cleft at the 
 top, this form being supposed to sym- 
 bolize the “cloven tongues” of the day 
 of Pentecost. The pope has four mitres, 
 which are more or less rich according to 
 the solemnity of the feast-days on 
 which they are to be worn. The English 
 archbishops have a ducal coronet round 
 their mitres. 
 
 MITTIMUS, in law, a warrant of com- 
 mitment to prison; also a writ for re- 
 moving records from one court to an- 
 other. 
 
 MIZZEN, a term applied to the after- 
 most mast of a three-masted vessel, 
 that is the one nearest the stern. In a 
 four-master the jigger-mast comes be- 
 tween it and the stern 
 
 MNEMONICS (ne-mon'iks), the art of 
 assisting the memory by methods of 
 association. Many devices have been 
 devised for assisting in the recollection 
 of facts, dates, numbers, or the like, 
 but they all go on the principle of asso- 
 ciating the thing to be remembered with 
 something else which can be more easily 
 recollected. The art dates from a very 
 early period, Simonides the Greek poet 
 (500 B.c.) having devised a system. All 
 the systems are more or less arbitrary, 
 and their chief value would seem to lie 
 in the exercise which they give the 
 memory, thereby strengthening it. Mem- 
 orial lines and verses have been exten- 
 sively used as aids to memory 
 
 MOA, an extinct bird of New Zea- 
 land. See Dinornis. 
 
 MOAB, the land of the Moabites, a 
 tribe dwelling in the mountainous region 
 east of the Dead Sea. According to the 
 Mosaic account (Gen. xix: 30) the 
 Moabites were descended from Moab, 
 the son of Lot by his eldest daughter. 
 In the time of the judges they were for 
 eighteen years masters of the Hebrews, 
 but in the time of David were rendered 
 tributaries to them. After the Babylon- 
 ish captivity they lost their separate 
 national existence. 
 
 MOABITE STONE, a monument of 
 black basaltic granite about 3 feet 5 
 inches high and 1 foot 9 inches wide and 
 thick, with rounded top but square 
 base, on which there is an inscription of 
 thirty-four lines in Hebrew-Phcenican 
 
 characters, discovered in 1868 at Dhiban 
 in the ancient Moab. It was unfor- 
 tunately broken by the natives, but 
 almost the whole of the inscription has 
 been recovered from the broken pieces. 
 The inscription dates about 900 b.c., 
 and is the oldest known in the Hebrew- 
 Phoenician form of writing. It was 
 erected by Mesha, king of Moab, and is 
 a record of his wars with Omri, king of 
 Israel, and his successors 
 
 MOBERLY, a city in Randolph co.. 
 Mo., on the Mo., Kan. and Tex. and the 
 Wabash railways; 130 miles e. by n. of 
 Kansas City, 148 miles w. of St. Louis. 
 It contains the division headquarters 
 and machine-shops of the Wabash rail- 
 way system. Pop. 10,142. 
 
 MOBILE (mo-bel'), a city and port of 
 the United States, in Alabama, on the 
 right bank of the Mobile, at its entrance 
 into Mobile Bay. It has regular streets 
 and several fine public buildings; is well 
 supplied with water, and generally 
 healthy, though at times visited by yel- 
 low fever. It has an important export 
 trade, and next to New Orleans is one 
 of the greatest cotton marts of the South. 
 A channel 33 miles long is maintained 
 by dredging to allow the approach of 
 tolerably large vessels to the harbor; 
 but it is proposed to construct a new 
 and deeper harbor on Dauphine Island, 
 which will be connected with Mobile by 
 rail. Pop. 1909 about 65,000. 
 
 MOBILE, a river of the United States, 
 in Alabama, formed by the union of the 
 Alabama and the Tombigbee, which 
 unite about 45 miles above the town of 
 Mobile. It enters Mobile Bay by two 
 mouths. 
 
 MOBILE BAY, an estuary of the Gulf 
 of Mexico, from 8 to 18 miles wide, and 
 
 about 35 miles in length, n. to s., the 
 general depth being 12 to 14 feet. 
 
 MOBILIER. See Credit Mobilier. 
 
 MOBILIZATION, a military term, be- 
 ing the act of putting troops into a state 
 of readiness for active service. The 
 mobilization of an army or a corps in- 
 cludes not only the calling in of the re- 
 serve and the men on furlough, but the 
 organizing of the staff, as well as the 
 commissariat, medical, artillery, and 
 transport services, the accumulating of 
 provisions, munitions, and the like. 
 
 MOC'CASIN, a shoe or cover for the 
 feet, made of deer-skin or other soft 
 
 leather, without a stiff sole, and orna- 
 mented on the upper part; the custom- 
 ary shoe worn by the native American 
 Indians. 
 
 MOC'CASIN SNAKE, a very venomous 
 serpent frequenting swamps in many of 
 the warmer parts of America. It is about 
 two feet in length, dark-brown above, 
 and gray below. 
 
 MOCKING-BIRD, an American bird 
 of the thrush family. It is of an ashy- 
 brown color above, lighter below, and is 
 much sought for on account of its won- 
 derful faculty of imitating the cries or 
 notes of almost every species of animal, 
 as well as many noises that are produced 
 artificially. Its own notes form a beau- 
 tiful and varied strain. It inhabits North 
 America chiefly, being a constant resi- 
 dent of the southern states, and but rare 
 and migratory in the northern parts of 
 the continent. It is also found in the 
 West Indian Islands and in Brazil. 
 
 MOD'ENA, a town of North Italy, 
 capital of the province of its own name. 
 Pop. 64,941. — Modena was formerly an 
 independent duchy bordering on Tus- 
 cany, Lucca, Bologna, Mantua, and 
 Parma; area, 2340 sq. miles; pop. over 
 
 Mocking-bird. 
 
 600,000. It is now divided into the 
 provinces of Modena (966 sq. miles; 
 pop. 315,804), Massa-Carrara, and Reg- 
 gio. 
 
 MODERATOR, the person who pre- 
 sides at a meeting or disputation; now 
 used chiefly as the title of the chairman 
 for president of meetings or courts in 
 the Presbyterian churches. 
 
 MODJESKA, Helena, actress, was 
 born at Cracow, Poland, about 1843. 
 In 1865 she became the theatrical star 
 and favorite of Warsaw, a position 
 which she held until about 1876, when 
 she and her husband emigrated to 
 America. She made her appearance in 
 1877 in an English version of Adrienne 
 Lecouvreur at San Francisco. She won 
 immediate success and has since achieved 
 various triumphs on both sides of t'he 
 Atlantic. Her notable impersonations 
 were Ophelia, Rosalind, Imogen, Cleo- 
 patra, Lady Macbeth. In 1889-90 she 
 starred with Edwin Booth in Romeo 
 and Juliet. 
 
 MODOCS, an American Indian tribe 
 originally settled on the s. shore of 
 Klamath lake, California. From 1847 
 till 1873 they were in continual conflict 
 with the whites. Only a small remnant 
 of them now exists in the Indian ter- 
 ritory and in Oregon. 
 
 MODULATION, in music, the tran- 
 sition from one key to another. The 
 simplest form is the change from a given 
 key to one nearly related to it, namely, 
 its fifth (dominant), fourth (subdomi* 
 
MOGUL 
 
 MOHAWK 
 
 nant), its relative minor, or the relative 
 minor of its fifth. Modulation is gen- 
 erally resorted to in compositions of 
 some length, for the purpose of catch- 
 ing and pleasing the ear with a fresh 
 succession of chords. 
 
 MOGUL', a word which is the same as 
 Mongol, but is applied particularly to 
 the sovereigns of Mongolian origin, 
 called Great or Grand Moguls, descend- 
 ants of Tamerlane, who ruled in India 
 from the 16th century downward, the 
 first of them being the conqueror Baber. 
 See India, History of. 
 
 MOHAIR, the hair of the Angora goat 
 of Asia Minor. It is soft and fine as silk, 
 of a silvery whiteness, and is manufac- 
 tured into camlets, plush, shawls, braid- 
 ings, and other trimmings, etc. ' 
 
 MOHAM'MED, Mahom'et, or more 
 correctly Muhammad, the founder of 
 Islamism, was an Arabian by birth, of 
 the tribe of the Koreish, and was born 
 of poor parents in 571 a.d., in Mecca. 
 In his twenty-fifth year his uncle re- 
 commended him as agent to a rich 
 widow, named Chadidja, and he ac- 
 quitted himself so much to her satisfac- 
 tion that she married him, and thus 
 placed him in easy circumstances. He 
 seems to have had from his youth a pro- 
 pensity to religious contemplation, for 
 he was every year accustomed, in the 
 month Ramadhan, to retire to a cave 
 in Mount Hara, near Mecca, and dwell 
 there in solitude. Mohammed began his 
 mission in the fortieth year of his age 
 by announcing his apostleship to his 
 own family. His wife was one of the 
 first to believe in him, and among other 
 members of his family who acknowl- 
 edged his mission was his cousin Ali, the 
 son of Abu Talib. Of great importance 
 was the accession of Abu Bekr, a man of 
 estimable character, who stood in high 
 respect, and persuaded ten of themost 
 considerable citizens of Mecca to join 
 the believers in the new apostle. They 
 were all instructed by Mohammed in 
 the doctrines of Islam, as the new religion 
 was styled, which were promulgated as 
 the gradual revelations of the divine 
 will, through the angel Gabriel, and were 
 collected in the Koran. After three years 
 Mohammed made a more public an- 
 nouncement of his doctrine, but his 
 followers were few for years. In 621 
 Mohammed lost his wife, and the death 
 of Abu Talib took place about the same 
 time. Deprived of their assistance he 
 was compelled to retire, for a time, to 
 the city of Taif. On the other hand, he 
 was readily received by the pilgrims 
 who visited the Kaaba, and gained 
 numerous adherents among the families 
 in the neighborhood. Mohammed now 
 adopted the resolution of encountering 
 his enemies with force. Only the more 
 exasperated at this they formed a con- 
 spiracy to murder him; warned of the 
 imminent danger, he left Mecca, ac- 
 companied by Abu Bekr alone, and con- 
 cealed himself in a cave not far distant. 
 Here he spent three days undiscovered, 
 after which he arrived safely at Medina, 
 but not without danger (a.d. 622). This 
 event, from which the Mohammedans 
 commence their era, is known under the 
 name of the Hejra, which signifies flight. 
 In Medina Mohammed met with the 
 
 most honorable reception: thither he 
 was followed by many of his adherents. 
 He now assumed the sacerdotal and 
 regal dignity, married ;\yesha, daughter 
 of Abu Bekr, and as the number of the 
 faithful continued to increase, declared 
 his resolution to propagate his doctrines 
 with the sword. In the battle of Bedr 
 (623), the first of the long series of bat- 
 tles by which Islamism was established 
 over a large portion of the earth, he 
 defeated Abu Sofian, the chief of the 
 Koreishites. He in turn was defeated by 
 them at Ohod, near Medina, soon after, 
 and in 625 they unsuccessfully be- 
 sieged Medina, and a truce of ten years 
 was agreed on. Wars with the Jewish 
 tribes followed, many Arabian tribes 
 submitted themselves, and in 630 he 
 took possession of Mecca as prince and 
 prophet. The idols of the Kaaba were 
 demolished, but the sacred touch of the 
 prophet made the black stone again the 
 object of the deepest veneration, and 
 the magnet that attracts hosts of pil- 
 grims to the holy city of Mecca. The 
 whole of Arabia was soon after con- 
 quered, and a summons to embrace the 
 new revelation of the divine law was sent 
 to the Emperor Heraclius at Constanti- 
 nople, the King of Persia, and the King 
 ot Abyssinia. Preparations for the con- 
 quest of Syria and for war with the 
 Roman Empire were begun, when 
 Mohammed died at Medina (632). His 
 body was buried in the house of Ayesha, 
 where he died, and which afterward be- 
 came part of the adjoining mosque, and 
 a place of pilgrimage for the faithful in 
 all time to come. Of all his wives, the 
 first alone bore him children, of whom 
 only his daughter Fatima, wife of Ali, 
 survived him. There is no doubt that 
 Mohammed was a man of extraordinary 
 insight and deep reflection. Though 
 without book-learning, he had a deep 
 knowledge of man, was familiar with 
 Bible narratives and eastern legends, 
 and possessed a grasp of the eternal 
 ground of all religion, though tinged 
 and modified by his vivid poetic imagina- 
 tion. See Koran, Mohammedanism. 
 
 MOHAMMED, the name of four Otto- 
 man sultans. See Ottoman Empire. 
 
 MOHAMMED AHMED. See Mahdi. 
 
 MOHAMMED ALI. See Mehemet Ali. 
 
 MOHAMMEDANISM, the name com- 
 monly given in Christian countries to 
 the creed established by Mohammed. 
 His followers call their creed Islam 
 (entire submission to the decrees of 
 God), and their common formula of 
 faith is, “There is no god but Allah, and 
 Mohammed is his prophet.” The dog- 
 matic or theoretical part of Mohammed- 
 anism embraces the following points: 1. 
 Belief in God, who is without beginning 
 or end, the sole Creator and Lord of the 
 universe, having absolute power, knowl- 
 edge, glory, and perfection. 2. Belief 
 in his angels, who are impeccable beings, 
 created of light. 3. Belief in good and 
 evil Jinn (genii), who are created of 
 smokeless fire, and are subject to death. 
 4. Belief in the Holy Scriptures, which 
 are his uncreated word revealed to the 
 prophets. Of these there now exist, 
 but in a greatly corrupted form, the 
 Pentateuch, the Psalms, and the Gospels ; 
 and in an uncorrupted and incorruptible 
 
 state the Koran, which abrogates and 
 surpasses all receding revelations. 
 (See Koran.) 5. Belief in Gods prophets 
 and apostles, the most distinguished of 
 whom are Adam, Noah, Abraham, 
 Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed. Mo- 
 hammed is the greatest of them all, the 
 last of the prophets and the most ex- 
 cellent of the creatures of God. 6. Belief 
 in a general resurrection and final judg- 
 ment, and in future rewards and pun- 
 ishments, chiefly of a physical nature. 
 7. The belief, even to the extent of 
 fatalism, of God’s absolute fore-knowl- 
 edge and predestination of all events 
 both good and evil. 
 
 The practical part of Mohammedan- 
 ism inculcates certain observances or 
 duties, of whichfour are most important. 
 The first is prayer, including prepara- 
 tory purifications. Prayer must be en- 
 gaged in at five stated periods each day. 
 On each of these occasions the Moslem 
 has to offer up certain prayers held to be 
 ordained by God, and others ordained 
 by his prophet. During prayer it is 
 necessary that the face of the worshipper 
 be turned toward the kebla, that is, in 
 the direction of Mecca. Prayers may be 
 said in any clean place, but on Friday 
 they must be said in the mosque. Sec- 
 ond in importance to prayer stands the 
 duty of giving alms. Next comes the 
 duty of fasting. The Moslem must ab- 
 stain from eating and drinking, and 
 from every indulgence of the senses, 
 every day during the month of Ramad- 
 han, from the first appearance of day- 
 break until sunset, unless physically in- 
 capacitated. The fourth paramount 
 religious duty of the Moslem is the per- 
 formance at least once in his life, if pos- 
 sible, of the pilgrimage (el-Hadj) to 
 Mecca, after which he becomes a Hadji. 
 Circumcision is general among Moham- 
 madans, but is not absolutely obligatory. 
 The distinctions of clean and unclean 
 meats are nearly the same as in the 
 Mosaic code. Wine and all intoxicating 
 liquors are strictly forbidden. Music, 
 games of chance, and usury are con- 
 demned. Images and pictures of living 
 creatures are contrary to law. Charity, 
 probity in all transactions, veracity 
 (except in a few cases), and modesty, are 
 indispensable virtues. After Moham- 
 med’s death Abu Bekr, his father-in- 
 law, became his successor, but disputes 
 immediately arose, a party holding that 
 Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed, was 
 by right entitled to be his immediate 
 successor. This led to the division of 
 the Mohammedans into the two sects 
 known as Shiites and Sunnites. The 
 former, the believers in the right of Ali 
 to be considered the first successor, 
 constitute at present the majority of 
 the Musselmans of Persia and India; 
 the latter, considered as the orthodox 
 Mohammedans, are dominant in the 
 Ottoman Empire, Arabia, Turkestan, 
 and Africa. The total Mohammedan 
 population of the world is estimated at 
 fully 215,000,000. See Caliph, Shiites, 
 Sunnites, etc. 
 
 MO'HAWK, a river of the United 
 States, the principal tributary of the 
 Hudson in the state of New York; length 
 about 135 miles. It affords abundant 
 
Mohawks 
 
 MOLLUSCA 
 
 Water-power, and flows through beau- 
 tiful scenery. 
 
 MO'HAWKS, a tribe of North Anaeri- 
 can Indians, belonging to the confed- 
 eracy of the Five (afterward six) nations. 
 (See Iroquois.) They originally inhabited 
 the valley of the Mohawk river. With 
 the rest of the confederacy they ad- 
 hered to the British interest during the 
 war of the revolution, and left the coun- 
 try on its termination for Canada, where 
 lands were assigned them on the Grand 
 river. Their language has been com- 
 mitted to writing. 
 
 MOHIC'ANS, or MOHE'GANS, a tribe 
 of Indians formerly occupying the coun- 
 try now forming the southwestern parts 
 of New England and that portion of 
 New York state east of the Hudson. 
 
 MO'HILEV, a town of Russia, capital 
 of a government of the same name. 
 Pop. 43,106. — The government has an 
 area of about 18,545 sq. miles. Pop. 
 1,708,041. 
 
 MOIRE (mw&-ra), the French name 
 given to silks figured by the process 
 called watering. The silks for this pur- 
 pose, though made in the same way as 
 ordinary silks, are of double width, and 
 must be of a stout substantial make. 
 They are folded and subjected to an 
 enormous pressure, of from 60 to 100 
 tons, generally in a hydraulic machine, 
 and the air in trying to escape drives 
 before it the small quantity of moisture 
 that is used, and hence is effected the 
 permanent marking called watering, 
 which is for the most part in curious 
 waved lines. 
 
 MOLASSES, the uncrystallized syrup 
 produced in the manufacture of sugar. 
 It differs from treacle, as molasses comes 
 from sugar in the process of making, 
 treacle in the process of refining. 
 
 MOLE, a name given to insectivorous 
 animals of the genus Talpa, family 
 Talpidae, which, in search of worms or 
 insect larvae, form burrows just under 
 the surface of the ground, throwing up 
 the excavated soil into a little ridge or 
 into little hills. The common mole is 
 found all over Europe, except in the 
 extreme south and north. It is from 5 
 to 6 inches long; its head is large, with- 
 out any external ears ; and its eyes are 
 very minute, and concealed by its fur, 
 which is short and soft. Its fore-legs are 
 very short and strong, and its snout 
 slender, strong, and tendinous. It is 
 
 Eoropefto mole (Taivo etiropero) Fore-foot of ibei 
 
 the only British representative of the 
 family. Another species, blind mole, is 
 found in the south of Europe. It has its 
 name from its eye being always covered 
 by its eyelid. The Cape mole or change- 
 able mole is remarkable as being the only 
 mammal that exhibits the splendid 
 metallic reflection which is thrown from 
 the feathers of many birds. The “star- 
 nosed moles” of North America are so 
 
 named from the star or fringe-like 
 arrangement of the nasal cartilages. 
 The shrew moles of North America are 
 more properly included among the 
 shrews. 
 
 MOLE, a mound or massive work 
 formed of large stones laid in the sea 
 so as to partially inclose and shelter a 
 harbor or anchorage. 
 
 MOLECULE, the smallest quantity of 
 any elementary substance or compound 
 which is capable of existing in a sepai-ate 
 form. It differs from atom, which is not 
 perceived, but conceived, inasmuch as it 
 is always a portion of some aggregate of 
 atoms. Molecular attraction is that 
 species of attraction which operates 
 upon the molecules or particles of a 
 body. Cohesion and chemical affinity 
 are substances of molecular attraction. 
 See Chemistry. 
 
 MOLE-RAT, a name given to dumpish 
 stout-bodied rodents, with short, strong 
 limbs, a short tail or scarcely any, and 
 minute or rudimentary eyes and ears. 
 They make tunnels and throw up hil- 
 locks like the mole, but their food ap- 
 pears to consist wholly of vegetable 
 substances. 
 
 MOLESKIN, a strong twilled cotton 
 fabric (fustian), cropped or shorn before 
 dyeing; much used for workmen’s cloth- 
 ing. So called from its being soft like 
 the skin of a mole» 
 
 MOLIERE (mol-yar), the assumed 
 name of Jean Baptiste Poquelin, French 
 comic dramatist, born at Paris in 1622. 
 He studied law, but gave it up for the 
 career of an actor, assuming in this pro- 
 fession the name of Moliere. After 
 obtaining great success in the provinces 
 he settled in Paris in 1658, having pre- 
 viously produced his two comedies, 
 L’Etourdi and Le D4pit Amoureux. 
 In the following year his reputation was 
 greatly advanced by the production of 
 the Pr4cieuses Ridicules, a delicate satire 
 on the prevailing affectation of the! 
 character of bel esprit, on the pedantry 
 of learned females, and on affectation 
 in language, thoughts, and dress. It 
 produced a general reform when it was 
 brought forward in Paris. Continuing 
 to produce new plays, and performing 
 the chief comic parts himself, he became 
 a great favorite both with the court and 
 the people, though his enemies, rival 
 actors and authors, were numerous. 
 Louis XIV. was so well pleased with the 
 performances of Moliere’s company that 
 he made it specially the royal company, 
 and gave its director a pension. In 1662 
 Moliere made an ill-assorted marriage 
 with Armande B4jart, upward of twenty 
 years younger than himself, a union that 
 embittered the latter part of his life. 
 Among his works other than those men- 
 tioned may be noted; L’Ecole des Maris, 
 L’Ecole des Femmes, Le Manage Force, 
 Don Juan, Le Misanthrope, Le M4decin 
 Malgr4 lui, Le Tartufe, L’Avare, George 
 Dandin, Les Fourberies de Scapin, Le 
 Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Le Malade 
 Imaginaire, etc. Moliere died in 1673 
 of an apoplectic stroke, a few hours 
 after playing in the latter. As a player 
 he was unsurpassed in high comic parts; 
 and in the literature of comedy he bears 
 the greatest name among the moderns 
 after Shakespeare. He borrowed freely 
 
 from Latin, Spanish, and Italian writers, 
 but whatever materials he appropriated 
 he so treated them as to make the result 
 entirely his own and original. The Arch- 
 bishop of Paris at first refused him burial 
 as being an actor and a reviler of the 
 clergy; but the king himself insisted on it. 
 
 MOLINE, a city in Rock Island co., 
 111., on the Mississippi river, and the 
 Chi., Bur. and Quincy, Chi., Mil. and 
 St. P., and the Chi., Rock Is. and Pac. 
 railways; opposite Rock Island, 2 miles 
 e. of Davenport, la., 168 w. of Chicago. 
 The three cities of Moline, Rock Island, 
 and Davenort, are connected by steam 
 and street railways, ferries, and bridges, 
 and all derive water-power for manufac- 
 turing from the river. The city is in a 
 rich coal-region, and there are a num- 
 ber of productive mines in its vicinity. 
 Pop. 20,868. 
 
 MOLLUS'CA, an animal sub-king- 
 dom, comprising those soft-bodied ani- 
 mals known as slugs, snails, limpets, 
 oysters, cockles, etc. In some the body 
 is naked and unprotected, in others it is 
 inclosed in a muscular sac, but the great 
 majority are provided with an exoskele- 
 ton or shell. The shell -bearing mol- 
 luscs are popularly divided into uni- 
 valves, bivalves, and multivalves. The 
 univalves are those whose shell consists 
 of only a single piece, often open and 
 cup-shaped, as in the limpet, or more 
 commonly of a long cone wound spirally 
 round a real or imaginary axis, as the 
 garden-snail, the whelk or periwinkle. 
 The bivalves are those of which the shell 
 is formed of two pieces joined by a hinge, 
 as the cockle and oyster. The multivalve 
 
 Mollusca and molluscoida. 
 
 !, Cuttle-fish and cuttle-bone. 2, A gastero- 
 pod. 3, A pteropod. 4, Terebratula diphya. 5, 
 Cytherea maculata. 6, Cynthia papilldsa. 
 
 have the shell composed of several 
 pieces. These latter molluscs are few in 
 number. The shells of the Mollusca 
 are secreted by the soft integument or 
 mantle (also called the pallium). The 
 chief mass of the shell is made up of car- 
 bonate of lime with a small proportion 
 of animal matter. The mollusca have a 
 distinct alimentary canal, shut off from 
 the general cavity of the body, and 
 situated between the blood system, 
 which lies along the back, and the nerve 
 system, which is toward the ventral 
 aspect of the body. The digestive sys- 
 tem consists of a mouth, gullet, stomach, 
 intestine, and anus, except in a few 
 forms, in which the intestine ends 
 blindly. The blood is almost colorless. 
 Respiration is variously effected; in the 
 lamp-shells, by long cilated arms spring- 
 ing from the sides of the mouth ; in the 
 bivalve shell-fish, the cuttle-fishes, and 
 most of the univalves, by gills; while in 
 
 i 
 
MOLLY MAGUIRES 
 
 MONASTERY 
 
 the remainder of the univalves, as snails, 
 slugs, etc., the breathing-organs have 
 the form of an air-chamber or pulmon- 
 ary sac, adapted for breathing air 
 c.irectly. A characteristic of the typical 
 Mollusca is the “foot” or organ of loco- 
 motion, which may be modified so as to 
 perform various offices. Its use in the 
 case of the snail is well known, and in 
 the cockle it is developed to a great 
 size. In some cases (as the razor-shells) 
 it enables the animal to burrow rapidly 
 in the sand; while in the mussels, etc., 
 the organ is devoted to the secretion of 
 the well-known beard or byssus, a col- 
 lection of strong fibrous threads by 
 means of which these animals moor or 
 fix themselves to rocks, etc. In some 
 bivalves (as the oyster) in which the 
 locomotive powers are in abeyance, the 
 foot is rudimentary. In the cuttle-fishes 
 it is represented by the arms or ten- 
 tacles round the mouth. The chief 
 peculiarity, however, of the Mollusca is 
 in the nervous system, which in the 
 lower forms consists essentially of a 
 single ganglionic mass, giving off fila- 
 ments in various directions; while in the 
 higher there are three such masses, 
 united to one another by nervous cords. 
 
 MOLLY MAGUIRES, the name as- 
 sumed by members of a secret illegal 
 association in Ireland, afterward re- 
 organized in the anthracite coal-mining 
 district of Pennsylvania. The organiza- 
 tion was guilty of many outrages, and 
 was broken up in 1876, twenty mem- 
 bers being hanged for murder. 
 
 MOLOCH, the chief god of the Phoe- 
 nicians, frequently mentioned in Scrip- 
 ture as the god of the Ammonites, whose 
 worship consisted chiefly of human sac- 
 rifices, ordeals by fire, mutilation, etc. 
 
 MOLOCH LIZARD, a genus of lizards 
 found in Australia. M. horridus (moloch- 
 lizard) is one of the most ferocious- 
 looking, though at the same time one of 
 of the most harmless of reptiles, the 
 horns on the head and the numerous 
 spines on the body giving it a most 
 formidable and exceedingly repulsive 
 appearance. 
 
 MOLTKE (molt'ke), Helmuth Carl 
 Bernhard, C unt von, German field- 
 
 Fleld-marshal Von Moltke. 
 
 marshal, bom near Mecklenburg, 1800; 
 entered the Danish army in 1819; left 
 that service for the Prussian in 1822, 
 and became a staff-officer in 1832. In 
 1835 he superintended the Turkish 
 military reforms, and he was present 
 
 during the Syrian campaign against 
 Mehemet Ali in 1839. He returned to 
 Prussia and became colonel of the staff 
 in 1851, and equerry to the crown prince 
 in 1855. In 1858 as provisional director 
 of the general staff he acted in unison 
 with Von Roon and Bismarck in the 
 vast plans of military reorganization 
 soon after carried out. The conduct of 
 the Danish war (1864) was attributable 
 to his strategy, as was also the success 
 of the Austfo-Prussian war of 1866, and- 
 the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71. In 
 the latter year he was made field-marshal 
 and became count in 1872. He retired 
 from the position of chief of the general 
 staff in 1888. His death took place in 
 1891. 
 
 MOLUC'CAS, or SPICE ISLANDS, a 
 
 name originally confined to the five 
 small islands of Ternate, Tidore, Motir, 
 Makian, and Batshian, but now applied 
 to the widely scattered group lying be- 
 tween Celebes and Papua, between lat. 
 3° s. and 6° n., and Ion. 126° to 135° e. 
 The area is about 45,000 sq. miles, and 
 the population 500,000. The islands 
 (some hundreds in number) are nearly 
 all mountainous, mostly volcanic and 
 earthquakes are by no means uncom- 
 mon. They abound in gaily-colored 
 birds and gorgeous insects; and are 
 covered by a luxuriant tropical flora. 
 Cloves, nutmegs, mace, and sago are 
 exported to Europe; and birds’-nests, 
 trepang, etc., to China. 
 
 MONACHISM. See Monastery and 
 Orders (Religious). 
 
 MON'ACO, a principality lying be- 
 tween the French department Alpes 
 Maritimes (Nice) and the Mediterranean. 
 In 1861 the Prince of Monaco sold the 
 departments of Mentone and Rocca- 
 bruna to France for 4,000,000 francs; 
 and the principality has since then been 
 confined to an area of about 8 square 
 miles, with a population of 15,180. The 
 prince (a scion of the house of Grimaldi) 
 exercises both legislative and executive 
 functions, while the people are exempt 
 from taxation, as the revenue is almost 
 entirely derived from the rents of the 
 gaming establishment. The capital, 
 Monaco (pop. 3292), situated on a rocky 
 height projecting into the sea, is a re- 
 nowned watering-place. About a mile 
 to the e. is Monte Carlo, a collection of 
 hotels and villas which have sprung up 
 near the luxurious gardens of the hand- 
 some gambling casino, established here 
 in 1860. This institution is now the prop- 
 erty of a joint-stock company. The in- 
 habitants of Monaco are not admitted 
 to the gaming-tables. 
 
 MONAD, in philosophy, an imaginary 
 entity in the philosophy of Leibnitz, 
 according to whom monads are simple 
 substances, of which the whole universe 
 is composed, each differing from every 
 other, but all agreeing in having no ex- 
 tension, but in' being possessed of life, 
 the source of all motion and activity. 
 Every monad, according to Leibnitz, is 
 a soul, and a human soul is only a monad 
 of elevated rank. 
 
 MON'AGHAN, a county of Ireland in 
 Ulster; area 319,741 acres. Pop. 74,505. 
 
 MONARCHY is a state or government 
 in which the supreme power is either 
 actually or nominally vested for life in a 
 
 single person, by whatsoever name he 
 may he distinguished. A monarchy in 
 which the subjects have no right or 
 powers as against the monarch (e.g. 
 Persia) is termed despotic or absolute; 
 when the legislative power is wholly in 
 the hands of a monarch, who, however, 
 is himself subject to the law(e.g. Russia), 
 it is termed autocratic; but when the 
 monarch shares the power of enacting 
 laws with representatives of the people, 
 the monarchy is limited or constitu- 
 tional (e.g Great Britain). In ancient 
 Greece, a monarchy in which the ruler 
 either obtained or administered his 
 power in violation of the constitution 
 was termed a tyranny, however bene- 
 ficient and mild the rule might be. 
 Monarchies are either hereditary, as in 
 Great Britain, or elective, as was for- 
 merly the case in Poland. 
 
 MONASTERY, a house into which 
 persons retire from the world to lead a 
 life devoted to religion. The practice 
 of monachism or monastic seclusion, 
 though it has been carried to its greatest 
 development within the Christian Church 
 had its origin in periods long anterior to 
 the Christian era, and has long flourished 
 in countries where Christianity has little 
 or no influence, as among the Brahmans 
 and Buddhists. Christianity was prob- 
 ably not without its ascetics even from 
 the first, but it was not until the close 
 of the 3d century, when the Neo- 
 Platonic and Gnostic doctrines of the 
 antagonism between body and soul had 
 gained strength, that solitary life began 
 to be specially esteemed. The founda- 
 tion of the first Christian monasteries is 
 ascribed to Anthony the Great, who 
 about 305, in the deserts of Upper 
 Egypt, collected a number of hermits, 
 who performed their devotional exer- 
 cises in common. His disciple Pachomius 
 in the middle of the 4th century, built a 
 number of houses not far from each 
 other, upon the island of Tabenna, in 
 the Nile, each of which was occupied by 
 three monks (syncelli) in cells, who were 
 all under the superintendence of a prior. 
 These priors formed together the 
 CEenobium, or monastery, which was 
 under the care of the abbot, hegumenos 
 or mandrite, and were obliged to submit 
 to uniform rules of life. Western monas- 
 ticism, which rapidly spread during the 
 5th century, was accompanied by many 
 irregularities, until monastic vows were 
 introduced in the 6th century by St. 
 Benedict. The monasteries of the west 
 now became the dwellings of piety, in- 
 dustry, and temperance, and the refuge 
 of learning. Missionaries were sent out 
 from them; deserts and solitudes were 
 made habitable by industrious monks; 
 and in promoting the progress of agricul- 
 ture and converting the German and 
 Slavonic nations, they certainly ren- 
 dered great services to the world from 
 the 6th century to the 9th. Another 
 incalculable benefit conferred upon 
 civilization by the monasteries is the 
 preservation of nearly the whole of the 
 classic and medi®val MS. literature that 
 we possess. 
 
 But monasteries changed their char- 
 acter, to a great degree, as their wealth 
 and influence increased. Idleness and 
 luxury crept within their walls, together 
 
MONASTIC VOWS 
 
 MONGOLS 
 
 with all the vices of the world, and their 
 decay became inevitable, when, by a 
 custom first introduced by the Frankish 
 kings, and afterward imitated by other 
 princes, they came under the care of lay 
 abbots or superiors, who, thinking only 
 of their revenues, did nothing to main- 
 tain discipline among the monks and 
 nuns. These being left wholly to their 
 own government by the bishops, origin- 
 ally their overseers, soon lost their 
 monastic zeal. A few only, by means of 
 the convent schools (founded by Charle- 
 magne for the education of the clergy), 
 as, for instance, those at Tours, Lyons, 
 Rheims, Cologne, Treves, Fulda, etc., 
 maintained their character for useful- 
 ness till the 9th and 10th centuries. The 
 monastery at Cluny, in Burgundy, first 
 led the way to reform. This was founded 
 in the year 910, under Berno, was gov- 
 erned by the rules of St. Benedict, with 
 additional regulations of a still more 
 rigid character, and attained the posi- 
 tion, next to Rome, of the most import- 
 ant religious center in the world. Many 
 monasteries in France, Spain, Italy, and 
 Germany were reformed on this model, 
 and the Benedictine rule now first be- 
 came prominent in Britain through the 
 instrumentality of Dunstan. The Celtic 
 and other monasteries of Britain and 
 Ireland heretofore seem to have had an 
 independent historical connection with 
 the early monachism of Egypt. The 
 three great military orders (Templars, 
 Hospitallers, and Teutonic Knights) 
 were founded in the 12th century; while 
 the famous mendicant orders of the 
 Franciscans and Dominicians date from 
 the 13th. With the reputation of re- 
 newed sanctity the monasteries acquired 
 new influence and new possessions. 
 Many of them (“exempt monasteries”) 
 released themselves from all superin- 
 tending authority except -that of the 
 pope, and acquired great wealth in the 
 time of the Crusades from the estates of 
 Crusaders and others placed under the 
 protection of their privilege of inviola- 
 bility, or even left to them in reversion. 
 But with this growing influence the zeal 
 for reformation abated; new abuses 
 sprang up, and the character of each 
 monastery came, at last to depend 
 chiefly upon that of its abbot. 
 
 i'he number of monasteries was much 
 diminished at the time of the reforma- 
 tion, when the rich estates of those in 
 Protestant states were in part appro- 
 priated by the sovereign to his own use, 
 in part distributed to nobles and eccle- 
 siastics, and in part devoted to educa- 
 tional and benevolent purposes. In 
 Catholic countries this period was 
 marked by a revival of the spirit of 
 monastic reform ; while many new orders 
 were founded whose objects were more 
 directly practical (teaching, tending the 
 sick, visiting the poor) than those of the 
 older and more contemplative orders. 
 Monachism, however, as belonging to 
 the older system of things, was regarded 
 with hostility by the spirit of rational- 
 ism and liberalism which found decisive 
 expression in the French revolution ; and 
 during the 18th century the monastic 
 orders were obliged, as the papal power 
 diminished, to submit to many restric- 
 tions imposed upon them by Catholic 
 
 princes, or to purchase immunity at a 
 high price. In 1781 the houses of some 
 orders were wholly abolished by the 
 Emperor Joseph II., and those suffered 
 to remain were limited to a certain num- 
 ber of inmates, and cut off from all con- 
 nection with any foreign authority. In 
 France the abolition of all orders and 
 monasteries was decreed in 1789, and 
 the example was followed by all the 
 states incorporated with France "under 
 the protection of Napoleon I. In the 
 19th century, however, under Napoleon 
 III. and during the early years of the 
 republic, monachism prosperedin France, 
 though since 1880 only monasteries 
 authorized by the state are permitted 
 to exist. In Germany all orders except 
 those engaged in tending the sick were 
 abolished in 1875. The unification of 
 Italy was followed by a series of de- 
 crees pronouncing all monastic orders 
 illegal. In Portugal monasteries were 
 abolished by decree in 1834, and in 
 Spain in 1837. In Russia the number of 
 such institutions is strictly limited by 
 law. In the Roman Catholic states of 
 South America the same policy of 
 abolition has been adopted ; whereas in 
 the United States and Canada several 
 orders have made considerable progress. 
 
 MONASTIC VOWS, are three in num- 
 ber: poverty, chastity, and obedience. 
 The vow of poverty prevents the monks 
 from holding any property individually. 
 Monasteries, however, professing merely 
 the “high” degree of poverty may pos- 
 sess real estate, yet not more than enough 
 for their support, as the Carmellites and 
 Augustines. In the “higher” degree a 
 monastery may hold only personal prop- 
 erty, as books, dresses, supplies of food 
 and drink, rents, etc., as the Dominicans. 
 The “highest” degree absolutely forbids 
 both real and personal property, as is 
 the case with the Franciscans, and espe- 
 cially the Capuchins. The vow of chas- 
 tity requires an entire abstinence from 
 familiar intercourse with the other sex; 
 and that of obedience, entire compliance 
 with the rules of the order and the com- 
 mands of the superior. 
 
 MONDAY (that is, moon-day; Anglo- 
 Saxon, Monandseg; German, Montag), 
 the second day of our week, formerly 
 sacred to the moon. ' ' 
 
 MONEY, in its ordinary sense, is 
 equivalent to pieces of metal, especially 
 gold and silver, duly stamped and issued 
 by the government of a country to serve 
 as a legalized standard of value. In this 
 sense it is more precisely designated 
 metallic money to distinguish it from 
 paper money, from which latter it is also 
 distinguished by having an intrinsic 
 value. A few particulars regarding 
 money may here be given as supple- 
 mentary to information contained in the 
 articles Currency, Coining, Bank, etc. 
 The sovereign and half-sovereign are the 
 legal metal standard of value in the 
 United Kingdom and most of the colo- 
 nies. By the Latin Monetarj'^ Convention, 
 which includes France, Belgium, Italy, 
 Switzerland, and Greece, it has been 
 agreed that the gold napoleon and the 
 silver five-franc piece — or corresponding 
 pieces — are to be exchangeable through- 
 out these countries as their standard 
 money; while by the Scandinavian 
 
 Monetary Convention, which includes 
 Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, the 
 gold 20-kroner and 10-kroner pieces are 
 the standard coins. These contracting 
 states have thus agreed to issue no gold 
 or silver coins except of a certain weight, 
 fineness, and diameter. In Germany the 
 5-mark, 10-mark, and 20-mark pieces, 
 and in the United States the gold dollar, 
 are the standard units; while in Austria 
 the silver florin, and in Russia the silver 
 rouble, are the recognized standard 
 coins. Moneys of account are those de- 
 nominations of money in which accounts 
 are kept, and which may or may not 
 have a coin of corresponding value in 
 circulation . In England the pound sterlin g 
 may be said to be purely a money of ac- 
 count, although there is a coin, the sov- 
 ereign of corresponding value. Themoney 
 unit in various countries is as follows; 
 England, the pound sterling; Belgium, 
 France, and Swtizerland, the franc; 
 Germany, the mark; Austria-Hungary, 
 the crown; Russia, the rouble; Italy, 
 the lira; Spain, the peseta; Sweden, Nor- 
 way, and Denmark, the krona; Holland, 
 the guilder; Portugal, the milreis; 
 Greece, the drachma; Turkey, the pias- 
 ter; United States, the dollar; Brazil, the 
 milreis; India, the rupee; China, the 
 liang or tael ; Japan, the yen. 
 
 MONGHYR (mon-ger'),a district and 
 town of India, in Bengal. The district 
 has an area of 3921 sq. miles. Pop. 
 35,880; of the district, 2,064,077. 
 
 MONGO'LIA, a vast region of the 
 northeast of Asia, belonging to the 
 Chinese Empire, is situated between 
 China Proper and Asiatic Russia; esti- 
 mated area, 1,400,000 sq. miles. Pop. 
 estimated at 2,000,000. 
 
 MONGOLS, a race of people in the 
 northeast of Asia, whose original seat 
 seems to have been in the north of the 
 present Mongolia, and in Siberia to the 
 southeast of Lake Baikal. Their first 
 great advance was due to Genghis Khan, 
 who having been, originally, merely the 
 chief of a single Mongol horde, com- 
 pelled the other hordes to submit to his 
 power, and then, in 1206, conceived the 
 bold plan of conquering the whole earth. 
 (See Genghis Khan.) After the death of 
 Genghis Khan, in 1227, his sons and 
 grandsons pursued his conquests, sub- 
 jugated all China, subverted the cali- 
 phate of Bagdad (1263), and made the 
 Seljuk sultans of- Iconium tributary. 
 In 1237 a Mongol army invaded Russia, 
 devastated the country with the most 
 horrible cruelty, and from Russia passed, 
 in two divisions, into Poland and Hun- 
 gary. At Pesth the Hungarian army 
 was routed with terrible slaughter, and 
 at Liegnitz, in Silesia, Henry, duke of 
 Breslau, was defeated in a bloody battle, 
 .A-pril 9, 1241. The Mongolswere recalled, 
 however, from their victorious career 
 by the news of the death of Ogdai, in 
 December, 1241, the immediate succes- 
 sor of Genghis Khan. The empire of the 
 Mongols was at the summit of its power 
 during the reigns of Mangu Khan (1251- 
 59) and Khubilai or Kublai Khan (1259- 
 94), the patron of Marco Polo. At that 
 time it extended from the Chinese Sea 
 and from India far into the interior of 
 Siberia, and^to the frontiers of Poland. 
 The principal seat of the khakan or great 
 
MONITOR 
 
 MONK 
 
 MONEY— VALUE OF FOREIGN COINS IN UNITED STATES 
 
 (Proclaimed by the Secretary of the Treasury October 1 , 1906*) 
 
 Country 
 
 Stand- 
 
 ard 
 
 Monetary tjnit 
 
 Value in 
 U.S. Gold 
 Dollar 
 
 Coins 
 
 Argent. R. .. 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Peso 
 
 $0.96,5 
 
 Gold: argentine ($4.82,4) and 54 argentine’ 
 
 
 
 Silver; peso and divisions. 
 
 Austria-H. . . 
 
 Gold... 
 
 Crown 
 
 .20,3 
 
 Gold: 10 and 20 crowns. Silver: 1 and 5 
 
 
 crowns. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Gold 
 
 Franc 
 
 .19,3 
 
 .48,5 
 
 Gold: 10 and 20 francs. Silver: 5 francs. 
 
 Silver . 
 
 Boliviano 
 
 Silver: boliviano and divisions. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Gold, .. 
 
 Milreis 
 
 .54,6 
 
 Gold: 5, 10, and 20 milreis. Silver: 54, 1, 
 and 2 milreis. 
 
 
 
 Canada 
 
 Gold. ., 
 
 Dollar 
 
 1.00 
 
 
 Cent. Am. .. 
 
 Silver . 
 
 Peso) 
 
 .48,5 
 
 Silver: peso and divisions. 
 
 Gold: escudo ($1.82,5), doubloon ($3.65), and 
 condor ($7.30). Silver: peso and divisions. 
 
 Chile 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Peso 
 
 .36,5 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Shanghai 
 
 .72,6 
 
 China 
 
 Silver . 
 
 Tael .. -( Halkwan 
 
 11.80,8 
 
 
 
 1 Canton .. 
 
 .79,2 
 
 
 Colombia.... 
 
 Gold... 
 
 Dollar 
 
 1.00 
 
 Gold: condor ($9.64,7) and double condor. 
 Silver: peso. 
 
 
 Costa Rica.. 
 
 Gold... 
 
 Colon 
 
 .46,6 
 
 Gold: 2,5, 10, and 20 colons ($9.30,7). Silver: 
 5, 10, 25, and 50 centimos. 
 
 
 Denmark... 
 
 Gold . .. 
 
 Crown 
 
 .26,8 
 
 Gold: 10 and 20 crowns. 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Sucre 
 
 .48,7 
 
 Gold: 10 sucres (W.86,65). Silver: Sucre and 
 divisions. 
 
 
 EEvnt 
 
 Gold... 
 
 Pound 
 
 4.94,3 
 
 Gold; pound (100 plasters), 5, 10, 20, and 60 
 piasters. Silver: 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 plasters. 
 
 
 (lOU plasters) 
 
 France 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Franc 
 
 .19,3 
 
 Gold: 5, 10, 20, 50. and 100 frs. Silver: 5 frs. 
 
 Germany . . . 
 Gt. Britain. . 
 
 Gold . . . 
 
 Mark 
 
 .23,8 
 
 Gold : 5, 10, and 20 marks. 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Pound sterling. ,. 
 
 4.86.6H 
 
 Gold; sovereign(poundsterl.)and54 sov’gn. 
 
 Greece 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Drachma 
 
 .19,3 
 
 Gold: 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 drachmas. SUver: 
 
 
 
 
 5 drachmas. 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Gold, .. 
 
 Gourde 
 
 .96,5 
 
 Gold: 1, 2, 5, and 10 gourdes. Silver: gourde 
 and divisions. 
 
 
 
 
 India 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Pound Sterlings . . 
 Lira 
 
 4.86, 6K 
 
 Gold: so V. ($4.86,65). Sll. : rupee and dlv’ns. 
 Gold: 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 lire. Silver I 5 lire. 
 
 Italy 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 .19,3 
 
 Japan 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Yen 
 
 .49,8 
 
 Goldi 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 yen. Silver; 10, 20, 
 and 50 sen. 
 
 
 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Gold... 
 
 Peso! 
 
 .49,8 
 
 Gold: 6 and 10 pesos. Silver: dollar (or 
 peso)** and divisions. 
 
 
 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Florin 
 
 .40,3 
 
 Gold: 10 florins. Silver: 54, 1. and 254 florins. 
 
 N’foundland 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Dollar 
 
 1.01,4 
 
 Gold: 2 dollars ($2.02,7). 
 
 Norway . . 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Crown 
 
 .26,8 
 
 Gold: 10 and 20 crowns. 
 
 Panama 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Balboa 
 
 1.00,0 
 
 Gold: 1, 254 , 5, 10, and 20 balboas. Silver: 
 peso and divisions. 
 
 
 
 Peru 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Libra 
 
 4.86,654 
 
 1.08 
 
 Gold : 54 and 1 libra. Sil. ; sol and divisions. 
 Gold : 1, 2, 5, and 10 milreis. 
 
 Portugal . . . 
 Russia 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Milreis 
 
 Gold... 
 
 Ruble 
 
 .51,5 
 
 Gold; 5, 754, 10, and 15 rubles. SUver; 5, 10, 
 15, 20, 25, 50, and 100 copeks. 
 
 
 
 Spain 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Peseta 
 
 .19,3 
 
 Gold: 25 pesetas. Silver: 5 pesetas. 
 
 Gold: 10 and 20 crowns. 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Gold .. 
 
 Crown 
 
 .26,8 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Gold... 
 
 Franc 
 
 .19,3 
 
 Gold: 5, 10, 20, 50,and lOOfrancs. Sil.: 5 fr’s. 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Piaster 
 
 .04,4 
 
 1.03,4 
 
 Gold : 25, 50, 100, 250, and 500 piasters. 
 
 Gold: peso. Silver: peso and divisions. 
 Gold: 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 bolivars. Silver: 
 5 bolivars. 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Venezuela . . 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Peso 
 
 Gold. .. 
 
 Bolivar 
 
 .19,3 
 
 
 * The coins of silver-standard countries are valued by their pure silver contents, at the aver- 
 age market price of silver for the three months preceding the date of this circular, t Not 
 Including Costa Rica. § The sovereign is the standard coin of , India, but the rupee ($0.44,8) is 
 the money of account, current at 15 to the sovereign. | Customs, t Seventy-hve centigrams 
 fine gold. ** Value in Mexico 49.8. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE VALUE OP FOREIGN COINS AND PAPER NOTES IN 
 AMERICAN MONEY BASED UPON THE VALUES EXPRESSED 
 IN THE ABOVE TABLE 
 
 Number 
 
 British £ 
 Sterling 
 
 German 
 
 Mark 
 
 French 
 
 Franc, 
 
 Italian 
 
 Lira 
 
 Chinese 
 
 Tael 
 
 (Haik- 
 
 wan) 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Florin 
 
 Japanese 
 
 Yen, 
 
 Mexican 
 
 Peso 
 
 Russian 
 
 Gold 
 
 Ruble 
 
 Austrian 
 
 Crown 
 
 1 
 
 $4.86,654 
 
 $0.23,8 
 
 $0.19,3 
 
 $0.80,8 
 
 $0.40,2 
 
 $0.49,8 
 
 $0.51,5 
 
 $0.20,3 
 
 2 
 
 9.73,3 
 
 .47,6 
 
 .38,6 
 
 1.61,6 
 
 .80,4 
 
 .99,6 
 
 1.03 
 
 .40,6 
 
 3 
 
 14.59,954 
 
 .71,4 
 
 .57,9 
 
 2.42,4 
 
 1.20,6 
 
 1.49,4 
 
 1.54,5 
 
 .60,9 
 
 4 
 
 19.46,6 
 
 .95,2 
 
 .77,2 
 
 3.23.2 
 
 1.60,8 
 
 1.99,2 
 
 2.08 
 
 .81,2 
 
 5 
 
 24.33,254 
 
 1.19 
 
 .96,5 
 
 4.04,0 
 
 2.01 
 
 2.49,0 
 
 2.57,5 
 
 1.01,5 
 
 6 
 
 29.19,9 
 
 1.42,8 
 
 1.15,8 
 
 4.84,8 
 
 2.41,2 
 
 2.98,8 
 
 3.09 
 
 1.21,8 
 
 7 
 
 34.08,554 
 
 1.66,6 
 
 1.35,1 
 
 5.65,6 
 
 2.81,4 
 
 8.48,6 
 
 3.60,5 
 
 1.42,1 
 
 8 
 
 38.93,2 
 
 1.90,4 
 
 1.54,4 
 
 6.46,4 
 
 3.21,6 
 
 3 98,4 
 
 4 12 
 
 1.62,4 
 
 9 
 
 43.79,854 
 
 2.14,2 
 
 1.73,7 
 
 7.27,2 
 
 3.61,8 
 
 4.48,2 
 
 4.63,5 
 
 1.82,7 
 
 10 
 
 48.86,6 
 
 2.38 
 
 1.93 
 
 8.08,0 
 
 4.02 
 
 4.98,0 
 
 5.15 
 
 2.03 
 
 20 
 
 97.33 
 
 4.76 
 
 3.86 
 
 16.16,0 
 
 8.04 
 
 9.96,0 
 
 10 30 
 
 4.06 
 
 30 
 
 145.99,5 
 
 7.14 
 
 5.79 
 
 24.24,0 
 
 12.06 
 
 14.94,0 
 
 15.45 
 
 6.09 
 
 40 
 
 194.66 
 
 9.52 
 
 7.72 
 
 32.32,0 
 
 16.08 
 
 19.92,0 
 
 20.60 
 
 8.12 
 
 50 
 
 243.32,5 
 
 11.90 
 
 9.65 
 
 40.40,0 
 
 20.10 
 
 24.9,()0 
 
 25.75 
 
 10.15 
 
 100 
 
 486.65 
 
 23.80 
 
 19.30 
 
 80.80,0 
 
 40.20 
 
 49.80,0 
 
 51.50 
 
 20.30 
 
 khan was transferred by Khubilia from 
 Karakorum to China; the other coun- 
 tries were governed by subordinate 
 khans, all of whom were descended from 
 Genghis, and several of whom succeeded 
 in making themselves independent. This 
 division of the empire was the cause of 
 the gradual decay of the power and con- 
 
 P. E.— 53 
 
 sequence of the Mongols in the 14th cen- 
 tury. The adoption of new religions 
 (Buddhism in the east and Mohammed- 
 anism in the west) also contributed to 
 their fall. In 1368 the empire of the 
 Mongols in China was overturned by a 
 revolution which set the native Ming 
 dynasty on the throne. Driven north- 
 
 ward to their original home, the eastern 
 Mongols remained for a time subject to 
 the descendants of GengWs Khan, but 
 gradually splitting up into small inde- 
 pendent tribes they finally were sub- 
 dued and absorbed by the Manchu con- 
 querors of China. Of the western Mon- 
 gols the most powerful were the Kip- 
 chaks or Golden Horde, who lived on the 
 Volga, and the khanate founded in Bok- 
 hara, on the Oxus, by Jagatai, the eldest 
 son of Genghis Khan. The former gradu- 
 ally fell under the power of the Russians ; 
 but among the latter there appeared a 
 second formidable warrior, Timurlenk 
 (Tamerlane), called also Timur Beg. 
 In 1369 he chose the city of Samarcand 
 for the seat of his new government. The 
 other Mongol tribes, with Persia, Central 
 Asia, and Hindustan, were successively 
 subjugated by him. In 1402, at Ancyra 
 (Angora), in Asia Minor, he defeated 
 and captured the Sultan Bajazet I., who 
 had been hitherto victorious against the 
 Christians in Europe, and before whom 
 Constantinople trembled. After Timur’s 
 death, in 1405, his empire barely held 
 together until 1468, when it was again 
 divided. Baber (Babur), a descendant 
 of Timur, founded in India, in 1519, the 
 empire of the Great Mogul, which 
 existed in name till 1857, though its 
 power ended in 1739. After the com- 
 mencement of the 16th century the 
 Mongols lost all importance in the his- 
 tory of the world, became split up into a 
 number of separate khanates and tribes, 
 and fell under the power of the neigh- 
 boring peoples. Their name still lingers 
 in the Chinese province of Mongolia, but 
 Mongolian tribes are found far beyond 
 its boundaries. 
 
 The term Mongolians or Mongolidse is 
 to some extent used by anthropologists 
 to signify a very large division of the 
 races of men, of which the Mongol 
 proper were considered typical. This 
 use of the name, which includes Tartars, 
 Turks, Finns, Chinese, and Japanese, is 
 to be carefully distinguished from the 
 historical use. 
 
 MONITOR, the popular name for a 
 class of very shallow, heavily-armed 
 iron-clad steam-vessels, invented by 
 Ericsson, carrying on their open decks 
 either one or two revolving , turrets, 
 each containing one or more enormous 
 
 Ericsson's monitor of 1861. 
 
 guns, and designed to combine the 
 maximum of gun-power with the mini- 
 mum of exposure. Monitors are so called 
 from the name of the first vessel of the 
 kind, built during the American civil 
 war, which proved its superiority in a 
 famous engagement with the Merrimac 
 in 1862. 
 
 MONK, a man who retires from the 
 world to live in a monastery as member 
 of some religious order. Originally all 
 monks were laymen, but after about the 
 8th century the superiors, and by de- 
 grees other members, were admitted to 
 holy orders. See Monastery. 
 
 MONK, George, Duke of Albemarle, 
 
MONKEYS 
 
 an English general, famous forthe promi- 
 nent part he took in the restoration of 
 Charles II., was born in 1608. In the 
 struggle between Charles I. and the 
 parliament Monk at first joined the 
 royalists; but in January, 1644, he was 
 taken prisoner at the seige of Nantwich, 
 and after a short delay he was committed 
 to the Tower. After the capture of the 
 king Monk took the Covenant and re- 
 gained his liberty, in 1646. Under the 
 parliament he served in Ireland, and sub- 
 sequently with Cromwell in Scotland 
 and in 1650 he reduced that country to 
 obedience within a few weeks. In 1654 
 
 General Monk. 
 
 he was the head of the English army in 
 Scotland, and he was still in this posi- 
 tion at the death of the protector and at 
 the resignation of his son in 1659. The 
 coming over of Charles II. was arranged 
 with Monk, and the king rewarded his 
 restorer with the dukedom of Albemarle 
 the order of the Garter, and with a pen- 
 sion. He died in 1670, and was buried in 
 Westminster Abbey. 
 
 MONKEYS, the popular name applied 
 sometimes to the whole of the great 
 mammalian order Quadrumana, some- 
 times limited to those of the order that 
 have tails, and generally cheek-pouches, 
 to the exclusion of the apes, baboons, 
 and lemurs. The general characters of 
 the quadrumanous mammals are found 
 in the great toe being opposable to the 
 other digits of the foot, so that the feet 
 become converted into “hands.” The 
 
 
 Guenon, or common green monkey. 
 
 hallux or thumb may be absent, but 
 when developed it is generally opposable 
 to the other fingers; and the animals 
 thus come to possess “four hands,” or 
 are “quadrumanous.” The monkeys 
 may all be divided into a lower and a 
 higher section. The higher section is 
 that of the Catarhina (Greek, kata, 
 downward, and rhines, nostrils) or Old 
 
 World monkeys. The catarhJne mon- 
 keys are distinguished by their obliquely- 
 set nostrils, the nasal apertures being 
 placed close together, and the nasal 
 septum being naig-ow. Opposable thumbs 
 and great toes exist in nearly all. The 
 tail may be rudimentary or wanting, but 
 in no case is it prehensile. Cheek- 
 pouches, which are used as receptacles 
 for food preparatory to its mastication, 
 are present in many; and the skin cover- 
 ing the prominences of the buttocks is 
 frequently destitute of hair, becomes 
 hardened, and thus constitutes the so- 
 called natal callosities. The catarhine 
 monkeys inhabit Asia and Africa. They 
 include the anthropoid or man-like 
 apes; the gibbons, the orang, the chim- 
 panzee and the gorilla, the baboons and 
 mandrills, the sacred monkey of the 
 Hindus, the proboscis monkey, the 
 Diana monkey, the mona, the wanderoo, 
 etc. The lower section of monkeys con- 
 sists of the New World monkeys, which 
 are entirely confined to South America. 
 They have the nostrils widely separated, 
 the septum or partition between being 
 broad, hence the name. Another pecul- 
 iarity consists in their prehensile tails 
 and there are none of the cheek-pouches 
 or hard callosities on the rump so char- 
 acteristic of Old World monkeys. The 
 diet is especially of a vegetable nature. 
 This section includes the marmosets, 
 the spider-monkeys, the capuchin mon- 
 keys, the squirrel -monkeys, the howling 
 monkeys, etc. See Apes, Baboons, etc. 
 
 MONK’S-HOOD. See Aconite. 
 
 MONMOUTH, a parliamentary and 
 municipal borough of England, county 
 town of Monmouthshire, is situated in a 
 beautiful valley at the confluence of the 
 Monnow and Wye. Pop. 5470. — The 
 county is bounded by the counties of 
 Hereford, Gloucester, Brecknock, and 
 Glamorgan, and the estuary of the 
 Severn; area, 370,350 acres. Pop. 
 292,327. 
 
 MONMOUTH, James, Duke of, the 
 natural son of Lucy Walters, one of the 
 mistresses of Charles II., was born at 
 Rotterdam in 1649. After the restora- 
 tion he was created Duke of Orkney and 
 Duke of Monmouth (1663), married the 
 daughter and heiress of the Earl of Buc- 
 cleuch, and received the Garter. It was 
 reported that the king had been privately 
 married to Lucy Walters, and the popu- 
 lar dislike of the Duke of York, after- 
 ward James II., joined with the fact of 
 Monmouth being a Protestant, gave 
 occasion to hopes that her son might 
 succeed to the crown. On the accession 
 of James II. he was induced to attempt 
 an invasion of England. His small body 
 of undisciplined troops were totally de- 
 feated at Sedgmoor, and the duke him- 
 self was captured and beheaded 15th 
 July, 1685, after abject appeals to the 
 king for mercy. 
 
 MON'OCHROME, a painting exe- 
 cuted in a single color. This description 
 of art is very ancient, and was known to 
 the Etruscans. The most numerous 
 examples existing of this kind of paint- 
 ing are on terra cotta. A painting, to be 
 a proper monochrome, must have the 
 figures relieved by light and shade, 
 
 MON'OGRAM, a character or cipher 
 composed of one, two, or more letters 
 
 MONOTHEISM 
 
 interwoven, and used as a sign or ab- 
 breviation of a name or word. The use 
 of monograms was common among the 
 Greeks and Romans, and the art of com- 
 bining and contorting letters and words 
 flourished universally in the middle ages. 
 The term is now applied to conjoined 
 initials of a personal name on seals, 
 trinkets, letter-paper and envelopes, etc. 
 or employed by printers, painters, en- 
 gravers, etc., as a means of distinguish- 
 ing their work. 
 
 MON'OLITH, a pillar, obelisk, or other 
 large object cut from a single block of 
 stone. See accompanying plate and de- 
 scription. 
 
 MONOMET'ALLISM, the principle of 
 having only one metallic standard in the 
 coinage of a country ; opposed to bimetal- 
 lism. ^ 
 
 MONONGAHE'LA, a river of the 
 United States, formed by the union of 
 West Fork and Tygart’s Valley river in 
 West Virginia, runs north into Pennsyl- 
 vania, and unites with the Alleghany, 
 at Pittsburg, to form the Ohio. It is navi- 
 gable for large boats 60 miles, and for 
 small boats 200 miles from its mouth. 
 Its length to the source of the Tygart’s 
 Valley river is 300 miles. 
 
 MONOP'OLY, is an exclusive right, 
 conferred by authority on one or more 
 persons, to carry on some branch of 
 trade or manufacture. The monopolies 
 most frequently granted were the right 
 of trading to certain foreign countries, of 
 importing or exporting certain articles, 
 or of exercising particular arts or trades. 
 The entire trade and industry of the 
 middle ages was characterized by at- 
 tempts to erect and maintain monopo- 
 lies, as evidenced by the trade-guilds 
 and such associations as the Hanseatic 
 League. The discovery of the New World 
 only provided a fresh sphere for the 
 same system; for not only did every 
 government endeavor to monopolize the 
 trade of its colonies, but in nearly every 
 case the new countries were opened up 
 by privileged “adventurers” and jealous 
 monopoly companies. The granting of 
 monopolies has at all times been opposed 
 to the spirit of English common law, 
 but the practice was very common prev- 
 ious to the accession of the Stuarts. The 
 abuse reached its height under Eliza- 
 beth. Notwithstanding the reluctance of 
 the crown to surrender what was con- 
 sidered one of its most valuable preroga- 
 tives, the Statute of Monopolies (21 
 James I. cap. iii.) was passed in 1623, 
 abolishing all licenses, monopolies, etc., 
 with some exceptions. This act, which 
 lifted an immense incubus from the in- 
 dustrial prosperity of the realm, is (with 
 amendments) still in force; and its ex- 
 cepting clauses are the basis of the pres- 
 ent laws as to patents, copyrights, etc. 
 Both in Great Britain and other coun- 
 tries there are certain so-called govern- 
 ment monopolies maintained on various 
 grounds of public policy. Examples of 
 such monopolies are the postal and I 
 telegraph service, the tobacco monopoly j 
 in France, the opium monopoly in India, * 
 etc. There are also numerous quasi- 
 monopolies, such as those enjoyed by 
 railway, water, and gas companies, and 
 similar semi-public ogranizations. 
 
 MON'OTHEISM, the belief in, and 
 
MONROE 
 
 MONTAGU 
 
 worship of, a single, personal God; 
 opposed to polytheism and distinct also 
 from pantheism. It was at one time the 
 received opinion that monotheism was 
 the primeval intuitive form of religion, 
 but most recent authorities now hold 
 that it was everywhere posterior to 
 polytheism, whence it was evolved by a 
 gradual education. Henotheism, which 
 Max Muller and Schelling maintain to be 
 the primeval form, is merely the rudi- 
 mentary phase of polytheism in minds, 
 not yet conscious of the complexity of 
 the problems for which polytheism is 
 suggested as the solution by more de- 
 veloped intellects. The three great 
 modern monotheistic religions are Juda- 
 ism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism. 
 The Jewish prophets had a firm per- 
 suasion of one God, the Father and 
 Judge of all ; but they are continually 
 upbraiding the people for lapsing into 
 polytheism. After the Babylonish cap- 
 tivity the people became fixed in their 
 belief. Christian monotheism is, of 
 course, historically a development of 
 Hebrew monotheism; and Mahomet 
 probably borrowed the doctrine from the 
 same source. Both Jew and Moham- 
 medan regard the Trinitarian concep- 
 tion of Deity as a deviation from the 
 pure doctrine of monotheism. 
 
 MONROE (mon-r6')j James, fifth 
 president of the United States of Amer- 
 ica, was born in 1758 in Westmoreland 
 county, Virginia; died at New York in 
 1831. He was educated at William and 
 
 Mary college, and from 1776 till 1778 
 served in the revolutionary army. He 
 then devoted himself to the study of 
 law. In 1782 and in 1787 he was elected 
 a member of the Virginia Assembly, and 
 from 1783 till 1786 he represented Vir- 
 ginia in congress. In 1788 as a member 
 of the Convention of Virginia he stren- 
 uously opposed the ratification of the 
 new Federal constitution. In 1790 he 
 was elected to the senate of the United 
 States. In 1794-96 he was minister 
 plenipotentiary to France. From 1799 
 till 1802 he was governor of Virginia, and 
 m 1803 he returned as envoy-extraor- 
 dinary to France on a mission which 
 resulted in the acquisition of Louisiana 
 for 15,000,000 dollars. He was after- 
 ward employed in diplomacy in Eng- 
 land and Spain. In 1811 he was gov- 
 ernor of Virginia, in 1811-17 he was 
 secretary of state, being secretary of 
 war in 1 81 4-1 5 . In 1 8 1 6 th e demo cratic 
 republican party elected him to the pres- 
 idency of the United States. In 1820 
 he was re-elected, only one vote being 
 cast against him. This he owed chiefly 
 
 to his having procured the cession of 
 Florida by Spain, and to the settlement 
 of the vexed question of the extension of 
 slavery by the Missouri compromise 
 (which see). Mexico and the emanci- 
 pated states of South America were 
 formally recognized by the American 
 government during Monroe’s second 
 term; but the leading event in it was 
 the promulgation of the “Monroe doc- 
 trine.” 
 
 MONROE DOCTRINE, The, a prin- 
 ciple in international politics, corre- 
 sponding in America to the balance of 
 power in Europe, was formulated in 
 President Monroe’s message of Decem- 
 ber 2, 1823, in the statement that the 
 United States would consider any at- 
 tempt to extend the European political 
 system to any portion of America, as 
 dangerous to their peace and safety. 
 At the same time the American con- 
 tinents were declared to be no longer 
 subjects for colonization by any Euro- 
 pean power. The doctrine has several 
 times been asserted, notably in the atti- 
 tude of the United States toward 
 Napoleon HI. during his Mexican un- 
 dertaking, and in connection with the 
 Panama Canal and the Venezuela- 
 Guiana boundry question. The interfer- 
 ence of the United States in Mexico, re- 
 sulting in the withdrawal of the French in 
 1866, and President Cleveland’s declara- 
 tion to Great Britain in connection with 
 theVenezuelan boundary dispute in 1895, 
 are the notable examples of such recog- 
 nition. Notwithstanding the protests 
 of the United States Government, dur- 
 ing the progress of the Civil War, the 
 French had secured a foothold in Mexico 
 and attempted to install Maximilian, an 
 Austrian prince, on the Mexican throne. 
 With the conclusion of peace a formal 
 demand for withdrawal was made, and 
 General Sherman was sent to the Mexi- 
 can frontier with a large force. After 
 some delay in negotiations the French 
 Emperor withdrew his troops, and Max- 
 imilian was left to his fate. In the 
 Venezuelan affair, representations hav- 
 ing been made by our Government that 
 the action of Great Britain was a viola- 
 tion of the Monroe Docti-ine, the latter 
 yielded to the suggestion of the United 
 States and consented to an arbitration, 
 thus effecting an amicable settlement. 
 It has all the force of a first principle 
 in the United States but not in inter- 
 national law. 
 
 MONSEIGNEUR (mon-san-yeur), a 
 title of dignity in France. Under Louis 
 XIV. the dauphin was styled monseign- 
 eur, without any addition. Princes, 
 dukes and peers, archbishops, bishops 
 (who adopted the title at the close of the 
 17th century), cardinals, marshals of 
 France, presidents of parliament, etc., 
 were addressed by this title. 
 
 MONSIEUR (mo-syeu), used without 
 any addition, formerly in France desig- 
 nated the king’s eldest brother, though, 
 in addressing him, the title Monseigneur 
 was used. The last prince so called was 
 the Comte d’ Artois, brother of Louis 
 XVIII. In common use it answers both 
 to the English sir and Mr., and is also 
 used before titles. 
 
 MON'SOON, the name given to a cer- 
 tain modification or disturbance of the 
 
 regular course of the trade-winds which 
 takes place in the Arabian and Indian 
 seas. Between the parallels of 10° and 
 30° south latitude the eastern trade- 
 wind blows regularly, but from . the 
 former parallel northward the course 
 is reversed for half the year, and from 
 April to October the wind blows con- 
 stantly from the southwest. During 
 the other six months of the year the 
 regular northeast trade-wind prevails. 
 These two alternating winds are the 
 monsoons proper, but the name is now 
 commonly given to similar alternating 
 winds in any region. 
 
 MONSTER, or Monstrosity, a term 
 applied in anatomy and physiology to 
 living beings which exhibit from birth 
 onward some important abnormal 
 features in structure, or present notable 
 deviations from the normal type of their 
 kind. From the earliest times writers 
 have argued for the production of such 
 ideal monsters by the intercourse of 
 demons and women, of brutes and men; 
 and witchcraft, magic, spell, divine 
 vengeance — and, more lately, the effect 
 upon the mother’s mind of fright, terror, 
 dreams, etc., have each and all been 
 credited, but equally erroneously, with 
 causing malformations and abnormali- 
 ties in the yet unborn child or embryo. 
 Teratology can explain most, if not all 
 malformations, as results of abnormal 
 growth or disease. These so-called 
 “freaks of nature” are in truth the re- 
 sults of morbid actions and operations 
 iu the living organisms, as well defined, 
 but not yet so well known, as are those 
 of the healthy and normal body. 
 
 MON'STRANCE, or REMONSTRANCE 
 is the sacred Vessel in which, in the Ro- 
 man Catholic Church, the host is shown 
 to the people at benedictions, proces- 
 sions, and other solemnities. Its use 
 probably dates from the establishment. 
 
 of the festival of Corpus Christi in 1264 
 by Pope Urban IV. The earliest mon- 
 strances known date from the 14th cen- 
 tury, and are made in the form of a 
 Gothic tower. The most common form 
 now consists of a chalice-footed stand of 
 some precious metal, and a circular re- 
 pository, usually a transparent pyx, sur- 
 rounded by sun-like rays. In the Greek 
 Church the monstrance is shaped like a 
 coffin. 
 
 MONTAGU, Lady Mary Wortley, 
 famous for her brilliant letters, was born 
 in 1689, and died in 1762. She was the 
 eldest daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, 
 
MONTAIGNE 
 
 MONTCLAin 
 
 afterward duke of Kingston. Her beauty 
 and elegance and her wit and vivacity 
 rapidly gained her admiration and in- 
 fluence, and she became familiarly ac- 
 quainted with Addison, Congreve, Pope, 
 and other distinguished writers. In 1716 
 Mr. Montagu was appointed ambassador 
 to the Porte, and Lady Mary accompan- 
 ied him to Constantinople, where they 
 remained from January, 1717, to May, 
 1718. Itwasduringthisperiod that Lady 
 Mary’s famous “Turkish Letters” were 
 written. On her return to England she 
 resumed her ascendency in the gay 
 world of wit and fashion. Her letters 
 are marked by great vivacity and 
 graphic power, together with keen ob- 
 servation and independent judgment. 
 Lady Mary has another claim to re- 
 membrance in her courageous adoption 
 of the Turkish practice of inoculation 
 for smallpox in the case of her own 
 children, and for her energy in promot- 
 ing its introduction into England, in the 
 face of a storm of obstinate prejudice. 
 
 MONTAIGNE (mon-tan'), Michel Ey- 
 quem de, the famous French essayist, 
 was born in 1533 at the castle of Mon- 
 taigne, in P^rigord. In 1580 he published 
 the first two books of his Essais, and 
 immediately afterward set out on a 
 journey through Germany, Switzerland, 
 and Italy to restore his health, which 
 had been shattered by the attacks of a 
 hereditary disease. In 1582 and 1584 
 he was chosen mayor of Bordeaux. In 
 1588 he republished his Essais, with the 
 addition of a third book. After a last 
 visit to Paris (in the course of which he 
 was thrown into the Bastille for a short 
 time by the leaguers) Montaigne seems 
 to have dwelt quietly in his chateau. 
 He died of quinsy in 1592. 
 
 MONTANA (m6n-ta'na), one of the 
 United States organized as a territory 
 in 1864 out of portions of the territories 
 of Idaho and Dakota, admitted as a 
 state in 1889. It is bounded on the north 
 ky the Canadian provinces of British 
 Columbia, Alberta, and Assiniboia on 
 
 the east by the Dakotas, on the south by 
 Wyoming and Idaho. It ranks third in 
 size among the states of the Union. Its 
 area is 146,080 sq. miles. The eastern 
 three-fifths of the state consist of rolling 
 plains, lying at an elevation of from 
 2000 feet in the northeast to about 4000 
 feet among the foothills of the Rocky 
 Mountains, which take up the western 
 portion. The Main Divide runs from 
 Yellowstone Park for some distance 
 
 along the southwestern boundary, after 
 which it turns eastward and then crosses 
 the state obliquely in a northwestern 
 direction. A great longitudinal basin 
 separates the Main Divide from theBitter 
 Root Mountains which form the western 
 boundary. The principal rivers are the 
 Missouri, the Yellowstone and Clark’s 
 Fork of the Columbia. The climate is in 
 general dry, exhilarating, and healthful. 
 The average mean temperature for the 
 state is 70° for the warmest and 11° for 
 the coldest month. The rainfall is ex- 
 ceedingly scanty and irrigation is almost 
 necessary everywhere for agriculture. 
 
 Building materials such as limestone, 
 slate, granite, sands, and clay are 
 abundant, and there are large deposits 
 of marble of various hues. Bituminous 
 coal and extensive beds of lignite exist 
 in the east along the Missouri and Yel- 
 lowstone rivers, while petroleum is also 
 found. Copper is abundant, lead, iron, 
 gold, silver ores exist. 
 
 In the western part of the state it is 
 only in exceptional years that the rain- 
 fall is inadequate, and in the northwest 
 corner of the state, on the western side 
 of the mountains, the rainfall is plentiful 
 and certain. Considerable land has been 
 brought under irrigation by the con- 
 struction of large canals. The irrigated 
 region is confined to the southwest 
 quarter of the state, the supply being 
 obtained from the tributary headwaters 
 of the Missouri and from the Yellow- 
 stone river. 
 
 Hay is the principal crop, its acreage 
 being more than twice that of all other 
 crops. Native grasses constitute the 
 greater part of the acreage, but alfalfa, 
 clover, and other tame varieties are also 
 grown. Oats, wheat, and barley yield 
 abundant crops. Corn is but little grown, 
 owing mrtly to the coolness of the 
 nights. Potatoes are a favorite crop, and 
 other vegetables are successfully raised. 
 The apple and other temperate zone 
 fruits flourish, and much interest is be- 
 ing developed in their culture. 
 
 The state greatly exceeds any other 
 in the number of sheep and in the pro- 
 duction of wool. Formerly, the males 
 were shipped to eastern states to be fed 
 for the market, but with the increased 
 production of alfalfa it is being found 
 possible to fatten them within the state. 
 The number of cattle has also shown a 
 considerable increase, and the breed has 
 greatly improved. 
 
 The population is about 300,000. 
 Helena is the capital. The tribal Indians 
 chiefly Crows, Blackfeet, Yankton Sioux, 
 Assiniboins, Gros Ventres, and Pend 
 d’Oreilles, are located on five reserva- 
 tions, embracing an area of 45,000 sq. 
 miles of fine agricultural and grazing 
 land, of which only a small portion is 
 cultivated. 
 
 In 1742 the Sieur de la Verendrye 
 traversed the region now included within 
 the state of Montana, and in January, 
 1743, reached the foot of the Rocky 
 Mountains. Gold was discovered as early 
 as 1852 near the Hellgate river, but the 
 discovery aroused little attention till 
 1857. In the winter of 1860 rich placers 
 were discovered and an active immigra- 
 tion set in, mining settlements springing 
 up at Banack City on Grasshopper creek, 
 
 on the Bighole river, and on North 
 Boulder creek. In May, 1863, gold was 
 discovered at Fairweather Gulch, near 
 Alder creek. The town of Virginia City 
 sprang up near the spot, and within a 
 year it had a population of 4000. The 
 region, which constituted a part of 
 Washington territory, was organized in 
 1860-61 as Shoshone and Missoula 
 counties. In 1863 the territory of Idaho, 
 including the present Montana, was set 
 off from Washington, and on May 22, 
 1864, the territory of Montana was 
 erected from land taken from Idaho. 
 In 1874 the seat of government was re- 
 moved from Virginia City to Helena. 
 On June 25, 1876, occurred the dis- 
 astrous fight between General Custfer 
 and the Sioux Indians under Sitting 
 Bull on the Little Big Horn river. 
 
 The prosperity of the territory was in- 
 creased by the completion of the North- 
 ern Pacific railroad in 1883. About 1880 
 began the development of silver and 
 copper mining, which soon surpassed in 
 importance the gold-mining industry. 
 In January and February, 1884, a con- 
 stitutional convention framed a con- 
 stitution which was ratified by the peo- 
 ple in November, and application was 
 made to congress for admission into the 
 Union. No action was taken, however, 
 until February, 1889, when an enabling 
 act was passed by congress. On Novem- 
 ber 8, 1889, Montana was admitted into 
 the Union by proclamation of the presi- 
 dent, after a state constitution had been 
 framed and state officers elected. In 
 national elections Montana v/as republi- 
 can in 1892 and democratic in 1896. In 
 1900 it was carried by the Democrats 
 and people’s party, and in 1904 and 
 1908 by the Republicans. 
 
 MONTANA, University of, a coeduca- 
 tional state institution at Missoula, 
 Mont., founded in 1895. It maintains a 
 preparatory department and a depart- 
 ment of literature, science, and the arts, 
 and offers graduate courses, leading re- 
 spectively to the degrees of B.A., B.S., 
 M.A., and M.S. There is also a summer 
 school of science and a biological station. 
 Tuition is free except in the law depart- 
 ment. 
 
 MONT BLANC, the loftiest mountain 
 of Europe, belonging to the Pennine 
 chain of the Alps, and rising 15,781 feet 
 above the sea-level, is situated on the 
 frontiers of France and Italy, and near 
 that of Switzerland. On the s.e. its face 
 is steep; on the n.w. lateral chains are 
 sent off, among which about thirty 
 glaciers are counted. The chief are the 
 glaciers Des Bossons, Bois, Argenti^re, 
 and Mer de Glace. The summit was first 
 reached in June, 1786, by the guide 
 Jacques Balm at. 
 
 MONTCALM (mon-kam), Louis Joseph 
 Saint Veran, Marquis de, French gen- 
 eral, born in 1712. In 1756 was appointed 
 to the chief command of the French 
 troops in Canada. Here he took Fort 
 Ontario and Fort William Henry and 
 occupied Ticonderoga; but at Quebec in 
 1759 was completely defeated by Gen- 
 eral Wolfe on the Heights of Abraham, 
 both commanders being mortally 
 wounded. 
 
 MONTCLAIR, a city in Essex co., N. 
 J., on the Del., Lack, and W. and the 
 
MONTE CARLO 
 
 MONTHS 
 
 N. Y. and Greenwood Lake railways; 
 5 miles n. by w. of Newark, the county 
 seat, 14 miles w.n.w. of New York City. 
 Pop. 14,175. 
 
 MONTE CARLO. See Monaco. 
 MONTE CRISTO, a small island 6 
 miles in circumference belonging to 
 Italy, 25 miles s. of Elba, the seat of a 
 penal colony. Dumas has given the 
 
 Gen. Montcalm. 
 
 name of this isle to the hero of one of his 
 most popular romances. 
 
 MONTECU'CULI or, more correctly, 
 MONTECU'COLI, Raimondo, Prince of 
 the Empire, and Duke of Melfi, military 
 commander, born near Modena in 1608, 
 died at Linz 1680. In 1664 he gained a 
 great victory over the Turks after hav- 
 ing driven them out of Transylvania. 
 In 1673 he was placed at the head of the 
 imperial troops, and checked the prog- 
 ress of Louis XIV. by the capture of 
 Bonn, and by forming a junction with 
 the Prince of Orange in spite of Turenne 
 and Cond4. Montecuculi’s subsequent 
 advance into Alsace was repulsed by 
 the Prince of Cond6. His last military 
 exploit was the siege of Philipsburg. 
 
 MONTEFIORE (mon-te-fi-o'ra). Sir 
 Moses, Jewish philanthropist and cen- 
 tenarian, was born 24th October, 1784, 
 died 28th July, 1885. In 1837 he was 
 chosen sheriff of London, the same year 
 he was knighted, and in 1846 he was 
 made a baronet. His benevolence to 
 Jews throughout the world was un- 
 bounded ; and he visited Palestine seven 
 times, the last when in his 92d year. 
 
 MONTENE'GRO , an independent prin- 
 cipality in Europe, in the northwest of 
 Turkey, bounded by Herzegovina, 
 Albania, the Adriatic, and Balmatia. 
 Area, about 3630 sq. miles. The climate 
 is healthy. Forests of beech, pine, chest- 
 nuts, and other valuable timber cover 
 many of the mountain sides. Fruit- 
 trees of all kinds abound, especially in 
 the sheltereJ. valleys, where even al- 
 monds, vines, and pomegranates ripen. 
 Agriculture is in a very rude and in- 
 efficient state, though every cultivable 
 piece of land is planted with Indian 
 corn, pptatoes, tobacco, rye, wheat, 
 cabbage(j, or some other useful plant. 
 Sheep, (battle, and goats are reared in 
 great nWnbers. Manufactures, with ex- 
 ception of a coarse woolen stuff, are 
 unknown. The population amounts to 
 aboui 240,000. 
 
 MI)NTEREY (mon-te-ra'i), capital of 
 the ftate of New Leon, in Mexico, about 
 1001 miles from the Texas frontier. 
 Moijfterey, which is said to be the most 
 Amiricanized town in Mexico, has a 
 coi^.iderable transit trade. In 1846 it 
 captured by the United States 
 trolps under Gen. Taylor. Pop. 62,266. 
 lONTESPAN (mon-tes-pan), Fran- 
 
 9oise Athenais, Marchioness de, mistress 
 of Louis XIV., born in 1641, was the 
 second daughter of the Duke of Morte- 
 mart, and was, in 1663, married to the 
 Marquis de Montespan. Mme. de Monte- 
 span bore eight children to the king, 
 four of whom died in infancy. The others 
 were intrusted to the care of Mme. 
 Scarron, afterward De Maintenon. The 
 influence of the favorite mistress was 
 often exercised in public affairs, and 
 her empire over the king continued until 
 about 1679, when a growing attachment 
 to Mme. de Maintenon finally estranged 
 his affections from Mme. de Montespan. 
 She rarely appeared at court after 1685, 
 and in 1691 she entirely quitted it. Her 
 last years were devoted to religious ex- 
 ercises, acts of benevolence, and peni- 
 tence. 
 
 MONTESQUIEU (mon-tes-kyeu), 
 Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de la 
 Br^de et de, born 1689 at the chS,teau of 
 La Br^de, near Bordeaux; died at Paris 
 1755. The Lettres Persanes, the first 
 of the three great works on which his 
 fame principally rests, appeared in 1721. 
 Other works of less importance followed; 
 and in 1728 Montesquieu was admitted 
 to the French Academy. He gave up his 
 president’s office in 1726, and then 
 visited Germany, Hungary, Italy, Hol- 
 land, and England. In England he 
 stayed for eighteen months, and im- 
 bibed a deep admiration for its social 
 and political institutions. He returned 
 to France in 1731, and in 1734 he pub- 
 lished his Consid4rations sur les Causes 
 de la Grandeur et la Decadence des 
 Remains. In 1748 L’Esprit des Lois, 
 the result of twenty years of labor, was 
 published, and at once placed its author 
 among the greatest writers of his coun- 
 try. The scope of the work is perhaps 
 best indicated by the sub-title of the 
 original edition, which describes it as a 
 treatise on the relation which ought to 
 exist between the laws and the constitu- 
 tion, manners, climate, religion, com- 
 merce, etc., of each country. Among 
 his lesser works are Dialogue de Sylla et 
 d’Eucrate, Le Voyage de Paphos, Essai 
 sur le Gout (unfinished), Arasce et Is- 
 menie (probably a work of his youth), 
 Lettres FamiliSres, etc. 
 
 MONTEVID'EO, capital of Uruguay 
 is situated on a small peninsula on the 
 north coast of the estuary of the La 
 Plata, 130 miles east-southeast of 
 Buenos Ayres. Pop. 250,000, one-third 
 of whom are foreigners. 
 
 MONTEZU'MA, Aztec emperor of 
 Mexico when Cortez invaded tne coun- 
 try in 1519. Influenced by an ancient 
 prophecy, he at first welcomed the 
 Spaniards; but when he discovered that 
 they were no supernatural beings, he 
 secretly took measures for their destruc- 
 tion. Cortez on learning this seized 
 Montezuma, and compelled him to 
 recognize the supremacy of Spain. The 
 Aztecs immediately rose in revolt, and 
 refused to be quieted by the appearance 
 of Montezuma. While urging them to 
 submission he was struck on the temple 
 with a stone and fell to the ground. Cut 
 to the heart by his humiliation, he re- 
 fused all nourishment, tore off his ban- 
 dages, and soon after expired. 
 
 MONTFORT, Simon de, Earl of Lei- 
 
 cester, famous in the constitutional his- 
 tory of England, was born in France be- 
 tween 1195 and 1200. He was the 
 youngest son of Simon de Montfort, Earl 
 of Leicester, the “scourge of the Albi- 
 genses.” He won the favor of Henry III. 
 and married Eleanor, countess dowager 
 of Pembroke , and sister of the king. He 
 was conspicuous among those who ex- 
 torted the Provisions of Oxford from 
 the king in the “Mad Parliament” in 
 1258; and he was the leader of the 
 barons in the so-called “Barons’ War” 
 that followed. In 1264 he agreed to sub- 
 mit the question of the king’s right to 
 repudiate the Provisions to Louis XI. of 
 France; but when the latter, by the 
 Mise of Amiens, decided in favor of 
 Henry, De Montfort refused to be bound 
 by the decision. Both sides took up arms 
 and at the battle of Lewes (May 14, 
 1264) the king was defeated and taken 
 prisoner. The Mise of Lewes, to which 
 Henry III. agreed, contained the out- 
 lines of a new constitution, in which the 
 principle of representative government 
 was recognized. The king accepted the 
 constitution on Feb. 14, 1265; but Prince 
 Edward and the Mortimers raised the 
 standard of revolt. At the battle of 
 Evesham (Aug. 4, 1265) De Montfort 
 was defeated and slain. His memory 
 was long revered by the people as a 
 martyr for the popular liberty. 
 
 MONTGOM'ERY, or MONTGOMERY- 
 SHIRE, an inland county in North 
 Wales, has an fc-ea of 495,082 acres, con- 
 sisting mostly of wild, rugged, and 
 sterile mountains, varying from 1000 to 
 2000 feet in height. It contains, how- 
 ever, some fine and fertile valleys, the 
 most extensive and fruitful of which is 
 that of the Severn, the principal river. 
 Pop. 54,892. 
 
 MONTGOMERY, capital of Alabama, 
 on the left bank of the navigable Ala- 
 bama river. The principal buildings are 
 the state-capitol, the United States 
 court-house, and a number of churches. 
 Montgomery contains several foundries, 
 flour and oil mills, and a cotton factory; 
 and carries on an extensive trade. Pop. 
 32,416. 
 
 MONTH, a period of time derived 
 from the motion of the moon generally 
 one of the 12 parts of the calendar year. 
 The calendar months have from 28 to 
 31 days each, February having 28, April, 
 June, September, and November 30, the 
 rest 31 . Month originally meant the time 
 of one revolution of the moon, but as 
 that may be determined in reference to 
 several celestial objects there are sev- 
 eral lunar periods known by distinct- 
 ive names. Thus the anomalistic month 
 is a revolution of the moon from per- 
 igee to perigee, average 27 days 13 
 hrs. 18 min. 37.4 sec.; the sidereal 
 month, the interval between two suc- 
 cessive conjunctions of the moon with 
 the same fixed star, average 27 days 7 
 hrs. 43 min. 11.5 sec.; the synodical, or 
 proper lunar month; the time that 
 elapses between new moon and new 
 moon, average 29 days 12 hrs. 44 min. 
 2.9 sec. The solar month is the twelfth 
 part of one solar year, or 30 days 10 hrs. 
 29 min. 5 sec. 
 
 MONTHS, the Derivations of the 
 Names of the, January — the Roman 
 
MONTMORENCY i; ' “ MOODY 
 
 Janus presided over the beginning of 
 everything; hence the first month of the 
 year was called after him. February — 
 the Roman festival Februs was held on 
 the 15th day of this month, in honor of 
 Lupercus, the god of fertility. March — 
 named from the Roman god of war, 
 Mars. April — Latin, Aprilis, probably 
 derived from aperire, to open ; because 
 spring generally begins, and the buds 
 open in this month. May — Latin Maius, 
 probably derived from Maia, a feminine 
 divinity worshipped at Rome on the first 
 day of this month. June — Juno, a 
 Roman divinity worshipped as the 
 Queen of Heaven. July — (Julius) Julius 
 Ccesar was born in this month. August — 
 named by the Emperor of Augustus 
 Cffisar, B.c. 30, after himself, as he re- 
 garded it as a fortunate month, being 
 that in which he had gained several 
 victories. September (septem, or 7) — 
 September was the seventh month in 
 the old Roman calendar. October (octo, 
 or 8) — Eighth month of the old Roman 
 year. November (novem, or 9). — No- 
 vember was the ninth month in the old 
 Roman year. December (decern, or 10) 
 — December was the tenth month of the 
 early Roman year. About the 21st of 
 this month the sun enters the Tropic of 
 Capricorn, and forms the winter solstice. 
 
 MONTMOREN'CY, a small river of 
 Canada, which rises in Snow lake, prov. 
 of Quebec, flows south, and joins the St. 
 Lawrence 8 miles belo\fc Quebec. Near 
 its mouth are the Falls m Montmorency, 
 which have a breadth of about 50 feet, 
 and a perpendicular descent of 242 feet. 
 
 MONTMORENCY (mon-mo-ran-si), 
 the name of a noble family of France 
 and the Netherlands, derived from the 
 village of Montmorency near Paris. 
 One of its most distinguished members 
 was Anne de Montmorency, first duke 
 of Montmorency, Constable of France, 
 and a distinguished general, born in 
 1492. He distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Marignano in 1515, and for his 
 valor at Bicocca in 1522 was made mar- 
 shal. He was taken prisoner along with 
 Francis I. at the battle of Pavia in 1525, 
 but was soon after ransomed. In 1536 
 he defeated Charles V. Francis I. con- 
 ferred on him the dignity of Constable in 
 1538. In 1551 he was made a duke. In 
 1557 he lost the battle of St. Quentin 
 against Philip II. of Spain, and was 
 taken prisoner, but he regained his free- 
 dom by the Peace of Cateau-Cam- 
 bresis in 1559. Under Charles IX. he 
 joined the Duke of Guise and Marshal 
 St. Andr6 in forming the famous trium- 
 virate against Conde and the Huguenots. 
 At the battle of Dreux in 1562 Mont- 
 morency was made prisoner by the 
 Huguenots; on the renewal of the civil 
 war he gained a decisive victory over 
 them at St. Denis, November 10, 1567, 
 though the following day he died of his 
 wounds. 
 
 MONTPELIER, the capital of the 
 state of Vermont and of Washington co., 
 on the Winooski or Onion river, here 
 crossed by a stone bridge, and on the 
 Mont, and Wells river and the Cent. Vt. 
 railways; 40 miles s.e. of Burlington, 205 
 miles n.n.w. of Boston. The principal 
 industry is the quarrjung of the cele- 
 brated Barre granite; other industries 
 
 are the manufacture of saw-mill, candy- 
 making, and other machinery, leather, 
 organ and piano springs, and clothes- 
 wringers and washing-machines. Pop. 
 10 , 100 . 
 
 MONTPELLIER (mon-pel-ya), chief 
 town of the department of H4rault, in 
 France, is situated in a picturesque re- 
 gion, on the Lez, about 6 miles north of 
 
 State capitol, Montpelier, Vt. 
 
 the Mediterranean and 80 miles w.n.w. 
 of Marseilles. Pop. 76,364. 
 
 MONTREAL, the largest city and the 
 commercial capital of the Dominion of 
 Canada, is situated on an island of the 
 some name, formed by the mouths of the 
 Ottawa, where, after a course of 750 
 miles, it debouches into the St. Law- 
 rence. It is built upon the left or north- 
 ern bank of the St. Lawrence, and is 
 situated 180 miles s.w. of Quebec, and 
 985 miles by river from the Atlantic 
 Ocean. Behind the town rises the Mount 
 Royal (Mont Real), from which it de- 
 rives its name, and which is reserved as a 
 public park. Situated at the junction of 
 the inland and the ocean navigationn, it 
 has a harbor with three miles of wharf- 
 age accessible to steamers of the deepest 
 draught. It is also the chief terminus of 
 the Grand Trunk Railway, and the 
 
 J l'Assom^\ 
 
 St.Jeroma 
 
 ftrehem 
 
 StfJanuic^ 
 
 iVarennes 
 
 Lachut« 
 
 St. ScholastiqueX 
 
 * Wr£ustac/ieJ 
 
 ^St-Placde Ste.Oorqt^ 
 
 iBouchtroilU 
 
 
 
 Conjo^ 
 
 Vgudrei 
 
 iPraJrh 
 
 
 '/ Montreal, 
 
 and the junction of the 
 
 ST Lawrence &OTTAWA 
 _ Rivers. 
 
 and 
 
 eastern terminus of the Canadian Pacific 
 Railway. The city is divided into dis- 
 tinctly marked English and French 
 quarters. The chief public buildings are 
 tlie court-house, custom-house, city 
 hall, etc.; and the principal churches are 
 St. Peter’s Cathedral, the church of 
 Notre Dame, St. Patrick’s, Christ 
 Church Cathedral, St. Andrew’s, St. 
 Paul’s, etc. M’Gill University. Presby- 
 
 terian College, Wesleyan Theological 
 College, Congregational College, Angeli- 
 can Diocesan College, Bishop’s College, 
 and University, the Montreal School of 
 Medicine and Surgery, are the leading 
 Protestant educational institutions; 
 those of the Roman Catholics comprise 
 Laval University, St. Mary’s College, 
 Montreal College, Hochelaga Convent, 
 etc. Among the industrial establish- 
 ments of Montreal are iron foundries, 
 distilleries, breweries, sugar-refineries, 
 soap and candle works; and there are 
 manufactures of cotton, silk, boots and 
 shoes, paper, carpets, tobacco, hard- 
 ware, edge-tools, floor-cloth, carriages, 
 etc. The Grand Trunk railway, which 
 connects the railways of Canada with 
 those of the United States, crosses the 
 St. Lawrence at Montreal by the great 
 Victoria bridge (formerly tubular) 9184 
 feet in length, constructed in 1854-59. 
 Pop. 318,165, of whom the majority are 
 Roman Catholics and of French origin. 
 
 MONTROSE, James Graham, Mar- 
 quis of (1612-1650), son of the 4th earl 
 of Montrose, was born at Montrose in 
 1612. In 1637 Montrose joined the 
 covenanters in their resistance to epis- 
 copacy. In 1639 he was one of the 
 
 James Graliam, Marquis of Montrose. 
 
 leaders who were appointed to confer 
 with Charles I., after which he went over 
 to the royalist side, was created a mar- 
 quis, and made commander of the royal 
 forces in Scotland. He was defeated at 
 Philiphaugh by Leslie, and fled to Nor- 
 way in 1646. In March, 1650, he re- 
 turned, landing in Orkney with a small 
 body of followers. He failed, however, 
 in raising an army, and a month later 
 was surprised and captured in Ross- 
 sliire, and was conveyed to Edinburgh, 
 where he was hanged and quartered 21st 
 May, 1650. 
 
 MOODS (in Logic). See Syllogism. 
 
 MOO'DY, Dwight Ljmian, American 
 evangelist, was born at Northfield, Mass. 
 1837. In 1856 he removed to Chicago, 
 became active in mission work, and 
 established a Sunday school which num- 
 bered over a thousand children. In 1873 
 he visited Great Britain and Ireland with 
 Ira D. Sankey, the singer, and in 1875 
 held a long series of meetings in Brook- 
 lyn and Philadelphia, and in 1876 in New 
 York. Similar services followed in many 
 large cities throughout the country. In 
 1S82 a second visit to England was 
 made. He died at Northfield in 1899. 
 He published numerous discourses and 
 works of a popular character. 
 
MOODY 
 
 MOORE 
 
 MOODY, William Henry, American 
 lawyer, was born in 1853, in Newbury, 
 Essex CO., Mass. From 1890 to 1895 he 
 was district attorney for the Massa- 
 chusetts Eastern District, member 54th 
 congress to fill vacancy; also member 
 56th and 57th congresses. In May, 1902, 
 he became secretary of the navy and in 
 1904 he was appointed attorney-general 
 which he held until 190G, when he re- 
 signed. 
 
 MOON, The, one of the secondary 
 planets and the satellite of the earth 
 revolves round the latter in an elliptic 
 (almost circular) orbit, in one sidereal 
 month (see Month), at a mean distance 
 of 238,818 miles, he. greatest and least 
 distances being 252,948 and 221,593 
 miles. Her mean diameter is 2159 miles. 
 Her surface is about yV (14,600,000 sq. 
 miles) of that of the earth; her volume 
 ytV; her mass about her mean 
 
 density a little more than J. A mass 
 weighing 1 lb. on the earth’s surface 
 would weigh about 2.64 ozs. on the 
 moon’s surface. For every revolution in 
 her orbit, the moon rotates once on her 
 axis, so that the same portion of her 
 surface is constantly turned toward 
 the earth; but in virtue of an apparent 
 oscillatory motion, known as libration 
 (which see), about | of her surface is pre- 
 sented at one time or another to terres- 
 trial observers. If the moon’s orbit were 
 in the plane of the ecliptic, solar and 
 lunar eclipses would occur monthly. 
 Her orbit is, however, inclined 5 ° 8 ' 48" 
 to the ecliptic, so that her meridian al- 
 titude has a range of 57°, and she occults 
 in course of time every star within 5° 24' 
 30" of the ecliptic. An eclipse of the 
 moon occurs when she passes into the 
 
 Orbit of the moon, showing the lunar phases. 
 
 earth’s shadow; when she prevents the 
 sun being seen there is an eclipse of the 
 sun. (See Eclipse.) The changes in the 
 appearance of the moon, described by 
 the words waxing and waning, are 
 known as phases. The four chief phases, 
 occurring at intervals of 90° in the lunar 
 orbit, are New Moon, when she is be- 
 tween the earth and sun (i.e. in con- 
 junction with the sun), and so turns an 
 unilluminated side to the earth; First 
 Quarter, when one-half of her illumin- 
 ated disc (i.e. one quarter of the entire 
 lunar surface) is visible; Full Moon, 
 when her whole illuminated disc is pre- 
 sented to the earth; and Last Quarter, 
 when once more only half of her disc is 
 
 visibly illuminated. Between new moon 
 and full moon the moon is said to wax; 
 on the rest of her course she wanes. 
 When more than a semicircle is visible 
 she is said to be gibbous; when new or 
 full she is said to be in her syzygies. On 
 the visible portion of the lunar surface 
 there is either no atmosphere or an ex- 
 ceedingly rare one, and no traces of 
 organic life have been observed. As 
 each portion is alternately in sunlight 
 and in shade for a fortnight at a time, 
 and as no atmosphere has been de- 
 tected, it is conjectured that the lunar 
 extremes of heat and cold far exceed the 
 greatest terrestrial extremes. The sur- 
 face of the moon is mainly occupied by 
 mountains, most of which are named 
 after eminent scientific men. They are 
 
 Comparative dimensions of the earth and the 
 moon. 
 
 sometimes detached as precipitous peaks, 
 more frequently they form vast continu- 
 ous ranges, but the most prevalent form 
 is that of crater-mountains, sometimes 
 8 to 10 miles in diameter, and giving 
 evident traces of volcanic action. Cer- 
 tain crater-like formations, which have 
 still greater diameters are generally 
 spoken of as “walled plains.” Larger 
 still are the “gray plains,” which were 
 at one time taken for seas, before the 
 absence of water from the lunar surface 
 was demonstrated. They may possibly 
 be the floors of old seas. Some of the 
 mountains have been estimated to be 
 over 24,000 feet in height, from obser- 
 vation of their shadows. Very peculiar 
 ridges of comparatively small elevation 
 extend for great distances, connecting 
 different ranges or craters. The so called- 
 “rilles” or “clefts” are huge straight 
 furrows of great length (18 to 90 miles), 
 now generally believed to be caused by 
 cracks in a shrinking surface. There are 
 also valleys of various sizes, and “faults” 
 or closed cracks, sometimes of consider- 
 able length. In reading descriptions of 
 the visible peculiarities of the moon, it 
 should be remembered that the highest 
 telescopic power yet applied to that 
 planet is only equivalent to bringing it 
 within about 40 miles of the naked eye. 
 The attraction of the sun for the earth 
 and the moon tends to diminish their 
 mutual action. When the moon is at new 
 or full (in syzygies) the mutual attrac- 
 tion of the earth and moon is lessened 
 by the sun more than usual, whereas it 
 causes a small increase in the mutual 
 action when the moon is in quadrature 
 (when the line from the earth to the moon 
 is at right angles to the line from the 
 earth to the sun) ; again, the sun exerts 
 a direct tangential acceleration on the 
 moon which is positive (or toward the 
 sun) when the moon is nearer the sun 
 
 than the earth, and negative when the 
 moon is further away than the earth; 
 these two produce what is called the 
 moon’s variation, which, on the whole, is 
 such that in each lunation the moon’s 
 velocity is greatest when she is in 
 syzygies and least when nearly in quad- 
 rature. For the influence of the moon on 
 tides see Tides. 
 
 MOORE, Clement Clarke, American 
 poet and educator, was born in New York 
 in 1779. He compiled a Hebrew and 
 English Lexicon, and published a col- 
 lection of Poems, among which is “Twas 
 the Night Before Christmas,” or more 
 properly, “A Visit from Saint Nicholas,” 
 through w^hich he is best remembered. 
 He died in 1863. 
 
 MOORE, George, a British novelist 
 and dramatist, born in Ireland in 1853. 
 His novels, A Modern Lover, A Mum- 
 mer’s Wife, and Esther Waters, aroused 
 vigorous protest as being unduly realis- 
 tic. Among his later works are Sister 
 Teresa, Confessions of a Young Man, 
 Miss Fletcher, Impressions and Opin- 
 ions, Modern Painting, and The Celi- 
 bates. 
 
 MOORE, Sir John, a celebrated Brit- 
 ish general, was born at Glasgow in 1761, 
 killed at Corunna in 1809. Having ob- 
 tained an ensign’s commission in the 51st 
 regiment he served at Minorca in the 
 American war, as bragadier-general in 
 the West Indies (1795), in Ireland dur- 
 ing the rebellion of 1798, in Holland in 
 1799, and in Egypt in 1801, where he 
 was severely wounded in the battle 
 which cost Sir Ralph Abercrombie his 
 life. Moore was now regarded as the 
 greatest living British general, and in 
 1805 he was knighted. In 1808 he was 
 appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 British army in Portugal to operate 
 against Napoleon. He advanced to 
 Salamanca in spite of the gravest difficul- 
 ties, but was finally compelled to retreat 
 to Corunna, a distance of 200 miles, in 
 face of a superior force. This he accom- 
 plished in a masterly manner; but the 
 absence of the fleet to receive his army 
 forced him to a battle against Marshal 
 Soult, in which Moore fell, mortally 
 wounded, in the hour of victory (16th 
 January, 1809). 
 
 MOORE, Thomas, the national poet 
 of Ireland, was born in 1779 in Dublin; 
 died near Devizes in 1852. Moore in 1806 
 published his Odes and Epistles. In 1807 
 he agreed to write words for a number of 
 Irish national airs, arranged by Sir John 
 Stevenson. In these Irish Melodies, 
 which w'ere not finished till 1834, he 
 found the work for Avhich his genius was 
 peculiarly fitted, and it is on them that 
 his poetic reputation will mainly rest. 
 With The Intercepted Letters, or the 
 Twopenny Post Bag, by Thomas Brown 
 the Younger (1812), Moore entered upon 
 the field of political and social satire, in 
 which his wit and playfulness found good 
 account ; other works of this kind are the 
 Fudge Family in Paris (1818), Rhymes 
 on the Road (1823), Memoirs of Captain 
 Rock (1824), etc. His most ambitious 
 work, the gorgeous Eastern romance of 
 Lalla Rookh, was published in 1817. 
 The Life of Sheridan was produced in 
 1825, and The Epicurean, a prose ro- 
 mance in 1827. Next came the Life of 
 
MOORISH ARCHITECTURE 
 
 MORAVIA 
 
 Lord Byron, and the Life of Lord Ed- 
 ward Fitzgerald. 
 
 MOORISH ARCHITECTURE, is that 
 form of Saracenic architecture which 
 was developed by the Moslem conquerors 
 of Spain in building their mosques and 
 palaces. Its main characteristics are — 
 the horse-shoe arch, varied by the trefoil, 
 cinquefoil, and other forms of arch; 
 profuse decoration of interiors by elabo- 
 rately designed arabesques in low relief, 
 enriched by colors and gilding, as well 
 as by geometrical designs worked in 
 
 Thomas Moore. 
 
 mosaics of glazed tiles; the slenderness 
 of the columns in proportion to the sup- 
 ported weight; and the curious stalac- 
 titic pendentives by which the transition 
 is effected from the rectangular ground 
 plan to the arched or domed roof. An 
 important specimen of this style is the 
 mosque of Cordova, now the cathedral, 
 which was begun by Caliph Abd-el- 
 Rahman (786 A.n.), completed by his 
 son, and subsequently much altered. 
 
 It consisted originally of eleven aisles, 
 and the eight aisles which were after- 
 ward added (976-1001) made it one of 
 the largest buildings in Europe, but the 
 effect of its great extent, 420 feet by 375, 
 is marred by its height, which is only 
 about 30 feet to the roof. Another not- 
 able specimen of Moorish architecture is 
 the Giralda or cathedral-tower of Seville. 
 It is supposed to have been built by Ab\i 
 
 Yusdf Kakdb (1171 a.d.) as a tower of 
 victory, and was used by the Moslems as 
 a minaret or mueddin-tower. The base 
 is a square of about 50 feet, from which 
 the tower rises straight for 185 feet, and 
 is now crowned by a belfry added in the 
 16th century. The lower part of this 
 tower is nearly plain, but from about 
 
 Moorish decoration— court of the Alhambra. 
 
 one-third of its height upward it is en- 
 riehed by sunk panels filled with orna- 
 mentation in relief, which give lightness 
 and grace to the structure without affect- 
 ing its general massiveness. The most 
 eharacteristic Moorish palace in exis- 
 tence is the Alhambra in Granada, an 
 immense structure of simple and rather 
 forbidding exterior, but within gorgeous 
 almost beyond deseription. (See Al- 
 hambra.) In this palace are found to 
 perfection the distinctive characteristics 
 of Moorish architecture. 
 
 MOORS, a Mohammedan, Arabie- 
 speaking race of mixed descent, forming 
 part of the population of Barbary and 
 deriving their name from the Mauri, 
 the ancient inhabitants of Mauretania, 
 whose pure lineal descendants are, how- 
 ever, the Amazirgh, a branch of the 
 Berbers. The modern Moors have sprung 
 from a union of the ancient inhabitants 
 of this region with their Arab con- 
 querors, who appeared in the 7th cen- 
 tury. As the Mohammedan conquerors 
 of the Visigoths in Spain (711-713) came 
 from North Africa, the name Moor was 
 also applied to them by Spanish chroni- 
 clers, and in that connection is synony- 
 mous with Arab and Saracen. These 
 Moors pushed northward into France, 
 until their repulse by Charles Martel at 
 the great battle of Tours in 732, after 
 which they practically restricted them- 
 selves to Spain south of the Ebro and the 
 Sierra Guadarrama. Here, for centuries, 
 art, science, literature, and chivalry 
 flourished among them, while the rest 
 of Europe was still sunk in the gloom of 
 the dark ages. Their internal dissensions 
 and divisions, however, weakened them 
 in face of the new Christian kingdoms 
 
 of Aragon and Castile, and before the 
 close of the 13th century their posses- 
 sions were limited to the kingdom of 
 Granada. This, too, was finally subdued 
 by Ferdinand the Catholic in 1492; and 
 while great numbers of the Moors emi- 
 grated to Africa, the remainder, under 
 the name of Moriscos, assuming in great 
 part a semblance of Christianity, sub- 
 mitted to the Spaniards. The cruel 
 proselytizing zeal of Philip II., however, 
 excited a sanguinary insurrection among 
 the Moors in 1568-70, which was fol- 
 lowed by the banishing of many thou- 
 sands, while Philip III. completed the 
 work in 1610 by finally expelling the last 
 of these, the most ingenious and indus- 
 trious of his subjects. Between 1492 and 
 1610 about 3,000,000 Moriscos are esti- 
 mated to have left Spain. The expulsion 
 of the Moors was one of the chief causes 
 of the decadence of Spain; for both 
 agriculture and industries fell into decay 
 after their departure. The expelled 
 Moors, settling in the north of Africa, 
 founded cities from which to harass the 
 Spanish coasts, and finally developed 
 into the piratical states of Barbary, 
 whose depredations were a source of 
 irritation to the civilized Christian 
 powers even till well into the 19th cen- 
 tury. 
 
 MOOSE. See Elk. 
 
 MORADABAD, a town of India in 
 Rohilkhand, in the United Provinces, 75 
 miles east of Meerut, on the Ramganga. 
 Pop. 75,176. — The district has an area 
 of 2281 sq. miles. Pop. 1,179,398. 
 
 MORAINE. See Glaciers. 
 
 MORAL PHILOSOPHY. See Ethics. 
 
 MORAN, Thomas, American etcher 
 and landscape painter, was born at 
 Bolton, Lancashire, in 1837, and came 
 to Philadelphia with his parents. He 
 then studied oil painting in Paris and 
 Italy. He returned to the United States 
 in 1871 and produced the picture of the 
 “Grand Canon of the Yellowstone,” 
 now filling a panel in the Capitol at 
 Washington. In 1873 he completed a 
 picture of “The Chasm of the Colorado,” 
 which was purchased by congress as a 
 companion of the Yellowstone picture. 
 He was elected a member of the National 
 Academy in 1884. Among his smaller 
 pieces are: “The Lost Arrow,” “The 
 Conemaugh in Autumn,” “The First 
 Ship,” “The Track of the Storm,” 
 “Ponce de Leon in Florida,” “New York 
 from Communipaw,” and “After a 
 Thaw.” His illustrations include de- 
 signs for Longfellow’s Hiawatha and 
 Whittier’s Mabel Martin. Both he and 
 his wife, Mary Moran, are etchers, and 
 members of the British Society of 
 Painter-Etchers. 
 
 MORAVIA, a northwestern province 
 or crownland of the Austrian empire, 
 area, 8578 sq. miles. It is inclosed by the 
 Carpathians and other mountains. The 
 minerals include iron, coal, graphite, and 
 slate. Nearly 97 per cent of the soil is 
 productive, the chief crops being rye, 
 oats, barley, potatoes, beet-root, and 
 flax. Fruit is very abundant, and large 
 quantities of wine are annually pro- 
 duced. Sheep in great numbers, and 
 cattle, are reared. Moravia is the most 
 important manufacturing province of 
 the empire, after Austria Proper and 
 Bohemia. Its woolen industries are of 
 
MORAVIAN BRETHREN 
 
 MORGAN 
 
 world-wide fame, and linen and cotton, 
 beet-root sugar, iron and steel goods, 
 machinery, beer, and spirits. Pop. 2,276- 
 870. 
 
 MORAVIAN BRETHREN, also called 
 United Brethren, a Protestant sect or 
 church which originally sprang up in 
 Bohemia after the death of John Huss. 
 After the sanguinary religious war 
 which prevailed in Bohemia until 1627 
 they were everywhere almost annihi- 
 lated. Their doctrines were still, how- 
 ever, secretly cherished in Moravia, and 
 in 1722 a colony emigrated thence, and 
 were invited by the Lutheran Count 
 Zinzendorf to settle on his estate near 
 Berthelsdorf, in Saxony, where they 
 built the town of Herrnhut, still the 
 headquarters of the church. The doc- 
 trines of the brethren had hitherto been 
 more in harmony with the Calvinistic 
 than with the Lutheran form of Protest- 
 antism, but under the influence of 
 Count Zinzendorf, who himself became 
 a bishop, they attached themselves to 
 the Lutheran Church. 
 
 MORAY, or MURRAY, James Stuart, 
 Earl of, half-brother of Mary Queen of 
 Scots, natural son of James V. of Scot- 
 land and Margaret Erskine, born about 
 1533. On the deposition of Mary he was 
 appointed regent, defeated her forces 
 at Langside on her escape from Loch- 
 leven (1568), and appeared as evidence 
 against her at her trial in England. In 
 1570 he was shot in the streets of Lin- 
 lithgow. 
 
 MORBIHAN, (mor-bi-an) a north- 
 western department of France, on the 
 Bay of Biscay; area, 2624 sq. miles. 
 The chief town is Vannes. Pop. 563,468. 
 
 MORE, Sir Thomas, a chancellor of 
 England; born in London in 1480, be- 
 headed 1535. About 1502 he became a 
 member of parliament, and immediately 
 made for himself a place in history by 
 upholding the privileges of the House of 
 Commons to treat all questions of supply 
 as their own exclusive business. On the 
 accession of Henry VIII. he was made 
 under-sheriff of London. In 1514 he was 
 envoy to the Low Countries, soon after 
 was made a privy-councillor, and in 
 1521 was knighted. In 1532 he became 
 speaker of the House of Commons, and 
 in 1529 succeeded Wolsey in the chan- 
 cellorship. He was requested to take the 
 oath to maintain the lawfulness of the 
 marriage with Anne Boleyn. His re- 
 fusal to do so led to his committal to 
 the Tower, trial for misprision of treason, 
 and execution. 
 
 MOREAU (mo-ro), Jean Victor, 
 French general, born at Morlaix, in 
 Bretame, in 1763, died 1813. He was 
 named commander-in-chief of the army 
 of the Rhine and Moselle in 1796. His 
 conduct of the operations, and especially 
 of the retreat to the French frontier in 
 the face of a superior army, showed ex- 
 ceptional strategic power. In 1799 he 
 was in command of the army of Italy, 
 and next year had the command of the 
 armies of the Danube and the Rhine. 
 Being found guilty of participation in 
 the conspiracy of Pichegru and Cad- 
 oudal against Napoleon (1804), he had 
 to go into exile. He was subsequently 
 induced to aid in the direction of the 
 allied armies against his own country, 
 but was mortally wounded in the battle 
 
 before Dresden in 1813, and died a few 
 days later. 
 
 MORE'LOS, an inland state of Mexico, 
 south of Mexico, containing the volcano 
 of Popocatepetl; area, 1776, sq. miles; 
 Pop. 141,565. 
 
 MO'REY, Samuel, American inventor, 
 was born in Hebron, Conn., in 1762. In 
 1'793 he succeeded in constructing a 
 small steamboat, which was moved by a 
 wheel at its prow. In 1795 Morey 
 patented a crank-motion steam-engine 
 for use in boats. Two years afterward he 
 built a boat with paddle wheels on each 
 side, and operated it successfully on the 
 Delaware. He had the problem of steam 
 navigation practically solved; but mis- 
 fortunes prevented him from following 
 up his success, and to Robert Fulton 
 went the honor that might otherwise 
 have been Morey’s. He died in 1843. 
 
 MORGAN, Edwin Dennison, an Ameri- 
 can politician, governor of New York 
 from 1859 to 1863. He was born at 
 Washington, Berkshire co.. Mass., in 
 1811. From 1849 to 1853 he was a mem- 
 ber of the state senate. He was a delegate 
 to the first national convention of the 
 republican party at Philadelphia, and 
 was one of the vice-presidents of that 
 assembly. In 1858 he was elected gov- 
 ernor of New York, and was re-elected 
 in 1860. In the latter term it fell to him 
 to supervise and control the sending of 
 New York’s quota of troops to the 
 front in defense of the Union, and when 
 he left office in 1863 more than 223,000 
 volunteers had been enlisted in the 
 Federal service. In 1861, in order that he 
 might better carry out the adminis- 
 tration’s desires. New York state was 
 made a military district, and he was 
 placed in command with rank of major- 
 general. He died in 1883. 
 
 MORGAN, John Hunt, American sol- 
 dier, prominent on the confederate side 
 in the civil was, was born at Huntsville, 
 Ala., in 1825, moved with his parents 
 to Kentucky in 1830. In 1861 with 
 about two hundred men and the guns 
 of the militia company of which he was 
 captain, he escaped to the confederate 
 lines. His great success in daring and 
 unexpected raids gave him the com- 
 mand of a cavalry brigade, and after 
 promotion to brigadier-general made 
 the “Christmas Raid” into Kentucky, 
 for which he was thanked by the con- 
 federate congress. In June, 1863, with 
 about 2500 men he crossed the Ohio 
 river into Indiana and was closely pur- 
 sued by Generals Hobson and Shakel- 
 ford, and opposed everywhere by the 
 militia. A sudden rise in the Ohio river 
 prevented him from recrossing the 
 river and he was captured and con- 
 fined in the Ohio state prison at Colum- 
 bus. On November 27th he escaped and 
 reached the confederate lines in safety. 
 On September 4, 1864, in Greenville, 
 Tenn., he was betrayed by an inmate 
 of the house in which he was sleeping, 
 and was shot while attempting to es- 
 cape. 
 
 MORGAN, John Pierpont, American 
 banker and financier, was born at Hart- 
 ford, Conn., in 1837. In 1857 he entered 
 the banking house of Duncan, Sherman 
 & Co., in New York City. In 1860 he 
 became agent for George Peabody & 
 Co., of London, and in 1864 became a 
 
 partner in the firm of Dabney, Morgan 
 & Co., In 1871 he entered as a partner 
 the banking firm of Drexel, Morgan & 
 Co., which later was changed to the 
 firm of J. P. Morgan & Co. The United 
 States Steel Corporation, the Northern 
 Securities Company, and the Atlantic 
 shipping combination are examples of 
 his genius in reorganization and com- 
 bination. 
 
 MORGAN, John Tyler, American 
 politician, born at Athens, Tenn., in 
 1824. He removed to Alabama with his 
 parents in 1833. In 1861 he was a dele- 
 gate from Dallas co., to the Alabama 
 state convention which passed the 
 ordinance of secession, and he enlisted 
 as a private in the Fifth Alabama In- 
 fantry, of which he ultimately became 
 lieutenant-colonel. In 1862 he recruited 
 the Fifty-first Alabama regiment and 
 became its colonel. After the war he 
 again entered politics as an elector-at- 
 large on the Tilden ticket. In 1877 he 
 was elected to the United States senate, 
 of which body he remained a member, 
 receiving his fifth re-election in Novem- 
 ber, 1900. He died in 1907. 
 
 MORGAN, Lewis Henry, American 
 ethnologist, was born near Aurora, N. 
 Y., in 1818. Morgan, after leaving col- 
 lege, organized “The Grand Order of the 
 Iroquois.” The limits of the grand 
 order were to be the territory anciently 
 occupied by the Iroquois. Morgan lived 
 among the existing tribes, in order to 
 master their social organizations and 
 forms of government, and his scientific 
 interests assumed substantial form in 
 the celebrated work. The League of the 
 Iroquois, in which the author traced the 
 social organization, government, daily 
 occupations, and customs of this won- 
 derful league. 
 
 In 1858 Morgan discovered, in visit- 
 ing a camp of Ojibwa, that their system 
 of kinship was essentially the same as 
 among the Iroquois. This was the revela- 
 tion that determined Morgan’s enduring 
 fame. His System of Consanguinity and 
 Affinity of the Human Family is a work 
 essential to all studies on primitive 
 sociology. His Ancient Society is a com- 
 prehensive and philosophical work. He 
 died in 1881. 
 
 MORGAN, Sir Henry, the most fam- 
 ous of English buccaneers, was born at 
 Llanrhynny, Glamorganshire, Wales, in 
 1635. He was kidnaped at Bristol when 
 a boy, and sold as a servant in Barba- 
 does, whence after a time he worked his 
 way to Jamaica. There he joined the 
 buccaneers, and by 1663 was in com- 
 mand of a privateer of his own. He 
 took and sacked Puerto Principe, and 
 then sailed to Puerto Bello, Panama, 
 which he captured after a brilliant 
 attack. After levying a heavy ransom 
 Morgan sailed for Jamaica. Later in the 
 year he led an expedition which ravaged 
 the entire Cuban coast, and in January, 
 1669, with a fleet of eight ships, he 
 started on his famous expedition against 
 Maracaibo. The capture and sack of the 
 town was followed by the greatest ex- 
 cesses on the part of the buccanners, who 
 were surprised in their orgies by the 
 arrival of three Spanish ships of war. 
 Morgan assembled his half-drunken 
 comrades, manned his ships, and after 
 parleying with the Spanish commander 
 
MORGAN 
 
 MOROCCO 
 
 suddenly attacked him, totally defeated 
 him, and escaped. In August, 1670, he 
 ravaged the Cuban and mainland coasts, 
 and in January, 1671, he captured and 
 plundered the city of Panama, one of 
 the richest in Spanish America. The 
 attack had been made after a peace had 
 been arranged between England and 
 Spain, and Morgan was sent to England, 
 but he took enough gold along with him 
 to secure his vindication, eventually 
 receiving knighthood and high favors 
 from the king; was sent back to Jamaica 
 as lieutenant-commander and com- 
 mander-in-chief of his majesty’s forces 
 in the colony. He died in 1688. 
 
 MORGAN, William, American Mason, 
 whose disappearance under peculiar cir- 
 cumstances in 1826 caused the organiza- 
 tion of the Anti-Masonic party, was born 
 in Culpeper co., Va., in 1775. He sud- 
 denly disappeared in 1826, shortly after 
 it had been announced that he intended, 
 in conjunction with one David C. Miller, 
 to publish a book exposing the secrets 
 of Freemasonry. Morgan’s book. Illus- 
 trations of Freemasonry, by One of the 
 Fraternity Who Has Devoted Thirty 
 Years to the Subject, was published in 
 1826 and was republished at various 
 times thereafter, sometimes under the 
 title of Free-masonry Exposed and Ex- 
 plained. 
 
 MORGANATTC MARRIAGE, in some 
 European counrties, one in which it is 
 stipulated that the wife (who is inferior 
 in birth to the husband) and her children 
 shall not enjoy the privileges of his rank 
 nor inherit his possessions. The common 
 law of Germany permits such marriages 
 only to the high nobility. 
 
 MORGUE (morg), a place where the 
 bodies of unknown persons who have 
 perished by accident, murder, or suicide 
 are exposed, that they may be recog- 
 nized by their friends. 
 
 MOR'ION, a helmet of iron, steel, or 
 brass, somewhat like a hat in shape, 
 often with a crest or comb over the top. 
 
 Morion of the time of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 and without beaver or visor, introduced 
 into Britain from France or Spain about 
 the beginning of the 16th century. 
 
 MORISCO. See Moors. 
 
 MORLEY, Right Hon. John, author 
 and politician, born at Blackburn, Lan- 
 cashire, 1838. He conducted the Fort- 
 nightly Review from 1867 to 1882, and 
 edited the Pall Mall Gazette for three 
 years (1880-83), and Macmillan’s Maga- 
 zine for two years (1883-85). He also 
 edited the English Men of Letters series, 
 to which he contributed the volume on 
 Burke. He is author of Critical Miscel- 
 lanies; Voltaire; Rousseau; Diderot and 
 the Encyclopedists; Life of Cobden; 
 Walpole in the English Statesmen series; 
 Life of Gladstone (1903); etc. He repre- 
 sented Newcastle from 1883 to 1895; 
 and in 1896 became member for the 
 Montrose burghs. Radical in politics, he 
 is a supporter of Irish Home Rule, and 
 
 was chief secretary for Ireland in 1886, 
 and again in 1892-95. 
 
 MORMONS, a sect founded in 1830 by 
 Joseph Smith, a native of the United 
 States. The distinguishing peculiarities 
 of the sect are — the belief in a continual 
 divine revelation through the inspired 
 medium of the prophet at the head of 
 their church, the practice of polygamy, 
 and a complete hierarchical organiza- 
 tion. The supreme power, spiritual and 
 temporal, rests with the president or 
 prophet (elected by the whole body of 
 the church), who alone works miracles 
 and receives revelations. The Mormons 
 accept both the Bible and the Book of 
 Mormon as divine revelations, but hold 
 them equally subject to the explanation 
 and correction of the prophet. The 
 latter mentioned book (in large part a 
 kind of historical romance written by 
 one Solomon Spaulding in 1812) pre- 
 tends to be a history of America from 
 the first settlement of the continent after 
 the destruction of the tower of Babel 
 up to the end of the 4th century of our 
 era, at which time flourished the legend- 
 ary prophet Mormon, its reputed author. 
 It was said to have been written on gold 
 plates, and concealed until its hiding- 
 place was revealed to Smith by an angel. 
 The name given to it was evidently 
 owing to the important part which 
 Spaulding had assigned to Mormon and 
 his son Moroni in his novel; but Smith 
 and his coadjutors, instead of confining 
 themselves to the original manuscript, 
 had clumsily engrafted upon it a number 
 of maxims, prophecies, etc., evidently 
 garbled from the sacred volume, and in- 
 terpolated in such a manner as to involve 
 anachronisms and contradictions. The 
 doctrine of the Mormons is a mixture 
 of materialism and millenarianism, and 
 their most distinctive feature, poly- 
 gamy, which, though originally con- 
 demned in the Book of Mormon, was 
 introduced under a theory of “spiritual 
 wives,” and a mysterious system of 
 unrestricted marriage called “sealing.” 
 The Mormons first appeared at Man- 
 chester, New York, whence they were, 
 compelled by the persevering hostility 
 of their neighbors to flee, first to Kirt- 
 land in Ohio (1831), then to Nauvoo, 
 the “City of Beauty,” in Illinois (1838), 
 and finally to the Salt Lake in Utah 
 (1848). In 1844 the founder, Joseph 
 Smith, was shot by a mob in Carthage 
 prison, where his lawless behavior had 
 brought him. The- advance made by 
 Mormonism seems to have been due far 
 more to the abilities of Brigham Young, 
 the successor of Smith, than to the 
 founder himself, who was little better 
 than a dissipated and immoral scamp. 
 Under Young’s direction large tracts of 
 land at Salt Lake were brought under 
 cultivation, an emigration fund was 
 established, and a skilful system of 
 propagandism set on foot, by which large 
 numbers of converts were brought from 
 Europe, especially from Great Britain. 
 A state was organized under the name 
 of Deseret. Congress refused to recog- 
 nize it, but erected Utah into a territory, 
 and Brigham Y'oung was appointed 
 governor of it. He V’as soon removed by 
 the United States authorities, but after 
 a time the Mormons were left pretty 
 much to themselves. In 1870 congress 
 
 passed a bill to compel them to renounce 
 polygamy, or quit the United States. 
 A prosecution was instituted against 
 Brigham Young, who was sentenced to 
 fine and imprisonment. In 1877 Young 
 died and was succeeded by John Taylor, 
 an Englishman, who fn turn was suc- 
 ceeded as president by Wilford Wood- 
 ruff in 1887. In 1890 he proclaimed that 
 polygamy is no longer taught as a doc- 
 trine of Mormonism'. 
 
 MORNING-GLORY, a name given to 
 several climbing plants of the convol- 
 vulus family, having handsome purple or 
 white, sometimes pink or pale blue, 
 funnel-shaped flowers. 
 
 MORNING-STAR, the planet Venus 
 when it rises before the sun. 
 
 MOROCCO, or MAROCCO, an empire 
 or sultanate occupying the northwest 
 extremity of Africa, bounded by the At- 
 lantic ocean, the Mediterranean, Algeria 
 and the desert ; area, about 300,000 sq. 
 miles. Its most remarkable natural fea- 
 ture is Mount Atlas, the great chain or 
 series of chains extending through it 
 from northeast to southwest, and reach- 
 ing a height of 12,000 to 15,000 feet. The 
 minerals include gold, silver, copper, 
 iron, and lead in larger or smaller quan- 
 tities. The flora includes the esculent 
 oak and cork oak; in the higher re- 
 gions of the Atlas the cedar and Aleppo 
 pine; the date-palm and the dwarf -palm 
 east and south of the Atlas. Agriculture 
 is in the lowest possible condition, and 
 the annual production is calculated 
 barely to supply the wants of the count- 
 try. The cereal crops include wheat, 
 barley, and maize; but dhurra or millet 
 constitutes the chief support of the popu- 
 lation. The vine is cultivated only near 
 towns for the sake of the fresh grapes 
 and for the raisins. All the fruits of the 
 south of Europe are cultivated to some 
 extent. Among the wild animals are the 
 lion, panther, jackal, hyena, wild boar, 
 gazelle, and several species of large ante- 
 lope. The locust is a cause of much dev- 
 astation. The ostrich is found on the 
 southern frontiers. Cattle and sheep are 
 reared and the spirited small horses for 
 which the country was once famous are 
 still numerous. There are large numbers 
 of goats, which furnish a principal article 
 of export — the well-known Morocco 
 leather. Fez makes and exports the cloth 
 caps which bear its name. Carpets, em- 
 broidered stuffs, pottery, arms are also 
 made. The civilization of Morocco has 
 sunk to a low condition. The education 
 at the schools and at the University of 
 Fez does not go beyond the theology of 
 the Koran. The public libraries, once 
 famous, are now dispersed. Morality is 
 represented as being in a deplorable 
 state. The sovereign or sultan, styled by 
 Europeans emperor, is absolute in the 
 strictest sense. Morocco in ancient times 
 formed part of Mauritania, and about 
 43 .\.D. was incorporated in the Roman 
 Empire. In the latter part of the 7th 
 century the Arabs spread over North 
 Africa, and took possession of Mauri- 
 tania. Among ruling dynasties since 
 then have been the Almoravides, Almo- 
 hades, and others. The present dynasty, 
 the ninth, was founded in 1648. In 1814 
 the slavery of Christians was abolished, 
 and piracy was prohibited in 1817. The 
 conquest of Algeria brought about com- 
 
MOROCCO 
 
 MORRISON 
 
 plications with France, and the plunder- 
 ing of vessels by pirates has often caused 
 troubles with European powers. In 1859 
 a war broke out with Spain, owing to 
 attacks made by some of the wild tribes 
 upon the Spanish territory, and resulted 
 in a cession of land and an indemnity of 
 $20,000,000 to Spain. The population is 
 estimated at from 6,000,000 to 6,500,000. 
 
 MOROCCO, the capital (conjunctly 
 with Fez) of Morocco, lies in the south- 
 west of the country, on an extensive and 
 fertile plain, 1500 feet above sea-level. 
 Pop. estimated at 40,000 to 50,000. 
 
 MOROCCO, a fine kind of leather made 
 from the skins of goats, imported from 
 the Levant, Barbary, Spain, Belgium, 
 etc., tanned with sumach, dyed, and 
 grained, the last process being that which 
 gives it its well-known wrinkled ap- 
 pearance. It is extensively used in the 
 binding of books, upholstering furniture, 
 making ladies’ shoes, etc. Imitation 
 moroccos are made from sheep-skins, so 
 perfect in appearance that it is difficult 
 to distinguish them, but they are entire- 
 ly lacking in the durability of the real 
 article. 
 
 MOR'PHIA, MORPHINE, the nar- 
 cotic principleof opium, a vegetable alka- 
 loid of a bitter taste, first separated from 
 opium in 1816. It forms when crystal- 
 lized from alcohol brilliant colorless 
 prisms of adamantine luster. As it is 
 very slightly soluble in water, it is never 
 used alone medicinally, but it readily 
 combines with acids forming salts ex- 
 tensively used in medicine. In small 
 closes it is powerfully anodyne ; in large 
 does it causes death, with narcotic symp- 
 toms. It is very commonly administered 
 medicinally by subcutaneous or hypo- 
 dermic injection, and the practice of in- 
 jecting morphia has become a not infre- 
 quent vice, leading to a diseased mental 
 state known as raorphinomania. 
 
 MORPHOLOGY, a branch both of zo- 
 ology and botany which deals with the 
 structure and form of animals and plants 
 respectively, and their different organs, 
 from those of the lowest to those of the 
 highest type. In morphology questions 
 of homology and analogy are of the 
 greatest importance, and morphology 
 may be said to lie at the foundation of 
 all true systems of classification and ar- 
 rangement. 
 
 MOR'RILL, Justin Smith, American 
 legislator and political leader, was born 
 in Strafford, Vt., in 1810. He was elected 
 to congress in 1854, was five times re- 
 elected, was transferred to the senate in 
 1867, and retained his seat continuously 
 until his death, having at that time 
 served for a longer consecutive period 
 than any other man. In 1857 he intro- 
 duced a bill for the establishment, 
 through the aid of public land grants, 
 of state colleges for the purpose of 
 teaching agriculture and the mechanic 
 arts. This bill was vetoed by Presi- 
 dent Buchanan. In 1861 it was again 
 introduced by Morrill, and this time 
 became a law through the signature 
 of President Lincoln. Morrill framed 
 and introduced in the House the famous 
 Morrill Tariff Act of 1861, which, with 
 the enactments of 1862 and 1864, 
 in the passage of which he also took a 
 prominent part, modified the tariff sys- 
 tem of the United States. He died in 1898. 
 
 MORRILL, Lot Myrick, American 
 legislator and cabinet officer, was born at 
 Belgrade, Maine, in 1813. In 1853 and 
 1854 he was elected to the lower house of 
 the state legislature, and in 1856 was 
 elected to the state senate. He was 
 elected governor in 1857, and was re- 
 elected in 1858 and 1859. In 1861 he 
 was chosen United States senator and 
 re-elected in 1863 and 1869. In 1876 he 
 resigned to enter the cabinet of President 
 Grant as secretary of the treasury. This 
 portfolio he held until after the inaugu- 
 ration of President Hayes, when he be- 
 came collector of customs at Portland, 
 Maine. He died in 1883. 
 
 MORRIS, Clara, American actress 
 and author, was born in Toronto, Can., 
 in 1849. She was reared in Cleveland, 
 Ohio, where at the Academy of Music 
 she became a member of the ballet and 
 leading actress. In 1872 she made a 
 sensation in L’ Article 47. Among her 
 great successes are Alixe, Camille and 
 Miss Multon. Her best known works are 
 Little Jim Crow and other stories for 
 children, My Personal Experiences and 
 Recollections, and A Pasteboard Crown. 
 
 MORRIS, George Pope, American 
 journalist and poet, was born in Phila- 
 delphia in 1802. His drama Briarcliff 
 (1825) was a popular success. He is best 
 known by his poems: Woodman, Spare 
 That Tree, My Mother’s Bible, We Were 
 Boys Together, and A Long Time Ago. 
 He died in 1864. 
 
 MORRIS, Gouverneur, American 
 statesman, was born at Morrisania, N. Y., 
 in 1752. He was admitted to the bar in 
 1771. In 1775 he was chosen to repre- 
 sent Westchester county in the first 
 Provincial Congress of New York. He 
 served in two succeeding congresses in 
 the same and the following year. In 
 1777, as assistant superintendent of 
 finance, a position he held from 1781 to 
 1785, he drew up a scheme for a system 
 of coinage that ultimately became the 
 basis of our present system. He repre- 
 sented Pennsylvania in the constitu- 
 tional convention of 1787 at Philadelphia. 
 In 1790 he went to London as private 
 agent to the British government to con- 
 duct negotiations regarding the unfilled 
 stipulations of the treaty of 1783. In 
 1792 he was appointed minister to 
 France. In 1800 he was elected from 
 New York to the United States senate. 
 He died in 1816. 
 
 MORRIS, Lewis, English poet, born 
 near Caermarthen, Wales, 1834. His 
 poems have been widely popular, many 
 of them running through numerous 
 editions; , they include Songs of Two 
 Worlds, Epic of Hades, Gwen, Ode of 
 Life, Songs Unsung, Gycia, Songs of 
 Britain, etc. His Jubilee Ode was recog- 
 nized by a silver medal from her Majesty. 
 He was knighted in 1895. 
 
 MORRIS, Robert, American financier 
 and one of the signers of the Declaration 
 of Independence, was born at Liverpool, 
 England, in 1734. At the age of fourteen 
 he was sent to America and by the out- 
 break of the revolutionary war had ac- 
 quired a large fortune. In June, 1775, he 
 became a member of the Pennsylvania 
 committee of safety; in October of the 
 same year he was elected to a seat in 
 legislature of Pennsylvania (to which he 
 was re-elected in 1776), and in November 
 
 he was appointed by that body a dele- 
 gate to the Continental congress. At 
 the explication of his term in congress, 
 in 1778, he was elected again to the 
 state legislature. In October, 1780, he 
 was returned to the legislature for the 
 fourth time. 
 
 The fortunes of the colonial army at 
 this time had reached their lowest ebb; 
 Charleston had fallen ; Gates was de- 
 feated; ammunition and supplies were 
 wanted, the continental currency was 
 worth little more than waste paper, to- 
 gether with Arnold’s treachery, made 
 
 the situation one of despair. Congress in 
 this situation decided to supersede the 
 old treasury board by a superintendent 
 of finance. Morris was chosen to the 
 position February 20, 1781. The means 
 which enabled Washington and Greene 
 to carry out the campaign of 1781 were 
 raised by his exertions. In 1781, with the 
 approval of congress, he founded the 
 Bank of North i^erica. He continued 
 to hold the office of superintendent of 
 finance until November, 1784, when he 
 resigned. In 1786 he was again elected 
 to the legislature, and in 1787 became a 
 member of the constitutional convention 
 at Philadelphia. He nominated Washing- 
 ton for the presidency of the convention. 
 Upon the organization of the new 
 government President Washington of- 
 fered him the position of secretary of the 
 treasury. He declined the offer. He, 
 however, accepted a seat in the United 
 States senate where he served until 1795. 
 He died in 1806. 
 
 - MORRIS, William, English poet, born 
 in 1834. His poems include The Life and 
 Death of Jason, 1867 ; The Earthly Para- 
 dise, 1868-70; Love is Enough, 1873; 
 Sigurd the Volsung, 1877, etc. He trans- 
 lated various Scandinavian works, also 
 Virgil’s .iEneid and Homer’s Odyssey 
 into English verse, and published roman- 
 tic tales, lectures on art, etc. He was a 
 leader of the socialistic movement in 
 Britain. He died in 1896. 
 
 MORRIS-DANCE, a dance supposed 
 to have been derived from the Moriscos 
 in Spain, formerly danced at puppet- 
 shows, May-games, etc., in England. 
 Bells were fastened to the feet of the per- 
 formers, which jingled in time with the 
 music, while the dancers clashed their 
 staves or swords. In the reigns of Henry 
 VII, and VIII. it was a principal feature 
 in the popular festivals. 
 
 MORRISON, William Ralls, American 
 politician was born in Monroe co., 
 Illinois, in 1825. He took part in most of 
 
MORRISTOWN 
 
 MORTON 
 
 the battles in Taylor’s campaign in the 
 Mexican war. From 1855 to 1859 he was 
 a democratic member of the lower house 
 of the Illinois legislature, serving as 
 speaker in the last year. At the outbreak 
 of the civil war he became colonel of the 
 forty-ninth Illinois infantry. In 1863, 
 he resigned to take his seat as a demo- 
 crat in the thirty-eighth congress. From 
 1863-65 and from 1873-87 he was a 
 member of the National House of Repre- 
 sentatives. During his congressional 
 career he attained wide distinction as an 
 advocate of a radical reduction in the 
 tariff. The bill of 1884, embodying the 
 famous “horizontal” tariff scheme, pro- 
 posed a straight (or horizontal) reduc 
 tion of 20 per cent from the tariff of 1883. 
 In 1885 Morrison was defeated for elec- 
 tion to'the United States senate by John 
 A. Logan. He was appointed by Presi- 
 dent Cleveland a member of the Inter- 
 state Commerce Commission in 1887, 
 and served until 1897, for the last six 
 years as chairman. 
 
 MORRISTOWN, the capital of Morris 
 CO., N. J., on the Del. Lack, and West. 
 Railroad; 30 miles W. of NewYork City. 
 The city is in the great Morris county 
 peach and rose belt, has an elevation of 
 nearly 700 feet above sea-level. At 
 Morris Plains, 4 miles from the city, is 
 the New Jersey state lunatic asylum, the 
 largest institution of its kind in the 
 United States. Pop. 13,247. 
 
 MORSE, Samuel Finley Breese, in- 
 ventor of the electro-magnet telegraph 
 in its first practicable form ; born at 
 Charlestown, Mass., 1791; died at New 
 York, 1872. He devotedspecial attention 
 to chemistry and natural philosophy; 
 but in 1811 went to England to study 
 painting under West. In 1813 he was 
 awarded a gold medal of the Royal 
 
 Samuel Morse. 
 
 Academy for his model of the Dying 
 Hercules. Returning to the United 
 States in 1815, he continued painting, 
 and in 1826 succeeded in establishing the 
 “National Academy of Design,” of 
 which he was first president. In 1839 he 
 went to Europe for three years, and dur- 
 ing the return voyage worked out roughly 
 a plan for employing electro-magnetism 
 in telegraphy. It was not until 1835, 
 however, that he was able to exhibit an 
 instrument that was found to work well. 
 By July, 1837, this instrument was per- 
 fected, and ultimately in 1843 congress 
 granted him means to construct an ex- 
 perimental line between Washington and 
 Baltimore. From that time Morse’s 
 instrument came into general use in 
 
 America and Europe. In 1857 the repre- 
 sentatives of ten countries met at Paris, 
 and voted him 400,000 francs. 
 
 MORSE’S TELEGRAPH. See Tele- 
 graph. 
 
 MORTALITY, Law of, the statement 
 of the average proportion of the number 
 of persons who die in any assigned period 
 of life or interval of age, out of a given 
 number who enter upon the same inter- 
 val, and consequently the proportion 
 of those who survive. Tables showing 
 how many out of a certain number of 
 infants, or persons of a given age, will 
 die successively in each year till the 
 whole become extinct, are generally 
 called tables of mortality. See Insur- 
 ance. 
 
 MORTAR, a mixture of sand with 
 slaked lime and water, used as a cement 
 for uniting stones and bricks in walls. 
 
 The proportions vary from 1^ part of 
 sand and 1 part of lime to 4 or 5 parts 
 sand and 1 of lime. When exposed to the 
 action of the air this mixture absorbs 
 caibon dioxide and “sets,” forming a 
 hard, compact mass. Hydraulic mortars 
 wh'ch harden under water, and are used 
 for piers, submerged walls, etc., are 
 formed from so-called hydraulic lime, 
 containing considerable portions of 
 silica and alumina. See also Cement. 
 
 MORTAR is a kind of short cannon, 
 of a large bore, with a chamber, used 
 especially for throwing shells. The fire 
 from mortars is what is termed vertical 
 fire, the mortar being directed at a high 
 angle and the shell striking the ground 
 nearly vertically. The principal recom- 
 mendations of vertical fire are, that the 
 shells search behind cover and produce 
 a great moral effect, also that at high 
 elevations a great range is obtained with 
 a comparatively small charge of powder. 
 
 MORT'GAGE, in law, is the temporary 
 pledging of realty in security of a debt, 
 and as the realty can not be delivered 
 into the creditor’s hand, he acquires a 
 hold over it by a deed called an indent- 
 ure, or deed of mortgage. The ordinary 
 form of a mortgage-deed resembles an 
 absolute conveyance, but it contains a 
 proviso that if the money borrowed is 
 repaid within a certain time, then the 
 mortgagee shall reconvey the realty to 
 the mortgagor or borrower. Mortgage 
 deeds must be recorded. A mortgagee 
 can assign his mortgage security to an- 
 other person, who thereupon stands in 
 his shoes. The laws of each state in the 
 Union have their own peculiarities as to 
 mortgages, so that the legal status of the 
 subject can only be obtained by con- 
 sulting the various codes. 
 
 MORTIFICATION, in medicine, is the 
 death of a part of the body while the rest 
 continues alive, and often in a sound 
 state. Mortification is a popular term, 
 the scientific term being gangrene or 
 necrosis, the former usually applied to 
 the death of soft parts, the latter to 
 the death of the bone. Mortification is 
 generally induced by inflammation, by 
 exposure to freezing cold, by hospital 
 fevers, by languid, or impeded, or 
 stopped circulation, as in cases of bed- 
 ridden or palsied persons, and by im- 
 proper food, particularly the spurred 
 rye. 
 
 MORTON, Julius Sterling, .American 
 political leader, was born in Adams, Jef- 
 
 ferson CO., N. Y., in 1832, and was taken 
 by his parents in 1834 fb Michigan. In 
 1855 he removed to Nebraska, where he 
 founded the City News, the first news- 
 paper published in the state. In 1856-7 
 he was elected to the Nebraska terri- 
 torial legislature, and in 1858 was ap- 
 pointed by President Buchanan secre- 
 tary of the territory, and became acting 
 governor a few months later. In 1893 
 he entered the cabinet of President 
 Cleveland as secretary of agriculture. 
 In 1901 he was appointed by President 
 McKinley one of the United States 
 commissioners for the Louisiana Pur- 
 chase exposition. He was a student of 
 forestry and was the originator of Arbor 
 Day in Nebraska, the observance of 
 which has extended to, many other 
 states. He died in 1902. 
 
 MORTON, Levi Parsons, American 
 banker and vice-president of the United 
 States, was born at Shoreham, Vt., in 
 1824. In 1863 he founded the 'oanking- 
 house of Levi P. Morton & Co., later 
 Morton, Bliss & Co. In 1878 Morton was 
 elected to congress. From the comple- 
 tion of his term until 1885 he was United 
 States minister to France. In 1888 he 
 was the successful candidate for vice- 
 president on the republican ticket. From 
 1894 until 1896 he was governor of New 
 York. 
 
 MORTON, Oliver Perry, American 
 political leader, best known as the “War 
 Governor” of Indiana; w'as born in 
 Salisbury, Wayne co., Ind., in 1823. - 
 He entered politics as a democrat, but 
 opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska bill 
 led him to withdraw from that party, 
 and ultimately he assisted in the forma- 
 tion of the republican party, to whose 
 first national convention he was a dele- 
 gate. In 1860 he was elected lieutenant- 
 governor, and upon the governor’s elec- 
 tion as United States senator, Morton 
 became governor, January 16, 1861. . 
 Upon the outbreak of the civil war he 
 threw himself with extraordinary energy 
 into the work of raising troops. He was 
 re-elected governor in 1864. In 1867 he 
 was elected United States senator, and 
 was re-elected in 1873. At the republican 
 national convention in 1876 he was a 
 strong candidate for the presidential j 
 nomination, and received 124 votes on | 
 the first ballot. He subsequently served / 
 on the electoral commission. He died in j 
 1877. 
 
 MORTON, William Thomas Green, ) 
 American dentist, was born at Charlton, i 
 Mass., in 1819. In 1840 he began the 
 study of dentistry at the Baltimore Col- 
 lege of Dental Surgery. In 1844 Morton 
 began with Dr. Jackson of Boston, the 
 study of medicine. The art of dentistry 
 was at that time in a transition stage, 
 and Morton discovered many improve- 
 ments, especially in attaching false teeth. 
 
 In the course of his investigations he 
 became acquainted with the value of 
 sulphuric ether as a local anajsthetic. 
 The new form of narcosis was christened ^ 
 “anaesthesia,” and Morton obtained a 
 patent for the use of ether. Jackson 
 also claimed the honor of having made I 
 the discovery, and the Montyon prize | 
 of the French Academy was equally j 
 aw.arded to Dr. Morton and to Dr. 
 Jackson, but Dr. Morton declined to 
 accept it, which resulted in his receiv- I 
 
MOSAIC 
 
 MOSES 
 
 ing In 1852 the large gold medal, the 
 Montyon prize in medicine and surgery. 
 He died in 1868. 
 
 MOSAIC, a term applied to a kind of 
 inlaid work formed by an assemblage 
 of little pieces of enamel, glass, marble, 
 precious stones, etc., of various colors, 
 cut, and disposed on a ground of cement 
 in such a manner as to form designs, and 
 to imitate the colors and gradations of 
 painting. This kind of work was used in 
 ancient times both for pavements and 
 wall decoration, while in modern times 
 paintings are by this means copied, and 
 the art is also used in pavements, jewelry, 
 etc. The most remarkable modern works 
 of this kind have been executed by 
 Roman, Venetian, and Russian artists, 
 those of the Roman school being the 
 most celebrated, and consisting in par- 
 ticular of a series of portraits of the 
 popes, and copies of notable paintings 
 by the great artists, such as Rafifaele, 
 Domenichino, Guido, etc. For the pro- 
 duction of these works rods of opaque 
 colored glass are employed, an immense 
 variety of colors and shades being used. 
 Pieces are cut from the ends of these 
 rods, according to the color required and 
 are arranged side by side, their lower 
 ends being attached by the cement while 
 their upper ends show the design. From 
 such works, when on a small scale, sec- 
 tions maybe cut across, each section ex- 
 hibiting the pattern. 
 
 MOSAIC GOLD, an alloy of copper 
 and zinc, called also ormolu; also a sul- 
 phide of tin, the aurum musivum of the 
 
 MOSAIC WOOL-WORK, rugs, etc., 
 made of variously-colored woolen 
 threads, arranged so that the ends show 
 a pattern. The threads are held firmly 
 in a frame, so as to form a dense mass, 
 with the upper ends of the threads pre- 
 senting a close surface; this surface is 
 smeared with a cement, and has a back- 
 ing of canvas attached, after which a 
 transverse section is cut the desired 
 thickness of the pile, and so on with a 
 number of similar sections. 
 
 MOSASAURUS, a gigantic extinct 
 marine lizard occurring in the calcareous 
 freestone which forms the most recent 
 
 Skull of Mosasanrus. 
 
 deposit of the' Clretaceous formation. 
 This reptile was- about 25 feet long, and 
 furnished with a tail of such construc- 
 tion as must have rendered it a powerful 
 oar. 
 
 MOSBY (moz'bl,) John Singleton, 
 American soldier, was born at Edge- 
 mont, Powhatan co., Va., in 1833. After 
 serving under Johnston in the Shenan- 
 doah Valley, in the winter of 1861-62, 
 he was appointed an independent scout, 
 and guided a bold raid in the rear of 
 McClellan’s army on the Chickahominy 
 in June, 1862. In 1863 Mosby recruited 
 an independent body of cavalry and 
 began his remarkable career as a “par- 
 
 tisan” leader of an irregular force known 
 as rangers, with which, until the close of 
 hostilities, he operated in Virginia and 
 Maryland. In August, 1864, he captured 
 Sheridan’s entire supply train, which he 
 surprised near Berryville. In December, 
 1864, he was promoted to be colonel. 
 After being disabled for a short time by 
 a wound, he continued his operations 
 until Lee’s surrender, when he disbanded 
 his troops, gave himself up, and by 
 General Grant’s intercession was paroled. 
 From 1878 to 1885 he was United States 
 consul at Hong Kong. 
 
 MOS'COW, the second capital (for- 
 merly the only capital) of the Russian 
 Empire. It is the chief town of the 
 government of the same name, and is 
 situated in a highly-cultivated district on 
 the Moskwa, 400 miles southeast of St. 
 Petersburg, with which it is in direct 
 communication by rail. It is surrounded 
 by a wall or earthern rampart 26 miles 
 
 volumes, and is the most important of 
 the Russian universities. Moscow is the 
 first manufacturing city in the empire, 
 and of late years its industrial and com- 
 mercial activity has greatly increased. 
 The principal manufactures are textile 
 fabrics, chiefly woolen, cotton, and silk, 
 besides hats, hardware, leather, chemi- 
 cal products, beer, and spirits. From its 
 central position Moscow is the great 
 entrepot for the internal commerce of 
 the empire. The foundation of the city 
 dates from 1147. It became the capital 
 of Muscovy, and afterward of the whole 
 Russian Empire; but was deprived of 
 this honor in 1703, when St. Petersburg 
 was founded. The principal event in the 
 history of Moscow is the burning of it in 
 1812 for the purpose of dislodging the 
 French from their winter quarters. 
 Pop. (1897), 1,035,664.— The govern- 
 ment forms an undulating tract of about 
 13,000 sq. miles, and the soil is mostly 
 
 Moscow— general view of the Kremlin. 
 
 in circuit and of no defensive value ; and 
 a considerable portion of the inclosed 
 space is unoccupied by buildings. The 
 quarter known as the Kreml or Krem- 
 lin, on a height about 100 feet above the 
 river, forms the center of the town, and 
 contains the principal buildings. It is 
 inclosed by a high stone wall, and con- 
 tains the old palace of the czars and 
 several other palaces; the cathedral of 
 the Assumption, founded in 1326, re- 
 built in 1472; the church of the Annun- 
 ciation, in which the emperors are re- 
 crowned; the cathedral of St. Michael; 
 the Palace of Arms, an immense build- 
 ing occupied by the senate, the treasury, 
 and the arsenal; and the Tower of Ivan 
 Veliki (209 feet), surmounted by a 
 gilded dome, and having at its foot the 
 great Czar Kolokol, or king of bells, 60 
 feet round the rim, 19 feet high, and 
 weighing upward of 192 tons, the largest 
 in the world. Outside the Kreml the 
 chief building is the cathedral of St. 
 Vassili, with no less than twenty gilded 
 and painted domes and towers, all of 
 different shapes and sizes. Among the 
 principal educational establishments are 
 the Imperial University, founded in 
 1755 by the Empress Catharine. It has 
 a rich museuqi and a library of 200,000 
 
 productive, the forests occupying about 
 39 per cent. Pop. 2,433,356, 
 
 MOSES, leader, prophet, and legisla- 
 tor of the Israelites, was born in Egypt 
 about 1600 B.C., during the time of the 
 oppression of the Hebrews. His father, 
 Amram, and mother, Jochebed, both of 
 the race of Levi, where obliged to ex- 
 pose him in obedience to a royal edict, 
 but placed him in a basket of bulrushes 
 on the river border, where he was found 
 by the daughter of the Egyptian king 
 as she went to bathe. She adopted him 
 as her son, and in all probability had 
 him educated for the duties of the priest- 
 hood, the means of instruction thus 
 afforded him being the best which his 
 time possessed. His expedition into 
 Ethiopia, in his fortieth year, as leader 
 of the Egyptians, when he subdued the 
 city of Saba (Meroe), won the affections 
 of the conquered Princess Tharbis, and 
 married her, rests only on the tradition 
 preserved by Josephus. An outrage com- 
 mitted by an Egyptian on a Hebrew 
 excited his anger, and he secretly slew 
 the Egyptian. The deed became, known, 
 and he escaped the vengeance of the 
 king only by a hasty flight into Arabia. 
 Here he took refuge with Jethro, a 
 Midianitish prince and a priest, and 
 
MOSLEM 
 
 MOTION 
 
 espoused his daughter Zipporah. The 
 promises of God that his race would be- 
 come a great nation occupied much of 
 his thoughts, and at last God appointed 
 him the chosen deliverer from the bond- 
 age of Egypt. Being slow of speech, and 
 possessing none of the arts of an orator, 
 God therefore gave him power to prove 
 his mission by miracles, and joined to 
 him his elder brother Aaron, a man of 
 little energy, but of considerable elo- 
 quence. Thus prepared, Moses returned 
 to Egypt at the age of eighty years to 
 undertake the work. At first he had the 
 greatest obstacles to overcome, but after 
 the visitation of ten destructive plagues 
 upon the land. Pharaoh suffered the 
 Hebrews to depart. Moses conveyed 
 them safely through the Red Sea, in 
 which Pharaoh, who pursued them, was 
 drowned with his army. New difficulties 
 arose, however. The distress of the peo- 
 ple in the desert, the conflicts with hos- 
 tile races, the jealousies of the elders, 
 often endangered his authority and 
 even his life, despite the miraculous 
 attestations of his mission. During the 
 term of the encampment at Sinai he 
 received the Ten Commandments and 
 the laws for the regulation of the lives of 
 the Israelites. When they were already 
 near the end of their journey toward 
 Canaan Moses saw himself compelled, 
 in consequence of new evidences of dis- 
 content, to lead them back into the 
 desert, for forty years more of toilsome 
 wandering. He was not himself per- 
 mitted, however, to see the Israelites 
 settled in their new country on account 
 of a murmur which, in the midst of his 
 distresses, he allowed to escape against 
 his God. After appointing Joshua to be 
 the leader of the Hebrews he ascended a 
 mountain beyond Jordan, from which 
 
 medan places of worship we find neither 
 altars, paintings, nor images, but a great 
 quantity of lamps of various kinds, 
 arabesques whicn form the principal 
 interior ornament, and sentences from 
 the Koran written on the walls. Every 
 mosque has its minaret or minarets. 
 The buildings are often quadrangular in 
 plan, with an open interior court, where 
 are fountains for ablutions. The floor 
 is generally covered with carpets, but 
 there are no seats. In the direction 
 toward Mecca is the mihrab, a recess in 
 the wall to direct the worshippers where 
 to turn their eyes in prayer, and near 
 this is the mimbar or pulpit. The build- 
 ings may embrace accommodation for 
 educational purposes, etc., besides the 
 temple proper. 
 
 MOSQUITO (mos-ke'to), a general 
 name for such insects of the gnat family 
 as inflict a severe bite and make them- 
 selves a pest to people residing in warm 
 climates, or during the warm season in 
 many arctic regions. 
 
 MOSQUITO TERRITORY, a region of 
 Central America, lying on the Caribbean 
 Sea, and forming the eastern seaboard 
 of Nicaragua. For a considerable period 
 it was governed by a native chief, and 
 was under British protection, but in 1860 
 it was made over to the state of Nicar- 
 agua. The capital is called Bluefields. 
 
 MOSS-AGATE. See Mocha-stone. 
 
 MOSSES, a group of cryptogamic or 
 flowerless plants of considerable extent, 
 and of great interest on account of their 
 very singular structure. They are in all 
 cases of small size, seldom reaching a foot 
 in height, but having a distinct axis 
 of vegetation, or stem covered with 
 leaves ; and are propagated by means of 
 reproductive apparatus of a peculiar 
 nature. They are formed entirely of 
 
 Court of the mosque of Tooloon, Cairo. 
 
 he surveyed the land of promise, and so 
 ended his life in his 120th year. 
 
 MOSLEM, a general appellation in 
 European languages for all who profess 
 Mohammedanism. 
 
 MOSQUE, a Mohammedan church or 
 house of prayer. These buildings are 
 constructed in the Saracenic style of 
 architecture, and often astonish by their 
 extent and the grandeur and height of 
 their cupolas or domes. In these Moham- 
 
 cellular tissue, which in the stem is 
 lengthened into tubes. Their repro- 
 ductive organs are of two kinds — axillar 
 cylindrical or fusiform bodies, contain- 
 ing minute roundish particles; and thecse 
 or capsules, supported upon a stalk or 
 seta, covered with a calyptra, closed by 
 an operculum or lid, within which is a 
 peristome composed of slender proc- 
 esses named teeth, and having a central 
 axis or columella, the space between 
 
 which and the walls of the theca is filled 
 with minute sporules. Mosses ar ’'>und 
 in cool, airy, and moist situp'-ons in 
 woods, upon the trunks of trees, on old 
 walls, on the roofs of houses, etc. The 
 genera of mosses, which are numerous, 
 are principally characterized by pecu- 
 liarities in the peristome, or by modifi- 
 cations of the calyptra, and of the posi- 
 tion of the urn, or hollow in which the 
 spores are lodged. 
 
 MOTH, the popular name of a numer- 
 ous and beautiful division of lepidopter- 
 
 Caterpillar, chrysalis, and butterfly, male and 
 female, of the gypsy moth. 
 
 ous insects, readily distinguished from 
 butterflies by their antennae tapering to 
 a point instead of terminating in a knob, 
 by their wings being horizontal when 
 resting, and by their being seldom seen 
 on the wing except in the evening or at 
 night (though some moths fly by day); 
 hence the term crepuscular and noctur- 
 nal lepidoptera applied to them. Among 
 
 Tiger moth. I 
 
 the more notable of the moths are i? 
 the “feather” or “plume-moths,” the | 
 “death’s-head moth,” the “clothes- ^ 
 moths,” and the “silk-moth.” 
 
 MOTHER CAREY’S CHICKEN, the 
 sailors’ name for the stormy petrel. See 
 Petrel. I 
 
 MOTHER-OF-PEARL, or NACRE, 2 
 the hard silvery brilliant internal or 9 
 nacreous layer of several kinds of shells, 1 
 particularly of the oyster family, often S 
 variegated with changing purple and 
 azure colors. It is destitute of coloring 
 matter, but is composed of a series of 
 minute and slightly imbricated layers or 
 ridges which have the power of decom- 
 posing the rays of light, thus producing 
 beautiful iridescent hues. The large 
 oysters of the tropical seas alone secrete 
 this coat of sufficient thickness to render 
 their shells available for the purposes 
 of manufacture. Mother-of-pearl is ex- 
 tensively used in the arts, particularly 
 in inlaid work, and in the manufacture 
 of handles for knives, buttons, toys, 
 snuff-boxes, etc. 
 
 MOTION, in physical science, is the 
 passing of a given body from one place 
 
MOTLEY 
 
 MOUSE 
 
 to another. We have no idea of absolute 
 position in space, so that when we speak 
 of the motion of a point it is only in 
 relation to some point regarded as fixed. 
 Thus our conception of the movement 
 of the earth is derived from its relation 
 in position to the sun and stars Bodies 
 move in various directions, their mo- 
 tion being described as rectilinear when 
 they move in a straight line, curvilinear 
 when they move in a curve, vibratory 
 when they move to and fro in relation to 
 a fixed point, rotatory when they turn 
 on an axis, and circular when they sweep 
 round a given point. For Newton’s 
 laws of motion see Dynamics. 
 
 MOTLEY, John Lothrop, historian 
 and diplomatist, born in Massachusetts 
 1814, died 1877. He published, after 
 ten years’ labor and a journey to Europe 
 his great History of the Rise of the 
 Dutch Republic in 1856, a work which 
 was further developed in the History of 
 the United Netherlands (1860-65) ; and 
 the Life and Death of John Barneveld 
 (1874) He was ambassador from the 
 United States to Vienna in 1861-67, 
 and to London in 1869-70. 
 
 MOTOR NERVES. See Nerve. 
 
 MOTT, Lucretia (Coffin), American 
 abolitionist and woman’s rights advo- 
 cate, was born on Nantucket Island in 
 1793. As a resulst of a visit to Virginia 
 she became an ardent advocate of 
 emancipation. In 1833 she attended the 
 first convention of the American Anti- 
 Slavery Society. Soon afterward she 
 helped to organize the Female Anti- 
 Slavery Society. In 1840, in London, 
 the question of the equal participation 
 of women in the proceedings of the Anti- 
 Slavery Convention came up, and all 
 women were excluded. It was then that 
 Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady 
 Stanton first discussed the woman’s 
 rights movement, which they launched 
 eight years later at a convention in 
 Seneca Falls, N. Y. She died in 1880. 
 
 MOUKDEN. See Mukden. 
 
 MOULDINGS, in architecture a gen- 
 eral term applied to the varieties of out- 
 line or contour given to the surfaces or 
 edges of various subordinate parts or 
 features of buildings, whether projec- 
 tions or cavities, such as cornices, bases, 
 door or window jams, lintels, etc. 
 
 MOULMEIN (moul-min'), or MAUL- 
 MAIN, a seaport of Burmah, division 
 of Tenasserim, at the mouth of the river 
 Salween. It has a good harbor, and a 
 considerable trade chiefly in teak, cot- 
 ton, rice, tobacco, stick-lac, lead, copper, 
 cocoa-nuts, hides and live stock. Pop. 
 58,446. 
 
 MOULT, the process of shedding or 
 casting feathers, hair, skin, horns, etc. 
 The word is most commonly used with 
 regard to birds; but other animals, such 
 as crabs and lobsters, which shed their 
 entire shells, frogs and serpents, which 
 cast their skins, are also said to moult. 
 
 MOUND BUILDERS, the name given 
 to the people who at one time lived in 
 the artificial hillocks or mounds which 
 existed in the valleys of the Missis- 
 sippi, the Ohio, the Missouri and their 
 tributaries, also in Michigan, Wiscon- 
 sin, Pennsylvania, Iowa, Nebraska, Ken- 
 tucky, Louisiana, and Arkansas, and 
 the Red River valleys, and in certain 
 parts of North Carolina and Indiana. 
 
 The new state of Washington is dotted 
 over with these mounds, having an 
 arrangement like that on a five-spot 
 playing card. The mounds are artificial 
 hillocks of earth or sand — sometimes 
 round, oval, square, and in some cases 
 polygonal or triangular, varying in 
 height from a few inches to 100 feet, and 
 in diameter from 100 to 300 yards. The 
 most important mound still in existence 
 is thatofCahokiain Illinois. This mound 
 
 rises in the midst of about 60 others in 
 four successive terraces, reaching an 
 elevation of 91 feet. It covers a surface 
 of 12 acres, being almost equal to the 
 great pyramid of Cheops. The mound- 
 builders’ are now regarded merely as the 
 ancestors and representatives of the 
 tribes found in the same region by Span- 
 'sh, French, and English pioneers. The 
 chief contents of the mounds are skele- 
 tons, with ceremonial and other objects 
 buried with the bodies, while the struc- 
 tures are wholly of earth ; in a few cases 
 house-like structures form the nucleus 
 of the mound. 
 
 MOUNTAIN, a mass of earth and rock 
 rising above the surface of the globe 
 higher than a hill. Mountains are usually 
 found in groups, systems, ranges, or 
 chains, though isolated mountains, due 
 to volcanic action, are also found. The 
 elevation of great mountain masses is 
 due to gigantic subterranean movements 
 long continued; but mountains of con- 
 siderable mass have also been carved 
 out by surface denudation. The highest 
 mountain in the world is Mount Everest, 
 one of the Himalayan range, which is 
 29,002 feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 MOUNTAIN LION, the name in the 
 western part of the United States for the 
 panther, cougar, or puma. Early writers 
 upon America reported that the lion 
 was a resident of North America from 
 the skins they saw among the Indians, 
 which they supposed to be those of 
 lionesses. See Puma. 
 
 MOUNTAIN MEADOWS MASSACRE, 
 the massacre near Mountain Meadows in 
 Utah in 1857, of a party of emigrants 
 
 E assing through Utah on their way to 
 outhern California. They numbered 
 about 140 men, women, and children. 
 
 Stopping to rest their horses, they were 
 fired upon by Indians, and, it is alleged, 
 by Mormons disguised. They withstood 
 siege until September 11th, when, on 
 px’omise of protection by John D. Lee, 
 Mormon bishop and Indian .agent, they 
 left the shelter of their wagons. All 
 adults and children over seven years of 
 age were killed, and seventeen younger 
 children were distributed among Mor- 
 mon families, but were afterward re- 
 stored to relatives by the United States 
 government. Lee was executed for this 
 crime in 1877. 
 
 MOUNT CARMEL, a town in Nor- 
 thumberland CO., Pa.; on the Lehigh 
 Val., the N. Cent., and the Phila. and 
 Read, railways; 28 miles e. by s. of Sun- 
 bury, the county seat.' It has a number 
 of anthracite coal mines. Pop. 14,689. 
 
 MOUNT CLEMENS, the capital of 
 Macomb co., Mich., on the Clinton 
 river at the head of navigation, and on 
 the Grand Trunk railway; 22 miles n.e. 
 of Detroit. It is noted for its mineral 
 and magnetic waters, said to have re- 
 markable curative properties, which 
 make the city a resort for thousands of 
 invalids annually. Pop. 8,160. 
 
 MOUNT VERNON, a city in West- 
 chester CO., N. Y.; on the Bronx river, 
 and the N. Y., N. H. and H. and the N. 
 Y. C. and H. R. railways; 13 miles n. of 
 New York. Pop. 21,975. 
 
 MOURNING, as the outward expres- 
 sion of grief, has greatly varied at dif- 
 ferenttimes and among differentnations. 
 Thus the eastern nations and +he Greeks 
 cut off their hair, while the Romans 
 allowed the beard and hair to grow; and 
 as an evidence of mourning the ancient 
 Egyptians wore yellow; the Ethiopians, 
 gray; the Roman and Spartan women, 
 white, which is still the color of grief 
 in china, Japan and Siam; in Tur- 
 key, blue and violet; and in the other 
 European countries black is used for this 
 purpose. The Jews, in sign of grief at the 
 loss of their relatives, rent their gar- 
 ments, tore out their hair, and wore 
 coarse garments of a dark color; and 
 with the Greeks and Romans it was the 
 custom to lay aside all ornaments of 
 dress, to abstain from the bath, and 
 other indulgences. 
 
 MOUSE, the name of a number of ro- 
 dents of which the most familiar is the 
 domestic mouse. The harvest-mouse, is 
 a hybernating mammal, and constructs a 
 little nest of grass, etc., entwined round 
 
 Mouse. 
 
 and supported by the stalks of the corn 
 or wheat. The common field-mouse is a 
 dusky brown, with a darker strip along 
 the middle of the back, while the tail is 
 of a white color beneath. There are about 
 a hundred members of the mouse genus, 
 of which th« common rat is one. The 
 dormouse is of a different familyfrom the 
 true mice. 
 
MOUTH 
 
 MULLER 
 
 MOUTH, the aperture in the head of 
 an animal through which food is received 
 and voice uttered; or generally the an- 
 terior opening of the alimentary canal. 
 In the higher animals the use of the 
 mouth is for mastication, the emission 
 of sound or voice, deglutition, and 
 taste. In many animals of a low type of 
 structure there is no distinct mouth. 
 Thus in the simpler Protozoa the food is 
 taken into the interior of the body by a 
 process of intussusception, any portion 
 of the surface being chosen for this pur- 
 pose, and acting as an extemporaneous 
 mouth, which closes up again when the 
 particle of food has been received into 
 the' body. 
 
 MOZAMBIQUE (mo-zam-bek'), a Por- 
 tuguese government on the east coast 
 of South Africa, extending from Cape 
 Delgado to Delagoa Bay, and inland to 
 British territory (Rhodesia, Transvaal, 
 etc.); estimated area, 380,000 sq. miles; 
 only a small part of which is occupied. 
 Pop. 8522. 
 
 MOZART (ino-zart'; German pron. 
 mo'tsart), Johann Chrysostomus Wolf- 
 gang Amadeus, a great German com- 
 poser, born at Salzburg 1756, died 
 at Vienna 1791. At the age of four 
 years his father, Leopold Mozart, a 
 violinist of repute, began to teach him 
 some minuets and other small pieces on 
 the harpsichord. From this period he 
 made rapid progress, and a concerto for 
 the harpsichord, which he wrote in his 
 fifth year, was so difiBcult that only the 
 most practiced performer could play it. 
 In his sixth year Mozart was taken by 
 his father, along with his sister, to 
 Munich and Vienna, where the little 
 artists were received at court with great 
 favor. In 1763 the family made a 
 journey to Paris, where Mozart publish- 
 ed his first sonatas for the harpsichord; 
 and in the following year they proceeded 
 to England, where the child-musician 
 performed before the court the most dif- 
 ficult compositions of Bach and Handel. 
 In 1769 Mozart, who had been made 
 master of the concerts at the court 
 orchestra at Salzburg, commenced a 
 journey to Italy in company with his 
 father. In Rome he wrote down, on 
 hearing it, the famous Miserere, annually 
 sung in the Sistine Chapel during the 
 holy week. At Milan in 1770 he com- 
 posed, in his fourteenth year, his first 
 opera, Mithridates, which was performed 
 more than twenty times in succession. 
 Henceforth he resided chiefly in Salz- 
 burg, but also visited Paris, Munich, and 
 finally Vienna. In the latter city, al- 
 though he was appointed composer to 
 the court, he found it necessary to main- 
 tain himself by giving lessons in music 
 and writing waltzes. Notwithstanding 
 this poverty it was here that most of his 
 best work, such as his famous operas. 
 The Marriage of Figaro, Clemency of 
 Titus, The Magic Flute, and his last 
 work, the Requiem, were written. It was 
 here also that the best pianist and 
 greatest composer of his time — perhaps 
 of the world — died in obscurity and was 
 buried in a pauper’s grave. The extent 
 of work done by Mozart during his short 
 life is almost incredible, and in every de- 
 partment of composition, whether vocal 
 or instrumental, he excelled. In the his- 
 tory of music he stands most prominent- 
 
 ly forward as an operatic composer, his 
 Don Giovanni, Magic Flute, and Mar- 
 riage of Figaro being works previously 
 unequalled and never since surpassed. 
 
 MUCILAGE, a solution of some gummy 
 substance in water, giving it a certain 
 consistence; in chemistry, one of the 
 proximate elements of vegetables, a 
 carbohydrate. It is contained abundant- 
 ly in gum tragacanth, many seeds, as 
 linseed, quince seed, etc., and certain 
 roots, as marsh-mallow. It forms a thick 
 jelly with water, and when boiled with 
 dilute sulphuric acid gives rise to a 
 sugar and a gum. 
 
 Mucus, a viscid fluid secreted by the 
 mucous membrane of animals, which it 
 serves to moisten and defend. It covers 
 the lining membranes of all the cavities 
 which open externally, such as those of 
 the mouth, nose, lungs, intestinal canal, 
 urinary passages, etc. It is transparent, 
 glutinous, thready, and of a saline taste ; 
 it contains a great deal of water, chloride 
 of potassium and sodium, lactate of 
 sodium and of calcium ; and phosphate of 
 calcium. Mucus forms a layer of greater 
 or less thickness on the surface of the 
 mucous membranes, and it is renewed 
 with more or less rapidity. Besides 
 keeping these membranes in a moist and 
 flexible condition, it also protects them 
 against the action of the air, of the ali- 
 ment, the different glandular fluids, and 
 agencies that might otherwise irritate 
 and inflame. 
 
 MUD, in geology, a mixture of clay and 
 sand with organic matter. Mud may be 
 argillaceous, calcareous, or otherwise, 
 according to the most notable ingredient 
 which enters into its composition. 
 
 MUD-BATH, a kind of bath connected 
 with some mineral springs, consisting of 
 mud transfused with saline or other in- 
 gredients, in which patients suffering 
 from rheumatism, etc., plunge the whole 
 or portions of the body. 
 
 MUEZ'ZIN, or MUED'DIN, a Moham- 
 medan crier attached to a mosque, whose 
 duty it is to proclaim the ezam or sum- 
 mons to prayer five times a day— at 
 dawn, at noon, 4 p.m., sunset, and night 
 fall. He makes his proclamation from 
 the balcony of a minaret ; and as this ele- 
 vated position enables a person to see a 
 good many of the private proceedings of 
 the inmates of the neighboring houses, 
 the post of meuzzin is often intrusted to 
 a blind man. 
 
 MUFTI, in the Turkish Empire, a 
 religious officer who exercises the func- 
 tions of an authoritative judge in mat- 
 ters of religion. The muftis are chosen 
 from among the ulemas or doctors of the 
 law, and the grand mufti or Sheikh-ul- 
 Islam is the highest officer of the church 
 and the representative of the sultan in 
 spiritual matters. 
 
 MUGWORT, a popular name for 
 various species of artemisia. 
 
 MUGWUMP, a term originally applied 
 to a voter identified with a particular 
 party, but claiming the right to vote 
 with another party. Its popular use be- 
 gan with an article in the New York Sun 
 for March 23, 1884, and was in the same 
 year applied to the independent republi- 
 cans, who refused to support James G. 
 Blaine for the presidency The name 
 was applied to them in derision, but was 
 accepted by them, and now regularly de- 
 
 notes any body of voters who profess to 
 be independent of strict party obliga- 
 tions. 
 
 MUHLHAUSEN (miil'hou-zn), a town 
 of Prussian Saxony, on the Unstrut, 29 
 miles northwest of Erfurt. It has two 
 interesting churches, an old town-house, 
 a gymnasium, and manufactures of 
 woolen and cotton cloth, leather, sewing- 
 machines, etc. It was fonnerly a free 
 city of the empire. Pop. 33,433. 
 
 MUHLHAUSEN, or MULHAUSEN, a 
 town of Germany, situated on the 111, in 
 Alsace-Lorraine, 61 miles s.s.w. of Stras- 
 burg.' Pop. 89,012. 
 
 MUKDEN (muk'den), MOUKDEN, a 
 town of China, capital of Manchuria and 
 of the province of Leao-Tong, about 380 
 miles n.e. of Peking. Pop. about 250,000. 
 
 MULATTO, a person that is the off- 
 spring of parents of whom one is white 
 and the other a negro. The mulatto is of 
 a dark color tinged with yellow, with 
 frizzled or woolly hair, and resembles the 
 European more than the African. 
 
 MULBERRY, the black or common 
 mulberry is the only species worthy of 
 being cultivated as a fruit-tree. The fruit 
 is used at dessert, and also preserved 
 in the form of a syrup. The juice of 
 the berries mixed with that of apples 
 forms a beverage of a deep port-wine 
 color, called mulberry cider. The white 
 mulberry is the most interesting of the 
 
 Black mulberry. 
 
 genus, on account of its leaves being used 
 for food by silkworms. It grows to the 
 height of 40 or 50 feet, with a trunk 2 or 
 more feet in diameter. The red mul- 
 berry has fruit of a deep-red color, and is 
 a valuable American tree. The paper 
 mulberry is a distinct genus, belonging 
 originally to Japan, its bark is used in 
 making paper, and its wood is highly 
 valued for ornamental work. 
 
 MULE, the name applied to any ani- 
 mal produced by a mixture of different 
 species, but specifically denoting the 
 hybrid generated between an ass and a 
 mare. The head of the mule is long and 
 thin, its tail is bushy, and its mane short. 
 It unites th? speed of the horse with the 
 dogged perseverence of the ass, and is 
 docile in temper when fairly treated. 
 
 MULE, a spinning-machine invented 
 by Samuel Crompton in 1775, and so 
 called from being a combination of the 
 drawing-rollers of Arkwright and the 
 jenny of Hargreaves. In this machine 
 the rovings are delivered from a series of 
 sets of drawing-rollers to spindles placed 
 on a carriage, which travels away from 
 the rollers while the thread is being 
 twisted, and returns toward the rollers 
 while the thread is being wound. 
 
 MULLER (miil'^r), Friedrich Max, a 
 celebrated philologist, was born atDessau 
 
MULHALL 
 
 MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP 
 
 in 1823; published (1844) the Hitopa- 
 desa, a collection of Sanskrit fables; pro- 
 ceeded then to Berlin, where he attended 
 tlie lectures of Bopp and Schelling; con- 
 tinued his studies under Burnouf in 
 Paris; came to England in 1846, and 
 established himself at Oxford, where he 
 was appointed successively Taylorian 
 professor of modern languages (1854), 
 assistant, and ultimately sub-librarian at 
 the Bodleian library (1865), and pro- 
 fessor of comparative philology (1868), a 
 position which he practically resigned in 
 1875, but nominally held till his death in 
 1900. He was a member of the French 
 Institute, and an LL.D. of Cambridge 
 and Edinburgh. His numerous writings 
 include an edition of the Rig-Veda, His- 
 tory of Sanskrit Literature, Lectures on 
 the Science of Language, Chips from a 
 German Workshop, On the Origin and 
 Growth of Religion, Selected Essays, 
 The Science of Thought, Biographies of 
 Words, Natural Religion, and he was the 
 editor of the series of Sacred Books of 
 the East undertaken by the university. 
 
 MUL'HALL, Michael George, dis- 
 tinguished statistician, born in Dublin, 
 Ireland, in 1836. In 1884 he was elected 
 to the British Association for the ad- 
 vancement of science. His works include 
 a Handbook of the River Plata; Rio 
 Grande do Sul and Its German Colonies; 
 The English in South America. In 1880 
 Mulhall brought out his Progress of the 
 World in Arts, Agriculture, Commerce, 
 Manufacture, Instruction, Railways, and 
 Public Wealth, since the beginning of 
 the nineteenth century. This was fol- 
 lowed by other highly valued works on 
 statistics: History of Prices; Industries 
 and Wealth of Nations; and a Dic- 
 tionary of Statistics. He died in 1900. 
 
 MULLET, a name common to two 
 groups of fishes, viz. the gray mullets 
 and the red mullets. Naturalists, how- 
 ever, generally restrict the name to the 
 former, designating the red mullets as 
 sur-mullets. Of the true mullets the best- 
 known is the common gray mullet found 
 round the shores of the British islands, 
 and in particular abundance in the Medi- 
 terranean. It grows to the length of 18 
 to 20 inches, and will sometimes weigh 
 from 12 to 15 lbs. It has the habit of 
 rooting in mud or sand in search of food. 
 Another species also called gray mullet a 
 native of the Mediterranean, is distin- 
 guished by having its eyes half covered 
 by an adipose membrane. It weighs 
 usually from 10 to 12 lbs., and is the 
 most delicate of all the mullets. A 
 smaller species, the thick-lipped gray 
 mullet, is common on the British coasts. 
 Many other species, natives of India and 
 Africa, are much esteemed as food. 
 
 MULOCK, Dinah Maria. See Craik. 
 
 MULTAN', or MOOLTAN', a city of 
 India, in the Punjab, the chief city and 
 capital of a district of same name. It is 
 one of the most ancient cities in India, 
 and is the center of a large trade. Pop. 
 87,394. — The district has an area of 
 6079 sq. miles; pop. 710,548. 
 
 MULTIPLE, in arithmetic a number 
 which contains another an exact number 
 of times without a remainder; as 12 is a 
 multiple of 3, the latter being a submul- 
 tiple or aliquot part. A common multiple 
 of two or more numbers contains each of 
 them a certain number of times exactly ; 
 
 P. E.— 54 
 
 thus 24 is a common multiple of 3 and 4. 
 The least common multiple is the small- 
 est number that will do this; thus 12 is 
 the least common multiple of 3 and 4. 
 The same term is applicable to algebraic 
 quantities. 
 
 MUMMIES, dead human bodies em- 
 balmed and dried after the manner of 
 those taken from Egyptian tombs. An 
 immense number of mummies have been 
 found in Egypt, consisting not only of 
 human bodies, but of various animals, 
 as bulls, apes, ibises, crocodiles, fish, etc. 
 The processes for the preservation of the 
 body were very various. Those of the 
 poorer classes were merely dried by salt 
 or natron, and wrapped up in coarse 
 cloths and desposited in the catacombs. 
 The bodies of the rich and the great 
 underwent the most complicated oper- 
 ations, and were laboriously adorned 
 with all kinds of ornaments. Embalmers 
 
 Mummy of Penamen, priest of Amun Ra— 
 British museum. 
 
 of different ranks and duties extracted 
 the brain through the nostrils, and the 
 entrails through an incision in the side; 
 the body was then shaved, washed, and 
 salted, and after a certain period the 
 process of embalming, properly speaking, 
 began . The whole body was then steeped 
 in balsam and wrapped up in linen ban- 
 dages ; each finger and toe was separately 
 enveloped, or sometimes sheathed in a 
 gold case, and the nails where often 
 gilded. The bandages were then folded 
 round each of the limbs, and finally 
 round the whole body, to the number of 
 fifteen to twenty thicknesses. The head 
 was the object of particular attention ; 
 it was sometimes enveloped in several 
 folds of fine muslin ; the first was glued 
 to the skin, and the others to the first ; 
 the whole was then coated with a fine 
 laster. The Persians, Assyrians, He- 
 rews, and Romans had all processes of 
 embalming, though not so lasting as that 
 of Egypt. "The art also was practiced by 
 the Guanches of the Canaries, the Mexi- 
 cans, Peruvians, etc. Natural mummies 
 are frequently found preserved by the 
 dryness of the air. 
 
 MUMPS, a disease consisting in a pecu- 
 liar and specific unsuppurative inflam- 
 mation of the salivary glands, accom- 
 panied by swelling along the neck, ex- 
 tending from beneath the ear to the chin . 
 Children are more subject to it than 
 adults. 
 
 MUNCHHAUSEN(munh'hou-zn), Karl 
 Friedrich Hieronymus, Baron von, a 
 German officer, born in Hanover in 1720, 
 died 1797. He served several campaigns 
 against the Turks in the Russian service 
 1737-39. Baron Munchhausen’s Narra- 
 tive, a small book of 48 pages, appeared 
 in London in 1785. Two years after it 
 was translated into German by Burger, 
 who naturally passed in Germany for the 
 writer. Thereat author was Rudolf Erich 
 Raspe (1737-94), a native of Hanover 
 who took refuge in England from a 
 charge of theft. The book was after- 
 ward enlarged by additional stories, 
 many of them very old. 
 
 MUNCIE, the capital of Delaware co., 
 Ind., on the White river, and the Lake 
 Erie and W., the Cleve., Gin., Chi. and 
 St. L., and the Ft. W., Cin. and Louis, 
 railways; 54 miles e. of Indianapolis, 110 
 miles n. w. of Cincinnati It is in the 
 center of the great Indiana natural-gas 
 belt, which gives the factories free fuel. 
 Pop. 22,132. 
 
 MUN'GOOSE, a species of ichneumon, 
 otherwise known as the “gray” or 
 “Indian” ichneumon. Being easily do- 
 mesticated it is kept in many houses in 
 Hindustan to rid them of reptiles and 
 other vermin, as rats, mice, etc. It has 
 been said that it neutralizes the poison 
 of snakes, which it fearlessly attacks, by 
 eating, during its contests with them, 
 snake-root; but its immunity is really 
 due to the extreme celerity of its move- 
 ments. It is of a gray color flecked with 
 black, and about the size of a rat. 
 
 MUNICH (mu'nik), the capital city of 
 Bavaria. It lies on an extensive but un- 
 interesting plateau, about 1700 feet 
 above sea-level, chiefly on the left bank 
 of the Isar. Munich is one of the finest 
 towns in Germany. Vast improvements 
 are due to the munificence of King Lud- 
 wig I. The royal palace forms a very ex- 
 tensive series of buildings chiefly in the 
 Italian style, and contains many magnifi- 
 cent apartments and rich artistic and 
 other treasures. Connected with it are 
 the court church and the court and 
 national theater, among the largest in 
 Germany. The city is highly celebrated 
 for its fine galleries of sculpture and 
 painting, and for various other impor- 
 tant collections, such as that of the Ba- 
 varian national museum. The royal 
 library has upward of 1,000,000 volumes 
 and 30,000 MSS., being thus one of the 
 largest in Europe.^ The university is at- 
 tended by some 3500 students, and has a 
 library of 300,000 vols. There is an acad- 
 emy of science, an academy of arts, and 
 many fine churches, including the 
 cathedral, founded in 1488. Munich is 
 the seat of the high courts of legislature 
 and of law, and of all the more impor- 
 tant offices of the state. It was iounded 
 by Henry, duke of Saxony, in- 962; 
 taken by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, by 
 the French under Moreau in 1800, and 
 by Napoleon in October, 1805. Pop. 
 499,959. 
 
 MUNICIPALITY, a town or city pos- 
 sessed of certain privileges of local self- 
 government, derived from incorporating 
 charters granted by the state. Or the 
 term may be applied to the corporation 
 or body of persons in a town having the 
 powers of managing its affairs. 
 
 MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP, properly 
 speaking the possession by a city or 
 town of any property is municipal own- 
 ership ; but the term is generally applied 
 to public ownership and operation of 
 public utilities, such as water works, gas 
 and electric light plants. In England 
 this is called municipal trading. Muni- 
 cipal ownership has become an issue in 
 America during the last decade, advo- 
 cacy or opposition to it being based 
 largely upon the utility considered, with 
 almost the unanimous agreement that 
 services of a sanitary character, such as 
 water works and sewerage, should be 
 under municipal control. 'There is some 
 divergence of opinion, however, as to 
 
MUNKACSY 
 
 MURCIA 
 
 municipal lighting, and less than twenty- 
 five gas works in the United States are 
 operated by municipalities, while only 
 one-sixth of the electric light plants are 
 municipal, the largest of these being in 
 Detroit and Chicago, and which are used 
 only for lighting streets and public 
 buildings. In Europe, private owner- 
 ship of electric lighting plants is cus- 
 tomary outside of the United Kingdom, 
 in which the majority are municipal. 
 The gas works in Germany and Great 
 Britain are nearly evenly divided be- 
 tween municipal and private plants, 
 with the tendency increasing toward 
 the former. 
 
 All but eight of the thirty-eight cities 
 of over 100,000 population in v^merica 
 own their water works, but of the water 
 works in the United States nearly one- 
 half are private works, most of these 
 being in the smaller towns which have 
 been unwilling to compete with private 
 enterprise. Private companies supply 
 the sewerage for all but six places where 
 the population is 3,000 or over. 
 
 The theory on which the argument 
 for municipal ownership is based is that 
 undertakings which require the use of 
 the streets or other public places, are 
 natural monopolies, and that all natural 
 monopolies should be vested in the city 
 rather than in the private corporation, 
 as their use is compulsory upon citizens. 
 The advocates say there is greater need 
 for public lighting in the large cities than 
 there is for public water supply in some 
 localities. 
 
 The arguments for municipal owner- 
 ship of street railways is generally based 
 upon the additional theory that means of 
 transportation should belong to the city 
 just as much as should the sidewalks 
 upon which people traVel. Even when 
 there has been a public sentiment in 
 favor of municipal operation of street 
 railways, there has been an objection 
 raised on the ground that the amount of 
 money involved affords unusual oppor- 
 tunity for graft and also failing effective 
 civil service reform employes would be 
 used as a part of the political machine. 
 These arguments have been the prin- 
 cipal ones used in cities like Chicago, 
 where the subject of municipal operation 
 of street railways has been most agitated. 
 Great Britain contains almost all the 
 municipal street railway systems in the 
 world, there being about forty in that 
 country, the most notable being those in 
 Manchester, Glasgow, and Sheffield. In 
 other cities and in several places in 
 Canada street railways are owned by the 
 city and leased to operating companies. 
 
 One-eighth of the ferries in the United 
 States are municipal, the Boston system 
 being the most elaborate. Several cities 
 owp their docks, including New York, 
 which receives a large income there- 
 from. There are municipal markets 
 throughout the world, 150 being in the 
 larger cities of the United States, the 
 largest of which are those in New York, 
 New Orleans, Boston, and Baltimore. 
 
 Under municipal ownership there is 
 much difference of opinion as to whether 
 revenue should be sacrificed to cheap- 
 ness and efficiency of service. Varying 
 policies in these respects are in force, the 
 advocates of municipal ownership usual- 
 ly believing that cheapness is the prime 
 
 requisite, while the opponents declare 
 this of itself is an argument against the 
 system, asserting it results in an increase 
 of the general tax rate and a consequent 
 shifting of the expense upon the large 
 property holders. 
 
 MUNKACSY (mfin'kach-i), Mihaly,real 
 name Michael Lieb, Hungarian genre 
 and historical painter, born at Munkacs 
 1846; studied at Gyula, Vienna, Munich, 
 and Diisseldorf, and settled in Paris in 
 1872. Among his best-known pictures 
 are Last Day of a Condemned Man, Mil- 
 ton dictating Paradise Lost, Christ be- 
 fore Pilate, Last Moments of Mozart. He 
 died in 1900. 
 
 MUNN, Orson Desaix, American law- 
 yer and journalist, was born in Monson, 
 Hampden co.. Mass. In 1824 he bought 
 with Alfred E. Beach the Scientific 
 American ; founded the Scientific Ameri- 
 can Supplement in 1876 and the Archi- 
 tects’ and Builders’ Edition in 1885. 
 
 MUNNICH, Burkhard Christoph Count , 
 Russian st.*tesman and general was born 
 in 1683, and who, through brilliant mili- 
 tary service, was made chief minister 
 and became the most powerful man in 
 Russia. Afterward falling from favor, 
 he was exiled to Siberia for twenty years. 
 His estates were finally restored to him 
 and he was made director-general of the 
 Baltic poii». He died in 1767. 
 
 MUNROE, Kirk, American journalist 
 and author, was born in Appleton, Wis., 
 in 1856. Wrote many books for boys. 
 First editor of Harper’s Young People. 
 His works include: The Flamingo 
 Feather, Under the Great Bear, Dory 
 Mates, and the Belt of the Seven Totems. 
 
 MUNSEY, Frank Andrew, American 
 publisher, was born in Albany, ,N. Y., in 
 1854. Established the Golden Argosy, 
 afterward changed to The Argosy. 
 Founded Munsey’s Weekly, which was 
 changed to Munsey’s Magazine, The 
 Puritan, and The Scrapbook. Controlled 
 Washington Times, the New York Daily 
 News, and the Boston Journal. 
 
 MUNSON, James Eugene, American 
 inventor and author, was born in Paris, 
 Oneida co., N. Y., in 1835. Originated 
 the Munson system of stenography, an 
 automatic typesetting machine, and a 
 mechanism for operating typewriting 
 machines by telegraph. 
 
 MUNSTER, the southwest province of 
 Ireland comprising the six counties of 
 Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary, 
 and Waterford. Area, 9475 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 1,076,188. 
 
 MUNSTER (miin'ster), a town of 
 Prussia, capital of the province of West- 
 phalia. The principal edifices are the 
 cathedral, the church of St. Lambert, 
 the townhouse, the exchange, museum, 
 theater, etc. The manufactures include 
 woolen, linen, and cotton goods, etc. 
 Pop. 68,562. 
 
 MUNSTER, Peace of. See Westphalia, 
 Peace of. 
 
 MURAL CIRCLE, an astronomical in- 
 strument consisting of a telescope at- 
 tached to a vertical brass circle which 
 turns upon an axis passing through a 
 stone pier. The brass circle revolves ex- 
 actly in the plane of the meridian, and is 
 carefully divided into degrees and 
 minutes. Attached to the stone pier, and 
 at equal distances apart are six micro- 
 scoyss for the purpose of viewing the 
 
 graduated circle and determining ex- 
 actly its position and consequently that 
 of the telescope. It is regarded as the 
 principal fixed instrument in all the 
 great public observatories. Its chief use 
 is to measure angular distances in the 
 meridian, and so to determine the de- 
 clination of a star, or its distance from 
 the celestial equator. The right ascen- 
 sion of a star being given by the transit 
 instrument, and its declination by this, 
 its exact position is determined. 
 
 MURAT (mu-ra), Joachim, French 
 marshal, and for some time King of Italy 
 born in 1771, died 1815. He served in 
 the constitutional guard of Louis XVI.; 
 then entered the 12th Regiment of 
 mounted chasseurs; rose by his zealous 
 Jacobinism to the rank of lieutenant- 
 colonel; was afterward removed as a 
 terrorist, and remained without em- 
 ployment till his fate placed him in con- 
 nection with Bonaparte, whom he fol- 
 lowed to Italy and Egypt, becoming 
 general of division in 1799. In 1800 he 
 married Caroline, the youngest sister of 
 Bonaparte. He was present at the Battle 
 of Marengo, and in 1804 was made mar- 
 shal of the empire, grand-admiral, and 
 prince of the imperial house. His serv- 
 ices in the campaign of 1805 against 
 Austria, in which he entered Vienna at 
 the head of the army, were rewarded in 
 1806 with the grand-duchy of Cleves and 
 Berg. In the war of 1806 with Prussia, 
 and of 1807 with Russia, he commanded 
 the cavalry, and in 1808 he commanded 
 the French army which occupied Madrid. 
 He anticipated receiving the crown of 
 Spain, Charles IV. having invested him 
 with royal authority; but Napoleon, who 
 destined Spain for his brother Joseph, 
 placed him on the throne of Naples, July 
 15, 1808. He then took the title of 
 Joachim Napoleon. He shared the re- 
 verses of the Russian campaign of 1812, 
 and in 1813 again fought for Napo- 
 leon, whose cause he deserted after 
 the battle of Leipzig. He took up arms 
 again in 1815 for Napoleon; but being 
 defeated by Generals Neipperg and 
 Bianchi near Tolentino, 2d and 3d May, 
 he was forced to leave Italy, and took 
 refuge in Toulon. After the overthrow 
 of Napoleon he escaped to Corsica, and 
 set sail for the Neapolitan territory with 
 a view to recover his kingdom. He 
 landed at Pinzo on 8th October, but was 
 immediately captured, tried by a court- 
 martial, and shot. 
 
 MURCHISON (mer'chi-sun). Sir Rod- 
 erick Impey, Scottish geologist, born at 
 Tarradale, in Ross-shire, 1792; died 
 1871. By a comparison of specimens of 
 the rocks of Australia with the aurifer- 
 ous rocks of the Ural Mountains, which 
 he had personally examined, he was led, 
 so early as 1845, to predict that gold 
 would be found there. He was one of the 
 founders and most active members of 
 the British Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science. He was several times 
 elected president of the Royal Geo- 
 graphical Society. He was made K.C.B. 
 in 1853, and a baronet in 1863. His chief 
 works are Siluria, The Geologyof Russia, 
 and numerous contributions to the 
 transactions of the learned societies. 
 He endowed the chair of geology in 
 Edinburgh university. 
 
 MURCIA (mur'thi-a), a city of South- 
 
MURDER 
 
 MUSCLE AND MUSCULAR MOTION 
 
 ern Spain, capital of the ancient king- 
 dom and modern province of same name. 
 Pop. 111,539. — Theprovinceformedpart 
 of the ancient kingdom of Murcia; area, 
 5970 sq. miles; pop. 577,987. 
 
 MURDER, the act of unlawfully kill- 
 ing a human being with premeditated 
 malice, the person committing the act 
 being of sound mind and discretion, and 
 the victim dying within a year and a 
 day after the cause of death adminis- 
 tered. In Britain it is the law that every 
 person convicted of murder shall suffer 
 death as a felon. In the United States 
 of America the law recognizes degrees 
 in murder, and in France and some other 
 civilized nations “extenuating circum- 
 stances” are taken into consideration. 
 
 MURDOCH (mur'doh), William, an 
 inventor, born near Auchinleck, Ayr- 
 shire, in 1754. At Redruth, in 1784, he 
 constructed a model high-pressure en- 
 gine to run on wheels, the precursor of 
 the modern steam locomotive. In 1815 
 he introduced the hot-water apparatus 
 which, with certain slight modifications, 
 is now so extensively used for heating 
 large buildings and conservatories. Vari- 
 ous other inventions of his might be 
 mentioned; but his work as a gas- 
 inventor remains his most conspicuous 
 achievement. In 1792 he first lighted 
 his offices and cottage at Redruth with 
 coal-gas, but it was not till 1798 that he 
 constructed his first extensive appara- 
 tus at Birmingham for the making, 
 storing, and purifying of gas, with a view 
 to the supply of factories. Not long after 
 this the offices at Soho were lighted with 
 gas, and the new illuminant was brought 
 prominently before public notice in 1802, 
 when the exterior of the factory was 
 lighted up in celebration of the Peace 
 of Amiens. His great invention was 
 never patented. He retired from business 
 in 1830, and died in 1839. 
 
 MURGER (mur-zhar), Henri, born at 
 Paris 1822, died 1861. He lived a life of 
 extreme privation ; formed an informal 
 club or society of unconventional young 
 artists and authors similarly situated 
 which was named “Bohemia,” and the 
 associates “Bohemians” — a name fam- 
 ous in general literary history. He con- 
 tributed a great mass of “copy” to nu- 
 merous periodicals, and at last made a 
 reputation by his Scenes de la Vie de 
 Boheme. He also published two volumes 
 of poetry. Ballades et Fantaisies, and 
 Les Nuits d’Hiver; and wrote dramas 
 for the Luxembourg theater, and tales, 
 etc., for the Revue des Deux Mondes. 
 
 MURIATIC ACID, the older name of 
 hydrochloric acid. 
 
 MURILLO (mu-rel'yo), Bartolomeo 
 Esteban, the greatest of Spanish painters, 
 was born at Seville in 1618. He received 
 his first instructions in art from his 
 relation Juan del Castillo. In 1642 he 
 visited Madrid, and was aided by Velas- 
 quez, then painter to the king, who pro- 
 cured him permission to copy in the 
 Royal Galleries. Murillo returned to 
 Seville in 1645, where he commenced 
 that great series of w'orks which have 
 now made his name so glorious. He 
 married a lady of fortune in 1648, which 
 much aided his personal influence, and 
 he succeeded in establishing an academy 
 of the arts at Seville in 1660, and acted 
 as president the first year. He died at 
 
 Seville 3d April, 1682, in consequence 
 of a fall from a scaffolding at Cadiz, 
 where he was engaged in the church of 
 the Capuchins, painting a large altar- 
 piece of St, Catharine. He obtained the 
 
 name of Painter of the Conception from 
 his fondness for the subject of the Im- 
 maculate Conception. About 250 of his 
 pictures are preserved in British and 
 foreign galleries, and in Spanish churches. 
 
 MURPHY, Francis, an American tem- 
 perance evangelist, born in 1836 in 
 Wexford, Ireland. In 1870 he started 
 temperance reform clubs. His head- 
 quarters were in Pittsburg, Pa., and 
 10,000,000 persons signed the pledge 
 as a result of his ministrations in differ- 
 ent parts of the United States. He 
 labored also in England, and he acted 
 as chaplain in the Spanish-American 
 war. 
 
 MURRAIN, a name given in general 
 to any widely prevailing and contagious 
 disease among cattle, though in different 
 localities it is also used as the name of 
 some specific disease. 
 
 MURRAY, John, founder of the Uni- 
 versalist body in America, was born at 
 Alton, England, in 1741. He preached 
 his first sermon in America September 
 30, 1770, in an obscure place in New 
 Jersey, called “Good Luck.” He was 
 prominent in the organization of a con- 
 vention of his sect in 1785, and which 
 took the name of Independent Christian 
 Universalists. In 1793 he was installed 
 pastor of a society of Universalists in 
 Boston, where he remained till his death, 
 September 3, 1815. 
 
 MURRAY, Lindley, grammarian, born 
 in Pennsylvania, of Quaker parents, in 
 
 
 1745, died 1826. He wrote, besides his 
 well-known English Grammar, several 
 works on education and morals. 
 
 MURSHIDABAD', or MOORSHEDA- 
 BAD, a city of India, Bengal. Pop. 
 28,553. — The district of Murshidabad 
 has an area of 2144 sq. miles and a popu- 
 lation of 1,335,374. 
 
 MUSCAT, or MASKAT, the chief city 
 of the sultanate of Omdn, or Muscat, a 
 seaport on the Indian Ocean, near the 
 east angle of Arabia. It is an important 
 center of trade, exporting coffee, pearls, 
 mother-of-pearl, dye-stuffs, drugs, etc., 
 and importing rice, sugar, piece-goods, 
 etc. Pop. of town and suburbs estimated 
 at 60,000. 
 
 MUSCATEL', or MUSCADEL, a term 
 for various sweet, strong, and fragrant 
 wines. • 
 
 MUS'CATINE, a town in Iowa, on the 
 Mississippi, at the apex of what is called 
 the Great Bend, and in connection with 
 an extensive net-work of railways, 27 
 miles southeast of Iowa City. Pop. 
 16,170. 
 
 MUSCLE AND MUSCULAR MOTION, 
 
 the name muscle is applied to those 
 structural elements or organs in ani- 
 mals which are devoted to the pro- 
 duction of movements either of a 
 part of the body, or of the body 
 as a whole. They consist of fibres or 
 bundles of fibres, susceptible of con- 
 traction and relaxation, inclosed in a 
 thin cellular membrane. Muscles are 
 composed of fleshy and tendinous fibres, 
 occasionally intermixed, but the tendi- 
 nous fibres generally prevail at the ex- 
 tremities of the muscle, and the fleshy 
 ones in the belly or middle part of it. 
 When the fibres of a muscle are placed 
 parallel to each other it is called a simple 
 or rectilinear muscle; when they inter- 
 sect and cross each other they are called 
 compound. When muscles act in oppo- 
 sition to each other they are termed 
 antagonist; when they concur in the 
 same action they are called congener- 
 ous. Muscles are also divided into 
 voluntary and involuntary muscles, the 
 former being those whose movements 
 proceed from an immediate exertion of 
 the will, as in raising or depressing the 
 arm, bending the knee, moving the 
 tongue, etc., while the latter are beyond 
 this control, being the agents in the con- 
 traction of the heart, arteries, veins, 
 absorbents, stomach, intestines, etc. 
 When examined under the microscope 
 the fibres of the voluntary muscles (as 
 also those of the heart) are seen to be 
 marked by minute transverse bars or 
 stripes, while those of the involuntary 
 are smooth and regidar in appearance. 
 The former is therefore called striped 
 or striated muscle, the latter unstriped, 
 nonstriated, or smooth muscle. The 
 great property of muscular tissue is the 
 power of responding when irritated. 
 The response is in the form of contrac- 
 tion, that is, when the muscle is irritated 
 or stimulated it responds by shortening 
 itself, so that its ends are brought nearer 
 and it becomes thicker in the middle, its 
 inherent elasticity making it capable of 
 returning to its previous lengtn when 
 the stimulation is withdrawn. By these 
 contractions the muscles are able to do 
 work. The usual stimulation is by 
 nervous action (see Nerve), but me- 
 chanical means, such as pinching, prick- 
 ing, etc., electricity, heat, and chemicals 
 also cause irritation. All the muscles are 
 
MUSCOVY 
 
 MUSIC 
 
 connected with bones not directly but 
 through the medium of tendons. A 
 tendon presents the appearance of a 
 white glistening cord, sometimes flat, 
 but often cylindrical and of considerable 
 thickness. The mass of flesh composing 
 
 A striped muscular fibre with its sheath. 
 
 the muscle is called the belly of the 
 muscle. One end is usually attached to a 
 bone more or less fixed, and is called the 
 origin of the muscle. The other end is 
 attached to the bone meant to be moved 
 by the contraction of the muscle, and is 
 called the insertion of the muscle. In- 
 voluntary muscle consists of spindle- 
 shaped cells having an elongated nu- 
 cleus in the center. They are united in 
 ribbon-shaped bands, and respond much 
 less rapidly than the voluntary to irrita- 
 tions, and the wave of contraction passes 
 over them more slowly. There are 
 several hundreds of separate muscles 
 in the human body, and they are broadly 
 grouped into muscles of the head, face. 
 
 Muscular fibre separated— A into fibrlll® and 
 
 B into discs. C is a highly magnified por- 
 tion of a fibril. 
 
 and neck; muscles of the back; muscles 
 of the chest; muscles of the upper ex- 
 tremity, the shoulder, arm, forearm, and 
 hand; muscles of the abdomen, and 
 muscles of the lower extremity, the 
 thigh, leg, and foot. 
 
 MUS'COVY. See Russia. 
 
 MUSES, in the Greek mythology the 
 daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, who 
 were, according to the earliest writers, 
 the inspiring goddesses of song, and ac- 
 cording to later ideas divinities presiding 
 over the different kinds of poetry, and 
 over the sciences and arts. Their original 
 number appears to have been three, 
 but afterward they are always spoken 
 of as nine in number: Clio, the muse of 
 history; Euterpe, the muse of lyric 
 poetry; Thalia, the muse of comedy, and 
 of merry or idyllic poetry; Mel^omSne, 
 the muse of tragedy; Terpsichore, the 
 muse of choral dance and song; ErSto, 
 the muse of erotic poetry and mimicry; 
 Polymnia or Polyhymnia, the muse of 
 the sublime hymn; Urania, the muse of 
 astronomy; and CalliSpe, the muse of 
 epic poetry. 
 
 MUSE'UM, a building or apartment 
 appropriated as a repository of things 
 that nave an immediate relation to 
 literature, art, or science, and where the 
 objects may be inspected by those who 
 are curious in sucn matters. Of the 
 
 museums of Britain the British museum 
 is the greatest — being perhaps the great- 
 est in the world. Museums illustrative 
 of the industrial arts, though of recent 
 origin, are of great importance. Fore- 
 most among institutions of this kind in 
 Britain may be instanced the South 
 Kensington Museum. All the chief 
 capitals of Europe and many large cities 
 in the United States have valuable 
 museums. 
 
 MUSHROOMS, the common name of 
 numerous cryptogamic plants of the 
 natural order Fungi. Some of them are 
 edible, others poisonous. The species 
 of mushrooms usually cultivated is the 
 Agaricus campestris, or eatable agaric, 
 well known for its excellence as an ingre- 
 dient in sauces, especially ketchup. 
 Mushrooms are found in all parts of the 
 world, and are usually of very rapid 
 growth. In some cases they form a 
 staple article of food. In Tierra del 
 Fuego the natives live almost entirely on 
 mushrooms; in Australia many species 
 of Boletus are used by the natives, and 
 is commonly called native bread. Mush- 
 room spawn is a term applied to the 
 reproductive mycelium of the mush- 
 room. 
 
 MUSIC, any succession of sounds so 
 modulated as to please the ear; also the 
 art of producing such melodious and 
 harmonious sounds, and the science 
 which treats of their properties, de- 
 pendencies, and relations. Sound is con- 
 veyed through elastic media, as the 
 atmosphere or water, by undulations, 
 which may be generated in the medium 
 itself, as by a flute or organ-pipe, or 
 transmitted to it by the vibrations of 
 violin or pianoforte strings or the reeds 
 of a wind-instrument. When the vibra- 
 tions are fewer than 16 in a second or 
 more than 8192 the sound ceases to have 
 a musical character. The pitch or 
 relative height of a tone is determined 
 by the number of vibrations in a given 
 tone, the lower numbers giving the 
 grave or deep tones, the hi^er numbers 
 the acute or shrill tones. The loudness 
 of a tone is determined by the largeness 
 of the vibrations, not their number. 
 The note or music^ sound called middle 
 C on the pianoforte is usually assumed 
 by theorists to be produced by 512 
 vibrations per second, and this was long 
 the pitch recognized in practice as the 
 standard or concert pitch useful for the 
 guidance of all musicians. The perpetual 
 striving after increased brilliance of tone 
 led, however, to a gradual heightening 
 of the pitch, and in the course of a cen- 
 tury the middle C in France had become 
 522 vibrations, while in England and 
 Germany it was somewhat higher. Of 
 late years there has been a movement 
 among European musicians to lower the 
 pitch to about the French standard, and 
 this lower pitch has now been adopted 
 by many foreign nations. 
 
 A note produced by double the num- 
 ber of vibrations required to produce 
 any given note will be found to be in 
 perfect unison with it though higher in 
 pitch. Between two such notes there is a 
 gradation by seven intervals in the 
 pitch of tone, more agreeable than any 
 other, the whole forming a complete 
 scale of music called the diatonic scale. 
 The space between the notes sounding 
 
 in unison is termed an octave, and the 
 note completing the octave may become 
 the keynote of a similar succession of 
 seven notes, each an octave higher or 
 double the pitch of the corresponding 
 note in the first scale. These seven notes 
 of the diatonic scale are designated by 
 the first seven letters of the alphabet, 
 and each note bears a fixed ratio to the 
 key-note in respect of pitch as deter- 
 mined by the number of vibrations. 
 Thus in the case of a key-note obtained 
 from a vibrating string, its octave is pro- 
 duced by halving the string, which 
 vibrates twice as fast in a given time as 
 the whole string, and the other notes 
 may be obtained by applying recipro- 
 cally the ratios given below to the length 
 of the string. 
 
 Taking C or Do for our fundamental 
 note we have for our scale — 
 
 CDEFGABC DE FG AB 
 
 C, &c. (Scale in key of C major) or Do Re Mi 
 
 Fa Sol La Si Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si Do, &c. 
 
 (Ratio to key-note). 
 
 The scale may be extended up or 
 down so long as the sounds continue to 
 be musical. In order to allow reference 
 to be made to the various degrees of 
 scales without reference to the key in 
 which they are pitched the tones com- 
 posing the octave are known in their 
 ascending order as (1) tonic or keynote, 
 (2) supertonic, (3) mediant, (4) sub- 
 dominant, (5) dominant, (6) super- 
 dominant or submediant, (7) leading 
 note or subtonic, (8) final note. The 
 tonic, the subdominant, and the domi- 
 nant are the governing or emphatic 
 notes of the scale. In the diatonic scale 
 the various notes proceed from the key- 
 note by five tones and two semitones; 
 the semitones (the smallest intervals 
 recognized in musical notation) occur- 
 ring between the 3d and 4th and the 7th 
 and 8th notes in the scale. The first four 
 and last four notes, therefore, form a 
 natural division of the octave into two 
 “tetrachords,” each consisting of two 
 tones and a semitone. 
 
 Every sound employed in the art of 
 music is represented by characters called 
 notes on a staff — that is, five equidistant 
 horizontal lines on or between which the 
 notes are placed. A note represents a 
 higher or a lower sound according as it 
 is placed higher or lower on the staff. 
 When any note is higher or lower in 
 pitch than can be placed upon the staff 
 short lines called ledger-lines are added 
 above or below the staff to indicate the 
 relation of the note to those on the staff. 
 As, however, the multiplication of led- 
 ger-lines is liable to become embarrass- 
 ing to the eye, musicians have endeavor- 
 ed to overcome the difficulty by the use 
 of more than one staff. The staves are 
 the bass, mean, and the treble, but the 
 second is now seldom used. The treble 
 staff, which contains the upper notes, is 
 distinguished by a character called a G 
 
 or treble clef ^ the bass by a character 
 
 called the F or bass clef and the 
 
 mean by a character called the C or 
 The treble and bass clefs 
 
 mean clef 
 
 only are required for keyed instruments 
 
MUSIC 
 
 MUSIC 
 
 of the pianoforte kind, and when a staff 
 is wanted for each hand they are joined 
 by a brace, the upper staff carrying the 
 notes generally played by the right hand 
 and the lower those played generally by 
 the left, as follows: 
 
 tones between the tonic and the third, 
 and is called the major scale, there are 
 minor scales of which the most important 
 kind has an interval of a tone and semi- 
 tone between its tonic and third, the 
 seventh note being sharpened so as to 
 
 It will be seen that the steps in every 
 diatonic scale must correspond to those 
 of the scale of C, in that the notes com- 
 posing it stand in the same fixed ratio 
 to the keynote of the scale. In selecting 
 another ke3mote than C, however, it is 
 necessary to modify some of the natural 
 notes by the insertion of what are called 
 sharps or flats in order to preserve the 
 required relation and sequence of the 
 intervals (the tones and semitones in 
 their due relative positions) and so pro- 
 duce the major musical progression. 
 The sharp (#) placed before a note raises 
 the pitch by a semitone, the flat (fe) 
 lowers it by a semitone. A sharp or flat 
 placed at the beginning of a staff affects 
 every note upon the line which it 
 dominates, unless the contrary be in- 
 dicated by the sign of the natural (tl), 
 which restores the note to which it is 
 attached to its normal pitch. In the 
 model diatonic scale given it has been 
 pointed out that there is an interval of 
 a tone between every note, except the 
 3d and 4th (E and F) and 7th and 8th 
 (B and C), when the interval consists of 
 a semitone. Now if we wish to make G 
 the key-note it is clear that without 
 some contrivance the notation of the 
 scale from G to its octave would throw 
 one of the semitones out of its place — 
 namely, that between E and F, which, 
 instead of being, as it ought to be, be- 
 tween the seventh and eighth, is between 
 the sixth and seventh. It is obvious 
 then that if we raise the F a semitone we 
 shall restore the interval of the semitone 
 to a position similar to that which it 
 hald in the key of C. If D be taken as a 
 key-note we shall find it necessary to 
 sharpen the C as well as the F in order 
 to bring the semitones into their proper 
 places. Still proceeding by fifths, and 
 taking A as a key-note, a third sharp 
 is wanted to raise G. We may proceed 
 thus till we reach the scale of C sharp, 
 with seven sharps, which is, however, 
 rarely used. This series of scales with 
 sharps is obtained by taking the domi- 
 nant, first of the model scale as the key- 
 note and then of the others in succession, 
 and sharpening the fourth of the original 
 scales to make it the seventh of the new. 
 Another series is obtained by taking the 
 subdominant of the model scale as the 
 key-note and lowering its seventh a 
 semitone, making it the fourth of the 
 new scale, or scale of F. Taking the 
 subdominant of the scale (B) as the 
 key-note we require to flatten the E in 
 addition to the B, and so on until we 
 have lowered all the tones in the scale a 
 semitone. 
 
 Besides the forms of the diatonic 
 scale, which have an interval of two 
 
 form a leading note. In the ascending 
 scale, too, the harsh interval of the 
 second between this leading note and 
 the one immediately below it is fre- 
 quently avoided by sharpening the 
 lower note. In the descending scale the 
 sharps are removed, and the scale is 
 identical with the major, beginning 
 at its sixth and descending an octave. 
 See example at top of next page. 
 
 Major and minor scales which, like 
 those given in the example, have the 
 same key signature, are called relative. 
 Thus, the major scale of G has for its 
 relative minor the scale of E minor, the 
 major scale of D has for its relative 
 minor the scale of B minor; and so on. 
 Each minor scale is also called the tonic 
 minor to the major scale on the same 
 key-note. The tonic minor scale to C 
 major is C minor. One major scale is 
 also said to be related to another when it 
 is raised from its dominant or its sub- 
 dominant : thus the scales of G and F are 
 held to be nearly related to that of C. 
 
 There is still another kind of scale, 
 called the chromatic (Greek chroma, 
 color), because, like colors in painting 
 
 being half the duration of the note pre- 
 ceding it : 
 
 NoJies. 
 
 Maiur scale of C. 
 
 it embellishes the diatonic by its semi- 
 tones. It consists of thirteen notes, 
 and usually ascends by sharps and de- 
 scends by flats. 
 
 Intervals in music (i.e. the distance 
 from any one note to any other) are 
 reckoned always upward and inclusively 
 number of names of notes they contain, 
 both limits to the interval being counted. 
 Thus C to E is a third, both C and E 
 being counted in the interval. They are 
 known as major or normal when they 
 are such as would be found in any major 
 scale; as minor when the interval con- 
 sists of a semitone less than the corre- 
 sponding major interval; as augmented 
 when consisting of a semitone more than 
 major; as diminished when a semitone 
 less than minor; and as simple or com- 
 pound according as they fall within or 
 exceed the compass of an octave. 
 
 Hitherto notes have been referred to 
 only as representatives of the various 
 sounds with reference to their pitch and 
 distance from each other; but each note 
 serves also to mark the relative duration 
 of the sound it represents. The follow- 
 ing are the names and forms of the notes 
 commonly in use, each in succession 
 
 The stems of the notes may be written 
 upward or do^vnward as convenient. In 
 connection with these notes other signs 
 are used still further to indicate dura- 
 tion. A dot placed after a note lengthens 
 it by one-half, two dots by three-fourths. 
 Instead of the dot a note of its value 
 rnay be written, and a curve, called a 
 tie, written overitand the precedingnote. 
 Sometimes three notes of equal value 
 have to be played in the time of two, in 
 which case the figure 3 with a curve 
 thrown over it is written above or be- 
 low the notes. Two triplets (as this 
 group is called) may be joined, and the 
 figure 6 sunnounted by a curve written 
 over them; they are then performed in 
 the time of four notes of the same form. 
 A sensible interval of time often occurs 
 between the sounding of two notes; 
 this is represented by characters called 
 rests, each note having a corresponding 
 rest. A dot may be added to a rest in 
 the same manner as to a note, to indi- 
 cate an addition of a half to its length. 
 See the example just given, which 
 shows the rests in connection with their 
 corresponding notes. 
 
 Every piece of music is divided into 
 portions equal in time, called measures, 
 which are separated from each other by 
 vertical lines called bars. The term bar 
 is often loosely applied to the measure 
 as well as to the line. The exact length 
 of the measure is indicated by a sign 
 at the beginning of the piece of music. 
 In common time, indicated by a B 
 written after the clef, each measure 
 contains a semibreve, or such notes and 
 rests as make up together its value. 
 Another form of common time, marked 
 with a ^ contains two semibreves in 
 the measure, or their equivalents in 
 minims, crotchets, etc. Another method 
 of indicating time (or rather more cor- 
 rectly, rhythm) is by figures, in the form 
 of a fraction. The figures of the denomi- 
 nator are either 2, 4, 8, or 16, which . 
 (the semibreve being considered the 
 unit) stand for minims, crotchets, 
 quavers, and semiquavers respectively; 
 and the numerator shows the number 
 of these fractional parts of a semibreve 
 in the measure. Besides common time, 
 which may be indicated in two waj^s, 
 there is triple time, in which a measure 
 is made up of three minims, crotchets, or 
 quavers, which can only be marked by 
 figures; these are f, |, or f. When two 
 or four measures or triple time are united 
 in one measure the music is said to be 
 written in compound common time, and 
 is indicated by the fractions | and |; 
 rarer examples of compound time signa- 
 tures are f, |, -V, etc. The object 
 
 of the division of musical passages into 
 measures is to indicate their rhythm . 
 
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 
 
 MUSIC-BOX 
 
 Notes, like words or syllables, are 
 accented or unaccented. The strongest 
 accent is given to the first' note of a 
 measure. In common time of four notes 
 to the measure the third has a subor- 
 dinate accent, as, though in a less de- 
 gree, the third measure note in triple 
 time. In compound common time the 
 subordinate accents falls on the first 
 note of the last half of the measure, and 
 in compound triple time on the first 
 note of each of the groups of three 
 of which the measure is composed. 
 'When a curve is placed over two notes 
 in the same degree, but not, in the same 
 bar, the two notes are played as one of 
 the length of both, and the first note 
 acquires the accent. This displacement 
 of the accent is called syncopation. If 
 the curve is written over notes of differ- 
 ent degrees it is called a slur, and indi- 
 cates that the notes are to be played or 
 sung smoothly, as if gliding into each 
 other. When an opposite effect is 
 wanted, that is, when the notes are to be 
 produced distinct and detached (stac- 
 cato), a dot is placed over them. The 
 various degrees of loudness and softness 
 which occur in a piece of music are in- 
 dicated by such Italian words as forte, 
 loud; fortissimo, very loud; piano, soft; 
 pianissimo, very soft. In order to save 
 time in writing music various abbre- 
 viations are used. 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, any de- 
 vice for the production of sounds, 
 whether of discord or concord, supposed 
 to arouse emotion of any kind, pleasant 
 or unpleasant, in the hearer. The origin 
 of many musical instruments dates back 
 to the earliest times. Monuments re- 
 cently unearthed at Thebes and in the 
 upper valley of the Nile contain repre- 
 sentations of harps and flutes. Even so 
 recent an instrument as our grand piano- 
 forte can be traced through its many 
 and vital changes to the dulcimer known 
 to the Arabs and Persians. Many of our 
 museums are filled with various instru- 
 ments of all times and nations preserved 
 only as curiosities. Thus the large family 
 of lutes is now entirely obsolete; and 
 yet' at one time these instruments en- 
 joyed the same popularity as the piano- 
 forte does to-day, and no orchestra was 
 complete without them. If we except 
 the stringed instruments, it may safely 
 be asserted that no instrument found 
 in the modern orchestra is the same as 
 it was a century ago. Musical instru- 
 ments may be divided into three classes ; 
 stringed, wind, and percussioni Stringed 
 instruments are of three kinds: those 
 whose sounds are produced by friction, 
 as the violin, viola, violoncello, etc.; 
 by twitching with the finger or other- 
 wise, as the harp, guitar, mandolin, 
 etc.; by striking, as the pianoforte, and 
 dulcimer. Wind instruments are of two 
 kinds, viz., the reed species — as the 
 hautboy, clarionet, etc. — and the flute 
 species, as the flute, flageolet, etc. The 
 trumpet, horn, trombone, and all 
 similar wind instruments, are generally 
 classed among the reed intruments; but 
 whether the sound is produced by the 
 lips of the blower acting as a reed, or by 
 the compressed stream of air, as in 
 flute instruments, is not yet determined 
 Percussion instruments are those which 
 on being struck produce only one fixed 
 
 sound, as the drum, triangle, C3nnbals, 
 tambourine, etc. Whatever material 
 may be used to form a musical instru- 
 ment, there are only two means of pro- 
 ducing musical sounds, and these are 
 by the vibrations of a fixed elastic body, 
 such as the string of the violin or piano- 
 forte, the reed of the hautboy, bassoon 
 etc.; or by the vibrations of a confined 
 column of air put into motion by a 
 
 by filling or loading with lead the indi- 
 vidual teeth are accurately attuned. 
 Each tone and semitone in the scale is 
 represented by three or four separate 
 teeth in the comb, to permit of succes- 
 sive repetitions of the same note when 
 required by the music. The teeth are 
 acted upon and musical vibrations pro- 
 duced by the revolution of a brass 
 cylinder studded with projecting pins, 
 
 Early flutes with equal-spaced holes. 
 
 stream of compressed air, as in the flute, 
 flageolet, anci all the ordinary flute 
 species of organ-pipes. 
 
 MUSIC-BOX, an instrument for pro- 
 ducing by mechanical means tunes or 
 pieces of music. The modern music-box 
 is an elaboration of the elegant toy 
 musical snuff-box in vogue during the 
 18th century. The notes or musical 
 sounds are produced by the vibration of 
 steel teeth, or sj^rings cut in a comb or 
 flat plate of steel. The teeth are gradu- 
 ated in length from end to end of the 
 comb or plate, the longer teeth giving 
 the deeper notes; and, where necessary, 
 
 which, as they move around, raise and 
 release the proper teeth at' due intervals 
 according to the nature of the music. 
 An entire revolution of the cylidner com- 
 pletes the performance of the special 
 pieces of music for which the apparatus 
 is set, but upon the same cj'linder there 
 may be inserted pins for performing as 
 manj^ as thirty-six separate airs. This is 
 accomplished by making both the points 
 of the teeth or springs and the projecting 
 pins which touch them very fine, _ so 
 that a very small change in the position 
 of the cylinder is sufficient to bring an 
 entirely distinct set of pins in contact 
 
MUSK 
 
 MUSSET 
 
 with the note teeth. In the more elabo- 
 rate music-boxes the cylinders are re- 
 movable, and may be replaced by 
 others containing distinct sets of music. 
 In these also there are combinations of 
 bell, drum, C5unbal, and triangle effects, 
 etc. The revolving motion of the cylinder 
 is effected by a spring and clockwork, 
 and the rate of revolution is regulated 
 by a fly regulator. The headquarters 
 of the music-box trade is Geneva, where 
 the manufacture gives employment to 
 upward of 1000 persons. 
 
 The music-box is a type of numerous 
 instruments for producing music effects 
 by mechanical means, in all of which a 
 revolving cylinder or barrel studded with 
 pins is the governing feature. The prin- 
 ciple of the barrel operating by percus- 
 sion or by wind on reeds, pipes, or strings 
 governs carillons or music bells, barrel 
 organs, mechanical flutes, celestial 
 voices, harmoniphohes, and the some- 
 times huge and complex orchestrions 
 in which a combination of all orchestral 
 effects is attempted. A principle of more 
 recent introduction than the studded 
 cylinder consists of sheets of perforated 
 paper or card, somewhat similar to the 
 Jacquard apparatus for weaving. The 
 perforations correspond in position and 
 length to the pitch and duration of the 
 note they represent, and as the web or 
 long sheet of paper passes over the in- 
 strument, the perforated holes are 
 brought in proper position and sequence 
 under the influence of the suction or 
 pressure of air from a bellows, and there- 
 by the notes are either directly acted 
 on, as in the case of reed instruments, or 
 the opening and closing of valves set 
 in motion levers or liberate springs 
 which govern special notes. The United 
 States is the original home of the instru- 
 ments controlled by perforated paper 
 known as organettes, organinas, melo- 
 deons, pianola, etc. See Phonograph. 
 
 MUSK, a substance used in per- 
 fumery and medicine, and obtained 
 from several species of deer. A perfume 
 of similar character is also obtained 
 from one or two other animals, (see 
 Musk-rat); and various animals and 
 plants are noted for emitting a strong, 
 musky smell. 
 
 MUSK-DEER, a genus of deer, which 
 is essentially distinct from the true deer. 
 
 Musk deer. 
 
 Their chief habitat is Asia and the islands 
 of the Eastern Archipelago; though one 
 species is found on the west coast of 
 Africa. These animals attain the size of 
 
 a young roe-deer, and the upper jaws 
 bear prominent canine teeth. lue males 
 alone yield the musk, which is secreted 
 by an abdominal gland of about the 
 size of a hen’s egg. The Tibet musk is 
 most in repute, that known as Russian 
 or Siberian being inferior in quality. 
 Besides its familiar use as a scent, musk 
 is employed medicinally as an anti- 
 spasmodic. 
 
 MUSKE'GON, a city in the state of 
 Michigan, situated at the upper end of 
 Lake Muskegon. It does a great trade 
 in lumber, the timber being floated down 
 the Muskegon river, and passing through 
 extensive sawing and planing mills here. 
 Pop. 24,501. 
 
 MUSKET, a hand-gun with which 
 infantry soldiers were formerly armed. 
 When first introduced, early in the 16th 
 century, as a development of the cul- 
 verin and arquebus, it was discharged 
 by means of a lighted match (hence the 
 name matchlock given to it), and was so 
 heavy that it had to be laid across a 
 staff or rest to be fired. To make use 
 of it the soldier required to carry a slow- 
 burning match with him, which was apt 
 to be extinguished in wet weather. The 
 wheel-lock followed (16th century), the 
 chief feature of which was a wheel made 
 to revolve by means of a spring, and to 
 cause sparks by friction against a flint. 
 The next improvement was the flint- 
 lock proper (about 1625), in which 
 sparks were produced by one impact of 
 a piece of flint on the steel above the 
 priming powder. Musketeers were soon 
 introduced into all armies, and in the 
 beginning of the 17th century infantry 
 consisted of pikemen and musketeers, 
 and all changes in regard to the relative 
 proportion of the two arms where always 
 in favor of the latter. The flint-lock 
 musket was introduced into the British 
 army toward the end of the 17th cen- 
 tury, and was the British musket of the 
 days of the Peninsular war and Water- 
 loo, known familiarly as “Brown Bess.” 
 It was superseded by the percussion 
 musket in 1842, this musket being in 
 turn superseded by the rifle. See Rifle. 
 
 MUSKmOUM, a river in the state of 
 Ohio, United States, and falling into the 
 Ohio river at Marietta. It is connected 
 with Lake Erie by canal. 
 
 MUSK-MALLOW, a British perennial 
 plant, so named from the peculiar musky 
 odor thrown off by the parts of the plant. 
 
 MUSK-MELON, a delicious variety of 
 melon, named probably from its frag- 
 rance. 
 
 MUSK-OX, an animal intermediate 
 between the ox and sheep. Resembling 
 in general appearance a large goat-like 
 sheep, its body is covered with a coat 
 of tufted hair, brownish in color and of 
 great length. The hair about the neck 
 and shoulders is so thick as to give the 
 animal a “humped” appearance; on the 
 rest of the body it is very long, smooth, 
 and flowing, while interspersed among its 
 fibres is a layer of lighter-colored wool. 
 The musk-ox is active and agile, and 
 climbs mountainous places with ease 
 and dexterity. The horns, broad at the 
 base and covering the forehead and 
 crown, curve downward between the 
 eye and the ear, and then upward and 
 slightly backward. The horns of the 
 female are smaller than those of the 
 
 male, and their bases do not touch. 
 The ears are short, the head large and 
 broad, the muzzle blunted. The average 
 size of the male is that of a small domes- 
 tic ox. Gregarious in habits, each herd 
 numbers from twentyto thirty members. 
 The female brings forth one calf in May 
 or June. The food consists of grass, 
 lichens, etc. The musk-ox inhabits the 
 Arctic regions of America north of the 
 60th degree of latitude. The flesh is 
 pleasant to the taste, though it smells 
 strongly of musk; the odor of which is 
 also diffused from the living animal. 
 
 MUSK-PLANT, a littleyellow-flowered 
 musky-smelling plant, a native of Oregon. 
 
 MUSK-RAT, an American rodent 
 allied to the beaver, and the only known 
 species of the genus. It is about the size 
 of a small rabbit, and has a flattened 
 lanceolate tail, covered with small 
 scales and a few scattered hairs. Its 
 toes are separate, and provided with a 
 stiff fringe of hair. In summer it has a 
 smell of musk, which it loses in winter. 
 The odor is due to a whitish fluid de- 
 posited in certain glands near the origin 
 of the tail'. 
 
 MUSLIN, a fine, thin, cotton fabric, 
 first made at Mosul or Moussul (whence 
 the name), afterward in India. There 
 are many different kinds made, as book, 
 mull, jaconet, leno, foundation, etc. 
 Some Indian muslins are of extraordi- 
 nary fineness. Figured muslins are 
 wrought in the loom to imitate tam- 
 boured muslins, or muslins embroidered 
 by hand. 
 
 MUSSEL, a term popularly given to 
 several molluscs, in which “siphons” or 
 tubes admitting water to the gills, are 
 absent. The common mussel forms a 
 typical example, the shells being equi- 
 valve and have a hinge destitute of 
 teeth. It has a “byssus” or “beard,” by 
 means of which the mussels attach 
 themselves to fixed objects. The mussel 
 is extensively employed as a bait for 
 deep-sea fishermen ; and in some dis- 
 tricts it is used as an article of food, the 
 best mussels approaching nearly to the 
 oyster in flavor, though occasionally 
 found to be unwholesome. The pond 
 mussels, of which many species are 
 known, ai;e found in the rivers and lakes 
 both of Europe and America. 
 
 MUSSET (mu-sa), Louis Charles Alfred 
 de, French poet, novelist, and dram- 
 atist, born at Paris in 1810, died 
 there in 1857. In 1829 he published a 
 volume of poems called Contes d’ Es- 
 pagne et d’ltalie, which had an im- 
 mediate and striking success. In 1831 
 appeared Po4sies Di verses, and in 1833 
 Un Spectacle dans un Fauteuil, in which 
 the two chief pieces are a comedy of a 
 light and delicate grace called A quoi 
 Revent les Jeunes Filles, and a poem 
 entitled Namouna, written after the 
 manner of Byron. In 1836 was published 
 his Confession d’un Enfant du Siecle, a 
 gloomy novel, containing the analysis of 
 a diseased state of mind, all the phases 
 of which the author had studied in him- 
 self. The same settled melancholy also 
 distinguishes his Rolla, Une Bonne 
 Fortune, Lucie, Les Nuits, Une Lettre k 
 Lamartine, Stances k Madame Malibran, 
 L’Espoir en Dieu, and other poems. 
 Among his light and sparkling dramatic 
 pieces are: On ne badine pas avec 1' 
 
MUSSULMAN 
 
 MYSTICISM 
 
 Amour, Les Caprices de Marianne, II ne 
 faut pas jurer de Rein, etc. In 1852 he 
 was admitted a member of the French 
 Academy. De Musset was one of the 
 most distinctive, and, in a certain sense, 
 original of modern French writers. 
 
 MUSSULMAN. See Moslem. 
 
 MUST, the juice of grape, which by 
 fermentation is converted into wine. 
 
 MUSTANG, a small wild horse of the 
 Southwestern states and northern 
 Mexico, where it is found in extensive 
 herds, and is captured and tamed as 
 the Indian pony. A reversion from the 
 domesticated stock, it seldom exceeds 
 13 hands in height, but is a strong 
 and useful animal, and capable of great 
 endurance. 
 
 MUSTARD, the seeds of the white and 
 common mustard, when ground and 
 freed from husks, form the well-known 
 
 Mustard. 
 
 condiment. The plant is an annual, with 
 stems 3 to 4 feet in height, lower leaves 
 lyrate, upper lanceolate and entire, 
 flowers small and yellow. Tlie prepara- 
 tion from the seeds is often very valuable 
 as a stimulant to weak digestion, and as 
 an adjunct to fatty and other indigesti- 
 ble articles of food. When mixed with 
 warm water and taken in large quanti- 
 ties it acts as an emetic. The tender 
 leaves are used as a salad, and the seeds 
 are used in the well-known form of 
 poultice, being applied to various parts 
 of the skin as a rubefacient. Oil of mus- 
 tard is an essential oil obtained from the 
 seeds. It is very pungent to the taste and 
 smell, and when applied to the skin 
 speedily raises a blister. 
 
 MUTINY, resistance by soldiers or 
 sailors to tjie authority of their officers. 
 Joining in inciting to or conniving at 
 mutiny is punishable with death, whether 
 the troops are on active service or not ; 
 on active service the same sentence may 
 follow treachery or cowardice, deserting 
 a post, etc. 
 
 MUTTRA, a town in India, United 
 Provinces, on the Jumna, 36 miles north- 
 west of Agra. Pop. 60,042. — The Muttra 
 district has an area of 1453 sq. miles; 
 pop. 763,221. 
 
 MY'LODON, a genus of extinct eden- 
 tate mammalia, allied to the megather- 
 ium. Its remains have been found in the 
 upper tertiaries of South America. In 
 size the mylodon robustus — the most 
 familiar species — attained a length in 
 some instances of 11 feet. Of terrestrial 
 habits, the mylodon obtained the vege- 
 table food upon which it subsisted chiefly 
 by uprooting trees. 
 
 MYO'PIA, the scientific name for 
 shortsightedness. See Sight, Defects of. 
 
 MYRIAP'ODA, the lowest class of the 
 higher annulose or arthropodous animals 
 
 Skeleton of Mylodon. 
 
 represented by the centipedes, mille- 
 pedes, and their allies, and resembling 
 the Annelids in the lengthened form and 
 the numerous segments of the body, 
 each segment being provided with one 
 pair of ambulatory feet, whence the 
 name. They have a distinct head, but no 
 division of the body into thorax and ab- 
 domen, as in insects. They are therefore 
 of a lower structural type than insects, 
 which in general organization they re- 
 semble. No wings are developed. They 
 respire through minute spiracles or pores 
 along the whole length of the body, and 
 are invested with a hard or horny cover- 
 ing. This class is divided into two orders, 
 the Diplopoda, in which the fusion of 
 two rings gives apparently two pairs of 
 feet on each ring; and the Chilopoda, 
 
 lulus plicatus, one of the Chilognatha. 
 
 which have two pairs of foot-jaws, and 
 not more than one pair of feet on each 
 segment. 
 
 MYRRH is the name given to a gum 
 resin which exudes from a shrub growing 
 
 in Aradia and Abj’^ssinia. It was much 
 esteemed as an unguent and perfume by 
 the ancients, who used it also for em- 
 balming and for incense. It is still used 
 
 as a perfume and for incense, as also 
 medicinally. By distillation with water 
 myrrh yields a viscid, browish -green, 
 volatile oil. Myrrh of the best quality is 
 known as Turkey myrrh; that of an in- 
 ferior kind goes under the name of East 
 Indian, being exported from Bombay. 
 
 MYRTLE, a genus of plants, consist- 
 ing of aromatic trees or shrubs, with 
 simple opposite leaves sprinkled with 
 pellucid glandular points, and having 
 axillary or terminal white or rose-colored 
 flowers. One species, the common myrtle 
 is a native of the south of Europe and 
 other countries bordering on the Mediter- 
 ranean. It has been celebrated from re- 
 mote antiquity on account of its fra- 
 grance and the beauty of its evergreen 
 foliage, and by different nations was con- 
 
 1, branch with flowers of myrtle: 2, branch 
 with fruits; a. vertical section of a flower; b, 
 calyx, torus, and pistin of the fruit; d, ver- 
 tical section of the seed, showing the em- 
 bryo. 
 
 secrated to various religious purposes. 
 With the moderns it has always been a 
 favorite ornamental plant. 
 
 MYSOR', or MYSORE', a principality 
 of southern India; area, 27,936 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 5,538,482. 
 
 MYSOR, the capital of the state of 
 the same name, 250 miles west by south 
 of Madras, stands at an elevation of 
 2450 feet above the level of the sea. Pop. 
 68,151. 
 
 MYS'TICISM, a word of very vague 
 signification, applied sometimes to views 
 or tendencies in religion which aspire 
 toward a more direct communication 
 between man and his Maker through the 
 inward perception of the mind, than 
 that which is afforded through revela- 
 tion or to efforts and inclinations by 
 some special and extraordinary means to 
 hold intercourse with divine powers or 
 the inhabitants of higher worlds. Ac- 
 cording to John Stuart Mill, “whether in 
 the Vedas, in the Platonists, or in the 
 Hegelians, mysticism is neither more 
 nor less than ascribing objective exist- 
 ence to the subjective creations of our 
 own faculties, to ideas or feelings of the 
 mind, and believing that, by watching 
 and contemplating these ideas of. its own 
 making, it can read in them what takes 
 place in the world without.” The ten- 
 dency toward mysticism rjeems natu- 
 rally implanted in some natures, and has 
 been observed in all ages. It is a charac- 
 teristic feature of the great .-Vsiatic re- 
 
MYTHOLOGY 
 
 MYTILENE 
 
 ligions, Brahmanism and Buddhism. In 
 the Neo-Platonic philosophy it is an im- 
 portant element, as represented by 
 Plotinus (204-269 a.d.). Christianity, 
 in consequence of its special tendency to 
 practical good, as well as of its submis- 
 sion to a system of doctrine expressly re- 
 vealed, would seem to have afforded 
 little scope for the extravagances of 
 mysticism. It soon, however, made its 
 appearance, forming a kind of profane 
 mixture, and reached its extreme in the 
 writings of the so-called Dionysius the 
 Areopagite. This pseudo-Dionysius ob- 
 tained an extensive influence, especially 
 through Hugo St. Victor, in the 12th 
 century, and was everywhere held in high 
 respect until the time of the Reforma- 
 tion. In opposition to scholasticism, 
 which labored in the construction of a 
 systematic and almost demonstrative 
 theology, this system embodied a theol- 
 ogy of feeling and immediate illumina- 
 tion, which attached very little import- 
 ance to intellectual effort, and laid so 
 much the more weight on purification of 
 heart and ascetic morality. Of the most 
 notable of the German mystics in the 
 middle ages were Eckhart and Tauler. 
 In the philosophy of the 15th and 16th 
 centuries, in Paracelsus, Bruno, and 
 others mysticism took a direction which 
 at a later period gave rise, on the one 
 side, to the alchemists and Rosicrucians, 
 and on the other side to a number of 
 religious sects, of which such men as 
 Jacob Bohmen and Swedenborg may be 
 considered the representatives. The 
 Quietism of Madame Guyon and her ad- 
 herents (such as F4nelon) in France in 
 the 18th century was a product of the 
 same nature. 
 
 MYTHOLOGY, the collective name 
 for the whole body of fables, legends, or 
 traditions (myths) that take their rise at 
 an early period of a nation’s existence 
 and of its civilization, and that embody 
 the convictions of the people among 
 whom such fables arise as to their gods 
 or other divine personages, their origin 
 and early history and the heroes con- 
 nected with it, the origin of the world, 
 etc. Though speculations as to the origin 
 of mythology have been put forth from 
 a very early period, it is only in recent 
 times, by the help of comparative philol- 
 ogy, and by comparing together the 
 myths of different peoples (comparative 
 mythology), that any real advance has 
 been made. Myths are of course believed 
 in by the bulk of the people among whom 
 they are current, and it is only when 
 speculative and reflective spirits arise, 
 and when science and philosophy have 
 made some advances, that their truth is 
 called in question. Thus Zeus, Apollo, 
 Athene, Heracles, and the other divini- 
 ties of ancient Greece, were believed by 
 the bulk of the people to have a real ex- 
 istence, and the stories regarding them 
 
 were looked upon as true; but even in 
 Greece in early times the absurdities and 
 monstrosities of some of the myths at- 
 tracted the attention of philosophers 
 and led to attempts at explaining the 
 stories in such a way as that they 
 should not shock common sense or moral 
 feeling. In doing this three chief sys- 
 tems of interpretation were followed, 
 called respectively by Max Mtiller the 
 ethical, the physical, and the historical. 
 Those who adopted the first explained 
 that the stories of the power and omnis- 
 cience of the gods, of their rewarding 
 good and punishing evil, were invented 
 by wise men for the purpose of main- 
 taining law and order in communities — 
 leaving it to be supposed that the 
 immoral representations of the gods 
 were the inventions of poets. The 
 interpreters of the physical (also called 
 the allegorical) school held that the 
 myths contained explanations of nat- 
 ural phenomena, or of certain views 
 regarding them, under a peculiar 
 phraseology, which disclosed its hid- 
 den wisdom when rightly understood. 
 The third or historical school, identified 
 with the name of Euhemerus, repre- 
 sented the gods as having been originally 
 kings or chiefs, great warriors, sages, or 
 benefactors of the human race, who, 
 being exalted above their fellowmen in 
 life, after their death gradually came to 
 be looked upon as deities. 
 
 Perhaps the most common theory of 
 mythology at the present day is one that 
 is based upon comparative philology, 
 and on a comparison of the myths of 
 the different Indo-European nations. 
 Thus in early times men would speak 
 quite naturally of the sun as the child of 
 the night, as the destroyer of the dark- 
 ness, as the lover of the dawn and as 
 deserting her, as traveling over many 
 lands, as the child of the morning, as her 
 husband, as her destroyer, and so on. 
 This language was natural in early times, 
 and was perfectly understood as de- 
 scriptive simply of natural phenomena, 
 and nothing else; but in course of time 
 such expressions lost their natural signifi- 
 cance, and in this way it is explained 
 that Phcebus Apollo, Endymion, and 
 Phaethon, for instance, all originally 
 significant epithets applied to the sun 
 from his brilliancy or other characteris- 
 tic, became the names of divinities, who 
 were regarded as quite distinct from each 
 other. So Zeus originally meant the sky, 
 Athene and Daphne the dawn, Hermes 
 the wind, and so on. According to this 
 theory the story of Apollo slaying the 
 children of Niobe with his arrows is 
 nothing more than a mythological way of 
 telling how the morning clouds are dis- 
 persed before the rays of the rising sun. 
 Heracles or Hercules, again, is the sun 
 laboring throughout his life for the bene- 
 fit of others : soon after birth he strangles 
 
 the serpents of darkness, and after per- 
 forming innumerable toil he dies on the 
 funeral pyre, as the sun sinks in the fiery 
 west. Endymion, as his name implies, is 
 the setting sun, who is courted by the 
 moon, and who sinks to sleep in the west. 
 Some of these identifications of deities 
 with natural phenomena are pretty cer- 
 tain. Zeus, for instance, the supreme god 
 of Greece, the same as the Jupiter of the 
 Romans and the Dyaus of the early 
 Hindus, is clearly the bright sky; and 
 among the Hindus the name of the sky- 
 god Dyaus always retained its meaning 
 of sky, so that Dyaus had only an in- 
 distinct personality as a deity. The 
 Hindu Varuna, a sky-god, is clearly the 
 same as the Greek Ouranos, which latter 
 word, besides being the name of a deity, 
 had the ordinary signification of sky or 
 heaven. So the Scandinavian Thor, the 
 god of thunder, can hardly be anything 
 else than thunder personified. Yet as a 
 whole the “solar theory” cannot be ac« 
 cepted as a key to all mythology. It 
 fails to aicount for many of the wild and 
 monstrous myths told of deities, of the 
 creation of the world, of the state of the 
 dead, etc., and though it may throw a 
 certain amount of light on the mythology 
 of the Aryan or Indo-European nations, 
 is quite insufficient when myths as a 
 whole are investigated. 
 
 Another road has been taken therefore 
 by some recent investigators. Thus Mr. 
 Andrew Lang finds a key to mythology 
 in a study of the myths and mental 
 habits of savage races; he maintains that 
 “the savage and senseless element in 
 mythology is for the most part a legacy 
 from ancestors of the civilized races who 
 were in an intellectual state not higher 
 than that of Australians, Bushmen, Red 
 Indians, the lower races of South Ameri- 
 ca, and other worse than barbaric 
 peoples,” and that the monstrous myths 
 current in Greece, Egypt, and India 
 were thus inherited. He points to the 
 currency of such myths among savages 
 at the present day, and to the fact that 
 in general savages are eager to arrive at 
 some explanation of the natural phenom- 
 ena around them, and are quite satis- 
 fied with explanations that to civilized 
 men may seem even imbecile. AVhen a 
 phenomenon presents itself the savage 
 requires an explanation, and that ex- 
 planation he makes for himself, or re- 
 ceives from tradition, in the shape of a 
 myth. But, indeed, no one theory can be 
 expected to explain the origin of all 
 myths, for it is impossible to deny that 
 some may be pure products of imagina- 
 tion, tales invented by early bards or 
 minstrels to beguile a weary hour, while 
 in others fragments of real history may 
 be hidden. 
 
 MYTILENE, or MITYLENE, a town in 
 the island of Lesbos. See Lesbos. 
 
N 
 
 NAMES 
 
 N, the fourteenth letter and eleventh 
 consonant of the English alphabet; 
 formed by placing the point of the 
 tongue against the root of the upper 
 teeth and forcing out the breath. It is 
 classed as a nasal, a lingual, and liquid 
 or semi-vowel. In English and most 
 other languages n has a pure nasal sound 
 in French and Portuguese, after a vowel 
 in the same syllable, as pn, un, etc., it 
 has the effect of giving a semi-nasal 
 sound to the vowel preceding, that is to 
 say, the vowel is sounded by an emission 
 of the breath partly through the nose 
 and partly through the mouth. The 
 Spanish alphabet has a character fi, 
 called n with the tilde, as in Espana, 
 pronounced like ni in onion, minion; gn 
 in Italian is pronounced in the same way. 
 
 NA'BOB, in India, formerly the title 
 of a governor of a province or the com- 
 mander of the troops; borne, however, 
 by many persons as a mere titular ap- 
 pendage. 
 
 NABONASSAR, a king of Babylon, 
 with whose reign begins an epoch called 
 the Era of Nabonassar. It began on the 
 26th of February, 747 or 746 b.c. 
 
 NA'DIR, in astronomy, that point of 
 the heavens w'hich is diametrically op- 
 posite to the zenith, or point directly 
 over our heads. The zenith and nadir 
 are the two poles of the horizon. 
 
 NADIR SHAH, King of Persia, a 
 famous conqueror and usurper, was born 
 in 1688. Having distinguished himself 
 against the Afghans and Turks he ac- 
 quired the chief power in Persia in 1732, 
 seized the shah, confined and deposed 
 him, and proclaiming his son Abbas, then 
 an infant, in his stead, assumed the title 
 of regent. The young king dying in 1736, 
 he seated himself on the throne as shah. 
 He undertook the conquest of India, at 
 the head of 120,000 men, and with little, 
 resistance reached Delhi in March, 1739. 
 Being exasperated by some tumults on 
 the part of the inhabitants he caused a 
 general massacre, in which upwards of 
 100,000 persons perished. In this ex- 
 pedition it is supposed that he carried 
 away, and distributed among his officers, 
 valuables to the amount of $560,000,000. 
 A conspiracy having been formed against 
 him by the commander of his body- 
 guard and his own nephew, he was assas- 
 sinated in his tent in 1747, his nephew, 
 Ali Kuli, succeeding to the throne. 
 
 NADIYA, or NUDDEA, a district in 
 the lieutenant-governorship of Bengal, 
 with an area of 2794 sq. miles. Pop. 
 1,644,108. 
 
 N^VUS, or “MOTHER’S MARK,” a 
 
 disfigurement which occurs most fre- 
 quently on the head and trunk, but may 
 also appear on the extremities. It con- 
 sists essentially of an enlargement of the 
 minute veins, or venous capillaries, 
 which are dilated, and anastomose or 
 unite among themselves to form a vas- 
 cular patch generally of a deep-red color. 
 The familiar name of “mother’s mark,” 
 or “longing mark,” is applied from the 
 popular belief that the lesion was the re- 
 sult of fear, fright, unnatural longing, or 
 some such irritation acting upon the j 
 
 ]sr 
 
 mother’s constitution, and communicat- 
 ing its effects to the unborn child in the 
 shape of this mark. 
 
 NAGASA'KI, or NANGASA'KI a city 
 and port in Japan, on the west coast of 
 the island of Kiusiu, beautifully situated 
 on a peninsula at the extremity of a 
 harbor, affording excellent anchorage, 
 and inclosed by hills, up the sides of 
 which a portion of the town extends. 
 Nagasaki was one of five Japanese ports 
 opened in 1858 to the Britsh and Ameri- 
 cans, having been previously open to 
 
 the Dutch; and in 1869 it and seven 
 others were opened to foreign nations 
 generally. The exports are copper, silk, 
 camphor, tobacco, porcelain, lackered 
 wares, etc. A dry-dock measuring 460 
 by 89 feet was opened here in May, 
 1879. Pop. 107,422. 
 
 NAGPUR, or NAGPORE, a town in 
 India, capital of the Central Provinces, 
 and of the division of Nagpur (area 
 24,040 sq. miles; pop. 2,716,748), 440 
 miles e.n.e. of Bombay. A bed, of coal, 
 estimated to contain 17,000,000 tons 
 at a depth of 200 feet, has been dis- 
 covered at Nagpur. There is a trade in 
 opium, hemp, and above all, in cotton, 
 for which this is a great mart. Nagpur 
 was formerly the seat of a line of rajahs, 
 wdiich became extinct in 1853, when their 
 territory was annexed to the British 
 dominions. Pop. 127,734. 
 
 NAIADS, in the Greek mythology, 
 nymphs of fountains and brooks, of 
 similar character to the dryads, oreads, 
 etc., analogous to the nixies of the north- 
 ern mythology. 
 
 NAIDTD.®, a family or group of 
 water-worms, some of them of common 
 occurrence in the mud of ponds and 
 streams. 
 
 NAILS (of Animals), like hairs, are 
 appendages w'hich belong to the cate- 
 gory of the exoskeletal elements of the 
 animal frame, or as parts of the skin, 
 
 of the outer layer of which they are 
 modified appendages. A nail, in fact, is 
 a specialized arrangement of the cells of 
 the epidermis. In man the nails do not 
 inclose the ends of the digits; but in the 
 horse, and “hoofed” or ungulate quad- 
 rupeds generally, the nails assume the 
 form of protective coverings to the 
 digits, and are then known as “hoofs.” 
 Nails may be produced to form “claws,” 
 as in birds and carnivorous mammals, 
 while in the sloths they assume a large 
 relative size, and are used as a means in 
 arboreal progression. In the Amphibia — ■ 
 as in some toads, efts, etc. — the nails 
 appear as mere thickenings of the skin 
 at the extremities of the digits. The 
 nails appear about the fifth month of 
 fcetal or embryonic life. 
 
 NAILS, small pointed pieces of metal, 
 generally with round or flattened heads, 
 used for driving into timber or other 
 material for the purpose of holding 
 separate pieces together. They are of 
 many different lengths and shapes. 
 Brads used for nailing floors and ceilings 
 have the head only on one side; the 
 small sharp nails w'ith round flat heads, 
 used by sadlers and upholsterers, are 
 called tacks; the small sharp taper nails 
 without heads, used by shoemakers, are 
 called sprigs; a variety in which the 
 head is large and the spike small are 
 called hobnails; very large nails are 
 called spikes. Until a comparatively 
 recent period almost every kind of nail 
 was produced by hand labor alone, each 
 nail being separately forged from a thin 
 rod of iron. These wrought nails are 
 preferable, for many kinds of carpenter 
 work, to those made by machinery. 
 Making of wrought nails retains, in 
 many places, the character of a domes- 
 tic manufacture, the workmen being 
 often assisted by the female members 
 of his family. In 1810 a machine was 
 contrived by which nails could be cut 
 from an iron sheet, and headed at one 
 operation, at the rate of 100 per minute. 
 Since that time great improvements 
 have been made in nail-making ma- 
 chinery, and the method commonly 
 adopted is to cut nails out of sheet-iron 
 of the required thickness, an operation 
 which, by the improved processes, is 
 carried on with great rapidity. The 
 quantity produced in this way is as- 
 tounding, some mills turning out at the 
 rate of 10 miles of nail-rods an hour. 
 
 NAMAQ'UALAND, Great, an exten- 
 sive region in South Africa, extending 
 along the w^est coast from the Orange 
 river to Walfish Bay, and inland from 
 the west coast to the Kalahari Desert; 
 estimated area 100,000 sq. miles. Pop. 
 about 50,000 . 
 
 NAMES, Personal. It is probable that 
 at first all names were significant. Old 
 Testament names are almost all original, 
 that is, given in the first instance to the 
 individual bearing them, and either 
 originated in some circumstance of birth 
 or expressed some religious sentiment, 
 thus — Jacob (supplanter), Isaiah (salva- 
 tion of Jehovah), Hannah (favor), Deb- 
 orah (bee), etc. Neither the Hebrews, 
 
NAMUR 
 
 NAPIER 
 
 Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Per- 
 sians, nor Greeks had surnames; and in 
 the earliest period of their history the 
 same may be said of the Romans. In 
 course of time, however, every Roman 
 citizen had three, the praenomen or per- 
 sonal name, the nomen or name of the 
 gens or clan, lastly, the cognomen or 
 family name, as Publius Cornelius 
 Scipio. Conquerers were occasionally 
 complimented by the addition of a 
 fourth name or agnomen, commemora- 
 tive of their conquests, as Publius Cor- 
 nelius Scipio Africanus. Greek names 
 refer to the personal appearance or 
 character; and were often supplemented 
 by the occupation, place of birth, or a 
 nickname. Times of great public ex- 
 citement have had a very considerable 
 influence in modifying the fashion in 
 names. It is impossible to state with 
 any degree of certainty when the modern 
 system of personal nomenclature be- 
 came general. Surnames were introduced 
 by the Norman adventurers, but were 
 for centuries confined to the upper 
 classes. They became general in Scot- 
 land about the 12th century. In some 
 of the wilder districts of Wales they can 
 hardly be said to have been adopted 
 even yet. The principal sources from 
 which surnames are derived are per- 
 sonal characteristics (Black, Long, 
 Short), rank, profession, or occupation 
 (Bishop, ICnight, Miller), localities or 
 natural objects (Hill, Dale, Stone), and 
 patronymics (Johnson, Wilson, An- 
 drews). The Hebrews had no surnames 
 proper, but to distinguish two men of 
 the same name they used the form 
 Solomon ben David (Solomon son of 
 David). The Welsh used the word ap in 
 the same way; Evan ap Richard (John 
 son of Richard = Prichard). In most 
 countries the wife changes her surname 
 on marriage to that of her husband; in 
 Spain, however, she retains it, while the 
 son may adopt either the paternal or 
 maternal name. In Great Britain a man 
 may now change his Christian name and 
 surname without an act of parliament, 
 royal license, or even public advertise- 
 ment; but there is no law to compel 
 third parties to use the new name. 
 
 NAMUR (na-miir), a town of Belgium 
 capital of province of same name, situate 
 at the confluence of the Meuse and Sam- 
 bre, and at the foot of a bold promontory 
 on which is a fortress. There is a fine 
 modern cathedral (1751-67). The town 
 has manufactures of cutlery, hardware, 
 etc. Pop. 31,558. — The province has 
 an area of 1413 sq. miles. It has coal- 
 mines and flourishing industries. - Pop. 
 344,323. 
 
 NANA SAHIB, the infamous leader of 
 the Sepoys in the Indian Mutiny. He 
 was born in 1825, and adopted by the 
 ruler of the state of Bithoor. On the 
 death of the latter the British refused 
 to recognize Nana as his successor. In 
 May, 1857, Nana placed himself at the 
 head of the mutineers at Cawnpore. 
 The Europeans there capitulated on a 
 promise that they should be sent away 
 in safety. But the men were shot down 
 and the women and children massacred. 
 (See Cawnpore.) Nana was defeated by 
 Sir H. Havelock, and was driven across 
 the frontier into Nepaul, and there all 
 knowledge of him ceases. 
 
 NANCY (nan-se), a town of France, 
 capital of the dep. Meurthe-et-Moselle, in 
 a fertile plain, near the left bank of the 
 Meurthe. The manufactures embrace 
 woolens, cottons, hosiery, lace, em- 
 broidery, stained-paper, etc^ Pop. 
 102,559. 
 
 NANKING', a city of China, capital 
 of the province of Kiangsu. It is one of 
 the chief literary centers of China. Pop. 
 estimated at 150,000. 
 
 NANSEN, Fridtjof, Norwegian ex- 
 plorer, born in 1861, studied at Chris- 
 tiana University, and in 1882 made an 
 Arctic voyage in a sealing vessel. In 
 1888 he crossed Greenland from sea to 
 sea a little north of latitude 64°. In 
 1893 he sailed on board a specially-built 
 steamer (the Fram) in the expectation 
 that, entering the Polar ice in the 
 neighborhood of the New Siberian 
 islands, he would be drifted by a current 
 over the Pole and would come out on the 
 east side of Gr6enland. After being 
 carried so far in the desired direction he 
 left the Fram and crew, and with a 
 single companion, and with sledges, 
 dogs, and kayaks, took the iee. In this 
 way he reached the highest latitude yet 
 attained, 86° 14' (April, 1895), and then 
 turned southwestward to Franz Josef 
 Land, where he spent the winter of 
 1895-96 and met Mr. Jackson, leader of 
 an expedition sent from England, with 
 whom he returned, being followed soon 
 after by the Fram. 
 
 NANTES (nant), a town of France 
 capital of the department of Loire- 
 Inferieure, on the right bank of the 
 Loire where it receives both the Erdre 
 and the Sevre, 269 miles west-south- 
 west of Paris. The public edifices most 
 deserving of notice are the cathedral, 
 in the Flamboyant style, dating from the 
 15th century, and containing many fine 
 monuments; the castle, an edifice of the 
 14th century partly modernized in the 
 16th, with massive round towers; the 
 Hotel de Ville, the exchange, the theater 
 museum of natural history, picture- 
 gallery, the courts of justice, and the 
 Hotel Dieu or infirmary. The chief in- 
 dustries are ship-building, and the 
 manufacture of ships’ boilers and ma- 
 chinery, linens, cottons, sail-cloth, flan- 
 nel, chemicals, leather, ropes, soap, etc. 
 Pop. 132,990. 
 
 NANTES, Edict of, was signed by 
 Henry IV. in that city, April 30, 1598. 
 It allowed the Protestants the free exer- 
 cise of their religion, and threw open to 
 them all offices of state. This edict was 
 formally revoked by Louis XIV. on 
 October 20, 1685. As a consequence of 
 this fatal act for France about 400,000 
 Protestants, forming the most intelli- 
 gent and industrious section of the 
 people, emigrated to Britain, Holland, 
 and other Protestant countries, much 
 to the benefit of their adopted homes. 
 
 NANTICOKE, a town in Luzerne co.. 
 Pa., on the Susquehanna river, and 
 the Cent, of N. J., the Penn., and the 
 Del., Lack, and W. railways; 8 miles s.w. 
 of Wilkesbarre, the county seat. Pop. 
 14,517. 
 
 NAPHTHA, a term which includes 
 most of the inflammable liquids produced 
 by the dry distillation of organic sub- 
 stances. Mineral or native naphtha, or 
 1 petroleum, is an inflammable liquid 
 
 which is found in nearly all countries, 
 but especially at Baku, on the Caspian 
 Sea, and in Canada and Pennsylvania. 
 It consists of a mixture of hydro- 
 carbons chiefly belonging to the paraffin 
 series, but it also contains members of 
 the olefin and of the benzine series. 
 Boghead naphtha, which is also known 
 as photogen and paraffin oil, is obtained 
 by distilling certain minerals allied to 
 coal, such as the Torbane Hill mineral 
 or Boghead coal, found at Bathgate in 
 Scotland. Coal naphtha is obtained by 
 the distillation of coal-tar. After the 
 light oil has been separated it is shaken 
 with caustie soda and afterward with 
 sulphuric acid. The liquid portion is 
 then run off and rectified. Shale naph- 
 tha is a mixture of paraffins obtained by 
 distilling bituminous shales. When pe- 
 troleum is distilled, that portion which 
 distils below 76° C. is sold as petroleum 
 spirit or petroleum ether, and is used for 
 dissolving india-rubber and making 
 varnishes. The next fraction of the dis- 
 tillate is sold under the names benzoline, 
 paraffin oil, or mineral sperm oil. Ben- 
 zene occurs in petroleum, but is more 
 abundant in the light oil obtained in dis- 
 tillation of coal-tar. Nitro-benzene is 
 largely employed in the preparation of 
 aniline. 
 
 NAPIER (na'pi-er). Sir Charles James, 
 British general and administrator, born 
 in 1782. He entered the army in 1794. 
 In 1812 he was made lieutenant-colonel. 
 In 1837 he was made major-general; in 
 1838 K.C.B. In 1841 he was appointed 
 to the chief command in the presidency 
 of Bombay, with the rank of major- 
 general, and was shortly afterward 
 called to Scinde. Here he gained the 
 splendid victories of Meanee and Hyder- 
 abad, and was afterward made governor 
 of Scinde, which he administered till 
 1847. Having returned to England, he 
 died in 1853. 
 
 NAPIER, Admiral Sir Charles, British 
 naval commander, was born in 1786; 
 died in 1860. He entered the navy as 
 
 General Sir Charles Napier. 
 
 midshipman in 1799, was promoted 
 lieutenant in 1805. He was promoted 
 commander in August, 1809, and in 
 1811 was employed in Portugal and 
 along the coast of Southern Italy. Re- 
 turning to England, he was appointed 
 in 1839 to the command of the Powerful, 
 and ordered to the Mediterranean, 
 where on the outbreak of the war be- 
 tween Mehemet Ali and the Porte, and 
 the co-operation of Britain with Russia 
 and Austria on behalf of the latter 
 
NAPIER 
 
 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 power, Sir Charles Napier performed 
 some of his most gallant exploits, in- 
 cluding the storming of Sidon and the 
 capture of Acre. Having blockaded 
 Alexandria, he concluded on his own 
 responsibility a convention with Me- 
 hemet Ali, by which the latter and his 
 family were guaranteed in the hereditary 
 sovereignty of Egypt on resigning all 
 claim to Syria. On his return toEngland 
 he was created K.C.B. He sat in Parlia- 
 ment as member for Southwark from 
 1855 till his death. 
 
 NAPIER, John, Laird of Merchiston, 
 near Edinburgh, the inventor of loga- 
 rithms, was born 1550, died 1617. In 
 1614 he published his book of logarithms 
 (Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio; 
 Edinburgh, 4to). The invention was 
 very soon known over all Europe, and 
 was everywhere hailed with admiration 
 by men of science. 
 
 NAPIER, Robert Cornelius, Baron 
 Napier of Magdala, born in Ceylon Dec. 
 6, 1810. He entered the Royal Engineers 
 in 1826, and served in the Sutlej cam- 
 paign in 1845-46, where he was severely 
 wounded. In 1867 he was intrusted with 
 the command of the Abyssinian expedi- 
 tion, and captured Magdala, April 13, 
 1868. He was then made Baron Magdala 
 and G.C.B. In 1870 he was made com- 
 mander-in-chief in India, with the rank 
 of general, became governor of Gib- 
 raltar in 1876, was made field-marshal 
 in 1883, and constable of the Tower in 
 1887. He died in 1890. 
 
 NAPIER, Sir William Francis Patrick, 
 British officer, was born in 1785, died in 
 I860. At the age of fourteen he entered 
 the army, became lieutenant-colonel in 
 1813, and colonel in 1830. Some years 
 after the conclusion of peace he com- 
 menced his celebrated History of the 
 Peninsular War, the publication of 
 which began in 1828, and extended over 
 the intermediate period till 1840. In 
 1841 Colonel Napier was advanced to 
 the rank of major-general; he was ap- 
 pointed lieutenant-governor of Guern- 
 sey the following year and in 1848 
 created a K.C.B. 
 
 NAPLES (na'plz), a city in Southern 
 Italy, the largest in thekingdom, situated 
 on the northern shore of the beautiful 
 Bay of Naples, about 160 miles from 
 Rome. The city is divided into two 
 unequal parts by a steep ridge proceed- 
 ing from the height on which stands the 
 castle of St. Elmo, and terminated by 
 a rocky islet surmounted by the Castello 
 deir Ovo. Among the more remarkable 
 public edifices is the cathedral, dating 
 from 1272, a large Gothic building 
 erected on the site of two temples dedi- 
 cated to Neptune and Apollo. Other 
 edifices are the church De' Santi Apos- 
 toli, said to have been originally founded 
 by Constantine the Great on the site of 
 a temple of Mercury, and, though sub- 
 sequently rebuilt, still very ancient; 
 the church of St. Paul, built in 1817-31 
 in imitation of the Pantheon at Rome; 
 the Palazzo Reale (Royal Palace, a 
 building of great size in the lower part 
 of the town) ; the palace of Capo di Monte 
 situated on a height in the outskirts; 
 the old palace, where the courts of jus- 
 tice now hold their sittings) the Palazzo 
 dei Pubblici Studj, formerly occupied 
 by the university, but now converted 
 
 into the Museo Nazionale, a museum 
 containing not only a valuable library 
 of 275,000 volumes and many rare 
 MSS., but also the older and more recent 
 collections belonging to the crown, 
 the Farnese collection of paintings ana 
 sculpture from Rome and Parma, and 
 an unequalled collection of gems, 
 bronzes, vases, etc., chiefly obtained 
 from the excavations of Pompeii and 
 Herculaneum ; numerous theaters, of 
 which that of San Carlo is remarkable 
 for its magnificence, and is one of the 
 largest in existence. Naples has a uni- 
 versity, dating from 1224, and attended 
 by over 3000 students; many other 
 educational institutions, and numerous 
 hosptials and charitable foundations. 
 The manufactures, which are numerous 
 but individually unimportant, include 
 macaroni, woolens and cottons, silks 
 known as gros de Naples, glass, china. 
 
 musical instruments, flowers and orna- 
 ments, perfumery, soap, chemicals, 
 machinery, etc. Naples is one of the 
 most densely populated cities of Europe, 
 and one of the most peculiar features of 
 the city is its unique population and the 
 universal publicity in which life is 
 passed. In the environs are situated 
 the tomb of Virgil, the ancient ruined 
 cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, 
 the remains of Roman temples, villas, 
 palaces, and tombs, together with the 
 physical phenomena of Vesuvius. Pop. 
 563,751. 
 
 NAPLES, Bay of, on the west coast of 
 Italy, in the Mediterranean, extending 
 for about 20 miles from the Capo di 
 Miseno, its n.w. boundary, to the Punta 
 della Campanella, its s.e. limit. It is 
 separated from the open sea by the 
 islands of Procida, Ischia, and Capri. 
 Its shores have for ages been the scene of 
 powerful volcanic agency, and the 
 scenery has long been celebrated for its 
 beauty and grandeur. Mount Vesuvius 
 is the most striking and distinctive 
 f63>^UI'0 
 
 NAPOLEON I., Emperor of the French, 
 was born August 15, 1769, at Ajaccio, 
 Corsica, and was the son of Charles 
 Bonaparte, an advocate, and of Letizia 
 Ramolino. (See Bonaparte.) In his 
 tenth year he was sent to the military 
 school of Brienne, and after a short time 
 spent at that of Paris he received, in 
 1785, his commission as lieutenant of 
 artillery. During the development of 
 
 the revolution Napoleon took the popu 
 lar side, but in a quiet and undemon- 
 strative way. In 1792 he became cap- 
 tain of artillery, and in 1793 he was sent, 
 with the commission of lieutenant- 
 colonel of artillery, to assist in the reduc- 
 tion of Toulon, then in the hands of the 
 British. The place was captured (19th 
 December) entirely through his strategic 
 genius; and in the following February 
 he was made a brigadier-general of 
 artillery. In 1795, when the mob of 
 Paris rose against the convention, 
 Napoleon was made commander of the 
 5000 troops provided for its defense. He 
 had only a night t» make arrangements, 
 and next morning he cleared the streets 
 with grape, disbanded the national 
 guard, disarmed the populace, and 
 ended the outbreak. On the 9th March 
 1796, he married Josephine Beauhar- 
 nais, and soon after he had to depart to 
 
 assume the command of the army of 
 Italy against the forces of Austria and 
 Sardinia. After a series of victories, 
 culminating in that of Lodi (10th May), 
 Naples, Modena, and Parma hastened 
 to conclude a peace; the pope was com- 
 pelled to sign an armistice; and the 
 whole of Northern Italy was in the 
 hands of the French. Army after army 
 sent by Austria was defeated (at 
 Roveredo, Bassano, Arcole, Rivoli, 
 etc.), Napoleon carried the war into the 
 enemy’s countryg and by the Peace of 
 Campo Formio, which followed (Oct. 
 17, 1797), Austria ceded the Nether- 
 lands and Lombardy, and received the 
 province of Venetia. The pope had 
 previously been forced to cede part of 
 his dominions. 
 
 In December, 1797, Napoleon re- 
 turned to Paris. About this time the 
 directory determined to invade Egypt, 
 as a preliminary step, to the conquest of 
 British India. Napoleon was put in com- 
 mand of the expedition, and on the 1st 
 July, 1798, he landed at Alexandria. This 
 city fell on the 4th July, and Cairo was 
 taken on the 24th, after the sanguinary 
 battle of the Pyramids. On Aug. 4th 
 Nelson annihilated the French fleet in 
 the Bay of .\.boukir. All means of return 
 to Europe for the French were then cut 
 off; but Napoleon, having suppressed 
 with rigor a riot in Cairo, advanced to 
 attack the Turkish forces assembling in 
 Syria. He took El Arish and Gaza, and 
 stormed Jaffa. But after sixty days’ 
 
NAPOLEON I. 
 
 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 siege he was compelled to abandon the 
 attempt to capture Acre, which was de- 
 fended by a Turkish garrison under 
 Djezzar Pasha, assisted by Sir Sidney 
 Smith and a small body of English 
 sailors and marines. He re-entered 
 Cairo on the 14th June, 1799, and on 
 the 25th July attacked and almost 
 annihilated a Turkish force which had 
 landed at Aboukir. On the 22d August 
 he abandoned the command of the army 
 to K14ber, and embarking in a frigate 
 landed at Fr4jus, 9th October, having 
 eluded the English cruisers. He has- 
 tened to Paris, secured the co-operation 
 of Moreau and the other generals then 
 in the capital, and abolished the Direc- 
 tory on the 18th and 19th Brumaire 
 (9th-10th November). A new constitu- 
 tion was then drawn up chiefly by the 
 Abb6 Si6y6s, under which Napoleon was 
 made first consul, with Cambac6r6s and 
 Lebrun as second and third consuls. 
 From this time he was virtually ruler of 
 France. 
 
 Napoleon’s government was marked 
 by sagacity, activity, and vigor in the 
 administration of civil affairs, and so far 
 was highly beneficial to France. But 
 war was his element, and in 1800 he 
 resolved to strike a blow at Austria. 
 Having executed a daring march into 
 Italy across the Great St. Bernard he 
 defeated the Austrians at Marengo, and 
 after the decisive battle of Hohenlinden 
 Austria obtained peace by the Treaty of 
 Luneville, 1801. Treaties were subse- 
 quently concluded with Spain, Naples, 
 the pope, Bavaria, Portugal, Russia, 
 Turkey, and finally, on the 27th March, 
 1802, the treaty known as that of 
 Amiens was signed by Britain. In 1802 
 Napoleon was proclaimed by a decree 
 of the senate consul for life, and in 1804 
 he had himself crowned as emperor, 
 upward of 3,000,000 votes of the people 
 being given in favor of this measure. 
 To this period belongs the famous body 
 of laws known as the Code Napoleon. 
 See Code. 
 
 In 1803 war had again broken out 
 with Britain, and Napoleon collected an 
 army and flotilla which were to invade 
 England. In 1805 Britain, Russia, 
 Austria, and Sweden united against 
 Napoleon, who marched at once across 
 Bavaria at the head of 180,000 men, and 
 compelled the Austrian General Mack 
 to capitulate at Ulm with 23,000 men 
 (20th October), the day before Nelson’s 
 great victory at Trafalgar. On the 13th 
 November he entered Vienna, and on 
 December 2, having crossed the Danube, 
 he completely routed the allied Russian 
 and Austrian armies at Austerlitz. The 
 Austrian emperor instantly sued for 
 peace, giving up to France all his 
 Italian and Adriatic territories. In 
 February, 1806, a French army occupied 
 the continental part of the Neapolitan 
 states, of which Joseph Bonaparte was 
 declared king on the deposition of their 
 former sovereign. Another brother of 
 the emperor, Louis, became king of 
 Holland. Various districts in Germany 
 and Italy were erected by the conqueror 
 into dukedoms and bestowed upon his 
 most successful generals. This brought 
 him into collision with Prussia, and war 
 was declared on 8th October. On the 
 14th Napoleon defeated the enemy at 
 
 Jena, while his general, Davoust, on the 
 same day gained the victory of Auerstadt . 
 On the 25th Napoleon entered Berlin 
 and issued the celebrated Berlin Decrees, 
 directed against British commerce. He 
 then marched northward against the 
 Russians, who were advancing to assist 
 the Prussians. At Pultusk (28th De- 
 cember) and at Eylau (8th February, 
 1807), he met with severe checks; but 
 on the 14th June was fought the battle 
 of Friedland, which was so disastrous to 
 the Russian arms that Alexander was 
 compelled to sue for an armistice. On 
 the 7th July the Peace of Tilsit was 
 concluded, by which the King of Prussia 
 received back half of his. dominions, 
 and Russia undertook to close her ports 
 against British vessels. The Duchy of 
 Warsaw was erected into a kingdom 
 and given to the King of Saxony; the 
 Kingdom of Westphalia was formed and 
 bestowed upon J4r6me, Napoleon’s 
 youngest brother* and Russia obtained 
 a part of Prussian Poland, and by secret 
 articles was allowed to take Finland 
 from Sweden. As Portugal had refused 
 to respect the Berlin Decrees, Napoleon 
 sent Junot to occupy Lisbon (30th No- 
 vember, 1807). The administrative 
 affairs of Spain having fallen into con- 
 fusion, Napoleon sent an army under 
 Murat into that kingdom, which took 
 possession of the capital, and by the 
 Treaty of Bayonne Charles IV. resigned 
 the Spanish crown, which was given to 
 Joseph Bonaparte, Murat receiving the 
 vacant sovereignty of Naples. The great 
 body of the Spanish people rose against 
 this summary disposal of the national 
 crown, and Britain aided them in their 
 resistance. Thus was commenced the 
 Peninsular war, which lasted seven 
 years. A French squadron was captured 
 by the British at Cadiz (June 14, 1808); 
 General Dupont surrendered at Baylen 
 with 18,000 men (22d July); Junot was 
 defeated by Sir Arthur Wellesley (Wel- 
 lington) at Vimeira (21st August). But 
 Napoleon rushed to the scene of action 
 in October at the head of 180,000 men, 
 and entered Madrid in spite of all resist- 
 ance by the Spaniards on the 4th Decem- 
 ber. The British' troops, now under Sir 
 John Moore, were driven back upon 
 Corunna, where they made a successful 
 stand, but lost their general (16th Jan- 
 uary, 1809). In the meantime Austria 
 again declared war and got together 
 an army in splendid condition under the 
 Archduke Charles. Napoleon hurried 
 into Bavaria, encountered the archduke 
 at Eckmtihl (22d April), and com- 
 pletely defeated him; on the 13th May 
 he again entered Vienna. On May 21st 
 and 22d he was himself defeated at 
 Aspern and Esslingen; but on the 6th 
 July the Austrians were crushed at Wag- 
 ram, which enabled Napoleon to dic- 
 tate his own terms of peace; these 
 were agreed to on the 14th October at 
 Schonbrunn. On his return to Paris 
 Napoleon was divorced from Josephine 
 who had borne him no children, and on 
 the 2d April, 1810, he was married to 
 the Archduchess Maria Louisa of Aus- 
 tria. The fruit of this union was a son. 
 
 The years 1810 and 1811 were the 
 period of Napoleon’s greatest power. 
 On the north he had annexed all the 
 coast-line as far as Hamburg, and on the 
 
 south Rome and the southern Papal 
 provinces. But now the tide began to 
 turn. Russia found it impossible to 
 carry out the continental blockade and 
 give due effect to the Berlin decrees; so 
 in May 1812 Napoleon declared war 
 against that country, and soon invaded 
 it with an army of about 500,000 men. 
 The Russians retired step by step, wast- 
 ing the country, carrying off all supplies, 
 and avoiding as far as possible general 
 engagements. The French pushed 
 rapidly forward, defeated the Russians 
 at Borodino and elsewhere, and entered 
 Moscow only to find the city on fire. It 
 was impossible to pursue the Russians 
 farther, and nothing remained but re- 
 treat. The winter was uncommonly 
 severe, and swarms of mounted Cossacks 
 incessantly harassed the French, now 
 sadly demoralized by cold, famine, dis- 
 ease, and fatigue. Of the invaders only 
 about 25,000 left Russia. Napoleon im- 
 mediately ordered a fresh conscription, 
 but the spirit of Europe was now fairly 
 roused. Another coalition, consisting of 
 Prussia, Russia, Breat Britain, Sweden, 
 and Spain, was formed, which early in 
 1813 sent its forces toward the Elbe. 
 Napoleon had still an army of 350,000 
 in Germany. He defeated the allies at 
 Ltitzen, at Bautzen, and at Dresden; 
 but the last was a dearly-fought victory 
 for the French, who were now so out- 
 numbered that their chief was com- 
 pelled to fall back on Leipzig. There he 
 was completely hemmed in, and in the 
 great “Battle of Nations,” which was 
 fought on the 16th, 18th, and 19th 
 October, he was completely defeated. 
 He succeeded in raising a new army, 
 and from January to March, 1814, he 
 confronted the combined hosts of the 
 allies. But numbers were against him ; 
 and Wellington, having driven the 
 French out of the Peninsula, was ad- 
 vancing from the south. On the 30th 
 March the allies captured the fortifica- 
 tions of Paris, and next day they entered 
 the city. On 4th April Napoleon ab- 
 dicated at Fontainebleau. He was 
 allowed the sovereignty of the island of 
 Elba, with the title of emperor and a 
 revenue of 6,000,000 francs, and Louis 
 XVIII. was restored. After a residence 
 of ten months he made his escape from 
 the island, and landed at Frejus on the 
 1st March, 1815. Ney and a large part 
 of the army joined him, and he made a 
 triumphal march upon Paris; but it was 
 mainly the array and the rabble that he 
 now had on his side. The allied armies 
 once more marched toward the French 
 frontier, and Napoleon advanced into 
 Belgium to meet them. On the 16th 
 June he defeated Blucher at Ligny, 
 while Ney held the British in check at 
 Quatre-Bras. Wellington fell back upon 
 Waterloo, where he was attacked by 
 Napoleon on the 18th, the result being 
 the total defeat of the French. The 
 allies marched without opposition upon 
 Paris. Napoleon abdicated in favor of 
 his son, and tried to escape from France, 
 but failing he surrendered to the captain 
 of a British man-of-war. With the ap- 
 proval of the allies he was conveyed to 
 the island of St. Helena, where he was 
 confined for the rest of his life. He died 
 in May, 1812, and was buried in the 
 island, but in 1840 his remains were 
 
NAPOLEON 11. 
 
 Narvaez 
 
 transferred to the Hotel des Invalides, 
 
 NAPOLEON II., Napoleon Fran 9 ois 
 Joseph Charles Bonaparte, only son of 
 the preceding, was born in Paris 1811; 
 died at Schonbrunn 1832. In his cradle 
 he was' proclaimed King of Rome. On the 
 first abdication of the emperor he accom- 
 panied his mother, Maria Louisa of 
 Austria, to Vienna. His title there was 
 Duke of Reichstadt. He never assumed 
 the title of Napoleon II.; but on the 
 accession of his cousin Louis Napoleon 
 in 1852, some title being necessary, the 
 late emperor took that of Napoleon HI., 
 which being recognized by the govern- 
 ments of Europe, implied the recogni- 
 tion of the former title. 
 
 NAPOLEON III., Charles Louis Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte, Emperor of the French 
 was born at Paris 1808; died at Chisel- 
 hurst, England, 1873. He was the 
 youngest son of Louis Bonaparte, 
 brother of Napoleon I. and king of Hol- 
 land, and of Hortense de Beauharnais. 
 His early life was spent chiefly in Swit- 
 zerland and Germany. By the death of 
 his counsin the Duke of Reichstadt 
 (Napoleon II., see above) he became 
 the recognized head of the Bonaparte 
 family, and from this time forward his 
 whole life was devoted to the realization 
 of a fixed idea that he was destined to 
 occupy his uncle’s imperial throne. In 
 1836 an attempt was made to secure the 
 garrison of Strasburg, but the affair 
 turned out a ludicrous failure. The 
 prince was taken prisoner and conveyed 
 to Paris, and the government of Louis 
 Philippe shipped him off to the United 
 States. The death of his mother brought 
 him back to Europe, and for some years 
 he was resident in England. In 1840 
 he made a foolish and theatrical descent 
 on Boulogne; was captured, tried and 
 sentenced to perpetual confinement in 
 the fortress of Ham. After remaining 
 six years in prison he escaped and re- 
 turned to England. On the outbreak of 
 the revolution of 1848 he hastened to 
 Paris, and securing a seat in the national 
 assembly, he at once commenced his 
 candidature for the presidency. On the 
 day of the election, 10th December, it 
 was found that out of 7,500,000 votes 
 Louis Napoleon had obtained 5,434,226; 
 Cavaignac, who followed second, had 
 but 1,448,107. On the 20th the prince- 
 president, as he was now called, took 
 the oath of allegiance to the republic. 
 He looked forward to a higher position 
 still, however, and pressed for an in- 
 crease of the civil list from 600,000 franc 
 first to 3,000,000, then to 6,000,000, 
 with his term of office extended to ten 
 years, and a residence in the Tuileries. 
 At last, on the evening of the 2d Decem- 
 ber, 1851, the president declared Paris 
 in a state of siege, a decree was issued 
 dissolving the assembly, 180 of the 
 members were placed under arrest, and 
 the people who exhibited any disposi- 
 tion to take their part were shot down in 
 the streets by the soldiers. Another 
 decree was published at the same time 
 ordering the re-establishment of univer- 
 sal suffrage, and the election of a presi- 
 dent for ten years. When the vote came 
 to be taken, on the 20th and 21st of the 
 same month, it was discovered that 
 7,439,218 suffrages were in favor of his 
 
 rel;aining office for ten years, with all the 
 powers he demanded, while only 640,737 
 were against it. As soon as Louis Napo- 
 leon found himself firmly seated he began 
 to prepare for the restoration of the 
 empire. In January, 1852, the national 
 guard was revived, a new constitution 
 adopted, and new orders of nobility 
 issued; and at last, on the 1st of Decem- 
 ber, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was 
 proclaimed emperor under the title of 
 Napoleon III. On the 29th January, 
 1853, the new sovereign married Eugenie 
 Marie de Montijo, countess de Teba; the 
 result of this union being a son, Napo- 
 leon-Louis, born 16th March, 1856. In 
 March, 1854, Napoleon III., in con- 
 junction with England, declared war 
 in the interest of Turkey against Russia. 
 (See Crimean War.) In April, 1859, war 
 was declared between Austria and Sar- 
 dinia, and Napoleon took up arms in 
 favor of his Italian ally, Victor Emanuel. 
 The allies defeated the Austrians at 
 Montebello, Magenta, Marignano, and 
 Solferino. By the terms of the Peace of 
 Villafranca Austria ceded Lombardy 
 to Italy, and the jjrovinces of Savoy and 
 Nice were given to France in recognition 
 of her powerful assistance (10th March, 
 1860). In 1860 the emperor sent out an 
 expedition to China to act in concert 
 with the British; and in 1861 France, 
 England, and Spain agreed to despatch 
 a joint expedition to Mexico for the pur- 
 pose of exacting redress of injuries, but 
 the English and Spaniards soon with- 
 drew. The French continued the quarrel 
 and an Imperial form of government was 
 initiated, Maxmilian, archduke of Aus- 
 tria, being placed at its head with the 
 title of emperor. Napoleon, however 
 withdrew his army in 1867, and the un- 
 fortunate Maxmilian, left to himself, was 
 captured and shot. On the conclusion 
 of the Austro-Prussian war of 1866 
 Napoleon, jealous of the growing power 
 of Prussia, demanded a reconstruction 
 of frontier, which was per-emptorily 
 refused. The ill-feeling between the two 
 nations was increased by various causes, 
 and in 1870, on the Spanish crown 
 being offered to Leopold of Hohen- 
 zollern, Napoleon demanded that the 
 king of Prussia should compel that 
 prince to refuse it. Notwithstanding the 
 subsequent renunciation of the crown 
 by Leopold war was declared by France 
 (19th July). (See Franco-German war.) 
 On the 28th July Napoleon set out to 
 take the chief command, and on 2d 
 September the army with which he was 
 present was compelled to surrender at 
 Sedan. One of the immediate conse- 
 quences of this disaster was a revolution 
 in Paris. The empress and her son 
 secretly quitted the French capital and 
 repaired to England, where they took 
 up their residence at Camden House, 
 Chiselhurst. Here they were rejoined by 
 the emperor (who had been kept a pris- 
 oner of war for a short time) in March, 
 1871, and here he remained till his death. 
 His only child, the prince imperial, who 
 had joined the British army in South 
 Africa as a volunteer, was killed by the 
 Zulus 2d June, 1879. 
 
 NARCIS'SUS, according to Greek 
 mythology the son of the river-god 
 Cephissus. The young Narcissus was of 
 surpassing beauty, but excessively vain 
 
 and inaccessible to the feeling of love. 
 Echo pined away to a mere voice because 
 her love for him found no return. Neme- 
 sis determined to punish him for his cold- 
 ness of heart, and caused him to drink at 
 a certain fountain, wherein he saw his 
 own image, and was seized with a pas- 
 
 Narcissus. 
 
 sion for himself of which he pined away. 
 The gods transformed him into the 
 flower which still bears his name. 
 
 NARCIS'SUS, an extensive genus of 
 bulbous plants. The species are numer- 
 ous, and from their hardiness, delicate 
 shape, gay yellow or white flowers, and 
 smell, have long been favorite objects of 
 cultivation, especially the daffodil, the 
 jonquil and white narcissus. 
 
 NARCOT'IC, derived from a Greek 
 term signifying numbness or torpor, is 
 the name given to a large class of sub- 
 stances which, in sm.all doses, diminish 
 the action of the nerves. Most narcotics 
 are stimulating when given in moderate 
 doses; in larger doses tliey produce 
 sleep; and in poisonous doses they bring 
 on stupor, coma, convulsions, and even 
 death. Opium, hemlock, henbane, Ijella- 
 donna, aconite, camphor, digitalis, to- 
 bacco, alcohol, leopard’s-bane, and a 
 variety of other substances, are narco- 
 tics. 
 
 NARSINGHPUR, chief town of dis- 
 trict of the same name. Central Provinces 
 of India. Pop. 10,222. The district has 
 an area of 1916 sq. miles, and pop. 
 313,829. 
 
 NARVAEZ (nar-va'eth), Ramon Maria, 
 Duke of Valencia, Spanish states- 
 man and general, born 1800, died 1868. 
 Early in life he entered the Spanish army 
 and he rapidly acquired distinction. 
 When Gomez, the Carlist general, was 
 engaged in his adventurous march 
 through Spain in 1836, Narvaez, who 
 then commanded a division under Es- 
 partero, was directed to pursue him, and 
 totally routed him near Arcos. Having 
 taken part in an unsuccessful rising of the 
 progressista party in 1838, he fled to 
 France and remained there five years. 
 In 1843 he hastened to Spain, put himself 
 at the head of an insurrection, and 
 entered Madrid victorious (July, 1843). 
 In the following year he formed his first 
 ministry, and received from Queen 
 
NARWHAL 
 
 NATTERJACK 
 
 Isabella the rank of marshal and the 
 title of Duke of Valencia. His govern- 
 ment was overthrown in 1846, but he 
 was soon recalled, and during the re- 
 mainder of his life was several times in- 
 trusted with the formation of a cabinet. 
 
 NARWHAL, a cetaceous mammal 
 found in the northern seas, averaging 
 from 12 to 20 feet in length. The body 
 color is whitish or gray spotted with 
 darker patches. There is no dorsal fin. 
 The dentition of the narwhals differs 
 from that of all other members of the 
 dolphin family. In the female both jaws 
 are toothless, but the male narwhal has 
 two canines in the upper jaw, which are 
 
 ville Is a great commercial center, having 
 a large trade in cotton and tobacco. 
 There are cotton factories and other 
 works. Pop. 1909, 135,000. 
 
 NASHVILLE, UNIVERSITY OF, situ- 
 ated at Nashville, Tenn., one of the 
 leading educational institutions of the 
 southwest. The university has a colle- 
 giate department with an attendance of 
 over 600, a medical school, and a pre- 
 paratory department with over 300 
 students in each. 
 
 NASIK, a district in Bombay, British 
 India; area, 5940 sq. miles. Pop. 781,- 
 206. The chief town is Nasik, which 
 I ranks among the most sacred places of 
 
 Narwhal or sea-unicorn. 
 
 sometimes developed into enormous 
 projecting tusks, though commonly only 
 the one on the left side is so developed, 
 being straight, spiral, tapering to a point 
 and in length from 6 to 10 feet. It makes 
 excellent ivory. From the frequency 
 with which the narwhal appears as hav- 
 ing a single horn it has obtained the 
 name of the Sea-unicorn, Unicorn-fish, 
 or Unicorn Whale. The food of the nar- 
 whal appears to consist chiefly of mol- 
 lilsca, and notwithstanding its formid- 
 able armature it is said to be inoffensive 
 and peaceable. The Greenlanders ob- 
 tain oil from its blubber, and manu- 
 facture its skin into useful articles. 
 
 NASH'UA, a manufacturing town in 
 New Hampshire, county of Hillsborough, 
 35miles south of Concord, at the junction 
 of Merrimac and Nashua rivers. It has 
 several extensive cotton manufactories, 
 and manufactures of steam-engines, 
 locks, guns, tools, shuttles, carpets, etc. 
 Pop. 25,382. 
 
 NASHVILLE, the capital of the State 
 of Tennessee and of Davidson co., on 
 the left bank of the Cumberland, on 
 
 State Capitol, Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 rocky bluffs rising above the river. The 
 state capitol on Capitol Hill is a fine 
 building. The town has no fewer than 
 four universities; Nashville University, 
 with a specially important medical 
 school ; Vanderbilt University; Fisk Uni- 
 versity for colored students; and Roger 
 Williams (Baptist) University. Nash- 
 
 Hindu pilgrimage, and is a place of con- 
 siderable industrial importance. Pop. 
 21,490. 
 
 NASMYTH, James, born in Edin- 
 burgh 1808. The steamhammer, which 
 has rendered possible the immense 
 forgings now employed, was invented by 
 him in 1839., The steam piledriver, and 
 the safety foiindry ladle, are among his 
 other inventions. He was also a skilled 
 astronomer. He died in 1890. 
 
 NASR-ED-DEEN, Shah of Persia, 
 born 1829, succeeded 1848. In 1856 his 
 occupation of Herat involved him in 
 war with Britain. He made two journeys 
 to weastern Europe, in 1873 and 1889. 
 In his reign telegraphic communication 
 between Europe and India through 
 Persia was secured. He was assassinated 
 in 1896. 
 
 NAST, Thomas, American illustrator, 
 born at Landau, Bavaria, in 1840. He 
 came to the United States with his 
 parents in 1846. He went to England in 
 1860 and then traveled to Italy to follow 
 Garibaldi, making sketches of the war. 
 Returning to America, he formed a con- 
 nection with Harper’s Weekly. In 1862 
 his drawings of scenes from the Ameri- 
 can civil war, published in Harper’s 
 periodicals, attracted wide attention. 
 In 1872 he started Nast’s Illustrated 
 Almanac, and illustrated The Tribute 
 Book, Nasby’s Swinging ’round the 
 Cerkle, and other works, including 
 Dickens’ Pickwick Papers and Pictures 
 from Italy. In 1894 he was with the Pall 
 Mall Magazine, London. On May 1, 1902, 
 he was appointed as consul-general to 
 Guyaquil, Ecuador, where he died on 
 December 7th of the same year. 
 
 NASTUR'TIUM, the genus to which 
 the water-cress belongs. Also a popular 
 name for Indian cress, an American 
 climbing annual with pungent fruits and 
 showy orange flowers. 
 
 NATAL', a British colony on the south- 
 east coast of Africa, bounded on the land 
 side by Cape Colony, Basutoland, Orange 
 River Colony, Transvaal, and Portuguese 
 territory; area, including Zululand and 
 the Vryheid district, etc., detached from 
 
 the Transvaal in 1902, is 36,450 sq.milea. 
 The only spot where sheltered anchorage 
 can be obtained is at Port Natal, a fine 
 circular bay near the center of the coast. 
 Pop. 993,000, comprising 73,000 whites, 
 70,000 Indians, and 850,000 natives 
 (chiefly Kaffirs). 
 
 NATCHEZ, a city of the United States 
 in the state of Mississippi and on the 
 river Mississippi, 279 miles above New 
 Orleans. It is built on a bluff 150 feet 
 above the water, and on the narrow 
 strip of land between the foot of the hill 
 and the river. Natchez is a great cotton 
 mart, and has an increasing trade. 
 Pop. 13,870. 
 
 NAT'ICA, a genus of gasteropodous 
 molluscs, forming the type of the family 
 Naticidse. The shell is globular, \vith 
 few whorls. Seven or eight species are 
 British. 
 
 NATION, either a people inhabiting a 
 certain extent of territory and united by 
 common political institutions, such as 
 the English nation ; or an aggregation of 
 persons of the same ethnological family 
 and speaking the same or a cognate 
 language. 
 
 NATIONAL AIRS, any class of airs 
 peculiarly identified with the music of 
 some particular people, and especially a 
 tune which by national selection or con- 
 sent is adapted to words which represent 
 or reflect a sentiment, taste, or habit of 
 a nation, and which is usually sung or 
 played on certain public occasions. 
 
 NATIONAL CHURCH, the established 
 church of a country or nation. In Eng- 
 land the national church is Protestant 
 and Episcopalian; in Scotland, Protes- 
 tant and Presbyterian. See Established 
 Church. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT, the sum which is 
 owing by a government to individuals 
 who have advanced money to the 
 government for public purposes, either 
 in the anticipation of the produce of 
 particular branches of the revenue, or 
 on credit of the general power which the 
 government possesses of levying the 
 sums necessary to pay interest for the 
 money borrowed or to repay the prin- 
 cipal. See Funds. 
 
 NATIONALISTS, the term applied to 
 the Irish political party whose pro- 
 gramme includes the more or less com- 
 plete separation of Ireland from Great 
 Britain. See Home Rule. 
 
 NATIONAL LEAGUE. See Land 
 League. 
 
 NATIONAL PARK. See Yellowstone, 
 Yosemite, Northwest Territories. 
 
 NATIONS, LAW OF. See International 
 Law. 
 
 NATIVITY. See Astrology. 
 
 NATRON LAKES, several lakes or 
 pools rich in natron in the vicinity of 
 Zakook, a village about 60 miles w.n.w. 
 of Cairo. 
 
 NATTERJACK, Natterjack Toad, the 
 Bufo calamita, a species of toad found in 
 various parts of western Europe, in cer- 
 tain parts of Asia (including Tibet), and 
 not uncommon in England. The general 
 color is lightish-brown, spotted with 
 patches of a darker hue. A line or streak 
 of yellowish tint passes down the middle 
 line of the back. It does not leap or 
 crawl like the common toad, but rather 
 runs, whence it has the name of walking 
 or running toad. It has a deep and 
 
NATTOR 
 
 NATURE PRINTING 
 
 hollow voice, audible at a great dis- 
 tance. It is often found in dry situations. 
 
 NATTOR', a town of India, in Bengal, 
 on the Nadar river, an offshoot of the 
 Ganges. Pop. 9094. 
 
 NATURAL GAS, a gas found issuing 
 naturally from crevices in the earth’s 
 surface in various localities. It burns 
 like ordinary coal gas, and consists of a 
 mixture of various hydro-carbons, the 
 chief ingredient being marsh-gas (fire- 
 
 Natterjack. 
 
 damp). It has long been known and 
 utilized to some extent as an illuminant, 
 but only in recent years has it attained 
 much importance, being now largely 
 employed in the United States both for 
 lighting purposes and as a fuel. It is 
 most abundant in the petroleum regions. 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY, in its widest 
 sense, that department of knowledge 
 which comprehends the sciences of zo- 
 ology and botany, chemistry, natural 
 philosophy or physics, geology, palaeon- 
 tology, and mineralogy. It is now, how- 
 ever, commonly used to denote collec- 
 tively the sciences of botany and zoology, 
 and it is sometimes restricted to denote 
 the science of zoology alone. 
 
 NATURALISM, the doctrine that all 
 the operations in the universe, moral as 
 well as physical, are carried on in ac- 
 cordance with fixed laws, and without 
 the interference of any supernatural 
 power. 
 
 NATURALIZATION. See Alien. 
 
 NATURALIZATION LAWS OF THE 
 UNITED STATES, the conditions under 
 and the manner in which an alien may 
 be admitted to become a citizen of the 
 United States are prescribed by sections 
 2, 165-74 of the revised statutes of the 
 United States. 
 
 The alien must declare upon oath be- 
 fore a circuit or district court of the 
 United States or a district or supreme 
 court of the territories, or a court of 
 record of any of the States having com- 
 mon law jurisdiction and a seal and 
 clerk, two years at least prior to his ad- 
 mission, that it is, bona fide, his inten- 
 tion to become a citizen of the United 
 States, and to renounce forever all 
 allegiance and fidelity to any foreign 
 prince or state, and particularly to the 
 one of which he may be at the time a 
 citizen or subject. 
 
 He must at the time of his application 
 to be admitted declare on oath, before 
 some one of the courts above specified, 
 “that he will support the constitution of 
 the United States, and that he absolute- 
 ly and entirely renounces and abjures all 
 allegiance and fidelity to every foreign 
 prince, potentate, state or sovereignty, 
 and particularly, by name, to the prince, 
 potentate, state, or sovereignty of which 
 lie was before a citizen or subject,” 
 
 which proceedings must be recorded by 
 the clerk of the court. 
 
 If it shall appear to the satisfaction of 
 the court to which the alien has applied 
 that he has made a declaration to be- 
 come a citizen two years before applying 
 for final papers, and has resided con- 
 tinuously within the United States for at 
 least five years, and within the state or 
 territory where such court is at the time 
 held one year at least; and that during 
 that time “he has behaved as a man of 
 good moral character, attached to the 
 principles of the constitution of the 
 United States, and well disposed to the 
 good order and happiness of the same,” 
 he will be admitted to citizenship. If the 
 applicant has borne any hereditary title 
 or order of nobility he must make an 
 express renunciation of the same at the 
 time of his application. 
 
 Any alien of the age of twenty-one 
 years and upward who has been in the 
 armies of the United States, and ha^ 
 been honorably discharged therefrom, 
 may become a citizen on his petition, 
 without any previous declaration of in- 
 tention, provided that he has resided in 
 the United States at least one year prev- 
 ious to his application, and is of good 
 moral character. (It is judicially decided 
 that residence of one year in a particular 
 state is not requisite.) 
 
 Any alien under the age of twenty-one 
 years who has resided in the United 
 States three years next preceding his 
 arriving at that age, and who has con- 
 tinued to reside therein to the time he 
 may make application to be admitted a 
 citizen thereof, may, after he arrives at 
 the age of twenty-one years, and after he 
 has resided five years within the Uiiited 
 States, including the three years of his 
 minority, be admitted a citizen; but he 
 must make a declaration on oath and 
 prove to the satisfaction of the court 
 that for two years next preceding it has 
 been his bona fide intention to become a 
 citizen. 
 
 The children of persons who have been 
 duly naturalized, being under the age 
 of twenty-one years at the time of the 
 naturalization of their parents, shall, if 
 dwelling in the United States, be con- 
 sidered as citizens thereof. 
 
 The children of persons who now are 
 or have been citizens of the United States 
 are, though born out of the limits and 
 jurisdiction of the United States, con- 
 sidered as citizens thereof. 
 
 The naturalization of Chinamen is ex- 
 pressly prohibited by section 14, chapter 
 126, laws of 1882. 
 
 Section 2,000 of the revised statutes of 
 the United States declares that “all 
 naturalized citizens of the United States 
 while in foreign countries are entitled to 
 and shall receive from this government 
 the same protection of persons and prop- 
 erty which is accorded to native-born 
 citizens.” 
 
 The right to vote comes from the 
 state, and is a state gift. Naturalization 
 is a federal right and is a gift of the Union 
 not of any one state. In nearly one-half 
 of the Union aliens (who have declared 
 intentions) vote and have the right to 
 vote equally with naturalized or native- 
 born citizens. In the other half only 
 actual citizens may vote. The federal 
 naturalization laws apply to the whole 
 
 Union alike, and provide that no alien 
 may be naturalized until after five years’ 
 residence. Even after five years’ resi- 
 dence and due naturalization he is not 
 entitled to vote unless the laws of the 
 state confer the privilege upon him, and 
 he may vote in several states six months 
 after landing, if he has declared his in- 
 tention, under United States law, to 
 become a citizen. 
 
 The inhabitants of Hawaii were de- 
 clared to be citizens of the United States 
 under the act of 1900 creating Hawaii a 
 territory. Under the United States 
 supreme court decision in the insular 
 cases, in May, 1901, the inhabitants of 
 the Philippines and Porto Rico are en- 
 titled to full protection under the con- 
 stitution, but not to the privileges of 
 United States citizenship until congress 
 so decrees, by admitting the countries as 
 states or organizing them as territories. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, originally 
 the study of nature in general; but now 
 commonly restricted to the various 
 sciences classed under Physics. 
 
 NATURAL SELECTION, a phrase fre- 
 quently employed in connection with 
 Darwin’s theory of the origin of species, 
 to indicate the process in nature by 
 which plants and animals best fitted for 
 the conditions in which they are placed 
 survive, propagate, and spread, while 
 the less fitted die out and disappear; 
 this process being combined with the 
 preservation by their descendants of 
 useful variations arising in animals or 
 plants. Mr. Darwin’s theory takes origin 
 from the fact that all species vary to a 
 greater or less extent. These variations, 
 through particular or “selected” mem- 
 bers of the species, become perpetuated. 
 What was at first a mere individual vari- 
 ation becomes in this way and through 
 transmission a perpetuated “variety” or 
 a “race.” These “races” are subject to 
 a similar process of variation, and varie- 
 ties of the race may in turn appear; and 
 thus through the variety we in time ar- 
 rive at forms which present characters so 
 widely different from those of the origi- 
 nal species that they may be regarded 
 structurally and functionally as new 
 species. In the domestication and breed- 
 ing of cattle and sheep, in the numerous 
 varieties of dogs, pigeons, and other 
 animals, man, it is believed, through 
 artificial selection, has imitated nature 
 in her process, and has produced varie- 
 ties or breeds which differ widely from 
 the original stock or specific type. 
 
 NATURAL THEOLOGY is that de- 
 partment of ethics which deals with 
 those propositions relating to the exist- 
 ence and attributes of God and the duty 
 of man which can be demonstrated by 
 human reason, independent of written 
 revelation. 
 
 NATURE PRINTING is the art of giv- 
 ing an exact reproduction of natural 
 objects by printing from impressions of 
 the objects themselves formed by pres- 
 sure on metallic plates The only ob- 
 jects to which the art can be applied 
 with success are those with tolerably flat 
 surfaces, such as dried and pressed 
 plants, especially ferns and seaweeds, 
 embroidery and lace, the grain of wood, 
 etc. In one method the object is placed 
 between a plate of copper and one of 
 lead, when a perfect intaglio impres- 
 
NAUGATUCK 
 
 NAVIGATION 
 
 eion is made on the leaden plate, from 
 which an electrotype is taken, and from 
 this the impressions are taken. 
 
 NAUGATUCK, a town in New Haven 
 CO., Conn., on the Naugatuck river, and 
 on the Naugatuck Division of the N.Y., 
 N.H. and Hart. Railroad; 5 miles s. of 
 Waterbury. Its manufactures include 
 rubber and woollen goods, malleable 
 iron, paper boxes, pins, buttons, belt- 
 lacing, and electro-plated ware. Pop. 
 12,421. 
 
 NAU'SEA, the sensation of sickness, 
 or inclination to vomit, similar to that 
 produced by the motion of a ship at sea. 
 Though the feeling is referred to the 
 stomach, it frequently originates in dis- 
 order of other and remote parts of the 
 body, such as the brain, kidney, womb, 
 etc. 
 
 NAU'TILUS, a genus of cephalopods 
 with polythalamous ormany-cnambered 
 shells. The shell of the pearly nautilus 
 is a spiral with smooth sides. The 
 turns or whorls are contiguous, the 
 outer whorl covering the inner. The 
 chambers of the shell are separated 
 by transverse septa, and one after the 
 other have been the residence of the 
 
 Nautilus shown in section. 
 
 animal, being successively abandoned as 
 it has grown. The animal thus always 
 resides in the cavity of its outermost or 
 external chamber. A siphuncle connects 
 the body with the air-chambers, passing 
 through each transverse septum till it 
 terminates in the smallest chamber at 
 the inner extremity of the shell. These 
 internal chambers contain only air. By 
 means of the siphuncle the animal is 
 enabled to sink itself or to swim. The 
 nautilus is an inhabitant of the tropical 
 seas. Only three or four existing species 
 are known, though the fossil species ex- 
 ceed a hundred. The name is often 
 loosely applied to the shells of different 
 genera of mollusca. The animal which 
 has been said to sail in its shell upon the 
 surface of the water is the paper-nautilus 
 or argonaut. See Argonaut. 
 
 NAVAJO INDIANS (na-va'ho), a tribe 
 of American Indians numbering about 
 12,000, many of whom are engaged in 
 civilized pursuits. They occupy a reser- 
 vation in the n.w. of New Mexico and 
 the n. e. of Arizona. 
 
 NAVAL ACADEMY UNITED STATES, 
 the school situated at Annapolis, Md., 
 founded in 1845 at which are educated 
 the executive officers of the United 
 States navy. 
 
 The students of the naval academy 
 are called midshipmen. Two midship- 
 men are allowed for each senator, repre- 
 sentative, and delegate in congress, two 
 for the district of Columbia, and five 
 each year from the United States at 
 large. The appointments from the dis- 
 trict of Columbia and five each year at 
 large are made by the president. Gne 
 P. E.— 55 
 
 midshipman is allowed from Porto Rico, 
 who must be a native of that island. The 
 appointment is made by the president, 
 on the recommendation of the governor 
 of" Porto Rico. The congressional ap- 
 pointments are equitably distributed, so 
 that as soon as practicable each senator, 
 representative, and delegate in congress 
 may appoint one midshipman during 
 each congress. The course for midship- 
 men is six years — four at the academy, 
 when the succeeding appointment is 
 made, and two years at sea, at the ex- 
 piration of which time the examina- 
 tion for graduation takes place. Mid- 
 shipmen who pass the examination for 
 final graduation are appointed to fill 
 vacancies in the lower grade of the line 
 of the navy and of the marine corps, in 
 the order of merit as determined by the 
 academic board of the naval academy. 
 Candidates allowed for congressional 
 districts, for territories, and for the dis- 
 trict of Columbia must be actual resi- 
 dents. Candidates at the time of their 
 examination must be physically sound, 
 well formed, and of robust constitution. 
 Attention will also be paid to the stature 
 of the candidate, and no one manifestly 
 under size for his age will be received at 
 the academy. The height of candidates 
 for admission shall not be less than 5 
 feet 2 inches between the ages of 16 and 
 18 years, and not less than 5 feet 4 inches 
 between the ages of 18 and 20 years ; and 
 the minimum weight at 16 years of age 
 shall be 100 pounds, with an increase of 
 not less than 5 pounds for each addi- 
 tional year or fraction of a year over 
 one-half. Any marked deviation in the 
 relative height and weight to the age of 
 a candidate will add materially to the 
 consideration for rejection. Candidates 
 must be unmarried, and any midship- 
 man who shall marry, or who shall be 
 found to be married, before his final 
 graduation, shall be dismissed from the 
 service. All candidates must, at the 
 time of their examination for admission, 
 be between the ages of 16 and 20 years. 
 The pay of a midshipman is $500, be- 
 ginning at the date of admission. 
 
 NAVAL CADETS. See Naval Acad- 
 emy. 
 
 NAVAL HOSPITALS. See Hospital. 
 
 NAVARRE, a former kingdom, now a 
 province of Spain, between Aragon, Old 
 Castile, and Biscay ; area, 4045 sq. miles; 
 pop. 321,015. 
 
 NAVE, in Gothic architecture, that 
 part of a church extending from the 
 western entrance to the transept, or to 
 the choir and chancel, according to the 
 nature and extent of the church 
 
 NAVEL, or UMBILI'CUS, the aperture 
 or passage in the abdomen which in the 
 adult is normally closed, but in the 
 foetus or embryo gives passage to the 
 umbilical vessels, by means of which the 
 foetus communicates with the parent 
 through the placenta. The cicatriza- 
 tion or healing of the navel produces the 
 contracted and depressed appearance 
 so familiar in the external aspect of the 
 structure. 
 
 NAVIGATION, the science or art of 
 conducting ships or vessels from one 
 plkce to another. The management of 
 the sails, rudder, etc., or the working 
 of the ship generally, though essential 
 to the practice of navigation belongs 
 
 rather to seamanship, navigation being 
 more especially the art of directing and 
 measuring the course of ships, the 
 method of determining their position, 
 etc., by the laws of geometry, or by 
 astronomical principles and observa- 
 tions. In order to tne accomplishment 
 of this the ship must be provided with 
 accurate charts of seas, plans of ports 
 and harbors, etc., compasses, chronom- 
 eter, sextant, log and log-line, various 
 mathematical instruments, leads and 
 
 Nave— Rheims cathedral, Prance; 13th century. 
 
 lead-lines, log-book, etc. It is by the 
 compass that the direction in which the 
 ship sails or should sail is determined. 
 Though it points in a northerly direc- 
 tion, it does not generally point to the 
 true north, but has a certain variation 
 which must be taken into account. The 
 rate of speed at which a vessel is sailing 
 is found by means of the log, which is 
 heaved usually at the end of every hour. 
 By noting the rate of sailing, the direc- 
 tion of the course, and the time occupied, 
 the ship’s position may be estimated^ 
 allowance being made for deviation 
 caused by currents, and by the wind 
 driving the vessel to leeward. The posi- 
 tion thus determined is said to be found 
 by dead-reckoning. It is not safe to 
 trust to dead-reckoning for any length of 
 time, and a more accurate method of 
 finding the vessel’s position at any time 
 is required. This consists in taking ob- 
 servations of the heavenly bodies with 
 the sextant, and these being compared 
 with data given in the Nautical Almanac, 
 while correct Greenwich time is given 
 by the chronometer, the latitude and 
 longitude, or true position, is easily 
 found. In navigating a ship a certain 
 knowledge of trigonometry is required; 
 but the operations can be much short- 
 ened by tables and insti-uments. In 
 directing a ship’s course, and applying 
 it on a chart, several methods of what 
 are called sailings are employed, as 
 plane sailing (the earth being regarded 
 as having a olane surface), Mercator’s 
 
NAVIGATION LAWS 
 
 NAVY 
 
 sailing, great circle sailing (sailing on a 
 great circle of the sphere), etc. 
 
 NAVIGATION LAWS are based upon 
 the right of a state to regulate the navi- 
 gation of its own waters and to protect 
 its own commerce, and may be aivided 
 into two classes. 
 
 The first class includes all those laws, 
 once so numerous, designed to secure a 
 commercial monopoly to the state which 
 enacted them. Any advantages which a 
 British ship has, e.g., the right of claim- 
 ing protection for her flag, the non- 
 attacliment to her of a maritime lien 
 for necessaries supplied in a British 
 port, are not directly connected with 
 the policy under which the navigation 
 acts have become obsolete. These ad- 
 vantages are not secured to a British 
 ship until she is registered. American 
 law agrees with British in this respect. 
 The United States have imitated the 
 policy of England and other commercial 
 nations in conferring peculiar privileges 
 upon American-built ships and owned 
 by our own citizens. The object of the 
 registry acts is to encourage our own 
 trade, navigation, and ship-building by 
 granting peculiar or exclusive privileges 
 of trade to the flag of the United States, 
 and by prohibiting the communication 
 of those immunities to the shipping and 
 mariners of other countries. It may be 
 noticed that an alien is generally incapa- 
 ble of becoming the owner of a ship. 
 This incapacity is specially preserved in 
 the case of British ships by the naturali- 
 zation act, 1870. 
 
 The second class of navigation laws 
 includes those which deal with the 
 navigation of any waters over which a 
 state has any control, and embraces all 
 that is necessary for the due use of such 
 waters, as rules of the road, management 
 of harbors and lighthouses, and licensing 
 and control of pilots. Such laws may 
 deal with (1) the high seas, (2) tidal 
 waters other than the high seas (3) 
 non-tidal waters. 
 
 NAVIGATOR'S ISLANDS. See Samoa. 
 
 NAVY, the ancient method of naval 
 warfare consisted, in great part, in the 
 driving of beaked vessels against each 
 other; and therefore skill and celerity 
 in manoeuvring, so as to strike the enemy 
 at the greatest disadvantage, were of the 
 utmost importance. This mode of con- 
 flict has been attempted to be revived 
 at the pretsent time, and vessels called 
 "steam-rams” are specially constructed 
 for this species of conflict. The earliest 
 powers having efficient fleets appear to 
 have been the Phoenicians, Carthagin- 
 ians, Persians, and Greeks; the Greeks 
 had fleets as early as the beginning of 
 the 7th century b.c. — the first sea-fight 
 on record being that between the Corin- 
 thians and their colonists of Corcyra, 
 664 B.c. The earliest great battle in 
 which tactics appear to have distinctly 
 been opposed to superior force, and 
 with success, was that of Salamis (480 
 B.C.), where Themistocles, taking ad- 
 vantage of the narrows, forced the 
 Persian fleet of Xerxes to combat in such 
 a manner that their line of battle but 
 little exceeded in length the line of the 
 much inferior Athenian fleet. The 
 Peloponnesian War, where "Greek met 
 Greek,” tended much to develop the 
 art of naval warfare. But the destruc- 
 
 tion of the Athenian marine power in 
 the Syracusan expedition of 414 b.c., 
 left Carthage mistress of the Mediter- 
 ranean. The Roman power, however, 
 gradually asserted itself, and after two 
 centuries, became omnipotent by the 
 destruction of Carthage. For several 
 following centuries, the only sea-fights 
 were occasioned by the civil wars of the 
 Romans. Toward the close of the em- 
 pire, the system of fighting with pointed 
 prows had been discontinued in favor 
 of that which had always co-existed — 
 viz., the running alongside, and board- 
 ing by armed men, with whom each ves- 
 sel was overloaded. Onagers, balistae, 
 etc., were ultimately carried in the ships, 
 and used as artillery; but they were 
 little relied on, and it was usual, after a 
 discharge of arrows and javelins, to 
 come to close quarters. A sea-fight was 
 therefore a hand-to-hand struggle on a 
 floating base, in which the vanquished 
 were almost certainly drowned or slain. 
 
 The northern invaders of the empire, 
 and subsequently the Moors, seem to 
 have introduced swift-sailing galleys, 
 warring in small squadrons and singly, 
 and ravaging all civilized coasts for 
 plunder and slaves. This — the break-up 
 
 of the empire — was the era of piracy, 
 when every nation, which had more to 
 win than lose by freebooting, sent out 
 its cruisers. Foremost for daring and 
 seamanship were the Norsemen who 
 penetrated in every direction from 
 Bosporus to Newfoundland. Combina- 
 tion being the only security against 
 these marauders, the medieval navies 
 gradually sprang up; the most con- 
 spicuous being — in the Mediterranean, 
 those of Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Aragon- 
 on the Atlantic sea-board, England and 
 France. In the Mediterranean, Venice, 
 after a long struggle with the Genoese, 
 and subsequently with the Turks, be- 
 came the great naval power. The Ara- 
 gonese fleet gradually developed into 
 
 the Spanish navy, which, by the epoch 
 of Columbus, had a rival in that of 
 Portugal. Many struggles, left in the 
 16th and 17th centuries, the principal 
 naval power in the hands of the English, 
 French, Dutch, Spaniards, and Portu- 
 guese. 
 
 Dating the modern navies of the 
 world from the 16th century, we find 
 the Britishnavy risingfrom insignificance 
 by the destruction of the Spanish Ar- 
 mada in 1588; a blow which Spain never 
 recovered, and which the Dutch whose 
 naval force had acquired tremendous 
 strength in their struggle for independ- 
 ence, increased the weight of, by their 
 triumph in 1607, in the Bay of Gibraltar. 
 At this time there was no decisive supe- 
 riority of the fleet of England over that 
 of France; but each was inferior to the 
 Dutch navy. The Commonwealth and 
 reign of Charles II. was signalized by the 
 struggle for mastery between the Eng- 
 lish and Dutch ; when victory, after many 
 alternations, finally sided with the 
 former. Through the 18th century, the 
 English and French were the principal 
 fleets; but Louis XVI. gave a decided 
 superiority to the navy of France; and 
 at the period of the American war, the 
 
 naval power of England was seriously 
 threatened. Spain, Holland, and Russia 
 (now for the first time a naval power) 
 had meanwhile acquired considerable 
 fleets; and the "armed neutrality,” to 
 which the northern powers gave their 
 adherence, rendered the British position 
 most critical. 
 
 Camperdown broke the Dutch power; 
 many battles weakened the French 
 navy; and at Trafalgar, in 1805, it, with 
 the Spanish power, was swept from the 
 ocean. The United States had in the 
 meantime augmented their fleet, and in 
 the war of 1812-1814, maintained a 
 glorious struggle. During the American 
 war of secession, many gun-boats, 
 "monitors,” and ironclads of all classes, 
 
 Order of Rank | 
 
 Powers 
 
 1st Class Battleships 
 
 2d and 3d Class 
 
 Battleships 
 
 Coast Defense Ships 
 
 Armored Cruisers 
 
 Protected or 
 
 1st Class Cruisers 
 
 Other Cruisers 
 
 (2d and 3d Class) 
 
 Sea-Going Gunboats 
 
 River Gunboats 
 
 Torpedo Boat 
 
 Destroyers 
 
 Torpedo Boats 
 
 Transports, Hospital, 
 
 Special Service, 
 
 Ships, Tugs, Etc. 
 
 Subsidized and 
 
 Auxiliary Ships 
 
 School and 
 
 Training Ships 
 
 OfBcers 
 
 Men 
 
 1 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 49 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 37 
 
 30 
 
 119 
 
 98 
 
 18 
 
 184 
 
 290 
 
 386 
 
 70 
 
 30 
 
 6,756 
 
 96,492 
 
 2 
 
 Prance 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 37 
 
 14 
 
 38 
 
 30 
 
 41 
 
 329 
 
 219 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 3,590 
 
 52,193 
 
 3 
 
 United States 
 
 28 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 *31 
 
 16 
 
 t41 
 
 103 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 2,257 
 
 32,211 
 
 4 
 
 Germany 
 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 43 
 
 86 
 
 116 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 2,719 
 
 33,820 
 
 5 
 
 Japan 
 
 tl8 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 29 
 
 38 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 43 
 
 87 
 
 99 
 
 63 
 
 7 
 
 2,869 
 
 30,490 
 
 6 
 
 Italy 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 141 
 
 87 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 1,560 
 
 25,800 
 
 7 
 
 Russia 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 68 
 
 192 
 
 67 
 
 69 
 
 10 
 
 2,600 
 
 50,000 
 
 8 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 80 
 
 27 
 
 
 3 
 
 868 
 
 11,000 
 
 9 
 
 Chile 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 
 2 
 
 660 
 
 7,290 
 
 10 
 
 Turkey 
 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 690 
 
 20,000 
 
 11 
 
 Greece 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 15 
 
 
 1 
 
 585 
 
 6,870 
 
 12 
 
 Denmark 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 48 
 
 
 4 
 
 361 
 
 6,426 
 
 13 
 
 Sweden 
 
 i 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 27 
 
 
 3 
 
 640 
 
 7,612 
 
 14 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 
 8 
 
 is 
 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 44 
 
 
 92 
 
 11 
 
 
 3 
 
 830 
 
 25,000 
 
 15 
 
 Norway 
 
 i 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 38 
 
 9 
 
 
 2 
 
 270 
 
 4,360 
 
 16 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 io 
 
 7 
 
 749 
 
 5,893 
 
 17 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 
 2 
 
 420 
 
 5,000 
 
 18 
 
 Argentine Republic . . 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 464 
 
 4,826 
 
 19 
 
 Portueal 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 2 \ 
 
 
 41 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 280 
 
 3,200 
 
 20 
 
 English Colonies 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 
 181 
 
 2,000 
 
 21 
 
 China 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 
 300 
 
 5,400 
 
 22 
 
 Peru 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 142 
 
 1,245 
 
 23 
 
 Mexico 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 149 
 
 1,390 
 
 24 
 
 Colombia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 600 
 
 25 
 
 Belgium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 230 
 
 920 
 
 * Includes captured vessels from Spain, t Includes scout vessels. J Includes captured Rus- 
 sian vessels. 
 
NAVY 
 
 NAVY YARDS 
 
 were created; but chiefly adapted for 
 river and coast service. The JEmperor 
 Napoleon III. greatly enlarged and 
 improved the French navy, yet in the 
 war of 1870-1871 it had no opportunity 
 of proving its effectiveness. 
 
 The contest between the attack and 
 defense which has been going on for 
 some time, appears to have attained 
 its limits in the 100-ton guns of the 
 Italian navy, andthe 24-inch armor-plate 
 of the British^ and a new departure 
 seems already to have been taken which 
 points in the direction of steel-plates and 
 speed, and a more special adaptation of 
 ships for particular services. The torpedo 
 system has introduced a new element 
 into naval warfare, particularly in har- 
 bors, rivers, and inland waters, which 
 can hardly be said to be yet fully de- 
 veloped; and the catastrophes of the 
 Vanguard of the British navy, and the 
 Grosser Kurfiirst of the German, have 
 pointed out dangers connected with the 
 ram system that had not been calculated 
 upon. 
 
 The table on page 866 gives the com- 
 parative strength of the chief navies of 
 the world. 
 
 NAVY, The New American. The In- 
 diana, Massachusetts and the Oregon 
 were the first battleships rated as first- 
 class built for the American navy — the 
 Maine and Texas authorized in 1886 
 being rated as only second class. The 
 three were sister ships, each having a 
 displacement of 10,288 tons, and each 
 carrying four 13-inch guns, eight 8-inch 
 guns and four 6-inch guns in their main 
 batteries. The Oregon was built on the 
 Pacific coast, in pursuance of a policy 
 adopted by congress in 1888, of having 
 a part of the new ships for the navy con- 
 structed on the west coast. The Indiana 
 and Massachusetts played important 
 parts in the naval operations in Cuban 
 waters during the war with Spain in 
 1898. The Oregon earned worldwide 
 fame by its remarkable cruise of 10,800 
 miles, from San Francisco to Jupiter 
 Inlet, Florida, around Cape Horn. It 
 was the most notable voyage ever under- 
 taken by a battleship of its class in the 
 history of modern navies. 
 
 In 1891 congress provided but for one 
 addition to the navy — the protected 
 cruiser Minneapolis — a sister ship of the 
 commerce destroyer Columbia. In 1893, 
 however, congress added the armored 
 cruiser Brookl3m and the first-class 
 battleship Iowa to the navy. Both ships 
 represented a distinct advance in naval 
 construction. The Brooklyn was larger 
 and more heavily armed than the New 
 York, the only armored cruiser in the 
 navy at that time, while the Iowa had 
 a displacement of 11,340 tons as against 
 the 10,288 tons of the Indiana, Massa- 
 chusetts, and Oregon. Both ships ren- 
 dered valuable service in the Spanish- 
 American war. The Brooklyn was the 
 flagship of Rear Admiral Schley, second 
 in command at the battle of Santiago, 
 and was hit oftener by Spanish shells 
 than any other American vessel in the 
 engagement. The Iowa took part in 
 the same battle. 
 
 Three gunboats, the Helena, Nash- 
 ville, and Wilmington, and a submarine 
 torpedo boat, the Plunger, were author- 
 ized by congress in 1893. The Nashville 
 
 fired the first hostile shot in the war 
 with Spain, capturing the Spanish ship 
 Bonaventura on the morning of April 22, 
 1898, only a few hours after war was 
 declared and while Sampson’s fleet was 
 on its way from Key West to begin the 
 blockade of Havana. Congress in 1894 
 authorized only the construction of three 
 torpedo boats, the Foote, Rodgers and 
 Winslow. The Winslow won distinction 
 in the Spanish-American war in the 
 action at Cardenas on May 11, 1898. 
 The Winslow had entered the bay to 
 assist in cable cutting operations and 
 came under range of the Spanish shore 
 batteries. Ensign Worth Bagley and 
 four sailors were killed, this being the 
 first American blood shed by the 
 Spaniards in the war. 
 
 The congress of 1895 made a notable 
 increase in the navy, providing for the 
 construction of no less than eleven ves- 
 sels, including two first-class battleships, 
 six gun boats and three torpedo boats. 
 The battleships were the sister ships 
 Kentucky and Kearsarge and offered a 
 radical departure from any type of 
 battleship ever before constructed in 
 any navy. Both were supplied with 
 superimposed turrets — a pair of 13-inch 
 guns in the lower turret and a pair of 
 8-inch guns in a smaller turret mounted 
 upon the larger turret. The gunboats 
 provided in the same naval program 
 were the Annapolis, Marietta, Newport, 
 Princeton, Vicksburg, and Wheeling. 
 They are all small cruising vessels, each 
 of 1000 tons displacement, built for 
 West Indian and Caribbean sea service. 
 The torpedo boats included the Dupont, 
 Porter and Roman. 
 
 Congress in 1896 added the three 
 first-class battleships Alabama, Illinois, 
 and Wisconsin, and ten torpedo boats, 
 and in 1897 three more torpedo boats 
 and a training ship to the navy. In 1898, 
 the naval program was the largest ever 
 authorized at a single session of con- 
 gress. The list included three first-class 
 battleships larger than any before de- 
 signed for the American navy, sixteen 
 torpedo boat destroyers — the first ever 
 built by the United States, twelve 
 torpedo boats, four coast defense moni- 
 tors and one gunboat. The Spanish- 
 American war undoubtedly was the 
 direct moving cause of this generous 
 expansion of the navy. The war had 
 demonstrated the fact that the United 
 States could not claim immunity from 
 war with a foreign power and that the 
 naval combats of the future were to be 
 fought with first-class battleships. 
 
 The additions to the navy authorized 
 in 1898 were three first-class battle- 
 ships, the West Virginia, Nebraska, and 
 Georgia, three great armored cruisers, 
 the California, Pennsylvania and Vir- 
 ginia, and six protected cruisers, and 
 in 1900 provided for two more first-class 
 battleships, the New Jersey and Rhode 
 Island, three armored cruisers, the South 
 Dakota, Maryland and Colorado, three 
 protected cruisers of a new and ad- 
 vanced type, the Charleston, Milwaukee 
 and St. Louis, each of 9,700 tons dis- 
 placement. 
 
 Congress in 1900 also made a new 
 departure in naval construction by pro- 
 viding for seven submarine torpedo 
 boats. 
 
 Two first-class battle-ships, the Con- 
 necticut and the Louisiana, two armored 
 cruisers, the Tennessee and Washington, 
 two gunboats, the Dubuque and Padu- 
 cah, were added in 1902. The congress 
 of 1903 authorized no less than five 
 first-class battleships of 16,000 tons 
 displacement each, the equals of any 
 fighting ships afloat in any navy. In 
 1904 a first-class battleship and three 
 swift cruisers were added to the navy, 
 and in 1905 two more first-class battle- 
 ships were added. 
 
 No limit has been fixed by naval 
 authority, congressional action, or pub- 
 lic sentiment. The general naval board 
 at the head of which stands Admiral 
 Dewey is on record officially as stating 
 that the work of construction should 
 continue without interruption until at 
 least 48 first-class battleships and 48 
 first-class armored cruisers of the heav- 
 iest class and highest type should be in 
 commission. 
 
 NAVY, ARMY AND, RELATIVE 
 RANK IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Generals rank with admirals, lieuten- 
 ant-generals rank with vice-admirals, 
 major-generals rank with first nine rear- 
 admirals, brigadier-generals rank with 
 rear-admirals after the first nine and 
 commodores, colonels rank with cap- 
 tains, lieutenant-colonels rank with 
 commanders, majors rank with lieu- 
 tenant-commanders, captains rank 
 with lieutenants, first lieutenants rank 
 with lieutenants junior grade, second 
 lieutenants rank with ensigns, cadets 
 rank with midshipmen. 
 
 NAVY, Department of the, one of the 
 nine executive departments of the 
 United States government, created by 
 act of congress of April 30, 1798, and 
 charged with the general control and 
 administration of the navy. At the head 
 of the department is a secretary, who 
 is a member of the cabinet, appointed 
 by the president with the advice and 
 consent of the senate, and receives an 
 annual salary of $8000. 
 
 It is his duty to execute such orders as 
 the president may give relative to the 
 administration of naval affairs, includ- 
 ing the procurement of naval supplies 
 and the construction, armament, equip- 
 ment, and emplojment of vessels of war. 
 He makes annual report to the president 
 of the operations of the navy depart- 
 ment. His deputy is the assistant secre- 
 tary, who is appointed by the persident, 
 and who during the absence or incapaci- 
 tation of the secretary acts in his stead, 
 taking the title of acting secretary. 
 
 NAVY-YARDS. 1. Brooklyn navy- 
 yard, Brooklyn, N. Y., 2. Charleston 
 
 navy-yard, Boston, Mass. 3. Ports- 
 mouth navy-yard, near Norfolk, Va. 
 4. Kittery navy-yard, opposite Ports- 
 mouth, N. H. 5. League Island navy- 
 yard, Philadelphia, Pa. 6. Mare Island 
 navy-yard, near San Francisco, Cal. 
 7. Washington City navy-yard, Wash- 
 ington, D. C. 8. Puget Sound navy-yard 
 Bremerton, Wash. 
 
 There are naval stations at Port 
 Royal, S. C.; Charleston, S. C.; Key 
 West, Fla.'; Pensacola, Fla.'; Algiers, 
 La.; Great Lakes, North Chicago, 111.; 
 a torpedo and training station at New- 
 port, R. I., and a training station on 
 Yerba Buena Island, Cal., and the naval 
 
NAZARINES 
 
 NEBRASKA 
 
 War college, Newport, R. I. Naval sta- 
 tions have been established at Tutuila, 
 Samoa, Island of Guam; San Juan, 
 Porto Rico; Culebra,W. I. ; Guantanamo, 
 Cuba, Honolulu, H. I., and Cavite, 
 Philippine islands. The latter has be- 
 come an important naval base for the 
 Asiatic squadroon. 
 
 NAZARINES, a designation given to 
 the early Christians from the town of 
 Nazareth, where Christ dwelt. The name 
 was also applied to a sect which arose at 
 the end of the 1st century, and existed 
 chiefly in Egypt. They are supposed to 
 have retained a judaizing adherence to 
 the Mosaic law, and to have held a low 
 opinion about the divinity of Christ. 
 
 NAZ'ARETH, a small town in Pales- 
 tine, 65 miles north of Jerusalem, cele- 
 brated as the residence of our Savior 
 during his youth. It is surrounded on all 
 sides by hills. The houses are of stone, 
 well built, with flat roofs. There is a 
 Franciscan convent and fine church; an 
 English mission church, school, and 
 orphanage ; a Greek church, and a mos- 
 que. Pop. about 6000. 
 
 NEBO, or NABU, an ancient Assyrian 
 and Babylonian deity, lord of the planet 
 Mercury, and ruler of the hosts of 
 
 Nebo. 
 
 heaven and earth, according to Baby- 
 lonian inscriptions, especially honored 
 in Borsippa. Statues of Nebo have been 
 found in Nineveh, showing him with 
 long beard and hair, and clad in a long 
 robe. 
 
 NEBRAS'KA,one of the United States, 
 bounded by South Dakota, Iowa, Mis- 
 souri, Kansas, Colorado, and Wyom- 
 ing; area, 76,855 sq. miles. It lies in the 
 region of the great plains skirting the 
 eastern slope of the Rocky mountains, 
 toward whose foothills it rises in a gentle 
 tindulating incline. The whole western 
 half of the state lies at an elevation of 
 more than 2500 feet above the sea. 
 
 The climate is dry and exhilarating. 
 The mean temperature for January is 
 19.7° and for July 74.8°. The extremes 
 are very great, the mercury sometimes 
 falling to — 42° and at times rising to 
 114° The nights are cool. The annual 
 rainfall is 23 inches, but this is very 
 unevenly distributed. In the east it is 
 sufficient to support agriculture, ranging 
 from 30 inches on the average to a local 
 maximum as high as 50 inches. In the 
 western half it is below 20, and in the 
 
 extreme west as low as 12 Inches, so 
 that here agriculture cannot be carried 
 on successfully without irrigation. On 
 the n.w. it is a desolate tract known as 
 the Mauvaises Terres or Bad Lands, 
 rich in interesting fossil remains. Tim- 
 ber has been extensively planted of late. 
 The principal rivers are the Missouri, 
 which forms the boundary on the east; 
 
 Seal of Nebraska. 
 
 its great affluent, the Nebraska or 
 Platte, which, formed by two main 
 forks, a northern and a southern, both 
 from the Rocky Mountains, traverses 
 the territory in an eastern direction; and 
 the Republican Fork of Kansas river, 
 traversing the southern part of the state. 
 The soil, except in the northwest and 
 southwest, is a deep rich loam underlaid 
 by a porous clayey subsoil, and is thus ad- 
 mirably adapted to withstand drought. 
 Nebraska ranks as one of the most im- 
 portant agricultural states. 60.8 per 
 cent of the total land area is included 
 in farms, and of this 61.6 per cent is 
 improved. Irrigation in the arid areas of 
 the west has been attended with success. 
 In some regions there are supplies of 
 underground water, which can be 
 utilized by means of windmills and 
 small reservoirs. 
 
 Corn is the leading crop, nearly one- 
 half of the cultivated acreage of the state 
 being devoted to it. The acreage de- 
 voted to wheat is about one-third that 
 of corn and there have been large in- 
 increases in the area devoted to oats 
 and rye during each of the last two dec- 
 ades of the nineteenth century; rye, 
 however, is of only minor importance. 
 Grasses cut for hay are chiefly wild, 
 salt, or prairie grasses, but millet, alfalfa, 
 and other cultivated grasses are also 
 grown. Potatoes and other vegetable 
 crops are extensively grown. In the last 
 decade of the past century a rapid in- 
 crease was made in the cultivation of 
 sugar beets. The growing of orchard 
 fruits is mainly confined to the south- 
 eastern part of the state. Cattle and 
 horses require little protection or hand 
 feeding during winter. Manufactures 
 are as yet generally restricted to the 
 supply of local wants. The railway sys- 
 tem centers in Omaha, the chief city, 
 the Union Pacificrailwaypassing through 
 tiio state. Limestone, sandstone, and 
 gypsum are abundant; coal is found in 
 limited quantity; and there is a good 
 supply of salt. The chief towns are 
 Omaha (by much the largest) and Lin- 
 
 coln (the state capital). At the head of 
 the educational establishments stand 
 the State university at Lincoln, the 
 Protestant Episcopal college in Ne- 
 braska City, and the Congregational 
 college at Crete. In all the principal 
 towns there are graded and high schools 
 supported by general and local taxation, 
 and a generous share of the public lands 
 has been set apart for educational pur- 
 poses. 
 
 Nebraska was probably first visited 
 by Europeans in 1541, in July of which 
 year the Spanish general and explorer 
 Coronado penetrated from New Mexico 
 to a country which he called Quivira, 
 and described as lying about the fortieth 
 parallel, and abounding in buffalo, 
 which corresponds with the region of 
 the Platte. About the middle of the 
 18th century French missionaries from 
 Canada came to the Missouri, and still 
 later a few traders found their way here. 
 It constituted a portion of the Louisiana 
 territory which was purchased by Jef- 
 ferson from France in 1803. At that 
 time Indian tribes still occupied the 
 whole region. At some earlier period a 
 more civilized race lived here who made 
 pottery and skillful carvings, built 
 houses and fortifications, and reared 
 mounds which often contain the ashes 
 of their dead. When Nebraska came 
 into possession of the United States the 
 Sioux Indians were most numerous. 
 The Pawnees, Otoes, and Omahas were 
 next in numbers and in importance. 
 
 The first settlement by whites was 
 made in 1847 at Bellevue, on the Mis- 
 souri, nine miles south of Omaha. Here 
 a trading post of the American Fur 
 company was conducted. The Mormon 
 emigration, begun in 1847, traversed 
 several paths, one of which lay through 
 Nebraska, which thus became generally 
 known throughout the country. Dur- 
 ing the overland traffic to California that 
 commenced in 1849, depots of supply 
 were established at Bellevue, Platts- 
 mouth, Nebraska City, and in the in- 
 terior at Forf Kearney. 
 
 The act constituting Nebraska a dis- 
 tinct territory, and opening its lands to 
 settlement, was approved May 30, 1854. 
 Its area then embraced 351,558 sq. 
 miles, extending from the fortieth paral- 
 lel to British America on the north, its 
 eastern line connecting the Missouri river 
 on the southeast with the Red river on 
 the north, and its western line being the 
 summit of the Rocky mountains. In 
 1861 Nebraska was shorn of its extended 
 territory by the cutting off of portions 
 of it to form Dakota and Colorado ter- 
 ritories. In 1863 it was still further re- 
 duced by the formation of Idaho terri- 
 tory. These curtailments left Nebraska 
 a purely prairie state. During the first 
 five years after the organization of the 
 territory the settlements rapidly in- 
 creased along the Missouri. Great num- 
 bers who rushed to Pike’s Peak in 1859 
 when the gold excitement was at its 
 height, on their return, disappointed 
 and disgusted, stopped and opened farms 
 in the state. In 1863 the Union Pacific 
 railroad and in 1864 the Burlington and 
 Missouri River railroad began to sell 
 portions of their land in Nebraska, re- 
 ceived from the general government 
 and this became a most potent factor 
 
NEBRASKA CITY 
 
 NECROMANCY 
 
 in turning a tide of emigration into the 
 state. 
 
 At the breaking out of the civil war in 
 1861 the population of the territory 
 comprised less than 30,000. Yet Nebras- 
 ka furnished to the Union army during 
 the war 3,307 officers and men. 
 
 In 1866 the legislature prepared a 
 constitution for a state government, 
 which a vote of the people confirmed. 
 The first legislature under the state con- 
 stitution met July 4, 1866. The bill to 
 admit Nebraska as a state was passed 
 over the president’s veto, and pro- 
 claimed on March 1, 1867. 
 
 The first capital of Nebraska was at 
 Bellevue. It was removed to Omaha in 
 1855, where it remained until Nebraska 
 became a state, when it was taken to 
 Lancaster, a town of half a dozen houses, 
 whose name was then changed to Lin- 
 coln. The present state constitution 
 was framed in 1875, and was ratified 
 in the same year by the people. The 
 first legislature under the new constitu- 
 tion met in January, 1877. The house 
 of representatives consists of eighty- 
 four, and the senate of thirty members; 
 and the legislature meets biennially. 
 
 Politically Nebraska has been repub- 
 lican in national elections with the ex- 
 ception of 1806 and 1908, when it was 
 carried by the democratic candidate, 
 William Jennings Bryan, a resident of 
 the state. Pop. 1,350.000. 
 
 NEBRASKA CITY, the capital of 
 Otoe CO., Nebraska, on the Missouri, 
 about 35 miles s. of Omaha. It contains 
 the Nebraska college (Episcopal), and 
 the trade is active. Pop. 10,161. 
 
 NEBRASKA, University of, a co- 
 educational state university at Lincoln, 
 Neb., founded in 1869. It comprises the 
 graduate school ; the college of literature, 
 science, and arts; the industrial college, 
 the college of law; the college of medi- 
 cine, the school of fine arts; and the 
 affiliated school of music. There is also 
 a summer session. The regents have 
 intrusted to its charge the United States 
 agricultural experiment station, the 
 state museum, the botanical and geo- 
 logical surveys, and the superintendency 
 of farmers’ institutes. Students are ad- 
 mitted on examination or on certificates 
 from accredited schools. Military drill 
 is compulsory for first and second year 
 male students in 'the college, and physi- 
 cal training for all first and second year 
 woman students. 
 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR, a king of Baby- 
 lon, celebrated as the conqueror of 
 Judah. He reigned from 604 to 561 
 B.c. He was the son of Nabopolassar, by 
 whom the kingdom of Babylon was 
 definitely made independent of the 
 Assyrian monarchy. In the fourth year 
 of Jehoiakim, king of Judah (605-4 
 B.C.), he defeated Pharaoh-Necho, king 
 of Egpyt, at Carchemish (Circesium), 
 on the Euphrates, after which he sub- 
 jugated Syria and Palestine, carrying 
 off with him the sacred vessels of the 
 temple and the chief Jews into captivity. 
 He destroyed Tyre in 585, and some 
 years later he invaded and ravaged 
 Egypt. During the peaceful years of 
 his reign he rebuilt in a magnificent 
 manner Babylon and many of the other 
 cities of the empire, and constructed vast 
 temples, aqueducts, and palaces, whose 
 
 ruins still testify to his grandeur. His 
 insanity and the events preceding are 
 only known to us from the book of 
 Daniel. Several inscriptions relating to 
 his reign have recently been found. 
 
 NEB'ULA, pi. Nebulae, in astronomy, 
 the name given to certain celestial ob- 
 jects resembling white clouds, which in 
 many cases, when observed through 
 telescopes of sufficient power, have been 
 resolved into clusters of distinct stars. 
 As more and more powerful telescopes 
 have been employed, the number of re- 
 solvable nebulae has become greater and 
 greater, and it is probable that many 
 nebulae irresolvable at present may yet 
 be shown to be star clusters in tele- 
 scopes more powerful than those now 
 employed. On the other hand, the spec- 
 troscope has shown that many nebulae, 
 among which are several that had 
 hitherto appeared to' be well-authenti- 
 cated clusters, consist, in part at least, of 
 masses of incandescent gas. The recent 
 researches of Sir J. Norman Lockye 
 render it probable that nebulae include 
 clouds of meteors, which, by their con- 
 tinual impact against one another, pro- 
 duce the heat, light, and gaseous matter 
 that are detected by our telescopes and 
 spectroscopes. A few of the great nebulae 
 such as those of Orion, Argo Navis, and 
 Andromeda, are visible to the naked eye ; 
 but most are telescopic and of these up- 
 ward of 5000 are now known to astron- 
 omers. Nebulae have been classified as 
 follows: (1) Resolvable nebulae, and 
 such as apparently only require instru- 
 ments of increased power to resolve 
 them into separate stars; (2) Irresolvable 
 nebulae, showing no appearance of stars; 
 (3) Planetary nebulae, so called beeause 
 they slightly resemble in appearance the 
 larger planets; (4) Stellar nebulae, those 
 having in their center a condensation of 
 light; and (5) Nebulous stars, a bright 
 star often seen in the center of a circular 
 nebula, or two bright stars associated 
 with a double nebula, or with two dis- 
 tinct nebulae near each other. 
 
 NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS, a theory 
 by means of which Laplace (before the 
 existence of nebulous matter in the uni- 
 verse had been discovered by means of 
 the spectroscope) accounted for those 
 features of the solar system which must 
 be regarded as accidental in the New- 
 tonian philosophy. This theory sup- 
 poses that the bodies composing the 
 solar system once existed in the form of 
 a nebula; that this had a revolution on 
 its own axis from west to east ; that the 
 temperature gradually diminishing, and 
 the nebula contracting by refrigeration, 
 the rotation increased in rapidity, and 
 zones of nebulosity were successfully 
 thrown off in consequence of the centrifu- 
 gal force overpowering the central at- 
 traction. These zones being con- 
 densed, and partaking of the primary 
 rotation, constituted the planets, some 
 of which in turn threw off zones which 
 now form their satellites. The main body 
 being condensed toward the center, 
 formed the sun. The theory was after- 
 ward extended so as to include a cos- 
 mogony of the whole universe, and 
 though open to certain objections, is 
 now generally received by astronomers. 
 
 NECK, the part of the body which is 
 between the head and the trunk, and 
 
 connects them. The bones of the neck in 
 man, and in nearly all other mammals, 
 are the seven cervical vertebrae. 
 
 NECKER, Jacques, French minister 
 of finance, born at Geneva 1732 died 
 1804. In 1776 he received an appoint- 
 ment to the treasury, the direction of 
 which he retained for five years. Mal- 
 versation under the preceding reign had 
 caused a large deficit, to which the 
 American war made great additions. 
 Necker endeavored to meet the exigency 
 by loans and reforms, and above all to 
 fund the French debt, and establish 
 annuities under the guarantee of the 
 state. His suppression of abuses had 
 created him many enemies at court, and 
 shortly after the publication of his 
 famous Compte Rendu, in which he fur- 
 nished a clear statement of the condition 
 
 Necker. 
 
 in which he had found things of what 
 he had done and what he intended to do, 
 he resigned and retired to Switzerland, 
 where he published his Administration 
 of the Finances, which had an immense 
 circulation. In 1788 he was recalled as 
 controller-general. The states-general 
 were summoned to meet on the 1st 
 of M^-Y) 1789; but not long after the 
 advisers of the king succeeded in induc- 
 ing him to give Necker his dismissal, 
 and to order him to leave the kingdom. 
 No sooner was his removal known than 
 all Paris was in a ferment. The storming 
 of the Bastille followed (July 14), and 
 the king found himself compelled to re- 
 call the banished minister. His return to 
 Paris resembled a triumphal procession. 
 His first object was to restore tranquility 
 and security of person and property. 
 But he was not equal to the political 
 or even the financial crisis, and resigned 
 in September, 1790. He passed the rest 
 of his life in Switzerland, where he 
 occupied himself in writing political and 
 religious treatises. Necker’s daughter 
 was the well-known Madame de Stael. 
 
 NEC'ROMANCY, the divination of the 
 future by questioning the dead. This 
 superstition originated in the East, and 
 is of the highest antiquity. We find 
 mention made of necromancy in the 
 Scriptures, where it is strongly con- 
 demned. In the Odyssey Homer has 
 made Ulysses raise the shade of Tiresias 
 from the infernal regions. In many parts 
 of Greece there were oracles of the dead, 
 the origin of which is lost in the obscurity 
 of history. Although this practice has 
 been condemned by the Christian 
 
NECROPOLIS 
 
 NEGRO MINSTRELSY 
 
 Church from the very first, it has not 
 yet entirely ceased. Modern spiritualism 
 embodies all the elements of necromancy 
 The term is often extended so as to in- 
 clude the general art of magic. 
 
 NECROP'OLIS (literally, “city of the 
 dead”), a name originally applied to a 
 suburb of Alexandria devoted to the 
 reception of the dead, and hence ex- 
 tended to the cemeteries of the ancients 
 generally. The name has also been 
 given to some modern cemeteries in or 
 near towns. 
 
 NECRO'SIS (literally, “mortifica- 
 tion”), a medical term signifying the 
 death of the bone substance. It is a con- 
 dition of the bone substance correspond- 
 ing to what gangrene is in the soft parts, 
 thus distinguished from caries, which 
 corresponds to ulceration in the soft 
 parts. Necrosis is usually a result of 
 inflammation of the bone, and is often 
 attributed to cold, but frequently it is 
 due to constitutional disease. 
 
 NECTAR, in Greek mythology, the 
 drink of the gods, which was imagined 
 to contribute much toward their eternal 
 existence. It was said to impart a 
 bloom, a beauty, and a vigor which sur- 
 passed all conception, and together with 
 ambrosia (their solid food) repaired all 
 the decays or accidental injuries of the 
 divine constitution. 
 
 NEC'TARINE, a fruit which differs 
 from the peach only in having a smoother 
 rind and firmer pulp, being indeed a 
 mere variety of peach. See Peach. 
 
 NEEDLE, a small instrument of steel, 
 pointed at one end, and having an eye 
 or hole in it through which is passed a 
 thread, used for sewing. From_ very 
 ancient times needles of bone, ivory, 
 wood, and bronze, have been used. The 
 manufacture of steel needles was first 
 introduced into England in the reign of 
 Elizabeth. The operations that an 
 ordinary sewing-needle goes through are 
 very numerous, though of late many im- 
 provements have been introduced which 
 reduce the number of separate opera- 
 tions, and many of the needle-making 
 processes are performed by machinery at 
 a great saving of time and labor. The 
 chief of the ordinary operations that a 
 sewing-needle goes through in their 
 proper order are such as follow; The 
 cutting of the steel wire into lengths 
 suffici^t for two needles; the pointing 
 of these at both ends on a grindstone by 
 fifty or sixty at a time; the cutting of 
 each length through the middle to give 
 two needles; the flattening of the heads 
 by a blow with a hammer; the piercing 
 of the eyes with a punch applied first 
 on one side then on the other; the trim- 
 ming of the eyes; the grooving and 
 rounding of the head; hardening, tem- 
 pering, straightening; polishing, which 
 is done by making up some 500,000 
 needles into a cigar-shaped bundle along 
 with emery and oil and rolling them 
 backward and forward under a weight. 
 Modifications of the ordinary sewing- 
 needle are used in the various forms of 
 sewing machines, in sailmaking, book- 
 binding, glovemaking, darning, stay- 
 making, etc. The name is also applied 
 to implements of iron or steel, bone, 
 wood, etc., used for interweaving or 
 interlacing a thread or twine in knitting, 
 netting, embroidery, jacquard-loom 
 
 weaving, etc., and formed in various 
 ways, according to the purpose for 
 which they are intended; as also to sun- 
 dry long and sharp-pointed surgical in- 
 struments, some employed for sewing, 
 others for other purposes, as in couching 
 for cataract. The small piece of steel 
 pointed at both ends and balanced on a 
 pivot, as in the magnetic compass and 
 some forms of telegraphic instruments 
 is also called a needle, and the term is 
 used for various other objects. 
 
 NEEDLE-GUN, a breech-loading rifle 
 the cartridge of which contained a small 
 quantity of detonating powder which 
 was exploded by the rapid darting for- 
 ward of a needle or small spike. It is 
 now superseded by weapons of superior 
 efficiency. See Rifle. 
 
 NE'GATIVE, in photography, is that 
 kind of photographic picture in which 
 the lights and shadows of the natural 
 object are transposed; the high lights 
 being black, and the deep shadows 
 transparent, or nearly so. Negatives are 
 taken on glass and paper by various 
 processes, and should indicate with 
 extreme delicacy, and in reverse order, 
 the various gradations of light and shade 
 which occur in a landscape or portrait. 
 A negative differs from a positive inas- 
 much as in the latter case it is required 
 to produce a deposit of pure metallic 
 silver to be viewed by reflected light; 
 while in the former, density to trans- 
 mitted light is the chief desideratum ; 
 accordingly inorganic reducing and 
 retarding agents are employed in the de- 
 velopment of a positive, while those 
 of organic origin are used in the produc- 
 tion of a negative. The possession of 
 favorable conditions of well-directed 
 light being secured, all that is necessary 
 is to establish a proper and harmonious 
 relation between the collodion bath, de- 
 veloper, and time of exposure. A 
 recently-iodized collodion will generally 
 be tolerably neutral, in which case, if 
 the developer be at all strong, and the 
 weather warm, the bath should be de- 
 cidedly acid or fogging will be the result. 
 Should the collodion, however, be red 
 with free iodine, a mere trace of acid in 
 the bath will suffice, while the develop- 
 ment may be much prolonged, even in 
 warm weather, without fogging. If the 
 simple fact be borne in mind that the 
 presence of acid either in the bath col- 
 lodion or developer, retards the reducing 
 action of the developer, it will suffice to 
 guide the operator in many difficulties. 
 The value of a negative consists in the 
 power it gives of multiplying positive 
 proofs. 
 
 NEGLIGENCE, in law, the omission 
 to do that which ought to be done. When 
 such want of care results in injury to 
 another, or involves a wrong done to 
 society, it renders the party guilty of 
 negligence liable to either an action for 
 damages or trial for misdemeanor. In 
 law there are recognized three degrees 
 of negligence: ordinary, the want of 
 ordinary care or diligence; slight, the 
 want of great care or diligence and gross, 
 the want of slight care or diligence. 
 The person charged with negligence 
 must have been under an obligation to 
 exercise care or diligence either as- 
 sumed by contract or imposed by law. 
 An alleged act of negligence must always 
 
 be the proximate cause of the injury 
 sustained; but any injury caused to a 
 person by another who at the time is 
 exercising due care is not actionable. 
 The question of negligence is usually 
 one for a jury, and the onus of proof 
 rests on the pursuer, except when the 
 thing resulting from the negligence 
 speaks for itself. 
 
 NEGRITOS, or NEGRILLOS, the 
 
 name given to several negro-like races 
 inhabiting the islands, etc., of South- 
 eastern Asia, and often confounded with 
 the Papuan race. The chief tribes are 
 the Aetas, the indigenous people of the 
 Philippine Archipelago, still inhabiting 
 the interior of the islands of Luzon, 
 Negros, Panay, Mindoro, and Min- 
 danao; the Samangs of Malacca; and 
 the Mincopies inhabiting the Andaman 
 Archipelago. They are dwarfish in 
 stature, averaging from 4 feet 6 inches 
 to 4 feet 8 inches in height; the nose 
 small, flattened or turned up at the 
 apex, and the hair soft and frizzled. 
 The various tribes speak distinct and 
 mutually unintelligible dialects. 
 
 NEGRO, the name of numerous rivers, 
 both large and small. See Rio Negro. 
 
 NEGROES, a race of the human 
 species indigenous to the African 
 Soudan, though the term is often ex- 
 tended so as to cover all the tribes in- 
 habiting Africa from the southern mar- 
 gin of the Sahara as far as the territory 
 of the Hottentots and Buslunen, and 
 from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean. 
 These tribes are all dark-colored, yellow, 
 copper-red, olive, or dark-brown, passing 
 into ebony-black. The typical negro, 
 however, is described as having a black 
 skin, woolly or crisp hair, a protuberant 
 mouth with thick lips, nose thick and 
 flat, thick narrow skull, flat and receding 
 forehead, hair of the face scanty, thorax 
 compressed, flat buttocks, long arms, 
 knees bent outward, calves weak, and 
 feet comparatively flat with long heels. 
 The brain, though essentially similar to 
 that of the white races, is not so large, 
 averaging about 5 ounces less than that 
 of the white man. The negro as a rule 
 differs as much from the whites in men- 
 tal as in physical characteristics, though 
 there are many individual exceptions. 
 He is very receptive, and in that which 
 requires imitation he is well developed, 
 but in that which requires independent 
 thought he stands on a low stage. He 
 has less nervous sensibility than the 
 white man, and can flourish in climates 
 fatal to the higher races, and the race 
 does not diminish in contact with civiliza- 
 tion. Certain negro tribes of Africa 
 present a surprising picture of barbaric 
 civilization from contact with Moham- 
 medanism. The slave system has 
 alienated great numbers of negroes 
 from their native country mostly to 
 America and the West India Islands', 
 where there has been considerable inter- 
 mixture of races. There are upwards of 
 7,000,000 negroes in the United States, 
 many of whom hold good positions in 
 society, as negroes also do in the West 
 Indies and elsewhere. 
 
 NEGRO MINSTRELSY, a species of 
 music of a quaint and simple kind, 
 which originated among the negroes of i 
 the southern United States, and was 
 first made popular at public entertaiu- 
 
NEGROPONT 
 
 NEPAL 
 
 merits by E. P. Christy, the originator 
 of the troupes of imitation negro musi- 
 cians. The words of the songs are gen- 
 erally in broken English, and the har- 
 mony almost entirely limited to the 
 chords of the tonic and dominant. The 
 bones and banjo are the chief accom- 
 panying instruments. 
 
 NE'GROPONT. See Eubsea. 
 
 NEGROS, an island in the Asiatic 
 Archipelago, belonging to the Philip- 
 pines, and separated from Panay by a 
 strait about 15 miles wide. Length 130 
 miles, average width 24 miles; area 
 about 3800 sq. miles. In the central 
 mountainous part of the island are a 
 considerable number of Negritos, but 
 the inhabitants are chiefly Malays. Sugar 
 is the chief product. Pop. 400,000. 
 
 NEGUS, a drink made of port or 
 sherry wine mixed with hot water, sugar, 
 nutmeg, and lemon-juice ; so called from 
 Colonel Negus, the inventor. 
 
 NEHEMI'AH, a distin^ished and 
 pious Jew, who was born in captivity, 
 but was made the cup-bearer of Artaxer- 
 xes Longimanus, king of Persia. He 
 was sent, b.c. 444, as governor to Jeru- 
 salem, with a commission to rebuild the 
 walls and gates of this city. He accom- 
 plished his purpose, but not without 
 difficulties, arising partly from the 
 poverty of the lower classes of the peo- 
 ple, and partly from the opposition of 
 the Ammonites and other foreign set- 
 tlers. The Book of Nehemiah contains 
 Nehemiah’s account of his proceedings, 
 with other matter which forms a sup- 
 plement to the narration contained in 
 the Book of Ezra. 
 
 NEILGHERRY (nel'ge-ri) HILLS, a 
 district and range of mountains in 
 Madras Presidency, South Hindustan. 
 Area, 957 sq. miles. Pop. 91,034. 
 
 NELSON, Horatio, Viscount, a great 
 British admiral, was bom Sept. 29, 1758, 
 at Burnham Thorpe, in Norfolk; died 
 Oct. 21, 1805. On the commencement 
 of the war with the French Repub- 
 lic he was made commander of the 
 Agamemnon, of sixty-four guns (1793), 
 with which he joined Lord Hood in the 
 
 Admiral Lord Nelson. 
 
 Mediterranean, and assisted at the siege 
 of Bastia (May, 1794). At the siege of 
 Calvi (July 10, 1794) he lost an eye. For 
 his gallantry at the battle of Cape St. 
 Vincent (Feb. 14, 1797) he was made 
 rear-admiral of the blue, and appointed 
 to the command of the inner squadroon 
 
 at the blockade of Cadiz. His next serv- 
 ice was an attack on the town of Santa 
 Cruz, in^the Island of Teneriffe, in which 
 he lost his right arm. In 1798 he joined 
 Lord St. Vincent (Admiral Jervis), who 
 sent him to the Mediterranean to watch 
 the progress of the armament at Toulon. 
 Notwithstanding his vigilance, the 
 French fleet which conveyed Bonaparte 
 to Egypt escaped. Thither' Nelson fol- 
 lowed, and after various disappoint- 
 ments he discovered the enemy’s fleet 
 moored in the Bay of Aboukir, where he 
 obtained a most complete victory, all 
 the French ships but two being taken or 
 destroyed (August 1, 1798). This 
 achievement was rewarded with the 
 title of Baron Nelson of the Nile. His 
 next service was the restoration of the 
 King of Naples. In 1801 he was em- 
 ployed on the expedition to Copen- 
 hagen under Sir Hyde Parker, in which 
 he effected the destruction of the Danish 
 ships and batteries. On his return home 
 he was created viscount. When hos- 
 tilities recommenced after the Peace of 
 Amiens Lord Nelson was appointed to 
 command the fleet in the Mediterranean 
 and for nearly two years he was engaged 
 in the blockade of Toulon. In spite of 
 his vigilance the French fleet got out of 
 port (March 30, 1805), and being joined 
 by a Spanish squadron from Cadiz, 
 sailed to the West Indies. The British 
 admiral hastily pursued them, and they 
 returned to Europe and took shelter 
 at Cadiz. On the 19th of October the 
 French, commanded by Villeneuve, and 
 the Spaniards by Gravina, ventured 
 again from Cadiz, and on the 21st they 
 came up with the British squadron off 
 Cape Trafalgar. An engagement took 
 place, in which the victory was obtained 
 by the British, but their commander 
 was wounded in the back by a musket- 
 ball, and shortly after expired. His 
 remains were carried to England and 
 interred in St. Paul’s Cathedral. 
 
 NELUM'BIUM, a genus of aquatic 
 plants inhabiting the fresh waters of the 
 
 Nelumblum. 
 
 temperate parts of the world, type of the 
 natural order Nelumbiaceae, having 
 large polypetalous flowers with numer- 
 ous stamens. The best-kno'wn species 
 is the Hindu and Chinese lotus, a mag- 
 nificent water-plant of the rivers and 
 ditches of all the warmer parts of Asia, 
 the Malay Archipelago, Australia, and 
 also found in the Nile. The numerous 
 canals of China are filled with it, its 
 tubers being there used as a culinary 
 vegetable. It is a most beautiful plant. 
 
 with peltate leaves and handsome rose- 
 colored flowers on tall stalks, and is fre- 
 quently cultivated in hothouses. In 
 Asia it is generally deemed sacred, and 
 figures in religious rites. The yellow 
 water-bean of the southern states, has 
 starchy rhizomes, with tubers like those 
 
 Ripe receptacle of nelumblum. 
 
 of the sweet-potato, which are used for 
 food. 
 
 NEM'ESIS, a female Greek divinity 
 who appears to have been regarded as a 
 personification of the righteous anger of 
 the gods, inflexibly severe to the proud 
 and insolent, i.e. retributive justice. In 
 the theogony of Hesiod she is the daugh- 
 ter of Night, the avenging Fate who 
 checks and punishes the favorites of 
 Fortune. 
 
 NEOLITH'IC, in archaeology, a term 
 applied to the more recent of the two 
 periods into which the stone age has 
 been subdivided, as opposed to palaeo- 
 lithic. During this period there is found 
 no trace of the knowledge of any metal 
 excepting gold, which it would seem had 
 sometimes been used for ornaments. 
 The Neolithic stone implements are 
 finely shaped and polished, and are 
 found in connection with the remains of 
 extinct animals. 
 
 NE'OPHRON, a genus of birds of the 
 ■vulture family, one species of which in- 
 
 Egyptian vulture, or Pharaoh’s hen. 
 
 habifs Southern Europe, Egypt, and 
 Asia. It is known as the Alpine or 
 Egyptian -vulture. Pharaoh’s chicken, 
 
 NEO-PLATONISM. See New Pla- 
 tonists. 
 
 NEPAL', NIPAL', or NEPAUL', a 
 
 small independent state situated on the 
 n.e. frontier of Hindustan; area, about 
 54,000 sq. miles. The country is a table- 
 land from 3000 to 6000 feet above the 
 level of the sea. It contains within its 
 boundaries the highest mountains in the 
 world — Mount Everest, Dhawalagiri, 
 and on its eastern borders Kanchinjinga. 
 The principal products are rice, wheat, 
 
NEPENTHE 
 
 NERVE 
 
 barley, pulse, sugar-cane, buckwheat, 
 hemp, cotton, tobacco, and madder. 
 Pop. estimated at about 2,000,000. 
 
 NEPEN'THE, a drug which was 
 fabled by the ancient poets to banish 
 the remembrance of grief and to cheer 
 the soul. It is thought by many to have 
 been opium. 
 
 NEPTUNE, the chief marine divinity 
 of the ancient Romans. When the Greek 
 mythology was introduced into Rome 
 he was completely identified with the 
 Greek Poseidon, all the traditions relat- 
 ing to whom w’ere transferred by the 
 Romans to their own deity. In art he is 
 usually represented as armed with a 
 trident, and the horse and the dolphin 
 are his symbols. See Poseidon. 
 
 NEPTUNE, in astronomy, the most 
 distant of the known planets, its mean 
 distance from the sun being 2,745,998,- 
 000 miles, and its least distance from 
 the earth 2,629,000,000 miles. The 
 eccentricity of its orbit is .00872; its 
 inclination to the plane of the ecliptic is 
 1° 47'. Its apparent diameter is about 
 2.7". Its real diameter is estimated at 
 36,600 miles, and it seems to have very 
 little polar compression. Its mass is 
 about 16f times that of the earth, and 
 it revolves round the sun in 164.6 years 
 It has one satellite, whose period is 5 
 days 21 h. 2 m. 44 s., and whose mean 
 distance from the planet is 230,000 
 miles. Neptune was discovered in 1846 
 in a position indicated independently by 
 Leverrier and Adams, and deduced from 
 a series of recondite mathematical cal- 
 culations to find a body which could 
 account for the long-observed perturba- 
 tions of Uranus. 
 
 NERBUDDA, or NARBADA (nar-ba- 
 da), a river of Hindustan. In religious 
 sanctity it ranks second only to the 
 Ganges. Nerbudda is also the name of 
 a division of the Central Provinces of 
 India; area, 17,513 sq. miles; pop. 
 1,881,147. 
 
 NERO, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus 
 (after his adoption by the Emperor 
 Claudius called Nero Claudius Csesar 
 Drusus Germanicus), Roman emperor, 
 the son of Cneius Domitius Ahenobar- 
 bus and Agrippina, the daughter of 
 Germanicus. He was born in 37 at 
 
 Antium, and after the marriage of his 
 mother, in third nuptials, with her uncle, 
 the emperor Claudius, was adopted by 
 that prince, and married to his daughter 
 Octavia. When Nero was about seven- 
 teen years of age his abandoned mother 
 poisoned her husband, Claudius, and 
 succeeded in raising her son to the 
 throne, over whom she expected to 
 exercise the most absolute control. 
 
 Nero became emperor in 54, and the 
 year following disposed of the rightful 
 heir, Britannicus, by poison. For the 
 first few years his public conduct, under 
 the control of Burrhus and Seneca, was 
 unexceptionable; in private, however, 
 he disgraced himself by the most odious 
 vices, and his mother endeavored to 
 retain her influence by shamefully com- 
 plying with his inclinations. In 59 Nero 
 caused this detestable woman to be 
 murdered, and then, fearing no rival in 
 power, gave full scope to the darkest 
 traits of his character. In 62 he repud- 
 iated his wife Octavia. In 64 the burning 
 of Rome occurred, which has been 
 charged, with great probability, upon 
 Nero himself, w'ho, however, accused 
 the Christians of the act, and made it 
 the occasion of the most dreadful 
 cruelties toward them . His debaucheries 
 and cruelties occasioned an almost gen- 
 eral conspiracy against him, known as 
 that of Piso, in 65, the discovery of 
 which led to more tortures and blood- 
 shed. The revolt of Vindex was also 
 suppressed. That of Galba in 68 suc- 
 ceeded, and Nero escaped arrest by 
 stabbing himself, being then in the 
 thirty-first year of his age and the 
 fourteenth of his reign. He was a lover 
 of arts and letters, and possessed much 
 taste as a poet and histrionic performer. 
 
 NERVA, the successor of Domitian, 
 and one of the most virtuous of the 
 Roman emperors. He was born in 
 
 Nerva— antique gem. 
 
 Umbria in 32 a.d., died a.d. 98. He was 
 twice consul, and was elected emperor 
 on the death of Domitian in 96. He 
 adopted Trajan, who succeeded him. 
 
 NERVE, Nervous System. A nerve is 
 one of the fibres which proceed from the 
 brain and spinal cord, or from the cen- 
 tral ganglia of lower animals, and ramify 
 through all parts of the body, and whose 
 funcjion is to convey impulses resulting 
 in sCTlsation, motion, secretion, etc. The 
 aggregate of these nerves, and the 
 centers from which they proceed, forms 
 the nervous system, the medium through 
 which every act or detail of animal life 
 is inaugurated and directed. The essen- 
 tial idea of any nervous system involves 
 the necessary presence, firstly, of a 
 nerve center or centers, which generate 
 the nervous force or impulse; secondly, 
 of conducting fibres or cords, the nerves; 
 and thirdly, of an organ, part, or struc- 
 ture to which the impulse or impression 
 may be conveyed. The nerve-centers of 
 man and vertebrates generally are dis- 
 posed so as to form two chief sets, which 
 are to be regarded as essentially dis- 
 tinct. The brain and spinal marrow 
 together (see Brain) constitute the first 
 
 of these centers, and are collectively in- 
 cluded under the name cerebro-spinal 
 system or axis. The second system is 
 the sympathetic or ganglionic. From 
 each of these systems nerve-cords are 
 given off — the cerebral and spinal nerves 
 from the former; and the so-called 
 
 Nerve-fibres. 
 
 s 5 Tnpathetic fibres from the latter. 
 The brain and spinal cord are contained 
 within the continuous bony case and 
 canal formed by the skull and spinal 
 column; while the chief masses of the 
 sympathetic system form an irregularly 
 disposed chain, lying in front of the 
 spine, and contained within the cavities 
 of the thorax or chest and abdomen. 
 The general functions of the cerebro- 
 spinal system are those concerned with 
 volition and muscular movements, with 
 
 Main nerves of the human body. 
 
 the control of the senses, and in higher 
 forms with the operations of the mind. 
 The nerves of the sympathetic system 
 in chief are distributed to the viscera, 
 such as the heart, stomach, intestines, 
 blood-vessels, etc.; and the operation of 
 this system is in greater part of involun- 
 tary kind, and without the influence or 
 command of the will. The cranial or 
 cerebral nerves pass from the brain 
 through different openings in the skull, 
 and are all in pairs, the first pair being 
 the olfactory nerves or nerves of smell; 
 the second, the optic nerves, or nerves 
 of sight; while others have to do with 
 hearing, taste, general sensibility, and 
 muscular motion. The spinal nerves, 
 after issuing from their openings in the 
 vertebral column, split into two divi- 
 sions, one of which proceeds to supply 
 parts behind the spine, while the other 
 
NERVOUS DISEASES 
 
 NETHERLANDS 
 
 passes toward the front. The first eight 
 spinal nerves on each side are called 
 cervical, the next twelve are dorsal, the 
 next five lumbar, then five sacral, and 
 one coccygeal. 
 
 All nervous structures consist of two 
 elements, nerve-cells and nerve-fibres. 
 The cells and fibres are combined and 
 associated in various ways, and are im- 
 bedded in and supported by fine con- 
 nective tissue so as to form a connected 
 structure. The cells vary in size from 
 z'GJru inch, and consist of 
 
 masses of protoplasm containing a nu- 
 cleus and nucleolus. Processes or poles 
 pass from the cell, branching outward. 
 
 Various forms of nerve-cells. 
 
 Nerve-fibres are of a glossy transparency 
 and of a tubular form. They consist of a 
 rod passing down the center, called the 
 axis-cylinder, which is surrounded on all 
 sides by a white substance, the whole 
 being inclosed in a delicate sheath 
 (neurilemma). The axis-cylinder is a 
 continuation of the nerve-cell process, 
 and acts in an analogous manner to an 
 electric conductor. The nerve-fibres 
 may exhibit a diameter so great as the 
 T- 5 ^th of an inch; but their average 
 breadth may be stated to vary from 
 to the Wirffth of an inch. The 
 largest fibres are those of the nerve- 
 trunks themselves; and they diminish in 
 size in the neighborhood of the nerve- 
 centers — brain and spinal marrow — and 
 as they approach to the periphery of the 
 body or to their ultimate terminations. 
 The nerve-fibres of the brain and spinal 
 marrow do not exhibit a limiting mem- 
 brane; and in the gray matter of the 
 brain and cord the fibres are of exceed- 
 inglysmall size, notexceedingthe 
 or TTBTnrth of an inch in diameter. 
 
 The general functions of nerve-fibres 
 may be briefly considered under two 
 aspects. The fibres may convey impres- 
 sions from the brain or nerve-centers to 
 their peripheral extremities, or to the 
 parts to which they are distributed. Or 
 secondly, they may transmit impressions 
 from the periphery, or from the parts 
 they supply, to their centers. A double 
 series of nerve-fibres, each set subserv- 
 ing one or other of the preceding func- 
 tions, exists in the cerebro-spinal as well 
 as in the sympathetic nervous system. 
 These series are therefore known as 
 sensory, afferent, or centripital nerves, 
 when they transmit impressions from 
 their peripheral -extremities to the brain 
 or centers; and as motor, efferent, or 
 centrifugal nerves, when they carry im- 
 pressions from the centers to their per- 
 ipheral terminations. Stimuli of various 
 kinds applied to the nerves arouse the 
 so-called excitability of the fibres, and 
 
 through this property nerves convey 
 impressions thus made upon them. Im- 
 pressions have been calculated to pass 
 along a nerve at the rate of about 200 
 feet per second. Nerve-fibres in any 
 case — motor or sensory — can carry one 
 kind of impulse only, corresponding to 
 the kind of fibre. In certain nerves the 
 impulses or impressions are of a limited 
 or specialized kind, as in the nerves of 
 special sense — for example, sight, hear- 
 ing, smell — whereby certain distinct 
 sensations, of light, sound, or odors, are 
 produced. Ana such nerves, therefore, 
 respond only to stimuli of a special kind. 
 The various nerve-centers of the body 
 which originate, or at any rate direct 
 and dispose, the nerve-force, may be 
 viewed as simply ganglia, or as collection 
 of ganglia, or nervous masses. The brain 
 itself falls under this latter division. 
 The general functional relations existing 
 between the nerve-centers and the 
 nerves may be simply illustrated by the 
 phenomena comprehended under the 
 name of reflex action. When a peripheral 
 nerve-fibre is irritated a sensory or cen- 
 tripetal impression is conveyed toward 
 the nerve-center. Arriving at the center 
 the impression is converted into a motor 
 or centrifugal one, and travels-along the 
 motor nerve-fibres, to excite, it may be, 
 a muscle or other part to action. The 
 general functional relation of the nerv- 
 ous system may be summarized by 
 stating that its functions comprehend 
 the reception and distribution of impres- 
 sions; that these impressions originate 
 either from influences acting on the per- 
 iphery, or from the nerve-centers, brain, 
 or mind; that these impressions respect- 
 ively influence or stimulate the mind or 
 nerve-centers, and the muscles or secret- 
 ing structures; and lastly, that all 
 nervous phenomena are exerted, through 
 or accompanied by nervous action, and 
 that this latter is, so far as physiology 
 has yet been able to determine, of a 
 uniform and similar kind. See also Eye, 
 Ear, Nose, etc. 
 
 The Invertebrata possess no such 
 specialization of the nervous centers as 
 is seen in Vertebrates, in which the brain 
 and spinal cord are inclosed within their 
 bony case and canal, and thus shut off 
 from the general cavity of the body. 
 The great and distinctive feature be- 
 tween the nervous system of Vertebrata 
 and that of lower forms consists in the 
 absence of a defined or chief nervous 
 center, through which consciousness may 
 intervene to render the being intelligent, 
 and aware of the nature of the acts it 
 performs. 
 
 NERVOUS DISEASES, are diseases due 
 either to actual changes in the structure 
 of nerve-fibres or nerve-centers, or to 
 some irregularity of nerve function 
 without actual structural change. Thus 
 nervous diseases may be due to in- 
 flammation or degeneration of nerve 
 substance; to the pressure on some part 
 of the nervous system of tumors, effused 
 blood, or other fluid; to the death of 
 some part by the cutting off of its blood 
 supply, etc.; or may be the result of 
 lowered nervous action as a part of 
 general bad health. 
 
 NERVOUS SYSTEM. See Nerve. 
 
 NEST, the abode or habitation, vary- 
 ing greatly in form, materials, and situa- 
 
 tion, constructed by birds chiefly for the 
 purpose of incubation and the rearing 
 of the young. The nests of birds are of 
 the most diverse character, some birds 
 making little or no nest, while others 
 construct receptacles for the eggs re- 
 quiring a vast amount of skill and in- 
 dustry. The materials used are also ex- 
 tremely various, being such as mud or 
 clay, twigs, or branches, leaves, grass, 
 moss, wool, feathers, etc. Some birds, 
 for the sake of protection, excavate bur- 
 rows in banks or sandy cliffs in which to 
 make their nests. Many mammals also 
 are nest-builders, notably mice, moles, 
 dormice, squirrels, foxes, weasels, bad- 
 gers, rabbits, etc. ; and nests are also con- 
 structed by certain fishes, reptiles, crus- 
 taceans, insects, etc. See Birds’ Nests, 
 Edible. 
 
 NESTOR, one of the Greek heroes at 
 Troy, son of Neleus, king of Pylos. He 
 took part in the hunting of the Caly- 
 donian boar, and in the Argonautic ex- 
 pedition. He is noted as the wisest ad- 
 viser of the chiefs before Troy, after the 
 fall of which he retired to Pylos, where 
 he lived to a great age. 
 
 NET, a term applied to that which 
 remains of a weight, quantity, etc., 
 after making certain deductions. Thus 
 net weight is the weight of merchandise 
 after allowance has been for casks, bags, 
 or any inclosing material. 
 
 NET, an open fabric made of thread, 
 twine, or cord, woven into meshes of 
 fixed dimensions, firmly knotted at the 
 intersections. Nets are used for a great 
 variety of purposes, as for protecting 
 fruit-trees, for collecting insects for 
 hammocks, screens, etc., but chiefly for 
 hunting and fishing. The chief kinds of 
 nets used in fishing are the trawl, the 
 drift, the seine, the kettle or weir, and 
 the trammel or set nets. The trawl is a 
 triangular bag with an arrangement for 
 keeping its mouth open, drawn along 
 the bottom of the water. The drift and 
 seine nets are very long in proportion to 
 their breadth, and differ from one an- 
 other only in the manner in which they 
 are employed. The seine has a line of 
 corks along one of its long borders, and 
 a line of leaden weights along the other; 
 so that when thrown into the water it 
 assumes a perpendicular position. It is 
 used near the shore, being dragged to 
 land with any fish it may enclose, by 
 ropes fastened to the ends. The drift-net 
 is not loaded with lead, but floats in the 
 water, and is used especially in herring- 
 fishing, the fishes as they drive against 
 it becoming caught by the gills. Kettle 
 and weir nets are structures fixed on 
 stakes placed along the coast between 
 high and low water. Trammel or set 
 nets are also fixed between stays, but 
 act like drift-nets. 
 
 NETHERLANDS, The, or HOLLAND, 
 
 a kingdom of Europe which lies on the 
 North Sea, n. of Belgium and w. of part 
 of Northern Germany. Its area is 12,648 
 sq. miles; its pop. in 1901 was 5,263,267. 
 The country is divided into eleven prov- 
 inces; North Brabant, Gelderland, 
 South Holland, North Holland, Zeeland, 
 Utrecht, Friesland, Overijssel, Gronin- 
 gen, Drenthe, and Limburg. The ruler is 
 also sovereign (grand-duke) of the 
 Grand-duchy of Luxemburg. In addi- 
 tion to her European territories Holland 
 
NETHERLANDS 
 
 NETTLE 
 
 possesses extensive colonies and depend- 
 encies in the Asiatic archipelago and 
 America; including Java, Sumatra, 
 great part of Borneo, Celebes, part of 
 New Guinea, Surinam or Dutch Guiana, 
 the West Indian islands of Cura 5 ao, 
 Saba, St. Eustatius, etc. Estimated 
 colonial pop. about 38,200,000. 
 
 The Netherlands (or Low Countries, 
 as the name implies) form the most char- 
 acteristic portion of the great plain of 
 northern and w-estern Europe. It is the 
 lowest part of this immense level, some 
 portions of it being 16 to 20 feet below 
 the surface of the sea, and nearly all 
 parts too low for natural drainage. The 
 coast-line is very irregular, being marked 
 by the great inlet of the Zuider Zee, as 
 well as by various others, and fringed by 
 numerous islands. In great part the 
 coast is so low that were it not for mas- 
 sive sea-dykes large areas would be in- 
 undated and lost to the inhabitants. 
 The highest elevation, 656 feet, is in the 
 extreme southeast. The general aspect 
 of the country is flat, tame, and un- 
 interesting, and about a fifth of the 
 whole surface consists of marsh, sand, 
 heath, or other unproductive land. 
 
 The chief rivers of the Netherlands are 
 the Rhine, Maas (or Meuse), Scheldt, 
 and Ijssel. The navigable canals are 
 collectively more important than the 
 rivers, on which indeed they depend 
 but they are so numerous as to defy 
 detailed description. The chief are the 
 North Holland, Canal between Amster- 
 dam and the Helder, length 46 miles; 
 and the more important ship canal, 15 
 miles long, 26 feet deep and 197 wide, 
 from the North Sea to Amsterdam, and 
 connected by locks with the Zuider Zee. 
 Lakes are also very numerous. The 
 climate of the Netherlands is humid, 
 changeable, and disagreeable. Wheat, 
 of excellent quality, is grown only in 
 favored portions of the south provinces- 
 Rye, oats, and buckwheat, with horse, 
 beans, beet, madder, and chicory, are 
 more common crops; and tobacco is 
 cultivated in the provinces of Gelder- 
 land. South Holland, and Utrecht; flax 
 in North Brabant, South and North 
 Holland, Friesland, and Zeeland; and 
 hemp, sugar-beet, oil-§eeds, and hops 
 in various parts of the kingdom. Culi- 
 nary vegetables are cultivated on a 
 large scale, not merely for the sake of 
 supplying the internal demand, but, 
 also for the exportation of the seeds 
 which form an important article of 
 Dutch commerce. But it is in stock 
 (cattle, horses, sheep, swine, goats), 
 and dairy produce in particular, that the 
 rural industry of the Netherlands shows 
 its strength. 
 
 The commerce of the country was at 
 one time the most important in the 
 world, and is even yet of great impor- 
 tance and activity. The external com- 
 merce is chiefly carried on with Great 
 Britain, Germany, Belgium, and the 
 Dutch colonies in the East. Among 
 imports from the United Kingdom the 
 chief are cottons and woolens, metal 
 goods and machinery; the chief exports, 
 butter and biitterine, live animals, wine 
 and spirits, silks, sugar. The foreign 
 trade centers chiefly in Amsterdam and 
 Rotterdam. The industrial occupations 
 are varied. Shipbuilding and subsidiary 
 
 trades are among the chief. Of textile 
 manufactures that of linen is the most 
 important; but silks and velvets, as 
 well as woolens and cottons, are pro- 
 duced in considerable quantity. Pig- 
 ments, brandy, gin, paper, glass, earthen- 
 ware, etc., are among the more impor- 
 tant products. Large numbers of the sea- 
 board population are employed in the 
 deep-sea fisheries. Railways have a 
 length of 1725 miles. 
 
 The stock to which the people belong 
 is the Teutonic, the great majority of the 
 inhabitants being descendants of the 
 old Batavians. They comprise over 70 
 per cent of the population, and are 
 chiefly settled in the provinces of North 
 and South Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, 
 and Gelderland. The Flemings of North 
 Brabant and Limburg, and the Frisians, 
 inhabiting Friesland, Groningen, 
 Drenthe, and Overijssel, form the other 
 groups. The majority of the people 
 belong to the Dutch Reformed Church 
 (a Presbyterian body); the remainder 
 being Roman Catholics, Old Catholics, 
 Jews, etc. All religious bodies are on a 
 perfect equality. The government is a 
 constitutional monarchy, the executive 
 being vested in the king, and the legis- 
 lative authority in the states-general, 
 sitting in two chambers. The upper 
 chamber, fifty in number, is elected by 
 the provincial councils or assemblies of 
 the eleven provinces; the lower chamber, 
 100 in number, is elected directly, the 
 electors being all males of twenty-three 
 years of age taxed at a certain figure. 
 The members of the lower house are 
 paid. Elementary schools are every- 
 where established, and are partly sup- 
 plied by the state, but education is not 
 compulsory. Higher class schools are in 
 all the chief towns; while there are state 
 universities, namely, at Leyden, Utrecht 
 and Groningen, and the municipal uni- 
 versity at Amsterdam. The commercial 
 capital of the country is Amsterdam, 
 but the seat of government and resi- 
 dence of the sovereign is the Hague. 
 
 The southern portion of the Low 
 Countries belonged at the beginning of 
 the Christian era to Belgic Gaul. (See 
 Gaul.) The northern portion, inhabited 
 by the Batavians and Frisians (see 
 those articles), formed part of Germany. 
 The southern portion as far as the Rhine 
 was held by Rome up to a.d. 400, after 
 which it came under the rule of the 
 Franks, as did also subsequently the 
 rest of the country. In the 11th century 
 the territory comprised in the present 
 kingdoms of Belgium and the Nether- 
 lands formed a number of counties, mar- 
 quisates, and duchies corresponding 
 more or less with the modern provinces. 
 By the latter part of the 15th century 
 all these had been acquired bydhe Duke 
 of Burgundy, and passed to the house 
 of Hapsburg on the marriage of the 
 daughter of Charles the Bold of Bur- 
 gundy to the son of the Emperor Freder- 
 ick III. On the abdication of Charles V. 
 in 1556 they passed to his son Philip 11. 
 of Spain. In consequence of religious 
 persecution in 1576 Holland and Zee- 
 land openly rebelled, and in 1579 the 
 five northern provinces — Holland, Zee- 
 land, Utrecht, Guelders, and Friesland 
 concluded the celebrated Union of 
 Utrecht by which they declared them- 
 
 selves independent of Spain. They were 
 joined in 1580 by Overijssel, and in 1594 
 by Groningen. After the assassination 
 of William of Orange, July 10, 1584, 
 Maurice became stadtholder (governor). 
 His victories at Nieuport and in Bra- 
 bant, the bold and victorious exploits of 
 the Dutch admirals against the navy of 
 Philip II., the wars of France and Eng- 
 land against Spain, and the apathy of 
 Philip II., caused in 1609 the Peace of 
 Antwerp. But Holland had yet to go 
 through the Thirty Years’ war before its 
 independence, now recognized by all the 
 powers except Spain, was fully secured 
 by the Peace of Westphalia. In the 
 middle of the 17th century the United 
 Netherlands were the first commercial 
 state and the first maritime power in the 
 world, and for a long time maintained 
 the dominion of the sea. The southern 
 provinces alternated between the rule 
 of Spain and Austria till 1797, when 
 they came under the power of the French 
 Republic. In 1806 Louis Napoleon be- 
 came king of Holland, but in 1810 it was 
 incorporated with the French Emipre. 
 In 1814 all the provinces both of Hol- 
 land and Belgium were united by the 
 Treaty of Paris to form the Kingdom 
 of the Netherlands. This arrangement 
 lasted till 1830, when the southern 
 provinces broke away and formed the 
 Kingdom of Belgium. King Willem I. 
 attempted to reduce the revolted prov- 
 inces by force; but the great powers 
 intervened, and finally matters were 
 adjusted between the two countries in 
 1839. (See Belgium.) The king abdi- 
 cated in 1840, and was succeeded by his 
 son Willem II. (1840-49), he being again 
 succeeded by his son Willem III., who 
 died in 1890, leaving his ten -year-old 
 daughter Wilhelmina as queen. 
 
 NETTLE, a genus of plants consisting 
 chiefly of neglected weeds, having oppo- 
 
 Upper part of a fruiting stem or nettle. 
 a, the male flower: 6, the female flower; c, a 
 stinging hair, taken from the leaf, 
 highly magnified. 
 
 site or alternate leaves, and inconspicu- 
 ous flowers, w'hich are disposed in 
 axillary racemes. The species are mostly 
 herbaceous, and are usually covered 
 with extremely fine, sharp, tubular 
 hairs, placed upon minute vesicles filled 
 with an acrid and caustic fluid, which by 
 
NETTLE-RASH 
 
 NEVADA 
 
 pressure is injected into the wounds 
 caused by the sharp-pointed hairs 
 Hence arises the well-known stinging 
 sensation when these plants are in- 
 cautiously handled. 
 
 NETTLE-RASH, a common disease of 
 the skin, an eruption closely resembling 
 nettle-stings both as to appearance and 
 and as to the sensation it originates. It 
 consists of small wheals, either red or 
 white, sometimes both, having the centers 
 white and the margins red. The disease 
 may be either acute or chronic. When it 
 is acute generally more or less of fever 
 accompanies it. In almost all cases it 
 arises from a disordered condition of the 
 digestive organs, produced either by 
 indigestible food, or in some persons by 
 particular kinds of food which others eat 
 with complete impunity. 
 
 NEUFCHATEL (neu-sha-tel) , Neuchi- 
 tel, a Swiss canton, bounded by France, 
 Vaud, the Lake of Neufchfltel, and Bern, 
 with an area of 312 sq. miles. Several 
 ridges of the Jura run through the coun- 
 try. The Lake of NeufchS-tel, 24 miles 
 long by 8 broad, communicates through 
 the Aar with the Rhine. Grazing and 
 dairy-farming are extensively carried on 
 in the canton; wine, fruits, hemp, and 
 flax are produced. The chief manufac- 
 tures are lace, cotton, watches, and 
 clocks. The religion is Protestant. The 
 language is French, but German is also 
 spoken. Pop. 126,279. — The capital, 
 which has the same name, lies 24 miles 
 west of Bern, on a steep slope above the 
 northwestern shore of Lake Neufch&tcl. 
 Pop. 21,354. 
 
 NEURAL'GIA, the name given to that 
 species of morbid pains which occur only 
 in the course of one or more distinct 
 nerves, and by this locally are distin- 
 guished from other pains. In neuralgia 
 of the fifth nerve the pain is in one half 
 of the face, and if the central branch is 
 affected the pain is confined to the upper 
 jaw; neuralgia of the chief nerve of the 
 thigh (sciatic nerve) extends along the 
 buttocks and back of the thigh down to 
 the knee, and is called sciatic. It also 
 affects the front, back, and outside of 
 the leg, and the whole foot except its 
 inner border; while neuralgia of the 
 intercostal nerves manifests itself in a 
 belt or circle of pain around the breast. 
 The presence of neuralgia almost in- 
 variably indicates a week state of the 
 system. The most common and best 
 ascertained of the neuralgias are those 
 of the nerves of the skin (dermalgia); 
 but nerve pains occur also in other 
 parts, as in the joints, muscles, and in 
 the bowels (enteralgia). Many of the in- 
 ternal parts may be the seat of similar 
 local affections; such, for example, are 
 nervous affections of the heart and res- 
 piratory organs, which, however, do 
 not usually manifest themselves by 
 acute pain, but by special symptoms. 
 The primary causes of the injury to the 
 nerve producing neuralgia may be very 
 various. It may be inflammation of the 
 nerve itself, a swelling in or upon it, 
 irritation of it produced by an ulcer or 
 suppuration or swelling of the adjacent 
 
 C arts, especially the cavities of the 
 ones, etc. Thin-blooded persons and 
 those of weak nerves are most liable to 
 be affected by neuralgia, which varies 
 much both in degree and duration. It is 
 
 often chronic, and often suddenly occurs 
 during the progress of other acute dis- 
 eases, as in typhus or intermitting fevers. 
 The treatment also of course varies with 
 the nature of the different cases, some 
 admitting of easy cure by the adminis- 
 tration of nourishing food, and by the use 
 of iron and quinine, and other tonics, 
 while for others the aid of surgery has 
 to be called in. 
 
 NEURASTHE'NIAjis sometimes called 
 the American disease, but now rec- 
 ognized as a world wide malady, is 
 perhaps the most frequent of the ac- 
 quired nerve diseases. All forms of 
 nervous energy are as a rule reduced 
 and fatigue quickly follows the exercise 
 of any of the functions. It occurs prin- 
 cipally during the productive period of 
 life but sometimes occurs in neurotic 
 children and nervous adults of advanced 
 years. High altitudes, extremes of 
 climatic conditions, wasting diseases, 
 vicious habits, physical illness, injury, 
 shock, and fright, or protracted anxiety, 
 grief, worry, and excitement, are com- 
 petent causes. Excesses of all varieties, 
 and finally and most important of all, 
 overwork, must be added to the list. 
 The only essential element in the causa- 
 tion of neurasthenia is overstrain and 
 this is a quantity relative to the inherent 
 capacities of the individual and often 
 correlated with hereditary tendencies or 
 defects. 
 
 NEURITIS, inflammation of a nerve. 
 Tenderness in the course of the nerve 
 and pain recurring in paroxysms are 
 among the symptoms. Paralysis may 
 occur as a result, and in the case of a 
 special nerve of sense loss of the particu- 
 lar sense. Neuritis of the optic nerve, 
 for instance, is a frequent cause of blind- 
 ness. 
 
 NEUROL'OGY, the branch of science 
 concerned with the anatomy, physiology, 
 disorders and diseases of the nervous 
 system. 
 
 NEURO'SIS, a morbid, nervous state, 
 either functional or organic. Neuroses 
 are classed as disorders of motion, sen- 
 sory disorders, disorders of nutrition, 
 of heat perception, of circulation and 
 mixed neuroses. ' Among the latter are 
 certain disorders effectingthe extremities 
 and the sexual organs. 
 
 NEUROT'IC, a term introduced into 
 medicine to indicate some relationship 
 to the nervous system. Thus a neurotic 
 disease is a nervous disease. So medi- 
 cines that affect the nervous system, as 
 opium, strychnine, etc., are called 
 neurotics. 
 
 NEUTER, in zoology, a term applied 
 to indicate those insect forms — repre- 
 sented chiefly among the ants, bees, and 
 wasps — in which the characteristics of 
 sex are either present in a rudimentary 
 condition or may not be developed at 
 all. Thus among the ants the community 
 consists of males, females, and neuters 
 or “workers” as they are also termed. 
 These ant-neuters are simply (sexually) 
 undeveloped females, and upon these 
 forms the performance of all the labori- 
 ous duties of the ant-colony devolves. 
 In the bees the neuters, or workers, are 
 similarly sterile females. The differences 
 between the fertile females and neuters 
 — both of which are developed from 
 fertilized ova — appear to be produced 
 
 through differences in the food upon 
 which the respective larvae are fed, and 
 through similar and surrounding cir- 
 cumstances which affect the nutritive 
 development of the larvae. Plenty of 
 food is thus said to produce females, and 
 a scantier or different dietary males or 
 neuters. See Parthenogenesis, Ant, Bee, 
 Wasp. 
 
 NEUTRALITY, means, in the law of 
 nations, that state of a nation in which 
 it does not take part, directly or in- 
 directly, in a war between other nations. 
 To maintain itself in this state a nation 
 is often obliged to assume a threatening 
 position, to be able to repel, in case of 
 necessity, every aggression on the part 
 of either of the belligerents. Such neu- 
 trality is termed an armed neutrality. 
 In maritime wars the treatment of 
 effects of the enemy on board neutral 
 vessels, or neutral effects on board a 
 hostile vessel, gives rise to very im- 
 portant questions. In former times 
 the principle was pretty generally ad- 
 mitted, that the ownership of the goods 
 on board of the vessels was the only 
 point to be considered, and not the 
 property of the vessels themselves. 
 The belligerents, therefore, seized mer- 
 chandise belonging to the enemy on 
 board of neutral vessels; but they re- 
 stored neutral property seized under the 
 enemy’s flag. But the endless investi- 
 gations which this system caused, since 
 a consequence of it was the searching of 
 neutral vessels, produced by degrees a 
 new and totally contrary principle, that 
 the flag protects the cargo. The pleni- 
 potentiaries of Great Britain, Austria, 
 France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and 
 Turkey, assembled at Paris in April, 
 1856, agreed that the neutral flag should 
 cover an enemy’s goods, with the excep- 
 tion of contraband of war; and that 
 neutral goods, with the exception of 
 contraband of war, are not liable to 
 capture under the enemy’s flag. In the 
 arbitration (in 1872) at Geneva of the 
 Alabama claims of the United States 
 against Great Britain, three rules were 
 agreed to by the parties,«to the effect that 
 a neutral government is bound to use 
 due diligence to prevent the fitting out 
 in, or departure from, any of its ports of 
 a vessel which it has reasonable ground 
 to believe is intended to carry on war 
 with a power with which it is at peace ; 
 that it is bound not to permit a bel- 
 ligerent to make use of its ports as a basis 
 of naval operations, or a source of re- 
 cruitment of men or military supplies 
 that it is bound to exercise due diligence 
 in its own ports or waters, and as to all 
 persons within its jurisdiction, to pre- 
 vent any violation of these duties and 
 obligations. 
 
 NEUTRAL TINT, a pigment used in 
 water-colors, of a dull grayish hue par- 
 taking of the character of none of the 
 bright colors. It is prepared by mixing 
 together blue, red, and yellow in various 
 proportions. 
 
 NEVA'DA (ne-va'da), one of the 
 United States. It is bounded on the 
 north by Oregon and Idaho, on the east 
 by Utah and Arizona, the Arizona 
 boundary being continued on the south- 
 east by the Colorado river as far as the 
 35th parallel, while a straight line 
 running from the latter point north- 
 
NEVADA 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK 
 
 west to Lake Tahoe in latitude 39° n. and 
 thence along the 120th meridian sepa- 
 rates Nevada from California on the 
 southwest and west. It ranks fourth in 
 size among the states of the Union. The 
 area is 110,700 sq. miles. It is rather 
 mountainous, having the slopes of the 
 Sierra Nevada. 
 
 Nevada 6wed her early development 
 to mining. Immensely rich lodes of sil- 
 ver and gold were discovered, one of 
 which — the Comstock lode — produced 
 as high as $38,000,000 worth of bullion 
 in one year. With the apparent ex- 
 haustion of the Comstock lode, the in- 
 dustry decreased considerably. Gold, 
 copper, lead, and iron ore are also mined. 
 The other minerals found in the state 
 are antimony, mercury, nickel, sulphur, 
 gypsum, salt, and borax. 
 
 Agriculture is less developed in 
 Nevada than in any other state. It is 
 the most arid of the states and at the 
 same time contains the most meagre 
 
 Seal of Nevada. 
 
 sources for an artificial water supply. 
 The most extensive irrigated areas are 
 along the Humboldt river and in the 
 west-central part of the state. The in- 
 dustry centers about stock-grazing, the 
 tilling of the soil being a mere adjunct to 
 it. The animal products, together with 
 the hay and forage and other products 
 fed to live stock, comprise 80.6 per cent 
 of the total value of farm products. 
 Stock-raising being so prominent, hay 
 and forage are naturally the most im- 
 portant of the crops grown. Alfalfa, 
 wheat, barley, oats, and potatoes are 
 also cultivated. 
 
 The railroad mileage is a little over 
 1000 miles. The principal line is the 
 Southern Pacific, running from east to 
 west through the state. There are no 
 navigable streams. 
 
 The first settlement in Nevada was 
 made at Genoa, at the foot of the Sierra 
 Nevada, in 1850, though as early as 
 1848 the Mormons traveling between 
 Salt Lake and California had estab- 
 lished a temporary camp at that place. 
 The Mormons made two or three small 
 settlements in the valleys along the base 
 of the Sierra, and until 1859, when the 
 silver mines of the Comstock were dis- 
 covered, they were the principal white 
 inhabitants. The discovery of silver 
 caused great crowds of miners of all 
 nationalities to pour over the Sierra 
 Nevada from California, and in that 
 
 year and 1860 several towns were laid 
 out knd rapidly built up. In a few years 
 new mineral belts were discovered to the 
 eastward, and soon there were founded 
 many interior towns and camps. When 
 Utah territory was formed, September 
 9, 1850, the western boundary was fixed 
 as the summit of the Sierra Nevada 
 mountains and so included much of the 
 present state, but the territorial organi- 
 zation did not extend at once to the 
 extreme west, and the inhabitants 
 organized a government of their own. 
 A petition for territorial government 
 was sent to congress in August, 1857, 
 and in 1858 a provisional government 
 was formed. In 1860 another petition 
 was sent to congress and the territorial 
 delegate applied for admission. Mean- 
 while the Comstock lode had been dis- 
 covered in June, 1859, and miners 
 flocked thither from every direction. 
 The new territory was separated from 
 Utah, March 2, 1881, being bounded on 
 the east, however, by the 116th merid- 
 ian. Another degree was cut from 
 Utah, July 14, 1862, and on May 5, 
 1866, the eastern boundary was ex- 
 tended to the 114th meridian and that 
 part of the state lying below 37° was 
 taken from Arizona. Congress in March, 
 1864, passed an enabling act and in 
 July the constitution was accepted, and 
 the state was admitted October 31st. 
 Politically the state is swayed largely 
 by local interests. It was republican in 
 national elections until 1892-, when it 
 was carried by the people’s party. In 
 1896, 1900 and 1908, it voted for the free- 
 silver candidate, "William Jennings 
 Bryan. The capital is Carson City, but 
 Virginia City (pop. 6500) is the largest 
 town. Pop. 132,000. 
 
 NEVADA, a city and the county seat 
 of Vernon co.. Mo., 100 miles south of 
 Kansas City; on the Missouri Pacific and 
 the Missouri, Kansas and Texas rail- 
 roads. Nevada became the county seat 
 in 1858, and was incorporated in 1870. 
 Pop. 10,000. 
 
 NEVADA, Emma, an American dra- 
 matic soprano, born in Austin, Nev., in 
 1861. She first appeared in opera in 
 London and subsequently sustained 
 leading parts in the leading cities of the 
 continent’, making her first professional 
 tour of the United States in 1884-85. 
 She had a wide repertoire, but perhaps 
 her most successful role was Mignon, 
 which part she sang for an entire year 
 in Paris. 
 
 NEVADA STATE UNIVERSITY, the 
 
 head of the educational system of the 
 state of Nevada and the only institution 
 of collegiate grade within the state; 
 founded at Elko in 1873 and removea 
 to Reno in 1885. The university com- 
 prises the college of agriculture, in- 
 cluding departments of dairying and 
 domestic arts and sciences, the college 
 of arts and science, the college of applied 
 science, with departments of mining and 
 metallurgy and mechanical and civil 
 engineering, the State Normal School, 
 and the University High School. Mili- 
 tary instruction forms part of the curric- 
 ulum and a uniform is worn by the 
 students. The degrees conferred are 
 those of B. A., B. S., M. A., M. S., and 
 mining, mechanical and civil engineer. 
 
 NE'W, for names beginning with this 
 
 adjective not given here, see the articles 
 under the name which follows it. 
 
 NE'W ALBANY, a city in Indiana, on 
 the Ohio, opposite Louisville, Ky., with 
 which it is connected by several bridges. 
 Steamboat building is carried on, and 
 there are iron-foundries, rolling-mills, 
 woolen factories, glass-works, etc., Pop. 
 24,114. 
 
 NEW AND LATTER HOUSE OF 
 ISRAEL, See Jezreelites. 
 
 NEW ARCHANGEL. See Sitka. 
 
 NEWARK, the capital of Licking co , 
 Ohio, on the Balt, and Ohio, and the 
 Pitts., Gin., Chi. and St. L. railways, and 
 the Ohio and Erie Canal; 33 miles n.e. 
 of Columbus. The car-shops of the Balt, 
 and Ohio railroad are located here, and 
 there are also manufactories of glass, 
 portable engines, stoves, iron-bridge 
 work, paper, wire-cloth, carriages, flour, 
 lumber, and soap. Pop. 21,216. 
 
 NEWARK, a city and port, the capi- 
 tal of Essex CO., New Jersey, 9 miles 
 west of New York City, finely situated 
 on the west side of Passaic river, about 
 4 miles from its mouth in Newark bay. 
 It is the largest city in the state, and is 
 regularly laid out with wide, straight 
 streets, generally intersecting at right 
 angles. Broad street, the principal thor- 
 oughfare, is more than 120 feet broad, 
 shaded with elms, and divides the city 
 into two nearly equal parts. Newark 
 is distinguished as a manufacturing 
 town, the goods including furniture, 
 machinery and castings, leather, boots 
 and shoes, saddlery, oil-cloth, hard- 
 ware, clothing, india-rubber goods, etc.; 
 there are also textile factories (cotton, 
 woolen), and an extensive sewing- 
 machine factory. There is a considera- 
 ble coasting trade and constant steam- 
 boat communication with New York. 
 Pop. 1909 about 300,000. 
 
 NEW BEDFORD, a city and port of 
 Massachusetts, 55 miles south from 
 Boston, on the estuary of the Acushnet, 
 which opens into Buzzard’s bay. It has 
 cotton-factories, iron and copper works, 
 oil and candle works, shoe factories, etc. 
 It was at one time the center of the 
 American whale-fishery, but this in- 
 dustry has much declined. Pop. IflO.OOO. 
 
 NEWBERN, a city of North Carolina, 
 the port of entry for Pamlico district, 
 on the estuary of the Neuse, which opens 
 into Pamlico Sound. It has a large trade 
 in lumber, tobacco, cotton, and naval 
 stores. Newbern was founded by Swiss 
 settlers in 1710. Pop. 10,210. 
 
 NEW BRIGHTON, a part of Rich- 
 mond borough. New York City, on 
 Staten Island, 6 miles southwest of 
 Manhattan. It contains the “Sailor’s 
 Snug Harbor” for aged and disabled sea- 
 men of the port of New York, an institu- 
 tion for destitute children of seamen, 
 and many fine residences of New York 
 men of business. Pop. 25,331. 
 
 NEW BRITAIN, a city in Hartford 
 CO., Conn., on the N. Y. and N. E. and 
 the N. Y., N. H. and Hart, railways; 9 
 miles s.w. of Hartford. The industries 
 include the manufacture of iron and 
 brass goods, artistic bronze house- 
 trimmings, builders’ hardware, cutlerj', 
 hosiery, joiners’ tools, and brick. Pop. 
 33,112. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK, a province of the 
 Dominion of Canada, on the east coast 
 
NEW BRUNSWICK 
 
 NEW GUINEA 
 
 of North America. Its coast-line is in- 
 terrupted only at the point of junction 
 with Nova Scotia, where an isthmus of 
 not more than 14 miles in breadth con- 
 nects the two territories, and separates 
 Northumberland Strait from the Bay of 
 Fundy. The principal rivers are the St. 
 John, 450 miles in length, and navigable 
 for vessels of 100 tons to Fredericton, 
 90 miles from its entrance into the Bay of 
 Fundy; and the Miramichi, 225 miles in 
 length, which falls into the bay of the 
 same name, and is navigable for large 
 vessels 25 miles from the gulf. New 
 Brunswick is one of the most amply 
 wooded countries in the world, and the 
 forests supply three-fourths of the total 
 exports, now including wood pulp for 
 paper. The fisheries are very valuable. 
 The minerals exported include coal, 
 gypsum, antimony ore, copper ore, 
 manganese, plumbago, and unwrought 
 stone Owing to its cheap coal and 
 proximity to the markets of the world. 
 New Brunswick is expected to develop 
 as a manufacturing country, especially 
 now that the railway system has been 
 completed throughout the interior of the 
 province. The affairs of the province 
 are administered by a lieutenant- 
 governor (appointed by the governor- 
 general in council), aided by an execu- 
 tive or advisory council consisting of 
 seven members, and a legislative assem- 
 bly of forty-six representatives of the 
 people. The province has ten seats in 
 the Dominion senate and fourteen in 
 the House of Commons. The capital is 
 Fredericton, but the chief commercial 
 center is St. John, which has one of the 
 finest harbors on the North Atlantic. 
 Pop. in 1891, 321,263; in 1901, 331,120. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK, a city in New 
 Jersey, on the Raritan, which here be- 
 comes navigable, 29 miles southwest of 
 New York. The Dutch Reformed 
 Church has here Rutger’s College and a 
 theological seminary There are manu- 
 factures of india-rubber goods, paper- 
 hangings, machinery, etc. Pop. 24,116. 
 
 NEW'BURG, a city of New York state, 
 occupying a commanding position on 
 the west bank of the Hudson river, 60 
 miles north of New York City. It has 
 a large river trade, especially in coal and 
 timber. Here is the theological seminary 
 of the Associate Reformed Church. Here 
 also is Hasbrouck House, Washington’s 
 headquarters in 1782-83. Pop. 29,715. 
 
 NEW'BURYPORT, a city and port of 
 Massachusetts, about 3 miles above the 
 mouth of the Merrimac. It contains 
 the University of Modern Languages 
 and has cotton-mills, shoe-factories, and 
 ship-building yards. Pop. 15,895. 
 
 NEW CALEDONIA, an island in the 
 Pacific, situated about 800 miles east of 
 Australia. It was discovered by Captain 
 Cook in 1774, and appropriated by the 
 French as a convict settlement in 1854. 
 With the adjacent Loyalty Islands the 
 area is estimated at 6724 sq. miles, and 
 the population at 60,703. 
 
 NEW'CASTLE, the principal shipping 
 port of New South Wales after Sidney, 
 situated at the mouth of the Hunter 
 river, about 75 miles northeast from 
 Sydney, on ground rising somewhat 
 steeply from the sea. The principal 
 export is coal from the extensive mines 
 of the neighborhood, which give em- 
 
 ployment to over 5000 men. Pop. 
 53,741. 
 
 NEWCASTLE, Duke of. See Caven- 
 dish. 
 
 NEW CASTLE, the capital of Law- 
 rence co.. Pa., at the confluence of the 
 Shenango and the Neshannock rivers, 
 which here form the Beaver river, and 
 on the Erie, the Penn., the Pitts, and 
 Lake Erie, the Pitts, and W., and the 
 W. N. Y. and Penn, railways; 52 miles 
 n. by w. of Pittsburg. It is in a bitumi- 
 nous coal, limestone, fire-clay, iron-ore, 
 and sandstone region, and has numerous 
 blast furnaces and mills. Pop. 33,160. 
 
 NEWCASTLE-UNDER-LYME, a mu- 
 nicipal and parliamentary borough of 
 England, Staffordshire, close to the Pot- 
 teries and 19 miles n.n.w. of the town of 
 Stafford. Pop. of municipal borough, 
 19,914; of parliamentary borough 60,667. 
 
 NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, a mu- 
 nicipal, parliamentary, and county 
 borough in the county of Northumber- 
 land, but forming a county in itself. 
 Among the public buildings are the 
 Cathedral of St. Nicholas, an ancient 
 Gothic structure; the Roman Catholic 
 church and Cathedral of St. Mary; the 
 town-hall, the Moot hall in which the 
 assizes for the county are held; the 
 castle, the Central railway-station, the 
 ublic library and the general market, 
 ome of the more important of its in- 
 dustries are ship-building; and the 
 manufacture of locomotive and marine 
 engines, cannon, shot, tools, fire-bricks, 
 hemp and wire ropes, cables, anchors, 
 sails. Situated in the midst of one of the 
 largest coal-fields in England, it exports 
 immense quantities of coal. Pop. 214,- 
 881 
 
 NEWCOMB (nu'kom), Simon, Ameri- 
 can astronomer and mathematician, 
 born in Wallace, Nova Scotia, in 1835. 
 He came to the United States in 1853. 
 In 1861 he was appointed professor of 
 mathematics in the United States navy. 
 He was secretary of the Transit of Venus 
 Commission in 1871-74, observed the 
 transit of Venus at the Cape of Good 
 Hope in 1882, and directed several 
 eclipse expeditions, beginning in 1860. 
 He was professor of mathematics in 
 Johns Hopkins University in 1894-1901 
 and editor of the American Journal of 
 Mathematics. He was a member of 
 nearly all the Imperial and Royal 
 Societies of Europe and of the various 
 scientific associations of this country. 
 He was awarded the Copley, the Huy- 
 gens, the Royal Society, and the Bruce 
 medal; and numerous other prizes and 
 honorary degrees. 
 
 NEW'COMEN, Thomas, a locksmith 
 at Dartmouth, in Devonshire, toward 
 the close of the 17th century, and one of 
 the inventors of the steam-engine. New- 
 comen conceived the idea of producing 
 a vacuum below the piston of a steam- 
 engine after it had been raised by the 
 expansive force of the steam, which he 
 effected by the injection of cold water 
 to condense the vapor. The merit of 
 first applying the steam-engine to prac- 
 tical purposes is thus due to Newcomen, 
 who, m conjunction with Captain Savery 
 and John Cowley, took out a patent for 
 the invention in 1705. See Steam-engine. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND, the northeast por- 
 tion of the United States, comprising the 
 
 states of Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- 
 ihont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
 and Connecticut. . Originally called 
 North Virginia when granted by James 
 I. to the Plymouth Company in 1606, 
 it received the name of New England 
 from Captain John Smith, who explored 
 and made a map of the coast in 1614. 
 
 NEW'FOUNDLAND, a large island of 
 British North America, in the Atlantic 
 Ocean, at the mouth of the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence, and nearer to Britain than 
 any other part of America — the dis- 
 tance from the port of St. John’s to the 
 harbor of Valentia, in Ireland, being 
 only about 1918 miles. Area, excluding 
 the territory of Labrador on the main- 
 land, which belongs to this colony, 
 40,000 sq. miles. The famous banks of 
 Newfoundland around the coasts swarm 
 with almost every variety of fish, par- 
 ticularly cod. The cod-fishery is prose- 
 cuted from June to November, and may 
 be said, with the other fisheries, of seal, 
 lobster, herring, and salmon, to form 
 the stable occupation of the inhabitants. 
 Cod-fish is far the largest export. The 
 trade is chiefly with Britain, Canada, and 
 the United States. The affairs of the 
 colony are administered by a governor, 
 appointed by the crown ; an executive 
 council composed of the governor and 
 six responsible ministers; a legislative 
 council of fifteen members, nominated 
 by the governor; and a house of assem- 
 bly of thirty-six members, elected by 
 manhood suffrage (according to act of 
 1889). Newfoundland was discovered 
 by John Cabot in 1497, and the first 
 English colony was planted in 1621. 
 A struggle for supremacy took place be- 
 tween the English and the French; but 
 in 1713 Newfoundland and its depend- 
 encies were declared, by the Treaty of 
 Utrecht, to belong wholly to Great 
 Britain, the French reserving a right to 
 fish and cure on certain parts of the 
 coast. Responsible government was 
 granted in 1833. The colony, as yet, de- 
 clines to join the Canadian Confedera- 
 tion. The only noteworthy town on the 
 island is St. John’s, the capital. Pop. 
 216,615., 
 
 NEW GRANADA. See Colombia. 
 
 NEW GUINEA, or PAPUA, a large 
 island in Australasia, next to Australia 
 
 the largest on the globe; area, 305,900 
 sq. miles; length about 1500, breadth 
 from 200 to 400 miles. The island is rich 
 in tropical products, possesses a copious 
 and peculiar flora and fauna (birds of 
 paradise being especially numerous and 
 gorgeous), and is suitable for tropical 
 agriculture. On the west coast there are 
 numerous Malay settlements, but the 
 
NEW HAMPSHIRE 
 
 NEW JERSEY 
 
 bulk of the inhabitants are Papuas, a 
 race resembling the negroes of Guinea. 
 The discovery of New Guinea was made 
 by the Portuguese early in the 16th cen- 
 tury, but little was known of it till 
 recently. The naturalists were the first 
 to make incursions into its interior, and 
 among these Mr. A. R. Wallace, who 
 visited it in 1858, was the pioneer. The 
 delimitation and division of the island 
 between Great Britain, Germany, and 
 Holland was settled in 1885. That part 
 of the island lying west of the 141st 
 meridian is assigned to Holland, and 
 comprises 150,755 sq. miles; the north- 
 ern part of the rest of the island is 
 assigned to Germany, and the south- 
 ern to Great Britain. The German ter- 
 ritory, called Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land 
 contains 68,785 sq. miles, the English 
 territory 86,457 sq. miles, estimated 
 pop. 135,000. The government of the 
 British portion is in the hands of an ad- 
 ministrator appointed by the crown, 
 assisted by an executive and a legis- 
 lative council. New South Wales, 
 Victoria, and Queensland each contrib- 
 ute to the expense of the government. 
 A German chartered company whose 
 object is to develop the resources of the 
 country has stations in German New 
 Guinea. The Dutch have done little or 
 nothing for their portion of the island. 
 Estimates of the total population vary 
 between 500,000 and 2,500,000. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the United 
 States, bounded on the north by Canada, 
 east by Maine, southeast by the Atlantic, 
 south by Massachusetts, and west by 
 Vermont, from which it is separated by 
 the river Connecticut; area, 9305 sq. 
 miles. This state has a sea-coast of only 
 18 miles. It ranks fortieth in size among 
 
 Seal of New Hampshire. 
 
 the United States. New Hampshire is 
 more mountainous than the average 
 state on the Atlantic slope. The eastern- 
 most extension of the Appalachian 
 system traverses the state lengthwise 
 and culminates in the White Mountains. 
 Among the peaks whose rocky summits 
 reach above the timber line is Mount 
 Washington with an altitude of 6293 
 feet. Every part of the state is well 
 drained by numerous streams, the nar- 
 row western portion by the Connecticut 
 river, the remainder by rivers flowing 
 to the Atlantic Ocean. The northern 
 part of the state is drained by the 
 Androscoggin river. The principal river 
 after the Connecticut is the Merrimac. 
 
 The Merrimac probably turns more 
 spindles than any other riverin theworld. 
 The southeastern corner of the state is 
 drained by streams flowing into the 
 Piscataqua estuary, this being the only 
 harbor on the coast. New England 
 abounds in lakes, the largest being Lake 
 Winnipiseogee. The climate is severe, 
 the ground being snow covered, and the 
 rivers frozen from autumn to spring. 
 Mica, granite, scythe stones, copper, lead, 
 zinc, tin, arsenic, and iron are among 
 the chief minerals of the state. The 
 principal crops are Indian corn, oats, 
 and barley; buckwheat, hay, hops, 
 tobacco, potatoes, flax, beans, and pease 
 are also raised. Apple and pear trees 
 are abundant in the cultivated districts; 
 and the hilly and mountainous regions 
 are still covered with extensive forests 
 of pine, oak, beech, birch, sugar-maple, 
 etc. Manufactures are actively carried 
 on, the principal being cotton, woolen, 
 and worsted goods, boots and shoes, 
 leather, lumber, iron, machinery, fur- 
 niture, etc. The mileage of railways is 
 greater in proportion to population and 
 wealth than in any other New England 
 state. Education is well attended to. 
 There is but one university, Dartmouth 
 college, Hanover. Earliest settlements in 
 New Hampshire were made near Dover 
 and Portsmouth in 1623. New Hamp- 
 shire was a part of the Massachusetts 
 colony from 1641 to 1679, from 1689 
 to 1692, and from 1699 to 1741. During 
 the intervening dates and until 1775 
 this territory was under colonial gov- 
 ernors of its own. The people of New 
 Hampshire took an active part in the 
 revolutionary war. In 1776 a provisional 
 government was founded, and in 1784 a 
 state constitution was adopted. New 
 Hampshire was the ninth state to ratify 
 the federal constitution, which it did on 
 June 21, 1788. The popular name is 
 Granite state. The capital of the prov- 
 ince of New Hampshire was Portsmouth. 
 Until 1805 it was migratory but at that 
 date Concord was chosen. New Hamp- 
 shire was federalist in national politics 
 till 1816, with the exception of 1804, 
 when it voted for Jefferson. From 1816 
 to 1852 it was consistently democratic. 
 Since 1856 it has been stanchly repub- 
 lican. The capital is Concord, the 
 largest city and the chief manufacturing 
 center is Manchester, and the only port 
 is Portsmouth. Pop. 443,588. 
 
 NEW HAVEN, a seaport town in 
 Connecticut, on a bay of same name in 
 Long Island Sound, 72 miles northeast 
 of New York. There are important 
 manufactories of carriages, arms, wire, 
 etc., and there is a large foreign trade, 
 particularly with the West Indies. New 
 Haven is widely known as the seat of 
 Yale College (which see). Pop. 128,117. 
 
 NEW HEBRIDES, a long chain of 
 volcanic islands in the Pacific, lying 
 northwest of Fiji and northeast of New 
 Caledonia, and embracing an area of 
 about 3000 sq. miles. The natives 
 (70,000) are of Melanesian race. 
 
 NEW JERSEY, one of the eastern 
 United States, bounded on the north by 
 New York, east by the Atlantic Ocean 
 and the Hudson river, south by Dela- 
 ware and Pennsylvania, from which it 
 is separated by the Delaware river; 
 area, 7815 sq. miles. Though tke state 
 
 lies wholly within the Atlantic slope, it 
 is crossed in the northwest by several 
 ranges of the Appalachian system . There 
 are four distinctly marked topographi- 
 cal regions running in parallel bands 
 across the state from southwest to north- 
 east. The first, the Kittatinny range, an 
 extension of the Blue Mountains of 
 Pennsylvania, runs in a continuous 
 ridge into New York. The second in- 
 cludes the Highlands, an outlying 
 Appalachian range consisting of plateau- 
 like masses, rising to a height of 1200 to 
 1400 feet. The third is the Piedmont 
 plain, nearly as wide as the first two 
 
 Seal of New Jersey. 
 
 combined. The fourth constitutes the 
 coastal plain and includes the entire 
 southern half of the state .south of a line 
 running from Trenton to Newark Bay. 
 
 The western slope of the state is 
 drained by short tributaries into the 
 Delaware river, but by far the greater 
 portion drains directly into the Atlantic 
 Ocean or its inlets. The principal rivers 
 are the Passaic and Hackensack, the 
 Raritan, the Mullica and Great Egg. 
 Lakes are confined chiefly to the north- 
 ern section. 
 
 The most extensively utilized of the 
 state’s diversified geological resources 
 are its clays. New Jersey ranks second 
 in the production of pottery and third 
 in the total output of clay products. 
 Brick clay is found in most parts of the 
 state. A variety of stone is quarried in 
 the northwestern counties, and con- 
 stitutes another important source of 
 wealth. The production of granite has 
 increased rapidly. New Jersey ranks 
 second in the production of Portland 
 cement. Iron has been mined con- 
 tinuously in the northwestern part until 
 the present time. The iron is mined 
 with greater difficulty than in the larger 
 iron-producing regions, but the saving 
 of the cost of transportation makes it 
 profitable. The state has an extensive 
 fishery industry. Next to oysters, the 
 principal species with respect to value 
 are clams, shad, squeteague, bluefish, 
 and cod. The middle portion of the 
 state is agreeably diversified by hills 
 and valleys; the southern part is level 
 and sandy, and to a great extent barren, 
 yielding naturally little else than shrub- 
 oaks and yellow pine. The other por- 
 tions of the state have a good soil, and 
 produce Indian corn and other cereals, 
 buckwheat, potatoes, etc. The fruits 
 are good, especially apples, pears, 
 cherries, plums, and peaches. The cli- 
 
NEW JERSEY, COLLEGE OP 
 
 NEW ORLEANS 
 
 mate is mild, and nowhere is the cold 
 severely felt in winter except in the 
 mountainous regions of the north, 
 where the finest cattle are reared, and 
 large quantities of butter and cheese 
 made. New Jersey ranks high among 
 the states in manufacturing and chemi- 
 cal industries, while in some industries, 
 as silk, pottery, and glass, it stands 
 first, although it is only sixteenth in 
 population, and forty-sixth in area. 
 It is rich in metals, especially iron and 
 zinc. The principal seat of education is 
 the New Jersey college, Princeton, one of 
 the principal colleges in the United 
 States. There is a state normal school 
 at Trenton. The principal towns are 
 Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, Cam- 
 den, and Trenton (the capital). The 
 territory included within the limits of 
 the present state was settled by the 
 Dutch from New York between 1614 
 and 1620. It was one of the original 
 thirteen states of the Union. 
 
 Cornelius May ascended the Delaware 
 in 1623, and built a fort 4 miles below 
 the site of Camden. The Swedes, who 
 had conquered and expelled the Eng- 
 lish colonists from that region in 1638, 
 were in turn conquered by Peter Stuy- 
 vesant in 1655. In 1664 the territory 
 was granted by Charles II. to the Duke 
 of York, and by him to Sir George 
 Carteret and Lord John Berkeley. 
 There was no trouble with the Indians, 
 whose titles were peacefully purchased. 
 The proprietors soon divided the terri- 
 tory into East and West Jersey. In 1674 
 Quakers settled Salem and Burlington 
 and in 1682 a society under Penn bought 
 the Carteret rights in East Jersey. The 
 two provinces were reunited in 1702; 
 and from 1738 New Jersey had its own 
 governors. It bore its part in the colonial 
 wars, contributed 10,726 men to the 
 continental army, besides militia. New 
 Jersey suffered heavily during the revo- 
 lution, and was the scene of several 
 important campaigns and battles. The 
 state took an active part in the war of 
 1812, and the civil war. The popular 
 name is Jersey Blue State. Politically, 
 the state has generally inclined toward 
 the democratic party. In 1796, 1800, 
 and 1812, it supported the federalist 
 candidates; from 1836 to 1848 it was 
 whig; in 1860 it gave four votes to Lin- 
 coln, and three to Douglas; in 1872 it 
 cast its vote for Grant ; and in 1896, 1900 
 10('4 and 19i)8, it went re]Hiblican. Pop. 
 2,500,000. 
 
 NEW JERSEY, COLLEGE OF. See 
 Princeton University. 
 
 NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH. See 
 
 Swedenborgians. 
 
 NEW LEON, or NUEVO LEON, a 
 
 Mexican state bounded by Cohahuila, 
 Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, and Tamau- 
 lipas; area, 23,626 sq. miles. It is moun- 
 tainous but fertile, and lead, gold, silver, 
 and salt are worked; chief town, Mon- 
 terey. Pop. 327,937. 
 
 NEW LONDON, a city in Connecticut, 
 on the Thames, 3 miles from its entrance 
 into Long Island Sound, 42 miles e.n.e. 
 of New Haven. The seal, cod, and 
 mackerel fisheries employ many of the 
 inhabitants. New London is a fashion- 
 able summer resort. Pop. 20,298. 
 
 NEWMAN, John Henry, Cardinal, 
 born at London 1801. He took part 
 
 with Keble and Pusey in originating the 
 Oxford movement; was a leader in the 
 propaganda of High Church doctrines, 
 and contributed largely to the cele- 
 brated tracts for the Times. The last of 
 these, on the elasticity of the Thirty- 
 nine Articles, was censured by the 
 university authorities, and was fol- 
 lowed by Newman’s resignation of his 
 livings (1843) and secession to the 
 Church of Rome (1845). In 1879 he was 
 created a cardinal. He has written some 
 remarkable works sustaining the doc- 
 trines of the Church of Rome, particu- 
 larly the Apologia pro Vit& suS, (1864), 
 and the Reply to Mr. Gladstone (1875) 
 on the Vatican Decrees. He died in 
 1890. 
 
 NEWMAN, John Philip, American 
 clerg 3 Tnan, bishop of the Methodist 
 Episcopal church, was born in New 
 York in 1826. In 1860 he visited Egypt 
 and Palestine, embodying the results of 
 this trip in From Dan to Beersheba, or 
 the Land of Promise as it Now Appears. 
 In 1872 he was appointed by President 
 Grant inspector of consulates in Asia. 
 In 1881 he was a delegate to the first 
 Ecumenical Methodist Conference in 
 London. In 1888 he was elected bishop 
 of the Methodist Episcopal church with 
 his official residence at Omaha, Neb. 
 He died in 1899. 
 
 NEW MEXICO, one of the territories 
 of the United States, bounded on the 
 north by Colorado, east by Texas, south 
 by Texas and Mexico, and west by the 
 territory of Arizona; area, 122,580 sq. 
 miles. New Mexico exceeds in size every 
 state in the Union exce^ Texas, Cali- 
 fornia, and Montana. The surface is 
 generally mountainous, being traversed 
 from north to south by the Rocky 
 Mountains. A central valley extends 
 across the whole territory from north 
 to south, with an average breadth of 20 
 
 Seal of New Mexico. 
 
 miles, traversed by the Rio Grande, 
 and hemmed in either by the main 
 chain or by ramifications of the Rocky 
 mountains. To the south of the town 
 of Santa F4 they average from 6000 to 
 8000 feet high, but in the vicinity of 
 the town and north of it some snowy 
 peaks rise to the height of 10,000 or 
 12,000 feet. The higher ranges are 
 covered in many places with pine forests 
 and the lower with cedars and occasional 
 oaks. The climate is generally tem- 
 perate and salubrious. The soil is often 
 sandy, but an extensive system of 
 irrigation canals is projected; as it is, 
 
 about half the surface consists of good 
 average agricultural land, producing 
 abundant crops of alfalfa, Indian corn, 
 wheat, and pulse. Fruits are abundant, 
 and the vine is largely cultivated. Con- 
 siderable attention is paid to the rfearing 
 of cattle. There are enormous deposits 
 of coal; and iron, lead, zinc, copper, 
 silver, and gold are found in important 
 quantities. 
 
 The first explorers of the region were 
 Spanish. Santa F6 was founded be- 
 tween 1605 and 1616. The Indians 
 revolted about 1680, and kept their 
 independence for ten years. The mines 
 were worked and towns and missions 
 were founded. This region became a 
 province of Mexico when that country 
 gained its independence of Spain in 
 1821. A small United States force under 
 Gen. Stephen Kearney captured Santa 
 F6, gained control of the whole territory, 
 and secured its cession to the United 
 States in 1848. The territory when 
 originally organized in 1850 included 
 Arizona and a part of Colorado and 
 California. In 1850 a convention was 
 held and a state constitution adopted, 
 but the dread on the part of the north 
 of another slave state prevented the 
 admission of New Mexico. Frequent 
 efforts to secure admission have been 
 made since. In 1894 congress passed an 
 enabling act, and in the fifty-seventh 
 congress (1901-03) an act of admission 
 passed the house, but did not reach a 
 vote in the senate. The construction of 
 railroads, begun in 1878, had a marked 
 influence in its development. The popu- 
 lar name is the Sunshine State. Many 
 of the inhabitants are of Mexican origin. 
 Pop. 193,777. 
 
 NEW MEXICO, University of, a co- 
 educational institution of higher learn- 
 ing at Albuquerque, New Mexico, in- 
 corporated by an act of the territorial 
 legislature in 1889, and indicated by 
 statute as the future state university. 
 The collegiate, normal, and preparatory 
 departments were opened in 1892. 
 Science, music, art, and commercial 
 schools were afterward added. The 
 degrees of bachelor of arts and pedagogy, 
 of master of arts and sciences, and of 
 doctor of philosophy are conferred. 
 The Hadley Climatological Laboratory 
 is an organization for research espe- 
 cially with reference to the influence of 
 the climate of the arid and plateau 
 region of the United States upon dis- 
 ease. 
 
 NEW MEXICO COLLEGE OF AGRI- 
 CULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS, 
 
 a coeducational state institution at 
 Mesilla Park, N. M., established in 1889. 
 It is supported mainly by a territorial 
 tax and by the Morrill and Hatch funds. 
 
 NEW ORLEANS, a city and port of 
 the United States, Louisiana, chiefly on 
 the left bank of the Mississippi, 100 
 miles above its mouth. The alluvial 
 flat on which it stands is a mere swamp, 
 and the town is only saved from the 
 inundations of the river by a strong 
 levee or embankment, built along the 
 city front, and 200 miles above and 50 
 miles below, extending also around the 
 city in the rear. The nucleus of the 
 town is built around a bend of the river, 
 from which it derives its popular sobri- 
 quet “the Crescent City.” The streets 
 
NEW PLATONISTS 
 
 NEWSPAPERS 
 
 in this portion are mostly narrow, but 
 many of those in the suburbs are spa- 
 cious and handsome, and lined with 
 shade-trees. The public buildings are 
 neither numerous nor remarkable, and 
 the manufactures are inconsiderable. 
 New Orleans is simply the outlet for the 
 produce of the countries drained by the 
 Mississippi — sugar, molasses, rice, to- 
 bacco, Indian corn, wheat, oats, flour, 
 and above all, cotton. Ships of the 
 largest size can now reach the city 
 docks. The yellow fever has often 
 caused great mortality, but these epi- 
 demics have been greatly mitigated by 
 
 the adoption of sanitary measures and 
 drainage on a grand scale. In 1908 a 
 fire destroyed §1,600,000 of property. 
 New Orleans was founded by the French 
 in 1717, and finally passed with Louisi- 
 ana to the Union in 1803. Pop. 400,000. 
 
 NEW PLATONISTS, a philosophical 
 sect, so called because they founded 
 their speculations on those of Plato; 
 also called the Alexandrian Platonists, 
 because their chief seat was at first 
 in Alexandria. Their doctrines (Nea- 
 platonism) had a tendency to unite 
 Platonic ideas with Oriental mysticism, 
 and borrowed elements from various 
 schools. 
 
 NEWPORT, a flourishing city in 
 Kentucky, on the river Ohio, opposite 
 Cincinnati, of which it is practically a 
 residential suburb. Its chief manufac- 
 tures are in iron and steel. Pop. 32,161. 
 
 NEWPORT, a seaport of one of the 
 capitals of Rhode Island, finely situated 
 on its southwest shore, at the main en- 
 trance of Narragansett bay, 26 miles 
 south by east of Providence, a most 
 fashionable watering-place. For over 
 240 years it has been the annual meet- 
 ing-place of the Society of Friends. 
 Pop. 26,133. 
 
 NEWPORT NEWS, a rising American 
 seaport in Warwick co., Virginia, near 
 the extremity of the peninsula formed 
 by the York and James rivers. New- 
 port News exports cotton, lumber, 
 
 wheat and fleur, tobacco, etc. Pop. 
 23,460. 
 
 NEW ROCHELLE, a town in West- 
 chester CO., N. Y., on the inlet of Long 
 Island Sound, locally known as New 
 Rochelle harbor, and on the N. Y., N. 
 H. and Hart, railroad; 20 miles n.e. of 
 the New York city-hall. Pop. 16,522. 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES, a colony of 
 Great Britain, which at one time com- 
 prised the eastern half of Australia, but 
 is now bounded by Queensland on the 
 n., Victoria on the s., the Pacific ocean 
 on the e., and South Australia on the 
 w., area, 310,700 sq. miles. The coal- 
 
 fields extend over an area of 10,000,000 
 acres, with an output of some 4,600,000 
 tons. Copper ore of the richest quality 
 has been found in great abundance, but 
 is not yet extensively worked. Tin exists 
 in large quantities, and iron is very gen- 
 erally distributed. But the chief min- 
 eral product of the colony has been 
 gold, the total value of which hitherto 
 obtained is estimated at $300,000,000. 
 Much silver and lead are now obtained. 
 As the area of the colony extends over 
 eleven degrees of latitude, and as it con- 
 tains a good deal of elevated ground, 
 nearly every variety of climate is to be 
 found. The agricultural land is chiefly 
 under wheat and maize, oats and barley, 
 and there is also a considerable area 
 under sugar, vines, fruit-trees, etc. 
 Fruits and vegetables in great variety 
 are grown. But the rearing of sheep and 
 cattle are the chief employments of the 
 people, and wool is the most important 
 article of export. The manufacturing 
 industries of the colony are naturally 
 not of much importance as yet, but 
 they are increasing; and the industrial 
 works embrace tanneries, woolen fac- 
 tories, soap and candle works, breweries, 
 steam saw-mills, shipyards, foundries, 
 machine-works, clothing factories, etc. 
 There are about 3000 miles of open rail- 
 way besides what is in course of con- 
 struction ; the telegraphic wires extend 
 over 13,700 miles. The constitution of 
 
 New South Wales vests the legislative 
 power in a parliament of two houses, 
 the legislative council namely, and the 
 legislative assembly. The former con- 
 sists of not fewer than 21 (at present 
 of 75) members nominated by the 
 crown for life; and the latter of 125 
 members chosen triennially by 125 
 constituencies on a basis of manhood 
 suffrage. The governor, nominated by 
 the crown, has a cabinet of ten minis- 
 ters. The colony sends six representa- 
 tives to the federal senate and twenty- 
 six to the federal house of representa- 
 tives. It celebrated its centenary in 
 January, 1888. Pop. 1908, 1,571,300. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS, although something 
 like an official newspaper or govern- 
 ment gazette existed in ancient Rome, 
 and Venice in the middle of the 16th 
 century had also official news sheets, 
 the first regular newspaper was pub- 
 lished at Frankfort in 1615. In England 
 no genuine newspaper of the 16th cen- 
 tury has been preserved, and it is not 
 till 1622 that we find The Weekly News 
 from Italy, Germany, etc., which may 
 be regarded as the first specimen of the 
 regular newspaper that appeared in 
 England. Other journals followed, and 
 one of these, published in November, 
 1641, under the title of Diurnal Occur- 
 rences, or the Heads of Several Pro- 
 ceedings in both Houses of Parliament, 
 is noticeable as the first which furnished . 
 a report of the proceedings in parlia- 
 ment. The oldest existing newspaper 
 in England is the government paper, 
 the London Gazette, the first number 
 of which was issued on the 7th of No- 
 vember, 1665, at Oxford, whither the 
 court had retired in consequence of the 
 plague then raging in London. 
 
 The increase of rapid communication 
 generally; the development of tele- 
 graphic communication, and the system 
 of telegraphic news-agencies, estab- 
 lished first by Julius Reuter in 1849; 
 the vast improvement in printing, the 
 repeal of the stamp-duty (originally im- 
 posed in 1712) in 1855, and of the paper- 
 duty in 1861, and the enormous growth 
 of advertisements, have given a great 
 impetus to this branch of literature. 
 Penny weekly and penny daily papers 
 are now exceedingly numerous; even 
 half-penny newspapers are not uncom- 
 mon. Special industries and profes- 
 sions are now represented by organs of 
 their own, and the number of special 
 illustrated domestic and literary papers 
 is enormous. 
 
 The Boston News-Letter, started in 
 1704, was the first regularly established 
 American newspaper. By the com- 
 mencement 5)f the revolutionary war 
 in 1775 the number of newspapers pub- 
 lished in the New England states 
 amounted to thirteen. In 1889 there 
 were published in the United States and 
 Canada about 2000 daily and 11,500 
 semi-weekly and weekly newspapers. 
 Since 1840 New York has been the 
 acknowledged metropolis of the news- 
 paper and periodical press of America. 
 
 The total number of newspapers pub- 
 lished in the world at present is esti- 
 mated at about 60,000, distributed as 
 follows; United States and Canada, 
 23,461; Germany, 8,049; Great Britain, 
 9,500j France, 6,681 j Japan, l,000i ' 
 
NEWT 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 Italy, 2,757; Austria-Hungary, 2,958; 
 Asia, exclusive of Japan, 1,000; Spain, 
 1,000; Russia, 1,000; Australia, 1,000; 
 Greece, 130; Switzerland, 1,005; Hol- 
 land, 980; Belgium, 956; all others, 
 1,000. Of these more than half are 
 printed in the English language. 
 
 NEWT, or EFT, the popular name 
 applied to various genera of amphibians. 
 Water-newts, or “water-salamanders” 
 as they are sometimes termed, possess 
 a compressed tail, adapted for swim- 
 ming. These forms are oviparous, and 
 though aquatic in their habits they are 
 
 Great water-newt. 
 
 yet strict air-breathers. The larval 
 gills are cast off on maturity being 
 reached, or about the third month of 
 existence. The larval tail is retained 
 throughout life. The male animals are 
 distinguished by the possession of a 
 crest or fleshy ridge borne on the back. 
 The food consists chiefly of aquatic in- 
 sects, larvae, etc. 
 
 NEW TESTAMENT. See Bible. 
 
 NEWTON, a city in Middlesex co., 
 Massachusetts, on the Charles river, 8 
 miles w. of Boston, a favorite residence, 
 of Boston merchants. It is the seat of 
 the Newton Theological Institution 
 (Baptist). Pop. 36,587. 
 
 NEWTON, Hubert Anson, American 
 astronomer and mathematician, was 
 born at Sherburne, N. Y., in 1830. The 
 study of the law of meteoroids and of 
 comets and their interrelation, began 
 with the attempt to contribute to the 
 theory advanced by Professor Olmsted 
 of Yale in 1833, that meteors were a 
 part of a mass of bodies moving round 
 the sun in a fixed orbit. His authority 
 on these subjects became world-wide, 
 the National Academy of Sciences 
 awarding him the Smith gold medal. 
 He died in 1896. 
 
 NEWTON, Sir Isaac, the most dis- 
 tinguished mathematician of modern 
 times, was born at Woolsthorpe, Lin- 
 colnshire, December 25, 1642. In 1663- 
 64 he discovered the formula known as 
 Newton’s Binomial Thereom (see Bino- 
 mial); and before 1665 he had estab- 
 lished his doctrine of fluxions. Some 
 years later Leibnitz also discovered this 
 invaluable method, and presented it 
 to the world in a different form — that 
 of the differential calculus. About this 
 time (1665), being obliged to quit Cam- 
 bridge on account of the plague, he re- 
 tired to Woolsthorpe, where the idea of 
 universal gravitation is said to have 
 first presented itself to him, from observ- 
 ing the fall of an apple in his garden. 
 In 1666 he returned to Cambridge, was 
 chosen fellow of his college (Trinity 
 college) in 1667, and the next year was 
 admitted A.M. By this time his atten- 
 tion had been drawn to the phenomena 
 of the refraction of light through prisms, 
 and to the improvements of telescopes. 
 
 His experiments led him to conclude 
 that light is not a simple and homogene- 
 ous substance, but that it is composed of 
 a number of rays of unequal refrangi- 
 bility, and possessing different colors. 
 In 1669, being appointed professor of 
 mathematics at Cambridge, and pre- 
 paring to lecture on optics, he endeav- 
 ored to mature his first results, and 
 composed a treatise on the subject. 
 In 1672 Newton was chosen a fellow of 
 the Royal Society, to which he com- 
 municated a description of a new ar- 
 rangement for reflecting telescopes, 
 which rendered them more convenient 
 by diminishing their length without 
 weakening their magnifying powers; 
 and soon after, the first part of his 
 labors on the analysis of light. This 
 led him into controversies with Hooke, 
 Huygens, and several eminent foreign- 
 ers, Newton maintaining the corpus- 
 cular theory, now generally given up in 
 favor of the undulatory theory. In 1675 
 he addressed another paper to the Royal 
 Society, completing the account of his 
 results and of his views on the nature of 
 light. This treatise, united with his first 
 paper on the analysis of light, afterward 
 served as the base of the great work. 
 Treatise on Optics (1704). He had before 
 this deduced from the laws of Kepler 
 the important law that gravity de- 
 creased with the square of the distance, 
 a law to which Sir Christopher Wren, 
 Halley, and Hooke had all been led by 
 independent study. No demonstration 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton. 
 
 of it, however, had been given, and no 
 proof obtained that the same power 
 which made the apple to fall, was that 
 which retained the moon and the other 
 planets in their orbits. Adopting the 
 ordinary measure of the earth’s radius, 
 Newton had been led to the conclusion 
 that the force which kept the moon in 
 her orbit, if the same as gravity, was 
 one-sixth greater than that which is 
 actually ob^served, a result which per- 
 plexed him, and prevented him from 
 communicating to his friends the great 
 speculation in which he was engaged. 
 In June, 1682, however, he had heard 
 of Picard’s more accurate measure of 
 the earth’s diameter, and repeating 
 with this measure his former calcula- 
 tions, he found, to his extreme delight, 
 that the force of gravity, by which 
 bodies fall at the earth’s surface, 4000 
 miles from the earth’s center, when 
 diminished as the square of 240,000 
 
 miles, the moon’s distance, was almost 
 exactly equal to that which kept the 
 moon in her orbit. Hence it followed 
 that the same power retained all the 
 other satellites round their primaries 
 and all the primaries round the sun. 
 Two years were spent in penetrating 
 the consequences of this discovery, and 
 in preparing his immortal work Philo- 
 sophise Naturalis Principia Mathe- 
 matica, commonly called “Newton’s 
 Principia,” which was printed in 1687 
 at the expense of Dr. Halley. In 1687 
 Newton was one of the delegates sent 
 by the University of Cambridge to 
 maintain its rights before the High 
 Commis.sion Court when they were 
 attacked by James II., and in 1688 he 
 was elected by the university to the 
 Convention Parliament. In 1696 he 
 was appointed warden of the mint, and 
 in 1699 master. In 1701 he was again 
 returned to parliament by his univer- 
 sity; in 1703 he was chosen president of 
 the Royal Society; and in 1705 was 
 knighted by Queen Anne. In his later 
 years he took great interest in chem- 
 istry, and in the elucidation of the sacred 
 Scriptures. His health was good until 
 his eightieth year, when he suffered 
 from a calculous disorder, which oc- 
 casioned his death, March 20, 1727. 
 He was interred in Westminster Abbey. 
 The most important of Newton’s philo- 
 sophical works are his Principia; his 
 Arithmetica Universalis; his Geometria 
 Analytica; his Treatise on Optics, pub- 
 lished in 1705; and his Lectiones Opticse, 
 published after his death. His literary 
 and theological works are his Chronol- 
 ogy; his Observations on the Prophecies 
 of Holy Writ, viz.: Daniel and the 
 Apobalypse ; and his Historical Account 
 of two Notable Corruptions of Scripture. 
 
 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION. See 
 Dynamics. 
 
 HEW YEAR’S DAY, the first day of 
 the year, from the earliest times ob- 
 served with religious ceremonies or fes- 
 tive rejoicing. New Year’s Day, being 
 the eighth day after Christmas, is the 
 festival of Christ’s circumcision. 
 
 HEW YORK, “the Empire State,” 
 one of the thirteen original United 
 States of North America, having Canada 
 on the north and northwest, from which 
 it is almost entirely separated by the St. 
 Lawrence, Lake Ontario, the Niagara 
 river, and Lake Erie; south, Pennsyl- 
 vania, New Jersey, and the Atlantic; 
 and east, Connecticut, Massachusetts, 
 and Vermont. Long Island belongs to 
 the state, whose seaboard otherwise is 
 very small. Total area, 49,170 sq. miles. 
 It is the twenty-sixth in point of size 
 among the states. The surface in the 
 southeast is traversed by several moun- 
 tain ranges from New Jersey, one of 
 which, crossing the Hudson, presents a 
 bold and lofty front on both banks, 
 and forms magnificent scenery. The 
 Catskill mountains have the greatest 
 average height, and in Round Top attain 
 3800 feet; but the culminating point is 
 Mount Marcy, which belongs to the 
 Adirondack group, and has a height of 
 5467 feet. In the west the large tract 
 extending between Lake Ontario on the 
 north and Pennsylvania on the south is 
 generally level. The principal rivers are 
 the Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, 
 
NEW YORK 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 Mohawk, Oswego, Genesee, Niagara, 
 Alleghany, and St. Lawrence. The falls 
 of Niagara partly belong to the state. 
 Besides the frontier lakes Ontario and 
 Erie, there are many lakes of very con- 
 siderable size, such as Lakes Champlain, 
 George, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, etc. 
 The climate is somewhat vari^le, but 
 with some local exceptions very healthy. 
 The greater part of the soil is arable, 
 and New York occupies a foremost place 
 in agriculture. The largest crops are 
 hay, oats, Indian corn, wheat, beans, 
 barley, and, to a greater extent than 
 any other state, potatoes. Grapes are 
 grown in the Chemung Valley. A large 
 income is annually obtained from the 
 products of floriculture. Much attention 
 is paid to the rearing of stock, both for 
 feeding and for dairy purposes, more 
 milk, butter and cheese being produced 
 
 Seal of New York. 
 
 than in any other state. The forest 
 trees present a great variety, but the 
 forest area, which used to include nearly 
 half the state, has been much reduced 
 of late years. The most important min- 
 eral is iron. Lead ore is also found, and 
 a vast amount of salt is made from the 
 salt springs. Granite, marbles, sand- 
 stones, limestones, clay, sand, and all 
 building materials are abundant. The 
 mineral springs of Saratoga are the 
 most celebrated in America. The manu- 
 factures include nearly a sixth of all the 
 manufactures of the United States. 
 The foreign and internal trade are of 
 great importance. About 60 per cent of 
 the imports and 40 per cent of the ex- 
 ports of the entire nation pass through 
 the port of New York. The internal trade 
 is carried on chiefly by canals and rail- 
 roads in conjunction with the Hudson. 
 Of the canals the most important is the 
 Erie Canal, which connects Lake Erie 
 with the Hudson. The length of railways 
 is over 9000 miles. The principal rail- 
 road systems crossing the state are the 
 New York Central and Hudson River, 
 the Erie, the Lackawanna, the New 
 York, Chicago, and St. Louis (with the 
 West Shore), the New York, Ontario 
 and Western, and the Lehigh Valley. 
 Other important systems enter at the 
 east and west. Among religious denomi- 
 nations the Protestant Episcopalians, 
 Roman Catholics, Episcopal Methodists, 
 Baptists, and Presbyterians are the most 
 important. For the higher branches of 
 education ample provision has been 
 made, there being some thirty univer- 
 sities and colleges, and primary educa- 
 
 tion is free. The oldest and most im- 
 portant university is Columbia in New 
 York City. There is no state university, 
 but Cornell university in Utica awards 
 certain state scholarships. Other im- 
 portant institutions are Union college, 
 in Schenectady, Hamilton college, Clin- 
 ton, New York university at New York. 
 Vassar college at Poughkeepsie, is one 
 of the leading women’s colleges in the 
 country. The most noted of the fifteen 
 theological seminaries is Union in New 
 York City. There are seven law schools, 
 twelve medical schools, three dental and 
 four schools of pharmacy. Albany is the 
 capital, though it is far below New York, 
 Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse in 
 population. 
 
 The first European discoverers and 
 explorers found the eastern slope of the 
 continent under the denomination of the 
 Iroquois tribes. John Smith met with 
 them on the north waters of Chesapeake 
 Bay in 1607, and Hudson found them in 
 1609 on the banks of the river to which 
 he gave his name. The chief seat of this 
 powerful nation, whose sway was recog- 
 nized from the St. Lawrence to the 
 Tennessee and from the Atlantic to the 
 Mississippi, was in the wide and fertile 
 region of western and northern New 
 York. They organized the political 
 league or confederacy known as the 
 Five Nations. These were the tribes of 
 Mohawks, Onondagas, Ca 3 rugas, Sene- 
 cas, and Oneidas. The confederacy was 
 at the height of its power about the 
 year 1700. In 1715 they were joined by 
 the Tuscaroras, driven out from North 
 Carolina, and were afterward known as 
 the Six Nations. The American revolu- 
 tion proved fatal to them. The political 
 history of the province records one con- 
 tinued struggle between the royal gov- 
 ernors and the general assembly — the 
 assembly withholding money grants, 
 and the governors exercising the power 
 to dissolve it at will. The quartering of 
 British troops became a constant irrita- 
 tion between the people and the officers, 
 and the need of money by the authori- 
 ties caused as severe a struggle between 
 the governors and the assembly. A 
 general congress of the colonies held in 
 New York in 1765 protested against the 
 stamp act and other oppressive ordi- 
 nances, and they were in part repealed. 
 On the breaking out of hostilities. New 
 York immediately joined the patriot 
 cause; the English authority was over- 
 thrown, and the government passed to a 
 provincial congress. In May, 1775, Forts 
 Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which 
 commanded Lakes Champlain and 
 George, and secured the northern fron- 
 tier, were captured by the Americans. 
 New York City became the head- 
 quarters of the continental army under 
 command of General Washington. On 
 July 9, 1776, the provincial congress re- 
 assembled at White Plains, and form- 
 ally took the name of the representatives 
 of the state of New York. The same 
 day they proclaimed their adhesion to 
 the Declaration of Independence. The 
 defeat of the Americans on Long Island, 
 August 27, 1776, was followed by the 
 abandonment of the city. The move- 
 ment of Howe to White Plains, and his 
 subsequent successful operations, com- 
 pelled the withdrawal of the Americans 
 
 to New Jersey. In 1777 the advance of 
 Burg 05 me from Canada was checked at 
 Saratoga and his entire army captured. 
 An attempt of Clinton to aid Burgoyne, 
 in which he captured the forts at the 
 entrance to the Hudson Highlands, 
 failed; West Point continued to com- 
 mand the passage of this important line 
 of communication. On April 20, 1777, 
 the state assembly adopted the first 
 constitution, Gen. George Clinton was 
 elected governor, and held the office 
 till the close of the war. In 1779 (July 
 16) Stony Point was captured by the 
 Americans. In 1780 the failure of 
 Arnold’s treason put an end to the 
 schemes of the British to command the 
 river. On the conclusion of the war New 
 York was evacuated, November 25, 
 1783. In 1788 (July 26) New York 
 adopted the federal constitution, be- 
 came the most important member of the 
 national union, and received popularly 
 the name of the Empire State. The seat 
 of government was transferred from 
 New York City to Albany in 1797. The 
 progress of the state met with no inter- 
 ruption until the war with Great Brit- 
 ain in 1812, when its northern frontier 
 became the seat of operations by land 
 and water. The treaty of Ghent put an 
 end to the war, and important schemes 
 for the development of the internal 
 navigation to bring the products of the 
 state to tidal water were rapidly con- 
 summated. Steamboat navigation began 
 on the Hudson in 1807, and the canal 
 system was perfected in 1825 in the 
 completion of the Erie canal, which 
 opened the country from the lakes 
 to the sea. After 1840, the anti-slavery 
 feeling was strong in the agricultural 
 parts of the state, and in 1848 the 
 democrats, led by Van Buren, broke 
 away to aid in forming the free-soil 
 party. The whigs and know-nothings 
 gained and lost power in swift suc- 
 cession before the civil war. The mer- 
 cantile and manufacturing classes in 
 1860 advocated peace at any price, 
 but the mass of the people were Union- 
 ist. The reaction following upon the 
 disasters of the first year and a half of 
 the war put the democrats into power. 
 The war measures of President Lincoln 
 were denounced violently by the state 
 authorities, and the election of 1864 
 was bitterly fought, the outcome being 
 decided in favor of the republicans by 
 the votes of the men at the front. 
 
 The rise of the labor party in 1886 
 was the cause of much important labor 
 legislation. In 1892 laws limiting the 
 hours of daily work and protecting 
 women and children in factories and 
 shops were passed. In 1867 the public 
 schools of the state were made entirely 
 free, and in 1875 primary education was 
 made compulsory. 
 
 New York is an uncertain state both 
 in national and state elections, and the 
 influence exerted by its large electoral 
 vote on the outcome of presidential con- 
 tests has given it the well-earned name 
 of the “pivotal state.’’ New York voted 
 for the republican candidates from 1796 
 to 1808. In 1812 it cast its vote for De 
 Witt Clinton, who had been nominated 
 by the section of the republican, party 
 opposed to the domination of the con- 
 gressional caucus, and had been in- 
 
NEW YORK 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 dorsed by the federalists. It voted for 
 Monroe in 1816 and 1820, divided its 
 vote among Adams, Crawford, Clay, 
 and Jackson in 1824 (26 out of 36 for 
 Adams), and between Adams and Jack- 
 son in 1828 (20 out of 36 for Adams). 
 It was democratic in 1832, 1836, 1844, 
 and 1852, and whig in 1840 and 1848. 
 From 1856 to 1864, it was republican, 
 and then entered on a course of vacilla- 
 tion. It voted for Seymour (democrat) 
 in 1868, Grant (republican) in 1872, 
 Tilden (democrat) in 1876, Garfield (re- 
 publican) in 1880, Cleveland (democrat) 
 in 1884, Harrison (republican) in 1888, 
 and Cleveland (democrat) in 1892. The 
 state went decidedly republican in 1896, 
 1900, 1904 and 1908. Pop. 8,468,640. 
 
 NEW YORK, the chief city and sea- 
 port of the state of New York, and of the 
 United States, and in respect of popula- 
 tion and commerce the metropolis of the 
 American continent, and after London, 
 Eng., the largest city in the world. The 
 city is admirably situated at the conflu- 
 ence of the Hudson river from the north, 
 and the East river from the northeast 
 (the latter a prolongation of Long 
 Island Sound), their united waters ex- 
 panding into New York bay, which 
 forms a magnificent harbor. The ap- 
 proach from the sea is either by the East 
 river and Long Island Sound, or by the 
 wide channel between Sandy Hook and 
 Long Island, and thence by “the Nar- 
 rows” between Staten Island and Long 
 Island. In the bay are several islands, on 
 some of which are forts, and on one the 
 colossal statue of Liberty, the largest 
 statue of modern times, 151.41 feet in 
 height, stands upon a pedestal 155 feet 
 high. The chief portion of the city is 
 situated on Manhattan Island, 13^ 
 miles long and generally about If broad, 
 and separated by the narrow channel of 
 Harlem river from the mainland; while 
 on the opposite shores of the East river 
 are Brooklyn and Long Island City, and 
 on those of the Hudson, Jersey City, Ho- 
 boken, etc. Since January, 1898, Brook- 
 lyn, Long Island City, Staten Island, 
 etc., have been incorporated in New 
 York. 
 
 The plan upon which the newer por- 
 tion of the city is laid out consists of 
 parallel avenues, 100 feet or more in 
 width, named numerically from first to 
 eleventh, and running from south to 
 north as far as the northern extremity 
 of Manhattan island, intersected at 
 right angles by streets also numerically 
 named, and. crossing the city from east 
 to west. Fifth avenue (7 miles long, 100 
 feet wide) is the great central avenue, 
 and all the streets running east from it 
 have the prefix east, and those running 
 west the prefix west, and the houses are 
 numbered accordingly. The main busi- 
 ness thoroughfare is Broadway (5 miles 
 long and 80 feet wide), which in the 
 activity and variety of its traffic, the ele- 
 gance of its shops, and the massiveness 
 and grandeur of many of its public and 
 private buildings, is one of the most in- 
 teresting streets in the world. Madison 
 avenue, next east of Fifth avenue, vies 
 with it as a street of costly private 
 houses and beautiful churches. The 
 streets are traversed by innumerable 
 electric street cars, supplemented by 
 elevated railroads with steam motors 
 
 giving a speed of 10 miles per hour; and 
 a four track trunk line underground 
 railroad from City Hall Park through 
 Elm street, Fourth avenue, 42nd street 
 and Broadway to 96th street; a two 
 track southern extension line from the 
 City Hall loop, through Broadway to 
 South Ferry, whence it is to connect 
 with the tunnel under the East river to 
 Brooklyn. A three two track northern 
 extension to Van Cortland Park (in 
 operation to 219th street), to the Har- 
 lem river at 139th street and from 
 135th and Lennox avenue under the 
 Harlem river and on to Bronx Park. 
 Ferry-boats cross the Hudson and East 
 rivers at all hours. A bridge across 
 Harlem river and a massive viaduct 
 take the trains of the New York Central 
 and Hudson River R. R. to the Grand 
 Central Depot. East river bridge, one 
 of the largest suspension-bridges exist- 
 ing, connects New York with Brooklyn. 
 This bridge, 5989 feet long and 85 wide, 
 costing over $20,000,000, was opened 
 in 1883. The Williamsburg bridge with 
 entrance at Clinton street in New York 
 and Havemeyer street in Brooklyn, was 
 opened in 1903; exclusive of real estate 
 the cost was $12,000,000. The work of 
 construction on Manhattan bridge com- 
 menced in 1901 and the anchorages, the 
 towers, cables and suspended super- 
 structure are now under way. Work on 
 Blackwell’s Island bridge commenced 
 in 1901 and the cantilever spans are 
 now under way. The great width of the 
 Hudson opposite the city, and the 
 necessity of keeping it an unimpeded 
 highway of commerce, renders piers at 
 intervals across the river inadmissible, 
 but a great cantilever bridge is spoken 
 of. Considerable progress has been made 
 in the construction of a double tunnel 
 beneath the Hudson, by which the 
 trains of southern and western railroads 
 will pass under the river directly into 
 the city. Of the public parks the most 
 important is Central park, situated near 
 the center of Manhattan island. Its 
 length is 2J miles and its width a little 
 more than half a mile, giving an area 
 of 840 acres. Originally an unpromising 
 stretch of rocky ledges and stagnant 
 swamps, it has been made one of the 
 most picturesque and beautiful pleasure- 
 grounds with which any city in the 
 world is adorned. The next important 
 is Prospect park in Brooklyn, and the 
 third is Bronx park, occupying an area 
 of 661 acres on both sides of the Bronx 
 river. More than a dozen small public 
 parks and squares are scattered over 
 the city, the finest of the latter being 
 Union Square on the east side of Broad- 
 day, and Madison Square on the east 
 side of Fifth avenue. 
 
 The circumstance that the city is 
 hemmed in by water, and the high price 
 of ground, have stimulated the building 
 of very lofty structures for business 
 premises and to some extent for dwell- 
 ings. The buildings most worthy of 
 notice, in an architectural aspect, are 
 the treasury, in white marble with 
 Doric porticoes; the city hall, also of 
 white marble, in Italian style, attrac- 
 tively set in the center of an ornamental 
 park; the postoffice, at the south end of 
 City Hall park; the Academy of Design, 
 Columbia college, numerous palatial 
 
 private houses on Fifth avenue, Madi- 
 son avenue, and other streets adjacent 
 to Central park, and several of the new 
 “apartment houses,” some of which 
 cover entire city blocks and attain a 
 height of 10 and 12 stories. Among the 
 important office buildings may be men- 
 tioned the Produce Exchange, with a 
 tower 225 feet high, the Consolidated 
 Stock and Petroleum Exchange, the 
 Broad-Exchange, the Equitable Life 
 Assurance Society, the World Tribune 
 and Times buildings. Of the newer 
 buildings the most notable is the Flat 
 Iron at the triangle of Broadway and 
 Fifth avenue, a twenty story wedged 
 shaped building visible for miles. The 
 churches of all denominations number 
 about 500. Of the numerous church 
 buildings worthy of notice the most 
 conspicuous are: Trinity church (Epis- 
 copal), on Broadway, a noble Gothic 
 structure of brown sandstone; Grace 
 church (Episcopal), a handsome Gothic 
 building in white marble; St. George’s 
 (Episcopal) ; St. Thomas’s (Episcopal); 
 Fifth Avenue Presbyterian church, in 
 the decorated Gothic style, on Fifth 
 avenue; All Souls (Unitarian); St. Pat- 
 rick’s (R.C.) cathedral, built of white 
 marble in the decorated style of the 
 13th century, the largest and most 
 Imposing church edifice in the country; 
 the Jewish Temple Emmanuel, the 
 finest example of Moorish architecture 
 in the states. New York is generously 
 provided with hospitals, asylums, and 
 institutions of all kinds for the relief 
 of human suffering. The public school 
 system is very complete. By law the 
 attendance of children from 8 to 14 
 years of age is made compulsory, and 
 the schools offer a superior education 
 free of cost to children in all grades. 
 The most important seat of learning in 
 the city is Columbia college, founded by 
 charter of George II. in 1754. The 
 college has 60 instructors and about 
 1500 students. The university of New 
 York City, founded in 1831, has a large 
 corps of instructors. Among the public 
 monuments are statues of Washington, 
 Lincoln, Farragut, Franklin, Shakespeare, 
 Burns, Scott, etc., an ancient Egyptian 
 obelisk presented by the Khedive of 
 Egypt; Bartholdi’s great Statue of 
 Liberty. Among the numerous public 
 libraries may be noted the Astor Free 
 library, containing 250,000 volumes; 
 the Mercantile library, with 210,000 
 volumes, a fine circulating library be- 
 longing to its members, but accessible 
 also to others; the Lennox library, with 
 a collection of rare books numbering 
 30,000 valuable manuscripts, choice 
 paintings, sculptures, ceramics, etc. 
 Theaters and other places of amusement 
 are numerous, the principal ones being 
 the Metropolitan Opera House, the 
 Broadway, the Casino, the Criterion, 
 Daly’s, the Knickerbocker, the Empire, 
 the Herald Square, the Garrick, Wal- 
 lacks, the Savoy, .the Victoria, Belasco’s, 
 the New York, the Majestic. New York 
 has about 40 hotels that may be ranked 
 as first-class. The largest and best known 
 is the Waldorf-Astoria. Among the 
 others are the Buckingham, the Hol- 
 land, the Murray Hill, the Manhattan, 
 the Netherland, the Savoy, the Fifth 
 Avenue, the Hoffman, the Imperial. 
 
NEW ZEALAND 
 
 NIBELUNGENLIED 
 
 The most luxurious restaurants in the 
 city are Delmonico’s and Sherry’s. 
 In summer there is a great exodus to 
 ■watering-places ahd other adjacent 
 pleasure resorts. 
 
 New York is primarily a commercial 
 city and a center of distribution of 
 domestic and foreign products, but it 
 is also the center of a vast manufactur- 
 ing interest. The industries, however, 
 are more of a varied character than in- 
 dividually important, the chief being 
 connected with clothing, meat-packing, 
 printing and publishing, brewing, etc. 
 Immense numbers of immigrants from 
 Europe arrive here. The water supply 
 is furnished from Croton Lake, an arti- 
 ficial reservoir supplied by Croton river, 
 from which the water is conveyed by an 
 aqueduct of stone masonry of a capacity 
 of 115,000,000 gallons per day a distance 
 of 40 miles to New York. 
 
 By the act of 1897, under which 
 Greater New York was constituted, the 
 whole city is under a mayor, elected for 
 four years, who appoints heads of de- 
 partments; a president of the council, 
 elected for four years also, who acts as 
 deputy-mayor; and a council and board 
 of aldermen. Each of the five constit- 
 uent boroughs (Manhattan, Bronx, 
 Queens, Brooklyn, Richmond) has its 
 o-nm president and borough board. 
 
 The first regular line of packet ships 
 to Liverpool was started in 1817. The 
 opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 gave 
 a great stimulus to internal commerce. 
 Since that date the progress of New 
 York has been wonderful. Pop. in 1830, 
 202,589; in 1850, 515,547; in 1870, 
 
 942,292; in 1880, 1,206,600; in 1890, 
 1,513,501; in 1900, 3,437,202, and in 
 1909 over 4,400,000. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND, a group of islands 
 belonging to Great Britain in the South 
 Pacific Ocean. Pop. 818,973. 
 
 With mineral wealth New Zealand is 
 liberally supplied. Coal is obtained in 
 many parts, and copper has been worked 
 on a small scale. Gold is worked both in 
 North and South Island. It wa^ first 
 practically discovered in 1861, and is 
 obtained in two forms, namely, as veins 
 in quartz reefs, and as alluvial gold. 
 Extending through 12° of latitude, and 
 having a greatly diversified surface. 
 New Zealand has necessarily a very 
 varied though a remarkably healthy 
 climate. In temperature it resembles 
 France and North Italy, but the humid- 
 ity is considerably greater. 
 
 The original natives of New Zealand, 
 called Maoris, a people of Polynesian 
 origin, are supposed to have emigrated 
 from the Navigators’ or the Sandwich 
 Islands some centuries ago. Split up into 
 numerous petty tribes, and wasting each 
 other by internecine feuds, their num- 
 bers have been so reduced that they do 
 not now much exceed 40,000. Stock- 
 rearing and agriculture are the most 
 important industries, though mining 
 is also an important occupation. There 
 are about 20,000,000 sheep and the 
 most important export is wool, frozen 
 meat being the next largest export. 
 Gold is another valuable export. New 
 Zealand was first discovered oy Tasman 
 in 1642, but little was known of it till 
 the visits of Cook in 1769 and 1774. 
 The first permanent settlement was 
 
 made by missionaries in 1815, but no 
 regular authority was established by 
 the British government till 1833, when 
 a resident was appointed, with limited 
 powers, and subordinate to the govern- 
 ment of New South Wales. In 1840 New 
 Zealand was erected into a colony; in 
 1841 'it was formally separated from 
 New South Wales and placed under its 
 own independent governor; and in 1852 
 it received a constitution and responsi- 
 ble government. In 1873 the Public 
 Works Policy was inaugurated, and 
 large loans were raised for immigration, 
 harbors, railways, roads, etc. In 1876 
 the provinces were abolished; the colony 
 was divided into 63 counties, and all 
 government centralized at Wellington. 
 
 NEY (na), Michel, Duke of Elchin gen. 
 Prince of the Moskwa, marshal and peer 
 of France, was born in 1769 at Sarre- 
 Louis, in the department of the Moselle 
 He entered the military service in 1788 
 as a private hussar, and rose by degrees 
 to the rank of captain in 1794, adjutant- 
 general in 1796, general of division in 
 1798, and as such he distinguished him- 
 self in the Rhine campaign. Appointed 
 marshal of the empire by Napoleon in 
 1805, he achieved victory over the 
 Austrians at Elchingen, and took part 
 in the battle of Jena. During the Rus- 
 sian campaign he commanded the third 
 division at the battle of the Moskwa, 
 and conducted the rear-guard in the 
 disastrous retreat. In the campaign of 
 1813 his skill and courage decided the 
 victory of Liitzen, and assisted at 
 Bautzen and Dresden. When Napoleon 
 abdicated and the Bourbon dynasty 
 was established Ney took the oath of 
 allegiance to the king and received a 
 command; but when the emperor landed 
 from Elba his old general joined him at 
 Lyons and opened the way to Paris. 
 In the campaign which followed it was 
 Ney who led the attack on the British 
 center at Waterloo, and after five horses 
 had been killed under him he only re- 
 tired from the field at nightfall. When 
 the allies entered Paris he escaped in 
 disguise to the provinces, but was 
 finally arrested, brought back to Paris, 
 tried for treason, and found guilty. 
 The sentence was executed 7th De- 
 cember, 1815. 
 
 NGANHWUY (ngan-hwl'), province of 
 China, bounded by the provinces of 
 Kiangsu, Honan, Hupeh, Kiangsi, and 
 Chekiang. Pop. 20,596,988. Capital 
 Ngan-king-foo, on the left bank of the 
 Yang-tse-kiang; pop. 40,000. 
 
 NIAG'ARA, a river of North America, 
 separating Ontario from the state of 
 New York, and”conveying the waters of 
 Lake Erie into Lake Ontario. It is 33^ 
 miles long, and varies in breadth from 
 1 to 4 miles, being about the former 
 where it issues from Lake Erie, near 
 the city of Buffalo. It is occasionally 
 interspersed with low wooded islands, 
 the largest of which. Grand Island, has 
 an area of 17,000 acres. The total de- 
 scent in the river’s course between the 
 two lakes is 331 feet. About 15 miles 
 from Lake Erie a sudden narrowing and 
 descent in the channel causes what are 
 called the Rapids, below which the river, 
 here divided by Goat Island, is precipi- 
 tated over the celebrated Falls. The 
 rush of the river is such that the water 
 
 is shot a clear 40 yards from the cliff, 
 leaving a narrow pathway for a short 
 distance below for the adventurous. 
 The cataract on the south side of the 
 island, called the American Fall, is 162 
 feet high, width 1125 feet; that on the 
 Canadian side, called the Great or 
 Horse-shoe Fall, is 149 feet high, width 
 2100 feet. Below the falls the river 
 rushes with great velocity down the 
 sloping bottom of a narrow chasm for 
 a distance of 7 miles. About 3 miles 
 below the falls a sudden turn in the 
 channel causes the water to whirl in a 
 
 Niagara Falls, from the U. S. side. 
 
 vast circular basin before renewing its «» 
 journey. Logs and other floating A 
 material sometimes continue whirling ft 
 here for many days. About one-eighth W- 
 of a mile below the falls a suspension 
 bridge 1190 feet long and 190 feet above ,£;■ 
 the water crosses the river, and another ^ 
 245 feet above the water has been con-' ® 
 structed for railway and ordinary pas- » 
 senger traffic about 2 miles below the « 
 falls An international reservation of S 
 the land round the falls, to be pre-.i>' 
 served in a state of nature, was effected fi 
 in 1885 
 
 NIAGARA FALLS, a city in Niagara .jg 
 CO., N. Y" , 22 miles north by west of 9 
 Buffalo; on the Niagara river, and on 
 the Erie, the Michigan Central, the-l^*' 
 Lehigh Valley, the New Y^ork Central 
 and Hudson River, the West Shore, - 
 the Grank Trunk, and the Wabash rail- 
 roads. The New Y^ork State Reserva- 
 tion here, which includes Prospect park, 
 is 107 acres in extent; and there are • 
 three notable bridges connecting with 
 Canada, one cantilever and two steel 
 arch bridges. It is developing into an ■ 
 important manufacturing center, its 
 growth being due to the utilization of 
 the extraordinary power of the Niagara 
 river, and falls. Pop. 22,173 
 
 NIAS, an island in the Malay Archi- ' i 
 pelago, lying west of Sumatra; length 
 about 70, breadth about 20 miles. Rice, 
 sugar, and pepper are grown exten- ■ 
 sively. It belongs to the Dutch. Pop. 
 100,000. 
 
 NIBELUNGENLIED (ne'be-lung-en- 
 let; “Lay of the Nibelungen’’), German 
 epic written in the Middle High German 
 dialect, and dating from about the 12th 
 century. It is divided into thirty-nine 
 sections, contains some 6000 lines, and 
 is constructed in four-lined rhymed 
 
NICARAGUA 
 
 NICKEL 
 
 Stanzas. The tale, briefly told, is this: 
 Kriemhild lives with her brother Gun- 
 ther, king of Burgundy, at Worms. 
 To his court comes Siegfried, son of 
 Siegemund, king of the Netherlands. 
 This Siegfried is possessed of the Nibe- 
 lungen gold hoard, a magic sword, a 
 cloak of darkness, besides great strength 
 and courage. Thus equipped he comes 
 to the court and wins the love of Kriem- 
 hild. In gratitude for his success Sieg- 
 fried undertakes' to assist Gunther, the 
 brother of his bride, in his efforts to win 
 the hand of Brunhild, an Icelandic 
 princess. Together they sail for the far 
 north, and there Gunther succeeds, with 
 the help of Siegfried’s cloak of darkness, 
 in winning the three test games of skill 
 which the lady played with him. Still 
 on the bridal night the princess mocked 
 at Gunther her husband, wrestled with 
 him, bound him, and hung him up 
 scornfully against the wall . But the next 
 night Gunther, with the invisible help 
 of his fr-iend Siegfried, overcomes the 
 bride, and the latter carries away her 
 girdle and ring. Siegfried and his wife 
 Kriemhild next appear on a visit to the 
 Burgundian court at Worms, where 
 Gunther the king now resides with his 
 wife Brunhild. While there the two 
 ladies quarrel, and in her rage Kriemhild 
 taunts Brunhild with having had deal- 
 ings with her husband Siegfried, and in 
 proof thereof she produces the ring and 
 girdle which he took from her chamber 
 on'the bridal night. Brunhild bitterly 
 resents this calumny and meditates 
 vengeance. This she accomplishes by 
 the hand of Hagen, one of her husband’s 
 warriors, who slays Siegfried in his 
 sleep. With rage and grief in her heart 
 the widowed Kriemhild broods over the 
 possibility of revenge. Thirteen years 
 pass and then Kriemhild marries Etzel, 
 king of the Huns. Again thirteen years 
 pass, and then at her instigation Etzel 
 invites Gunther and Hagen with 10,000 
 warriors to visit the capital of the Huns. 
 This they accept, and while they are 
 seated at a great feast the Burgundians 
 are all massacred by the Huns, with the 
 exception of Gunther and Hagen. These 
 two are delivered up to Kriemhild, who 
 completes her vengeance by slaying 
 them both, while she in her turn is killed 
 by a Hunnish warrior who is enraged at 
 her cruelty. This epic has been pro- 
 duced in modern German by Simrock, 
 Bartsch, and Gerlach, and translated 
 into English by Birch and Lettsom, 
 while a resume will be found in one of 
 Carlyle’s miscellanies. 
 
 NICARAG'UA, a republic of Central 
 America, extending from the Pacific 
 Ocean to the Caribbean Sea, and having 
 on the north and northeast the state of 
 Honduras, and on the south Costa 
 Rica; area, about 49,500 sq. miles. 
 Veins of silver, copper, and gold occur. 
 The climate is on the whole healthy, 
 the interior and mountainous parts 
 being more dry and cool than on the 
 coasts. The vegetable productions in- 
 clude indigo, sugar, coffee, cacao, cotton, 
 corn, rice, etc. Fruits of various kinds 
 are plentiful. One of the principal 
 sources of wealth consists in cattle, of 
 which there are great numbers, the high 
 plains affording excellent pasturage. 
 The capital is Managua. In 1821 
 
 Nicaragua joined Gautemala, Costa 
 Rica, Honduras, and San Salvador in 
 revolting against Spain, and after a 
 sanguinary civil war it achieved in- 
 dependence. It has been the scene of 
 various revolutions and counter-revolu- 
 tions. The republic is governed by a 
 president elected every four years, a 
 senate and a house of representatives 
 elected by universal suffrage. The prin- 
 cipal exports are caoutchouc, coffee, 
 hides, dye-wood, and indigo. Corinto 
 on the Pacific and San Juan del Norte or 
 Greytown on the Caribbean Sea are the 
 
 chief ports. The population, which con- 
 sists in great part of Indians and half 
 castes, is estimated at 480,000. 
 
 NICARAGUA, Lake of, an extensive 
 sheet of water in Central America, in the 
 state of same name, 90 miles long north- 
 west to southeast; greatest breadth, 40 
 miles; mean, 30 miles; 110 feet above 
 the Pacific from which it is separated by 
 a strip of land 12 miles wide. 
 
 NICARAGUA CANAL, a canal that is 
 to be constructed for the purpose of 
 providing a waterway for ships across 
 Central America from the Pacific to the 
 Atlantic, passing through Nicaragua, 
 and utilizing Lake Nicaragua and the 
 San Juan river. A beginning has re- 
 cently been made, and the total length 
 of the route will be 170 miles from Grey- 
 town on the Caribbean sea to Brito on 
 the Pacific. Of this 64^ miles will con- 
 sist of free navigation in the San Juan 
 river, and 56J of free navigation in Lake 
 Nicaragua, total 121 miles. There will 
 be 16 miles of excavation on the east 
 side, llj miles on the west, with J mile 
 for six locks, making a total excavation 
 of 28 miles. In basins now existing or to 
 be constructed by means of dams and 
 embankments there will be navigation 
 for 21 miles. Besides the six locks on the 
 west side there will be three on the east. 
 The work is now at a stand-still, and 
 how it will be completed remains to be 
 seen. 
 
 NICE (nes), a city and seaport of 
 France, on the Mediterranean, capital 
 of the department of Alpes Maritimes. 
 The exports consist principally of oil, 
 wine, and silk, with essences, perfumes, 
 etc. Nice belonged to Italy previous 
 to 1860. Pop. 125,099. 
 
 NICE, Councils of, ecclesiastical coun- 
 cils held at Nice or Nicsea, in Asia Minor 
 in 325 and 787. The object of the first 
 Council of Nice, which was convened by 
 Constantine, was to settle the contro- 
 versies which had arisen in regard to the 
 doctrine of the Trinity. The session 
 lasted about two months. A creed was 
 
 adopted by the council in its later form 
 known as the Nicene Creed (which see). 
 The council of 787 was summoned by 
 the Empress Irene, with the concurrence 
 of the pope, and it decreed that images 
 were to be used as aids to devotion. 
 
 NICENE CREED, a summary of Chris- 
 tian faith adopted by the Council of 
 Nice against Arianism A.n. 325, altered 
 and confirmed by the Council of Con- 
 stantinople, A.D. 381. Its characteristics 
 are the insertion of the term “of one 
 substance with the Father,’’ directed 
 against the Arian heresy; the insertion 
 
 of the words “and the Son;’’ and the 
 omission of the clause “He descended 
 into Hell.’’ It is recited both in the 
 Roman Catholic and in the Angelican 
 Church liturgies. 
 
 NICHOLAS I. (Nikolai Pavlovich), 
 Emperor of Russia, third son of the 
 Emperor Paul I., was born 1796, died 
 1855. He ascended the throne in 1825. 
 He made war with Persia in 1827-28; 
 joined in the Treaty of London, which 
 secured the independence of Greece; 
 and made one of the allied powers who 
 destroyed the Turkish fleet at Navarino 
 in 1827. This affair led to war between 
 Russia and Turkey, in which the latter 
 was defeated, paid indemnity, and 
 signed the treaty of peace at Adrianople 
 in 1829. He suppressed the Polish in- 
 surrection which broke out in the fol- 
 lowing year with relentless severity. 
 In 1848 Nicholas assisted Austria with 
 an army corps in putting down the 
 rising in Hungary. Early in 1852 began 
 the Russian effort to take over the holy 
 places and assume the protectorate of 
 the Christians in Palestine. This led 
 to the Crimean war, before the close of 
 which Nicholas died from lung disease. 
 
 NICKEL, a metal of a white color, of 
 great hardness, very difficult to be puri- 
 fied, always magnetic, and when per- 
 fectly pure malleable and ductile. It 
 unites in alloys with gold, copper, tin, 
 and arsenic, which metals, it renders 
 brittle. With silver and iron its alloys 
 are ductile. Nickel is chiefly found in 
 the United States, New Caledonia, and 
 Germany; nickel is extracted from sev- 
 eral pyrites, compounds of nickel, cobalt, 
 antimony, arsenic, sulphur, or iron. The 
 salts of nickel are mostly of a grass-green 
 color, and the ammoniacal solution of 
 its oxide is deep blue. Nickel mixed 
 with brass in varying proportions is now 
 well known and largely used as German 
 silver or nickel silver. Another impor- 
 tant use of the metal is for coating 
 articles by the electro-plate process. See 
 Nickel-plating. 
 
NICKEL-PLATING 
 
 NIHILISTS 
 
 NICKEL-PLATING is the process by 
 which a coating of nickel is placed upon 
 another metal, and the essentials of the 
 process, as in electro-plating, are a 
 proper solution of the metal and an 
 electric battery. 
 
 NICOT (ne-ko), Jean, born 1530, died 
 1600; was French ambassador at the 
 court of Portugal, where he was pre- 
 sented with some seeds of the tobacco 
 plant, which he introduced into France 
 about 1560. The botanical terra for 
 tobacco (Nicotiana) is derived from his 
 name. 
 
 NIC'OTINE, a volatile alkaloid, base 
 obtained from tobacco. It forms a 
 colorless, clear, oily liquid, which has 
 a strong odor of tobacco. It is highly 
 poisonous, and combines with acids, 
 forming acrid and pungent salts. 
 
 NICTITATING MEMBRANE, or 
 “THIRD EYELID,” a thin membrane 
 by which the process of winking is per- 
 formed in certain animals, and which 
 covers and protects the eyes from dust 
 or from too much light. It is chiefly 
 found in birds and fishes, and is repre- 
 sented in a rudimentary condition in 
 man, and higher mammals generally, 
 by the “semi-lunar folds,” situated at 
 the inner or nasal angle of the eye. 
 
 NIEBELUNGENLIED. See Nibelun- 
 genlied. 
 
 NIEL (ni-el), Adolphe, French mar- 
 shal, born 1802, died 1869. He took 
 part in the expedition against Con- 
 stantine in Algeria; assisted as head of 
 the staff of engineers at the siege of 
 Rome in 1849 during the revolutionary 
 movement under Garibaldi ; commanded 
 the engineers and planned the opera- 
 tions against Sebastopol in 1854-55; 
 distinguished himself in the Italian 
 campaign of 1859, and was thereafter 
 made a marshal of France by Napoleon 
 
 lilEVR^ (nyavr), a department of 
 Central France, bounded by Yonne, 
 Cher, Allier, Saone-et-Loire, and Cote- 
 d’Or;area, 2631 sq. miles. Pop. 347,645. 
 
 NIGER, the name of a great river of 
 Western Africa, which rises north of 
 Sierra Leone and Liberia, flows north 
 and northeast, afterward turns south- 
 east and south until, by various chan- 
 nels, it enters the Gulf of Guinea, its 
 total length being about 2600 miles. 
 
 NIGHT-BLINDNESS, a defect of 
 vision in which the eyes can see only in 
 daylight and not by artificial light. 
 
 NIGHT-HAWK, a species of goat- 
 sucker, a bird universally known in the 
 
 Common nigUt-liawk. 
 
 United States, 9J inches in length and 
 23 in extent of wing. It is a bird of 
 strong and vigorous flight, and its prey 
 consists of beetles and other large in- 
 
 sects. The other American species are 
 the “chuck-will’s widow” and the 
 “whip-poor-will,” both of which, like 
 the night-hawk, arrive in May, and leave 
 in September. 
 
 NIGHT-HERON, a wading bird of 
 several species belonging to the family 
 Ardeidae. The species occur in Europe, 
 Asia, Africa, and America. It is about 
 
 20 inches in length, and has three long 
 narrow feathers proceeding from the 
 nape of the neck, and hanging backward. 
 
 NIGHTINGALE, a well-toown pas- 
 serine bird of the thrush family. The 
 nightingale sings at night, and its famed 
 chant is the love-song of the male, which 
 ceases when the female has hatched her 
 brood. It is a native of many parts of 
 Europe and Asia, and of the north of 
 Africa. It is migratory, extending its 
 summer migrations as far north as the 
 
 Nightingale. 
 
 south of Sweden. It feeds on caterpil- 
 lars and other larvte, frequents hedges 
 and thickets, and builds its nest on the 
 ground or near it, laying four or five 
 eggs of a blue color. The young are 
 hatched in June, and are prepared to 
 accompany their parents in their south- 
 ward migration in August. It is solitary 
 in its habits, and its coloring is very 
 inconspicuous. 
 
 NIGHTINGALE, Florence, was born 
 at Florence 1823. During the Crimean 
 war (1854) the hospital accommodation 
 was found to be very defective, and 
 Miss Nightingale promptly volunteered 
 to organize a select band of nurses at 
 Scutari. The offer was accepted by the 
 war office, and within a week Miss 
 Nightingale was on her way to the east, 
 where she rendered invaluable service 
 to the sick and wounded by her in- 
 cessant labors in nursing and hospital 
 reform. The strain, both mental and 
 physical, which this work demanded 
 permanently injured her health to a 
 serious extent. A sum of $250,000 was 
 
 raised by public subscription in recog- 
 nition of her services, and this she de- 
 voted to the founding of an institution 
 for training nurses, attached to St. 
 Thomas’s Hospital, London. 
 
 NIGHTMARE, a state of oppression 
 or feeling of suffocation which some- 
 times comes on during sleep, and is ac- 
 companied by a feeling of intense 
 anxiety, fear, or horror, the sufferer 
 feeling an enormous weight on his breast 
 and imagining that he is pursued by a 
 phantom, monster, or wild beast, or 
 threatened by some other danger from 
 which he can make no exertion to es- 
 cape. The sufferer wakens after a short 
 time in a state of great terror, the body 
 often covered with sweat. The proxi- 
 mate cause of nightmare is said to be 
 irregularity of the circulation in the 
 chest or brain, and the disorder is 
 generally due to repletion and indiges- 
 tion, but sometimes to the fact of the 
 sufferer lying in an awkward position 
 in bed. 
 
 NIGHTSHADE, the name of various 
 species of plants, chiefly of the genus 
 to which the potato belongs. The root 
 and leaves of woody nightshade are 
 narcotic, and have been applied to 
 various medicinal uses. The berries, if 
 not absolutely poisonous, are suspicious. 
 The common nightshade is fetid and 
 narcotic, and has also been employed 
 medicinally. Deadly nightshade is 
 Atrbpa Belladonna. (See Belladonna.) 
 
 NIGRITIA. See Soudan. 
 
 NI'HILISTS, the name at first applied 
 specifically to the revolutionary party 
 in Russia who accepted the destruc- 
 tively negative philosophy of Bakunin 
 and Herzen, but now applied indis- 
 criminately to Russian revolutionists. 
 This name was given to the party by 
 Tourgenieff in his stories of Russian 
 society, and accepted by them as de- 
 scriptive of their character. Their ob- 
 ject was to destroy all forms of govern- 
 ment, overturn all institutions, anni- 
 hilate all class distinctions, sweep away 
 all traditions. They left to future gen- 
 erations the task of constructing society 
 out of the ruins left by their relentless 
 destructive policy. For some years this 
 propaganda was spread in printed and 
 oral forms among the newly enfran- 
 chised serfs by thousands of young 
 people of both sexes. About 1874, how- 
 ever, the Russian government began to 
 interfere, the newspapers which advo- 
 cated the Nihilist doctrine were sup- 
 pressed, foreign pamphlets seized, and 
 large groups of the revolutionists sum- 
 marily tried and condemned to death 
 and exile. Hitherto the Nihilists had 
 spread their principles by peaceful 
 means, but after the trial in 1877, in 
 which 99 persons were sent to Siberia, 
 a secret and sanguinary struggle between 
 armed assassins and the government 
 began. The first startling indication of 
 the new departure was the murder of 
 General Trepoff by a young woman 
 named Vera Sassulitch, and this was 
 followed by the assassination of Gen- 
 erals Mezentzoff and Drenteln, Prince 
 Krapotkin, and Commander Heyking. 
 The incendiary followed the assassin. 
 In June, 1879, no fewer than 3500 fires 
 broke out in St. Petersburg and other 
 large towns, most of which were attri- 
 
NIIGATA 
 
 NINGPO 
 
 buted to the Nihilists. Various attempts 
 were made to assassinate the emperor. 
 Four shots were fired at him bySolovieff, 
 a train in which he was supposed to 
 travel was wrecked by Hartmann, an 
 apartment in the Winter Palace at St. 
 Petersburg was blown up, and at last, 
 in March, 1881, Alexander II. was mur- 
 dered by a bomb thrown beneath his 
 carriage in the street near the palace. 
 Several other murders followed, and 
 also attempts on the life of Alexander 
 III. Latterly, however, their activity 
 has chiefly found expression in spread- 
 ing socialism among the workmen of the 
 towns, and is not strictly Nihilistic. 
 
 NIIGATA (ne-i-ga't&), the chief town 
 of the province of Echigo, Japan, situ- 
 ated on the west coast of the island of 
 Hondo and on the left bank of the 
 Shinano. This port was opened to 
 foreign trade by the treaty of 1860. 
 The town is well built, the streets are 
 traversed by canals, there is an hospital 
 and a college, and a considerable coast- 
 ing trade. Pop. 53,366. 
 
 NIJNI-NOV'GOROD (nizh'ne), a town 
 in Russia, capital of the government of 
 same name, at the confluence of the 
 Oka and Volga, 255 miles east of Moscow. 
 Pop. 95,124. — The province has an area 
 of 19,704 sq. miles. Pop. 1.482,471. 
 
 NILE, a great historic river in Africa, 
 the main stream of which, known as the 
 Bahr-el-Abiad, or White Nile, has its 
 chief source in the equatorial lake 
 Victoria Nyanza. What is known as the 
 Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue Nile, a much 
 smaller stream, joins the White Nile at 
 Khartoom, lat. 15' 40° n. The source of 
 the Blue Nile was discovered in the 
 Abyssinian Highlands by Bruce in 1770, 
 while the source of the other, or true 
 Nile, was for long the subject of specu- 
 lation and exploration. The discoveries, 
 however, of Speke and Grant in 1861-62, 
 and of Sir Samuel Baker in 1863-64, 
 and subsequent explorers, have estab- 
 lished the fact that the headwaters of 
 the Nile are collected by a great lake 
 situated on the equator, called Uker- 
 ewe or Victoria Nyanza. The Nile, near 
 where it flows out of Lake Victoria, 
 forms the unimportant Ripon Falls, 
 then flows generally northwest; about 
 lat. 1° 40' n. it expands into Lake 
 Ibrahim Pasha, afterward forms the 
 Falls of Karuma and the Murchison 
 Falls, and then enters another lake, the 
 Albert Nyanza, at an elevation of about 
 2550 feet. This lake, as was first defi- 
 nitely ascertained by Stanley, receives 
 the waters of another lake further to the 
 southwest. Lake Muta Nzige or Albert 
 Edward, the channel of communication 
 being the river Semliki. From the Albert 
 Nyanza to the Mediterranean the gen- 
 eral course of the Nile is in a northerly 
 direction, with numerous windings. 
 Above Gondokoro, about lat. 5° n., 
 the river forms a series of cataracts; 
 but between these falls and the Albert 
 Nyanza, a distance of 164 miles, the 
 river is broad, deep, and navigable. 
 Not far below Gondokoro the Nile be- 
 gins to flow more to the west till it 
 reaches lat. 9° n., where it receives the 
 Bahr-el-Ghazal, one of its chief tribu- 
 taries. On receiving this affluent it turns 
 due east for about 100 miles, and then 
 after receiving the Sobat from the south- 
 
 east flows almost due north to Khar- 
 toom. It receives its last tributary, the 
 Atbara, from the Abyssinian frontier, 
 for the rest of its course (some 1500 
 miles) being fed by no contributory 
 stream. Between this point and the 
 frontiers of Egypt occur several rapids 
 or cataracts presenting greater or less 
 obstacles to navigation, there being 
 also another cataract some distance 
 below Khartoom. In Egypt, at the head 
 of the Delta near Cairo, it divides into 
 two main branches, leading down re- 
 spectively to Rosetta and Damietta, 
 where they enter the Mediterranean. As 
 rain scarcely ever falls in the greater 
 part of the valley of the Nile the river 
 owes its supplies to the copious rains 
 and the vast lake areas of the tropical 
 regions in which it takes its rise, and its 
 volume thus depends upon the season. 
 It begins to increase in June, attains its 
 greatest height about September, and 
 then subsides. The ordinary rise at 
 Cairo is about 25 feet. During the flood 
 a great portion of the Delta, and of the 
 valley higher up, is inundated. This 
 annual inundation, now controlled by 
 the great Assouan dam and other works, 
 with all the bounty which it brings, is 
 watched and waited eagerly, and in 
 ancient times caused the Nile to be wor- 
 shipped as a god alike by Egyptians, 
 Greeks, and Romans. Its length is 
 nearly 4200 miles, or rather less than 
 that of the Mississippi-Missouri. 
 
 NILE, Battle of the. See Aboukir. 
 
 NILSSON, Christine, born at Hassaby, 
 near Wexio, in Sweden, 1843. In 1857 
 her talent attracted the attention of a 
 wealthy gentleman, who had her educa- 
 cated as a singer at Stockholm, and 
 afterward at Paris. In 1864 she made 
 her first appearance as Violetta in La 
 Traviata at the Th4S.tre Lyrique, Paris, 
 and she appeared in 1867 for the first 
 time at Her Majesty’s Theater, Lon- 
 don. On several occasions she has visited 
 America with the utmost success. 
 Among her most famous impersona- 
 tions are Ophelia in Thomas’s Hamlet, 
 and Margaret in Gounod’s Faust. In 
 1872 she married M. Auguste Rouzaud, 
 who died in 1882; in 1886 she married 
 Count A. de Miranda. 
 
 NIMBUS, a term applied in art, espe- 
 cially in sacred art, to a kind of halo or 
 disc surrounding the head in representa- 
 tions of divine or sacred personages; 
 as also to a disc or circle sometimes 
 depicted round the heads of emperors 
 and other great men. The nimbus in 
 representations of God the Father is of 
 a triangular form, with rays diverging 
 from it all round, or in the form shown 
 in the cut ; the nimbus in representations 
 of Christ contains a cross more or less 
 enriched, that of the Virgin Mary con- 
 sists of a circlet of small stars, and that 
 of angels and saints is a circle of small 
 rays. When the nimbus is depicted of a 
 square form it indicates that the person 
 was alive at the time of delineation. 
 Nimbus is frequently confounded with 
 aureola and glory. 
 
 NIMES, or NISMES (nem), a city of 
 Southern France, capital of the depart- 
 ment of Gard, 62 miles northwest of 
 Marseilles. Nimes is chiefly remarkable 
 for its Roman remains, including an 
 ancient temple, with thirty beautiful 
 
 Corinthian columns, now serving as a 
 museum and known as the Maison 
 Carree ; the ampitheater, a circus capable 
 of seating 20,000 persons; the temple 
 of Diana; the ancient Tour Magne, on a 
 hill outside of the city, supposed to have 
 been a mausoleum; and a Roman gate- 
 way. In the 16th century it became a 
 stronghold of Calvinism, and suffered 
 much during the civil wars, as also by 
 the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 
 
 The nimbus as variously represented in 
 sacred and legendary art.— 1, God the Father. 
 2 and 3, Christ. 4, Charlemagne. 5, Emperor 
 Henry II. 
 
 and during the revolution; but latterly 
 it has become a busy manufacturing 
 center. Pop. 80,355. 
 
 NIMROD, described in Gen. x. 8 to 12 
 as a descendant of Ham, a son of Cush, 
 a mighty hunter before the Lord, and 
 the b^eginning of whose kingdom was 
 Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh in the 
 land of Shinar. 
 
 NIN'EVEH, an ancient ruined city, 
 formerly capital of the Assyrian Empire, 
 in Asiatic Turkey. The first recorded 
 notice of Nineveh is in Genesis x. Again 
 it is spoken of in the book of Jonah as a 
 “great city.” It remained the capital 
 of Assyria till about 606 b.c., when it 
 was taken and burned by the Babylo- 
 nian Nabopolassar and the Median 
 Cyaxares. It was maintained as a local 
 tradition that this ancient capital of 
 Assyria lay buried on the left bank of 
 the Tigris opposite Mosul; but the fact 
 was not definitely settled until in 1841 
 M. Botta began excavations in the vast 
 mounds which there existed. He was 
 followed in this by Mr (afterward Sir 
 Henry) Layard, who explored a great 
 portion of the large angle formed by the 
 Tigris and the Zab. In the mounds of 
 Koyuiijik opposite Mosul he excavated 
 the palaces of Sennacherib, Assurbani- 
 pal, and Esarhaddon. The walls of the 
 city, which the inscriptions describe as 
 Ninua, stretch along the Tigris for 2J 
 miles, and the elaborate outworks, 
 moats, and defenses can still be traced. 
 The important discoveries made by 
 Layard were continued by Loftus, 
 Hormuzd Rassam, and G. Smith, and 
 the result of their labors deposited in 
 the British Museum. See Assyria. 
 
 NINGPO, a large city of China, in the 
 province of Che-kiang, one of the porta 
 open to foreign commerce. The prin- 
 cipal exports are tea, silk, and raw 
 
NIOBE 
 
 NITBO-GLYCERINE 
 
 cotton; and the principal imports, sugar 
 and opium. Pop. 240,000. 
 
 NPOBE, in Greek mythology, the 
 daughter of Tantalus, married to Am- 
 phion, king of Thebes. Proud of her 
 numerous progeny, ■ she provoked the 
 anger of Apollo and Artemis (Diana), 
 by boasting over their mother Leto 
 (Latona), who had no other children but 
 those two. She was punished by having 
 all her children put to death by those 
 two deities. She herself was metamor- 
 phosed by Zeus (Jupiter) into a stone 
 which shed tears during the summer. 
 This fable has afforded a subject for art, 
 and has given rise to the beautiful group 
 in the tribune at Florence, known by 
 the name of Niobe and her Children. 
 
 NIO'BIUM, or COLUMBIUM, a rare 
 metal discovered in 1801 in a black 
 mineral called columbite from North 
 America. It forms a black powder in- 
 soluble in nitric acid, but readily soluble 
 in a mixture of nitric and hydrofluoric 
 
 NIPTGON, or NEPTGON a lake of 
 Canada, in Ontario, about 30 miles 
 northwest of Lake Superior. It is about 
 70 miles long and 40 miles broad, with 
 rugged headlands, deep bays, and many 
 islands. It is connected with Lake 
 Superior by the Nipigon river. 
 
 NIPIS'SING, Lake, a lake of Canada, 
 in Ontario, n.e. of Lake Huron, irregular 
 in coast-line; breadth, about 30 miles; 
 length, 48 miles. It contains numerous 
 islands, and finds its only outlet by 
 French river into Lake Huron. 
 
 NIPPLE. See Mammary Glands. 
 
 NIRVA'NA. See Buddhism. 
 
 NITRATE, a salt of nitric acid. The 
 nitrates are generally soluble in water, 
 and easily decomposed by heat. De- 
 posits of nitrates are present in small 
 quantities in almost all soils, but enor- 
 mous accumulations exist in Chile and 
 Peru. These latter deposits, which are 
 known as Chile saltpeter, cubic nitre, or 
 nitrate of soda, are found near the coast, 
 and are probably produced from re- 
 mains of marine animals and birds. 
 The great value of this nitrate is in its 
 application to agriculture as a fertilizer 
 on impoverished soil; for it is now well 
 known that crops require large quan- 
 tities of nitrogen to secure their full 
 development. It has been found by 
 experiment, for instance, that with a 
 soil poor in nitrogen the crop of wheat 
 per acre was 2090 lbs., whereas when 
 the same soil was dressed with nitrogen- 
 ous manure, the return was 6982 lbs. 
 So also with potatoes, the poor soil 
 yielded 4452 lbs. as compared with 
 17,192 lbs. when dressed with nitrate. 
 The nitrates, of which nitrate of soda is 
 now considered the best, should not be 
 usea on light porous soils where the rain 
 will sink the manure below the range of 
 the roots. They make an excellent top- 
 dressing in the spring, especially for 
 root-crops. 
 
 NITRATE OF SILVER, a substance 
 obtained by cooling, in the shape of 
 tabular crystals, from the solution pro- 
 duced when Mlver is oxidized and dis- 
 solved by nitric acid diluted with two 
 or three times its weight of water. When 
 fused the nitrate is of a black color, 
 and it may be cast into small sticks in a 
 mould; these sticks form the lunar 
 
 caustic employed by surgeons as a 
 cautery. It is sometimes employed for 
 giving a black color to the hair, and is 
 the basis of the indelible ink for marking 
 linen. Its solution is always kept in the 
 laboratory as a test for chlorine and 
 hydrochloric acid. 
 
 NITRATE OF SODA, a salt analogous 
 in its chemical properties to nitrate of 
 potash or nitre. It is largely used as a 
 manure, and as a source of nitric acid 
 and nitre. See Nitrate. 
 
 NITRE, a salt, called also saltpetre, 
 and in the nomenclature of chemistry 
 nitrate of potassium or potassic nitrate. 
 It is produced by the action of microbes 
 in soils containing potash and nitrogen- 
 ous organic matters, and forms an 
 efflorescence upon the surface in several 
 parts of the world, and especially in the 
 East Indies, whence much nitre is de- 
 rived. In some parts of Europe it is pre- 
 pared artificially from a mixture of com- 
 mon mould or porous calcareous earth 
 with animal and vegetable remains 
 containing nitrogen. It is also manufac- 
 tured on a large scale by chrystallization 
 from a hot solution of chloride of potas- 
 sium and nitrate of soda. It is a color- 
 less salt with a saline taste, and crys- 
 tallizes in six-sided prisms. It is em- 
 ployed in chemistry as an oxidizing agent 
 and in the formation of itric acid. Its 
 chief use in the arts is in the making 
 of gun-powder. It also enters into the 
 composition of fluxes, and is extensively 
 employed in metallurgy; it is used in 
 the art of dyeing, and is much employ- 
 ed in the preservation of meat and ani- 
 mal matters in general. In medicine 
 it is prescribed as cooling, febrifuge, and 
 diuretic. Cubic nitre. See Nitrate. 
 
 NITRIC ACID, the most important 
 of the five compounds formed by oxygen 
 with nitrogen. When pure it is a color- 
 less liquid, very strong and disagreeable 
 to the smell, and so acrid that it cannot 
 be safely tasted without being much 
 diluted. It is known in the arts as aqua 
 fortis, and is commonly obtained by'dis- 
 tilling nitre (potassium nitrate) or Chile 
 saltpetre (sodium nitrate) with strong 
 sidphuric acid. Nitric acid contains 
 about 76 per cent of oxygen, a great 
 part of which it readily gives up to other 
 substances, acting thus as a powerful 
 oxidizer. Thus many metals — such as 
 copper, tin, silver, etc. — when brought 
 into contact with this acid are oxidized 
 at the expense of the acid with the pro- 
 duction of lower oxides of nitrogen and 
 an oxygenated metallic salt. Nitric acid, 
 when moderately dilute, acts on organic 
 bodies so as to produce a series of most 
 useful substances, notably acetic, oxalic, 
 and picric acids, isatin or white indigo, 
 etc. Nitric acid is employed in etching 
 on steel or copper; as a solvent of tin to 
 form with that metal a mordant for 
 some of the finest dyes; in metallurgy 
 and assaying; also in medicine, in a 
 diluted state, as a tonic and as a sub- 
 stitute for mercurial preparations in 
 syphilis and affections of the liver; and 
 also in form of vapor to destroy con- 
 tagion. 
 
 NITRO-BENZOL, a liquid prepared 
 by adding benzol drop by drop to fuming 
 nitric acid. It closely resembles oil of 
 bitter almonds in flavor, and is largely 
 employed as a substitute for that oil in 
 
 the manufacture of confectionery and 
 in the preparation of perfumery. It is 
 important as a source of aniline. 
 
 NITROGEN, an important elementary 
 principal, the basis of nitric acid and 
 the principal ingredient of atmospheric 
 air. The name nitrogen was applied 
 to it by Chaptal, because of its entering 
 into the composition of nitre, nitric 
 acid, etc. The atmosphere contains 
 about four-fifths of its volume of nitro- 
 gen, the rest being principally oxygen* 
 nitre contains nearly 13 per cent, and 
 nitric acid about 22 per cent by weight 
 of this substance. Nitrogen is inodorous, 
 tasteless, incumbustible, and a very 
 inert substance in itself, although many 
 of its compounds, such as nitric acid 
 and ammonia, are possessed of great 
 chemical activity. By reason of its 
 inertness and general slowness of chemi- 
 cal action it acts the part of a diluent 
 of oxygen in the atmosphere. Having 
 no marked action of its own on living 
 beings, its admixture with the oxygen 
 of the air serves to moderate the other- 
 wise too violent action of the latter gas. 
 Under certain circumstances nitrogen 
 may be induced to combine with other 
 elements, especially with hydrogen, 
 oxygen, and carbon, with titanium, 
 tantalum, and tungsten. Nitrogen is 
 allied in many of its chemical properties 
 to the other elementary substances — 
 phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and 
 bismuth; and it has the power of com- 
 bining with one, three, or five atoms of 
 a monovalent element or radicle. The 
 oxides of nitrogen are five in number. 
 The first oxide of nitrogen (nitrogen 
 monoxide) contains 28 parts by weight 
 of nitrogen united witn 16 parts by 
 weight of oxygen. The next oxide 
 (dioxide) contains 28 parts by weight of 
 nitrogen united with 32 parts by weight 
 of oxygen. In the third oxide (trioxide) 
 28 parts of nitrogen is united with 48 
 parts of oxygen while the fourth and 
 fifth oxides (tetroxide, pentoxide) con- 
 tain respectively 64 and 80 parts of 
 oxygen, united in each case with 28 of 
 nitrogen. These oxides may be all pro- 
 duced from nitric acid. The trioxide 
 forms a dark-blue liquid, which, when 
 added to water at 0°, combines there- 
 with, forming nitrous acid. This solu- 
 tion acts as a reducing agent, inasmuch 
 as it eliminates gold and mercury as 
 metals from several of their salts; on 
 the other hand, it also exercises an 
 oxidizing action on such salts as ferrous 
 sulphate, potassium, iodide, etc. By 
 replacement of the hydrogen in nitrous 
 acid a series of metallic salts is obtained, 
 called nitrites. Nitrogen monoxide is 
 better known by the name of “laughing- 
 gas,” from the peculiarly exhilarating 
 effect which it produces when breathed 
 along with a little air. If the gas be pure, 
 its inspiration soon brings about total 
 insensibility, which does not continue 
 long, and generally produces no bad 
 effects upon the person who breathes it ; 
 hence it is much used as an anaesthetic 
 in minor surgical operations, such as 
 teeth-drawing, etc. 
 
 NITRO-GLYCERINE, an explosive sub- 
 stance appearing as a colorless or yel- 
 lowish oily liquid, heavier than and in- 
 soluble in water, but dissolved by alcohol, 
 ether, etc. It may be prepared by add- 
 
fjOAH 
 
 NORDICA 
 
 ing to 350 parts by weight of glycerine 
 2800 parts by weight of a cooled mixture 
 of 3 parts of sulphuric acid of 1.845 
 specific gravity and 1 part of fuming 
 nitric acid. The liquid is poured into 
 ten or twenty times its bulk of cold 
 water, when the heavy nitro-glycerine 
 sinks to the bottom. When violently 
 struck nitro-glycerine explodes, being 
 resolved into water, carbonic acid, 
 nitrogen oxides, and nitrogen. The 
 volume of gas produced is about 10,000 
 times the initial volume of the nitro- 
 glycerine. Explosion can also be effected 
 by heating to about 500° F. one portion 
 of a mass, whereby partial decomposi- 
 tion is set agoing which almost im- 
 mediately propagates itself throughout 
 the liquid. The explosive force of nitro- 
 glycerine compared with that of an 
 equal volume of gunpowder is as 13:1. 
 If any traces of acid be allowed to re- 
 main in nitro-glycerine it is liable to 
 undergo spontaneous explosion; hence 
 it is an exceedingly dangerous article to 
 transport or store under such conditions. 
 It is advisable to prepare the substance 
 on the spot where it is to be used, and 
 only in such quantities as may be re- 
 quired for immediate consumption. 
 This method is adopted in many 
 quarries and engineering undertakings, 
 especially in America. Nitro-glycerine 
 has for some time been used in the form 
 of dynamite, to produce which it is 
 mixed with some light absorbent sub- 
 stance. See D 3 mamite. 
 
 NOAH, one of the patriarchs of the 
 Old Testament, son of Lamech, is de- 
 scribed in the book of Genesis as being 
 chosen by God for his piety to be the 
 father of the new race of men which 
 should people the earth after the deluge. 
 Having been warned by God of the 
 coming flood, he built a vessel (the ark) 
 by his direction, and entered it with his 
 family and all kinds of animals. (See 
 Deluge.) After the waters had subsided 
 the ark rested on Mount Ararat, where 
 Noah offered a thank-offering to God, 
 and was assured that the earth should 
 never again be destroyed by a flood, as 
 sign whereof God set the rainbow in the 
 clouds. Noah died at the ago of 950 
 years, 350 years after the flood. While 
 modern accounts place Mount Ararat 
 in Armenia, older traditions locate it in 
 the mountains of the Kurds, east of the 
 Tigris. 
 
 inXON, Lewis, an American naval 
 architect, born in Leesburg, Va., in 
 1861. He was superintending construc- 
 tor of the navy at Cramp’s shipyard 
 and assistant constructor at the Brook- 
 lyn Navy Yard, and in 1890 designed 
 the battleships of the Indiana class. 
 In 1898 he was appointed president of 
 the New York East River Bridge Com- 
 mission. In 1901 he was named head 
 of Tammany Hall, but resigned the post 
 in May of the next year after five months 
 service. He became president of the 
 United States Shipbuilding Company 
 of New York City in 1902. 
 
 NOCTURNE (nok-tern'), in painting, 
 a night-piece; a painting exhibiting 
 some of the characteristic effects of 
 night light. In music, a composition 
 in which the emotions, particularly 
 tho.se of love and tenderness, are de- 
 veloped. Tue nocturne has bocome a 
 
 favorite style of composition with 
 modern pianoforte composers. 
 
 NODE, in astronomy, one of the 
 points in which two great circles of the 
 celestial sphere, such as the ecliptic and 
 equator, the orbits of the planets and 
 the ecliptic, intersect each other; and 
 also one of the points in which the orbit 
 of a satellite intersects the plane of the 
 orbit of its primary. The node at which 
 a heavenly body passes or appears to 
 pass to the north of the plane of the 
 orbit or great circle with which its own 
 orbit or apparent orbit is compared is 
 called the ascending node; that where 
 it descends to the south is called the de- 
 scending node. At the vernal equinox 
 the sun is in its ascending node, at the 
 autumnal equinox in its descending node. 
 The straight line joining the nodes is 
 called the line of the nodes. The lunar 
 nodes are the points at which the orbit 
 of the moon cuts the ecliptic. 
 
 NODE, in physics, a point in a vibrat- 
 ing body, or system of vibrating par- 
 ticles, where there is no movement. 
 When a body is vibrating the vibratory 
 motion is conveyed from one place to 
 another by the action of the molecular 
 forces of the particles on one another. 
 Now when all the forces acting on a 
 certain particle are at any instant in 
 equilibrium, and the particle conse- 
 quently remains at rest, there is said 
 to be a node at the particle. If a plate 
 of glass or metal be held in the hand, 
 and a bow be drawn across the edge, 
 particles of fine sand, previously placed 
 on the plate, will arrange themselves in 
 line, along which it is evident no vibra- 
 tion has taken place. These lines, called 
 nodal lines, generally form geometrical 
 figures. 
 
 NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICER, a 
 
 soldier with the rank intermediate be- 
 tween that of the private and the com- 
 missioned officer. The following classi- 
 fication are the various non-commis- 
 sioned grades of the United States army: 
 (1) Sergeant-major, regimental, and 
 sergeant-major, senior grade, artillery 
 corps; (2) quartermaster-sergeant, regi- 
 mental; (3) commissary-sergeant, regi- 
 mental; (4) ordnance sergeant, post- 
 commissary-sergeant, post-quarter-mas- 
 ter-sergeant, electrician sergeant, hospi- 
 tal steward, first-class sergeant signal 
 corps, chief musician, chief trumpeter, 
 and principal musician; (5) squadron 
 and battalion sergeant-major, and ser- 
 geant-major, junior grade, artillery 
 corps; (6) first sergeant and drum-major; 
 
 (7) sergeant and acting hospital steward ; 
 
 (8) corporal. In each grade, date of 
 appointment determines the order of 
 precedence. 
 
 NOME (n5m), the largest city of 
 Alaska, in the Northern District; sit- 
 uated at the mouth of the Snake river, 
 13 miles west of Cape Nome, on the 
 north shore of Norton Sound, Bering 
 Sea. It is the center of the productive 
 Cape Nome gold-mining district, which 
 extends west along the coast for about 
 20 miles from Cape Nome. Pop. 15,320. 
 
 NOLLE PROSEQUI (npl'le pros'e- 
 kwi), in law, a stoppage of proceedings 
 by a plaintiff, an acknowledgment that 
 he has not cause of action. 
 
 NOMADS, tribes without fixed habi- 
 tations, generally engaged in the tend- 
 
 ing and raising of cattle, and changing 
 their abode as necessity requires or in- 
 clination prompts. North Africa, the 
 interior of North and South America, 
 and the northern and middle parts of 
 Asia, are still inhabited by nomadic 
 tribes, some of whom are little better 
 than bands of robbers. 
 
 NOMINATIVE CASE, in grammar, 
 that form of a noun or pronoun which is 
 used when the noun or pronoun is the 
 subject of a sentence. 
 
 NON COMPOS MENTIS (“not of 
 sound mind”), an expression used of a 
 person who is not of sound understand- 
 ing, and therefore not legally responsible 
 for his acts. 
 
 NONSUIT, a term in law. When a 
 person has commenced an action, and 
 at the trial fails in his evidence to sup- 
 port it, or has brought a wrong action, 
 he is nonsuited. A nonsuited plaintiff 
 may afterward bring another action for 
 the same cause, which he cannot do 
 after a verdict against him. 
 
 NORD, a department in the north- 
 east of France, bordering with Belgium ; 
 area, 2170 sq. miles. The principal 
 minerals are coal and iron, which are 
 extensively wrought; and the occupa- 
 tions connected with or depending on 
 them render this department among the 
 most important in France. The capital 
 is Lille. Pop. 1,670,184. 
 
 NORDENSKIOLD (nor'den-sheuld). 
 Nils Adolf Erik, Baron, a Swedish 
 naturalist and explorer, born at Hel- 
 singsfors Nov. 18, 1832. He devoted 
 himself to science, and was appointed 
 to some important posts, but becoming 
 obnoxious to the Russian authorities he 
 settled in Sweden. Aided by the King 
 
 Baron Nordensklold. 
 
 of Sweden and others, Nordenskiold 
 was enabled, July 1878, to sail in the 
 Vega, which was the first vessel to double 
 the most northern point of the Old 
 World, Cape Tchelyuskin, and after 
 passing through Bering’s Straits, reach- 
 ed Japan Sept. 2, 1879. On his re- 
 turn Nordenskiold was enthusiastically 
 welcomed in Europe, and created a 
 baron by the King of Sweden. He died 
 in 1901. 
 
 NOR'DICA, Lillian, an American 
 soprano, born in 1859 at Farmington, 
 Maine. She accompanied Gilmore’s 
 band to Europe in 1878, and later took 
 up the study of opera with San Giovanni. 
 After touring Germany and Russia, she 
 appeared in 1881 in Paris, where her 
 success was absolute. In 1887 she ap- 
 peared in London, and in 1895 made 
 
NORFOLK 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 her first appearance in opera in her 
 native land, at the Metropolitan Opera 
 House, New York. She achieved her 
 greatest successes in Aida, Les Hugue- 
 nots, and the soprano parts in the 
 Wagnerian operas. 
 
 NORFOLK (nor'fok), a county of 
 England. Area, 1,356,173 acres, of 
 which 1,095,195 acres are arable, mea- 
 dow, and pasture. The county town is 
 Norwich; the chief seaport is Yarmouth. 
 Pop. 460,040. 
 
 NORFOLK, a city and port in the 
 county of the same name, Virginia, on 
 on the river Elizabeth, 32 miles from 
 the ocean. The harbor is safe and com- 
 modious, and a large trade is done in 
 cotton. Norfolk and Portsmouth on the 
 opposite site of the river constitute the 
 largest naval station in the United 
 States. Pop. 50,210. 
 
 NORFOLK-CRAG, in geology, an 
 English tertiary formation belonging 
 to the older Pliocene, resting on the 
 chalk and London-clay. It consists of 
 irregular beds of ferruginous sand-clay, 
 mixed with marine shells and mastodon 
 and elephant remains. 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS, called also 
 Training Colleges, schools in which 
 teachers are instructed in the principles 
 of their profession and trained in the 
 practice of it. The name is derived from 
 the French 6coles normales, established 
 at the close of 18th century. These 
 schools are now numerous in all coun- 
 tries that have a well-organized system 
 of education. They may be either for 
 teachers in elementary schools or for 
 those of the secondary schools, and 
 may be for males or females only or for 
 both combined. 
 
 NORMAN ARCHITECTURE, the 
 
 round-arched style of architecture, a 
 variety of the Romanesque, introduced 
 at the Norman Conquest from France 
 into Britain, where it prevailed till the 
 end of the 12th century. In its earlier 
 stages it is plain and massive with but 
 few mouldings, and those principally 
 confined to small features; as the style 
 advanced greater lightness and enrich- 
 ment were introduced, and some of the 
 later examples are highly enriched. The 
 chevron, billet, nail-head, and lozenge 
 mouldings are distinctively character- 
 istic of this style. The more specific 
 characteristics of churches in this style 
 are ; cruciform plan with apse and apsidal 
 chapels, the tower rising from the in- 
 tersection of nave and transept ; semi- 
 cylindrical vaulting; the doorways, 
 deeply recessed, with highly decorated 
 mouldings; the windows small, round- 
 headed, placed high in the wall, and 
 opening with a wide splay inside; piers 
 massive, generally cylindrical or octago- 
 nal, and sometimes enriched with 
 shafts; capitals cushion-shaped, some- 
 times plain, more frequently enriched; 
 butresses broad, with but small pro- 
 jection ; walls frequently decorated by 
 bands of arcades with single or inter- 
 lacing arches. It course of time the 
 arches began to assume the pointed 
 character; the piers, walls, etc., to be 
 less massive; short pyramidal spires 
 crown the towers; and altogether the 
 style assumes a more delicate and re- 
 fined character, passing gradually into 
 the Early English. Besides ecclesiastical i 
 
 buildings, the Norftians reared many 
 castellated structures, the best remain- 
 ing specimen of which is the Keep of the 
 Tower of London. The Norman archi- 
 tects were not distinguished for science 
 in construction. The walls of their 
 buildings were of great thickness, and 
 the piers supporting their arches were 
 
 Norman architecture.— Abbaye aux Dames, 
 Caen. 
 
 usually of immense girth, yet notwith- 
 standing this massiveness their works 
 frequently gave way. The Abbaye aux 
 Hommes and the Abbaye aux Dames at 
 Caen, Normandy, afford excellent ex- 
 amples of this style; as also parts of the 
 cathedrals of Durham, Peterborough, 
 Norwich, and Canterbury, as well as 
 many smaller churches. 
 
 NORMAN CONQUEST, in English 
 history, the successful attempt made 
 by William of Normandy in 1066 to 
 secure the English crown from his rival 
 Harold, son of Earl Godwin. It was no 
 real conquest of the land and people by 
 an alien race, but rather resembled in 
 its chief characteristics the accession of 
 William of Orange to the throne in 1688. 
 
 NOR'MANDY, an ancient province in 
 the north of France, now divided into 
 the department of Siene-Inf4rieure, 
 Eure, Orne, Calvados, and Manche. 
 On the decline of the Roman Empire it 
 was seized by the Franks, and afterward 
 in the 10th century, wrested from them 
 by the Normans or Northmen, from 
 whom it received its name. (See North 
 men.) Charles the Simple gave his 
 sanction to the conquest made by the 
 Normans, and Rollo, their chief, re- 
 ceived the title of Duke of Normandy. 
 William the Bastard, sixth in succes- 
 sion from Rollo, having become king 
 of England in 1066, Normandy be 
 came annexed thereto. On the death 
 of William it was separated from Eng- 
 land and ruled by his son Robert, and 
 was afterward ruled by the kings of 
 England until Philip Augustus wrested 
 it from John and united it to France in 
 1203. Although several times invaded 
 by the English, it was finally recovered 
 
 by the French in 1450. Normandy is 
 one of the richest and most fertile parts 
 of France. 
 
 NORMANS, the descendants of the 
 Northmen who established themselves 
 in Northern France, hence called Nor- 
 mandy. Besides the important place 
 occupied in history by the Normans in 
 Normandy and England, bands of Nor- 
 mans established themselves in S. 
 Italy and Sicily, and Norman princes 
 ruled there from the middle of the 11th 
 till the end of the 12th century. See 
 Normandy and Northmen. 
 
 NORRISTOWN, a city in Pennsyl- 
 vania, on the Schuylkill, 16 miles n.w. 
 of Philadelphia. It has extensive woolen 
 and cotton factories, rolling-mills, foun- 
 dries, etc. Pop. 26,172. 
 
 NORSE, the language of Scandinavia. 
 Old Norse is represented by the classical 
 Icelandic, and still with wonderful 
 purity by modern Icelandic. The litera- 
 ture includes the early literature of the 
 people of Norway, Sweden, and Iceland. 
 
 NORTE (nor'ta), Rio Grande del, a 
 river of North America, forming for a 
 long distance the boundary between 
 Mexico and the United States, and fall- 
 ing into the Gulf of Mexico. It is shallow 
 and of little use for navigation. Length 
 about 2000 miles. 
 
 NORTH, one of the cardinal points, 
 being that point of the horizon or of the 
 heavens which is exactly in the direction 
 of the North Pole. See Pole. 
 
 NORTH, Christoper. See Wilson, 
 John. 
 
 NORTH, Frederick, Lord, Earl of 
 Guildford, the eldest son of Francis, 
 second earl of Guildford, born in 1732, 
 died 1792. He belongs to English his- 
 tory as chief of the administration dur- 
 ing the American war of Independence. 
 In 1770 he succeeded the Duke of Graf- 
 ton as minister, when his retention of the 
 tea-duty, imposed upon the American 
 colonists, led to the rising in America, 
 and to the declaration of independence, 
 4th July, 1776. Lord North resigned 
 on the 20th of March, 1782. He became 
 Earl of Guildford by the death of his 
 father in 1790. 
 
 NORTH ADAMS, a town in Berkshire 
 CO., Massachusetts, on the Hoosac 
 river, near the west end of the great 
 Hoosac Tunnel; has manufactures of 
 cotton and woolen-goods, boots, shoes, 
 paper, and nitro-glycerine. Pop. 26,710. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA, the northern half 
 of the western continent, or New World. 
 Under America a general description of 
 North America has been given, more 
 especially as compared and contrasted 
 with South America, but some addi- 
 tional information may here be given. 
 
 The mainland of North America, in 
 the widest sense of the name, is united 
 to South America by the Isthmus of 
 Panama, and extends from lat. 7° n. 
 to lat. 72° n. In a narrower sense, and 
 excluding the southern portion often 
 spoken of as Central America, it ex- 
 tends only from lat. 15° n. To it on the 
 north belongs an extensive archipelago 
 of arctic islands, to the northeast of 
 which lies Greenland, the latter gen- 
 erally regarded as belonging to America. 
 The figure of North America is very 
 irregular, and in that respect it resem- 
 bles Europe. On the north is the 
 
NORTH AMERICA 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 great indentation of Hudson Bay, al- 
 most an inland sea, connected with the 
 Atlantic by Hudson Strait. On the east 
 are the Gulf of St. Lawrence, with the 
 island of Newfoundland and the penin- 
 sula of Nova Scotia at its entrance; 
 and the Gulf of Mexico, having on one 
 side of its entrance the peninsula of 
 Florida, on the other that of Yucatan. 
 From the entrance of the gulf stretch 
 eastward Cuba and others of the West 
 India Islands. The chief features of the 
 Pacific coast are the Gulf of California 
 and peninsula of Lower California — 
 further north Vancouver Island and the 
 chain of other islands lining the coast. 
 The continent tenninates in a peninsular 
 extension forming Alaska territory sepa- 
 rated from Asia by Bering’s Sea and 
 Strait, the latter about 50 miles wide. 
 The area of North America (excluding 
 Greenland but including the West 
 Indies) is about 8,150,000 sq. miles, or 
 considerably more than double that of 
 Europe. As regards its surface and 
 physical features generally it presents 
 various points of similarity with Europe 
 — numerous large rivers, elevated moun- 
 tain chains, and large plains suited for 
 the growth of cereals and other crops; 
 but most of its physical peculiarities are 
 on a scale of greater magnitude than 
 those of Europe. Thus its greatest 
 mountain system, that of the Cordilleras 
 (of which the Rocky Moitntains strictly 
 speaking form only a part), extends 
 along the entire western side of the con- 
 tinent for a distance of at least 5000 
 miles, and rises to the height of 19,500 
 feet; the great plains which stretch on 
 the east of these mountains from the 
 Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico are 
 also of far greater magnitude than those 
 of Europe, contain th# largest bodies of 
 fresh water in the world, and are inter- 
 sected by a series of rivers, one of which, 
 the Mississippi-Missouri, is the longest 
 of all rivers (length 4200 miles). The 
 basin of the Mississippi-Missouri is 
 bounded on the east by the Appalachian 
 chain, one of much less comparative 
 magnitude, but forming an important 
 feature of the surface conformation of 
 the continent. In its great navigable 
 rivers and lakes North America possesses 
 an immense system of inland navigation. 
 As the great water-shed of North 
 Am^ica is formed by the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, all the chief rivers, with the ex- 
 ception of the St. Lawrence, have their 
 sources on its slopes or plateaus, whence 
 they flow to the Gulf of Mexico, the 
 Pacific, the Arctic Ocean, or Hudson 
 Bay. At more than one point in the 
 system the water-parting is formed by 
 a lake or marsh sending a stream on one 
 side to the Pacific and on the other side 
 to the Atlantic. The Nelson, Mackenzie, 
 and Yukon are the chief rivers which 
 flow into the Arctic Ocean, the last 
 named having only recently been recog- 
 nized as one of the great rivers of the 
 world. The St. Lawrence is the largest 
 of those which flow directly to the At- 
 lantic. The lakes drained by the St. 
 Lawrence, namely, Superior, Michigan, 
 Huron, Erie, and Ontario, together 
 cover an area of 97,000 sq. miles (or 
 more than that of Great Britain). The 
 largest, Lake Superior, has an area equal 
 tp that of Ireland. Other large lakes 
 
 further to the north include Winnipeg, 
 Athabasca, Great Bear Lake, and Great 
 Slave Lake. The principal islands on the 
 east are Newfoundland, Anticosti, Prince 
 Edward’s Island, and Cape Breton, all 
 at the mouth of the St. Lawrence ; the 
 Bahama Islands, Cuba, Hayti, Porto 
 Rico, and Jamaica. On the northwest 
 coast the principal islands are Van- 
 couver’s Island, Queen Charlotte’s 
 Island, and King George III.’s Archi- 
 pelago. The only others of any im- 
 portance are the Aleutian Islands, 
 stretching west from the peninsula of 
 Alaska; the islands in the Arctic Ocean 
 are almost inacessible. 
 
 The climate admits of a vast variety 
 of vegetable products being grown, and 
 though in the far north extremely 
 rigorous, as a whole it is healthy and 
 well suited to the peoples of Teutonic 
 origin who now form so large a portion 
 of the inhabitants. As regards minerals 
 and other products North America is 
 exceptionally favored, possessing abun- 
 dance of all those that are most valuable 
 — gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and 
 coal. Immense quantities of gold and 
 silver have been produced. The coal 
 fields are of prodigious extent, the 
 Appalachian stretching without inter- 
 ruption 720 miles. The Pittsburg seam 
 is 225 miles in length and 100 in breadth. 
 Iron is worked in many parts, as are 
 also copper and lead. Salt and petroleum 
 are abundant. The forests are of vast 
 extent, and include a great variety of 
 the most useful timber trees, as pines, 
 oak, ash, hickory, beech, birch, poplar, 
 sycamore, chestnut, walnut, maple, 
 cedar, etc. Maize or indian-corn is the 
 only important farinaceous plant pecu- 
 liar to the New World, but almost all 
 fruits and grains known to Europe are 
 cultivated to perfection in North 
 America, to which Europe is now in- 
 debted for immense quantities of agri- 
 cultural and dairy produce, as well as 
 provisions of various kinds, and raw 
 materials such as cotton, etc. 
 
 The political divisions of North 
 America are the United States, the 
 Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, 
 Mexico, and the Central American 
 States. Canada occupies almost the 
 whole of the continent north of the 
 great lakes and lat. 49° n. The territory 
 of the United States extends from the 
 the British possessions to Mexico and 
 the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Atlan- 
 tic to the Pacific Ocean. Alaska territory 
 belonging to the United States, occupies 
 the northwest corner of the continent. 
 The republican form of government 
 prevails everywhere except in the 
 British dominions. The areas and popu- 
 lation are as follows: 
 
 Area, 
 
 sq. miles. Pop. 
 
 British North America... 3,816,145 5,522,500 
 
 United States (including 
 
 Alaska). 3,507,640 88,912,058 
 
 Mexico 767,005 15,000,000 
 
 Central America (includ- 
 ing British Honduras) .. 181,527 3,550,100 
 
 West Indies 81.816 6,366,405 
 
 8,354,133 119,3.51,063 
 
 The population now consists most 
 largely of people of British or at least 
 Teutonic origin, though the French and 
 Spanish elements are also well repre- 
 sented. In the United States people of 
 negro race number nearly 9,000,000. 
 
 The aboriginal tribes of North America, 
 known as Red Indians, are of a hardy 
 and warlike character, but they are 
 gradually dying out before the march of 
 the white man. They have all so strong 
 a resemblance to each other in physical 
 formation and in intellectual character 
 as to leave no doubt of their belonging 
 to one family. (See Indians, American.) 
 In Mexico, a people, perhaps of same 
 race, the Aztecs, had made considerable 
 progress in civilization before the arrival 
 of the Europeans. In the extreme north 
 we find the Esquimaux, who differ eon- 
 siderably from the Indians, but are often 
 classed along with them as people of 
 Mongoloid origin. 
 
 America is now believed to have been 
 visited by Norsemen in the 10th and 
 11th centuries; but the modern dis- 
 covery is due to Columbus, who reached 
 one of the West Indies in 1492. Fol- 
 lowin'g his lead the first to reach the 
 mainland was John Cabot, who, with 
 his son Sebastian, sailed from Bristol in 
 1497, and on June 24 came in sight of 
 Labrador. In 1512 Sebastian Cabot 
 sailed again for America; but a mutiny 
 on board his vessels compelled him to 
 return before more had been accom- 
 plished than a visit to Hudson’s Bay. 
 In the same year Florida was discovered 
 by Ponce de Leon. Giovanni Veraz- 
 zano, a Florentine sent out by Francis 
 I. of France in 1524, surveyed upward of 
 2000 miles of coast, and discovered that 
 portion now known as North Carolina. 
 Ten years afterward, Jacques Cartier, a 
 seaman of St. Malo, sailed from that 
 port for Newfoundland, the north eoast 
 of which he surveyed and minutely 
 described. He subsequently made 
 several voyages, and was the first 
 European to enter the St. Lawrence, 
 ascending it as high as Montreal. The 
 Spaniards had previously conquered 
 Mexico, and a desire to extend their 
 dominion (1519-21) in a northerly direc- 
 tion led to further discoveries in North 
 America. The coast of California was 
 discovered by Ximenes, and in 1539 the 
 Gulf of California was first entered by 
 Francisco de Ulloa. In 1578 Drake 
 visited the northwest coast. These dis- 
 coveries were followed by those of Davis 
 in 1585-87, Hudson in 1610, Bylot and 
 Baffin in 1615-16, all in the northeastern 
 seas. By this time settlements had been 
 made by the French, English, and Dutch. 
 The Freneh occupied Nova Scotia and 
 Canada, and latterly Louisiana. Cap- 
 tain Behring, who was sent out in 1725 
 by the Empress Catharine, set at rest 
 the disputed point whether Asia and 
 America were separate continents. Other 
 names associated with American mari- 
 time discovery are Cook, Meares, Van 
 couver, Kotzebue, and, more recently, 
 Ross, Parry, Franklin, Beechey, and 
 M’Clintock; inland travelers and dis- 
 coverers include Hearne, M’Kenzie, 
 Back, Rae, Simpson, Schwatka, etc. 
 (See also North Polar Expeditions.) 
 The Canadian authorities have in 
 recent years done much in the way of 
 survey and exploring the less-known 
 portions of the Dominion, and Alaska 
 is being made known by the efforts of 
 expeditions from the United States. 
 For general history see Canada, United 
 States, Mexico, etc. 
 
NORTHAMPTON 
 
 NORTH DAKOTA 
 
 I. 
 
 NORTHAMP'TON, a pari., county, 
 and municipal borough of England, 
 capital of the county of same name. 
 Pop. 87,021. — The county is bounded 
 by Lincoln, Rutland, Leicester, War- 
 wick, Oxford, Bucks, Bedford, Hunting- 
 don, and Cambridge; area, 629,912 acres, 
 of which 560,000 acres are under crops. 
 Pop. 338,064. 
 
 NORTHAMPTON, a town in Hamp- 
 shire CO., Massachusetts, situated on the 
 right bank of the Connecticut, 93 miles 
 west of Boston, has woolen, cotton, and 
 silk factories, paper-mills, etc. Pop. 
 21,525. 
 
 NORTH BORNEO, the territory 
 occupying the northern part of the 
 island of Borneo under the jurisdiction 
 of the British North Borneo Company, 
 having been ceded by the Sultans of 
 Sulu and Brunei in 1877-78 and the 
 company having received a royal charter 
 in 1881. The territory embraces 31,000 
 sq. miles, and has a pop. of 150,000. 
 The exports comprise wax, edible birds’- 
 nests, cocoa-nuts, gutta-percha, sago, 
 tobacco, rattans, india-rubber, and 
 timber. With a good climate and a 
 fertile soil there is believed to be a great 
 future before North Boreno. Along 
 with Brunei and Sarawak the territory 
 was made a British protectorate in 1888. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA, one of the origi- 
 nal states of the Union, is bounded on 
 the u. by Virginia, on the n.w. by Ten- 
 nessee, on the s. by Georgia and South 
 Carolina, and on the e. by the Atlantic 
 Ocean. It stretches 500 miles east, and 
 west across the entire breadth of the 
 
 Seal of North Carolina. 
 
 Atlantic slope of the Appalachians in 
 a long, narrow, rudely triangular belt, 
 its western extremity, less than 20 
 miles wide, resting on the highest pla- 
 teau and summits of that continental 
 system of mountains, while its eartern 
 end spreads out to a breadth of 200 
 miles, in a low, level and gently undulat- 
 ing plane on the Atlantic coast, with a 
 curving shore line of more than 300 
 miles. Its area is 52,286 sq. miles, of 
 which 3620 are covered with water. 
 The highest mountains in the United 
 States east of the Mississippi are in 
 North Carolina, Mitchell’s Peak, which 
 is 6707 feet, being the highest point. 
 The greater part of the state belongs to 
 the Atlantic slope, but the western 
 mountain region beyond the Blue Ridge 
 belongs to the Mississippi basin, being 
 drained by the headstreams of the 
 Tennessee river, chief among which are 
 
 the Little Tennessee and the French 
 Broad river. The eastern slope of the 
 Blue Ridge in this state is the water- 
 shed for nearly all the Atlantic rivers 
 of both North and South Carolina, all 
 of them having a general southeast 
 course. In the northern half of the state 
 the Roanoke, the Tar, and the Neuse 
 enter Albemarle and Pamlico sounds 
 through deep and wide estuaries. The 
 southern portion is drained by the Cape 
 Fear river, and the western part of the 
 Piedmont plain by the Yadkin or Great 
 Pedee and the Catawba, both of which 
 flow into South Carolina. 
 
 North Carolina lies in the warmer 
 part of the temperate zone. The climate 
 becomes almost sub-tropical in the 
 southeastern corner. The rainfall is 
 abundant and very evenly distributed, 
 both in regard to seasons and localities, 
 though the central region receives some- 
 what less rain than the coast and moun- 
 tain regions, and the summer somewhat 
 more than the other seasons. North 
 Carolina is unrivaled by any state east 
 of the Mississippi in the variety of its 
 plant life. The bald cypress, white 
 cedar, live oak, long leaf pine, and 
 hickories are indigenous as well as blue- 
 berries, sumacs, alders, wild grapes, and 
 palmettos. 
 
 Mining has long given occupation to 
 a portion of the population. Gold was 
 first discovered in 1819, and between 
 that date and 1850, hundreds of gold 
 and copper mines were opened in the 
 middle and western sections. In the 
 last few years mining industries have 
 received a new impulse. Iron ores are 
 mined on a considerable scale for ex- 
 port, many new gold and copper mines 
 have been opened, and the amount of 
 the various mining industries is increas- 
 ing very notably. Mica mining began 
 several years ago in the mountain region, 
 and has grown to considerable impor- 
 tance, much the larger part of this ma- 
 terial found in commerce being produced 
 here. Fishing is the most important 
 industry in the eastern part of the state. 
 Shad and oysters are by far the most 
 prominent. Of the many other varieties 
 the more important are squeteague, 
 alewife, mullet, striped bass, clams, and 
 bluefish. Agriculture is the leading 
 industry. Yet the largest part of the 
 swampy coast land is unreclaimed, and 
 there is also much waste land in the 
 mountainous area of the west. The 
 crops which stand out prominently as 
 to acreage is corn, the acreage for 1900 
 exceeding 47 per cent, of the total crop 
 area, and the receipts equaling 25.2 per 
 cent of the total crop receipts. Corn, 
 wheat, oats, rye, cotton, and tobacco 
 are the principal crops. The state ranks 
 about eighth as a cotton state. The 
 state holds third rank in the produc- 
 tion of peanuts and second in the pro- 
 duction of sweet potatoes. Watermelons, 
 cabbages, and other vegetables, and 
 strawberries and other small fruits are 
 grown in abundance. Orchard fruits are 
 most common in the western part of the 
 state, the apple being the principal 
 variety. Peaches are raised, but not in 
 such great quantities as in otlier south- 
 ern states. Rice is raised along the tide- 
 water rivers, where the construction of 
 dikes makes possible a system of flood- 
 
 ing and draining. Some horses, mules 
 and asses are raised. The manufactures 
 include cotton goods, cotton-seed oil 
 and cake, tobacco, flouring and grist 
 mill products, leather and lumber and 
 timber products. Education is not in an 
 advanced stage. Only a small part of 
 the school age population is provided 
 with schools. The chief institution for 
 higher education is the University of 
 North Carolina at Chapel Hill. North 
 Carolina was first visited by the English 
 in 1584 under a charter granted by 
 Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 The First Provincial congress met in 
 defiance of Governor Josiah Martin in 
 1774, and sent delegates to the con- 
 tinental congress. The colony was the 
 first to authorize her delegates in con- 
 gress to vote for independence, on 
 April 12, 1776, and a state constitution 
 was adopted on December 18, 1776. 
 North Caorlina troops took part in 
 many of the important battles of the 
 war, and in 1780-81 the state was in- 
 vaded by the British. In 1791 the capi- 
 tal was located at Raleigh. In 1795 the 
 State University was opened for stu- 
 dents. The state opposed secession, but 
 with President Lincoln’s demand for 
 troops to coerce the seceding states 
 sentiment changed. An ordinance of 
 secession was passed May 20th. North 
 Carolina furnished more than 120,000 
 soldiers to* the confederate cause, 
 nearly twice her proportion. With the 
 beginning of reconstruction in 1867 
 the civil authority was superceded by 
 the military. Another convention was 
 called in 1868, and a constitution allow- 
 ing negro suffrage was adopted. In this 
 year the Ku-Klux-Klan appeared, and 
 Alamance and Granville counties were 
 placed under martial law. The con- 
 servative democrats secured the legis- 
 lature in 1870. The present constitution 
 was adopted in 1876, and in 1900 a 
 clause intended to restrict negro suffrage 
 was added. The state has been demo- 
 cratic in national elections since the 
 beginning of parties, with the excep- 
 tion of the years 1840-48, when it voted 
 for the whig candidates, and 1868-72, 
 when its vote was cast for Grant. Pop- 
 ulation, 2,100,000. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA, Uniyersity of, a 
 state institution at Chapel Hill, N. C., 
 chartered in 1789 and opened in 1795. 
 
 It comprises a college and school of law, 
 medicine, pharmacy, together with a 
 summer school for teachers. It confers 
 the bachelors degree in arts, science, 
 philosophy, and law, the degree of 
 graduate in pharmacy, the master’s de- 
 gree in philosophy, and medicine. Free 
 instruction is offered to graduates of 
 colleges and universities, to candidates 
 for the ministry, to teachers and young ■ 
 men who are preparing to teach and to ' 
 those who are laboring under bodily 
 infirmities. 
 
 NORTH DAKOTA, one of the north 
 central states of the Union, is bounded 
 on the n. by Canada, on the e. by Min- 
 nesota, on the s. by South Dakota, and 
 on the west by Montana. Its extreme 
 breadth from north to south is a little 
 over 210 miles; extreme length from 
 east to west 360 miles; area, 74,312 sq. 
 miles. It ranks fourteenth in size among 
 the states of the Union, The state is 
 
' NORTH DAKOTA 
 
 NORTHMEN 
 
 almost entirely an undulating prairie, 
 with no prominences of note. It is 
 divided naturally into the Red river 
 and James river valleys, the Devil’s 
 lake, and Turtle mountain regions, 
 and the Mouse river, Missouri slope, 
 and the North Dakota counties. The 
 geological features of the state are full 
 of variety and interest. A very large 
 proportion of the surface is covered by 
 glacial and alluvial drift, and much of 
 the country bears evidence of having 
 been more than once submerged. 
 
 North Dakota has a typical conti- 
 nental climate characterized by enor- 
 mous extremes of temperature. The 
 average annual rainfall of 17.29 inches 
 would scarcely suffice for the needs of 
 'agriculture were it not for the fact that 
 fully three-fourths of the precipitation 
 falls during the growing season (April 
 
 Seal of North Dakota. 
 
 to September). Forest growth is found 
 only along the river banks, and on the 
 Turtle mountains in the north, and in 
 some sections of the Red river valley. 
 The remainder of the state is a treeless 
 prairie covered with numerous species 
 of grasses and other forage plants. The 
 principal trees are cottonwood along 
 the rivers, and oak, elm, birch, ash, and 
 poplar in the Turtle mountains. 
 
 Wheat is the dominant crop. The 
 Red river valley, which extends en- 
 tirely across the eastern end of North 
 Dakota, is perhaps the most famous 
 wheat-producing region in the world. 
 Oats is the next most important cereal. 
 The cultivation of flax has increased 
 from a few thousand acres to an acreage 
 exceeding that of any other state. 
 Barley is most extensively produced 
 in the northeastern counties and corn 
 in the southeastern. Potatoes yield 
 abundantly and are an important crop. 
 But very little fruit is raised. The 
 prairie lands afford excellent pasturage, 
 and large areas of wild salt and prairie 
 grasses are annually cut for winter feed. 
 Cattle and horses, mules, asses, sheep, 
 and swine in the order named are the 
 principal varieties of animals raised. 
 Little manufacturing is carried on. 
 
 The eastern part of the state is well 
 supplied with railroad facilities. The 
 Great Northern crosses the northern 
 part, and the Northern Pacific the 
 southern part. In addition, the St. Paul, 
 Minneapolis and Sault Ste. Marie enters 
 the state at the southwest corner and 
 extends in a northwest direction entirely 
 across the commonwealth. The principal 
 mineral resource of the state is brown 
 
 coal, the measures which extend be- 
 neath the whole country west of the 
 Missouri river. In many places the 
 croppings arc so exposed that the 
 settlers mine their own fuel. In the Red 
 river region, salt, limestone, and hydrau- 
 lic lime are abundant. 
 
 North Dakota has a uniform public 
 school system which extends from the 
 primary grade to and including the 
 normal and collegiate course. Besides 
 the common schools, all the towns have 
 graded and high schools. The state has 
 a university located at Grand Forks, 
 and there are colleges at Tower City, 
 Fargo, Jamestown, Grand Forks, and 
 Bismark. There is a deaf and dumb 
 asylum at Devil’s Lake, a state reform 
 school at Mandan, a state hospital for 
 the insane, and a home for the feeble- 
 minded at Jamestown, a soldiers’ home 
 at Lisbon, a blind asylum in Pembina 
 CO., an industrial school and school for 
 manual training at Ellendale, and school 
 of forestry. 
 
 The population is about 600,000. 
 Canadians and Swedes are the chief 
 foreign nationalities represented. At 
 the head of the educational establish- 
 ments of the state are the University 
 of North Dakota, Fargo college. Red 
 River Valley university, and the Agri- 
 cultural college at Fargo. The two chief 
 towns are Fargo and Grand Forks. 
 The territory of Dakota was named 
 after a family of Indians, and was 
 obtained by the United States through 
 the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. The 
 first real and permanent white settle- 
 ment in this territory was probably 
 established by French-Canadian settlers 
 near Pembina in 1807. In 1812 Lord 
 Selkirk, by mistake, built his fort south 
 of the Canadian line. There were fur- 
 trading posts established as early as 
 1808. Lewis and Clark in their expedi- 
 tion of 1804-06 spent the first winter 
 near Mandan. Fremont in 1839 ex- 
 plored much of the country and Lieu- 
 tenant Warner in 1855 made a report 
 on the region for the government. The 
 part east of the Missouri river was first 
 attached to the territory of Minnesota 
 in 1849. The part west, together with 
 much of Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana, 
 became part of 'Nebraska territory in 
 1854. On March 2, 1861, the territory of 
 Dakota was organized. The territory 
 was divided into two (see South Dakota) 
 on February 22, 1889, congress author- 
 ized the calling of conventions to form 
 constitutions. On November 2d Presi- 
 dent Harrison declared the state ad- 
 mitted. Politically the state has been 
 republican from its admission, with the 
 exception of one election (1892), when 
 a fusion of the Farmers’ Alliance with 
 the democrats gave them control. 
 
 NORTH DAKOTA, University of, a 
 coeducational state institution at Grand 
 Forks, N. D., established in 1883. By 
 the enabling act of congress under which 
 the state was admitted, the university 
 received a grant of 86,080 acres of land, 
 and the School of Mines, a grant of 
 40,000 acres. The university comprises 
 a college of arts, a normal college, and 
 departments of law, mining engineering, 
 mechanical and electrical engineering, 
 military science, and pharmacy, to- 
 gether with a preparatory department. 
 
 NORTHEAST PASSAGE. See Polar 
 
 r\ Ci rr* M 
 
 NORTHEAST TERRITORY, a terri- 
 tory of Canada on the east of Hudson 
 bay, and extending south to Quebec 
 province. It forms part of the peninsula 
 of Labrador, and is little known. It is 
 intersected by Rupert’s river. East Main 
 river. Big river. Great and Little Whale 
 river, etc., all flowing west to Hudson 
 bay, and containing numerous lakes. 
 Purs are the only commodity as yet 
 obtained from it. See Canada. 
 
 NORTHERN-DRIFT, in geology, a 
 name formerly given to boulder-clay 
 of the Pleistocene period, when its ma- 
 terials were supposed to have been 
 brought by polar currents from the 
 north. 
 
 NORTHERN LIGHTS. See Aurora. 
 
 NORTHMEN, the inhabitants of an- 
 cient Scandinavia, or Norway, Sweden, 
 and Denmark, who in England were also 
 called Danes. They were fierce and war- 
 like tribes, who as early as the 8th cen- 
 tury made piratical expeditions to all 
 parts of the European seas, these piratical 
 robbers being known among them- 
 selves as vikings. In 795 the Scandi- 
 navians established themselves in the 
 Faroe Isles and in Orkney; toward the 
 middle of the 9th century they founded 
 the governments of Novgorod and of 
 Kiev, in Russia; and after the discovery 
 of Iceland certain powerful Norwegian 
 families, taking refuge from the persecu- 
 tions of Harold, king of Denmark, 
 settled in that island (in 870). In the 
 9th century they made repeated incur- 
 sions into France, and it became neces- 
 sary to purchase their retreat with gold. 
 In that country latterly bands of them 
 settled permanently and Charles the 
 Simple was obliged (912) to cede to 
 them the province afterward called 
 Normandy, and to give his daughter in 
 marriage to Rollo, their chief. Rollo 
 embraced the Christian religion and be- 
 came the first Duke of Normandy. 
 The course of events was somewhat 
 similar in England. Egbert, in the be- 
 ginning of the 9th century, had no 
 sooner made some approaches toward a 
 regular government than the Danes 
 made their appearance. Under Alfred 
 (871-901) they overran great parts of 
 England, but were finally defeated, 
 and those of them who remained in the 
 country had to acknowledge his sway. 
 But they returned, under his successors, 
 in greater force, obtained possession 
 of the northern and eastern part of the 
 country, and in the beginning of the 11th 
 century three Scandinavian princes 
 (Canute, Harold, and Hardicanute) 
 ruled successively over England. The 
 Saxon line was then restored; but in 
 1066 William, duke of Normandy, a 
 descendant of Rollo, obtained the Eng- 
 lish throne, an event known as the Nor- 
 man Conquest. According to the Saga 
 narratives the Northmen were the first 
 discoverers of America. The coasts of 
 Spain, Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor 
 were ravaged by them, and in Byzan- 
 tium the body-guard of the emperors 
 long consisted of Northmen known as 
 Varangians, being recruited chiefly 
 from those who had established them- 
 selves in Russia. See also Normandy, 
 Normans. 
 
NORTH POLAR EXPEDITION 
 
 r 
 
 NORWAY 
 
 NORTH POLAR EXPEDITION, See 
 
 Polar Explorations. 
 
 NORTH POLE. See Pole. 
 
 NORTH SEA, or GERMAN OCEAN, a 
 
 large branch of the Atlantic ocean 
 lying between Great Britain and the 
 continent of Europe, having the former 
 and the Orkney and Shetland islands 
 on the west; Denmark and part of Nor- 
 way on the east ; Strait of Dover, part of 
 France, Belgium, Holland, and Ger- 
 many on the south; and the Northern 
 ocean on the north. Extreme length, 
 from the Strait of Dover to Unst, the 
 most northern of the Shetland Isles, 
 about 700 miles; greatest breadth, be- 
 tween Haddingtonshire, Scotland, and 
 Denmark, about 420 miles; area, not less 
 than 140,000 sq. miles. The North Sea 
 is deepest on the Norwegian side, where 
 the soundings give 190 fathoms; but 
 its mean depth is no more than 31 
 fathoms. The bed of this sea is traversed 
 by several enormous banks or eleva- 
 
 tions, of which the greatest is the Dogger 
 bank. The shores of the sea are for the 
 most part low, except in Scotland and 
 Norway. They present numerous estu- 
 aries and other inlets, and are studded 
 with numerous important towns, the 
 sea being the highway for an immense 
 maritime traffic. The fisheries, especially 
 of herring, cod, ling, haddock, flat-fish, 
 etc., are exceedingly valuable. The rise 
 and fall of the tide is very great at cer- 
 tain places. The navigation, on ac- 
 count of sand-banks, winds, fogs, etc., 
 is rather dangerous, but numerous light- 
 houses help to render it safer. There are 
 numerous islands along the coasts of 
 Holland, North Germany, Denmark, 
 and Norway. 
 
 NORTH SEA AND BALTIC CANAL, 
 
 a great ship canal quite recently con- 
 structed at the cost of the German 
 Empire, from Brunsbiittel at the mouth 
 of the Elbe to the southernmost part 
 of the Eider, and thence close along the 
 course of that river, past Rendsburg, 
 latterly following the same course as the 
 old Eider canal to where it joins the Bal- 
 tic at Holtenau, near Kiel. The water- 
 way measures 197 feet wide at the surface 
 and 72 feet at the bottom, with a depth 
 of 29J feet, and is intended for the pas- 
 sage of inen-at-war as well as merchant 
 ships, serving thus a double purpose. 
 Its length is about 60 miles. The founda- 
 tion-stone of the new works was laid 
 hy the Emperor William I. in June, 
 1887, and the last stone was laid by the 
 Emperor William II. in June, 1895. 
 Tlie total cost of the construction was 
 about 156,000,000 marks (139,000,000), 
 toward which Prussia has contributed 
 fifty million marks. 
 
 NORTH-STAR, the north polar star, 
 the star a of the constellation Ursa Minor. 
 It is close to the true pole, never sets, 
 and is therefore of great importance 
 to navigators in the northern hemi- 
 sphere. 
 
 NORTH STAR, Order of, a Swedish 
 order of knighthood, established in 
 1748 mainly as a recognition of impor- 
 tant scientific services. 
 
 NORTHUM'BERLAND, a northern 
 maritime county of England, bounded 
 south and southwest by the counties of 
 Durham and Cumberland; east by the 
 North sea, and north and northwest by 
 Scotland. Area, 1,290,312 acres, of 
 which about 717,000 acres are arable, 
 meadow, and pasture. Coal-measures 
 occupy an area of 180 sq. miles; and 
 yield immense quantities of coal; lead, 
 iron, limestone, and freestone are also 
 wrought. The chief industries include 
 ship-building and rope-making; forges 
 foundries, iron, hardware, and machine 
 works, chemical works, potteries, glass- 
 works, etc. The coast abounds in cod, 
 ling, haddock, soles, turbot, herrings, 
 and a variety of other fishes. North- 
 umberland is divided into four parlia- 
 mentary divisions, Wansbeck, T 3 meside, 
 Hexham, and Berwick-upon-Tweed, each 
 returning one member. Principal towns, 
 Newcastle, Tynemouth, Shields, Mor- 
 peth, and Alnwick. Pop. 602,859. 
 
 NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, a 
 coeducational institution at Evanston, 
 111., affiliated with the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church. It was founded in 1851 
 and comprises a college of liberal arts, 
 schools of law, medicine, pharmacy, 
 dentistry, music and oratory. The col- 
 lege of liberal arts and the school of 
 music are at Evanston, the professional 
 schools in Chicago. The courses in 
 the college lead to the bachelor’s and 
 master’s degree in arts, philosophy, 
 science, and letters, and to the degree 
 of doctor of philosophy. The college 
 course is largely elective after the second 
 year, and provision is made for ad- 
 vanced credits by which the time re- 
 quired for subsequent professional studies 
 may be shortened. The Garrett Biblical 
 Institute, under Methodist Episcopal 
 control, forms the theological depart- 
 ment of the university. 
 
 NORTHWEST PASSAGE, a passage 
 for ships from the Atlantic ocean into 
 the Pacific by the northern coasts of the 
 American continent, long sought for, and 
 at last discovered in 1850-51 by Sir R. 
 MacClure. See North Polar Expeditions. 
 
 NORTHWEST PROVINCES, a politi- 
 cal division (lieutenant-governorship) of 
 British India, bounded on the n. by 
 Tibet, on the n.e. by Nepaul and Oudh, 
 on the s. by the Chutia Nagpur district 
 and the Central Provinces, and on the 
 w. by Gwalior, Rajputhna, and the 
 Punjab; area 86,983 sq. miles. In 1902 
 the name was changed to United 
 Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Pop. 
 47,691,782. 
 
 NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, that 
 portion of northwestern Canada outside 
 the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, 
 Manitoba, British Coiumbia, Alberta 
 and Saskatchewan, formerly the Hud- 
 son’s Bay territory ; estimated area, 
 2,648,000 square miles. This re- 
 gion is governed by a lieutenant- 
 
 governor, assisted by an advisory coun- 
 cil, there being also a legislative assem- 
 bly elected by the people. Regina is the 
 seat of government. The south- 
 ern part of this vast territory 
 has been divided into the dis- 
 tricts of Assiniboia and Atha- 
 basca, and the provinces of Alberta 
 and Saskatchewan, with the Yukon 
 and Mackenzie districts farther 
 north. The agricultural and other 
 capabilities of at least a third of this 
 region are very great, there being vast 
 areas adapted for wheat, oats, barley, 
 etc., or for stock-rearing ; and land in the 
 districts just mentioned is being rapidly 
 taken up. Coal is abundant, and is now 
 being worked; petroleum also is abun- 
 dant; copper, silver, iron, salt, and gold 
 have been found in various localities. 
 Great quantities of furs are obtained, 
 especially by the agents and employees 
 of the Hudson Bay company to whom 
 the whole territory formerly belonged, 
 and who have many outlying forts and 
 stations. There are many lakes and 
 rivers, the former including Athabasca, 
 Great Slave lake. Great Bear lake, etc. ; 
 and the latter the Saskatchewan, Atha- 
 basca, Peace, Mackenzie, etc., giving 
 10,000 miles of navigable rivers. (See 
 also Canada.) The Canadian Pacific 
 railway crosses the southern part of this 
 magnificent territory, and towns and 
 villages are rapidly being formed along 
 its course. There are several other rail- 
 ways made or to be made, one running 
 northwest from Regina to Battleford and 
 Edmonton. Schools are being estab- 
 lished in the more thickly-settled parts 
 and education is free. In the Rocky 
 mountain region five tracts of land have 
 been reserved as national parks, on 
 account of their interesting scenery. 
 One of these, 260 sq. miles in area, 
 presents a remarkable aggregate of lake, 
 river, and mountain scenery, including 
 the hot mineral springs of Banff, which 
 are already being taken advantage of by 
 persons suffering from various ailments. 
 Pop. about 20,000. 
 
 NORWAY (Norwegian, Norge), a 
 country in the north of Europe, bounded 
 on the northeast by Russian Lapland, 
 and east by Sweden, and washed on all 
 other sides by the sea — by the Arctic 
 ocean on the north, the Atlantic and 
 the North Sea on the northwest and 
 west, and the Skager-Rack on the south. 
 It is about 1080 miles in length, and its 
 greatest breadth is about 275 miles, but 
 toward the north it narrows so much 
 as to be in some places not more than 20 
 miles; area, 122,280 sq. miles, or rather 
 more than the British Isles. The total 
 population on Dec. 3, 1906, was returned 
 at 2,231,088. The country is divided 
 into twenty perfectures, of which the 
 capital Christiania forms one, and the 
 city of Bergen another. Other important 
 towns are Trondhjem, Stavanger, and 
 Drammen. 
 
 The coast consists chiefly of bold pre- 
 cipitous cliffs, and is remarkable both 
 for the innumerable islands by which it 
 is lined, and the bays or fiords which 
 cut deeply into it in all directions. The 
 surface is very mountainous, particu- 
 larly in the west and north. Very com- 
 monly the mountain masses assume the 
 form of great plateaux or table-lands, 
 
NORWICH 
 
 NOSE 
 
 called fjelds or fields, as the Dovre 
 Fjeld, Hardanger Fjeld, etc. The 
 highest summits belong to the Sogne 
 Fjeld, a congeries of elevated masses, 
 glaciers, and snow-fields in the center 
 of the southern division of the kingdom, 
 where rise Galdhoepig (8400 feeth the 
 Glitretind (8384), and Skagastolstind 
 (7879). Immense snow-fields and glaciers 
 are a feature of Norwegian scenery. 
 The few important rivers that Norway 
 can claim as exclusively her own have 
 a southerly direction, and discharge 
 themselves into the Skager-Rack; of 
 these the chief are the Glommen (400 
 miles), and its affluent the Lougen. 
 The most important river in the north 
 is the Tana, which fonns part of the 
 boundary between Russia and Norway, 
 and falls into the Arctic ocean. Lofty 
 waterfalls are numerous. Lakes are 
 extremely niimerous, but generally 
 small. The principal is the Miosen Vand. 
 The prevailing rocks of Norway are 
 gneiss and mica-slate, of which all the 
 loftier mountains are composed. The 
 most important .metals are iron, copper, 
 silver, and cobalt, all of which are 
 worked to a limited extent. The climate 
 of Norway is on the whole severe. The 
 harbors on the west, however, are never 
 blocked up with ice; but in places more 
 inland, though much farther south, 
 as at Christiania, this regularly happens. 
 The forests are estimated to cover about 
 a fifth of the whole surface, and form 
 a very important branch of national 
 wealth. The principal forest tree is the 
 pine. Only about 1000 sq. miles is 
 under the plow. The chief cereal crop 
 is oats. Barley ripens at 70° of latitude ; 
 rye is successfully cultivated up to 69°; 
 oats to 68°; but wheat not beyond 64°, 
 and that only in the most favorable 
 seasons. Potatoes are grown with suc- 
 cess even in the far north. The farms are 
 generally the property of those who 
 cultivate them, and commonly include 
 a large stretch of mountain pasture, 
 often 40 or 50 miles from the main farm, 
 to which the cattle are sent for several 
 months in summer. The rearing of 
 cattle is an extensive and profitable 
 branch of rural economy. The horses 
 are vigorous and sure-footed, but of a 
 diminutive size; the ponies are among 
 the best of their kind, and are often 
 exported. The reindeer forms the prin- 
 cipal stock in the extreme north. 
 Among the larger wild animals are the 
 wolf, bear, elk, deer. The fisheries of 
 Norway are of very great value; they 
 include the cod, herring, mackerel, 
 salmon, shark, walrus, seal, and lobster, 
 the cod and herring fisheries being by 
 far the most important. The rivers and 
 lakes abound with salmon and salmon- 
 trout, and make Norway one of the best 
 angling countries in the world. Manu- 
 factures include cotton, woolen, flax, 
 and silk tissues. Distilleries, brick- 
 works, saw and flour-mills, are numer- 
 ous; and there are foundries, machine- 
 works, lucifer-match works, tobacco- 
 factories, and sugar-refineries. The ex- 
 port trade includes fish, timber, wood- 
 pulp, whale and seal oil, metals, skins, 
 feathers, furs, lucifer-matches, etc. The 
 exports in 1907 were $44,274,000. The 
 chief imports are grain, oextile goods, 
 wool, sugar, coffee, tobacco, wine. 
 
 brandy, petroleum, etc. Imports in 
 1899, $86,246,000. The chief trade is 
 with Britain and Germany; Sweden, 
 Denmark, and Russia coming next. 
 The Norwegians are famous as sailors, 
 and in the tonnage of its mercantile 
 navy, Norway is surpassed only by 
 Britain and Germany in Europe Ber- 
 gen, Christiania, and Trondhjem are the 
 chief ports. Railways are about 1200 
 miles. The monetary system is the same 
 as that of Denmark. 
 
 Norway is a limited hereditary mon- 
 archy. The king is not allowed to 
 nominate any but Norwegian subjects 
 to offices under the crown. On a new 
 succession the sovereign must be crowned 
 King of Norway at Trondhjem. The 
 members of the legislative assembly or 
 Storthing are elected every three years 
 by voters who have themselves been 
 elected by the citizens possessing a cer- 
 tain qualification. It subdivides itself 
 into two chambers — one, the Lagthing, 
 consisting of one-fourth of the members; 
 the other, the Odelsthing, has the re- 
 maining three-fourths. The chambers 
 meet separately and each nominates its 
 own president and secretary. Every bill 
 must originate in the Odelsthing. When 
 carried in that body it is sent to the 
 Lagthing, and thence to the king, whose 
 assent makes it a law. The great body 
 of the people are Protestants of the 
 Lutheran confession, which is the state 
 religion. Other sects are tolerated, 
 although government offices are open 
 only to members of the Established 
 Church. Elementary education is free 
 and compulsory. Besides primary 
 schools there are numerous secondary 
 schools. There is but one university, 
 that of Christiania. The army is raised 
 mainly by conscription. The nominal 
 period of service is thirteen years, five 
 in the line, four in the Landvcern (liable 
 to be called to defend the country), and 
 four in the Landstorm (for local de- 
 fense) The troops of the line number 
 30,000. The navy comprises four iron- 
 clads besides other vessels. The people 
 are almost entirely of Scandinavian 
 origin. A small number of Lapps (called 
 in Norway Finns) and Qvaens, reckoned 
 at 20,000 in all, dwell in the northern 
 parts. The Norwegian language is 
 radically identical with the Icelandic 
 and with the Danish. For centuries 
 Danish was generally employed as the 
 literary and educated language of the 
 country, as it still is; but during last 
 century a vernacular literature has 
 sprung up, the chief names connected 
 with which are Wergeland, Welhaven, 
 Asbjornsen, Bjornson, Ibsen, etc. 
 
 In the earliest times Norway was 
 divided among petty kings or chiefs 
 (jarls), and its people were notorious 
 for their piratical habits. (See North- 
 men.) Harold Fair-hair (who ruled 
 from 863 to 933) succeeded in bringing 
 the whole country under his sway, and 
 was succeeded by his son Erick. He 
 was ultimately driven from the throne, 
 which was seized in 938 by his brother, 
 Hako I., who had embraced Christianity 
 in England. Magnus the Good, the son 
 of St. Olaf and Alfhild, an English lady 
 of noble birth, was called to the throne 
 in 1036; and having in 1042 succeeded 
 • also to the throne of Denmark united 
 
 both imder one monarchy. (See Den- 
 mark.) After his death the crowns of 
 Norway and Denmark again passed to 
 different individuals. Iii 1319 the 
 crowns of Norway and Sweden became 
 for a short time united in the person of 
 Magnus V. Erick of Pomerania suc- 
 ceeded, by separate titles, to Norway, 
 Sweden, and Denmark; and in 1397 was 
 crowned king of the three kingdoms. 
 Sweden then for a time became a 
 separate kingdom; but the union be- 
 tween Denmark and Norway was 
 drawn closer and closer, and very much 
 to the disadvantage of the latter, which 
 was ultimately degraded into a mere 
 dependency of the former. The subse- 
 quent history of Norway becomes for 
 a long period merely a part of that of 
 Denmark. After the defeat of Napoleon 
 by the allies in 1813 it was arranged by 
 the treaty of Vienna in 1814 that Den- 
 mark must cede Norway to Sweden, and 
 the result was the union of the two 
 countries under the Swedish crown. 
 The union was accompanied with a cer- 
 tain amount of friction, partly owing 
 to the entirely democratic character of 
 the the constitution of Norway, in 
 which country titles of nobility were 
 abolished early in the 19th century, 
 and was dissolved in 1905, and Haakon 
 VII. was proclaimed king. 
 
 NORWICH (nor'ich), a municipal, 
 pari., and county borough and bishop 
 see in England, capital of the county of 
 Norfolk, on the Wensum, where it joins 
 the Yare, 98 miles n.n.e. of London. 
 The cathedral, founded in 1094, was 
 originally in the Norman style, but now 
 exhibits also later styles. The castle, 
 a noble feudal relic, reputed to have 
 been built by Uffa about 1066, is finely 
 situated on a lofty eminence, and still 
 surmounted by its massive donjon tower 
 in the Norman style. St. Andrew’s Hall 
 originally the nave of the Blackfriars’ 
 Church, the Guildhall, and the bishop’s 
 palace, also deserve mention. Manufac- 
 tures, of which worsted and mixed goods 
 are the staple, are extensive, including 
 also mustard and starch, boot and shoe 
 making, iron-working, brewing, etc. 
 Pop. 111,728. 
 
 NORWICH, a city in Connecticut, on 
 the Thames, 13 miles north of New Lon- 
 don. The falls of the river afford ex- 
 tensive water-power, and there are 
 considerable manufactures of cotton and 
 woolen goods, paper, fire-arms, ma- 
 chinery, etc. Pop. 20,115. 
 
 NOSE, the organ in man and the 
 higher animals exercising the olfactory 
 sense, or that of smell, and concerned 
 through its apertures or passages in the 
 function of respiration and in the pro- 
 duction of voice. The bones of the nose 
 comprise the boundaries of the nasal 
 fossEe or cavities, which open in front in 
 the nasal apertures, and behind into the 
 pharynx or back part of the mouth. The 
 front nostrils, or openings of the nose, 
 are in the skeleton of an oval or heart 
 shape, while the openings of the pos- 
 terior nostrils are of a quadrilateral form. 
 The bones which enter into the entire 
 structure of the nose number fourteen. 
 In addition there are certain cartilagin- 
 ous pieces which assist in forming the 
 structure of the nose, lateral cartilages 
 on either side, and a cartilaginous sep- 
 
KOSOLOGY 
 
 November 
 
 turn in the middle between the two 
 nostrils. There is also a bony septum 
 which unites with the cartilaginous 
 septum to form the complete partition 
 of the nose Several special muscles 
 give a certain mobility to the softer 
 parts of the organ. The nostrils and 
 nasal cavities are lined by the mucous 
 membrane (pituitary membrane) richly 
 furnished with arteries and veins and 
 covered with a copious mucous secretion 
 which keeps it in the moistened state 
 favorable to the due exercise of the 
 function of smell. The proper nerves of 
 smell, the olfactory nerves, form the 
 first pair of cerebral nerves or those 
 which take origin from the cerebrum'; 
 while the nerves of common sensibility 
 of the nose belong to the fifth pair of 
 cerebral nerves. The olfactory nerves 
 are distributed in the mucous membrane 
 of either side in the form of a sort of 
 thick brush of small nerve-fibres. The 
 study of the comparative anatomy of 
 the nasal organs shows us^ithat man pos- 
 sesses a sense of smell greatly inferior 
 in many instances to that of the lower 
 animals. The distribution of the olfac- 
 tory nerves in man is of a very limited 
 nature when compared with what 
 obtains in such animals as the dog, 
 sheep, etc. All Vertebrates above fishes 
 generally resemble man in the essential 
 type of their olfactory apparatus. In 
 most fishes the nostrils are simply shut 
 or closed sacs, and do not communicate 
 posteriorly with the mouth. The pro- 
 boscis of the elephant exemplifies a 
 singular elongation of the nose, in which 
 the organ becomes modified for tactile 
 purposes. In the seals and other diving 
 animals the nostrils can be closed at 
 will by sphincter muscles or valvular 
 processes. The most frequent diseases 
 or abnormal conditions which affect 
 the nose comprise congenital defects, 
 and tumors or polj'^pi. 
 
 NOSOLOGY (from the Greek nosos, 
 disease), in medicine, that science which 
 treats of the systematic arrangement 
 and classification of diseases, with 
 names and definitions, according to the 
 distinctive character of each class, order, 
 genus, and species. Many systems of 
 nosology have been proposed at different 
 times, but that of Dr. William Farr has 
 been very generally adopted as practi- 
 cally useful. 
 
 NOSTALGIA. See Home-sickness. 
 
 NOTARY, an officer authorized to 
 attest contracts or writings, chiefly in 
 mercantile matters, to make them 
 authentic in a foreign country; to note 
 the non-payment of foreign bills of 
 exchange, etc. Often called a Notary 
 Public. 
 
 NOTATION, Arithmetical, Algebraic 
 Chemical, Musical. See Arithmetic, Al- 
 gebra, Chemistry, Music. 
 
 NOTE, in music, a character which, 
 by its place on the staff, represents a 
 sound, and by its form determines the 
 relative time or continuance of such 
 sound.- See Music. 
 
 NOT GUILTY is the general issue or 
 plea of the accused in a criminal action. 
 When a prisoner has pleaded not guilty 
 he is deemed to have put himself for- 
 ward for trial, and the court, may order 
 a jury for the trial of such person ac- 
 cordingly. Should he refuse to plead. 
 
 the court may direct the proper officer 
 to enter a plea of not guilty on his be- 
 half. On an indictment for murder a 
 man cannot plead that it was in his own 
 defense, but must answer not guilty; 
 the effect of which is, that it puts the 
 prosecutor to the proof of every material 
 fact alleged in the indictment, and it 
 allows the prisoner to avail himself of 
 any defensive circuiristance as fully as 
 if he had pleaded them in a specific 
 form. In England and the United States 
 a jury can only give a verdict either of 
 guilty or not guilty, and the latter often 
 really means that there is not sufficient 
 evidence to convict. 
 
 NOTRE DAME (no-tr d&m), a title of 
 the Virgin Mary, is the name of many 
 churches in France, and particularly of 
 the great cathedral at Paris, which was 
 founded in the 12th century, and fonns 
 a prominent object in the city. 
 
 NOTTINGHAM, a town near the mid- 
 dle of England, capital of the county of 
 same name, on the Leen, near its junc- 
 tion with the Trent, 110 miles northwest 
 of London. The castle, which crowns 
 the summit of a rock, rising 133 feet 
 above the level of the Leen, was 
 originally built by William the Con- 
 queror as a means of overawing the out- 
 laws frequenting the recesses of Sher- 
 wood Forest. The principal educational 
 and literary institutions are the Uni- 
 versity college and Technical school, 
 high-school for boys, the Blue-coat 
 school, the school of art, the People’s 
 hall, and the Mechanic’s institute. An 
 arboretum covering 18 acres is a feature 
 of the town. The staple manufactures 
 are hosiery and lace, the latter being a 
 sort of specialty. There are also manu- 
 factures of cotton, woolen, and silk 
 goods, and of articles in malleable and 
 cast iron. Pop. 239,753. — Nottingham- 
 shire, or Notts, is an inland county, 
 bounded north by York, east by Lincoln, 
 south by Leicester, and west by Derby. 
 Area, 526,176 acres, of which about 454,- 
 000 are arable, meadow, and pasture. 
 Pop. 514,537. 
 
 NOUN (from the Latin nomen, name), 
 in grammar, a word that denotes any 
 object of which we speak, whether that 
 object be animate or inanimate, ma- 
 terial or immaterial. Nouns are called 
 proper or meaningless when they are 
 the names of individual persons or 
 things, as George, Berlin, Orion; com- 
 mon, when they are the name of a class 
 of things, as book, page, ball, idea, 
 emotion; collective, when they are the 
 names of aggregates, as fleet, army, 
 flock, covey, herd; material, when they 
 are the names of materials or substances, 
 as gold, snow, water; abstract, when 
 they are the names of qualities, as 
 beauty, virtue, grace, energy. Some of 
 the older grammarians included both the 
 noun and the adjective under the term 
 noun, distinguishing the former as noun- 
 substantive and the latter as noun- 
 
 ticijGcti V© 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA, a province of the 
 Dominion of Canada, consisting of a 
 peninsula or portion properly called 
 Nova Scotia, and the Island of Cape 
 Breton, which is separated from the 
 mainland by the Strait or Gut of Canso. 
 It is bounded on the north by Northum- 
 berland strait and the Gulf of St. 
 
 Lawrence; northeast, south, and south- 
 east by the Atlantic ; west by the Bay of 
 Fundy; and north by New Brunswick, 
 with which it is connected by an isthmus 
 only 11 miles broad (traversed by a ship 
 railway) ; area, 20,907 sq. miles, or over 
 13,000,000 acres. The wild animals 
 include bear, foxes, moose, caribou, 
 otter, mink, etc., and excellent sport 
 may be had. The minerals are also 
 valuable. Granite, trap, and clay 
 slate rocks predominate. Coal, with iron 
 in combination abounds in many places, 
 and more than 1,500,000 tons is raised 
 annually. Gold is also found, and is 
 being worked. Copper ore exists, as also 
 does silver, lead, and tin ; and gypsum 
 is plentiful. Petroleum has been re- 
 cently discovered, and wells have been 
 sunk in Cape Breton. Wheat, potatoes, 
 and oats are important crops; and buck- 
 wheat, rye, barley, Indian corn, and 
 field-pease are extensively cultivated. 
 Great quantities of hay are made, and 
 a good deal is exported. The apple- 
 orchards of the western counties are 
 very productive, and extend along the 
 highway in an unbroken line for 30 
 miles. Apples are now largely exported. 
 Cattle and sheep are raised in consider- 
 able numbers, and are exported both to 
 New Brunswick and Newfoundland. 
 There are extensive fisheries of cod, 
 haddock, mackerel, herrings, etc. The 
 manufactures are comparatively unim- 
 portant, but a good deal of capital is in- 
 vested in saw-mills, flour-mills, ship- 
 buildin|, tanning, ate. Tho foreign 
 trade is comparatively large, more 
 shipping being owned in proportion to 
 population than in any other country. 
 The imports consist principally of 
 British and American manufactures; 
 spirits, sugar, wines, coffee, etc. The 
 principal articles of export are fisH, 
 timber, and coal. Education is widely 
 and equally diffused and is free to all 
 classes. There are four degree-conferring 
 colleges or universities. The public 
 affairs of the colony are administered 
 by a lieutenant-governor, council, and 
 house of assembly. It sends ten members 
 to the senate and twenty to the House 
 of Commons of the Dominion parlia- 
 ment. The laws are dispensed by a 
 supreme court and district courts as in 
 Canada. Halifax, the capital, possesses 
 one of the finest harbors in America. The 
 province is well provided with railways. 
 Pop. 459,116; of the capital, 40,787. 
 
 NOVEL, a prose narrative of fictitious 
 events connected by a plot, and in- 
 volving portraitures of character and 
 descriptions of scenery. In its present 
 signification the term novel seems to 
 express a series of fictitious narrative 
 somewhat different from a romance, 
 yet it would be difficult to assign the 
 exact distinction, though the former is 
 enerally applied to narratives of every- 
 ay life and manners; while the romance 
 deals with what is ideal, marvelous, 
 mysterious, or supernatural. Prose 
 fiction written for entertainment is of 
 considerable antiquity. 
 
 NOVEM'BER, fonnerly the ninth 
 month of the year, but according to the 
 Julian arrangement, in which the year 
 begins on 1st January, November be- 
 came the eleventh month, and com- 
 prised 30 days. See Calendar. 
 
NOVGOROD 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 NOV'GOROD, a town of Russia, capi- 
 tal of the government of same town, on 
 the Volkhov, near the point where it 
 issues from Lake Ilmen, 103 miles s.s.e. 
 St. Petersburg. It was during the middle 
 ages the largest and most important 
 town of Northern Europe. Novgorod 
 was the cradle of the Russian monarchy, 
 and a monument was erected in 1864 to 
 commemorate the thousandth anni- 
 versary of the foundation of the Russian 
 State by Rurik. The trade and manu- 
 factures are now unimportant. Pop. 
 20,599. — The government has an area 
 of 47,236 sq. miles. The principal crops 
 are rye, barley, oats, flax, and hemp. 
 Pop. 1,194,078. 
 
 NOVICE, a candidate of either sex 
 for a religious order; the novitiate being 
 the time in which the novice makes trial 
 of a monastic life before taking the final 
 vows. The term of probation is at least 
 one year, and may extend to two or 
 three. The order is not bound to receive 
 a novice at the end of his novitiate, 
 neither can a novice be hindered to leave 
 the order when the term of novitiate is 
 expired. The age for commencing a 
 monastic life is fixed by the Council of 
 Trent at sixteen years. 
 
 NOVUM OR'GANUM, the second part 
 of Bacon’s great projected work the 
 Instauratio Magna, published in 1620. 
 It is written in Latin, and along with the 
 Advancement of Learning forms the 
 foundation of the inductive or Baconian 
 system of philosophy. 
 
 NUBIA, a name given, in a more or 
 less restricted sense, to the countries of 
 N.E. Africa bounded n. by Egypt, e. 
 by the Red Sea, s. by Abyssinia, Senaar, 
 and Kordofan, and w. by the Libyan 
 Desert. With the exception of the valley 
 of the Nile the country is generally 
 desert. The Nubians belong to the 
 
 Arabian and Ethiopian races, who con- 
 verge in the Nile basin ; they are a hand- 
 some race, of dark-brown complexion, 
 bold, frank, cheerful, and more simple 
 and incorrupt in manners than their 
 neighbors either up or down the river. 
 Their language is various dialects of the 
 Negro speech of Kordofan. Pop. esti- 
 mated at 1,000,000 or 1,500,000. Among 
 the towns are Dongola, Khartoom, 
 Berber, etc. See Egypt, Soudan. 
 
 P. E.— 57 
 
 NUDIBRANCHIATA, the section of 
 “Naked-gilled” Molluscs. They have 
 no shells in their adult state, and the 
 gills are completely exposed, existing 
 
 Nudibranchlata 
 
 for the most part as branched or arnores- 
 cent structures on the back or sides of 
 the body. The sea-lemons, sea-lugs, etc., 
 are examples. 
 
 NUISANCE, a legal term used to de- 
 note whatever incommodes or annoys; 
 anything that produces inconvenience 
 or damage. Nuisances are of two kinds 
 — public or common and private. Public 
 nuisances are: annoyances in the high- 
 ways, bridges, and public rivers; in- 
 jurious and offensive trades and manu- 
 factures, which, when hurtful to in- 
 dividuals, are actionable, and when 
 detrimental to public health or con- 
 venience, punishable by public prosecu- 
 tion, and subject to fine according to 
 the nature of the offense. A private 
 nuisance may be defined as an injury 
 or annoyance to the person or property 
 of an individual. Whatever obstructs 
 passage along the public ways, or what- 
 ever is intolerably offensive to individ- 
 uals in their homes, constitutes a nui- 
 sance. Causing inconvenience to one’s 
 neighbors may not in itself be a nuisance 
 at law; there must be positive discom- 
 fort or danger. As regards the power for 
 the removal of public and private 
 nuisances, a statue was passed in 1855 
 for England, called the Nuisances Re- 
 moval Act, which has been amended by 
 subsequent acts. By these acts authority 
 is given to some local board, local officers 
 or overseers of the parish, to carry out 
 the provisions of the act. The local 
 authority is to appoint a sanitary in- 
 spector, who is empowered to remove 
 or remedy nuisances, such as the carry- 
 ing on of noisome trades or manufac- 
 tures; may be empowered on reasonable 
 complaint, to demand an entrance Into 
 any private premises so as to inspect 
 their condition; and may order the 
 removal of the nuisance. If the offender 
 refuse to do so the local board may 
 remove the nuisance at his expense, and 
 sue him for such expenses. The Public 
 Health Act of 1867 created a number 
 of statutory nuisances. The law in the 
 United States differs little from that of 
 England. 
 
 NULLIFICATION ACTS is a term used 
 with reference to certain acts adopted 
 by the legislature of South Carolina in 
 1830-32, by which it was sought to 
 nullify various acts of congress in rela- 
 tion to the tariff. 
 
 Andrew Jackson was president of the 
 United States when the state of South 
 Carolina undertook its nullification 
 proceedings, and he made short work of 
 them. After the South Carolina legis- 
 lature had several times declared, each 
 time in stronger language, what it would 
 or could or might do if a tariff bill were 
 passed, congress repealed the act of 
 
 1828, and adopted a new scale to take 
 effect March 3, 1833. President Jackson 
 had already declared in emphatic terms 
 that he would see to the execution of 
 the laws, and the state legislature had 
 declared his statement to be an un- 
 authorized interference with the affairs 
 of South Carolina. Finally on Novem- 
 ber 24, 1832, a convention called by the 
 legislature adopted an ordinance “to 
 nullify certain acts of the congress of 
 the United States, purporting tO' be 
 laws laying duties and imposts on the 
 importation of foreign commodities.” 
 It declared the tariff laws of 1828 and 
 1832 to be unconstitutional and void 
 and the collections of duties unlawful, 
 and finally declared that if any attempt 
 should be made by the federal govern- 
 ment to coerce the state, they would 
 hold themselves absolved from all 
 obligations to maintain their political 
 connection with the Union and would 
 organize a separate government. This 
 document was sent out to other states as 
 the declaration of South Carolina. 
 
 Jackson replied with a proclamation 
 declaring the ordinance an act of nulli- 
 fication and secession, denying the right 
 of any state to annul a law, and declar- 
 ing his determination “to execute the 
 laws, to preserve the Union by all con- 
 stitutional means, to arrest, if possible, 
 by moderate and firm measures, the 
 necessity of a resort to force.” 
 
 The South Carolina legislature pro- 
 tested, exhorted the people to ignore 
 the president’s proclamation, and, on 
 December 20, 1832, passed an act to 
 carry the ordinance into effect by pro- 
 viding judicial remedies in the state 
 courts for the recovery of goods seized 
 or held for dues under the act of con- 
 gress. On March 2, 1833, congress 
 amended the act of 1832 by a compro- 
 mise act reducing certain duties, and 
 followed it on the next day by a Force 
 Act, empowering the president to use 
 military force to secure the collection of 
 duties. Twelve days later the conven- 
 tion came together again and repealed 
 its ordinance of nullification, but three 
 days later it adopted another ordiannee 
 declaring the Force Act null and void. 
 But, as the original ordinance had been 
 repealed and the duties were collected 
 without trouble. General Jackson could 
 afford to treat the last ebullition as 
 mere brutum fulmenand did so, although 
 he is credited with an expressed desire 
 to hang John C. Calhoun, the leader of 
 the nullification movement. 
 
 NUMA POMPILIUS, the second king 
 of Rome, who is said to have reigned 
 from 714 to 672 b.c. He was regarded 
 as the founder of the most important 
 religous institutions of the Romans, and 
 left writings explanatory of his system, 
 which were burnt by order of the senate 
 when accidentally discovered 400 years 
 after his time. 
 
 NUMBER, a single unit considered a 
 part of a series, or two or more of such 
 units. An abstract number is a unit or 
 assemblage of units considered inde- . 
 pendently of any thing or things that 
 they might otherwise be supposed to 
 represent. For example, 5 is an abstract 
 number while it remains independent; 
 but if we say 5 feet or 5 miles it becomes 
 a concrete number. Cardinal numbers 
 
NUMBEil 
 
 i^UREMBERG 
 
 fere numbers which answer the question, 
 “How many?” as one, two, three, etc., 
 in distinction, from first, second, third, 
 etc., which are called ordinal numbers. 
 A prime number is a number which can 
 be divided exactly by no number except 
 itself and unity. A number is even when 
 it is divisible by two, otherwise it is 
 odd. See Arithmetic. 
 
 NUMBER, in grammar, that distinc- 
 tive form which a word assumes accord- 
 ing as it is spoken of or expresses one 
 individual or several individuals. The 
 form which denotes one or an individual 
 is the singular number; the form that is 
 set apart for two individuals (as in 
 Greek and Sanskrit) is the dual num- 
 ber ; while that which refers indifferently 
 to two or more individuals or units con- 
 stitutes the plural number. 
 
 NUMBERING-MACHINE, a machine 
 for impressing consecutive numbers on 
 account-books, coupons, railway-tickets, 
 bank-notes, etc. One of the principal 
 forms of the apparatus consists of discs 
 or wheels decimally numbered on their 
 peripheries, the whole mounted on one 
 axle, upon which they turn freely, act- 
 ing upon each other in serial order. 
 The first wheel of the series, containing 
 the units, is moved one figure between 
 each impact, and when the units are 
 exhausted the tens come into action 
 and act in coincidence with the units; 
 so on of the hundreds, thousands, etc. 
 
 NUMBERS, Book of, the fourth of 
 the books of the Pentateuch. It takes 
 its name from the records which it con- 
 tains of the two enumerations of the 
 Israelites, the first given in chaps, i.-iv. 
 and the second in chap. xxvi. It con- 
 tains a narrative of the journeyings of 
 the Israelties from the time of their 
 leaving Sinai to their arrival at the 
 plains of Moab, and portions of the 
 Mosaic Law. Formerly the authorship 
 was implicitly attributed to Moses, but 
 some modern scholars resolve the book 
 into various parts, to each of which is 
 assigned a separate author. See Pen- 
 tateuch. 
 
 NUMERAL, a figure or character used 
 to express a number; as the Arabic 
 numerals, 1, 2, 3, etc., or the Roman 
 numerals, I, V, X, L, C, D, M, etc. See 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 NUMERATION, the art of expressing 
 in characters any number proposed in 
 words, or of expressing in words any 
 number proposed in characters. The 
 chief terms used for this purpose are 
 the names of the digits from one to ten, 
 a hundred, a thousand, a million, etc. 
 The term billion is of uncertain use: 
 in Brittain it is a million of millions- 
 in France, America, etc., a thousand 
 millions. 
 
 NUMID'IA, an ancient country of 
 North Africa, corresponding roughly 
 with modern Algeria. It was divided 
 among various tribes, but after the 
 second Punic war it was united under 
 Massinissa, and several of its rulers 
 became noted in Roman history In 
 D.c. 46 it became a Roman province. 
 
 NUMISMATTCS, or NUMISMATOL- 
 OGY, the science of coins and medals, 
 the study of which forms a valuable 
 and important adjunct to that of his- 
 tory. The word coin is in modern times 
 applied to those pieces of metal struck 
 
 for the purpose of circulation as money; 
 while the word medal signifies pieces of 
 metal similar to coins not intended for 
 circulation as money, but struck and 
 distributed in commemoration of some 
 person or event. Ancient coins, how- 
 ever, are often termed medals. They 
 are of gold, silver, bronze, electrum, or 
 billon, and in ancient times served not 
 only the purposes of a currency, but 
 as chronicles of political events, and 
 abstracts of the times. It is also fromi 
 coins alone that we derive our knowl- 
 edge of some of the most celebrated 
 works of ancient art, particularly of 
 ancient statuary. In ancient, as in 
 modern times, while the coins of em- 
 pires or kingdoms were (at least in later 
 times) distinguished by the head of the 
 reigning prince, those of free states were 
 distinguished by some symbol. Thus, 
 Egypt was distinguished by a sistrum, 
 an ibis, a crocodile, or a hippopotamus; 
 Arabia by a camel; Africa by an ele- 
 phant; Athens by an owl; Syracuse and 
 
 Nuremberg— The Pegnitz 
 
 Corinth by a winged horse. There were 
 also a number of symbols having a 
 general signification. Thus, a patera 
 signified a libation, and indicated the 
 divine character of the person holding 
 it in his hand; the shaft of a spear de- 
 noted sovereign power; an ensign on an 
 altar, a new Roman colony; and so 
 forth. Mediaeval coins include the By- 
 zantine, the coins of the various Euro- 
 pean states from the fall of Rome to the 
 accession of Charlemagne; the Carlo- 
 vingian currency from Charlemagne to 
 the fall of the Swabian house (1268); 
 early Renaissance to 1450; and classical 
 Renaissance from then till 1600. Modern 
 coins are classed geographically and 
 chronologically. Oriental coins are those 
 of Ancient Persia, Arabia, Modern 
 Persia, India, China, etc. 
 
 NUN, a word of unknown origin, but 
 supposed to be connected with a Coptic 
 word signifying “pure,” applied in the 
 Roman Catholic church to a female 
 who retires from the world, joins a 
 religious sisterhood, takes upon herself 
 the vow of chastity and the other vows 
 required by the discipline of her con- 
 vent, and consecrates herself to a life of 
 
 religious devotion. Nearly all tha 
 masculine orders or rules had corre- 
 sponding feminine institutions, while 
 there were also numerous independent 
 orders of nuns. At present the number 
 of nuns is largely in excess of that of 
 monks. The first nunnery is said to 
 have been that founded by a sister of 
 St. Anthony about a.d. 270; and the 
 first in England was founded at Folks- 
 stone by Eadbald, king of Kent, in 630. 
 
 NUN'CIO, an ambassador of the first 
 rank (not a cardinal) representing the 
 pope at the court of a sovereign entitled 
 to that distinction. A papal ambassador 
 of the first rank, who is at the same 
 time a cardinal, is called a legate. The 
 title of internuncio is given to an am- 
 bassador of inferior rank, who repre- 
 sentsthe pope at minor courts. Formerly 
 the papal nuncios exercised the supreme 
 spiritual jurisdiction in their respective 
 districts. But now, in those Catholic 
 kingdoms and states which hold them- 
 selves independent of the court of Rome 
 
 and St. Lawrence church. 
 
 in matters of discipline, the nuncio is 
 simply an ambassador. 
 
 NUREMBERG (nu'rem-berg), a town 
 in Bavaria, 93 miles n.n.w. of Munich. 
 Within the walls it is one of the best- 
 preserved specimens of a mediaeval 
 town in existence. The houses are 
 generally lofty and picturesque, and 
 many of them have three ranges of 
 dormer-windows „ on their steep roofs. 
 The town, which is very densely built, 
 rises gradually to a height on the north 
 side, on which the old castle is situ- 
 ated. The Pegnitz, traversing the town 
 from east to west, divides it into two 
 nearly equal parts — the north, and the 
 south, which communicate by numerous 
 bridges. It contains a large market- 
 place and several interesting churches, 
 among the finest of which are the Gothic 
 churches of St. Lawrence and St. Sebal- 
 dus, both dating from the 13th centurs'. 
 Other places of worship are the 14th 
 century Marienkirche (Roman Catholic) , 
 and the .Jewish synagogue in oriental 
 style (1867-74). The castle dates from 
 the reign of Frederick Barbarossa 
 (1158): part of the interior was fitted 
 up in Gothic style (1854-56) as a royal 
 
NURSE 
 
 N-i7.GHAU 
 
 residence. Nuremberg has extensive 
 breweries, railway-carriage and lead- 
 pencil manufactories, and produces 
 fancy articles in metal, carved wood, 
 ivory, etc., toys, chemicals, clocks and 
 watches, cigars, playing-cards, etc. 
 Printing and bookbinding are also ex- 
 tensively carried on, and the hop- 
 market is the most important on the 
 continent. The town is celebrated, in 
 connection with its industry, for the 
 invention of watches. Pop. 261,022. 
 
 NURSE, one who tends or takes care 
 of the young, sick, or infirm ; specifically 
 a female hospital attendant. There are 
 now numerous institutions where active, 
 intelligent, and physically able women 
 are thoroughly trained for this work. 
 The system of sending trained nurses to 
 a seat of war originated with Miss 
 Florence Nightingale during the Crimean 
 war, and organizations for military 
 nursing during the war are now com- 
 mon to all civilized countries. See Red 
 Cross. 
 
 NUT, in botany, a one-celled fruit 
 containing when mature only one seed, 
 and enveloped by a pericarp of a hard, 
 woody, or leathery texture, rarely 
 opening spontaneously when ripe. 
 Among the best known and most 
 valuable nuts are. the hazel-nut, the 
 Brazil-nut, the walnut, chestnut, and 
 cocoa-nut, all of which are edible. 
 Various other kinds of nuts are used for 
 special purposes. Thus valonia-nuts, 
 gall-nuts, (not strictly speaking, nu-ts — 
 see Galls), and myrobalan-nuts are used 
 in tanning and dyeing, the last two also 
 in ink-making; betel-nuts in making 
 tooth-powder and tooth-paste; and 
 coquilla-nuts and vegetable-ivory (the 
 kernel of the nut of the Peruvian palm), 
 being very hard and capable of taking 
 on a fine polish, are used in making 
 small ornamental articles of turnery. 
 
 NUT'CRACKER, the name of an in- 
 sessorial bird. It is generally referred 
 to the crow family, and so placed as to 
 approximate either the woodpeckers or 
 starlings. The European nutcracker is 
 about the size of the jackdaw, but with 
 a longer tail. It combines to a consid- 
 erable extent the habits of the wood- 
 
 C eckers and those of the omnivorous 
 irds. It has received the name of 
 nutcracker from its feeding upon nuts. 
 An American species is noted for the 
 diversified beauty of its plumage, fre- 
 quents rivers and sea-shores in America. 
 NUTGALLS. See Galls. 
 
 NUT'HATCH, the common European 
 nuthatch is a scansorial bird, of shy and 
 solitary habits, frequenting woods and 
 feeding on insects chiefly. It also eats 
 the kernel of the hazel-nut, breaking 
 the shell with great dexterity. The 
 female lays her eggs in holes of trees, 
 and hisses like a snake when disturbed. 
 Four distinct species are found in the 
 United States; the Carolina or white- 
 bellied, the Canada or red-bellied; the 
 brown-headed nuthatch of the southern 
 states and the pygmy nuthatch of the 
 southwest. 
 
 NUTMEG, this fruit is a nearly spher- 
 ical drupe of the size and somewhat the 
 shape of a small pear. The fleshy part is 
 of a yellowish color without, almost 
 white within, and 4 or 5 lines in thick- 
 ness, and opens into two nearly equal 
 
 White-beUied nuthatch. 
 
 longitudinal valves, presenting to view 
 the nut surrounded by its arillus, known 
 to'us as mace. The nut is oval, the shell 
 very hard and dark-brown. This im- 
 mediately envelops the kernel, which is 
 the nutmeg. The tree producing this 
 fruit grows principally in the islands of 
 Banda in the East Indies, and has been 
 introduced into Sumatra, India, Brazil, 
 and the West Indies. It reaches the 
 height of 20 or 30 feet, producing numer- 
 ous branches. The color of the bark of 
 the trunk is a reddish-brown ; that of the 
 young branches a bright green. The 
 nutmeg is an aromatic, stimulating in 
 its nature, and possessing narcotic 
 properties, very grateful to the taste 
 
 and smell, and much used in cookery. 
 Nutmegs yield by distillation with 
 water about 6 per cent of a transparent 
 oil having a specific gravity .948, an 
 odor of nutmeg, and a burning, aromatic 
 taste. 
 
 NU'TRIA, the commercial name for 
 the skins of the coypou of S. America. 
 The overhair is coarse; the fur, which is 
 used chiefly for hat-making, is soft, fine, 
 and of a brownish-ash color. 
 
 NUTRITION, the act or progress by 
 which organisms, whether vegetable 
 or animal, are able to absorb into their 
 system their proper food, thus promoting 
 their growth or repairing the waste of 
 their tissues. It is the function by which 
 the nutritive matter already elaborated 
 by the various organic actions loses its 
 own nature, and assumes that of the 
 different living tissues — a process by 
 which the various parts of an organism 
 either increase in size from additions 
 made to already formed parts, or by 
 which the various parts are maintained 
 in the same general conditions of form. 
 
 size, and composition which they have 
 already by development and growth 
 attained. It involves and comprehends 
 all those acts and processes which are 
 devoted to the repair of bodily waste, 
 and to the maintenance of the growth 
 and vigor of all living tissues. 
 
 NUTRITIVENESS OF FOODS, aver- 
 age quantity of nutritive matter in 
 1,000 parts of varieties of animal and 
 vegetable food. 
 
 Cucumber 25 
 
 Melons 30 
 
 Turnips ! 42 
 
 Milk 73 
 
 Cabbage 73 
 
 Carrots. 98 
 
 White ot egg. 140 
 
 Beet-root 148 
 
 Cherries 250 
 
 Veal 250 
 
 Beef 260 
 
 Potatoes 260 
 
 Apricots. 260 
 
 Grapes 270 
 
 Chicken 270 
 
 Plums 290 
 
 Pears 160 
 
 Apples 170 
 
 Haddock 180 
 
 Gooseberries 190 
 
 Peaches 200 
 
 Codfish 310 
 
 Sole 210 
 
 Pork 240 
 
 Mutton 290 
 
 Tamarinds 340 
 
 Almonds 650 
 
 Oats 742 
 
 Rye 792 
 
 Rice 880 
 
 Barley. 920 
 
 Wheat 950 
 
 NUX- VOMICA, the fruit of a species 
 of plants growing in various places in 
 
 Strychnos nux-vomica. 
 
 the East Indies It is about the size and 
 shape of a small orange, and has a very 
 bitter acrid taste. It is known as a 
 very virulent poison, and is remarkable 
 for containing the vegeto-alkali strych- 
 nia. See Strychnine. 
 
 NYAN'ZA. See Albert Nyanza and 
 Victoria Nyanza. 
 
 NYAS'SA, a large lake in south- 
 eastern Africa; discovered by Living- 
 stone in 1859. The length of the lake is 
 nearly 400 miles, and it varies in breadth 
 from 15 to more than 50. The surface 
 is 1570 feet above the sea-level; its 
 waters abound in fish. On the west lies 
 British territory, on the east the terri- 
 tories of Portugal and Germany. The 
 British Central Africa protectorate 
 occupies the western and southern shores 
 and extends toward the Zambesi. Pop. 
 845,000. 
 
 NYLGHAU, a species of antelope as 
 large as or larger than a stag, inhabiting 
 
NYMPtt 
 
 OATH 
 
 the forests of Northern India, Persia, 
 etc. The horns are short and bent for- 
 ward; there is a beard under the middle 
 of the neck; the hair is grayish-blue. 
 The female has no horns. The nylghau 
 is much hunted as one of the noblest 
 beasts of the chase, the skin of the bull 
 being in demand for the manufacture 
 of native shields. The name nylghau 
 literally means “blue ox,” and has, 
 doubtless, been applied to this animal 
 from the ox-like proportions of its body. 
 They are known to breed freely in con- 
 finement. 
 
 NYMPH, a term sometimes applied 
 to denote the pupa or chrysalis stage in 
 the metamorphosis of insects and other 
 animals. 
 
 NYMPH.®A'CE.®, aquatic plants ; the 
 water-lilies of various parts of the world. 
 The leaves are peltate or cordate and 
 fleshy; the stalks both of flowers and 
 
 leaves vary according to the depth of 
 the water on the top of which the leaves 
 
 Nymphoea Lotus (white Egyptian water-lily). 
 
 float. The stems are bitter and astrin- 
 gent, and the seeds, which taste like 
 those of the poppy, may be used as food, 
 
 o 
 
 and hence the Victoria Regia is called 
 water-maize in South America. The 
 species are mostly prized for the beauty 
 of their flowers; as the white water-lily 
 which grows in pools, lakes, and slow 
 rivers. 
 
 NYMPHS, in mythology, a numerous 
 class of inferior divinities, imagined as 
 beautiful maidens, not immortal, but 
 always young, who were considered as 
 tutelary spirits not only of certain 
 localities, but also of certain races and 
 families. They occur generally in con- 
 nection with some other divinity of 
 higher rank, and they were believed to 
 be possessed of the gift of prophecy and 
 of poetical inspiration. Those who pre- 
 sided over rivers, brooks, and springs 
 were called Naiads; those over moun- 
 tains, Oreads; those over woods and 
 trees. Dryads, and Hamadryads; those 
 over the sea, Nereids. 
 
 O, the fifteenth letter and the fourth 
 vowel in the English alphabet. In 
 English O represents six or seven sounds 
 and shades of sound: (1) as in note, go, 
 etc. (2) The similar short sound as in 
 tobacco. (3) The sound heard in not, 
 gone. (4) The same sound lengthened as 
 in mortal. (5) The sound in move, do, 
 tomb, prove. (6) The same sound but 
 shorter as in wolf, woman. (7) The sound 
 of u in tub, as in come, done, love. 
 It is also a common element in di- 
 graphs, as 00 , oa, ou. 
 
 O’, in Irish proper names, a patrony- 
 mic prefix corresponding to the Mac of 
 the Highlands of Scotland; thus O’Con- 
 nel means “the son of Connell.” 
 
 OAJACA, or OAXACA (6-a-ha'k(i), a 
 state of Mexico, on the Pacific Ocean 
 and the Gulf of Tehuantepec; area, 
 33,978 sq. miles. The inhabitants are 
 chiefly Indians. Pop. 948,633. — The 
 capital, which has the same name, stands 
 near the river Verde, 218 miles s.s.e. of 
 Mexico, 4800 feet above the sea. Pop. 
 35,049. 
 
 OAK, the general name of the trees 
 and shrubs, having monoecious flowers, 
 those of the males forming pendulous 
 catkins, those of the females solitary or 
 in clusters, and having an involucre 
 which forms the well-known “cup” of 
 the fruit — the acorn. The oak from the 
 remotest antiquity has obtained a pre- 
 eminence among trees, and has not 
 unjustly been styled the “monarch of 
 the woods.” The species of oak are 
 very numerous, generally natives of the 
 more temperate parts of the northern 
 hemisphere, but found also in Java, 
 Mexico, and S. America. They have 
 alternate simple leaves, which are entire 
 in some, but in the greater number 
 variously lobed and sinuated or cut; 
 evergreen in some, but more generally 
 deciduous. For more than a thousand 
 years ships were mainly built of common 
 oak. The common oak attains a height 
 of from 50 to 100 or even 150 feet, with 
 a diameter of trunk of from 4 to 8 feet. 
 The oak subserves a great number of 
 useful purposes, the wood being- hard, 
 tough, tolerably flexible, strong without 
 being too heavy, not readily penetrated 
 
 by water. The bark of the common 
 oak-tree and of several others is pre- 
 ferred to all other substances for the 
 purpose of tanning on account of the 
 amount of tannic and gallic acid it con- 
 tains. Oak galls, morbid growths caused 
 by insects, are also much used in tan- 
 ning, especially those of Q. infectoria. 
 Oak bark is also used medicinally as an 
 astringent. 
 
 OAKLAND, a town of the United 
 States in California, on the east side of 
 San Francisco bay, opposite San Fran- 
 cisco. It has some extensive industrial 
 establishments, and is rapidly increas- 
 ing. Pop. 80,000. 
 
 OAKUM, the substance of old tarred 
 or untarred ropes untwisted and pulled 
 into loose fibres; used for caulking the 
 seams of ships, stopping leaks, etc. 
 That formed from untarred ropes is 
 called white oakum. 
 
 OAR, a long piece of timber flat at one 
 end and round at the other, used to 
 propel a boat, barge, or galley through 
 the water. The flat part, which is dipped 
 into the water, is called the blade; the 
 other end is the handle; and the part 
 between the two is called the loom. 
 Oars are frequently used for steering, as 
 in whale-boats. Sweeps are large oars 
 used in small vessels sometimes to assist 
 the rudder, but usually to assist the 
 motion of the ship in a calm. A scull 
 is a short oar of a length such that one 
 man can manage two, one on each side. 
 
 OA'SIS, the name of the fertile spots 
 in the Libyan desert where there is a 
 spring or well and more or less vegeta- 
 tion, but now applied to any fertile 
 tract in the midst of a waste, and often 
 used figuratively. The oases of Northern 
 Africa are generally river valleys, the 
 waters of which are for the most part 
 underground, or depressions surrounded 
 by short ranges of hills, from which 
 s.aall brooks descend, sometimes form- 
 ing a lake in the center. In recent times 
 oases have been formed in the Northern 
 Sahara by sinking artesian wells. There 
 are many important oases in the West- 
 ern Sahara, in the Libyan desert, in 
 Arabia, Persia, and in the Desert of 
 Gobi in Central Asia. In ancient times 
 
 the most celebrated oasis was that to the 
 west of Egypt, containing the temple of 
 Jupiter Ammon, now called the Oasis 
 of Siwah. 
 
 OAT, or OATS, a genus of edible 
 grasses cultivated extensively in all 
 temperate climates, and though prin- 
 cipally grown as food for horses largely 
 used when ground into meal as human 
 food. There are about sixty species. 
 The cultivated species of oats are sub- 
 divided into a large number of varieties, 
 which are distinguished from each other 
 by color, size, form of seeds, quality of 
 straw, period of ripening, adaptation to 
 particular soils and climates, and other 
 characteristics. The yield of oats varies 
 from 20 bushels to 80 bushels per acre 
 according to soil, etc. The weight per 
 bushel varies from 35 to 45 lbs., and the 
 meal product is about half the weight of 
 the oats. Oatmeal is a cheap and valu- 
 able article of food, and its value seems 
 to be becoming more appreciated among 
 the wealthier classes as it is being neg- 
 lected by the poorer. 
 
 OATH, a solemn assertion or promise, 
 with the invocation of God to be a wit- 
 ness of the truth of what we say. Vari- 
 ous forms have been associated with 
 oath-taking. Thus, men have pro- 
 claimed and symbolized their promise 
 by chopping a fowl in two, by standing 
 within a circle of rope, by placing the 
 hand under another’s thigh, by dipping 
 weapons into or drinking blood, or by 
 stretching the hand upw’ard toward the 
 sky, and this latter gesture has estab- 
 lished itself throughout Europe. Among 
 the early Christians the question of oath- 
 taking was a matter of much contro- 
 versy, objection to it being founded upon 
 Christ’s command of “Swear not at all” 
 (Matt. V. 34); but this injunction was 
 held by Athanasius and others only to 
 prohibit colloquial as distinct from judi- 
 cial swearing. This objection is still 
 maintained, however, by Mennonites, 
 Quakers, Anabaptists; and the Secular- 
 ists in England, upon other grounds, 
 refuse the judicial oaths. In the United 
 States a witness may either swear or 
 affirm. False testimony in either cas« 
 amounts to perjury. 
 
OBADIAH 
 
 OCEAN 
 
 OBADI'AH, one of the twelve minor 
 prophets, who foretells the speedy ruin 
 of the Edomites. The prophecy was 
 probably uttered during the period 
 which elapsed between the fall of Jerusa- 
 lem (586 B.c.) and the conquest of Edom 
 by Nebuchadnezzar (583 b.c.). 
 
 OB'ELISK, a column of a rectangular 
 form, diminishing toward the top, gen- 
 erally terminating in a low pyramid. 
 The proportion of the thickness to the 
 height is nearly the same in all obelisks ; 
 
 Obelisks of Thothmes and Hatasou, at Karnak 
 (Thebes), Egypt. 
 
 that is, between one-ninth and one- 
 tenth; and the thickness at the top is 
 never less than half, nor greater than 
 three-fourths of the thickness at the 
 bottom. Egypt abounded with obelisks, 
 which were always of a single block of 
 hard stone; and many have been re- 
 moved thence to Rome and other places. 
 They seem to have been erected to record 
 the honors or triumphs of the monarchs. 
 The two largest obelisks were erected by 
 Sesostris in Heliopolis; the height of 
 these was 180 feet. They were removed 
 to Rome by Augustus. A fine obelisk 
 from Luxor was erected in Paris in 1833 
 and the two known as Cleopatra’s 
 Needles are now in London and New 
 York. Besides those of Egypt, mono- 
 liths of this appearance, but smaller in 
 size, have been found in the ruined cities 
 of Nineveh and Nimrud. The obelisks 
 which were common to Rome, Florence, 
 etc., had all been removed from Egypt 
 during its domination by the Roman 
 emperors. See Monoliths. 
 
 OB'ELUS, a mark, usually of this 
 
 form , or this in ancient MSS. or 
 
 old editions of the classics, and indicat- 
 ing a suspected passage or reading. 
 
 OBERAJI'MERGAU, a village in 
 Upper Bavaria, celebrated for the per- 
 formance, every ten years, of the pas- 
 sion-play of Christ’s crucifixion and 
 ascension. The performance takes place 
 every Sunday during the summer, on a 
 large wooden stage open to the sky, and 
 it usually lasts eight hours. Primarily 
 regarded by these Bavarian villagers 
 as a religious exercise, it has become in 
 their performances a mystery play of im- 
 pressive beauty. Latterly, however, it 
 has taken the character of a European 
 {imuscment and a source of profit. 
 
 O'BERON, in popular mythology, a 
 king of the elves or fairies, and husband 
 of Titania. He appears first in the old 
 French poem Huon of Bordeaux, but is 
 best known from Shakespeare and from 
 Weber’s opera of Oberon. 
 
 OBESITY. See Corpulence. 
 
 OBJECT-GLASS, in a telescope or 
 microscope, the lens which first receives 
 the rays of light coming directly from 
 the object, and collects them into a 
 focus. In the finest refracting telescopes 
 the object-glass consists of an achromatic 
 combination of lenses, formed of sub- 
 stances having different dispersive 
 powers, and of such figures that the 
 aberration of the one may be corrected 
 by that of the other. The substances 
 chiefly used are crown-glass and flint- 
 
 OBJECTIVE. See Object. 
 
 OBLIGATION is a term in law which 
 describes the bond under which a per- 
 son binds himself to pay within a cer- 
 tain time and in the breaking of which 
 a penalty is involved; or the tie in gen- 
 eral by which a person is legally bound 
 to the performance of anything. 
 
 OBLIGATO, or OBBLIGATO, in 
 music, a part or accompaniment in a 
 composition for a particular instrument 
 of such character and importance that 
 it is indispensable to the proper per- 
 formance of the piece. 
 
 OBOE (6'boi), a musical wind-instru- 
 ment resembling a clarionet in shape, 
 and sounded through a double reed. It 
 consists of three joints besides the 
 mouthpiece, and its compass is generally 
 from B below the treble clef to F in alt. 
 
 Oboe. 
 
 with the intermediate semitones, being 
 a compass of two octaves and one fifth. 
 The name oboe is from the Italian; the 
 French form, hautboy, was formerly 
 more frequently used. 
 
 O’BRIEN, William Smith, Irish na- 
 tionalist, born 1803, died 1864. He 
 entered parliament in 1826, and sub- 
 sequently joined the Young Ireland 
 group of politicians, and advocated the 
 use of physical force. In an endeavor 
 (1848) to effect a rising in Tipperary, he 
 was surrounded, arrested, tried by 
 special commission at Clonmel, and 
 sentenced to death, but in the end this 
 was commuted to transportation. He 
 was set at liberty in 1854, and fully 
 pardoned in 1856. 
 
 OBSERVATORY, a building devoted 
 to the observation of astronomical, 
 magnetic, meteorological, or other nat- 
 ural phenomena. The astronomical ob- 
 servatory is the one of most general 
 interest. Astronomical observation be- 
 gan at an early date in China; the 
 pyramids in Egypt seem in some way 
 to have been associated with stellar 
 observation ; and the first historical 
 observatory was founded in Alaxandria 
 300 B.c. Its work was begun by Aristil- 
 lus, and continued by Timocharis, 
 Hipparchus, Aristarchus, and others. 
 The first European observatory was 
 built at Nuremberg by Bernhard Wal- 
 ther in 1472, and this was followed in the 
 
 16th century by Tycho Brahe’s famous 
 observatory on the island of Hveen near 
 Copenhagen, while another was erected 
 by the Landgrave of Hesse at Cassel in 
 1561. Through the labors of Brahe 
 practical astronomy became associated 
 with the universities, so that Leyden 
 and Copenhagen founded observatories. 
 These were followed by the construe-, 
 tion of the Royal Observatory at Paris' 
 (1667), the Greenwich Royal Observa- 
 tory (1675), the Tusculan Observatory 
 near Copenhagen (1704), Berlin (1705; 
 new observatory 1835), Vienna (1756), 
 Dublin (1785), Konigsberg (1813), Syd- 
 ney (1820), Cape of Good Hope (1820), 
 Edinburgh (1825), Pulkova near St. 
 Petersburg (1839), Cambridge, United 
 States (1839), Washington, United 
 States (1845), Melbourne (1853), Lick 
 Observatory, California (1888), Yerkes 
 Observatory, Wisconsin (1896). The 
 chief observatory instruments are the 
 telescope, equatorial and mural circle, 
 and transit instrument, together with 
 the sidereal and the solar clock. In the 
 larger observatories the application of 
 spectrum analysis, photography, pho- 
 tometry, etc., has greatly increased the 
 number and variety of observations. 
 The observatory building must be con- 
 structed in a very stable manner, and 
 as the instruments must be out of con- 
 tact with the walls they are attached 
 to stone pillars that rest on foundations 
 separate from the rest of the building. 
 
 OBSTETRICS. See Midwifery. 
 
 OCCIDENT, the western quarter of 
 the hemisphere, so called from the de- 
 cline or setting of the sun ; the west : used 
 in contradistinction to orient. 
 
 OCCULTATION is the term used in 
 astronomy for the hiding of a star or 
 planet from our sight by passing behind 
 some other of the heavenly bodies, and 
 specifically applied to the eclipse of a 
 star or planet by the moon. The word 
 denotes also the time during which a 
 star or planet is so hidden from our sight. 
 
 OCCULTISM, an “occult” property 
 of matter is, in mediaeval phraseology, 
 a property that requires to be made 
 manifest by experimentation ; and occult 
 science is simply experimental science. 
 The term has undergone a curious trans- 
 formation of meaning. As such science 
 was the occupation of the few, and was 
 not seldom suspect to the reigning the- 
 ology, the word “occult” gradually 
 assumed the significance that it now 
 possesses, of something magical or un- 
 canny or supernormal. 
 
 OCCUPANCY, in law, the taking pos- 
 session of a thing not belonging to any 
 person, and the right acquired by such 
 taking possession. 
 
 OCEAN, or SEA, the vast body of 
 water which covers more than three- 
 fifths of the surface of the globe. Al- 
 though no portion of it is completely 
 detached from the rest, the ocean has 
 often been divided into several great 
 basins or areas, viz. the Pacific ocean, 
 which separates Asia and Australia from 
 America; the Atlantic ocean, which 
 separates America from Europe and 
 Africa; and the Indian ocean, which 
 intervenes between Africa and Australia, 
 together with the Arctic and the Ant- 
 arctic oceans, round the north and south 
 poles respectively. Between these no 
 
OCEANIA 
 
 OCTOPUS 
 
 very definite limits can be drawn ; thus 
 it is impossible to say where the Atlantic 
 or the Pacific ends and the Antarctic 
 or Southern ocean begins. The bed of 
 the ocean appears to present the same 
 irregularities as the surface of the land, 
 being diversified by rocks, mountains, 
 plains, and deep valleys. The deepest 
 soundings at present known are 515.'! 
 fathoms (in the South Pacific), 4655 
 fathoms (northeast of Japan), and 4561 
 fathoms (north of Porto Rico). (See 
 Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, etc.) 
 The waters of the ocean vary as greatly 
 in temperature as they do in depth. 
 This is partly due to the ordinary effects 
 of isolation ; but the abrupt changes and 
 anomalous distribution of temperature 
 is chiefly owing to currents. (See Cur- 
 rents, Marine.) The Pacific and Indian 
 oceans are both warmer in low latitudes 
 than the Atlantic, and the mean tem- 
 perature of the equatorial areas at the 
 surface is assumed to be 81°. 5; the 
 warmth of the North Atlantic is anoma- 
 lous, and due to the influence of the Gulf 
 Stream. This high temperature only 
 applies to the surface water of the ocean, 
 for experience shows that in both 
 hemispheres and in all latitudes the 
 basic water of the ocean is exceedingly 
 cold. In low latitudes water at 32° has 
 been drawn from great depths; while in 
 high latitudes water at 26° has been 
 found. This phenomenon is accounted 
 for by the supposition that the cold 
 water at the poles, by reason of its 
 specific gravity, sinks to the bottom and 
 spreads throughout the ocean basin. 
 The saltness of the ocean is due to the 
 presence of various saline ingredients 
 (chiefly chloride of sodium or common 
 salt), which are generally found in the 
 proportion of from 30 to 40 per thou- 
 sand. Recent observations have shown 
 that the color and transparency of the 
 water of the ocean are in a large measure 
 dependent on the degree of saltness. 
 In general it is found that the greater 
 the saltness the greater the transpar- 
 ency, and also that where the saltness 
 is very great the water is of a dark-blue 
 color, that where it is less the water is of 
 lighter blue, inclining to green, and that 
 in the neighborhood of rivers (where 
 the saltness is reduced to a minimum) 
 the water is as a rule of a greenish-yellow. 
 
 OCEA'NIA includes all the islands of 
 the Pacific between Asia on the north- 
 west, the Indian ocean on the west, the 
 Antarctic ocean on the south, and 
 America on the north and east. It is 
 usually divided into Australasia, Poly- 
 nesia, and Malaysia or the Malay 
 Archipelago. 
 
 OCE'ANUS, in Greek and Roman 
 mythology, the eldest of the Titans, re- 
 garded as the god of the ocean or the 
 river surrounding the earth, and the 
 parent of the Oceanides or ocean nymphs. 
 
 O'CELOT, a digitigrade carnivorous 
 mammal of the cat kind peculiar to the 
 American continent. It attains a length 
 of about 3 feet, while the tail measures 
 some 18 inches more. The ocelot in- 
 habits great forests; its food consists 
 mainly of birds and rodents; and it is 
 timid but bloodthirsty. 
 
 OCHRE, a combination of peroxide 
 of iron with water; but the name is gen- 
 erally applied to clays colored with the 
 
 oxides of iron in various proportions. 
 Considerable quantities of ochre are 
 obtained from the ferruginous mud sepa- 
 rated from tin and copper ores; and it 
 is also found in natural beds some feet 
 thick in the more recent formations. 
 Ochres vary in color from a pale sandy 
 yellow to a brownish red, and are much 
 used in painting. , 
 
 Ocelot. 
 
 O’CONNELL, Daniel, Irish agitator 
 born in Kerry in 1775. He studied for 
 the Irish bar, and soon became dis- 
 tinguished for legal skill and oratory. 
 Turning his energy to Irish politics he 
 advocated Catholic Emancipation; skil- 
 fully kept the agitation within constitu- 
 tional lines; became member for Clare 
 in 1828; and attained his triumph in the 
 following year when the government 
 of the Duke of Wellington granted the 
 Catholic claims. After the Reform Bill 
 he became conspicuous as the head of a 
 parliamentary body called “O’Connell’s 
 Tail.” In 1841 he developed his policy, 
 called together enormous meetings 
 throughout Ireland, and loudly raised 
 a cry for the Repeal of the Union. This 
 agitation Sir R. Peel and the govern- 
 ment determined to put down. They 
 arrested O’Connell, obtained a convic- 
 tion, and sentenced him to twelve 
 months’ imprisonment with a fine of 
 110,000. In a few months the House of 
 Lords quashed this judgment. Mean- 
 while, however, a new and more ad- 
 vanced party had sprung up in the 
 Repeal Association, and the health of 
 O’Connell was broken down. He made 
 his last speech in parliament April, 1847, 
 and died the following month at Genoa, 
 on his way to Rome. 
 
 OC'TAGON, in geometry, is a figure of 
 eight sides and angles, which when the 
 sides and angles are all equal is called a 
 regular octagon, and when Hiey are not 
 equal an irregular octagon. 
 
 OCTAHE'DRON, in geometry, a solid 
 contained by eight equal and equilateral 
 triangles. It is one of the five regular 
 bodies. 
 
 OC'TANT, in astronomy, that position 
 or aspect of a heavenly body, as the 
 moon or a planet, when half-way be- 
 tween conjunction or opposition and 
 quadrature, or distant from another 
 point or body the eighth part of a circle 
 or 45°. The word is also applied to an 
 instrument for measuring angles, resem- 
 bling a sextant or quadrant in principle, 
 but having an arc the eighth part of a 
 circle, or 45° 
 
 OCTAVE, in music, an interval of 
 seven degrees or twelve semitones above 
 or below some sound counted from; or 
 one sound eight tones higher than 
 another. The octave is the most perfect 
 of the chords, consisting of six full tones 
 and two semitones major. It contains 
 
 the whole diatonic scale. The most 
 simple perception that we can have of 
 two sounds is that of unisons, or sounds 
 of the same pitch, the vibrations be- 
 ginning and ending together. The next 
 to this is the octave, where the more 
 acute sound makes precisely two vibra- 
 tions while the grave or deeper makes 
 one ; consequently, the vibrations of the 
 two meet at every single vibration of 
 the more grave one. Hence the ratio of 
 the two sounds that form the octave is aa 
 1 to 2. See Music. 
 
 OCTA'VIA, daughter of Caius Octav- 
 ius and of Atia, and sister to the Em- 
 peror Augustus, illustrious for he/ 
 virtues, her beauty, and her accomplish- 
 ments, was the widow of Claudius 
 Marcellus, by whom she had a son and 
 two daughters, when she was married, 
 at the instance of her brother, to the 
 triumvir Mark Antony. The latter neg- 
 lected her for Cleopatra, queen of 
 Egypt; notwithstanding which, Octavia 
 displayed the most noble fidelity to his 
 house and fortunes, and devoted herself 
 to the education of all his children, until 
 he divorced and ordered her to leave his 
 house, a command she obeyed without 
 complaint. She died in 11 b.c. 
 
 OCTAVIUS, or OCTAVIANUS See 
 Augustus. 
 
 OCTA'VO,the size of one leaf of a sheet 
 of paper folded so as to make eight 
 leaves: usually written 8vo; hence, a 
 book having eight leaves to the sheet. 
 There are different sizes of octavo, 
 arising from the different sizes of paper 
 employed; as, foolscap 8vo, demy 8vo, 
 imperial 8vo. 
 
 OCTOBER, originally the eighth 
 month in the Roman calendar, whence its 
 name, which it still retained after the 
 beginning of the year had been changed 
 from March to January. 
 
 OCTOPUS, familiarly known as cut- 
 tle-fishes. They have eight arms, each 
 with two rows of suckers, which are 
 sessile or unstalked. The prominent 
 head is joined to the body by a distinct 
 nepk, and the body itself is short, gen- 
 erally more or less rounded in shape, 
 and unprovided with side or lateral 
 
 The common octopus or cuttle. 
 
 fins. They have attained a notoriety 
 from tales circulated concerning their 
 ferocity and the existence of gigantic 
 members of the genus, though the larg- 
 est cuttle-fishes that have been met 
 with have belonged to other genera. The 
 common cuttle is found on the British 
 shores, but is more common in the 
 Mediterranean. It is said to reach a 
 length of 9 feet and a weight of 68 
 pounds, the arms being long and slender 
 
ODDFELLOWS 
 
 OGDENSBURG 
 
 ODDFELLOWS, a large and exten- 
 sively ramified friendly society, having 
 its headquarters in Manchester. It was 
 originally an association of a convivial 
 kind, modeled on freemasonry, and still 
 retains watchwords and secret signs. 
 It assumed its present form at a con- 
 vention in Manchester (1813), and has 
 spread widely in Britain and elsewhere. 
 The organization was introduced into 
 the United States in 1819, and severed 
 its connection with the British Union in 
 1842. Branch societies connected with 
 England or the United States have been 
 founded in Australia, New Zealand, 
 South Africa, South America, etc. 
 
 ODE, a poem of lyrical character, 
 supposed to express the poet’s feelings 
 in the pressure of high excitement, and 
 taking an irregular form from the 
 emotional fervency which seeks spon- 
 taneous rhythm for its varied utterance. 
 The Greeks called every lyrical poem 
 adapted to singing — and hence opposed 
 to the elegiac poem — an ode (ode, that 
 is, song). The principal ancient writers 
 who employed this form of verse were 
 Pindar, Anacreon, Sappho, Alcaeus, 
 among the Greeks, and Horace among 
 the Romans. As employed by English 
 writers the ode takes either the Pindaric 
 form of strophe, antistrophe, and epode 
 irregularly arranged and contrasted; or, 
 as in its later development, the form of 
 a regular series of regular stanzas. The 
 former style is found in Dryden’s Ode 
 for St. Cecilia’s Day, while the latter is 
 seen in Shelley’s Ode to a Skylark. The 
 masters of English poesy who have 
 carried the ode to its highest achieve- 
 ments are Milton, Dry den, Collins, Gray, 
 Coleridge, Wordsworth, Keats, and 
 Shelly. 
 
 ODES'SA, a Russian seaport in the 
 government of Kherson, situated on the 
 Black Sea, between the mouth of the 
 Dnieper and Dniester, on the bay of 
 Odessa. Odessa is one of the chief 
 wheat ports in the East, while wool, tim- 
 ber, hemp, flax, iron, coal, etc., are 
 among the staple exports. Besides the 
 maritime trade, Odessa carries on a 
 large overland trade by rail with Ger- 
 many, Austria, France, Switzerland, 
 and Italy. Pop. 405,041. 
 
 ODIN, or WODEN, the chief god of 
 Scandinavian mythology, the omnis- 
 cient ruler of heaven and earth, having 
 his seat in Valaskjalf, where he receives 
 through his two ravens tidings of all 
 that takes place in the world. As war- 
 god he holds his court in Valhalla, 
 where all brave warriors arrive after 
 death and enjoy the tumultuous pleas- 
 ures they delighted in while on earth. 
 His wife is Frigga. The fourth day of 
 the week, Wednesday, derived its name 
 from this deity. 
 
 ODOA'CER, the first barbarian king 
 or ruler of Italy after the fall of the 
 Western Empire, a.d. 476 to 493. He 
 was chosen head of the barbarian con- 
 federates, and having overthrown Rom- 
 ulus Augustulus, the last of the Ro- 
 man emperors, he assumed the title of 
 king in 476. He ruled with vigor and 
 wisdom. In 489 Italy was invaded by 
 the Ostrogoths under Theodoric, and in 
 repeated battles Odoacer was defeated, 
 being latterly besieged in Ravenna, on 
 the fall of which he was assassinated. 
 
 ODONTOGLOS'SUM, an extensive 
 genus of orchids, natives of Central 
 America, much prized by cultivators 
 
 Odontoglossum. 
 
 for their magnificent flowers, which are 
 remarkable both for their size and 
 beauty of their colors. 
 
 ODYSSEUS (o-dis'us). See Ulysses. 
 
 OD'YSSEY, an epic poem attributed 
 to Homer, in which the adventures of 
 Odysseus (Ulysses) are celebrated. See 
 Homer. 
 
 ■ CECUMENTCAL, universal, an epithet 
 applied to the general councils of the 
 church. From the time of the Council of 
 Chalcedon (451) the patriarchs of Con- 
 stantinople took the title of oecumenical, 
 in the same sense as the epithet Catholic 
 is used in the Western Church. See 
 Council. 
 
 CE'DIPUS, in ancient Greek legend, 
 son of King Lalus of Thebes, was ex- 
 posed as an infant — on account of an 
 oracle saying that Laius would be killed 
 by his son — and was brought up at the 
 court of Corinth. Having solved the 
 riddle of the Sphinx be became king of 
 Thebes, unknowingly killed his own 
 father and married his mother Jocasta 
 a fate foretold by the Delphic oracle. 
 On realizing v^hat had been done Jocasta 
 hanged herself, and Oedipus put out his 
 own eyes. This story has been used by 
 the poets to symbolize the helplessness 
 of man before Fate. The GEdipus of 
 .iEschylus and Euripides are lost, but 
 the King QSpidus and (Edipus at Colonos 
 of Sophocles remain. The story has also 
 been made the subject of tragedies by 
 Corneille, Voltaire, Ch6nier, Dryden 
 and Lee. 
 
 CESOPH'AGUS, or GULLET, the mem- 
 braneous and muscular tube which 
 leads from the pharynx or back part of 
 the mouth to the stomach. In man the 
 length of the gullet is from 9 to 10 inches. 
 It begins at the fifth cervical or neck 
 vertebra, at a point corresponding with 
 the cricoid cartilage of the larynx, and 
 it runs in a slightly deviating course 
 downward to the stomach. Thus in the 
 neck it lies close behind the windpipe; 
 while in the chest it bends to the right 
 side and then to the left before it pierces 
 the midriff or diaphragm — which forms 
 the floor of the chest — by a special 
 aperture existing in that structure. 
 Internally the gullet is lined by mucous 
 membrane, and between the mucous 
 and muscular layers cellular tissue 
 exists. The mucous or lining membrane 
 is thick and of pale color, and is ar- 
 ranged in longitudinal furrows Or folds. 
 
 In the lower animals the modifications 
 of the oesophagus are various. In birds, 
 for instance, it presents the expansion 
 known as the crop. 
 
 OFEN. See Budapest. 
 
 OFFA, a distinguished king of Mercia, 
 who attained the throne after Ethelbald, 
 on defeating the ursurper Beornred, 
 A.D. 757. He founded the Abbey of St. 
 Albans, and was a liberal patron to the 
 church. He died in 796. 
 
 OFFENBACH, Jacques, French com- 
 poser, born of Jewish parents at Cologne 
 in 1819, died 1880. He entered the Paris 
 Conservatoire in 1835; became pro- 
 ficient on the violoncello, and for some 
 time played on this instrument in the 
 orchestra of the Th4fltre Comique. In 
 1847 he became conductor at the Th6&tre 
 Frangais, and subsequently opened the 
 “Bouffes Parisiens,” where he enjoyed 
 immense popularity as the composer of 
 such operas as Orph4e aux Enfers, La 
 Grande Duchesse, La Belle H4Rne, 
 Madame Favart, La Barbe Bleue, 
 Genevieve de Brabant, and La Prin- 
 cesse de Trebizonde. 
 
 OFFERTORY, that portion of the 
 service of the Eucharist in which the 
 offerings of the congregation are made, 
 whether these consist of bread and wine 
 or alms. The term is used in the Roman 
 Catholic Church to denote that portion 
 of the mass which is being sung when 
 the priest offers the bread and wine; 
 while in the Church of England it is 
 applied to the sentences read from the 
 service when the alms are being col- 
 lected, or is applied to the alms them- 
 selves 
 
 OFFICERS, Military and Naval. In 
 the army, general officers are those whose 
 command extends to a body of forces 
 composed of several regiments, as the 
 general, lieutenant-general, major-gen- 
 erals, and brigadiers. Staff-officers, 
 those who belong to the general staff, 
 as the quartermaster-general, adjutant- 
 generals, aides-de-camp, etc. See Navy, 
 Army and Relative Rank In. 
 
 OFFING, a nautical term signif 3 ring 
 the position of a vessel, or of a portion 
 of the sea within sight of land, relatively 
 to the coast. The offing may be taken to 
 represent that part of the sea beyond 
 the midline between the eoast and the 
 horizon. 
 
 OG, king of Bashan at the time of the 
 conquest of Canaan by the Israelites, 
 by whom he and his people were de- 
 stroyed. He has been transformed by 
 rabbinical fables into one of the giants 
 who lived before the flood, and escaped 
 the general inundation by taking refuge 
 on the roof of Noah’s ark. 
 
 OGDEN, the capital of Weber co., 
 Utah, at the confluence of the Ogden 
 and Weber rivers, the mouth of Ogden 
 canon, and the foot-hills of the Wasatch 
 mountains; on the Union Pac., the 
 Central Pac., and the Rio Grande West, 
 railways; 37 miles n. of Salt Lake City. 
 It derives excellent power for industrial 
 purposes from the rivers, has an abun- 
 dant supply of water from mountain 
 springs, and is in an agricultural, fruit- 
 growing, iron, salt, lime, buildingstone, 
 and coal region. Pop. 19,512. 
 
 OGDENSBURG, a city in St. Law- 
 rence CO., N. Y., at the confluence of the 
 St. Lawrence and the Oswegatchie 
 
OGLESBY 
 
 OHIO 
 
 rivers; on the Central Vt. and the Rome, 
 Watertown and Ogdensburg railways; 
 opposite Prescott, Canada, with which it 
 is connected by steam ferry ; 175 miles 
 n.n.w. of Albany. The city is the head- 
 quarters of a line of screw steamers 
 plying between Chicago and inter- 
 mediate lake ports, and annually 
 handles a large amount of grain and 
 lumber, besides general lake and river 
 freight. Pop. 14,272. 
 
 OGLESBY (o'g’lz-bl), Richard James, 
 American soldier and politician, was 
 born in Oldham co., Ky., in 1824. He 
 moved to Illinois and served as a lieu- 
 tenant in the Mexican war, participat- 
 ing in the battles of Vera Cruz and Cerro 
 Gordo. During the gold excitement of 
 1849 he crossed the continent to the 
 mining districts of California, but re- 
 turned in 1851. In 1860 he was elected 
 state senator but preferred to join the 
 Union forces in the civil war. He was 
 made major-general. In 1864 he was 
 elected governor of Illinois, and re- 
 elected in 1872. He was United States 
 senator from 1873 to 1879, and was 
 again elected governor in 1885. He 
 died in 1899. 
 
 OHI'O, a river in the United States of 
 America, formed by the confluence of 
 the Alleghany from the north and the 
 Monongahela from the south, at Pitts- 
 burg in Pennsylvania, where it is a 
 navigable stream 600 yards broad. It 
 flows W.S.W., separating the states of W. 
 Virginia and Kentucky on the south 
 from Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois on the 
 north, and enters the Mississippi at 
 Cairo. Its length from Pittsburg to its 
 junction with the Mississippi is 975 
 miles; area of basin, 214,000 sq. miles. 
 The width of the river varies from 400 to 
 1400 yards; average width, about 800 
 yards, at its mouth 900 yards. Its prin- 
 cipal affluents are the Miami, Kentucky, 
 Wabash, Cumberland, and Tennessee. 
 
 OHIO, a state in the American Union 
 which ranks fourth in point of popula- 
 tion and agricultural products, is 
 bounded on the north by Lake Erie and 
 the state of Michigan, west by Indiana, 
 south by Kentucky, southeast and east 
 by West Virginia, and northeast by 
 Pennsylvania; area, 20,760 sq. miles. 
 It ranks thirty-second in size among the 
 states. In the north the surface is 
 generally level, and in some places 
 marshy; in the east and southeast it is 
 rugged and broken by hills, but never 
 rises into mountains. In its natural 
 state Ohio was covered with dense 
 forests; now they cover but about one- 
 fifth, the trees most abundant being 
 several varieties of oak, maple, ash, 
 black and white walnut, chestnut, 
 beech, poplar, sycamore, linden, etc. 
 The drainage is divided between the 
 Ohio and Lake Erie. The former, which 
 receives the far larger share, bounds 
 the state partly on the east and wholly 
 on the south, and is augmented from 
 within it by the Mahoning, Beaver, 
 Muskingum, Hockhocking, Scioto, and 
 the Great and Little Miami; the latter, 
 which washes the northern frontier for 
 160 miles, receives the Maumee, Portage, 
 Sandusky, Huron, Cuyahoga, Grand, 
 and Ashtabula. The climate is pleasant 
 and healthful, though variable. The 
 average annual rainfall is 39.35 inches, 
 
 very evenly distributed through the 
 year. 
 
 In the southeastern part the soil is 
 formed directly from the decomposition 
 of the underlying rocks, while in the re- 
 maining area, covering nearly two- 
 thirds of the state, it consists of glacial 
 drift of great fertility. This soil contains 
 a great percentage of limestone material 
 in the west, while in the northeast it 
 consists chiefly of clay, and is well 
 adapted for wheat-growing. The alluvial 
 soil deposited along the river courses is 
 excellent for the raising of Indian corn. 
 The extreme northwestern part of the 
 state exhibits certain features of prairie 
 country. Both the upper and lower 
 coal measures contains several workable 
 
 Seal of Ohio. 
 
 seams interbedded between strata of 
 shale, limestone, sandstone, and clay, 
 and ranging in thickness from two to 
 over a dozen feet. The interbedding 
 strata of the coal measures yield fire- 
 clay and building stone, and here also 
 are found the iron ores of the carbonate 
 variety. Gypsum and salt deposits also 
 occur at various places. One of the most 
 remarkable events in the mineralogical 
 development of Ohio was the discovery 
 in 1884 of petroleum in the Trenton 
 limestone formation of Lower Silurian 
 age. This formation as well as the Upper 
 Silurian inclosed also considerable re- 
 servoirs of natural gas. 
 
 Petroleum was discovered in 1884 and 
 the output of the state exceeds that of 
 any other. The petroleum is obtained 
 in two sections of the state, the south- 
 east and northwest. The former is 
 known as the eastern district, and the 
 latter — themore important — as the Lima 
 district. In a third region, known as the 
 Mecca-Belden district, small quantities 
 of lubricating oil are obtained. The 
 utilization of the state’s natural gas 
 resources is also of recent development. 
 There are two gas fields corresponding 
 in a general way with those of petroleum. 
 
 Ohio ranks first in the annual value 
 of clay products, contributing 17.3 per 
 'cent of the total output for the country. 
 The state regularly ranks first in the 
 figures for the sandstone product. 
 Limestone, iron, and the carbonate 
 variety of ore are found in many places; 
 93.9 per cent of the total land area is 
 in farms. The proximity of large city 
 markets and the excellence of the 
 transportation facilities help to stimu- 
 late agriculture. The area of corn, 
 wheat, and hay each exceeds three 
 
 million acres. Oats are also exten- 
 sively grown, but this crop decreased 
 in area during that decade. Rye, bar- 
 ley, and buckwheat are not exten- 
 sively raised. Ohio is one of the 
 largest producers of Irish potatoes, 
 sweet corn, tomatoes, cabbage and to- 
 bacco. Ohio is probably the largest 
 producer of temperate zone orchard 
 fruits. The region around Lake Erie is 
 especially favored for fruit-raising. This 
 region has become noted for its numer- 
 ous and extensive vineyards. Large 
 quantities of small fruits are grown. 
 Horses, sheep, cattle, and swine are 
 reared in great numbers. Coal and iron 
 are abundant, particularly in the north- 
 east, while salt, marble, limestone, free- 
 stone, and gypsum are found in many 
 districts. The more important manufac- 
 tures are bar, sheet, and railway iron, 
 machinery, hardware, and various 
 articles in metal; leather, woolen, cloth, 
 paper, and spirits. Cotton, silk, flax, 
 and mixed goods are also made to some 
 extent. The foreign trade, carried on 
 chiefly with Canada across Lake Erie, 
 is comparatively small; but a very ex- 
 tensive inland trade is carried on both 
 by the Ohio and by numerous canals 
 and railways, which traverse the coun- 
 try in every direction. Ohio ranks fifth 
 in its total railroad mileage, and in its 
 mileage per 100 sq. miles of area, 21.61 
 miles, it is exceeded by only one other 
 of the large states. Among the higher 
 educational establishments are the uni- 
 versity at Athens; several denomina- 
 tional universities and colleges; schools 
 of law, medicine, and theology. Ohio 
 sends two senators and twenty-one 
 representatives to Congress, and has 
 twenty-three votes in the presidential 
 election. 
 
 Ohio was discovered by La. Salle, 
 probably as early as 1670, and the 
 French took formal possession of the 
 whole northwest in 1671. A few years 
 later conflicting claims arose between 
 the French and the English regarding 
 this territory, which were set at rest by 
 the Treaty of Paris in 1763, by which 
 France surrendered to Great Britain all 
 her lands in the north and west as far 
 as the Mississippi. In 1787 the Ohio 
 Company of Associates was organized in 
 New England by those who had served 
 in the war of the revolution, and under 
 their auspices a large tract of land was 
 purchased from the government in the 
 territory northwest of the Ohio river. 
 This was the first public sale of land by 
 the United States government. In con- 
 nection with its sale the famous “Ordi- 
 nance of 1788,” was passed, guarantee- 
 ing forever in the territory civil and 
 religious freedom, the system of com- 
 mon schools, trial by jury, and the right 
 of inheritance. In 1288 Marietta and 
 Cincinnati were founded, and till 1791 
 settlements in the southern part of the 
 territory increased rapidly. In that year 
 the Indians became troublesome. Late 
 in 1794 a victory was gained by Gen. 
 Anthony Wayne over the Indians at 
 "Fallen Timbers” on the Maumee river. 
 The year after, a treaty of peace was 
 concluded, the Indians ceding a great 
 
 E ortion of the territory, which settlers 
 egan at once to fill. Chillicothe was 
 made the seat of government for the 
 
OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OKLAHOMA 
 
 territory, and a capitol building erected. 
 In 1802 a constitution was adopted for 
 the eastern division of the territory 
 northwest of the Ohio, to be known as 
 “Ohio,” and on Feb. 19, 1803, Ohio was 
 admitted into the Union. 
 
 The state supplied more than its 
 quota of troops for the Mexican war, 
 and at the outbreak of the civil war was 
 exceedingly active. Seventy regiments 
 responded to the first call for troops, 
 though only thirteen were asked. Sol- 
 diers were sent into Virginia and helped 
 to save West Virginia to the Union, 
 and the prompt action of Governor 
 Dennison had its influence upon Ken- 
 tucky also. A large number of the most 
 successful federal officers were natives 
 of the state, as Grant, Sherman, Mc- 
 Dowell, Rosecrans, Garfield, and others. 
 
 Ohio was democratic in national 
 elections from the time of its admission 
 to 1836. In that year it voted with the 
 whigs and since then has been whig 
 and republican with the exception of 
 the years 1848 and 1852 when it cast its 
 vote for Cass and Pierce. The two 
 largest towns are Cincinnati and Cleve- 
 land, others being Toledo and Dayton 
 and Columbus. Pop. about 4,600,000. 
 
 OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, a co- 
 educational state institution at Colum- 
 bus, Ohio. It was founded in 1870 as 
 the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical 
 college, and opened in 1873. The uni- 
 versity comprises six colleges: Arts, 
 philosophy and science; agriculture and 
 domestic science; engineering; law; 
 pharmacy; veterinary science. The col- 
 lege confers the bachelor’s degree in 
 course in the various departments, and 
 the engineer’s, master’s, and doctor’s 
 degrees for advanced work. Military 
 instruction and the wearing of a uniform 
 are required of the students. A labora- 
 tory is maintained at Sandusky for 
 summer work. 
 
 OHIO UNIVERSITY, a coeducational 
 state institution at Athens, Ohio, or- 
 ganized in 1804. Besides the collegiate 
 department, the university has schools 
 of music and commerce, a preparatory 
 department, and a normal college. The 
 bachelor’s degree in arts, philosophy, 
 science, and pedagogy is given in course 
 and the master’s degree after one year’s 
 graduate work. Tuition is free. 
 
 OHM (6m), Georg Simon, German 
 physicist, born 1787, died 1854. He be- 
 came successively professor of physics at 
 Cologne, director of the Polytechnic at 
 Nuremberg, and professor of physics at 
 the University of Munich. He was the 
 discoverer of what is known as “Ohm’s 
 Law” in electricity. 
 
 OHM, the unit of resistance to the 
 passage of electricity. A piece of pure 
 copper wire 485 meters long and 1 
 millimeter in diameter at 0° C. has a re- 
 sistanceof about one ohm. A “megohm” 
 is a resistance equal to 1,000,000 ohms, 
 and a microhm is a resistance equal to 
 one-millionth of an ohm. 
 
 OHM’S LAW, an important law in 
 electricity, deduced by Professor Ohm, 
 to the effect that the intensity of the 
 electric current is directly proportional 
 to the whole electro-motive force in 
 operation, and inversely proportional 
 to the sum of the resistances in the 
 circuit. ^ 
 
 OIL-CAKE, a cake or mass of com- 
 pressed linseed or rape, poppy, mustard, 
 cotton, and other seeds from which oil 
 has been extracted. Linseed-cake is 
 much used as a food for cattle, its value 
 as a fattening substance being greater 
 than that of any kind of grain or pulse. 
 Rape-cake is used as a fattening food 
 for sheep. These and other oil-cakes are 
 also valuable as manures. 
 
 OIL CITY, a city in Venango co.. Pa., 
 at the junction of the Allegheny river 
 and Oil creek; on the Allegheny Valley, 
 the Erie, the Lake Shore and Mich. 
 South., and the West. N. Y. and Pa. 
 railways; 8 miles e.n.e. of Franklin, the 
 county seat, 18 miles s. of Titusville. 
 It is in the center of the great petroleum- 
 oil district. Pop. 15,310. 
 
 OIL-GAS, the inflammable gas and 
 vapor (chiefly hydrocarbon) obtained by 
 passing fixed oils through red-hot tubes, 
 and which may be used like coal-gas for 
 purposes of illumination. The oil in its 
 passage through the retorts is prin- 
 cipally decomposed, with the produc- 
 tion of ethylene, marsh-gas, hydrogen, 
 carbonic oxide, benzene, etc., a gas 
 being thus produced which has the 
 great advantages of being pure from 
 sulphureous contamination, and of sup- 
 porting a very brilliant flame with a very 
 small expenditure. 
 
 OIL OF VITRIOL, the common name 
 of strong sulphuric acid. 
 
 OIL-PAINTING. See Painting. 
 
 OIL-PALM, an African tree abound- 
 ing on the west coast of that continent, 
 whose fruit yields palm-oil. See Palm- 
 oil. 
 
 OILS, a term given to substances 
 formed within living animal or vegetable 
 organisms, liquid at ordinary tempera- 
 tures, having a more or less viscid con- 
 sistence, insoluble in and lighter than 
 water, taking Are when heated in air, 
 and burning with a more or less lumin- 
 ous flame. The oils are usually divided 
 into the fat or fixed oils, and the volatile 
 or essential oils. Another division would 
 be into vegetable oils, by far the most 
 numerous, and animal oils; and as a 
 third popular division, the mineral oils 
 (petroleum, naphtha). The fat or fixed 
 oils are subdivided into the drying and 
 the non-drying oils. The former class 
 includes all bils which thicken when 
 exposed to the air, through the absorp- 
 tion of oxygen, and are converted 
 thereby into varnish, as, for example 
 linseed, nut, poppy, and hemp-seed oil. 
 All the drying oils are of vegetable origin. 
 The non-drying oils (which are partly 
 of vegetable, partly of animal origin) 
 when exposed to the air also undergo a 
 change resulting in the formation of 
 acrid, disagreeably-smelling, acid sub- 
 stances, but though they thicken they 
 do not become dry. The fixed vegetable 
 oils (whether drying or non -drying) are 
 generally prepared by subjecting the 
 seeds of the plant to pressure, with or 
 without heat, and they may also be 
 extracted by means of certain solvents. 
 The animal oils are, for the most part, 
 the fluid parts of the fat of the animal, 
 and are separated by heat alone. 
 Vegetable fixed oils all consist of one or 
 more proximate principles. Thus olive- 
 oil contains chiefly olein, with a little 
 stearin; linseed-oil is composed mainly 
 
 of lin olein. The most important of the 
 drying oils are linseed, hemp, walnut 
 poppy, candle-nut, sesame, sunflower, 
 madia, safflower. Of the non-drying 
 oils the chief are olive, cotton -seed, 
 colza, rape, ground-nut, castor, croton, 
 etc. A certain number of the vegetable 
 oils are also known as vegetable fats, 
 from their consistency at ordinary tem- 
 peratures, such as palm-oil, cocoanut 
 oil, shea-butter. The animal oils com- 
 prise neat’s-foot oil, train-oil, seal-oil, 
 sperm-oil, porpoise-oil, cod-liver oil, 
 shark-oil, etc. The uses of the fixed oils 
 are very various. Many are used as 
 articles of food, others are used in 
 medicine, numbers as lubricants, some 
 in the composition of paints and var- 
 nishes; some are important sources of 
 artificial light, and generally when acted 
 on by an alkali they form soaps. A use 
 of oil now coming into some importance 
 is as an agent for calming the waves of 
 the sea in certain circumstances, more 
 especially to prevent them from break- 
 ing over a boat and so swamping her. 
 
 Volatile oils are generally obtained by 
 distilling the vegetables which afford 
 them with water ; they are acrid, caustic, 
 aromatic, and limpid; they are mostly 
 soluble in alcohol, forming essences. 
 They boil at a temperature consider- 
 ably above that of boiling water, some 
 of them undergoing partial decompo- 
 sition. A few of them are hydro-carbons 
 the greater number, however, contain 
 oxygen as one of their ultimate elements. 
 They are chiefly used in medicine and 
 perfumery; and a few of them are ex- 
 tensively employed in the arts as vehicles 
 for colors, and in the manufacture of 
 varnishes, especially oil of turpentine. 
 They are very numerous, among them 
 being the oils of anise, bergamot, clove, 
 cinnamon, cajeput, lavender, lemon, 
 lime, orange, mint, peppermint, nutmeg, 
 marjoram, rosemary, thyme, etc. 
 
 OISE, a northern department in 
 France, Beauvais is the chief town. 
 Pop. 403,146. 
 
 OKLAHO'MA, one of the United 
 States, bounded on the N. by Kansas, on 
 the E. by Missouri and Arkansas, on S. 
 by Texas, on W. by Texas and New Mex- 
 ico, area, 70,430 sq. miles. It exceeds 
 in area twelve of the states, or an 
 area greater than the whole of New 
 England. It has mostly the character 
 of a prairie, and considerable portions 
 are bare and arid, though others are 
 very fertile. Its rivers are chiefly the 
 Red river and its tributaries, and the 
 Canadian river, the Cimarron and other 
 tributaries of the Arkansas. It pro- 
 duces crops of wheat, corn, oats, cotton, 
 sorghum, millet, etc., while large num- 
 bers of cattle are reared. Oklahoma is 
 making extraordinarily rapid advances 
 in prosperity, and now possesses well- 
 built towns, an extensive system of 
 railways, many public schools and in- 
 stitutions. 
 
 The soil is formed by the decom- 
 position of the underlying rock forma- 
 tions, and consists chiefly of red clay 
 and sandstone material. In the river 
 valleys these are mixed with a rich black 
 alluvium, and the soils are generally of 
 sufficient depth to be of almost inex- 
 haustible fertility. There are some 
 
OKLAHOMA, UNIVERSITY Of 
 
 OLIVARE2 
 
 forests of oak, walnut, and hickory in the 
 east, but the western plains are gen- 
 erally treeless, and covered with grama 
 drop-seed, and bunch grasses, while in 
 the extreme west are found sage-brush, 
 yucca, and cactus. 
 
 Oklahoma is preeminently an agri- 
 cultural and stock-raising region. The 
 development of agriculture since the 
 ’ territory was opened to settlement has 
 been phenomenal. The cotton yield per 
 acre is in excess of that of any other 
 state or territory. Corn and wheat lead 
 in importance. Other cereal crops are 
 oats, Kafir corn, barley, and rye. Hay 
 and forage, potatoes, sorghum, melons, 
 peanuts, castor beans, and broom corn 
 
 Seal of Oklahoma. 
 
 are also produced. Fruit is also grown, 
 over 6,000,000 peach trees bearing 
 fruit. The western part of the state 
 is given up to cattle-raising, which 
 flourished before the region was ope; ed 
 to settlement. The number of cattle 
 has increased prodigiously since that 
 time. Horses, mules, and swine are 
 also important, and some sheep are 
 raised. The flouring and grist-mill in- 
 dustry is the most prominent of the 
 manufactures. Cotton -ginning and the 
 manufacture of cotton-seed oil are next 
 in importance. Wheat is much the 
 largest export. Coal, asphalt, oil, nat- 
 ural gas, granite, marble, gypsum, lead, 
 and zinc, are produced. The state 
 has nearly 6,000 miles of railroad. 
 
 Oklahoma was a part of the Louisiana 
 Purchase, and was included in the “un- 
 organized or Indian country” set apart 
 by congress in 1834. The Creek Indians 
 (June 14, 1866) ceded to the United 
 States the western part of their domain 
 in Indian Territory, for 30 cents an 
 acre, while the Seminoles gave up their 
 entire holdings for 15 cents an acre. 
 The Sacs and Foxes, Cheyennes, and 
 other tribes were settled upon part of 
 these lands, but great tracts remained 
 unoccupied. In 1890 the territory of 
 Oklahoma was created. In 1891 almost 
 300,000 acres of land, formerly belong- 
 ing to the Sac and Fox, Pottawatomie, 
 Shawnee, Cheyenne, and Arapahoe In- 
 dians, was thrown open to settlement, 
 and in 1893" the Cherokee strip of 
 6,000,000 acres was also opened. The 
 first Legislature met at Guthrie, .August 
 27, but spent almost the entire session 
 quarreling over the location of the cap- 
 ital, which remained at Guthrie. The 
 agitation for statehood began in 1891, ^ 
 
 and a bill admitting Oklahoma as a 
 State passed the House of the Fifty- 
 seventh Congress, but failed to reach a 
 vote in the Senate. In June, 1906, it 
 was provided by Congress that Okla- 
 homa and the Indian Territory might 
 adopt a constitution and become a 
 state. 
 
 In September, 1907, the constitution 
 was submitted to the people and was 
 adopted by an overwhelming majority. 
 In November, 1907, the state was ad- 
 mitted to the union. In 1908 the state 
 went Democratic. 
 
 Indians of various tribes form an 
 important element in the population. 
 Guthrie is the capital. Oklahoma 
 City is also an important center. 
 Pop. 1,414,042. 
 
 OKLAHOMA'CITY, a city and capital 
 of Oklahoma co., Okl., on the North 
 Canadian river, and the Atch., Top. and 
 Santa F4 railroad; 25 miles s. of Guthrie. 
 The city is the largest cotton-market in 
 Oklahoma; contains flour-mills, cotton- 
 gins, brick-yards, packing-houses, and 
 several hotels ; and has a large trade in 
 agricultural products and lumber. Pop. 
 12,415. 
 
 OLAF, or ST. OLAF, one of the most 
 celebrated of the Norwegian kings, 
 great-great-grandson of Harald Haar- 
 fager, and son of Harald, chief of the 
 district of Granland, was bom about 
 995. He was a friend of the Normans, 
 and fought as an ally of Ethelred’s in 
 England. He afterward established 
 himself on the throne of Norway, and 
 was a zealous supporter of Christianity. 
 Canute the Great having landed in Nor- 
 way with an army, Olaf fled to Russia, 
 and in attempting to recover his do- 
 minions he was defeated and slain at the 
 battle of Stiklestad (1030). Since 1164 
 he has been honored as the patron saint 
 of Norway. The order of St. Olaf, a Nor- 
 wegian order given in reward for serv- 
 ices rendered to king and country or to 
 art and science, was founded in 1847. 
 
 OLBERS, Heinrich Wilhelm Mat- 
 thseus, a German astronomer, born in 
 1758, died 1840. He directed his atten- 
 tion particularly to comets, and in 1815 
 he discovered a new one, which bears 
 his name. Another discovery for which 
 he is still better known is that of two 
 minor planets, Pallas in 1802, and Vesta 
 in 1807. 
 
 OLDENBURG, a grand-duchy in the 
 north of Germany, consisting of three 
 separate and distinct territories, viz. : 
 the duchy of Oldenburg, the principality 
 of Liibeck, and the principality of Bir- 
 kenfeld; total area, 2479 sq. miles. Pop. 
 Oldenburg, 318,434; Liibeck, 37,340; 
 Birkenfeld, 43,406; total, 399,180. The 
 capital is Oldenburg (see next article). 
 
 OLDENBURG, a town of Germany, 
 capital of the grand-duchy of same 
 name, 24 miles w.n.w. of Bremen, on the 
 Hunte (which is navigable). It has fine 
 promenades on the site of the old forti- 
 fications, a grand-ducal palace, public 
 library of 150,000 volumes, picture- 
 gallery, gymnasium, manufactures of 
 glass, leather, earthenware, etc. Pop. 
 26,797. 
 
 OLDHAM, a town of England, in 
 Lancashire, 6 miles northeast of Man- 
 chester. Pop. pari. bor. 194,197; mun. 
 bor. 137,238. 
 
 OLD RED SANDSTONE, a geological 
 term made popular by the writings of 
 Hugh Miller, and applied by him to the 
 red sandstone which underlies the car- 
 boniferous system, in contradistinction 
 to the New Red Sandstone, which over- 
 lies the latter. It is now generally in- 
 cluded in the Devonian system. See 
 Geolosy. 
 
 OLD STYLE. See Calendar. 
 
 OLD TESTAMENT. See Bible. 
 
 OLEAN'DER, a plant known also by 
 the name of rose-bay, a beautiful ever- 
 green shrub, with flowers in clusters, 
 of a fine rose or white color but of an 
 indifferent smell. The plant, especially 
 the bark of the root, is medicinal and 
 poisonous. 
 
 OLEAS'TER, also called wild olive 
 tree, a small tree of the south of Europe 
 and west of Asia, cultivated especially 
 for its blossoms, which are very fragrant. 
 
 OLEF'IANT GAS, the name originally 
 given to ethylene or heavy carburetted 
 hydrogen. It is a compound of carbon 
 and hydrogen and is obtained by heating 
 a mixture of two measures of sulphuric 
 acid and one of alcohol. It was dis- 
 covered in 1796. It is colorless, tasteless,, 
 and combustible, and has an aromatic: 
 odor not unlike that of oil of caraways.. 
 
 OLE'IC ACID, an acid resulting from 
 the action of olive and some other oils: 
 upon potash. It enters largely into the 
 composition of soaps, forming with pot- 
 ash soft soap and with soda hard soap. 
 
 OLENEK', a river of Northern Siberia, 
 which rises under the polar circle, and 
 enters the Arctic ocean to the west of 
 the Lena delta; length, about 1200 miles. 
 
 OLEOMARGARIN. See Margarine. 
 
 OLFAC'TORY NERVES, the nerves 
 of smell, the first pair of cerebral nerves 
 or nerves from the brain. They arise 
 chiefly in connection with the cerebral 
 hemispheres, and numerous filaments 
 from them, perforating the ethmoid 
 bone, are distributed over the mucous 
 membrane of the nose. See Nose. 
 
 OLTGARCHY, that form of govern- , 
 
 ment in which the supreme power is ' 
 
 placed in the hands of a small exclusive 
 class. 
 
 OLTGOCLASE, a soda-lime felspar, 
 the soda predominating; it occurs in 
 granite, porphyry, and other igneous >; 
 
 rocks. ^ 
 
 OLIPHANT, Mrs. Margaret, maiden ^ 
 
 name Wilson, novelist, born near Mus- < 
 selburgh, Scotland, 1828; died 1897. Her .? 
 first novel appeared in 1849 under the ^ 
 title of Passages in the Life of Mrs. i 
 Margaret Maitland, and since then she i 
 has maintained a high place as a novelist. ,1 
 Besides this she has written a Life of Ed- « 
 ward Irving, lives or memoirs of Francis f 
 of Assisi, The Makers of Florence, The } 
 Makers of Venice, The Makers of Modern 
 Rome a Literary History of England 
 in the Nineteenth Century, etc. 
 
 OLIVA'REZ, Gaspar de Guzman, S 
 Count of, Spanish statesman, born in 
 1587, died 1645. He was educated at % 
 the University of Salamanca, afterward 
 appointed gentleman of the bed-cham- W 
 ber to the Prince of Asturias, and when M 
 his royal master succeeded to the throne 
 as Philip IV. Olivarez was appointed M 
 prime-minister. For twenty-two years V 
 (1621-43) his power was almost un- .A 
 limited, but the severity of his admlnia- » 
 
OLIVE 
 
 OLYMPIAS 
 
 tration ultimately caused revolt in 
 Catlonia and Andalusia, while the 
 Portuguese threw off the Spanish yoke. 
 The end of his policy was public discon- 
 tent and his own private disgrace. He 
 was confined by the king at Toro, where 
 he died. 
 
 OLIVE, a fruit-tree of which there are 
 several species, the most important 
 being the common olive. It is a low 
 branching evergreen tree, in height 
 from 20 to 30 feet, with stiff narrow 
 dusky-green or bluish leaves. The flowers 
 are small and white and are produced in 
 axillary racemes. The fruit is a berried 
 drupe of an oblong spheroidal form, 
 with a thin, smooth, and usually black- 
 ish skin, containing a greenish soft pulp 
 adherent to a rough, oblong, and very 
 hard stone. It is bitter and nauseous, 
 but replete with a bland oil. The olive is 
 a native of Syria and other Asiatic 
 countries, and flourishes only in warm 
 and comparatively dry parts of the 
 world. It grows slowly, and is very long- 
 lived. The olive-tree has in all ages been 
 
 held in peculiar estimation. It was an- 
 ciently sacred to Minerva. Olive wreaths 
 were used by the Greeks and Romans 
 to crown the brows of victors, and it is 
 still universally regarded as an emblem 
 of peace. The wood of the olive-tree is 
 beautifully veined, and has an agreeable 
 smell. It is in great esteem with cabinet- 
 makers on account of the fine polish of 
 which it is susceptible. But the olive- 
 tree is principally cultivated for the sake 
 of its oil, which is contained in the 
 pericarp or pulp. It is cultivated for this 
 purpose in Italy, France, Spain, Malta, 
 European and Asiatic Turkey, the 
 Ionian Islands, etc., and is easily pro- 
 pagated either by seed, grafting, or 
 slips. It is very tenacious of life. The 
 fruits are also used at table, not in the 
 natural state, but generally pickled, 
 the green unripe fruits being deprived 
 of part of their bitterness by soaking 
 them in water, and then preserved in an 
 aromatized solution of salt. Another 
 species of olive inhabits China, Japan, 
 and Cochin-China. The flowers are 
 used by the Chinese to mix with and 
 perfume their tea, and also, together 
 with the leaves, for adulterating tea. 
 The only American species is in some 
 districts called devil-wood on account 
 of the excessive hardness of the wood 
 and the extreme difficulty of splitting it. 
 
 OLIVE-OIL, a fixed oil obtained by 
 expression from the pulp of the ripe 
 fruit of the olive. It is ah insipid, in- 
 odorous, pale-yellow or greenish-yellow, 
 viscid fluid, unctuous to the feel, in- 
 flammable, incapable of combining with 
 water, and nearly insoluble in alcohol. 
 It is the lightest of all the fixed oils. 
 Olive-oil is much used as an article of 
 food in the countries in which it is pro- 
 duced, and to a smaller extent in other 
 eountries, to which it is exported also 
 for medicinal and manufacturing pur- 
 poses, etc. The best olive-oil is made in 
 the vicinity of Aix, in France; the kind 
 known by the name of Florence oil is 
 also of a superior quality, and is mostly 
 used for culinary purposes. By far the 
 largest portion of olive-oil is imported 
 from Italy. Spain also sends a large 
 quantity. The oil is also known as 
 Sweet-oil. 
 
 OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or MOUNT 
 OLIVET, a hill on the east side of Jeru- 
 salem, from which it is separated by the 
 Valley of Jehoshaphat and the brook 
 Kedron. The principal summit has the 
 name of Mount of Ascension, and here 
 stands the modern Armenian church of 
 that name. But according to the Scrip- 
 tures the scene of the ascension was near 
 to Bethany (Luke xxiv. 50), which is on 
 the further side of the hill from Jerusa- 
 lem. A short way above Bethany is a 
 nearly flat part of the hill on which 
 hundreds of people might congregate, 
 and there is little doubt that that is 
 truly the place from which our Lord 
 ascended. At the foot of the hill lay the 
 Garden of Gethsemane, and round its 
 eastern and southern side is the road by 
 which our Lord made his triumphal 
 entry' into Jerusalem. 
 
 OL'IVINE, called also chrysolite, is a 
 mineral, olive-green in color, occurring 
 in lava, basalt, and certain meteorites. 
 Analysis proves it to be a silicate of iron 
 and magnesium. 
 
 OLLA PODRI'DA, the name of a 
 favorite dish with all classes in Spain. It 
 consists of a mixture of all kinds of meat 
 cut into small pieces, and stewed with 
 various kinds of vegetables. Hence the 
 term is also applied to any incongruous 
 mixture or miscellaneous collection. 
 
 OLLIVIER (o-liv-i-a), Emile, born at 
 Marseilles 1825. When the empire was 
 established in France Ollivier gradually 
 severed himself from his former political 
 associates, and the severance was final 
 when he, in January, 1870, accepted 
 Napoleon’s invitation to form a ministry. 
 It was this ministry which declared war 
 with Germany in July, 1870, and which 
 was overthrown with disgrace in August, 
 1870. He is the author of numerous 
 works. 
 
 OLMSTED, Frederick Law, American 
 landscape architect, was born in 1822. 
 In 1848 he purchased a fruit-farm on 
 Staten Island, near New York, and while 
 successfully managing it, studied land- 
 scape gardening. In 1850 he made a 
 pedestrian tour through England and 
 portions of the Continent, an account of 
 which was given in his Walks and Talks 
 of an American Farmer in England, 
 1852. In 1855 he made a tour through 
 France, Italy, and Germany, for the 
 purpose of observing parks and rural 
 grounds. In 1856 he secured the prize 
 
 for the best plan of laying out the New 
 York Central Park, and was appointed 
 architect and chief engineer. From 1864 
 to 1866 he spent in California, when he 
 was made one of the commissioners of 
 the National Park of the Yosemite. He 
 returned to New York in 1866, and had 
 charge of the laying out of the Brooklyn 
 Prospect Park. He has since been asso- 
 ciated in designs for parks and other 
 public works at Washington, Chicago, 
 San Francisco, and other cities. He 
 planned also the approach from Pennsyl- 
 vania avenue to the capitol in Wash- 
 ington, was first commissioner of the 
 Yosemite Park, and prominent in the 
 Niagara Falls Reservation committee, 
 and in devising the system of parks and 
 parkways in and around Boston. He 
 died in 1903. 
 
 OLNEY, Richard, American politician, 
 born in Oxford, Mass., in 1835. He was 
 admitted to the Boston bar in 1859. 
 Olney rose rapidly in his profession, and 
 was for many years chief counsel for the 
 Eastern railroad, and later for other 
 roads. He was a democratic member of 
 the lower house of the Massachusetts 
 legislature in 1874. In 1893 he was 
 offered the place of attorney-general of 
 the United States by President Cleve- 
 land and accepted it. Upon the death of 
 Gresham, in 1895, Olney became secre- 
 tary of state, and continued to hold that 
 position until the end of Cleveland’s 
 administration in 1897. His famous let- 
 ter to Bayard, Minister to England, for 
 the information of the English govern- 
 ment as to the American position in the 
 Venezuelan dispute, attracted great 
 attention both in this countiy and in 
 Europe. 
 
 OLYM'PIA, a locality in Greece, the 
 scene of the famous Olympic games, a 
 beautiful valley or plain lying in the 
 middle portion of the ancient district 
 of Elis, in the western part of the 
 Peloponnesus (Morea). Here were col- 
 lected thousands of statues of the gods 
 and of victors in the games, treasure- 
 houses full of votive offerings, temples, 
 altars, tombs, and in a word the most 
 precious treasures of Grecian art. Among 
 the buildings were the Olympleum or 
 great temple of Zeus, containing the 
 colossal statue of the god by Phidias; 
 the Herseum or temple of Hera; the 
 Metroum or temple of the mother of the 
 gods; the twelve treasure-houses; the 
 Prytaneum, in which the Olympic 
 victors dined after the contest; the 
 Bouleuterion, in which all the regula- 
 tions regarding the games were made; 
 and these were all surrounded with walls, 
 having a length of about 1800 feet and 
 a breadth of 1500. Recent excavations 
 have brought to light numerous valu- 
 able works of art, besides remains of 
 ancient buildings, etc. 
 
 OLYM'PIADS, the periods of four 
 years between each celebration of the 
 Olympic games, by which the Greeks 
 computed time from 776 b.c., the first 
 year of the first Olympiad, till 394 a.d., 
 the second year of the 293d Olympiad. 
 
 OLYM'PIAS, the wife of Philip II., 
 king of Macedonia, and the mother of 
 Alexander the Great. Her haughtiness 
 and more probably her infidelity, led 
 Philip to repudiate her, and to marry 
 Cleopatra, the niece of King Attains. 
 
OLYMPIC GAMES 
 
 ONTARIO 
 
 The murder of Philip, which soon fol- 
 lowed this disgrace (b.c. 336), some 
 have attributed to the intrigues of 
 Olympias. After the death of her son 
 and his successor Antipater she was be- 
 sieged by Cassander in Pydna, and, 
 having to surrender, she was put to 
 death after a mock trial (316 b.c.). 
 
 OLYMPIC GAMES, the great national 
 festival of the ancient Greeks, celebrated 
 at intervals of four years in honor of 
 Zeus, the father of the gods, on the plain 
 of Olympia (which see). The festival 
 commenced with sacrifices, followed by 
 contests in racing (foot, horse, charoit), 
 wrestling, boxing, etc. ; and closed on the 
 fifth day with processions, sacrifices, and 
 banquets to the victors. The victors by 
 way of prize were merely crowned with 
 garlands of wild olives; and on their 
 return home they were received with 
 extraordinary distinction, and enjoyed 
 numerous honors and privileges. 
 
 OLYM'PUS, the name given to several 
 mountain ranges by the ancients. The 
 most celebrated of them was situated in 
 Thessaly, at the eastern extremity of 
 the range called the Cambunian Moun- 
 tains, and now called by the Greeks 
 Elymbos or Olymbos. It rises to the 
 height of 9700 feet above the level of 
 the sea, and was the highest mountain 
 in ancient Greece. The earliest Greeks 
 looked upon it as the highest of all 
 mountains, as the central point of the 
 earth’s surface, and as the place where 
 the gods dwelt. In after-times, when 
 the ideas of men respecting the universe 
 and the gods were enlarged, the supreme 
 beings were said to reside in the exterior 
 sphere of the heavens revolving round 
 the space which embraced the planets; 
 and this new abode of the gods above 
 the firmament of heaven received the 
 name of Olympus. The other most im- 
 portant elevation bearing this name was 
 the Mysian Olympus, a range of lofty 
 mountains in the northwest of Asia 
 Minor, now called Kheshish Dagh, Ala 
 Dagh, Ishik Dagh, and Kush Dagh. 
 Olympus in Cyprus may also be men- 
 tioned. 
 
 O'MAHA, the capital of Douglas co., 
 Nebraska, situated on the Missouri, 
 about 600 miles from its confluence with 
 the Mississippi and 500 miles west of 
 Chicago. It is an important railway 
 center for the northwest. It possesses 
 large silver-smelting works, steam en- 
 gine and boiler works, soap-works, 
 breweries, etc., and it is the center of a 
 large mining and agricultural district. 
 The population, which in 1880 was 
 30,000 is now 146,555, South Omaha, 
 a suburb of the above, is now one of the 
 largest pork and beef packing centers in 
 the states, its population being esti- 
 mated at 15,000. 
 
 OMAN (o-man'), or MUSKAT, a sul- 
 tanate in the southeast of Arabia, partly 
 on the Persian gulf, partly on the Indian 
 ocean. The capital is Muskat. Pop. 
 (estimated), 1,600,000. 
 
 OMAR KHAYYAM', Persian poet, 
 astronomer, and mathematician, born 
 at Nishapur in Khorasan, died there 
 1123 A.D. His scientific works, which 
 were of high value in their day, have 
 been eclipsed by his Rubaiyat, a collec- 
 tion of about 500 epigrams in praise of 
 wine, love, and pleasure, and at the 
 
 same time, depressingly pessimistic. 
 There is an admirable poetic transla- 
 tion of the Rubaiyat or Quatrains by 
 Edward Fitzgerald (1859). 
 
 OM'EGA, the name for the Greek long 
 o. The last letter in the Greek alphabet, 
 as alpha is the first; and from the ex- 
 pression in Revelation (chap. i. 8), “I 
 am Alpha and Omega, the beginning 
 and the ending.” Inscriptions on tomb- 
 stones, public documents, etc., very 
 often began with these two letters, 
 meaning, “In the name of God.” 
 
 O'MENS, certain signs or phenomena 
 supposed to portend some impending 
 good or evil fortune. Among the ancient 
 Romans the taking of omens was a 
 public institution of great importance. 
 See Augurs, Auspices. 
 
 OMNIBUS, a Latin word signifying 
 “for all,” and now applied in several 
 languages to the well-known vehicle 
 used for the conveyance of passengers. 
 The first conveyances of the kind were 
 those which came into use in ’ Paris 
 (March, 1662) in consequence of an edict 
 of Louis XIV., but they soon fell into 
 disuse, and were not again reintroduced 
 until 1827. A Mr. Shillibeer started the 
 first omnibus in London in 1829, and 
 they were introduced into New York in 
 1830, and Amsterdam in 1839. 
 
 OMNIBUS BILL, a term applied to 
 single legislative acts in which are in- 
 corporated a number of loosely related 
 measures. The term was first applied to 
 a bill for the admission of California to 
 the Union with a constitution prohibit- 
 ing slavery. Many omnibus bills were 
 passed by state legislatures, but pro- 
 visions requiring that single statutes 
 shall deal with but one main subject, 
 which shall be clearly indicated in the- 
 title have proved fatal to the “omnibus 
 
 bill.” ' ' J 
 
 ONEIDA (o-ni'da), a lake in .he state 
 of New York, United States, the west- 
 ern and lower end of which is about 18 
 miles southeast of Lake Ontario. It is 
 20 miles long, 4 miles broad, and its 
 waters find a vent by Oneida river into 
 Lake Ontario at its southeast corner, 
 after they have united with the Seneca 
 and formed the Oswego river. 
 
 ONEIDA COMMUNITY, a religious 
 communistic society, otherwise known 
 as Perfectionists (which see). 
 
 ONEIDAS, once a North American 
 Indian tribe or nation belonging to the 
 confederacy of the Hurons, and in- 
 habiting Central New York. A remnant 
 of them now inhabit a reservation in 
 Wisconsin, and are well advanced in 
 civilization. ' 
 
 O’NEILL, Peggy (Margaret O’Neill 
 Eaton), was born in Washington In 
 1796. As the wife of Major J. H. Eaton, 
 Jackson’s secretary of war, she was the 
 subject of a social war in government 
 circles owing to certain charges connec- 
 ing her name with that of Major Eaton 
 while she was still wife of Purser Tim- 
 berlake, her first husband. It was said 
 that from this social disturbance an 
 estrangement arose between Gen. Jack- 
 son and Calhoun, leading to the nomi- 
 nation of Van Buren for the presidency 
 of 1836. She died in 1879. 
 
 ONION, a well-known liliaceous plant, 
 the bulbous root of which is much used 
 as an article of (ood. It is a biennial 
 
 herbaceous plant with long tubulated 
 leaves, and a swelling, pithy stalk. The 
 peculiar flavor varies much according to 
 the size of the bulb, the small reddish 
 onions having much more pungency 
 than the larger ones. The onion may be 
 grown from the tropics to the coldest 
 verge of the temperate zone. There are 
 at least twenty varieties, the Strasburg, 
 Spanish, and Portuguese being among 
 the most esteemed. 
 
 ONTA'RIO, formerly called Upper 
 Canada and Canada West, a province 
 of the Dominion of Canada, having 
 Manitoba on the west; Keewatin and 
 James bay on the north; Quebec on the 
 east; and on the southeast, south, and 
 southwest the St. Lawrence river, and 
 Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Super- 
 ior; area, 220,000 sq. miles. Besides the 
 great lakes just mentioned, which partly 
 belong to the Canadian Dominion and 
 partly to the United States, Ontario has 
 numerous other lakes, such as Simcoe, 
 Nipissing, Nipigon, Lake of the Woods, 
 etc. The chief rivers are boundary 
 rivers: the Ottawa, Niagara, and Al- 
 bany, the latter entering James bay, 
 part of Hudson bay. The Falls of 
 Niagara in part belong to the province. 
 There are no mountains of importance. 
 Agriculture is the chief occupation, and 
 for the most part the soil is of excellent 
 quality. A large part of the province is 
 covered with timber, and this, with the 
 water facilities, make lumbering one of 
 the chief industries. The climate is in- 
 clined to the extreme of hot and cold 
 during summer and winter respectively, 
 but the dryness of the atmosphere makes 
 it very healthy. The minerals include 
 copper,iron,nickel,gypsum, marble, salt, 
 and petroleum. The richest, most thickly 
 settled, and most highly cultivated 
 portion of the province is the peninsula 
 between the St. Lawrence and Lakes 
 Ontario, Erie, and Huron. The crops 
 raised are chiefly wheat, barley, oats, 
 Indian corn, and potatoes, and the fruit- 
 growing farms of some districts yield a 
 plmtiful crop of apples, plums, pears, 
 peaches, and grapes. Latterly the farmer 
 here has turned his attention to stock- 
 raising and dairy-farming with en- 
 couraging results, which are largely due 
 to the easy accessibility of markets by 
 rail, supplemented by the lake, river, 
 and canal navigation. Chief among 
 the manufactures are woolens, cotton, 
 linen, hardware, paper, soap, agricul- 
 tural implements, steam-engines, etc. 
 The educational system of the province 
 provides for the free education of all 
 children in the common schools, and 
 there is also liberal government pro- 
 vision for high schools and colleges, 
 technical institutions,, and a university; 
 while there are also colleges and univer- 
 sities not under provincial control. The 
 government is administered at Toronto 
 by a lieutenant-govenior, assisted by an 
 executive council of seven ; while there 
 is also a legislative assembly, elected by 
 ballot for four years, and constituting 
 with the lieutenant-governor the legis- 
 lature or parliament Pop. 2,250,678. 
 
 ONTARIO, Lake, the most easterly of 
 the great lakes of North America, lying , 
 along the northeast side of the state of 
 New York, and forming part of the 
 boundary between the United States 
 
ONTOLOGY 
 
 OPIUM 
 
 and Canada; greatest length, 190 miles; 
 greatest breadth, about 55 miles; area, 
 5400 sq. miles. It receives the waters of 
 Lake Erie by the Niagara, and dis- 
 charges its waters by the St. Lawrence 
 into the Atlantic, 1000 miles distant. 
 The Hudson, and the Oswego and Erie 
 canals, form a connection through the 
 United States between it and the At- 
 lantic. It is navigable throughout its 
 whole extent and at all seasons. The 
 most important places on its shores are 
 Toronto, Hamilton, Kingston, and Co- 
 burg, in Canada, and Oswego in the 
 United States. 
 
 ONTOL'OGY, the doctrine of being; a 
 name given to that part of the science of 
 metaphysics which investigates and 
 explains the nature and essence of all 
 things or existences, their qualities and 
 attributes. It is also used as equivalent 
 to metaphysics. 
 
 ONYX, a semi-pellucid gem with 
 variously-colored zones or veins. Any 
 stone exhibiting layers of two or more 
 colors strongly contrasted is called an 
 onyx, as banded jasper, chalcedony, 
 etc., but more particularly the latter 
 when it is marked with white and strati- 
 fied with opaque and translucent lines. 
 The ancients valued it very highly, and 
 used it much for cameos, many of the 
 finest cameos in existence being of onyx. 
 
 ONYX MARBLE, a very beautiful 
 translucent limestone of stalagmitic 
 formation discovered by the French in 
 the province of Oran, Algeria, and first 
 brought into general notice at the Lon- 
 don exhibition of 1862. It is used for 
 the manufacture of ornamental articles. 
 
 OPAL, a precious stone of various 
 colors, which comes under the class of 
 pellucid gems. It consists of silica with 
 about 10 per cent of water, and is very 
 brittle. It is characterized by its irides- 
 cent reflection of light. It is found in 
 many parts of Europe, especially in 
 Hungary, in the East Indies, etc. The 
 substance in which it is generally found 
 is a ferruginous sandstone. There are 
 many varieties or species, the chief of 
 which are: (a) precious or noble opal, 
 which exhibits brilliant and changeable 
 reflections of green, blue, yellow, and 
 red; (b) fire opal, which simply affords 
 a red reflection; (c) common opal, whose 
 colors are white, green, yellow, and red, 
 but without the play of colors; (d) semi- 
 opal, the varieties of which are more 
 opaque than common opal; (e) hydro- 
 phane, which assumes a transparency 
 only when thrown into water; (f) hya- 
 lite, which occurs in small globular and 
 botryoidal forms, with a vitreous luster; 
 (g) menilite, which occurs in irregular 
 or reniform masses, and is opaque or 
 slightly translucent. Formerly the opal 
 was believed to possess magical virtues ; 
 thus it was believed to confer invisibility 
 when wrapped in a bay-leaf. 
 
 OPEN-BILL, an African bird of the 
 stork family, so named from the odd 
 formation of the beak, which at the 
 anterior end exhibits a gap between the 
 mandibles as if part of them were worn 
 away though they meet at the points. 
 Their chief food is molluscs, and per- 
 haps this formation of bill has some- 
 thing to do with the opening of the 
 shells. Another species inhabits the 
 East Indies. 
 
 OPEN DOOR, a term in international 
 politics which came into general use in 
 1899, and has reference to the equality 
 of commercial opportunity in China of 
 all nations. The enunciation of the 
 open-door policy had its origin in the 
 acquisition by various European powers 
 of commercial ports in China and the 
 insistence of the United States that such 
 ports should be open to all the world on 
 equal terms. 
 
 Open-bill. 
 
 OP'ERA, a musical drama, that is, a 
 dramatic composition set to music and 
 sung on the stage, accompanied with 
 musical instruments and enriched by the 
 accessories of costumes, scenery, danc- 
 ing, etc. The component parts of an 
 opera are recitatives, solos, duets, trios, 
 quartettes, choruses, etc., and they are 
 usually preceded by an instrumental 
 overture. The lighter kind of opera, as 
 well as the French opera comique, is of 
 a mixed kind — partly spoken, partly 
 sung. The chief varieties of opera are 
 the grand opera or opera seria, the name 
 given to that kind which is confined to 
 music and singing, of which the recita- 
 tive is a principal feature; the romantic 
 opera, or opera drammatica of the 
 Italians, embracing an admixture of the 
 grave and lively; the comic opera, or 
 opera bufla; as well as many inter- 
 mediate varieties. Though the Greek 
 dramas were operatic in character, the 
 opera proper is of modern date and of 
 Italian origin, and would seem to have 
 developed naturally from the miracle- 
 play of the middle ages, the first operas 
 dating from the 16th century. 
 
 OPERA BOUFFE (buff), a farcical 
 form of opera buffa in which the char- 
 acters, subject-matter, and music is 
 intended to burlesque the more serious 
 style of opera. Offenbach was the 
 creator as well as the chief master in this 
 art. The comic operas of Gilbert and 
 Sullivan, both in the character of the 
 music and the libretti, stand by them- 
 selves. 
 
 OPERA-GLASS, a small binocular 
 telescope of a low magnifying power, 
 so called from its use in theaters. The 
 two tubes are connected together, and 
 have their foci adjustable by turning 
 a milled-headed screw between them. 
 See Telescope. 
 
 OPHICLEIDE (of'i-klTd), a brass 
 wind-instrument of music invented to 
 supersede the serpent in the orchestra 
 and in military bands. It generally con- 
 sists of a wide conical tube, terminating 
 
 in a bell like that of a horn, with a mouth 
 piece and ten holes or ventages which 
 are stopped by keys. Ophicleides are of 
 
 Ophlclelde. 
 
 two kinds, the bass and the alto; the 
 former has a compass of three octaves 
 and one note, ranging from B bn the 
 third space below the bass-staff to C on 
 the third space of the treble-staff, in- 
 cluding all the intermediate semitones. 
 The alto ophicleide (an inferior instru- 
 ment) has the same extent of compass 
 but starts an octave higher. 
 
 OPHTHALMIA, an inflammation of 
 the mucous membrane which covers the 
 globe of the eye, and of the correspond- 
 ing surface of the eyelids. It is either 
 acute or chronic, and its commonest 
 cause is the presence of irritating matter 
 between the eyelids or the exposure of 
 the membrane to sudden cold. Its 
 characteristic marks are pain, redness, 
 a feeling as if sand were in the eye, and 
 a copious flow of matter. 
 
 OPHTHALMOSCOPE, an instrument 
 for observing the internal structure of 
 the eye. It consists of a mirror (plane 
 in that of Coccius, concave in that of 
 Desmarres), by which light from an 
 artificial source is directed into the eye 
 of the patient, and a double-convex 
 lens, by which the illumined parts of the 
 structure of the eye are magnified in 
 order that they may be more easily 
 examined, the observer looking through 
 a hole in the center of the mirror. The 
 light is usually placed to the side of and 
 slightly behind the patient’s head. 
 
 Opium, the inspissated juice of a 
 species of poppy cultivated on a large 
 scale principally in Hindustan and in 
 Asiatic Turkey, but well known in many 
 places as a garden plant, being an annual 
 with white, red, or violet flowers and 
 glaucous leaves. The opium is the juice 
 that flows from incisions made in the 
 green heads or seed-capsules of the 
 plant after the fall or removal of the 
 petals, and the best flows from the first 
 incision. The juice is at first a milky 
 liquid, but soon solidifies and turns 
 black, and is then scraped off and col- 
 lected. It is one of the most energetic 
 of narcotics, and at the same time one 
 of the most precious of all medicines, 
 and is employed in a great variety of 
 cases, but most commonly for the pur- 
 pose of procuring sleep and relief from 
 pain. In medicine it is very commonly 
 u.sed in the form of laudanum, which is a 
 simple tincture or extract in spirits of 
 wine; it is also an ingredient in various 
 patent and other remedies. Another 
 opium preparation is morphine. In its 
 natural state opium is heavy, of a dense 
 texture, of a brownish-yellow color, 
 not perfectly dry, but easily receiving 
 an impression from the finger; it has a 
 faint smell, and its taste is bitter and 
 acrid. The chief active principle of 
 opium is morphia, or morphine in com- 
 bination with meconic acia. The princi- 
 al part of our supply of opium is 
 rought from Turkey, whence it is im- 
 ported in flat pieces or cakes, covered 
 
OPORTO 
 
 OPTICS 
 
 with leaves. In the case of many tem- 
 peraments opium produces such agree- 
 able effects, whether a delightful dreamy 
 calm, a state of pleasant exhilaration, 
 or beatific visions, that numbers of 
 persons are led to use it habitually, as 
 others use alcohol m some form, though 
 over-indulgence in it is attended with 
 at least as evil effects as over-indulgence 
 in the latter. But like tobacco it is taken 
 by vast numbers without any apparent 
 result one way or other. Some habitual 
 takers of opium can take as much in a 
 day as would kill ten or twenty persons 
 unaccustomed to it. It is taken in two 
 ways, known as opium-eating and 
 opium-smoking. The habitual use of 
 opium is most common in China, the 
 southeast of Asia, and the Malay Archi- 
 pelago, where it is chiefly smoked in a 
 special pipe. The pipe, or rather the 
 stem of the pipe, is about the length and 
 size of an ordinary flute ; the bowl is 
 generally made of earthenware. The 
 smoker, who is always lying, or at least 
 reclining, takes a small portion of opium 
 about the size of a pea on the end of a 
 spoon-headed needle, heats it at a lamp, 
 and then places it in the bowl of the 
 pipe, the pellet of opium having pre- 
 
 viously been perforated with the needle. 
 He them brings the opium to the flame 
 of the lamp, inhales the smoke in several 
 inspirations, and is then ready to repeat 
 the process with a fresh quantity of 
 opium until the desired intoxication 
 ensues. Large quantities of opium are 
 consumed in China, a great part of 
 which comes from India, though prob- 
 ably as much or more is produced in 
 China itself. The Indian opium, how- 
 ever, is preferred to their own by the 
 best judges among the Chinese. 
 
 OPOR'TO, a large city and seaport of 
 Portugal, the second in the kingdom, 
 capital of the province of Entre Douro e 
 Minho, on a steep declivity on the right 
 bank and about 2 miles from the mouth 
 of the Douro, 170 miles north of Lisbon. 
 Pop. 172,421. 
 
 OPOS'SUM, the name of several 
 species of marsupial mammals, having 
 four hands and a long prehensile tail. 
 They are nocturnal animals, arboreal in 
 their habits, living constantly on trees, 
 and there pursuing birds, insects, etc., 
 although they do not despise fruit. 
 The females of certain species have an 
 abdominal pouch in which are the 
 mammae, and in which they can inclose 
 their young. The best-known species of 
 opossum is common in the United 
 States. It is almost the size of a large 
 cat, the general color whitish-gray, and I 
 
 the whole hair of a wool-like softness. 
 On the ground the motions of the 
 opossum are awkward and clumsy, but 
 on the branches of a tree it moves with 
 
 great celerity and ease, using the pre- 
 hensile tail to assist its motions. When 
 caught or threatened with danger the 
 oppssum counterfeits death, and “play- 
 ing ’possum” has on this account passed 
 into a proverb as used to indicate any 
 deceitful proceeding. The female has 
 from ten to fifteen young, which are for 
 a long time nourished in the pouch, to 
 which they resort when alarmed. 
 
 OPPOSITION, in astronomy, the situa- 
 tion of two heavenly bodies when 
 diametrically opposed to each other, 
 or when their longitudes differ by 180°. 
 Thus there is always an opposition of 
 sun and moon at every full moon; also 
 the moon or a planet is said to be in 
 opposition to the sun when it passes the 
 meridian at midnight, bee Conjunction. 
 
 OPS, the Roman female divinity of 
 plenty and fertility. She was regarded 
 as the wife of Saturn, and, accordingly, 
 as the protectress of everything con- 
 nected with agriculture. 
 
 OPTATIVE, in grammar, that form 
 of the verb in which wish or desire is 
 expressed, existing in the Greek and 
 some other languages, its force being 
 conveyed in English by such circum- 
 locutions as “may I,” “would that he,” 
 etc. 
 
 OPTICS is the branch of physics 
 which treats of the transmission of light, 
 and its action in connection with the 
 laws of reflection and refraction, includ- 
 ing also the phenomena of vision. A 
 
 Fig. 1.— Refraction. 
 
 ray of light is the smallest conceivable 
 portion of light, and is represented by 
 the straight line along which it is propa- 
 gated. A pencil of light is a collection 
 
 of such rays; it is parallel when all the 
 component rays are parallel to each 
 other; converging when they all proceed 
 to a single point; and diverging when 
 they all proceed from a single point. 
 The focus of the pencil is the point to 
 or from which the rays proceed. Any 
 space or substance which light can trav- 
 erse is in optics called “a medium.” 
 When light falls on any surface a certain 
 portion of it is reflected or sent back, 
 and it is owing to this reflected light that 
 objects are visible. When light falls 
 upon the surface of a solid substance 
 or medium that it can traverse (a trans- 
 parent substance), one portion greater 
 or less is directed or reflected back into 
 the medium whence it came; another 
 portion is transniitted through the solid 
 medium, but undergoes a change called 
 refraction; while a third portion is ab- 
 sorbed in the new medium. When all the 
 minute parts of a surface give out rays 
 of light in all directions we call it a 
 luminous surface, whether it is self- 
 luminous or is merely reflecting the light 
 from a self-luminous body such as the 
 sun. The law of reflection is that the 
 angle of incidence and that of reflection 
 are in the same plane, and that the 
 angle of reflection is equal to the angle 
 of incidence, and on the opposite side 
 of the perpendicular. The law holds true 
 whateyer be the nature of the reflecting 
 
 Fig. 2.— Reflection (plane mirror). 
 
 surface or the origin of the light which 
 falls upon it. The law of refraction 
 comes mto operation when a ray’ of light 
 passes through a smooth surface bound- 
 ing two media not homogeneous, such 
 as air and water, or when rays traverse 
 a medium, the density of which is not 
 uniform, as the atmosphere. When the 
 ray of light passes from a rarer into a 
 denser medium, it is bent or refracted 
 toward the perpendicular line drawn 
 through the point of incidence, or the 
 angle of refraction is less than the angle 
 of incidence. On the contrary, when a 
 ray of light passes from a denser into a 
 rarer medium the refraction is from the 
 perpendicular, or the angle of refraction 
 is greater than the angle of incidence. 
 If one medium is a liquid and the oMier 
 air, as in the accompanying figure (fig. 
 1), the ray ri in the liquid will make a 
 smaller angle with the normal nin than 
 the ray si in air, and vice versa. 
 
 The law of reflection is illustrated 
 especially by the action of mirrors. 
 When a pencil of rays from a luminous 
 point falls on a plane mirror each ray is 
 reflected according to the law given 
 above, and it is easy to show by geometry 
 that the pencil which was divergerrt 
 
OPTIMISM 
 
 ORANG 
 
 before incidence has exactly the pame 
 divergence after reflection ; but the rays 
 now seem to have proceeded from a 
 point behind the mirror. This point is 
 •called the “virtual image” of the first 
 point (being not a real image of it) ; the 
 line joining the points is at right angles 
 to and is bisected by the mirror. Now 
 a luminous object is made up of points, 
 each of which sends a divergent pencil 
 to the mirror, which seems after reflec- 
 tion to proceed from a point behind the 
 
 Fig. 3.— Keflection (concave mirror). 
 
 mirror, and hence a luminous object 
 sends rays to a plane mirror which after 
 reflection seem to have proceeded from 
 a luminous object behind the mirror. 
 An eye receiving a ray (or a small pencil 
 or rays) gets the impression that the 
 luminous point from which it was t-ent is 
 somewhere in the line of the ray just be- 
 fore reaching the eye, and hence an eye 
 in such a position as to receive after 
 reflection a few rays from every point of 
 the object sees the image of the object. 
 (See fig. 2.) Besides plane mirrorrs con- 
 cave and convex mirrors are often used 
 in optics. When a mirror is not plane 
 the incident rays from a luminous point 
 in general neither converge to a single 
 point after reflection nor diverge as if 
 they had come from a virtual image. 
 But when a concave mirror formmg a 
 small portion of a spherical surface is 
 used we find that all the rays falling 
 upon it from a luminous point converge 
 so nearly to a luminous point after 
 reflection that their “aberration” (as the 
 non-convergence of the rays is called) 
 may be neglected in practice. The line 
 joining the center of the spherical sur- 
 
 Fig. 4.— Magnification of near object by 
 convex lens. 
 
 face with the “pole” of the mirror (that 
 is, the middle point of the reflecting sur- 
 face) is called the principal axis. Any 
 bundle of rays parallel to the principal 
 axis converges after reflection to a point 
 in the axis called the principal focus; 
 and any bundle of parallel rays con- 
 verges after reflection to a focus which 
 is at the same distance from the mirror 
 as the principal focal distance. When 
 the object from which the rays proceed 
 is at a considerable distance, an in- 
 verted image of it will be formed mid- 
 way between the center of curvature 
 
 and the mirror. When the object is only 
 at a moderate distance, but exceeding 
 half the radius of curvature, an inverted 
 image is still formed in front of the 
 mirror, being diminished when nearer 
 the mirror than the object is, and mag- 
 nified when farther away than the 
 object. The image of an object placed 
 nearer a concave mirror than the prin- 
 cipal focus is erect and larger than the 
 object, and is “virtual’ as in fig. 3, 
 where a b is the object, ba its image 
 (inverted), f the focus, c the center of 
 curvature. The image of any object in 
 a convex mirror is also virtual and erect ; 
 it is, however, smaller than the object. 
 
 When the two faces of a piece of glass 
 through which light is refracted are both 
 of them plain, it is called a plate if they 
 are parallel, and a prism if they are not 
 parallel. When the faces are curved, or 
 one of them curved and the other plain, it 
 is called a lens. Prisms are the essential 
 parts of the apparatus used for decom- 
 posing light and examining the prop- 
 erties of its component parts, as in 
 spectrum analysis. (See Light.) A lens 
 may be regarded as consisting of an un- 
 limited number of prisms, the angles 
 between their faces gradually diminish- 
 ing the father away from the axis of the 
 lens. It is the property of convex lens to 
 diminish the divergency of the pencils 
 of light, of concave lenses to increase 
 that divergency. It is the duty of a 
 convex lens to make rays parallel to the 
 axis falling on one face of its converge 
 accurately to one point after emerging 
 from the other face. This point is called 
 the principal focus, and is the point 
 where a “real” image would be formed. 
 When rays parallel to the axis pass 
 through a concave lens they diverge, 
 and if produced backward in the direc- 
 tion from which they come they would 
 meet at one point, which in this case 
 also is called the principal focus; but it 
 is only a virtual focus, because the rays 
 themselves do not pass through it, but 
 only their backward productions. Thus 
 concave lenses bend rays from the axis, 
 and convex ones bend them toward it. 
 When we look through a concave lens it 
 makes objects seem smaller whatever 
 their distancesare. When we look through 
 a convex lens at an object between the 
 lens and the principal focus it appears 
 larger than it really is, and hence the use 
 of such lenses in magnifying glasses, 
 microscopes, and telescopes. The rule 
 as to the relative size of object and image 
 will be understood from fig. 4, where 
 the small arrow a b is the object, and 
 the large arrow its image, o being the 
 center of the lens, f f its foci. Rays from 
 a b are refracted toward the axis by the 
 lens, and as the visual angle, or angle 
 made by the rays at the eye, is larger 
 than if there were no lens, the object 
 appears magnified. The length of the 
 object and the image will be directly as 
 their distance from o; so that if the 
 image is three times as far from the 
 lens as the object, it will be three times as 
 long and three times as broad. Convex 
 lenses are used in spectacles for long- 
 sighted (or old-sighted) persons, because 
 the lens of their eye is too much flattened 
 and does not of itself cause a sufficient 
 convergency of the rays to make an 
 image on the retina, but one that would 
 
 fall behind it. Concave lenses, again, 
 are used by near-sighted persons, be- 
 cause the rays in their case converge so 
 much as to make an image in front of 
 their retina instead of on it. See Eye, 
 Light, Microscope, Telescope, Spectro- 
 scope, etc. 
 
 OP'TIMISM, that philosophical doc- 
 trine which maintains that this world, 
 in spite of its apparent imperfections, 
 is the best possible. It is an ancient 
 doctrine; among modern philosophers 
 Leibnitz is its principal advocate. 
 
 OPTOM'ETER, an instrument for 
 measuring the extent of the limits of 
 distinct vision in different individuals, 
 and consequently for determining the 
 focal lengths of lenses necessary to cor- 
 rect imperfections of the eye. 
 
 OR'ACLES, the answers which the 
 gods of the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, 
 etc., were supposed to give, by words 
 uttered or otherwise, to those who con- 
 sulted them upon any occasion ; also the 
 places or sources whence these answers 
 were received. The credit of oracles was 
 so great that vast numbers flocked to 
 them for advice. Scarcely any war was 
 waged, or peace concluded, or new forms 
 of government instituted, or new laws 
 enacted, without the advice and appro- 
 bation of some oracle. The Greek oracles 
 were the most celebrated, the earliest 
 , being that of Zeus (Jupiter) at Dodona. 
 Of the other gods Apollo had many 
 oracles, but that at Delphi held the first 
 place, and it was often applied to for 
 explaining obscure answers obtained 
 at Dodona. Another famous oracle of 
 Apollo was in the island of Delos. The 
 Romans had no important oracles of 
 their own, but had recourse to those of 
 Greece and Egypt. The early Christians 
 ascribed the oracles in general to the 
 operation of the devil and his agents; 
 but the practices of the priests, the man- 
 ner and circumstances of delivering the 
 oracles, the ambiguity of their answers, 
 and the art of accommodating them to 
 all events, amply demonstrate their 
 human origin ; yet they long maintained 
 their standing, and sunk only with the 
 freedom and independence of Greece. 
 Under the reign of Theodosius the 
 temples of the prophetic deities were 
 shut up or demolished. 
 
 ORAN, a seaport of Algeria, capital of 
 department of same name. Pop. 88,235, 
 of whom about three-fourths are Euro- 
 peans. — The department, forming a 
 long belt along the Mediterranean, has 
 an area of 74,510 sq. miles, and a popu- 
 lation of 1,107,354. 
 
 ORANG', or ORANG-OUTANG, a quad- 
 rumanous mammal, one of the anthro- 
 poid or man-like apes or monkeys. This 
 animal seems to be confined to Borneo, 
 Sumatra, and Malacca. It is one of those 
 animals which approach most nearly to 
 man, being in this respect only inferior 
 to the chimpanzee and gorilla. It is 
 utterly incapable of walking in a per- 
 fectly erect posture. Its body is covered 
 with coarse hair of a brownish-red 
 color; in some places on its back it is 6 
 inches long, and on its arms 5 inches. 
 The face is destitute of hair save at the 
 sides. It attains the height of from 4 to 
 5 feet, measured in a straight line from 
 the vortex to the heel. The arms reach 
 to the ankle-joint. The hind-legs aw 
 
ORANGE 
 
 ORDEAL 
 
 short and stunted, the nails of the fin- 
 gers and toes flattened. They swing 
 themselves along from tree to tree by the 
 aid of their long arms, but their gait on 
 the ground is awkward and unsteady. 
 At birth the head of the orang resembles 
 
 Female orang-utan. 
 
 that of the young child. These apes are 
 remarkable for strength and intelligence, 
 and capable of being highly domesti- 
 cated if captured young. They feed 
 chiefly on fruits and sleep on trees. See 
 also Man, Apes, Monkeys. 
 
 ORANGE, the fruit of the Citrus 
 Aurantium, and the shrub or tree itself. 
 The orange is indigenous in China, 
 India, and other Asiatic countries, and 
 was first introduced in Portugal about 
 1520. It is now extensively cultivated 
 in Southern Europe. In Portugal and 
 Spain the fruit forms an important 
 article of commerce. Large quantities 
 are also produced in the Azores, in 
 Africa, America (especially in Florida 
 and California), and the West Indies, 
 in Australia and the Pacific Islands. 
 The tree is a middle-sized evergreen, 
 with a greenish-brown bark. The leaves 
 are ovate, acute, pointed, and at the 
 base of the petiole are winged. The 
 white flower exhibits a calyx with five 
 divisions, a corolla with five imbricate 
 petals, stamens equal in number to the 
 petals or a multiple of them, and along 
 with the petals inserted on a hypogy- 
 nous disc, the filaments being united in 
 several bundles. The fruit is globose, 
 bright yellow, and contains a pulp which 
 consists of a collection of oblong vesicles 
 filled with a sugary and refreshing juice; 
 it is divided into eight or ten compart- 
 ments, each usually containing several 
 seeds. The principal varieties are the 
 common sweet or China orange, the 
 bitter or Seville, the Maltese or red- 
 pulped, the Tangerine, the Mandarin or 
 clove, and the St. Michael’s. The leaves, 
 flowers, and rind yield fragrant oils 
 much used in perfumery and for flavor- 
 ing essences. The wood is fine-grained, 
 compact, susceptible of a high polish, 
 and is employed in the arts. The citron 
 and lemon are allied fruits. 
 
 ORANGE CITY, a city in New Jersey, 
 16 miles west of New York. It is pic- 
 turesquely situated on elevated ground, 
 and contains many fine residences, 
 being a favorite resort of New York City 
 men. Pop. 26,115. 
 
 ORANGE-LILY, a species of lily hav- 
 ing a scaly bulb, a leafy stem 2i feet 
 high, small dark brown bulbs in the 
 
 axils of the leaves, and large orange- 
 colored flowers. 
 
 ORANGEMEN, the members of a 
 secret society founded in the north of 
 Ireland in 1795, to uphold the Protestant 
 religion and political ascendency, and 
 to oppose the Catholic religion and in- 
 fluence and their secret societies. The 
 title of the association was adopted in 
 honor of William III. of England, prince 
 of Orange. The head of the association 
 is the Imperial Grand Lodge with its 
 imperial grand-master; then there are 
 grand lodges, grand county lodges, dis- 
 tricts and subordinate lodges, spread 
 over Ireland, Great Britain, and some 
 of the colonies, especially Canada, but 
 the chief strength is in the north of 
 Ireland. In 1835 the society was dis- 
 solved in consequence of intrigues in the 
 army, but revived in 1845. Great 
 demonstrations take place annually on 
 the 12th of July, the anniversary of the 
 battle of Aghrim. 
 
 ORANGE RIVER, or GARIEP, a river 
 in South Africa, forming part of the 
 north boundary of Cape Colony, and 
 falling after a total course of about 650 
 miles into the Atlantic. 
 
 ORANGE RIVER COLONY, a British 
 possession in South Africa, having the 
 Cape Colony on the s. and s.w., Trans- 
 vaal on n. and n.w.. Natal and Basuto- 
 land on e. and s.e., area about 50,000 
 sq. miles; pop. 207,503, of whom about 
 78,000 are whites. 
 
 ORATO'RIO, a sacred musical com- 
 position consisting of airs, recitatives, 
 duets, trios, quartets, choruses, etc., 
 with full orchestral and sometimes organ 
 accompaniment, the subjects being 
 generally taken from Scripture. 
 
 ORBIT, in astronomy, the path of a 
 planet or comet; the curve-line which a 
 planet describes in its periodical revolu- 
 tion round its central body. The orbits 
 of the planets are elliptical, having the 
 sun in one of the foci; and the planets 
 all move in these ellipses by this law, 
 that a straight line drawn from the 
 center of the sun to the center of any one 
 of them, termed the radius vector, al- 
 ways describes equal areas in equal 
 times. Also, the squares of the times of 
 the planetary revolutions are as the 
 cubes of their mean distances from the 
 sun. The satellites also move in ellipti- 
 cal orbits, having their respective 
 primaries in one of the foci. The ele- 
 ments of an orbit are those quantities 
 by which its position and magnitude, 
 for the time, are determined ; such as the 
 major axis and eccentricity, the longi- 
 tude of the node, and inclination of the 
 plane to the ecliptic, and the longitude 
 of the perihelion. 
 
 ORCHARD, an inclosure devoted to 
 the culture of fruit-trees, especially the 
 apple, the pear, the plum, the peach, 
 and the cherry. The most suitable posi- 
 tion for an orchard is a declivity lying 
 well exposed to the sun and sheltered 
 from the colder winds, but yet not too 
 much shut in. The soil should vary 
 according to the kind of fruit cultivated, 
 and it is generally allowed to produce 
 only grass besides the fruit-trees. 
 
 ORCHESTRA (or'kes-tra), the space 
 in theaters between the seats occupied 
 by the spectators and the stage, ap- 
 propriatea by the Greeks to the chorus 
 
 and the musicians, by the Romans to 
 the senators, and in our modern theaters 
 to the musicians. The name is also used 
 for the part of concert-rooms assigned 
 to the vocal and instrumental per- 
 formers; and, lastly, is applied to the 
 instrumental performers, collectively 
 taken. A modern orchestra in the last 
 sense consists of stringed, wind, and 
 percussion instruments, in varied pro- 
 portions, according to the number of 
 instrumentalists. 
 
 ORCHIDACE.® (or-ki-da'se-e), or OR- 
 CHIDS, an extensive order of en- 
 dogens (nearly 2000 species being 
 known), consisting of herbaceous plants 
 or shrubs, with fibrous or tuberous 
 roots; a short stem or a pseudo-bulb; 
 entire, often sheathing leaves; and 
 showy flowers, with a perianth of six 
 segments in two rows, mostly colored, 
 one, the lowest, generally differing in 
 form from the rest, and often spiral. 
 The essential form of these flowers is 
 determined by the presence of this six- 
 segmented perianth, the three outer 
 segments of which are a kind of calyx, 
 the three inner forming a kind of corolla. 
 By adhesion or absorption the parts of 
 the perianth are sometimes reduced to 
 five or three, and springing from its 
 sides are the six stamens whose anthers 
 contain pollen-grains. They are natives 
 of all countries, but very cold and dry 
 climates produce but few species; some 
 of them grow in the ground, but a large 
 number are epiphytes, growing upon 
 trees; and it is above all in the great 
 virgin forests of South America and of 
 the East Indies that the orchids abound. 
 The orchids attract much attention, 
 and are cultivated with zeal on account 
 
 Butterfly orchid. 
 
 of the beauty or curious shapes of the 
 flowers (which often assume the forms 
 of reptiles, insects, and other denizens 
 of the animal kingdom), or for their not 
 infrequently fragrant smells. The nutri- 
 tive substance called salep is prepared 
 from the roots and tubers of several 
 species; the fragrant vanilla is obtained 
 from two species of a genus of that name. 
 
 ORCUS, a name among the Romans 
 for Tartarus or the infernal regions. 
 
 ORDEAL, an ancient form of trial to 
 determine guilt or innocence, practiced 
 by the rude nations of Europe, in the 
 East, and bythe savage tribes of Africa. 
 Fire-ordeal was performed either by 
 taking in the hand a piece of red-hot 
 iron, or by walking barefoot and blind- 
 fold over glowing coals or over nine 
 
 .l" '!> . ..Cb 
 
ORDERLIES 
 
 OREGON 
 
 red-hot ploughshares laid lengthwise 
 at unequal distances; and if the person 
 escaped unhurt, he was adjudged inno- 
 cent, otherwise he was condemned as 
 guilty. Water-ordeal was performed 
 either by plunging the bare arm to the 
 elbow in boiling water, escape from in- 
 jury being considered proof of inno- 
 cence; or by casting the person sus- 
 pected into a river or pond, and if he 
 floated without an effort to swim it was 
 an evidence of guilt, but if he sunk he 
 was acquitted. Besides these ordeals 
 there were a variety of others practiced 
 in many countries, such as the corsned 
 or hallowed morsel trial, the trial by 
 touching the dead body of a person 
 murdered, which was supposed to bleed 
 if touched by the murderer, the ordeal 
 by swallowing certain herbs and roots, 
 etc. Ordeals are still found in many 
 nations out of Europe, as in West 
 Africa and other parts of that continent. 
 In Madagascar till lately trial by ordeal 
 (swallowing the poison of the tree 
 Tanghinia venenosa) was in regular 
 use. The Chinese still retain the ordeal 
 of fire and water, and various ordeals 
 are practiced among the Hindus 
 
 OR'DERLIES, are privates and non- 
 commissioned officers selected to attend 
 upon general and other officers, for the 
 purpose of bearing their orders and 
 rendering other services. The orderly 
 officers, or officer of the day, is the 
 officer of a corps or regiment, whose 
 duty is to superintend its interior 
 economy, as cleanliness, quality of the 
 food, etc. An orderly book is provided 
 by the captain of each company or 
 troop, in which the general or regimental 
 orders are entered. 
 
 ORDER OF THE DAY, in parlia- 
 mentary language, is a bill or other 
 matter which is to be discussed on a 
 particular day. 
 
 ORDERS, Holy, a term applied to the 
 different ranks of ecclesiastics. The 
 Angelican and other Reformed Episco- 
 pal churches recognize only the three 
 orders of bishops, priests, and deacons. 
 The Roman Catholic church admits of 
 seven orders: four minor or secular — 
 doorkeeper, exorcist, reader, and acolyte 
 and three major — deacon, priest, and 
 bishop. The Greek church has also the 
 distinction of major and minor orders, 
 but the functions of the four minor 
 orders of the Roman Catholic church 
 are united by the Greeks in the single 
 order of reader. The term holy orders, 
 or simply orders, is also used as equiv- 
 alent to the clerical character or position 
 as “to take orders,” "to be in orders.” 
 
 ORDERS, Military, fraternities or 
 societies of men banded together in 
 former times for military and partly for 
 atriotic or Christian purposes. Free 
 irth and an irreproachable life were 
 the conditions of admission. The chief 
 were the Templars, the Teutonic Knight 
 and the order of St. John of Jerusalem. 
 
 ORDERS, Religious, are associations, 
 the members of which bind themselves 
 to lead strict and devotional lives, and 
 to live separate from the world. Prior 
 to their formation there were only the 
 Hermits or Anchorites. (See Monas- 
 tery.) The entry into religious orders 
 from their foundation to the present 
 time, is preceded by the taking of the 
 
 P . fi .— 68 
 
 monastic vow, which enjoins residence 
 in a monastery, celibacy, renunciation 
 of worldly pleasures, the duty of prayer, 
 fasting, and other austerities, and uncon- 
 ditional obedience to superiors. These 
 conditions form the basis of the majority 
 of orders, some being more austere in 
 their observances than others. The first 
 properly constituted religious order was 
 founded in the 4th century by St. Basil. 
 The Basilians are now chiefly confined 
 to the Greek church in the East. In 
 the time of Justinian (530) St. Benedict 
 established a new order, the Benedic- 
 tines, under a set of rules based princi- 
 pally on those of St. Basil, and for some 
 600 years after the greatest number of 
 European monks followed his statutes. 
 According to some authorities as many 
 as 23 orders sprung from this one. About 
 1220 the Dominicans and Franciscans 
 originated by taking amended rules 
 from their leaders. In the 8th century 
 the monks began to be viewed as mem- 
 bers of the clerical order, and in the 
 10th, by receiving permission to assume 
 the tonsure, they were formally declared 
 clergymen. Indeed, public opinion and 
 several papal bulls placed them, as 
 superior in sanctity, above the secular 
 clergy, who for this reason often became 
 monks. As the secluded life of the 
 monks, soon after the origin of monas- 
 teries, had given rise to similar associa- 
 tions of pious females, so nuns com- 
 monly banded together as new orders of 
 monks arose, and formed societies under 
 similar names and regulations. There 
 were also congregations of nuns who 
 united with certain orders of monks 
 without adopting their names. The 
 Ursuline and Hospitaller nuns, or Sisters 
 of Mercy, are female orders existing in- 
 dependently of any male orders, and 
 living according to the rules of St. 
 Augustine. At the head of everyreligious 
 order stands a general or governor, who 
 is chosen every three years from the 
 officers of the institution, resides at 
 Rome, and is responsible only to the 
 pope. The counsellors of the general are 
 the officers to whom the supervision and 
 government of monasteries is committed. 
 
 ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE, the 
 chief styles or varieties exhibited in the 
 architecture of the Greeks and Romans. 
 Technically the chief feature of the 
 order is the column — including base, 
 shaft and capital — and its superincum- 
 bent entablature (consisting of archi- 
 trave, frieze, and cornice). The character 
 of the order, however, is displayed not 
 only in its column, but in its general 
 forms and detail, of which the column 
 is, as it were, the regulator. There are 
 five classic orders, namely Grecian : 
 Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian ; Roman ; 
 Tuscan, and Roman or Composite. See 
 Architecture, Columns, and the articles 
 on the various orders. 
 
 ORDINANCE, in its broadest sense, 
 any law or statute enacted or promul- 
 gated by a governmental authority, 
 but more commonly used to designate 
 laws or regulations passed by the govern- 
 ing bodies of municipalities. In the 
 United States the term is almost ex- 
 clusively applied to the laws or regula- 
 tions passed by the common councils, 
 boards of aldermen, or other governing 
 bodies of municipalities. An ordinance * 
 
 differs from a resolution, which is an 
 expression of the will of any organized 
 body, generally to carry out some min- 
 isterial act relating to its own internal 
 management, or other matter not affect- 
 ing the general public, as a resolution 
 of respect in honor of a deceased person. 
 The formalities for the enactment, pub- 
 lication, enforcement, and repeal of 
 ordinances are largely regulated by 
 statutes. 
 
 ORDINATION, the initiating of a 
 Christian minister or priest into his 
 office. The English Church considers 
 ordination as a real consecration; the 
 high-church party maintaining the 
 dogma of the regular transmission of the 
 episcopal office from the apostles down 
 to the bishops of the present day. For 
 ordination in the English church, sub- 
 scription to the thirty-nine articles is 
 requisite. The ceremony of ordination 
 is performed by the bishop by the im- 
 position of hands on the person to be 
 ordained. In most Protestant countries 
 with a state church, ordination is a 
 requisite to preaching; but in some sects 
 it is not held necessary. In the Presby- 
 terian and Congregational churches ordi- 
 nation means the act of settling a 
 licensed preacher over a congreagtion, or 
 conferring on him general powers to 
 officiate wherever he may be called. 
 
 ORDNANCE. See Cannon, Artillery, 
 Howitzer, Mortar, etc. 
 
 ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT OF THE 
 U. S. ARMY. Its duties consist in the 
 establishment and maintenance of arse- 
 nals, armories, and depots for the manu- 
 facture and storage of ordnance. The 
 regulations define ordnance and ordnance 
 stores as including cannon and artillery 
 carriages and equipments; apparatus 
 and machines for the service and ma- 
 noeuvre of artillery; small arms, ammu- 
 nition, and accoutrements; horse equip- 
 ments and harness for the artillery; 
 tools, machinery, and materials for the 
 ordnance service. 
 
 ORE, the compound of a metal and 
 some other substance, as oxygen, sul- 
 phur, or carbon (forming oxides, sul- 
 phides, carbonates, etc.), by which its 
 distinctive properties are disguised or 
 lost. Metals found free from such com- 
 bination and exhibiting their natural 
 character are called native. Metals are 
 commonly obtained from their ores by 
 smelting, the ores having been prev- 
 iously oxidized by roasting. Ores are 
 commonly found in veins or lodes. See 
 Mining, and the articles on the different 
 metals. 
 
 OR'EGON, one of the United States, 
 on the Pacific coast, having on the 
 north the Columbia river; east, the 
 territory of Idaho; south, Nevada and 
 California; and west, the North Pacific 
 ocean; area, 96,030 sq. miles. It ranks 
 seventh in size among the states. The 
 300 miles of coast-line are generally 
 rugged and precipitous, and offer but 
 few harbors. The interior consists of 
 wide and elevated plateaux, rich in 
 pastures and pine forests. Two great 
 ranges divide the whole territory into 
 three distinct portions. The first of 
 these portions stretches north and 
 south along the Pacific, and east from it 
 ' for a width of 100 miles to 150 miles; 
 
OREGON 
 
 ORGAN 
 
 and is then hemmed in by a lofty moun- 
 tain-chain, which is called, the Cascade 
 Range, and occupies the whole breadth 
 of the territory from s.s.w. to n.n.e. 
 The other two portions, much more 
 irregular in shape, are formed by a 
 range which, under the names of the 
 Blue mountains and the Klamath 
 finally bends round to the southwest, 
 and becomes linked to the Cascade 
 range. The influence of topography on 
 climate is very apparent in Oregon. 
 The winds from the ocean are deprived 
 of nearly all their moisture by the coast 
 and Cascade ranges, which also bar out 
 the tempering influence of the sea, so 
 that the portion west of the Cascades 
 has a moist and equable insular climate, 
 while east of the mountains the climate 
 is dry and continental, with great ex- 
 tremes. In the west the rainfall is abun- 
 dant, and in some places excessive. 
 On the eastern plateau it is insufficient 
 for the needs of agriculture. Salmon 
 fishing and canning is one of the most 
 important industries, and is unequaled 
 by any other state. Sturgeon, halibut, 
 oysters, and other varieties of fish are 
 caught in less quantities. 
 
 The different sections of the state, 
 varying so distinctly in climate, topog- 
 raphy, and soil, naturally vary in 
 agricultural development. The two lead- 
 ing crops are wheat and hay. The area 
 devoted to wheat doubled between 1880 
 and 1900. During the same period the 
 acreage of hay and forage gained over 
 threefold. Oats are grown principally 
 in the Willamette valley, and barley in 
 the northeast counties. Oats have a 
 large acreage. Potatoes produce abun- 
 dantly and are an important crop. 
 Sugar beets are also raised. The state 
 ranks second in the production of hops, 
 their culture being confined principally 
 to the Willamette valley. The region 
 between the Cascade and Coast ranges, 
 particularly Jackson and Douglas coun- 
 ties, has become noted for the produc- 
 tion of fruit. Though the quantity of 
 arable land is comparatively small, the 
 pastures are large and rich; the forests 
 abound with pines of almost unrivalled 
 mamificenee, and the metalliferous 
 fields which have made California so 
 famous are traced into Oregon. Gold is 
 the only mineral extensively mined. It 
 is produced chiefly in the Blue moun- 
 tain region in the northeastern part of 
 the state. Other minerals found are 
 chrome iron, limonite or brown hematite 
 iron ore, copper, magnetite nickel, 
 mercury, platinum, iridium, lead and 
 antimony, as well as clay, salt, and 
 alkali deposits. Small quantities of 
 silver, borax, and coal are mined. 
 Horses, cattle, swine, and sheep are 
 raised in great numbers. Large sections 
 of the state are fit only for grazing. The 
 natural grasses cure on the ground and 
 supply nutritive pasturage all the year. 
 The Pacific ocean, the Columbia river, 
 and Snake river provide three sides of 
 the state with the advantages of water 
 communication. Along the coast are 
 nine inlets which offer harbor facilities. 
 Large ocean going vessels pass up the 
 Columbia as far as Portland. The con- 
 struction of a canal at Cascade Locks 
 allows river steamers to go as far as The 
 Dalles, above which point it is again 
 
 naviagable. The Snake river is navi- 
 gable beyond the point where it leaves 
 the boundary. The Union Pacific and 
 the Southern Pacific own the greater 
 portion of the total mileage which is 
 very low, being only about 1700 miles. 
 The chief exports consist largely of 
 wheat and lumber products. Salem is the 
 capital. Portland is the largest city in 
 the state. 
 
 The accounts of the early exploration 
 of the western Pacific coast are con- 
 flicting and unreliable. The Spanish ex- 
 plorer Ferrelo possibly reached the 
 southern boundary of Oregon in 1543, 
 and Sir Francis Drake touched here in 
 1570. The English navigator. Captain 
 Cook in 1778 landed at Nootka Sound, 
 
 Seal of Oregon. 
 
 which he so named. In 1805-06 Lewis 
 and Clark explored much of the country. 
 The northwestern boundary between 
 the United States and Canada was fixed 
 by the convention of 1818 as the line 
 of 49° from the Lake of the Woods to 
 the Rocky Mountains. The Oregon 
 question claimed the attention of con- 
 ress after 1820, and the sentiment for 
 emanding “all of Oregon” grew. By 
 the negotiations with Russia (1824-25) 
 that country agreed to make no settle- 
 ment south of 54° 40', and the idea 
 gained ground that this was the proper 
 northern boundary. The settlement of 
 the northeastern boundary had been 
 imsatisfactory, and in 1844 a popular 
 rallying cry of the democrats was 
 “Fifty-four forty, or fight.” It was 
 finally agreed in 1846 that the boundary 
 should be 49° to the channel between 
 Vancouver and the mainland, thence 
 down the middle of this channel, 
 through the Straits of San Juan de 
 Fuca to the sea. Oregon territory, in- 
 cluding the present Washington and 
 much of Idaho, was organized on August 
 14, 1848. The state was admitted Feb- 
 ruary 14, 1859, with the present boun- 
 daries. The state has given its electoral 
 vote for the republican ticket except 
 in 1868, and one vote in 1892, though 
 usually by small majorities. In 1892 
 the democrats indorsed one populist 
 elector, and the vote that year was: 
 republican, 3; populist, 1. Pop. 19e9 
 about 650,000. 
 
 OREGON, University of, a coeduca- 
 tional State institution at Eugene, Ore., 
 founded in 1872 and opened in 1876. It 
 comprises the university academy; the 
 college of literature, science, and the 
 arts, with a school of commerce, and 
 
 courses in law, journalism, and teach- 
 ing; the college of science and engineer- 
 ing, with courses preparatory to medi- 
 cine and dentistry; the school of music; 
 the graduate school; and the schools of 
 law and medicine, the last two at Port- 
 land. 
 
 OREGON QUESTION, in American 
 history the dispute between the United 
 States and Great Britain over the de- 
 limitation of their possessions on the 
 Northwest coast, leading to the deter- 
 mination of the present boundary. 
 
 OREGON RIVER, a river in North 
 America. See Columbia River. 
 
 OREL, a central government of 
 Russia, south of the Tula and Kaluga; 
 area, 18,042 sq. miles. Its trade in 
 grain, dairy produce, and cattle with 
 Moscow and St. Petersburg is very ex- 
 tensive. Manufactures are also increas- 
 ing, and the town is making rapid pro- 
 gress. Pop. 78,091. Pop. of government, 
 1,963,706. 
 
 O'RENBURG, a government of East- 
 ern Russia, partly in Europe, and partly 
 in Asia, with an area of 73,816 sq. 
 miles; pop. 1,609,388. The capital, 
 Orenburg, on a slope above the right 
 bank of the Ural, has, besides vast 
 tallow-melting establishments, woolen, 
 soap, and leather factories, and a large 
 caravan trade with Khiva and Bokhara. 
 Pop. 72,740. 
 
 OREN'SE, a city of N. W. ^Spain, 
 Galicia, capital of the province of same 
 name, and see of a bishop, on the left 
 banks of the Minho, here crossed by an 
 old and remarkable bridge, built in 
 1230. Pop. 15,250. — The province has 
 an area of 2739 sq. miles, and a popula- 
 tion of 404,311. 
 
 ORES'TES, in Greek mythology, the 
 son of Agamemnon and of Clytemnestra, 
 the avenger of his father, by becoming 
 the murderer of his mother. For this 
 murder he is relentlessly pursued by the 
 Eumenides or Furies, and only succeeds 
 in appeasing these terrible goddesses by 
 carrying out the instructions of the 
 Delphian oracle to bring back the 
 statue of Diana from Tauris to Argos. 
 Married to Hermione, daughter of 
 Menelaus, Orestes ruled over his pater- 
 nal kingdom of Mycenae, and over 
 Argos, upon the death of its king. Ores- 
 tes is an important fi^re in the Choep- 
 hori and the Eumenides of jEschylus, 
 the Electra of Sophocles, and the Orestes 
 and Iphigenia in Tauris of Euripides. 
 
 ORGAN, a wind-instrument of music, 
 the grandest of musical instruments, 
 the introduction of which into the 
 church service has undoubtedly exer- 
 cised a powerful influence on the develop- 
 ment of musical art. It is stated to be of 
 very ancient origin, but is most prob- 
 ably the offspring of the hydraulicon or 
 water organ of the Greeks. The early 
 organs were very imperfect instruments, 
 but improvements were naturally made 
 from time to time, the most notable 
 being those of the 16th century, when 
 the bellows were much improved and 
 the division of all the pipes into dif- 
 ferent stops invented, and the tone of 
 the instrument adapted to the choir. 
 The invention of the wind-chest in the 
 17th century, by which an equal pres- 
 sure of wind can be obtained from all 
 the bellows, led chiefly to the presenA 
 
ORGAN 
 
 ORIGINAL SIN 
 
 perfect state of the organ. The three 
 essentials of an organ are; (1) a chest 
 of compressed air; (2) a set of pipes pro- 
 ducing musical sounds in communica- 
 tion with this chest ; and (3) a keyboard 
 or clavier, by means of which this com- 
 munication may be opened or closed at 
 pleasure. The air is forced into the 
 wind-chest by means of bellows. To 
 the upper part of each wind-chest is 
 attached a sound-board, a contrivance 
 for conveying the wind to any particular 
 
 PIPES 
 
 Organ— internal arrangements. 
 
 pipe or pipes at pleasure, and divided 
 into as many grooves as there are keys. 
 Air is admitted into these grooves by 
 means of valves or pallets, which are 
 connected with the keys; the trans- 
 mission of air being regulated by the 
 register or slide. The series of pipes 
 above each slider is called a stop. The 
 principal stops of an organ are the open, 
 stopped, and double diapasons; the 
 principal, dulciana, twelfth, fifteenth, 
 flute, trumpet, clarion, bassoon, cre- 
 mona, oboe, and vox humana. An organ 
 may have several wind-chests filled by 
 the same bellows, and several key-boards 
 each key-board and wind-chest repre- 
 senting a distinct organ. In the largest 
 instruments the number of these organs 
 generally amounts to five; viz.: the 
 great organ, the choir organ, the swell 
 organ, the solo organ, and the pedal 
 organ. The key-boards for the nand 
 are termed manuals, that for the feet 
 the pedal. The most usual compass of 
 the manuals is from CC to F in alt, four 
 octaves and a half; that of the pedal 
 from CCC to E or F, two and a quarter 
 to two and a half octaves. There are 
 two kinds of organ-pipes — flute pipes 
 or mouth pipes, and reed pipes, of each 
 of which there are several species, the 
 character and quality of their sound 
 depending mainly on the material em- 
 , ployed in their manufacture (wood or 
 metal), their shape, and dimensions. 
 A hydraulic engine has been adapted, 
 with success, to the purposes of work- 
 ing the bellows, and it is now pretty 
 generally adopted. In 1863 a contriv- 
 ance was patented for transferring 
 some of the work from mechanism to 
 electro-magnetism. An organ built on 
 this principle is termed an electric 
 organ. The principal advantages of this 
 description of organ are that it facilitates 
 the playing, and enables the organist to 
 sit at a key-board at a distance from 
 the instrument. Among the largest 
 organs are those in St. Peter’s in Rome, 
 of the Seville Cathedral, of Weingarten 
 in Suabia, of Haarlem, and of Notre 
 
 P * \ 
 
 Dame, Paris. The largest organ ever 
 constructed is that built in 1870 for the 
 Royal Albert Hall, London. There are 
 five rows of keys for the choir, great, 
 swell, solo, and pedal organs; 138 stops 
 nearly 10,000 pipes. The bellows are 
 inflated by steam power. A free-reed 
 instrument was introduced about 1860 
 by Mason and Hamlin of New York, 
 known as the American organ, differing 
 from the harmonium in having smaller 
 and more curved reeds and in drawing 
 the air inward. It is more easily blown 
 than the harmonium, and its tones are 
 of a more organ-like quality, but it is 
 inferior to the latter instrument in 
 variety of tone and power of expression. 
 
 ORGAN, Organization. In biology, 
 the term organ is applied to all the 
 definite parts with special functions, 
 forming as a whole the structure of a 
 living body, whether animal or vege- 
 table. The dissimilarity between the 
 organs of which a living being is com- 
 posed forms a very striking contrast 
 to the structure of lifeless bodies. A 
 lifeless body — such as a mineral — ex- 
 hibits generally a sameness or homo- 
 geneity of structure. Its intimate parts 
 or particles are usually of a similar kind 
 or nature. Hence this broad and patent 
 distinction has resulted in the employ- 
 ment of the terms organic and organized 
 to express the characteristics of living 
 beings; while to the lifeless part of 
 creation the opposing term inorganic 
 is applied. Organization thus means the 
 possession of definite organs, structures, 
 or parts, which have definite relations 
 to each other; and an organism is a 
 whole, an animal or plant, possessing 
 such organs. 
 
 ORIEL WINDOW, a window pro- 
 jecting from the outer face of a wall, 
 in plan semi-hexagonal, semi-octagonal, 
 or rectangular, thus having three or 
 more sides, divided by mullions and 
 
 Oriel window, Balllol college, Oxford. 
 
 transoms into different bays and other 
 projections, and supported by brackets 
 or corbels. A projecting window rising 
 from the ground is sometimes called an 
 oriel, but is more properly a bay-win- 
 dow. 
 
 ORIENTAL LANGUAGES, the general 
 designation at the present day for the 
 lan^ages of the nations of Asia, as also 
 of the Mohammedan countries of Europe 
 
 ORIFLAMME, until Charles VII. ’s 
 reign, the royal standard of France 
 originally the banner of the abbey of 
 
 St. Denis and its lord protector. When 
 the French kings chose St. Denis as 
 their patron saint, they made the 
 oriflamme the principal banner of their 
 armies. It was a piece of red taffeta 
 fixed on a golden spear, in the form of 
 a banner, and cut into three points, 
 each of which was adorned with a tassel 
 of green silk. 
 
 ORIGEN (or'i-jen), Origines, sur- 
 named Adamantios, one of the greatest 
 andmost influential of the Greek fathers 
 born at Alexandria, a.d. 185, died at 
 Tyre 254. He lectured with much suc- 
 cess in Alexandria, and gained the pa- 
 tronage of Bishop Demetrius. His 
 studies were pursued with extraordinary 
 zeal; he lived an ascetic life, and in order 
 to be free from the lusts of the flesh he 
 mutilated himself. A journey to Rome 
 (211-212) greatly increased his reputa- 
 tion. In 228 he went to Palestine; he 
 was so well received, and so many 
 favors were bestowed on him, that his 
 patron became jealous, recalled him to 
 Alexandria, and finally deprived him of 
 his priestly office, charged him w’ith 
 heresy, and expelled him from the city. 
 These persecutions never ceased until 
 the death of Demetrius in 231. In a new 
 persecution, under the Emperor Decius, 
 Origen, who was viewed as a pillar of 
 the church, was thrown into prison, and 
 subjected to the most cruel sufferings, 
 ultimately resulting in his death. He 
 is credited with some 6000 works, in- 
 cluding smaller tracts, but only a few 
 have been transmitted to us, and some 
 of these only in a distorted form. His 
 work against Celsus is considered as the 
 most complete and convincing defense 
 of Christianity of which antiquity can 
 boast. 
 
 ORIGINAL SIN, in theology, the first 
 sin of Adam, namely, the eating of the 
 forbidden fruit; hence, either the im- 
 putation of Adam’s sin to his posterity, 
 or that corruption of nature and ten- 
 dency to sin inherited from him. The 
 Greek fathers held that a perverted will 
 and sin are co-ordinate with the human 
 race, and that death has dominion over 
 it by reason of its origination from 
 Adam after the fall. -Jn the Latin church 
 the doctrine was more fully developed 
 than in the Greek church. Tertullian, 
 in accordance with his doctrine of 
 Traducianism, which holds that the 
 soul as well as the body is generated by 
 the parents, asserted that sin and death 
 were alike propagated from Adam; he 
 accordingly held an oiginis vitium, but 
 without regarding it as actual sin or 
 denying to man the possibility of good- 
 ness. Pelagius held that no change 
 whatever had been brought about by 
 the fall, that death was a part of man’s 
 original constitution, and that all men 
 could render faultless obedience to the 
 law of God, if they wished. Augustine 
 succeeded in getting this doctrine con- 
 demned in favor of his own, which in- 
 culcated that “Death was brought into 
 the world by Adam’s sin; man’s free- 
 will, the reflex of the divine will, was 
 lost to him by the fall as regards good; 
 there remained only spontaneity, the 
 negative of outward constraint, and 
 free-will as regards evil.’’ Pelagian!^, 
 however, sprung up again in a modified 
 form, called semi-Pelagianism, and 
 
ORIGIN OF SPECIES 
 
 ORNITHOLOGY 
 
 according to this view death and a 
 taint of corruption were inherited from 
 Adam as a disease might be, but man 
 still retained a power for good without 
 the aid of divine grace ; a doctrine which 
 obtained much support in the church. 
 The reformers of the 16th century up- 
 held the Augustinian view of original 
 sin, though by no means unanimously, 
 in opposition to the Roman Catholics, 
 who at the council of Trent gave their 
 adhesion to the semi-Pelagian view of 
 the doctrine. In recent times orthodox 
 theologians, such as Olshausen, Heng- 
 stenberg, and others, have stood up for 
 the Augustinian doctrine, while those 
 of the more liberal school have modified 
 it in various ways. Philosophers as well 
 as theologians have taken part in this 
 controversy about original sin. 
 
 ORIGIN OF SPECIES. See Species. 
 
 ORINO'CO, a river of South America, 
 one of the largest in the world, its prin- 
 cipal mouth being 6 leagues wide ; length 
 about 1500 miles. The scenery on its 
 banks is magnificent beyond descrip- 
 tion. Two remarkable rapids occur in 
 the upper part of the Orinoco, and from 
 these the river is navigable to its mouth 
 (about 780 miles). 
 
 O'RIOLE, a name popularly applied 
 to two groups of birds. The American 
 orioles are nearly allied to the starlings. 
 The Baltimore oriole, or golden robin, is 
 a familiar species of this group. An- 
 other, the orchard oriole is distributed 
 very generally over the United States. 
 The orioles proper, or those of the Old 
 
 Baltimore oriole. 
 
 World are nearly related to the thrushes. 
 They are found in Asia, Africa, the 
 islands of the Indian Archipelago, and 
 Southern and Eastern Europe. The 
 golden oriole is the typical form, and the 
 only European member of the group. 
 The wings and tail of the males are 
 black, and contrast powerfully with the 
 golden color of the body. In size it re- 
 sembles a common thrush or blackbird. 
 It chiefly inhabits Southern Europe, 
 but is occasionally found in Britain. 
 The song is loud, and resembles the 
 sound of the flute. 
 
 ORI'ON, a hero of Greek mythology. 
 According tp Homer he was a beautiful 
 youth, of whose charms Eos (Aurora) 
 became enamored. The gods were 
 jealous of her love, and Artemis slew 
 him with her arrows. According to other 
 writers he was a great hunter of colossal 
 stature, and died of the sting of a 
 scorpion. The hero after his death was 
 placed with his hounds in the heavens 
 as a constellation, which bears his name. 
 
 ORI'ON, a constellation situated in 
 the southern hemisphere with respect 
 to the ecliptic, but the equinoctial 
 passes nearly across its middle. This 
 constellation is represented by the 
 figure of a man with a sword by his side. 
 It contains seven stars, which are very 
 conspicuous to the naked eye; four of 
 these form a square, and the three others 
 are situated in the middle of it in a 
 straight line, forming what is called the 
 Belt of Orion. Orion also contains a 
 remarkable nebula, and thousands of 
 stars which are only visible through 
 powerful telescopes. 
 
 ORIS'SA, a maritime province of 
 Hindustan, lying on the Bay of Bengal, 
 between Bardwan and the Madras 
 Presidency, forming a division or com- 
 missionership under the jurisdiction of 
 the Lieut .-governor of Bengal. It has an 
 area of 9853 sq. miles, and includes the 
 districts of Balasore, Cattack, Puri, the 
 .\ngul and Khand Mehals, besides trib- 
 utary states. Pop. 4,350,372. 
 
 ORKNEY ISLANDS, a group lying 
 off the northern coast of Scotland, and 
 separated from it by a channel called 
 the Pentland Firth, about 6 to 8 miles 
 broad; aggregate area, 375 sq. miles. 
 There are 67 islands and islets, 28 of 
 which are inhabited. James III. of Scot- 
 land received the islands as a dowry 
 with Margaret of Norway in 1469, and 
 ever since they have belonged to Scot- 
 land. Pop. 28,699. 
 
 ORLEANS (or-la-an), a city of France, 
 formerly capital of Orl6anais, now of the 
 department of the Loiret, situated on 
 the right bank of the Loire, 68 miles 
 southwest of Paris. In 1428 the city 
 sustained a siege against the English, 
 and was relieved by the Maid of Orl4ans 
 (see Joan of Arc), whose statue in bronze 
 stands in one of the public squares. It 
 was taken and retaken more than once 
 in the Franco-German war in the latter 
 part of 1870. Pop. 67,539. 
 
 ORLEANS, a French royal family, 
 two hpuses of which have occupied the 
 throne of France. (1) On the death of 
 Charles VIII. without issue in 1498, 
 Louis, duke of Orleans, great-grandson 
 of their common ancestor Charles V., 
 and grandson of the first Duke of Or-, 
 leans, being the nearest heir, ascended 
 the throne under the title of Louis XII. 
 Henry III. (died 1589) was the last 
 sovereign of this house, or the Valois- 
 Orl4ans branch. (2) The house of Bour- 
 bon-Orl4ans is descended from Philip, 
 duke of Orleans, son of Louis XIII. 
 and younger brother of Louis XIV. 
 His son Philip, duke of Orleans, was 
 regent of France during the minority of 
 Louis XV. His grandson Louis-Philippe 
 Joseph, who assumed the surname of 
 Egalit6, was beheaded in 1793. Louis 
 Philippe, duke of Chartres, afterward 
 king of the French, was the son of 
 Egalit4. The grandson of Louis-Philippe 
 the Comte de Paris (1838-94), became 
 head of the royal house and royalist 
 party, leaving a son, the Duke of 
 Orleans, to inherit his claims. See 
 Bourbon and Paris, Comte de. 
 
 ORLEANS, Jean Baptiste Gaston, 
 Duke of, third son of Henry IV. of 
 France, and Mary of Medici, born 1608, 
 died at Blois 1660. By his first marriage, 
 with Mary of Bourbon, heiress of the 
 
 house of Montpensier, he had a daugh- 
 ter, the author of some interesting 
 memoirs. During the disturbances of the 
 Fronde he joined De Retz, the soul of the 
 Fronde, who, however, soon saw through 
 the character of his fickle and feeble con- 
 federate. After the termination of the 
 troubles (1648) the duke was banished 
 to Blois. 
 
 ORLEANS, Louis Philippe Joseph, 
 Duke of (Egalit6), great-grandson of the 
 regent, Philippe, duke of Orleans, was 
 born in 1747; married in 1769 the 
 daughter of the Duke of Penthievre. 
 In 1787 he was exiled for the part he 
 took in the Assembly of Notables; in 
 1789 he was one of the nobles who 
 joined the Tiers Etat (Third Estate); 
 in 1792 he went over to the revolution- 
 ary party without reserve, took the 
 name of Philippe Egalit4 (“Philip 
 Equality”), and vated for the death of 
 Louis XVI. It did not save him from 
 being arrested as a Bourbon, condemned 
 and beheaded, 6th November, 1793. 
 
 ORLEANS, Maid of. See Joan of Arc. 
 
 ORLEANS, New. See New Orleans. 
 
 ORLEANS, Philippe, Duke of, only 
 brother of Louis XIV. of France, and 
 founder of the house of Bourbon- 
 Orl4ans, which for a short time held the 
 throne of France, was born in 1640, 
 died 1701. In his twenty-first year he 
 married Henrietta of England, sister 
 of Charles II. The second marriage of 
 the duke, with the Princess Elizabeth 
 of the Palatinate (1671), was arranged 
 by Louis to secure the neutrality of the 
 Elector Palatine in the approaching war 
 against Holland. In this war the duke 
 distinguished himself in spite of his 
 effeminacy. 
 
 ORLEANS, Philippe, Duke of. Regent 
 of France, son of Philippe, Duke of 
 Orleans and the Princess Palatine 
 Elizabeth, born 1674, died 1723. He 
 made his military d6but at the siege of 
 Mons (1691), and in 1693 distinguished 
 himself at Neerwinden, but only to 
 arouse the jealousy of Louis XIV., his 
 uncle, who compelled him to retire 
 from the army. In 1692 he married 
 Mdlle. de Blois, the legitimated daugh- 
 ter of Louis. In 1707 he was. appointed 
 to succeed the Duke of Berwick in 
 Spain, and completed the subjugation 
 of that country. On the death of the 
 king (1st September, 1715) he was ap- 
 pointed regent. He resigned the gov- 
 ernment to Louis XV. on 13th February, 
 1723. 
 
 ORNE, a department in Normandy, 
 France ; area, 2354 sq. miles. It manu- 
 factures needles, pins, wire, porcelain, 
 cotton and linen cloths, and has valu- 
 able granite quarries. Alen5on is the 
 capital. Pop. 367,248. 
 
 ORNITHOL'OGY, that branch of 
 zoology which treats of birds. Birds 
 form the second class of the great 
 division of vertebrate animals, the con- 
 necting link between the Mammalia 
 and Reptilia, but are more closely allied 
 to the latter. In common with the 
 Mammalia they have warm blood, 
 though of a higher and uniform tem- 
 perature (8°-12° higher), a heart with 
 two auricles and two ventricles, and 
 breathe by lungs; but differ from them 
 in having feathers for a covering, two 
 feet, wings, by means of which most of 
 
ORNITHOLOGY 
 
 ornithology 
 
 them are enabled to fly, a horny bill, 
 and reproduction by eggs. The feathers, 
 the development of which resembles 
 essentially that of hair, constitute ap- 
 pendages of a unique kind, as being 
 developed only in connection with the 
 bird-class. The under-plumage of most 
 birds is formed by a thick coating of 
 small shaftless feathers, embedded in 
 the skin and called down. Various 
 names are given to feathers according 
 to their position; thus the long quills 
 on the part of the wing corresponding 
 to the hand are called primaries, those 
 on the lower fore-arm secondaries, and 
 those on the upper part of the fore-arm 
 tertiaries, those on the shoulder-blade 
 and humerus scapulars. The feathers 
 covering the bases of the wing-quills are 
 called wing-coverts, and those covering 
 
 Plumage of bird— Bohemian chatterer. 
 
 a, primaries: 6, secondaries: c, coverts: d, 
 scapulars: e, tall feathers; /, forehead; g, sin- 
 ciput; A, occiput. 
 
 the rectrices, or great feathers of the 
 tail, tail-coverts. Birds moult or renew 
 their feathers periodically, and in many 
 cases the winter plumage displays a 
 different coloring from the summer 
 plumage. The plumage in most cases 
 is changed frequently before it attains 
 its characteristic and full-grown state. 
 
 The mouth of birds takes the form of 
 a beak or bill; the jaws or mandibles 
 are hard and horny, and more or less 
 prolonged into a point, while there are 
 no fleshy lips, and no teeth (except in 
 certain fossil birds) ; a horny sheathihg 
 generally smooth, but sometimes ser- 
 rated, takes the place of the latter. 
 The beak is variously modified in ac- 
 cordance with the habits of the bird 
 and the nature of the food on which it 
 subsists. The sense of taste is not keen, 
 their tongue being generally slender, 
 pointed, and more or less horny, though 
 some birds, as the parrots, have it 
 fleshy. The nostrils open upon the side, 
 or at the base of the beak. Their sense 
 of smell is often very delicate. A circle 
 of naked skin called the cere in many 
 birds surrounds the base of the mandi- 
 bles. The sight of birds is extremely 
 keen, and equally adapted for near and 
 for distant objects. A peculiar feature 
 in the eye is the nictitating membrane, 
 a sort of third translucent eyelid which 
 rests in the inner angle of the eye, but 
 can be drawn over it so as to protect it 
 from too strong a light. Birds have no 
 external ear, with the exception of the 
 nocturnal tribes; these have a large 
 exterior conch in the form of a thin 
 leathery piece of flesh. The internal ear 
 
 is very large, and the sense of hearing 
 
 very quick. 
 
 The bone-tissue of birds is light and 
 compact. The bones are whiter and 
 contain a larger proportion of phosphate 
 of lime than those of the mammalia and 
 lower vertebi-ates. The bones of most 
 birds are pneumatic, that is, contain 
 air instead of marrow, to adapt them for 
 flight; the air being admitted by means 
 of special apertures which are connected 
 with certain sacs, termed air-cells, 
 filled with air from the lungs. In many 
 birds, however, the long bones are filled 
 with marrow, as are also all the bones 
 of young birds. The humeri, cranial 
 bones, and sternum are most generally 
 pneumatic, the femora more rarely so. 
 The vertebrae vary considerably in num- 
 ber in different species. The neck is 
 always more or less elongated and flexi- 
 ble, and consists of from 9 to 23 verte- 
 brae. The dorsal region, or region of the 
 back, is composed of from 4 to 9 verte- 
 brae, and is generally firm, forming a 
 support for the movements of the wings. 
 In all birds the neck is of sufficient 
 length to reach the oil-gland situated 
 at the tail, the secretion of which is used 
 for “preening” or dressing the feathers. 
 The vertebrae interposed between the 
 dorsal vertebrae and those of the tail are 
 united to form the sacrum, the number 
 of vertebrae which may thus coalesce 
 varying from 9 to 20. The caudal or 
 tail vertebrae may number ten, the last 
 two or more of which unite to form a 
 bone, called from its shape “plough- 
 share” bone. In some species this bone 
 is absent, undeveloped, or modified. 
 The bones of the skull become firmly 
 united at an early period, so as to leave 
 few or no sutures or lines of union, as in 
 mammals, a complete bony case being 
 thus formed. The skull is joined, as in 
 reptiles, to the spinal column by a 
 .single process, or condyle, of the occipi- 
 tal bone, or hindermost bone of the 
 skull. The chest or thorax is inclosed 
 posteriorly by tbe dorsal vertebrae, 
 laterally by the ribs, and in front by the 
 sternum or breast-bone and the sternal 
 ribs. The ribs correspond in number 
 with the dorsal vertebrae, from 6 to 9 
 pairs of ribs being thus found in birds, 
 the first two being generally unattached, 
 that is, they do not reach the sternum 
 in front. The sternum is large and 
 strong, and serves as the point of at- 
 tachment for the most powerful of the 
 muscles by which the wings are set in 
 motion. It is provided with a medial 
 crest or keel, which is most prominent in 
 the birds of most powerful flight, and 
 is altogether absent in the ostrich and 
 cassowary, birds which do not fly. Upon 
 the upper or anterior portion of the 
 sternum the coracoid bones are borne, 
 which form the chief supports of the 
 fore-limbs. At its upper portion each 
 coracoid bone articulates with the 
 scapula or shoulder-blade, and with one 
 of the clavicles. The clavicles or collar- 
 bones are united in most birds to form 
 the furculum or merry-thought. The 
 wing of the bird exhibits the essential 
 skeletal elements found in the fore- 
 limb of all other vertebrates. The 
 humerus, or bone of the upper arm, is 
 generally short; the forearm, composed 
 of the radius and ulna, being the longest 
 
 segment of the fore-limb. The ulna is 
 larger and better developed than the 
 radius, which is slender and attenuated. 
 In the bones which form the extremity 
 of the wing we recognize the rudiments 
 of a thumb and two fingers, one of 
 which has two phalanges and the other 
 only one. The femur or thigh is short, 
 the tibia or shin-bone forming the chief 
 element in the leg; while the fibula is 
 attenuated and generally ossified to the 
 tibia. The toes generally number four; 
 the hallux or great-toe, when present, 
 being composed of two phalanges, ana 
 the other toes of three, four, and five 
 phalanges respectively. The muscles 
 
 Skeleton of Egyptian vulture to show bones 
 of bird. 
 
 a, post-orbital process: 6, lower jaw; c, cervi- 
 cal vertebrae ; co, coracoid bone ; d. humerus ; «, 
 radius: /, ulna; metacarpus ; A, second pha- 
 lanx of chief digit of wing: A', phalanges of 
 lower digit; A", first phalanx of chief digit; i, 
 clavicle: k, sternum; I, pelvis; m, coccyx; n, 
 femur; o, tibia; p, tarso-metatarsus; g, pha- 
 langes of foot. 
 
 of birds are firm and dense, and are 
 generally colored deep red. The chief 
 body-muscles are the pectorals, or those 
 of the breast, which are devoted to the 
 movements of the wings. 
 
 There are three stomachs or stomachic 
 dilatations in birds; the first is the crop, 
 a considerable pouch attached to the 
 CBsophagus or gullet; then the ventricu- 
 lus succenturiatus, a slight dilatation of 
 the oesophagus, with thick and glandu- 
 lar walls; then immediately after this is 
 the gizzard, a strong and muscular 
 cavity. In granivorous birds the crop 
 is large, and serves as a reservoir for the 
 seeds swallowed by them, which are 
 here moistened by a secretion before 
 passing into the gizzard. In these birds 
 the gizzard is extremely strong, having 
 to perform the task of grinding down 
 the hard substances subjected to its 
 action, a process which is facilitated by 
 the small stones which these birds 
 generally swallow. The ventriculus 
 secretes the gastric juice, and so far 
 represents a real stomach. In birds 
 which live on flesh or fish the gizzard is 
 weaker and less di.stinct from the ven- 
 triculus; while the crop becomes smaller, 
 and in some species completely dis- 
 appears. The intestinal canal is relative- 
 
ORNITHORHYNCHUS 
 
 ORSTED 
 
 ly smaller than in mammalia and pre- 
 sents fewer circumvolutions. It ter- 
 minates in an opening called the cloaca, 
 which is also the' common termination 
 of the ureters and oviduct. The liver is 
 generally large, and colored a distinct 
 bro'wnish hue, which is deepest in 
 aquatic birds. A gall-bladder is absent 
 in a few cases only, as in the ostrich, 
 pigeons, and some parrots. The kidneys 
 are two in number, of large size and 
 
 a 
 
 Digestive system of common fowl. 
 
 o, gullet ; 6, proventriculus : c, gizzard ; d, duo- 
 denum: e.cBBcal appendages;/, large intestine; 
 g, cloaca; h, small intestines; i, liver; k, crop, 
 
 elongated shape. The urine consists in 
 greater part of earthy matters, and 
 contains but a small proportion of water, 
 hence its whitish appearance. The spleen 
 is usually of small size, rounded or oval, 
 but may also be elongated or broad and 
 flattened. The heart is highly muscular, 
 four-chambered; the blood, deep-red in 
 color, circulates rapidly and vigorously. 
 The lungs are confined to the back por- 
 tion of the body, and are attached to the 
 ribs instead of being free, as in mam- 
 malia. They are not divided into lobes, 
 and are usually of a bright-red color. 
 They are enveloped in a membrane 
 pierced with large holes, which permit 
 the air to pass into the cavities in the 
 breast and in the abdomen, and, in 
 some species, even into the interior of 
 the bones. The trachea or windpipe is of 
 great relative length in birds, and is 
 adapted to the length of the neck. The 
 nervous system evinces a marked 
 superiority over that of reptiles. The 
 cerebrum, or true brain, is larger than 
 in the latter, but its surfaee is not con- 
 voluted, as in most mammalia. The 
 generative organs consist of the essential 
 organs or testesof themale, accompanied 
 in some cases by an intromittent organ. 
 The female organs consist of an ovarium 
 and oviduct. The eggs are hatched by 
 the process of incubation. Very great 
 differences exist in the size, form, and 
 number of eggs which may be produced 
 by birds, and in the time required for 
 their hatching. The varieties of nests 
 in which they are deposited, as to mode 
 and materials used in construction, are 
 endless. 
 
 Many birds migrate at certain seasons 
 from one country to another, and a re- 
 
 cent report on migration shows, that 
 with very few exceptions there is 
 scarcely a bird of either the palaearctic 
 or nearctic regions that is not, to a 
 greater or less degree, migratory in 
 some part or other of its range. See 
 Migration. 
 
 Birds are not numerous as fossil 
 organisms. Among the most important 
 and interesting bird fossils we at present 
 possess are the two specimens of arch- 
 aeopteryx found in the slate-quarries of 
 Solenhofen (Bavaria). This bird differed 
 from all existing birds in the elongated 
 reptilian nature of its tail, which was 
 composed of simple vertebrae, each 
 bearing a single pair of quill-feathers. 
 It had also teeth. They certainly tend 
 to prove the evolution of birds from 
 reptiles. Other two most interesting 
 fossil birds are the ichthyornis and the 
 hesperornis, both found in the creta- 
 ceous formations of North America and 
 both provided with teeth ; but while the 
 former must have had powerful wings 
 the latter was quite wingless. 
 
 ORNITHORHYNCHUS, the duck- 
 billed water-mole of Australia. With 
 the echidna or porcupine ant-eater of 
 Australia it forms the order Monotre- 
 mata — the lowest division of the mam- 
 malian class. This curious animal was 
 first described by Shaw in 1792, and 
 caused no little excitement among zo- 
 ologists. It presents a quadruped, of the 
 shape and size of a small otter, covered 
 with short bro'wn fur; a horny flat bill 
 like a duck; a short flat tail; short legs 
 with five-toed and webbed feet, ter- 
 minated by claws. The eyes are small; 
 external ear wholly wanting. The skull 
 is bird-like in conformation; brain with- 
 out convolutions; coracoid bones as in 
 birds well developed. Its young are 
 produced from eggs, are born blind and 
 
 Ornithorhynchus or water-mole. 
 
 hairless, and suckled from milk-glands 
 destitute of nipples. It forms large bur- 
 rows in river and lake banks, rising from 
 near the surface of the water to a height 
 of perhaps twenty feet above it, the 
 nest being at the higher end. It swims 
 for its food, which consists of insects, 
 worms, larvae, etc. 
 
 ORPHAN ASYLUM, or ORPHANAGE, 
 
 an establishment in which orphans are 
 provided for and educated. In all well- 
 regulated states the duty of taking care 
 of destitute orphans was recognized at 
 an early age, and it appears that the 
 cities of Thebes, Athens, and Rome had 
 establishments in which orphaned, de- 
 serted, and illegitimate children were 
 supported and educated at the public 
 expense. In the laws of Emperor Jus- 
 tinian there is frequent mention of such 
 
 institutions. In the middle ages such 
 asylums were numerous and generally 
 under the direction of the clergy. In 
 recent times public orphanages have 
 been substituted or supplemented by 
 the farming-out system, that is, the 
 children are brought up in private 
 families willing to undertake their 
 charge. This system, with due care in 
 the selection of guardians and judicious 
 supervision, has proved satisfactory 
 wherever it has been tried. It is more 
 economical, and the example of respect- 
 able family life cannot fail to have a 
 beneficial moral influence, which is 
 absent in the public establishments. 
 
 ORPHEUS (or'fus), a personage of 
 great importance in the mythology of 
 Greece, surrounded by a multitude of 
 legends, which invariably associate him 
 with Apollo and the Muses. To him is 
 attributed the application of music to 
 the worship of the gods. Apollo pre- 
 sented him with his lyre, and the Muses 
 instructed him to use it, so that he 
 moved not the beasts only, but the 
 woods and rocks with its melody. Hav- 
 ing lost his wife Eurydice by the bite of 
 a serpent he descended to Hades to try 
 and get her back. His music so moved 
 the infernal deities Pluto and Proserpine 
 that they consented to her return to 
 earth, only her husband, whom she was 
 to follow, must not look back till they 
 had reached the upper world. This con- 
 dition the impatient Orpheus violated 
 and lost his wife forever. He is said 
 to have met his death at the hands of 
 band of furious women engaged in the 
 mystic rites of Bacchus. He is repre- 
 sented as one of the Argonauts, and to 
 him is ascribed the origin of the so- 
 called Orphic mysteriesjconnected with 
 the worhsip of Bacchus. A considerable 
 literature was connected with the name 
 of Orpheus, the oldest portions of which 
 were not earlier than 530 b.c. In part 
 it yet exists, there being still extant a 
 mythological poem called Argonautica, 
 certain hymns, etc. 
 
 ORRIS ROOT, or IRIS ROOT, the 
 root of several species of Iris. One 
 species, on account of its violet-like 
 smell, is employed in perfumery and in 
 the manufacture of tooth-powder. It 
 is also used in pharmacy as a pectoral. 
 
 ORSI'NI, one of the most illustrious 
 and powerful families in Italy. It be- 
 came known about the 11th century, 
 and had already acquired high rank and 
 extensive possessions in the papal states 
 when one of its members, Giovanni 
 Gaetano, was raised to the pontificate 
 under the title of Nicholas III. (1277- 
 80). The feud between the Orsini and 
 Colonna families is celebrated in history; 
 it commenced toward the close of the 
 13th century, and is distinguished for 
 bitterness, unscrupulousness, and vio- 
 lence, assassination being not unfre- 
 quently resorted to. Many of the Orsini 
 became famous military chiefs. Vin- 
 cenzo Marco Orsini (Benedict XIII.) 
 succeeded Innocent XIII. as pope in 
 1724. The Orsini family is now divided 
 into two branches, the Orsini-Gravina 
 at Rome and the Orsini of Piedmont. 
 
 ORSTED, or OERSTED (eur'sted) 
 Hans Christian, Danish physicist, bom 
 in 1777, died at Copenhagen 1851. 
 His fame first became diffused over the 
 
ORTHODOX 
 
 OSPREY 
 
 scientific world in 1819 by the discovery 
 of the fundamental principles of electro- 
 magnetism. In 1829 he became director 
 of the Polytechnic School of Copen- 
 hagen, and on the occasion of his jubilee 
 festival in 1850 he was created a privy- 
 councillor 
 
 OR'THODOX. the opposite of hetero- 
 dox (which see), generally applied to 
 what is regarded as the established 
 opinion, or that which is commonly 
 considered as right. The term is chiefly 
 used in religious controversies to desig- 
 nate certain religious faiths or doc- 
 trines. 
 
 ORTHO'EPY, that branch of gram- 
 matical knowledge which deals with 
 correct pronunciation. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY, that part of gram- 
 mar which treats of the nature and prop- 
 erties of letters, and their proper appli- 
 cation in writing words, making one of 
 the four main divisions or branches of 
 grammar. 
 
 ORTHOP.®'DIA, a branch of medical 
 science relating to the cure of natural 
 deformities. Hippocrates already oc- 
 cupied himself with the correction of 
 deformed bones, but it was not until 
 a comparatively recent epoch that this 
 important subject met with the serious 
 attention it deserves. Several institu- 
 tions for the cure of bodily malforma- 
 tions were founded in France and Ger- 
 many in the early part of this century. 
 Orthopsedia is divided into prophylactic 
 or preventive, and therapeutic or cura'^ 
 tive. The object of the former is to pre- 
 vent deformities in infants, and is ob- 
 tained by hygienic means, such as pure 
 air, careful nursing, and suitable food, 
 clothing, and exercise; that of the latter 
 to correct deformities already existing 
 by mechanical treatment, which is most 
 successful when resorted to as soon as 
 any deviation from natural shape mani- 
 fests itself. In our time the manufacture 
 of orthopaedic apparatus has become 
 highly developed, and forms an im- 
 portant branch of trade. 
 
 ORTHOP'TERA, an order of insects 
 in which the metamorphosis is incom- 
 plete. They have four wings, the an- 
 terior pair being semicoriaceous or 
 leathery, usually, with numerous ner- 
 vures, the wings sometimes overlap- 
 ping and sometimes meeting like the 
 roof of a house. The feelers are gen- 
 erally straight, filiform organs. The 
 limbs vary in conformation according 
 to their methods of movement. In 
 their metamorphosis the larvae and 
 pupae are both active, and the pupae gen- 
 erally resembles the perfect insect, the 
 wings being imdeveloped. These insects 
 are divided into Rimning and Leaping 
 Orthoptera. Of the former division the 
 coachroaches, earwigs, mantis insects, 
 walking-stick insects, and walking leaves 
 form the chief families. The Saltatoria 
 are represented by the locusts, some of 
 which want wings entirely, crickets, and 
 grasshoppers. See also Entomology. 
 
 ORTOLAN, a bird of the bunting 
 family, a native of Northern Africa and 
 Southern Europe. The colors are yellow 
 on the throat and around the eyes, the 
 breast and belly being of reddish hue, 
 while the upper part of the body is 
 brown varied with black. Its delicate 
 flesh is much esteemed by epicures, 
 
 and large quantities are annually caught 
 and fattened for the table in the south 
 of France, Italy, and Cyprus. 
 
 Ortolan. 
 
 OSAGE, a river in the United States, 
 which rises in Kansas, flows through 
 Missouri, and after a winding course of 
 500 miles joins the Missouri 10 miles 
 below Jefferson City. The river gave 
 name to an Indian tribe, the remnant of 
 which now inhabit the Indian territory. 
 
 OSAGE ORANGE, a tree of the nat. 
 order Moracese (mulberry), indigenous 
 to North America, where it is frequently 
 used as a hedge-plant. It produces a 
 large yellow fruit of a woody texture, 
 somewhat resembling an orange, but 
 not edible. 
 
 OSA'KA, or OHOSA'KA, the second 
 city and a free port of Japan, in the 
 island of Hondo, on the estuary of the 
 Yodo Gawa, 28 miles s.s.w. of Kioto. 
 Pop. 821,235. 
 
 OSCAR I., Joseph Francois Bema- 
 dotte. King of Sweden and Norway, son 
 of Bemadotte (Charles XIV.), born at 
 Paris in 1799, died 1859. In 1823 he 
 married Josephine, eldest daughter of 
 Prince Eugene Beauharnais. During 
 the reign of his father he was three times 
 (in 1824, 1828, and 1833) viceroy of 
 Norway, where he made himself popular 
 by his good administration. He acceded 
 to the throne in 1844; reformed the civil 
 and military administration of the 
 state: abolished primogeniture; estab- 
 lished complete liberty of conscience; 
 encouraged education and agriculture; 
 promoted railways, telegraphs, etc. He 
 took little part in foreign politics. He 
 resigned in favor of his eldest son in 
 1857. 
 
 OSCAR II., King of Sweden and Nor- 
 way, bom 1829; succeeded his brother, 
 Charles XV., in 1872. In 1905 the 
 union of Sweden and Norway was dis- 
 solved, since which time Oscar has been 
 King of Sweden only. He is a writer 
 of some merit ; has translated Goethe’s 
 Faust into Swedish, and published a 
 volume of poems under the pen-name 
 of Oscar Frederik. He died in 1907. 
 
 OSCILLATION, the act of swinging to 
 and fro. The term is often indiscrimin- 
 ately applied to all sorts of forward and 
 backward motions, but it has special 
 reference to the movements of the pen- 
 dulum, which are subject to well- 
 established laws. See Pendulum. 
 
 OSHKOSH, the capital of Winnebago 
 CO., Wisconsin, on Lake Winnebago, at 
 the mouth of the Fox river. It has 
 numerous saw and shingle mills, sash, 
 door, and window factories, with other 
 industrial establishments. Pop. 33,190. 
 
 OSI'RIS, one of the great Egyptian 
 divinities. He was the brother and 
 
 husband of Isis, and the father of Horus. 
 He is styled the Manifestor of Good, 
 Lord of Lords, King of the Gods, etc. 
 In the Egyptian theogony he represented 
 the sum of beneficent agencies, as Set 
 of evil agencies. Osiris, after having 
 established good laws and institutions 
 throughout Egypt, fell a prey to the 
 intrigues of his brother Set, the Ty- 
 phon of the Greeks. He became after- 
 ward the judge of the dead. There are 
 a multitude of traditions, both Greek 
 and Egyptian, about Osiris. He is 
 represented under many different forms, 
 and compared sometimes to the sun and 
 sometimes to the Nile. His soul was 
 supposed to animate the sacred bull 
 Apis, and thus to be continually present 
 among men. The worship of Osiris ex- 
 
 Oslris. 
 
 tended over Asia Minor, Greece, and 
 Rome, but the attacks of the philoso- 
 phers and the rise of Christianity put an 
 end to it. 
 
 OSBiALOOSA(6s'ka-lob'sa),the county 
 seat of Mahaska co., la., 60 miles 
 southeast of Ues Moines. Pop. 11,012. 
 
 OSLER THEORY, William Osier, 
 professor of medicine in Johns Hop- 
 kins University, and later of Oxford, in 
 1904 made the statement that man’s 
 best work was done before forty. This 
 statement perverted became the basis 
 of what is known as the Osier theory 
 that men past that age have outlived 
 their usefulness. 
 
 OSMAN. See Caliph and Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 OSMAN DIGNA, a Soudanese slave 
 merchant and lieutenant to the Mahdi, 
 said to have been born of French parents 
 at Rouen in 1836. He has proved him- 
 self one of the ablest leaders on the 
 Mahdist side. In 1884 he defeated an 
 Egyptian force under Baker Pasha near 
 the Red Sea coast of the Soudan. He 
 was defeated soon after by a British 
 force, but continued to give trouble till 
 in January, 1900, he was captured. 
 
 OSMAN PASHA, Turkish general 
 bom at Tokat in Asiatic Turkey, 1832; 
 entered the Turkish army in 1853; his 
 great achievement was the defense of 
 Plevna during the Russo-Turkish war 
 (1877). He afterward held the office of 
 war minister and other high posts. He 
 died in 1900. 
 
 OSPREY, a well-known raptorial 
 bird, called also fishing-hawk, fishing- 
 eagle, and sea-eagle. It occurs both in 
 the Old and New World, near the shores 
 of the sea or great rivers and lakes, 
 and builds its nest in high trees ana 
 
OSSIFICATION 
 
 OTIS 
 
 cliffs. It lives on fish, and pounces with 
 great rapidity on its prey, as it happens 
 to come near the surface of the water, 
 the toes being armed with strong curved 
 nails. The general body-color is a rich 
 brown, the tail being banded with light 
 and dark (in the old birds the tail is pure 
 white), head and neck whitish on their 
 upper portions, and a brown stripe ex- 
 tends from the bill down each side of 
 the neck; under parts of the body 
 whitish, legs of a bluish tint. In length 
 the osprey averages about 2 feet, the 
 wings measuring over 4 feet from tip to 
 tip. The female lays three or four eggs. 
 The American bald-eagle pursues the 
 osprey, who drops his prey with the 
 
 Osprey. 
 
 view of escaping, when the eagle im- 
 mediately pounces after the descending 
 fish, and seizes it ere it touches the 
 water. 
 
 OSSIFICATION, the process of bone 
 formation, which in all cases consists of 
 the deposition of earthy or calcareous 
 matter. It may take place by the depo- 
 sition of osseous material in fibrous 
 membranes, and thus the flat bones of 
 the skull are developed ; or by deposition 
 in cartilage, as in the case of the long 
 bones of the skeleton. The process of 
 ossification in cartilage begins at various 
 well-marked points called centers of 
 ossification, where proliferation of car- 
 tilage cells and a deposit of lime salts 
 occurs. (See also Bone). Most organs of 
 the body may become the seat of ab- 
 normal ossification. Deposits of limy 
 matter take place frequently within the 
 coats of arteries, making them easily 
 ruptured; but this process is rather one 
 of calcification. 
 
 OS'SOLI, Margaret Sarah Fuller, an 
 American authoress, born in 1810, re- 
 markable for her precocious and ex- 
 tensive linguistic attainments. She be- 
 came associated with Emerson and 
 other eminent literary men. She visited 
 Europe in 1846, married in 1847 the 
 Marchese Ossili; embarked with her hus- 
 band for New York, but they were 
 wrecked, and both perished off Long 
 Island, July 16, 1850. She wrote several 
 works, including Women in the Nine- 
 teenth Century, etc. 
 
 OSTEOL'OGY, the department of 
 anatomical science specially devoted 
 to a description of the bony parts or 
 skeleton of the body, and included under 
 the wider science of anatomy (which see, 
 as also Skeleton, Bone, etc.). 
 
 OSTEOP'ATHY, a method of treating 
 dise.ase by manipulation, the purpose 
 
 and result of which is to restore the 
 normal condition of nerve control and 
 blood supply to every organ of the body, 
 by removing physical obstruction or by 
 stimulating or inhibiting activity as 
 the condition may require. 
 
 OSTRA'CION, the scientific name of 
 the fishes known as trunk-fishes. The 
 
 Ostraclon or trunk-flsh. 
 
 body is inclosed in a literal armor- 
 casing of strong bony plates or scales of 
 the ganoid variety, which are immova- 
 bly united, and invest every part of 
 the body save the tail, which is movable, 
 but is itself inclosed in a bony casing. 
 These fishes do not attain a large size, 
 and are common in tropical seas. 
 
 OSTRACISM, a political measure 
 practiced among the ancient Athenians 
 by which persons considered dangerous 
 to the state were banished by public 
 vote for a term of years (generally ten), 
 with leave to return to the enjoyment 
 of their estates at the end of the period. 
 It takes this name from the shell or 
 tablet on which each person recorded 
 his vote. Among the distinguished per- 
 sons ostracized were Themistocles, Aris- 
 tides, and Cimon, son of Miltiades, who 
 were afterward recalled. 
 
 OSTRICH, a cursorial bird that inhab- 
 its the sandy plains of Africa and Arabia, 
 and is the largest bird existing, attain- 
 ing a height of from 6 to 8 feet. The 
 head and neck are nearly naked; the 
 general body plumage is black, the wing 
 and tail feathers white, occasionally with 
 black markings ; the quill-feathers of the 
 wings and tail have their barbs wholly 
 disconnected, hence their graceful ap- 
 pearance. The legs are extremely 
 strong, the thighs naked. There are only 
 two toes, the hallux or hind toe being 
 wanting. The pubic bones are united. 
 
 African ostrich. 
 
 a conformation occurring in no other 
 bird. The wings are of small size and are 
 incapable of being used as organs of 
 flight, but the birds can run with extra- 
 ordinary speed, outdistancing the fleet- 
 est horse. The bill is broad and of a 
 triangular depressed shape. The food 
 
 consists of grass, grain, etc., and sub- 
 stances of a vegetable nature, and to aid 
 in the trituration of this food the ostrich 
 swallows large stones, bits of iron and 
 glass, or other hard materials that come 
 in the way. Ostriches are polygamous, 
 each male consorting with several fe- 
 males, and they generally keep to- 
 gether in flocks. The eggs average 3 
 lbs. in weight, and several hens often 
 lay from ten to twelve each in the same 
 nest, which is merely a hole scraped in 
 the sand. The eggs appear to be hatched 
 mainly by the exertions of both parents 
 relieving each other in the task of in- 
 cubation, but also partly by the heat of 
 the sun. The South African ostrich is 
 often considered as a distinct species. 
 Three South American birds of the 
 same family are popularly known as the 
 American ostrich, and are very closely 
 allied to the true ostrich, differing 
 chiefly in having the head feathered 
 and three-toed feet, each toe armed with 
 a claw. (See Rhea.) The ostrich has 
 been hunted from the earliest ages for 
 its feathers, which have always been 
 valued as a dress decoration. The 
 feathers of the back are those most 
 valued, the wing and tail feathers rank 
 next. The black plumes are obtained by 
 dyeing. 
 
 OSTROGOTHS. See Goths. 
 
 OSWE'GO, a city and port in Oswego 
 CO., New York, on the Oswego, which 
 here falls into Lake Ontario. It is beau- 
 tifully situated, regularly and hand- 
 somely built, and is the great emporium 
 for the traffic to New York from Canada 
 and the west. It is famous for its vast 
 starch factory, and has extensive mills, 
 tanneries, foundries, machine-shops, and 
 ship-yards. The river supplies ample 
 water-power. The entrance to the 
 port is guarded by Fort Ontario. Pop. 
 25,230. 
 
 OTA'GO, one of the provincial districts 
 of New Zealand, including the whole of 
 the southern part of South Island, south 
 of the districts of Canterbury and West- 
 land, being surrounded on the other 
 three sides by the sea; area about 15,- 
 000,000 acres. Pop. 173,111. 
 
 OTAL'GIA, a painful affection of the 
 ear. It may be due to inflammation of 
 the ear; it may be a symptom of other 
 diseases; or, it may be a species of 
 neuralgia. It is often associated with 
 other nervous ailments such as tooth- 
 ache, and neuralgic pains in the face; 
 and as its intensity and duration gener- 
 ally depend upon the condition of the 
 latter, otalgia is probably only a local 
 symptom of the other troubles. Chil- 
 dren, especially during their fast-grow- 
 ing period, are frequently subjected to 
 otalgic pains. The treatment adopted 
 in neuralgic affections is usually and 
 with success also applied to this com- 
 plaint. 
 
 OTIS, Elwell Stephen, American sol- 
 dier, was born at Frederick, Md., in 
 1838. He served throughout the civil 
 war, rising to the rank of lieutenant- 
 colonel. In 1866 he was appointed 
 lieutenant-colonel of the Twenty-second 
 Infantry in the regular army, and by 
 successive promotion became major- 
 general in the regular army in 1900. 
 In 1898 he was sent to the Philippines, 
 where he relieved Major-General Wesley 
 
OTIS 
 
 OTTOMAN EMPIRE 
 
 Merrit as commander of the United 
 States forces and military governor of 
 the islands. He was a member of the 
 first Philippines commission in 1899. 
 In 1900 he was recalled to the United 
 States and assigned to the command of 
 the Department of the Lakes, and in 
 March, 1902, [was retired from the service 
 
 OTIS, Fessenden Nott, American 
 surgeon, born at Ballston Spa, N. Y., in 
 1825. He invented many surgical in- 
 struments, of which the more important 
 are the urethrometer, the dilating 
 catheter, and an evacuator for use after 
 lithotrity. He died in 1900. 
 
 OTIS, George Alexander, American 
 military surgeon, born in Boston, Mass., 
 in 1830. He was appointed surgeon of 
 United States Volunteers, in 1864 and 
 was assigned to duty as curator of the 
 Army Medical Museum and custodian 
 of the Division of Surgical Records at 
 Washington. Owing to his zeal and 
 energy the museum came to possess the 
 most valuable surgical and anatomical 
 collections in the world. He died in 
 1881. 
 
 OTIS, Harrison Gray, American poli- 
 tician, was born in 1765 in Boston. In 
 1796 he was elected to the state legisla- 
 ture, and the next year was sent to 
 congress as a federalist. In 1817 he was 
 elected United States senator and mayor 
 of Boston in 1829. His brilliant oratori- 
 cal powers made him a leader in the 
 senate, where he opposed the further 
 extension of slavery. He died in 1848. 
 
 OTIS, James, American statesman, 
 bom in West Barnstable, Mass., in 1725. 
 He became prominent by resigning his 
 office of advocate-general in 1761 rather 
 than argue in favor of writs of assist- 
 ance, i.e., general search warrants for 
 the discovery of smuggled goods into 
 the colony. In 1762 he was elected to 
 the legislature. In 1765 he made a 
 motion which was carried that a con- 
 gress of representatives from the various 
 colonies be convened. The Stamp Act 
 Congress of 1765 was the result. In 
 1769 he was accused in England of 
 treason which he publicly denounced. 
 In 1771 he was again returned to the 
 legislature. He died in 1783. 
 
 OTI'TIS, inflammation of the ear, 
 accompanied with intense pain. Within 
 the tsrmpanum it is called internal, be- 
 yond it external otitis; and like all other 
 inflammations it may be acute or 
 chronic. Scrofulous and syphilitic con- 
 stitutions are particularly liable to this 
 diesase. Internal otitis is often a serious 
 malady, producing fever and delirium, 
 and ending in suppuration, and gener- 
 ally in the rupture of the tympanum 
 and more or less deafness. The treat- 
 ment is similar to that of other in- 
 flammatory ailments. 
 
 OTTAR OF ROSES, See Attar. 
 
 OT'TAWA, a river in the Dominion 
 of Canada, forming for a considerable 
 part of its length the boundary between 
 the provinces of Quebec and. Ontario. 
 
 OTTAWA, a city in the prov. of 
 Ontario, capital of the Dominion of 
 Canada, on the right bank of the Ottawa 
 about 90 miles above its confluence with 
 the St. Lawrence, lOOmileswest of Mon- 
 treal, and on the Canadian Pacific rail- 
 way. The city, divided into the Upper 
 and Lower town by the Rideau Canal, 
 
 has wide streets crossing at right angles, 
 and some of the finest buildings in the 
 Dominion. The chief are the govern- 
 ment buildings, constructed of light- 
 colored sandstone in the Italian-Gothic 
 style. The educational institutions in- 
 clude a Roman Catholic College, the 
 Canadian Institute, the Mechanics’ 
 Institute and Athenaeum, etc. Ottawa 
 has important and increasing manufac- 
 turers, and is the great center of the 
 lumber trade. It is connected with Hull, 
 on the Quebec side of the Ottawa, by a 
 suspension bridge. In 1858 it became 
 the capital of Upper and Lower Canada. 
 Part of it was destroyed by fire in 1900. 
 Pop. 59,902. 
 
 OTTAWA, a town in Illinois, at the 
 junction of the Illinois and Fox rivers, 
 84 miles southwest of Chicago. Pop. 
 12,424. 
 
 OTTER, a carnivorous mammal. 
 There are several species differing 
 chiefly in size and fur. They all have 
 large flattish heads, short ears, webbed 
 toes, crooked nails, and tails slightly 
 flattened horizontally. The common 
 river-otter of Europe inhabits the banks 
 of rivers, feeds principally on fish, and 
 is often very destructive, particularly 
 to salmon. The under fur is short and 
 woolly, the outer is composed of longer 
 
 Canada otter. 
 
 and coarser hairs of dark brown hue. 
 They burrow near the water’s edge, line 
 their nests with grass and leaves, and 
 produce from four to five young. The 
 weight of a full-grown male is from 20 
 to 24 lbs. ; length from nose to tail 2 feet, 
 tail 15 to 16 inches. The American or 
 Canadian otter averages about 4 feet in 
 length inclusive of the tail. It is plenti- 
 ful in Canada, and furnishes a valuable 
 fur, which is a deep reddish-brown in 
 winter, and blackish in summer. The 
 sea-otters represented typically by the 
 great sea-otter, inhabit the coasts of 
 the North Pacific Ocean, but are of com- 
 paratively rare occurrence. The tail is 
 short, measuring about 7 inches only; 
 weight 60 to 70 lbs. The fur is soft, and 
 of a deep lustrous black, or of a dark 
 maroon color when dressed, and much 
 prized. In general appearance the sea- 
 otter somewhat resembles a small seal. 
 
 OTTO, German sovereign. See Otho. 
 
 OTTOMAN EMPIRE, the Turkish 
 Empire, the territories in Europe, Asia, 
 and Africa more or less under the sway, 
 of the Turkish sultan. In Europe, be- 
 sides the immediate provinces in the 
 Balkan Peninsula, are Bulgaria (with 
 Eastern Roumelia), and Bosnia, Herze- 
 govina, etc., held by Austria; in Asia, 
 Asia Minor, Syria, including Palestine, 
 Mesopotamia, part of Arabia, Candia, 
 
 and others of the islands of the Archi- 
 pelago; in Africa, Egypt, over which 
 there is a nominal suzerainty, and the 
 vilayet of Tripoli. Formerly the em- 
 pire was much more extensive, even in 
 recent times comprising Greece, Rou- 
 mania, Servia, Bessarabia, Tunis, etc. 
 We shall here give a brief sketch of the 
 history of the Ottoman Empire, refer- 
 ring to the article Turkey for informa- 
 tion regarding the geography, consti- 
 tution, etc., of Turkey proper. 
 
 The Ottoman Turks came originally 
 from the region of the Altai mountains, 
 in Central Asia, and in the 6th century 
 A.D. pushed onward to the west in con- 
 nection with other Turkish tribes. 
 Early in the 8th century they came in 
 contact with the Saracens, from whom 
 they took their religion, and of whom 
 they were the first slaves and mer- 
 cenaries, and finally the successors in 
 the caliphate. In the 13th century they 
 appeared as allies of the Seljukian Turks 
 against the Mongols, and for their aid 
 received a grant of lands from the 
 Seljuk sultan of Iconium in Asia Minor. 
 Their leader, Othman or Osman, of the 
 race of Oghuzian Turkomans, became 
 the most powerful emir of Western Asia, 
 and after the death of the Seljuk sultan 
 of Iconium in the year 1300 he pro- 
 claimed himself sultan. He died in 1326. 
 Thus was founded upon the ruins of the 
 Saracen, Seljuk, and Mongol power the 
 Empire of the Osman or Ottoman Turks 
 in Asia; and after Osman, the courage, 
 policy, and enterprise of eight great 
 princes, whom the dignity of caliph 
 placed in possession of the standard of 
 the prophet, and who were animated by 
 religious fanaticism and a passion for 
 military glory, raised it to the rank of 
 the first military power in both Europe 
 and Asia (1300-1566). 
 
 In the latter part of the 16th century, 
 and most of the 17th century, the chief 
 wars were with Venice and with Austria. 
 The battle of Lepanto (1571), in which 
 the Ottoman fleet was overthrovm by 
 the combined fleets of Venice and Spain, 
 was the first great Ottoman reverse at 
 sea; and the battle of St. Gothard 
 (1664), near Vienna, in which Monte- 
 cuculi defeated the Vizier Kiuprili, the 
 first great Ottoman reverse on land. 
 In 1683 Vienna was besieged by the 
 Turks, but was relieved by John Sobi- 
 eski and Charles of Lorraine; in 1687 the 
 Turks were again defeated at Mohacz, 
 and in 1697 (by Prince Eugene at 
 Szenta. Then followed the Treaty of 
 Carlowitz in 1699, by which Mustapha 
 II. agreed to renounce his claims upon 
 Transylvania and a large part of Hun- 
 gary, to give up the Morea to the Vene- 
 tians, to restore Podolia and the Uk- 
 raine to Poland, and to leave Azov to 
 the Russians. Eugene’s subsequent 
 victories at Peterwardein and Belgrade, 
 obliged the Porte to give up, by the 
 Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, Temes- 
 war, Belgrade, with a part of Servia and 
 Walachia; but the Turks on the other 
 hand took the Morea from Venice, and 
 by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739 re- 
 gained Belgrade, Servia, and Little Wal- 
 achia, while for a time they also regained 
 Azov. 
 
 Russia, which had been making 
 steady advances under Peter the Great 
 
OTTUMWA 
 
 OUTRIGGER 
 
 and subsequently, now became the 
 reat opponent of Turkey. In the mid- 
 le of the 18th century the Ottoman 
 Empire still embraced a large part of 
 Southern Russia. The victories of 
 Catharine II. ’s general Romanzoff in the 
 war between 1768 and 1774 determined 
 the political superiority of Russia, and 
 at the Peace of Kutchuk-Kainargi, in 
 1774, Abdul-Hamid was obliged to re- 
 nounce his sovereignty over the Crimea, 
 to yield to Russia the country between 
 the Bog and the Dnieper, with Kinburn 
 and Azov, and to open his seas to the 
 Russian merchant ships. By the Peace 
 of Jassy, 1792, which closed the war of 
 1787-91, Russia retained Taurida and 
 the country between the Bog and the 
 Dniester, together with Otchakov, and 
 gained some accessions in the Caucasus. 
 In the long series of wars which followed 
 the French revolution the Ottoman 
 Empire first found herself opposed to 
 France, in consequence of Bonaparte’s 
 campaign in Egypt, and finally to 
 Russia, who demanded a more distinct 
 recognition of her protectorate over the 
 Christians, and to whom, by the Peace 
 of Bucharest, May 28, 1812, she ceded 
 that part of Moldavia and Bessarabia 
 which lies beyond the Pruth. In 1817 
 Mahmud II. was obliged to give up the 
 principal mouth of the Danube to 
 Russia. Further disputes ended in the 
 Porte making further concessions, 
 which tended toward loosening the con- 
 nection of Servia, Moldavia, and Wala- 
 chia with Turkey. In 1821 broke out the 
 war of Greek independence. The re- 
 monstrances of Britain, France, and 
 Russia against the cruelties with which 
 the war against the Greeks was carried 
 on proving of no avail, those powers 
 attacked and destroyed the fleet of 
 Mahmud at Navarino (1827). In 1826 
 the massacre of the Janizaries took 
 place at Constantinople, after a revolt. 
 In 1828-29 the Russians crossed the 
 Balkans and took Adrianople, the war 
 being terminated by the Peace of 
 Adrianople (1829). In that year Turkey 
 had to recognize the independence of 
 Greece. In 1831-33 Mehemet Ali, 
 nominally Pasha of Egypt, but real 
 ruler both of that and Syria, levied war 
 against his sovereign in 1833, and 
 threatened Constantinople; when the 
 Russians, who had been called on for 
 their aid by the sultan, forced the in- 
 vaders to desist. In 1840 Mehemet Ali 
 again rose against his sovereign; but 
 through the active intervention of Great 
 Britain, Austria, and Russia, was com- 
 pelled to evacuate Syria, though he was, 
 in recompense, recognized as hereditary 
 viceroy of Egypt. 
 
 'ihe next important event in the 
 history of the Ottoman Empire was the 
 war with Russia in which Turkey be- 
 came involved in 1853, and in which she 
 was joined by England and France in 
 the following year. This war, known as 
 the Crimean war (which see), terminated 
 with the defeat of Russia, and the con- 
 clusion of a treaty at Paris on the 30th 
 of March, 1856, by which the influence 
 of Russia in Turkey was greatly reduced. 
 The principal articles were the abolition 
 of the Russian protectorate over the 
 Danubian principalities (the Moldavia 
 and Walachia, united in 1861 as the 
 
 principality of Roumania), the rectifica- 
 tion of the frontier between Russia and 
 Turkey, and the cession of part of 
 Bessarabia to the latter power. 
 
 In 1875 the people of Herzegovina, 
 unable to endure any longer the mis- 
 government of the Turks, broke into 
 rebellion. A year later the Servians 
 and Montenegrins likewise took up arms, 
 and though the former were unsuccess- 
 ful and obliged to abandon the war, 
 the Montenegrins still held out. Mean- 
 time the great powers of Europe were 
 pressing reforms on Turkey, and at the 
 end of 1876 a conference met at Con- 
 stantinople with the view of making a 
 fresh settlement of the relations be- 
 tween her and her Christian provinces. 
 All the recommendations of the con- 
 ference were, however, rejected by 
 Turkey; and in April following Russia, 
 who had been coming more and more 
 prominently forward as the cham- 
 pion of the oppressed provinces and 
 had for months been massing troops 
 on both the Asiatic and the European 
 frontier of Turkey, issued a warlike 
 manifesto and commenced hostile opera- 
 tions in both parts of the Turkish Em- 
 pire. She was immediately joined by 
 Roumania, who on the 22d of May 
 (1877) declared her independence. The 
 progress of the Russians was at first 
 rapid; but the Turks offered an obsti- 
 nate resistance. After the fall of Kars, 
 however, November 18, and the fall of 
 Plevna, December 10, the Turkish resist- 
 ance completely collapsed, and on the 3d 
 of March, 1878, Turkey was compelled to 
 agree to the Treaty of San Stefano, in 
 which she accepted the terms of Russia. 
 The provisions of this treaty were, how- 
 ever, considerably modified by the 
 Treaty of Berlin concluded on the 13th 
 of July following by which Roumania, 
 Servia, and Montenegro were declared 
 independent; Roumanian Bessarabia 
 was ceded to Russia; Austria was em- 
 powered to occupy Bosnia and Herze- 
 govina; and Bulgaria was made a prin- 
 cipality. (See Berlin, Treaty of.) The 
 main events in the history of the Otto- 
 man Empire since the Treaty of Berlin 
 are the French invasion of Tunis in 
 1881, leading to a French protectorate; 
 the treaty with Greece, executed under 
 pressure of the great powers in 1881 by 
 which Greece obtained Thessaly and a 
 strip of Epirus; the occupation of Egypt 
 by Britain in 1882; and the revolution at 
 Philippopolis in 1885, by which Eastern 
 Rumelia became united with Bulgaria. 
 More recent events include the massacres 
 of Armenians in 1895-96; the Cretan in- 
 surrection and the consequent war with 
 Greece in 1897, resulting in the defeat 
 of the latter; the granting of autonomy 
 to Crete in 1898; and the Macedonian 
 revolt of 1903. Bosnia and Herzegovina 
 were annexed by Austria. Bulgaria 
 proclaimed its independence; the sultan 
 proclaimed a constitution in 1908. 
 
 OT'TUMWA, a city in Iowa, on the 
 Des Moines river, 75 miles n.w. of Bur- 
 lington, an important railroad center 
 and a place of growing commercial and 
 industrial activity. Pop. 18,197. 
 
 OUBLIETTE (6'bli-et), a dungeon 
 existing in some old castles and other 
 buildings, with an opening only at the 
 top for the admission of air. It was used 
 
 for persons condemned to perpetual 
 
 imprisonment or to perish secretly. 
 
 OUDH, or OUDE (oud), a province of 
 British India, bounded on the north by 
 Nepaul, and on the other sides by the 
 province of Agra; area, 24,246 sq. miles. 
 Lucknow is the capital, and the main 
 center of population and manufactures. 
 Pop. 12,833,077 (mostly Hindus), giving 
 the large average of 521 to the sq. miles. 
 
 OUDH (formerly Ayodhya), an an- 
 cient town in Faizabad district, Oudh, 
 adjacent to Faizabad, on the river 
 Gogra. In remote antiquity it was one 
 of the largest and most magnificent of 
 Indian cities, and is famous as the early 
 home of Buddhism and of its modem 
 representative. Jainism. A great fair, 
 attended by about 500,000 people, is 
 held every year. Pop. 11,643. 
 
 OUDINOT (6-di-n6), Charles Nicolas, 
 Duke of Reggio, peer and marshal of 
 France, born in 1767. In 1791 he was 
 elected commandant of a volunteer 
 battalion. In 1792 he was colonel of the 
 regiment of Picardy, in 1793 brigadier- 
 general, and in 1799 general of division. 
 Mass^na made him chief of the general 
 staff, and under his command he de- 
 cided the battle of the Mincio. In 1804 
 Napoleon gave him the command of a 
 grenadier corps of 10,000 men, which 
 was to form the advance-guard of the 
 main army. At the head of these troops 
 he performed many exploits, winning 
 the battle especially of Ostrolenka, and 
 deciding the fate of three great battles — 
 Austerlitz, Friedland, and Wagram. 
 After the last-named battle Napoleon 
 made him a marshal and Duke of Reggio. 
 After Napoleon’s abdication he gave in 
 his adhesion to the Bourbons, to whom 
 he ever*afterward remained faithful, and 
 who heaped upon him every honor. 
 He died in 1847. — His eldest son, Nicolas 
 Charles Victor (born 1791), commanded 
 the troops which effected the capture of 
 Rome from Garibaldi in 1849. He died 
 in 1863. 
 
 OUIDA (we'da). See Ram4e, Louisa 
 de la. 
 
 OUNCE, in Troy weight, is the 
 twelfth part of a pound, and weighs 480 
 grains; in avoirdupois weight is the six- 
 teenth part of a pound, and weighs 
 437^ grains Troy. 
 
 OUTRAM (ou'tram), Lieutenant-Gen- 
 eral Sir James, was born at Butterley 
 Hall, Derbyshire, 1803. In 1842 he was 
 appointed commissioner to negotiate 
 with the Ameers of Sind. In 1856 he was 
 nominated chief commissioner of Oudh. 
 He was commander-in-chief of the Brit- 
 ish forces in the Persian war of 1856-57. 
 Although of higher rank than Havelock, 
 he fought under him until Lucknow was 
 relieved by Sir Colin Campbell. In the 
 following March he commanded the first 
 division of infantry when Sir Colin 
 finally regained possession of Lucknow. 
 His services were rewarded with a baro- 
 netcy, the rank of lieutenant-general, the 
 order of the grand-cross of the Bath, 
 and the thanks of parliament; and 
 statues were erected in his honor in 
 London and Calcutta. He died at Pau 
 in 1863, and was buried in Westmin- 
 ster .'^bbey. 
 
 OUT'RIGGER. an iron bracket fixed 
 on the side of a boat, with a rowlock at 
 its extremity, so as to give an increased 
 
SIX MILLION 
 WOMEN 
 
 Approve 3 Types of 
 
 KOTEX 
 
 to meet the personal 
 needs of all women 
 
 ■ “Any size” napkin will not do, 
 just as one size shoe, or hat, or 
 dress will not fit every woman. 
 
 For the ordinary needs of most 
 women REGULAR KOTEX, in the 
 BLUE BOX, is ideal. It gives full 
 protection and complete contfort. 
 The millions of women who are 
 completely satisfied with Regular 
 will have no reason to change. 
 
 Usually the menstrual flow is 
 heavier on the second and third 
 days, causing women to change nap- 
 kins oftener. SUPER KOTEX, in the 
 BROWN BOX, removes this diffi- 
 culty by giving 'jovi greater absorbency 
 and protection. Although Super has 
 extra layers of Cellucotton (not cot- 
 ton) it is no longer or wider than 
 Regular. 
 
 Toward the end of the period, and 
 for any day when the flow is light, 
 many women prefer the comfort of 
 a smaller napkin. Try JUNIOR 
 KOTEX, in the GREEN BOX, for 
 such times. You are certain to like 
 the convenience of a smaller nap- 
 kin, especially when you can be sure 
 of the adequate protection which 
 all types of Kotex provide. 
 
 FREE BOOKLETS 
 
 for You and Your Daughter 
 
 Two of these booklets, “Marjorie 
 May’s 12th Birthday” and “Marjorie 
 May Learns About Life” have helped 
 millions of Mothers in the difficult 
 task of giving necessary information 
 to their growing daughters. Men- 
 struation is discussed simply and 
 naturally, in terms suitable for 
 younger girls and girls in their teens. 
 
 “Facts About Menstruation that 
 every Woman should Know,” a 
 booklet by an Eminent Medical 
 Authority, has been prepared for 
 women in the hope that they will 
 find, through it, a means 
 of living each day to the 
 full . . . free of the fear, 
 doubt, illness and 
 discomfort that 
 too often accom- 
 pany menstruation. 
 
 Request the ones 
 you want. 
 
 Mary Pauline Callender 
 International Cellucotton Products Co. 
 
 Room 1445 
 
 919 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 
 
 Please send me a free copy of: 
 
 □ “Marjorie May’s 12th Birthday” 
 
 □ “Marjorie May Learns About Life” 
 
 □ “Facts About Menstruation” 
 
 Name 
 
 Address 
 
 City 
 
 State 
 
 Printed in U. S. A. 
 
 Form 7-A-l-p 
 
Kurb Fibs 
 
 ANODYNE TABLETS FOR 
 CERTAIN DAYS 
 
 12 FOR 25c PACKED IN 
 
 HANDY PURSE-SIZE CONTAINER 
 
 • The medicinal action of Kurb Anodyne 
 Tablets is such that they lessen the per- 
 ception of pain and distress; their use 
 generally results in increased comfort 
 during menstruation. Also recommended 
 for the relief of simple headaches, and 
 muscular aches and pains. 
 
 Dose: 1 or 2 tablets with water; if 
 necessary, repeat with 1 in 3 hours. 
 
 If your dealer does not have Kurb 
 Tablets, send us 25c together with your 
 dealer’s name and address. 
 
 INVISIBLE SANITARY PROTECTION 
 FOR THE WANING DAYS 
 
 12 FIBS 25c 
 
 • Tampon -type protection — absolutely 
 safe — invisible and secure — to shorten 
 the inconveniences of each menstrual 
 period by at least one day or more. Fibs 
 are also recommended by physicians as 
 ideal for white secretions due to over- 
 active glands and for functional Leuc- 
 chorea. Package of 12 Fibs, with complete 
 instructions on how to use, is priced at 
 25c. Buy Fibs where you buy Kotex. 
 
 If your dealer does not have Fibs, send 
 us 25c together with your dealer's name 
 and address. 
 
K O T E X 
 
 B I\ U I E. VI 
 
 ELT 
 
 Quest 
 
 KOTEX WONDERFORM BELT 
 
 ^ This narrow, adjustable Kotex Belt is 
 imall and inconspicuous, yet extra safe 
 and secure in every way. Dainty, unbreak- 
 able fasteners prevent slipping which is 
 the most frequent cause of chafing. 
 
 POSITIVE DEODORANT POWDER 
 FOR PERSONAL DAINTINESS 
 
 Because this belt is flat and thin, woven 
 to fit the body, it is self-balancing! That 
 means you can bend every- which -way 
 without harness -like restraint. And you 
 end waist-line consciousness! 
 
 The patented clasp is even more secure 
 than safety pins. And it’s so easy to use! 
 You simply draw the gauze end of your 
 Kotex pad through the notched hole 
 until secure, then down through the 
 round hole, and you have a balanced pad. 
 Buy a Kotex Belt with Kotex. 
 
 2.0UNCE CAN 35^ 
 
 A NEW DEODORANT 
 
 that you will want to use with Kotex. 
 Quest deodorizes sanitary napkins com- 
 pletely. In fact, this soothing powder de- 
 stroys body odors of all types and does 
 not irritate or chafe. Being unscented it 
 does not cover up one odor with another 
 or interfere with the fragrance of your 
 perfume. Buy Quest when you buy Kotex. 
 
WONDERSOFT KOTEX 
 
 FOR MORE COMFORT 
 AND SATISFACTION 
 
 — follow these directions 
 
 Can’t Chafe , , . Can’t Fail . . . Can’t 
 Show . . . and only KOTEX can 
 offer you these advantages. 
 
 T . Moisture-Proof Edges. A special 
 moisture-proof strip is under the 
 Wondersoft cotton edge. No acci- 
 dents, because the edges stay dry! 
 Examine the pad and you’ll see the 
 moistute-proof edges are there. 
 
 2 . Soft Cushion Top. There is a 
 smooth, super-soft tissue cushion 
 under the gauze. It’s on both top 
 and bottom, prevents chafing, gives 
 more comfort than ever without 
 adding thickness. 
 
 3 . The Rounded Ends of Kotex 
 are also flattened and tapered. With 
 Kotex there are never any tell-tale 
 wrinkles . . . even under your clos- 
 est fitting dresses. 
 
 4 . The Center layer has channels 
 which guide moisture lengthwise, 
 away from the edges. 
 
 This “Equalizer” gives 
 extra security without 
 extra bulk. Makes 
 Kotex hold its shape — 
 no twisting or roping. 
 
 5 . Wondersoft Edges. 
 
 To guard against chaf- 
 ing and irritation, a 
 soft, downy layer of 
 cotton cushions the 
 edges only. The surface 
 is left free to absorb. 
 
 1 . Although Kotex may 
 be worn on either side, 
 we suggest you wear the 
 gauze told away from the 
 %ody. Then there is no 
 ossibility of cutting or 
 urning, no chance for 
 irritation when walking. 
 
 2 . For utmost comfort 
 and protection, curve 
 the edges of Kotex 
 downwards when put- 
 ting it on. Do not try to 
 wad the pad together. 
 
 3 . Wear Kotex snugly, close to the 
 body. Pin or fasten the gauze so the pad 
 can’t slip and twist to one side. Wear- 
 ing it too loosely may result in roping 
 and twisting, also allow the edges to 
 become soiled. This is the most fre- 
 quent cause of chafing and irritation 
 along the thighs, greatly increases your 
 
 discomfort, and adds dan- 
 ger of soiled clothing. 
 Remember always that a 
 pad firmly fastened offers 
 you better protection. 
 
 4 . If you use a narrow 
 adjustable belt with pat- 
 ented clasps, always 
 gather the gauze length- 
 wise. Fold gauze ends on 
 a bias if you use a belt 
 with safety pins. . . . Pin 
 through all thicknesses o 
 the gauze. 
 
 5 . To dispose of Kotex 
 first remove the insid 
 filler from the gauze an 
 flush it away. Then cu 
 the gauze in two with 
 pair of scissors ; flush on 
 half away . . . then flus 
 the remainder away. 
 
 6 . Kotex is made from 
 Cellucotton { not cot- 
 ton), the world’s finest 
 absorbent. Ask any hos- 
 pital nurse. 
 
OUZEL 
 
 OWEN 
 
 leverage to the oar without widening 
 the boat; hence, a light boat for river 
 matches provided with such apparatus. 
 The name is also applied to a con- 
 trivance in certain boats and canoes, 
 consisting of a projecting framework or 
 arrangement of timbers for counter- 
 balancing the heeling-over effect of the 
 sails, which are large in proportion to 
 the breadth of the vessel. , 
 
 OUZEL (ou'zl), a genus of insessorial 
 or perching birds, included in the family 
 
 Ring-ouzel. 
 
 of the thrushes. The specific name of 
 the common or ring ouzel is derived 
 from the presence of a broad semilunar 
 patch or stripe of white extending across 
 its breast. The water ouzel belongs to a 
 different family. (See Dipper.) Ouzel is 
 also an old or poetical name for the 
 blackbird. 
 
 OVAL, an egg-shaped curve or curve 
 resembling the longitudinal section of 
 an egg. The oval has a general resem- 
 blance to the ellipse, but, unlike the 
 latter, it is not symmetrical, being 
 broader at one end than at the other. 
 
 OVA'RIAN TUMOR, a morbid growth 
 in the ovary of a woman, sometimes 
 weighing as much as 30, 50, or upward of 
 100 lbs. or more, consisting of a cyst 
 containing a thin or thick ropy fluid, 
 causing the disease known as ovarian 
 dropsy, which is now generally cured 
 by the operation of ovariotomy. 
 
 OVARIOT'OMY, the operation of re- 
 moving the ovary, or a tumor in the 
 ovary (see above); a surgical operation 
 first performed in 1809, and long con- 
 sidered exceedingly dangerous, but 
 latterly performed with great and in- 
 creasing success, especially since the 
 adoption of the antiseptic treatment 
 inaugurated by Lister. 
 
 O'VARY, or OVARIUM, the essential 
 part of the female generative apparatus 
 in which the ova or eggs are formed and 
 developed. The ovary in the female 
 corresponds to the testis of the male. 
 In adult women the ovaries exist as two 
 bodies of somewhat oval shape, and 
 compressed from side to side, of whitish 
 color and uneven surface. They are 
 situated one on each side of the womb, 
 and are attached to the hinder portion 
 of the body of the womb by two thin 
 cord-like bands — the ovarian ligaments, 
 and by a lesser fibrous cord to the 
 fringed edge of the fallopian tube. Each 
 ovary is about 1^ inch in length, and 
 
 about li drachms in weight, and con- 
 tains a number of vesicles known as 
 ovisacs or Graafian follicles, in which 
 the ova are developed. The functions 
 of the ovary, which are only assumed 
 and become active on the approach of 
 puberty, are the formation of ova, their 
 maturation, and their final discharge at 
 periodic menstrual epochs into the 
 uterus or womb. There the ovum may 
 be impregnated and detained, or pass 
 from the body with the menstrual flow. 
 The ovaries are subject to diseased con- 
 ditions, chief among which are cancer 
 and the occurrence of tumors and cysts. 
 See Ovarian Tumor, Ovariotomy. 
 
 O'VARY, in botany, is a hollow case 
 inclosing ovules or young seeds, con- 
 taining one or more cells, and ultimately 
 becoming the fruit. Together with the 
 style and stigma it constitutes the fe- 
 male system of the vegetable kingdom. 
 When united to the calyx it is called 
 inferior; when separated, superior. 
 
 OVATION. See Triumph. 
 
 OVEN, a close chamber of any de- 
 scription in which a considerable degree 
 of heat may be generated, used for 
 baking, heating, or drying any substance. 
 
 OVEN BIRDS, birds belonging to the 
 family Certhidae or Creepers, found in 
 South America. They are all of small 
 size, and feed upon seeds, fruits, .and 
 insects. Their popular name is derived 
 
 Oven-bird. 
 
 from the form of their nest, which is 
 dome-shaped, and built of tough clay or 
 mud with a winding entrance. 
 
 OVENS RIVER, a river in the north- 
 east of the Australian colony of Victoria, 
 a tributary of the Murray. The dis- 
 trict is an important gold-mining and 
 agricultural one. 
 
 OVERLAND ROUTE to India, the 
 route via Dover, Calais, Paris, Macon, 
 the Mont Cenis Tunnel, Modena, to 
 Brindisi, thence by steamer to Port 
 Said, through the Suez Canal, and down 
 the Red Sea to the destined Indian port. 
 Alternative routes are from Marseilles 
 or Trieste by steamer to Alexandria, 
 and thence by rail to Ismailia. 
 
 OVERSHOT WHEEL, a wheel driven 
 by water shot over from the top. The 
 buckets of the wheel receive the water 
 as nearly as possible at the top, and 
 retain it until they approach the lowest 
 point of the descent. The water acts 
 principally by its gravity, though some 
 effect is of course due to the velocity 
 with which it arrives. 
 
 O'VERTURE, in music, an introduc- 
 tory symphony, chiefly used to precede 
 great musical compositions, as oratorios 
 and operas, and intended to prepare the 
 hearer for the following composition, 
 
 properly by concentrating its chief 
 musical ideas so as to give a sort of out- 
 line of it in instrumental music. This 
 mode of composing overtures was first 
 conceived by the French. Overtures 
 are, however, frequently written as in- 
 dependent pieces for the concert-room. 
 
 OVIBOS. See Musk-ox. 
 
 OVID, in full Publius Ovidus Naso, 
 a celebrated Roman poet, born 43 b.c. 
 He enjoyed a careful education, which 
 was completed at Athens, where he 
 gained a thorough knowledge of the 
 Greek language. He afterward traveled 
 in Asia and Sicily. He never entered the 
 senate, although by birth entitled to 
 that dignity, but filled one or two un- 
 important public offices. Till his fiftieth 
 year he continued to reside at Rome, 
 enjoying the friendship of a large circle 
 of distinguished men. By an edict of 
 Augustus, however (a.d. 8), he was 
 commanded to leave Rome for Tomi, 
 a town on the inhospitable shores of the 
 Black Sea, near the mouths of the 
 Danube. Ovid died at Tomi in the year 
 18 A.D. His works include love elegies; 
 letters of heroines to their lovers or 
 husbands; Art of Love, Love Remedies, 
 the Metamorphoses, in fifteen books; 
 Fasti, a sort of poetical calendar ; Tristia; 
 Epistolffi ex Pon'to, Epistles from 
 Pontus, etc. 
 
 OV'IDUCT, the name given to the 
 canal by which, in animals, the ova or 
 eggs are conveyed from the ovary to the 
 uterus or into the external world. In 
 mammals the oviducts are termed 
 Fallopian tubes, being so named after 
 the anatomist who first described them. 
 
 OVIEDO (6-vi-a'd6), a town of Spain, 
 capital of a province of same name, 230 
 miles northwest of Madrid. Pop. 48,- 
 103. — The province, area 4080 square 
 miles, pop. 627,069, is situated on the 
 Bay of Biscay, and bounded by the 
 provinces of Santander, Leon, and Lugo. 
 
 OVUM, the “egg” or essential prod- 
 uct of the female reproductive system, 
 which, after impregnation by contact 
 with the semen or essential fluid of the 
 male, is capable of developing into a 
 new and independent being. The 
 essential parts to be recognized in the 
 structure of every true ovum or egg con- 
 sist, firstly, of an outer membrane known 
 as the vitelline membrane. Within this 
 is contained the vitellus or yolk, and 
 imbedded in the yolk-mass the germinal 
 vesicle and smaller germinal spot are 
 seen. See Ovary, Reproduction. 
 
 OWEN, John, D D., English Noncon- 
 formist divine, born at Stadham, Ox- 
 fordshire, in 1616. He was appointed to 
 preach at Whitehall the day after the 
 execution of Charles I.; accompanied 
 
OWEN 
 
 OWLS 
 
 Cromwell in his expeditions both to 
 Ireland and Scotland; in 1651 was made 
 dean of Christ Church College, Oxford, 
 and in 1652 was nominated by Crom- 
 well, then chancellor of the university, 
 his vice-chancellor, offices of which he 
 was deprived in 1657. He died in 1683. 
 
 OWEN, Sir Richard, K.C.B., com- 
 parative anatomist and [palaeontologist, 
 was born at Lancaster 1804. Having 
 settled in the metropolis he became 
 assistant curator of the Hunterian 
 Museum. In 1834 he was appointed 
 professor of comparative anatomy at 
 St. Bartholomew’s hospital; in 1836 
 professor in anatomy and physiology 
 
 Sir Richard Owen. 
 
 at the Royal College of Surgeons, and 
 in 1856 superintendent of the natural 
 history department in the British 
 Museum, from which last post he retired 
 in 1883. He died in 1892. He was the 
 greatest palseontologist since Cuvier, and 
 as a comparative anatomist was a 
 worthy successor to Hunter. He was a 
 voluminous writer on his special sub- 
 jects, and an honorary fellow of nearly 
 every learned society of Europe and 
 America. 
 
 OWEN, Robert, philanthropist and 
 social theorist, born at Newtown, Mont- 
 gomeryfshire. North Wales, in 1771, 
 died there 1858. In 1812 he published 
 New Views of Society, or Essays upon 
 the Formation of Human Character; 
 and subsequently a Book of the New 
 Moral World, in which he completely 
 developed his socialistic views, insist- 
 ing upon an absolute equality among 
 men. He had three opportunities of 
 setting up social communities on his own 
 plan — one at New Harmony in America, 
 another at Orbiston in Lanarkshire, 
 and the last in 1844, at Harmony Hall 
 in Hampshire, all of which proved 
 signal failures. In his later years Mr. 
 Owen became a firm believer in Spirit- 
 ualism. His eldest son, Robert Dale 
 Owen (1801-77), for a time resident 
 minister of the United States at Naples, 
 is chiefly known as an exponent of 
 spiritualism. He was author of several 
 works on that and other subjects. 
 Another son, David Dale Owen (1807- 
 60), acquired reputation as a geologist. 
 
 OWEN, Robert Dale, social reformer, 
 was born at Glasgow, Scotland, in 1801. 
 He came to the United States in 1825. 
 He was elected to the Indiana legisla- 
 ture in 1835. He was a member of con- 
 gress in 1843-47. He took a leading part 
 jn the settlement of the Northwestern 
 
 boundary, in the Oregon question, and 
 in founding the Smithsonian Institution. 
 From 1853 to 1858 he was charg6 
 d’affaires and minister at Naples. He 
 served in the ordnance commission and 
 the Freedmen’s Bureau during the civil 
 war. Owen was a zealous advocate of 
 Spiritualism. His chief publications are : 
 Outlines of the System of Education at 
 New Lanark, Moral Physiology, Foot- 
 falls on the Boundary of Another World, 
 The Wrong of Slavery, Debatable Land 
 Between This World and the Next. He 
 died in 1877. 
 
 OWENSBORO, the capital of Daviess 
 county, Kentucky, on the Ohio, 160 
 miles from Louisville, is extensively 
 engaged in the curing of tobacco and the 
 manufacture of whisky. Pop. 15,325. 
 
 OWENS COLLEGE, Manchester, was 
 established under the will of John 
 Owens, a Manchester merchant, who 
 died in 1846, and left about $500,000 for 
 the purpose of founding an institution 
 for providing a university education, 
 in which theological and religious sub- 
 jects should form no part of the instruc- 
 tion given. 
 
 OWL PARROT, the type and only 
 known representative of a peculiar group 
 of the parrot family, is a large bird, 
 a native of the South Pacific Islands, 
 and especially of New Zealand. In 
 aspect and in nocturnal habits it re- 
 sembles the owl. It feeds on roots, which 
 it digs out of the earth with its hooked 
 beak. It seldom flies; it is generally to be 
 seen resting in hollow stumps and logs, 
 and is said to hibernate in caves. 
 
 OWLS, a group of birds forming a 
 well-defined family, which in itself rep- 
 resents the Nocturnal Section of the 
 
 Barn-owl. 
 
 order of Raptores or Birds of Prey. The 
 head is large and well covered with 
 feathers, part of which are generally 
 arranged around the eyes in circular 
 discs, and in some species form horn- 
 like tufts on the upper surface of the 
 head. The beak is short, strongly curved 
 and hooked. The ears are generally of 
 large size, prominent, and in many cases 
 provided with a kind of fleshy valve or 
 lid, and their sense of hearing is ex- 
 ceedingly acute. The eyes are very 
 prominent and full, and project forward, 
 the pupils being especially well de- 
 veloped — a structure enabling the owls 
 to see well at dusk or in the dark. The 
 plumage is of soft downy character, 
 rendering their flight almost noiseless. 
 The tarsi are feathered, generally to the 
 very base of the clav's, but some forms, 
 especially those of fish-catching habits, 
 have the toes and even the tarsi bare. 
 The toes are arranged three forward and 
 
 one backward; but the outer toe can 
 be turned backward at will, and the 
 feet thus converted into hand-like or 
 prehensile organs. In habits most spe- 
 cies of owls are nocturnal, flying about 
 during the night, and preying upon the 
 smaller quadrupeds, nocturnal insects, 
 and upon the smaller birds. Mice in 
 
 Long-eared owl. 
 
 particular form a large part of their food. 
 During the day they inhabit the crevices 
 of rocks, the nooks and crannies of old 
 or ruined buildings, or the hollows of 
 trees; and in these situations the nests 
 are constructed. They vary greatly in 
 size, the smallest not being larger than a 
 thrush. In their distribution the owls 
 occur very generally over the habitable 
 globe, both worlds possessing typical 
 representatives of the group. The com- 
 mon white or barn owl is the owl which 
 has the greatest geographical range, 
 inhabiting almost every country "in the 
 world. The tawny or brown owl is the 
 largest of the species indigenous to 
 Britain, and is strictly a woodland bird, 
 building its nest in holes of trees. The 
 genus Asio contains the so-called horned 
 owls, distinguished by elongated horn- 
 like tufts of feathers on the head. The 
 long-eared owl appears to be common to 
 both Europe and America. It inhabits 
 woods. The short-eared owl frequents 
 heaths, moors, and the open country 
 generally to the exclusion of woods. It 
 has an enormous geographical range. 
 The eagle owl is rare in Britain, but 
 occurs in Norway, Sweden, and Lap- 
 land, and over the continent of Europe 
 to the Mediterranean. A similar species 
 extends over the whole of North America. 
 Owls of diurnal habits are the hawk owl 
 and the snowy owl. The hawk owl 
 mostly inhabits the Arctic regions, but 
 migrates southward in winter, as does 
 the snowy owl, which is remarkable for 
 its large size and snowy plumage. The 
 
 Burrowing owl. 
 
 little owl, the bird of Pallas Athena, is 
 spread throughout the greater part of 
 Europe, but is not a native of Britain.* 
 One of the most remarkable of owls is 
 
ox 
 
 OXYGEN 
 
 the burrowing owl of America and the 
 West Indies, which inhabits the bur- 
 rows of the marmots (which see), or 
 prairie-dogs — the owls possessing them- 
 
 _Nest of burrowing owl. 
 
 selves of these burrows and breeding 
 therein, much to the discomfort of the 
 original possessors of the abodes. 
 
 OX, the general name of certain well- 
 known ruminant quadrupeds. The char- 
 acters are: the horns are hollow, sup- 
 ported on a bony core, and curved out- 
 ward in the form of crescents; there are 
 eight incisor teeth in the under jaw, 
 but none in the upper; there are no 
 canines or dog-teeth; the naked muffle 
 is broad. The common ox is one of the 
 most valuable of our domestic animals. 
 Its flesh is the principal article of animal 
 food; and there is scarcely any part of 
 the animal that is not useful to man- 
 kind; the skin, the horns, the bones, the 
 blood, the hair, and the very refuse of 
 all these, have their separate uses. 
 Having been specially domesticated by 
 man from a stock which it is probably 
 impossible to trace, the result has been 
 the formation of very many breeds, 
 races, or permanent varieties, some of 
 which are valued for their flesh and 
 hides, some for the richness and abun- 
 dance of their milk, while others are in 
 great repute both for beef and milk. 
 The name of ox is used also in a more 
 restricted sense to signify the male of 
 the bovine genus castrated, and full- 
 grown, and nearly so. The young cas- 
 trated male is called a steer. He is called 
 an ox-calf or bull-calf until he is a year 
 old, and a steer until he is four years old. 
 The same animal not castrated is called 
 a bull. 
 
 OXAL'IC ACID, an acid which occurs, 
 combined sometimes with potassium or 
 sodium, at other times with calcium, in 
 wood-sorrel and other plants; and also in 
 the animal body, especially in, urine, in 
 urinary deposits and in calculi. Many 
 processes of oxidation of organic bodies 
 produce this substance. Thus sugar, 
 starch, cellulose, etc., yield oxalic acid 
 when fused with caustic potash, or when 
 treated with strong nitric acid. Saw- 
 dust is very much used for producing 
 the acid. Oxalic acid is a solid substance, 
 which crystallizes in four-sided prisms, 
 the sides of which are alternately broad 
 and narrow, and the summits dihedral. 
 They are efflorescent in dry air, but 
 attract a little humidity if it be damp. 
 They are soluble in water, and their 
 acidity is so great that, when dissolved 
 in 3600 times their weight in water, the 
 solution reddens litmus paper, and is 
 perceptibly acid to the taste. Oxalic 
 acid is used chiefly as a discharging 
 agent in certain styles of calico-printing, 
 for whitening leather, as in boot-tops, 
 and for removing ink and iron mould 
 
 from Wood and linen. It is a violent 
 poison. Oxalates are compounds of 
 oxalic acid with bases; one of them, 
 binoxalate of potash, is well known as 
 salts of sorrel, or salts of lemon. 
 
 OXFORD, a city and county borough 
 in England, capital of Oxford county, 
 and seat of one of the most celebrated 
 universities in the world is situated 
 about 50 miles w.n.w. London, on a 
 gentle acclivity between the Cherwell 
 and the Thames, here called the Isis. 
 Oxford, as a city of towers and spires, 
 of fine collegiate buildings old and new, 
 of gardens, groves, and avenues of trees, 
 is unique in England. Of the university 
 buildings the most remarkable are 
 Christ’s Church, the largest and grandest 
 of all the colleges, with a fine quadrangle 
 and other buildings, a noble avenue of 
 trees (the Broad Walk), the cathedral 
 serving as its chapel; Magdalen college, 
 considered to be the most beautiful and 
 complete of all; Balliol College, with a 
 modern front (1867-69) and a modern 
 Gothic chapel; Brasenose college; and 
 New college (more than 500 years old), 
 largely consisting of the original build- 
 ings, and especially noted for its gardens 
 and cloisters; besides the Sheldonian 
 theater, a public hall of the university; 
 the new examination schools, new 
 museum, Bodleian library, Radcliffe 
 library, and other buildings belonging 
 to the university. Pop. 49,413. — Oxford 
 county is bounded by Northampton, 
 Warwick, Gloucester, Berks, and Buck- 
 ingham; area, 483,621 acres, of which 
 more than five-sixths are under crops 
 or in grass. Manufactures are of little 
 importance. The principal rivers are the 
 Thames or Isis, Thame, Evenlode, 
 Cherwell, and Windrush. Pop. 182,768. 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY, one of the 
 two great English universities, estab- 
 lished in the middle ages, and situated 
 in the city of Oxford (which see). Like 
 Cambridge it embraces a number of 
 colleges forming distinct corporations, 
 of which the oldest is believed to be 
 University college, dating from 1253, 
 though Merton college was the first to 
 adopt the collegiate system proper. 
 The following list contains the name of 
 the colleges, with the time each was 
 
 founded; 
 
 1. University college 1253 
 
 2. Balliol college 1268 
 
 3. Merton college 1274 
 
 4. Exeter college 1314 
 
 5. Oriel college 1326 
 
 6. Queen’s college 1340 
 
 7. New college 1379 
 
 8. Lincoln college 1427 
 
 9. All Souls’ college 1437 
 
 10. Magdalen college 1458 
 
 11. Brasenose college 1509 
 
 12. Corpus Christ! college . . . 1516 
 
 13. Christ Church college. .. . 1546 
 
 14. Trinity college 1554 
 
 15. St. John’s college 1555 
 
 16. Jesus college 1571 
 
 17. Wadham college 1612 
 
 18. Pembroke college 1624 
 
 19. Worcester college 1714 
 
 20. Keble college |1870 
 
 21. Hertford college 11874 
 
 Students enter as commoners or as 
 “scholars” or “exhibitioners,” accord- 
 ing as they obtain some of the numerous 
 scholarships or exhibitions which may 
 
 be competed for. The degrees conferred 
 are those of Bachelor and Master in 
 Arts, and Bachelor and Doctor in Music, 
 Medicine, Civil Law, and Divinity. 
 Twelve terms of residence are required 
 for the ordinary degree of B.A. No 
 further residence is necessary for any 
 degree, and no residence whatever is 
 required for degrees in music. Women 
 were admitted to the examinations in 
 1884, but do not receive degrees. Three 
 colleges for women have been estab- 
 lished: Somerville hall. Lady Margaret 
 hall, and St. Hugh’s hall. Mansfield 
 college, for the education of men for the 
 nonconformist ministry, was established 
 in 1888. The total number of students 
 is about 3000. The total humber of pro- 
 fessorships, etc., in the university is 
 about fifty. The institutions connected 
 with the university include ; the Bodleian 
 library (the second in the kingdom), 
 the Ashmolean museum. Botanic gar- 
 dens, Taylor institution for modern lan- 
 guages, University museum, Radcliffe 
 library, Observatory, and Indian in- 
 stitute. Affiliated colleges are: St. 
 David’s college, Lan^peter (1880); Uni- 
 versity college, Nottingham (1882); and 
 Firth College, Sheffield (1886). 
 
 OXIDES, the compounds of oxygen 
 with one other element; thus hydrogen 
 and oxygen form oxide of hydrogen or 
 hydrogen oxide, oxygen and chlorine 
 form a series of oxides of chlorine, 
 oxygen and copper form oxide of copper 
 or copper oxide, and so on. When two 
 oxides of the same element exist, the 
 name of that which contains the greater 
 proportion of oxygen ends in ic, while 
 the name of the oxide containing less 
 oxygen ends in ous ; thus we have nitrous 
 oxide, and nitric oxide. If there be 
 several oxides they may be distinguished 
 by such prefixes as hypo, per, etc., or by 
 the more exact prefixes mono, di, tri, 
 tetra, etc. For the different oxides see 
 the articles on the individual chemical 
 elements. 
 
 OXUS, a large river in Central Asia. 
 The principal head-stream' of the Oxus 
 is by some considered to be the Panja 
 river, which rises in a lake of the Great 
 Pamir, at a height of 13,900 feet. The 
 Oxus for a considerable distance forms 
 the boundary between Afghanistan and 
 Bokhara. Total course, 1300 miles. 
 
 OXYGEN, a gas which is the most 
 widely distributed of all the elements. 
 Eight-ninths by weight of water, one- 
 fourth of air, and about one-half of 
 silica, chalk, and alumina consist of 
 oxygen. It enters into the constitution 
 of nearly all the important rocks and 
 minerals; it exists in the tissues and 
 blood of animals ; without it we could not 
 live, and by its agency disintegration of 
 the animal frame is carried on after 
 death. All processes of respiration are 
 carried on through the agency of oxygen, 
 all ordinary processes of burning and of 
 producing light are possible only in the 
 presence of this gas. Oxygen is invisible, 
 inodorous, and tasteless; it is the least 
 refractive, but the most magnetic of all 
 the gases; it is rather heavier than air, 
 having a specific gravity of 1.1056, re- 
 ferred to air as 1.00; it is soluble in water 
 to the extent of about three volumes in 
 100 volumes of water at ordinary tem- 
 peratures. Oxygen was liquefied for the 
 
OXYHYDROGEN LIGHT 
 
 Pacific ocean 
 
 first time in 1877 by the application of 
 intense cold and pressure; it has even 
 been solidified. It is possessed of very 
 marked chemical activity, having a 
 powerful attraction for most of the sim- 
 ple substances, the act of combining 
 with which is called oxidation. Some 
 substances when brought into contact 
 with this gas unite with it so violently 
 as to produce light and heat; in other 
 cases oxidation is much more gradual, 
 as in the rusting of metals. The presence 
 of oxygen is, so far as we know, one of 
 the physical conditions of life. In in- 
 spiring we receive into the lungs a sup- 
 ply of oxygen ; this oxygen is carried by 
 the blood to the various parts of the 
 body, and there deposited to do its 
 work of tissue-forming, etc.; the de- 
 oxygenated blood returns to the lungs, 
 and again receives a fresh supply of the 
 necessary oxygen. Trees and plants 
 evolve oxygen, which is formed by the 
 decomposition of the carbonic acid ab- 
 sorbed by the leaves from the atmos- 
 phere. This is due to the action of the 
 sun’s rays and the chlorophyll or green 
 coloring matter of the leaves. When 
 oxygen unites with another element the 
 product is called an oxide. The oxides 
 form a most important series of chemi- 
 cal compounds (see Oxides and the 
 articles on the various chemical ele- 
 ments), The power of supporting com- 
 bustion is one of the leading features 
 of oxygen and until the discovery of 
 oxygen no well-founded explanation of 
 the facts of combustion was known. 
 Oxygen exists in another form different 
 from that of the ordinary gas; in this 
 form it exhibits many marked peculiari- 
 ties. See Ozone. 
 
 OXYHYDROGEN LIGHT, or LIME- 
 LIGHT, a brilliant light produced when 
 a jet of mixed oxygen and hydrogen gas 
 is ignited and directed on a solid piece 
 of lime. It is commonly used in magic 
 lantern exhibitions; and the two gases 
 are kept in separate air-tight bags, or 
 
 P, the sixteenth letter and twelfth 
 consonant in the English alphabet. It is 
 one of the mutes and labials, and rep- 
 resents a sound produced by closely 
 compressing the lips till the breath is 
 collected, and then letting it issue. 
 See B. 
 
 PACA, a genus of rodents. The com- 
 mon paca is one of the largest of the 
 
 The brown paca. 
 
 rodents, being about 2 feet long and 
 about 1 foot high. In form it is thick and 
 clumsy, and the tail is rudimentary. In 
 habits the pacas are chiefly nocturnal 
 
 iron cylinders into which the gas is 
 forced under very high pressure. From 
 these receptacles tubes conduct the 
 gases to meet in a common jet. 
 
 OXYHYDROGEN MICROSCOPE, one 
 in which the object is illuminated by 
 means of the oxyhydrogen light, and a 
 magnified image of it thrown on a screen. 
 
 OYER AND TERMINER, in English 
 law, is a commission directed to two of 
 the judges of the circuit and other gen- 
 tlemen of the county to which it is issued 
 by virtue of which they have power, as 
 the terms imply, to hear and determine 
 certain specified offenses. The com- 
 missions of oyer and terminer are the 
 most comprehensive of the several com- 
 missions which constitute the authority 
 of the judges of assize on the circuits. 
 
 OYSTER, an edible mollusc, and a 
 near ally of the mussels, etc. It is dis- 
 tinguished by the possession of an in- 
 equivalve shell, the one half or valve 
 being larger than the other. The shell 
 may be free, or attached to fixed objects, 
 or may be simply imbedded in the mud. 
 The foot is small and rudimentary, or 
 may be wanting. A single (adductor) 
 muscle for closing the shell is developed. 
 The common oyster is the most familiar 
 member of the genus. The fry or fer- 
 tilized ova of the oyster are termed 
 “spat,” and enormous numbers of ova 
 are produced by each individual from 
 May or June to September — the spawn- 
 ing season. The spat being discharged, 
 each embryo is found to consist of a 
 little body enclosed within a minute 
 but perfectly formed shell, and possess- 
 ing vibratile filaments or cilia, by which 
 the young animal at first swims freely 
 about, and then attaches itself to some 
 object. In about three years it attains 
 its full growth. The oysters congregate 
 together in their attached state to form 
 large submarine tracts or “oyster-beds,” 
 as they are termed. In England the 
 Gravesend beds, and those extending 
 along the coasts of Kent and Essex, are 
 
 P 
 
 and herbivorous. They excavate bur- 
 rows, run swiftly, and swim and dive 
 with facility. They are found in the 
 eastern portion of South America, from 
 Paraguay to Surinam. The flesh is said 
 to be savory. 
 
 PACE, a measure of length, used as a 
 unit for long distances. It is derived 
 from the Latin passus, which was, how- 
 ever, a different measure, the Latin 
 passus being measured from the mark 
 of the heel of one foot to the heel of the 
 same foot when it next touched the 
 ground, thus stretching over two steps; 
 while the English pace is measured from 
 heel to heel in a single step. The Latin 
 pace was somewhat less than 5 feet; 
 the English military pace at the ordinary 
 marching rate is 2i feet, and at double 
 quick time 3 feet. 
 
 PACER, the ambling gait of the pacer, 
 smooth, and lateral, as distinguished 
 from the diagonal gait of the trotter, has 
 been appreciated from the earliest an- 
 tiquity. The time for a paced mile has 
 gradually been reduced from 2:28, until 
 in 1905 Dan Patch made it in 1 :55L 
 The gaits of trotting and pacing are 
 
 celebrated; in Scotland the beds in the 
 Firth of Forth; in France, those of 
 Rochelle, Rochefort, R6 and Oleron, 
 Cancale, and Granville; in Denmark the 
 Schleswig beds and those at the north 
 point of Jutland; in America the beds 
 of Virginia, of Georgia, and of Long 
 Island. The most common American 
 species is found on the Atlantic coast 
 from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the 
 Gulf of Mexico. The most favorable 
 bottom and locality for oyster-beds 
 appear to be those situated in parts 
 where the currents are not too strong, 
 and where the sea-bed is shelving, and 
 covered by mud and gravel deposits. 
 
 The Unite I States and France are the 
 chief seats of the oyster industry. In 
 the United States the natural oyster 
 beds are still a source of great wealth, 
 while in Europe the native beds have 
 long since been practically destroyed. 
 Large quantities of American oysters 
 are now sent to Europe ; and the Ameri- 
 can are generally larger than the Euro- 
 pean. 
 
 OZONE, a modified — technically an 
 allotropic — form of oxygen. Two vol- 
 umes of ozone contain three volumes 
 of oxygen condensed to two volumes. 
 Ozone exists in small quantities in pure 
 country air, and is produced in various 
 ways. When an electric machine is set 
 in operation a peculiar smell' may be 
 perceived; after a discharge of lightning 
 the same smell is perceptible. The sub- 
 stance which manifests this odor is 
 ozone, and in each of those cases ozone 
 is produced. Ozone acts as a very 
 powerful oxidizer; for this reason it is of 
 great service in the atmosphere, as it so 
 readily oxidizes, and thus renders com- 
 paratively unhurtful, animal effluvia 
 and other obnoxious products of animal 
 or vegetable decomposition. Ozone 
 rapidly bleaches indigo, converting it 
 into a white substance called isatin, 
 which contains more oxygen than the 
 indigo itself. 
 
 practically interchangeable, though it 
 is still true that a fast trotter becomes a 
 faster pacer. 
 
 PACHA. See Pasha. 
 
 PACIFIC OCEAN (formerly called 
 also the South Sea), that immense ex- 
 panse of water which extends between 
 the North and South American con- 
 tinents and Asia and Australia. It is the 
 largest of the oceans, exceeding in com- 
 pass the whole of the four continents 
 taken together, and occupying more 
 than a fourth part of the earth’s area 
 and fully one-half of its water surface. 
 On the west it extends to the Indian 
 ocean, and has several more or less dis- 
 tinct seas connected with it — the China 
 sea. Yellow sea. Sea of Japan, Sea of 
 Okhotsk, etc.; on the north it communi- 
 cates with the Arctic ocean by Behring’s 
 straits, on the south it is bounded by 
 the Antarctic ocean, and on the east it 
 joins the Atlantic at Cape Horn-. Within 
 this enormous circumference it includes 
 the numerous islands composing the 
 groups of Australasia and Polynesia, and 
 those adjoining America and Asia. The 
 average depth of the Pacific appears to 
 
pack-ice 
 
 PAGE 
 
 be greater than that of the Atlantic, and 
 its bed more uniform. Recent soundings 
 between the Friendly islands and New 
 Zealand gave depths of from 5022 up to 
 5155 fathoms (nearly six miles) not far 
 from Kermadec islands. The greatest 
 depth previously known was 4655 
 fathoms n.e. of Japan. (See Ocean.) In 
 the Pacific the tides never attain the 
 maximum heights for which some parts 
 of the Atlantic and Indian oceans are 
 celebrated. On all the west coast of 
 America the rise of the tide is usually 
 below 10 feet, and only in the Bay of 
 Panama does it vary from 13 to 15 feet. 
 The trade winds of the Pacific are not so 
 regular in their limits as those of the 
 Atlantic, and this irregularity extends 
 over a much wider region in the case of 
 the southeast trade winds than in the 
 case of the northeast. The cause of this 
 is the greater number of islands in the 
 South Pacific ocean, which, especially in 
 the hot season, disturb the uniformity 
 of atmospheric pressure by local con- 
 densations. The northeast trade wind 
 remains the whole year through within 
 the northern hemisphere. The southeast 
 trade wind, on the other hand, ad- 
 vances beyond the equator, both in sum- 
 mer and winter, still preserving its 
 original direction. In the region stretch- 
 ing from New Guinea and the Solomon 
 islands southeastward, there are no 
 regular winds. The zones of the two 
 trade winds are separated by regions of 
 calms and of light winds, the limits of 
 which vary of course with the varying 
 limits of these zones. In the Chinese 
 seas the terrible typhoon occasionally 
 rages, and may occur at any season of 
 the year. As to the chief currents of the 
 Pacific see Currents, Marine. The Por- 
 tuguese were the first Europeans who 
 entered the Pacific, which they did from 
 the east. Balboa, in 1513, discovered it 
 from the summit of the mountains which 
 traverse the Isthmus of Darien. Magel- 
 lan sailed across it from east to west in 
 1520-21. Drake, Tasman, Behring, 
 Anson, Byron, Bougainville, Cook, Van- 
 cover, Lap^rouse, and others, traversed 
 it in different directions in the 17th and 
 18th centuries. 
 
 PACK-ICE, in the Arctic seas, an 
 immense assemblage of large floating 
 pieces of ice. When the pieces are in 
 contact the pack is said to be closed; 
 when they do not touch, though very 
 near each other, it is said to be open. 
 
 PACK-SADDLE, contrivances for the 
 transportation of merchandise or mili- 
 tary stores. The pack-saddle in most 
 general use consists of crossed sticks, 
 fastened to saddle-bars of long bearing. 
 In the United States army pack-animals 
 are usually supplied with the aparejo. 
 Ammunition mules are equipped with 
 pack-saddles, specially adapted for the 
 carrying of ammunition boxes, which 
 are placed in such a way as to admit of 
 easy access when the animal is employed 
 in supplying troops in action. 
 
 PACKING INDUSTRY, the slaughter- 
 ing of cattle, sheep, and hogs, and the 
 utilization of their carcasses is an im- 
 portant industry. The best parts of the 
 animals are shipped in refrigerator cars 
 and vessels for consumption as fresh 
 meat to all parts of the world, while 
 Other parts are cured, by smoking or 
 
 salting. The fatty portions are con- 
 verted into lard and commercial grease. 
 The bones are converted into glue or 
 fertilizers, and the hoofs and horns are 
 used or sold for other purposes. 
 
 The animals are killed, hooked by the 
 nose to an endless chain, passed through 
 scalding vats, and then through an 
 automatically adjusted scraper which 
 deprives them of hair and bristles in a 
 few seconds. The animals are then 
 hoisted, head down, upon an inclined 
 rail and disemboweled, beheaded, 
 washed, trimmed and whirled to the 
 chill-rooms at the rate of twenty a 
 minute. In dressing hogs, about 20 per 
 cent is offal and the rest is used as meat, 
 of which only about 10 per cent is sold 
 as fresh meat. The other parts are cured, 
 usually by pickling in brine for seven 
 or eight weeks, and then smoking for 
 twenty-four hours. The most profitable 
 part of the industry is the manufacture 
 of sausage. The meat used is chiefly 
 trimmings, which are obtained from all 
 parts of the establishment. The meat 
 is chopped, mixed with potato flour 
 and water. Certain spices are added, in- 
 cluding sage, pepper, salt, ginger, and 
 mustard. The intestines are used for 
 sausage casings. 
 
 One of the most important parts of 
 the pork-packing industry is the manu- 
 facture of lard. Two grades of lard are 
 made — leaf lard and steam lard. In the 
 leaf lard of commerce, not only the pure 
 leaf, but all sorts of trimmings from the 
 belly of the animal are used. Steam lard 
 is made from scraps taken from all parts 
 of the animal, particularly from the 
 feet, or even the feet themselves and 
 the head bones. 
 
 In dressing cattle, the parts intended 
 to be sold as fresh beef are allowed to 
 cool for forty-eight hours and then 
 shipped. In the canning of fresh beef, 
 inferior meat is used, either poorer grade 
 of cattle or poorer cuts. Since 1891 the 
 whole packing industry has been under 
 vigilant government inspection. 
 
 PADDLE-FISH, a large fish allied to 
 the sturgeons, so named from the 
 elongated broad snout with which it 
 stirs up the soft muddy bottom in search 
 of food. It often reaches a length of from 
 5 to 6 feet. The paddle-fishes are ex- 
 clusively North American in their dis- 
 tribution, being found in the Mississippi, 
 Ohio, and other great rivers of this con- 
 tinent. 
 
 PADDLE-WHEEL, in steam-ships 
 one of the wheels (generally two in num- 
 ber, one placed on each side of the 
 vessel) provided with boards or floats 
 on their circumferences, and driven by 
 the engine for the ship’s propulsion 
 through the water. On rivers liable to 
 such obstructions as floating trees, etc., 
 a single paddle-wheel placed at the stern 
 of the vessel is employed. The ship is 
 propelled by the reaction of the water 
 upon the floats. Most power is gained 
 when the floats are vertical, passing 
 through the water perpendicular to the 
 direction of greatest pressure. The pad- 
 dle-wheel is now almost entirely con- 
 fined to river-boats; in ocean-going 
 steamers it has given place to the screw. 
 
 PADEREWSKI (pa'de-r6f'ske), Ignace 
 Jan., Polish pianist and composer, was 
 born in Poland in 1860. He received his 
 
 musical education at Warsaw and Ber- 
 lin, and was made professor of music in 
 the Conservatory of Music in Warsaw 
 at the age of eighteen. At the age of 
 twenty-four he was made professor in 
 the Conservatory of Strasburg. Later 
 he studied in Vienna and began pro- 
 fessional tours. For his three-months 
 season in the United States 1895-96 
 he received $200,000. He has made four 
 American tours — in 1891, 1893, 1896, 
 and 1899. His compositions for the 
 piano have become widely known; they 
 include : Prelude and Minuet, Elegie op. 
 4, Danses, Polonaises. 
 
 PAD'UA, a city in Italy, capital of the 
 province of the same name, 22 miles 
 west of Venice. The university, said to 
 have been founded by the Emperor 
 Frederick II. in 1238, was long re- 
 nowned as the chief seat of law and 
 medicine in Italy ; and very many names 
 famous in learning and art are connected 
 with Padua, such as Galileo, Scaliger, 
 Tasso, Giotto, Lippo Lippi, and Dona- 
 tello. Pop. 82,283. The province of 
 Padua has an area of 854 sq. miles, and 
 pop. of 443,227. 
 
 PADU'CAH, a town in M’Cracken co., 
 Kentucky, on the Ohio, not far from 
 themouthof theTennessee. Pop. 21,315. 
 
 P.®AN , in Greek, a hymn to Apollo or 
 to other deities, or a song in praise of 
 heroes. _ A paean was sung, previous to 
 battle, in honor of Ares (Mars), and after 
 a victory, in praise of Apollo. 
 
 P.ffi'ONY. See Peony. 
 
 PAGANI'NI, Niccolo, a celebrated 
 violinist, born in 1784 at Genoa, died at 
 Nice, 1840. His father, who had some 
 knowledge of music, and discerned the 
 talents of his son, put him at a very early 
 age under the best masters (Costa, 
 Rolla, Paer) to learn music, and par- 
 ticularly the violin. With this instru- 
 ment his progress was so rapid that at 
 the age of nine he was able to perform 
 in public at Genoa. His first engagement 
 was in 1805, at Lucca, where he found 
 a patroness in Princess Eliza, Bona- 
 parte’s sister. In 1813 he left Lucca for 
 Milan, and in 1828 visited Vienna. From 
 this period his fame was world-wide. 
 The wonder which he excited was- caused 
 not merely by the charm of his execu- 
 tion and his extraordinary skill, but 
 also by his external appearance, which 
 had something weird and even demonia- 
 cal in it. After visiting almost all the 
 great towns of Germany he made a 
 musical tour through France and Great 
 Britain, realizing immense gains. His 
 last years were spent at a villa near 
 Parma. 
 
 PAGANS, the worshippers of many 
 gods, the heathen; so called by the 
 Christians because after Christianity 
 had become predominant in the towns 
 the ancient polytheistic faith still lin- 
 gered in the villages (pagi) and country 
 districts. . 
 
 PAGE, Thomas Nelson, American nov- 
 elist, was born in 1853. His first note- 
 worthy literary effort was Marse Chan 
 published in 1884 and incorporated 
 with Meh Lady and other stories in Ole 
 Virginia. Among those of his other 
 works the following are the best known: 
 Two Little CorJederates, Red Rock, and 
 Gordon Keith. 
 
PAGING-MACHINE 
 
 PAINTING 
 
 PAGING-MACHINE, a machine for 
 printing consecutive numbers on the 
 pages of a book, bank-notes and 
 cheques, railway-tickets, etc. Several 
 machines of this kind have been in- 
 vented, all of which consist essentially 
 of a number of revolving discs bearing 
 the ten digits in raised figures on their 
 circumference, with various contriv- 
 ances for making the first disc describe 
 one-tenth of a revolution after every 
 figure is printed, for making the second 
 disc describe one-tenth of a revolution, 
 every time the first makes a complete 
 revolution, and so on, as well as for 
 supplying the figures with ink at each 
 impression. Provision is also made for 
 the printing of duplicate and alternate 
 numbers if this is required. 
 
 PAGO'DA, the name given to Hindu 
 and Buddhist temples. The temple 
 proper is generally of pyramidal form, 
 and of a number of stories, of great size 
 
 Great Pagoda at Bhiivaneswar, Orissa, 
 India. — Pergusson. 
 
 and height, and embellished with ex- 
 traordinary splendor Connected with 
 it may be various other structures, open 
 courts, etc., the whole forming archi- 
 tecturally a very imposing group. Pa- 
 godas are numerous not only in Hindu- 
 stan but also in Burmah, Siam, and 
 China. The statues in the temple are 
 often of a colossal size. 
 
 PAHANG', a state on the east coast of 
 the Malay Peninsula; area, 10,000 sq. 
 miles; pop. 83,419. By the treaty con- 
 cluded between Great Britain and the 
 Sultan of Pahang in 1888 the control of 
 the foreign relations of that state was 
 conveyed to the government of the 
 Straits Settlements; and Pahang is now 
 practically a dependency of that colony. 
 
 PAHLANPUR, or PALANPUR, a town 
 in India, presidency of Bombay, prov- 
 ince of Gujerat. Pop. of town, 17,799; 
 of agencj’’, 467,691. 
 
 PAIN,' an uneasy sensation of body, 
 resulting from particular impressions 
 made on the extremities of the nerves 
 transmitted to the brain. Physical pain 
 may be produced by various causes — 
 by injuries to the organs in which the 
 pain is localized; by a peculiar state of 
 the brain and nerves; or by the sym- 
 pathetic affection of an organ at some 
 distance from that which has been in- 
 jured. It is often of great service in aid- 
 ing the physician at arriving at a correct 
 diagnosis of a disease, and still more 
 obviously in frequently being the only 
 
 intimation which a patient has of the 
 fact of there being a disease which de- 
 mands a remedy. The degree of pain, 
 however, is rarely in direct proportion 
 to the gravity of a disease, and is often 
 altogether absent when there are other 
 symptoms of a serious malady. 
 
 PAINE, Robert Treat, an American 
 patriot, was born in 1731 in Boston, 
 Mass. He was a delegate in 1768 to a 
 convention called by prominent citizens 
 after Governor Bernard had dissolved 
 the legislature for refusing to rescind its 
 circular letter to the other colonies, and 
 in 1770 he managed, in the absence of 
 the attorney-general, the prosecution 
 of Captain Preston and his men for 
 firing upon the citizens on March 5th. 
 In 1773-74 he was a member of the 
 Massachusetts assembly; was one of the 
 representatives of Massachusetts in the 
 continental congress from 1774 to 1778; 
 and was a signer of the declaration of 
 independence. He was one of the 
 founders (1780) of the American 
 Academy of Arts and Sciences. He 
 died in 1814. 
 
 PAINE, Thomas, political and deisti- 
 cal writer, born in 1737 at Thetford in 
 Norfolk. In 1774 emigrated to America, 
 with a letter of introduction from Frank- 
 lin. Paine threw himself heart and soul 
 into the cause of the colonists, and his 
 pamphlet entitled Common Sense, writ- 
 ten to recommend the separation of the 
 colonies from Great Britain, and his 
 subsequent periodica called the Crisis, 
 gave him a title to be considered one of 
 the founders of American independence. 
 In 1787 he returned to England, and in 
 answer to Burke’s Reflections on the 
 French Revolution wrote his Rights of 
 Man. A prosecution was commenced 
 against him as the author of that work, 
 but while the trial was pending he was 
 chosen member of the national conven- 
 tion for the department of Calais, and, 
 making his escape, set off for France, 
 where his Rights of Man had gained him 
 
 great popularity, and arrived there in 
 September, 1792. On the trial of Louis 
 XVI. he voted against the sentence of 
 death, proposed his imprisomnent dur- 
 ing the war and his banishment after- 
 ward. This conduct offended the 
 Jacobins, and toward the close of 1793 
 he was excluded from the convention, 
 arrested, and committed ito prison, 
 where he lay for ten months, escaping 
 the guillotine by an accident. Just be- 
 fore his confinement he had finished the 
 first part of his work against revelation, 
 
 entitled the Age of Reason^ it was pub-> 
 lished in London and Paris in 1794, by 
 which step he forfeited the countenance 
 of the greater part of his American con- 
 nections. He remained in France till 
 August, 1802, when he embarked for 
 America, where he spent the remainder 
 of his life, occupied with financial ques- 
 tions and mechanical inventions. He 
 died at New York in 1809. 
 
 PAINTER’S COLIC. See Lead-Poison- 
 ing. 
 
 PAINTING is the art of representing 
 the external facts of and objects in 
 nature by means of color. A study of 
 the art requires a knowledge of form, 
 animate and inanimate; of perspective; 
 and of light and shade. Considered in 
 relation to the subjects treated, paint- 
 ing may be divided into decorative, 
 historical, portrait, genre (scenes of 
 common or domestic life), landscape 
 with seascape, architectural, still life. 
 According to the methods employed 
 in the practice of the art it is termed 
 oil, water-color, fresco, tempera or dis- 
 temper, and enamel painting, and in 
 mosaics, on glass, porcelain, terra-cotta, 
 and ivory (this last being called mina- 
 ture-painting.) Decorative works, usu- 
 ally in fresco or tempera, but some- 
 times in oil, are generally executed upon 
 the parts of a building. For the basis of 
 easel pictures, wood-panels prepared 
 with a coating of size and white were 
 used solely up to the 14th century for 
 both oil and tempera, and are still 
 sparingly employed; but canvas covered 
 with a priming of size and white-lead, 
 and tightly nailed over a wooden frame 
 called a “stretcher,” is now almost 
 universally adopted for oil-painting. 
 For water-colors paper alone is em- 
 ployed. The tools used by an artist are 
 charcoal, colored crayons, and lead- 
 pencils for outline purposes; colors, a 
 palette for holding the same, a palette- 
 knife for mixing them ; brushes for lay- 
 ing them on; and an easel with adjust- 
 able heights for holding the canvas. A 
 wooden mannikin, with movable joints, 
 and termed a “lay-figure,” is sometimes 
 used on which to arrange costumes and 
 draperies. 
 
 The term “oil-colors” is employed to 
 denominate colors ground with oil, and 
 water-colors those wherein gum and 
 glycerine have been employed. . Both 
 are ground solid, an oil medium being 
 used in the first case and water in the 
 second to thin out the colors when on 
 the palette. Fresco-painting is executed 
 on wet plaster. Mosaic work is formed 
 by small cubes of colored glass, called 
 tesserae, fixed in cement; in tempera 
 the colors are mixed with white'; in 
 encaustic, wax is the medium employed; 
 and in enamel the colors are fired. Egyp- 
 tian, Greek, and early Roman paintings 
 were executed in tempera ; Byzantine art 
 found its chief expression in mosaics, 
 though tempera panels ■were executed; 
 and early Christian art up to and partly 
 including the 14th century adopted this 
 last method. The vehicle employed in 
 mixing the colors was a mixture of gum 
 and white of egg, or the expressed juice 
 of fig-tree shoots. The introduction of 
 oil-painting was long attributed to the 
 Van Eycks of Bruges (circa 1380-1441), 
 but painting in oil is known to have 
 
PAINTING ON GLASS 
 
 PALATINATE 
 
 been practiced at a much earlier period, 
 and it is now generally held that the in- 
 vention of the Van Eycks was the dis- 
 covery of a drying vehicle with which to 
 mix or thin their colors, in place of the 
 slow-drying oil previously in use. This 
 new vehicle was composed of a thickened 
 linseed-oil mixed with a resinous varnish, 
 and it was its introduction that effected 
 so great a. revolution in the art of paint- 
 ing. For an account of special methods 
 of painting see articles Fresco-painting, 
 Mosaic, Encaustic Tiles, Enamel, etc. 
 
 PAINTING ON GLASS. See Glass- 
 painting. 
 
 PAINTS. See Pigments. 
 
 PAISLEY, a municipal and parlia- 
 mentary burgh of Scotland, in the 
 county of Renfrew. Paisley has been 
 long noted for its manufactures, espe- 
 cially of textile goods. The shawl manu- 
 facture, introduced about the beginning 
 of the 19th century, and long a flour- 
 ishing industry, is not now a staple, but 
 the textile manufacture is still large, 
 though the chief industry is that of 
 sewing cotton, for which Paisley is 
 celebrated all over the world. Among 
 the other manufactures are tapestry, 
 embroidery, tartans, and carpets. Pop. 
 79,355. 
 
 PAL'ADIN, a term originally applied 
 to the Count of the Palace, or Count 
 Palatine, the official who superintended 
 the household of the Carlovingian 
 sovereigns, and then to the companions 
 in arms of Charlemagne, who belonged 
 to his court. Latterly it was used in a 
 more general sense. 
 
 PALiEARCTIC REGION, in zoology, 
 one of six divisions of the world based 
 upon their characteristic fauna. It em- 
 braces Europe, Northern Asia, and Africa 
 north of the Atlas range. 
 
 PALiEOG'RAPHY, is the science by 
 means of which ancient inscriptions, 
 and the writings and figures on ancient 
 monuments, are deciphered and ex- 
 plained; as distinguished from diplo- 
 matics, which deals with written docu- 
 ments. 
 
 PAL.®ONTOL'OGY is the science 
 which treats of the living beings, whether 
 animal or vegetable, that have in- 
 habited the globe in the successive 
 periods of its past history. The com- 
 parison of the fossil remains of plants 
 and animals, belonging for the most 
 part to extinct species, has given a power- 
 ful impulse to the science of comparative 
 anatomy, and through it a truer insight 
 has been obtained into the natural 
 arrangement and subdivision of the 
 classes of animals. But the science 
 which has profited in the highest degree 
 from palaeontology is geology. Palae- 
 ontology, apart from its importance as 
 treating of the past life-history of the 
 earth, assists the geologist in his determ- 
 ination of the chronological succession 
 of the materials composing the earth’s 
 crust. As a general result of united 
 geological and palaeontological re- 
 searches, it has been found possible to 
 divide the entire series of stratified de- 
 posits into a number of rock-systems or 
 formations, each of which is defined 
 by possessing an assemblage of organic 
 remains which are not associated in any 
 other formation. These systems as a 
 whole are divided into three great 
 
 P. E.--59 
 
 divisions, based on the characters of 
 their organic remains, and thus repre- 
 senting three successive life-periods, as 
 follows: Palaeozoic, or ancient life epoch, 
 which includes the Laurentian, Cam- 
 brian, Silurian, Devonian, Old Red 
 Sandstone, Carboniferous, and Permian 
 rock systems. Mesozoic, or middle life 
 epoch, including the Triassic, Jurassic or 
 Oolitic, and Cretaceous rock systems. 
 Cainozoic, or recent life epoch, which 
 comprises the Eocene, Miocene, Plio- 
 cene, and Post-tertiary rock systems. 
 The fossil remains of the first two divi- 
 sions mostly belong to extinct species. 
 The Cainozoic fossils belong mostly to 
 living species or species only recently 
 extinct. See Geology. 
 
 PAL.®OTHE'RIUM, an extinct genus 
 of Ungulate or Hoofed Quadrupeds with 
 three toes. These animals resembled 
 tapirs, and varied in size from a sheep 
 
 Palaeotherlum restored. 
 
 to a horse. They had twenty-two teeth 
 in each jaw, and, in all probability, a 
 short mobile snout or proboscis. This 
 genus forms the type of the family 
 Palaeotheridae, which occur as fossils in 
 Eocene and Miocene strata. 
 
 PAL.ffiOZOIC. See Palaeontology. 
 
 PALAIS-ROYAL (pi-la-rwa-yM), a 
 popular resort of the Parisians, origin- 
 ally a royal palace as the name implies. 
 The original palace was built (1629-36) 
 by Richelieu, and by him presented to 
 Louis XIII. It was confiscated by the 
 republicans in 1793, and the Tribunal 
 sat in the palace during the Reign of 
 Terror. At the Restoration it was re- 
 purchased by the Duke of Orleans, but 
 in the revolution of 1848 it was again 
 appropriated to the state. In 1871 it 
 was set on fire by the Communists, but 
 has since been restored. The Th4itre 
 Fran 5 ais and several shops now form 
 parts of the buildings of the Palais- 
 Royal. 
 
 PALANQUIN, PALANKEEN (pal-an- 
 ken'), a covered conveyance used in 
 India, China, etc,, borne by poles on the 
 
 Palanquin. 
 
 shoulders of men, and in which a single 
 person is carried from place to place. 
 The palanquin proper is a sort of box 
 about 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and as 
 
 much in height, with wooden shutters 
 on the venetian-blind principle. It 
 used to be a very common conveyance 
 in India, especially among the Euro- 
 peans, but the introduction of railways 
 and the improvement of the roads have 
 almost caused its discontinuance. 
 
 PAL' ATE, the name applied to the 
 roof of the mouth. Tt consists of two 
 portions, the hard palate in front, the 
 soft palate behind. The former is 
 bounded above by the palatal bones, 
 in front and at the sides by the alveolar 
 arches and gums, being lined by mucus 
 membrane; behind it is continuous with 
 the soft palate. It supports the tongue 
 in eating, speaking, and swallowing. 
 The soft palate is a movable fold sus- 
 ended from the posterior border of the 
 ard palate. It consists of mucous 
 membranes, nerves, and muscles, and 
 forms a sort of partition between the 
 mouth and the hinder nostrils. Its upper 
 border is attached to the posterior mar- 
 gin of the hard palate; its lower border 
 is free. The uvula hangs from the mid- 
 dle of its lower border, and on each side 
 are two curved folds of mucous mem- 
 brane called the arches or pillars of the 
 soft palate. Between these on either 
 side of the pharynx are the two glandu- 
 lar bodies known as tonsils. The upper 
 surface of the soft palate is convex, the 
 lower surface is concave with a median 
 ridge, the latter pointing to the early or 
 embryo stage of its formation, when it 
 consists of two distinct parts. Non- 
 union of these halves and of those of the 
 hard palate constitutes the deformity 
 known as cleft palate, often associated 
 with hare-lip. Glands are abundant in 
 the soft palate, secreting the mucus 
 which serves to lubricate the throat 
 during the passage of food. The soft 
 palate comes into action in swallowing, 
 and also in speaking, being of great im- 
 portance in the utterance of certain 
 sounds. The special use of the uvula is 
 not well known. It is often relaxed or 
 enlarged, causing a troublesome cough. 
 
 PALAT'INATE, a division of the old 
 German Empire, under the rule of 
 counts-palatine, consisting of two sepa- 
 rate portions distinguished as the Upper 
 and Lower Palatinate. The Upper or 
 Bavarian Palatinate was bounded 
 mainly by Bohemia and Bavaria, and 
 its capital was Amberg. The Lower or 
 Rhenish Palatinate lay on both sides 
 of the Rhine, surrounded by Baden, 
 Alsace-Lorraine, etc., its chief towns 
 being Heidelberg and Mannheim. The 
 counts-palatine were in possession of the 
 Palatinate and the districts belonging 
 to it as early as the 11th century, and 
 were long among the most powerful 
 princes of the German Empire. At the 
 peace of Westphalia (1 648) the Lower Pal- 
 atinate was separated from the Upper, 
 Bavaria getting the latter, while the 
 former now became a separate electorate 
 of the empire, and was henceforth 
 generally known as the Palatinate. By 
 the treaties of Paris (1814-15) the 
 Palatinate v/as split up; Bavaria re- 
 ceived the largest part, and the re- 
 mainder was divided between Hesse- 
 Darmstadt and Prussia. The name 
 Palatinate now belongs to the detached 
 portion of Bavaria on the west of the 
 Rhine, while the Upper Palatine forms 
 
i>ALATlNfi 
 
 PALEY 
 
 another portion of the monarchy. See 
 Bavaria. 
 
 PALATINE. See Palatinate and 
 Count Palatine. 
 
 PALATINE HILL. See Rome. 
 
 PALE, in heraldry, the first and sim- 
 plest kind of ordinary. It is bounded by 
 
 A pale azure. 
 
 two vertical lines at equal distances 
 from the sides of the escutcheon, of 
 which it incloses one-third. 
 
 PALEN'CIA, a town of Spain in Leon, 
 capital of a province of same name. 
 Pop. 16,118. — The province of Palencia 
 is fertile and watered by the Carrion and 
 Pisuerga. Area, 3128 sq. miles; pop. 
 192,473. 
 
 PALER'MO, a seaport town, the capi- 
 tal of Sicily, beautifully situated on the 
 north side of the island. The city is 
 ornamented by numerous fountains, 
 and has many public edifices, including 
 a cathedral of the 10th century which 
 contains monuments in porphyry of the 
 Emperor Frederick II. and King Roger 
 the Norman. The manufactures consist 
 chiefly of silks, cottons, oil -cloth, 
 leather, glass, and gloves. The principal 
 exports are sumach, wine and spirits, 
 fruits, sulphur, skins, oil, essences, 
 cream of tartar, liquorice, and manna ; 
 imports, colonial produce, woolen, cot- 
 ton and silk tissues, hardware, earthen- 
 ware, etc. The fisheries are very pro- 
 ductive, and give employment to nearly 
 40,000 hands. Pop. 310,352. — The prov- 
 ince of Palmero contains an area of 
 1963 sq. miles. Pop. 785,016. 
 
 PAL'ESTINE, Antique, or the HOLY 
 LAND, a maritime country of Asiatic 
 Turkey, in the southwest of Syria, hav- 
 ing on the north the mountains of 
 Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, east the 
 Arabian Desert, south Arabia, and west 
 the Mediterranean; length, north to 
 south, about 140 miles; breadth, about 
 80 miles; area, nearly 10,000 sq. miles 
 (or one-third the size of Scotland). The 
 coast has no indentations except the 
 Bay of Acre in the north. The chief 
 feature of the interior, besides its gen- 
 erally irregular character, is the deep 
 valley of the Jordan, a river which inter- 
 sects the country from north to south, 
 and connects three lakes, the Dead Sea, 
 Lake of Gennesaret, and Lake Merom. 
 The surface is generally mountainous, or 
 consists of a series of plateaux, both on 
 the west and the east of the valley of 
 the Jordan. With the exception of 
 Mount Hermon in the north (9050 feet) 
 few of the heights exceed 3000 feet. 
 The most remarkable are Carmel, on 
 the southwest side of the Bay of Acre; 
 Jebel Tur (Tabor), farther inland; Ebal 
 and Gerizim, about the middle of the 
 country; Zion, Moriah, and the Mount 
 of Olives, in and near Jerusalem. 
 Palestine has comparatively few plains, 
 though in few countries is there such 
 endless variety of valley as to size, 
 shape, color, and fertility. The maritime 
 or coast plains of Sharon and Philistia. 
 
 the river plain of Jordan, and the plain 
 of Esdraelon in the north, are all that are 
 worthy of mention. The maritime plains 
 are well peopled and cultivated. The 
 Jordan plain is nearly a waste of sand. 
 The plain of Esdraelon or valley of 
 Jezreel is of great fertility. The prin- 
 cipal river is the Jordan (which see). 
 This river has a length of 200 miles, 
 including windings, but its direct course 
 is only about 70. Its course from Merom 
 to the Dead Sea is mostly below the 
 sea-level. Most of the so-called rivers 
 of Palestine are merely winter torrents 
 which run dry in summer. Of the few 
 permanent rivers emptying into the 
 Mediterranean, the most important are 
 the Kishon, which drains the plain of 
 Esdraelon; and the Aujeh farther south. 
 The chief tributary of the Jordan is the 
 Zerka or Jabbok. The most remarkable 
 lake is the Dead Sea (which see), 46 
 miles long, 9 or 10 broad, and about 
 1292 feet below the Mediterranean. 
 The other lakes are Bahr-el-Huleh 
 (Merom), 5 miles long and 4 miles 
 broad, about 6 feet above the Mediter- 
 ranean; and Lake Gennesaret or the 
 Sea of Galilee, 682 feet below it, 12^ 
 miles long, 7^ broad. In Palestine the 
 wells and springs are numerous, and 
 are all counted worthy of note. Among 
 the most interesting are the springs of 
 hot water which issue forth on both 
 sides of the Jordan Valley. Of these 
 there are five or six with a temperature 
 varying from 109° to 144° F. As re- 
 gards geology the chief rock formation 
 of the country on both sides of the Jor- 
 dan is limestone, full of caves. Sand- 
 stone also occurs, with basalt and other 
 volcanic rocks, the latter being espe- 
 cially common on the east side of Jor- 
 dan. Signs of volcanic action are abun- 
 dant, and earthquakes are still common. 
 The year may be divided into two sea- 
 sons, summer and winter. During the 
 former, which lasts from April to No- 
 vember, little or no rain falls; during the 
 latter there is a considerable fall of rain, 
 the annual average at Jerusalem being 
 about 60 inches. In the Jordan valley 
 and along the Mediterranean lowlands 
 the summer heat is apt to be oppressive. 
 During the winter the ground is seldom, 
 if ever, frozen except on the higher ele- 
 vations. Palestine was once very fertile 
 and were the same attention paid, as 
 formerly, to artificial irrigation, and 
 the construction of reservoirs and 
 water-courses, it might be so again. 
 Among the products, besides the usual 
 cereals, are grapes, figs, olives, oranges, 
 and apricots. The flora of Palestine is 
 rich in flowering plants, including the 
 scarlet anemone, ranunculus, narcissus, 
 crocus, pheasants eye, etc. The country 
 was once well timbered, but it is now, 
 as a whole, bare and desolate, though 
 forests of pine and oak exist on the east 
 of the Jordan. On the west side of the 
 river, however, there are few trees. 
 The most common tree is the oak, in- 
 cluding the prickly evergreen oak and 
 two deciduous species. Other trees are 
 the olive, palm, oleander, sycamore 
 walnut, ash, cedar. The wild animals 
 include the leopard, hyaena, bear, wolf, 
 jackal, boar, antelope, gazelle, porcu- 
 pine, coney, jerboa, etc. The domestic 
 animals of burden are the ass, mule, and 
 
 camel, the horse being little used. The 
 cattle are not generally very numerous. 
 Sheep and goats are abundant. Among 
 the birds are eagles, vultures, hawks — 
 birds of prey being very numerous — 
 ravens, bee-eaters, hoopoes, storks, and 
 nightingales. Fish abound in the Sea of 
 Galilee and the Jordan. There are many 
 species of reptiles, among them being 
 the chamseleon, land and water tortoise, 
 lizards, and serpents, and even the 
 crocodile. 
 
 The name Palestine, from the Hebrew 
 Pelescheth, means the land of the Philis- 
 tines. It is properly only applicable to 
 the southwest part of the country. The 
 ancient name of the country was Canaan 
 and when thus named, in the time of the 
 patriarchs, it was parcelled out among 
 a number of independent tribes, all 
 probably Semitic. In the time of Moses 
 the district east of the Jordan was taken 
 and divided among the tribes of Reuben 
 and Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh; 
 and latterly the whole territory was 
 apportioned among the twelve Jewish 
 tribes. For the subsequent history see 
 the article Jews. In the time of our 
 Saviour Palestine was held by the 
 Romans, and divided into the four 
 provinces of Galilee, Samaria, Judea, 
 and Perea. In 606 Palestine w'as taken 
 by the Saracens under Omar. The 
 severites exercised toward Christians 
 ,gave rise to the Crusades, but Moham- 
 medanism prevailed, and the country 
 sank into a degraded state. The sultan 
 of Egypt ruled it till 1517, when it was 
 incorporated with the Turkish Empire. 
 
 It is only within a comparatively 
 recent period that the exploration of 
 Palestine has been carried out system- 
 atically and with some attempt at 
 thoroughness, though much yet remains 
 to be done. The most valuable results 
 have been those achieved under the 
 direction of the “Palestine Explora- 
 tion Fund,” a society organized in 1865 
 for the purpose of making an exhaustive 
 exploration and an exact survey of the 
 Holy Land. In 1870 the American 
 Palestine Exploration society was or- 
 ganized, and it was agreed that the 
 English society should confine itself 
 to the western side of the Jordan, and 
 the American society to the eastern. 
 The triangulation of Western Palestine 
 was begun in 1871 and finished in 1877. 
 A large and detailed map of the country 
 has been published and an immense 
 mass of valuable information regarding 
 topography, natural history, etc., ac- 
 cumulated. The present population of 
 the country is estimated at 650,000, 
 the Arab element being probably the 
 prevailing one, and the Arabic language 
 generally in use. The people consist 
 partly of the fellahin or settled cultiva- 
 tors, artisans, etc.; partly of the nomad 
 Bedouin, who live by rearing cattle or 
 by less reputable means. The country 
 exports some grain, olive-oil, oranges, 
 etc. Jaffa and Acre are the chief ports, 
 Jerusalem (connected by the railway | 
 with Jaffa) and Nablus the largest towns. • 
 See also Jerusalem, Cirusades, etc. 
 
 PALEY, William, English theological 
 and philosophical writer, was born at 
 Peterborough in 1743, died 1805. His 
 chief works are : The Principles of Moral 
 and Political Philosophy (1785); Hors 
 
PALIMSEST 
 
 PALMETTO PALM 
 
 Paulinse (1790) ; A View of the Evidences 
 of Christianity (1794) ; Natural theology 
 or Evidences of the Existence and At- 
 tributes of the Deity collected from the 
 Appearance of Nature (1802). As a 
 writer he had little claim to originality 
 but was distinguished by clearness and 
 cogency of reasoning, lucidity of ar- 
 rangement, and force of illustration. His 
 system of moral philosophy is founded 
 purely on utilitarianism. 
 
 PAL'IMSEST, a manuscript prepared 
 by erasure for being written on again, 
 especially a parchment so prepared by 
 washing or scraping. This custom was 
 brought about by the costliness of 
 writing materials, and was practiced 
 both by the Greeks and Romans, and 
 in the monasteries, especially from the 
 7th to the 13th centuries. That which 
 replaced the ancient manuscripts was 
 nearly always some writing of an 
 ecclesiastical character. The parch- 
 ments which have been scraped are 
 nearly indecipherable. Those which 
 have been washed have often been re- 
 vived by chemical processes. Fragments 
 of the Iliad and extensive portions of 
 many Greek and Roman writers have 
 been recovered by these means. 
 
 PALISADE, a fence or fortification 
 consisting of a row of strong stakes or 
 posts set firmly in the ground, either 
 perpendicularly or obliquely, for the 
 greater security of a position, and par- 
 ticularly for the closing up of some pas- 
 sage or the protection of any exposed 
 point. 
 
 PALISSY, Bernard, a French artist 
 and philosopher, born about 1510. He 
 was apprenticed in a glass-work at 
 Agen, where he learned the art of paint- 
 ing on glass. After sixteen years of un- 
 -remunerated labor (1538-54), he ob- 
 tained a pure white enamel, affording 
 a perfect ground for the application of 
 decorative art, and his enamelled pot- 
 tery and sculptures in clay became 
 recognized as works of art. He suffered 
 persecution as a Huguenot, and was 
 arrested in 1589 and thrown into the 
 Bastille, where he is said to have died 
 in 1590. He left several philosophical 
 works. 
 
 PALISSY-WARE, a peculiar kind of 
 French art pottery invented by Bernard 
 Palissy. The surface is covered with a 
 jasper-like white enamel, upon which 
 animals, insects, and plants are repre- 
 sented in their natural forms and colors. 
 Specimens of this ware are much valued 
 and sought after by collectors. 
 
 PALLADIAN ARCHITECTURE, a spe- 
 cies of Italian architecture founded upon 
 the Roman antique as interpreted by the 
 writings of Vitruvius, but rather upon 
 the secular buildings of the Romans 
 than upon their temples. It is conse- 
 quently more applicable to palaces and 
 civic buildings than to churches. A 
 characteristic feature of the style is the 
 use of engaged columns in facades, a 
 single range o^ these often running 
 through the two principal stories. It was 
 introduced into England by Inigo 
 Jones, a follower of the Venetian school 
 of Palladio 
 
 PALLA'DIUM, a metal discovered by 
 Wollaston in 1803, and found in small 
 quantity associated with native gold 
 and platinum. It presents a great general 
 
 resemblance to platinum, but is harder, 
 lighter, and more easily oxidized. It is 
 useful on account of its hardness, light- 
 ness, and resistance to tarnish, in the 
 construction of philosophical instru- 
 ments. 
 
 PALLAS, of the minor planets re- 
 volving round the sun between Mars 
 and Jupiter, that whose orbit is most 
 
 Palladian architecture. — Teatro Olimpico, 
 Vicenza, Italy. 
 
 inclined to the ecliptic. It was dis- 
 covered in 1802 by Gibers at Bremen. It 
 revolves round the sun in 4.61 years; 
 diameter 172 miles. 
 
 PALLAS ATHENE, the Greek god- 
 dess of wisdom, subsequently identified 
 with the Roman Minerva. See Athena. 
 
 PALLISER, Sir William, born in Dub- 
 lin 1830. He was the inventor of pro- 
 jectiles and guns which bear his name, 
 and wa,s the author of many improve- 
 ments in fortifications, etc. He was 
 knighted in 1873 and died in 1882. 
 
 PALM, the tree. See Palms. 
 
 PALMA, an episcopal city of Spain, 
 capital of the Island of Majorca, 130 
 miles south of Barcelona. Pop. 63,937. 
 
 PALMA, La, the most northwesterly 
 of the Canary Islands; area, 224 sq. 
 miles; capital, Santa Cruz de la Palma, 
 the principal port. Pop. 38,822. 
 
 PALMA CHRISTI, a name frequently 
 applied to the castor-oil plant. 
 
 PALMER, John McAuley, American 
 soldier and political leader, was born at 
 Eagle Creek, Scott co., Ky., in 1817. 
 He removed to Illinois, and was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1840. He served 
 in the state senate, and in 1860 was a 
 republican presidential elector. In 
 April, 1861, he was appointed colonel 
 of an Illinois volunteer regiment, served 
 at Island No. 10, Stone river, and Chick- 
 amauga, and was promoted major- 
 general of volunteers. He led the four- 
 teenth army corps through the Atlanta 
 campaign. May till September, 1864. 
 From 1870 until 1873 he served as gov- 
 ernor of Illinois. In 1890 he was elected 
 United States senator, and in 1896 
 aecepted the nomination for president 
 from the gold democrats. He died in 
 1900. 
 
 PALMER, Ray, American clergyman 
 and hymn-writer, was born at Little 
 Compton, R. I., in 1808. He was called 
 to the pastorate of the Central Congre- 
 gational church, Batlv Maine, in 1835. 
 In 1866 he relinquished pastoral work 
 and became secretary of the American 
 Congregational Union at New York. 
 He is chiefly remembered as a writer of 
 hymns, one of which — My faith looks 
 up to Thee — exists in twenty different 
 languages. He died in 1887. 
 
 PALMERSTON (pa'mer-stun), Henry 
 John Temple, Viscount, English states-,^ 
 rnan, was born in Westminster 1784, 
 died 1865. In 1802 he succeeded his 
 father in the title (an Irish one). In ■ 
 1807 he was returned as member for 
 Newport, I. of Wight, and became 
 junior lord of the admiralty in the Duke 
 of Portland’s administration. In 1809 
 he became secretary of war, and two 
 years later he was elected member for 
 Cambridge university. He was a sup- 
 porter of Catholic emancipation, and 
 retired from office in the Wellington 
 ministry in 1828 with others of the 
 Canning party. He had already made a 
 reputation for his command of foreign 
 policy, and in 1830 he was made foreign 
 secretary in the whig ministry of Earl 
 Grey. From this time he continued to 
 be a member and leader of the liberal 
 party. In 1831 he was returned for 
 Bletchingley, and after the reform bill 
 (1832) for South Hants. He retired from 
 office in December, 1834, but in April, 
 1835, he resumed his former appointment 
 under Lord Melbourne. He continued 
 in office as foreign secretary until 1841. 
 It was during this period that he gained 
 his great reputation for vigilance and 
 energy in the conduct of foreign affairs. 
 In 1845 he supported the repeal of the 
 
 Viscount Palmerston. 
 
 corn-laws, and in 1846 he was foreign 
 secretary in the Russell ministry. Several 
 causes of dissatisfaction, the chief being 
 his recognition of Louis Napoleon with- 
 out consulting his colleagues, led to 
 Palmerston’s resignation in December, 
 1851. In Februrary, 1852, he became 
 home secretary in the coalition minis- 
 try of Lord Aberdeen. On the resigna- 
 tion of this ministry he became prime 
 minister, which position he held, with 
 a brief interruption, for the remainder 
 of his life. 
 
 PALMETTO PALM, a common name 
 of several palms, especially of the cab- 
 bage-palm, which grows in the West 
 
PALMISTRY 
 
 PALPITATION 
 
 Indies and in the southern states of 
 North America. It attains the height of 
 40 or 50 feet, and is crowned with a tuft 
 of large leaves. It produces useful tim- 
 ber, and the leaves are made into hats, 
 mats, etc. 
 
 PALMISTRY, a pseudo-science, the 
 professors of which claim that the 
 mental traits of an individual are 
 indicated by the shape, markings, 
 and other characters of the hand. The 
 more ardent advocates of palmistry 
 hold that the future of the individual 
 can be “read” in this way. Palmistry 
 is a very ancient science and may have 
 some real basis of fact under it, al- 
 though the respectability attaching 
 to it thus far has been very dubious. 
 Palmistry, like astrology, has a very 
 complex system of ideas and a difficult 
 nomenclature into which it is impos- 
 sible more than barely to enter here. 
 The drawing shows different types of 
 hand, the types, in the numbered order 
 being the “bilious” hand, indicating 
 brute instinct rather than reason; the 
 “square” or stubborn hand; the “spatu- 
 late” or energetic hand; the philosophic 
 hand; the artistic, the idealistic, and 
 the diplomatic hand. Figure 9 shows 
 the principal lines of the palm. The 
 row of fingers from No. 1 to No. 11 may 
 
 Traits of the hand. 
 
 be described as follows : Large fingers, 
 indicating a vulgar and cruel dis- 
 position; small, thin fingers, a keen, 
 active mind; long, thin fingers, love of 
 detail; fat fingers, sensuality; smooth 
 fingers, artistic ability; knotty fingers, 
 truthfulness and good business ability; 
 pointed fingers, enthusiasm; square 
 fingers, strong-mindedness; spatulate 
 fingers, positiveness; mixed fingers, 
 adaptability; obtuse fingers, coarse- 
 
 IX6SS. 
 
 PALMIT'IC ACID, a fatty acid oc- 
 curring in many fats, whether of the 
 animal or vegetable kingdom, such as 
 palm-oil, butter, tallow, lard, etc., and 
 existing partly in a free state but gen- 
 erally in combination with glycerin (as 
 a glyceride). 
 
 PALM-OIL, a fatty substance ob- 
 tained from several species of palms, 
 
 but chiefly from the fruit of the oil- 
 palm, a native of the west coast of 
 Africa. This tree grows to the height 
 of 80 feet, bears a tuft of large pinnate 
 leaves, and has a thick stem covered 
 with the stumps of the stalks of dead 
 leaves. The fruits, which are borne in 
 dense clusters, are about inches long 
 by 1 inch in diameter, and the oil is ob- 
 
 Palm-oil tree. 
 
 tained from their fleshy covering. In cold 
 countries it acquires the consistence 
 of butter, and is of an orange-yellow 
 color. It is employed in the manu- 
 facture of soap and candles, for lubri- 
 cating machinery. By the natives of 
 the Gold Coast this oil is used as butter; 
 and when eaten fresh is a wholesome 
 and delicate article of diet. It is called 
 also Palm-butter. 
 
 PALMS, the Palmaceae, a nat. order 
 of arborescent endogens, chiefly in- 
 habiting the tropics, distinguished by 
 their fleshy, colorless, six-parted flowers, 
 inclosed within spathes; their minute 
 embryo lying in the midst of albumen, 
 and remote from the hilum ; and their 
 rigid, plaited or pinnated leaves, some- 
 times called fronds. The palms are 
 among the most interesting plants in 
 the vegetable kingdom, from their 
 beauty, variety, and associations, as 
 well as from their great value to man- 
 kind. While some have trunks as 
 slender as the reed, or longer than the 
 longest cable (500 feet),^ others have 
 stems 3 and even 5 feet thick; while 
 some are of low growth, others exhibit 
 a stem towering from 160 to 190 feet 
 high, as wax-palm of South America. 
 About 600 species are known, but it is 
 probable that many are still unde- 
 scribed. Wine, oil, wax, flour, sugar, 
 sago, etCo, are the produce of palmsj 
 
 to which may be added thread, utensils, 
 weapons, and materials for building 
 houses, boats, etc. There is scarcely 
 a single species in which some useful 
 property is not found. The cocoanut, 
 the date, and others are valued for their 
 fruit; the cabbage-palm, for its edible 
 terminal buds ; the fan-palm, and many 
 more, are valued for their foliage, 
 whose hardness and durability render it 
 an excellent material for thatching; 
 the sweet juice of the Palmyra and 
 others, when fermented, yields wine; 
 the center of the sago-palm abounds in 
 nutritive starch; the trunk of the wax- 
 palm exudes a valuable wax; oil is 
 expressed in abundance from the oil- 
 palm; many of the species contain so 
 hard a kind of fibrous matter that it 
 is used instead of needles, or so tough 
 that it is manufactured into cordage; 
 and, finally, their, trunks are in some 
 cases valued for their strength, and 
 used as timber, or for their elasticity 
 or flexibility. 
 
 PALM SUNDAY, the last Sunday 
 before Easter, on which Christ’s entry 
 into Jerusalem, when palm branches 
 were strewed before him, is celebrated. 
 It is still celebrated with much sol- 
 emnity by the Roman Catholics, and 
 branches are strewed in the churches. 
 
 PALMY'RA PALM, the common 
 Indian palm, a tree ranging from the 
 northeastern parts of Arabia through 
 India to the Bay of Bengal. In India 
 and other parts of Asia it forms the 
 chief support of 6,000,000 or 7,000,000 
 of population. Its fruit is a valuable 
 food, its timber is excellent, and it 
 furnishes thatch, cordage, and material 
 for hats, fans, umbrellas, etc. It pro- 
 duces sugar and arrack, and its leaves 
 are used for writing -tablets. The 
 young shoots are boiled and eaten, the 
 seeds are edible, and the fruit yields 
 a useful oil. A full-grown palmyra is 
 
 Palmyra palm. 
 
 from 60 to 70 feet high, and its leaves 
 are very large. 
 
 PALPITATION consists of repeated 
 attacks of violent and spasmodic action 
 of the heart. When palpitation aris^ 
 from organic lesion of the heart it is 
 called symptomatic; when it is caused 
 by other disorders disturbing the heart’s 
 action it is called functional. Disor- 
 
PALSY 
 
 PAN-AMERICAN CONGRESS 
 
 ders which may cause palpitation in- 
 clude nervous affections, ansemia, chlor- 
 osis, protracted mental emotion, exces- 
 sive use of stimulants, etc. 
 
 PALSY, paralysis, especially a local 
 or less serious form of it. See Paralysis. 
 
 PAMPAS, a name given to the vast 
 treeless plains of South America in the 
 Argentine Republic, Paraguay, and 
 Uruguay. The pampas are generally 
 covered with grass and other herbage, 
 and in many parts with gigantic thistles, 
 but with the heat of summer the 
 vegetation is much burned up. Shallow 
 lakes or swamps occur in some parts, 
 and parts have the character of a salt 
 steppe. The pampas are roamed over 
 by various tribes of Indians, as well as 
 by herds of wild horses and cattle. In 
 many parts there are now cattle ranches, 
 and large flocks of sheep are also reared. 
 
 PAMPAS-GRASS, a grass which grows 
 in the pampas in the southern parts of 
 South America. It has panicles of 
 silvery flowers on stalks more than 10 
 feet high, and its leaves are from 6 to 8 
 feet long. The male and female flowers 
 are on separate stalks. 
 
 PAN, a rural divinity of ancient 
 Greece, the god of flocks and herds, rep- 
 resented as old, with two horns, pointed 
 ears, a goat’s beard, goat’s tail and goat’s 
 feet. The worship of Pan was well estab- 
 lished particularly in Arcadia. Pan in- 
 vented the syrinx or pandean pipes. 
 From him comes the expression panic 
 fear, because he was believed to cause 
 sudden and often inexplicable terror. 
 
 PANAMA, a town of the Republic of 
 Colombia, capital of the department of 
 the same name, on the Gulf of Panama 
 and on the Pacific coast of the Isthmus 
 of Panama. The city lies on a tongue 
 of land, across which its streets stretch 
 from sea to sea. The harbor is shallow, 
 but affords secure anchorage. Panama 
 is chiefly important as the terminus of 
 the interoceanic railway and also of the 
 Panama canal. The railway, which 
 has been in operation since 1855, runs 
 across the isthmus from Panama to 
 Colon or Aspinwall on the Atlantic, 
 and accommodates a large traffic. 
 Pop. 25,000. The department occupies 
 the Isthmus of Panama. Agriculture and 
 cattle-breeding are the leading indus- 
 tries, but the climate is generally un- 
 healthful. The prosperity of the depart- 
 ment depends largely upon its favorable 
 geographical position, which facilitates 
 transit from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
 Area, 31,890 square miles. Pop. 285,000. 
 
 PANAMA canal, a canal in process 
 of construction across the Isthmus of 
 Panama to connect the Atlantic and 
 Pacific oceans. The first step to build 
 this canal was the concession to Lieut. 
 Lucien N. B. Wyse given by the govern- 
 ment of Colombia, granting to him and 
 his associates the exclusive privilege 
 for 99 years to use the territory of the 
 country for this purpose. Wyse drew 
 Ferdinand de Lesseps into his project 
 and a company was organized in France 
 with de Lesseps as president. Work 
 was begun in 1881 and by 1882 
 
 S6,500,000 had been sunk in the work. 
 The disruption of the plan and the 
 Paris scandals arising out of it are well 
 known. The receivers of the company 
 organized a new concern and in 1899 
 
 the United States government appeared 
 in the enterprise. Negotiations begun 
 at that time ended in 1903 with the 
 acquisition by the United States of 
 the company’s rights and property for 
 $40,000,000. 
 
 In 1905 a committee of engineers ap- 
 pointed by President Roosevelt recom- 
 mended that a sea-level canal be built 
 but on recommendation of the presi- 
 dent a lock canal was authorized, be- 
 ginning in the Bay of Limon, a mile 
 northwest of the city of Colon on the 
 Atlantic side, with achannel 500 feet in 
 width and 41 feet in depth at mean tide, 
 running due south to the shore line of 
 Limon bay, at the mouth of the Hindi 
 river. This distance is 4)^ miles. Then 
 the canal passes through low and 
 swampy ground in a southerly direc- 
 tion three miles to the town of Gatun, 
 the width for this stretch being 600 feet 
 and the depth 45 feet. At Gatun there 
 is a space between the hills of over 
 
 7.000 feet, through which the 
 waters of the Chagres river and 
 its tributaries flow to the sea. 
 This space is buttressed on either side 
 with rocks and hills, and about midway 
 in this space there is a mountain of 
 rock and earth, in which it is proposed 
 to excavate a diversion channel through 
 which the Chagres river will flow dur- 
 ing the construction of the earth dam. 
 The plan is to construct this dam across 
 the entire space at a height of 135 
 feet above sea level and create 
 a lake. Vessels are to be raised 
 to the level of the lake, to be 
 known as Lake Gatun, by three dup- 
 licate locks ranging in a flght of 
 steps, each lock being 900 feet interior 
 length, 110 feet wide, 40 feet deep over 
 the miter sills, with a lift in each lock 
 of 28 2-3 feet. These six locks, con- 
 structed of a mass of masonry and con- 
 crete, will be buried in Gatun hill and 
 founded on rock throughout. Lake 
 Gatun, when created by the construc- 
 tion of this dam, will be 171 square miles 
 in area and wull form the summit level 
 of the canal, which will be 85 feet 
 above sea level. The total length of the 
 lake will be 30 miles, of which 23 miles 
 will be navigated by ships crossing the 
 isthmus. Its depth will be about 75 
 feet in the immediate vicinity of the 
 dam, this being maintained with little 
 reduction toBohio (a distance of about 
 10 miles) , and thence reducing gradually 
 toward Obispo, where the depth of 45 
 feet will be obtained with but little ex- 
 cavation, the bed of the river being 
 about 45 feet below the surface of the 
 future lake. 
 
 For 15.69 miles above the Gatun locks 
 the deep portion of the lake will have 
 generally a width exceeding half a 
 mile and only a small amount of exca- 
 vation will be required to provide a 
 navigable channel no where less than 
 
 1.000 feet wide at the bottom and 45 
 feet deep. Farther up the lake as the 
 amount of excavation required to ob- 
 tain a depth of 45 feet increases, the 
 minimum width of the channal will be 
 decreased, first to 800 feet for a distance 
 of 3.86 miles from San Pablo to Juan 
 Grande, then to 500 feet for 3.73 miles 
 to Obispo, and to 300 feet for 1.55 miles 
 from Obispo to Las Cascades, where the 
 
 channel will be further narrowed to 
 200 feet through the heaviest portion oi 
 the great central mass known as Cule- 
 bra. 
 
 For a distance of 4.7 miles through 
 the deep portion of the Culebra cut the 
 channel is to have a bottom width of 
 200 feet and to have nearly vertical 
 sides below the w'ater line and then 
 will become 300 feet wide for 1.88 miles 
 to the Pedro Miguel locks, w'here the 
 summit level will end. The duplicate 
 locks at Pedro Miguel will have one 
 lift of 31 feet. Passing the locks the 
 channel will be 500 feet wide for 1.64 
 miles, then increasing to 1,000 feet or 
 more for the further distance of 3.38 
 miles to the Sosa locks on the shore of 
 Panama bay. This broad navigation 
 will be in an artificial lake created by 
 three dams, to be subsequently de- 
 scribed. There are to be duplicate 
 flights of locks on the west side of Soca 
 hill near La Boca with tw’o lifts of about 
 31 feet each from ordinary low tide to 
 the level of Lake Sosa. From the Sosa 
 lock to the 7-fathom curve in Panama 
 bay a distance of four miles, the chan- 
 nel is to be 300 feet w ide at the bottom 
 and 45 feet deep below' mean tide. 
 
 The waterway may be summarized 
 w ith reference to the channel widths as 
 
 follows: 
 
 Length, 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Width 
 
 miles. 
 
 of route. 
 
 1,000 feet 
 
 
 38.4 
 
 800 feet 
 
 3.86 
 
 78 
 
 500 feet 
 
 
 24.7 
 
 800 feet 
 
 7.21 
 
 14.5 
 
 200 feet 
 
 4.70 
 
 9.4 
 
 Locks and approaches 
 
 
 5.2 
 
 Total 
 
 49.72 
 
 100.0 
 
 The estimated cost of the canal is 
 $150,000,000. 
 
 PANAMA, Isthmus of, formerly called 
 the Isthmus of Darien, has a breadth 
 of from 30 to 70 miles, connects North 
 with South America, and separates the 
 Pacific from the Atlantic. The coast is 
 rocky and lofty along the Carribean 
 sea, but low and swampy along the 
 Pacific. 
 
 PANAMA HATS, hats made from the 
 immature unexpanded leaves of the 
 stemless screw-pine, a native of Central 
 America and Colombia. After special 
 t reatment to remove the soft parts of the 
 leaf, the fibre is soaked to render it pli- 
 able, and the weaving is done under 
 water. The hats most valued are those 
 made from single leaves. 
 
 PAN-AMERICAN CONGRESS, owing 
 to the efforts of James G. Blaine, dele- 
 gates from the republics of Mexico and 
 the Central and South American states 
 assembled at Washington, Oct. 2, 1889, 
 for the purpose of discussing the forma- 
 tion of an American Customs Union, 
 under which the trade of American 
 nations with each other might be main- 
 tained. The congress continued without 
 final adjournment for five months, and 
 voted to recommend the establishment 
 of regular communications betw'een the 
 ports of the several American states, 
 from trade and customs regulations, 
 weights and measures, patent, copy- 
 right, and trade mark laws, a common, 
 legal-tender silver coin, and a plain 
 arbitration of all questions and disputes. 
 
PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION 
 
 PANTOMIME 
 
 The congress adjourned April 19, 1890. 
 In 1900 the United States government 
 invited all the American republics to 
 meet in a similar congress in October, 
 1901. An invitation to meet in the City 
 of Mexico was accepted, and the con- 
 gress was held in October, 1902. 
 
 PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION, an 
 exposition held in Buffalo, N. Y., from 
 May 1, to November 2, 1901. Its pur- 
 pose was to illustrate the progress of 
 the countries in the Western Hemis- 
 phere during the nineteenth century. 
 A site in the northern part of Buffalo 
 covering an area of 350 acres and within 
 three miles of the business center of the 
 city, was chosen. The color treatment 
 gained for the exposition the name of 
 the Rainbow City, or the Tinted City. 
 The Triumphal Causeway was perhaps 
 the most ornate feature. It represented 
 the apotheosis of the United States, an 
 allegorization of national pride, while 
 the Electric Tower- at the other end 
 symbolized the great waters, suggesting 
 that the importance, growth, and pros- 
 perity of Buffalo were due chiefly to the 
 Great Lake system and waterways on 
 which it was located. The total attend- 
 ance was given as 8,179,674. On Sep- 
 tember 6th President William McKinley 
 was shot down by an assassin while 
 holding a public reception in the Temple 
 of Music, and he died eight days later 
 at the house of John J. Milburn, the 
 president of the exposition. 
 
 PANAY, an island of the Philippines, 
 between Mindoro and Negros. It is of 
 triangular form, about 100 miles broad 
 and 100 miles long. It is mountainous 
 but very fertile, and the inhabitants 
 have made considerable progress in civil- 
 ization. Capital Iloilo. Pop. 735,000. 
 
 PANCAKE, a thin cake of batter 
 fried or baked in a pan. Pancakes are 
 regarded as specially the dish to be 
 eaten on Shrove Tuesday. 
 
 PAN'CREAS, the sweet-bread of ani- 
 mals; one of the viscera of the abdomen. 
 In man it lies behind the stomach in 
 front of the first and second lumbar 
 vertegrse. The pancreas is an oblong 
 gland about 8 inches long, IJ inch 
 broad, and from ^ to 1 inch thick. Its 
 right extremity, called the head, lies in 
 a bend of the duodenum. The tail or 
 left extremity extends to the spleen. 
 The structure of the pancreas is similar 
 to that of the salivary glands. It is com- 
 posed of lobules throughout. The 
 secretion of this gland is conveyed to the 
 intestines by the pancreatic duct. This 
 duct runs from right to left, and is of the 
 size of a quill at its intestinal end. 
 The pancreatic juice is a clear, ropy 
 fluid. The functions of the pancreatic 
 juice in digestion are devoted to the 
 conversion of starchy elements into 
 sugar and to the assimilation of fatty 
 matters. It also acts upon albuminoid 
 matters. 
 
 PANDA, or Wah, an animal of the 
 bear family found in the woody parts 
 of the mountains of Nortliern India, 
 about equal to a- large cat in size. It 
 is chestnut-brown in color, and dwells 
 chiefly in trees, preying on birds, small 
 quadrupeds, and large insects. 
 
 PANDI'ON. See Osprey. 
 
 PANDIT, or PUNDIT, a learned 
 Brahman; one versed in the Sanskrit 
 
 language, and in the sciences, laws, and 
 religion of the Hindus. 
 
 PANDO'RA, in Greek mythology, the 
 first woman on earth, sent by Zeus to 
 mankind in vengeance for Prometheus’s 
 theft of heavenly fire. Each of the gods 
 gave her some gift fatal to man. Ac- 
 
 Panda. 
 
 cording to later accounts the gods gave 
 her a box full of blessings for mankind, 
 but on her opening the box they all 
 flew away, except hope. Epimetheus, 
 brother of Prometheus, married her. 
 
 PAN'GOLIN, the name applied to the 
 Scaly Ant-eaters. They occur in South- 
 ern Asia and Africa; have the body in- 
 vested by a covering of imbricated 
 scales of horny material; vary from 3 
 to 4 feet in length, and defend them- 
 selves by assuming the form of a ball. 
 The tail is long, and the feet are pro- 
 vided with strong curved claws, which 
 
 assist the animals in burrowing. The 
 jaws are destitute of teeth, and the 
 tongue is of great length. The food 
 consists of insects. The four-toed 
 pangolin inhabits West Africa. 
 
 PANORA'MA, a painting in which all 
 the objects that can be seen naturally 
 from one point are represented on the 
 concave side of a whole or half cylindri- 
 cal wall, the point of view being the axis 
 of the cylinder. A painting of this kind 
 when well mounted produces a complete 
 illusion, and no other method is so well 
 calculated to give an exact idea of an 
 actual view. 
 
 PANSY. See Violet. 
 
 PAN'TAGRAPH. See Pantograph. 
 
 PANTHEISM, in philosophy, the doc- 
 trine of the substantial identity of God 
 and the universe, a doctrine that stands 
 midway between atheism and dogmatic 
 theism. The origin of the idea of a God 
 with the theist and the pantheist is the 
 same. It is by reasoning upon ourselves 
 and the surrounding objects of which we 
 are cognizant that we come to infer the 
 existence of some superior being upon 
 whom they all depend, from whom they 
 proceed, or in whom they subsist. Pan- 
 theism assumes the identity of cause 
 and effect. Matter, not less than mind, 
 is with it the necessary emanation of the 
 Deity. The unity of the universe is a 
 
 unity which embraces all existing 
 variety, a unity in which all contradic- 
 tions and all existing and inexplicable 
 congruities are combined. Pantheism 
 has been the foundation of nearly all the 
 chief forms of religion which have 
 existed in the world. It was represented 
 in the East by the Sankhya of Kapila, a 
 celebrated system of Indian philosophy. 
 The Persian, Greek, and Egyptian re- 
 ligious systems were also pantheistic. 
 Spinoza is the most representative 
 pantheist of modern times. A twofold 
 division of pantheism has been pro- 
 posed: 1. That which loses the world in 
 God,, one only being in whose modifica- 
 tions ' are the individual phenomena. 
 2. That which loses God in the world and 
 totally denies the substantiality of God. 
 
 PANTHEON (pan-the'on), a cele- 
 brated temple at Rome, built in 27 b.c. 
 by Marcus Agrippa. It is a large edifice 
 of brick, built in circular form, with a 
 portico of lofty columns. It has the 
 finest dome in the world (142^ feet inter- 
 nal diameter, 143 feet internal height), 
 and its portico is almost equally cele- 
 brated. It is now a church, and is known 
 as Santa Maria Rotonda. Raffael and 
 other famous men are buried within its 
 walls. The Pantheon in Paris, for some 
 the time church of St. Genevieve, is a 
 noble edifice with a lofty dome, de- 
 voted to the interment of illustrious 
 men. 
 
 PANTHER, one of the Felidae or cat 
 tribe, of a yellow color, diversified with 
 roundish black spots, a native of Asia 
 and Africa. The panther is now sup- 
 
 Panther. 
 
 posed to be identical with, br a mere 
 variety of the leopard. The name pan- 
 ther (in vulgar language painter) is given 
 to the puma in America. 
 
 PANTOGRAPH, also called Panta- 
 graph and Pentagraph, an instrument 
 consisting of four limbs joined together 
 by movable joints, and so constructed 
 that by means of it maps and plans may 
 be copied mechanically either on the 
 scale on which they are drawn or on an 
 enlarged or reduced scale. It is made in 
 a variety of forms. 
 
 PANTOMIME, properly a theatrical 
 representation without words, consist- 
 ing of gestures, generally accompanied 
 by music and dancing. The modern 
 pantomime is a spectacular play of a 
 burlesque character, founded on some 
 
PAPACY 
 
 T^KfER 
 
 popular fable, and interspersed with 
 singing and dancing, followed by a 
 harlequinade, the chief characters in 
 which are the harlequin, pantaloon, 
 columbine, and clown, which may be 
 traced back to the Italian pantomime, 
 although their present development is 
 almost entirely modern. 
 
 PAPACY. See Popes. 
 
 PAPAL STATES, the name given to 
 that portion of Central Italy of which 
 the pope was sovereign by virtue of his 
 position. The territory extended ir- 
 regularly from the Adriatic to the Medi- 
 terranean, and latterly comprised an 
 area of 15,289 sq. miles with 3,126,000 
 inhabitants. Rome was the capital. The 
 foundation of the Papal States was laid 
 in 754, when Pepin le Bref presented 
 the exarchate of Ravenna to Stephen 
 II., bishop of Rome. Benevento was 
 added in 1053, and in 1102 Matilda of 
 Tuscany left Parma, Modena, and Tus- 
 cany to the pope. In 1201 the Papal 
 States were formally constituted an 
 independent monarchy. Subsequently 
 various territories were added to or 
 subtracted from the pope’s possessions, 
 which were incorporated with France 
 by Napoleon in 1809, but restored to 
 the pope in 1814. A revolution broke 
 out in Rome in 1848, and the pope fled 
 to Gaeta, but he was reinstated by 
 French troops, and Rome was gar- 
 risoned by French soldiers until 1870. 
 In the meantime one state after another 
 threw off its allegiance to the pope and 
 joined the kingdom of Italy, and when 
 the French left Rome in August, 1870, 
 King Victor Emanuel took possession 
 of the city, declared it the capital of 
 Italy, and thus abolished the temporal 
 power of the pope. 
 
 PAP AW', a tree of South America, 
 now widely cultivated in tropical coun- 
 tries. It grows to the height of 18 or 20 
 feet, with a soft herbaceous stem, 
 naked nearly to the top, where the 
 
 Papaw. 
 
 leaves issue on every side on long foot- 
 stalks. Between the leaves grow the 
 flower and the fruit, which is of the size 
 of a melon. The juice of the tree is acrid 
 and milky, but the fruit when boiled is 
 eaten with meat, like other vegetables. 
 The juice of the unripe fruit is a power- 
 ful vermifuge; the powder of the seed 
 even answers the same purpose. The 
 juice of the tree or its fruit, or an infu- 
 sion of it, has the singular property of 
 rendering the toughest meat tender. 
 
 and this is even said to be effected by 
 hanging the meat among the branches. 
 The papaw of North America produces 
 a sweet edible fruit. 
 
 PAPER, a thin and flexible substance, 
 manufactured principally of vegetable 
 fibre, used for writing and printing on, 
 and for various other purposes. Egypt, 
 China, and Japan are the countries in 
 which the earliest manufacture of paper 
 is known to have been carried on. The 
 Egyptian paper was made from the 
 papyrus (whence the word paper), but 
 this was different from paper properly 
 so called. (See Papyrus.) According to 
 the Chinese the fabrication of paper 
 from cotton and other vegetable fibres 
 was invented by them in the 2d cen- 
 tury B.c. From the East it passed to the 
 West, and it was introduced into Europe 
 by the Arabs. Spain is said to have been 
 the first country in Europe in which 
 paper from cotton was made, probably 
 in the 11th century; and at a later period 
 the manufacture was carried on in 
 Italy, France, and Germany. It cannot 
 now be ascertained at what time linen 
 rags were first brought into use for 
 making paper; but remnants of Spanish 
 paper of the 12th century appear to in- 
 dicate that attempts were made as 
 early as that time to add linen rags to 
 the cotton ones. 
 
 Paper is made either by the hand or 
 by machinery. When it is made by the 
 hand the pulp is placed in a stone vat, in 
 which revolves an agitator, which keeps 
 the fibrous particles equally diffused 
 throughout the mass; and the workman 
 is provided with a mould, which is a 
 square frame with a fine wire bottom, 
 resembling a sieve, of the size of the 
 intended sheet. These moulds are some- 
 times made with the wires lying all one 
 way, except a few which are placed at 
 intervals crosswise to bind the others 
 together, and sometimes with the wires 
 crossing each other as in a woven fabric. 
 Paper made with moulds of the former 
 kind is said to be laid, and that made 
 with those of the latter kind wove. The 
 so-called water-mark on paper is made 
 by a design woven in wire in the mould. 
 Above the mould the workman places 
 a light frame called a deckle, which 
 limits the size of the sheet. He then 
 dips the mould and deckle into the pulp, 
 a portion of which he lifts up horizontal- 
 ly between the two, gently shaking the 
 mould from side to side, to distribute 
 the fibers equally and make them cohere 
 more firmly, the water, of course, drain- 
 ing out through the wire meshes. The 
 sheets thus formed are subjected to 
 pressure, first between felts, and after- 
 ward alone. They are then sized, pressed 
 once more, and hung up separately on 
 lines in a room to dry. The freedom with 
 which they are allowed to contract 
 under this method of drying gives to 
 hand-made paper its superior firmness 
 and compactness. After drying they are 
 ready for making up into quires and 
 reams, unless they are to be glazed, 
 which is done by submitting the sheets 
 to a very high pressure between plates 
 of zinc or copper. 
 
 In paper-making by machinery, a 
 process patented in France in the end 
 of 18th century, the pulp is placed in 
 wooden or iron vessels at one end of the 
 
 machine, and is kept constantly agitated 
 by a revolving spindle with arms at- 
 tached to it. From these the pulp passes 
 to the pulp-regulator, by which the 
 supply of pulp to the machine is kept 
 constant, thence through sand-catchers 
 and strainers till it reaches the part of 
 the machine which corresponds to the 
 hand-mould. This consists of an endless 
 webof brass wire-cloth, whichconstantly 
 moves forward above a series of revolv- 
 ing rollers, while a vibratory motion 
 from side to side is also given to it, 
 which has the same object as shaking 
 the mould in making by the hand. Mean- 
 while its edges are kept even by what 
 are called deckle or boundary straps 
 of vulcanized india-rubber. At the end 
 of the wire-cloth the pulp comes to the 
 dandy-roll, which impresses it with any 
 mark that is desired. The fabric is now 
 received by the felts, also, like the wire 
 part of the machine, an endless web, 
 the remaining water being pressed out 
 in this part of the machine by four or 
 five consecutive rollers. If intended for 
 a printing-paper, or any other kind that 
 requires no specia' sizing, it is dried by 
 being passed round a succession of large 
 hot cylinders, with intermediate smooth- 
 ing rolls. It is then rendered glossy 
 on the surface by passing between 
 polished cast-iron rollers called calen- 
 ders, and is finally wound on a reel 
 at the end of the machine, or sub- 
 mitted to the action of the cutting ma- 
 chinery, by which it is cut up into sheets 
 of the desired size. If the paper is to be 
 sized, the web, after leaving the machine 
 is passed through the sizing-tub, and is 
 then led round a series of large skeleton 
 drums (sometimes as many as forty) 
 with revolving fans in the inside, by the 
 action of which it is dried. If the paper 
 were dried by hot cylinders after the 
 sizing, there would be a loss of strength 
 in consequence of the drying being too 
 rapid. After being dried the paper is 
 glazed by the glazing-rollers, and then 
 cut up. In some cases the sizing is done 
 after the paper has been cut into sheets, 
 these being then hung up to dry on lines, 
 like hand-made paper, acquiring in the 
 process something of the same hardness 
 and strength. The total length of a 
 paper-machine, from the beginning 
 of the wire-cloth to the cutters, is fre- 
 quently more than 100 feet. 
 
 Blotting and filtering paper are both 
 made in the same way as ordinary paper 
 except that the sizing is omitted. Copy- 
 ing paper is made by smearing writing 
 paper with a composition of lard and 
 black-lead, which, after being left alone 
 for a day or so, is scraped smooth and 
 wiped with a soft cloth. Incombustible 
 paper has been made from asbestos, but 
 since fire removes the ink from a book 
 printed on this material, the invention is 
 of no utility, even though the paper 
 itself be indestructible. Indelible 
 cheque paper has been patented on 
 several occasions. In one kind of it the 
 paper is treated with an insoluble fer- 
 rocyanide and an insoluble salt of 
 manganese, and is sized with acetate of 
 alumina instead of alum. Parchment 
 paper or vegetable parchment is made 
 from ordinary unsized paper by treat- 
 ment with sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol 
 and ammonia. The so-called rice paper 
 
PAPER-HANCxINGS 
 
 PARACHUTE 
 
 is not an artificial paper, but a vegetable 
 membrane imported from China, and 
 obtained apparently from the pith of a 
 plant. Tissue paper is a very thin paper 
 of a silky softness used to protect en- 
 gravings in books and for various other 
 purposes. Tracing paper is made from 
 tissue paper by soaking it with Canada 
 balsam and oil of turpentine or nut-oil 
 and turpentine. 
 
 In recent times the uses of paper have 
 greatly multiplied. Besides being largely 
 employed for making collars, cuffs,_and 
 other articles of dress, it is sometimes 
 used for making huts in the backwoods 
 of America; for making boats, pipes, 
 and tanks for water; cuirasses to resist 
 musket-bullets, wheels for railway-car- 
 riages, and even bells and cannons. 
 Paper wheels have been used for Pull- 
 man cars, and have worn out one set of 
 tires. Cannons made of paper have 
 actually been tried with success. In the 
 production of paper England, America, 
 Germany, and France take the lead. 
 
 PAPER-HANGINGS, ornamental pa- 
 pers often pasted on the walls of the 
 rooms in dwelling-houses. The staining 
 of papers for this purpose is said to be a 
 Chinese invention, and was introduced 
 into France at the beginning of the 17th 
 century. It is now common everywhere, 
 but more especially in France, England, 
 and the United States. Most of the proc- 
 esses in paper-staining are now usually 
 done by machinery; but there is still 
 much hand-work in the finer qualities, 
 especially those produced in France. 
 The first operation is that of grounding, 
 which consists in covering the surface 
 with some dull color, the tint of which 
 varies. Papers with a glazed ground are 
 usually glazed immediately after receiv- 
 ing the ground tint. The designs on the 
 surface of paper-hangings are applied 
 by hand processes and machines exactly 
 similar to those employed in calico- 
 printing. 
 
 PAPER MONEY. See Currency. 
 
 PAPER-MULBERRY. See Mulberry. 
 
 PAPER-NAUTILUS. See Argonaut. 
 
 PAPIER MACHE (p&p-ya ma-sha), 
 a substance made of cuttings of white 
 or brown paper boiled in water, and 
 beaten in a mortar till they are reduced 
 into a kind of paste, and then boiled 
 with a solution of gum Arabic or of size 
 to give tenacity to the paste. Sulphate 
 of iron, quicklime, and glue or white of 
 egg, are sometimes added to enable the 
 material to resist the action of water, 
 and borax and phosphate of soda to 
 render it to a great extent fire-proof. 
 It is used for making all sorts of useful 
 and ornamental articles that can be 
 formed in moulds. Another variety of 
 papier mfi,ch6 is made by pasting or glu- 
 ing sheets of paper together, and press- 
 ing them when soft into the form which 
 it is desired to give them. 
 
 PAPILL.®, the name applied in 
 physiology to small or minute processes 
 protruding from the surface of the skin, 
 or of membranes generally, and which 
 may possess either a secretory or other 
 function. The human skin exhibits 
 numerous papillae, with divided or single 
 extremities, and through which the 
 sense of touch is chiefly exercised. The 
 papillae of the tongue are important in 
 
 connection with the sense of taste. See 
 Skin and Tongue. 
 
 PAPPENHEIM, Gottfried Heinrich, 
 Count of, imperial general in the Thirty 
 Years’ war, born in 1594 at Pappen- 
 heim, in Bavaria. In 1626 he conquered 
 with the assistance of the Bavarians, 
 40,000 peasants in Upper Austria, and 
 in 1630 joined Tilly, who ascribed the 
 loss of the battle of Leipzig in 1631 to his 
 impetuosity. He appeared on the field 
 of Ltitzen on the side of Wallenstein, 
 but was mortally wounded, and died the 
 day after the battle, 1632. 
 
 PAPY'RUS, an aquatic plant. It has 
 acquired celebrity from furnishing the 
 paper of the ancient Egyptians. The 
 root is very large, hard, and, creeping; 
 the stem is several inches thick, naked, 
 except at the base, 8 to 15 or more feet 
 
 Egyptian papyrus. 
 
 high, triangular above, and terminated 
 by a compound, wide-spreading, and 
 beautifull umbel, which is surrounded 
 with an involucre composed of eight 
 large sword-shaped leaves. The little 
 scaly spikelets of inconspicuous flowers 
 are placed at the extremity of the rays 
 of this umbel. Formerly it was exten- 
 sively cultivated in Lower Egyqjt, but 
 is now rare there. It is abundant in the 
 equatorial regions of Africa in many 
 places, and is found also in Western 
 Africa and in Southern Italy. The in- 
 habitants of some countries where it 
 grows manufacture it into various arti- 
 cles, including sail-cloth, cordage, and 
 even wearing apparel and boats. Among 
 the ancient Egyptians its uses were 
 equally numerous, but it is best known 
 as furnishing a sort of paper. This con- 
 sisted of thin strips carefully separated 
 from the stem longitudinally, laid side 
 by side, and then covered transversely 
 by shorter strips, the whole being caused 
 to adhere together by the use of water 
 and probably some gummy matter. 
 A sheet of this kind formed really a sort 
 of mat. In extensive writings a number 
 of these sheets were united into one 
 long roll, the writing materials being a 
 reed pen and ink made of animal char- 
 coal and oil. Thousands of these papyri 
 or papyrus rolls still exist (many of 
 them were found in the ruins of Her- 
 culaneum), but their contents, so fax as 
 deciphered, with a few exceptions, have 
 only been of moderate value. 
 
 PARA, or BELEM, a city and seaport 
 in Brazil, the capital of the state of Pard. 
 The principal buildings are the gover- 
 nor’s palace, the cathedral, and the 
 churches of Santa Anna and Sao Joao 
 Baptista.. It is the seat of the legislative 
 
 assembly of the state. The principal 
 exports are caoutchouc, cacao. Brazil- 
 nuts, copaiba, rice, piassava, sarsapa- 
 rilla, annotto, cotton, etc. Pop. 50,064. 
 — The state of Pard, the most northerly 
 in Brazil, comprises an area of 443,790 
 sq. miles on both sides of the lower 
 Amazon, and consists chiefly of vast 
 alluvial plains connected with this river 
 and its tributaries. Pop. 407,350. 
 
 PARAB'OLA, one of the curves known 
 as conic sections. If a right cone is cut 
 by a plane parallel to a slant side, the 
 
 J e c <j n 
 
 Parabola. 
 
 section is a parabola. It may also be 
 defined as the curve traced out by a 
 point which moves in such a way that its 
 distance from a fixed point, called the 
 “focus,” is always equal to its perpen- 
 dicular distance from a fixed straight 
 line, called the “directrix.” In the 
 fi^re b h is the directrix and f the focus, 
 while p is a point that moves so that 
 the perpendicular gp is always equal 
 to the line p f ; the curve pad described 
 by a point so moving is a parabola. 
 The line f a c through the focus is the 
 axis or principal diameter; any line 
 parallel to it as b d r is a diameter. The 
 path of a projectile in vacuo, when not 
 a vertical straight line, is parabolic. 
 
 PARACEL'SUS, or PHILIPPUS 
 AUREOLUS THEOPHRASTUS BOM- 
 BASTUS VON HOHENHEIM, empiric 
 and alchemist, born at Einsiedeln, in the 
 canton of Schwyz, in Switzerland, in 
 1493. Dissatisfied with the means of 
 acquiring knowledge in his native coun- 
 try, he traveled over the greater part of 
 Europe, everywhere seeking to add to 
 his knowledge. In the course of his travels 
 he became acquainted with remedies 
 not in common use among physicians 
 (probably preparations of mercury), by 
 means of which he performed extra- 
 ordinary cures, and obtained great 
 reputation. He died at the hospital of 
 St. Sebastian at Salzburg in 1541. For a 
 long time he was regarded as little better 
 than a charlatan, but he enriched 
 science, particularly chemistry and 
 medicine, with some valuable discover- 
 ies, and, indeed, is sometimes looked 
 upon as the founder of modern thera- 
 peutics. 
 
 PARACHUTE (pa'ra-shot), an ap- 
 paratus of an umbrella shape and con- 
 struction, usually about 20 or 30 feet 
 in diameter, attached to balloons, by 
 means of which the aeronaut may de- 
 scend slowly from a great height. It is 
 shut when carried up, and expands of 
 itself when the aeronaut begins to de- 
 scend; but it is not altogether to be de- 
 pended on, and accidents in connection 
 with its use have been frequent. The 
 earliest mention of a machine of this 
 kind is in a MS. describing experiments 
 made with one in 1617. In 1783 the 
 French physician Lenormand made 
 several further experiments at Mont- 
 pellier; and shortly after the machinu 
 
Paradise 
 
 PARALLEL MOTION 
 
 became well known through the de- 
 scents of Blanchard in Paris and Lon- 
 uon. See Aeronautics. 
 
 PARADISE, the garden of Eden. The 
 word is originally Persian, and signifies 
 a park. It was introduced into the 
 Greek language by Xenophon, and has 
 been introduced into modern languages 
 
 Parachute. 
 
 as a name for the garden of Eden (and 
 hjnce of any abode of happiness) 
 through its use in that sense in the 
 Septuagint. 
 
 PARADISE, Bird of. See Bird of 
 
 Paradise. 
 
 PARADOX, a statement or propo- 
 sition which seems to be absurd, or at 
 variance with common sense, or to con- 
 tradict some previously-ascertained 
 truth, though, when duly investigated, 
 it may prove to be well founded. 
 
 PAR'AFFIN, a solid white substance 
 of a waxy appearance which is separated 
 from petroleum and ozokerit, and is also 
 largely obtained by the destructive 
 distillation of various organic bodies, 
 such as brown coal or lignite, bitumi- 
 nous coal, shale, etc. In Scotland the 
 
 ? araffin industry is highly important. 
 
 he process generally consists in heating 
 bituminous shale in iron retorts at a 
 low red heat ; condensing the tarry prod- 
 ucts, and purifying these by distilla- 
 tion, washing successively with soda, 
 water, and acid, and again distilling; 
 Those portions of the oil which solidify 
 in the final distillations are collected 
 separately from the liquid portions, 
 washed with soda and acid, and crys- 
 talized or again distilled. The partially 
 purified paraffin (called paraffin scale) is 
 now again treated with acid, allowed 
 to solidify, submitted to the action of 
 centrifugalmachines,andfinally strongly 
 pressed in order to remove any liquid 
 oil which may still adhere to it. The 
 refined paraffin is largely manufactured 
 into candles, which may be either white 
 or colored, and may be mixed with a 
 certain quantity of wax, etc. The liquid 
 oils obtained in the process come into 
 commerce under the general name of 
 paraffin-oil, the lighter oils being used 
 for illuminating and the heavier for 
 lubricating purposes. Paraffin has re- 
 ceived its name on account of its re- 
 markable indifference to or want of 
 affinity with other substances. Besides 
 being used for candles, it is used for 
 vestas and tapers, for water-proofing, 
 sizing, and glazing fabries, as an electric 
 insulator, as a coating for the inside of 
 beer barrels, etc. 
 
 PARAGUAY (p&'ra-gwi), a republic of 
 South America, surrounded by the 
 
 Argentine Republic, Brazil, and Bolivia; 
 area, 97,6PC sq. miles. The climate is 
 agreeable, the mean annual tempera- 
 ture being about 75°. The natural 
 fertility of the soil is shown by a 
 vegetation of almost unequalled luxu- 
 riance \nd grandeur. In the forests are 
 found at least sixty varieties of timber- 
 tree, besides dye-woods, gums, drugs, 
 perfumes, vegetable oils, and fruits. 
 Many of the hills are covered with the 
 yerba mat4 or Paraguay tea. The 
 larger plains are roamed over by im- 
 mense herds of cattle, which yield large 
 quantities of hides, tallow, bones, etc.; 
 and on all the cultivated alluvial tracts 
 sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, rice, corn, 
 etc., are raised in profusion. Asuncion, 
 the capital, and Villa Rica are con- 
 nected by a railway about 90 miles long. 
 
 Paraguay was originally a Spanish 
 colony, the first settlement being made 
 in 1535. In 1608 a number of Spanish 
 Jesuits established a powerful and well- 
 organized government, which lasted till 
 1758, when it was overthrown by the 
 Brazilians and Spaniards. Early in the 
 19th century its isolated position 
 enabled it by a single effort to emanci- 
 pate itself from Spanish rule. In 1844 
 Don Carlos Antonio Lopez was elected 
 president for ten years, and soon after 
 the country was declared free and open 
 to both foreigners and foreign commerce. 
 Don Carlos Lopez remained president 
 of Paraguay till his death in 1862, when 
 he was succeeded by his son Don Fran- 
 cisco, who concluded treaties of com- 
 merce with Enlgand, France, the United 
 States, Brazil, etc., and did all in his 
 power to promote the growth of agri- 
 culture and industry in the land. A 
 popular constitutional government has 
 been established, and the state is mak- 
 ing rapid progress in population and 
 
 B rity. The people are largely half- 
 or of Indian blood. Pop. 635,571. 
 PA^GUAY, a river of South America 
 rises in the Brazilian state of Matto 
 Grosso, takes a course generally south- 
 ward, and joins the Parand, at the south- 
 west angle of the state of Paraguay 
 after a course of some 1300 miles. It 
 receives the Pilcomayo, Vermejo, and 
 other large rivers, and is a valuable 
 highway of trade to Paraguay and 
 Brazil. 
 
 PARAKEETS, or PARROQUETS, a 
 sub-family or group of the parrots, 
 characterized by their generally small 
 size and their long tail-feathers. The 
 islands of the Eastern Archipelago form 
 the chief habitat of these birds, but 
 species also occur in India and Aus- 
 tralia. Among the most familiar forms 
 are the rose-ringed and Alexandrine 
 parakeets. The former, found in India 
 and on the eastern coasts of Africa, has 
 a bright-green body and a pink circle 
 round the neck. The Alexandrine para- 
 keet of India is a nearly allied speeies. 
 These birds may be taught to speak 
 with distinctness. The ground parakeets 
 of Australia live among the reeds and 
 grass of swamps, generally in solitary 
 pairs. The common ground parakeet of 
 Australia possesses a green and black 
 plumage, the tail being similarly colored, 
 and the body-feathers having each a 
 band of dark-brown hue. The grass 
 parakeets of Australia, of which the 
 
 small warbling parakeet is a good 
 example, inhabit the central fiat lands 
 of Australia, and feed on the seeds of 
 the grasses covering the plains. They 
 perch on the eucalypti or gum-trees 
 during the day, and the nests are situated 
 in the hollows of these trees. Contrary 
 
 Rose-ringed parakeet. 
 
 to most parrots they have an agreeable 
 voice. 
 
 PARALLAX, the apparent change of 
 place which bodies undergo by being 
 viewed from different points. Thus an 
 observer at a sees an object b in line 
 with an object c, but when he moves to 
 d it is in line with e, and seems to have 
 gone backward. The term has become 
 technical in astronomy, and implies 
 the difference of the apparent positions 
 of any celestial object when viewed 
 from the surface of the earth and from 
 the center of either the earth or the sun. 
 The term “parallax” is also employed 
 to denote the non-coincidence of the 
 cross fibers in a telescope with the focus 
 of the eye-glass. 
 
 PARALLEL LINES, in geometry, 
 straight lines in the same plane which 
 never meet, no matter how far pro- 
 duced. 
 
 PARALLEL MOTION, a mechanical 
 contrivance employed by Watt to com- 
 municate the alternate pushes and pulls 
 of the piston-rod of a steam-engine to the 
 end of a vibrating beam, and which 
 prevents the action of forces tending to 
 
 Part of beam of condensing engine. 
 abed, Parallel motion, e. Piston-rod. 
 /, Pump-rod. 
 
 destroy the right-line motion of the 
 piston-rod. The motion given to the 
 end of the rod is not accurately in a 
 straight line, but it is very nearly so. 
 Watt’s parallel motion is still employed 
 in all stationary beam-engines. In 
 marine beam-engines the arrangement 
 
PARALLELOGRAM OP FORCES 
 
 PARHELION 
 
 employed differs somewhat in form, 
 but is the same in principle as Watt’s 
 contrivance. 
 
 PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES, an 
 
 important dynamical principle, de- 
 duced by Newton, which may be stated 
 thus: If two forces acting in different 
 directions on a particle at the same time 
 be represented in magnitude and direc- 
 tion by two straight lines meeting at 
 the particle, their resultant effect in 
 giving motion to the particle is that of 
 a force represented in magnitude and 
 direction by the diagonal (terminating 
 in the particle) of the parallelogram, of 
 which the two former lines areAwo sides. 
 
 PARALLELS OF LATITUDE. See 
 Latitude. 
 
 PARAL'YSIS, a bodily ailment, which 
 in its effect consists in loss of power in 
 moving or loss of feeling, or in both, 
 and it is caused by disease of the brain, 
 spinal cord, or nerves, or it may be due 
 to lead-poisoning. When the paralysis 
 is limited to one side of the body, and 
 the voluntary power of moving the 
 muscles is lost, this is due to disease of 
 the brain and receives the specific name 
 of hemiplegia. It is generally caused by 
 the bursting of a blood-vessel in the 
 brain; it may also be due to a blood- 
 vessel being blocked by a clot of blood. 
 The paralysis may be sudden and with- 
 out unconsciousness, or it may be 
 gradual and attended with sickness, 
 fainting, and confusion of mind. In 
 ordinary cases it will be found that one 
 side of the body is powerless, the face 
 twisted, the speech thick and indis- 
 tinct. Recovery may be complete, or 
 partial, or the attack may prove fatal. 
 In any case the shock is apt to be re- 
 peated. When one side“of the body and 
 the opposite side of the” face is affected, 
 the disease, which has its seat in the 
 region of the medulla oblongata, re- 
 ceives the name of cross paralysis, and is 
 considered more dangerous than ordi- 
 nary hemiplegia. When, again, the dis- 
 ease is situated in the spinal cord, the 
 paralysis, which receives the name of 
 paraplegia, may affect either the upper 
 or lower part of the body, or motion 
 may be lost on one side and sensation 
 on the other. Local paralysis is the 
 term used when disease or injury affects 
 a specific nerve-trunk, and has no con- 
 nection with disease of the brain or 
 spinal cord. The effect of this local 
 paralysis is to deprive the muscles of 
 their nerve-supply, in which case they 
 lose their power, becoming weak and 
 faint. 
 
 PARANA, a river in South America, 
 the largest except the Amazon, and 
 draining a larger basin than any other 
 river in the New World except the 
 Amazon and the Mississippi. Its length, 
 from its sources to its junction with the 
 Paraguay, is probably 1500 miles, and 
 thence to the sea GOO miles more. 
 
 PARANA, a state of Southern Brazil, 
 having on the north the state of Sao 
 Paulo, on the east the Atlantic Ocean, 
 south the state of Santa Catharina, 
 and west Paraguay and the province 
 Matto Grosso; area, 85,429 sq. miles. 
 Its chief town is Curitiba. Pop. 187,548. 
 
 PARANOIA, a form of insanity in 
 which for years the intellect of the 
 pastient remains unimpaired, though 
 
 dominated by a systematized delusion. 
 An acquired or transmitted neuro- 
 degenerative taint is almost invariably 
 present, though a sudden or severe in- 
 jury to the nervous system may be the 
 cause. It may follow a severe fever or 
 an Injury to the head. It may equally 
 well be caused by great emotional strain 
 or a constantly harassing thought. 
 
 Paranoiacs usually present somatic 
 evidences of degeneration, such as a de- 
 formed or asymmetrical skull, badly 
 developed teeth, strakbismus, atrophy 
 of one side of the body, and differences 
 in size of hands or feet. 
 
 PARAPET, in fortification, a work, 
 usually of earth, intended to protect the 
 troops within the ramparts, as well as 
 the pieces of artillery used in the de- 
 fense. In order to fire the defenders 
 ascend a ledge called a banquette, about 
 half-way up the parapet. In architecture 
 the term parapet is applied to the 
 structures placed at the edges of plat- 
 forms, balconies, roofs of houses, sides 
 of bridges, etc., to prevent people from 
 falling over. 
 
 PARAPHERNALIA, in law, a woman’s 
 apparel, jewels, and other things, which, 
 in the lifetime of her husband, she wore 
 as the ornaments of her person, and to 
 which she has a distinct claim. 
 
 PARASELENE (pa-ra-se-le'ne), a lu- 
 minous ring or circle sometimes seen 
 round the moon, or there may be more 
 than one ring as well as certain bright 
 spots, bearing some resemblance to the 
 moon. Paraselenae or mock moons are 
 analogous to parhelia or mock suns. 
 See Parhelion. 
 
 PARASITES, the name applied to 
 animals which attach themselves to the 
 exterior or inhabit various situations 
 in the interior, of the bodies of other 
 
 Paraselenae. 
 
 animals, including such forms as tape- 
 worms, flukes, scolices or hydatids, fish- 
 lice, bird-lice, common lice, etc. True 
 parasites obtain their nourishment from 
 the animals on which they live, but 
 there is another class of parasites that 
 only obtain a lodging or abode at the 
 expense of the animals they accompany. 
 
 PARBUCKLE, a method of raising or 
 lowering any cylindrical body, such as a 
 barrel, by an inclined plane and a rope, 
 the rope being doubled, the double 
 placed round a post at the top of the 
 plane, and the ends passed under and 
 round the object to be raised or lowered, 
 when by pulling or slackening this can 
 be accomplished. 
 
 PARCHMENT, the skins of sheep, 
 she-goats, and several other animals so 
 dressed or prepared as to be rendered fit 
 for writing on. This is done by stretching 
 the skin on a frame, separating all the 
 flesh and hair from tne skin, reducing its 
 thickness with a sharp instrument, and 
 smoothing the surface with pumice- 
 stone covered with pulverized chalk or 
 slaked lime. After it is reduced to some- 
 thing less than half its original thick- 
 ness, it is smoothed and slowly dried for 
 use. The name parchment signifies 
 literally paper of Pergamus (Asia Minor), 
 where parchment was first extensively 
 brought into use about 200 b.c. Vellum 
 is a finer kind prepared from the skins 
 of calves or kids. Parchment is now 
 chiefly used for writing important legal 
 documents on. 
 
 PARCHMENT, Vegetable. See Paper. 
 
 PARDON, the remission of the penalty 
 of a crime or offense. In England, in 
 nearly all cases of crime except where 
 there is an impeachment, a pardon from 
 the crown may be granted before a 
 trial as well as after; and it stops further 
 progress in the inquiry and prosecution 
 at whatever time it is granted. In Amer- 
 ica the constitution provides that the 
 president “shall have power to grant 
 reprieves and pardon for offenses against 
 the United States, except in cases of im- 
 peachment.” The senate has the whole 
 power of trying impeachments. 
 
 PAREGORIC ELIXIR, known also as 
 the camphorated tincture of opium, 
 is a solution of powdered opium, cam- 
 phor, benzoic acid, and oil of anise. 
 When used carefully it is found to be 
 an excellent anodyne and anti-spas- 
 modic. 
 
 PARESIS, popularly but improperly 
 called softening of the brain, is more 
 common in males than in females. It 
 occurs most frequently between the 
 ages of thirty and fifty-five. Few cases 
 show hereditary tendency. While in 
 general the disease is said to be more 
 frequent among the lower classes, in 
 this country it is most common among 
 the middle and upper classes. About 
 80 per cent of cases give a syphilitic 
 history. Alcoholic and sexual excesses 
 and severe mental or emotional strains 
 may also be mentioned as factors. 
 
 PAREN'THESIS, pi. Parentheses, an 
 explanatory or qualifying sentence, or 
 part of a sentence, inserted into the 
 midst of another sentence, without be- 
 ing grammatically connected with it. 
 It is generally marked off by upright 
 curves ( ), but frequently by dashes — 
 — , and even by commas. 
 
 PARHE'LION, a mock sun, having 
 the appearance of the sun itself, and 
 seen by the side of that Ivyninary. 
 Parhelia are sometimes double, some- 
 times triple, and sometimes more 
 numerous. They appear at the same 
 height above the horizon as the true 
 sun, and they are always connected with 
 one another by a white circle or halo. 
 They are the result of certain modifica- 
 tions which light undergoes when it 
 falls on the crystals of ice, rain-drops, 
 or minute particles that constitute suit- 
 ably situated clouds. Parhelia which 
 appear on the same side of the circle 
 with the true sun are often tinted with 
 prismatic colors. 
 
PARIAH 
 
 PARIS 
 
 . PA'RIAH, a name somewhat loosely 
 applied to any of the lowest class of 
 people in Hindustan, who have, properly 
 speaking, no caste, hence, one despised 
 and contemned by society; an outcast. 
 Properly, however. Pariah (a Tamil 
 name) is applied to the members of a 
 somewhat widely spread race in South- 
 ern India, generally of the Hindu re- 
 ligion, and though regarded by the 
 Hindus as of the lowest grade, yet 
 
 Parhelia. 
 
 superior to some ten other castes in their 
 own country. They are frequently serfs 
 to the agricultural class, or servants to 
 Europeans. 
 
 PARIAN MARBLE, a mellow-tinted 
 marble, highly valued by the ancients, 
 and chosen for their choicest works. 
 The principal blocks were obtained from 
 Mount Marpassus, in the island of Paros. 
 
 PARIS, the capital of France and of 
 the department of the Seine, lies in the 
 Seine valley surrounded by heights. 
 Through the valley the river runs from 
 east to west, inclosing two islands, upon 
 which part of the city is built. It is 
 navigable by small steamers. The quays 
 or embankments, which| extend along the 
 Seine on both sides, being built of solid 
 masonry, protect the city from inunda- 
 tion and form excellent promenades. 
 The river, which within the city is fully 
 530 feet in width, is crossed by numer- 
 ous bridges, the more important being 
 Pont Neuf, Pont des Arts, Pont du 
 Carrousel, Pont Royal, Pont de I’Alma, 
 etc. The city is surrounded by a line of 
 fortifications which measures 22 miles; 
 outside of this is the enceinte, while 
 beyond that again are the detached 
 forts. These now form two main lines 
 of defense. The inner line consists of 
 sixteen forts, the outer line of eighteen 
 forts besides redoubts; the area thus 
 inclosed measuring 430 sq. miles, with 
 an encircling line of 77 miles. The water 
 supply of the city is derived from the 
 Seine, the Marne, the Vannes, the Ourcq 
 canal, from artesian wells, and from 
 springs, but is still very defective. 
 
 In the older parts of the city the 
 streets are narrow and irregular, but in 
 in the newer districts the avenues are 
 straight, wide, and well-paved. What 
 are known as “the boulevards” include 
 the interior, _ exterior, and military. 
 That which is specifically called The 
 Boulevard extends in an irregular arc 
 on the north side of the Seine, from the 
 
 Place de la Bastille in the east to the 
 Place de la Madeleine in the west. It in- 
 cludes the Boulevards du Temple, St. 
 Martin, St. Denis, des Italiens, Capuchins, 
 Madeleine, etc., and its length of nearly 
 3 miles forms the most stirring part of 
 the city. Here may be noted also the 
 triumphal arches of the Porte St. Denis 
 and the Porte St. Martin, the former of 
 which is 72 feet in height. On the south 
 side of the Seine the boulevards are 
 neither so numerous nor so extensive, 
 the best known being the Boulevard St. 
 Germain, which extends from the Pont 
 Sully to the Pont de la Concorde. The 
 exterior boulevards are so named be- 
 cause they are outside the city limits of 
 1860; and the military boulevards, still 
 further out, extend round the fortifica- 
 tions. After the boulevards mentioned 
 the best streets are the Rue de Rivoli, 
 Rue Castiglione, Rue de la Paix, Rue 
 de la Chauss^e d’Antin, the Rue des 
 Pyramides, and twelve fine avenues 
 radiating from the Place de I’Etoile. 
 There are six passenger stations for the 
 railways to the various parts of the 
 country, and a railway around the city 
 (the ceinture), by means of which inter- 
 change of traffic between the different 
 lines is effected. There are also tram- 
 way lines to Versailles, St. Cloud, and 
 other places in the suburbs. 
 
 The most notable public squares or 
 places are the Place de la Concorde one 
 of the largest and most elegant squares 
 in Europe, adorned by an Egyptian 
 obelisk, fountains, and statues; Plaee de 
 I’Etoile, in which is situated the Arc de 
 Triomphe, a splendid structure 152 
 
 feet in height; the Place Vendome, with 
 column to Napoleon I.; Place des Vic- 
 toires, with equestrian statue of Louis 
 XIV.; Place de la Bastille, with the 
 Column of July; Place de la Rdpublique, 
 with colossal statue of the Republic, 
 etc. Within the city are situated the 
 gardens of the Tuileries, which are 
 adorned with numerous statues and 
 fountains; the gardens of the Luxem- 
 bourg, in which are fine conservatories 
 of rare plants; the Jardin des Plantes, 
 in which are the botanical and zoologi- 
 cal gardens, hothouses, museums, etc.. 
 
 which have made this scientific, institu- 
 tion famous; the Buttes-Chaumont 
 Gardens, in which an extensive old 
 quarry has been turned to good account 
 in enhancing the beauty of the situation ; 
 the Parc Monceaux; and the Champs 
 Elys^es, the latter being a favorite 
 promenade of all classes. But the most 
 extensive parks are outside the city. 
 Of these the Bois de Boulogne, on the 
 west, covers an area of 2150 acres, gives 
 an extensive view toward St. Cloud 
 and Mont Val6rien, comprises the race- 
 courses of Longchamps and Auteuil, 
 and in it are lakes, cascades, ornamental 
 caf^s, and the Jardin d’Acclimatation. 
 The Bois de Vincennes, on the east, even 
 larger, is similarly adorned with artificial 
 lakes and streams, and its high plateau 
 offers a fine view over the surrounding 
 country. The most celebrated and ex- 
 tensive cemetery in Paris is Pere la 
 Chaise (106J acres), finely situated and 
 containing the tombs of many celebri- 
 ties. The Catacombs are ancient quar- 
 ries which extend under a portion of 
 the southern part of the city, and in 
 them are deposited the bones removed 
 from old cemeteries now built over. 
 
 Of the churches of Paris the most 
 celebrated is the Cathedral of Notre 
 Dame, situated on one of the islands of 
 the Seine, called the He de la Cite. It is 
 a vast cruciform structure, with a lofty 
 west front flanked by two square towers, 
 the walls sustained by many flying- 
 buttresses, and the eastern end octag- 
 onal. The whole length of the church is 
 426 feet, its breadth 164 feet. The! 
 foundation of Notre Dame belongs to 
 
 the 6th century; the present edifice 
 dates from 1163, but it was not finished 
 till early in the 14th century, being re- 
 stored in 1845. The church of La 
 Madeleine, a modern structure in the 
 style of a great Roman temple, with a 
 peristyle of lofty Corinthian columns, 
 stands on an elevated basement front- 
 ing the north end of the Rue Royale; 
 the church of St. Genevieve, built about 
 the close of the last century, was after 
 its completion set apart, under the title 
 of the Panth4on, as the burying-place of 
 illustrious Frenchmen. We may also 
 
 Paris.— The Place de la Concorde and Montmartre from the Chamber of Deputies. 
 
PARIS 
 
 PARIS 
 
 name St. Eustache (1532-1637), an 
 interesting example of French Renais- 
 sance architecture "St. Germain I’Auxer- 
 rois; St. Gervais; St. Roch; St. Sulpice; 
 Notre Dame de Lorette; St. Vincent de 
 Paul; etc. On the very summit of 
 Montmartre is the Church of the Sacred 
 Heart, a vast new structure in the By- 
 zantine style estimated to cost $5,000,™ 
 000. The chief French Protestant 
 churches are the Oratoire and R4demp- 
 tion. There are several churches be- 
 longing to English, Scotch, and Amer- 
 ican denominations, a Russian Greek 
 church, and several synagogues. 
 
 Notable among the public buildings of 
 Paris are its palaces. The Louvre, a 
 great series of buildings within which 
 are two large courts, is now devoted to a 
 museum which comprises splendid col- 
 lections of sculpture, paintings, engrav- 
 ings, bronzes, pottery, Egyptian and 
 Assyrian antiquities, etc. The palace of 
 the Tuileries was set on fire in 1871 by 
 the Communists. The ruins have been 
 removed, but a few of the architectural 
 details have been preserved. The Palais 
 du Luxembourg, on the south side of 
 the river, has very extensive gardens 
 attached to it, and contains the Mus4e 
 du Luxembourg, appropriated to the 
 works of modern French artists. The 
 Palais Royal is a famed resort. The 
 Palais de l’Elys4e, situated in the Rue 
 St. Honor4, with a large garden, is now 
 the residence of the president of the 
 republic. The Chambre des D4put4s-^ 
 known under the Empire as the Palais 
 du Corps L4gislatif — is the building in 
 which the deputies meet. The Palais de 
 ITndustrie, built for the first inter- 
 national exhibition in 1855, is used for 
 the annual salon of modern paintings, 
 etc. The Hotel de Ville is situated in the 
 Place de I’Hotel de Ville, formerly Place 
 de Greve, on the right bank of the river. 
 It was destroyed by the Communists in 
 1871, but has now been re-erected on the 
 same site with evengreatermagnificence. 
 It is a very rich example of Renaissance 
 architecture. The Hotel des Invalides, 
 built in 1670, is now used as a retreat 
 for disabled soldiers, and is capable of 
 accommodating 5000. The church at- 
 tached has a lofty and finely-propor- 
 tioned dome. It contains the burial- 
 place of the first Napoleon. The Palais 
 de Justice is an irregular mass of build- 
 ings occupying the greater part of the 
 western extremity of the He de la Cit4. 
 Opposite the Palais de Justice is the 
 Tribunal de Commerce, a quadrangular 
 building inclosing a large court roofed 
 with glass. The mint (Hotel des Mon- 
 naies) fronts the Quai Conti, on the 
 south side of the Seine, and contains an 
 immense collection of coins and medals. 
 The other principal government build- 
 ings are the treasury (Hotel des Fi- 
 nances), in the Rue de Rivoli; the record 
 office (Hotel des Archives Nationales). 
 The Exchange (La Bourse) was com- 
 pleted in 1826; it is in the form of a 
 parallelogram, 212 feet by 126 feet, 
 surrounded by a range of sixty-six 
 columns. The extensive markets form 
 a striking feature of Paris, the most im- 
 portant being the Halles Centrales, 
 where fish, poultry, butcher-meat and 
 garden produce are sold. A notable and 
 unique structure is the Eiffel Tcrwer, 
 
 built in connection with the Paris 
 Exhibition of 1889. It is a structure of 
 iron lattice-work 984 feet high, and 
 having three stages or platforms. It is 
 as yet the highest building in the world. 
 
 The chief institution of higher educa- 
 tion is the academy of the Sorbonne, 
 where are the university “faculties” (see 
 France, section Education) of literature 
 and science, while those of law and of 
 medicine are in separate buildings. 
 There are, besides, numerous courses 
 of lectures in science, philology, and 
 philosophy delivered in the College de 
 France, and courses of chemistry, 
 natural history, etc., in the museum of 
 the Jardin des Plantes. Of the libraries 
 the most important is the Bibliotheque 
 Rationale, the largest in the world. 
 The number of printed volumes which 
 it contains is estimated at 2,500,000, 
 besides, 3,000,000 pamphlets, manu- 
 script volumes, historical documents, 
 etc. Among other libraries are those of 
 the Arsenal, St. Genevieve, Mazarin, 
 De la Ville, De ITnstitut, and De 
 rUniversitd (the Sorbonne). 
 
 There are many hospitals in Paris de- 
 voted to the gratuitous treatment of the 
 indigent sick and injured; and also 
 numerousestablishmentsof a benevolent 
 nature, such as the Hotel des Invalides, 
 or asylum for old soldiers, the lunatic 
 asylum (Maison des Ali4n4s, Charenton), 
 blind asylums; the deaf and dumb in- 
 stitute (Institution des Sourds-Muets) ; 
 two hospitals at Vincennes for wounded 
 and convalescent artisans; the creches, 
 in which infants are received for the 
 day at a small charge; and the ouvroirs, 
 in which aged people are supplied with 
 work. 
 
 The theaters of Paris are more numer- 
 ous than those of any other city in the 
 world. The most important are the 
 Opera House, a gorgeous edifice of great 
 size, built between 1861-75; the Theatre 
 Fran^ais; the Od4on; the Th45.tre de la 
 Gait4, for vaudevilles and melodramas: 
 Th4S,tre des Folies Dramatiques, Th4&tre 
 du Chatelet, Theatre du Vaudeville, 
 Th4&tre des Vari4t4s, Theatre de la 
 Porte St. Martin, and the Theatre de 
 I’Ambigu Comique. 
 
 The most important manufactures are 
 articles of jewelry and the precious 
 metals, trinkets of various kinds, fine 
 hardware, paper-hangings, saddlery and 
 other articles in leather, cabinet-work, 
 carriages, various articles of dress, silk 
 and woolen tissues, particularly shawls 
 and carpets. Gobelin tapestry, lace, 
 embroidery, artificial flowers, combs, 
 machines, scientific instruments, types, 
 books, engravings, refined sugar, to- 
 bacco (a government monopoly), chemi- 
 cal products, etc. That which is dis- 
 tinctively Parisian is the making of all 
 kinds of small ornamental articles, 
 which are called articles de Paris. A 
 large trade is carried on by the Seine 
 both above and below Paris as well as 
 by canals. 
 
 The first appearance of Paris in his- 
 tory is on the occasion of Caesar’s con- 
 quest of Gaul, when the small tribe of 
 the Parisii were found inhabiting th'^ 
 banks of the Seine, and occuf "ui g th. 
 island now called lie de la Cit6. 1 was 
 a fortified town in 360 a d., when the sol- 
 diers of Julian here summoned him to 
 
 fill the imperial throne. In the beginning 
 of the 5th century it suffered much from 
 the northern hordes, and ultimately fell 
 into the hands of the Franks, headed by 
 Clovis, who made it his capital in 508. 
 In 987 a new dynasty was established 
 in the person of Hugo Capet, from whose 
 reign downward Paris long continued to 
 be the residence of the kings of France. 
 In 1437 and 1438, under Charles VII., 
 Paris was ravaged by pestilence and 
 famine, and such was the desolation 
 that wolves appeared in herds and 
 prowled about the streets. Under Louis 
 XI. a course of prosperity again com- 
 menced. In the reign of Louis XIV. 
 the Paris walls were leveled to the 
 ground after having stood for about 
 300 years, and what are now the prin- 
 cipal boulevards were formed on their 
 site (1670). Only the Bastille was left 
 (till 1789), and, in place of the four 
 principal gates of the old walls, four 
 triumphal arches were erected, two of 
 which, the Porte St. Denis and Porte 
 St. Martin, still stand. Many of the 
 finest edifices of Paris were destroyed 
 during the revolution, but the work of 
 embellishment was resumed by the 
 directory, and continued by all subse- 
 quent governments. The reign of 
 Napoleon III. is specially noteworthy in 
 this respect ; during it Paris was opened 
 up by spacious streets and beautified 
 to an extent surpassing all that had 
 hitherto been effected by any of his 
 predecessors. Among modern events 
 in the history of Paris are the siege of 
 the city by the Germans in the war of 
 1870-71, and the subsequent siege by 
 the French national government in 
 order to wrest the city from the hands 
 of the Commune. Paris was the scene 
 of international exhibitions in 1855, 
 1867, 1878, and 1889, but the greatest 
 was that of 1900, which presented 
 an epitome of the progress of the 
 nineteenth century. It was visited 
 by 47,000,000 persons, or about two- 
 thirds more than the number who 
 visited that of 1889. Pop. 2,750,000. 
 
 PARIS, in Greek mythology, also 
 called Alexander, the second son of 
 Priam, king of Troy, by Hecuba. His 
 mother dreamed before his birth that 
 she had brought forth a firebrand, 
 which was interpreted to mean that he 
 would cause the destruction of Troy. 
 To prevent this the child was exposed 
 on Mount Ida, where he was discovered 
 by a shepherd, who brought him up as 
 his own son. Here his grace and courage 
 commended him to the favor of (Enone, 
 a nymph of Ida, whom he married. At 
 the marriage of Peleus and Thetis a dis- 
 pute arose whether Hera, Athena, or 
 Aphrodite was the most beautiful, and 
 as such entitled to the golden apple. 
 Paris was chosen judge, and decided in 
 favor of Aphrodite, who had promised 
 him the fairest woman in the world 
 for his wife. Subsequently he visited 
 Sparta, the residence of Menelaus, who 
 had married Helena (or Helen), the 
 fairest woman of the age, whom he 
 persuaded to elope with him. This led 
 to the siege of Troy, at the capture of 
 which he was killed by an arrow. 
 
 PARIS, Louis Albert Philippe d’Or- 
 le.ins, Comte de, eon of the Due d’Or- 
 leans, and grandson of Louis-Philippe, 
 
PARIS 
 
 PARNELL 
 
 bom 1838. After the revolution of 
 1848 he resided chiefly in Claremont, 
 England, where he was educated by his 
 mother. During the American civil 
 war of 1861 he, along with his brother 
 the Due de Chartres, volunteered into 
 the northern army, and served for some 
 time on the staff of General McClellan. 
 On his return to Europe the following 
 year he married his cousin the Princess 
 Marie-Isabelle, eldest daughter of- the 
 Due de Montpensier. After the Franco- 
 German war he was admitted a member 
 of the first national assembly. On the 
 death of the Comte de Chambord, the 
 Comte de Paris was recognized as head 
 of the royal house of France. Under 
 the expulsion bill of 1886 he, along with 
 the other royal princes, was forbidden 
 to enter France. He published a his- 
 tory of the Civil War in America, and a 
 work on English Trade-unions. He died 
 in 1894. 
 
 PARIS, the capital of Lamar co., 
 Tex., on the Gulf, Col. and S. F4, the 
 St. L. and San. Fran., and the Tex. and 
 Pac, railways; 15 miles s. of the Red 
 river, 64 miles, e. of Sherman. It is in a 
 wheat and cotton growing region and is 
 the trade center of a large territory. 
 Pop. 11,410. 
 
 PARIS, Treaties of, of the numerous 
 treaties bearing this designation a few 
 only of the most important can be 
 mentioned here. On February 10, 1763, 
 a treaty of peace was signed between 
 France, Spain, Portugal, and England, 
 in which Canada was ceded to Great 
 Britain . On February 6, 1 778, was signed 
 that between France and the United 
 States, in which the independence of the 
 latter country was recognized. A treaty 
 was signed between Napoleon I. and the 
 allies, ratified April 11, 1814, by which 
 Napoleon was deposed £jnd banished to 
 Elba. The treaty for the conclusion of 
 peace between Russia on the one hand, 
 and France, Sardinia, Austria, Turkey, 
 and Great Britain on the other, at the 
 end of the Crimean war, was ratified 
 March 30, 1856. Lastly, the treaty of 
 peace with Germany, at the end of the 
 Franco-German war, was concluded 
 May 10, 1871, and modified by the con- 
 vention of October 12, 1871. 
 
 PARIS, University of, came into exist- 
 ence in the beginning of the 13th cen- 
 tury, and was long the most famous 
 center of learning in Europe. It was 
 suppressed in 1793 along with the other 
 French universities, a new system being 
 then introduced. It had long ceased, 
 however, to maintain its old position. 
 See France. 
 
 PARIS BASIN, in geology, the great 
 area of tertiary strata on which Paris is 
 situated. Besides a rich fossil fauna of 
 marine and fresh-water mollusca, the 
 remains of mammals are abundant and 
 interesting. 
 
 PARIS BLUE, a bright blue obtained 
 by exposing a mixture of rosaniline, ten 
 times its weight of aniline, and some 
 benzoic acid to a temperature of 180° C. 
 
 PARIS GREEN, a preparation of cop- 
 per and arsenic employed in making 
 artificial flowers, in wall-papers, etc. 
 It is a virulent poison. 
 
 PARK, Mungo, African traveler, 
 born near Seltok in Scotland 1771, 
 died 1806. He was educated at Edin- 
 
 burgh for the medical profession; received 
 an appointment as assistant-surgeon on 
 board an East Indiaman and made a 
 voyage to India. Returning to Eng- 
 land in 1793 he was engaged by the 
 African Society to trace the course of 
 the Niger. He reached the Gambia at 
 the end of 1795, and advancing north- 
 eastward arrived at the Niger near Segu. 
 After exploring part of the course of the 
 river he returned home, and published 
 his Travels in the Interior of Africa in 
 1799. He settled at Peebles as a coun- 
 try doctor, but in 1805 accepted com- 
 mand of a government expedition to the 
 Niger. Having advanced from Pisania 
 on the Gambia to Sansanding on the 
 Niger, he built a boat at the latter 
 place, with the intention of following 
 the Niger to the sea. It was afterward 
 ascertained that the expedition ad- 
 vanced down the river as far as Boussa, 
 where it was attacked by the natives. 
 It is supposed that Mungo Park was 
 drowned in his efforts to escape. The 
 Journal of his second expedition as far 
 as the Niger was published in 1815. 
 
 PARKER, Theodore, American divine, 
 son of a Massachusetts farmer, born at 
 Lexington 1810, died at Florence 1860. 
 He studied at Harvard University, and 
 in 1837 was settled as a Unitarian 
 preacher at West Roxbury. Although 
 his doctrine was accounted heterodox, 
 yet such was his eloquence and ability 
 that he soon became famous as a 
 preacher and lecturer throughout New 
 England. In 1843 he visited England, 
 France, Italy, and Germany, and set- 
 tled as a preacher in Boston on his re- 
 turn. He was a prominent advocate of 
 the abolution of ^avery. The principal 
 of his published works are; Occasional 
 Sermons and Speeches; and Sermons on 
 Theism, Atheism, and the Popular 
 Theology. 
 
 PARKERSBURG, the capital of Wood 
 co., W. Va., at the confluence of the 
 Ohio and the Little Kanawha rivers; 
 on the Balt, and 0., the Balt, and O.S. 
 W., and the Ohio River railways; 96 
 miles s. by w. of Wheeling. It is in a rich 
 oil and natural-gas region. Pop. with 
 suburbs, 15,210. 
 
 PARKES, Sir Henry, son of a War- 
 wickshire farmer, born 1815; emigrated 
 to Sydney in 1839, and entered the 
 New South Wales Parliament in 1854. 
 He became colonial secretary in 1866, 
 and prime minister in 1872-75, and 
 several times subsequently. He was 
 author of the N. S. Wales public schools 
 act, and advocated free-trade, Austra- 
 lian federation, and imperial federa- 
 tion. He died in 1896. 
 
 PARKHURST, Charles Henry, an 
 American Presbyterian clergyman, pas- 
 tor of the Madison Square Presbyterian 
 church. New Fork, and noted reformer. 
 Dr. Parkhurst was born in Massachu- 
 setts and graduated from Amherst 
 college in 1866. His first charge was as 
 pastor of the Lenox (Mass.) Congrega- 
 tional church. In 1891 he became 
 
 S rominent as a prosecutor of vice in 
 iCW York City and his investigations 
 brought about the appointment of the 
 Lexow committee in 1894. He is a 
 dramatic preacher and an able lecturer. 
 
 PARKMAN, Frances, American his- 
 torian, was born in Boston in 1823. 
 
 He selected as his life work the writing 
 of the rise, decline and fall of the French 
 power in America. His works include 
 The Conspiracy of Pontiac, Pioneers of 
 France in the New World, The Jesuits 
 in North America, La Salle and the 
 Discovery of the Great West, The Old 
 Regime in Canada, Count Frontenac 
 and New France Under Louis XIV., and 
 Montcalm and Wolfe. He died in 1893. 
 
 PARLIAMENT, the supreme legisla- 
 tive assemblyjand court of lawin Britain. 
 See Britain. 
 
 PARMA, a ciU^ of North Italy, capital 
 of the province of Parma, on the small 
 river Parma, 72miles southeast of Milan. 
 The manufactures are of silk, cottons, 
 woolens, felt-hats, etc. Pop. 49,370. — 
 The province lies on the right bank of 
 the Po; area, 1235 sq. miles; pop. 
 277,842. 
 
 PAR'MESAN CHEESE, a cheese made 
 of skimmed milk in the neighborhood of 
 Parms. by a peculiar process, flavored 
 with saffron, and celebrated for its 
 keeping qualities. Indeed, it becomes so 
 hard as to require to be grated when 
 used. 
 
 PARNAS'SUS, or LIAKU'RA, a moun- 
 tain of Greece, situated in Phocis, 65 
 miles northwest of Athens. It has two 
 
 Rev. Charles H. Parkhurst. 
 
 prominent peaks, one of which was 
 dedicated to the worship of Bacchus 
 and the other to Apollo and the Muses, 
 while on its southern slope was situated 
 Delphi and the Castalian fount. Its 
 height is 8068 feet, and a magnificent 
 view is obtained from its top. 
 
 PARNELL, Charles Stewart, born at 
 his father’s estate of Avondale, co. 
 Wicklow, Ireland, in 1846. He became 
 member of parliament for Meath in 
 1875; organized the “active” Home 
 Rule party, and developed its obstruc- 
 tion tactics; and in 1879 formally 
 adopted the policy of the newly-formed 
 Land League, was an active member of 
 it, and was chosen president of the 
 organization. At the general election 
 of 1885 he was re-elected for Cork, and 
 
PARODY 
 
 PARTICLES 
 
 next year he and his followers sup- 
 ported the Home Rule proposals in- 
 troduced by Mr. Gladstone, while he 
 also brought in a bill for the relief of 
 Irish tenants that was rejected. He 
 made a disgraceful appearance in a 
 divorce case, and was cast off by the 
 Gladstonian party, and denounced by 
 the Irish priesthood. He died in 1891. 
 
 PAR'ODY, a kind of literary compo- 
 sition, usually in verse, in which the 
 form and expression of grave or serious 
 writings are closely imitated, but 
 adapted to a ridiculous subject or a 
 humorous method of treatment. 
 
 PAROLE', a promise given by a 
 prisoner of ■war that he will not try to 
 escape if allowed to go about at liberty; 
 or to return, if released, to custody at a 
 certain time if not discharged; or not to 
 bear arms against his captors for a 
 certain period; and the like. 
 
 PARO'TID GLAND, in anatomy, one 
 of the salivary glands, there being two 
 parotids, one on either side of the face, 
 immediately in front of the external 
 ear, and communicating with the mouth 
 by a duct. 
 
 PAR'QUETRY, a species of inlaid 
 woodwork in geometric or other pat- 
 terns, and generally of different colors, 
 principally used for floors. 
 
 PARR, Catharine. See Catharine Parr. 
 
 PARROT, a name common to birds 
 of the family of climbers. The bill is 
 hooked and rounded on all sides, and is 
 much used in climbing. The tarsi are 
 generally short and strong, the toes 
 being arranged two forward and two 
 backward. The tongue, unlike that of 
 most other birds, is soft and fleshy 
 
 Gray parrot. 
 
 throughout its whole extent. The wings 
 are of moderate size, but the tail is 
 often elongated, and in some cases 
 assists in climbing. The plumage is 
 generally brilliant. Parrots breed in 
 hollow trees, and subsist on fruits and 
 seeds. Several species can not only 
 imitate the various tones of the human 
 voice, but also exercise in some cases 
 actual conversational powers. Some 
 live to a great age, instances being 
 known of these birds reaching seventy 
 and even ninety years. The species are 
 nun.erous, and are known under the 
 various names of parrots, parakeets, 
 macaws, lorikeets, lories, and cocka- 
 toos, the name parrot, when used dis- 
 
 tinctively, being generally applied to 
 species of some size, that have a strongly 
 hooked upper mandible and a tail short 
 or of medium length. They are natives 
 of both tropical and sub-tropical regions, 
 and even extend northward into the 
 United States, and south to the Straits 
 of Magellan, New Zealand, and Tas- 
 mania. The best-known species is the 
 gray parrot of Western Africa, which 
 can be most easily trained to talk. The 
 green parrots are also common as do- 
 mestic pets, being brought from the 
 
 PsittacidEe. 
 
 1, Head and foot of macaw. 2. Do. of blue-'bel- 
 lled lorikeet. 3, Do. of Goliath aratoo. 
 
 4, Head of gray parrot. 
 
 tropical regions of South America. The 
 Carolina parrot is found in the United 
 States, and is gregarious in its habits. 
 
 PARSERS', the name given in India 
 to the fire-worshipping followers of 
 Zoroaster, chiefly settled in Bombay, 
 Surat, etc., where they are among the 
 most successful merchants. They have 
 a great reverence for fire in all its forms, 
 since they find in it the symbol of the 
 good deity Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd). 
 To this divinity they have dedicated 
 “fire-temples,” on whose altar the sacred 
 flame is kept continually burning. 
 Benevolence is the chief practical pre- 
 cept of their religion, and their practice 
 of this finds its evidence in their many 
 charitable institutions. One of the most 
 curious of their customs is in the dis- 
 posal of their dead. For this they erect 
 what are called “towers of silence,” 
 built of stone, about 25 feet high, and 
 with a small door to admit the corpse. 
 Inside is a large pit with a raised cir- 
 cular platform round it on which the 
 body is exposed that it may be denuded 
 of flesh by vultures, after which the 
 bones drop through an iron grating into 
 the pit below. The number of Parsees in 
 India at last census was 94,190. 
 
 PARSLEY, a plant, one species of 
 which, the common parsley, is a well- 
 known garden vegetable, used for com- 
 municating an aromatic and agreeable 
 flavor to soups and other dishes. 
 
 PARSNIP, a plant of which there are 
 many Varieties. It is a tall erect plant, 
 with pinnate leaves and bright-yellow 
 flowers, and much cultivated for its 
 roots, which have been used as an 
 esculent from a very early period. They 
 are also cultivated as food for the use of 
 cattle. 
 
 PARSON, in English ecclesiastical 
 law, is the rector or incumbent of a 
 parish; also, in a wider sense, any one 
 that has a parochial charge or cure of 
 souls. Four requisites are necessary to 
 constitute a parson, viz. holy orders, 
 presentation, institution, and induction. 
 His duties consist chiefly of performing 
 divine service and administering the 
 
 CCl r* T**! IVI t Q 
 
 PAR'THENON, a celebrated Grecian 
 temple of Athena, on the Acropolis of 
 Athens, one of the finest monuments of 
 ancient architecture. It is built of 
 marble, in the Doric style, and had 
 originally 8 columns on each of the two 
 fronts, with 17 columns on the sides, 
 or 46 in all, of which 32 are still stand- 
 ing; length 228 feet, breadth 101, and 
 height to the apex of the pediments 64 
 feet; height of columns 34 feet 3 inches. 
 The pediments were filled with large 
 statues, the metopes adorned with 
 sculptures in relief. After serving as a 
 Christian church and as a mosque, it 
 was rendered useless for any such pur- 
 
 Soutliwest angle of the Parthenon, from 
 the Museum hill. 
 
 pose in 1687 by the explosion of a 
 quantity of gunpowder which the Turks 
 had placed in it during the siege of 
 Athens by the Venetians. Though the 
 more precious pieces of sculpture have 
 been dispersed among various European 
 collections the Parthenon still bears an 
 imposing aspect. 
 
 PARTICIPLE, in grammar, a part of 
 speech, so called because it partakes of 
 the character both of a verb and an 
 adjective. The participle differs from 
 the adjective in that it implies time, and 
 therefore applies to a specific act, where- 
 as the adjective designates only an 
 attribute, as an habitual quality or char- 
 acteristic, without regard to time. 
 When we say, “he has learned his les- 
 son,” we have regard to a specific act 
 done at a certain time ; but in the phrase 
 “a learned man,” learned designates an 
 habitual quality. In the former case 
 learned is a participle; in the latter, 
 an adjective. There are two participles 
 in English: the present — ending in -ing, 
 and the past — ending, in regular verbs, 
 in -ed. 
 
 PARTICLES, such parts of speech as 
 are incapable of any inflection, as, for 
 
PARTNERSHIP 
 
 PASSIONISTS 
 
 instance, the preposition, conjunction, 
 etc. 
 
 PARTNERSHIP is the association of 
 two or more persons for the purpose of 
 undertaking and prosecuting conjointly 
 any business, occupation, or calling; 
 or a voluntary contract by words or 
 writing, between two or more persons, 
 for joining together their money, goods, 
 labor, skill, or all or any of them, upon 
 an agreement that the gain or loss shall 
 be divided in certain proportions among 
 them, depending upon the amount of 
 money, capital stock, etc., furnished by 
 each partner. Partnership may be 
 constituted by certain acts connected 
 with the undertaking apart from any 
 deed or oral contract. The duration of 
 the partnership may be limited by the 
 contract or agreement, or it may be 
 left indefinite, subject to be dissolved 
 by mutual consent. The members of a 
 partnership are called nominal when 
 they have not any actual interest in the 
 trade or business, or its profits; but, 
 by allowing their names to be used, hold 
 themselves out to the world as ap- 
 parently having an interest; dormant 
 or sleeping, when they are merely pas- 
 sive in the firm, in contradistinction to 
 those who are active and conduct the 
 business as principles, and who are 
 known as ostensible partners. A part- 
 nership n«iy be limited to a particular 
 transaction or branch of business, with- 
 out comprehending all the adventures 
 in which any one partner may embark, 
 but such reservation must be specified 
 in the deed of contract. For in the usual 
 course each member of a partnership is 
 liable at common law f(|r the debts of 
 the firm, and a sleeping partner is re- 
 sponsible for all debts of the firm which 
 have been contracted during his part- 
 nership. Each partner may also sue the 
 firm as if it were a distinct person, and 
 the firm may be made bankrupt without 
 the goods of any of the partners being 
 sequestrated. The partners are, however, 
 liable jointly and severally to creditors 
 in payment of its debts. 
 
 PARTRIDGE, William Ordway, Amer- 
 ican sculptor and author, born in Paris 
 in 1861. He was educated at Columbia 
 university, in New York City, and studied 
 modeling under Galli in Florence, and 
 Welonski in Rome. Some of his larger 
 works are the bronze statue of Hamilton 
 in front of the Hamilton Club, Brooklyn, 
 N. Y., Shakespeare in Lincoln Park, 
 Chicago, and the equestrian statue of 
 General Grant in Brooklyn. His publi- 
 cations include: Art for America; Song 
 Life of a Sculptor, The Technique of 
 Sculpture, The Angel of Clay, a novel; 
 and Nathan Hale. For a time he was 
 professor of fine arts at Columbian Uni- 
 versity, Washington, D. C. 
 
 PARTRIDGE, a well-known rasorial 
 bird of the grouse family. The common 
 partridge occurs in nearly all parts of 
 Europe, in North Africa, and in some 
 parts of Western Asia. The wings and 
 tail are short, the tarsi as well as the toes 
 naked, and the tarsi not spurred. The 
 greater part of the plumage is ash-gray 
 finely varied with brown and black. 
 They feed on grain and other seeds, 
 insects and their larva and pupa. The 
 name partridge is applied in the United 
 
 States to several North American species 
 of quails. 
 
 PARTRIDGE-BERRY, a plant in- 
 habiting North America, also known 
 as wintergreen. The name is also applied 
 to another North American shrub, a 
 
 Red-legged partridge. 
 
 pretty little trailing plant, with white, 
 fragrant flowers and scarlet berries, 
 natural order Rubiaceae. 
 
 PARTS OF SPEECH are the classes 
 into which words are divided in virtue 
 of the special functions which they dis- 
 charge in the sentence. Properly speak- 
 ing there are only seven such classes, 
 namely the noun, adjective, pronoun, 
 verb, adverb, preposition, and conjunc- 
 tion; for the article, which is usually 
 classed as a separate part of speech, is 
 essentially an adjective, while the inter- 
 jection can hardly be said to belong to 
 articulate speech at all. Each of the 
 parts of speech will be found separately 
 treated under their several heads 
 throughout the work. 
 
 PASADENA, city in Los Angeles co.. 
 Cal., on the Los Angeles Terminal and 
 the Southern Pac. railways; 9 miles 
 n.e. of Los Angeles. It is at the foot of 
 the Sierra Madre Mountains, at an ele- 
 vation of 850 feet above sea-level, and 
 is in the beautiful San Gabriel valley, 
 noted for its orange and lemon groves 
 and the cultivation of smaller fruit. 
 Pop. 11,215. 
 
 PASCAL, Blaise, a French philosopher 
 and mathematician, born at Clermont, 
 in Auvergne, 1623, died 1662. In early 
 youth he showed a decided inclination 
 for geometry, and so rapid was his ad- 
 vance that while yet in his sixteenth 
 year he wrote a treatise on conic sec- 
 tions, which received the astonished 
 commendation of Descartes. His studies 
 in languages, logic, physics, and phil- 
 osophy were pursued with such assiduity 
 that his health was irrecoverably gone 
 in his eighteenth year. In 1647 he in- 
 vented a calculating machine, and about 
 the same time he made several dis- 
 coveries concerning the equilibrium of 
 fluids, the weight of the atmosphere, 
 etc. He now came under the influence 
 of the Jansenists Arnauld and others, 
 and from 1654 he lived much at the 
 monastery of Port Royal, and partly 
 accepted its rigorous rule, though he 
 never actually became a solitaire. About 
 1655 he wrote, in defense of his Jansenist 
 friend Arnauld, his famous Provincial 
 Letters (Lettres Ecrites par Louis de 
 Montalte h un Provincial de ses Amis), 
 and after his death his Pensees or 
 Thoughts were published as the frag- 
 ments of an unfinished apology for 
 Christianity. 
 
 PAS-DE-CALAIS (pa-de-ka-la), a mar- 
 itime department of Northern France; 
 
 area, 2550 sq. miles. The principal 
 harbors are Boulogne and Calais. The 
 chief minerals are indifferent coal, 
 good pipe and potter’s clay, and excel- 
 lent sandstone. There are numerous 
 iron-foundries, glass-works, potteries, 
 tanneries, bleach-works, mills, and fac- 
 tories of all kinds. The capital is Arras. 
 Pop. 955,391. 
 
 PASHA, in Turkey, an honorary title 
 originally bestowed on princes of the 
 blood, but now conferred upon military 
 commanders of high rank and the gover- 
 nors of provinces. There are three 
 grades, each distinguished by a number 
 of horse-tails waving from a lance, the 
 distinctive badge of a pasha. Three 
 horse-tails are allotted to the highest 
 dignitaries; the pashas of two tails are 
 generally the governors of the more 
 important provinces; and the lowest 
 rank, of one tail, is filled by minor pro- 
 vincial governors. 
 
 PASSAIC, a city in Passaic co., N. J., 
 on the Passaic river, and the Erie, the 
 Del., Lack, and W., and Susquehanna 
 railways; 5 miles s.e. of Paterson, the 
 county seat, 12 miles n.w. of New York 
 City. Pop. 30,125. 
 
 PASSAGE, Birds of. See Migration. 
 
 PASSENGER PIGEON, a bird of the 
 pigeon family, which abounds in 
 America. It is distinguished from the 
 common pigeon chiefly by its long 
 graduated tail. It is about 15 inches in 
 length, with finely-tinted plumage, 
 small head, and long wings. The multi- 
 plication of these pigeons is so rapid, 
 and their destructive power so great, 
 that they are obliged to migrate from 
 place to place in vast flocks to obtain 
 their food. They fly in dense columns 
 at a great height, and such a column, 
 one mile broad and 140 miles long, has 
 been observed. The larger breeding- 
 places are said to cover a forest area of 
 about 40 miles. 
 
 PASSENGERS, in law, the railway 
 and other public carriers contract to 
 carry passengers without any negligence 
 on their (the carriers’) part. In case of 
 accident it lies on the carrier to show 
 that it was from no fault or negligence 
 on his part, or on the part of his serv- 
 ants, that the accident occurred. Hence 
 all passengers injured (or in case of 
 death their nearest relatives) have a 
 claim for compensation, unless it can 
 be proved that the accident was due to 
 the fault of the passenger. Passengers 
 by sea are carried subject to the same 
 general law as those by land : the carriers 
 are bound to observe all due precautions 
 to prevent accident or delay. 
 
 PASSION^The, a name for the cruci- 
 fixion of Jesus and its attendant suffer- 
 ings. 
 
 PASSION-FLOWER, a large genus of 
 twining plants. They are all twining 
 plants, often scrambling over trees to a 
 considerable length, and in many cases 
 are most beautiful objects, on account 
 of their large, rich, or gaily-colored 
 flowers, which are often succeeded by 
 orange-colored edible fruits, for which 
 indeed they are chiefly valued in the 
 countries where they grow wild. 
 
 PASSIONISTS, a religious order in the 
 Church of Rome, founded in 1737. The 
 members practice many austerities; 
 they go bare-footed, rise at midnight to 
 
PASSION-PLAY 
 
 PATENT 
 
 recite the canonical hours, etc. It is 
 also known as the Order of the Holy 
 Cross and the Passion of Christ. 
 
 PASSION-PLAY, a mystery or miracle 
 play representing the different scenes 
 in the passion of Christ. The passion 
 play is still extant in the periodic repre- 
 sentations at Oberammergau. 
 
 PASSION-WEEK. See Holy Week. 
 PASSIVE, in grammar, a term applied 
 to certain verbal forms or inflections 
 expressive of suffering or being affected 
 by some action, or expressing that the 
 nominative is the object of some action 
 or feeling; as, she is loved and admired. 
 
 PAS'SOVER, a feast of the Jews, in- 
 stituted to commemorate the providen- 
 tial escape of the Hebrews in Egypt, 
 when God, smiting the first-born of the 
 Egyptians, passed over the houses of 
 the Israelites, which were marked with 
 the blood of the paschal lamb. It was 
 celebrated on the first full moon of the 
 spring, from the 14th to the 21st of the 
 month Nisan, which was the first 
 month of the sacred year. During the 
 eight days of the feast the Israelites 
 were permitted to eat only unleavened 
 bread, hence the passover was also 
 called the “feast of unleavened bread." 
 Every householder with his family ate 
 on the first evening a lamb killed by the 
 riest, which was served up without 
 reaking the bones. The passover was 
 the principal Jewish festival. 
 
 PASSPORT, a warrant of protection 
 and authori.y to travel, granted to 
 persons moving from place to place, by 
 a competent authority. In some states 
 no foreigner is allowed to travel without 
 a passport from his government, and 
 in all cases the visitor to the continent 
 of Europe is wiser to provide himself 
 with one, if only as a means of indenti- 
 fication. In Russia, and Turkey in 
 particular, a passport is indispensable. 
 
 PASTi^ Giuditta, operatic singer, 
 born at Como, near Milan, in 1798, of 
 Jewish parents, died 1865. She ap- 
 peared at first without success, but in 
 1819-22 her reputation steadily in- 
 creased, and up till 1833 she held one of 
 the foremost places on the lyric stage, 
 which she then quitted. She was spe- 
 cially distinguished in the tragic opera; 
 Bellini wrote for her his Norma and 
 Sonnambula, and she made the roles of 
 Medea, Desdemona, and Semiramide 
 her own. 
 
 PASTE, a composition in which there 
 is just sufficient moisture to soften 
 without liquefying the mass, as the paste 
 made of flour used in cookery. The term 
 is also applied to a highly refractive 
 variety of glass, a composition of pounded 
 rock-crystal melted with alkaline salts, 
 and colored with metallic oxides; used 
 for making imitation gems. 
 
 PASTEL, or PASTIL, a colored crayon. 
 Pastel painting. See Crayon. 
 
 PASTERN, the part of a horse’s leg 
 between the joint next the foot and the 
 coronet of the hoof ; it answers to the 
 first phalanx of a man’s finger. 
 
 PASTEUR (pa,s-teur), Louis, French 
 chemist and bacteriologist, born at 
 Dole, Jura, 1822, died 1895; educated 
 chiefly at the Ecole Normals, Paris, 
 where in 1847 he took his degree as 
 doctor. The following year he was ap- 
 pointed professor of physics in Stras- 
 
 burg, where he devoted much research 
 to the subject of fermentation; in 1857 
 he received the appointment of dean in 
 the Faculty of Sciences, Lille; in 1863 
 he became professor of geology, chem- 
 istry, and physics at the Ecole des 
 Beaux-Arts, Paris; and in 1867 pro- 
 fessor of chemistry at the Sorbonne. 
 He became a member of the French 
 academy in 1882. He has been espe- 
 cially successful in proving the part 
 played by microbes in fermentation and 
 decomposition, in introducing a success- 
 ful treatment of disease in silkworms 
 
 M. Louis Pasteur. 
 
 and cattle, and has achieved great 
 success in his efforts to check hydro- 
 phobia by means of inoculation. To 
 enable him to deal with this disease 
 under the best conditions a Pasteur 
 Institute was opened in Paris, where 
 patients are received from all parts of 
 Europe. Pasteur Institutes have also 
 been opened in many of the large cities 
 of the Union. See Hydrophobia. 
 
 PASTORAL POETRY, poetry which 
 deals, in a more or less direct form, with 
 rustic life. It has generally flourished in 
 highly-corrupted artificial states of 
 society. Thus it was that Theocritus, 
 the first pastoral poet, made artistic 
 protest against the licentiousness of 
 Syracuse; and Virgil wrote his Bucolics 
 and Eclogues in the corrupt Roman 
 court. In the 16th century pastoral 
 poetry received its most notable expres- 
 sion in the Arcadia of G. Sannazaro, 
 the Aminta of Tasso, and the Pastor 
 Fido of Guarini. This tendency, which 
 was so potent in Italy, spread to Eng- 
 land, and influenced the Shepherd’s 
 Calendar of Spenser, the Arcadia of 
 Sidney, the Faithful Shepherdess of 
 Fletcher, As You Like It of Shakespeare, 
 and the Comus of Milton. 
 
 PASTURES, land under grass and 
 herbage, whicn is eaten as it grows by 
 horses, oxen, sheep, and other herbiv- 
 orous animals. First-class pastures are 
 used for feeding heavy oxen; second 
 class for inferior or dairy cattle; while 
 hill-sides, moors, and uplands are 
 utilized for sheep. 
 
 PATA'GIUM is the name applied to 
 the expansion of the skin or integument- 
 ary membrane by means of which bats, 
 flyiiig squirrels, flying lizards, and other 
 semi-aerial forms support themselves 
 in the air. This membrane is not a true 
 wing, but is used as a kind of parachute 
 for temporary support. 
 
 PATAGO'NIA, is the name applied to 
 that extreme portion of South America 
 which is bounded e. by the Atlantic, w. 
 by the Pacific, s. by the Strait of Magel- 
 lan, and n. by the Rio Negro. Since 1881 
 this large territory has been, by treaty, 
 divided between Chile and the Argentine 
 Republic, so that the portion west of 
 the Andes (63,000 sq. miles) belongs now 
 to the former, and the portion east of the 
 Andes (360,000) belongs to the latter. 
 The Straits of Magellan form a southern 
 boundary of 360 miles, and separate the 
 mainland from the innumerable islands 
 of Tierra del Fuego. Here the Chilian 
 government have established the settle- 
 ment of Punta Arenas, with stations 
 along the coast. The Patagonians are a 
 tall, muscular race averaging fully 6 
 feet in height, with black hair, thick 
 lips, and skin of a dark-brown color. 
 They are a nomad race, divided into 
 numerous tribes, whose chief occupa- 
 tion is in hunting and cattle-breeding. 
 
 Patagonians. 
 
 This native population, however, never 
 numerous, is rapidly disappearing. 
 Colonization is encouraged by the 
 Argentine government, and there are 
 many tracts suitable for European 
 settlement. The country was first dis- 
 covered by Magellan in 1520. 
 
 PATE DE FOIE GRAS (pa-ta de fwa 
 gra), a dish made from the enlarged 
 livers of overfed geese, and much 
 relished by epicures. It is made in the 
 form of a pie, and from its oily nature 
 is very indigestible. 
 
 PATEL'LA, the name applied in 
 anatomy to the “knee-cap” or “knee- 
 pan,” the sesamoid bone of the knee. — 
 The name is also applied to a genus of 
 gasteropodous molluscs comprising the 
 limpets. 
 
 PA'TENT, a privilege from the gov- 
 ernment, granted by letters patent 
 (whence the name), conveying to the in- 
 dividual or individuals specified therein 
 the sole right to make, use, or dispose 
 of some new invention or discovery for 
 a certain limited period, which in the 
 United States may run to seventeen 
 years should the inventor be able to 
 prove that the invention, though of 
 great public utility, has been up till that 
 time almost unprofitable to him. Letters 
 patent are obtained upon application to 
 
PATERNOSTER 
 
 PATTI 
 
 the commissioner of patents, Washing- 
 ton, D. C., setting forth that the 
 petitioner has, after great labor and 
 expense, made a certain discovery 
 which he describes, and which he be- 
 lieves will be of great public utility, and 
 that he is the first inventor. The person 
 applying for a patent must furnish a 
 provisional specification along with his 
 application, giving a general account of 
 the nature of the article or invention he 
 wishes to be patented. The application 
 and specification are submitted to an 
 examiner connected with the patent 
 office, and if he report that everything is 
 satisfactory and done in due form, the 
 application is accepted, otherwise the 
 party may have to make amendments 
 in his application and specification. 
 Before doing so, however, he is allowed 
 to appeal to the commissioner of patents 
 who decides the matter. Finally an 
 appeal lies to the supreme court of the 
 District of Columbia. The fee upon 
 filing an application is $15; on issuing 
 the patent, $20; on application for ex- 
 tension of a patent, $50; on granting an 
 extension $50. A prior patent by the 
 inventor in a foreign country does not 
 debar him from receiving a patent in 
 the United States, provided the appli- 
 cation be made within seven months 
 of the application for the foreign patent. 
 
 Where a person has made an inven- 
 tion, but has not completed the details 
 to his satisfaction, or feels that he can 
 improve on it, he may protect himself 
 against a patent being granted mean- 
 while for the same thing, by filing a 
 “caveat” in the patent office. A caveat 
 is a notice which contains a description 
 of the thing claimed as an invention, 
 and concludes with a request that the 
 inventor’s rights be protected until he 
 has completed his invention and has an 
 opportunity to apply for a patent. A 
 caveat is kept secret by the patent office, 
 and entitles the caveator to notice of the 
 filing of an interfering application for a 
 period of one year. If such notice is 
 sent him, the caveator, to retain his 
 rights, must file his application. Speci- 
 fications, and, if necessary, models or 
 samples, within three months there- 
 after. Where he does this his invention 
 is considered to date back to the date 
 of filing the caveat. When the rights of 
 a patentee are being infringed he can 
 protect them by a civil process at law, 
 and his suit will be upheld if he can 
 prove that the main elements of his in- 
 vention have been infringed. A patent 
 once granted can be revoked if anyone 
 can show that the patentee is not the 
 inventor. The patent laws vary con- 
 siderably in foreign countries. 
 
 PATERNOSTER (Latin, “Our Fa- 
 ther”), the opening words of the Latin 
 version of the Lord’s Prayer, hence em- 
 loyed to designate the prayer itself, 
 ee Lord’s Prayer. 
 
 PAT'ERSONjthe capital of Passaic co.. 
 New Jersey, on both sides of the Passiac, 
 near its celebrated falls, and 16 miles 
 northwest from New York. The town 
 was founded in 1792, and now possesses 
 numerous churches, a Court-house, jail, 
 library, etc. The falls, 72 feet high, are 
 within the city limits and supply abun- 
 dant water-power to the numerous cot- 
 ton, silk, and woolen factories, dye and 
 
 P. E.— 60 
 
 print works, iron-foundries, machine- 
 shops, tanneries, saw, paper, and fulling 
 mills, etc. Pop. 120,114. 
 
 PATERSON, William, financier and 
 founder of the Bank of England, was 
 born in Dumfriesshire 1665, died in 
 London 1719. He went through Eng- 
 land as a pedlar, settled for a time at 
 Bristol, subsequently resided in the 
 Bahama Islands. Returning to London 
 he engaged in trade with suceess, and 
 in 1694 proposed and founded the Bank 
 of England, being one of its first direc- 
 tors. 
 
 PATHOLOGY, that part of medicine 
 which explains the nature of diseases, 
 their causes and symptoms, compre- 
 hending nosology, etiology, and symp- 
 tomatology. Pathology may be divided 
 into general pathology, which regards 
 what is common to a number of diseases 
 taken as a class; and special pathology, 
 which treats of individual diseases. 
 
 PATIA'LA, an Indian native state in 
 the jurisdiction of the Punjab govern- 
 ment, the larger part of which is situated 
 south of the Sutlej and the other part in 
 the hill country near Simla; area, 5887 
 sq. miles. Pop. of the state, 1,583,521. 
 The capital is Patiala, 130 miles s.e. of 
 Amritsir. It was founded in 1752 by 
 Sardar Ala Singh, and has a pop. of 
 53,545. 
 
 PATNA, a city of Hindustan, in the 
 lieutenant-governorshif) of Bengal. By 
 reason of its central position and natural 
 advantages the city is an important 
 business center, and the chief seat of the 
 opium trade. Pop. 134,785. — The dis- 
 trict of Patna has an area of 2079 sq. 
 miles, for the most flat and exceedingly 
 fertile. The staple crop is rice, and the 
 other products are wheat, barley, cotton, 
 tobacco and sugar-cane. Pop. 1,623,856. 
 
 PATNA, a native state in the Central 
 Provinces of India. Area 2400 sq. miles. 
 It is now under direct British super- 
 vision. Pop. 277,566. 
 
 PATOIS (pa-twa), a French word of 
 unknown origin used to denote a dialect 
 spoken by the rustic, provincial, or un- 
 educated classes. 
 
 PATRIARCHS are the antediluvian 
 heads of families, and the three fathers 
 of the Hebrew race, Abraham, Isaac 
 and Jacob. The term at a later period 
 became the title of the presidents of the 
 sanhedrim, which exercised a general 
 authority over the Jews of Syria and 
 Persia after the destruction of Jerusa- 
 lem. From them the title was adopted 
 by the Christians, who applied it, from 
 the beginning of the 5th century, to the 
 bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alex- 
 andria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The 
 Patriarch of Rome became the supreme 
 pontiff of the west (see Popes), the four 
 heads of the eastern ehurch preserving 
 the title of patriarch. The patriarch of 
 Constantinople is the primate of the 
 Greek church in the Ottoman empire, 
 and bears the title of aecumenical. 
 
 PATRICIANS, the name given by the 
 Romans to the members and descend- 
 ants by blood or adoption of the original 
 gentes, houses or clans who, after the 
 plebians became a distinct order, con- 
 stituted the aristocracy of the city and 
 territory. See Rome. 
 
 PATRICK (Patricius). St., the apostle 
 of Ireland, was born aoout 396 in the 
 
 British Roman province of Valentia, 
 probably at Nemthur on the Clyde 
 where Dumbarton now is. His father, a 
 decurion in the Roman army, retired to 
 a farm on the Solway, whence, at the 
 age of sixteen, Patrick was carried off 
 by a band of marauders and sold as a 
 slave to the Irish Piets of county An- 
 trim. After six years he made his 
 escape, and, resolving to devote him- 
 self to the conversion of Ireland, pre- 
 pared himself for the priesthood, prob- 
 ably at the monastic institution founded 
 by St Ninian at Candida Casa (Whit- 
 horn) in Galloway. Having been or- 
 dained a bishop and received the papal 
 benediction from Celestine I., he went 
 over to Ireland about the year 432. 
 Here he is said to have founded over 360 
 churches, baptized with his own hand 
 more than 12,000 persons, and ordained 
 a great number of priests. The date of 
 his death is probably 469; it took place 
 at a place called Saul, near Downpat- 
 rick, and his relics were preserved at 
 Downpatrick till the time of the refor- 
 mation. His authentic literary remains 
 consist of his Confessions and a letter 
 addressed to a Welsh chief named 
 Corotic. The existence of two other Irish 
 apostles, Patrick or Palladius, and Senn 
 (old) Patrick, about the same time has 
 caused much confusion in the history 
 of the early Irish church. 
 
 PATMCK, St., Order of, am- Irish 
 Order of knighthood, instituted in 1783 
 by George III., originally consisting 
 of the sovereign, the lord-lieutenant of 
 Ireland for the time being (who is the 
 grandmaster of the order), and fifteen 
 knights; but by a statute in 1833 the 
 order was enlarged and the nmnber of 
 knights raised to twenty-two. The 
 badge of the order is of gold, oval in 
 shape, with the cross of St. Patrick sur- 
 mounted by a shamrock in the center, 
 and round this is a blue enamelled band 
 bearing the motto “Quis separabit.” 
 The badge is suspended to a collar of 
 roses and harps by means of an imperial 
 crown and gold harp. The mantle and 
 hood are of sky-blue tabinet, lined with 
 white silk. 
 
 PATROL', a walking or marching 
 round by a guard in the night to watch 
 and observe what passes, and to secure 
 the peace and safety of a garrison, town, 
 camp, or other place ; also, the guard or 
 persons who go the rounds for observa- 
 tion. 
 
 PA'TRON, in the Roman republic, a 
 patrician who had plebeians, called 
 clients, under his immediate protection 
 and whose interests he supported by his 
 authority and influence. In later times 
 the term patron was applied to every 
 protector or influential promoter of the 
 interests of others; hence the saints who 
 were believed to watch over the interests 
 of particular persons, places, or trades 
 were called patron saints. 
 
 PATTI, Adelina Maria Clorinda, opera- 
 singer, born at Madrid in 1843; re- 
 ceived her musical training from her 
 brother-in-law, Maurice Strakosch; 
 made her first appearance in New York 
 in 1859 as Lucia; and in 1861 made a 
 brilliant d6but at Covent Garden, Lon- 
 don, in the parts of Amina, Violetta, 
 Zerlina, and Martha. Since then she has 
 successfully established her reputation 
 
PATTISON 
 
 PAWTUCKET 
 
 .'.s an artist in the chief cities of Europe 
 and America. In 1868 she married the 
 Marquis de Caiix, but got divorce in 
 1883. In 1886 she married Signor 
 Nicolini, and in 1899 Baron Cederstrom. 
 
 PATTISON, Mark, English writer, 
 born in 1813, died in 1884. He was a 
 contributor to the famous Essays and 
 Reviews, and published an edition of 
 Pope’s Epistles and Satires (1869), a 
 work on Isaac Casaubon (1875), a me- 
 moir of Milton in the Men of Letters 
 Series . (1879), the Sonnets of Milton 
 (1883), and numerous articles in re- 
 views, etc. 
 
 PAUL, the apostle, commonly called 
 Saint Paul, was born of Jewish parents 
 at Tarsus, in Cilicia, and inherited the 
 rights of a Roman citizen. He received 
 a learned education, and early went to 
 Jerusalem to study under Gamaliel, one 
 of the most celebrated Jewish rabbins. 
 Thus prepared for the office of teacher, 
 he joined the sect of the Pharisees, and 
 became a persecutor of the Christians, 
 to crush whom the sanhedrim em- 
 ployed him both in and out of Jerusalem. 
 He was present at and encouraged the 
 stoning of Stephen, and it was only when 
 he was overtaken by a vision on his way 
 to Damascus that be became a convert 
 to Christianity. His sudden conversion 
 was indicated by the change of his name 
 from Saul to Paul, and he engaged in the 
 work of an apostle with an ardor that 
 overcame every difficulty. Arabia, 
 Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, and the 
 islands of the Mediterranean were the 
 scenes of his labors. The churches of 
 Philippi in Macedonia, of Corinth, 
 Galatia, and Thessalonica, honored him 
 as their founder; and he wrote epistles 
 to these churches, and to the churches 
 in the chief cities of Greece and Asia 
 Minor. By admitting the Gentiles to 
 the church he incurred the hatred of the 
 Jews, who persecuted him as an apos- 
 tate. Undismayed, the apostle went 
 to Jerusalem and was there arrested and 
 brought to Csesarea, where he was kept 
 a prisoner for two years by the Roman 
 governors Festus and Felix. He ap- 
 pealed, as a Roman citizen, to the em- 
 eror; and on his way to Rome, where 
 e arrived in the year 62, he was ship- 
 wrecked on the island of Melita. At 
 Rome he was treated with respectful 
 kindness, and there is reason to believe 
 that he for some time regained his 
 liberty. According to the tradition of 
 the early church the apostle suffered 
 martyrdom during the reign of Nero. 
 
 PAUL I., Emperor of Russia, son of 
 Peter III. and Catharine II., was born 
 in 1754. On the death of Catharine in 
 1796 ne succeeded to the throne, and 
 began his reign with acts of generosity. 
 He put an end to the war with Persia, 
 and liberated the Poles who were in 
 confinement in Russia. He joined the 
 coalition of crowns against France, and 
 sent 100,000 men, under Suwarofif and 
 Korsakoff, to Italy and Switzerland, 
 and partly to Holland, but he afterward 
 favored the cause of Napoleon. Paul 
 caused himself to be declared grand- 
 master of the Knights of Malta Q.798), 
 but Britain, having conquered the island 
 in 1800, refused to surrender it to the 
 Russian emperor. He therefore laid an 
 embargo on all British ships in the 
 
 Russian ports, and prevailed upon the 
 Swedish, Danish, and Prussian courts 
 to enter into a convention against Great 
 Britain. At length (1801) the internal 
 administration and his increasing acts 
 of tyranny gave rise to a strong popular 
 discontent, and he was murdered in his 
 bed March 24, 1801. 
 
 PAUL, St., Minnesota. See Saint Paul. 
 
 PAULDING, James Kirke, miscellane- 
 ous writer, born in Dutchess co., New 
 York, 1779; died 1860. He removed to 
 New York, where he became intimately 
 acquainted with Washington Irving, 
 and published in connection with him a 
 series of humorous and satirical essays, 
 entitled Salmagundi. For some years 
 he was secretary of the United States 
 navy. He published a second series of 
 Salmagundi, entirely his own composi- 
 tion; several novels, among which are 
 Konigsmarke, and the Dutchman’s 
 Fireside; a Life of Washington; and 
 many political pamphlets, poems, etc. 
 
 PAUL’S (St.) CATHEDRAL, London, 
 is situated on Ludgate Hill, an elevaton 
 on the north bank of the Thames. The 
 site of the present building was originally 
 occupied by a church erected by Ethel- 
 bert, king of Kent, in 610. This was 
 destroyed by fire in 1087, and another 
 edifice. Old St. Paul’s, was shortly after- 
 ward commenced. The structure was 
 in the Gothic style, in the form of a 
 Latin cross, 690 feet long, 130 feet 
 broad, with a lead-covered wooden 
 spire rising to the height of 520 feet. 
 The middle aisle was termed Paul’s 
 Walk, from its being frequented by 
 idlers as well as money-lenders and 
 general dealers. Old St. Paul’s was 
 much damaged by a fire in 1137, by 
 lightning in 1444, again by fire in 1561, 
 and was utterly destroyed by the great 
 fire in 1666. The ruins remained for 
 about eight years, when the rebuilding 
 was taken in hand by the government 
 of Charles II. (1675-1710). The whole 
 building was completed at a total cost 
 of $7,500,000 under one architect (Sir 
 Christopher Wren), one master-mason 
 (Thomas Strong), and one Bishop of 
 London (Dr. Henry Compton). The 
 building is of Portland stone, in the 
 form of a cross. Its length is 510 feet; 
 the width from north to south portico 
 282 feet; the general height is 100 feet. 
 The whole is surmounted by a great 
 dome raised on eight arches. Above 
 the dome is a lantern or gallery ter- 
 minated above by a ball and gilded 
 cross, 404 feet from the pavement be- 
 neath. The elevated portico forming 
 the grand entrance consists of twelve 
 Corinthian columns, with an upper 
 series of eight pillars of the composite 
 order, supporting a pediment ; the front 
 being flanked by two bell-towers 120 
 feet in height. The entablature repre- 
 sents in relief the conversion of St. 
 Paul, a work of Francis Bird. Upon the 
 south front, which corresponds with the 
 north, is a phoenix rising from the flames 
 with the motto, “Resurgam” (I shall 
 rise again). The pavement of the interior 
 is composed of slabs of black and white 
 marble. The crypt under the name con- 
 tains the burying-places of many illus- 
 trious personages, and some interesting 
 relics of old St. Paul’s. Various decora- 
 tive, structural and other improvements 
 
 have recently been made on the interior 
 of the cathedral. 
 
 PAUNCEFOTE, Sir Julian, was born 
 at Munich, Bavaria, September 13, 
 1828, and educated at Paris, Geneva, and 
 and at Marlborough college. He was 
 called to the bar of the Inner Temple in 
 1852, joined the Oxford circuit, and also 
 practiced as a conveyancer. He was 
 appointed attorney-general of Hong- 
 Kong in May, 1865, and acted as chief 
 justice of the supreme court in 1869, 
 and in 1874 was knighted by patent. 
 He was appointed chief justice of the 
 Leeward islands in 1873, and assistant 
 under-secrqtary of state for the eolonie.s 
 in 1874. In 1876 he was appointed 
 assistant (legal) under-secretary of state 
 for foreign affairs. He was created a 
 C.B. and a K.C.M.G. in 1880, and in 
 1882 he succeeded the late Lord Tenter- 
 den as permanent under-secretary of 
 state for foreign affairs. In 1885 he re- 
 ceived the grand cross of the Order of 
 St. Michael and St. George. In 1888 he 
 was appointed British ambassador at 
 Washington. In the Bering Sea, the 
 Venezuelan, and other difficulties be- 
 tween Great Britain and the United 
 States, Pauncefote’s tact in dealing 
 with international affairs was powerful, 
 and his friendliness to the United States 
 was shown in his efforts to have the 
 Clayton-Bulwer treaty abrogated. He 
 was a British delegate to the peace con- 
 ference at The Hague in 1899, and for 
 his services there was raised to the peer- 
 age as Baron Pauncefote of Preston. 
 He died in 1902. 
 
 PAUPERISM. See Poor and Poor'’s 
 Laws. 
 
 PAUSA'NIAS, a Lacedaemonian gen- 
 eral, nephew of Leonidas. He com- 
 manded the allied Greeks against the 
 Persians at the battle of Plataea in 479 
 B.C. To himself alone he ascribed the 
 victory, and his pretensions became in- 
 supportable when he afterward, with a 
 combined Greek fleet, delivered Greece, 
 Cyprus, and finally Byzantium from 
 the Persian rule. At length he entered 
 into secret negotiations with Xerxes, 
 and conceived the design of making 
 himself master of Greece. To escape 
 arrest he sought shelter in the temple of 
 Athene at Sparta, where he was shut in 
 by the enraged people and starved to 
 death (b.c. 467). 
 
 PA'VIA (pa-ve'a), a city of Italy, in 
 Lombardy, 22| miles from Milan, capi- 
 tal of a province of the same name. Pop. 
 35,447. — The province, which extends 
 on both sides of the Po, has an area of 
 1285 sq. miles, partly covered by the 
 Apennines. Pop. 496,832. 
 
 PAVILION, in architecture, a turret 
 or small building, usually isolated, hav- 
 ing a tent-formed roof, whence the 
 name. A projecting part of a building, 
 when it is carried higher than the general 
 structure and provided with a tent- 
 formed roof, is also called a pavilion. 
 
 PAWL, a short piece or bar moving 
 round a pivot at one end, so as to catch 
 in a notch or projection of a revolving 
 body and prevent motion in one direc- 
 tion, as in the capstan or windlass of a 
 ship. 
 
 PAWTUCK'ET, a town in Providence 
 CO., Rhode Island, 39 miles s.s.w. of 
 Boston. It occupies a pleasant sitej 
 
PAX 
 
 PEACOCK 
 
 has cotton*mills, print-works, machine- 
 shops, etc.; manufactures of boots, 
 shoes, carriages, and an extensive trade. 
 Pop. 43,110. 
 
 PAX, an ecclesiastical utensil in the 
 Roman Catholic church, formed usually 
 of a plate of metal, chased, engraved, or 
 inlaid with figures representing the 
 Virgin and Child, the crucifixion, etc., 
 which, having been kissed by the priest 
 during the Agnus Dei of the high mass, 
 is handed to the acolyte, who presents 
 it to be kissed by each of the ecclesiastics 
 officiating, saying to them Pax tecum 
 •(peace to thee). The decorations of the 
 pax are frequently very rich. 
 
 PAX-WAX, the name given to the 
 strong, stiff tendons running along the 
 sides of the neck of a large quadruped 
 to the middle of the back, as in an ox or 
 horse. It diminishes the muscular effect 
 needed to support the head in a hori- 
 zontal position. 
 
 PAYMASTER, an officer in the United 
 States army and navy, from whom the 
 officers and men receive their wages, 
 and who is intrusted with money for 
 that purpose. In matters of general 
 discipline the paymaster is subordinate 
 to the commanding officer of his regi- 
 ment; but in regard to the immediate 
 duties of his office he is directly respon- 
 sible to the war-office. The paymaster 
 of a ship in the navy has a general 
 charge of the financial department in 
 dx 0 V0SS0I 
 
 PAYMASTER-GENERAL, a British 
 government officer whose duties were 
 formerly limited to the army, but who 
 now acts as paymaster-general of all the 
 services. Formerly it was a lucrative, 
 but it is now an unpaid office. The pay- 
 master-general is ex-officio a privy 
 councillor. 
 
 PAYNE, Henry B., American politi- 
 cian and capitalist, born at Hamliton, 
 N. Y., in 1810. In 1849 he was elected 
 to the state senate by the democrats, 
 and was their candidate for United 
 States senator in 1851 and for governor 
 in 1857. In 1872 he led the Ohio delega- 
 tion at the Baltihiore convention which 
 nominated Horace Greeley for the 
 presidency. In 1875 he was elected to 
 congress by a fusion of democrats and 
 liberal republicans, and was one of the 
 representatives of the house on the 
 electoral commission in 1877. He was 
 elected United States senator in 1884 
 and served from 1885 until 1891. He 
 died in 1896. 
 
 PAYNE, Henry Clay, American poli- 
 tician, was born in Ashfield, Mass., in 
 1843. In 1863 he removed to Milwaukee, 
 Wis., and from 1875 to 1885 was po.st- 
 master of Milwaukee. In 1880 he became 
 a member of the republican national 
 committee, and in the presidential cam- 
 paigns of 1896 and 1900, as vice-chair- 
 man, conducted the republican cam- 
 paign in the west. In 1897 he was 
 offered the post of ambassador to Ger- 
 many by President KcKinley, but de- 
 clined. In January, 1902, he succeeded 
 Charles Emory Smith as postmaster- 
 general in President Roosevelt’s cabinet. 
 
 PAYNE, John Howard, best known 
 as the author of Home, Sweet Home, 
 was born in New York in 1791. He made 
 his d6but at the Park theater. New York, 
 February 24, 1809, as Young Norval in 
 
 Douglas. Payne adapted many plays 
 from the French and produced a num- 
 ber of original ones, among them Brutus, 
 or the Fall of Tarquin, Therese, Virginia, 
 and the comedy of Charles II. The song 
 Home, Sweet Home, occurs in his opera 
 of Clari, or the Maid of Milan, which 
 was produced at the Covent Garden 
 theater in May, 1823. He was appointed 
 American consul at Tunis, Africa, in 
 1842; was recalled in 1845; and re- 
 appointed in 1851. He died there April 
 9, 1852, and was buried in the Cemetery 
 of Saint George at Tunis. In 1883 his 
 remains were brought to Washington. 
 
 PEA, a well-known leguminous plant 
 of many varieties. It is a climbing 
 annual plant, and has been cultivated 
 from remote antiquity. It forms one of 
 the most valuable of culinary vege- 
 tables; contains much farinaceous and 
 saccharine matter, and is therefore 
 highly nutritious. Its seed-vessel is a 
 pod containing one row of round seeds, 
 which are at first soft and juicy, in 
 which state they are i#ed for the table 
 under the name of green peas. They 
 afterward harden and become farina- 
 ceous. A whitish sort, which readily split 
 when subjected to the action of mill- 
 stones, is used in considerable quantities 
 for soups. 
 
 PEABODY, a town in Essex co.. Mass., 
 five miles northwest of Salem. It 
 adopted its present name in 1868 in 
 honor of the philanthropist, George Pea- 
 body, who was born in the township. 
 Peabody institute, which is located here, 
 contains various memorials of its 
 founder. Pop. 12,258. 
 
 PEABODY, George, philanthropist, 
 was born at Danvers (now Peabody) 
 Mass., February 18, 1795. Through his 
 energy and skill he found himself in 1830 
 at the head of one of the largest mer- 
 cantile concerns in the world. About 
 1837 he established himself in London, 
 England, as merchant and money- 
 
 George Peabody. 
 
 broker, and in 1843 he withdrew from 
 the concern in America. It is, however, 
 as a philanthropist that Peabody has 
 made his name a household word. The 
 number of his great benefactions to 
 public objects is too great for mention 
 here. It must suffice to name among the 
 more important a gift of $125,000 for 
 educational purposes at Danvers; 
 $500,000 to found and endow an in- 
 stitution for science in Baltimore, a 
 sum afterward increased by a second 
 donation of $500,000; of various sums 
 to Harvard university ; and of $1,750,000 
 
 for the erection of dwelling-houses for 
 the working-classes in London, which 
 sum was increased by his will to $2,500,- 
 000. He received from the Queen the 
 offer of a baronetcy, but declined it. 
 In 1867 the United States congress 
 awarded him a special vote of thanks 
 for his many large gifts to public institu- 
 tions in America. He died at Eaton 
 Square, London, November 14, 1869. 
 
 PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACH- 
 ERS, a coeducational training school in 
 Nashville, Tenn., founded in 1875 
 through a benefaction of $1,000,000 by 
 George Peabody, planned to foster the 
 cause of intellectual development in 
 the south. Nashville was selected as the 
 most favorable location, and upon the 
 offer of the trustees the buildings and 
 endowment of the University of Nash- 
 ville were accepted as the foundation. 
 The university confers the degrees of 
 bachelor and master of arts, sciences, 
 and letters. The college is supported by 
 the state, the University of Nashville, 
 and the Peabody board, which main- 
 tains nearly 200 scholarships, distrib- 
 uted by the general agent of the Pea- 
 body fund. 
 
 PEACE, Breach of. See Breach. 
 
 PEACE, Justice of. See Justice. 
 
 PEACH, a tree and its fruit, of the 
 almond genus, of many varieties. This 
 is a delicious fruit, the produce of warm 
 or temperate climates. The tree is of 
 moderate stature, but varies in this 
 respect according to soil and climate. 
 The varieties of the fruit, which is a 
 large downy drupe containing a stone, 
 are very numerous, differing in size, 
 flavor, and time of ripening, but they 
 are principally of two sorts, the free- 
 stones and the cling-stones, so called 
 according as the stone separates readily 
 or adheres to the flesh. The peach-tree 
 is supposed to have been introduced 
 into Europe from Persia. In the south- 
 ern parts of England it is grown out of 
 doors, and in the United States it is 
 extensively cultivated, great quantities 
 being canned for export. The ripe fruit 
 is distilled and made into peach brandy. 
 The nectarine is a smooth variety of 
 
 PEACOCK, called also Peafowl, a large 
 and beautiful gallinaceous bird of the 
 
 Peacock. 
 
 genus Pavo, properly the male of the 
 species, the female being, for distinc- 
 tion’s sake, called a peahen. The com- 
 mon peacock is a native of India and 
 
PEANUT 
 
 PEBBLE 
 
 southeastern Asia. This bird is char- 
 acterized by a crest of peculiar form, 
 and by the tail coverts of the male 
 extending far beyond the quills, and 
 being capable of erection into a broad 
 and gorgeous disc. The shining, lax, 
 and silky bards of these feathers, and 
 the eye-like spots which decorate their 
 extremities, are known to every one. 
 The colors and plumage are said to be 
 more brilliant in the wild than in the 
 domesticated state. The wild peahen 
 lays from twenty-five to thirty eggs, and 
 produces only a single brood in each 
 year. The young birds of both sexes are 
 feathered alike for the first two years; 
 and in the third year the tail-coverts of 
 the male begin to be developed and 
 to assume their lustrous appearance. 
 
 PEANUT, an annual plant, also called 
 groundnut, earthnut, goober, etc. It 
 grows from one to two feet high with 
 thick, greenish, hairy, stems and 
 branches. After the flower has fallen 
 the peduncle bends downward and 
 pushes into the ground where the fruit 
 or pod develops. The pods are pale 
 straw colored, wrinkled, slightly curved, 
 and often contracted in the middle, and 
 contain one or two seeds. Since 1866 
 it has been an important crop in the 
 United States, and is mainly grown in 
 Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, and 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Peanuts are used as a forage crop and 
 as hay. The ripe nuts and the cake which 
 remains after the oil is pressed are also 
 fed. Peanut kernels resemble other 
 leguminous seeds in being rich in pro- 
 tein. The fat content is also high. If 
 immature pods are left on the vines, no 
 other fooa is necessary during the 
 winter. Peanut cake mixed with less 
 concentrated feeds has been found to be 
 a useful cattle food. A material called 
 “peanut meal” is made by grinding 
 peanut hulls, immature peanuts, and 
 those of an inferior grade. Of the 
 4,000,000 bushels of peanuts raised 
 yearly in the United States, 3,000,000 
 bushels are used as roasted peanuts. 
 Many nuts are used in the manufacture 
 of confectionery and peanut butter. 
 The latter is prepared by grinding the 
 nut and generally mixing it with a little 
 water. Peanut oil is made in large quan- 
 tities in Europefrom African-raised nuts. 
 The shelled nuts contain 30 to 50 per 
 cent of oil, which, if carefully made, is 
 of good flavor, and is used for various 
 culinary purposes and in the arts. 
 
 PEAR, a tree growing wild in many 
 parts of Europe and Asia, and from 
 which the numerous cultivated varieties 
 have originated. The fruit is char- 
 acterized by a saccharine aromatic juice, 
 a soft and pearly liquid pulp, melting in 
 the mouth, as in the butter-pear; or by 
 a firm and crisp consistence, as in the 
 winter bergamots. The pear is chiefly 
 propagated by grafting or budding on 
 the wild pear stock, or on stocks raised 
 from the seeds of cultivated pears, called 
 free stocks. It is also grafted on the 
 quince, medlar, and the white thorn. 
 At . the present day more than 200 
 varieties are enumerated, and constant 
 accessions are made every year. France 
 and the north of Italy are celebrated 
 for the perfection to which they have 
 carried the culture of this fruit. Numer- 
 
 ous varieties are cultivated solely for 
 the purpose of making perry, a liquor 
 analogous to cider, and prepared nearly 
 in the same manner. The wood is fine- 
 grained, of a yellowish color, and sus- 
 ceptible of a brilliant polish. In the 
 early ages of Greece it was employed in 
 statuary; now it is used for musical 
 instruments, the handles of carpenter’s 
 tools, in wood-engraving, etc. 
 
 PEARL, the name applied to a con- 
 cretion produced within the shells of 
 certain species of bivalve molluscs as 
 the result of some abnormal secretory 
 process. These concretions are highly 
 valued, and are classed among the gems. 
 The production of a pearl is generally 
 begun by the introduction of some 
 foreign body, such as a grain of sand, 
 within the mantle-lobes. The presence 
 of this body has the effect of setting up 
 an irritant action, resulting in the dep- 
 osition by the mantle of a quantity of 
 nacreous material over the offending 
 particle. This material, in certain species 
 of molluscs, is of such a texture and 
 character, and is so deposited in regular 
 laminae or layers, that in due time the 
 structure known as a “pearl” varying 
 in worth and brilliancy, is formed. Chief 
 among such molloscs are the pearl- 
 oyster, the pearl-mussel, and the fresh- 
 water mussels. 
 
 The chief pearl-oyster fisheries are 
 those of Ceylon, which, together with 
 the fisheries in the Persian Gulf, were 
 known to the ancients. The chief seat 
 of the Ceylon fishery is in the Gulf of 
 Manaar, on the northeast of the island. 
 The best pearls are found about Ceylon, 
 Persia, and other eastern coasts, and 
 inferior ones on the tropical coasts 
 of America. The pearl-oyster occurs 
 throughout the Pacific. Very fine pearls 
 are obtained from the Sulu Archipelago 
 on the northeast of Borneo. Of late 
 years pearl-fishing has been started with 
 considerable success in Australian seas; 
 and it is carried on also in the Gulf of 
 Mexico, upon the coast of California, 
 and in the vicinity of Panamd. 
 
 Pearls have formed valued articles of 
 decoration and ornament from the 
 earliest times. Julius Ctesar presented 
 Servilia, the mother of Marcus Brutus, 
 with a pearl valued in modern computa- 
 tion at $240,000; while Cleopatra was 
 said to have swallowed one gem valued 
 at $300,000. A pearl purchased by the 
 traveler Tavernier is alleged to have 
 been sold by him to the Shah of Persia 
 for $900,000. The “Pilgrim” pearl of 
 Moscow is diaphanous in character, and 
 weighs 24 carats. 
 
 Artificial pearls are largely made in 
 France, Germany, and Italy. They are 
 very well imitated by the scales of cer- 
 tain fishes. A substitute for black pearls 
 is found in close-grained hsematite, not 
 too highly polished, and pink pearls 
 are imitated by turning small spheres 
 out of the rosypart of the conch-shell. 
 
 PEARL, Mother of. See Mother-of- 
 Pearl. 
 
 PEARL-ASH, the common name for 
 carbonate of potassium. See Potash. 
 
 PEARL STONE, a felspathic mineral, 
 consisting of silicate of aluminium with 
 varying quantities of iron, lime, and 
 alkalies; it occurs in spherules, which 
 have a pearly luster. 
 
 PEARLY NAUTILUS, a name for the 
 common nautilus. See Nautilus. 
 
 PEAT, a kind of turfy substance con- 
 sisting of vegetable matter which has 
 accumulated by constant growth and 
 decay in hollows or moist situations on 
 land not in a state of cultivation, always 
 more or less saturated with water, and 
 consisting of the remains, more or less 
 decomposed, of mosses and other marsh 
 plants. Peat is generally of a black or 
 dark-brown color, or when recently 
 formed, of a yellowish-brown; it is soft 
 and of a viscid consistence, but it be- 
 comes hard and darker by exposure to 
 the air. When thoroughly dried it burns, 
 giving out a gentle heat without much 
 smoke, accordingly it is used as fuel in 
 those countries where it abounds, as in 
 Scotland and Ireland. It often covers 
 large areas, forming what is called peat- 
 bogs, and in these the accumulation of 
 solid peat may reach a great depth, 
 sometimes 50 feet or more. When pre- 
 pared for fuel in the ordinary way it is 
 dug from the bog in rectangular brick- 
 like masses, which are set up to dry on 
 the spot, and when sufficiently dried are 
 carried away and stacked. Peat, as it is 
 cut from the bog, contains from 80 to 
 90 per cent of water, and when air-dried 
 it retains a proportion of water equal 
 to from 15 to 25 per cent of the whole 
 weight. To increase its value as fuel 
 several methods have been adopted; 
 but in any successful process for treat- 
 ing peat it must be condensed by arti- 
 ficial means, and the water must be 
 expelled and dried out. See Fuel. 
 
 PEARY, Robert Edwin, American 
 Arctic explorer, was born at Cresson, 
 Pa., in 1856. In 1887-8 he was engineer- 
 in-chief of the Nicaragua ship canal. 
 In 1891 he started on his first Arctic 
 expedition and made a brilliant record of 
 achievements, not the least of which 
 were the results of his studies and 
 minute experimentation in the field 
 covering every phase of the equipment 
 for Arctic work. He proved that the 
 northern extension of the great interior 
 ice-caps end below latitude 82° n. 
 He also established the insularity of 
 Greenland and ascertained the exist- 
 ence of detached ice-free land masses 
 north of the mainland and the fact that 
 the east and west coasts rapidly con- 
 verge north of the seventy-eighth 
 parallel. In 1893-95 he made another 
 voyage to the same region. In the 
 spring of 1902 he started over the frozen 
 Arctic ocean from Cape Hecla, on the 
 north coast of Grant Land, in his 
 attempt to reach the North Pole. At 
 his farthest camp in latitude 84° 17' n. 
 the polar pack became impracticable 
 and further efforts to advance were 
 given up. He had attained the nearest 
 approach to the pole in the American 
 Arctic. Commander Peary was elected 
 president of the American Geographical 
 Society in December, 1902. 
 
 PEARY LAND, a name given to the 
 northern coast region of Greenland 
 which was first explored by Peary in 1892. 
 
 PEA-WEEVIL. See Pea-beetle. 
 
 PEBA, a species of the armadillo 
 found in various parts of South America. 
 Its flesh is much valued by the natives. 
 
 PEBBLE, in jewelry, a name com- 
 monly given to an agate. Scotch agates 
 
PECAN 
 
 PEEL 
 
 are commonly known as Scotch pebbles. 
 
 ’PECAN', Pecan-nut, a species of 
 hicko^ and its fruit, growing in North 
 America. It is a large tree, with hard, 
 very tough wood, pinnate leaves, and 
 catkins of small flowers. 
 
 PEC'CARY, a genus of ungulate quad- 
 rupeds, incluaed in the even-toed sec- 
 tion of that order, and nearly allied to 
 
 Peba, or Texan armadillo. 
 
 the swine, in which family the genus is 
 classified. These animals are exclusively 
 confined to America, in which continent 
 they represent the true swine of the Old 
 World. In general form the peccaries 
 resemble small pigs. The best-known 
 species are the collared peccary and the 
 white-lipped peccary. The former rtccurs 
 abundantly in South America, and also 
 extends into North America, living 
 generally in small flocks, which do not 
 hesitate to attack with their tusks any 
 
 Collared peccary. 
 
 one who meddles with them. Their food 
 consists of maize, potatoes, sugar-canes, 
 and similar materials; and cultivated 
 fields suffer much from their raids, 
 This species of peccary is readily do- 
 mesticated. The flesh is savory, and less 
 fat than pigs’ flesh. The peccary pos- 
 sesses a glandular sac or pouch, situated 
 in the loins, which secretes a strongly- 
 smelling fluid of foetid nature. This must 
 be cut away immediately on killing a 
 peccary, to avoid contaminating the 
 flesh. 
 
 PECK, the fourth part of a bushel; 
 a dry measure of 8 quarts for grain, 
 pulse, etc. The standard or imperial 
 peck contains 2 gallons or 554.548 
 cubic inches. 
 
 PECK, Harry Thurston, American 
 editor and critic, born in 1856 in Stam- 
 ford, Conn. His publications include 
 The Semitic Theory of Creation, Sueton- 
 ius, Latin Pronunciation, and he also 
 edited University Bulletin, A Dictionary 
 of Classical Literature and Antiquities, 
 Classical Studies, Roman Life in Latin 
 Prose, and Verse, Trimalchio’s Dinner, 
 and a series of Latin classics for college 
 use. In 1890 he became editor-in-chief 
 of The International Encyclopaedia, 
 continuing as such until 1901, when , ' 
 
 with President Gilman and Professor 
 F. M. Colby, he edited The New Inter- 
 national Encyclopaedia. In 1895 he 
 became editor of the Bookman. 
 
 PECOS RIVER, a river of New Mexico 
 and Texas, which has a southeasterly 
 course of about 600 miles, and falls into 
 the Rio Grande del Norte, but in sum- 
 mer is generally dry. 
 
 PECQUET (pek-a), Jean, born at 
 Dieppe about 1620, died 1674; studied 
 medicine, and especially anatomy, at 
 Montpelier. He discovered and demon- 
 strated the course of the lacteal ves- 
 sels in the human body. 
 
 PED'ALS, parts of the mechanism of 
 a musical instrument acted on by the 
 feet. Pedals are used for different pur- 
 poses in different instruments. In the 
 organ they are used in two distinct 
 ways: first, to act on the swell and stops 
 when the instrument is played with the 
 hands; second, to act upon a distinct set 
 of pipes, called the pedal organ, and 
 which are played independently. On 
 the pianoforte there was at first only 
 one pedal, used to raise the dampers 
 and prolong the sound after the fingers 
 were lifted from the keys; a second was 
 used to soften the notes, and is called 
 the soft or una-corda pedal; a third has 
 of late years been introduced, which 
 arrests the sound immediately after the 
 note is struck, and produces an artificial 
 staccato. In the harmonium the pedals 
 supply the instrument with wind. 
 
 PED'ESTAL, an insulated basement 
 or support for a column, a statue, or a 
 vase. It usually consists of a base, a 
 dado, and a cornice. When a range of 
 columns is supported on a continuous 
 pedestal the latter is called a stylobate. 
 
 PED'IGREE. See Genealogy. 
 
 PED'IMENT, in classic architecture, 
 the triangular mass resembling a gable, 
 above the entablature at the end of 
 buildings or over porticos. The pedi- 
 ment is surrounded by a cornice, and is 
 often ornamented with sculpture. The 
 triangular finishings over doors and 
 windows are also called pediments. 
 In the debased Roman style the same 
 name is given to the same parts, though 
 not triangular in their form. In the 
 architecture of the middle ages small 
 gables and triangular decorations over 
 openings, niches, etc., are called pedi- 
 ments. 
 
 PEDOM'ETER, is an instrument like 
 a watch, which serves to indicate the 
 distance a pedestrian traveler has gone, 
 or rather the number of paces he has 
 made. 
 
 PEDRO II,, ex-Emperor of Brazil, 
 was born at Rio Janeiro 1825; succeeded 
 to the throne on the abdication of his 
 father, Dom Pedro I., in 1831 ; and 
 married the Princess Theresa Christina 
 Maria (died 1890), sister of Francis I., 
 king of Naples, in 1843. Brazil prospered 
 greatly under the rule of Pedro II., who 
 did much to develop its resources in 
 every direction. In 1871 he issued an 
 imperial decree for the gradual abolition 
 of slavery, which totally ceased in Brazil 
 in May, 1888. He was deposed by the 
 revolution of November, 1889, and 
 died at Paris in 1891. 
 
 PEDUN'CLE, in botany, the stem or 
 stalk that supports the fructification of 
 a plant, i. e,, the flower and the fruit. 
 
 PEEKSKILL, an industrial town of 
 the United States, state of New York, 
 on Hudson river, 43 miles north of New 
 York City. Pop. 11,917. 
 
 PEEL, Arthur Wellesley, Viscount, 
 youngest son of Sir Robert Peel, born 
 1829. He was educated at Eton and 
 Oxford; was member for Warwick 
 (1865-1895); pari. sec. to Poor-law 
 board (1868-71); sec. to Board of Trade 
 (1871-73); patronage sec. to treasury 
 (1873-74); under sec. for Home depart- 
 ment (1880) ; succeeded Sir Henry 
 Brand in 1884 as speaker of the House 
 of Commons, retiring in 1895; was chair- 
 man of the Licensing commission of 
 1896-1900 and drafted the minority 
 report. 
 
 PEEL, Sir Robert, British statesman, 
 was born 5th February, 1788, near 
 Bury in Lancashire. Immediately on 
 attaining his majority he was elected 
 member of parliament for Cashel; in 
 1810 he became under-secretary of 
 state for the colonies, and in 1812-18 
 he was chief secretary for Ireland. In 
 1822, under the Liverpool ministry, he 
 
 Sir Robert Peel. 
 
 became home secretary, and continued 
 in this office till the dissolution. Refus- 
 ing to take oflBce under Canning, he 
 joined the ministry of the Duke of 
 Wellington in 1828 as home secretary. 
 The principal act of this ministry was 
 the passing of the Roman Catholic 
 relief bill, which cost Peel his seat for 
 Oxford. Peel also passed the New 
 Metropolitan Police Act, which gave 
 rise to the new nicknames Bobbies and 
 Peelers for the London police. In 1830 
 he succeeded his father as baronet. In 
 the election of 1832 he was returned for 
 Tamworth, for which he continued to 
 sit during the remainder of his life. On 
 the dismissal of the Whig government 
 in 1834 Peel undertook the government 
 but his party in the house being in a 
 minority the task was hopeless. After 
 a brief struggle the ministry resigned, 
 and were succeeded by the Whig min- 
 istry of Lord Melbourne, which lasted 
 from 1835 to 1841. The general election 
 of 1841 gave a large majority to Sir 
 Robert Peel, and the formation of a 
 conservative ministry could no longer 
 be delayed. In the session of 1842 the 
 most important measures were the 
 sliding-scale, by which a considerable 
 reduction was made on the duties on the 
 importation of corn; the imposition of 
 an income-tax for three years, but 
 
PEER 
 
 PELEUS 
 
 which, with various alterations, has con- 
 tinued to be levied to the present time; 
 and a revision of the tariff. In 1844 and 
 1845 he passed his celebrated English 
 and Scotch Banking Acts. During the 
 recess in 1845 the potato-rot and famine 
 in Ireland brought the question of the 
 corn-laws to a crisis, and Peel declared 
 in favor of their total repeal. The act 
 repealing corn-laws (after a modified 
 duty for three years) was passed 26th 
 June, 1846. On the same day the minis- 
 try was defeated in the House of Com- 
 mons on the Irish Coercion bill, and 
 on the 29th of June Sir Robert Peel re- 
 signed. As leader of the opposition he 
 supported many of the measures of the 
 government of Lord John Russell, who 
 succeeded him ; but the policy of Lord 
 Palmerston after the revolution crisis 
 of 1848-49 evoked from him a more 
 active hostility to the ministry. On 
 29th June, 1850, he was thrown from his 
 horse, and received injuries of which he 
 died on 2d July. By his will he re- 
 nounced a peerage for his family, as he 
 had before declined the Garter for himself. 
 
 PEER, in general, signifies an equal, 
 one of the same rank and station. In this 
 sense it is used by the common law of 
 England, which declares that every 
 person is to be tried by his peers. Peer 
 also signifies in Britain a member of one 
 of the five degrees of nobility that con- 
 stitute the peerage (duke, marquis, 
 earl, viscount, baron), or more strictly 
 a member of the House of Lords. The 
 dignity and privileges of peers originated 
 with the growth of the feudal system, 
 the peers being originally the chief 
 vassals holding fiefs directly from the 
 crown, and having, in virtue of their 
 position, the hereditary right of acting 
 as royal counselors. Subsequently not 
 all the crown vassals appeared at court 
 as advisers of the king, but only those 
 who were summoned to appear by writ. 
 This custom grew at length into a rule, 
 and these summonses were considered 
 proofs of hereditary peerage. Latterly 
 the honor of the peerage has been ex- 
 clusively conferred by patent. As re- 
 gards their privileges all peers are on a 
 perfect equality. The chief privileges 
 are those of a seat in the House of Lords, 
 of a trial by persons of noble birth in 
 case of indictments for treason and 
 felony, and misprison thereof, and of 
 exemption from arrest in civil cases. 
 The British peerage collectively consist 
 of peers of England, of Scotland, of 
 Great Britain, of Ireland, and of the 
 United Kingdom, but only a portion of 
 the Scotch and Irish peers are peers of 
 parliament. The lords spiritual, though 
 sitting in the House of Lords, are not 
 considered peers. 
 
 PEF'FER, William Alfred, an Ameri- 
 can lawyer, born in 1831 in Cumberland 
 CO., Pa. In 1865 he removed to Kansas, 
 established the Fredonia Journal and 
 the Coffeyville Journal. In 1874 he was 
 elected to the state senate, in 1880 was 
 a republican presidental elector, and 
 in 1881 assumed the editorship of the 
 Kansas Farmer. From 1891 to 1897 he 
 represented the people’s party in the 
 United States senate, and in 1898 was 
 nominated by the prohibitionists for 
 governor of Kansas. Among his pub- 
 lications are; 
 
 Peffer’s Tariff Manual, The Way Out, 
 The Farmer’s Side, Americanism in the 
 Philippines, Rise and Fall of Populism 
 in the United States. 
 
 PEG'ASUS, in Greek mythology, a 
 winged horse, the offspring of Poseidon 
 and Medusa. Bellerophon made use of 
 Pegasus in his fight with the Chimsera. 
 With the stroke of his hoof Bellerophon 
 called forth the sacred well Hippocrene, 
 on Mount Helicon, from which he was 
 in later times called the horse of the 
 muses. 
 
 PEGU (pe'go), now a division of Lower 
 Burmah, but previous to 1757 a power- 
 ful and independent kingdom, and from 
 that period up to 1853 a province of the 
 Burmese empire, from which it was 
 severed and annexed to the British do- 
 minions in 1853. The province com- 
 prised the whole delta of the Irrawady; 
 area, 25,964 sq. miles; pop. 2,323,512. 
 The modern division of Pegu lies mainly 
 on the east of the lower Irrawady; area, 
 9159 sq. miles; cultivated area, 2043 
 sq. miles; pop. 1,818,845. Chief town, 
 Rangoon. 
 
 PEI-HO (pe-i-ho'), a river of Northern 
 China, rises near the Great Wall, and 
 flows southeast to the Gulf of Pechelee. 
 It is navigable for boats to within 20 
 miles of Peking, which it passes at the 
 distance of about 10 miles. 
 
 PEIRCE, Benjamin, born in Salem, 
 Mass., April 4, 1809; died October 6, 
 1880. He graduated in 1829 at Harvard, 
 where he became professor of mathe- 
 matics and natural philosophy, and 
 afterward of astronomy, holding the 
 latter chair until his death. Professor 
 Pierce was for many years connected 
 with the United States coast survey 
 and made several valuable observations 
 of eclipses and other celestial phenomena. 
 He achieved great note as a mathe- 
 matician, was a member of the American 
 Academy of Arts and Sciences, of the 
 Royal Astronomical society, and of 
 many other learned bodies. His writings 
 on mathematics are text-books in all 
 American colleges. He died in 1880. 
 
 PEKING', or PEKIN', the capital of 
 the Chinese empire, in the province of 
 Chih-le or Pechelee, on an extensive, 
 barren, sandy plain, between the rivers 
 Pei-ho and Hoen-ho, about 40 miles 
 from the Great Wall, and 100 miles from 
 the Gulf of Pechelee. The entire circuit 
 of the walls and suburbs of Peking is 
 reckoned at 30 miles. There are in all 
 sixteen gates leading into the city, each 
 protected by a semicircular enciente, 
 and a higher tower built in galleries. 
 The city consists of two portions, the 
 north or Tartar city, and the south or 
 Chinese city. The former is built in the 
 shape of a parallelogram, and consists 
 of three inclosures, one within the other, 
 each surrounded by its own wall. The 
 innermost inclosure (“the forbidden 
 city’’) contains the imperial palace, and 
 buildings connected with it, in which 
 the emperor and royal family reside. 
 The second inclosure (“the imperial 
 city”) is the residence of the imperial 
 princes and officials of the highest rank. 
 The outer or Tartar city proper is the 
 seat of the six supreme tribunals, and 
 contains the legations of Great Britain, 
 France, the United States, and Russia. 
 In the Chinese city broad straight streets 
 
 run from gate to gate, intersecting each 
 other at right angles, but they are un- 
 paved, and in rainy weather impassable 
 from mud. Among the principal public 
 buildings of Peking are the 'Temple of 
 Eternal Peace, belonging to the lamas; 
 the Mohammedan mosque; the obser- 
 vatory; the temple of agriculture and 
 the temple of heaven. In the latter 
 temple the emperor periodically offers 
 sacrifice. It occupies a commanding 
 position, and is approached from the 
 different sides by magnificent alabaster 
 stairs. There are religious edifices ap- 
 propriated to many forms of religion, 
 the principle of toleration being here 
 
 
 Temple of Heaven, Peking. 
 
 carried to the utmost extremity. Among 
 the institutions of Peking are the na- 
 tional college, the medical college, 
 astronomical board, and the imperial 
 observatory. Peking is regarded by the 
 the Chinese as one of their most ancient 
 cities, but it was not made the capital 
 of the country until its conquest by the 
 Mongols about 1282. In the war of 1860 
 Peking was occupied by the British and 
 French. In 1900 the foreign colony was 
 besieged, and, was relieved by an inter- 
 national force after severe fighting. 
 Pop. variously estimated at from 
 500,000 to 1,650,000. 
 
 PELEE (pa-la'), Mont, an active 
 volcano of the island of Martinique, 
 situated in its northwestern part, in 
 about latitude 14° 48' n. The elevation 
 of the culminating point previous to 
 May, 1902, was about 4300 feet; of the 
 newly formed cone, with its extended 
 “plug” or obelisk, in May, 1903, 5200 
 feet. The historically recorded erup- 
 tions of Mont PeRe are those of 1762, 
 August, 1851, and 1902-03. The great 
 eruptions of 1902 were from the basin 
 of the Etang Sec, or “Dry Lake.” The 
 active opening of this crater was on 
 April 25, 1902; on May 5th, descended 
 the “avalanche” of boiling black mud 
 that destroyed the sugar estate of 
 Gu4rin, and buried beneath its mass 
 thirty or more, and on May 8th the 
 black cloud of explosive and exploded 
 superheated steam, destroyed Saint 
 Pierre, and about 30,000 people. The 
 second death-dealing eruption of Mont 
 PeRe took place on August 30th at 
 about 9 p.m. The loss of life in this 
 later explosion has been estimated at 
 from 2000 to 2500, 
 
 PELEUS (pe'lus), in Creek mythology. 
 
PELEW ISLANDS 
 
 PENANCE 
 
 son of ^S,cu8, king of ^gina. After 
 many adventures he became master of 
 a part of Thessaly, and married the 
 nymph Thetis, by whom he became the 
 father of Achilles. The nuptials were 
 celebrated on Mount Pelion, and hon- 
 ored with the presence of all the gods, 
 who brought rich bridal presents. After 
 his death he received divine honors. 
 
 PELEW' ISLANDS, a group belong- 
 ing to the Caroline Archipelago, in the 
 North Pacific ocean. They are about 
 twenty in number, extend nearly n.n.e. 
 and s.s.w. 87 miles, and are completely 
 encircled by reefs. They are fertile, and 
 enjoy a good climate The inhabitants 
 are Polynesians, and have generally got 
 a high character from visitors. Pop. 
 6000. 
 
 PE'LIAS, a genus of serpents, includ- 
 ing the common viper or adder. 
 
 PEL'ICAN the name of several web- 
 footed birds. They are larger than the 
 swan, have a great extent of wing, and 
 are excellent swimmers. Pelicans are 
 gregarious, and frequent the neighbor- 
 hood of rivers, lakes, and the sea-coast, 
 feeding chiefly on fish, which they cap- 
 ture with great adroitness. They have 
 a large flattened bill, the upper mandible 
 terminated by a strong hook, which 
 curves over the tip of the lower one; 
 beneath the lower mandible, which is 
 composed of two flexible, bony branches 
 meeting at the tip, a great pouch of 
 naked skin is appended, capable of 
 holding a considerable number of fish, 
 and thus enabling the bird to dispose 
 of the superfluous quantity which may 
 be taken during fishing expeditions, 
 either for its own consumption or for the 
 nourishment of its young. The species 
 are found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and 
 America. They sometimes perch upon 
 trees; the nest is of rough construction, 
 usually placed close to the water. The 
 common or white pelican is colored a 
 delicate white, tinged with rose or pink. 
 The young birds are fed by the parents 
 with fishes from the pouch, and the 
 males are said to feed the incubating 
 females in a similar manner. The com- 
 mon pelican inhabits Europe, Asia, and 
 
 Pelican. 
 
 Africa. About the middle of September 
 flocks repair to Egypt. During the 
 summer months they take up their 
 abode on the borders of the Black Sea 
 and the shores of Greece. They are rare 
 in France and unknown in Britain. 
 The pelican is not only susceptible of 
 domestication, but may even be trained 
 to fish for its master. 
 
 PELISSIER (pa-les-ya), Jean Jacques 
 Amable. Due de Malakoff, Marshal of 
 
 France, was born in 1794, died in Algeria 
 1864. In 1855 he replaced Canrobert as 
 commander-in-chief of the French army 
 in the Crimea; and by the vigor with 
 which he pushed the siege he justified 
 the expectations which had been formed 
 of him. On the capture of the Malakoff 
 and the fall of Sebastopol P41issier re- 
 ceived his marshal’s baton, and an an- 
 nual pension of 100,000 francs. He was 
 afterward vice-president of the senate, 
 a privy-councillor, and ambassador to 
 England (1858). In 1860 he was ap- 
 pointed governor-general of Algeria. 
 
 PELOPONNE'SUS,the peninsula which 
 comprehends the most southern part 
 of Greece, now called the Morea. Pelo- 
 ponnesus was anciently divided into six 
 states: Messenia, Laconia (Sparta), 
 Elis, Arcadia, Achaia, and Argolis, to 
 which some add Sicyon. See Greece and 
 articles on the different states. 
 
 PE'LOPS, in Greek mythology, son of 
 Tantalus, king of Lydia. He married 
 Hippodamia, a daughter of King 
 QSnomaus of Elis, and succeeded his 
 father-in-law in that kingdom. Pelopon- 
 nesus received its name from him. Of 
 his sons, Atreus and Thyestes are most 
 celebrated. Many and very different 
 myths are connected with his name. 
 
 PELVIS (Latin, pelvis, a basin), the 
 bony basin formed by the “haunch- 
 bones” and sacrum of Vertebrata, which 
 
 Pelvis. 
 
 o, Ilium; 6, Ischium; c, pubis; d, symphysis 
 pubis; e, sacrum; /, coccyx; g, acetabulum 
 or cavity for head of thigh-bone. 
 
 constitutes the girdle or arch giving 
 support to the lower or hinder limbs. 
 The pelvis thus corresponds to the 
 shoulder-girdle of the upper or fore 
 limbs; and forms a cavity or basin in 
 which several of the abdominal viscera, 
 and organs relating to reproduction and 
 the urinary functions, are protected and 
 contained. The pelvis of man differs 
 materially from that of woman, the 
 differences having chiefly reference to 
 the greater capacity required for the 
 womb during pregnancy and for the 
 expulsion of the child at birth. It also 
 varies somewhat in the different races 
 of men. 
 
 PEM'BROKE, a parliamentary and 
 municipal borough and seaport of South 
 Wales, a capital of the county of the 
 same name, on a creek on the southern 
 side of Milford Haven, 206 miles west 
 of London. The county is bounded by 
 Cardiganshire, Carmarthenshire, the 
 Bristol Channel, and St. George’s chan- 
 nel; area, 391,181 acres, of which about 
 300,000 acres are under cultivation. 
 Pop. 88,749. 
 
 PEM'ICAN, originally a North Ameri- 
 can Indian preparation consisting of the 
 lean portions of venison dried by the 
 sun or wind, and then pounded into a 
 paste and tightly pressed into cakes. 
 
 Pemican made of beef has sometimes 
 been used by travelers. 
 
 PEN, an instrument for writing with a 
 fluid. Pens of some sort have been in use 
 from very early times, adapted to the 
 material on which the characters were to 
 be inscribed. The metallic stilus for the 
 production of incised letters was prob- 
 ably the earliest writing implement. 
 It was used by the Romans for writing 
 on tablets coated with wax; but both 
 they and the Greeks also used what is the 
 true ancient representative of the 
 modern pen, namely, a hollow reed, as is 
 yet common in eastern countries. It has 
 been asserted that quills were used for 
 writing as early as the 5th century a.d. 
 In Europe they were long the only 
 writing implement, the sorts generally 
 used being those of the goose and swan. 
 Up till the end of the first quarter of the 
 present century these formed the prin- 
 cipal materials from which pens were 
 made. In 1803 Mr. Wise produced steel 
 pens of a barrel form, mounted in a bone 
 case for carrying in the pocket. Joseph 
 Gillott commenced the manufacture 
 about 1820, and succeeded in making 
 the pen of thinner and more elastic 
 steel, giving it a higher temper and 
 finish. Improvements have so reduced 
 the cost and raised the quality, that a 
 gross of better pens are now sold by the 
 same makers at one-sixth of the price of 
 a single pen in 1821. Gold pens tipped 
 with minute particles of iridium are now 
 in somewhat extensive use, and a good 
 one will last for years. Fountain pens 
 and penholders, to carry a considerable 
 supply of ink and to discharge it in an 
 equal manner, were invented by Joseph 
 Bramah. The most successful form of 
 fountain pen yet introduced is the stylo- 
 g^raph patented in the United States by 
 Cross 1878, and by Mackinnon 1879. 
 
 PENAL LAW. See Criminal Law. 
 
 PENANCE, in theology, a punishment 
 accepted or self-imposed by way of 
 satisfaction and in token of sorrow for 
 sin. In the early Christian church 
 penances were of three kinds — secret, 
 public, and solemn. The first consisted 
 of such actions as are commonly im- 
 posed by confessors at the present day, 
 as the repetition of certain prayers, etc. 
 Public penance was in use from the 
 earliest days of the church. It was often 
 very severe, and the penitents had to 
 make a public confession of their sins 
 in the church. It became gradually the 
 custom of the bishops to commute the 
 canonical penances for pious works, 
 such as pilgrimages, alms-deeds, and 
 other works of charity — and these again 
 were exchanged for indulgences. In the 
 Roman Catholic church penance is one 
 of the seven sacraments. The matter of 
 it consists of the three acts of the peni- 
 tent: 1, Contrition, or heartfelt sorrow 
 for sin as being an offense against God; 
 2, Confession to an authorized priest; 
 and 3, Satisfaction, or the acceptance and 
 performance of certain penitential works' 
 in atonement of the sin ; and the form of 
 the sacrament is the sentence of absolu- 
 tion from sin pronounced by the priest 
 who received the confession, and has 
 been satisfied of the earnest repentance 
 of the sinner. According to the doctrine 
 of the Protestants there is no such sacra- 
 ment; they consider repentance and 
 
PENANG 
 
 PENGUIN 
 
 faith as the only requisites for forgive- 
 ness. 
 
 PENANG', Pulo-Penang, or Prince of 
 Wales Island, an island belonging to 
 Great Britain, lying at the north en- 
 trance of the Straits of Malacca, off the 
 west coast of the Malay Peninsula, from 
 which it is separated by a channel 2 to 5 
 miles across; area, 107 sq. miles. The 
 island produces cocoa-nuts and areca- 
 nuts, nutmegs and cloves, rice, sugar, 
 coffee, and pepper. Georgetown, or 
 Penang (pop. 84,948), the capital and 
 port of the settlement, is a handsome 
 town, rapidly increasing in size, and 
 has a large commerce. Pop. of Penang, 
 128,830. 
 
 PENCIL, an instrument used for 
 painting, drawing, and writing. The 
 first pencils used by artists were prob- 
 ably pieces of colored earth or chalk cut 
 into a form convenient for holding in 
 the hand. On the introduction of moist 
 colors, however, delicate brushes of 
 fine hairs were used. Pencils of this 
 kind, and of various degrees of fineness 
 are now almost solely used by painters 
 for laying on their colors; but in China 
 and Japan they are generally employed, 
 instead of pens, for writing. The hairs 
 used for these pencils are obtained from 
 the camel, badger, squirrel, sable, goat, 
 etc. Black-lead pencils, for writing or 
 drawing, are made of graphite or plum- 
 bago (otherwise known as black-lead), 
 generally cased in cedar wood. The 
 comparative hardness and blackness of 
 
 E encils are attained by the degree of 
 eat to which they are subjected and 
 the proportions of graphite and clay in 
 the leads. Nuremberg is the great center 
 of the lead-pencil trade. Colored pencils 
 are prepared from various chalks, such 
 as are used for crayons, instead of the 
 graphite. Pencils for writing on slate 
 are made by cutting slate into small 
 square pieces and rounding them, or into 
 narrow slips and incasing them in wood. 
 
 PENDEN'TIVE, in architecture, the 
 portion of a dome-shaped vault which 
 descends into a corner of a quadrangular 
 opening when a ceiling of this kind is 
 placed over a straight-sided area; in 
 
 Pendentive roof, Salisbury cathedral a a a, 
 pendentlves. 
 
 Gothic architecture, the portion of a 
 groined ceiling springing from one pillar 
 or impost, and hounded by the ridges 
 or apices of the longitudinal and trans- 
 verse vaults. 
 
 PENDLETON, Edmund, American 
 statesman, was born in Carolina co., 
 Va., in 1721. He was a delegate to the 
 First Continental congress and was 
 president of the Virginia conventions 
 
 of 1775 and 1776. The resolution of 
 May, 1776, instructing the state dele- 
 gates to introduce a declaration of in- 
 dependence in congress was written by 
 him. In 1788 he presided over the 
 Virginia convention which ratified the 
 federal constitution, he himself taking 
 an active part in the debate and being 
 largely responsible for the final decision. 
 He died in 1803. 
 
 PENDLETON, George Hunt, born in 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, July 15, 1825. He 
 practiced law in Cincinnati,, served in 
 the state senate, and from 1856 until 
 1865 sat in congress as a democrat. 
 In 1864 he was nominated for vice- 
 president of the United States on the 
 democratic ticket, headed by George B. 
 McClellan. From 1879 until March, 
 1885, he was United States senator from 
 Ohio, and in the latter year was ap- 
 pointed by President Cleveland, minister 
 to Germany. He died in 1889. 
 
 PENDULUM, in the widest sense, a 
 heavy body suspended so that it is free 
 to turn or swing upon an axis which does 
 not pass through its center of gravity. 
 Its only position of stable equilibrium 
 is that in which its center of gravity is in 
 
 Gridiron Mercurial 
 pendulum, pendulum. 
 
 the same vertical plane with the axis. 
 If the body is displaced from this posi- 
 tion it will tend to return to it, and it 
 will oscillate or swing from one side of 
 that position to the other until its 
 energy is destroyed by friction, and it 
 at length comes to rest. A small, heavy 
 body suspended from a fixed point by a 
 string, and caused to vibrate without 
 much friction, is called a “simple 
 pendulum.” A true simple pendulum is 
 a mathematical abstraction: a heavy 
 particle, an inextensible and inflexible 
 weightless string, and no friction ; these 
 conditions are only approximated to in 
 nature. The ordinary pendulum is what 
 is properly a “compound pendulum.” 
 A compound pendulum, as seen in 
 clocks, is usually a rigid, heavy, pendu- 
 lous body, varying in size according to 
 the size of the clock, but the “seconds” 
 pendulum may be considered the 
 standard. The penduliun is connected 
 with the clockwork by means of the 
 escapement, and is what renders the 
 going of the clock uniform. In a clock it 
 is necessary that the period of vibration 
 of the pendulum should be constant. 
 As all substances expand and contract 
 with heat and cold, the distance from 
 the center of suspension to the center of 
 gravity of a pendulum is continually 
 altering. Pendulums constructed so 
 
 that increase or diminution of tempera- 
 ture do not affect this ratio are called 
 compensation pendulums. These take 
 particular names, according to their 
 forms and materials, as the gridiron 
 pendulum, the mercurial pendulum, etc. 
 The former is composed of a number of 
 rods so connected that the expansion or 
 contraction of certain of them is counter- 
 acted by that of the others. The mer- 
 curial pendulum consists of one rod 
 with a vessel containing mercury at the 
 lower end, so adjusted in quantity that 
 whatever alterations take place in the 
 length of the pendulum, the center of 
 oscillation remains the same, the mer- 
 cury ascending when the rod descends, 
 and vice versa. 
 
 PENEL'OPE, in Greek mythology, 
 the wife of Odyssus (Ulysses) and 
 mother of Telemachus, who was but an 
 infant when his father sailed against 
 Troy. During the protracted absence 
 of Odysseus, Penelope was surrounded 
 by a host of suitors, whom she put off 
 on the pretext that before she could 
 make up her mind she must first finish 
 a large robe which she was weaving for 
 her father-in-law Laertes. To gain time 
 she undid by night the work she had 
 done by day. Her strartagem was at last 
 communicated to the suitors by her 
 servants, and her position became more 
 diflBcult than before; but fortunately 
 Odysseus returned in time to protect his 
 spouse, and slay the obnoxious wooers 
 who had been living in riot and wasting 
 his property. 
 
 PENGUIN, a family of natatorial or 
 swimming birds adapted for living 
 almost entirely in the water. They 
 possess only rudimentary wings, desti- 
 tute of quill-feathers, and covered with a 
 scaly integument or skin. Although 
 useless as organs of flight the wings are 
 very effective aids in diving, and on 
 land they may be used after the fashion 
 of fore-limbs. The legs are placed at the 
 hinder extremity of the body, and the 
 birds assume an erect attitude when on 
 land. The toes are completely webbed. 
 They inhabit chiefly the high southern 
 latitudes, congregating sometimes in 
 
 Emperor peoguln. 
 
 colonies of from 30,000 to 40,000. There 
 are three different types of penguins, 
 represented by the king penguin, the 
 jackass penguin, and the rockhopper. 
 The jackass penguin and the rockhopper 
 are about 2 feet 3 inches in height, and 
 
PENINSULA 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 the king penguin somewhat larger; but 
 a fossil penguin of the upper Eocene 
 stood from 6 to 7 feet high. 
 
 PENIN'SULA, a portion of land almost 
 surrounded by water, and connected 
 with the mainland by a narrow neck or 
 isthmus. 
 
 PENINSULAR WAR, The, was caused 
 by the intrigues and ambition of Napo- 
 leon, who proposed the partition of 
 Portugal (1807), and placed his brother 
 Joseph upon the throne of Spain. For 
 a time the whole peninsula was occupied 
 by French troops, but the Spanish and 
 Portuguese peoples rose in defense of 
 their liberties, and waged a fierce 
 guerilla warfare against the invaders. 
 Britain joined the patriots in 1808. Of 
 the memorable struggle which ensued 
 the main features were the retreat of 
 Sir John Moore to Coruna, and his 
 glorious death there; the accession of 
 Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterward Duke 
 of Wellington) tothe supreme command, 
 his formation of the celebrated lines of 
 Torres Vedras, where he held the French 
 armies in check until he had accom- 
 plished the complete liberation of Por- 
 tugal; and his subsequent victorious 
 march through Spain, marked by the 
 great battles of Salamanca (1812) and 
 Vittoria (1813). In the spring of 1814 the 
 tide of war rolled through the passes 
 of the Pyrenees into the south of France, 
 where this great struggle was concluded 
 by the crowning victory of Toulouse. 
 
 PENITENTIARY, a prison in which 
 convicted offenders are confined and 
 subjected to a course of discipline and 
 instruction with a view to their reforma- 
 tion. Penitentiaries, in this latter sense, 
 were 'instituted by act 19 George III. 
 cap. vii. See Prison. 
 
 PENN, William, the founder of the 
 state of Pennsylvania, was born in 
 London in 1644. From his father he had 
 inherited a claim upon the government 
 of S80,000, and in settlement of this 
 claim the government in 1681 granted 
 him large territories in North America, 
 the present state of Pennsylvania, with 
 right to found a colony or society with 
 such laws and institutions as expressed 
 his views and principles. The following 
 year Penn came over to America and 
 laid the foundations of his colony on a 
 democratical basis, and with a greater 
 degree of religious liberty than had at 
 that time been allowed in the world. A 
 great number of settlers, not only 
 Quakers, but members of all denomina- 
 tions, Englishmen, Germans, Swedes, 
 gathered together; the city of Philadel- 
 phia was laid out upon the banks of the 
 Delaware, and the colony soon came 
 into a most flourishing condition. He 
 remained in the province about two 
 
 f fears, adjusting its concerns, and estab- 
 ishing a friendly intercourse with his 
 colonial neighbors. Soon after Penn 
 returned to England King Charles died 
 (1685); and the respect which James II. 
 bore to the late admiral, who had recom- 
 mended his son to his favor, procured 
 to him free access at court. He made use 
 of this advantage to solicit the discharge 
 of his persecuted brethren, 1500 of whom 
 remained in prison at the decease of the 
 late king; and his influence is thought 
 to have hastened, if it did not occasion, 
 the proclamation for a general pardon, 
 
 and the repeal of religious tests and 
 penalties. At the revolution in 1688 
 Penn’s intimacy with the abdicated 
 monarch created suspicions, in conse- 
 quence of which he was accused of 
 
 treason, and withdrew from public 
 notice till 1693. In 1699 he again sailed 
 for Pennsylvania, intending to make it 
 the place of his future residence; but 
 he returned to England again in 1701. 
 He died at Ruscombe, Berks, 30th 
 July, 1718. 
 
 PENNON, a small triangular flag car- 
 ried by the knights of the middle ages 
 near the points of their lances, bearing 
 their personal devices or badges, and 
 sometimes richly fringed with gold. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United 
 States of North America, bounded by 
 New York, Lake Erie, Ohio, W. Vir- 
 ginia, Maryland, Delaware, and New 
 Jersey; area, 45,215 sq. miles. Except 
 on the east, where the river Delaware 
 forms an irregular boundary line, its 
 sides form an almost exact parallelo- 
 gram facing the cardinal points. The 
 surface is traversed southwest to north- 
 east by the Alleghany chain, and covered 
 by many smaller ranges, which are more 
 or less parallel to it. On the east side 
 the Alleghanies are rugged and steep, 
 but on the west descend very gradually, 
 and then stretch out into an extensive 
 
 Seal of Pennsylvania. 
 
 table-land. The principal rivers are the 
 Delaware, which receives the Lehigh 
 and the Schuylkill; the Susquehanna; 
 and the Alleghany, which unites at 
 Pittsburg with the Monongahela to form 
 the Ohio. Pennsylvania is one of the 
 healthiest states of the Union. The soil 
 
 has various grades of fertility, but is in 
 general well adapted for agricultural 
 operations. The richest and most highly 
 cultivated tract is southeast of the 
 mountains on both banks of the Sus- 
 quehanna. 
 
 Pennsylvania’s agriculture is highly 
 varied and quite large. The state leads 
 the country in the production of rye 
 and is second in buckwheat, having one- 
 third of the total acreage of the country 
 in that staple. Potatoes, sweet corn, 
 and cabbage form a large part of its 
 roducts. Its fruit industry is also large, 
 ixty-six per cent of its fruit trees 
 are apple trees. The state ranks fourth 
 in dairy products, and its poultry pro- 
 duction is very large. 
 
 In manufactures Pennsylvania ranks 
 second. It furnishes 54 per cent of all 
 the iron manufactures of the country. 
 It ranks first in foundry and machine- 
 shop products, furnishing more than 
 one-half the locomotives of the country. 
 A different group of industries, less 
 dependent upon the material resources 
 of the state, is the manufacture of tex- 
 tiles, in which the state takes second 
 rank. Philadelphia, the principal seat 
 
 of the industry, is the largest textile 
 center in the country. Pennsylvania 
 ranks second in the manufacture of 
 woolen goods and hosiery. In 1900 
 Pennsylvania manufactured 48 per cent 
 of the total carpet product of the United 
 States. More ingrain carpets are prob- 
 ably made in Philadelphia than in any 
 other city in the world. 
 
 Coal, iron, and salt are found in ah 
 most exhaustless abundance. In the 
 mountain districts of the south and 
 east to the west of the Susquehanna an 
 anthracite coal-field occurs over an area 
 estimated at 472 sq. miles; while to the 
 west of the Alleghanies a vast bitumin- 
 ous coal-field, of which Pittsburg may 
 be considered the center, has been traced 
 over an area of 12,300 sq. miles. The 
 annual output of coal alone exceeds in 
 value the total mineral product of any 
 other state. Anthracite has been mined 
 continuously since 1820. The anthracite 
 coal fields of Pennsylvania yield almost 
 the entire product for the United States, 
 and represent the only high-grade an- 
 thracite producing region in the world. 
 It was not until about 1875 that bitumi- 
 nous coal began to be extensively used in 
 iron-smelting, but since then it has far 
 exceeded anthracite in annual tonnage. 
 There are about 100,000 employees 
 engaged in coal mining. 
 
PENNSYLVANIA DUTCH 
 
 PENSACOLA 
 
 Pennsylvania has always ranked first 
 in the production of coke, usually yield- 
 ing about two-thirds of the total for the 
 United States. Pennsylvania is with- 
 out a rival in the stone-quarrying in- 
 dustry. The production of slate is about 
 two-thirds that for the whole country. 
 Pennsylvania also ranks first in the 
 amount of limestone quarried. About 
 two-fifths of the limestone is used for 
 flux, and a somewhat less amount is 
 burned into lime. Pennsylvania stands 
 second in the value of its clay products 
 and first in the output of brick. The 
 state produces in value over half the 
 total product of Portland cement for 
 the United States. Some rock cement is 
 also produced. Other products worthy 
 of note are metallic paint, mineral water, 
 salt, and ochre. The strata of both coal 
 fields contain many, valuable seams of 
 ironstone, and both the smelting and 
 working of iron have long been regarded 
 as the most important interest of the 
 state. An accession of immense value 
 was the discovery of petroleum in 1859, 
 In railroad mileage Pennsylvania is ex- 
 ceeded by only one state, having up- 
 ward of 10,500 miles of road, with pro- 
 portional passenger and freight traffic. 
 
 Philadelphia and Erie are ports of en- 
 tiy. Philadelphia ranks third among the 
 Atlantic coast ports in the value of its 
 foreign trade. Erie has one of the best 
 harbors on Lake Erie, and carries on a 
 large import trade in Michigan iron and 
 Canadian lumber, and exports large 
 quantities of coal. Pittsburg has an im- 
 mense inland trade, while its local ship- 
 yards build large numbers of steamboats 
 for use on the western streams. 
 
 The largest religious denomination is 
 the Methodist Episcopal. Education is 
 free but not compulsory. Among the 
 higher educational institutions are the 
 University of Pennsylvania, Philadel- 
 
 E hia, and Pennsylvania college, Gettys- 
 urg. Harrisburg, though an insignifi- 
 cant place compared with Philadelphia, 
 Pittsburg, and several other towns, con- 
 tinues to be the capital. 
 
 Pennsylvania was settled by the 
 Dutch when, on Aug. 28, 1609, Henry 
 Hudson anchored in Delaware Bay in 
 his ship the Half Moon. The grant of 
 the extensive territory called Pennsyl- 
 vania, made by Charles II. in 1681 to Wil- 
 liam Penn, carried with it full proprie- 
 torship and dominion, saving only the 
 king’s sovereignty. In 1682, when Penn 
 crossed the sea to take possession, he 
 found the western bank of the Delaware 
 already occupied by nearly 6,000 Swedes, 
 Dutch, and English, the Swedes having 
 begun a settlement in 1638. To these, 
 as to settlers from all nations, he con- 
 ceded equal liberties. English Quakers, 
 Scotch and Irish Presbyterians, Ger- 
 man Mennonites, French Huguenots, 
 men of all religions, were alike welcome ; 
 the population increased for a few years 
 at the rate of one thousand a year; then 
 more rapidly, so that at the end of 
 seventy-five years it exceeded 200,000. 
 Though stout against the Stamp Act of 
 1765 and other parliamentary encroach- 
 ments, Pennsylvania was not swift to 
 move; a committee of safety seized the 
 reins till the people could speak through 
 a representative convention. The con- 
 vention espoused the revolution.; in 
 
 September, 1776, a state constitution 
 was promulgated, in 1778 the old charter 
 was formally annulled and the Penn 
 claims silenced by payment of $650,000. 
 During the war Pennsylvania was the 
 scene of important events — the delib- 
 erations of the congress and the declara- 
 tion of independence in 1776; the battles 
 of Brandywine and Germantown in 
 1777; the British occupation of Phila- 
 delphia, and the encampment of Wash- 
 ington at Valley Forge, in 1777-78. 
 A brief but violent mutiny of the unpaid 
 soldiery of Pennsylvania in 1781 led 
 congress to adopt a better system of 
 finance, under the wise guidance of 
 Robert Morris of Philadelphia. In 1812, 
 at the outbreak of war with Great Brit- 
 ain, Pennsylvania promptly furnished 
 its quota of troops. Internal 'mprove- 
 ments were projected early, and the 
 Schuylkill canal was begun in 1815 and 
 completed in 1825. From 1829 to 1836 
 the projected improvements called for 
 the construction of 292 miles of canal 
 and 126 miles of railroad, at a total 
 cost of $35,000,000. The first bill for a 
 public school system was passed in the 
 face of violent opposition in 1834. 
 Though the iron and coal had been 
 known to exist before the revolution, it 
 was not until 1839 that anthracite was 
 successfully applied to the manufacture 
 of iron. The first oil well was sunk near 
 Titusville in 1859. At the opening of the 
 war with the southern states in 1861, 
 in response to the president’s call for 
 14,000 men as the state’s quota, 
 Pennsylvania sent 25,975, and during 
 the war furnished a total of 387,284. 
 No other northern state was invaded. 
 At Gettysburg, near the state border, 
 a three days’ battle was fought, June 
 30 to July 3, 1863, resulting in a decisive 
 victory of the federal forces. In 1864 
 Chambersburg was burned by the con- 
 federates. 
 
 A criminal combination in the anthra- 
 cite mining region, known as the “Molly 
 Maguires,” was broken up in 1876 by 
 due course of law, twenty men being 
 hanged for murder. In 1877 the “rail- 
 road riots,” an outbreak of di.ssatisfied 
 railway employees, caused a vast de- 
 struction of property at Pittsburg and 
 vicinity, but were quelled by the mili- 
 tary. The constitution has been four 
 times revised — in 1838, 1850, 1857, 
 1874. 
 
 In national elections the state was at 
 the outset federalist, but in 1796 four- 
 teen of its fifteen votes were cast for 
 Jefferson. Eight votes were cast for him 
 again in 1800, while seven went to the 
 federalist candidate. From this time 
 until 1840 the state was democratic. 
 The state gave its vote to Polk in 1844, 
 to Taylor in 1848, and in 1852 and 1856 
 to the democratic candidates. Since 
 1860 the state has been overwhelmingly 
 republican in national affairs, though, 
 on account of factional fights in the 
 republican ranks, a democratic gover- 
 nor has been twice elected. Population 
 7,450,000. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA DUTCH, a German 
 dialect mixed with English spoken in 
 Pennsylvania by German settlers and 
 their descendants. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, Historical Society 
 of, an association organized in Phila- 
 
 delphia in 1824. Its object is the elucida- 
 tion of history with special reference to 
 that of Philadelphia. It has a valuable 
 historical library and a museum at 
 Philadelphia. The society has a sub- 
 scribed publication fund of $40,000, 
 the revenue from which is expended in 
 printing matter of historic interest. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, University of, an 
 institution of higher learning in Phila- 
 delphia, Pa., established in 1740 as a 
 charitable school and raised to the 
 grade of an academy in 1751. In 1755 
 the institution was converted into the 
 College and Academy of Philadelphia. 
 In 1791 an act was passed amalgamating 
 the old college with the new university 
 under its present title. In 1872 the 
 university was moved to its present site. 
 
 The departments of the university are 
 the college, including the school of arts, 
 the Towne Scientific school and the 
 courses for teachers, the departments 
 of philosophy (graduate school), law, 
 medicine, dentistry, veterinary medi- 
 cine, and archiBology; the Wistar insti- 
 tute of anatomy and biology; the 
 laboratory of hygiene, the veterinary 
 hospital, the library and the Flower 
 astronomical observatory, physical edu- 
 cation. The school of art offers courses 
 in arts and science, finance and com- 
 merce, biology and music. The Towne 
 scientific school offers courses in archi- 
 tecture, science, and technology, me- 
 chanical, electrical, civil, and chemical 
 engineering, and chemistry. 
 
 The university confers the degrees of 
 bachelor of arts, laws, music, and science, 
 master of arts and science, doctor of 
 philosophy, medicine, dental surgery, 
 and veterinary medicine, and the tech- 
 nical degrees of civil, mechanical elec- 
 trical, and chemical engineer. 
 
 PENNY, a British coin (formerly of 
 copper since 1860 of bronze), the twelfth 
 part of a shilling. It was at first a silver 
 coin weighing about 22J grains troy, 
 or the two-hundred-and-fortieth part of 
 a Saxon pound. Till the time of Edward 
 I. it was so deeply indented by a cross 
 mark that it could be broken into halves 
 (thence called half-penny) or quarters 
 (fourthings or farthings). Its weight was 
 steadily decreased till at last, in the 
 reign of Elizabeth, it was fixed at 7|j 
 grains, or the sixty-second part of an 
 ounce of silver. Copper pennies were 
 first coined in 1797, but copper half 
 pennies and farthings had been in use 
 from 1672. 
 
 PENNYWEIGHT, a troy weight con- 
 taining 24 grains, each grain being equal 
 in weight to a grain of wheat from the 
 middle of the ear, well dried. It was 
 anciently the weight of a silver penny, 
 hence the name. 
 
 PENOB'SeOT, the largest river of 
 Maine, United States of America. It 
 flows 300 miles south by west to Penob- 
 scot bay. It is navigable for ships to 
 Bangor, 60 miles, where the tide rises 
 17 feet. 
 
 PENSACO'LA, a port of entry and 
 capital of Escambia co., Florida, on the 
 Pensacola bay, 64 miles east of Mobile. 
 Pensacola suffered considerably in 1861 
 during the American civil war. Vessels 
 drawing 21 feet can approach the town, 
 and the bay is one of the safest and 
 most capacious in the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
PENSIONS 
 
 PENZA 
 
 It is a naval station and depot, and 
 is well defended by several strong forts. 
 Pop. 20,110. 
 
 PENSIONS, annual allowances o^ 
 money settled upon persons, usually for 
 services previously rendered. In Great 
 Britain, besides large sums devoted to 
 pensioning army and navy men, pen- 
 sions are conferred upon the judges of 
 
 the like, or to their widows or families, 
 for the purpose of rewarding personal 
 merit and of encouraging literature, art, 
 and science. The policy of ^the United 
 States government has confined the 
 bestowment of pensions to the officers 
 and privates who have served in the 
 army or navy during the wars in which 
 the republic has been engaged, or who 
 have been wounded or otherwise dis- 
 abled while in active service, and to 
 their widows, children, and other de- 
 pendent relatives. 
 
 PEN'TACLE, a figure consisting of 
 five straight lines crossing and joined so 
 as to form a five-pointed star. It was a 
 symbol among the Gnostics, and was 
 employed with superstitious import by 
 the astrologers and mystics of the 
 middle ages. 
 
 PEN'TAGON, a figure of five sides 
 and five angles; if the sides and angles 
 be equal it is a regular pentagon; other- 
 wise, irregular. 
 
 PENTATEUCH, the Greek name 
 applied to the first five books in the 
 
 THE NUMBER OP PENSION CLAIMS, PENSIONERS, AND DISBURSEMENTS, 1861-1905, 
 
 ARE AS FOLLOWS; 
 
 Fiscal Year 
 Ending June 30 
 
 Total 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 Applica- 
 
 tions 
 
 Filed 
 
 Total 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 Claims 
 
 Allowed 
 
 Numt 
 
 Invalids 
 
 )er of Pens! 
 on the Roll 
 
 Widows, 
 
 Etc. 
 
 oners 
 
 Total 
 
 Disbursements 
 
 1861 
 
 
 
 4.337 
 
 4,299 
 
 8,636 
 
 81,072,461.55 
 
 1863 
 
 2,487 
 
 462 
 
 4,341 
 
 3,818 
 
 8,159 
 
 790,384.76 
 
 1863 
 
 49,332 
 
 7,884 
 
 7,821 
 
 6,970 
 
 14,791 
 
 1,035,139.91 
 
 1864 
 
 53,599 
 
 39,487 
 
 23,479 
 
 27,656 
 
 51,135 
 
 4,504,616.92 
 
 1865 
 
 72,684 
 
 40,171 
 
 35,880 
 
 50,106 
 
 85,986 
 
 8,525,153.11 
 
 1866 
 
 65,256 
 
 50,177 
 
 55,653 
 
 71,070 
 
 126,723 
 
 13,459,969.43 
 
 1867 
 
 86,753 
 
 36,483 
 
 69,565 
 
 83,618 
 
 153,183 
 
 18,619,956.46 
 
 1868 
 
 20,768 
 
 28,921 
 
 75,957 
 
 93,686 
 
 169,643 
 
 24,010,981.99 
 
 1869 
 
 26,066 
 
 23,196 
 
 82,859 
 
 105,104 
 
 187,963 
 
 38,432,884.08 
 
 1870 
 
 24,851 
 
 18,221 
 
 87,521 
 
 111,165 
 
 198,686 
 
 27,780.811.81 
 
 1871 
 
 43,969 
 
 16,562 
 
 93,394 
 
 114,101 
 
 207,495 
 
 33,077,383.63 
 
 1872 
 
 26,391 
 
 34,333 
 
 113,954 
 
 118,275 
 
 232,299 
 
 30,169,341.00 
 
 1873 
 
 18,303 
 
 16,052 
 
 119,500 
 
 118,911 
 
 238,411 
 
 29,185,289.62 
 
 1874 
 
 16,734 
 
 10,462 
 
 121,638 
 
 114,613 
 
 236,241 
 
 30,593,749.50 
 
 1875 
 
 18,704 
 
 11,152 
 
 123,989 
 
 111,832 
 
 234,821 
 
 29,683,116.63 
 
 1876 
 
 23,533 
 
 9,977 
 
 124,239 
 
 107,898 
 
 232,137 
 
 28,351,599.69 
 
 1877 
 
 23,715 
 
 11,326 
 
 128,723 
 
 103,381 
 
 233,104 
 
 28,580,157.04 
 
 1878 
 
 44,587 
 
 11,963 
 
 131,649 
 
 93,349 
 
 233,998 
 
 26,844,415.18 
 
 1879 
 
 57,118 
 
 31,346 
 
 138,615 
 
 104,140 
 
 242,755 
 
 33,780,526.19 
 
 1880 
 
 141,466 
 
 19,545 
 
 145,410 
 
 105,392 
 
 250,803 
 
 57,240,540.14 
 
 1881 
 
 31,116 
 
 27,394 
 
 164,110 
 
 104,720 
 
 268,830 
 
 50,626,538.51 
 
 1882 
 
 40,939 
 
 27,664 
 
 183,633 
 
 103,064 
 
 285,697 
 
 51,296,280.54 
 
 1883 
 
 48,776 
 
 38,162 
 
 206,043 
 
 97,616 
 
 303,6.58 
 
 60,431,973 85 
 
 1884 
 
 41.785 
 
 34,192 
 
 225,470 
 
 97,286 
 
 323,756 
 
 57,373,536.74 
 
 1885 
 
 40,918 
 
 35,767 
 
 247,146 
 
 97,979 
 
 345,135 
 
 65,693,706.73 
 
 1886 
 
 49,895 
 
 40,857 
 
 270,346 
 
 95,437 
 
 365,783 
 
 64,584,270.45 
 
 1887 
 
 72.465 
 
 65,194 
 
 306,298 
 
 99,709 
 
 406,007 
 
 74,815,486.85 
 
 1888 
 
 75,726 
 
 60,262 
 
 343,701 
 
 108,856 
 
 453,557 
 
 79,646,146.37 
 
 1889 
 
 81,230 
 
 61,931 
 
 373,699 
 
 116,026 
 
 489,725 
 
 89,131,968.44 
 
 1890 
 
 105,044 
 
 66,637 
 
 415,654 
 
 122,290 
 
 537,944 
 
 106,493,890.19 
 
 1891 
 
 696,941 
 
 156,486 
 
 536,821 
 
 139,339 
 
 676,160 
 
 118,548,9,59.71 
 
 1892 
 
 246,638 
 
 224,047 
 
 703,242 
 
 173,836 
 
 876,068 
 
 141,086,948.84 
 
 1893 
 
 119,361 
 
 121,630 
 
 759,706 
 
 206,306 
 
 966,013 
 
 158,155,343.51 
 
 1894 
 
 57,141 
 
 39,085 
 
 754,383 
 
 215,163 
 
 969,544 
 
 140,772,163.78 
 
 1895 
 
 45,361 
 
 39,185 
 
 750,951 
 
 219,567 
 
 970.524 
 
 140,959,361.00 
 
 1896 
 
 42,244 
 
 40.374 
 
 747,967 
 
 222,557 
 
 970,678 
 
 139,380,075.00 
 
 1897 
 
 50,585 
 
 50,101 
 
 746,829 
 
 229,185 
 
 976,014 
 
 110,845,772.00 
 
 1898 
 
 48,732 
 
 52,648 
 
 760,853 
 
 232,861 
 
 993,714 
 
 145,748,865..56 
 
 1899 
 
 53,881 
 
 37,077 
 
 753,451 
 
 238,068 
 
 991,519 
 
 139,483,696.00 
 
 1900 
 
 51.964 
 
 40,645 
 
 751,864 
 
 241,674 
 
 993,529 
 
 139,381,522.73 
 
 1901 
 
 58,373 
 
 44,868 
 
 747,999 
 
 249,736 
 
 997,735 
 
 139,583,231.98 
 
 1902 
 
 47,965 
 
 40,173 
 
 738,809 
 
 260,637 
 
 999,446 
 
 138,491,822.48 
 
 1903 
 
 .52,325 
 
 40,136 
 
 728,732 
 
 267,813 
 
 996,545 
 
 138,890,088.64 
 
 1904 
 
 55,794 
 
 44,296 
 
 720,315 
 
 274,447 
 
 994,762 
 
 143,093,818.75 
 
 1905 
 
 52,841 
 
 50,027 
 
 717,158 
 
 281,283 
 
 998,441 
 
 142,099,386.05 
 
 Total 
 
 3,033,336 
 
 1,876,096 
 
 
 
 
 *3,264,130,257 90 
 
 
 
 
 the higher courts and upon many other 
 civil officers who have performed their 
 duties for a specified number of years 
 and then resigned their active functions. 
 They are also frequently granted to dis- 
 tinguished and meritorious authors, 
 artists, scientific men, inventors, and 
 
 Bible, called also the Law of Moses, or 
 simply the law. The division of the 
 whole work into five parts has, by some 
 authorities, been supposed to be original; 
 others, with more probability, think it 
 was so divided by the Greek translators, 
 the titles of the several books being 
 
 Greek, not Hebrew. It begins with an 
 account of creation and the primeval 
 condition of man; of the entrance of sin 
 into the world, and God’s dealing with 
 it, broadening out into a history of the 
 early world, but again narrowing into 
 biographies of the founders of the Jewish 
 family; it then proceeds to describe how 
 the family grew into a nation in Egypt, 
 tells us of its oppression and deliverance; 
 of its forty years’ wandering in the 
 wilderness; of the giving of the law 
 with all its civil and religious enact- 
 ments; of the construction of the taber- 
 nacle; of the census of the people; of 
 the rights and duties of the priesthood; 
 and concludes with the last discourses of 
 Moses and his death. The Pentateuch 
 and the book of Joshua are sometimes 
 spoken of together as the hlexateuch; 
 when Judges and Ruth are added, as 
 the Octateuch. 
 
 PENTECOST, a Jewish festival, held 
 on the fiftieth day after the passover, 
 in celebration of the ingathering and in 
 thanksgiving for the harvest. It was 
 also called the Feast of Weeks, because 
 it was celebrated seven weeks after the 
 passover. It is also a festival of the 
 Christian church, occurring fifty days 
 after Easter, in commemoration of the 
 descent of the Holy Ghost on the dis- 
 ciples, called in England Whitsuntide. 
 
 PENTLAND FIRTH, a channel sepa- 
 rating the mainland of Scotland from 
 the Orkney islands, and connecting the 
 North Sea with the Atlantic ocean. It 
 is about 17 miles long east to west, and 
 6 to 8 miles broad. A current, setting 
 from east to west, flows through it with 
 a velocity of 3 to 9 miles an hour, caus- 
 ing many eddies, and rendering its 
 navigation difficult and dangerous. 
 
 PENUM'BRA, the partial shadow be- 
 tween the full light and the total shadow 
 caused by an opaque body intercepting 
 the light from a luminous body, the 
 penumbra being the result of rays 
 emitted by part of the luminous body. 
 An eye placed in the penumbra would 
 see part of the luminous body, part be- 
 ing eclipsed by the opaque body; an 
 eye placed in the “umbra,” or place of 
 total shadow, would receive no rays 
 from the luminous body; an eye placed 
 
 Umbra and penumbra. 
 
 anywhere else than in the penumbra 
 and umbra sees the luminous body 
 without eclipse. The subject is of im- 
 portance in the consideration of eclipses. 
 In a partial eclipse of the sun, as long 
 as any part of the same is visible the 
 parties observing are in the penumbra; 
 when the eclipse is total, in the umbra. 
 The cut sliows the phenomena of the 
 umbra and penumbra in the case of a 
 luminous body between two opaque 
 bodies, the one larger, the other smaller 
 than itself. See also Eclipse. 
 
 PENZA, a government of Russia, 
 bounded by Nijni-Novgorod, Tambov, 
 
PEONY 
 
 PERGUNNAHS 
 
 Saratov, and Simbirsk; area, 14,996 
 sq. miles; pop. 1,491,215. About 60 
 per cent of the soil is arable, the chief 
 crops being rye, oats, buckwheat, hemp, 
 potatoes, and beet-root, and about 14 
 per cent is under meadows or grazing 
 land. The forests are extensive. Penza, 
 the capital, is on an eminence at the 
 junction of the Penza and Sura, 440 
 miles southeast of Moscow. Pop. 61,851. 
 
 PE'ONY, a genus of plants very gen- 
 erally cultivated for the sake of their 
 large showy flowers. The species are 
 mostly herbaceous, having perennial 
 tuberous roots and large deeply-lobed 
 leaves. The flowers are solitary, and of 
 a variety of colors, crimson, purplish, 
 ink, yellow, and white. The flowers, 
 owever, have no smell, or not an agree- 
 able one, except in the case of a shrubby 
 species, a native of China, of several 
 varieties, with beautiful whitish flowers 
 stained with pink. The roots and seeds 
 of all the species are emetic and cathartic 
 in moderate doses. 
 
 PEOPLE’S PALACE, a building in the 
 East End of London, situated in Mile- 
 end Road, opened by the queen. May 
 1887. It provides for the population 
 of the East End a hall for concerts, en- 
 tertainments, etc., a library and reading- 
 rooms, gymnasia, swimming-baths, so- 
 cial-meeting rooms, rooms for games, 
 refresliment rooms, a winter-garden, 
 technical schools, etc. The nucleus of 
 the palace was the Beaumont Institute 
 founded by Mr. J. T. B. Beaumont 
 (died 1840), who left $65,000 to estab- 
 lish an institution for the moral and 
 intellectual improvement of the work- 
 ing-classes in the East End of London. 
 A movement set on foot by a novel by 
 Sir Walter Besant — All Sorts and Con- 
 ditions of Men — resulted in raising the 
 fund to $375,000. 
 
 PEO'RIA, the capital of Peoria co., 
 Illinois, on the west bank of the Illinois 
 river (here called from its width Lake 
 Peoria). Peoria is a great railway center, 
 and is connected with St. Louis by river 
 steamers and with Chicago by the 
 Michigan canal. It is a rapidly rising 
 place, the seat of a large grain traflBc, 
 and has great iron-works and other 
 manufacturing establishments. Pop. 
 1909 about 75,000. 
 
 PEPPER, a genus of plants. The 
 pepper which furnishes the black pepper 
 of commerce, is a native of the East 
 Indies, where it is cultivated on an 
 
 extensive scale. It is a climbing plant 
 with broad, ovate, acuminate leaves, 
 and little globular berries, which, when 
 ripe, are of a bright-red color. The 
 
 pepper of Malacca, Java, and especially 
 of Sumatra, is the most esteemed. Its 
 culture has been introduced into various 
 other tropical countries. White pepper 
 is the best and soundest of the berries, 
 gathered when fully ripe, and deprived 
 of their external skin. The Chavica 
 Betle, or betel, belongs to the same 
 natural order. Cayenne pepper, Guinea 
 pepper, bird pepper, etc., are the prod- 
 uce of species of Capsicum. Jamaica 
 pepper is pimento or allspice. 
 
 PEPPERMINT. See Mint. 
 
 PEP'SINE, an active principle of the 
 gastric juice, a peculiar animal prin- 
 ciple secreted by the stomach. The 
 pepsine or pepsia of pharmacy is a prep- 
 aration of the mucous lining of the 
 stomach of the pig or calf. It is often 
 prescribed in cases of indigestion con- 
 nected with loss of power and tone of 
 the stomach. 
 
 PEPYS (peps or pep'is), Samuel, 
 secretary to the admiralty in the reigns 
 of Charles II. and James II., was born 
 at Brampton, Huntingdonshire, 1632. 
 He died in 1703. He was president of 
 the Royal Society for two years; but 
 his title to fame rests upon his Diary 
 (1659-69), which is a most entertaining 
 work, revealing the writer’s own char- 
 acter very plainly, giving an excellent 
 picture of contemporary life, and of 
 great value for the history of the court 
 of Charles II. It is in shorthand, was 
 discovered among a collection of books, 
 prints, and manuscripts bequeathed by 
 Pepys to Magdalene College, Cambridge 
 and was first printed in 1825. 
 
 PERJE'A, a district of Palestine east- 
 ward of the Jordan, the “Gilead” of the 
 Old Testament. 
 
 PERAK (pa'rAk), a native state of the 
 Malay peninsula, extending about 80 
 miles along the west coast, and stretch- 
 ing inward to the mountain range which 
 forms the backbone of the peninsula; 
 area, 7949 sq. miles, pop. 328,801. 
 Since 1875 Perak has been practically a 
 dependency of the Straits settlements, 
 the native rajah being controlled by a 
 British resident appointed by the gover- 
 nor of that colony. 
 
 PERCEPTION, in philosophy, the 
 faculty of perceiving; the faculty by 
 which we have knowledge through the 
 medium or instrumentality of the bodily 
 organs, or by which we hold communica- 
 tion with the external world. Percep- 
 tion takes cognizance only of objects 
 without the mind. We perceive a man, 
 a horse, a tree; when we think or feel, 
 we are conscious of our thoughts and 
 emotions. Two great disputes are con- 
 nected with perception, both brought 
 into full prominence by Bishop Berke- 
 ley. The first is the origin of our judg- 
 ments of the distances and real mag- 
 nitudes of visible bodies. The second 
 question has reference to the grounds 
 we have for asserting the existence of an 
 external material world, which, accord- 
 ing to Berkeley, was connected with 
 the other. See Idealism. 
 
 PER'CEVAL, Spencer, English states- 
 man, son of John Perceval, Earl of 
 Egmont, born 1762. In 1801 he became 
 solicitor-general, and in 1802 attorney- 
 general. In 1807 he was appointed 
 chancellor of the exchequer, and on the 
 death of the Duke of Portland, in 1809, 
 
 he became premier. In this post he con- 
 tinued till May 11, 1812, when a person 
 named Bellingham shot him dead with 
 a pistol in the lobby of the House of 
 Commons. 
 
 PERCH, a genus of fishes, forming the 
 type of the perch family. The common 
 perch is a common tenant of fresh- 
 water lakes and rivers. The body is 
 broad, andjsomewhat flattened laterally. 
 There are two dorsal fins, the anterior 
 
 Perch. 
 
 supported by very strong spines. It is 
 colored a greenish-brown on the upper 
 parts, the belly being of a yellowish or 
 golden white. The sides are marked 
 with from five to seven blackish bands 
 The average weight is from 2 to 3 lbs. 
 The perch is a voracious feeder, devour- 
 ing smaller fishes, worms, crustaceans, 
 
 PERCUSSION, in medicine, that 
 method of diagnosis which consists in 
 striking gently on the surface of one of 
 the cavities of the body, and then en- 
 deavoring to ascertain from the sound 
 produced the condition of the organ 
 lying beneath. Percussion is most 
 frequently used on the chest, but it is 
 also occasionally applied to the cavity 
 of the abdomen, the head, etc. 
 
 PERCUSSION CAPS, are small copper 
 cylinders, closed at one end for con- 
 veniently holding the detonating com- 
 position which is exploded by percussion 
 so as to ignite the powder in certain 
 kinds of fire-arms. The copper cap came 
 into general use between 1820 and 1830. 
 
 PERENNIAL, in botany, a term ap- 
 plied to those plants whose roots subsist 
 for a number of years, whether they 
 retain their leaves in winter or not. 
 Those which retain their leaves are 
 called evergreens, such as cast their 
 leaves are called deciduous. • Perennial 
 herbaceous plants, like trees and shrubs, 
 produce flowers and fruit year after 
 year. 
 
 PERFUMES, substances emitting an 
 agreeable odor, and used about the per- 
 son, the dress, or the dwelling. Per- 
 fumes of various sorts have been held in 
 high estimation from the most ancient 
 times. The Egyptians, Hebrews, Phoe- 
 nicians, Assyrians, and Persians are 
 known to have made great use of them, 
 as did also the Greeks and Romans. 
 In the middle ages France and Italy 
 were most conspicuous for the use and 
 preparation of perfumes Perfumes are 
 partly of animal but chiefly of vegetable 
 origin. They may be divided into two 
 classes, crude and prepared. The former 
 consist of such animal perfumes as muck, 
 civet, ambergris, and such vegetable 
 perfumes as are obtained in the form of 
 essential oils. The prepared perfumes, 
 many of them known by fancy names, 
 consist of various mixtures or prepara- 
 tions of odorous substances made up 
 according to recipe. 
 
 PERGUNNAHS (Pargands), The 
 Twenty-four, a district of India, forming 
 
PERICARDITIS 
 
 PERIOSTITIS 
 
 the metropolitan district of the lieuten- 
 ant-governorship of Bengal; area, 2128 
 eq. miles. Pop. (exclusive of Calcutta), 
 1 892 033 
 
 PERICARDITIS, inflammation of the 
 membranous sac containing the heart. 
 In the acute stage of the disease there is 
 exudation of lymph or serum ; at a later 
 stage false membranes are formed; and 
 at a still later stage the two sides become 
 glued together, forming adherent peri- 
 cardium. This is generally followed by 
 changes in the substance of the heart 
 or in Its internal surface, orifices, or 
 valves, and a fatal termination is rarely 
 long delayed. The symptoms of peri- 
 carditis are : 1st, pain more or less acute, 
 in the situation of the heart; fever is 
 present with loss of appetite and dry 
 tongue. An anxious respiration and a 
 feeling of overwhelming oppression are 
 also present, with frequent sighing, 
 which gives momentary relief. Most 
 of the symptoms are aggravated by 
 motion or a high temperature. For the 
 diagnosis of pericarditis we must rely 
 mainly on the physical signs, but it is 
 only when the effusion is considerable 
 that investigation by percussion is of 
 much use. In ordinary cases^ where 
 adhesion takes place, there may be an 
 apparently complete recovery at the 
 end of three weeks or less ; but adhesion 
 frequently gives rise to other structural 
 changes of the heart, and then fatal 
 disease of that organ almost always 
 follows. In slight cases a real cure with- 
 out adhesion may be effected. This dis- 
 ease is frequently brought on by ex- 
 
 E osure to cold or draughts when the 
 ody is warm and perspiring. Its most 
 frequent occurrence is in connection 
 with acute rheumatism. 
 
 PERICAR'DIUM, the investing fibro- 
 serous sac or bag of the heart in man 
 and other animals. In man it contains 
 the heart and origin of the great vessels. 
 It consists of two layers an outer or 
 fibrous and an inner or serous layer. 
 The inner surface of the membrane 
 secretes a serous fluid, which in health 
 is present only in sufficient quantity to 
 lubricate the heart, and so to facilitate 
 its movements within the sac. 
 
 PERTCLES (-klez), one of the most 
 celebrated statesmen of ancient Greece, 
 born at Athens about 494 b. c. He was 
 connected by family relations with the 
 aristocracy, but as Cimon was already at 
 its head he endeavored to gain the favor 
 of the popular party. In this he fully 
 succeeded by his eloquence, abilities, 
 and political tactics, so that on the death 
 of Cimon, in 449 b.c., Pericles became 
 virtual ruler of Athens. By his great 
 public works he flattered the vanity of 
 the Athenians, while he beautified the 
 city and employed many laborers and 
 artists. His chief aim was to make 
 Athens undoubtedly the first power in 
 Greece, as well as the chief center of art 
 and literature, and this position she at- 
 tained and held for a number of years. 
 At the commencement of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war (b.c. 431), in which Athens 
 had to contend against Sparta and other 
 states, Pericles was made commander- 
 Vn-chief. The Spartans advanced into 
 Attica, but Pericles had made the rural 
 population take refuge in Athens and 
 refused battle. After they retired he led 
 
 an army into Meharis, and next year he 
 commanded a powerful fleet sent against 
 the Peloponnesus. In 430 b.c. a plague 
 broke out at Athens, and for a brief 
 period Pericles lost his popularity and 
 was deprived of the command. The 
 people, however, soon recalled him to 
 the head of the state, but amid his 
 numerous civil cares he was afflicted by 
 
 domestic calamities. Many of his friends 
 and his two sons, Xanthippus and Para- 
 lus, were carried off by the plague ; and 
 to console him for this loss the Athenians 
 allowed him to legitimize his son by 
 Aspasia. He now sunk into a lingering 
 sickness, and died b.c. 429, in the third 
 year of the Peloponnesian war. Pericles 
 was distinguished by intellectual breadth, 
 elevated moral tone, unruffled serenity, 
 and superiority to the prejudices of his 
 age. His name is intimately connected 
 with the highest glory of art, science, 
 and power in Athens. 
 
 PERIER (pa-ri-a), Casimir, French 
 statesman, was born at Grenoble in 1777; 
 educatedat Lyons ;and servedwith honor 
 in the campaigns of Italy (1799 and 
 1800). In 1802 he established a prosper- 
 ous banking-house in company with his 
 brother. In 1817 he was elected to 
 represint the department of the Seine 
 in the' Chamber of Deputies. Here he 
 became one of the leaders of the opposi- 
 tion under Charles X., and was no less 
 distinguished as the firm and eloquent 
 advocate of constitutional principles 
 than as an enlightened and sagacious 
 financier. After the revolution of 1830 
 he was prime-minister to Louis Philippe 
 from M^arch 13, 1831, to his death by 
 cholera. May 16, 1832. 
 
 PERIGEE (-je), that point in the orbit 
 of the moon which is at the least dis- 
 tance from the earth. See Apogee. 
 
 PERIHE'LION, that part of the orbit 
 of the earth or any other planet in which 
 it is at the point nearest to the sun. 
 The “perihelion distance” of a heavenly 
 body is its distance from the sun at its 
 nearest approach. 
 
 PERIM'ETERjingeometry, the bounds 
 or limits of any figure or body. The 
 
 f )erimeters of surfaces or figures are 
 ines; those of bodies are surfaces. 
 
 PERIOD, in astronomy, the interval 
 of time occupied by a planet or comet in 
 traveling once round the sun, or by a 
 satellite in traveling round its primary. 
 
 PERIODICALS, publications which 
 appear at regular intervals, and whose 
 
 principal object is not the conveyance of 
 news (the main function of newspapers), 
 but the circulation of information of a 
 literary, scientific, artistic, or miscel- 
 laneous character, as also criticisms on 
 books, essays, poems, tales, etc. Periodi- 
 cals exclusively devoted to criticism are 
 generally called reviews, and those 
 whose contents are of a miscellaneous 
 and entertaining kind magazines; but 
 there is no great strictness in the use of 
 the term. The first periodical was pub- 
 lished in France, being a scientific maga- 
 zine, the Journal des Savants, issued in 
 1665, and still existing in name at least. 
 The most famous French literary 
 periodical is the Revue de Deux Mondes, 
 begun in 1829, from 1831 issued fort- 
 nightly, and marked by an ability which 
 has placed it in the front rank of the 
 world’s periodicals. Into it tales, poems, 
 etc., are admitted, and the names of the 
 contributors have to be attached to 
 their articles. The earliest English 
 
 f )eriodical seems to have been the Week- 
 y Memorials for the Ingenious, the first 
 number of which is dated January, 1681 
 -82, and which lasted but a year. In 
 1802 was introduced the Edinburgh Re- 
 view, which came out every threemonths, 
 and soon had a formidable rival in the 
 Quarterly Review (1809). To meet the 
 demand for critical literature at shorter 
 intervals than three months, there was 
 published in 1865 the Fortnightly 
 Review, which for about a year was true 
 to its name, but has since appeared 
 monthly. The first English magazine 
 properly speaking may be said to be the 
 Gentleman’s Journal, or Monthly Mis- 
 cellany, commenced in 1692. The most 
 noted American reviews and magazines 
 are the North American Review, The 
 World’s Work, Harper’s Magazine, the 
 Atlantic Monthly, Lippincott’s Maga- 
 zine, Scribner’s Magazine, the Century 
 Magazine, the Forum, etc., etc. 
 
 PERIODICTTY, the disposition of 
 certain things or phenomena to recur at 
 stated periods. As a physiological and 
 pathological term it denotes the regular 
 or nearly regular recurrence of certain 
 phenomena of animal life, such as sleep 
 and hunger. The first indication of a 
 diseased state is generally a disturbance 
 of the natural or acquired periodicity 
 of the various functions of life. 
 
 PERIOSTEUM, the fibrous mem- 
 brane investing the bones, and which 
 serves as a medium for the transmission 
 of the nutritive blood-vessels of the 
 bone. The periosteum firmly adheres 
 to the surface of bones (including the 
 inside of the long bones), save at their 
 gristly or cartilaginous extremities, 
 and it becomes continuous with the 
 tendons or ligaments inserted into 
 bones'. When the periosteum, through 
 disease or injury, becomes affected, 
 the blood supply and nutrition of the 
 bone suffer, and in consequence the 
 bone-tissue dies or becomes necrosed, 
 and is exfofiated or thrown off. When a 
 bone is fractured the periosteum plays 
 an important part in the repair of the 
 injury, new osseous material being 
 deposited by the membrane. 
 
 PEroOSTITIS, inflammation of the 
 
 C eriosteum, a painful ailment frequently 
 rought on by sudden exposure to cold 
 after being heated. 
 
PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PERPENDICULAR STYLE 
 
 PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY, the 
 
 philosophy of Aristotle and his fol- 
 lowers, so called, it is believed, because 
 he was accustomed to walk up and down 
 with his more intimate disciples, while 
 he expounded to them his doctrines. 
 The philosophy of Aristotle starts from 
 his criticism of the Platonic doctrine 
 of ideas, in combating which he is led 
 to the fundamental antithesis of his 
 philosophy, that between matter and 
 form. The notion or idea of a thing is 
 not, he says, a separate existence 
 different from the thing itself, but is 
 related to the thing only as form to 
 matter. Every sensible thing is a com- 
 pound of matter and form, the matter 
 being the substance of which the thing 
 consists, while the form is that which 
 makes it a particular thing (a stone, 
 for example, and not a tree), and there- 
 fore the same as its notion or idea. The 
 form is the true nature of a thing. 
 Origination is merely matter acquiring 
 form, it is merely a transition from 
 potential to actual existence. Every- 
 thing that actually exists previously 
 existed potentially in the matter of 
 which it is composed. Matter is thus 
 related to form as potentiality to 
 actuality. And as there is, on the one 
 hand, formless matter, which is mere 
 potentiality without actuality, so, on 
 the other hand, there is pure form, 
 which is pure actuality without poten- 
 tiality. This pure form is the eternal 
 Being, styled by Aristotle the first or 
 prime mover. 
 
 PERIPTERAL, in Greek architecture, 
 a term signifying surrounded by a row 
 of columns: said of a temple or other 
 building, especially of a temple the cella 
 
 Plan of peripteral temple. 
 
 of which is surrounded by columns, 
 those on the flanks (or sides) being 
 distant one intercolumniation from the 
 wall. 
 
 PERISTALTIC (or Vermicular) MO- 
 TION, the name given to certain 
 movements connected with digestion 
 observed in the stomach and intestines, 
 which proceed with a wave-like or 
 spiral motion, the object being gradu- 
 ally to propel forward the contents of 
 these viscera. 
 
 PERISTYLE, in architecture, a range 
 of columns surrounding the exterior 
 or interior of anything, as the cella of 
 a temple. It is frequently but incor- 
 rectly limited in signification to a 
 range of columns round the interior of 
 a place, as an open court. 
 
 PERITONE'UM, the serous membrane 
 lining the abdominal cavity and cover- 
 
 ing the intestines. Like all other serous 
 membranes, the peritoneum presents 
 the structure of a closed sac; one layer 
 (parieta) lining the abdominal walls, the 
 other or visceral layer being reflected 
 over the organs of the abdomen. A 
 
 Over 
 
 
 Peritoneum of human female, in longitudinal 
 section, somewhat diagrammatical. 
 
 cavity — the peritoneal cavity — is thus 
 inclosed between the two layers of the 
 membrane, and this contains in health 
 a quanty of serous fluid just sufficient 
 to moisten its surfaces. 
 
 PERITONITIS, a common and very 
 frequently fatal disease caused by 
 inflammation of the peritoneum. The 
 latter is a great membrane, very thin, 
 and in the form of a closed sac, of the 
 same structure as the pleural membrane 
 and the pericadium. This membrane 
 encloses the viscera, or contents, of the 
 abdominal cavity; but the viscera are 
 not within the cavity of the sac, but 
 are invested by the outside of the sac, 
 much the same as if one were to wrap 
 up several objects in a deflated foot- 
 ''all. It is clear that the cavity of the 
 football would not enclose the objects, 
 but that the interior walls of the foot- 
 ball would be everywhere in contact. 
 When foreign bodies, most frequently 
 bacteria, or disease germs, find their 
 way into the cavity of the peritoneum, 
 the membrane becomes inflamed, the 
 interior surfaces often adhere to each 
 other, the intestines become deranged, 
 fever follows, and unless prompt treat- 
 ment is resorted to death ensues, 
 especially in acute peritonitis. In 
 acute peritonitis the first symptoms 
 are chill and pain in the abdomen, 
 more intense pain on pressure, and pain 
 on breathing. The appearance of the 
 patient’s face is characteristic: “Sharp 
 nose, hollow eyes, collapsed temples, 
 ears cold and turned out, skin of the 
 forehead rough, distended, and parched, 
 the color of the face brown, black, 
 livid, or lead-colored.” Acute peritoni- 
 tis is usually fatal in two to ten days, 
 death being very sudden. 
 
 Chronic peritonitis is caused prin- 
 cipally by germs, and is not painful 
 except occasionally. The treatment 
 for the acute form is local application 
 of ice bags and calomel or salts. Chronic 
 
 peritonitis frequently yields readily 
 to treatment. 
 
 PERJURY, the act or crime of wil- 
 fully making a false oath in judicial 
 proceedings in a matter material to the 
 issue or cause in question. The penal- 
 ties of perjury attach to wilful falsehood 
 in an affirmation made by a Quaker or 
 other witness where such affirmation is 
 received in lieu of an oath. Perjury is 
 a misdemeanor punishable at common 
 law, by fine or imprisonment, but 
 several acts provide for additional 
 punishment. Popularly, the mere act 
 of making a false oath, or jjf violating 
 an oath, provided it be lawful, is con- 
 sidered perjury. 
 
 PERM, an eastern government of 
 Russia, partly in Europe and partly in 
 Asia; area, 128,211 sq. miles. The 
 government is rich in minerals, com- 
 prising iron, silver, copper, platinum, 
 nickel, lead, and gold. Pop. 3,003,208. — 
 Perm, the capital of the government, is 
 situated on the Kama, 930 miles north- 
 east of Moscow. It has flourishing 
 industries in iron, steel, leather, etc. 
 In the neighborhood is a government 
 manufactory of steel guns and munitions 
 of war. Pop. 45,403. 
 
 PERMANENT WHITE, a white pig- 
 ment consisting of sulphate of barium 
 precipitated from the chloride by adding 
 dilute sulphuric acid. 
 
 PERNAMBU'CO, a town in Brazil, 
 the capital of the state of the same 
 name, on the east coast. It consists 
 of three distinct parts: Recife, occupy- 
 ing a small peninsula; San Antonio, on 
 an island; and Boa Vista, on the main- 
 land, the three parts being connected 
 by iron bridges. The harbor is formed 
 by the reef, which incloses a belt of 
 water about a mile in width. The trade 
 is extensive. Pop. 130,000. — The state, 
 has an area of about 46,000 square miles.' 
 The principal cultivated crops are the 
 sugar-cane and cotton. Pop. 1,014,700. 
 
 PEROXTDES, the general name ap- 
 plied to the binary compounds of 
 oxygen containing the greatest amount 
 of that element. 
 
 PERPENDIC'ULAR, in geometry, a 
 line falling directly on another line, so 
 as to make equal angles on each side. 
 A straight line is said to be perpendic- 
 ular to a curve, when it cuts the 
 curve in a point where another straight 
 line to which it is perpendicular makes 
 a tangent with the curve. In this case 
 the perpendicular is usually called 
 a normal to the curve. 
 
 PERPENDICULAR STYLE, in archi- 
 tecture, a variety of the pointed Gothic, 
 the latest variety to be introduced, 
 sometimes called the florid or Tudor 
 style of Gothic. It prevailed in Eng- 
 land from about the end of the 14th 
 to the middle of the 16th century. It 
 is chiefly characterized by the pre- 
 dominance of straight lines in the de- 
 sign, and especially in its tracery. An- 
 other feature is the lofty square towers 
 of its churches, divided into stages by 
 bands, and each stage filled with 
 windows. The mullions of the windows 
 are vertical, generally rise to the main 
 arches, and are often crossed by 
 horizontal bars or transoms. Large 
 windows are a distinctive feature of 
 this style. The tracery of the doors is 
 
PERPETUAL motion 
 
 PERSEUS 
 
 similar to that of the windows. There 
 are two kinds of roof peculiar to the 
 
 Perpendicular style. 
 
 style — the vaulted roof, with fan- 
 tracery, and the open timber-roof. 
 
 PERPETUAL MOTION, motion that, 
 once originated, continues forever or 
 indefinitely. The problem of a perpetual 
 motion consists in the invention of a 
 machine which shall have the principles 
 of its motion within itself, and number- 
 less schemes have been proposed for its 
 solution. It was not till the discovery of 
 the principle of the conservation of 
 energy (see Energy, Conservation of), 
 experimentally proved by Joule, that 
 the impossibility of the existence of a 
 perpetual motion was considered to be a 
 physical axiom. This principle asserts 
 that the whole amount of energy in the 
 universe, or in any limited system which 
 does not receive energy from without, or 
 part with it to external matter, is invari- 
 able. But every machine when in action 
 does a certain amount of work, if only in 
 overcoming friction and the resistance of 
 air, and as the perpetual motion machine 
 can start with only a certain amount of 
 energy, this is gradually used up in the 
 work it does. A machine, in short, 
 would be required in which there was no 
 friction, and which met with no resist- 
 ance of any kind. The mechanical ar- 
 rangements which have been put 
 forward as perpetual motions by inven- 
 tors are either, (1) Systems of weights, 
 which are allowed to slide on a wheel 
 into such positions relatively to the axis 
 of the wheel as to produce a constant 
 turning moment in one direction; (2) 
 Masses of liquid moving in wheels on the 
 same principle; (3) Masses of iron ar- 
 ranged on the same principle, but sub- 
 jected to the attractions of magnets 
 instead of their own weights. Numbers 
 of patents for such machines are con- 
 stantly being taken out, but in every 
 case inventors show an ignorance of the 
 most elementary principles of natural 
 philosophy. 
 
 PERRY, Matthew Galbraith, Ameri- 
 can naval officer was born in Rhode 
 Island, in 1794. He was a younger 
 brother of Com. Oliver Hazard Perry. 
 In 1809 he became midshipman, and in 
 1813 was made lieutenant. In 1853 
 Commodore Perry organized and com- 
 manded the famous expedition to Japan 
 that opened that country to intercourse 
 with the civilized world. On his return a 
 
 report of the expedition was published 
 by the United States govermnent, in 
 three volumes, entitled Report of Com- 
 modore Perry’s Expedition to Japan. 
 He died in 1858. 
 
 PERRY, Oliver Hazard, American 
 naval officer, was born in South Kings- 
 ton, R. I., in 1785. On April 7, 1799, he 
 received his commission as midshipman, 
 and on January 15, 1807, was promoted 
 lieutenant. After building a fleet of gun- 
 boats, he commanded the schooner 
 Revenge, that, in 1810, cruised off the 
 southern coast of the United States. 
 This vessel was wrecked on a reef near 
 Watch Hill, R. L, January 8, 1811, but 
 Perry was honorably acquitted of neglect 
 or carelessness by a court of inquiry, 
 Tnereafter he repeatedly applied for a 
 command at sea, which was refused, and 
 eventually offered his services to Com. 
 Isaac Chauncey on the lakes, who 
 ordered him for duty to Lake Erie. Here 
 at Erie, he superintended the building of 
 a number of small vessels, the largest of 
 which were of 500 tons burden ; with them 
 he expected to encounter the British 
 flotilla, under Captain Barclay. Perry’s 
 squadron consisted of nine vessels of 
 1,671 tons, with 54 guns. On the British 
 side Capt. Robert Heriot Barclay had a 
 flotilla of six vessels of 1,460 tons, 
 manned by 450 men and 63 pieces of 
 cannon. On September 10, 1813, the 
 American forces moved out of Put-in- 
 Bay for action, and after a hard-fought 
 
 contest, on the afternoon of that day the 
 British flotilla surrendered. Captain 
 Barclay waswounded in the action. Con- 
 gress bestowed on Perry the rank of 
 captain, and the British, having lost 
 control of Lake Erie, evacuated Detroit. 
 Perry served in the Mediterranean under 
 Decatur, and in 1819 was sent, in com- 
 mand of a squadron, to the Caribbean 
 sea, where, on the Orinoco river, he died 
 of yellow fever. 
 
 PERSECUTIONS, the name usually 
 applied to periods during which the early 
 Christians were subjected to cruel treat- 
 ment on account of their religion. Ten 
 of these are usually counted. The first 
 persecution (64-68) was carried on 
 under Nero. The cruelties practiced on 
 this occasion are worthy of the ferocious 
 
 instincts of that notorious tyrant. The 
 apostles Peter and Paul suffered in this 
 persecution. The second persecution 
 (95-96) was raised by the Emperor 
 Domitian. Many eminent Christians 
 suffered; and it is generally held that St. 
 John was exiled to Patmos at this time. 
 The third persecution began in the third 
 year of Trajan (100). This persecution 
 continued for several years, with dif- 
 ferent degrees of severity in many parts 
 of the empire, ‘and the severity of it 
 appears from the great number of 
 martyrs mentioned in the old martyr- 
 ologies. The fourth persecution, under 
 Marcus Aurelius (161-180), at different 
 places, with several intermissions and 
 different degrees of violence, continued 
 the greatest part of his reign. It raged 
 with particular fury in Smyrna and 
 Lyons, and Vienne in Gaul. Polycarp 
 and Justin Martyr are famous victims of 
 this period. The fifth began in 197 under 
 Severus. During the sixth persecution, 
 under Maximian (235-238), only Chris- 
 tian teachers and ministers were perse- 
 cuted. Decius began his reign (249) with 
 a persecution of the Christians (the 
 seventh) throughout his dominions. 
 This was the first really general perse- 
 cution. Valerian in 257 put to death 
 few but the clergy (eighth persecution); 
 and the execution of the edict of 
 Aurelian against the Christians (274) — 
 the ninth persecution, as it was called — 
 was prevented by his violent death. A 
 severe persecution of the Christians (the 
 tenth) took place under the Emperor 
 Diocletian (303). Throughout the Ro- 
 man empire their churches were des- 
 troyed, their sacred books burned, and 
 all imaginable means of inhuman 
 violence employed to induce them to 
 renounce their faith. Persecutions, prin- 
 cipally directed against the clergy, 
 continued with more or less vigor until 
 Constantine the Great (312 and 313) re- 
 stored to the Christians full liberty and 
 the use of their churches and goods; and 
 his conversion to Christianity made it 
 the established religion in the Roman 
 empire. 
 
 PERSEPH'ONE, in Greek mythology, 
 the daughter of Zeus and Demeter 
 (Ceres). While she was gathering flowers 
 near Enna in Sicily Pluto carried her off 
 to the infernal regions, with the consent 
 of Zeus, and made her his wife, but in 
 answer to the prayers of Demeter she 
 was permitted to spend the spring and 
 summer of each year in the upper world. 
 In Homer she bears the name of Perse- 
 phoneia. The chief seats of the worship 
 of Persephone were Attica and Sicily. 
 In the festivals held in her honor in 
 autumn the celebrants were dressed in 
 mourning in token of lamentation for 
 her being carried off by Pluto, while at 
 the spring festivals they were clad in 
 gay attire in token of joy at her return. 
 In works of art Persephone is sometimes 
 represented as sitting by the side of her 
 husband, and sometimes alone. 
 
 PERSEUS (per'sus), an ancient Greek 
 hero, son of Danae and Zeus. He was 
 set adrift in the sea on his birth, in a 
 chest along with his mother. But the 
 chest reached the Island of Seriphos, 
 and Perseus was brought up by the 
 king of the island, who exacted a promise 
 from him to fetch the head of the Gorgon 
 
PERSEUS 
 
 PERSIA 
 
 Medusa. This he accomplished under 
 the guidance of Hermes and Athena, 
 and with the assistance of the nymphs. 
 He also delivered Andromeda from a 
 sea-monster (see Andromeda), an ex- 
 ploit which is frequently figured in an- 
 cient art. He was king of Tiryns and 
 founder of Mycenae. After his death 
 Perseus was worshipped as a hero, and 
 placed among the stars. 
 
 PERSEUS, the last king of the Mace- 
 donians, and an illegitimate son of 
 Philip V., succeeded his father B.c. 178, 
 and entered keenly into the hostilities 
 which had previously broken out against 
 Rome. The Romans sent an army 
 against him and gained a signal victory 
 at Pydna 168 b.c. Perseus fled to 
 Samothrace, but was given up to the 
 Romans, and some years after died in 
 captivity at Alba, near Rome. 
 
 PERSEUS, a northern constellation 
 surrounded by Andromeda, Aries, Tau- 
 rus, Auriga, Camelopardalus, and Cas- 
 siopeia. 
 
 PERSIA, a kingdom of Western Asia ; 
 bounded north by Transcaucasian Rus- 
 sia, the Caspian, and Russian Central 
 Asia; east by Afghanistan and Baluch- 
 istan; south by the Persian Gulf; and 
 west by Asiatic Turkey; extending for 
 700 miles from n. to s. and 900 miles 
 from e. to w.; area, about 636,000 sq. 
 miles; pop. from 7,000,000 to 9,000,000. 
 The country is divided into 33 provinces, 
 capital Teheran (pop. 150,000 to 200,- 
 000); chief trade centers, Teheran, 
 Tabreez, Ispahan; chief ports, Bushire 
 and Bender Abbas on the Persian Gulf. 
 Other large towns are; Meshed, Bal- 
 froosh, Kerman, Yezd, Hamadan,ShirAz, 
 Kazvin, Kom, Resht. 
 
 Persia may be considered as an ele- 
 vated plateau, broken by clusters of 
 hills or chains of rocky mountains, 
 which alternate with extensive plains 
 and barren deserts; the desert of 
 Khorassan in the northeast alone 
 absorbs about one-seventh of the entire 
 area. Low tracts exist on the Persian 
 gulf and the Caspian sea. The interior 
 plains have an elevation of from 2000 
 to 6000 feet above the sea. This vast 
 central plateau is supported in the n. 
 and s. by two great mountain chains or 
 systems, and from these all the minor 
 ranges seem to spring. The north chain, 
 an extension of the Hindu Kush, enters 
 Persia from Northern Afghanistan, 
 proceeds across the country, and reaches 
 its greatest elevation on the south of the 
 Caspian, where it takes the name of the 
 Elburz mountains, and attains in Mount 
 Demavend a height of nearly 20,000 
 feet. Still further west it becomes 
 linked with the mountains of Ararat. 
 The other great mountain system runs 
 from northwest to southeast nearer the 
 Persian gulf, is of considerable width, 
 and forms several separate ranges. In 
 one of these an elevation of 17,000 feet 
 is reached. The rivers are few and in- 
 significant. Not one of them is of any 
 navigable importance, except the Eu- 
 phrates, which only waters a small por- 
 tion of the southwest frontier, and the 
 Karun, recently opened to the naviga- 
 tion of the world. The latter is entirely 
 within Persian territory, and flows into 
 the Shat-el-Arab, or united Tigris and 
 Euphrates. Of the streams which flow 
 
 northward into the Caspian the only 
 important one is the Kizil-Uzen or 
 Sefid Rud (White river), which has a 
 course of about 350 miles. There are a 
 great number of small fresh-water 
 lakes, and a few very extensive salt 
 lakes, the largest being Urumiah in the 
 extreme northwest. 
 
 The climate varies considerably in 
 different provinces, and in the central 
 plateau intense summer heat alternates 
 with extreme cold in winter. The 
 mineral wealth of Persia is but little 
 developed. Iron, copper, lead, antimony 
 are abundant; sulphur, naphtha, and 
 rock-salt unlimited; coal also exists. 
 The turquoise mines of Nishapur are 
 about the only ones receiving anything 
 like adequate attention. The interior of 
 Persia, particularly its eastern and 
 southern regions, is mostly devoid of 
 vegetation over large areas; the south- 
 west has its forests of stunted oaks and 
 other trees, and jungle; but on the Cas- 
 pian the mountain sides are covered with 
 dense and magnificent woods of oak, 
 beech, elm, and walnut, intermingled 
 with box-trees, cypresses, and cedars. 
 Lower down wheat and barley are ex- 
 tensively cultivated. In the level and 
 rich plains below the sugar cane and 
 orange come to perfection; the pome- 
 granate grows wild; the cotton-plant 
 and mulberry are extensively and suc- 
 cessfully cultivated, and large tracts are 
 occupied by the vine, and orchards 
 producing every kind of European fruit. 
 In the low plains the only grain under 
 extensive and regular culture is rice; 
 the principal subsidiary crops are cot- 
 ton, indigo, opium, sugar, madder, and 
 tobacco. Excellent dates are produced 
 on the southern coast tracts. Irrigation 
 is well understood and extensively 
 practiced. The domestic animals are; 
 sheep, chiefly of the large-tailed variety; 
 goats, some of which produce a wool 
 little inferior to that of Cashmere; asses 
 and mules of a large and superior de- 
 scription; horses of Arab, Turkoman 
 and Persian breeds, and camels. Wild 
 animals include the lion, leopard, wolf, 
 jackal, hyena, bear, porcupine, wild ass, 
 gazelle, etc. 
 
 The manufactures of Persia were once 
 celebrated, but excepting some carpets 
 and shawls it may be said that the coun- 
 try has ceased to export manufactured 
 articles. Its chief exports now are rice, 
 dried fruits, opium, silk, wool, cotton, 
 hides, pearls, and turquoises. Chief 
 imports: textiles, china and glass, car- 
 riages, sugar, tea, coffee, petroleum, 
 drugs, and fancy articles. The internal 
 trade of the country is almost entirely 
 carried on by caravans, the beasts of 
 burden being horses, camels, and mules. 
 Railways are as yet hardly known in 
 Persia, and good roads are almost equally 
 rare. 
 
 The government of Persia is an abso- 
 lute monarchy. The only control to 
 which its ruler, the Shah, is subject are 
 the precepts of the Koran. He sur- 
 rounds himself with a certain number 
 of advisers, forming a ministry, eleven 
 of whom are heads of special depart- 
 ments. These ministers he calls and 
 dismisses at pleasure. The army on a 
 war footing is supposed to number 
 60,000 men. 
 
 The population is chiefly made up of 
 Iranians or pure Persians and Turanians 
 (Turkish and Tartar tribes), and in 
 religion belongs almost exclusively to 
 the Shiah sect of Mohammedans, or 
 more properly to a subdivision of that 
 sect. The priesthood is very influential 
 and very bigoted. Education is com- 
 paratively well attended to, Persia being 
 considered, next to China, the best- 
 educated country in Asia. The Persians 
 are rather short and slender built, fair 
 in complexion, hair long and straight, 
 but beard bushy, and almost invariably 
 jet black. The women are beautiful, 
 intellectual, and polite. The Persian is 
 celebrated for his affable manners, but 
 also for his craft and deceit. Polygamy 
 is both authorized and encouraged. 
 
 The Persian empire was founded by 
 Cyrus (559-29 b.c.), and existed under 
 his successors of the Achsemenean 
 dynasty until Darius III. (338-30 b.c.) 
 was overthrown by Alexander the Great. 
 After the death of Alexander, Persia 
 ultimately fell to his general Seleucus 
 (312 B.C.), whose successors, the Seleu- 
 cidse, ruled over it till 236 b.c., when 
 Arsaces I. founded the Parthian empire, 
 of which Persia formed a part. The 
 Parthian empire continued till 226 a.d., 
 when Persia once more gained the as- 
 cendency under Ardash4r Babigdn, 
 whose descendants, the Sassanidae, con- 
 tinued to rule till the 7th century, when 
 Persia was conquered by the Caliph 
 Omar, and became a province of the 
 Mohammedan empire. The Arab con- 
 quest made a deep and lasting impres- 
 sion on Persia. Under its influence the 
 old Persian religion was given up in 
 favor of Mohammedanism. About the 
 beginning of the 9th century Persia 
 began to be broken up into numerous 
 petty states, and became the prey of 
 successive conquerors — the Seljuk Turks 
 (1037); Genghis Khan (1220); Tamer- 
 lane (1387); and the Turkomans, who 
 were succeeded by the Sufi dynasty, 
 (1501-1736). Ismail Sufi, the first 
 sovereign of this dynasty, assumed the 
 title of Shah, and introduced the Shiite 
 or Shiah sect, or sect of Ali, Moham- 
 med’s son-in-law, from whom he pre- 
 tended to be descended. Nadir Shah 
 ascended the throne in 1736, and re- 
 stored Persia to something of her 
 former importance, but he was mur- 
 dered in 1747, and his death was suc- 
 ceeded by a long period of anarchy, 
 only broken by the reign of Kerin Khan, 
 until Agha Muhammed, a Turkoman 
 eunuch, founded the present dynasty of 
 the Kajars (1794). Agha Muhammed 
 was murdered in 1797, and succeeded by 
 his nephew. Path Ali, whose reign was 
 largely taken up with unsuccessful wars 
 Avith Russia and Turkey. He died in 
 1835, and was succeeded by his grand- 
 son, Mohammed, in whose reign Russian 
 influence became predominant at Tehe- 
 ran. His son N&sr-ed-din the reigning 
 Shah, ascended the throne in 1848. His 
 efforts to annex Herat led to a war be- 
 tween Great Britain and Persia, in 
 which Bushire was taken by the British 
 forces, and severe defeats were inflicted 
 upon the Persian troops at Kooshab and 
 Mohammerah. By the Peace of Paris 
 (March 3, 1857), however, Persia re- 
 nounced all claim to Herat. The bound- 
 
PERSIAN GULP 
 
 PERSPIRATION 
 
 ary between Persia and the Russian 
 territory beyond the Caspian was settled 
 in 1881. 
 
 PERSIAN GULF, a gulf -separating 
 Persia from Arabia, and communicating 
 with the Indian ocean by the Strait of 
 Ormuz, 35 miles wide; greatest length, 
 560 miles; medium breadth, 180 miles. 
 It receives the waters of the united 
 Euphrates and Tigris, and of a number 
 of small streams; the principal port is 
 Bushire. There are many islands in the 
 gulf; the largest are; Kishim, Ormuz, 
 and the Bahrein Isles; in the neighbor- 
 hood of the latter there are lucrative 
 pearl-fisheries. 
 
 PERSIAN POWDER, an efficacious 
 insecticide introduced from the east, 
 and prepared from the flowers of the 
 roseum, a native of the Caucasus, Persia, 
 etc. 
 
 PERSIAN WHEEL, or NORIA, the 
 
 Puisaro of the south of France, a ma- 
 chine for raising water to irrigate gar- 
 dens, meadows, etc., employed from 
 time immemorial in Asia and Africa, and 
 introduced by the Saracens into Spain 
 and other European countries. It con- 
 sists of a double water-wheel, with float- 
 boards on one side and a series of buckets 
 on the other, which are movable about 
 an axis above their center of gravity. 
 The wheel is placed in a stream, the 
 water turns it, and the filled buckets 
 ascend; when they reach the highest 
 point, their lower ends strike against a 
 fixed obstacle, and the water is dis- 
 charged into a reservoir. In Portugal, 
 Spain, South of France, and Italy, this 
 contrivance is extensively used; and 
 has been modified to enable it to draw 
 water also from ponds and wells, ani- 
 mals supplying the motive power, and 
 pots, leather or other bags taking the 
 place of buckets. 
 
 PERSIGNY (per-sen-ye), Jean Gilbert 
 Victor Fialin, Due de, French states- 
 man, born 1808, died 1872. In 1840 he 
 shared Napoleon’s expedition to Bou- 
 logne. On the outbreak of the revolu- 
 tion of February, 1848, he hastened 
 to Paris, contributed largely to de- 
 termine the vote by which Napoleon 
 was elected president (10th December, 
 1849), and was also one of the most 
 prominent actors in the coup d’etat 
 (December 2, 1851), by which he be- 
 came Napoleon III. He held the office of 
 minister of the interior from 1852-54, 
 and again from 1860-63; was appointed 
 member of the senate 1852, ambassador 
 to Great Britain 1855. He was elevated 
 to the rank of duke in 1863. 
 
 PERSIM'MON, the fruit of a tree (a 
 species of ebony) inhabiting the United 
 States of America, more especially the 
 southern states, where it attains the 
 height of 60 feet or more. The fruit is 
 succulent, reddish, and about the size of 
 a small plum, containing a few oval 
 stones. It is powerfully astringent when 
 green, but when fully ripe the pulp be- 
 comes soft, palatable, and very sweet. 
 
 PERSIS'TENCE, in physics, the con- 
 tinuance of an effect after the cause 
 which first gave rise to it is removed; as, 
 the persistence of the impression of light 
 on the retina after the luminous object 
 is withdrawn; the persistence of the 
 motion of an object after the moving 
 force is withdrawn. 
 
 P. E.— 61 
 
 PERSONATION. See False Persona- 
 tion. 
 
 PERSONIFICATION, in the fine arts, 
 poetry, and rhetoric, the representation 
 of an inanimate subject as a person. 
 This may be done in poetry and rhetoric 
 
 Personification.— The “Church of Christ.” 
 from the west front of the cathedral of Notre 
 Dame, Paris (13th century sculpture). 
 
 either by giving epithets to inanimate 
 subjects which properly belong only to 
 persons, or by representing them as 
 actually performing the part of animated 
 beings. 
 
 PERSPEC'TIVE, the art or science 
 which teaches how to produce the rep- 
 resentation of objects on a flat surface 
 so as to affect the eye in the same man- 
 ner as the object or objects themselves 
 when viewed from a given point. Per- 
 spective is intimately connected with 
 the arts of design, and is particularly 
 necessary in the art of painting, as with- 
 out correctness of perspective no picture 
 can be entirely satisfactory. Perspective 
 alone enables us to represent fore- 
 shortenings (see Foreshortening) with 
 accuracy, and it is requisite in delineat- 
 ing even the simplest positions of ob- 
 jects. That part of perspective which 
 relates to the form of the objects differs 
 essentially from that which teaches the 
 gradation of colors according to the 
 relative distance of objects. Hence per- 
 spective is divided into mathematical 
 or linear perspective, and the perspective 
 of color or aerial perspective. The con- 
 tour of an object drawn upon paper or 
 canvas represents nothing more than 
 such an intersection of the rays of 
 light sent from the extremities of it 
 to the eye, as would arise on a glass 
 put in the place of the paper or can- 
 vas. Suppose a spectator to be look- 
 ing through a glass window at a pros- 
 pect without, he will perceive the 
 shape, size, and situation of every 
 object visible upon the glass. If the 
 objects are near the window the spaces 
 they occupy on the glass will be larger 
 than those occupied by similar objects 
 at a greater distance ; if they are parallel 
 to the window, their shapes upon the 
 glass will be parallel likewise ; if they are 
 oblique, their shapes will be oblique; 
 
 and so on. As the person alters his 
 position, the situation of the objects 
 upon the window will be altered also. 
 The horizontal line, or line correspond- 
 ing with the horizon, will in every situa- 
 tion of the eye be upon a level with it, 
 that is, will seem to be raised as far 
 above the ground upon which the specta- 
 tor stands as his eye is. Now suppose 
 the person at the window keeping his 
 head steady draws the figure of an ob- 
 ject seen through it upon the glass with 
 a pencil, as if the point of a pencil 
 touched the object, he would then have 
 a true representation of the object in 
 perspective as it appears to his eye. 
 Representations of objects have, how- 
 ever, generally to be drawn on opaque 
 planes, and for this purpose rules must 
 be deduced from optics and geometry, 
 and the application of these rules con- 
 stitutes what is properly called the art 
 of perspective. Linear perspective in- 
 cludes the various kinds of projections. 
 Scenographic projection represent ob- 
 jects as they actually appear to the eye 
 at limited distances. Orthographic pro- 
 jections represent objects as they would 
 appear to the eye at an infinite dis- 
 tance, the rays which proceed from 
 them being parallel instead of converg- 
 ing. It is the method on which plans and 
 sections are drawn. A bird’s-eye view 
 is a scenographic or orthographic pro- 
 jection taken from an elevated point 
 in the air from which the eye is supposed 
 to look down upon the objects. Aerial 
 perspective teaches how to judge of the 
 degree of light which objects reflect 
 in proportion to their distance, and of 
 the gradation of their tints in propor- 
 tion to the intervening air. By its ap- 
 plieation each object in a picture re- 
 ceives that degree of color and light 
 which belongs to its distance from the 
 spectator. The charm and harmony of a 
 picture, particularly of a landscape, 
 depend greatly upon correct aerial per- 
 spective. 
 
 PERSPIRATION, or SWEAT, the 
 
 fluid secretion of the sweat glands of the 
 skin. The term perspiration is, however, 
 sometimes used to include all the secre- 
 tions of the skin, such as those of the 
 sebaceous glands or follicles, etc. The 
 sweat-glands, situated in the sub- 
 cutaneous adipose or fat tissue of the 
 skin, consist of a coiled-up tube, in- 
 vested by a capillary net-work of blood- 
 vessels, and continued to the surface of 
 the skin, where it opens in an oblique 
 valvular aperture. The openings of the 
 sweat-ducts constitute the popular 
 “pores” of the skin. The largest and 
 most numerous ducts are situated in the 
 palm of the hand (Krause estimates 
 2736 to the square inch, Erasmus Wilson 
 3528). Perspiration is divided into in- 
 sensible and sensible, the former being 
 separated in the form of an invisible 
 vapor, the latter so as to become visible 
 by condensation in the form of little 
 drops adhering to the skin. Water, 
 fatty acids, carbonic acid, salts, etc., 
 are removed from the body by the sweat, 
 by which also the skin is kept moist. 
 By the passing off of the sweat as vapor, 
 heat is lost from the body, and thus the 
 greater or less activity of the sweat 
 glands plays an important part in 
 regulating the bodily temperature. For 
 
PERTH 
 
 PERU 
 
 these reasons the regular process of per- 
 spiration is necessary for the preserva- 
 tion of good health. The constituents of 
 sweat are to some extent dependent on 
 the various bodily conditions and cir- 
 cumstances, hence the various results 
 of analysis by different authorities. The 
 quantity of sweat evolved from the skin 
 has been estimated at nearly 2 lbs. 
 daily. 
 
 PERTH, a city and royal and parlia- 
 mentary burgh of Scotland, capital of 
 the county of the same name. Perth is 
 celebrated for its extensive dye-works. 
 It manufactures woolens, winceys, 
 hosiery, jute, table-linen, gauge-glasses 
 for boilers, castings, etc. Till the death 
 of James I., in 1437, it was the capital 
 of Scotland, and both then and sub- 
 sequently it became the scene of some 
 of the most remarkable events in Scot- 
 tish history. Pop. 32,872. — The county, 
 which occupies the center of Scotland, 
 has an extreme length, east to west, of 
 63 miles; breadth, north to south, 60 
 miles; area, 1,664,690 acres, of which 
 
 32,000 are water and 349,000 acres are 
 under cultivation. Pop. 123,255. 
 
 PERTH AMBOY, a city and port of 
 entry in Middlesex co., N. J., at the 
 mouth of Raritan river; on Raritan bay, 
 Staten Island Sound, and the Cent, of 
 N. J., the Lehigh Valley, the Penn., and 
 the Staten Island Rapid Transit rail- 
 ways; 21 miles s.w. of New York. It is 
 in a fire-clay and kaolin region; has a 
 large and excellent harbor; and con- 
 tains terra-cotta works, large dry-docks, 
 and immense coal and freight shipping 
 d6p6t and wharves of the Lehigh Valley 
 railroad. Pop. 20,145. 
 
 PERTURBATIONS, the orbital irregu- 
 larities or deviations of the planets from 
 their regular elliptic orbits. These de- 
 viations arise, in the case of the primary 
 planets, from the mutual gravitations 
 of these planets toward each other, 
 which derange their elliptic motions 
 round the sun; and in that of the sec- 
 ondaries, partly from the mutual gravi- 
 tation of the secondaries of the same 
 system, similarly deranging their elliptic 
 motions round their primary, and partly 
 from the unequal attraction of the sun 
 on them and on their primary. Of the 
 planetary perturbations, the most im- 
 portant in a practical point of view are 
 those which arise from the mutual 
 attractions of the three bodies, the sun, 
 the earth, and the moon. 
 
 PERU', a republic of South America, 
 bounded on the north by Ecuador, on 
 the west by the Pacific ocean, on the 
 south by Chile, and on the east by Bolivia 
 and Brazil; area, 683,145 sq. miles; 
 estimated pop. in 1896, 2,900,000. The 
 population consists of about 57 per 
 cent aboriginal Indians, 23 per cent 
 mixed Indian races, and 20 per cent of 
 descendants of Spaniards, Europeans 
 (chiefly Italians, French, and Spaniards), 
 and Asiatics (chiefly Chinese). 
 
 This country exhibits great varieties 
 of physical character. It is traversed 
 throughout its length by the Andes, 
 running parallel to and on an average 
 60 miles distant from the coast, the 
 region between largely consisting of 
 sandy desert, except where watered by 
 transverse mountain streams. The 
 Andes consist here of two main chains 
 
 or Cordilleras, connected by cross 
 ranges, inclosing extensive and lofty 
 valleys and plateaus. The Andes region 
 is roughly estimated at about two- 
 fifths of the entire area of Peru. The 
 loftiest summits are in the southern 
 portion of the W. Cordillera; several 
 peaks attain there an altitude of nearly 
 
 20,000 feet, and the Chuquibamba rises 
 to 21,000 feet. The most important dis- 
 tricts are those of Pasco, of Cuzco, the 
 valleys of the Rio Jauja, and of the 
 Marafion or Amazon. The first of these 
 lies at one of those points where the 
 branches of the Andes unite, the ridges 
 sinking into an elevated plain, which 
 has here a general height of 14,000 feet. 
 The veins of the precious metals, with 
 which this region abounds, have at- 
 tracted to it a comparatively dense 
 population. The table-land of Cuzco 
 descends from an elevation of less than 
 
 Peruvians. 
 
 12,000 feet in the s. to about 8000 feet 
 in the n. Of the lakes Lake Titicaca 
 (12,542 feet above sea-level), the largest 
 in South America, and which partly 
 belongs to Bolivia, is the only one of 
 commercial importance. The chief 
 rivers are the Marafion or main stream 
 of the Amazon, and the Huallaga and 
 Ucayale, which join the Marafion; the 
 Ucayale, formed by the united waters 
 of a number of streams (Apurimac, 
 Urubamba, Paucartambo), being about 
 the same size as that river. In the mari- 
 time region of Peru earthquake shocks 
 are of common occurrence, and some of 
 them have been of exceptional severity, 
 the most disastrous being those of 1746, 
 1868, and 1877. Gold and silver occur 
 in all the provinces of Peru, and form 
 the chief wealth of the country. Quick- 
 silver is also abundant. Copper, lead 
 and iron also exist in various places. 
 
 The climate of Peru is as varied as its 
 physical aspect. On a portion of the 
 coast no rain has fallen within the mem- 
 ory of man, but the garua, a thick 
 heavy mist often approaching to drizz- 
 ling rain, is a partial compensation, 
 and the rivers from the Andes afford 
 means of irrigation for sugar and cotton 
 
 C lantations. The central plateau region 
 as a mild and comparatively humid 
 climate, but the higher regions are in- 
 clement and subject to terrific tempests. 
 East of the Andes the regular equatorial 
 winds from the east come loaded with 
 humidity, and, checked by the moun- 
 tains, pour down copious, and in some 
 places perpetual rains. 
 
 Peru is incomparably rich in botany. 
 
 each region having its own flora. In 
 the less elevated portions of the Eastern 
 Andes a tropical vegetation is found; 
 while on the higher parts representa- 
 tives of alpine families (as the gentians) 
 luxuriate. In the forests of Eastern 
 Peru cinchona trees grow abundantly 
 and supply the valuable bark from which 
 the quinine is extracted. The same zone, 
 especially the hot plains and swamps, 
 also supply coca, the medicinal prop- 
 erties of which have for centuries been 
 known to the natives of Peru and Bolivia 
 who chew the leaves as a stimulant. 
 Tobacco, cotton, sugar, rice, coffee, 
 cocoa, and corn are grown in various 
 parts and in increasing quantities. The 
 eastern face of the Andes is as remark- 
 able for its fauna as it is for its flora. 
 The forests on the lower ranges and in 
 the plains swarm with many species of 
 parrots and monkeys; the tapir, sloth, 
 ant-eater, armadillo, etc., are found 
 here; the rivers are alive with alligators; 
 and in the inundated plains the boa- 
 constrictor attains a huge size. The 
 puma and the South American bear in- 
 habit the higher levels; the llama, the 
 guanaco, the alpaca, and the vicufia, 
 the still more elevated regions. 
 
 Peru exports precious metals, silver 
 ores, copper, guano, wool of the sheep 
 and the llama, alpaca, and vicufia, 
 cotton, sugar, cinchona bark, rubber, 
 coca leaves and cocaine, hides, chin- 
 chilla skins, etc. The chief imports are 
 machinery, cotton, woolen, and linen 
 goods, and provisions. The chief ex- 
 ports are minerals, sugar, wool, cotton, 
 hides, cocaine, borax, coffee, and rice; 
 imports, smallwares, cottons, provisions, 
 woolens, etc. The foreign trade is 
 chiefly carried on with Britain, Ger- 
 many and the United States. 
 
 The government is based on a con- 
 stitution adopted in 1867, and modeled 
 on that of the United States. The legis- 
 lative power is in the hands of a senate 
 and a house of representatives. The 
 president, elected for four years, is the 
 head of the executive, and is assisted by 
 two vice-presidents. By the laws of the 
 republic the Indian is on a level in 
 political rights with the white men; 
 there exists absolute political but not 
 religious freedom, the constitution pro- 
 hibiting the exercise of any other religion 
 than the, Roman Catholic. There is, 
 however a considerable amount of 
 tolerance. Education is compulsory and 
 free; there are universities at Lima, 
 Arequipa, and Cuzco. The Peruvian 
 language, of which there are many dia- 
 lects, still maintains itself alongside of 
 the language of the conquerors. 
 
 Of the early history of Peru we are 
 almost entirely ignorant, but existing 
 ruins, spoils secured by the Spaniards, 
 and the descriptions left us by the his- 
 torians of the Spanish conquest, suf- 
 ficiently prove that the ancient Peru- 
 vians had no mean knowledge of archi- 
 tecture, sculpture, metal work, etc. 
 They also had made considerable prog- 
 ress in astronomical science. The early 
 religion of the Peruvians is bound up in 
 the god Viracocha, the creator of the sun 
 and the stars, and from him the Incas or 
 emperors claimed descent as the sons of 
 the sun. Under the Incas the empire 
 was divided into four parts, corre- 
 
t^ERUGlNO 
 
 PETER i. 
 
 spending to the four cardinal points; 
 each division had a separate government 
 presided over by|a viceroy of royal blood. 
 All the land belonged to the Inca; and 
 trade was carried on by barter, money 
 being unknown. The thirteenth mon- 
 arch of the Incas was reigning when the 
 Spanish adventurer Pizarro disem- 
 barked in Peru in 1531. The Inca was 
 taken prisoner (1532), numbers of his 
 subjects were massacred, and the whole 
 country fell in a short time into the 
 hands of the invaders. It was then 
 formed into a Spanish viceroyalty; sub- 
 sequently part of it was incorporated in 
 New Granada, and the viceroyalty of 
 Buenos Ayres was constructed out of 
 some of the provinces. In 1821 the 
 country proclaimed it independence, 
 but did not obtain actual freedom from 
 Spanish rule until 1824, after a pro- 
 longed war. Since then Peru, like the 
 rest of the South American republics, 
 has suffered much from dissensions and 
 revolutions. In the spring of 1879 it 
 joined Bolivia in a war against Chile, re- 
 sulting in the complete defeat of both 
 the former. Peru had to cede by the 
 peace of 1883 the province of Tarapacd 
 absolutely to Chile, which also got pos- 
 session provisionally of the department 
 of Tacna. Since then Peru, though little 
 troubled with external complications, 
 has been disturbed by the ambitions of 
 rival politicians, and even civil war. 
 
 PERUGINO (per-u-je'no), Pietro Va- 
 nucci, surnamed II Peruglno, the 
 founder of the Roman school of paint- 
 ing, born at Cittd della Pieve (a de- 
 pendency of Perugia) in 1446, died at 
 Fontignano 1523. About 1480 Pope 
 Sixtus IV. sent for him to Rome where 
 he was employed along with Signorelli, 
 Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, and Rosselli in 
 decorating the Sistine Chapel with 
 frescoes. Fine specimens of his frescoes 
 are preserved in Perugia, Rome, Bo- 
 logna, and Florence, and specimens of 
 his other works are not infrequent in 
 European galleries. Raphael is his most 
 celebrated disciple. 
 
 PERUVIAN BARK. See Bark, Peru- 
 vian. 
 
 PERUZZI (pa-rut'se), Baldassari, arch- 
 itect and painter of the Roman school, 
 born at Sienna 1481, died at Rome 
 1537. He went early to Rome and was 
 employed in the decoration of various 
 churches. He designed the Farnesina 
 Villa on the banks of the Tiber, and he 
 succeeded Raphael as architect of St. 
 
 PES'ARO, a fortified town and sea- 
 port of Italy. The illustrious composer 
 Rossini was born here in 1792. Pop. of 
 town, 13,609. — The province of Pesaro e 
 Urbino has an area of 1144 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 233,155. 
 
 PESHA'WAR, a town of India, in the 
 n. w. frontier province, capital of divi- 
 sion of same name, 12 miles east of the 
 eastern extremity of the Khyber Pass. 
 The division or commissionership com- 
 prises the districts of Peshawar (area, 
 2444 sq. miles; pop. 786,406), Hazara, 
 and Kohat, with the control of part of 
 the hill tribes inhabiting the Khyber 
 Pass. Area, 8206 sq. miles; pop. 1,715,- 
 248. 
 
 PESO, a silver coin and money of ac- 
 count used in Mexico and other parts of 
 
 Spanish America, and often considered 
 equivalent to a dollar. 
 
 PESSIMISM, a modern term to denote 
 the opinion or doctrine that maintains 
 the most unfavorable view of every- 
 thing in nature, and that the present 
 state of things only tends to evil ; that in 
 human existence there is an enormous 
 surplus of pain over pleasure, and that 
 humanity can find real good only by 
 abnegation and self-sacrifice. It is anti- 
 thetical to optimism, and as a specula- 
 
 i ive theory is the work of Schopenhauer 
 nd Von Hartmann, though it is preluded 
 in the metaphysics of Brahmanism and 
 the philosophy of Buddhism. 
 
 PESTALOZZI, Johann Heinrich, a 
 Swiss philanthropist and educational re- 
 former, born 1746, died 1827. His novel 
 Lienhardt and Gertrud (1781-89, 4 vols.) 
 exerted a powerful moral influence, 
 while his educational treatises have laid 
 the foundation for the more rational 
 system of elementary instruction which 
 now obtains in America. The grand prin- 
 ciple that lay at the basis of Pestalozzi’s 
 method was that of communicating all 
 instruction by direct appeal to the senses 
 and the understanding, and forming the 
 child by constantly calling all his powers 
 into exercise, instead of making him a 
 mere passive recipient, selecting the 
 subjects of study in such a way that 
 each step should best aid the further 
 progress of the pupil. 
 
 PESTH, or PEST. See Budapest. 
 PESTILENCE. See Plague. 
 
 PETAL, an appellation given to the 
 leaves of the corolla of plants, in opposi- 
 tion to those of the calyx, called sepals. 
 
 PET'ALITE, a rare mineral, a silicate 
 of aluminium and lithium, containing 
 from 5 to 6 per cent of the latter. It 
 occurs in masses of foliated structure; 
 color white, occasionally tinged with red, 
 green, or blue. 
 
 PETARD', a bell-shaped machine of 
 gun-metal, loaded with powder, at- 
 tached to an object and exploded; 
 formerly used to break down gates, 
 bridges, barriers, etc. 
 
 PETER the apostle, commonly called 
 Saint Peter, was a Galilean fisherman 
 from Bethsaida, Originally named Simon 
 the son of Jona, and brother of St. 
 Andrew, who conducted him to Christ. 
 Jesus greeted Simon with the significant 
 words, “Thou art Simon the son of Jona ; 
 thou shalt be called Cephas” (in Greek 
 Petrus, a stone, whence the name Peter). 
 After the miraculous draught of fishes 
 Peter became a regular and intimate 
 disciple of our Lord. The impetuosity of 
 his character led Peter, especially in the 
 early days of his apostleship, to commit 
 many faults which drew upon him the 
 rebuke of his divine Master. His zeal and 
 eloquence made him often the speaker in 
 hehalf of his fellow-apostles on impor- 
 tant occasions, and his opinions had 
 great influence in the Christian churches. 
 On one memorable occasion he incurred 
 the rebuke of the apostle Paul in conse- 
 q^uence of his behavior toward the 
 Grentile Christians in regard to social in- 
 tercourse. Nothing certain is known of 
 his subsequent life, but it is almost 
 beyond doubt that he was a joint- 
 founder of the church at Rome, and that 
 he suffered martyrdom there, most 
 likely under Nero, about 64 a.d. The 
 
 only written documents left by Peter 
 are his two Epistles. The genuineness of 
 the First Epistle is placed beyond all 
 reasonable doubt, both the external and 
 internal evidence being of the strongest 
 description; that of the Second, however 
 has been disputed by numerous critics 
 on what appears to be plausible grounds. 
 Doubts of its genuineness already ex- 
 isted in the time of Eusebius, and it 
 was not admitted into the New Testa- 
 ment canon till 393 a.d. 
 
 PETER the cruel. King of Castile and 
 Leon, born 1334, succeeded his father 
 Alfonso XI. 13.50, and died 1369. His 
 reign was one long series of cruelties and 
 despotic acts. 
 
 PETER the hermit, an enthusiastic 
 monk of Amiens, whose preaching, after 
 a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (end of the 
 11th century), gave rise to the first 
 Crusade. (See Crusades.) Peter led the 
 way through Hungary at the head of an 
 undisciplined multitude of more than 
 30,000 men, a comparatively small num- 
 ber of whom survived to reach their 
 destination, and distinguished himself 
 by his personal courage at the storming 
 of the holy city. On his return to his 
 native country he founded the abbey of 
 Noirmoutier, and died its first superior 
 in 1115. 
 
 PETER I. (The Great), Alexeievitch, 
 Emperor of Russia, born 1672, was the 
 eldest son by his second wife of the Czar 
 Alexis Mikhailovitch. His elder brothers 
 Fedor and Ivan, were feeble in consti- 
 tution. Fedor succeeded his father in 
 1676, and died in 1682. Ivan renounced 
 the crown, and Peter was declared czar, 
 with his mother, the Czarina Natalia 
 Kirilovna, as regent. Sophia, third 
 daughter of Alexis, ambitious to govern 
 
 succeeded in having Ivan proclaimed 
 czar jointly with Peter, and herself re- 
 gent. Peter was relegated to private life, 
 his education purposely neglected, and 
 his had habits encouraged. In 1689 he 
 wrested the power from his sister, and 
 confined her in a convent. Peter was now 
 virtually sole emperor, though, till the 
 death of his brother in 1697, he associ- 
 ated his name with his own in the ukases 
 of the empire. He now determined to dc 
 what he could to raisi his country out of 
 its barbarism, and to place its people in 
 the ranks of civilized nations. His 
 journey to Holland and England (1697- 
 98), when he practically worked in ship- 
 yards, is familiar; and the knowledge he 
 
PETER’S, ST. 
 
 PETERSBURG, ST. 
 
 there gained was amply profited by on 
 his return. Peter, however, not only 
 created a navy, but gave Russia, a sea- 
 board and sea-ports by wresting the 
 Baltic provinces from Charles XII. of 
 Sweden. Young Russian nobles were 
 obliged to travel; schools of navigation 
 and mathematics were founded; agri- 
 culture was improved by the introduc- 
 tion of implements, seeds, and superior 
 breeds of cattle. Peter imported foreign 
 artisans of all kinds, established manu- 
 factories of arms, tools, and fabrics, and 
 distributed metallurgists through the 
 mining districts of Russia; roads and 
 canals were made to foster internal com- 
 merce, and to extend trade with Asia. 
 In 1703 he laid the foundation of St. 
 Petersburg, and twenty years later of its 
 Academy of Sciences. Laws and institu- 
 tions which in any way interfered with 
 his projects, he either abolished or al- 
 tered. In his zeal to do good he was too 
 frequently injudicious in choosing times 
 and seasons, and the least show of oppo- 
 sition irritated him into ferocity. He re- 
 pudiated his wife a few years after mar- 
 riage for her reactionary leanings; for 
 the same reason his son Alexis was ill 
 treated, compelled to renounce the suc- 
 cession, and condemned to death, but 
 died suddenly before sentence could be 
 carried out. Peter died 28th January, 
 1725, the immediate cause being inflam- 
 mation, contracted while, assisting in the 
 rescue of some soldiers in Lake Ladoga. 
 In 1707 he had married his mistress 
 Catharine; this marriage was publicly 
 celebrated in 1712; Catharine was 
 crowned in 1724, and succeeded Peter 
 after his death. See Catharine I. 
 
 PETER’S, Saint, the Cathedral of 
 Rome, the largest and one of the most 
 magnificent churches in Christendom. 
 It is a cruciform building in the Italian 
 style, surmounted by a lofty dome, 
 built on the legendary site of St. Peter’s 
 Martyrdom. In 306 Constantine the 
 Great erected on this spot a basilica 
 of great magnificence. In the time of 
 Nicholas V. it threatened to fall into 
 ruins, and he determined on its recon- 
 struction, but the work of restoration 
 proceeded slowly, and Julius II. (1503- 
 13) decided on the erection of an entirely 
 new building. He laid the foundation- 
 stone of the new cathedral on the 18th 
 of April, 1506, and selected the famous 
 Bramante as his architect. After the 
 latter’s death various architects had 
 charge of the work until Michael Angelo 
 was appointed in 1546. He nearly com- 
 pleted the dome and a large portion of 
 the building before his decease (1564). 
 The nave was finished in 1612, the 
 facade and portico in 1614, and the 
 church was dedicated by Urban VIII. 
 on 18th November, 1626. The exten- 
 sive colonnade which surrounds the 
 piazza and forms a magnificent approach 
 to the church was begun by Bernini in 
 1667, and the sacristy erected by Carlo 
 Marchionni in 1780. The interior diam- 
 eter of the dome is 139 feet, the exterior 
 diameter 195J feet; its height from the 
 pavement to the base of the lantern 405 
 feet, to the top of the cross outside 448 
 feet. The length of the cathedral within 
 the walls is 613J feet; the height of the 
 nave near the door 152h feet; the width 
 87J feet. The width of the side aisles is 
 
 33 J feet; the entire width of nave and 
 side aisles, including the piers that 
 separate them, 197J feet. The height of 
 the baldacehino is 94J feet. The cir- 
 cumference of the piers which support 
 the dome is 253 feet. The floor of the 
 cathedral covers nearly 5 acres, and its 
 cost is estimated to have exceeded 
 $50,000,000. 
 
 PETERSBURG, a city and river port, 
 Dinwiddie co., Virginia, on the, Appo- 
 mattox river, 23 miles s. of Richmond. 
 It is an important railway center, and 
 a place of considerable trade and manu- 
 facturing industry. It was besieged 
 by the Federal forces under General 
 Grant in 1864-65, and the capture of 
 this town, “the last citadel of the con- 
 federacy,” was soon followed by the 
 surrender of General Lee and the end of 
 the war. Pop. 25,355. 
 
 PETERSBURG, St., the capital and 
 most populous town of the Russian 
 empire, is built at the mouth of the 
 Neva, a considerable part being on the 
 south or left bank of the river; a small 
 
 portion on the north bank; and the re- 
 mainder on the numerous islands 
 formed by the different river mouths, 
 these various sections being connected 
 by numerous bridges. The site is low 
 and marshy, and liable to periodic in- 
 undations; it is also unhealthy, the 
 death-rate largely exceeding the birth 
 rate. The streets are long, wide, and 
 regular, and there are some immense 
 squares; the public buildings are numer- 
 ous, magnificent, and of colossal pro- 
 portions; the quays massive and of 
 granite. Among the many palaces are 
 the Winter Palace, now used only for 
 ceremonial purposes, one of the largest 
 and most luxurious in Europe; the 
 Marble Palace so called; the Michael 
 Palace, now used as the School of Mili- 
 tary Engineers; and the Hermitage 
 Palace, containing a fine library and 
 one of the richest collections of French, 
 Flemish, Dutch, Italian, Spanish, Rus- 
 sian, and other paintings, the private 
 property of the czars, besides engravings, 
 coins, gems, antiquities, etc. The cot- 
 tage in which Peter the Great lived 
 
 while superintending the construction 
 of St. Petersburg is still preserved. 
 Other buildings of importance are; 
 The Admiralty, a vast parallelogram of 
 brick, with a naval and natural history 
 museum and library; the arsenal, con- 
 taining a museum of artillery; the 
 palaces of the general staff and of the 
 senate; the custom-house, the exchange, 
 and imperial bank; the fortress of 
 Petropavlovsk (the Russian bastile) the 
 academy of sciences, with extensive 
 museum and library; and the imperial 
 library, with over a million volumes and 
 large collections of manuscripts aiid en- 
 gravings. There are numerous hospitals 
 and charitable institutions, a university, 
 founded in 1819, many special academies 
 and four theaters maintained by the 
 state. Of the monuments the colossal 
 equestrian statue of Peter the Great, 
 erected by Catharine 11. (1782), and the 
 monolithic Doric column of granite, 80 
 feet high, erected by Nicholas to the 
 memory of Alexander I., take first rank; 
 but these, in common with many of the 
 
 finest buildings have severely suffered 
 from climatic influences. St. Petersburg 
 commands a large share of the com- 
 merce of the whole empire, but exact 
 statistics are not obtainable. Formerly 
 the port of the capital was at the strongly 
 fortified island town of Cronstadt 
 (which see), but large vessels now reach 
 St. Petersburg by means of a deep canal, 
 and commodious harbors have been 
 constructed here. The manufactures 
 are varied, but the principal are glass- 
 works, tanneries, sugar-refineries, cotton 
 mills, breweries, and tobacco works; 
 also several government establishments 
 besides those connected with military 
 and naval equipment, as a carpet manu- 
 factory, modeled on that of the Gobelins 
 at Paris, and a glass and porcelain 
 manufactory. St. Petersburg was 
 founded by Peter the Great in 1703, 
 when he had just wrested its site from 
 the Swedes. The forced construction of 
 a city in a site apparently forbidden 
 bj^ nature cost the lives, according to 
 various accounts, of from 100,000 to 
 200,000 peasants, collected from all 
 
PETER’S PENCE 
 
 PETROLEUM 
 
 paris of the Russian empire. It was at | 
 first built entirely of wood, and without | 
 a proper street system, but the extensive 
 fires of 1736 and 1737 facilitated the 
 reconstruction on an improved plan. 
 The Empress Elizabeth did much to 
 improve the city; it is, however, chiefly 
 indebted to Catharine II. for its regular- 
 ity and architectural splendor; and the 
 improvements under Nicholas and Alex- 
 ander II. have made it one of the finest 
 of European capitals. Pop. 1,267,023. 
 
 PETER’S PENCE, a papal tribute 
 collected in several of the western coun- 
 tries of Europe. The idea of an annual 
 tribute seems to have originated in 
 England before the Norman conquest, 
 and was exacted from every house- 
 holder about St. Peter’s Day for the 
 support of an English college or hospice 
 in Rome. It was finally abolished by 
 Elizabeth. This contribution was some- 
 times also called Romescot. It is still 
 collected among Catholics, especially 
 since the abolition of the pope’s tem- 
 poral power. 
 
 PETION DE VILLENEUVE (pa-ti-on 
 de vel-neuv), Jerome, French revolu- 
 tionary, was born in 1753, was chosen 
 deputy, by the tiersdtat of that city, 
 to the states-general in 1789. In October 
 he was made a member of the Com- 
 mittee of Public Safety; elected presi- 
 dent of the National Assembly in 1790; 
 appointed president of the criminal 
 tribunal of Paris, and became mayor of 
 Paris in 1791. After the death of the 
 king he was nominated a deputy to the 
 convention; joined the Girondists; was 
 impeached by Robespierre; escaped 
 from prison, and died, it is supposed, 
 from hunger, his body, in 1794, being 
 found in a field in the department of the 
 Gironde half devoured by wolves. 
 
 PETITION OF RIGHT, in English 
 history, a parliamentary declaration of 
 the rights and liberties of the people, 
 assented to by Charles I. in the begin- 
 ning of his reign (1628), and considered 
 a constitutional document second in 
 importance only to Magna Charta. The 
 petition demanded; (1) that no freeman 
 should be forced to pay any tax, loan, 
 or benevolence, unless in accordance 
 with an act of parliament; (2) that no 
 freeman should be imprisoned contrary 
 to the laws of the land; (3) that soldiers 
 and sailors should not be billeted on 
 private persons; (4) commissions to pun- 
 ish soldiers and sailors by martial law 
 should be abolished. 
 
 PETIT JURY. See Jury. 
 
 PETOFI (p.e-teu'fe), Sander, a Hun- 
 garian poet, born in 1823. His lyric of 
 Most vagy soha (Now or Never) became 
 the war-song (1848) of the revolution; 
 and in recognition of his lyrical fer- 
 vency he has been named “the Hun- 
 garian Burns.’’ In the revolutionary 
 war he was appointed an adjutant under 
 Bern, and was killed in the battle of 
 Schiissburg (1849). 
 
 PETRARCH (pet'rark), Francesco 
 Pctrarca, an Italian poet and scholar, 
 born at Arezzo 20th July, 1304. It was 
 at Avignon in 1.327 that he first saw, in 
 the church of St. Claire, the Laura who 
 exercised so great an influence on his 
 life and lyrics. Our information regard- 
 ing this lady is exceedingly meagre, but 
 it is supposed that her name was Laura I 
 
 [ de Noves, that she had become the wife 
 I of Hughes de Sade two years before she 
 was seen by Petrarch, and that she died 
 in 1348 a virtuous wife and the mother 
 of a large family. After this first meet- 
 ing Petrarch remained at Avignon three 
 years, singing his purely Platonic love, 
 and haunting Laura at church and in her 
 walks. He then left Avignon for Lom- 
 bez (French department of Gers), where 
 he held a canonry gifted by Pope Bene- 
 dict XII., and afterward visited Paris, 
 Bfjabant, Ghent, the Rhine, etc. In 
 1337 he returned to Avignon, bought a 
 small estate at Vaucluse, in order to be 
 near Laura, and here for three years 
 wrote numerous sonnets in her praise. 
 
 His Latin works were highly esteemed, 
 and in 1341 he was called to Rome to 
 receive the laureate crown awarded for 
 his Latin poem of Africa, an epic on the 
 Punic wars. At Parma he learned the 
 death of Laura, which he recorded on 
 his copy of Virgil, and celebrated in his 
 Triumphs. A large part of his time was 
 employed in various diplomatic mis- 
 sions, and in 1370 he took up his resi- 
 dence at Arqua, near Padua, where he 
 passed his remaining years in religious 
 exercises, dying 18th July, 1374. Among 
 his Latin works are three books of 
 Epistles (Epistolae Familiares) and 
 twelve Eclogues, his poem Africa, vari- 
 ous philosophical, religious, political, 
 and historical treatises; his Italian 
 poems, on which his fame now entirely 
 rests, chiefly consist of. Sonetti and 
 Canzoni in Vita e in Morte di Laura, and 
 of Trionfi (Triumphs), a series of alle- 
 gorical visions. His poems had an im- 
 portant influence on the development 
 of Italian and modern European poetry. 
 
 PETREL, the common name of the 
 
 Stormy petrel. 
 
 web-footed oceanic birds of the family 
 
 Procellaridse. The petrels are nocturnal 
 in their habits, breed in holes in the 
 rocks, lay but oim egg, and are almost 
 all of small size afia more or less somber 
 plumage. The smaller species are well 
 known to sailors under the name of 
 Mother Carey’s chickens, and their ap- 
 pearance is supposed to presage a storm. 
 The term stormy petrel is more exclu- 
 sively applied to a bird which seems to 
 run in a remarkable manner along the 
 surface of the sea, where it picks up its 
 food. 
 
 PETRIFICATIONS are the organic 
 bodies (animal or vegetable) which have, 
 by slow process, been converted into 
 stone. The term is used in much the 
 same sense as fossils. 
 
 PETRO'LEUM, a variety of naphtha, 
 called also rock or mineral oil, a liquid 
 inflammable substance in certain locali- 
 ties exuding from the earth, in some 
 places collected on the surface of the 
 water in wells, in other places obtained 
 in great quantities by boring. It is 
 essentially composed of a great number 
 of hydrocarbons; is unctuous to the 
 touch; exhales a strong odor; flows 
 chiefly from beds associated with coal 
 strata; and is found in enormous quan- 
 tities in various parts of the United 
 States, Russia (especially at Baku on 
 the Caspian), Canada, Burmah, etc. 
 At Baku a single well is said sometimes 
 to spout as much as 11,000 tons of oil 
 in a single day, the oil rising perhaps 
 to the height of 300 feet. It yields 
 kerosene, paraffin, and paraffin oil, so 
 extensively employed for illuminating 
 
 Outburst of petroleum in well. 
 
 purposes; also lubricating oil and vase- 
 line; and has been largely employed as 
 liquid fuel in factories, locomotives, 
 and steamships. Steamers, specially 
 constructed with tanks, are now en- 
 gaged in its transport, and in the larger 
 towns in England vast reservoir-tanks 
 for its reception have been recently con- 
 structed. Attention was first strongly 
 drawn to petroleum by the successful 
 manufacture and sale of paraffin oil in 
 
PEWTER 
 
 PHAROS 
 
 Britain. This industry was also started 
 in America, but it soon came to an end 
 after 1859, when a company “struck 
 oil” by boring at Oil Creek, Pennsyl- 
 vania, and obtained a supply of 400 
 gallons a day. This led to numerous 
 other borings, and the oil was obtained 
 in such quantities that towns of con- 
 siderable size ,^oon sprang up in the oil 
 district, railways were constructed, 
 immense reservoirs were made, and long 
 lines of oil pipes laid down, while large 
 fortunes were realized. At first the 
 borings were not very deep, and the oil 
 generally flowed naturally ; subsequently 
 deeper borings were necessary, and the 
 oil could only be raised to the surface by 
 pumping. Boring for oil is carried on in 
 the same way as for water. See Artesian 
 Wells. Boring. 
 
 PEWTER, an alloy of tin and lead, or 
 of tin with proportions of lead, zinc, 
 bismuth, antimony, or copper, and used 
 for domestic utensils. One of the finest 
 sorts of pewter is composed of 83 parts 
 of tin to 17 parts of antimony, while the 
 common pewter of which beer-mugs and 
 other vessels are made consists of 4 
 parts of tin and 1 of lead. The kind of 
 pewter of which tea-pots are made 
 (called Britannia-metal) is an alloy of 
 tin, brass, antimony, and bismuth. 
 
 PFENNIG, a small copper or rfither 
 bronze coin current in Germany, of 
 which 100 = 1 mark ; so that ten pfennige 
 are worth a little over two cents. 
 
 PHACOCHERE (fa'ko-ker), Phaco- 
 choere, the wart-hog of Africa, apachy- 
 dermatous mammal, akin to the swine, 
 characterized by a large wart-like ex- 
 crescence on each side of the face. The 
 
 Wart-hog. 
 
 tusks of the male project 8 or 9 inches 
 beyond the lips, and form terrible 
 weapons. One species is the Abyssinian 
 phacochere or Ethiopian wild-boar. 
 
 PHA'COPS, a genus of fossil trilobites. 
 P. latifrons is characteristic of the 
 Devonian formation, and is all but 
 world-wide in its distribution. 
 
 PHvEDO, a Greek philosopher, a 
 scholar of Socrates, and founder of a 
 school of philosophy in Elis. The dia- 
 logue of Plato on the immortality of the 
 soul, which contains the conversation of 
 Socrates in prison before his death, 
 bears the name of Phsedo. None of his 
 own writings are extant. 
 
 PH^DRA, in Greek mythology, 
 daughter of Minos, king of Crete, was the 
 sister of Ariadne and wife of Theseus. 
 She falsely accused her stepson, Hip- 
 polytus, of a criminal attempt upon her 
 nonor, an injustice of which she after- 
 ward repented, and was either killed by 
 
 her husband or committed suicide. 
 Sophocles and Euripides made this the 
 subject of tragedies (both of which are 
 lost), and their example was followed by 
 Racine. 
 
 PHA'ETHON, a mjdhological charac- 
 ter, who one day obtained leave from his 
 father Helios (the Sun) to drive the 
 chariot of the sun, but being unable to 
 restrain the horses Zeus struck him with 
 a thunderbolt and hurled him headlong 
 into the river Po. The name in its Eng- 
 lish form of Phaeton is applied to an open 
 four-wheeled carriage. 
 
 PHAL'ANGER, the name given to 
 marsupial quadrupeds inhabiting Aus- 
 tralasia. They are generally of the size 
 of a cat, are nocturnal in their habits. 
 
 Vulpine phalanger. 
 
 and live in trees, feeding on insects, 
 fruits, leaves, etc. The sooty phalanger 
 or tapoa, so called from its color, is 
 pretty common in Tasmania. The vul- 
 pine phalanger or vulpine opossum is 
 another species, common in Australia. 
 
 PHALAN'GES (-jez), the name applied 
 to the separate bones of which the digits 
 (or fingers and toes) of vertebrates are 
 composed. Each digit or finger of the 
 human hand consists of three phalanges, 
 with the exception of the pollex or 
 thumb, which is composed of two only. 
 
 PHAL'ANX, a name given generally 
 by the Greeks to the whole of the heavy- 
 armed infantry of an army, but more 
 specifically to each of the grand divisions 
 of that class of troops when formed in 
 ranks and files close and deep, with 
 their shields joined and their pikes cross- 
 ing each other. The Spartan phalanx 
 was commonly 8 feet deep, while the 
 Theban phalanx was much deeper. 
 
 PHAL'ARIS, a small genus of grasses, 
 of which the seed of one of the species, 
 canary-grass, is extensively employed 
 as food for birds, and commonly known 
 as canary-seed. 
 
 PHALLUS, the emblem of the genera- 
 tive power in nature, carried in solemn 
 procession in the Bacchic orgies of 
 ancient Greece, and also an object of 
 veneration or worship among various 
 Oriental nations. In botany. Phallus is 
 a genus of fungi. 
 
 PHANEROGA'MIA, a primary divi- 
 sion of the vegetable kingdom, com- 
 prising those plants which have their 
 organs of reproduction (stamens and 
 pistils) developed and distinctly ap- 
 parent. 
 
 PHANTASMAGO'RIA, a term' applied 
 to the effects produced by a magic- 
 lantern. 
 
 PHARAOH (fa'ro), the name given in 
 the Bible to the kings of Egypt, corre- 
 sponding to the p-ra or ph-ra of the 
 Egyptian hieroglyphics, which signifies 
 the sun. The identification of the 
 Pharaohs mentioned in Scripture with 
 
 the respective Egyptian kings, particu- 
 larly the earlier ones, is a matter of 
 great difficulty. 
 
 PHARISEES, a religious sect among 
 the Jews which had risen into great in- 
 fluence at the time of Christ, and played 
 a prominent part in the events recorded 
 in the New Testament. The most prob- 
 able account of the origin of the Pharisees 
 as a distinct sect is that which refers it 
 to the reaction against the attempt of 
 Antiochus Epiphanes to break down the 
 distinctions between his Jewish and hia 
 Greek subjects. At the time of Christ 
 the Pharisees stood as the national 
 party in politics and religion — the op- 
 ponents of the Sadducees. The funda- 
 mental principle of the Pharisees was 
 that of the existence of an oral law to 
 complete and explain the written law. 
 “Moses,” says the Mishna, “received 
 the law (the unwritten law is meant) 
 from Sinai, and delivered it to Joshua, 
 and Joshua to the elders, and the elders 
 to the prophets, and the prophets to the 
 men of the Great Synagogue.” This oral 
 law declared the continuance of life 
 after the death of the body, and the res- 
 urrection of the dead. This authorita- 
 tive tradition received in process of time 
 additions which were not pretended to 
 be derived directly from Moses: — 1st. 
 Decisions of the Great Synagogue by a 
 majority of votes on disputed points. 
 2d. Decrees made by prophets and wise 
 men in different ages. 3rd. Legal deci- 
 sions of proper ecclesiastical authorities 
 on disputed questions. These authorities 
 comprehended both the writers of the 
 sacred books and their approved com- 
 mentators. There is no doubt that 
 though their strict observance of small 
 points often led to hypocrisy and self- 
 glorification, the sect contained a body 
 of pious, learned, and patriotic men of 
 progress. 
 
 PHARMACOPCE'IA, a book contain- 
 ing the prescriptions for the prepara- 
 tion of medicines recognized by the 
 general body of practitioners. Up till 
 1863 separate Pharmacopoeias were 
 issued by the Colleges of Physicians of 
 London, Edinburgh, and Dublin. Since 
 then a British Pharmacopoeia, issued by 
 the medical council of tne kingdom, is 
 recognized by the whole medical pro- 
 fession of Great Britain. There is also an 
 American Pharmacopoeia, based on that 
 of Britain. 
 
 PHAR'MACY, pharmaceutics, the art 
 of preparing, compounding, and combin- 
 ing substances for medical purposes: the 
 art of the apothecary. As these sub- 
 stances may be mineral, vegetable, or 
 animal, theoretical pharmacy requires a 
 knowledge of botany, zoology, and 
 mineralogy; and as it is necessary to 
 determine their properties, and the laws 
 of their composition and decomposition, 
 of chemistry also. In a narrower sense 
 pharmacy is merely the art of com- 
 pounding and mixing drugs according 
 to the prescription of the physician. 
 
 PHAROS, a lighthouse. The name is 
 derived from the island of Pharos, close 
 to and now part of Alexandria, which 
 protected the port of that city. On the 
 eastern promontory of the island stood 
 the lighthouse of Alexandria, so famous 
 in antiquity, and considered one of the 
 wonders of the world, built 300 years B.c. 
 
PHARYNX 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 PHARYNX (fa'ringks), the terra ap- 
 plied to the muscular sac which inter- 
 venes between the cavity of the mouth 
 and the narrow oesophagus, with which 
 it is continuous. It is of a funnel shape, 
 and about 4 inches in length; the 
 posterior nostrils open into it above the 
 soft palate, while the larynx, with its 
 lid, the epiglottis, is in front and below. 
 The contraction of the pharynx trans- 
 mits the food from the mouth to the 
 oesophagus. From it proceed the 
 eustachian tubes to the ears. 
 
 PHAS'MID.iE, specter insects or walk- 
 ing-sticks, remarkable for their very 
 close resemblance to the objects in the 
 midst of which they live, this peculiarity 
 known as mimicry, being their only pro- 
 tection against their enemies. Some of 
 them are destitute of wings and have 
 
 Phasmidae, or specter Insects. 
 
 1 , Brazilian walking-stick. 2, Australian. 
 
 the appearance of dead twigs, while the 
 absence of motion in the insects add to 
 the deception. In others, as the genus 
 Pyhllium, the wings have the appear- 
 ance of withered leaves, while the 
 brighter hue of the wing-covers of a few 
 of larger size give to the animal the ap- 
 pearance of a fresher leaf. 
 
 PHEASANT, the general name given 
 to birds of the family Phasianidae, 
 which comprises several genera besides 
 that of the pheasants proper, Phasianus. 
 
 Golden pheasant. 
 
 Impeyan pheasant. 
 
 There are usually naked spaces of skin 
 on the head or cheeks and often combs 
 or wattles. The plumage of the males is 
 trilliant, that of the females more sober, 
 
 and the males carry spurs on the tarso- 
 metatarsus. The wings are short, the 
 tail long. The three front toes are united 
 by a membrane up to the first joint, and 
 the hinder toe is articulated to the tar- 
 sus. The food consists of grains, soft 
 herbage, roots, and insects. They are 
 chiefly terrestrial in habits, taking short, 
 rapid flights when alarmed. The phea- 
 sants are polygamous, thfe males and 
 females consorting together during the 
 breeding-time, which occurs in spring. 
 
 PHELPS, Edward John, American 
 political leader and diplomat, born at 
 Middlebury, Vt., in 1822. In 1851 he 
 was appointed Second Comptroller of 
 the United States treasury. In 1870 he 
 was a member of the Vermont constitu- 
 tional convention. He was appointed by 
 President Cleveland, Minister to the 
 Court of Saint James’s. In 1893 he was 
 appointed senior counsel for the United 
 States in the Bering sea arbitration. He 
 died in 1900. 
 
 PHELPS, Elizabeth Stuart. An Amer- 
 ican author. See Ward, Elizabeth Stuart 
 Phelps. 
 
 PHENIC ACID, phenol. See Carbolic 
 Acid. 
 
 PHENOM'ENALISM, that system of 
 philosophy which inquires only into the 
 causes of existing phenomena. The 
 sceptical phenomenalism of Hume is 
 now represented by Positivism. A 
 phenomenalist does not believe in an 
 invariable connection between cause 
 and effect, but holds this generally ac- 
 knowledged relation to be nothing more 
 than an habitually observed sequence. 
 
 PHI'DIAS of Athens, a celebrated 
 Greek sculptor, who was born about 490 
 B.C., and flourished in the age of Pericles 
 but of whose life hardly any particulars 
 are known. Among his works were three 
 statues of Athena which were all in the 
 Acropolis of Athens in the time of 
 Pausanias. One colossal statue of 
 Athena was in bronze, and the god- 
 dess was represented as a warrior- 
 goddess in the attitude of battle. The 
 second and still more famous stood in 
 the Parthenon, and was made of ivory 
 and gold, representing Athena standing 
 with a spear in one hand and an image 
 of Victory in the other; it measured, 
 with the pedestal, about 41 J feet in 
 height. The third statue, in bronze, of a 
 smaller size, was called emphatically the 
 beautiful, on account of its exquisite 
 proportions. Another colossal statue 
 by Phidias, that of Zeus at Olympia, 
 was ranked for its beauty among the 
 wonders of the world. Zeus was here 
 seen sitting upon a throne, with an olive 
 wreath of gold about his fSimples; the 
 upper part of his body w# naked; a 
 wide mantel, covering the rest of it, 
 hung down in the richest folds to his 
 feet, which rested on a footstool. The 
 naked parts of the statue were of ivory, 
 the dress was of beaten gold. The right 
 hand held a Victory, and the left a 
 scepter tipped with the eagle. The Zeus 
 was removed to Constantinople by 
 Theodosius I., and was destroyed by 
 fire in 475 a.d. During the government 
 of Pericles, which lasted twenty years, 
 Athens was adorned with costly temples, 
 colonnades, and other works of art. 
 Phidias superintended these improve- 
 ments; and the sculptures with whick 
 
 the Parthenon, for instance, among 
 other buildings, was adorned, were 
 partly his own work, and partly in the 
 spirit and after the ideas of this great 
 master. Of the merits of these we 
 can ourselves judge. Phidias received 
 great honors from the Athenians, but 
 he is also said to have been falsely 
 accused of peculation, and of impiety for 
 putting his own likeness and that of 
 Pericles on the shield of Athena. He 
 diec^robably about b.c. 432. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, a city and river 
 port in Pennsylvania, after New York 
 and Chicago the largest city in the 
 Union, 125 miles northeast of Washing- 
 ton and 85 miles southwest of New York, 
 situated between the rivers Delaware 
 and Schuylkill, with suburbs on the 
 opposite sides of both rivers, 96 miles 
 from the Atlantic coast. The site is 
 nearly flat, but slopes gently both 
 toward the Delaware and the Schulykill. 
 The houses are generally built of brick, 
 the private houses having in many cases 
 dressings of white marble. The streets 
 were originally laid out so as to run 
 nearly due westward from the Delaw'are, 
 intersected by other streets running 
 nearly north and south, and still almost 
 everywhere the streets cross each other 
 at right angles. Market street, the great 
 central street running east and west, and 
 continuously built upon for over 4 miles, 
 has a width of 100 feet; Broad street, 
 the principal central street running north 
 and south, is built upon to about the 
 same length, and is 113 feet in width. 
 Most of the other chief streets vary from 
 50 to 66 feet broad, some of the avenues, 
 however, being much wider. At the 
 intersection of some are fine squares. 
 There are more than 1500 miles of 
 streets, 900 miles of which are paved, 
 and there are 951 miles of sewers and 
 over 1300 miles of water mains. The 
 street railways, employing the over- 
 head trolley system, have over 500 
 miles of track, and the steam railroads 
 over 360 miles. A subway system of 
 four tracks from the Delaware to the 
 Schuylkill, with an elevated extension 
 from the Schuylkill to the city limits is 
 nearly completed. Several fine bridges, 
 both for railway and general traflSc, 
 span the Schuylkill, and a regular serv- 
 ice of steam-ferries across the Dela- 
 ware affords communication with the 
 shores of New Jersey. Among the not- 
 able public buildings are the state house, 
 containing a large room called Inde- 
 pendence Hall, from the circumstance 
 that the declaration of independence 
 was signed here (4th July, 1776); the 
 custom-house, a white marble edifice; 
 the United States mint, a marble- 
 fronted building; the post-office, a large 
 and handsome granite structure with a 
 dome; the new city-hall, a splendid 
 building of granite and marble, com- 
 
 E leted in 1889, with a tower 450 feet 
 igh, surmounted by a statue of William 
 Penn; Girard college, a fine example of 
 the Corinthian style; the buildings of 
 Pennsylvania university; the splendid 
 building accommodating the Academy 
 of Fine Arts. Among the leading office 
 buildings are the Land Title Annex, the 
 Real Estate Trust building, the Arcade 
 building, the Commonwealth Trust 
 building, the Real Estate Title and 
 
PHILEMON 
 
 PHILIP III. 
 
 Trust Company building, the Drexel 
 building, the Bullitt building, the 
 Provident building. The Pennsylvania 
 railroad station, with a train shed over 
 700 feet long, and the Reading terminal, 
 a handsome railroad station, approached 
 like that of the Pennsylvania railroad 
 by a viaduct, are notable railway ter- 
 minals and office headquarters. Of 
 newspaper buildings the most prominent 
 are those of The North American (22 
 stories). The Record, and The Public 
 Ledger. Philadelphia has many im- 
 portant hotels, among the most elegant 
 and commodious of which may be 
 mentioned the Walton and the new 
 Bellevue-Stratford, both on Broad 
 street near city hall. The structures 
 representing various interests are the 
 Masonic and Odd Fellow’s temples. 
 Young Men’s Christian Association 
 building. Young Women’s Christian 
 Association, the Roman Catholic cathe- 
 dral, the Kenneth Israel synagogue, the 
 Baptist Temple, Holy Trinity (Protest- 
 ant Episcopal), the Arch Street (Method- 
 ist Episcopal), the First Presbyterian 
 and the Tabernacle Presbyterian and 
 the Friends’ Meeting House on Arch 
 street — the Quaker Westminster of 
 America. Of educational institutions 
 the University of Pennsylvania, Drexel 
 institute, the new Boys’ High school, 
 Girard college with its early Grecian 
 structures, and the Roman Catholic high 
 school are architecturally of importance. 
 Charitable institutions are numerous 
 and efficient. The educational estab- 
 lishments include the Pennsylvania 
 university ; the Jefferson Medical college; 
 University Medical college; the Women’s 
 Medical college; the Academy of Fine 
 Arts; the School of Design for Women; 
 the Academy of Natural Sciences; the 
 Franklin institute; numerous colleges, 
 academies, and other educational in- 
 stitutions, supported by the various 
 religious denominations; the Girard 
 college, devoted to the secular educa- 
 tion of orphan boys; and the public 
 schools. Many of the above institutions 
 possess extensive and valuable libraries 
 in addition to which are the large col- 
 lections belonging to the Library com- 
 pany, and to the Mercantile library; and 
 Philadelphia is one of the recognized 
 centers of literary, dramatic, and artistic 
 culture. In addition to the public 
 squares, the chief place of outdoor 
 recreation is Fairmount park, with an 
 area of 2740 acres, possessing much nat- 
 ural beauty, being well-wooded and 
 having a great variety of surface. Many 
 fine monuments have been placed in the 
 park, among them being those of Wash- 
 ington, Lincoln, Garfield, Grant, Schiller 
 Goethe, Columbus and Joan of Arc. 
 The principal places of indoor amuse- 
 ments are the theaters, numerous con- 
 cert-rooms, etc. The Walnut Street 
 theater is the oldest in the county. The 
 other theaters are: Keith’s New theater, 
 the Garrick, the South Broad, the Chest- 
 nut Street, the Grand, and the Academy 
 of Music. Philadelphia ranks high as a 
 center of foreign, inland, and coasting 
 trade. The leading articles of export 
 are grain, provisions, petroleum, anthra- 
 cite, and gas-coal, iron and ironwares, 
 lumber, tobacco, and cotton (raw and 
 manufactured). The principal imports 
 
 Consist of cotton, woolen, and flax goods, 
 tinplate, iron and iron-ore, chemicals, 
 etc. Philadelphia is a great manufactur- 
 ing city, ranking third in the value of 
 products, the carpet industry being the 
 largest in the country. The other lead- 
 ing manufactures are iron and steel, 
 machinery and tools, refined sugar, 
 clothing, boots and shoes, brewery prod- 
 ucts, chemicals, household furniture, 
 etc. — Philadelphia was founded and 
 named by William Penn in 1682 as the 
 
 capital of his colony of Pennsylvania. 
 For a long time it was almost exclusively 
 occupied and controlled by Quakers. 
 Many of its most important improve- 
 ments were due to Benjamin Franklin, 
 and it played a most prominent part 
 during the revolutionary war. In May- 
 November, 1876 (a hundred years after 
 the issue of the declaration of independ- 
 ence ), a centennial exhibition was held 
 on the grounds at the southwest ex- 
 tremity of Fairmount park. Pop. 
 1909 estimated at 1,500,000. 
 
 PHILE'MON, Epistle of Paul to, one 
 of the books of the New Testament. 
 This epistle, according to the prevalent 
 opinion, was, together with the Epistles 
 to the Ephesians, Colossians, and Philip- 
 pians, written from Rome during St. 
 Paul’s first imprisonment in that city. 
 The only doubt thrown on this opinion 
 by those who accept the genuineness of 
 the epistles is contained in the sugges- 
 tion supported by Meyer and others, 
 that these epistles were written during 
 the apostle’s imprisonment at Caesarea. 
 The genuineness and authenticity of 
 Philemon is questioned by very few 
 critics. 
 
 PHILIP, one of the twelve apostles, 
 according to John’s gospel “of Beth- 
 saida, the city of Andrew and Peter,’’ 
 and who was called to follow Jesus at 
 Bethany. After the resurrection he was 
 present at the election of Matthias to 
 the apostleship, but is not again men- 
 tioned. In the Western church he is 
 commemorated on 1st May. — Philip 
 the Evangelist, often confounded with 
 the above, is first mentioned in Acts 
 
 vi. 5. He preached at Smyrna, where 
 Simon Magus was one of his converts; 
 baptised the Ethiopian eunuch; en- 
 tertained Paul and his companion on 
 their way to Jerusalem, when “he had 
 four daughters which did prophesy.’’ 
 
 PHILIP II., King of Macedon, the 
 most famous of the five Macedonian 
 kings of this name, was born B.c. 382. 
 and succeeded his elder brother Perdic- 
 cas in 360. His ambition was to make 
 himself in the first place, supreme in 
 Greece, and to accomplish this he began 
 by seizing the Greek towns on his bor- 
 ders: Amphipolis, which gave him 
 access to the gold-mines of Mount Pan- 
 gseus, Potidaea, Olynthus, etc. The 
 “sacred war’’ carried on by the Am- 
 phictyonic council against the Phocians 
 gave Philip his first opportunity for 
 interfering directly in the affairs of 
 Greece. After the capture of Methone — 
 the last possession of the Athenians on 
 the Macedonian coast — between 354 
 and 352, Philip made himself master of 
 Thessaly, and endeavored to force the 
 pass of Thermopylae, but was repulsed 
 by the Athenians. The terror of his 
 name provoked the “Philippics” of 
 Demosthenes, who endeavored to rouse 
 the people of Athens to form a general 
 league of the Greeks against him; but 
 by 346 he was master of the Phocian 
 cities and of the pass of Thermopylae, 
 and as general to the Amphictyon coun- 
 cil he was the crowned protector of the 
 Grecian faith. Demosthenes exerted all 
 his eloquence and statesmanship to 
 raise the ancient spirit of Grecian in- 
 dependence, and a powerful army was 
 soon in the field, but being without able 
 or patriotic commanders it was de- 
 feated at the decisive battle of Chaeroneia 
 in August, 338 b.c. After this last strug- 
 gle for freedom Philip was acknowledged 
 chief of the whole Hellenic world, and 
 at a congress held at Corinth he was 
 appointed commander of the Greek 
 forces, and was to organize an expedi- 
 tion against Persia. While preparing for 
 this enterprise he was murdered in 336 
 B.C., some say at the instigation of his 
 wife Olympias. 
 
 PHILIP I., King of France, was born 
 1052, and succeeded to the throne under 
 the guardianship of Baldwin V., count of 
 Flanders, in 1060. He died in 1108. 
 
 PHILIP II., Augustus, King of 
 France, born 1165, was crowned as suc- 
 cessor during the lifetime of his father 
 Louis VII., whom he succeeded in 1180. 
 In 1190 he embarked at Genoa on a 
 crusade to the Holy Land, where he 
 met Richard Coeur de Lion, who was en- 
 gaged in the same cause in Sicily. The 
 jealousies and disputes which divided 
 the two kings induced Philip to return 
 home the next year. He invaded Nor- 
 mandy during Richard’s capivity (1193), 
 confiscated the possessions of King 
 John in France after the death of Prince 
 Arthur (1203b prepared to invade Eng- 
 land at the instance of the pope (1213), 
 turned his arms against Flanders and 
 gained the celebrated battle of Bouvines 
 (1214). He died in 1223. 
 
 PHILIP III., called the Hardy, King 
 of France, was the son of Louis IX. and 
 Margaret of Provence. He was born 
 1245, and succeeded his father 1270. 
 The invasion of Sicily by Peter of Ara- 
 
PHILIP IV. 
 
 PHILIPPINES 
 
 gon, and the massacre of the French, 
 known as “the Sicilian vespers,” caused 
 him to make war against that prince, in 
 the course of which he died, 1285. 
 
 PHILIP IV. (Le Bel), King of France 
 was born in 1268, and succeeded his 
 father in 1285. He had already married 
 Joanna, queen of Navarre, by which 
 alliance he added Champagne as well as 
 Navarre to the royal domain, which he 
 made it his policy still further to in- 
 crease at the expense of the great 
 vassals. He even attempted to take 
 Guienne from [gdward I. of England, 
 but afterward entered into an alliance 
 with that monarch, and gave him his 
 daughter in marriage (1299), from 
 which originated the claim of Edward 
 III. on the crown of France. Philip left 
 numerous ordinances for the administra- 
 tion of the kingdom, which mark the de- 
 cline of feudalism and the growth of the 
 royal power. He also convoked and 
 consulted the states-general for the 
 first time. He died in 1314. 
 
 PHILIP VI. of Valois, King of France, 
 was the nephew of Philip iV., to whose 
 last son, Charles IV., he succeeded in 
 virtue of the Salique law. He was born 
 in 1293, and succeeded to the crown in 
 1328. In his reign occurred the wars 
 with Edward III. of England, who 
 claimed the French crown as grandson, 
 by his mother, of Philip IV. (see above 
 article). Philip died in 1350. 
 
 PHILIP II. of Spain, was the son of 
 Charles V. and Isabella of Portugal, and 
 was born at Valladolid in 1527. He was 
 married in succession to the Princess 
 Mary of Portugal 1543, and to Mary of 
 England in 1554, the same year in which 
 he became king of Naples and Sicily by 
 the abdication of his father. In 1555 his 
 father resolved to abdicate the sover- 
 eignty of the Netherlands in Philip’s 
 favor. This was done in public assembly 
 at Brussels on 25th October, 1555; and 
 on 16th January, 1556, in the same hall 
 he received, in presence of the Spanish 
 
 grandees then in the Netherlands, the 
 crown of Spain, with its possessions in 
 Asia, Africa, and America. The cause of 
 religion in France was a constant sub- 
 ject of solicitude with Philip. In Naples, 
 as in Spain, his zeal led him to persecute 
 the Protestants ; but it was in the Nether- 
 lands that his bigotry and obstinacy 
 had their most disastrous, though 
 ultimately fortunate results. In 1566 
 the revolt of the Netherlands com- 
 menced, which ended in the separation 
 of the seven northern provinces from 
 
 the crown of Spain, and their formation 
 into the Dutch Republic. In 1571 the 
 Archduchess Anne of Austria became 
 his fourth wife, and the same year his 
 natural brother, Don John of Austria, 
 obtained the great naval victory of 
 Lepanto over the Turks. In 1580 his 
 troops under Alva subdued Portugal, 
 of which, and all its dependencies, 
 Philip now became sovereign. In 1586 
 Philip declared war with England. The 
 year U 588 saw the destruction of the 
 Armada and the descent of Spain from 
 her position as a first-class power in 
 Europe. The remainder of his reign was 
 occupied with war and intrigues with 
 France, but in 1598 the Peace of Vervins 
 was concluded. He died in 1598. 
 
 PHILIP V. of Spain, the first Spanish 
 king of the Bourbon dynasty, was born 
 at Versailles 1683, died 1746. He was 
 the grandson of Louis XIV. of France, 
 and succeeded to the crown of Spain by 
 the will of Charles II., who died without 
 direct heirs, as the grandson of Charles’ 
 elder sister. On the death of Charles in 
 November, 1700, he was immediately 
 proclaimed king, and was generally 
 recognized in Spain, Naples, and the 
 Netherlands; but the succession was con- 
 tested by the Archduke Charles of Aus- 
 tria, whose claim was enforced by the 
 armies of England, Holland, and Aus- 
 tria in the wars of the Spanish succession 
 which began in 1702. By the Treaty of 
 Utrecht (1713) he was recognized as 
 King of Spain, but Gibraltar was lost to 
 Spain, Minorca was also ceded to Eng- 
 land, Sicily to Savoy, the Netherlands, 
 Naples, and the Milanese to Austria. 
 In 1724 Philip resigned the crown of 
 Spain in favor of his son Don Louis, but 
 the death of Louis a few months later 
 induced him to resume the royal power. 
 He died in 1746, after a reign of forty- 
 six years. 
 
 PHILIP the bold, Duke of Burgundy, 
 born in 1342 ,was the fourth son of John, 
 king of France. He fought at Poitiers 
 (1356), where, according to Froissart, he 
 acquired the surname of the Bold. He 
 shared his father’s captivity in England, 
 and on his return his father, whose 
 favorite he was, made him Duke of 
 Touraine, gave him the Duchy of Bur- 
 gundy, and made him premier peer of 
 France. He was one of the most power- 
 ful French princes during the minority 
 of Charles VI., during whose insanity he 
 acted as regent, retaining the regency till 
 his death in 1404. 
 
 PHILIP I. (The Magnanimous), Land- 
 grave of Hesse, born in 1504. He began 
 to reign at the age of fourteen, and in- 
 troduced the Lutheran religion into 
 Hesse in 1526. In 1527 he founded the 
 University of Marburg, subscribed the 
 protestation to the Diet of Spires in 
 1529, submitted the Confession of Faith 
 at Augsburg in 1530, and in 1531 
 formed with the Protestant princes the 
 Schmalkalden League. He was forced to 
 submit to the Emperor Charles V. in 
 1547, who kept him a prisoner for five 
 ears. After his return to his dominions 
 e sent a body of auxiliaries to assist the 
 French Huguenots. He died in 1567. 
 
 PHILIP'PI, a city of Macedonia, now 
 in ruins, founded by Philip of Macedon 
 about B.c. 356. The two battles fought 
 in B.c. 42, which resulted in the over- 
 
 throw of Brutus and Cassius by Antony 
 and Octavius, were fought here Philippi 
 was visited on several occasions by the 
 apostle Paul, who addressed to the 
 church there one of his epistles. 
 
 PHILIP'PIANS, Epistle to the, one of 
 St. Paul’s epistles, is supposed to have 
 been written from Rome toward the 
 close of his first imprisonment there, 
 about A.D. 63. Some authorities suppose 
 it to have been written in Caesarea. The 
 genuineness of this epistle has been little 
 questioned. It is referred to, though not 
 quoted, in the epistle of Polycarp and 
 by Tertullian and other early fathers. 
 Epaphroditus, who conveyed it, was the 
 messenger of the Philippians to Paul, 
 and had been ill at Rome, which had 
 been a cause of anxiety to the Philip- 
 pians. Paul, therefore, hastened his 
 return, and sent this epistle by him. 
 
 PHILIP'PICS, the name given to 
 three celebrated orations of the Greek 
 orator Demosthenes against Philip, king 
 of Macedon (351-341 b.c.). This name 
 was also applied to Cicero’s fourteen 
 speeches against Antony, and it has 
 hence come to signify an invective in 
 general. 
 
 PHILIP'PINES, or PHILIPPINE IS- 
 LANDS, an archipelago belonging to the 
 United States, in the Pacific ocean, n.e. 
 of Borneo, having on the west the 
 China sea, on the east the North Pacific, 
 and on the. south the Sea of Celebes; 
 area, 114,360 sq. miles; pop. about 
 7,000,000. It consists of about 1200 
 large and small islands Of the former 
 the chief are Luzon, Mindoro, Samar, 
 Panay, Leyte, Cebu, Negros, Bohol, 
 Mindanao, and Palawan. Luzon is the 
 only island of great commercial im- 
 portance. It contains the capital Ma- 
 nila. The shore lines and internal sur- 
 face of the larger islands are extremely 
 rugged and irregular. Their magnifi- 
 cent mountain ranges are clothed with 
 a gigantic and ever-teeming vegeta- 
 tion; and between these lie extensive 
 slopes and plains of the richest tropical 
 fertility, watered by numerous lakes and 
 rivers, which afford abundant means of 
 irrigation and transport. The climate on 
 the whole is healthy, but hurricanes are 
 common. Earthquakes are frequent, 
 and often very destructive. The prin- 
 cipal agricultural product is rice, and 
 next in importance are sugar-cane, 
 tolacco, and coffee. Fibrous plants are 
 also abundant, and among the chief of 
 these are the well-known Manila-hemp, 
 the cotton-plant, the gomuti palm, 
 ramie, etc. The pine-apple is grown both 
 for its fiber and its fruit. The textile 
 productions of the Philippines, the work 
 of the native population, are consider- 
 able in number, ranging from the deli- 
 cate and costly pina muslins, made from 
 the pine-apple fibre, to coarse cottons, 
 sacking, and the mats made of Manila- 
 hemp and the fiber of the gomuti palm. 
 The islands are rich in minerals, includ- 
 ing gold, iron, quicksilver, sulphur, coal, 
 marble, petroleum, etc., but they are 
 little worked. The foreign trade is most- 
 ly in the hands of British and American 
 mercantile houses, and consists prin- 
 cipally in the export of sugar, tobacco, 
 Manila-hemp, indigo, coffee, birds’- 
 nests, trepang, sapan-wood, dye-woods, 
 hides, rattans, mother-of-pearl, gold- 
 
PHILISTINES 
 
 PHILOLOGY 
 
 PHILIPPINE WAR, 1899-1900, CHRONOLOGY OP 
 
 Hostilities began 
 
 Battles around Manila 
 
 Battle at Pasig ' 
 
 Battle at Mallnea 
 
 Battle at Santa Cruz 
 
 Santa Cruz captured 
 
 San Fernando captured 
 
 Battle at Bacoor 
 
 Battle at Imus 
 
 Battle at Colamba 
 
 Battle at Calulut 
 
 Battle at Angeles 
 
 Major John A. Logan killed 
 
 General Gregorio del Pilar killed 
 
 General Lawton killed 
 
 Taft commission appointed 
 
 Amnesty proclaimed 
 
 Aguinaldo captured 
 
 Civil government party established 
 
 dust, etc., and in importing rice and 
 other food-stuffs, and various manu- 
 factured articles. The natives are of 
 diverse origin. Wild tribes, some of 
 which are extremely ferocious, still 
 haunt the mountains. The chief moun- 
 tain tribes are the Negritos, diminutive 
 negroes, who have given their name to 
 the island Negros, though not confined 
 to it; and the iEtas or Itus, a dusty or 
 coppercolored race. But the great mass 
 of the population consist of the Tagals, 
 inhabiting Luzon, and the Bisayans, 
 who inhabit the other islands. These 
 speak respectively the Tagal and 
 Bisayan tongues, each of which has a 
 variety of dialects. Half-castes, Indo- 
 European and Indo-Chinese, engross 
 much of the business and wealth of the 
 islands. Spaniards are comparatively 
 few. The independent tribes are partly 
 Mohammedan and partly heathen. Most 
 of the former subjects of Spain profess 
 Roman Catholicism, and priests are very 
 numerous. The largest town and chief 
 seaport as well as the seat of govern- 
 ment js Manila. The Philippines were 
 discovered by Magellan in 1520-21, and 
 were finally annexed to the Spanish 
 dominions, and named after Philip II. 
 In 1762 Manila was taken and for a 
 short time held by a British fleet, and 
 the Americans seized it in 1898. The 
 islands were ceded by Spain to the 
 United States in 1898. 
 
 In February, 1900, the provisional 
 government of the islands was intrusted 
 to a new board of civil commissioners, 
 five in number, at the head of which was 
 Judge William H. Taft of Ohio. The 
 commission in January, 1901, estab- 
 lished a municipal code for the govern- 
 ment of cities other than Manila and 
 tribal settlements. A constitution for 
 the government of the provinces enacted 
 by the commission provided that their 
 oflicials should be a governor elected 
 by the municipalities subject to the 
 approval of the commission, and a sec- 
 retary, a treasurer, a commissioner of 
 public works, and a public prosecutor, 
 all appointed by the commission. From 
 time to time the commission instituted 
 civil governments in the localities as 
 circumstances required, until in 1903 
 morethanTOOlocalities had local govern- 
 ments suited to their conditions. By an 
 act of the commission dated June 11, 
 1901, the judicial system was re- 
 organized. A supreme court was created 
 to consist of seven justices, four Ameri- 
 can and three native; and sixteen courts 
 of First Instance, over which natives 
 presided, were established. The city of 
 Manila, the capital, is governed by a 
 board of three commissioners. In ad- 
 dition to the above measures the present 
 constitution of government for the 
 Philippines consists of the Philippine 
 commission, the governor and vice- 
 governor, the departments of the in- 
 terior, of commerce and police, of 
 finance and justice, and of public in- 
 struction. 
 
 The first Filipino assembly elected by 
 the people was opened on October 15, 
 1907, on which occasion Secretary of 
 War Taft made an address in which he 
 expressed the exact truth of the situa- 
 tion as seen by the authorities at Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 PHILISTINES, the name of a Semitic 
 people or race who inhabited the south- 
 ern part of the lowlands of Palestine, 
 from the coast near Joppa to the Egyp- 
 tian desert south of Gaza. They oc- 
 cupied five chief cities (Ashdod, Gaza, 
 Gath, Askelon, Ekron), and these 
 formed a kind of confederacy under 
 five lords or chiefs. Mention is made of 
 this people in Genesis xxi., xxvi., but it 
 was during the time of the Judges in 
 Israel, and subsequently in the reigns 
 of Saul and David, that the Philistines 
 attained their highest power, and from 
 the latter received their greatest defeats. 
 In the wars between Assyria and Egypt 
 the country of Philistia was subdued by 
 Tiglath-Pileser (734 b.c.); but the 
 Philistines still intrigued with Egypt, 
 and made various revolts against Sargon 
 and Sennacherib to assert their in- 
 dependence. During the Babylonian 
 captivity they avenged themselves on 
 
 Philistine prisoners.— Sculptures at Medinet 
 Haboo. 
 
 their old enemies the Israelites (Ezekiel 
 XXV. 15), but subsequently the two 
 nations seem (Nehemiah xiii. 23), to 
 some extent, to have fraternized. The 
 origin of this race has been a question 
 of much debate by Biblical critics. 
 
 PHILIP, John Woodward, American 
 naval officer, was born in New York 
 City in 1840. He was appointed to the 
 United States Naval academy, became 
 midshipman in 1861, and served during 
 the civil war in the gulf. In 1897 he 
 was placed in command of the battle- 
 ship Texas, which took a prominent 
 part in the naval battle of Santiago 
 during the Spanish-American war. In 
 August, 1898, he was made commodore 
 and was placed in command of the 
 second squadron of the North Atlantic 
 fleet, and in March, 1899, he was made 
 rear-admiral and made commandant of 
 the Brooklyn Navy yard. He died in 
 1900. 
 
 PHILLIPSBURG, a city in Warren 
 CO., N. J., on the Delaware river, and 
 the Cent, of N. J., the Del., Lack, and 
 West., the Lehigh Valley, and the Penn, 
 railways; opposite Easton, Pa., 50 
 
 February 4, 1899 
 February 4-7, 1899 
 March 13, 1899 
 March 26, 1899 
 April 10,1899 
 April 25, 1899 
 May 5, 1899 
 June 13, 1899 
 June 16, 1899 
 July 26, 1899 
 August 9, 1899 
 August 16, 1899 
 November 14, 1899 
 December 10, 1899 
 December 19, 1899 
 February 25, 1900 
 June 21, 1900 
 March 23, 1901 
 July 4, 1901 
 
 miles n.n.w. of Trenton. It is in an 
 agricultural, iron-ore, and limestone 
 region, and is noted for its extensive 
 iron-works and their productions. Pop. 
 12 , 120 . 
 
 PHILLIPS, Wendell, American ab- 
 olitionist, born at Boston, 1811g died 
 1884. He was educated at Harvard 
 university, studied law, and was called 
 to the bar (1834); joined the movement 
 for the abolition of slavery in 1837, and 
 gave it the aid of hie oratorical gifts and 
 unremitting advocacy until in 1865 the 
 negroes of the United States were made 
 free citizens. His Speeches, Letters, and 
 Lectures were published in 1863. 
 
 PHILOLOGY, or COMPARATIVE 
 PHILOLOGY, a term commonly used as 
 equivalent to the science of language, 
 otherwise called Linguistic Science, or 
 Linguistics. This science treats of lan- 
 guage as a whole, of its nature and 
 origin, etc., and of the different lan- 
 guages of the world in their general 
 features, attempting to classify and 
 arrange them according to such general 
 features, and to settle in what relation- 
 ship each stands to the others. The 
 philologist as such does not study lan- 
 guages for practical purposes, or to be 
 able to read and speak a number of them, 
 though the more he is tolerably familiar 
 with the better. He rather studies them, 
 in the way a naturalist studies a series 
 of animals or plants, as if they were 
 separate organisms each with a life and 
 growth of its own. That every language 
 has such a life and growth is true in a 
 sense, for languages are continually in a 
 state of change ; yet a language is not to 
 be regarded as an organism like a plant 
 or an animal, but rather, to quote Pro- 
 fessor Whitney, as an institution, an 
 outcome of the needs of human beings 
 for communication with their fellows. 
 A language is a system of vocal sounds 
 through which ideas are conveyed from 
 person to person in virtue of the fact 
 that certain ideas are attached or belong 
 to certain sounds by a sort of conven- 
 tion or general understanding existing 
 among those who use the language. 
 That there is any natural law by which 
 one idea belongs to one vocal sound 
 rather than to another can hardly be 
 affirmed in view of the fact that if we 
 select any one idea we shall find that 
 each of the thousand languages of thn 
 world expresses this idea by a different 
 sound or group of sounds. Indeed, ideas 
 can be conveyed otherwise than by vocal 
 sounds, as witness the elaborate sign- 
 language that has been developed in 
 some communities, as also the finger- 
 language of the deaf and dumb. We 
 
PHILOMELA 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 can even conceive that a language of 
 hieroglyphics or written symbols might 
 exist with no spoken language alongside 
 of it. We have, however, no knowledge 
 of any such case, and, in fact, wherever 
 man exists we find him making use of 
 speech, which, indeed, is one of his most 
 distinct and marked characteristics. 
 As to the origin of language nothing is 
 really known, £(8liough most probably it 
 is an invention or acquisition of the 
 human race, and not an original endow- 
 ment. 
 
 To begin with our own language and 
 the kindred tongues. Philology has 
 succeeded in showing that the English 
 language is one of a group of closely 
 allied languages which are known by the 
 general name of the Teutonic or Ger- 
 manic tongues. The other languages 
 of the group, some of which are more 
 closely connected with English than the 
 rest, are Dutch, German, Danish, Ice- 
 landic or Old Norse, Swedish, and 
 Gothic; to which may be added, as of 
 less importance and having more the 
 character of dialects, Norwegian, Fris- 
 ian, the Plattdeutsch or Low German 
 of Northern Germany, and Flemish, 
 which differs little from Dutch. The 
 Teutonic tongues are often divided into 
 three sections, based on closeness of 
 relationship: the High German, of which 
 the modern classical German is the 
 representative; the Low German, in- 
 cluding English, Dutch, Frisian, Platt- 
 deutsch, and Gothic; and the Scandi- 
 navian, including Danish, Swedish, and 
 Icelandic. Another division is into: 
 East Germanic, including Gothic and 
 Scandinavian; and West Germanic, in- 
 cluding the others. 
 
 The evidence that all these lan^ages 
 are closely akin is to be found in the 
 great number of words that they possess 
 in common, in the simlliarity of their 
 structure, their inflections, their manner 
 of compounding words — in short, in 
 their family likeness. This likeness can 
 only be accounted for by supposing that 
 these languages are all descended from 
 one common language, the primitive 
 Teutonic, which must have been spoken 
 at a remote period by the ancestors of 
 the present Teutonic peoples, there 
 being then only one Teutonic people 
 as well as one Teutonic tongue. In 
 their earliest form, therefore, and when 
 they began to be differentiated, these 
 languages must have had the character 
 of mere dialects, and it is only in so far 
 as each has had a history and literature 
 of its own that they have attained the 
 rank of independent languages. 
 
 The Teutonic tongues, with the primi- 
 tive or parent Teutonic from which they 
 are descended, have been proved by the 
 investigations of philologists to belong 
 to a wider group or family of tongues, 
 which has received the name of the 
 Aryan, Indo-European, or (especially 
 in Germany) Indo-Germanic family. 
 The chief members of this family are 
 the Teutonic, Slavonic (Polish, Rus- 
 sian, Bohemian), Lithuanian, Celtic 
 (Welsh, Irish, Gaelic, etc.), Latin (or 
 Italic), Greek (or Hellenic), Armenian 
 Persian, and Sanskrit. Just as the Teu- 
 tonic tongues are believed to be the 
 offspring of one parent Teutonic tongue, 
 60 this parent Teutonic and the other 
 
 members of the Aryan family are all 
 believed to be descended from one primi- 
 tive language, the Aryan or Indo- 
 European parent-speech. The people 
 who spoke this primeval Aryan lan- 
 guage, the ancestors (linguistically at 
 least) of the Aryan races of Europe and 
 Asia, are believed by many to have had 
 their seat in Central Asia to the east- 
 ward of the southern extremity of the 
 Caspian sea. This, however, is very 
 proolematical, and some philologists see 
 reason to think that Europe may rather 
 have been the original home of the 
 Aryans. This latter view is now perhaps 
 the one most generally held. 
 
 How remote the period may have 
 been when the ancestors of the Teutons, 
 the Celts, the Slavs, the Greeks, Ro- 
 mans, Persians, and Hindus were living 
 together and speaking a common lan- 
 guage is uncertain. Yet the general 
 character of their language is approxi- 
 mately known, and philologists tell us 
 with some confidence what consonant 
 and what vowel sounds the Aryan 
 parent-speech must have possessed, 
 what were the forms of its inflections, 
 and what, at the least, must have been 
 the extent of its vocabulary, judging 
 from the words that can still be traced 
 as forming a common possession of the 
 sister tongues of the family. 
 
 The Aryan tongues, ancient and 
 modern, are entitled to claim the first 
 rank among the languages of the globe, 
 both for richness, harmony, and variety, 
 and more especially as embodying a 
 series of literatures to which no other 
 family of tongues can show a parallel. 
 Next in importance come the Semitic 
 tongues — Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, 
 Arabic, etc. These, like the Aryan ton- 
 gues, form a well-marked family, one 
 notable peculiarity of which is the pos- 
 session of “triliteral” roots, or roots of 
 which three consonants form the basis 
 and give the general meaning, while in- 
 flection or modification of meaning is 
 indicated by internal vowel -change. 
 Thus the vowels play a subordinate 
 part to the consonants, and do not, as in 
 the Aryan tongues, associate with them 
 on equal terms. Other important lin- 
 guistic families are the Hamitic, which 
 includes the ancient Egyptian, the Cop- 
 tic, Berber, Galla, Somali, etc.; the 
 Turanian or Ural-Altaic, which in- 
 cludes Turkish, Finnish, Hungarian, 
 Mongolian, etc.; and the Southeastern 
 Asiatic, which includes Chinese, Sia- 
 mese, etc. The Turanian languages be- 
 long to the type known as agglutinate or 
 agglutinating, being so called from the 
 fact that the root always maintains a 
 sort of independence or distinctive ex- 
 istence, the other elements of the word 
 being more or less loosely “glued” or 
 stuck on as it were. The Chinese is the 
 chief of the monosyllabic languages, so 
 called from their words consisting nor- 
 mally of monosyllables. Other families 
 of languages are the Malayo-Polynesian 
 of the Indian Archigelago and Pacific; 
 the Bflntu, a great family of South 
 Africa; and the American Indian lan- 
 guages, which are characterized as 
 polysynthetic, from the way in which 
 they crowd as many ideas as possible 
 into one unwieldy expression. All these 
 families form groups, so far is as known, 
 
 separate from and independent of each 
 other; and attempts to connect any 
 two of them, as Aryan and Semetic, for 
 instance, have met with little success. 
 Formerly etymologists had no hesita- 
 tion in deriving English words from 
 Hebrew roots, but this was in the days 
 when there was no science of compara- 
 tive philology. That all languages are 
 descendants of one original tongue, as is 
 believed by many, linguistic science can 
 neither affirm nor deny. We may add 
 that community of language is not a 
 proof of community race, since it is well 
 known that, as the result of war or other- 
 wise, races have given up the language 
 that once belonged to them and adopted 
 some other. 
 
 PHILOME'LA, in Greek mythology, a 
 daughter of Pandion, king of Atfens, 
 who being violated and deprived of her 
 tongue by Tereus, the husband of her 
 sister Progne made known her wrong to 
 the latter by embroidering it in tapestry 
 In revenge the sisters murdered Itys 
 the son of Progne by Tereus, and served 
 him up to his father. Tereus pursued 
 them, but they were changed by the 
 gods into birds, Philomela and Progne 
 into a nightingale and a swallow, and 
 Tereus into a lapwing. 
 
 PHILOSOPHER’S STONE. See 
 
 Alchymy. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY, a term first brought 
 into general use by Socrates. Philosophy 
 is the science that deals with the 
 general principles which form the basis 
 of the other sciences, and of which they 
 themselves take no cognizance. It 
 follows up the data of experience to 
 their ultimate grounds, regarding each 
 particular fact in relation only to a final 
 principle, and as a determinate link in 
 the system of knowledge. In this view 
 philosophy may be defined as the science 
 of principles. 
 
 For all practical purposes the history 
 of philosophy may be treated as com- 
 mencing with the Greeks, the philo- 
 sophic notions of the inhabitants of the 
 East being considered merely as intro- 
 ductory to the Greek philosophy, in 
 which many oriental notions were incor- 
 porated. The first problem of Greek 
 philosophy was to explain the enigma of 
 external nature, to solve the problem 
 not of the soul but of the world. Thales 
 (about 600 B.c.) stands at the head of 
 the Ionian school which, with the 
 Eleatic school, was the chief representa- 
 tive of speculative thought in pre- 
 Socratic times; the former of these 
 schools being characterized by Aristotle 
 as seeking to find a material, the latter 
 a formal principle of all things. In 
 Socrates (470-399 b.c.), who united 
 scientific method and a high ethical and 
 religious spirit, the destructive teaching 
 of the Sophists found its keenest op- 
 ponent. What are called the minor 
 Socratic school — the Cynics, Cyrenaics, 
 and Megarians — severally professed to 
 regard Socrates, as their founder, the 
 Cynics, however, defining the end of 
 action as self-sufficiency, the Cyrenaics 
 as pleasure, and the Megarians as rea- 
 son. With Plato (430-347) philosophy 
 lost its one-sided character. Though 
 professedly a disciple of Socrates his 
 system of idealism is his own. The 
 Platonic idea is the pure archetypal 
 
PHILTRE 
 
 PHCEXICIA 
 
 essence, which is the source of all the 
 finite realities that correspond to it. The 
 visible world in an inferior reproduction 
 of the world of pure ideas, where shine 
 in all their splendor the good, the true, 
 and the beautiful. In logic Plato brings 
 back science to general ideas. In ethics 
 the highest end of man is regarded as 
 the unity of his nature. Plato’s ideal 
 theory is criticised by Aristotle, because 
 he gives no real explanation of the con- 
 nection between the phenomenal and 
 the ideal. In Aristotle’s own system, 
 instead of beginning with the general 
 and the absolute, as Plato had done, he 
 begins with the particular and in- 
 dividual. His whole philosophy is a 
 description of the given and empirical; 
 and his method is induction. His 
 system presents us with a number of co- 
 ordinate sciences, each having its inde- 
 pendent foundation, but no highest 
 science which should comprehend them 
 all. The three schools of Greek philoso- 
 phy which followed the systems of Plato 
 and Aristotle, and which mark the de- 
 clining days of Greece, are those of the 
 Stoics. Epicureans, and Sceptics. 
 
 Modern philosophy, which begins 
 with the 15th century, is characterized 
 by a freer, more independent spirit of 
 inquiry. First the scholastic philosophy 
 was attacked by those w'ho called to 
 mind the ancient Greek philosophy in its 
 original purity. After this struggle new 
 views were presented. Baeon and Locke 
 on the one hand, and Descartes on the 
 other, stand respectively at the head of 
 the two systems — empiricism and ideal- 
 ism, which begin modern philosophy. 
 Bacon created no definite system of 
 philosophy, but gave a new direction to 
 thought, the empiricism which he 
 founded finally developing into scep- 
 ticism. The system of Descartes was 
 opposed by Gassendi, and received mod- 
 ifications at the hands of others, espe- 
 cially Malebranche. The most important 
 successor, however, of Descartes was 
 Spinoza, who reduced the three Carte- 
 sian substances to unity, to one infinite 
 original substance, the ground of all 
 things, that excludes from itself all nega- 
 tion or determination, and is named, God 
 or nature. Locke (1632-1704), who had 
 a precursor in Hobbes (1588-1679), the 
 influence of whom, however, chiefly con- 
 cerned the history of political science, is 
 regarded as the father of modern 
 materialism and empiricism. As oc- 
 cupying the general position of Locke 
 mention may be made of Isaac Newton, 
 Samuel Clarke, William Wollaston, the 
 Earl of Shaftesbury, and Francis 
 Hutcheson. The philosophy of Locke 
 received a further development in 
 France, where Condillac sought to ex- 
 plain the development of humanity by 
 the simple development of the sensa- 
 tions. Then followed the materialism of 
 Helvetius, d’Holbach, La Mettrie, and 
 others including several of the Ency- 
 clopedists. In opposition to this ma- 
 terialistic tendency arose the idealism 
 of Leilinitz and Berkeley. The theories 
 of Leibnitz were systematized by Wolff, 
 and from his time to Kant German 
 philosophy assumed no new stand-point. 
 It was reserved for Iliime to trace out the 
 ultimate consequences of the Cartesian 
 and Lockian philosophy, and to produce 
 
 the great metaphysical revolution of 
 which Reid and Kant were the first 
 movers. Kant (1724-1804), who may 
 be justly regarded as the father of the 
 philosophy of the 19th century, sought 
 to bring together into unity the one- 
 sided endeavors of his predecessors in 
 the realistic and idealistic schools. He 
 took up a critical stand-point, and from 
 it instituted an inquiry into the origin of 
 our experience or cognition. In the 
 hands of Fichte the critical idealism of 
 Kant becomes absolutely subjective 
 idealism. “All that is, is ego;” this is 
 the principle of the Fichtian system ; the 
 world is merely phenomenal, conscious- 
 ness is a phenomenon, perception is a 
 dream. Fichte’s subjective idealism 
 found its continuation in the objective 
 idealism of Schelling and the absolute 
 idealism of Hegel. Hegel (1770-1831), 
 developed the principle of identity, and 
 created the system of absolute idealism. 
 In his philosophy he aims at elevating 
 consciousness to the standpoint of abso- 
 lute knowledge, and systematically 
 developing the entire contents of this 
 knowledge by means of the dialectical 
 method. Schleiermacher (1768-1834) 
 promulgated an eclecticism to which 
 Plato, Spinoza, Kant, and Schelling 
 were the chief contributors. Schopen- 
 hauer (1788-1860) developed a doctrine 
 which may be described as a transitional 
 form from the idealism of Kant to the 
 realism at present prevalent. In France 
 two philosophical tendencies opposed 
 the sensualism and materialism so uni- 
 versal at the beginning of last century. 
 Of these the one was theosophical and 
 the other found expression in the eclec- 
 tic and spiritualistic school founded by 
 Royer-Collard as the disciple of Reid, 
 and further built up by Cousin, who 
 incorporated into its body of doctrines 
 a number of German philosophical 
 notions. Jouffroy attempted to unite the 
 philosophy of his predecessor Maine de 
 Biran to that of the Scottish school, and 
 became associated with the spiritualistic 
 school, to which also belong the names of 
 Gamier, Janet, R4musat, Franck, Jules 
 Simon, and others. This school has con- 
 tended valiantly against the pantheistic 
 tendencies of the age. Independent 
 systems are those of Piere Leroux, 
 Lamennais, Jean Reynaud, and Buchez. 
 Materialism has its supporters in Ca- 
 banis, who sees in thought only a secre- 
 tion of the brain, Broussais, Gall, and 
 others. Positivism, founded by Auguste 
 Comte, numbers not a few followers. 
 
 In Great Britain the associational 
 psychology of Hartley, Priestley, and 
 Dr. Darwin found representatives in the 
 19th century in James Mill (1773-1836) 
 and his son John Stuart Mill (1806-73), 
 who make the principal of association the 
 sole explanation of psychical phenom- 
 ena. Bain, Grote, and Lewes followed 
 more or less in the same track. Herbert 
 Spencer attempted to widen the psy- 
 chological principles of the associational 
 psychology into a universal doctrine of 
 evolution. In America, as in England, 
 philosophy has been prosecuted more as 
 an applied science, and in its special re- 
 lations to morals, politics, and theology. 
 Among the best-known names are those 
 of Jonathan Edwards, Henry P. Tappan, 
 Thomas C. Upham, Francis Wayland, 
 
 and others. A modified scholasticism, 
 mostly Thomism, prevails in the catho- 
 lic seminaries of France, Spain, and 
 Italy. In most of the continental coun- 
 tries, German philosophy has exerted 
 no small influence. In Italy a peculiar 
 philosophical school, represented by 
 Rosmini, Mamiani, and Gioberti, has 
 flourished during the lfl|h century. 
 
 PHILTRE, a potion exposed to have 
 the power of exciting love. The prepa- 
 ration was frequently associated with 
 magic rites, and the ingredients were 
 frequently of a harmless, fanciful, or 
 disgusting kind. At times, however, 
 poisonous drugs were employed, the 
 death of Lucretius and the madness of 
 Caligula being alike ascribed to philtres 
 administered by their wives. 
 
 PHLEBOT'OMY, or VENESECTION, 
 the act of letting blood by opening a 
 vein; a method of treatment formerly 
 applied to almost all diseases, but now 
 chiefly confined to cases of general or 
 local plethora. Another mode of letting 
 blood is by cupping or by the applica- 
 tion of leeches. It has been one of the 
 processes of the medical profession from 
 the earliest times. 
 
 PHLOX, a genus of perennial herba- 
 ceous plants, natives for the most part 
 of North America, though some of the 
 species are to be met with in Asia. The 
 flowers are of a purple or violet color, 
 more rarely white or red, with a salver- 
 shaped corolla, and a narrow sub- 
 cylindrical tube longer than the calyx. 
 The trailing kinds are excellent for rock- 
 work. 
 
 PHtEBUS. See Apollo. 
 
 PHCENICIA, in ancient geography, a 
 country on the coast of Syria, bounded 
 on the east by Mount Lebanon, and 
 containing the celebrated cities Tyre 
 and Sidon. Phoenicia proper was a tract 
 of country stretching along the eastern 
 shore of the Mediterranean, not much 
 more than 28 miles in length, and little 
 more than 1 mile in average breadth; 
 Sidon being situated near its northern, 
 and Tyre not far from its southern 
 boundary. In a wider sense Phoenicia 
 was regarded as beginning on the north 
 with the Island of Aradus, and extending 
 south to the town of Dora, a little be- 
 low the promontory of Carmel, being 
 about 120 miles in length, and rarely 
 more than 20 in breadth. It is watered 
 by several streams flowing from Lebanon 
 to the sea, such as the Eleutherus, the 
 Adonis, the Lycus, the Tamyras, the 
 Leontes. The country is fertile in tim- 
 ber, corn, fruits, etc.; and besides the 
 great cities of Sidon and Tyre, it was 
 anciently studded with numerous 
 smaller towns, forming almost an un- 
 broken line along the coast. Among 
 these towns in earlier times were Arvad, 
 Accho, Arka, Tripolis, Berytus, Sa- 
 repta, Dora, etc. Many of the road- 
 steads or harbors were excellent, but 
 are now silted up. 
 
 The wealth and powei of the Phoe- 
 nicians arose from their command of the 
 sea, and it was their policy not to pro- 
 voke any of the nations to the east of 
 them, and not to quarrel unnecessarily 
 with Israel, which was their granary. 
 The relation between Hiram and David 
 was probabl}^ but a sample of such inter- 
 national treaties and intercourse, .\fter 
 
PHCENIX 
 
 PHONOGRAPH 
 
 the division of the Hebrew kingdom 
 Phoenicia would naturally cultivate 
 alliance with the Ten Tribes nearest to 
 it, and Ahab married a Phoenician 
 princess. The country was afterward 
 successively incorporated in the Assyr- 
 ian, Babylonian, and Persian empires, 
 but the cities retained more or less their 
 independence. It was next conquered 
 by Alexander the Great, and henceforth 
 simply formed part of Syria. 
 
 From a very early period the Phoeni- 
 cians occupied themselves in distant 
 voyages, and they must speedily have 
 reached to a style of substantial ship- 
 building. Xenophon passes a high 
 eulogy on a Phoenician ship; and they 
 were skilled in navigation and the nauti- 
 cal applications of astronomy. Lebanon 
 supplied them with abundance of timber 
 and Cyprus gave them all necessary 
 naval equipments, from the keel to the 
 top-sails. In the reign of Pharaoh- 
 Necho these daring navigators even 
 circumnavigated Africa, and the Phoeni- 
 cians furnished Xerxes with 300 ships, 
 which took part in the battle of Salamis. 
 The commerce of Tyre reached through 
 the world. It traded in the produce of 
 the whole known world, from the ivory 
 and “bright iron” and ebony and cotton 
 fabrics of India to the tin from Cornwall 
 and Devonshire. Fishing was also an 
 important industry, and the Tyrians 
 sold fish in Jerusalem. The Phoenicians 
 excelled in the manufacture of the pur- 
 ple dye from the shell-fish murex, abun- 
 dant on its coasts. The glass of Sidon 
 was no less famous than the Tyrian dye. 
 Phoenicia produced also articles of silver 
 and gold as well as of brass; its inhabi- 
 tants were also skilled in architecture 
 and in mining. 
 
 The maritime knowledge and ex- 
 perience of Phoenicia led to the planta- 
 tion of numerous colonies in Cyprus, 
 Rhodes, and the islands of the ^gean — 
 the Cyclades and Sporades — in Sicily, in 
 Sardinia, the Balearic islands, and in 
 Spain. The most celebrated of the 
 Phoenician colonies, however, was Car- 
 thage, in Northern Africa, which ex- 
 tended its sway over the Spanish penin- 
 sula and disputed with Rome the su- 
 premacy of the Mediterranean. 
 
 As was the case in Canaan at the in- 
 vasion, each Phoenician city was gov- 
 erned by a king or petty chief. A power- 
 ful aristocracy existed in the chief 
 towns, and there were also elective 
 magistrates, called by the Romans 
 suffetes, a disguised form of the Hebrew 
 soffet. Sidon, and afterward Tyre, 
 exercised a hegemony over the other 
 states. The relation of Phoenicia to her 
 colonies does not seem to have been 
 very close. Their religion, however, 
 bound the mother country and the 
 colonies in a common worship. Car- 
 thage often sent presents to the chief 
 Phoenician god; so did Gades and other 
 settlements. 
 
 While the wealth and commerce of 
 Phoenicia must have brought art and 
 refinement, the people were noted for 
 their dissoluteness. As a people the 
 Phoenicians early obtained a reputation 
 for cunning and faithlessness. They were 
 often pirates; they were certainly slave- 
 traders. They purchased slaves from 
 the northern shores of the Black sea, 
 
 and they also kidnaped and sold the 
 children of Israel— a practice which 
 brought upon them the denunciation 
 of the prophets, and a just retaliation 
 was predicted to fall upon them. 
 
 The language of ancient Phoenicia 
 was closely akin to Hebrew. The 
 famous passage in the Poenulus of 
 Plautus illustrates the assertion. Of 
 ninety-four words on a tablet dis- 
 covered at Marseilles in 1845 relat- 
 ing to the sacrificial ritual no less than 
 seventy-four are found in the Old Testa- 
 ment. Coins and seals also disclose the 
 same affinity, as do the numerous in- 
 scriptions. Proper names can all be 
 explained in the same way. The inven- 
 tion of letters is often ascribed to the 
 Phoenicians. The Greeks believed that 
 letters had been brought to them from 
 Phoenicia by Cadmus. The so-called 
 Cadmean letters of the Greek alphabet 
 areABrAEFIKLMNOIIP 
 2 T, the sixth letter F being the digam- 
 ma, which afterward disappeared from 
 the Greek alphabet. The names of 
 these letters have no meaning in Greek, 
 but they have each a significance in 
 Phoenician or Hebrew. The affinity of 
 the old Greek letters in form to the 
 Phoenician and early Hebrew can be 
 easily traced. The literature of Phoe- 
 nicia has perished. See also Tyre, 
 Sidon, Carthage, etc. 
 
 PHCENIX, a fabulous Egyptian bird, 
 about the size of an eagle, with plumage 
 partly red and partly golden. Of the 
 various stories told of it by Herodotus 
 and others the most popular is to the 
 effect that the bird, at an age of 500 
 years, conscious of its approaching 
 death, built a funeral pile of wood and 
 aromatic gums, which it lighted with 
 the fanning of its wings, and rose from 
 the flames with a new life. The Egyp- 
 tians regarded it as a symbol of im- 
 mortality, and it is still used as an em- 
 blem of this. 
 
 PHCENIX, the scientific name of the 
 date palm genus. 
 
 PHCENIXVILLE, a town of the United 
 States, in Chester co., Pennsylvania, on 
 the Schuylkill, with extensive ironworks. 
 Pop. 10,722. 
 
 PHOLAS, a genus of marine bivalves, 
 in which the shell gapes at both ends. 
 The shell, which is of thin white tex- 
 ture, is studded over on its outer sur- 
 face with numerous rasp-like promi- 
 
 Pholades in their holes. 
 
 nences, by means of which the animal 
 excavates burrows in wood, rocks, in- 
 durated clay, etc., maintaining corn- 
 
 munication with the outer world by 
 means of long breathing-tubes or siphons 
 with fringed edges. 
 
 PHONETTCS, the science which 
 treats of the various sounds pertaining 
 to human speech, their distinctive 
 characteristics, the voice-mechanism by 
 which they are uttered, and the methods 
 by which they may be best represented 
 to the eye. Any system of writing is 
 strictly phonetic when by it each dif- 
 ferent sound is represented by a differ- 
 ent character, and the same sound 
 always by the same character. 
 
 PHO'NOGRAPH, an instrument by 
 means of which sounds can be per- 
 manently registered, and afterward re- 
 produced from the register. It con- 
 sists essentially of a curved tube, one 
 end of which is fitted with a mouth- 
 piece, while the other end (about 2 
 inches in diameter) is closed in with a 
 disc or diaphragm of exceedingly thin 
 
 Phonograph. 
 
 metal. Connected with the center of 
 this diaphragm is a steel point, which, 
 when the sounds are projected on the 
 disc from the mouthpiece, vibrates 
 backward and forward. This part of 
 the apparatus is adjusted to a cylinder 
 which rotates on a horizontal axis. On 
 the surface of the cylinder is cut a spiral 
 groove, and on the axis there is a spiral 
 screw of the same pitch, which works in 
 a nut. When the instrument is to be 
 used a piece of tin-foil is gummed round 
 the cylinder, and the steel point is ad- 
 justed so as to be just touching the tin- 
 foil, and above the line of the spiral 
 groove. If some words are now spoken 
 through the mouthpiece, and the cylin- 
 der kept rotating either by the hand or 
 clockwork, a series of small indentations 
 are made on the foil by the vibratory 
 movement of the steel point, and these 
 markings have all an individual char- 
 acter of their own, due to the various 
 sounds addressed to the mouthpiece. 
 The sounds thus registered are repro- 
 duced by approaching the diaphragm 
 and its steel point toward the tin-foil 
 as at first commencing, at the point 
 where it was when the cylinder originally 
 started, and then once more setting the 
 cylinder in motion. The indentations 
 
rilOXOGRAPHY 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 previously made now cause the steel 
 point to rise or fall or otherwise move 
 as the markings pass under it, and the 
 result is that the diaphragm is thrown 
 into a state of vibration exactly cor- 
 responding to the movements induced 
 by the markings, and thus affects the 
 air around so as to produce sounds, and 
 these vibrations, being exactly similar to 
 those originally made by the voice, 
 necessarily reproduce these sounds to 
 the ear as the words at first spoken. In- 
 stead of these tin-foil strips hollow cylin- 
 ders of wax are now commonly used. 
 In this case the record consists of a 
 series of markings cut into the wax by a 
 fine steel point. The same cylinders can 
 be used a large number of times, the 
 previous record being always shaved off 
 and a new surface thus obtained. 
 
 PHONOG'RAPHY, a system of writ- 
 ing by which the sounds of a language 
 are accurately represented. The name 
 is generally applied to Pitman’s system 
 of shorthand. See Shorthand. 
 
 PHONOM'ETER, an instrument for 
 ascertaining the number of vibrations 
 of a given sound in a given space of 
 time. 
 
 PHOSPHATE, in chemistry, the gen- 
 eric term for the salts formed by the 
 union of phosphoric anhydride with 
 bases or water or both. They play a 
 leading part in the chemistry of animal 
 and plant life, the most important in 
 this connection being the phosphate of 
 soda, phosphate of lime, and the basic 
 phosphate of magnesia. In agriculture 
 the adequate supply of phosphates to 
 plants in the form of manures becomes 
 a matter of necessity in all deplenished 
 soils. These phosphatic manures con- 
 sist for the most part of bones, ground 
 ones, mineral phosphates (apatite, 
 phosphorite, coprolites), basic slag, 
 superphosphates and reduced super- 
 phosphates (both prepared by treating 
 broken-up bones with vitriol), bone-ash, 
 and phosphatic guano. See also 
 Manures. 
 
 PHOSPHIDES, compounds of phos- 
 phorus with one other element, more 
 especially with the metals. 
 
 PHOSPHORES'CENCE, the property 
 which certain bodies possess of becom- 
 ing luminous without undergoing ob- 
 vious combustion. It is sometimes a 
 chemical, sometimes a physical action. 
 Certain mineral substances exhibit the 
 phenomenon when submitted to insola- 
 tion, to heat, to friction, to electricity, 
 or to cleavage. Rain, water-spouts, and 
 meteoric dust sometimes present a self- 
 luminous appearance. Several vegeta- 
 ble organisms, chiefly cryptogams, ex- 
 hibit this kind of luminosity; but the 
 most interesting cases of phosphor- 
 escense occur in the animal world, the 
 species in which the luminous property 
 has been observed belonging nearly to 
 every main group of the zoological 
 series. In some of the lowest life forms 
 and in many of the jelly-fishes the 
 whole surface of the body is phosphor- 
 escent; in other organisms the phos- 
 phorescent property is localized in cer- 
 tain organs, as in the sea-pens, certain 
 annelids, the glow-worms, fire-flies, etc.; 
 while many deep-sea fishes have shining 
 bodies embedded in the skin. The phos- 
 phorescence of the sea is produced by 
 
 the scintillating or phosphorescent light 
 emitted from the bodies of certain micro- 
 scopic marine animals, and is well seen 
 on the surface of the ocean at night. 
 Phosphorescence in animals appears to 
 be a vital process, consisting essentially 
 in the conversion of nervous force (vital 
 energy) into light; just as the same 
 force can be converted by certain fishes 
 into electricity. See Fluorescence. 
 
 PHOSPHORTC ACID, an acid usually 
 obtained by burning phosphoretted 
 hydrogen in atmospheric air or oxygen. 
 It is also produced by the oxidation of 
 phosphorous acid, by oxidizing phos- 
 phorus with nitric acid, by the decom- 
 position of apatite and other native 
 phosphates, and in various other ways. 
 It is used in medicine in the form of 
 solution, constituting the dilute acid 
 of the Pharmacopoeia. It is peculiarly 
 suited to disordered states of the mucous 
 surfaces, and also to states of debility, 
 characterized by softening of the bones. 
 
 PHOS'PHORITE, a species of cal- 
 careous earth; a sub-species of apatite. 
 It is an amorphous phosphate of lime, 
 and is valuable as a fertilizer. 
 
 PHOSPHOROSCOPE, an instrument 
 designed to show the phosphorescence 
 of certain bodies that emit light but for 
 a very short period. By its means many 
 substances hitherto unsuspected of 
 phosphorescence have been proved cap- 
 able of retaining light for very short 
 periods. The name is also given to a 
 philosophical toy for showing phos- 
 phorescent substances in the dark. 
 
 PHOSPHOROUS ACID, an acid pro- 
 duced by exposing sticks of phosphorus 
 to moist air, and in several other ways. 
 Phosphorous acid exists usually in the 
 form of a thick uncrystallizable syrup, 
 but it may also be obtained crystallized. 
 
 PHOS'PHORUS, a solid non-metallic 
 combustible substance ranking as one 
 of the elements; sjmibol P,atomicweight 
 31; specific gravity 1.826. It occurs 
 chiefly in combination with oxygen, 
 calcium, and magnesium, in volcanic 
 and other rocks, whose disintegration 
 constitutes very fertile soils. It exists 
 also in the plants used by man as food, 
 and is a never-failing and important 
 constituent in animal structures. It is 
 manufactured from bones, which consist 
 in part of phosphate of lime, or from 
 native mineral phosphate of lime. 
 Common phosphorus when pure is al- 
 most transparent and colorless. At 
 common temperatures it is a soft solid, 
 easily cut with a knife, and the cut sur- 
 face, has a waxy luster; at 108° iWuses, 
 and at 550° is converted into vapor. 
 It is exceedingly inflammable. Exposed 
 to the air at common temperatures it 
 undergoes slow combustion, emits a 
 white vapor of a peculiar alliaceous 
 odor, appears luminous in the dark, and 
 is gradually consumed. On this account 
 phosphorus should always be kept under 
 water. A very slight degree of heat is 
 suflicient to inflame phosphorus in the 
 open air. Gentle pressure between the 
 fingers, friction, or a temperature not 
 much above its point of fusion, kindles 
 it readily. It burns rapidly even in the 
 air, emitting a splendid white light, 
 and causing intense heat. Its combus- 
 tion is far more rapid in oxygen gas, and 
 the light far more vivid. The product of 
 
 the perfect combustion of phosphorus 
 is phosphorous pentoxide or phosphoric 
 anhydride, a white solid which readily 
 takes up water, passing into phosphoric 
 acid. Compounds of phosphoric anhy- 
 dride with basic bodies are known as 
 phosphates. Phosphorus may be made 
 to combine with most of the metals, 
 forming compounds called phosphides. 
 When dissolved in fat oils it forms a 
 solution which is luminous in the dark. 
 It is chiefly used in the preparation of 
 lucifer-matches, and also in the prepa- 
 ration of phosphoric acid. It is of all 
 stimulants the most powerful and dif- 
 fusible, but on account of its activity 
 highly dangerous. It can be safely ad- 
 ministered as a medicine only in ex- 
 tremely minute doses and with the 
 utmost possible caution. Phosphorus 
 presents a good example of allotropy, in 
 that it can be exhibited in at least one 
 other form, known as red or amorphous 
 phosphorus, presenting completely dif- 
 ferent properties from common phos- 
 phorus. This variety is produced by 
 keeping common phosphorus a long 
 time slightly below the boiling-point. 
 It is a red, hard, brittle substance, not 
 fusible, not poisonous, and not readily 
 inflammable so that it may be handled 
 with impunity. When heated to the 
 boiling-point it changes back to common 
 phosphorus. 
 
 PHOTO-ENGRAVING, a common 
 name of many processes in which the 
 action of light on a sensitized surface is 
 made to change the nature or condition 
 of the substance of the plate or its coat- 
 ing, so that it may by processes be made 
 to afford a printing surface correspond- 
 ing to the original from which the photo- 
 graphic image was derived. See Zinc 
 Etching, Halftone Engraving. 
 
 PHOTOG'RAPHY is the art of taking 
 representations of objects by the action 
 of light through the lenses of the camera 
 obscura on a previously prepared sur- 
 face. It is of comparativelyrecent origin, 
 though, as early as the commencement 
 of the 19th century, Mr. Thomas Wedge- 
 wood had discovered a method of copy- 
 ing paintings on glass and of making 
 profiles by the action of light upon 
 nitrate of silver. About 1814 M. Nice- 
 phore Niepce in France discovered a 
 method of producing, by means of the 
 camera obscura, pictures on plates of 
 metal coated wdth asphaltum, and at 
 the same time of rendering them per- 
 manent. In 1839 Daguerre announced 
 the discovery of the Daguerreotype. 
 In the meantime, however, Mr. Henry 
 Fox Talbot had discovered the process 
 of obtaining pictures in the camera by 
 the agency of light on paper coated with 
 chloride and nitrate of silver, and also of 
 fixing them when so obtained. Mr. 
 Talbot gave the name of calotype to his 
 process. Numerous modifications of the 
 calotype were introduced, besides vari- 
 ous new photographic processes, the 
 most important b^eing those of M. Niepce 
 de St. Victor and Mr. Scott Archer, the 
 former of whom introduced the use of 
 albumen and the latter that of collodion 
 as a substitute for paper, these sub- 
 stances being in either case thinly 
 spread over a plate of glass. Mr. .^.rcher 
 perfected the wet collodion process, 
 and published full working details in 
 
PHOTOGRAVURE 
 
 PHYLLOXERA 
 
 1851. Collodion dry plates were intro- 
 duced by Dr. Hill Norris in 1856; col- 
 lodion emulsion dry plates by Messrs. 
 Sayce and Bolton in 1864. In 1871 Dr. 
 R. L. Maddox discovered that glass 
 plates could be coated with an emulsion 
 consisting of bromide of silver contained 
 in gelatine. This gelatine dry-plate 
 process was improved by Bennett in 
 1878, and came into general use about 
 1880. It is now almost the only process 
 employed in ordinary photography. 
 
 Photographs may be either negative 
 or positive. Negative photographs are 
 produced in the camera, and exhibit 
 the lights and shades contrary to nature, 
 that is, the lights dark and shades white. 
 In order to obtain prints or positives 
 several methods are used. In silver 
 printing a paper sensitized by being 
 floated on a solution of albumen mixed 
 with common salt, and then on a solu- 
 tion of nitrate of silver, is placed in 
 close contact with the negative in a 
 printing-frame, and exposed to light 
 until the silver compounds have become 
 sufficiently darkened. It is afterward 
 toned, fixed, and washed. In the platino- 
 type process the paper is sensitized by 
 ferric oxalate and a double salt of potas- 
 sium and platinum. The latter process 
 requires no toning, and produces a per- 
 manent print. 
 
 Various modes of multiplying photo- 
 graphic pictures by photolithography 
 have been successfully tried. A com- 
 mon mode is to take a print on paper 
 sensitized with gelatine and bichromate 
 of potassium, and to ink it with a suit- 
 able oily ink. This ink adheres to the 
 parts where the gelatine has been acted 
 on by light and has become insoluble, 
 but where the gelatine is still soluble the 
 ink can be easily washed off. It is then 
 transferred to a lithographic stone in 
 the usual way. In photo-zincography 
 the process consists in projecting an im- 
 pression on a plate of prepared zinc by 
 photography and then engraving it by 
 etching with acids, so that copies can be 
 printed from the plate. Since the intro- 
 duction of the gelatine plate the art of 
 photography has made immense ad- 
 vances, and its applications are endless. 
 Hand (sometimes called detective) 
 cameras in all shapes and sizes have 
 been introduced, some of which take 
 pictures of J and | plate size. Many im- 
 provements have also been made in 
 instantaneous shutteis. These are now 
 so carefully adjusted by mechanical 
 appliances that they can be regulated to 
 a small fraction of a second, or a pro- 
 longed exposure can be given to any 
 part of the subject at will. These instan- 
 taneous processes have enabled scien- 
 tists to analyse muscularmovements and 
 the various modes of locomotion. Re- 
 markable results have also been attained 
 in the application of photography to 
 astronomy, and pictures of the most 
 remote parts of the heavens are now 
 common. Its application in the various 
 rocesses of book-illustration has also 
 een very successful. Photography by 
 means of artificial light is regularly 
 practiced. Recently it has been dis- 
 covered that by means of a current of 
 electricity and a glass globe or tube ex- 
 hausted of air, rays may be produced 
 which penetrate many solid substances 
 
 though unable to penetrate others, and 
 which give an image of such opaque 
 bodies on a photographic plate. By 
 these rays (X-rays, Rontgen rays) we 
 may get a photograph (or radiograph) 
 showing, for instance, the bones in the 
 hand, the coins in a purse, etc. 
 
 PHOTOGRAVURE, a process of en- 
 graving in which by the aid of photog- 
 raphy Subjects are reproduced as plates 
 suited for printing in a copper-plate 
 press. The process known as Helio- 
 gravure (which see) is essentially the 
 same. 
 
 PHOTO-HELIOGRAPH, an instru- 
 ment for observing transits of Venus and 
 other solar phenomena, consisting of a 
 telescope mounted for photography on 
 an equatorial stand and moved by 
 suitable clockwork. 
 
 PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY. See Pho- 
 togrm>hy. 
 
 PHOTOM'ETER, an instrument in- 
 tended to indicate relative quantities of 
 light, as in a cloudy or bright day, or to 
 enable two light-giving bodies to be com- 
 pared. Photometers depend on one or 
 other of the two principles, that the eye 
 can distinguish whether two adjacent 
 surfaces are equally illuminated, and 
 whether two contiguous shadows have 
 the same depth. Benson’s photometer is 
 based on the former principle. Rum- 
 ford’s on the latter. The common unit 
 for comparison is the light emitted by a 
 sperm-candle burning 120 grains of 
 spermaceti per hour, other li^ts being 
 said to have the intensity of so many 
 candles. Improved forms of photom- 
 eters for more easily obtaining the 
 illuminating power produced by coal- 
 gas and the electric light have recently 
 been introduced. 
 
 PHO'TOPHONE, an instrument in- 
 vented in 1880 by Prof. Graham Bell, 
 which resembles the telephone, except 
 that it transmits sounds by means of a 
 beam of light instead of the connecting 
 wire of the telephone. The success of the 
 instrument depends upon a peculiar 
 property of the rare metal s^enium, 
 that, namely, of offering more or less 
 opposition to the passage of electricity 
 according as it is acted upon or not by 
 light. In its simplest form the apparatus 
 consists at the receiving end of a plane 
 mirror of some flexible material (such 
 as silvered mica) upon which a beam of 
 light is concentrated, and the voice of a 
 speaker directed against the back of 
 this mirror throws the beam of light 
 reflected from its surface into undula- 
 tions which are received on a parabolic 
 reflector at the other end, and are 
 centered on a sensitive selenium cell in 
 connection with a telephone, which re- 
 produces in articulate speech the un- 
 dulations set up in the beam of light by 
 the voice of the speaker. 
 
 PHO'TOSPHERE, the luminous en- 
 velope, supposed to consist of incandes- 
 cent matter, surrounding the sun. See 
 Sun. 
 
 PHOTO-ZINCOGRAPHY. See Pho- 
 tography. 
 
 PHRENOLOGY, the term applied to 
 the psychological theories of Gall and 
 Spurzheim, founded upon (1) the dis- 
 covery that the brain, as the organ of the 
 mind, is not so much a single organ as 
 a complex congeries of organs; and (2) 
 
 observations as to the existence of a 
 certain correspondence between the 
 aptitudes of the individual and the con- 
 figuration of his skull. Phrenology may 
 therefore be regarded as a development, 
 partly scientific and partly empirical, of 
 the general idea that a correspondence 
 exists between the physical structure 
 and the psychical and mental traits of 
 every individual man or animal. It was 
 long ago observed by physiologists that 
 in animals a certain character and in- 
 telligence seemed to accompany a cer- 
 tain formation and size of skull. Lava- 
 ter, in his system of physiognomy, went 
 further than this, and gave to particular 
 shapes of the head certain powers and 
 passions: the conical head he terms 
 religious; the narrow retreating front, 
 weak-minded; the broad neck, salacious, 
 etc. But it was reserved to Drs. Gall 
 and Spurzheim to expand this germ of 
 doctrine into a minute system, and to 
 map out the whole cranium into small 
 sections, each section being the dwelling- 
 place of a certain faculty, propensity, or 
 sentiment. 
 
 So far as phrenology was scientific it 
 undoubtedly was one cause which led to 
 the minute anatomical investigations to 
 which the brain has latterly been sub- 
 jected; and Gall and Spurzheim have 
 high claims to be regarded as anatomical 
 discoverers and pioneers. Previous to 
 their dissections the brain had generally 
 been regarded as a single organ rather 
 than a complex congeries of organs. 
 Gall’s view of the physiology of the 
 brain was, that the convolutions are 
 distinct nervous centers, each having 
 its own special activity ; that the frontal 
 lobes are occupied by the perceptive 
 group of centers; the superior lobes by 
 the moral and aesthetic groups; the in- 
 ferior lobes by the group mainly con- 
 cerned in the nutrition and adaptation 
 of the animal to external conditions ; and 
 the posterior lobes to the social instincts. 
 To a considerable extent these views 
 have been pronounced to be well founded 
 by later specialists, and thus the leading 
 positions of Gall and Spurzheim have 
 taken a place in scientific psychology 
 as represented by Bain, Carpenter, 
 Ferrier, Wagner, Huschke, and others. 
 
 PHTHIO'TIS, a district of ancient 
 Greece, in the south of Thessaly, now 
 forming a monarchy of Greece. Pop. 
 128,440. 
 
 PHTHISIS (thi'sis). See Consumption. 
 
 PHYLAC'TERY, among the Jews a 
 strip of parchment inscribed with cer- 
 tain texts from the Old Testament, and 
 inclosed within a small leathern case, 
 which was fastened with straps on the 
 forehead just above and between the 
 eyes, and on the left arm near the region 
 of the heart. The four passages in- 
 scribed upon the phylactery were Ex. 
 xiii. 1-10, 11-16; Deut. vi. 4-9; xi. 18- 
 21. The custom was founded on a literal 
 interpretation of Ex. xiii. 16; Deut. vi. 
 8; xi. 18. Phylacteries are the ‘prayer- 
 thongs” of the modern Jews. In their 
 origin they were regarded as amulets, 
 which protected the wearer from the 
 power of demons, and hence their name, 
 which is from the Greek phulassein, to 
 guard. 
 
 PHYLLOXE'RA, a|genus of plant-lice. 
 The type of the genus is a species which 
 
PHYSALIA 
 
 PIANO 
 
 lives upon oak-trees ; but the Phylloxera ; 
 vastatrix, or grape Phylloxera, a species 
 which injuriously affects the vine, has 
 attracted so much attention of late 
 years that it has come to be known as the 
 Phylloxera. Its proper home is North 
 America, where it was known early in 
 the history of grape-culture, and where 
 it doubtless existed on wild vines from 
 time immemorial. It was discovered in 
 England in 1863, and about the same 
 time it made its appearance in France. 
 In 1885 its presence was discovered in 
 Australia, at the Cape of Good Hope, 
 and in Algeria; and, generally speaking, 
 it has now obtained a foothold, at least 
 in restricted localities, in every country 
 where the grapevine is cultivated. Vines 
 attacked by Phylloxera generally show 
 external signs the second year of attack 
 in a sickly yellowish appearance of the 
 foliage and in stunted growth, and the 
 third year they frequently perish, all 
 the finer roots having decayed and 
 wasted away. Many remedies have been 
 proposed, but none are universally 
 practicable or satisfactory. 
 
 PHYSA'LIA, a genus of marine ani- 
 mals. One species is known by the name 
 of the Portuguese man-of-war. These 
 hydrozoa are characterized by the pres- 
 ence of one or more large air-sacs, by 
 which they float on the surface of the 
 ocean. Numerous tentacles depend from 
 
 Portuguese man-of-war. 
 
 the under side, one class short and the 
 other long. The shorter are the nutritive 
 individuals of the colony, the longer, 
 which in a Physalia 5 or 6 inches long 
 are capable of being extended to 12 or 
 18 feet, possess a remarkable stinging 
 power, and are probably used to stun 
 their prey. 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY is that 
 branch of geography which treats of the 
 surface of the earth, or of any part of it 
 as regards its natural features and con- 
 formation, the changes that are con- 
 stantly taking place and that have 
 formerly taken place so as to produce 
 the features now existing; it points out 
 the natural divisions of the earth into 
 land and water, continents, islands, 
 rivers, seas, oceans, etc.; treating of the 
 external configuration of mountains, 
 valleys, coasts, etc.; and of the relation 
 and peculiarities of different portions of 
 the water area, including currents, wave- 
 action, depth of the sea, salt and fresh 
 water lakes, the drainage of countries, 
 etc. The atmosphere in its larger fea- 
 tures is also considered, including the 
 questions of climate, winds, storms, 
 
 rainfall, and meteorology generally. 
 Lastly it takes up various questions 
 connected with the organic life of the 
 globe, more especially the distribution 
 of animals and plants, and their relation 
 to their environment; tracing the in- 
 fluence of climate, soil, natural barriers 
 or channels of communication, etc., upon 
 the growth and spread of plants and 
 animals, including in the latter the 
 various races of man. The field of 
 physical geography is thus by no means 
 easy to confine within strict limits, as 
 it is so closely connected at various 
 points with geology, mineralogy, botany 
 and zoology, chemistry, ethnology, etc. 
 
 PHYSICS, or NATURAL PHILOSO- 
 PHY, is the study of the phenomena of 
 the material world, or of the laws and 
 properties of matter; more restrictedly 
 it treats of the properties of bodies as 
 bodies, and of the phenomena produced 
 by the action of the various forces on 
 matter in the mass. It thus has as its 
 chief branches the subjects dynamics, 
 hydrostatics, heat, light, sound, elec- 
 tricity, and magnetism. See the different 
 ^1*1; 1 0l6S 
 
 PHYSIOG'NOMY, the doctrine which 
 teaches the means of judging of char- 
 acter from the countenance. Aristotle 
 is the first who is known to have made 
 any attempts in physiognomy. He ob- 
 served that each animal has a special 
 predominant instinct; as the fox cun- 
 ning, the wolf ferocity, and so forth, 
 and he thence concluded that men 
 whose features resemble those of certain 
 animals will have similar qualities to 
 those animals. Baptista della Porta, in 
 his work De Hmnana Physiognomia 
 (1586), revived this theory and carried 
 it out further. The theory was adopted 
 and illustrated by the French painter 
 Lebrun, in the next century, and by 
 Tischbein, a German painter of the 18th 
 century. The physiologist Camper 
 sought new data in a comparison of the 
 heads of different types of the human 
 species, and in attempting to deduce 
 the degree of intelligence belonging to 
 each type from the size of the facial 
 angle. Lavater was the first to develop 
 an elaborate system of physiognomy, 
 the scope of which he etJarged so as to 
 include all the relations between the 
 physical and moral nature of man. 
 
 PHYSIOG'RAPHY, a term often used 
 as equivalent to physical geography; 
 but otherwise used to embrace the 
 aggregate of information necessary to be 
 acquired as a preliminary to the 
 thorough study of physical geography, 
 or as an introduction to the study of 
 nature and its forces. 
 
 PHYSIOL'OGY.inmedicaland biologi- 
 cal science the department of inquiry 
 which investigates the functions of 
 living beings. In fts wide sense the 
 living functions of both animals and 
 plants fall to be investigated by physiol- 
 ogy, this division of the subject being 
 comprehended under the terms com- 
 parative physiology and animal and 
 vegetable physiology. When more 
 specially applied to the investigation of 
 the functions in man the appellation 
 human p^hysiology is applied to the 
 science. The importance of physiological 
 inquiry in connection with the observa- 
 tion of diseased conditions cannot be 
 
 overrated. The knowledge of healthy 
 functions is absolutely necessary for the 
 perfect understanding of diseased con- 
 ditions; and the science of pathology, 
 dealing with the causes and progress of 
 diseases, may in this way be said to 
 arise from, and to depend upon, phys- 
 iological inquiry. Physiology in itself 
 thus forms a link connecting together 
 the various branches of natural history 
 or biology and those sciences which 
 are more specially included within a 
 medical curriculum. The history of 
 scientific physiology may be said to 
 begin with Aristotle (384-322 b.c.), who 
 attained no mean knowledge of the sub- 
 ject. The Alexandrian school, flourish- 
 ing about 280 b.c. under the Ptolemies, 
 and represented by Erasistratus, Hero- 
 philus, and others, obtained greater 
 opportunities for the acquirement of 
 physiological knowledge, through the 
 investigation of the bodies of criminals 
 who had been executed. Erasistratus 
 thus threw much light on the nervous 
 system and its physiology; while Hero- 
 philus made important observations on 
 the pulse, and in addition discovered 
 the lacteal or absorbent vessels. After 
 this there was a period of decline, but 
 Galen, -living in the 2d century after 
 Christ, again raised the science to a re- 
 spectable position, and effected a vast 
 advance and improvement in physio- 
 logical knowledge. The systems which 
 succeeded Galen and his times consisted, 
 until about 1543, of absurd speculations 
 and theories, conducive in no respect to 
 the advance of true knowledge. In 1543 
 Vesalius paved the way toward the 
 more scientific epochs of modern times 
 by his investigations into the anatomy 
 and structure of the human frame. In 
 1619 Harvey, the “father of modern 
 physiology,” discovered the circulation 
 of the blood. Since this time the history 
 of physiology has gone hand in hand 
 with the general history of anatomy 
 (which see). One noteworthy peculiarity 
 of modern physiological research con- 
 sists in the introduction and extensive 
 use of the experimental mode of inves- 
 tigation in physiology; and of elaborate 
 and delicate instruments and apparatus, 
 such as the sphygmograph, or pulse- 
 recorder ; the ophthalmoscope ; the laryn- 
 goscope, and the microscope. The dif- 
 ferent departments of physiology may 
 be enumerated as comprehending the 
 investigation of the three great functions 
 which every living being performs, 
 namely, (1) nutrition, including all that 
 pertains to digestion, the circulation, 
 and respiration; (2) innervation, com- 
 prising the functions performed by the 
 nervous system ; (3) reproduction, which 
 ensures the continuation of the species 
 and includes also the phenomena of 
 development. See the articles Digestion, 
 Respiration, Skin, Eye, Ear, Larynx, 
 Tongue, etc. 
 
 PIACENZA (pya-chen'tsa), a town of 
 North Italy, capital of province of same 
 name. The manufactures consist of 
 cotton goods, woolens, stockings, hats, 
 leather, etc., and there are also several 
 silk-spinning and paper-mills. Pop. 
 34,987. The province belongs to tne 
 basin of the Po, and is generally fertile; 
 area, 965 sq. miles; pop., 245,126. 
 
 1 PIANO, soft, low; used in music in 
 
PIANOFORTE 
 
 PIGEON 
 
 contradistiflction to forte. Pianissimo, 
 the superlative of piano. 
 
 PIANOFORTE, or PIANO, a musical 
 stringed instrument, the strings of 
 which are extendad over bridges rising 
 on the sounding-board, and are made 
 to vibrate by means of small felted 
 hammers, which are put in motion by 
 keys, and where a continued sound is 
 not intended to be produced have their 
 sound deadened immediately after the 
 touch of the keys by means of leathern 
 dampers. Its name is compounded of 
 two Italian words signifying soft and 
 strong, and it was so called in contra- 
 distinction to the harpsichord, the in- 
 strument which it superseded, and 
 which did not permit of the strength of 
 the notes being increased and dimin- 
 ished at will. The mechanism by which 
 the movement of the keys is conveyed 
 to the strings is called the action, and 
 there is no part of the pianoforte in 
 which the variations are more numerous. 
 There are usually three strings in the 
 pianoforte for each note in the higher 
 and middle octaves, two in the lower, 
 and one in the lowest notes. The strings 
 are of steel wire. The lowest notes have 
 their strings wound round with a double 
 coil of brass wire, and those next above 
 with a single coil. Pianofortes are either 
 in the form of the grand piano, in which 
 the strings lie in the direction of the 
 keys, or they have the strings stretched 
 vertically perpendicular to the keys, 
 which is now the most common form, 
 and constitutes the upright piano. 
 Recently a variety called the upright 
 grand has also been introduced. Grand 
 pianos are used as concert Intruments, 
 and have the greatest compass and 
 strength. The common compass of the 
 piano at present is six and seven-eighths 
 or seven octaves. The invention of the 
 pianoforte can scarcely be ascribed to 
 any one man in particular. The first 
 satisfactory hammer-action appears to 
 have been invented by an Italian of 
 Padua, named Bartolommeo Cristofali, 
 about 1711. The instrument was not in- 
 troduced into England till the latter 
 half of the 18th century. Among the 
 principal improvers of the pianoforte 
 are Sebastian Erard, the founder of the 
 celebrated firm still in existence ; Roller 
 et Blanchet, the French firm which in- 
 troduced the upright piano; Broadwood, 
 Collard, Hopkinson, Kirkman, Bech- 
 stein, Steinway, Weber, besides others. 
 
 PIAS'SABA, or PIAS'SAVA, a strong 
 vegetable fibre imported from Brazil, 
 and largely used for making brooms. It 
 is chiefly obtained from palms. The 
 fibre proceeds from the decaying leaves, 
 the petioles of which separate at the 
 base into long, coarse, pendulous fringes. 
 
 PIASTRE (pi-as'tr), a name first ap- 
 plied to a Spanish coin, which, about the 
 middle of the 16th century, obtained 
 almost universal currency. The Spanish 
 piastre had latterly the value of about 
 $ 1 . 00 . 
 
 PIAZ'ZA, in architecture, is a square 
 or other open space surrounded by 
 buildings. The term is frequently, but 
 improperly, used to signify an arcaded 
 or colonnaded walk. 
 
 PICA, a size of type. See Printing. 
 
 PICA, the generic name of the magpies. 
 
 . PIC'ARDY, formerly a province of 
 
 P. 
 
 France, in the northern part of the king- 
 dom, lying between the British Channel, 
 Normandy, and Artois, now divided 
 among the departments of Pas-de- 
 Calais, Somme, Aisne, Oise, and Nord. 
 The capital was Amiens. 
 
 PIC'COLO, a small flute having the 
 same compass as the ordinary flute, but 
 pitched an octave higher. 
 
 piqp;'EREL, the young of the fish 
 known as the pike. In America the name 
 is given to some of the smaller kinds of 
 pike. 
 
 PICKET, a military term having 
 several meanings. Specifically it is used 
 as describing a small body of men posted 
 at some point beyond the general line of 
 sentries for the purpose of observing 
 the motions of an enemy, or giving 
 timely notice in case of impending 
 attack. In camp, horses are said to be 
 picketed when secured to a picketing 
 rope. Pegs of wood or iron used to secure 
 tent ropes are also called pickets. In all 
 English garrisons and camps a small 
 body of men under a corporal or ser- 
 geant, and known as the garrison picket, 
 patrols the lines or city as a disciplinary 
 check on the troops, and a support to 
 the military police. 
 
 PICKETT, George Edward, soldier, 
 born in Richmond, Va., January 25, 
 1825; died in Norfolk, Va., July 30, 
 1875. At the beginning of the civil war 
 he resigned from the United States army, 
 and was commissioned colonel in the 
 army of the Confederacy. At the battle 
 of Gettysburg Pickett led the famous 
 final assault on the Union lines, but, left 
 without adequate support, his com- 
 mand was hurled back and almost anni- 
 hilated. In May, 1864, General Pickett 
 attacked Gen. Benjamin F. Butler’s army 
 between Richmond and Petersburg, and 
 captured his works. At Five Forks on 
 April 1, 1865, General Pickett’s forces 
 were surrounded and overwhelmed. 
 After the war he returned to Rich- 
 mond. 
 
 PICKLES, vegetables and certain 
 fruits first steeped in strong brine, and 
 then preserved in close vessels. Wood 
 vinegar is often used, but malt or wine 
 vinegar produces the best pickles. 
 Owing to the corroding effects of brine 
 and vinegar the use of metallic vessels 
 should be avoided in making pickles. 
 To give a green color to pickles verdigris 
 or other poisonous compounds of copper 
 is sometimes employed by manufac- 
 turers. 
 
 PIEDMONT, a department or terri- 
 torial division of Italy, between Switzer- 
 land, Lombardy, Liguria, and France; 
 area, 11,198 sq. miles; pop. 3,233,431. 
 
 PIER, in architecture, is the name 
 applied to a mass of masonry between 
 openings in a wall, such as doors, win- 
 dows, etc. The solid support from which 
 an arch springs or which sustains a 
 tower is also called a pier. The term is 
 also applied to a mole or jetty carried 
 out into the sea, intended to serve as an 
 embankment to protect vessels from 
 the open sea, and to form a harbor. 
 
 PIERCE, Franklin, fourteenth presi- 
 dent of the United States, was descended 
 from an old yeoman family of New Eng- 
 land, and was born at Hillsboro, N. H., 
 November 23, 1804. In 1829 he was 
 elected to the state legislature, of which 
 
 he was speaker in 1832-33. In the latter 
 year he was chosen a member of congress 
 and in 1837 he was elected to the senate 
 of the United States. In 1842 he re- 
 signed his seat in the senate, and re- 
 turned to the practice of the law. In 
 1846 he was offered the position of 
 attorney-general of the United States, 
 but declined it. On the outbreak of the 
 Mexican war he joined as a volunteer 
 one of the companies raised in Concord. 
 He was soon after appointed colonel 
 of the ninth regiment, and in March, 1847, 
 brigadier-general. In 1852, as candidate 
 of the democratic party, he was elected 
 president of the United States by 254 
 electoral votes against 42 given to Gen. 
 Winfield Scott. The special feature of 
 
 Franklin Pierce. 
 
 his inaugural address was the support of 
 slavery in the United States, and the 
 announcement of his determination 
 that the Fugitive Slave Act should be 
 strictly enforced. This was the keynote 
 of his administration, and pregnant with 
 vital consequences to the country. 
 President Pierce, surrounded by an able 
 cabinet, among them Jefferson Davis as 
 secretary of war, firmly adhered through- 
 out his administration to the pro-slavery 
 party. He failed, notwithstanding, to 
 obtain renomination, but was suc- 
 ceeded by James Buchanan, March 4, 
 1857, and retired to his home in Con- 
 cord, N. H., after spending some years in 
 Europe. During the war of 1861-65 his 
 sympathies were wholly with the south, 
 but, with the exception of delivering a 
 stong speech at Concord in 1863, he took 
 no very active part in politics. He died 
 October 8, 1869. 
 
 PIERRE, Bernardin de Saint. See 
 Saint-Pierre. 
 
 PIG. See Hog. 
 
 PIGEON, the common name of a 
 group of birds. The pigeons or doves as 
 a group have the upper mandible arched 
 toward its apex, and of horny con- 
 sistence ; a second curve exists at its base 
 where there is a cartilaginous plate or 
 piece through which the nostrils pass. 
 The crop is of large size.. The pigeons 
 are generally strong on the wing. They 
 are mostly arboreal in habits, perching 
 upon trees, and building their nests in 
 elevated situations. Both sexes incu- 
 bate; and these birds generally pair for 
 life; the loss or death of a mate being in 
 many cases apparently mourned and 
 grieved over, and t he survivor frequent ly 
 refusing to be consoled by another mate. 
 
PIGEON ENGLISH 
 
 PILGRIMAGES 
 
 The song consists of the well-known 
 plaintive cooing. The pigeons are dis- 
 tributed in every quarter of the globe, 
 
 Passenger-pigeon. 
 
 but attain the greatest luxuriance of 
 plumage in warm and tropical regions 
 The house-pigeons, tumblers, fan-tails, 
 pouters, carriers, and jacobins are the 
 chief varieties of the rock-pigeon, and 
 have been employed by Darwin (see his 
 
 Domestic pigeon, homing variety. 
 
 Origin of Species and his Animals under 
 Domestication) to illustrate many of the 
 points involved in his theory of “descent 
 by natural selection.” See also Carrier 
 Pigeon, Passenger Pigeon, Turtle-dove, 
 
 PIGEON ENGLISH, conjectured to be 
 a form of “business English;” a con- 
 glomeration of English and Portuguese 
 words wrapped in a Chinese idiom, used 
 by English and American residents in 
 China in their intercourse with the 
 native traders. 
 
 PIG-IRON. See Iron. 
 
 PIGMENT-CELL, in physiology, a 
 small cell containing coloring matter, as 
 in the, choroid coat of the eye. 
 
 PIGMENTS, materials used for im- 
 parting color, especially in painting, but 
 also in dyeing or otherwise. The coloring 
 substances used as paints are partly 
 artificial and partly natural productions. 
 They are derived principally from the 
 mineral kingdom ; and even when animal 
 or vegetable substances are used for 
 coloring they are nearly always united 
 with a mineral substance (an earth or 
 an oxide). In painting the colors are 
 ground, and applied by means of some 
 liquid, which dries up without changing 
 them. The difference of the vehicle used 
 with the method of employing it has 
 given rise to the modes of painting in 
 water-colors, oil-colors, in fresco, in dis - ' 
 
 temper, etc. For oil-painting mineral 
 substances are more suitable than lakes 
 prepared with minerals, because the 
 latter become darker by being mixed 
 with oil. The lake colors have tin or 
 alum for their basis, and owe their tint to 
 animal or vegetable coloring substances. 
 Indigo is a purely vegetable color, as is 
 also blue-black, which is obtained from 
 burned vine-twigs. Ivory black is a 
 purely animal color, being nothing else 
 than burned ivory. In staining porcelain 
 and glass the metallic colors which are 
 not driven off by heat and are not easily 
 changeable are used. 
 
 PIGMY. See Pygmy. 
 
 PIG-NUT. See Earth-nut. 
 
 PIKA, the calling-hare, an animal 
 nearly allied to the hares. It is found in 
 Russia, Siberia, and North America, and 
 is remarkable for the manner in which 
 it stores up its winter provision, and also 
 for its voice, the tone of which so much 
 resembles that of a quail as to be often 
 mistaken for it. 
 
 PIKE, a genus of fishes. The pikes 
 form the types of the family Esocidae, 
 in which group the body is lengthened, 
 flattened on the back, and tapering 
 abruptly toward the tail. One dorsal 
 fin exists, this structure being placed far 
 back on the body, and opposite the anal 
 fin. The lower jaw projects. Teeth are 
 present in plentiful array, and are borne 
 by almost every bone entering into the 
 composition of the mouth. The com- 
 mon pike occurs in the rivers of Europe 
 and North America. It is fished chiefly 
 for the sake of its flesh, which is ac- 
 counted exceedingly wholesome. The 
 pikes are very long-lived, and form the 
 tyrants of their sphere, being the most 
 voracious of fresh-water fishes. When 
 fully grown the pike may attain a length 
 of 5 or 6 feet, and there are numerous 
 instances on record in which these fishes 
 have greatly exceeded that length. The 
 sea pikes also known as gar-pikes, are 
 also included in the family Esocidae. 
 The saury pike resembles the gar-pike 
 in general conformation, but possesses 
 the dorsal and anal fins in the shape of a 
 number of divided “finlets.” The bony 
 pike of North American lakes and rivers 
 belongs to an entirely different order of 
 fishes — that of the Ganoidei. See Bony 
 Pike. 
 
 PIKE, a sort of lance, a weapon much 
 used in the middle ages as an arm for 
 infantry. It was from 16 to 18 feet long, 
 and consisted of a pole with an iron 
 point. For some time every company 
 in the armies of Europe consisted of at 
 least two-thirds pike-men and one-third 
 harquebusiers. Gustavus Adolphus 
 omitted the pike-men in some regiments 
 entirely. The invention of the bayonet 
 drove the pike out of use. 
 
 PIKE, Zebulon Montgomery, Ameri- 
 can soldier and explorer, was born at 
 Lamberton, N. J., in 1779, and educated 
 at Easton, Penn. In 1805 he engaged on 
 an expedition to ascertain the source of 
 the Mississippi river. The two following 
 years were passed by him in exploring 
 the territory of Louisiana, discovering, 
 while thus occupied, what has since been 
 known as “Pike’s Peak,” in the Rocky 
 Mountains. Pike published the results 
 of his expedition in An Account of an 
 Expedition to the Sources of the Missis- 
 
 sippi, and Through the Western Parts 
 of Louisiana, . . . and a Tour Through 
 the Interior Parts of New Spain. He 
 died in 1813. 
 
 PIKE-PERCH, a genus of fishes close- 
 ly allied to the perch, but showing a re- 
 semblance to the pike in its elongated 
 body and head. Like the pike, it is a 
 dangerous enemy to other fresh-water 
 fishes, but the flavor of its flesh is ex- 
 cellent. In Europe it occurs in two 
 species. It also occurs in the fresh 
 waters of North America, such as the 
 great lakes, the upper Mississippi, and 
 the Ohio. 
 
 PIKE’S PEAK, one of the highest 
 summits of the Rocky mountains 
 (14,134 feet), in the center of the state of 
 Colorado. It was discovered by General 
 Pike in 1806. It abounds in rich gold- 
 bearing quartz, and has a meteorological 
 observatory. A rack-rail line of rail- 
 way, 9 miles long, to the top of the 
 mountain has recently been constructed. 
 
 PILASTER, a square pillar projecting 
 from a pier or a wall to the extent of 
 from one-fourth to one-third of its 
 breadth. Pilasters originated in Grecian 
 
 Pilaster— Corinthian. 
 
 architecture. In Roman they were 
 sometimes tapered like columns and 
 finished with capitals modeled after the 
 order with which they were used. 
 
 PILATE, Pontius, the sixth Roman 
 procurator of Judaea. He succeeded 
 Valerius Gratus in a.d. 26. Nothing is 
 known of his early history. He was a 
 narrow-minded and impolitic governor, 
 and at the very beginning of his term of 
 office led to commotions among the 
 Jews at Jerusalem. When Christ had 
 been condemned to death by the Jewish 
 priests, who had no power of inflicting 
 capital punishments, he was carried by 
 them to Pilate to be executed. Yielding 
 to the clamors of the Jews the Roman 
 governor ordered Jesus to be executed, 
 but permitted Joseph of Arimathea to 
 take his body and bury it. Pilate was 
 afterward removed from his office by 
 Vitellius, prefect of Syria (a.d. 36), and, 
 according to tradition, was banished by 
 Caligula to Vienna (Vienne), in Gaul, 
 where he is said to have died or com- 
 mitted suicide some years after. 
 
 PILES. See Hemorrhoids. 
 
 PILGRIMAGES, the practice of mak- 
 ing pilgrimages to places of peculiar 
 sanctity is as ancient as it is wide-spread. 
 
PILGRIM FATHERS 
 
 PINE 
 
 The ancient Egyptians and Syrians had 
 privileged temples, to which worship- 
 pers came from distant parts. The chief 
 temples of Greece and Asia Minor 
 swarmed with strangers. But it is in 
 Christianity and Mohammedanism that 
 the practice has attained its greatest 
 development. The first Christian pil- 
 grimages were made to the graves of the 
 martyrs. By the end of the 4th and 
 beginning of the 5th century the custom 
 had become so general as to lead to 
 abuses. Throughout the middle ages, 
 and especially about the year 1000, the 
 religious fervor of the people manifested 
 itself in numerous pilgrimages, especially 
 to Jerusalem. The outrages inflicted on 
 the Christian pilgrims by the Saracens 
 led to the Crusades, which were them- 
 selves nothing else than gigantic armed 
 pilgrimages. The shrine of Our Lady of 
 Loretto, near Rome, that of St. James 
 of Compostella in Spain, of St. Martin of 
 Tours in France, were all sacred spots 
 to which, from the 10th to the 13th 
 century, and even much later, pilgrims 
 resorted in innumerable crowds; and 
 from the end of the 12th century the 
 shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canter- 
 bury had the same honor in England. 
 After the reformation the practice of 
 making pilgrimages fell more and more 
 into abeyance, and the spirit which led 
 to it seems almost to have become ex- 
 tinct among Christians, although there 
 are still occasional outbursts of it among 
 the Roman Catholics, as in the modern 
 pilgrimages to Paray-le-Monial, Lour- 
 des, Iona, and Holy Island. In the 
 Greek church Mount Athos is the chief 
 shrine of pilgrimage. For Mohammedans 
 the great place of pilgrimage is Mecca, 
 which was the resort of Arabian pil- 
 grims long before the time of Mo- 
 hammed. Among the Hindus and the 
 Buddhists also the practice of perform- 
 ing pilgrimages largely prevails. 
 
 PILGRIM FATHERS, the name given 
 to the English, Scotch, and Dutch non- 
 conformists who, sailing from South- 
 ampton in the Mayflower, landed at 
 what is now Plymouth in Massachusetts, 
 December, 1620, and colonized New 
 England. 
 
 PILLAR. See Column. 
 
 PIL'LORY, a frame of wood erected 
 
 Pillory. 
 
 on posts, with movable boards, and 
 holes through which were put the head 
 
 and hands of a criminal for punishment. 
 In this manner persons were formerly 
 exposed to public view, and generally to 
 public insult. 
 
 PILLS, medicines made up in globules 
 of a convenient size for swallowing 
 whole, the medicine being usually 
 mixed up with some neutral substance 
 such as^ bread-crumbs, hard soap, ex- 
 tract of liquorice, mucilage, syrup, 
 treacle, and conserve of roses. The 
 coverings are liquorice powder, wheat 
 flour, fine sugar, and lycopodium. In 
 many cases pills are now enamelled or 
 silvered, which deprives them of most of 
 their unpleasantness. Pills are a highly 
 suitable form for administering medi- 
 cines which operate in small doses, or 
 which are intended to act slowly or not 
 to act at all until they reach the lower 
 intestines, and in some other cases. 
 
 PILOT, a person duly licensed by any 
 piloting-. authority to conduct ships to 
 which he does not belong as one of the 
 crew. Pilots are in fact taken on board 
 to superintend the steering of the vessel, 
 where the navigation is difficult and 
 dangerous, in consequence of their spe- 
 cial knowledge of particular waters; 
 and it is to this class alone that the term 
 now applies, whereas in early times the 
 pilot was the steersman, or the individ- 
 ual who conducted the navigation of 
 a ship across the ocean and out of sight 
 of land. The laws of pilotage in the 
 United States are regulated by the in- 
 dividual States according to the Acts of 
 congress. 
 
 PILOT-FISH, a genus of fishes in- 
 cluded in the mackerel family. The 
 pilot-fish was formerly supposed to act 
 as a pilot to the mariner, and is still 
 supposed to act as such to sharks. It 
 
 The pilot-fish. 
 
 often follows in the wake of ships for 
 long distances, associating with sharks 
 and devouring the refuse thrown over- 
 board. The average length is about 12 
 inches. In general form it resembles 
 the mackerel. 
 
 PILSEN, a town in Western Bohemia, 
 at the confluence of the Mies and Rad- 
 busa, 53 miles southwest of Prague. The 
 chief article of manufacture and com- 
 merce is beer. Coal, iron, alum, etc., 
 are worked in the neighborhood. Pop. 
 68,292. 
 
 PIN, a piece of wire, generally brass, 
 sharp at one end and with a head at the 
 other, chiefly used by women in adjust- 
 ing their dress. By the old methods of 
 manufacture by hand, the distinct pro- 
 cesses, from the straightening of the 
 wire to the spinning and hammering of 
 the head, were usually said to be four- 
 teen. At present all those processes, 
 from the cutting of the wire to the stick- 
 ing of the pins into papers, are performed 
 by machinery. Pins came into common 
 use in England in the 15th century. In 
 the 17th century Birmingham became 
 the seat of the pin-manufacture, and 
 has continued to be so ever since. Solid- 
 
 headed pins, which are those now gen- 
 erally in use, were first made in 1824. 
 
 PINAR' DEL RIO, a town of Cuba, 90 
 miles southwest of Havana, in the 
 famous Vuelta de Abajo, where the best 
 tobacco grows. Pop. 10,180. 
 
 PINDAR, the greatest of the lyric 
 poets of Greece, born in Bceotia, in or 
 near Thebes, of a noble family, about 
 522 B.c. Little is known with certainty 
 of his life; even the date of his death is 
 doubtful. The most probable account 
 appears to be that he died at the age of 
 eighty, in which case his death would 
 fall about 442 b.c. He practiced all 
 kinds of lyric poetry, and excelled 
 equally in all. His works embraced 
 hymns to the gods, paeans, dithyrambs, 
 dancing and drinking songs, dirges, 
 panegyrics on princes, and odes in honor 
 of the victors in the great Grecian games, 
 but the only poems of his which have 
 come down to us entire belong to the 
 last class, the Epinicia. Forty-five of 
 the epinician odes of Pindar are still 
 extant. Fourteen of these are in cele- 
 bration of Olympic victors, twelve of 
 Pythian, eleven of Nemean, and eight 
 of Isthmian. 
 
 PINE, the popular name of trees of 
 the genus, Pinus, natural order Coni- 
 ferae, which is divided into two sub- 
 orders, namely, 1. the fir tribe; and 2. 
 the cypress tribe. The pines belong to 
 the former section, and are distinguished 
 from the spruce, larch, fir, cedar, etc., 
 chiefly by having persistent leaves in 
 clusters of two to five in the axils of 
 membranous scales. All the European 
 species, except one have only two leaves 
 in a sheath; most of the Asiatic, Mexi- 
 can, and Californian kinds have three, 
 four, or five leaves, and those of the 
 United States and Canada have generally 
 three. There are extensive forests of it 
 in Russia, Poland, Sweden, Norway, 
 Germany, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and 
 the Vosges. The Corsican pine grows 
 to a height of from 80 to 100 feet, and 
 in the island of Corsica it is said to reach 
 an altitude of 140 to 150 feet. Sabine’s 
 pine was discovered in California in 
 1826. The leaves are in threes, rarely in 
 fours, from 11 to 14 inches long; the 
 trees are of a tapering form, straight, 
 and from 40 to 120 feet high, with 
 trunks from 3 to 12 feet in diameter. 
 The Cembran pine is a native of Switzer- 
 land and Siberia. The red Canadian 
 pine, or yellow pine, inhabits the whole 
 of Canada from the Atlantic to the 
 Pacific, and is also found in the northern 
 and eastern parts of the United States. 
 The trunk rises to the height of 70 or 80 
 feet by about 2 in diameter at the base, 
 and is chiefly remarkable for its uniform 
 size for two-thirds of its length. The 
 wood is yellowish, compact, fine-grained, 
 resinous, and durable. The true yellow 
 pine rises to the height of 50 or 60 feet, 
 by 15 or 18 inches in diameter at base. 
 The cones are small, oval, and armed 
 with fine spines. The timber is largely 
 used in shipbuilding and for house 
 timber. The other American pines are 
 the Jersey pine, the trunk of which is too 
 small to be of any utility in the arts; the 
 pitch pine, which is most abundant 
 along the Atlantic coast, and the wood 
 of which, when the tree grows in a dry, 
 gravelly soil, is compact, heavy, and 
 
PINEAL GLANDj 
 
 PIPE 
 
 contains a large proportion of resin; 
 the loblolly pine, the timber of which 
 decays speedily on being exposed to the 
 air; the long-leaved pine, which abounds 
 in the lower part of the Carolinas, Geor- 
 gia, and Florida, furnishing resin, tar, 
 pitch, and turpentine, and timber which 
 is hardly inferior to the white oak in 
 naval architecture • the Weymouth pine, 
 the timber of whicn, though not without 
 essential defects, is consumed in much 
 greater quantities, and for a far greater 
 variety of purposes, than almost any 
 other; and Lambert’s pine, which grows 
 between the fortieth and forty-third 
 parallels of latitude, and about 100 
 miles from the Pacific. It is of gigantic 
 size, the trunk rising from 150 to upward 
 of 200 feet, and being from 7 to nearly 
 20 feet in diameter. 
 
 PINE'AL GLAND ,in anatom y,is a body 
 (not properly a gland) forming part of 
 the brain. It is about the size of a pea, 
 and is connected with the cerebrum at 
 its base by four peduncles or stalks and 
 by some few cross fibers. Its use is not 
 known. It was considered by the an- 
 cients to be the seat of the soul. 
 
 PINE-APPLE, a plant belonging to 
 the natural order Bromeliacese, much 
 esteemed for its richly-flavored fruit, 
 which somewhat resembles a pine-cone. 
 A native of tropical America, it is now 
 naturalized in many hot countries, and 
 is also cultivated in hothouses. The 
 common pine-apple plant yields the 
 fiber of which, in Manila, the beautiful 
 pina cloth is made. The fiber is also used 
 for textile purposes in China, and to 
 some extent in India, and it is believed 
 that in the latter country the fiber 
 might soon come to be an article of com- 
 mercial importance. 
 
 PINE BLUFF, the capital of Jefferson 
 CO., Ark., on the Arkansas river at the 
 head of low-water navigation, and on the 
 St. L., Iron Mount, and South., and the 
 St. L. S. West, railways; 42 miles s.s.e. 
 of Little Rock. It is built on a bluff 228 
 feet above sea-level in the cotton-pro- 
 ducing region of the state. Pop. 13,740. 
 
 PINES, ISLE OF, an island of the 
 West Indies; 35 miles s. of the western 
 end of Cuba. The island is a dependency 
 of Cuba, contains 1214 sq. miles of 
 undulating or flat and marshy land, 
 and has about 5000 inhabitants. Capital 
 and principal village, Nueva-Gerona. 
 The island contains marble quarries, 
 and is a favorite health resort for suf- 
 ferers from lung diseases. 
 
 PIN'ERO, Arthur Wing, English 
 dramatist, was born in London in 1855. 
 He made his appearance as an actor at 
 Edinburgh in 1874. He obtained under 
 Henry Irving a practical experience in 
 stagecraft which was of great value to 
 him. In 1876 he made, with Two Can 
 Play at That Game, his first attempt at 
 play-writing, to which after 1881 he de- 
 voted himself. In the long list of his 
 plays are : The Money Spinner, the 
 Schoolmistress, the Hobby Horse, Sweet 
 Lavender, The Weaker Sex, The Profli- 
 gate, Lady Bountiful, The Second Mrs. 
 Tanqueray, The Notorious Mrs. Ebb- 
 smith, Trelawney of the “Wells”, The 
 Gay Lord Quex, Iris. Of his earlier 
 pieces the most popular was the do- 
 mestic drama called Sweet Lavender. 
 
 PINION, in machinery, a small wheel 
 
 which plays in the teeth of a larger one, 
 or sometimes only an arbor or spindle 
 in the body of which are several notches 
 forming teeth or leaves, which catch the 
 teeth of a wheel that serves to turn it 
 round. 
 
 PINK, a genus of plants. More than 
 100 species are known. Their roots are 
 annual or perennial; the stems herba- 
 ceous and jointed; the leaves opposite 
 and entire, and the flowers terminal, 
 aggregate, or solitary, and always beau- 
 tiful. The clove pink or carnation, and 
 the garden pink, of which ' there are 
 many varieties, are familiar species. 
 
 PINNACLE, in architecture, any lesser 
 structure that rises above the roof of a 
 building, or that caps and terminates 
 the higher parts of angles or of but- 
 tresses. The application of the term is 
 now generally limited to an ornamental 
 pointed mass rising from angles, but- 
 
 Pinnacle, Trinity church, Cambridge. 
 
 tresses, or parapets, and usually adorned 
 with rich and varied devices. They are 
 usually square in plan, but are some- 
 times octagonal, and in a few instances 
 hexagonal and pentagonal. The tops 
 are generally crocheted, and have Snails 
 on the points. 
 
 PINNATE, in botany, formed like a 
 feather. A pinnate leaf is a species of 
 compound leaf wherein a single petiole 
 has several leaflets or pinnules attached 
 to each side of it. 
 
 PINT, a measure of capacity used for 
 both liquids and dry goods; it is the 
 eighth part of a gallon, or 34.65925 cubic 
 inches. 
 
 PINZON', a family of Spanish navi- 
 gators, natives of Palos, who were asso- 
 ciated with Columbus in the discovery 
 of America. — Martin Alfonso, the eldest, 
 was of great assistance to Columbus in 
 fitting out his fleet, and in the voyage 
 commanded the Pinta. — Vicente Yanez, 
 his brother, commanded the Nina in the 
 first voyage of Columbus. — Francisco 
 Martin, the third brother, was pilot of 
 the Pinta in the first voyage of Colum- 
 bus. From him descended the nobel 
 Spanish family of Pinzon. 
 
 PIOTRKOV, a town of Russian Poland 
 in the government of same name, one of 
 the oldest towns of Poland. It was at one 
 time the seat of the Polish diet, and the 
 kings were elected here. Pop. 30,372. — 
 The government has an area of 4729 
 sq. miles. It is moderately fertile, and 
 
 has considerable manufactures of cottons 
 and woolens. Pop. 1,409,044. 
 
 PIPA, a genus of toads, of which the 
 best known species is of Surinam and 
 Brazil, popularly designated the Suri- 
 nam toad. The tongue and teeth are 
 wanting in this family. The pipa is one 
 of the most repulsive looking of the 
 toads, and is noted as exemplifying, in 
 the case of the female animals, an 
 anomalous mode of developing the eggs 
 and young. A number of pits or depres- 
 sions termed “dorsal cells” appear to be 
 
 Surinam toad. 
 
 formed on the back of the female pipas 
 at the breeding season. In each cell an 
 egg is deposited, the eggs being first 
 deposited by the female in water after 
 the usual method, and being impreg- 
 nated by the male, who then collects 
 the eggs and places them in the female’s 
 back. Each cell appears to be closed by 
 a lid-like fold, and within the cells the 
 eggs are hatched and the young pass 
 their tadpole state. 
 
 PIPE, a tube for the conveyance of 
 water, steam, gas, or other fluid, used 
 for a great variety of purposes in the 
 arts and in domestic economy. The 
 materials of which pipes are made are 
 also very various, wood, stone, earthen- 
 ware, iron, lead, copper, leather, gutta- 
 percha, etc., being all employed. Drain- 
 age and sewerage pipes of great strength 
 and size (measuring from 1 to 2 up to 
 54 inches in diameter) are now usually 
 made of fire-clay, glazed on their outer 
 and inner surfaces. Large iron pipes are 
 usually cast, and are used for the supply 
 of water and gas. 
 
 PIPE, tobacco, a bowl and connecting 
 tube, made of baked clay, wood, stone, 
 or other material, and used in smoking 
 tobacco. The cheap pipes in common 
 use are made of a fine-grain white plastic 
 clay. The chief processes in the manu- 
 facture of clay pipes are moulding and 
 baking. Finer and more expensive pipes 
 are made of meerschaum, a somewhat 
 plastic magnesian stone of a soft greasy 
 feel. Meerschaum pipe making is carried 
 on to the greatest extent by the Ger- 
 mans, and Vienna may be said to be the 
 center of the manufacture. Briar-root 
 pipes, with the bowl and stem of one 
 piece of wood, and provided with amber, 
 ivory, or bone mouthpieces, are now 
 very common. They are made of the 
 roots of a large variety of heath. Many 
 Germans and Dutchmen prefer pipes 
 with porcelain bowls, which are some- 
 times beautifully painted in the style of 
 fine chinaware painting. The eastern 
 hookah is a pipe of great size, the bowl 
 of which is set upon an air-(ight vessel 
 partially filled with water, and has a 
 
PIPE-CLAY 
 
 PISTIL 
 
 T*-- 
 
 .V* 
 
 small tube which passes down into the 
 water; the long flexible smoking-tube is 
 inserted in the side of the vessel, and the 
 smoke is made to pass through 'the 
 water, being thus cooled and deprived 
 of some noxious properties. Upon the 
 American continent pipes have been in 
 use from a very remote period. Indian 
 pipes, with elaborately-carved soap- 
 stone bowls and ornamented wooden 
 stems, or entirely of baked clay, have 
 been found in the ancient mounds of the 
 west, together with other relics of an 
 unknown race. See Calumet. 
 
 PIPE-CLAY, a fine white clay which 
 is used for making tobacco pipes and 
 articles of pottery, also for cleaning 
 soldiers’ belts, etc. 
 
 PIPE-FISHES, a genus of fishes near- 
 ly allied to the curious little fishes popu- 
 larly known as “sea-horses.” They are 
 distinguished by a long and tapering 
 body, and by jaws united to form a tube 
 or pipe, bearing the mouth as the tip. 
 It averages 20 inches in length. A very 
 
 Great pipe-fish. 
 
 remarkable circumstance in connection 
 with the pipe-fishes consists in the males 
 of some species possessing a pouch-like 
 fold, situated at the base of the tail, in 
 which the eggs are contained after being 
 extruded from the body of the females, 
 and in which the young, after hatching, 
 continue to reside for a time. 
 
 PIPPIN, the name given to a certain 
 class of apples, probably because the 
 trees were raised from the pips or seeds, 
 and bore the apples which gave them 
 celebrity without grafting. The Ribston, 
 Golden, and Newton Pippin are favorite 
 varieties. 
 
 PIQUA, town in Miami co., Ohio, on 
 Miami river, and Miami and Erie canal, 
 90 miles northeast of Cincinnati. Pop. 
 14,280. 
 
 PIQUET', a; game at cards played be- 
 tween two persons with thirty-two 
 cards, all the plain cards below seven 
 being thrown aside. In playing, the 
 cards rank in order as follows: the ace 
 (which counts eleven), the king, queen, 
 and knave (each of which counts ten), 
 and the plain cards, each of which counts 
 according to the number of its pips. The 
 player who first reaches 100 has the 
 game. The score is made up by reckon- 
 ing in the following manner; — Carte 
 blanche, the point, the sequence, the. 
 quatorze, the cards, and the capot. 
 
 PIQUE-WORK, a fine kind of inlaid 
 work, resembling Buhl-work, but much 
 more expensive and elaborate, the inlay 
 being minute pieces of gold, silver, and 
 other costly materials. 
 
 PI'RACY is the crime of robbery and 
 depredation committed upon the high 
 seas. It is an offense against the uni- 
 versal law of society. In England the 
 offense was formerly cognizable only by 
 the admiralty courts, which proceeded 
 without a jury, in a method founded 
 upon the civil law; but now any justices 
 of assize, or oyer and terminer, or jail 
 
 delivery, may try persons accused of 
 piracy. Piracy, in the common sense of 
 the word, is distinguished from priva- 
 teering by the circumstance that the 
 pirate sails without any commission, and 
 under no national flag, and attacks the 
 subjects of all nations alike; the pri- 
 vateer acts under a commission from a 
 belligerent power, which authorizes him 
 to attack, plunder, and destroy the 
 vessels which he may encounter belong- 
 ing to the hostile state. 
 
 PISA, a town of Northern Italy, 
 capital of the province of the same 
 name. In the northwest part of the city 
 is a remarkable group of buildings con- 
 sisting of the Duomo or Cathedral, the 
 Baptistery, the famous “Leaning 
 Tower,” and the Campo Santo. The man- 
 ufactures consist chiefly of silk, woolen, 
 and cotton goods. The population, 
 which reached 150,000 when the city 
 was in its zenith, is how 61,279. The 
 province of Pisa has an area of 1180 sq. 
 miles, and a population of 320,829. See 
 Leaning Tower. 
 
 PISCES, or FISHES, See Ichthyol- 
 ogy. 
 
 PISCES (the Fishes), a sign of the 
 zodiac, which is entered by the sun 
 about the 19th of February. The con- 
 stellation which occupies the zodiacal 
 region corresponding to the sign has the 
 same name; it contains some interesting 
 
 rlr»nnl<i cfnT*a 
 
 PISCICULTURE, the breeding, rear- 
 ing, preservation, feeding, and fattening 
 of fish by artificial means. Pisciculture 
 has been practiced from very remote ages, 
 having been in use in ancient Egypt, and 
 followed in China in early times on a very 
 large scale. The art, so far as the per- 
 fecting of natural conditions under 
 which fish live and thrive, without in- 
 terfering directly with the ordinary 
 processes of nature, has thus always 
 been more or less practiced. But the 
 discovery that the ova of fish can be 
 taken from the body of the female 
 parent, impregnated with the male milt 
 and hatched in tanks, has led to a great 
 extension of the art. One great point 
 in modern pisciculture is the propaga- 
 tion and rearing of young fish in artifi- 
 cial ponds with the view of introducing 
 fish into some locality where they were 
 not previously found. Salmon and 
 trout ova have been sent from Britain, 
 and successfully propagated in Aus- 
 tralia and New Zealand. The art has 
 now come into general favor and is wide- 
 ly followed, very many rivers having on 
 their banks breeding and rearing estab- 
 lishments for the purpose of increasing 
 the stock of fish in the streams. In 
 Scotland a very successful effort has 
 been carried out at Stormontfield, near 
 Perth, on the Tay, and there is a still 
 more famous piscicultural establishment 
 belonging to Sir James Gibson Maitland 
 at Howietoun, near Stirling. The Mid- 
 lands Counties’ Fish Culture Establish- 
 ment at Malvern Wells is the largest in 
 England. From Huningue, near Basel, 
 on the Rhine, millions of ova are annual- 
 ly despatched to England, Germany, 
 Spain, and other countries. The Ameri- 
 can Fish and Fisheries Commission have 
 successfully introduced into various 
 waters the American white fish, the Cal- 
 ifornian trout, the American brook char, 
 
 etc., and pisciculture on a large scale is 
 practiced both in the United States and 
 Canada. The artificial culture of oysters, 
 mussels, lobsters, and other Crustacea, 
 is also receiving attention; and alto- 
 gether the art is every year attaining a 
 greater development, and promises to 
 become yet an important department of 
 commercial industry. 
 
 PISIS'TRATUS, “tyrant” of Athens, 
 was descended from Codrus, the last 
 king of Athens, and was born not later 
 than 612 b.c. He was rich, handsome, 
 and eloquent, and being by nature am- 
 bitious he soon placed himself at the 
 head of one of the three parties into 
 which Attica was then divided. By 
 putting himself forward as the patron 
 and benefactor of the poor, and by 
 advocating civil equality and a demo- 
 cratic constitution, he was able (not- 
 withstanding the opposition of Solon) 
 to seize upon the acropolis (citadel) in 
 560 B.C., and thus to make himself mas- 
 ter, or, as the Greeks termed it, “tyrant” 
 of the city. But though a tyrant in the 
 Greek sense, his use of power was by no 
 means tyrannical. He made no at- 
 tempt to abolish the wise laws of Solon, 
 but confirmed and extended their au- 
 thority. He was, however, twice driven 
 from Athens; but in the eleventh year of 
 his second banishment succeeded in 
 making himself master of the sover- 
 eignty for the third time. Pisistratus 
 erected splendid public buildings at 
 Athens, established a public library, and 
 collected and arranged the poems of 
 Homer, and conducted himself with so 
 much prudence and clemency that his 
 country scarcely ever enjoyed a longer 
 term of peace and prosperity. He died 
 527 B.C., leaving two sons, Hippias and 
 Hipparchus, to inherit his power, who 
 were not, however, able to preserve it. 
 
 PISTACHIO (pis-ta'shi-o), a tree of 
 several species, growing to the height of 
 15 to 20 feet. It yields the well-known 
 pistachio-nut, which contains a kernel 
 
 Pistachio. 
 
 of a pleasant taste, resembling that of 
 the almond, wholesome and nutritive, 
 yielding a pleasant oil. It is a native of 
 western Aisa. 
 
 PISTIL, in botany, the female or 
 central seed-bearing organ of a phanero- 
 gamous flower, consisting of one or 
 more carpels or modified leaves. There 
 may be only a single pistil or several in 
 the same flower. It consists essentially 
 of two parts, the ovary, containing the 
 ovules or young seeds, and the stigma, 
 
PISTOL 
 
 PITT 
 
 a cellular secreting body, which is either 
 seated immediately on the ovary (as in 
 the tulip and poppy), and is then 
 called sessile, or is borne on a stalk 
 tailed a style interposed between the 
 ovary and stigma. It is on the stigma 
 that the pollen falls by which the fecun- 
 dation takes place, after which the ovule 
 develcms into the seed. 
 
 PISTOL, a small firearm with a curved 
 stock, discharged with one hand, named 
 from the town of Pistoja, where they 
 were first made. Pistols were introduced 
 into England in 1521. Mention is made 
 of their use in 1544. The “dag” men- 
 tioned by the Elizabethan writers was a 
 kind of clumsy pistol. Pistols are made 
 of various sizes, ranging from 6 inches 
 to 18 and even 24 inches (the holster 
 pistol). See Firearms, Revolver, 
 
 PISTOLE (pis-toF), a gold coin met 
 with in several parts of Europe, more 
 especially in Spain, value about $4.00, 
 but not now coined. It was originally a 
 Spanish coin, and v/as equivalent to a 
 quarter of a doubloon. 
 
 PISTON, in machinery, a movable 
 piece, generally of a cylindrical form, 
 60 fitted as to occupy the sectional area 
 of a tube, such as the barrel of a pump 
 or the cylinder of a steam-engine, and 
 capable of being driven alternately in 
 two directions by pressure on either of 
 its sides. One of its sides is fitted to a 
 rod, called the piston-rod, which it 
 
 Piston and cylinder. 
 
 either moves backward and forward, as 
 in the steam-engine, where the motion 
 given to the piston-rod is communicated 
 to the machinery, or by which the piston 
 is itself made to move, as in the pump. 
 The piston is usually made to fit tightly 
 by some kind of material used as pack- 
 ing, the piston-rod being also made 
 similarly tight by material closely 
 packed in the stuffing-box (s s). 
 
 PITCAIRN ISLAND, an island in the 
 South Pacific, belonging to the Low 
 Archipelago, lat. 25° 5 ' s.; Ion. 130° 5' 
 W'.; length, 2^ miles; breadth, about 1 
 mile. It was discovered by Carteret in 
 1767. Its coast is almost perpendicular 
 throughout its whole extent, fringed 
 with formidable rocks and reefs, accessi- 
 ble only at two points, and not at all in 
 stormy weather. It rises to the height 
 of 1100 feet, and the soil, naturally 
 fertile, yields good pasture, potatoes, 
 yams, plantain and bread-fruit, pine- 
 apples, and other tropical fruits. In 
 1881 the inhabitants numbered 96, and 
 in 1901, 126. Whalers and trading 
 vessels occasionally call and exchange 
 the products of civilization for the pro- 
 duce of the island. 
 
 PITCH, the residuum obtained by 
 boiling tar till the volatile matter is 
 
 driven off. It is extensively Used for 
 caulking the seams of ships, for pre- 
 serving wood and iron-work from the 
 effects of water, for making artificial 
 asphalt, etc. 
 
 PITCH, the acuteness or gravity of 
 any particular musical sound, which is 
 determined by the number of air- 
 vibrations in a given time — the greater 
 the number the higher the note. In 
 stringed instruments the pitch is de- 
 pendent on the length, thickness, and 
 degree of tension of the string; in wind 
 instruments, such as the flute or organ, 
 chiefly on the length of the column of 
 air set in motion. (See Music.) The 
 tuning-fork is in common use to assist 
 in giving some desired pitch. 
 
 PITCH-BLENDE, a mineral com- 
 posed of 86.5 oxide of uranium, 2.5 
 black oxide of iron, galena and silex. 
 In color it varies from brown to black, 
 and occurs globular, reniform, massive, 
 disseminated, and pulverulent. It gen- 
 erally accompanies uranite. 
 
 PITCHER-PLANT, a name given to 
 several plants from their pitcher-shaped 
 leaves, the best known of which is a 
 
 [Pitcher-plant. 
 
 native of China and the East Indies. 14 
 is a herbaceous perennial, and grows in 
 marshy situations. The leaves are ses- 
 sile, oblong, and terminated at the 
 extremities by a cylindrical hollow 
 vessel resembling a common water- 
 pitcher, which contains a fluid secreted 
 by the plant itself. This pitcher is fur- 
 nished with a lid which generally opens 
 in the day and shuts at night, and which 
 is regarded as the true blade of the leaf. 
 Wonderful curative powers are ascribed 
 to the fluid in the pitcher and to the 
 leaf and the root of this plant by the 
 natives of the East Indies and Mada- 
 gascar. 
 
 PITCH-PINE. See Pine. 
 
 PITH, the cylindrical or angular 
 column of cellular tissue at or near the 
 center of the steam of a plant, also called 
 the medulla. It is not usually continued 
 into the root, but is always directly 
 connected with the terminal bud of the 
 stem; and in the first instance also by 
 means of the medullary rays with the 
 lateral leaf-buds. When examined 
 microscopically it presents in section a 
 union of cells resembling those of a 
 honeycomb, of which a good example is 
 afforded by Chinese rice-paper, the pith 
 of the Aralia papyrifSra. The pith is at 
 first succulent and of a greenish color, 
 afterward it becomes dry, and in many 
 plants its cells are broken up, leaving 
 large cavities. In its primary state it 
 appears to be a reservoir of nourishment 
 for the embryo plant 
 
 PITT, Earl of Chatham. See Chat- 
 ham (William Pitt, Earl of). 
 
 PITT, William, second son of the 
 Earl of Chatham, born May 28, 1759; 
 died January 23, 1806. He possessed a 
 remarkably precocious intellect, but ms 
 physical powers were weak. He was 
 educated privately till his fourteenth 
 year, when he entered Cambridge. He 
 was called to the bar in 1780, and entered 
 parliament the following year as mem- 
 ber for Appleby. His success in the 
 house was of unparalleled rapidity. 
 He supported Burke’s financial reform 
 bill, and spoke in favor of parliamentary 
 reform; became chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer at twenty-three, under the 
 Earl of Shelburne, and in the following 
 year attained the position of prime 
 minister. Although strongly supported 
 by the sovereign, he stood opposed to a 
 large majority of the House of Commons 
 and a dissolution took place in March 
 1786. At the general election which 
 followed the voice of the nation ap- 
 peared decidedly in his favor, and some 
 of the strongest aristocratical interests 
 in the country were defeated, Pitt him- 
 self being returned by the University 
 of Cambridge. His first measure was 
 the passing of his India bill, establishing 
 the board of control, which was fol- 
 lowed by much of that fiscal and finan- 
 cial regulation that gave so much 6clat 
 to the early period of his administration. 
 The establishment of the delusive scheme 
 of a sinking fund followed in 1786, apd 
 his Regency bill in 1788. The French 
 revolution now broke out, and in 1793 
 war arose between Great Britain and 
 France, a conflict which brought a 
 heavy responsibility on Pitt, and im- 
 mense sacrifices and burdens on his 
 country. In 1800 the Irish union was 
 acoomplished. In 1801 the opposition 
 of the king to all further concession to 
 the Irish Catholics caused Pitt to resign 
 his post. The Peace of Amiens succeeded 
 
 ■William Pitt.— From the statue by Chantrey. 
 
 and the Addington administration, 
 which concluded it, Pitt supported for 
 a time, and then joined the opposition. 
 The new minister, who had renewed the 
 war, unable to maintain his ground, 
 resigned; and in 1804 Pitt resumed his 
 post at the treasury. Returning to 
 power as a war minister, he exerted all 
 the energy of his character to render 
 the contest successful, and found means 
 to engage the two great military powers 
 of Russia and Austria, in a new coalition, 
 which was dissolved by the battle of 
 
PITTSBURG 
 
 PLACENTA 
 
 Austerlitz. This event he did not sur- 
 vive long; his constitution, weakened 
 by hereditary gout, rapidly yielded to 
 the joint attack of disease and anxiety. 
 
 PITTSBURG, a city in Allegheny co., 
 Pennsylvania, in the angle between the 
 Monongahela and the Allegheny rivers 
 where they unite to form the Ohio. It 
 is admirably situated for trade, having 
 ample river and railway connection with 
 the great commercial emporiums of the 
 east, west, and south, while in, the 
 neighborhood there are immense and 
 cheaply-obtainable coal supplies. These 
 exceptional advantageshave made Pitts- 
 burg the chief center of the American 
 iron and steel industry; smelting fur- 
 naces, foundries, rolling-mills, etc., 
 being numerous and on a large scale. 
 The glass manufactures of Pittsburg 
 also rank first in importance in the 
 United States; cotton goods, leather, 
 earthenware, white lead, soda, tobacco, 
 beer and spirits are largely produced; 
 but the chief exports are iron and steel, 
 hardware and machinery, glass, coal, and 
 coke. Pittsburg consists of the town 
 proper and of several large suburbs, 
 and, with those that are on the opposite 
 side of the rivers the connection is kept 
 up by twelve bridges, comprising some 
 very excellent examples on the sus- 
 pension principle. Of the adjacent 
 places, which, though separately in- 
 corporated, are properly regarded as 
 only suburbs of Pittsburg, the most im- 
 
 E ortant are Allegheny on the right 
 ank of the Allegheny river, a favorite 
 residence with the wealthier classes, 
 and Braddocks on the right bank of the 
 Monongahela to the east of the city. 
 Both Pittsburg and Allegheny possess 
 many fine public buildings and institu- 
 tions. Natural gas is extensively em- 
 ployed for both lighting and heating 
 purposes. Pittsburg occupies the site 
 of a fort called Du Quesne, built by the 
 French in 1754; captured by the British 
 in 1758, and named after William Pitt. 
 It was chartered in 1816, but since then 
 its boundaries have been several times 
 extended. On November 18, 1907, the 
 Supreme Court of the United States 
 declared the act consolidating the cities 
 of Pittsburg and Allegheny valid. The 
 consolidation gives the city an area of 
 thirty-eight square miles, and an esti- 
 mated population in 1909, 565.000. It will 
 outrank' Cleveland and Baltimore, giv- 
 ing Boston a close race for fifth place 
 in size, and will have the largest ton- 
 nage of any city in the world. 
 
 The officials in Allegheny will at once 
 become deputies to those in Pittsburg 
 until the next election, which is in 
 1909. 
 
 PITTSBURG, a city in Crawford co., 
 Kan., on the Atch., Top. and S. F6, the 
 Kan. City, Ft. Scott and Mem., the 
 Kan. City, Pitts, and Gulf, the Mo. 
 Pac., andi the St. L. and San. Fran, 
 railways; 10 miles s.e. of Girard, the 
 county seat. It is in a coal mining 
 region. P(m. 12,224. 
 
 PITTSFIELD, a city of Massachusetts, 
 on the Housatonic, which is here formed 
 by the waters from several lakes. It is 
 well built, manufactures extensively cot- 
 ton and woolen goods, silk, castings, ma- 
 chinery, tools, paper, boots and shoes, 
 brewery products, etc., and owing to its 
 
 salubrious climate and fine scenery is a 
 favorite summer resort. Pop. 25,875. 
 
 PITTSTON, a town in Pennsylvania, 
 9 miles from Wilkesbarre, in an im- 
 portant coal district. Pop. 14,670. 
 
 PIUS II. (.lEneas Sylvius Piccolomini), 
 pope, born 1405, died 1464. He became 
 secretary to Cardinal Capranica, and 
 the Council of Basel in 1431 ; to the 
 anti-pope Felix V. in 1439, and to 
 Frederick III. of Germany in 1442. He 
 succeeded Calixtus III. as pontiff 1458. 
 Pius II. was one of the most learned 
 men of his age, and left some valuable 
 and interesting historical works, ora- 
 tions, and letters. 
 
 PIUS V. (Michele Giuslieri), pope, 
 born in 1504, died 1572. He was raised 
 to the cardinalate by Paul IV. in 1557, 
 appointed inquisitor in Lombardy, then 
 inquisitor-general, and chosen pope in 
 1565. He chiefly distinguished himself 
 by his cruel persecutions of Protestants 
 and Jews. In 1570 he excommunicated 
 Elizabeth of England. 
 
 PIUS VI. (Giovanni Angelo Braschi), 
 pope, born at Cesena 1717, died at 
 Valence 1799. He held Important 
 offices under several pontiffs, was raised 
 to the cardinalate by Clement XIV., 
 and succeeded him in 1775. 
 
 PIUS VII. (Gregorio Barnaba Chiara- 
 monti), pope, born at Cesena in 1742, 
 died 1823. Pius VI. created him bishop 
 of Tivoli, cardinal and bishop of Imola; 
 and his friendly attitude toward the 
 Cisalpine republic secured him the 
 favor of France, and the election to the 
 papal chair in 1800. 
 
 PIUS IX. (Giovanni Maria Mastai- 
 Ferretti), pope, born in 1792, was des- 
 tined for a military career, and on the 
 restoration of Pius VII. entered the 
 Guardia Nobile of the Vatican, but soon 
 after adopted the clerical profession. 
 He held various ecclesiastical offices 
 under Leo XII., who appointed him 
 archbishop of Spoleto in 1827, and to the 
 see of Imola in 1832. Although raised to 
 the cardinalate in 1840, he resided in his 
 diocese until his election to the pontifi- 
 cate in 1846. The immaculate concep- 
 tion of the Virgin was settled by a papal 
 decree in 1854, and the dogma of papal 
 infallibility was established by the 
 ecumenical council of 1870. By -this 
 time the pope’s dominions had been 
 greatly reduced, and what remained of 
 the temporal power was secured by the 
 presence of French troops at Rome. 
 But the downfall of Napoleon III. 
 caused their withdrawal; the Italian 
 troops took possession, and the political 
 rule of the holy see was at an end. The 
 Vatican was left to the pope, and his 
 independence ensured. Free diplomatic 
 intercourse, the honors due to a sover- 
 eign, and a civil list of $650,000 yearly, 
 were secured to him. But these he de- 
 clined, and year after year he confined 
 himself to the Vatican and its garden, 
 declaring that he was under restraint, 
 and a prisoner in his own palace. His 
 death took place in February, 1878. 
 
 PIZAR'RO, Francisco, Spanish ad- 
 venturer, the discoverer and conqueror 
 of Peru, was born in 1478, the illegiti- 
 mate son of a hidalgo, and was first a 
 swineherd and then a soldier. The spirit 
 of adventure which at that time per- 
 vaded Spain, prompted him to seek 
 
 fortune in the newly-fouftd continent 
 of America, where he participated in 
 various military and trading expedition. 
 While resident near PanamJ, he became 
 associated with two other adventurers, 
 Hernando Lugue, or de Lugues, and 
 Diego de Almagro. In 1524 they jointly 
 fitted out an expedition with a view to 
 exploration and conquest, and on their 
 second voyage discovered Peru; but 
 finding their force inadequate for con- 
 quering the country, Pizarro returned 
 to Spain for assistance. He arrived in 
 Seville in 1528, was granted the neces- 
 sary powers and a small force, and re- 
 crossed the Atlantic in 1531. The fol- 
 lowing year he arrived in Peru during 
 a civil war, treacherously seized the 
 person of the reigning inca at a friendly 
 banquet, and after extorting an im- 
 mense ransom put him to death. The 
 whole empire was gradually conquered 
 without much opposition, but its settle- 
 ment was long in abeyance owing to a 
 feud between Pizarro and Almagro. 
 Hernando Pizarro, a brother of the gen- 
 eral strangled Almagro in 1537. This act 
 was avenged in 1541 when a son of 
 Almagro murdered Francisco Pizarro 
 in his palace at Lima. Lima was founded 
 by Pizarro in 1535, and his remains are 
 interred in the cathedral of that city, 
 also founded by him. 
 
 PLACE, La. See Laplace. 
 
 PLACENTA, the structure which, in 
 the higher mammalia, connects the 
 foetus, or unborn embryo, with the cir- 
 culation of the mother, thus providing 
 for its due nutrition. In its most typical 
 form it is only met with in the higher 
 mammalia, which are therefore called 
 placental mammals, while the lower 
 mammalia are termed implacental or 
 aplacental, from their wanting a pla- 
 centa; the latter include only the two 
 orders Monotremata and Marsupialia. 
 Certain analogous structures also exist 
 in connection with the development of 
 
 Transverse and vertical sections to show 
 placenta. 1, central placenta: 2, axlle central 
 placenta; 3, parietal placenta; aa, placentae. 
 
 the young of some species of sharks 
 and dog-fishes. The human placenta 
 presents the most perfect type, and is a 
 special growth on the part both of the 
 womb and the ovum. By the end of 
 pregnancy it forms a disc-like mass, 
 measuring 7J inches across, f inch thick, 
 and about 20 oz. in weight. Connected 
 with it near the middle is the umbilical 
 cord, by means of which the growing 
 embryo is attached to the placenta. 
 Through the placenta and the umbilical 
 cord the blood of the embryo comes into 
 close communication with the blood of 
 the mother, by means of which its 
 purity and nourishing qualities are 
 maintained, and the requisite supply of 
 material furnished for the embryo’s 
 continued life and growth. At the end of 
 
PLACENTA 
 
 PLANET 
 
 pregnancy the placenta is thrown off as 
 the after-birth, after the child itself has 
 been expelled. 
 
 PLACENTA, in botany, a develop- 
 ment of cellular tissue at the inner or 
 ventral suture of a carpel, to which the 
 ovules or seeds are attached either im- 
 mediately or by umbilical cords, as in 
 the pod of the pea. The placenta is 
 formed on each margin of the carpel, 
 and is therefore essentially double. 
 When the pistil is formed by one carpel 
 the inner margins unite in the axis, and 
 usually form a common placenta. When 
 the pistil is composed of several carpels 
 there are generally separate placentas at 
 each of their margins. The term parietal 
 placenta is applied to one not projecting 
 far inward, or one essentially constituted 
 of the wall of the seed-vessel. The form 
 of placentation forms an important dis- 
 tinction between the various orders of 
 plants. 
 
 PLAGUE, a contagious and very fatal 
 febrile disease characterized by entire 
 prostration of strength, stupor, delirium, 
 often nausea and vomiting, and certain 
 local symptoms, as buboes, carbuncles, 
 and livid spots (petechise). Like all 
 other malignant fevers the plague has 
 its various stages, but most frequently 
 runs its course in three days, although 
 death may ensue a few hours after its 
 appearance. If the patient survive the 
 fifth day, he will, under judicious treat- 
 ment, generally recover. It is now al- 
 most universally admitted that the 
 plague is a specific disease, and that it is 
 the result of a miasmatic poison. It is 
 also well established that unfavorable 
 climatic influences, such as heat and 
 humidity combined, faulty sanitary 
 conditions, inadequate air, light, water, 
 and food, favor its spread when once 
 introduced. There is no specific remedy 
 against the disease, and a variety of 
 treatment has been adopted on different 
 occasions and by different medical men. 
 The plague appeared in the most ancient 
 times, although historians have used 
 the term indiscriminately for other 
 epidemics. The first recorded visitation 
 of the plague to Europe is that at Athens 
 (430 B.C.), described by Thucydides; 
 Josephus relates that of Jerusalem a.d. 
 72. Among the most disastrous plagues 
 of antiquity are those of Rome in 262, 
 when 5000 persons are said to have 
 died daily; and of Constantinople in 
 544. From the latter part of the 6th to 
 the 12th century, it ravaged at inter- 
 vals various parts of Europe, particular- 
 ly France and Germany. In the 13th 
 century it was brought to modern 
 Europe by the Crusaders, and from 
 1347 to 1350 it traversed all Europe, 
 and was then called the black death. 
 The scourge again claimed its victims 
 in the succeeding centuries, and in 1593 
 it was brought to England by an army 
 returning from the continent. Before 
 the true nature of the disease became 
 known it had gained a firm footing in 
 London, and there were 11,503 deaths. 
 London .ost by the plague 36,269 lives 
 in 1603; 35,500 in 1625; 13,480 in 1636; 
 and 68,600 in 1665. The plague in Mar- 
 seilles in 1720 caused the death of over 
 60,000 in seven months, and in Messina 
 (1743) of 43,000 in three months. In 
 1771 it nearly swei)t off the whole popu- 
 
 lation of Moscow. Subsequently it ap- 
 peared locally in Europe at a number of 
 points. In 1878-79 it caused many 
 deaths on the Lower Volga; but the 
 most severe recent visitation was in 
 India, in 1896-99, and subsequently, 
 even in 1902. 
 
 PLAICE, a genus of so-called “Flat- 
 fishes.” The common plaice, a well- 
 known food fish, attains an average 
 length of 12 or 18 inches. The dark or 
 upper side is colored brown, spotted 
 with red or orange; the body is com- 
 paratively smooth; the ventral fins are 
 situated on the throat, and are thus 
 
 The plaice. 
 
 jugular in position ; the mouth is of small 
 size, and provided with small teeth. 
 These fishes are all “ground-fishes,” 
 that is, feed and swim near the bottom 
 of the sea. They are caught chiefly by 
 means of trawl-nets. 
 
 PLAIN, a tract of country of nearly 
 uniform elevation. Plains receive a 
 variety of names in different countries, 
 as steppes in Russia and Asia; savannas, 
 prairies, pampas, etc., in America. 
 Elevated plains are called plateaus >or 
 table-lands. 
 
 PLAINFIELD, a city in Union co., 
 N. J., on Green Brook, and the Central 
 railroad of N. J.; 11 miles n. of New 
 Brunswick, 24 miles w.s.w. of New 
 York City. The principal industries are 
 the manufacture of printing-presses, 
 oil-cloth, carpets, and machine tools. 
 Pop. 18,267. 
 
 PLAINTIFF, in English law, the per- 
 son who commences a suit against an- 
 other in law or equity. 
 
 PLAN, in architecture, a drawing 
 showing the design of a building, a term 
 chiefly used in reference to horizontal 
 sections showing the disposition of the 
 walls and various floors of the building, 
 and of the doors and windows, etc.; 
 but also applied to elevations and ver- 
 tical sections. A geometrical plan is one 
 wherein the several parts are repre- 
 sented in their true proportions. A 
 perspective plan is one, the lines of 
 which follow the rules of perspective, 
 thus reducing the sizes of the more dis- 
 tant parts. The term is also applied to 
 the draught or representation on paper 
 of any projected work, as the plan of a 
 city or of a harbor. 
 
 PLANE, a joiner’s tool, consisting of a 
 smooth-soled solid block, through which 
 passes obliquely a piece of edged steel 
 forming a kind of chisel, used in paring 
 or smoothing boards or wood of any 
 kind. Planes are of various kinds, as 
 the jack-plane (about 17 inches long), 
 used for taking off the roughest and 
 most prominent parts of the wood; the 
 trying-plane, which is used after the 
 jack-plane; the smoothing-plane (7J 
 inches long) and block-plane (12 inches 
 
 long), chiefly used for cleaning off fin- 
 ished work, and giving the utmost de- 
 gree of smoothness to the surface of the 
 wood; the compass-plane, which has its 
 under surface convex, its use being to 
 form a concave cylindrical surface. 
 There is also a species of plane called a 
 rebate-plane, being chiefly used for 
 making rebates. The plough is a plane 
 for sinking a channel or groove in a sur- 
 face, not close to the edge of it. Mould- 
 ing-planes are for forming mouldings, 
 and must vary according to the design. 
 Planes are also used for smoothing 
 metal, and are wrought by machinery. 
 See Planing Machine. 
 
 PLANE, in goemetry, a surface such 
 that if any two points in it are joined by 
 a straight line the line will lie wholly 
 within the surface. 
 
 PLANE, Inclined. See Inclined Plane. 
 
 PLANE-TREE, a genus of trees, the 
 American plane-tree or button-wood 
 (the sycamore or cotton-tree of the 
 West), abounds in American forests, 
 and on the banks of the Ohio attains 
 sometimes a diameter of from 10 to 14 
 feet, rising 60 or 70 feet without a 
 branch. The bark is pale-green and 
 smooth, and its epidermis detaches in 
 portions; the fresh roots are a beautiful 
 red; the leaves are alternate, palmated, 
 or lobed; and the flowers are united in 
 little globular, pendent balls. The wood 
 in seasoning takes a dull red color, is 
 fine-grained, and susceptible of a good 
 
 Oriental plane-tree. 
 
 polish, but speedily decays on exposure 
 to the weather. The oriental plane re- 
 sembles the preceding, and is plentiful 
 in the forests of Western Asia. 
 
 PLANET, a celestial body which re- 
 volves about the sun'as its center (pri- 
 mar 3 ' planets), ora body revolving about 
 another planet as its center (secondary 
 planets, satellites, or moons). The known 
 major planets are, in the order of their 
 proximity to the sun. Mercury, Venus, 
 the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, 
 Uranus, and Neptune. Mercury, Venus, 
 Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn were known 
 to the ancients. Uranus was accident- 
 ally discovered by Herschel in 1781, 
 while the discovery of Neptune was the 
 result of pure intellectual work, the 
 calculating of Leverrier and Adams 
 (1845). The planetoids or asteroids are 
 small bodies discovered since the be- 
 ginning of the nineteenth century be- 
 tween the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. 
 The number of these asteroids is annual- 
 ly increased by fresh discoveries; over 
 400 are now known. Mercury, Venus, 
 the Earth, and Mars closelj' resemble 
 
PLANT 
 
 PLATINUM 
 
 each other in many respects. They are 
 all of moderate size, with great densities; 
 the earth weighing as much as five and 
 a half times an equal bulk of water. 
 They shine only by refiected sunlight. 
 Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, 
 on the other hand, are of enormous 
 size, of small densities, some of them 
 weighing less than an equal bulk of 
 water, and probably exist at a high 
 temperature, and give out in addition to 
 reflected sunlight a considerable amount 
 of light and heat of their own. The 
 most colossal of the planets is Jupiter; 
 its volume exceeds that of the earth 
 about 1200 times. Saturn is next in 
 size. Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and 
 Neptune, being outside the earth’s or- 
 bit, are sometimes called the superior 
 planets; Venus and Mercury being 
 within the earth’s orbit, are called in- 
 ferior planets. The family of major 
 planets has also been subdivided into in- 
 tra-asteroidal planets — Mercury, Venus, 
 the Earth, Mars; and extra-asteroidal 
 planets — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and 
 Neptune, the character of the two being 
 very different as above described. The 
 planet which approaches nearest to the 
 earth is Venus, the least distance in 
 round numbers being 23 millions of 
 miles; the most distant is Neptune, 
 least distance 2629 million miles. We 
 give here a comparative table of the 
 planets; see also the separate articles. 
 
 part of the sole in walking, are termed 
 
 Plantigrada— foot of polar bear, 
 a, femur or thigh; 6, tibia or leg; c, tarsus or 
 foot; d, calx or heel; e, planta or sole of foot; 
 /, digit! or toes. 
 
 PLASTERING is the art of covering 
 the surface of masonry or wood work 
 with a plastic material in order to give it 
 a smooth and uniform surface, and 
 generally in interiors to fit it for painting 
 or decoration. In plastering the interior 
 of houses a first coat is generally laid on 
 of lime, thoroughly slacked, so as to be 
 free from any tendency to contract 
 moisture, and mixed with sand and 
 cow’s hair. For the purpose of receiving 
 this coat the wall is generally first 
 covered with laths or thin strips of 
 wood, with narrow interstices between. 
 The face of the first coat, which should 
 be a considerable thickness, is trowelled, 
 or indented with cross lines by the 
 trowel, to form a key for the finishing 
 coats. The second coat is applied to this 
 
 
 Mean Distance 
 From the 
 Sun 
 
 Distance from the Earth 
 
 Time of 
 Revolution 
 Round the 
 Sun 
 
 Time of 
 Rotation on 
 Axis 
 
 Greatest 
 
 Least 
 
 
 Miles 
 
 Miles 
 
 Miles 
 
 Mean Solar 
 Days 
 
 h. 
 
 m. 
 
 s. 
 
 Mercury 
 
 3.5,393,000 
 
 135,631,000 
 
 47,229,000 
 
 87.9692 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 Venus 
 
 66,131,000 
 
 159,551,000 
 
 23,309,000 
 
 224,7007 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 91,430,000 
 
 
 
 365.2563 
 
 23 
 
 56 
 
 4 
 
 Mars 
 
 139,312,000 
 
 245,249,000 
 
 62,389,000 
 
 686.9794 
 
 24 
 
 37 
 
 23 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 475,693,000 
 
 591,569,000 
 
 408,709,000 
 
 4332.5848 
 
 9 
 
 55 
 
 28 
 
 Saturn 
 
 872,1.35,000 
 
 1.014,071,000 
 
 831,210,000 
 
 10759.2197 
 
 10 
 
 29 
 
 17 
 
 Uranus 
 
 1,753,851,000 
 
 1,928,666,000 
 
 1,745,806,000 
 
 30686.8205 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 Neptune 
 
 2,746,271,000 
 
 2,863,183,000 
 
 2,629,360,000 
 
 60126.722 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 PLANT. See Botany. 
 
 PLANTAGENET, a surname first 
 adopted by Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, 
 and said to have originated from his 
 wearing a branch of broom (plante de 
 genet) in his cap. This name was borne 
 by the fourteen kings, from Henry II. 
 to Richard III., who occupied the 
 English throne from 1154-1485. In 
 1400 the family was divided into the 
 branches of Lancaster (Red Rose), and 
 Amrk (White Rose), and from their re- 
 union in 1485 sprang the House of 
 Tudor. See England. 
 
 PLANTATION, a term formerly used 
 to designate a colony. The term was 
 latterly applied to an estate or tract of 
 land in the southern states of America, 
 the West Indies, etc., cultivated chiefly 
 by negroes or other non-European 
 laborers. In the southern states the term 
 planter is specially applied to one who 
 grows cotton, sugar, rice, or tobacco. 
 
 PLANTIGRA'DA, plantigrades, car- 
 nivorous animals in which the whole or 
 nearly the whole sole of the foot is 
 applied to the ground in walking. This 
 section includes the bears, raccoons, 
 coatis, and badgers. Carnivora which, 
 like the weasels and civets, use only 
 
 when it is thoroughly dried. It is rubbed 
 in with a flat board so as thoroughly to 
 fill the indentations and cover the un- 
 equal surface of the first coat with a 
 smooth and even one. In plastering 
 walls great care must be taken to have 
 the surface perfectly vertical. The set- 
 ting coat, which is of pure lime, or for 
 mouldings or finer work of plaster of 
 paris or stucco, is applied to the second 
 coat before it is quite dry. A thin coat- 
 ing of plaster of paris is frequently 
 applied to ceilings after the setting coat. 
 
 PLASTER OF PARIS, the name given 
 to gypsum when ground and used for 
 taking casts, etc. If one part of pow- 
 dered gypsum be mixed with two and a 
 half parts of water a thin pulp is formed, 
 which after a time sets to a hard, com- 
 pact mass. By adding a small quantity 
 of lime to the moistened gypsum a very 
 hard marble-like substance is obtained 
 on setting. 
 
 PLASTERS are applications of local 
 remedies to any part of the surface of 
 the body by means of a supporting tex- 
 ture of leather, silk or other cloth, or 
 merely of paper. Plasters may be in- 
 tended to give protection, support, or 
 warmth, or they may be actively 
 
 medicinal. (See Blister.) The materials 
 most frequently used in plasters are 
 belladonna, cantharides, galbanum, isin- 
 glass, lead, mercury, opium, pitch, resin, 
 iron, and soap, and their adhesive prop- 
 erty is generally due to the combina- 
 tion of oxide of lead with fatty acids. 
 
 PLASTIC CLAY, in geology, a name 
 given to one of the beds of the Eocene 
 period from its being used in the manu- 
 facture of pottery. It is a marine 
 deposit. 
 
 PLATA, Rio de La (River of Silver), 
 or River Plate, runs for more than 200 
 miles between the Argentine Republic 
 and Uru^ay, and is not, strictly speak- 
 ing, a river, but rather an estuary, 
 formed by the junction of the great 
 rivers Parand and Uruguay (which see). 
 It flows into the Atlantic between Cape 
 St. Antonio and Cape St. Mary, and has 
 here a width of 170 miles. On its banks 
 are the cities and ports of Montevideo 
 and Buenos Ayres. 
 
 PLATEAU (pla-to). See Table-land. 
 
 PLATE-GLASS. See Glass. 
 
 PLATE-POWDER, a fine powder for 
 cleaning gold and silver plate, common- 
 ly made of a mixture of rouge and pre- 
 pared chalk. 
 
 PLATING, the coating of a metallic 
 article with a thin film of some other 
 metal, especially gold or silver. As re- 
 gards plating with precious metals, 
 electro-deposition has entirely super- 
 seded the old Sheffield method, which 
 consisted in welding plates of various 
 metals at high temperatures. This 
 welding process is now, however, largely 
 employed in plating iron with nickel for 
 cooking vessels, iron with brass for 
 stair-rods and other furnishing and 
 domestic requisites, and lead with tin 
 for pipes, etc. 
 
 PLAT'INUM, one of the metals first 
 made known to Europe in 1741. Native 
 platinum occurs mostly in small, irreg- 
 ular grains, generally contains a little 
 iron, and is accompanied besides by 
 iridium, osmium, rhodium, palladium, 
 ruthenium (hence called the “platinum 
 metals’’), and also sometimes by copper, 
 chromium, and titanium. It was first ob- 
 tained in Peru, and has since been found 
 in various other localities, such as Can- 
 ada, Oregon, the West Indies, Brazil, 
 Colombia, Borneo, etc., but the chief 
 supply of platinum ore comes from the 
 Ural mountains in Siberia. It was there 
 discovered in beds of auriferous sands in 
 1823, and has been worked by the 
 Russian government since 1828. Pure 
 platinum is almost as white as silver, 
 takes a brilliant polish, and is highly 
 ductile and malleable. It is the Jieaviest 
 of the ordinary metals, and the least 
 expansive when heated; specific gravity 
 21.53 rolled, 21.15 cast. It undergoes 
 no change from the combined agency of 
 air and moisture, and it may be exposed 
 to the strongest heat of a smith’s forge 
 without suffering either oxidation or 
 fusion. Platinum is not attacked by any 
 of the pure acids. Its only solvents are 
 chlorine and nitro-muriatic acid, which 
 act upon it with greater difficulty than 
 on gold. In a finely divided state it has 
 the power of absorbing and condensing 
 large quantities of gases. On account of 
 its great infusibility, and its power 
 generally of withstanding the action of 
 
PLATO 
 
 PLEBEIANS 
 
 chemical reagents, platinum is much 
 used as a material for making vessels to 
 be used in the chemical laboratory. 
 Crucibles, evaporating dishes, etc, are 
 very often made of platinum ; so also the 
 large stills used for the evaporation of 
 sulphuric acid. The useful alloys of 
 platinum are not numerous. With silver 
 it forms a tolerably fusible white alloy, 
 malleable and brilliant when polished; 
 but it scales and blackens by working. 
 Gold, by a forge heat, combines with 
 platinum, and the alloys, in all propor- 
 tions, are more fusible than the latter 
 metal. In the proportion of 38 grs. to 1 
 oz. it forms a yellowish-white, ductile, 
 hard alloy, which is so elastic after 
 hammering that it has been used for 
 watch-springs ; but the favorable results 
 expected from them have not been 
 realized. Alloyed with iridium (a rare 
 metal of the same group) it possesses an 
 excellent and unalterable surface for 
 fine engraving, as in the scales of astro- 
 nomical instruments, etc. This alloy has 
 also been adopted for the construction 
 of international standards of length and 
 weight. Mercury, by trituration with 
 spongy platinum, forms an amalgam 
 at first soft, but which soon becomes 
 firm, and has been much used in obtain- 
 ing malleable platinum. A coating of 
 platinum can be given to copper and 
 other metals by applying to them an 
 amalgam of spongy platimun and 5 
 parts of mercury; the later metal is 
 then volatilized by heat. Lead com- 
 bines with platinum readily; and iron 
 and copper in like manner. The last- 
 mentioned, when added in the propor- 
 tion of 7 to 16 of platinum and 1 of zinc, 
 and fused in a crucible under charcoal 
 powder, forms the alloy called artificial 
 gold. Steel unites with platinum in all 
 proportions, and, especially in the pro- 
 portion of from 1 to 3 per cent of plati- 
 num, forms a tough and tenacious alloy, 
 well adapted for cutting instruments. 
 Arsenic unites easily with platinum, and 
 is sometimes employed for rendering the 
 latter metal fusible. An alloy of plati- 
 num, iridium, and rhodium is used for 
 making crucibles, etc. It is harder than 
 pure platinum, is less easily attacked by 
 chemical reagents, and bears a higher 
 temperature without fusing. 
 
 PLATO , an ancient Greek philosopher, 
 founder of one of the great schools of 
 Greek philosophy, was born at Athens in 
 B.c. 429, died in b.c. 347. About his 
 twentieth year he came directly under 
 the influence of Socrates, and from this 
 time he gave himself entirely to philoso- 
 phy. He is said to have visited Gyrene 
 (in North Africa), lower Italy, and 
 Sicily. About b.c. 389 or 388 Plato 
 returned to Athens and began to teach 
 his philosophical system in a gym- 
 nasium known as the Academy, his 
 subsequent life being unbroken, except 
 by two visits to Sicily. He appears to 
 have had a patrimony sufficient for his 
 wants, and taught without remunera- 
 tion. One of his pupils was Aristotle. 
 
 The reputed works of Plato consist of 
 dialogues and letters, the latter now re- 
 garded as spurious; but the genuineness 
 of most of the dialogues is generally 
 admitted. 
 
 The philosophy of Plato, must be re- 
 garded as one of the grandest efforts 
 
 ever made by the human mind to com- 
 pass the problem of life. After the ex- 
 ample of Socrates he held the great end 
 of philosophic teaching to be to lead the 
 mind of the inquirer to the discovery of 
 truth rather than to impart it dogmatic- 
 ally, and for this end he held oral 
 teaching to be superior to writing. The 
 cardinal principle of Plato’s dialectical 
 system is the doctrine of ideas. True 
 science, according to him, was con- 
 versant, not about those material forms 
 and imperfect intelligences which we 
 meet with in our daily intercourse with 
 men; but it investigated the nature of 
 those purer and more perfect patterns 
 which were the models after which all 
 created beings were formed. These per- 
 fect types he supposes to have existed 
 from all eternity, and he calls them the 
 ideas of the great original Intelligence. 
 As these cannot be perceived by the 
 human senses, whatever knowledge we 
 derive from that source is unsatisfactory 
 and uncertain. Plato, therefore, main- 
 tains that degree of scepticism which 
 denies all permanent authority to the 
 evidence of sense. Having discovered or 
 created the realm of ideas he surveyed 
 it throughout. He defined its most ex- 
 
 Plato.— Antique gem. 
 
 cellent fonns of beauty, justice, and 
 virtue, and having done so he deter- 
 mined what was the supreme and dom- 
 inant principle of the whole. It is the 
 idea of the Good. The harmony of in- 
 telligence throughout its entire extent 
 with goodness, this is the highest attain- 
 ment of Plato’s philosophy. His ethical 
 system was in direct dependence upon 
 his dialectics. He believed that_ the 
 ideas of all existing things were origin- 
 ally contained in God. These ideas were 
 each the perfection of its kind, and as 
 such were viewed by God with approval 
 and love. God himself being infinitely 
 good was the object of all imitation to 
 intelligent beings, hence the ethics of 
 Plato had a double foundation, the 
 imitation of God and the realization of 
 ideas, which were in each particular 
 the models of perfection. To his cos- 
 mical theories he attributed only prob- 
 ability, holding that the dialectical 
 method by which alone truth could be 
 discovered was applicable only to ideas 
 and the discovery of moral principles. 
 The most valuable part of Plato’s cos- 
 mogony is its first principle, that God, 
 who is without envy, planned all things 
 that they should be as nearly as possible 
 like himself. 
 
 The followers of Plato have been 
 divided into the Old, Middle, and New 
 Academies; or into five schools; the 
 
 first representing the Old, the second 
 and third the Middle, and the fourth and 
 fifth the New Academy. In the first 
 are Speusippus, Xenocrates, and Hera- 
 clides, and others. Of these the first 
 reverted to pantheistic principles, the 
 second to mysticism, and the last was 
 chiefly distinguished as an astronomer. 
 In the Middle Academy, of which were 
 Arcesilas and Carneades, the founders 
 of the second and third school, sceptical 
 tendencies began to prevail. The New 
 academy began with Philo of Larissa, 
 founder of the fourth school. 
 
 PLATT, Thomas Collier, American 
 political leader, was born at Owego, 
 N. Y., in 1833. In 1872 he was elected 
 to congress, again in 1874, and, upon 
 the expiration of Francis Kernan’s term 
 as United States senator, was chosen 
 his successor, January 18, 1881. He 
 became connected with the United 
 States express company, of which he 
 has been president since 1883. Platt 
 eventually gained virtual control of the 
 republican party in New York and was 
 again elected to the senate both in 1897 
 and in 1903. He has been a delegate to 
 all republican national conventions 
 since 1876 as well as a member of the 
 national republican committee. 
 
 PLATTDEUTSCH (pUt'doich), or 
 Low German, is the language of the 
 North German Lowlands, from the 
 borders of Holland to those of Russian 
 Poland. The Dutch and Flemish lan- 
 guages also belong to the Low German 
 dialects, but being associated with an 
 independent political system, and hav- 
 ing a literature of their own, are 
 reckoned as distinct languages. The Low 
 German dialects agree in their con- 
 sonantal system not only with Dutch 
 and Flemish, but also with English and 
 the Scandinavian tongues. (See Phil- 
 ology.) Until the reformation Low Ger- 
 man was the general written language 
 of the part of the continent above men- 
 tioned; but from that time Low German 
 works became gradually fewer, owing 
 to the position now taken by the High 
 (or modern classical) German. Even 
 as a spoken language High German has 
 ever since been slowly superseding the 
 Low. In recent times, however. Low 
 German literature has received a new 
 impetus from Klaus Groth and Fritz 
 Reuter. Linguistically the Low Ger- 
 man dialects have received a good deal 
 of attention, and many valuable lexico- 
 graphical works have appeared. 
 
 PLATTSBURG, a manufacturing town 
 and military station of the United 
 States, in the state of New York, on the 
 Saranac, where it enters Lake Cham- 
 plain. Pop. 10,010. 
 
 PLAYING-CARDS. See Card. 
 
 PLEBEIANS (ple-be'anz), or PLEBS, 
 in ancient Rome, one of the great orders 
 of the Roman people, at first excluded 
 from nearly all the rights of citizenship. 
 The whole government of the state, with 
 the enjoyment of all its oflJces, belonged 
 exclusively to the patricians, with 
 whom the plebeians could not even 
 intermarry. The civil history of Rome 
 is to a great extent composed of the 
 struggles of the plebeians to assert their 
 claim to the place in the commonwealth 
 to which their numbers and social im- 
 portance entitled them, and which wettj 
 
PLEBISCITE 
 
 PLIOCENE 
 
 crowned with complete success when 
 (b c. 286) the Lex Hortensia gave the 
 plebiscita, or enactments passed at the 
 plebeian assemblies, the force of law. 
 From this time the privileges of the two 
 classes may be said to have been equal. 
 
 PLEB'ISCITE, a vote of a whole 
 nation obtained by universal suffrage, 
 a form of voting introduced into France 
 under the Napoleonic regime, and 
 named after the Roman plebiscita. The 
 term is also used in a more general sense. 
 
 PLEIADES (pll'a-dez), the so-called 
 “seven stars” in the neck of the con- 
 stellation Taurus, of which only six are 
 visible to the naked eye of most persons. 
 They are regarded by Madler as the 
 central group of the Milky Way. An- 
 cient Greek legends derive their name 
 from the seven daughters of Atlas and 
 the nymph Pleione, fabled to have been 
 placed as stars in the sky, and the loss 
 of the seventh was variously accounted 
 for. In reality the cluster consists of far 
 more than seven stars. 
 
 PLEISTOCENE (plis'to-sen), in geol- 
 ogy, the lower division of the Post-ter- 
 tiary formation. The fossil remains be- 
 long almost wholly to existing species. 
 The Pleistocene mollusca all belong to 
 still living species, but its mammals in- 
 clude a few extinct forms. It is also 
 known as the “glacial” or “drift” period, 
 owing to the great prevalence of glaciers 
 and icebergs at that period. 
 
 PLENIPOTENTIARY, an ambassador 
 appointed with full power to negotiate 
 a treaty or transact other business. 
 
 PLESIOSAU'RUS, a genus of extinct 
 amphibious animals, nearly allied to the 
 Ichthyosaurus. The remains of this 
 curious genus were first brought to light 
 in the Lias of Lyme Regis in 1822, but 
 over twenty species are now known, and 
 they have formed the subject of im- 
 portant memoirs by Owen and other 
 palaeontologists. Its neck was of enorm- 
 ous length, exceeding that of its body; 
 it possessed a trunk and tail of the pro- 
 portions of an ordinary quadruped; to 
 
 Plesiosaurus, partially restored. 
 
 these were added the paddles of a whale. 
 The neck vertebrae numbered forty or 
 fewer. From twenty to twenty-five 
 dorsal segments existed ; and two sacral 
 vertebrae and from thirty to forty caudal 
 segments completed the spine. No dis- 
 tinct breast-bone was developed. The 
 head was not more than or ^“5 of the 
 length of the body ; the snout of a taper- 
 ing form; the orbits large and wide. 
 The teeth were conical, slender, curved 
 inv,rard, finely straited on the enamelled 
 surface, and hollow throughout the in- 
 terior. These animals appear to have 
 lived in shallow seas and estuaries, and, 
 in the opinion of some, they swam upon 
 or near the surface, having the neck 
 arched like the swan, and darting it 
 down at the fish within reach. Some of 
 
 the Plesiosauri were upward of 20 feet 
 long. Their remains occur from the 
 Lias to the Chalk rocks inclusive, these 
 forms being thus exclusively of the 
 Mesozoic age. 
 
 PLETH'ORA, in medicine, an excess 
 of blood in the human system. A florid 
 face, rose-colored skin, swollen blood- 
 vessels, frequent nose-bleeding, drowsi- 
 ness and heavy feeling in the limbs, and 
 a hard and full pulse, are symptoms, and 
 this condition, habitual in many per- 
 sons, and which, if not aptually a dis- 
 ease, yet predisposes to inflammations, 
 congestions, and haemorrhages. Plethora 
 may, however, develop in persons of all 
 conditions and ages as the result of too 
 much stimulating food (as an excessive 
 meat-diet), over-eating, large consump- 
 tion of malt and spirituous liquors, 
 residence in northern and elevated 
 regions with sharp, dry air, want of 
 exercise, too much sleep, amputation of 
 a limb — in short of any action tending 
 to unduly increase the volume of blood. 
 Plethora of a mild form may be reduced 
 by copious draughts of diluents, a 
 vegetable diet, and plenty of exercise; 
 but in cases requiring prompt relief 
 leeches or bleeding must be resorted to. 
 
 PLEURA, the serus membrane lining 
 the cavity of the thorax or chest, and 
 which also covers the lungs. Each lung 
 is invested by a separate pleura or por- 
 tion of this membrane. In the thorax 
 each pleura is found to consist of a por- 
 tion lining the walls of the chest, this 
 fold being named the parietal layer of 
 the pleura. The other fold, reflected 
 upon the lung’s surface, is named in 
 contradistinction the visceral layer. 
 These two folds inclose a space known 
 as the pleural cavity, which in health 
 contains serous fluid in just sufficient 
 quantity to lubricate the surfaces of the 
 pleurae as they glide over one another in 
 the movements of respiration. The dis- 
 ease to which the pleurae are most sub- 
 ject is pleurisy. 
 
 PLEU'RISY, the inflammation of the 
 pleura. It may be acute or chronic, 
 simple or conmlicated with catarrh and 
 pneumonia. Generally part only of the 
 pleura is affected, but sometimes the 
 inflammation extends to the whole, and 
 even to both pleurae (double pleurisy). 
 Acute, it is a very common complaint 
 due to a variety of causes, but most fre- 
 quently to sudden chills. It invariably 
 commences with shivering, its duration 
 and intensity generally indicating the 
 degree of severity of the attack; fever 
 and its attendant symptoms succeed 
 the shivering. A sharp, lancinating pain, 
 commonly called stitch in the side, is 
 felt in the region affected at each in- 
 spiration. A short, dry cough also often 
 attends this disease. While the in- 
 flammation continues its progress a 
 sero-albuminous effusion takes place, 
 and when this develops the febrile 
 sjmaptoms subside, usually from the 
 fifth to the ninth day. Acute pleurisy is 
 seldom fatal unless complicated with 
 other diseases of the lungs or surround- 
 ing parts, and many patients are re- 
 stored simply by rest, moderate sweat- 
 ing in bed, spare and light diet, mild 
 and warm drinks, and the application 
 of hot mustard and linseed-meal poul- 
 tices to the affected part. Opiates to 
 
 relieve pain are often needful. When 
 acute pleurisy is treated too late or in- 
 sufficiently it may assume the chronic 
 condition, which may last from six 
 weeks to over a year, and result in death 
 from gradual decay, as in the case 
 of consumptives, or from asphyxia. 
 Chronic pleurisy is characterized by 
 effusion, which accumulates in the 
 pleural cavity, and soon tends to pro- 
 duce lesions and complications in the 
 surrounding organs. Besides local 
 treatment purgatives and diuretics are 
 used, but if the disease does not yield to 
 these remedies, the liquid must be 
 evacuated by operation. Pleurisy, acute 
 and chronic, sometimes also appears 
 without accompanying pain; it is then 
 called latent pleurisy. 
 
 PLEURO-PNEUMONIA, a form of 
 pneumonia peculiar to the bovine race. 
 It is highly contagious, and proves 
 rapidly fatal. It first manifests itself in 
 a morbid condition of the general sys- 
 tem; but its seat is in the lungs and 
 pleura, where it causes an abundant 
 inflammatory exudition of thick plastic 
 matter. The lungs become rapidly filled 
 with this matter, and increase greatly in 
 weight. Whether pleuro-pneumonia is 
 specifically a local or general disease is 
 disputed, as also the manner of treat- 
 ment. On the one hand bleeding and 
 mercurial treatment, as in pleurisy and 
 pneumonia, is recommended. On the 
 other, evacuating remedies, maintain- 
 ing the strength of the animal, and pro- 
 moting the action of the skin, bowels, 
 and kidneys. 
 
 PLINY (Caius Plinius Secundus), 
 Roman writer, commonly called Pliny 
 the Elder, was born a.d. 23, probably at 
 Comum (Como). Every leisure moment 
 was devoted to literature and science, 
 and his industry was so great that he 
 collected an enormous mass of notes, 
 which he utilized in writing his works. 
 He adopted his nephew, Pliny the 
 Younger, a.d. 73, and perished in the 
 eruption of Mount Vesuvius which over- 
 whelmed Pompeii and Herculaneum in 
 79. The only work of Pliny which is now 
 extant is his Natural History, a work 
 containing a mass of information on 
 physics, astronomy, etc., as well as 
 natural history proper. 
 
 PLINY (Caius Plinius Csecilius Secun- 
 dus), the Younger, a nephew of the 
 former, was born a.d. 61 at Comum 
 (Como). Having lost his father at an 
 early age, he was adopted by his uncle 
 and inherited the latter’s estates and 
 MSS., and also his industry and love of 
 literature. He was one of the most dis- 
 tinguished and best men of his age. 
 The time of his death is unknown, but it 
 is supposed that he died about the year 
 115. As an author he labored with ardor, 
 and attempted both prose and poetry. 
 Of his writings only a collection of letters 
 in ten books, and a panegyric on Trajan, 
 remain. 
 
 PLI'OCENE, a geological term ap- 
 plied to the most modern of the divi- 
 sions of the Tertiary epoch. The Ter- 
 tiary series Sir C. Lyell divided into 
 four principal groups, namely, the 
 Eocene and the Miocene (which see), the 
 Older Pliocene, and the Newer Pliocene 
 or Pleistocene each characterized by 
 containing a very different proportion 
 
FLOCK 
 
 PLUTARCH 
 
 of fossil recent (or existing) species. The 
 Newer Pliocene, the latest of the four, 
 contains from 90 to 95 per cent of recent 
 fossils; the Older Pliocene contains 
 from 35 to 50 per cent of recent fossils. 
 The Newer Pliocene period is that which 
 immediately preceded the recent era ; 
 and by the latest system of classification 
 it has been removed from the Tertiary 
 and placed in the Post-tertiary or 
 Quaternary epoch. The Pliocene period 
 proper, or the Crag period, is that which 
 intervened between the Miocene and the 
 Newer Pliocene. Both the Newer and 
 the Older Pliocene exhibit marine as 
 well as fresh-water deposits. 
 
 PLOCK (plotsk), or PLOTZK, capital 
 of the government of the same name in 
 Russian Poland, on the right bank of the 
 Vistula, 78 miles n.w. of Warsaw. It has 
 a handsome cathedral, dating from the 
 10th century, and a bishop’s palace. Its 
 manufactures are unimportant, but it 
 has a large trade. Pop. 27,073. — The 
 province has an area of 4209 sq. miles, 
 mostly level, and marshes and lakes 
 abound. Fully one-third of the area is 
 forest. Corn and potatoes are the chief 
 agricultural products, and sheep and 
 cattle are extensively reared. Pop. 
 577,490. 
 
 PLOUGH, an implement drawn by 
 animal or steam power, by which the 
 surface of the soil is cut into longitudinal 
 slices, and these successively raised up 
 and turned over. The object of the 
 operation is to expose a new surface to 
 the action of the air, and to render the 
 soil fit for receiving the seed or for 
 other operations of agriculture. — Steam 
 ploughs on various principles have 
 latterly become familiar among farmers. 
 Some are driven by one engine remain- 
 ing stationary on the headland, which 
 winds an endless rope (generally of 
 wire) passing round pulleys attached to 
 an apparatus called the “anchor,” fixed 
 at the opposite headland, and round a 
 drum connected with the engine itself. 
 Others are driven by two engines, one at 
 either headland, thus superseding the 
 “anchor.” As steam-ploughing appara- 
 tus are usually beyond both the means 
 and requirements of single farmers, 
 companies have been formed for hiring 
 them out. In steam-ploughing it is com- 
 mon to use ploughs in which two sets of 
 plough bodies and coulters are attached 
 to an iron frame moving on a fulcrum, 
 one set at either extremity, and pointing 
 different ways. By this arrangement 
 the plough can be used without turning, 
 the one part of the frame being raised 
 out of the ground when moving in one 
 direction, and the other when moving 
 in the opposite. It is the front part of 
 the frame, or that farthest from the 
 driver, which is elevated, the ploughing 
 apparatus connected with the after part 
 being inserted and doing the work. 
 Generally two, three, or four sets of 
 plough bodies and coulters are attached 
 to either extremity, so that two, three, 
 or four furrows are made at once. 
 
 PLOVER, the common name of several 
 species of birds. They inhabit all parts 
 of the world. They are gregarious, and 
 most of them are partial to the muddy 
 borders of rivers and marshy situations, 
 subsisting on worms and various aquatic 
 insects; but some of them affect dry 
 
 sandy shores. Their general features 
 are: bill long, slender, straight, com- 
 pressed; nostrils basal and longitudinal; 
 legs long and slender, with three toes be- 
 fore, the outer connected to the middle 
 one by a short web; wings middle-size. 
 Most of them moult twice a year, and 
 the males and females are seldom very 
 dissimilar in appearance. The various 
 species pass so imperceptible into one 
 
 another that their classification is often 
 attended with difficulty. All nestle on 
 the ground. They run much on the soil, 
 patting it with their feet to bring out 
 the worms, etc. The golden plover, also 
 called yellow and whistling plover, is the 
 best known, and its flesh and its olive- 
 green dark-spotted eggs are considered 
 a delicacy by epicures. 
 
 PLUM, a genus of plants. About a 
 dozen species are known, all inhabiting 
 the north temperate regions of the 
 globe. They are small trees or shrubs, 
 with alternate leaves and white flowers, 
 either solitary or disposed in fascicles in 
 the axils of the leaves. The common 
 garden plum is the most extensively 
 cultivated, and its fruit is one of the 
 most familiar of the stone-fruits. The 
 varieties are very numerous, differing in 
 size, form, color, and taste. Some are 
 mostly eaten fresh, some are dried and 
 sold as prunes, others again are pre- 
 served in sugar, alcohol, syrup, or vine- 
 gar. They make also excellent jams and 
 jellies, and the syrup from stewed plums 
 forms a refreshing drink for invalids, 
 and a mild aperient for children. Per- 
 haps the most esteemed of all varieties 
 is the green gage. A very popular and 
 easily grown sort is the damson. The 
 wood of the plum-tree is hard, compact, 
 traversed with reddish veins, suscepti- 
 ble of a fine polish, and is frequently em- 
 ployed by turners and cabinet-makers. 
 The sloe or black-thorn is a species of 
 wild plum bearing a small, round, blue- 
 black, and extremely sour fruit. Its 
 juice is made into prune-wine, which is 
 chiefly employed by distillers, wine and 
 spirit merchants, etc., for fining, color- 
 ing, purifying, and mellowing spirits. 
 
 PLUMBA'GO. See Graphite. 
 
 PLUMMET, plumb-line, a leaden or 
 other weight let down at the end of a 
 cord to regulate any work in a line per- 
 pendicular to the horizon, or to sound 
 the depth of anything. Masons, carpen- 
 ters, etc., use a plumb-line fastened on a 
 narrow board or plate of brass or iron to 
 judge whether walls or other objects be 
 perfectly perpendicular, or plumb as the 
 artificers call it. Near a range of high 
 mountains the plumb-line, as can be 
 shown by special arrangements, is not 
 perfectly true, but inclines toward the 
 mountains; and officers in charge of the 
 United States coast and Geodetic Sur- 
 
 vey among the Hawaian Islands, have 
 recently observed that the deviation of 
 a plumb-line from the vertical is greater 
 in the case of mountains in an island 
 than in continental mountains, and 
 greater in the neighborhood of extinct 
 volcanoes than that of active volcanoes. 
 In given localities the plumb-line also 
 varies according to the ebb and flow of 
 the tide. 
 
 PLU'MULE, in botany, that part of 
 the seed which grows into the stem and 
 axis of the future plant. In the seeds of 
 the bean, horse-chestnut, etc., the 
 plumule is distinctly visible, but in 
 plants generally it is scarcely percepti- 
 ble without the aid of a magnifying 
 glass, and in many it does not appear 
 
 p, Plumule. 
 
 till the seed begins to germinate. The 
 first indication of development is the 
 appearance of the plumule, which is a 
 collection of feathery fibers bursting 
 from the enveloping capsule of the germ, 
 and which proceeds immediately to 
 extend itself vertically upward. 
 
 PLUS (L., more), in mathematics, 
 signifies addition; the sign by which it is 
 indicated is -t- ; thus A -f- B, which is 
 read A plus B, denotes that the quantity 
 A is to be added to the quantity B. 
 Plus, or its sign +, is also used to indi- 
 cate a positive magnitude or relation, in 
 opposition to minus — , which indicates 
 a negative. 
 
 PLUSH, a fabric similar to velvet, 
 from which it differs only in the length 
 and density of the nap. The nap may be 
 formed either in the warp or woof, the 
 one in which it is being double, there 
 being a warp and a woof for the nap. 
 Plushes are now made almost exclusive- 
 ly of silk. The cheaper qualities have a 
 cotton backing. Some of the finest dress 
 plushes are produced in London, plushes 
 for gentlemen’s hats come chiefly from 
 Lyons, while common or imitation 
 plushes are largely manufactured in 
 Germany. Plush is now also extensively 
 used in upholstery and decorative work. 
 
 PLUTARCH (plQ'tark), a learned 
 Greek writer, born at Cheronsea in 
 Boeotia, where he also died. Neither 
 the year of his birth nor that of his death 
 is accurately known, but it is generally 
 held that he lived from the reign of Nero 
 to that of Hadrian (54-117 a.d.). He 
 appears from his writings to have visited 
 Italy, lectured there on philosophy, and 
 stayed some time at Rome, where he 
 established a school during the reign of 
 Domitian. His Parallel Lives of illus- 
 trious Greeks and Romans is the work to 
 which he owes his fame. The lives are 
 nearly all written in pairs, one Greek 
 and one Roman, followed by a compari- 
 son of the two, and are models of bio- 
 graphical portraiture. We have numer- 
 ous editions and translations of them. 
 Plutarch’s other works, about sixty in 
 number, are generally classed as moralia, 
 though some of them are narrative. His 
 writings show that he was well ac- 
 quainted with the literature of his time. 
 
PLUTO 
 
 PO 
 
 and with history, and that he must have 
 had access to many books. 
 
 PLUTO, in classical mythology, the 
 god of the infernal regions, the ruler of 
 the dead. He was a son of Cronus and 
 Rhea, a brother of Zeus (Jupiter) and 
 Poseidon (Neptune), and to him, on the 
 partition of the world, fell the kingdom 
 of the shades. He married Persephbne 
 (which see). By the Greeks he was gen- 
 erally called Hades and by the Romans 
 Orcus, Tartarus, and Dis Pater. As is 
 the case with all other pagan deities, the 
 accounts of Pluto vary with different 
 writers and periods, and in later ages he 
 was confounded with Plutus. The wor- 
 ship of Pluto was extensively spread 
 among the Greeks and Romans. The 
 cypress, the box, the narcissus, and the 
 plant adiantum (maiden-hair), were sa- 
 cred to him : oxen and goats were sacri- 
 ficed to him in the shades of night, and 
 his priests were crowned with cypress. 
 He is represented in gloomy majesty, 
 his forehead shaped by his hair, and 
 with a thick beard. In his hand he holds 
 a two-forked scepter, a staff, or a key ; by 
 his side is Cerberus. He is often accom- 
 panied by his wife. 
 
 PLUTONIC ROCKS, unstratified cry- 
 stalline rocks, such as granites, green- 
 stones, and other, of igneous origin, 
 formed at great depths from the surface 
 of the earth. They are distinguished 
 from those called volcanic rocks, al- 
 though they are both igneous; plutonic 
 rocks having been elaborated in the deep 
 recesses of the earth, while the volcanic 
 are solidified at or near the surface. 
 
 PLUTUS, in Greek mythology, the god 
 of riches. Zeus struck him blind because 
 he confined his gifts to the good; and he 
 thenceforth conferred them equally on 
 the good and the bad. His residence 
 was under the earth. Plutus is the sub- 
 ject of Aristophanes’ comedy of the 
 same name. 
 
 PLUVIOSE, the fifth month of the 
 French republican calendar, including 
 January 20 — Feb. 18 or 19. See Calendar. 
 
 PLYMOUTH (plim'uth), a seaport, 
 municipal, pari., and county borough of 
 England, in Devonshire, at the head of 
 
 Plymouth Sound. Plymouth is well de- 
 fended both land- and seaward by a 
 series of forts of exceptional strength 
 provided with heavy ordnance. A 
 stupendous breakwater has been con- 
 
 structed at a cost of about $10,000,000. 
 The western harbor, is specially devoted 
 to the royal navy, and here are the dock- 
 yard, and Keyhain steam -yard. The 
 mercantile marine is accommodated in 
 the eastern harbor. Pop. 107,509. 
 
 PLYMOUTH, a seaport and capital of 
 Plymouth co. Massachusetts, 37 miles 
 s.s.e. of Boston, founded by the Pilgrim 
 Fathers in 1620. It is situated in a capa- 
 cious but shallow bay, andhasextensive 
 fisheries, rope and canvas factories, also 
 iron-works. Pilgrim Hall, and a colossal 
 monument to the pilgrims, on the to]) 
 of the adjoining hill, are the chief sights 
 of the place. Pop. 10,485. 
 
 PLYMOUTH, a growing town in 
 Lucerne co., Penn. Coal mining is ex- 
 tensively carried on. Pop. 14.879. 
 
 PLYMOUTH BRETHREN, Plymouth- 
 ites, a sect of Christians who first ap- 
 peared at Plymouth in 1830, but have 
 since considerably extended over Great 
 Britain, the United States, and among 
 the Protestants of France, Switzerland, 
 Italy, etc. They object to national 
 churches as being too lax, and to dis- 
 senting churches as too sectarian, recog- 
 nizing all as brethren who believe in 
 Christ and the Holy Spirit as his Vicar. 
 They acknowledge no form of church 
 government nor any office of the minis- 
 try, all males being regarded by them 
 as equally entitled to “prophesy” or 
 preach. 
 
 PLYMOUTH ROCK, a ledge of rock 
 in Pljunouth harbor. Mass., on which 
 the Pilgrims are said to have stepped 
 when disembarking. A beautiful granite 
 canopy has been erected upon the rock. 
 
 PLYMOUTH ROCK, a breed of do- 
 mestic fowls. It is of large size and has 
 valuable qualities for market purposes. 
 The favorite variety is the “barred,” 
 of a grayish white color, every feather 
 marked with many curving black bands. 
 The average weight of the cock is 9J 
 pounds, of hens 7^ pounds. 
 
 PNEUMATIC DISPATCH, propulsion 
 by means of compressed air or by form- 
 ing a vacuum. Pneumatic railways have 
 thus far proved abortive, but propulsion 
 by compressed air has been successfully 
 applied to a variety of practical uses. 
 Parcels are thus conveyed, and internal 
 communication in mercantile houses, 
 hotels, etc., is carried on by its means. 
 The most developed application tof com- 
 pressed air as a motive force is in con- 
 nection with the telegraph and post- 
 office service of large cities. Pneumatic 
 dispatch, which has proved a most 
 useful auxiliary in securing prompt and 
 cheap collection and distribution of 
 telegraphic messages, was first intro- 
 duced in London by Latimer Clark in 
 1853, improved by Varley 1858, and 
 again by Siemens in 1863. The vehicles 
 charged with the messages, technically 
 called carriers, are forced through leaden 
 tubes connecting the various stations, 
 and from 1^ to 3 inches, diameter by 
 means of air-pressure at one end, or 
 sucked through by a partial vacuum at 
 the other. The invention of Latimer 
 Clark and Varley required a separate 
 tube between each pair of stations, and 
 admitted of only a single despatch at a 
 time; but a system of laying tubes in 
 circuit for the continuous transmission 
 of dispatches, by means of an uninter-' 
 
 rupted air-current in one direction, 
 was adopted in Berlin by Messrs. Sie- 
 mens and Halske in 1863, and intro- 
 duced in London in 1870. Pneumatic 
 tubes are also in growing use in Liver- 
 pool, Manchester, Glasgow, Dublin, etc. 
 The circuit system, but not with a con- 
 tinuous current, is extensively used in 
 Paris. The first attempt at pneumatic 
 dispatch in America was made by A. E. 
 Beach in 1867. The construction of an 
 atmospheric railway tunnel was com- 
 menced but after a short distance was 
 complete the work was abandoned. 
 This was the first and only attempt at 
 atmospheric railway construction in 
 America. The use of pneumatic dis- 
 patch has, however, become very ex- 
 tensive. It is in use in all the large cities 
 in stores for carrying cash to and from 
 a centrally located cashier’s desk and 
 in a great many cities it is also used in 
 carrying small parcels. The po.st -office 
 department of New York, Philadelphia, 
 Chicago and other large cities use it ex- 
 tensively, and it is proposed to keep 
 extending the service as fast as possible. 
 
 PNEUMATICS, that branch of physics 
 which treats of the mechanical proper- 
 ties of elastic fluids, and particularly of 
 atmospheric air. The chemical proper- 
 ties of elastic fluids (air and gases) be- 
 long to chemistry. Pneumatics treat 
 of the weight, pressure, equilibrium, 
 elasticity, density, condensation, rare- 
 faction, resistance, motion, etc., of air; 
 it treats also of air considered as the 
 medium of sound (acoustics), and as the 
 vehicle of heat, moisture, etc. It also 
 comprehends the description of those 
 machines which depend chiefly for their 
 action on the pressure and elasticity of 
 air, as the various kinds of pumps, 
 artificial fountains, etc. The weight of 
 the air, and its pressure on all the bodies 
 on the earth’s surface, w'ere quite un- 
 known to the ancients, and only first 
 perceived in the middle of the 17th cen- 
 tury by Galileo, when a sucking-pump 
 refused to draw water above a certain 
 height; and to Torricelli, his pupil, be- 
 longs the honor of giving first a natural 
 explanation of the phenomenon. See 
 Air, Air-pump, Atmosphere, Barometer, 
 Gas, Pump, etc. 
 
 PNEUMONIA, acute inflammation of 
 the lung substance. The more general 
 symptoms are feverishness, constant 
 pressing pain on the chest, difficult 
 breathing and painfid cough. The base 
 of the lung is generally attacked, and 
 the right lung twice as often as the left, 
 but both may be affected. Pneumonia is 
 frequently complicated with pleurisy 
 (which see). The patient must be kept 
 quiet in bed, the affected parts poulticed 
 and the bowels attended to. Mild 
 nourishing diet, with medicines to 
 stimulate the skin and to reduce fever, 
 should be given. 
 
 PO, the largest river of Italy. It 
 rises on the confines of France and Pied- 
 mont in Mount Viso, one of the Cottian 
 Alps, and receives during its long course 
 to the Adriatic (about 450 miles), a vast 
 number of tributary streams. It divides 
 the great plain of Lombardy into two 
 nearly equal parts, and is the grand re- 
 ceptacle for the streams flowing south 
 from the Alps, and for the lesser waters 
 that flow north from a part of the 
 
PNEUMATIC TOOLS 
 
 Poison 
 
 Apennine range. Its principal affluents 
 are, on the left, the Baltea, Sesia, 
 Ticino, Adda, and Mincio; on the right 
 the Tanaro, Trebbia, and Panaro. The 
 Po, in spite of embankments, etc., is the 
 cause of frequent inundations, especially 
 near its mouth. In some places, owing to 
 the silt carried down, its channel is now 
 raised above the country through which 
 it flows. Fish are plentiful in it, includ- 
 ing the shad, salmon, and even sturgeon. 
 
 PNEUMATIC TOOLS, portable, self- 
 contained-motor tools, for metal and 
 wood working, operated by compressed 
 air. In the percussion type work is done 
 by rapidly repeated percussive blows 
 and in the rotary type by a rotary or 
 boring action. The motive power used 
 is air under pressure, and the motor is 
 contained within the tool. There are 
 nearly 100 different styles of tools in 
 use and new appliances are being con- 
 stantly discovered. Hammering, ram- 
 ming, calking, chipping, riveting, shav- 
 ing, drilling, boring, screwing, clipping, 
 carving, and expanding tubes are some 
 of the classes of work done. 
 
 POACHING, the trespassing on an- 
 other’s property for the purpose of kill- 
 ing or stealing game or fish. For the law 
 relating to the poaching of game see 
 Game Laws. 
 
 POCAHON'TAS, daughter of Pow- 
 hatan, a celebrated American-Indian 
 warrior of Virginia, born about the year 
 1595. Some romantic incidents are told 
 of her life, but there seem to be con- 
 siderable doubts as to their truth. She 
 is said to have shown a great friendship 
 for the English who colonized Virginia, 
 and to have rendered them substantial 
 services. In 1607 she prevailed on her 
 father to spare the life of Captain John 
 Smith, his prisoner, and two years later 
 
 Pocahontas. 
 
 frustrated a plot to destroy him and his 
 party. After Captain Smith had left 
 the colony she was kept as a hostage 
 by an English expeditionary force 
 (1612). During this detention she mar- 
 ried Mr. Rolfe, an Englishman, who in 
 1616 took her on a visit to England, 
 where she was baptized and assumed the 
 name of Rebecca. She died the follow- 
 ing year, and left one son, who was 
 educated in London, and whose de- 
 scendants are said to exist still in the 
 state of Virginia. 
 
 PODIEBRAD (pod'ye-brAd), George, 
 King of Bohemia, born 1420, died 1471. 
 In 1444 he became one of the two gover- 
 nors of Bohemia during the minority of 
 Ladislas, Albert’s posthumous son, now 
 
 king of the country, and, after over- 
 coming the Catholic opposition, sole 
 regent in 1451. Ladislas died in 1457, 
 and Podiebrad was elected to the throne 
 in the following year, and crowned by 
 the Catholic bishops in 1459. He in- 
 augurated his reign by the introduction 
 of various beneficent laws, wise ad- 
 ministration, and a policy of concilia- 
 tion toward the Catholics; but he was 
 not allowed to carry out his reforms in 
 peace. The pope, Paul II., publicly 
 denounced him as an heretic in 1463, 
 excommunicated him, and his legate 
 soon produced a rising among the 
 Catholics. In order to secure the aid of 
 the Poles he declared the successor to 
 the throne of Poland to be his own 
 successor, while his sons should only 
 inherit the family estates (1469). The 
 Poles were thus immediately drawn to 
 his side; the Emperor Frederick also 
 declared in his favor; and his Catholic 
 subjects became reconciled to him. 
 Shortly after he destroyed the infantry 
 of the Hungarians. He thus saw himself 
 at last completely secured in his king- 
 dom; but no sooner was this accom- 
 plished than he died; being succeeded 
 by Ladislas, eldest son of Casimir IV., 
 king of Poland, who thus united the two 
 crowns. 
 
 PODO'LIA, a government of South- 
 western Russia; area, 16,224 sq. miles. 
 The climate is temperate and salubrious, 
 the soil generally very fertile; in fact, 
 Podolia forms one of the most valuable 
 agricultural possessions of the Russian 
 Empire. Pop. 3,031,500. Capital, Kam- 
 enetz. 
 
 POE, Edgar Allan, American poet and 
 romantic writer, born at Baltimore 
 1809, died in the same city 1849. His 
 father and mother were actors, and be- 
 ing left an orphan when a mere child he 
 was adopted by Mr. Allan, a wealthy 
 Baltimore merchant. His early educa- 
 tion he received at Stoke-Newington, 
 London, 1816-21, and on his return to 
 America attended a school at Richmond, 
 Virginia, and finally entered the Uni- 
 versity of Charlottesville. Here he dis- 
 played extraordinary talents, but also 
 contracted a taste for fast living which 
 occasioned quarrels with his benefactor, 
 and caused him to quit America for 
 Eurime. He took part in the struggles of 
 the Greeks for independence, and for a 
 few years led an erratic life on the con- 
 tinent. In 1829 he returned to America, 
 a reconciliation with Mr. Allan took 
 place, and he was sent as cadet to the 
 military academy at West Point. Fur- 
 ther irregularities brought about a com- 
 plete rupture with Mr. Allan, and Poe 
 enlisted as a private soldier, however, 
 only to desert later on. His literary 
 career may be said to have begun in 
 1835, when he gained the prize offered 
 by the Baltimore Saturday Visitor for a 
 tale and a poem. He then became suc- 
 cessively editor of the newly-founded 
 Southern Literary Messenger at Rich- 
 mond, contributor to the New York 
 Review at New York, and editor of 
 Burton’s Gentleman’s Magazine and 
 Graham’s Magazine at Philadelphia. 
 For these periodicals he wrote a number 
 of tales, exhibiting a weird yet fascinat- 
 ing imagination. While at Richmond, 
 in 1836, he married his cousin, Virginia 
 
 Clemm, a beautiful and amiable girl. > 
 The great event in Poe’s life was the 
 publication at New York in 1845 of his ( 
 poem the Raven, which spread his fame 
 to the whole English-speaking world. 
 For this remarkable production Poe is 
 said to have received $10.00. He was 
 subsequently connected with The Home 
 Journal and The Broadway Journal. 
 
 In 1848 his wife died. Passing through 
 Baltimore in 1849, on his way to New 
 York to make preparations for a second 
 marriage, he was led to excessive drink- 
 ing, and died from its effects at the 
 hospital. 
 
 POET LAUREATE. See Laureate. 
 
 POETRY, that one of the fine arts 
 which exhibits its special character and 
 powers by means of language; or, ac- 
 cording to Aytoun, the art which has 
 for its object the creation of intellectual >' 
 pleasures by means of imaginative and 
 passionate language, and language gen- 
 erally, though not necessarily, formed 
 into regular numbers. It has also been 
 defined as the concrete and artistic ex- 
 pression of the human mind in emotional 
 and rhythmical language. It is the ; 
 earliest form of literature, and also the 
 final and ideal form of all pure literature ; 
 its true place lying between music on 
 the one hand and prose or loosened 
 speech on the other. The poet deals with 
 language as the painter does with color, 
 sometimes invading the domain of music 
 and sometimes that of prose, or rather he 
 brings prose into the domain of poetry. 
 The two great classes of poetic impulse 
 are dramatic imagination and lyric 
 imagination. Partdking of the character 
 of both is epic or narrative poetry. 
 (See Epic.) To the dramatic class belong 
 tragedy and comedy; to the lyric belong 
 the song, hymn, ode, anthem, elegy, 
 sonnet, and ballad, though the last- ■■ , 
 named frequently has a kind of epic 
 character. Other forms, such as “didac- 
 tic” poetry, “satirical” poetry, are also 
 in use, but it is a question if they enter J 
 into the circle of poetry at all. See .■ 
 separate articles on the various species. 
 Poetics is the theory of poetry; that 
 branch of criticism which treats of the 
 nature and laws of poetry. 
 
 POINT, in geometry, is a quantity 
 which has no parts, or which is indivisi- 
 ble, or which has position without mag- 
 nitude. Points may be regarded as the 
 ends or extremities of lines. If a point 
 is supposed to be moved in any way, it 
 will by its motion describe a line. 
 
 POINTER DOG, a breed of sporting 
 dogs, nearly allied to the true hounds. 
 The original breed is Spanish, but a cross 
 with the fox-hound is now generally 
 used. It is smooth, short-haired, gener- 
 ally marked black and white like the 
 fox-hound, but occasionally a uniform 
 black. It derives its name from its habit 
 of stopping and pointing with the head 
 in the direction of game, discovered by 
 a very acute sense of smell. The dog 
 once having pointed remains perfectly 
 quiet. This faculty in the pointer is 
 hereditary, but is better developed by 
 training. 
 
 POISON, any agent capable of pro- 
 ducing a morbid, noxious, dangerous, 
 or deadly effect upon the animal econ- 
 omy, when introduced either by cutane- 
 ous absorption, respiration, or the diges- 
 
POITIERS, DIANA OP 
 
 POLAR distance 
 
 tive canaL Poisons are divided, with 
 respect to the kingdom to which they 
 belong, into animal, vegetable, and 
 mineral; but those which proceed from 
 animals are often called venoms, while 
 those that are produced by disease have 
 the name virus. With respect to their 
 effects they have been divided into four 
 classes, namely, irritant, narcotic, nar- 
 cotico-acrid, and septic or putrescent. 
 Many poisons operate chemically, cor- 
 roding the organized fiber, and causing 
 inflammation and mortification. To this 
 class belong many metallic oxides and 
 salts, as arsenic, one of the most deadly 
 poisons; many preparations of copper, 
 mercury, and antimony, and othermetals ; 
 the mineral and vegetable acids ; the sub- 
 stance derived from some plants, as the 
 spurges and mezereon; and cantharides, 
 from the animal kingdom. Other poisons 
 exercise a powerful action upon the 
 nerves and a rapid destruction of their 
 energy. These are the sedative or stupe- 
 fying poisons, and belong for the most 
 part to the vegetable kingdom. Opium, 
 hemlock, henbane, belladonna, are the 
 best-known forms of this poison. Prus- 
 sic acid, a poison obtained from the 
 kernels of several fruits, the cherry- 
 laurel, etc., is one of the most rapid 
 destroyers of life. Among plants there 
 are many which unite the properties of 
 both kinds, as the common foxglove, 
 and the monkshood or aconite. An alka- 
 loid is extracted from the latter, ^th of 
 a grain of which has proved fatal. 
 Another class of poisons suddenly and 
 entirely cause a cessation of some func- 
 tion necessary to life. To this class be- 
 long all the kinds of gas and air which 
 are irrespirable, suffocating vapors, as 
 carbonic acid gas, fumes of sulphur and 
 charcoal, etc. Many preparations of 
 lead, as acetate or sugar of lead, car- 
 bonate or whitelead, etc., are to be 
 counted in this class. The effect of 
 poisons materially depend on the ex- 
 tent of the dose, some of the most dead- 
 ly poisons being useful remedies in cer- 
 tain quantities and circumstances. 
 Antidotes naturally vary with the dif- 
 ferent kinds of poisons. They sometimes 
 protect the body against the operation 
 of the poison, sometimes change this 
 last in such a manner that it loses its 
 injurious properties, and sometimes 
 remove or remedy its violent results. 
 Thus in cases of poisoning by acrid and 
 corrosive substances we use the fatty, 
 mucilaginous substances, as oil, milk, 
 etc., which sheathe and protect the 
 coats of the stomach and bowels against 
 the operation of the poison. Against the 
 metallic posions substances are em- 
 ployed which form with the poison 
 insoluble compounds, such as freshly 
 prepared hydrated oxide of iron, or 
 dialysed iron for arsenic, albumin (white 
 of egg) for mercury; Epsom or Glauber’s 
 salts for lead. Lime, chalk, and mag- 
 nesia are the best remedies for the 
 powerful acids. For cantharides, muci- 
 lage, gruel, and barley-water are em- 
 ployed. We oppose to the alkaline 
 poisons the weaker vegetable acids, as 
 vinegar. Prussic acid is neutralized by 
 alkalies and freshly precipitated oxide 
 of iron. To arouse those poisoned by 
 opium, we use coffee and ammonia, and 
 Joelladonna as an antagonistic drug. 
 
 Chloral-hydrate poisoning is similarly 
 treated; and for strychnia or nux 
 vomica, animal charcoal in water and 
 chloral-hydrate are used. The sale of 
 poison is regulated and restricted by law. 
 Poisoning was common in ancient 
 Rome, and in France and Italy during 
 the 17th century. 
 
 POITIERS, DIANA OF. See Diana of 
 Poitiers. 
 
 POKEWEED, a North American 
 branching herbaceous plant. Its root 
 acts as a powerful emetic and cathartic, 
 but its use is attended with narcotic 
 effects. Its berries are said to possess 
 the same quality; they are employed as 
 a remedy for chronic and syphilitic 
 rheumatism, and for allaying syphiloid 
 pains. The leaves are extremely acrid, 
 but the young shoots, which lose this 
 quality by boiling in water, are eaten in 
 the United States as asparagus. 
 
 POLACCA, or POLACRE, a three- 
 masted vessel used in the Mediterranean. 
 The masts are usually of one piece, so 
 that they have neither tops, caps, nor 
 cross-trees. It carries a fore-and-aft 
 sail on the mizzen-mast, and square 
 sails on the main-mast and fore-mast. 
 
 POL'AND, an extensive territory of 
 central Europe, which existed for many 
 centuries as an independent and power- 
 ful state; but having fallen a prey to 
 internal dissensions, was violently seized 
 by Austria, Prussia, and Russia as a 
 eommon spoil, partitioned among these 
 three powers, and incorporated with 
 their dominions. In its greatest pros- 
 perity it had at least 11,000,000 of in- 
 habitants, and an area of 350,000 sq. 
 miles, and immediately before its first 
 partition an areS, of about 282,000 sq. 
 miles, stretching from the frontiers of 
 Hungary and Turkey to the Baltic, and 
 from Germany far east into Russia, 
 forming one compact kingdom. With 
 the exception of the Carpathians, form- 
 ing its southwestern boundary, and a 
 ridge of moderate elevation penetrating 
 into it from Silesia, the country presents 
 the appearance of an almost unbroken 
 plain, composed partly of gently-undu- 
 lating expanses, partly of rich alluvial 
 flats, partly of sandy tracts, and partly 
 of extensive morasses. Its principal 
 streams are the Vistula, the Niemen, 
 and the Dwina, all belonging to the 
 basin of the Baltic; and the Dniester, 
 South Bug, and Dnieper, with its tribu- 
 tary, Pripet, belonging to the basin of 
 the Black sea. The physical configura- 
 tion of the country makes it admirably 
 adapted for agriculture. Next to grain 
 and cattle its most important product 
 is timber. 
 
 The Poles, like the Russians, are a 
 Slavonic race, and are first spoken of as 
 the Polani, a tribe or people between the 
 Vistula and Oder. The country was 
 divided into small communities until 
 thereign of Mieezyslaw I. (962-992) of the 
 Piast dynasty, who renounced paganism 
 in favor of Christianity, and was a vassal 
 of the German emperor. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Boleslaw the Great (992-1025) 
 who raised Poland into an independent 
 kingdom and increased its territories. 
 In succeeding reigns the country was 
 involved in war with Germany, the 
 heathen Prussians, the Teutonic knights, 
 and with Russia. The last of the Rast 
 
 dynasty was Casimir the Great (1364- 
 70), during whose reign the material 
 prosperity of Poland greatly increased. 
 He was succeeded by his nephew, Louis 
 of Anjou, king of Hungary, whose 
 daughter, Hedwig, was recognized as 
 “king” in 1384, and having married 
 Jagello, prince of Lithuania, thus estab- 
 lished the dynasty of the Jagellons, 
 which lasted from 1386 to 1572. During 
 this period Poland attained its most 
 powerful and flourishing condition. In 
 1572 the Jagellon dynasty became ex- 
 tinct in the male line, and the monarchy, 
 hitherto elective in theory, now became 
 so in fact. The more important of the 
 elective kings were Sigismund III. 
 (1587-1637, Wladislaw or Ladislaus IV. 
 (1632-48), John Casimir (1648-69), and 
 the Polish general Sobieski, who became 
 king under the title of John III. (1674- 
 96). He was succeeded by Augustus II., 
 Elector of Saxony, who got entangled 
 in the war of Russia with Charles XII., 
 and had as a rival in the kingdom Stan- 
 islaus Lesezynski. Augustus III. (1733 
 — 63) followed, and by the end of his 
 reign internal dissensions and other 
 causes had brought the country into a 
 state of helplessness. In 1772, under the 
 last feeble king Stanislaus Augustus 
 (1764-95), the first actual partition of 
 Poland took place, when about a third 
 of her territories were seized by Prussia, 
 Austria, and Russia, the respective 
 shares of the spoil being Prussia 13,415 
 sq. miles, Austria 27,000 sq. miles, and 
 Russia 42,000 sq. miles. What remained 
 to Poland was completely under Russian 
 influence. Another partition in 1793 
 gave Russia nearly 97,000 sq. miles and 
 Prussia 22,500 sq. miles. A third parti- 
 tion took place in 1795 after the heroic 
 attempt of Kosciusko to save his coun- 
 try, and the last king of Poland became 
 a pensionary of the Russian court. The 
 successive partitions gave Russia up- 
 ward of 180,000 sq. miles, Austria about 
 45,000 sq. miles, and Prussia 57,000 sq. 
 miles. From 1815 to 1830 Russian 
 Poland was a constitutional monarchy 
 with the emperor as king, but the Poles, 
 taking occasion of the French revolution 
 at the latter date rashly engaged in an 
 insurrection, which only hastened their 
 complete absorption in Russia. The 
 name Kingdom of Poland indeed re- 
 mains, but all the autonomic institu- 
 tions of the country have been swept 
 away, and the whole country is being 
 rapidly Russified. The Polish language 
 has been entirely superseded by Russian 
 in all courtsof law,educational establish- 
 ments and public offices; and all official 
 correspondence must be in Russian. 
 The population in 1907 was 9,442,590, 
 of whom over 70 per cent were Roman 
 Catholics. 
 
 POLAR BEAR. See Bear. 
 
 POLAR CIRCLES, two imaginary 
 circles of the earth parallel to the equa- 
 tor, the one north and the other south, 
 distant 23° 28' from either pole. See 
 
 llTlflAT* AT*r*^lP 
 
 POLAR DISTANCE, the angular dis- 
 tance of any point on a sphere from 
 one of its poles; more especially, the 
 angular distance of a heavenly body 
 from the elevated pole of the heavens. 
 It is measured by the intercepted arc 
 of the circle passing through it and 
 
POLAR EXPLORATION 
 
 POLAR EXPLORATION 
 
 In 1815 polar exploration found a 
 promoter in Sir John Barrow, who 
 offered a reward of i20,000 sterling to 
 anyone making the northwest passage, 
 and £5,000 for reaching 89 degrees 
 north latitude, which would be sixty- 
 nine miles south of the pole. 
 
 Two years later, in 1817, two expe- 
 ditions set out, one by way of Spitz- 
 bergen, the other by Baffin’s Bay. The 
 Dorothea and the Trent, on the Spitz- 
 bergen routek were commanded by 
 Captain David Buchen and Lieutenant 
 John Franklin. The other expedition 
 was in charge of Captain John Ross 
 and Lieutenant Edward Parry. Neither 
 expedition was a success. In 1827 
 Parry on his third voyage made his 
 historic dash for the pole from Spitz- 
 bergen by sledge boats and reached 
 latitude 82 degrees and 42 minutes. 
 
 In 1845 Sir John Franklin made his 
 tragic voyage. His ships, the Erebus 
 and the Terror, were seen by a whaler 
 in July, 1845, and that was the last 
 trace. Eor three years the British 
 admiralty, spurred on by Lady Frank- 
 lin, sent out relief expeditions, but 
 the only reward of the searchers was 
 the discovery of the grewsome relics 
 of a frightful tragedy. One vessel 
 had been crushed in the ice, the other 
 had been stranded on the shore of 
 King William’s Island. Three winters 
 in the north had reduced the explorers 
 to skeletons, and they had fallen one 
 by one by the way in an effort to 
 drag their sledges over the ice to a 
 land camp. 
 
 The field of arctic exploration was 
 entered by Walter Wellman in 1894. 
 He made his effort to reach the pole 
 with sledge and boat, using a ship 
 from Spitzbergen, scene of his later 
 attempts by balloon fight. His ves- 
 sel, the Ragnvald Jarl, was crushed 
 by fioes. May 28, 1894, at Walden 
 Island. He continued north by sledge 
 after the wreck occurred. He was 
 obliged to abandon the attempt six 
 miles from Platen Islands, near the 
 eighty-first parallel. His second ex- 
 pedition was in 1898-9, when he pene- 
 trated Franz Josef Land. He had 
 raised the funds for the expedition 
 without assistance. His ship was the 
 Frithjof, a Norwegian vessel. 
 
 In 1899 the ship of the Duke of 
 Abruzzi touched at Franz Josef Land 
 and Wellman, as the first settler, wel- 
 comed the duke. Then, in 1906, Well- 
 man was prepared to start in his first 
 attempt to reach the pole in a dirigible 
 balloon. Atmospheric conditions were 
 such as to make a start impracticable. 
 He started, however, a year later, but 
 was forced to halt. His last attempt 
 was in 1909, but an accident to his 
 balloon forced him again to relinquish 
 the project. He announced then that 
 he would try again. 
 
 In 1897 Andree and two companions 
 left Danes Islands from a point only 
 a few hundred yards from Walter 
 Wellman’s camp in an attempt to 
 reach the pole by balloon. It was 
 not a dirigible balloon and the hope 
 of the explorers was that the winds 
 would blow it up to the pole. The last 
 seen of the balloon it was drifting out 
 
 over the Barents sea, and since then 
 nothing has been heard of it nor has 
 a trace been found. 
 
 The adventures of Frithjof Nansen, 
 the Norwegian explorer, who in 1896 
 got as far north as 86 degree’s 14 min- 
 utes, are recent enough to be com- 
 paratively fresh in the public memory. 
 He sailed from Christiana in the Fram, 
 with the intention of forcing his way 
 into the arctic ice near the New Si- 
 berian Islands and then drifting to 
 the pole. 
 
 A party was sent out to establish 
 supply stations to which the explorer 
 might retreat if necessary, and the 
 cross country work was to be done 
 on skis. Nansen was absent a long 
 time and fears were entertained for 
 his safety, but he returned, having 
 penetrated farther north than any 
 other explorer up to that time. 
 
 In 1900 the Duke of Abruzzi, nephew 
 of the King of Italy, sailed from 
 Christiania in the Stella Polari. He 
 was considered an amateur, but he 
 planted his standard in latitude 86 de- 
 grees 34 minutes, a new record that 
 stood until Peary penetrated to lati- 
 tude 87 degrees 6 minutes six years 
 later. 
 
 Captain Roald Amundsen in 1903-6 
 made the Northwest Passage, which 
 had been vainly sought since the dis- 
 covery of America, and which had 
 never been accomplished by ships 
 alone, although MacClure is credited 
 with making it by ships and sledges. 
 In a tiny sealer, the Gjoa, he entered 
 Lancaster Strait and proceeded to 
 a harbor 100 miles from the magnetic 
 pole, which is in or near King William 
 Land. For nineteen months, day and 
 night, the party made uninterrupted 
 magnetic observations. Two members 
 of the party in the spring of 1905 
 charted the east coast of Victoria 
 Land as far as the seventy-second 
 parallel and discovered an unknown 
 tribe of Eskimos, the Kiilnermiums. 
 The expedition spent a second winter 
 in the ice and in the summer of 1906 
 reached civilization through Bering 
 Strait. 
 
 In 1904 Baron Toll, a Russian, led 
 a polar exploration party by way of 
 Siberia, but all the members perished 
 from the cold. 
 
 In 1903 Erickson, a Dane, headed 
 an expedition and got as far as Saun- 
 ders Island, where they were rescued 
 in a destitute condition. In the same 
 year Anthony Fiala, a young Brooklyn 
 explorer, sailed on the ship America 
 and proceeded farther north than the 
 Duke of Abruzzi. His party endured 
 great hardships before they were 
 rescued. 
 
 POLAR FORCES, in physics, forces 
 that are developed and act in pairs with 
 opposite tendencies, as in magnetism, 
 electricity, etc. 
 
 POLA'RIS, the pole-star, which see. 
 
 POLARTSCOPE, an optical instru- 
 ment, various kinds of which have been 
 contrived, for exhibiting the polarization 
 of light, or for examining transparent 
 media for the purpose of determining 
 their polarizing power. The important 
 
 portions of the instrument are the 
 polarizing and analysing plates or 
 prisms, and these are formed either o 
 natural crystalline structures, such r 
 Iceland-spar and tourmaline, or of . 
 series of reflecting surfaces artificially 
 joined together. The accompanying 
 figure shows Malus’ polariscope. a and b 
 
 are the reflectors, the one serving as 
 polarizer, the other as analyzer, each 
 consisting of a pile of glass plates. Each 
 reflector can be turned about on a hori- 
 zontal axis, and the upper one, or analy- 
 zer, can also be turned about on a ver- 
 tical axis, the amount of rotation being 
 measured on the horizontal circle c c. 
 See Polarization of Light. 
 
 POLARITY, that quality of a body in 
 virtue of which peculiar properties 
 reside in certain points called poles; 
 usually, as in electrified or magnetized 
 bodies, properties of attraction or re- 
 pulsion, or the power of taking a cer- 
 tain direction; as, the Polarity of the 
 magnet or magnetic needle, whose pole 
 is not that of the earth, but a point in 
 the Polar Regions. A mineral is said to 
 possess polarity when it attracts one 
 pole of a magnetic needle and repels the 
 other. 
 
 POLARIZATION OF LIGHT, an alter- 
 ation produced upon light by the action 
 of certain bodies by which it is made to 
 change its character. A common ray 
 of light exhibits the same properties on 
 all sides, but any reflected or refracted 
 ray, or a ray transmitted through cer- 
 tain media, exhibits different prop- 
 erties on different sides; and is said 
 to be polarized. The polarization of 
 light may be effected in various ways, 
 but chiefly in the following: — (1) By 
 reflection at a proper angle (the ‘ ‘polar- 
 izing angle”) from the surfaces of trans- 
 parent media, as glass, water, etc. 
 (2) By transmission through crystals 
 possessing the property of double refrac- 
 tion, as Iceland-spar. (3) By trans- 
 mission through a sufficient number of 
 transparent uncrystallized plates placed 
 at proper angles. (4) By transmission 
 through a number of other bodies im- 
 perfectly crystallized, as agate, mother- 
 of-pearl, etc. The knowledge of this 
 singular property of light has afforded 
 an explanation of some interesting 
 
POLE 
 
 POLICE 
 
 phenomena in optics. A simple example 
 S of polarization may be illustrated by 
 ■§ two slices of the semi-transparent 
 V mineral tourmaline cut parallel to the 
 
 ■ axis of the crystal. If one is laid upon 
 
 ■ the other in the positions A B (see fig. 
 K below) they form an opaque com- 
 f bination. If one is turned round upon 
 
 ! the other at various angles it will be 
 found that greatest transparency is 
 ( produced in the position corresponding 
 with a b (which represents the natural 
 I Dosition they originally occupied in 
 the crystal), an intermediate stage being 
 that shown at a' b'. The light which has 
 passed through the one plate is polar- 
 ized, and its ability to pass through the 
 ' other plate is thus altered. Reflection 
 is another very common cause of polar- 
 ization. The plane of polarization is 
 that particular plane in which a ray of 
 polarized light incident at the polar- 
 izing angle is most copiously reflected. 
 When the polarization is produced by 
 reflection the plane of reflection is the 
 plane of polarization. According to 
 Fresnel’s theory, which is that generally 
 I received, the vibrations of light polar- 
 t ized in any plane are perpendicular to 
 \ that plane. The vibrations of a ray 
 , reflected at the polarizing angle are 
 i accordingly to be regarded as per- 
 > pendicular to the plane of incidence and 
 ' reflection, and therefore as parallel to 
 the reflecting surface. Polarized light 
 
 A a’ 
 
 Polarization of light. 
 
 cannot be distinguished from common 
 light by the naked eye; and for all 
 experiments in polarization two pieces 
 of apparatus must be employed — one 
 to produce polarization, and the other 
 to show it. The former is called a 
 polarizer, the latter an analyzer; and 
 every apparatus that serves for one of 
 these purposes will also serve for the 
 other. One such apparatus is shown 
 in the article Polariscope. The usual proc- 
 ess in examining light with a view 
 to test whether it is polarized, consists 
 in looking at it through the analyzer, 
 and observing whether any change of 
 brightness occurs as the analyzer is 
 rotated. There are two positions, 
 differing by 180°, which give a minimum 
 of light, and the two positions inter- 
 mediate between these give a maximum 
 of light. The extent of the changes 
 thus observed is a measure of the com- 
 pleteness of the polarization of light. 
 Very beautiful colors may be produced 
 by the peculiar action of polarized light ; 
 as for example, if a piece of selenite 
 (crystallized gypum) about the thick- 
 ness of paper is introduced between 
 the polarizer and analyzer of any polar- 
 izing arrangement, and turned about 
 in different directions, it will in some 
 positions appear brightly colored, the 
 color being most decided when the 
 analyzer is in either of the two critical 
 positions which give respectively the 
 
 ^ ' greatest light and the greatest dark- 
 
 I P. E.— 63 
 
 ness. The color is changed to its com- 
 plementary by rotating the analyzer 
 through a right angle; but rotation of 
 the selenite, when the analyzer is in 
 either of the critical positions, merely 
 alters the depth of the color without 
 changing its tint, and in certain critical 
 positions of the selenite there is a com- 
 plete absence of color. A different class 
 of appearances are presented when a 
 plate, cut from a uniaxial crystal by 
 sections perpendicular to the axis, is 
 inserted between the polarizer and the 
 analyzer. Instead of a broad sheet of 
 uniform color, there is exhibited a 
 system of colored rings, interrupted 
 when the analyzer is in one of the two 
 critical positions by a black or white 
 cross. Observations of this phenomenon 
 affords in many cases an easy way of 
 determining the position of the axis 
 of the crystal, and is therefore of great 
 service in the study of crystalline 
 structure. Crystals are distinguished 
 as dextro-gyrate or Isevo-gyrate, accord- 
 ing as their colors ascend by a right- 
 handed or left-handed rotation of the 
 analyzer horizontally. Glass in a state 
 of strain exhibits coloration when placed 
 between a polarizer and analyzer, and 
 thus we can investigate the distribution 
 of the strain through its substance. 
 Unannealed glass is in a state of per- 
 manent strain. A plate of ordinary 
 glass may be strained by a force applied 
 t^o its edges by means of a screw. The 
 state of strain may be varied during 
 the examination of the plate by polar- 
 ized light. A plate of quartz (a uniaxial 
 crystal) cut at right angles to the optic 
 axis exhibits, when placed between 
 an analyzer and polarizer, a system 
 of colored rings like any other uniaxial 
 crystal; but we find that the center of 
 the rings, instead of having a black 
 cross, is brightly colored — red, yellow, 
 green, blue, etc., according to the thick- 
 ness of the plate. 
 
 POLE, the name given to either ex- 
 tremity of the axis round which the 
 earth revolves. The northern one is 
 called the north pole, and the southern 
 the south pole. Each of these poles is 90° 
 distant from every part of the equator. 
 In astronomy, the name is given to each 
 of the two points in which the axis of the 
 earth is supposed to meet the sphere of 
 the heavens, forming the fixed point 
 about which the stars appear to re- 
 volve. In a wider sense a pole is a point 
 on the surface of any sphere equally 
 distant from every part of the circum- 
 ference of a great circle of the sphere; 
 or a point 90° distant from the plane of 
 a great circle, and in a line passing per- 
 pendicularly through the center, called 
 the axis. Thus the zenith and nadir are 
 the poles of the horizon. So the poles of 
 the ecliptic are two points of the sphere 
 whose distance from the poles of the 
 world is equal to the obliquity of the 
 ecliptic, or they are 90° distant from 
 every part of the ecliptic. Pole, in 
 physics, is one of the points of a body 
 at which its attractive or repulsive 
 energy is concentrated, as the poles of 
 a magnet, the north pole of a needle, 
 the poles of a battery. 
 
 POLE, Perch, or Rod, a measure of 
 length containing 16^ feet or 5i yards. 
 Sometimes the term is used as a super- 
 
 ficial measure, a square pole denoting 
 X yards, or 30^ square yards. 
 
 'POLE-AXE, an axe attached to a pole 
 or handle of which the length varies con- 
 siderably. It was formerly used by 
 mounted soldiers, and in the navy for 
 boarding purposes. 
 
 POLECAT, a name common to several 
 species of carnivora of the weazel family. 
 The common polecat is about 17 inches 
 long, and the tail 6 inches. The color is 
 dark brown. It is a nocturnal animal, 
 sleeping during the day and searching 
 for its prey at night. It is especially d j- 
 
 structive to poultry, rabbits, and game. 
 Frogs, toads, newts, and fish are often 
 stored as food by this voracious animal. 
 It has glands secreting a fetid liquor, 
 somewhat like that of the American 
 skunk, which it ejects when irritated or 
 alarmed. 
 
 POLEM'ICS, the art or practice of 
 disputation generally, but in a special 
 sense that branch of theological learn- 
 ing which pertains to the history or con- 
 duct of ecclesiastical controversy. 
 
 POLEM'OSCOPE, a sort of stand or 
 frame high enough to rise above a para- 
 pet or other similar object, having a 
 plane mirror at top so fitted as to reflect 
 any scene upon another mirror below, 
 and thus enable a person to see a scene 
 in which he is interested without ex- 
 posing himself. 
 
 POLE-STAR, the star a of the con- 
 stellation Ursa Minor, situated about 1° 
 20' from the north celestial pole, round 
 which it thus describes a small circle. 
 It is of the second magnitude, and is of 
 great use to navigators in the northern 
 hemisphere. Two stars called the 
 pointers, in the constellation Ursa 
 Major (the Great Bear, commonly called 
 the Plough), always point in the direc- 
 tion of the pole-star, and enable it to be 
 found readily. 
 
 POLICE (po-les'), the system insti- 
 tuted by a community to maintain 
 public order, liberty, and the security 
 of life and property. In its most popu- 
 lar acceptation the police signifies the 
 administration of the municipal laws 
 and regulations of a city or incorporated 
 town or borough. The primary object 
 of the police system is the prevention of 
 crime and the pursuit of offenders; but 
 it is also subservient to other purposes, 
 such as the suppression of mendicancy, 
 the preservation of order, the removal 
 of obstructions and nuisances, and the 
 enforcing of those local and general 
 laws which relate to the public health, 
 order, safety, and comfort. The term is 
 also applied to the body of men by 
 
POLIGNAC 
 
 POLITICAL OFFENSES 
 
 whom the laws and regulations are 
 enforced. 
 
 POLIGNAC (pol-in-yak), Jules 
 Auguste Armand Marie, Prince de, a 
 French statesman, belonging to an 
 ancient French family, born at Paris 
 1780, died at St. Germain 1847. After 
 the restoration he was appointed ad- 
 jutant-general to the king, and entered 
 the chamber of peers. In 1820 he ob- 
 tained from the pope the title of a 
 Roman prince. In 1823 he succeeded 
 Chateaubriand as ambassador at Lon- 
 don; but after the accession of Charles 
 X. spent the greater part of his time in 
 Paris. He was successively minister of 
 foreign affairs and president of the 
 council. At the revolution of 1830 he 
 was apprehended and condemned to 
 perpetual imprisonment. He remained 
 m the fortress of Ham till the amnesty 
 of 1836 allowed him to take up his 
 residence in England. He was ultimately 
 permitted to return to France. He was 
 the author of Considerations Politiques 
 (1832). Several other members of the 
 family were men of some note. 
 
 POLISHING is the name given to the 
 process by which the surface of a ma- 
 terial is made to assume a perfectly 
 smooth and glossy appearance, usually 
 by friction. The article to be polished 
 must first be made smooth and even, 
 after which the polishing begins. In the 
 case of wood the process is commonly 
 effected by rubbing with French polish 
 (which see). In metals, by polishing- 
 steel or blood-stone, or by wood covered 
 over with leather, and on which pul- 
 verized tripoli, chalk, tin-putty, etc., is 
 sprinkled. In glass and precious stones, 
 by tin-putty and lead siftings; in marble, 
 by tin-putty and tripoli; in granite and 
 other hard stones, by tripoli and quick- 
 lime. 
 
 POLISHING-POWDER, a prepara- 
 tion of plumbago for polishing iron 
 articles, also a composition variously 
 made up for cleaning gold and silver 
 plate. See Plate-powder. 
 
 POLISHING-PLATE, a gray or yel- 
 lowish slate, composed of microscopic 
 infusoria, found in the coal-measures of 
 Bohemia and in Auvergne, and used for 
 polishing glass, marble, and metals. 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY, the science 
 of the social ordering of wealth, or the 
 science which has as its aim the investi- 
 gation of the social conditions regulating 
 the production, distribution, exchange, 
 and consumption of wealth, the term 
 wealth being understood to mean all 
 articles or products possessing value 
 in exchange. While, however, political 
 economy is susceptible of wide defini- 
 tion on these lines, the exact scope of 
 the science within the terms of the 
 definition has been the subject of much 
 confused debate. From the nature of 
 the actual conditions of the production 
 and regulation of wealth, and the place 
 of the systematic examination of these 
 as departmental to a larger science in- 
 vestigating the natural laws of the for- 
 mation and progress of civilized com- 
 munities, it is impossible to sunder it 
 entirely from physical, intellectual, and 
 moral considerations tending to enlarge 
 indefinitely its scope. The varying ex- 
 tent to which these elements have 
 entered into the treatment of the sub- 
 
 ject by economists has given rise to con- 
 troversy not only as to whether eco- 
 nomics is to be considered as a physico- 
 mental or a purely mental science, but 
 even as to its claim to be considered an 
 independent science at all. By most 
 economists it is urged, that as the 
 reasoned and systematic statement of a 
 particular class of facts it may rightly 
 claim to be considered a science, while, 
 as dealing with inanimate things only 
 incidentally as the measure of motives 
 of desire, it is to be classed with the 
 moral or social sciences. Of more im- 
 portance, as affecting the whole history 
 of the science, have been the questions 
 arising from the method employed in 
 economic inquiry. The modern English 
 school of economists, including the 
 names of Adam Smith, Ricardo, Mill, 
 Cairns, Fawcett, and Marshall, have 
 been mainly guided by the deductive 
 method, its more extreme representa- 
 tives, such as Senior, asserting this 
 method to be the only one applicable 
 to the science. In point of fact political 
 economy has necessarily availed itself 
 of both methods. It has been deductive 
 in soTar as it has assumed at the outset 
 certain hypotheses, and derived from 
 these by a dialectical process the guiding 
 principles of the science; but even the 
 older economists, working under the 
 immediate influence of the mathe- 
 matico-physical sciences chiefly, cannot 
 be justly accused of having overlooked, 
 though they tended to underestimate, 
 the necessity of supplementing deduc- 
 tion by induction. The hypothesis on 
 which the economic system was founded, 
 was that in the economic sphere the 
 principal motive of human action was 
 individual self-interest, leading men to 
 seek to obtain the greatest amount of 
 wealth with the least expenditure of 
 effort; this hypothesis being followed 
 out to its logical conclusions, under 
 assumed conditions of perfectly free 
 competition, in connection with the facts 
 of the limitations of the earth’s extent 
 and reproductiveness, and the theory 
 of a tendency in the race to multiply 
 to an incalculable extent in the absence 
 of natural or artificial obstacles. On 
 this basis theories of value, rent, and 
 population were formed, having the 
 character of laws, but of laws which were 
 hypothetical merely — true only under 
 the assumed conditions of an environ- 
 ment in which competition was free 
 and frictionless, unhampered by inert- 
 ness, ignorance, restrictive customs, 
 and the like. In this respect the method 
 adopted and the results arrived at found 
 analogy in those physical sciences the 
 laws of which are only applicable in 
 actual fact under large and variable 
 modification. There was, however, an 
 indisputable tendency among the earlier 
 economic writers to regard these hypo- 
 thetical laws as in a greater degree rep- 
 resentative of actual fact than they were, 
 and even, when the actual facts fell 
 short of the theoretic conditions, to 
 regard these as prescriptive and regula- 
 tive. The ethical protest against this 
 tendency found a strong support in the 
 development of the group of biological 
 sciences, opening up new conceptions of 
 organic life and growth; and as the 
 result of these and other influences the 
 
 old rigidity in the application of theory 
 has largely disappeared. Where the 
 older economist tended to look upon the 
 subject-matter of economics as more or 
 less constant and furnishing lav^s of 
 universal application, the modern econo- 
 mist, having regard to ,the complexity 
 and variability of human motives and 
 the development of the race both in the 
 matter of character and institutions, 
 has come to recognize that the abstract 
 conception of a frictionless competitive 
 atmosphere, in which self-interested 
 motives worked with mechanical regu- 
 larity, can never bear other than a 
 qualified application to actual economic 
 conditions, and that laws relating to the 
 economic aspects of life at one stage of 
 human development seldom apply at 
 another without large modification. He 
 realizes clearly what the older economist 
 only imperfectly perceived, and even 
 more imperfectly expressed, that the 
 system they were elaborating was to 
 be considered rather as an instrument 
 to assist in the discovery of economic 
 truth, than a body of truths represent- 
 ing any actual or desirable social state. 
 When regarded in this light — as a 
 means to assist in the disentanglement 
 of the complex motives operative in 
 actual economic relations — the isolation 
 of one set of economic forces, and the 
 tracing of the logical issues of these, 
 becomes of the highest value, despite 
 the danger in careless use of neglecting 
 necessary modification and of translat- 
 ing its hypothetic statements into pre- 
 scriptions for conduct and social organi- 
 zation. It has been this neglect, the 
 assumption of didactic authority, and 
 the extent of the modifications often 
 necessary in the practical application of 
 theory which have tended to bring the 
 older school into discredit at the hands 
 of Comte, Cliff Leslie, Ruskin, and a 
 large number of foreign economists — 
 some complaining with Comte of the 
 tendency to vicious abstractions, and 
 the impossibility of isolating to any 
 useful end the special phenomena of 
 economics from other social phenomena 
 some, like the German and American; 
 historic schools, arguing that it is desir- 
 able and necessary to reason direct 
 from historic facts to facts without the 
 intervention of any formal economic 
 theory. So far, however, the opponents 
 of the older method of dealing with 
 economic problems, though they have 
 accomplished an admirable work in 
 clearing the older economics of many 
 confusions and misapprehensions, have 
 failed to supply a superior method of 
 analyzing the phenomena constituting 
 the subject-matter of the science, while 
 many of them have not scrupled to 
 avail themselves largely of the results 
 arrived at by the method they condemn. 
 
 POLITICAL OFFENSES, are those 
 offenses considered injurious to the 
 safety of the state, or such crimes as 
 form a violation of the allegiance due by 
 a subject to the recognized supreme 
 authority of his country. In modern 
 times the crimes considered political 
 offenses have varied at different periods 
 and in different states. In Britain the 
 most serious political offenses are termed 
 treason (see Treason and Treason- 
 Felony), and those of a lighter nature 
 
POLITICS 
 
 POLY'CARP 
 
 which do not aim at direct and open 
 violence against the laws or the sover- 
 eign, but which excite a turbulent and 
 discontented spirit which would likely 
 produce violence, are termed sedition. 
 (See Sedition.) Political offenders of 
 foreign countries are by English law not 
 included in extradition treaties. In the 
 United States also, and in mo.st of the 
 coun^es of Europe, the extradition 
 treat^ do not include the giving up of 
 political offenders. 
 
 POL'ITICS, in its widest extent, is 
 both the science and the art of govern- 
 ment, or the science whose subject is the 
 regulation of man in all his relations as 
 the member of a state, and the applica- 
 tion of this science. In other words it 
 is the theory and the practice of ob- 
 taining the ends of civil society as per- 
 fectly as possible. In common parlance 
 we understand by the - politics of a 
 country the course of its government, 
 more particularly as respects its rela- 
 tions with foreign nations. 
 
 POLK (pok), James Knox, president 
 of the United States of North America 
 from 1845-49, was born in 1795 in North 
 Carolina; died at Nashville 1849. He 
 studied Jaw and entered congress as 
 representative of Tennessee in 1825. 
 He was speaker of the House of repre- 
 
 sentatives from 1835 to 1838. His advo- 
 cacy of the annexation of Texas led to 
 his election as president in 1844. The 
 annexation of Texas, the Mexican war, 
 the acquisition of upper California and 
 New Mexico, and the settlement of the 
 Oregon boundary were the chief events 
 of his term of office. 
 
 POLKA, a species of dance of Bohe- 
 mian origin, but now universally popu- 
 lar, the music to which is in | time, with 
 the third quaver accented. There are 
 three steps in each bar, the fourth beat 
 being always a rest. 
 
 POLLACK, a fish of the cod family. 
 
 Pollack. 
 
 The pollack belongs to the same genus 
 as the whiting, the members of this 
 genus possessing three dorsal fins and 
 two anals. The lower jaw is longer than 
 
 the upper jaw, and the tail is forked, but 
 not very deeply. It inhabits the At- 
 lantic Ocean, and is common on all the 
 British coasts, as well as on the shores of 
 Norway. The northern coasts of Britain 
 appear to be those on which these fishes 
 are most abundant. The pollacks are 
 gregarious in habits, and swim in shoals. 
 It bites keenly at either bait or fly, and 
 affords good eating. 
 
 POLLEN, the male element in flower- 
 ing plants; the fine dust or powder 
 which by contact with the stigma ef- 
 fects the fecundation of the seeds. To 
 the naked eye it appears to be a very 
 fine powder, and is usually inclosed in 
 the cells of the anther; but when ex- 
 amined with the microscope it is found 
 to consist of hollow cases, usually 
 spheroidal, filled with a fluid in which 
 
 Pollen grains (magnified). 
 
 are suspended drops of oil from the 
 20,000th to the 30,000th of an inch in 
 diameter, and grains of starch five or 
 six times as large. Impregnation is 
 brought about by means of tubes 
 (pollen-tubes) which issue from the 
 pollen-grains adhering to the stigma, 
 and penetrate through the tissues until 
 they reach the ovary. The cut shows the 
 pollen-grains of (1) manna-ash, (2) clove, 
 (3) strong-scented lettuce. 
 
 POLO, Marco, Venetian traveler, was 
 born about the year 1256. His father 
 Nicolo was the son of Andrea Polo, a 
 patrician of Venice. Shortly before 
 Marco’s birth, Nicolo with his brother 
 Matteo set out on a mercantile expedi- 
 tion, and ultimately arrived at Kemenfu 
 on the frontiers of China, where they 
 were favorably received by Kubilai, the 
 grand-khan of the Mongols. In 1266 the 
 khan sent the brothers on a mission to 
 the pope, and they arrived in Venice in 
 1269. Two years later they again set out 
 for the east, this time accompanied by the 
 young Marco. After reaching the court 
 of Kubilai, Marco rapidly learned the 
 language and customs of the Mongols, 
 and became a favorite with the khan, 
 who employed him on various missions 
 to the neighboring princes. Soon after- 
 ward he was made governor of Yang- 
 tchou, in eastern China, an appointment 
 he held for three years. In 1292 the 
 three Polos accompanied an escort of a 
 Mongolian princess to Persia. After ar- 
 riving at Teheran they heard of Kubilai’s 
 death, and resolved to return home. 
 They reached Venice in 1295. In the 
 following year Marco Polo took part, in 
 the naval battle of Curzola, in which he 
 was taken prisoner. During his captiv- 
 ity he dictated to a fellow-prisoner, 
 Rustichello or Rusticiano of Pisa, an 
 account of all his travels, which was 
 finished in 1298. After his liberation he 
 returned to Venice, where he died in 
 1323. His book — known as the Book of 
 Marco Polo — created an immense sen- 
 sation among the scholars of his time, 
 and was regarded by many as pure 
 fiction. It made known to Europeans 
 the existence of many nations of which 
 they were formerly totally ignorant, and 
 
 created a passion for voyages of dis- 
 covery. 
 
 POLONAISE, is a polish national 
 dance, which has been imitated, but 
 with much variation, by other nations. 
 The Polonaise, in music, is a movement 
 of three crochets in a bar, characterized 
 by a seeming irregularity of rhythm, 
 produced by the syncopation of the last 
 note in a bar with the first note of the 
 bar following, in the upper part or 
 melody, while the normal time is pre- 
 served in the bass. 
 
 POLTA'VA, or PULTAWA, a govern- 
 ment of Russia, bounded by Czernigov, 
 Kharkov, Ekaterinoslav, Kherson, and 
 Kiev; area, 19,265 sq. miles. It is one 
 of the most fertile and best cultivated 
 portions of the Russian empire, and 
 grows large quantities of grain. Pop. 
 2,520,887. — Poltava, the capital, at the 
 confluence of the Poltava with the 
 Worskla, has straight and broad streets, 
 a cathedral, important educational in- 
 stitutions, etc. As a place of trade Pol- 
 tava derives importance from the great 
 fair held on 20th July each year. Wool 
 is the great staple of trade. Horses, 
 cattle, and sheep are likewise bought and 
 sold in great numbers. It contains a 
 monument to Peter the Great, who here 
 defeated Charles XII. in 1709. Pop. 
 53,060. 
 
 POLYAN'DRIA, or POLYANDRY, de- 
 notes the custom of one woman having 
 several husbands (generally brothers) 
 at one time. This system prevailed 
 among the Celts of Britain in Caesar’s 
 time, and occurs yet in southern India, 
 in Tibet, among the Eskimo, the 
 Aleutians, some tribes of American 
 Indians, and in the South seas. The 
 practice is believed to have had its origin 
 in unfertile regions in an endeavor to 
 check the undue pressure of population 
 on the means of subsistence. 
 
 POLYANTHUS, a beautiful and 
 favorite variety of the common prim- 
 rose, a native of most parts of Europe, 
 growing in woods and copses in a moist 
 clayey soil. The leaves are obovate, 
 
 Garden polyanthus. 
 
 oblong, toothed, rugose, and villous be- 
 neath. The flowers are in umbels on a 
 scape or flower stalk 3 to 6 inches or more 
 in length. In addition to propagating 
 from seeds polyanthuses may also be 
 readily increased by division. 
 
 POL'YCARP, one of the Christian 
 fathers, and, according to tradition, a 
 disciple of the apostle John, was born 
 probably in Smyrna about 69 or 70; 
 martyred 155 or 156. According to a 
 legendary fragment ascribed to a writer 
 named Pionius, he was consecrated 
 bishop of his native city by St. Joha 
 
?OLYCRATES 
 
 Polytheism 
 
 During the persecution under Marcus 
 Aurelius, Polycarp was seized and 
 brought before the Roman proconsul at 
 Smyrna. Having refused to renounce his 
 faith he was condemned to the flames. 
 He wrote several letters, which were 
 current in the early church, but have 
 all perished except one addressed to the 
 Philippians, which appears to have been 
 written about 115, and is valuable for 
 its quotations from the apostolic writ- 
 ings. 
 
 POLYC'RATES, Greek tyrant or abso- 
 lute ruler of Samos during the time of 
 the elder Cyrus. He nmde himself 
 master of the island by wolence, and 
 having secured absolute sway seized 
 upon several of the neighboring islands 
 and some towns upon the mainland. In 
 522 B.c. the Persian satrap Oroetes 
 treacherously invited Polycrates to his 
 palace and there crucified him. Polyc- 
 rates seems to have had much taste for 
 learning and the arts, and greatly pro- 
 moted the refinement of the Samians. 
 
 POLYG'AMY consists in a man’s hav- 
 ing more than one wife at the sametime. 
 In ancient times polygamy was prac- 
 ticed by all the eastern nations, and was 
 sanctioned or at least tolerated by their 
 religions. It was permitted to some ex- 
 tent among the Greeks, but entirely dis- 
 appeared with the later development 
 of Greek civilization. To the ancient 
 Romans and Germanic races it was un- 
 known. It prevailed among the Jewish 
 patriarchs both befofe and under the 
 Mosaic law. But in the New Testament 
 w'e meet with no trace of it. Polygamy 
 has never been tolerated among Chris- 
 tians, although the New Testament con- 
 tains no injunction against it. It was, 
 however, practiced by the Mohamme- 
 dans and Mormons (up till recently). A 
 statute of Edward I. treated polygamy 
 as a capital crime. 
 
 POL'YGLOT, a work which contains 
 the same matter in several languages. 
 It is more particularly used to denote a 
 copy of the Holy Scriptures in which 
 two, three, or more translations are 
 given, with or without the original. The 
 first great work of the sort is the Com- 
 plutensian polyglot, prepared under the 
 direction of Cardinal Ximenes, and 
 splendidly printed (1514-17), in 6 folio 
 volumes at Alcala de Henares, called in 
 Latin Com plu turn, whence the name of 
 the work. It contains the Hebrew text 
 of the Old Testament, with the Vulgate, 
 the Septuagint, a literal Latin transla- 
 tion, and a Chaldee paraphrase (which 
 is also accompanied by a Latin transla- 
 tion). Another celebrated polyglot is 
 that of Antwerp, called the Royal Bible, 
 because Philip II. of Spain bore part of 
 the cost of publication. It was conducted 
 by the learned Spanish theologian, 
 Benedict Arias Montanus, assisted by 
 other scholars. It appeared at Antwerp 
 in 8 folio volumes (1569-72). The Paris 
 polyglot appeared in 1654, in 10 folio 
 volumes. The London or Walton’s poly- 
 glot, in ten languages, appeared in 6 
 volumes folio, with two supplementary 
 volumes (London, 1654-57). It was con- 
 ducted under the care of Bryan Walton, 
 afterward Bishop of Chester, and con- 
 tains all that is in the Paris polyglot, 
 but with many additions and improve- 
 ments. Tt '■nntains the original text 
 
 according to several copies, with an 
 Ethiopia and a Persian translation, and 
 the Latin versions of each. Bagster’s 
 Polyglot folio, London (1831), gives 
 eight versions of the Old Testament and 
 nine of the new. 
 
 POLYGON, in geometry, a plane 
 figure of many angles and sides, or at 
 least of more than four sides. A polygon 
 of five sides is termed a pentagon; one- 
 of six sides, a hexagon; one of seven 
 sides, a heptagon, and so on. Similar 
 polygons are those which have their 
 several angles equal each to each, and 
 the sides about their equal angles pro- 
 portionals. All similar polygons are 
 to one another as the squares of their 
 homologous sides. If th« sides, and 
 consequently the angles, are all equal 
 the polygon is said to be regular; other- 
 wise, it is irregular. Every regular 
 polygon can be circumscribed by a circle 
 or have a circle inscribed in it. — Polygon 
 of forces, in mechanics, the name given 
 to a theorem which is as follows : — If any 
 number of forces act on a point, and a 
 polygon be taken, one of the sides of 
 which is formed by the line representing 
 one of the forces, and the following 
 sides in succession by lines representing 
 the other forces in magnitude, and 
 parallel to their directions, then the 
 line which completes the polygon will 
 represent the resultant of all the forces. 
 
 POLYHE'DRON, in geometry, a body 
 or solid bounded by many faces or 
 planes. When all the faces are regular 
 polygons similar and equal to each other 
 the solid becomes a regular body. Only 
 five regular solids can exist, namely, 
 the tetrahedron, the hexahedron, the 
 octahedron, the dodecahedron, and the 
 icosahedron. 
 
 POLYNE'SIA, a general name for a 
 number of distinct archipelagoes of 
 small islands scattered over the Pacific 
 ocean, extending from about lat. 35° 
 n. to 35° s., and from Ion. 135° e. to 
 100° w., the Philippines, New Guinea, 
 Australia, and New Zealand being ex- 
 cluded. (See Oceania.) The islands are 
 distributed into numerous groups, hav- 
 ing a general direction from n.w. to s.e. 
 The groups north of the equator are the 
 Pelew, Ladrone, or Marianne, Caroline, 
 Marshall, Gilbert or Kingsmills, Fan- 
 ning, and Hawaii or the Sandwich 
 islands. South of the equator are New 
 Ireland, New Britain, Solomon islands, 
 New Hebrides, Fiji, New Caledonia, 
 Navigator, Friendly, Cook’s or Harvey, 
 and the Society islands, the Low Archi- 
 pelago, the Marquesas islands, and the 
 isolated Easter island. The term Poly- 
 nesia is sometimes restricted to the 
 groups most centrally situated in the 
 Pacific; the New Hebrides, Solomon 
 islands. New Britain, New Ireland 
 (Bismark Archipelago), etc., being 
 classed together as Melanesia, whereas 
 the Carolines, Ladrones, Marshall islands 
 etc., form Micronesia. The predominat- 
 ing race, occupying the central and 
 eastern portion of Polynesia, is of Malay 
 origin, with oval faces, wide nostrils, 
 and large ears. The hair and complex- 
 ion vary greatly, but the latter is often 
 a light brown. Their language is split 
 up into numerous dialects. The other 
 leading race is of negroid or Papuan 
 origin, with negro-like features and 
 
 crisp mop-like hair. They are confined 
 to Western Polynesia, and speak a 
 different language, with numerous dis- 
 tinct dialects. 
 
 POLYPHE'MUS, in Greek mythology, 
 the most famous of the Cyclops, who is 
 described as a cannibal giant with one 
 eye in his forehead, living alone in a 
 cave of Mount .lEtna and feeding his 
 flocks on that mountain. Ulysses and 
 his companions having been driven upon 
 the shore by a storm, unwarily took 
 refuge in his cave. Polyphemus, when 
 he returned home at night, shut up the 
 mouth of the cavern with a large stone, 
 and by the next morning had eaten four 
 of the strangers, after which he drove 
 out his flocks to pasture, and shut in the 
 unhappy captives. Ulysses then con- 
 trived a plan for their escape. He in- 
 toxicated the monster with wine, and as 
 soon as he fell asleep bored out his one 
 eye with the blazing end of a stake. 
 He then tied himself and his compan- 
 ions under the bellies of the sheep, in 
 which manner they passed safely out in 
 the morning. Polyphemus was the de- 
 spised lover of the nymph Galatea. 
 
 POLYPODIA'CEjE , a natural order of 
 ferns, which may be taken as the type 
 of the whole. They constitute the 
 highest order of acrogenous or crypto- 
 gamic vegetation, and are regarded as 
 approaching more nearly to cycadaceous 
 gymnosperms than to any other group 
 of the vegetable kingdom. They are 
 usually herbaceous plants with a per- 
 manent stem, which either remains 
 buried or rooted beneath the soil, or 
 creeps over the stems of trees, or forms 
 a scarcely movable point of growth, 
 round which new leaves are annually 
 produced in a circle, or it rises into the 
 air in the form of a simple stem, bearing 
 a tuft of leaves at its apex and some- 
 times attaining the height of 40 feet, 
 as in the tree-ferns. 
 
 POLYPUS, in medicine, a name given 
 to tumors chiefly found in the mucous 
 membranes of the nostrils, throat, ear, 
 and uterusj rarely in the stomach, 
 bladder, and intestines. Polypi differ 
 much in size, number, mode of adhesion, 
 and nature. One species is the mucous, 
 soft, or vesicular, because its substance 
 consists of mucous membrane with its 
 embedded glands; another is called the 
 hard polypus, and consists of fibrous 
 tissue. Poljrpi may be malignant in char- 
 acter, that is, of the cancerous type. 
 
 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. See Ecole 
 Polytechnique. 
 
 POLYTHEISM, the belief in, and 
 worship of, a plurality of gods; opposed 
 to monotheism, the belief in, and wor- 
 ship of one god. It is still a matter of 
 debate whether polytheism is a primary 
 form of human belief, or a degeneration 
 of an original monotheistic idea. It is 
 argued, on the one hand, that the sense 
 of personal dependence, the feeling that 
 there was an undefined power, a mysteri- 
 ous something around and above him, 
 did not primarily present itself to the 
 mind of man except under a fomr of 
 unity. His earliest religion would there- 
 fore be of a monotheistic character, but 
 of a highly unstable nature, and emi- 
 nently liable, among races of rude 
 faculties and little power of abstraction, 
 to assume a polytheistic form, the idea 
 
POLYZOA 
 
 POMPEII 
 
 of one Supreme Being being readily 
 obscured by the multiplicity of the 
 visible operations of that being on earth. 
 Those who affirm that polytheism was 
 a primary form of religious belief argue 
 that man, ignorant of the nature of his 
 own life, and of the nature, origin, and 
 properties of other objects, could at 
 first only attribute vaguely to all visible 
 things the same kind of conscious 
 existence as that which belonged to him- 
 self. Thus the sun, moon, and stars 
 would all be living beings; and their in- 
 fluence, from the absence of any idea of 
 a natural order, would be seen in the 
 working of the material world, and in all 
 the accidents of human life. As being 
 beyond human control, and as affecting 
 the condition of men, they would be 
 loved or feared; and with the growth of 
 the idea that they might be pro- 
 pitiated or appeased the system of 
 polytheism would be complete. See 
 Monotheism and Mythology. 
 
 POLYZO'A, a class of Molluscoida or 
 Lower Mollusca, generally known by the 
 popular names of “sea-mosses” and 
 “sea-mats.” They are invariably com- 
 pound, forming associated growths or 
 colonies of animals produced by gem- 
 mation from a single primordial in- 
 dividual, and inhabit a polyzoarium, or 
 aggregate of cells, corresponding to the 
 polypidom of the com.posite hydroids. 
 
 A — Polyzoon. 
 
 1, Natural .size. 2, Portion of same magnified. 
 a. Cells. 6, Ovicells. c, Avicularia. 
 
 The polypide, or individual polyzoon, 
 resides in a separate cell or chamber, has 
 a distinct alimentary canal suspended 
 freely in a body cavity, and the repro- 
 ductive organs contained within the 
 body. The body is inclosed in a double- 
 walled sac, the outer layer of which is 
 chitinous or calcareous, and the inner a 
 delicate membranous layer. On the 
 ectocyst are seen certain peculiar proc- 
 esses caflcd “bird’s-head processes,” or 
 avicularia, from their shape, the use of 
 which is unknown. The mouth-opening 
 at the upper part of each cell is sur- 
 rounded by a circlet of hollow ciliated 
 tentacles, which perform the function 
 of respiration, and the cell may be closed 
 by a sort of valve called the epistome. 
 ■Ml the Polyzoa are hermaphrodite. In 
 many cases there are ovicells or sacs into 
 which the fertilized ova pass. From 
 these proceed free-swimming ciliated 
 embryos which develop into polypides. 
 f Continuous gemmation exists in all. 
 They are all aquatic in their habits; 
 the marine Polyzoa being common to all 
 seas, but the fresh-water genera are 
 mostly confined to the north temperate 
 zone. 
 
 POMEGRANATE (pom'gra-nat), a 
 dense spiny shrub, from 8 to 20 feet 
 high, supposed to have belonged origin- 
 ally to the north of Africa, and subse- 
 quently introduced into Italy. It was 
 called by the Romans Carthaginian 
 apple. The leaves are opposite, lanceo- 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 late, entire, and smooth; the flowers are 
 large and of a brilliant red; the fruit is as 
 large as an orange, having a hard rind 
 filled with a soft pulp and numerous red 
 seeds. The pulp is more or less acid and 
 slightly astringent. The pomegranate is 
 extensivelycultivated throughout South- 
 ern Europe, and sometimes attains a 
 great size. 
 
 POMERA'NIA, a province of Prussia, 
 bounded by the Baltic, Mecklenburg, 
 Brandenburg, and West Prussia; area, 
 11,622 sq. miles. The principal rivers 
 are the Oder, Persante, and Stolpe. The 
 soil is generally sandy and indifferent, 
 but there are some rich alluvial tracts, 
 producing a quantity of grain. Flax, 
 hemp, and tobacco are also cultivated. 
 Pop. 1,634,832. 
 
 POMPADOUR (pon-pa-dor), Jeanne 
 Antoinette Poisson, Marquise de, the 
 mistress of Louis XV., was born in 1721, 
 and was said to be the daughter of the 
 farmer-general Lenormand de Tourne- 
 hem, who at his death left her an im- 
 mense fortune. In 1741 she married her 
 cousin, Lenormand d’Etiolles. A few 
 years later she succeeded in attracting 
 the attention of the king, and soon 
 entirely engrossed his favor. In 1745 
 she appeared at court as the Marquise 
 
 de Pompadour. Here she at first posed 
 as the patroness of learning and the 
 arts, but with the decay of her channs 
 she devoted her attention to state 
 affairs. Her favorites filled the most im- 
 
 ortant offices, and she is said to have 
 roimht about the war with Frederick 
 II. Me died in 1764, at the age of forty- 
 four, hated and reviled by the nation. 
 
 POMPEII (pom-pa'ye), an ancient 
 city of Italy, in Campania, near the Bay 
 of Naples, about 12 miles southeast from 
 the city of that name, and at the base of 
 Mount Vesuvius on its southern side. 
 Before the close of the republic, and 
 under the early emperors, Pompeii be- 
 came a favorite retreat of wealthy 
 Romans. In a.d. 63 a fearful earth- 
 quake occurred, which destroyed a 
 great part of the town. The work of re- 
 building was soon commenced, and the 
 new town had a population of some 
 30,000 when it was overtaken by an- 
 other catastrophe on 24th August, a.d. 
 79. This consisted in an eruption of 
 Mount Vesuvius, which suddenly belched 
 forth tremendous showers of ashes, red- 
 hot pumice-stone, etc., so as to over- 
 whelm the city for a considerable depth. 
 In 1906 an eruption took place accom- 
 panied by earthquakes, which, compared 
 with other great eruptions, was one of 
 the most important in its history. Many 
 towns were destroyed by lava. Pompeii 
 was threatened for a time, but only a 
 few houses were destroyed. In Naples, 
 12 miles from the volcano, the fall of 
 ashes was so great that it caused the 
 death and injury of many people. The 
 number of lives lost was over 300, and 
 the loss of property was incalculable. 
 Pompeii was consigned to oblivion 
 during the middle ages, and it was not 
 until 1748, when a peasant in sinking a 
 well discovered a painted chamber with 
 statues and other objects of antiquity, 
 that anything like a real interest in the 
 locality was excited. Excavations were 
 now prosecuted and in 1755 the amphi- 
 theater, theater, and other parts were 
 cleared out. Under the Bourbons the 
 excavations were carried out on a very 
 unsatisfactory plan. Statues and 
 articles of value alone were extricated, 
 while the buildings were suffered to fall 
 into decay or covered up again. To the 
 short reign of Murat (1808-15) we are 
 indebted for the excavation of the 
 Forum, the town walls, the. Street of 
 Tombs, and many private houses. 
 Latterly the government of Victor 
 Emmanuel assigned $12,500 annually 
 for the prosecution of the excavations. 
 
 and a regular plan has been adopted, 
 according to which the ruins are sys- 
 tematically explored and carefully pre- 
 served. The town is built in the form of 
 an irregular oval extending from cast to 
 
POMPEY 
 
 PONTE VEDRA 
 
 west. The circumference of the walls 
 amounts to 2925 yards. The area within 
 the walls is estimated at 160 acres; 
 greatest length, } mile; greatest breadth 
 J mile. There are eight gates. The 
 streets are straight and narrow and 
 paved with large polygonal blocks of 
 lava. The houses areslightly constructed 
 of concrete, or occasionally of bricks. 
 Numerous staircases prove that the 
 houses were of two or three stories. The 
 ground floor of the larger houses was 
 generally occupied by shops. Most of 
 the lar'ger houses are entered from the 
 street by a narrow passage (vestibulum) 
 leading to an internal hall (atrium), 
 which provided the surrounding cham- 
 bers with light and was the medium 
 of communication; beyond the latter is 
 another large public apartment termed 
 the tabulinum. The other portion of the 
 
 greeted him with the surname of Magnus 
 (Great). Pompey demanded a triumph, 
 to which Sulla reluctantly consented. 
 He entered Rome in triumph in Sep- 
 tember 81, and was the first Roman 
 permitted to do so without possessing 
 a higher dignity than that of equestrian 
 rank. After the death of Sulla, Pompey 
 put an end to the war which the revolt 
 of Sertorius in Spain had occasioned, 
 and in 71 obtained a second triumph. 
 In this year, although not of legal age 
 and without official experience, he was 
 elected consul with Crassus. In 67 he 
 cleared the Mediterranean of pirates, 
 and destroyed their strongholds on the 
 coast of Cilicia. In the four years, 65-62, 
 he conquered Mithridates, Tigranes, and 
 Antiochus, king of Syria. At the same 
 time he subdued the Jews and took 
 Jerusalem by storm. He returned to 
 
 Pompeii — House of the Tragic Poet, so called. 
 
 house comprised the private rooms of 
 the family. All the apartments are 
 small. The shops were small and all of 
 one character, having the business part 
 in front and one or two small chambers 
 behind, with a single large opening 
 serving for both door and window. The 
 chief public buildings are the so-called 
 Temple of Jupiter, the Temple of Venus, 
 the Basilica, the Temple of Mercury, the 
 Curia, and the Pantheon or Temple of 
 Augustus. There are several interesting 
 private buildings scattered through the 
 town, including the villa of Diomedes, 
 the house of Sallust, and the house of 
 Marcus Lucretius. The Museum of 
 Naples owes many of its most interest- 
 ing features to the ornaments, etc., 
 found in the public and private edifices 
 above mentioned. 
 
 POMPEY, in full Cneius Pompeius 
 Magnus, a distinguished Roman, born 
 B.c. 106, was the son of Cneius Pom- 
 peius Strabo, an able general. In b.c. 
 89 he served with distinction under his 
 father in the war against the Italian 
 allies. In the struggle between Marius 
 and Sulla, Pompey raised three legions 
 to aid the latter, and regained all the 
 territories of Africa which had forsaken 
 the interest of Sulla. This success ex- 
 cited the jealousy of Sulla, who recalled 
 him to Rome. On his return Sulla 
 
 Italy in 62 and disbanded his army, but 
 did not enter Rome until the following 
 year, when he was honored with a third 
 triumph. Pompey, in order to strengthen 
 his position, united his interest with 
 that of Cmsar and Crassus, and thus 
 formed the first triumvirate. This agree- 
 
 Pompey.— Antique gem. 
 
 ment was concluded by the marriage 
 of Pompey with Caesar’s daughter Julia ; 
 but the powerful confederacy was soon 
 broken. During Caesar’s absence in 
 Gaul Pompey ingratiated himself with 
 the senate, was appointed sole consul, 
 and the most important state offices 
 
 were filled with Caesar’s enemies. 
 Through his influence Caesar was pro- 
 claimed an enemy to the state, and his 
 rival was appointed general of the army 
 of the republic. Caesar crossed the 
 Rubieon in 49 (see Caesar), and in sixty 
 days was master of Italy without strik- 
 ing a blow. Pompey crossed over to 
 Greece, and in this country, on the 
 plains of Pharsalia, occurred the decisive 
 battle which made Caesar master of the 
 Roman world. Pompey fled to Egypt, 
 where he hoped to find a safe asylum. 
 The ministers of Ptolemy betrayed him, 
 and he was stabbed on landing by one of 
 his former centurions in b.c. 48. 
 
 POMPEY’S PILLAR, a celebrated 
 column, standing on an eminence about 
 1800 feet to the south of the present 
 walls of Alexandria in Egypt. It con- 
 sists of a Corinthian capital, shaft, base, 
 and pedestal. The total height of the 
 column is 104 feet; the shaft, a monolith 
 of red granite, is 67 feet long, and 9 feet 
 in diameter below and not quite 8 at 
 top. It is named from the Roman pre- 
 fect Pompeius, who erected it in honor 
 of Diocletian about or soon after 302 a.d. 
 
 PONCE DE LEON (pon'the de le-on'), 
 Juan, one of the early Spanish dis- 
 coverers in America, born about 1460, 
 died at Cuba 1521. He accompanied 
 Columbus on his second expedition 
 in 1493, and was sent by Ovando to 
 conquer the island of Porto Rico. 
 Having there amassed great wealth, 
 and received information of an is- 
 land situated to the north, he dis- 
 covered the country, to which he gave 
 the name of Florida. Ponce returned to 
 Spain in 1513, and was appointed by 
 Ferdinand governor, of the island of 
 Florida, as he called it, on condition 
 that he should colonize it. In 1521 he 
 embarked nearly all his wealth in two 
 ships, and proceeded to take possession 
 of his province. He was, however, met 
 with determined hostility by the natives, 
 who made a sudden attack upon the 
 Spaniards, and drove them to their 
 ships. In the combat Ponce de Leon 
 was mortally wounded. 
 
 PONDICHERRY, a town, capital of 
 the French East Indian settlement of 
 the same name, on the east or Coro- 
 mandal coast, 85 miles south by west 
 from Madras. Its territory is surrounded 
 on the land side by the Bi-itish district 
 of South Arcot, and has an area of 115 
 sq. miles; pop. 182,000. 
 
 PONDOLAND, a maritime territory 
 of Cape Colony abutting on Natal, 90 
 miles from n.e. to s.w., and about 50 
 from n.w. to s.e. Pop. about 200,000. 
 It was the last remnant of independent 
 Kaffraria, became a British protectorate 
 in 1884, and was annexed to the Cape 
 in 1894. 
 
 PONTE VEDRA (pon-te-va'dra), a 
 town in Northwest Spain, capital of a 
 province of the same name. It is sur- 
 rounded by an old wall; consists of 
 broad, well-paved streets, and well- 
 built houses of granite, and has manu- 
 factures of cotton, velvet, woolen and 
 cotton cloth, hats, leather, etc. Pop. 
 20,012. — The province produces in 
 abundance corn, rye, wheat and millet, 
 flax, fruit, and wine, and rears great 
 numbers of cattle. Area, 1730 sq. miles; 
 pop. 463,564. 
 
PONTIAC 
 
 POPE 
 
 PONTIAC, the capital of Oakland co., 
 Mich., on the Clinton river, and the 
 Detroit, Gr. Haven and Mil. and the 
 Pontiac, Oxford and N. railways; 26 
 miles n.w. of Detroit. Within the county 
 and a few miles from the city are over 
 !’ 400 lakes, with a total area of about 
 
 f 30,000 sq. miles, teeming with choice 
 > fish. Pop. 11,542. 
 
 ■- PONTOON', in military engineering, 
 ' a flat-bottomed boat, or any light frame- 
 • work or floating body used in the con- 
 ' struction of a temporary bridge over a 
 river. One form of pontoon, used in the 
 i' British service, is a hollow tin-plate 
 cylinder, with hemispherical ends, and 
 divided by several longitudinal and 
 transverse partitions to act as braces 
 and to prevent sinking if pierced by a 
 shot or Dy accident. Another is in the 
 
 Pontoon and pontoon bridge. 
 
 a, Pontoon, external and Internal structure. 
 bb, End of same, supporting the roadway, c. 
 Plan of bridge, dd, Pontoons, e. Rafters for 
 supporting the roadway, f, Roadway complete 
 
 form of a decked canoe, and consists of a 
 timber frame covered with sheet copper. 
 It is formed in two distinct parts, which 
 are locked together for use and dis- 
 located for transportation, and is also 
 divided into air-tight chambers. The 
 name is also given to a water-tight 
 structure or frame placed beneath a 
 submerged vessel and then filled with 
 air to assist in refloating the vessel ; and 
 to a water-tight structure which is sunk 
 by filling with water and raised by 
 pumping it out, used to close a sluice- 
 way or entrance to a dock. 
 
 POOLE, William Frederick, American 
 librarian, was born in Salem, Mass., in 
 1821. He was librarian of the Boston 
 Mercantile library, 1852-56; then of the 
 , Athenaeum, where he remained thir- 
 teen years, becoming known as one of 
 the leading librarians of the country. 
 He was in charge of the Cincinnati 
 Public library in 1869-73; of the Chi- 
 cago Public library in 1873-87; and of 
 the Newberry library, Chicago, from 
 1887 till his death. Dr. Poole was most 
 widely known for his admirable Index 
 to Periodical Literature, of which he 
 published enlarged editions in 1853 and 
 in 1882. He died in 1894. 
 
 POONAH, or PUNA, a city and dis- 
 ^ trict of Hindustan, in the presidency of 
 Bombay. It is about 119 miles east of 
 r . Bombay by the Great Indian Peninsu- 
 la lar railway. Pop. 153,320, of whom 
 ; 40,000 are in the cantonments. — The 
 
 t district has an area of 5348 sq. miles, 
 and a pop. of 995,074. 
 
 POOP, the aftermost and highest part 
 the hull in large vessels; or, a partial 
 deck in the aftermost part of a ship 
 above the deck proper. 
 
 POOREE, or PURI, a town and dis- 
 
 trict of India, in the province of Orissa. 
 The town is 250 miles s.w. from Cal- 
 cutta. It contains the shrine of Jugger- 
 naut, to whose worship crowds flock 
 from every part of India. Pop. 49,334. — 
 The district has an area of 2473 sq. 
 miles, and a pop. of 1,017,286. 
 
 POOR RICHARD'S ALMANAC, a 
 popular almanac published by Ben- 
 jamin Franklin in 1732 and continued 
 for twenty-five years. As “Richard 
 Saunders” Franklin supplied in his 
 almanacs, of which 10,000 were sold 
 yearly, a fund of proverbs, homely 
 wisdom and common sense of the great- 
 est practical value to the people of this 
 country. 
 
 POPE, the title given to the head of 
 the Roman Catholic hierarchy. It seems 
 to have been used at first in the early 
 church as a title of reverence given to 
 ecclesiastics generally, and at the pres- 
 ent time it is applied in the Greek 
 church to all priests. In the early 
 Western church the title of pope was 
 ultimately bestowed upon the metro- 
 politan bishops, but in the struggle for 
 pre-eminence the claim to be recog- 
 nized as the only pope was enforced by 
 the Bishop of Rome. This claim of pre- 
 eminence was founded on the belief, 
 supported by the early traditions of 
 the church, that the Apostle Peter 
 planted a church in Rome, and that he 
 died there as a martyr. This tradition, 
 taken in connection with the alleged 
 pre-eminence of Peter among Christ’s 
 disciples, came to be regarded as suffi- 
 cient reason for the primacy of the 
 Bishop of Rome in the churcli. Conse- 
 quently from the end of the 4th century 
 the Bishop of Rome was the first among 
 the five patriarchs or superior bishops 
 of Christendom. A decree of the em- 
 peror Valentian III. (445) acknowl- 
 edged the Bishop of Rome as primate, 
 but until the 8th century many meas- 
 ures of the popes met with violent oppo- 
 sition. Leo the Great (440-461) was the 
 first to base his claims to the primacy on 
 divine authority by appealing to Matt, 
 xvi. 18; and he did much to establish 
 the theory that bishops in disputes with 
 their metropolitans had a right of ap- 
 peal to Rome. The Eastern church al- 
 ways resisted the see of Rome, and this 
 mainly occasioned the schism that in 
 1054 divided Christendom into the 
 Greek and Roman churches. After the 
 8th century several circumstances con- 
 tributed to open to the popes the way 
 to supreme control over all churches. 
 Among these were the establishment 
 of missionary churches in Germany 
 directly under Rome, the pseudo- 
 Isidorian decretals, which contained 
 many forged documents supporting the 
 general supremacy of the Roman pontiff 
 the gradations of ecclesiastical rank, 
 and the personal superiority of some 
 popes over their contemporaries. Leo 
 the Great (440-461), Gregory I., the 
 Great (590-604), and Leo III. (795-816), 
 who crowned Charlemagne, all increased 
 the authority of the papal title. Much 
 violence and corruption prevailed in the 
 Roman see during the middle ages. In 
 1059 the dignity and independence of 
 the papal chair were heightened by the 
 constitution of Nicolas II., placing the 
 right of election of the pope in the hands 
 
 of the cardinals. In 1073 Gregory VII., 
 at a Roman council, formally prohibited 
 the use of the title of pope by any other 
 ecclesiastic than the Bishop of Rome; 
 he also enforced a celibate life upon the 
 clergy, and prohibited lay investiture. 
 The reign of Innocent III. (1198-1216) 
 raised the papal see to the highest de- 
 gree of power and dignity; and having 
 gained almost unlimited spiritual do- 
 minion, the popes now began to extend 
 their temporal power also. The do- 
 minions under the pope’s temporal rule 
 had at first consisted of a territory 
 granted to the papal see by Pepin in 
 754, which was subsequently largely in- 
 creased. The popes, however, con- 
 tinued to have to some extent the 
 position of vassals of the German em- 
 pire, and until the 12th century the 
 German emperors suffered no election 
 of pope to take place without their 
 sanction. Innocent III., however, largely 
 increased his territories at the expense 
 of the empire, and the power of the em- 
 perors over Rome and the pope may 
 now be said to have come to an end. 
 Favorable circumstances had already 
 made several kindgoms tributary to the 
 papal see, which had now acquired such 
 power that Innocent III. took upon 
 him to depose and proclaim kings, and 
 put both France and England under an 
 interdict. France alone first successfully 
 resisted the popes. In Philip the Fair 
 Boniface VIII. found a master, and his 
 successors between 1307 and 1377 re- 
 mained under French influence, and 
 held their courts at Avignon. Their 
 dignity sunk still lower in 1378 when 
 two rival popes appeared. Urban VI. and 
 Clement VII., causing a schism and 
 scandal in the church for thirty-eight 
 years. This schism did much to lessen 
 the influence of the popes in Christen- 
 dom, and it subsequently received a 
 greater blow from the Reformation. 
 During the reign of Leo X. (1513-25) 
 Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin were the 
 heralds of an opposition which separated 
 almost half the west from the popes, 
 while the policy of Charles V. was at the 
 same time diminishing their power, and 
 from this time neither the new support 
 of the Society of Jesuits nor the policy 
 of the popes could restore the old 
 authority of the papal throne. The 
 national churches obtained their free- 
 dom in spite of all opposition, and the 
 Peace of Westphalia (1648), bringing to 
 an end the Thirty Years’ war and the 
 religious struggle in Germany, gave 
 public legality to a system of toleration 
 which was in direct contradiction to the 
 papal doctrines. The bulls of the popes 
 were now no longer of avail beyond the 
 states of the church without the con- 
 sent of the sovereigns, and the rev- 
 enues from foreign kingdoms decreased. 
 Pius VI. (1775-98) witnessed the revo- 
 lution W’hich not only tore from him 
 the French church, but even deprived 
 him of his dominions. In 1801, and 
 again in 1809, Pius VII. lost his liberty 
 and possessions, and owed his restora- 
 tion in 1814 to a coalition of temporal 
 princes, among whom were two heretics 
 (English and Prussian) and a schismatic 
 (the Russian). Nevertheless he not only 
 restored the Inquisition, the order of 
 the Jesuits, and other religious orders, 
 
POPE 
 
 POPULATION 
 
 but advanced claims and principles 
 entirely opposed to the ideas and resolu- 
 tions of his liberators. The same spirit 
 that actuated Pius VII. actuated in like 
 manner his successors, Leo XII. (1823- 
 29), Pius VIII. (1829-30), and above all 
 Gregory XVI. (1831-46). The opposi- 
 sion of the latter to all reforms in the 
 
 Pope. 
 
 civil relations of the papal dominions 
 contributed greatly to the revolution of 
 1848, which obliged his successor, Pius 
 IX., to flee from Rome. The power of the 
 papacy was further weakened by the 
 events of 1859, 1860, and 1866. And 
 after the withdrawal of the French 
 troops from Italy in 1870, King Victor 
 Emmanuel took possession of Rome, 
 and since that time the pope has lived 
 in seclusion in the Vatican. 
 
 By the decrees of the Vatican Council 
 of 1870 the pope has supreme power in 
 matters of discipline and faith over all 
 and each of the pastors and of the faith- 
 ful. It is further taught by the Vatican 
 council that when the pontiff speaks ex 
 cathedra, that is when he, in virtue of 
 his apostolic office, defines a doctrine of 
 faith and morals to be held by the whole 
 church, he possesses infallibility by 
 divine assistance. The pope cannot 
 annul the constitution of the church as 
 ordained by Christ. He may condemn or 
 prohibit books, alter the rites of the 
 church, and reserve to himself the canon- 
 ization of saints. A pope has no power 
 to nominate his successor, election being 
 entirely in the hands of the cardinals, 
 who are not bound to choose one of 
 their own body. The papal insignia are 
 the tiara or triple crown, the straight 
 crosier, and the pallium. He is addressed 
 as “Your holiness.” 
 
 POPE, Alexander, a celebrated Eng- 
 lish poet, was born May 21, 1688. His 
 father was a London merchant and a 
 devout Catholic. Soon after his son’s 
 birth the father retired to Binfield, near 
 Windsor. Pope was small, delicate, and 
 much deformed. His education was a 
 desultory one. In 1711 he published his 
 poem the Essay on Criticism, which was 
 followed by The Rape of the Lock, 
 a polished and witty narrative poem 
 founded on an incident of fashionable 
 life. His next publications were The 
 Temple of Fame, a modernization and 
 adaptation of Chaucer’s House of Fame; 
 Windsor Forest, a pastoral poem (1713)j 
 and The Epistle of Eloisa to Abelard 
 (1717). From 1713 to 1726 he was en- 
 gaged on a poetical translation of 
 
 Homer’s works, the Iliad (completed in 
 1720) being wholly from his pen, the 
 Odyssey only half. In 1728 he published 
 his Dunciad, a mock heroic poem in- 
 tended to overwhelm his antagonists 
 with ridicule. It is distinguished by the 
 excessive vehemence of its satire, and is 
 full of coarse abuse. This was followed 
 by Imitations of Horace (among the 
 most original of his works), and by 
 Moral Epistles or Essays. His Essay on 
 Man was published anon}Tnously in 
 1733, and completed and avowed by the 
 author in the next year. This work is 
 distinguished by its poetry rather than 
 by its reasonings, which are confused 
 and contradictory. In 1742 he added a 
 fourth book to his Dunciad, in which he 
 attacked Colley Cibber, then poet- 
 laureate. He died on May 30, 1744, and 
 was interred at Twickenham. 
 
 POPE, John, American soldier was 
 born in Kaskaslcia, 111., in 1822. He saw 
 service in the Florida Indian war and 
 served under General Taylor in the 
 Merican war. He was one of President 
 Lincoln’s escort to Washington on the 
 occasion of his first inauguration. In 
 
 1861 he was made brigadier-general. In 
 
 1862 he was called to Washington and 
 assigned to the army of Virginia. He 
 was utterly defeated by Stonewall 
 
 John Pope. 
 
 Jackson at the second battle of Bull 
 Run. He returned to Washington and 
 resigned his command. After the war 
 he was placed in command of one of the 
 southern military districts. In 1882 he 
 was made major-general. He was placed 
 on the retired list in 1886. He died in 
 1902. 
 
 POPLAR, a well-known genus of 
 hardy deciduous trees, with both barren 
 and fertile flowers in catkins, stamens 
 four to thirty, leaves alternate, broad, 
 with long and slender foot-stalks flat- 
 tened vertically, the leaves having gen- 
 erally more or less of a tremulous 
 motion. About eighteen species have 
 been observed, natives of Europe, cen- 
 tral and northern Asia, and North 
 America. Some of the poplars are the 
 most rapid growers of all hardy forest 
 trees. They thrive under a variety of 
 conditions as regards soil' etc., but do 
 best in damp situations. The timber of 
 the poplar is white, light, and soft, and 
 not very valuable. 
 
 POPOCATEPETL, an active volcano 
 in Mexico, in the province of Puebla; 
 long. 98° 33' w. ; lat. 18° 36' n. Its height 
 has been estimated at 17,884 feet. The 
 crater is 3 miles in circumference and 
 1000 feet deep. Forests cover the base 
 of the mountain, but its summit is 
 mostly covered with snow. 
 
 POPPY, the common name for a 
 species of herbaceous plant, all bear- 
 ing large, brilliant, but fugacious 
 flowers. The white poppy yields the 
 
 well-known opium of commerce. Most 
 of the species are natives of Europe, 
 and four are truly natives of Britain. 
 They often occur as weeds in fields 
 and waste places, and are frequently 
 also cultivated in gardens for orna- 
 ment. The seeds of the white poppy 
 
 a. The upper part of the stem with the 0ower. 
 
 6, The lower part of the plant, c, The fruit. 
 
 yield a fixed harmless oil employed for 
 culinary purposes; and the oil-cake is 
 used for feeding cattle. The roots of the 
 poppy are annual or perennial; the 
 calyx is composed of two leaves, and 
 the corolla of four petals; the stamens 
 are numerous, and the capsule is one- 
 celled, with several longitudinal par- 
 titions, and contains a multitude of 
 SGcds 
 
 POPULATION, the power of propa- 
 gation inherent in all organic life may 
 be regarded as infinite. There is no one 
 species of vegetable or animal which 
 under favorable conditions as to space, 
 climate, and food (that is to say, if not 
 crowded and interfered with by others), 
 would not in a small number of years 
 overspread every region of the globe. 
 To this property of organized beings 
 the human species forms no exception. 
 And it is a very low estimate of its 
 power of increase if we only assume that, 
 under favorable conditions, each gen- 
 eration might be double the number of 
 the generation which preceded it. 
 Taking mankind in the mass, the in- 
 dividual desire to contribute to the in- 
 crease of the species may be held to be 
 universal, but the actual growth of 
 population is nowhere left to the un- 
 aided force of this motive, and nowhere 
 does any community increase to the 
 extent of its theoretical capacity, even 
 though the growth of population has 
 come to be commonly considered as an 
 indispensable sign of the prosperity of a 
 community. For one thing population 
 cannot continue to increase beyond the 
 means of subsistence, and every increase 
 beyond actual or immediately attain- 
 able means, must lead to a destruction 
 of life. But if population is thus actually 
 limited by the means of subsistence, it 
 cannot be prevented by these means 
 from going further than these means 
 will warrant; that is to say, it will only 
 be checked or arrested after it has 
 exceeded the means of subsistence. 
 It becomes then an inquiry of great im- 
 portance by what kind of checks popu- 
 lation is actually brought up at the 
 
POPULIST PARTY 
 
 PORPHYRY 
 
 point at which it is in fact arrested. 
 This inquiry was first systematically 
 treated in an Essay on the Principle of 
 Population published in 1798 by the 
 Rev. T. R. Malthus. Malthus points 
 out that population increases in a 
 geometrical, while the means of sub- 
 sistence only increase in an arithmetical 
 ratio. And in examining the bearing 
 on each other of the different ratios of 
 increase of human life, and of the means 
 of supporting it, he has deduced a law 
 to the proof of which a considerable 
 portion of his work is devoted. This law 
 is that the energy of reproduction raises 
 above all the ordinary accidents of 
 human life, and the inevitable restraints 
 imposed by the various organizations 
 of human society, so that in all the 
 various countries and climates in which 
 men have lived, and under all the con- 
 stitutions by which they have been 
 governed, the normal tendency of 
 population has always been to press 
 continously upon the means of sub- 
 sistence. Malthus divides the checks on 
 the increase of population into two 
 classes, preventive and positive; the 
 one consisting of those causes which 
 prevent possible births from taking 
 place, the other of those which, by 
 abbreviating life, cut off actual ex- 
 cesses of population. In a further 
 analysis of these checks he reduces 
 them to three — vice, misery, and moral 
 restraint. The proof of his main position 
 is historical and statistical. In regard to 
 the subsidiary inquiry, the most striking 
 point brought out is the rarity of moral 
 restraint and the uniform action, in 
 innumerable forms, of vice and misery. 
 In order that the latter should be weak- 
 ened in their action, and the former 
 strengthened, it is desirable to have the 
 general standard of living in a com- 
 munity raised as high as possible, and 
 that all may look to the attainment of a 
 position of comfort by the exercise of 
 prudence and energy. The following 
 figures m.ay be given as approximately 
 representing the density of population 
 in the great divisions of the world (but 
 some of the figures are mere estimates): 
 
 
 Area in 
 thousands 
 of sq. miles 
 
 Pop. 
 
 in 
 
 millions 
 
 Density 
 
 per 
 
 sq. mile 
 
 Europe 
 
 3.861 
 
 390 
 
 100 
 
 Africa 
 
 13.121 
 
 197 
 
 16 
 
 A.sia 
 
 16.217 
 
 789 
 
 47 
 
 Oceania 
 
 4,247 
 
 38 
 
 9 
 
 N. America. 
 
 9.035 
 
 104 
 
 115 
 
 S. America.. 
 
 7,066 
 
 32 
 
 4 6 
 
 POPULIST PARTY, or PEOPLE’S 
 PARTY, a political party organized at 
 Cincinnati in May, 1891. On July 2, 
 1892, a national convention of the 
 populist party met at Omaha, Neb., 
 and nominated James B. Weaver of 
 lov/a for president and James G. Field 
 of Virginia for vice-presiuent. The 
 ticket received 22 electoral votes and a 
 popular vote of 1,055,424. In the 
 presidential campaign of 1896, the 
 populist party nominated for president 
 W. J. Bryan, who had already received 
 the nomination of the democratic party, 
 and for vice-president Thomas E. Wat- 
 son of Georgia. In the campaign of 
 
 1900 the populist party again nominated 
 for president W. J. Bryan, who was 
 also the democratic nominee, and 
 Charles A. Towne of Minnesota, but he 
 subsequently withdrew, and the na- 
 tional executive committee of the popu- 
 list party substituted Stevenson, who 
 had already received the nomination 
 by the democratic party for vice- 
 president. It received 155 electoral 
 votes. 
 
 PORBANDAR, a town of India, chief 
 town of a native state of the same name, 
 in the political agency of Kattyawar, 
 Bombay. It is built on a creek on the 
 s.w. coast of Gujerat, and has a brisk 
 trade with Bombay and Malabar. Pop. 
 14,569. The state has an area of 535 
 sq. miles and a pop. of 72,077. 
 
 PORCH, an exterior appendage to a 
 building, forming a covered approach 
 to one of its principal doorways. The 
 porches in some of the older churches 
 are of two stories, having an upper 
 apartment to which the name parvis is 
 sometimes applied. — The porch was a 
 public portico in Athens where the 
 philosopher Zeno taught his disciples. 
 Hence The Porch is equivalent to the 
 School of the Stoics. 
 
 POR'CUPINE, a name of certain 
 rodent quadrupeds. The body is covered, 
 especially on the back, with the so-called 
 quills, or dense solid spine-like struc- 
 tures, intermixed with bristles and stiff 
 hairs. There are two incisors and eight 
 molar teeth in each jaw, which continue 
 to grow throughout life from permanent 
 pulps. The muzzle is generally short 
 and pointed, the ears short and rounded. 
 The anterior feet possess four, and the 
 hinder feet five toes, all provided with 
 strong thick nails. The common or 
 crested porcupine, found in Southern 
 Europe and in Northern Africa, is the 
 best-known species. When fully grown 
 it measures nearly 2 feet in length, and 
 some of its spines exceed 1 foot. Its 
 general color is a grizzled dusky black. 
 The spines in their usual position lie 
 nearly flat, with their points directed 
 backward; but when the animal is ex- 
 cited they are capable of being raised. 
 The quills are loosely inserted in the 
 skin, and may, on being violently 
 shaken, become detached — a ciremn- 
 stance which may probably have given 
 rise to the purely fabulous statement 
 that the animal possessed the power of 
 actually ejecting its quills like arrows 
 or darts at an enemy. These animals 
 burrow during the day, and at night 
 search for food, which consists chiefly 
 
 Porcupine. 
 
 of vegetable matter. Of the American 
 species, the Canadian or North Ameri- 
 ean porcupine is the best known. It is 
 about 2 feet long, and of slow and 
 
 sluggish habits. The quills in this species 
 are short, and are concealed among the 
 fur. The ears are short, and hidden by 
 the fur. The tail is comparatively short. 
 The genus of South America possesses a 
 distinctive feature in the elongated pre- 
 hensile tail, adapting it for arboreal 
 existence. These latter forms may thus 
 be termed “tree porcupines.” In length 
 the typical species of this genus averages 
 li foot, the tail measuring about 10 
 inches. 
 
 PORGIE, a fish of the family Sparidae, 
 with an oblong body, scaly cheeks, and 
 one dorsal fin, found off the coasts of the 
 United States. It is one of the most im- 
 portant food fishes, and attains a length 
 of 18 inches and a weight of 4 lbs. 
 
 PORK, the flesh of swine, is one of 
 the most important and widely-used 
 species of animal food. Pork is coarser 
 and ranker than beef or mutton, but 
 when of good quality and well cured it 
 develops a richness and delicacy of 
 flavor in marked contrast with the dry- 
 ness and insipidity of other salted meat. 
 The abundance and digestive quality 
 of its fat renders it a suitable diet for 
 cold climates. The swine was forbidden 
 to be eaten by the Mosaic law, and is 
 regarded by the Jews as especially 
 typical of the unclean animals. Other 
 Eastern nations had similar opinions 
 as to the use of pork. Pork contains less 
 fibrine, albuminous and gelatinous mat- 
 ter than beef or mutton. 
 
 POROSITY, the name given to a prop- 
 erty possessed by all bodies, in conse- 
 quence of which their molecules are not 
 immediately contiguous to one another, 
 but are separated by intervening spaces 
 or pores. 
 
 PORPHYR'IO, a genus of birds of the 
 rail family found in Europe, Asia, and 
 
 Porphyrio. 
 
 Africa, and remarkable for the structure 
 of its beak and the length of its legs. 
 It feeds on seeds and other hard sub- 
 stances, and lives in the neighborhood 
 of water, its long toes enabling it to run 
 over the aquatic plants with great 
 facility. It is about 18 inches long, of 
 a beautiful blue color, the bill and feet 
 red. 
 
 PORPHYRY, originally the name 
 given to a very hard stone, partaking 
 of the nature of granite, susceptible of a 
 fine polish, and consequently much used 
 for sculpture. It consists of a homo- 
 geneous felspathic base or matrix, hav- 
 ing crystals of rose-colored felspar, 
 called oligoclase, with some plates of 
 blackish hornblende, and grains of 
 oxidized iron ore imbedded, giving to 
 the mass a speckled complexion. It is 
 of a red, or rather of a purple and white 
 color, more or less variegated, the 
 
PORPOISE 
 
 PORTER 
 
 shades being of all gradation from violet 
 to a claret color. Egypt and the East 
 furnish this material in abundance. 
 It also abounds in Minorca, where it is 
 of a red lead color, variegated with 
 black, white, and green. Pale and red 
 porphyry, variegated with black, white, 
 and green, is found in separate nodules 
 in Germany, England, and Ireland. 
 The art of cutting porphyry as practiced 
 by the ancients appears to be now quite 
 lost. In geology the term porphyry is 
 applied to any unstratified or igneous 
 rock in which detached crystals of fels- 
 par or some other mineral are diffused 
 through a base of other mineral com- 
 position. The varieties of porphyry are 
 known as felspar porphyry, claystone 
 porphyry, porphyritic granite, and 
 porphyritic greenstone. 
 
 PORPOISE, a genus of cetacean mam- 
 malia. The common porpoise is the 
 smallest and most familiar of all Cetacea, 
 and occurs plentifully off the British 
 coasts and in the North sea. It attains 
 average length of 5 feet. The front of 
 the head is convex in form, and has the 
 spiracle or blow-hole in the middle line. 
 The eyes and ears are small. The caudal 
 fin is horizontal and flattened. The neck 
 is very short. The fore limbs project 
 from the body. No hind limbs are de- 
 veloped. The teeth are small with 
 blunted crowns. The stomach is in three 
 portions. No olfactory nerves exist. 
 The porpoise feeds almost entirely on 
 herrings and other fish, and herds or 
 “schools” of porpoises follow the herring 
 shoals, among which they prove very 
 destructive. An allied species is the 
 
 round-headed porpoise, or “caaing 
 whale” of the Shetlanders. These latter 
 measure from 20 to 24 feet in length, 
 and are hunted for the sake of the oil. 
 See Caaing AVhale. 
 
 PORT, a kind of wine. See Port Wine. 
 
 PORT, a harbor or haven, or place 
 where ships receive and discharge cargo. 
 A free port is one at which the goods im- 
 ported are exempted from the payment 
 of any customs or duties, as long as they 
 are not conveyed into the interior of the 
 country. 
 
 PORT, the name given to the left side 
 of a ship (looking toward the prow), as 
 distinguished from the starboard or 
 right side. Formerly larboard was used 
 instead of port. 
 
 PORTAGE, a term applied in Canada 
 to a break in a chain of water communi- 
 cation, over which goods, boats, etc., 
 have to be carried, as from one lake, 
 river, or canal to another; or, along the 
 banks of rivers, round waterfalls, rapids, 
 0tc 
 
 PORTAL CIRCULATION, a subordi- 
 nate part of the venous circulation, be- 
 longing to the liver, in which the blood 
 makes an additional circuit before it 
 joins the rest of the venous blood. The 
 
 term is also applied to an analogous 
 system of vessels in the kidney. 
 
 PORT ARTHUR, naval station and 
 fine harbor on the Liaotung peninsula of 
 n. e. China, taken by the Japanese in 
 1894, and acquired by Russia in 1898, 
 and in 1905 taken for the second time by 
 the Japanese, who retain control. 
 
 PORT-AU-PRINCE (por-to-prans), 
 capital of the Republic of Hayti. The 
 chief exports are mahogany and red- 
 wood, coffee, and cocoa-nuts. Pop. 
 40,000. 
 
 PORTCULLIS, a strong grating of 
 timber or iron, resembling a harrow. 
 
 Portcullis. 
 
 made to slide in vertical grooves in the 
 jambs of the entrance-gate of a fortified 
 place, to protect the gate in case of 
 
 PORTE, Ottoman, SUBLIME PORTE, 
 common term for the Turkish govern- 
 ment. The chief office of the Ottoman 
 empire is styled Babi Ali, lit. the High 
 Gate, from the gate (bab) of the palace 
 at which justice was administered; and 
 the French translation of this term being 
 Sublime Porte, hence the use of this 
 word. 
 
 PORTER. See Brewing. 
 
 PORTER, David, American naval 
 officer, was born in Boston, Mass., in 
 1780. In 1798 he entered the navy as 
 midshipman on board the United States 
 ship Constellation and participated in 
 the war with the French. Next year he 
 was made lieutenant and was assigned to 
 the West Indies station, where he saw 
 service against the pirates in those 
 waters. In 1806 he was made master, 
 and in 1812 captain. In the latter year 
 he fought in the Essex the famous action 
 with the Alert, which he sank in eight 
 minutes. He made numerous captures 
 during the war of 1812, both of British 
 ships and Peruvian privateers, nearly 
 destroying the British whale fisheries in 
 the Pacific. From 1815 till 1824 Captain 
 Porter was a member of the board of 
 navy commissioners. In 1829 he was 
 appointed consul of Algiers, and in the 
 next year minister to Turkey, where he 
 remained till his death. He was the 
 author of a Journal of the Cruise of the 
 Essex, and from his letters several other 
 interesting books have been compiled. 
 It can be said of him that the two most 
 distinguished officers of the United 
 States navy during the late war received 
 their earliest training on his ship. These 
 
 two were his son and adopted son, David 
 D. Porter, and David G. Farragut. He 
 died in 1843. 
 
 PORTER, David Dixon, _ American 
 admiral, was born at Philadelphia, in 
 1814. He saw his first battle in the 
 Mexican navy at the time his father was 
 chief in command of that service, and 
 in 1829, he became a midshipman in the 
 United States navy. He served in the 
 Mediterranean station till 1835, at which 
 time he was assigned to the United 
 States coast survey corps. On the out- 
 break of the civil war he had attained 
 the rank of commander. In January, 
 
 1863, he captured Arkansas Post, and in 
 April destroyed the Grand Gulf bat- 
 teries. At this time he was made rear- 
 admiral, and had command of all the 
 naval forces on the Mississippi river. 
 After the fall of Vicksburg he assisted 
 Banks in his Red river expedition in 
 
 1864. The same year saw him trans- 
 ferred to the James river in Virginia, and 
 he was employed in the two attacks on 
 Fort Fisher (in the second one of which 
 the fort was captured), besides other 
 important expeditions. At the close of 
 the war he was made vice-admiral, and 
 in 1866 he became superintendent of the 
 naval academy of Annapolis, Md. In 
 1870, on the death of Admiral Farragut, 
 he became admiral (coinmander-in- 
 chief) of the navy. Admiral Porter wrote 
 several books, among them being Life of 
 Commodore David Porter, Incidents 
 and Anecdotes of the Civil War, His- 
 tory of the Navy in the War of the 
 Rebellion, and two works of fiction. 
 
 He died in 1891. 
 
 PORTER, Fitz-John, American 
 soldier, was born at Portsmouth, N. H., 
 in 1822. He served in the Mexican war 
 with General Scott, being wounded in 
 the battles around the City of Mexico. 
 
 He was twice brevetted for gallantry • 
 during the war, and in 1849 he was 
 appointed instructor of cavalry and 
 artillery at West Point. In 1861 he had 
 reached the rank of colonel in the regu- 
 lar army, and on the beginning of 
 hostilities was made brigadier-general 
 of volunteers. At the second battle of 
 Bull Run, Porter was ordered to attack 
 Jackson’s flank, but failed to move (as 
 he alleged) on account of Longstreet 
 being immediately in his front. Pope 
 laid the blame of his defeat on Porter’s 
 inactivity, and even charged him with 
 treachery. Soon after this event McClel- 
 lan was restored to the chief command, 
 and General Porter participated in the 
 battle of Antietam. On November 27, 
 1862, he was tried by court-martial on a 
 charge of disobedience of orders, and 
 after a tedious investigation was 
 cashiered from the army. Appeal was 
 taken, and a board of inquiry was called 
 to proceed with a rehearing of the case, 
 and Porter was in 1878 declared blame- 
 less. In Cleveland’s administration, a 
 bill was passed and signed by the 
 president authorizing the restoration of 
 Porter to the regular army, with the 
 rank of colonel, the bill taking effect iii 
 1886. 
 
 PORTER, Horace, American soldier 
 and diplomat. He was born in 1837 ^ 
 
 at Huntingdon, Pa. At the reduction of "J 
 Fort Pulaski, Ga. (1862), he was the ^ 
 chief of ordnance and artillery, and 
 
PORTER 
 
 PORTSMOUTH. TREATY OP 
 
 earned the brevet rank of captain. He 
 participated in the Tennessee campaign 
 during which he fought at the battle 
 of Chickamauga and took part in the 
 defense of Chattanooga. On April 4, 
 1864, he was promoted to be lieutenant- 
 colonel and was assigned to the staff of 
 General Grant. On March 13, 1865, he 
 received the brevet rank of brigadier- 
 general in the regular army. When 
 Grant was elected to the Presidency 
 Porter became his private secretary. In 
 1873 he resigned from the army to be- 
 come vice-president of the Pullman Car 
 company, and during the following 
 years he filled executive positions on 
 several railroads. In 1897 President 
 McKinley appointed him ambassador 
 to France. His writings include West 
 Point Life; Campaigning with Grant; 
 and the articles on Five Forks and the 
 Pursuit of Lee and The Surrender at 
 Appomattox Court Hou.se, in Battles 
 and Leaders of the Civil War. 
 
 PORTER, Jane, was born at Durham, 
 England in 1776, and made her first essay 
 in literature in 1803 by the publication 
 of Thaddeus of Warsaw, an historical 
 romance, which became extremely popu- 
 lar and secured her European fame. A 
 still greater success attended her Scot- 
 tish Chiefs (1809). She died at Bristol 
 1850. 
 
 PORTER, Noah, D.D., LL.D., an 
 American philosopher and writer, born 
 at Farmington, Conn., in 1811. Gradu- 
 ating at Yale college in 1831, he was or- 
 dained pastor of the Congregational 
 church. New Milford, Conn., in 1836, and 
 in 1843 settled at Springfield, Mass. 
 Returning to Yale in 1846 as professor of 
 metaphysics and moral philosophy, he 
 was elected president in 1871, and con- 
 tinued to hold that position till 1886. 
 Among his chief works are Historical Dis- 
 courses, the Human Intellect, Books and 
 Reading, the Science of Nature versus the 
 Science of Man, The Elements of Intel- 
 lectual Philosophy, The Elements of 
 Moral Science, Bishop George Berkeley, 
 and Kant’s Ethics. Dr. Porter also 
 edited an edition of Webster’s Dic- 
 tionary. He died in 1892. 
 
 PORT HURON, a city on the St. 
 Clair river, Michigan, where it leaves 
 Lake Huron. It has an extensive lum- 
 ber trade, ship-yards, saw, flour, and 
 planing mills, etc., and is connected 
 with Sarnia in Canada by ferries and a 
 railroad passing under the river. Pop. 
 21 972 
 
 POR:TICO, in architecture, a kind of 
 porch before the entrance of a building 
 fronted with columns, and either pro- 
 jecting in front of the building or re- 
 ceding within it. Porticoes are styled 
 tetrastyle, hexastyle, octostyle, deca- 
 style, according as the columns number 
 four, six, eight, or ten. 
 
 PORTLAND, a seaport and largest 
 city in Maine, on a peninsula at the 
 western extremity of Casco bay, a 
 picturesque and well-built city, with 
 handsome public buildings, and abun- 
 dance of trees in many of its streets. 
 Locomotive cars, etc., are made; there 
 are also ship building yards, glass-works, 
 potteries, and rope-walks; and the re- 
 fining of petroleum and sugar is exten- 
 sively carried on. The trade both mari- 
 time and inland is extensive, Portland 
 
 being the terminus of important rail- 
 ways. The principal exports are tim- 
 ber, fish, beef, butter, etc. Pop. 60,242. 
 
 PORTLAND, the chief city of Oregon, 
 situated on the left bank of Willamette 
 river, about 12 miles from its confluence 
 with the Columbia. It is the terminus of 
 the Northern Pacific, Union Pacific, 
 Great Northern, and the Southern Pacific 
 railways, and is at the head of ship 
 navigation, having regular steam com- 
 munication with British Columbia and 
 San Francisco. Pop. 1909 about 250,000. 
 
 PORTLAND BEDS, in geology, a 
 division of the upper Oolites occurring 
 between the Purbeck beds and the 
 Kimmeridge clay, consisting of beds of 
 hard oolitic limestone and freestone in- 
 terstratified with clays and resting on 
 light-colored sands which contain fossils, 
 chiefly mollusca and fish with a few 
 reptiles. They are named from the rocks 
 of the group forming the Lsle of Portland 
 in Dorsetshire, from whence they may 
 be traced through Wiltshire as far as 
 Oxfordshire. 
 
 PORTLAND CEMENT, a well-known 
 cement, so called from its resemblance 
 in color to Portland stone. It is made 
 from chalk and gault clay in definite 
 porportions. These materials are in- 
 timately mixed with water, and formed 
 into a sludge. This is dried, and when 
 caked is roasted in a kiln till it becomes 
 hard. It is afterward ground to a fine- 
 powder, in which state it is ready for 
 market. This cement is much employed 
 along with gravel or shivers for making 
 artificial stone. A month after it is set 
 it forms a substance so hard as to emit a 
 sound when struck. 
 
 PORTLAND STONE is an oolitic lime- 
 stone occurring in great abundance in 
 the Isle of Portland, England. It is one 
 of the members of the Portland Beds, 
 and is much used in building, being soft 
 when quarried, but hardening on ex- 
 posure to the atmosphere. 
 
 PORTO-RICO, one of the larger West 
 India islands, the fourth in size of the 
 Antilles, east of Hayti; area, with sub- 
 ordinate isles, 3596 sq. miles. The 
 island is beautiful and very fertile. A 
 range of mountains, covered with wood, 
 traverses it from east to west, averaging 
 about 1500 feet in height, but with one 
 peak 3678 feet high. In the interior are 
 extensive savannahs; and along the 
 coast tracts of fertile land, from 5 to 10 
 miles wide. The streams are numerous, 
 and some of the rivers can be ascended 
 by ships to the foot of the mountains. 
 There are numerous bays and creeks. 
 The chief harbor is that of the capital, 
 San Juan de Porto Rico; others are 
 Mayaguez, Ponce, and Arecibo. The 
 climate is rather healthy except during 
 the rainy season (Sept. — March). Gold 
 is found in the mountain streams. 
 Copper, iron, lead, and coal have also 
 been found; and there are salines or 
 salt ponds. The chief products are sugar, 
 rum, molasses, coffee, cotton, tobacco, 
 hides, live-stock, dye-woods, timber, 
 rice, etc. Discovered by Columbus in 
 149.3, it was settled by the Spaniards in 
 1510, who ceded it to the United States 
 in 1898. Pop. 953,243. 
 
 PORTO-RICO, San Juan de, the 
 capital and principal seaport of the 
 above island, on its north coast, stands 
 
 upon a small island connected with the 
 mainland by a bridge, is surrounded by 
 strong fortifications, and is the seat of 
 the govermnent and superior courts of 
 the island. The hai-bor is capable of 
 accommodating ships of the largest size. 
 Pop. 32,048. 
 
 PORT SAID, a town of Egypt, on the 
 Mediterranean, at the northern entrance 
 of the Seuz Canal. It was begun simul- 
 taneously with the canal in 1859, being 
 designed for its terminal port. There is 
 an outer harbor formed by two piers 
 jutting out into. the sea, each terminated 
 by a small lighthouse. This admits 
 large ocean steamers, which thus sail 
 into the inner harbor and from it into 
 the canal. Near the entrance to the 
 inner harbor is a lofty lighthouse with a 
 powerful light. Pop. 42,095. 
 
 PORTSMOUTH, the principal station 
 of the British navy, a seaport, municipal 
 county, and pari, borough of England, 
 in Hampshire, on the southwest ex- 
 tremity of the island of Portsea. The 
 royal dockyard covers an area of about 
 500 acres, and is considered the largest 
 and most magnificent establishment of 
 the kind in the world. A series of hills, 
 4 miles to the north of Portsmouth, and 
 commanding its front to the sea, are 
 well fortified with strong forts. On the 
 
 Gosport side a line of forts extends for 
 4 miles. The municipal and parlia- 
 mentary borough includes nearly the 
 whole of the island of Portsea. It sends 
 two members to the House of Commons. 
 Pop. 189,160. 
 
 PORTSMOUTH, a seaport in Rock- 
 ingham CO., New Hampshire, on the 
 right bank of the Piscataqua, 3 miles 
 above its mouth in the Atlantic, 50 
 miles north by east of Boston. It has 
 long been noted for its skill in naval 
 architecture, and for maritime enter- 
 prise. It is the seat of a government 
 navy-yard, and the harbor is one of the 
 safest and most commodious in the 
 United States, Pop. 12,237. 
 
 PORTSMOUTH, a seaport town in 
 Norfolk CO., Virginia, at the mouth of 
 the Elizabeth, 88 miles e.s.e. Richmond; 
 has a military academy and a harbor 
 allowing ships of the heaviest burden to 
 come to the wharfs. At Gosport, a sub- 
 urb, are a navy-yard, dry dock, and 
 naval hospital. Pop. 19,115. 
 
 PORTSMOUTH, a town in Scioto co., 
 Ohio, on the Ohio; has extensive iron 
 manufactures. Pop. 20,146. 
 
 PORTSMOUTH, TREATY OF, in ac- 
 cordance with the proposal of President 
 Roosevelt in May, 1905, after nearly 
 16 months of war, Russia and Japan 
 named their plenipotentiaries to end the 
 war and conclude peace. The meeting 
 
PORTUGAL 
 
 PORTUGAL 
 
 took place at Portsmouth, N. H., on 
 September 5th. The treaty was signed by 
 the plenipotentaries and was approved 
 by the Emporor of Japan and the Czar 
 of Russia on the 16th of September. 
 
 POR'TUGAL, a kingdom in the south- 
 west of Europe, forming the west part of 
 the Iberian peninsula; bounded east and 
 north by Spain, and west and south by 
 the Atlantic; greatest length, north to 
 south, 345 miles, greatest breadth, 140 
 miles. Seven old provinces : Minho, Traz- 
 os-Montes, Beira (Upper and Lower), 
 Estremadura, Alemtejo, and Algarve 
 now form seventeen districts, total 
 area 34,462 sq. miles, population, 
 5,021,657 in 1906. Add to these the 
 Azores (921 sq. miles; population, 
 256,474), and Madeira (315 sq. miles; 
 population, 150,528), which gives a 
 grand total of 35,698 sq. miles, and a 
 population of 5,428,659. The colonial 
 possessions of Portugal consist of — in 
 Asia — Goa, Salsette, Damaun, and Diu, 
 all in Hindustan, Macao in China, and 
 possessions in the Indian Archipelago, 
 having together an area estimated at 
 9000 sq. miles and a population esti- 
 mated at 941,000; in Africa— Cape Verd, 
 St. Thomas, and Prince’s Islands, the 
 Guinea settlements, Angola, Mozambique 
 and dependencies, with an aggregate 
 area of 792,000 sq. miles, and an esti- 
 mated population of 8,197,790. The 
 total area of the Portuguese possessions, 
 therefore, amounts to 801,000 sq. miles, 
 the population to nearly 9,250,000. 
 
 Portugal is only partially separated 
 from Spain by natural boundaries. Its 
 shape is nearly that of a parallelogram. 
 The coast-line, of great length in pro- 
 portion to the extent of the whole sur- 
 face, runs from the north in a general 
 s.s.w. direction till it reaches Cape St. 
 Vincent, where it suddenly turns east. 
 The only harbors of importance, either 
 from their excellence or the trade 
 carried on at them, are those of Lisbon, 
 Oporto, Setubal, Faro, Figueira, Aveiro, 
 and Vianna. The interior is generally 
 mountainous, a number of ranges 
 stretching across the country, forming 
 a succession of independent river basins, 
 while their ramifications form the water- 
 sheds of numerous subsidiary streams, 
 and inclose many beautiful valleys. 
 The minerals include lead, iron, copper, 
 manganese, cobalt, bismuth, antimony, 
 m.arble, slate, salt, saltpeter, litho- 
 graphic stones, mill-stones, and porce- 
 lain earth. No rivers of importance take 
 their rise in Portugal. The Minho in the 
 north, the Douro, and the Tagus all 
 flow from east to west. The Guadiana is 
 the only large river which flows mainly 
 south. Portugal can only claim as 
 peculiarly her own the Vouga, Mondego, 
 and Sado. 
 
 The climate is greatly modified by the 
 proximity of the sea and the height of 
 the mountains. In general the winter is 
 short and mild, and in some plaees never 
 completely interrupts the course of 
 vegetation. In the mountainous dis- 
 tricts the loftier summits obtain a 
 covering of snow, which they retain for 
 months; but south of the Douro, and 
 at a moderate elevation, snow does not 
 lie long. The mean annual temperature 
 of Lisbon is about 56°. Few countries 
 have a more varied flora than Portugal. 
 
 Many of the mountains are clothed with 
 forest trees, among which the common 
 oak and the cork oak are conspicuous. 
 In the central provinces chestnuts are 
 prevalent; in the south both the date and 
 the American aloe are found; while in 
 the warmer districts the orange, lemon, 
 and olive are cultivated with success. 
 The mulberry affords food for the silk- 
 worm, and a good deal of excellent silk 
 is produced. The vine, too, is culti- 
 vated, and large quantities of wine are 
 exported. Agriculture generally, how- 
 ever, is at a low ebb, and in ordinary 
 years Portugal fails to raise cereals suf- 
 ficient to meet its own consumption. 
 Among domestic animals raised are 
 mules of a superior breed, sheep, goats, 
 and hogs. More horned cattle have been 
 raised and of a better quality, and live- 
 stock now figures with timber and wine 
 among the chief exports. The fisheries, 
 so long neglected, have also been revived 
 in recent years. 
 
 Manufactures are of limited amount, 
 although they have been increasing of 
 late years. They embrace woolens, 
 cottons, silks, earthenware and porce- 
 lain, soap, paper, iron goods, hats, etc. 
 The principal exports are wine, cork, 
 cattle, timber, olive-oil, fruits, iron and 
 copper pyrites, and wool; the principal 
 imports are cereals, salt provisions, 
 colonial produce, woolen, cotton, linen, 
 and silk tissues, iron, steel, and other 
 metals, and coal. The bulk of the trade 
 is with Great Britain, France, and 
 Brazil. 
 
 The crown is hereditary both in the 
 male and female line. The constitution 
 recognizes four powers in the state — the 
 legislative, executive, judicial, and mod- 
 erating. The last is vested in the soverr 
 eign. There are two chambers, the 
 Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of 
 Deputies. In 1885 a law was passed abol- 
 ishing hereditary peerages by a gradual 
 process. While the established religion 
 is the Roman Catholic, other religions 
 are tolerated. Conventual establish- 
 ments were suppressed in 1834. Edu- 
 cation, under a distinct ministry, is com- 
 pulsory; but the law is not enforced, and 
 the general state of education is low. 
 The army, consisting of 30,000 men on 
 the peace footing, is raised both by 
 conscription and enlistment. The navy 
 is as yet of insignificant strength. 
 
 The Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and 
 and Greeks early traded to this part of 
 the peninsula, the original inhabitants 
 of which are spoken of as Lusitanians, 
 the country being called Lusitania. 
 When the Spaniards finally wrested the 
 country between the Minho and the 
 Douro from Moorish hands, they placed 
 counts or governors over this region. 
 Alphonso I., defeated Alphonso, king 
 of Castile, in 1137, and made himself 
 independent. In 1139 he gained the 
 brilliant victory of Ourique over the 
 Moors, and was saluted on the field 
 King of Portugal. The cortes convened 
 by Alphonso in 1143 at Lamego con- 
 firmed him in the royal title, and in 1181 
 gave to the kingdom a code of laws and 
 a constitution. The succeeding reigns 
 from Alphonso I. to Dionysius (1279) 
 are noteworthy chiefly for the conquest 
 of Algarve (1251) and a conflict with the 
 pope, who several times put the king- 
 
 dom under interdict. Dionysius’ wise 
 encouragement of commerce, agricul- 
 ture, manufactures, and navigation laid 
 the foundation of the future greatness 
 of Portugal. He liberally patronized 
 learning, and founded a university at 
 Lisbon, transferred in 1308 to Coimbra. 
 He was succeeded by Alphonso IV., who 
 in conjunction with Alphonso II. of 
 Castile defeated the Moors at Salado in 
 1340. He murdered Inez de Castro, the 
 wife of his son Pedro (1355) who suc- 
 ceeded him. Dying in 1367, Pedro I. 
 was succeeded by Ferdinand, on whose 
 death in 1383 the male line of the Bur- 
 gundian princes became extinct. His 
 daughter Beatrice, wife of the King of 
 Castile, should have succeeded him; but 
 the Portuguese were so averse to a con- 
 nection with Castile that John I., natural 
 son of Pedro, grand-master of the order 
 of Avis (founded in 1162), was saluted 
 king by the estates. In 1415 he took 
 Ceuta, on the African coast, the first of a 
 series of enterprises which resulted in 
 those great expeditions of discovery on 
 which the renown of Portugal rests. In 
 this reign v'ere founded the first Portu- 
 guese colonies, Porto Santo (1418), 
 Madeira (1420), the Azores (1433), and 
 those on the Gold coast. The expeditions 
 of discovery were continued with ardor 
 and scientific method. Bartolommeo 
 Diaz doubled the Cape of Good Hope in 
 1487, and Vasco da Gama reached India 
 in 1498. In 1500 Cabral took possession 
 of Brazil. While these great events 
 were still in progress John II. was suc- 
 ceeded by his cousin Emanuel (1495- 
 1521). The conquests of Albuquerque 
 and Almeida made him master of 
 numerous possessions in the islands and 
 mainland of India, and in 1518 Lope de 
 Soares opened a commerce with China. 
 Emanuel ruled from Babelmandeb to 
 the Straits of Malacca, and the power of 
 Portugal had now reached its height. 
 In the reign of John III., son of Emanuel 
 (1521-57), Indian discoveries and com- 
 merce were still further extended. The 
 Inquisition was introduced (1536), and 
 the Jesuits were admitted (1540). Sebas- 
 tian, the grandson of John III., who had 
 introduced the Jesuits, having had his 
 mind inflamed by them against the 
 Moors of Africa, lost his life in the battle 
 against these infidels (1578), and left 
 his throne to the disputes of rival can- 
 didates, of whom the most powerful, 
 Philip II. of Spain, obtained possession 
 of the kingdom by the victory of 
 Alcantara. Portugal continued under 
 the dominion of Spain till 1640, and her 
 vast colonial possessions were united to 
 the already splendid acquisitions of her 
 rival. But these now began to fall into 
 the hands of the Dutch, who, being pro- 
 voked by hostile measures of Philip, 
 attacked the Portuguese as well as the 
 Spanish possessions both in India and 
 America. They deprived the Portu- 
 guese of the Moluccas, of their settle- 
 ments in Guinea, of Malacca, and of 
 Ceylon. They also acquired about half of 
 Brazil, which, after the re-estabiish- 
 ment of Portuguese independence, they 
 restored for a pecuniary compensation. 
 In 1640, by a successful revolt of the 
 nobles, Portugal recovered her inde- 
 pendence, and John IV., duke of 
 Braganza, reigned till 1656, when he 
 
PORT WINE 
 
 POST-OFFICE 
 
 was succeeded by Alphonso VI. On the 
 accession of Maria Francisca Isabella, 
 eldest daughter of Joseph, in 1777, the 
 power was in the hands of an ignorant 
 nobility and a not less ignorant clergy. 
 In 1792, on account of the sickness of 
 the queen, Juan Maria Jos4, prince of 
 Brazil (the title of the prince-royal until 
 1816), was declared regent. His con- 
 nections with England involved him in 
 war with Napoleon; Portugal was oc- 
 cupied by a French force under Junot, 
 and the royal family fled to Brazil. In 
 1808 a British force was landed under 
 Wellington, and after some hard fighting 
 the decisive battle of Vimeira took place 
 (August 21), which was followed by the 
 Convention of Cintra and the evacuation 
 of the country by the French. The 
 French soon returned, however; but the 
 operations of Wellington, and in par- 
 ticular the strength of his position with- 
 in the lines of Torres Vedras, forced them 
 to retire. The Portuguese now took an 
 active part in the war for Spanish inde- 
 pendence. On the death of Maria -in 
 1816, John VI. ascended the throne of 
 Portugal and Brazil, in which latter 
 country he still continued to reside. 
 A revolution in favor of constitutional 
 government was effected without blood- 
 shed in 1820, and the king invited to 
 return home, which he now did. In 1822 
 Brazil threw off the yoke of Portugal, 
 and proclaimed Dom Pedro, son of 
 John VI., emperor. John VI. died in 
 1826, having named the Infanta Isa- 
 bella Maria regent. She goveimed in the 
 name of the Emperor of Brazil, Dom 
 Pedro IV. of Portugal, who granted a 
 new constitution, modeled on the 
 French, in 1826. In 1831 Dom Pedro 
 resigned the Brazilian crown, and re- 
 turning to Europe succeeded in over- 
 throwing Dom Miguel, and restoring the 
 crown to Maria in 1833, dying himself 
 in 1834. In 1836 a successful revolution 
 took place in favor of the restoration of 
 the constitution of 1820, and in 1842 
 another in favor of that of 1826. 
 Maria died in 1853. Her husband, 
 Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg (Dom Ferdi- 
 nand II.), became regent for his and her 
 son, Pedro V., who himself took the 
 reins of government in 1855. Pedro died 
 in 1861, and was succeeded by his 
 brother, Louis I. Louis died in 1889, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Carlos I. 
 During these latter reigns the state of 
 Portugal has generally been fairly pros- 
 perous. On Feb. Ist, 1908, King Carlos 
 and the Crown Prince Luig Philippe 
 were killed and the Infant Manuel 
 slightly injured by assassins as the king 
 and queen and their two sons were re- 
 turning in their carriage to the palace. 
 On Feb. 3rd, Manuel II. was crowned 
 king. 
 
 PORT WINE is a very strong, full- 
 flavored wine produced in the upper 
 valley of the Douro, Portugal, and has 
 its name from the place of shipment, 
 Oporto. It is slightly astringent, and has 
 a color varying from pink to red. It 
 requires three or four years to mature, 
 and with age becomes tawny; it re- 
 ceives a certain proportion of spirit to 
 hasten the process of pr^aration. The 
 vintage begins early in ^ptember and 
 extends into October. Large quantities 
 of artificial port are made. 
 
 POSEN, a fortified town in Prussia, 
 capital of the province of the same 
 name. The most noteworthy public 
 buildings are the cathedral, in the 
 Gothic style (1775), the town parish 
 church, a fine building in the Italian 
 style, both Roman Catholic; the town- 
 house (1508), with a lofty tower; the 
 Raczynski library; the municipal 
 archive building, etc. The manufactures 
 consist chiefly of agricultural machines, 
 manures, woolen and linen tissues, 
 carriages, leather, lacquerware, etc.; be- 
 sides breweries and distilleries. Pop. 
 117,014. — The province is bounded by 
 west Prussia, Russian Poland, Silesia, 
 and Brandenburg; area, 11,178 sq. miles. 
 
 POSIDONIUS, a Stoic philosopher, 
 born in Syria, about 135 b.c. He settled 
 as a teacher at Rhodes, whence he is 
 called the Rhodian. T?he most dis- 
 tinguished Romans were his scholars, 
 and C!icero was initiated by him into 
 the Stoic philosophy. Removing to 
 Rome in 51 b.c., he died not long after. 
 In his physical investigations he was 
 more a follower of Aristotle than of the 
 Stoic school. 
 
 POSITIVE, in photography, a picture 
 obtained by printing from a negative, 
 in which the lights and shades are 
 rendered as they are in nature. See 
 Photography. 
 
 POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY, or POSI- 
 TIVISM, is the name given by Auguste 
 Comte to the philosophical and religious 
 system promulgated by him (chiefly in 
 his Cours de Philosophie Positive, 1830- 
 42, and his posthuinous Essays on Reli- 
 gion). The distinguishing idea which 
 lies at the root of this two-fold system 
 is the conception that the anomalies 
 of our social system cannot be reformed 
 until the theories upon which it is 
 shaped have been brought into com- 
 plete harmony with science. The leading 
 ideas of Comte’s philosophy are (1) the 
 classification of the sciences in the order 
 of their development, proceeding from 
 the simpler to the more complex — 
 mathematics, astronomy, physics, chem- 
 istry, biology, and sociology; and (2) the 
 doctrine of the “three stages,” or the 
 three aspects in which the himian mind 
 successively views the world of phenom- 
 ena, namely, the the ological, the meta- 
 physical, and the scientific. 
 
 POST-RESTANTE, a department in 
 a post-office where letters so addressed 
 are kept till the owners call for them. It 
 is for the convenience of persons passing 
 through a country or town where they 
 have no fixed residence. 
 
 POST-GLACIAL. See Post-tertiary. 
 
 POST MORTEM (“after death”), a 
 Latin term used as in the phrase post 
 mortem examination, an inspection 
 made of a dead body by some com- 
 petent person in order to ascertain the 
 cause of death. 
 
 POST-OFFICE, a department of the 
 government of a country charged with 
 the conveyance of letters, newspapers, 
 parcels, etc. From the time of Cyrus the 
 Elder down to the middle ages various 
 rulers had concocted more or less effec- 
 tive systems of postal communication 
 throughout their dominions; but the 
 “post” as we know it today is an institu- 
 tion of very modern growth. The first 
 traces of a postal system in England 
 
 are observed in the statutes of Edward 
 III., and the postoffice as a department 
 of government took its rise in the em- 
 ployment of royal messengers for carry- 
 ing letters. The first English post- 
 master we hear of was Sir Brian Tuke, 
 his date being 1533. In 1543 a post 
 existed by which letters were carried 
 from London to Edinburgh within four 
 days, but this rate of transportation, 
 rapid for that period, lasted but a short 
 time. James I. improved the postal 
 communication with Scotland, and set 
 on foot a system for forwarding letters 
 intended for foreign lands. In 1607 he 
 appointed Lord Stanhope postmaster 
 for England, and in 1619 a separate 
 postmaster for foreign parts. Up to with- 
 in a short time of the reign of Charles I., 
 merchants, tradesmen, and professional 
 men availed themselves of any means of 
 conveyance that offered, or employed 
 express messengers to carry their corre- 
 spondence. The universities and prin- 
 cipal cities had their own posts. The 
 foreign merchants settled in London 
 continued to send their foreign letters 
 by private means long after the estab- 
 lishment of the foreign post. In 1632 
 Charles I. forbade letters to be sent out 
 of the kingdom except through the post- 
 office. In 1635 he established a new 
 system of posts for England and Scot- 
 land. All private and local posts were 
 abolished, and the income of the post- 
 offices was claimed by the king. Inter- 
 rupted by the civil wars, peace had no 
 sooner been restored than a more per- 
 fect postal system was established. In 
 1683 a penny post was set up in the 
 metropolis. During the government of 
 William III. acts of parliament were 
 passed w’hich regulated the internal 
 postal system of Scotland: and under 
 Queen Anne, in 1711, the postal system 
 of England was arranged on the method 
 on which, with some modifications, it 
 continued till near the middle of the 
 19th century. Sir Rowland Hill, the 
 author of the sj'stem at present existing, 
 gave the first intimation of his plan in a 
 pamphlet in the year 1837. He soon had 
 the satisfaction of seeing the legislature 
 adopt his plan, in its principal features 
 at least, and on the 10th January, 1840, 
 the uniform rate of 1 d. per i oz. for 
 prepaid letters came into operation. 
 The success of Rowland Hill’s scheme 
 was vastly favored by the invention of 
 the adhesive postage-stamp, the idea of 
 which would seem to be due to Mr. 
 James Chalmers of Dundee. Subse- 
 quently many important improvements 
 have been made in the management of 
 the post-office business. One of these 
 was the adoption of postal carriages on 
 railways, by which the delivery of letters 
 was greatly accelerated. These car- 
 riages are fitted with an apparatus into 
 which letter-bags are thrown without 
 stopping or even materially slackening 
 the speed of the train; while the sorting 
 of letters, etc., proceeds during the 
 transit. The reduction of the cost of 
 carriage, the great increase in the 
 rapidity of transmission, the immense 
 development of commerce, together 
 with the increase of population, have 
 had the effect of enormously increasing 
 the work done by the post-office. 
 
 Other departments under the manage- 
 
POST-PLEIOCENE 
 
 POTASH 
 
 ment of the post-office in Great Britain 
 are the money-order departments, the 
 savings-bank department, annuities and 
 life assurance department, and tele- 
 graph department. For the annuities 
 and life assurance department see Post- 
 office Insurance. The money-order de- 
 partment was annexed to the post-office 
 in 1838. By means of an inland money- 
 order an amount, not exceeding $50, 
 can be transmitted to any person in any 
 part of the United Kingdom and pre- 
 sented for payment at the post-office 
 named in it within twelve months after 
 the date of issue, otherwise it is legally 
 void. At first the rates were much 
 higher than they are now. Postal orders 
 are now provided with counterfoils for 
 retention by the sender. There are now 
 money-order conventions with most 
 foreign countries and with all the colo- 
 nies, so that money in this form can be 
 transmitted to most parts of the world. 
 
 Since 1861 post-office savings banks 
 have been in operation in Britain; the 
 deposits are paid over to the com- 
 missioners for the reduction of the 
 national debt who allow interest at 2^ 
 per cent per annum. Not more than 
 $150 may be deposited by a person 
 in any one year nor may the total 
 amount so deposited exceed $1000. 
 France, Austria, Germany, Canada, 
 and other countries also have the like 
 savings banks. 
 
 The telegraph lines of the United 
 Kingdom have been worked by the 
 post-office since 1870. An act passed 
 in 1868 authorized the postmaster 
 general to buy up all existing lines, to 
 make extensions and improvements as 
 occasion requires, and to work them as 
 part of the post-office business. A 
 second, passed in 1869, practically gave 
 the government a monopoly in telegraph- 
 ing. The rate is 6d. for twelve words or 
 less, and ^d. for every word afterward, 
 the addresses of sender and receiver be- 
 ing both charged for. 
 
 In the English colonies of America 
 before 1639 such postal facilities as ex- 
 isted were supplied by private enter- 
 prise. Letters from abroad were delivered 
 at the wharf to those who called for 
 them or sent to a near-by coffee-house 
 for distribution. Benjamin Franklin 
 was more identified with the Colonial 
 post-office than any other man. In 1737 
 tie was appointed postmaster of Phila- 
 delphia. He immediately systematized 
 the department. In 1753 the delivery of 
 letters by the penny post was begun. In 
 1792 rates of postage were fixed which 
 remained unaltered for nearly half a 
 century. They were: for 30 miles and 
 under, 6 cents; over 30 miles and not 
 exceeding 60 miles, 8 cents; over 60 and 
 not exceeding 100 miles, 10 cents; and 
 so on up to 450 miles and over, for 
 which the charge was 25 cents. In 1851 
 the rate on letters not exceeding ^ ounce 
 in weight was reduced to 3 cents for dis- 
 tances under 3000 miles and 6 cents for 
 distances above 3000 miles. In 1863 
 the element of distance as a factor in 
 fixing the scale of rates was abolished 
 and a uniform rate of 3 cents was 
 established for letters not exceeding J 
 ounce in weight. In 1883 this rate was 
 reduced to 2 cents. 
 
 In 1847 adhesive postage stamps 
 
 [were first introduced into the United 
 I States, but, on account of the high rate 
 of postage and the provision allowing 
 optional prepa 3 ment, they did not come 
 into general use until 1855, when the 
 rates were reduced and prepayment re- 
 quired. In 1852 stamped envelopes 
 were introduced and in 1872 postal 
 cards were authorized. In 1879 double 
 or reply postal cards were authorized, 
 and in 1898 private mailing cards were 
 allowed to be sent through the mails at 
 the rate of one cent postage, subject to 
 certain restrictions prescribed by the 
 postmaster-general. 
 
 By an act of 1855 provision was made 
 for a system of registration by which 
 extra precaution is taken in the trans- 
 mission of valuable letters and parcels 
 upon payment of a fee of eight cents in 
 addition to the regular postage. By an 
 act of 1897, provision was made for 
 indemnifying persons who lose regis- 
 tered letters and parcels of value, when 
 the actual value of the article is less 
 than $25. 
 
 In 1864 the postal money order 
 system was adopted. No single money 
 order for more than $100 may be issued. 
 
 The system of delivering mail by 
 carriers at the houses and offices of 
 persons to whom it is addressed was 
 first introduced in 1863. In 1865 free 
 delivery was extended to all places 
 having a population of 50,000. In 1873 
 the system was extended to all places of 
 20,000 inhabitants and over, and in 
 1887 to cities of 10,000 inhabitants. 
 Provision was alsq made in 1885 for 
 special or immediate delivery of letters 
 within certain limits upon the payment 
 of a fee of 10 cents in the form of a 
 special stamp. In 1896 the delivery of 
 mail in rural districts was inaugurated. 
 
 In the United States there is no dis- 
 tinct parcels post as in England, parcels 
 being conveyed through the regular 
 malls as fourth-class matter. Arrange- 
 ments, however, exist with Mexico, 
 certain of the West Indies, and certain 
 Central and South American countries 
 providing for a parcels post between the 
 countries concerned. 
 
 In the United States all mail matter 
 is divided into four classes. The first 
 class includes letters, post-cards, and 
 anything closed against inspection : 
 postage, 2 cents each oz. or additional 
 fraction of an oz.; post-cards, 1 cent; 
 registered letters, 8 cents in addition to 
 postage. Second class matter includes 
 all newspapers, periodicals, etc., issued 
 as frequently as four times a year: 
 postage, one cent per lb. or fraction 
 thereof. When the newspapers, etc., are 
 sent by persons other than the publishers 
 the charge is one cent for each four 
 ounces. Mail matter of the third class 
 includes books, circulars, proof-sheets, 
 etc.: postage, 1 cent for each 2 ozs.; 
 limit of weight, 4 lbs. each package. 
 The fourth class embraces merchandise 
 and all matters not included in the other 
 three classes: postage, 1 cent per oz.; 
 limit of weight, 4 lbs. Prepayment of 
 postage by stamps for all classes of 
 matter is required. In most of the Cen- 
 tral and South American states the pos- 
 tal system is as yet far from being well 
 organized, though a somewhat better 
 state of affairs prevails in Chile, Mexico, 
 
 the Argentine Republic, and Brazil, in 
 each of which there is also a system of 
 state telegraphs. 
 
 In recent years an immense stride has 
 been taken in the improvement of 
 postal communication between different 
 countries by the formation of the 
 International Postal Union, the pro- 
 visions adopted by which came into 
 force in 1875. The Union has been 
 greatly enlarged since that time; and 
 only a few countries or regions now re- 
 main outside of it, such as China, 
 Abyssinia, Arabia, etc. All the coun- 
 tries in the Union have a uniform charge 
 for letters, etc., passing between them. 
 Practically an ounce letter (new rule 
 put in force Oct. 1, 1907) is carried to 
 any part of the world for five cents and 
 a post card for two cents. In 1908 a 
 two-cent postage rate between the 
 United States and Great Britain went 
 into effect. 
 
 POST-PLEIOCENE, or POST-PLIO- 
 CENE, in geology, same as Pleistocene. 
 
 POST-TERTIARY, in geology, the 
 Lyellian term for all deposits and phenom- 
 ena of more recent date than the Nor- 
 wich or mammaliferous crag. It may be 
 restricted so as only to include acciunu- 
 lations and deposits formed since the 
 close of the glacial or bolder drift sys- 
 tems, and has been divided into three 
 sections — historic, pre-historic, and post 
 glacial. The first comprises the peat of 
 Great Britain and Ireland, fens, marshes 
 river-deposits, lake-silts, accumulations 
 of sand-drift, etc., containing hiunan 
 remains, canoes, metal instruments, 
 remains of domestic animals, etc. The 
 pre-historic comprises similar, or nearly 
 similar deposits, but the remains found 
 in them are older, comprising stone 
 implements, pile-dwellings, and extinct 
 animals, as the Irish deer, mammoth, 
 etc. To the post-glacial belong raised 
 beaches, with shells of a more boreal 
 character than those of existing seas, 
 the shell-marl under peat, many dales 
 and river valleys, as well as the common 
 brick-clay, etc., covering submarine 
 forests or containing the remains of 
 seals, whales, the mammoth, rhinoceros, 
 unis, hyaena, hippopotamus, etc. 
 
 POTASH, or POTASSA, an alkaline 
 substance obtained from the ley of 
 vegetable ashes which is mixed with 
 quicklime and boiled down in iron pots, 
 and the residuum ignited, the substance 
 remaining after ignition being common 
 potash. It derives its name from the 
 ashes and the pots (called potash kettles) 
 in which the lixivium is (or used to be) 
 boiled down. An old name was vege- 
 table alkali. Potash in this crude state 
 is an impure carbonate of potassium 
 which when purified is known in com- 
 merce as pearl-ash. It is used in the 
 making of glass and soap, and large 
 quantities of it are now produced from 
 certain “potash minerals” (especially 
 carnallite), instead of from wood ashes. 
 What is known as caustic potash (hy- 
 drate of potassium, is prepared fi-om 
 ordinary potash. It is solid, white, and 
 extremely caustic, eating into animal 
 and vegetable tissues with great readi- 
 ness. It changes the purple of violets to 
 green, restores reddened litimus to blue 
 and yellow tumeric to reddish-brown. 
 It rapidly attracts humidity from the air 
 
POTASH WATER 
 
 POTOMAC 
 
 and becomes semi-fluid. It is fusible at 
 a heat of 300°, and is volatilized at low 
 ignition. It is used in surgery under the 
 name of lapis infernalis or lapis causticus 
 for destroying warts, fungoid growths, 
 etc., and may be applied beneficially to 
 the bites of dogs, venomous serpents, 
 etc. In chemistry it is very extensively 
 employed, both in manfactures and as 
 an agent in analysis. It is the basis of 
 the common soft soaps, for which pur- 
 pose, however, it is not used in its pure 
 
 POTASH WATER, an aei’ated water 
 produced by mixing bicarbonate of 
 potash with carbonic acid water in the 
 proportion of 20 grains to each bottle 
 of the water, or about half an ounce to 
 the gallon. Bisulphate of potash, as 
 being cheaper than tartaric acid, is 
 sometimes used (but should not be) with 
 carbonate of soda to produce the com- 
 mon effervescing drink. A valuable 
 medicinal water is compounded of a cer- 
 tain proportion of bromide of potassium. 
 
 POTAS'SIUM (a latinized term from 
 potash), a name given to the metallic 
 basis of potash, discovered by Davy in 
 1807, and one of the first-fruits of his 
 electro-chemical researches; symbol, K; 
 atomic weight, 39.1. Next to lithium 
 it is the lightest metallic substance 
 known, its specific gravity, being 0.865 
 at the temperature of 60°. At ordinary 
 temperatures it may be cut with a knife 
 and worked with the fingers. At 32° it 
 is hard and brittle, with a crystalline 
 texture; at 50° it becomes malleable, 
 and in luster resembles polished silver; 
 at 150° it is perfectly liquid. Potassium 
 has a very powerful affinity for oxygen, 
 which it takes from many other com- 
 pounds. A freshly-exposed surface of 
 potassium instantly becomes covered 
 with a film of oxide. The metal must 
 therefore be preserved under a liquid 
 free from oxygen, rock-oil or naphtha 
 being generally employed. It conducts 
 electricity like the common metals. 
 When thrown upon water it decomposes 
 that liquid with evolution of hydrogen, 
 which burns with a pale violet flame, 
 owing to the presence in it of potash 
 vapor. Chloride of potassimn is known 
 in commerce as “muriate of potash,” 
 and closely resembles common salt 
 (chloride of sodium). It is obtained from 
 potassic minerals, the ashes of marine 
 plants (kelp), and from sea-water or 
 brine springs. It enters into the manu- 
 facture of saltpeter, alum, artificial 
 manure, etc. Bromide and iodide of 
 potassium are useful drugs. Bicarbonate 
 of potassium is obtained by exposing a 
 solution of the carbonate to the air, 
 carbonic acid being imbibed from the 
 atmosphere, and crystals being de- 
 posited; or it is formed more directly by 
 passing a current of carbonic acid gas 
 through a solution of the carbonate of 
 such a strength that crystals fonn spon- 
 taneously. It is much used in medicine 
 for making effervescing drinks. Nitrate 
 of potassium is nitre, or saltpeter. Sul- 
 phate of potassium is used medicinally 
 as a mild laxative, in making some kinds 
 of glass and alum, and in manures. The 
 bisulphate is used as a chemical reagent 
 and in colico-printing and dyeing. 
 Chlorate of potassium is employed in the 
 manufacture of lucifer matches, in cer- 
 
 tain operations in colico-printing, and 
 for filling friction-tubes for firing cannon. 
 It is a well-known source of oxygen. 
 The bichromate is also used in calico- 
 printing and dyeing. Cyanide of potas- 
 sium is much used in photography. 
 
 POTATO, a plant belonging to the 
 natural order Solanaceffi, which also in- 
 cludes such poisonous plants as night- 
 shade, henbane, thorn-apple, and to- 
 bacco. We owe this esculent to western 
 South America, where it still grows wild 
 chiefly in the region of the Andes, pro- 
 ducing small, tasteless, watery tubers. 
 The potato is a perennial plant, with 
 angular herbaceous stems, growing to 
 the height of 2 or 3 feet; leaves pinnate ; 
 flowers pretty large, numerous, disposed 
 in corymbs, and colored violet, bluish, 
 reddish, or whitish. The fruit is globular, 
 about the size of a gooseberry, reddish- 
 brown or purplish when ripe, and con- 
 tains numerous small seeds. The tubers, 
 which furnish so large an amount of the 
 food of mankind, are really underground 
 shoots abnomially dilated, their increase 
 in size having been greatly fostered by 
 cultivation. Their true nature is proved 
 by the existence of the “eyes” upon 
 them. These are leaf-buds, from which, 
 if a tuber or a portion of it containing 
 an eye is put into earth, a young plant 
 will sprout, the starchy matter of the 
 tuber itself supplying nutriment until it 
 throws out roots and leaves, and so 
 attains an independent existence. The 
 potato succeeds best in a light sandy 
 loam containing a certain proportion of 
 vegetable matter. The varieties are 
 very numerous, differing in the time of 
 ripening, in their form, size, color, and 
 quality. New ones are readily procured 
 by sowing the seeds, which will produce 
 tubers the third year, and a full crop the 
 fourth. But the plant is usually propa- 
 gated by sowing or planting the tubers, 
 and it is only in this way that any one 
 variety can be kept in cultivation. Like 
 all plants that are extensively cultivated 
 and under very difi'erent circumstances 
 of soil, climate, and artificial treatment, 
 the potato is extremely subject to disease. 
 Among the diseases to which it is liable 
 are the “curl,” the “scab,” the “dry- 
 rot,” and the “wet-rot,” besides the 
 more destructive potato disease proper. 
 The principal feature of the curl is the 
 curling of the shoots soon after their 
 first appearance. After that they make 
 little progress, and sometimes disappear 
 altogether. The plants produce no 
 tubers, or only a few minute ones, which 
 are unfft for food. The scab is a dis- 
 ease that attacks the tubers, which 
 become covered with brown spots on the 
 outside, while underdeath the skin is a 
 fungus called Tubercinia scabies. The 
 dry-rot is characterized by a hardening 
 of the tissues, which are completely 
 gorged with mycelium (the vegetative 
 part of fungi). In the disease called wet- 
 rot the potato is affected much in the 
 same way as by the dry-rot; but the 
 tubers, instead of becoming hard and 
 dry, are soft. The fungus present in 
 wet-rot is supposed to be the same that 
 accompanies dry-rot. The potato is also 
 attacked by various insects, the most 
 destructive being the Colorado beetle. 
 The tubers consist almost entirely of 
 starch, and being thus deficient in nitro- 
 
 gen, should not be too much relied on as 
 a staple article of diet. Potatoes are 
 extensively used as a cattle-food, and 
 starch is also manufactured from them. 
 A coarse spirit is also obtained from 
 them by distillation, the starch being 
 converted into sugar by means of malt 
 or sulphuric acid, and then fermentation 
 set up. 
 
 POTATO-BUG, a name given in 
 America to many insects injurious to 
 
 Colorado potato bug and its feeding larva. 
 
 the potato, such as the Colorado beetle, 
 which see. 
 
 POTEMKIN (pot-yom'kiii), Gregory 
 Alexandrovitch, Russian general, a favor- 
 ite of the Empress Catharine II., born 
 in 1736, died in 1791. From 1776 till his 
 death, a period of more than fifteen 
 years, he exercised a boundless sway 
 over the destinies of the empire. In 
 1783 he suppressed the khanate of the 
 Crimea, and annexed it to Russia. In 
 1787, being desirous of expelling the 
 Turks from Europe, he stirred up a new 
 war, in the course of which he took 
 Oczakoff by storm (1788). In the follow- 
 ing year (1789) he took Bender, but as 
 the finances of Russia were now ex- 
 hausted Catharine was desirous of peace. 
 Potemkin, however, resolved on con- 
 quering Constantinople, resisted the 
 proposal to treat with the enemy, and 
 went to St. Petersburg to wun over the 
 empress to his side (March, 1791); but 
 during his absence Catharine sent plen- 
 ary powers to Prince Repnin, who 
 signed a treaty of peace. When Potem« 
 kin learned what had been done he set 
 out for the army, resolved to undo the 
 work of his substitute; but he died on 
 the way, at Nicolaieff. 
 
 POTENTIAL ENERGY, that part of 
 the energy of a system of bodies which is 
 due to their relative position, and which 
 is equal to the work which would be 
 done by the various forces acting on the 
 system if the bodies w'ere to yield to 
 them. If a stone is at a certain height 
 above the earth’s surface the potential 
 energy of the system consisting of the 
 earth and stone, in virtue of the force 
 of gravity, is the work which might be 
 done by the falling of the stone to the 
 surface of the earth. 
 
 POTEN'ZA, a town of Southern Italy 
 and a bishop’s see, capital of the prov- 
 ince of the same name, on a hill of the 
 Apennines near the Basento, 85 miles 
 e.s.e. of Naples. The province is partly 
 bounded by the Gulf of Taranto and the 
 Mediterranean. Its chief productions 
 are corn, hemp, wine, silk, cotton. Area, 
 4122 sq. miles; pop. 490,705. 
 
 POTO'MAC, a river of the United 
 States, which forms the boundary be- 
 tween Maryland and Virginia, passes 
 Washington, and after a course of nearly 
 400 miles flows into Chesapeake bay, 
 being about 8 miles wide at its mouth. 
 The termination of the tide-water is at 
 Washington, about 125 miles from the 
 sea, and the river is navigable tor large 
 
POTOSi 
 
 POTTERY 
 
 ships all that distance. Above Washing- 
 ton are several falls which obstruct 
 navigation. 
 
 POTOSI (pot-o-se'; common pronun- 
 ciation, po-to'se), a city of Southern 
 Bolivia, in the department of same name 
 on the slope of the mountain mass of 
 Cerro de Potosi, more than 13,000 feet 
 above the sea-level, in bare and barren 
 surroundings. It has long been cele- 
 brated for its silver-mines, which were 
 at one time exceedingly productive, and 
 have again begun to show an improved 
 return. Pop. 15,000. — The department 
 has an area of 54,000 sq. miles, and is 
 celebrated for its mineral wealth, espe- 
 cially silver. Pop. 325,615 
 
 POTIPOURRI (p6-p6-re), signifies the 
 same as olla podrida; also, and more 
 generally, a musical medley, or a literary 
 composition made up of parts put to- 
 gether without unity or bond of con- 
 nection. 
 
 POTSDAM, a town in Prussia, a 
 bishop’s see, capital of the proviiice 
 of Brandenburg, and the second royal 
 residence of the kingdom, is charm- 
 ingly situated in the midst of wooded 
 hills, 17 miles southwest of Berlin, 
 on the Havel, which here has sev- 
 eral lakes connected with it. Potsdam 
 was an unimportant place till the Great 
 Elector selected it as a place of resi- 
 dence and built the royal palace in the 
 town (1660-71). Pop. 58,452. 
 
 POTTER, Paul, a celebrated Dutch 
 painter of animals, born at Enkhuisen 
 in 1625. He died at Amsterdam in 1654, 
 at the early age of twenty-nine. His 
 engravings are much esteemed, and his 
 paintings command a high price. 
 
 POTTER, Henry Codman, Episcopal 
 bishop of the diocese of New York. He 
 was born at Schenectady, N. Y., May 
 25, 1835, educated at the Episcopal 
 academy in Philadelphia and at the 
 
 Theological seminary of Virginia. His 
 earlier charges were Christ church, 
 Greensburg, Pa., in 1857; St. John’s 
 church at Troy, N. Y., in 1859; Trinity 
 church, Boston, in 1866; and Grace 
 church. New York, in 1868. ' He be- 
 came bishop of New York in 1887, hav- 
 ing been assistant bishop four years 
 previously. He is well known as a 
 lecturer. He died in 1908. 
 
 POTTERY, the art of forming vessels 
 or utensils of any sort in clay. This art 
 is of high antiquity, being practiced 
 among various races in prehistoric 
 times. We find mention of earthenware 
 in the Mosaic writings. The Greeks had 
 important potteries at Samos, Athens, 
 and Corinth, and attained great perfec- 
 tion as regards form and ornamentation. 
 The Italians are said first to have be- 
 come acquainted with this kind of ware 
 as it was manufactured in the Island of 
 Majorca, and hence they gave it the 
 name of majolica. About the middle of 
 the 16th century the manufactory of- 
 Bernard Palissy at Saintes in France be- 
 came famous on account of the beauti- 
 ful glaze and rich ornaments by which 
 its products were distinguished. A little 
 later the Dutch began to manufacture 
 at Delft the more solid but less beautiful 
 ware which thence takes its name. The 
 principal improver of the potter’s art in 
 Britain was Josiah Wedgwood in the 
 18 th century. Porcelain or china ware 
 first became known in Europe about the 
 end of the 16th century through the 
 Dutch, who brought it from the East. 
 
 Though the various kinds of pottery 
 and porcelain differ from each other in 
 the details of their manufacture, yet 
 there are certain general principles and 
 processes which are common to them 
 all. The first operations are connected 
 with the preparation of the potter’s 
 paste, which consists of two different 
 ingredients — an earthy substance, which 
 is the clay proper; and a siliceous sub- 
 stance, which is necessary to increase 
 the firmness of the ware, and render it 
 less liable to shrink and crack on ex- 
 posure to heat. The clay is first finely 
 comminuted, and reduced to the con- 
 sistency of cream, when it is run off 
 through a set of wire, gauze, or silk 
 sieves into cisterns, where it is diluted 
 with water to a standard density. The 
 other ingredient of the potter’s material 
 is usually ground flints, or flint-powder , 
 as it is called. The flint nodules are 
 reduced to powder by being heated and 
 then thrown into water to make them 
 brittle. They are then passed through 
 a stamping-mill and ground to fine 
 powder; which, treated in much the 
 same way as the clay, is finally passed 
 as a creamy liquor into a separate cis- 
 tern. These liquors are now mixed in 
 such measure that the dry flint-powder 
 bears to the clay the proportion of one- 
 sixth or one-fifth, or even more, accord- 
 ing to the quality of the clay and the 
 practice of the manufacturer. The mix- 
 ture is then forced into presses, lined 
 with cloth, by means of a force-pump, 
 the cloth retaining the clay and allow- 
 ing the water to escape. The clay now 
 forms a uniform inelastic mass, which is 
 cut into cubical lumps and transferred 
 to a damp cellar, where it remains until 
 a process of femnentation or disintegra- 
 tion renders it finer in grain and not so 
 apt to crack in the baking. But even 
 after this process the ingredients com- 
 posing the paste are not intimately 
 enough incorporated together nor suflB- 
 ciently fine in texture until another 
 operation has been undergone, called 
 slapping or wedging, which consists in 
 repeatedly brealang the lumps across 
 and striking them together again in an- 
 
 other direction, dashing them on a 
 board, etc. This final process of incor- 
 poration is now most frequently per- 
 formed by machinery. 
 
 In making earthenware vessels, if they 
 are of a circular form, the first operation 
 after the paste has been made is turning, 
 or what is technically called throwing 
 them on the wheel. This is an apparatus 
 resembling an ordinary turning-lathe, 
 except that the surface of the chuck, or 
 support for the clay, is horizontal in- 
 stead of vertical. The chuck is in fact a 
 
 Successive stages of earthenware vessel 
 on the potter’s wheel. 
 
 revolving circular table, in the center of 
 which a piece of clay is placed, which 
 the potter begins to shape with his 
 hands. The rotary motion of the table 
 gives the clay a cylindrical form in the 
 hands of the potter, who gradually 
 works it up to the intended shape. It 
 is then detached from the revolving 
 table and dried, after which, if intended 
 for finely-finished ware, it is taken to a 
 lathe and polished. It is at this stage 
 that the handles and other prominent 
 parts are fitted on, which is done by 
 means of a thin paste of clay called slip. 
 The articles are now removed to a room 
 in which they are dried more thoroughly 
 at a high temperature. Y7hen they 
 have reached what is called the green 
 state they are again taken to a lathe 
 and more truly shaped, as well as 
 smoothed and burnished. ■ When the 
 article are not of a circular form, and 
 accordingly cannot be produced by 
 means of the wheel, they are either 
 pressed or cast in molds of plaster of 
 Paris. In the former case the paste used 
 is of the same consistency as that em- 
 ployed on the wheel ; in the latter, molds 
 of the same sort are used, but the clay 
 mixture is poured into them in the con- 
 dition of slip. By the absorption of the 
 water in the parts next the dry mold a 
 crust is formed of greater or less thick- 
 ness, according to the time that the 
 liquid is allowed to remain. The molds 
 are in two or more pieces, so as to be 
 easily detached from the molded 
 article. 
 
 When shaped and dried the articles 
 are ready for the kiln, in which they are 
 exposed to a high temperature until 
 they acquire a sufficient degree of hard- 
 ness for use. The paste of •,'hich the 
 earthenware is composed is thus con- 
 verted into what is called bisq’ie or bis- 
 cuit. While undergoin.g tbi', pricccs of 
 baking, the arti^'l^'s are inclccc'’.ir. l.’rger 
 vessels of baked fire-clay, called saggers, 
 to protect them from the fire and smoke. 
 
POTTSTOWN 
 
 POWELL 
 
 nnd to distribute the heat more uni- 
 formly. The whole firing lasts from 
 forty to forty-two hours. After the 
 kilns have been allowed to cool very 
 slowly, the articles are taken out, and 
 if they are not to be decorated in color, 
 and sometimes also when they are to be 
 so decorated, they are immersed in a 
 -vitrifiable composition called glaze, 
 which, after the vessels have been a 
 second time subjected to heat in glazed 
 
 The muffle for fixing the colors on decorated 
 porcelain. 
 
 saggers, is converted into a coating of 
 glass, rendering the vessels impermeable 
 to water. 
 
 Porcelain or china ware is formed only 
 from argillaceous minerals of extreme 
 delicacy, united with siliceous earths 
 capable of communicating to them a 
 certain degree of translucency by means 
 of their vitrification. Porcelain is of 
 two kinds — hard and tender. Both con- 
 sist, like other earthenwares, of two 
 parts — a paste which forms the biscuit, 
 and a glaze. The biscuit of hard porce- 
 lain is composed of kaolin or china clay, 
 and of decomposed felspar. The glaze 
 consists of a felspar rock reduced to a 
 fine powder, and mixed with water, so 
 as to form a milky liquid into which the 
 articles are dipped after a preliminary 
 baking. Tender porcelain biscuit is made 
 of a vitreous frit, composed of sili- 
 ceous sand or ground flints, with other 
 ingredients added, all baked together in 
 a furnace till half-fused, and then re- 
 duced to a condition of powder. 
 
 The manufacture of pottery, stone- 
 ware, and china has been established in 
 the United States for many years, and 
 is now conducted on the most extensive 
 scale both at the east and in some por- 
 tions of the west — notably at a pottery 
 in Cincinnati, Ohio, where a very supe- 
 rior quality of ornamental china is in- 
 cluded in the output. The principal 
 depots for the manufacture of this com- 
 modity are at Trenton, N. J., and at 
 East Liverpool, Ohio, where, it is said, 
 fully nine-tenths of the capital em- 
 ployed in the production of pottery in 
 the United States are invested. There 
 are potteries also at East Boston, Mass.; 
 Geddes, N. Y. ; Green Point, L. I.; 
 Peoria. 111., and at various points in 
 West Virginia, their lines of production 
 grading from the ordinary descriptions 
 of pottery to the best qualities of vitri- 
 fied china. The trade catered to is 
 domestic, and for some portions of Can- 
 g.da. South America, and Mexico. 
 
 POTTSTOWN, a town in Pennsy!- ‘ 
 
 P. E.-64 
 
 vania, on the Schuylkill, between Phila- 
 delphia, and Reading. Pop. 15,120. 
 
 POTTSVILLE, a town in Pennsyl- 
 vania, in the center of the great anthra- 
 cite coal-fields, with blast-furnaces, 
 forges, foundries, rolling-mills, machine 
 factories, etc. Pop. 18,210. 
 
 POUGHKEEPSIE (po-kep'si), a city 
 in the state of New York, the capital of 
 Dutchess county, situated on the east 
 bank of the Hudson river, 74 miles north 
 of New York City and 70 miles south of 
 Albany. It is built partly on a slope, 
 partly on a plateau, about 200 feet above 
 the river, and is prettily situated. It is 
 distinguished for its educational insti- 
 tutions, and is known as the “City of 
 Schools.” These include Vassar college 
 for women, one of the chief institutions 
 of the kind in America. Poughkeepsie 
 was the seat of the convention of 1788, 
 at which the federal constitution was 
 adopted. Pop. 19U9, 26,000. 
 
 POULTICE, in medicine, a soft moist 
 application applied externally to some 
 part of the body either hot or cold, but 
 generally the former. The simple poul- 
 tice is made with linseed meal and boil- 
 ing water, spread out with uniform 
 thickness on a cloth or rag, and is used 
 where it is desired to hasten the progress 
 of inflammation. Its moisture causes 
 relaxation of the skin, and thereby 
 lessens the discomfort or pain. It acts 
 also as a counter-irritant, producing a 
 redness and congestion of the skin. Dis- 
 infecting poultices are made with char- 
 coal, mixed with linseed-meal and bread. 
 The sedative poultice, made with beer, 
 yeast, flour, and hot water, is generally 
 used to relieve pain in cases of cancer. 
 The best-known poultice, however, is 
 the counter-irritant, commonly called 
 a mustard-plaster. This may be made, 
 by mixing linseed-meal with water, and 
 adding mustard. It produces a rapid 
 but mild counter-irritation, indicated 
 by a redness of the skin and is very 
 useful in cases of bronchitis, lumbago 
 and similar affections. 
 
 POULTRY, a general name for all 
 birds bred for the table, or kept for their 
 eggs. The birds most commonly in- 
 cluded under this designation are the 
 common fowl, the pea-fowl, the guinea- 
 fowl, the turkey, goose, and duck. 
 
 POUND, an English weight of two 
 different denominations, avoirdupois 
 and troy. The pound troy contains 5760 
 grains, and is divided into 12 ounces; 
 the pound avoirdupois, contains 7000 
 grains, and is divided into 16 ounces. 
 The pound, or pound sterling, the high- 
 est monetary denomination used in 
 British money accounts, and equal to 
 20 shillings, was so called from originally 
 being equal to a quantity of silver 
 weighing one pound. The pound is 
 strictly a money of account, the coin 
 representing it being the sovereign. 
 See Money. 
 
 POUSSIN, Nicolas, a distinguished 
 French painter, born at Andelys in 1594. 
 From 1640 to 1642 he resided in Paris; 
 but the rivalry of French painters and 
 the want of appreciation of his works 
 induced him to return to Rome, where 
 he lived until his death in 1665. Among 
 his works are the Seven Sacraments, 
 the Death of Germanicus, the Capture 
 of Jerusalem, the Plague of the Philis- 
 
 tines, Abraham’s Servant and Rebecca, 
 the Adulteress, the Infant Moses, Moses 
 Bringing Water from the Rock, the 
 Worship of the Golden Calf, John Bap- 
 tizing in the Wilderness, etc., and many 
 fine landscapes. 
 
 POUTER, a variety of fancy pigeon, 
 named for the habit of pouting or puffing 
 
 English pouter. 
 
 up the breast. They occur in many 
 different color varieties. See Pigeon. 
 
 POWDERLY, Te rre n c e Vincent, 
 .American labor leader, was born at 
 Carbondale, Lackawana co.. Pa., in 
 1849. In 1879 he was elected general 
 master workman of the Knights of 
 Labor, which he reorganized and greatly 
 extended its interests. In 1893 owing 
 to internal differences arising from oppo- 
 sition to his policy he resigned. In 1878; 
 1880, and 1882 he wms elected mayor oi 
 Scranton as candidate of the labor 
 greenback party, and in 1891 republican 
 delegate-at-large to the projected state 
 constitutional convention. He studied 
 law in 1893-94, was admitted to the bar 
 of Lackawanna co.. Pa., in 1894, and 
 to that of the United States supreme 
 court in 1901. From 1897 untU his 
 resignation in 1902 he was United States 
 commissioner-general of immigration. 
 During the presidential cam.paigns of 
 1896 and 1900 he appeared as a republi- 
 can stump speaker in the west and 
 south. 
 
 POWELL, John Weslejq American 
 geologist and anthropologist, was born 
 at Mount Morris, N. Y., in 1834. In 
 1867 Major Powell visited the Rocky 
 mountains of Colorado for exploration 
 and research. In 1869 he induced Con- 
 gress to establish a geological and topo- 
 graphical survey of the Colorado river 
 and its tributaries, an undertaking 
 which consumed the following ten years. 
 He published in 1876 Contributions to' 
 North American Ethnology. In 1881 he 
 was appointed director of the United 
 States geological and geographical sur- 
 vey. In 1894 he resigned this office to 
 devote himself to the directorship of tlie 
 Bureau of Anthropology, and to ethno- 
 logical and philosophical studies. He 
 died in 1902. 
 
 POWELL, Robert Stephenson Smyth 
 Baden-, English general, born in 1857 
 During the South African war of 1899- 
 1902 he highly distinguished himself by 
 
POWER OF ATTORNEY 
 
 PRECEDENT 
 
 his defense of Mafeking from October, 
 1899, till his relief in May, 1900, for which 
 he was promoted to the rank of major- 
 general. Author of Pig-sticking, Recon- 
 naissance, Cavalry Instruction, Down- 
 fall of Prempeh, Matabele Campaign, etc. 
 
 POWER OF ATTORNEY, in law, a 
 written instrument whereby one person 
 is authorized to act for another as his 
 agent or attorney, either generally or in 
 a special transaction. 
 
 POWERS, Hiram, American sculptor, 
 born in 1805. He early displayed great 
 ingenuity in mechanical matters, but 
 having formed the acquaintance of a 
 German sculptor, and having been 
 taught modeling by him, he determined 
 to become himself a sculptor. He pro- 
 duced busts of many American states- 
 men. His most famous ideal works are 
 the statue of Eve, the Greek Slave, and 
 the Fisher Boy. He died in 1873. 
 
 POWERS, The Great, a term of 
 modern diplomacy, by which are now 
 meant Britain, France, Austria, Ger- 
 many, Italy, and Russia. 
 
 POYNTER, Sir Edward John, R. A., 
 British painter, was born in Paris in 
 1836; was elected an associate in 1869 
 and a Royal Academician in 1876, be- 
 came president and was knighted in 
 1896. He was the first Slade professor 
 of art at University college, London. 
 He is the author of Ten Lectures on Art 
 (1879). 
 
 PREFECT, the title of various func- 
 tionaries of ancient Rome. Of these the 
 most important was the prsefectus urbi 
 or urbis (preefect of the city). During the 
 kingly period and the early republic 
 the praefectus urbis had the right to exer- 
 cise all the powers of the king or consuls 
 in their absence. After the foundation 
 of the praetorship this office lost its 
 dignity and privileges; but under the 
 empire it was revived as that of chief 
 permanent magistrate of the city, with 
 important military functions. 
 
 PRzETOR, an important official in the 
 ancient Roman state. Up to 367 b.c. 
 the title was merely an adjunct to that 
 of consul; but when at that date the 
 consulship was thrown open to the 
 plebeians, the judicial functions of the 
 consul were separated from his other 
 duties and given to a new patrician 
 magistrate, who was entitled the praetor. 
 
 PRjETORIANS, the body-guard of the 
 Roman emperors, first established as a 
 standing body by Augustus. They were 
 reorganized and their powers curtailed 
 by Septimius Severus and by Diocletian, 
 and were finally disbanded by Constan- 
 tine the Great in 312 a.d. 
 
 PRAGMATIC SANCTION, a public and 
 solemn decree pronounced by the head 
 of a legislature. In European history 
 several important treaties are called 
 pragmatic sanctions, but the one best 
 known by this name is the instrument 
 by which the German emperor Charles 
 VI., beingwithoutmaleissue, endeavored 
 to secure the succession to his female 
 descendants. It was in accordance with 
 this instrument that he settled his do- 
 minions on his daughter Maria Theresa. 
 
 PRAGUE, the capital of Bohemia, a 
 prosperous and well-built city near the 
 center of the kingdom, on both sides of the 
 Moldau, here crossed by seven bridges; 
 153 miles northwest of Vienna and 75 
 
 miles southeast of Dresden, with both 
 of which it is connected by railway. Its 
 site is a regular basin, cut in two by the 
 river, from the banks of w’hich the 
 houses rise on both sides till they are 
 terminated and inclosed by hills of con- 
 siderable height. Among the public 
 buildings of Prague are the old castle, 
 or palace of the Bohemian kings; the 
 Roman Catholic cathedral, the Teyn- 
 kirche or old church of the Hussites, in- 
 teresting as containing statues and other 
 works of art and the burial-place of the 
 astronomer Tycho Brahe; the palace of 
 Wallenstein, originally a magnificent 
 
 View In Prague. 
 
 structure, but now much dilapidated, 
 etc. Prague is one of the oldest towns 
 in the kingdom, dating from the 8th 
 century. Its university was founded in 
 1348, and had at one time about 10,000 
 students. Recently it was divided into 
 two universities, a German and a Czech 
 or Bohemian, having together more than 
 3500 students. During the Austro- 
 Priissian war in 1866 Prague was oc- 
 cupied by the Prussians, and here the 
 treaty of peace was signed on the 23d 
 August. Pop. 201,589, or with suburbs 
 385,238, of whom about six-sevenths 
 are Bohemians. 
 
 PRAIRIE, the name given in North 
 America to the vast natural meadows or 
 plains of the Mississippi valley, espe- 
 cially lying between it and the Rocky 
 mountains, and extending northward 
 into Central Canada. Throughout this 
 immense territory the differences of 
 level are sufficient to produce a steady 
 flow of the rivers, but not so great as to 
 obstruct their navigation, thus securing 
 a unique system of easy inter-communi- 
 cation between all sections of the coun- 
 try. There is a great sameness in the 
 features of the topography, the vegetable 
 productions, the soil, and geological 
 features. Some of the prairies that have 
 a peculiarly undulating surface are 
 known as rolling prairies. Immense 
 tracts are cultivated, and produce large 
 crops of wheat and corn with little out- 
 lay of labor on the part of the farmer. 
 
 PRAIRIE-DOG, or MARMOT, a 
 
 small rodent animal, the wistonwish, 
 allied to the marmot as well as to 
 the squirrel, and found on the North 
 American prairies west of the Mississippi 
 and east of the Rocky mountains. These 
 animals live gregariously in burrows, 
 and are characterized by a sharp bark, 
 like that of a small dog, whence their 
 popular name. They are about 1 foot 
 
 Prairie-dogs. 
 
 in length exclusive of the tail, which is 
 rather short. Their burrows are quite 
 close together, and have a mound of 
 excavated earth near the entrance, on 
 which the little animals are wont to sit 
 and look around them. These com- 
 munities are termed “villages.” The 
 prairie-dog is not to be confounded with 
 the prairie-squirrel, to which it is allied. 
 
 PRAIRIE-HEN, the popular name of 
 the pinnated grouse of the United States. 
 The neck of the male is furnished with 
 neck-tufts of eighteen feathers, and is 
 remarkable also for two loose, pendu- 
 lous, wrinkled skins, which somewhat 
 resemble an orange on inflation. The 
 prairie-hen is much prized for the table. 
 
 PRAIRIE-SQUIRREL, or GOPHER, 
 a name for several animals of North 
 America, found in the prairies in great 
 numbers. They live in burrows, and not 
 on trees, and much resemble the prairie- 
 dog or marmot. They have cheek- 
 pouches, in which their food is carried. 
 This consists of prairie plants with their 
 roots and seeds. 
 
 PRAIRIE-WOLF, or COYOTE, the 
 
 small wolf which is found on the prairies 
 in North America, believed by many to 
 be a mere variety of the European wolf. 
 It is a cowardly animal, and only dan- 
 gerous to man when in packs and pressed 
 by hunger. 
 
 PRE-ADAMITES, those supposed in- 
 habitants of the earth prior to the crea- 
 tion of Adam. Ancient legends or tradi- 
 tions of the East speak of nations and 
 empires existing before Adam’s creation, 
 and of a line of kings who ruled over 
 them. In modern times the subject w'as 
 taken up by Isaac de la Peyrere, who, 
 in a work published in 1655, maintained 
 that the Jews were the descendants of 
 Adam, and the Gentiles those of a long 
 anterior creation, founding his opinions 
 on Romans v. 12-14. 
 
 PREC'EDENT, in law, a judicial de- 
 cision which serves as a rule for future 
 determinations in similar cases. Prece- 
 dents, strictly speaking, are binding on 
 tribunals only when they are actual 
 decisions of the point in question ; what 
 is termed an extrajudicial opinion or 
 obiter dictum — the opinion of a judge 
 pronounced where it was not called for 
 to decide the issue — can have authority 
 only from the character of the judge, 
 and not as a precedent. Precedents are 
 now of as much authority in courts of 
 equity as in those of common law. 
 
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS 
 
 PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, 
 
 a slow motion of the line of intersection 
 of the celestial equator or equinoctial 
 and the ecliptic, which causes the posi- 
 tions occupied by the sun at the equinox 
 (the equinoctial points, which see) to 
 move backward or westward at the 
 mean rate of 50.25" per year. This 
 motion of the equinox along the ecliptic 
 carries it, with reference to the diurnal 
 motion, continually in advance upon the 
 stars; the place of the equinox among 
 the stars, with reference to the diurnal 
 motion, thus precedes at every subse- 
 quent moment that which it previously 
 held, hence the name. This sweeping 
 round in the heavens of the equinoctial 
 line indicates a motion of the axis of 
 rotation of the earth, such that it de- 
 scribes circles round the poles of the 
 ecliptic in 25,791 years. Nutation is a 
 similar, but much smaller gyratory mo- 
 tion of the earth’s axis, whosp period is 
 about nineteen years. From these two 
 causes in combination the axis follows a 
 sinuous path, instead of a circle, about 
 the pole of the ecliptic. Nutation causes 
 the equinoctial points to be alternately 
 in advance of and behind their mean 
 place due to precession by 6.87". At 
 present the vernal equinoctial point is in 
 the zodiacal sign Pisces, and it is mov- 
 ing toward the sign Aquarius. 
 
 PRECIOUS METALS, a name com- 
 monly applied to gold and silver in con- 
 tradistinction to such ordinary and 
 abundant metals as iron, copper, lead. 
 
 PRECIPITATE, in chemistry, a solid 
 body produced by the mutual action of 
 two or more liquids mixed together, one 
 or other of them holding some substance 
 in solution. The term is generally ap- 
 plied when the solid appears in a floc- 
 culent or pulverulent form. Substances 
 that settle or sink to the bottom like 
 earthy matters in water are called sedi- 
 ments, the operating cause being me- 
 chanical, not chemical. Red oxide or 
 peroxide of mercury is often called red 
 precipitate. 
 
 PREDESTINATION, in theology, the 
 term used to denote the degree of God, 
 whereby the elect are foreordained to 
 salvation. The theory of predestination 
 represents God’s absolute will as deter- 
 mining the eternal destiny of man, not 
 according to the fore-known character 
 of those whose fate is so determined, 
 but according to God’s own choice. 
 This doctrine has been the occasion of 
 many disputes and controversies in the 
 church in all ages. On the one side, it 
 has been observed that the doctrine of 
 predestination destroys moral distinc- 
 tion, introduces fatalism, and renders 
 all our efforts useless. On the other 
 side, it is contended that if God’s 
 knowledge is infinite he must have 
 known everything from eternity; and 
 that the pennission of evil under such 
 circumstances is indistinguishable from 
 a plan or decree under which it is fore- 
 ordained. The first great champions of 
 these opposite views were Pelagius and 
 Augustine. The former held that there 
 was a possibility of good in man’s nature, 
 and that the choice of salvation lay in 
 man’s will. Augustine maintained that 
 apart from divine grace there is no pos- 
 sibility of good in human nature, and 
 that since the fall man’s will has no 
 
 power of choice. Predestination’forms 
 one of the peculiar characteristics of the 
 Calvinistic theology; the question is left 
 an open one by the Anglican church, 
 and also by the Roman Catholic church 
 since the reformation. 
 
 PRE-EXISTENCE, Doctrine of, the 
 doctrine sometimes maintained that the 
 soul of every man has an existence pre- 
 vious to that of his body. This opinion 
 was very prevalent in the East, and was 
 held by several Greek philosophers, 
 more especially by the Pythagoreans, 
 Empedocles, and also apparently by 
 Plato. A similar doctrine has found 
 some countenance in Christian times as 
 an explanation of the union of soul and 
 body. In favor of this theory appeal is 
 made to these peculiar sensations which 
 are sometimes raised by sights or sounds, 
 which we feel conscious of having had a 
 former familiarity with, though reason 
 would persuade us we had seen them for 
 the first time. The doctrine is supported 
 by some modern German philosophers, 
 particularly the younger Fichte. 
 
 PREFET (pra-fa), the title of an 
 important political functionary in 
 France, whose office was created in 
 1800 at the instance of Napoleon. There 
 is a pr4fet at the head of each depart- 
 ment, who is intrusted with the whole 
 organization and management of the 
 police establishments; but not with the 
 punishment of police offenses. 
 
 PREGNANCY, the state of a female 
 who is with child. It lasts in the human 
 subject from 274 to 280 days; that is to 
 say, that time should elapse from the 
 moment of conception to the time of 
 birth. Among the earliest signs of preg- 
 nancy are the stoppage of the monthly 
 discharge, and sickness, usually felt in 
 the early part of the day, and thus called 
 “morning sickness.’’ The latter usually 
 begins about the fourth or fifth week, 
 and may last all the time, but often 
 diminishes in course of the fourth month. 
 Changes in the breast are evident during 
 the second month, the nipple becoming 
 more prominent, and the dark circle 
 round it being deeper in tint by the 
 ninth week, little elevated points in it 
 being more marked. Toward the fourth 
 month enlargement of the belly becomes 
 noticeable, and continues to increase 
 regularly till delivery takes place. 
 About the sixteenth or seventeenth 
 week quickening occurs; that is, the 
 mother becomes aware of movements of 
 the child. None of these signs are, how- 
 ever, absolutely conclusive, as various 
 conditions may give rise to similar signs 
 or signs resembling them. The only 
 conclusive evidence is the detection of 
 the sounds of the child’s heart, heard 
 by applying the ear to the belly of the 
 mother, midway between the naval and 
 the line of the groins, a little to the right 
 or left of the middle line. They may be 
 detected about the eighteenth week. 
 During pregnancy women should take 
 regular meals of plain, nourishing food, 
 avoiding rich and highly-seasoned 
 dishes, and should restrain unwhole- 
 some cravings, which sometimes exist. 
 Gentle but regular and moderate exer- 
 cise should be engaged in, all undue 
 exertion, effort, and fatigue being 
 avoided. Clothing should be warm, 
 woolen next the skin, and nowhere tight. ’ 
 
 Prudence in baths must be exercised, 
 too hot or too cold water being avoided, 
 and the bowels must be kept well ref- 
 lated, only the mildest medicine being 
 used. Above all a calm and equable 
 frame of mind should be cultivated, and 
 there should be no hesitation in asking 
 advice of the doctor. 
 
 PRE'LUDE, in music, originally the 
 first part of a sonata; though, as the 
 name implies, it may be an introduction 
 to any piece of music. Bach and his con- 
 temporaries elaborated preludes con- 
 siderably; and Chopin wrote several 
 piano works which, though complete in 
 themselves, he designated preludes. 
 Latterly the term has been applied to 
 operatic introductions when they are 
 shorter than the usual overture. Wagner 
 in particular has prefaced most of his 
 operas with a prelude. 
 
 PREPOSITION, a part of speech which 
 is used to show the relation of one object 
 to another, and derives its name from 
 its being usually placed before the word 
 which expresses the object of the rela- 
 tion. In some languages this relation is 
 often expressed merely by changes of 
 the termination. 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS, a name applied to 
 those Christians who hold that there is 
 no order in the church as established by 
 Christ and his apostles superior to that 
 of presbyters, and who vest church 
 government in presbyteries, or asso- 
 ciations of ministers and elders, pos- 
 sessed all of equal powers, without any 
 superiority among them. The Presby- 
 terians believe that the authority of 
 their ministers is derived from the Holy 
 Ghost by the imposition of the hands 
 of the presbytery; and they oppose the 
 independent scheme of the common 
 rights of Christians by the same argu- 
 ments which are used for that purpose 
 by the Episcopalians. They affirm that 
 all ministers, being ambassadors of 
 Christ, are equal by their commission; 
 and that Episcopacy was gradually 
 established upon the primitive practice 
 of making the moderator, or speaker of 
 the presbytery, a permanent officer. 
 These positions they maintain against 
 the Episcopalians by the general argu- 
 ment that the terms bishop and presby- 
 ter are used as synonymous terms in the 
 New Testament, and that they were 
 used simply to designate the minister 
 appointed by the apostles to take charge 
 of a new church on its foundation. They 
 therefore claim validity for the ordina- 
 tion after the Presbyterian fonn, as 
 there was originally no higher ecclesiastic 
 than a presbyter in the church. 
 
 The first Presbyterian church in 
 modern times was founded in Geneva 
 by John Calvin about 1541 ; and the con- 
 stitution and doctrines were thence in- 
 troduced, with some modifications, into 
 Scotland by John Knox about 1560, 
 though the Presbyterian was not legally 
 recognized as the national fonn of 
 church government until 1592. For 
 nearly a century after this date there 
 was a continual struggle in Scotland be- 
 tween Episcopacy and Presbyterianism ; 
 until ultimately by the Treaty of Union 
 in 1707 it was agreed on the part of Eng- 
 land and Scotland that that fonn of 
 church government should be the na- 
 tional form of ecclesiastical government 
 
PRESBYTERY 
 
 PRESERVED PROVISIONS, ETC. 
 
 in Scotland, and that the Scotch church 
 should be supported as the only one 
 established by law. — The constitution 
 of the Scotch church, and of the Presby- 
 terian church generally, is as follows: 
 The kirk-session is the lowest court, and 
 is composed of the parochial minister, 
 or ministers, if more than one, and 
 of lay elders (usually from six to twenty) 
 the minister, or senior minister where 
 there are more than one, being president 
 or moderator. This court exercises the 
 religious discipline of the parish; but an 
 appeal may be made from its decisions 
 to the presbytery, and again from the 
 presbytery to the synod. A presbytery 
 consists of the pastors of the churches 
 within a certain district, and of an elder 
 connected with each, while the synod 
 comprises the presbyteries within a cer- 
 tain area, their ministers and represen- 
 tative elders. The genei'al assembly is 
 the highest ecclesiastical court, its de- 
 cisions being supreme. Besides the 
 Established Church of Scotland there are 
 other important religious bodies whose 
 constitution is strictly Presbyterian, but 
 who, from different principles, decline 
 to have any connection with the state. 
 The chief of these is the United Free 
 church of Scotland, formed by the union 
 of the Free and United Presbyterian 
 churches. 
 
 Shortly after the reformation Presby- 
 terianism was in considerable strength 
 in England, a large number of the Puri- 
 tans preferring this system to episcopacy, 
 but it subsequently declined in strength. 
 The rule of the Stuarts, however, did 
 much to renew its vigor, and in 1642 
 the Long Parliament abolished epis- 
 copacy, a measure followed by the meet- 
 ing of the famous assembly of divines 
 at Westminster the following year. In 
 1646 presbytery was sanctioned by par- 
 liament, but it was never generally 
 adopted, or regularly organized, except 
 in London and Lancashire. Soon after 
 the restoration episcopacy was restored, 
 and about 2000 Presbyterian clergy 
 were ejected from their cures in conse- 
 quence of the Act of Uniformity in 1662. 
 Presbyterianism has ever since been 
 simply one of the forms of dissent in 
 England, and has held no prominent 
 position, though many Presbyterian 
 churches are scattered throughout Eng- 
 land. Of these by far the greater num- 
 ber are united to form a single body, the 
 Presbyterian church of England. — The 
 Presbyterian church in Ireland originated 
 through the settlement of Scottish colo- 
 nists in Ulster in the reign of James I. 
 WhenCharles II. attempted to force Prel- 
 acy upon the Scotch many of them took 
 refuge in the north of Ireland, which 
 gave the cause of Presbyterianism in 
 that country a fresh impulse. The favor 
 shown them by William III. was of 
 great assistance to them; which they 
 repaid by the part they played in the 
 rebellion under James II., particularly 
 in the memorable siege of Londonderry. 
 As a test of his gratitude the king 
 doubled the sum given for the support 
 of their ministers, hence known as 
 Regium Donum; the act of 1869, how- 
 ever, which disestablished the Irish 
 church, provided also for the discon- 
 tinuance of this sum. — The Presbyter- 
 ian church of the United States is un- 
 
 doubtedly to be reckoned as a daughter 
 of the Church of Scotland. There are at 
 present a number of different organiza- 
 tions of Presbyterians in the states; and 
 the body is also an important one in 
 Canada and the other British colonies, 
 and on the European continent. 
 
 PRES'BYTERY, a judicatory, consist- 
 ing of the pastors of all the churches of 
 any particular Presbyterian denomina- 
 tion within a given district, along with 
 their ruling (i.e, presiding) elders, there 
 being one ruling elder from each church- 
 session commissioned to represent the 
 congregation in conjunction with the 
 minister. The functions of the presby- 
 tery are, to grant licenses to preach the 
 gospel, and to judge of the qualifica- 
 tions of such as apply for them ; to ordain 
 ministers to vacant charges; to judge 
 in cases of reference for advice, and in 
 complaints and appeals which come 
 from the church-sessions within the 
 bounds of the presbytery; and generally 
 to superintend whatever relates to the 
 spiritual interests of the several congre- 
 gations under its charge, both in respect 
 of doctrine and discipline. Appeals may 
 be taken from the presbytery to the 
 provincial synod, and then to the gen- 
 eral assembly. 
 
 PRESCOTT, George Bartlett, Ameri- 
 can electrician, was born at Kingston, 
 N. H., in 1830. In 1852 he discovered 
 that the aurora borealis is an electric 
 phenomenon. He invented an improve- 
 ment in telegraph insulators in 1872; 
 with Thomas A. Edison invented and 
 introduced the duplex telegraph and 
 the quadruplex telegraph; and also in- 
 troduced from Europe the system of 
 sending messages in pneumatic tubes. 
 He died in 1894. 
 
 PRESCOTT, William Hickling, Ameri- 
 can historian, born in Salem, Massa- 
 chusetts, 1796; died 1859. Acquaintance 
 with Spanish literature, which he began 
 to cultivate in 1824, led him to attempt 
 his first great work on Spanish history, 
 the Reign of Ferdinana and Isabella, 
 published 1837. It was received with 
 enthusiasm both in America and 
 Europe; was rapidly translated into 
 French, Spanish, and German; and its 
 author was elected a member of the 
 Royal academy at Madrid. Prescott’s 
 next work was the History of the Con- 
 quest of Mexico, with a Preliminary 
 View of the Ancient Mexican Civiliza- 
 tion, and the Life of the Conqueror 
 Hernando Cortez, which appeared in 
 1843, and was received with an equal 
 degree of favor. In 1847 he published the 
 History of the Conquest of Peru, with a 
 Preliminary View of the Civilization of 
 the Incas. In 1855 the first two volumes 
 of the long-expected History of the 
 Reign of Philip II., King of Spain, ap- 
 peared, and proved to the public equally 
 acceptable with Prescott’s former works. 
 In 1858 was published a third volume; 
 but the sudden death of the author from 
 apoplexy put a stop to his labors. 
 Prescott affords a remarkble instance 
 of the success of indomitable industry 
 and perseverance, carried out in spite of 
 the affliction of partial and latterly 
 almost total blindness. 
 
 PRESCRIPTION, in medicine, is the 
 form with directions, in which a medi- 
 cine or medicines are ordered or pre- 
 
 scribed by a medical man. The several 
 medical substances which may be con- 
 tained in a prescription are distinguished 
 by names indicative of the office per- 
 formed by each. These are: 1. The 
 basis, which is the principal or most 
 active iiigt-edient. 2. The adjuvant, or 
 that which is intended to promote the 
 action of the basis. 3. The corrective, 
 intended to modify its action. 4. The 
 excipient, or that which gives the 
 whole a commodious or agreeable form. 
 To these certain writers add a fifth, the 
 intermedium, which is the substance 
 employed to unite remedies which do 
 not mix with each other or with the 
 excipient, such as yolk of eggs and 
 mucilage, employed in the preparation 
 of emulsions. In choosing the form of 
 a prescription it should be borne in 
 mind that solutions and emulsions 
 generally act with more certainty and 
 rapidity than powders diffused through 
 water; and these again than the semi- 
 solid and solid forms of medicine. 
 
 PRESERVED PROVISIONS, MEATS, 
 ETC., the preservation of dead organized 
 matter from the natural process of de- 
 cay is a most useful means of increasing 
 and diffusing the food supply of the 
 world. Animals, vegetables, and fruits 
 may all be easily preserved for this pur- 
 pose. The preserving of fruits is an old 
 and familiar process. This is generally 
 effected by boiling or stewing, though 
 drying is also frequently resorted to, 
 where the fruit is meant to be kept in- 
 tact. Fruits intended for confectionery 
 are preserved in four different ways: 1. 
 In the form of jam, in which the fruit is 
 boiled with from one-half to about equal 
 its weight of sugar. 2. In the form of 
 jelly, in which the juice only is preserved 
 by being carefully strained from the 
 solid portions of the fruit, and boiled 
 with a third to a half of its weight of 
 sugar. 3. By candying, which consists 
 in taking the fruits whole or in pieces, 
 and boiling them in a clear syrup of 
 sugar previously prepared. They absorb 
 the syrup, which is then crystallized by 
 the action of a gentle heat. 4. By stew- 
 ing them in a weak syrup of sugar and 
 water till they become soft but not 
 broken, and transferring them with the 
 syrup to jars, adding pale brandy equal 
 in quantity to the syrup. Several kinds 
 of vegetables, as cabbages, cucumbers, 
 cauliflowers, onions, are preserved by 
 pickling. Antiseptics are used to pre- 
 serve meats also, salting being the most 
 common process. But to preserve large 
 quantities of vegetable and animal prod- 
 ucts for food purposes, and at the same 
 time to keep them nearly in their fresh 
 state, they must be subjected to one of 
 three processes. These are — drying, 
 refrigeration, and exclusion of air. With 
 vegetables, which contain so large an 
 amount of water in proportion to their 
 solid and nutritious material, the proc- 
 ess of drying is peculiarly applicable, 
 and it is largely employed as the means 
 of furnishing fresh vegetable food for 
 ships in a compact and portable form, 
 when, in addition to desiccation, com- 
 pression is also employed. The preserva- 
 tion of articles of food by the application 
 of cold is the simplest of all known 
 methods, and in such climates as North 
 America, Russia, etc., it is largely taken 
 
PRESS 
 
 PRESSBURG 
 
 advantage of. In 1875 ice began to be 
 used to preserve fresh meat in con- 
 siderable quantities, which was sent 
 from America to Europe. The modern 
 methods of refrigeration for carrying 
 . purposes consist of an air-tight room on 
 board ship, where the meat is kept, and 
 through which dry cold air is made to 
 circulate by means of special machinery 
 driven by steam, the air being first com- 
 pressed and cooled, and a further cool- 
 ing taking place when it is again allowed 
 to expand. 
 
 The process of preservation by ex- 
 clusion from the action of atmospheric 
 air is yearly assuming more importance 
 and being more largely practiced. The 
 most perfect method, and that which is 
 now most generally resorted to, is the 
 inclosure of the food in air-tight cases 
 from which the air is then expelled; 
 upon the perfection of the air-excluding 
 proce.ss depends entirely the preserva- 
 tion of the article. The plan now gen- 
 erally adopted is commonly known as 
 canning, and is applicable alike for 
 flesh-meats, vegetables, and fruits. The 
 process is usually as follows: The pro- 
 visions of whatever kind are packed into 
 a tin cylinder, and the interstices filled 
 in with water or other appropriate fluid, 
 as gravy in the case of flesh-food. The 
 lid, which is perforated with a small 
 aperture or pin-hole, is soldered care- 
 fully down. The cases are then set in a 
 bath of solution of chloride of calcium ; 
 heat is applied until the whole boils, and 
 the air is thus expelled through the pin- 
 holes. These holes are then hermetically 
 closed, and the canister and its contents 
 are once more subjected to the opera- 
 tion of heat until the provisions are per- 
 fectly cooked. When it has become cool 
 the canister is coated over with paint 
 and removed to the proving room, an 
 apartment the temperature of which has 
 been raised to the degree of temperature 
 most favorable to decomposition. If the 
 operation has been successfully per- 
 
 formed, the ends or sides of the canisters 
 will have fallen in to some extent from 
 the outward pressure of the air. If, after 
 the interval of some days, the ends bulge 
 out, it is a certain sign that the process 
 has not been successful, the liberated 
 gases causing the outward pressure. 
 Such cases should be rejected or sub- 
 mitted again to the process. Not only 
 may boiled provisions be preserved in 
 this way, but roast meats also. An 
 improvement on this process has been 
 effected by introducing into the canis- 
 ters a small quantity of sulphite of soda 
 which causes the absorption of any 
 traces of free oxygen which may lurk in 
 the cases. 
 
 PRESS, Correction of the. See Correc- 
 tion of the Press. 
 
 PRESS, Liberty of the, the liberty of 
 every citizen to print whatever he 
 chooses, which at the same time does not 
 prevent his being amenable to justice 
 for the abuse of this liberty. The right 
 of printing rests on the same abstract 
 grounds as the right of speech, and it 
 might seem strange to a man unac- 
 quainted with history that printing 
 should be subjected to a previous cen- 
 sorship, as it is in some states, and has 
 been in all, any more than speaking, 
 and that the liberty of the press should 
 be expressly provided for in the consti- 
 tutions of most free states. But when 
 we look to history we find the origin of 
 this, as of many other legislative 
 anomalies, in periods when politics, 
 religion, and individual rights were con- 
 fusedly intermingled. It is only since 
 men’s views of the just limits of govern- 
 ment have become clearer that the 
 liberty of the press has been recognized 
 as a right; and to England we are par- 
 ticularly indebted for the establishment 
 of this principle. The existence of a 
 censorship of the press was for centuries, 
 however, deemed an essential to the 
 safety of all European goveriunents. 
 Liberty of printing, as we understand it, 
 
 PRESIDENTS OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 is a comparatively modern notion; 
 Milton’s plea for a free press met with no 
 response from his own party, nor for 
 very many years later was it the cue 
 of any party in the English common- 
 wealth to refrain from suppressing the 
 writings of their political opponents. 
 In England the liberty of the press, soon 
 after printing was introduced, was regu- 
 lated by the king’s proclamations, pro- 
 hibitions, charters of license, etc., and 
 finally by the court of Star-chamber. 
 The long parliament, after their rupture 
 with Charles I., assumed the same power. 
 The government of Charles II. imitated 
 their ordinances, and the press did not 
 really become free till the expiration of 
 the statutes restricting it in 1693, after 
 which it was found impossible to pass 
 new laws in restraint of it, and it has 
 remained free ever since, the last restric- 
 tion being done away with on the aboli- 
 tion of the newspaper stamp duty, in 
 1856. Such legal checks as remain are 
 merely intended to prevent outrages on 
 religion or decency, to protect subjects 
 from defamation, and to conserve the 
 copyright of authors. The constitutions 
 of many of the United States declare, 
 as we should expect, for liberty of the 
 press. The same may be said of all the 
 South American republics. Among 
 European countries, it may be generally 
 said the liberty of the press is found 
 most predominant among the weaker 
 powers, such as Spain, Turkey, Sweden, 
 and Norway, Switzerland, and Rou- 
 mania; in France the press may be said 
 to be comparatively free; while in Ger- 
 many, Austria, and particularly in 
 Russia, there are still many restrictions. 
 In the British colonies the law is as in 
 England, but in India the governor- 
 general exercises a censorship. See 
 Books (Censorship of). 
 
 PRESSBURG, or PRESBURG, a town 
 in Hungary, 35 miles east of Vienna, 
 beautifully situated on the left bank of 
 the Danube, and on spurs of the Little 
 
 Name 
 
 Birthplace 
 
 Year 
 
 Paternal 
 
 Ancestry 
 
 Residence 
 
 Inaugurated 
 
 Politics 
 
 Place of Death 
 
 Year 
 
 Age 
 
 Year 
 
 Age 
 
 1 
 
 George Washington 
 
 W estmoreland Co. , Va 
 
 1732 
 
 English 
 
 Va. 
 
 1789 
 
 57 
 
 Fed 
 
 Mt. Vernon, Va 
 
 1799 
 
 67 
 
 2 
 
 John Adams. . . 7 
 
 Quincy, Mass 
 
 1735 
 
 English 
 
 Mass 
 
 1797 
 
 62 
 
 Fed 
 
 Quincy, Mass 
 
 1826 
 
 90 
 
 3 
 
 Thomas Jefferson 
 
 Shad well, Va 
 
 1743 
 
 Welsh 
 
 Va. . . . 
 
 1801 
 
 58 
 
 Rep.f 
 
 Monticello, Va. 
 
 1826 
 
 83 
 
 4 
 
 James Madison 
 
 Port Conway, Va 
 
 1751 
 
 Enellsh 
 
 Va. 
 
 1809 
 
 58 
 
 Rep. 
 
 Montpeiier, Va 
 
 1836 
 
 85 
 
 5 
 
 James Monroe 
 
 Westmoreland Co. , Va 
 
 1758 
 
 Scotch 
 
 Va. 
 
 1817 
 
 59 
 
 Rep. 
 
 New York City 
 
 1831 
 
 73 
 
 6 
 
 John Quincy Adams 
 
 Quincy, Mass 
 
 1767 
 
 English 
 
 Mass 
 
 1825 
 
 58 
 
 Rep.t. . .. 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 1848 
 
 80 
 
 7 
 
 Andrew Jackson 
 
 Union Co., N. C.* 
 
 1767 
 
 Scotch-Irlsh . . 
 
 Tenn 
 
 1829 
 
 62 
 
 Dein. 
 
 Hermitage, Tenn 
 
 1845 
 
 78 
 
 8 
 
 Martin Van Buren 
 
 Kinderhook, N. Y.. 
 
 1782 
 
 Dutch 
 
 N. Y 
 
 1837 
 
 55 
 
 Dem 
 
 Linden wold, N. Y 
 
 1862 
 
 79 
 
 9 
 
 William H. Harrison 
 
 Berkeley, Va 
 
 1773 
 
 English 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 1841 
 
 68 
 
 Whig.. .. 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 1841 
 
 68 
 
 10 
 
 John Tyler 
 
 Greenway, Va 
 
 1790 
 
 English 
 
 Va 
 
 1841 
 
 51 
 
 Dem 
 
 Richmond, Va 
 
 1862 
 
 72 
 
 n 
 
 James K. Polk 
 
 Mecklenburg Co. ,N. C. 
 
 1795 
 
 Scotch-Irish . . 
 
 Tenn 
 
 1845 
 
 50 
 
 Dem. 
 
 Nashville, Tenn 
 
 1849 
 
 53 
 
 12 
 
 Zachary Taylor 
 
 Orange Co.,'Va 
 
 1784 
 
 Enelish . 
 
 La. 
 
 1849 
 
 65 
 
 Whig. 
 
 Washington, D. C... 
 
 1850 
 
 65 
 
 13 
 
 Millard' Fillmore 
 
 Summerhill, N. Y. . . 
 
 1800 
 
 English 
 
 N. Y 
 
 1850 
 
 50 
 
 Whig.. .. 
 
 Buflalo,“N. Y 
 
 1874 
 
 74 
 
 14 
 
 Franklin Pierce 
 
 Hillsboro, N. H. 
 
 1804 
 
 English 
 
 N. H 
 
 1853 
 
 49 
 
 DemT. 
 
 Concord, N. H 
 
 1869 
 
 64 
 
 1.5 
 
 James Buchanan 
 
 Cove Gap, Pa 
 
 1791 
 
 Scotch-Irish 
 
 Pa 
 
 1857 
 
 66 
 
 Dem 
 
 Wheatland, Pa 
 
 1868 
 
 77 
 
 16 
 
 Abraham Lincoln 
 
 Larue Co., Ky 
 
 1809 
 
 English 
 
 111. 
 
 1861 
 
 52 
 
 Rep 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 1865 
 
 56 
 
 17 
 
 Andrew Johnson 
 
 Raleigh, N. C 
 
 1808 
 
 English 
 
 Tenn 
 
 1865 
 
 57 
 
 Rep. 
 
 Carter’s Depot, Tenn. 
 
 1875 
 
 66 
 
 18 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant 
 
 Point Pleasant, Ohio 
 
 1822 
 
 Scotch . 
 
 D. C 
 
 1869 
 
 47 
 
 Rep. . . . 
 
 Mt. McGregor, N. Y . . 
 
 1885 
 
 63 
 
 19 
 
 Rutherford B. Hayes. . . . 
 
 Delaware, Ohio 
 
 1822 
 
 Scotch 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1877 
 
 54 
 
 Rep 
 
 Fremont, Ohio 
 
 1893 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 James A. Garfield' 
 
 Cuyahoga Co. , Ohio . . 
 
 1831 
 
 English 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1881 
 
 49 
 
 Rep. 
 
 Long Branch, N. J . . . 
 
 1881 
 
 49 
 
 21 
 
 Chester A. Arthur 
 
 Fairfield, Vt 
 
 1830 
 
 Scotch-Irish . . 
 
 N. Y 
 
 1881 
 
 51 
 
 Rep. 
 
 New~York City 
 
 1886 
 
 56 
 
 22 
 
 Grover Cleveland 
 
 Caldwell, N. J 
 
 1837 
 
 Enerlish . 
 
 N. Y 
 
 1885 
 
 48 
 
 Dein. 
 
 
 
 
 2:i 
 
 Benjamin Harrison 
 
 North Bend, Ohio 
 
 1833 
 
 English 
 
 Ind 
 
 1889 
 
 55 
 
 Rep. . 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind 
 
 1901 
 
 67 
 
 24 
 
 Grover Cleveland 
 
 Caldwell, N. J 
 
 1837 
 
 English . 
 
 N. Y 
 
 1893 
 
 56 
 
 Dem. . 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 William McKinley 
 
 Niles, Ohio. 
 
 1843 
 
 Scotch-Irish . . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1897 
 
 54 
 
 Rep. . . . 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y 
 
 1901 
 
 58 
 
 26 
 
 Theodore Roosevelt 
 
 New York City 
 
 1858 
 
 Dutch 
 
 N. Y 
 
 1901 
 
 43 
 
 Rep. . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Jack.son called himself a South Carolinian and his biogragher, Kendall, recorded his birthplace in Lancaster County, S. C., but Parton 
 has published documentary evidence to show that Jackson was born in Union County, N. C., less than a quarter mile from the South C.arolin.a 
 line. tThe Democratic party of to-day claims lineal descent from the first Republican Party and President Jefferson as its founder. tPolitical 
 parties were disorganized at the time of the election of John Quincy Adams. He claimed to be a Republican, but his doctrines were decidedly 
 Federalistic. The opposition to his Adminstration took the name of Democrats and elected Jackson President. 
 
PRESTON 
 
 PRIMATE 
 
 Carpathians. Pop. 65,867, fully more 
 than half of whom are Germans, and 
 5400 Jews. 
 
 PRESTON, a municipal, pari., and 
 county borough -of England, in Lan- 
 cashire, 27 miles northeast of Liverpool, 
 agreeably situated on a height above 
 the right or north bank of the Ribble. 
 Population 112,982. 
 
 PRESIDENT, the supreme executive 
 officer of the United States. The quali- 
 fications of a person raised to this dignity 
 are to be a natural-born citizen of the 
 age of 35 years, and to have resided 
 14 years within the United States. The 
 election is by electoral colleges in every 
 state. In his legislative capacity the 
 president has the power of approving 
 bills sent to him after passing congress, 
 or of returning them to the house in 
 which they originated. In his executive 
 capacity he is commander-in-chief of 
 the army and navy; his powers are pre- 
 scribed in the constitution. He holds 
 his office for four years, and is eligible 
 for re-election. The table on preceding 
 page gives the presidents in the order 
 of their succession. 
 
 PRESIDENTIAL SUCCESSION, THE. 
 The presidential succession is fixed by 
 chapter iv of the acts of the forty-ninth 
 congress, first session. In case of the 
 removal, death, resignation, or inability 
 of both the president and vice-president, 
 then the secreatry of state shall act as 
 president until the disability of the 
 president or vice-president is removed 
 or a president is elected. If there be no 
 secretary of state, then the secretary of 
 the treasury will act; and the remainder 
 of the order of succession is as follows: 
 The secretary of war, attorney-general, 
 postmaster-general, secretary of the 
 navy, and secretary of the interior. The 
 secretary of agriculture and secretary of 
 commerce and labor were added by sub- 
 sequent enactment. The acting presi- 
 dent must, upon taking office, convene 
 congress, if not at the time in session, in 
 extraordinary session, giving twenty 
 days’ notice. This act applies only to 
 such cabinet officers as shall have been 
 confirmed by the senate, and are eligible 
 under the constitution to the presidency. 
 
 PRETORIA, the capital of the Trans- 
 vaal, in South Africa, situated in a 
 valley, 4.500 feet above sea-level, 1040 
 miles by railway from Cape Town, 349 
 from Delagoa bay. There are govern- 
 ment buildings, English cathedral, and 
 other churches, market buildings, mu- 
 seums, etc. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO 
 ANIMALS. See Animals, Cruelty to. 
 
 PRI'AM, in Greek legend, the last 
 king of Troy, the son of Laomedon. By 
 his second wife, Hecuba, he had, ac- 
 cording to Homer, nineteen children, 
 the most famous- being Hector, Paris, 
 Cassandra, and Troilus. His name has 
 been rendered famous by the tragical fate 
 of himself and his family, as a result of 
 the Trojan war. When he was extremely 
 old the Greeks demanded of him the res- 
 toration of Helen, who had been carried 
 away by Paris, and on his refusal to give 
 her up they made war against Troy, and 
 took and destroyed the city, after a 
 siege of ten years. Homer gives no 
 account of the death of Priam ; but other 
 poets represent him to have been slain 1 
 
 at the altar of Zeus by Pyrrhus the 
 Cjr0©k 
 
 PRi’b'YLOV, or PRIBYLOFF, IS- 
 LANDS, a group of islands on the coast of 
 Alaska, United States, in Behring sea. 
 The largest are St. Paul, St. George, 
 Walrus, and Beaver islands. They are 
 frequented by numbers of fur-seals. The 
 natives are Aleutians. 
 
 PRICKLY ASH, a name given to 
 several prickly shrubs of the United 
 States. They have an aromatic and 
 pungent bark, which from being used as 
 a remedy for toothache gains them the 
 name of toothache-tree. 
 
 PRICKLY PEAR, otherwise called 
 Indian fig, is a fleshy and succulent 
 
 Prickly pear. 
 
 plant, destitute of leaves, covered with 
 clusters of spines, and consisting of 
 flattened joints inserted upon each other. 
 The fruit is purplish in color, covered 
 with fine prickles, and edible. The 
 flower is large and yellow. It is a native 
 of the tropical parts of America, whence 
 it has been introduced into Europe, 
 Mauritius, Arabia, Syria, and China. 
 It is easily propagated, and in some 
 countries is used as a hedge-plant. It 
 attains a height of 7 or 8 feet. 
 
 PRIEST, in its most general significa- 
 tion, a man whose function is to incul- 
 cate and expound religious dogmas, to 
 perform religious rites, and to act as a 
 mediator between worshippers and 
 whatever being they worship. In some 
 countries the priesthood has formed a 
 special order or caste, the office being 
 hereditary ; in other countries it has been 
 elective. In sacred history the patriar- 
 chal order furnishes an example of the 
 family priesthood. Abraham, Isaac, 
 and Jacob perform priestly acts, and 
 “draw near to the Lord,’’ as also does 
 Job, and the Arab sheikh to this hour 
 unites in his person the civil and religious 
 headship. The Mosaic priesthood was 
 the inheritance of the sons of Aaron, of 
 the tribe of Levi. The order of the 
 priests stood between the high-priest on 
 the one hand and the Levites on the 
 other. The ceremony of their consecra- 
 tion is described in Exodus xxiv. and 
 Leviticus viii. They wore a special 
 dress, and their actions were in many 
 cases prescribed strictly by the Mosaic 
 law. In the New Testament believers 
 generally are regarded as having the 
 character of priests, and it is held by 
 many Protestants that the idea of a 
 consecrated priesthood invested with 
 sacrificial functions is repugnant to 
 Christianity. In some churches, there- 
 fore, the name priest is not used, minis- 
 
 ter, pastor, etc., being the term em- 
 ployed instead. Those Christians, how- 
 ever, who, like the Roman Catholics, 
 Greeks, etc., look upon the eucharist as 
 a sacrifice, regard the priest as perform- 
 ing sacrificial duties, and as standing in 
 a special relation between God and his 
 fellow-men. The priests of the Church 
 of Rome are bound to a life of celibacy; 
 but in the Greek church a married man 
 may be consecrated a priest. In the 
 Angelican and other Episcopal churches 
 the priests form the second order of 
 clergy, bishops ranking first. Diverse 
 views of the priestly office are held in the 
 Angelican and allied churches. 
 
 PRIESTLEY, Joseph, an English 
 philosopher and divine, was born in 
 1733 near Leeds. In 1761 he became a 
 teacher in the Dissenting academy at 
 Warrington, and while here wrote a 
 History of Electricity, which gained him 
 admission to the Royal Society, and the 
 degree of LL.D. from the University of 
 Edinburgh. In 1767 he became minister 
 of the Mill Hill chapel at Leeds, where 
 his religious opinions became decidedly 
 Socinian. While here he published his 
 History and Present State of Discoveries 
 relating to Vision, Light, and Colors 
 (1772), his next important work being 
 Institutes of Natural and Revealed 
 Religion (1772-74). In 1774 he discov- 
 ered oxygen, or “dephlogisticated air,’’ 
 as he called it, a result which was 
 quickly followed by other important 
 discoveries in chemistry. He died in 
 1804. 
 
 Joseph Priestley. 
 
 PRI'MARY, in geology, a term applied 
 by the early geologists to rocks of a more 
 or less crystalline structure, supposed to 
 owe their present state to igneous 
 agency. They were divided into two 
 groups: stratified, consisting of gneiss, 
 mica schist, argillaceous schist, horn- 
 blende schist, and all slaty and crystal- 
 line strata generally; and unstratified, 
 these being chiefly granite. By geolo- 
 gists of the present day the term pri- 
 mary is used asi'equivalent to paloeozoic, 
 the name given to the oldest known 
 group of stratified rocks, extending from 
 the Pre-cambrian to the Permian forma- 
 tion. See Geology. 
 
 PRI'MATE, in the early Christian 
 church the title assumed by the bishop 
 of the capital of a province, and hence 
 equivalent to metropolitan. In Africa 
 the title belonged to the bishop who had 
 been longest ordained. In France the 
 
PKIMATES 
 
 PRINTING 
 
 Archbishop of Lyons was appointed 
 primate of the Gauls by Gregory VII. 
 in 1079. In the German empire the 
 Archbishop of Salzburg was primate. 
 In the Church of England both the 
 archbishops still retain the title of pri- 
 mate, the Archbishop of Canterbury be- 
 ing distinguished as the primate of all 
 England, and the Archbishop of York 
 as the primate of England. In the Prot- 
 estant Episcopal church of Ireland the 
 Archbishop of Armagh is primate, as 
 formerly when the church was estab- 
 lished. 
 
 PRIMA'TES (-tez), the highest order 
 or group of the mammalia, including the 
 orders bimana and quadrumana, and 
 thus placing man, monkeys, apes, and 
 lemurs in one great division. 
 
 PRIMOGENITURE, the right of the 
 eldest son and those who derive through 
 him to succeed to the property of the 
 ancestor. In the United States no dis- 
 tinction of age or sex is made in the de- 
 scent of estates to lineal descendants. 
 
 PRIMROSE, a genus of beautiful low 
 Alpine plants, natural order Primulacece. 
 Some are among the earliest flowers in 
 spring, as the common primrose, the 
 oxlip, and cowslip; and several Japanese 
 and other varieties are cultivated in 
 
 Primrose. 
 
 gardens as ornamental plants. Their 
 roots are perennial; the leaves almost 
 always radical; and the flowers sup- 
 ported on a naked stem, and usually dis- 
 posed in a sort of umbel. The varieties 
 of the common primrose which have 
 arisen from cultivation are very numer- 
 ous. 
 
 PRIMULA'CE.®, the primrose order 
 of plants, a natural order of monopetal- 
 ous exogens, distinguished by the 
 stamens being opposite to the lobes of 
 the corolla, and having a superior cap- 
 sule with a free central placenta. It con- 
 sists of herbaceous plants, natives of 
 temperate and cold regions. Many have 
 flowers of much beauty, and some are 
 very fragrant. See Primrose. 
 
 PRINCE, literally one who holds the 
 first place. In modern times the title of 
 prince (or princess) is given to all sover- 
 eigns generally, as well as to their sons 
 and daughters and their nearest rela- 
 
 tions. In Germany there is a class of sov- 
 ereigns, ranking next below the dukes, 
 who bear the title of prince (Fiirst) as a 
 specific designation; members of royal 
 families are, however, denominated 
 Prinzen. On the continent there are 
 many ancient families not immediately 
 connected with any reigning house who 
 bear the title of prince. 
 
 PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, an is- 
 land forming a province of the Dominion 
 of Canada, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 and separated by Northumberland strait 
 from New Brunswick on the east and 
 Nova Scotia on the south; greatest 
 length, from east to west, about 130 
 miles; breadth, varying from 4 to 34 
 miles; area, about 2134 sq. miles, or 
 1,305,760 acres, of which over 1,000,000 
 are under cultivation. The island is 
 supposed to have been discovered by 
 Cabot. It was first colonized by France, 
 captured by Britain in 1745, restored 
 and recaptured, and finally in 1873 was 
 admitted to the Dominion of Canada. 
 Pop. 10.3,2.58. 
 
 PRINCE OF WALES, the title of the 
 heir-apparent of the British throne, first 
 conferred by Edward I. on his son (after- 
 wards Edward II.) at the time of his 
 conquest of the Principality of Wales. 
 Edward III. was never Prince of Wales, 
 but the title has been conferred on all the 
 male heirs-apparent to the English (and 
 afterward the British) throne from 
 Edward the Black Prince, son of Ed- 
 ward III. 
 
 PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, an insti- 
 tution of higher education at Princeton, 
 N. J., founded in 1740. It was called 
 the College of New Jersey and was situ- 
 ated at Elizabethtown, and removed to 
 Newark, where the first commencement 
 was celebrated in 1748. In 1752 it was 
 voted that the college be fixed at Prince- 
 ton. In 1754 the cornerstone was laid 
 for the first building, which was named 
 Nassau Hall. The college was completed 
 and the students removed from Newark 
 to Princeton in the fall of 1756. 
 
 The government of the university is in 
 the hands of a board of trustees under 
 the presidency of the Governor of Nev’ 
 Jersey. The university is organized in 
 three departments, the Academic, the 
 school of science, and the graduate 
 school. The college course embraces in- 
 struction in the three departments of 
 philosophy, language and literature, 
 mathematics, and natural science. The 
 graduate department offers over 200 
 courses of study leading to the matser’s 
 and doctor’s degree in arts and science. 
 
 The university provides pecuniary 
 aid to deserving students through a large 
 number of endowed scholarships and 
 charitable funds. In 1902 Woodward 
 Wilson became its president. 
 
 PRINCIPIA (Lat., principles). A 
 famous mathematical treatise in Latin, 
 by Sir Isaac Newton (1687). It consists 
 of three parts, two on the motions of 
 bodies and one on the solar system, and 
 contains the full develoment of New- 
 ton’s great discovery, the principal of 
 universal gravitation. 
 
 PRINTING, in a general sense, is the 
 art of stamping impressions of figures, 
 letters, or signs, with ink upon paper, 
 vellum, cloth, or any similar substance; 
 but the term is also applied to the pro- 
 
 duction of photographs from negatives, 
 where neither ink nor pressure is used. 
 Printing may be done (1) from engraved 
 metal plates, in which the ink is stored 
 for transference in the sunk or incised 
 lines of the pattern (see Engraving); 
 (2) from a level surface, as, polished 
 stone, where the ink is confined to the 
 lines by a repellent medium (see 
 Lithography); or (.3) from surfaces in 
 relief, where the ink is transferred from 
 the raised characters, which may be 
 either on one block or on separate or 
 movable types. The latter method is so 
 much the more important that it gives 
 its restricted meaning to the term 
 printing, unless where otherwise quali- 
 fied. 
 
 It is a matter of much dispute to 
 whom is due the merit of adopting 
 movable types. The invention has long 
 been popularly credited to Johan Guten- 
 berg, but critical examination of early 
 Dutch and German specimens and 
 historical evidence would seem to point 
 to Laurens Janszoon Coster of Haarlem 
 as the first inventor. The date of the 
 Haarlem invention is variously placed 
 between 1420 and 1430. Coster’s types 
 were first of wood, then of lead, and 
 lastly of tin ; the first book printed from 
 movable types being probably one 
 entitled Speculum Nostrce Salutis. 
 Gutenberg in 1449 connected himself 
 with a rich citizen in Mainz, named 
 Johann Fust or Faust, who advanced 
 the capital necessary to prosecute the 
 business of printing. Soon after (prob- 
 ably in 1453) Peter Schoffer, who after- 
 ward became Fust’s son-in-law, was 
 taken into copartnership, and to him 
 belongs the merit of inventing matrices 
 for casting types, each individual type 
 having hitherto been cut in wood or 
 metal. The oldest work of any con- 
 siderable size printed in Mainz with 
 cast letters, by Gutenberg, Fust, and 
 Schoffer, finished about 1455, is the 
 Latin Bible, which is called the Forty- 
 two-lined Bible, because in every full 
 column it has forty-two lines; or the 
 Mazarin Bible, from a copy having been 
 discovered in the library of Cardinal 
 Mazarin in Paris. 
 
 The art of printing was first intro- 
 duced into England by William Caxton, 
 who established a press in Westminster 
 Abbey in 1476. 
 
 The various letters and marks used 
 in printing are cast on types or rec- 
 tangular pieces of metal, having the 
 sign in relief on the upper end. These 
 types, with the low pieces required to 
 fill up spaces, are placed in cells or 
 boxes in a shallow tray or case in such 
 way that any letter can be readily found. 
 The cases are mounted on a stand or 
 frame, so that they may lie before the 
 person who is to select and arrange the 
 types, technically styled a compositor. 
 The Roman types used are of three 
 kinds: an alphabet of large capitals 
 (ABC etc.), one of small capitals (a b c 
 etc.), and one of small letters (a b c etc.), 
 called lower-case by the compositor. 
 Of italic characters only large capitals 
 and lower-case are used. Besides these 
 there are many varieties of letter, such 
 as Old English, and imitations of manu- 
 script letters, the mention of which 
 could only be serviceable to the prac- 
 
PRIOR 
 
 PRISON 
 
 tical printer. Types are of various sizes, 
 the following being those in use among 
 British printers for book work: — Eng- 
 lish, Pica, Small Pica, Long Primer, 
 Bourgeois, Brevier, Minion, Nonpareil, 
 Pearl, Diamond. English has 5| lines 
 and Diamond 17 lines in an inch. See 
 Type. 
 
 The main part of the work of a com- 
 positor consists in picking up types 
 from their respective boxes, as required 
 to give the words in the author’s 
 manuscript that has been supplied to 
 him. The types are lifted by the right 
 hand and placed in a composing stick 
 held in the left. The composing stick 
 is a sort of box wanting one side, and 
 having one end movable to enable it to 
 be adjusted to any required length of 
 line. When the words in the stick have 
 increased till they nearly fill the space 
 between the ends they are “spaced out,” 
 that is, the blanks between the words 
 are so increased or diminished as to make 
 them exactly do so. Line is in this way 
 added to line till the stick is full, when 
 it is emptied on to a flat board with 
 edges, called a galley. Subsequently 
 the column of types so produced is 
 divided into portions of definite length; 
 these are furnished with head-lines and 
 folios, and become pages. See Type 
 Setting Machines. 
 
 The first printing press in America 
 was set up in 1536, by Antonio de Men- 
 doza, Viceroy of Mexico, and in 1638 
 the first press in our country was estab- 
 lished at Harvard college, the second 
 at Philadelphia in 1685, and the third 
 in New York in 1693. 
 
 The process of printing is as follows: 
 The pages of type to be printed are 
 locked up with iron or wedge-shaped 
 boxwood blocks called quoins in a steel 
 frame called a “chase.” Books are 
 usually printed in sheets of sixteen pages 
 or multiples of sixteen, and when locked 
 in the chase ready for printing it is called 
 a form. The surface of the type is 
 covered with ink by composition rollers, 
 which are made from a mixture of 
 molasses, glue, glycerine, etc., boiled 
 together and cast in brass molds. 
 
 The first printing press was made by 
 Conrad Saspach, a turner, in 1436, under 
 the direction of Gutenberg. The con- 
 templation of a wine press gave Guten- 
 berg the first conception of a printing 
 press. The essential feature of the first 
 press was a movable flat board, platen, 
 as now called. The form was laid upon a 
 movable bed, inked with balls, the 
 paper placed upon it and pushed under 
 the platen which was brought down up- 
 on it by a powerful screw, squeezing the 
 paper upon the form. In 1683, Moxon, 
 the first technical writer on printing, 
 speaks of a newly invented press, mean- 
 ing the old wooden press improved by 
 Blaen of Amsterdam, From this time 
 until Earl Stanhope enlarged and im- 
 proved the hand press about 1800, im- 
 provements were slow. In 1772 a 
 rotary press was patented in England by 
 Adkin & Walker, for the purpose of 
 “stamping and printing on paper, 
 cotton, and other cloths, whereby the 
 printing on such material would be 
 greatly facilitated and rendered much 
 less expensive and more perfect and ex- 
 act.” In 1790, William Nicholson, of 
 
 London, editor of a scientific journal, 
 took out a patent for a press, which fore- 
 shadowed nearly every fundamental 
 principle in the improved presses of to- 
 day, even to the use of curved plates 
 fastened upon a cylinder, and, the use of 
 small form rollers feeding from a large 
 one. Nicholson never constructed a 
 press, however, and his patent was 
 merely a forecast of modern methods. 
 
 In 1818 Edward Cowper invented 
 several improvements, including a flat 
 ink-distributing table, ink fountain, 
 distributing and form rollers. In the 
 same year Konig patented a perfecting 
 press (by which both sides of the 
 sheet was printed at the rate of 750 
 papers per hour). Cowper also im- 
 proved on this. The principle of 
 these presses was used for years with 
 improved methods for carrying the 
 sheets. Robert M. Hoe, the American 
 inventor, made marked and practical 
 improvements increasing the capacity 
 of presses. Mr. Hoe, in 1847, made a 
 rotary press which would print about 
 20,000 papers an hour on one side. 
 Then the invention of William A. Bul- 
 lock of Philadelphia, which printed com- 
 plete from a role or web, followed. This 
 was improved on by Walters of London, 
 but the Hoe presses soon distanced all, 
 and to-day a press constructed by R. 
 Hoe & Co., when running at full capac- 
 ity, uses eight rolls of paper, each four 
 newspaper pages wide. This machine 
 requires 125 horse-power to drive it, 
 and when running at its full capacity 
 consumes in an hour about 70 miles of 
 paper the width of the roll, or 280 miles 
 of paper the width of the newspaper 
 page. In addition to the eight rolls of 
 paper already mentioned eight other 
 rolls are in position, so that when any 
 of the rolls run out the roll-carrier may 
 be turned on a turntable, and the new 
 roll of paper quickly pasted to the end 
 of the depleted roll. The running 
 speed of this press is 96,000 papers an 
 hour — four, six, eight, ten, twelve, 
 fourteen or sixteen pages — or 48,000 
 eighteen, twenty, twenty-two, twenty- 
 four, twenty-six, twenty-eight, thirty, 
 or thirty-two page papers, all delivered, 
 folded to half-page size, pasted, and 
 counted. Other rotary presses of 
 merit are made in this country, and in 
 France and Germany, but they contain 
 no distinctive principle that calls for 
 minute description. 
 
 PRIOR, a title somewhat less digni- 
 fied' than that of abbot, formerly given 
 to the head of a small monastery, 
 designated a priory. Similarly the term 
 prioress was applied to the head of a 
 convent of females. See Abbey. 
 
 PRIOR, Matthew, an English poet, 
 the son of a joiner, born in 1644, and 
 educated at Westminster school. He 
 died in 1721 and was buried in West- 
 minster Abbey. Prior was endowed 
 with much wit and power of satire ; and 
 many of his lighter pieces are charming, 
 but his serious performances fail in 
 moving either the feelings or the fancy. 
 
 PRISCIA'NUS, usually known as 
 Priscian, a celebrated Roman gram- 
 marian, who lived in the latter half of 
 the 5th century of our era, and of whom 
 little more is known than that he was 
 born at Caesarea, taught grammar at 
 
 Constantinople in the time of Justinian, 
 and wrote the Institutiones Gram- 
 matical, an exposition of Latin grammar. 
 His work, successively abridged by 
 several writers, formed the basis of 
 instruction in Latin up to the 15th 
 century, and there exist at present about 
 one thousand MSS. of it, none dating 
 before the 9th century. It contains 
 numerous quotations from Latin authors 
 now lost. 
 
 PRISM, in geometry, a solid figure 
 which might be generated by the motion 
 of a line kept parallel to itself, one ex- 
 tremity of it being carried round a rec- 
 tilinear figure. A “right prism” is one 
 in which the faces are at right angles to 
 the ends. In optics a prism is a trans- 
 
 Light passing through prism. 
 
 parent body having two plane faces not , 
 parallel to each other, and most com- 
 monly it is made of glass, and triangular 
 in section, the section forming either a 
 ’■ight-angled, equilateral, or isosceles 
 triangle. The two latter varieties are 
 most familiar. If a ray of light, s i, enter 
 such a prism by one of the two principal 
 faces, it is bent in passing through so as 
 to take the direction bysieb. The angle 
 which the ray in the prism makes with 
 the normal, n i, is always smaller than 
 the angle of incidence, n i s, and the 
 angle which it makes with the normal, 
 e n', is smaller than the angle of emer- 
 genbe, n' e b, the ray being always bent 
 toward the base of the prism. Not 
 only is the ray thus bent, but it is also 
 decomposed, and by suitable arrange- 
 ments could be exhibited as made up of 
 what are usually known as the seven 
 primary colors: violet, indigo, blue, 
 green, yellow, orange, and red. 
 
 PRISON, a house in which a person is 
 confined and thereby deprived of his 
 personal liberty; especially a building 
 for the confinement or safe custody of 
 criminals, debtors, or others. Imprison- 
 ment is now one of the recognized meth- 
 ods of judicially punishing certain 
 crimes; but formerly it was employed 
 in nearly every country in Europe for 
 purposes of injustice and oppression. 
 Men were hidden in dark dungeons, 
 where in a short time they perished, 
 through the inefficiency of the law to 
 protect those who were offensive to the 
 powerful; and even in Great Britain, 
 where the laws have always condemned 
 the incarceration of the innocent, the 
 prison was, by the connivance of the 
 authorities, made subser\dent to gross 
 injustice and cruelty. To the 18th 
 century belongs the honor of initiating 
 the proper regulation of imprisonment. 
 In Britain parliamentary inquiries 
 
PlUVATEER 
 
 PROCTOR 
 
 brought out strange revelations as to the 
 horrors of tlie debtors’ prisons; but 
 public interest in the subject was only 
 effectually aroused by the extraordinary 
 exertions of the celebrated John How- 
 ard, who in' 1773 began, without any 
 official standing, to make inspections of 
 the chief English prisons. He found 
 these places not only insanitary and ill- 
 ventilated, but filthy, poisonous, and 
 in ne.ii'ly every case overcrowded. Dis- 
 ease was rampant, and no measures were 
 taken to prevent its spread; many of the 
 prisons were utterly unfit for human 
 creatures to live in: and, to crown all, 
 such intercourse was allowed between 
 the prisoners as ensured the reduction 
 of all to the level of the most corrupt 
 and criminal. Howard’s revelations 
 caused such a feeling throughout the 
 country that prison reformation could 
 no longer be delayed. The result was 
 that parliament entrusted a committee 
 of three (of whom Howard was one) 
 with the duty of framing a suitable 
 scheme for the future management of 
 the prisons. The chief features recom- 
 mended were — solitary confinement, 
 cleanliness, medical help, regular work 
 and the enforcement of order — the 
 same principles, indeed, which are now 
 adopted by every civilized state in the 
 world. 
 
 PRIVATEER, a vessel of war owned 
 and equipped by private individuals to 
 seize or plunder the ships of an enemy. 
 Such a vessel must be licensed by govern- 
 ment and under a letter of marque, 
 otherwise she is a pirate. The letters 
 of marque were first granted in England 
 during the reign of Henry V., in view of 
 the war with France; and they were 
 issued to aggrieved subjects in order 
 that they might compensate themselves 
 for injury done by foreigners. It was 
 probably in deprecation of irresponsible 
 warfare of any kind that the powers 
 agreed to abandon privateering in 1856. 
 
 PRIVY-COUNCIL, the council of state 
 of the British sovereign, convened to 
 concert matters for the public service, 
 and for the honor and safety of the realm . 
 The English privy-council may be said 
 to have existed from times of great an- 
 tiquity; but the concilium ordinarium, 
 established by Edward I., was the parent 
 of the modern institution. 
 
 PRIZE, anything captured in virtue 
 of the rights of war. Property captured 
 on land is usually called booty, the term 
 prize being more particidarly used with 
 reference to naval eaptures. The right of 
 belligerents to eapture the property of 
 their enemies on the sea is universally 
 admitted, as well as the right to prevent 
 violation of the law of nations by 
 neutrals, so long as the independence of 
 other nations is not interfered with. It 
 is accordingly settled as a principle of 
 the law of nations that every belligerent 
 has a right to establish tribunals of 
 prize, and to examine and decide upon 
 all maritime captures; and likewise that 
 the courts of prize of the captors have 
 exclusive jurisdiction over all matters 
 relating to captures made under the 
 authority of their sovereign. The sen- 
 tence of a court of competent jurisdiction 
 once pronounced is conclusive and bind- 
 ing on all nations. 
 
 PROA, a peculiar kind of sailing-boat 
 
 used in the Malay or eastern Archipelago 
 and the Pacific. It is variously con- 
 structed, but regularly has one side quite 
 flat, on a line with the stem and stern, 
 while the other side is curved in the 
 usual way; and being equally sharp at 
 stem and stern, it sails equally well in 
 either direction without turning. Their 
 shape and small breadth of beam would 
 render them peculiarly liable to overset 
 were it not for the outrigger they carry, 
 adjusted sometimes to one side and 
 sometimes to both sides. The outrigger 
 in the example here shown is a large 
 
 Proa, with outrigger. 
 
 structure supported by and formed of 
 stout timbers. The outrigger may have 
 weights placed on it and adjusted ac- 
 cording to circumstances. Proas carry a 
 lugsail generally of matting. 
 
 PROBATE, in law, the official proof of 
 a will, that is the proceeding by which 
 it is established as the last will and testa- 
 ment of the party whose will it professes 
 to be. 
 
 PROBATE COURT, an English tri- 
 bunal established by act of parlia- 
 ment in 1857, to which all the powers 
 previously exercised by the ecclesiastical 
 courts in the granting of probates of 
 wills and letters of administration were 
 transferred. This court was merged in 
 the supreme court by the Judicature Act 
 of 1874, by which its jurisdiction was as- 
 signed to a probate, divorce, and ad- 
 miralty division. The functions of this 
 branch are confined entirely to deciding 
 on the authenticity of wills and upon the 
 proper persons to whom administration 
 is to be committed when no will exists. 
 The practice of the court is thrown open 
 to the whole legal profession, and its 
 proceedings are otherwise assimilated to 
 the courts of common law. 
 
 In many of the United States probate 
 tribunals are distinct courts, with origi- 
 nal and extensive jurisdiction not only 
 over the probate of wills and the admin- 
 istration of decedents’ estates, but over 
 the appointment of guardians to minor 
 and other legally incompetent persons, 
 over petitions for the adoption of chil- 
 dren, and the change of names. They 
 are always inferior courts, from whose 
 decisions appeals may be taken to higher 
 tribunals. For their jurisdiction and 
 powers, the statutes in each state must 
 be consulted. 
 
 PROBOS'CIS, the term applied to the 
 longer or shorter flexible muscular organ 
 formed by the elongated nose of several 
 mammals. Although seen in a modified 
 degree in the tapirs, etc., the term is 
 
 more generally restricted, and applied to 
 indicate the flexible “trunk” of the 
 elephant. 
 
 PROBOSCIS MONKEY.or KAHAU, a 
 
 native of Borneo, distinguished particu- 
 larly by its elongated nose, its shortened 
 
 Kahau. 
 
 thumbs, and its elongated tail. The 
 general color is a lightish red. These 
 monkeys are arboreal in habits, and ap- 
 pear to frequent the neighborhood of 
 streams and rivers, congregating in 
 troops. 
 
 PROBUS, Marcus Aurelius, one of the 
 ablest of the Roman emperors, was born 
 at Sirmium in the year 232. His skilfid 
 administration and public virtues did 
 not, protect him from enmity; and after 
 a short reign he was murdered in a mili- 
 tary insurrection in 282. 
 
 PROCONSUL and PROPR^TOR, 
 orignally, in the ancient Roman system 
 of administration, a consul or praetor 
 whose command (or imperium) was pro- 
 longed for a particular purpose after his 
 demission of office. In course of time the 
 terms came to be applied to any one 
 who was intrusted with some special 
 service, and with magisterial authority 
 for the purpose of performing it. Pro- 
 consuls and propraetors were generally 
 men who had been consuls or praetors, 
 but were not always so. There were four 
 varieties of proconsul: 1. A distinguished 
 statesman, formerly consul, appointed 
 for a special duty. 2. An individual, who 
 had never been consul, was sometimes 
 created proconsul to be sent on some 
 important mission. 3. A consul occa- 
 sionally had his imperium prolonged, in 
 order to complete some undertaking he 
 had commenced. 4. A consul appointed 
 after his term of office to the govern- 
 ment of a province. The proconsuls 
 under the republic had no authority 
 within the walls of Rome, and they lost 
 their imperium on entering the city. 
 Under the empire the emperor was al- 
 ■v\'ays invested with proconsular author- 
 ity. 
 
 PROCTER, Bryan Waller, an English 
 poet and prose writer, born about 1789; 
 died in London, October 4, 1874. His 
 daughter, Adelaide Ann, born in London 
 in 1825, died in 1864, was a poetess of 
 some note. Her songs and hymns show 
 much taste and feeling, but she never 
 attempted anything on a large scale. 
 Her best-known volume is Legends and 
 Lyrics, published in 1858. 
 
 PROCTOR, Redfield, American politi- 
 cal leader and cabinet officer, was born 
 
PROCTOR 
 
 PROPAGATION 
 
 at Proctorsville, Vt., in 1831. He served 
 throughout the civil war, rising to be 
 colonel of the Fifteenth Vermont. He 
 served several terms in the state legisla- 
 ture, from 1876-8, as lieutenant gov- 
 ernor, and from 1878-80 as governor. In 
 1889 he entered the cabinet of President 
 Harrison as secretary of war. He re- 
 signed in 1891 to accept an appointment 
 as United States senator, which office he 
 held until 1905. He died in 1908. 
 
 PROCTOR, Richard Anthony, as- 
 tronomer, born at Chelsea in 1837, and 
 educated at King’s college, London, and 
 Cambridge university. Having devoted 
 himself specially to the study of astrono- 
 ■ my, he published a number of valuable 
 works on the subject, including Saturn 
 and its System, Handbook of the Stars, 
 Half Hours with the Telescope, Half 
 Hours with the Stars, Other Worlds 
 than Ours (a very popular work). Light 
 Science for Leisure Hours, The Transits 
 of Venus, The Cycloid and Cylcoid 
 Curves, several Star Atlases, The Uni- 
 verse of Stars, The Moon, Old and New 
 Astronomy, etc., besides two treatises 
 ' on whist. He died in 1888. 
 
 PROC'URATOR, among the ancient 
 Romans, a provincial officer who man- 
 aged the revenue of his province. In 
 some of the small provinces, or in a part 
 of a large province, the procurator dis- 
 charged the office of a governor, and had 
 the power of punishing capitally, as was 
 the case with Pontius Pilate in Judaa, 
 which was attached to the provi»ce of 
 Syria. 
 
 PROFESSOR, the title given to 
 salaried teachers in universities and 
 similar institutions who are appointed 
 to deliver lectures for the instruction of 
 students in some particular branch of 
 learning. 
 
 PROGNO'SIS, in medicine the pre- 
 judgment of the physician regarding the 
 probable course and result of a disease. 
 Such a judgment is based upon the 
 known character of the disease modified 
 by the age, sex, environment, previous 
 health, etc., of the patient. 
 
 PROHIBITION PARTY. The prohi- 
 bition party is a political organization 
 that during recent years has occupied a 
 position of no inconsiderable importance 
 among the political parties of the United 
 States. The principles of the party first 
 found expression in Maine during 1851, 
 when the state adopted a law prohibi- 
 tory in its character that yet remains 
 on the statute book. On various oc- 
 casions since 1867 conventions have 
 been held, and since 1869 those conven- 
 ing have nominated candidates for the 
 presidency of the United States, as also 
 for state and county offices. In 1890 
 the Supreme Court of the United States 
 in a case on appeal from Iowa, decided 
 that the transportation of liquor through, 
 and the sale of liquor in original pack- 
 ages could not be prohibited in any of 
 the states or territories of the United 
 States, and that the statute of Iowa 
 prohibiting the sale of liquors in the 
 state was in violation of the constitu- 
 tion of the United States. In the elec- 
 tions held in November, 1907, local op- 
 tion was nearly everywhere successful 
 in the southern, central and western 
 states, including some of the larger 
 cities. The conclusions, after a thorough 
 
 investigation, are: That prohibition has, 
 abolished or prevented the manufacture 
 of liquor on a large scale, that the sup- 
 pression of retail trade is dependent 
 upon local sentiment, and is more suc- 
 cessful in the country than in the city. 
 
 PROJECTILES, Theory of, is that 
 branch of mechanics which treats of the 
 motion of bodies thrown or driven some 
 distance by an impelling force, and 
 whose progress is affected by gravity and 
 the resistance of the air. The most com- 
 mon cases are the balls projected from 
 cannon or other firearms. If thrown 
 horizontally, the body will move in a 
 curved path, because it retains un- 
 changed (leaving out of account the re- 
 sistance of the air) its horizontal veloc- 
 ity, while it falls faster and faster toward 
 the ground. A body projected obliquely 
 has initially a certain horizontal veloc- 
 ity and a certain vertical velocity. 
 It retains its horizontal velocity un- 
 changed, but its vertical velocity is 
 altered by the force of gravity, and in 
 both of these cases we find that the path 
 of the projectile is a parabola. With a 
 given velocity the greatest range of a 
 projectile is obtained by projecting at an 
 angle of 45° with the vertical. The actual 
 path of a bullet is always within the 
 parabola of the theoretical projectile, 
 and hence the range of a gun is much 
 less than what the parabola would give. 
 The range depends also upon the shape 
 and weight of the projectile as well as 
 upon it initial velocity. See Gunnery. 
 
 PROJECTION, the representation of 
 something by means of lines, etc., drawn 
 on a surface, especially the representa- 
 tion of any object on a perspective plane, 
 or such a delineation as would result 
 were the chief points of the object thrown 
 forward upon the plane, each in the 
 direction of a line drawn through it from 
 a given point of sight or central point. 
 This subject is of great importance in 
 the making of maps, in which we have 
 to consider the projection of the sphere 
 or portions of it. Projections of the 
 sphere are of several kinds, according to 
 the situations in which the eye is sup- 
 posed to be placed in respect of the 
 sphere and the plane on which it is to be 
 projected. 
 
 PROLETA'RII, the name which was 
 given to those Roman citizens who, in 
 the classification of their means by 
 Servius Tullius, stood in the sixth or 
 lowest class. The term has been revived 
 in modern times as a designation of the 
 lowest class of the community; but more 
 frequently the collective appellation 
 proletariat is used. 
 
 PROM'EROPS, a genus of insessorial 
 birds, many of which are remarkable 
 for the beauty of their plumage. They 
 have a longish bill, an extensible tongue, 
 and feed upon insects, soft fruits, and 
 the saecharine juices of plants. One 
 species is a native of New Guinea; 
 another is a native of Africa. 
 
 PROMETHEUS, in Greek mythology, 
 one of the Titans, brother of Atlas and 
 of Epimetheus, and the father of Deuca- 
 lion. His name means “forethought,” as 
 that of his brother Epimetheus signifies 
 “afterthought.” He gained the enmity 
 of Zeus by bringing fire from heaven to 
 men, and by conferring other benefits 
 on them. To punish this offense Zeus 
 
 sent down Pandora, who brought all 
 kinds of diseases into the world. He 
 caused Prometheus himself to be chained 
 by Hephaestus (Vulcan) on a rock of the 
 Caucasus (the eastern extremity of the 
 world, according to the notions of the 
 earlier Greeks), where his liver, which 
 was renewed every night, was torn by a 
 vulture or an eagle, fie was ultimately 
 delivered by Heracles, who destroyed 
 the vulture, unlocked the chains, and 
 permitted Prometheus to return to 
 Olympus. 
 
 Promerops. 
 
 PRONG-BUCK, or PRONG-HORN 
 ANTELOPE, a species of antelope, which 
 inhabits the western parts of North 
 America. It frequents the plains in 
 summer and the mountains in winter. 
 It is one of the few hollow-hornecf ante- 
 lopes, and the only living one in which 
 the horny sheath is branched, branching 
 being otherwise peculiar to deer which 
 have bony antlers. 
 
 PROOF IMPRESSION, in printing, a 
 rough impression from types, taken for 
 correction. A first proof is the impres- 
 sion taken with all the errors of work- 
 manship After this is corrected another 
 impression is printed with more care to 
 send to the author : this is termed a clean 
 proof. When this is corrected by the 
 author, and the types altered according- 
 ly, another proof is taken and carefully 
 read over : this is called the press proof. 
 In engraving, a proof impression is one 
 taken from an engraving to show the 
 state of it during the progress of the 
 work; also, an early impression, or one of 
 a limited number, taken before the 
 letters to be inserted are engraved on 
 the plate. 
 
 PROPAGATION, the multiplication or 
 continuation of the species of animals or 
 plants. As a technical term it is used 
 chiefly in regard to plants. The most 
 common method of propagating plants 
 is of course by their seed. There are 
 other ways, however, by which plants 
 are propagated naturally. Some, for 
 example, throw off runners from their 
 stems which creep along the ground, and 
 these runners take root at the buds, and 
 send up new plants. The commonest 
 artificial methods of propagating plants 
 are budding, layering, the various forms 
 of grafting, including inarching or graft- 
 ing by approach, propagation by offsets 
 and by slips Some plants (as the potato) 
 are propagated by dividing the’ tubers or 
 underground stems, each “eye” or leaf- 
 bud of which sends up a new plant, 
 while a few are propagated by cuttings 
 of the leaves. 
 
PROPHETS 
 
 PROTOPLASM 
 
 PROPHETS, among the Hebrews, in- 
 spired teachers sent by God to declare 
 his purposes to his people. From the 
 time of Samuel frequent mention is made 
 'of a body of men bearing the general 
 name of prophets. They were members 
 of a school in which young men of all 
 the tribes were instructed in the law, and 
 apparently also in sacred poetry and 
 music. The first school of this nature 
 appears to have been set up by Samuel 
 at Ramah, and there is mention of others 
 at Bethel, Jericho, Gilgal, and else- 
 where. It is probable that these schools 
 of the prophets were formed to 
 strengthen the attachment of the Jews 
 to their religion, and to maintain that 
 religion pure. The chief function of the 
 prophetic order was to maintain the 
 Mosaic theocracy in its purity, and the 
 patriotism which strongly characterizes 
 all the Hebrew prophets was closely con- 
 nected with their religious zeal. The 
 Jewish people being the chosen of God 
 and the immediate subjects of the divine 
 ruler, it is the constant cry of the 
 prophets that the people should turn to 
 righteousness in order to be delivered 
 from the hands of their enemies. The 
 predictive powers of prophets have been 
 the occasion of much controversy. The 
 ability of the prophets to foretell the 
 future was generally believed in by the 
 Jews, and in one passage of the Old 
 Testament, Deut. xviii. 22, is made a 
 negative test of the justness of a person’s 
 claim to be a prophet. The main con- 
 troversies with regard to this predictive 
 power turn upon two points — first, the 
 reality of the power, which is by some 
 altogether denied; and secondly, the 
 reference of the prophecies. With regard 
 to the reference of the prophecies the 
 chief controversy is connected with the 
 prophetical writings of the Old Testa- 
 ment supposed to relate to the Messiah. 
 Regarding these prophecies three differ- 
 ent positions are taken up by different 
 schools of Biblical critics. Those who 
 deny to the prophets the power of fore- 
 telling future events altogether neces- 
 sarily deny also the reference of the 
 prophecies in question to Christ as the 
 Messiah. Another school, while admit- 
 ting the reference of at least some of the 
 passages to historical events, contend 
 that in their secondary meaning they 
 have also a reference to the Messiah. 
 The third school hold that none but the 
 Messianic interpretation is permissible. 
 
 PROPR^TOR. See Praetor, Procon- 
 sul. 
 
 PROPYL^'A, in Greek architecture, 
 the entrance to a temple. The term was 
 employed particularly in speaking of the 
 superb vestibules or porticoes conduct- 
 ing to the Acropolis of Athens. This 
 magnificent work, of the Doric order was 
 constructed under the direction of 
 Pericles (b.c. 437-433) after the designs 
 of Mnesicles, one of the most celebrated 
 architects of his age. 
 
 PROPYLON. See Pylon. 
 
 PROSCE'NIUM, the part in a theater 
 from the curtain or drop-scene to the 
 orchestra; also applied to the curtain 
 and the ornamental framework from 
 which it hangs. In the ancient theater it 
 comprised the whole of the stage. 
 
 PROSCRIPTION, in Roman history, a 
 tnode of getting rid of enemies, first re- 
 
 sorted to by Sulla in 82'B.c.,and imitated 
 more than once afterwards in the 
 stormy years that closed the republic. 
 
 PROSE, ordinary spoken or written 
 language, untrammeled by poetic meas- 
 ure, and thus used in contradistinction 
 to verse or poetry. The true character of 
 prose can be clearly conceived only by 
 considering it in relation to poetry. The 
 two chief states of the inward man may 
 be called the thinking and the poetical 
 states, and depend upon thp predomi- 
 nance of the understanding, or the 
 imagination and feelings. If we think 
 (in the narrower sense of the word) we 
 combine ideas according to the laws of 
 reason; and prose, which is the language 
 of sober thought, is characterized by the 
 abstractness and precision belonging to 
 ideas that occupy the understanding. 
 Artistic and finished prose is among the 
 latest attainments both of nations and 
 individuals, and it would appear that 
 with most nations classical prose writers 
 are fewer than classical poets. 
 
 PROS'ELYTE, a person who leaves 
 one religion for the profession of another. 
 The Jews, in New Testament times at 
 least, had two classes of proselytes, 
 namely, the “proselytes of the gate,” as 
 they were termed; and the “proselytes 
 of righteousness,” or of the covenant. 
 According to the rabbis the proselytes of 
 the gate were those who renounced 
 idolatry and worshipped the only true 
 God according to the (so-called) seven 
 laws of the children of Noah, without 
 subjecting themselves to circumcision 
 and the other commands of the Mosaic 
 law. The proselytes of righteousness 
 were persons who had been fully con- 
 verted from paganism to Judaism, had 
 been circumcised, and bound themselves 
 to observe the Mosaic law. 
 
 PROSIM'I.iEj a name applied to the 
 lemurs and their allies. 
 
 PROS'ODY, that part of grammar 
 which treats of the quantity of syllables, 
 of accent, and of the laws of versification. 
 Though chiefly restricted to versifica- 
 tion, it may also be extended to prose 
 composition. In the Greek and Latin 
 languages every syllable had its deter- 
 minate length or quantity, and verses 
 were constructed by systems of re- 
 curring feet, each foot containing a defi- 
 nite number of syllables, possessing a 
 certain quantity and arrangement. The 
 versification of modern European lan- 
 guages, in general, is regulated mainly by 
 accent and number of syllables, though 
 the weight or quantity of syllables has 
 also to be taken into account if har- 
 monious verse is to be produced. 
 
 PROTECTION, applied in economics 
 to an artificial advantage conferred by a 
 government or legislature on articles of 
 home production, either by means of 
 bounties or (more commonly) by duties 
 imposed on the same or similar articles' 
 introduced from abroad. Such duties 
 may be simply protective, that is, such 
 as that the foreign and home articles can 
 compete in the market on nearly equal 
 terms ; or prohibitory, that is, such as to 
 exclude foreign competition altogether. 
 
 iLPtiO— Ho 
 
 PROTESTANTS, a name given to the 
 party who adhered to Luther during the 
 reformation in 1529, and protested, or 
 made a solemn declaration of dissent 
 
 from a decree of the emperor Charles V. 
 and the diet of Spires, and appealed to a 
 general council. The protesting mem- 
 bers were the electors John of Saxony 
 and George of Brandenburg, Princes 
 Ernest and Francis of Brunswick-Liine- 
 burg, Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and 
 Wolfgang, prince of Anhalt, together 
 with fourteen imperial cities, the chief 
 of which were Strasburg, N iirnberg, Ulm 
 and Constance. The name is now ap- 
 plied generally to those Christian de- 
 nominations that differ from the Church 
 of Rome, and that sprang from the 
 reformation. See Reformation. 
 
 PROTECTS, in classical mythology, a 
 marine deity who fed the flocks (seals) of 
 Poseidon (Neptune) in the ^Egean Sea. 
 He is represented as a soothsayer who 
 prophesied only when compelled by 
 force and art, and who tried every 
 means to elude those who consulted 
 him, and changed himself, after the 
 manner of the sea gods, into beasts, 
 trees, and even into fire and water. 
 
 PROTHONOTARY, a term for certain 
 functionaries connected with the papal 
 court who receive the last wills of cardi- 
 nals, make informations and proceedings 
 necessary for the canonization of saints, 
 
 PROTOCOC'CUS, a genus of algse 
 (red-snow) appears on the surface of 
 snow, tinging extensive tracts in the 
 Arctic regions or among the Alps, in an 
 incredibly short space of time, with a 
 deep crimson. This plant, which may be 
 
 Protococcus nivalis (red-snow), magnified and 
 natural size. 
 
 regarded as one of the simplest forms of 
 vegetation, consists of a little bag or 
 membrane forming a cell. A large num- 
 ber of these are commonly found to- 
 gether, but each one is separate from the 
 rest, and is to be regarded as a distinct 
 individual. 
 
 PROTOCOL, in diplomacy, a docu- 
 ment serving as a preliminary to, or for 
 the opening of, any diplomatic trans- 
 action; also, a diplomatic document or 
 minute of proceedings, signed by friend- 
 ly powers in order to secure certain 
 political ends peacefully. 
 
 PROTOPLASM, a sub.stance consist- 
 ing of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and 
 hydrogen, nearly identical with the 
 white of an egg, and constituting the 
 most elementary living matter in animal 
 and plant structures. It is colorless, 
 transparent, and apparently destitute of 
 structure, and is seen in its simplest 
 form in some of the lowest types of 
 animal life, as in the Protozoa. When 
 unrestricted by an imprisoning envelope 
 it is endued with the power of extending 
 itself in all directions in the form of mu- 
 table processes which can be withdrawn 
 spontaneously, and it has also the power 
 of passing or flowing in minute masses 
 through closed membranes without these 
 masses thereby losing their identity of 
 
PROTOZOA 
 
 PRUSSIA 
 
 form. In the form of cells, the skin of 
 which is merely dead and hardened pro- 
 toplasm, and inclosing a nucleus, or with 
 a nucleus embedded in its substance, it 
 is the structural unit of all organized 
 bodies, constituting not only the basis 
 of the ovum of both plants and animals, 
 but of the tissues themselves in their 
 perfect state, which are mere multiples 
 of such cell-units variously modified. 
 (The nucleus is believed by some to be 
 doubtful, and due to imperfection in the 
 glass.) As the protoplasm in our bodies 
 is continually undergoing waste, a con- 
 tinuous renewal of the material is es- 
 sential to the continuance of life. Ani- 
 mals, however, cannot elaborate proto- 
 plasm from mineral substances for 
 themselves, they being able only to con- 
 vert by the process of digestion dead 
 protoplasm into living. Plants can, on 
 the other hand, manufacture proto- 
 plasm from mineral compounds and the 
 atmosphere, and so they are the store- 
 house of protoplasmic matter for the 
 animal kingdom. Some biologists prefer 
 the term Bioplasm to that of Proto- 
 plasm, as being more expressive of its 
 function. Sarcode is also used similarly. 
 
 PROTOZO'A, a sub-kingdom includ- 
 ing the most lowly organized members 
 of the animal kingdom. 
 
 PROUDHON (pro-don), Pierre Joseph, 
 a French publicist, born at Besan^on 
 1809, died there 1865. Political economy 
 became his chief study, and in 1840 
 appeared his famous work, bearing on 
 the title-page the question: Qu’est-ce 
 que la Propriety? (What is property .’), to 
 which the first page of the treatise con- 
 tains the answer, “C’est le Vol” (it is 
 theft). Besides those already noticed 
 his more important treatises are: Dis- 
 cours sur la Celebration du Dimanche, 
 De la Creation de I’Ordre dans I’Hu- 
 manite, Systeme des Contradictions 
 Economiques. 
 
 PROVERBS, one of the canonical 
 books of the Old Testament, usually in 
 the main ascribed to Solomon, in accord- 
 ance with the superscriptions in chap, 
 i. 1 ; x.l ; XXV. 1 , which, if not written by 
 Solomon himself (as the first two of them 
 may have been), at least represent the 
 traditional views of the ancient Jewish 
 church. According to modern Biblical 
 critics the book of Proverbs is composed 
 of seve’-al sections written by different 
 author, and at different times, and 
 finally collected into a single book at 
 some period subsequent to the return 
 from the captivity. All seem to be 
 agreed that some part of the book is to 
 be ascribed to Solomon, but there is 
 great diversity of opinion as to how 
 large his share is. With regard to the 
 other two contributors to Proverbs 
 named in the book itself, Agur and 
 Lemuel, nothing whatever is known; 
 and in the case of Lemuel it is even sus- 
 pected that the name is not that of a 
 real personage. The canonicity of the 
 book of Proverbs is represented as a sub- 
 ject of dispute in the Talmud, some 
 having objected to receive the book as 
 canonical on account of the contradic- 
 tions it contains. It ultimately found 
 its place, however, in all the Jewish lists 
 of the sacred writings. 
 
 PROVIDENCE, one of the capitals of 
 the state of Rhode Island (the other 
 
 being Newport), situated on both sides 
 of the Providence or Seekonk, at the 
 head of Narragansett bay, 40 miles 
 s.s.w. of Boston. There are many fine 
 public and private buildings. Of the 
 former the most important are the 
 city-hall, library building, court-house, 
 the buildings of Brown university, etc. 
 The industrial establishments include 
 flour and saw mills, cotton and woolen 
 factories, foundries, steam-engine and 
 boiler factories, machine-shops; print- 
 ing, bleaching, calendering, and dye 
 works, etc. Providence has a safe and 
 commodious harbor, though somewhat 
 difficult of access, and the coasting trade 
 is important. Pop. 1909, 211,000. 
 
 PROVOST-MARSHAL, in the army, 
 is an officer of the rank of a captain, 
 who deals with offenses against dis- 
 cipline, brings the offenders to punish- 
 ment, and sees the sentence executed. 
 In the navy there is a similar office. 
 
 PRUDHON (prii-don), Pierre, a French 
 painter, born in 1758, died in 1823. His 
 importance consists in the fact that, in 
 opposition to David, he accentuated the 
 purely pictorial element and the effect 
 of light in his works. 
 
 PRUNING , is the severing of portions 
 of the stem, laranches, shoots, leaves, or 
 roots of a plant for the purpose of re- 
 moving excrescent or unprofitable 
 growths, and rendering the sap more 
 conductive to the nutrition of the 
 valuable parts of the plant. The im- 
 mediate effect of pruning is to reduce 
 the growth of a plant in as far as it de- 
 pends on the amount of foliage duly 
 exposed to the light ; but as by judicious 
 pruning the parts left have not only a 
 greater share of sap, but are better ex- 
 posed to the light, its ultimate effect is 
 to produce a larger and stronger plant. 
 From the tendency of sap to flow in 
 increased quantity into the parts im- 
 mediately adjoining those where its 
 flow has been interrupted, an almost 
 unlimited power is given to the gardener 
 of controlling the direction of the growth 
 of a plant. The season for pruning 
 varies with the nature of the tree and 
 the purpose for which it is pruned. In 
 general it may be said that autumn or 
 winter is the best season for extensive 
 pruning; in summer an excess of vigor 
 in the plant may require a little pruning, 
 but in spring it not only weakens the 
 plant but is liable to induce disease. 
 Root-pruning is employed to check 
 rapidity of growth and to induce de- 
 velopment of flower-buds. The best 
 season for this operation is after the 
 leaves have fallen in autumn or before 
 the sap begins to flow in spring. 
 
 PRUSSIA (German, Preussen), King- 
 dom of, the leading state of the German 
 empire, comprising the g^reater part of 
 Northern and Eastern Germany, and 
 part of Western Germany, divided as in 
 the following table: 
 
 Provinces 
 
 Area— sq. miles 
 
 Pop. 
 
 East Prussia.... 
 
 14,280 
 
 1,994,417 
 
 West Prussia.,.. 
 
 9,852 
 
 1,563,469 
 
 Brandenburg.... 
 
 15,405 
 
 4,992,102 
 
 Pomerania. 
 
 11,627 
 
 1,634,659 
 
 Posen 
 
 11,182 
 
 1,888,0» 
 
 Silesia 
 
 15,562 
 
 4,668,378 
 
 Saxony 
 
 9,747 
 
 2,833,224 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein 7,295 
 
 1,387,587 
 
 Hanover 
 
 14,855 
 
 2,590,336 
 
 Westphalia 
 
 7,802 
 
 3,188,072 
 
 Hesse-Nassau.... 
 
 6,089 
 
 1,897,310 
 
 Rhineland 10,422 5,758,99.5 
 
 Hohenzollern 441 66,783 
 
 Total 184,500 34,463,377 
 
 The capital and largest town is Berlin. 
 Other large towns are Breslau, Cologne, 
 Frankfort, Hanover, Magdeburg, Diissel- 
 dorf, Stettin, Charlottenburg, and Kon- 
 igsberg. The whole of Northern and 
 Eastern Prussia, from Holland on the 
 west to Russia on the east, belongs to 
 the great plain of Northern Europe, and 
 may be described generally as a vast 
 plain, elevated in the south and south- 
 west, and thence descending toward 
 the Baltic and the German ocean. On 
 the shores of the Baltic and North sea, 
 large tracts are only saved from inunda- 
 tion by low sand-hills. Behind these 
 hills extensive lagoons, on the Baltic 
 coast called Haffs, have been formed, 
 communicating with the sea by narrow 
 outlets. The chief bays or gulfs are 
 Danzig bay, Pomeranian bay, and Kiel 
 bay, all on the Baltic coast; and on the 
 Baltic coast are the islands of Riigen, 
 Usedom, Wollin, etc.; in the North sea 
 the North Frisian islands and East 
 Frisian islands. The principal river 
 of Prussia is the Elbe, which enters it 
 from the Kingdom of Saxony, flows 
 northwestward, and enters the North 
 sea between Hanover and Holstein. 
 The Weser and the Ems, are the prin- 
 cipal rivers west of the Elbe. Lakes 
 abound in almost every province. The 
 climatic conditions of this extensive 
 territory must necessarily be diversified. 
 The average of a number of places 
 situated between the highest and lowest 
 altitudes gives a mean annual tempera- 
 ture of 52° Fahr. 
 
 The south-western division of Prussia, 
 consisting of the greater part of West- 
 phalia, the Rhenish province, and Hesse- 
 Nassau, differs so much from the eastern 
 divisions as, in many repsects, to present 
 a striking contrast to it. In particular, 
 its surface as a whole is much more 
 finely diversified. By far the greater 
 part of this portion of the Prussian 
 monarchy belongs to the basin of the 
 Rhine, which, entering it on the south- 
 east, traverses it in a n.n.w. direction 
 till it enters Holland. There are numer- 
 ous streams tributary to the Rhine, 
 the largest being the Moselle with its 
 tributary the Saar. There are no lakes 
 worth mention in this portion of Prussia. 
 As compared with the division already 
 described, the climate of this part of 
 Prussia is milder in winter and cooler in 
 summer, the mean annual temperature 
 being about 1° higher. 
 
 The Rhine valley and the province of 
 Saxony may be considered the most 
 productive portions of the kingdom. 
 Rye is the chief agricultural product, 
 oats are largely grown in the north-east, 
 wheat chiefly in the south and west, 
 while the other grain crops are spelt (an 
 inferior sort of wheat), corn, millet, 
 and barely. Potatoes are extensively 
 cultivated ; beet-root for the production 
 of sugar is a very important crop; flax, 
 hemp, and rape-seed cover large areas; 
 tobacco is raised in several provinces; 
 and in the Rhine and Moselle districts 
 the vine is freely cultivated and some 
 of the finest wines produced. In East 
 Prussia horses are reared chiefly for 
 
PRUSSIA 
 
 PRUSSIA 
 
 military purposes; cattle are largely 
 exported from the maritime provinces, 
 and in West Prussia and Pomerania 
 sheep are raised in large numbers. The 
 forests cover about 23 per cent of the 
 total area, and are a great source of 
 wealth, forestry being nowhere better 
 understood than in Prussia. In some 
 of the forests the wild boar is common, 
 other wild animals being the wolf, lynx, 
 wild-cat, etc. 
 
 Mining is one of the chief branches of 
 Prussian industry; the most important 
 mineral products being coal and lignite, 
 iron, copper, lead, silver, and zinc, while 
 other minerals produced to a greater or 
 less extent are cobalt, nickel, arsenic, 
 antimony, manganese, rock-salt, kainit 
 and other potash salts, alum, and cop- 
 peras. The chief textile manufactures 
 are those of linens, cottons, and woolens. 
 Silesia, Brandenburg, and Westphalia, 
 are the provinces in which the linen in- 
 dustry is chiefly developed; the cotton 
 manufacture is most extensive on the 
 Rhine; the woolen manufacture has its 
 chief seats in Brandenburg and the 
 Rhenish province; while silk and velvet 
 are made in the Rhine valley, as also at 
 Berlin. In iron and steel ware the chief 
 manufacturing centers are Essen, Sol- 
 ingen, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Burtscheid. 
 The manufacture of porcelain and the 
 finer kinds of ware is extensive, and 
 leather and paper making are large in- 
 dustries. Other manufactures of na- 
 tional importance are beet-root sugar, 
 chocolate, chicory, chemical products, 
 and tobacco. 
 
 Prussia carries on a large trade both 
 by sea and with its inland neighbors. 
 The principal exports are textile fabrics, 
 yarn, metals and metal wares, agricul- 
 tural produce and live stock, wool, chem- 
 icals, spirits, coal, timber, leather, stone- 
 ware and glass, etc.; and the imports 
 are chiefly in the raw materials con- 
 nected with the textile and other manu- 
 factures, and tea, coffee, sugar, and 
 other colonial products. Besides the 
 ordinary road and canal communication, 
 Prussia has an extensive system of rail- 
 ways. The principal ports are Memel, 
 Pillau, Kftnigsberg, Danzig, Stettin, 
 Stralsund, Kiel, and Flensburg on the 
 Baltic; and Altona on the North sea. 
 In some of these ports, and particularly 
 Stettin, shipbuilding is carried on with 
 considerable activity. The system of 
 money, weights, and measures is the 
 same as that of the rest of Germany. 
 
 Prussia is a monarchy hereditary in 
 the male line, the present constitution of 
 which was framed by the government 
 with the aid of the constituent assembly, 
 in 18.50, and subsequently modified by 
 royal decrees. The king is assisted in 
 the executive by an irresponsible privy- 
 council and by a cabinet which is nomi- 
 nally responsible to a legislative assem- 
 bly composed of two chatTTbers. The 
 primary qualification of electors is based 
 on taxation, and the primary electors 
 are divided into three classes. Although 
 the reigning family and nearly two- 
 thirds of the total population are 
 Protestant, absolute religious liberty is 
 guaranteed by the constitution. A com- 
 plete system of primary, secondary, and 
 university education exists, all grades 
 of schools being linked together accord- 
 
 ing to a definite scheme or schemes of 
 study. Elementary education is en- 
 forced by law, maintained by local taxes, 
 and administered by local authority. 
 Prussia has ten universities — Berlin, 
 Bonn, Breslau, Gottingen, Greifswald, 
 Halle, Kiel, Konigsberg, Marburg, and 
 Munster. The historical development of 
 the Prussian kingdom is closely asso- 
 ciated with three important elements. 
 The first of these is found in the growing 
 power of the Electorate of Branden- 
 burg, which formed the nucleus of the 
 future kingdom; the second relates to 
 the acquirement of the province of 
 Prussia, which gave its name to the new 
 heterogeneous territory; and the third is 
 associated with the rule of the Hohen- 
 zollern family, under whose skilful dip- 
 lomatic and military guidance the small 
 Brandenburg electorate has grown into 
 what is now considerably the larger por- 
 tion of the German empire. Branden- 
 burg, which had been conquered by 
 Charlemagne in 789, was erected into a 
 margraviate by Henry I. (the Fowler), 
 emperor of Germany in 926. Albert the 
 Bear, who received Brandenburg as a 
 fief from the Emperor Lothaire (1134), 
 conquered the Slavonian Wends, and 
 took in 1157 the title of Margrave of 
 Brandenburg. Brandenburg later fell 
 as a lapsed fief to the empire, and Louis 
 of Bavaria gave it to his son. Remain- 
 ing under Bavarian rule for three elec- 
 torates it was subsequently ceded to the 
 house of Luxemburg, and Charles IV., 
 the first imperial representative of this 
 house, gave it successively to his sons 
 Wenceslaus (1373) andSigismund (1378). 
 The latter being in debt received from 
 Frederick, the burgrave of Niirnberg, 
 a loan of 400,000 gold florins, for which 
 Frederick held Brandenburg in pawn, 
 and subsequently acquired it in full. 
 This burgrave was the descendant of 
 Conrad of Hohenzollern, a cadet of a 
 Suabian family to whom belonged a 
 small territory surrounding the ances- 
 tral castle of Hohenzollern, of which 
 they traced their lordship back to the 
 time of Charlemagne. Frederick 11. , 
 who succeeded his father in 1440, ex- 
 tended the possessions of his family by 
 policy as well as by valor. In 1470 he 
 abdicated in favor of his brother Albert 
 III., Joachim II., who succeeded in 1535, 
 embraced the Reformation, and estab- 
 lished Lutheranism in 1539. In 1537 
 he acquired the reversion of the prin- 
 cipalities of Liegnitz, Brieg, and Wohlau. 
 John George succeeded in 1571 . Joachim 
 Frederick, who succeeded in 1598, mar- 
 ried his son John Sigismund to the 
 daughter of Frederick Albert, duke of 
 Prussia; and in 1618 John Sigismund 
 united the duchy of Prussia to the elec- 
 torate, thus bringing it about'that the 
 whole country became known as Prussia. 
 
 John Sigismund was succeeded in 
 1619 by his son George William, who 
 was unequal to encounter the terrible 
 crisis that now occurred in the affairs of 
 Germany, the Thirty Years’ war. A 
 ve^ different man was his son Frederick 
 William, called the (^eat Elector, who 
 may be regarded as the virtual founder 
 of the Prussian monarchy. Dying in 
 1688 he was succeeded by his son F red- 
 erick, who in 1701 had himself crowned 
 as king, being the first king of Prussia. * 
 
 Frederick I. was succeeded by his son 
 (1713) Frederick William I., who gov- 
 erned Prussia till 1740. He went to war 
 with Charles XII., and acquired part of 
 Pomerania, with Stettin, from Sweden. 
 At his death he left a prosperous country, 
 a well-supplied treasury, and an army 
 of 80,000 men to his successor. 
 
 Frederick II., surnamed the Great, 
 succeeded to the crown on the death of 
 his father in 1740. In less than a year 
 after his accession he proclaimed war 
 against Maria Theresa in order to enforce 
 his claim to the Silesian principalities, 
 and invaded Silesia. By a treaty con- 
 cluded at Berlin (1742) Frederick ob- 
 tained the cession, with the exception of 
 some specified districts, of both upper 
 and lower Silesia, and of Glatz. Con- 
 ceiving that the .Austrians might seek 
 to regain this territory, Frederick in 
 1744 invaded Bohemia, and commenced 
 what is called the Second Silesian war. 
 He gained such successes, that when 
 peace was concluded in 1745, Austria 
 confirmed the cession of Silesia, which 
 was guaranteed by Great Britain. In the 
 Seven Years’ war the immense force.s 
 which his enemies were able to bring 
 into the field reduced Frederick to the 
 greatest straits, and gave opportunity 
 for the development of his strategic 
 genius. According to Frederick’s calcu- 
 lation 886,000 men had perished in a 
 war w’hich failed in effecting any terri- 
 torial change; but it transformed 
 Prussia into one of the chief European 
 powers. Frederick determining again to 
 extend his boundaries entered into an 
 alliance with Austria, and invaded the 
 territories of Poland. Negotiations 
 followed with Russia, and in 1772 the 
 partition of Poland was arranged in a 
 treaty between the three powers. In 
 this way Prussia obtained most of 
 Pomerania and a large portion of Poland. 
 Frederick died in 1786, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his nephew Frederick William 
 II. 
 
 In 1792, war having already been de- 
 clared by the French authorities against 
 the empire, the Prussians, under the 
 Duke of Brunswick, invaded France. 
 They were defeated by Kellerman at 
 Valmy, and soon afterwards Frederick 
 William withdrew from this war with 
 France. Then followed a second and a 
 third partition of Poland (1793, 1795), 
 by which Prussia acquired a consider- 
 able accession of territory. Frederick 
 William died in 1797, and was succeeded 
 by Frederick William III. In 1804 
 Prussia recognized Napoleon as Em- 
 peror of France, and in the campaign 
 which ended in the overthrow of Austria 
 at Austerlitz (1805) remained neutral. 
 This attitude was at first successful, but 
 ultimately it led to distrust among the 
 German states, and by the formation of 
 the confedOfation of the Rhine Prussia 
 was isolated and left to the mercy of 
 Napoleon. On the 14th October, 1806, 
 the armies met at Jena and Auerstadt, 
 where the Prussians Avere completely de- 
 feated, and the whole country was soon 
 in the hands of Napoleon, who entered 
 Berlin in triumph. At the Peace of Tilsit 
 (June 1807), concluded between Prussia 
 and Napoleon, all lands between the 
 Rhine and the Elbe Avere ceded to 
 Napoleon for his free disposal, and a war 
 
PRUSSIAN BLUe 
 
 ptarmigan 
 
 indemnity of 140,000,000 francs was 
 imposed on the mutilated kingdom. In 
 the great struggle for the overthrow of 
 Napoleon, an important part was taken 
 by the Kingdom of Prussia, and the 
 Prussian troops along with the British 
 bore a noble part in the Waterloo 
 struggle. At the Congress of Vienna 
 (1815), when the map of Europe was re- 
 arranged, Prussia, was placed in a more 
 advantageous position than before. She 
 now also formed one of the states in the 
 new Gennan confederacy. 
 
 After the restoration Frederick Wil- 
 liam III, leaned to the despotic counsels 
 of Austria and Russia, supported hearti- 
 ly the Holy Alliance, and entered upon a 
 reactionary policy which continued un- 
 til his death in 1840. He was succeeded 
 by Frederick William IV. The Poles in 
 1848 revolted against Prussian rule, but 
 the movement was summarily sup- 
 pressed. In 1857, the king being uable 
 to conduct affairs by reason of mental 
 illness, his brother William became re- 
 gent, and ulitimately succeeded to the 
 throne on the death of Frederick William 
 in 18G1. 
 
 The new king, William I., showed a 
 disposition to absolutism, which in 1862 
 — 63 occasioned a lengthened dispute 
 between the chambers and the ministry 
 under Count Bismarck. Through a dis- 
 agreement with Austria over Schleswig 
 and Holstein the brief campaign known 
 as the Seven Weeks’ war took place 
 (1866), the Prussian forces were armed 
 with the new needle-^gun, and the whole 
 movements were directed by the chief of 
 the staff. Count von Moltke. The 
 Austrians, under General Benedek, were 
 completely defeated near Koniggratz in 
 Bohemia, where on 3d July was fought 
 the decisive battle of Sadowa; and peace 
 soon followed. In 1870 Prince Leopold 
 of Hohenzollern consented to become a 
 candidate for the tlien vacant Spanish 
 throne. This was opposed by the French 
 emperor, who demanded not only that 
 the candidates should withdraw, but 
 that the King of Prussia should pledge 
 himself not to permit any such future 
 candidature. This being refused, warwas 
 declared by France on 15th July, 1870, 
 with a most disastrous result to herself. 
 (See Franco-German War.) After the 
 German arms had proved entirely suc- 
 cessful, on the invitation of the North 
 German parliament supported by the 
 South German states, the King of Prussia 
 assumed on 18th January, 1871, the 
 title of Gennan emperor. 
 
 From this point the history of Prussia 
 is, to a great extent, merged in that of 
 the German empire. In the hands of 
 Prince Bismarck, acting as premier of 
 Prussia as well as chancellor of the 
 empire, a strong, central, autocratic 
 government was maintained. In his 
 policy, both home and foreign. Prince 
 Bismarck was supported by the Em- 
 peror William I. until the death of the 
 latter in March, 1888. He was succeeded 
 by his son, Frederick III., who, when he 
 ascended the throne, was struggling 
 with a deadly throat disease. When he 
 died in June 1888 he was succeeded by 
 his son, William II., who has shown 
 himself a ruler with a mind and will of 
 his own. 
 
 PRUSSIAN BLUE, a cyanide of iron 
 
 possessed of a deep-blue color, and much 
 used as a pigment. It is also used in 
 medicine. 
 
 PRUSSIAN BROWN, a color obtained 
 by adding a solution of the yellow prus- 
 siate of potash to a solution of sulphate 
 of copper, which throws down a pre- 
 cipitate of deep brown. This, wnen 
 washed and dried, is equal to madder, 
 and possesses greater permanency. 
 
 PRUSSIC ACID, called also hydro- 
 cyanic or cyanhydric acid, was dis- 
 covered by Scheele in 1782, but first 
 prepared in the pure state by Gay- 
 Lussac in 1811. It is a colorless liquid 
 which solidifies at 5° F. to feathery 
 crystals, and boils at 80°. Its specific 
 gravity is about 0.7. It dissolves in all 
 proportions in water, forming a liquid 
 which reddens litmus-paper but slightly. 
 It is found in the kernels of bitter al- 
 monds, peaches, apricots, plums, cher- 
 ries, and quinces ; the blossom of peaches, 
 sloes, etc.; the leaves of the beech, 
 cherry, laurel; and various parts of other 
 plants. Pure prussic acid is prepared by 
 passing a stream of dry sulphuretted 
 hydrogen over dry cyanide of mercury. 
 This acid, which is one of the strongest 
 poisons known, is used medicinally to 
 remove various forms of irritation; but 
 in all cases it must be used with ex- 
 treme caution. When an overdose is 
 administered death is instantaneous, 
 and with a lesser dose the symptouis are 
 convulsions or paralysis. The nature of 
 its action is not clearly understood, but 
 the best antidotes are found to be am- 
 monia, chlorine-water, or a subcutane- 
 ous injection of atropine. 
 
 PSALMS, Book of, one of the books of 
 the Old Testament, containing the 
 liturgical collection of hymns used by 
 the Jews in the temple service. Each 
 psalm in the collection, with a few ex- 
 ceptions, has a particular superscription, 
 such as maschil, instruction, michtam, 
 memorial, etc. The chronology of the 
 psahns is much disputed. The earliest 
 (Psalm xc.) is said to have been written 
 by Moses, many are attributed to 
 David, a few are supposed to have been 
 written on the return from the captivity, 
 and some are assigned to the time of the 
 Maccabees. In structure the psalms 
 have the strophe and anti-strophe which 
 is so characteristic of Hebrew poetry. It 
 would also seem that many of them were 
 meant to be sung in parts, the chief part 
 ■by the officiating priest, and a respon- 
 sive part by the people. The book of 
 Psalms as we have it is essentially the 
 hymn-book of the second temple, and 
 according to the latest criticism, was 
 ascribed to David, merely because the 
 order of the worship in the second temple 
 was the same as that prescribed by him 
 for the first temple. 
 
 PSALTER, specifically, the version of 
 the Psalms in the Book of Common 
 Prayer; also applied in the Roman 
 Catholic church to a series of devout 
 sentences, 150 in number, and to a large 
 chaplet or rosary with 150 beads, agree- 
 ing with the number of the psalms. 
 
 PSALTERY, or PSALTERION, an in- 
 strument of music used by the Hebrews, 
 the fonn of which is not now known. 
 
 PSKOV, or PLESKOV, a government 
 of Russia, bounded by those of St. 
 Petersburg, Novgorod, Tver, Smolensk, 
 
 Vitebsk, Livonia; area, 17,069 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 948,080. — Pskov, or Pleskov, the 
 capital, is situated on the Velikaia, on 
 which there is regular communication 
 by steamer with Dorpat. Pop. 30,424. 
 
 PSORI'ASIS, a kind of skin disease, in 
 which elevated red patches appear 
 covered with large scales, 'there being 
 often cracks or fissures between, from 
 which blood may ooze. In some cases it 
 is a syphilitic affection. The name is 
 also given to the itch. 
 
 PSYCHE (si'ke), a sort of mythical or 
 allegorical personification of the human 
 soul, a beautiful maiden whose charming 
 story is given by the Latin writer Ap- 
 puleius. She was so beautiful as to be 
 
 Cupid (Eros) and Psyche.— Capitoline 
 Museum, Rome. 
 
 taken for Venus herself. This goddess, 
 becoming jealous of her rival’s charms, 
 ordered Cupid or Love to inspire her 
 with love for some contemptible wretch. 
 But Cupid fell in love with her hhnself. 
 Many were the trials Psyche underwent, 
 arising partly from her own indiscretion, 
 and partly from the hatred of Venus, 
 with whom, however, a reconciliation 
 was ultimately affected. Psyche by 
 Jupiter’s command became immortal, 
 and was forever united with her beloved. 
 
 PSYCHICAL RESEARCH (si'ki-kal). 
 Society for, an English society, founded 
 in 1882, “for the purpose of making an 
 organized attempt to investigate that 
 large group of debatable phenomena 
 designated by such terms as mesmeric, 
 psychical, and spiritualistic.” 
 
 PSYCHOLOGY (si-koP-) is the science 
 or department of philosophy which 
 
 Ptarmigan, winter plumage. 
 
 deals with the phenomena of mind. See 
 Mind, Physics, Philosophy. 
 
 PTARMIGAN (tir'-), a bird of the 
 grouse family, distinguishfed from the 
 true grouse by having the toes as well aa 
 
PTERICHTHYS 
 
 PUCK 
 
 the tarsi feathered. The male is about 
 15 inches long, the female about an inch 
 less. In summer the predominant colors 
 of its plumage are speckled black, brown, 
 or gray, but in winter the male becomes 
 nearly pure white, and the female en- 
 tirely so. In Britain it is to be met with 
 only on the summits of some of the high- 
 est Scottish hills, chiefly amid the 
 Grampians, in the Hebrides and Ork- 
 neys, and sometimes but rarely in the 
 lofty hills of Cumberland and Wales. 
 The willow-ptannigan or willow-grouse 
 occurs in great abundance in the arctic 
 regions of America and in Norway, 
 whence great numbers are brought to the 
 London market. 
 
 PTERICHTHYS (te-rik'this), a fossil 
 genus of fishes belonging to the Old Red 
 Sandstone. 
 
 PTERODACTYL (“winged-finger”), a 
 genus of extinct flying reptiles of the 
 order Pterosauria, found in the Juralime- 
 stone fonnation, in the Lias at Lyme- 
 
 Pterodaotyl. 
 
 Regis, in the Oolite slate of Stonefield, 
 etc. The pterodactyls had a moderately 
 long neck, and a large head; the jaws 
 armed with equal and pointed teeth; 
 most of the bones, like those of birds, 
 were “pneumatic,” that is, hollow and 
 filled with air; but the chief character 
 consisted in the excessive elongation of 
 the outer digit (or little finger) of the 
 forefoot, which served to support a fly- 
 ing membrane. A number of species 
 have been discovered, most of them 
 small or of moderate size, but one must 
 have had an expanse of wing of at least 
 20 feet. 
 
 PTHAH, or PHTHA, an ancient Egyp- 
 tian divinity, the creator of all things 
 and source of life, and as such father 
 and sovereign of the gods. He was 
 worshipped chiefly at Memphis under 
 the figure of a mummy-shaped male, 
 and also as a pygmy god. 
 
 PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM, in astronomy, 
 that maintained by Claudius Ptolemy, 
 the astronomer, who supposed the earth 
 to be fixed in the center of the universe, 
 and that the sun and stars revolved 
 around it. This long-received theory 
 was rejected for the Copernican system. 
 
 PTOL'EMY (Ptolemaios), the name of 
 a line of Grseco-Egyptian kings, who 
 succeeded, on the division of the empire 
 of Alexander the Great, to the portion 
 of his dominions of which Egypt was 
 the head. Ptolemy I., called Soter, 
 the Savior, was by birth a Macedonian. 
 Ptolemy was one of the intimate friends 
 of Alexander, attended the king on his 
 
 expedition to Asia, was admitted into 
 the bodyguard, and in 329 b.c. com- 
 manded one of the chief divisions of 
 the army. On the death of Alexander 
 he attached himself to the party of 
 Perdiccas, and secured for himself the 
 government of Egypt. He married Eury- 
 dice, daughter of Antipater, and in b.c. 
 320 he seized the satrapy of Phoenicia 
 and Coele-Syria. In 308 he invaded 
 Greece, and proclaimed himself as a 
 liberator. Ptolemy died in B.c. 283. 
 — Ptolemy II. (Philadelphus), bom 
 B.c. 309, succeeded his father, and 
 reigned in almost complete peace. His 
 chief care as ruler was directed to the 
 internal administration of his kingdom. 
 He spared no pains to fill the library of 
 Alexandria with all the treasures of 
 ancient literature, and among the archi- 
 tectural works erected during his reign 
 were the lighthouse on the island of 
 Pharos, the Alexandrian museum, and 
 the royal burying-place. — Ptolemy III., 
 surnamed EuergCtes (“benefactor”). He 
 was early engaged in an important war 
 against Syria, which having invaded he 
 advanced without opposition to Antioch, 
 then turned eastward, subduing Mesopo- 
 tamia, Babylonia, etc. He died in b.c. 
 222, being succeeded by Ptolemy IV., 
 surnamed Philopator. His Syrian pos- 
 .sessions having been gradually wrested 
 from him by Antiochus the Great, 
 Ptolemy put himself at the head of a 
 large anny and completely defeated 
 Antiochus at Raphia, in b.c. 217. — 
 Ptolemy V. (surnamed Epihpiines), his 
 son and successor, was under five years 
 old at his father’s death, and this led 
 Philip of Macedon and Antiochus III. 
 (the Great) of Syria to pom bine to dis- 
 possess Ptolemy, and divide his domin- 
 ions. To avert this danger the guardians 
 of the young king placed him under the 
 protection of Rome, which thus had 
 first an occasion for interfering in the 
 affairs of Egypt. Ptolemy was poisoned 
 
 Ptolfemy I.— Antique gem. 
 
 b.c. 181 . — Ptolemy VI. (surnamed Philo- 
 metor) was a child at the death of his 
 father. His reign was much disturbed 
 by the rivalry of a brother, and being 
 expelled from Alexandria he repaired to 
 Rome B.c. 164, by whose intervention he 
 was replaced. He died in b.c. 146. — 
 Ptolemy XI. (“flute-player”) was driven 
 from his kingdom by his subjects, who 
 were ground down by taxation; but he 
 was restored by the Romans (to whom 
 he gave great sums of money), and died 
 B.c. 51. — Ptolemy XII., son of the pre- 
 ceding, reigned jointly with his sister 
 Cleopatra till B.c. 48, when Cleopatra 
 
 was expelled, and raising an army in 
 Syria invaded Egypt. On the arrival 
 of Caesar, Cleopatra by her charms ac- 
 quired an ascendency over him . Ptolemy 
 put himself at the head of the insurgents, 
 was defeated by Caesar, and drowned 
 in attempting to make his escape, in 
 B.c. 48 or 47. — Ptolemy XIII. (Auletes), 
 the youngest son of Ptolemy XL, was 
 declared king by Caesar in conjunction 
 with his sister Cleopatra in b.c. 47. 
 He was married to his sister, but being 
 only a boy possessed no more than the 
 name of husband or king. Cleopatra 
 caused him to be put to death, and the 
 line of the Ptolemies ended when Cleo- 
 patra perished by her own hands after 
 Octavius defeated Antony at Actium, 
 and Egypt become a Roman province, 
 B.c. 30. 
 
 PTOMAINE (to'ma-in), one of a class 
 of alkaloids or organic ba.ses, which are 
 generated as a result of putrefaction, 
 during morbid conditions prior to death, 
 and even, it is said, during normal 
 healthy conditions of life. Some of them 
 are highly poisonous, and in their action 
 may even resemble strychnine. 
 
 PU'BERTY, the period in both male 
 and female marked by the functional 
 development of the generative system. 
 In males it usually takes place between 
 the ages of thirteen and sixteen; in 
 females somewhat earlier; and, as a rule, 
 in very warm climates puberty is 
 reached somewhat sooner than else- 
 where. In males puberty is marked ex- 
 ternally by the deepening of the voice, 
 the first appearance of the beard, greater 
 firmness, fullness of body, etc.; in fe- 
 males, by the enlargement of the breasts, 
 and by the general rounding out of the 
 frame, and most unequivocally of all 
 by the commencement of menstruation. 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS, the schools, espe- 
 cially the elementary schools, estab- 
 lished under any national system of edu- 
 cation ; but in England the term is often 
 specifically applied to certain important 
 secondary schools or colleges, including 
 Eton, Harrow, Winchester, Rugby, 
 Westminster, St. Paul’s, Shrewsbury, 
 etc., known as “the great public schools 
 of England.” 
 
 In the United States ’the term is ap- 
 plied to the institutions maintained at 
 public expense for the formal education 
 of children. The idea of organizing 
 schools where rich and poor might obtain 
 efficient free instruction did not take 
 firm root in the minds of the people of 
 the several states until the early part of 
 the 19th century. The federal govern- 
 ment has by means of land grants and 
 other aid encouraged the several states 
 in the establishment of school systems. 
 
 The three main types of public schools 
 in the United States are: (1) the city 
 elementary and high schools; (2) the 
 town union school, which includes a 
 high school department ; (3) the district 
 school, so called from its usually being 
 established in certain rural districts, 
 and offering elementary instruction. 
 
 PUCK, a celebrated elf, the “m.erry 
 wanderer of the night,” whose character 
 and attributes are depicted in Shake- 
 speare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream, 
 and who was also known by the names 
 of Robin Goodfellow and Friar Rush. 
 He was the chief of the domestic fairies, 
 
pudding-stone 
 
 PULLEY 
 
 and many stories are told of his noc- 
 turnal exploits. 
 
 PUDDING-STONE, or PLUM-PUD- 
 DING STONE, a term now considered 
 synonyinous with conglomerate, but 
 originally applied to a mass of flint 
 pebbles cemented by a siliceous paste. 
 When select specimens are cut and 
 polished they resemble a section of a 
 plum-pudding, and are used for orna- 
 mental purposes. 
 
 PUEB'LA, in full La Puebla de los 
 Angeles, the capital of a Mexican state 
 of the same name, situated on a plateau 
 76 miles s.e. of Mexico. It has spacious 
 streets and solidly-built houses, the 
 cathedral being a magnificent structure. 
 It contains a large number of religious 
 edifices, many of them highly decorated. 
 There are also several colleges, a museum 
 and a theater. It is one of the chief seats 
 of Mexican manufacturing industry, 
 and its chief products are cotton and 
 woolen goods, leather, glass, earthen- 
 ‘ware, and soap. Puebla was built by the 
 Spaniards in 1533-34. Pop. 93,521. The 
 state consists of an elevated plateau, 
 and contains much fertile soil. On the 
 western frontier is the volcano of Popo- 
 catepetl, the highest mountainin Mexico. 
 Area, 12,042 sq. miles; pop. 1,021,133. 
 
 PUEBLO, the second largest city and 
 county-seat of Pueblo co., Colorado. 
 Its transportation facilities comprise 
 the Denver and Rio Grande, the Atchi- 
 son, Topeka and Santa F4, the Missouri 
 Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island and 
 Pacific, and the Colorado and Southern. 
 Pueblo is the great distributing and 
 receiving point for this section of vast 
 natural wealth. It has become known 
 as the “Pittsburg of the West,” being 
 famous for its iron and steel, and smelt- 
 ing industries. Pop. 33,267. 
 
 PUEBLO INDIANS are semi-civilized 
 Indians of New Mexico and Arizona, 
 some 9,000 in number, living in villages 
 in communal houses (a number of 
 families together), and possessed of con- 
 siderable skill in agriculture and the 
 simpler kinds of manufacture. The 
 village communities are self-governed,, 
 and they are only nominally citizens 
 of the United States. 
 
 PUER'PERAL FEVER, a dangerous 
 contagious disease peculiar to women in 
 childbed, and due to the absorption of 
 poisonous material by the raw surface 
 of the womb. The poison may originate 
 from decomposing material in the womb 
 itself, but is generally introduced from 
 without. 
 
 PUFF-ADDER, a serpent found in 
 South and Central Africa. Its popular 
 name is derived from its power of puffing 
 out the upper part of the neck when 
 irritated or alarmed. It is very thick, 
 attains a length of 4 or 5 feet, and is 
 extremely venomous. The Bosjesmen 
 poison their arrows with its venom. 
 
 PUFF-BALLS, a species of birds so 
 called from their globular shape, and 
 because if they are struck when ripe 
 the dry spores fly out in powder like a 
 puff of smoke, from a genus of fungi. 
 When young, and whether raw or cooked, 
 some of them are very good eating. 
 
 PUFFIN, the name for the marine 
 diving birds. The common puffin is a 
 native of the arctic and northern tem- 
 perate regions, and is often met with on 
 
 the rocky cliffs of Great Britain and Ire- 
 land. It is about a foot in length, and 
 from the singular shape and enormous 
 size of its bill, which is striped with 
 
 Puff-bird. 
 
 orange upon bluish-gray, is often called 
 the sea-parrot or the coulter-neb. Their 
 plumage is glossy black, with the ex- 
 ception of the cheeks and under-surfaces 
 which are white. It breeds upon rocks 
 and in the rabbit-warrens near the sea, 
 
 Common Puffin. 
 
 and lays one egg, which is white. It 
 lives on fish, Crustacea, and insects, and 
 is a gregarious and migratory bird. 
 
 PUGET SOUND (pu'jet), an inlet on 
 tho northwest coast of the state of Wash- 
 ington, forming tho southwest continua- 
 tion of Juan de Fuca strait, with which 
 it is connected by Admiralty inlet. On 
 its shores are Seattle, Oljrmpia, and 
 other important cities. 
 
 PUGILISM. See Boxing. 
 
 PULASKI (pdblas'ke), Casimir, Polish 
 soldier in the American revolution, was 
 born in Podolia, Poland, in 1748. He 
 joined enthusiastically in the movement 
 to liberate his country, and fought 
 heroically in the unequal struggle against 
 
 the Russians. He was accused, unjustly 
 it appears, of complicity in the plot to 
 abduct King Stanislas Poniatowski from 
 Warsaw (1771), and in consequence was 
 outlawed and deprived of has estates. 
 
 He was induced by Franklin and the 
 French ministry to assist the Americans 
 against England. He arrived in Phila- 
 delphia in 1777. In 1778, with the sanc- 
 tion of congress, he organized an in- 
 dependent corps of cavalry and light , 
 infantry, called Pulaski’s Legion. In 
 1779 he commanded the French and ’ 
 American cavalry at the siege of Savan- 
 nah, and during the attack of October 
 9th was mortally wounded, dying two 
 days later on board the United States , 
 brig Wasp. 
 
 PU'LITZER, Joseph, American jour- 
 nalist, was born at Budapest, Hungary, 
 in 1847. He came to the United States ' 
 in 1864. After serving in a federal 
 cavalry regiment in 1864-5 he became a : 
 reporter on Carl Schurz’s Westliche 
 Post, St. Louis, later becoming man- 
 aging editor with a proprietary interest. 
 
 In 1869 he was elected to the state 
 legislature. In 1878 he purchased the J 
 St. Louis Dispatch and combined it with ; 
 the Evening Post, which as the Post- 
 Dispatch became an important journal 
 of the west. In 1883 he purchased the 
 New York World which, under hisman- ■' 
 agement obtained an immense circula- - 
 tion. In 1884 he was elected to the 
 United States congress from New York. 
 
 He has made donations to educational 
 and charitable causes, and in 1903 pro- 
 vided an endowment fund for a school 
 of journalism at Columbia university. 
 
 PULLEY, a small wheel movable 
 about an axle, and having a groove cut 
 in its circumference over which a cord 
 passes. The axle is supported by a kind • 
 of case or box called the block, which 
 may either be movable or fixed to a firm 
 support. The pulley is one of the six 
 simple machines or mechanical powers 
 and is used for raising weights. A single 
 
 - 
 
 A 
 
 □ 
 
 Fig. t Fig. 2. 
 
 pulley serves merely to change the direc- • 
 tion of motion, but several of them may 
 be combined in various ways, by which ; 
 a mechanical advantage or purchase is ' 
 gained, greater or less, according to their , 
 number and the mode of combination. 
 The advantage gained by any combina- '» 
 tion or system of pulleys is readly com- > 
 puted by comparing the velocity of the 
 weight raised with that of the moving .? 
 power, according to the principle of A 
 virtual velocities. The friction, however, ^ 
 in the pulley is great, particularly when 
 many of them are combined together. 
 
 A pulley is said to be fixed when the 1 
 block in which it turns is fixed, and it is , 
 said to be movable when the block is Y 
 movable. In the single fixed pulley i 
 (fig. 1) there is no mechanical advantage, ^ 
 the power and weight being equal. It ,| 
 may be considered as a lever of the first 4 
 kind with equal arms. In the single .$ 
 movable pulley (fig. 2) where the cords fl 
 are parallel there is a mechanical ad-A 
 vantage, there being an equilibrium 9 
 when the power is to the weight as 1 to 2. a 
 
PULLMAN 
 
 PUMP 
 
 It may be considered as a lever of the 
 second kind, in which the distance of the 
 power from the fulcrum is double that 
 of the weight from the fulcrum. In a 
 system of pulleys (fig. 3, 4) in which the 
 same string passes round any number 
 of pulleys, and the parts of it between 
 the pulleys are parallel, there is an 
 
 Fig. a Fig. 4. 
 
 equilibrium when the power is to the 
 
 { weight as 1 to the number of strings at 
 the lower block. In a system in which 
 each pulley hangs by a separate cord and 
 the strings are parallel (fig. 5), there is 
 fi an equilibrium when the power is to the 
 r weight as 1 to that power of 2 whose 
 fij index is the number of movable pulleys 
 i| (in the case here illustrated 1 ; 2» or 1 : 8) . 
 f Whatever be the mechanical arrange- 
 ment of the pulleys and of the ropes the 
 
 Fig. a 
 
 [ principle of all pulleys is the same, 
 namely, the transmission of the tension 
 of a rope without sensible diminution 
 so as to obviate the loss of force conse- 
 quent on rigidity. The term pulley is 
 used indifferently to denote either a 
 single sheave or the complete block and 
 i: its sheaves. In machinery, a pulley is a 
 wheel, generally with a nearly flat face, 
 which being placed upon a shaft trans- 
 mits power to or from the different parts 
 of the machinery, or changes the direc- 
 tion of motion by means of a belt or 
 • band which runs over it. 
 
 PULLMAN, n industrial town now 
 forming a part of Chicago. It was 
 founded in 1880 by George M. Pullman, 
 who established here the extensive shops 
 of the Pullman Palace Car Company. 
 
 I The idea of the promotor was to secure 
 for his employees all the advantages 
 which might accrue from congenial sur- 
 roundings. The high rates charged for 
 rent, water, and gas, however, caused 
 dissatisfaction among the residents, and 
 in 1889 they voted in favor of annexa- 
 
 P. E.— 65 
 
 tion to Chicago. Population, at that 
 time, about 12,000. 
 
 PULLMAN, George Mortimer, an 
 American inventor, born in 1831 in 
 Chautauqua co., N. Y. In 1859 he re- 
 moved to Chicago, and in the same year 
 he remodeled two old coaches into sleep- 
 ing cars. Four years later he built the 
 first new sleeping car, “Pioneer,” upon 
 lines of the now famous “Pullman” cars. 
 In 1867 he organized the Pullman Palace 
 Car company, and was its president until 
 his death, in 1897. 
 
 PULLMAN-CAR, a luxuriously fitted 
 up railway carriage, named after its in- 
 ventor, for the use of which an extra 
 charge is made, and which is specially 
 adapted for sleeping in, or as a drawing 
 room or dining car. 
 
 PULMONARY CONSUMPTION. See 
 Consumption. 
 
 PULPIT, the elevated inclosure or 
 desk in a church from which the preacher 
 delivers his discourse. The pulpitum 
 
 Pulpit of Niccola Pisano, in the Baptistery 
 at Pisa, Italy. 
 
 of the ancient Roman theatres «fas that 
 part of the stage where the actors per- 
 formed. 
 
 PULQUE (piil'ka), or Octli, a favorite 
 drink in Mexico and Central America, 
 made from the juice of various species 
 of agave, pleasant and harmless until 
 after protracted fermentation, when it 
 becomes an intoxicant. A kind of 
 brandy is also distilled from it. 
 
 PULSE, leguminous plants or their 
 seeds, including all kinds of beans, peas, 
 lentils, etc. The considerable proportion 
 of nitrogen which they contain makes 
 them very nutritious, and on that ac- 
 count they are much eaten, with or 
 without rice, in India, where the chick- 
 pea (Cicer arietinum) is one of these 
 very largely used. The Hebrew word 
 translated pulse in the authorized ver- 
 sion of the Bible, Daniel i. 12, 16, prob- 
 ably means edible seeds in general. 
 
 PULSE, the throbbing movement of 
 the walls of blood-vessels, from the pass- 
 ing waves of blood due to the beats of 
 the heart. It is limited in healthy coi\- 
 ditions to the arteries. In the newly- 
 born child the healthy pulse registers 
 130 to 140 beats a minute; at two years 
 of age, 105, at ten years about 90, at 
 
 fifteen to twenty about 70; while in old 
 age it may sink to about 60. In females 
 it is somewhat higher than in males, 
 and during certain fevers it sometimes 
 reaches 140 beats per minute. In arteries 
 which lie immediately under the skin 
 it can be felt with the finger, as is the 
 case with the radial artery, the pulsa- 
 tion of which is very perceptible at the 
 wrist. The state of the pulse is therefore 
 an indication of the force and frequency 
 of the action of the heart, and of the 
 fulness of the vessels. 
 
 PULSOM'ETER, an instrument of the 
 pump kind for raising water, especially 
 when that liquid is mixed with solid 
 matter. It acts by the condensation of 
 waste steam sent into a reservoir, the 
 water rushing up into the vacuum fonned 
 by the condensation. From the accom- 
 panying figure it will be seen that it con- 
 
 Pulsometer. 
 
 sists essentially of a double chamber, 
 or two connected chambers, aa, having 
 a ball-valve i at top (which shuts either 
 chamber alternately) and clack-valves 
 ee at bottom. Steam is admitted at k 
 to one of the chambers and presses out 
 the water contained there through f to 
 the pipe d to be carried away. Con- 
 densation then taking place a vacuum is 
 formed, and the ball falls over and closes 
 the opening through which the steam 
 entered, and water flows up through the 
 clack-valves and again fills the chamber. 
 The steam in the meantime is now acting 
 upon the water in the adjoining cham- 
 ber, condensation then taking place 
 there, the ball falls back to that side, 
 and the operations go on alternately, 
 the result being a steady stream of water 
 sucked into one chamber after another, 
 and then forced out and upward by the 
 
 PU'MICE, a substance frequently 
 ejected from volcanoes, of various colors, 
 gray, white, reddish-brown or black; 
 hard, rough, and porous; specifically 
 lighter than water, and resembling the 
 slag produced in aniron furnace. Pumice 
 is really a loose, spongy, froth-like lava. 
 It contains 75 parts silica and 17 alumina 
 with some iron, lime, soda, etc., and the 
 pores being generally in parallel rows, it 
 seems to have a fibrous structure. Pum- 
 ice is of three kinds, glassy, cornrnon, 
 and porphyritic. It is used for polishing 
 ivory, wood, marble, metals, glass, etc.; 
 also for smoothing the surfaces of skins 
 and parchment. . . 
 
 PUMP, a contrivance for raising 
 
PUMPERNICKEL 
 
 PUNCTUATION 
 
 liquids or for removing gases from yes- 
 e«ls. The air-pump is dealt with in a 
 separate article. Though the forms 
 under which the hydraulic pump is con- 
 structed, and the mode in which the 
 power is applied, may be modified in a 
 great variety of ways, there are only 
 four which can be considered as differing 
 from each other in principle. These are 
 the sucking or suction pump, the lift- 
 pump, the force-pump, and the rotary 
 or centrifugal pump. Of these the suc- 
 tion or common household pump is most 
 in use, and for ordinary purposes the 
 
 Suction-pump. 
 
 most convenient. The usual form and 
 construction of this pump are shown 
 in the annexed engraving. A piston a 
 is fitted to work air-tight within a hol- 
 low cylinder or barrel bb; it is moved up 
 and down by a handle connected with 
 the piston-rod, and is provided with a 
 valve e opening upwards. At the bottom 
 of the barrel is another valve f, also 
 opening upward, and which covers the 
 
 e 
 
 Force-pump of steam-engine 
 
 orifice of a tube cc, called the suction- 
 tube, fixed to the bottom of the barrel, 
 and reaching to the bottom of the well 
 from which the water is to be raised. 
 When the piston is drawn up from the 
 bottom of the barrel the air below is 
 rarefied, and the pressure of the external 
 air acting on the surface of the water 
 in the well, causes the water to rise 
 in the suction-tube until the equilib- 
 rium is restored. After a few strokes 
 the water will get into the barrel, the air 
 below the piston having escaped through 
 
 th® piston-valve e. By continuing, the 
 water will get above the piston and be 
 raised along with it to the cistern d, at 
 the top of the barrel, where it is dis- 
 charged by a spout. The lift-pump has 
 also two valves and a piston, both open- 
 ing upward ; but the valve in the cylinder 
 instead of being placed at the bottom of 
 the cylinder is placed in the body of it, 
 and at the height where the water is 
 intended to be delivered. The bottom of 
 the pump is thrust into the well a con- 
 siderable way, and the piston being 
 supposed to be at the bottom, as its 
 valve opens upward there will be no ob- 
 struction to the water rising in the 
 cylinder to its height in the well. When 
 the piston is drawn up its valve will 
 shut, and the water in the cylinder will 
 be lifted up; the valve in the barrel 
 will be opened, and the water will pass 
 through it and cannot return as the 
 valve opens upward; — another stroke 
 of the piston repeats the same process, 
 and in this way the water is raised from 
 the well ; but the height to which it may 
 be raised is not in this as in the suction- 
 pump limited to 32 or 33 feet. The force- 
 pump differs from both of these in hav- 
 ing its piston solid, or without a valve 
 and also in having a side pipe with a 
 valve opening outward, through which 
 the water is forced to any height re- 
 quired, or against any pressure that 
 may oppose it. In such pumps the 
 plunger or solid piston is frequently 
 employed instead of the ordinary piston ; 
 this arrangement is represented in the 
 accompanying figure, which shows a 
 section of the feed-pump of a steam- 
 engine. The plunger a works air-tight 
 through a stuffing-box b at the top of 
 the barrel, and on being raised produces 
 a vacuum in the pump-barrel into, 
 which the water rushes by the pipe c 
 and is discharged, on tne descent of the 
 plunger through the pipe d, the valves 
 e and f serving to intercept the return 
 of the water at each stroke. The side 
 pipe d, however, requires the addition of 
 an air-vessel. “Double-acting” pumps 
 are often employed for household pur- 
 poses. (See Fire-engine.) Centrifugal 
 pumps are universally employed wher- 
 ever the lift is not too great, and the 
 quantity of water is considerable. A 
 wheel, shaped like an ordinary fan, has 
 passages leading from its center to its 
 circumference ; it is made to rotate very 
 rapidly in a casing. Its circumference 
 communicates with a delivery pipe, 
 and its center with a pipe leading to the 
 water which is to be pumped. The rapid 
 revolution of the wheel causes by centrif- 
 ugal action a constant flow of water 
 from center to circumference of the 
 wheel; and in this way the water is 
 sucked up to the center of the wheel, 
 and leaves the circumference by the 
 eduction pipe. 
 
 PUMPERNICKEL, a coarse brown 
 bread made in Westphalia from un- 
 bolted rye. 
 
 PUMPKIN, a climbing plant and its 
 fruit. The pumpkin is originally from 
 India, but is at present cultivated in 
 most parts of Europe, and in America. 
 The fruit is red, and sometimes ac- 
 quires a diameter of 2 feet. There are 
 two varieties of the plant, one with 
 roundish, the other with oblong fruit. 
 
 The fruit is eaten in a cooked state. 
 
 PUNCH (contracted from punchinello) 
 the chief character in a popular comic 
 exhibition performed by puppets, who 
 strangles his child, beats to death Judy 
 his wife, belabors a police-officer, etc. 
 The puppet-show of Punch seems to 
 have Deen first popular in England dur- 
 
 Pumpkin. 
 
 ing the reign of Queen Anne. The hero 
 was sometimes called Punchinello, a 
 semi-anglicized form of the Neapolitan 
 Pulcinello. 
 
 PUNCH, a beverage ; received its name 
 from the Hindu word panch, five, this 
 being the number of its ingredients, 
 arrack, tea, sugar, water, and lime-juice. 
 In a common brew of the beverage its 
 ingredients are rum, brandy, sugar, 
 boiling-water, and lemon-juice. 
 
 PUNCH, a tool worked by pressure 
 or percussion, employed for making 
 apertures, in cutting out shapes from 
 sheets or plates of various materials 
 in impressing dies, etc. Punches are 
 usually made of steel, and are variously 
 shaped at one end for different uses. 
 They are solid for stamping dies, etc., 
 or for perforating holes in metallic 
 plates, and hollow and sharp-edged for 
 cutting out blanks, as for buttons, steel- 
 pens, jewelry, and the like. 
 
 PUNCHEON, a liquid measure of 
 capacity containing from 84 to 120 
 gallons. 
 
 PUNCTUATION, the art of employing 
 signs by which the parts of a writing or 
 discourse are connected or separated as 
 the sense requires, and the elevation, 
 depression, or suspension of the voice 
 indicated. Punctuation serves both to 
 render the meaning intelligible, and to 
 aid the oral delivery. Our present sys- 
 tem of punctuation came very gradually 
 into use after the invention of printing, 
 the Venetian printers, the Manutii 
 contributing materially to its develop- 
 ment. The principal points used in Eng- 
 lish composition are the comma (,), 
 semi-colon (;), colon (;), period oi full 
 stop (.), note of interrogation (?), note 
 of exclamation or admiration (!), dash 
 ( — ), and parenthesis (). The comma 
 marks the smallest grammatical division 
 in a sentence, separating the several 
 members of a series, and the subordinate 
 clauses from the main clause. The semi- 
 colon Indicates a longer pause than the 
 comma, but requires another member 
 or members to complete the sense. The 
 colon denotes a still longer pause, and 
 may be inserted when a member of a 
 sentence is complete in itself, but is 
 followed by some additional illustration 
 of the subject. The period indicates the 
 end of a sentence, and is also used after 
 contracted words, headings, titles of 
 books, etc., and generally after Roman 
 numerals. The note of interrogation is 
 placed at the end of a direct interroga- 
 
 - I 
 
PUNISHMENT 
 
 PURPLE 
 
 tory sentence. The note of exclamation 
 or admiration is placed at the end of 
 auch words or clauses as indicate sur- 
 prise or other emotion. The dash is em- 
 ployed where a sentence breaks off 
 abruptly, and the subject is changed; 
 where the sense is suspended, and is 
 continued after a short interruption; 
 after a series of clauses leading to an 
 important conclusion; and in certain 
 cases to indicate an ellipsis. The paren- 
 thesis incloses a word or phrase intro- 
 duced into the body of a sentence, with 
 which it has no grammatical connection. 
 
 PUNISHMENT, a penalty inflicted on 
 a person for a crime or offense, by the 
 authority to which the offender is sub- 
 ject; a penalty imposed in the enforce- 
 ment or application of law. The punish- 
 ments for criminal offenses now known 
 to the English law, are death by hang- 
 ing, penal servitude, imprisonment with 
 and without hard labor, solitary con- 
 finement, detention in a reformatory 
 school, subjection to police-supervision, 
 and putting under recognizance. 
 
 In the United States, while there are 
 but few agencies for the a.ssistance of 
 discharged prisoners, considerable care 
 is devoted to the treatment and check- 
 ing of juvenile crime. Reformatories 
 have existed since 1825, when the first 
 was established on Randall’s Island 
 within the limits of the city of New 
 York. There are also a number of 
 semi-public schools. The percentage of 
 youths reformed and trained into good 
 citizens has been placed as high as 60, 
 75, even 80 per cent. Parents may in 
 some states contribute to the support 
 of their children in reformatories, but 
 as a rule the inmates are orphans or 
 abandoned children or those whose par- 
 ents are very poor. The best system 
 for training and caring for juvenile 
 offenders probably is that which obtains 
 in Massacnusetts. 
 
 PUNJAB, or PAN JAB (the name 
 means “Five Rivers”), a province of 
 British India, under the administration 
 of a lieutenant-governor, so called be- 
 cause it was the region intersected by 
 the five tributaries of the Indus, the 
 Sutlej, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab, 
 and the Jhelum. The present lieuten- 
 ant-governorship of the Punjab, how- 
 ever, is larger than the Punjab proper, 
 and is bounded on the west by Afghan- 
 istan and Beluchistan; on the north 
 by Kashmir; on the east by the United 
 (N.W.) provinces; and on the south 
 by Sind and Rajputana. The area, 
 exclusive of the connected native 
 states, is 97,209 sq. miles; the pop., 
 according to the census of 1901, 
 20,330,339; inclusive of native states, 
 the area is 133,741 sq. miles, and the 
 pop. 24,754,737. The Punjab has had a 
 rather eventful history from the time of 
 Alexander the Great downward. After 
 being long held by rulers of Afghan or 
 Tartar origin, the Sikhs under Runjit 
 Singh established themselves here early 
 in the 19th century. Latterly the coun- 
 try fell into a very d stracted state ; its 
 Sikh rulers came into warlike contact 
 with the British, and after the second 
 Sikh war in 1849, the country was 
 brought under British adminstiration. 
 
 PUNNAH, . native state of India, in 
 Bundclcund, by the British agency of 
 
 which it is politically 
 formerly very prosperous 
 of its diamond mines. Estimated area, 
 2568 sq. miles; pop. 239,333. — Punnah 
 is the chief town. Pop. 14,676. 
 
 PUNT, an oblong flat-bottomed boat 
 used for fishing and shooting in shallow 
 waters. The most common mode of pro- 
 pulsion is by pushing with a pole against 
 the bottom of the river, etc., a process 
 which is hence called punting. 
 
 PURDUE' UNIVERSITY, a coeduca- 
 tional state institution of higher learn- 
 ing, established in 1869 at Lafayette, 
 Ind., and named for John Purdue, an 
 early benefactor. The university is the 
 Indiana Institute of Technology and 
 embraces six schools : Mechanical engi- 
 neering, civil engineering, electrical 
 engineering, agriculture, science, and 
 pharmacy. Students in each of the 
 schools are required to spend an average 
 of three hours a day in laboratory, shop, 
 or field. It confers thedegreesof bachelor 
 of science and graduate in pharmacy in 
 course, and the following degrees for 
 advanced work: Master of science, me- 
 chanical, electrical, and civil engineer, 
 and analytical chemist. 
 
 PUR'GATIVES, are medicines used 
 for the purpose of producing the evacua- 
 tion of the bowels. The following is a 
 common classification of them : (1) Lax- 
 atives or mild cathartics, employed 
 when the least possible irritation is de- 
 sired, such as manna, sulphur, cassia, 
 castor-oil, tamarinds, prunes, honey, 
 ripe fruit. (2) Saline or cooling laxa- 
 tives, giving rise to more watery evacua- 
 tions than the first group, such as Epsom 
 salts, Glauber’s salt, phosphate of soda, 
 Seidlitz powders, etc. (3) Active cathar- 
 tics, occasionally acrid, frequently tonic 
 and stomachic, such as rheubarb, senna 
 (often in the fonn of black draught), 
 and aloes. (4) Drastic or violent cathar- 
 tics, such as jalap, scammony, gamboge, 
 croton-oil, colocynth, and elaterium, 
 which in large doses act as irritant 
 poisons, and are employed in smaller 
 doses chiefly when the bowels have 
 failed to be moved by milder purgatives. 
 (5) Mercurial purgatives, such as calomel 
 blue pill, and gray powder. Of late 
 years podophyllin, a preparation of the 
 resin of the May-apple, has come much 
 into vogue as a substitute for mercury 
 in its various forms. All the members 
 of this group are usually combined with 
 or followed by other purgatives, blue 
 pill, for instance, being followed by black 
 draught, and podophyllin combined 
 with taraxacum. 
 
 PUR'GATORY, as believed in by the 
 Roman Catholic church, is an inter- 
 mediate state after death in which 
 the souls of the righteous expiate, 
 through temporary suffering, sins com- 
 mitted in this life, and not fully atoned 
 for before death. According to the 
 council of Trent, they are “assisted by 
 the suffrages of the faithful, but espe- 
 cially by the most acceptable sacrifice of 
 the mass,” to be enabled to enjoy the 
 happiness of heaven. Catholics claim 
 that this belief in purgatory is upheld by 
 the general teaching of Scripture with- 
 out being specifically declared in any 
 particular passage ; they also claim that 
 it is in harmony with the faith and prac- 
 tice of the early Christian ages. 
 
 superintended, 
 from the yield 
 
 PURIM, a Jewish festival observed on 
 the 14th and 15th of Adar (MarchL in- 
 stituted to commemorate the preserva- 
 tion of the Jews in Persia from the de- 
 struction threatened them by the 
 schemes of Haman (Esther ix). 
 
 PU'RITANS, a name first .applied to 
 those English Protestants who regarded 
 the reformation in England as incom- 
 plete, and the Anglican church, even of 
 Edward VI., as retaining too much of 
 the discipline, ritual, and ceremonial of 
 the Church of Rome. Many of them, 
 who were driven into exile under Queen 
 Mary, and who returned to England 
 after the accession of Elizabeth, brought 
 back a zealous desire to remodel the 
 Church of England in the spirit of con- 
 tinental Protestantism, especially that 
 of Geneva. In 1572 a presbytery was 
 set up at Wandsworth in Surrey, and 
 before many years Presbyterianism 
 found adherents both among the clergy 
 and the laity. Meanwhile the Brownists, 
 the Independents of later days, whose 
 Congregationalism was as much opposed 
 to Presbyterianism as to Episcopacy, 
 began to be organized and to make some 
 progress. In doctrine these two Puritan 
 parties differed little from each other, 
 or from many Anglicans who remained 
 contented with the Church of England as 
 it was. The hopes with which the acces- 
 sion of James I. inspired the Puritan 
 party in the church were grieviously 
 disappointed when their moderate de- 
 mands for a reform of ritual and a slight 
 modification of episcopal authority were 
 rejected at the Hampton Court con- 
 ference. During his reign the prelates 
 and many of the clergy became less 
 Protestant, while the Puritan element 
 in the church, and out of it', increased in 
 intensity. Nonconformity was pursued 
 by new penal statutes, and numbers of 
 Puritans emigrated to New England. 
 This emigration continued during the 
 reign of Charles I. and the ascendency 
 of Laud. With the downfall of the 
 Anglican system Independency again 
 reared its head in England. The In- 
 dependents now combined with their 
 Congregationalism the desire for a 
 theological latitude, which widened the 
 gulf between them and the Presby- 
 terians. The army became leavened 
 with Independency, and Oliver Crom- 
 well its champion. With his ascendency 
 the influence of Presbyterianism as a 
 power in the state dwindled, and In- 
 dependency became the dominant ele- 
 ment in English Puritanism. After the 
 restoration of Charles II. and of the old 
 Anglicanism, the Presbyterians, In- 
 dependents, and Baptists were the 
 three chief denominations into which 
 Puritanism had split up. Since then 
 Nonconformists or Dissenters has been 
 the term generally used where Puritan- 
 ism would formerly have been employed. 
 
 PUR'NIAH, the northeastern district 
 of the Bhdgalpur division of the lieu- 
 tenant-governorship of Bengal. Rice 
 and indigo are its chief products. Area, 
 4956 sq. miles; pop. 1,944,658. Pur- 
 niah, the chief town, stands on the east 
 bank of the Saurd river. It is an un- 
 healthy place, but does a considerable 
 trade in jute. Pop. 14,600. 
 
 PURPLE, a secondary color com- 
 pounded by the union of the primaries 
 
PURSE-CRAB’ 
 
 PYEMIA 
 
 blue and red. Of all the various kinds in 
 use, the Tyrian dye was anciently 
 the most celebrated. This color was 
 produced from an animal juice found in 
 a shell-fish called murex by the ancients ; 
 and as it was thus obtained only in small 
 quantities, its use was restricted to the 
 great and wealthy. It became the dis- 
 tinctive color of imperialism, and the 
 later emperors of the East forbade its use 
 by subjects. Hence their offspring were 
 called purphyrogeniti, born in the pur- 
 ple. In modern times, and from the red 
 or scarlet hat, cassock, and stockings 
 worn by them, cardinals are sometimes 
 said to have obtained the purple. With 
 the general disuse of the purple obtained 
 from shell-fish, archil and cudbear, 
 yielded by various species of lichens, 
 were employed in the d3'eing of silk and 
 wool ; but they have been superseded 
 by the purples obtained from aniline. 
 For cotton the chief purple dye was fur- 
 nished by madder, but the alizarin to 
 which madder owed its dyeing proper- 
 ties is now prepared from coal-tar. The 
 common shades of purple with which 
 wool is dyed are obtained from logwood 
 with a mordant of alum and tartar. 
 
 PURSE-CRAB, a name for decapod 
 crustaceans allied to the hermit-crabs. 
 A species, the robber-crab, found in the 
 Mauritius and the more eastern islands 
 of the Indian ocean, is one of the largest 
 crustaceans, being sometimes 2 to 3 feet 
 in length. 
 
 PUS, the white or yellowish matter 
 found in abscesses, and formed upon the 
 surfaces of what are termed healthy 
 sores. 
 
 PU'SEY, Edward Bouveri^' D. D., 
 after whom the Tractarian movement 
 in the Church of England became desig- 
 nated Puseyism, was born in 1800. In 
 1833 the Tracts for the Times began to 
 appear, but he was not prominently 
 connected with the Tractarian move- 
 ment until 1835-36, when he contributed 
 
 to the Tracts one on baptism, which 
 excited much attention. He died in 
 1882. Among the more substantial of his 
 works, in addition to his Library of 
 English Fathers and Anglo-Catholic 
 Library, are his Councils of the Church, 
 from the Council of Jerusalem, a.d. 
 51, to the Council of Constantinople, 
 A.D. 381 (1857); Daniel the Prophet, 
 nine lectures (1864); and the Minor 
 Prophets, with a commentary and intro- 
 duction to the several books (1860-67). 
 
 PUSHKAR, town of India, in Ajmere- 
 Merwdra, Rajputdna, the only one in 
 India containing a temple dedicated to 
 Brahma. A great fair in October and 
 November is attended by about 100,000 
 pilgrims. Pop. 5000. 
 
 PUSHKIN, Alexander Serg4yevitch, a 
 famous Russian poet, born at St. Peters- 
 burg, 1799, died 1837. His works have 
 been translated into German, French, 
 and English. 
 
 PUTNAM, Israel, American soldier, 
 was born in Old Salem village (now 
 Danvers), Mass., in 1718. In August, 
 1755, during the French and Indian 
 war, he was commissioned lieutenant 
 by the Connecticut legislature, later in 
 the year became one of Roger’s Rangers, 
 in March, 1756, became captain, saved 
 Fort Edward from being destroyed by 
 fire in the winter of 1757, and in March, 
 
 Israel Putnam. 
 
 1758, became major. In 1775, hearing 
 of the battle of Lexington, he left his 
 plow in the field, and rode to Cambridge 
 in one day, a distance of sixty-eight 
 miles. Returning, he was made brigadier- 
 general by the legislature, organized and 
 drilled a regiment. In 1775 he received 
 his commission from congress as major- 
 general. On the evacuation of Boston 
 in the spring of 1776, Putnam was placed 
 in command of New York. In 1779, one 
 of his outposts, guarded by 150 men 
 and two cannon, was attacked by the 
 British officer Tryon, with 1500 men. 
 Putnam, being closely pursued while on 
 his way with his men to a swamp, is said 
 to have dashed down a steep hill and 
 escaped. Riding to Stamford and col- 
 lecting the militia, he formed a junction 
 with his troops, pursued Tryon in his 
 retreat, and took 50 prisoners. In the 
 summer of 1779 he had command of 
 the troops in the Highlands, and com- 
 pleted the fortifications at West Point, 
 The army going into winter quarters, he 
 returned home, and on starting out 
 again for camp was stricken with paraly- 
 sis, from which he never completely 
 recovered. He died May 19, 1790 . 
 
 PUTNAM, Rufus, American soldier, 
 was born in Sutton, Mass., in 1738. He 
 enlisted as a private soldier for service 
 in the French and Indian war in 1757. 
 He entered the continental army as 
 lieutenant-colonel in May, 1775, and in 
 August, 1776, was appointed chief en- 
 gineer of the army with the rank of 
 colonel. He was given command of a 
 Massachusetts regiment in November, 
 and in 1777 served in the campaign 
 against Burgoyne. He was a member 
 for several terms of the Massachusetts 
 legislature, and during Shay’s rebellion 
 was General Lincoln’s aide. He was one 
 of the judges of the United States court 
 in the northwest territory from 1790 
 
 to 1796, concluded an important treaty 
 with the Indians at Vincennes, Ind., 
 in 1792. In 1812 he organized the first 
 Bible society west of the Alleghanies. 
 He died in 1824. 
 
 PUTNEY, a suburb of London, in the 
 county of Surrey, on the right bank of 
 the Thames opposite Fulham, and 
 within the parliamentary bounds of 
 Wandsworth. The town is about 8 miles 
 above London Bridge by river, and 4^ 
 miles from Hyde Park Corner by road. 
 The headquarters of the English rowing 
 world are at Putney. Pop. 24,139. 
 
 PUTREFACTION, such a decomposi- 
 tion of dead organic matter as is gen- 
 erally accompanied by the evolution of 
 fetid gases, now regarded as due to the 
 agency of bacteria or other organisms 
 floating in tlie atmosphere, which find a 
 nidus in the putrescible matter and 
 grow and multiply in it. The substances 
 in which these animalcules are thus de- 
 veloped are reduced either to much 
 more simple compounds, or to their 
 original separate elements. The putre- 
 faction, or putrefactive fermentation, of 
 animal substances is usually attended 
 by more fetid and noxious exhalations 
 than those arising from vegetable prod- 
 ucts, chiefly through the more abun- 
 dant presence of nitrogen in the former. 
 The formation of ammonia, or of am- 
 monical compounds, is a characteristic 
 of most cases of animal putrefaction, 
 while other combinations of hydrogen 
 are also formed, especially carburetted 
 hydrogen, together with complicated 
 and often highly infectious vapors or 
 gases, in which sulphur and phosphorus 
 are frequently discerned. These putre- 
 factive effluvia are for the most part 
 easily decomposed or rendered innocu- 
 ous by the agency of chlorine. The 
 rapidity of putrefaction and the nature 
 of its products are to a great extent 
 influenced by temperature, moisture, 
 and access of air. A temperature between 
 60° and 80°, a due degree of humidity 
 and free access of air, are the circum- 
 stances under which it proceeds most 
 rapidly. Hence the action of the minute 
 organisms which produce putrefaction 
 can be checked or altogether prevented 
 by a very high, or a very low, tempera- 
 ture, by the exclusion of air, and by the 
 absence of moisture. Antiseptics pre- 
 vent and to some extent arrest the prog- 
 ress of putrefaction. 
 
 PUTTY, a kind of paste or cement 
 compounded of whiting or soft car- 
 bonate of lime and linseed-oil, beaten 
 or kneaded to the consistence of dough. 
 In this state it is used by glaziers for 
 fixing in the squares of glass in window 
 frames, etc., and also by house-painters 
 to stop up holes and cavities in wood- 
 work before painting. 
 
 PUY-DE-DOME (pu-e-de-dQm), a de- 
 partment of Central France ; area, 3070 
 sq. miles; takes its name from a volcanic 
 cone (4805 feet) which overlooks it. The 
 highest point in the department, Puy- 
 de-Sancy, 6188 feet, is the most ele- 
 vated peak of Central France. The in- 
 dustries of the department include 
 paper-making, sugar production, and 
 the manufacture of various textile 
 fabrics. Pop. 544,194. 
 
 PY.ffiMIA (pl-e'mi-a), blood-poison- 
 ing, a dangerous disease resulting from 
 
PYGMALION 
 
 PYRAMUS AND THISBE 
 
 the introduction of decaying animal 
 matter, pus, or other morbid product 
 into the system. Such matter may be 
 introduced through an ulcer, wound, 
 an imperfectly closed vein, or a mucous 
 membrane, as that of the nose. This 
 disease was common after severe opera- 
 tions in crowded hospitals, whose at- 
 mosphere was loaded with purulent or 
 contaminated matter. It has been much 
 checked of late years by the improved 
 ventilation of hospitals, and by the 
 application of antiseptics in the per- 
 formance of surgical operations and the 
 dressing of wounds. 
 
 PYGMA'LION, in Greek mythology, a 
 king of Cyprus, who, having made an 
 ivory image of a maiden, fell in love 
 with his own work, and entreated Venus 
 to endow it with life. His prayer was 
 granted, and the maiden became his 
 wife. 
 
 PYGMY, one of a race of dwarfs, first 
 mentioned by Homer as dwelling on the 
 shores of Ocean, and having to sustain 
 a war against the cranes every spring. 
 Later writers place them mainly in 
 Africa, Aristotle at the sources of the 
 Nile, and in fact there are dwarfish races 
 in the interior of Africa. 
 
 PYLONS, in Egyptian architecture, 
 the name given to powers or masses of 
 
 Pylon— Temple of Edfou, Egypt. 
 
 Propylon at Kamak, Egypt. 
 
 masonry, somewhat resembling trun- 
 cated pyramids, placed one on each side 
 at the entrance of temples, and having 
 
 a very imposing appearance. Behind 
 them in the larger temples there was 
 often a large open court, and in front 
 there might be an avenue with sphinxes 
 on either side. An entrance of which 
 these pylons form part is sometimes 
 called a propylon. See Egypt (Architec- 
 ture). 
 
 PYM, John, English statesman and 
 leader of the popular party during the 
 reigns of James I. and Charles I., was 
 born in Somersetshire 1584; studied at 
 Oxford and became famous as a lawyer. 
 He entered parliament in 1614, and 
 during the reign of James he attained 
 
 John Pym. 
 
 great influence by his opposition to the 
 arbitrary measures of the king. In 
 November, 1643, he was made lieuten- 
 ant-general of ordnance, and in the 
 following month he died, and was buried 
 in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 PYRAMID, in architecture, a colossal 
 structure of masonry having a rectangu- 
 lar base and four triangular sides ter- 
 minating in a point, used by the ancients 
 in various parts of the world for sepul- 
 chres or for religious purposes, especially 
 in Egypt. The largest and most remark- 
 able of the Egyptian pyramids occur in 
 several groups on the west side of the 
 Nile, on the border of the Libyan desert, 
 extending for a distance of about 25 
 miles from north to south, the farthest 
 north being opposite Cairo. They are 
 built chiefly of the hard limestone of the 
 adjacent hills, but large blocks of granite 
 brought from a distance are also used, 
 especially on the outside. The four sides 
 are so placed as to face the four cardinal 
 points. These structures are supposed 
 to date from about 3000 b.c. to 2300 
 B.c. The stones used varied in size, but 
 are mostly large, requiring wonderful 
 mechanical skill to quarry them, trans- 
 port them, and raise and adjust them in 
 their proper places. An almost fabulous 
 number of laborers were engaged in 
 erecting the chief Egyptian pyramids, of 
 which the group of Gizeh, 4 miles s.w of 
 Cairo, in the neighborhood of the ancient 
 Memphis, is the most remarkable. This 
 group consists of nine pyramids, among 
 them the three most celebrated of all, 
 the pyramid of Cheops (Khufu), called 
 the Great Pyramid; of Cephren (Kha- 
 fra) ; and of Mycerinus (Menkauru). 
 According to Herodotus the Great 
 Pyramid took 100,000 men working for 
 ten years to make a causeway 3000 feet 
 long in order to facilitate the transport 
 
 of the stone from the quarries; and the 
 same number of men for twenty years 
 more to complete the pyramid itself. 
 Its base forms a square each side of 
 which was originally 768 feet, though 
 now, by the removal of the coating, only 
 750 feet long, occupying 13 acres. The 
 outer surface forms a series of steps, each 
 of the average height of 3 feet or more. 
 
 The pyramids or Ghlzeh, Egypt. 
 
 When the structure was perfect this step 
 formation was hidden by the coating, 
 which rendered the sides quite smooth, 
 and the apex, where there is now a space 
 of 12 sq. yards, was no doubt originally 
 quite sharp. The height was originally 
 about 480 feet, but is now only 451. The 
 interior, entered 49 feet above the base 
 of the north face, contains several 
 chambers, one of which, called the 
 King’s Chamber, is 34^ feet long, 17 
 wide, and 19 high, and contains a sar- 
 cophagus of red granite. The second 
 pyramid is 690 feet square and 447 feet 
 high. The third pyramid is only 354 feet 
 square and 203 feet high, and is the best 
 constructed of the three. The six smaller 
 pyramids which complete the Gizeh 
 group are of much inferior interest. The 
 pyramids are supposed to have been 
 built by the respective kings as tombs 
 and memorials of themselves; and it is 
 conjectured that they were begun at 
 the beginning of each reign, and that 
 their size corresponded with the length 
 of it. About 350 yards southwest of the 
 Great Pyramid is the celebrated Sphinx. 
 Ruins of pyramids are to be found at 
 Benares in India and in other parts of the 
 East. Certain monuments of the ancient 
 inhabitants, found in Mexico, are also 
 called pyramids. These seem to have 
 been intended to serve as temples, the 
 tops of them being flat and surmounted 
 by a house or chamber in which sacred 
 rites were probably performed. The 
 largest and perhaps the oldest of them is 
 that of Cholula, which is said to have 
 a base of 1770 feet and a height of 177 
 feet. 
 
 PYR'AMUS AND THIS'BE, a pair of 
 devoted lovers, who, as their story is 
 told by Ovid (Met. iv. 55-165), resided 
 in Babylon, and being prevented by 
 their parents from meeting openly, were 
 in the habit of secretly conversing 
 through an opening of the wall, as their 
 houses adjoined. They agreed one day 
 to meet at the tomb of Ninus, when 
 Thisbe, who was the first at the rendez- 
 vous, was surprised by a lioness and 
 took to flight. In her haste she dropped 
 her garment, which the lioness seizing 
 
PYKENEES 
 
 PYTHIAS 
 
 covered with blood, having immediately 
 before killed an ox. Pyramus appearing 
 on the scene, and concluding from the 
 blood-besmeared robe that Thisbe was 
 dead, killed himself. Thisbe returning 
 soon afterward, and finding the body 
 of her lover, also killed herself. The 
 story was very popular in the time of 
 Shakespeare, who made it the subject 
 of the burlesque interlude in A Mid- 
 summer Night’s Dream. 
 
 PYRENEES', a lofty mountain range, 
 the crest of the main chain of which 
 forms the boundary between France 
 and Spain. It abuts with one extremity 
 on the Mediterranean, and with the other 
 on the Atlantic. Its length, from Cape 
 Creux on the Gulf of Lyons, to Fontara- 
 bia, on the bay of Biscay, is about 280 
 miles, and its greatest breadth little 
 more than 50 miles. It consists of two 
 lines, which form parallel ridges about 
 20 miles apart from each other, except 
 near the center, towards which the 
 range rises both from the east and west. 
 The descent on the south side is much 
 more abrupt than on the north. Its 
 loftiest summits are near its center, 
 where its culminating point, Maladetta, 
 or Pic de N4thou, reaches a height of 
 11,424 feet. The principal passes in the 
 Pyrenees, formed by the meeting of 
 valleys from opposite sides of the axis, 
 take in the east part of the chain the 
 name of Cols, and toward the center 
 that of Ports. Only four of these are con- 
 veniently practicable for carriages. In 
 1885 the French and Spanish govern- 
 ments agreed to the construction of two 
 railways, of which the tunnels perfora- 
 ting the Pyrenees were to be made at 
 the cost of both countries. In the 
 Pyrenees is to be found some of the 
 finest scenery in France. The climate, 
 genial and warm, banishes perpetual 
 snow to 1300 feet higher than the snow- 
 line of the Alps. The French Pyrenees 
 abound in mineral springs, in connection 
 with which are some of the gayest water- 
 ing-places in Europe, chief among them 
 BagnSres de Luchon. Barege is in a 
 dreary gorge, but its waters are cele- 
 brated for their efficacy. 
 
 PYRENEES (pe-ra-na), the French 
 name of the Pyrenees, giving name to 
 three French departments. — Basses- 
 Pyr4n4es (bas-pe-ra-na), is a department 
 of Southwestern France, at the angle 
 of the Bay of Biscay. Its industry is 
 mainly agricultural. The surface is 
 diversified, there is much fine scenery, 
 and the forests are extensive and valua- 
 ble. Biarritz, its chief watering-place, 
 is well known as a health resort, espe- 
 cially in winter. Pau is the capital of 
 the department. Area, 2943 sq. miles; 
 pop. 432,999. — Hautes-Pyr4n4es (6t-pe- 
 ra-na) is a department of Southern 
 France, bounded partly by Spain, partly 
 by Basses-Pyren4es) and other depart- 
 ments. To it in the south belong some 
 of the loftiest summits of the Pyrenees. 
 The finest scenery and the mineral 
 springs of the department attract many 
 visitors. Area, 1749 sq. miles; pop. 
 234,825. Tarbes is the capital. — Pyrdndes- 
 Orientales (pe-ra-na-zo-re-an-tal), a de- 
 partment of Southern France, border- 
 ing on the Mediterranean and the 
 Spanish frontier. Its chief wealth lies in 
 jte wines, of which the well-known 
 
 Roussillon is one. The department is 
 also very rich in iron. Pergipnan is the 
 capital. Area, 1592 sq. miles; pop. 
 211,187. 
 
 PYRHE'LIOMETER, an instrument 
 devised by M. Pouillet for measuring the 
 intensity of the heat of the sun. 
 
 PYRITES (pi-rl'tez), a name given in 
 mineralogy tovarious metallic sulphides, 
 chiefly to the sulphides of copper and 
 iron. Pyrites is largely used as a source 
 of sulphur in the manufacture of sul- 
 phuric acid. 
 
 PYROGALLIC ACID, an acid ob- 
 tained by the dry distillation of gallic 
 acid (which see). It forms crystals that 
 have neither smell nor color, is readily 
 soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, has 
 a neutral feaction, readily absorbs 
 oxygen in an alkaline solution, and be- 
 comes of a dark brown color. It is used 
 in photography, and sometimes as a 
 hair-dye. 
 
 PYROM'ETER, any instrument, the 
 object of which is to measure all gradua- 
 tions of temperature above those in- 
 dicated by the mercurial thermometer. 
 
 PYR'OSCOPE , an instrument for meas- 
 uring the intensity of heat radiating 
 from a hot body, or the frigorific in- 
 fluence of a cold body. 
 
 PY'ROTECHNY, the science of mak- 
 ing and using artificial fire-works, the 
 chief ingredients of which are nitre, 
 sulphur, and charcoal. Iron filings yield 
 bright red and white sparks. Steel 
 filings and cast-iron borings contain 
 carbon, and give a more brilliant fire 
 with wavy radiations. Copper filings 
 give flame a greenish tint, those of zinc 
 a fine blue color; the sulphurate of anti- 
 mony gives a less greenish blue than 
 zinc, but with much smoke; amber, 
 resin, and common salt give a yellow 
 fire. Lampblack produces a very red 
 color with gunpowder, and a pink with 
 niter in excess. Verdigris imparts a pale 
 green, sulphate of copper and sal- 
 ammoniac a palm-tree green. Lycopo- 
 dium, used also in the manufacture of 
 stage-lighting, burns with a rose color 
 and a magnificent flame. See Fire-works. 
 
 PYROX'YLINE, a term embracing 
 gun-cotton and all other explosive sub- 
 stances obtained by immersing vegetable 
 fiber in nitric or nitro-sulphuric acid, 
 and then suffering it to dry. These sub- 
 stances are nitro-derivatives of cellulose. 
 
 PYRRHIC DANCE, an ancient Grecian 
 warlike dance, which consisted chiefly 
 in such an adroit and nimble turning 
 of the body as represented an attempt 
 to avoid the strokes of an enemy in 
 battle, and the motions necessary to 
 perform it were looked upon as a kind of 
 training for war. 
 
 PYRRHO, a Grecian philosopher of 
 Elis, founder of the Pyrrhonian or scep- 
 tical school, flourished about 340 b.c. 
 A disposition to doubt is often called, 
 from this philosopher, Pyrrhonism. 
 
 PYRRHUS, King of Epirus, one of the 
 most illustrious generals of antiquity, 
 was born about 318 B.c. He defeated 
 the Romans in two battles, but with 
 severe loss to himself ; then passed over 
 into Sicily, returned to Italy again, and 
 was defeated at Beneventum 275 n.c. 
 He now retired to Epirus, took part in 
 the Greek troubles, and was killed at 
 Argos, B.c. 272. 
 
 PYTHAG'ORAS, a Grecian philoso- 
 pher, supposed to have been born about 
 586 B.c. at Samos. He went to Scyros, 
 and was a scholar of Pherecydes till the 
 death of the latter; others make him also 
 a scholar of Thales and Anaximander. 
 He is said to have gathered knowledge 
 from the philosophers or learned men 
 of Phoenicia, Syria, Egypt, Babylon, 
 India, etc., but eventually settled at the 
 Greek city of Crotona in Lower Italy, 
 probably about 529 b.c. His abilities 
 and character led great numbers, chiefly 
 of the noble and wealthy classes, to 
 adopt his views. Three hundred of 
 these were formed into a select fraternity 
 or order, and were bound by vow to 
 Pythagoras and each other, for the pur- 
 pose of cultivating the rites and observ- 
 ances enjoined by their master, and 
 studying his philosophy. They thus 
 formed at once a philosophical school 
 and a religious order. The political in- 
 fluence of this body became very con- 
 siderable, and was exerted in the interest 
 of the aristocratic party. The demo- 
 cratic party strenuously opposed the 
 growing power of the order, and their 
 enmity caused Pythagoras to retire to 
 Metapontum, where he died about 
 506 B.c. His public instruction con- 
 sisted of practical discourses in which 
 he recommended virtue and dissuaded 
 from vice, with a particular reference to 
 the various relations of mankind, as 
 those of husbands and wives, parents 
 and children, citizens and magistrates, 
 etc. His disciples were required to prac- 
 tice the greatest purity and simplicity 
 of manners. He imposed upon them, 
 it is said, a silence of from two to five 
 years, according to circumstances. He 
 alone who had passed through the ap- 
 pointed series of trials was allowed to 
 hear the word of the master in his im- 
 mediate presence. To the initiated the 
 doctrines were not delivered, as to 
 others, under the mask of images and 
 s3mibols, but unveiled. Pythagoras left 
 no writings; the Golden Sentences ex- 
 tant under his name having been com- 
 posed or compiled by later hands. 
 
 PYTHIAN GAMES, one of the four 
 great Grecian games, instituted in honor 
 of Apollo, and celebrated at Delphi. Un- 
 til about 586 b.c. they were under the 
 management of the Delphians, and took 
 place every eighth year; but after that 
 date they were conducted by the 
 Amphictyons, and celebrated every 
 fourth year, prizes being given for 
 flute-playing, athletic sports, and horse 
 and chariot racing. Eventually con- 
 tests in tragedy, painting, sculpture, 
 etc., were added. At first prizes of silver 
 or gold were awarded, but afterward 
 the simple laurel wreath and palm- 
 branch were substituted. Tney con- 
 tinued to be celebrated until the end of 
 the 4th century of our era. 
 
 PYTHIAS, Knights of, a fraternal and 
 beneficial order founded in Washington, 
 D. C., in 1864. Its objects are the prac- 
 tice of friendship, benevolence and 
 charity toward the members. Its most 
 binding obligation is complete and abso- 
 lute secrecy. The first lodge instituted 
 was Washington lodge. In 1868 a new 
 constitution was adopted at Washington 
 under which was organized, as the cen- 
 tral governing body, the Supreme Lodge 
 
PYTHONESS 
 
 QUAIL 
 
 Knights of Pythias of the World. Its 
 roll of membership exceeds 600,000. The 
 uniform rank is another division of the 
 order. It is under the control of the 
 supreme lodge also, but is directed by 
 an officer whose title is major-general. 
 The members of this grade are on the 
 same plane with the other members, 
 but only those members who have re- 
 ceived the rank of knight are eligible 
 for membership. Pythian knighthood 
 confers three ranks or degrees, viz.: 
 The initiatory rank of “page;” the 
 armorial rank of “esquire;” and the 
 chivalric rank of “knight.” The motto 
 of the order is: “Be generous, brave, and 
 true.” 
 
 PYTHON, a genus and family of ser- 
 pents allied to tlie family Boidee or Boas. 
 They are not venomous, but kill their 
 prey by compression. The pythons be- 
 long exclusively to the Old World, and 
 are of enormous size, sometimes attain- 
 ing a length of 30 feet. They are found 
 in India and in the islands of the Eastern 
 Archipelago, in Africa and in Australia. 
 A rudimentary pelvis and traces of 
 hinder limbs exist in the pythons, these 
 structures terminating externally in a 
 kind of hooked claw. The head exceeds 
 
 Q, the seventeenth letter in the Eng- 
 lish alphabet, a consonant having the 
 same sound as k or hard c. It is a super- 
 fluous letter in English, as the combina- 
 tion qu, in which it always occurs, could 
 be equally well expressed by kw or k 
 alone when the u is silent. It did not 
 occur in the Anglo-Saxon alphabet, the 
 sound qu in Anglo-Saxon words being 
 regularly written cw or cu, but was bor- 
 rowed from the French-Latin alphabet. 
 
 QUADRAN'GLE, in geometry, a quad- 
 rilateral figure; a plane figure having 
 four sides, and consequently four angles. 
 In ordinary language it is a square or 
 quadrangular court surrounded by 
 buildings, as often seen in the buildings 
 of a college, school, or the like. 
 
 QUAD'RANT, an instrument for meas- 
 uring angular altitudes, variously con- 
 structed and mounted for diffe^nt 
 specific uses in astronomjq navigation, 
 surveying, etc., consisting originally of 
 a graduated arc of 90°, with an index 
 or vernier, and either plain or telescopic 
 sights, along with a plumb-line or spirit- 
 level for fixing the vertical or horizontal 
 direction. Its principle and application 
 is the same as that of the sextant, by 
 which it is superseded. See Sextant. 
 
 QUADRILLE', a dance of French 
 origin, which consists generally of five 
 consecutive figures or movements, 
 danced by four sets of couples, each 
 forming the side of a square. 
 
 QUADRU'MANA (“four-handed”), the 
 name applied by Cuvier and others to 
 denote the order of mammalia repre- 
 sented by the lemurs, monkeys, and 
 apes, from the fact that these forms 
 agree in possessing a great toe so con- 
 structed as to be capable of opposing the 
 other digits of the feet, instead of being 
 placed parallel with the other toes, thus 
 forming a kind of “hand” adapted for 
 supporting the foot on the ground. 
 
 the neck in thickness, and the mouth is 
 extremely large. Aided by their pre- 
 
 , t> 
 
 Python. 
 
 hensile tails and rudimentary hinder 
 limbs, the pythons suspend themselves 
 
 Q 
 
 QUADRUPED, the name popularly 
 applied to those higher vertebrate ani- 
 mals which possess four developed limbs. 
 The name is usually restricted to four- 
 footed mammals. 
 
 QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE, an al- 
 liance, so called from the number of the 
 contracting parties, concluded in 1718 
 between Great Britain, France, and 
 Austria, and acceded to by Holland in 
 1719, for the maintenance of the Peace 
 of Utrecht. The occasion of the alliance 
 was the seizure by Spain of Sardinia in 
 1717, and Sicily in 1718, both of which 
 she was forced to give up. 
 
 QU.®STOR, the name of certain mag- 
 istrates of ancient Rome whose chief 
 office was the management of the public 
 treasure, being receivers of taxes, trib- 
 utes, etc. 
 
 QUAGGA, a species of the horse genus, 
 nearly allied to the zebra, and formerly 
 found on the plains of Southern Africa. 
 Striped liked the zebra, it yet possessed 
 no bands on the limbs; of a dark or 
 blackish-brown on the head, neck, and 
 shoulders, the back and hind quarters 
 were of a lighter brown, while the croup 
 was of a russet gray. The under parts of 
 the body were white, the upper parts of 
 the legs and tail being marked by whitish 
 bars. The quagga was of smaller size 
 than the zebra, and in general conforma- 
 tion bore a closer resemblance to the 
 horse. Gregarious in habits, the quagga 
 is said to have mingled indiscriminately 
 with the zebra herds. Its food consisted 
 of grasses and mimosa leaves. It is now 
 said to be absolutely extinct. The 
 animal to which the name quagga is now 
 applied is Burchell’s zebra. 
 
 QUAIL, a genus of rasorial birds, in- 
 cluded in the family of the partridges, 
 to which they are nearly allied, but from 
 which they differ in being smaller, in 
 having a relatively shorter tail, no red 
 
 from the branches of trees and lie in 
 wait near water for animals which come 
 to drink. The genus python contains 
 various species, the best known of which 
 is the West African python, common in 
 menageries. The female python hatches 
 her eggs by the heat of her body. 
 
 PY'THONESS, the priestess of Apollo 
 at his temple at Delphi who gave oracular 
 answers. See Delphi. 
 
 PYX (Greek, pyxis, a box), a covered 
 vessel used in the Roman Catholic 
 church to contain the consecrated host. 
 In ancient times, although generally 
 rectangular in shape, it sometimes had 
 the form of a dove, and was suspended 
 above the altar. It is now cylindrical, 
 cup or bell shaped, with a cross-sur- 
 mounted cover, and is frequently 
 delicately chased and inlaid. 
 
 PYX, Trial of the, the final trial by 
 weight and assay of the gold and silver 
 coins of the United Kingdom, prior to 
 their issue from the mint, a certain num- 
 ber being taken and tested by way of 
 sample of the whole. The trial takes 
 place periodically by a jury of gold- 
 smiths summoned by the lord-chancel- 
 lor, and constitutes a public attestation 
 of the standard purity of the coin. 
 
 space above the eye, longer wings, and 
 no spur on the legs. The common quail 
 is a migratory bird, and is found in every 
 country of Europe, and in many parts 
 of Asia and Africa. It is about 8 inches 
 in length. The color of the upper parts 
 is brownish with lighter and darker 
 markings, of the under parts yellowish. 
 The quail is very pugnacious, and in 
 some places quail fights are a form of 
 amusement, as was the case also in 
 ancient times. Its flesh is deemed ex- 
 cellent food, and large numbers are 
 brought alive and dead from the conti- 
 
 Bob-whlte, or common quail of America. 
 
 nent to the British markets. In Britain 
 these birds arrive early in May, and de- 
 part southward in October. There are 
 several other species, in appearance and 
 habits not greatly, differing from the 
 common quail, as the Coromandel quail, 
 the Australian quail, the white throated 
 quail, the Chinese quail, an elegant 
 little species measuring only 4 inches in 
 length, etc. The name of quail is also 
 given to some birds of other genera, as 
 the Virginia or Maryland quail, and the 
 Californian or crested quail. The Vir- 
 ginian quail is common throughout 
 
QUAlffinS 
 
 QUARTZ 
 
 North America, and extends as far south 
 as Honduras. It is rather larger than 
 the European quail. The flesh is very 
 white and tender, and is unequalled in 
 delicacy by any other member of its 
 order in America. 
 
 QUAKERS, a society of Christians 
 which took its rise in England about 
 the middle of the 17th century. George 
 Fox, a native of Drayton, in Leicester- 
 shire, was the first to teach the religious 
 views which distinguish the society. 
 He commenced his ministerial labors in 
 1647, and immediately fell under per- 
 secution. But persecution, as usual, 
 enlisted the sympathies of many in his 
 cause. 'After making multitudes of con- 
 verts he organized them into a church, 
 which became, although not until after 
 severe persecution, one of the recognized 
 sects of Christianity. Among the other 
 eminent members of the society in its 
 early days we may mention Wiiibim 
 Penn, Robert Barclay, George White- 
 head, Stephen Crisp, Isaac Pennington, 
 John Crook, Thomas Story, etc. The 
 early Quakers were marked as a peculiar 
 people by their testimonies against 
 oaths, a paid ministry, and tithes ; their 
 use of the singular pronouns when ad- 
 dressing only one person; their refusal 
 to take off the hat as a compliment to 
 men; the plainness of their apparel; and 
 their disuse of the ordinary names of the 
 months and days. The name Quakers 
 was given to them in derision, and 
 though they accepted the name they 
 ^all themselves by that of Friends. One 
 of the brighest chapters in the annals of 
 Quakerism is that relating to the found- 
 ing of the colony of Pennsylvania. (See 
 Penn, William, Pennsylvania.) 
 
 The society, or the orthodox section 
 of it, believes that, under the gospel 
 dispensation, all wars and fightings are 
 strictly forbidden; the positive injunc- 
 tion of Christ, “Love your enemies,” 
 etc., entirely precluding the indulgence 
 of those passions from which only such 
 contests can arise. They also believe 
 that the express command, “Swear not 
 at all,” prohibits the Christian from the 
 use of judicial as well as other oaths. 
 In like manner, following the spirit of 
 the Scriptures, they believe that a special 
 call is necessary to constitute a true 
 minister of the gospel, that the faithful 
 minister should not preach for a pecuni- 
 ary reward, that the essential baptism 
 is of the Holy Ghost, not by water, and 
 that the Lord’s supper is also entirely of 
 a spiritual nature. They therefore re- 
 nounce both these sacraments so far as 
 the ordinary outward forms are con- 
 cerned. As to the cardinal doctrines of 
 Christianity, the incarnation, crucifix- 
 ion, resurrection, redemption through 
 Christ’s death, justification, etc., their 
 beliefs are similar to those of orthodox 
 Christians generally. The Quakers were 
 one of the first sects to allow women to 
 teach publicly. As early as 1727 they 
 censured the traffic in slaves, and the 
 efforts of the society had a great in- 
 fluence in bringing about their emanci- 
 pation. They object to balls, gaming- 
 places, horse-races, theaters, and music ; 
 also to the reading of plays, romances, 
 and novels; and enjoin plainness of dress 
 and the avoidance of ornaments. 
 
 The society is governed by its own ' 
 
 code of discipline, which is enacted and 
 supported by meetings of four degrees 
 for discipline — namely, preparative, 
 monthly, quarterly, and yearly meet- 
 ings. The preparative digest and prepare 
 the business for the monthly meetings, 
 in which the executive power is prin- 
 cipally lodged, subject, however, to the 
 revision and control of the quarterly 
 meetings, which are again subject to the 
 supervision and direction of the yearly 
 meetings. There are about 60,000 mem- 
 bers and adherents in Britain, about 
 95,000 in the United States and Can- 
 ada, besides small numbers in other 
 countries. 
 
 QUANTITY, that property of any- 
 thing, in virtue of which it is capable of 
 being measured, increased, or dimin- 
 ished, relating to bulk, weight, or num- 
 ber. In mathematics a quantity is any- 
 thing to which mathematical processes 
 are applicable. In grammar it signifies 
 the measure of a syllable, or the time in 
 which it is pronounced — the metrical 
 value of syllables as regards length or 
 weight in pronunciation. In Latin and 
 Greek poetry quantity and not accent 
 regulates the measure. 
 
 QUAR'ANTINE, the period (originally 
 forty days) during which a ship coming 
 from a port suspected of contagion, or 
 having a contagious sickness on board, 
 is forbidden intercourse with the place 
 at which she arrives. This form of 
 quarantine is now confined to foreign 
 countries where cholera, yellow fever, 
 etc., have to be guarded against. In 
 Britain quarantine is altogether abol- 
 ished. If there be evidence or suspicion 
 of infectious disease on board a vessel 
 arriving in a British port, the customs- 
 officers report the same to the port 
 sanitary authorities, who have power 
 to deal with cases under the public 
 health acts. Quarantine was originally 
 introduced at Venice as a measure of 
 proection against plague or leprosy 
 about the middle of the 14th century, 
 Venice, then the chief trading center of 
 the Mediterranean, being especially 
 liable to contagion through vessels com- 
 ing from Eastern ports. A lazaretto was 
 early erected here in connection with 
 the quarantine restrictions. In the Unit- 
 ed States it is a misdemeanor punishable 
 by a fine or imprisonment, or both, for 
 the master, pilot, or owner of any ves- 
 sel entering a port of the United States 
 in violation of the quarantine law passed 
 in 1888, or regulations framed under it. 
 
 QUARREL, a bolt or dart to be shot 
 from a cross-bow, or thrown from a 
 catapult, especially one with a square 
 head and pyramidal point. 
 
 QUARRY, an open excavation made 
 for obtaining stone, such as granite, 
 marble, sandstone, limestone, and slates. 
 Stones suitable for important building 
 purposes are usually found at a good 
 distance below the surface. In the case 
 of unstratified rocks, such as granite, 
 whinstone, etc., the stone is most fre- 
 quently detached from the mass by 
 blasting, a process by which much valu- 
 able stone is wasted, and a different 
 method is employed whenever it is found 
 possible. This is frequently the case with 
 some stratified rocks, such as sandstone, 
 from which blocks are separated by 
 hand-tools alone. Small holes a few 
 
 inches asunder are cut along a certain 
 length of rock, into which steel wedges 
 are inserted. These are driven in by 
 heavy hammers until the stratum is cut 
 through. The large blocks necessary for 
 monumental purposes are generally 
 obtained in this way, and before they 
 leave the quarry they are usually re- 
 duced as nearly as possible to a rectangu- 
 lar form. 
 
 QUART, an English measure of capac- 
 ity, being the fourth part of a gallon, or 
 8 gills. 
 
 QUARTER-DECK, the upper deck, 
 or aftermost part of the upper deck, of a 
 vessel, extending from the main-mast 
 to the stern, or to the poop (when there 
 is one). In ships of war it is especially 
 set apart for the officers. 
 
 QUARTERING, in heraldry, is divid- 
 ing a coat into four or more quarters or 
 quarterings, by perpendicular and hori- 
 zontal lines, etc. See Heraldry. 
 
 QUARTER-MASTER, in the army, 
 an officer who attends to the quarters 
 for the soldiers, their provisions, fuel, 
 forage, etc. There is a quarter-master 
 attached to every regiment, battalion, 
 etc., who generally holds the relative 
 rank of lieutenant. A quarter-master in 
 the navy is a petty officer appointed by 
 the captain, who, besides having charge 
 of the stowage of ballast, and provisions 
 coiling of ropes, etc., attends to the 
 steering of the ship. 
 
 QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL, a 
 staff officer of high rank in the army, 
 whose department is charged vdth all 
 orders relating to the marching, em- 
 barking, disembarking, billeting, quar- 
 tering, and cantoning of troops, encamp- 
 ments and camp equipage. The quarter- 
 master-general is attached to a whole 
 army under a commander-in-chief, and 
 generally holds the rank of major-general 
 while to every brigade is attached a 
 deputy-assistant quarter-master-general. 
 
 QUARTERN, a term sometimes used 
 to designate the fourth of a peck, or of a 
 stone; as the quartern-loaf. In liquid 
 measure it is the fourth part of a pint. 
 
 QUARTET', or QUARTETTE', a musi- 
 cal composition for four instruments, 
 generally stringed instruments (that is, 
 two violins, one viola or tenor violin, 
 and one violoncello) ; also a composition 
 for four voices, with or without accom- 
 paniment. 
 
 QUARTO (4to), a book of the size of 
 the fourth of a sheet; a size made by 
 twice folding a sheet, which then makes 
 four leaves. 
 
 QUARTZ, the name given to numer- 
 ous varieties of the native oxide of silicon, 
 called also silicic acid. Quartz embraces 
 a large number of varieties. It occurs 
 both crystalized and massive, and in 
 both states is most abundantly diffused 
 throughout nature, and is especially 
 one of the constituents of granite and 
 the older rocks. 'VMien crystalized it 
 generally occurs in hexagonal prisms, 
 terminated by hexagonal pyramids. It 
 scratches glass readily, gives fire with 
 steel, becomes positively electrical by 
 friction, and two pieces when rubbed to- 
 gether become luminous in the dark. 
 The colors are various, as white or milky, 
 gray, reddish, yellowish or brownish, 
 purple, blue, green. Quartz veins are 
 often found in metamorphic rocks, and 
 
QUATREFOIL 
 
 QUEEN 
 
 frequently contain rich deposits of gold. 
 The principal varieties of quartz known 
 by distinct names are the following: 
 1, rock-crystal; 2, smoky quartz; 3, 
 yellow quartz; 4, amethyst; 5, siderite 
 or blue quartz; 6, rose quartz; 7, milky 
 quartz; 8, irised quartz; 9, common 
 quartz; 10, fat (greasy) quartz; 11, 
 flint; 12, hornstone; 13, Lydian stone; 
 14, float stone (swimming stone); 15, 
 fibrous quartz; 16, radiating quartz; 17, 
 chalcedony; 18, carnelian; 19, chryso- 
 prase; 20, agate. The name'rock-crystal 
 is applied to transparent and colorless 
 crystals. Smoky quartz consists of 
 crystals and crystalline masses which 
 are translucent and of a brown color. 
 Yellow quartz, sometimes called Bo- 
 hemian or Scottish topaz, is transparent, 
 and of various shades of yellow. Ame- 
 thyst is of every shade of violet, and 
 nearly transparent. Siderite is of an 
 azure-blue color, and never in regular 
 crystals. Rose quartz is of a rose-red 
 color. Milky quartz is massive, trans- 
 lucent, and of a milk-white color. Irised 
 quartz exhibits the colors of the rainbow. 
 Fat or greasy quartz has the appearance 
 of having been immersed in oil. Flint 
 has a more compact texture than com- 
 mon quartz, is dull, only translucent on 
 the edges, of a brownish color, and breaks 
 with a conchoidal fracture. Hornstone 
 resembles flint, but its conchoidal frac- 
 ture is less distinct. Lydian stone differs 
 from flint chiefly in having a darker 
 color, less translucency, and a fracture 
 somewhat slaty; when black it is 
 often called basanite. Floatstone con- 
 cists of a delicate tissue of minute 
 crystals, visible only under a powerful 
 magnifier. Owing to the cavities it con- 
 tains it will sometimes float on water. 
 Fibrous quartz consists of those varieties 
 which are in distinct parallel concre- 
 tions. Radiating quartz is like fibrous 
 quartz, except that the fibers diverge 
 from a common center, and resemble the 
 radii of a circle, instead of being parallel. 
 Chalcedony includes those varieties of 
 radiating quartz where the thickness of 
 the individuals becomes so much dimin- 
 ished as to render them nearly or alto- 
 gether impalpable. Carnelian differs 
 from chalcedony merely in having a 
 blood-red color. Chrysoprase also re- 
 sembles chalcedony in composition, ex- 
 cept that it is granular instead of 
 fibrous; its color is apple-green. Agate 
 implies the occurrence of two or more 
 of the above varieties existing together 
 in intimate union. Cat’s eye, avanturine, 
 prase, plasma, heliotrope, Compostella 
 hyacinth, jasper (red, brown, striped, 
 and porcelain), jasper agate. Mocha stone, 
 Venushair agate, etc., formerly in- 
 cluded under quartz, are only mixtures 
 of this mineral with other substances. 
 Several varieties of quartz are of im- 
 portant use in the arts and manufactures. 
 The ancients regarded rock-crystal as 
 petrified water, and made use of it for 
 the fabrication of vases. At present it is 
 employed not only for cups, urns, chan- 
 deliers, etc., but for seals, spectacle- 
 glasses, and optical instruments. Quartz 
 enters into the composition of glass, both 
 white and colored. In the manufacture 
 of porcelain it is added in the state of an 
 impalpable powder, and forms part 
 of the paste; it is also used in other 
 
 kinds of pottery. Quartz is used as a 
 fluid in the melting of several kinds of 
 ores, particularly those of copper, and 
 in other metallurgical processes. Touch- 
 stone is a hard velvety-black variety of 
 Lydian stone. 
 
 QUATREFOIL (kwa't6r-foil), in archi- 
 tecture, an opening or a panel divided by 
 cusps or foliations into four leaves, or 
 more correctly the leaf-shaped figure 
 formed by the cusps. It is an ornament 
 which has been supposed to represent 
 the four leaves of a cruciform flower. 
 
 Quatrefoils. 
 
 and is common in the tracery of Gothic 
 windows. Bands of small quatrefoils 
 are much used as ornaments in the per- 
 pendicular Gothic style, and sometimes 
 in the decorated. The same name is also 
 given to flowers and leaves of similar 
 forms carved as ornaments on mould- 
 ings, etc. 
 
 QUAVER, a note and measure of time 
 in music, equal to lialf a crotchet or the 
 eighth of a semibreve. See Music. 
 
 QUAY (ke), a landing-place substan- 
 tially built along a line of coast or a river 
 bank, or round a harbor, and having 
 posts and rings to which vessels may be 
 moored, frequently also cranes and 
 storehouses for the convenience of mer- 
 chant ships. 
 
 QUAY (kwa), Matthew Stanley, Ameri- 
 can politician, born in Dillsburg, York 
 CO., Pa., in 1833. During the civil war 
 he was assistant commissary-general of 
 the state, and military secretary to the 
 governor. He was a member of the legis- 
 lature from 1865 to 1867; secretary of 
 state for Pennsylvania from 1872 to 
 1878, recorder of Philadelphia from 
 1878 to 1879, again secretary of state 
 from 1879 to 1882, elected state treas- 
 urer in 1885, and was chosen United 
 States senator in 1887. In 1888 he was 
 chairman of the executive committee of 
 the republican national committee. He 
 was re-elected to the senate in 1893, but 
 failed to succeed himself in 1899, because 
 of a deadlock which lasted throughout 
 the session of the legislature. He was 
 appointed senator by the governor, but 
 the senate refused to recognize the ap- 
 pointment. He was, however, nominated 
 to succeed himself by the republican 
 state convention, and in 1901 was re- 
 elected for the term to expire in 1905. 
 He died in 1904. 
 
 QUEBEC', a city and shipping port of 
 the Dominion of Canada, capital of the 
 province of the same name, situated on a 
 promontory near the confluence of the 
 St. Charles with the St. Lawrence, ter- 
 minating abruptly in Cape Diamond, 
 which has a height of 333 feet, and on 
 the banks of both streams. It is about 
 400 miles from the mouth of the St. 
 Lawrence and 140 miles northeast of 
 Montreal, to which the river is navigable 
 for large vessels. On the Plains of Abra- 
 ham, west of the upper town, a column 
 40 feet high has been erected to the 
 memory of General Wolfe; while in the 
 upper town there is a handsome obelisk, 
 65 feet high, to the joijiL .memory of the 
 
 two commanders, Wolfe and"MontcaIm, 
 who both fell at the taking of Quebec. 
 Ship-building is the chief industry. 
 There are also manufactures of iron- 
 castings, machinery, cutlery, nails, 
 leather, paper, india-rubber goods, rope, 
 tobacco, beetroot-sugar, etc. Quebec is 
 the chief seat of the Canadian trade in 
 timber, immense quantities of which are 
 here accumulated, so that at certain 
 seasons rafts moored within booms may 
 be seen extending along the water’s 
 edge for 6 miles. Pop. 75,000. 
 
 QUEBEC, a province of the Dominion 
 of Canada. It is bounded on the n. by 
 Labrador and the northeast territory of 
 Canada; on the e. by Labrador and the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence; on the s. by the 
 Chaleurs bay. New Brunswick, and the 
 states of Maine, Mew Hampshire, Ver- 
 mont, and New York; and on the s.w. 
 by the River Ottawa, which separates it 
 from the province of Ontario. It is 
 nearly 1000 miles in length from e. to 
 w. by 300 in breadth, and has an area of 
 188,694 sq. miles. The climate is varia- 
 ble, though salubrious, the temperature 
 ranging from 20° below zero in winter 
 to 90° in summer. The soil is generally 
 fertile, and well suited for the growth of 
 cereals, hay, etc.; corn, flax, and to- 
 bacco are also grown, especially to the 
 west of the longitude of Quebec, while 
 grapes, melons, peaches, and tomatoes 
 in this region come to maturity in the 
 open air. A large portion of the prov- 
 ince is still covered with forest, the white 
 and red pines and the oak being the 
 most valuable trees for timber. The 
 fisheries are extensive and valuable. 
 The minerals worked include apatite, 
 asbestos, gold, copper, iron, plumbago, 
 etc. The manufactures are steadily 
 increasing, and include furniture, leather, 
 paper, chemicals, boots and shoes, 
 woolen goods, steam and agricultural 
 machinery. The chief exports are timber 
 and fish. The educational system em- 
 braces institutions of all grades, from 
 primary schools upward, at the top 
 being three universities — Laval univer- 
 sity, Quebec (Roman Catholic); Macgill 
 university, Montreal (Protestant); and 
 Bishop’s college, Lennoxville (Angli- 
 can). The affairs of the province are 
 administered by a lieutenant-governor 
 (appointed by the governor-general) and 
 an executive council composed of 8 
 members, assisted by a legislative as- 
 sembly of 74 members and a legislative 
 council of 24 members. The latter hold 
 their appointments for life; the former 
 are elected by the people for five years. 
 The capital is Quebec, but Montreal is 
 the largest town. Pop. 1,620,974. 
 
 QUEEN, a woman holding a position 
 similar to that of king. In Britain the 
 queen is either queen-consort or merely 
 wife of the reigning king, who is in 
 general (unless where expressly ex- 
 empted by law) upon the same footing 
 with other subjects, being to all intents 
 the king’s subject, and not his equal; 
 or queen-regent, regnant, or sovereign, 
 who holds the crown in her own right, 
 and has the same powers, prerogatives, 
 and duties as if she had been a king, and 
 whose husband is a subject ; or queen- 
 dowager, widow of the king, who en- 
 joys most of the privileges which belong 
 to her as queen-consort Prussia, 
 
QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDS 
 
 QUIETISM 
 
 Sweden, Belgium, and France there can 
 be no queen-regent. See Salic Law. ■ 
 
 QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDS, a 
 group of islands in the North Pacific 
 ocean, off the mainland of British Colum- 
 bia, north of Vancouver island, dis- 
 covered by Cook about 1770, and an- 
 nexed to the British crown about 1787. 
 
 QUEEN’S COUNTY, a county of Ire- 
 land, in the province of Leinster, with 
 an area of 664 sq. miles. Pop. 57,226. 
 
 QUEENSLAND, an Australian colony, 
 comprising the whole northeast portion 
 of Australia north of New South Wales 
 and east of S. Australia and its northern 
 territory, being elsewhere bounded by 
 the Gulf of Carpentaria, Torres strait, 
 and the Pacific. A considerable portion 
 is thus within the tropics, the most 
 northern part forming a sort of penin- 
 sula, known as York peninsula. It has 
 an area of about 668,224 sq. miles, and is 
 divided into twelve large districts, 
 namely, Moreton (east and west). Dar- 
 ling Downs, Burnett, Port Cur- 
 tis, Maranoa, Leichhardt, Kennedy, 
 Mitchell, Warrego, Gregory, Burke, and 
 Cook. Most of these districts are now 
 subdivided into counties. Toward the 
 west a large portion of the surface is dry 
 and barren, but toward the east, and for 
 a long stretch along the coast, boundless 
 plains or downs, admirably adapted for 
 sheep-walks, and ranges of hills, gen- 
 erally well wooded and intersected by 
 fertile valleys, form the prevailing 
 features of the country. The coast is 
 skirted by numberless islands, and at 
 some distance is the Great Barrier Reef. 
 The highest mountains are near the 
 coast, the greatest elevation being about 
 5400 feet. The principal rivers are the 
 Brisbane, the Burnett, the Pioneer the 
 Fitzroy, and the Burdekin flowing into 
 the Pacific, and the Flinders and Mitchell 
 into the Gulf of Carpentaria. Some of 
 these streams are navigable for a con- 
 siderable distance inland. The coast is 
 indented with many noble bays, afford- 
 ing some capacious natural harbors, 
 which have already been brought into 
 practical use as the outlets for the pro- 
 duce of the adjacent districts. The cli- 
 mate is healthy, and the temperature 
 comparatively equable. The mean tem- 
 perature at Brisbane is 69°, the extreme 
 range being from 35° to 106°. In the 
 more northern parts the climate is tropi- 
 cal. The rainfall in the interior is scanty 
 and variable; the mean at Brisbane is 
 about 35 inches. Thq indigenous animals 
 and plants are similar to those of the 
 rest of Australia. Pop. 525,262. 
 
 QUEENSTOWN, formerly Cove of 
 Cork, a maritime town of Ireland, and 
 
 an important naval station, 9 miles 
 
 southeast of Cork, on the south side of 
 Great island, which rises abruptly out 
 of Cork harbor to a considerable eleva- 
 tion. It is the port for the transmission 
 of American mails, and a chief emigra- 
 tion station. It has little trade and no 
 manufactures, being almost solely de- 
 pendent on the military and naval 
 establishments in its vicinity. Pop. 7909. 
 
 QUENTIN', St. (san kan-tan), an an- 
 cient town of France, department of 
 Aisne, on a height above the Somme, 87 
 miles n.e. of Paris, which from its posi- 
 tion on the frontiers between France 
 and the Low Countries figures much in 
 history. Pop. 50,150. 
 
 QUERETARO (ke-ra't^-ro), a city in 
 Mexico, capital of the state of the same 
 name, on a plateau 6365 feet above sea- 
 level, 110 miles northwest of Mexico. 
 Pop. 33,152. — The state of Quer6taro 
 has an area of 3207 sq. miles, and forms 
 part of the central plateau of the Cor- 
 dillera, presenting a very rugged sur- 
 face, traversed by mountain\__ "purs and 
 lofty heights. Grain and cattle form the 
 chief wealth of the state. The minerals 
 are comparatively unimportant. Pop. 
 232,389. 
 
 QUERN, a hand-mill for grinding corn, 
 such as is or has been in general use 
 among various primitive peoples. In 
 using the quern the grain is dropped with 
 one hand into the central opening, while 
 with the other the upper stone is re- 
 
 Stone querns for grinding. 
 
 volved by means of a stick inserted in a 
 small opening near the edge. Hand- 
 mills of this description are used in parts 
 of Scotland and Ireland to the present 
 day. 
 
 QUESNAY (ka-na), Fran 9 ois, a French 
 physician of some eminence, but chiefly 
 noted as a writer on political economy, 
 born in 1694, died in 1774. He was the 
 author of various surgical and medical 
 works; of several articles in the Ency- 
 clop^die, in which he expounds his 
 economical views; and tracts on politics, 
 including a treatise on the Physiocratic 
 System G768). 
 
 QUETELET (kat-la), Lambert Adolphe 
 Jacques, Belgian statistician and as- 
 tronomer, born at Ghent in 1796, 
 studied at the lyceum of his native town, 
 where, in 1814, he became professor of 
 mathematics. A member of the Belgian 
 Royal academy, he became its perpetual 
 secretary in 1834. Quetelet’s writings 
 
 on statistics and kindred subjects are 
 very numerous. He also published many 
 papers on meteorology, astronomy, ter- 
 restrial magnetism, etc. Died 1874. 
 
 QUEZAL, a most beautiful Central 
 American bird. It is about the size of a 
 magpie, and the male is adorned with 
 tail-feathers from 3 to 3^ feet in length, 
 and of a gorgeous emerald color. These 
 feathers are not strictly speaking the 
 true tail-feathers (the color of which is 
 black and white), but are the upper tail 
 coverts of the bird. The back, head (in- 
 
 Quezal. 
 
 eluding the curious rounded and com- 
 pressed crest), throat, and chest are of 
 the same rich hue, the lower parts being 
 of a brilliant scarlet. The female wants 
 these long feathers, and is otherwise 
 much plainer. The food of the quezal 
 consists chiefly of fruits. It lives in 
 forests of tall trees. There are several 
 allied species of birds, but none with the 
 distinctive feature of the quezal. 
 
 QUICK-FIRING GUNS, a type of ord- 
 nance of recent introduction, consisting 
 of breech-loading guns of comparatively 
 small size, the projectile and powder for 
 which are combined together in a metal- 
 lic cartridge-case, so that loading and 
 
 Hotchkiss slx-pounder with deck mount. 
 
 firing are thus facilitated. They are 
 mounted on special carriages provided 
 with steel shields to protect the gunners, 
 are fitted with special gear for handling 
 and aiming, and are fired by electricity. 
 
 QUICKSAnD, a large mass of loose 
 or moving sand mixed with water formed 
 on many sea-coasts, dangerous to per- 
 sons who trust themselves to it and find 
 it unable to support tl eir weight. 
 
 QUI'ETISM, a religious movement in 
 the Roman Catholic church at the close 
 
QUTNcr: 
 
 QUOITS 
 
 of the 17th and beginning of the 18th 
 centuries, largely of a mystic character. 
 
 QUINCE, the fruit of the quince-tree, 
 which is supposed to be a native of 
 Western Asia, but is now cultivated 
 throughout Europe, and in many parts 
 of the United States for its handsome 
 
 Quince. 
 
 golden yellow fruit, which, though hard 
 and austere when plucked from the tree, 
 becomes excellent when boiled and 
 eaten with sugar, or preserved in syrup, 
 or made into marmalade. 
 
 QUINCEY, Thomas de. See De 
 Quincey. 
 
 QUINCY, a town in Adams co., Illi- 
 nois, on the left bank of the Mississippi, 
 105 miles northwest of St. Louis. It is 
 an important railway center; has an 
 extensive river traffic, and various 
 manufacturing establishments including 
 tobacco manufactories, foundries, ma- 
 chine-shops, saw and flour mills, and an 
 extensive and rapidly increasing trade. 
 Pop. 1909, estimated at 40,000. 
 
 QUINCY, a town in Norfolk co., Mas- 
 sachusetts, on a branch of Boston har- 
 bor, about 7 miles from Boston. Its 
 most important and lucrative industry 
 is the working of the quarries which 
 furnish the well-known Quincy granite. 
 The fisheries also are important, and a 
 considerable number of vessels are fitted 
 out in the building-yards. Pop. 26,314. 
 
 QUINCY, Josiah, an American writer, 
 born at Boston 1772, died 1864. Edu- 
 cated for the law, he made politics his 
 profession, and was a member of con- 
 
 gress from 1804 to 1812. Then he was 
 elected a member of the senate of the 
 legislature of Massachusetts, a position 
 which he held till 1821, in which year he 
 held the office of speaker of the house. 
 From 1823 to 1828 he was mayor of 
 Boston and effected various important 
 reforms. From 1829 to 1845 ne was 
 president of Harvard college. His prin- 
 cipal works are History of Harvard 
 
 University; Municipal History of the 
 Town and City of Boston during Two 
 Centuries; Life of John Quincy Adams. 
 
 QUIN'INE, a white, crystalline alka- 
 loid substance, inodorous, very bitter, 
 and possessed of marked antifebrile 
 properties. It is obtained from the bark 
 of several trees of the order Cinchonacese 
 (see Cinchona), but perhaps the best is 
 that from calisaya bark. It was dis- 
 covered about 1820, and has entirely 
 superceded the use of the bark itself in 
 medicine, being most commonly used in 
 the form of sulphate of quinine. The 
 extraordinary value of quinine in medi- 
 cine as a febrifuge and tonic has given 
 rise to a large trade in Peruvian bark, 
 and has caused the cinchona tree to be 
 extensively planted in India and else- 
 where. Quinine in small doses is 
 stomachic, in large doses it causes ex- 
 treme disturbance of the nerves, head- 
 ache, deafness, blindness, paralysis, but 
 seldom death. 
 
 QUINQUAGESIMA, name of the Sun- 
 day before Lent, because fifty days be- 
 fore Easter. 
 
 QUINSY, the common name for in- 
 flammation of the tonsils. The inflam- 
 mation is generally ushered in by a feel- 
 ing of uneasiness in the part. The voice 
 is thick, and there is often swelling of 
 the glands of the neck, with loss of 
 appetite, thirst, headache, and a con- 
 siderable degree of general fever. The 
 tonsils, uvula, and even the soft palate 
 are swollen and vascular, and the tongue 
 is foul and furred. In severe cases res- 
 piration is considerably impeded, and 
 swallowing is always difficult and pain- 
 ful. The inflammation of the throat may 
 terminate either in resolution or sup- 
 peration. The most frequent cause of 
 quinsy is cold, produced by sudden 
 changes of temperature. But in a great 
 many cases it will be found that the 
 patient has been predisposed to the dis- 
 ease, owing to a bad state of the diges- 
 tive organs. The best treatment to ward 
 off an attack is to administer a dose of 
 some strong purgative saline medicine. 
 Bland soothing drinks should be given 
 during the course of the disease, and 
 sucking small pieces of ice give much 
 relief. 
 
 QUINTAIN, a figure or other object 
 set up to be tilted at with a lance. It was 
 
 Ancient quintain at Otfham, Kent. 
 
 constructed in various ways; a common 
 form in England consisted of an upright 
 
 post, on the top of which was a hori- 
 zontal bar turning on a pivot; to one end 
 of this a sand-bag was attached, on the 
 other a broad board; and it was a trial 
 of skill to tilt at the board end with a 
 lance, and pass on before the bag of sand 
 could whirl round and strike the tilter 
 on the back. 
 
 QUINTET', a vocal or instrumental 
 composition in five parts, in which each 
 part is obligato, and performed by a 
 single voice or instrument. 
 
 QUINTIL'IAN, Marcus Fabius Quinti- 
 lianus, a Roman rhetorician, born at 
 Calagurris (Calahorra) in Spain, prob- 
 ably between 35 and 40 a.d.; died about 
 118. He began to practice as an advo- 
 cate at Rome about a.d. 69, and sub- 
 sequently became a teacher of rhetoric. 
 His work, De Institutione Oratoria, con- 
 tains a system of rhetoric in twelve 
 books, and includes some important 
 opinions of Greek and Roman authors. 
 
 QUIRE, twenty-four sheets of paper. 
 Twenty quires make a ream. 
 
 QUIRINAL, one of the seven hills of 
 ancient Rome. There is a palace here, 
 begun in 1574, and formerly a summer 
 residence of the popes, but since 1871 
 the residence of the King of Italy. See 
 Rome. 
 
 QUIT-CLAIM, in law, signifies a re- 
 lease of any action that one person 
 has against another. It signifies also a 
 quitting of a claim of title to lands, etc. 
 
 QUITO (ke'to), the capital of Ecuador, 
 in a ravine on the east side of the volcano 
 of Pichincha, 9348 feet above the sea, 
 a little to the south of the equator. It 
 has repeatedly suffered from earth- 
 quakes. Pop. about 80,000, largely con- 
 sisting of haif-breeds and Indians. 
 
 QUIT-RENT, in law, a small rent pay- 
 able by the tenants of most manors, 
 whereby the tenant goes quit and free 
 from all other services. 
 
 QUOITS, a game played with a flattish 
 ring of iron, generally from 8^ to 9^ 
 inches in • external diameter, and be- 
 tween 1 and 2 inches in breadth. It is 
 convex on the upper side and slightly 
 concave on the under side, so that the 
 outer edge curves downward, and is 
 sharp enough to cut into soft ground. 
 The game is played in the following 
 manner: Two pins, called hobs, are 
 driven into the ground from 18 to 24 
 yards apart; and the players, who are 
 divided into two sides, stand beside one 
 hob, and in regular succession throw 
 their quoits (of which each player has 
 two) as near the other hob as they can, 
 giving the quoit an upward and forward 
 pitch with the hand and arm, and at 
 same time communicating to it a whirl- 
 ing motion so as to make it cut into the 
 ground. The side which has the quoit 
 nearest the hob counts a point toward 
 game, or if the quoit is thrown over the 
 hob, it counts two. 
 
 QUORUM, a term used in commis- 
 sions, of which the origin is the Latin 
 expression, quorum unum A. B. esse 
 volumus (“of whom we will that A. B. 
 be one”), signifying originally certain 
 individuals, without whom the others 
 could not proceed in the business. In 
 legislative and similar assemblies a 
 quorum is such a number of naembers 
 as is competent to transact business. 
 
RABBI 
 
 RACINE 
 
 R 
 
 R is the eighteenth letter of the Eng- 
 lish alphabet, classed as a liquid and 
 semi-vowel. In the pronunciation of 
 Englishmen generally it represents two 
 somewhat different sounds. The one is 
 heard at the beginning of words and 
 syllables, and when it is preceded by a 
 consonant; the other, less decidedly 
 consonantal, is heard at the end of words 
 and syllables, and when it is followed by 
 a consonant. In the pronunciation of 
 many English speakers, r, followed by a 
 consonant at the end of a syllable, is 
 scarcely heard as a separate sound, hav- 
 ing merely the effect of lengthening the 
 preceding vowel; when it is itself final, 
 as in bear, door, their, etc., it becomes 
 a vowel rather than a consonant. — The 
 three Rs, a humorous and familiar de- 
 signation for Reading, Writing, and 
 Arithmetic. It originated with Sir Will- 
 iam Curtis, who, on being asked to give 
 a toast, said, “I will give you the three 
 Rs, Writing, Reading, and Arithmetic.” 
 
 RABBI, a title of honor among the 
 Hebrews, corresponding nearly to the 
 English master. There are two other 
 forms of the title, rabboni and rabbani, 
 the former of which is found in the New 
 Testament. It is supposed that this title 
 first came into use at the period imme- 
 diately preceding the birth of Christ. In 
 the time of our Lord it was applied gen- 
 erally to all religious teachers, and hence 
 sometimes to Christ himself. Now the 
 term rabbi or rabbin is applied to reg- 
 ularly appointed teachers of Talmudic 
 Judaism. 
 
 RABBIT, a genus of rodent mammals, 
 included in the family Leporidae, to 
 which also belong the hares. It is of 
 smaller size than the hare, and has 
 shorter ears and hind legs. The rabbit’s 
 fur in its native state is of a nearly uni- 
 form brown color, whilst under domesti- 
 
 Rabbit (white lop-eared variety). 
 
 cation the color may become pure white, 
 pure black, piebald, gray, and other 
 hues. The texture of the fur also changes 
 under domestication. The rabbit is a 
 native of all temperate climates, and in 
 its wild state congregates in “warrens” 
 in sandy pastures and on hill-slopes. 
 Rabbits breed six or seven times a year, 
 beginning at the age of six months, and 
 producing from five to seven or eight at 
 a birth. They are so prolific that they 
 may easily become a pest as in Australia, 
 if not kept in check by beasts and birds 
 of prey. They feed on tender grass and 
 herbage, and sometimes do great dam- 
 age to young trees by stripping them of 
 their bark. They grow exceedingly tame 
 under domestication, and sometimes 
 exhibit considerable intelligence. Rab- 
 
 bits are subject to certain diseases, such 
 as rot — induced probably by damp and 
 wet — parasitic worms, and a kind of 
 madness. The skin of the rabbit is of 
 considerable value; cleared of hair, it is 
 used with other skins to make glue and 
 size. The fur is employed in the manu- 
 facture of hats, and to imitate other and 
 more valuable furs, as ermine, etc. 
 
 RABELAIS (rab-la), Frangois, a hu- 
 morous and satirical French writer, born 
 in or before 1495, the son of an apothe- 
 cary, of Chinon in Touraine. He entered 
 the Franciscan order at Fontenay-le- 
 Comte, in Poitou, and received the 
 priesthood. In the course of a few years 
 we find him at Montpellier, where he 
 studied medicine, having by this time 
 become a secular priest; he was ad- 
 mitted bachelor in 1530, and for some 
 time successfully practiced and taught. 
 In 1532 he went to Lyons, where he 
 published a work of Hippocrates and one 
 of Galen, and the first germ of his 
 Gargantua (1532 or 1533). The first 
 part of his Pantagruel appeared under 
 the anagram of Alcofribas Nasier, within 
 a year or so after the former work, and 
 its success was such that it passed three 
 editions in one year. Soon after its pub- 
 lication Rabelais accompanied Jean du 
 Bellay on an embassy to Rome. On his 
 return to France he went first to Paris; 
 but not long after he is found once more 
 at Lyons, where the Gargantua, as we 
 now have it, first saw the light (1535). 
 The Gargantua and Pantagruel together 
 form a single work professing to narrate 
 the sayings and doings of the giant 
 Gargantua and his son Pantagruel. The 
 next few years were as unsettled as re- 
 gards his abode as any previous period 
 of Rabelais’ life, and it is difficult to 
 follow him. Probably he was in Paris in 
 1546, when the third book of his Gar- 
 gantua and Pantagruel appeared, but 
 during most of 1546 and part of 1547 he 
 was physician to the town of Metz. In 
 the third book all the great moral and 
 social questions of the day were dis- 
 cussed with the gaiety and irony peculiar 
 to Rabelais, and with a freedom that 
 roused the suspicion of the clergy, who 
 endeavored to have it suppressed. The 
 favor of the king secured its publication, 
 but it was with more difficulty that a 
 license was obtained for the fourth book 
 from Henry II., who had succeeded 
 Frangois in 1547. This book did not 
 appear complete till 1552. About 1550 
 Rabelais was appointed to the cure of 
 Meudon, but he resigned his position in 
 1552, and died a year later according to 
 most authorities. He left the whole of 
 the fifth book of his remarkable romance 
 in manuscript. By many Rabelais has 
 been set down as a gross buffoon, and 
 their is much in his writings to justify 
 the harsh judgment, though we must 
 remember what was the taste of his 
 times. As regards the purpose of his 
 work, many have looked upon Rabelais 
 as a serious reformer of abuses, religious, 
 moral, and social, assuming an extrava- 
 gant masquerade for the purpose of pro- 
 tecting himself from the possible con- 
 sequences of his assaults on established 
 institutions. 
 
 RABIES (ra'bi-ez), the name given to 
 a disease, probably a kind of blood- 
 poisoning, with which dogs, horses, cats, 
 wolves, and other animals are attacked, 
 and to which, indeed, all animals are 
 said to be liable. A bite from some rabid 
 animals induces hydrophobia in man. 
 See Hydrophobia. 
 
 RACE-HORSE, a horse bred or kept 
 for racing or running in contest, called 
 also a blood-horse and a thorough-bred 
 horse. The American race-horse is per- 
 haps the finest horse in the world as 
 regards speed for a moderate distance. 
 It is of Arabian, Berber, or Turkish ex- 
 traction, improved and perfected by the 
 influence of the climate, and by careful 
 crossing. 
 
 RACHEL (ra-shell). Mademoiselle 
 (Elizabeth Rachel Felix), a French 
 tragedienne, of Jewish extraction, born 
 in 1821 ; died in 1858. Her reputation was 
 speedily established as the first tragic 
 actress of her day. In 1841 she visited 
 England, and was received with the 
 greatest enthusiasm. Her renown con- 
 tinued to increase, and for many years 
 she reigned supreme at the Th^Atre 
 Frangais, making also tours to the pro- 
 vincial towns of France, to Belgium, etc. 
 Later she visited America, but when there 
 caught a severe cold, which terminated 
 in consumption. She was of a fierce and 
 unlovable temper, destitute of moral 
 principle, and very avaricious. 
 
 RACINE (ra-sen'), a town in Racine 
 CO., Wisconsin, on the west shore of 
 Lake Michigan. It has a fine harbor, and 
 enjoys considerable trade. It has iron- 
 foundries, manufactures of machinery 
 and agricultural implements; tanneries 
 and flour-mills, and extensive railway- 
 carriage works. Pop. 33,302. 
 
 RACINE (ra-sen), Jean Baptiste, a 
 distinguished French dramatist, born 
 at La Fert4-Milon (Aisne) 1639, died at 
 Paris 1699.- He was educated at Port- 
 Royal, the famous Jansenist institution, 
 and latterly at the College d’Harcourt. 
 After writing an ode, called Nymphes 
 de la Seine, in honor of the king’s mar- 
 riage, and two comedies, now lost, he 
 made the acquaintance of Boileau and 
 MoliSre, and began to write for the stage. 
 His first tragedy, the Th4baide, or Les 
 Freres Ennemis, was performed by 
 Moli^re’s troupe at the Palais-Royal in 
 1664, as was also his next, Alexandre, 
 in 1665. His first master-piece was 
 Andromaque, which on its performance 
 at the Hotel de Bourgogne, in 1667, pro- 
 dueed a profound impression. The im- 
 mediate successor of Andromaque was 
 Les Plaideurs (1668), a witty and delight- 
 ful imitation of the Wasps of Aristo- 
 phanes. His next pieces were Britan- 
 nicus (1669); B6r^nice (1670); Bajazet 
 (1672); Mithridate (1673); Iphigenie 
 (1674) ; Phedre (1677), the last piece that 
 Racine produced expressly for the 
 theater. In 1673 he obtained a seat in 
 the French academy. His death is said 
 to have been hastened by grief at lo.sing 
 the favor of the king. .As a dramatist 
 Racine is usually considered the model 
 of the French classical tragic drama, 
 and in estimating his powers in this 
 field it is necessary to take into account 
 
RACK 
 
 RADIUM 
 
 the stiff conventional restraints to which 
 that drama is subjected. What he 
 achieved within these limits is extra- 
 ordinary. Besides his dramas Racine is 
 the author of epigrams, odes, and hymns, 
 etc. 
 
 RACK, an instrument for the judicial 
 torture of criminals and suspected per- 
 sons. It was a large open wooden frame 
 within which the prisoner was laid on 
 his back upon the floor, with his wrists 
 and ankles attached by cords to two 
 rollers at the end of the frame. These 
 rollers were moved in opposite directions 
 by levers till the body rose to a level 
 with the frame; questions were then put, 
 and if the answers were not deemed 
 satisfactory, the sufferer was gradually 
 stretched till the bones started from their 
 sockets. It was formerly much used by 
 civil authorities in the cases of traitors 
 and conspirators; and by the members 
 of the Inquisition, for extorting a re- 
 cantation from imputed heretical opin- 
 ions. The rack was introduced into 
 England in the reign of Henry VI., and 
 although declared by competent judges 
 to be contrary to English law, there are 
 many instances of its use as late as the 
 time of Charles I. 
 
 RACK, in machinery, a straight or 
 slightly curved metallic bar, with teeth 
 on one of its edges, adapted to work 
 into the teeth of a wheel or pinion, for 
 the purpose of converting a circular into 
 a rectilinear motion, or vice versa. 
 
 RACOON', or RACCOON', an Ameri- 
 can plantigrade carnivorous mammal, 
 the common racoon being the Procyon 
 lotor. It is about the size of a small fox, 
 and its grayish-brown fur is deemed 
 valuable, being principally used in the 
 manufacture of hats. This animal lodges 
 in hollow trees, feeds occasionally on 
 vegetables, and its flesh is palatable 
 food. It inhabits North America from 
 
 Common racoon. 
 
 Canada to the tropics. The black- 
 footed racoon of Texas and California 
 is P. Hermandezii. The agouara or crab- 
 eating racoon is found further south on 
 the J&nerican continent than the above 
 species, and is generally larger. Although 
 dominated “crab-eating” it does not 
 appear to be any more addicted to this 
 dietary than the common species. 
 
 RADETZ'KY, Joseph Wenceslaus, 
 Count, a famous Austrian soldier, born 
 at Trebnitz, in Bohemia, in 1766; died 
 ■1858. Commencing his career in a Hun- 
 garian regiment of horse in 1784, he 
 fought in most of the campaigns in 
 which Austria was engaged from that 
 date up to the time of his death, includ- 
 ing Hohenlinden, Wagram, and Leipzig. 
 But his most signal services were in 
 
 Italy, whither he was called by the 
 commotions following the French revolu- 
 tion of 1830, and where a great part of 
 his subsequent life was spent. Radetzky 
 was made field-marshal in 1836, and 
 honors and rewards were showered upon 
 him. 
 
 RADIOM'ETER, an instrument de- 
 signed for measuring the mechanical 
 effect of radiant energy. It consists of 
 four crossed arms of very fine glass, 
 supported in the centre by a needle- 
 
 point, having at the extreme ends thin 
 discs of pith, blackened on one side. 
 The instrument is placed in a glass 
 vessel exhausted of air, and when ex- 
 posed to light the arms revolve. 
 
 RADISH, a well-known cruciferous 
 plant. The tender leaves are used as a 
 salad, the green pods as a pickle, and 
 the succulent roots are much esteemed. 
 
 RADIUM, a metal in elemental form, 
 possessing the extraordinary property of 
 constantly emitting rays of heat and 
 light without combustion, without 
 chemical change of any kind, and with- 
 out any apparent change in its molec- 
 ular structure, was discovered and 
 named by the French physicist, Pierre 
 Curie and his Polish wife, in Paris, in 
 1898. 
 
 Imagine, if you can, an atom of 
 radium — an infinitesimal speck, too 
 small to be seen even with the aid of a 
 most powerful microscope. Now imag- 
 ine that this infinitesimal atom is a 
 hollow globe and that inside this globe 
 are 150,000 ions — each ion having room 
 enough to fly through space at the in- 
 credible rate of speed of 20,000 miles a 
 second, and only rarely coming in con- 
 tact with another atom. An ion is the 
 smallest division of an atom_recognized 
 by science. 
 
 Place this atom of radium, composed 
 of 150,000 ions, in a small instrument 
 known to scientists as a spinthariscope, 
 which is really a powerful microscope 
 fitted with a florescent screen. Then 
 liberate the 150,000 ions and watch 
 them hurl themselves with incredible 
 force against the florescent screen. 
 Each ion becomes a wave of light and as 
 each ion strikes the florescent screen it 
 explodes, giving out myriads of sparks 
 and engendering heat. 
 
 Such an atom is radium. A piece of 
 radium weighing a tenth part of a grain 
 is composed of millions of atoms, and 
 each atom in turn is made up of 150,000 
 
 ions. This tenth of a grain of radium is 
 an active force, the myriads of ions con- 
 stantly disintegrating — each ion the 
 source of heat and light. For months, 
 years, decades, and centuries the ions 
 would continue to hurl themselves from 
 that tenth part of a grain of radium, and 
 in all those centuries the tenth of a grain 
 would not become appreciably smaller, 
 nor would the disintegrating process 
 lose its power to eminate rays of heat 
 and light. 
 
 Then, instead of a tenth of a grain of 
 radium, imagine a pound of it — ten 
 pounds — one hundred pounds. Even 
 science, which pierces millions of miles 
 of space, which estimates the myriad 
 numbers of the stars and weighs the 
 planets of countless solar systems, has 
 not yet dared to place a limit on the heat 
 and light giving power of radium in the 
 mass. 
 
 It has been estimated that a piece of 
 radium weighing fourteen pounds, if so 
 great a quantity could be produced, 
 and if all its energy could be applied 
 mechanically, would drive a one-horse- 
 power engine for at least 50,000 years. 
 Thus radium, if it could only be pro- 
 duced in sufficient quantities, would 
 transform night into day and do away 
 with coal, electricity, gas, and oil. It 
 would light streets and buildings and 
 supply power for factories and work- 
 shops. It would revolutionize the in- 
 dustry of the world. 
 
 Unfortunately, radiiun cannot be pro- 
 duced except in infinitesimally small 
 quantities. Up to the present time it has 
 been found only in a dark, velvety 
 mineral called pitchblende, found mostly 
 in the Erzgebirge mountains in Austria. 
 In 7,000 tons of pitchblende there are 
 possibly two pounds of radium. Pro- 
 fessor and Madame Curie laboriously 
 
 Madame Curie. 
 
 pulverized, fractionized, and washed 
 eight tons of uranium — a metal found 
 in pitchblende — and secured only fifteen 
 grains of radium — say the 466th part of 
 a pound. At that rate, the cost of pro- 
 ducing a pound of radium would ap- 
 proximate $3,000,000. 
 
 The scientific history of radium covers 
 a scant eleven years. The investigations 
 which led to its discovery began in 1895 
 with the discovery of the X-rays by 
 Professor Roentgen. This discovery 
 impelled scientists in all parts of the 
 
RADOM 
 
 RAILWAYS 
 
 world to begin an investigation of the 
 mystery hidden behind the X-rays of 
 light which has the power of passing 
 through solid substances. The first 
 result was produced by Prof. Henri 
 Becquerel, a noted French physicist, 
 who discovered that uranium emitted 
 rays like the X-rays and which rendered 
 a gas through which they passed a con- 
 ductor of electricity. 
 
 Now, uranium was found in pitch- 
 blende, and Professor Curie and his wife, 
 who had been extracting uranium from 
 pitchblende and experimenting along 
 the same lines with Professor Becquerel 
 carried their researches still further, 
 and in 1898 discovered radium. The 
 discovery was made by Madame Curie 
 herself. In experimenting with pitch- 
 blende, the chief component of which is 
 uranium oxide, she noticed that the 
 crude pitchblende would affect a photo- 
 graphic plate or discharge an electrified 
 body much more quickly than the same 
 weight of pure uranium salt. She there- 
 fore concluded that there was still hid- 
 den in pitchblende some element having 
 a greater radio activity than uranium 
 oxide. Following this conclusion, aided 
 by her husband, she proceeded to sepa- 
 rate the various substances of pitch- 
 blende by chemical analysis. After each 
 separation she determined by careful ex- 
 periment which of the parts contained 
 the greater amount of radio activity. She 
 followed this process to the end, and the 
 discovery of radium was the result. 
 
 Naturally, the discovery created the 
 greatest interest throughout the world. 
 Medical science, which had been quick 
 to adopt the X-rays in medicine and 
 surgery, began experimenting with radi- 
 um as a cure for disease. The fact that 
 radium, when exposed to the flesh, 
 would burn aw'ay the tissue, led to the 
 belief that the newly discovered ele- 
 ment might be used successfully for the 
 eradication of cancer. The experiments 
 so far, however, have not enabled medi- 
 cal science to determine with any degree 
 of certainty the value of radium as a 
 remedial agency. 
 
 Professor Curie, who shared with his 
 wife the honor of discovering radium 
 was accidentally killed in Paris on April 
 19, 1906. His death ended one of the 
 most remarkable marital partnerships 
 in the history of science. Professor 
 Curie was 43 years old at the time of his 
 death. His wife formerly was Miss 
 Skiodowska, of Polish birth. When she 
 went to Paris to complete her studies, 
 her independent means were so small 
 she could not matriculate at one of the 
 big schools, and so she went to a munici- 
 pal working class institute, where Pro- 
 fessor Curie directed the laboratory. 
 Her remarkable ability led him to make 
 her his assistant. Their marriage fol- 
 lowed, and they pursued their scientific 
 researches together. Their discovery of 
 radium made them famous in a day. 
 In 1903 they received the Nobel prize 
 for chemistry, and a short time later 
 Madame Curie was awarded $12,000 
 from the Osiris jjrizt of France. Mme. 
 Curie was appointed to succeed^ her 
 husband as leotjurer on physical science 
 at the Sorbonne, this oeing the first 
 instance of a woman e^r being ap- 
 pointed to such a place in France. 
 
 RADOM, a town in Russian Poland, 
 on the Radomka, capital of the govern- 
 ment of the same name. It has manu- 
 factures of oil, vinegar and leather. 
 Pop. 28,749. — ^The government has an 
 area of 4768 square miles; forms the 
 most elevated portion of the Polish 
 plain; is much wooded; agriculture and 
 cattle-raising the chief occupations of 
 the inhabitants. Pop. 820,363. 
 
 RAFFLE, a game of chance, in which 
 several persons each deposit part of the 
 value of a thing for the chance of gain- 
 ing it. 
 
 RAFFLE'SIA, a genus of parasitical 
 plants. This gigantic flower, one of the 
 marvels of the vegetable world, was 
 discovered in the interior of Sumatra by 
 Sir T. Raffles and Dr. Arnold. The whole 
 plant seems to consist of little else be- 
 yond the flower and root. The perianth 
 or flower forms a huge cup reaching a 
 
 Eafflesla Arnold!. 
 
 width of 3 feet or more ; it weighs from 
 12 to 15 lbs., and some of its parts are 
 J inch in thickness. It is fleshy in char- 
 acter and appearance, remains expanded 
 for a few days, and then begins to pu- 
 trefy, having quite the smell of carrion, 
 and thus attracting numerous insects. 
 
 RAGNAROK (rag'na-rek), in Scan- 
 dinavian mythology, literally twilight 
 of the gods or doom of the gods, the day 
 of doom when the present world will be 
 annihilated to be reconstructed on an 
 imperishable basis. 
 
 RAGOUT, meat or fish stewed with 
 vegetables, and highly seasoned to 
 excite a jaded appetite. 
 
 RAGS, though valueless for most pur- 
 poses, are yet of great importance in the 
 arts, particularly in paper-making. 
 Woolen rags, not being available for 
 paper, are much used for manure; but 
 those of a loose texture, and not too 
 much worn, are unraveled by means 
 of machinery, and mixed up with good 
 wool, to form what is known as shoddy, 
 with which cheap woolen goods are 
 made; while the refuse is pulverized and 
 dyed various colors, to form the flock 
 used by paper-stainers for their flock- 
 papers. 
 
 RAHWAY, a town of the United 
 States, in Union county. New Jersey, 
 20 miles s.w. of New York, on river of 
 same name, navigable for small craft. 
 Industries include carriage and other 
 factories. Pop. 10,110. 
 
 RAI BARELI (rl ba-rfiffS), a town of 
 Oudh, India, administrative head-quar- 
 ters of district of the same name, on the 
 banks of the 8ai, 4S miles s.e. of Luck- 
 now. There is a bridge over the Sai, 
 several interesting ancient structures. 
 
 
 and the usual government buildings. 
 
 Pop. 18,798. — The district forms part ' 
 of the Lucknow division, has an area of 
 1751 sq. miles, and a population of 
 1,036,521. 
 
 RAIBOLINI (ri-bo-le'ne), Francesco 
 di Marco di Giacomo, usually called 
 Francesco Francia, a famous Italian 
 painter, engraver, medallist, and gold- 
 sniith, was born at Bologna about the 
 middle of the 15th century, died 1533. 
 
 He excelled particularly in Madonnas, 
 and executed a number of admirable 
 frescoes in the church of St. Cecilia at 
 Bologna, but his most famous work is an 
 altar-piece exhibiting the Madonna, St. 
 Sebastian, etc., in the church of St. 
 Giacomo Maggiore in the same city. 
 
 RAILWAYS, roads made by placing 
 on the ground, on a specially prepared 
 track, continuous parallel lines of iron 
 or steel rails, on which carriages with 
 flanged wheels are run with little fric- 
 tion and at consequent high velocities. 
 
 The necessity for railways originated in 
 the requirements of the coal-traffic of 
 Northumberlandshire, where the first 
 railways, formed on the plan of making 
 a distinct surface and track for the 
 wheels, were constructed. In 1676, near 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne, the coals were con- 
 veyed from the mines to the banks of 
 the river, “by laying rails of timber 
 exactly straight and parallel; and bulky 
 carts were made, with four rollers fitting 
 those rails, whereby the carriage was 
 made so easy that one horse would draw 
 4 or 5 chaldrons of coal.” Steam-power 
 was first used on these tram-roads early 
 in the 18th century, but the inaugura- 
 tion of the present great railway system 
 dates from 1821, when an act was passed 
 for the construction of the Stockton and 
 Darlington railway, which was opened 
 in 1825. The United States of America 
 quickly followed Britain in railway con- 
 struction, and between 1830 and 1833 
 railways were rapidly opened in the 
 states. Horse railroads extending to a 
 considerable length were in existence 
 before 1830. There was no development 
 of the railway system in France till about 
 1842, when several great lines were 
 established; Belgium and the Nether- 
 lands followed, but Germany, Austria, 
 and Russia were somewhat behind the 
 western European nations in their rail- 
 way development. 
 
 The modern railway consists of one 
 or more pairs of parallel lines of iron or 
 steel bars, called rails, these bars joining 
 each other endwise, and the parallel 
 lines being several feet apart. The width 
 between the rails is called the gauge. 
 What is known as the national or stand- 
 ard gauge, used in Britainand the greater 
 part of Europe, and formerly called the 
 narrow gauge, measures 4 feet 8i inches 
 between the rails; the broad gauge 
 (now gone out of use) being 7 feet. It is 
 believed to have originally represented 
 the width suitable for the coal wagons 
 of the North of England, and has been 
 found on the whole very satisfactory. ^ 
 Ireland the gauge is 5 feet 3 inches, in 
 India 5 feet 6. Narrower gauges are 
 used in certain special lines; and in the . 
 United States the standard gauge is 4 ' 
 
 feet Si Inches. A pair of parallel lines of 
 rails constitutes a single track of railway, 
 two pairs a double line, and so on. The ^ 
 
 J 
 
RAILWAYS 
 
 RAILWAYS 
 
 RAILROAD SPEED NOTABLE FAST RUNS OF PASSENGER TRAINS 
 
 LONG DISTANCES. 
 
 FOR 
 
 Railroad 
 
 Terminals 
 
 Dis- 
 
 tance 
 
 Miles 
 
 Inclubiv* 
 
 Time 
 
 H.U. 
 
 Miles 
 
 per 
 
 Hour 
 
 
 London — Didcot 
 
 53 25 
 
 0 47 
 
 68 
 
 Westshore ....T i 
 
 East BuHalo— Frankfort 
 
 201.7 
 
 4.00 
 
 50.4 
 
 TiOnrton, N. W. & Caledonian 
 
 London— Edinburgh 
 
 400 
 
 7.38 
 
 53.4 
 
 Plant System, Atlantic Coast Line 
 
 Jacksonville— Richmond 
 
 661.5 
 
 12.51 
 
 51.48 
 
 Pennssvivania. 
 
 Camden— Atlantic City 
 
 68.3 
 
 0.45J4 
 
 76.60 
 
 
 London — Aber een 
 
 
 8.32 
 
 63.28* 
 
 
 New York — Buffalo. 
 
 436.50 
 
 6.47 
 
 64.83* 
 
 New York Central “World Flyer” 
 
 Albany —^racuse 
 
 148 
 
 2.10 
 
 68.3 
 
 Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 
 
 Chicago— Den ver 
 
 1,025 
 
 18.52 
 
 58.74 
 
 Lehigh Val., Black Diamond Exp. 
 
 Alpine, N. Y.— Geneva Jc., N. Y 
 
 43.96 
 
 0.33 
 
 80 
 
 
 North Pla te— Omaha 
 
 391 
 
 4.39 
 
 63.49 
 
 Rnrlinp^ton Route 
 
 Burlington— Chicago 
 
 205.8 
 
 3.085^ 
 
 65. 5t 
 
 Riirlinston Route 
 
 Eckley— Wray 
 
 14.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 98.7 
 
 ‘‘20th Century Ltd.” on L. Shore.. 
 
 Kendallvllle-^Toledo 
 
 91 
 
 1.15 
 
 72.8 
 
 Atlantic Coast Ijlne 
 
 Jacksonville— Savannah 
 
 172 
 
 2.32 
 
 70.7 
 
 “30th Century Ltd.” on L. Shore.. 
 
 Toledo— Elkhart 
 
 133.4 
 
 1,64 
 
 70.2 
 
 Great Western (England) 
 
 London— Plymouth 
 
 246 
 
 3.64 
 
 63,13 
 
 Michigan Central 
 
 Niagara Falls— Windsor 
 
 225.66 
 
 3.11M 
 
 70.74 
 
 Great^Westorn (England) 
 
 Paddington— Bristol 
 
 118.5 
 
 1.24 
 
 84.6 
 
 Pennsylvania. ..... .~ 
 
 Crestline— Port Wayne 
 
 131 
 
 1.53 
 
 69.56 
 
 
 Chicago— Pittsburgh 
 
 468 
 
 7,20 
 
 63.53* 
 
 Lake Shore & Mich. Southern 
 
 Buffalo- Chicago 
 
 526 
 
 7.50 
 
 69.69t 
 
 
 New York— C hlcago 
 
 897 
 
 16.3 
 
 56.07 
 
 
 Chicago— New York 
 
 960.52 
 
 15.56 
 
 60.28t 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Washington, O.— Port Wayne. 
 
 81 
 
 1.4 
 
 75.84' 
 
 Pittsburgh, Ft. Wayne & C 
 
 Crestline, 0.— Clark June., Ind. 
 
 257.4 
 
 3.27 
 
 74.55 
 
 Datb 
 
 May, 
 
 July, 
 
 Aug., 
 
 Aug., 
 
 April, 
 
 Aug., 
 
 Sept., 
 
 Sept., 
 
 Feb., 
 
 April, 
 
 Aug., 
 
 May, 
 
 Mar., 
 
 Aug., 
 
 Mar., 
 
 May, 
 
 July, 
 
 April, 
 
 July, 
 
 Nov., 
 
 June, 
 
 June, 
 
 June, 
 
 June, 
 
 July, 
 
 Oct., 
 
 1848. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1888. 
 
 1894. 
 
 1895. 
 1895. 
 1895. 
 I8,)5. 
 1897. 
 1897. 
 1897. 
 1900. 
 1903. 
 
 1902. 
 
 1903. 
 1903. 
 
 1903. 
 
 1904. 
 1904. 
 
 1904. 
 
 1905. 
 1905. 
 1905. 
 1905. 
 1905. 
 1905. 
 
 * Including stops. J Excluding stops. 
 
 rails are supported at a little height 
 above the general surface by iron pedes- 
 tals called chairs, which again are firmly 
 fixed to wooden or iron (sometimes 
 stone) supports called ties, placed at 
 intervals and embedded in the material 
 of the roadway. A railway, in general, 
 approaches as nearly to a straight line 
 between its two extremes as the nature 
 of the country and the necessities of the 
 intermediate traffic will permit. It is 
 carried over valleys, either by embank- 
 ments or viaducts, and through hills or 
 elevated ground by deep trenches called 
 cuttings, or by tunnels. In favorable 
 cases the surface line of the railway is so 
 adjusted that the materials excavated 
 from the cuttings will just serve to form 
 the embankments. Should the excavated 
 material be in too small quantity to 
 form the embankment, recourse is had 
 to an excavation along the sides of the 
 site of the latter to supply the deficiency. 
 The line of railway can seldom run for 
 any distance on a level, and its various 
 slopes are termed gradients, the ar- 
 rangements of the rises and falls being 
 termed the grading of the line. A more 
 or less steep ascent is termed an incline. 
 When the line is formed its surface is 
 covered with broken stones or clean 
 gravel called ballasting, and in this the 
 sleepers for sustaining the chairs and 
 rails are embedded. The wooden ties 
 are laid across the roadway about 3 feet 
 apart from center to center, and to them 
 the chairs which sustain the rails are 
 spiked. Sometimes longitudinal wooden 
 ties aie used along with the transverse 
 ties. These consist of beams laid under 
 the rails and secured to the transverse 
 ties. When such are used chairs are fre- 
 quently dispensed with, the rails being 
 formed with a flange at bottom which is 
 fastened directly to the wooden beam. 
 When the railway track is thus com- 
 pleted the work is called the permanent 
 way, and it furnishes the route over 
 which carriages or cars, wagons, vans, 
 etc., are dragged by a locomotive engine, 
 
 a number of these vehicles forming a 
 train. 
 
 In the railway of a single line of rail it 
 is necessary to make provision for per- 
 mitting meeting engines or carriages 
 to pass each other by means of sidings, 
 which are short additional lines of rail 
 laid at the side of the main line, and so 
 connected with it at each extremity that 
 a carriage can pass into the siding in 
 place of proceeding along the main line. 
 In double lines, in addition to sidings, 
 which are in them also required at many 
 places, it is necessary to provide for car- 
 riages crossing from one line of rails to 
 another. This change in the direction of 
 the carriage is effected by switches. 
 Switches or points are short movable 
 rails close to the main rails connected by 
 rods to suitable handles, the extremities 
 of these short rails being formed so as to 
 guide the flanges of the wheels of a car- 
 riage from one line of rail to another. 
 Switches are usually coupled or inter- 
 locked with the signals or signalling 
 apparatus, so necessary for properly 
 carrying on the traffic — coupled when 
 they are moved simultaneously with the 
 signals, interlocked when the necessary 
 movement of the switches is com.pleted 
 before the signal is moved. Signalling is 
 effected by means of semaphores in day- 
 light and lights of three colors, white, 
 green, or blue, and red, at night. The 
 telegraph is also used in regulating the 
 traffic. (See Block System.) The various 
 places along the line of railway, where 
 railway trains stop for taking up or 
 depositing goods or passengers are 
 termed depots, with the prefix of freight 
 or passenger, as they are allotted to the 
 one or the other; the stations at the 
 extremities of a railway are called 
 terminals. 
 
 The mode in which the locomotive 
 acts in moving the cars is that by its 
 weight and the friction of its wheels on 
 the rails a tractive force is provided 
 sufficient to enable it to move at a high 
 rate of velocity, and to drag great loads 
 
 after it. In some particular cases a fixed 
 engine is employed to give motion to a 
 rope by which the care are dragged 
 along, the rope being either an endles* 
 rope stretched over pulleys, or one which 
 winds and unwinds on a cylinder. Such 
 engines are termed stationary engines, 
 and are used chiefly on inclined planes, 
 where the ascent is too steep for the 
 locomotive engine. In some cases the 
 cars are impelled by atmospheric pres- 
 sure, and in some few cases by electricity. 
 (See Atmospheric Railway, Electric Rail- 
 way.) The locomotives, passenger cars, 
 freight cars or trucks, vans, etc., con- 
 stitute the rolling stock of a railway. 
 For the sake of uniformity, externally 
 and in many of the details, the cars are 
 usually made of the same external length 
 width, and height, and suitably in the 
 interior. The underworks of the cars 
 may thus be identical in construction, 
 and a uniformity of working and wear- 
 ing parts is thus secured, which is con- 
 ducive to economy of maintenance. 
 They are usually from 40 to 60 feet long 
 with a center passage, the doors being 
 at the ends — with the seats arranged 
 transversely on each side. At platform 
 at the end enables a person to go from 
 end to end of the train. There is gen- 
 erally but one class of passengers, but 
 on long journeys Pullman and other 
 sleeping-cars are used at extra fares. 
 The average speed of express passenger 
 trains in the United States is about 60 
 miles an hour for the express trains and 
 from 30 to 40 miles an hour for the 
 regular local trains; express freight 
 trains from 20 to 25 miles. Railways for 
 the local service of large cities are 
 usually partly or wholly underground, 
 as in the London Metropolitan railway, 
 the New York Central and Hudson 
 River R. R., or elevated above the street 
 traffic, as in New York and Chicago. 
 
 Some of the tunnels, bridges, and 
 viaducts constructed in connection with 
 railways are among the engineering 
 triumphs of the age. Of the former the 
 most notable are those of Mt. Senis, the 
 St. Gothard, and the Arlberg tunnel in 
 the Alps; the Severn tunnel, and the Mer- 
 sey tunnel in England, and the Hoosac 
 tunnel in Massachusetts. The greatest 
 of the railway bridges are those over the 
 Forth and the Tay in Scotland; the 
 Britannia tubular bridge over the 
 Menai straits, North Wales; the Victoria 
 bridge, Montreal; the New York and 
 Brooklyn Suspension bridge. There are 
 many stone viaducts of great length. 
 The Congleton viaduct, on the Manches- 
 ter and Birmingham railway, is perhaps 
 the longest in England; it is 1026 yards 
 long and 106 feet high. An iron viaduct 
 2J miles long connects the city of Venice 
 with the mainland. 
 
 The use of sleeping cars and parlor 
 cars introduced an element of comfort in 
 railway travel which was of great im- 
 portance in this country, on account of 
 the distance traversed. The buffet car 
 was afterward provided to avoid delays 
 at meal stations. Dining cars, intro- 
 duced shortly afterward, led to the de- 
 velopment of vestibuled trains. Ves- 
 tibuled express trains are now in general 
 use, on which sleepers, parlor cars, a 
 dining car, a smoking saloon, library, 
 bath-room, barber-shop, and writing- 
 
RAIN 
 
 RAINBOW 
 
 room are provided. In the United States 
 between four and five thousand pas- 
 sengers are killed and injured each year 
 by railway accidents. These figures 
 seem large until the enormous number 
 of passengers carried safely to one in- 
 jured is calculated. According to the 
 report of the interstate commerce com- 
 mission, 2,316,648 passengers were car- 
 ried safely in 1900 to one passenger 
 killed, and 139,740 passengers were 
 carried safely to one injured. In Eng- 
 land in 1900 the proportion was one 
 passenger killed in 8,461,309 and one 
 injured in 470,848. On the continent of 
 Europe in many cases an even better 
 record is maintained. The total mileage 
 in the United States at the close of 1 905 
 was 212,624, the capital stock $6,741,- 
 956,825, the bonded debt $7,821,243,105, 
 gross earnings $2,112,197,770, the net 
 earnings $685,464,488. 
 
 BAIN, the water that falls from the 
 Iuft^'ens. Rain depends upon the forma- 
 flOTi and dissolution of clouds. The in- 
 visible aqueous vapor suspended in the 
 atmosphere, W’hich forms clouds, and is 
 deposited in rain, is derived from the 
 evaporation of water, partly from land, 
 but chiefly from the vast expanse of the 
 ocean. At a given temperature the at- 
 mosphere is capable of containing no 
 more than a certain quantity of aqueous 
 vapor, and when this quantity is present 
 the air is said to be saturated. Air may 
 at any time be brought to a state of 
 saturation by a reduction of its tem- 
 perature, and if cooled below a certain 
 point the whole of the vapor can no 
 longer be held in suspension, but a part 
 of it condensed from the gaseous to the 
 liquid state will be deposited in dew or 
 float about in the form of clouds. If the 
 temperature continues to decrease the 
 vesicles of vapor composing the cloud 
 will increase in number and begin to de- 
 scend by their own weight. The largest 
 of these falling fastest will unite with the 
 smaller ones they encounter during 
 their descent, and thus drops of rain 
 will be formed of a size that depends on 
 the thickness, density, and elevation of 
 the cloud. The point to which the tem- 
 perature of the air must be reduced in 
 order to cause a portion of its vapor to 
 form clouds or dew is called the dew- 
 
 E oint. The use of the spectroscope has 
 ecome to some extent a means of an- 
 ticipating a fall of rain, since when light 
 that has passed through aqueous vapor 
 decomposed by the spectroscope a 
 bana is seen (the rain-band), which 
 is^^h more intense the greater the 
 amoSl; of vapor present. The average 
 rainf^ in a year at any given place de- 
 pends on a great variety of circum- 
 stances, as latitude, proximity to the 
 sea, elevation of the region, configura- 
 tion of the countryand mountain ranges, 
 exposure to the prevailing winds, etc. 
 When the vapor-laden atmosphere is 
 drifted toward mountain ranges it is 
 forced upward by the latter, and is con- 
 sequently condensed, partly by coming 
 into contact with the cold mountain 
 tops, and partly by the consequent ex- 
 pansion of the air due to the greater 
 elevation. The presence or absence of 
 vegetation has also considerable in- 
 fluence on the rainfall of a district. Land 
 devoid of vegetation has its soil Intensely 
 
 heated by the fierce rays of the sun, the 
 air in contact with it also becomes 
 heated, and is able to hold more and 
 more moisture, so that the fall of rain is 
 next to impossible. On the other hand, 
 land covered with an abundant vegeta- 
 tion has its soil kept cool, and thus assist 
 in condensation. Although more rain 
 falls within the tropics in a year, yet 
 the number of rainy days is less than in 
 temperate climes. Thus in an average 
 year there are 80 rainy days in the 
 tropics, while in the temperate zones the 
 number of days on which rain falls is 
 about 160. At the equator the average 
 yearly rainfall is estimated at 95 inches. 
 At a few isolated stations the fall is 
 often very great. At Cherrapungee, in 
 the Khasia Hills of Assam, 615 inches 
 fall in the year, and there are several 
 places in India with a fall of from 190 
 to 280 inches. In Britain, Skye, and a 
 large portion of the mainland to the 
 s.e. as far as Loch Lomond, the greater 
 part of the lake district of Northern 
 
 primary, and the outer the secondary 
 rainbow. Each is formed of the colors 
 of the solar spectrum, but the colors are 
 arranged in the reversed order, the red 
 forming the exterior ring of the primary 
 bow, and the interior of the secondary. 
 The primary bow is formed by the sun’s 
 rays entering the upper part of the fall- 
 ing drops of rain, and undergoing two 
 refractions and one reflection; and the 
 secondary, by the sun’s rays entering 
 the under part of the drops, and under- 
 going two refractions andtwo reflections. 
 Hence, the colors of the secondary bow 
 are fainter than those of the primary. 
 Rainbows are sometimes produced by 
 the sun’s rays shining on the spray of 
 cascades, fountains, etc., and then a 
 whole circle can frequently be seen. A 
 broken rainbow mostly occurs from the 
 field not being filled with falling rain, 
 but it will also happen when the sun is 
 invisible from part of the field. The 
 moon sometimes forms a bow or arc of 
 light, more faint than that formed by 
 
 Non-concentric rainbow observed in Sweden in 1875. 
 
 England, and the mountainous parts of 
 Wales have an average of 80 inclies and 
 upward (the highest, 128.50 inches at 
 Glencoe in Argyleshire). The s.e. of 
 England has the smallest, 22.50 to 25 
 inches. The rainfall at Paris is 22 in.; 
 New York, 43 in.; Washington, 41 in.; 
 San Francisco, 22 in.; Sitka, Alaska, 90 
 in.; Honduras, 153 in.; Maranhao, 280 
 in.; Singapore, 97 in.; Canton, 78 in.; 
 New South Wales, 46 in.; South Aus- 
 tralia, 19 in.; Victoria, 30 in.; Tasmania 
 20 in.; Cape Colony, 24 in. The greatest 
 annual rainfall hitherto observed seems 
 to be on the Khasia Hills. 
 
 RAINBOW, a bow, or an arc of a circle 
 consisting of all the prismatic colors, 
 formed by the refraction and reflection 
 of rays of light from drops of rain or 
 vapor, appearing in the part of the 
 heavens opposite to the sun. When the 
 sun is at the horizon the rainbow is a 
 semicircle. When perfect the rainbow 
 presents the appearance of two concen- 
 tric arches; the inner being called the 
 
 the sun, and called a lunar rainbow. A 
 spurious or supernumerary rainbow is 
 a bow seen in connection with a fine 
 rainbow, lying close inside the violet 
 of the primaiy bow, or outside that of 
 the secondary one. Its colors are fainter 
 and more impure, as they proceed from 
 the principal bow, and finally merge into 
 the diffused white light of the primary 
 bow, and outside the secondary. 
 
 Non-concentric bows have been seen 
 at various times during the last two 
 hundred years. One of the most per- 
 fect was observed by Halley, the astron- 
 omer, on August 6, 1698. It appears 
 to have been a very perfect specimen of 
 a non-concentric bow, extending in an 
 unbroken arch from the feet of the 
 inner bow to the summit of the outer 
 or secondary bow. The order of colors 
 in this non-concentric bow was the same 
 as in the primary; so that where it ap- 
 peared to overlap the secondary bow 
 there was a portion of a white arch. 
 Perhaps one of the most remarkable 
 
RAIN-GAUGE, OR PLUVIOMETER 
 
 SIR WALTER RALEIGH 
 
 cases is tliat represented in our illus- 
 tration, ill ivhich i t will be noted that 
 between the ordinary inner and outer 
 bows there are the legs of a bow non- 
 concentric with both. This splendid 
 sight was seen at Nya, Kopparberg, in 
 Sweden, by M. Gumoelius, on June 19, 
 1875, and it is remarkable that similar 
 bows have been recorded in Sweden on 
 several occasions. In this case, besides 
 the non-concentric bow, several sup- 
 plementary concentric bows were seen, 
 as shown in the engraving. 
 
 Other wonderful rainbows, or, perhaps 
 more correctly, mist-bows, have been 
 seen on rare occasions. Aeronauts and 
 mountaineers have observed them of a 
 completely circular form, when they 
 have happened to be in elevated posi- 
 tions. A somewhat similar phenomenon 
 is sometimes observed by the boatmen 
 of Lake Superior when there is a low- 
 lying fog on the water, and a brilliant 
 sun overhead. On such occasions an 
 iridescent halo surrounds the shadow of 
 the observer’s head, but is generally of a 
 simply circular form. 
 
 RAIN-GAUGE, or PLUVIOMETER, 
 an instrument used to measure the 
 quantity of rain which falls at a given 
 place. They are variously constructed. 
 A convenient form (shown in figure) con- 
 sists of a cylindrical tube of copper, 
 with a funnel at the top where the rain 
 enters. Connected with the cylinder at 
 the lower part is a glass tube with an 
 attached scale. The water which enters 
 the funnel stands at the same height in 
 
 Rain-gauge. 
 
 the cylinder and glass tube, and being 
 visible in the latter the height is read 
 immediately on the scale, and the cylin- 
 der and tube being constructed so that 
 the sum of the areas of their sections is a 
 given part, for instance a tenth of the 
 area of the funnel at its orifice, each inch 
 of water in the tube is equivalent to 
 the tenth of an inch of water entering 
 the mouth of the funnel. A stop- 
 cock is added for drawing off the 
 water. A simpler form of gauge con- 
 sists of a funnel having at tne mouth 
 a diameter of 4.697 inches, or an area 
 of 17.33 sq. inches. Now, as a fluid 
 ounce contains 1.733 cubic inches, it 
 follows that forgery ounce fluid col- 
 lected by this gauge the tenth of an inch 
 of rain has fallen. Recently-constructed 
 automatic gauges give a continuous 
 record of rainfall; indicate the duration 
 of each shower, the amount of rain that 
 has fallen, and the rate at which it fell 
 RAIN-TREE, a leguminous tree of 
 tropical America, now largely planted 
 in India for the shade it furnishes, and 
 jaecause it flourishes in barren salt- 
 impregnated soils, as well as for its 
 sweet pulpy pods, which are greedily 
 eaten by cattle. I 
 
 P. E.— 66 
 
 RAIPUR (ri-p6r'), a town of India, 
 headquarters of district of same name 
 in the Chhatisgarh division. Central 
 provinces. Pop. 32,114. — The district 
 includes within its limits four small 
 feudatory states; area, 11,724 sq. miles; 
 pop. 1,422,778. 
 
 RAISINS, the dried fruit of various 
 species of vines, comparatively rich in 
 sugar. They are dried by natural or 
 artificial heat. The natural and best 
 method of drying is by cutting the 
 stalks bearing the finest grapes half 
 through when ripe, and allowing them 
 to shrink and dry on the vine by the 
 heat of the sun. Another method con- 
 sists of plucking the grapes from the 
 stalks, drying them, and dipping them 
 in a boiling lye of wood-ashes and quick- 
 lime, after which they are exposed to 
 the sun upon hurdles of basket-work. 
 Those dried by the first method are 
 called raisins of the sun or sun-raisins, 
 muscatels, or blooms; those by the 
 second, lexias. The inferior sorts of 
 grapes are dried in ovens. Raisins are 
 produced in large quantities in the south 
 of Europe, Egypt, Asia Minor, Califor- 
 nia, etc. Those known as Malagas, 
 Alicantes, Valencias, and Denias are 
 well-known Spanish qualities. A kind 
 without seeds, from Turkey, are called 
 sultanas. The Corinthian raisin, or 
 currant, is obtained from a small variety 
 of grape peculiar to the Greek Islands. 
 
 RAJAH, or RAJA, in India, originally 
 a title which belonged to those princes 
 of Hindu race, who, either as independ- 
 ent rulers or as feudatories, governed a 
 territory; subsequently, a title given by 
 the native government to Hindus of 
 rank. It is now not unfrequently as- 
 sumed by the zemindars or landholders, 
 the title Mah4rS,jah (great rajah) being 
 generally reserved to the more or less 
 powerful native princes. 
 
 RAJPIPLA, native state of India, in 
 Bombay presidency, watered by the 
 Nerbudda. Area, 1514 sq. miles; pop. 
 114,756;capital Nandod. 
 
 RAJPUTA'NA, a large province of 
 India, under the suzerainty of Britain 
 since 1817, in the west part of Hindus- 
 tan proper, extending from the Jumna 
 and Chumbul rivers, west to Sind and 
 Bhawalpur, and comprising the greater 
 part of the Indian desert. It includes 
 the British district of Ajmere-Merwara 
 and twenty autonomous states, each 
 under a separate chief ; has a total area 
 of 127,541 sq. miles, and a pop. of 
 9,723,301, exclusive of a considerable 
 Bheel pMulation, estimated at 230,000. 
 
 RAjSHAHI, a division or commis- 
 sionership of Bengal, extending from 
 the Ganges to Sikkim and Bhutan. Area, 
 17,428 sq. miles; pop. 8,019,187. — The 
 district of Rdjshdhi, forming part of the 
 division, has an area of 2361 sq. miles; 
 a pop. of 1,460,644. Capital of division 
 and district Rdmpur Beauleah. 
 
 RAKE, an implement which in its 
 simplest form consists merely of a 
 wooden or iron bar furnished with 
 wooden or iron teeth, and firmly fixed 
 at right angles to a long handle. In 
 farming it is used for collecting hay, 
 straw, or the like, after mowing or reap- 
 ing; and in gardening it is used for 
 smoothing the soil, covering the seed, 
 etc. Large rakes for farm work are 
 
 adapted for being drawn by horses ; and 
 there are many modifications both of 
 the hand-rake and the horse-rake. 
 
 RALEIGH (ral'i), the capital of North 
 Carolina, near the center of the state. 
 Among the principal public buildings 
 are the state-house with a handsome 
 
 Horse-rake. 
 
 columned front, the court-house, and 
 post-office, all in granite. It is an im- 
 portant cotton center, and the industries 
 are various. Pop. 15,940. 
 
 RALEIGH (ral'i), or RALEGH, Sir 
 Walter, navigator, warrior, statesman, 
 and writer in the reigns of Elizabeth and 
 James I. In 1584 he obtained a charter 
 of colonization and unsuccessfully at- 
 tempted the settlement of Virginia in 
 one or two following years. In 1584, also, 
 he obtained a large share of the for- 
 feited Irish estates, and introduced here 
 the cultivation of the potato. In 1588 he 
 rendered excellent service against the 
 Spanish Armada, and subsequently 
 vessels were fitted out by him to attack 
 the Spaniards. To discover the fabled 
 El Dorado or region of gold he planned 
 an expedition to Guiana, in which he 
 embarked in 1595, and reached the 
 Orinoco; but was obliged to return after 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 
 having done little more than take a 
 formal possession of the country in the 
 name of Elizabeth. In 1596 he held a 
 naval command against Spain under 
 Lord Howard and the Earl of Essex, 
 and assisted in the defeat of the Spanish 
 fleet and the capture of Cadiz. Next 
 year he captured Fayal in the Azores; in 
 1600 he became governor of Jersey. 
 James I., on his accession in 1603, had 
 his mind soon poisoned against Raleigh, 
 whom he deprived of all his offices. 
 Accused of complicity in Lord Cobham’s 
 treason in favor of Arabella Stuart, 
 Raleigh was brought to trial at Win- 
 chester in November 1603, found guilty 
 of treason, and sentenced to death. He 
 was, however, reprieved and confined 
 
RAM 
 
 RANGPUR 
 
 in the tower. Here he remained for 
 twelve years, devoting himself to 
 scientific and literary work. In 1616 
 he obtained his release by bribing the 
 favorite Villiers, and by offering to open 
 a mine of gold which he believed to exist 
 near the Orinoco. The enterprise proved 
 disastrous. Raleigh’s force had at- 
 tacked the Spaniards, and on his return 
 James, to favor the Spanish court, with 
 his usual meanness and pusillanimity 
 determined to execute him on his former 
 sentence. After a trial before a com- 
 mission of the privy-council the doom of 
 death was pronounced against him, and 
 was carried into execution October 29, 
 1618. 
 
 RAM, a steam iron-clad ship-of-war, 
 aimed at the prow below the water-line 
 with a heavy iron or steel beak intended 
 to destroy an enemy’s ships by the force 
 with which it is driven against them. 
 The beak is an independent adjunct of 
 the ship, so that, in the event of a serious 
 collision, it may be either buried in the 
 opposing vessel or carried away, leaving 
 uninjured the vessel to which it is at- 
 tached. By naval experts the ram is con- 
 sidered as a main element in the solution 
 of the problem of coast defense. 
 
 RAMEE, Louise de la (Ouida), Eng- 
 lish novelist of French extraction, born 
 at Bury St. Edmunds, 1840, has latterly 
 lived much in Italy. She published her 
 first novel, “Held in Bondage,” in 1863, 
 and since then has been a very prolific 
 writer. Among her best works are 
 Stratlunore, Chandor, Puck, Moths, 
 Princess Napraxine, A House Party, 
 Gilderoy, etc. She died in 1908. 
 
 RAM'ESES, or RAMSES (in Egyptian, 
 “the Child of the Sun”), the name given 
 to a number of Egyptian kings. — 
 Rameses I. was the first king of the 
 nineteenth dynasty, and was not among 
 the most remarkable of the series. — 
 Rameses II., grandson of the preceding, 
 was the third king of the nineteenth 
 dynasty', and was born in the quarter 
 of a century preceding the year 1400 
 B.c. He is identified by many with the 
 Sesostris of Greek writers. (See Sesos- 
 tris.) His first achievement was the 
 reduction of Ethiopia to subjection. He 
 defeated a confederation among whom 
 the Khita or Hittites were the chief in a 
 great battle near the Orontes in Syria, 
 and in a subsequent stage of the war 
 took Jerusalem and other places. He 
 was a zealous builder and a patron of 
 art and science. He is supposed to have 
 been the king who oppressed the He- 
 brews, and the father of the king under 
 whom the exodus took place. — Rameses 
 III., the Rhampsinitus of Herodotus, 
 belonged to the twentieth dynasty, and 
 was uniformly successful in war. He 
 endeavored to surpass his ancestors in 
 the magnificence of his buildings. 
 
 RAM'ESES, one of the treasure-cities 
 of Egypt built by the Hebrews during 
 the oppression, and probably named 
 after Rameses II. It has been identified 
 by Lepsius with Tell-el-Maskhfita on the 
 Fresh-water canal (about 12 miles west 
 of the Suez canal), and by Brugsch with 
 Tanis the modern San. 
 
 RAMPANT, in heraldry, standing up- 
 right upon its hind-lsgs (properly on on# 
 foot) as if attacking; said of a beast of 
 prey, as the lion. It differs from salient. 
 
 which means in the posture of springing 
 forward. Rampant gardant is the same 
 as rampant, but with the animal look- 
 ing full-faced. Rampant regardant is 
 
 Rampant. Rampant gardant. 
 
 when the animal in a rampant position 
 looks behind. 
 
 RAMPART, in fortification, an eleva- 
 tion or mound of earth round a place, 
 capable of resisting cannon-shot, and on 
 which the parapet is raised. The ram- 
 part is built of the earth taken out of the 
 ditch, though the lower part of the outer 
 slope is usually constructed of masonry. 
 The term in general usage includes the 
 parapet itself. 
 
 RAMPUR', capital of a native state of 
 the same name, in the United Provinces 
 of India, on the left bank of the Kosila 
 river, 18 miles e. of Moradabad. Pop. 
 78,758. — The state, which is under the 
 political superintendence of the govern- 
 ment of the United Provinces, has an 
 area of 899 sq. miles and a pop. of 
 532,067. 
 
 RANDALL, Samuel Jackson, Ameri- 
 can political leader, was born in Phila- 
 delphia, Pa., in 1828. In 1858 he was 
 elected a member of the state senate. In 
 November, 1862, he was elected to rep- 
 resent the First Pennsylvania district 
 in congress, to which he was thirteen 
 times successively reelected. In the 
 Forty-third congress (1873-75) by direct- 
 ing the democratic opposition to the 
 “Force Bill” he was recognized as the 
 leader of his party in the house. In 
 December, 1876, he was elected to 
 succeed Speaker Kerr, who had died 
 during the recess of congress. He was 
 reelected speaker of the Forty-fifth and 
 Forty-sixth congresses(1877-81). At the 
 democratic national convention of 1880 
 he received 128J votes on the second 
 ballot for the nomination to the presi- 
 dency. In his last two elections to con- 
 gress he was unopposed by the repub- 
 licans. He died in 1890. 
 
 RANDOLPH, Edmund Jennings, an 
 American statesman, w'as born in Will- 
 iamsburg, Va., in 1753. In August, 1775, 
 he became one of Washington’s aides, 
 and in 1776 sat in the Virginia constitu- 
 tional convention. He was the first 
 attorney-general under the new state 
 constitution (1776), sat in the continen- 
 tal congress from 1780 to 1782, and was 
 governor of Virginia from 1786 to 1788. 
 In 1789, he was appointed by Washing- 
 ton attorney-general of the United 
 States. On January 2, 1 794, he succeeded 
 Jefferson as secretary of state, but re- 
 signed in August, 1795. Returning to 
 his home, he became the leader of the 
 Virginia bar, and in 1807 helped defend 
 Aaron Burr against the charge of trea- 
 son. He died in 1813. 
 
 RANDOLPH, John, of Roanoke, 
 American stateeman, waa born at Caw. 
 sons in Chesterfield co., Va., in 1773- 
 In 1799 he was elected to congress and 
 became the democratic-republicanleader 
 of the house of representatives. He 
 
 opposed the war of 1812, and the Mis- 
 souri compromise, and stigmatized the 
 northern members who voted for the 
 latter as “doughfaces.” In 1822 and 
 1824 he visited England. In 1825 he 
 began his two years’ service as senator 
 from Virginia, and fought his famous 
 
 
 I 
 
 duel with Henry Clay. In 1830 he was ‘ 
 appointed minister to Russia. He died ' 
 in 1833. 
 
 RANGE, in gunnery, the horizontal 
 distance to which a shot or other pro- 
 jectile is carried. When a cannon lies , 
 horizontally it is called the point-blank 
 range; when the muzzle is elevated to 
 45 degrees it is called the utmost range. 
 
 To this may be added the ricochet, the 
 skipping or bounding shot, with the 
 piece elevated from 3 to 6 degrees. 
 Several instruments have been invented 
 for the purpose of finding the range or 
 distance or objects against which guns 
 are to direct their fire, being known as 
 range-finders or telemeters. They 
 generally depend on trigonometrical 
 principals and on the use of telescopes. 
 
 RANGE-FINDER, an instrument used 
 to determine the horizontal distance of 
 the object to be hit from the gun which 
 is firing. They are of three types, those 
 furnishing their own base's for measure- 
 ment, those depending upon a known 
 dimension of the object aimed at, and 
 those utilizing a time observation. The 
 first-named type have the most general 
 application, but satisfactory instru- 
 ments are either very cumbersome or 
 delicate, or are liable to give ranges con- 
 siderably in error. 
 
 RANGOON', the capital of Lower 
 Burmah, and the chief seaport of Bur- 
 mah, is situated at the junction of the ^ 
 Pegu, Hlaing or Rangoon, and Pu-zun- 
 doung rivers, about 21 miles from the 
 sea. Since its occupancy by the British 
 in 1852 Rangoon has undergone such 
 changes that it is practically a new 
 town, and its population has increased 
 five-fold. Pop. 234,881. Of the popula- 
 tion about 100,000 are Buddhists) Bur- 
 mese) and 60.000 Hindus. 
 
 RANGPUR', a district in the Rajshnhi -, 
 division of Bengal; area, 3486 sq. miles, --i 
 This territory is flat and well-watered, ' 
 the chief product being rice. Pop. .j 
 2,097,964. — Rangpur, the capital, is . 
 situated on the Ghagh£t river, 270 J 
 miles n.e. of Calcutta. Pop. 14,300. -,1 
 
 
RANK 
 
 BAPHIA 
 
 RANK, a line of soldiers standing 
 abreast or side by side ; often used along 
 with file, which is a line running from 
 the front to the rear of a company, bat- 
 talion, or regiment, the term rank and 
 file, thus comprising the whole body of 
 the common soldiers. 
 
 RANKE (ran'ke), Leopold von, Ger- 
 man historian, born in 1795, died 1886. 
 His first published work (1824) was a 
 History of the Romance and Teutonic 
 Nations from 1494 to 1535. This was 
 followed by Princes and Peoples of 
 Southern Europe in the 16th and 17th 
 centuries (1827). The Servian Revolu- 
 
 tion (1829), History of the Popes (1834- 
 37), History of Germany in the time of 
 the Ruformation (1839-47), History of 
 Prussia during the 17th and 18th cen- 
 turies (1847-48), History of France, 
 chiefly in the 16th and 17th centuries 
 G852-55), History of England in the 
 17th century (1859-68), besides a num- 
 ber of smaller works supplementary of 
 his History of Germany. 
 
 RANSOM, the money or price paid for 
 the redemption of a prisoner, captive, 
 or slave, or for goods captured by an 
 enemy, and formerly a sum paid for 
 prisoners of war. 
 
 RANUNCULA'CE.®, a natural order 
 of exogenous polypetalous plants, in 
 almost all cases herbaceous, inhabiting 
 the colder parts of the world, and un- 
 known in hot countries except at con- 
 siderable elevations. They have radical 
 or alternate leaves (opposite in Clematis) 
 regular or irregular, often large and 
 handsome flowers, and fruits consisting 
 of one-seeded achenes or many seeded 
 follicles. There are about 30 genera and 
 500 species. They have usually poison- 
 ous qualities, as evinced by aconite and 
 hellebore in particular. Some of them 
 are objects of beauty, as the larkspurs, 
 ranunculus, anemone, and pseony. See 
 next article. 
 
 RANUN'CULUS, a genus of herbaceous 
 plants, the t 5 rpe of the natural order 
 Ranunculaceae. They have entire, 
 lobed, or compound leaves, and usually 
 panicled, white or yellow flowers. The 
 species are numerous, and almost ex- 
 clusively inhabit the northern hemi- 
 sphere. Almost all the species are acrid 
 and caustic, and poisonous when taken 
 internally, and, when externally applied, 
 
 will raise blisters. The various species 
 found wild are known chiefly by the 
 common names of crowfoot, buttercup, 
 and spearwort. 
 
 RAPE, the carnal knowledge of a 
 woman forcibly and against her will. 
 By the English law this crime is felony, 
 and is punishable with penal servitude 
 for life. By 24 and 25 Viet. (1861) cap. 
 c. unlawfully and carnally knowing any 
 girl under the age of ten years, with or 
 without her consent, was regarded as 
 rape, and punishable as such; if the girl 
 were between the ages of ten and twelve 
 the punishment was penal servitude 
 for five years, or imprisonment not ex- 
 ceeding two years with or without hard 
 labor. But by the Criminal Law Amend- 
 ment Act of 1885 the maximum penalty 
 of penal servitude for life has been ex- 
 tended to the defilement of girls under 
 thirteen; and the maximum penalty of 
 two years’ imprisonment with hard 
 labor has been extended to the defile- 
 ment of girls under sixteen years. In the 
 case of older females consent must be 
 withheld or there is no rape. In Scot- 
 land this crime may still be punished 
 with death, though it never is so. In the 
 United States the crime is treated as a 
 felony, and the punishment is imprison- 
 ment for life or a term of years. 
 
 RAPE, a plant of the cabbage family, 
 cultivated for its seeds, from which oil 
 is extracted by grinding and pressure. 
 It is also cultivated for the succulent 
 food which its thick and fleshy stem and 
 leaves supply to sheep when other fodder 
 is scarce. The oil obtained from the seed, 
 which is much the same as colza oil, is 
 used for various economical purposes, 
 for burning in lamps, for lubricating 
 machinery, in medicine, etc. The oil- 
 cake is used as food for sheep and cattle, 
 and as a fertilizer. 
 
 RAPH'AEL or RAFFAELLO, Sanzio 
 or Santi, one of the greatest painters 
 that ever lived, was born at Urbino 1483, 
 
 died 1520. His father, Giovanni Sanzio, 
 a painter of some merit, from whom young 
 Raphael received his first instruction, 
 died in 1494, and he was then intrusted 
 to the care of an uncle. His studies, 
 however, were not interrupted, and at 
 the early age of twelve he was received 
 into the studio of Perugino at Perugia 
 as one of his pupils, and continued with 
 that celebrated painter for six or eight 
 years. His most important works are 
 the Madonna del Gran Duca (Florence); 
 Madonna del Giardino (Vienna); Holy 
 
 Family (Madrid) ; Chi-ist Bearing the 
 Cross (Madrid); Marriage of Joseph and 
 the Virgin (Brera, Milan); the Ansidei 
 Madonna (National gallery); Madonna 
 (belonging to Lord Cowper) ; Tempi 
 Madonna (Munich) ; and the Bridge- 
 water Madonna (Bridgewater house). 
 Besides these he painted as Vatican 
 frescoes (1508-11) the allegorical figures 
 of Theology, Philosophy, Justice, and 
 Poetry, in the corners of the ceiling; the 
 Fall of Adam, Astronomy, Apollo and 
 Marsyas, and Solomon’s Judgment, all 
 having reference to the four principal 
 figures of the apartment; and, lastly, on 
 the fourth wall, over the windows. Pru- 
 dence, Temperance, and Fortitude, 
 besides many others. During this time 
 Raphael prepared designs for several 
 palaces in Rome and other cities of 
 Italy (notable among wliich were the 
 series of designs in the Villa Farnesina to 
 illustrate the story of Cupid and Psyche), 
 finished the Madonna for the church of 
 St. Sixtus in Piacenza (now in Uresden), 
 and painted the portraits of Beatrice 
 of Ferrara, of the Fornarina of Caron- 
 delet (now in England), and of Count 
 Castiglione. It was probably at a later 
 period that Raphael prepared for Augus- 
 tino Ghigi designs for the building and 
 decoration of a chapel in Sta. Maria del 
 Popolo and for Leo X. the celebrated 
 cartoons for the tapestry of one of the 
 chambers of the Vatican. Seven of these 
 cartoons are now in the South Kensing- 
 ton museum. To this period also belong 
 his easel -pieces of John in the Desert 
 (of which there exist several copies) ; 
 his Madonna and Child, on whom an 
 angel is strevdng flowers; a St. Margaret 
 (Louvre); the Madonna della Seggiola 
 (Florence), St. Cecilia (Bologna). Ra- 
 phael’s last and unfinished painting — 
 the Transfiguration of Christ — is in the 
 Vatican. Attacked by a violent fever, 
 which was increased by improper treat- 
 ment, this great artist died at the age of 
 thirty-seven years, and was buried with 
 great pomp in the Pantheon. His tomb 
 is indicated by his bust, executed by 
 Naldini, and placed there by Carlo 
 Maratti. 
 
 RA'PHIA, a genus of palms, rather 
 low trees with immense leaves, inhabit- 
 
 Eaphla vinlfera. 
 
 ing swampy coasts. One specie, a native 
 of West Africa, Madagascar, Polynesia, 
 
RAPID FIRE GUN 
 
 RATTLESNAKE 
 
 etc., besides yielding palm-wine, supplies 
 materials for the roofs and other parts 
 of houses, for baskets and other work, 
 etc. The fibre of these palms is known 
 as raphia or raffia, and is used for mat- 
 ting, for tying up plants, etc. 
 
 RAPID FIRE GUN. See Machine Gun. 
 Quick Firing Guns. 
 
 RA'PIER, a light, highly-tempered, 
 edgeless and finely-pointed weapon of the 
 sword kind, used for thrusting. It is 
 about 3 feet in length and was long a 
 favorite weapon for duels. Its use now, 
 however, is restricted to occasions of 
 state ceremonial. 
 
 RAPPAHAN'NOCK, a river in Vir- 
 ginia, which rises in the Blue Ridge, 
 runs e.s.e. about 130 miles, and flows 
 into Chesapeake bay. It passes the 
 towns of Falmouth, Fredericksburg, 
 Port-Royal, and Leeds, and is navigable 
 to Fredericksburg, 110 miles. 
 
 RAPTO'RES, the birds of prey, an 
 order of birds, also called Accipitres, in- 
 cluding those which live on other birds 
 and animals, and are characterized by 
 a strong, curved, sharp-edged, and 
 sharp-pointed beak, and robust short 
 legs, with three toes before and one be- 
 hind, armed with long, strong, and 
 crooked talons. The eagles, vultures, 
 falcons, and owls are examples. 
 
 RARTTAN, a river of New Jersey, 
 United States, formed by two branches 
 which unitedly flow s.e., and fall into 
 Raritan bay near Perth Amboy. It is 
 navigable as far as New Brunswick. 
 
 RASHI, properly Rabbi Solomon- 
 ben-Isaak, a great Jewish rabbi, born 
 at Troyes, France, in 1040; died 1105. 
 His most famous work is a Commentary 
 on the Pentateuch; he also wrote com- 
 mentaries on the Prophets, the Talmud, 
 and various treatises on miscellaneous 
 subjects. 
 
 RASO'RES, gallinaceous birds or 
 scratchers, an order of birds comprising 
 the sub-orders Gallinacei, or fowls, tur- 
 keys, partridges, grouse, etc., and the 
 Columtjacei, or pigeons, which are often 
 made a distinct order. The common 
 domestic fowl may be regarded as the 
 type of the order. They arc charac- 
 terized by the toes terminating in strong 
 claws, for scratching up seeds, etc., and 
 by the upper mandible being vaulted, 
 with the nostrils pierced in a mem- 
 braneous space at its base, and covered 
 by a cartilaginous scale. The rosarial 
 birds are, as a rule, polygamous in 
 habits; the pigeons, however, present 
 an exception to this rule, and their 
 young are also produced featherless and 
 helpless. 
 
 RASPBERRY, the fruit of the well- 
 known shrubby plant and the plant 
 itself, which is of the same genus as the 
 bramble or blackberry, dewberry, and 
 cloudberry. Several varieties are cul- 
 tivated, either red, flesh-colored, or 
 yellow. Raspberries are much used in 
 cookery and confectionery, and the juice 
 mixed with a certain portion of sugar and 
 brandy, constitutes the liquor called 
 raspberry brandy. Raspberry vinegar, 
 a refreshing summer beverage and cool- 
 ing drink for invalids, is composed of 
 raspberry juice, vinegar, and sugar. 
 
 RAT, one of the rodent mammalia, | 
 forming a typical example of the family 
 Muridae or mice. The best known species 
 
 are the (so-called) Norway or brown 
 rat and the true English or black rat. The 
 brown rat grows to about 9 inches in 
 length, has a shorter tail than the other, 
 small ears, is of a brownish color above 
 and white below, and is altogether a 
 much larger and stronger animal. Sup- 
 posed to have belonged originally to 
 India and China, it only became known 
 in Europe about the middle of the 
 18th century; but it is now found in al- 
 most every part of the habitable globe, 
 and where it has found a footing the 
 black rat has disappeared. It is a 
 voracious omnivorous animal, swims 
 readily in water, breeds four or five 
 times in the year, each brood numbering 
 about a dozen, and these again breed in 
 about six months. The black rat is 
 usually about 7 inches in length, has a 
 sharper head than the other, larger ears 
 and a much longer tail. It is much less 
 numerous than the brown rat and more 
 timid. To this variety belongs the white 
 rat, which is sometimes kept as a house- 
 hold pet. Various other animals are 
 called rats. 
 
 RATCHET, an arm or piece of mechan- 
 ism one extremity of which abuts 
 against the teeth of a ratchet-wheel; 
 called also a click, pawl, or detent. If 
 employed to move the wheel it is called 
 a pallet. See next article. 
 
 RATCHET-WHEEL, a wheel with 
 pointed and angular teeth, against 
 which a ratchet abuts, used either for 
 converting a reciprocating into a rotary 
 motion on the shaft to which it is fixed 
 or for admitting of circular motion in 
 
 one direction only as in a winch, a cap- 
 stan, etc. For both purposes an arrange- 
 ment is employed similar to that shown 
 in the figure, in which a is the ratchet- 
 wheel, b a reciprocating lever, to the 
 end of which is jointed the small racthet 
 or pallet c. This ratchet, when the 
 lever is moved in one direction, slides 
 over the teeth, but in returning draws 
 the wheel with it. The other ratchet d 
 permits of the motion of the wheel in the 
 direction of the arrow, but opposes its 
 movement in other the direction. 
 
 RATEL', or HONEY-BADGER, a car- 
 nivorous quadruped of the badger 
 
 Honey-ratel. 
 
 family, found chiefly in South and East 
 Africa, and in India. The Cape or South 
 
 African ratel averages about 3 feet in 
 length, including the tail, which meas- 
 ures 8 or 9 inches in length. The fur is 
 thick and coarse, the color is black on 
 the under parts, on the muzzle, and 
 limbs, whilst the tail, upper surface, 
 sides, and neck are of grayish hue. It is 
 celebrated for the destruction it makes 
 among the nests of the wild bee, to the 
 honey of which it is very partial. 
 
 RATIO, the numerical measure which 
 one quantity bears to another of the 
 same kind, expressed by the number 
 found by dividing the one by the other. 
 The ratio of one quantity to another is 
 by some mathematicans regarded as the 
 quotient obtained by dividing the 
 second quantity by the first; by others, 
 as the quotient obtained by dividing 
 the first by the second. 
 
 RATIONALISM, is the doctrine which 
 affirms the prerogative and right of 
 reason to decide on all matters of faith 
 and morals whatever so-called “author- 
 ity” may have to say on the matter. 
 In 1835 Strauss published his Life of 
 Jesus, a work in which, from the Hege- 
 lian stand-point, and in a destructive 
 spirit, he discusses the origin of the New 
 Testament. The movement which this 
 originated is chiefly associated with 
 scientific materialism, agnosticism, etc., 
 and rationalism as a distinctive phase 
 of religious controversy may be said to 
 have then ceased. 
 
 RA'TISBON, a town of Bavaria, capi- 
 tal of the province of Oberpfalz or Upper 
 Palatinate, stands on the right bank of 
 the Danube opposite the junction of the 
 Regen, 65 miles n.n.e. of Munich and 53 
 miles s.e. of Nuremberg; 1010 feet above 
 the sea. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 RAT'LINES, small lines which tra- 
 verse the shrouds of a ship horizontally, 
 at regular distances of about 15 to 16 
 inches, forming a variety of ladders 
 reaching upwards to the different mast- 
 heads. 
 
 RATTANS', the commercial name for 
 the long trailing stems of various species 
 of palm forming a considerable article 
 of export from India and the Eastern 
 Archipelago. They have all perennial, 
 long, round, solid, jointed, unbranching 
 stems, extremely tough and pliable. All 
 the species are very useful, and are 
 employed for wicker-work, seats of 
 chairs, walking-sticks, thongs, ropes, 
 cables, etc. 
 
 RATTLESNAKE, a name of various 
 venomous American snakes, distin- 
 guished from the other members of the 
 family by the tail terminating in a 
 series of articulated horny pieces, which 
 the animal vibrates in such a manner 
 as to make a rattling sound. _ The func- 
 tion of the “rattle” is dubious. The 
 rattlesnake is one of the most deadly 
 of poisonous serpents, but hogs and 
 peccaries kill and eat it, finding protec- 
 tion in the thickness of their hides and 
 the depth of their layers of fat. A num- 
 ber of species belong to the United 
 States and Mexico. East of the Missis- 
 sippi the banded rattlesnake, is the best 
 known and most dreaded species. It is 
 naturally a sluggish animal, ready to 
 defend itself, but seldom commencing 
 the attack. It feeds on rats, squirrels, 
 small rabbits, etc., and reaches a length 
 of 5 or 6 feet. Other species are the 
 
RAUCH 
 
 RAYNOUARD 
 
 striped rattlesnake, found from Mexico 
 to Brazil; the diamond rattlesnake, the 
 western black rattlesnake, the prairie 
 
 Rattlesnake coiled to sti-ike. 
 
 rattlesnake, and the horned rattlesnake 
 of the American deserts. 
 
 RAUCH (rouh), Christian, one of the 
 most distinguished of German sculptors, 
 born at Arolsen 1777, died 1857. He 
 was especially great in ideal figures and 
 in portraiture. Among his chefs d’ceuvre 
 may be mentioned the monument of 
 King Frederick William III. and Queen 
 Louisa in the Charlottenburg mauso- 
 leum, the colossa' equestrian statue of 
 Frederick the Great at Berlin, having 
 the base surrounded by groups of his 
 most distinguished contemporaries, and 
 forming altogether one of the most 
 notable monuments in Europe; the six 
 colossal figures of Victory in the Wal- 
 halla, and a group representing Moses 
 with his hands supported by Aaron and 
 Hur. 
 
 RAVAILLAC (ra-va-yak), Francois, 
 the murderer of Henry IV. of France, 
 born 1578. His various disappointments 
 and his religious fanaticism led him to 
 plan the assassination of Henry IV., 
 which he successfully accomplished 
 14th May, 1610. Upon this he was 
 seized, horribly tortured, and put to 
 death. 
 
 RAV'ELIN, a detached triangular 
 work in fortification, with two embank- 
 ments which form a projecting angle. 
 In the figure b b is the ravelin with a 
 
 its redout, and c c its ditch, d d being the 
 main ditch of the fortress, and e the 
 passage giving access from the fortress 
 to the ravelin. 
 
 RAVEN, a large bird of the crow fam- 
 ily. Its plumage is entirely black; it is 
 above 2 feet in length from the tip of the 
 bill to the extremity of the tail, and 
 about 52 inches from tip to tip of the 
 
 extended wings. It can be taught to 
 imitate human speech, and in a domestic 
 state is remarkable for its destructive- 
 ness, thievishness, and love of glittering 
 things. It flies high, and scents carrion, 
 which is its favorite food, at the distance 
 
 Raven. 
 
 of several miles; it feeds also on fruit, 
 small animals, etc. It is found in every 
 part of the globe. 
 
 RAVEN'NA, a town of Italy, capital 
 of the province of the same name, on the 
 Montone, about 4 miles west of the 
 Adriatic, and 43 miles east by south of 
 Bologna. The principal edifices are the 
 cathedral, founded in the 4th but re- 
 built during the 17th century, adorned 
 with some of Guido’s finest paintings; 
 the ancient baptistry, an octagonal 
 structure, the church of San Vitale, one 
 of the earliest of Christian churches, hav- 
 ing been consecrated in 547 ; the Basilica 
 of San Giovanni Evangelista, founded in 
 414, the church of San Apollinare Nuovo 
 (or San Martino), the mausoleum of the 
 empress Galla Placidia, daughter of 
 Theodosius the Great, dating from the 
 5th century; the palace of Theodoric, 
 king of the Ostro-Goths; the tomb of 
 Dante ; the town-house, library, museum, 
 etc. Pop. 64,031. The province has an 
 area of 820 sq. miles; pop. 235,485. 
 
 RAWAL PINDI, a town of British 
 India, in the Punjab, situated in the 
 district between the Indus and the 
 Jhilam. It has an arsenal, extensive 
 cantonments, and important military 
 works, churches, schools, public park, 
 etc. It is on the railway from Lahore 
 to Peshawar, and carries on a thriving 
 transit trade between Hindustan and 
 Afghanistan. Pop. 87,688. 
 
 RAWLINS, John Aaron, American 
 soldier, was born in East Galena, 111., in 
 1831. On April 16, 1861, shortly after 
 the fall of Fort Sumter, he made a 
 powerful war speech at a meeting which 
 was presided over by Ulysses S. Grant. 
 Shortly afterward he became a major 
 in an Illinois regiment, but resigned that 
 post in order to become Grant’s assist- 
 ant adjutant-general, friend and ad- 
 viser. He became chief of staff in No- 
 vember, 1862, and was honored with 
 numerous promotions, ending with that 
 of brevet major-general, March 13, 1865. 
 When Grant became president he made 
 Rawlins his secretary of war. He died 
 in 1869. 
 
 RAWLINSON, Rev. George, born in 
 1815. Besides various short works on 
 antiquity he published a translation of 
 
 Herodotus with a commentary (1858- 
 60) ; The Five Great Monarchies of the 
 Ancient Eastern World (4 vols. 1862- 
 67), followed by the Sixth (1873), and 
 the Seventh Oriental Monarchy (1876); 
 History of Ancient Egypt (2 vols. 
 1881) ; Egypt and Babylon (1885) ; Phoe- 
 nicia (1889), etc. He died in 1902. 
 
 RAWLINSON, Sir Henry Creswicke, 
 G.C.B., brother of the above, born in 
 1810. He has published A Commentary 
 on the Cuneiform Inscriptions of Baby- 
 lon and Assyria (1850); Outline of the 
 History of Assyria (1852); Notes on the 
 Early History of Babylon (1854); and 
 the Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western 
 Asia, edited along with E. Norris and 
 G. Smith (5 vols. 1861-70). He was 
 D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of Cambridge 
 F.R.S., and a corresponding member of 
 the French Institute. He died in 1895. 
 
 RAY, a family of fishes, including the 
 skate and allied forms, recognized by the 
 flattened body and by the extremely 
 broad and fleshy peetoral fins, which 
 seem to be mere continuations of the 
 body. These fishes produce large eggs 
 which are inclosed in cartilaginous cap- 
 sules quadrilateral in form, with pro- 
 
 Ray. 
 
 cesses at the corners, and known famil- 
 iarly as “mermaids’ purses,’’ etc. The 
 most common members of this group 
 are the thornback ray or skate, so 
 named from the curved spines which 
 arm the back and tail; and the common 
 gray or blue skate, which possesses an 
 acutely-pointed muzzle, the body being 
 somewhat lozenge-shaped, and the color 
 ashy-gray above. The starry ray is so 
 called from having a number of spines 
 on its upper surface rising from rayed 
 or starlike bases; it reaches a length of 
 30 inches. The sting ray occurs in the 
 Mediterranean sea, but is also found on 
 the Brftish coasts, having the tail armed 
 with a long spine, serving as a means of 
 defense. The horned ray, common in the 
 Mediterranean sea, attains occasionally 
 a large size. 
 
 RAYNOUARD (ra-no-ar), Frangois 
 Juste Marie, French poet and philologist, 
 born at Brignoles, Provence, 1761; died 
 1836. We wrote several tragedies, such 
 as Scipion, Don Carlos, Charles I., Les 
 Templiers, but he is chiefly remembered 
 as a philologist who revived the study 
 of Proven9al by his Choix des Poesies 
 originales des Troubadours (1816-21), 
 six vols. 8vo) ; Lexique Roman, ou Dic- 
 tionnaire de la Langue des Troubadours 
 (1836-44, six vols. 8vo) ; Grammaire 
 Compart des Langues de I’Europe 
 Latine dans leurs Rapports avec la 
 Langue des Troubadours (1821, 8vo). 
 
RAZORBILL 
 
 RAZORBILL (ra'zor-bil), the razor- 
 billed auk, or tinker, so called from the 
 deep, compressed, and trenchant bill. 
 The bill is feathered for about one-half 
 its length, in the rest of its extent being 
 vertically furrowed, and hooked at the 
 tip ; one of the furrows is white, the bill 
 being otherwise black, like the feet ; the 
 mouth is yellow. The plumage is black 
 on the upper parts, the lower parts from 
 the neck in summer, and from the bill 
 in winter, being white ; there is a narrow 
 white line from the bill to the eye, and 
 the tips of the secondaries are white. 
 The bird is about 18 inches long, and 27 
 
 Razorbill, in winter plumage. 
 
 in extent of wings. It inhabits arctic 
 and northerly regions of both hemis- 
 pheres, subsists chiefly on fish, and nests 
 on rocky sea-coasts, laying a single egg 
 about 3 by 2 inches, white or whitish, 
 spotted and blotched w'ith different 
 shades of brown. The flesh is eatable. 
 
 REACTION , in physics, counteraction, 
 the resistance made by a body to the 
 action or impulse of another body, 
 which endeavors to change its state, 
 either of motion or rest. It is an axiom 
 in mechanics that “action and reaction 
 are always equal and contrary,” or that 
 the mutual actions of two bodies are 
 always equal and exerted in opposite 
 directions. In chemistry, the term is 
 applied to the mutual or reciprocal ac- 
 tion of chemical agents upon each other. 
 In pathology, reaction is the action of 
 an organ which reflects upon another 
 the irritation previously transmitted 
 to itself. 
 
 READE (red), Charles, novelist, son 
 of Mr. John Reade of Ipsden house in 
 Oxfordshire, born in 1814, died 1884. 
 The most scholarly and artistic of his 
 writings. The Cloister and the Hearth, 
 dealing with the lives of the parents 
 of Erasmus, appeared in 1861, and 
 among the more important cf his other 
 works are: The Course of Lrue Love 
 Never Did Run Smooth, Love Me Little 
 Love Me Long, White Lies, Hard Cash, 
 Griffith Gaunt, Put Yourself in His 
 Place, A Terrible Temptation, Single- 
 heart and Double-face, A Perilous Se- 
 cret, etc. 
 
 READ, Nathan, American inventor, 
 was born in Warren, Mass., in 1759. 
 In 1788 he conceived the idea of utiliz- 
 ing the steam engine for propelling 
 boats and carriages, and, with that 
 end in view, began a series of ex- 
 periments which resulted in the in- 
 vention (1789) of the vertical multi- 
 tubular fire-box boiler now in general 
 use. In 1 798 he patented a machine for 
 cutting and heading nails at one opera- 
 tion. He was a member of congress from 
 1800 to 1803. Among his inventions 
 
 were; a pumping engine, a threshing 
 machine, a method for equalizing the 
 action of windmills, and a plan for 
 utilizing the force of the tide, by means 
 of reservoirs. He died in 1849. 
 
 READ, Opie Percival, an American 
 author, was born in Nashville, Tenn., 
 in 1852. He edited the Kansas Gazette 
 from 1878 until 1881. In 1883 he estab- 
 lished the Arkansaw Traveler, of which 
 he was the editor until 1893. His works 
 include: A Kentucky Colonel, Emmet 
 Bonlore, A Tennessee Judge, My Young 
 Master, Bolanyo, In the Alamo, The 
 Jucklins, An American in New York, 
 and several plays. 
 
 READ, Thomas Buchanan, American 
 poet and artist, born in Chester co.. Pa., 
 in 1822. He is best known as a poet, 
 especially for his stirring Sheridan’s 
 Ride, and his charming stanzas entitled 
 Drifting. His first volume, Poems, 
 appeared in 1847. Lays and Ballads 
 followed the next year; The New Pas- 
 toral, an elaborate description of Penn- 
 sylvania life; The House by the Sea. In 
 1848 he compiled a volume entitled 
 Female Poets of America, which was 
 illustrated by engravings of portraits 
 painted by himself. He died in New 
 York City in 1872. 
 
 READING (red'ing), a pari, county, 
 and municipal borough of England, 
 capital of the county of Berks, on the 
 Kennet, near its confluence with the 
 Thames, 36 miles west of London. There 
 are interesting remains of a magnificent 
 abbey founded by Henry I., who was 
 buried within its precincts in 1135. 
 Reading sends one member to parlia- 
 ment. Pop. 72,214. 
 
 READING, a city in Pennsylvania, on 
 the left bank of the Schuylkill, 52 miles 
 northwest of Philadelphia. The chief 
 industries are muslin and woolen goods, 
 felt hats, iron-founding, tanning, etc. 
 Pop. 92,300. 
 
 READJUSTERS, the name applied to 
 a political party in Virginia which 
 favored the readjustment or scaling 
 down of the state debt which at the 
 close of the civil war amounted to about 
 $41,000,000, and which was increased 
 by the extravagance and corruption of 
 the reconstruction governments. 
 
 REAGAN (re'gan), John H., senator, 
 was born in Sevier co., Tenn., October 
 8, 1818. In 1839 he went to Texas, where 
 he served against the Indians. He was 
 elected to congress in 1856, serving till 
 the war broke out, when he became a 
 member of the state secession conven- 
 tion; voted for secession, and was sent 
 to the provisional congress. He was 
 made postmaster-general of the con- 
 federacy, and was for a short time act- 
 ing secretary of the treasury. After the 
 fall of the confederacy he was captured 
 with Jefferson Davis, and confined for 
 many months in Fort Warren. He was 
 elected to congress in 1874, and suc- 
 cessively till 1887, in which year he was 
 elected senator for Texas. He resigned 
 from the senate to become chairman 
 of the Texas State Railroad Commission. 
 He was one of the authors of the inter- 
 state commerce law, passed in 1887. 
 He died in 1905. 
 
 REA'GENT, in chemical analysis, a 
 substance employed as a test to deter- 
 mine the presence of some other sub- 
 
 REAPING-M.\C1I1NE, or REAPER 
 
 stance. Thus, the infusion of galls is a 
 reagent which detects iron by a dark 
 purple precipitate; the prussiate of 
 potash is a reagent which exhibits a blue 
 with the same metal, etc. 
 
 REAL, in law, pertaining to things 
 fixed, permanent, or immovable. Thus 
 real estate is landed property, including 
 all estates and interest in lands which 
 are held for life or for some greater 
 estate, and whether such lands be of 
 freehold or copyhold tenure. So a real 
 action is an action brought for the 
 specific recovery of lands, tenements, 
 and hereditaments. 
 
 I^ALISM, in metaphysics, as opposed 
 to idealism, the doctrine that tltiere is 
 an immediate or intuitive cognition 
 of external objects, while according to 
 idealism all we are conscious of is our 
 ideas. According to realism external 
 objects exist independently of our sen- 
 sations or conceptions; according to 
 idealism they have no such independent 
 existence. As opposed to nominalism, 
 it is the doctrine that asserts that gen- 
 eral terms like man, tree, etc. are not 
 mere abstractions, but have real exis- 
 tences corresponding to them. In the 
 middle ages there was a great con- 
 troversy between the realists and the 
 nominalists, the chief controversy which 
 divided the schoolmen into rival parties. 
 The realists maintained that things 
 and not words are the objects of dia- 
 lectics. Under the denomination of real- 
 ist were comprehended the Scotists and 
 Thomists, and all other sects of school- 
 men, except the followers of Ocean and 
 Abelard, who were nominalists. 
 
 REAM, a quantity of paper, consist- 
 ing of 20'quires of 24 sheets each. The 
 printer’s ream consists of 21 J quires, 
 or 516 sheets. 
 
 REAPING-MACHINE, or REAPER, a 
 
 machine for cutting down standing wheat, 
 etc., usually worked by a pair of horses, 
 the cutting machinery being driven by 
 being connected with the wheels on 
 which the machine is drawn over the 
 field. The cutting is effected rather in 
 the manner of a pair of scissors than in 
 that of a scythe, and a. series of small 
 toothed wheels have to be connected 
 with the main wheel or wheels so as to 
 produce the fast motion necessary for 
 driving the cutting knives. These knives 
 generally consist of triangular pieces of 
 steel riveted to an iron bar, and are 
 sometimes smooth-edged and some- 
 times tooth-edged. The knife-bar pro- 
 jects horizontally from the side of the 
 machine at a short distance above the 
 ground, and moves backward and for- 
 ward on guides fixed at the back of a 
 number of pointed fingers, which enter 
 the standing grain and guide the straw 
 to the edges of the knives. The motion 
 of the bar being very rap^, the grain is 
 cut down with corresponding speed, and 
 as it is cut it is received on a platform 
 fixed behind the knife-bar. In most 
 cases a revolving rake with four inclined 
 arms is attached to such machines, and 
 set in motion by the driving-wheel. Two 
 of the arms bring the wheat well on to the 
 knife-bar, and the others deliver the 
 wheat cut at the back of the machine. 
 Many of the recent machines are also fit- 
 ted with a binding apparatus. .4n endless 
 apron receives the grain as it is cut, and 
 
REASON 
 
 RED CROSS SOCIETIES 
 
 deposits it in a trough on the outer side 
 of the machine. By an ingenious me- 
 chanical arrangement the loose straw 
 is caught and compressed by two iron 
 arms; wire from a reel is passed round 
 t- the sheaf, fastened by twisting, cut 
 ' away, and the bound sheaf is tossed 
 out of the trough by one of the arms by 
 which it was compressed. Other ap- 
 • paratus are constructed so as to bind 
 ; with cord, straw rope, etc. See Agri- 
 , culture. 
 
 t REASON, a faculty of the mind by 
 1 which it distinguishes truth from false- 
 E hood, and which enables the possessor 
 I to deduce inferences from facts or from 
 fc propositions, and to combine means for 
 the attainment of particular ends. 
 Reason is the highest faculty of the 
 human mind, by which man is distin- 
 guished from brutes, and which enables 
 ^ him to contemplate things spiritual as 
 [ well as material, to weigh all that can 
 ■ be said or thought for and against them, 
 
 I and hence to draw conclusions and to act 
 accordingly. In the language of English 
 i philosophy the terms reason and under- 
 [ standing are sometimes nearly identical, 
 and are so used by Sewart; but in the 
 i critical philosophy of Kant a broad dis- 
 tinction is drawn between them. 
 
 ; REAUMUR (ra-o-miir), Ren4 Antoine 
 1 Ferchault de, French physicist and 
 I naturalist, born in 1683 at La Rochelle, 
 
 ' died 1757. As a natural philosopher he is 
 ‘ celebrated for the invention of an im- 
 proved thermometer, which he made 
 known in 1731 (see Thermometer); but 
 his greatest work is the M^moires pour 
 servir ^THistoire Naturelle des Insectes, 
 6 vols. 
 
 REBEC', an old stringed instrument 
 somewhat similar to the violin, having 
 properly three strings tuned in fifths. 
 
 Ret)ec of the sixteenth century. 
 
 and played with a bow. It was of 
 Arabian or Turkish origin and was in- 
 troduced by the Moors into Spain. 
 
 REBUS, a group of words or a phrase 
 f written by figures or pictures of objects 
 whose names resemble in sound the 
 
 Rebus of Abbot Isllp, Rebus of Bishop Oldham, 
 Westminster abbey. Rxeter cathedral. 
 
 words or the syllables of which they are 
 t composed; thus, “I can see you” might 
 L be expressed by figures or pictures of an 
 eye, a can, the sea, and a ewe. In 
 heraldry a rebus is a device on a coat of 
 arms conveying an illusion to the name 
 of the person, as castles for Castleton, 
 three cups for Butler. The accompany- 
 ing cuts show rebuses on personal names 
 (not very happy attemps, however), the 
 one standing for the name Oldham 
 (Owledom), the other for Islip. I slip 
 
 may be obtained several ways, as from 
 the eye and the slips on the tree ; or the 
 figure may be supposed to say “I slip,” 
 or the hand to belong to a person slip- 
 ping. 
 
 RECAMIER (ra-ka-mi-a.), Jeanne 
 Fran9oise Julie Adelaide, whose maiden 
 name was Bernard, born at Lyons 1777, 
 died 1849. At the age of sixteen she 
 went to Paris, and was there married 
 to Jacques Rdcamier, a rich banker, 
 more than double her own age. From 
 this time her aim was to surround her- 
 self with personal admirers, and to at- 
 tract to her salon the chief personages in 
 French literature and politics. 
 
 RECIPROC'ITY, a term in economics 
 commonly applied in international re- 
 lationships to the arrangement whereby 
 two nations mutually agree to import 
 to each other certain goods, either duty 
 free or with duties which are equivalent. 
 
 Spa Ti I'PP—'f uq fiP 
 
 RECON'NAISSANCE, in military af- 
 fairs, an examination of a territory or of 
 an enemy’s position, for the purpose of 
 directing military operations. The term 
 is also used in geodetics, etc., a recon- 
 naissance being an examination of a 
 region as to its general natural features, 
 preparatory to a more particular survey, 
 as for determining the location of a road, 
 a railway, a canal, or the like. 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION, in American his- 
 tory, the method by which the seceded 
 states, after the war, were restored to 
 their former relations with the union. 
 
 RECTANGLE, a right-angled parallel- 
 ogram, or a quadrilateral figure having 
 all its angles right angles and its op- 
 posite sides equal. Every rectangle is 
 said to be contained by any two of the 
 sides about one of its right angles. 
 
 RECTIFY, in chemistry, to refine by 
 repeated distillation or sublimation, by 
 which the fine parts of a substance (as 
 some kind of spirits) are separated from 
 the grosser. To rectify liquors, in the 
 spirit trade, is to convert the alcohol 
 produced by the distiller into gin, 
 brandy, etc., by adding flavoring ma- 
 terials to it. Thus in order to convert 
 the spirit into London gin, juniper 
 berries and coriander seeds are added 
 previous to the last rectific.ation. CEnan- 
 thic ether and other things give the 
 flavor of brandy. 
 
 RECTUM, in anatomy, the third and 
 last part of the large intestine opening 
 at the anus ; so named from an erroneous 
 notion of the old anatomists that it was 
 straight. 
 
 RED, one of the primary colors, the 
 color of that part of the spectrum which 
 is farthest from the violet. The red rays 
 are the least refrangible of all the rays 
 of light. (See Color.) Red pigments or 
 coloring matters include Vermillion, 
 realgar, cochineal, lakes and madders, 
 coal-tar colors, etc. The different forms 
 of oxide of iron are Indian red, which is 
 pure, finely ground hsematite; Venetian 
 red and colcothar, which are coarser 
 forms of the same substance. Minium or 
 lead oxide, and another form of the same 
 substance containing a little carbonate, 
 are known as Paris red. 
 
 REDAN', in field fortification, the 
 simplest kind of work employed, con- 
 sisting of two parapets of earth raised 
 so as to form a salient angle, with the 
 
 apex toward the enemy and unprotected 
 on th* rear. Several redans connected 
 
 Redans. 
 
 by curtains form lines of intenchment. 
 
 RED-BIRD, the popular name of 
 several birds in the United States, as the 
 summer red-bird, the Baltimore oriole 
 or hang-nest. 
 
 REDBREAST, or ROBIN RED- 
 BREAST, a species of bird belonging 
 to the family of warblers. The red 
 breast of the male is the distinguishing 
 feature of these well-known birds, the 
 female possessing the breast of a duller 
 yellowish-brown color. The young are of 
 a dull yellowish-green color, and want 
 the characteristic breast-coloring of the 
 
 American robin. 
 
 adult. The nest is made of moss and 
 leaves, and is lined internally with 
 feathers. The eggs number five or six, 
 and are white, spotted with pale brown. 
 The robin redbreast of America is a 
 thrush, congeneric with the British 
 blackbird; and one of the bluebirds, is 
 usually called the blue robin. 
 
 RED CEDAR, a species of juniper 
 found in North America and the ''^st 
 Indies ; the heartwood is of a bright red, 
 smooth, and moderately soft, and is in 
 much request for the outsides of black- 
 lead pencils. 
 
 RED CORAL, an important genus of 
 sclerobasic corals belonging to the order 
 of Alcyonaria, Red coral is highly 
 valued for the manufacture of jewelry, 
 and is obtained from the coasts of 
 Sicily, Italy, and other parts of the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 RED CROSS SOCIETIES, . interna- 
 tional associations formed to mitigate 
 the horrors of war by alleviating the 
 sufferings of the sick and wounded. 
 M. Jean Henri Dunant, a citizen of 
 Geneva, Switzerland, was an eye wit- 
 ness at the Battle of Solferino to the 
 unnecessary suffering that resulted from 
 inability of the regular surgical corps 
 to take care of the thousands of wounded 
 who lay upon the field. In his book 
 Un Souvenir de Solf6rino, published 
 three years afterward, he described the 
 horrors witnessed and proposed that 
 societies be formed in every country 
 for the purpose of training nurses to 
 supplement the regular military surgical 
 
RED CURRANT 
 
 REDSTART 
 
 corps in time of war. An international 
 conference was held in Geneva in 1863, 
 sixteen nations being present, and a 
 provisional program agreed upon. The 
 Geneva convention was signed in 1864 
 by fourteen nations, a number that has 
 now been increased to forty three. In 
 1884 the American National Red Cross 
 society was formed, and its usefulness 
 widened by including not only relief 
 during war, but also during great 
 calamities, such as famine, pestilence, 
 flood, or fire. The American association 
 has expended over $2,000,000, and has 
 afforded relief to the sufferers from the 
 Michigan fires of 1881, the Florida yel- 
 low fever of 1888, the Johnstown fiood 
 of 1889, the Russian famine of 1891-92, 
 the South Carolina tidal wave of 1893, 
 the Armenian massacres of 1896, the 
 Spanish reconcentrado system in Cuba 
 in 1897-98, the Galveston tidal wave of 
 1900, the Mont Pelee eruption of 1902, 
 and the San Francisco earthquake and 
 fire in 1906. The association rendered 
 valuable assistance during the Spanish- 
 American war. 
 
 RED CURRANT, a deciduous shrub 
 much cultivated for|its fruit, indigenous 
 in the northern portions of Europe and 
 America. The juice of the fruit is used 
 for making jelly, and a well-known fer- 
 mented liquor called current wine. 
 
 RED-FISH, a species of fish found on 
 the Atlantic coast of North America, 
 a large red fish caught in considerable 
 
 numbers for food. A smaller species 
 receives the same name, and is called 
 also red-perch, rose-fish, etc. 
 
 RED GUM, the popular name of a 
 florid eruption usually occurring in in- 
 fants before and during first dentition, 
 and appearing on the most exposed 
 parts, as the face, neck, arms, and hands. 
 It is almost always an innocent disease, 
 and seldom lasts over a month. 
 
 RED HAND, in heraldry, originallythe 
 arms of the province of Ulster, but 
 granted to baronets as their distinguish- 
 ing badge on the institution of the order 
 in 1611. It consists of a sinister (or 
 left) hand, open, erect, showing the 
 palm. 
 
 RED-LEAD, an oxide of lead pro- 
 duced by heating the protoxide in con- 
 tact with air. It is much used as a pig- 
 ment, and is commonly known as 
 Minium. 
 
 RED OCHRE, a name common to a 
 variety of pigments, rather than desig- 
 nating an individual color, and com- 
 prehending Indian red, light red, Vene- 
 tian red, scarlet ochre, Indian ochre, 
 reddle, bole, and other oxides of iron. 
 As a mineral it designates a soft earthy 
 variety of hiematite. 
 
 REDOUT', in fortification, a general 
 name for nearly every class of works 
 wholly inclosed and undefended by re- 
 
 entering or flanking angles. The word 
 is, however, most generally used for a 
 small inclosed work of various form — 
 polygonal, square, triangular, or even 
 circular, and used mainly as a temporary 
 field work. 
 
 RED PINE, a species of pine also 
 called Norway Pine. Its wood is very 
 resinous and durable, and is much used 
 in house and ship-building. It produces 
 turpentine, tar, pitch, resin, and lamp- 
 black. 
 
 RED-POLE (red-poll), a name given 
 to several species of linnets. The same 
 name is given to the American red- 
 headed warbler and yellow red-pole. 
 
 RED RIVER, a large river of the 
 United States, the southernmost of the 
 great tributaries of the Mississippi. It 
 rises in Northern Texas, and has several 
 sources, the chief, besides the main 
 stream, being called the North and 
 South Forks, which unite with it on the 
 boundary of Texas and Oklahoma ter- 
 ritory. The stream then flows e.s.e., 
 forming the boundary between Texas 
 and the Indian territory, and between 
 Texas and Arkansas; cuts off a corner of 
 the letter state, and then flowing through 
 Louisiana falls into the Mississippi, 125 
 miles northwest of New Orleans; total 
 course estimated at 1550 miles; chief 
 affluents — the Washita, which joins it 
 in Louisiana; and the False Washit 
 which it receives in the Indian territory, 
 Much of its course is through rich prai- 
 ries. About 1200 miles of the river are 
 useful for navigation, but its mouth at 
 low water can be entered only by boats 
 drawing 2 feet. 
 
 RED RIVER OF THE NORTH, a river 
 of North America, which rises in Elbow 
 lake, in Minnesota, flows south and 
 southwest, and then nearly north, cross- 
 ing from the United States into Mani- 
 toba, where it falls into Lake Winnipeg. 
 Its entire length is 665 miles, 525 of 
 which are in the United States. In 
 Manitoba it receives the Assiniboine, 
 another large stream, at its junction 
 with which stands the town of Winnipeg. 
 
 RED RIVER SETTLEMENT, a settle- 
 ment formed in 1812 by the Earl of Sel- 
 kirk on the banks of the above river; 
 repurchased by the Hudson’s Bay com- 
 pany in 1836; finally transferred to the 
 Canadian government in 1870 and now 
 made part of the province of Manitoba. 
 
 RED SEA, or ARABIAN GULF, a 
 branch of the Indian ocean, communi- 
 cating with it by the Strait of Bab-el- 
 Mandeb, stretching in a n.n.w. direction 
 between Arabia on the east, Abyssinia, 
 Nubia, and Egypt on the west, and con- 
 nected with the Mediterranean on the 
 north by the Suez canal. It forms a long 
 and narrow expanse, stretching for 1450 
 miles, with a breadth which averages 
 about 180 miles, but diminishes grad- 
 ually at its extremities. At the northern 
 end it divides into two branches, one of 
 which, forming the Gulf of Akaba, pene- 
 trates into Arabia for about 100 miles, 
 with an average breadth of about 15 
 miles; while the other, forming the Gulf 
 of Suez, penetrates between Arabia and 
 Egypt for about 200 miles, with an 
 average breadth of about 20 miles. 
 The shores consist generally of a low, 
 sandy tract, varying in width from 10 
 to 30 miles, and suddenly terminated ‘ 
 
 by the abutments of a lofty table-land 
 of 3000 feet to 6000 feet high. Occupy*^ 
 ing a long deep valley this water ex- 
 panse has gradually been divided into 
 three channels formed by coral reefs 
 and islands. In the main channel the 
 depth reaches in one place 1054 fathoms, 
 but diminishes toward the extremities 
 to 40 fathoms, while in the harbor of 
 Suez it amounts to only 3 fathoms. 
 The cross trade consists largely tf pil- 
 grims to and from Mecca ; the traffic up 
 and down has been immensely increased 
 by the Suez canal. The Isrealites are 
 supposed to have crossed the Red sea 
 at its northern extremity in the Gulf of 
 Suez, and near the town of that name, 
 but opinions vary as to the precise spot. 
 
 REDSHANK, a bird, so called from its 
 red legs. It is about 11 inches long, re- 
 sides in Britain all the year, but is known 
 also as a summer bird of passage in the 
 
 Redshank. 
 
 most northern parts of Europe and Asia, 
 occurring in winter as far south as India. 
 The spotted redshank visits Britain in 
 spring and autumn on its migrations 
 north and south. 
 
 REDSTART, a bird belonging to the 
 family Sylviadse, nearly allied to the 
 redbreast, but having a more slender 
 form and a more slender bill. It is found 
 in almost all parts of Britain as a sum- 
 mer bird of passage, and has a soft, sweet 
 song. The tail is red, whence the name, 
 start being A. -Saxon steort, a tail. The 
 forehead is white, the throat black, the 
 upper parts lead-gray or brown. The 
 
 American redstart. 
 
 black redstart is distinguished from the 
 common redstart by being sooty black 
 on the breast and belly where the other 
 is reddish brown, and is onl5’' an occa- 
 sional visitor to Great Britain. The 
 American redstart is a small bird of the 
 family Musicapidse or fly-catchers, com- 
 mon in most parts of North America. 
 
RED-TOP 
 
 REFLEX NERVOUS ACTION 
 
 RED-TOP, a well-known species of 
 bent-grass, highly valued in United 
 States for pasturage and hay for cattle. 
 
 RED-WOOD, the name of various 
 sorts of wood of a red color, as an Indian 
 dyewood; a coniferous tree of California, 
 the red-wood of the timber trade. The 
 tree reaches a very great size, and forms 
 forests in the coast mountains of Cali- 
 fornia 
 
 REEBOK (ra'bok; that is roebuck), 
 a species of South African antelope. The 
 horns are smooth, long, straight, and 
 slender. The reebok is 2 J feet high at the 
 
 Koebuck. 
 
 shoulder, of a slighter and more graceful 
 form than the generality of other ante- 
 lopes and extremely swift. 
 
 REED, Thomas Brackett, an Ameri- 
 can political leader, was born at Port- 
 land, Maine, in 1839. In 1868-69 he 
 was a member of the lower house of 
 the Maine legislature, and in 1870 sat 
 in the state senate. From 1870 to 1872 
 he was attorney-general of Maine; from 
 1874 to 1877 solicitor of the City of 
 Portland. In 1876 he was elected to 
 congress and was continuously reelected 
 until 1898. In 1889, 1895, 1897 he was 
 chosen speaker of the house. Before the 
 expiration of his last term he resigned 
 his seat in congress and entered upon 
 the practice of law in New York City. 
 In 1896 Reed was a candidate for the 
 republican nomination for the presi- 
 dency. He died in 1902. 
 
 REED, Walter, American army sur- 
 geon, sanitarian, and bacteriologist, was 
 born in Virginia in 1851. He was ap- 
 pointed assistant surgeon in the army in 
 1875. In 1893 he was appointed curator 
 of the Army Medical museum in Wash- 
 ington. In 1898 he was placed at the 
 head of a board to investigate the epi- 
 demic occurrence of typhoidfever among 
 the troops assembled for the Spanish- 
 American war. It developed that in- 
 fected water was not an important factor 
 but that the infection was distributed 
 by the agency of flies and on the hands, 
 feet and clothing of the men. In 1899 
 Reed, with his assistant, Carroll, demon- 
 strated the fallacy of the claim of 
 Sanarelli that the bacillus icteroides 
 was the causative agent of yellow fever. 
 In 1900 Reed went to Havana and 
 demonstrated that yellow fever is trans- 
 mitted by the bite of mosquitoes of a 
 certain variety, which have become in- 
 fected by previously biting persons sick 
 
 of yellow fever, with the result that 
 yellow lever was exterminated in Cuba. 
 He died in 1902. 
 
 REED, a name usually applied indis- 
 criminately to all tall, broad-leaved 
 grasses which grow along the banks of 
 streams, pools, and lakes, and even to 
 other plants with similar leaves, grow- 
 ing in such situations, as the bamboo. 
 The largest of all the grasses of northern 
 climates, is used for roofing cottages, 
 etc. The sea-reed or mat-grass is often 
 an important agent in binding together 
 the masses of loose sand on sea-shores. 
 The bur-reed of Britain is of the reed- 
 mace order. 
 
 REED, in music, a vibrating slip or 
 tongue in the mouth-piece through 
 which a hautboy, bassoon, or clarinet is 
 blown, originally made of reed; or one 
 of the thin plates of metal whose vibra- 
 tions produce the notes of an accordion, 
 concertina, or harmonium, or a similar 
 contrivance in an organ-pipe. 
 
 REED-BIRD. See Rice-bunting. 
 
 REED-MACE, a plant known b^y the 
 name of cat-tail, and grows in ditches 
 and marshy places, and in the borders of 
 ponds, lakes, and rivers. They are tall, 
 stout, erect plants, sometimes 6 or 8 
 feet high, with creeping root-stocks, 
 long flag-like leaves, and long, dense, 
 cylindrical brown spikes of minute 
 flowers. They are sometimes errone- 
 ously called bulrush. 
 
 REEF, a certain portion of a sail be- 
 tween the top or bottom and a row of 
 eyelet-holes running across the sail, one 
 or more reefs being folded or rolled up to 
 contract the sail in proportion to the in- 
 crease of the wind. There are sets of 
 cords called reef-points attached to the 
 sail for tying up the reefs, and the sail 
 is also strengthened by reef-bands across 
 it. There are several reefs parallel to 
 each other in the superior sails, and 
 
 Wherry with fore sail reefed, the 
 main-sail showing reef-hands 
 and reef-points. 
 
 there are always three or four reefs 
 parallel to the foot or bottom of the 
 chief sails which are extended upon 
 booms. Many ships are now fitted with 
 sails which can, by a mechanical ap- 
 pliance, be reefed from the deck. 
 
 REEF, a chain, mass, or range of 
 rocks in various parts of the ocean, lying 
 at or near the surfaee of the water. 
 
 REEL, a machine on which yarn is 
 wound to form it into hanks, skeins, etc. 
 Also a skeleton barrel attached to the 
 butt of a fishing-rod, around which the 
 inner end of the line is wound, and from 
 which it is paid out as the fish runs away 
 when first hooked, 
 
 REEL, a lively dance peculiar to Scot- 
 land, in one part of which the couples 
 usually swing or whirl round, and in 
 the other pass and repass each other, 
 forming the figure 8. The music for this 
 dance, called by the same name is gen- 
 erally written in common time of four 
 crotchets in a bar, but sometimes in jig 
 time of six quavers. 
 
 REEVES, John Sims, tenor singer, 
 born at Shooters’ Hill, Kent, in 1822, 
 appeared as a baritone on the stage at 
 Newcastle in 1839; joined a company at 
 Drury Lane under Macready as second 
 tenor in 1841; visited the continent and 
 studied under Bordogni at Paris, and 
 Mazzucato at Milan; and in 1847 re- 
 turned to England, where he met with 
 great success. He devoted himself more 
 especially to oratorio and ballad singing 
 and long held the reputation of being 
 the first of modern tenors. He published 
 an autobiography in 1889. Died in 1900. 
 
 REFEREN'DUM is a term used in 
 the United States to denote the 
 reference to the citizen voters of resolu- 
 tions or laws passed by their represen- 
 tatives. If these, when so referred, are 
 accepted by the majority of the voters 
 of the canton, then they become part 
 of the law of the land; but if they are 
 rejected, then the rejection is final. 
 The referendum is obligatory when the 
 law or resolution affects the constitu- 
 tion; in other cases it is optional, and 
 may be demanded on the requisition of a 
 certain number of voters. 
 
 REFLECTOR, a polished surface of 
 metal, or any other suitable material, 
 applied for the purpose of reflecting 
 
 rays of light, heat, or sound in any 
 required direction. Reflectors may be 
 either plane or curvilinear; of the former 
 the common mirror is a familiar ex- 
 ample. Curvilinear reflectors admit of 
 a great variety of forms, according to the 
 purposes for which they are employed; 
 they may be either convex or concave, 
 spherical, elliptical, parabolic, or hyper- 
 bolic, etc. The parabolic form is per- 
 haps the most generally serviceable, be- 
 ing used for many purposes of illumina- 
 tion, as well as for various highly im- 
 portant philosophical instruments. The 
 annexed cut is a section of a ship lantern 
 fitted with an argand lamp and para- 
 bolic reflector, a a is the reflector, b the 
 lamp, situated in the focus of the poh 
 ished concave paraboloid, c the oil 
 cistern, d the outer frame of the lantern, 
 and e the chimney for the escape of the 
 products of combustion. 
 
 REFLEX NERVOUS ACTION, in 
 physiology, those actions of the nervous 
 system whereby an impression is trans- 
 mitted along sensory nerves to a nerve 
 
EEFORMATION 
 
 REFRIGERATION 
 
 center, from which again it is reflected 
 to a motor nerve, and so calls into play 
 some muscle whereby movements are 
 produced. These actions are performed 
 involuntarily, and often unconsciously, 
 as the contraction of the pupil of the eye 
 when exposed to strong light. 
 
 REFORMATION, the term generally 
 applied to the religious revolution in the 
 16th century which divided the Western 
 church into the two sections known as 
 the Roman Catholic and the Protestant. 
 Before this era the pope exercised abso- 
 lute authority over the whole Christian 
 church with the exception of those 
 countries in which the Greek or Eastern 
 church had been established. He also 
 claimed supremacy in temporal affairs 
 wherever his spiritual authority was 
 recognized. The great movement known 
 as the Reformation was started by 
 Martin Luther, an Augustine monk of 
 Erfurt, professor of theology in the 
 University of Wittenberg; and what im- 
 mediately occasioned it was the sale of 
 indulgences in Germany by a duly 
 accredited agent, Johann Tetzel, a 
 Dominican monk of Leipzig. Luther 
 condemned this abuse, first in a sermon 
 and afterward in ninety-five theses or 
 questions which he affixed to the door 
 of the great church, October 31st, 1517. 
 This at once roused public interest and 
 gained him a number of adherents, 
 among them men of influence in church 
 and state. Luther urged his spiritual 
 superiors and the pope to put a stop to 
 the traffic of Tetzel and to reform the 
 corruptions of the church in general. 
 A heated controversy now arose, Luther 
 was fiercely assailed, and in 1520 ex- 
 communication was pronounced against 
 him by Pope Leo X. Upon this the 
 reformer appealed to a general council; 
 and when his works were burned at 
 Mainz, Cologne, and Louvain, he public- 
 ly committed the bull of excommunica- 
 tion with the papal canons and decrees 
 to the flames (December, 1520). From 
 this time Luther formally separated 
 from the Roman church, and many of 
 the principal German nobles — Hutten, 
 Sickingen, Schaumburg, etc., the most 
 eminent scholars, and the University of 
 Wittenberg, publicly declared in favor 
 of the reformed doctrines and discipline. 
 Luther’s bold refusal to recant at the 
 Diet of Worms (April 17, 1521), gave 
 him increased power, while the edict of 
 Worms and the ban of the emperor made 
 his cause a political matter. 
 
 The Reformation in England was only 
 indirectly connected with the reform 
 movement in Germany. Wickliffe, and 
 the Lollards, the revival of learning, the 
 writings of More, Colet, and Erasmus, 
 the martyrdom of Thomas Bilney, had 
 all combined to render the doctrine and 
 discipline of the church unpopular. This 
 feeling was greatly increased when the 
 writings of Luther and Tyndale’s trans- 
 lation of the Bible found eager readers. 
 Then the political element came in to 
 favor the popular reform movement. 
 Henry VIII., in his efforts to obtain a 
 divorce from Catherine, found it neces- 
 sary to repudiate the papal supremacy 
 and declare himself by act of parliament 
 (1534) the supreme head of the Church 
 of England. To this the pope replied by 
 threats of excommunication, which 
 
 were not, however, immediately exe- 
 cuted. Yet the breach with Rome was 
 complete, so far, at least, as the king 
 was concerned. Under the new laws of 
 supremacy and treason several of the 
 clergy suffered at Tyburn; Sir Thomas 
 More and Fisher, bishop of Rochester, 
 were beheaded at Tower Hill; and the 
 lesser and greater monasteries were sup- 
 pressed. 
 
 In Scotland the movement was more 
 directly connected with the continent, 
 and in particular with Geneva. The first 
 indication of the struggle against the 
 Roman doctrine is found in the martyr- 
 dom (1528) of Patrick Hamilton; and 
 this policy of suppression was con- 
 tinued (1539-46) with great severity by 
 Cardinal Beaton, until he himself be- 
 came the victim of popular vengeance. 
 Perhaps the most important result of 
 this persecution, and the martyrdom of 
 George Wishart, which Beaton had 
 brought about, was that it determined 
 John Knox to embrace the new reformed 
 faith. In 1546-47 the Scottish reformer 
 established himself as preacher to the 
 Protestant congregation which held the 
 castle of St. Andrews. When the castle 
 was captured by the French fleet Knox 
 was made prisoner and treated as a 
 galley-slave, but regained his liberty 
 after about eighteen months’ hardship, 
 and settled in England. During the 
 Marian persecutions he withdrew to the 
 continent and vi.sited the churches of 
 France and Switzerland, but returned to 
 Scotland in 1559. Here he at once joined 
 the Protestant party; preached in Dun- 
 dee, Perth, and St. Andrews, amid public 
 tumult and the destruction of images, 
 altars, and churches; and finally, under 
 the protection of the lords of the con- 
 gregation, he established himself as a 
 preacher of Protestantism in St. Giles, 
 Edinburgh. From this center Knox 
 traveled all over Scotland teaching the 
 reformed faith ; and such was the roused 
 spirit of the people that when the Scot- 
 tish parliament assembled (1560) a 
 popular petition was presented demand- 
 ing the abolition of popery. This was 
 promptly accomplished, and at the 
 assembling of the new Church of Scot- 
 land shortly afterward Knox presented 
 his reformed system of government 
 under the name of the First Book of 
 Discipline which was adopted by the 
 assernbly. (See Knox.) The position 
 thus secured by the reformer was main- 
 tained and the Reformation successfully 
 established in Scotland. In Ireland for 
 various causes the Reformation never 
 made much progress. 
 
 REFOR'MATORY SCHOOLS, schools 
 instituted for the training of juvenile 
 offenders (under sixteen) who have been 
 convicted of an offense punishable by 
 penal servitude or imprisonment. 'The 
 offender, after undergoing a short im- 
 prisonment, is committed to a certified 
 reformatory under an order from the 
 court, and there detained for a period 
 not less than two and not more than 
 five years. 
 
 REFRACTION, the deflection or 
 change of direction impressed upon rays 
 of light obliquely incident upon and 
 passing through a smooth surface bound- 
 ing two media not homogeneous, as air 
 and water — or upon rays traversing a 
 
 medium, the density of which is not 
 uniform, as the atmosphere. A familiar 
 instance of refraction is the broken ap- 
 pearance which a stick presents when 
 thrusl partly into clear water, the por- 
 tion in the water apparently taking a 
 different direction from the other por- 
 tion. Glass, water, and other solids and 
 fluids each have a different power of 
 refraction, and this power in each case 
 may be expressed numerically by a 
 number known as the index of refrac- 
 tion. Atmospheric refraction is the 
 apparent angular elevation of the 
 heavenly bodies above their true places, 
 caused by the refraction of the rays of 
 light in their passage through the earth’s 
 atmosphere, so that in consequence of 
 this refraction the heavenly bodies ap- 
 pear higher than they really are. It is 
 greatest when the body is on the horizon, 
 and diminishes all the way to the zenith, 
 where it is nothing. Double refraction 
 is the separation of a ray of light into 
 two separate parts, by passing through 
 certain transparent mediums, as Iceland 
 spar, one part being called the ordinary 
 ray, the other the extraordinary ray. 
 All crystals except those whose three 
 axes are equal exhibit double refraction. 
 
 REFRACTOR, or REFRACTING TEL- 
 ESCOPE. See Telescope. 
 
 REFRIGERANT (re-frij'-), a cooling 
 medicine, which directly diminishes the 
 force of the circulation, and reduces 
 bodily heat without any diminution of 
 nervous energy. The agents usually re- 
 garded as refrigerants are weak vege- 
 table-acids, or very greatly diluted 
 mineral acids ; effervescing drinks, saline 
 purgatives, etc. Refrigerants in medi- 
 cine and surgery are also applied exter- 
 nally in the form of freezing-mixtures 
 prepared with salt and pounded ice for 
 the purpose of lowering the temperature 
 of any particular part of the body. 
 
 REFRIGERATION, the art of pro- 
 ducing cold by artificial means. Me- 
 chanical refrigeration is employed in the 
 manufacture of artificial ice, for the 
 freezing and chilling of freshly killed 
 meat in slaughter houses, the cooling of 
 meat, fish, fowl, fruits, vegetables, and 
 other perishable provisions, the cooling 
 of the atmosphere of dwellings and 
 hospitals, and for a variety of manufac- 
 turing processes. The refrigerating de- 
 vices all belong to one or the other of the 
 following five classes : (1) the liquefaction 
 process by which the more or less rapid 
 liquefaction of a solid is utilized to 
 abstract heat ; (2) the vacuum process, 
 by which the abstraction of heat is 
 effected by the evaporation of a portion 
 of the liquid to be cooled; (3) the com- 
 pression process, in which the abstrac- 
 tion of heat is effected by the evapora- 
 tion of a separate refrigerating agent 
 of a more or less volatile nature, ■which 
 agent is subsequently returned to its 
 original condition by mechanical com- 
 pression and cooling; (4) the absorption 
 process, by which 'the abstraction of 
 heat is effected by the evaporation of a 
 separate refrigerating agent of more or 
 less volatile nature under the direct 
 action of heat, which agent again enters 
 into solution with a liquid; (5) the cold 
 air process in which air or other gas is 
 first compressed, then cooled, and after- 
 
REFRIGERATOR 
 
 REINDEER 
 
 ward permitted to expand while doing 
 work. 
 
 REFRIGERATOR, a name applied to 
 cooling apparatus of various kinds. One 
 kind is an apparatus for cooling wort, 
 beer, etc., consisting of a large shallow 
 1 vat traversed by a continuous pipe 
 ; through which a stream of cold water 
 
 f is passed. The wort, etc., runs in one 
 direction and the water in another, so 
 r • that the delivery end of the wort is ex- 
 posed to the coolest part of the stream 
 L of water. Another kind of refrigerator is 
 t a chest or chamber holding a supply of 
 F. ice to cool provisions and prevent them 
 |[ spoiling in warm weather; or a vessel 
 ; surrounded by a freezing-mixture used 
 in the manufacture of ice-cream, ices, 
 
 ‘ etc. 
 
 ; REFUGEE', a person who seeks safety 
 f in a foreign country to escape persecu- 
 I- tion for religious or political opinions. 
 r A large historical movement of this kind 
 ■ occurred when the Edict of Nantes was 
 [ repealed in Franee (1685). Such were 
 , the oppressions then put upon the 
 j Protestants by the dominant Roman 
 Catholic party that 800,000 of the 
 I former, it is estimated, sought refuge in 
 ; England, Denmark, Holland, Switzer- 
 
 i land, and Germany. 
 
 ' REGAL, a small portable organ played 
 i with the fingers of the right hand, the 
 
 Regal, from an old painting. 
 
 left being used in working the bellows. 
 It was much used during the 16th and 
 17th centuries. 
 
 REGA'LIA, the emblems or insignia of 
 royalty. The regalia of England con- 
 b- sist of the crown, scepter with the cross, 
 
 ' the verge or rod with the dove, the so- 
 . called staff of Edward the Confessor, 
 
 r several other articles. These are pre- 
 served in the jewel-room in the Tower 
 i, of London. , 
 
 f; REGENERATION, in theology, is the 
 ‘ equivalent used by the English trans- 
 lators of the Bible for the Greek word 
 palingenesia, which occurs only twice 
 in the New Testament, in Matt. xix. 28 
 and in Titus iii. 5. In the former passage 
 the term is applied generally to the 
 • gospel dispensation as a process of 
 i renovation, in the latter it is used as 
 ;; descriptive of the process of individual 
 salvation. An equivalent term is used 
 in 1 Peter i. 3, where it is translated 
 “begotten us again;” and in one or two 
 other passages regeneration, as a theo- 
 t, logical term, refers to the doctrine of a 
 change effected upon men by divine 
 L" grace, in order to fit them for being par- 
 
 takers of the divine favor, and for being 
 admitted into the kingdom of heaven. 
 
 REGENT-BIRD, or KING HONEY- 
 EATER, a very beautiful bird of Aus- 
 tralia, belonging to the family Melipha- 
 gidae or honey-eaters. The color of the 
 plumage is golden yellow and deep 
 velvety black. It was discovered during 
 
 Regent-bird. 
 
 the regency of George IV., and was 
 named in compliment to him. 
 
 REGGIO (red' jo) DI CALABRIA, a 
 seaport of South Italy, capital of a 
 province of the same name, on the east 
 coast of the Strait of Messina, a hand- 
 some and beautifully-situated town. 
 Pop. 23,853. — The province occupies 
 the southwestern extremity or toe of 
 Italy, and is a rugged and mountainous 
 region. The area is 1515 sq. miles; the 
 pop. 398,086. 
 
 REGGIO NELL' EMILIA, a town of 
 North Italy, capital of the province of 
 same name, 15 miles w.n.w. Modena. 
 — The province of Reggio lies between 
 those of Parma on the west and Modena 
 on the east; area, 877 sq. miles; pop. 
 259 793 
 
 REGIL'LUS, anciently a small lake 
 of Italy, in Latium, to the southeast of 
 Rome (site uncertain), celebrated for a 
 great battle between the Romans and 
 Latins in b.c. 496. 
 
 REGIMENT, a body of regular soldiers 
 forming an administrative division of an 
 army, and consisting of one or more 
 battalions of infantry or of several 
 squadrons of cavalry, commanded by 
 a colonel and other officers. A regiment 
 is the largest permanent association of 
 soldiers, and the third subdivision of an 
 army corps, several regiments going to a 
 brigade, and several brigades «o a 
 division. These combinations are tem- 
 porary, while in the regiment the same 
 officers serve continually, and in com- 
 mand of the same body of men. The 
 strength of a regiment may vary greatly, 
 as each may comprise any number of 
 battalions. 
 
 REHAN (re'an), Ada, American ac- 
 tress, was born in Limerick, Ireland, in 
 1860, and was brought to the United 
 States when about six years old. Her 
 greatest roles are those of Rosalind in As 
 You Like It, Katharine in The Taming 
 of the Shrew, Viola and Lady Teazle. 
 Among her parts were those of Peggy in 
 The Country Girl, Kate Verity in The 
 Squire. She was Maid Marian in Tenny- 
 son’s Foresters, and Roxane in Cyrano 
 de Bergerac. Miss Rehan had great 
 success in Germany, France and Eng- 
 land. 
 
 REICHSTAG (rihs'tAh), the imperial 
 parliament of Germany, which assembles 
 at Berlin. 
 
 REID (red), Capt. Mayne, born in the 
 north of Ireland in 1819, died 1883. 
 His love of adventure took him to 
 America, where he traveled extensively 
 as hunter or trader; joined the United 
 States army in 1845 and fought in the 
 Mexican war. He afterward returned to 
 London, where he became well known 
 as a writer of thrilling juvenile stories, 
 many of them based on his American 
 experiences, such as the Rifle Rangers, 
 Scalp Hunters, the War Trail, the Head- 
 less Horseman, etc. 
 
 REID, Whitelaw, American journalist 
 and statesman, was born in Xenia, 
 Ohio, in 1837. He served as correspond- 
 ent of the Cincinnati Gazette during the 
 civil war, was pi;esent at Shiloh, Gettys- 
 burg, and elsewhere, and was afterward 
 chosen librarian of the house of repre- 
 sentatives (1863-66). He joined the 
 staff of the New York Tribune, and in 
 1872, became its editor and principal 
 owner. He declined the appointment 
 as minister to Gennany but accepted 
 the nomination for vice-president (1892) 
 and the appointment of minister to 
 France (1889-92) and special ambassa- 
 dor to Queen Victoria’s jubilee (1897). 
 He was a member of the peace com- 
 mission that terminated the Spanish 
 war (1898), and special ambassador to 
 Great Britain for the coronation of 
 Edward VII. (1902). 
 
 REINDEER (ran'der), a species of 
 deer found in the northern parts of 
 Europe and Asia. It has branched, re- 
 curved, round antlers, the summits of 
 which are palmated; the antlers of the 
 male are much larger than those of the 
 female. These antlers, which are an- 
 nually shed and renewed by both sexes, 
 are remarkable for the size of the branch 
 which comes off near the base, called 
 the brow antler. The body is of a thick 
 
 Reindeer. 
 
 and square form, and the legs shorter 
 in proportion than those of the red-deer. 
 Their size varies much according to the 
 climate, those in the higher arctic 
 regions being the largest; about 4 feet 
 6 inches may be given as the average 
 height of a full-grown specimen. The 
 reindeer is keen of sight, swift of foot, 
 being capable of maintaining a speed of 
 9 or 10 miles an hour for a long time, 
 and can easily draw a weight of 200 
 lbs., besides the sledge to which they 
 are usually attached when used as 
 beasts of draught. Among the Lapland- 
 ers the reindeer is a substitute for the 
 hors#, the cow, and the sheep, as he 
 
REINDEER MOSS 
 
 REMBRANDT 
 
 furnishes food, clothing, and the means 
 of conveyance. The caribou of North 
 America, if not absolutely identical with 
 the reindeer, would seem to be at most 
 a well-marked variety of it. 
 
 REINDEER MOSS, a lichen, which 
 constitutes almost the sole winter food 
 for reindeer, etc., in high northern 
 latitudes, where it sometimes attains 
 the height of 1 foot. It is also found in 
 the moors and mountains of Britain. 
 Its taste is slightly pungent and acrid, 
 and when boiled it forms a jelly possess- 
 ing nutritive and tonic properties. 
 
 RELATIVE RANK in the Army and 
 Navy. See Navy and Army Relative 
 Rank in. 
 
 RELICS, remains of saints and 
 martyrs or objects connected with them, 
 and especially memorials of the life and 
 passion of our Lord, to which worship 
 or a special veneration is sanctioned 
 and practised both in the Roman 
 Catholic and Greek churches. The doc- 
 trine of the Roman Catholic church in 
 regard to relics was fixed by the council 
 of Trent, which decreed in 1563 that 
 veneration should be paid to relics as 
 instruments through which God bestows 
 benefits on men; a doctrine which has 
 been rejected by all Protestant churches. 
 The veneration of relics is not peculiar 
 to Christianity, but has found a place 
 in nearly every form of religion. Budd- 
 hism is remarkable for the extent to 
 which relic-worship has been carried in it. 
 
 RELIEF, in sculpture and architec- 
 ture, is the protection of a figure above 
 or beyond the surface upon which it is 
 formed. According to the degree of pro- 
 jection a figure is described as in high, 
 middle, or low relief. High relief (alto- 
 rilievo) is that in which the figures pro- 
 
 High relief— The Rondanini mask of Medusa 
 in the Glyptothek, Munich— iliustrating the 
 late beautified type of the Gorgon. 
 
 ject at least one-half of their apparent 
 circumference from the surface upon 
 which they are formed ; low relief (basso- 
 rilievo) consists of figures raised but not 
 detached from a flat surface; while 
 middle relief (mezzo-rilievo) lies between 
 these two forms. 
 
 I^LIGION, the feeling of reverence 
 which men entertain toward a Supreme 
 Being or to any order of beings conceived 
 by them as demanding reverence from 
 the possession of superhuman control 
 over the destiny of man or the powers of 
 nature; more especially the recognition 
 of God as an object of worship, love, and 
 
 obedience. The common use of the term, 
 applies it to a body of doctrines handed 
 down by tradition, or in canonical books, 
 and accompanied by a certain outward 
 system of observances or acts of wor- 
 ship. In this sense we speak of the 
 Jewish, the Christian, the Hindu, etc., 
 religions. Religions in this sense are 
 divided into two great classes, poly- 
 theistic and monotheistic ; that is, those 
 recognizing a plurality of deities and 
 those that recognize but one. A dualistic 
 class may also be established, in which 
 two chief deities are recognized, and a 
 henotheistic, in which there are one 
 chief and a number of minor deities. 
 In some religions magic, fetishism, ani- 
 mal worship, belief in ghosts and 
 demons, etc., play an important part. 
 The most remarkable religious conquests 
 in history are that of Judaism, which 
 effected the establishment of a national 
 religion, originally that of a single 
 family, in a hostile territory by force 
 of arms and expulsion or extinction of 
 the previous inhabitants; that of Chris- 
 tianity, which, by the power of per- 
 suasion and in the midst of persecution, 
 overthrew the polytheism of the most 
 enlightened nations of antiquity; that 
 of Mohammedanism, which, partly by 
 persuasion, but more by force, estab- 
 lished itself on the site of the eastern 
 empire of Christianity, and extended its 
 sway over a population partly idolatrous 
 and partly Christian; that of Buddhism, 
 which, being expelled by persecution 
 from India, where it had widely dis- 
 seminated itself by conversion, spread 
 itself also by moral suasion over the 
 larger portion of Eastern Asia. All these 
 religions, with the exception of Budd- 
 hism, which may perhaps be considered 
 atheistic, are monotheistic systems. 
 
 Various estimates have been made of 
 the diffusion of the various religious 
 creeds over the world. These are neces- 
 sarily very loose and often differ widely 
 from each other. A recent estimate is 
 the following; 
 
 Roman Catholics 229,000,000 
 
 Protestants 153,000,000 
 
 Eastern Churches 1 12,000,000 
 
 Mohammedans 194,000,000 
 
 Buddhists 400,000,000 
 
 Brahmanists 208,000,000 
 
 Followers of Confucius 80,000,000 
 
 Slnto Religion 14,000,000 
 
 Jews 7,000,000 
 
 RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, or LIBERTY 
 OF CONSCIENCE, is the recognition and 
 assertion by the state of the right^ of 
 every man, in the profession of opinion 
 and in the outward forms and require- 
 ments of religion, to do or abstain from 
 doing whatever his individual conscience 
 or sense of right suggests. Religious 
 liberty is opposed to the imposition by 
 the state of any arbitrary restrictions 
 upon forms of worship or the propaga- 
 tion of religious opinions, or to the 
 enacting of any binding forms of wor- 
 ship or belief. The limit of religious 
 liberty is necessarily the right of the 
 state to maintain order, prevent ex- 
 cesses, and guard against encroach- 
 ments upon private right. In the organi- 
 zation of civil and ecclesiastical govern- 
 ment which prevailed from Constantine 
 to the Reformation persecution was in 
 general only limited by dissent, and 
 universal submission to the dominant 
 
 church became the condition of religious 
 peace throughout Christendom, while 
 religious liberty was unknown. The 
 contest of opinion begun at the Refor- 
 mation had the effect of establishing 
 religious liberty, as far as it at present 
 exists, but the principle itself was so far 
 from being understood and accepted in 
 its purity by either party that it hardly 
 suggested itself even to the most en- 
 lightened reasoners of that age. In 
 Great Britain even, civil liberty, jeal- 
 ously maintained, was not understood, 
 by the dominant party at least, to im- 
 port religious liberty. Active measures 
 of intolerance were adopted against Dis- 
 senters in the reign of Queen Anne. 
 Even in the reign of George III. con- 
 ditions were attached to the toleration 
 of Dissenting preachers;; and civil enact- 
 ments against Roman Catholics have 
 been repealed only within Victoria’s 
 reign. Religious liberty was introduced 
 in Prussia by Frederick the Great, but 
 controvened by his immediate successor. 
 The state at present in Prussia, without, 
 perhaps, actually dictating to private 
 individuals, maintains a vigilant con- 
 trol over ecclesiastical organization, the 
 education of the clergy, and all public 
 matters connected with religion. Re- 
 ligious liberty has only been established 
 in Austria under the present monarch. 
 Italy first enjoyed the same advantage 
 under Victor Emanuel II. The govern- 
 ment of France, even since the revolu- 
 tion, has always been of a paternal 
 character, but practically religious lib- 
 erty exists in France. In Spain, in the 
 days of its power the most bigoted state 
 in Europe, restricted liberty of worship 
 was allowed only in 1876. Religious 
 persecution was actively conducted 
 against the Roman Catholics in Russia 
 during the reign of the emperor Nicholas 
 I., and full religious liberty does not yet 
 exist. Since the Crimean war religious 
 liberty has been recognized in Turkey. 
 Toleration has thus been slowly ad- 
 vancing in Europe since the Reforma- 
 tion, and its recent progress has been 
 extensive; yet even in the most ad- 
 vanced countries the state of public 
 opinion on this subject is still far from 
 being satisfactory. 
 
 REM'BRANDT, in full, Rembrandt 
 Hermansz Van Ryn, the most celebrated 
 painter and etcher of the Dutch school, 
 
 Rembrandt Van Ryn. 
 
 was born in 1606 at Leyden, where his 
 father was a well-to-do miller. His 
 eminence in portraiture may especially 
 be noted in portrait-groups in particular. 
 
REMENYI 
 
 RENNET 
 
 His artistic development may be broadly 
 divided into three periods. To the first 
 of these (1627-39), which shows less 
 mastery than the succeeding two, belong 
 his St. Paul, Samson in Prison, Simeon 
 in the Temple, Lesson in Anatomy 
 (Tulp the anatomist), and various char- 
 acter portraits of his wife as Queen Ar- 
 temisia, Bathsheba, the Wife of Sam- 
 .eon, etc. To his middle period (1640-54), 
 belong The Night Watch, The Woman 
 ytaken in Adultery, Tobit and his Wife, 
 The Burgomaster and his Wife, Descent 
 from the Cross, Portrait of Coppenol, 
 Bathsheba, and Woman Bathing. 
 Among the works of his last period 
 (1655-68) may be mentioned John the 
 Baptist Preaching, Portrait of Jan Six, 
 The Adoration of the Magi, the Syndics 
 of Amsterdam, and various portraits of 
 himself. His etchings in technique and 
 deep suggestion have not yet been 
 equalled. He was the first and as yet the 
 greatest master of this department of 
 art. Of his works there are about 280 
 paintings and 320 etchings extant and 
 accessible, dating from 1625 to 1668. 
 He died in 1669. 
 
 REMENYI (r6'man-ye), Eduard, Hun- 
 garian violin virtuoso, was born at 
 Heves, in 1830. He was appointed solo 
 violinist to Queen Victoria in 1853. He 
 afterward visited the United States, 
 Canada, Mexico, China, Japan, France, 
 and Germany. He ranked among the 
 foremost musical artists of his day. He 
 died while on an American concert tour 
 in 1898. 
 
 REM'INGTON, Frederick, American 
 sculptor, artist, and author, born in 1861 
 at Canton, N. Y. His pictures of western 
 subjects are very popular. His statuettes 
 include “The Broncho Buster’’ and “The 
 Wounded Bunkie.’’ They are spirited 
 bronzes, executed with skill, and his 
 horses are very fine. His stories, illus- 
 trated by himself, include Pony Tracks, 
 Crooked Trails, Sundown Leflare, Men 
 with the Bark on, and John Ermine of 
 the Yellowstone. 
 
 REMINGTON, Philo, American manu- 
 facturer and inventor, born at Litch- 
 field, N. Y., in 1816. During the civil 
 war the Remingtons supplied small arms 
 to the federal government. Soon after- 
 ward they began to manufacture the 
 breech-loading rifle which bears their 
 name. In 1873 the firm secured the 
 right to one of the first typewriters. 
 BothTifles and typewriters have since 
 passed into other hands. He died in 
 1889. 
 
 REMITTENT FEVER, a fever which 
 suffers a decided remission of its violence 
 during the course of the twenty-four 
 hours, but without entirely leaving the 
 patient. It differs from an intermittent 
 fever in this, that there is never a total 
 absence of fever. Remittent fever is 
 severe or otherwise according to the 
 nature of the climate in which the poison 
 is generated. The autumnal remittents 
 of temperate climates are comparatively 
 mild, while the same fever in the tropics 
 is often of a very severe type, and not 
 unfrequently proves fatal. The period of 
 remission varies from six to twelve 
 hours, at the end of which time the 
 feverish excitement increases, the exacer- 
 bation being often preceded by a feel- 
 ing of chilliness. The abatenvent of the 
 
 fever usually occurs in the morning; 
 the principal exacerbation generally 
 takes place towards evening. The dura- 
 tion of the disease is generally about 
 fourteen days, and it ends in a free 
 perspiration, or may lapse into a low 
 fever. This fever is often cured by the 
 administration of quinine, which should 
 be given at the commencement of the 
 remission. A simple yet nourishing diet 
 must also be attended to. No stimulants 
 must be allowed. 
 
 Rem'ora, a genus of fishes included 
 in the Goby family, and of which the 
 common remora, or sucking-fish is the 
 typical example. These fishes have on 
 the top of the head a peculiar sucking- 
 disc, composed of a series of cartilagi- 
 nous plates arranged transversely, by 
 means of which they attach themselves 
 to other fishes or to the bottoms of 
 
 Remora. 
 
 vessels. The common remora attains 
 an average length of 1 foot and possesses 
 a general resemblance in form to the 
 herring. It is common in the Mediter- 
 ranean sea and in the Atlantic ocean. 
 Other species are of larger size. The 
 ancients attributed to the remora the 
 power of arresting and detaining ships 
 in full sail. 
 
 REMUSAT (ra-mu-za), Charles Fran- 
 9ois Marie, Comte de, politician and man 
 of letters, was born at Paris 1797, died 
 1875. His works include several on 
 English subjects, such as L’Angleterre 
 au XVIII. Si^cle, Bacon, Lord Herbert 
 of Cherbury, Histoire de la Philosophie 
 en Angleterre depuis Bacon jusqu’a 
 Locke. His mother, Claire Elizabeth de 
 Vergennes, Comtesse de R6musat (born 
 1780, died 1824), was a very remarkable 
 woman. Her essay on Female Educa- 
 tion, published after her death, received 
 an academic couronne, and her M^m- 
 oires, published in 1879-80, are par- 
 ticularly valuable for the light which 
 they throw on the court of the first 
 empire. 
 
 RENAIS'SANCE, a term applied, in its 
 more specific sense, to a particular 
 movement in architecture and its kin- 
 dred arts, but in a general sense to that 
 last stage of the middle ages when the 
 European races began to emerge from 
 the bonds of ecclesiastical and feudal 
 institutions, to form distinct national- 
 ities and languages ; and when medieval 
 ideas became largely influenced by the 
 ancient classic arts and literature. It 
 was a gradual transition from the middle 
 ages to the modern, characterized by a 
 revolution in the world of art and litera- 
 ture brought about by a revival and 
 application of antique classic learning. 
 The period was also marked by a spirit 
 of exploration of lands beyond the sea, 
 by the extinction of the scholastic philos- 
 ophy, by the new ideas on astronomy 
 promulgated by Copernicus, and by the 
 
 invention of printing and gunpowder, 
 etc. 
 
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE, a 
 style which originated in Italy in the 
 first half of the 15th century, and after- 
 ward spread over Europe. Its main 
 characteristic is a return to the classical 
 forms and modes of ornamentation 
 which had been displaced by the Byzan- 
 
 Renalssance sculpture— The "David” of 
 Michelangelo, in the Accademia, 
 Florence, Italy. 
 
 tine, the Romanesque, and the Gothic. 
 
 RENAN (re-nan), Joseph Ernest, 
 orientalist, historian, and essayist, was 
 born at Tr4guier, in Brittany, February 
 27, 1823. In 1862 he was appointed 
 professor of Hebrew, Chaldee, and 
 Syriac in the College de France, but the 
 sceptical views manifested in his Life of 
 Jesus (1863) raised an outcry against 
 him, and he was removed from his ehair, 
 to be restored again, however, in 1871. 
 This work, the publication of which 
 caused intense excitement throughout 
 Europe, was the first part of a compre- 
 hensive work on the History of the 
 Origins of Christianity (Historie des 
 Origines du Christianisme), which in- 
 cludes Les Apotres, St. Paul, L’Ant4- 
 christ, Les Evangiles, L’Eglise Chr4- 
 tienne, and Marc Aur41e, all written from 
 the sceptical stand-point. He became 
 a member of the Academy in 1878, and 
 rector of the College de France in 1883. 
 Renan’s latest important work was the 
 History of the People of Israel (1887-94) 
 five vols.). He died in 1892. 
 
 RENFREW, or RENFREWSHIRE, a 
 county of Scotland, bounded by Ayr- 
 shire, Lanarkshire, Dumbartonshire, 
 and the river and Firth of Clyde; area, 
 156,785 acres, of W’hich about 95,000 
 acres are cultivated. Pop. 268,418. 
 The town of Renfrew is an ancient royal 
 and parliamentary burgh, 6 miles w.n.w. 
 of Glasgow, close to the Clyde. Pop. 
 9296. 
 
 RENNES (renn), a city of France, 
 formerly capital of Brittany, at present 
 capital of the department of Ille-et- 
 Vilaine, situated at the confluence of 
 the rivers Ille and Vilaine. Pop. 74,006. 
 
 RENNET, the prepared inner surface 
 
RENT 
 
 REPTILES,. OR REPTlLIA 
 
 of the stomach of a young calf. It con- 
 tains much pepsin, and has the prop- 
 ertj’’ of coagulating the casein of milk and 
 forming curd. It is prepared by scraping 
 off the outer skin and superfluous fat 
 of the stomach when fresh, keeping it in 
 salt for some hours, and then drying it. 
 When used a small piece of the mem- 
 brane is cut off and soaked in water, 
 which is poured into the milk intended 
 to be curdled. 
 
 RENT, in the strict economic sense, 
 the payment which, under conditions 
 of free competition, an owner of land 
 can obtain by lending out the use of it 
 to others. This will be found to consist 
 of that portion of the annual produce 
 which remains over and above the 
 amount required to replace the farmer’s 
 outlay, together with the usual profits. 
 
 Rent, as a legal tenn, is the considera- 
 tion given to the landlord by a tenant for 
 the use of the lands or subjects which he 
 possesses under lease. There is no neces- 
 sity that this should be, as it usually is 
 money; for capons, horses, corn, and 
 other things, may be, and occasionally 
 are, rendered by way of rent; it may 
 also consist in services or manual opera- 
 tions. It is incidental to rent that the 
 landlord can distrain — that is, seize and 
 sell the tenant’s chattels in order to 
 liquidate the rent. Sometimes the owner 
 transfers to another by deed or other- 
 wise the right to a certain rent out of the 
 lands, that is termed a rent-charge, and 
 the holder of it has power to distrain 
 for the rent, though he has no right 
 over the lands themselves. 
 
 REPEAT, in music, a sign that a 
 movement or part of a movement is to 
 be played or sung twice. 
 
 REPLEVTN, in law, is an action 
 brought to recover possession of goods 
 illegally seized, the validity of which 
 seizure it is the regular mode of contest- 
 ing. . 
 
 REP'LICA, in the fine arts, is the copy 
 of a picture, etc., made by the artist 
 who executed the original. 
 
 REPOUSSE (re-p6'sa), a kind of orna- 
 mental metal-work in relief. It resem- 
 bles embossed work, but is produced by 
 beating the metal up from the back, 
 which is done with a punch and hammer 
 the metal being placed upon a wax 
 block. By this means a rude resemblance 
 to the figure to be produced is formed, 
 and it is afterward worked up by press- 
 ing and chasing the front surface. The 
 finest specimens of this style are those of 
 Benvenuto Cellini of the 16th century. 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT, 
 is that form of government in which 
 either the whole of a nation, or that por- 
 tion of it whose superior intelligence 
 affords a sufficient guarantee for the 
 proper exercise of the privilege, is called 
 upon to elect representatives or deputies 
 charged with the power of controlling the 
 public expenditure, imposing taxes, 
 and assisting the sovereign in the fram- 
 ing of laws. See Constitution. 
 
 REPRIEVE (re-prev'), the suspension 
 of the execution of the sentence passed 
 upon a ciminial for a capital offense. A 
 reprieve may be granted in various 
 ways: First, by the mere pleasure of the 
 sovereign; second, when the judge is not 
 satisfied with the verdict, or any favor- 
 able circumstance appears in the crimi- 
 
 nal’s character; third, when a woman 
 capitally convicted pleads pregnancy; 
 and lastly, when the criminal becomes 
 insane. 
 
 REPROBATION, in theology, is the 
 doctrine that all who have not been 
 elected to eternal life have been repro- 
 bated to eternal damnation. This doc- 
 trine was held by Augustine and revived 
 by Calvin; but most modern Calvinists 
 repudiate it in the sense usually given 
 to it. 
 
 REPRODUCTION, the process by 
 which anhnals perpetuate their own 
 species or race. Reproduction may take 
 place in either or both of two chief 
 modes. The first of these may be termed 
 sexual, since in this form of the process 
 the elements of sex are concerned — male 
 and female elements uniting to form the 
 essential reproductive conditions. The 
 second may be named asexual, since in 
 this latter act no elements of sex are 
 concerned. The distinctive character of 
 sexual reproduction consists in the 
 essential element of the male (sperm-cell 
 or spermatozoon) being brought in con- 
 tact with the essential element of the 
 female (germ-cell, ovum, or egg), 
 whereby the latter is fertilized or im- 
 pregnated, and those changes thereby 
 induced which result in the formation 
 of a new being. Whether these elements, 
 male and female, be furnished by one 
 individual or by two — or in other words 
 whether the sexes be situated in separate 
 individuals or not — is a fact of im- 
 material consequence in the recognition 
 and definition of the sexual form of the 
 process. The reproductive process, 
 therefore, may be (I ) Sexual, including 
 
 (A) Hermaphrodite or Monoecious par- 
 ents possessing male or female organs 
 in the same individual, and these may 
 be (a) self-impregnating (for example, 
 the tape-worm), or (b) mutually im- 
 pregnating (for example, the snail) ; and 
 
 (B) Dioecious parents, which may be (1) 
 Oviparous (for example, most fishes, 
 birds, etc.), (2) Ovo-viviparous (for 
 example, some amphibians and reptiles), 
 or (3) Viviparous (for example mam- 
 mals). Or the reproductive process may 
 be (II.) Asexual, including the processes 
 of (A) Gemmation or budding (internal, 
 external, continuous, or discontinuous), 
 and (B) Fission (transverse, longitudi- 
 nal, irregular). 
 
 The most perfert form of the repro- 
 ductive process is best seen in the highest 
 or vertebrate animals, where the male 
 elements are furnished by one form, and 
 the female elements by another. The 
 male element, with its characteristic 
 sperm-cells or spermatozoa, is brought 
 into contact with the female ova in 
 various ways. The ova when inmated 
 may undergo development external to 
 the body of the parent, and be left to be 
 developed by surrounding conditions 
 (as in the eggs of fishes); or the par- 
 ent may (as in birds) incubate or 
 hatch them. Those forms which thus 
 produce eggs from which the young are 
 afterward hatched are named oviparous 
 animals. In other cases (as in the land 
 salamanders, vipers, etc.) the eggs are 
 retained within the parent’s body until 
 such time as the young are hatched, 
 and these forms are hence named ovo- 
 viviparous iwhilst (as in mammalia alone) 
 
 the young are generally completely de- 
 veloped within the parent’s body, and 
 are born alive. Such animals are hence 
 said to be viviparous, In the higher 
 mammals, which exhibit the viviparous 
 rnode of reproduction in fullest perfec- 
 tion, the mother and embryo are con- 
 nected by a structure consisting partly 
 of foetal and partly of maternal tissues, 
 and which is known as the placenta. 
 (See Placenta.) In tape-worms we find 
 similar examples of normal hermaph- 
 rodite forms. Each segment or pro- 
 glottis of the tape-worm — which seg- 
 ment constitutes of itself a separate 
 zobid or part of the compound animal — 
 contains a large branching ovary, de- 
 veloping ova or eggs, and representing 
 the female organs, and also the male 
 organ or testis. These organs between 
 them produce perfect or fertilized eggs, 
 each of which under certain favorable 
 conditions is capable of developing into 
 a new tape-worm. The snails also form 
 good examples of hermaphrodite animals 
 and illustrate organisms which require 
 to be mutually impregnated in order to 
 produce fertilized eggs — that is to say, 
 the male element of one hermaphrodite 
 organism must be brought in contact 
 with the female element of another 
 hermaphrodite form before the eggs of 
 the latter can be fecundated. 
 
 REPTILES, or REPTlLIA, a class of 
 vertebrates, constituting with the birds, 
 to which they are most closely allied, 
 Huxley’s second division of vertebrates, 
 Sauropsida. Reptiles, however, are 
 generally regarded as occupying a 
 separate place in the animal kingdom, 
 between birds and amphibians. Rep- 
 tiles differ from amphibians chiefly in 
 breathing through lungs during the 
 whole period of their existence; and 
 from birds in being cold-blooded, in be- 
 ing covered with plates or scales instead 
 of feathers, and in the forelegs (as far, at 
 least, as living reptiles are concerned) 
 never being constructed in the form of 
 wings. 
 
 The class may be divided into ten 
 orders, four of which are represented by 
 living forms, while six are extinct. The 
 living orders are the Chelonia (tortoises 
 and turtles), the Ophidia (serpents and 
 snakes), the Lacertilia (lizards), and 
 Crocodilia (crocodiles and alligators). 
 The extinct orders are ; Ichthyopterygia 
 (Ichthyosaurus), Sauropterygia (Ple- 
 siosaurus), Anomodontia (Rhyncho- 
 saurus, etc.), Pterosauria (Pterodacty- 
 lus), Deinosauria (Megalosaurus, etc.), 
 and Theriodontia. The class is also 
 divided into two sections, Squamata 
 and Loricata, according as the exo- 
 skeleton consists simply of scales, or of 
 bony plates in addition to the scales. 
 
 The exo-skeleton varies greatly in its 
 development throughout the class. As 
 in the tortoises and turtles and croco- 
 diles it may attain, either separately or 
 in combination with the endo-skeleton, 
 a high development. In serpents and 
 many lizards it is moderately develofjed, 
 while in some lizards the skin is com- 
 paratively unprotected. The skeleton is 
 alwaj’^s completely developed and ossi- 
 fied. The vertebral column in the quad- 
 rupedal forms is divided into four or 
 five regions, less distinctly differentiated, 
 however, than in the mammals. The 
 
REPUBLIC 
 
 RESISTANCE 
 
 ribs differ considerably in their mode 
 a£ attachment to the vertebrae, but are 
 always present, and in a state of greater 
 ievelopment than in the amphibians. 
 The body, except in the case of the 
 tortoises, is of an elongated form. The 
 limbs are very differently developed in 
 the different species. In the serpents 
 and some lizards they are completely 
 wanting, or atrophied; in other lizards 
 they are rudimentary; while in the re- 
 mainder of the class sometimes the an- 
 terior and sometimes the posterior limbs 
 are developed, and not the others. In 
 no case are the limbs developed to the 
 extent to which they are developed in 
 birds and quadrupeds, these members 
 seldom being of sufficient length to keep 
 the body from the ground. In some of 
 the forms, living or extinct, the limbs 
 are modified for swimming or for flight. 
 The lower jaw is connected with the 
 skull through the intervention of a 
 quadrate bone, and, as this often pro- 
 jects backward, the opening of the 
 mouth is very great, and may even ex- 
 tend beyond the base of the skull. 
 Teeth, except in the turtle and tortoises, 
 are present, but are adapted rather for 
 seizing and holding prey than masticat- 
 ing food, and, except in the crocodiles, 
 are not sunk in sockets. The skull 
 possesses a single occipital condyle, by 
 means of which it articulates with the 
 spine. The brain is small compared 
 with the size of the skull. The muscular 
 system is developed more like that of 
 the birds and mammals than that of the 
 amphibians or fishes. The intestinal 
 tract is generally differentiated into an 
 oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, 
 and large intestine. It terminates in a 
 cloaca, which is also common to the 
 efferent ducts of the urinary and gen- 
 erative systems. In some forms (as 
 snakes) the stomach, like the gullet, is 
 capable of great distention. The heart 
 has only three cavities,viz.: two separate 
 auricles and a single ventricular cavity, 
 usually divided into two by an in- 
 complete partition. Respiration is al- 
 ways performed by the lungs, which are 
 highly organized, and often attain a 
 great size. The ova are in general re- 
 tained within the body of the parent 
 until the development of the young has 
 proceeded to a greater or less extent, and 
 then expelled and left to the heat of the 
 sun; but in some forms (as snakes and 
 lizards) they are hatched in the interior 
 of the body. Reptiles are found in great- 
 est number, and in most typical form 
 and variety, in the warm or tropical 
 regions of the earth. During winter, or 
 in the colder seasons of the year, most 
 reptiles hybernate, and snakes are nota- 
 ble as periodically moulting their skin 
 or epidermis. See the different orders in 
 separate articles. 
 
 REPUB'LIC, a constitution in which 
 the supreine power in the state' is vested, 
 not in a hereditary ruler, but in the 
 citizens themselves. According to the 
 constitution of the governing body a 
 republic may therefore vary from the 
 proudest aristocracy to the most abso- 
 lute democracy. In the small states of 
 ancient Greece the supreme power was 
 vested in the whole body of the citizens, 
 who met in common assembly to enact 
 their laws. In the oligarchic republics 
 
 of Genoa and Venice the supreme power 
 was consigned to the nobles or a few 
 privileged individuals. In all modern 
 republics the representative system pre- 
 vails. Besides the diminutive republic 
 of San Marino, in Italy, and Andorra, 
 on the south side of the Pyrenees the 
 only republics in Europe at the present 
 day are those of Switzerland and France. 
 Switzerland has been a republic ever 
 since it liberated itself from German rule ; 
 and France has been thrice a republic — 
 from 1793 to 1804, from 1848 to 1852, 
 and from 1870 to the present time. Hol- 
 land was a republic from the separation 
 of the seven provinces from Spain until 
 1815; Great Britain was nominally a 
 republic from 1649 to 1660; Spain pos- 
 sessed a republican government in 
 1868-69, and in 1873-74. In the New 
 World the republican form of govern- 
 ment prevails universally among the 
 fndependent states, the most important 
 of all the republics there being the 
 United States. The United States, like 
 Switzerland, is a federative republic, 
 consisting of a number of separate states 
 bound together by a treaty, and having 
 a central government, with power to 
 enact laws binding on all the citizens. 
 Mexico has been a republic since 1824, 
 except during the short-lived empire 
 from 1863 to 1867. Brazil has only been 
 a republic since November, 1889. 
 
 REPUBLICAN PARTY, in United 
 States politics, a name first applied to 
 the party which favored a strong central 
 government, not acting through the 
 states, but directly upon the people; 
 opposed to the democratic party, which 
 maintained the rights of individual 
 states. The party was latterly identified 
 with the anti-slavery movement, and 
 was the party of the north in the civil 
 war. It is strongly protectionist. Since 
 1860 when Abraham Lincoln was elected 
 by the Republicans, with the exception 
 of the years 1884-88, 1892-96, when 
 Grover Cleveland was elected by the 
 Democrats, the Republicans have been 
 successful in electing their candidate 
 for the presidency. 
 
 REPUDIATION, a refusal on the part 
 of a government to pay the debts con- 
 tracted by the governments which have 
 preceded it. Repudiation has some- 
 times been resorted to by the smaller 
 American republics, and by some of the 
 United States, and in Europe there are 
 also instances of a similar kind. 
 
 REPULSION, in physics, is a term 
 often applied to the action which two 
 bodies exert upon one another when 
 they tend to increase their mutual dis- 
 tance. It was formerly thought that 
 there were two forces, attraction and 
 repulsion, which balanced and counter- 
 acted each other; but it is now known 
 that all apparent repulsion is merely a 
 difference of attractions. 
 
 RESERVE, in military matters, has 
 several significations. In battle the 
 reserve consists of those troops not in 
 action, and destined to supply fresh 
 forces as they are needed, to support 
 those points which are shaken, and to 
 be ready to act at decisive moments. 
 The reserve of ammunition is the maga- 
 zine of warlike stores placed close to the 
 scene of action to allow of the supply 
 actually in the field being speedily re- 
 
 plenished. The term reserves is also 
 applied to those forces which are liable 
 to be called into the field on great 
 emergencies, for the purposes of national 
 defence ; which has received a military 
 training but follow the ordinary occupa- 
 tions of civil life, and do not form part of 
 the standing army. Such reserves now 
 form a part of all national troops organ- 
 ized on a great scale. 
 
 RESERVE, in banking and insurance, 
 that portion of capital which is set aside 
 to meet liabilities, and which, in banking, 
 is therefore not employed in discounts 
 or temporary loans. 
 
 RESERVOIR (rez'6r-vwir), an arti- 
 ficial basin in which a large quantity of 
 water is stored. The construction of a 
 reservoir often requires great engineer- 
 ing skill. In the selection of a site the 
 great object should be to choose a 
 position which will give the means for 
 collecting a large supply of rainfall with 
 as little recourse as possible to artificial 
 structures or excavations. The enibank- 
 ments or dams may be constructed 
 either of masonry or earth-work, but 
 the latter is the more usual, as it is 
 generally the more economical method. 
 Reservoirs in which the dams are built 
 of earth-work must be provided with 
 a waste-weir, to admit of the surplus 
 water flowing over; in the reservoirs of 
 which the dams are built of masonry 
 there is no necessity for a waste-weir, 
 as then the water may be allowed to 
 overflow the wall, there being no fear 
 of its endangering the works. The outlet 
 at the bottom, by which the water to be 
 used is drawn off from the reservoir, 
 may consist either of a tunnel, culvert, or 
 iron pipes provided with suitable sluices. 
 Distributing reservoirs for cities are 
 generally built of masonry. They are 
 placed nigh enough to command the 
 highest part of the town, and are capa- 
 cious enough to contain half a day’s 
 supply, their chief use being to store 
 the surplus water during the night. 
 
 RESINS, a class of vegetable sub- 
 stances insoluble in water, soluble in 
 alcohol, and easily softened or melted 
 by heat. Resins are either neutral or 
 acid ; they are transparent or translu cent ; 
 they have generally a yellow-brown 
 color; are sometimes elastic, but more 
 generally friable and hard. They become 
 electric when rubbed. Resins may be 
 divided into three classes; (1) Those 
 which exude spontaneously from plants, 
 or from incisions in the stems and 
 branches. They are generally mixtures 
 of gum-resins and volatile oils. The 
 principal resins belonging to this class 
 are benzoin, dragon’s-blood, Peru bal- 
 sam, storax, copaiba, copal, elemi, 
 guaiacum, jalap, lac, myrrh, sandarach, 
 and turpentine. (2) Resins extracted 
 from plants by alcohols; they generally 
 contain definite carbon compounds. 
 The principal resins belonging to this 
 class are gum ammoniacum, angelica- 
 root, Indian hemp, cubebs, manna, arid 
 squill. (3) Fossil resins, occurring m 
 coal or lignite beds, amber, asphab 
 copaline, fossil caoutchouc, etc. 
 
 RESISTANCE, Electrical, the oppo- 
 sition which a conductor offers to tha 
 flow of electricity, the conductor being 
 removed so far from neighboring con- 
 ductors that their action will be very 
 
resonance 
 
 RESURRECTION 
 
 email, and maintained at the tempera- 
 ture of 0° C. The unit of resistance is 
 called an ohm. 
 
 RES'ONANCEjin acoustics, a strength- 
 ening of sound. When a person speaks 
 in an empty room the walls reflect the 
 words. Suppose we have only to deal 
 with one reflecting surface, at a distance 
 of 112.5 feet from the speaker; there 
 will be an interval of one-fifth of a sec- 
 ond between the word and its echo, and 
 the sound will be distinguished from its 
 reflection; for any shorter distance the 
 echo will merely strengthen the sound. 
 Resonance includes such strengthening 
 of sound as occurs in sounding-boards 
 and the bodies of musical instruments. 
 
 RESPIRATION, the act of respiring or 
 breathing. Respiration is that great 
 physiological function which is devoted 
 to the purification of the blood by the 
 removal, through the media of the 
 breathing organs, of carbonic acid and 
 other waste products, and at the same 
 time to the revivifying of the blood by 
 the introduction of the oxygen of at- 
 mospheric air. It is thus partly ex- 
 cretory and partly nutritive in its char- 
 acter. The other waste products, besides 
 carbonic acid, which are given off in the 
 process of animal respiration are water, 
 ammonia, and organic matters; the 
 carbonic acid is by far the most im- 
 portant. 
 
 In man and the higher animals res- 
 piration is carried on by the breathing 
 organs or lungs. The blood is conveyed 
 to the breathing organs by special 
 vessels, the right side of the heart in 
 birds and mammals being exclusively 
 employed in driving blood to the lungs 
 for purification. The blood is sent 
 through the pulmonary or lung capil- 
 laries in a steady stream,, and passes 
 through these minute vessels at a rate 
 sufficient to expose it to the action of 
 the oxygen contained in the air-cells of 
 the lungs. The essential part of the 
 function of respiration, namely, the 
 exchange of carbonic acid gas for oxy- 
 gen, thus takes place in the lung, where 
 the dingy-hued venous blood becomes 
 converted into the florid red arterial 
 blood. Respiration includes the physical 
 acts of inspiration and expiration, both 
 involuntary acts, although they may 
 be voluntarily modified. From four- 
 teen to eighteen respiratory acts take 
 place per minute, the average quantity 
 of air inhaled by a healthy adult man 
 being about 30 cubic inches, a slightly 
 smaller quantity being exhaled. This 
 definite volume of air which ebbs and 
 flows is termed tidal air. The quantity 
 (about 100 cubic inches) which may be 
 taken in a deep inspiration, in addition 
 to the tidal air, is tenned complemental 
 air. The quantity of air (75 to 100 cubic 
 inches) remaining in the chest after an 
 ordinary expiration has expelled the 
 tidal air, is named supplemental or 
 reserve air, and this may be in greater 
 part expelled by a deeper expiration; 
 while a quantity of air, also averaging 
 from 75 to 100 cubic inches, alwaj^s 
 remains in the lungs after the deepest 
 possible expiratory effort, and cannot be 
 got rid of. This latter quantity is there- 
 fore approximately named residual air. 
 The difference in the mode of breathing 
 between the two sexes is clearly per- 
 
 ceptible. In man it is chiefly abdominal 
 in its character; that is to say, the lower 
 part of the chest and sternum, together 
 with the abdominal muscles, participate 
 before the upper portions of the chest 
 in the respiratory movments; while in 
 women the breathing movements are 
 chiefly referable to the upper portions 
 of the chest. In women, therefore, 
 breathing is said to be pectoral. 
 
 Every volume of inspired air loses 
 from 4| to 5 per cent of oxygen and 
 gains rather less carbonic acid. The 
 quantity of carbonic acid given off 
 varies under different circumstances. 
 More carbonic acid is excreted by males 
 than by females of the same age, and by 
 males between eight and forty than in 
 old age or in infancy. An average 
 healthy adult man will excrete more 
 than 8 oz. of carbon in 24 hours. Hence 
 the necessity for repeated currents of 
 fresh air in meeting places and places of 
 public entertainment, in halls and in 
 churches, and for the proper ventilation 
 of sleeping apartments. The breathing 
 of an atmosphere vitiated by organic 
 matter and carbonic acid results in im- 
 perfect oxygenation of the blood, is 
 accompanied or followed by headaches, 
 drowsiness, and lassitude, and is the 
 source of many serious and even fatal 
 disorders. 
 
 While in man and the more highly 
 organized animals respiration is carried 
 on by the lungs, in fishes it is effected by 
 the gills. The essential feature of any 
 breathing organ is a thin membrane, 
 having the blood on one side and air, 
 or water containing air, on the other; 
 and the essential feature of respiration is 
 an interchange of products between the 
 blood and the atmosphere, oxygen pass- 
 ing from atmosphere into the blood, and 
 carbonic acid and organic matters from 
 the blood into the atmosphere. In the 
 protozoa no respiratory organs are 
 specialized, but the protoplasixf'of which 
 the bodies of these animals are composed 
 has doubtless the power of excreting 
 waste matters, as well as of absorbing 
 nutritive material. Even in compara- 
 tively high organisms, where no spe- 
 cialized breathing organs ^re developed 
 the function of respiration may be 
 carried on by the skin or general body 
 surface — the integument being, as in 
 the highest fonns, intimately correlated 
 in its functions to the breathing process. 
 Thus in earthworms, lower Crustacea, 
 etc., the breathing appears to be solely 
 subserved by the body-surfaces. 
 
 Respiration goes on in plants as well 
 as in animals, the plant in the presence 
 of light exhaling oxygen and inhaling 
 carbonic acid, and thus reversing the 
 action of the animal. 
 
 RESPIRATION, Artificial. See Drown- 
 ing. 
 
 RESPIRATOR, a mouth-covering, 
 which gives warmth to the air inhaled, 
 and is used by persons having delicate 
 lungs. It is constructed of a series of 
 layers of very fine silver or gilt wires 
 placed closely together, which are heated 
 by the exhalation of the wann breath, 
 and in turn heat the cold air before it is 
 inhaled. Other respirators, designed to 
 exclude smoke, dust, and other noxious 
 substances, are used by firemen, miners, 
 cutlers, grinders, and the like. 
 
 RESPIR'ATORY SOUNDS, in medi- 
 cine, the sounds made by the air when 
 being inhaled or exhaled, as heard by the 
 ear applied directly to the chest, or in- 
 directly through the medium of the 
 stethoscope. The respiratory sounds are 
 of the highest importance in the diagno- 
 sis of diseases of the chest and bronchial 
 tubes. 
 
 REST, in music, an interval of silence 
 between two sounds, and the mark 
 which denotes such interval. Each note 
 has its corresponding rest. See Music. 
 
 RESTIA'CEjE, a natural order of 
 plants allied to the Cyperacese or sedges, 
 and confined to the southern hemis- 
 phere, being found chiefly in South 
 Africa and Australia. They are herbs 
 or undershrubs, with matted roots 
 which bind shifting soil, hard wiry 
 stems, simple narrow leaves, the sheaths 
 of which are usually split, and incon- 
 spicuous brown rush-like panicles of 
 flowers. 
 
 RESTORATION, in English history, 
 the re-establishment of Charles II. on 
 the throne. May 29, 1660. The restora- 
 tion was held as a festival in the Church 
 of England till 1859. 
 
 RESURRECTION, the rising again of 
 the body from the dead to be reunited 
 to the soul in a new life. It has formed 
 a part of the belief of the Christian 
 church since its first formation, and has 
 been embodied as an article to each of 
 the creeds. There are traces to be found 
 of such a belief among heathen nations 
 from a very early period. There can be 
 little doubt that the Jews, particularly 
 those of later times, held the doctrine, 
 though it would be difficult to point to 
 any express indication of it in the Old 
 Testament. It appears, however, to be 
 alluded to in Isaiah xxvi. 19, and is dis- 
 tinctly affirmed in Daniel, chap. xii. 
 J.-3. That the belief in the resurrection 
 was generally held among the Jews at 
 the time of Christ is evident, particularly 
 from the position occupied by the Sad- 
 ducees, a sect having as its most char- 
 acteristic feature the denial of the res- 
 urrection. Beyond doubt, however, it 
 was the gospel that “brought life and 
 immortality to light.” At best the 
 notions of a resurrection and future 
 state current prior to the advent of 
 Christ were dim and undefined, and it 
 remained for him to set them in a full 
 clear light, and give evidence and pledge 
 of their reality, by his own resurrection. 
 With regard to the information con- 
 veyed to us in the New Testament on 
 the doctrine of the resurrection, we are 
 taught that it will be universal, extend- 
 ing to the wicked as well as to the right- 
 eous, John V. 28, 29; Rev. xx. 13; that 
 there shall be identity, in some sense, 
 between the body which died and the 
 body which shall be raised, 2 Cor. v. 10; 
 that, as regards the resurrection of the 
 righteous, the body, though identical, 
 shall be wonderfully altered, Phil. iii. 
 21 ; 1 Cor. xv. ; Luke xx. 35, 36 ; and that, 
 as regards the time of the resurrection, 
 it shall be at the end of this present 
 earthly state, and that it shall be con- 
 nected with the coming of our Lord to 
 judge the world, 1 Thess. iv. 16. 
 
 Connected with this subject is the res- 
 urrection of Christ himself from the 
 dead, the corner-stone of the Christian 
 
RESZKE 
 
 REVERBERATORY FURNACE 
 
 'system. The evidence in support of it 
 is marked by the following char- 
 acteristics: (1) The variety of circum- 
 stances under which the risen Savior 
 appeared. (2) The circumstantiality of 
 the testimony given by the different 
 witnesses. (3) The simplicity and ap- 
 parent truthfulness with which the 
 witnesses described their impressions 
 when the Savior appeared to them. (4) 
 That the event borne witness to was 
 completely unexpected by the wit- 
 nesses; and (5) That the testimony was 
 published to the world on the very spot 
 where, and at the very moment when, 
 the event was said to have happened. 
 
 RESZKE (rSsh'ke), Edouard de, Pol- 
 ish opera singer, brother of Jean de 
 Reszke, was born at Warsaw in 1856. 
 He made his first public ^pearance in 
 1876 at the Italiens in Paris, as the 
 King in Verdi’s Aida, which was so 
 successful that Massenet intrusted to 
 him the creation of Le roi de Lahore at 
 La Scala in Milan. From 1880 to 1884 
 he sang with the Royal Italian Opera 
 company in London, where he became 
 famous as one of the greatest dramatic 
 bassos of his time. 
 
 RESZKE, Jean de, Polish dramatic 
 tenor, was born at Warsaw in 1853. 
 In 1874 he made his d6but at Venice, 
 as Alfonso in La Favorita, under the 
 name of De Reschi. He made his second 
 d4but before the public in 1879, this 
 time in the tenor rdle of Robert le 
 Diable, at Madrid. His success was in- 
 stantaneous. His repertoire includes 
 Faust, Lohengrin, L’Africaine, Aida, 
 Le Cid (written for him by Massenet), 
 Les Huguenots, Elaine, Romeo and 
 Juliet, and Tristan. He is conceded to 
 be one of the most artistic singers and 
 actors known to the operatic stage. For 
 many years subsequent to 1891, both 
 the De Reszkes were favorite members 
 of the Metropolitan Opera House Com- 
 pany, New York. 
 
 RETAINER, in law, the contract be- 
 tween a solicitor and a client, or a 
 solicitor and counsel for professional 
 services, and the document given by the 
 solicitor to a counsel engaging his ser- 
 vices. When the counsel is engaged for 
 a particular suit the document is called 
 a special retainer; and when he is en- 
 gaged for all matters of litigation in 
 which such party may be at any time 
 involved, it is called a general retainer. 
 The retainer is in all cases accompanied 
 by a preliminary fee called a retaining 
 fee. 
 
 RETENTION OF URINE, in medicine, 
 a condition in which the urine cannot be 
 expelled from the bladder at all, or only 
 with great difficulty; to be distinguished 
 from suppression of urine, a condition 
 in which the bladder is empty, the urine 
 not having been secreted by the kidneys. 
 It may be due to some mechanical ob- 
 struction, as a. calculus, a clot of blood, 
 or a tumor, or to paralysis, etc. If not 
 relieved by means of the catheter or 
 otherwise it may cause rupture of the 
 bladder and death. 
 
 RETICULATED WORK, a species of 
 masonry very common among the an- 
 cients, in which the stones are square 
 and laid lozenge-wise, resembling the 
 meshes of a net, and producing quite an 
 
 P. K.- : ; 
 
 ornamental appearance. It is the opus 
 reticulatum of the Romans. 
 
 RET'INA, in anatomy, a membrane 
 of the eye, formed by an expansion of 
 the optic nerve, and so constituted as to 
 receive the impressions which result in 
 vision. See Eye. 
 
 RETORT', a vessel, generally of glass, 
 used in chemistry, for distilling liquids. 
 Retorts consist of a flask-shaped vessel, 
 to which a long neck or beak is attached. 
 The liquid to be distilled is placed in the 
 flask and heat applied. 'The products 
 
 Ancient Roman reticulated work. 
 
 of distillation condense in the cold neck 
 of the retort, and are collected in a suit- 
 able receiver. In gas-making, retorts 
 of iron or fire-clay are used for distilling 
 the eoa:. 
 
 RETRIEVER, a dog specially trained 
 to fetch game which has been shot, 
 and greatly valued by sportsmen for its 
 sagacity in the field and in the water. 
 The larger and more familiar breed 
 of retrievers is formed by crossing the 
 Newfoundland and setter; the smaller 
 breed is formed by crossing the water- 
 spaniel and terrier. The typical re- 
 triever is 20 or more inches high, with a 
 stoutly-built body, strong limbs, webbed 
 toes, and black and curly fur. 
 
 RETROGRADE, a term given to the 
 apparent motion of a planet among the 
 stars when it is in opposition to the 
 motion of the sun in the ecliptic. The 
 motion of a planet in the direction from 
 right to left is said to be direct. 
 
 RETROGRESSION OF THE MOON’S 
 NODES, the motion of the moon 
 nodes — the two points in which the 
 moon’s orbit meets the plane of the 
 ecliptic — in the direction opposite to 
 that of the sun’s motion in the ecliptic. 
 The moon’s nodes slowly change at each 
 revolution of the moon, in the direction 
 from left to right, and make a complete 
 revolution round the earth in 18.6 years. 
 
 REUMONT, (roi'mont), Alfred Von, 
 German historian, born at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, August 15, 1808. He died in 
 1887. He was the author of several 
 valuable works on the history of Italy, 
 including Contributions to Italian His- 
 tory, The Carafas of Maddaloni, History 
 of the City of Rome, etc. He also wrote 
 on the history of art. 
 
 REUNION (ra-u-ni-6n), formerly Bour- 
 bon, an island in the Indian ocean, 
 between Mauritius and Madagascar, 115 
 miles from each; area, 1127 sq. miles. 
 It was annexed by France in 1643, and 
 is an important French colony, now 
 sending a representative to the chamber 
 
 of deputies, and forming practically 
 almost a department of France. The 
 population, which consists of creoles, 
 negroes, Indian coolies, Chinese, Malays, 
 etc., is 179,639. 
 
 REUSS (rois), two principalities of 
 Central Germany, consisting of several 
 separate territories situated between 
 Prussia, Saxony, and Bavaria, and be- 
 longing to an older and a younger line 
 of the family of Reuss. Reuss-Greiz, the 
 territory of the elder line, comprises 
 an area of 122 sq. miles, with a popula- 
 tion of 68,396; the territory of the 
 younger line, Reuss-Schleiz-Gera, has an 
 area of 318 sq. miles, with a pop. of 
 139 210 
 
 REUTER (roi't6r), Fritz, German 
 humorist, was born in 1810, and edu- 
 cated at Rostock and Jena. His first 
 literary venture was a volume of humor- 
 ous poems in Low German (Lauschen 
 and Riemels, 1853), which met with 
 extraordinarv success. His greatest 
 work is Olle Kamellen, a series of prose 
 tales, which stamped him as the greatest 
 writer of Plattdeutsch and one of the 
 greatest humorists of the century. He 
 died at Eisenach in 1874. 
 
 REUTER (roi'ter), Paul Julius, Baron, 
 born at Cassel in 1816, was connected 
 with the electric telegraph system from 
 the beginning, and in 1849 established 
 Reuter’s News Agency at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. In 1865 he converted his 
 agency into a limited liability company. 
 In 1871 he received the title of baron 
 from the Duke of Coburg-Gotha. He 
 laid some important telegraphic cables. 
 He died in 1899. 
 
 REVAL, or REVEL, a fortified seaport 
 of Russia, capital of Esthonia, on a 
 sm.all bay in the Gulf of Finland. It is 
 much frequented for sea-bathing. Pop. 
 64,578. 
 
 REVEILLE (re-vel'ye), the signal 
 iven in garrisons at break of day, by 
 eat of drum or sound of bugle, for the 
 soldiers to rise and the sentinels to for- 
 bear challenging until the retreat is 
 sounded in the evening. 
 
 REVELATION, the knowledge of God 
 and his relation to the world, given to 
 m.en by God himself, and for the Chris- 
 tian contained in the Bible. The earliest 
 revelations, made in the patriarchal age, 
 were preserved till later times, and 
 gradually enlarged during the Mosaic 
 period by successive revelations to 
 chosen individuals, with whom the Bible 
 makes us acquainted under the name 
 of prophets, from Moses to Malachi, God 
 having finally completed his revelations 
 through Christ. 
 
 REVELATION, Book of. See apo- 
 calypse . 
 
 REVENUE, the income of a nation 
 derived from taxes, duties, and other 
 sources, for public u.ses. See articles on 
 the different countries, also Taxation, etc. 
 
 REVENUE CUTTER, a sharp-built 
 single-masted vessel, armed, for the pur- 
 pose of preventing smuggling and en- 
 forcing the custom-house regulat-'ons. 
 
 REVER'BERATORY FURNACE, a 
 furnace in which the material is heated 
 without coming into contact with the 
 fuel. Between the fireplace a and the 
 bed on which the material to be heated 
 b lies, a low partition wall, called a fire- 
 bridge, is placed. The flame passes over 
 
RE /ERE 
 
 REVOLVER 
 
 this bridge, and plays along the flat arch 
 which surmounts the whole, reflecting or 
 reverberating the heat downward. 
 The reverberatory furnace gives free 
 access of air to the material, and is em- 
 
 Section of reverberatory furnace, 
 ployed for oxidizing impurities in metals, 
 and for other similar purposes. 
 
 REVERE (re-ver'), Paul, born at 
 Boston, Massachusetts, January 1, 1735, 
 has earned fame by riding through 
 Charlestown to Concord on the night of 
 April 18, 1775, to give warning of the 
 British expedition, which was resisted 
 next day at Lexington and Concord; 
 a service immortalized in Longfellow’s 
 poem. The Midnight Ride of Paul 
 Revere. He had been a goldsmith and 
 copper-plate engraver, and subsequently 
 he set up a foundry and erected works 
 for rolling copper at Canton, Massa- 
 chusetts, still carried on by his suc- 
 cessors as the Revere Copper company. 
 He died May 10, 1818. 
 
 REVISED STATUTES, the acts of the 
 legislatures of the various states and of 
 congress. After a large number of these 
 volumes have been issued, it is found 
 that acts in the earlier volumes are re- 
 pealed or amended by acts reported in 
 later ones, that some have become 
 obsolete by reason of changed con- 
 ditions. Where this state of facts exists, 
 most of the states have at some time 
 authorized thorough revisions of their 
 statute law. The general laws are thus 
 collected, arranged and amended, are 
 reenacted by the legislature and then 
 constitute the official revised statutes of 
 the state, superseding all original acts 
 on the same subject. There have been 
 several revisions of the statutes of the 
 United States. 
 
 REVIVAL, a term applied to religious 
 awakenings in the Christian church, and 
 to the occurrence of extensive spiritual 
 quickening and conversion in the general 
 community. The first great revival in 
 Europe was the Reformation in the 16th 
 century, which awoke the church from 
 the sleep of centuries. When religion 
 had degenerated into formalism in Eng- 
 land in the 17th century a second re- 
 vival of spiritual interest rvas accom- 
 plished through the instrumentality of 
 the Puritans. When the church had 
 once more sank into a state of sloth and 
 apathy in the 18th century, it was 
 aroused by the preaching of Writfield, 
 the Wesleys, Rowland Hill, Venn, 
 Newton, Cecil, Fletcher, and a multitude 
 of other earnest men. Coincident with 
 this movement was the origin of mis- 
 sions to the heathen. Scotland also pre- 
 sents several remarkable revivals. But 
 it was reserved for recent times to wit- 
 ness in America and Great Britain per- 
 haps the most remarkable religious 
 revival which has been witnessed since 
 the era of the Reformation. Movements 
 
 of this nature, but of limited extent, 
 have not been infrequent in the Ameri- 
 can churches, as in 1736 and 1830; but 
 the great revival which originated in 
 the United States in 1858 subsequently 
 extended to the British islands, and was 
 experienced with more or less power 
 throughout almost every part of the 
 world. New York and Philadelphia 
 were the principal centers of the move- 
 ment, which became universal in the 
 United States, embracing all denomina- 
 tions and all classes of society. In the 
 summer of 1859 the revival extended 
 to the north of Ireland, chiefly through 
 the agency of the Presbyterian church, 
 and from Ireland it spread to Scotland, 
 where its power was extensively felt by 
 the long-neglected population of the 
 fishing villages in the east and north, 
 and in Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, 
 Perth, Dundee, Paisley, Dumfries, and 
 other large towns. Wales largely par- 
 ticipated in this revival; the increase 
 to the membership of its churches in one 
 year, from June, 1859, amounting to 
 100,000. Various parts of England also 
 shared in the movement. The most 
 extraordinary revival movement of 
 modern times, was that initiated by the 
 two American “evangelists,” D. L. 
 Moody and Ira D. Sankey, whose re- 
 spective functions it has been, to use 
 their own words, “to preach and to sing 
 the gospel.” The movement commenced 
 in 1873 in England, but it attained no 
 great prominence until the arrival of 
 the two evangelists in Edinburgh. Their 
 ministrations in that city, and after- 
 wards in Glasgow, Dundee, and other 
 towns in Scotland, and also in England 
 and Ireland, up to Au^st, 1875, were 
 attended daily by multitudes of people, 
 a remarkable feature of these assem- 
 blies being the presence in great numbers 
 of the upper ranks of society, even to 
 members of the peerage and royal 
 family. On their return to the United 
 States they headed a similar movement 
 there; and they paid a second and 
 equally successful visit to Britain in 
 1883-84. Reuben Archer Torrey, cler- 
 gyman and evangelist, became associ- 
 ated with the work of Moody, and has 
 met with great success. In 1902-3 he 
 visited and preached in England, Scot- 
 land, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, 
 Tasmania, China, Japan and India; re- 
 turning to Britain in 1903-5, holding 
 meetings in principal English and 
 Scotch cities, including 5 months in 
 Albert Hall, London. He preaches 
 continually and in 1907 he held the 
 most extra ordinary andsuccessful revival 
 in Chicago in a vast steam tent, erected 
 especially for the purpose. His works 
 have been translated into French, Ger- 
 man, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese (2 
 languages), Japanese, Hindustani. The 
 Salvation Army, which was originated 
 in 1865 and organized under its pres- 
 ent name in 1878, and the Volunteers 
 of America, organized in 1896, may be 
 regarded as permanent revival organi- 
 zations. See Salvation Army. Volun- 
 teers of America. 
 
 REVOLUTION, the more or less sud- 
 den, and it may be violent, overturning 
 of a government or political s 5 ’'stem, 
 with the substitution of something else 
 The term “revolution” is applied dis- 
 
 tinctively in English history to the con- 
 vulsion by which James II. was driven 
 from the throne in 1688; and in French 
 history to the upheaval of 1789. Sub- 
 sequent French revolutions are those of 
 1830, 1848, 1851, and 1870-71. The 
 American war of independence (1775-83) 
 is often called a revolution. 
 
 REVOLVER, a description of firearm 
 in which a number of charges contained 
 in a revolving cylinder are, by pulling 
 the trigger, brought successively into 
 position and fired through a single 
 barrel. For the introduction of the re- 
 volver in its present form we are in- 
 debted to Colonel Samuel Colt, of the 
 United States, though repeating pistols 
 had long been known in other countries. 
 These were made from one mass of metal 
 bored into the requisite number of 
 barrels, but were so clumsy as to be 
 almost quite useless. In Colt’s weapon 
 there is a revolving cylinder containing 
 six chambers placed at the base of the 
 barrel, each chamber having at its rear 
 end a nipple for a cap. These contain 
 the cartridges, which are put in from the 
 front of the breech-piece and driven 
 home by a lever ramrod placed in a 
 socket beneath the barrel. The revolver 
 is fired through the single barrel, the 
 cylinder being turned by mechanism 
 connected with the lock, until each 
 chamber in succession is brought round 
 so as to form virtually a continuation of 
 the barrel. Various modifications of 
 Colt’s revolver have been introduced, 
 with the view in some cases of increasing 
 the rapidity and facility of firing, in 
 
 others of diminishing by safeguards th< 
 risks to which inexperienced hands must 
 ever be exposed in the use of these weap- 
 ons. In the Smith and Wesson revolver 
 one of the most recent (adopted by 
 Austria and Russia), facility in loading 
 is a feature, the cylinder and barrel to- 
 gether being pivoted to the front of the 
 stock, so that by setting the hammer 
 at half-cock, raising a spring-catch, and 
 lowering the muzzle the bottom of the 
 cylinder is turned up to receive fresh 
 metallic cartridges. When this is done 
 the muzzle is pressed back until the 
 snap-catch fastens it to the back plate, 
 and the revolver is again ready to be , 
 fired. In the latest form of this revolvei I 
 the spent cartridges are thrown out of ( 
 the cylinder by means of an automatic* 
 discharger. As a military weapon the 
 revolver will, it is thought, be super- 
 seded by a repeating pistol with mech- 
 anism similar to that of magazine 
 rifles. The revolver principle has also 
 been applied to rifles, and to guns fof 
 
REWA KANTHA 
 
 RHINE 
 
 throwing small projectiles, as in the 
 Gatling and other machine guns. 
 
 REWA KANTHA, a political agency 
 of India, subordinate to the govern- 
 ment of Bombay. It was established in 
 1821-26, and has under its control 61 
 separate states, great and small, on the 
 Nerbudda, most of which are tributary 
 to the Gaekwar of Baroda. Area, 4980 
 sq. miles; pop. 478,889. 
 
 REYNOLDS, Sir Joshua, English por- 
 trait-painter, was born at Plympton, 
 Devonshire, 16th July, 1723. Among the 
 more notable of his portraits are the 
 Duchess of Hamilton (1758), the Duke of 
 Cumberland (1759), Miss Palmer (1770), 
 Mrs. Nesbitt as Circe (1781), Mrs. Sid- 
 dons as the Tragic Muse (1784), the 
 Duchess of Devonshire and Child (1786), 
 
 / 
 
 Vt 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 
 and Miss Gwatkin as Simplicity (1788). 
 In 1768, on the foundation of the Royal 
 academy, he was chosen president, and 
 received the honor of knighthood; and 
 in 17&4 he was appointed principal 
 portrait-painter to the king. As presi- 
 dent of the Royal academy he delivered 
 his celebrated annual Discourses on 
 Painting, the last of which was delivered 
 in 1790. He died unmarried February 
 23, 1792, and was interred in St. Paul’s 
 C£ith0di'^l 
 
 RHAMNA'CE.®, a natural order of 
 exogenous plants, consisting of trees or 
 
 Branch of common buckthorn with fruit, 
 o, female flower: 6, male flower; c, leaf, show- 
 ing the nervation. 
 
 shrubs, 
 opposite 
 
 with simple, alternate, rarely 
 leaves, small greenish-yellow 
 
 flowers, a valvate calyx, hooded petals, 
 opposite to which their stamens are in- 
 serted, and a fruit which is either dry 
 or fleshy. This order contains about 
 250 known species, distributed very 
 generally over the globe. There is a re- 
 markable agreement throughout the 
 order between the properties of the 
 inner bark and the fruit, especially in 
 several species, in which they are both 
 purgative and emetic, and in some de- 
 gree astringent. Many species, however, 
 bear wholesome fruit; and the berries of 
 most of them are used for dyes. The 
 buck-thorn and jujube belong to this 
 order. 
 
 RHEIMS, or REIMS (remz), a town of 
 France, in the department of Marne, in 
 an extensive basin surrounded by vine- 
 clad hills, 82 miles e.n.e. of Paris. The 
 principal edifices are the cathedral, 
 erected in the 13th and 14th centuries, 
 one of the finest Gothic structures now 
 existing in Europe; the archi-episcopal 
 palace (1498-1509), occupied by the 
 French kings on the occasion of their 
 coronation; the church of St. Remy 
 (11th and 12th centuries), the oldest 
 church in Rheims, the Porte de Mars, a 
 Roman triumphal arch erected in 
 honor of Julius CiEsar and Augustus; 
 the town-house, of the 17th century; 
 and several ancient mansions, particu- 
 larly the hotel of the counts of Cham- 
 pagne. The staple industries are the 
 manufacture of the wine known as cham- 
 pagne, and of woolen fabrics, such as 
 flannels, merinoes, blankets, etc. Since 
 the Franco-German war it has been sur- 
 rounded with detached forts, which 
 render it a place of great strength. 
 Pop. 107,017. 
 
 RHENISH PRUSSIA, the most west- 
 erly province of Prussia, touching w.and 
 n. Luxemburg, Belgium, and Holland; 
 area, 10,420 sq. miles; greatest length 
 from n. tc s. about 200 miles, greatest 
 breadth about 90. Pop. 5,758,995, the 
 majority of whom are Roman Catholics. 
 
 RHENISH WINES, the general desig- 
 nation for the wines produced in the 
 region watered by the Rhine, and spe- 
 cifically for those of the Rheingau, the 
 white wines of which are the finest in the 
 world. The red wines are not so much 
 esteemed, being considered inferior to 
 those of Bordeaux. Good wines are also 
 produced in the valleys of the Neckar, 
 Moselle, and other tributaries of the 
 Rhine. The vineyards are mainly be- 
 tween Mannheim and Bonn, and the 
 most valuable brands of wines are those 
 of Johannisberg, Steinberg, Hochheim, 
 Riidesheim, Rauenthal, Markobrunn, 
 and Assmannshausen, the last being a 
 red wine. 
 
 RHE'OSTAT, an instrument for meas- 
 uring electrical resistances, invented 
 by Sir Charles Wheatstone. The rheo- 
 stat is very convenient for measuring 
 small resistances; but for practical pur- 
 poses, such as measuring the resistance 
 of telegraph cables, Wheatstone’s bridge 
 (an apparatus of which there are several 
 for ms) is always used. 
 
 RHESUS MONKEY, a name for two 
 species of monkeys, the bruh or pig- 
 tailed monkey which inhabits the Malay 
 peninsula, and the islands of the Indian 
 archipelago, and is often domesticated; 
 and a species of monkey held sacred in 
 
 India, where they swarm in large num« 
 bers about the temples. 
 
 RHET'ORIC, in its widest sense, may 
 be regarded as the theory of eloquence, 
 whether spoken or written, and treats 
 of the general rules of prose style, in 
 view of the end to be served by the com- 
 position. In a narrower sense rhetoric 
 is the art of persuasive speaking, or the 
 art of the orator, which teaches the 
 composition and delivery of discourses 
 intended to move the feelings or sway 
 the will of others. In the wider sense 
 rhetoric treats of prose composition in 
 general, purity of style, structure ol 
 sentences, figures of speech, etc.; in 
 short, of whatever relates to clearness, 
 preciseness, elegance, and strength of 
 expression. In the narrower sense it 
 treats of the invention and disposition 
 of the matter, the character of the style, 
 the delivery or pronunciation, etc. 
 Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian are the 
 principal writers on rhetoric among the 
 ancients; and among the English, Camp- 
 hell. Blair, Whately, Spalding, and Bain. 
 
 RHEUMATISM, an ailment or set of 
 ailments attended with sharp pains, 
 partly neuralgic in character, and partly 
 owing perhaps to infection with certain 
 disease germs. Some varieties of it have 
 so much resemblance to the gout that 
 some physicians have considered it as 
 not an entirely distinct disease. Rheu- 
 matism is distinguished into acute and 
 chronic. The former is characterized by 
 fever more or less severe, pains in the 
 joints, which are swollen, red, and ten- 
 der, and sweating. The inflammation 
 flits from one joint to another, one joint 
 getting well when another is attacked; 
 and the pain may be very severe. The 
 entire duration of an attack, if not 
 treated, may be from two to six or ten 
 weeks, and disease of the heart may be 
 a consequence of this disease. Chronic 
 rheumatism is distinguished by pain 
 and stiffness, either stationary or shift- 
 ing, in the joints, without fever. It is 
 aggravated by damp weather, and 
 usually is never absolutely got rid of. 
 Acute rheumatism mostly terminates 
 in one of these species. Rheumatism 
 may arise at all times of the year, when 
 there are frequent vicissitudes of the 
 weather from heat to cold, but the spring 
 and autumn are the seasons in which it is 
 most prevalent; and it attacks persons 
 of all ages, but very young people are 
 less subject to it than adults. Obstructed 
 perspiration, occasioned either by wear- 
 ing wet clothes, lying in damp sheets or 
 damp rooms, or by being exposed to cool 
 air when the body has been much 
 heated by exercise, is the cause which 
 usually produces rheumatism. 
 
 RHiNE, the finest river of Germany, 
 and one of the most important rivers of 
 Europe, its direct course being 460 
 miles and its indirect course 800 miles 
 (about 250 miles of its course being in 
 Switzerland, 450 in Germany, and 100 
 in Holland) ; while the area of its basin is 
 75,000 sq. miles. The chief towns on 
 its banks are Constance and B51e in 
 Switzerland; Spires, Mannheim, Mainz, 
 Coblentz, Bonn, Cologne, and Diissel- 
 dorf, with Worms and Strasburg not far 
 distant, in Germany; Arnheim, Utrecht, 
 and Leyden, in Holland. Its breadth at 
 BMe is 750 feet; between Strasburg and 
 
HHTNOCEROS 
 
 RHODES 
 
 Spires from 1000 to 1200 fee^ at Mainz 
 1500 to 1700 feet; and at Emmerich, 
 where it enters the Netherlands, 2150 
 feet. Its depth varies from 5 to 28 feet, 
 and at Dtlsseldorf amounts even to 50 
 feet. It is navigable without interrup- 
 tion from BMe to its mouth, a distance 
 of 550 miles, and much timber in rafts, 
 coal, iron, and agricultural produce are 
 conveyed by it. 
 
 RHINOCEROS, a genus of hoofed 
 mammals, belonging to the perisso- 
 dactylate or odd-toed division, allied to 
 the elephant, hippopotamus, tapir, etc. 
 They are large ungainly animals, having 
 short legs, and a very thick skin, which is 
 usually thrown into deep folds. There 
 are seven molars on each side of each 
 jaw; there are no canines, but there are 
 usually incisor teeth in both jaws. The 
 feet are furnished with three toes each, 
 encasedin hoofs. The nasal bonesusually 
 support one or two horns, which are of 
 the nature of epidemic growths, some- 
 what analogous to hairs. When two 
 horns are present the one is placed be- 
 hind the other and is generally shorter 
 than it. These animals live in marshy 
 places, and subsist chiefly on grasses and 
 foliage. They are exclusively confined 
 to the wamer parts of the eastern hemi- 
 sphere. The most familiar species is the 
 one-horned or Indian rhinoceros, which, 
 like all the Asiatic species, has the skin 
 thrown into very definite folds, cor- 
 responding to the regions of the body. 
 The horn is black, and usually very 
 thick. The upper lip is very large, and 
 is employed by the animal somewhat as 
 the elephant uses his trunk. Though 
 
 Indian rhinoceros. 
 
 possessed of great strength it is quiet 
 and inoffensive unless provoked. The 
 Javanese rhinoceros is distinguished 
 from the Indian chiefly by its smaller 
 size. It has been trained to bear a saddle 
 and to be driven. It occurs in Java, 
 Sumatra, and Borneo. The Sumatran 
 species is found in Sumatra and the 
 Malay peninsula. It has two horns, the 
 first being the longer and sharper. The 
 typical African rhinoceros is found in 
 Southern Africa generally. Like other 
 African species it possesses no skin- 
 folds. The horns are of very character- 
 istic confomation, the front horn being 
 broad and raised as on a base, sharp- 
 pointed, and curved slightly backward, 
 while the hinder horn is short and coni- 
 cal. This animal appears to be of fero- 
 cious disposition, is quick and active, 
 and greatly feared by the natives. Other 
 allied African species are the Keitloa 
 or Sloan’s rhinoceros, the common white 
 rhinoceros, and the long-horned white 
 rhinoceros. Fossil species are numerous 
 and range from the Miocene tertiary 
 
 through th« Pliocene and Post-pliocene 
 deposits. The “woolly rhinoceros,’’ 
 fomerly inhabited England and ranged 
 over the greater part of Europe. 
 
 RHINOCEROS-BIRD, or RHINOC- 
 EROS-HORNBILL. See Hornbill. 
 
 RHIO, or RIOUW, a seaport belong- 
 ing to the Dutch, in the Indian archi- 
 pelago, on an islet 50 miles southeast of 
 Singapore. It is the capital of a Dutch 
 residency, comprising the islands of the 
 Rhio archipelago and other groups as 
 well as districts on the east coast of 
 Sumatra. The population of the resi- 
 dency is estimated at 90,000. The Rhio 
 archipelago is a group of small islands 
 lying chiefly south and east of Singapore. 
 Chief island Bintang. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND, one of the original 
 thirteen States of North America, be- 
 tween Massachusetts, Connecticut, and 
 the Atlanticfj area, 1250 sq'. miles. 
 Rhode Island is the smallest in area of 
 the states of the Union. The surface, 
 which in the north is hilly and rugged, 
 but elsewhere generally level, is divided 
 into two parts by Narragansett bay, a 
 fine body of water about 30 miles long 
 by 15 miles broad, and containing 
 several islands, and among others the 
 one which gives the state Jts name. 
 The chief rivers are the Pawtucket, 
 the Pawtuxet, and the Pawcatuck. The 
 climate is mild and equable, and well 
 adapted, from its pleasant summers and 
 temperate winters, for invalids from 
 the south. Corn, oats, hay and forage 
 are the most important crops. Potatoes, 
 sweet corn, and other vegetables are 
 grown for the local market. The 
 minerals include coal, iron ore, and 
 limestone; sandstone, marble, and ser- 
 pentine are sufficiently common. The 
 soil is only of indifferent fertility. Manu- 
 factures form the staple industry; they 
 consist of cotton, woolen, worsted, and 
 mixed textiles, jewelry, and foundry 
 and machine-shop products. The higher 
 education is provided for by Brown 
 university at Providence. A compulsory 
 education law is now in force for chil- 
 dren from 7 to 14 for twelve weeks in 
 the year only. The chief cities are 
 Providence, Pawtucket, and Newport. 
 Providence and Newport both rank as 
 state capitals. Rhode Island is one of 
 
 the six New England states, and one 
 of the original thirteen which formed 
 the Union. The Northmen are sup- 
 posed to have visited Rhode Island in 
 
 the tenth century, and the “Old Stonti 
 Mill’’ at Newport has been claimed as 
 their work. Rhode Island was first 
 settled when Roger Williams was ban- 
 ished from Massachusetts bay, and 
 settled with a few companions at 
 “Providence Plantations,’’ on land 
 purehasedfromthe Narragansett Indians 
 probably in June, 1636. Through the 
 influence of the Earl of Warwick, parlia- 
 ment granted (1644) a charter uniting 
 the settlements as the “Incorporation 
 of Providence Plantations in the Nar- 
 ragansett bay in New England.’’ 
 
 The union effected by this instru- 
 ment was of the very loosest descrip- 
 tion, but under the pressure of causes 
 which threatened the very existence of 
 the colony a new and much more com- 
 prehensive charter was obtained in 
 1663. This extraordinarily liberal in- 
 strument constituted the fundamental 
 law of Rhode Island for the next 180 
 years, through a succession of vicissi- 
 tudes. Massachusetts and other Amer- 
 ican colonies were withdrawn in 1686, 
 but the efforts of the royal agent were 
 frustrated in Connecticut and Rhode 
 Island; and in this colony the govern- 
 ment was simply committed tempora- 
 rily to the separate towns which had 
 constituted tne colony, the charter 
 government being peacefully resumed 
 three years later, in 1689. Rhode 
 Island was hardly free, during the next 
 seventy years, from some form of con- 
 flict with the mother country over the 
 question of charter rights ; and in the 
 steps which served to precipitate the 
 War of Independence (1775-83) as well 
 as in the war itself, it was among the 
 foremost. During the revolution 
 Newport was held (1776-79) by British 
 troops, and in 1780 the French fleet 
 was stationed there. The famous soldier 
 of Rhode Island was General Nathanael 
 Greene, who ranks easily second to 
 Washington in generalship. 
 
 The state refused to send delegates to 
 the convention which drew up the 
 federal constitution, and it was not 
 until threats of coercion had been made 
 that the instrument was ratified. May 
 29, 1790. A new state constitution was 
 adopted as a result in 1842, which has 
 been frequently amended since. The 
 property qualification for suffrage was 
 not abolished until 1888, and election by 
 a plurality has been allowed since 1893. 
 Until 1900the legislaturemetin Newport 
 in April to canvass the vote and ad- 
 journed to Providence in January to 
 transact business. Now all sessions aro 
 held in Providence. Since 1856 the 
 state has been republican in national 
 elections. Pop. 614,000. 
 
 RHODES (rodz), a Turkish island in 
 the ./Egean sea, off the southwest coast 
 of Asia Minor, separated from it by a 
 channel 10 miles broad; area, 560 sq. 
 miles. It is traversed by a mountain 
 range, the highest point of which is 
 4786 feet. Pop. 30,000, of whom 20,000 
 are Greeks, 7000 Turks, and 1500 Jews 
 — Rhodes, the capital, stands at the 
 northeastern extremity of the island, 
 rising from the sea in the form of an 
 amphitheater, with fortifications mainly 
 the work of the Knights of St. John. 
 The celebrated Colossus of Rhodes stood 
 * for fifty-six years, and was prostrated 
 
RHODES 
 
 RIB 
 
 by an earthquake 224 b.c. Pop. about 
 
 11 , 000 . 
 
 RHODES, Cecil, born in England in 
 1853, went out to South Africa early in 
 life, and becoming connected with the 
 Kimberley diamond mines accumulated 
 a large fortune. Having entered the 
 Cape parliament, he became colonial 
 prime-minister in 1890, and held this 
 position till 1896, when his alleged con- 
 nection with the Jameson raid caused 
 him to resign. He was the leading spirit 
 in the British South Africa company, 
 and it was mainly by his influence that 
 Rhodesia became British. He was made 
 a privy councillor in 1895. He died in 
 1902. 
 
 RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS, The, un- 
 der the will of Cecil John Rhodes, who 
 died in 1902, a large part of his estate 
 was bequeathed in trust for the purpose 
 of maintaining a number of British, 
 American, and German students at 
 Oxford university, in the belief that 
 "a good understanding between Eng- 
 land, Germany, and the United States 
 will secure the peace of the world, and 
 that educational relations form the 
 strongest tie.” The founder suggested 
 the following basis for awarding these 
 scholarships; (1) Proficiency in literary 
 and scholastic attainments, which was 
 to count three-tenths; (2) success in 
 outdoor sports, two-tenths; (3) qualities 
 of manhood, etc., three-tenths; (4) 
 qualities of leadership, two-tenths. 
 Qualifications second and third were 
 to be decided upon by a vote of the 
 fellow students, first and fourth by the 
 masters of the respective schools where 
 candidates prepare. The number of 
 scholarships to be thus distributed are 
 as follows; Rhodesia, 9; Cape Colony, 
 12; Natal, 3; Australia, 18; New Zea- 
 land, 3; Canada, 6; Newfoundland, 3; 
 Bermuda, 3; Jamaica, 3; two to each 
 state and territory of the United States 
 and 15 to Germany. The annual value 
 of the colonial and American scholar- 
 ships is $1,500, tenable for three years. 
 Only one-third of the colonial and one- 
 half of the American scholarships are to 
 be filled each year. The disposal of the 
 German scholarships is at the pleasure 
 of the emperor. Candidates must be 
 from 20 to 25 years of age and must have 
 attended two years at a recognized in- 
 stitution of higher learning. Scholars 
 must be umnarried and citizens of the 
 United States. 
 
 RHODE'SIA, a vast British territory 
 in South Africa, stretching northward 
 from the Transvaal across the Zambesi 
 to the Congo Free State, and comprising 
 Mashonaland, Matabeleland,etc. South- 
 ern Rhodesia is being. rapidly developed. 
 Chief towns, Bulawayo and Salisbury. 
 
 RHO'DIUM, a metal belonging to the 
 platinum group, discovered by Wollas- 
 ton in 1804. It is of grayish-white color 
 very ductile and malleable, hard and 
 very infusible, unaltered in the air at 
 ordinary temperatures, but oxidizes at 
 a red heat. It has been used for the 
 points of metallic pens. 
 
 RHODODEN'DRON, a genus of ever- 
 green shrubs with alternate, entire 
 leaves, and ornamental flowers disposed 
 in corymbs, belonging to a sub-order of 
 the heaths and chiefly inhabiting the 
 mountainous regions in Europe, North 
 
 and South America, and Asia. The 
 varieties are very numerous, and are 
 much cultivated in gardens. The colors 
 
 Rhododendron. 
 
 of the flowers range through rose, pink, 
 lilac, scarlet, purple, red, and white. 
 
 RHONDDA, an urban district in 
 Glamorganshire, South Wales, in the 
 valley of a river of same name, which 
 also gives name to a pari. div. Pop. of 
 urban dist., 113,735; of div. 88,968. 
 
 RHONE (ron), a river which rises in 
 Switzerland, in the east of canton Valais, 
 taking its origin in the Rhone Glacier, 
 5581 feet above the sea-level. It passes 
 through the Lake of Geneva, and enters 
 France, flowing first southward and 
 then westward to the city of Lyons, 
 where it turns almost due south, and so 
 continues till it falls into the Gulf of 
 Lyons. Its principal affluent is the 
 Saone, which enters it at the city of 
 Lyons; other large tributaries are the 
 Is^re and Durance. Its whole course is 
 about 500 miles; its drainage area is 
 38,000 miles; and it is navigable for 360 
 miles. 
 
 RHONE, a department in France, in 
 the basin of the Rhone, to which it sends 
 its waters by the Saone (with the 
 Azergues) and the Gier; area, 1077 sq. 
 miles. The city of Lyons is the capital 
 Pop. 806,737. 
 
 RHUBARB, a genus of plants belong- 
 ing to the natural order Polygonaceaai. 
 The species of this genus are large- 
 leaved herbaceous plants, natives of a 
 
 Spiral vessels of rhubarb, with cell tissue 
 on each side— highly magnified. 
 
 considerable portion of Central Asia, 
 with strong branching, almost fleshy 
 roots and erect branching stems 6 to 8 
 feet high. They usually possess more 
 or less purgative and astringent proper- 
 ties; this 18 essentially the case with 
 
 their roots, and hence these are largely 
 used in medicine. The principal kinds 
 of medicinal rhubarb have received such 
 names as Russian or Turkey, East In- 
 dian, Himalayan, Chinese, and English, 
 according to their source or the route by 
 which they have reached Europe. At 
 present most of the Asiatic rhubarb 
 comes from China. American rhubarb 
 has long been eultivated for medical pur- 
 poses. The leaf-stalks of this speeies 
 and others are now largely used for tarts, 
 puddings, jam, etc., and the juice is 
 made into a kind of wne. 
 
 RHYME, more correctly Rime (A. 
 Saxon, rim, number), in poetry, a cor- 
 respondence in sound of the terminating 
 word or syllable of one line of poetry 
 with the terminating word or syllable 
 of another. 
 
 RHYTHM, in general, means a meas- 
 ured succession of divisions or intervals 
 in written composition, music, or danc- 
 ing. The rhythm of poetry is the regular 
 succession of accent, emphasis, or voice- 
 stress; or a certain succession of long 
 and short (heavy and light) syllables in 
 a verse. Prose also has its rhythm, and 
 the only difference (so far as sound is 
 concerned) between verse and prose is, 
 that the former consists of a regular 
 succession of similar cadences, or of a 
 
 Medicinal rhubarb. 
 
 limited variety of cadences, divided by 
 grammatical pauses and emphases into 
 proportional clauses, so as to present 
 sensible responses to the ear at regular 
 proportioned distances. In music, 
 rhythm is the disposition of the notes of 
 a composition in respect of time and 
 measure; the measured beat which 
 marks the character and expression of 
 the music. 
 
 RIAZAN, or RYAZAN (rya-zhn'), a 
 government of Central Russia. The 
 government has an area of 16,254 sq. 
 miles, and is wholly drained by the 
 Oka and its tributaries. The surface 
 on the right of the Oka is largely 
 swampy and has extensive forests; on 
 the left it is generally fertile. Cereals 
 of all kinds are produced for export. 
 The principal manufactures are cotton, 
 linen, leather, and spirits. Pop. 1,783,- 
 958. 
 
 RIB, the name given to the curved 
 bones which in man and the other verte- 
 brates spring from either side of the 
 spine or vertebral column, and which 
 
RIBBON-FISHES 
 
 J 
 
 RICHARD III 
 
 may ormay not be joined to a sternum or 
 breast-bone in front. The ribs ordi- 
 narily agree in number with the verte- 
 brate of the back or dorsal region. Thus 
 in man twelve dorsal vertebrae and 
 twelve pairs of ribs exist. The true or 
 sternal ribs are the first seven, which 
 are articulated at one extremity to the 
 spine, and at the other to the sternum 
 by means of cartilages. The false or 
 short ribs are the remaining five; the 
 uppermost three being united by their 
 cartilages to the cartilage of the last 
 true rib. The others are free at their 
 sternal extremity, and hence have been 
 called “floating ribs.” Ribs are wanting 
 in such lower fishes as lampreys, lance- 
 lets, etc., and in amphibians such as 
 frogs and toads. The number of these 
 bones may be very great in certain 
 species, and they are occasionally de- 
 veloped in the cervical and pelvic 
 regions in reptiles and birds respectively. 
 
 RIBBON-FISHES, the name of cer- 
 tain deep-sea fishes met with in all parts 
 of the ocean, generally found floating 
 dead on the surface, or thrown ashore 
 by the waves. The body is like a band 
 from 15 to 20 feet long, 10 to 12 inches 
 broad, and an inch or two thick. These 
 fishes are generally silvery in color. 
 They live at such a depth that when 
 they reach the surface the expansion of 
 gases in the body so loosens all parts of 
 the muscular and bony system - that 
 some portions are nearly always broken 
 on lifting them out of the water. The 
 fin rays in young ribbon-fishes are ex- 
 traordinarily developed, some of them 
 being several times longer than the 
 body. 
 
 RICAR'DO, David, a celebrated writer 
 on finance and political economy, was 
 born in London, in 1772, died 1823. 
 In 1793 he embraced Christianity and 
 married a Christian wife. He then began 
 business as a stockbroker on his own 
 account, and in a short time realized an 
 immense fortune. His first publication 
 was on the subject of the depreciation 
 of the national currency (1810). He 
 then published an Essay on Rent, and 
 his name is usually associated with a 
 certain distinctive view on this subject. 
 But his most important work is his 
 Treatise on Political Economyand Taxa- 
 tion, which appeared in 1817. In 1819 
 he entered parliament as member for 
 Portarlington. In 1822 he published a 
 pamphlet on Protection to Agriculture. 
 Though his mode of treatment is totally 
 different, he belongs essentially to the 
 school of Adam Smith. 
 
 RICCIO. See Rizzio. 
 
 RICE, a cereal plant, natural order 
 Graminacese or Grasses. This important 
 food-plant was long known in the East 
 before it was introduced into Egypt and 
 Greece. It is now cultivated exten- 
 sively in the low grounds of the tropical 
 and sub-tropical parts of south-eastern 
 Asia, Egypt, Japan, part of the United 
 States, and in several districts of south- 
 ern Europe. The culm of the rice is from 
 1 to 6 feet high, annual, erect, simple, 
 round, and jointed; the leaves are large, 
 firm, and pointed, arising from very 
 long, cylindrical, and finely striated 
 sheaths; the flowers are disposed in a 
 panicle somewhat resembling that of 
 the oat; the seeds are white and oblong, 
 
 but vary in size and form in the numer- 
 ous varieties. In the cultivation of this 
 plant a high summer temperature is 
 required, combined with abundance of 
 water. Thus the sea-board areas and 
 river deltas which are subject to inunda- 
 tion give the best conditions, otherwise 
 irrigation is necessary. The amount of 
 water required by the plant depends 
 upon its strength and stage of growth. 
 In Egypt it is sown while the waters of 
 the Nile cover the land, and the rice 
 plant grows luxuriant in the rich allu- 
 vial deposit left by the receding flood. 
 The Chinese obtain two crops a year 
 from the same ground, and cultivate it 
 annually on the same soil, and without 
 any other manure than the mud de- 
 posited by the water of the fiver used in 
 overflowing it. The young plants are 
 transplanted into ploughed furrows, 
 and water is brought over them and 
 kept on until the plants begin to ripen. 
 The first crop is cut in May, and a second 
 is immediately prepared for by burning 
 the stubble, and this second crop ripens 
 in October or November. In India two 
 harvests are obtained in the year, espe- 
 cially in Bengal, and frequently two 
 
 Rice. 
 
 crops are taken from the same field. 
 In Japan, Ceylon, and Java rice is cul- 
 tivated much in the same manner. 
 Mountain rice is a hardy variety which 
 thrives on dry soil; and in India it is 
 cultivated at an altitude of 8000 feet. 
 Rice can be profitably cultivated only 
 fin warm countries, but has for some 
 time past been grown in South Germany 
 and Italy. In the United States it is 
 grown chiefly in the swampy districts of 
 South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana. 
 In the husk rice is known by the name 
 of “paddy.” Rice is more largely con- 
 sumed by the inhabitants of the world 
 than any other grain ; but it contains less 
 flesh-forming matter (nitrogenous), this 
 essential element being, in 100 parts of 
 rice, only 6.5. At one period Europe was 
 supplied from America, but this source 
 has almost been entirely superseded by 
 Lower Burmah, India, Siam, Japan, and 
 Cochin-China. The inhabitants of the 
 East obtain from rice a vinous liquor 
 more intoxicating than wine; and arack 
 is also made from it. See Arack. 
 
 RICE-BUNTING, a name given to two 
 distinct birds. The first, also known by 
 the name “bob-o’-link,” a bird of the 
 bunting family, which migrates over 
 North America from Labrador to 
 Mexico, appearing in Massachusetts 
 about the beginning of May. Their food 
 is insects, worms, and seeds, including 
 rice in South Carolina. The song of the 
 
 male is singular and pleasant. When fat 
 their flesh becomes little inferior in flavor 
 to that of the European ortolan. The 
 other species, known as the rice-bunting, 
 also known as the Java sparrow and 
 
 paddy bird. It belongs to the true 
 finches, a group nearly allied to the 
 buntings. It possesses a largely-de- 
 veloped bill ; the head and tail are black, 
 the belly rosy, the cheeks of the male 
 white, and the legs flesh-colored. It is 
 dreaded in Southern Asia on account of 
 the ravages it commits in the rice-fields. 
 
 RICE-PAPER, a substance prepared 
 from thin, uniform slices of the snow- 
 white pith of a plant which grows in 
 Formosa. Rice-paper is prepared in 
 China, and is used in the manufacture 
 of artificial flowers and by native artists 
 for water-color drawings. 
 
 RICHARD I., King of England, sur- 
 named Cceur de Lion, second son of 
 Henry II. by Eleanor of Aquitaine, was 
 born at Oxford in 1157. He several 
 times rebelled against his father, and in 
 1189, supported by the King of France, 
 he defeated the forces of Henry, who 
 was compelled to acknowledge Richard 
 as his heir. On Henry’s death at Chinon, 
 Richard sailed to England and was 
 crowned at Westminster (September, 
 1189). The principal events of his reign 
 are connected with the third crusade, in 
 which he took part uniting his forces 
 with those of Philip of France. In the 
 course of this crusade he married the 
 Princess Berengaria of Navarre in 
 Cyprus. Richard left Palestine in 1192 
 and sailed for the Adriatic, but was 
 wrecked near Aquileia. On his way 
 home through Germany he was seized 
 by the Duke of Austria, whom he had 
 offended in Palestine, and was given up 
 a prisoner to the Emperor Henry VI. 
 During his captivity his brother John 
 headed an insurrection in England in 
 concert with the King of France, but 
 Richard, Avho was ransomed, returned 
 to England in 1194, and the movement 
 came to nothing. Richard then passed 
 over to Normandy, and spent the rest 
 of his life there in warfare of no decisive 
 character. He died in April, 1199, of a 
 wound received while besieging the 
 castle of Chains. Richard was thoroughly 
 neglectful of his duties as a king, and 
 owes his fame chiefly to his personal 
 bravery. 
 
 RICHARD II., King of England, son of 
 Edward the Black Prince, and grandson 
 of Edward III., was born at Bordeaux 
 in 1366. He succeeded the latter in 1377. 
 He is supposed to have been murdered 
 in 1 400. 
 
 RICHARD III., King of England, the 
 last of the Plantagcnet kings, born at 
 Fotheringhay castle in 1450, was the 
 youngest son of Richard, duke of York, 
 
RICHARD 
 
 RICHTER 
 
 who was killed at Wakefield. On the 
 accession of his brother Edward IV. he 
 was created Duke of Gloucester, and 
 during the early part of Edward’s reign 
 served him with great courage and 
 fidelity. He married in 1473 Anne 
 Neville, joint-heiress of the Earl of War- 
 wick, whose other daughter was united 
 to the Duke of Clarence, and quarrels 
 rose between the two brothers over 
 their wives’ inheritance. On the death 
 of Edward in 1483, the Duke of Glou- 
 cester was appointed protector of the 
 kingdom; and he immediately caused 
 his nephew, the young Edward V., to be 
 declared king, and took an oath of 
 fealty to him. But Richard soon began 
 to pursue his own ambitious schemes. 
 Earl Rivers, the queen’s brother, and 
 Sir R. Grey, a son by her first husband, 
 were arrested and beheaded at Pomfret, 
 and Lord Hastings, who adhered to his 
 young sovereign, was executed without 
 trial in the Tower. It was now asserted 
 that the king and his brother were 
 illegitimate, and that Richard had a 
 legal title to the crown. The Duke of 
 Buckingham supported Richard, and a 
 body of peers and citizens having offered 
 him the crown in the name of the nation 
 he accepted it, and on July 8, 1483, was 
 crowned at Westminster. The deposed 
 king and his brother were, according to 
 general belief, smothered in the Tower 
 of London by order of their uncle. 
 Ricliard governed with vigor and ability, 
 but was not generally popular, and in 
 1485 Henry, earl of Richmond, head of 
 the house of Lancaster, landed with a 
 small army at Milford Haven. Richard 
 met him on August 23d with an army 
 of 15,000 men at Bosworth, in Leicester- 
 shire. Richmond had only 6000 men, 
 but relied on the secret assurances of 
 aid from Stanley, who commanded a 
 separate royal force of 7000. In the 
 midst of the battle, Stanley, by falling 
 on the flank of the royal army, secured 
 the victory to Riclimond. Richard 
 during the battle was slain; he pos- 
 sessed courage as well as capacity; 
 but his conduct showed cruelty, dis- 
 simulation, treachery, and ambition. 
 He has been represented as of small 
 stature, deformed, and of a forbidding 
 aspect; but his personal defects have 
 probably been magnified. 
 
 RICHARD, Earl of Cornwall and 
 Emperor of Germany between 1256 and 
 1272, during the so-called interregnum, 
 a son of King John of England, was 
 born in 1209. In 1268 he again visited 
 Germany and held a diet at Worms in 
 the following year. He died in England 
 2d April, 1272. 
 
 RICHARDSON, Charles, LL.D., born 
 in 1775, died 1865. In 1818 he under- 
 took the lexicographical articles in the 
 Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, and after- 
 ward published his great work, a New 
 Dictionary of the English Language 
 (2vols. 1835-37). He also wrote a work 
 on the Study of Languages (1854), and 
 contributed frequently to the Gentle- 
 man’s and other magazines. 
 
 RICHARDSON, Sir John, naturalist 
 and arctic traveler, born at Dumfries 
 1787, died near Grasmere 1865. After 
 studying medicine at the University of 
 Edinburgh he entered the royal navy, 
 in 1807, as assistant-surgeon. He served 
 
 on various stations till 1819, and was 
 surgeon and naturalist to the arctic 
 expeditions of 1819-22 and 1825-27, 
 under Sir John Franklin, exploring on 
 the latter occasion the shores of the 
 Arctic ocean between the Mackenzie 
 and Coppermine rivers. In March, 1848, 
 he took charge of an expedition to search 
 for Franklin, and on his return published 
 The Arctic Searching Expedition (1851) 
 and The Polar Regions (1861). 
 
 RICHARDSON, Samuel, English nov- 
 elist, was born in 1689 in Derby- 
 shire, and received only a common 
 school education. In 1741 liis Pamela, 
 or Virtue Rewarded, was published and 
 its popularity was so great that it ran 
 through five editions in one year. In 
 1749 the appearance of Clarissa Har- 
 lowe, fully established his literary re- 
 putation. The History of Sir Charles 
 Grandison appeared in 1753, and was 
 also received with great applause. He 
 died in 1761, and was buried in the 
 church of St. Bride, in Fleet street. 
 
 RICHELIEU (resh-lyeu). Arm and 
 Jean du Plessis, Cardinal, Due de, 
 French statesman, born at Paris 9th 
 September, 1585; died there 4th of 
 December, 1642. In 1614 as deputy of 
 the clergy of Poitou to the states- 
 general he managed to insinuate hun- 
 self into the favor of the queen-mother, 
 Marie de Medici, who obtained for him 
 the post of grand-almoner, and in 1616 
 that of secretary of state for war and 
 foreign affairs. He obtained, through 
 the influence of the queen-mother, the 
 cardinal’s hat, and in 1624 was admitted 
 into the council of state. From this date 
 he was at the head of affairs, and he at 
 once'began systematically to extend the 
 power of the crown by crushing the 
 Huguenots, and overthrowing the privi- 
 leges of the great vassals; and to increase 
 the influence of the French monarchy 
 by undermining that of the Hapsburgs, 
 both beyond the Pyrenees and in Ger- 
 many. The rallying point of the Hugue- 
 nots was Rochelle; and Richelieu laid 
 siege to that city, commanding the amiy 
 in person. Rochelle, supported by sup- 
 plies from England, held out for some 
 time, but was compelled to surrender by 
 famine (October 29, 1628). After the 
 suppression of the Huguenots his next 
 step was the removal of the queen- 
 mother from court, she having endea- 
 vored to effect his fall. This he accom- 
 plished in November, 1630. In 1631 
 Richelieu was raised to the rank of duke. 
 In 1632 a rising in favor of the Duke of 
 Orleans, the king’s brother, was sup- 
 pressed by the royal forces directed by 
 Richelieu, and the Duke of Montmor- 
 ency was executed. The whole period 
 of his government was marked by a 
 series of conspiracies of the feudal 
 nobility, the queen-mother, the queen 
 herself, and even Louis, against the 
 royal power exercised by Richelieu. 
 But he was prepared at every point and 
 his vengeance sure. During the Thirty 
 Years’ war the cardinal employed all 
 the arts of negotiation and even force 
 of arms to protect the Protestants of 
 Germany, for the purpose of humbling 
 the power of Austria. For the same 
 object he declared war against Spain in 
 16.35, and the separation of Portugal 
 from Spain was effected by his assist- 
 
 ance (1640). He also endeavored to 
 weaken Austrian influence in Italy, and 
 procured the transfer of the duchy of 
 Mantua to the Duke of Nevers. Among 
 the last to be crushed by him were 
 Cinq-Mars and De Thou, who, with the 
 king’s approval, attempted to ruin the 
 great minister. Before his death he 
 recommended Cardinal Magarin as his 
 successor. Richelieu was a great states- 
 man, but he was proud, arrogant, and 
 vindictive. He was a patron of letters 
 and art, and founder of the French 
 academy and the Jardin des Plantes. 
 He was the author of Memoires relating 
 to the years 1624-38; Histoire de la 
 M6re et du Fils, etc. 
 
 RICHMOND, the capital of Virginia, 
 is finely situated on the north side of 
 James river, at the head of tide-water, 
 lOOmiless.w.of Washington. Thestreets 
 are generally wide and well-built, and 
 mostly intersect each other at right 
 angles. There are many fine buildings, 
 including the capital, governor’s house, 
 city hall, federal buildings, buildings of 
 Richmond college, churches, schools, 
 asylums, etc. The state house or capitol 
 contains Houdon’s celebrated marble 
 statue of Washington, and in the capi- 
 tol grounds are Foley’s bronze statue of 
 General T. J. (“Stonewall”) Jackson 
 and Crawford’s bronze statue of Wash- 
 ington, 25 feet high, on a pedestal 42 
 
 State capitol, Riclimond. 
 
 feet high, surrounded by other bronze 
 statues. Water-power is almost un- 
 limited, and the various mills and fac- 
 tories give employment to numerous 
 workmen. The trade staples are to- 
 bacco, iron, grain, and flour. The first 
 occupation of any part of its site was 
 by English settlers in 1609; the city 
 was formally founded in 1742, and be- 
 came the seat of government in 1780. 
 During the civil war it was the seat of the 
 confederate govermnent. It was in- 
 vested by the federal armies, and sur- 
 rendered on April 3, 1865. Pop. 114,000. 
 
 RICHMOND, a city in Indiana, on 
 the east fork of the Whitewater, and 
 at the junction of several important 
 lines of railway (which connect it with 
 Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, etc.), 69 
 miles east of Indianapolis. Pop. 21,201. 
 
 RICHTER, Gustav, German painter, 
 born at Berlin 1823, died there 1884. 
 He was a member of the Academies of 
 Berlin, Munich, and Vienna; executed 
 frescoes in the Berlin Museum, and 
 attracted attention by his Raisiag of 
 
RICHTER 
 
 RIFLE 
 
 Jairus’ Daughter and his Building of 
 the Pyramids, a colossal picture (at 
 Munich). It is on his portraits, how- 
 ever, that hi? fame chiefly rests, his 
 sitters having included many European 
 celebrities. 
 
 RICHTER, Jean Paul Friedrich, com- 
 monly called Jean Paul, German writer, 
 was born March 21, 1763, at Wunsiedel, 
 in the Fichtelgebirge, and died Novem- 
 ber 14, 1825, at Baireuth. In 1787-94 he 
 had published his Greenland Lawsuits, 
 G 783-84), Selection from the Devil’s 
 Papers (1789), The Invisible Lodge 
 (1793). This brought him fame and 
 money, and was followed by another 
 romance, Hesperus (1795), and The 
 Life of Quintus Fixlein (1796), a humor- 
 istic idyl, works which made his name 
 one of the best known in Germany. In 
 1798 he went to Weimar, and subse- 
 quently moved to other towns, finally 
 settling at Baireuth in 1804. 
 
 RICHETS, a disease peculiar to in- 
 fancy, chiefly characterized by changes 
 in the texture, chemical composition, 
 and outward form of the bony skeleton, 
 and by altered functions of the other 
 organs, transient for the most part, but 
 occasionally permanent. The chief ex- 
 ternal features are the legs bent out- 
 ward, chest unduly projecting, head 
 large and forehead projecting, spine 
 often curved, joints large and promi- 
 nent, general form stunted, etc. Rickets 
 is chiefly a disease of large cities, and its 
 development is favored by want of 
 nourishing food, overcrowding, and 
 neglect of sanitary and hygienic pre- 
 cautions generally. In the treatment of 
 rickets all means are employed by which 
 the system is invigorated, including 
 good food, fresh air, and exercise. The 
 use of splints for the legs is often bene- 
 ficial, and as the child grows up nature 
 often remedies the worst features. 
 
 RICOCHET FIRING, the firing of 
 guns, mortars, or howitzers with small 
 charges and low elevation, so as to cause 
 the balls or shells to bound along. It is 
 very destructive, and is frequently used 
 in sieges to clear the face of a ravelin, 
 bastion, or other work, dismounting 
 guns and scattering men; and may also 
 be used against troops in the field. 
 
 RID'PATH, John Clark, American 
 historian and educator, was born in 
 Putnam co., Ind., in 1840. His writings, 
 chiefly popularizations of historical 
 matter, are his Academic History of the 
 United States, Popular History of the 
 United States, Cyclopaedia of Universal 
 History, The Great Races of Mankind. 
 He compiled a Library of Universal 
 History, and helped to edit the People’s 
 Cyclopaedia. His most widely circulated 
 work is Ridpath’s History of the United 
 States. He died in 1900. 
 
 RIEN'ZI, Cola di, a native of Rome, 
 born about 1312. He was the son of a 
 tavernkeeper, acquired a good educa- 
 tion, and early distinguished himself by 
 his talents, and especially by bis attacks 
 on the tyranny of the nobles. In 1342 
 he endeavored to induce Pope Clement 
 VI., then at Avignon, to initiate reforms, 
 but nothing was done. In 1347, during 
 the absence of the governor of Rome, 
 Stefano Colonna, Rienzi summoned a 
 secret assembly of his friends upon 
 Mount Aventine, and inducea them all 
 
 to subscribe an oath for the establish- 
 ment of a plan of government which he 
 called the good estate. The people con- 
 ferred upon him the title of tribune, with 
 all the attributes of sovereignty. He 
 banished several noble families, and 
 compelled Colonna to quit Rome. His 
 strict regard to justice and the public 
 good in the first exercise of his power 
 induced even the pope to countenance 
 him. But he subsequently became am- 
 bitious and haughiv, and finding he had 
 lost the confidence of the people he with- 
 drew from Rome in 1348. He returned 
 secretly to Rome in 1350, but was dis- 
 covered, and fell into the hands of Pope 
 Clement at Avignon, who imprisoned 
 him for three years. Innocent VI. re- 
 leased Rienzi, and sent him to Rome to 
 oppose another popular demagogue 
 named Boroncelli. But after a turbulent 
 administration of a few months he was 
 killed in 1354. 
 
 RIEL (re-61'), Louis, leader of the so- 
 called “Riel’s Rebellion” in Canada, 
 was born at Saint Boniface, Manitoba, 
 in 1844. He came into prominence as 
 the leader of the rebellion of 1869. 
 Colonel Wolseley (afterward Sir Garnet 
 Wolseley, commander-in-chief of the 
 British army) was dispatched with a 
 force of about 1400 men. Finding re- 
 sistance hopeless. Riel and some of his 
 associates fled to the United States. 
 Later he went to Montana. In 1884 he 
 was invited by French half-breeds 
 living near the forks of the Saskatche- 
 wan to come and assist them in forcing 
 the government to settle their claims to 
 certain land grants and to give them 
 certain other rights. Riel accepted and 
 was made president of the provisional 
 government. Troops, however, were 
 dispatched against the rebels, and the 
 main stronghold of Batoche was taken 
 by General Middleton. Riel himself was 
 soon afterward captured, and in July 
 was brought to trial at Regina for high 
 treason, condemned, and on November 
 16, 1885, was hanged. 
 
 RIFLE, a portable firearm, the inter- 
 ior surface of the barrel of which is 
 grooved, the channels being cut in the 
 form of a screw. The number of these 
 spiral channels or threads, as well as 
 their depth, varies in different rifles, a 
 highly approved form b*ing with the 
 channels and ridges of equal breajJth, 
 and the spiral turning more quickly as it 
 nears the muzzle. The bullet fired is 
 now always of an elongated form. The 
 great advantage gained by a weapon of 
 this construction is that the bullet dis- 
 charged from the piece, by having a 
 rotatory action imparted to its axis 
 coincident with its line of flight, is pre- 
 served in its direct path without being 
 subject to the aberrations that injure 
 precision of aim in firing with unrifled 
 arms. As a necessary consequence of 
 the projectile being carried more directly 
 in its line of aim, its length of range, as 
 well as its certainty in hitting the object, 
 is materially increased. Rifles were in- 
 vented in (Germany in 1498, and have 
 been used as military weapons since 
 1631, but were not used in the British 
 army until the latter half of the 18th 
 century. Till 1851 the British infantry, 
 with the exception of those regiments 
 known as rifle corps, was universally 
 
 armed with the smooth-bore musket. 
 In 1851 the first rifle firing an elongated 
 bullet came in under the name of the 
 Mini6. Some of the regiments in the 
 Ciimean war were ani.ed with this rifle, 
 but it was cumbersome and heavy. It 
 was succeeded in 1853 by the Enfield 
 rifle. The chief feature of this rifle was 
 the reduction of the bore to .577 in. in 
 diameter, which made it considerably 
 lighter. Britain was longer in adopting 
 the breech-loading system than some 
 other countries. Up to 1866 all British 
 rifles had been muzzle-loaders, but in 
 that year the Snider system of convert- 
 ing muzzle-loading arms into breach- 
 loaders was adopted, and the army tem- 
 porarily supplied with Enfield rifles 
 converted into Sniders. Trials on a 
 very extensive scale followed, resulting 
 in the acceptance in 1871 of the Martini- 
 Henry rifle, which became the rifle 
 of the British army from 1874 on- 
 ward. In this excellent weapon the 
 breech is closed by a block which con- 
 tains a piston or striker, the latter ex- 
 ploding the cartridge by the force of a 
 strong spiral spring passing round it. 
 An improved form of this arm was sub- 
 sequently produced, viz. the Enfield- 
 Martini, in which the barrel had a smaller 
 bore, the diameter being reduced from 
 .45 inch to .40. It was then determined by 
 the authorities to adopt a repeating or 
 magazine rifle, and in 1887 the Lee- 
 Metford rifle was approved of. The 
 rifling (Metford system) is in seven 
 grooves without corners or angles, one 
 turn or twist in 10 inches, calibre .303. 
 The German needle-gun and the French 
 Chassepot were the first of the breech- 
 loading rifles to acquire a reputation for 
 their use in actual warfare. Both these 
 rifles have long been superseded, first 
 by single-firing and then by repeating 
 or magazine rifles. Germany having 
 adopted the Mauser rifle and France 
 the Lebel. 
 
 The repeating rifle is a development 
 of a very old type of weapon. In the 
 Spencer, the first used with signal 
 success, the cartridges were in the stock 
 of the arm ; in the Winchester, one of the 
 best known of repeating rifles, they are 
 in a tube underneath the barrel. Some 
 modern military magazine rifles draw 
 their supply of cartridges from a reserve 
 contained in a detachable magazine, the 
 advantage being the greater efficiency of 
 the weapon as a single-loader. The 
 magazine of the Lebel rifle is in the fore 
 end of the stock. The breech mechan- 
 ism usually preferred is that upon the 
 “door-bolt” principle, of which the 
 Chassepot and Prussian needle-gun were 
 well-known types; the Winchester is 
 one of the few actuated by an under 
 lever. In the Mannlicher, the weapon 
 adopted by Austria, the bolt is drawn 
 back simply; in others it has to be 
 turned to the left before it can be with- 
 drawn. With the Lebel the breech-bolt 
 has two projections, which, when the 
 bolt is turned, securely lock the bolt 
 close to the base of the cartridge ; in the 
 Lee-Metford, a similar double-locking 
 arrangement is placed where the pro- 
 jecting knob to actuate the mechanism 
 joins the breech-bolt. The magazine of 
 the Lee-Metford, containing eight car- 
 tridges, is placed under the stock behind 
 
RIGA 
 
 RINGWORM 
 
 clie barrel, to the level of which a spiral 
 spring in the magazine raises the car- 
 tridges. The breech-bolt, which contains 
 the firing mechanism and extractor, 
 when pushed forward forces the raised 
 cartridge into the barrel. The magazine 
 is detached by pressing a “catch,” or 
 blocked by a “cut-off,” when the rifle 
 may be used as a single-loader. 
 
 When Whitworth produced his hexag- 
 onal bore rifle of .450 caliber, it was 
 thought that thebulletwas of insufficient 
 diameter, and the .577 was adopted in 
 its stead; later, after twenty years’ ex- 
 perience with the .450 Martini-Henry, 
 the bore has been still further reduced, 
 chiefly owing to the discoveries of Heb- 
 ler, whose Swiss rifle of 7^ millimetres 
 was found to give increased velocity, 
 greater range, equal accuracy, and at 
 the same time permitted of lighter 
 ammunition being used. The bullet is 
 coated with thin steel, ferro-nickel, or 
 other hard metal, so that it shall not 
 strip in the rifling, which has a sharp 
 twist, one complete turn in less than 
 12 inches, and leaves the muzzle at a 
 velocity of 2000 or more feet per second, 
 thus giving an extreme range of 3500 
 yards. Improved explosives, almost 
 smokeless and which do not foul the 
 barrel, have added to the success of the 
 small-bore rifle. 
 
 Sporting rifles have a shorter range 
 and inferior velocity to the best mili- 
 tary weapons, their object being not ex- 
 treme range or penetration, but great 
 force at impact to produce such a shock 
 as will paralyze the game shot. 
 
 RIGA, a seaport of Russia, capital of 
 the government of Livonia, on both 
 sides of the Duna or Dwina, about 5 
 miles above its mouth in the Gulf of 
 Riga. Pop. 282,943, of whom nearly 
 half are Germans, and Protestants by 
 religion. 
 
 RIGHTS, BILL OF, on February 13, 
 1688-89, the declaration of right was 
 delivered by the lords and commons to 
 the prince and princess of Orange. In 
 October, 1689, the rights claimed by the 
 declaration were enacted with some 
 alterations by the bill of rights, next to 
 Magna Charta the greatest landmark in 
 the constitutional history of England 
 and the nearest approach to the written 
 constitutions of other countries. 
 
 The declaration of right and the bill 
 of rights introduced no new principle 
 into the English constitution. In the 
 United States, the main provisions of the 
 bill of rights, so far as they are applica- 
 ble, have been adopted both in the 
 constitution of the United States and in 
 the state constitutions. See Bill, Rights 
 of. 
 
 RIGHTS OF MAN, a theoretical dec- 
 laration passed by the French National 
 assembly in August, 1789. It was 
 attacked by Edmund Burke in his 
 Reflections on the French Revolution. 
 Thomas Paine replied to Burke in his 
 Rights of Man. See Paine, Thomas. 
 
 RIGOR MORTIS, the rigidity of limbs 
 that follows death. It is one of the signs 
 of cessation of life. 
 
 RIG- VEDA, the first and principal of 
 the Vedas or sacred hymns of the 
 Hindus. See Vedas. 
 
 RILEY, Charles Valentine, entomolo- 
 gist, was born at London, England, in 
 
 1843, came to v^erica in 1860, and 
 located in Chicago. He served during 
 the civil war as a member of the 134th 
 Illinois infantry. In 1877 he was ap- 
 pointed chief of the entomological com- 
 mission of the United States, and 
 entomologist of the agricultural de- 
 partment in 1878. He organized the 
 entomological branch of that depart- 
 ment in 1881, also having the custody 
 of the insect department of the National 
 museum, which now contains over 100,- 
 000 specimens given it by Professor 
 Riley. He was a member of the leading 
 scientific organizations in this country 
 and in Europe. He has been a volumin- 
 ous writer on entomology, and is the 
 author of works dealing with the various 
 phases of that science. He died in 1895 
 
 RILEY, James Whitcomb, American 
 poet, was born in 1853. His first book 
 of verse appeared in 1883, entitled. The 
 Old Swimmin’-hole and ’Leven More 
 Poems. Among his other works are: 
 Character Sketches and Poems, After- 
 whiles, Pipes o’ Pan: at Zekesbury, 
 Rh3nnes of Childhood, An Old Sweet- 
 heart of Mine, Green Fields and Run- 
 ning Brooks, Poems Here at Home, 
 Armazindy, Home Folks, Book of 
 Joyous Children. 
 
 RINDERPEST (German name), or 
 Cattle-plague, a contagious disease 
 which attacks animals of the ox family, 
 and is attended with the most deadly 
 results. The disease appears to be 
 identical with what was formerly known 
 as murrain, and is sometimes called the 
 steppe-murrain, from the Russian step- 
 pes, which are its habitat. This disease 
 has caused great havoc among cattle for 
 at least a thousand years, spreading 
 occasionally like a pestilence over 
 Europe. The probable cause of the dis- 
 ease is a micro-organism which is found 
 in the blood and all the discharges of 
 the infected animals, and is capable of 
 being transmitted indirectly by any of 
 these to great distances. Sheep and 
 other animals can be affected by the 
 disease, but in a less intense form. The 
 period of incubation varies from two to 
 ten days. The svmptoms are elevation 
 of the temperature of the body, followed 
 by a heightened color of the mucous 
 membrane of the mouth, and granular 
 yellowish eruptions on the gums, lips, 
 tongue, palate, and cheeks. The skin be- 
 comes congested, and develops scales 
 with papular eruptions, and finally a 
 slimy discharge comes from the eyes and 
 nose. The name is also given to an 
 eminently fatal cattle disease of America 
 differing, however, from the true rinder- 
 pest in attacking cows only, and in 
 running its course in three days in place 
 of seven, the general duration of the 
 European form of the disease. 
 
 RINE'HART, William Henry, an 
 American sculptor, born near Union 
 Bridge, Carroll co., Md., in 1825. He exe- 
 cuted the two statuettes, an “Indian”and 
 a “Backwoodsman,” which act as sup- 
 ports for the clock in the house of rep- 
 resentatives. He returned to Italy in 
 1858, .settling at Rome, where he died. 
 In 1872 his marble statue of Chief 
 Justice Taney was erected at Annapolis; 
 His works are in the Corcoran Art 
 gallery, Washineton, and in the Pea- 
 body institute, Baltimore. The former 
 
 possesses his “Atalanta,” “Latona and 
 Her Children,” “Diana,” “Apollo,” 
 “Endymion,” and “Rebecca;” in the 
 latter are the works left in the sculptor’s 
 studio at his death, and his “Clytie 
 Forsaken by Apollo,” which is con- 
 sidered his masterpiece. He died in 
 1874. 
 
 il^G, an ornament for the fingers 
 which has been worn from the most 
 ancient period of civilization. Among 
 the ancient nations who are known to 
 have attached special importance to the 
 wearing of rings were the Assyrians, 
 Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, and Ro- 
 mans. The nose, ears, arms, and even 
 the legs and toes have also, among 
 various people, been decorated with 
 them. Rings have also from a very early 
 period been reckoned as symbols of 
 authority, which could be delegated by 
 merely delivering the ring to an agent; 
 they were also used as symbols of sub- 
 jection. The earliest mention of rings 
 is in the book of Genesis, and relates to 
 the Hebrews. Among the Egyptians 
 rings of gold were worn in great profu- 
 sion. The common people wore porce- 
 lain rings. The Greeks and Romans 
 used them for sealing contracts, closing 
 coffers, etc. The modern use of wed- 
 ding rings was probably derived from 
 the Jews. A ring appears from an early 
 period to have been one of the insignia 
 of a bishop. Motto rings date from the 
 time of the Romans, and were long 
 popular in Britain. 
 
 RINGBONE, an exostosis or bony 
 tumor mostly met with on the coronet 
 of overworked horses, but sometimes 
 seen on colts, or even newly-dropped 
 foals. Ringbone injures a horse’s market 
 value, and is practically incurable. 
 
 RING-DOVE, or CUSHAT, the largest 
 of the pigeons inhabiting Britain, a bird 
 which occurs very generally throughout 
 the wooded parts of Europe. It is mi- 
 gratory in countries in which the severe 
 winters preclude the possibility of its 
 obtaining a due supply of food, and even 
 in Britain, in which it permanently re- 
 sides, it appears on the approach of 
 winter to assemble in flocks, and to per- 
 form a limited migration, probably in 
 search of food. A bluish-gray color pre- 
 vails generally over the head, cheeks, 
 neck, back, and rump, while the breast 
 and under parts of the neck are of a 
 purplish red, the belly and thighs dull 
 white. A patch of white on either side 
 of the neck forms a sort of ring or collar. 
 The average length is about 16 or 17 
 inches. The food of the ring-dove con- 
 sists of grain, acorns, berries, the leaves 
 and tops of turnips, etc. The nests are 
 composed of sticks and twigs loosely 
 placed together. The birds are wary 
 and shy, and rarely breed in confine 
 ment. 
 
 RINGWORM, a chronic contagioub 
 disease of the hair, hair-bulbs, and 
 epithelial covering of the skin. It is due 
 to a microscopic fungus, which lays 
 hold upon and preys upon these tissues, 
 and is very contagious. It is known by 
 the decolorization and brittleness of the 
 affected hairs, by the scaly eruption, 
 and roundness of the affected patches. 
 Ringworm is most commonly found on 
 the scalp. The treatment of the disease 
 consists in destroying the vitality of the 
 
RIO-DE-JANEIRO 
 
 RIPPLE-MARKS 
 
 fungus, which is effected by a solution of 
 sulphurous acid or of corrosivesublimate. 
 
 WO-DE-JANEIRO (re-o-de-zhi-na'i- 
 ro), the capital of the republic of Brazil, 
 second largest city of South America, is 
 most beautifully and advantageously 
 situated on the southeastern coast, on a 
 fine natural harbor formed by a bay of 
 the same name. The finest buildings are 
 the opera-house, senate-house, military 
 barracks, and the national museum. 
 
 while the churches are chiefly notable 
 for their gaudy interior decorations. 
 A striking feature in the city is the aque- 
 duct, which brings the water a distance 
 of 12 miles and here crosses a wide 
 valley on a beautiful double-tier of gran- 
 ite arches. Among benevolent institu- 
 tions are the Casa da Misericordia, 
 several other hospitals, and a large 
 lunatic asylum. There are two colleges, 
 medical schools, a naval and military 
 academy, numerous scientific establish- 
 
 extends inward 15 miles, with a width 
 varying from 2 to 8 miles. It is diversi- 
 fied with numerous islands, surrounded 
 by hills covered by luxuriant tropical 
 vegetation, and affords safeanchoragefor 
 the largest vessels. Manufactures are 
 unimportant, but there is an extensive 
 trade in coffee, sugar, hides, tobacco, 
 timber, etc. The principal imports are 
 linen, woolen, and cotton tissues; iron 
 and steel goods, and provisions and 
 preserved meats. The city is the central 
 terminus of the railways of the country; 
 pop. 522,621. 
 
 The state of Rio-de-Janeiro hasan area 
 of about 28,000 miles, and is decidedly 
 mountainous in the center. It is the 
 best-cultivated state in Brazil, the chief 
 crop being coffee. Immense herds of 
 cattle are reared, and the forests are rich 
 in timber. Capital, Nictheroy. Pop. 
 876,884. 
 
 RIO - GRANDE - DEL - NORTE. See 
 
 Bravo. 
 
 RIO-GRANDE-DO-SUL, the most 
 southern state in Brazil, bounded partlj' 
 by the Atlantic, and bordering with 
 Uruguay and the Argentine Republic, 
 has an area of 91,336 sq. miles, and a 
 pop. of 897,455. It is well-watered, con- 
 tains much fertile land, and has a 
 healthy climate. On the coast is the 
 large lake or lagoon of Patos, besides 
 others. The chief occupations of the 
 inhabitants are cattle-rearing and agri- 
 culture. Among the population are 
 100,000 Germans, there being a number 
 of flourishing German settlements. There 
 are some 600 miles of railway. Hides, 
 tallow, horse-hair, bones, etc., are ex- 
 ported. The capital is Porto Alegre. 
 The town of Rio-Grande is situated on a 
 peninsula near where the Lake of Patos 
 communicates with the Atlantic. Its 
 houses are mostly of earth, and its 
 streets unpaved. It has an active trade 
 in hides, horse-hair, wool, tallow, etc. 
 Pop. 18,000 or 19,000. 
 
 produced. Pop. 100,000. Chief town. 
 La Rioja, at the foot of the Sierra 
 Velasco, in the midst of vineyards and 
 orange groves. Pop. 8000. 
 
 RIO NEGRO (Spanish “black river”), 
 the name of numerous streams, of which 
 two are important; (1) A river of South 
 America, and principal tributary of the 
 Amazon. It rises in Colombia and joins 
 the Amazon after a course of about 1000 
 miles at Manaos, Brazil. Through its 
 affluent, the Cassiquiari, there is direct 
 communication between the Amazon 
 and Orinoco. (2) A river of South 
 America forming the boundary be- 
 tween the Argentine Republic and 
 Patagonia. It rises in the Andes in 
 Chile, and is about 700 miles long. Its 
 current is very rapid, and its bed ob- 
 structed with shoals and sandbanks. 
 
 RIOT, a disturbance of the public 
 peace, attended with circumstances of 
 tumult and commotion, as where an 
 assembly destroys, or in any manner 
 damages, seizes, or invades private or 
 public property, or does any injury 
 whatever by actual or threatened vio- 
 lence to the persons of individuals. By 
 the English common law a riot is an 
 unlawful assembly of three or more 
 persons which has actually begun to 
 execute the common purpose for which 
 it assembled by a breach of the peace, 
 and to the terror of the public. A law- 
 ful assembly may become a riot if the 
 persons assembled form and proceed to 
 execute an unlawful purpose to the 
 terror of the people, although they had 
 not that purpose when they assembled. 
 Every person convicted of riot is liable 
 to be sentenced to hard labor. By act 1 
 George I. cap. v. s. 2, called the Riot 
 Act, whenever twelve or more persons 
 are unlawfully assembled to the dis- 
 turbance of the peace, it is the duty of 
 the justices of the peace, and the sheriff 
 and under-sheriff of the county, or of the 
 mayor or other head officers of a city or 
 town corporate, to command them by 
 proclamation to disperse. And all per- 
 sons who continue unlawfully together' 
 for one hour after the proclamation was 
 made, commit a felony, and are liable to 
 penal servitude or imprisonment (sub- 
 stituted for death by 7 Will. 4 and 1 
 Viet.). The act also contains a clause 
 indemnifying the officers and their 
 assistants in case any of the mob should 
 be killed or injured in the attempt to 
 arrest or disperse them. Compensation 
 out of the rates is paid to persons sus- 
 taining damage by riot. In the United 
 States the definition of Riot and its 
 punishment are regulated by statue but 
 the English law practically covers the 
 subject. 
 
 RIPLEY, George, an American author, 
 born at Greenfield, Massachusetts, 1802; 
 died 1880. He became literary editor 
 of the New York Tribune in 1849, and 
 was joint editor with C. A. Dana of the 
 American Cyclopaedia (1858-63, 16vols., 
 also of the second edition). 
 
 RIPPLE-MARKS, the wavy or ridgy 
 marks left on the beach of a sea, lake, 
 or river by the ripples or wavelets. Such 
 marks have often been preserved when 
 the sand has hardened into rock, and are 
 held by geologists as indications that 
 deposition of the beds in which they 
 occur took place on the sea-shore or at a 
 
 View of Rio-de-Janeiro. 
 
 ments, public schools, national library, 
 a botanical garden and observatory. At 
 Ilio is the chief military arsenal of the 
 republic, while on one of the islands in 
 the bay there is a naval arsenal with 
 docks and building yards. The bay has 
 its entrance, 1700 yards wide, between 
 Fort St. Juan and Fort Santa Cruz, and 
 
 RIOJA (re-6'ha). La, one of the west- 
 ern provinces of the Argentine Republic. 
 It is well watered on the west, but in 
 the east and south there are salt and 
 sand deserts. The climate is dry and 
 healthy. The inhabitants are chiefly en- 
 gaged in agriculture and cattle-rearing. 
 Excellent wheat, wine, and fruits are 
 
RISTO'RI 
 
 ROADS 
 
 depth not greater than 60 feet. We have 
 also wind ripple-marks and current 
 ripple-marks, and it requires much dis- 
 crimination to determine the produc- 
 ing cause. 
 
 RISTO'RI, Adelaide, Italian actress, 
 born 1822. She married the Marquis 
 Capranica del Grillo in 1847, and after- 
 ward played in all the chief European 
 capitals. She took her farewell of the 
 English stage in Manchester, Nov. 8, 
 1873. Among her chief eharacters are 
 Medea, Francesca da Rimini, Marie 
 Antoinette, Mary Stuart, and Lady 
 Macbeth. She visited the United States 
 in 1866, 1875, and 1884-85. She died 
 in 1906. 
 
 RITUALISM, a strict adherence to 
 rites and ceremonies in public worship. 
 The term is more especially applied to a 
 tendency recently manifested in the 
 Church of England, resulting in a series 
 of changes introduced by various clergy- 
 men of the high church party into the 
 services of the church. These changes 
 may be described externally as generally 
 in the direction of a more ornate wor- 
 ship, and as to their spirit or animating 
 principle, as the infusion into outward 
 forms of a larger measure of the symbolic 
 element. They are defended on the 
 rounds of law, ancient custom, in- 
 erent propriety, and divine sanction or 
 authority. The points of ritual about 
 which there has been the most violent 
 contention are those which involve the 
 adoration of Christ as present on the 
 altar under the forms of bread and wine. 
 Other points are; the eastward position 
 of the priest at consecration; lights on 
 the holy table; the use of various vest- 
 ments; the use of incense; mixing water 
 with wine for communion; fasting be- 
 fore communion from previous mid- 
 night ; regular confession to a priest, with 
 absolution and penance; etc. 
 
 RIVER-HORSE, a name sometimes 
 given to the hippopotamus. 
 
 RIVERS rank high in importance 
 among the natural features of the globe, 
 and are intimately connected with the 
 history and condition of mankind. They 
 have always formed important high- 
 ways of communication, and the great 
 cities built upon their banks have con- 
 stituted in all ages the seats of empire. 
 Every circumstance concerning rivers 
 is therefore of importance, as their 
 source, length of channel, outlet, rapid- 
 ity of current, depth, and consequent 
 capability of navigation. The source of 
 a river is either a spring or springs, or a 
 lake, or the river takes its origin from the 
 melting of the snow and ice on moun- 
 tains. The termination of a river is 
 usually in the sea, a lake, or another 
 river, or it may lose itself in the sand. 
 All the streams which ultimately gather 
 into one river form a river system, and 
 the region which is drained by such a 
 system of streams is called a river basin. 
 River basins are usually separated from 
 each other by more or less elevated 
 ground, and the line of greatest eleva- 
 tion between them is called a watershed. 
 In speaking of the right and left bank 
 of a river we are always supposed to 
 have the position of a person looking 
 in the direction toward its mouth. The 
 volume of water which rivers contain 
 varies with many conditions, dependent 
 
 upon the nature of the sources by which 
 they are fed and the amount of rainfall 
 throughout their course. The periodical 
 melting of the snows adds greatly, in 
 some cases, to the volume of rivers 
 which have their origin in mountain 
 regions, the rainy season in tropical 
 regions has a similar effect (as in the case 
 of the Nile), often causing extensive 
 inundations. In arid countries the so- 
 called rivers are often mere surface 
 torrents, dependent on the rains, and 
 exhibiting merely the dry beds of water- 
 courses during the season of drought. 
 The “creeks” of Australia and the 
 “wadies” of the Arabian desert are of 
 this character. The average fall of a 
 river’s bed is indicated by the difference 
 between the altitudes of its source and 
 its outlet compared with its length of 
 channel. The fall of many great rivers 
 is much less than might be supposed. 
 The Amazon has a fall of only 12 inches 
 in the last 700 miles of its course. The 
 Volga, which rises at an elevation of 
 633 feet above the Caspian sea, has an 
 average inclination of less than 4 inches 
 to the mile throughout its course of more 
 than 2000 miles. The Aberdeenshire 
 river Dee, which rises at a height of 4060 
 feet, has a course of only 87 miles to its 
 outlet, showing an average declivity of 
 46 feet per mile. Many rivers carry down 
 immense quantities of earthy matter 
 which accumulates at their mouths 
 forming what is called a delta (which 
 see). Among the great rivers of the 
 world are the Mississippi and Missouri 
 (4200 miles), and the Amazon (3900 
 miles), in America; the Yang-tse-Kiang, 
 the Amoor, the Yenisei, the Indus, and 
 Ganges in Asia, all over 1500 miles in 
 length; the Congo (3000 miles), the 
 Niger (2600 miles), and the Nile (4200 
 miles), in Africa; and the Danube (1670 
 miles), Volga (2200 miles), and the 
 Rhine (800 miles), in Europe. 
 
 RIVER-TORTOISE, a name of a 
 family of tortoises that are aquatic in 
 their habits, coming to shore only to 
 deposit their eggs. They are exclusively 
 carnivorous, subsisting on fishes, rep- 
 tiles, birds, etc. The edges of the mandi- 
 ble are so sharp and firm that they easily 
 snap off a man’s finger. They inhabit 
 almost every river and lake in the 
 warmer regions in the Old and New 
 Worlds, and are particularly plentiful 
 in the Ganges, where they prey on human 
 bodies. 
 
 RIVET, a short metallic pin or bolt 
 passing through a hole and keeping two 
 pieces of metal together; especially, a 
 short bolt or pin of wrought iron, copper, 
 or of any other malleable material, 
 formed with a head and inserted into a 
 hole at the junction of two pieces of 
 metal, the point after insertion being 
 hammered broad so as to keep the pieces 
 closely bound together. Rivets are 
 espeeially employed in making boilers, 
 tanks, iron bridges, etc. They are closed 
 up by hammering when they are in a 
 heated state, the hammering being either 
 done by hand or by maehinery. 
 
 RIVIERA (riv-i-a'ra), the name given 
 to a portion of the coast of North Italy, 
 on each side of the town of Genoa. It 
 extends to Spezzia on the east and Nice 
 on the west, and is much resorted to by 
 invalids. 
 
 RIZZIO, David, a native of Turin, 
 came to Scotland in 1564 in the train of 
 the ambassador from Savoy, and soon 
 became so great a favorite with the 
 queen that he was appointed her secre- 
 tary for foreign languages. The dis- 
 tinction with which he was treated by 
 his mistress soon excited the envy of 
 the nobles and the jealousy of Darnley. 
 A conspiracy, with the king at its head, 
 was formed for his destruction, and 
 before he had enjoyed two years of court 
 favor, the Lord Ruthven and others of 
 his party were introduced by Darnley 
 into the queen’s apartment, where 
 they dispatched the object of their re- 
 venge, 9th March, 1566. Popular tradi- 
 tion assigns to Rizzio the improvement 
 of the Scottish style of music, but many 
 of the airs which have been ascribed to 
 Rizzio are traced to more distant periods. 
 
 ROACH, a species of fresh-water fish 
 of the carp family found in Britain 
 
 The European roach. 
 
 other parts of Europe. Their average 
 length is about 9 or 10 inches. Allied 
 fishes receive the same name in America. 
 
 ROADS are artificial pathways formed 
 through a country for the accommoda- 
 tion of travelers and the carriage of 
 commodities. Though the Romans set 
 an example as roadbu:Jders,some of their 
 public highways being yet serviceable, 
 the roads throughout most of Europe 
 were in a wretched condition till toward 
 the end of the 18th century. France was 
 in advance of other countries in road- 
 making; in England a decided improve- 
 ment of the highways only began in the 
 19th century. When diversities of level 
 are necessary, road-engineers fix the 
 degree of inclination at the lowest possi- 
 ble point. Telford estimated the maxi- 
 mum inclination of a road to be 1 in 24, 
 but except in extreme cases it is con- 
 sidered better that it should not exceed 1 
 in 50. The angle of repose, or maximum 
 slope on which a carriage will stand, has 
 been estimated at 1 in 40. The width of 
 the road is also a very important con- 
 sideration as bearing both on the original 
 cost and on the permanent mainte- 
 nance. A properly-constructed road, be- 
 sides a foundation, consists of two layers, 
 an upper and an under. After a good 
 foundation is obtained the laying of a 
 base, the best material being concrete 
 of gravel and lime, gives durability to 
 the road. Upon this base the actual 
 roadway is laid with a slight inclination 
 from the center to the sides for the pur- 
 pose of drainage. Before the time of 
 Macadam it was customary to use 
 broken stones of different sizes to form 
 the roadway, the consequence being 
 that in couse of time the smaller stones 
 sank, making the road rough and dan- 
 gerous. Macadam early in the 19th 
 century introduced the principle of 
 using stones of uniform size from top to 
 bottom. What is known as the rule of 
 
ROANOKE 
 
 ROBINSON 
 
 the rula is that in passing, whether 
 going in the same or opposite direction, 
 the rider or driver must pass on the 
 right hand of the other rider or driver. 
 
 ROANOKE (ro-a-nok'), a navigable 
 river formed by the union of the Dan 
 and the Staunton, which after a course of 
 about 250 miles falls into Albemarle 
 sound. It is tidal for 75 miles. — The 
 town of Roanoke, Virginia, situated on 
 this river, has become a flourishing in- 
 dustrial center. Pop. 25,160. 
 
 ROARING, in horses, is a disease of 
 the nerves and muscles of the larynx 
 which causes an obstruction to the pas- 
 sage of air, giving rise, when the horse is 
 briskly exercised, to the peculiar sound 
 from which the disease derives its name. 
 The cause of the disease is in most cases 
 attributed to fatty degeneration and 
 atrophy of the laryngeal nerve, which 
 brings about an atrophy of the muscles 
 of the larynx on the side affected, and 
 thus causes the arytenoid cartilage to 
 obstruct the passage. The disease gen- 
 erally affects the left side, and is not, as 
 a rule, amenable to treatment. Several 
 cases have been cured lately by excision 
 of a portion of the affected arytenoid 
 cartilage, and this operation promises to 
 be very successful in this disease. 
 
 ROASTING is the cooking of meat by 
 the direct action of fire — that is, by dry 
 heat, either before the fire or in an oven. 
 Roasting before an open fire is con- 
 sidered preferable to roasting in an oven 
 (which is analogous to baking), on 
 account of the free ventilation to which 
 it exposes the meat during the process. 
 The apparatus in most kitchens for 
 open roasting are a fire, a spit, a con- 
 trivance for turning the meat to present 
 all sides of it alternately to the fire, a 
 screen to economize the heat, and a 
 saucepan to catch the dripping. The 
 fire must be kept even and bright 
 throughout. During the process of 
 roasting, the meat should be basted 
 with the dripping to keep it soft and 
 allow the heat to penetrate. The spe- 
 ciality of roasting as compared with boil- 
 ing is that it retains the saline ingredi- 
 ents of the meat. The time allowed for 
 roasting is roughly estimated at a quar- 
 ter of an hour to 1 lb. of meat. Longer 
 time is required in winter than in sum- 
 mer, and for new than old killed meat. 
 
 ROBBERY, a felonious and forcible 
 taking away another man’s goods or 
 money from his person, presence, or 
 estate by violence or putting him in fear. 
 Violence or intimidation is the criterion 
 which distinguishes robbery from other 
 larcenies ; and it is sufficient that so much 
 force or threatening, by word or gesture, 
 is used as might create an apprehension 
 of danger, so as to lead a man to part 
 with his property against his will. High- 
 way robbery, or the forcible taking of 
 property from travelers, in many coun- 
 tries is a capital offense, and in all 
 civilized countries is severely punished. 
 
 ROBERT, Duke of Normandy, sur- 
 named the Devil, was the younger son 
 of Duke Richard II. by his marriage 
 with Judith, a daughter of Count God- 
 frey of Brittany. In 1027 he succeeded 
 his elder brother, Richard III., whom he 
 is charged with having poisoned. The 
 first years of his government were em- 
 ployed in bringing hie rebellious vassals 
 
 into subjection, and he then restored 
 Count Baldwin of Flanders to his states, 
 assisted Henry I., king of France, against 
 his mother Constantia, and humbled 
 Count Otho of Champagne. In 1034 his 
 fleet was wrecked off Jersey while on its 
 way to England to support his nephews 
 Alfred and Edward against Canute, who 
 had excluded them from the succession 
 to the English throne. Hereupon he 
 concluded a truce with Canute, by 
 which the two princes were promised 
 half of England. In 1033 he set out to 
 visit the holy places, and subsequently 
 made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem on 
 foot. While returning he died suddenly 
 at Nicsea in Asia Minor (103.5)-, and is 
 supposed to have been poisoned by his 
 servants. His heroic deeds and penance 
 have given rise to numerous stories. 
 William the Conqueror was his son. 
 
 ROBERT II., King of Scotland, was 
 the son of Marjory, daughter of Robert 
 Bruce, and of Walter, steward of Scot- 
 land, and was thus the first of the 
 Stewart or Stuart kings. He was born 
 1316, and was recognized by parliament 
 in 1318 as heir to the crown. On the 
 death of David II. he was crowned at 
 Scone, 26th March, 1371. Fle had long 
 acted as regent, and had done good 
 service in the English wars. An act of 
 parliament in 1375 settled the crown on 
 his sons by his first wife Elizabeth Mure 
 of Rowallan, illegitimate by ecclesiasti- 
 cal law. His reign was comparatively a 
 peaceful one, one of the chief events 
 being the battle of Otterburn. He died 
 in 1390. 
 
 ROBERT III., King of Scotland, eldest 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1340 
 and was originally called John, but 
 changed his name on his coronation, in 
 1390. Robert died in 1406. 
 
 ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER, an Eng- 
 lish historian, is supposed to have been 
 a monk in the abbey of Gloucester dur- 
 ing the reign of Edward I., but of his 
 private history nothing is known. 
 
 ROBERTS, Frederick Sleigh, Earl, 
 V.C., son of Sir Abraham Roberts, was 
 born in 1832. He entered the army and 
 became a lieutenant in the Bengal 
 artillery in 1851 and a captain in 1860. 
 He gained the Victoria Cross in the 
 Indian mutiny, and was made brevet- 
 major. He took part in the Abyssinian 
 war 1867-68, and in 1872 was made a 
 C. B. for his services in India on the 
 Lushai expedition. He commanded a 
 column in the Afghan war of 1878, and 
 after a brilliant march from Cabul to 
 Candahar utterly defeated Ayoub Khan. 
 In 1881 he was created a baronet and 
 G.C.B. He became commander-in-chief 
 in India in 1885, was made a baron in 
 1892, field-marshal and commander-in- 
 chief in Ireland, 1895; commander-in- 
 chief in the Boer war, 1900; commander- 
 in-chief of the army, 1900; created earl 
 and K.G., 1901. He is author of Forty- 
 one Years in India (1897). 
 
 ROBESPIERRE (rob-es-pi-ar), Fran- 
 cois Maximilien Joseph Isidore, was 
 born at .\rras in 1758, and was the son 
 of an advocate. He was educated at the 
 college of Louis-le-Grand at Paris. He 
 afterward practiced as an advocate at 
 Arras, and held for a short period the 
 
 P osition of judge in the bishop’s diocese, 
 n 1789 he was elected deputy to the 
 
 states-general, and was a zealous sup- 
 porter of democratic measures. At this 
 time he became a prominent member 
 of the Jacobins and other revolutionary 
 clubs. In March, 1791, he was appointed 
 public accuser to the New Courts of 
 Judicature. He remained in the back- 
 ground during the September massacres 
 of 1792, which he assisted in planning, 
 leaving the work with Marat and Dan- 
 ton. In the same month he was elected 
 a member of the convention, and in the 
 proceedings against Louis XVI. dis- 
 tinguished himself by the relentless ran- 
 cour with which he opposed every pro- 
 posal to avert or delay the fatal result. 
 On 19th March, 1794, the H6bertists fell 
 victims to his jealousy. Eleven days 
 later he caused Danton to be arrested, 
 who, after a trial of three days, was 
 guillotined, together with Camille Des- 
 moulins, on April 5th. Robespierre’s 
 power now seemed to be completely 
 established, and the Reign of Terror was 
 
 Maximilien Robespierre. 
 
 at ius height. On June 8, 1794, he, as 
 president of the convention, made the 
 convention decree the existence of the 
 Supreme Being ; and on the same day he 
 celebrated the Feast of the Supreme 
 Being. In the meantime a party in the 
 convention was formed against Robes- 
 pierre and on July 27 he was openly 
 accused of despotism. A decree of arrest 
 was carried against him, and he was 
 thrown into the Luxembourg prison. 
 He was released by his keeper on the 
 night of the same day, and conducted to 
 the Hall of Commune, where his sup- 
 porters were collected. On the following 
 day Barras was sent with an armed force 
 to effect his arrest. Robespierre’s fol- 
 lowers deserted him, and he was guil- 
 lotined on July 27, 1794, together with 
 some twenty-three of his supporters. 
 The tendency with modern writers is to 
 modify the character for infamy which 
 at one time obtained regarding Robes- 
 pierre. 
 
 ROBIN, a name given to several birds, 
 more especially to the robin redbreast of 
 Europe (see Redbreast) and to an Ameri- ■ 
 can species of blackbird, as also to the 
 bluebird of America. 
 
 ROBINSON, Rev. Edward, D.D., 
 LL.D., biblical scholar and explorer of 
 the Holy Land, born at Southington, 
 Connecticut, 1794; died at New York 
 1863. In 1837 he made a voyage to the 
 Holy Land. The result of tnis journey 
 
ROBINSON CRUSOE 
 
 ROCKY MOUNTAINS 
 
 was his great work entitled Biblical Re- 
 searches in Palestine, Mount Sinai, and 
 Arabia Petrsea (1841, 3 vols.), subse- 
 quently enlarged after a second visit to 
 Palestine in 1852. He had been ap- 
 pointed to the chair of biblical literature 
 in Union Theological seminary. New 
 Yoi;Jc, but only entered on the duties in 
 1840, occupying the post till his death. 
 
 ROBINSON CRUSOE, a celebrated 
 romance, written by the well-known 
 Defoe, and published in 1719. 
 
 ROB ROY (that is, “Robert the Red”) 
 a celebrated Highland freebooter, whose 
 true name was Robert Macgregor, but 
 who assumed his mother’s family name, 
 Campbell, on account of the outlawry 
 of the clan Macgregor by the Scotch 
 parliament in 1662. He was born about 
 1660. He was the younger son of Donald 
 Macgregor of Glengyle, by his wife, a 
 daughter of Campbell of Glenfalloch. 
 His own designation was of Inversnaid, 
 but he seems to have acquired a right to 
 the property of Craig Royston, on the 
 east side of Loch Lomond. Like other 
 Highland gentlemen, Rob Roy was a 
 trader in cattle previous to the rebellion 
 of 1715, in which he joined the adherents 
 of the pretender. On the suppression of 
 the rebellion the Duke of Montrose, 
 with whom Rob Roy had previously 
 had a quarrel, took the opportunity to 
 deprive him of his estates; and the latter 
 began to indemnify himself by a war of 
 reprisals upon the property of the duke. 
 An English garrison was stationed at 
 Inversnaid, not far from Aberfoyle, the 
 residence of Rob Roy; but his activity 
 and courage saved him from the hands 
 of his enemies, from whom he continued 
 for some time to levy blackmail. In his 
 latter years he became reconciled to 
 Montrose, and died at Balquhidder in 
 1734. See Sir Walter Scott’s Introduc- 
 tion to the novel of Rob Roy. 
 
 ROB'SON, Stuart, American come- 
 dian, was born at Annapolis, Md., in 
 1836, his real name being Robson Stuart. 
 His Captain Crosstree in the burlesque 
 of Black-Eyed Susan is one of his best 
 characters. In 1877 he made a hit in 
 Our Boarding House with W. H Crane 
 and the two established a partnership 
 which lasted till 1889. They success- 
 fully revived several of Shakespeare’s 
 comedies. Among their greatest suc- 
 cesses were The Two Dromios and The 
 Henrietta. He died in 1903. 
 
 ROC, a fabulous bird of immense size 
 and strength, which is mentioned in the 
 ArabianNights entertainments. A belief 
 in it was spread in Europe during the 
 middle ages, having been brought from 
 the east probably as a consequence of 
 the Cruades. 
 
 ROCHAMBEAU (ro-shin-bO), Jean 
 Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, Count 
 de. Marshal of France, born 1725, en- 
 tered the French army in 1742, dis- 
 tinguished himself in the Seven Years’ 
 war, and became field-marshal in 1761. 
 He died in 1807. 
 
 ROCHEFORT (rosh -for), Henri (Victor 
 Henri, Marquis de Rochefort-Lugay), a 
 French journalist, dramatist, and poli- 
 tician, born in Paris, 1832. After Sedan 
 he became a member of the govern- 
 ment of National defense. He fled from 
 Paris in May, 1871, when he foresaw the 
 end of the Commune, of which he had 
 
 been a vigorous supporter, but was 
 arrested by the Versailles government 
 and sentenced to transportation to New 
 Caledonia. He escaped in 1874, and 
 after the general amnesty of 1880 re- 
 turned to Paris (July 12th), where he 
 founded his new journal the Intransige- 
 ant. He was returned as deputy by the 
 department of the Seine, but resigned his 
 seat in February, 1886. His influence 
 suffered from his joining in the Boulang- 
 ist movement. 
 
 ROCHELLE SALTS, the double tar- 
 trate of sodium andpotassium, crystalliz- 
 ing in large rhombic prisms. It has a 
 mild, hardly saline taste, and acts as a 
 laxative. 
 
 ROCHESTER, capital of Monroe co.. 
 New York state, on both sides of the 
 Genesee (over which are several bridges), 
 7 miles above its entrance into Lake 
 Ontario, on the Erie canal, which here 
 crosses the river by a splendid aqueduct. 
 The town is well built, among buildings 
 and institutions being a Roman Catholic 
 cathedral, a court-house, and city-hall, 
 a university, a Baptist theological semi- 
 nary, a free library, an athenaeum, etc. 
 The prosperity of Rochester is partly due 
 to the immense water-power furnished 
 by the falls of the Genesee, which within 
 the city limits makes a descent of 268 
 feet, one of the falls having a height of 
 96 feet. This power is employed in 
 driving flour-mills, which are here on a 
 great scale, and also in various other 
 industrial 'establishments. The suburbs 
 are highly cultivated, there being a great 
 extent of nursery grounds. In 1812 two 
 log-huts were the only buildings on the 
 site now occupied by Rochester. Pop. 
 1909, estimated at 200,000. 
 
 ROCK, in geology, is a term applied 
 to any considerable aggregation of 
 mineral matter, whether hard and mas- 
 sive like granite, marble, etc., or friable 
 and unconsolidated like clay, sand, and 
 gravel. In popular language, however, 
 it is confined to any large mass of stony 
 matter as distinguished from soil, mud, 
 sand, gravel, etc. 
 
 ROCKET, a projectile consisting of an 
 iron cylinder filled with an inflammable 
 composition, the reaction of the gases 
 produced by the combustion of which, 
 pressing on the head of the rocket, serve 
 to propel it through the air. Rockets 
 were firstusedin eastern countries. They 
 were kept point first by the use of a 
 stick which acted on the principle of an 
 arrow’s feathers. But the rocket now 
 used has no stick, being kept point first 
 by rapid rotation, imparted to it by 
 means of three curved shields fixed on 
 the base so as to be on the same side of 
 each vent. They may be discharged from 
 tubes or troughs, or even laid on the 
 ground. In war rockets are chiefly used 
 for incendiary purposes, for moral effect 
 — especially frightening horses and for 
 various irregular operations. Signal and 
 sky rockets are small rockets formed of 
 
 E asteboard cylinders, filled with com- 
 ustible materials, which, when the 
 rocket has attained its greatest height 
 and bursts, cast a brilliant light which 
 may be seen at a great distance. 
 
 ROCKEFELLER, John D., American 
 capitalist, was born in Richford, Tioga 
 Co., N. Y., in 1839. In 1851 when 
 twelve y^ars of age he was taken by 
 
 his parents to Cleveland, Ohio. In 
 1860 he engaged in the oil business, and 
 in partnership with his brother William 
 and others built in 1865 a large refin- 
 ery known as the Standard Oil Refinery. 
 In 1870 a number of firms were com- 
 bined under the name of the Standard 
 Oil Co., of which John D. was the presi- 
 dent and controlling spirit. By de- 
 grees the Standard Oil Company ab- 
 sorbed or drove out of business most of 
 its rivals. In 1882 the Standard Oil 
 Trust was organized, but this was dis- 
 solved ten years later. Since that time 
 the various companies have been oper- 
 ated separately, but all are under the 
 management of Rockefeller and his 
 associates, whose control of the oil 
 business is complete. In 1892 he 
 founded and encfowed the University 
 of Chicago. To this institution he has 
 given nearly $25,000,000. In 1907 the 
 Standard Oil Co. was fined for violating 
 the Interstate Commerce Law in receiv- 
 ing rebates from the Chicago & Alton 
 Railway, $39,000,000. 
 
 ROCKFORD, a city in Illinois, finely 
 situated on the Rock river, 93 miles 
 w.n.w. of Chicago. It has abundant 
 water-power, woolen and cotton fac- 
 tories, iron-foundries, agricultural ma- 
 chine and implement factories, wagon 
 and carriage factories, etc. Pop. 37,090. 
 
 ROCK ISLAND, a town in Rlinois, on 
 the Mississippi, at the foot of the Upper 
 Rapids, deriving its name from an 
 island in the river, on which there is now 
 an extensive government arsenal. It is 
 a great center of railway and river 
 traffic, and is connected with Daven- 
 port on the opposite side of the river 
 by a railway and general traffic bridge. 
 Pop. 23,683. 
 
 ROCK RIVER, a river of the United 
 States, which rises in Wisconsin, 50 
 miles west of Lake Michigan, and falls 
 into the Mississippi 2 miles below Rock 
 Island City. Length, 330 miles, about 
 225 of which have been ascended by 
 small steam -boats. 
 
 ROCKY MOUNTAINS, a name indefi* 
 nitely given to the whole of the exten- 
 sive system of mountains which covers 
 a great portion of the •w'estern half of 
 North America, but more properly ap- 
 plied to the eastern border of this moun- 
 tain region, commencing in New Mexico 
 in about 32 ° 30' n. lat., and extending 
 throughout the continent to the Polar 
 sea; terminating west of the Mackenzie 
 river, in lat. 69° n.. Ion. 135° w. The 
 Rocky mountains in the United States 
 are divided into two parts in Southern 
 Wyoming by a tractof elevated plateaus. 
 The chief groups of the southern half 
 are the Front or Colorado range, which 
 in Wyoming has a mean elevation of 
 9000 feet (at Evan’s Pass, where it is 
 crossed by the Union Pacific railway 
 8269 feet). In Colorado it increases to a 
 mean height of 13,000 feet, its highest 
 points being Gray’s Peak (14,341 feet). 
 Long’s Peak (14,271 feet), and Pike’s 
 Peak (14,147 feet). The Sawatch range, 
 south of the Arkansas river, has its 
 highest peak in Mount Harvard (14,375 
 feet), with passes at an elevation of 
 from 12,000 to 13,000 feet. The “Parks” 
 of Colorado are high mountain valleys, 
 known as North, Middle, South, and 
 San Luis parks, with an elevation of 
 
ROCKY MOUNTAIN WHITE GOAT 
 
 ROENTGEN 
 
 from 6000 to 10,000 feet, surrounded by- 
 ranges 3000 to 4000 feet higher. The 
 west border of the San Luis park is 
 formed by the San Juan range with at 
 least a dozen peaks over 14,000 feet, 
 and between one and two hundred above 
 
 13.000 feet. On the northeastern side 
 this park is bounded by the Sangre de 
 Cristo range, in which is Blanca peak 
 (14,464 feet). The Uintah range, di- 
 rectly west of North park, has several 
 points above 13,000 feet; and the Wah- 
 satch range, which forms the western 
 limit of the southern division of the 
 Rocky mountains, rises to a height of 
 
 12.000 feet just east of Salt Lake City. 
 The northern division of the Rocky 
 mountains, with the exception of the 
 Wind river range and the Yellowstone 
 region (see Yellowstone), is lower and 
 has less impressive scenery than the 
 southern. In Idaho and Montana the 
 groups are more irregular in outline 
 than in the south, and the division into 
 ranges more uncertain. Of these the 
 Bitter Root mountains in part of their 
 course fonn the divide between the 
 Missouri and the Columbia. There two 
 ranges reach altitudes of upward of 
 9000 feet, and are crossed by a number 
 of passes at elevations of from 5500 to 
 6500 feet. The Northern Pacific railway 
 crosses at Mullan’s pass (5548 feet) 
 through a tunnel 3850 feet long. The 
 Crazy mountains, north of the Yellow- 
 stone, reach a height of 11,000 feet; 
 other groups are the Big Horn mountains 
 and the Black Hills, whose highest point 
 is Mount Harvey (9700 feet). The 
 highest peaks yet accurately measured 
 in the Canadian Rocky mountains 
 proper are Robson peak (13,700 feet) 
 and Athabasca (13,500). Formerly the 
 Canadian Rockies were regarded as cul- 
 minating in Mount Brown, to which a 
 height of 16,000 feet was assigned. 
 Mount Logan (19,500) and Mount St. 
 Elias (18,000), on or near the Alaska 
 frontier, do not properly belong to the 
 range. The Rocky mountains contain 
 some of the finest scenery in the world, 
 and are especially rich in deposits of 
 gold, silver, iron, copper, etc. 
 
 ROCKY MOUNTAIN WHITE GOAT, 
 The hair is long, especially about the 
 fore quarters, and beneath it is a wooly 
 underfur. It is about three feet high at 
 the shoulders, which are somewhat arched 
 
 Rocky Mountain goat. 
 
 or humped, while the head is carried 
 low. The nose is hairy, there is a beard, 
 and the horns, present in both sexes, 
 are slender, smooth, backward-curving, 
 eight to ten inches long and black, which 
 is also the color of the small hoofs. Its 
 home is the mountains from the “high 
 
 sierras” of California and the central 
 Rocky mountains to Alaska. Its long 
 silky coat and its pure white color in- 
 dicate a snowy habitat, and this animal 
 is an inhabitant of the glacial peaks and 
 the great snow-fields alone, rarely com- 
 ing down even as low as the timber-line, 
 but finding its foliage among the alpine 
 pastures that border the glaciers. It 
 climbs with astonishing agility. 
 
 ROCO'CO, a debased variety of the 
 Louis-Quatorze style of ornament, pro- 
 
 ceeding from it through the degeneracy 
 of the Louis-Quinze. It is generally 
 a meaningless as.semblage of scrolls 
 and crimped conventional shell-work, 
 wrought into all sorts of irregular and 
 
 Rococo— An interior in Schloss Bruchsal, 
 Baden, Germany. 
 
 indescribable forms, without individual- 
 ity and without expression. 
 
 RODEN'TIA, or RODENTS, an order 
 of mammalia, comprising the gnawing 
 animals, such as rats, mice, squirrels, 
 rabbits, etc. They are distinguished by 
 the following characteristics; the teeth 
 are limited to molars and incisors, ca- 
 nines, being entirely absent; the molars 
 have tuberculated or fiattish crowns, 
 and are especially adapted for the attri- 
 tion of food; the incisors are long, and 
 spring from permanent pulps, thus being 
 continually reproduced and shoved out- 
 ward from their bases. In the typical 
 species the outer faces of the incisors are 
 covered with hard enamel, but not the 
 inner ones, hence the latter are soft and 
 wear away faster than the anterior sur- 
 faces, thus keeping a sharp edge on the 
 teeth. The digits are generally four or 
 five in number, and are provided with 
 claws. The intestine is long, and the 
 C£Ecum generally large. The brain is 
 almost destitute of convolutions. The 
 eyes are placed laterally. 
 
 The rodentia are divided into two 
 
 main divisions or sub-orders. One 
 represented by mice, rats, squirrels, 
 marmots, beavers, porcupines, etc., hav- 
 ing the incisors strictly limited to two 
 in each jaw; and the other compre- 
 hending hares and rabbits, distinguished 
 by four incisors in the upper jaw and 
 two in the lower. 
 
 RODNEY, George Brydges, Baron 
 Rodney, British naval hero, born in 
 1718 at Walton-upon-Thames. In 1759, 
 having been promoted to the rank of 
 admiral, he bombarded Havre de Grfice 
 in face of the French fleet. In 1726 he 
 reduced Martinique, and on his return 
 was rewarded with a boronetcy. In 
 
 Lord Rodney. 
 
 1779 he was appointed to the chief com- 
 mand on the West India station, and in 
 January, 1780, completely defeated a 
 Spanish fleet under Langara off Cape St. 
 Vincent. On April 12, 1782, he obtained 
 a decisive victory over the French fleet 
 under De Grasse. He died 21st May, 
 1792. 
 
 ROE, Edward Payson, American 
 clergjonan and novelist, was born in 
 Moodna, Orange co., N. Y., in 1838. 
 He was from 1865 until 1874 pastor of 
 the Presbj^terian church at Highland 
 Falls, N. Y., after which he gave him- 
 self up to lecturing, writing, and fruit 
 culture. His first novel. Barriers Burned 
 Away, a story suggested by the Chicago 
 fire, met with great success. All of his 
 novels have been popular. Among them 
 are What Can She Do, Opening of a 
 Chestnut Burr, A Face Illumined, Near 
 to Nature’s Heart. He died in 1888. 
 
 ROEBUCK, Roe-deer, a European 
 deer of small size, the adult measuring 
 about 2 feet at the shoulders. The horns 
 or antlers are small, and provided with 
 three short branches only. The general 
 body-color is brown, whitish beneath. 
 These animals inhabit mountainous and 
 wooded districts. When irritated of 
 alarmed they may prove very danger- 
 ous adversaries, and are able to inflict 
 severe wounds with their antlers. See 
 Reebuck. 
 
 ROENTGEN (rent'gen) Wilhelm Kon- 
 rad, German physicist, was born at' 
 Lennep, in Rhenish Prussia in 1845. He 
 received his doctor’s degree in 1869 at 
 the Universitv of Zurich. In 1899 he was 
 
 appointed professor of experimental 
 physics at the University of Munich. He 
 discovered the rays which bear his 
 name in 1895. For this discovery he 
 received the Rumford medal of the Royal 
 society of London and the Barnard 
 
ROGERS 
 
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 
 
 medal of Columbia University, awarded 
 in 1900 for the greatest discovery in 
 science during the preceding five years. 
 (See X-Rays.) 
 
 ROGERS, John, American sculptor, 
 was born in Salem, Mass., in 1829. He 
 exhibited the “Slave Auction” in 1860, 
 and in 1860-65 he executed a series of 
 war statuette groups in gray clay, 
 among which were the “Picket Guard,” 
 “One More Shot,” and “Union Ref- 
 ugees.” Other statuette groups illus- 
 trate passages from Shakespeare, Irv- 
 ing’s Rip Van Winkle, and Longfellow’s 
 Miles Standish (“John Alden and Pris- 
 cilla”). His ambitious efforts include the 
 equestrian statue in bronze of General 
 Reynolds in front of the City Hall, 
 Philadelphia, and a bronze group of 
 “Ichabod Crane and the Headless Horse- 
 man.” He died in 1904. 
 
 ROGERS, Randolph, American sculp- 
 tor, was born at Waterloo, New York, in 
 1825. Among his works are a statue of 
 “John Adams” in the cemetery at 
 Mount Auburn, near Boston: the bronze 
 doors of the new capitol extension in 
 Washington, the bas-reliefs of which rep- 
 resent the principal events of the career 
 of Columbus; and figures of Marshall, 
 Mason, and Nelson for the Washington 
 monument at Richmond, Va. His other 
 works include a colossal bronze statue of 
 Lincoln for Philadelphia; the “Genius of 
 Connecticut” for the state capitol in 
 Hartford; and a statue of W. H. Seward 
 in New York. He died in 1892. 
 
 ROGERS, Samuel, English poet, born 
 at Stoke-Newington, London, July 30, 
 1763; died 18th December, 1855. His 
 first appearance before the public was 
 in 1786, when he gave to the world his 
 Ode to Superstition, and other Poems. 
 The Pleasures of Memory, with which 
 his name is principally identified, ap- 
 peared in 1792, and An Epistle to a 
 Friend (1798). In 1812 he published The 
 Voyage of Columbus, a fragment; in 
 1814, Jacqueline, a tale; in 1819, Human 
 Life; and in 1822, Italy, a descriptive 
 poem in blank verse. 
 
 ROGERS, William Au^stus, Ameri- 
 can astronomer and physicist, was born 
 in Waterford, Conn., in 1832. He mapped 
 a part of the skies north of the zenith and 
 published “Observations” in the Annals 
 of the observatory. His most important 
 work was in the field of micrometry 
 and included the construction of a 
 dividing engine of high precision. His 
 copies of English and French standards 
 of length, obtained in 1880, are in 
 regular use by American astronomers. 
 He died in 1898. 
 
 ROGUE, in law, a vagrant or vaga- 
 bond. Persons of this character were, 
 by the ancient laws of England, to be 
 punished by whipping and having the 
 ear bored with a hot iron. The term 
 rogues and vagabonds is given to vari- 
 ous definite classes of persons, such as 
 fortune-tellers, persons collecting alms 
 under false pretenses, persons deserting 
 their families and leaving them charge- 
 able to the parish, persons wandering 
 about as vagrants without visible means 
 of subsistence, persons found on any 
 premises for an unlawful purpose, and 
 others. Rogues and vagabonds may be 
 summarily committed to prison for three 
 months with hard labor. See Vagrant. 
 
 ROHAN (r5-an), Henri, Duke of, 
 French Protestant leader, born in 1579. 
 In his sixteenth year he joined the court 
 of Henry IV., and after the death of the 
 latter in 1610 became chief of the Hugue- 
 nots. After the fall of Rochelle (1628) 
 and the peace of 1629 Rohan withdrew 
 from France and wrote his Memoires 
 Sur les Choses Advenues en France 
 definis la Mort de Henry IV. M4moires 
 sur la Guerre de la Valteline Les Int6rets 
 des Princes, and Discours Politiques. 
 He died in 1639. 
 
 ROHAN, Louis Ren4 Edouard, Prince 
 de. Cardinal-bishop of Strasburg, was 
 born in 1734 at Paris. In 1772 he went 
 as ambassador to the court of Vienna. 
 He derives his notoriety, however, 
 chiefly from the affair of the necklace. 
 He was then grand almoner of France, 
 and being thrown into the Bastile, con- 
 tinued in prison more than a year, when 
 he was acquitted and released by the 
 parliament of Paris, August, 1786. He 
 died in Germany in 1803. 
 
 ROHILKHAND, or ROHILCUND, a 
 division of British India, United Prov- 
 inces; area, 10,885 sq. miles; pop. 
 5,343,674. It is subdivided into the 
 districts Bijnur, Muradabad, Budaon, 
 Bareli, Pilibhit, and Shahjahanpur. It 
 incloses the native principality of 
 Rampur. 
 
 ROHLFS (rolfs), Friedrich Gerhard, 
 a celebrated African traveler, born in 
 1831 at Vegesack, Germany. His works 
 include, among others; Journey through 
 Morocco (1869), Land and People of 
 Africa (1870), Across Africa (1874-75), 
 Journey from Tripoli to the Kufra 
 Oasis (1881), My Mission to Abyssinia 
 (1883). He died in 1890. 
 
 ROLAND, or ORLANDO, a celebrated 
 hero of the romances of chivalry, and 
 one of the paladins of Charlemagne, of 
 whom he is represented as the nephew. 
 His character is that of a brave, un- 
 suspicious, and loyal warrior, but some- 
 what simple in his disposition. Accord- 
 ing to the Song of Roland, an old French 
 epic, he was killed at the battle of 
 Roncesvalles after a desperate struggle 
 with the Saracens, who had attacked 
 Charlemagne’s rear-guard. The cele- 
 brated romantic epics of Boiardo 
 (Orlando Innamorato) and Ariosto (Or- 
 lando Furioso) relate to Roland and his 
 exploits. 
 
 ROLFE, William James, an Ameri- 
 can Shakespearean scholar and educa- 
 tor, born in Newburyport, Mass., in 
 1827. In 1867 he edited an edition of 
 Craik’s English of Shakespeare. This 
 led to the preparation of a complete 
 edition of Shakespeare (40 vols). He 
 also edited the select Poems of Gold- 
 smith; of Gray; of Tennyson; Enoch 
 Arden and Other Poems ; Scott’s Com- 
 plete Poems; Byron’s Childe Harold; 
 Macaulay’s Lays of Ancient Rome; 
 Wordsworth; In Memoriam ; Idyls Jof 
 the King; and a complete edition of 
 Tennyson; Shakespeare, the Boy; Life 
 of Shakespeare. 
 
 ROLLER, a genus of birds, generally 
 of small size. The common roller is 
 found in Europe as a summer visitor, 
 but only occasionally visits Great Brit- 
 ain. Africa appears to be its native 
 country. In size the roller averages the 
 common jay. The plumage is in general 
 
 an assemblage of blue and green, mixed 
 with white, and heightened by the con- 
 trast of more sombre colors. The voice 
 is noisy and harsh. The food consists of 
 insects, small reptiles, and fruit. 
 
 Vi 
 
 ROLLIN (rol-an), Charles, a French 
 historian, born at Paris in 1661, studied 
 theology, obtained a chair in the College 
 de France, and latterly was a rector of 
 the University of Paris. He died in 
 1741. His Ancient History was long 
 popular in English, but is now quite oift 
 of date. 
 
 ROLLING-MILL, a combination of 
 machinery used in the manufacture of 
 malleable iron and other metals of the 
 same nature. It consists of one or more 
 pairs of iron rollers, whose surfaces are 
 made to revolve nearly in contact with 
 each other, while the heated metal is 
 passed between them, and thereby sub- 
 jected to a strong pressure. The' first 
 rolling is to expel the scoriae and other 
 impurities, after which the mass of 
 metal is cut into suitable lengths, which 
 are piled on one another and reheated, 
 when the mass which has been partially 
 fused is again passed through the 
 rollers. This second rolling deter- 
 mines its fonn into a hoop, rail, bar, 
 or plate according to the form given to 
 the surfaces of the rollers. See Iron. 
 
 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE, the style 
 of building practiced by the ancient 
 
 Roman architecture. 
 
 Great hall in the baths of Caracalla. 
 
 Romans. Derived on the one hand from 
 the Etruscans, and on the other from 
 
ROMAN CANDLE 
 
 ROMANS 
 
 the Greeks, the fusion ultimately re- 
 sulted in an independent style. Its 
 essential characteristics are, the em- 
 ployment of the Tuscan and the Com- 
 posite order, and the introduction and 
 free use of the semicircular arch and 
 arcade, together with the use of rounded 
 and prominent mouldings, often pro- 
 fusely decorated. In Roman architec- 
 ture the great feature is the employ- 
 ment of the arch as well as the lintel, 
 while Greek architecture employs the 
 lintel only. It produced various con- 
 structions, unknown to Greek art, such 
 as amphitheaters, circuses, aqueducts, 
 bridges, baths, triumphal arches, etc. It 
 has thus been of vastly greater practical 
 utility than the Greek, and is bold and 
 imposing in appearance. The column 
 as a support, being no longer exclusively 
 a necessity, was often of a purely deco- 
 rative character, and was largely used 
 in front of closed walls, in domes above 
 circular interiors, and in the construc- 
 tion of cylindrical and groined vaulting 
 over oblong spaces. The arch was freely 
 used internally as well as externally, 
 and became an important decorative 
 feature of interiors. The Roman temples 
 as a rule, from the similarity of the 
 theogony to that of the Greeks were dis- 
 posed after the Greek form, but a purely 
 Roman tvpe is seen in the circular 
 temples such as tne Tantheon at Rome, 
 the temple of the Sibyl at Tivoli, the 
 temple of Vesta at Rome, etc. This 
 style of architecture was introduced by 
 the Romans into all their colonies and 
 provinces — vast existing remains evi- 
 dencing the solid character of the build- 
 ings. it reached its highest stage during 
 the reign of Augustus (b.c. 27), and 
 after the translation of the seat of em- 
 pire to Byzantium it degenerated and 
 ultimately gave place to a debased 
 style. 
 
 ROM.^N candle, a kind of firework 
 consisting of a tube which discharges in 
 rapid succession a series of white or 
 colored stars or balls. 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, that 
 society of Christians which acknowl- 
 edges the bishop of Rome as its visible 
 head. The foundation of the Christian 
 church at Rome is uncertain, but St. 
 Paul did not visit Rome until after he 
 had written his Epistle to the Rotuans. 
 The claim of supremacy on the part of 
 the bishop of Rome is based on the be- 
 lief that our Lord conferred on Peter 
 a primacy of jurisdiction; that that 
 apostle fixed his see at Rome; and that 
 the bishops of Rome, in unbroken suc- 
 cession from Peter, have succeeded to his 
 prerogative of supremacy. The distinc- 
 tive character of the Roman church is 
 tiie supremacy of the papacy. Its 
 doctrines are to be found in the Apostles’ 
 creed, the Nicene creed, the Athanasian, 
 and that of Pius IV. The latter added the 
 articles on transubstantiation, invoca- 
 tion of saints, and others which chiefly 
 distinguish the Roman from other Chris- 
 tian communities. The dogmas of the 
 immaculate conception of the Virgin 
 Mary and papal infallibility are recent 
 additions. Roman Catholics believe 
 that the mass is the mystical sacrifice 
 of the body and blood of Christ, that the 
 body and blood are really present in the 
 eucharist, and that under either kind 
 
 Christ is received whole and entire. 
 They also believe in purgatory, that the 
 Virgin Mary and the saints are to be 
 honored and invoked, and that honor 
 and veneration are to be given to their 
 images. Seven sacraments are recog- 
 nized, viz.; Baptism, confirmation, the 
 holy eucharist, penance, extreme unc- 
 tion, holy orders, and matrimony. Fast- 
 ing and confession form part of the dis- 
 cipline. The clergy of the church in the 
 west are bound by a vow of celibacy im- 
 plied in their ordination as sub-deacons. 
 The clergy of those Greek and Armenian 
 churches that are united in communion 
 with the see of Rome, may receive orders 
 if married, but may not marry after ordi- 
 nation. Under the generic name of Ro- 
 man Catholics are comprised all churches 
 which recognize the supremacy of the 
 Pope of Rome, including the United 
 Greeks, Slavonians, Ruthenians, Syrians 
 Copts, and Armenians. The supreme 
 council or senate of the Roman ehurch 
 is the college of cardinals, 70 in number, 
 who are the advisors of the sovereign, 
 and, on the death of the pontiff, elect 
 his successor. The total number of 
 members of the Roman Catholic church 
 has been estimated at 229,000,000. 
 
 ROMANCE, a fictitious narrative in 
 prose or verse, the interest of whieh 
 turns upon incidents either marvelous 
 or uncommon. The name is derived from 
 the class of languages in which such 
 narratives in modern times were first 
 widely known and circulated; these 
 were the French, Italian, and Spanish, 
 called the Romance Languages. 
 
 ROMANCE LANGUAGES, those lan- 
 guages of South Europe which owe their 
 origin to the language of Rome — the 
 Latin — and to the spread of Roman 
 dominion and civilization. They include 
 the Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, 
 Portuguese, Roumanian, and Romansch. 
 Their basis was not, however, the classic 
 Latin of literature, but the popular 
 Roman language — the Lingua Romana 
 rustica spoken by the Roman soldiers, 
 colonists, and others, and variously 
 modified by uneducated speakers of the 
 different peoples among whom it be- 
 came the general means of communica- 
 tion. In all of these tongues Latin is the 
 chief ingredient, and a knowledge of 
 Latin helps very greatly in acquiring a 
 knowledge of them. 
 
 ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE, a 
 general and rather vague term applied 
 to the styles of architecture which pre- 
 vailed in Western Europe from the 5th 
 to the 12th century. The Romanesque 
 may be separated into two divisions; 
 (a) the debased Roman, in use from the 
 5th to the 8th century; and (b) the later 
 Romanesque of the 8th to the 12th cen- 
 tury, which comprises the Lombard, 
 Rhenish or Gennan, and Norman styles. 
 The former is characterized by a pretty 
 close imitation of the features of Roman, 
 with changes in the mode of their ap- 
 plication and distribution; the latter, 
 while based on Roman form, is Gothic in 
 spirit, has a predominance of vertical 
 lines, and introduces a number of new 
 features and greatly modifies others. 
 To the former belong especially churches 
 of the basilica type in various cities of 
 Italy, as also a number of circular 
 churches, and many of these buildings 
 
 have a certain affinity to the Byzantine 
 type of architecture. The semicircular 
 arch is used throughout the entire period 
 and the general expression of the build- 
 ings is rather severe. It assumes differ- 
 ent phases in different countries. In 
 Romanesque churches of the 9th and 
 the 11th century the prevailing features 
 are; that in plan the upper limb of the 
 cross is short and terminated by a semi- 
 circular or semioctagonal apse; the tran- 
 
 End view and plan of Romanesque church 
 of Laach (Rhenish Prussia). 
 
 septs frequently short, and often 
 rounded externally; the walls very 
 thick, without buttresses or with but- 
 tresses having very slight projection ; the 
 pillars thick, sometimes simply cylindri- 
 cal or clustered in large masses, and 
 either plain or with but simple decora- 
 tion; the capitals of cushion form, some- 
 times plain, at others enriched with 
 various ornaments peculiar to the style. 
 Externally, roofs of moderate pitch, 
 towers square or octagonal, low or of 
 moderate elevation, and with termina- 
 tions of pyramidal character; windows 
 round-headed and without mullions; 
 doorways moderately recessed and 
 
 Romanesque ornament. 
 
 highly decorated with the cable, chevron 
 and other distinctive ornaments ; arcades 
 much employed for decoration, fre- 
 quently by a continuous series round the 
 upper part of the apse and round the 
 upper parts of transepts also, when the 
 transepts are rounded externally. The 
 principal front is frequently flat and 
 decorated with arcades in successive 
 rows from the apex of the roof till just 
 above the portals, producing a rich 
 effect, as at Pisa cathedral. 
 
 ROMANS, Epistle to the, the most 
 elaborate, and, in a doctrinal point of 
 
ROMANTIC 
 
 ROME 
 
 ^view, the most important comjJosition 
 of St. Paul. It sets forth that the gospel 
 doctrine of justification by faith is a 
 power unto salvation to all men, both 
 Jews and Gentiles. The writer then 
 deplores the rejection of the Jews, and 
 in the practical part admonishes the 
 Romans to exercise the various gifts 
 bestowed upon each in a spirit of love 
 and humility; he especially urges the 
 strong to bear with the weak, and con- 
 cludes with various salutations and 
 directions. In modern times doubts 
 have been thrown upon the authenticity 
 of the concluding portion of this epistle, 
 some critics regarding the whole of 
 chapter xvi. as spurious. 
 
 ROMANTIC, a term used in literature 
 as contradistinguished to antique or 
 classic. The name romantic school was 
 assumed about the beginning of the 19th 
 century by a number of young poets and 
 critics in Germany, the Schlegels, 
 Novalis, Tieck, etc., whose efforts were 
 directed to the overthrow of the artificial 
 rhetoric and unimaginative pedantry of 
 the French school of poetry. The name is 
 also given to a similar school which arose 
 in France between twenty and thirty 
 years later, and which had a long strug- 
 gle for supremacy with the older classic 
 school; Victor Hugo, Lamartine, etc., 
 were the leaders. 
 
 ROME, the most famous state of 
 ancient times, originally comprising 
 little more than the city of Rome, 
 latterly an empire embracing a great 
 part of Europe, North Africa, and 
 Western Asia. The origin of Rome is 
 generally assigned to the year 753 b.c., 
 at which time a band of Latins, one of 
 the peoples of Central Italy, founded a 
 small town on the left bank of the Tiber, 
 about 15 miles from the sea, the popula- 
 tion being subsequently augmented by 
 the addition of Sabines and Etruscans. 
 
 Toward the end of the 5th century 
 B.C., after extending her territory to 
 the south, Rome turned her arms against 
 Etruria in the north. For ten years 
 (405-396) the important city of Veii is 
 said to have been besieged, till in the 
 latter year it was taken by Camillus, and 
 the capture of this city was followed 
 by the submission of all the other towns 
 in the south of Etruria. 
 
 During the period 343-264 Rome was 
 engaged in many important wars, the 
 chief of which were the four Samnite 
 wars, the great Latin war, the war with 
 the Greek cities of Southern Italy, and 
 the war with Pyrrhus, the invader of 
 Italy from Greece. Rome having con- 
 quered Italy, felt at liberty to contend 
 for the possession of Sicily, at this time 
 almost entirely under the dominion of 
 the great maritime power of Carthage. 
 An opportunity for interfering in Sicilian 
 affairs was easily found, and in 264 B.c. 
 the First Punic or Carthaginian war 
 began. It lasted for more than twenty 
 years, caused the loss of three large 
 fleets to the Romans, and the defeat of 
 a Roman army under Regulus in Africa ; 
 but in 241 a great victory over the 
 Carthaginian fleet caused the latter 
 power to sue for peace 
 
 Meanwhile the Carthaginians had 
 been making considerable conquests in 
 Spam, which awakened the alarm and 
 envy of the Romans, and induced them 
 
 P. E.~68 
 
 to enter into a defensive alliance with 
 the Greek colony of Saguntum, near the 
 east coast of that country. In 221 b.c. 
 Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar Barca, 
 who had bravely and skilfully main- 
 tained the Carthaginian arms in Sicily, 
 and had since founded and in great part 
 established the Carthaginian empire in 
 Spain, succeeded to the command of the 
 Carthaginian forces. The taking of 
 Saguntum, a city allied to Rome, oc- 
 casioned the Second Punic war, during 
 which Hannibal traversed Gaul, crossed 
 the Alps, and invaded Italy. The war 
 lasted for sixteen years (218-202 b.c.); 
 and was carried on with consummate 
 generalship on the part of Hannibal, 
 who inflicted on the Romans one of the 
 most disastrous defeats they ever sus- 
 tained, at CanniE, in 216 B.c. This great 
 man was ill supported by his country, 
 and the war terminated in favor of the 
 Romans through the defeat of Hannibal 
 by P. Cornelius Scipio at Zama in Africa 
 in 202 B.c. (See Hannibal.) One of the 
 results was that the power of Carthage 
 was broken and Spain practically be- 
 came a Roman possession. 
 
 Philip V. of Macedonia had favored 
 Hannibal, and so gave Rome a pretext 
 to mix in Grecian affairs. The result was 
 that Macedonia was made a Roman 
 province (148 b.c.), while in the same 
 year that Carthage fell Corinth was 
 sacked, and soon after Greece was or- 
 ganized into the province of Achaia. 
 Previously Antiochus the Great of 
 Syria had been defeated by the Romans 
 and part of Asia Minor brought into 
 vassalage to Rome. In the east Rome 
 intrigued where she could, and fought 
 when she was compelled, and by dis- 
 organizing states made them first her 
 dependencies and then her provinces. 
 In 130 B.c. she received by bequest the 
 dominions of Attains III. of Pergamus 
 (Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia), 
 which was formed into the province of 
 Asia. A serious war, almost of the nature 
 of a civil war, followed with the Roman 
 allies in Italy, who rose in 90 b.c. to 
 demand the right of equal citizenship 
 with the people of Rome. This war, 
 known as the Social war, lasted for two 
 years (90-88 b.c.), and ended in the vic- 
 tory of the Romans,who, however, found 
 it advisable to concede the franchise to the 
 Italian tribes to prevent another rising. 
 The war had been concluded by Sulla, 
 between whom and Marius great rivalry 
 prevailed; and now sprang up the first 
 Roman civil war, a struggle between the 
 party of Marius (the people) and that of 
 Sulla (the nobles). Sulla, the consul for 
 88, was on the point of starting for Asia 
 to attack Mithridates, king of Pontus, a 
 war that promised both glory and treas- 
 ure. Marius was eager for the same com- 
 mand, and through intrigue on his be- 
 half the populace deprived Sulla of the 
 chief command and gave it to Marius. 
 Thereupon Sulla marched on Rome 
 with his legions, forced Marius to flee 
 to Africa, and then proceeded to the 
 Mithridatic war. In his absence Marius 
 returned, wreaked a bloody vengeance 
 on the partisans of his rival, and died 
 after being appointed consul for the 
 seventh time (86 b.c.). Three years later 
 Sulla came back from Asia, having 
 brought the Mithridatic war to a satis- 
 
 factory conclusion, and now felt himself 
 at liberty to take his revenge on the 
 Marian party for the atrocities it had 
 been guilty of toward his own party in 
 his absence ; and he took it in full meas- 
 ure. He was appointed dictator for 
 an unlimited term (81 b.c.), and as 
 such passed a series of measures the 
 general object of which was to restore to 
 the constitution its former aristocratic 
 or oligarchical character. In the be- 
 ginning of 79 b.c. Sulla retired into 
 private life, and he died the year fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 The man who now came most promi- 
 nently before the public eye was Pompey 
 one of Sulla’s generals. His first im- 
 portant achievement was the subjuga- 
 toin of the remnant of the democratic 
 or Marian party that had gathered round 
 Sertorius in Spain (76-72 b.c.). On 
 his return to Italy he extinguished all 
 that remained of an insurrection of 
 slaves, already crushed by Crassus (71), 
 and in 70 b.c. was consul along with 
 Crassus. In 67 b.c. he drove the pirates 
 from the Mediterranean, and afterward 
 reduced Cilicia, which he made into a 
 Roman province. He was then ap- 
 pointed to continue the war that had 
 been renewed against Mithridates, king 
 of Pontus, whom he finally subdued, 
 forming part of his dominions in Asia 
 Minor into a Roman province, and dis- 
 tributing the rest among kings who were 
 the vassals of Rome. In 64 b.c. Pom pey 
 put an end to the dynasty of the Seleu- 
 cidae in Syria, and converted their 
 kingdom into a province, and in 63 b.c. 
 advanced southward into Judea, which 
 he made tributary to Rome. All these 
 arrangements were made by him of his 
 own authority. In the very year in 
 which they were completed a n. ember 
 of the aristocratic party, the great 
 orator Cicero, had earned great distinc- 
 tion bv detecting and frustrating the 
 Catilinarian conspiracy. 
 
 Only three years after these events 
 (60 b.c.) a union took place at Rom.e of 
 great importance in the history im- 
 mediately subsequent. Caius Julius 
 Caesar, a man of aristocratic family who 
 had attached himself to the democratic 
 party and had become very popular, 
 joined Pompey and Crassus in what is 
 called the first triumvirate, and prac- 
 tically the three took the governm ent of 
 Rome into their own hands. On the 
 part of Caesar,' who was now elected 
 consul, this was the first step in a career 
 which culminated in the overthrow of 
 the republic, and his own elevation to 
 the position of sovereign of the empire. 
 After the death of Crassus (53 b.c.) came 
 the struggle for supreme power between 
 Caesar and Pompey. Caesar had gained 
 great glory by the conquest of Gaul, but 
 now at Pompey’s instigation was called 
 on to resign his command and disband 
 his army. Upon this he entered Italy, 
 drove Pompey into Greece, and the 
 short civil war of 49-48 n.c., and the 
 great battle of Pharsalia in the latter 
 year, decided the struggle in Caesar’s 
 favor. Pompey’s army was utterly 
 routed; he himself was compelled to 
 flee, and having gone to Egypt was 
 there murdered. In a short time Caesar 
 utterly subdued the remains of the 
 Pompeian party and became virtually 
 
ROME 
 
 ROME 
 
 king in Rome. Caesar was assassinated 
 in 44 B.C., and the main result of the 
 conspiracy by which he fell was that the 
 first place in Rome had again to be con- 
 tested. The competitors this time were 
 Octavianus, the grand-nephew and 
 adopted son of Caesar, then only nine- 
 teen, and Mark Antony, one of Caesar’s 
 generals. In 43 b.c. these two fonned 
 with Lepidus what is known as the 
 second triumvirate; and after avenging 
 the death of Caesar and putting an end 
 to the republican party in the battle of 
 Philippi (42), Octavian and Antony, 
 casting off Lepidus, who was a weak- 
 ling, divided the empire between them, 
 the former taking Rome and the West 
 and the latter the East. In ten years 
 war broke out between the two, and in 
 the naval battle of Actium (31 b.c.) 
 Antony was defeated, and the whole 
 Roman world lay at the feet of the con- 
 queror, Egypt being also now incor- 
 porated. Not long after this Octavian 
 received the title of Augustus, the name 
 by which he is known in history as the 
 first of the Roman emperors. 
 
 In his administration of the empire 
 Augustus acted with great judgment, 
 ostensibly adhering to most of the re- 
 publican forms of government, though 
 he contrived in course of time to obtain 
 for himself all the offices of highest 
 authority. The reign of Augustus is 
 chiefly remarkable as the golden age of 
 Roman literature, but it was a reign also 
 of conquest and territorial acquisition. 
 Before the annexation of Egypt Pan- 
 nonia had been added to the Roman 
 dominions (35 b.c.), and by the sub- 
 sequent conquest of Moesia, Noricum, 
 Rhtetia, and Vindelicia, the Roman 
 frontier was extended to the Danube 
 along its whole course. Gaul and Spain 
 also were now finally and completely 
 subdued. The empire of Augustus thus 
 stretched from the Atlantic to the 
 Euphrates, and from the Rhine and 
 the Danube to the deserts of Africa. 
 This emperor died in 14 a.d. His 
 reign is above all memorable for 
 the birth of Christ in b. c. 4. _ Au- 
 gustus was followed by a series of 
 emperors forming, when he and Julius 
 Ctesar are included, the sovereigns 
 known as the Twelve Caesars. The names 
 of his successors and the dates of their 
 deaths are: Tiberius, 37 a.d.; Caligula, 
 41; Claudius, 54; Nero, 68; Galba, 69; 
 Otho, 69; Vitellius, 69; Vespasian, 
 79; Titus, 81; and Domitian, 96. 
 Nerva’s reign was short (96-98) but 
 beneficent, and he was followed by four 
 emperors, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus 
 Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, who to- 
 gether reigned for more than eighty 
 years, and under whom the countries 
 making up the Roman empire enjoyed 
 in common more good government, 
 peace, and prosperity than ever before 
 or after. Trajan (98-117) was a warlike 
 prince, and added several provinces to 
 the Roman empire. Hadrian (117-138), 
 the adopted son of Trajan, devoted him- 
 self entirely to the internal affairs of his 
 empire. It was in his reign that the 
 southern Roman wall, or rampart be- 
 tween the Tyne and the Solway Firth, 
 was erected. Antoninus Pius (138-161) 
 was likewise the adopted son of his pre- 
 decessor. In his reign the northern wall ' 
 
 in Britain, between the Forth and Clyde, 
 was constructed. The next emperor, 
 Marcus' Aurelius (161-180), was both 
 the son-in-law and the adopted son of 
 Antoninus Pius. He combined the qual- 
 ities of a philosopher with those of an 
 able and energetic ruler. 
 
 Commodus (180-192), the son and 
 successor of Aurelius, inherited none of 
 his father’s good qualities, and his reign, 
 from which Gibbon dates the decline of 
 the Roman empire, presents a complete 
 contrast to those of the five preceding 
 emperors. In the long list of emperors 
 who succeeded may be noted Septimius 
 Severus, who reigned from 193 to 211, 
 during which time he restored the em- 
 pire to its former prestige. He recon- 
 quered Mesopotamia from the Par- 
 thians, but in Britain he confined the 
 Roman province to the limit of Had- 
 rian’s 'Wall, which he restored. He died 
 at York. Alexander Severus, who 
 reigned from 222 till 235, was also an 
 able ruler, and was also the first emperor 
 who openly extended his protection to 
 the Christians. His death was followed 
 by a period of the greatest confusion. 
 The empire was again consolidated 
 under Aurelian (270-275), who sub- 
 dued all the other claimants to the 
 imperial dignity, and put an end 
 to the Kingdom of Palmyra, which 
 was governed by the heroic Zenobia. 
 The reign of Diocletian (284-305) is 
 remarkable as affording the first ex- 
 ample of that division of the empire 
 which ultimately led to the formation 
 of the empire of the West and the em- 
 pire of the East. This arrangement tem- 
 porarily worked well, but in 323 
 Constantine, the son of Constantins, 
 was left sole master of the empire. 
 Ever since the time of Augustus and 
 Tiberius, Christianity had been spread- 
 ing in the Roman empire, notwith- 
 standing terrible persecutions. The 
 number of churches and congregations 
 had increased in every city; the old 
 religion had died out, and very few be- 
 lieved in it ; so at last Constantine judged 
 it wise to make the Christian religion 
 the religion of the empire. He also re- 
 moved the seat of government from 
 Rome to Byzantium, which was hence 
 called Constantinople (330), and com- 
 pletely reorganized the imperial ad- 
 ministration. Constantine died in 337. 
 The empire was left among histhree sons, 
 of whom Constantins became solerulerin 
 353. The next emperor, Julian the Apos- 
 tate, sought to restore the old religion 
 but in vain. He was an able ruler, but 
 fell in battle against the Persians in 363. 
 He was succeeded by Jovian, who 
 reigned less than one year; and after his 
 death (364) the empire was again divided, 
 Valens (364-378) obtaining the eastern 
 portion, and Valentinian (364-375) the 
 western. From this division, which took 
 place in 364, the final separation of the 
 eastern and western empires is often 
 dated. In the reigns of Valens and 
 Valentinian great hordes of Huns 
 streamed into Europe from the steppes 
 of Central Asia. After subduing the 
 eastern Goths (Ostrogoths) they at- 
 tacked those of the west (Visigoths) ; but 
 these, since they had already been con- 
 verted to Christianity, were allowed by 
 Valens to cross from the left to the right 1 
 
 bank of the Danube, and settle in Moesia. 
 In their new homes they found them- 
 selves exposed to the oppression and 
 rapacity of the Roman governors, and 
 when they could no longer brook such 
 treatment they rose in rebellion, and 
 defeated Valens in the sanguinary battle 
 of Adrianople, in the flight from which 
 the emperor lost his life (378). His son 
 Gratianus created the heathen Theo- 
 dosius co-regent, and intrusted him with 
 the administration of the East. Theo- 
 dosius became a Christian, fought suc- 
 cessfully against the Western Goths, but 
 was obliged to accept'them as allies in 
 their abodes in Moesia and Thrace. In 
 394 the whole empire was reunited for 
 the last time under Theodosius. After 
 his death (395) the empire was divided 
 between his two sons, Honorius and 
 ArCadius, and the eastern and western 
 sections became pennanent divisions 
 of the empire, the latter being now un- 
 der Honorius. For the further history of 
 the empire of the East, see Byzantine 
 Empire. 
 
 In 402 Alaric, king of the Visigoths 
 who were settled on the south of the 
 Danube, was incited to invade Italy, 
 but he was soon forced to withdraw on 
 account of the losses he suffered in battle 
 (403). Scarcely had these enemies re- 
 treated when great hosts of heathen, 
 Teutonic tribes. Vandals, Burgundians, 
 Suevi, and others, made an irruption into 
 Italy on the north; but these also were 
 overcome by Stilicho, the guardian of 
 the youthful emperor Honorius, in the 
 battle of Faesulffi (or Florence), and com- 
 pelled to withrdaw (406). The Bur- 
 gundians now settled in part of Gaul, 
 while the Vandals and Suevi crossed the 
 Pyrenees into Spain. In 408 Alaric 
 marched into Italy, advanced up to the 
 walls of Rome, and ultimately took the 
 city by storm (410). Shortly after Alaric 
 died, and his brother-in-law Athaulf 
 (Adolphus) concluded a treaty with 
 Honorius, and retired into Gaul, where 
 the Visigoths founided in the southwest 
 a kingdom that extended originally from 
 the Garonne to the Ebro (412). About 
 this time also the Romans practically 
 surrendered Britain, by withdrawing 
 their forces from it, and thus leaving it 
 a prey to Teutonic pirates and northern 
 savages. In 429 the Vandals wrested 
 the province of Africa from the empire 
 and set up a Vandalic kingdom in its 
 place. In 452 the Huns left their set- 
 tlements in immense numbers under 
 their king Attila, destroyed Aquileia, 
 took Milan, Pavia, Verona, and Padua 
 by storm, laid waste the fruitful valley 
 of the Po, and were already advancing 
 on Rome when the Roman bishop, Leo 
 I., succeeded in inducing them to con- 
 clude a peace with Valentinian, and 
 withdraw. Soon after their leader 
 Attila died (453), and after that the 
 Huns were no longer formidable. Two 
 years after the death of Attila, Eudoxia, 
 the widow of Valentinian, the successor 
 of Honorius, invited the assistance of 
 the Vandals from Africa, who under 
 their leader Genseric proceeded to Rome 
 which they took and afterward plun- 
 dered for fourteen days, showing so 
 little regard to the works of art it con- 
 tained as to give to the word vandalism 
 the sense it still expresses (455). They 
 
ROME 
 
 ROME 
 
 then returned to Africa with their booty 
 and prisoners. After the withdrawal of 
 the Vandals, Avitus, a Gaul, was in- 
 stalled emperor. Under him the Suevian 
 Ricimer, the commander of the foreign 
 mercenaries at Rome, attained such in- 
 fluence as to be able to set up and depose 
 emperors at his pleasure. The last of 
 the so-called Roman emperors was 
 
 Romulus Augustulus (475-476 a.d.). 
 His election had been secured through 
 the aid of the German troops in the pay 
 of Rome, and these demanded as a re- 
 ward a third part of the soil of Italy. 
 When this demand was refused, Odoacer, 
 one of the boldest of their leaders, de- 
 posed Romulus, to whom he allowed 
 a residence in Lower Italy with a pen- 
 sion, and assumed to himself the title 
 of King of Italy, thus putting an end to 
 the Western Roman empire, a.d. 476. 
 
 ROME, the capital of Italy, as for- 
 merly of the Roman empire, republic, 
 and kingdom, and long the religious 
 center of western Christendom, is one 
 of the most ancient and interesting 
 cities of the world. It stands on both 
 sides of the Tiber, about 15 miles from 
 the sea. The ancient city occupied a 
 series of eminences of small elevation 
 known as the seven hills of Rome (the 
 Capitoline, the Palatine, the Aventine, 
 the Quirinal, the Viminal, the Esquiline, 
 and the Cselian hill), while a small por- 
 tion stood on the other side of the river, 
 embracing an eighth hill (Janiculum). 
 The city is tolerably healthy during most 
 of the year, but in late summer and 
 early autumn malaria prevails to some 
 extent. 
 
 Ancient Rome was adorned with a 
 vast number of splendid buildings, in- 
 cluding temples, palaces, public halls, 
 theaters, ampitheaters, baths, porticoes, 
 monuments, etc., of many of which we 
 can now form only a very imperfect 
 idea. The oldest and most sacred temple 
 was that of Jupiter Capitolinus, on the 
 Capitoline Hill. The Pantheon, a temple 
 
 of various gods (now church of S. Maria 
 Rotonda), is still in excellent preserva- 
 tion. It is a great circular building with 
 a dome-roof of stone 140 feet wide and 
 140 feet high, a marvel of construction, 
 being 2 feet wider than the great dome 
 of St. Peter’s. The interior is lighted by a 
 single aperture in the center of the dome. 
 Other temples were the Temple of 
 
 Apollo, which Augustus built of white 
 marble, on the Palatine, containing a 
 splendid library, which served as a place 
 of resort to the poets; the Temple of 
 Minerva, which Pompey built in the 
 Campus Martius, and which Augustus 
 covCTed with bronze; the Temple of 
 
 Peace, once the richest and most beauti- 
 ful temple in Rome, built by Vespasian, 
 in the Via Sacra, which contained the 
 treasures of the temple of Jerusalem, a 
 splendid library, and other curiosities, 
 but was burned under the reign of Corn- 
 modus; the temple of the Sun, which 
 
 Aurelian erected to the east of the 
 Quirinal ; and the magnificent temple of 
 Venus, which Ceesar caused to be built 
 to her as the origin of his family. The 
 principal palace of ancient Rome was 
 the Palatium or imperial palace, on the 
 Palatine Hill, a private dwelling-house 
 enlarged and adopted as the imperial 
 residence by Augustus. Succeeding em- 
 perors extended and beautified it. Nero 
 built an immense palace which was 
 burned in the great fire. He began to 
 replace it by another of similar extent, 
 which was not completed till the reign 
 of Domitian. Among the theaters, those 
 of Pompey, Cornelius Balbus, and Mar- 
 cellus were the most celebrated. That 
 of Pompey, in the Campus Martius, was 
 capable of containing 40,000 persons. 
 Of the Theater of Marcellus, completed 
 B.c. 13 a portion still remains. The most 
 magnificent of the amphitheaters was 
 that of Titus, completed a.d. 80, now 
 known as the Coliseum or Colosseum. 
 Although only one-third of the gigantic 
 structure remains, the ruins are still 
 stupendous. The principal of the cir- 
 cuses was the Circus Maximus, between 
 the Palatine and Aventine, which was 
 capable of containing 260,000 spectators. 
 With slight exception its walls have 
 entirely disappeared, but its form is still 
 distinctly traceable. The porticoes or 
 colonnades, W'hich were public places 
 used for recreation or for the transaction 
 of business, were numerous in the an- 
 cient city, as were also the basilicas or 
 public halls. Among them may be 
 noticed the splendid Basilica Julia, com- 
 menced by Ccesar and completed by 
 Augustus ; and the Basilica Portia, which 
 was built by Cato the censor. The public 
 baths or thermae in Rome were also very 
 numerous. The largest were the Thermae 
 of Titus, part of the substructure of 
 which may still be seen on the Esquiline 
 Hill; the Thermae of Caracalla, even 
 larger, extensive remains of which still 
 
 exist in the southeast of the city; and 
 the Thermae of Diocletian, the largest 
 and most magnificent of all, part of 
 which is converted into a church. Of 
 the triumphal arches the most celebrated 
 are those of Titus (a.d. 81), Severus 
 (a.d, 203), and that of Constantine (a.d. 
 
 nEFEnENOES. 
 
 . Temple of Aureliuf- 
 :. Ami>l>ithe&tre. 
 
 V Hall of Neptune. 
 Ilium lod Si'rapinm. 
 Teniple of Miner>a. 
 
 , Temple of Ai-nilo. 
 
 Temple of Tr.ijan. 
 t Ua'ilica Ulpia. 
 t. Forum ofTrnjan. 
 
 . Furum uf .Aii|:ustui. 
 
 . Poruni of VcxpiKian. 
 
 Baiitm of ConsUotiDe. 
 
 1. Temple of Ron»e. 
 
 . tiouie of Nero. 
 
 : Home of D'lmitiao. 
 
 llouic of Augn^lui. 
 
 . Hall of Julia— Law Court. 
 >. Aiyluo). 
 
 • Capitol. 
 
 ; Thratrc of Maroellua. 
 
 !. 'Ilicatre of Pompoy. 
 
 I Dinbitnrmm. 
 
 It Septa Julia. 
 
 R^e.— St. Peter’s and the Vatican. 
 
ROME 
 
 ROME 
 
 311), all in or near the Forum and all 
 well-preserved structures; that of Drusus 
 (b.c. 8) in the Appian Way, much 
 mutilated ; that of Gallienus (a.d.262) on 
 the Esquiline Hill, in a degraded style 
 of architecture. Among the columns 
 the most beautiful was Trajan’s Pillar 
 in the Forum of Trajan, 117 feet in 
 height, still standing. The bas-reliefs 
 with which it is enriched, extending in 
 spiral fashion from base to summit, 
 represent the exploits of Trajan, and 
 contain about2500 half and whole human 
 figures. A flight of stairs within the 
 
 E illar leads to the top. The most cele- 
 rated of the ancient sewers is the 
 Cloaca Maxima, ascribed to Tarquinius 
 Priscus, a most substantial structure, 
 the outlet of which is still to be seen. 
 The Roman aqueducts were formed by 
 erecting one or several rows of arches 
 superimposed on each other across a 
 valley, and making the structure sup- 
 port a waterway or canal, and by pierc- 
 ing through hills which interrupted the 
 watercourse. Some of them brought 
 water from a distance of upward of 
 60 miles. Among others, the Acqua 
 Paola, the Acqua Trajana, and the 
 Acqua Marzia, still remain and con- 
 tribute to the supply of the city, and also 
 its numerous important ornamental 
 fountains. Among the magnificent 
 sepulchral monuments, the chief were 
 the mausoleum of Augustus in the Cam- 
 pus Martius ; and that of Hadrian, on the 
 west bank of the Tiber, now the fortress 
 of modern Rome, and known as the 
 Castle of St. Angelo. The city was also 
 rich in splendid private buildings, and 
 in the treasures of art, with which not 
 only the public places and streets, but 
 likewise the residences and gardens of 
 the principal citizens, were ornamented, 
 and of which comparatively few ves- 
 tiges have survived the ravages of time. 
 The catacombs of Rome are subterran- 
 ean galleries which were used as burial- 
 places and meeting-places, chiefly by 
 the early Christians, and which extend 
 under the city itself as well as the 
 neighboring country. The chief are 
 the catacombs of Calixtus, St. Praetexta- 
 tus on the Via Appia; of St. Priscilla 2 
 miles beyond the Porta Salora; of St. 
 Agnese, outside the Porta Pia; of S. 
 Sebastiano, beneath the church of that 
 name, etc. 
 
 Among the principal streets and 
 squares of modern Rome are the Piazza 
 del Popolo immediately within the 
 Porta del Popolo on the north side of the 
 city near the Tiber, with a fine Egyptian 
 obelisk in its center, and two handsome 
 churches in front, standing so far apart 
 from each other and from the adjoining 
 buildings as to leave room for the diverg- 
 ence of three principal streets, the Via di 
 Ripetta, the Corso, and the Via del 
 Babuino. The Corso, recently widened 
 and extended, stretches for upward of a 
 mile in a direct line to its termination at 
 the Piazza di Venezia, not far from the 
 Capitol, and is the finest street in the 
 city. The appearance of the capitol has 
 been entirely altered to pennit the 
 erection of a monument to Victor Em- 
 manuel. The Via del Babuino proceeds 
 first directly to the Piazza di Spagna, 
 thence to the Quirinal, and by a tunnel 
 opens out on the Esquiline. It contains 
 
 a large number of handsome edifices. 
 The whole of the city to the east of this 
 street, and in the triangular space in- 
 cluded between it and the Corso, is well 
 aired and healthy, and is regarded as the 
 aristocratic quarter. The Ghetto, or 
 Jews’ quarter, which occupied several 
 mean streets parallel to the river and 
 connected by narrow lanes, was cleared 
 away by the municipal improvements 
 in 1889. The city is supplied with good 
 water partly by the above-mentioned 
 aqueducts, which, constructed under the 
 greatest difficulties five-and-twenty cen- 
 turies ago, still serve the purpose for 
 which they were built, and remain monu- 
 ments of engineering skill. The chief 
 open spaces besides the Piazza del 
 Popolo are the Piazza S. Pietro, with its 
 extensive colonnade ; the Piazza Navona 
 adorned with two churches and three 
 fountains, one at each extremity and 
 the third in the center; the Piazza di 
 Spagna, adorned by a monumental pillar 
 and a magnificent staircase of travertine, 
 leading to the church of Trinity de’ 
 Monti, conspicuously seated on an 
 eminence above it; the Piazza Berberini, 
 beside the palace of the same name, 
 adorned by a beautiful fountain; the 
 Piazza Colonna, in the center of the city, 
 with column of Marcus Aurelius; near it, 
 in the Piazza di Monte Citorio, is the 
 spacious Chamber of Deputies. Larger 
 spaces for amusement or exercise have 
 been formed only in a few spots. One 
 of the finest is the Pincio, or “hill of 
 gardens,’’ overlooking the Piazza del 
 Popolo, and commanding a fine view. 
 It is a fashionable drive toward evening, 
 and presents a gay and animated ap- 
 pearance. At a short distance outside 
 the walls on the north of the city is the 
 Villa Borghese, forming a finely-planted 
 and richly-decorated park of 3 miles in 
 circuit, which, though private property, 
 forms the true public park of Rome, and 
 is the favorite resort of all classes. Vari- 
 ous localities in and near Rome that 
 were malarious have been rendered 
 healthy by planting eucalyptus trees. 
 
 The most remarkable of the churches 
 is of course the cathedral of St. Peter, the 
 largest and most imposing to be found 
 anywhere, for the history and descrip- 
 tion of which see Peter’s (St.). Another 
 remarkable church is that of San Gio- 
 vanni in Laterano, on an isolated spot 
 near the south wall of the city. It was 
 built by Constantine the Great, de- 
 stroyed by an earthquake in 896, 
 re-erected (904-911), burned in 1308, 
 restored and decorated by Giotto. Again 
 burned in 1360, rebuilt by Urban IV. 
 and Gregory XI., and has undergone var- 
 ious alterations and additions from 
 1430 till the present facade was erected 
 in 1734. A modern extension has in- 
 volved the destruction of the ancient 
 apse. From the central balcony the 
 pope pronounces his benediction on 
 Ascension-day; and the church is the 
 scene of the councils which bear its 
 name. The residence of the popes ad- 
 joined this church until the migration to 
 Avignon; it is now occupied by the 
 Gregorian museum of the Lateran. 
 Santa Maria Maggiore, which ranks 
 third among the basilicas, was founded 
 by Pop® Liberius (352-366), but has 
 since had many alterations and addi- 
 
 tions, the more notable being those of 
 the 15th and 16th centuries. Its interior, 
 adorned with thirty-six Ionic pillars of 
 white marble supporting the nave, and 
 enriched with mosaics, is well preserved 
 and one of the finest of its class. Santa 
 Croce in Gerusalemme, the fourth of the 
 Roman basilicas, takes its name from its 
 supposed possession of a portion of the 
 true cross, and a quantity of earth which 
 was brought from Jerusalem and mixed 
 with its foundation. Another church is 
 that of San Clemente, on the Esquiline, 
 a very ancient church, said to have been 
 founded on the house of Clement, St. 
 Paul’s fellow-laborer, by Constantine, 
 and containing a number of interesting 
 frescoes by Masaccio. It consists of a 
 lower and an upper church, and from an 
 archseological point of view is one of the 
 most interesting. Qthers are II Gesu, 
 on the Corso, the principal church of the 
 Jesuits, with a facade and cupola by 
 Giacomo della Porta (1577), and an in- 
 terior enriched with the rarest marbles 
 and several fine paintings, decorated in 
 the most gorgeous style, and containing 
 the monument of Cardinal Bellarmine; 
 Sta. Maria-degli-Angeli, originally a 
 part of Diocletian’s Baths, converted 
 into a church by Michael Angelo, one of 
 the most imposing which Rome possesses 
 and containing an altar-piece by Mu- 
 ziano, a fine fresco by Domenichino, and 
 the tomb of Salvator Rosa; Sta. Maria 
 in Ara Coeli, on the Capitoline, a very 
 ancient church approached by a very 
 long flight of stairs, remarkable for its 
 architecture and for containing the 
 figure of the infant Christ called the 
 santissimo bambino; Sta. Maria in 
 Cosmedin, at the northern base of the 
 Aventine, remarkable for its fine Alex- 
 andrine pavement and its lofty and 
 beautiful campanile of the 8th century; 
 Sta. Maria sopra Minerva, so called from 
 occupying the site of a temple of that 
 goddess, begun in 1285 and restored 
 1848-55, remarkable as the only Gothic 
 church in Rome; and Sta. Maria in Do- 
 minica or della Navicella, on the Cselian, 
 remarkable for eighteen fine columns of 
 granite and two of porphyry, and the 
 frieze of the nave painted in camaieu by 
 Giulio Romano and Perino del Vaga. 
 Among other notable churches are Sta. 
 Maria della Pace, celebrated for its 
 paintings, particularly the four Sibyls, 
 considered among the most perfect 
 works of Raphael; Sta. Maria del Popolo, 
 interesting from the number of its fine 
 sculptures and paintings (Jonah by 
 Raphael, ceiling frescoes by Pinturicchio 
 and mosaics from Raphael’s cartoons by 
 Aloisio della Pace) ; Sta. Maria in Tras- 
 tevere, a very ancient church, first 
 mentioned in 449, re-erected by Inno- 
 cent III. in 1140, and recently restored; 
 San Paolo fuori le Mura, erected to mark 
 the place of St. Paul’s martyrdom, 
 founded in 388, and restored and em- 
 bellished by many of the popes, burned 
 in 1823, and since rebuilt with much 
 splendor. It is of great size, and has 
 double aisles and transepts borne by 
 columns of granite. Above the columns 
 of the nave, aisles, and transepts there is 
 a continuous frieze enriched by circular 
 pictures in mosiac, being portraits of • 
 the popes from St. Peter onward, each 
 5 feet in diameter. Between the win- 
 
HOME 
 
 ROOSEVELT 
 
 dows in the upper part of the nave 
 are large modern pictures representing 
 scenes from the life of St. Paul. 
 
 The Vatican, adjoining St. Peter’s, 
 comprises the old and new palace of 
 the popes (the latter now the ordinary 
 papal residence^;, the sistine chapel, the 
 Loggie and Stanze, containing some of 
 the most important works of Raphael, 
 the picture-gallery, the museums (Pio- 
 Clementino, Chiaramonti, Etruscan and 
 Egyptian), and the library (220,000 
 vols. and over 25,000 MSS.). The 
 palace on the Quirinal was formerly a 
 favorite summer residence of the popes, 
 but is now occupied by the King of 
 Italy. Among the other palaces are 
 the Palazzo della Cancelleria, the Sena- 
 torial Palace in which the senate holds 
 its meetings, the Palazzo Barberini, 
 Borghese, Colonna, Corsini Farnese, 
 etc., etc. 
 
 Associations and institutions con- 
 nected with art, science, or learning are 
 numerous; one of them, the Accademia 
 de’ Lincei, founded in 1603 by Galileo 
 and his contemporaries, is the earliest 
 scientific society of Italy. Besides the 
 Vatican library mentioned above, the 
 chief are the Vittorio Emanuelo, 500,000 
 vols.; Biblioteca Casanatense, 200,000 
 vols.; the Biblioteca Angelica, 150,000 
 vols.; the Biblioteca Barberini, 100,000 
 vols., and over 10,000 MSS., etc. For 
 elementary education much has been 
 done since the papal rule came to an 
 end. Hospitals and other charitable 
 foundations are numerous. The prin- 
 cipal hospital, called Spirito Santo, a 
 richly-endowed institution situated on 
 the right bank of the Tiber, combines a 
 foundling hospital (with accommodation 
 for 3000), a lunatic asylum (accommo- 
 dation for 500), an ordinary infirmary 
 (accommodation for 1000), and a refuge 
 for girls and aged and infirm persons. 
 The chief theaters are the Teatro Apollo, 
 Teatro Argentina, Teatro Valle, the Ca- 
 pranica, Metastasio, Rossini, Costanzi, 
 etc. 
 
 The external trade is unimportant, 
 and is carried on chiefly by rail, the 
 Tiber being navigated only by small 
 craft. There are railway lines connecting 
 with the general system of Italy; and 
 steamers run from Civita Vecchia and 
 Fiumicino to Naples, Leghorn, Genoa, 
 etc. For local passenger traffic there are 
 now horse and electric tramways. A 
 ship canal is projected to connect the 
 city with the sea. The chief manufac- 
 tures are woolen and silk goods, artificial 
 flowers, earthenware, jewelry, musical 
 strings, mosaics, casts, and various ob- 
 jects of art. The trade Is chiefly in these 
 articles, and in olive-oil, pictures, and 
 antiquities. Pop. 490,620. 
 
 ROME, a city in Oneida co.. New 
 York, on the Mohawk river, 109 miles 
 w.n.w. of Albany ; has considerable man- 
 ufactures of machinery, iron, and 
 builders’ wood-work, and a large trade 
 in dairy produce. Pop. 15,343. 
 
 ROM'ULUS was the mythical founder 
 and first king of Rome. His mother was 
 the Vestal virgin, Sylvia or Ilia, a 
 daughter of Numitor, king of Alba. By 
 the god Mar^ she became the mother of 
 the twins Romulus and Remus, who 
 were ordered by Amulius, the usurping 
 brother of Numitor, to be thrown into 
 
 the Anio. The basket containing the two 
 boys was stranded beneath a fig-tree at 
 the foot of the Palatine Hill, and they 
 were suckled by a she-wolf and fed by 
 a woodpecker, until they were accident- 
 ally found by Faustulus, the king’s 
 herdsman, who took them home and 
 educated them. When they had grown 
 up they organized a band of enterprising 
 comrades, by whose help they deposed 
 Amulius and reinstated Numitor on his 
 throne. They next resolved to found a 
 city, but as they disagreed as to the best 
 site for it, they resolved to consult the 
 omens. 'The decision was in favor of 
 Romulus, who immediately began to 
 raise the walls. This is said to have 
 happened in the year 753 (according to 
 others 752 or 751) b.c. Remus, who 
 resented his defeat, leaped over the rude 
 rampart in scorn, whereupon Romulus 
 slew him. Romulus soon attracted a con- 
 siderable number of men to his new city 
 by making it a place of refuge for every 
 outlaw or broken man, but women were 
 still wanting. He therefore invited the 
 Sabines with their wives and daughters 
 to a religious festival, and in the midst 
 of the festivities he and his followers 
 suddenly attacked the unarmed guests, 
 and carried off the women to the new 
 city. This led to a war, which was, how- 
 ever, ended at the entreaties of the 
 Sabine wives, and the two states 
 coalesced. Romulus is said finally to 
 have miraculously disappeared in a 
 thunderstorm (b.c.716). 
 
 RONDO (Italian), or RONDEAU 
 (French), a poem of thirteen lines, 
 usually octosyllabic, written throughout 
 on two rhymes and arranged in three 
 unequal stanzas; while the two or three 
 first words are repeated as a refrain after 
 the eighth and thirteenth lines. The 
 term is also applied to a musical com- 
 position, vocal or instrumental, gen- 
 erally consisting of three strains, the 
 first of which closes in the original key, 
 while each of the others is so constructed 
 in point of modulation as to reconduct 
 the ear in an easy and natural manner to 
 the first strain. 
 
 ROOD, a measure of surface, the 
 fourth part of an acre, equal to 40 square 
 poles or perches, or to 1210 square yards. 
 
 ROOF, the cover of any building, irre- 
 spective of the materials of which it is 
 composed. Roofs are distinguished, Ist, 
 
 Oftble Root 
 
 by the materials of which they are 
 mainly formed, as stone, wood, slate, 
 tile, thatch, iron, etc. ; 2d, by their form 
 
 Hiproof. Conical roof. Ogee roof. 
 
 and mode of construction as shed, curb, 
 hip, gable, pavilion, ogee, and flat roofs. 
 The span of a roof is the width between 
 the supports ; the rise is the height in the 
 center above the level of the supports; 
 
 the pitch is the slope or angle at which 
 it is inclined. In carpentry roof signifies 
 the timber framework by which the 
 roofing materials of the building are 
 
 Curb roof. M-roof. 
 
 supported. This consists in general of 
 the principal rafters, the purlins, and 
 the common rafters. The principal 
 rafters, or principals, are set across the 
 
 o, King-post, cc. Struts or braces, ee. Backs 
 or principal rafters, gg. Wall-plates, b. Tie- 
 beam. dd. Purlins, fj. Common rafters. A, 
 Ridge-piece. 
 
 building at about 10 or 12 feet apart] 
 the purlins lie horizontally upon these, 
 and sustain the common rafters, which 
 carry the covering of the roof. Some- 
 
 ag. Queen-posts, cc. Struts or braces, e, 
 Strainmg-beam. gg. Wall-plates, b. Tie-beam. 
 dd. Purlins, ff. Common rafters, h, Ridge- 
 piece. 
 
 times, when the width of the building is 
 not great, common rafters are used alone 
 to support the roof. 
 
 ROOK, a bird of the crow family, 
 differing from the crow in not feeding 
 upon carrion,, but on insects and grain. 
 It is also specially distinguished by its 
 gregarious habits, and by the fact that 
 the base of the bill is naked, as well as 
 the forehead and upper part of the 
 throat. In Britain and Central Europe 
 the rook is a permanent resident; but 
 in the north and south it is migratory 
 in habits. 
 
 ROOSEVELT, Theodore, the twenty- 
 sixth president of the United States, was 
 born in New York City in 1858. He was 
 elected to the New York assembly in 
 1881, and allied himself with the repub- 
 lican minority. He was a delegate to the 
 republican national convention of 1884. 
 In 1886 he was the republican candidate 
 for mayor of New York City. From 
 1889 to 1895 he was a member of the 
 United States civil service commission, 
 being appointed by President Harrison 
 and retained by President Cleveland. 
 In 1895 he became president of the police 
 board in New York City and served for 
 two years. President McKinley in 1897 
 appointed him assistant secretary of 
 the navy, and his work was of value in 
 hurrying the navy to readiness for the 
 
 Shed Roof 
 
ROOT 
 
 ROSE 
 
 war with Spain. He resigned from the 
 department in April, 1898, and was 
 active in organizing the First United 
 States Volunteer Cavalry, popularly 
 known as “Roosevelt’s Rough Riders.’’ 
 He was first lieutenant-colonel and 
 afterward colonel, being promoted for 
 gallantry in the action at Las Guasimas, 
 Cuba. 
 
 He was elected in 1898 governor of 
 New York. He was nominated for vice- 
 president in 1900, and was elected in 
 November of the same year. On Sep- 
 tember 14, 1901, at the death of Mc- 
 Kinley, Roosevelt became his successor. 
 He was nominated in 1904 for the presi- 
 
 dency and was elected over Parker, his 
 democratic opponent, by a plurality of 
 2,549,331, and a majority over all of 
 1,761,998. The vote in the electoral 
 college was Roosevelt 336, Parker 140. 
 This was the largest popular majority 
 ever given a presidential candidate. 
 Upon his election Roosevelt declared 
 he would not accept a renomination and 
 held to that determination despite the 
 pressure upon him by his friends. His 
 administration was marked by the real 
 beginning of the Panama canal, his 
 vigorous opposition to trusts and his 
 attempts to reconcile capital and labor. 
 Upon his retirement in 1909, he left for 
 a hunting trip in Africa. 
 
 Mr. Roosevelt is the author of the 
 following works: The Naval War of 
 1812, Life of Thomas Hart Benton and 
 Life of Gouverneur Morris, Ranch Life 
 and Hunting Trail, History of New York 
 City, The Winning of the West, 4 vols.; 
 Essays on Practical Politics, The Wilder- 
 ness Hunter, American Political Ideals, 
 Tlie Rough Riders, Life of Oliver Crom- 
 well, The Strenuous Life. 
 
 ROOT, Elihu, an American lawyer, 
 was born at Clinton, N. Y., in 1845. 
 He began to practice law in 1867, was 
 especially successful as a corporation 
 law'yer, and was counsel for the sugar 
 trust, for New York street railways, and 
 for various railroad companies. From 
 1883 to 1885 he was United States dis- 
 trict attorney in New York City. In 
 1899 he was appointed secretary of war 
 to succeed Russell A. Alger. He con- 
 tinued in office during McKinley’s 
 second administration and under Presi- 
 dent Roosevelt until the summer of 
 1903, when he resigned and was suc- 
 ceeded by William H. Taft. He was 
 a member of the Alaskan boundary 
 dispute in 1903, and in 1905 was up- 
 
 oointed by -President Roosevelt secrc 
 tary of state. 
 
 ROOT, George Frederick, musician, 
 was born in Sheffield, Mass., August 30, 
 1820. He was self-taught in the art, 
 and in his eighteenth year he went to 
 Boston to become a teacher of music. 
 In 1844 he removed to New York; he 
 taught there for a while, and in 1850 
 he went to Paris to study. In 1859 he 
 became a member of the Chicago music 
 house of Root and Cady. Many of 
 his songs have achieved great popularity 
 particularly his war songs, among which 
 are Battle Cry of Freedom, Tramp, 
 Tramp, Tramp, Just Before the Battle, 
 Mother, lie died in 1905. 
 
 ROPE, a general name applied to 
 cordage over 1 inch in circumference. 
 Ropes are usually made of hemp, flax, 
 cotton, coir, or other vegetable fiber, or 
 of iron, steel, or other metallic wire. A 
 hempen rope is composed of a certain 
 number of yarns or threads which are 
 first spun or twisted into strands, and 
 the finished rope goes under special 
 names according to the number and 
 arrangement of the strands of which it is 
 composed. A hawser-laid rope is com- 
 posed of three strands twisted left-hand, 
 the yarn being laid up right-hand. A 
 cable-laid rope consists of three strands 
 of hawser-laid rope twisted right-hand; 
 it is called also water-laid, or right-hand 
 rope. A shroud-laid rope consists of a 
 central strand slightly twisted, and three 
 strands twisted around it, and is thus 
 called also four-strand rope. A flat rope 
 
 Splices of ropes. 
 
 a. Short splice. 6, Long splice, c, Eye splice. 
 
 usually consists of a series of hawser- 
 laid ropes placed side by side and fas- 
 tened together by sewing in a zigzag 
 direction. Wire ropes are made of a cer- 
 tain number of wires twisted into the 
 requisite number of strands, and are 
 now extensively used in the rigging of 
 ships as well as for cables. For greater 
 flexibility hempen cores are used; thus 
 for instance we may have a rope of six 
 strands around a hempen core, each 
 strand consisting of six wires around a 
 smaller hempen core. Steel-wire makes 
 a considerably stronger rope than iron 
 wire. Coir ropes are much used on board 
 ships, as, though not so strong as hemp, 
 they are not injured by the salt water. 
 
 RORQUAL, the name given to certain 
 whales, closely allied to the common 
 
 or whalebone ■whales, but distinguished 
 by having a dorsal fin, with the throat 
 
 and under parts wrinkled with deep 
 longitudinal folds, which are supposed 
 to be susceptible of great dilatation, but 
 the use of which is as yet unknown. 
 Two or three species are known, but 
 they are rather avoided on account of 
 their ferocity, the shortness and coarse- 
 ness of their baleen or whalebone, and 
 the small quantity of oil they produce. 
 The northern rorqual attains a great 
 size, being found from 80 to over ICc 
 feet in length, and is thus the largest 
 living animal known. The rorqual feeds 
 on cod, herring, pilchards, and other 
 fish, in pursuing which it is not seldom 
 stranded on the British shores. 
 
 ROSA'CE.®, a large and important 
 order of plants, of which the rose is the 
 type, distinguished by having several 
 petals, distinct, perigynous, separate 
 carpels, numerous stamens, alternate 
 leaves, and an exogenous mode of 
 growth. The species, including herbs, 
 shrubs, and trees, are for the most part 
 inhabitants of the cooler parts of the 
 world. Scarcely any are annuals. The 
 apple, pear, plum, cherry, peach, al- 
 mond, nectarine, apricot, straw'berry, 
 raspberry, and similar fruits, are the 
 produce of the order. Some of the species 
 are also important as medicinal plants. 
 
 ROSA'RIO, a town of the Argentine 
 Republic, in the province of Santa Fe, 
 on the right bank of the Parand, 170 
 miles northwest of Buenos Ayres. Pop. 
 93,584. 
 
 RO'SARY, among Roman Catholics 
 the recitation of the Ave Maria and the 
 Lord’s Prayer a certain number of times. 
 The name is also commonly given to the 
 string of beads by means of which the 
 prayers are counted. The complete or 
 Dominican rosary consists of 150 small 
 beads for the Aves, divided into groups 
 of 10 by 15 large beads for the Pater- 
 nosters. The ordinary rosary has only 
 50 small beads and 5 large beads; but if 
 repeated thrice makes up the full rosary., 
 A doxology is said after every tenth Ave. 
 The use of rosaries was probably in- 
 troduced by the Crusaders from the 
 East, for both Mohammedans and 
 Buddhists make use of strings of beads 
 while repeating their prayers; but St. 
 Dominic is usually regarded as the 
 inventor in the Roman church. 
 
 ROSCOM'MON, an inland county of 
 Ireland, in the east of the province of 
 Connaught, has an area of 607,691 
 acres, of which 480,813 are productive. 
 The chief towns are Roscommon, Boyle, 
 and Castlerea. The cotinty sends two 
 members to parliament. Pop. 101,639. 
 
 ROSE, the beautiful and fragrant 
 flower which has given name to the 
 largest natural order Rosacese, seems to 
 be confined to the cooler parts of the 
 northern hemisphere. The species are 
 numerous, and are extremely difficult to 
 distinguish. They are prickly shrubs, 
 with pinnate leaves, provided with 
 stipules at their base; the flowers are 
 very large and showy; the calyx con- 
 tracts toward the top, where it divides 
 into five lanceolate segments; the corolla 
 has five petals, and the stamens are 
 numerous; the seeds are numerous, 
 covered with a sort of down, and are 
 attached to the interior of the tube of 
 the calyx, which, after flowering, takes 
 the form of a fleshy globular or ovoid 
 

 ROSEBERY 
 
 ROSS 
 
 ' berry. The rose is easily cultivated and 
 its varieties are almost endless. 
 
 ROSEBERY, Archibald Philip Prim- 
 rose, Earl of, born in 1847, was educated 
 at Eton and Oxford, and succeeded his 
 ’ grandfather in 1868. In 1892-94 he was 
 secretary for foreign affairs under Mr. 
 ■ Gladstone, and in 1894-95 he was him- 
 self Prime Minister. He has advocated 
 the reform of the House of Lords, and is 
 much interested in the questions of iin- 
 perial federation and the social condi- 
 tion of the masses. In 1878 he married 
 Hannah, daughter of Baron Mayer de 
 Rothschild, but lost his wife in 1890. 
 He is author of works on Pitt and on 
 Napoleon. 
 
 ROSECRANS (ro'ze-krSnz), William 
 Starke, American general, was born at 
 Kingston, Ohio, in 1819. He graduated 
 at West Point in 1842. In June, 1861, he 
 was appointed colonel of the twenty- 
 third Ohio. He took part in General 
 McClellan’s West Virginia campaign 
 and won the battle of Rich mountain. 
 I Shortly afterward he was put in com- 
 mand of the federal forces in western 
 ! Virginia. In 1862 he commanded the 
 right wing of the army of the Mississippi 
 in the advance on Corinth, fought the 
 ; battle of luka, and successfully defended 
 ‘ Corinth against Generals Van Dorn and 
 I Price, and relieved General Buell as 
 t commander of the army of the Cumber- 
 jf land. He defeated General Bragg in the 
 
 W. S. Rosecrans. 
 
 battle of Murfreesboro, or Stoneriver. 
 In 1864 he moved into East Tennessee, 
 and was defeated by Bragg in the battle 
 of Chickamauga. Rosecrans was suc- 
 ceeded by Thomas, and after a short 
 period of service in charge of the depart- 
 ment of Missouri he was relieved of all 
 command. At the close of the war he 
 resigned from the army; in 1868 he 
 served as minister to Mexico. He was 
 elected to congress in 1880 and again in 
 1882, as a democrat. . From 1885 to 
 1893 he was register of the United 
 States treasury. In 1889 congress passed 
 an act restoring him to the rank and 
 pay of a brigadier-general. He died in 
 1898. 
 
 ROSE-CHAFER, or ROSE-BEETLE, 
 
 a beetle which frequents roses, feeding 
 on the honey they contain. The rose- 
 chafer or rose-bug of the United States is 
 destructive to roses and other plants. 
 
 ROSEMARY, a shrubby aromatic 
 plant, a native of S. Europe. It has but 
 two stamens; the leaves dark green, with 
 a white under surface; the flowers are 
 pale blue. At one time of considerable 
 repute for medicinal purposes, rosemary 
 is now esteemed chiefly for yielding, 
 by distillation, the aromatic perfume 
 known as oil of rosemary. 
 
 ROSE OF JERICHO, a small crucifer- 
 ous plant,, growing in the arid wastes 
 of Arabia and Palestine. When full 
 
 grown and ripe its leaves drop and it 
 becomes rolled up like a ball in the dry 
 season, but opens its branches and seed- 
 vessels when it comes in contact with 
 
 Rose of Jericho. 
 
 1, The plant. 2, The plant in a dry state. 3, The 
 same expanded after being put in water. 
 
 moisture. The generic name has been 
 applied to it from this circumstance, 
 and in Greek signifies resurrection. 
 
 ROSES, Wars of the, the fierce strug- 
 gle for the crown of England between 
 the Lancastrians (who chose the red rose 
 as their emblem) and the Yorkists (who 
 chose the white) ; it lasted with short 
 intervals of peace for thirty years (1455- 
 85), beginning with the battle of St. 
 Albans and ending with Bosworth Field. 
 
 ROSETTA-STONE, a tablet of black 
 basalt, bearing an inscription in three 
 versions (hieroglyphic, enchorial, and 
 Greek) in honor of Ptolemy Epiphanes 
 and belonging to about 196 b.c. It fur- 
 nished the key for the deciphering of 
 the hieroglyphic inscriptions. The stone, 
 discovered by the French near Rosetta 
 in 1799, is now in the British museum. 
 See Hieroglyphics. 
 
 ROSE- WINDOW, a circular window, 
 divided into compartments by mullions 
 and tracery radiating from a center, also 
 called Catharine-wheel, and marigold- 
 window, according to modifications of 
 the design. It forms a fine feature in the 
 church architecture of the 13th and 14th 
 
 Rose-window, St. David’s. 
 
 centuries, and is mostly employed in the 
 triangular spaces of gables. In France it 
 is much used, and, notwithstanding 
 difficulties of construction, attained 
 great size. Some examples, as that at 
 Rheims cathedral, are over 40 feet in 
 cli^m 6^01* 
 
 ROSEWOOD, a wood so named be- 
 cause some kinds of it when freshly cut 
 have a faint smell of roses. Most rose- 
 wood comes from Brazil, but it is also 
 found in Honduras and Jamaica. The 
 
 name is sometimes given to timber from 
 other sources; but the French Bois de 
 Rose (the German Rosenholz) is called 
 tulip-wood in English. 
 
 ROSICRUCIANS, members of a secret 
 society, the first account of which was 
 published early in the 17th century in 
 two books now generally ascribed to 
 J. V. Andrese, a Lutheran clergyman of 
 Wurttemberg. Many regard Andress’s 
 writings as merely a veiled satire on his 
 own times, and deny altogether the 
 actual existence of any such society, 
 in spite of the fact that since his day 
 many persons (e.g. Cagliostro) have pro- 
 fessed to belong to it. The aim of the 
 Rosicrucians, or Brothers of the Rosy 
 Cross, was said to be the improvement 
 of humanity by the discovery of the 
 “true philosophy,’’ and they claimed a 
 deep knowledge of the mysteries of 
 nature, such as the pennutation of 
 metals, the prolongation of life, the 
 existence of spirits, etc. According to 
 Andre® the society was founded in the 
 14th century by a Gennan baron named 
 Rosenkreuz (i.e. “rosy cross’’), who. was 
 deeply \mrsed in the mysterious lore of 
 the East, and who assembled the in- 
 itiated in a house called the Sancti 
 Spiritus Domus. The “secret” of the 
 order, if it ever existed, has been faith- 
 fully guarded by its members; and the 
 general cloud of mystery shrouding its 
 history and objects has led to its being- 
 connected in public opinion with the 
 Cabalists, Illuminati, etc. Some regard 
 Rosicrucianism as the origin of free- 
 masonry. 
 
 ROSIN, the name given to the resin of 
 coniferous trees employed in a solid state 
 for ordinary purposes. It is obtained 
 from turpentine by distillation. In the 
 process the oil of the turpentine comes 
 over and the rosin remains behind. There 
 are several varieties of rosin, varying in 
 color from the palest amber to nearly 
 black, and from translucent to opaque. 
 It differs somewhat according to the 
 turpentine from which it is derived, this 
 being obtained from numerous species 
 of pine and fir. Rosin is a brittle solid, 
 almost flavorless, and having a char- 
 acteristic odor. It is used in the manu- 
 facture of sealing-wax, varnish, cement, 
 soap, for soldering, in plaisters, etc. 
 Colophony is a name for the common 
 varieties. 
 
 ROSS, Alexander, born in Nairnshire, 
 Scotland, 1783 ; died at Red River settle- 
 ment (Winnipeg), 1856. He went to 
 Canada in 1805; joined Astor’s expedi- 
 tion to Oregon in 1810, and was after- 
 ward a fur-trader in the Hudson’s bay 
 service. He is the author of Adventures 
 of the First Settlers on the Oregon, Fur 
 Hunters of the Far West, and the Red 
 River Settlement. 
 
 ROSS, Edward Alsworth, American 
 economist and sociologist, born in 1866 
 in Virden, 111. He was professor at 
 Leland Stanford university from 1893 
 to 1900, first of economics and then of 
 sociology. He resigned in 1900 under 
 pressure and this action aroused con- 
 siderable excitement over the right of 
 academic free speech. Afterward he was 
 appointed professor of sociology in the 
 University of Nebraska. His publica- 
 tions include: Sinking Funds, Honest 
 Dollars, a free-silver pamphlet, and 
 
ROSS 
 
 ROTHSCHILD 
 
 ''i*y 
 
 Social Control, a Survey of the Founda- 
 tion of Order. 
 
 ROSS, Sir James Clark, Arctic and 
 Antarctic explorer, was born in London 
 in 1800; died in 1862. He commanded 
 the expedition in the Erebus and Terror 
 to the Antarctic ocean in 1839-43 and 
 on his return published a narrative of 
 that voyage, which has contributed 
 largely to geographical and scientific 
 knowledge generally. Captain Ross was 
 knighted for his services, and received 
 numerous other honors. In 1848 he 
 made a voyage in the Enterprise to 
 Baffin’s bay in search of Sir John Frank- 
 lin. 
 
 ROSS, Sir John, Arctic navigator, born 
 in 1777, died in 1856, was the fourth son 
 of the Rev. Andrew Ross, minister of 
 Inch, Wigtownshire. His main ex- 
 pedition, in the steamer Victory, was 
 equipped by Sir Felix Booth, and set 
 out in May, 1829. Ross entered Prince 
 Regent’s Inlet, and discovered and 
 named Boothia Felix and King Will- 
 iam’s Land. In 1832 he was forced to 
 abandon his ships, and he and his crew 
 suffered great hardships before they 
 were picked up in August, 1833, by his 
 old ship the Isabella. In 1834 Captain 
 Ross was knighted, and in the following 
 year published a narrative of his second 
 voyage. In 1850 he made a last Arctic 
 voyage in the Felix, in a vain endeavor 
 to ascertain the fate of Sir John Frank- 
 lin. He became a rear-admiral in 1851. 
 
 ROSS AND CROMARTY, formerly two 
 separate counties of Scotland, now 
 united into one. The latter consisted 
 merely of detached portions scattered 
 over the former. The county extends 
 across the breadth of Scotland from the 
 North sea to the Atlantic, between the 
 counties of Inverness and Sutherland, 
 and includes the island of Lewis and 
 other islands. Area of the whole, 2,003,- 
 065 acres, of which 220,586 belong to 
 Cromarty. Principal towns: Dingwall 
 (the county town), Stornoway, Cro- 
 marty, Invergordon, Tain, and Fort- 
 rose. Pop. 76,149. 
 
 ROSSE, William Parsons, third earl 
 of, was born at York in 1800, died 1867. 
 In 1827 he constructed a telescope, the 
 speculum of which had a diameter of 3 
 feet, and the success and scientific value 
 of this instrument induced him to 
 attempt to cast a speculum twice as 
 large. After innumerable difficulties, 
 for every step had to be pioneered by 
 experiment, and after many failures. 
 Lord Rosse succeeded in 1845 in per- 
 fecting machinery which turned out the 
 huge speculum, weighing 3 tons, without 
 warp or flaw. It was then mounted in 
 his park at Parsonstown, on a telescope 
 54 feet in length with a tube 7 feet in 
 diameter. A series of cranks, swivels, 
 and pulleys enables this huge instru- 
 ment to be handled almost with as much 
 ease as telescopes of ordinary size. The 
 sphere of observation was immensely 
 widened by Lord Rosse’s instrument, 
 which has been chiefly used in observa- 
 tions of nebulte. 
 
 ROSSETTI, Gabriel Charles Dante, 
 better known as Dante Gabriel, painter 
 and poet, was born in London in 1828, 
 and died in 1882. In 1849 he exhib- 
 ited his painting of the Girlhood of Mary, 
 Virgin; but his later works, numerous 
 
 as they were, were rarely seen by the 
 public until the posthumous exhibition 
 of a collection of his paintings in 1883 
 at the Royal Academy. Rossetti is even 
 more famous as a poet; and his poems 
 are characterized by the same vivid 
 imagination, mystic beauty, and sensu- 
 ous coloring as his paintings. In both 
 arts he appears as a devotee of mediaeval- 
 ism. His chief poems are the House of 
 Life, a poem in 101 sonnets; the King’s 
 Tragedy and other Ballads, Dante at 
 Verona, Blessed Damozel, etc. His wife 
 died in 1862, two years after marriage, 
 and from this grief he never entirely 
 recovered. — His sister, Christina Geor- 
 gina (b. 1830, d. 1894), was a poetess of 
 high merit. Her chief works are: 
 Goblin Market and other Poems (1862), 
 The Prince’s Progress and other Poems 
 (1866), The Pageant and other Poems 
 (1881), besides prose stories, books for 
 children, and several devotional works 
 in prose and poetry. 
 
 ROSSI'NI, Gioachino Antonio, Italian 
 operatic composer, was born at Pesaro, 
 February 29, 1792; died November 13, 
 1868. He is specially considered to be a 
 master of melody. His finest opera is 
 William Tell (1829). Other chief works 
 are: Othello (1816), Moses in Egypt 
 (1818), and Semiramide (1823); and the 
 comic operas, the Barber of Seville 
 (1816) and La Cenerentola (1817). He 
 also composed a Stabat Mater (1842), a 
 Missa Solennis (first performed 1869), 
 and various cantatas, oratorios, and 
 pianoforte pieces. 
 
 ROSTAND (ro'stan'), Edmond, French 
 dramatist, was born in Marseilles in 
 1868. His first drama Les Romanesques 
 was a success and was followed by La 
 Princesse Lointaine and La Samaritaine. 
 In 1897 his Cyrano de Bergerac was a 
 success on two continents and in 1900 
 his historical drama L’Aiglon having 
 for its central figure the unhappy Duke 
 of Reichstadt “Napoleon IP’ added 
 greatly to his reputation. Rostand was 
 elected a member of the French academy 
 in 1901. 
 
 ROSTOV, or ROSTOF, a town of 
 Southern Russia, in the province of the 
 Don Cossacks, on the Don, about 20 
 miles above its mouth in the Sea of Azof. 
 Pop. 150,000. 
 
 ROT, a disease incident to sheep 
 (sometimes to other animals), and 
 caused by the presence in the gall- 
 bladder and biliary ducts of the common 
 liver-fluke, developed from germs swal- 
 lowed by the sheep with their food. The 
 average length of the mature fluke is 
 about 1 inch. Within the liver of a single 
 sheep several dozen of these parasites 
 may sometimes be found. The disease is 
 promoted by a humid state of atmos- 
 phere, soil, or herbage. It has different 
 degrees of rapidity, but is almost in- 
 variably fatal. 
 
 ROTATION, in physics, is the motion 
 of a body about an axis, so that every 
 point in the body describes a circular 
 orbit, the center of which lies in the- axis. 
 It is thus distinguished from revolution, 
 or the progressive motion of a body re- 
 volving round another body or external 
 point. If a point, which is not the center 
 of gravity, be taken in a solid body, 
 all the axes which pass through that 
 point will have different moments of 
 
 inertia, and there must exist one in * 
 which the moment is a maximiun, and 
 another in which it is a minimum. Those 
 are called the principal axes of rotation. ; 
 When a solid body revolves round an i 
 axis its different particles move with a 
 velocity proportional to their respective 
 distances from the axis, and the velocity 
 of the particle whose distance from the 
 axis is unity is the angular velocity of 
 rotation. 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS, in agriculture 
 and horticulture, is the system or prac- 
 tice of growing a recurring series of 
 different annual crops upon the same 
 piece of land. The system is based on 
 the fact that different crops absorb dif- 
 ferent quantities of the various inor- r 
 ganic constituents of the soil, thus im- 
 poverishing it for crops of the same 
 kind, but leaving it unimpaired, or even 
 improved, for crops feeding upon other 
 constituents. Different soils and climates 
 require different schemes of rotation, 
 but it is a tolerably universal rule that 
 culmiferous or seed crops should alter- 
 nate with pulse, roots, herbage, or fal- 
 low. The rotation of crops may be 
 arranged in “courses’’ or “shifts” of any 
 number of successive crops; 3, 4, or 5, 
 years’ courses are perhaps the com- 
 monest. 
 
 ROTH'ERHAM, a municipal borough 
 of England, in the West Riding of York- 
 shire, 5 miles northeast of SheflBeld, on 
 the Don, at its junction with the Rother. 
 
 The fine Perpendicular church dates 
 from the time of Edward IV.; the gram- 
 mar-school from 1483. Rotherham has 
 an Independent college, and extensive 
 iron-works and manufactures of iron 
 goods, soap, glass, etc. Pop. 54,348. It 
 gives name to a parliamentary division. 
 
 ROTHSCHILD (rot'shilt; iii English 
 generally pronounced roths'child or ros- 
 child), the name of a family of Jewish 
 bankers, distinguished for their wealth 
 and influence. The founder of the origi- 
 nal banking-house was Mayer Anselm 
 Bauer G743-1812), a poor orphan, born • 
 in Frankfort-am-Main. Though edu- 
 cated as a teacher, Bauer entered a bank 
 in Hanover, and finally saved sufficient 
 capital to found a business of his own 
 in the famous Judengasse of Frankfort, 
 at the sign of the Red Scutcheon (Roth 
 Schild), which afterward gave name to 
 the family. He gained the friendship 
 of the Landgrave of Hesse, who ap- 
 pointed him his agent, and in 1802 he 
 undertook his first government loan, rais- 
 ing ten million thalers for Denmark. At 
 his death in 1812 he left five sons, the ' 
 eldest of whom, Anselm Mayer von Roth- 
 schild (1773-1885), became head of the . 
 firm in F rankf ort, while the others estab- 
 lished branches at various foreign capi- . 
 tals; Solomon Mayer (1774-1855) at 
 Vienna, Nathan Mayer (1777-1836) in 
 London, Karl Mayer (1788-1855) at 
 Naples, and Jacob (1792-1868) at Paris. 
 These branches, though in a measure 
 separate firms, still conduct their opera- 
 tions in common; and no operation of 
 magnitude is undertaken by any with- 
 out a general deliberation of all at 
 Frankfort. The Naples branch was dis- 
 continued in 1860; the two sons of Karl .. 
 Mayer (Mayer Karl, 1820-86, and Wil- ^ 
 helm Karl) succeeding their childless ■■ 
 uncle Anselm at Frankfort. The bold, 
 
 
ROTTERDAM 
 
 ROULETTE 
 
 yet skilful and cautious operations of 
 the Rothschilds during the troubled 
 political years after 1813 confirmed the 
 fortunes of the firm. Nathan Mayer in 
 particular distinguished himself by his 
 energy and resource. By means of spe- 
 cial couriers, carrier-pigeons, swift sail- 
 ing-boats, etc., he was frequently in 
 possession of valuable information (e.g. 
 the result of the battle of Waterloo) 
 even before the government, and skil- 
 fully turned his advantage to account. 
 The Rothschilds do not contemn com- 
 paratively small operations; but they 
 are chiefly famous for the enormous 
 loans which they raise and manage for 
 different European governments. In 
 1822 the five brothers were made barons 
 by Austria; and in 1885 Baron Nathan 
 von Rothschild (1840-1905) was raised 
 to the English peerage. Lionel Nathan 
 (1808-79), the father of the last-named, 
 was the first Jew who sat in parliament 
 (1858); and various other members of 
 the family have risen to positions of 
 honor and dignity both in Britain and 
 other countries. Baron Alphonse, the 
 head of the firm of Rothschild, governor 
 of the bank of France, died in Paris in 
 1905. 
 
 ROTTERDAM, the chief port and 
 second city in Holland, is situated on the 
 
 Nieuwe Maas or Meuse, at its junction 
 With the Rotte, about 14 miles from the 
 
 and not interrupted by a single lock. 
 The town is intersected by numerous 
 canals, which permit largo vessels to 
 moor alongside the warehouses in the 
 very center of the city. These canals, 
 which are crossed by innumerable draw- 
 bridges and swing-bridges, are in many 
 cases lined with rows of trees; and the 
 handsome quay on the river front, IJ 
 miles long, is known as the Boompjes 
 (“little trees’’), from a row of elms 
 planted in 1615 and now of great size. 
 Many of the houses are quaint edifices, 
 having their gables to the street, with 
 overhanging upper stories. The prin- 
 cipal buildings are the town-hall, court- 
 houses, exchange, old East India House, 
 Boymans’ museum, containing chiefly 
 Dutch and modern paintings, and the 
 government dockyards and arsenal, 
 besides the numerous churches, of 
 which the most conspicuous is the 
 Groote Kerk, or church of St. Lawrence 
 (15th century). The Groote Markt has a 
 statue of Erasmus, a native of the town; 
 and there are fine parks and a large 
 zoological garden. Rotterdam contains 
 ship-building yards, sugar-refineries, dis- 
 tilleries, tobacco-factories and large 
 machine works; but its mainstay is com- 
 merce. It carries on a very extensive 
 trade with Great Britain, the Dutch 
 East and West Indies, and other trans- 
 oceanic countries, and has an important 
 commerce with Germany, Switzerland, 
 and Central Europe. The Maas is crossed 
 by a great railway-bridge and another 
 for carriages and foot-passengers. Pop. 
 340,000. 
 
 ROUBAIX (ro-ba), a town of France, 
 department Nord, 6 miles n.e. of Lille, 
 is a highly important seat of the French 
 textile industry. Woolens, cottons, and 
 silk or mixed stuffs are chiefly made; 
 also beet-sugar, machinery, etc. Pop. 
 124,977. 
 
 ROUBLE, a silver coin, the standard 
 of money in Russia, with a legal weight 
 (since January 1, 1886) of 19.99 grammes 
 equal to about 76 cents. A rouble is 
 
 there is little but paper-money, current 
 at about 30 per cent below its nominal 
 value. The gold imperial is worth 10 
 roubles, the half-imperial 5 roubles. 
 
 ROUEN (ro-an), the old capital of 
 Normandy, now chief town of depar^ 
 ment Seine-Inf6rieure, in France, is 
 situated on the Seine, 80 miles from the 
 sea and 87 miles n.n.w. of Paris. It is 
 the seat of an archbishop, and the fourth 
 port in France. In its older parts the 
 streets are narrow, picturesque, and ill- 
 built, but interesting to the lover of 
 mediseval architecture. The cathedral, 
 erected in the 13th-15th centuries, is 
 one of the finest Gothic monuments in 
 Normandy, though it is surpassed in 
 beauty by the exquisite church of St. 
 Ouen, begun in 1318 and finished at the 
 close of the 15th century. St. Maclou 
 (15th century) is a fine example of florid 
 Gothic. Among the secular buildings are 
 the Palais de Justice (late 15th century), 
 exuberant in decoration; the Hotel de 
 Ville, formerly a part of the monastery 
 of St. Ouen; the Hotel de Bourgth^r- 
 oulde (15th century), with fine reliefs] 
 the archbishop’s palace; and the dis- 
 tinctive Tour de la Grosse-Horloge 
 (1389). The new Musfe, built in 1888, 
 contains a large collection of paintings, 
 chiefly of the French school. The munic- 
 ipal library has 120,000 volumes and 
 2500 MSS. Pop. 115,914; or including 
 the faubourgs, 160,000. 
 
 ROUGE (rozh), a very fine scarlet 
 powder, used by jewelers for polishing 
 purposes, and prepared from crystals of 
 sulphate of iron exposed to a high tem- 
 perature. The name is also given to a 
 cosmetic prepared from safflower. 
 
 ROUGE-ET-NOIR (r6zh-e-nwar ; Fr. 
 “red and black”), Trente-Un (trant-un] 
 “thirty-one”), or Trente et Quarante 
 (trant-6-ka-rS,nt ; “thirty and forty”), a 
 modern game of chance played with the 
 cards belonging to six complete packs. 
 The punters or players stake upon any 
 of the four chances; rouge, noir, couleur, 
 and inverse. The banker then deals a 
 row of cards for noir, until the exposed 
 pips number between 30 and 40 (court- 
 cards count 10, aces 1), and a similar row 
 for rouge. That row wins which most 
 nearly approaches the number 31, and 
 players staking on the winning color 
 receive their stake doubled. Couleur 
 wins if the first card turned up in the 
 deal is of the winning color; in the con- 
 trary case inverse wins. When the num- 
 ber of pips in both rows are equal it is a 
 refait, and a fresh deal is made; but if 
 both happen to count exactly 31 it is a 
 refait de trente-et-un, and the banker 
 claims one-half of all stakes. This last 
 condition places the banker at an ad- 
 vantage calculated to be equal to about 
 14 per cent on all sums staked. 
 
 ROUGET DE LISLE. See Marseillaise 
 Hymn. 
 
 ROULETTE (ro-lef; Fr. ‘little 
 wheel”), a game of chance, in which a 
 small ivory ball is thrown off by a re- 
 volving disc into one of 37 or 38 com- 
 
 E artments surrounding it, and num- 
 ered from 1 to 36, with one or two 
 zeros. Players who have staked upon 
 the number of the compartment into 
 which the ball falls receive thirty-six 
 times their stake; less if they have 
 staked upon more than one number. 
 
 Church of St. liaurens, Rotterdam.— After Sir A. W. Calcott.R. A 
 
 North sea, with which it is also directly 
 connected by a ship canal (Nieuwe 
 Waterweg) admitting the largest vessels 
 
 divided into 100 copecks. Half and 
 quarter roubles and smaller silver coins 
 are also issued; but in actual circulation 
 
ROUMANIA 
 
 There are also other chances on which 
 stakes may be placed. 
 
 ROUMA'NIA, a European kingdom, 
 bounded by Austria-Hungary, Servia, 
 Bulgaria, the Black sea, and Russia; 
 area, 50,760 sq. miles. It includes the 
 former Danubian principalities of Wala- 
 chia and Moldavia and the province of 
 the Dobrudsha on the Black sea. Pop. 
 5,912,520. The capital is Bukarest; 
 other chief towns are Jassy, Galatz, 
 Braila, and Giurgevo. The chief cereal 
 crops are corn, wheat, barley, rye, 
 and oats; tobacco, hemp, and flax are 
 also grown; and wine is produced on the 
 hills at the foot of the Carpathians. 
 Cattle, sheep, and horses are reared in 
 large numbers. Excellent timber abounds 
 on the Carpathians. Bears, wolves, wild 
 boars, large and small game, and fish 
 are plentiful. The country is rich in 
 minerals of nearly every description, but 
 salt, petroleum, and lignite are the only 
 mineralsworked. Manufactures are still 
 in a rudimentary state. 
 
 The Roumanians, who call them- 
 selves Romani, claim to be descendants 
 
 Eoumanlan peasants. 
 
 of Roman colonists introduced by 
 Trajan; but the traces of Latin descent 
 are in great part due to a later immigra- 
 tion, about the 12th century, from the 
 Alpine districts. Their language and 
 history both indicate that they are a 
 mixed race with many constituents. 
 Their language, however, must be 
 classed as one of the Romance tongues, 
 though it contains a large admixture of 
 foreign elements. In Roumania there are 
 about 4,500,000 Roumanians, 400,000 
 Jews, 200. noo gypsies, 100,000 Bulgars, 
 50,000 Magyars, 50,000 Germans, 15,000 
 Greeks, and 15,000 Armenians. Three- 
 fourths of the population are peasants, 
 who until 1864 were kept in virtual serf- 
 dom by the boiars or nobles. In that 
 year upward of 400,000 peasant fami- 
 lies were made proprietors of small hold- 
 ings averaging 10 acres, at a price to be 
 paid back to the state in fifteen years. 
 About 4^ millions of the people belong 
 to the Greek church. Energetic efforts 
 
 are being made to raise education from 
 its present low level. Roumania has two 
 universities (at Bukarest and Jassy), 
 several gymnasia, and a system of free 
 primary schools, at which attendance is 
 compulsory. Roumania is a hereditary 
 constitutional monarchy, with a bicam- 
 eral legislature. 
 
 ROUNDERS, a game played with a 
 bat and a ball by two parties or sides, 
 on a piece of ground marked off into a 
 square or circle, with a batter’s station 
 and three goals all at equal distances. 
 On the ball being thrown toward him 
 the batter tries to drive it away as far 
 as he can and run completely round the 
 goals, or over any one of the four parts, 
 before the ball can be thrown back to 
 the batting station. The batter is de- 
 clared out if he fails to secure a run after 
 having had three balls, if a fielder returns 
 the ball so as to strike him while run- 
 ning, or if the ball from his bat is caught 
 in the air by one of the fielders. The 
 modern game of base ball has been 
 evolved and developed from Rounders. 
 
 ROUND-FISH, a fish of the salmon 
 family, found in many of the lakes and 
 rivers of the northern United States and 
 Canada. When in good condition it is 
 very fat and of exquisite flavor, weigh- 
 ing about 2 lbs. 
 
 ROUNDHEADS, a name formerly 
 given by the Cavaliers or adherents of 
 Charles I., during the English civil war, 
 to members of the Puritan or parlia- 
 mentary party, who distinguished them- 
 selves by having their hair closely cut, 
 while the Cavaliers wore theirs in long 
 ringlets. 
 
 ROUND ROBIN, a written protest or 
 remonstrance, signed in a circular form 
 by several persons, so that no name 
 shall be obliged to head the list. This 
 method of bringing grievances to the 
 notice of superiors was first used by 
 French officers, when its derivation 
 from rond ruban “round ribbon.” 
 
 ROUND TABLE, The, famous in the 
 Arthurian legends, a table for the accom- 
 modation of a select fraternity of knights 
 said to have been established by Uther 
 Pendragon, father of King Arthur, and 
 when it was complete to have had 150 
 knights of approved valor and virtue. 
 
 ROUND TOWERS, a class of tall nar- 
 
 Kound tower on Devenlsh island, Fermanagh. 
 
 row circular edifices, tapering somewhat 
 from the base upward, and generally 
 
 ROWING 
 
 with a conical top, from 60 to 130 feet 
 in height, and from 20 to 30 in diameter. 
 With the exception of three in Scotland, 
 they are peculiar to Ireland. The doors 
 are from 6 to 20 feet from the ground, 
 the windows small. The interior con- 
 tained no stairs, but the successive 
 stories were reached, like the doors, by 
 means of ladders. Authorities are now 
 pretty well agreed that these towers 
 were the works of a Christianized race, 
 erected as places of refuge and as watch- 
 towers. They date from the 8th or 9th 
 to the 13th century. 
 
 ROUSSEAU, Jean Jacques, one of the 
 most celebrated and most influential 
 writers of the 18th century, was born in 
 1712, at Geneva. In 1752 he brought out 
 a successful opera tta (the music by him- 
 self), and soon after a celebrated Letter 
 on French Music. In 1754 he revisited 
 Geneva, where he was readmitted a free 
 citizen on once more embracing Prot- 
 estantism. Having returned to Paris 
 he wrote a sort of novel, Julie ou La 
 Nouvelle H41oise, which was published 
 
 in 1760, being followed by Le Contrat 
 Social, a political work, and Emile ou 
 de I’Education, another story, in 1762 
 'The principles expressed in these works 
 stirred up much animosity against their 
 author. The chief importance of his 
 works lies perhaps in the fact that they 
 contain the germ of the doctrines which 
 were carried out with such ruthless con- 
 sistency in the French revolution. Rous- 
 seau was also a musical author and critic 
 of some importance. 
 
 ROUSSILLON (ro-se-yon), a former 
 province of France, now occupied by 
 the department of the Pyr4n6es Orien- 
 tales. It gave name to a family of 
 counts. 
 
 ROVI'GO, a town in Italy, 23 miles 
 s.w. of Padua, capital of a province of 
 its name, on the Adigetto, an arm of the 
 Adige. The town-house contains a pic- 
 ture-gallery and a library of 80,000 vols. 
 There is a handsome courthouse and two 
 leaning towers belonging to a castle 
 erected in the 10th century. Pop. 7272. 
 The province has an area of 651 sq. 
 miles |pop. 217,700. 
 
 ROWING is the art of propelling a 
 boat by means of oars, which act as 
 levers of the second order, the work be- 
 ing done between the power (i.e., the 
 rower) and the fulcrum (i.e., the water, 
 of which the actual displacement is very 
 slight). That part of the operation during 
 which the power is actually being ap- 
 plied, i.e., when the oar is in the water,-, 
 is specifically called the stroke; while 
 feathering is the act of turning the blade 
 
ROWLAND 
 
 RUDD 
 
 of the oar so as to be parallel to the sur- 
 face of the water, and carrying it thus 
 through the air into position to repeat 
 [ the stroke. Much skill is required to per- 
 I. fonn these operations satisfactorily ; and 
 ^ in fact rowing can be learned only from 
 observation and practice. Technically 
 the word “rowing” is used by boating- 
 - men only when each oarsman has but a 
 single oar; when he has one in each hand 
 he is said to “scull,” and the oars are 
 called “sculls.” Although rowing is cer- 
 tainly one of themost ancient methods of 
 propelling vessels, it has only compara- 
 tively recently come into prominence as 
 a form of sport. Boat-racing practically 
 dates from the first quarter of the 19th 
 century, and its development has lain 
 almost entirely in the hands of the 
 Anglo-Saxon races. In the United 
 States the first amateur rowing-club 
 was founded in 1834, but the sport did 
 not make much progress until the uni- 
 versities of Yale (in 1843) and Harvard 
 (in 1844) took it up, followed by other 
 universities. Yale and Harvard have 
 competed annually since 1878. The 
 chief regatta is held on different courses 
 in different years by the National Asso- 
 ciation of Amateur Oarsmen, founded 
 in 1873. The use of outriggers was in- 
 troduced about 1844, that of sliding- 
 seats, an American invention, about 
 ‘ 1871. 
 
 > ROWLAND, (ro'land), Henry Augus- 
 tus, American physicist, was born at 
 : Honesdale, Pa., in 1848. In 1876 he be- 
 l came professor of physics at Johns 
 ; Hopkins university, a chair which he 
 [ held until his death. His determination 
 j of the mechanical equivalent of heat 
 ^ was one of his most important investi- 
 ; gations. His determination of the 
 ^ ohm was likewise of great value and his 
 study of the magnetic properties of 
 iron led to entirely new conceptions of 
 magnetism. He investigated the solar 
 spectrum and the arc spectra of various 
 elements, and carriedon manyresearches 
 in allied fields. His most important 
 discovery was that of the magnetic 
 effect of electric convection, which has 
 a wide-spread theoretical bearing upon 
 electrical phenomena. He was the presi- 
 dent of the American Physical society 
 at the time of his death in 1901. 
 
 ROWLOCK, a contrivance on a boat’s 
 gunwale on which the oar rests in row- 
 ing; as, a notch in the gunwale, two 
 short pegs, an iron pin, etc. 
 
 ROYAL ARCANUM, The, a fraternal 
 and beneficial society organized at 
 Boston in 1877. The society is governed 
 through councils, which are dominated 
 by the supreme council or governing 
 body. Benefit certificates are issued for 
 SI 500 and $3000, payable at death of a 
 member. It has an approximate mem- 
 bership of 258,746. The emblem of the 
 society is a royal crown within a circle, 
 on the circumference of which are ten 
 email Maltese crosses with the motto, 
 “Mercy, Virtue, and Charity.” 
 
 ROYAL SOCIETY (London), The, the 
 oldest learned society out of Italy, was 
 founded for the study and promotion of 
 natural science. It owes its origin to a 
 club of learned men who were in the 
 habit of holding weekly meetings in Lon- 
 don as early as 1645, but the year 1660 
 is generally given as the year of its foun- 
 
 dation. Charles II. took much interest 
 in the proceedings of the society, and in 
 1682 granted a charter to the “Presi- 
 dent, Council and Fellows of the Royal 
 Society of London for Improving 
 Natural Knowledge.” Lord Brouncker 
 was first president of this incorporated 
 Royal society. Meetings are held weekly 
 from November to June for the purpose 
 of reading and discussing scientific 
 papers; and the more important of these 
 are published in the annual Philosophi- 
 cal Transactions, first issued in 1665, 
 and now fonuing a most valuable series. 
 Accounts of the ordinary meetings, with 
 abstracts of papers, etc., appear also in 
 the periodical Proceedings, begun in 
 1800. Scientific research has at all times 
 been both initiated and encouraged by 
 the Royal society, and many of the 
 most important scientific achievements 
 and discoveries have been due to its en- 
 lightened methods. It deservedly en- 
 joys an influential and semi-official 
 position as the scientific adviser of the 
 British government, which have borne 
 valuable fruit, from the voyage of Capt. 
 Cook in the Endeavour in 1768 down 
 to the Challenger expedition, more than 
 a century later. It awards the Copley, 
 Davy, and two royal medals annually, 
 and the Rumford medal biennially, for 
 distinction in science ; the first being the 
 blue riband of scientific achievement, 
 and bestowed both on foreign and 
 British savants. The roll of the Royal 
 society contains practically all the great 
 scientific names of its country since its 
 foundation. Among its presidents have 
 been Samuel Pepys, Sir Isaac Newton, 
 Sir J. Banks, Sir Hans Sloane, Sir Hum- 
 phry Davy, Prof. Huxley, and Lord 
 Kelvin. 
 
 RU'BENS, Peter Paul, the most emi- 
 nent painter of the Flemish school, was 
 born in 1577 at Siegen in Westphalia, 
 though his childhood wa^spent chiefly 
 at Cologne. In 1621 he wOT employed by 
 Marie de’ Medici to design for the gallery 
 of the Luxembourg thewell-knownseries 
 of magnificent allegorical pictures illus- 
 trating the life of that princess. After 
 the death of his wife in 1626 he was em- 
 ployed by the Archduchess Isabella in 
 endeavoring to arrange a truce between 
 Spain and the Netherlands; in 1628 he 
 was engaged in the important private 
 negotiations of a peace between Spain 
 and England, in the course of which he 
 visited Madrid and England (in 1629). 
 He was knighted by Charles I., and his 
 brush, never idle either in Madrid or 
 London, decorated the ceiling of the 
 banqueting-house at Whitehall. In 1630 
 he married Helena Fourment, who ap- 
 pears in many of his later works, and 
 settled once more in Anfwerp, where he 
 continued to produce numerous pic- 
 tures until his death in May, 1640. His 
 works are in all branches of his art — 
 history, landscape, portraiture, and 
 genre — and are met with all over 
 Europe. The Descent from the Cross 
 in Antwerp cathedral is generally con- 
 sidered his master-piece. His pictures 
 number upward of 2000, exclusive of 
 about 500 drawings, a few etchings, etc. 
 
 RU'BICON, a river in North Italy 
 (now the Fiumicino, a tributary of the 
 Adriatic), famous in Roman history, 
 Caesar having by crossing this stream 
 
 (49 B.C.), at that time regarded as the 
 northern boundary of Italy, finally com- 
 mitted himself to the civil war. Hence 
 the phrase “to pass the Rubicon” is to 
 take the decisive step by which one 
 commits one’s self to a hazardous enter- 
 prise. 
 
 RUBIDTUM, a rare metal discovered 
 by Bunsen and Kirchhoff in 1860, by 
 spectrum analysis; symbol Rb, atomic 
 weight 85.4. It is a white, shining metal, 
 and at ordinary temperatures it is soft 
 as wax. It is usually found in connection 
 with caesium, and belongs to the group 
 of the alkali metals. See Caesium. 
 
 RU'BINSTEIN, Anton Grigoryevitch, 
 a Russian composer and pianist, born in 
 1829. As a composer he was very pro- 
 lific being especially happy in his piano- 
 forte pieces. His operas have had but 
 a qualified success. He died in 1894. 
 He had previously published an auto- 
 biography. 
 
 RUBRIC, in the canon law, signifies a 
 title or article in certain ancient law 
 books, thus called because written in 
 red letters (L. ruber, red). In modern 
 use rubrics denote the rules and direc- 
 tions given at the beginning and in the 
 course of the liturgy for the order and 
 manner in which the several parts of the 
 office are to be performed. Where red 
 ink is not employed now the rubrics are 
 printed in italics, or in some other dis- 
 tinctive character. 
 
 RUBY, a precious stone of a deep-red 
 color, of which there are two varieties — 
 the oriental and the spinel. The oriental 
 ruby or true ruby is a corundum formed 
 nearly exclusively of alumina, of great 
 hardness, and the most valuable of all 
 precious stones. A ruby of five carats, 
 if perfect in color, is said to be worth ten 
 times as much as a diamond of the same 
 weight. Oriental rubies are found chiefly 
 in Burmah and Siam ; inferior specimens 
 have also occurred in North America 
 and Australia. Spinel rubies consist of 
 an aluminate of magnesium, and are 
 much inferior to the true rubies in hard- 
 ness and value. They are found in 
 Burmah; Ceylon, and Australia. A 
 lighter-colored variety, discovered in 
 Badakshan, is known as the balas ruby. 
 
 RUBY-THROAT, a species of hum- 
 ming-bird, so named from the brilliant 
 ruby-red color of its chin and throat. 
 In summer it is found in all parts of 
 North America, up to 57° n. lat., being 
 thus remarkable for its extensive dis- 
 tribution. 
 
 RUDD, a fish of the carp family, hav- 
 ing the back of an olive color; the sides 
 and belly yellow, marked with red; the 
 ventral and anal fins and tail of a deep- 
 
 red color. It is common in Great Britain 
 and throughout Europe. Its average 
 length is from 9 to 15 inches. Called also 
 Red-eye, 
 
RUDDER-FISH 
 
 RUNES 
 
 RUDDER-FISH, a fish allied to the 
 mackerel, very common in the Atlantic 
 and Pacific oceans, so named from its 
 habit of swimming around the sterns of 
 ships, attracted, doubtless, by the refuse 
 thrown overboard. The flesh is said to 
 be coarse in flavor. 
 
 RUE, a strong-scented herbaceous 
 plant, native of Southern Europe. The 
 root is perennial, woody; the stems 
 about 2 feet high; the leaves alternate, 
 petiolate, and divided; and the flowers 
 yellow. The odor of rue is strong and 
 penetrating, and the taste acrid and 
 bitter. It has useful medicinal properties. 
 This plant is an ancient emblem of re- 
 
 Rue. 
 
 membrance from its evergreen quality. 
 The old names “herb-grace” or “herb of 
 grace” refers to this fact, or perhaps to 
 its common use in sprinkling the people 
 with holy water, and as a charm against 
 witchcraft. About 20 species of rue are 
 known. — Oil of rue is obtained by dis- 
 tilling garden rue with water ;hasa strong 
 disagreeable odor and slightly bitter 
 taste; and is used as an ingredient in 
 aromatic vinegar. 
 
 RUFF, a bird belonging to the gral- 
 latores or waders, length, lOJ to 12^ 
 inches; plumage, which varies greatly 
 in color, generally variegated brown on 
 back and wings, white on belly. In the 
 breeding season the male has its neck 
 surrounded by long plumes, which, when 
 
 Ruff. 
 
 raised form a kind of tippet or ruff, 
 whence its English name. The scientific 
 name (“pugnacious fighter”) is derived 
 from its pugnacious habits at the same 
 season. The females are called reeves. 
 These birds nest in swamps; the eggs, 
 three or four in number, are pale green 
 blotched with brown. 
 
 RUFFED GROUSE, a North Ameri- 
 can species of grouse of the same genus 
 
 as the hazel-grouse of Europe. It is 
 named from the tufts of feathers on the 
 sides of its neck, and frequents forests 
 and thickets. 
 
 RULE, BRITANNIA, a British na- 
 tional song, of which the words, almost 
 certainly by James Thomson, form part 
 of the masque of Alfred, by Thomson 
 and David Mallet, which was first per- 
 formed in 1740. The music was written 
 by Dr. Arne. 
 
 RULE OF THREE, The, an applica- 
 tion of the doctrine of proportion to 
 arithmetical purposes by which we are 
 enabled to find a fourth proportional 
 to three given numbers, that is, a num- 
 ber to which the third bears the same 
 ratio as the first does to the second. The 
 rule is divided into two cases, simple and 
 compound; now frequently termed siin- 
 ple and compound proportion. Simple 
 proportion is the equality of the ratio 
 of two quantities to that of two other 
 quantities. Compound proportion is the 
 equality of the ratio of two quantities to 
 another ratio, the antecedent and con- 
 sequent of which are respectively the 
 products of the antecedents and conse- 
 quents of two or more ratios. 
 
 RUM, the liquor obtained by distilla- 
 tion from the skimmings and the mo- 
 lasses formed in the manufacture of 
 cane-sugar. The pure distilled spirit is 
 colorless, and receives its brown tint 
 from the addition of caramel. Rum is 
 obtained chiefly from the West Indies 
 and British Guiana; the best sort is 
 named Jamaica rum, no matter where 
 manufactured. Pine-apple rum is ordi- 
 nary rum flavored with sliced pine- 
 apples ; tafia is an inferior French variety 
 of rum. 
 
 RUMINANTS, or RUMINANTLA, a 
 
 group of herbivorous mammals, belong- 
 ing to the great order of hoofed or un- 
 gulate mammals, included in the artio- 
 dactyle or “even-toed” section of these, 
 and comprising the five families, camel 
 and llama; chevrotain; true deer; giraffe; 
 and ox, sheep, goat, antelope. The 
 faculty of rumination, though it gives 
 name to this order, is not quite peculiar 
 to it. Ruminants are distinguished from 
 other orders by certain peculiarities of 
 dentition. The most typical of the 
 group, the ox, sheep, antelope, etc., have 
 no incisor or canine teeth in the upper 
 jaw, but have instead a hardened , or. 
 callous pad against which the six lower 
 incisors bite. In the lower jaw are two 
 canines quite similar to the incisors, and 
 the camelidse and tragulidee possess also 
 upper canines. In both jaws are six 
 grinding teeth on either side, separated 
 by an interval from the front teeth. 
 The feet of ruminants are cloven. Horns, 
 developed in pairs, are present in the 
 majority of the species; either solid, as 
 in the antlers of the true deer, or hollow 
 as in the hornsof the ox, etc. The alimen- 
 tary canal is very long. The stomach is 
 divided into four compartments, fre- 
 quently spoken of as four stomachs. 
 The first and largest (rumen or paunch) 
 receives the food roughly bruised by the 
 first mastication, and transmits it to the 
 second (recticulum or honey-comb), 
 whence it is sent back in pellets to the 
 mouth to be rechewed. This second 
 mastication is called “chewing the cud.” 
 The food is then re-swallowed into the 
 
 third stomach (psalterium, omasum, or 
 manyplies), and passes finally into the 
 true digestive cavity (abomasum) . Fluids 
 may pass directly into any part of the 
 stomach. In young ruminants, which 
 feed upon milk, the first three “stom- 
 achs” remain undeveloped until the 
 animal begins to take vegetable food. 
 Most of the ruminants are suitable for 
 human food. They are generally gre- 
 garious, and are represented by in- 
 digenous species in all parts of the world 
 except Australia. 
 
 RUMINATION, the faculty possessed 
 by some mammals, notably ruminants 
 (which see), of “chewing the cud” — that 
 is, of returning the food to the mouth 
 from the stomach for remastication prior 
 to final digestion. Some marsupials and 
 certain other mammals probably share 
 this faculty with the ruminants. 
 
 RUMP PARLIAMENT, is the name by 
 which the fag-end or remainder of the 
 Long Parliament (1640-60) was known 
 after the expulsion of the majority of its 
 members on December 6, 1648, by 
 Cromwell’s soldiers, commanded by 
 Colonel Pride. Only sixty members, all 
 extreme independents, were admitted 
 after this Pride’s Purge, as it was called; 
 and they, with the army, brought about 
 the condemnation of Charles I. The 
 Rump was forcibly dissolved by Crom- 
 well in 1653, for opposing the demands 
 of the army. Twice after this it was rein- 
 stated, but both times only for a brief 
 period, and finally, on the 16th March, 
 1660, it decreed its own dissolution. 
 
 RUNES, the letters of the alphabets 
 peculiar to the ancient Teutonic peoples 
 of Northwestern Europe, found in- 
 scribed on monuments, tomb-stoneSr 
 clog-calendars, bracteates, rings, weap- 
 ons, etc., and only rarely and at a late 
 period in MSS. They are formed almost 
 invariably of straight lines, either single 
 or in combination. Three runic alpha- 
 bets (or “futhorks,” as they are some- 
 times called from the first six letters) 
 have hitherto been usually recognized; 
 the Norse, with sixteen characters, the 
 Anglo-Saxon, with forty, and the Ger- 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 k 
 
 K 
 
 * 
 
 K 
 
 f 
 
 u 
 
 th o 
 
 r 
 
 k 
 
 h 
 
 n 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 H T 
 
 B 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 8 t 
 
 b 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 Norse runic 
 
 alphabet. 
 
 
 
 man; but modern researches have traced 
 the common origin of these in an older 
 primary Germanic or Teutonic futhork 
 with twenty-four characters. The name 
 is generally believed to be the same as 
 Anglo-Saxon rlln, a mystery, implying a 
 magical or hieroglyphic character, which 
 doubtless runic writings acquired when 
 the lapse ofTime had rendered them un- 
 intelligible to the common people; and 
 runic wands or staves were smooth wil- 
 low-wands inscribed with runic charac- 
 ters and used in incantations. The period 
 of origin and the source of runes are not 
 known. Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon 
 tradition ascribes their invention to 
 Woden. Some have believed that the 
 Scandinavians learned the art of writing 
 from Phoenician merchants trading to 
 the Baltic; Dr. Isaac Taylor recognizes 
 in the (Jreek alphabet the prototype of 
 
RUNJEET SINGH 
 
 RUSSELL 
 
 itho futhorks; while others find it in the 
 ? Latin. Runic inscriptions abound in 
 Scandinavia, Denmark, Iceland, and the 
 parts of England once known as North- 
 umbria, Mercia, and East Anglia, but 
 they are also found beyond these limits. 
 Weapons and instruments, inscribed 
 with runes and dating from 300-400 
 A.D., have been dug up in Norway. The 
 use of runes gradually disappeared under 
 ! the influence of the early Christian mis- 
 sionaries, who proscribed them on ac- 
 count of their magical reputation; but 
 in England some Christian inscriptions 
 have been found in the runic characters. 
 The latest runic inscriptions in Sweden 
 date about 1450. 
 
 RUNJEET SINGH, the “Lion of the 
 Punjab” and founder of the Sikh king- 
 dom, was born in 1780, and died 1839. 
 In 1836 he suffered a heavy defeat from 
 the Afghans, but he retained his power 
 until his death. See Punjab. 
 
 RUN'NYMEDE, the meadow on the 
 right bank of the Thames, now a race- 
 course, in Surrey, England, 4 miles below 
 Windsor, where King John met the 
 barons whocompelled him to sign Magna 
 Charta, June 15, 1215. The actual sign- 
 ing is said to have taken jflace on Magna 
 Charta Island opposite Runnymede. 
 
 RUPEE', the standard silver coin of 
 British India, the value of which is 
 48 cents, has, owing to the depre- 
 ciation of silver, been much lower 
 in recent years. Its value in India is now 
 fixed by law at one-fifteenth of a sover- 
 eign, or 32 cents. Arupee equals 16 annas 
 100,000 rupees are called a lac; 100 lacs, 
 a crore. 
 
 RUPERT OF BAVARIA, Prince, dis- 
 tinguished as a cavalry leader in the 
 English civil war, the third son of 
 Frederick V., elector palatine and king 
 of Bohemia, by Elizabeth, daughter of 
 James I. of England, was born in 1619 
 at Prague. In 1653 he joined Charles II. 
 at Versailles. After the Restoration he 
 was appointed lord-high-admiral, and 
 served with Monk against the Dutch. 
 He became governor of Windsor Castle 
 and died in London in 1682 Many of 
 his latter years were devoted to scientific 
 study, and he is credited with the inven- 
 tion of mezzotint engraving, which at 
 least he introduced into England. He 
 was one of the founders and the first 
 governor of the Hudson’s bay company. 
 
 RUSH, the common term for a genus 
 of plants, natural order Juncacese. The 
 rushes have a glumaceous perianth of six 
 sepals, glabrous filaments, three stigmas, 
 and a three-celled many-seeded capsule. 
 The leaves are rigid, mostly roundish, 
 and smooth. Rushes are found chiefly 
 in moist, boggy situations in the colder 
 climates; about twenty species are noted 
 in the British flora. The leaves are often 
 employed to form matting and the bot- 
 toms of chairs, and the pith for the wicks 
 of candles. 
 
 RUSH, Benjamin, famous American 
 physician, was born in 1745 near Phila- 
 delphia. In 1766 he went to Edinburgh, 
 and took his degree of M.D. there in 
 1768. He began to practice at Phila- 
 delphia in 1769, becoming at the same 
 time lecturer in chemistry at the medical 
 school of that city He afterward filled 
 the chair of the theory and practice of 
 physic in the University of Pennsyl- 
 
 vania. He early identified himself with 
 the patriotic party, was one of the 
 
 signers of the declaration of independ- 
 ence, and in 1787 was a member of the 
 convention of Pennsylvania for the 
 adoption of the federal constitution. 
 In 1774 he was one of the founders of the 
 first antislavery society in America. He 
 died in 1813. Dr. Rush was a volumin- 
 ous and versatile xvriter. His chief 
 medieval works are his Medical Inquiries 
 and Observations, Diseases of the Mind, 
 and Medical Tracts. 
 
 RUSH, Richard, statesman, was born 
 in Philadelphia, August 29, 1780, and 
 died there July 30, 1859. He was a 
 graduate of Princeton and was admitted 
 to the bar in 1800. He soon became a 
 prominent advocate, and held several 
 offices of importance. In 1811 he was 
 comptroller of the currency, and in 1814 
 United States attorney-general. In 1817 
 he was for a short time secretary of 
 state, and was then appointed minister 
 to England, where he performed some 
 important diplomatic services. In 1825 
 he was secretary of the treasury, and 
 in 1828 he was candidate for the vice- 
 presidency under Adams. From 1847 to 
 1851 he was minister to France. 
 
 RUSK, Jeremiah McLain, ex-governor 
 of Wisconsin, secretary of agriculture, 
 was born in Morgan co., Ohio, June 17, 
 1830. In 1862 he was made major of 
 the 25th Wisconsin and served with 
 Sherman till the close of the war, attain- 
 ing the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 
 1865 he was brevetted brigadier-general 
 of volunteers. In 1870 he was sent to 
 congress, and served three terms. He 
 declined the offices of minister to Para- 
 guay and Uruguay, and of chief of the 
 bureau of printing and engraving. In 
 1882 he was elected governor of Wiscon- 
 sin and served three successive terms. 
 In 1889 he was appointed secretary of 
 agriculture. He died in 1893. 
 
 RUSKIN, John, art critic and political 
 economist, and one of the most eloquent 
 English prose writers of last century, 
 was born at London in February, 1819. 
 In 1843 appeared the first volume of 
 Modern Painters, by a Graduate of Ox- 
 ford, in which Ruskin maintained the 
 superiority of modern landscape paint- 
 ers, especially Turner, to the older 
 masters, and at the same time advo- 
 cated a complete revolution in the re- 
 ceived conventions of art and art 
 
 criticism. The subsequent volumes, of 
 which the fifth and last appeared in 1860 
 expanded the subject into a most com- 
 prehensive treatise on the principles 
 which underlie, or should underlie, art, 
 while similar criticism was extended to 
 another domain of art in his Seven 
 Lamps of Architecture (1851) and his 
 Stones of Venice (1851-53). In 1851 
 Ruskin appeared as a defender of pre- 
 Raphaelitism, which had found inspira- 
 tion in his works. As a political econo- 
 mist and social reformer he was an out- 
 spoken and uncompromising foe of what 
 he considered the selfish and deadening 
 doctrines of the so-called Manchester 
 school, his chief works in this sphere 
 being Unto this Last (1862), Munera 
 Pulveris (1872), and Fors Clavigera 
 (1871-84), a periodical series of letters 
 
 to the working-men and laborers of 
 Great Britain. He died in 1900. 
 
 RUSSELL, John, Earl Russell, Eng- 
 lish liberal statesman, was the third son 
 of the sixth duke of Bedford, was born 
 in London in 1792, and died at Rich- 
 mond in May, 1878. In Lord Mel- 
 bourne’s second cabinet (1835-41) Rus- 
 sell was home secretary, and in 1839 he 
 became colonial secretary. From 1841 
 till 1845 he led the opposition against 
 
 John, Earl Russell. 
 
 Peel, with whom, however, he was in 
 sympathy on the Corn Law question; 
 and when Peel resigned in 1846 Russell 
 formed a ministry and retained power, 
 though with a small and uncertain 
 majority, until February, 1852. He 
 re-entered office in December, 1852, as 
 foreign secretary under Lord Aberdeen, 
 and in 1855 became colonial secretary in 
 Lord Palmerston’s cabinet. In 1865 
 
kUSSELL 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 / 
 
 Earl Russell succeeded Lord Palmerston 
 in the leadership of the Liberal party, 
 but when his new reform bill was re- 
 jected in 1866 the liberals resigned. 
 Thenceforward Earl Russell held no 
 farther office, though he warmly advo- 
 cated all liberal measures. 
 
 RUSSELL, William Clark, novelist, 
 born at New York in 1844. He went to 
 sea at an early age, but abandoned his 
 nautical career in 1865 and took to 
 literature. Among his most popular 
 books are John Holdsworth Chief Mate, 
 The Wreck of the Grosvener, A Sea 
 Queen, The Lady Maud, Jack’s Court- 
 ship, Marooned, An Ocean Tragedy, etc. 
 
 RUSSIA, one of the most powerful 
 empires of the world, second only in 
 extent to the British Empire, which 
 has about 11,000,000 sq. miles, and 
 third as regards population; the Chinese 
 Empire ranking first, with about 400 
 million inhabitants, the British Empire 
 second, with some 380 millions. It 
 comprehends most of Eastern Europe 
 and all of Northern Asia, and is bounded 
 n. by the Arctic ocean; w. by Sweden, 
 the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic, 
 Prussia, Austria, and Roumania; s. 
 by the Black sea, Turkey in Asia, 
 Persia, Afghanistan, the Chinese Em- 
 pire; e. by the Pacific and Behring’s 
 strait. The total area in 1906 was 
 officially estimated at 8,644,100 sq. 
 miles; while the population was as 
 follows : 
 
 Russia in Europe (including Poland), 
 103,662,138; Finland (1900), 2,712,562; 
 Caucasian Provinces, 9,251,945; Siberia, 
 5,731,552; Central Asia, 7,721,684; total, 
 129,079,881. 
 
 European Russia consists almost 
 wholly of immense plains, the Valdai 
 Hills, between St. Petersburg and 
 Moscow, averaging 500 feet and never 
 exceeding 1200 feet above sea-level, 
 forming the only elevated region of the 
 interior and an important watershed. 
 Russia is watered by numerous and 
 important rivers, some of great magni- 
 tude and running a course of thou- 
 sands of miles. The Petchora, the 
 Mezene, Northern Dwina, and Onega 
 are the principal rivers of European 
 Russia which send their waters to the 
 Arctic ocean; the Neva, Volkhoff, Soir, 
 Narova, Velikaya, Duna, Niemen, and 
 Vistula belong to the Baltic basin; the 
 Black sea basin comprises the Pruth, 
 Dniester, Dnieper, and the Don; while 
 the Caspian receives besides other rivers 
 the Volga, the largest of all Russian 
 rivers. Asiatic Russia has also a number 
 of very large rivers, as the Obi, Yenisei, 
 and Lena in Siberia, and the Amur 
 toward the Chinese frontier. 
 
 Boundless forests exist, especially in 
 the northern European provinces and 
 the more temperate parts of Siberia, 
 the area of the forest land in Europe 
 being 42 per cent of the total area. The 
 fir, larch, alder, and birch predominate. 
 In the south forests are less abundant, 
 and the tracts around the Black sea 
 and the Caspian, and the immense 
 steppes of the south and east, are almost 
 wholly destitute of wood. 
 
 Among wild animals may be men- 
 tioned the bear, the wolf, wild hog, elk, 
 and various animals which are hunted for 
 their furs. Wild fowl abound, particu- 
 
 larly near the mouths of rivers. Both 
 on the coasts and in the rivers a great 
 number of productive fisheries are 
 carried on. In the Arctic ocean vast 
 numbers of seals are taken. The rivers 
 of the Caspian, particularly the Ural 
 and Volga, and the Sea of Azoff, are 
 celebrated for their sturgeon. In the 
 same quarters are also important 
 salmon-fisheries. In the regions border- 
 ing on the Arctic ocean large herds 
 of reindeer are kept; and in the south, 
 among the Tartars of the Crimea and 
 the inhabitants of the Caucasus, the 
 camel is often seen. 
 
 Russia is rich in minerals. Gold, 
 platinum, silver, copper, iron, lead, 
 manganese, coal, salt, and saltpetre all 
 exist in abundance, and there are 
 copious petroleum springs in the Caspian 
 region. The precious metals are chiefly 
 obtained in the Ural and Altai regions, 
 the annual production averaging: gold, 
 7200 lbs.; platinum, 5000-7000 lbs.; 
 silver, 21,000-25,000 lbs. In the Ural, 
 iron beds are also rich and numerous, 
 exceeding all others in productiveness. 
 Copper is most abundant in the govern- 
 ment of Perm; lead in the Ural and 
 some parts of Poland; saltpetre in 
 Astrakhan. Of the coal-mines those 
 of the Don basin are the principal at 
 present, those of Kielce ranking second ; 
 the mines around Moscow come next. 
 About 60,000 tons of manganese ore 
 are annually extracted in the Ural and 
 the Caucasus. The petroleum wells of 
 Baku on the Caspian now send their 
 products all over Europe. 
 
 Prior to the accession of Peter the 
 Great Russia had no manufactories; 
 he started them, and under the more 
 or less fostering care of his successors 
 they have stea&ly grown. Especially 
 since 1865 a number of important 
 industries have developed, this being 
 mainly due to Russia’s protective policy. 
 The latest statistics give about 2,000,000 
 persons as being employed in the vari- 
 ous manufacturing industries. 
 
 The bulk of Russia’s external trade 
 passes across the European frontier, 
 and through the Baltic and Black sea 
 ports. The chief exports are; grain 
 (about one-half of entire exports), flax, 
 linseed and other oleaginous seeds, 
 timber, hemp, wool, butter and eggs, 
 spirits, bristles, and furs, in the order 
 indicated. The chief imports are cotton, 
 wool, tea, machinery, coal and coke, 
 cotton yarn, metal goods, wine, olive- 
 oil, raw silk, herrings, textile goods, 
 fruit, coffee, tobacco. The import 
 trade is heaviest with Germany, Great 
 Britain, China, United States, in order 
 named. The more rapid development 
 of the vast natural resources and trade 
 of Russia is prevented by transport 
 difficulties. The magnificent river and 
 canal system is not available for a good 
 part of the year, and railways are com- 
 paratively limited. The great railway 
 across Siberia to Vladivostock and 
 Port Arthur is practically complete. 
 An important line recently constructed 
 is the Transcaspian railway, from 
 Michailovsk, on the southern shore of 
 the Caspian, to Samarcand, via Bokhara 
 The latter is preeminently a military 
 line, but it will also largely stimulate 
 trade in the heart of Asia. Trade is 
 
 further assisted by immense fairs, which 
 are much frequented by European and 
 Asiatic merchants. 
 
 Until 1906 Russia was an absolute 
 hereditary monarchy, the emperor (czar 
 or tzar) being the supreme ruler and 
 legislator, and the final tribunal in all 
 matters political or ecclesiastical. The 
 present emperor’s income is about 
 $12,500,000. His title is Emperor and 
 Autocrat of all the Russias, Czar of 
 Poland, and Grand-prince of Finland. 
 The administration is divided into ten 
 departments, formerly eleven, with a 
 minister at the head of each nominated 
 by the emperor. Finland has nominally 
 preserved its ancient constitution with a 
 national parliament of four estates, but 
 it is really ruled by a governing-general 
 and senate appointed by the emperor. 
 Some of the Baltic provinces also pos- 
 sessed certain privileges, but these are 
 being gradually curtailed. Each gov- 
 ernment of the empire is under a gover- 
 nor and vice-governor; there are also a 
 few general-governors, who have more 
 than one government under them. The 
 communes into which the provinces and 
 districts are divided possess a certain 
 amount of local government, and elect 
 their own local dignitaries, but these are 
 again subject to an all-powerful police. 
 Russia is heavily in debt, chiefly abroad, 
 Germany in particular holding large 
 amounts of Russian stocks. The bulk of 
 the revenue is obtained by indirect 
 taxation, spirits furnishing about one- 
 third of it, other items are personal and 
 land taxes, trade licenses, tobacco and 
 sugar, customs. 
 
 Russia possesses one of the most 
 powerful armies in the world. On a 
 peace footing it is placed at 1,100,000 
 men, the war strength at 4,600,000. 
 Only a certain number of those annually 
 reaching their twenty-first year are 
 drawn into the active army, however, 
 the rest entering the first and second re- 
 serve. Liability to military service is 
 universal from the age of 21 to that of 
 43; and five years must, in regular 
 course, be passed in active service. 
 
 The result of the Japanese war has to 
 a large extent demoralized the Russian 
 army. Nothing absolutely accurate as 
 to losses, etc., sustained by Russia can 
 be ascertained, and, therefore, the 
 actual condition or strength of the army 
 cannot be positively stated. One fact, 
 however, is patent : Russia never had in 
 Asia and Manchuria so great a number 
 of men as 500,000, since one line of rail- 
 road is absolutely inadequate to supply 
 more than 300,000, while the country is 
 too poor to live off of. In every battle 
 of the war Japan outnumbered Russia 
 on the battle-field by from 10 to 40 per 
 cent. That was the essence of Japanese 
 strategy. The navy comprises 3 first 
 and 9 second class battle ships, 14 coast 
 defense, 5 armored cruisers, 4 proteeted 
 or first class cruisers, 26 second and 
 third class cruisers, 112 torpedo boats, 
 etc. It ranks seventh among the 
 navies of the world. 
 
 A number of languages and a vast 
 variety of dialects are naturally spoken 
 in a country comprising such a hetero- 
 geneous population, but the Russian is 
 the vernacular of at least four-fifths of 
 the inhabitants, the literary and ofiScial 
 
KUSBIA 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 language being specifically the "Great 
 Russian,” or that belonging to Central 
 Russia surrounding Moscow. It is one 
 of the Slavonic family of the Aryan or 
 Indo-European languages, and as such 
 is a sister of Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Ger- 
 man, English, etc. Modern Russian has 
 been much modified by the introduction 
 of Greek, Tartar, and Mongolian terms. 
 It has an alphabet of thirty-seven 
 letters, a written and printed character 
 of a peculiar form, and a pronunciation 
 which it is hardly possible for any but 
 natives to master. Its inflexions are 
 both numerous and irregular; but it is 
 soft, sonorous, remarkable for its copious- 
 ness, and affords unbounded facility for 
 rhyme. 
 
 Until the 18th Century Russia was 
 backward in the development of her 
 literature. Lomonosof (1711-65) wrote 
 a number of works both in prose and 
 verse, and by his precepts and example 
 did much to originate a national litera- 
 ture, and to fix the grammar of the 
 language. His contemporary Sumaro- 
 koff carried the drama to a high degree 
 of perfection; Derzhawin (1743-1816) 
 distinguished himself highly in lyrical 
 and other poetry; and since then many 
 writers have distinguished themselves in 
 all departments. It is, however, prin- 
 cipally to Karamsin (1725-1826) that 
 Russia owes the more general spread of 
 literary taste. The foundation of the 
 Russian academy in 1783, and the 
 issue of its great dictionary, also con- 
 tributed largely toward it. The same 
 perfection which Karamsin gave to 
 prose, Dimitrieff gave to poetry. Of the 
 more modern authors particular mention 
 is due to Alexander Pushkin, Russia’s 
 greatest poet, and Michael Lermontoff, 
 not far his inferior. The most eminent 
 novelists are Nicholas Gogol, Ivan Tur- 
 genieff, Feodor Dostoieffsky, Alexander 
 Herzen, and Count Leo Tolstoi, the 
 last not only a novelist but also one of 
 the greatest of modern prophets. Russia 
 possesses a number of valuable libraries. 
 The first Russian press was set up at 
 Moscow in 1554. 
 
 The established religion of Russia is 
 the Eastern or Greek Church, and one 
 of the fundamental laws of the state is 
 that the emperor must belong to that 
 church, and none of the imperial family 
 may marry a wife belonging to another 
 religion without the express sanction of 
 the emperor. 
 
 The population of Russia is increas- 
 ing faster than that of any other Euro- 
 pean nation. Great Britain, perhaps, 
 excepted. As regards language (and so 
 far also race) the peoples of Russia are 
 comprised under the two great divisions 
 of Aryans and Mongolians; the former 
 include Slavonians, Germans, and 
 Greeks, the latter the Finnish and 
 Tartar races. The Slavonians form 
 about 86 millions of the population, 
 including 6i million Poles. There are 
 about 5J million Finns, 2J milhon 
 Lithuanians, and some 3^ million Jews. 
 Of Germans about 1^ million reside in 
 Russia, of Roumanians and Servians 2^ 
 millions. There are some 2J million 
 Georgians, Ossetes, and Lesghians, and 
 1 million Armenians. The Turco-Tar- 
 tars count about 10 millions. A gradual 
 absorption by the Slavonic races is go- 
 
 ing on. The political divisions of the 
 Russian people comprise numerous 
 grades of nobility, which are partly 
 hereditary and partly acquired by mili- 
 tary and civil service, especially the 
 former, military rank being most highly 
 prized in Russia. The clergy, both 
 regular and secular, form a separate 
 privileged order. Previous to the year 
 1861 the mass of the people were serfs, 
 subject to the proprietors of the soil. 
 The Emperors Alexander I. and Nicholas 
 took some initial steps toward the 
 emancipation of this class; but a bold 
 and complete scheme of emancipation 
 was begun and carried out by Alexander 
 11. in 1861. 
 
 The origin of the Russian empire 
 is involved in much obscurity, but it is 
 usually regarded as having been founded 
 by Rurik, a Scandinavian (Varangian), 
 about 862, his dominions and those of 
 his immediate successors comprising 
 Novgorod, Kleff, and the surrounding 
 country. Vladimir the Great (980- 
 1015), the Charlemagne of Russia, intro- 
 duced Christianity, and founded several 
 cities and schools. But from this period 
 down to 1237, when the country was 
 overrun by the Tartars, Russia was 
 almost constantly the scene of civil war. 
 
 In 1613 the house of Romanoff, 
 whence the present czar is descended, 
 was raised to the throne, and from this 
 period the empire gained greater 
 strength and consistency. 
 
 Russia’s acquisition of territory for 
 the past four centuries is shown by 
 the following table: About 
 
 sq. m. 
 
 Ivan the Great 1462, 382,716 
 
 Vassili Ivanovitch 1505, 510,288 
 
 Ivan the Terrible 1584, 1,530,864 
 
 Alexis Michaelovitch.. . .1650, 5,039,094 
 
 Peter 1 1689, 5,953,360 
 
 Anna 1730, 6,888,888 
 
 Katharine II 1775, 7,122,770 
 
 Alexander II 1868, 7,866,940 
 
 Do 1881, 8,325,393 
 
 Alexander III 1887, 8,644,100 
 
 The population from 14 millions in 
 1722 has grown to 129 millions in 1906. 
 The extension of the Russian empire 
 in the east is still going on. In 1881 
 the Tekk6 Turcomans were subjected; in 
 1884 Merv was taken; and Penjdeh was 
 occupied and annexed in 1885, which 
 led to considerable friction between 
 Russia and Britain. Of late years a 
 great disturbing element to the govern- 
 ment of Russia has sprung up in 
 Nihilism (see Nilihists). The murder 
 of the late emperor Alexander II. in 
 the streets of St. Petersburg, by means 
 of a bomb, was their doing; and 
 repeated attempts on the life of his 
 successor Alexander III. (1881-94) were 
 also made. Alexander III. was suc- 
 ceeded by his eldest son, Nicholas II. 
 Russian aggression in Manchuria and 
 Corea led to the outbreak of war with 
 Japan in February, 1904. 
 
 The most important events in the 
 history of Russia have taken place with- 
 in the last few years. These were the 
 war with Japan (the greatest war of 
 history) and the Russian Revolution, in 
 which the monarchy was made a 
 limited one. Previously to the year 
 1906 Russia was an absolute monarchy 
 and affairs were in the hands of bureaus 
 
 under the supreme will of the czar 
 whose title was Emperor and Auto- 
 crat of all the Russias, Czar of Poland, 
 and Grand Prince of Finland. The 
 revolution began to take shape in 1903 
 with the mutterings of the working- 
 men in the cities and outbreaks against 
 the Jews. On April 19th of that year 
 the atrocities at Kishineff took place, 
 in which 40 Jews were massacred out- 
 right and several hundred injured. 
 This was but a bare month after the 
 proclamation of the czar establishing 
 religious toleration. 
 
 The first actual step taken by the 
 revolutionists was the assassination 
 on May 19th of the Governor of Ufa, 
 and in August the great industrial 
 strikes began. Petitions by the work- 
 ingmen asking for a representative 
 government had been everywhere cir- 
 culated, and toward the end of 1904 
 the emperor, having the Japanese- 
 Russian war on his hands, issued a 
 proclamation virtually refusing to 
 consider a proposal for the modifi- 
 cation of the form of government. 
 On January 18, 1905, Father Gapon, 
 followed by thousands of workingmen, 
 gathered in St. Petersburg to appeal 
 to the czar at the palace, but the 
 crowd was dispersed by the soldiery, 
 who killed and wounded a thousand 
 or more. This act of butchery only 
 fanned the flame of revolution and 
 great strikes were called at Moscow, 
 Riga, Revol, Odessa, Warsaw, Lodz, 
 Radom and Kovno. On February 17th 
 the Grand Duke Sergius, uncle of the 
 emperor was assassinated by the throw- 
 ing of a bomb at Moscow. The mutinies 
 of Odessa and Sevastopol followed, 
 in which the rebels fired on Russian 
 forts from Russian warships. The em- 
 peror, having granted the demands of the 
 people for a constitution and a legisla- 
 ture, or national council, called the Duma, 
 set May 10,1906, as the day for its open- 
 ing session. The chosen delegates gath- 
 ered at the capital, but their meeting 
 proved more or less farcical, as the Duma 
 was dominated by the czar and dissolved 
 by him before it could accomplish any- 
 thing worth recording. The second Duma 
 was likewise dissolved, and the third 
 Duma was opened November, 14, 1907. 
 
 Meanwhile the war between Japan and 
 Russia was brought to a close by the 
 mediation of President Roosevelt, who 
 had, on June 8, 1905, suggested a con- 
 ference. The war had begun in 1903-4 
 with Russia’s aggressions in Manchuria 
 and the Russian Navy had been virtu- 
 ally wiped out. The following were the 
 casualties: Russia Japan 
 
 Army 314,779 163,086 
 
 Navy 6,000 3,670 
 
 Prisoners 67,101 646 
 
 The following table shows the naval 
 losses of the two countries : 
 
 Japan Russia 
 
 Battleships sunk 2 12 
 
 Battleships captured 2 
 
 Armored cruisers sunk 5 
 
 Coast defense vessels “ 1 
 
 Coast defense captured 2 
 
 Cruisers sunk 4 6 
 
 Other ships sunk 6 33 
 
 Other ships captured 16 
 
 On August 8, 1905, the peace delegates 
 from Russia and Japan met at Ports- 
 
RUSSIAN-JAPANESE WAR 
 
 RYE 
 
 mouth and in a few days the peace was 
 concluded by Russia’s consent to the 
 Kiniting of Russian influence in the 
 Oiient and Japan’s relinquishment of 
 the claimed indemnity of $600,000,000 
 and the cession of one-half of Sakhalin. 
 
 RUSSIAN- JAPANESE WAR, in 1894 
 and 1895, through the intervention of 
 Russia and Germany Japan was de- 
 prived of its conquests in Manchuria, and 
 and in 1898 Russia secured by lease from 
 China for 26 years, the harbors of Port 
 Arthur, and Ta Lien Wau in the Liao- 
 Tung peninsula, the very territory Japan 
 had been forced to surrender possession 
 of. The construction of the Manchurian 
 railway connecting the newly acquired 
 possessions with the main line of the 
 Siberian railway was begun. During 
 Boxer uprisings of 1900 a Russian force 
 invaded Manchuria in retaliation of a 
 Chinese attack of a Russian town on the 
 Amur river. Russia refused to with- 
 draw from Manchuria after agreeing 
 with China to do so and after repeated 
 delays on the part of Russia Japan, 
 which declined its paramount interests 
 in Korea, threatened by Russia, severed 
 diplomatic relations with Russia and 
 hostilities began on the night of Feb- 
 ruary 7-8, 1904, with a torpedo attack 
 delivered by the Japanese squadron 
 against the Russian fleet in the harbor 
 of Port Arthur. This was followed by the 
 Japanese invasion of Korea, whose em- 
 peror was compelled to make common 
 cause with Japan. The Japanese forces 
 during the 18 months of war showed 
 themselves superior on both land and 
 water, defeating the Russians on land 
 and compelling them to retreat as far 
 north as Tie-lung and on sea by practi- 
 cally destroying the whole of the Rus- 
 sian fleet in the eastern waters. 
 
 The chronological story of the war is 
 as follows; 
 
 Feb. 8-9, 1904 — Variag and Korietz 
 destroyed in Chemulpo harbor and Togo 
 attacks Port Arthur fleet. 
 
 May 1 — Japanese take Fengwang- 
 cheng. 
 
 May 5 — Japanese land at Pitsewo and 
 begin to invest Port Arthur. 
 
 May 11 — Russians evacuate Dalny, 
 destroying the town. 
 
 May 26-27 — Battles of Nanshan hill 
 and Kinchow; loss, 5,130. 
 
 June 14-15 — Oku defeats Stackel- 
 berg at Vafangow; loss, 11,000. 
 
 June 17 — Battle of Motien Pass; 
 Russians driven back. 
 
 June 30-31 — Battle of Haicheng; loss, 
 5,700. 
 
 July 25 — Russian forces driven out of 
 Newchwang. 
 
 Aug. 10— Sortie from Port Arthur 
 harbor; Russian fleet dispersed and in 
 part destroyed; Vice-Admiral Withoft 
 killed. 
 
 Aug. 14 — Kamimura defeats Vladi- 
 vostok squadron; Rurik sunk. 
 
 Aug. 30-Sept. 4 — Japanese, under 
 Oyama, defeat Kuropatkin at Liaoyang; 
 365,000 engaged; loss, 35,000. 
 
 Sept. 11 — Baltic fleet sails from 
 Cronstadt under Rojestvensky. 
 
 Oct. 8-18 — Kuroki defeats Kuro- 
 patkin at Shakhe river. Total casualties 
 61,679, with 23,000 killed. 
 
 Oct. 22 — The “Doggerbank outrage.” 
 Two British fishermen killed. 
 
 Nov. 30 — Japanese take 203-Meter 
 hill by storm, losing 12,000. 
 
 Jan. 2 — Stoessel surrenders Port 
 Arthur to Nogi. 
 
 Jan. 26 to 31 — Battle of the Hun 
 river; Russians defeated with loss of 
 15,000; Japanese loss, 5,000. 
 
 LOSSES AND COST IN FIRST YEAR OF 
 WAR — LOSSES IN MEN. 
 
 Russians killed, 60,000, wounded, 
 
 155.000, total, 215,000. Japanese killed, 
 
 65.000, wounded, 110,000, total, 175,000. 
 
 NAVAL LOSSES. 
 
 By Russia — Seven battleships, thir- 
 teen cruisers and fourteen gunboats, 
 torpedo boats and destroyers. Total, 
 34 ships. 
 
 By Japan — One battleship, three 
 cruisers, three transports and sixteen 
 torpedo boats and destroyers. Total, 
 23 ships. 
 
 FINANCIAL COST. 
 
 Official figures by Russia, $475,000,- 
 000; estimates made by Japan, $360,- 
 000,000. Total cost to both countries, 
 $835,000,000. See Manchuria. 
 
 RUSSIA LEATHER is prepared in 
 Russia chiefly from cow-hides tanned 
 with willow, poplar, and larch bark, and 
 is saturated with birch-bark oil, which 
 gives it its peculiar odor. It is highly 
 esteemed for its durability and imper- 
 viousness to water and insects, and is 
 dyed in various colors, red and brown 
 being the most frequent. It is much 
 used for book-bindings and fancy 
 articles. Similar leather from cow-hide 
 is made of good quality in the United 
 States. Large quantities of imitation 
 Russia leather are made in Paris, but it 
 lacks durability. 
 
 RUST, peroxide of iron, formed by 
 the gradual oxidation of iron when ex- 
 posed to the air. To remove rust the 
 usual mode is to rub the object with a 
 piece of oiled rag or emery paper. More 
 rapid and more satisfactory results are 
 secured by using very pure petroleum, 
 and wiping with a hempen or woolen rag. 
 To prevent rust, dip iron or steel articles 
 in a mixture of equal parts of carbolic 
 acid and olive-oil, rubbing the surface 
 with a rag. Others rub the metal with 
 a mercurial ointment, leaving a thin 
 layer over the entire surface. If iron be 
 dipped in a solution of carbonate of 
 potash or soda in water the surface will 
 be protected against rust for a long 
 time, and objects can be protected for 
 any period by burying in quicklime. 
 Rubbing the surface with plumbago has 
 a similar effect. 
 
 RUST, a disease which attacks cereals 
 and many pasture grasses, known also 
 by the names of red-gum, red-rag, red- 
 robin. It is most common on the leaves, 
 on which it is visible in the form of 
 orange-colored mealy spots, but is by 
 no means confined to them. It is pro- 
 duced by a species of fungus, the growth 
 of which seems to be specially favored 
 in ill-ventilated fields under excessive 
 summer heat. 
 
 RUSTIC WORK in masonry is a term 
 applied where the surface of a wall 
 shows grooves between the different 
 courses of stones thus giving the ap- 
 pearance of open joints. 
 
 RUTH, Book of, a canonical book of 
 
 the Old Testament. It is a kind of 
 appendix to the Book of Judges, and an 
 introduction to those of Samuel, and is 
 therefore properly placed between them. 
 The story of Ruth records in simple 
 language the ancient rights of kindred, 
 redemption, and other interesting cus- 
 toms of Hebrew antiquity. The date of 
 the history and the name of its writer are 
 unknown, but it is probably of a date 
 subsequent to the captivity. 
 
 Rustic work. 
 
 I , With chamfered ;oi ats. 2, W ith rectang ul,. 
 joints. 
 
 RUTHE'NIANS, Russin'ians, Russ- 
 niaks. Red or Little Russians, numer- 
 ous Slavonic tribes inhabiting Eastern 
 Galicia, Bukowira, and Northeastern 
 Hungary, closely allied to the inhabi- 
 tants of Podolia and Volhynia. The 
 number of Ruthenians in the Austrain 
 empire amounts to 3,000,000, of whom 
 about 500,000 are settled in Hungary. 
 
 RUTHERFURD, Lewis Morris, Ameri- 
 can scientist, was born in Morrisania, 
 
 N. Y., in 1816. He invented and con- 
 structed a number of instruments which 
 proved of great value to astronomers. 
 
 He constructed a micrometer for the 
 measurement of astronomical photo- 
 graphs, for use upon pictures of solar 
 eclipses or transits and upon groups of 
 stars, of which he has measured several 
 hundred, showing, that the photo- 
 graphic method is at least equal in ac- 
 curacy to that of the heliometer or filar- 
 micrometer and far more convenient. He 
 was one of the original members named 
 in the act of congress in 1863, creating ’ 
 the National Academy of Science. He 
 died in 1892. 
 
 RUTLAND, the capital of Rutland 
 CO., Vermont, 117 miles n.n.w.of Boston. 
 
 It is an important railway junction, and 
 has valuable white marble quarries in 
 its vicinity. Pop. 11,760. ;■ 
 
 RYE, a species of grain of which there - 
 are several varieties. It is an esculent 
 grain bearing naked seeds on a flat ear 
 furnished with awns like barley. It is a 
 native of the Levant, but has been culti- . 
 vated in Europe from time immemorial. 
 
 It thrives in climates and in soils which 
 forbid wheat; requires less manure, and ? 
 ripens faster. It is extensively grown in 
 northern Europe, and rye bread forms 
 the chief subsistence of the laboring • 
 classes of many parts of Russia, Sweden, 
 Norway, Denmark, Holland, and Prussia. 
 Unmalted rye-meal mixed with barley 
 malt and fermented forms the wash * 
 
 whence is distilled the spirit known as 
 Hollands gin. The straw is long, flexi- 
 ble, does not rot easily, and is used by 
 brickmakers and thatchers, also for 
 stuffing horse-collars, mattres.ses, etc.,, 
 and for making baskets, straw hats, and 
 bonnets. Rye is subject to a disease 
 called ergot, which renders it dangerous 
 for food. 
 
s 
 
 SACCHAROMETER 
 
 S, the nineteenth letter of the English 
 alphabet, representing the hissing sound 
 produced by emitting the breath be- 
 tween the roof of the mouth and the tip 
 of the tongue placed just above the 
 upper teeth. From this circumstance it 
 has sometimes been reckoned among the 
 linguals (as the tongue is essential in its 
 pronunciation), sometimes among the 
 dentals (as the teeth co-operate in pro- 
 ducing the hissing sound). More de- 
 scriptively it is classed as a sibilant It 
 has a twofold pronunciation — sharp or 
 hard as in sack, sin, this, thus; and soft 
 or sonant (when it is equivalent to z), as 
 in muse, wise. 
 
 SAALE (za'l6), the name of several 
 German rivers, the most important of 
 which is that which rises on the north 
 side of the Fichtelgebirge, in the north- 
 east of Bavaria, and joins the Elbe after 
 a course of above 200 miles. It passes 
 the towns Hof, Jena, Naumburg, Merse- 
 burg, Halle, etc., and is of great com- 
 mercial importance. 
 
 SABBATH (a Hebrew word signifying 
 rest) is the day appointed by the Mosaic 
 law for a total cessation from labor, and 
 for the service of God, in memory of the 
 circumstance that God, having created 
 the world in six days, rested on the 
 seventh. Sabbath is not strictly synony- 
 mous with Sunday. Sunday is the mere 
 name of the day ; Sabbath is the name of 
 the institution. Sundayis the Sabbath of 
 Christians; Saturday is the Sabbath of 
 the Jews and some minor Christian sects. 
 The first notice in the Old Testament 
 pointing to the Sabbath occurs in Gen. 
 li. 2, 3; but the first formal institution of 
 the day as a holy day and a day of rest 
 is recorded in Exod. xvi. 22-26, on the 
 occasion of the children of Israel gather- 
 ing manna in the wilderness. Soon after 
 the observance of the day was re-en- 
 acted still more expressly and emphati- 
 cally in the tables of the law. Prior to 
 the captivity the Jews kept the Sabbath 
 very indifferently, but after their return 
 from Egypt Nehemiah exerted himself 
 to secure the true observance. Gradually 
 the original law became encumbered 
 j; with a long list of petty pharisaical and 
 rabbinical regulations. The Sabbath 
 M.' began at sunset on Friday and ended at 
 i sunset on Saturday. On the Sabbath the 
 j, Jews were not allowed to go out of the 
 
 ■ city further than 2000 paces, that is, 
 , about a mile, and this distance was 
 
 called a Sabbath-day’s journey. And as 
 every seventh day was a day of rest to 
 the people, so was every seventh year to 
 I to the land. It was unlawful in this year 
 ’ to plough or sow, or prune vines; and if 
 the earth brought forth anything of its 
 own accord, these spontaneous fruits 
 did not belong to the master of the 
 ground, but were common to all. This 
 year was called the Sabbatical year, and 
 was also to be a year of release for Jewish 
 debtors. In the gospels the references to 
 I the Sabbath are numerous, and they 
 . show us that Christ always paid respect 
 ' to the institution although he did not 
 
 ■ regard the minute prohibitions that had 
 been added to the original law. The de- 
 sire of distinguishing the Christian from 
 
 j the Jewish observance early gave rise to 
 
 P. E.— 69 
 
 s 
 
 the celebration of Sunday, the first day 
 of the week, instead of the Sabbath In 
 366 the Council of Laodicea removed 
 all scruples as to the duty of Christians 
 to keep the Jewish Sabbath. See Sun- 
 day. 
 
 SAB'INES, an ancient people widely 
 spread in middle Italy, allied to the 
 Latins, and already an important nation 
 prior to the foundation of Rome. 
 Originally they were confined to the 
 mountain districts to the n.e. of Rome, 
 and their ancient capital was Amiternum 
 near the modern Aquila. As an inde- 
 pendent nation they ceased to exist in 
 290 B.C., when they were incorporated 
 with the Roman state. 
 
 SABLE, a carnivorous mammal, near- 
 ly allied to the common marten and pine 
 marten, found chiefly in Siberia and 
 Kamtchatka, and hunted for its fur. 
 Its length, exclusive of the tail, is about 
 18 inches. Its fur, which is extremely 
 lustrous, and hence of the very highest 
 value, is generally brown, grayish-yellow 
 on the throat, and with small grayish- 
 yellow spots scattered on the sides of the 
 
 Sable. 
 
 neck. It is densest during winter, and 
 owing to the mode of attachment of the 
 hairs to the skin it may be pressed or 
 smoothed in any direction. The skins of 
 these varieties are frequently dyed and 
 otherwise manipulated to imitate the 
 true Russian sable. Sable hair is also 
 used in the manufacture of artist’ pencils 
 Sable fur has been of great value from 
 very early times. 
 
 SABLE, in heraldry, black, one of the 
 tinctures used in blazonry. In engraving 
 it is expressed by perpendicular crossed 
 by horizontal lines. 
 
 SABLE ISLAND, a low treeless sandy 
 island in the North Atlantic, off the east 
 coast of Nova Scotia, 20 miles long and 
 1 to 5 broad. It has a refuge for ship- 
 wrecked persons and a lighthouse. Many 
 shipwrecks have occurred on it. It is 
 gradually disappearing. 
 
 SABOTS (si-bo), wooden shoes made 
 each of one piece hollowed out by boring 
 tools and scrapers. They are largely 
 worn by the peasantry of several Eu- 
 ropean countries, being well adapted to 
 protect the feet against damp. In France 
 their manufacture forms an important 
 industry. The willow, beech, and ash 
 are the favorite woods for sabotmaking. 
 
 SABRE, a broad and heavy sword, 
 thick at the back and somewhat curved 
 
 at the point. It is the chief weapon of 
 cavalry regiments. 
 
 SABRE-TACHE, a leathern case or 
 pocket won by cavalry officers at the 
 left side, suspended from their sword- 
 belt. It is rather ornamental than use- 
 ful, and its face bears the regimental 
 emblems, number, etc. 
 
 SACBUT, or SACKBUT, a musical in- 
 strument of the trumpet kind with a 
 slide; in fact an old variety of trombone. 
 The instrument called sabbeka in the 
 Hebrew scriptures has been erroneously 
 rendered as saebut by the translators. 
 The exact form of the sabbeka has been 
 
 Assyrian saebut, Irom bas-relief. 
 
 much disputed, but that it was a 
 stringed instrument is certain, for the 
 name passed over into Greek and Latin 
 in the forms sambuke, sambuca, a harp- 
 like instrument of four or more strings. 
 The instrument shown in the accom- 
 panying illustration is believed to rep- 
 resent a form of the saebut of scripture. 
 
 SACCH'ARIN, an artificial sugar pre- 
 pared from coal-tar, first introduced to 
 commerce in 1887 by its discoverer Dr. 
 Constantin Fahlberg of Salbke (Ger- 
 many). Its sweetening properties are 
 enormous; one grain of saccharin is said 
 to sweeten distinctly 70,000 grains of 
 distilled water. It is not a fermentable 
 sugar, and is already in common use in 
 the treatment of disease, as diabetes, 
 for instance; and in many cases in which 
 the palate craves for sweets, but in 
 which ordinary sugar cannot without 
 danger be permitted. It is also used by 
 stout persons, or those inclined to be- 
 come so, in order to lessen the formation 
 of fat. To a certain extent it now com- 
 petes with natural sugars, especially in 
 confectionery and preserving. There is 
 some doubt as to its effects on the hu- 
 man system. The French Conseil d' 
 Hygiene et de Salubrity appointed a 
 commission to inquire into its proper- 
 ties, and their report, issued in 1888, 
 stated that its use in food would seri- 
 ously affect the digestive functions. The 
 discoverer and other chemists, both 
 British and foreign, have denied, how- 
 ever, that saccharin is injurious, and it 
 is also asserted that the hostility to this 
 sweetening substance emanates chiefly 
 from persons interested in the beet- 
 sugar industry. Saccharin has come 
 largely into use in Germany in the 
 manufacture of confectionery, in brew- 
 ing, etc. 
 
 SACCHAROM'ETER, or SACCHARI- 
 METER, an instrument for determining 
 the quantity of saccharine matter in any 
 
SACCO PHARYNX 
 
 SAFE 
 
 solution. One form is simply a hydrom- 
 eter for taking the specific gravity of 
 the solution; another is a kind of polari- 
 scope, so arranged that the solution majt 
 be interposed between the polarizer and 
 analyzer, and by observing the angle 
 through which the plane of polarization 
 is turned in passing through the solution 
 the datum is given for the calculation 
 of the strength. (See Polarization.) 
 Several saccharometers acting on this 
 principle, but varying somewhat in con- 
 struction, are now in use. 
 
 SAC'COPHARYHX, or EURYPHAR- 
 YNX, a genus of eels. The best-known 
 
 Saccopharynx. 
 
 species was discovered only a few 
 years ago. It inhabits the depths of 
 the Atlantic, is of a perfectly black color, 
 is sometimes 9 feet in length, and but 
 seldom met with. It owes its name to its 
 pouch-like pharynx, which enables it to 
 swallow other fish of large dimensions. 
 The muscular system is but little devel- 
 oped, and the bones are thin and soft. 
 
 SACK, formerly a general name for the 
 different sorts of dry wine, more espe- 
 cially the Spanish, which were first ex- 
 tensively used in England in the 16th 
 century. 
 
 SACO, a river in the United States. 
 It rises in New Hampshire, in the White 
 mountains, and runs southeast into the 
 Atlantic below Saco, in Maine. It is 160 
 miles long, and has falls of 72 feet at 
 Hiram, of 42 feet at Saco, and numerous 
 minor ones. 
 
 SACRAMENT, Latin, sacramentum, a 
 pledge, an oath, in particular the mili- 
 tary oath of allegiance. This word 
 received a religious sense, in the 
 Christian church, from its having been 
 used in the Vulgate to translate the 
 Greek mysterion, a mystery. Among the 
 early Latin ecclesiastical writers sacra- 
 mentum, therefore, signifies a mystery, 
 a symbolical religious ceremony, and was 
 most frequently applied by them to the 
 rite of baptism. In modern Christian 
 theology sacrament is defined as an out- 
 ward and visible sign of an inward and 
 spiritual grace, a solemn religious cere- 
 mony enjoined by Christ to be observed 
 by his followers, and by which their 
 special relation to him is created, of 
 tneir obligations to him renewed and 
 ratified. In early times the church had 
 numerous sacraments, as many as thirty 
 being enumerated in the first half of the 
 12th century. The Roman and Greek 
 churches now recognize seven sacra- 
 ments -.baptism, confirmation, the Eucha- 
 rist, penance, extreme unction, orders, 
 and marriage. Protestants in general 
 bold baptism and the eucharist to be the 
 only sacraments. The Socinians regard 
 the sacraments merely as solemn rites, 
 having no divine eflBcacy, and not 
 necessarily binding on Christians. The 
 
 Quakers consider them as acts of the 
 mind only, and have no outward cere- 
 monies connected with them. 
 
 SACRAMEN'TO, a river in California. 
 It rises in the Sierra Nevada, on the 
 boarders of Oregon, and drains the 
 central valley of California from the 
 north. Its course is about 500 miles, 300 
 of which are navigable for small steam- 
 ers. It discharges its waters into the 
 Bay of San Francisco. 
 
 SACRAMENTO, the capital of Califor- 
 nia, in the county and on the river of 
 same name, 80 miles northeast of San 
 Francisco. It occupies a low and level 
 site, and vast sums of money have been 
 spent for embankments, and in raising 
 the street levels, so as to secure the town 
 against inundation by the river. Saera- 
 mento owes its origin and prosperity to 
 the northern gold-&lds. It has suffered 
 much from water and fire during its 
 short existenee, but is now a regular and 
 well-built city, boasting of many good 
 buildings. The state capitol, centrally 
 
 State capitol, Sacramento, Cal. 
 
 situated in a large, well-laid-out park, 
 is a grand structure, and cost about 
 $5,000,000. Pop. 1909, 46,000. 
 
 SACRIFICES, gifts offered with some 
 symbolic intent to the Deity, generally 
 an immolated victim or an offering of 
 any other kind laid on an altar or other- 
 wise presented in the way of religious 
 thanksgiving, atonement, or concilia- 
 tion. The origin of sacrifice is a point 
 much disputed; the two opposed views 
 being that of a primeval appointment 
 by the Deity, and that of a spontaneous 
 origination in the instinctive desire of 
 man to draw near to God. The symbolic 
 character of sacrifice may be represented 
 under three heads: (1) Propitiatory, or 
 designed to conciliate generally the 
 favor of the Deity; (2) Eucharistic, or 
 symbolical of gratitude for favors re- 
 ceived; (3) Expiatory, or offered in 
 atonement for particular offenses. To a 
 different class may be assigned depre- 
 catory sacrifices designed to avert the 
 wrath or appease the wicked disposition 
 of deities. The customs of the Jews re- 
 garding sacrifice are noteworthy on 
 account of their very express and ex- 
 plicit claims to a divine origin, and be- 
 cause of their connection with the Chris- 
 tian religion. Details are amply given in 
 the Book of Leviticus. Few religions, 
 whether ancient or modern, have omitted 
 sacrifices from among their rites. The 
 ancestors of all the existing races in 
 Europe practiced human sacrifices, and 
 similar usages widely prevailed through- 
 out the world. Among Christians the 
 
 Roman Catholic and Greek churches re- 
 ard the mass as a mysterious sacrifice; 
 ut with Protestants it is not generally 
 so regarded. 
 
 SA'CRUM, in anatomy, the bony 
 strueture which forms the basis or in- 
 ferior extremity of the vertebral column. 
 The human sacrum forms the back part 
 
 Pelvic bones, s, sacrum. 
 
 of the pelvis, is roughly triangular in 
 shape, consists of five united vertebrse, 
 and from its solidity it is well adapted to 
 serve as the keystone of the pelvic arch, 
 being wedged in between and articulat- 
 ing with the haunch-bones. In most 
 mammals the number of vertebree form- 
 ing the sacrum is smaller than in man. 
 In birds the lowest number is about ten. 
 Fishes possess no sacrum at all. The 
 sacrum in man is fully ossified and com- 
 pleted in development from the twenty- ■ 
 fifth to the thirtieth year of life, but the 
 component parts can generally be per- 
 ceived even in the most aged individuals. 
 
 SAD'DUCEES, one of the two chief 
 sects or parties existing among the Jews 
 in the time of Christ. Various accounts 
 are given of their origin. Some critics 
 recognize in the Sadducees the de- 
 scendants and adherents of the Zadok 
 mentioned in 1 Kings i. 39. 
 
 SAFE, a receptacle for valuables, of : 
 iron or steel, or both combined. A safe , 
 to answer all requirements should be 
 fire, explosive, acid, drill, and wedge- 
 proof. A fire-proof safe need only be so 
 constructed that, although exposed to , 
 the intense heat of a conflagration, itSj' 
 inner recesses remain at a sufficiently) 
 low temperature to prevent combustion 
 of the contents. A burglar-proof safe ^ 
 needs many other safe-g>jards, and the 
 history of safe-making is mainly a record , 
 of struggles between the safe manufac- 
 turer and the burglar; the result is that> 
 safes can now be obtained which are all ,J 
 but impregnable. The safe consists of - 
 an outer and an inner wall, the spaces 
 between being fiOed with some fire-proof j 
 material such as asbestos, silicate cotton,T 
 gypsum, etc. The outside casing, which ti 
 may be single or compound, naturally 5 
 receives the greatest attention, and 
 various are the devices of manufacturers 
 to render it sufficiently hard and solid t(H 
 resist the finely-tempered drills of the 
 burglar. To prevent wrenching, the 
 door is secured by bolts moving straight 
 or diagonally into slots on one or on all 
 sides. These bolts are moved by the door) 
 handle, and the lock-key fixes them in 
 their positions. With the modern safe 
 of the best kind, the lock may be said to 
 be the only vulnerable point, hence 
 much care and ingenuity have been ex- 
 pended on its mechanism. The first 
 great improvements in locks, as applied 
 to safes, are due to Chubb of London, a 
 name which still stands in the front 
 ranks of safe-lock makers; but numerous 
 
 J 
 
SAFE DEPOSIT COMPANIES 
 
 SAGE 
 
 patents, mostly of American origin, 
 have in recent years been introduced. 
 Of these the keyless pei-mutation locks 
 deserve particular mention, as they 
 obviate the danger which arises from 
 lost or false keys. Such locks allow of 
 opening only after an indicator has been 
 moved in accordance with a certain com- 
 bination of numbers arranged before 
 closing the safe. Some safe-locks are so 
 constructed that to be freed they require 
 different keys on different days, some 
 can only be opened at a certain hour, 
 this being fixed on before the door is 
 closed ; while others again require two or 
 more keys in charge of different per- 
 sons; in fact, the arrangements con- 
 trived to render the plundering of safes 
 next to impossible are too numerous 
 even to mention. The connection of 
 safes with electric alarms in a variety 
 of ways forms another safeguard. 
 
 SAFE DEPOSIT COMPANIES, are 
 among the comparatively recent ad- 
 ditions to the list of bodies corporate, 
 organized for a specific purpose, and 
 operating under and by vitrue of statu- 
 tory law or special acts of state legis- 
 latures. Deposit companies were formed 
 for the purpose of receiving deposits of 
 valuables of almost every description, 
 such as bonds, notes, mortgages, jew- 
 elry, gold and silver ware, family heir- 
 looms, wills, and other legal documents, 
 etc., companies guaranteeing to owners, 
 upon payment by the latter of a pre- 
 mium corresponding to the risk under- 
 taken, absolute security, from loss by 
 fire or otherwise, to the articles de- 
 posited. The acts of incorporation also 
 authorize the construction of such build- 
 ings, safes, and other appurtenances as 
 will promote the security contemplated 
 and the faithful execution of the trust 
 created for the benefit of depositors. 
 The vaults or safe deposits for the stor- 
 age of valuables are constructed after 
 the latest designs, of the most substan- 
 tial material, and provided with every 
 appliance known to scientific investi- 
 gation or mechanical development for 
 attaining the end in view, i. e., absolute 
 security from visitations either by bur- 
 glars or the elements. The interior of 
 these vaults is peopled, so to speak, 
 w'ith boxes and safes in which are con- 
 tained the valuables of clients, access 
 to which is obtained by keys, one being 
 held by the lessee and the other by the 
 company. The vaults are opened and 
 closed by electricity at designated hours, 
 and their protection is further guar- 
 anteed by locks and bolts, as also by 
 the presence of custodians, who are re- 
 lieved at intervals by colleagues. Auto- 
 matic signals are connected with the 
 police department and private detective 
 agencies of cities in which the company 
 does business, and either upon the 
 sounding of the alarm or its failure to 
 signal “all is well,” as the device is con- 
 structed to do, investigation is at once 
 instituted to ascertain the cause. A 
 pass-word is employed by some of the 
 companies as a further preventive 
 against intrusion, and other agencies 
 for the promotion of security are 
 adopted as rapidly as they become 
 available. 
 
 SAFETY-LAMP, a lamp for lighting 
 coal-mines without exposing the miners 
 
 to explosions of fire-damp. The first 
 safety-lamp was invented by Sir Hum- 
 phry Davy in 1816, and until a quite 
 recent periodhis system, with someslight 
 modifications, was in general use. It 
 consists principally of a cistern to hold 
 the oil, in the top of which the wick is 
 placed. Over the cistern a cylinder of 
 wire-gauze is fixed so as to envelop the 
 flame. The lamp is closed by a bolt 
 passing through both parts, and to pre- 
 vent the miner from exposing the flame 
 a locking arrangement exists. The 
 diameter of the gauze wire is from to 
 gV of an inch, and the apertures do not 
 exceed the of an inch square. The 
 Stephenson lamp, better known among 
 miners as the “Geordie,” has a glass 
 chimney as well as the wire-gauze 
 and the air to feed the flame enters 
 through a perforated ring just below the 
 wick. This lamp, though safer than the 
 Davy, if used with care, becomes a 
 source of danger if the perforated ring 
 is allowed to get clogged and the glass 
 chimney overheated. A series of trials 
 with safety-lamps, made in Britain by 
 a committee of the Midland institute, 
 led to the condemnation of the ordinary 
 Davy and Stephenson lamps and to the 
 Introduction of the Mueseler, Marsant, 
 and several other lamps, which had been 
 used with satisfaction in Belgian and 
 French mines. They are, however, all 
 modifications of the principle which 
 underlies the original invention of Sir 
 Humphry Davy. A safety-lamp re- 
 cently brought before the public is the 
 Thornebury, which is said to be self- 
 extinguishing in an explosive mixture 
 of fire-damp and air, to give a strong 
 light, to be simple in construction, and 
 absolutely safe. There are also several 
 electric miner’s lamps in the market. 
 
 SAFETY-VALVE, a contrivance for 
 relieving the pressure of steam before it 
 becomes too great for the calculated 
 strength of the containing vessel. The 
 commonest form of safety-valve on 
 
 Fig.1. 
 
 steam-boilers is a lid (valve), pressed 
 against a hole (seat) by either a spring 
 or a weight; the spring or weight not 
 exerting a greater force than can be 
 overcome by the pressure of the steam 
 inside, part of which then escapes and 
 obviates any danger. The valve is round, 
 is bevelled round the edge, and is fur- 
 nished with a spindle which moves 
 loosely in a guide attached to the seat; 
 the seat is bevelled to fit the edge of the 
 valve. On locomotive and on ship’s 
 boilers the valve is pressed against the 
 seat by a spring arrangement; but on 
 stationary boilers a weight should al- 
 ways be employed. Fig. 1 shows a safety 
 valve, in which a weight is employed. 
 Here a is the valve, b b the boiler, cc the 
 valve-seat, usually, like the valve itself, 
 made of gun-metal, d the lever turning 
 upon a fixed center at e, and pressing 
 upon the valve by a steel point, f a guide 
 
 for the lever, g a weight which may be 
 shifted backward and forward according 
 to the pressure desired. Fig. 2 shows a 
 form of spring safety-valve, in which a 
 series of bent springs hhh are placed 
 
 Pig. a 
 
 alternately in opposite directions, their 
 extremities sliding upon the rods i i, and 
 the springs being kept down by the cross 
 bar k; a being the valve, c the valve- 
 seat, and b b part of the boiler. 
 
 SAFFRON, a low ornamental plant 
 with grasslike leaves and large crocus- 
 like purple flowers, cultivated in the 
 East and in Southern Europe for the 
 sake of its stigmas. These when dried 
 form the saffron of the shops, which has 
 a deep-orange color, a warm bitterish 
 taste, and a sweetish penetrating odor. 
 Its orange-red extract is used by painters 
 and dyers, and the saffron itself also in 
 cookery and confectionery as a coloring 
 and flavoring substance. 
 
 SAGE, Russell, American capitalist, 
 was born in Shenandoah, Oneida co., 
 N. Y., in 1816. In 1852 he was elected 
 to congress as a whig, and reelected in 
 1854, serving on the Ways and Means 
 committee. He removed to New York 
 City in 1863 and became largely in- 
 terested in railroad investments. He 
 was associated with Jay Gould in the 
 control of the Wabash, the St. Louis 
 and Pacific, and other western roads, 
 and in the Western Union Telegraph 
 company and the Manhattan Elevated 
 Railroad system of New York City. 
 He died in 1906. 
 
 Sage. 1, inflorescence; 2, lower part of stem 
 with leaves. 
 
 SAGE, the common name of a very 
 large genus of plants containing about 
 
sage-brush 
 
 SAHARUNPUR 
 
 450 species, widely dispersed through 
 the temperate and wanner regions of the 
 globe. They are herbs or shrubs of 
 widely varying habit, usually with en- 
 tire or cut leaves and various-colored 
 (rarely yellow) flowers. The best known 
 is the S. oflicinalis, or garden sage. This 
 plant is much used in cookery, and is 
 supposed to assist the stomach in digest- 
 ing fat and luscious foods. Sage-tea is 
 commended as a stomachic and slight 
 stimulant. 
 
 SAGE-BRUSH, a low irregular shrub 
 of the order Composit®, growing in dry 
 alkaline soils of the North American 
 plains. The name is also given to other 
 American species of Artemisia. 
 
 SAGINAW, the capital of Saginaw co., 
 Michigan, on both sides of the Saginaw 
 river, here navigable for the largest lake 
 craft, about 17 miles from Lake Huron. 
 Saginaw is well supplied with railway 
 connections; and there are numerous 
 saw-mills and other industrial estab- 
 lishments. Pop. 1909, about 65,000. 
 
 SAGITTA'RIUS (the Archer), in as- 
 tronomy, the ninth sign of the zodiac, 
 into which the sun enters November 22. 
 The constellation consists of eight visible 
 stars. It is represented on celestial 
 globes and charts by the figure of a cen- 
 taur in the act of shooting an arrow from 
 his bow. 
 
 SAGO, a starchy product obtained 
 from the trunk of several species of a 
 genus of palms named Sagus, from 
 which the finest sago is prepared. They 
 form immense forests on nearly all the 
 Moluccas, each stem yielding from 100 
 to 800 lbs. of sago. The tree is about 30 
 feet high, and from 18 to 22 inches in 
 diameter. It is cut down at maturity, 
 the medullary part extracted and re- 
 duced to powder like sawdust. The 
 filaments are next separated by wash- 
 ing, and the meal laid to dry. _ For ex- 
 portation the finest sago meal is mixed 
 with water, and then rubbed into small 
 grains of the size and form of coriander 
 
 Sago palm. 
 
 seeds. The Malays have a process for 
 refining sago, and giving it a fine pearly 
 luster, the method of which is not known 
 to Europeans; but there are strong rea- 
 sons to believe that heat is employed, 
 because the starch is partially trans- 
 formed into gum. The sago so cured is in 
 the highest estimation in all the Euro- 
 pean markets. Sago forms a light, 
 wholesome, nutritious food, and may 
 be used to advantage in all cases where a 
 farinaceous diet is required. It is also 
 
 largely used in the manufacture of 
 soluble cocoas, and for adulterating 
 the common sorts of arrowroot. 
 
 SA'GOIN, or SAGOUIN, the native 
 South American name of a genus of 
 
 Sagoin. 
 
 Brazilian monkeys of small size, and 
 remarkably light, active, and graceful 
 in their movements. 
 
 SAGUENAY (sag'e-na), a river of 
 Canada, province of Quebec, formed by 
 two outlets of Lake St. John, which 
 
 and presenting some very high moun» 
 tain masses. Between Tibesti and the 
 Niger we have the elevated region of Air, 
 and toward the Atlantic Adrar. These 
 plateaux are intersected by many fertile 
 valleys fit for agriculture and pasture. 
 Other parts of the desert are broken 
 by large oases with a most luxuriant 
 vegetation, such as Twat, Wargla, and 
 Fezzan. On the borders of Algeria oases 
 have been created artificially by means 
 of artesian wells. A vast tract of true 
 desert, El Djuf, lies in the west central 
 region, and unites all the worst char- 
 acters of the desert — want of water, 
 intense heat, and moving sands. In the 
 desert proper there is little of animal or 
 of vegetable life. A few species of ante- 
 lopes, the wild ass, the mountain sheep, 
 the hy®na, the baboon, the tortoise, and 
 the ostrich, are met with in favored 
 spots. Lizards, jerboas, and serpents of 
 many kinds retain undisturbed posses- 
 sion of the burning sands. Where 
 herbage exists it is mainly composed of 
 such plants as require but little moisture. 
 The vegetable wealth of the desert- 
 dweller lies in the date-palm. The popu- 
 lation, estimated at about 2^ millions, 
 consists of various tribes of Arabs, 
 Berbers, and negroes. The Berbers are 
 almost confined to the west-central and 
 the negroes to the east-central parts. 
 
 Sails or a full-rigged ship. 
 
 unite about 9 miles below the lake, from 
 which point the river flows s.e., and falls 
 into the St. Lawrence at Tadousac har- 
 bor; length about 100 miles. 
 
 SAHARA (sa-ha'ra ; properly sa'ha-ra) 
 The, that vast and mainly desert tract 
 of Northern Africa lying north and 
 south of the Tropic of Cancer, between 
 the Atlantic and the Nile. In the north it 
 extends to and forms part of Morocco, 
 Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, and Egypt; in 
 the south it is chiefly bounded By the 
 Soudan. This immense area, calculated 
 at over million square miles, is not, 
 as popularly supposed, a great level 
 desert; on the contrary, it dffers con- 
 siderable variety of configuration and 
 vegetation. The surface ranges from 
 below sea-level to 8000 feet above it. 
 There are the extensive and elevated 
 plateaux of Tasili, Tibesti, etc., about 
 the center of the Sahara, running from 
 the north in a southeasterly direction. 
 
 while the Arabs predominate in the 
 other regions. Camel-breeding, slave 
 and salt dealing, caravan conducting, 
 and brigandage form the chief occupa- 
 tions of a large section. A number of 
 caravan routes through the Sahara con- 
 nect Timbuctoo and the Soudan with 
 the maritime countries in the north. 
 Recent explorations have finally dis- 
 posed of the idea that the Sahara is the 
 dried-up bed of a former inland sea, 
 and that it could be restored to its 
 former condition by admitting the 
 waters of the ocean. The diluvial sea 
 theory is now limited to the low-lying 
 districts, El Djuf and Kufra, which 
 abound in rock-salt deposits. A great 
 art of the western Sahara is claimed 
 y France. Spain has annexed a portion 
 of the littoral and interior between 
 Morocco and Senegal. 
 
 SAHARUNPUR (sa-ha-ran-pur'), » 
 town in Hindustan, capital of the dis- 
 
SAIL 
 
 SAINT LOUIS 
 
 
 trict of the same name, in the United 
 i' Provinces. It has many handsome 
 residences in the European style, a 
 government stud, a botanic garden, and 
 a large sugar and grain trade. Pop. 
 66,254. 
 
 SAIL, a piece of cloth or tissue of some 
 kind spread to the wind to impel or 
 as..ist in impelling a vessel through the 
 water. Sails are usually made of several 
 breadths of canvas, sewed together with 
 a double seam at the borders, and edged 
 all round with a cord or cords called the 
 bolt-rope or bolt-ropes. A sail extended 
 by a yard hung by the middle is called 
 a square sail; a sail set upon a gaflf, 
 boom, or stay, so as always to hang 
 more or less in the direction of the ves- 
 sel’s length, is called a fore-and-aft sail. 
 The upper part of every sail is the head, 
 the lower part the foot, the sides in 
 general are called leeches. The lower 
 two corners of a square sail are in gen- 
 eral called clues, and are kept extended 
 by ropes called sheets. Sails generally 
 take their names, partly at least, from 
 the mast, yard, or stay upon which they 
 are stretched; thus, the main-course, 
 main-top sail, main-topgallant sail, are 
 respectively the sails on the mainmast 
 main-topmast andmain-topgallantmast. 
 The names of the sails shown in fore- 
 going cut are; 1, flying jib; 2, jib; 3, 
 fore-topmast staysail ; 4, fore-course (or 
 fore-sail) ; 5, fore-topsail ; 6, fore-top- 
 gallant sail; 7, fore-royal; 8, fore-sky- 
 sail; 9, fore-royal studding-sail; 10, fore- 
 topgallant studding-sail; 11, fore-top- 
 mast studding-sail; 12, main-course 
 (main-sail); 13, main-top sail; 14, main- 
 topgallant sail ; 1 5, main-royal ; 1 6, main- 
 sky-sail; 17, main-royal studding-sail; 
 18, main-topgallant studding-sail; 19, 
 main-topmast studding-sail; 20, mizzen- 
 course (cross-jack); 21, mizzen-top-sail; 
 22, mizzen-topgallant sail; 23, mizzen- 
 royal; 24, mizzen-sky-sail ; 25, spanker 
 or driver. The vessel represented might, 
 however, carry additional sails to those 
 shown, in the shape of staysails, etc.; 
 and in modern ships the top sails and 
 topgallant sails are often divided into 
 lower and upper. Fovir-masted ships are 
 now not uncommon. See Ship. 
 
 SAINT CLAIR, a lake in North Ameri- 
 ca, situated between Lake Huron and 
 Lake Erie, and connected with the 
 former by St. Clair river, with the latter 
 by Detroit river. It is 30 miles long, 
 greatest breadth 24 miles, area 360 sq. 
 miles. It contains several flne islands. 
 The river St.' Clair, which separates 
 Canada and the United States, is about 
 40 miles long, 1 mile wide, and navigable. 
 
 SAINT CLOUD, a city and the county 
 seat of Stearns co., Minn., 65 miles 
 northwest of Minneapolis; on the Mis- 
 sissippi river and the Great Northern 
 and Northern Pacific railroads. It is the 
 seat of a state normal school and of the 
 Minnesota State reformatory. Pop. 
 10,663. 
 
 SAINTE AUGUS'TINE, a city and sea- 
 I port and capital of St. John’s co., Florida 
 on an inlet of the Atlantic, and a fashion- 
 able health resort during winter. It 
 is said to be the oldest town in the 
 ' United States, having been founded by 
 I the Spaniards about 1565. A few speci- 
 j mens of Spanish architecture remain, 
 « but these are rapidly making way for 
 
 modern structures, and the town is 
 putting on a new appearance. The Hotel 
 Ponce de Leon is a monumental build- 
 ing in the early Spanish Renaissance 
 style. It occupies a great extent of 
 ground, and its architecture is rendered 
 effective by distribution of plan, by 
 lofty towers, corner turrets, arcades, 
 and low-pitched overhanging tiled roofs. 
 It has also garden courts and ornamental 
 gardens. There are also other large 
 hotels and several fine churches. Per- 
 manent population about 4800, but in 
 winter over 10,000. 
 
 SAINTE-BEUVE (sant-beuv), Charles 
 Augustin, a French writer, and one of 
 the greatest of modern critics, born at 
 Boulogne 1804, died at Paris 1869. The 
 cross of the Legion of Honor was be- 
 stowed on him in 1859, and the senator- 
 ship in 1865. Most of his critical writ- 
 ings have been republished in various 
 editions. 
 
 SAINT HELENA. See Helena (St.). 
 
 SAINT JOHN, a city and port of 
 Canada, province New Brunswick, capi- 
 tal of St. John CO., at the mouth of the 
 river of the same name, which here enters 
 the Bay of Fundy. It is built on rocky 
 and irregular ground, and presents 
 on the whole an attractive appearance. 
 The harbor is commodious, spacious, 
 never freezes, and is well protected by 
 
 batteries. _ St. John is the great com- 
 mercial emporium of New Brunswick, 
 and has in particular a great trade in 
 lumber. The fisheries are very impor- 
 tant, and ship-building and a variety of 
 other industries are briskly carried on 
 Pop. 40,711. 
 
 SAINT JOHN, a river partly belonging 
 to the United States, partly to Canada, 
 the last. 230 miles of its course being in 
 New Brunswick; total length 550 miles. 
 It is navigable for large steamers to 
 Fredericton, a distance of 80 miles. 
 About 225 miles up are the Grand Falls, 
 75 feet high. The city of St. John is at 
 its mouth. 
 
 SAINT JOHN’S, capital of Newfound- 
 land, on Avalon peninsula in the south- 
 east. Pop. 30,486. 
 
 SAINT JOSEPH, a highly prosperous 
 city in the United States, capital of 
 Buchanan county, Missouri, on the river 
 Missouri, which is crossed by a fine iron 
 railway bridge. It is noted for its col- 
 
 leges and schools, has a fine court-house, 
 Sfuendid opera-house, large central rail- 
 road depot, etc. It is the most com- 
 mercial and populous town of Western 
 Missouri, and an important railway 
 center. It has manufactories of railway 
 carriages and wagons, furniture, en- 
 gines and boilers, stoves, clothing, flour- 
 mills, boot factories, etc. Pop. 124,450. 
 
 SAINT- JUST (san-zhust), Antoine 
 Louis L4on Florelle de, one of the most 
 prominent men in the French revolu- 
 tion, born 1767, executed 1794. He was 
 an effective speaker, but unscrupulous 
 and uncompromising. The guillotine 
 was his general answer to all arguments 
 and actions which did not harmonize 
 with his own. He fell with Robespierre 
 through the events of the 9th Ther- 
 midor. 
 
 SAINT LOUIS (lu'i or lu'is), the chief 
 city of the lower Mississippi valley, the 
 commercial metropolis of the State of 
 Missouri, is situated on the west bank 
 of the Mississippi, less than 20 miles 
 from its confluence with the Missouri, 
 and 185 miles north of the influx of the 
 Ohio. It is distant by river about 
 1,200 miles from New Orleans, and 729 
 miles from St. Paul, the head of navi- 
 gation upon the upper Mississippi. It 
 is situated in the center of the great 
 valley, through which the waters of the 
 
 Missouri, Mississippi, Ohio, Illinois and 
 other, smaller but navigable streams 
 find their way to the Gulf of Mexico. 
 St. Louis is built upon a series of un- 
 dulating hills or terraces that rise one 
 above the other from the river for miles 
 to the west. 
 
 The plan of the city is rectilinear. In 
 the old portion of the city, laid out by 
 the early French inhabitants, the streets 
 are narrow, and the blocks average 300 
 feet square. In the newer portion of 
 the city the streets are wide and lined 
 with shade trees. The east and west 
 streets run from the river at right 
 angles. One of these. Market street, 
 is the dividing center line. The 
 sewer system is most extensive, sur- 
 face drainage being unknown in the 
 city. The largest sewer, known as the 
 Mill Creek, following the line of a nat- 
 ural drain, is twenty feet wide and fif- 
 teen feet high. The city is lighted every 
 night of the year by electricity. The 
 
SAINT LOUIS WORLD’S FAIR 
 
 SAINTS 
 
 alleys are brightly illuminated with in- 
 candescent electric lights, and the streets 
 proper with arc-lights swung over the 
 streets at an elevation of forty-five feet. 
 
 The twenty-three public parks, places, 
 and gardens of the city have a total 
 area of 2183 acres, including that part of 
 Forest park temporarily used as part of 
 the grounds of the Louisiana Purchase 
 Exposition. Forest park, the largest 
 of these, dates from 1874. It is almost 
 directly west of the business center. 
 Its area of 1371 acres represents a cost 
 of $2,304,669 for ground and improve- 
 ments. Theschool system of Saint Louisis 
 notable in several particulars, chiefly in 
 its application of the theory of manual 
 training in connection with the work of 
 Washington university, and in its 
 pioneer work in illustrating the practi- 
 cal workings of the theories of Froebel. 
 The city has begun supplying free books, 
 andsupports the free public library as an 
 essential part of the system of public edu- 
 cation. Among the private institutions 
 are Washington university,with the Man- 
 ual Training school and School of Fine 
 Arts, University of Saint Louis, Forest 
 Park University for Women, the Chris- 
 tian Brothers’ college, the Saint Louis 
 College of Physicians and Surgeons, the 
 Homeopathic Medical College of Mis- 
 souri, the Missouri School for the Blind, 
 the Kenrick Theological seminary, and 
 the Saint Louis Law school, now a 
 department of Washington university. 
 The principal libraries are the Public 
 and the Mercantile. Among minor 
 libraries, that of the Missouri Histor- 
 ical society is most important. The 
 principal theatres are the Olympic, 
 the Century, the Garrick, the Grand 
 Opera House, the Imperial, Havlin’s, the 
 Odeon (Grand Avenue), and the Colum- 
 bia. The Grand Opera House has a 
 seating capacity of 2200, and the 
 Olympic 2400. 
 
 The railroad systems of which Saint 
 Louis is a center converge here from all 
 parts of the United States and also from 
 Mexico and Canada, though the country 
 in which the city has fostered railroad 
 development most in marketing its out- 
 put lies south of Nebraska and west of 
 the Mississippi. The twenty-four rail- 
 roads of which it is a terminus have 
 dwarfed the influence of the Mississippi 
 as the determining factor of its trade 
 without lessening the great advantage 
 of direct river communication with tide 
 water. Though Saint Louis is important 
 as a manufacturing city and markets its 
 own industrial output, it is still more im- 
 portant commercially as a distributing 
 center for products representing the 
 entire country. Its location makes it a 
 point of clearing between manufactured 
 products and the products of the soil for 
 which they are exchanged. East Saint 
 Louis, the principal industrial suburb 
 on the Illinois side of the river, is con- 
 nected by the magnificent Eads Bridge 
 for railroads, wagons, and foot pas- 
 sengers. (See Bridge.) The Mer- 
 chants’ Bridge connecting the Illinois 
 terminals of Saint Louis railroads with 
 tlio Union Station system of terminals is 
 for railroads only. The Union Station 
 covers about eleven acres of ground 
 with its' main building and adjacent 
 sheds. Saint Louis is a port of entry. 
 
 Its exports are chiefly to Mexico, South 
 America, and the West Indies. Its 
 direct trade with the Philippines, 
 mainly in malt liquors, has assumed 
 some importance. The principal ex- 
 port shipments of flour and grain are 
 to Central and South America, Cuba, 
 England, Scotland, Ireland, Holland, 
 and Germany. Exports to Europe 
 consist largely of provisions. The 
 principal items are dry-salt and sweet 
 pickled meats, oleo, lard and hides. 
 Exports of agricultural supplies, hard- 
 ware; electrical supplies, machinery, 
 glass, etc., are mostly to Spanish Amer- 
 ica. The city is “the largest tobacco 
 market in the world.” Population 
 1909, estimated at 704,000. 
 
 SAINT LOUIS WORLD’S FAIR, the 
 international exposition held at Saint 
 Louis from April 30, 1904, until No- 
 vember the same year. It was held to 
 commemorate the centenary of the 
 purchase of the Louisiana territory by 
 the United States. Thirty-four states 
 and territories and many foreign gov- 
 ernments were largely represented, and 
 many of them erected special and typi- 
 cal structures. The administrative sys- 
 tem of the Exposition included four 
 executive divisions ; Exhibits, Exploita- 
 tion, Works, and Concessions and Ad- 
 mission. The Division of Exhibits com- 
 prised the following fifteen departments : 
 Education, Art, Liberal Arts, Manu- 
 factures, Machinery, Electricity, Trans- 
 portation, Agriculture, Horticulture, 
 Forestry, Mining and Metallurgy, Fish 
 and Game, Anthropology, Special Econ- 
 omy, and Physical Culture. 
 
 SAINT MARY’S RIVER, the channel 
 connecting Lake Superior with Lake 
 Huron, having more the character of a 
 lake than a river. At Sault Ste. Marie, 
 or St. Mary’s Falls, there is a fall of 18 
 feet, and to enable vessels to avoid this 
 canals have been made both in the 
 United States and in Canada. 
 
 SAINT PAUL, the capital of Minnesota 
 and Ramsey co., on the Mississippi, 10 
 miles below the Falls of St. Anthony. 
 Owing to its favorable position it has 
 grown in about 50 years from an in- 
 significant depot into a fine city, and a 
 great commercial and manufacturing 
 center. It is surrounded by a complete 
 
 State capltol, St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 net of railways, and its situation on the 
 Mississippi offers water communication 
 of exceptional value. Two bridges con- 
 nect the city with Minneapolis. Two 
 double-track interurban electric street 
 
 car routes join the network in the two 
 cities. 
 
 The city embraces an area of about 
 56 square miles. Of this area 1,204.42. 
 acres, in 48 separate tracts, are devoted 
 to park purposes. The park systems of 
 the Twin Cities are connected by drives 
 extending along the magnificent wooded 
 gorge and the series of rapids below the 
 Falls of Saint Anthony. 
 
 Saint Paul has numerous striking 
 buildings. The finest is the new state 
 Capitol, of white Georgia marble, stand- 
 ing on a lofty eminence. It has a mag- 
 nificent dome and entrances. The new 
 post-office opposite Rice park, and the 
 massive city hall and court house, 
 occupying an entire square on Wabasha 
 and Fourth streets, are other edifices of 
 merit. Manufactures include agricul- 
 tural machinery, joinery, railway roll- 
 ing-stock, flour, leather, boots, and pre- 
 served provisions. There are medical 
 and other colleges. Pop. 1909, 235,000. 
 
 ST. PETERSBURG. See Petersburg, 
 (St.). 
 
 SAINT-PIERRE (san-pi-ar) , Jacques 
 Henri Bernardin de, a French author, 
 born 1737, died 1814. His Etudes de la 
 Nature, published in 1783, first secured 
 him a literary position. Then followed 
 his chief works: Paul et Virginie (1787) 
 and Chaumi^re Indienne (1790), both of 
 them (especially the former) very popu- 
 lar. He was married twice when well 
 advanced in 3'^ears, each time to a young 
 girl. In 1795 he was admitted to the 
 Institute. 
 
 SAINTS, a word used in the New Tes- 
 tament as a general term to designate all 
 believers in the gospel of Jesus Christ. 
 In a specific sense it signifies persons 
 whose lives have been deemed so emi- 
 nently pious that the Greek and Roman 
 Catholic churches have authorized 
 practices of commemoration and invo- 
 cation in regard to them. The points in- 
 volved in the Roman Catholic doctrine 
 are the intercession of the saints and the 
 utility of invoking them. According to 
 the Council of Trent “the saints reigning 
 with Christ offer their prayers for men 
 to God”; and it teaches that “it is good 
 and useful to call upon them with sup- 
 plication, and in order to obtain benefits 
 from God through Jesus Christ, who 
 alone is our Redeemer and Savior, to 
 have recourse to their prayers, help, and 
 aid.” This help and aid is not expected 
 to be given directly, but only through 
 the favor the saints have with God, and 
 through their intercession. As to how 
 the saints are enabled to hear praj*ers 
 addressed to them, there is no definite 
 teaching. It is chiefly holy men who 
 have died since the time of Christ that 
 are spoken of as saints. The doctrine of 
 saints, and the ideas and usages which 
 grew out of them, form one of the main 
 points of difference between the Prot- 
 estants and the adherents of the above- 
 mentioned churches. The Roman Catho- 
 lics regard their beliefs on the subject 
 of saints as supported by different parts 
 of the Bible and the writing^ of many of 
 the early fathers. Protestants generally 
 object to the whole doctrine, alleging 
 that not only is the idea of saints 
 as intercessors nowhere contained in 
 the Bible but that it originated cen- 
 turies after the establishment of Chris- 
 
SAINT-SIMON 
 
 SALEM 
 
 tianity ; and that it is against the chief 
 doctrine of Christianity, which de- 
 clares all men to be sinners, and to be 
 saved only by Christ. Countries, cities, 
 arts, trades, orders, things, etc., have 
 their patron saints, or saints who are 
 supposed to be specially interested on 
 their behalf; but the church, it seems, 
 determines nothing in relation to them. 
 St. Denis is the patron of France; St. 
 George of England and Russia; St. 
 Andrew of Scotland; St. Patrick of Ire- 
 land; Olaff of Norway; Canute of Den- 
 mark; Nepomuk of Bohemia; Cecelia of 
 music; Hubert of hunting; Crispin of 
 shoemakers, etc. 
 
 SAINT-SIMON (san-se-mon), Claude 
 Henri, Comte de, founder of a philo- 
 sophico-religious sect of socialists, was 
 born at Paris in 1760. During the ten 
 years 1803-13 he wrote a number of 
 works on scientific and political sub- 
 jects, in which may be traced the 
 gradual development of his socialistic 
 theories, which found more definite 
 expression in his subsequent and more 
 important writings, such as L’Industrie 
 ou Discussions Politiques, Morales et 
 Philosophiques (1817-18), and Parabole 
 (1819). Augustin Thierry, Saint Aubin, 
 and Auguste Comte, who had become 
 his disciples, collaborated in these later 
 volumes. Finding the difficulty of pro- 
 curing the means of subsistence and of 
 publishing his works increasing, he 
 attempted suicide by shooting (1823), but 
 recovered with a mutilated visage and 
 the loss of an eye. He lived for about 
 two years after this, dying in 1825. 
 
 SAINT-SIMONIANS. See Saint-Simon. 
 
 ST. THOMAS, a West Indian island, 
 belonging to the kingdom of Denmark, 
 one of the Virgin group, 36 miles east of 
 Porto Rico. Area, 33 sq. miles; pop. 
 14,389; capital, Charlotte Amalia, on 
 the south side, with a safe and com- 
 modious harbor, dock, fort, etc. It is 
 neither fertile nor healthy, and is sub- 
 ject to droughts, cyclones, and earth- 
 quakes, but used to be an important 
 center of West Indian trade. 
 
 ST. VINCENT, a British West Indian 
 island, in the center of the Windward 
 group. Area, 132 sq. miles; pop. about 
 41,000; capital, Kingstown, on a bay 
 of the same name near the s.w. extremity 
 of the island, with a pop. of 5593. 
 
 ST. VINCENT, Cape, a promontory 
 forming the s.w. extremity of Portugal. 
 It is celebrated in naval history for the 
 great victory gained here in 1797 by the 
 British admiral Sir John Jervis over a 
 Spanish fleet nearly twice the strength 
 of his own. Sir John was raised to the 
 peerage under the title Earl of St. Vin- 
 cent. 
 
 SAKI, the common name of several 
 species of monkeys inhabiting South 
 America, closely allied to the sapajous, 
 but differing from the latter in having 
 nonprehensile tails. They are roughly 
 subdivided into long and short-tailed 
 sakis. They are all forest-dwellers, gre- 
 garious, nocturnal, timid, and live 
 chiefly on honey and fruits. 
 
 SALA. George Augustus, a journalist 
 and autnor, born in London 1828. His 
 last work was his own Life and Adven- 
 tures. Much of his work was contrib- 
 uted to the (London) Daily Telegraph, 
 but All the Year Round, the (3ornnill 
 
 Magazine, and the Illustrated London 
 News (“Echoes of the Week”) contain 
 many sparkling productions from his 
 pen. He died in 1895. 
 
 Saki Cuxio. 
 
 SAL'AD, a preparation of raw vege- 
 tables or herbs, such as lettuce, endive, 
 red or white cabbages, celery, cresses, 
 radishes, shalots, onions, green mus- 
 tard, dandelion, corn-salad, etc ; or of 
 cooked beet-root, potatoes, French 
 beans, etc., with salt, vinegar, oil, sauces 
 and spices. A great number of salads 
 may be made by suitable combination 
 of the materials mentioned, and still 
 further variety is obtained by the ad- 
 mixture of different kinds of shredded 
 meat, fish, eggs, sausage, lobster, crabs, 
 prawns, shrimps, sardines, etc. 
 
 SAL'ADIN, or properly Salah-ed-din, 
 a celebrated sultan of Egypt and Syria, 
 born 1137, died 1193. His father, a 
 native of Kurdistan, was governor of 
 Tekrit (on the Tigris). He early dis- 
 tinguished himself as a soldier, became 
 vizier to the last of the Fatimite caliphs 
 in succession to his uncle Shirkuh, and 
 on the caliph’s death in Egypt (1171) 
 Saladin usurped his wealth and author- 
 ity, with the approval of Nureddin, the 
 sultan of Damascus. After the latter’s 
 death (1173), Saladin succeeded also in 
 ossessing himself of Damascus and 
 outhern Syria. He rapidly extended 
 his conquests over Syria and the neigh- 
 boring countries, and thus came in 
 contact with the Crusaders during the 
 Third Crusade. The disastrous defeat he 
 suffered from the Crusaders in 1177 com- 
 pelled him to return to Egypt, but in 
 1182 he resumed his career of conquest. 
 In 1187 he gained the famous victory of 
 Tiberias, and Jerusalem surrendered to 
 him after a gallant resistance. But the 
 fall of Acre in 1191 after a two years’ 
 siege, and the defeats at the hand of 
 Richard I., compelled Saladin to con- 
 clude a truce (1192), which was followed 
 by the withdrawal of Richard. About a 
 year after this event Saladin died at 
 Damascus. 
 
 SALAMAN'CA, a city in Spain, capi- 
 tal of a province of the same name, 120 
 miles northwest of Madrid, on and be- 
 tween three hills, and on the river 
 Tonnes, here spanned by a fine bridge 
 of twenty-six arches, the greater part of 
 which is of Roman origin. In pictur- 
 esqueness, and in the magnificence of its 
 ancient edifices, Salamanca is hardly 
 surpassed by any other Spanish city. 
 Chief among the numerous attractions 
 rank the cathedral (16th century), a 
 splendid example of florid Gothic; the 
 old cathedral, erected 1102, in Roman- 
 esque style; the university, the College 
 
 of the Jesuits, King’s college, and 
 churches. The university is one of the 
 oldest and most celebrated in Europe, 
 and when at its zenith in the 16th cen- 
 tury attracted some 15,000 students 
 from all parts of Europe. Pop. 24,156. — 
 The province of Salamanca, chiefly 
 formed by the Douro basin, has an area 
 of 4940 sq. miles, and a population of 
 320,765. It is rich in oak and chestnut 
 forests and cereals, and produces wine, 
 oil, and hemp. 
 
 SALAMAN'DER, the name given to 
 various animals included in the class 
 Amphibia (frogs, toads, newts, etc.), and 
 in the order Urodela (“tailed”) of that 
 class. The salamanders may be divided 
 into the land salamanders and the water 
 salamanders, efts or newts. The land 
 salamanders have an elongated lizard- 
 like form, four feet, and a long tail. The 
 skin is warty, with many glands secret- 
 ing a watery fluid, which the animal 
 exudes when alarmed. As this fluid is 
 injurious to small animals the salaman- 
 ders have the reputation of extreme 
 venomousness, though they are in 
 reality entirely harmless. The best- 
 known species is the common salaman- 
 
 Cominon salamander. 
 
 der of Europe. It is 6 to 8 inches long, 
 is found in moist places under stones 
 or the roots of trees, near the borders of 
 springs, in deep woods, etc., and passes 
 its life in concealment except at night 
 or during rain. It is sometimes called 
 the spotted salamander, from the bright 
 yellow stripes on its sides. There are 
 various other species in Europe, Asia, 
 and America. In America the name is 
 often given to the menopome. Salaman- 
 ders feed on worms, slugs, snails, and 
 insects. The old legend that salaman- 
 ders could live in the midst of fire is, like 
 their venomousness, a fiction, although 
 it is possible that the watery secretion 
 of the skin might enable these animals 
 to resist heat with impunity for a longer 
 period than other forms. 
 
 SAL'AMIS, or KOLURI, an island of 
 Greece, in the Gulf of Ailgina, close to the 
 shore of Attica. The celebrated battle, 
 B.c. 480, in which the vast and un- 
 wieldy Persian fleet under Xerxes was 
 signally defeated by a much smaller 
 Grecian fleet, was fought here. 
 
 SAL-AMMONIAC, the chloride of am- 
 monium, now generally obtained from 
 the refuse of gas-works. It is used in 
 calico-printing, in galvanizing iron, in 
 soldering, etc. 
 
 SALEM, a city and seaport of Essex- 
 CO., Massachusetts, about 14 miles 
 n.n.e. of Boston. Its site is fonned by 
 two inlets of the sea; the North river, 
 connected with Beverley by a bridge 
 nearly 1500 feet long, and the South 
 river, which forms the harbor. It has a 
 large coasting trade and its manufao- 
 
SALEM 
 
 SALMON 
 
 turing industries are in a flourishing 
 condition, particularljr in cotton, jute, 
 leather and boots, spirits and chemicals. 
 Pop. 38,940. 
 
 SALEM, a district and town of Hin- 
 dustan, Madras presidency. Area of 
 district, 7653, sq. miles; pop. 2,205,898. 
 — Salem, the capital, is well situated in 
 a long narrow valley traversed by the 
 Tirumanimuttar, is clean and tolerably 
 well built, and has a good trade and a 
 weaving industry of some importance. 
 Pop. 70,621. 
 
 SALER'NO, a town and seaport of 
 Italy, capital of the province of the same 
 name, on the Gulf of Salerno, 30 miles 
 southeast of Naples, finely situated on 
 the side and at the foot of a hill, crowned 
 by the remains of an ancient Norman 
 citadel. Pop. 22,328.— The province 
 has an area of 2126 sq. miles, and a pop. 
 of 583,838. 
 
 SALFORD, a municipal, pari., and 
 county borough of England, in Lanca- 
 shire, which may be considered an in- 
 tegral portion of Manchester, though it 
 has a mayor and corporation of its own. 
 Pop. 220,956. See Manchester. 
 
 SALIC LAW, the code of laws of the 
 Salian Franks. One of the laws in this 
 code excluded women from inheritiiig 
 certain lands, probably because certain 
 military duties were connected with the 
 holding of those lands. In the 14th cen- 
 tury females were excluded from the 
 throne of France by the application of 
 this law to the succession to the crown, 
 and it is in this sense that the term salic 
 law is commonly used. 
 
 SALISBURY, Robert Arthur Talbot 
 Gascoyne Cecil, K.G., Third Marquis of, 
 English statesman, was born at Hat- 
 field (county of Herts) in 1830, and 
 educated at Eton and Oxford. As Lord 
 Robert Cecil he entered parliament as 
 member for Stamford in 1853, and 
 gradually made his way till in 1866, on 
 the formation of Lord Derby’s third ad- 
 ministration, he was appointed secre- 
 tary of state for India. He became pre- 
 mier as well as foreign secretary on the 
 fall of the Gladstone government in 
 1885. Gladstone succeeded again to 
 
 Marquis of Salisbury. 
 
 power in the end of the same year, but 
 m June following was defeated on the 
 Irish bills, when Lord Salisbury again 
 became premier and foreign secretary, 
 with the approval and support of the 
 liberal unionists. This position he held 
 till 1892, and in 1895 he entered on a 
 third term as premier. In 1900 he be- 
 came premier for the fourth time, but 
 he retired from political life in 1902. 
 
 He died at Hatfield on August 22, 1903. 
 He devoted much time to scientific 
 pursuits. 
 
 SALI'VA, the transparent watery 
 fluid secreted by glands connected with 
 the mouth. The quantity secreted in 
 twenty-four hours varies, its average 
 amount is probably from 1 to 3 pints. 
 The purposes served by saliva are me- 
 chanical and chemical. It keeps the 
 mouth in a due condition of moisture, 
 and by mixing with the food during 
 mastication it makes it a soft pulpy 
 mass, such as may be easily swallowed. 
 The chemical action of saliva on the food 
 is to convert the starchy elements into 
 some kind of sugar. The salivary glands 
 are compound tubular glands known as 
 the parotid, the sub-maxillary, and the 
 sub-lingual, and numerous smaller 
 bodies of similar structure, and with 
 separate ducts, which are scattered 
 thickly beneath the mucous membrane 
 of the lips, cheeks, soft palate, and root 
 of the tongue. Salivary glands are ab- 
 sent in some mammals and reptiles, and 
 in most fishes. 
 
 SALIVATION, a superabundant secre- 
 tion of saliva, either determined locally 
 by the use of masticating irritants, or 
 by means which act upon the whole 
 system, especially by mercurial prepa- 
 rations. In the last case it is accom- 
 panied by a coppery taste, by swelling 
 of the gums, and sometimes by looseness 
 of the teeth. Salivation is usually 
 diminished by the use of astringents, 
 laxatives, etc. 
 
 SALIX, See Willow. 
 
 SALMON, a well-known fish, forming 
 the type of the family Salmonidse. The 
 salmon inhabits both salt and fresh 
 
 The salmon-trout. 
 
 waters, and ranks prominent among the 
 food-fishes of Britain and other coun- 
 tries. It generally attains a length of 
 from 3 to 4 feet, and an average weight 
 of from 12 to 30 lbs., but these limits of 
 size and weight are frequently exceeded. 
 The typical color of the adult fish is a 
 steel-blue on the back and head, be- 
 coming lighter on the sides and belly. 
 Teeth are present in the upper and lower 
 jaws, palate, and vomer or roof of the 
 mouth; the edges of the tongue are also 
 toothed or notched. The food consists 
 of animal matter, and must vary with 
 the change of habitat from salt to fresh 
 water, and vice versa. In the autumn 
 the salmon quits the sea and ascends 
 the rivers for the purpose of spawning, 
 often having to surmount considerable 
 obstacles, such as falls of some height, 
 in its progress. In many streams they 
 are now assisted in this by artificial 
 structures known as “salmon-ladders,” 
 or the like. The eggs are deposited in a 
 shallow trough or groove excavated in 
 the gravelly bed of the river. After 
 spawning, the salmon, both male and 
 female, return to the sea under the 
 name of spent-fish, foul-fish, or kelts. 
 the females being further distinguished 
 as shedders or baggits. In from 70 to 
 
 150 days the young fish emerges from 
 the egg, and in its embryo state it is not 
 unlike a tadpole, being on the average 
 about one and a quarter inches in length. 
 About 50 days later it assumes the 
 appearance of a fish and now approaches 
 the definite or parr stage of its existence, 
 beginning to be marked by transverse 
 bars of dark color. It usually continues 
 in the shallows of its native stream for 
 two years after hatching, and during 
 this period it attains a length of 8 inches. 
 When the season of its migration arrives, 
 generally between March and June, the 
 fins have become darker and the fish has 
 assumed a silvery hue. It is now known 
 as a smolt or salmon fry. The smolts 
 now congregate into shoals and proceed 
 leisurely seaward. On reaching the 
 estuary they remain in its brackish 
 water for a short time and then make for 
 the open sea. Leaving its native river 
 as a fish, weighing it may be not more 
 than 2 ozs., the smolt, after three 
 months’ absence, may return to fresh 
 water as a grilse, weighing 4 or 5 lbs. 
 In the grilse stage or salmon peel, as it 
 is sometimes called, the fish is capable 
 of depositing eggs. After spawning in 
 the fresh water the grilse again seeks 
 the sea in the autumn, and when its 
 second stay in the ocean is over it re- 
 turns after a few months’ absence as 
 the adult salmon, weighing from 8 to 
 10 lbs. The salmon returns as a rule to 
 the river in which it passed its earlier 
 existence. The fertility of the fish is 
 enormous: it has been calculated that 
 over 150,000,000 of salmon ova are 
 annually deposited in the Scotch river 
 Tay alone, and of these only about a 
 third come to life and attain the parr 
 stage, while of these parrs only 20,- 
 000,000 become smolts ; and in time only 
 100,000 remain as perfect sahnon, of 
 which 70,000 are caught and 30,000 left 
 for breeding purposes. In Europe the 
 fish is found between the latitudes of 
 45° and 75°, in North America in cor- 
 responding latitudes. The flesh of the 
 salmon when fresh is of a bright orange 
 color, and is of highest flavor when 
 taken from the sea-feeding fish. Of the 
 same genus as the common salmon is the 
 salmon-trout, the common river-trout, 
 Lochleven trout, etc. What is known as 
 the “land-locked” salmon, which is 
 found in Norway, Sweden, Maine, and 
 New Brunswick, and is so called because 
 it remains in inland waters and does not 
 descend to the sea, is by some regarded 
 as a distinct species from the common 
 salmon, by others not. In the waters of 
 Northwestern America are several sal- 
 mon belonging to a distinct genus, in- 
 cluding the quinnat or king-sahnon, 
 blue-back salmon or red-fish, silver sal- 
 mon, dog salmon, and hump-back sal- 
 mon. The quinnat has an average 
 weight of 22 lbs., but sometimes reaches 
 100 lbs. Both it and the blue-back sal- 
 mon are caught in immense numbers in 
 the Columbia, Sacramento, and Frazer 
 (especially in spring), and are preserved 
 by canning. Attempts have been made 
 to introduce the quinnat into eastern 
 North America and Europe. The flesh 
 of these salmon is indistinguishable from 
 that of the common form. The salmon is 
 one of the fishes that are important ob- 
 jects of pisciculture, and various species 
 
salmon-fishing 
 
 SALVINI 
 
 of thp family have been introduced 
 into waters not previously inhabited by 
 them. 
 
 SALMON-FISHING. Law of. See 
 Poaching. 
 
 SALMON'ID.ffi, a family of teleostean 
 fishes, belonging to the subdivision 
 Malacopteri of that order. To this fam- 
 ily belong the various species of salmon 
 (see Salmon), the trouts, the char, the 
 grayling, the smelt, the vendace, white- 
 fish of America, etc. The Salmonidae are 
 abdominal Malacopteri, in that their 
 ventral fins are placed backward on the 
 belly. The body is covered with cycloid 
 scales; the head is naked, and there are 
 no barbels. The belly is rounded, and 
 there is a small adipose fin behind the 
 dorsal. Pyloric appendages of the 
 stomach are generally numerous and 
 rarely absent. The air-bladder is large 
 and simple. The ova fall into the cavity 
 of the abdomen before exclusion. Sal- 
 monidffi are inhabitants of the sea or 
 fresh-water, or both 
 
 SALONPCA (ancient, Thessalonica; 
 Turkish, Saloniki), a large seaport of 
 Turkey in Europe, on a gulf of the 
 .iEgean sea, 315 miles w.s.w. of Con- 
 stantinople, rising from the sea in the 
 form of an amphitheater, and forming 
 a mixture of squalor and splendor. St. 
 Paul preached the gospel here, and ad- 
 dressed two of his epistles to the Chris- 
 tian converts. Railways run to Vienna 
 and Constantinople. Pop. 150,000, half 
 being Jews and Greeks. 
 
 SALSETTE', a large island to the 
 north of Bombay, and connected with 
 Bombay island by bridge and cause- 
 way; area, 241 sq. miles. The coast 
 abounds in cocoa-nut groves, and the 
 palmyra-palm grows plentifully over 
 most of the island. The island is re- 
 markable for its cave architecture. 
 Pop. 108,149. 
 
 SALT, in chemistry. It is impossible 
 to state in very precise terms what is the 
 idea attached to the word salt, as at 
 present used in chemical science. It 
 may perhaps be most correctly defined 
 b3’' saying that it implies the capability 
 of readily undergoing double decompo- 
 sition. In its most restricted significa- 
 tion the word salt suggests a substance, 
 which, if soluble in water, can produce 
 rapid double decompositions with other 
 soluble substances, or if insoluble, can 
 be produced as a precipitate, as the re- 
 sult of a rapid double decomposition 
 taking place between soluble substances. 
 This is certainly the idea suggested by 
 the application of the word salt to 
 nitrate of potassium, chloride of sodium, 
 etc. The term salt is also sometimes ap- 
 plied to substances which, like chloride 
 of ethyl, give rise to slow processes of 
 double decomposition with aqueous 
 solutions of the salts specially so called. 
 The name is, however, most commonly 
 and most appropriately applied to those 
 bodies of which reaction by double de- 
 composition is the most characteristic 
 property, and which exhibit such re- 
 actions under the most familiar con- 
 ditions. 
 
 SALT, Common (chloride of sodium, 
 NaCl), a substance in common use as a 
 seasoner and preserver of food from the 
 earliest stages. It exists in immense 
 quantities dissolved in sea-water, and 
 
 also in the waters of salt springs, and 
 in solid deposits, sometimes on the sur- 
 face, sometimes at greater or less depths, 
 in almost every geological series. Rock- 
 salt, that is salt in the crystalline or 
 solid form, is found in great abundance 
 in Cheshire, Yorkshire, and Worcester- 
 shire. It is also found in abundance in 
 nearly every country of Europe. The 
 supply in other continents is equally 
 great. The basin of the Indus and other 
 parts of India possess extentive salt 
 plains. In China deep salt-wells abound. 
 The Sahara and Central and Southern 
 Africa afford inexhaustible supplies. 
 Most of the South American republics, 
 the West Indies, and the United States 
 also have large natural supplies. Salt 
 manufactured from sea-water is pro- 
 duced extensively along the Mediter- 
 ranean and Atlantic sea-boards of 
 Europe as well as in America. It is 
 chiefly made by natural drying in shal- 
 low reservoirs, but also by boiling. Sun- 
 dried salt is the purest. Salt from sea- 
 water is usually known as bay-salt. 
 Most salt, however, is produced from 
 rock-salt or from brine springs, the 
 la^tter being due to the melting of rock- 
 salt by water. Salt was subject to a 
 duty in ancient Rome, and this example 
 has been generally followed in modern 
 states. One of the most oppressive of the 
 salt taxes in Europe was the French 
 gabelle. In Great Britain salt-duties 
 were imposed in the reign of William 
 III., but the tax was abolished in 1823. 
 In British India salt is an important 
 source of revenue. Salt is used as a glaze 
 for coarse pottery, as a mordant, for 
 giving hardness to soaps, for improving 
 the clearness of glass ; it is the source of 
 soda and of chlorine, and is thus of im- 
 mense industrial importance. 
 
 SALT LAKE, Great. See Great Salt 
 Lake. 
 
 SALT LAKE CITY, the capital of the 
 state of Utah, 2 miles from the Jordan, 
 and 11 miles from Great Salt Lake. It 
 stands at the base of Wasatch mountains 
 4550 feet above sea-level. The streets 
 are wide, and the dwellings generally 
 small and of one story. The most re- 
 markable public buildings are the Mor- 
 mon tabernacle, a large ungainly build- 
 ing with a roof like a dish-cover, the 
 Mormon temple, and the city-hall. It 
 is the metropolis of the Mormons, and 
 was first settled in 1847 by the followers 
 of Brigham Young. Pop. 100,000. 
 
 SALTS, Smelling, a preparation of 
 carbonate of ammonia with some agree- 
 able scent, as lavender or bergamot, 
 used by ladies as a stimulant and re- 
 storative in fits of faintness. 
 
 SALVADOR', a republic in Central 
 America, lies along the coast of the 
 Pacific, and is bounded by Honduras on 
 the north and east, and by Guatemala 
 on the northwest; area, 7212 sq. miles. 
 A range of volcanic peaks, varying in 
 height from 4000 to 9000 feet, runs 
 through the center of the country, 
 dividing an interior valley from the 
 lowlands on the coast. The largest river 
 is the Lempe, which is only navigable 
 in parts. The soil is remarkably fertile. 
 The most important crop is indigo, 
 which is of excellent quality. Corn, 
 sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, etc., also 
 thrive well- '^attle-breeding is carried 
 
 on, but not extensively. The manufac- 
 tures are unimportant. The chief ex- 
 
 E orts are coffee, indigo, silver, raw sugar, 
 alsam of Peru, leather, etc. They are of 
 the annual value of about $400,000,000. 
 The population consists of a small num- 
 ber of whites (of Spanish descent), 
 Spanish-speaking Indians, and half- 
 breeds. The established religion is 
 Roman Catholicism. The government 
 is carried on by a president and four 
 ministers. There is a congress of seventy 
 deputies elected by universal suffrage. 
 The inhabitants had long the reputation 
 of being the most industrious in Central 
 America, and the state, in proportion 
 to its size, is still the most densely 
 peopled. Pop. 803,534. Salvador re- 
 mained under Spanish rule until 1821. 
 when it asserted its independence, ana 
 joined the Mexican confederation. In 
 1823, however, it seceded from the con- 
 federation, and subsequently formed 
 part of the republic of Central America. 
 In 1853 it became an independent re- 
 public. Its progress has been much 
 hindered by internal dissensions, revolu- 
 tions' and counter-revolutions fallowing 
 each other without end. The capital is 
 San Salvador. 
 
 SALVAGE, a recompense allowed by 
 law to anyone, by whose voluntary 
 exertions ships or goods have been 
 saved from the dangers of the sea, fire, 
 pirates, or enemies. 
 
 SALVATION ARMY, a religious organ- 
 ization originated in East London by 
 William Booth, the leader and general, 
 in 1865. The society was developed into 
 its present form and received its name 
 in 1878. Latterly several agencies more 
 directly philanthropic have been grafted 
 on it for helping the needy and outcast. 
 With the name army came military 
 phraseology. A semi-military attire 
 was assumed, barracks were built, and 
 the army marches out with banners 
 displayed and bands of music. Music 
 (drums, cornets, etc.) is also employed 
 in the meetings, and other proceedings 
 of a sensational character. The object 
 is to attract people who would not enter 
 church or chapel, and for this cause 
 public-houses, prisons, etc., are visited 
 and open-air meetings are held. The 
 weekly journal of the army is the War 
 Cry. As a temperance movement the 
 Salvation Army has been the means of 
 converting hundreds of thousands of 
 confirmed drunkards. Total absti- 
 nence is a condition of membership. 
 The International headquarters are at 
 London, England. Its world-wide 
 operations are carried on in 51 coun- 
 tries and colonies, embracing 7316 
 posts, under the charge of 20,054 oflS- 
 cers and employes, with 45,339 local 
 officers, 17,099 brass bandsmen, and 
 about 50,000 musicians. Sixty-three 
 periodicals are published in 24 languages, 
 with a weekly circulation of about 
 1,207,223. There are 668 Social Relief 
 Institutions in the world, under the 
 charge of nearly 3,000 officers and em- 
 ployes. The headquarters of the Sal- 
 vation army in America are in New 
 York City. 
 
 SALVINI, Tommaso, Italian tragedian 
 was born at Milan in 1829. After win- 
 ning renown in juvenile characters he 
 joined the Ristori troupe- He appeared 
 
SAL VOLATILE 
 
 SAMPAN 
 
 in the Edipo of Niccolini and achieved 
 a great success. Alfieri’s Saul was per- 
 haps the greatest of all his characters. 
 His first appearance in the United 
 States was in 1873, and he was so well 
 received that he repeatedly returned. 
 In 1886 he and Edwin Booth played 
 together for three weeks, Salvini as 
 Othello and Booth as lago. After 
 Salvini’s last tour in this country in 
 1890 he retired from the stage to his 
 home in Florence. Died, 1896. 
 
 SAL VOLATILE (vo-lat'i-le), carbon- 
 ate of ammonia. The name is also ap- 
 
 E lied to a spirituous solution of car- 
 onate of ammonia flavored with 
 ?^roTn ^tics 
 
 SALZBURG (s^ilts'burh), a city of 
 Austria, capital of the Duchy (or prov- 
 ince) of Salzburg, is most picturesquely 
 situated on both banks of the rapid 
 Salza, which is here hemmed in between 
 two isolated hills, 63 miles southeast of 
 Munich. The manufactures are varied, 
 but not individually of importance. 
 Pop. 32,934. — The Duchy or crown-land 
 of Salzburg, area 2767 sq. miles, is a 
 rugged mountainous country, inter- 
 sected by numerous valleys, chiefly 
 pastoral, but in many of them much 
 corn and fruit are raised. Wood is 
 abundant, and the minerals, which are 
 very valuable, include gold, silver, lead, 
 copper, cobalt, iron, salt, and marble. 
 Pop. 193,247. 
 
 SAMAR', one of the Philippine Isles, 
 separated by channels from Luzon on 
 the north, and Leyte on the south. 
 Area, 5000 sq.miles. The island is densely 
 wooded and the soil fertile, The chief 
 products are rice, cocoa, palm-oil, hemp, 
 and timber. Pop. 194,027. 
 
 SAMA'RA, a town of Russia, capital 
 of the government of same name, 550 
 miles e.s.e. of Moscow, at the confluence 
 of the Samara with the Volga. Pop. 
 96,085. — The government lies on the left 
 bank of the Volga, and has an area of 
 64,985 sq. miles. A great part is flat 
 and fertile, but is at present little cul- 
 tivated. There is little wood. Wheat 
 and other kinds of grain are the chief 
 products. There are a considerable 
 number of Swiss and German colonists 
 here, also Nogai Tartars, Bashkirs, and 
 Kirghis. Pop. 2,650,580. 
 
 SAMARANG', town of Java, on the 
 north coast of the island, near the 
 mouth of the Samarang river. Next to 
 Batavia and Surabaya it ranks as the 
 most important commercial port of 
 Java. Its harbor is not good, and large 
 ships have to anchor at some distance 
 from the shore. Pop. 83,000. 
 
 SAMARIA, an ancient town of Pales- 
 tine, formerly capital of the Kingdom 
 of Israel, finely situated on a hill sur- 
 rounded by higher hills, 36 miles n.n.w. 
 of Jerusalem. Samaria was built by 
 Omri, king of Israel, about b.c. 925, and 
 was the metropolis of the ten tribes till 
 they were carried away into captivity 
 about B.c. 720. After its destruction by 
 John Hyrcanus it was rebuilt, and given 
 by Augustus to Herod, who gave it the 
 name of Sebaste. There is now an in- 
 significant village here and some striking 
 ruins. 
 
 SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH, an an- 
 cient version of the five books of Moses 
 which has been preserved by the Samari- 
 
 tans as the canonical Scriptures have 
 been by the Jews. 
 
 SAMARITANS, a mixed people, who 
 inhabited the region between Judaea 
 and Galilee, and who formed a sect 
 among the Jews. They consisted partly 
 of the tribes of Ephriam and Manasseh 
 left in Samaria by the king of Assyria, 
 when he had carried their brethren away 
 captive, and partly of Assyrian colonists. 
 On the return of the Jews from captivity 
 they declined to mix with the Samari- 
 tans, though united with them in reli- 
 gion. The latter attempted to prevent 
 the Jews from building the temple at 
 Jerusalem, and, failing in this, they built 
 a temple on Mount Gerizim exclusively 
 for their own worship. A few of the 
 race still exist at Nablus. They adhere 
 strictly to the Mosaic law, but are re- 
 garded by the Jews as heretics, as they 
 accept only the Pentateuch, of which 
 they have a special version of their own. 
 They believe in angels, in a resurrection 
 and future retribution, and expect the 
 coming of a Messiah, in whom they look 
 only for a prophet. In the synagogue 
 the Aramaic Samaritan dialect is used, 
 but they speak Arabic. They avoid 
 connection with other sects, and marry 
 only among themselves. 
 
 SAMARKAND', a city of Asiatic Rus- 
 sia, on the Zerafshan river, 130 miles e. 
 of Bokhara, situated in a fertile plain. 
 It contains 80 schools with about 1500 
 pupils. Pop. 54,900. See Bokhara. 
 
 SA'MIAN WARE, a name given to an 
 ancient kind of Greek pottery made of 
 Samian earth, or to a variety of Roman 
 pottery made in imitation of this. The 
 vases are of a bright red or black color, 
 covered with a lustrous siliceous glaze, 
 with separately-moulded ornaments at- 
 tached to them. 
 
 SAMNITES (-nitz), an ancient people 
 of Lower Italy, who were of Sabine 
 stock, and consisted of several tribes. 
 They were a brave, frugal, and religious 
 people. Their first war with the Romans 
 resulted in favor of the latter, and se- 
 cured a Samnite alliance during the 
 Latin war (340-338 b.c.). The second 
 Samnite war (326-304 b.c.) was a fierce 
 contest, in which the Romans were 
 shamefully defeated at the Caudine 
 Forks, but were finally successful. 
 
 SAMO'A, or NAVIGATOR ISLES, a 
 group of volcanic islands in the South 
 Pacific, n.e. of the Fiji group, made up 
 of three large islands, Upolu, Savaii, and 
 Tutuila; and a nulnber of smaller ones; 
 total area about 1700 sq. miles, with a 
 population of nearly 37,000. The most 
 important island of the group is Upolu, 
 with an area of 340 sq. miles, diversified 
 by mountains and fertile plains; pop. 
 about 17,000. Apia, the seat of govern- 
 ment, is a town of 1500 inhabitants 
 situated on a bay on the n.w. side of 
 Upolu. Savaii, the largest of the group, 
 has an area of 659 sq. miles, and is ex- 
 tremely mountainous (greatest height 
 5350 feet), the interior being hardly 
 known. 'Tutuila has an area of 54 sq. 
 miles. The government of Samoa is a 
 limited monarchy presided over by a 
 king and a vice-king, with a parliament 
 of chiefs called the malo. The Samoans 
 are of Polynesian extraction, and vary 
 in color from a dark brown to a light 
 copper, occasionally to a shade of olive. 
 
 They are of fine physique and of a gentle 
 disposition, and are now all Christians. 
 Their language contains thirteen letters, 
 and is soft and liquid. The leading in- 
 dustries are fishing, collecting copra, the 
 cultivation of fruit, cotton, and taro, 
 and the manufacture of tapa, a native 
 cloth. The cocoa-nut, bread-fruit tree, 
 taro, and banana form the staple food 
 of the people. From 1889 till 1899 the 
 islands were under the joint control of 
 Germany, Britain, and the United 
 States, but in 1899 an agreement was 
 arrived at under which Britain with- 
 drew entirely, while Germany received 
 Upolu and Savaii, the United States 
 obtaining Tutuila and other islands. 
 
 SAMOS, now Samo, an island in the 
 Grecian archipelago near the coast of 
 Asia Minor, 45 miles southwest of 
 Smyrna, forming a principality tribu- 
 tary to Turkey, area, 180 sq. miles. In 
 84 b.c. it was united with the Roman 
 province of Asia. In 1550 it was con- 
 quered by the Turks. It now occupies 
 an exceptional position, having been 
 erected into a tributary principality of 
 the Sublime Porte in 1832, the ruler 
 being a Greek prince. Pop. 55,000. 
 
 SAM'OTHRACE, or SAMOTHRAKI, 
 an island in the n. of the .(Egean sea, 
 belonging to Turkey, about 14 miles 
 long by 8 miles broad. 
 
 SAMOVAR', a Russian tea apparatus, 
 the water in which is boiled by means of 
 
 Antique Russian samovar, 
 hot coals contained in an iron tube, and 
 then poured over the tea. 
 
 SAM'PAN', a boat of various build 
 used on the Chinese rivers, at Singapore 
 
 Sampan, Canton river. 
 
 and elsewhere, for the conveyance of 
 merchandise, and also frequently for 
 
SAMPSON 
 
 SANDERLING 
 
 habitation. They are swift sailers both 
 with oar and sail. 
 
 SAM'PSON, William Thomas, Ameri- 
 can naval officer, was born at Palmyra, 
 New York, in 1840. In June, 1864, he 
 became executive officer of the iron 
 clad Patapsco of the Charleston block- 
 ading squadron. From 1879 to 1882 
 he commanded the Swatara on the 
 Asiatic station. In 1890 he was assigned 
 to the command of the San Francisco, 
 the first modern steel cruiser of the new 
 navy. From January, 1893, until May, 
 
 1897, he was chief of the bureau of 
 ordnance. He was appointed president 
 of the naval court of inquiry to investi- 
 gate the blowing up of the battleship 
 Maine in the harbor of Havana and 
 shortly afterward he was appointed as 
 acting rear-admiral, to the command of 
 the North Atlantic squadron. He 
 attained the rank of commodore in 
 regular line of promotion on July 3, 
 
 1898, When Admiral Cervera’s Spanish 
 squadron was destroyed Sampson 
 himself was absent until the battle was 
 practically over, but it was fought on 
 lines laid down by him. After the war he 
 served as a Cuban commissioner, was 
 promoted rear-admiral on March 3, 
 
 1899, and until September, 1901, was in 
 command of the Boston (Charlestown) 
 Navy Yard. He was retired from active 
 service February 9, 1902. He died in 
 1902. 
 
 SAMSON, an Israelite of the Tribe of 
 Dan, the son of Manoah, reckoned one 
 of the judges of Israel, a popular hero, 
 and an inveterate enemy of the Philis- 
 tines, flourished about 1116-1096 b.c. 
 His peculiar gift of great bodily strength 
 is strikingly shown in the nature of his 
 deeds, as tearing in pieces a lion, break- 
 ing his bonds asunder, carrying away 
 the gates of Gaza, and throwing down 
 the pillars of the house of Dagon. Pre- 
 vious to the latter event Delilah, his 
 concubine, deprived him of his strength 
 for a period by cutting off his hair, 
 which was a violation of his obligation 
 as a Nazarite, but with the growth of his 
 hair his strength returned, and at the 
 great festival of Dagon Samson pulled 
 down the building over the heads of the 
 Philistines, who had blinded him, he 
 himself perishing with them. Milton 
 has made his death the subject of a 
 drama — Samson Agonistes. 
 
 SAMUEL, the first of the order of 
 prophets and the last of the judges of 
 Israel. He was the son of Elkanah of 
 Ramathaimzophim, belonging to the 
 tribe of Levi, and was consecrated by 
 Hannah, his mother, to the service of 
 Jehovah. He was educated in the house 
 of the chief priest Eli at Shiloh, and had 
 the disasters revealed to him that should 
 befall the house of Eli. He assumed the 
 judgeship of Israel about twenty years 
 after the death of Eli, and headed a 
 successful expedition against the Philis- 
 tines. He mentions his own name in the 
 list of warlike chiefs by whom the Lord 
 sent deliverance to his people, and it is 
 recorded that he judged Israel as civil 
 ruler all his life, going a yearly circuit 
 from Ramah, where was his home, to 
 Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpeh. His admin- 
 istration was distinguished by the resto- 
 ration of the neglected worship of 
 Jehovah, He also gave a new vigor to 
 
 the theocratical institutions of Moses 
 by the establishment of schools of the 
 prophets. In his old age Samuel anointed 
 Saul as king, and when Saul failed in 
 his duties Samuel anointed a new king, 
 David. He did not live to see the contest 
 between David and Saul decided. 
 
 SAMUEL, Books of, in the Old Testa- 
 ment, are two in number in the modern 
 editions of the Hebrew text. In Hebrew 
 MSS. the work is one; the division into 
 two books, being first introduced by 
 Bomberg, in 1518, at Venice. The con- 
 tents of the books present us with a 
 more or less consecutive narrative of 
 events relating to the Israelites, from 
 the priesthood of Eli to the death of 
 David. The principal periods embraced 
 in the record are: the restoration of the 
 theocracy under Samuel (book i. chap, i- 
 xii. B.c. 1171-1095); the history of 
 Saul’s reign, ending with his death (book 
 i. chaps, xiii.-xxxi. b.c. 1095-55) ; and 
 the history of David’s reign (book ii. 
 B.c. 1055-15). As regards the author- 
 ship of these books it is evident they 
 could not have been written by Samuel, 
 since his death is recorded in book i. 
 chap. XXV. 
 
 SAN ANTONIO, or SAN ANTONIO DE 
 BEXAR, a town on the San Antonio 
 river, 80 miles southwest of Austin City, 
 Tex. The principal public buildings are 
 the hospital, orphan asylum, a Roman 
 Catholic cathedral college and convent, 
 arsenal, and schools. The town is a great 
 center of trade in wool, horses and 
 mules, hides, and grain. There are 
 several breweries, tanneries, and flour 
 mills. It is one of the oldest Spanish 
 towns on the continent, and has a large 
 trade with Mexico. Pop. 1909, 100,000. 
 
 SAND, fine particles of stone, par- 
 ticularly of siliceous stone in a loose 
 state, but not reduced to powder or dust ; 
 a collection of siliceous granules not co- 
 herent when wet. Most of the sands 
 which we observe are the ruins of dis- 
 integrated rocks, and differ in color 
 according to the rocks from which they 
 were derived. VMuable metallic ores, 
 as those of gold, platinum, tin, copper 
 iron, titanium, often occur in the form of 
 sand or mixed with that substance. Pure 
 siliceous sands are very valuable for the 
 manufacture of glass, for making mortar, 
 filters, ameliorating dense clay soils, for 
 making moulds in founding, and many 
 other purposes. 
 
 SAND, George. See Dudevant. 
 
 SANDAL, a kind of shoe or covering 
 for the feet used among the ancient 
 Jews, Greeks, and Romans. It con- 
 
 Sandals. 
 
 The pair in the middle are Roman, those 
 on the sides are Greek. 
 
 sisted of a sole fastened to the foot by 
 means of straps crossed over and wound 
 round the ankle. Originally made of 
 wood, vegetable leaves or fibers, or 
 
 leather, they afterward became articles 
 of great luxury, being made of gold, 
 silver, and other precious materials, and 
 beautifully ornamented. Certain re- 
 ligious orders of the present day W'ear 
 s^rid^ls 
 
 SANDALWOOD, a tree belonging to 
 the East Indies and the Malayan and 
 Polynesian islands, remarkable for its 
 fragrance. Its wood is used as a perfume, 
 and is manufactured into glove-boxes 
 and other light articles. It is largely 
 used as incense in the worship of Brah- 
 mams and Buddhists. There are several 
 species which furnish sandalwood, the 
 common being S. album. Some trees of 
 other genera are called false sandal- 
 wood. See also Adenanthera. 
 
 SANDALWOOD ISLAND, or JEEN- 
 DANA, a large island in the Indian archi- 
 pelago belonging to the Dutch residency 
 of Timor, crossed by the meridian of 
 120°e.; area, 4000 sq. miles; with a 
 population of about 2,300,000. The 
 coast is bold, and terminates at the 
 
 southern extremity in a lofty and in- 
 accessible peninsula. The interior is 
 mountainous. Edible birds’ nests, bees- 
 wax, ponies, and sandalwood are ob- 
 tained here. The natives are of the 
 Malay race. 
 
 SANDARACH (san'da-rak), a resin 
 which exudes from the bark of the 
 sandarach tree. It is used as incense, 
 and for making a pale varnish. It is also 
 used as pounce powder for strewing 
 over paper erasures. Called also Juniper- 
 resin. 
 
 SANDARACH TREE, a large conif- 
 erous tree with straggling branches, 
 yielding the resin described in preceding 
 article. It is a native of Morocco, Al- 
 geria, and Northern Africa generally. 
 The timber is fragrant, hard, and dur- 
 able, and is largely used in the construc- 
 tion of mosques and other buildings, 
 as well as for cabinet work. 
 
 SAND CRAB, or RACING CRAB, a 
 genus of crabs, which live in holes in the 
 sand along the seashores of wann coun- 
 tries, inhabits the Mediterranean, Red 
 sea, and Indian ocean, and is remarkable 
 for the rapidity of its motions. 
 
 SAND EEL, a genus of fishes. The 
 body is slender and cylindrical, some- 
 what resembling that of an eel, and 
 varying from 4 inches to about 1 foot 
 in length, of a beautiful silvery luster, 
 destitute of ventral fins, and the scales 
 hardly perceptible. 
 
 SANDERLING, a wading bird averag- 
 ing from 6 to 8 inches in length, which 
 
SAN DIEGO 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 breeds in the Arctic regions, and in 
 winter migrates southward. It feeds on 
 small marine animals, and chiefly in- 
 habits the sandy tracts of the sea-beach 
 and the estuaries of rivers. The flesh is 
 nutritious and pleasant to the taste. 
 
 SAN DIEGO (san de-a'go). a port of 
 entry and the county seat of San Diego 
 CO., Cal., 125 miles south by east of Los 
 Angeles, on San Diego bay, and on the 
 Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe rail- 
 road, and several steamship lines. It is 
 a favorite health resort, has a beautiful 
 situation and a mild and equable cli- 
 mate. Coronado Beach with its large 
 hotel, ostrich farm, botanical gardens 
 and other attractions lies across the bay. 
 The navy and the war department have 
 separately large tracts of land on the 
 bay, for a coaling station and fortifica- 
 tions respectively, the latter known as 
 Fort Rosecrans. Pop. 1909, 40,000. 
 
 SAND FLIES, the name of certain 
 flies found in various countries, the bite 
 of which may give rise to painful swell- 
 ings. They are included in the family 
 Tipulidae, which also includes the well- 
 known “daddy long-legs” or crane-flies. 
 
 SAND GROUSE, a genus of rasorial 
 or scratching birds, belonging to the 
 family Pteroclidae, and differing in 
 several respects from the common 
 grouse (which see), belonging to the 
 family Tetraonidae. They are natives 
 chiefly of the warm parts of Asia and 
 Africa, and are most abundant in arid 
 sandy plains. The legs are longer than 
 in other grouse, and the tail and wings 
 are pointed. Pallas’s sand grouse differs 
 from these in having feathered tarsi and 
 united toes. It is a native of the sandy 
 plains of Central Asia, where it occurs 
 in vast numbers. 
 
 SAND HOPPER, a species of small 
 insect-like crustaceans of the order 
 Amphipoda, common along most sea- 
 shores, where they may be met with 
 leaping about the sands in great quan- 
 tities after the receding tide. 
 
 SANDHURST, a flourishing city of 
 Victoria, Australia, about 100 miles 
 n.n.w. of Melbourne, an important rail- 
 way and gold mining center. It con- 
 tains a handsome pile of public build- 
 ings, fine townhall, law courts, banks, 
 hospital, benevolent asylum, mechanic’s 
 institute (with a library of 14,500 vol- 
 umes), a theater, numerous places of 
 worship, botanic gardens, etc. It is 
 lighted with gas and electricity, and 
 well supplied with water. Besides gold 
 mining, which employs 4000-5000 
 miners, iron founding and making of 
 railway rolling stock, coach building, 
 stone cutting, tanning, vine growing, 
 etc., are carried on. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 SAND MARTIN, or BANK MARTIN, 
 a bird included in the family of swallows 
 a summer visitant to Britain, where it is 
 common in most localities. It is the 
 smallest British member of its family, 
 and is so named from its habits of nest- 
 building in holes dug in the high banks 
 of rivers, in the sides of sand or gravel 
 pits, and in similar situations. The 
 color of the sand-martin is a soft brown 
 on the head and upper parts, and white 
 below, with a dark brown band on the 
 chest. 
 
 SAN DOMINGO (more properly Santo 
 Domingo), the capital city of the Do- 
 
 minican rapublic, which ineludea the 
 eastern part of the island of Hayti. 
 The town is situated at the mouth of the 
 Ozama on the south coast, and is the 
 seat of the government and a bishop’s 
 see. It has spacious streets and squares, 
 a cathedral dating from 1540, a univer- 
 sity, etc. San Domingo is the oldest 
 European city of the New World, and 
 was founded by Bartholomew Columbus 
 in 1496. Columbus was buried here in 
 1536; but his remains were removed to 
 Havana in 1794. Pop. about 16,000. 
 
 SANDPAPER is made in the same 
 way as emery-paper, with the difference 
 that sand is substituted for emery. See 
 Emery. 
 
 SANDPIPERS, a group of small 
 grallatorial or wading birds, belonging 
 to the family Scolopacidse or snipes. 
 These birds inhabit the shores of the 
 sea and the estuaries and banks of rivers, 
 and grope in the soft mud for the worms, 
 small molluscs, insects, etc., upon which 
 
 The broad-billed sandpiper. 
 
 they feed. They migrate southward in 
 winter in flocks, and appear to moult 
 twice a year, the summer plumage differ- 
 ing from the winter dress. The voice is 
 shrill and unmusical; and they are able 
 both to run and to fly with rapidity. 
 Sandpipers of various species are abun- 
 dant in North America, and in winter in 
 the West Indies. 
 
 SANDSTONES corfsist usuallyof grains 
 of quartz aggregated into a compact 
 rock, which may also, contain particles 
 of felspar, minute scales of mica, and an 
 admixture of clay, indicating in many 
 places their immediate derivation from 
 the debris of granitic rocks. Sandstones 
 are in most cases chiefly composed of 
 particles of quartz, united by a cement. 
 The cement is in variable quantity, and 
 may be calcareous or marly, argilla- 
 ceous or argillo-ferruginous, or even sili- 
 ceous. The grains of quartz are some- 
 times scarcely distin^ishable by the 
 naked eye, and sometimes are equal in 
 size to a nut or an egg, as in those sand- 
 stones called conglomerates, or some- 
 times pudding-stone or breccia. The 
 texture of some sandstones is very close, 
 while in others it is very loose and por- 
 ous. Soipe sandstones have a fissile 
 structure, and have been called sand- 
 stone slate. In color sandstone varies 
 from gray to reddish-brown, in some 
 cases uniform, in other variegated. In 
 addition to quartz some sandstones con- 
 tain grains of felspar, flint, and siliceous 
 slate, or plates of mica. Some sand- 
 stones are ferruginous, containing an 
 oxide or the carbonate of iron. Sand- 
 stones have been formed at different 
 periods and under different circum- 
 stances, and are hence associated with 
 different rocks or formations. They are 
 
 in general distinctly stratified, and the 
 beds horizontally arranged, but some- 
 times they are much inclined or even 
 vertical. Sandstone in some of its vari- 
 eties is very useful in the arts, and when 
 it has no tendency to split is known by 
 the name of freestone. When sufficiently 
 solid it is employed as a building stone. 
 Some varieties are used as millstones for 
 grinding meal, or for wearing down 
 other materials preparatory to a polish, 
 and some are used for whetstones. 
 
 SANDUS'KY, a city of Ohio, on a 
 sandstone ridge on the southern side of 
 Sandusky bay. Lake Erie, about 61 
 miles w. of Cleveland. The site rises 
 gradually from the shore and commands 
 a fine view of the bay. The principal 
 public buildings are a courthouse, a high 
 school, andmanychurches. Anextensive 
 trade is done in fish, lumber, limestone, 
 manufactured woodwork, grapes, and 
 wine; and there are large machine shops, 
 steel works, and engine and boiler 
 works. It is celebrated for its manufac- 
 ture of articles in bent wood; and its 
 fisheries employ over 1000 hands. Pop. 
 23,764. 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDS, a cluster of 
 islands, thirteen in number, situated in 
 the North Pacific, area, 647 square miles; 
 pop. 31,194. Honolulu, the capital and 
 chief port of the islands, is situated on 
 Oahu. The remaining large islands are 
 Kauai and Niihau, with an area of 657 
 square miles, and 11,859 inhabitants. 
 The island of Molokai is a leper colony. 
 The inhabitants of the group belong to 
 the light-colored Oceanic stock, and have 
 been civilized and converted to Christian- 
 ity. After forming a republic for a short 
 time, the monarchy having been over- 
 thrown in 1893, these islands now be- 
 long to the United States, having been 
 annexed in 1898. The republican legis- 
 lature consisted of a senate of fifteen 
 members, and a chamber of representa- 
 tives of fifteen members. The head of 
 the government was a president, elected 
 for six years by the two houses voting 
 together, and he was assisted by a coun- 
 cil of state. Honolulu, the capital, has 
 become an important entrepot, and in 
 it almost the whole trade of the islands 
 is centered. The chief exports are sugar, 
 rice, coffee, bananas, tallow, and hides; 
 the imports are chiefly manufactured 
 goods, provisions, grain, and timber. 
 The currency is that of the United 
 States. The islands were discovered by 
 Cook in 1778, who afterward lost his 
 life on Hawaii. Pop. 154,001. In 
 1900 the islands were constituted as the 
 Territory of Hawaii. See Hawaii. 
 
 SANDY HOOK, a low sandy penin- 
 sula at the entrance of New York har- 
 bor. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO, the largest city on 
 the Pacific coast of the United States, 
 almost totally destroyed by earthquake 
 and fire on April 18-21, 1906. San 
 Francisco was founded on October 9, 
 1776, by two Franciscan monks, Palon 
 and Cambon, who established an Indian 
 mission and called it San FVancisco de 
 Asisi. The place remained a mission 
 until 1822, when California passed under 
 the control of Mexico. Then a village 
 gradually was established, called 
 Dolores. In 1836 a small trading village 
 called Yerba Buena was established three 
 
SANGIR ISLANDS 
 
 SANITARY SCIENCE 
 
 miles northeast of Dolores, in the bay. 
 In 1846, when the United States took 
 possession, Yerba Buena had a popula- 
 tion of 450, and in that year the village 
 dropped its new name and took that of 
 the mission, San Francisco. The dis- 
 covery of gold in 1848 brought thou- 
 sands of men to the Pacific coast. In 
 March, 1848, the population of San 
 Francisco was 800. In September 
 
 1849, it was 10,000. From that year 
 the city grew rapidly. In 1860 it was 
 56,802; in 1870, 149,473; in 1880, 233,- 
 959; in 189ft, 298,997; in 1909, 400,000. 
 In 1906 the city covered an area of 
 
 Comparative area of three great fires. 
 
 47 square miles, with 750 miles of 
 streets, 20 miles of boulevards, 275 
 miles of street railway, 4,000 stone, 
 brick, and steel buildings, 55,000 frame 
 buildings, three museums and art gal- 
 leries, eight public libraries, 47 hos- 
 pitals, 98 public schools, and many 
 hotels, theatres, opera houses, and 
 clubs. 
 
 The city was almost completely 
 
 destroyed by earthquake and fire on 
 April 18, 19, and 20, 1906. Five times 
 before had the city been visited by 
 fire — on Dec. 14, 1849; May 4, 1850; 
 June 14, 1850; May 2, 1851, and June 
 2, 1851. These five fires destr^ed $16,- 
 000,000 worth of property. The great 
 disaster, however, came at 5:13 o’clock 
 on the morning of April 18, 1906, when 
 three violent shocks of earthquake 
 leveled many buildings, opened great 
 fissures in the streets, and shut off the 
 water supply by breaking the mains 
 leading to the great reservoirs. Almost 
 immediately fires started in a hundred 
 different parts of the city. There was 
 no water with which to fight the flames. 
 Hundreds of buildings were blown up 
 with dynamite and shot to pieces with 
 artillery, but for three days the fire 
 ravaged almost unchecked. In those 
 three days an area of fifteen square 
 miles, or approximately 10,000 acres, 
 was burned. The burnt district in- 
 cluded nearly two-thirds of the resi- 
 dence portion, thousands of mercantile 
 and manufacturing establishments, 100 
 banks and financial institutions, all of 
 the theatres, opera houses, hotels, 
 public libraries, hospitals, and churches, 
 and most of the public school buildings. 
 More than 200,000 persons were left 
 homeless and penniless. Three hun- 
 dred and seventy-nine persons were 
 killed or died of injuries and exposure. 
 
 Among the notable buildings de- 
 stroyed by earthquake and fire were 
 the Palace Hotel, the City Hall, which 
 cost $6,000,000, and required 25 years 
 to build; the famous residences of Nob 
 Hill, the Call, Chronicle, and Examiner 
 buildings, and the Flood, Mills, and 
 Spreckles buildings. The disaster 
 proved that the modern steel “sky- 
 scraper” can safely defy even violent 
 earthquake shocks, for the steel struc- 
 tures in San Francisco stood, while 
 massive stone and brick buildings of 
 the old-fashioned construction were 
 razed to the ground. United States 
 and state troops took possession of 
 the ruined city. The federal soldiers 
 took charge of the hospital and re- 
 lief work, established refugee camps, 
 and put down lawlessness with an iron 
 hand. Scores of thieves were shot 
 down. The most drastic steps were 
 taken to prevent a recurrence of the 
 conflagration. Even in the houses un- 
 touched by the flames no lights or fires 
 were permitted until after the water 
 supply and fire protection had been 
 restored. Every householder, million- 
 aire, and mechanic alike was compelled 
 to cook all meals in the street. 
 
 The nation was quick to respond to 
 the cry of the homeless and hungry. 
 Congress appropriated $2,500,000. All 
 the cities raised huge sums. Carloads 
 of provisions and clothing were hurried 
 into the city, and in two days all danger 
 of famine had passed. The property 
 loss was estimated at $200,000,000, of 
 which approximately three-fourths was 
 covered by insurance. The city is be- 
 ing rapidly rebuilt on a more extensive 
 scale and the new city will be one of 
 the most modern on the continent. 
 
 SANGIR ISLANDS (sanger), a ^oup 
 of small islands in the Incfian Archipel- 
 ago, situated between the n. e.extremity 
 
 of Celebes and the Philippine isle of 
 Mindanao. The natives are of the 
 Malay race, and profess Christianity. 
 The islands belong to the Netherlands. 
 Pop. about 50,000. 
 
 SAN'HEDRIM, or San'hedrin (cor- 
 rupted from the Greek sunedrion, a 
 council), the supreme judicial tribunal 
 of the Jews, existing in the time of the 
 Maccabees and in New Testament 
 times. According to the Talmud it was 
 founded by Moses when he elected 
 seventy elders to assist him in judging 
 the children of Israel in the wilderness, 
 but this view is now generally rejected. 
 The sanhedrim consisted of seventy 
 members besides the president, who 
 was usually the high priest. They were 
 chosen from among the priests, elders, 
 heads of families, and scribes or doctors 
 of law, and had power to deal with both 
 secular and spiritual matters. At the 
 trial of our Lord they sat in the palace 
 of the high priest. The council became 
 extinct in 425. 
 
 SANITARY SCIENCE teaches how to 
 maintain health and to ward off disease, 
 and treats more especially of what is 
 required of each individual in his duty 
 to his neighbor, so that by using such 
 means as may ensure his own health he 
 may in a negative way preserve that of 
 his neighbor also. The subject naturally 
 divides itself into four main divisions: 
 1. That relating to our dwellings; 2. 
 Food; 3. Clothing; 4. Cleanliness. As 
 regards the first head, our dwellings 
 should be situated so as to ensure a free 
 circulation of air round them, and a 
 thorough system of drainage. The rooms 
 should be large, airy, and well ventilated 
 A most pernicious source of impurity is 
 sewer-gas, which can only enter houses 
 where waste and soil-pipes are in direct 
 communication with the main system of 
 sewers. The decomposition of faecal and 
 other matters in drains produces both 
 ammoniacal and other sulphurous gases. 
 These gases, owing to their light specific 
 gravity, rise to the highest point m the 
 pipes, and from thence force their way 
 through imperfections in drains and 
 pipes, and also through the water-traps 
 of closets, sinks, etc., into our houses, 
 and become a most potent atmospheric 
 impurity. They are of two kinds — an 
 odoriferous and an odorless gas. The 
 former is almost innocuous, but the 
 latter is most deadly, since it depresses 
 the general system and frequently con- 
 tains the germs of disease. Sunlight 
 and thorough ventilation destroy the 
 properties of this gas. In order to pre- 
 vent sewer-gas from entering a house, 
 all waste-pipes in connection with the 
 sewers should be carried along outside 
 the house and furnished with a ventila- 
 tor, so that the gas may escape into the 
 external air. The ventilator should dis- 
 charge at the roof of the house, and not 
 near to a window or other opening into 
 the dwelling. The outlet of pipes from 
 wash-basins in bed-rooms should dis- 
 charge in the open air, and should not 
 be directly connected with drains. Foul 
 smells and gases arise from many other 
 causes, such as decomposition of organic 
 matter within the house, emanations 
 from the surface of the body, prepara- 
 tions of arsenic and copper in wall-paper 
 etc. Flowers also give off carbonic acid 
 
SAN JOAQUIN 
 
 j 
 
 SANTA CATHARINA 
 
 gas at night, and gas-jets also pour much 
 impurity into the atmosphere. Over- 
 crowding also greatly vitiates the at- 
 mosphere. Thorough drainage of our 
 houses is also very necessary in order 
 to prevent dampness, which is a most 
 prolific source of disease. Every portion 
 of a house should be kept scrupulously 
 clean and after infectious or contagious 
 disease there should be a thorough cleans- 
 ing and disinfecting of the furniture, 
 bedding, carpets, etc. The neglect of an 
 efficient use of cold water is perhaps one 
 of the most potent and prolific causes 
 of disease. The first duty of every human 
 being is to attend thoroughly to the 
 cleansing of the whole body, and this 
 can only be done by the free application 
 of water. The daily use of a cold bath is 
 not only conducive to health, but a 
 powerful preventive against disease. 
 It is always desirable when we leave a 
 bath that a glow — called the reaction — 
 should be felt all over the body, and 
 this can be assisted by the vigorous use 
 of a rough towel. Bathing in this way is 
 a powerful natural tonic to the skin, 
 nerves, and muscular system. It pro- 
 motes digestion, regulates the bowels, 
 and is in fact invaluable as a sanitary 
 measure. All underclothing should be 
 changed at least once a week; and socks 
 and stockings every two days. All 
 household furj^ishings should be kept 
 thoroughly free from dirt. One or two 
 other points should also be noticed. 
 Exercise is one of these. It may be 
 walking or horse exercise. Both are 
 invigorating; both promote appetite 
 and digestion and the healthy action 
 of the functions generally. An outdoor 
 occupation is to be preferred on the 
 score of health. In addition, freedom 
 from anxiety, cheerful society honesty, 
 and the practice of all the virtues 
 are most conducive to the promotion 
 and preservation of health. See also 
 Germ Theory of Disease, Disinfectant, 
 Public Health Acts, etc. 
 
 SAN JOAQUIN (ho-a-ken), a river of 
 California which traverses the valley of 
 the same name from the Tulare Lakes, 
 joins the Sacramento, and falls into 
 Suisun bay. It has a length of 350 miles. 
 
 SAN JOSE (ho-sa'), the capital of 
 Santa Clara co., California, in the valley 
 of Santa Clara, 46 miles by rail s. of 
 San Francisco. The city is embowered 
 in trees and shrubberies, and has a fine 
 park, 6 miles distant, to which leads a 
 beautiful avenue of trees. It contains a 
 courthouse, a theater, state normal 
 school, public halls, a public library, 
 and other good public buildings. Wheat, 
 wine, dried and canned fruits, tobacco, 
 etc., are produced here. Pop. 25,615. 
 
 SAN JOSE, capital of the state of Costa 
 Rica, Central America. It stands on a 
 table-land 4500 feet above the sea level. 
 The streets are narrow, and there are 
 few public buildings worthy of note. 
 It is the center of the trade of the state. 
 The climate is healthy, and the town is 
 surrounded with coffee plantations. Pop. 
 25,000. 
 
 SAN JUAN BOUNDARY QUESTION. 
 
 By the treaty of Washington (15th 
 June, 1846) it was provided that the 
 boundary line between British North 
 America and the United States should 
 be continued to the middle of the chan - ' 
 
 nel between Vancouver’s Island and the 
 continent, and thence south to the 
 Pacific ocean. But the island of San 
 Juan lies in the middle of this channel, 
 and the question immediately arose to 
 whom the island should belong. It was 
 a subject of long and bitter dispute, 
 but at last the matter was submitted 
 to the arbitration of the Emperor 
 William of Germany without appeal. 
 The emperor’s award, dated October 
 21, 1872, was given unreservedly in 
 favor of the American claim on the 
 ground that the American view of the 
 treaty of 1846 was the more correct one. 
 
 SAN LUIS, a province of the Argen- 
 tine republic. Area, 23,359 sq. miles. 
 The climate is healthy, and rain seldom 
 falls. The province is rich in copper and 
 other metals. The leading industry is 
 cattle-rearing. Pop. 100,000. — The chief 
 town is San Luis de la Punta. It consists 
 chiefly of mud huts surrounded by 
 mimosa thickets. A trade is done in 
 cattle and hides. Pop. 7000. 
 
 SAN LUIS DE POTOSI (pot-o-se'), a 
 city of Mexico, capital of the state of 
 same name, 198 miles n.w. of Mexico, 
 6350 feet above sea-level ; regularly 
 built, with fine streets. It has a hand- 
 some cathedral; manufactures of cloth- 
 ing, shoes, hats, etc.; railway work- 
 shops; and a considerable trade. Pop. 
 62,573. — The state has an area of 27,500 
 sq. miles, is generally fertile, and has 
 rich gold and silver mines. Pop. 516,486. 
 
 SAN SALVADOR, a town in Central 
 America, capital of the state of Salvador, 
 situated near the volcano of same name. 
 The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in 
 agriculture. The town was completely 
 destroyed by earthquake on April 16, 
 1854, and has suffered severely since. 
 It was founded originally in 1528. Pop. 
 50,000. 
 
 SANSKRIT LANGUAGE AND LITER- 
 ATURE. Sanskrit is the name given to 
 the learned and classical lan^age of the 
 Hindus, the language in which most of 
 their vast literature is written, but 
 which has not been a living and spoken 
 language since about the 2d century 
 before Christ. It is one of the Aryan or 
 Indo-European family of tongues, and 
 may be described as a sister of the 
 Persian, Greek, and Latin, Teutonic, 
 Slavonic, and Celtic tongues. It stands 
 in the same relation to the modern 
 Aryan languages of India as Latin stands 
 to the Romance languages. It is a highly 
 inflected language, having in this re- 
 spect many resemblances to Greek. 
 To philologists it has proved perhaps 
 the most valuable of tongues and it was 
 only after it became known to Europeans 
 that philology began to assume the 
 character of a science. Its supreme 
 value is due to the transparency of its 
 structure, and its freedom from the cor- 
 rupting and disguising effect of phonetic 
 change, and from obliteration of the 
 original meaning of its vocables. 
 
 Sanskrit literature covers a period 
 extending from at least 1500 b.c. to the 
 present time. The great mass of the 
 literature is in metre, even works on 
 science and law having a poetical form. 
 The oldest literary monuments are the 
 Vedas — the Rig, the Yajur, the Sama, 
 and the Atharva Veda. They are looked 
 upon as the source of all the shastras 
 
 or sacred writings of the Hindus, which, 
 however, include works upon ethics, 
 science, and philosophy as well as re- 
 ligious works. In the department of 
 epic poetry the chief productions are the 
 epics called the Ramayana and the 
 Mahabharata. The Ramayana is be- 
 lieved to be the older of the two, and to 
 have been current in India as early as the 
 5th century b.c. The Mahabharata is a 
 huge epic of about 220,000 lines, form- 
 ing rather a cyclopaedia of Hindu my- 
 thology, legendary history, and philoso- 
 phy than a poem with a single subject. 
 It is the production of various periods 
 and various authors. In the province 
 of lyric poetry we meet with poems of 
 the greatest eloquence, tender sentiment 
 and beautiful descriptions of nature. 
 We must mention in particular the 
 Meghaduta (Cloud Messenger) of Kali- 
 dasa; the Ritusanhara (Circle of the 
 Seasons) of the same poet; and the 
 Gitagovinda of Jayadeva, describing 
 the adventures of Krishna. Though the 
 Hindus can boast of some excellent 
 specimens of dramatic poetry, yet, on 
 the whole, their dramas are much in- 
 ferior to those of the Greeks or of 
 modern Europe. The scientific litera- 
 ture of India is likewise large. Grammar 
 seems to have had a special fascination 
 for the Hindus. The oldest extant gram- 
 mar is that of Panini, which belongs to 
 the 2d or 3d century before Christ. In 
 mathematics and astronomy the Hindus 
 have greatly distinguished themselves, 
 as also in medicine and philosophy. 
 Sanskrit literature was first introduced 
 to the western world by Sir William 
 Jones at the end of the 18th century. 
 
 SANTA ANNA, Antonio Lopez de, 
 Mexican president, born 1796, died 1876. 
 He took a prominent part in the ex- 
 
 Santa Anna. 
 
 pulsion of the Spaniards from Mexico, 
 and proclaimed the Mexican republic in 
 1822. He was in the front during all the 
 Mexican troubles till 1833 when he be- 
 came president. In 1836 he was defeated 
 and taken prisoner by the Texans, but 
 returned the following year. He was 
 again president in 1846, but on the 
 taking of Mexico by the United States 
 troops in 1847 he resigned. He again 
 held the office in 1853-55; was banished 
 in 1867, but permitted to return in 1874. 
 
 SANTA CATHARI'NA, a maritime 
 state of Brazil, in the south; area, 27,436 
 sq. miles. It is watered by numerous 
 streams, the soil is fertile, the climate 
 mild, and the seasons regular. Sugar, 
 coffee, rice, corn, mandioca, and wheat 
 are the chief cultivated products. Agri- 
 culture and cattle-rearing are the chief 
 
SANTA CLARA 
 
 SAPPHIRE 
 
 industries. There are a number of Ger- 
 man settlements, the inhabitants of that 
 nationality being reckoned at 70,000. 
 The capital is Desterro. Pop. 283,769. 
 
 SANTA CLARA (kla'r4), a province of 
 Cuba, occupying the central portion of 
 the island, and bounded by the sea on 
 the north and south, the province of 
 Matanzas on the west, and Puerto Prin- 
 cipe on the east. Area, 9560 sq. miles. 
 The province contains some of the 
 largest sugar plantations and factories, 
 while tobacco is also largely raised, and 
 the upland savannas offer rich pasturage 
 It is also rich in minerals, and asphalt, 
 silver, and copper are mined. Population 
 156,536. The capital is Santa Clara. 
 
 SANTA CRUZ, capital and chief port 
 of the Canary islands on the n.e. coast of 
 Teneriffe. The streets are well paved, 
 but the houses are small, and the public 
 buildings few. There is an excellent 
 harbor protected by a mole, and the 
 coast is defended by a number of forts. 
 Wine, brandy, and cochineal are the 
 chief products. Pop. 15,000 
 
 SANTAL' PARGANAS, The, a district 
 in the Bhagalpur division of Bengal 
 area, 5456 sq miles. The Ganges, which 
 bounds the district on the north and 
 partly on the east, forms also its chief 
 drainage. Various minerals, as coal, 
 iron, and silver, have been found in this 
 district. Pop. 1,754,196. 
 
 SANTALWOOD, a dyewood ob- 
 tained from a leguminous tree of the 
 East Indies, Madagascar, etc.; also 
 called Sanders or saunders wood and red 
 sandalwood. Sontaline, a substance 
 obtained from it, is used in dyeing blue 
 and brown. 
 
 SANTANDER', a city and seaport of 
 N. Spain, capital of the province of same 
 name, on the Bay of Biscay, with a good 
 and secure harbor. Pop. 54,694. — The 
 province is bounded by Biscay, Burgos, 
 Palencia, and Oviedo, and has an area 
 of 2111 sq. miles. The soil is fertile, and 
 reduces large quantities of corn, 
 emp, flax, oranges, lemons, figs, etc. 
 There are also lead, coal, and iron mines, 
 quarries of limestone and marble The 
 rearing of cattle is common, and the 
 fisheries along the coast are well de- 
 veloped. Pop. 263,673. 
 
 SANTERRE (san-tar), Antoine Joseph, 
 born in Paris 1752, died 1809. As a 
 wealthy brewer he was notable during 
 the French revolution for his influence 
 over the Parisian mob in the attacks on 
 the Bastille and the Tuileries. He rose 
 to be commander of the national guard 
 and a major-general. 
 
 SANTIA'GO, the capital of the repub- 
 lic of Chile and of the province of the 
 same name, is beautifully situated at the 
 foot of the Andes, 112 miles by rail e. 
 of Valparaiso. It is intersected by the 
 Mapocho, a rapid stream issuing from 
 the Andes, has water channels in many 
 of the streets, is lighted by electricity, 
 and furnished with tramways. Owing 
 to the prevalence of earthquakes the 
 houses are mostly of one story, and 
 generally occupy a large space of ground, 
 having gardens and patios or courts in 
 the interior. The Plaza or Great Square 
 is a large open area adorned with a fine 
 fountain; around it are the municipal 
 buildings and criminal courts, the post- 
 ofl&ce, the old palace, formerly the resi- 
 
 dence of the presidents, now used as 
 barracks, the cathedral, etc. There are 
 also a mint, a well-appointed university 
 with about 1000 students, high class 
 secondary schools, school of art, military 
 school, normal schools, theater, museum, 
 etc. The city was founded in 1541. The 
 most memorable event in its history 
 was the burning of a church, in which 
 about 2000 persons perished in 1863. 
 Pop. 291,725. 
 
 SANTIAGO DE CUBA, a seaport town 
 on the southeast coast of the Island of 
 Cuba. It is the oldest town of the island 
 (having been founded in 1514), is the 
 see of an archbishop, has a fine cathedral 
 several other churches, and a harbor, 
 which, though difficult of access, is 
 spacious and deep. Its trade is con- 
 siderable. Pop. 43,090. 
 
 SANTIAGO DEL ESTE'RO, a town of 
 the Argentine republic, in the province 
 of same name, in a fertile district on the 
 Rio Dulce. Pop. 10,000. — The province 
 has an area of 31,500 sq. miles, and is 
 well suited for cattle-rearing and agri- 
 culture. Pop. 160,000. 
 
 SANTOS, a city and seaport of Brazil, 
 in the state and 50 miles s.s.e. of Sao- 
 Paulo, on the South Atlantic, in an un- 
 healthy locality. The harbor is the best 
 in the state, and the chief outlet for its 
 
 E roducts, which are coffee, sugar, to- 
 acco, hides, etc. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 SAONE, Haute (6t son, Upper Saone), 
 a department in the east of France; 
 area, 2028 sq. miles. Verone is the 
 capital. Pop. 290,954. 
 
 SAONE-ET-LOIRE (s6n-6-lwar), a de- 
 partment of E. France; area, 3270 sq. 
 miles. Micon is the capital. Pop. 
 625,885. 
 
 SAO PAULO (sa-un-pa'u-l6), a mari- 
 time state of Brazil, between the two 
 states of Minas-Geraes and Parang; area, 
 112,940 sq. miles. Pop. 1,386,242, in- 
 cluding 300,000 Italian colonists and 
 20,000 Germans. — Sao-Paulo, the capi- 
 tal is the center of the provincial rail- 
 ways, 86 miles from its seaport Santos, 
 and 143 miles from Rio de Janeiro. 
 The principal edifices are the cathedral, 
 several monasteries and convents, the 
 governor’s and the bishop’s palace, the 
 townhouse, etc. Pop. 65,000. 
 
 SAP, in military affairs, a narrow 
 ditch or trench by which approach is 
 made to a fortress or besieged place 
 when within range of fire. It runs in a 
 zigzag, serpentine, or similar direction, 
 so as not to be enfiladed by the fire of 
 the fortress. The trench is formed by 
 trained men (sappers), who place gab- 
 ions as a cover, filled with the earth 
 taken from trench along the intended 
 line of parapet; the earth excavated, 
 after the gabions have been filled, being 
 thrown up to form a parapet capable of 
 resisting artillery. The single sap has only 
 a single parapet; the double has one on 
 each side. Sometimes the sap is entirely 
 covered in. The digging of a sap is 
 generally a dangerous operation. In the 
 accompanying figure a is a double sap 
 on the serpentine plan; b, section of 
 single sap, showing portion of gabions; 
 c, section of covered sap; d, sap on 
 rectangular plan. 
 
 SAP, the juice or fluid which circulates 
 in all plants, being as indispensable to 
 vegetable life as the blood to animal 
 
 life. It is the first product of the diges- 
 tion of plant food, and contains the 
 elements of vegetable growth in a dis- 
 solved condition. The absorption of 
 nutriment from the soil is effected by 
 the minute root-hairs and papillae, the 
 absorbed nutriment being mainly com- 
 posed of carbonic acid and nitrogenous 
 compounds dissolved in water. This 
 
 
 Sap, as variously constructed. 
 
 ascending, or as it is termed crude sap, 
 is apparently transmitted through the 
 long cells in the vascular tissue of the 
 stem and branches to the leaves, pass- 
 ing from cell to cell by the process known 
 as endosmose. 
 
 SAPAJOU (sap'a-jo), the name gen- 
 erally given to a group of South Ameri- 
 can prehensile-tailed monkeys, includ- 
 ing fifteen or sixteen species, whose 
 characteristics it is exceedingly difficult 
 properly to define. Among the species 
 may be named the horned sapajou (also 
 
 Capucin sapajou. 
 
 called horned capucin) ; and the capucin. 
 One of the most common species is the 
 weeper. They are small in size, playful 
 in disposition, leading a gregarious life, 
 and feeding chiefly on fruits and insects. 
 
 SAPPHIRE (saf'ir), a precious stone, 
 next in hardness and value to the dia- 
 mond, belonging to the corundum class. 
 Sapphires are found in various places, as 
 Burmah, India, and Ceylon, in Asia; 
 and Bohemia and Silesia, in Europe. 
 The sapphire proper is a beautiful trans- 
 parent stone of various shades of blue 
 color. 
 
SAPPHO 
 
 SARDANAPALUS 
 
 SAPPHO (saf'6), a distinguished Greek 
 poetess, born at Mitylene, on the island 
 of Lesbos, and flourished about 600 b.c. 
 Little is known regarding her life, 
 though she is made the subject of 
 various legends. Of these may be men- 
 tioned the common story of her love for 
 Phaon, which, being unrequited, caused 
 her to leap down from the Leucadian 
 rock. At Mitylene Sappho appears to 
 have been the center of a female coterie, 
 most of the members of which were her 
 pupils in poetry, fashion, and gallantry. 
 Her odes, elegies, epigrams, of which 
 only fragments have come down to us, 
 display deep feeling and imagination. 
 Her reputation among the ancients al- 
 most borders on extravagance. 
 
 SAPSUCKER, the popular American 
 name of several small woodpeckers. 
 
 SARACEN, an Arabian or other Mus- 
 sulman of the early and proselytizing 
 
 Sapsucker. 
 
 period; a propagator of Mohammedan- 
 ism in countries lying to the west of 
 Arabia. By mediaeval writers the term 
 was variously employed to designate the 
 Arabs generally, the Mohammedans of 
 Syria and Palestine, or the Arab-Berber 
 races of Northern Africa. At a later 
 time it was also applied to any infidel 
 nation against which crusades were 
 preached, such as the Turks. 
 
 SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE, the 
 style adopted by the followers of Mo- 
 hamet in building their mosques, 
 palaces, and tombs. Originally the 
 Arabs possessed no distinctive archi- 
 tectural style, and the style which they 
 at length made their own was developed 
 by architects belonging to the countries 
 which they had conquered. This style 
 is chiefly represented in Egypt, Persia, 
 Spain, Turkey, and India, but the Sara- 
 cenic architecture of Spain is generally 
 calledby the distinctive name of Moorish. 
 The most prominent features of the 
 style are the dome, the minaret, and the 
 pointed arch. The Saracenic domes rise 
 from a square base, are graceful in form, 
 sometimes in groups of three or more, 
 and frequently enriched externally with 
 colored tiles or other decorations. The 
 minarets are slender towers of consider- 
 able height, rising in stages or stories, 
 each with a balcony, and are most fre- 
 quently octagonal, sometimes cylindri- 
 cal, rising, however, from a square base. 
 The arch is of the pointed variety, this 
 form of arch having been used by the 
 Arabs in Egypt before the rise of the 
 
 Gothic in Europe. It is sometimes of the 
 horse-shoe form. The use of clustdred 
 pendentives (honey-comb work) to form 
 a transition from the quadrangular area 
 under a dome to the arch of the dome 
 itself is very peculiar and common. Ex- 
 
 Saracenic architecture. 
 
 Mosque of Kald Bey, Cairo. 
 
 ternally the tops of walls are often 
 finished off with an upright cresting, 
 which may be regarded as an ornament 
 taking the place of a cornice. Flat sur- 
 faces are freely ornamented with a pro- 
 fusion of scroll-work and conventional 
 foliage, often in intricate and beautiful 
 design. Stucco is much used in orna- 
 mentation. 
 
 SARAGOSSA, or ZARAGOZA, a city of 
 Spain, in Aragon, capital of the province 
 of the same name, as well as of the an- 
 cient kingdom of Aragon, about 20 
 miles n.e. of Madrid by rail in a fertile 
 plain irrigated by the Ebro. Pop. 98,188. 
 
 SARATO'GA SPRINGS, a town in the 
 state of New York, about 35 miles north 
 of Albany, and 186 miles north of New 
 York City by rail. It owes its prosperity 
 to its mineral -springs, which have made 
 it the most fashionable watering-place 
 in the United States. The springs are 
 characterized by their saline and chalyb- 
 eate ingredients, combined with car- 
 bonic acid gas. It has numerous large 
 and handsome hotels, several churches, 
 etc., and during the season has an influx 
 of about 35,000 visitors. Ordinary pop- 
 ulation about 14,000. 
 
 SARA'TOV, a city of Russia, capital 
 of the government of same name, is built 
 on broken and undulating ground on the 
 right bank of the Volga, 459 miles south- 
 east of Moscow, and surrounded by gar- 
 dens. Pop. 137,109. — The government 
 has an area of 32,613 sq. miles. The 
 principal exports are corn, hemp, flax, 
 tobacco, hops, and madder. Pop. 
 2,419,884. 
 
 SARA'WAK, a rajahship in the island 
 of Borneo, under British protection. It 
 is situated on the west and northwest 
 side of the island, and has a coast-line 
 of about 400 miles, while it extends in- 
 land for more than 100 miles; area about 
 50,000 sq. miles. The more important 
 vegetable productions are cocoa-nuts, 
 rice, and sago. The minerals include 
 gold, antimony, and quicksilver, and 
 diamonds are also found. The original 
 inhabitants are Dyaks, but are now very 
 much intermixed with Malays and 
 Chinese. The rajahship was conferred 
 upon Sir James Brooke by the Sultan of 
 Borneo in 1841 in return for distin- 
 guished services in quelling disturb- 
 ances and restoring order, and when he 
 died in 1868 he was succeeded by his 
 nephew. Capital, Kuching. Pop. 
 300,000. 
 
 SARCOPH'AGUS, a coffin or tomb of 
 stone; a kind of stone chest, generally 
 more or less ornamented, for receiving 
 
 Egyptian sarcophagus— Third pyramid. 
 
 a dead body. The oldest known sarcoph- 
 agi are Egyptian, and have been found 
 in certain of the pyramids. Two of the 
 most celebrated of these are the great 
 saracophagus taken by the British in 
 Egypt in 1801, now in the British 
 museum, and the alabaster sarcophagus 
 in the Sloane museum, London. Sar- 
 cophagi were also used by the Phceni- 
 
 Roman sarcophagus— Tomb of Sclplos. 
 
 cians, Persians, and Romans; and in 
 modern times stone coffins have not 
 been uncommon for royalty and persons 
 of high rank. 
 
 SARD, a variety of chalcedony, which 
 displays on its surface a rich reddish 
 brown, but when held between the eye 
 and the light appears of a deep blood- 
 red carnelian. 
 
 SARDANAPA'LUS, the name in Greek 
 of several kings of Assyria, one of whom 
 is said to have been the last king of 
 Assyria. He is represented by Ctesias as 
 a very effeminate prince, wholly given to 
 sensual indulgence and inactivity, and 
 it is related that Arbaces, a Median 
 satrap, in conjunction with Belesis, a 
 Babylonian priest, raised an army of 
 Medes against him about 785 b.c. This 
 army, attacking his camp by night, 
 gained a great victory, and pursued the 
 fugitives to the gates of Nineveh. Here 
 Sardanapalus defended himself for two 
 years, but ultimately set his palace on 
 
SARDINE 
 
 SASSAFRAS 
 
 fire and perished in the conflagration 
 with all his wives and attendants. 
 
 SARDINE, a small fish, now generally 
 regarded as identical with the pilchard, 
 abundant in the Mediterranean and also 
 on the Atlantic coasts of France, Spain, 
 and Portugal. It is much esteemed for 
 its flavor, and large quantities are pre- 
 served by being salted and partly dried. 
 
 Californian sardine. 
 
 then scalded in hot olive-oil, and finally 
 hermetically sealed in tin boxes with 
 hot salted oil, or oil and butter. 
 
 SARDIN'IA, an island in the western 
 half of the Mediterranean, forming part 
 of the Italian kingdom and separated 
 from the island of Corsica by the strait 
 of Bonifacio, not quite 7 miles wide; 
 length, 152 miles; central breadth, about 
 66 miles; area, 9350 sq, miles. The coast 
 is in great part rugged and precipitous, 
 and though the island is nearly in the 
 form of a parallelogram there are some 
 important indentations, such as the 
 Gulf of Asinara in the northwest, the 
 Bay of Oristano in the west, and the 
 Gulf of Cagliari, in the southeast, 
 on which Cagliari, the capital of the 
 island, is situated. The interior is 
 generally mountainous; the chain which 
 traverses Sardinia sends out branches 
 east and west, and culminates in Brunca, 
 6291 feet, and Gennargentu, 6132 feet. 
 The rearing of live stock forms an im- 
 portant industry. Game of all kinds is 
 very abundant. Wild boars, stags, deer, 
 and mufflons frequent the woods and 
 forests. The most valuable fishery is 
 that of the tunny. For administrative 
 purposes Sardinia is divided into the 
 two provinces of Cagliari and Sassari. 
 The inhabitants are of Italian race, with 
 a mixture of Spanish, and are char- 
 acterized by a chivalric sense of honor 
 and hospitality, but the family feud 
 or vendetta still exists. See next article. 
 Pop. 789,314. 
 
 SARDINIA, KINGDOM OF, a former 
 kingdom, of the south of Europe, com- 
 posed of the Island of Sardinia, the 
 Duchy of Savoy, the Principality of 
 Piedmont, the county of Nice, the Duchy 
 of Genoa, and parts of the Duchies of 
 Montferrat and Milan; 28,229 sq. miles- 
 pop. (1858), 5,194,807. In 1720 Victor 
 Amadeus II., duke of Savoy, on receiv- 
 ing the island of Sardinia in exchange 
 for Sicily, took the title of King of 
 Sardinia. He was succeeded by Charles 
 Emmanuel III., Victor Amadeus III., 
 and Charles Emmanuel IV., who in 
 1802 abdicated in favor of his brother 
 Victor Emmanuel I., the royal family 
 having by this time, during the domina- 
 tion of Napoleon, taken refuge on the 
 island of Sardinia. In 1814 the king 
 returned to Turin, where the seat of 
 government was established. An in- 
 surrection occasioned his abdication in 
 1821 in favor of Charles Felix, who, after 
 a reign of ten years, was succeeded by 
 Charles Albert. In 1848 he headed the 
 league which endeavored to drive the 
 
 P. E.— 70 
 
 Austrians from Italy. The defeat of the 
 Sardinian forces at Novara (1849) by 
 Radetsky, however, caused him to ab- 
 dicate in favor of his son Victor Em- 
 manuel II. The position of Sardinia was 
 strengthened by the part which it played 
 (1854) in the Crimean war, while in 1859 
 the co-operation of France was secured 
 in a war against Austria. The brief cam- 
 paign which followed ended in the defeat 
 of the Austrians at Magenta and Sol- 
 ferino, and led to Sardinia receiving a 
 large increase of territory, though she 
 had to cede Savoy and Nice to France. 
 Soon after this the Sardinian Kingdom 
 was merged in a united Italian Kingdom 
 under Victor Emmanuel. See Italy. 
 
 SARD'ONYX, a precious stone, a beau- 
 tiful and rare variety of onyx, consisting 
 of alternate layers of sard and white 
 chalcedony. The name has sometimes 
 been applied to a reddish-yellow or 
 nearly orange variety of chalcedonic 
 quartz resembling carnelian, and also 
 to carnelians whose colors are in alter- 
 nate bands of red and white. 
 
 SARDOU, Victorien, French drama- 
 tist, born at Paris in 1831 He was suc- 
 cessful with two playswhich he wrote for 
 D4jazet called M. Garat (1860) and Les 
 Pr6s-Saint-Gervais (1862). His better- 
 known works, many of which have been 
 produced on the English stage, are Les 
 Pattes de Mocuhe, Nos Intimes, La 
 Patrie, Daniel Rochat, Thermidor, and 
 Madame Sans-gene. Some of his suc- 
 cesses have been associated with Madam 
 Bernhardt. He wrote Fedora, Theo- 
 dora, and La Tosca. He died in 1908. 
 
 SARGENT, Epes, an American poet, 
 and dramatist, was born at Gloucester, 
 Mass., in 1813; died at Boston in 1880. 
 He was the author of that well-known 
 lyric, A Life on the Ocean Wave. 
 
 SARGENT, John Singer, American 
 portrait and figure painter, was born in 
 Florence, Italy, in 1856. His first ex- 
 hibited pictures were “En route pour la 
 
 E eche,” a group of fisher girls upon the 
 each, and “Neapolitan Children Bath- 
 ing.” He has received the highest medals 
 and honors, including the Grand Prix 
 at the Paris expositions of 1889 and 
 1900, and in 1889 he was made chevalier, 
 and in 1895 officer of the Legion of 
 Honor. Among the best known of his 
 portraits are those of Carolus Duran 
 and Dr. Pozzi, Edwin Booth, Lawrence 
 Barrett, and Joseph Jefferson. He ex- 
 hibited nine works at the Columbian 
 exposition (1893), among which were 
 Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth. In 1903 
 he visited the United States and made 
 portraits of President Roosevelt, Secre- 
 tary H^ and others. 
 
 SARSliPARIL'LA, ' the rhizome of 
 several plants of the genus Smilax. Sar- 
 saparilla is valued in medicine on ac- 
 count of its mucilaginous and demulcent 
 qualities. 
 
 SARTHE (sart), a department of 
 Northwest France; area, 2395 sq. miles. 
 It has a diversified surface, presenting 
 fertile plains, vineyards, and extensive 
 forests. The capital is Le Mans. Pop. 
 436,111. 
 
 SA'SIN, the common Indian antelope, 
 remarkable for its swiftness and beauty. 
 It is abundant in the open dry plains of 
 India, in flocks of from ten to sixtv 
 females to a single male. It is grayish 
 
 brown or black on the upper parts 
 of the body, with white abdomen and 
 breast, and a white circle round the 
 
 Sasln or Indian antelope. 
 
 eyes, and stands about 2 feet 6 inches 
 high at the shoulder. 
 
 SASBIATCH'EWAN, a great river of 
 Canada, which rises in the Rocky moun- 
 tains near Ion. 115° w. by two principal 
 heads, the sources of which are not far 
 apart. These branches, often called the 
 North and South Saskatchewan, flow 
 generally east to their junction about 
 150 miles northwest of the northwest 
 angle of Manitoba, whence the river 
 takes a curve northeast and southeast, 
 and, passing through Cedar lake, empties 
 itself into Lake Winnipeg, after a course 
 of about 1300 miles, measuring along 
 the south branch, some 70 less measuring 
 along the north. The main stream and 
 its branches afford about 1000 miles of 
 navigable waterway. 
 
 SASKATCHEWAN, a province of 
 Canada, named from the above river, 
 bounded on the s. by Assiniboia, e. by 
 Lake Winnipeg and Nelson river, n. 
 by the 55th parallel, and w. by Alberta, 
 Area. 250,650 sq. miles ; pop. 94,000. Cap- 
 ital, Regina; Prince Albert and Battle- 
 ford are the other chief towns, both be- 
 ing on the Saskatchewan. 
 
 SAS'SABY, an antelope found in South 
 Africa, living gregariously in herds 
 numbering from six to ten individuals. 
 
 Sassaby. 
 
 The body-color is a reddish-brown, the 
 limbs being of dark hue, while a blackish 
 stripe marks the forehead and middle 
 of fsic 0 
 
 SAS'SAFRAS, a genus of plants. It is 
 a small tree or bush inhabiting the woods 
 of North America from Canada to 
 Florida. The taste of sassafras is sharp, 
 acrid, aromatic^ it is used for flavoring 
 purposes, and in medicine as a stimula^ 
 
SASSARI 
 
 SAULT SAINTE MARIE 
 
 Srwamp-sassafras is the Magnolia glauca, 
 an American tree. 
 
 SAS'SARI, a town of Italy, in Sar- 
 dinia, capital of the province of same 
 name 105 miles n.n.w. of Cagliari. Pop. 
 of town, 38,178; a province occupying 
 the north and more fertile part of the 
 island. Pop. 307,314. 
 
 SATA'RA, a district, in the Bombay 
 presidency, India; area, 4987 sq. miles, 
 forming part of the table-land of the 
 Deccan, much broken by ridges, ravines, 
 and isolated heights. The chief river is 
 the Kistna, which flows southeast 
 through its center. Pop. 1,146,521. — 
 The capital of the district is also called 
 Satdra, and is situated 55 miles south 
 of Poona, near the confluence of the 
 Krishna and the Yena. Pop. 26,022. 
 
 SAT'ELLITE, a secondary planet, or 
 moon; a small planet revolving round a 
 larger one. The earth has one satellite, 
 called the moon; Neptune is also ac- 
 companied by one; Mars by two; Uranus 
 by six; Jupiter by four; Saturn by eight. 
 Saturn’s rings are supposed to be com- 
 posed of a great multitude of minute 
 satellites. 
 
 SATIN, a soft, closely-woven silk, 
 with a glossy surface. In the manufac- 
 ture of satin part of the weft is left be- 
 neath the warp, which, presenting a close 
 and smooth surface, acquires, after be- 
 ing passed over heated cylinders, that 
 luster which distinguishes it from other 
 kinds of silks. 
 
 SATINET, a twilled cloth made of 
 woolen weft and cotton warp pressed 
 and dressed to produce a glossy surface 
 in imitation of satin. 
 
 SATINWOOD, the wood of a large 
 tree. It is a native of the mountainous 
 parts of the Circars in the East Indies. 
 The wood is of a deep yellow color, close- 
 grained, heavy and durable. 
 
 SATIRE, in the widest sense of the 
 word, pungent ridicule or cutting cen- 
 sure of faults, vices, or weaknesses. In a 
 narrower sense it is a poem of which 
 ridicule and censure are the object and 
 chief characteristic. This species of 
 poetry had its origin with the Romans, 
 but satires may also take the forms of 
 epistles, tales, dialogues, dramas (as 
 with Aristophanes), songs, epics, fables, 
 etc. The didactic satire originated with 
 Lucilius (148-103 b.c.), and Horace, 
 Juvenal, and Persius developed it. 
 Satirists are common in all modern 
 lit©r&tjT_ir6s 
 
 SATOLLI (sa-tol'le), Francesco, Ital- 
 ian cardinal, was born at Perugia in 
 1831. In 1888 Satolli was made titular 
 archbishop of Lepanto. In 1892 Mgr. 
 Satolli was sent to the United States as 
 papal ablegate with plenary power, 
 which was confirmed by his appoint- 
 ment in 1893 as apostolic delegate to 
 the American church, with an official 
 residence in Washington. He was 
 elevated to the cardinalate in 1895, and 
 was re-called and succeeded by Arch- 
 bishop Sebastiano Martinelli in 1896. 
 
 SATRAPS, in the ancient Persian 
 empire, the governors of the provinces 
 which were called satrapies. The power 
 of the satrap, so long as he retained the 
 favor of his sovereign, was absolute; 
 he levied taxes at his pleasure and aped 
 the capricious tyranny of his master 
 unchecked. 
 
 SATURATION. In meteorology the 
 air is said to be saturated with aqueous 
 vapor, if, when the temperature is 
 slightly lowered, condensation takes 
 place. The degree of saturation at any 
 place is called the hydrometric state. 
 The term is applied in chemistry to the 
 union, combination, or impregnation of 
 one body with another in such definite 
 proportions as that they neutralize each 
 other, or till the receiving body can con- 
 tain no more. 
 
 SATURDAY (A. Sax. Sjeterdceg, Seet- 
 erndaeg — Sater, Saetern, for Saturn, and 
 dffig, a day — the day presided over by 
 the planet Saturn), the seventh or last 
 day of the week; the day of the Jewish 
 Sabbath. 
 
 SATURN, an ancient Italian deity, 
 popularly believed to have made his 
 first appearance in Italy in the reign of 
 Janus, instructing the people in agricul- 
 ture, gardening, etc., thus elevating 
 them from barbarism to social order and 
 civilization. He was consequently 
 elected to share the government with 
 Janus, and his reign came afterward to 
 be sung by the poets as “the golden 
 age.” He was often identified with the 
 Cronus of the Greeks. His temple was 
 the state treasury. Ops was his wife. 
 He is often represented as an elderly 
 man, with a sickle and ears of corn in 
 his hand. See Saturnalia. 
 
 SATURN, one of the planets of the 
 solar system, less in magnitude than 
 Jupiter, and more remote from the sun. 
 Its mean diameter is about 70,000 miles, 
 its mean distance from the sun some- 
 what more than 872,000,000 miles, and 
 
 The planet Saturn. 
 
 its year or periodical revolution round 
 the sun nearly twenty-nine years and a 
 half. Its mass is about 90 times that of 
 the earth. Saturn is attended by eight 
 satellites, and surrounded by a system 
 of flat rings, which are now supposed to 
 be an immense multitude of small 
 satellites, mixed probably with vaporous 
 matter. See Planet. 
 
 SATURNA'LIA, a festival held by the 
 Romans in honor of Saturn, and during 
 which the citizens with their slaves gave 
 themselves up to unrestrained freedom 
 and mirth. It contained at first one day; 
 then three; afterward five; and finally 
 under the Csesars, seven days, namely, 
 from the 17th to the 23d of December. 
 During its continuance no public busi- 
 ness could be transacted, the law courts 
 were closed, the schools kept holiday, 
 and slaves were freed from restraint. 
 Masters and slaves even changed places, 
 so that while the servants sat at table, 
 they were waited on by their masters 
 and their guests. In the last days of the 
 
 festival presents were sent by one friend 
 to another 
 
 SATYRS, in Greek mythology, a class 
 of woodland divinities, in later times, 
 inseparably connected with the worship 
 of Dionysus (Bacchus). The satyrs 
 appear in works of art as half-man and 
 half-goat, having horns on the head, and 
 a hairy body with the feet and tail of a 
 
 goat. They are described as being fond 
 of wine and of every kind of sensual 
 gratification. One of the most famous 
 specimens of Greek art is the Satyr (or 
 Faun) of Praxiteles. 
 
 SAUERKRAUT (zou'er-krout), a fa- 
 vorite German dish, consisting of cab- 
 bage cut fine, pressed into a cask, with 
 alternate layers of salt, and suffered to 
 ferment till it becomes sour. 
 
 SAUL, king of Israel, from about 1095 
 to 1056 B.C., and the son of Kish, a 
 Benjamite. Selected for this office by 
 Samuel, he obtained, by his personal 
 courage and military capacity, several 
 successes over the Philistines, Edomites, 
 Moabites, and Ammonites by means of 
 which he consolidated the tribes and 
 confirmed his authority. After a long 
 reign the wild nature of the king at 
 length showed itself in a kind of religious 
 frenzy. This frenzy, which is briefly de- 
 scribed in the Bible as an “evil spirit of 
 God,” led him to the massacre of the 
 priests of Nob and various similar ex- 
 cesses Meanwhile the prophet Samuel, 
 estranged by the king’s misdeeds, had 
 anointed David as his successor, and 
 this took effect when Saul was slain by 
 his own sword in a battle with the Phil- 
 istines on Mount Bilboa. 
 
 SAULT SAINTE MARIE (s6o sant 
 ma're), the county seat of Chippewa co., 
 Mich., 350 miles west northwest of De- 
 troit; on the Saint Mary’s river, and on 
 the Canadian Pacific, the Duluth, South 
 Shore and Atlantic, and the Minneapolis, 
 Saint Paul and Sault Ste. Marie rail- 
 roads. The ship canal here, connecting 
 Lakes Superior and Huron, is noted for 
 its extensive freight traffic. The water 
 power afforded by the rapids near the 
 city generates electrical energy equiva- 
 lent to 100,000 horse power. There are 
 lumber mills, paper mills, a carbide 
 manufactory, dredging machinery works 
 
SAURIA 
 
 SAW-FLIES 
 
 flour and woolen mills, and fish-packing 
 establishments. Pop. 12,172. 
 
 SAU'RIA, the term by which the great 
 order of lizards is sometimes designated, 
 including not only the existing lizards, 
 crocodiles, monitors, iguanas, chame- 
 leons, etc., but also those fossil reptiles 
 the ichthyosaurus, plesiosaurus, iguano- 
 don, pterodactyl, etc. 
 
 SAUROID FISHES, fishes, chiefly 
 fossil, that combine in their structure 
 certain characters of reptiles. The exist- 
 ing sauroid fishes consist of several 
 species, the best known being the bony 
 pikes and sturgeons. 
 
 SAUTERNE, a white Bordeaux wine 
 of high repute, produced from grapes 
 grown in the neigliborhood of Sauternes, 
 a village in the department of Gironde, 
 s.e. of Bordeaux. 
 
 SAVAN'NA, Savannah, an extensive 
 open plain or meadow in a tropical 
 region, yielding pasturage in the wet 
 season, and often having a growth of 
 undershrubs. The word is chiefly used 
 in tropical America. 
 
 SAVAN'NAH, a river of the United 
 States, which forms the northeast boun- 
 dary of Georgia, and separates it from 
 South Carolina. It is formed by the 
 junction of the Tugaloo and Keowee, 
 100 miles by the course of the river 
 above Augusta, and is navigable for 
 vessels drawing over 18 feet to the city 
 of Savannah, 18 miles from the sea. 
 
 SAVANNAH, the capital of Chatham 
 CO., Georgia, on the south bank of 
 Savannah river, 18 miles from the sea 
 (by river). It is built on a fiat sandy 
 bluff 40 feet high, and is beautifully laid 
 out with wide streets and many squares, 
 most of which are adorned by magnolias, 
 live-oaks, and other stately trees. It 
 has a well-wooded park, several good 
 monuments, handsome cotton exchange, 
 court-house, and other public buildings. 
 It is the second cotton port in the United 
 States, and exports also quantities of 
 timber, turpentine, rosin, etc., besides 
 fruits and early vegetables coastwise. 
 From evaporation of the surrounding 
 waters the atmosphere during summer 
 is very humid. Pop. 1909, 80,000. 
 
 SAV'ARY, Anne Jean Marie Rene, 
 Duke of Rovigo, French general, born 
 1774; died 1833. When the emperor re- 
 turned from Elba he was joined by 
 Savary, who, after the defeat at Water- 
 loo, desired to share his imprisonment in 
 St. Helena. He was afterward employed 
 by the government of Louis Philippe as 
 commander-in-chief in Algeria. 
 
 SAVINGS BANKS, the first savings 
 bank established in Europe is said to 
 have been at Brumath, France, in 1765. 
 The first German savings bank was 
 established at Hamburg in 1778. The 
 first English bank was established in 
 1799. Post office savings banks were 
 established in England in 1861. In the 
 United States the Philadelphia Saving 
 Fund Society was founded in 1816, and 
 received a charter in 1819; and between 
 1817 and 1846 twelve states had granted 
 such charters to savings banks within 
 their bounds, especially the New Eng- 
 land states; fifty years later there were 
 684 banks in the United States. School 
 savings banks have been largely intro- 
 duced in the United States. Its useful- 
 ness, however, is still problematical. 
 
 Most of the states have endeavored, 
 ineffectually, to prevent the savings 
 banks from becoming rivals to other 
 banks, so as to reserve their privileges 
 for the poorer classes. The following 
 table shows the progress of savings 
 banks in the United States: 
 
 SAVINGS BANKS. DEPOSITORS, AND DEPOSITS IN 
 THE UNITED STATES EVERT TEN YEARS 
 FROM 1830 TO 1890 AND ANNUALLY 
 SINCE 1895. 
 
 Year 
 
 Number of 
 Banks 
 
 Number of 
 Depositors 
 
 Deposits 
 
 1830 
 
 36 
 
 38,085 
 
 $ 6,973,304 
 
 1840 
 
 61 
 
 78,701 
 
 14,051,520 
 
 1850 
 
 108 
 
 251,354 
 
 43,431,130 
 
 1860 
 
 278 
 
 693.870 
 
 149,277,504 
 
 1870 
 
 517 
 
 1,630,846 
 
 549,874,358 
 
 1880 
 
 629 
 
 3,335,583 
 
 819,106,973 
 
 1890 
 
 931 
 
 4,258,893 
 
 1,534,844,506 
 
 1895 
 
 1,017 
 
 4,875,519 
 
 1,810,597,023 
 
 1896 
 
 988 
 
 5,065,494 
 
 1,907,156,377 
 
 1897 
 
 980 
 
 5,301,132 
 
 1,939,376,035 
 
 1898 
 
 979 
 
 5,385,746 
 
 2,065,631,298 
 
 1899 
 
 943 
 
 5,687,818 
 
 2,230,366,954 
 
 1900 
 
 1,003 
 
 6,107,083 
 
 2,449,547,885 
 
 1901 
 
 1,007 
 
 6,358,723 
 
 3,597,094,580 
 
 1903 
 
 1,036 
 
 6,666,672 
 
 2,750,177,290 
 
 1903 
 
 1,078 
 
 7,035,228 
 
 2,935,204,845 
 
 1904 
 
 1,157 
 
 7,305,443 
 
 3,060,178,611 
 
 1905 
 
 1,237 
 
 7,696,339 
 
 3,261,236,119 
 
 1906 
 
 1,319 
 
 8.027,192 
 
 3,482,137,198 
 
 1907 
 
 1,415 
 
 8,588,811 
 
 3,690,078,945 
 
 The above table was compiled from the re- 
 port of the Comptroller of the Currency. 
 
 SAVONARO'LA, Girolamo, Italian 
 ecclesiastical reformer, born at Ferrara 
 1452. Educated for the medical pro- 
 fession, he yet secretly entered the order 
 of Dominicans at Bologna in 1475. In 
 1482 he was sent to St. Mark’s convent 
 at Florence, and began to preach there, 
 but with little success. He retired into 
 Lombardy, and there his increasing 
 fame as a preacher and theologian in- 
 duced Lorenzo de’ Medici to invite him 
 (1490) to return to Florence. And now 
 his discourses attracted such crowds that 
 the church could not contain them the 
 great theme of his eloquence being the 
 corruptions in church and state, and the 
 
 general iniquity of the times. In 1491 
 he was elected prior of St. Mark’s. At 
 this time Italy enjoyed profound peace, 
 but Savonarola startled his hearers by 
 foretelling the advent of foreign enemies 
 bringing desolation; and this prediction 
 was considered by the people to have 
 been fulfilled when Charles VIII. of 
 France in 1494 invaded Italy. Further, 
 this Dominican preacher of St. Mark’s 
 claimed to be a special messenger from 
 God, to be the recipient of divine revela- 
 tions, to see visions, and to have the 
 gift of prophecy. He foretold the death 
 
 of the pope, the king of Naples, and his 
 patron Lorenzo. When the latter was on 
 his deathbed (1492) Savonarola refused 
 to grant him absolution unless under 
 conditions which the prince refused. 
 After the death of Lorenzo and the ex- 
 pulsion of his son Piero, Savonarola put 
 himself at the head of those who de- 
 manded a more democratical form of 
 government; and such was now his 
 commanding influence in Florence that 
 he organized the distracted city into a 
 form of republic, with two councils and 
 a governing signory. But in his zeal, 
 not content with revolutionizing Flor- 
 ence, he meditated the refonn of the 
 Roman court and of the irregularities of 
 the clergy. To this end he wrote to the 
 Christian princes, declaring that the 
 church was corrupt, and that it was their 
 duty to convoke a general council. 
 Alarmed at this, Alexander VI., who 
 was then pope, excommunicated him in 
 1497, and the bull was read in the cathe- 
 dral at Florence. But besides the papal 
 and political influences which were now 
 arrayed against Savonarola, his innova- 
 tions in St. Mark’s and other monasteries 
 had excited the emnity of the monks, 
 especially the Franciscans. In these cir- 
 cumstances Francesco di Puglia, a Fran- 
 ciscan friar, challenged Savonarola to 
 test the truth of his divine pretensions 
 by passing with him through the ordeal 
 of fire. This Savonarola declined; scenes 
 of tumult and riot arose; St. Mark’s was 
 stormed by an infuriated mob and 
 Savonarola cast into prison. As the 
 result of the mock trial with torture 
 which followed in 1498, Savonarola, 
 with two of his companions, was stran- 
 gled and then burned. His writings 
 consist of some theological works, a 
 treatise on the Government of Florence, 
 and numerous sermons. 
 
 SAVOY, Duchy of, formerly a division 
 of the Sardinian kingdom, now forming 
 two of the departments of France; 
 bounded on the north and northeast by 
 Switzerland, on the east and southeast 
 by Piedmont, and on the south and west 
 by the French departments of Isere and 
 Ain. By treaty (1860) Savoy was ceded 
 by Sardinia to France (see Sardinia, 
 Kingdom of), of which it now forms two 
 departments, Savoie, area 1769 sq. miles 
 pop. 267,428, and Haute Savoie, area 
 1314 sq. miles, pop. 275,018. The capi- 
 tal of the former is Chamb4ry, of the 
 latter Annecy. 
 
 SAWANTWA'RI, a native state in the 
 Bombay preidency, situated about 200 
 miles south of Bombay, bounded north 
 and west by the British district of 
 Ratnigiri, and on the south by the Por- 
 tuguese territory of Goa; area, 900 sq. 
 miles. Pop. (mostly Hindu), 217,800. 
 
 SAWFISH, a fish nearly related on 
 the one hand to the sharks, and on the 
 other to the rays. It attains a length of 
 from 12 to 18 feet, has a long beak or 
 snout, with spines projecting like teeth 
 on both edges, armed with which it is 
 very destructive to shoals of small fishes, 
 and is said to attack and inflict severe 
 and even mortal injuries on the large 
 cetaceans or whales. 
 
 SAWFLIES, a group of insects be- 
 longing to the order Hymenoptera, and 
 distinguished by the peculiar conforma- 
 tion of the ovipositor of the females. 
 
SAWS 
 
 SAXON ARCHITECTURE 
 
 which is composed of two broad plates 
 with serrated or toothed edges, by 
 means of which they incise the stems 
 
 Saw-fly. 
 
 a, Turnip saw-fly. b. Ovipositor of saw-fly 
 magnifled to show the saw. 
 
 and leaves of plants, and deposit their 
 eggs in the slits thus formed. The turnip- 
 fly and the gooseberry fly are examples. 
 
 SAWS are instruments with a dentated 
 or toothed edge employed to cut wood, 
 stone, ivory, or other solid substance, 
 and are either straight or circular. In 
 form and size they vary from the minute 
 surgmal or dental tool to the large in- 
 strument used in sawmills. The eross- 
 cut saw, for cutting logs transversely, is 
 a large straight saw wrought by two 
 persons, one at each end. The ripping 
 saw, half-ripper, hand-saw, and panel 
 saw are saws for the use of one person, 
 the blades tapering in length from the 
 handle. Tenon saws, sash saws, dove- 
 tail saws, etc., are saws made of very 
 thin blades of steel stiffened with stout 
 pieces of brass, iron, or steel fixed on 
 their back edges. They are used for 
 forming the shoulders of tenons, dove- 
 tail joints, etc., and for many other pur- 
 poses for which a neat clean eut is re- 
 quired. Compass and keyhole saws are 
 long narrow saws, tapering from about 
 1 inch to i inch in width, and used for 
 making curved cuts. Machine saws are 
 comprehended under three different 
 classes — circular, reciprocating, and 
 band saws. The circular saw is a disc of 
 steel with saw teeth upon its periphery. 
 It is made to revolve with great rapidity 
 and force, while the log is pushed 
 forward against it by means of a travel- 
 ing platform. The reciprocating saw 
 works like a two-handled hand saw, be- 
 ing driven upward and downward and 
 the wood carried forward against its 
 teeth. The band saw or ribbon saw con- 
 sists of a thin endless saw placed like a 
 belt over two wheels, and strained on 
 them. The ribbon passes down through 
 a flat sawing table, upon which the 
 material to be cut is laid. Saws for cut- 
 ting stone are without teeth. The saw- 
 ing of timber is an important industry 
 in some countries, especially the United 
 States and Canada, where immense 
 quantities of lumber are produced. 
 Water power is often employed to drive 
 the machinery of the sawmills, but 
 Bteam is equally common. 
 
 SAXE (saks), Herman Maurice, Comte 
 de. Marshal of France, natural son of 
 Augustus II., king of Poland, by Aurora, 
 countess of Konigsmark, born at Dres- 
 den 1696, died 1750. In 1747 he was 
 victorious at Laufeldt, and in the fol- 
 lowing year took Maestricht, soon after 
 which the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was 
 
 concluded. He wrote a treatise entitled 
 Mes Reveries, on the art of war. 
 
 SAXE, John Godfrey, American lit- 
 terateur, born 1816, died 1 887. His poems 
 include Progress, a Satirical Poem 
 (1846); Humorous and Satirical Poems 
 (1850); Money King (1859); Flying 
 Dutchman (1862); Clever Stories of 
 Many Nations (1865); The Masquerade 
 (1866); Fables and Legends (1872); and 
 Leisure Day Rhymes (1875). 
 
 SAXE-ALTENBURG, an independent 
 duchy in Thuringia, forming one of the 
 states in the German empire, is divided 
 into two nearly equal portions by a part 
 of Reuss, and is bounded on the s.w. by 
 the grand duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eis- 
 enach, on the n. by Prussia, and on 
 the e. by Saxony; area, 510 sq. miles. 
 The capital is Altenburg. Pop. 194,914. 
 
 SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA, a duchy of 
 Central Germany, one of the states of 
 the German empire, comprising the 
 province of Gotha, lying between Prus- 
 sia, Schwarzburg, Meiningen, and Wei- 
 mar; and the province of Coburg, lying 
 between Meiningen and Bavaria; Co- 
 burg 218 sq. miles, and Gotha 542 sq. 
 miles. The government is a constitu- 
 tional monarchy, and each province has 
 its own elective assembly, while the 
 duchy sends one member to the Bundes- 
 rath and two to the Reischstag of the 
 German empire. For affairs common to 
 both divisions the assemblies meet eon- 
 jointly at Coburg and at Gotha alter- 
 nately. The ducal house and the greater 
 part of the population are Lutherans. 
 Albert Prinee Consort of England, was 
 a brother of Duke Ernest II., who was 
 succeeded in the dukedom by the late 
 Duke of Edinburgh, and he in 1900 by 
 Leopold, son of the late IJuke of Albany. 
 Pop., Coburg, 66,814; Gotha, 162,736; 
 total, 229,550. 
 
 SAXE-MEININGEN, a duchy of Cen- 
 tral Germany, and one of the states of 
 the German empire, consisting of a 
 main body, and several minor isolated 
 portions. Area, 955 sq. miles. The 
 government is a hereditary and con- 
 stitutional monarchy, and the great 
 majority of the inhabitants are Luther- 
 ans. The duchy sends one member to 
 the Bundesrath and two to the Reich- 
 stag of the German empire. The capital 
 is Meiningen. Pop. 250,683. 
 
 SAXE- WEIMAR, a grand duchy of 
 Central Germany, one of the states of 
 the German empire, and consisting of 
 three larger portions, Weimar, Neustadt, 
 and Eisenach, and twelve smaller par- 
 cels. Area of the whole, 1421 sq. miles. 
 The goverment is constitutional, the 
 legislative power being vested in a house 
 of parliament, consisting of one cham- 
 ber of thirty-one members. Saxe- 
 Weimar sends one member to the 
 Bundesrath and three to the Reichstag 
 of the Germi^n empire. Pop. 362,873. 
 
 SAXHORN (after M. Sax, of Paris, 
 the inventor), a name of several brass 
 wind instruments, with a wide mouth- 
 piece and three, four, or five pistons, 
 much employed in military bands. 
 These horns comprise the piccolo cornet 
 or high small saxhorn, the soprano, the 
 alto, the tenor, baritone, bass, and 
 double bass. 
 
 SAXTFRAGE, a popular name of 
 various plants, mostly inhabitants mf 
 
 alpine and subalpine regions of the 
 colder and temperate parts of the 
 northern zone. Most of them are true 
 rock plants, with tufted foliage and 
 panicles of white, yellow, or red flowers; 
 and many are well known as ornamental 
 plants in gardens. 
 
 Bass Saxhorn. 
 
 SAXON ARCHITECTURE, the earliest 
 stage of native English architecture, its 
 period being from the conversion of 
 England to Christianity till the Con- 
 quest or near it, when Norman archi- 
 tecture began to prevail (7th to 11th 
 century). The few relics left us of this 
 style exhibit its general characteristic as 
 having been rude solidity and strength. 
 The walls are of rough masonry, very 
 thick, without buttresses,' and some- 
 times of herringbone work; the towers 
 and pillars thick in proportion to height. 
 
 Saxon architecture. 
 
 a. Tower of Sompting church, Sussex, b. 
 Tower of Barton-on-Humber church, Lincoln- 
 shire. c, Long and short work, d, Window 
 with a baluster. 
 
 the former being sometimes not more 
 than three diameters high; the quoins 
 or angle masonry are of hewn stones set 
 alternately on end and horizontally; 
 the arches of doorways and windows 
 are rounded, or sometimes these open- 
 ings have triangular heads, their jambs 
 of long and short work carrying either 
 rudely carved imposts or capitals with 
 square abaci. Sometimes heavy mould- 
 ings run round the arches, and when 
 two or more arches are conjoined in an 
 
SAXONS 
 
 SCALE-FERN 
 
 arcade these are on heavy low shaftt 
 formed like balusters. Window open- 
 ings in the walls splay from both the 
 interior and the exterior, the position 
 of the windows being in the middle of 
 the thickness of the wall. 
 
 SAXONS, a Teutonic race whose name 
 is generally derived from the Old Ger- 
 man word sahs (a knife or short sword). 
 They are first mentioned by Ptolemy, 
 who speaks of them as inhabiting a dis- 
 trict bounded by the Eider, the Elbe, 
 and the Trave. In the 3d century of 
 the Christian era they were a numerous, 
 warlike, and piratical people. In the 
 5th century considerable hordes of them 
 crossed from the continent, and laid the 
 foundations of the Saxon kingdoms in 
 Britain — Essex or East Saxons, Sussex 
 or South Saxons, etc. (See England and 
 Anglo-Saxons.) Those who remained in 
 Germany (Old Saxons) occupied a great 
 extent of country, of vague and varying 
 limits, which bore the general name of 
 Saxony. Charlemagne waged a thirty 
 years’ war against the Saxons; and 
 Wittikind, their national hero, with 
 many of his countr 3 mien, submitted to 
 his arms, and embraced Christianity. 
 See Saxony, Kingdom of. 
 
 SAXON SWITZERLAND, a name 
 which has been given to part of the 
 kingdom of Saxony, on the Elbe, south- 
 east of Dresden and bordering on Bo- 
 hemia. It consists of a group of moun- 
 tains of sandstone, with valleys and 
 streams of the most picturesque char- 
 acter, in which isolated masses of sand- 
 stone, large and small, occur in very 
 fantastic shapes. It is about 24 miles 
 long, and equally wide. 
 
 SAXONY, Kingdom of, a kingdom of 
 Central Germany ; bounded on the north- 
 west, north, and east by Prussia, south- 
 east and south by Bohemia, southwest 
 by Bavaria and west by Reuss, Saxe- 
 Weimar, and Saxe-Altenburg; greatest 
 length, 135 miles; greatest breadth, 75 
 miles; area, 5786 sq. miles (or rather less 
 than Yorkshire); pop. 4,199,758. For 
 administrative purposes it is divided 
 into the five districts of Dresden, Leip- 
 zig, Zwickau, Chemnitz, and Bautzen. 
 
 With the exception of a very small 
 portion of the east, which sends its 
 waters to the Baltic, Saxony belongs to 
 the basin of the Elbe, which traverses it 
 in a northwesterly direction for about 
 70 miles. On the Prussian frontiers, 
 where the district subsides to its lowest 
 point, the height above the sea is only 
 250 feet. 
 
 The most important crops are rye, 
 oats, barley, wheat, potatoes; and or- 
 chard fruits, particularly apples, pears, 
 and plums, are very abundant. Con- 
 siderable attention is paid to the culture 
 of the vine. Large numbers of horned 
 cattle are exported. The wool of Saxony 
 has long been celebrated for its excel- 
 lence. Swine and horses are of a superior 
 breed. The minerals are of great im- 
 portance, and include silver, lead, tin, 
 iron, cobalt, nickel, bismuth, and arsenic. 
 Numerous seams, both of lignite and 
 coal, are found in various districts, and 
 are worked to a considerable extent. 
 The quarries furnish in abundance 
 granite, porphyry, basalt, marble, ser- 
 pentine, and sandstone. Several mineral 
 springs of reputation exist Laxony is 
 
 an important manufacturing country. 
 The principal manufactures are cotton 
 and woolen goods, linen, lace, ribbons, 
 and straw-plaiting. Other industries are 
 earthenware, Dresden ware, leather, 
 chemicals, etc., and the printing estab- 
 lishments of Leipzig are well known. 
 Saxony is connected with the great 
 trunk lines which traverse Central 
 Europe, and has over 1500 miles of 
 railway. 
 
 The government is a constitutional 
 monarchy (forming part of the German 
 empire), in which the executive power 
 is lodged solely in the crown, and the 
 legislative power jointly in the crown 
 and two chambers. The present ruling 
 family in Saxony claims descent from 
 Wittikind, the national hero who was 
 conquered by Charlemagne and em- 
 braced Christianity. The territory be- 
 came a duchy about 880, and in the 10th 
 century Duke Henry was elected Ger- 
 man emperor. In 1813 Saxony was the 
 scene of Napoleon’s struggle with the 
 allies, and the battles of Lutzen, Baut- 
 zen, Dresden, and Leipzig were followed 
 by the congress of Vienna (1814), when 
 a large part of the dominions then under 
 the Saxon monarch was ceded to Prussia. 
 A period of great progress followed, in- 
 terrupted somewhat at the revolution- 
 ary period of 1848-49. In the Austro- 
 Prussian war of 1866 Saxony took part 
 with Austria, and was occupied by the 
 Prussian troops. Prussia desired to in- 
 corporate the kingdom, but Austria, 
 supported by France, opposed this 
 arrangement, and Saxony was admitted 
 into the North German confederation 
 instead. In the Franco-German war 
 Saxony united with the rest of Germany 
 against France; and the late King Albert 
 (then crown-prince) was commander 
 of the German army of the Meuse. In 
 1871 Saxony became a member of the 
 New German Empire. 
 
 SAXONY, Prussian, a province of the 
 Prussian monarchy, of irregular shape, 
 and with isolated districts, almost in the 
 center of Germany, to the north of the 
 kingdom of Saxony; area, 9729 sq. 
 miles. Originally a part of Saxony, it 
 was given to Prussia by the congress of 
 Vienna (1814). The northern and large 
 portion belongs to the North German 
 plain ; the southern and southwestern is 
 elevated or hilly, partly belonging to the 
 Hartz mountain system, and containing 
 the Brocken (3742 feet). The chief river 
 is the Elbe. The soil is generally pro- 
 ductive, about 61 per cent being under 
 the plough and 20 per cent forests. 
 Beet sugar is largely produced. The 
 mineral products are valuable, particu- 
 larly lignite, salt, kainite, and other 
 potash salts. The capital of the province 
 is Magdeburg; other towns are Halle 
 (with a university), Erfurt, and Hal- 
 berstadt. Pop. 2,832,616. 
 
 SAX'TON, Joseph, American inventor, 
 was born at Huntingdon, Pa., in 1799. 
 He invented a machine for cutting the 
 teeth of chronometer wheels, and an 
 escapement and compensating pendu- 
 lum for clocks, and constructed a clock 
 for the steeple of Independence hall, 
 Philadelphia. Among his inventions are 
 the mirror comparator for comparing 
 standard measures, and a new form of 
 machine for dividing them^ the deep- 
 
 sea thermometer, used by the United 
 States Coast Survey in exploring the 
 Gulf Stream; the self -registering tide 
 gauge and the immersed hydrometer. 
 He died in 1873. 
 
 SCAB, a skin disease in sheep, analog- 
 ous to itch in man and mange in horses 
 and dogs, usually propagated by con- 
 tagion, and caused by the presence of 
 minute acari, which burrow under the 
 skin. Various medicines have been 
 recommended, such as lard or pahn oil, 
 2 lbs.; oil of tar, J lb.; sulphur, 1 lb., 
 mixed together and rubbed on the 
 diseased spots. 
 
 SCABBARD FISH, a beautiful fish 
 found in the Mediterranean and Eastern 
 Atlantic, so called because in shape it 
 bears some resemblance to the sheath 
 of a sword. It is of a bright silvery 
 whiteness, with a single dorsal fin run- 
 ning along its back. 
 
 SCAD, or HORSE MACKEREL, a 
 genus of teleostean fishes included in the 
 family Scomberidse or mackerels, and 
 
 Scad. 
 
 found around the coasts of Britain. It 
 appears in large shoals, and the flesh, 
 although coarse, is esteemed and eaten 
 salted during the winter months. 
 
 SCALDFISH, a marine flatfish, allied 
 to the turbot, sole, and flounder. 
 
 SCALD-HEAD, a fungous parasitic 
 disease of the scalp. See Favus. 
 
 SCALDS. See Burns and Scalds. 
 
 SCALE, a mathematical instrument 
 consisting of a slip of wood, ivory, or 
 metal, with one or more sets of spaces 
 graduated and numbered on its surface 
 for measuring or laying off distances, etc. 
 
 SCALE, in music, a succession of notes 
 arranged in the order of pitch, and com- 
 prising those sounds which may occur 
 in a piece of music written in a given 
 key. In its simplest form the scale con- 
 sists of seven steps or degrees counted 
 upward in a regular order from a root 
 or prime (the tonic or keynote), to which 
 series the eighth is added to form the 
 octave. It has been the practice among 
 musicians to consider the scale having 
 C for its keynote as the natural, model 
 or normal scale. The diatonic scale 
 ascends by five steps (tones) and two 
 half-steps (semitones), taking for the 
 names of the notes the syllables do, re, 
 mi, fa, sol, la, si, do ; the two semitones 
 occur between E and F (mi and fa) and 
 B and C (si and do). When the scale is 
 graduated all the way by a series of 
 twelve half-steps or semitones it is called 
 the chromatic scale. A scale is said to be 
 major when the interval between the 
 keynote and the third above it as from 
 C to E, consists of two tones; it is called 
 minor when the interval between the 
 keynote and its third, as from A to C, 
 consists of a tone and a half. See Music. 
 
 SCALE FERN, a popular name for a 
 fern so named from the imbricated 
 tawny scales at the back of the fronds. 
 
SCALENE' 
 
 SCARFING 
 
 To this plant was fonnerly attributed a 
 marvellous influence over the liver and 
 spleen. It is a British species, and is said 
 to be used as a bait for fish on the coast 
 of Wales. 
 
 SCALENE', in mathematics, a term 
 applied to a triangle of which the three 
 sides are unequal. A cone or cylinder 
 is also said to be scalene when its axis is 
 inclined to its base, but in this case the 
 term oblique is more frequently used. 
 
 SCALES, the imbricated plates on the 
 exterior of certain animals, as the pan- 
 golins or scaly ant-eaters, serpents and 
 other reptiles, and especially fishes. The 
 scales of the latter are developed be- 
 neath the true epidemi, and consist of 
 alternate layers of membrane, of horny 
 matter, and occasionally of phosphate 
 of lime. Fishes are sometimes classed, 
 in accordance with the structure of their 
 
 Scales of fishes. 
 
 1, Ctenoid scale of the perch. 2, Cycloid 
 scale of the carp. 3, Ganoid scales of dlpterus. 
 4, Placoid scale of ray. 
 
 scales, into Ctenoid, Ganoid, Cycloid, 
 and Placoid, the general appearance and 
 character of which are well shown in the 
 accompanying figures. The term scale is 
 applied also in botany to a small rudimen- 
 tary or metamorphosed leaf, scale-like 
 in form and often in .arrangement, con- 
 stituting the covering of the leaf buds 
 of the deciduous trees in cold climates, 
 the invalucrum of the Compositae, the 
 bracts of catkins, etc. 
 
 SCALP, the outer covering of the 
 skull, composed of skin and of the ex- 
 panded tendon of the occipito-frontal 
 muscle, and of intermediate cellular 
 tissue and blood vessels. Hence the 
 skin of the head or a part of it, with the 
 hair belonging to it, torn or cut off by the 
 American Indians as a mark of victory 
 over an enemy. 
 
 SCAMIL'LUS, in ancient architecture, 
 a sort of second plinth or block under a 
 
 a, Scamlllus. 
 
 column, statue, etc., to raise it, but not, 
 like a pedestal, ornamented with any 
 kind of moulding. 
 
 SCANDINAVIA, the ancient name of 
 the region now comprehending the three 
 northern kingdoms, Denmark, Sweden, 
 and Norway, or Sweden and Norway 
 alone, and still not uncommonly used. 
 These countries were inhabited in the 
 earliest times by people of the Teutonic 
 stock, and b.c. 100 the natives of Jut- 
 land and Schleswig became formidable 
 to the Romans under the name of 
 Cimbri. But it was chiefly in the 9th 
 century that they made their power 
 
 felt in the western and southern parts of 
 Europe, where hordes of Northmen 
 or Vikings, as they were sometimes 
 called, made repeated raids in their 
 galleys on the coasts of England, 
 Scotland, Ireland, Holland, Germany, 
 France, Spain, and Italy, where they 
 plundered, destroyed, and sometimes 
 founded new states. The Old Norse or 
 Scandinavian literature, so far as ex- 
 tant, is of considerable value, having 
 preserved to us not only the old versi- 
 fication peculiar to all nations of Teu- 
 tonic origin, but also the mythology, 
 history, and laws of the pagan period of 
 these northern countries. Among the 
 most valuable remains are the Edda 
 and the Sagas (which see). 
 
 SCANSO'RES, an order of birds, 
 popularly known as climbing birds, 
 having the feet provided with four toes, 
 of which two are turned backward and 
 two forward. Of the two toes which are 
 directed backward one is the hallux or 
 proper hind-toe, the other is the outer- 
 most of the normal three anterior toes. 
 This conformation of the foot enables 
 the scansores to climb with unusual 
 
 Scansores. 
 
 a. Head and foot of cuckoo, b. Do. of green 
 woodpecker, c. Do. of great jacamar. 
 
 facility. Their food consists of insects 
 and fruit; their nests are usually made 
 in the hollows of old trees. The most 
 important families are the cuckoos, the 
 woodpeckers and wrynecks, the par- 
 rots, the toucans, the trogons, the bar- 
 bets, and the plantain eaters. Not all 
 of this order are actually climbers, and 
 there are climbing birds which do not 
 belong to this order. 
 
 SCAPEGOAT, in the Jewish ritual, 
 a goat which was brought to the door 
 of the tabernacle, where the high priest 
 laid his hands upon him, confessing the 
 sins of the people, and putting them on 
 the head of the goat, after which the 
 goat was sent into the wilderness, bear- 
 ing the iniquities of the people. Lev. xvi. 
 
 SCAP'ULA, or SHOULDER BLADE, 
 the bone which in most mammalia forms 
 the chief bone of the shoulder girdle, 
 and which chiefly supports the upper 
 limb on the trunk or axial skeleton. In 
 man the scapula exists as a flattened 
 bone of triangular shape, which lies on 
 each side of the body, on the back, and 
 toward the upper and outer border of 
 the chest or thorax. The internal surface 
 of the scapula is concave, and is applied 
 against the ribs. The outer or dorsal 
 surface is divided into two portions by a ' 
 
 strong ridge which runs obliquely across 
 the bone. 
 
 SCAP'ULARY, a kind of garment or 
 portion of dress, consisting of two bands 
 of woolen stuff — one going down the 
 breast and the other on the back, over 
 the shoulders — worn by a religieux. The 
 original scapular was first introduced 
 by St. Benedict, in lieu of a heavy cowl 
 for the shoulders, designed to carry 
 loads. 
 
 SCARAB.ffi'US, an extensive genus of 
 coleopterous insects, placed by Lin- 
 naeus at the head of the insect tribes, 
 and answering to the section Lamelli 
 comes of Latreille. They are sometimes 
 called dung-beetles, from their habit of 
 inclosing their eggs in pellets of dung, 
 which are placed in holes excavated for 
 their reception. The S. sacer, or sacred 
 beetle of the Egyptians, was regarded 
 
 Natural size. 
 
 with great veneration; and figures of it, 
 plain or inscribed with characters, were 
 habitually worn by the ancient Egyp- 
 tians as an amulet. Large numbers of 
 these scarabiEi or scarabs, made of hard 
 stone or gems, are still found in Egypt, 
 often inscribed with hieroglyphics. Some 
 of the carved scarabs are three or four 
 feet long. The beetle itself was also em- 
 balmed. 
 
 SCARBOROUGH, a municipal and 
 parliamentary borough and seaport, 
 England, county of York (North Rid- 
 ing), is beautifully situated on two open 
 sandy bays separated by a bold promon- 
 tory of rock 300 feet high, on the North 
 sea, 39 miles northeast of York. Pop. 
 38,160. 
 
 SCARFING, a particular method of 
 uniting two pieces of timber together 
 
 Various modes of scarfing. 
 
 by the extremities, the end of one bemg 
 cut or notched so as to fit into the other, 
 
SCARIFICATION 
 
 SCHILLER 
 
 making the part where the junction 
 takes place of the same thickness as the 
 rest of the pieces of timber. 
 
 SCARIFICATION, the operation of 
 making several incisions in the skin with 
 a lancet or scarificator for the purpose 
 of taking away blood, letting out fluids, 
 etc.; or the removal of flesh about a 
 tooth in order to get at it the better 
 with an instrument. 
 
 SCARLET FEVER, or SCARLETINA, 
 is an extremely infectious disease, not 
 confined to, but common among chil- 
 dren. In ordinary cases the beginning of 
 the disease is indicated by great heat and 
 dryness of the skin, shivering, headache, 
 sickness, and sore throat. Another 
 symptom is that the tongue is coated 
 with a white fur through which nu- 
 merous red points stand up, from which 
 appearance it is called the “strawberry 
 tongue.” On the second day of the fever 
 a rash appears and quickly spreads over 
 the whole body, begins to fade on the 
 fifth day, and disappears before the end 
 of the seventh. After the rash has gone 
 the skin begins to be shed in large flakes, 
 and this continues about five weeks. 
 During this latter stage the disease is 
 most infectious. At the first symptoms 
 the patient should receive a dose of 
 castor-oil, and then be put in a warm 
 bath. When the fever has gone, 
 strengthening food and frequent bath- 
 ing should be given, and an equal tem- 
 perature in the room observed. 
 
 SCARP, in fortification, the interior 
 slope or talus of the ditch next the 
 fortified place and at the foot of the 
 rampart. 
 
 SCAUP DUCK, a species of duck com- 
 mon in North America and the north of 
 Europe; and is found in considerable 
 numbers on the British coasts during 
 the winter months. It feeds on small 
 fish, molluscs, and hence its flesh is 
 coarse. 
 
 SCEPTICISM, in the wide sense, that 
 condition of mental conflict in the search 
 for truth which involves suspension of 
 judgment before opposing testimony. 
 Specifically, however, it has been applied 
 to the doctrines of the Greek philoso- 
 phers called Pyrrhonists, whose scheme 
 of philosophy denied the possibility 
 of knowing anything with certainty. 
 Pyrrho of Elis (360-270 b.c.), although 
 he himself left no writings, was the 
 founder of this school. Chief among his 
 immediate disciples was Timon of 
 Phliut, who taught that appearances 
 are neither false nor true, that logical 
 reasoning has no adequate sanction, 
 and that imperturbability is the only 
 possible attitude before the facts of life. 
 This position was maintained by the 
 founders of the Middle Academy, Ar- 
 cesilaus and Carneades, who employed 
 this philosophy of doubt against the 
 dogmatism of the Stoics. Arcesilaus, 
 who lived about 315-241 b.c., held that 
 the report of our senses is untrust- 
 worthy. Carneades (213-129 b.c.) de- 
 clared absolute knowledge to be impos- 
 sible, and was the author of the doc- 
 trine of probability. To the later scepti- 
 cal school of the 1st century b.c. belongs 
 .iEnesidemus of Cnossus, who expressed 
 his doctrine of negation in ten tropes. 
 These were reduced to five by Agrippa, 
 the first of which is connected with the 
 
 irreconcilability of human testimony; 
 the second is based on the principle that 
 every proof requires to be itself proved; 
 the third that knowledge varies accord- 
 ing to the conditions under which it is 
 acquired; the fourth forbids the assump- 
 tion of unproved opinion; and the fifth 
 seeks to discredit the reciprocal method 
 of proof in which one thing is proved by 
 another and then the second adduced 
 to prove the first. In later times Al- 
 Ghazzali (1059-1111) taught at Bagdad 
 a philosophic scepticism to enforce the 
 truth of his Mohammedan doctrine. 
 In this method he was followed by 
 Pascal (1623-1662), who sought to es- 
 tablish the necessity of Christian faith 
 by a sceptical exposure of the fallacy of 
 human reason. Among modern sceptics 
 may be mentioned Montaigne, Bayle, 
 D’Alembert, and Hume. The latter 
 limited the range of human reasoning 
 to human experience, and affirmed that 
 any knowledge concerning God or a 
 future state transcends the scope of our 
 faculties. See Agnostics. 
 
 SCHAFF (shaf), Philip, D.D., biblical 
 scholar, born in Switzerland in 1819. 
 He was professor in the theological 
 seminary of the German Reformed 
 church at Mercersburg (Pa.) from 1844 
 to 1863. He was a prolific writer, his 
 works including History of the Apostolic 
 Church; History of the Christian Church, 
 Creeds of Christendom, Religious En- 
 cyclopedia (as editor), etc. He died in 
 1893. 
 
 SCHAFFHAUSEN (shif hou-zn) , a 
 town of Switzerland, capital of the can- 
 ton of same name, situated on the right 
 bank of the Rhine, 24 miles north of 
 Zurich. It is remarkable for the antique 
 architecture of its houses. About 3 
 miles below the town are the celebrated 
 falls which bear its name, and by which 
 the whole volume of the Rhine is pre- 
 cipitated over a height of more than 70 
 
 Street in Schaffhausen. 
 
 feet. Pop. 15,597. — The canton is the 
 most northerly in Switzerland, and is 
 situated on the right or German side of 
 the Rhine; area, 116 sq. miles. The sur- 
 face is very much broken, being trav- 
 ersed throughout by a series of ridges 
 which ramify from the Jura. The only 
 river is the Rhine. The inhabitants are 
 generally Protestants, and the language 
 spoken is principally German. Pop. 
 41,514. 
 
 SCHEELE (sha'le), Karl Wilhelm, 
 Swedish chemist, born in 1742; died in 
 1786. He discovered tartaric acid, 
 chlorine, baryta, oxygen shortly after 
 Priestley, glycerine, and arsenate of 
 copper, called Scheele’s-green. 
 
 SCHEELE’S-GREEN, a green pig- 
 
 ment consisting of a pulverulent arsenate 
 of copper, first prepared by Scheele 
 (see above); it is used both in oil and 
 water-color painting. 
 
 SCHELLING (shel'ing), Friedrich Wil- 
 helm Joseph von, a German philosopher, 
 born at Leonberg, Wiirtemburg, in 1775; 
 died 1854. He studied at Tubingen, for 
 a short time also at Leipzig, and from 
 thence proceeded to Jena. His philo- 
 sophical studies were mainly guided by 
 Fichte, of whom he was first a collea^e, 
 and afterward successor. The principal 
 writings of Schelling are; Ideas for a 
 Philosophy of Nature (1797); The Soul 
 of the World (1798), First Sketch of a 
 System of the Philosophy of Nature 
 (1799), System of Transcendental Ideal- 
 ism (1800), Exposition of My System of 
 Philosophy, published in the Journal 
 of Speculative Physics, edited by him 
 (1801-3); Bruno, or the Divine and 
 Natural Principle of Things (1802), 
 Critical Journal of Philosophy (in con- 
 junction with Hegel), 1802-3; Exposi- 
 tion of the True Relation of the Phil- 
 osophy of Nature to the Amended 
 Theory of Fichte (1806). 
 
 SCHENCK, Robert Gumming, diplo- 
 matist, was born in Franklin, Ohio, in 
 1809. He served three terms in con- 
 gress. His first diplomatic'' mission was 
 to Brazil, where he was sent in 1857. 
 He received the first appointment of 
 brigadier-general from President Lin- 
 coln, his commission being dated May 
 17, 1861. He was wounded at the second 
 battle of Bull Run, and in 1862 was 
 promoted to the rank of major-general. 
 He was again sent to congress in 1866, 
 and in 1870 he was appointed minister 
 to Great Britain. He died in 1890. 
 
 SCHENEC'TADY, a city of New York, 
 capital of the county of the same name, 
 on the Mohawk river, about 17 miles 
 from Albany. It is the seat of Union 
 college, incorporated in 1794, and one 
 of the most successful in the states. 
 The Erie canal and the Delaware and 
 Hudson canal pass through the city. 
 It has manufactories of locomotives 
 shawls, etc., besides woolen and flour 
 mills. Pop 1909, about 77,000. 
 
 SCHILLER, Johann Friedrich Chris- 
 toph von, one of the greatest of German 
 poets, was born at Marbach, Wurtem- 
 berg, in 1759. He published his play. 
 The Robbers, at his own expense in 
 1781; it excited an immense amount of 
 attention, and in 1782 it was performed 
 at Mannheim. In 1785 he went to Leip- 
 zig and Dresden, where he studied the 
 history of Philip II. In this way be pre- 
 pared himself not only to write his 
 drama of Don Carlos, which appeared in 
 1787, but also to publish a History of 
 the Revolt of the Netherlands (1788). 
 Visiting Weimar in 1787 he received 
 friendly welcome from Wieland, Herder, 
 and Goethe, the latter assisting to pro- 
 cure him (1789) a professorship of 
 philosophy at Jena. Here he lectured on 
 history, and began to publish Historical 
 Memoirs from the Twelfth Century to 
 the Most Recent Times (1790); and his 
 History of the Thirty Years’ War ap- 
 peared in 1790-3. His first periodical, 
 Thalia, begun in 1784 at Mannheim, 
 having ceased in 1793, he formed a 
 plan of publishing a new periodical. Die 
 Horen (The Horae or Hours). He had 
 
SCHIST 
 
 SCHOOLCRAFi 
 
 long been in weak health, and being 
 attacked by fever died in 1805. His 
 correspondence with Goethe, William 
 von Humboldt, and C. G. Korner has 
 been published, his life has been written 
 by Carlyle, and of his works there is 
 among others an English translation in 
 Bohn’s library. 
 
 SCHIST (shist), a geological term ap- 
 plied to rocks which have a foliated 
 structure and split in thin irregular 
 plates, not by regular cleavage, as in the 
 case of clay-slate, nor in laminee, as flag- 
 stones. It is properly confined to meta- 
 m Orphic or crystalline rocks consisting 
 of layers of different minerals, as gneiss, 
 mica-schist, hornblende-schist, chlorite- 
 scliis^’ etc 
 
 SCHLANGENBAD (shl^ng'en-bat), a 
 watering-place of Prussia, in Hesse- 
 Nassau, 6 miles w.n.w. of Wiesbaden, 
 among wooded hills. It consists chiefly 
 of lodging houses, and two large bathing 
 establishments. The water has a tem- 
 perature of from 80° to 88°, and is bene- 
 ficial in hysteria, neuralgia, rheumatism, 
 gout, paralysis, etc. 
 
 SCHLEGEL (shla'gel), August Wil- 
 helm von, a distinguished German 
 scholar, born at Hanover 1767, died at 
 Bonn 1845. He wrote various poems and 
 ballads, delivered lectures on literature 
 and art, published a tragedy called Ion, 
 translated the most of Shakespeare’s 
 and Calderon’s plays into German, and 
 devoted the latter part of his life to 
 oriental studies and the translation of 
 various works from Sanskrit. 
 
 SCHLEGEL, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich 
 von, brother of the foregoing, born 
 1772, died 1829. Besides the lectures 
 which he published his chief works are: 
 History of the Old and New Literature, 
 Philosophy of Life, Philosophy of His- 
 tory, and the Philosophy of Language. 
 His wife, a daughter of Moses Mendels- 
 sohn, was the author of some works 
 published under Schlegel’s name. 
 
 SCHLEIERMACHER (shli'er-mah-er), 
 Friedrich Ernst Daniel, German Prot- 
 estant theologian and philosopher born 
 at Breslau 1768, died at Berlin 1834. 
 The works of Schleiermacher, besides 
 numerous sermons, include: Outlines of 
 a Critique of Ethics as Heretofore Taught, 
 Translation of Plato’s Works, Christian 
 Belief According to the Fundamental 
 Doctrines of the Evangelical Church, 
 Sketch of a System of Morals, Philo- 
 sophical Ethics, Dialectics, ^Esthetics, 
 
 SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN, since 1866 
 a province of Prussia, bounded. on the 
 north by Denmark; east by the Baltic, 
 Lubeck, and Mecklenburg, south by 
 Mecklenburg and the territory of Ham- 
 burg; southwest by the Elbe; and west 
 by the North sea; area, 7273 sq. miles. 
 Schleswig is the portion lying north of 
 the Eider; Holstein that south of this 
 river. Schleswig-Holstein forms part 
 of the same peninsula with Jutland, to 
 which in its general character it bears 
 considerable resemblance. There are 
 extensive moorlands ; the west coast con- 
 sists of sandy and marshy flats, pro- 
 tected in Schleswig by chains of islands, 
 in Holstein by lofty dykes; the east 
 coast is scooped out into natural har- 
 bors; the principal streams flow to the 
 west, toward which for the most part 
 
 the country slopes. Lakes are numerous. 
 Schleswig is separated from Holstein by 
 the river Eider and the Schleswig- 
 Holstein canal. The Eider is the prin- 
 cipal river. The country is fertile, and is 
 chiefly agricultural. The great majority 
 of the inhabitants are of German origin. 
 The principal towns are Altona, Kiel, 
 Flensburg, and Schleswig, the capital. 
 Schleswig-Holstein, which became a 
 united duchy in 1386, passed over to 
 Denmark in 1773, and was appropriated 
 by Prussia after the war of 1866. Pop. 
 1,387,587. 
 
 SCHLEY (shla), Winfield Scott, a 
 naval officer, was born in Frederick co., 
 Md., October 9, 1839. He was graduated 
 at the Naval academy and served on the 
 frigate Niagara. On July 16, 1862, he 
 was made a lieutenant, and from that 
 time on he alternated between active 
 service in different parts of the world 
 and as instructor at the Naval academy. 
 In 1884 he was sent by the United States 
 government to find Greely. After a 
 journey through 1400 miles of ice he 
 found Greely and six companions at 
 Cape Sabine, Grinnell Land. He was 
 appointed commodore in 1898. When 
 war was declared against Spain he was 
 placed in charge of the flying squadron 
 and ordered to find and destroy the 
 Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera, 
 When the Spanish fleet attempted to 
 escape from the harbor of Santiago it 
 was completely destroyed in a running 
 fight, by the American blockading 
 squadron, which, during the temporary 
 absence of Samson, was under the com- 
 mand of Schley. On August 10th he 
 became a rear-admiral, and was ap- 
 pointed a member of the commission 
 to arrange for the evacuation of Porto 
 Rico by the Spanish. He retired from 
 active service October 9, 1901. Schley 
 wrote in collaboration with James Rus- 
 sell Soley, The Rescue of Greely. 
 
 SCHLIEMANN (shle'man), Heinrich, 
 German archaeologist, born in 1822. 
 He traveled widely and acquired many 
 languages, and having made a fortune 
 commenced a series of archaeological 
 investigations in the East. In 1869 he 
 published at Paris his Ithariue, Le P4- 
 loponnese, Troie: Recherches Archaeolo- 
 giques, an account of his travels in these 
 regions, and this was followed in 1874 by 
 his Trojanische Alterthumer, giving the 
 results of his researches and excavations 
 on the plateau of Hissarlik, the alleged 
 site of ancient Troy. In 1875 he com- 
 menced excavations at Athens and 
 Mycenae, and in 1877 discovered the five 
 royal tombs which local tradition in the 
 time of Pausanias asserted to be those 
 of Agamemnon and his companions. 
 Many treasures of gold and silver were 
 brought to light. His Mycenae, a nar- 
 rative of researches and discoveries of 
 Mycenae and Tiryns, was published in 
 1877, with a preface by Gladstone. He 
 received valuable assistance in his in- 
 vestigations from his wife, who is a 
 native of Greece and an accomplished 
 scholar. His Troja and his Tiryns are 
 in a measure supplementary to his earlier 
 works on Troy and Mycenae. He died in 
 1890. 
 
 SCHOFIELD, John McAllister, Ameri- 
 can soldier, was born in Chatauqua co., 
 N. Y., in 1831- Soon after the outbreak 
 
 of the civil war he was appointed briga- 
 dier-general of volunteers. In 1864 he 
 joined the army of General Sherman, and 
 bore a prominent part in all its opera- 
 tions until the close of the war. In 1868, 
 he was appointed secretary of war; but 
 he resigned in March, 1869, and was 
 assigned to the command of the depart- 
 ment of Missouri, and in 1870 to that 
 of the Pacific. From 1876 to 1881 he was 
 superintendent of the Military academy 
 at West Point. In 1882 he was placed in 
 command of the department of the 
 Pacific, from which he was transferred 
 in April, 1886, to the division of the At- 
 lantic, and upon the death of Gen. P. H. 
 Sheridan, August 5, 1888, succeeded to 
 the command of the United States army. 
 In 1895 he retired with the rank of 
 lieutenant-colonel. He published Forty- 
 six Years in the Army. He died in 1906. 
 
 SCHOLASTICISM, the name given to 
 the system of philosophy taught by the 
 philosophers of the middle ages, who 
 were called scholastics or schoolmen 
 from the circumstance that their phil- 
 osophy originated in the schools insti- 
 tuted by and after Charlemagne for the 
 education of the clergy. The first period 
 of the schoolmen may be considered as 
 extending from the 9th to the 13th cen- 
 tury, and is characterized by the accom- 
 modation of the Aristotelian logic, and 
 of Neo-Platonic philosophemes to the 
 doctrines of the church. The period be- 
 gins with John Scotus Erigena, and 
 numbers, among other names, those of 
 Berengarius of Tours and his opponent 
 Lafranc,. Anselm, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, Roscellinus, Abelard, Peter 
 Lombardus, and John of Salisbury. The 
 period is marked by the controversies 
 that raged between the Nominalists and 
 the Realists, and which terminated at 
 length in the triumph of the latter. The 
 second period of scholasticism, extend- 
 ing from the 13th to the 15th century — 
 from Alexander of Hales to the close of 
 the middle ages, when classical studies 
 were revived and the sciences of nature 
 and human nature began once more to 
 be studied, presents us with the com- 
 plete development of scholasticism, and 
 also with its dissolution. During this 
 period the Aristotelic philosophy exer- 
 cised a more marked influence; Realism 
 was also triumphant, until, towards 
 the end of the period, William of Occam 
 rose up as the champion of Nominalism, 
 and in distinguishing thought from be- 
 ing, and the theoretical from the prac- 
 tical, gave to philosophy a wider range 
 and a freer spirit. The zenith of scholas- 
 ticism is constituted by Thomas Aquinas 
 a Dominican (died 1274), and Duns 
 Scotus, a Franciscan (died 1308), who 
 were the founders of the two schools 
 into which the entire movement was 
 thenceforward divided. 
 
 SCHOOLCRAFT, Henry Rowe, an 
 American ethnologist and geologist, 
 born at Guilderland) in Albany co.. New 
 York, 1793. In 1820 he was appointed 
 geologist to the expedition despatched 
 by the government to explore the 
 sources of the Mississippi, and in 1821 
 was appointed secretary to an Indian con- 
 ference at Chicago. In 1832 he con- 
 ducted a government expedition to the 
 Upper Mississippi, in the course of which 
 he explored the sources of that river. 
 
SCHOONER 
 
 SCHURZ 
 
 In 1836 he negotiated the purchase for 
 government of 16,000,000 acres in this 
 region, and after this he was appointed 
 acting superintendent of Indian affairs 
 for the northern department. In 1847 
 he was appointed by the government 
 to prepare an extensive work on the 
 Indians, which appeared under the 
 title of Historical and Statis.tical In- 
 formation respecting the History, Con- 
 dition, and Prospects of the Indian 
 tribes of the United States (1851-57). 
 His other works are; Algic Researches, 
 comprising inquiries respecting the 
 Mental Characteristics of the North 
 American Indians; Thirty Years with 
 the Indian Tribes of the Northwestern 
 Frontier, The Indian in His Wigwam, 
 and the Myth of Hiawatha and other 
 Legends, besides poems, lectures, re- 
 ports, etc. For his Lectures on the 
 Indian Languages he received the gold 
 medal of the French Institute. He died 
 in 1864. 
 
 SCHOONER, a small fast-sailing 
 sharp-built vessel with two masts, and 
 the principal sails of the fore-and-aft 
 type. There are two chief kinds of 
 schooners, the top-sail schooner and the 
 fore-and-aft schooner, the former carry- 
 ing a square top-sail and top-gallant 
 
 Four-masted schooner. 
 
 sail (with sometimes a royal) on the fore- 
 mast, and the latter having fore-and-aft 
 sails on both masts, with sometimes a 
 square sail on the fore-mast. The first 
 schooner is said to have been launched 
 at Gloucester, Massachusetts, in 1713. 
 A three-masted schooner carries fore- 
 and-aft sails on each mast. 
 
 SCHOPENHAUER (sho'pen-hou-er), 
 Arthur, a German philosopher, born at 
 Danzig 1788. From 1814 to 1818 he 
 lived at Dresden, and occupied himself 
 principally with the preparation of his 
 most important work — The World as 
 Will and' Idea. Previous to this he had 
 published a work on optics 1816. In 
 1818 he visited Rome and Naples, and 
 from 1822 to 1825 was again in Italy, 
 returning in the latter year to Berlin. 
 The final teaching of Schopenhauer is 
 that of a philosophic pessimism, having 
 as its ideal the negation of the will to live. 
 He died in 1860. 
 
 SCHOTTISCHE (shot-tish'), a dance 
 performed by a lady and gentleman, 
 somewhat resembling a polka; it is in 
 I time. 
 
 SCHUBERT (sho'bert), Franz, one of 
 the greatest composers of modern times, 
 born at Vienna in 1797, the son of a 
 teacher; commenced his musical educa- 
 tion in his seventh year, and in 1808 was 
 admitted among the choristers of the 
 court chapel. His songs and ballads, 
 as exemplified in his three principal 
 
 collections, the Winterreise (1826-27), 
 the Miillerlieder (1828), and the Schwan- 
 engesang (1828), may be said to have 
 revolutionized the Lied in making the 
 accompaniment not less interpretative 
 of the emotions of the poem than the 
 vocal part, and in breaking through the 
 limitations of the old strophic method. 
 Besides his six hundred songs he left 
 about four hundred other compositions, 
 including fifteen operas, six masses, and 
 several symphonies. Two only of the 
 operas, Rosamond and the Enchanted 
 Harp, were performed during his life, 
 and they are considered inferior to his 
 unproduced Fierabras. His symphonies 
 take a higher rank, the Seventh (in C 
 major) being ranked by Mendelssohn 
 and Schumann with Beethoven’s. His 
 entire work justifies Liszt’s description 
 of him as the most poetic of musicians. 
 He died in Vienna in 1828. 
 
 SCHUMANN (sho'mAn), Robert, musi- 
 cal composer and critic, born at Zwickau 
 in the kingdom of Saxony in 1810. 
 Prior to 1840 his principal works were 
 the Fantasias, the Scenes of Childhood, 
 the Etudes Symphoniques, the Kreis- 
 leriana, the Abegg variations, the Papil- 
 lons, the Carnival, and two sonatas in 
 F sharp minor and G minor. He then 
 commenced his great series of orchestral 
 works, his symphony in B flat being 
 first performed at the close of 1841. It 
 was followed by his Overture, Scherzo 
 and Finale, his D minor symphony, 
 three quartets, the piano quintet and 
 quartet, the cantata Paradise and the 
 Peri, the C major symphony (1846), 
 Genevieve (1847), Manfred (1848), the 
 Faust music (1850), the E flat symphony 
 (1851), and other works. Under stress 
 of work, however, his reason failed him, 
 and after an attempt to drown himself 
 in 1854 he was confined in a lunatic 
 asylum, where he died in 1856. In the 
 line of musical descent Schumann stands 
 between Beethoven and Wagner. 
 
 SCHUYLKILL (skol'kil), a river of the 
 United States, in Pennsylvania, which 
 rises in the north side of the Blue moun- 
 tains, runs southeast, passes through 
 the confines of Philadelphia, and unites 
 with the’ Delaware 7 miles below that 
 city. It is 140 miles long, and navigable 
 for boats of 300 or 400 tons to Phila- 
 delphia. 
 
 SCHUYLER, Philip John, American 
 general, was born at Albany, N. Y., in 
 1733. He reached the rank of major in 
 the French and Indian war, and at the 
 beginning of the revolutionary struggle 
 was made one of the American major- 
 generals. He took the leading part in 
 preparing to meet Burgoyne’s expedi- 
 tion in 1778; but troops had to be called 
 in from other states, and he was sub- 
 jected to jealousies which thwarted him 
 at every step. Nevertheless, his ar- 
 rangements were so complete that he 
 had really checkmated Burgoyne before 
 congress superseded him in the com- 
 mand by the appointment of Bates, who 
 reaped all the glory which should have 
 accrued to Schuyler. Retiring from the 
 army, he served for three years in the 
 continental congress, and in the United 
 States senate, 1789-91, and 1797-98. 
 He died at Albany, November 18, 1804. 
 
 SCHURMAN(shur'man), Jacob Gould, 
 American educator, was born at Free- 
 
 town, Prince Edward island, in 1854. 
 In 1891 he was appointed dean of the 
 Sage School of Philosophy at Cornell, 
 and he succeeded Charles Kendall 
 Adams as president of the university in 
 1892. He became editor of the Philo- 
 sophical Review in 1892. In January, 
 1899, he was appointed by President 
 McKinley chairman of the first Philip- 
 pine commission, and spent the greater 
 part of the succeeding year in the 
 Philippine islands. He received a di- 
 ploma and was appointed a life member 
 of the American Academy in Rome in 
 1905. Among his works are Kantean 
 Ethics and the Ethics of Evolution, 
 The Ethical Import of Darwinism, Re- 
 port of the Philippine Commission, etc. 
 
 SCHURZ (shurts), Carl, German- 
 American soldier and political leader, 
 was born at Liblar, Prussia, in 1829. 
 He was engaged in the revolutionary 
 movement of 1848-49, as a result of 
 which he was forced to retire to Switzer- 
 land. In 1852 Schurz came to the 
 United States, remained in Philadel- 
 phia for two years, and then settled in 
 Wisconsin. In 1861 he was appointed 
 minister to Spain, where he remained 
 till December, 1861; returning to the 
 United States, he entered the army, and 
 in the May following was appointed 
 brigadier-general of volunteers. He 
 took part in the second battle of Bull 
 Run, and commanded a division in the 
 battles of Chancellorsville and Gettys- 
 burg. In the autumn of 1863 he went 
 to Tennessee, and took part in several 
 battles, but resigned in 1865. In 1868 
 he removed to St. Louis and in 1869 was 
 elected United States senator from 
 Missouri. In 1877 he was appointed 
 secretary of the interior by President 
 Hayes. At the expiration of his term, 
 1881, he removed to New York, and was 
 the editor of the Evening Post until 
 August, 1883. In 1884 he took a leading 
 part in opposing the election of James 
 G. Blaine and advocating that of Grover 
 Cleveland. Schurz was an enthusiastic 
 advocate of civil-service reform, in sup- 
 
SCHWAB 
 
 SCIPIO AFRICANUS 
 
 port of which he wrote many articles 
 and reports and deliveredm any speeches. 
 His publications include biographies of 
 Henry Clay (1887) and of Abraham 
 Lincoln (1891). He died in 1906. 
 
 SCHWAB, Charles M., first president 
 of the United States Steel corporation 
 and later president and chief owner of 
 the Bethlehem Steel co., was born at 
 Williamsburg, Pa., in 1862. In 1887 he 
 was appointed superintendent of the 
 Homestead works and under him these 
 works were reconstructed and made the 
 largest in the world. In 1889 he became 
 general superintendent of the Edgar 
 Thomson works. He was made president 
 of the Carnegie Steel company in 
 February, 1897. When the United 
 States Steel corporation was formed he 
 was made president at Mr. Carnegie’s 
 suggestion. He retired in 1904 to be- 
 come president of the Bethlehem Steel 
 company in which he owns a majority 
 
 SCHWANN, Theodore, M. D., a Ger- 
 man phys ologist, was born at Neuss, 
 in the Rhine provinces, December 7, 
 1810. "Doctor Schwann spent forty years 
 in important work in connection with 
 anatomy, and made some very valuable 
 discoveries, one of them being that of 
 the presence of pepsin in the gastric 
 juice. He died at Cologne, January 11, 
 1882 
 
 SCHWANTHALER(shvan'ta-ler),Lud- 
 wig Michael, German sculptor, born at 
 Munich in 1802, where his father, the 
 court sculptor, died in 1821. On the 
 death of his father he succeeded him, 
 and executed various commissions for 
 King Maximilian, and a great number 
 for his successor King Ludwig. He died 
 in 1848. Schwanthaler was the chief 
 representative of the “romantic” school 
 in sculpture, and his works are often 
 deficient in truth to nature and reality. 
 
 SCHWARZBURG - RUDOLSTADT 
 (shvarts'burh-ro-dol-stat), a German 
 principality, consisting of several iso- 
 lated portions, situated between Prus- 
 sian Saxony, the Saxon duchies, and 
 the principality of Reuss. It lies on the 
 northern side of the Thuringian Forest, 
 and has an area of 362 sq. miles. The 
 surface is rugged, and the soil by no 
 means fertile The most important crop 
 is flax, the culture of which is almost 
 universal. A great part of the land is 
 devoted to pasture, and great numbers 
 of cattle are reared. The minerals in- 
 clude brown coal, iron, slate, and salt. 
 The principal manufactures are glass 
 and porcelain. The capital is Rudol- 
 stadt. Pop. 93,059. 
 
 SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN, 
 a German principality on the north- 
 ern side of the Thuringian Forest, be- 
 tween the territories of Prussian Sax- 
 ony and the Saxon duchies, and con- 
 sisting of several distinct portions; 
 area, 332 sq. miles. One of the principal 
 sources of revenue is derived from the 
 forests, which furnish excellent timber. 
 The only manufacture of any inportance 
 is porcelain. The capital is Sonder- 
 shausen. Pop. 80,898. 
 
 SCHWATKA, Frederick, explorer, 
 was born at Galena, 111., September 
 29, 1849 In June, 1878, he sailed to the 
 Arctic regions, in command of the 
 Franklin search party, which returned 
 
 in September, 1880, having discovered 
 and buried many of the skeletons of 
 Sir John Franklin’s lost party, and 
 cleared up much of the mystery that had 
 shrouded their fate. He later explored 
 the course of the Yukon river (1884). 
 In 1890 Lieutenant Schwatka made an 
 exploring expedition to Mexico. His 
 works are: Along Alaska’s Great River, 
 Nimrod in the North, Children of the 
 Cold. He died in 1892. 
 
 SCHWYZ (shvets), a central canton 
 of Switzerland, bounded on the north 
 by the Lake of Zurich and canton St. 
 Gall, west by Zug and Luzern, south by 
 Lake Luzern, and east by Glarus; area, 
 353 sq. miles Schwyz being the most 
 important of the cantons which first 
 threw off the yoke of Austria, gave the 
 name to the whole confederation. Its 
 present government is an extreme 
 democracy, the whole power, legislative 
 and executive, being lodged in the male 
 population of legal age, who hold a 
 general assembly every two years. 
 Pop. 55,497. 
 
 SCIATTCA, a term used in medicine 
 to denote a rheumatic affection, in 
 which the pain stretches along the 
 course of the great sciatic nerve, that is, 
 from the hip along the back part of the 
 thigh toward the ham of the leg. There 
 is stiffness and pain, increased by any 
 change of temperature and moisture; 
 there is generally swelling of the limb 
 at the commencement of the disease, 
 but after repeated attacks the limb 
 seems to shrink, owing to the wasting of 
 the muscles. In some cases the articula- 
 tion of the hip seems affected, and per- 
 manent immobility of the limb takes 
 place. 
 
 SCIENCES, a term applied to the 
 generalized and systematized divisions 
 of knowledge. Science and philosophy 
 resemble each other in so far as they 
 both have to do with knowledge; but 
 while the latter deals with the whole 
 sum of knowledge, the former takes up 
 special branches of it, and it does not 
 necessarily go back to first principles 
 like philosophy. Given a sufficient num- 
 ber of inter-related facts, they may be 
 so arranged and classified, by referring 
 them to the general truths and principles 
 on which they are founded, as to con- 
 stitute a well-certified and more or less 
 complete branch of knowledge, that is, 
 a science. The sciences are broadly 
 divided into pure or theoretic sciences 
 and applied or practical sciences, the 
 latter being definable as the knowledge 
 of facts, events, or phenomena as ex- 
 plained, accounted for, or produced by 
 means of powers, causes, or laws; the 
 former as the knowledge of these powers, 
 causes, or laws, considered apart or as 
 pure from all applications. To the class 
 of pure or fundamental sciences belong 
 mathematics, physics, chemistry, psy- 
 chology, and sociology; to the applied or 
 concrete belong geology, mineralogy, 
 botany, zoology, meteorology, geo- 
 graphy, ethics, politics, law, jurispru- 
 dence, logic, grammar, rhetoric, phil- 
 ology, and political economy; naviga- 
 tion, engineering, and practical me- 
 chanics; surgery, midwifery, materia 
 medica, etc. 
 
 SCILLY ISLANDS (sil'i), a group of 
 granitic islands belonging to England, 
 
 forming part of the county of Cornwall, 
 at the entrance to the English channel, 
 about 30 miles west by south of Land’s 
 End. They rise abruptly from a deep 
 sea, form a compact group about 30 
 miles in circumference, and are said to 
 amount altogether to about 140 in 
 number (total area 3560 acres) ; but 
 there are only six of any importance, 
 the remainder being mere rocks and 
 islets. The six alluded to are St. Mary’s, 
 St. Agnes, St. Martin, Trescow, Bryher, 
 and Sampson. Pop. 2096. 
 
 SCIMITAR, a kind of sword in use 
 among eastern nations. The blade is 
 nearly semi-circular in form, with the 
 edge upon the convex side. This form, 
 while ill adapted for thrusting, is ad- 
 mirably adapted for striking. 
 
 SCIO, or SKIO (si'6; ske'6), an island 
 of Asiatic Turkey, in the ^gean sea, 
 separated from the coast of Asia Minor 
 by a channel not more than 7 miles wide 
 where narrowest, and about 53 miles 
 west of Smyrna. Before the war of 
 Greek independence Scio was peopled 
 almost entirely by Greeks, of whom large 
 numbers were massacred by the Turks 
 after their subjugation in 1822. Scio 
 contends for the honor of having given 
 birth to Homer. It possesses few an- 
 tiquities. In April, 1881, the island 
 suffered much from repeated shocks of 
 earthquake. Pop. 70,000. 
 
 SCIPTO AFRICA'NUS, The Elder, 
 Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus 
 Major, one of the most illustrious of 
 Roman warriors, was born about 235 
 B.c. In 212 B.c. he was unanimously 
 elected sedile, and a few years after was 
 appointed proconsul in Spain. His first 
 successful enterprise of importance was 
 the conquest of New Carthage, the 
 strongholdof the Carthaginians in Spain. 
 The next year (209 b.c.) Scipio totally 
 defeated Hasdrubal, Hannibal’s brother, 
 and subsequently a fresh army, led by 
 Mago and Hasdrubal the son of Gisco. 
 The result was to drive the Carthagin- 
 ians wholly from Spain, and Scipio was 
 empowered to lead an army against 
 Carthage herself. The Carthaginians 
 recalled Hannibal from Italy, but the 
 great battle of Zama, fought 19th Octo- 
 ber, 202 B.C., resulted in the total defeat 
 of the Carthaginians, who, on the advice 
 of Hannibal, sought for peace. On his 
 return to Rome Scipio was honored with 
 a triumph, and received the surname of 
 Africanus. He died, it is believed, in 
 B.c. 183, the same year as his great op- 
 ponent Hannibal. 
 
 SCIP'IO AFRICA'NUS, The Younger, 
 Publius Cornelius Scipio ^Emilianus 
 Africanus Minor, son of L. jEmilius 
 Paullus, the conqueror of Macedonia, 
 and adopted son of P. Cornelius Scipio, 
 the son of Scipio Africanus Major, was 
 born about 187 b.c. In b.c. 152 he 
 accompanied the consul Lucius Licinius 
 Lucullus to Spain as military tribune, 
 and in b.c. 149, on the outbreak of the 
 third Punic war, commanded in Africa 
 under the consul M. Manlius Nepos. His 
 services were so important that in b.c. 
 147, contrary to the usual custom, not 
 being of the legal age, he was unani- 
 mously chosen consul and leader of the 
 forces against the Carthaginians. In 
 B.c. 146 he took, and by command of 
 the senate burned Carthage, for which 
 
SCIRPUS 
 
 SCOTLAND 
 
 he was honored with a triumph at Rome 
 and with the surname of Africanus. He 
 was found dead in his bed in b.c. 129, 
 Carbo being suspected of having mur- 
 dered him. He was a friend of Polybius, 
 the historian, and a patron of Terence. 
 
 SCIRPUS. See Bulrush. 
 
 SCISSORBILL, a genus of Laridse or 
 gulls, so named from the possession of 
 an elongated beak of compressed form, 
 the lower mandible exceeding the upper 
 one in length, and shutting into the 
 latter somewhat after the fashion that 
 the blade of a knife does into its handle. 
 This curious beak is of an orange color 
 at its base, and black at its tip. The 
 bird, which inhabits the coasts of Ameri- 
 ca, and Africa is a dark brown on the 
 upper aspect of the head and body; the 
 under surface white, and a band of white 
 across the wings. The average length of 
 the scissorbill is about \\ foot. 
 
 SCORE, in music, the original draught 
 or its transcript, of a musical composi- 
 tion, with the parts for all the different 
 voices or instruments arranged and 
 placed in juxtaposition; so called from 
 the practice of drawing the bar through 
 all the parts. 
 
 SCORPION, the name of animals of 
 the class Arachnida (which includes 
 also the spiders). The largest of their 
 class. Scorpions have an elongated body 
 suddenly terminated by a long slender 
 tail formed of six joints, the last of which 
 terminates in an arcuated and very 
 acute sting, which effuses a venomous 
 liquid. This sting gives rise to excruciat- 
 ing pain, but is usually unattended 
 either with redness or swelling, except 
 in the glands of the arm-pit or groin. 
 It is very seldom, if ever, fatal to man. 
 The animal has four pairs of limbs borne 
 by the thorax or chest-segments, and the 
 maxillary palpi (organs of touch belong- 
 ing to the maxilljE or lesser jaws) are 
 
 Scorpions. 
 
 largely developed, and constitute a 
 formidable pair of nipping claws. With 
 these claws they seize their insect prey, 
 which is afterward killed by the sting. 
 The eyes, which are of the simple kind 
 number six, eight, or twelve. The female 
 scorpions are said to exhibit great care 
 for their young, and carry them on their 
 backs for several days after being 
 hatched, while they tend them carefully 
 for about a month, when they are able 
 to shift for themselves. Scorpions gen- 
 erally live in dark places, and under 
 stones. They are found in the south of 
 Europe, in Africa, in the East Indies, 
 and in South America. 
 
 SCORPION FISH, or SEA SCORPION, 
 a genus of teleostean (acanthopterous) 
 fishes, belonging to the Triglidse or 
 gurnard family. The first dorsal fin 
 possesses eleven spines, the second dorsal 
 
 possessing one spiny ray and nine or 
 ten soft rays. The anal fin is short, and 
 has three spines and five soft rays. The 
 red scorpion-fish is a familiar form. The 
 spotted scorpion-fish is a second species, 
 and, like the preceding form, occurs in 
 British waters, as well as in the Mediter- 
 ranean, Atlantic, and the tropical seas. 
 
 SCORPION FLY, a genus of insects 
 belonging to the order Neuroptera, or 
 that of the dragon flies. The name 
 scorpion fly is derived from the append- 
 ages seen attached to the abdomen of 
 some species. The male in the common 
 species, for example, has the sixth and 
 seventh joints of the abdomen at- 
 tenuated, and capable of extensive mo- 
 tion; while the last joint forms a pair 
 of forceps resembling those of the ear- 
 wigs. When at rest this tail is curled 
 over the back, but when irritated the 
 forceps are used as weapons of offense 
 or defense. 
 
 SCOTLAND, the northern division of 
 the Island of Great Britain, between 
 lat. 54° 38' and 58° 40' 30" n.; and Ion. 
 1° 46' and 6° 8' 30" w. It is separated 
 from England substantially by the 
 Solway, Cheviots, and Tweed, the border 
 isthmus being about 60 miles across; 
 but the irregular boundary line meas- 
 ures fully 100 miles. On all other sides 
 it is bounded by the sea. Few points 
 in the mainland are more than 40 miles 
 from the sea, the country being so much 
 penetrated by inlets. The country was 
 formerly divided into a number of dis- 
 tricts, many of the names of which are 
 still familiar, such as Lothian, Tweed- 
 dale, Galloway, Breadalbane, etc., but 
 for political purposes is now divided 
 into 33 counties, of which Lanark, 
 Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Forfar, Ayr, Fife 
 and Renfren are the most important. 
 Pop. 4,772,103. Edinburgh (the capital), 
 Glasgow, Dundee, and Aberdeen each 
 contain upward of 100,000 inhabitants. 
 After these come, in order of population. 
 Paisley, Leith, Greenock, Coatbridge, 
 Kilmarnock, Kirkcaldy, Perth, Hamil- 
 ton, Motherwell, and Falkirk. 
 
 The islands of Scotland number alto- 
 gether nearly 800. On the east coast 
 they are few and small ; but on the north- 
 east are the two large groups of the 
 Orkneys and Shetlands, the former num- 
 bering 52 islands, 28 permanently in- 
 habited; the latter 100 islands, 29 in- 
 habited; while on the west coast the 
 islands are large and numerous. Here 
 the Hebrides extend for 200 miles from 
 north to south, and are divided into the 
 Inner and Outer Hebrides, the former 
 lying close to the western coast of the 
 mainland and stretching from Skye to 
 Islay; the latter, parted from the Inner 
 Hebrides by the straits of the Minch and 
 the Little Minch, comprise the long 
 chain of islands from Lewis to Ben- 
 becula. Inclosed in the Firth of Clyde 
 are the islands of Arran, Bute, and the 
 Cumbraes, forming a county by them- 
 selves. The west coast of themainland is 
 generally a wild, deeply-indented moun- 
 tain-wall, presenting a series of inlets 
 or sea lochs, while toward the middle 
 the coast is cleft by two great inlets with 
 openings to the southwest, the Firth of 
 Lorn and its continuation Loch Linnhe, 
 and the Firth of Clyde and its ramifica- 
 tions running far inland. The east coast 
 
 is sometimes low and sandy, but is often 
 formed of steep rocky cliffs of con- 
 siderable elevation, the chief inlets being 
 the Firths of Forth and Tay, and the 
 Moray Firth, Cromarty Firth, etc. 
 
 Both from the configuration of the 
 surface and the geological structure the 
 country divides into three divisions, the 
 Highlands, Central Lowlands, and 
 Southern Uplands. The first of these 
 divisions lies north of a line stretching 
 in a s.w. direction from the coast of 
 Kincardineshire to the Firth of Clyde; 
 the third is the country s. of a line drawn 
 from Dunbar southwesterly to Girvan; 
 the country between these lines forms 
 the Central Lowlands. 
 
 The chief rivers flow to the east, and 
 enter the German ocean, the largest 
 being the Tweed, Forth, Tay, South 
 Esk, North Esk, Dee, Don, Deveron, 
 Spey, Findhorn, etc.; those entering the 
 sea on the west are the Clyde, Ayr, Doon 
 Dee, Nith, Annan, and Esk. The Clyde, 
 however, in its lower course carries a 
 vast traffic, this being rendered possible 
 chiefly by dredging. Many of the rivers 
 are valuable from the numbers of sal- 
 mon they produce. A striking feature 
 of the country is the great multitude of 
 lakes, varying in size from Loch Lomond 
 (28 sq. miles) to the pool-like mountain 
 tarns. In the Northern Highlands al- 
 most every glen has its lake and every 
 mountain hollow is filled by a stream or 
 spring. 
 
 For Agriculture, Manufactures, Trade, 
 etc., see Britain. 
 
 The parliament of Scotland anciently 
 comprised all who held any portion of 
 land, however small, from the crown by 
 tenure of military service, till the reign 
 of James VI., when the small barons or 
 freeholders were excused from attend- 
 ance in person, “two or more wise men,” 
 being deputed from each county in pro- 
 portion to its size. Its powers were 
 nominally extensive, but the supreme 
 power was virtually in the king, who 
 by his influence often entirely .controlled 
 its proceedings. The parliament in the 
 whole consisted of three estates — the 
 nobility, the dignified clergy (consisting 
 of bishops, abbots, and priors), and the 
 lesser barons, or representatives of 
 shires and burghs. When Presbyterian- 
 ism was formally ratified by law after 
 the revolution of 1688, the ecclesiastical 
 estate ceased to have a place in parlia- 
 ment. Every measure brought before 
 parliament was previously prepared by 
 a committee, styled the lords of the 
 articles, chosen from each of the three 
 orders, but in effect little better than 
 royal nominees. Before the Union there 
 were four great officers of state — the 
 lord high-chancellor, the high-treasurer, 
 the lord privy-seal, and the secretary; 
 and there were also four lesser officers — 
 the lord clerk-register, the lord-advo- 
 cate, the treasurer-depute, and the 
 justice-clerk. Previously to the era of 
 the Revolution the privy-council of 
 Scotland assumed inquisitorial powers, 
 andeven torture was administered under 
 the sanction of its authority; but it is 
 now entirely merged in the privy-coun- 
 cil of Great Britain. The number of peers 
 in the Scottish parliament was latterly 
 160, and of commons 155, and all sat in 
 one house, and voted promiscuously. 
 
SCOTLAND 
 
 SCOTLAND 
 
 At the union of the kingdoms the politi- 
 cal system of Scotland was almost 
 entirely incorporated with that of 
 England. 
 
 Scotland has had the advantage of a 
 national system of elementary educa- 
 tion for over two centuries, a school 
 having been established in every parish 
 by a law of 1696 (where such a school 
 was not already established), according 
 to a system proposed by John Knox 
 long before. This scheme did effective 
 service for the education of the people, 
 till the great increase of population, 
 especially in towns, rendered it unequal 
 to the task laid upon it, and this not- 
 withstanding the erection of many 
 schools by various religious denomina- 
 tions. By the passing of the Education 
 Act of 1872 board-schools have super- 
 seded the old parish schools, there being 
 also numerous grammar or high schools 
 and academies in every town of any size, 
 though no systematic scheme of second- 
 ary education. Other institutions are 
 the normal or training schools and col- 
 leges of the different religious bodies 
 and the four universities of Edinburgh, 
 Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews. 
 
 The country now called Scotland 
 emerges from pre-historic obscurity 
 during the Roman occupation of Britain, 
 though for many centuries little is 
 known of its history. A Celtie (and 
 Aryan) people seem to have entered the 
 country, and to have gained predomi- 
 nance over the non-Aryans, the com- 
 bined people occupying at the Roman 
 invasion most of the country north of 
 the Forth and Clyde estuaries, which 
 was called Caledonia by the Romans, 
 and its people Caledonians. The south- 
 ern part of the country was inhabited 
 by another Celtic race, the Brythons 
 or Britons, of the same blood as the 
 Welsh. The descendants of the Cale- 
 donians were afterwards called Piets, 
 and were the predominant people in 
 North Britain at the beginning of the 
 6th century, when a colony of Scots or 
 Dalriads from Ireland effected a settle- 
 ment in Argyle, and gradually spread 
 over the adjacent regions. It is from 
 these Scots (a Celtic and Gaelic-speak- 
 ing people) that the country afterward 
 received the name of Scotland, the origi- 
 nal Scotland (Scotia) being Ireland. 
 The Teutonic element was introduced 
 into Scotland as early as the 4th century 
 About the middle of the 9th century 
 Kenneth MacAlpin, son of a ruler of a 
 body of Scots established in Galloway, 
 but of Pictish descent through his 
 mother, united in his own person the 
 sovereignty of both the Piets and the 
 Scots. The reigns of Kenneth nnd his 
 immediate successors were one con- 
 tinued scene of warfare with the 
 Norsemen on one hand and with 
 the Britons of Strathclyde and the Eng- 
 lish of Northumbria on the other. 
 On the advent of Malcolm Canmore 
 (lO.'iS) to the throne after the death of 
 Macbeth, the able ursurper and mur- 
 derer of Duncan (see Macbeth), the 
 purely Celtic monarchy camo to an end. 
 
 On the death of Malcolm the Celtic 
 tribes placed his brother Donald Bane 
 on the throne, but he was driven from it 
 before he had reigned a year by Dun- 
 can, a natural son of the late king, who 
 
 now seized the scepter. In 1098, how- 
 ever, Edgar Atheling, obtained a force 
 from the English king, and succeeded in 
 gaining the kingdom for Edgar, the 
 lawful son of Malcolm. Edgar was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother Alexander I., 
 a prince whose reign is chiefly signalized 
 by his severe administration of justice. 
 He assisted Henry I. of England, who 
 had married his sister, in a war with the 
 Welsh, and died in 1124, leaving the 
 throne to his younger brother David. 
 David was brought into feudal relations 
 with the Norman king of England. On 
 the accession of the usurper Stephen to 
 the English throne in 1135, to the prej- 
 udice of Maud or Matilda, wife of the 
 Emperor Henry V., only child of Henry 
 I. and niece of David, the latter made 
 several expeditions into England in sup- 
 port of his niece’s claim to the throne. 
 His death in 1153 was preceded by that 
 of his only son, so he was succeeded by 
 his grandson, Malcolm the Maiden, whose 
 reign of twelve years is only remark- 
 able for his giving up Northumberland 
 and Cumberland to the English king. 
 On the death of Malcolm IV. in 1165 
 the crown fell to his younger brother 
 William, who is known by the title of 
 William the Lion. During an expedition 
 into England for the purpose of regain- 
 ing Northumberland he was taken 
 prisoner (1175), and sent to Falaise in 
 Normandy, where a treaty was con- 
 cluded acknowledging the supremacy 
 of England, and declaring Scotland a 
 fief and himself a vassal of the English 
 crown. This treaty remained in force 
 till 1189, when Richard I. restored 
 Scottish independence for the sum of 
 10,000 marks in order to equip a force 
 to join the third crusade. The rest of 
 William’s reign was devoted to the con- 
 solidation of his kingdom in the north 
 and west. The Scottish alliance with 
 France, and many of the Scottish 
 burgh charters, date from this reign. 
 His successors were Alexander II., 
 1214-49, and Alexander III., 1249-1286. 
 Margaret of Norway was only three 
 years old at Alexander’s death, and a 
 regency consisting of four barons and 
 two bishops was appointed. Margaret 
 died in 1290 and was succeeded by John 
 Baliol, who was crowned at Scone 
 (1292) acknowledging Edward as his 
 overlord. Edward had succeeded in 
 conquering Scotland when Wallace, 
 the man of the people, appeared. 
 William Wallace, assisted by some of 
 the barons and a considerable body of 
 men, defeated the English governor, 
 the Earl of Surrey, at Stirling Bridge 
 (11th September, 1297), drove Edward’s 
 garrison out of the country, and made a 
 raid into England. Edward, who was 
 in Flanders, hastened home, and march- 
 ing at the head of a large army, de- 
 feated Wallace at Falkirk (22d July, 
 1298), and before 1303 had repossessed 
 himself of the whole country. In 1305 
 Wallace was betrayed into the hands 
 of the English near Glasgow by Sir John 
 Menteith; was earned to London, and 
 after a mock trial was condemned as a 
 rebel and traitor to Edward and exe- 
 cuted (23d August, 1305). Wallace 
 soon had a more fortunate, though 
 not a more valiant, successor in Robert 
 de Bruce. He had long been an 
 
 unwilling and restless retainer of Ed- 
 ward, but latterly determined to push 
 his claims in Scotland, and was crowned 
 as king of the country at Scone in 1306. 
 At first his career was not successful, 
 but the death of Edward I. at Burgh-on- 
 Sands, on his way to Scotland, and the 
 inactivity of his son Edward II., were 
 turning-points in the recovery of the in- 
 dependence of Scotland. Gradually 
 Bruce recovered the whole country, till 
 in 1313 the only English garrison left 
 was Stirling Castle, which was closely 
 besieged by the Scotch. To relieve it 
 Edward II. led into Scotland a great 
 army, which was totally defeated by 
 Bruce in the battle of Bannockburn 
 (24th June, 1314). After this victory 
 Bruce reigned with almost uninter- 
 rupted success, and died in 1329. 
 On the death of Robert Bruce his son, 
 David II., a boy six years old, was pro- 
 claimed king, and acknowledged by the 
 great part of the nation. Edward Baliol, 
 however, the son of John Baliol (who 
 died 1314) formed a party for the pur- 
 pose of supporting his pretensions to the 
 crown; he was backed by Edward III. 
 of England. At first Baliol was success- 
 ful; and on the 24th September, 1332, 
 he was crowned king at Scone, but 
 eventually David succeeded in driv- 
 ing him from the kingdom. At his 
 death in 1370, childless, the suc- 
 cession fell to Robert, son of Walter, 
 the high steward, and of Marjory Bruce, 
 daughter of Robert I. (Bruce), Robert 
 II. being thus the first of the Steward, or 
 as it came to be written, Stewart or 
 Stuart, dynasty. Robert II. died in 1390 
 and was succeeded by his son, John, who 
 upon his accession took the name of 
 Robert III. The latter part of the reign 
 of Robert III. was disturbed by the 
 ambition of his brother, the Duke of 
 Albany, who is said to have caused the 
 death of the profligate young Duke of 
 Rothesay, the heir to the throne. Afraid 
 for the safety of his second son, James, 
 Robert designed to send him to France; 
 but the ship in which he was being con- 
 veyed was captured by the English, a 
 misfortune which hastened the king’s 
 death (1406). James I. being then only 
 eleven years of age, and a captive, the 
 regency devolved on the Duke of Albany. 
 After nineteen years of captivity he was 
 crowned at Scone (1423). James’ efforts 
 to diminish the power of the great nobles 
 revoked a conspiracy against him, and 
 e was murdered in the Blackfriars’ mon- 
 astery at Perth (20th February, 1437). 
 His son and successor James II. being 
 only seven years of age, the country was 
 subjected to the miseries of a long and 
 feeble regency. One of the chief events 
 of his reign was the rebellion and tem- 
 porary overthrow of the powerful house 
 of Douglas. James was accidentally 
 killed by the bursting of a cannon at the 
 siege of Roxburgh Castle (3d August, 
 1460). James III. was not quite eight 
 years of age when he succeeded to the 
 kingdom, which was again subject to 
 all the troubles of a minority. In 1467 
 the young king married Margaret, 
 daughter of the Norse king Christian, 
 and in the shape of a pledge of payment 
 of her dowry the Orkney and Shetland 
 islands were given up to Scotland, of 
 which they have ever since formed a 
 
SCOTT 
 
 SCOTT 
 
 S )art. A confederation against him was 
 ormed by a number of his nobles in 
 1 488 ; the forces met at Sauchieburn, near 
 Stirling, where the royal army was de- 
 feated, and James was murdered in the 
 flight. James IV., who had been iii- 
 duced to join the nobles hostile to his 
 father, was sixteen years old when he 
 ascended the throne. In 1503 he married 
 Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. of 
 England, and thus paved the way for 
 the future union of the’ two kingdoms. 
 The king was killed at Flodden Field 
 (9th September, 1513); his infant suc- 
 cessor James V. had not yet reached 
 the age of two years. His cousin, the 
 Duke of Albany, was appointed regent, 
 but from an early part of the reign 
 James was almost entirely in the hands 
 of the Earl of Angus, who had married 
 the queen dowager, and had almost 
 complete control of affairs till 1528, 
 when James then in his seventeenth 
 year managed to escape to Stirling, take 
 the government in his own hands, and 
 drive Angus into England. His alliance 
 was sought by England, France, and 
 Spain, and in 1537 James married 
 Madeleine, daughter of Francis I. The 
 young queen died a few weeks after her 
 arrival in Scotland, and in the following 
 year James married Mary of Lorraine, 
 daughter of the Duke of Guise. James 
 died at Caerlaverock Castle (14th Dec., 
 1542), having just received tidings of 
 the birth of his daughter, the future 
 Mary Queen of Scots. The event- 
 ful period which followed the acces- 
 sion of Mary was dominated by the 
 Reformation movement, and the ques- 
 tions affecting the Union of Scot- 
 land and England. In 1558 she was 
 married to the dauphin who succeeded 
 to the throne the following year, but 
 died in 1560. Mary then returned to 
 Scotland. Mary’s reign was popular un- 
 til her unfortunatem arriage with Darn- 
 ley in 1565. Darnley was murdered by 
 the Earl of Bothwell and his servants, 
 but whether Mary was accessory to the 
 murder is yet a matter of controversy. 
 The fact remains that she married 
 Bothwell within three months, and 
 alienated the greater number of her 
 subjects. A confederacy was formed 
 against her and she was imprisoned in 
 Lochleven Castle. She escaped and fled 
 to England and put herself under the 
 protection of Elizabeth. Here she drops 
 from Scottish history, but her after-life 
 till her execution in 1587 was a continual 
 series of plots to regain her lost throne. 
 James VI., the son of Mary, being a 
 mere child, Moray held the regency of 
 the kingdom. The chief events of the 
 reign, prior to the union of the crowns 
 by the accession of James to the throne 
 of England as James I., were the raid of 
 Ruthven, the marriage of James to Ann 
 of Denmark, and the Gowrie conspiracy. 
 On the death of Elizabeth in 1603, 
 James succeeded as the nearest heir 
 through his descent from Margaret, 
 daughter of Henry VII. and wife of 
 James IV. He was crowned at West- 
 minster, and assumed the title of King 
 of Great Britain, France, and Ireland. 
 
 There were seven Scottish parliaments 
 called by James after his accession, 
 wherein he was represented by a com- 
 missioner sitting as president. His chief 
 
 energies were directed to an attempt to 
 draw England and Scotland into a 
 closer union by means of harmonizing 
 the laws of the two countries, and by 
 establishing episcopacy in Scotland. 
 James VI. died in 1625, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Charles I. For- 
 eign wars and domestic troubles pre- 
 vented Charles from visiting Scot- 
 land till 1633 when he was crowned at 
 Edinburgh. At the outbreak of the civil 
 war in England, Scotland took the part 
 of the parliament against the king, and 
 was of considerable assistance to the 
 parliamentary forces at Marston Moor 
 and elsewhere. The affairs of the king 
 becoming hopeless in England, Charles 
 gave himself up to the Scottish army 
 posted before Newark 5th May, 1646, 
 and was surrendered to the English 
 parliament 30th January, 1467. After 
 the execution of Charles (30th Jan- 
 uary, 1649) the Scots proclaimed his 
 son king, under the title of Charles II. 
 The young king was then in Holland. 
 He arrived in Scotland, landing at the 
 mouth of the Spey, 3d July, 1650, and 
 marched southward by Aberdeen, Dun- 
 dee, and St. Andrews to Falkland palace. 
 Cromwell at Worcester utterly scattered 
 theroyalist forces, and compelled Charles 
 to become a fugitive (3d September, 
 1651). Cromwell’s death was soon fol- 
 lowed by the fall of his son. Monk’s 
 march to London at the head of the army, 
 and the restoration of Charles 11. (1660). 
 The Scottish parliament assembled 
 under the Earl of Middleton, the king’s 
 commissioner, January 1, 1661, and it 
 soon became apparent that Charles was 
 determined to carry out the favorite 
 scheme of his father and grandfather of 
 establishing episcopacy in Scotland. 
 Charles died in 1685, and was succeeded 
 by his brother, James VII. of Scotland 
 and II. of England. The chief events 
 of his reign, so far as Scotland 
 was concerned, were the rising, de- 
 feat, and execution of Argyle. At 
 the Revolution a convention of the 
 estates at Edinburgh proclaimed Wil- 
 iam, prince of Orange, James’ son-in- 
 law and nephew, and his wife Mary, 
 James’ daughter, king and queen of 
 Scotland. Religious freedom was again 
 restored, and in 1690 a general assembly 
 of the Presbyterian church again met. 
 
 The death of William III. in 1702 
 transferred the crowns of the two na- 
 tions to Queen Anne, sister of Mary. 
 A joint commission was appointed to 
 draw up articles of union in 1706. A 
 majority of the parliament carried the 
 measure (16th January, 1707); it re- 
 ceived the royal assent (March 4); and 
 the union took effect (May 1). The chief 
 provisions of the Act of Union were (1) 
 That the two kingdoms should be united 
 under the name of “Great Britain;’’ 
 (2) that the succession to the crown of 
 the United Kingdom should be in the 
 Electress Sophia of Hanover and her 
 heirs, being Protestants; (3) that 16 
 Scottish peers and 45 Scottish members 
 of the House of Commons should be 
 elected to the one parliament sitting 
 in London; (4) that the Established 
 Presbyterian church of Scotland should 
 be maintained; (5) that Scotland should 
 keep unchanged her own laws and cus- 
 toms relating to property and private 
 
 rights, and also the court of session and 
 other Scotch courts; (6) that all the 
 rights of trade, free intercourse, and 
 citizenship should be of the same for 
 Scotch and English subjects. Hence- 
 forth the general history of Scotland 
 may be said to be entirely identified 
 with that of England. 
 
 SCOTT, Michael, author of Tom 
 Cringle’s Log and The Cruise of the 
 Midge, was born at Glasgow, 1789, and 
 died in 1835 The two brilliant sea- 
 novels of which he was the author ap- 
 peared anonymously in Blackwood’s 
 Magazine. 
 
 SCOTT, Sir Walter, Bart., poet and 
 novelist, was born in Edinburgh, 
 August 15, 1771. He was a younger son 
 of Walter Scott, writer to the signet, by 
 Anne, daughter of Dr. John Ruther- 
 ford, professor of medicine in the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh, both connected 
 with old Border families. In ^05 he be- 
 came prominent as an original poet with 
 the Lay of the Last Minstrel, an ex- 
 tended specimen of the ballad style, 
 which fell upon the public as something 
 entirely new, and at once became widely 
 popular. In 1808 he published Marmion, 
 another poetic romance which greatly 
 increased his reputation; and in 1810 the 
 Lady of the Lake, in which his poetical 
 genius seems to have reached the acme 
 of its powers. The appearance of Wa- 
 verley, in 1814, forms an epoch in 
 modern literature as well as in the life of 
 Scott. This romance or novel was rapidly 
 followed by numerous others, forming. 
 
 Sir ’Walter Scott. 
 
 from the name of the first, the series 
 known as The Waverley Novels. The 
 earlier of these were Guy Mannering 
 (1815), The Antiquary, The Black 
 Dwarf, Old Mortality (1816), Rob Roy 
 (1817), The Heart of Midlothian (1818), 
 The Bride of Lammermoor, A Legend of 
 Montrose, and Ivanhoe (1819). These 
 splendid works of fiction which sur- 
 prised and enchanted the world, it is 
 held by most, mark the high tide of his 
 genius, those which follow being placed 
 on a somewhat lower level, although 
 there are several, especially in the 
 second period, up to 1825, in which no 
 falling-off is perceptible. Ivanhoe was 
 followed by 'The Monastery, The Abbot 
 (1820), Kenilworth, The Pirate (1821), 
 The Fortunes of Nigel, Peveril of the 
 Peak (1822L Quentin Durward, St. 
 Ronan’s Well (1823), Redgauntlet 
 (1824), The Betrothed and The Talis- 
 
SCOTT 
 
 SCREW-PROPELLER 
 
 man (1825), Woodstock (1826), The 
 Chronicles of the Canongate, The Fair 
 Maid of Perth (1829), Anne of Geier- 
 stein (1829), Count Robert of Paris and 
 Castle Dangerous (1831). The Waverley 
 novels were all published anonymously, 
 nor did Scott cease to be the “Great 
 Unknown” until 1827, although their 
 authorship had long been an open secret 
 to many. He died in 1832 and was in- 
 terred in his family burial aisle amid 
 the ruins of Dryburgh Abbey. His life 
 was written by his son-in-law, John 
 Gibson Lockhart, a work which has 
 taken the position of a classic. 
 
 SCOTT, Winfield, commander-in-chief 
 of the United States army, was the son 
 of a Scottish Jacobite, and was born 
 near Petersburg, Virginia, 1786; died 
 at West Point, 1866. He was brought 
 up to the law, and admitted to the bar, 
 but never practiced. Entering the army 
 he served with distinction in the war 
 of 1812-14, and afterward visited 
 Europe, and studied military science at 
 Paris. In 1832 and the following years 
 General Scott was employed in opera- 
 tions against the Indian tribes, and in 
 1841 he was appointed commander-in- 
 
 Winfleld Scott. 
 
 cnief. His fame rests upon his brilliant 
 conduct of the Mexican war of 1846-47, 
 in which he gained several victories over 
 Santa Anna, made himself master of 
 Mexico, and concluded an advantageous 
 peace. He was twice an unsuccessful 
 candidate for the presidency. On the 
 outbreak of the great civil war he re- 
 mained true to the federal government, 
 but was too infirm to take any actual 
 command. He retired from active ser- 
 vice in 1861, and in 1864 he published 
 his autobiography. 
 
 SCOTUS, Duns. See Duns. 
 
 SCRANTON, the capital of Lacka- 
 wanna CO., Pennsylvania, in a valley 
 near the Lackawanna river, 150 miles 
 w.n.w. of New York. It owes its rapid 
 prosperity to the numerous collieries in 
 the vicinity, to its large rolling-mills and 
 steel works, and extensive manufac- 
 tures of railway rolling-stock, machinery 
 edge-tools, leather, window sashes and 
 blinds, silk fabrics, etc. The city was 
 founded in 1840. Pop. 1909, 130,000. 
 
 SCREAMER, the name given to two 
 genera of South American grallatorial or 
 wading birds, the horned screamer and 
 the closely allied crested screamer. The 
 latter has no horn, but its head is fur- 
 nished with a dependent crest of 
 feathers. 
 
 SCREW, a wooden or metal cylinder 
 ^ving a spiral ridge (the thread) wind- 
 ing round it in a uniform manner, so 
 that the successive turns are all exactly 
 the same distance from each other, and 
 a corresponding spiral groove is pro- 
 duced. The screw forms one of the six 
 mechanical powers, and is simply a 
 modification of the inclined plane. The 
 energy is transmitted by means of a 
 hollow cylinder (the female screw) of 
 equal diameter with the solid one (the 
 male screw), having a spiral channel cut 
 on its inner surface so as to correspond 
 exactly to the spiral ridge raised upon 
 the solid cylinder. Hence the one will 
 work within the other, and by turning 
 the convex cylinder, while the other 
 remains fixed, the former will pass 
 through the latter, and will advance 
 every revolution through a space equal 
 to the distance between two contiguous 
 turns of the thread As the screw is a 
 modificationof the inclined plane it is not 
 difficult to estimate the mechanical ad- 
 vantage obtained by it. If we suppose 
 the power to be applied to the circum- 
 ference of the screw, and to act in a 
 direction at right angles to the radius 
 of the cylinder and parallel to the base 
 of the inclined plane by which the screw 
 is supposed to be formed, then the power 
 will be to the resistance as the distance 
 between two contiguous threads to the 
 circumference of the cylinder. But as in 
 practice the screw is combined with the 
 lever and the power applied to the ex- 
 tremity of the lever, the law becomes: 
 The power is to the resistance as the 
 distance between two contiguous threads 
 to the circumference described by the 
 power. Hence the mechanical effect of 
 the screw is increased by lessening the 
 distance between the threads or making 
 them finer, or by lengthening the lever 
 to which the power is applied. The law, 
 however, is greatly modified by the fric- 
 tion, which is very great. The uses of 
 the screw are various. It is an invalu- 
 
 able contrivance for fine adjustments 
 such as are required in fine telescopes, 
 microscopes, micrometers, etc. It is 
 used for the application of great pres- 
 sure as in the screw-jack and screw- 
 press; as a borer in the gimlet; and in 
 the ordinary screw-nail we have it em- 
 ployed for fastening separate pieces of 
 material together. The differential screw 
 or Hunter’s screw, is formed of two 
 screws, a larger and a smaller, the former 
 being screwed internally to allow the 
 latter to screw into it; the pitch of the 
 
 two screws differs slightly, and for each 
 turn of the chief or larger screw the 
 progress of the point of the compound 
 screw is the difference of pitch. Greater 
 power is in this way attained without 
 the weakness due to a screw with fine 
 threads. See also Screw-propeller, Archi- 
 medean Screw, Endless Screw. 
 
 SCREW-PINE, the type of an order of 
 trees or bushes known asthePandanacere 
 or Screw-pine order. They are natives 
 of tropical regions, and abound in in- 
 sular situations, such as the Eastern 
 archipelago. They branch in a dichoto- 
 
 Screw-pine. 
 
 mous or forked manner, and are re- 
 markable for the peculiar roots they 
 send out from various parts of the stem. 
 These roots are called aerial or adven- 
 titious, and serve to support the plant. 
 The seeds are edible; and the flowers 
 of some species are fragrant. 
 
 SCREW-PROPELLER, an apparatus 
 which, being fitted to ships and driven 
 by steam, propels them through the 
 water, and which, in all its various 
 forms, is a modification of the common 
 screw. Originally the thread had the 
 form of a broad spiral plate, making 
 one convolution round the spindle or 
 shaft, but now it consists of several 
 distinct blades, forming portions of two, 
 three, or four threads, as illustrated by 
 a, b, c. Fig. 1, which give an idea of the 
 various forms of blades for different 
 sizes of propellers: a has a good shape 
 for the larger sizes; b, having three 
 blades, is successfully applied for twin 
 screw steamers, and is also useful with 
 two blades for medium sizes; c is suit- 
 able for small diameters and a moderate 
 number of revolutions per minute. 
 Either two or three blades of this shape 
 answer well for barges and towing pur- 
 poses. The usual position for the screw 
 propeller is immediately before the 
 stern-post, as shown in fig. 2, the shaft 
 passing parallel to the keel into the 
 engine-room, where it is set in rapid 
 
 Fig. 1.— Forms of screw-propeller. 
 
 motion by the steam-engines. This 
 rotary motion in the surrounding fluid. 
 
SCRIBES 
 
 SCULPTURE 
 
 which may be considered to be in a par- 
 tially inert condition, produces, accord- 
 ing to the well-known principle of the 
 screw, an onward motion of the vessel 
 more or less rapid, according to the 
 velocity of the shaft, the obliquity of the 
 blades, and the weight of the vessel. 
 In 1827 Mr. Wilson of Dunbar produced 
 
 Fig. 2.— Screw-propeller In position. 
 
 a screw-propeller which proved satis- 
 factory, but the successful introduction 
 .of the screw-propeller is due to Mr. F. P 
 Smith and to Ericsson, who both inde- 
 pendently and about the same time 
 (1838) secured patents. Numerous 
 modifications of the screw-propeller 
 have been proposed and adopted since 
 it was first introduced, and it has now 
 practically superseded the paddle-wheel 
 for sea-going vessels. 
 
 SCRIBES, among the Jews, were 
 officers of the law. There were civil and 
 ecclesiastical scribes. The former were 
 employed about any kind of civil writ- 
 ings or records. The latter studied, 
 transcribed, and explained the Holy 
 Scriptures. 
 
 SCROF'ULA, or SCROPHULA, a dis- 
 ease due to a deposit of tubercle in the 
 glandular and bony tissues, and in 
 reality a form of tuberculosis or con- 
 sumption. It generally shows itself by 
 hard tumors, of the glands in various 
 parts of the body, but particularly in 
 the neck, behind the ears, and under 
 the chin, which, after a time, suppurate, 
 and degenerate into ulcers, from which, 
 instead of pus, a white curdled matter is 
 discharged. The first appearance of the 
 disease is most usually between the third 
 and seventh year of the patient’s age; 
 but it may arise at any period between 
 this and the age of puberty; after which 
 it seldomPmakes its first attack. It is by 
 no means a contagious disease, but is of 
 a hereditary nature, and is often entailed 
 by parents on their children. It may, 
 however, remain dormant through life 
 and not show itself till the next genera- 
 tion. The disease generally goes on for 
 some years; and appearing at last to 
 have exhausted itself, all the ulcers heal 
 up, without being succeeded by any 
 fresh swellings, but leaving behind them 
 an ugly puckering of the skin, and a scar 
 of considerable extent. This is the most 
 mild form under which scrofula appears. 
 In more virulent cases the eyes and eye- 
 lids are inflamed, the joints become 
 affected, and caries of the bones super- 
 venes. Hectic fever at last arises, under 
 which the patient sinks; or the disease 
 ends in tuberculated lungs and pul- 
 monary consumption. Scrofula is also 
 called struma and king’s-evil 
 
 SCROLL, a very frequent ornament in 
 architecture, consisting of a band ar- 
 ranged in undulations or convolutions. 
 
 The name is also given to the volute of 
 the Ionic and Corinthian columns. 
 
 SCROPHULARIA'CEiE, a very large 
 natural order of herbaceous or shrubby 
 monopetalous exogens, inhabiting all 
 parts of the world except the coldest, 
 containing about 160 genera and 1900 
 species. They have opposite or alternate 
 entire toothed or cut leaves, and usually 
 four or five lobed irregular flowers with 
 didynamous stamens, placed in axillary 
 or terminal racemes; with a two-celled 
 ovary and albuminous seeds. Many of 
 the genera, such as the foxglove, cal- 
 ceolaria, veronica, mimulus, antir- 
 rhinum, pentstemon, etc., are valued by 
 gardners for their beautiful flowers. 
 
 SCULPTURE, is the art of imitating 
 living forms in solid substances. The 
 word means strictly, a cutting or carv- 
 ing in some hard material, as stone, 
 marble, ivory, or wood; but it is also 
 used to express the moulding of soft 
 substances, as clay or wax, and the 
 casting of metals or plaster. 
 
 In producing a work of sculpture two 
 processes are involved, ’‘modelling” 
 
 Assyrian.— Prom Nimroud, 930-920 B. O. 
 
 and “casting,” the former alone being 
 truly the work of the artist. For orna- 
 ment and figure the same method is 
 employed. In the former a ground of 
 clay is prepared, and upon it the lines of 
 the ornament are lightly sketched, 
 usually with a tool. These are then 
 clothed upon firstly with important 
 masses, then the connecting lines, and, 
 lastly, the minor detail, the whole being 
 afterward modelled to the forme de- 
 sired. For a head or bust a flat board, 
 set on a high stand, with a piece of wood 
 standing at right angles to it, is used. 
 Lead-piping is sometimes further em- 
 
 living model. For a full-length figure an 
 “armature” is prepared, consisting of 
 an iron passing through the center and 
 attached to which are other irons in the 
 case of statues, or of lead-piping for 
 statuettes. These are bent to the re- 
 quired positions, the whole when com- 
 plete representing in line the pose and 
 
 character of the intended figure. Upon 
 and around this framework the figure is 
 first roughly built up with clay, care 
 being taken to add just as much as is 
 requisite, and to follow the general 
 form and direction of the muscles. The 
 essential difference between modeling 
 and carving is that in the former 
 the artist works from within out- 
 ward by the additions of material, 
 while in the latter from without inward 
 by the taking away of material. The 
 sculptor’s work proper generally ends 
 with the completion of the clay model. 
 The next process is that of casting. 
 Plaster of Paris of the consistency of 
 thick cream is poured over the model 
 to the depth of from 2 to 3 inches, the 
 inner layer being colored. When this is 
 set, the clay is carefully removed, and 
 what is termed a “waste mould” is 
 formed. This is carefully washed and 
 when dry is then oiled. Into this mould 
 plaster of Paris is poured, and when 
 filled and set hard the waste mould is 
 chipped off. The plaster of Paris has 
 taken the place of the clay, and formed 
 what is called a “cast.” A head is 
 
 ployed to raise the height of this piece of 
 wood, and around this structure the 
 clay is roughly built up, a cylindrical 
 mass for the neck, and an egg-shaped 
 form for the head. Upon this latter the 
 position of the features is marked, and 
 the work carried on by reference to the 
 
 usually cast in halves, and a similar 
 treatment is adopted in the case of com- 
 plete figures. This is termed “piece 
 moulding.” Parts which project very 
 much are removed and cast separately, 
 being afterwards attached by means of 
 plaster of Paris. The reproduction of 
 
SCULPTURE 
 
 SCULPTURE 
 
 this plaster cast in marble or stone is a 
 mechanical operation, usually intrusted 
 to a skilled workman. To aid him he 
 employs a “pointing machine,” by 
 which he first finds out the distance of 
 any point on the cast from an imaginary 
 vertical plane placed in front, and into 
 the block of marble drills a hole whose 
 depth from the same plane equals this 
 
 this the mould is lined with wax and the 
 core inserted close up to the wax lining. 
 The wax is then melted out and the 
 molten metal poured into the mould to 
 take its place, the core being afterward 
 removed. The earliest records of sculp- 
 ture that we possess, exhibit the art in 
 complete bondage to religion. Thus the 
 sculptures of India and China are semi- 
 
 analogous to that obtained by the 
 Greeks in their treatment of Hercules, 
 but withal possessing no sense of ideal 
 beauty. 
 
 These early products of art, valuable 
 in themselves, are nevertheless chiefly 
 interesting as leading the way to the full 
 development of sculpture under the 
 Greeks. Greek sculpture, in its infancy, 
 is strongly stamped with orientd char- 
 acter, as may be seen by a careful ex- 
 amination of the reliefs from the temple 
 of Assos now in the Louvre, and the 
 metopes from Sellinus, casts of which 
 are in the British Museum. But from 
 the end of the 6th century b.c. the de- 
 velopment of Greek art was rapid and 
 continuous. Upheld on the one hand by 
 a noble mythology, that magnified with- 
 out distorting human attributes, and 
 supported on the other by an increasing 
 knowledge of nature, the ultimate per- 
 fection of Greek art became only a 
 question of time. It came to perfection 
 in Phidias, whose statues of Athene in 
 the Parthenon at Athens (b.c. 438), and 
 of Zeus in the temple at Olympia, mark 
 the period of the highest style of Greek 
 art. We have in the sculpture of this 
 period, the highest type of human 
 beauty joined to a god-like calm and 
 reticence of emotion. Examples of the 
 grand style of this epoch are the sculp- 
 tures of the Parthenon; the colossal 
 bronze head of Artemis in the British 
 museum; the Venus of Milo, in the 
 Louvre; and the exquisite relief repre- 
 senting the parting of Orpheus and 
 Eurydice, in the museum at Naples. 
 From the death of Alexander the Great, 
 B.c. 323, onward to the conquest by the 
 Romans, b.c. 146, the progress of Greek 
 sculpture is only a further, and often a 
 weaker, development of the same ideal. 
 The celebrated group of the Laocoon, 
 the head of the Dying Alexander, the 
 Dying Gladiator, and the Apollo Belve- 
 dere, are some of the works of this 
 epoch that are preserved to us. 
 
 The history of sculpture in Italy is 
 only a continuance of its story in Greece. 
 It was Greek art produced by Greek 
 workmen that adorned the palaces of 
 the emperors ; and the Roman sculptors, 
 in so far as they had any independent 
 existence, can only claim to have im- 
 poverished the ideal they received from 
 Greece. The special tendencies of Italian 
 sculpture may be said to have reached 
 their full expression in the work of 
 Michael Angelo (1475-1564). Here we 
 see all previous efforts to interpret pas- 
 sion and feeling summed up and con- 
 cluded. His figures are charged with all 
 the possibilities of human experience 
 and emotion. It was toward this com- 
 plete understanding of the resources of 
 
 E hysical expression that all Italian art 
 ad been tending, and it is only more 
 fully exhibited in Michael Angelo be- 
 cause be was the greatest master that 
 Italy produced. His works are the 
 statues in the chapel of the Medici at 
 Florence, the Captives in the Louvre, 
 the colossal David at Florence, the 
 Moses in Rome, and the Madonna in 
 Bruges. For a long period after Michael 
 Angelo, Italian sculptors were content 
 to imitate, and sometimes to exaggerate 
 his manner. American sculpture is 
 entirely due to Italian influence exer- 
 
 Eenaissance— 1, St. George, Donatello, Florence. 2, Moses, Michael Angelo. 3, Nymph, Goujon. 
 
 distance. Innumerable holes are thus 
 drilled, and the solid marble cut away 
 until the bottoms of all the holes are 
 reached. This gives the form roughly, 
 and the carver proceeds to copy from the 
 plaster cast, carrying on the work under 
 the supervision of the sculptor, who 
 rarely carves the work himself except in 
 
 St. Michael and satan.— Flaxman. 
 
 finishing touches. For casting in metal 
 a plaster mould is first made as already 
 described. Within this is fixed a rudely- 
 formed, solid, but removable mass called 
 a “core,” the space between it and the 
 surface of the mould being filled with 
 the molten metal. Another method for 
 smaller work is called “cire perdue.” In 
 
 barbaric and naturalistic; and in the 
 colossal figures of the rock-cut temples 
 of India there is a superadded symbol- 
 ism, which led to the most extravagant 
 deformities of the human figure. It is 
 to Egypt that we must turn for the first 
 signs of higher and more vital art. The 
 distinctive characteristics of Egyptian 
 sculpture are colossal size, stability, 
 and symmetry, the expression being 
 that of calm repose and solemnity, with 
 a suggestion of the supernatural. The 
 best period of Egyptian sculpture was 
 from 1450 to 1000b. c. Thebestperiod of 
 Assyrian sculpture as a style, is inferior 
 to that of Egypt. Its characteristics are 
 
 an intense and vigorous spirit of rep- 
 resentation without the least reference 
 to ideal beauty of any kind. Persian 
 sculpture (560-331 b.c.) differs but little 
 from Assyrian, and is usually included 
 with it. Roughly hewn and badly 
 modeled, the force of the animal forms 
 yet gives it a sense of the gigantic, 
 
SCULPT L' RED STONES 
 
 SEA-DRAGON 
 
 cised over Americans working in Italy. 
 Among American sculptors are Crawford, 
 Akers, Hiram Powers, W.W. Story, Wm. 
 Henry Rinehart, Miss Hosmer, Gould, 
 Ball, Couper, Saint Gaudens, MacMon- 
 nies, Partridge, Bartlet and Barnard. 
 
 ■ SCULPTURED STONES, a name spe- 
 cially given to certain ancient monu- 
 ments with sculptured ornaments or de- 
 vices, sometimes with inscriptions, found 
 in the British islands. Some of the in- 
 scriptions are in debased '^atin. A good 
 example of this class, called the Catt 
 Stane, is found in the parish of Kirk- 
 liston, near Edinburgh. It is a monolith, 
 composed of a large boulder of trap 
 about 4i feet in height, with an imper- 
 fect inscription, which marks it as a 
 sepulchral stone. The peculiarity of 
 these stones consists in certain symbols, 
 supposed to be of religious character, 
 but of which nothing certain is known, 
 and no plausible interpretation has been 
 given. 
 
 SCUPPERS, channels cut through the 
 sides of a ship at the edges of the deck 
 to carry w’ater off the deck into the sea. 
 
 SCURVY, a disease of a putrid nature 
 prevalent in cold and damp climates, 
 and which chiefly affects sailors, and such 
 as are deprived of fresh provisions and 
 a due quantity of vegetable food. It 
 seems to depend more on a defect of 
 nourishment than on a vitiated state; 
 and not to be of a contagious nature. 
 It comes on gradually, with heaviness, 
 weariness, and unwillingness to ntiove 
 about, together with dejection of spirits, 
 considerable loss of strength, and de- 
 bility. As it advances in its progress the 
 countenance becomes sallow and bloated 
 respiration is hurried on the least mo- 
 tion; the teeth become loose; the gums 
 are spongy; the breath is very offensive ; 
 livid spots appear on different parts of 
 the body; old wounds, which have long 
 been healed up, break out afresh ; severe 
 wandering pains are felt, particularly 
 by night; the skin is dry; the urine small 
 in quantity; and the pulse is small, fre- 
 quent, and toward the last intermitting; 
 but the intellect, for the most part, clear 
 and distinct. By an aggravation of the 
 symptoms the sufferer in its last stage 
 exhibits a most wretched appearance. 
 Scurvy as usually met with on shore is 
 unattended by any sjroptoms other 
 than slight blotches, with scaly erup- 
 tions on different parts of the body, and 
 a sponginess of the gums. In the cure, 
 as well as the prevention . of scurvy, 
 more is to be done by regimen than by 
 medicines, obviating as far as possible 
 the several remote causes of the disease ; 
 but particularly providing the patient 
 with a more wholesome diet, and a large 
 proportion of fresh vegetables. Both as 
 a preventive and as a curative agent 
 lime or lemon juice is of the first im- 
 portance in this disease. 
 
 SCUTARI, a town of Asiatic Turkey, 
 on the Bosphorus, opposite Constanti- 
 nople, of which it is a suburb. It is built 
 on an amphitheater of hills, and contains 
 numerous mosques, fine bazaars and 
 baths, barracks, and a seraglio of the 
 sultan. Behind the town is an immense 
 cemetary. Scutari contains granaries 
 and is a fruit market. The manufactures 
 are saddlery, silk, muslin, and cotton 
 stuffs. Pop. 60,000. 
 
 P. E.— 71 
 
 SCYLLA, a rock in the Strait of Mes- 
 sina, on the Italian side nearly opposite 
 the whirlpool of Charybdis. Various 
 legends were associated with Scylla and 
 Charybdis, which were esteemed highly 
 dangerous to navigators. 
 
 SCYM'NIDjE, a family of sharks, dis- 
 tinguished by the absence of an anal fin, 
 and by dorsals unfurnished with spines. 
 The lobes of the caudal fin or tail are 
 nearly equal, and the head is furnished 
 with a pair of small spiracles. The 
 Greenland shark is the best-known 
 species. 
 
 SCYTHE, an instrument used in mow- 
 ing or reaping, consisting of a long 
 curving blade with a sharp edge, made 
 fast at a proper angle to the lower end 
 of a more or less upright handle, which is 
 bent into a convenient form for swinging 
 the blade to advantage. Most scythes 
 have two short projecting handles fixed 
 to the prineipal handle, by which they 
 are held. The real line of the handle is 
 that which passes through both the 
 hands, and ends at the head of the blade. 
 This may be a straight line or a crooked 
 one, generally the latter, and by moving 
 the short handles up or down the main 
 handle, each mower can place them so 
 as best suits the natural size and posi- 
 tion of his body. For laying cut corn 
 evenly, a cradle, as it is called, may be 
 used. The cradle is a contrivance 
 somewhat resembling a rake with three 
 or four long teeth so fixed to the scythe 
 as to stretch the cut grain properly at 
 each sweep of the scythe. A species of 
 scythe which has been called the cradle- 
 scythe is regularly used with the cradle 
 for reaping in some localities. One form 
 of scythe has a short branching handle 
 somewhat in the shape of the letter Y 
 having two small handles fixed at the 
 extremities of the two branches at right 
 angles to the plane in which they lie. 
 The Hainault scythe is a scythe used 
 with only one hand, and is employed 
 when the corn is much laid and en- 
 tangled. The person has a hook in one 
 hand with which he collects a small 
 bundle of the straggling corn, and with 
 the scythe in the other hand cuts it. 
 
 SCYTHTANS, a name very vaguely 
 used by ancient writers. It was some- 
 times applied to all the nomadic tribes 
 which wandered over the regions to the 
 north of the Black and the Caspian seas, 
 and to the east of the latter. In the time 
 of the Roman empire the name Scythia 
 extended over Asia from the Volga to 
 the frontiers of India. The people of this 
 region, being little known, were the sub- 
 ject of numerous fables. 
 
 SEA. See Ocean. 
 
 SEA-ANEMONE, the popular name 
 given to a number of animals including 
 the genus Actinia and other genera. 
 They are among the most interesting 
 organisms met with on the sea-beach, 
 and in aquaria from a great attraction. 
 All sea-anemones, however varied in 
 coloration or form, present the essential 
 structure and appearance of a fleshy 
 cylinder, attached by its base to a rock 
 or stone, and presenting at its free ex- 
 tremity the mouth, surrounded by a 
 circlet of arms or tentacles. With these 
 tentacles, which may be very numerous, 
 in some cases exceeding 200 in number, 
 they seize and secure their food — small 
 
 Crustacea, molluscs, such as whelks, etc. 
 — which they paralyze by means of the 
 thread-cells common to them with all 
 Coslenterata. The mouth leads into a 
 stomach-sac, which, however, is im- 
 perfectly specialized, and is such that a 
 generalized idea of the structure of a 
 sea-anemone may be gained by suppos- 
 ing that the animal in transverse section 
 represents a double tube, the outer tube 
 corresponding to the body-walls, and 
 the inner tube to the stomach-sac. 
 When fully expanded the appearance 
 of the anemones in all their varieties of 
 color is exceedingly beautiful. But upon 
 the slightest .jou ch the tentacles can be 
 quickly rettSSIed within the mouth- 
 aperture, the fluids of the body are ex- 
 pelled by the mouth, and the animal, 
 from presenting the appearance of a 
 fully expanded flower, becames a coni- 
 
 Sea-anemones. 
 
 cal mass of jelly-like matter. Although 
 these forms are attached to rocks and 
 fixed objeets, they appear able to detach 
 themselves at will. They are, most of 
 them, dioecious, that is, having the 
 sexes situated in different individuals. 
 The young are developed within the 
 parent body, and appear in their em- 
 bryo-state as free swimming ciliated 
 bodies of an oval shape. The sea- 
 anemones resemble the Hydrse in their 
 marvelous powers of resisting injuries 
 and mutilation. Thus if a sea-anemone 
 be divided longitudinally, a new animal 
 will in due time be formed out of each 
 half. They appear singularly insuscept- 
 ible also to the action of hot or cold 
 water, and seem to be wonderfully long- 
 lived. They are eaten as food in Italy, 
 Greece, Provence, and on various other 
 coasts. 
 
 SEA-BATHING produces the stimu- 
 lating effects of the ordinary cold bath 
 with the additional stimulus due to the 
 salt, so that it acts as an invigorating 
 tonic. Persons who are anaemic — that 
 is of deficient quality of blood — and 
 those suffering from any internal com- 
 plaint ought to refrain from sea-bathing. 
 It has, however, been found very 
 salutary in several complaints, as dis- 
 eases of the glands of all kinds, and of 
 the skin in scrofula and a scrofulous 
 predisposition, exhausting sweats, and 
 tendency to catarrhs, chronic nervous 
 diseases, particularly hysteric attacks, 
 epilepsy, St Vitus’ dance; also some- 
 times in chronic rheumatism. 
 
 SEA-COW. See Manatee. 
 
 SEA-DACE. See Bass 
 
 SEA-DEVIL. See Engler. 
 
 SEA-DRAGON, a teleostean fish in- 
 cluded among the Lophobranchii. The 
 breast is very wide, and the large size 
 
SEA-EA(iLE 
 
 SEAL 
 
 of the pectoral fins, ■which form 'wing- 
 like structures, together with its general 
 appearance, have procured for this fish 
 its popular name. The sea-dragon 
 occurs in Javanese -waters. The dragon- 
 ets, fishes of the goby family, are also 
 kno'wn as sea-dragons. 
 
 SEA-EAGLE, a name applied to one 
 or two members of the eagle family; but 
 probably with most distinctive value to 
 the cinereous or white-tailed eagle or 
 erne found in all parts of Europe. It is 
 generally found inhabiting the sea- 
 coasts, and although living mainly upon 
 fish, yet makes inland journeys in search 
 of food, and seizes lambs, hares, and 
 other animals. The head-^cjlbvered with 
 long drooping feathers oiashy bro-wn 
 color, while the body is of a dark-brown 
 hue, streaked in some places with lighter 
 tints, and having the primary feathers 
 of the wing mostly black. The tail is 
 rounded, and is of white color in the 
 adult, but brown in the young bird. The 
 bird breeds in Shetland and in the 
 Hebrides. Its average size appears to be 
 about 3 feet in length, and from 6 to 
 7 feet in expanse of wings. The Ameri- 
 can baldheaded eagle from its frequent- 
 ing the sea-coasts is also named the 
 sea-eagle. See Eagle. 
 
 SEA-HARE, the name of a genus of 
 gasteropodous mollusca. These animals 
 are slug-like in appearance, and derive 
 their popular name from the prominent 
 character of the front pair of tentacles, 
 which somewhat resemble the ears of a 
 hare. The shell is either absent or is of 
 very rudimentary character, and is con- 
 cealed by the mantle. Four tentacles 
 exist, and the eyes are situated at the 
 
 Depilatory sea-hare. 
 
 base of the hinder tentacles. The sea- 
 hares are widely distributed throughout 
 most seas, and generally inhabit muddy 
 or sandy tracts. They emit a fluid of a 
 rich purple hue, which, like the ink of 
 the cuttle-fishes, has the property of 
 diffusing itself quickly throughout the 
 surrounding water. They are also known 
 to discharge an acrid fluid of milky ap- 
 pearance, which has an irritant effect 
 on the human skin. 
 
 SEA-HOG. See Porpoise. 
 
 SEA-HORSE. See Hippocampus. 
 
 SEAL, an engraved stamp bearing a 
 device or inscription pertaining to the 
 owner; also the impression of such a 
 stamp on a plastic substance as wax. 
 A seal upon a document was originally 
 a substitute for a signature ; a seal upon 
 a place of deposit answered the purpose 
 of security in a different manner from a 
 lock. The use of seals is of the highest 
 antiquity, and one of the earliest and 
 commonest forms is the signet-ring. In 
 Egypt impressions of seals were made in 
 fine clay, and attached to documents by 
 slips of papyri. The Romans used clay, 
 bees’-wax, and in the time of the empire 
 lead for taking impressions. In the 
 
 time of Constantine flat metal seals 
 called bullte were used. The metals used 
 were gold, silver, and lead, and the bullae 
 were attached to documents by silk or 
 woolen bands. The leaden seal was 
 adopted by the popes. The western 
 monarchs generally used bullae up to the 
 16th century. The use of bees’-wax was 
 introduced by the Normans; sealing- 
 wax was invented in the 17th century. 
 
 SEALj the name applied collectively 
 to certain genera of mammals. 
 
 The true or hair seals, have a body of 
 fish-like contour. They have no external 
 ear, and the hind limbs are permanently 
 stretched out behind the body and 
 parallel with the tail, a conformation 
 obviously inappropriate and unsuited 
 for supporting the body for locomotion 
 on land, but admirably adapted for 
 swimming. Five toes exist on each foot 
 and the middle digits of the hinder feet 
 are much shorter than the outer ones. 
 The toes, which are provided with claw- 
 like nails, are united by a web of skin, 
 and so form effective swimming paddles. 
 
 Marbled seal. 
 
 The fore limbs are mere flippers. The 
 dentition resembles that of carnivora 
 generally. The fur generally consists of 
 a dense thick under-fur and of an outer 
 coat of longer and coarser hairs. The 
 bones are of light spongy texture, and 
 beneath the skin is a thick layer of 
 blubber or fat. The eyes are large and 
 intelligent, and the sense of smell is also 
 well developed. The sense of touch ap- 
 pears to reside chiefly in the “whiskers” 
 of the face. The brain is of large size in 
 proportion to the body, and when do- 
 mesticated seals exhibit a very high 
 degreeof intelligence. Th^ are polygam- 
 ous, and seldom produce more than two 
 young at a birth, one being the common 
 number. They occur almost in all seas 
 except those of tropical regions. In the 
 northern regions they are more espe- 
 cially plentiful. They are largely hunted 
 for their skins, which are converted into 
 leather, and for their blubber, from 
 which a valuable oil is obtained. The 
 
 Hooded or crested s«al. 
 
 common seal is found widely throughout 
 the northern regions, and also around 
 the more northern coasts of Britain. 
 Its average length is from 3 to 6 feet, 
 
 and the fur is a grayish-brown, mottled 
 with black. It is very destructive to 
 most of the food fishes. It is much 
 attached to its young, and is strongly 
 attracted by musical sounds. It is never 
 met with in large numbers, or far away 
 from the land. Closely allied to the 
 common seal is the marbled seal met 
 with on some of the European coasts. 
 The harp seal, Greenland seal, saddle- 
 
 
 I 
 
 Sea-leopard. j 
 
 back, or atak, inhabits almost all parts of ' 
 the Arctic ocean. The males average 5 
 feet in length, are colored of a tawny 
 gray, and on the back there is a dark 
 mark resembling a harp or saddle in ■ 
 shape. In the spring, at breeding season, 
 these seals resort in immense herds to 
 the floes of the Arctic ocean, around 
 Jan Mayen island, where great numbers t 
 of them are killed annually by crews of i 
 the sealing vessels. The great seal, 
 which measures 8 or 10 feet in length, 
 occurs in Southern Greenland. The gray 
 seal attains a length of from 8 to 9 feet 
 and is found on the Scandinavian and 
 Icelandic coasts. The best known fur 
 seal is the northern fur-seal which breeds 
 
 Sea-lion. 
 
 in the islands of the Pribyloff group, off 
 the coast of Alaska, and at the Com- 
 mander islands in the Behring sea. The 
 outer and longer hairs of its fur are of 
 a grayish-brown color, the thicker under- 
 fur being darker or reddish-brown; and 
 it is this fine under-fur which, when 
 stripped of the coarse outer hairs and 
 dressed by the furrier, affords one of the 
 most beautiful and valued of the “seal- 
 skins” of commerce. 
 
 The fur-seal fishery is carried on 
 chiefly at the Pribyloff islands, thei 
 United States government having leased! 
 them to a company with the right oft 
 killing 100,000 young males per annum.! 
 The states claimed the right to entirely 
 prohibit sealing in Behring sea, a claim 
 which led to difficulties with Britain, 
 and the case was decided against them 
 by arbitration, except as regards the 
 
SfiALlJCG-WAX 
 
 SEBASTOPOL 
 
 three-mile limit. However, by mutual 
 arrangement, a close time is now in force 
 for the seals within a certain area, and 
 killing is entirely prohibited within 
 certain limits. 
 
 SEALING-WAX, a resinous prepara- 
 tion used for securing folded papers and 
 envelopes, and for receiving impressions 
 of seals set to instruments. Ordinary 
 red sealing-wax is made of pure bleached 
 ■lac, to which when melted are added 
 Venice turpentine and vermilion. In- 
 ferior qualities consist of a proportion of 
 common rosin and red-lead, and black 
 and other colors are produced by sub- 
 stituting appropriate pigments. Sealing 
 wax was invented in the 17th century. 
 
 SEA-LION. See Seal. 
 
 SEARCH-WARRANT, in law, a writ- 
 ten authority granted by a magistrate 
 to a legal officer to search a house or 
 other place for property alleged to have 
 been stolen and suspected to be secreted 
 in the place specified in the warrant. 
 Similar warrants are granted to search 
 for property or articles in respect of 
 which other offenses are committed, 
 such as base coin, coiners’ tools, ex- 
 plosives, liquors, etc., kept contrary to 
 law. 
 
 SEA-SERPENT, a marine serpentine 
 form of large size or sea-monster of 
 doubtful character, frequently alleged 
 to have been seen. From the numerous 
 substantiated accounts of animals of 
 one kind or another, but differing from 
 air described and known forms having 
 been seen, often close at hand, by the 
 crews and passengers of ships, and by 
 respectable observers on land, we are 
 shut up to the choice either of believing 
 that in every case the senses of the ob- 
 eervers must have been mistaken, or that 
 some living form must have been seen in 
 the majority of cases. Careful research, 
 and the weighing of the evidence pre- 
 sented in the accounts of “sea-serpent” 
 phenomena, show that the subject de- 
 mands, at least, investigation. 
 
 SEA-SICKNESS, the name given to 
 the nausea and other disagreeable sen- 
 sations produced on those unaccustonaed 
 to a sea-faring life by the rolling motion 
 of a vessel at sea. The exact causes and 
 etiology of this complaint are as yet 
 imperfectly understood. Some observers 
 have referred the malady to causes en- 
 tirely dependent upon the altered or 
 affectedfunctions of the nervous centers, 
 others to the regurgitation of the bile 
 into the stomach; and others, again, to 
 the irritation of the liver consequent on 
 the unusual movements of the body. 
 Probably all three views contain a cer- 
 tain amount of truth. The measures 
 which have been suggested for sea- 
 sickness are preventive or curative. 
 Preventive measures, so far as the con- 
 struction of the vessels themselves are 
 concerned have not proved of -much 
 practical utility. Preventive measures, 
 regarded from the patient’s point of 
 view, are practically limited to the 
 regulation of the diet, which for some 
 days previously to undertaking the 
 voyage should be plentiful, but of light 
 and nutritious character. The bowels 
 should not be constipated above all 
 things; and food should not be taken for 
 at least five or six hours before going 
 on board. A cup of strong coffee. 
 
 swallowed just before embarking, proves 
 beneficial to some as a nerve stimulant; 
 while others derive benefit from a nerve 
 sedative, such as bromide of potassium, 
 chloral, or opium; but these, especially 
 the two last, should never be used save 
 under strict medical direction. Nitrate 
 of amyl and cocaine have also been used. 
 Once on board the ship, a position as 
 near the center of the vessel as practic- 
 able is to be preferred, and the posture 
 in lying should be that on the back, with 
 the head and shoulders very slightly 
 elevated. With reference to curative 
 measures, during the attack of nausea 
 and vomiting, some derive benefit from 
 a bandage applied moderately tight 
 across the pit of the stomach; some from 
 small doses of brandy and ice; some 
 from saline effervescing drinks; and 
 some from frequent draughts of luke- 
 warm or even cold water. 
 
 SEA-SNAKE, a name common to a 
 family of snakes. These animals fre- 
 quent the seas of warm latitudes. They 
 are found off the coast of Africa, and are 
 plentiful in the Indian archipelago. 
 
 Sea-snake. 
 
 They are all, so far as known, exceed- 
 ingly venomous. They delight in calms, 
 where the ripple collects numerous fish 
 and medusse, on which they feed. One 
 species inhabits the Au.stralian seas, 
 and is as thick as a man’s thigh. 
 
 SEASONS, the four grand divisions of 
 the year — spring, summer, autumn, 
 winter. These have distinctive char- 
 acters, best seen in the temperate zones. 
 Within the tropics they are not so much 
 marked by differences of temperature as 
 by wetness and dryness, and are usually 
 distinguished as the wet and dry seasons. 
 Astronomically speaking, spring is from 
 the vernal equinox, when the sun enters 
 Aries, to the summer solstice ; summer is 
 from the summer solstice to the autum- 
 nal equinox; autumn is from the 
 autumnal equinox to the winter sol- 
 stice; winter is from the winter solstice 
 to the vernal equinox. The characters 
 of the seasons are reversed to inhabi- 
 tants of the southern hemisphere. See 
 Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter; 
 also Climate, Earth, Equinox, etc. 
 
 SEA-SPIDER, or SPIDER-CRAB, a 
 marine crab. Its body is somewhat 
 triangular in shape, and its legs are 
 slender and generally long. It lives in 
 deep water, and is seldom seen on the 
 shore. 
 
 SEA-SURGEON, or SURGEON-FISH, 
 
 so named from the presence of a sharp 
 spine on the side ana near the extremity 
 of the tail, bearing a resemblance to a 
 surgeon’s lancet It occurs on the At- 
 lantic coasts of South America and 
 Africa, and in the Caribbean seas. Its 
 average length is from 12 to 19 inches. 
 
 SEA-SWALLOW, a name given to the 
 common tern and also to the stormy 
 petrel. Which see. 
 
 SEA-TOAD, a name given to the great 
 spider-crab found on British coasts at 
 low-water mark. 
 
 SEATTLE (se-at'l), capital of King 
 CO., state of Washington, on Seattle bay, 
 east side of Puget sound, the largest- 
 city in the state and the seat of the state 
 university. It is a rapidly growing place, 
 with numerous industrial establish- 
 ments, such as shipyards, foundries, 
 machine-shops, saw-mills, breweries, 
 and an active trade in coal and lumber. 
 Pop. in 1909, estimated at 300,000. 
 
 SEA-URCHIN. See Echinus. 
 
 SEA-WATER, the salt-water of the 
 sea, or ocean. Sea-water contains 
 chlorides and sulphates of sodium 
 (chloride of sodium = common salt), 
 magnesium, and potassium, together 
 with bromides and carbonates, chiefly 
 of potassium and calcium. 
 
 SEA- WEED, any plant growing in the 
 sea; but the name is usually confined to 
 members of the natural order Algae. 
 
 SEBA'CEOUS GLANDS, small struc- 
 tures of glandular nature and sacculated 
 form which exist in the substance of 
 the corium, or deeper layer of the dermis 
 or true skin, and secrete a fatty matter. 
 They are very generally distributed over 
 the entire skin surface, but are most 
 numerous in the face and scalp. Those 
 of the nose are of large size, but the 
 largest in the body are those of the eye- 
 lids — the so-called Meibomian glands. 
 They appear to be absent from the skin 
 of the palms of the hands and soles of 
 the feet. Each sebaceous gland consists 
 essentially of a lobulated or sac-like 
 structure, with cells which secrete the 
 sebaceous or glutinous humors, and with 
 a single efferent duct; and these ducts 
 open into the hair-follicles, or sac-like 
 involutions of the skin which surround 
 and inclose the roots of hair, or simply 
 on the external surface bf the skin. The 
 functions of the sebaceous secretion are 
 chiefly those of keeping the skin moist. 
 
 SEBASTIAN, St., Christian martyr, 
 was born at Narbonne, and under 
 Diocletian was captain of the praetorian 
 guard at Rome. He rose to high favor at 
 court, but declared himself a Christian, 
 and refusing to abjure, he was tied to a 
 tree and pierced with arrows. A Chris- 
 tian woman named Irene, who came by 
 night to inter his body, finding signs of 
 life in him, took him home, and nursed 
 him till he recovered. He then presented 
 himself before Diocletian, and remon- 
 strated with him on his cruelty; where- 
 upon the emperor ordered him to be 
 beaten to death with rods (January 20, 
 288), and his body to be thrown into the 
 cloaca. His protection was invoked 
 against pestilence, and his martyrdom 
 has been a favorite subject with painters. 
 
 SEBAS'TOPOL, a Russian town and 
 naval station on the Black sea, in the 
 southwest of the Crimea. On the out- 
 break of the Crimean war, when the 
 population amounted to 43,000 it be- 
 came the point against which the opera- 
 tions of all the allies were mainly directed 
 and its siege forms one of the most re- 
 markable episodes in modern history. 
 Railway communication with Moscow 
 has greatly improved the trade. There 
 are many important public buildings, 
 and the monuments and relics of the 
 
SECESSIONIST 
 
 sedan 
 
 siege are interesting. Pop. 50,710, 
 largely military. 
 
 SECESSIONIST, one who maintains 
 the right of a state included under the 
 constitution of the United States to 
 withdraw from the Union and set up an 
 independent government ; specifically 
 one who took part or sympathized with 
 the inhabitants of the southern states 
 in their struggle, commencing in 1861, 
 to break away from union with the 
 northern states. 
 
 SECOND, in the measurement of time 
 and of angles, the 60th part of a minute; 
 that is, the second division next to the 
 hour or degree. 
 
 SECONDARY FORMATIONS, in geol- 
 ogy, the Mesozoic strata, midway, in 
 ascending order, between the Primary 
 or Palaeozoic below and the Tertiary or 
 Kainozoic above. They range from the 
 top of the Permian Formation to the base 
 of the Eocene, and include, therefore, 
 the Trias, Lias, Oolitic, and Cretaceous 
 Formations. 
 
 SECOND SIGHT, a Highland super- 
 stition, formerly very common, which 
 supposed certain persons endowed with 
 the power of seeing future or distant 
 events as if actually present. These 
 visions were believed to be not as a rule 
 voluntary, but were said to be rather 
 dreaded than otherwise by those who 
 were subject to them; yet it was also 
 believed that those who possessed this 
 gift might sometimes induce visions by 
 the performance of certain awful rites 
 The subject is treated at length in Mar- 
 tin’s Description of the Western Islands 
 of Scotland (1703); Macleod of Hamir’s 
 Treatise on the Second Sight (1763), and 
 is discussed also in Dr. Johnson’s Jour- 
 ney to the Hebrides (1775). 
 
 SECRETARY BIRD, the sole repre- 
 sentative of the genus Serpentarius order 
 Accipitres or birds of prey. It derives 
 its popular name from the peculiar 
 plumes of feathers which project from 
 the back and sides of its head, and give 
 it the appearance of having bundles of 
 pens stuck behind each ear It has very 
 long legs, and stands nearly 4 feet in 
 height. The wings are elongated, and 
 carry a blunt spur on the shoulder, the 
 third, fourth, and fifth quills being the 
 longest. The tail 's also very long, and 
 wedge-shaped, the two middle feathers 
 projecting beyond the others. The tibise 
 are feathered all the way down. The 
 skin around the eyes is destitute of 
 feathers. The general color is a slaty 
 gray, the pen-like feathers of the head 
 
 being black, as also are the feathers of 
 the tibiae and the primaries of the wings. 
 The secretary bird can fly with ease 
 when once it takes wing, but it seems to 
 prefer the ground. It is found over the 
 greater part of Africa, especially in the 
 south It derives its generic name from 
 its habits of destroying serpents, strik- 
 
 Secretary-bird. 
 
 ing them with its knobbed wings and 
 kicking forward at them with its feet 
 until they are stunned, and then swallow- 
 ing them. As a foe to venomous snakes 
 it is encouraged and protected in South 
 Africa, where it is frequently brought 
 up tame, 
 
 SECRETARY OF STATE. See State, 
 Department of. 
 
 SECRETION, in animal physiology, 
 is the separation of certain elements of 
 the blood, and their elaboration to form 
 special fluids, differing from the blood 
 itself or from any of its constituents, 
 as bile, saliva, mucus, urine, etc. Secre- 
 tion is performed by organs of various 
 form and structure, but the most general 
 are those called glands. Of these glands 
 the essentially active parts are the cells, 
 which elaborate from the blood a pe- 
 culiar fluid in each instance predeter- 
 mined by the inherent function of the 
 gland or organ of which the cells are in- 
 tegral parts. The chief general conditions 
 which variously affect secretion are the 
 quantity and quality of the blood tra- 
 versing the gland and the influence of 
 the nervous system. Mental conditions 
 alone, without material stimuli, will 
 excite or suppress secretion; but this is a 
 branch of the subject which is yet ill- 
 understood. Animal secretions have 
 been arranged into — (1) Exhalations, 
 which are either external, as those from 
 the skin and mucous membrane, or in- 
 ternal, as those from the surfaces of the 
 closed cavities of the body and from the 
 lungs; (2) Follicular secretions, which 
 are divided into mucous and cutaneous; 
 and (3) Glandular secretions, such as 
 milk, bile, urine, saliva, tears, etc. 
 
 Secretion, in vegetable physiology, is 
 the separation of certain elements from 
 the sap, and their elaboration by par- 
 ticular organs. These secretions are ex- 
 ceedingly numerous, and constitute the 
 great bulk of the solid parts of plants. 
 They have been divided into (1) General 
 or nutritious secretions, the component 
 parts of which are gum, sugar, starch, 
 lignin, albumen, and gluten; and (2) 
 Special or non-assimilable secretions, 
 wnich may be arranged under the heads 
 of acids, alkalies, neutral principles. 
 
 resinous principles, coloring matters,'^ 
 milks, oils, etc. 
 
 SECULARISM, a philosophy of life, 
 the gist of which consists in the advo- 
 cacy of free thought and the assertion 
 of some corollaries derived from this - 
 leading tenet. It is not atheistic, inas- 
 much as it is no tenet of that system 
 either to affirm or deny the existence of > 
 God; nor does it deny the truth of 
 Christianity, for that is none of its busi- 
 ness any more than it is to affirm or deny 
 some scientific theory. Secularism in 
 England is an offshoot of the socialism 
 of Robert Owen, but its immediate 
 founder is George Jacob Holyoake, a 
 native of Birmingham, where he was 
 born in 1817, and began to promulgate 
 his views about 1846. It is to him that 
 British legislation is chiefly indebted 
 for the Evidence Amendment Act, which 
 legalized affirmations in lieu of oaths. 
 Mr. Charles Bradlaugh, Mr. Holyoake’s 
 successor in the leadership of the Eng- 
 lish secularists, carried this question a 
 step further by his refusal to take the 
 parliamentary oath and by the act of 
 1888 allowing affirmation instead. 
 
 SECUNDERABAD', or SIKANDA- 
 RABAD (Alexander’s Town), British 
 military cantonment in India, in the 
 Nizam’s Dominion, 6 miles northeast 
 of Hyderabad. It is the largest military 
 station in India, covering a total area of 
 19 sq. miles, including many inter- 
 spersed villages, and forms the head- 
 quarters of the Hyderabad subsidiary 
 force, which constitutes a division of the 
 Indian army. Pop. 74,000. 
 
 SEDA'LIA, the capital of Pettis co., 
 Missouri, 189 miles west of St. Louis, is 
 a railroad center and the seat of the 
 machine shops ,and carriage factories 
 of two railroad companies. Pop. 17,160. 
 
 SEDAN', Sedan chair, a covered chair 
 for carrying one person, borne on poles 
 
 Sedan chair, time of George II, (Shut). 
 
 Sedan. (Open). 
 
 by two men, and differing from the litter 
 or palanquin in that the traveler was 
 carried in a sitting posture. It is said tO 
 
SEDATIVES 
 
 SEINE 
 
 
 /r have taken its name from the town of 
 Sedan in France, It was introduced into 
 England in 1581, and was very fashion- 
 able during the reigns of Anne and the 
 early Georges, but disappeared at the 
 beginning of the 19th century, on the 
 introduction of the cab. 
 
 SED'ATIVES, medicines that moder- 
 ate the excessive action of an organ or 
 organic system. Digitalis, for example, 
 is a sedative of the action of the heart 
 and the circulatory system; and gum- 
 resins are sedatives that act on the 
 nervous system. Besides these aconite, 
 chloroform, conium, carbonic acid, and 
 prussic acid are among the principal 
 sedatives. 
 
 SEDGE, an extensive genus of grass- 
 Jike plants, containing thousands of 
 species, mostly inhabiting the northern 
 and temperate parts of the globe. The 
 greater proportion of the species are 
 marsh plants. The stems are usually 
 triangular, without joints. The sedges 
 in general are but of little utility toman. 
 They furnish coarse fodder, which is 
 ejected by most of the domestic quad- 
 rupeds. The decomposed roots and 
 leaves contribute largely to turn the 
 soil of marshes into peat. 
 
 SEDGE-WARBLER, a species of in- 
 sessorial bird of the warbler family. 
 
 which frequents the sedgy banks of rivers, 
 visiting Britain about the middle of 
 April and migrating in September. 
 
 SEDGWICK, John, American soldier, 
 was born in Cornwall, Conn., in 1813; 
 died near Spottsylvania Courthouse, 
 Virginia, May 9, 1864. He took part in 
 the Mexican war, and at the beginning 
 of the civil war was lieutenant-colonel 
 of the second cavalry. In August, 1861, 
 Sedgwick was commissioned brigadier- 
 general of volunteers, and assigned to 
 the army of the Potomac. At Antietam 
 Sedgwick w'as wounded, but would not 
 allow himself to be taken from the field. 
 While directing the gunners in placing 
 some pieces of artillery in position in 
 front of Spottsylvania Courthouse, he 
 was shot in the head and instantly 
 expired. 
 
 SEDITION, a term including all 
 offenses against the crown and govern- 
 ment which do not amount to treason, 
 and are not capital, as seditious libels, 
 seditious meetings, seditious conspira- 
 cies. The offenses classed under the 
 head of sedition are of the same general 
 character with those called treason, but 
 are without the overt acts which are 
 essential to the latter. 
 
 SEDUCTION, in law, the act of per 
 
 suading a female, by flattery or decep- 
 tion, to surrender her chastity. English 
 law does not give a right of action either 
 to the woman seduced or to her parents 
 or guardians: it only gives a right of 
 action for seduction as occasioning loss 
 of service; but the word “service” is in- 
 terpreted with the greatest liberality, 
 and damages are estimated not only 
 with reference to the loss of service, 
 but also to the distress and dishonor 
 brought upon the woman’s family by 
 her seducer. By the law of Scotland an 
 action for seduction is competent to a 
 husband against the seducer of his wife, 
 and to an unmarried woman against her 
 own seducer, but she must show that 
 deceit was used toward her. In neither 
 country is seduction a criminal offense. 
 The statutory rule which prevails widely 
 in the United States rests both the right 
 and remedy where the wrong is in- 
 flicted, in the family and parental 
 relations. The action is therefore 
 brought in the case of an unmarried 
 woman by the parent (or guardian) as 
 the head of the family, and in the case 
 of a married woman by the husband. 
 
 SEE, a word derived (through the 
 French) from the Latin sedes, a seat, 
 and properly applied to the seat or 
 throne of a bishop, but more generally 
 employed as the designation of the city 
 in which a bishop has his residence, and 
 frequently as that of the jurisdiction 
 of a bishop, that is, as the equivalent 
 of diocese. 
 
 SEED, the impregnated ovule of a 
 plant. It consists essentially of two 
 parts, namely, the nucleus or kernel, 
 and the integuments. The latter consists 
 of two seed-coats — the outer named the 
 episperm or testa, the inner the tegmen 
 or endopleura ; and the two together are 
 sometimes termed the sperm oderm. 
 The testa of some seeds is furnished with 
 hair, which cover the entire surface, as 
 in various species of Gossypium, where 
 they constitute the material called 
 cotton; or they may be confined to cer- 
 tain points of the surface, as in the 
 willow, Epilobium, etc.; while in the 
 pine the testa forms a wing. On the 
 
 12 3 4 
 
 6 « ? 8 
 
 Various forms of seeds magnified. 
 
 I, Eschscholtzla californlca. 2, Corn blue- 
 bottle. 3, Oxalls rosea. 4. Opium poppy. 5, 
 5, Stellaria media. 6, Sweet-william. 7, Fox- 
 glove. 8, Saponarla calabrica. 
 
 outside of the integument of the seed 
 there is sometimes an additional partial 
 covering, which has received the name of 
 aril, and in the nutmeg forms the mace. 
 The nucleus or kernel of the seed is the 
 fully developed central portion of the 
 ovule. It consists either of the embryo 
 alone, as in the wallflower, or of the 
 embryo along with a separate deposit of 
 nourishing matter called albumen, as in 
 the cocoanut and wheat The embryo is 
 
 the young plant contained in the seed, 
 and is the part to the development of 
 which all the reproductive organs con- 
 tribute. It consists of a general axis, 
 one part of which is destined to form 
 the root, the other to form the stem. The 
 axial portion is provided with fleshy 
 organs called cotyledons or seed leaves, 
 which serve to nurse the young plant be- 
 fore the appearance of the true leaves. 
 Plants possessing one cotyledon are 
 termed monocotyledonous, those hav- 
 ing two are denominated dicotyledonous 
 and plants having only a cellular em- 
 bryo, as in the cryptogamic or flowerless 
 plants, are called acotyledonous. When 
 seeds are contained in an ovary, as is 
 usually the case, the plants are called 
 angiospermous; when the seeds are not 
 contained in a true ovary, with a style 
 or stigma, the plants are called gynmos- 
 permous, as conifers. 
 
 SE-GAN FOO, the capital of the 
 province of Shen-se, in the northwest of 
 China. It was long the capital of the 
 empire, and is still of great importance’ 
 silk, tea, and sugar being the principal 
 articles of commerce. Pop. estimated 
 at about 1,000,000. 
 
 SEGO'VIA, a town in Spain, capital of 
 the province of the same name, on a 
 lofty rock, washed by the Eresma and 
 Clamores, 43 miles northwest of Madrid. 
 — The province, area 2713 sq. miles, is 
 watered by streams which rise in the 
 Guadarrama range and flow northward 
 to the Douro. The inhabitants are for 
 the most part employed in agricultural 
 and pastoral pursuits. Pop. 160,111. 
 
 SEIDLITZ POWDERS, an aperient 
 medicine, named after the Seidlitz spa 
 in Bohemia. These powders are usually 
 put up in a blue and a white paper, the 
 blue containing tartrate of soda and 
 potash (Rochelle salt) with bicarbonate 
 of soda, and the white tartaric acid. 
 The former is dissolved in half a tumbler 
 of water, and the acid powder is then 
 added, which produces effervescence, 
 and the draught is taken while the 
 effervescence is going on. 
 
 SEINE (sen or san), a river in France, 
 which rises on the Plateau de Langres, 
 dep. of Cote-d’Or, 20 miles northwest 
 of Dijon. It flows generally in a north- 
 west direction; receives on the right the 
 Aube, Marne, and Oise, and on the left 
 the Yonne and Eure; passes the towns 
 of Chatillon, Troyes, Corbeil, Paris, St. 
 Denis, St. Germain, Poissy, Mantes, 
 Elboeuf, Rouen, Quilleboeuf, and, after 
 a somewhat tortuous course, falls into 
 the English channel between Honfleur 
 and Havre. Its total length is 480 miles, 
 and 250 miles in a direct line; and its 
 basin has an area of about 30,000 sq. 
 miles. 
 
 SEINE, a department in France, com- 
 pletely inclosed by the department of 
 Seine-et-Oise, and at once the smallest 
 and most populous of the French de- 
 partments, including as it does the city 
 of Paris. Area, 185 sq. miles; pop. 3,669,- 
 930. The department has 3 arrondisse- 
 ments (Paris, St. Denis, and Sceaux), 28 
 cantons (20 in Paris), and forms the 
 archiepiscopal diocese of Paris 
 
 SEINE Sean (sen), a large net for 
 catching fish, buoyed up and weighted 
 so as to float perpendicularly, the fish 
 being enclosed and caught by bringing 
 
SEINE-ET-MARNE 
 
 SEMITIC LANGUAGES 
 
 the ends of the net together by means 
 of ropes 
 
 SEINE-ET-MARNE (sen-e-marn), a 
 French department in the basin of the 
 Seine and Marne, east of Seine-et-Oise. 
 Area, 2215 sq. miles; pop. 355,136. The 
 capital is Melum. 
 
 SEINE-ET-OISE (sen-e-waz),a French 
 department, in the basin of the Seine 
 and Oise, inclosing the department of 
 Seine, Area, 2163 sq. miles; pop. 707,325. 
 The capital is Versailles. 
 
 SEINE-INFERIEURE (sen-an-fa-ri- 
 eur), a maritime department of France, 
 on the English channel, mostly n. of the 
 estuary of the Seine. Area, 2330 sq. 
 miles; pop. 833,386. The capital is 
 Rouen. 
 
 SEISMOLOGY (sis-mol'o-ji), the sci- 
 ence which treats of volcanoes and 
 earthquakes. 
 
 SEISMOM'ETER, an instrument for 
 measuring the force and direction of 
 earthquakes and other earth move- 
 ments. It records both the horizontal 
 and vertical movements by means of an 
 index, the record being traced on smoked 
 glass. There are various forms of seis- 
 mometer or seismograph. One which is 
 used in the observatory on Mount 
 Vesuvius consists of a delicate electric 
 apparatus, which is set to work by the 
 agitation or change of level of a iner- 
 curial column, which records the time 
 of the first shock, the interval between 
 the shocks, and the duration of each; 
 their nature, whether vertical or hori- 
 zontal, the maximum intensity; and in 
 the case of horizontal shocks the direc- 
 tion is also given. 
 
 SEJA'NUS, Aelius, the son of a Roman 
 knight, and noted as the favorite of 
 Tiberius, was born as Vulsinii in Etruria. 
 He contrived to remove all the members 
 of the imperial family who stood be- 
 tween him and power, but having' 
 awakened the suspicion of Tiberius, he 
 was executed in a.d. 31. 
 
 SELECTMEN, in New England, of- 
 ficers chosen annually to manage the 
 affairs of a town, provide for the poor, 
 etc. A town has usually from three to 
 seven selectmen, who constitute a kind 
 of executive authority. 
 
 SELE'NIUM, a rare chemical element 
 discovered by Berzelius in 1817 in the 
 refuse of a sulphuric acid manufactory 
 near Fahlun, in Sweden. It occurs in 
 several minerals, chiefly in combination 
 with copper, lead, mercury, and silver, 
 and is closely related, in its general 
 chemical deportment to sulphur and 
 tellurium, these three elements forming 
 a group which is characterized by cer- 
 tain well-marked general properties. 
 Selenium takes fire when heated to a 
 tolerably high temperature in air or in 
 oxygen, burning with a blue flame, and 
 with the production of the dioxide. 
 With hydrogen selenium forms the very 
 disagreeably smelling gas seleniuretted 
 hydrogen, the analo^e of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. To selenium the symbol Se 
 and the atomic weight 96.5 are given. 
 
 SELIM I., Sultan of Turkey, was the 
 son of Bajazet II., born in 1467, died 
 1520. Selim was succeeded on the 
 throne by Solyman I. 
 
 SELIM III., Sultan of Turkey, son of 
 Mustapha III., was born 1761, assassi- 
 nated 1808, He succeeded his uncle 
 
 Adbul-Hamed in 1789, and attempted 
 reforms in his government after Euro- 
 pean methods, but wars with Russia, 
 Austria, etc., prevented their ,being 
 carried out. 
 
 SELI'NUS, one of the most important 
 of the Greek colonies in Sicily, founded 
 probably about 628 b.c. on the south- 
 western coast of that island. 
 
 SELKIRK, or SELCRAIG, Alexander, 
 the prototype of “Robinson Crusoe,” 
 was born in Largo, Fifeshire, in 1676; 
 died on board the royal ship Weymouth, 
 1723. He took part in bucaneering ex- 
 peditions in the South seas, and in con- 
 sequence of a quarrel with his captain 
 he was put ashore, at his own request, on 
 the island of Juan Fernandez. There 
 he lived alone for four years and four 
 months, when he was taken off by the 
 captain of a privateer. He returned 
 home in 1712, and his adventures be- 
 came known to the public. Defoe’s 
 Robinson Crusoe appeared in 1719, but 
 Crusoe’s experiences have but little in 
 common with those of Selkirk. Selkirk 
 afterward rose to the rank of lieutenant 
 in the navy. A monument was erected 
 to him in his native town in 1885. 
 
 SELMA, a city in Dallas co., Alabama, 
 on the Alabama river, 93 miles below 
 Montgomery. It has mills and various 
 manufactories. During the civil war it 
 an important military station, and was 
 taken by the federals in April, 1865. 
 Pop. 10,362. 
 
 SELLERS (or Seltzer) WATER, a 
 mineral water found naturally in the 
 village of Niederselters, in the German 
 province of Hesse-Nassau, and else- 
 where, but also largely manufactured. 
 Its chief ingredients are carbonic acid, 
 carbonate of soda, and common salt. 
 It acts as a mild stimulant of the mu- 
 cous membranes, and as a diuretic. 
 
 SEM'APHORE, a term originally ap- 
 plied to telegraphic or signalling ma- 
 chines the action of which depended 
 upon the motion of arms round pivots 
 placed at or near their extremities. 
 Many kinds of semaphores were in use 
 before the invention of the electric 
 telegraph, and a simple form is still em- 
 ployed on railways to regulate traffic at 
 or near stations. 
 
 SEMTBREVE, in music, a note of 
 half the duration or time of the breve. 
 The semibreve is the measure note by 
 which all others are now regulated. 
 It is equivalent in time to two minims, 
 or four crotchets, or eight quavers, or 
 sixteen semiquavers, or thirty-two demi- 
 semiquavers. See Music. 
 
 SEMTCOLON, in grammar and punc- 
 tuation, the point (;), the mark of a 
 pause to be observed in reading or 
 speaking, of less duration than the colon, 
 and more than that of the comma. It is 
 used to distinguish the conjunct mem- 
 bers of a sentence. 
 
 SEM'INOLES, a tribe of North Ameri- 
 can Indians, an offshoot from the Choc- 
 taw Muskogees. They separated from 
 the confederation of the Creeks, settled 
 in Florida 1750 under the name of 
 Seminoles, that is, fugitives. They were 
 subsequently joined by other Indians 
 as well as negroes, and in 1822 they 
 numbered 3900 souls. As a punish- 
 ment for their continual plundering 
 and murdering of the white settlers, 
 
 General Jackson was sent against them 
 in 1818. They latterly sold their lands 
 and agreed to be transferred beyond the 
 Mississippi, but refused to implement 
 their agreement, and under their chief 
 Osceola carried on a long and deter- 
 mined resistance. At last they were 
 finally driven from the Everglade mo- 
 rasses by United States troops, and 
 obliged to succumb in 1842, when all but 
 a scanty remnant were transferred to 
 the Indian territory, where they now 
 form an industrious community. 
 
 SEMIPALATINSK, or SEMIPOLAT- 
 INSK, a town of Central Asia, on the 
 Irtish. It consists chiefly of wooden 
 buildings facing the river, and carries on 
 a considerable trade with the Kirghis 
 and with Tashkend, Khokand, Bok- 
 hara, and Kashgar. Pop. 26,353. — The 
 province of Semipalatinsk has an area 
 of 198,192 sq. miles, and a population of 
 685,197, chiefly Kirghiz, Cossacks, etc. 
 It is mountainous in the southeast, con- 
 sists of steppe land in the northwest, and 
 is one of the warmest of Russian Asia in 
 summer, though the winter is rather 
 extreme. The chief occupation of the 
 people is cattle-rearing. 
 
 SEMIQUAVER, in music, a note half 
 the length of the quaver. See Music. 
 
 SEMIR'AMIS, a queen of Assyria, 
 whose history is enveloped in fable. As 
 the story goes, she was a daughter of 
 the fish-goddess Derceto of Ascalon, in 
 Syria, by a Syrian youth. Being ex- 
 posed by her mother, she was miracul- 
 ously fed by doves until discovered by 
 the chief of the royal shepherds, who 
 adopted her. Attracted by her beauty, 
 Onnes, governor of Nineveh, married 
 her. She accompanied him to the siege 
 of Bactra, where, by her advice, she 
 assisted the king’s operations. She be- 
 came endeared to Ninus, the founder 
 of Nineveh (about b.c. 2182), but Onnus 
 refused to yieldher,and beingthreatened 
 by Ninus, hanged himself. Ninus re- 
 signed the crown to Semiramis, and had 
 her proclaimed queen of Assyria. She 
 built Babylon, and rendered it the 
 mightiest city in the world. She was 
 distinguished as a warrior, and con- 
 quered many of the adjacent countries. 
 Having been completely defeated on 
 the Indus, she was either killed or com- 
 pelled to abdicate by her son Ninyas, 
 after reigning forty-two years. Accord- 
 ing to popular legend she disappeared 
 or was changed into a dove, and was 
 worshiped as a divinity. Her whole 
 history resembles an oriental tale, and 
 even her existence has been questioned. 
 She is probably a mythological being 
 corresponding to Astrate, or the Greek 
 .A.phrodite. 
 
 SEMITTC LANGUAGES, the lan- 
 guages belonging to the Semites or 
 Semitic peoples, that is those regarded as 
 descendants of Shem. The Semitic lan- 
 guages form an important lin^istic 
 family, w'hich is usually divided into a 
 northern and a southern section. To 
 the northern belong the ancient dialects 
 of .\ssyria and Babylonia (recovered by 
 means of the cuneiform inscriptions); 
 the Hebrew, 'W'ith the Samaritan and 
 Moabitic; the Phoenician and Carthagi- 
 nian; and lastly the Aramaic, ■which in- 
 cludes the Chaldee and the Syriac. The 
 northern Semitic languages are now 
 
SEMMES 
 
 SENNA 
 
 almost entirely extinct as spoken lan- 
 guages, though Hebrew is to some ex- 
 tent still used in writing. The most, im- 
 portant of the south Semitic tongues, 
 and the only one now in extensive use, 
 is the Arabic, which as a spoken lan- 
 guage may be divided into the four dia- 
 lects of Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and Bar- 
 bary. To this branch also belong the 
 Mimyaritic, fonnerly spoken in part of 
 Arabia, the Ethiopic, or ancient eccle- 
 siastical language of Abyssinia, and the 
 Amharic and other modern dialects of 
 the same country. The most prominent 
 characteristic of the Semitic tongues is 
 the triliteralism of their roots, that is, 
 the peculiarity that their roots regularly 
 consist of three consonants which always 
 remain unchanged, the various words 
 and word forms being produced by the 
 insertion of vowels between the con- 
 sonants of the root. Another peculiarity 
 is the absence of compound words. 
 
 SEMMES, Raphael, American naval 
 officer, born 1809, died 1877. He entered 
 the navy in 1832, having previously 
 studied law; took part in the Mexican 
 war, and on the outbreak of the civil 
 war joined the confederate service, and 
 gained much prominence from his feats 
 in command of the Sumter and the 
 Alabama. He was imprisoned after the 
 war, but gained his liberty at the am- 
 nesty. The rest of his life was devoted 
 to law practice. He was the author of 
 Service Afloat and Ashore, Cruise of the 
 Alabama and Sumter, etc. 
 
 SENATE, originally the supreme legis- 
 lative body of ancient Rome, first in- 
 stituted according to tradition by 
 Romulus. Tarquinius Priscus is said to 
 have increased the number of members 
 from 100 to 300, thus making 100 rep- 
 resentatives for each of the Patrician 
 tribes. Under the republic the consuls, 
 consular tribunes, and later the censors, 
 had the power of choosing the senators; 
 but they were restricted to those who 
 had previously held magistracies, and 
 as the magistrates were chosen by popu- 
 lar election the senate was ultimately a 
 representative body Curule magis- 
 trates and quaestors had a seat ex 
 officio in the senate, and a right to speak, 
 but not to vote. In the administration 
 of affairs the senate was supreme, and 
 during national crises could invest the 
 consuls with absolute and dictatorial 
 authority. A decree of the senate was 
 called senatus consultum. The number 
 of senators necessary to form a quorum 
 during the republic is uncertain. After 
 this body had remained for several 
 centuries at 300, their number was raised 
 by Sulla to 600, he having added 300 
 equites to the senate. Julius Csesar 
 made a further increase of 300, and at 
 one time there were 1000, but Augustus 
 lowered their number to 600, and re- 
 quired the presence of 400 to constitute 
 a full assembly. He afterward further 
 reduced them, and later 70 members 
 were considered sufficient. The majority 
 of votes always decided a question. 
 Latterly, under the republic, the trib- 
 unes of the people, could veto every 
 proposition before the senate. Under 
 the emperors the senate gradually lost 
 its political consideration; finally it 
 often aceepted and passed the imperial 
 decrees without deliberation, In modern 
 
 times the term is applied to the upper 
 or less numerous branch of a legislature 
 in various countries, as in France, in the 
 United States, in most of the separate 
 states of the Union, and in some of the 
 Swiss cantons. It is also used to desig- 
 nate the governing body of certain 
 universities. 
 
 SEN'ECA, a lake in the western part 
 of New York state, 25 miles s. of Lake 
 Ontario, into which its waters flow. 
 It is about 37 miles long, from 2 to 4 
 miles broad, and 630 feet deep. It 
 communicates with the Erie canal, and 
 steamers ply upon it. 
 
 SEN'ECA, Lucius Annaeus, called 
 Senaca the philosopher, son of the fol- 
 lowing, was born at Corduba (Cordova) 
 A.D. 3. The good government of the first 
 years of Nero’s reign was largely due to 
 Seneca (though Seneca had consented 
 to the assassination of Nero’s mother), 
 but he lost his influence, and being 
 accused of complicity in the conspiracy 
 of Piso he was forced to commit suicide 
 
 (A.D. 66). 
 
 SENECA, Marcus Annaeus, rhetorician 
 and the father of the preceding, was a 
 native of Corduba, in Spain, and was 
 born about 61 b.c. He died at Rome 
 toward the close of the reign of Tiberius 
 (a.d. 37). He was the author of a col- 
 lection of extracts showing the treat- 
 ment of school themes by contemporary 
 rhetoricians, but of no importance as 
 liters tur© 
 
 SENECAMNDIANS, a tribe originally 
 inhabiting the western part of New York 
 state, and belonging to the Six Nations. 
 They number upward of 3000 on New 
 York reservations, and a small band are 
 in the Indian territory. 
 
 SEN'EFELDER, Aloys, the inventor 
 of lithography, born at Prague 1771, 
 died at Munich 1834. 
 
 SEN'ECA, or SEN'EKA, a plant com- 
 mon in the United States. It has a 
 woody, branched, contorted root, about 
 i inch in diameter, and covered with 
 ash-colored bark. This has been cele- 
 
 brated as a cure for the bite of the 
 rattlesnake. Medically it is considered 
 stimulating, expectorant, and diuretic, 
 and is now almost exclusively used in 
 cough mixtures, being similar in its 
 effect to squill. 
 
 SEN'EGAL, a river of Western Africa, 
 which rises in the interior not far from 
 some of the Niger sources, and after a 
 course of some 1000 miles falls into the 
 Atlantic near lat. 16° n. It is navigable 
 for about 700 miles from its mouth, as 
 far as the cataracts of Felou, beyond 
 
 which its capabilities have not been 
 ascertained. 
 
 SENEGAL, a French colonial de- 
 pendency in West Africa, in Senegam- 
 bia, comprising the island and town of 
 St. Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal, 
 several forts along the banks of that 
 river, the island of Goree, Albuda on the 
 Gambia, and other stations south of 
 Cape Verd. Area (including dependen- 
 cies), 140,000 sq. miles. Pop. 2,000,000. 
 
 SENEGAM'BIA, an extensive region 
 of Western Africa, comprising the coun- 
 tries between lat. 8° and 17° n.; Ion. 
 4° and 17° 30' w.; bounded n. by the 
 Sahara, e. by Soudan, s. by Guinea, and 
 w. by the Atlantic. Rice, rnaize, and 
 other grains, with bananas, manioc, and 
 yams are grown, while the orange, 
 citron, and other fruits introduced by 
 the Portuguese are now extensively 
 cultivated on the hills. Wild animals 
 comprise the elephant, hippopotamus, 
 monkeys, antelopes, gazelles, lion, pan- 
 ther, leopard, hyenas, jackal, crocodile, 
 etc. The climate is intensely hot, and 
 very unhealthy for Europeans. The 
 region may be divided into French 
 Senegambia (Senegal and territories pro- 
 tected or under French influence); Brit- 
 ish Senegambia (Sierra Leona, Gambia, 
 etc.); Portuguese Senegambia (Bissao, 
 Casamanza, etc.); and Liberia. The 
 total population of Senegambia is esti- 
 mated at 12,000,000, and its area at 
 perhaps 700,000 sq. miles. 
 
 SENILITY, in man special physiolo- 
 gical conditions and pathological changes 
 mark the decline of life and the approach 
 of old age. Death never results from 
 old age. In all cases some lesion points 
 the way to the cause of death. The pre- 
 cautions to be taken against the rapid 
 advance of age include avoidance of 
 alcohol during one’s whole life; mod- 
 erate eating, especially after the age of 
 forty; moderate exercise after the age 
 of sixty is reached, or after senescence 
 has begun to manifest itself; avoidance 
 of strain, physical or mental; avoidance 
 of worry, anger, and grief ; proper cloth- 
 ing for all seasons and conditions, and 
 other avoidance of exposure; together 
 with out-of-door air. 
 
 SENNA, a substance used in medicine, 
 consisting of the leaflets of several 
 species of Cassia, but the exact botanical 
 source of some of the commercial kinds 
 
 Senna. 
 
 is still uncertain. Alexandrian senna is 
 grown in Nubia and Upper Egypt, and 
 imported in large bales from Alexandria. 
 It is frequently adulterated with the 
 loaves of other plants. 
 
SENNAAR 
 
 SEPTUAGINT 
 
 SENNAAR', or SEN AAR', a region of 
 Africa, in the Soudan, area about 
 115,000 sq. miles, between the Bahr-el- 
 Azrek, or Blue Nile and the Bahr-el- 
 Abiad, or White Nile. The population, 
 estimated at 1,500,000, is greatly mixed. 
 
 SENSATION, the name applied to in- 
 dicate the consciousness of an impres- 
 sion produced on sensory nerve fibers 
 (See Nerve.) An impression might be 
 produced upon a sensory nerve and 
 transmitted to a nerve center, leading to 
 stimulation of the center and to some 
 subsequent change, but if no conscious- 
 ness of such existed it could not be 
 called a sensation. Thus, an impression 
 made on an organ of sense might reach 
 a lower nerve center, and by reflex 
 action induce a muscular movement, 
 while the centers devoted to conscious- 
 ness being asleep or preoccupied re- 
 mained unaffected. To this kind of im- 
 pression the term sensation is not ap- 
 plicable. The external organs by means 
 of which particular kinds of impressions 
 are primarily received, and thence trans- 
 mitted to the brain, are called the organs 
 of the senses; these are the eye, the ear, 
 the nose, and the tongue, besides the 
 nerves dispersed under the common 
 integument, which give rise to the com- 
 mon sensation feeling or touch. This 
 last is of a more general kind than the 
 others, making us aware of heat and 
 cold, rough and smooth, hard and soft, 
 etc. In addition to these, according to 
 Professor Bain, "the feelings connected 
 with the movements of the body, or the 
 action of the muscles, have come to be 
 recognized as a distinct class, differing 
 materially from the sensations of the 
 five senses. They have been regarded 
 by some metaphysicians as proceeding 
 from a sense part, a sixth or muscular 
 sense.” Of the sensations which are 
 most readily perceived by animals that 
 of resistance or touch is perhaps the 
 most widely diffused. By the resisting 
 feel of matter we judge of its shape and 
 of its other attributes. Next to resistance 
 sensibility to heat is the best defined 
 and most frequently displayed sensa- 
 tion. The sense of consciousness of light 
 or luminosity succeeds that of tempera- 
 ture; taste comes next in order; then 
 hearing; while smell is probably one of 
 the least diffused of sensations. The 
 special senses and the structure of the 
 organs of sense are described under the 
 headings Eye, Ear, Nose, Smell, Touch, 
 etc. (which see). 
 
 SENSES. See special articles Eye, 
 Ear, Nose, Smell, Touch, etc.;; also 
 Nerve, Sensation, etc. 
 
 SENSITIVE FLAMES, gas flames 
 which are easily affected by sounds, 
 being by them made to lengthen out 
 or contract, or change their form in 
 various ways. The most sensitive flame 
 is produced in burning gas issuing under 
 considerable pressure from a small taper 
 jet. Such a flame will be affected by 
 very small noises, as the ticking of a 
 watch held near it, or the chinking of 
 small coins 100 feet off. The gas must 
 be turned on so that the flame is just at 
 the point of roaring. 
 
 SENSITIVE PLANT, a plant cele- 
 brated for its apparent sensibility, a 
 native of tropical America. The leaves 
 are compound, consisting of four leaves. 
 
 themselves pinnated, uniting upon a 
 common footstalk. At the approach of 
 night the leaflets all fold together; and 
 the common footstalk bends toward the 
 stem; at sunrise the leaves gradually 
 unfold, and recover their usual state. 
 So far, this is evidently the effect of 
 light, but the same phenomena take 
 place on touching the plant roughly, 
 only that it recovers itself in a short 
 period. The same property belongs to 
 other species of Mimosa and to species 
 of other genera. 
 
 SENTENCE, in grammar, a combina- 
 tion of words which is complete in itself 
 as expressing a thought or proposition, 
 and in writing is marked at the close by 
 a full point. It is the unit or ground- 
 form of speech. According to the gram- 
 mars a sentence must always contain 
 two members — the subject or thing 
 spoken of, and the predicate or that 
 which is enunciated regarding the sub- 
 ject. Accordingly every sentence must 
 have a finite verb, though in impas- 
 sioned language the verb is frequently 
 understood. Sentences are distinguished 
 into simple, complex, and compound. 
 A simple sentence has only one subject 
 and one finite verb, as “The man is 
 brave.” This may be more or less ex- 
 panded by the use of adjuncts, and still 
 retain its character of a simple sentence. 
 A complex sentence is a principal sen- 
 tence with one or more subordinate sen- 
 tences, as “The man, who is truly pa- 
 triotic, will risk his life fo rhis country. 
 A compound sentence consists of two 
 or more simple sentences connected by 
 conjunctions, as “The sun rises in the 
 east and sets in the west.” It differs 
 from the complex sentence in having 
 its clauses co-ordinate, and not, as in 
 the other, in subordination to a prin- 
 cipal clause. 
 
 SENTRY, or SENTINEL, a soldier set 
 to watch or guard an army, camp, or 
 other place from surprise, by observing 
 and giving notice of the approach of 
 danger. At night each sentinel is fur- 
 nished with the countersign (a certain 
 word or phrase), and no one may pass 
 him without giving this signal. 
 
 SE'PAL, in botany, one of the sep- 
 arate divisions of a calyx when that 
 organ is made up of various leaves. 
 When it consists of but one part the 
 calyx is said to be monosepalous; when 
 
 t «, Sepals. 
 
 of two or more parts, it is said to be 
 di-, tri-, tetra-, pentasepalous, etc. 
 When of a variable and indefinite num- 
 ber of parts, it is said to be polysepal- 
 ous. 
 
 SEPIA, a genus of Cephalopoda or 
 cuttle fishes, included in the family 
 Sepiadffi. These cephalopoda, of which 
 the common sepia is a typical example, 
 belong to the dibranchiate or “two- 
 gilled” section of their class, and to the 
 group of decapodaor “ten-armed” forms. 
 The family Sepiadae possesses an inter- 
 
 nal calcareous shell, the so-called sepio- 
 staire or “cuttle-fish bone,” which is 
 often cast up upon some coasts, and was 
 formerly in repute as an antacid in medi- 
 cine, and as the source of the “pounce” 
 once used for spreading over eroded 
 ink marks to form a smooth surface for 
 the corrected writing. There are four 
 rows of pedunculated suckers on the 
 arms of the genus Sepia. Lateral fins 
 exist. The two tentacles or arms, which 
 are longer than the remaining eight, 
 possess suckers at their expanded ex- 
 tremities only. The eggs of the sepia 
 resemble bunches of grapes in form, and 
 hence aresometimes called “sea-grapee.” 
 The eggs are each protected in a leathery 
 capsule. The common sepia occurs on 
 the southern English coasts, but more 
 especially in the Mediterranean sea. 
 It is chiefly sought after on account of 
 the inky matter which it affords. This 
 secretion, which is insoluble in water, 
 but extremely diffusible through it, is 
 agitated in water to wash it, and then 
 allowed slowly to subside, after which 
 the water is poured off, and the black 
 sediment is formed into cakes or sticks. 
 When prepared with caustic lye it forms 
 a beautiful brown color, with a fine 
 grain, and has given name to a species 
 of monochrome drawing now extensively 
 cultivated. 
 
 SE'POYS, the name given to the 
 native forces in India. The native 
 Indian army — infantry, cavalry, artil- 
 lery, and sappers and miners — now num- 
 bers 145,683 men, including 2795 native 
 officers, and 1580 European officers. 
 Though not generally equal in courage 
 and dexterity to European soldiers, 
 the sepoys are hardy and endurant, and 
 very temperate in their food. 
 
 SE^EMBER (from the Latin septem, 
 seven), the ninth month of our year, 
 but tire seventh of the old Roman year, 
 which began in March. It has always 
 contained thirty days. 
 
 SEP'TUAGINT, or the LXZ., the 
 Version of the Seventy, the Alexandrine 
 Version, etc., is the oldest Greek version 
 of the Old 'Testament. It is so called 
 either because it was approved and 
 sanctioned by the sanhedrim, or supreme 
 council of the Jewish nation, which con- 
 sists of about seventy members, or be- 
 cause, according to tradition, about 
 seventy men were employed on the 
 translation. The language is the Hellen- 
 istic Greek of Alexandria, based upon 
 the Attic dialect. The translation is 
 reported by Josephus to have been 
 made in the reign and by the order of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, 
 about 270 or 280 years before the birth 
 of Christ. It is believed, however, by 
 modern critics that the Septuagint 
 version of the several books is the work, 
 not only of different hands, but of sepa- 
 rate times. It is probable that at first 
 only the Pentateuch was translated, 
 and the remaining books gradually. The 
 Septuagint was in use up to the time of 
 our Savior, and is that out of which 
 most of the citations in the New Testa- 
 ment from the Old are taken. It is an 
 invaluable help to the right understand- 
 ing of the Hebrew Scriptures. The prin- 
 cipal extant MSS. known are the Codex 
 Alexandrinus in the British museum, 
 the Codex Vaticanus in Rome, and the 
 
SEPULCHRAL MOUND 
 
 SERPENT-CHARMING 
 
 Codex Sinaiticus (imperfect) in St. 
 Petersburg. The principal printed 
 editions are the Complutensian (1514- 
 17), the Aldine (Venice, 1518), the 
 Roman or Sextine (1587), and the new 
 Cambridge (1887-95). 
 
 SEPULCHRAL MOUND. See Tumuli, 
 Barrow. 
 
 SEQUENCE, in music the recurrence 
 of a harmonic progression or melodic 
 figure at a different pitch or in a different 
 key to that in which it was first given. 
 In the Roman Catholic church the term 
 sequence is applied to a hymn intro- 
 duced into the mass on certain festival 
 days. 
 
 SEQUO'IA (from the American Indian 
 Sequoyah, who invented the Cherokee 
 alphabet), a genus of conifers, other- 
 wise called Wellingtonia or Washing- 
 tonia, consisting of two species only — 
 the redwood of the timber trade, and the 
 Wellingtonia, the big or mammoth tree 
 of the western states, the latter having 
 been discovered in the Sierra Nevada in 
 1852. One specimen in Calaveras co.. 
 Cal., has a height of 325 feet, and a 
 girth 6 feet from the ground of 45 feet. 
 The Mariposa Grove, 16 miles south of 
 the Yosemite valley, contains upward 
 of 100 trees over 40 feet in circumference 
 and one over 93 feet at the ground, and 
 64 feet at 11 feet higher. This grove 
 is government property. Some of these 
 trees indicate an age of over 2000 years. 
 
 SERAGLIO (se-ral'yo), properly Serai, 
 the palace of the Turkish sultan at Con- 
 stantinople. It stands in a beautiful 
 situation, on a point of land projecting 
 into the sea. Its walls embrace a circuit 
 of about 9 miles, including several 
 mosques, spacious gardens, the harem, 
 and buildings capable of accommodating 
 20,000 men, though the number of the 
 sultan’s household does not amount to 
 above 10,000. The principal gate of 
 the seraglio is called Babi Humayum 
 (Sublime Porte). 
 
 SERAING (se-ran), a town of Belgium, 
 in the province of Li6^e, 3 miles south- 
 west of Li4ge, on the Meuse. Cockerill’s 
 extensive iron, steel, and machine 
 works (including also coalpits), em- 
 ploying 12,000 hands, are established 
 here, and other industries are carried 
 on. Pop. 67,942. 
 
 SER'APH. plural Seraphim, a name 
 applied by the prophet Isaiah to certain 
 attendants of Jehovah in a divine vision 
 presented to him in the temple (Isa. 
 vi. 2). Very commonly by these sera- 
 phim have been understood to be angels 
 of the highest order — angels of fire. The 
 term seraphim is only used^ elsewhere 
 of the serpents of the wilderness (Num. 
 xxi. 6, 8 and Deut. viii. 15). 
 
 SERA'PIS, or SARA'PIS, an Egyptian 
 deity whose worship was introduced into 
 Egypt in the reign of Ptolemy I. Forty- 
 two temples are said to have beenerected 
 to him in Egypt under the Ptolemies 
 and Romans; his worship extended also 
 to Asia Minor, and in 146 a.d. it was in- 
 troduced to Rome by Antonius Pius. 
 The image of Serapis perished with his 
 temple at Alexandria, which was de- 
 stroyed in 389 by the order of Theodo- 
 sius. 
 
 SERENADE, music performed in the 
 open air at night; often, an entertain- 
 ment of music given in the night by a 
 
 lover, to his mistress under her window; 
 or music performed as a mark of esteem 
 and good will toward distinguished per- 
 sons. The name is also given to a piece 
 of music characterized by the soft 
 repose which is suppozed to be in har- 
 mony with the stillness of night. The 
 Italian name Serenata is now applied 
 to a cantata having a pastoral subject, 
 and to a work of large proportions, in the 
 form to some extent of a symphony. 
 
 SERFS, a term applied to a class of 
 laborers existing under the feudal sys- 
 tem, and whose condition, though not 
 exactly that of slaves, was little removed 
 from it. Under this system, from the 
 vassals of the king downward, the whole 
 community was subject only on con- 
 dition of specific services to be rendered 
 to his superior that any individual held 
 his fief. In the case of the lower classes 
 this servitude amounted to an almost 
 complete surrender of their personal lib- 
 erty. There were two classes of laborers, 
 the villeins and the serfs proper. The for- 
 mer occupied a middle position between 
 the serfs and the freemen. Hallam re- 
 marks, in reference to these two classes, 
 that in England, at least from the reign 
 of Henry II., one only, and that the in- 
 ferior, existed; incapable of property 
 and destitute of redress except against 
 the most outrageous injuries. A serf 
 could not be sold, but could be trans- 
 ferred along with the property to which 
 he was attached. The revival of the 
 custom of manumission counteracted 
 the rapid increase of serfs. A serf could 
 also obtain his freedom by purchase, or 
 by residing for a year and a day in a 
 borough, or by military service. By 
 these various means the serf population 
 gradually decreased. In most parts of 
 the continent they had disappeared by 
 the 15th century. The extinction of 
 serfdom in England and Scotland was 
 very gradual. As late as 1574 Elizabeth 
 issued a commission of inquiry into the 
 lands and goods of her bondsmen and 
 bondswomen in specified counties in 
 order to compound for their manu- 
 mission; and even in the 18th century, 
 a species of serfdom existed among 
 Scottish minors. Serfdom in Russia was 
 abolished by a manifesto of Alexander 
 II. on March 17, 1861. 
 
 SERGEANT, a non-commissioned of- 
 ficer in the army, ranking next above 
 the corporal. He is appointed to see 
 discipline observed, to teach the sol- 
 diers their drill, and also to command 
 small bodies of men, as escorts and the 
 like. A company has four sergeants, 
 of whom the senior is called color- 
 sergeant. Staff -sergeants are higher 
 than these, and above all is the sergeant- 
 major, who acts as assistant to the 
 adjutant. 
 
 SERGIPE (ser-zhe'pe), or SERGIPE- 
 DEL-REY, a maritime state of Brazil, 
 n. of Bahia; area, 12,034 sq. miles. The 
 coast is low and sandy, but the interior 
 is mountainous. The chief river is the 
 Sao-Francisco on the north. Cotton, 
 sugar cane, rice, tobacco, etc., are 
 grown, and the woods furnish good 
 timber, dyewoods, and quinine. Pop. 
 311,170. The chief town is Aracajh; 
 pop. 5000. 
 
 SERIE'MA, a gallatorial bird of the 
 size of a heron inhabiting the open grassy 
 
 plains of Brazil and other parts of South 
 America. Its feathers are of a gray color, 
 and a kind of crest rises from the root 
 of the beak, consisting of two rows of 
 fine feathers curving backward. The 
 eye is sulphur-yellow, the beak and feet 
 red. It is of retired habits, and utters 
 
 Seriema. 
 
 a loud screeching cry, which somewhat 
 resembles that of a bird of prey or the 
 yelping of a young dog. The seriema 
 is protected in Brazil on account of its 
 serpent-killing habits and is often do- 
 mesticated. 
 
 SERINGAPATAM' (properly, Sir- 
 ranga-patanam, “city of Vishnu’’), a 
 celebrated town and fortress in the 
 province of Mysore, Madras presidency, 
 India. Pop. 10,594, once 140,000. 
 
 SEROUS MEMBRANES are certain 
 double membranes in the human body, 
 as the pleura, pericardium, peritoneum, 
 etc., which fonn a sort of closed sac 
 surrounding certain organs, the interior 
 surfaces of the sac secreting a small 
 quantity of serous fluid. Their chief 
 function is to allow free action to the 
 organs, and they are also intimately 
 connected with the absorbent system, 
 the vessels of which freely open on their 
 surfaces. These membranes are liable 
 to various diseases, as inflammation 
 (pleurisy, pericarditis, etc.), morbid 
 growths, dropsical effusions, hsemor- 
 etc 
 
 SERPENT-CHARMING, an art of 
 great antiquity, confined in practice 
 exclusively to eastern countries. Several 
 allusions are made to it in the Bible, 
 as Ps. Iviii. 5; Eccl. x. 11; Jer. viii. 17, 
 and also in classical writers. The power 
 exercised by the charmers over poison- 
 ous serpents is unquestionably remark- 
 able, and though there is little doubt 
 that the common practice of the charmer 
 is to extract the fangs before exhibiting 
 their feats, yet we have good authority 
 for believing that it is not unusual to 
 dispense with this. The instrument 
 usually employed in serpent-charming 
 is a kind of pipe, which is varied by 
 whistling and the use of the voice. The 
 effect of this medley of sounds is to en- 
 tice the serpents from their holes, and 
 this done the serpent-charmer pins them 
 to the ground with a forked stick. In 
 India and other places the art of serpent- 
 channing is an hereditary profession, 
 
SERPENT EATER 
 
 SERVIA 
 
 and is practiced for the purpose of gain- 
 ing a livelihood by administering to the 
 amusement of the public. Besides the 
 evident power music has upon the ser- 
 pents, they appear to be influenced in a 
 marked degree by the eye of the charmer 
 who controls them by merely fixing his 
 gaze upon them. 
 
 SERPENT EATER. See Secretary 
 Bird. 
 
 SERPENTS, or SNAKES, an order of 
 reptiles, characterized by an elongated 
 and cylindrical body covered with 
 horny scales, but never with bony plates. 
 There is never any breast bone nor 
 pectoral arch, nor fore-limbs, nor as a 
 rule any traces of hind-limbs. In a few 
 cases, however (as in the python), rudi- 
 mentary hind-limbs may be detected. 
 The ribs are always numerous, some 
 serpents having more than 300 pairs. 
 These not only serve to give form to the 
 body and aid in respiration, but are 
 also organs of locomotion, the animal 
 moving by means of them and of its 
 scales which take hold on the surface 
 over which it passes. The vertebra? are 
 formed so as to give’great pliancy, most 
 if not all serpents being able to elevate 
 a large portion of their body from the 
 ground. They have hooked, conical 
 teeth, not lodged in distinct sockets 
 useless for mastication, but serving to 
 hold their prey. In the typical non- 
 poisonous or innocuous serpents, both 
 jaws and the palate bear continuous 
 rows of solid conical teeth. In the 
 venomous serpents, as vipers, mttle- 
 snakes, etc., there are no teeth in the 
 upper jaw excepting the two poison 
 fangs. These are long, firmly fixed in a 
 movable bone, above which there is a 
 gland for the elaboration of poison. 
 Each tooth is perforated by a tube 
 through which the poison is forced. 
 The tongue, which is forked, and can be 
 protruded and retracted at pleasure, is 
 probably rather an organ of touch than 
 of taste. The eye is unprotected by eye- 
 lids, but it is completely covered and 
 protected by an anterior layer of trans- 
 parent skin attached above and below 
 to a ridge of scales which surround the 
 eye. No external ear exists. The nostrils 
 are situated on the snout. The heart has 
 three chambers, two auricles and a 
 ventricle. The digestive system com- 
 prises large salivary glands, a distensible 
 gullet, stomach, and intestine, which 
 terminates in a cloaca with a transverse 
 external opening. A urinary bladder is 
 absent. The lungs and other paired or 
 symmetrical organs of the body gen- 
 erally exhibit an abortive or rudimen- 
 tary condition of one of these structures. 
 As regards reproduction they are either 
 oviparous or ovoviviparous, the eggs 
 being either hatched externally or within 
 the animal’s body. Many serpents, 
 especially the larger species, as the boas, 
 subsist on prey thicker than themselves, 
 which they crush by constriction, and 
 which they are able to swallow from the 
 throat and body being capable of great 
 dilatation. The order is generally divided 
 into two sub-orders, Viperina and Colu- 
 brina, the former having only two 
 p>oison fangs in the upper jaw, the latter 
 having solid teeth, besidesgrooved fangs. 
 The different kinds or species of snakes 
 will be found described in articles under 
 
 their respective headings, such as Rattle- 
 snake, Python, etc. See also Reptiles. 
 
 SER'PULA, a genus of Annelida or 
 worms, belonging to the order of Tubi- 
 cola or tube-dwelling worms, inhabiting 
 cylindrical and tortuous calcareous 
 tubes attached to rocks, shells, etc., in 
 the sea. The worm fixes itself within 
 
 Serpula, detached and In tube. 
 
 its tube by means of the bristles at- 
 tached to its body-segment. Its head 
 segments are provided with plume-like 
 gills or granchise. No eyes exist in this 
 creature, although it is extremely sen- 
 sitive to the action of light. 
 
 SERTO'RIUS, Quintus, a Roman gen- 
 eral, born about 120 b.c. After serving 
 with reputation under Marius against 
 the Teutones in Spain he was made 
 quCstor in Cisalpine Gaul in 91 b.c. He 
 was treacherously assassinated at a feast 
 by his friend Perperna b.c. 72. Sertorius 
 has been made the subject of a tragedy 
 by Corneille. 
 
 SERUM, the thin transparent part of 
 the blood. The serum of the blood, 
 which separates from the crassamentum 
 during the coagulation of that liquid, 
 has a pale straw color, or greenish- 
 yellow color, is transparent when care- 
 fully collected, has a slightly saline taste, 
 and is somewhat unctuous to the touch. 
 It usually constitutes about three- 
 fourths of the blood, the pressed coag- 
 ulum forming about one-fourth. The 
 term is also applied to the thin part of 
 milk separated from the curd and oil. 
 See Blood. 
 
 SERVAL, or BUSH CAT, a carnivor- 
 ous animal nearly related to the leopard 
 and its allies, a native of Africa. Its 
 general body color is a bright yellow or 
 golden luster, with a grayish tint, and 
 
 Serval. 
 
 marked with black spots. The average 
 length is about 2 feet 10 inches including 
 the thick bushy tail, which is from 10 to 
 12 inches long. This animal is readily 
 domesticated. Its fur qrreat request, 
 
 and obtains high prices. The name of 
 tiger cat is frequently applied to the 
 serval. 
 
 SERVE'TUS, Michael (properly Miguel 
 Servede), a learned Spaniard, memor- 
 able as a victim of religious intoler- 
 ance, was born in 1509 at Villa Neuva, 
 in Arragon. He was arrested for heresy 
 and imprisoned in 1553, but contrived 
 to escape, and purposed to proceed to 
 Naples. He was, however, apprehended 
 at Geneva on a charge of blasphemy 
 and Reresy, and his various writings 
 were sifted in order to ensure his con- 
 demnation. The divines of all the 
 Protestant Swiss cantons unanimous- 
 ly' declared for his punishment, and 
 Calvin was especially urgent and em- 
 phatic as to the necessity of putting him 
 to death. As he refused to retract his 
 opinions he was burnt at the stake on the 
 27th October, 1553. Servetus is num- 
 bered among the anatomists who made 
 the nearest approach to the doctrine of 
 the circulation of the blood. 
 
 SERVIA, an independent kingdom of 
 Eastern Europe, bounded n. by Austria- 
 Hungary, from which it is separated by 
 the Save and the Danube; e. by Rou- 
 mania and Bulgaria; s. by Turkey; and 
 w. by Bosnia; area, 18,855 sq. miles; 
 pop. 2,535,915. The surface is ele- 
 vated and is traversed by ramifica- 
 tions of the Carpathians in the north- 
 east, of the Balkans in the southeast, 
 and of the Dinaric Alps in the west. The 
 summits seldom exceed 3000 feet, 
 though the highest reaches 6325. The 
 chief agricultural products are corn, 
 wheat, flax, hemp, and tobacco. Wine 
 is grown in the districts adjoining Hun- 
 gary, and the cultivation of prunes is 
 extensive. Lead, zinc, quicksilver, 
 copper, iron, and coal are found. Manu- 
 factures include carpet-weaving, em- 
 broidery, jewelry, and filigree work. 
 The principal exports are dried prunes, 
 pigs, wool, wheat, wine, hides, cattle, 
 and horses; imports, cotton, sugar, 
 colonial goods, hardware, etc. The bulk 
 of the trade is with Austria. There are 
 340 miles of railway and 1800 miles of 
 telegraph. The great majority of the 
 inhabitants are Slavonians, and adhere 
 to the Greek church. The standing army 
 numbers about 18,000 men, with a re- 
 serve of 155,000 men. Servia is divided 
 into fifteen (formerly twenty-two) ad- 
 ministrative districts, of which Belgrade 
 (the capital) forms one by itself. Other 
 principal towns are Nisch, Leskovatz, 
 and Pozarevatz. 
 
 Servia was anciently inhabited by 
 Thracian tribes; subsequently it formed 
 part of the Roman province of Mcesia. 
 It was afterwards occupied in succession 
 by Huns, Ostrogoths, Lombards, Avares 
 and other tribes. The Servians entered 
 it in the 7th century, and were converted 
 to Christianity in the next century. 
 They acknowledged the supremacy of 
 the Byzantine emperors, but latterly 
 made themselves independent and 
 under Stephen Dushan (1336-56), the 
 Kingdom of Servia included all Mace- 
 donia, Albania, Thessaly, Northern 
 Greece, and Bulgaria. About 1374 a 
 new dynasty ascended the throne in the 
 person of Lazar I., who was captured ■ 
 by the Turks at the battle of Kossova 
 (in Albania) in 1389, and put to death. 
 
SESAMUM 
 
 SEWAGE 
 
 Servia now became tributary to Turkey. 
 I About the middle of the 15th century it 
 f became a Turkish province, and so re- 
 i. mained for nearly 200 years. By the 
 ' Peace of Passarowitz in 1718 Austria 
 received the greater part of Servia, with 
 the capital, Belgrade. But by the Peace 
 of Belgrade in 1739 this territory was 
 '■ transferred to Turkey. The barbarity of 
 the Turks led to several insurrections. 
 Early in the 19th century Czerny George 
 placed himself at the head of the malcon- 
 V tents, and, aided by Russia, succeeded 
 after eight years of fighting in securing 
 the independence of his country by the 
 , Peace of Bucharest, May 28, 1812. The 
 war was renewed in 1813, and the Turks 
 , prevailed. In 1815 all Servia rose in 
 arms under Milosh, and after a success- 
 ful war obtained complete self-goyern- 
 ^ ment, Milosh being elected hereditary 
 prince of the land. Milosh was com- 
 pelled to abdicate in 1839, and was 
 nominally succeeded by his son Milan, 
 who died immediately, leaving the 
 throne vacant to his brother Michael. 
 In 1842 this prince was compelled to 
 follow the example of his father and quit 
 the country, Alexander Kara-George- 
 ' vitch, son of Czerny George, was elected 
 in his room; but in December, 1858, he 
 ; also was forced to abdicate. Milosh was 
 then recalled, but survived his restora- 
 . tion little more than a year. His son 
 Michael succeeded him (1860), but was 
 ^ assassinated by the partisans of Prince 
 Alexander on July 10, 1868. Theprincely 
 dignity was then conferred on Milan 
 (Obrenovitch), grand-nephew of Milosh. 
 {• After the fall of Plevna in the Russo- 
 Turkish war of 1877-78 Servia took up 
 , arms against Turkey, and by the Treaty 
 of Berlin (13th July, 1878) it obtained 
 an accession of territory and the full 
 ^ recognition of its independence. It was 
 • erected into a kingdom in 1882. In 1885 
 a short war took place between Servia 
 and Bulgaria, resulting in favor of the 
 latter. In 1889 Milan abdicated in favor 
 of his son Alexander I. He and his 
 queen were assassinated in 1903, and 
 Peter Kara-Georgevitch succeeded. 
 
 SES'AMUM, or SES'AME, a genus of 
 annual herbaceous plants, natural order 
 Pedaliaceae. The species, though now 
 cultivated in many countries, are natives 
 of India. They have alternate leaves 
 and axillary yellow or pinkish solitary 
 flowers. 
 
 SESOS'TRIS, a name given by the 
 Greeks to an Egyptian king, who is not 
 mentioned by that name on the monu- 
 ments, and who is often identified with 
 Ramses II. See Ramses. 
 
 SES'SILE, in zoology and botany, a 
 term applied to an organ attached or 
 
 Sessile leaves. Sessile flower. 
 
 sitting directly on 
 , belongs without a 
 
 the body to which it 
 support; as, a sessile 
 
 leaf, one issuing directly from the main 
 stem or branch without a petiole or 
 footstalk; a sessile flower, one having no 
 peduncle; a sessile gland, one not 
 elevated on a stalk. 
 
 SEVEN STARS. See Pleiades. 
 
 SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS. See Bap- 
 tists and Sabbatarians. 
 
 SEVENTY, The. See Septuagint. 
 
 SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD, 
 an old designation of seven monuments, 
 remarkable for their splendor or mag- 
 nitude, generally said to have been : 
 the pyramids of Egypt, the walls and 
 hanging gardens of Babylon, the temple 
 of Diana at Ephesus, the statue of the 
 Olympian Jupiter at Athens, the Mauso- 
 leum at Halicarnassus, the Colossus of 
 Rhodes, and the Pharos or lighthouse 
 of Alexandria. 
 
 SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, the war carried 
 on from 1756-63, by Frederick the Great 
 of Prussia, in alliance with England, 
 against Austria, Russia, France, Sweden 
 and most of the smaller German states. 
 The war was closed by the Peace of 
 Paris (February 10, 1763), by which 
 England obtained Canada from France, 
 and Florida (in exchange for Havannah) 
 from Spain; and by the treaty of Hu- 
 bertsburg (February 15), by which 
 Prussia obtained Silesia. The Seven 
 Years’ war raised Prussia to the rank 
 of a Great Power. 
 
 SEVERN, the second largest river in 
 England, formed by the union of two 
 small streams which rise in Mount 
 Plinlimmon, Montgomeryshire. It flows 
 through Montgomeryshire, Shropshire, 
 Worcestershire, and Gloucestershire, 
 passing the towns of Newton, Welsh- 
 pool, Shrewsbury, Worcester, Tewkes- 
 bury, Gloucester, and Bristol, and after 
 a circuitous southerly course of about 
 210 miles falls into the Bristol channel. 
 It receives the Tern, Upper Avon, and 
 Lower Avon on the left, and the Teme 
 and Wye on the right. Its basin has an 
 area of 8580 sq. miles. A railway tunnel 
 
 miles long has been driven below the 
 river from near Avonmouth, in Glouces- 
 tershire, across to Monmouthshire, and a 
 railway bridge 3581 feet long crosses the 
 river at Sharpness higher up. 
 
 SEVILLE (se-vilO, SEVILLA (se-veF- 
 yS.), a city of Spain, in Andalusia, on the 
 left bank of the Gaudalquivir, capital 
 of a province of the same name, 62 
 miles n.n.e. of Cadiz. It is largely built 
 in the Moorish style, with narrow, ill- 
 paved streets, the old Moorish houses 
 having spacious interior courtyards 
 with a fountain in the middle. The city 
 has a large and handsome Gothic cathe- 
 dral dating from the 15th century, with 
 its famous Moorish Giralda or tower, 
 part of a mosque which gave place to 
 the present cathedral, and dating from 
 1 1 96 ; an alcazar or palace in the Moorish 
 style; an exchange called the Casca 
 Lonja; a bull ring, a fine stone building 
 holding 12,000 persons; an aqueduct of 
 410 arches built by the Moors, a uni- 
 versity, a picture gallery rich in ex- 
 amples of Murillo and Zurbaran, etc. 
 Pop. 148,315. — The province has an 
 area of 5300 sq. miles, and the greater 
 part consists of fertile plains producing 
 all kinds of cereals, seeds, vegetables, 
 oranges and other fruits; wine, oil, 
 tobacco, etc. Large numbers of horses 
 
 are reared. The chief river is the 
 Guadalquivir. Minerals include iron. 
 
 Seville.— La Oiralda and part of the cathedral. 
 
 silver, lead, and copper. The chief 
 exports are wheat, barley, oranges, oil, 
 wool, copper, etc. Pop. 555,256. 
 
 SEWAGE (su'aj), the matter which 
 passes through the drain, conduits, or 
 sewers, leading away from human habi- 
 tations singly, or from houses collected 
 into villages, towns, and cities. It is 
 made up of excreted matter, solid and 
 liquid, the water necessary to carry such 
 away, and the waste water of domestic 
 operations, together with the liquid 
 waste products of manufacturing opera- 
 tions, and generally much of the surface 
 drainage water of the area in which the 
 conveying sewers are situated. Until 
 very recent times human excreta was 
 deposited inouthouses or pits, commonly 
 called cesspools. The invention of water- 
 closets necessitated the use of the sewers 
 and the water-carriage of excreta was 
 until lately regarded as the most satis- 
 factory method of disposing of these 
 matters. It was argued that the oxygen 
 of the air held in solution by the water 
 destroyed the organic matter and ren- 
 dered it innoxious. But experience has 
 shown that no river in the kingdom 
 can oxidize the excreta of the towns on 
 its banks, and that whenever these are 
 passed into the rivers at some distance 
 from the sea they are apt to become 
 offensive. Sewage, when fresh and freely 
 exposed to the air, is almost inodorous, 
 but once it accumulates putrefaction 
 sets in, it becomes vilely odorous, and 
 pollutes the atmosphere by the produc- 
 tion of poisonous gases. To prevent this 
 it has been suggested that all sewers 
 should have a greater fall than at pres- 
 ent, and many attempts have been made 
 to prevent the accumulation of gases in 
 sewers by ventilation. Many methods 
 for the ultimate disposal of sewage have 
 been proposed, but these all may be 
 divided into three great classes, viz. 
 precipitation, irrigation, and filtration, 
 since the throwing of sewage into a body 
 of water in order that it may be carried 
 away by currents, diluted and oxygen- 
 ated, has ceased to hold a place inmodern 
 sanitary schemes. The precipitation of 
 sewage, by which the solid matter is 
 
SEWARD 
 
 SEXTANT 
 
 separated from the liquid and used as a 
 manure or otherwise, has been the sub- 
 ject of numerous patents, and many 
 chemicals have been employed for that 
 purpose. Lime, lime and phosphate of 
 alumina, and sulphate of iron have all 
 been used with some degree of success. 
 In the ABC process the sewage is first 
 clarified by blood, charcoal, and clay, 
 and afterwards treated with sulphate of 
 alumina, producing a valuable manure. 
 Irrigation — by which the sewage is 
 directly applied to a piece of ground — 
 has been fully tried in several localities, 
 and many people consider it the most 
 successful solution of the problem as 
 to the ultimate disposal of sewage. The 
 ground is carefully prepared, and the 
 sewage allowed to flow over its surface 
 by gravitation, and by this process the 
 productiveness of the soil is enormously 
 increased. But farmers will only use the 
 liquid when their land requires it; con- 
 sequently when this system is adopted 
 the local authorities have had to add a 
 farm trust to their many other responsi- 
 bilities, and the system is generally 
 carried out at a heavy annual loss to the 
 public. Filtration — the purification of 
 sewage by causing it to filter through 
 the earth — has been proposed in cases 
 where land is very valuable or difficult 
 to be secured for the disposal of sewage, 
 on the supposition that this system will 
 only require one acre for every 10,000 
 inhabitants, As the sewage passes down 
 through the earth the air must of neces- 
 sity follow it, the oxygen of which will 
 re-aerate the earth and make it again fit 
 for use. In recent systems of filtration 
 the sewage is made to pass through 
 special filter-beds, constructed of such 
 materials as cinders, coke, sand, gravel, 
 etc., the purification of the sewage being 
 assisted by the action of bacteria con- 
 tained in it. Some methods of dealing 
 with the sewage difficulty are based on 
 the principle of keeping all excremental 
 matters out of the sewers and dealing 
 with them so as to prevent decomposi- 
 tion. Moule’s earth-closet has been 
 successfully used in detached houses 
 and villages in Great Britain, but the 
 bulk of material renders it difficult to 
 apply the system in towns. Other sys- 
 tems equally successful render the ex- 
 creta innocuous by mixing them with 
 charcoal, sweepings, refuse, etc., and 
 manufacturing the mass into manure. 
 Seaweed charcoal has been used instead 
 of earth with satisfactory results. In 
 Hoey’s system the soil pipe from the 
 closet flows into a reservoir under- 
 ground, from which the excreta are 
 removed by pneumatic pressure and 
 manufactured into portable manure. In 
 Leinur’s system, now in operation at 
 Leyden, Amsterdam, and other Euro- 
 pean towns, the excreta are forced by 
 vacuum power into hermetically closed 
 tanks above the floor of the central 
 station. The matter is then conducted 
 by air-tight pipes to drying retorts and 
 reduced to a state of powder, or is de- 
 canted in a fluid form into vessels for 
 immediate transport to the country. 
 With regard to indoor drainage care 
 should be taken to see that each trap 
 connected either with bath, water- 
 colset, pink, or fixed basin is ventilated 
 to the open air, and the pipe from the 
 
 bath, sink, or fixed basin should never 
 pass into the trap of the water-closet, 
 as the heated water promotes decom- 
 position. The overflow pipe from the 
 cistern should not open into the soil 
 pipe, and the main soil pipe should be of 
 iron, well covered with protecting com- 
 position. Cesspools should in all cases be 
 abolished. 
 
 SEWARD (su'ard), William Henry 
 an American statesman, born at Florida, 
 Orange co.. New York, May 16, 1801; 
 died at Auburn, Cayuga co., in the same 
 state, October 10, 1872. He studied for 
 the bar, and began practicing in Auburn 
 in 1823, but gradually drifted into 
 
 E olitics, and in 1830 was elected a mem- 
 er of the New York senate. Displaying 
 marked abilities as a politician he was 
 in 1838 and 1840 chosen governor of his 
 native state, and in 1849 was elected to a 
 seat in the United States senate. He 
 was the friend and advisor of President 
 Taylor, and distinguished himself by 
 his firm resistance to the extension of 
 slavery. In 1860 he was a candidate for 
 the presidency, but being defeated in 
 the convention by Abraham Lincoln he 
 exerted himself to secure Lincoln’s 
 election. Lincoln afterwards nominated 
 Seward as secretary of state for foreign 
 affairs, in which post he discharged his 
 duties with great ability. He was dan- 
 gerously wounded in April, 1865, when 
 Lincoln was assassinated, but recovered 
 and fulfilled the same office under Lin- 
 coln’s successor, Andrew Johnson. He 
 resigned his post on the accession of 
 President Grant in 1869. He wrote a life 
 of John Quincy Adams; his Speeches, 
 Correspondence, etc., appeared in 1869; 
 and an Autobiography, with continua- 
 tion, in 1877. 
 
 SEWING MACHINES, the first at- 
 tempts to devise machines for replacing 
 hand labor in sewing were made early in 
 the 1 9th century. The first machines were 
 contrivances for imitating mechanically 
 the movements of the hand in sewing. 
 In the machines of Thomas Stone and 
 James Henderson (1804) there were two 
 pairs of pincers, one of which seized the 
 needle below and the other above the 
 cloth, and pulled it quite through on 
 either side alternately. In Heilmann’s 
 machine, exhibited at Paris in 1834, the 
 needle had the eye in the middle and a 
 point at each end. The machine was 
 intended for embroidery work. Previous 
 to this (in 1830) Thimmonier and Fer- 
 rand had contrived a machine producing 
 what is known as the chain stitch. But 
 the great disadvantage of this stitch is 
 that the whole seam becomes undone 
 if the end of the thread is pulled. In 
 1854 Singer, an American, devised a 
 machine calculated to remedy this de- 
 fect of the chain stitch by means of a 
 mechanism for tying a knot in the seam 
 at every eighth stitch. But long before 
 Singer’s invention Elias Howe, a poor 
 American mechanic, had invented the 
 first really satisfactory sewing machine 
 for which he obtained a patent in May, 
 1841. Howe’s machine used two threads, 
 one of which passed through the eye of 
 the needle, while another was contained 
 in a small shuttle; and it produced a 
 seam in which each stitch was firmly 
 locked, so that it could not come undone 
 by pulling. Many improvements have 
 
 since been made by other inventors. The 
 principle of the two threads and the lock- 
 stitch has been adhered to in most of the 
 machines that have been invented sub- 
 sequently to that of Howe, but various 
 details applying that principle have been 
 altered for the better. In the Wheeler 
 and Wilson machine the place of the 
 shuttle is supplied by a reel which re- 
 volves in a vertical plane within a round 
 piece of mechanism so contrived as to 
 form a loop with the reel-thread, which 
 becames interlocked with that held by 
 the needle. Of single-thread machines 
 one of the best is that of Wilcox and 
 Gibbs, which, while it is easy, quick, 
 and noiseless in working, makes a se- 
 curer stitch than one-thread machines 
 generally. Sewing machines have now 
 been adapted to produce almost all 
 kinds of stitching which can be done b}' 
 the hand. Most sew'ing machines are 
 worked by the foot, but many are 
 worked by the hand, and some may be 
 worked by either. Steam and electricity 
 are also sometimes employed as a motive 
 power for sewing machines. The manu- 
 facture of sewing machines is most ex- 
 tensively carried on in America. 
 
 SEX, the name applied to indicate the 
 particular kind of generative or repro- 
 ductive element in the constitution of an 
 animal or plant, being that property or 
 character by which an animal is male or 
 female. Sexual distinctions are derived 
 from the presence and development of ‘ 
 the characteristic generative organs — 
 testes and ovary — of the male and 
 female respectively. See Reproduction. 
 
 SEXTANT, an improved form of 
 quadrant, capable of measuring angles 
 of 120°. It consists of a frame of metal, 
 ebony, etc., stiffened by cross-braces, 
 and having an arc embracing 60° of a 
 circle. It has two mirrors, one of which 
 is fixed to a movable index, and various 
 other appendages. It is capable of very 
 general application, but it is chiefly em- 
 ployed as a nautical instrument for 
 measuring the altitudes of celestial 
 objects and their apparent angular dis- 
 tances. The principle of the sextant, 
 and of reflecting instruments in general, 
 
 B 
 
 Sextant. 
 
 depends upon an elementary theorem 
 in optics, viz. if an object be seen by 
 repeated reflection from two mirrors 
 which are perpendicular to the same 
 plane, the angular distance of the object 
 from its image is double the inclination 
 of the mirrors. The annexed figure 
 shows the usual construction of the 
 sextant, qp is the graduated arc, bi 
 the movable index, b mirror fixed to the 
 index, a mirror (half-transparent) fixed 
 to the arm, gg' colored glasses, that may 
 be interposed to the sun’s rays. To 
 find the angle between two stars hold 
 
SEXTON 
 
 SHAKERS 
 
 the instrument so that the one is seen 
 directly through telescope t and the un- 
 silvered portion of the mirror, and move 
 the index arm so that the image of the 
 other star seen through the telescope by 
 reflection from b and a is nearly coinci- 
 dent with the first, the reading on the 
 arc gives the angle required; half de- 
 grees being marked as degrees, because 
 what is measured by the index is the 
 angle between the mirrors, and this is 
 half that between the objects. 
 
 SEXTON, a corruption of sacristan, 
 an under officer of the church, whose 
 business, in ancient times, was to take 
 care of the vessels, vestments, etc., be- 
 longing to the church. The greater 
 simplicity of Protestant ceremonies has 
 rendered this duty one of small impor- 
 tance, and in the Church of England the 
 sexton’s duties now consist in taking 
 care of the church generally, to which is 
 added the duty of digging and filling up 
 graves in the churchyard. The sexton 
 may be at the same time the parish clerk. 
 
 SEYMOUR, Horatio, American politi- 
 cal leader, was born at Pompey Hill, 
 Onondaga co., N. Y., in 1810. In 1842- 
 46 he was mayor of Utica, and in 1852 
 and 1862 he was elected governor of 
 New York. In 1868 he was president 
 of the democratic national convention 
 which met in New York City and by 
 which he, himself, was nominated for the 
 presidency. He received only 80 elec- 
 toral votes to 214 for General Grant. 
 He died in 1886 
 
 SHAD, a name of several European 
 fishes, of the family Clupeidse or her- 
 rings, and including two species, the 
 common or allice shad and the twaite 
 shad. The common shad inhabits the 
 sea near the mouths of large rivers, and 
 in the spring ascends them for the pur- 
 pose of depositing its spawn. The form 
 of the shad is the same as that of the 
 other herrings, but it is of larger size, 
 and in some places receives the name of 
 “herring king.’’,. Its color is a dark blue 
 
 above, with brown and greenish lusters, 
 the under parts being white. The twaite 
 shad is about a half less than the com- 
 mon species, and weighs on an average 
 about 2 lbs. An American species of 
 shad varying in weight from 4 to 12 
 lbs., is highly esteemed for food, and is 
 consumed in great quantities in the 
 fresh state. They are found all along 
 the coast from New England to the Gulf 
 of Mexico, and have been successfully 
 introduced on the Pacific coast. 
 
 SBLADOOF', Shaduf', a contrivance 
 extensively employed in Egypt for 
 raising water from the Nile for the pur- 
 pose of irrigation. It consists of a long 
 stout rod suspended on a frame at about 
 one-fifth of its length from the end. The 
 short end is weighted so as to serve as the 
 counterpoise of a lever, and from the 
 long end a bucket of leather or earthen- 
 ware is suspended by a rope. The worker 
 dips the bucket in the river, and, aided 
 
 by the counterpoise weight, empties it 
 into a hole dug on the bank, from which 
 a runnel conducts the water to the lands 
 to be irrigated. Sometimes two shadoofs 
 are employed side by side. When the 
 waters of the river are low two or more 
 shadoofs are employed, the one above 
 the other. The lowest lifts the water 
 
 from the river and empties it into a hole 
 on the bank, a second dips into this hole, 
 and empties the water into a hole higher 
 up, and a third dips into the hole just 
 below, and empties the water at the top 
 of the bank, whence it is conveyed by a 
 channel to its destination. 
 
 SHADOW, the figure of a body pro- 
 jected on the ground, etc., by the inter- 
 ception of light. Shadow, in optics, may 
 be defined a portion of space from which 
 light is intercepted by an opaque body. 
 Every opaque object upon which light 
 falls is accompanied with a shadow on 
 the side opposite to the luminous body, 
 and the shadow appears more intense 
 in proportion as the illumination is 
 stronger. An opaque object illuminated 
 by the sun, or any other source of light 
 which is not a single point, must have 
 an infinite number of shadows, though 
 not distinguishable from each other, 
 and hence the shadow of an opaque body 
 received on a plane is always accom- 
 panied by a penumbra, or partial shadow 
 the complete shadow being called the 
 umbra. See also Penumbra. 
 
 SHAF'TER, William Rufus, American 
 soldier, was born in Michigan in 1835. 
 He enlisted and soon after the outbreak 
 of the civil war was made colonel of 
 volunteers, and in 1865, was brevetted 
 brigadier-general. In 1897 he was pro- 
 moted to be brigadier-general and com- 
 manded the department of California 
 until the beginning of the Spanish- 
 American war, when, he was put in 
 command of the first expedition to Cuba. 
 On July 1st he carried the heights of El 
 Caney and San Juan. On July 3d Cer- 
 vera’s fleet, attempting to escape from 
 Santiago, was destroyed by the American 
 battle ships. Two weeks later the sur- 
 render of Santiago took place. In 1901 
 he was retired with the rank of major- 
 general in the regular army. He died in 
 1906. 
 
 SHAFTESBURY, Anthony Ashley 
 Cooper, first Earl of, was born at Wim- 
 borne St. Giles’, in Dorsetshire, in 1621, 
 
 and succeeded to a baronetcy on the 
 death of his father in 1631. He entered 
 into the plots of the Monmouth party 
 and had to fly to Holland, where he 
 died in 1683. He is the Achitophel of 
 Dryden’s famous satire. 
 
 SHAFTESBURY, Anthony Ashley 
 Cooper, third Earl of, grandson of the 
 preceding, a celebrated philosophical 
 and moral writer, was born at Exeter 
 House, in London, 1671. In 1708-9 he 
 published several works of a philosophi- 
 cal character, among others a Letter on 
 Enthusiasm and an Inquiry concerning 
 Virtue or Merit. In 1710 his rapidly de- 
 clining health led him to fix his residence 
 at Naples, where he died in 1713. 
 
 SHAG, a species of cormorant, also 
 called the crested or green cormorant, 
 from its dark green plumage. Its 
 average length is about 26 inches, and 
 its nest, composed of roots and stalks of 
 seaweed lined with grass, is usually 
 found on rocky ledges. The young birds 
 have a brownish tint amid the green 
 plumage, with brown and white under- 
 surfaces. 
 
 SHAGREEN', a species of leather pre- 
 pared without tanning, from horse, ass, 
 and camel skin, the granular appear- 
 ance of its surface being given by im- 
 bedding in it, while soft, the seeds of a 
 species of plant, and afterwards shaving 
 down the surface, and then by soaking 
 causing the portions of the skin which 
 had been indented by the seeds to swell 
 up into relief. It is dyed with the green 
 produced by the action of sal-ammoniac 
 on copper filings. It is also made of the 
 skins of the shark, sea otter, seal, etc. 
 It was formerly much used for watch, 
 spectacle, and instrument cases. 
 
 SHAH, in Persian, signifies “king.” 
 The proper title of the king in Persia is 
 Shah-in-shah, King of kings. 
 
 SHAHJEHANPUR, a town in India, 
 in the United Provinces, 95 miles north- 
 west of Lucknow, in the executive dis- 
 trict of the same name. There is a can- 
 tonment at the place, an American 
 Methodist mission station with churches 
 and schools; and sugar works in the 
 neighborhood. Pop. 76,458. — The dis- 
 trict forms a portion of the Rohlkhand 
 Division; has an area of 1744 sq. miles, 
 and pop. of 921,624. 
 
 SHAKERS, or SHAKING QUAKERS, 
 a sect which arose at Manchester, in 
 England, about 1747, and has since been 
 transferred to America, where it now 
 consists of a number of thriving families. 
 The formal designation which they give 
 themselves is the United Society of Be- 
 lievers in Christ’s Second Appearing. 
 The founder of the sect was Ann Lee, 
 an expelled Quaker, born in Manchester 
 in 1756. She went to America in 1774 
 with seven followers and formed the 
 first settlement at Watervliet, near 
 Albany. They agree with the Quakers 
 in their objections to take oaths, their 
 neglect of certain common courtesies of 
 society, their rejection of the sacraments 
 etc. Thesocieties are dividedintosmaller 
 communities called families, each of 
 which has its own male and female head. 
 Celibacy is enjoined upon all, and mar- 
 ried persons on entering the community 
 must live together as brother and sister. 
 In America there are about twenty 
 communities with between two and 
 
SHAKESPEARE 
 
 SHANGHAI 
 
 three thousand members, chiefly in the 
 New England states. 
 
 SHAKESPEARE, William, English 
 poet and dramatist, was born in 1564, 
 at Stratford-upon-Avon, a town in War- 
 wickshire, England. The first absolutely 
 authentic event in Shakespeare’s life is 
 his marriage with Anne Hathaway, 
 daughter of a yeoman in the hamlet of 
 Shottery, near Stratford. The marriage 
 bond is dated November 28, 1582, at 
 which time Shakespeare was in his 
 nineteenth year, while, from the date 
 on her tombstone, it is known that his 
 wife was eight years older. On the 26th 
 May following their first child, named 
 Susanna, was baptized, and in February 
 of 1585 a son and daughter were born, 
 who received the names of Hammet and 
 Judith. 
 
 From this date until we find Shake- 
 speare established in London as a player 
 and dramatist there is a gap of seven 
 years, during which we are again left to 
 tradition, and conjecture. The first date 
 in Shakespeare’s life after his arrival in 
 London which is settled by clear evi- 
 dence is 1593. In that year he published 
 his Venus and Adonis, with a dedication 
 
 William Shakespeare, from monumental 
 bust at Stratford-upon-Avon. 
 
 of this “the first heir of my invention,” 
 to Henry Wriothesly, earl of Southamp- 
 ton; and in the following year he dedi- 
 cated to the same patron his other poem 
 of The Rape of Lucrece. His fame as a 
 lyrical poet and dramatist was also being 
 securely established. For in 1598 there 
 was published the Palladis Tamia, by 
 Francis Meres, in which twelve of his 
 plays are enumerated. Yet, notwith- 
 standing this literary activity, he was 
 still a player, for when Jonson’s comedy 
 of Every Man in his Humor was pro- 
 duced in 1598, Shakespeare took part in 
 the performance. At what time he 
 ceased to appear upon the stage is not 
 known ; we are even left in doubt when 
 he ceased to live in London and retired 
 to Stratford, though this was probably 
 between the years 1610 and 1612. Of 
 his life in Stratford after his return we 
 have no information except doubtful 
 stories and a few scraps of documentary 
 evidence. In February, 1616, his 
 younger daughter .Judith married; on 
 the 25th of the following month he 
 
 executed his will; and in another month 
 he was dead. He was buried in the chan- 
 cel of Stratford church, on the north wall 
 of which a monument, with bust and 
 epitaph, was soon afterward set up. 
 The face of this bust, which may have 
 been modeled from a cast taken after 
 his death, was colored, the eyes being 
 hazel, the beard and hair auburn. This 
 bust, and the portrait engraved by 
 Droeshout, prefixed to the first folio 
 edition of his writings (1623), are the 
 chief sources of our information regard- 
 ing the appearance of the poet. There 
 is also a death-mask dated 1616, and 
 what is known as the Chandos portrait, 
 which a-e interesting but not authorita- 
 tive. 
 
 In classifying the plays of Shake- 
 speare by the aid of such chronology 
 as is possible, modern critics have found 
 it instructive to divide his career as a 
 dramatist into four marked successive 
 stages. The first period (1588-93) marks 
 the inexperience of the dramatist and 
 gives evidence of experiment in charac- 
 terization, looseness in the construction 
 of plot, with a certain symmetrical arti- 
 ficiality in the dialogue. To this stage 
 belong: — Titus Andronicus (1588-90) 
 and part I. Henry VI. (1590-91), both 
 of which, it is thought, Shakespeare 
 merely retouched; Love’s Labor’s Lost 
 (1590); The Comedy of Errors (1591); 
 The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1592- 
 
 93) ; A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1593- 
 
 94) , parts II. and HI. Henry IV. (1591- 
 94), in which it is thought probable that 
 Marlowe had a hand; and King Richard 
 III. (1593). The second period (1594 to 
 1601) is that in which, with increased 
 security in his art, the dramatist sets 
 forth his brilliant pageant of English 
 history, his brightest conception of the 
 comedy of life, and more than proves 
 his capacity for deeper things by one 
 great romantic tragedy. To this stage 
 belong: King Richard II. (1594); parts 
 I. and II. Henry IV. (1597-98); King 
 Henry V. (1599); King, John (1595); 
 Romeo and Juliet (1596-97); The Mer- 
 chant of Venice (1596); Taming of the 
 Shrew (1597); Merry Wives of Windsor 
 (1598) ; Much Ado about Nothing (1598) ; 
 As You Like It (1599); and Twelfth 
 Night (1600-1). The third period 
 (1602-8) shows that the dramatist, 
 having mastered all the resources of his 
 art and tasted life to the full, is strangely 
 fascinated by mortal mischance, so that 
 even his comedy becomes bitter, whilehis 
 tragedy is black with the darkest temp- 
 ests of passionate human experience. 
 To this stage in his development belong: 
 All’s Well that Ends Well (1601-2); 
 Measure for Measure (1603) ; Troilus and 
 Cressida (1603); Julius Ccesar (1601); 
 Hamlet (1602); Othello (1604); King 
 Lear (1605); Macbeth (1606); Antony 
 and Cleopatra (1607) ; Coriolanus (1608) ; 
 and Timon of Athens (1607-8). The 
 fourth period (1608 to 1613) is that in 
 which Shakespeare, after having passed 
 through a season which was probably 
 darkened by his own personal experience 
 suddenly attained the glad serenity of 
 mind which enabled him to write his 
 last romantic plays. To this period 
 belong: Pericles (1608), which is only 
 partly from Shakespeare’s hand; Ctnn- 
 beline (1609); The Winter’s Tale (1610- 
 
 11); The Tempest (1610); with (the 
 doubtful) Two Noble Kinsmen (1612) 
 and King Henry VIII. (1612-13), which 
 are partly by another writer, supposed 
 to be Fletcher. Of non-dramatic pieces 
 Shakespeare was the author of Venus 
 and Adonis (1593), The Rape of Lucrece 
 (1594), the Sonnets and A Lover’s Com- 
 plaint (1609) ; while it is agreed that only 
 a few of the poems in the collection pub- 
 lished under the name of The Passionate 
 Pilgrim (1599) were written by him. 
 
 SHALE, a term applied in geology to 
 all argillaceous strata which possess to a 
 greater or less degree the quality of 
 splitting into layers parallel to the planes 
 of deposition. It is the solidified mud of 
 ancient waters, and is various in color 
 and composition, the chief varieties 
 being sandy, calcareous, purely argil- 
 laceous, and carbonaceous. Shale is fre- 
 quently found deposited between seams 
 of coal, and commonly bears fossil im- 
 pressions. The sub-variety known as 
 bituminous shale burns with flame, and 
 yields an oil, mixed with paraffin, of 
 great commercial importance. Alum 
 is also largely manufactured from the 
 shales of Lancashire, Yorkshire, and 
 Lanarkshire. 
 
 SHAMOKIN (sha-mo'kin), a city of 
 Northumberland co.. Pa., 40 miles north 
 by east of Harrisburg; on the Lehigh 
 valley, the Northern Central, and the 
 Philadelphia and Reading railroads. It 
 is the center of an extensive anthracite 
 coal-mining industry. Pop. 21,262. 
 
 SHAMOY LEATHER, a soft leather 
 prepared from the skins of goats, deer, 
 and sheep (originally the chamois, 
 whence the name) by impregnating 
 them with oil. This leather can be 
 washed without losing its color, and is 
 put to innumerable uses. 
 
 SHAMPOOING, the name given in the 
 East Indies to a process connected with 
 bathing, in which the whole body is 
 pressed and kneaded by the hands of the 
 attendants. 
 
 SHAMROCK, the name commonly 
 given to the national emblem of Ireland. 
 It is a trefoil plant, generally supposed 
 to be the plant called white clover; but 
 some think it to be rather the wood- 
 sorrel. The plant sold in Dublin on St. 
 Patrick’s Day is the small yellow trefoil. 
 
 SHAMROCK I., II., and III., three 
 racing yachts owned by Sir Thomas 
 Lipton, built to compete for the Ameri- 
 can Cup in the international yacht races 
 off Sandy Hook, N. Y. The first Sham- 
 rock competed in the 1899 cup races and 
 was defeated by the American yacht 
 Columbia in the first three races of the 
 series. Although defeated in the 1901 
 series by the Columbia which was again 
 selected to defend the cup, Shamrock 
 11. came nearer to actual victory than 
 any of its predecessors. Shamrock III. 
 was defeated in the 1903 series by the 
 1^3! r)iC 3 
 
 SHANGHAI, or SHANGHAE (shang- 
 hi'), a, large city and seaport of China, 
 province of Kiangsoo, on the Woosung 
 or Whangpoo, about 12 miles above its 
 entrance into the estuary of the Yan- 
 tsze-kiang. The Chinese city proper is 
 inclosed w'ithin walls 24 feet high, the 
 streets being narrow^ and dirty, and the 
 buildings low, crowded, and fcr the most 
 part unimportant. In 1843 Shanghai 
 
SHANNON 
 
 SHEATH-BILL 
 
 was opened as one of the five treaty 
 ports, and an important foreign settle- 
 ment is now established (with a separate 
 government) outside the city walls. 
 The Chinese authorities retain complete 
 control over all shipping dues, duties on 
 imports and exports, etc. Shanghai has 
 water communication with about a third 
 of China, and its trade since the opening 
 of the port has become very extensive. 
 
 the total of exports and imports to- 
 gether, native and foreign, amounting to 
 $280,000,000 annually. The chief im- 
 ports are cottons, yarns, woolens, and 
 opium; and the exports, silk, tea, rice, 
 and raw cotton. The largest part of the 
 foreign trade is in the hands of British 
 merchants. The foreign population is 
 about 3000, and the native population 
 is estimated at 300,000. 
 
 SHANNON, the largest river of Ireland 
 rises at the base of Cuilcagh mountain 
 in County Caven; flows s.w. and s. 
 through loughs Allen, Boderg, Bofin 
 and Derg ; divides Connaught from Lein- 
 ster and Munster; and enters the Atlantic 
 by a wide estuary, at the mouth of which 
 are Loop Head in Clare and Kerry Head 
 in Kerry; length about 250 miles. It is 
 connected with the Royal Canal and 
 the Grand canal, which give a direct 
 communication to Dublin, and also a 
 communication south into the basins of 
 the Barrow and Suir. The tide rises in 
 springs 17 or 18 feet, and in neaps about 
 14 feet. 
 
 SHANSEE', an inland province of 
 Northern China, with an area of 65,950 
 sq. miles, is the original seat of the 
 Chinese people, and in its lowland parts 
 is well cultivated. The capital is Tae- 
 yuen-foo. Pop. 14,000,000. 
 
 SHANGTUNG', a maritime province 
 of China, on the Yellow sea; area, 53,760 
 sq. miles. It was in this province that 
 Confucius was born. The capital is 
 Tse-nan-foo, and the pop. 29,000,000. 
 
 SHARK, the general name for a group 
 of elasmobranchiate fishes, celebrated 
 for the size and voracity of many of the 
 species. The form of the body is elon- 
 gated and the tail thick and fleshy. The 
 
 mouth is large, and armed with several 
 rows of compressed, sharp-edged, and 
 sometimes serrated teeth. The skin is 
 usually very rough, covered with a mul- 
 titude of little osseous tubercles or 
 placoid scales. Theyare themostformid- 
 
 
 Hammer-headed shark. 
 
 able and voracious of all fishes, pursue 
 other marine animals, and seem to care 
 little whethertheir preybeliving ordead. 
 They often follow vessels for the sake 
 of picking up any offal which may be 
 thrown overboard, and man himself 
 
 Man-eating shark. 
 
 often becomes a victim to their rapacity. 
 The sharks formed the g^nus Squalus of 
 Linnaeus, which is now divided into 
 several families, as the Carcharidae, or 
 white sharks; Lamnidae, or basking 
 sharks; Scymnidae, including the Green- 
 
 land shark; Scyllidae, or dog-fishes, etc. 
 The basking shark is by far the largest 
 species, sometimes attaining the length 
 of 40 feet, but it has none of the ferocity 
 of the others. The white shark is one of 
 the most formidable and voracious of 
 
 Bonnet-headed shark. 
 
 the species. It is rare on the American 
 coasts, but common in many of the 
 warmer seas, reaching a length of 
 over 30 feet. The hammer-headed 
 
 sharks which are chiefly found in tropi- 
 cal seas, are very voracious, and often 
 attack man. They are noteworthy for 
 the remarkable shape of their head 
 which resembles somewhat a double- 
 headed hammer, the eyes being at the 
 extremities. Other fonns are the por- 
 beagle, blue shark, fox shark, sea-fox, 
 sea-ape or thresher, and Greenland or 
 northern shark. The shark is oviparous 
 or ovoviviparous, according to circum- 
 stances. Large numbers of sharks are 
 caught in some places (Russian Lapland 
 the north of Norway) for the oil con- 
 tained in their livers. 
 
 SHARP, in music, the sign (Jf) which, 
 when placed on a line or space of the 
 staff at the commencement of a move- 
 ment, raises all the notes on that line or 
 space or their octaves a semitone in 
 pitch. When, in the course of the move- 
 ment, it precedes a note, it has the same 
 effect on it or its repetition, but only 
 within the same bar. — Double sharp, a 
 character ( X) used in chromatic music, 
 and which raises a note two semitones 
 above its natural pitch. 
 
 SHAW, George Bernard, British critic, 
 and dramatist, was born in Dublin in 
 1856. In 1876 he settleddn London and 
 became known as a brilliant writer. 
 His best known works are: The Irra- 
 tional Knot, Love Among the Artists, 
 Cashel Byron’s Profession, and An 
 Unsocial Socialist, Plays Pleasant and 
 Unpleasant, ^”'hree Plays for Puritans, 
 and Mrs. Warren’s Profession. In 1889 
 he edited Fabian Essays, contributing 
 two to the collection, and h' 'writings 
 include many socialistic pamphlets. 
 
 SHAW, Henry Wheeler, American 
 humorist, better known as Josh Bill- 
 ings, was born at Lanesborough, Mass., 
 in 1818. His amusing phonetic spelling 
 won great favor in the early sixties. His 
 Farmers’ Allminax, published annually 
 (1870-80) increased his reputation. He 
 contributed to the Century under the 
 pen name “Uncle Esek,” and collected 
 his works in 1877. Among American 
 humorists Josh Billings ranks high in 
 pith and point, and is regarded by many 
 as a true moralist. He died in 1885. 
 
 SHAWL, an article of dress usually 
 of a square or oblong shape worn by 
 both sexes in the East, but in the West 
 chiefly by females. Some of the East- 
 ern shawls, as those of Cashmere, are 
 beautiful and costly fabrics. The usual 
 materials in the manufacture of shawls 
 are silk, cotton, hair, or wool. Norwich 
 and Paisley were long famed for their 
 shawls made in imitation of those from 
 India. The shawl was introduced into 
 Europe in the nineteenth century. 
 
 SHEAR-TAILS, a genus of humming- 
 birds, of which the slender shear-tail 
 and Cora’s shear-tail are two familiar 
 species. These birds occur, the former in 
 Central America generally; the latter in 
 Peru and in the Andes valleys. They 
 derive their name from the elongation 
 of two central tail-feathers of the males. 
 
 SHEATH-BILL, a bird belonging to 
 the order Grallse. They derive their 
 name from the horny sheath which over- 
 lies the nostrils, and is continued back 
 until it extends in a kind of hood, 
 thickly feathered, covering the face. 
 In appearance and flight they are not 
 unlike pigeons, their plumage being 
 
SHEYBOYGAN 
 
 SHELL 
 
 dazzlingly white. They inhabit the 
 islands of the southern oceans, more 
 
 Sheathbill. 
 
 especially Kerguelen’s Island and the 
 Crozets. 
 
 short, close, and curled, and the mutton 
 is highly valued. The Cheviot is a hardier 
 breed than any of the preceding; its wool 
 is short, thick, and fine, while its mutton 
 is of excellent quality. The black-faced 
 breed is the hardiest of all, its wool is 
 long and coarse, and its mutton is con- 
 sidered the finest. The Merino variety of 
 sheep originally belonged to Spain 
 (where in summer they feed upon the 
 elevated districts of Navarre, Biscay, 
 and Arragon, and winter in the plains 
 of Andalusia, New Castile, and Estre- 
 madura), but they are now reared in 
 other parts of the continent, as also in 
 Australia and New Zealand. Their wool 
 is long and fine, but the mutton is of 
 little value. Of the other breeds, which 
 are numerous, mention may be made of 
 the broad-tailed or fat-tailed sheep 
 common in Asia and Egypt, and re- 
 markable for its large tail, which is 
 loaded with fat; the Iceland variety; 
 which has sometimes three, four, or five 
 horns; the fat-rumped sheep of Tartary; 
 the Astrakan or Bucharian sheep, the 
 wool of which is twisted in spiral curls 
 of a fine quality; the Wallachian or 
 Cretan ‘ sheep, which has long, large, 
 spiral horns; and the Rocky Mountain 
 sheep, a native of the United States, 
 and notable for its large horns. 
 
 SHEEP LAUREL, a small North 
 American shrub. It is a favorite garden 
 shrub, and receives its name from its 
 leaves and shoots being hurtful to cattle. 
 
 SHEEPSHEAD, the name of a fish 
 caught on the shores of Connecticut and 
 Long Island. It is allied to the gilt-head 
 
 SBiEIK (shek or shak), a title of 
 dignity properly belonging to the chiefs i 
 of the Arabic tribes, but now largely 
 used among Moslems as a title of respect. 
 The head of the Mohammedan monas- 
 teries, and the head man of a village are 
 sometimes called sheiks. The chief mufti 
 at Constantinople is the Sheik-ul-Islam. 
 
 SHEK'EL, a Jewish weight and in 
 later times a coin. The weight is believed 
 to have been about 218 or 220 grains 
 troy, and the value of the silver coin sixty 
 cents. There were also half-shekels 
 
 Half-shekel (silver) of Simon Maccabseus. 
 
 Sheartail. 
 
 SHEBOY'GAN, a town in Wisconsin, 
 on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the 
 Sheboygan river. It has a good harbor 
 and a trade in wheat and lumber. Pop. 
 25,000. 
 
 SHEEP, a ruminant animal nearly 
 allied to the goat. It is one of the most 
 useful animals to man, as its wool serves 
 him for clothing, its skin is made into 
 leather, its flesh is an excellent article of 
 food, and its milk, which is thicker than 
 that of cows, is used in some countries 
 to make butter and cheese. The varieties 
 of the domestic sheep are numerous, but 
 it is not known from what wild species 
 they were originally bred, although it is 
 
 E robable that the smaller short-tailed 
 reeds with crescent-shaped horns are 
 descended from the wild species known 
 as the moufflon. The ordinary life of a 
 sheep is from twelve to fifteen years; 
 but it is usually fattened and sent to 
 market at the age of two or three years 
 unless its fleece be the object desired. 
 The latter is shorn every year about the 
 month of May. The chief English varie- 
 ties of the sheep are the large Leicester, 
 the Cotswold, the Southdown, the 
 Cheviot, and the black-faced breeds. 
 The Leicester comes early to maturity, 
 attains a great size, although the mutton 
 is not of the finest quality, and its fleece 
 weighs from 7 to 8 lbs. The Cotswold 
 breed, which has been improved by 
 crossing with the Leicesters, has fine 
 wool, and a fine grained mutton. The 
 Southdowns are large, their wool is 
 
 coined both of silver and copper. A 
 shekel (weight) of gold was worth $5.00. 
 The shekel of the sanctuary is sup- 
 posed to have been originally worth 
 double the common shekel. 
 
 SHEL'BYVILLE, the county seat of 
 Shelby co., Ind., 26 miles southeast of 
 Indianapolis, on the Blue river, and on 
 the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and 
 St. Louis and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, 
 Chicago and St. Louis railroads. Pop. 
 10,160. 
 
 SHEL'DON, Charles Monroe, Ameri- 
 can clerg 3 mian, born at Wellsville, N. Y., 
 in 1857. Among his numerous publica- 
 tions are: The Crucifixion of Philip 
 Strong, His Brother’s Keeper. In His 
 Steps, published in 1896, had a won- 
 derful sale, and aroused much criti- 
 cism. 
 
 SHELDRAKE, or SHEILDRAKE, the 
 
 name given to two species of British 
 ducks, namely, the common sheldrake 
 
 and the bream, and is considered a de 
 licious food. It receives its name from 
 the resemblance of its head to that of a 
 
 SHEEP TICK, a well-known insect 
 belonging to the family of horse flies. 
 The pupae produced from the eggs are 
 shining oval bodies which become 
 attached to the wool of the sheep. From 
 these issue the tick, which is horn 3 '-, 
 bristly, of a rusty ochre color, and wing- 
 less. It fixes its head in the skin of the 
 sheep, and extracts the blood, leaving a 
 large round tumor. Called also sheep 
 louse. 
 
 SHEFFIELD, a municipal, pari., and 
 county borough of England, county of 
 York (West Riding), situated on hilly 
 ground at the junction of the Sheaf and 
 Don, about 160 miles north of London 
 by rail. The trade of Sheffield is chiefly 
 connected with cutlery, for which it has 
 long been famous, and the manufacture 
 of all forms of steel, iron, and brass 
 work. The steel manufacture includes 
 armor plating, rails, engine castings, 
 rifles, etc. They are also manufactures of 
 engines, machinery, plated goods, Bri- 
 tannia-metal goods, optical instruments, 
 stoves and grates, etc. Pop. 380,717. 
 
 Sheldrake. 
 
 and the ruddy sheldrake. They are some 
 times called burrow ducks, from their 
 habit of making their nests in rabbit 
 burrows. 
 
 SHELL, the name applied to the ex- 
 ternal limy covering secreted bj' various 
 groups of invertebrate animals, but 
 restricted in a scientific sense to that 
 form of exoskeleton secreted by the 
 mantle of the mollusca. Thus the hard 
 coverings of crabs, sea urchins, lobsters, 
 foraminifera, etc., are scientifically ' 
 known as “tests,” and are not to be 
 regarded as true shells. The shell in . 
 mollusca grows with the growth of the ’ 
 animal, to which it affords protection. 
 
SHELL 
 
 SHERIDAN 
 
 The shell or test of a crustacean does 
 not grow after it has once been formed, 
 but is cast and renewed from time to 
 time. In its most elementary form the 
 molluscan shell exists as simply a cover- 
 ing to the gills Each separate piece is 
 termed a valve. So that when the shell 
 consists of one piece, as in whelks, lim- 
 pets, etc., it is called a univalve; when 
 in two pieces, as in oysters, mussels, etc., 
 it is called a bivalve; and in the Chiton 
 family of gasteropoda it is called, be- 
 cause of its eight pieces, a multivalve. 
 In their chemical composition shells are 
 usually composed of carbonate of lime, 
 mixed with a small proportion of or- 
 ganic matter. Shells are much used in 
 ornamental manufactures 
 
 SHELL, a hollow projectile filled witli 
 a bursting charge of gunpowder or other 
 explosive composition, and fitted with a 
 fuse to fire it at the desired point. Shells 
 are usually made of cast-iron or steel, 
 and for mortars or smooth-bore cannon 
 are spherical, but for rifled guns are as a 
 rule elongated. There are many kinds of 
 shells. — Common shells are simple hol- 
 low projectiles filled with powder. On 
 explosion they act like a mine. They are 
 very effective in breaching earth-works 
 or masonry. — Palliser shells are made of 
 mottled iron with pointed heads, nearly 
 solid, and chilled white by being cast in 
 iron moulds. They are intended for use 
 against armor-clad vessels; the chilled 
 point, in virtue of its intense hardness 
 
 Shells. 
 
 1, Armour-piercing steel shellfor lll-tongun. 
 2, Shrapnel for Ill-ton gun. 3, Common shell 
 for 111 -ton gun. 
 
 and great crushing strength, penetrates 
 to an extraordinary depth. Steel shells 
 of similar power have also been made. — 
 Shrapnel shells are shells filled with 
 bullets, and with a small bursting charge 
 just sufficient to split the shell open and 
 release the bullets at any given point. — 
 Segment shells are of the nature of 
 shrapnel. They contain iron segments 
 built up round the inside of the shell. 
 From their construction they are in- 
 clined to spread much more than shrap- 
 nel on bursting, and they should con- 
 sequently be fired to burst close to the 
 object. With percussion fuses great 
 results are produced. 
 
 SHELLEY, Mary Wollstonecraft, the 
 second wife of the poet Shelley, was the 
 daughter of William Godwin and Mary 
 Wollstonecraft, and was born in London 
 1797, died 1851. Her romance of Frank- 
 enstein, which excited an immense sen- 
 sation, was published in 1818, when she 
 was at most twenty-one years old. In 
 1840-41 she edited Shelley’s works, with 
 preface and biographical notes. 
 
 SHELLEY, Percy Bysshe, born at 
 . Field Place, Horsham, Sussex, 4th 
 
 P. E.— 7? 
 
 t, 
 
 August, 1792. At Oxford, in his second 
 year at the university, he published 
 anonymously, apparently as a challenge 
 to the heads of the colleges, to whom it 
 was sent, a scholastic thesis entitled A 
 Defense of Atheism. The authorship be- 
 ing known he was challenged, and refus- 
 ing either to acknowledge or deny it was 
 at once expelled. After leaving the 
 university he completed his poem of 
 Queen Mab, begun some time previously 
 and privately printed in 1813. His first 
 great poem, Alastor, or the Spirit of 
 Solitude, saw the light in 1816; and this 
 was followed in 1817 by the Revolt of 
 
 Shelley. 
 
 Islam, a poem in the Spenserian stanza. 
 His principal poems, besides those 
 already mentioned, are Rosalind and 
 Helen, and Julian and Maddola (the 
 latter a poem recording some of his 
 intercourse with Byron), produced in 
 1818; the Cenci and the Prometheus Un- 
 bound, in 1819; the Witch of Atlas, in 
 1820; and the Epipsychidion, the 
 Adonais (an elegy on Keats), and the 
 Hellas, in 1821. He was drowned in the 
 Bay of Spezia, Italy, July 8, 1821. 
 Many memoirs of Shelley have appeared 
 the best of which is the Life by Prof. 
 Ed. Dowden published in 1886. 
 
 SHEM, the eldest son of Noah, and 
 ancestor of Abraham, who was the 
 eighth in descent from him according 
 to the genealogies in the book of Genesis. 
 
 SHENANDO'AH, a town in Schuyl- 
 kill, CO., Pennsylvania, 12 miles n. of 
 Pottsville. Founded in 1863, it is the 
 center of a great coal district. Pop. 
 22,416. 
 
 SHENANDOAH, a river of the United 
 States, which flows northeast through 
 the valley of Virginia, and immediately 
 below Harper’s ferry joins the Potomac, 
 of which it is the principal tributary. Its 
 length is 170 miles, the greater part of 
 which is navigable for boats The valley 
 of the Shenandoah was the scene of 
 numerous military operations in the 
 American civil war, and was devastated 
 by General Sheridan in 1864. 
 
 SHEN-SE, a province of China, 
 bounded on the north by the Great 
 Wall, and on the east by the Yellow 
 river; area, 80,900 sq. miles. Pop. 
 8,276,967. 
 
 SHEOL, a Hebrew word frequently 
 occurring in the Old Testament, and 
 rendered in the Septuagint by “hades,” 
 in the Authorized Version of “grave,” 
 “pit,” and “hell,” but in the Revised 
 Bible of 1885 never, except in one in- 
 stance, by the last term. It was, as 
 
 originally conceived, the gloomy under- 
 world, the abode of the ghosts or spirits 
 of the dead. No retributive idea was 
 connected with it until the time of the 
 exile. 
 
 SHERE ALI KHAN, Amir of Afghani- 
 stan, was born about 1823, and suc- 
 ceeded his father. Dost Mohammed, in 
 1863. Shere Ali in 1879 died, a fugitive, 
 in Afghan Turkistan. He was succeeded 
 by his second son, Yakub Khan, who, 
 however, on account of the Cavagnari 
 massacre, was speedily deposed and de- 
 ported to India, and was succeeded by 
 his cousin, Abdur Rahman Khan, in 
 1880. 
 
 SHERTDAN, Philip Henry, American 
 general, and the greatest cavalry leader 
 produced by the American civil war, 
 was born at Somerset, Ohio, in 1831, 
 graduated at the Military academy. 
 West Point, in 1853, and from 1855 to 
 1861 served on the frontiers of Texas 
 and Oregon. At the outbreak of the 
 civil war he was a captain in the 13th 
 infantry. Having greatly distinguished 
 himself in the earlier battles of the war, 
 in April, 1864, Grant appointed him 
 chief of cavalry of the Army of the 
 Potomac, and he made several daring 
 cavalry raids into the south. His rush 
 from Winchester to Cedar Creek, a dis- 
 tance of 20 miles, in October, 1864, 
 which turned a federal defeat into a bril- 
 liant victory, is known as “Sheridan’s 
 Ride.” During the final advance upon 
 
 Philip H. Sheridan. 
 
 Richmond he was Grant’s right-hand 
 man; he fought the battle of Five Forks, 
 which necessitated Lee’s evacuation of 
 Richmond and Petersburg; and as Lee 
 fled he constantly harassed and attacked 
 him until he compelled his surrender at 
 Appomattox Courthouse, April 9, 1865. 
 After the war he held various military 
 commands. In March, 1869, he became 
 lieutenant-general, and in February, 
 1884, on the retirement of Sherman, he 
 succeeded to the command of the army. 
 He died August 5, 1888. An account of 
 his military career, written by himself, 
 appeared in 1889. 
 
 SHERIDAN, Richard Brinsley Butler, 
 was born at Dublin in 1751, his father 
 being 'Thomas Sheridan, actor, and 
 latterly teacher of elocution. Without 
 means or a profession he applied himself 
 to composition for the stage, and on 
 17th January, 1775, brought out The 
 
SHERIFF 
 
 SHIELD 
 
 Rivals, which, after a temporary failure, 
 from bad acting, attained a brilliant 
 success. On 21st November, he produced 
 the comic opera, The Duenna, which had 
 a run of seventy-five nights an unprec- 
 edented success. In 1776 he managed 
 to find money to become one of the pro- 
 prietors of Drury Lane Theater, where, 
 in 1777, appeared The School for 
 Scandal, his most famous comedy, and 
 in 1779 The Critic, a farce, which like the 
 Duenna and The School for Scandal 
 was a model of its kind, and shared in 
 their brilliant success. His dramatic 
 reputation, and especially his social 
 gifts, brought him into intimacy with 
 Fox, Burke, Windham, and other whig 
 leaders, and in 1780 Fox got him returned 
 to parliament for Stafford. In 1782 he 
 became under-secretary of state; in 
 1783 secretary of the treasury; in 1806 
 treasurer of the navy and privy-coun- 
 cillor. He never became a statesman, 
 but his fame soon rose high as an orator. 
 His greatest effort was his “Begum” 
 speech on the impeachment of Warren 
 Hastings (1787), which Pitt said “sur- 
 passed all the eloquence of ancient and 
 modern times.” His wife died in 1792. 
 In 1795 he married Miss Ogle, a daugh- 
 ter of the Dean of Winchester, with 
 whom he received a considerable acces- 
 sion of means. His parliamentary career 
 ended in 1812, and the remainder of his 
 life was constantly harassed by debt 
 and disappointment. He died in 1816, 
 having narrowly escaped arrest for debt 
 on his death-bed. 
 
 SHER'IFF, in England, the chief 
 officer of the crown in every county, 
 appointed annually. The custody of the 
 county is committed to him by letters- 
 patent, and he has charge of all the busi- 
 ness of the crown therein. During his 
 tenure of office he takes precedence 
 within the county of any nobleman, and 
 is entitled to sit on the bench with the 
 justices of assize. The person appointed 
 IS bound under a penalty to serve the 
 office, except in specified cases of exemp- 
 tion or disability, but a person who has 
 served one year is not liable to serve 
 again till after an interval of three years 
 if there be another sufficient person in 
 the county. The sheriff is specially 
 intrusted with the execution of the laws 
 and the preservation of the peace and 
 for this purpose he has at his disposal 
 the whole civil force of the county — in 
 old legal phraseology the posse comi- 
 tatus. The most ordinary of his func- 
 tions, such as the execution of writs, he 
 universally performs by a deputy called 
 under-sheriff, while he himself only per- 
 forms in person those duties which are 
 either purely honorary, such as attend- 
 ance upon the judges on circuit, or 
 which are of some dignity and public 
 importance, such as presiding over 
 elections and holding county meetings, 
 which he may call at any time. The 
 office of sheriff was formerly heredi- 
 tary in some counties, and continued so 
 in Westmoreland till the death of the 
 last hereditary sheriff the Earl of Thanet, 
 in 1849. 
 
 In the United States the sheriff is a 
 very different functionary, not holding 
 the position of a judge at all, but acting 
 as the highest peace officer of his county, 
 having to pursue and arrest criminals, to 
 
 carry out sentences, to take charge of 
 the jail, etc. 
 
 SHERMAN, a city in Grayson co., 
 Texas, 73 miles n. of Dallas. It is the 
 center of a cotton and grain district. 
 Pop. 12.240. 
 
 SHERMAN, JAMES SCHOOL- 
 CRAFT, born in Utica, N. Y., Oct. 24, 
 1855 ; graduated from Hamilton Col- 
 lege, 1878; admitted to the bar, 1880; 
 president Utica Trust and Deposit 
 company and of the New Hartford Can- 
 ning company ; mayor of Utica, 1884; 
 elected as Republican to 60th, 51st, 53d, 
 54th, 55th, 56th, 67th 68th, 59th and 
 60th congresses ; nominated for vice 
 president of the United States and 
 elected to that office in November, 1908. 
 
 SHERMAN, John, American states- 
 man, was born in 1823, at Lancaster, 
 Ohio In 1855 he was elected to the 
 thirty-fourth congress in the interest of 
 the Free-Soil party, and was reelected 
 to the thirty-fifth and thirty-sixth con- 
 gresses. He became a power on the floor 
 and in committees, and was recognized as 
 the foremost man in the house, par- 
 ticularly in matters affecting finance. 
 He was again elected to congress in 1860, 
 but in the following year was chosen to 
 the United States senate, where he at 
 once became a leader. In March, 1877, 
 Senator Sherman was appointed, by 
 President Hayes, secretary of the trea- 
 sury. It was due to his management 
 while at the head of the treasury, that 
 the resumption of specie payments was 
 effected in 1879 without disturbance to 
 the financial or commercial interests of 
 the country. He was a prominent can- 
 didate for the republican presidential 
 nomination in 1880, and again in 1888. 
 In 1897 he resigned from the senate to 
 become secretary of state in the cabinet 
 of President McKinley. He resigned 
 this office shortly after the outbreak of 
 war with Spain in 1898, retired to priv- 
 ate life, and prepared his Forty Years 
 in the House and Senate. He died in 1900 
 
 SHERMAN, Roger, born in Newton, 
 Mass., April 19, 1721; died in New 
 Haven, Con., July 23, 1793. When the 
 revolution began he sided with the 
 patriots, and in August, 1774, was 
 chosen as delegate, to the continental 
 congress. Later, with Adams, Franklin, 
 Jefferson, and Livingston, he was one 
 of the committee who drew up the 
 declaration of Independence. From 
 1784 until his death he was mayor of 
 New Haven, and in 1791 was United 
 States senator for Connecticut. 
 
 SHERMAN, William Tecumseh, Amer- 
 ican general, was born at Lancaster, 
 Ohio, 1820, graduated at the military 
 academy. West Point, in 1840, and 
 served in Florida, Mexico, and elsewhere 
 till 1852, when he resigned his commis- 
 sion. On the breaking out of the civil war 
 he offered his services to the United 
 States government, and was appointed 
 colonel of the 13th regiment of infantry. 
 He was present at the battle of Bull 
 Run, greatly distinguished himself at 
 Shiloh, and subsequently took a promi- 
 nent part in the operations under Grant 
 around Vicksburg and Memphis. In 
 March, 1864, he succeeded Grant as 
 commander of the military division of 
 the Mississippi, and at the beginning of 
 May, simultaneously with Grant’s ad- 
 
 vance in the east, he entered upon his 
 invasion of Georgia. On Septemoer 2, 
 after a number of battles, he received 
 the capitulation of Atlanta, and on 
 December 21, of Savannah; and then 
 turning northward into the Carolinas 
 and fighting more battles, he received 
 the surrender of General J. E. Johnston, 
 at Durham station, April 26, 1865, a 
 
 William Tecumseh Sherman. 
 
 surrender which brought the war to a 
 close. Sherman was made a major- 
 general in August, 1864, lieutenant- 
 general in July, 1866, and general and 
 commander-in-chief in March, 1869. 
 He was retired in 1884. His military 
 career is detailed in his Memoirs, written 
 by himself, and published in 1875. He 
 died in 1891. 
 
 SHERRY, a Spanish wine made in the 
 neighborhood of Xeres de la Frontera, 
 in the province of Andalusia, near Cadiz. 
 The soil of the best vineyards consists 
 chiefly of carbonate of lime, with a small 
 admixture of silex and clay, and occa- 
 sionally magnesia. The dry sherry is the 
 most esteemed, the finest variety being 
 the Amontillado sherry. The sherry 
 wines are shipped for the most part at 
 Cadiz, and are principally exported to 
 England. No wine is more largely imi- 
 tated and adulterated than sherry. 
 
 SHETLAND, or ZETLAND, an insular 
 county of Scotland, about 50 miles n.f*. 
 of Orkney; area, 352,876 acres. It con- 
 sists of about ninetj’' islands and islets, 
 of which twenty-nine are inhabited, the 
 largest being the following: Mainland, 
 Yell, Unst, Whalsey, Fetlar, and Bres- 
 say, the first occup 3 'ing about three- 
 fourths of the whole area of the group. 
 The Shetland pony is well known, and 
 is not surpassed by any horse of its 
 dimensions for strength and hardihood. 
 The fisheries, especially the herring- 
 fishery, are very valuable, and afford 
 the chief employment. The knitting of 
 woolen articles may be said to be the 
 only native manufacture. For parlia- 
 mentary purposes Shetland unites with 
 Orkney in returning one member. Tha 
 only town is Lerwick. Pop. 26,185. 
 
 SHIB'BOLETH, a word which 
 made by Jephthah the criterion to dis- 
 tinguish the Ephraimites from the 
 Gileadites at the fords of Jordan. 
 
 SHIELD, a piece of defensive armo^ 
 
SHIELD 
 
 SHIP 
 
 borne on the left arm. Shields gradually 
 disappeared with the introduction of 
 firearms, but the target and broadsword 
 were the favorite arms of the Scotch 
 Highlanders up to the middle of the 
 18th century. 
 
 SHIELD, in heraldry, the escutcheon 
 or field on which are placed the bearings 
 in coats of arms. The shape of the shield 
 upon which heraldic bearings are dis- 
 played is left a good deal to fancy; the 
 form of the lozenge, however, is used 
 only by single ladies and widows. The 
 shield used in funeral processions is of 
 a square form, and divided per pale, the 
 one half being sable, or the whole black, 
 as the case may be, with a scroll border 
 around, and in the center the arms of the 
 deceased upon a shield of the usual form. 
 
 SHIELDS, South, a municipal, pari., 
 and county borough of England, in the 
 county of Durham, near the mouth of 
 the Tyne, opposite to North Shields, 
 and communicating with it by steam- 
 ferry. The industries comprise glass 
 earthenware, alkali and chemicals, cord- 
 age, ,steam-engine boilers, and chain- 
 cables and anchors, besides ship-build- 
 ing. Pop. 97,267. 
 
 SHIITES (shi'itz), one of the two great 
 sects of Mohammedans, who do not 
 acknowledge the Sunna as a law, and 
 believe that Ali, the fourth caliph after 
 Mohammed, was his first lawful suc- 
 cessor. The Persians are Shiites. See 
 Sunnites. 
 
 SHIKARPUR', chief town of Shikar- 
 pur District, Sind Province, Bombay 
 presidency, India, 18 miles west of the 
 Indus and 26 southeast of Jacobabad. 
 It is an emporium for transit trade be- 
 tween the Bolan Pass and Karachi, but 
 has lost much of its commercial im- 
 portance since the opening of the Indus 
 Valley railway. The principal manu- 
 factures are carpets and coarse cotton 
 cloth. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 SHILLING, an English silver coin, 
 equal in value to 12 bronze pence or 
 one-twentieth of a pound sterling, and 
 approximate in value to 24 American 
 cents, to 1.25 French francs, and to 1.11 
 German marks. 
 
 SHILOH, Battle of, one of the most 
 memorable battles of the American civil 
 war. Shiloh is in Tennessee, 2 miles west 
 of Pittsburg Landing, on the Tennessee 
 river, and took its name from a log 
 chapel known as “Shiloh church.” The 
 battle was fought on the 6th and 7th 
 of April, 1862, Grant and Sherman lead- 
 ing the federals, and A. S. Johnson and 
 Beauregard the confederates. The first 
 day the confederates, taking the fed- 
 erals by surprise, drove them from their 
 lines, with heavy loss in men and guns; 
 but the second day the federals, having 
 received reinforcements, and largely 
 outnumbering the confederates, regained 
 their lines, and forced the confederates 
 to retreat to their former position at 
 Corinth. 
 
 SHINGLE, a thin piece of wood re- 
 sembling a roofing slate, and used for the 
 same purpose and in the same way. In 
 Canada and the United States, and other 
 places where timber is plentiful, shingles 
 are extensively used for a roof-covering. 
 They are usually cut by in^nious ma- 
 chinery devised for the special purpose. 
 
 SHINGLES, an eruptive skin disease, 
 
 which usually starts from the backbone 
 and goes half way round the body, form- 
 ing a belt of inflamed patches, with 
 clustered vesicles. It rarely encircles 
 the body, though the popular opinion 
 that if it does it will prove fatal is a de- 
 lusion. It is sometimes produced by 
 sudden exposure to cold after violent 
 exercise, and sometimes follows acute 
 affections of the respiratory organs. It 
 seems to depend upon abnormal nervous 
 action, as it frequently marks out upon 
 the surface the part of the integument 
 supplied by some one branch of a nerve. 
 It is usually attended with more or less 
 neuralgic pain and fever. It is a self- 
 limited or cyclical disease, usually 
 running its coarse in about a fortnight. 
 
 SHINTOTSM, one of the two great 
 religions of Japan. In its origin it was 
 a form of nature worship, but the 
 essence of the religion is now ancestor 
 worship and sacrifice to departed heroes. 
 
 SHIP, in the most general sense, a 
 vessel intended for navigating the ocean. 
 In contradistinction to boat, which is 
 the most general term for a navigable 
 vessel, it signifies a vessel intended for 
 distant voyages. Ships Are of various 
 sizes, and fitted for various uses, and re- 
 ceive various names, according to their 
 rig and the purpose to which they are 
 applied, as man-of-war ships, transports, 
 merchantmen, barques, brigs, schooners, 
 luggers, sloops, xebecs, galleys, etc. 
 
 The ancient art of ship-building, like 
 many other arts, was lost in, the over- 
 whelming tide of barbarism which over- 
 threw the last of the great empires of 
 antiquity. The ruder nations of Europe 
 had to begin again in great measure on 
 their own resources. The war galley of 
 the ancients may possibly be so far 
 preserved in the mediaeval galleys 
 applied to the same purpose. On the 
 Mediterranean, too, an unbroken line 
 of coasting ships may probably have 
 continued to sail. But it appears 
 evident that the progress made in ship- 
 building under the Roman Empire, not 
 to speak of the Phoenicians and other 
 earlier navigators, was much greater 
 than was transmitted to mediaeval 
 Europe. Ship-building made little 
 progress in Europe till the discovery of 
 the compass, which was introduced 
 in a rude form in the 12th century, and 
 had been improved and had come into 
 common use in the 14th century. The 
 opening up of the passage to India and 
 the discovery of America made another 
 epoch in its progress. In the building of 
 large vessels the Spaniards long took the 
 lead, and were followed by the French, 
 who especially distinguished themselves 
 in the theoretical study of the art. In 
 the early progress of the art of ship- 
 building the English took little or no 
 part. When Henry VII. built the 
 Henry Grace de Dieu, which is regarded 
 as the parent of the British navy, the 
 English were greatly inferior to the 
 nations of Southern Europe both in 
 navigation and in ship-building. In 
 the reign of Elizabeth the English fleet 
 proved its superiority to that of Spain 
 in respect of fighting capacity, but it was 
 afterward rivaled by that of Holland. 
 Rapid improvement was made in ship- 
 building during the 17th and 18th cen- 
 turies in England as well as the maritime 
 
 states of the Continent. The first three- 
 decker was built in England in 1637. 
 She was called the Sovereign of the Seas, 
 and was deemed the best man-of-war in 
 the world. In 1768 the French adopted 
 three-deckers; and from their appli- 
 cation of science they acquired a decided 
 superiority in the size and models of 
 their ships over the English. In the 
 early part of the present century the 
 lead in improvement was taken by the 
 United States. English builders were 
 at first skeptical as to American im- 
 provements; but in 1832 Scott Russell 
 theoretically established the principles 
 on which speed in sailing depends — 
 principles which had already been 
 practically applied not only by the 
 Americans but by the Spaniards. From 
 the time of their theoretical establish- 
 ment they were rapidly adopted in 
 England, and a race of improvement 
 began between Great Britain and 
 America. The true principles of con- 
 struction both in build and rig were 
 exemplified in the celebrated Baltimore 
 clipper schooners, which were sharp in 
 the bow, deep in the stern, of great 
 length, and lying low in the water, with 
 long, slender masts, and large sails cut 
 with great skill. The same principles 
 were afterward applied to square- 
 rigged vessels, and produced the Eng- 
 lish and American clipper ships which 
 did so much to develop the trade of 
 India, China, and Australia with botk 
 Europe and America. * 
 
 A great change came over the art of 
 ship-building when steam was intro- 
 duced and wood gave place to iron and 
 then to steel. The first steamer^ built 
 expressly for regular voyages be’tween 
 Europe and America was the Great 
 Western, launched in 1837. She was 
 propelled by paddles, but about the 
 same time Ericsson invented his screw- 
 propeller, which was soon adopted in 
 sea-going ships, and the British Ad- 
 miralty possessed a screw vessel in 1842. 
 Iron vessels were built early in the 
 19th century for canal service, then 
 for river service, and later for packet 
 service on the coasts. About 1838 iron 
 vessels were built for ocean service, but 
 the first ocean-going steamship in its 
 resent form, built of iron and propelled 
 y the screw, was the Great Britain, 
 launched in 1842. Compound engines 
 were first' introduced with high-press- 
 ure steam in 1854. The progress of 
 steam navigation is marked by special 
 types of vessels buUt from time to time. 
 Many of the vessels belonging to the 
 great ocean lines ar|. splendid speci- 
 mens of naval architecture, some of 
 them being nearly 800 feet in length, 
 having a displacement of 30,000 or 
 40,000 tons or even more, and with 
 engines working up to 30,000 or 40,000 
 horse-power, and making the trip from 
 Queenstown to New York in less than 
 five days. The largest vessels are all pro- 
 pelled by steam, but very large sailing 
 vessels are now constructed also, espe- 
 cially since it became not uncommon to 
 fit them with four, and even five, masts. 
 
 An iron vessel is lighter than a wooden 
 one of the same size, and with iron ti-ft 
 same strength may be obtained wi 4 
 less weight. Iron is also far mof6 
 * manageable than wood, as it ean be 
 

 SHIP CANAL 
 
 bent with ease into any required 
 shape. Steel, which is now supersed- 
 ing iron for building ships, is a still 
 lighter material and is equally manage- 
 able. See Sail and Steamship. 
 
 SHIP CANAL, a canal for the passage 
 of sea-going vessels. Ship canals are in- 
 tended either to make an inland, or 
 comparatively inland place, a seaport, or 
 to connect sea with sea, and thus obviate 
 a long ocean navigation. Of the former 
 kind are the Manchester Ship Canal, 
 making that city a seaport, and the 
 Amsterdam Canal, which gives Am- 
 sterdam a direct passage to the North 
 Sea at Ymuiden. Of the latter kind 
 are the Suez Canal, the Caledonian 
 Canal, the North Sea and Baltic Canal, 
 and (not yet completed) the Panama 
 Canal, Nicaragua Canal, etc. The 
 Caledonian Canal was formed by the 
 British government for military pur- 
 poses. It is a good example of a ship 
 canal which traverses high districts and 
 surmounts the elevation by locks. 
 The Suez Canal (1860-69) is the greatest 
 of all ship canals yet complete. It has 
 no locks whatever, and communicates 
 freely with the sea, connecting the 
 Mediterranean with the Red Sea, 88 
 miles, and reducing the length of the 
 voyage from London to India from 
 11,379 to 7628 miles. The Panama 
 Canal, designed to connect the Atlantic 
 Ocean with the Pacific, will be the 
 greatest engineering work of the kind 
 the world has ever seen. 
 
 SHIPKA PASS, a pass in the Balkans, 
 about 4600 feet above the sea, the scene 
 of a desperate and bloody ten days’ 
 struggle during the Russo-Turkish war 
 (August and Sept. 1877). In his futile 
 endeavors to take Fort Nicholas at the 
 summit of the pass from the Russians, 
 Suleiman Pasha lost 20,000 of his best 
 men. 
 
 SHIP RAILWAY, a railway com- 
 posed of several tracks, with some sort 
 of carriage for transporting vessels from 
 one body of water to another. Captain 
 J. B. Eads’s proposed plan for the 
 Tehuantepec Ship Railway, across the 
 isthmus between North and South 
 America in Mexican territory, consists 
 essentially of a series of some eight or 
 ten tracks, having a carrying car or 
 cradle of some five sections, with alto- 
 gether 1000 wheels. Calculated for a 
 vessel of 10,000 tons, this would not 
 give a pressure so great as that of an 
 ordinary locomotive. A ship railway 
 has been constructed by the Canadian 
 government between Chignecto Bay, in 
 the Bay of Fundy across the isthmus to 
 Northumberland Straits, a distance of 17 
 miles, which enables vessels to go from 
 Prince Edward Island to St. John, New 
 Brunswick, in twelve hours, and greatly 
 facilitates the transport of grain in bulk 
 from the lake ports to New Brunswick. 
 The vessels are raised by hydraulic 
 pressure a height of 40 feet to the level 
 of the railway, and placed on a double 
 track 18 feet from center to center. 
 The flexible car system of ship railway 
 invented by William Smith, harbor 
 engineer of Aberdeen, is designed to 
 allow of the use of ordinary railway 
 gradients. The car is in sections, each 
 carried on a compound bogie running 
 on parallel lines. Vertical and lateral 
 
 SHOCK 
 
 flexibility are secured, and the ship is 
 sustained on the car by water-cushions, 
 so that it is virtually kept floating. The 
 ship is raised on to the cars by means 
 of a submerged shipway inclosed within 
 a w'et dock. 
 
 very thin film alone of wood is left be- 
 tween the cavities, which are lined with a 1 
 calcareous incrustation. Various plana,? 
 are tried to protect ships, piers, etc.v' 
 from this destructive animal, such as 
 copper-sheathing, treating with creasote, 
 
 Ship railway. 
 
 SHIP-WORM, the popular name of a 
 lamellibranchiate mollusc belonging to 
 the Pholadidse or pholas family, and 
 distinguished by the elongation of the 
 respiratory “siphons” or breathing- 
 tubes conveying water to the gills, which 
 give to this mollusc a somewhat vermi- 
 form or wormlike aspect. The two 
 valves or halves of the shell are of small 
 size and globular shape, and are situated 
 at its anterior extremity, the valves 
 
 Ship-worm, and piece of wood perforated 
 by teredos. 
 
 being three-lobed. In length the ship- 
 wonn averages about a foot, and in 
 thickness about ^ inch. It has gained 
 great notoriety from its boring habits, 
 occasioning great destruction to ships 
 and submerged wood by perforating 
 them in all directions in order to estab- 
 lish a habitation. In boring into the 
 wood (the shell is the boring instrument) 
 each individual is careful to avoid the 
 tube formed by its neighbor, and often a 
 
 etc. ; but the plan which appears to have 
 been most successful in arresting its 
 ravages is that of driving a number of 
 short nails with large heads into the 
 exposed timber. The rust from the 
 heads of the nails appears to prevent its 
 operation. A large species of teredo 
 occurs in warm latitudes, where it bores 
 into the hardened mud or sand of the 
 sea-bed, as well as into timber. 
 
 SHITTIM-WOOD, of which the taber- 
 nacle in the wilderness was principally 
 constructed, was the wood of the shittah 
 tree of the Bible, which is supposed to be 
 the Acacia seyal of the Sinaitic penin- 
 sula. (See Acacia.) It is a light but 
 cross-grained and enduring wood, of a 
 fine orange-browm color. 
 
 SHOCK, in medicine, a sudden vital 
 depression of the system produced by 
 violent injuries or violent mental 
 emotions. It is especially a surgical 
 term. The vital phenomena of the body 
 — consciousness, respiration, heart-ac- 
 tion, capillary circulation — are de- 
 pressed in proportion to the shock re- 
 ceived by the nerve-centers. In the state 
 of collapse consequent upon a shock the 
 patient lies completely prostrate, the 
 face pale and bloodless, the skin cold and 
 clammy, and the features contracted 
 and expressive of great languor. There 
 is also extreme muscular debilitj', and 
 the pulse is frequently, so weak aB 
 scarcely to be perceptible. Incoherency, 
 drowsiness, or complete insensibility, iB 
 often manifested on the part of the 
 patient. Shock results either in a coni' 
 
SHODDY 
 
 SHOULDER-JOINT 
 
 plete suspension of the action of heart, 
 causing death, or passes into reaction; 
 and the treatment of shock is to be 
 directed to the immediate development 
 of reaction. In mild cases external 
 warmth, a little stimulant, and rest are 
 all that is required; but in the severer 
 forms a more liberal recourse to heat and 
 stimulants is absolutely necessary, and 
 should be continued until indications of 
 commencing reaction appear. The heat 
 should be applied to the pit of the 
 stomach and the extremities by means 
 of hot flannel, hot-water tins, or like 
 appliances. The stimulant most reconi- 
 mended is brandy in hot water, and this 
 should be followed by nourishment, such 
 as beef-tea. 
 
 SHODDY, the fibrous substance com- 
 posed of woolen rags torn fine in a ma- 
 chine called a “devil,” and converted 
 into cheap cloth by being mixed and 
 spun with a certain proportion of fresh 
 wool. 
 
 SHOES, coverings for the feet, gen- 
 erally made of leather in Europe and 
 America, but in Holland and France 
 often of wood, and in China and Japan 
 of paper and other fabrics. The shoe is 
 a combination of the sandal of the 
 oriental races and the moccasin of un- 
 tanned hides of savage races — sole with- 
 out upper and upper without sole. The 
 first allusion to a shoe in the Old Testa- 
 ment is where Abraham refuses to take 
 so much as a “shoe-latchet” from the 
 King of Sodom. For “shoe” in this in- 
 stance we are probably to understand 
 “sandal;” but shoes proper, as well as 
 sandals, seem to have been used among 
 the Jews; for on the black obelisk from 
 Nimroud Jews are represented as wear- 
 ing shoes or boots with turned-up toes, 
 similar to those worn by orientals in the 
 present day. The Romans used various 
 kinds of shoes, such as the solea or san- 
 dal; the calceus, which covered [the 
 whole foot, somewhat like our shoes, 
 and was tied with a latchet or lace; and 
 the caliga, a very strong kind of shoe, 
 sometimes shod with nails, worn by the 
 soldiers, who were thence called caligati. 
 Both in ancient and in modern times 
 the fashion of shoes has varied much, 
 just as in other articles of dress. In the 
 reigns of Henry I. and Stephen, shoes 
 were made for the fashionable with long 
 points stuffed with tow, and made to 
 curl in the form of a ram’s horn; and in 
 the reign of Richard II. the points had 
 increased to such an extent that they 
 reached the knee, to which they were 
 secured by chains of silver or gold. In 
 the 18th century, among the ladies, 
 absurdly high-heeled shoes were the 
 rage, a fashion which has been revived 
 within the last few years. The present 
 simple form of shoe was adopted in the 
 early part of the 17th century, and 
 somewhat later the shoe buckle came 
 into use. In the early part of the 19th 
 century buckles appear to have become 
 unfashionable, their place being supplied 
 by the simpler and less costly shoe- 
 strings. To the same period belongs 
 another improvement »that of making 
 shoes right and left. Boots are a variety 
 of shoe with the upper leathers length- 
 ened so as to protect part of the leg. 
 Till recently the making of boots and 
 shoes was a purely manual handicraft; 
 
 now, with the exception of the finest 
 and best finished qualities, the manu- 
 facture is done almost entirely by ma- 
 chinery. 
 
 SHOLAPUR', chief town of Sholapur 
 district, Bombay presidency, India, 150 
 miles by rail from Poona. Its situation 
 between Poona and Haiderabad has 
 made it, especially since the opening of 
 the railway in 1859, the center for the 
 trade of a large extent of country. Its 
 chief industry is the manufacture of silk 
 and cotton cloth. Pop. (including can- 
 tonment), 75,288. — The district of 
 Sholapur has an area of 4521 sq. miles, 
 and pop. 720,978. 
 
 SHOOTING-STAR, a meteor in a 
 state of incandescence, caused by the 
 resistance of the atmosphere, seen sud- 
 denly darting along some part of the 
 sky. See Aerolite and Meteor. 
 
 SHORTHAND, the method of writing 
 by which the process is so abbreviated 
 as to keep pace with speech. It is also 
 known, according to the principle under- 
 lying the particular system, as tachy- 
 graphy (quick writing), brachygraphy 
 (short writing) , stenography (com pressed 
 wrRing, )and phonography (sound writ- 
 ing). It was practiced by the ancient 
 Greeks and Romans, not only on ac- 
 count of its brevity but for purposes of 
 secrecy; but all knowledge of the art 
 was lost from the 10th century until the 
 end of the 16th, when modern shorthand 
 had its birth ip the publication by Dr. 
 Timothy Bright of his Characterie 
 (1587), and by Peter Bales of his Arte of 
 Brachygraphie (1590). In these early 
 systems abritrary signs were used in 
 most cases to denote each word. The 
 earliest system of shorthand of any 
 practical importance was that of John 
 Willis, whose Arte of Stenographic 
 (1602) became very popular. It was 
 based on the common alphabet, with 
 the addition of arbitrary signs; and this, 
 indeed, was the character of the numer- 
 ous systems which obtained until the 
 time of Pitman (1837). 
 
 Pitman had a number of predecessors, 
 whose systems, like his own, were 
 strictly phonetic. These systems, how- 
 ever, never obtained any footing, while 
 Pitman’s almost immediately became 
 popular, and is now used by a larger 
 number of reporters and shorthand 
 writers than any other. Like all other 
 phonetic systems. Pitman’s rejects the 
 ordinary orthography, and writes words 
 according to their sounds; thus, though 
 becomes tho,' plough becomes plow, and 
 enough becomes enuf. Discarding the 
 common alphabet, which formed the 
 basis of the stenographic systems, it has 
 adopted an alphabet of its own, consist- 
 ing of a series of straight lines, curves, 
 dots, etc., each representing a distinct 
 sound. This alphabet is the basis of a 
 highly ingenious and complex system, 
 which aims at securing the greatest 
 degree of brevity consistent with legi- 
 bility. This end it endeavors to attain 
 by a variety of devices, forming integral 
 parts of the system. In rapid writing on 
 Pitman’s system the vowels are gen- 
 ernally omitted 
 
 SHORTHORNS, a breed of cattle ex- 
 ternally distinguished by the shortness 
 of their horns, whieh originated in the 
 beginning of the 19th century in the val- 
 
 ley of the Tees, and under the name of 
 Durhams, Teeswaters, or Shorthorns, 
 soon spread over all the richly pastured 
 distiicts of Britain. They are excellent 
 for grazing purposes, being of rapid and 
 large growth with aptness to fatten, but 
 are inferior to some other breeds for 
 dairy purposes. 
 
 SHOSHONE FALLS (sho-sho'ne), on 
 Lewis or Snake river, in the state of 
 Idaho, United States. They rank 
 among the waterfalls of North America 
 next to those of Niagara in grandeur, 
 being about 300 yards wide and 200 
 feet high. 
 
 SHOSHONES (sho-sho’nez), or 
 SNAKES, a tribe of North American 
 Indians inhabiting a considerable stretch 
 of territory in Idaho, Utah, Nevada, 
 etc. They live partly by hunting and 
 fishing, many of them also on roots and 
 small animals. They number about 
 5000. 
 
 SHOT, a term applied to all solid pro- 
 jectiles fired from cannon, and also to 
 hollow projectiles without bursting 
 charges, as the Palliser shot. Solid shot 
 have gradually disappeared since the in- 
 troduction of rifled guns, which fire 
 elongated shot with more or less conical 
 heads. Some of the shot fired by the 
 immense guns now used weigh not far 
 short of a ton. Smocrth-bored ordnance 
 still use solid round shot and case-shot 
 Case-shot consists of iron balls packed 
 in iron or tin cylindrical cases. Grape 
 differs only in the balls being larger. 
 Shot is also the name given to the small 
 round pellets of lead used with sporting 
 guns for shooting small quadrupeds and 
 birds. This kind of shot is made by 
 dropping the melted lead through the 
 holes of a colander set at a considerable 
 height above water, the drops naturally 
 assuming the globular form. 
 
 SHOULDER- JOINT, the articulation 
 of the upper arm or humerus with the 
 plenoid cavity of the scapula or shoulder- 
 blade. The shoulder-joint forms an 
 example of the ball-and-socket joints, 
 the ball-like or rounded head of the 
 humerus working in the shallow cup of 
 the glenoid cavity. Such a form of joint 
 necessarily allows of very considerable 
 movement, while the joint itself is 
 guarded against dislocation or displace- 
 ment by the strong ligaments surround- 
 ing it, as well as by the tendons of its 
 investing and other muscles. The 
 muscles are the supraspinatus above, 
 the long head of the triceps below, the 
 subscapularis internally, the infras- 
 pinatus and teres minor externally, and 
 the long tendon of the biceps within. 
 The deltoid muscle lies on the external 
 aspect of the joint, and covers it on its 
 outer side in front, and behind as well, 
 being the most important of the muscles 
 connected with it. The movements of 
 the shoulder-joint consist in those of 
 abduction, adduction, circumduction, 
 rotation — a “universal” movement be- 
 ing thus permitted; and its free motion 
 is further aided, when the bony surfaces 
 are in contact, by separate movements 
 of the scapula itself, and by the motions 
 of the articulations between the sternum 
 and clavicle, and between the coracoid 
 process and clavicle also. The biceps 
 muscle, from its connection with both 
 elbow and shoulder joints, brings the 
 
SHOVEL-FISH 
 
 SHROVE-TUESDAY 
 
 movements of both into harmonious 
 relation. The shoulder-joint is liable to 
 various diseases and injuries. Local in- 
 jury may result in inflammation of the 
 joint, while special diatheses or diseased 
 conditions of constitutional origin may 
 each give rise, either per se or through 
 injuries, to such lesions as strumous or 
 scrofulous disease of the joint, to syphili- 
 tic lesions, and to gouty or rheumatic 
 attacks. Of the accidents to which the 
 joint is liable dislocations are by far the 
 most frequent. 
 
 SHOVEL-FISH, a genus of fishes be- 
 longing to the sturgeon family, and 
 found in North American rivers. It is so 
 named from the flattened form of the 
 head. 
 
 SHOVELLER-DUCK, a genus of 
 ducks, distinguished by its long bill, of 
 which the tip is hooked and broadened. 
 The average length of this bird is about 
 18 or 20 inches. In the male the colors 
 are rather gay and varied — green, white, 
 brown, pale, blue, and black. The color- 
 ing of the female is more somber. The 
 shoveller-duck is found in Britain dur- 
 ing the winter months. 
 
 SHOWBREAD,in the Bible, the twelve 
 loaves of bread, representing the twelve 
 tribes of Israel, which were exhibited 
 before the Lord on the golden table in 
 the sanctuary. They were made of fine 
 flour unleavened, were changed every 
 Sabbath, and were eaten by the priests 
 only. 
 
 S H R A P N EL , Lieutenant - general 
 Henry, entered the Royal Artillery 
 in 1779, served with the Duke of York’s 
 army in Flanders, and shortly after the 
 siege of Dunkirk invented the case-shot 
 known by the name of shrapnel-shells, 
 an invention for which he received from 
 government a pension of $6000 a year 
 in addition, to his pay in the army. He 
 retired from active service in 1825, at- 
 tained the rank of lieutenant-general in 
 1827, and died in 1842. 
 
 SHREVEPORT, a city in the state of 
 Louisiana, on the Red river, 327 miles 
 by rail n.w. of New Orleans, with which 
 it has regular steamboat communica- 
 tions. It is situated in a splendid cotton- 
 growing region, and is one of the prin- 
 cipal cotton-markets in the southwest 
 of the United States. Its industries are 
 varied. Pop. 19,161. 
 
 SHREW, or SHREW-MOUSE, a genus 
 of mammals belonging to the order 
 Insectivora, and to be carefully distin- 
 quished from the ordinary and common 
 mice which are included in the order 
 Rodentia; and from the dormice, also 
 belonging to the Rodent order. The 
 shrews form the family Soricidae, and 
 the genus Sorex includes the typical 
 members, namely, the common shrew, 
 the lesser shrew, and the water shrew. 
 The common shrew averages about 4 
 inches in length, the square tail making 
 up half of this measurement. It may 
 readily be distinguished by its pro- 
 longed muzzle, by the teeth being 
 colored brown at the tips, and by the 
 reddish-brown fur. It feeds upon insects 
 and their larvae, and inhabits dry places, 
 making a nest of leaves and grasses. Its 
 habits are chiefly nocturnal. Shrews are 
 very voracious in their habits, and fre- 
 quently kill and devour one another. 
 They secrete a fluid of disagreeable odor 
 
 in special glands, and this odor prevents 
 larger anhnals from eating their flesh. 
 In former days the bite of the shrew 
 was accounted venomous, while its 
 body, variously treated, was regarded 
 as a cure for many complaints. The 
 lesser shrew closely resembles the com- 
 mon shrew in external form, differing 
 from it chiefly in point of size. The 
 water shrew attains a total length of 
 from 4J to 5 inches. The snout is not so 
 
 Common European shrew. 
 
 pointed as that of the common shrew. 
 The ears are very small. The color is 
 black on the upper and white on the 
 under parts. A prominent swimming 
 fringe of stiff white hair is found on the 
 tail and on the toes, and forms a dis- 
 tinctive features of the species. Its food 
 resembles that of the common shrew, 
 but aquatic larvae appear to form a large 
 part of its nutriment. It makes its bur- 
 
 Amerlcan water-shrew. 
 
 rows in the overhanging banks of rivers 
 and lakes, and dives and swims with 
 great facility. The red-toothed shrews 
 characteristic of the North American 
 continent belong to the allied genus 
 Blarina, distinguished from Sorex by 
 the dentition and the remarkable short- 
 ness of the tail ; but there are also a num- 
 ber of North Aiperican shrews belong- 
 ing to the genus Sorex 
 
 SHRIKE, a general name applied to 
 the members of a family of birds. The 
 family is conveniently divided into two 
 groups, the true shrikes, and the bush- 
 shrikes. The former is distinguished by 
 
 Great gray shrike. 
 
 the broad base of the bill, which is 
 hooked at the tip. The nostrils, which 
 are situated laterally, are surrounded by 
 bristles. The fourth quill is longest in 
 the wings, and the tail is of graduated or 
 
 conical shape The name of drongos or 
 drongo-shrikes has been given to certain 
 birds allied to the shrikes, a^d forming 
 the family Dicrurinae. The forked-tailed 
 crested shrike, a bird inhabiting India, 
 about 10 inches in length, is an example 
 of these. 
 
 SHRIMP, the name applied to many 
 small crustaceans, and especially to the 
 common shrimp, which belongs to the 
 ten-footed Crustacea and to the sub- 
 order Macroura (long-tailed). The 
 common shrimp reaches a size of about 
 2i inches, inhabits the sand of many 
 parts of coasts and is caught for the 
 market by means of a bagnet placed 
 transversely on a pole, which is pushed 
 through the sand at a depth of about 
 IJ or 2 feet. When alive it is of a light- 
 brown or almost white color, resembling 
 that of the sand in which it lives, but 
 after boiling it assumes the well-known 
 brown-color. It is common on the east 
 and west coasts of North America as 
 well as those of Britain. The red shrimp 
 inhabits deeper water than the common 
 shrimp, and is not nearly so abundant. 
 It reaches a size of from 2 to 2^ inches. 
 When alive it is of a reddish-gray, with 
 spots of deeper red; after boiling it is of 
 a uniform deep red. This species is 
 sometimes confounded with the common 
 prawn; but it never reaches the size of 
 the prawn, which, when adult, is above 
 4 inches in length. 
 
 SHRINE, originally a reliquary, or 
 some kind of receptacle, for holding the 
 bones or other relics of saints. Some- 
 times shrines were merely small boxes 
 with raised tops like roofs; sometimes 
 actual models of churches; sometimes 
 the tombs or mausoleums of saints — 
 
 Portable shrine, Malmesbury abbey. 
 
 large constructions, like that of Edward 
 the Confessor at Westminster. Many 
 were (and are) ornamented w'ith gold, 
 precious stones, or inlaid work; and 
 among Roman Catholics some shrines 
 are still objects of pilgrimage. 
 
 SHROPSHIRE, or SALOP, an inland 
 county of England, bounded by Che- 
 shire, the detached part of Flintshire, 
 Denbighshire, Montgomeryshire, Rad- 
 norshire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire, 
 and Staffordshire. Area, 841,167 acres, 
 of which about seven-eighths are under 
 crop. Pop. 239,321. 
 
 SHROUDS, a range of large ropes ex- 
 tended from the heads of the lower 
 masts to both sides of a ship to support 
 the masts, and named, from the masts to 
 which they belong, the main, fore, and 
 mizzen shrouds. Topmast, topgallant, 
 and bowsprit shrouds are all similar in 
 their object. 
 
 SHROVE-TUESDAY, the day before 
 the first day of Lent or Ash-Wednesday, 
 
SHRUBS 
 
 SIBERIA 
 
 80 called as a day on which confession 
 was specially made and “shrift” re- 
 ceived. (See Carnival and Lent.) It was 
 a day of considerable festivity, and 
 from the common practice of eating 
 pancakes then the day came to be called 
 Pancake Tuesday. 
 
 SHRUBS, plants in which the peren- 
 nial portion forms the greater part, 
 which branch near the base, which are 
 taller than bushes but not so tall as 
 trees, seldom exceeding the height of a 
 man. For practical purposes shrubs are 
 divided into the deciduous and ever- 
 green kinds. Among ornamental shrubs 
 the best known are those belonging to 
 the genera Rosa, Ribes, Rhododendron, 
 Azalea, etc. Among evergreen shrubs are 
 the box, the laurel, and various heaths. 
 
 SIAM', a kingdom embracing a great 
 part of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula and 
 
 E art of the Malay peninsula, and lying 
 etween Burmah on the west, and Anam 
 
 and Cambodia on the east and southeast. 
 Its chief natural boundaries are the 
 Mekong and the sea. Its area is esti- 
 mated at about 200,000 sq. miles, and 
 its population at 6,000,000, including 
 
 2.000. 000 Siamese, 2,000,000 Laotians, 
 
 1.000. 000 Chinese, and 1,000,000 Malays. 
 The minerals include gold, tin, iron, 
 copper, lead, zinc, and antimony, be- 
 sides several precious stones, such as the 
 sapphire, oriental ruby, and oriental 
 topaz. During the dry season, which! 
 lasts from November to May, there is an 
 utter absence of rain in this region, which 
 again is so flooded by rain during the 
 wet season as to be converted into a vast 
 swampy forest. Cocoa and areca palms 
 are numerous in Siam; fruits are abun- 
 dant and of excellent quality; black 
 pepper, tobacco, cardamoms, and gam- 
 boge are important products. The 
 forests produce aloes-wood, sappan- 
 wood, teak-timber, bamboos, rattans, 
 gutta-percha, dammar, catechu, ben- 
 zoin, etc. Among wild animals are the 
 tiger, leopard, bear, otter, ourang- 
 outang, single-horned rhinoceros, and 
 elephant, which here attains a size and 
 beauty elsewhere unknown. The last, 
 when of a white color, is held in the 
 highest reverence. The forests abound 
 with peacocks, pheasants, and pigeons; 
 and in the islands are large flocks of the 
 swallows that produce the famed edible 
 birds’-nests. Crocodiles, geckoes, and 
 other kinds of lizards, tortoises, and 
 green-turtles, are numerous. The py- 
 thon serpent attains an immense size, 
 and there are many species of snakes. 
 
 The chief export is rice, after which 
 come teak, pepper, dried fish, birds’- 
 nests, cattle, and teel seed. The chief 
 imports are gold-leaf and treasure, and 
 cottons, after which come opium, china 
 goods, gunny bags, hardware, kerosene- 
 oil, and silk goods. The chief direct 
 exports are teak-wood and rice. Tele- 
 graph lines connect Bangkok with 
 Tavoy in Lower Burmah, with Pnom- 
 penh in Cambodia, and with Cheingmai, 
 the chief city of North Siam, and others 
 are being constructed. There is a postal 
 service at Bangkok, and in 1885 Siam 
 joined the International Postal Union. 
 A railway from Bangkok inland is being 
 made. 
 
 The Siamese are members of the great 
 Mongolian family, and of the same race 
 
 as the people of Burmah and Anam. 
 In stature they do not average more 
 than 5 feet 3 inches in height; they hWe 
 a lighter-colored skin than the western 
 Asiatics, but darker than the Chinese. 
 The Siamese profess Buddhism, intro- 
 duced into the country about the middle 
 of the 7th century. Christianity is now 
 making some progress in the country. 
 The language of the chief Buddhist 
 works is Pali. The printing-press has 
 been introduced in recent years, and 
 many of the best Siamese works can 
 now be had in a printed form. 
 
 The legislative power is exercised by 
 the king in conjunction with a council 
 of ministers. There is a small standing 
 army, officered to some extent by Euro- 
 peans, and a general armament of the 
 people, in the form of a militia. The 
 navy consists of 4 steam corvettes, 
 mostly officered by Europeans, chiefly 
 Englishmen. There are 41 provinces, 
 each administered by a governor. 
 
 Siam appears to have no place in 
 history prior to a.d. 638, and the credi- 
 ble records go back only to 1350, the 
 date of the foundation of Ayuthia, the 
 old capital. 
 
 SIAMANG, one of the higher anthro- 
 poid or manlike apes. This animal, the 
 largest and one of the best known of the 
 
 Siamang. 
 
 gibbons, inhabits Sumatra. It averages 
 about 3 feet in height in its adult state, 
 has very long arms, and leads an essen- 
 tially arboreal life. 
 
 SIAMESE TWINS, the best-known 
 example of two malejindividuals having 
 their bodies connected inseparably from 
 their birth, being joined by a thick 
 fleshy ligament from the lower end of 
 the breast-bone of each, having the 
 common navel on its lower border, so 
 that they stood in a sort of oblique 
 position toward each other. Born in 
 Siam in 1811, of a Chinese father and a 
 Chino-Siamese mother, and named Eng 
 (“right”) and Chang (“left”), they were 
 brought to the United States in 1829. 
 They were on exhibition in Europe and 
 America a number of times, and ulti- 
 mately settled in the state of Pennsyl- 
 vania. They married two sisters and 
 had large families of children, none of 
 whom exhibited any malformation. 
 Chang received a paralytic stroke in 
 1870, and three years later was affected 
 with an imflammatory disease of the 
 respiratory organs. He died unexpected- 
 ly January 17, 1874) while his brother 
 
 was asleep, and Eng died a few hours 
 afterward. The Siamese twins attracted 
 great attention during their lifetime, 
 particularly from physiologists and 
 medical men, some of whom thought 
 that the ligament connecting them 
 might have been cut without causing 
 the death of either. 
 
 SIBE'RIA, a great division of the 
 Russian dominions. It occupies all 
 North Asia, stretching uninterruptedly 
 eastward from the Ural mountains to 
 the Pacific Ocean, and southward from 
 the Arctic ocean to the Chinese domin- 
 ions and Russian Central Asia. It has a 
 total area of 4,824,570 sq. miles., with a 
 population of fully 5,000,000, and is 
 divided into the governments of Tobolsk 
 and Tomsk, the governor-generalship of 
 Irkutsk, including the governments of 
 Irkutsk and Yeniseisk, and the province 
 of Yakutsk; and the governor-general- 
 ship of the Amur, including the province 
 of the Amur, the province of Trans- 
 baikalia, the provinces of the Coast and 
 the Anadir, and the island of Saghalin. 
 The division into Western Siberia, East- 
 ern Siberia, and the Amur regions was 
 familiar for a number of years, but is no 
 longer official. A region of such vast 
 extent has naturally a very diversified 
 configuration; but generally speaking 
 Siberia may be considered as a vast 
 inclined plane sloping gradually from 
 the Altai, Sayan, and Yablonoi moun- 
 tains on the south to the Arctic ocean 
 on the north. In the east it is traversed 
 in different directions by several moun- 
 tain ranges, but elsewhere it is almost 
 unbroken by any greater heights than a 
 few hills. It is drained chiefly by the 
 Obi (2120 miles), with its great tributary 
 the Irtish (2520 miles), the Yenisei, and 
 the Lena (3000 miles), all of which pur- 
 sue a northerly course to the Arctic 
 ocean; and by the Amur (2700 miles, 
 2400 of which are navigable), which 
 flows in an easterly and northeasterly 
 direction to the Pacific. The principal 
 lake is Lake Baikal in the south, 400 
 miles long, 20 to 53 broad, and 1560 
 feet above sea-level. The chief islands 
 are the New Siberia group in the Arctic 
 ocean, and the island of Saghalin, off 
 the mouth of the Amur, in the Sea of 
 Okhotsk, an arm of the Pacific. The 
 coast-line is very extensive, but the 
 Arctic ocean is ice-bound at least ten 
 months out of the twelve, and is almost 
 valueless for commercial purposes, and 
 the Sea of Okhotsk, on the Pacific, is 
 infested with masses of floating ice and 
 dense fogs. The principal ports are 
 Vladivostock, on the Sea of Japan, the 
 chief naval station of Russia on the 
 Pacific; Okhotsk, on the Sea of Okhotsk; 
 and Petropavlovsk, on the east coast of 
 Kamchatka. Siberia enjoys a warm 
 summer, but the winter is exceedingly 
 severe. South Siberia has, in many 
 parts, a very fertile soil, which yields 
 rich crops of wheat, rye, oats, and 
 potatoes; but immense tracts of Siberia 
 are utterly unfit for tillage, more par- 
 ticularly the tundras or great stretches 
 of boggy country along the Arctic ocean. 
 In the west are extensive steppes. 
 Roughly speaking, the northern limits 
 of agriculture are 60° n. lat. Cattle- 
 breeding and bee-keeping are largely 
 pursued. Hunting and fishing are also 
 
SICARD 
 
 SIDON 
 
 sources of remuneration, ermines, sables, 
 and other fur-bearing animals being 
 numerous. The wild animals include 
 the elk, reindeer, and other deer, bear, 
 wolf, white and blue fox, lynx, etc. The 
 forests are extensive and valuable. 
 Large quantities of gold are obtained, 
 as well as silver, platinum, lead, iron, 
 coal, etc. The chief towns are Irkutsk, 
 capital of Eastern Siberia and a trading 
 city; Tomsk, capital of gov. Tomsk, a 
 trading city, with a university; and 
 Tobolsk (20,130), capital of Western 
 Siberia. Yermak the Cossack entered 
 Western Siberia in 1580, and made a 
 rapid conquest of the western portion 
 of the country, which he handed over 
 to Ivan the Terrible of Russia. Bands 
 of hunters and adventurers then poured 
 across the Urals, attracted by the furs, 
 and gradually penetrated to the Arctic 
 ocean and the Pacific. The latest 
 acquisitions by Russia were the Amur 
 territory, and coast regions of Manchuria 
 ceded by China in 1858 and 1860. Exile 
 to Siberia began soon after the conquest, 
 and ever since Siberia has been a great 
 penal colony. Hardened convicts and 
 important political offenders are kept 
 under close control, but the great 
 majority of the exiles are simply placed 
 in a particular district and allowed to 
 shift for themselves. The Russian 
 population of Siberia, which is more than 
 three-fourths of the whole, consists 
 mainly of exiles or the descendants of 
 exiles. The other inhabitants include 
 Buriats, Yakuts, Tungus, Tartars, 
 Kirghiz, Samoyedes, etc. Some rail- 
 ways exist in Western Siberia, and a 
 great trunk-line has been laid across 
 Siberia, crossing also Manchuria, to Port 
 Arthur and Vladivostock on the Pacific. 
 Attempts have been made with partial 
 success to open up an over-sea trade be- 
 tween Britain and Siberia by way of 
 the Kara sea and the Yenisei. 
 
 SICARD (se-kar), Roch-Ambroise Cu- 
 curron, famous in the history of the 
 education of deaf-mutes, was born in 
 1742 near Toulouse, France. He became 
 in 1786, director of the school for deaf- 
 mutes established by the Archbishop of 
 Bordeaux in the city of that name, 
 whence, in 1789, he removed to Paris 
 as successor to the Abbd de l’Ep4e, in 
 whose system he made some important 
 improvements. He also wrote several 
 works on the instruction of deaf-mutes. 
 He died in 1822. 
 
 SICILIES, Kingdom of the Two, a 
 former kingdom of Italy, consisting of 
 Naples (or South Italy) and Sicily. 
 In 1860, an insurrection broke out in 
 Sicily, and an expedition of volunteers 
 from Piedmont and other Italian prov- 
 inces under Garibaldi sailed from Genoa 
 to the assistance of the insurgents. The 
 result was that the Neapolitan troops 
 were driven from the island. Garibaldi, 
 following up his success, crossed over 
 to the mainland, where he met little or 
 no opposition; Francis II. fled from 
 Naples; the strong places in his hands 
 were reduced; and by a popular vote 
 the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ceased 
 to exist as such, and became an integral 
 part of the Kingdom of Italy. 
 
 SICILY, the largest island of the 
 Mediterranean, belonging to Italy, from 
 the southwestern extremity of which it 
 
 is separated by the narrow strait of 
 Messina, about 2 miles wide; area, 
 11,289 sq. miles, divided into seven 
 provinces; pop. 3,529,266. The soil is 
 very fertile. Three-fourths of the culti- 
 vated surface are covered with cereals, 
 chiefly wheat, though oats and barley 
 are also grown. Cotton, sugar, and 
 tobacco are also cultivated to some ex- 
 tent. Fruits of every variety are ex- 
 tensively grown, including large quan- 
 tities of oranges and lemons. The vine 
 flourishes almost everywhere, and much 
 wine is produced. The chief exports are 
 fruits, wine, and sulphur, besides olive- 
 oil, sumach, cream of tartar, etc. Sicil- 
 ian sulphur is extensively exported, the 
 center of this trade being Girgenti on 
 the south coast. Tunny and sardine 
 fisheries are carried on round the coast. 
 The chief seats of foreign commerce are 
 the three principal towns, Palermo, 
 Messina, and Catinia. At the dawn of 
 history the older races inhabiting Sicily 
 the Iberian Sicani, from Iberia (Spain), 
 and the Siculi from Italy, are seen to be 
 hemmed in by Phoenician and Greek 
 colonies. The Greeks, who entered the 
 island in the 8th century b.c., founded 
 the great cities of Syracuse, Agrigentum, 
 and Messina, drove the Phoenicians to 
 the northwest coast, and spread their 
 influence and culture over the whole 
 island. Greek art and literature here 
 flourished, and many Greek names of dis- 
 tinction are connected with Sicily. The 
 Carthaginians latterly took 'the filace 
 of their kinsmen, the Phoenicians, and 
 between them and the Greeks a struggle 
 ensued, which ended in favor of the 
 latter (480 b.c.). War with the Car- 
 thaginians (1st Punic war) brought the 
 Romans to Sicily, and having acquired 
 the Carthaginian portion of the island 
 (241 B.c.) they extended their rule over 
 the whole, Sicily becoming a Roman 
 province in 212 b.c. On the decline of 
 the Roman Empire the island was over- 
 run by the Goths, who retained posses- 
 sion till A.D. 551, when Sicily became 
 part of the Byzantine empire. In the 
 beginning of the 9th century the Sara- 
 cens became masters, and continued so 
 till their expulsion by the Normans in 
 .the 11th century, who remained long 
 enough in possession to establish the 
 feudal system in all its rigor. For a con- 
 tinuation of the history of Sicily see 
 Sicilies (Kingdom of the Two). 
 
 SICKLE, a reaping-hook; a curved 
 blade of steel with a handle, and having 
 the edge of the blade in the hollow of the 
 curve, used for cutting grain and the 
 like. The sickle has been mostly super- 
 seded by the scythe, artd the scythe in 
 turn has given place to the reaping- 
 machine. 
 
 SICKLES (sik'flz), Daniel Edgar, 
 American soldier and politician, was 
 born in New Y^ork City in 1825. In 1853 
 he was appointed corporation counsel 
 of New York City, and was secretary of 
 legation at London under United States 
 Minister Buchanan from 1853 to 1855. 
 In 1856 he was elected to the New York 
 state senate. From 1857 to 1861 he was 
 a democratic member of congress. He 
 was appointed brigadier-general of vol- 
 unteers in September, 1861, and major- 
 general in November, 1862. On the 
 second day of the battle of Gettysburg 
 
 his corps sustained the brunt of the 
 confederate attack upon the Peach 
 Orchard, on the federal left, and Sickles 
 himself lost a leg. In 1869 he was re- 
 tired with the full rank of major-general. 
 
 He was United States minister to Spain 
 from 1869 to 1873. He was sheriff of 
 New York county in 1890, was again 
 elected to congress as a democrat in 
 1892, and for several years was president 
 of the New York State Board of Civil 
 Service Commissioners. 
 
 SIDDONS, Mrs. Sarah, daughter of 
 Roger Kemble, ‘was born at Brecon, 
 South Wales, in 1755. She commenced 
 her theatrical career when quite a child, 
 and in her nineteenth year was married 
 to William Siddons, an actor in her 
 father’s company. For thirty years she 
 continued to astonish and enchant the 
 lovers of the drama, and having acquired 
 an ample fortune, she took her leave of 
 the stage in 1812. Her greatest char- 
 acters were Queen Catharine in Henry 
 VIII., and Lady Macbeth. In her art 
 she was a close and systematic student, 
 while in private life she enjoyed the 
 respect of all who knew her. She died 
 June 8, 1831. 
 
 SIDEREAL TIME, time measured by 
 the apparent motion of the stars. A 
 sidereal day is the time from the passage 
 of a star across the meridian till its next 
 passage, and is exactly the period of the 
 revolution of the earth on its axis. It is 
 the most constant unit of time which we 
 possess. Its length is 23 hours 56 minutes 
 4.098 seconds. A sidereal year is the 
 period in which the fixed stars apparent- 
 ly complete a revolution and come to 
 the same point in the heavens, and is 
 the exact period of the revolution of 
 the earth round the sun. There are 
 366.2563612 sidereal days in a sidereal 
 year. See Day. 
 
 SIDNEY, Sir Philip, one of the most 
 conspicuous figures at the court of 
 Queen Elizabeth, was the son of Sir . 
 Henry Sidney of Penhurst, Kent, where 
 he was born in 1554. In 1585 he went 
 to the Netherlands with his uncle 
 Dudley, earl of Leicester, who com- 
 manded the forces sent to assist the 
 Dutch against the Spaniards, and he 
 was appointed governor of Flushing 
 and general of horse, but at Zutphen, 
 September 22, 1586, he was mortally 
 wounded, and died at Arnheim, October 
 7. He was a soldier and statesman of 
 great promise, and his contributions 
 to literature, though not numerous, 
 were of great importance They include / 
 the Arcadia (1590), a romance in a 
 medley of prose and verse in Italian 
 style then popular. Astrophel and 
 Stella (1591), the first important body 
 of sonnets in the English language; and 
 the Defense of Poesy, first published in 
 1595 as an Apologie for Poetrie. 
 
 SIDON, or ZIDON, a seaport of Syria, 
 situated on the eastern coast of the 
 Mediterranean, between Lebanon and 
 the sea, about midway between Beyrout 
 and Tyre, was long the principal city of 
 Phoenicia (1600-1300 b.c.). Its artistic 
 products were famous at an early period, 
 as also its manufactures of glass, linen, 
 purple d 3 m, and perfumes, and in com- 
 mercial enterprise it occupied a distin- 
 guished position. In the Persian, Gre- 
 cian, and Roman periods it was still 
 
SIEDLCE 
 
 SIGHT 
 
 great and populous, and even in the 
 middle ages it was a place of consider- 
 able importance. During the crusades 
 it was taken and retaken several times. 
 It was almost completely destroyed 
 during the troubles of the 13th century, 
 but in the 15th it reappeared, under its 
 modern name of Saida, as the port of 
 Damascus. The trade is now unimpor- 
 tant. Pop. 9000. 
 
 SIEDLCE (syed'l-tse), a town of Rus- 
 sian Poland, capital of the government 
 of the same name, 57 miles n.s.e. of 
 Warsaw, the seat of a bishop. Pop. 
 23,714. — The government of Siedlce, 
 between the Vistula and the Bug, has 
 an area of 5535 sq. miles, and a pop. 
 of 775,316. 
 
 SIEGE, the surrounding or investment 
 of a fortified place by an army with a 
 view to its capture. The taking of a 
 fortified place may be attempted (1) 
 by surprise, (2) by a sudden onset, (3) 
 by blockade out of gunshot, (4) by a 
 siege, properly so called. In a regular 
 siege the fortress is first blockaded, so as 
 to cut off all intercourse from without, 
 the besieging force encamping just be- 
 yond reach of the enemies’ guns. Then 
 if any detached works are situated be- 
 fore the fortress, their capture must be 
 effected in order to admit the opening of 
 the trenches. The trenches are formed 
 in the direction of the fortress; but that 
 they may not be enfiladed from thence, 
 they must proceed in a zigzag form. 
 For the protection of the workers 
 trenches called parallels, because they 
 run in a direction parallel or nearly so 
 to the sides of the fortress, are dug at 
 intervals. While the trenches are being 
 opened, the besieged, by sallies and 
 counter operations of every kind, strive 
 to drive off the besiegers, and to destroy 
 their work; and the besiegers make 
 efforts to establish themselves more and 
 more securely, to raise batteries, and 
 then, by means of trenches and ad- 
 vanced parallels, to approach the walls 
 of the fortress; and all the while the 
 artillery is kept constantly playing from 
 the batteries of the besiegers as well as 
 from the works and guns of the be- 
 sieged. From the last parallel, which ap- 
 proaches very near the fortress, the be- 
 siegers prepare to make breaches. Here 
 likewise mining operations are carried 
 on whenever they are found advisable. 
 When at last the breaches are practicable 
 the storming or scaling of the walls 
 follows. 
 
 SIEMENS, Sir Charles William, engi- 
 neer, born in Hanover, 4th April, 1823, 
 was educated at the g 3 nnnasium at 
 Liibeck, the polytechnic school at 
 Magdeburg, and the University of 
 Gottingin. After a training in engineer- 
 ing and electricity in the workshops of 
 Count Stolberg he migrated to London 
 in 1843, and at a later date was joined 
 by his brother (Werner), who joined 
 with him in his various undertakings. 
 The great works of Siemens Brothers at 
 Charleston, West Woolwich, for the 
 manufacture of submarine electric tele- 
 graph cables, were established in 1858; 
 and the great steelworks at Landore, 
 Swansea, in 1868. He labored mainly in 
 two distinct fields, the applications of 
 heat and the applications of electricity, 
 and won a great reputation in both. He 
 
 was knighted April, 1883. He died 
 November 19, 1883. Werner died in 
 1892. 
 
 SIENKIEWICZ (sy6n-ky6'vech), Hen- 
 ryk, famous Polish novelist, was born in 
 Wola Okrzejska, Government of Siedlce, 
 in 1846. In 1880 he published the novel 
 The Tartar Bondage. Among his other 
 works are: With Fire and Sword, with 
 its sequels. The Deluge and Pan Michael, 
 Without Dogma, The Children of the 
 Soil, and Knights of the Cross. The suc- 
 cess of Quo Vadis was enormous, and 
 it has several times been dramatized. 
 His works have been translated into 
 several European languages. 
 
 SIEN'NA, or SIENNA EARTH a fer- 
 ruginous ochreous earth, which when 
 raw is of a fine yellow color, and when 
 burned assumes a rich orange-red tint. 
 It is used as a pigment in both oil and 
 water-color painting. 
 
 SIERRA LEONE (si-er'ra le-6'ne), a 
 British colony and protectorate on the 
 coast of Western Africa. The colony 
 proper consists of the peninsula of 
 Sierra Leone, Sherbro and other small 
 islands, and the coast region from the 
 French territory on the northwest to 
 Liberia on the southeast ; area in occupa- 
 tion, about 3000 sq. miles. The pro- 
 tectorate, bounded inland by French 
 territory, has an area of 30,000 sq. 
 miles, and is divided into districts under 
 commissioners. The inhabitants of the 
 colony depend chiefly upon trade, and 
 are mostly collected in Freetown (the 
 capital) and the neighboring villages. 
 The exports are palm kernels, palm-oil, 
 rubber, ground-nuts, kola-nuts, gum- 
 copal, hides, ginger, and benn6-seed. 
 The trade is chiefly with Great Britain. 
 One great obstacle to the prosperity of 
 the colony is the deadly nature of its 
 climate, particularly to Europeans, and 
 Sierra Leone was long known as the 
 “white man’s grave.” But Freetown 
 (pop. 40,000), in particular, has become 
 healthier since getting a supply of good 
 water, with other sanitary improve- 
 ments. It is the chief seaport of western 
 Africa. Pop. 1,080,000. 
 
 SIERRA NEVA'DA (Spanish, “Snowy 
 Range”), a chain of mountains in South- 
 ern Spain, the most elevated in the 
 peninsula. The greater part of it is in 
 the province of Granada, running east 
 and west, and the highest peak is 
 Mulahacen, which has an elevation of 
 about 11,678 feet, and is capped with 
 everlasting snow. The range is rich in 
 fertile valleys and picturesque scenery. 
 
 SIERRA NEVADA, a mountain range 
 of the United States, in California, ex- 
 tending north and south along the east- 
 ern boundary of the state. It consists of 
 an aggregate of ranges, some 70 miles 
 wide, with numerous peaks reaching 
 10,000 and several nearly 15,000 feet, 
 Mt. Whitney (14,868) being the highest 
 in the states. The Yosemite valley is in 
 the Sierra Nevada. 
 
 SIEYES (sye-yas), Emmanuel Joseph, 
 better known as the Abb6 Siey^s, was 
 born at Fr4jus in 1748, and pursued his 
 studies for the church at Paris. He 
 originated the idea of the new geo- 
 graphical division of France into depart- 
 ments, arrondissements, and communes. 
 In 1791 he became member for the Seine 
 department, and in 1792 deputy for 
 
 the department of Sarthe. In 1799, on 
 his return from a mission to Berlin, by 
 which he secured the neutrality of 
 Prussia, he became a member of the 
 directory. He retired with the title of 
 count, and obtained grants of land and 
 property to the value of at least 
 $200,000. He was exiled at the restora- 
 tion, but returned on the July revolu- 
 tion of 1830, and died at Paris in 1836. 
 
 SIGEL (se'gel), Franz a German- 
 American soldier, was born at Sinsheim, 
 in Baden, in 1824. In 1852 he emigrated 
 to the United States. On the outbreak 
 of the civil war he took the side of the 
 north, organized a re^ment of infantry 
 and a battery of artillery, which ren- 
 dered good service in the occupation of 
 Camp Jackson. At the battle of Pea 
 Ridge, March 8, 1862, he ordered a well- 
 timed charge which decided the day. 
 He commanded the First Corps in the 
 campaign which terminated with the 
 second battle of Bull Run, August, 
 1862, and in February, 1864, was given 
 command of the department of West 
 Virginia; He successfully defended with 
 4000 men Maryland Heights against 
 General Early with 14,000 men. He 
 resigned from the army in May, 1865. 
 From 1871 until 1874 he was register of 
 New York City, and from 1886 until 
 1889 was United States pension agent 
 at the same place. He died iirl902. 
 
 SKJHT, Defects of, are usually caused 
 by anomalies in the shape of the eye. 
 (See Eye.) The normal eye is an optical 
 apparatus so constructed that the 
 images of distant objects are thrown 
 with sharpness on the retina; if this is 
 not the case the objects are not seen 
 distinctly. There are two very common 
 instances of defective eyesight, short- 
 sight or myopia and long-sight hyperme- 
 tropia, the one being the reverse of the 
 other. In the former case, owing to the 
 too great power of the crystalline lens, 
 or to the eye cavity extending too far 
 backward, images from objects at some 
 distance are formed in front of the 
 retina. The sight of the myope is thus 
 confused or absolutely defective for 
 objects beyond a certain short range, 
 but on the other hand it is very clear for 
 near objects. The remedy for myopia is 
 the employment of biconcave glasses, 
 which, if the myopia is not considerable, 
 need only be used for looking at distant 
 objects. In the case of hypermetropia 
 objects are seen distinctly only at a 
 range beyond that belonging to normal 
 vision. Owing to the shortness of the 
 eye cavity the lenses in this case are 
 unable to converge the rays to a focus 
 within the limits of the eye-chamber, 
 the image being therefore formed 
 (theoretically) behind the eye. This 
 defect is corrected by the use of convex 
 lenses, which, by converging the rays of 
 light, cause the image to fall on the 
 retina. Both these defects are usually 
 congenital. A similar defect to hyper- 
 metropia is that of presbyopia, which 
 usually comes on with advancing years, 
 and is due to diminished focussing power 
 and lessed elasticity of the lens, the 
 result being that the image of a near 
 object is not clearly formed on the 
 retina but behind it, while distant ob- 
 jects are seen as well as ever. The 
 remedy in this case also is convex lenses. 
 
SIGILLARIA 
 
 SIGURD 
 
 Astigmatism is a defect usually char- 
 acterized by as3mimetry in the curvature 
 of the cornea in different meridians. 
 Opacities in the cornea or crystalline 
 lens, etc., are also not uncommon causes 
 of defective eyesight. — Double-vision is 
 ■when, as in some cases of squinting, 
 each eye sees things separately; or it 
 may result from muscular paralysis. — 
 Night-blindness or hemeralopia is a 
 peculiar defect by which a person be- 
 comes suddenly and entirely blind 
 when night comes on, though he can see 
 perfectly well in the daytime. 
 
 SIGILLARIA, a genus of fossil plants 
 found in great abundance in the coal 
 measures. The plant occurs in the form 
 of compressed stems attaining a height 
 of 40 to 50 feet, and a breadth of 5 feet. 
 The stem generally occurs as a double 
 layer of coal with a fluted outer surface, 
 and showing, at regular intervals, the 
 
 Slgillaria in a coal-mine. 
 
 scars produced by the bases of the leaf- 
 stalk. Their roots are found in the shale 
 and are known by the name of stig- 
 maria, being at first supposed to be dis- 
 tinct plants. No foliage of any kind has 
 been found connected with the trunk. 
 Some suppose sigillarias to be allied to 
 tree-ferns, others to Coniferse. 
 
 SIGISMUND (sij'is-mund), German 
 emperor from 1411-37, was born in 
 1368, and on the death of his father, the 
 emperor Charles IV., he obtained the 
 margraviate of Brandenburg. He mar- 
 ried Mary, daughter and heiress of Louis 
 the Great of Poland and Hungary; but 
 on the latter’s death in 1383 the Poles 
 elected Mary’s sister as queen; Sigis- 
 mund, however, was crowned king of 
 Hungary in 1387. He was crowned 
 emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1841, 
 and at Milan, and again at Rome in 
 1433. He was now in possession of 
 the imperial crown and the crown of 
 four kingdoms. He died at Znaim in 
 1437. 
 
 SIGNAL CORPS, the system of signal 
 service now in use throughout the United 
 States was first suggested immediately 
 prior to the civil war by Gen. A. J. 
 Meyer, an ofiScer of the United States 
 army, at that date connected with the 
 surgeon-general’s department. The 
 difficulty of communication between 
 various divisions of the army, particu- 
 larly at points where facilities for com- 
 municating by telegraph were wanting, 
 was the cause of serious embarrassment 
 at times, and gave birth to the service 
 which has since obtained. General 
 Meyer’s plan was to adopt certain prin- 
 ciples of telegraphy, as for example the 
 dots and dashes used to represent letters 
 of the alphabet, substituting therefor 
 flags, which were waved in one direction 
 to indicate dots, and in another direction 
 
 to indicate dashes. By this means 
 operators separated at a distance of from 
 half a mile to ten miles would be enabled 
 to frame communications that could 
 be readily comprehended by those to 
 whom they were addressed. After night- 
 fall, or at times when the atmosphere 
 was obscured to a degree that prevented 
 the successful employment of flags, 
 colored lights were used and found equal 
 to the requirements of the occasion. 
 The plan was first utilized at points on 
 the frontier; and when, during the pro- 
 gress of the civil war, the difficulty that 
 brought the system into existence was 
 experienced, it was adopted, and be- 
 came one of the most valuable auxiliaries 
 enlisted in the service. 
 
 Appropriations for the support and 
 maintenance of the system were regu- 
 larly included in the bills adopted by 
 congress for the support of the army, 
 and its worth and efficiency were further 
 acknowledged by the same authority in 
 providing for the establishment of a 
 school of instruction at Arlington, near 
 Washington. The education there 
 obtainable, both practical and theoretic, 
 is designed to thoroughly equip students 
 for the scientific work they will be called 
 upon to execute, and results show that 
 expectations thus indulged have been 
 fairly realized. 
 
 When the war terminated the system 
 had attained a high degree of perfection, 
 its value was universally recognized, 
 and its development was continued, 
 with improved results. It was intro- 
 duced into the navy, and was the chief 
 impulse in the establishment of the 
 international code in 1901. Wireless 
 telegraphy is now an important subject 
 of experiment for purposes of signaling. 
 The signal corps of the United States 
 army has perfected its own system and 
 has in successful operation stations in 
 San Francisco harbor and elsewhere. 
 See Weather Signals. 
 
 SIGNALS are the means of communi- 
 cating to the eye — as by flags, lights, 
 etc., and to the ear — as by guns, steam- 
 whistles, fog-horns, rockets, etc., intel- 
 ligence to greater distances than can be 
 reached by t];ie human voice. The most 
 complete system of signaling is that 
 devised to enable ships to communicate 
 when at some distance. The new system 
 introduced in 1902, provides a flag for 
 each letter of the alphabet, five being 
 pennants, two burgees, and the rest 
 square flags. Besides these there is the 
 code flag or answering pennant. All are 
 distinctly colored so as to be visible for a 
 considerable distance. With the twenty- 
 six alphabetical flags, 650 two-flag 
 signals and 15,600 three-flag signals can 
 be hoisted; and in the code-book definite 
 meanings are attached to most of these 
 combinations. If the code flag be 
 hoisted above two alphabetic flags, a 
 latitude or longitude is signalled; if 
 below two such flags, the signal denotes 
 a number. Some single flags have 
 special meanings when hoisted alone; 
 few signals require more than three 
 flags, and there are nevermore than four 
 flags hoisted at once. When, owing to 
 distance or the state of the atmosphere, 
 the colors of the flags cannot be made 
 out, one of three systems of distant 
 signals is used. These involve the use of 
 
 (1) cones, balls, and drums; (2) balls, 
 square flags, pennants, and whefts; and 
 (3) a fixed semaphore. In the army 
 signalling is carried on during the day 
 by means of flags, sun-flashes (see Helio- 
 graph), etc.; and during the night by 
 means of colored lamps, or by a system 
 of long and short flashes of light. On 
 the railways signaling is effected by the 
 semaphore, colored lights, and during 
 fog by cases filled with detonating 
 powder and placed on the rails at cer- 
 tain places, to be exploded by the wheels 
 of the passing locomotive. See Fog- 
 signals and Heliostat, and Weather Sig- 
 nals. 
 
 SIGNATURE, in music, the signs placed 
 at the commencement of a piece of 
 rnusic. They are of two kinds, the time 
 signature and the key signature. The 
 key signature, including the clefs, is 
 usually written on every stave; and the 
 sharps or flats there occurring affect all 
 
 Key and Time Sigoatures on the Treble and Bass Clef*. 
 
 1, Key of C; two minims ior their equivalents) 
 of 0. four crotchets m the bar 3, Key of JJ; tv 
 bar 4. Key of P; three minims in the bar 
 three crotchets in the bar 
 
 m the bar 2, Key 
 ivo crotchets it) the 
 i. Key of D Ihiti 
 
 notes of that degree (with their octaves) 
 throughout the piece. The time signa- 
 ture is only placed at the beginning of 
 the first line and where changes occur. 
 It indicates the number of aliquot parts 
 into which the bar is divided, as shown 
 above. 
 
 SIGSBEE, Charles Dwight, American 
 naval officer, was born at Albany, N Y., 
 in 1845. From 1874 to 1878 he was em- 
 ployed in exploring the bottom of the 
 Gulf of Mexico, and received the order 
 of the Red Eagle of Prussia and a gold 
 medal for improvements which he in- 
 troduced in the work. In 1882 he was 
 assigned to the command of the battle- 
 ship Maine, which, while still under his 
 command, was destroyed in the harbor 
 of Havana, Cuba, on February 15, 1898. 
 During the war against Spain he com- 
 manded the auxiliary cruiser Saint Paul. 
 From September, 1898, to January, 
 1900, he commanded the battleship 
 Texas. He wrote Deep Sea Sounding 
 and Dredging, U. S. Coast Survey, and 
 Personal Narrative of the Battleship 
 Maine. 
 
 SIGURD, or SIGURDR, in northern 
 mythology, the hero of the Volsunga 
 Saga, on which the Nibelungenlied is 
 based. According to the legend of the 
 Volsungs, Sigurd (the Siegfried of the 
 Nibelungenlied) is the posthumous son 
 of Sigmund, son of Volsung, a descend- 
 ant of Odin. After obtaining the golden 
 treasure by slaying the dragon Fafnir 
 with his good sword Gram he eats the 
 monster’s heart, and thus acquires the 
 power of understanding the songs ol 
 birds. He then rides through a volume 
 of flame surrounding a house in which 
 the fair Brenhyldr (Brunhild) lay asleep. 
 He wakes Brenhyldr, to whom he plights 
 his troth, and then rides to the palace of 
 Giuki the Niflung, whose wife gives 
 him a potion which causes him to forget 
 Brunhyldr, and he marries Gudrun 
 (Cbrienabild), Giuki’s daughter. Her 
 
SILK 
 
 brother Gunnar (Gunther) determines to 
 marry Brenhyldr, but is unable to ride 
 through the flames • so his mother by her 
 arts causes Sigurd to go through the 
 flames and bring away Brenhyldr in the 
 form of Gunnar. Sigurd then resumes 
 his shape, and Brenhyldr is handed over 
 to Gunnar. When Brenhyldr hears the 
 true story of her rescue her love for the 
 hero turns to hatred, and she seeks to 
 slay him. Sigurd is eventually killed by 
 Gunnar’s half-brother. His death re- 
 vives Brenhyldr’s love, and she dies of a 
 broken heart. 
 
 SIKHS (from a Sanskrit word mean- 
 ing “disciple”), a religious sect in North- 
 western Hindustan which worships one 
 only and invisible God. Its founder was 
 Nanak Shah, born in 1469 in the prov- 
 ince of Lahore. He labored to lead the 
 people to a practical religion, to a pure 
 worship of God and love to man- 
 kind. He died about 1540. Of his suc- 
 cessors Arjun-mal gave stability and 
 unity to the religion by publishing 
 Nanak’s writings in the Aid-Granth, the 
 first sacred book of the Sikhs. The Sikhs 
 had now rejected the authority of the 
 Koran and the Vedas, and thus aroused 
 the enmity both of the Mohammedans 
 and Brahmans. Arjunmal was thrown 
 into prison, where he died. His son and 
 successor Har Govind transformed the 
 Sikhs from peaceful believers into valiant 
 warriors, and under his reign began the 
 bloody contest with the Mohammedans. 
 The real founder of the Sikh state was 
 Govind Sinh or Singh, the tenth ruler 
 from Nanak. He abolished the system 
 of castes, and gave all men equal rights. 
 His followers, owing to their valor in the 
 protracted contest with the Moham- 
 medans, received the title of Sinhs or 
 lions. Govind Sinh wrote the Dasema 
 Padshah ke Granth, or book of the 
 tenth prince, which, besides treating of 
 religious subjects, contained the history 
 of the author’s exploits. The Sikhs hold 
 it in equal veneration with the Adi- 
 Granth. Govind Sinh died in 1708, and 
 the Sikhs gradually yielded to the su- 
 perior power of the Mohammedans. A 
 small number of the Sikhs escaped to 
 inaccessible mountains, and preserved 
 the doctrines of their fathers and an 
 inextinguishable hatred toward the 
 Mohammedans. After Nadir Shah’s re- 
 turn to Persia they left the mountains 
 and subdued all Lahore. The Sikhs then 
 broke up into a number of independent 
 communities, each governed by a sidar; 
 but in 1792 Runjeet Singh established 
 himself as despotic ruler of the Sikhs, 
 with the title of Maharajah. The terri- 
 tory of the Sikhs now comprehended the 
 whole Punjab, part of Multan, and most 
 of the country between the Jumma and 
 Sutlej ; total area, 69,000 sq. miles. 
 After Runjeet Singh’s death in 1839 a 
 period of anarchy followed. In 1845 
 (first Sikh war) the Sikhs attacked the 
 British under Sir Hugh Gough at Mudki. 
 Here th^y were repulsed (December 18), 
 and again defeated at Ferozeshah three 
 days later. On January 20, 1846, the 
 Sikhs were routed by Sir H. Smith near 
 Aliwal, and on the 10th February by 
 Gough at Sobraon. A treaty was signed 
 by which Britain held the city of Lahore, 
 and a British resident took supervision 
 of the government, In 1848 a general 
 
 revolt broke out, and it was evident that 
 the Sikhs had resolved on a decisive 
 struggle, being also assisted by the 
 Afghans. In this the second Sikh war 
 Lord Gough advanced with an army 
 against them, but received a severe 
 check at Chillianwalla, 13th January, 
 1849. Both armies were then reinforced 
 and on the 21st February, at Gujerat, 
 the power of the Sikhs was completely 
 broken. The Sikh dominion was pro- 
 claimed at an end on the 29th March, 
 
 Sikh soldiers. 
 
 and the Punjab was annexed to the 
 British empire in India, the Maharajah 
 Dhulip Singh receiving an annuity of 
 $250,000. (See Punjab.) The bulk of the 
 Sikhs are of J§,t origin; they are of fine 
 physique, and possess great powers of 
 endurance as well as courage. During 
 the mutiny the Sikhs displayed the ut- 
 most loyalty to the British. They num- 
 ber about 1,876,500, or yV^h of the popu- 
 lation of the Punjab, and compose the 
 mass of the gentry in the region between 
 the Five rivers. 
 
 SILE'SIA, a territory of Central 
 Europe, now divided politically between 
 Prussia and Austria. Prussian Silesia 
 (15,556 sq. miles; pop. 4,868,378) is 
 bounded east by Posen and Poland, 
 south by the Austrian territories, west 
 and north by Saxony and Branden- 
 burg. The province is intersected by 
 branches of the Sudetic mountains in 
 the south, but is level toward Bran- 
 denburg and Posen, and although in 
 p^arts marshy and sandy, is yet fertile. 
 The principal river is the Oder. Silesia 
 produces corn, flax, madder, hemp, hops, 
 tobacco, fruits, and tolerable wines. 
 The mountainous parts yield timber 
 and afford good pasturage and meadow 
 land. Minerals include iron, copper, 
 lead, silver, coal, sulphur, etc., and there 
 are mineral waters in several places. 
 Linen, cotton, and woolen goods, and 
 leather are the chief manufactures. 
 Silesia is divided into three govern- 
 ments — Breslau, Liegnitz, and Oppeln. 
 Breslau is the capital. Austrian Silesia 
 consists of that part of Silesia which was 
 left to Austria; area, 1988 sq. miles. It 
 is mountainous, and although the soil is 
 
 not in all parts favorable, it is rendered 
 productive by the industry of the in- 
 habitants, who are also extensively en- 
 gaged in linen, cotton, and woolen 
 manufactures. Pop. 680,422. 
 
 SILHET, or SYLHET, chief town in 
 the district of the same name, Assam, 
 Hindustan, on the right bank of the 
 Surmd. Pop. 14,407. — The district, 
 area 5413 sq. miles, consists of a uniform 
 level, intersected by a network of rivers 
 and drainage channels. During the 
 rainy season the western part of the 
 district is submerged. The principal crop 
 of the low ground is rice. Pop. 1,969,009. 
 
 SILHOUETTE (sil-u-et') is the repre- 
 sentation of the outlines of an object 
 filled Tn with black color, in whichthe 
 inner parts are sometimes indicated by 
 lines of a lighter color, and shadows or 
 extreme depths by the aid of a heighten- 
 ing of gum or other shining medium. 
 The name comes from Etienne de 
 Silhouette, French minister of finance 
 in 1759, in derision of his economical 
 attempts to reform the financial state 
 of France while minister. During this 
 period all the fashions in Paris took the 
 character of parsimony, and were called 
 5, la Silhouette. The name has only re- 
 mained in the case of these drawings. 
 
 SILTCA, a compound of oxygen and 
 silicon, forming one of the most fre- 
 quently occurring substances in the 
 materials of which this globe is com- 
 posed. Silica forms a principal ingredi- 
 ent in nearly all the earthy minerals, and 
 occurs either in a crystallized form or in 
 amorphous masses. In its naturally 
 crystalized form it is known as rock- 
 crystal. Colored of a delicate purple 
 these crystals are known as amethyst, 
 and when of a brown color, as Cairngorm 
 stone. Silica is also met with in the form 
 of chalcedony and carnelian. It enters 
 largely into the lapidary’s art, and we 
 find it constituting jasper, agate, cat’s- 
 eye, onyx, and opal. In opal the silica 
 is combined with water. The resistance 
 offered by silica to all impressions is 
 exemplified in the case of flint, which 
 consists essentially of silica colored with 
 some impurity. Silica is found to con- 
 stitute the great bulk of the soil which 
 serves as a support and food of land 
 plants, and it enters largely into the 
 composition of many rocks. Many 
 natural waters present us with silica in 
 a dissolved state. It is, however, not 
 soluble in pure water. The action of an 
 alkali is required to bring it into a soluble 
 form. Silica forms a number of hydrates, 
 which have acid properties, and from 
 which a vast number of salts known as 
 silicates are obtained. 
 
 SILICATE PAINT, natural silica, when 
 dried and forming an almost impalpable 
 powder, mixed with colors and oil. 
 Unlike the ordinary lead paints, all the 
 silicate colors are non-poisonous. Sili- 
 cate white has great covering power; 
 it is not affected by gases; and heat of 
 500° is successfully resisted. 
 
 SILIQUA'RIA, a genus of marine 
 gasteropodous molluscs, found both 
 fossil and recent. The shell is tubular, 
 spiral, at its beginning, continued in an 
 irregular form, divided laterally through 
 its whole len^h by a narrow slit, and 
 formed into chambers by entire septa. 
 
 SILK, the peculiar glassy thread spiy;i 
 
SILK-COTTON TREE 
 
 SILURIUS 
 
 by the caterpillars or larvte of certain 
 species of moths, and a well-known kind 
 of fabric manufactured from it. The 
 chief silk-producing larvEe belong to the 
 family of the Bombycidae, of which 
 group the common silk-moth (Bombyx 
 mori) is the most familiar species, being 
 that which is by far the most important 
 in artificial culture. This family of 
 moths is distinguished by the small size 
 of the proboscis, by the thick hairy 
 body; and by the large broad wings. 
 The common silk-moth possesses a short 
 body, stout legs, and white wings, which 
 are marked by black lines running 
 parallel with the wing borders. The 
 female moth deposits her eggs in sum- 
 mer on the leaves of the mulberry-tree. 
 For hatching artificially the eggs are 
 placed in a room heated gradually up 
 to a temperature of about 80° Fahr. In 
 eight or ten days the young appear. The 
 caterpillars are then covered with sheets 
 of paper on which mulberry leaves are 
 spread, and make their way through 
 perforations in the paper to the mul- 
 berry leaves, their natural food. The 
 leaves when covered with caterpillars 
 are laid on shelves of wicker-work 
 covered with brown paper. When first 
 hatched the larvae or worms are black 
 and about i inch long. The larval or 
 caterpillar stage lasts from six to eight 
 weeks, and during this period the insect 
 generally casts its skin four times. After 
 casting its last skin the insect is about 2 
 inches long, and in ten days attains its 
 full growth of 3 inches. The insect’s 
 body consists of twelve apparent seg- 
 ments, with six anterior forelegs, and 
 ten fleshy legs or “prolegs” provided 
 with hooks in the hinder body-segments. 
 The mouth is large, with powerful jaws. 
 At this stage the insect becomes lan- 
 guid, refuses food, and prepares for its 
 next change into the pupa or chrysalis 
 stage. Oak, broom, or other twigs are 
 now laid on the wicker-frames, and the 
 worms crawl into these, where they spin 
 their cocoon by winding a self-produced 
 silk thread many times round their body. 
 This silky thread is formed from a 
 glutinous secretion contained in two 
 tubular glands on either side of the 
 body, opening on the lower lip of the 
 larva in a prominent aperture called the 
 spinneret. This secretion becomes tena- 
 cious and threadlike when brought in 
 contact with the air, and the two fila- 
 ments unite as they issue from the 
 spinneret, apparently by the glutinous 
 secretion of another and special gland. 
 The spinning of the pupa-case or cocoon 
 lasts from three to five days. After 
 passing about three weeks in the nymph 
 or chrysalis stage, the larval form 
 emerges from the cocoon as the perfect 
 moth or imago. But those insects des- 
 tined to afford the silk material are not 
 allowed to enter the imago stage. The 
 completed cocoon with its contained 
 larva is thrown into warm water, which 
 dissolves the glutinous matter cementing 
 the threads together, and facilitates the 
 unwinding of the silk. The average 
 length of a thread furnished by a single 
 cocoon is 300 yards. About 12 lbs. of 
 cocoons yield 1 lb. of raw silk, and 1 oz. 
 of silk-worms’ eggs will give 100 lbs. of 
 cocoons. The female moth produces 
 from 300 to 500 eggs, 
 
 The Chinese appear to have been the 
 first to render the filamentous cocoon 
 substance serviceable to man, and China 
 is still the chief silk-producing country 
 in the world. Before the reign of Augus- 
 tus the use of silk was little known in 
 Europe, and the culture of the silk- 
 worm was not introduced until the 6th 
 century. It was at first confined to 
 Constantinople, but soon spread to 
 Greece, and then through Italy to 
 Spain. When the Duke of Parma took 
 Antwerp in 1585 a check was put on its 
 trade in silk goods, and many of the 
 weavers from Flanders and Brabant 
 took refuge in England. In 1685 the 
 Edict of Nantes drove hosts of silk 
 weavers into exile, as many as 50,000 
 having settled in Spitalfields, London. 
 A silk-throwing machine, constructed 
 
 Silk worm— Larva, chrysalis, and cocoon. 
 
 on Italian models secretly obtained, was 
 fitted up at Derby in 1714 by Thomas 
 Lombe (afterward Sir Thomas Lombe), 
 who obtained a patent in 1719. In 
 France looms were set up at Lyons in 
 1450, and at Tours in 1470. The first 
 nursery of white mulberry-trees was 
 founded by a working gardner of Nismes, 
 who ulitmately propagated them in 
 many districts in the south of France. 
 Italy is now the chief silk-producing 
 country in Europe, France coming next. 
 
 In the manufacture of silk the first 
 operation is the unwinding of the cocoon 
 and the reeling of the silk. For this pur- 
 pose they are placed in shallow vessels 
 containing hot- water, which softens the 
 gummy matter of the cocoons. The ends 
 of the filaments are then conducted by 
 guides to large reels moved by machin- 
 ery. Four or five (or more) threads 
 from as many different cocoons are thus 
 brought together, and uniting by the 
 gum form one thread. When the co- 
 coon is half unwound the filament de- 
 creases 50 per eent in thickness. The 
 silk thus produced is called raw silk. 
 Before it can be woven into cloth the 
 raw silk must be thrown. This is often a 
 special trade, and is usually conducted 
 by machinery in large mills. Previous 
 to throwing, the silk is carefully washed, 
 wound on bobbins, and assorted as to its 
 quality. In the throwing-machine it is 
 again unwound from the bobbins, 
 twisted by the revolutions of a flyer, 
 and then wound on a reel. The twist of 
 the silk is regulated as required by vary- 
 ing the relative velocities of the flyer 
 and reel. The silk thus prepared is 
 called singles, and is used for weaving 
 common or plain silks and ribbons. 
 The next operation, called doubling, is 
 the twisting of two or more of these 
 threads on one bobbin. This is done 
 
 in a throwing machine, and the silk thus I 
 spun is called tram silk, commonly used \ 
 for the weft of richer silks and velvets. * 
 Two or more of these threads of tram- ' 
 silk twisted in the throwing-mill to- 
 gether constitute organzine, a species of 
 silk thread used for warps of fine fabrics. 
 But in tram-silk the threads are ali 
 twisted in one direction, forming in- 
 dividual strands like twine, whereas in 
 organzine the collected threads are 
 twisted in an opposite direction to the 
 twist of the strands, like cable or rope. 
 The silk in this condition is called hard 
 in consequence of the gum, which is, 
 however, separated by careful boiling 
 The throwing-machine has been greatly 
 improved both as to accuracy and pro- 
 duce by assimilating it to the cotton 
 throstle. The manufacture of waste silk 
 is quite different from that just de- 
 scribed, being more akin to that of wool 
 or cotton. Waste silk consists of the 
 floss-silk or outer fibres of the cocoons; 
 of the silk of defective cocoons, such as 
 those from which the moths have been 
 allowed to issue; of the remains of 
 cocoons from which the fibre has been 
 mostly reeled, etc. Until about 1857 this 
 was entirely useless, but is now the 
 object of an important industr5q being . 
 cleared of the gum by boiling, and .sub- 
 jected to such processes as breaking, 
 combing, drawing, and roving, till it is 
 ready for spinning. Owing to the pro- 
 tective policy the manufacture of silk 
 in the United States has attained con- 
 siderable dimensions. 
 
 SILK-COTTON TREE, a tree belong- 
 ing to the natural order Sterculiacea, 
 indigenous to the West Indies and South 
 America. It has a reddish and prickly 
 stem and palmated leaves. The flowers 
 change from white to red, and the wood 
 is soft and spongy. The down which is 
 contained in the seed capsule is used for 
 stuffing pillows, chairs, sofas, etc. 
 Canoes are constructed from the tunber. 
 
 SILKWORM-GUT, a substance pre- 
 pared from the silky secretion of the 
 caterpillars of the ordinary silk-worm 
 taken from the insects’ body, and con- 
 stituting the lustrous and strong lines 
 well known to anglers under the name 
 of “gut.” 
 
 SILU'RIUS, a genus of Ashes of the 
 family Silurid®, order Physostomi. This 
 genus, of which five species are known, 
 inhabits the temperate parts of Europe 
 and Asia. The head and body are 
 covered with soft skin, and the jaws 
 have four or six barbeds. The only 
 
 Sly silurus. 
 
 species which occurs in Europe is sly 
 silurus or sheat-fish (Silurus planis), 
 found in the fresh waters east of the 
 Rhine. It attains to a weight of 300 oi 
 400 lbs., and the flesh is firm and well 
 flavored. The family Siluridm (other- 
 wise named sheat-fishes) constitutes a 
 very extensive section of fishes, the 
 
SILVER 
 
 SILVER-FOX 
 
 Species of which are, for the most part, 
 confined to the fresh waters of warm 
 climates. They present great diversity 
 of form, but their most obvious external 
 characters are the want of true scales. 
 The mouth is almost always provided 
 with barbules. 
 
 SILVER, one of the best-known 
 metals. It appears to have been known 
 almost as early as gold, and, without 
 doubt, for the same reason, because it 
 occurs very frequently in a state of 
 purity in the earth, and requires but an 
 ordinary heat for its fusion. Pure silver 
 is of a fine white color. It is softer than 
 copper but harder than gold. When 
 melted its specific gravity is 10.47 ; when 
 hammered, 10.510. Its chemical symbol 
 is Ag. It is next in malleability to gold, 
 having been beaten into leaves only 
 jTisVoTs of i'^oh in thickness. It 
 may be drawn out into a wire much 
 finer than a human hair, and a wire of 
 silver 0.078 of an inch in diameter is 
 capable of supporting a weight of 187.13 
 lbs. avoirdupois. It excels all other 
 metals as a conductor of heat and elec- 
 tricity. Silver melts when heated com- 
 pletely red-hot, and may be boiled and 
 volatilized by a very strong and long- 
 continued heat. It is rapidly volatilized 
 when heated on charcoal by the flame 
 of the compound blow-pipe. When 
 cooled slowly crystals of silver may be 
 obtained. Silver is not oxidized by ex- 
 posure to the air neither is it affected 
 by water, but it is blackened or tar- 
 nished by sulphuretted hydrogen. The 
 atomic weight of silver is 108. Oxide of 
 silver is produced by dissolving silver 
 in a solution of nitric acid and precipitat- 
 ing with an alkali. Its specific gravity 
 is 7.14. The compound called horn silver 
 or chloride of silver is obtained by dis- 
 solving silver in nitric acid and mixing 
 the solution with a solution of common 
 salt. Its specific gravity is 5.550. When 
 exposed to the light it turns to a blackish 
 color, hence its great use in photography. 
 Bromide of silver is the most sensitive 
 to light of any known solid. It is used 
 for coating the “dry-plates” employed 
 in photography. When silver is long 
 exposed to the air it acquires a covering 
 of a violet color, which deprives it of its 
 luster; this coating is sulphide of silver. 
 Sulphide of silver occurs native as silver- 
 glance. Silver readily forms alloys with 
 iron, steel, lead, tin, and mercury. Of 
 all the combination of acid and silver 
 the most important is nitrate of silver, 
 obtained by dissolving silver in nitric 
 acid. If the silver and acid are pure the 
 solution of silver nitrate is colorless, 
 very heavy, and caustic; it stains the 
 skin, and all animal substances, of an 
 indelible black; after evaporation it 
 deposits, on cooling, transparent crys- 
 tals of nitrate of silver (which see). 
 
 There are five important silver ores, 
 viz. native silver, vitreous silver (or 
 silver-glance), black sQver, red silver, 
 and horn silver. The first is usually 
 found in dentiform, filiform, and capil- 
 lary shapes, also in plates formed in 
 fissures and in superficial coatings; 
 luster metallic; color silver-white, more 
 or less subject to tarnish; ductile; hard- 
 ness between gypsum and calcareous 
 spar; specific gravity, 10.47. Native 
 silver occurs principally in veins trav- 
 
 ersing gneiss, clay-slate, and other 
 palajzoic rocks, but not usually in great 
 quantity. It often forms a natural alloy 
 with gold. Vitreous silver presents itself 
 in various shapes, and is of a blaekish 
 lead-gray color with a metallic luster. 
 It is malleable, about as hard as gypsum, 
 and subject to tarnish ; specific gravity, 
 7.19. It is more or less pure silver sul- 
 phide, and has been found almost ex- 
 clusively in veins along with ores of 
 lead, antimony, and zinc. It occurs in 
 Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary, Mexico, 
 and Peru; and is an important species 
 for the extraction of silver. Black silver 
 generally occurs in granular masses of 
 an iron-black color. It is sectile and 
 about as hard as gypsum ; specific 
 gravity, 6.2. This mineral is a com- 
 position of silver (about 68.5 per cent) 
 with antimony and sulphur and traces 
 of iron, copper, and arsenic. It is found 
 in veins along with other ores of silver, 
 and is a valuable ore for the extraction 
 of silver. It occurs chiefly in Saxony, 
 Bohemia, Hungary, and the American 
 continent. Red silver is found in crystals 
 and often massive, granular, and even 
 as an impalpable powder. It is a double 
 sulphide of silver and antimony, con- 
 taining on an average 60 per cent of 
 silver. It occurs in veins with other silver 
 ores, galena, and blende. It is found in 
 various parts of Saxony, also in Bo- 
 hemia, Hungary, and Norway; but 
 chiefly in Mexico, Peru, and the western 
 states of America. Horn silver, or silver 
 chloride, occurs in crystals and also in 
 crusts and granular masses. It contains 
 about 76 per cent of silver. It is found 
 in the upper parts of veins in clay-slate, 
 and also in beds with other silver ores 
 or with iron-ochre. It is not abundant 
 in Europe, but occurs in large masses in 
 Mexico and Peru. The above are the ores 
 of silver from which silver is chiefly 
 extracted; but argentiferous sulphides 
 of lead and copper are also smelted for 
 the small proportion of silver they con- 
 tain. 
 
 Silver is extracted from its various 
 ores by smelting or amalgamation. The 
 former method is founded on the great 
 affinity of silver for lead, which, when 
 fused with silver, acts as a solvent and 
 extracts it from its union with baser 
 metals. The silver is afterwards sepa- 
 rated from the lead by the process of 
 cupellation (see Assaying), which con- 
 sists in exposing the melted alloy to a 
 stream of atmospheric air, by which the 
 lead is converted into an oxide (litharge) 
 while the silver remains untouched. The 
 latter method depends upon the prop- 
 erty of mercury to dissolve silver without 
 the aid of heat. The first is called the dry, 
 the last the wet way of treating silver 
 ores. One or the other process is em- 
 ployed according to the nature of the 
 ores. The ores which are treated in the 
 dry way are usually those consisting 
 principally of argentiferous sulphide of 
 lead. By this method the ore is first 
 pulverized and roasted to expel the 
 sulphur, and is then freed from the lead. 
 The ores best adaped to the process of 
 amalgamation are native silver and 
 vitreous silver. The ores are first 
 selected to form a proper mixture with 
 reference to the quantity of silver and 
 sulphur they contain. The sulphur is 
 
 then got rid of by adding to the mixtu.rs 
 of an ore 10 per cent of common salt, by 
 which, during the furnace operation, 
 the sulphur is oxidized, and the acid 
 thus formed unites with the base of the 
 salt and forms sulphate of soda; while 
 the hydrochloric acid thus set free com- 
 bines with the silver in the ore that was 
 not in the metallic state, and forms 
 chloride of silver. In this state the ore is 
 reduced to an impalpable powder by 
 various mechanical processes. It is then 
 submitted to the action of mercury, 
 with which it forms what is called an 
 amalgam. This amalgam is subjected 
 to the action of heat in a distilling fur- 
 nace, by which the mercury is sublimed, 
 and the silver remains. Silver is some- 
 times separated from copper by the 
 process of eliquation. This is effected 
 by means of lead, which when brought 
 into fusion with the alloy combines 
 with the silver. The argentiferous lead 
 thus obtained is subjected to the usual 
 processes of cupellation, and the coarse 
 copper from which the silver has been 
 separated is refined. Large quantities 
 of silver are now obtained from argen- 
 tiferous lead ores by a process known as 
 Pattinson’s process, which depends on 
 the property pure lead possesses of 
 crystallizing at a temperature at which 
 an alloy of silver and lead is still fluid, 
 so that the solid crystals of lead can 
 thus be removed. 
 
 The silver mines of North and South 
 America are incomparably more im- 
 portant than those of all the rest of the 
 world. The Mexican mines were worked 
 before the Spanish conquest, and then 
 produced large quantities of silver. Up 
 to the present time their total yield has 
 been estimated at $3,000,000,000. Great 
 deposits of silver have been discovered 
 in the western states of America, par- 
 ticularly in Nevada, Arizona, Califor- 
 nia, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, New 
 Mexico, and Utah, and the yield 
 amounts to about $35,000,000 annually. 
 Silver ore, chiefly argentiferous galena, 
 has also been found in great quantities 
 in the Barrier ranges of New South 
 Wales’. Some of the mining concerns 
 here are the largest in the world. Con- 
 siderable quantities of silver are also 
 produced in Europe. The average pro- 
 duction of Germany is estimated at 
 about $4,000,000. In Britain silver is 
 obtained from argentiferous lead ore to 
 the value of over $100,000 annually. 
 The world’s total production of silver 
 at present is about $100,000,000 an- 
 nually. 
 
 SILVER-FIR, a species of fir, so 
 called from two silvery lines on the 
 under side of the leaves. It is a native 
 of the mountains of the middle and 
 south of Europe, but has long been 
 common in Britain. It grows to the 
 height of 150 to 180 feet, forming a very 
 fine tree. Its timber is not so much 
 prized as that of some other species, 
 but is used for various purposes, and is 
 durable under water. It yields resin, 
 turpentine, tar, etc., especially the fine 
 clear turpentine known as Strasburg 
 turpentine. The American silver-fir, 
 the balm of Gilead fir, yields the Canada- 
 balsam used for optical purposes. Other 
 species are also called silver-firs. 
 
 SILVER-FOX, a species of fox in- 
 
glLVERlNO 
 
 SINGAPORE 
 
 habiting the northern parts of Asia, 
 Europe, and America, and distinguished 
 by its rich and valuable fur, which is of 
 a shining black color, having a small 
 quantity of white mixed with it in 
 different proportions. 
 
 SILVERING, the application of silver 
 leaf is made in the same way as that of 
 gold, for which see Gilding. Several 
 mixtures containing silver have long 
 been in use for coating base metallic 
 objects, but they have been almost all 
 superseded by the modern process of 
 electro-plating. (See Electro-metal- 
 lurgy.) For a description of the silver- 
 ing of mirrors see the article Mirror. 
 
 SIMBIRSK', an eastern government 
 of Russia; area, 29,657 sq. miles. It con- 
 sists in general of an extensive fertile 
 plain watered by the Volga and its 
 affluents.. Agriculture and cattle-breed- 
 ing are the leading industries. The prin- 
 cipal crops are grain, hemp, flax, hay, 
 and tobacco. Minerals are unimportant. 
 There is an abundance of fish in the 
 rivers and numerous small lakes. Pop. 
 1,481,811. — Simbirsk, the capital, stands 
 on a lofty bank of the Volga, 448 miles 
 e.s.e. of Moscow. It has wide streets and 
 squares, a cathedral, etc. There is an 
 annual fair, and a good trade in corn 
 and fish. Pop. 43,298. 
 
 SIMEON, Tribe of, the descendants of 
 Simeon, the second of Jacob’s sons by 
 Leah. They received a section in the 
 southwest of Canaan, which was origin- 
 ally allotted to Judah. 
 
 SIMLA HILL STATES, a collection of 
 twenty-three Indian native states sur- 
 rounding the sanitarium of Simla ; total 
 area, 6569 sq. miles. The mountains of 
 these states form a continuous series of 
 ranges ascending from the low hills of 
 Ambdla (Umballa) to the great central 
 chain of the Eastern Himdlayas. The 
 chief river is the Sutlej. The climate is 
 genial, and the winters comparatively 
 mild. Pop. 502,853. 
 
 SIMMS, William Gilmore, American 
 author, born at Charleston, South 
 Carolina, 1806; died 1870. He pub- 
 lished in 1827 a volume of poems; but 
 his best poem, Atalantis, a Tale of the 
 Sea, appeared in 1833. This was fol- 
 lowed by a series of romances founded 
 on revolutionary incidents in South 
 Carolina, and by several border tales 
 and historical romances. Among these 
 we may mention Guy Rivers, The 
 Yemassee, The Partisan, Tl'o Scout, 
 Eutaw. He was editorially connected 
 with several periodicals, and filled 
 several political offices. 
 
 SIMON (se-mon), Jules (properly 
 Jules Frangois Suisse Simon), a French 
 philosopher and statesman, born at 
 Lorient, department of Morbihan, 31st 
 December, 1814, and educated in the 
 Ecole Normale, Paris. In 1876 he be- 
 came leader of the republicans, and was 
 minister of the 'interior until 16th May, 
 1877, when he was dismissed by Mac- 
 Mab®». He afterward edited the Echo 
 Universel. His chief works include 
 Histoire de I’Ecole d’Alexandrie (1844), 
 Le Devoir (1854), La Libert^ de Con- 
 science (1859), L’OuvriSre (1863), L’- 
 Ecole (1864), Le Travail (1866), La 
 Peine de Mort (1869), Souvenirs du 4 
 Septembre (1873), and Le Gouverument 
 
 de M. Thiers (two vols, 1878). He died 
 in 1896. 
 
 SIMON'IDES (dez), a Greek lyric 
 poet, born in the island of Ceos about 
 B.c. 556. At a competition for the best 
 elegy upon those who fell on the field 
 of Marathon, he gained the prize over 
 MSschylus himself. Simonides is credited 
 with the addition to the Greek alphabet 
 of the long vowels and the double letters. 
 Only fragments of the works of this poet 
 have come down to us. 
 
 SIMOOM', a hot suffocating wind that 
 blows occasionally in Africa and Arabia, 
 generated by the extreme heat of the 
 parched deserts or sandy plains. The 
 air, heated by contact with the noonday 
 burning sand, ascends, and the influx 
 of colder air from all sides forms a whirl- 
 wind orminiature cyclone, which is borne 
 across the desert laden with sand and 
 dust. Its intense, dry, parching heat, 
 combined with the cloud of dust and 
 sand which it carries with it, has a very 
 destructive effect upon both vegetable 
 and animal life. The effects of the si- 
 moom are felt in neighboring regions, 
 where winds owing their origin to it are 
 known under different names, and it is 
 subject to important modifications by 
 the nature of the earth’s surface over 
 which it passes. It is called Sirocco in 
 South Italy, Kamsin in Egypt and 
 Syria, and Harmattan in Guinea and 
 Senegambia. 
 
 SIMPLON (san-plon), a mountain, 
 11,117 feet high, belonging to the Alps, 
 in the canton of Valais, Switzerland, 
 and celebrated for the road that passes 
 over it, which commences near Brieg, 
 on the Swiss side, and terminates at the 
 town of Domo d’Ossola, in Piedmont. 
 A railway tunnel 12^ miles long, cost- 
 ing over $20,000,000, has recently been 
 completed, which connects the lines 
 from Geneva to Brieg, and from Domo 
 d’Ossola to the Lago Maggiore. 
 
 SIMPSON, Sir James Young, M.D., 
 the most eminent medical practitioner 
 of his day, and the discoverer of the 
 anaesthetic properties of chloroform, was 
 born in 1811 at Bathgate in Linlithgow- 
 shire, died at Edinburgh 1870. His first 
 paper on chloroform was read before 
 the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edin- 
 burgh on March 10, 1847, and it soon 
 came into general use. He received 
 honors from numerous scientific so- 
 ck ties in Europe and America, and in 
 18 '3 was elected a foreign associate of 
 the Academy of Medicine of Paris. In 
 1853 he received the laureateship and 
 gold medal of the French Academy of 
 Sciences, with the Monthyon prize of 
 2000 francs awarded for “most 
 important services done to human- 
 ity.” He first expounded acupress- 
 ure in a paper read before the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh in 1859, and 
 afterward in his treatise on Acu- 
 pressure (1864). For twenty years he 
 devoted himself to the subject of hos- 
 pital reform, and in his leisure found 
 time to engage in antiquarian research. 
 In 1847 he was appointed her majesty’s 
 physician-accoucheur for Scotland; in 
 1856 he was made a knight of the royal 
 order of St. Olaf of Sweden; and in 1866 
 a baronetcy was conferred on him. 
 
 SIMS, George Robert, journalist and 
 dramatic writer, born 1847. He became 
 
 a contributor to Fun under the pen 
 name of “Dagonet,” and has written 
 much on the London slums. His most 
 successful dramas are The Lights o’ 
 London, The Romany Rye, and in 
 collaboration The Harbor Lights, In the 
 Ranks, and London Day by Day. He 
 has also written novels, etc. 
 
 SINAI (si'na), properly the general 
 name of a mountain mass in Arabia 
 Petraea, in the south of the peninsula of 
 the same name, which projects into the 
 Red sea between the gulfs of Akaba and 
 Suez. Sometimes the name is confined 
 to the culminating mountain of the 
 mass, which rises 8551 feet above sea- 
 level. The whole mass is of a triangular 
 shape, about 70 miles long from north 
 to south, and consists of a series of 
 mountains, composed for the most part 
 of granite, syenite, and porphyry, with 
 occasional strata of sandstone and lime- 
 stone, and intersected by numerous 
 wadis or valleys. The principal peaks 
 of the mass are Jebel Zebir, 8551 feet; 
 Jebel Katerin, 8536 feet; Jebel Umm 
 Shomer, 8449 feet; Jebel Mdsd, 7375 
 feet; and Jebel Serbd.1, 6734 feet. From 
 the time of Justinian downward Jebel 
 Musd, or Mount of Moses, has been 
 almost universally regarded as the 
 mountain of the law. 
 
 SINALO'A, or CINALOA, a state of 
 Mexico, bordering on the Bay of Cali- 
 fornia; area, 22,630 sq. miles. The west- 
 ern portion of the state is sandy and 
 barren, but the center is very fertile. 
 The eastern division is traversed by the 
 Mexican Cordilleras. In the fertile dis- 
 tricts vegetation is luxuriant, the chief 
 products being sugar, tobacco, cotton, )■ 
 figs, pomegranates, etc. The inhabi-t 
 tants are chiefly engaged in cattle- 
 rearing and mining. Pop. 296,701. — 
 The chief town is Culiacan. Pop. 10,380, 
 
 SIND, SINDH, or SCINDE, a province 
 of British India, in the northern part of 
 the presidency of Bombay. It consists 
 of the l#wer valley and delta of the 
 Indus, and is bounded on the west and 
 northwest by Baluchistan and Afghani- 
 stan; northeast by the Punjab; east by 
 Rajputana; and south by the Runn or 
 Ran of Kach and the Indian ocean; area, 
 48,014 sq. miles. It is divided into five 
 districts, Haidarabad, Karachi, Shikar- 
 pur, Thar, and Parkar, and Upper Sind 
 Frontier, and also includes the native 
 state of Khairpur (6109 sq. miles). The 
 chief city and port is Kurrachee or Kar- 
 achi, but the ancient capital Haidarabad 
 is still a populous town. About 78 per 
 cent of the population are Mohamme- 
 dans; 12 per cent Hindus; 5 per cent 
 Sikhs; and the rest Christians, Jains, 
 Parsees, Jews, Buddhists, etc. Pop. (ex- 
 clusive of Khairpur, 131,937), 3,210,910. 
 
 SINE, in trigonometry, a line drawn 
 perpendicularly from one end of an arc 
 of a circle upon the diameter drawn 
 through the other end. The sine of the 
 arc is also the sine of the angle sub- 
 tended by the arc; that is, c E is the sine 
 of the arc c h and the angle c o H. 
 
 SINGAPORE, a British possession, 
 forming one of the Straits Settlements, 
 and consisting of a small island, lat. 
 
 1° 17' n. ;lon. 103° 50' e.; and its capital 
 of the same name, with numerous sur- 
 rounding islets, off the southern ex- 
 tremity of the Malay peninsula, and / 
 
SlNG-SlNG 
 
 SISAL, OR GRASS HEMP 
 
 separated from the mainland by a nar- 
 row strait 2 miles to ^ mile in breadth. 
 The principal island, which is undulat- 
 ing and well clothed with wood, is about 
 25 miles long and 14 miles average 
 breadth; area, 206 sq. miles. Though so 
 near the equator the island is remark- 
 able for its salubrity. Cultivated prod- 
 ucts include nutmegs, cloves, gmgcr, 
 pepper, sugar-cane, coffee, pine-apples 
 and other fruits, sweet-potatoes, and 
 other vegetables. Singapore possesses 
 all the fruit-bearing trees of the Indian 
 archipelago. Birds include pea-fowls, 
 pheasants, partridges, etc. Ainong 
 reptiles are turtles, tortoises, crocodiles, 
 cobras and other serpeiits. The coast 
 and rivulets abound with fish. Pop. 
 184,554. The town of Singapore is 
 
 situated on a rivulet on the south side of 
 the island. It is divided into three parts 
 — the western, inhabited by Chinese; 
 the central, by the Europeans; and the 
 eastern, by the Malays. Singapore is the 
 great entrepot of Southern Asia and the 
 Indian archipelago, and the port is 
 practically free. -Exports consist of tin, 
 coffee, rice, sago, tapioca, pepper, nut- 
 megs, rattans, gambier, sugar, bees’- 
 wax, raw silk, gutta-percha, mother-of- 
 pearl, etc. Imports from Great Britain 
 include cottons, woolens, coals, iron, 
 arms, wines, and various manufactures; 
 and from Europe and the United States 
 wines, spirits, liquors, manufactured 
 goods, provisions, etc. Singapore is the 
 capital of the Straits Settlements and 
 the residence of the governor. Pop. 
 228 555 
 
 SING-SING, since 1901 called Ossin- 
 ing, a town of the United States, on the 
 left bank of the Hudson, sloping to a 
 height of 200 feet, in the state and 30 
 miles north of the city of New York. It 
 has a large state prison with 1320 cells, 
 military and other schools, fine private 
 residences, etc. There are manufactories 
 of tools, carriages, and hardware. Pop. 
 10,106. 
 
 SIOUX (soo), or DAKOTA INDIANS, a 
 North American family of Indian tribes 
 dwelling chiefly in S. Dakota and 
 Nebraska, and originally extending 
 from Lake Winnipeg on the north to the 
 Arkansas river on the south. They have 
 several times engaged in hostilities with 
 the United States settlers and troops, 
 chiefly because faith was not kept with 
 them by the government. In 1862 more 
 than a thousand settlers were killed. 
 In 1876 a body of them who had taken 
 up a position in the Black Hills cut off 
 General Custer and 1100 men. 
 
 SIOUX (s66) CITY, the county seat of 
 Woodbury co., Iowa, 156 miles north- 
 
 west of Hes Moines ; on the Missouri 
 river, at the junction of the Big Sioux 
 and the Floyd. Among the railroads 
 that enter the eity are the Chicago, Mil- 
 waukee and St. Paul, the Chicago and 
 Northwestern, the Chicago, St. Paul, 
 Minneapolis and Omaha, the Illinois 
 Central, the Great Northern, and the 
 Union Pacific. There are large flouring 
 and grist mills, foundries, machine 
 shops, meat packing establishments, 
 breweries, and large railway machine 
 and repair shops. Pop. 1909. 62,000. 
 
 SIOUX FALLS, the county seat of 
 Minnehaha co., S. D., 90 miles north 
 of Sioux City, Iowa; on the Big Sioux 
 river, here spanned by four bridges, and 
 on the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, 
 the Great Northern, the Illinois Central, 
 the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and 
 Omaha, and the Chicago, Rock Island 
 and Pacific railroads. Pop. 12,164. 
 
 SIPHON, a bent pipe, one leg of which 
 is longer than the other, through which a 
 liquid may, by the action of gravity, be 
 transferred from one place to another at 
 a lower level over an obstruction which 
 must be lower than a height which de- 
 pends on the specific gravity of the 
 liquid. In order to accomplish this the 
 shorter leg is plunged into a vessel con- 
 taining liquid, and the air in the tube is 
 now exhausted by being drawn through 
 the longer leg, whereupon the liquid will 
 flow out of the vessel through the siphon 
 until the surface of the liquid is brought 
 
 1, Common siphon. 2, Improved siphon, 
 with exhausting tube for filling it. 
 
 down to the level of the opening of the 
 short leg of the siphon. The water rises 
 by the weight of the atmosphere, and 
 the leg by which it is discharged must 
 always be longer than the other to give 
 a greater weight of water in this leg. 
 Sometimes an exhaust tube is attached 
 to the longer leg for the purpose of ex- 
 hausting the air by motion and causing 
 the flow to commence; but an equally 
 effectual method is to fill the tube with 
 liquid and then to put it in position 
 while still full, the ends of course being 
 at first stopped. The principle of the 
 siphon has been employed in aqueducts 
 and in drainage works. Water can be 
 siphoned to a height of 32 feet. The 
 principal use of the siphon is for racking 
 wines and liquors from off their lees. 
 
 SIR, as a title, belongs to knights and 
 baronets, and is always prefixed to the 
 Christian name. — Sire is a term of re- 
 spect by which kings are addressed. The 
 word sir is the same as sire, and is de- 
 rived from old French, senre, and that 
 from senior, whence also seignior, signor, 
 similar terms of courtesy. 
 
 SIREN, an instrument for producing 
 
 continuous or musical sounds, and for 
 measuring the number of sound waves 
 or vibrations per second, which produce 
 a note of given pitch. In its original 
 form it consists of a disc with a circular 
 row of oblique holes, revolving close to 
 the top-plate of a wind-chest perforated 
 with corresponding holes of a contrary 
 obliquity, so that the jets of air from the 
 
 r 
 
 Siren. 
 
 latter passing through the former keep 
 the disc in motion, and produce a note 
 corresponding to the rapidity of the 
 coincidences of the holes in the two 
 plates, the number of coincidences or 
 vibrations in a giyen time being shown 
 by indices which connect by toothed 
 wheels with a screw on the axis of the 
 disc. See also Fog-signals. 
 
 SIRENS, in Greek mythology, the 
 name of several sea-nymphs, who by 
 their singing fascinated those who sailed 
 by their island, and then destroyed 
 them. When Ulysses approached their 
 island, whieh was near the coast of 
 Sicily, he stuffed the ears of his com- 
 panions with wax, while he bound him- 
 self to the mast, and so they escaped. 
 The Sirens then threw themselves into 
 the sea, where they became formidable 
 rocks. Another story is that they threw 
 themselves into the sea because van- 
 quished in music by Orpheus. 
 
 SIRIUS, the brightest star in the 
 heavens, also called the Dog-star, 
 situated in the mouth of the constella- 
 tion Canis Major, of the Greater Dog. 
 It is estimated to have more than 13 
 times the sun’s magnitude. See Dog- 
 days. 
 
 SIROCCO, a hot, relaxing, and op- 
 pressive southeast wind, which blows 
 in Sicily and South Italy. 
 
 SIRO'HI, a native state in the Raj- 
 putana agency, India; area, 3020 sq. 
 miles. The country is much intersected 
 and broken up by hills and rocky 
 ranges, and frequently suffers from 
 drought. Wheat and barley are the 
 staple crops. Pop. 154,350. 
 
 SIRSA, a British district in the Pun- 
 jab, India; area, 3004 sq. miles. It forms 
 for the most part a barren and treeless 
 plateau. A great cattle fair is held at 
 Sirsd, the chief town, in August and 
 September. Pop. 253,275; of town 
 12 292. 
 
 SISAL', or GRASS HEMP, a species of 
 agave yielding a valuable fiber, a native 
 of Mexico, Honduras, Central America, 
 and specially cultivated in Yucatan. It 
 is grown upon stony ground, and the 
 leaves, from which the fiber is prepared, 
 are between 2 and 3 feet long. 1 he pulp 
 
SISCOWET OR SISKOWIT 
 
 SKELETON 
 
 is cleaned away from each side of the 
 leaf and the remaining fiber is then 
 washed and sun-dried, it has consider- 
 able commercial value in the manu- 
 facture of cordage and coarse cloth. 
 
 SIS'COWET or SISKOWIT, a species of 
 North American lake-trout, inhabiting 
 chiefly the deep water of Lake Superior 
 and other lakes. 
 
 SISMON'DI, Jean Charles Leonard Si- 
 monde de, historian and political econo- 
 mist, was born in Geneva, 9th May, 
 1773. In 1803 he published a work 
 entitled De la Richesse Commerciale, 
 ou Principes d’Economie Politique ap- 
 rfiqufe k la Legislation du Commerce. 
 This essay was afterward remodeled so 
 as to form the groundwork of his treatise 
 published in 1819 under the title of 
 Nouveaux Principes d’Economie Poli- 
 tique. In 1807 appeared the first two 
 volumes of his Republiques Italiennes, 
 which ultimately reached sixteen vol- 
 umes, and was not completed till 1818. 
 In 1819 he commenced his Histoire des 
 Fran?ais, a great work which was to 
 occupy the greater part of his remaining 
 life. He died of cancer, June 25, 1842. 
 
 SISTERHOODS, a name given to 
 various religious and charitable orders 
 or associations of women. These are 
 very numerous, and have recently in- 
 creased in number. Among the more 
 important are: (1) Sisters of Charity 
 (also called Gray Sisters, Daughters of 
 Charity, Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul) a 
 Roman Catholic order founded in 1634 
 at Paris by St. Vincent de Paul for the 
 work of nursing the sick in hospitals. 
 The sisters take simple vows of poverty, 
 chastity, and obedience, which are 
 annually renewed; they add a fourth 
 vow binding themselves to serve the 
 sick. They number about 40,000 in up- 
 ward of 2000 houses scattered over all 
 parts of the civilized world. Besides 
 nursing and conducting orphanages, the 
 sisters sometimes undertake the man- 
 agement of poor schools. (2) Sisters of 
 Charity (Irish), a congregation in no 
 way connected with the above, founded 
 in 1815 by Mary Frances Aitkenhead 
 for the purpose of ministering to the sick 
 and poor in hospitals, and at their own 
 homes. (3) Little Sisters of the Poor, 
 founded in France in 1840, now spread 
 over the world. Their chief object is the 
 care of the aged poor, and they beg from 
 house to house. (4) Sisters of Mercy 
 (Irish), an important and flourishing 
 order, founded by Catherine M’Auley, 
 Dublin, in 1827, for carrying on works 
 of mercy both spiritual and corporal. 
 (5) Sisters of Mercy (Anglican), an im- 
 p^ortant body founded in 1845 by Dr 
 Pusey, the original London house being 
 the pioneer of many charitable sister- 
 hoods connected with the English 
 church, and passing under various 
 names. See Mercy (Sisters of). 
 
 SISTINE CHAPEL, a chapel in the 
 Vatican, so called from Pope Sixtus IV., 
 by whom it was erected in 1473. See 
 Vatican. 
 
 SISTRUM, a kind of rattle or jingling 
 instrument used by the ancient Egyp- 
 tians in their religious ceremonies, espe- 
 cially in the worship of Isis. It consisted 
 of a thin somewhat lyre-shaped metal 
 frame through which passed loosely a 
 
 number of metal rods, to which rings 
 were sometimes attached. 
 
 SrVA, the name of the third deity in 
 the Hindu triad (Brahma, Vishnu, and 
 Siva), in which he is represented as the 
 destroyer and also as the creator or 
 regenerator. His worshipers (the most 
 numerous of the Brahmanic sects) are 
 termed Saivas, and assign to him the 
 first place in the trinity, attributing to 
 him also many attributes which properly 
 belong to the other deities. His symbol 
 is the lingam or phallus, emblematic of 
 
 Siva. 
 
 creation. He is frequently represented 
 riding on a white bull, with five faces 
 and two, four, eight, or ten hands, hav- 
 ing a third eye in the middle of his fore- 
 head pointing up and down, and carry- 
 ing a trident. Serpents commonly hang 
 about him, and he may be seen with a 
 sort of mace in one hand and an antelope 
 in another. See Brahmanism. 
 
 SIXTUS V. (Felix Peretti), the great- 
 est ruler and statesman among the popes 
 of the four last centuries, was born in 
 1521 near Montalto, died 1590. He 
 entered the Franciscan order in 1534, 
 and distinguished himself in scholastic 
 philosophy, theology, and Latin litera- 
 ture. In 1544 he taught the canon law 
 at Rimini, and two years later at Siena. 
 In 1548 he was made priest, doctor of 
 divinity, and superintendent of the 
 monastic school at Siena. In 1556 he 
 was appointed director of the Franciscan 
 school at Venice, and afterward in- 
 quisitor-general. In 1560 he went to 
 Rome, where the pope conferred upon 
 him several dignities. In 1570 he was 
 created cardinal, and took the name 
 Montalto. Under Gregory XIII. he 
 lived a retired life for some years in his 
 villa, and is said to have assumed the 
 mask of pious simplicity and old age 
 in order to prepare himself for the papal 
 chair. On Gregory’s death in 1585 he 
 was unanimously elected pope, and 
 immediately manifested himself an able 
 and energetic ruler. He restored order 
 in the states of the church, cleared the 
 country of bandits, and regulated the 
 finances. He re-established discipline 
 in the religious orders, and fixed the 
 number of cardinals at seventy. He 
 took a part in most of the great political 
 events then agitating Europe. He sup- 
 
 ported Henry III. against the Hugue- 
 nots, and Philip II. against England. 
 The great aim of his foreign policy was 
 the promotion of the cause of Roman 
 Catholicism throughout Europe against 
 Protestantism. 
 
 SKATE, a name popularly applied to 
 several species of the genus of fishes Raia 
 or rays. The skeleton is cartilaginous, 
 the body much depressed, and more or 
 less approaching to a rhomboidal form. 
 The common skate agrees with the other 
 members of the genus Raia in possessing 
 a flat broad body, the chief portion of 
 which is made up of the expanded pec- 
 toral fins, which are concealed, in a 
 manner, under the skin. The tail is long 
 and slender, and the snout pointed, with 
 a prominent ridge or keel. The teeth are 
 
 arranged in a mosaic or pavement-like 
 pattern. This fish, although commonly 
 seen of moderate dimensions, may 
 attain a weight of 200 lbs. or more. 
 
 SKATES and SKATING. A skate con- 
 sists of a frame shaped somewhat like 
 the sole of a shoe, underneath which is 
 fastened a metallic runner, the whole 
 being intended to be fastened one under 
 eaeh foot, for gliding rapidly over the 
 ice. Skating seems to be of great an- 
 tiquity, mention being made of it in the 
 Edda. In Holland, from time im- 
 memorial, skates have been used by all 
 classes of people upon the canals and 
 rivers for the facility of locomotion they 
 afford. Great variety in the manufac- 
 tures of skates has been introduced 
 within a comparatively short period. 
 In the most improved forms the wood 
 of the older skate has been replaced by 
 metallic fittings, and the skate is at- 
 tached to the foot by spring fastenings 
 which obviate the need for straps. A kind 
 of skates, termed “parlor skates” or 
 roller skates, in which the metal runner 
 is replaced by small wheels, is used on a 
 prepared asphalt or other smooth 
 flooring. 
 
 SKELETON, the name applied spe- 
 cially to the hard structures, mostly of 
 bony or osseous nature, which form the 
 internal axis or support of the softjparts 
 in the higher or vertebrate animals. But 
 in comparative anatomy the term endo- 
 skeleton is applied to the internal hard 
 parts, proper to the Vertebrata, while 
 exoskeleton denotes the exterior hard 
 parts both of Vertebrates and Inver- 
 tebrates, such as the shell of lobster, 
 scales of fishes, etc. The parts of any 
 endoskeleton may generally be grouped 
 under the two heads of the spinal or 
 axial skeleton, and the appendicular 
 parts. The former includes the skele- 
 ton of the head and trunk, the latter 
 that of the limbs. The spinal skeleton 
 involves the eonsideration of the skullj 
 
SKIN 
 
 SKULL 
 
 spinal or vertebral column, composed 
 of its various vertebrae; and of the 
 thorax, or chest, and pelvis. The limbs 
 consist of homologous or corresponding 
 parts, and are attached to a series of 
 bones constituting the “arch,” or sup- 
 port of the upper or fore and the lower 
 or hind limbs respectively. The scap- 
 ulae or shoulder-blades and collar- 
 
 Frontal bone. 
 Farlotal boa*» 
 
 Superior maxillar; tOUb 
 Inferior maxillary ^a9> 
 Cervical vertebra. 
 Clavicle. 
 
 Riba. 
 
 Humerus. 
 
 Tboracio veriebrtB* 
 
 Lumbar vertebra* 
 
 Carpal booee. 
 
 Tarsal bones. 
 Metatarsal bonas* 
 Pbalan^ee. 
 
 The human skeleton. 
 
 bones or clavicles constitute the shoul- 
 der-girdle or arch supporting the fore or 
 upper limb, while the lower limb is 
 attached to the pelvic arch or pelvis. 
 See Skull, Spine, Thorax, Rib, Shoulder, 
 Arm, Hand, Pelvis, Leg, Foot, etc. 
 
 SKIN, the name given to the external 
 layer or tissue of the bodies of most ani- 
 mals, forming at the same time a pro- 
 tective and a blood-purifying organ. 
 Structurally viewed, the skin of all 
 vertebrates consists of two layers — an 
 outer and inner layer. To the outer 
 layer the name of cuticle, epidermis, or 
 scarf skin is popularly given. This 
 layer is destitute of nerves and of blood- 
 vessels, and is thus a non-sensitive 
 structure. The inner layer is, on the con- 
 trary, a highly vascular and sensitive 
 layer, and is named the dermis, corium, 
 or true skin. At the lips and elsewhere 
 the epidermis becomes continuous with 
 the more delicate mucous membrane 
 which forms the lining membrane of the 
 internal passages. This membrane is to 
 be viewed, however, as a mere modifica- 
 tion of the epidermis itself. The epider- 
 mis is composed of several layers of 
 epithelial cells. The upper eells of the 
 epidermis, as seen in a vertical section 
 of the skin, are flattened, and of scaly 
 conformation, the lower cells being of 
 rounded or elongated shape. The 
 elongated cells have their long axes 
 arranged vertically to the general 
 skin surface. The deeper portion of the 
 epiderinis, or rete mucosum, is of softer 
 and more opaque consistence and ap- 
 
 P. E.— 73 
 
 pearance than the upper layer; and it is 
 in the rete mucosum that coloring mat- 
 ters are present, which give the hue to 
 the skin. The dermis or true skin rests 
 upon a layer of adipose and cellular 
 tissue, and is composed of interlacing 
 fibers of fibro-cellular tissue. It is 
 richly supplied with blood-vessels, so 
 that when cut it bleeds; and nerve- 
 fibers are likewise disposed in it, con- 
 ferring sensibility. The surface of the 
 true skin is thrown into a series of eleva- 
 tions, papillae, or minute prominences, 
 which are specially rich in capillary 
 blood-vessels and nerve endings, and 
 which are thus particularly vascular and 
 sensitive. The special glands of the skin 
 are the sudoriparous or sweat glands; 
 they are in the form of tubes coiled up 
 into balls, and the total number of them 
 in the human skin is estimated at over 
 two millions. There are also sebaceous 
 glands, which secrete an oily fluid useful 
 for lubrication. Though the most osten- 
 sible function of the skin seems to be 
 that it covers in and protects the more 
 delicate structures that lie beneath it, 
 its functions as an excretory organ and 
 as a regulator of the temperature of the 
 body are also of high importance. The 
 hair and nails are modifications of the 
 epidermis, as are also the feathers of 
 birds and the claws of animals. Exten- 
 sions of skin, as between the toes of 
 ducks, etc., or between the arms and 
 legs of flying squirrels, and as seen in 
 bats, may exist. And pendulous skin- 
 folds, horns, callosities, horny plates 
 scales, and other modifications of the' 
 epidermis, are met with in various ani- 
 mals. The scutes or bony plates seen in 
 the armadillos are dermal structures 
 united to horny plates formed by the 
 
 Semi-diagrammatic vertical section of human ekin magnified. 
 
 A, Stratum corneum; B. stratum lucidum ; C, stratum granu* 
 losuinj D. stratum spinosuin ; E, corium with papilla* ; F, subcu- 
 taneous fat; G. tactile corpuscles; H, sebaceous gland; I, duct 
 of sebaceous gland ; J, pacinian corpuscles ; K, shaft of hair ; L, 
 root-sheath of hair ; M, root of hair ; N, arrector pili muscle ; 0, 
 duct of sweat-gland ; P, Sweat-gland ; Q, blood-vessels. 
 
 epidermis. In many reptiles and in some 
 lizards the two layers of the skin simi- 
 larly participate in forming the exo- 
 skeleton. The scales of fishes are formed 
 by the dermis or true skin; but those of 
 serpents are epidermic in their nature. 
 
 SKIN DISEASES, a name for such dis- 
 eases as eczema, shingles, ringworm, 
 pityriasis, lichen, itch, etc. I 
 
 SKIN-GRAFTING, in surgery, a 
 method for the treatment of large 
 ulcerated surfaces by the transplanta- 
 tion of small pieces of skin from another 
 part of the body. 
 
 SKINK, the common name of small 
 lizards. They have a long body entirely 
 covered with rounded inbricate scales, 
 and are natives of warm climates. One 
 species, the adda, is celebrated through- 
 out the East as being efficacious in the 
 
 Adda or common skink. 
 
 cure of various cutaneous diseases, 
 to which the inhabitants of Egypt, 
 Arabia, etc., are subject. It is about 6 
 inches in length, has a cylindrical body 
 and tail, and burrows in the sand. 
 
 SKIO. See Scio. 
 
 SKULL, the name applied to the 
 skeleton of the head, composed in most 
 vertebrates of a facial and a cranial 
 portion, and which incloses the brain 
 and organs of special sense. The skull 
 of man includes twenty-two bones. 
 In the cranial portion there are eight 
 bones, the occipital bone o, or hinder 
 portion of the skull, two parietal bones 
 b, forming the sides of the head; two 
 temporal bones d d'; the frontal bone 
 a; the sphenoid bone e, mainly in the 
 base of the skull; and the ethmoid bone 
 e, between the skull and the face, and 
 between the eye cavities. The facial 
 portion includes fourteen bones — two 
 
 The human skull.— 1, front view. 2, side view. 
 
 nasal bones g; two superior maxillary, or 
 upper jaw-bones f; two lachrymal bones 
 h; two molar or cheek bones e; two 
 palate bones ; two turbinated bones 1 m ; 
 the von\gr, di-viding into two the cavity 
 of the nose j, and the inferior maxillary 
 or lower jawbone k. This is the only 
 bone which is movable, a hinge-joint 
 being formed between its strong promi- 
 nences at p. The left zygomatic arch is 
 shown at r. At the base of the occipital 
 bone is the large aperture termed the 
 foramen magnum, through which the 
 brain and spinal marrow become con- 
 tinuous. The two lesser foramina, one 
 in either orbit, transmit the optic nerves. 
 The size and shape of the skull vary in 
 the different races of man, and at dif- 
 ferent ages from infancy to old age. 
 The skulls of most vertebrata differ 
 widely from that of man in the relative 
 development of their various parts. 
 See also special articles, such as Ichthyol- 
 
SKUNK 
 
 SLAVERY 
 
 Ogy, Orinthology, Reptilia, etc., and 
 also Ear, Eye, Nose, etc. 
 
 SKUNK, a carnivorous animal be- 
 longing to the weasel family. It in- 
 habits North America, and its average 
 size is about that of a large cat. Its 
 fur is of a dark-brown hue, streaked 
 longitudinally with black and white, 
 and its tail is long and bushy. The 
 skunk iff notorious from the potent and 
 disgusting odor which it emits from its 
 
 Common skunk. 
 
 anal glands, and which can be perceived 
 a mile aWay. The secretion of these 
 glands can be forcibly ejected at the will 
 of the animal, and its stench is so per- 
 sistent that no amount of washing will 
 remove it from clothes impregnated 
 with it. This nauseous secretion has 
 been alleged to possess therapeutical 
 virtues. The skunk is largely hunted for 
 the sake of its fur, which is purified for 
 commercial purposes by heat. There are 
 two other less common species, now 
 classed in separate genera. 
 
 SKYLARK, the skylark is found all 
 over Europe, as well as in Northern 
 Africa and the corresponding zones of 
 Asia. It frequents meadows, and does 
 not perch. It feeds chiefly on the seeds 
 
 Skylark. 
 
 of various plants and larvae. Its nest is 
 formed on the ground. It lays four or 
 five eggs of a whitish gray. Its length is 
 about 7 inches, the tail being 3. It is 
 almost equally esteemed for the delicacy 
 of its flesh and the melody of its song. 
 
 SLAG, a secondary product of the 
 processes of extracting metals from 
 their ores. It is mainly a compound of 
 silica with alumina or lime, or both, 
 together with various other substances 
 in small quantity. It always contains 
 
 more Or less of the metal from the ex- 
 traction of which it results. The pres- 
 ence of silica gives a glossy appearance 
 to the mass. Slag is sometimes cast into 
 blocks, and used for road-making and 
 building, and when reduced to powder 
 it is used in making mortar and to impart 
 a glaze to bricks. It is also utilized in 
 the manufacture of glass. Slag phos- 
 phate meal is a fertilizer made from 
 basic slag (which see). 
 
 SLANDER. See Libel. 
 
 SLANG, colloquial words and phrases 
 originating for the most part in the 
 lower classes of society. Slang is not 
 exclusively of modern date. It was 
 known in the classic age of Greece and 
 Rome, and abounds in the writings of 
 Aristophanes, Plautus, Terrence, and 
 Martial. Slang consists in part of new 
 words and in part of words of the legiti- 
 mate language invested with new mean- 
 ings. Poker players cash their “chips” 
 at the close of the game. From this 
 comes the use of the phrase “to pass in 
 his chips,” as slang for death. Certain 
 words and phrases formerly regarded as 
 strictly literary are now slang. As ex- 
 amples of this may be cited “awful,” 
 “fierce,” “devilish,” “keen,” “wise,” in 
 such phrases as “an awful swell,” “a 
 fierce hat,” “devilish good,” “to be keen 
 on something,” or “to put a man wise 
 to a thing.” Another class is the slang of 
 clipped words, as“enthuse,” for “enthu- 
 siastic,” “beaut” for “beauty,” “gent” 
 for “gentleman.” All grades of society 
 and every profession has its slang. These 
 vary so much as to be almost or even 
 quite mutually unintelligible. The 
 slang of the race course, the prize ring, 
 the barroom, and the variety show are 
 distinct from one another. The lin- 
 guistic necessity of slang is shown by its 
 universality. It is current in all modern 
 languages, and reaches its acme in the 
 most highly developed tongues, as 
 English, French, and German. 
 
 SLATE, or CLAY-SLATE, called some- 
 times argillite, a well-known hard 
 variety of rock which splits into thin 
 plates, the type being roofing slate. The 
 lamination of slate is not that of its 
 bedding, but is often at right angles to 
 it. It is produced by lateral pressure, 
 and is confined to disturbed and meta- 
 morphosed rock. The prevailing color 
 is gray, of various shades; it yields to 
 the knife, but varies considerably as 
 respects hardness in its different varie- 
 ties. Slate occurs in all countries where 
 there are metamorphic rocks. It is com- 
 monly divided into elevated beds of 
 various degrees of thickness; and from 
 the natural divisions of the rock, they 
 often form peaked and serrated moun- 
 tains. The finest variety which is used 
 for the covering of roofs is generally 
 embedded in other slate rocks of a 
 coarser kind. Slate-pencils are made of 
 certain varieties of soft slate. 
 
 SLAVE COAST, a maritime strip on 
 the west of Africa, on the Guinea Coast, 
 exte n di ng between the Vol ta a nd Akinga , 
 a stretch of about 240 miles. It consists 
 mainly of long narrow islands. The 
 principal towns on the coast are Badagry 
 and Whydah. A large traffic in slaves 
 was formerly carried on at the ports of 
 this region, hence its name. 
 
 SLAVERY, the system by which cer- 
 
 1 
 
 tain persons are kept as the property of 
 others, a system of great antiquity and y 
 formerly of wide prevalence. Among U 
 the Hebrews the system of slavery was ^ 
 one of great mildness. Native Hebrew 
 slaves were released every seventh year, 
 and their owners were enjoined to treat 
 them kindly. Among the Greeks and 
 Romans slavery was a rooted institution. 
 
 At Athens the slaves were commonly 
 treated with mildness, but at Sparta 
 they are said to have been treated very 
 harshly. The slaves of the ancient 
 Romans were either captives or debtors 
 that were unable to pay. In Rome the 
 slave had originally no rights at all. He 
 could be put to death for the smallest 
 misdemeanor. Slaves were exceedingly 
 numerous, and latterly almost monopo- 
 lized all the various handicrafts and 
 occupations, those of the clerk, the 
 doctor, and the literary man included 
 In the time of Augustus a single person 
 is said to have left at his death over 
 4000 slaves. Hosts of slaves were em- 
 ployed in the gladiatorial exhibitions. 
 Slaves, however, were often set at 
 liberty, and these freedmen were a well- 
 known class at Rome. But it was not 
 till the time of the empire that any 
 great change took place in the condition 
 of the slaves. Augustus granted the 
 slave a legal status, and Antonius took 
 away from the masters the power of life 
 and death over their slaves. The early 
 Christian church did nothing to suppress 
 slavery, and slavery and the slave-trade 
 continued to exist for 1000 years in the 
 Christian nations of Europe that rose 
 on the ruins of the Roman empire. It 
 was not till the 13th century that the 
 severity of slavery began to decline in 
 Europe. The Koran expressly permits 
 the Moslems to acquire slaves by con- 
 quest, but this method of acquiring 
 slaves was not resorted to until the 
 Crusades. Previous to the Crusades 
 they kept negro slaves imported from 
 Africa. Latterly the Mohammedans be- 
 gan to obtain white slaves not only by 
 war but also by purchase, Rome being 
 the center of the trade. The Moham- 
 medans of the Barbary states also 
 obtained white slaves by piracy in the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 After slavery had become aU but ex- 
 tinct in Europe, it had a new birth in the 
 American colonies of European origin. 
 
 The Portuguese were the first to hunt 
 negroes in the interior of Africa for use 
 as slaves in the colonies. The first ship- 
 ment of negroes to the New World took 
 place in 1503, when the Portuguese 
 landed some in St. Domingo. From 
 that time to the nineteenth century a 
 traffic in negroes across the Atlantic was 
 carried on by all the Christian colonial 
 powers. In 1562 the English first took 
 part in the trade, and in course of time 
 outdid all other nations in the extent to 
 which they carried this traflSc, as also, it 
 is said, in the cruelty with which they 
 conducted it. About 1770 nearly 200 
 English vessels were engaged in the 
 trade. 
 
 The .first persons who liberated their 
 slaves, and labored to effect the abolition 
 of the slave-trade, were some Quakers 
 in England and North America early 
 in the 18th century. In 1783 a petition 
 was addressed to parliament for the 
 
SLAVES, SLAVS, OR SLAVONIANS 
 
 SLIGO 
 
 abolition of tlie trade, which Wilber- 
 force eloquently supported. A bill 
 passed the House of Commons for the 
 abolition of the slave-trade in 1792, but 
 it was rejected by the lords. On Feb- 
 ruary 4, 1794, the French national con- 
 vention declared all the slaves in the 
 French colonies free. Wilberforce 
 brought in a bill with a like object in 
 1796, but it was rejected. In March 
 1807, the famous Abolition Act was 
 passed. January 1, 1808, was fixed as 
 the time when this trade, on the part of 
 the British should cease. The abolition 
 of slavery itself gradually followed that 
 of the trade in slaves. In 1831 the 
 British government emancipated all the 
 slaves of the crown, and in 1833 a bill 
 was passed for the emancipation of all 
 the slaves in British colonies. The great- 
 est slave-holding nation till recent times 
 was the United States, in which, how- 
 ever, slavery was only an institution of 
 the Southern states. As a result of the 
 civil war it was abolished by proclama- 
 tion in 1863, and by constitutional 
 amendment in 1865. In 1873 the Span- 
 ish government abolished slavery in 
 Porto Rico, and in 1886 abolition in 
 Cuba took place. In Brazil slavery 
 existed till 1888. 
 
 The efforts made to suppress the 
 slave-trade on the east coast of Africa 
 have not hitherto proved quite success- 
 ful. In 1817 a treaty for its suppression 
 was concluded with Madagascar, and in 
 1822 with the Imam of Muscat (ruler 
 of Oman) ; but the slave-trade was, until 
 recently, as active as ever along the 
 whole coast. Those chiefly engaged in 
 the trade are Arabs, who sell the slaves 
 in the African countries bordering on 
 the Mediterranean and at the ports of 
 the Red sea. They are all ultimately 
 destined for Mohammedan masters. 
 The suppression of the trade was one of 
 the objects of Sir Samel Baker’s ex- 
 pedition up the Nile in 1870-73; and 
 much more vigorous and effective meas- 
 ures were carried out by General Gordon 
 in 1877 and subsequent years. In May, 
 1873, a treaty was signed stipulating 
 for its suppression within the dominions 
 of the Sultan of Zanzibar; and the slave- 
 market at Zanzibar was thereupon 
 closed. At the present time, through the 
 extension of the influence of Britain and 
 other European powers, the traffic has 
 Iseen put down in many districts where 
 it was formerly rampant. 
 
 SLAVES, SLAVS, or SLAVONIANS, a 
 branch of the Aryan family of nations, 
 among which it is most nearly allied to 
 the Lithuanian and more distantly to 
 the Germanic branch. In the 4th cen- 
 tury Slavs lived in great numbers in the 
 neighborhood of the Carpathians, and 
 thence they appear to have spread north- 
 ward to the Baltic and south to the 
 Adriatic. About the beginning of the 
 6th century they are found on the north- 
 ern banks of the Lower Danube, whence 
 they passed over to the southern banks, 
 occupying Mcesia and Thrace; at this 
 time Slaves also peopled Bohemia and 
 Moravia, and before the end of the cen- 
 tury they had penetrated into Transyl- 
 vania, Hungary, Upper Austria, Styria, 
 Carinthia, and Carniola. The Slavonic 
 tribes of Chorvatians (Croats) and 
 Servians settled probably between 634 
 
 and 638 in Dalmatia and the whole of 
 ancient Illyricum (Bosnia, Servia, and 
 the neighboring districts). Finally, 
 Slavonic tribes spread from their first 
 settlements also to the north and east, 
 over the remainder of modern Russia. 
 Of this wide territory the Slavonians 
 again lost in process of time the Elbe 
 and Oder regions. Upper Austria, and 
 part of Carinthia and Styria, all of 
 which they were deprived by Germanic 
 tribes; large parts of Transylvania and 
 Hungary, which fell to Roumanians and 
 Magyars; and parts of the regions on 
 the south of the Danube, which came 
 into the hands of Greeks and Turks. 
 
 The Slaves in the districts in which 
 they still exist form two great groups, 
 the southeastern, and the western Slaves. 
 The former In.cludc (1) Bulgarians, (2) 
 Servians, (3) (4) Slovenians, (5) 
 
 Russians; .'•.nd jhc Ir.ttcr include (1) 
 Czechs (comprchcndh'.g Czechs in the 
 narrower application, Morvaians, and 
 Slovaks); (2) Sorbc (Ims.^tians), divided 
 into Upper and Lower Sorbs; and (3) 
 Poles. The total number of Slaves is 
 said to be about 116,000,000, five- 
 eighths of whom are Russians. With 
 few exceptions the Russian and Bul- 
 garian Slaves belong to the Greek 
 church, the western Slaves mostly to the 
 Roman Catholic. There are eleven 
 different Slavonic literary dialects. The 
 four principal dialects and literatures 
 are the Czech or Bohemian, the Polish, 
 Russian and Servian. 
 
 SLAVONIA, a region of Austria-Hun- 
 gary, which with Croatia and the Mili- 
 tary Frontiers forms a province or ad- 
 ministrative division of the empire; area 
 of Slavonia, 3720 sq. miles. Pop. 
 377,613. 
 
 SLEDGE, a vehicle moved on runners 
 or on low wheels, or without wheels, for 
 the conveyance of loads over frozen 
 snow or ice, or over the bare ground; 
 called also a sled. Also a kind of travel- 
 ing carriage mounted on runners, other- 
 wise called a sleigh; much used in Rus- 
 sia, America, and other northern coun- 
 tries during winter, instead of wheel 
 carriages. 
 
 SLEEP, the state in which the activity 
 of the senses and cerebrum or brain 
 proper appears to be naturally and 
 temporarily suspended. This state is 
 consistent with a kind of passive activity 
 of these nervous centers, as seen in the 
 acts or phenomena of dreaming, as well 
 as in other concomitant phenomena of 
 sleep. All parts of the body which are 
 the seat of active change require periods 
 of rest. In the case of the brain it would 
 be impossible that there should be short 
 periods of activity and repose, that is, 
 of consciousness and unconsciousness, 
 hence the necessity of sleep, a condition 
 which is an unusually perfect example 
 of what occurs at varying intervals in 
 every actively working portion of our 
 bodies. Sleep, therefore, affords the 
 interval during which nervous energy 
 expended during the waking hours is 
 renewed. The respective influences of 
 habit, age, temperament and occupation 
 have much to do with the induction and 
 maintenance of sleep in different in- 
 dividuals. An abnormal condition of 
 irritability caused by great mental 
 effort or strain for a considerable time, 
 
 frequently results in preventing the 
 access of sleep when it is desired. This 
 indicates a revolt of the nervous centers, 
 which may prove dangerous if the cause 
 of it be not speedily done away with. 
 Sleep often occurs in very different de- 
 grees in different parts of the nervous 
 system. The phenomena of dreams and 
 somnambulism are examples of differing 
 degrees of sleep in different parts of the 
 cerebro-spinal nervous system. Phy- 
 siologists are all agreed that the dream- 
 less sleep is the most refreshing, the 
 lighter sleeper being liable to be dis- 
 turbed by the most trifling noises. In 
 some cases of diseased conditions sleep 
 may be prolonged for indefinite periods, 
 although obviously the distinction be- 
 tween coma and sleep is only made with 
 great difficulty in such cases; while, on 
 the contrary, periods of active wakeful- 
 ness may occur and extend for days, 
 weeks, or even months, without a single 
 interval of sleep or repose. Insensibility 
 is equally produced by a deficient and 
 an excessive quantity of blood within 
 the cranium; but it was once supposed 
 that the latter offered the truest analogy 
 to the normal condition of the brain in 
 sleep, and, in the absence of any proof 
 to the contrary, the brain was said to be 
 during sleep congested. Direct experi- 
 mental inquiry has led, however, to the 
 opposite conclusion. The condition of 
 the brain during sleep is one of con- 
 siderable hloodlessness. There seems to 
 be both a diminished quantity of blood 
 circulation through the brain, and the 
 speed of its movement is much lessened. 
 See Dreams, Somnambulism. 
 
 SLIDELL', John, American politician, 
 born in New York City in 1793. In De- 
 cember, 1853, he became United States 
 senator, but resigned upon the secession 
 of Louisiana from the Union. As com- 
 missioner to France he, with James M. 
 Mason, commissioner to England, em- 
 barked upon the British mail steamer 
 Trent, which was overhauled on Novem- 
 ber 8th by the United States sloop San 
 Jacinto, and they were arrested and 
 confined for a time in Fort Warren, 
 Boston. Upon the demand of England 
 the act of Captain Wilkes was disavowed 
 and the commissioners sailed for Eng- 
 land January 1, 1862. Mr. Slidell failed 
 in his mission to France and at the close 
 of the war settled in England. He died 
 in 1871. 
 
 SLIDE-VALVE, a contrivance exten- 
 sively employed in regulating the ad- 
 mission or escape of steam or water in 
 machinery. A familiar example of the 
 slide-valve is found in the ordinary 
 steam-valve of a steam-engine. 
 
 SLIDING-RULE, a mathematical in- 
 strument or scale, consisting of two 
 parts, one of which slides along the 
 other, and each having certain sets of 
 numbers engraved on it, so arranged 
 that when a given number on the 
 one scale is brought to coincide with 
 a given number on the other, the 
 product or some other function of the 
 two numbers is obtained by inspection. 
 The numbers may be adapted to answer 
 various purposes, but the instrument is 
 chiefly used in gauging and for the 
 measuring of timber. 
 
 SLIGO, a seaport town of Ireland, 
 prov. Connaught, capital of county 
 
SLING 
 
 SMELL 
 
 Sligo, 134 miles n.w. of Dublin. Sligo 
 was disfranchised in 1870. Pop. 10,870. 
 — The county is bounded n. by the 
 Atlantic, e. by Leitrim, s. by Roscom- 
 mon and Mayo, and w. by Mayo; area, 
 461,796 acres, of which about 320,000 
 acres are cultivated. The principal 
 crops are oats and potatoes. Coarse 
 woolens and linens are manufactured 
 for home use. The coast fisheries are 
 extensive. Pop. 84,022. 
 
 SLING, an instrument for throwing 
 stones or bullets, consisting of a strap 
 and two strings attached to it. The 
 velocity with which the projectile is dis- 
 charged is the same as that with which it 
 is whirled round in a circle, having the 
 string for its radius. The sling was a 
 very general instrument of war among 
 the ancients. With a sling and a stone 
 David killed Goliath. The name is also 
 given to a kind of hanging bandage in 
 which a wounded limb is sustained ; and 
 to a device for holding heavy articles, as 
 casks, bales, etc., securely while being 
 raised or lowered. 
 
 SLIPS, Propagation by, a mode of 
 propagating plants, which consists in 
 separating a young branch from the 
 parent stock, and planting it in the 
 ground. Slips from trees of which the 
 wood is white and light, such as willow, 
 poplar, or lime, succeed best. A slip 
 succeeds more certainly when two or 
 three young buds are left on the lower 
 part of it under ground. 
 
 SLOANE, Sir Hans, a distinguished 
 naturalist, and founder of the British 
 museum, was born in the north of Ire- 
 land, in 1660; died at Chelsea 1753. 
 His Natural History of Jamaica (1707- 
 25) was the result of his observations in 
 that island during a visit in 1687-89. 
 George I. created him a baronet and 
 physician-general to the forces in 1716, 
 and on the accession of George II. he 
 was named physician in ordinary to his 
 majesty. 
 
 SLOE, or BLACKTHORN, a well- 
 known deciduous shrub of the plum 
 genus with spinose branches, and pos- 
 
 Flower and fruit of sloe. 
 
 eessing a very hard, tough wood. It 
 blossoms with white flowers in the early 
 spring, and has a black, round, austere 
 fruit which is used for preserves, for 
 making a fictitious port wine, and for 
 dyeing black. The sloe is from 8 to 15 
 feet high. There are two or three varie- 
 ties, including a double-flowered, varie- 
 gated-leaved, and egg-shaped fruited 
 forms. 
 
 SLOOP, a small vessel furnished with 
 one mast and a fixed bowsprit. It is 
 fore-and-aft rigged, and usually carries 
 a main-sail, fore-sail (jib-shaped,) a jib, 
 and a gaff-sail. It is a common rig for 
 
 *- % 
 
 yachts. A sloop-of-war, was formerly a 
 vessel, of whatever rig, between a cor- 
 vette and a gunboat, carrying from ten 
 to eighteen guns. The name is still 
 
 retained for certain vessels of no great 
 size or fighting power. 
 
 SLOTH, the name applied to several 
 genera of edentate mammalia inhabit- 
 ing south and central America, and 
 forming the family Bradypodidse. This 
 family is distinguished by the flat short 
 head, and by the elongated legs, fur- 
 nished with powerful claws of com- 
 pressed and curved shape. No incisor- 
 teeth exist, but simple molars are de- 
 veloped. The stomach is of somewhat 
 complex nature. The fore-limbs are 
 longer than the hind-limbs, and have a 
 powerful muscular organization. The 
 palms and soles of the feet are turned 
 inward, and the claws are bent inward 
 toward the soles, so that the sloth’s 
 movements on the ground are both 
 awkward and painful; but in their 
 natural habitat amid the trees, the 
 curved and inwardly-disposed claws 
 and limbs are seen to be admirably 
 adapted for locomotion in their char- 
 acteristic fashion, back downward, 
 through their native forests. Of the 
 sloths the best-known species has three 
 toes and is of a brownish-gray color, vith 
 darker tints on the face and limbs. The 
 fur is of very coarse character. 
 
 SLOVAKS', the name of the Slavonian 
 inhabitants of Northern Hungary, also 
 found in Moravia in the districts adjoin- 
 ing Hungary, and in detached settle- 
 ments in Lower Austria, Bukowina, and 
 Slavonia. The total number of Slovaks 
 is under 2,000,000. 
 
 SLOYD, SLOJD (a Scandinavian word 
 equivalent to the English sleight), a 
 system of manual training for pupils in 
 elementary and higher schools, in 
 which the pupils are accustomed to 
 the use of tools in a handicraft, which 
 is not necessarily intended to form their 
 future exclusive or main occupation. It 
 is applied to any useful handiwork such 
 as carpentry, metal-work, basket-work, 
 fret-work, book-binding, etc., but is 
 usually confined to wood-sloyd, or the 
 use of the knife and carpenter’s tools. 
 It is already practically introduced into 
 America under the name of manual 
 training. 
 
 SLUG, the name applied to several 
 genera of molluscs, included in the 
 pulmoniferous (or “lung-bearing”) sec- 
 
 tion of the class, and resembling the 
 snails, but not having an external shell. 
 The typical slugs possess a rudimentary 
 shell, internal in its nature, and gener- 
 ally concealed more or less completely 
 by the mantle. The body is elongated,’ 
 depressed, and attenuated backward,, 
 the head and tentacles retractile. The 
 latter are four in number, the eyes being 
 borne on the tips of the larger pair, 
 
 Of this genus the great gray slug andj 
 the black slug are the two familiar 
 species. The former usually frequents 
 hollow trees, undisturbed heaps of de- 
 caying vegetable matter, and like situa- 
 tions. The black slug is more common 
 than the gray species, and is usually olj 
 smaller size. Other familiar genera are 
 the red slug- and the Testacella, rep- 
 resented by the little carnivorous specie; 
 which feed chiefly upon earthworms,: 
 and is generally found in the loose soil| 
 of gardens. 
 
 SLUR, in music, a sign in the form 
 of a curve, placed over two or more, ■ 
 notes on different degrees, to indicate; 
 that they are to be played legato. 
 
 SMACK, a small vessel rigged as a| 
 cutter, sloop, or yawl, used in the coast- i 
 ing trade and in fishing. 
 
 SMALL-ARMS, a general name for alll ] 
 portable fire-arms. (See Musket, Rifle,' , 
 Revolver, etc.) The name of small-armtl -, 
 factories is given to certain government! i 
 establishments for the manufacture o. i 
 small-arms. The different parts of thc; i 
 rifles are made so accurately on thtl i 
 same model that a part belonging tcl : 
 any one of the rifles manufactured wil'^ < 
 do equally well for any other. 
 
 SMALL-POX, an infectious disease 
 characterized by a pustular eruptionj 
 accompanied by high fever. The firs'; 
 symptoms of the disease appear about' 
 seven days after infection, when ?! 
 feverish shivering pervades the body.' 
 followed about three days later by the 
 appearance of red spots on the face 
 breast, hands, and gradually over thej 
 whole body. After about three dayfl| 
 these spots develop pustules, which be- 
 come inflamed and suppurate. About! 
 the eleventh day the pustules begin to 
 dry up and form a crust. Commonly thej 
 small-pox virus infects but once [and: 
 then only those persons who have a cer- 
 tain susceptibility for it. This disease! 
 is first mentioned by Arabic writers. 
 
 It is not certain how it was introduced; 
 into Europe, but from_ the 13th century; 
 downward it raged with great destruc- 
 tiveness am ongthe western nations, untfl 
 it was checked by the introduction (rf . 
 vaccination. It is more fatal on its fi^ 
 appearance in a country, and commits, 
 greater ravages, than after having pre- 
 vailed for some time, as it did in Ice-' 
 land in 1707, and in Greenland in 1733. 
 The violence of the disorder is lessened, 
 when it is produced artificially by in- 
 oculation with the small-pox virus. 
 Inoculation was introduced into Western 
 Europe from Turkey by the celebrated 
 Lady Montagu"; but it has been entirely 
 superseded by vaccination, which is 
 safer. See Vaccination. 
 
 SMELL, the sense exercised in the 
 perception of odors, through the func-; 
 tions of the olfactory nerves. The sense 
 is one of the special senses in that the 
 nerves devoted to the appreciation ofi 
 
SMELLIE 
 
 SMITH 
 
 ',dors exercise that function alone, and 
 ire not affected by any other kind of 
 mpressions; while again, no nerves are 
 iapable of receiving the particular im- 
 pressions of odors but the olfactory 
 ilaments. The sense of smell is derived 
 ixclusively through those parts of the 
 lasal cavities in which the olfactory 
 lerves are distributed. (See Nose.) The 
 natters of odor must in all cases be dis- 
 solved in the mucus of the mucous 
 nembrane before they can be immedia- 
 
 i itely applied to or affect the olfactory 
 lerves ; thus for the perception of odors 
 ;he mucous membrane of the nasal 
 javity must be moist. In animals living 
 n the. air it is also requisite that the 
 
 i pdorous matter should be transmitted 
 n a current through the nostrils. This is 
 jffected by an inspiratory movement, 
 ■,he mouth being closed. The voluntary 
 lature of the act of smelling is also thus 
 »! sxemplified, since by interrupting the 
 li -espiration or breathing, the sense can- 
 lot be duly exercised. The delicacy of 
 ;he sense of smell is most remarkable; 
 t can discern the presence of bodies so 
 ninute as to be undiscoverable even by 
 ijpectrum analysis; of ^ 
 
 .jrain of musk can be distinctly smelt. 
 The olfactory nerves form the first pair 
 jf cranial nerves, or those given off 
 lirectly from the brain as a center. 
 The facility with which different odors 
 jire perceived varies in different animals. 
 Thus carnivorous mammalia are most 
 iusceptible to the odors of other ani- 
 nals than herbivorous forms; and the 
 atter in their turn are more readily 
 iffected by the smell of plants. Al- 
 hough the sense of smell in man is less 
 icute than that of many animals, yet 
 lis sphere of susceptibility to various 
 jdors is more uniform and extended. 
 The influence of habit is very marked 
 ' n the exercise of this sense, custom 
 ■ jnabling the individual to inhale odors 
 jrhich at first might be distasteful or 
 lauseous to him. Certain diseases of 
 . ;he brain may produce anomalous effects 
 pn the olfactory sense. 
 
 1 SMELLIE, William, naturalist and 
 general writer, born at Edinburgh about 
 1740, died there in 1795. In 1765 he 
 compiled and conducted the first edi- 
 ;ions of the Encyclopedia Britannica, 
 which began to be published in numbers 
 lit Edinburgh in 1771, and was com- 
 * jleted in three vols., quarto. In 1780 
 ae gave to the world the first part of his 
 Translation of Buffon’s Natural History. 
 SMELT, a small but delicious Euro- 
 ■t Dean fish, allied to the salmon, inhabit- 
 I mg the salt water about the mouth of 
 
 s 
 
 called also the sperling, or sparling. The 
 American smelt inhabits the coasts of 
 New England; but the name is given in 
 America also to other fishes. The name 
 of sand smelt is given to a small fish 
 allied to the mullets and climbing 
 perches. It averages about 6 inches in 
 length, and is of a pale pink color, with 
 black spots on the head and back. 
 
 SMELTING, the process by which a 
 metal is obtained from its ore in a melted 
 state by applying great heat. Iron is 
 smelted in lofty furnaces known as 
 blast-furnaces. 
 
 SMEW, a swimming bird of shy habits. 
 It flies well, but has an awkward gait 
 on land. Its average length is from 15 
 to 18 inches. The head, chin, neck, 
 and under parts of the male are white: 
 the back is black, the wings black and 
 
 SMITH, Charles Emory, American 
 journalist and politician, was born at 
 Mansfield, Conn., in 1842. In 1865 he 
 became editor of the Albany Express, 
 and several years later of the Evening 
 Post. He removed to Philadelphia in 
 1880, and became editor of the Press. 
 
 Smelt. 
 
 rivers. It is of a silvery-white color, the 
 bead and body being semi-transparent, 
 and is from 4 to 8 inches long. It in- 
 71 babits fresh water from August to May, 
 b and after spawning returns to the sea. 
 ^ When first taken out of the water smelts 
 Wbave a strong smell of cucumber. It is 
 
 Smew, adult male. 
 
 white; the back of the head bears a 
 crest of elongated feathers. The plum- 
 age of the female is reddish brown 
 mixed with gray tints. 
 
 SMILA'CE.®, a natural order of en- 
 dogenous plants, belonging to the sub- 
 class Dictyogenae, or those having 
 reticulated leaves. They are mostly 
 climbing plants, with woody stems and 
 small unisexual flowers. They are found 
 in small quantities in most parts of the 
 world except in Africa. The genus 
 Smilax embraces the various species 
 of sarsaparilla. 
 
 SMILES, Samuel, LL.D., was born at 
 Haddington, Scotland, in 1812. He is 
 the author of many works on industrial 
 enterprise, the chief of which are: Life 
 of George Stephenson, Self-Help, Char- 
 acter, Thrift, Self-Effort and Duty. 
 These works are characterized by their 
 good moral teaching; they are written 
 in a clear and simple style, and many 
 of them have been translated into various 
 European languages. The University of 
 Edinburgh conferred the degree of LL.D. 
 on Smiles in 1878. He died in 1904. 
 
 SMITH, Adam, a distinguished writer 
 on political economy and on morals, 
 was born June 5, 1732. His first publi- 
 cation, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 
 appeared in 1759, and was most favor- 
 ably received. His theory makes sym- 
 pathy the foundation of all our moral 
 sentiments. To this work he afterward 
 added an Essay on the Origin of Lan- 
 guages. In 1766 he retired with his 
 mother to Kirkcaldy, where, after ten 
 years of close study, he wrote his cele- 
 brated Inquiry into the Nature and 
 Causes of the Wealth of Nations. This 
 work may be deemed the formal pre- 
 cursor of the modern science of econo- 
 ■ mics. He died in July, 1790, 
 
 Adam Smith. 
 
 From 1890 till 1892 he was American 
 minister to Russia. From 1898 till 1902 
 he was postmaster-general of the United 
 States. Rural mail routes were estab- 
 lished during his administration. He 
 died in 1908. 
 
 SMITH, Charles Henry, American 
 humorist, was born at Lawrenceville, 
 Ga., in 1826; served in the confederate 
 army and after the war was a planter 
 and took some interest in politics. He 
 was widely known for his newspaper 
 letters, under the signature “Bill Arp,” 
 which began in 1861, and with their 
 homely, genuine humor cheered the 
 hearts of the southern people. The 
 letters were subsequently collected as 
 Bill Arp’s Letters, to which were added 
 Bill Arp’s Scrap Book and other vol- 
 umes. He died in 1903. 
 
 SMITH, Francis Hopkinson, American 
 artist and author, was born in Balti- 
 more, Md., in 1838. Some of his best 
 known pictures are : “The Old Man of the 
 Mountains,” “In the Darkling Wood,” 
 “Peggothy on the Harlem,” “A January 
 Thaw,” His work in charcoal and as an 
 illustrator is of a high quality. His fame 
 as an author has almost eclipsed that 
 of the artist. Among his works are: 
 Well-Worn Roads, Colonel Carter of 
 Cartersville, A Gentleman Vagabond 
 and Some Others, Tom Grogan, Caleb 
 West, Master Driver, the Fortunes of 
 Oliver Horn, and The Under Dog. 
 
 SMITH, George, assyriologist, born 
 about 1840. In 1872 he made known his 
 striking discovery of a series of tablets 
 in the British museum containing, 
 among other records, the Babylonian 
 legend of the flood. He died in 1876. 
 
 SMITH, Goldwin, English historical 
 writer, worn at Reading, Berks, in 1823, 
 He was appointed member of the senate 
 of the University of Toronto in 1871, 
 where he has ever since resided. Among 
 his chief works are ; Lectures on Modern 
 History, Three English Statesmen (Pym, 
 Cromwell, and Pitt), The United States, 
 The United Kingdom. 
 
 SMITH, Green Clay, American soldier, 
 was born at Richmond, Ky., in 1832. 
 He served through the Mexican war as 
 lieutenant in a Kentucky regiment. In 
 1860 he was elected to the Kentucky 
 
SMITH 
 
 SMOKE 
 
 l«f!islature. On the outbreak of hostili- 
 ties he recruited and became colonel of 
 the Fourth Kentucky cavalry (federal), 
 took part in the Tennessee campaigns 
 of 1862, and in June of that year was 
 commissioned brigadier-general of vol- 
 unteers. In 1863 he was elected to the 
 thirty-eighth congress. He was re- 
 elected to congress in 1864 and in 1866 
 was appointed by President Johnson 
 governor of Montana territory. In 1876 
 he was the candidate of the prohibition 
 party for the presidency. He died in 
 1895. 
 
 SMITH, John (commonly known as 
 Captain John Smith), one of the found- 
 ers of the English colony in Virginia, was 
 born at Willoughby in Lincolnshire in 
 1580. After many adventures as a sol- 
 dier of fortune in Europe, Asia, and 
 Africa, he joined in the project to colon- 
 ize Virginia. The first expedition left 
 London in 1606. He made important 
 geographical discoveries, obtained sup- 
 plies from the natives, and was finally 
 intrusted with the guidance of the 
 colony. For a time he was a prisoner 
 among the Indians; but the story of 
 Pocahontas connected with this seems 
 to be, like others of Smith’s adven- 
 tures, undeserving of credibility. He 
 died in 1631. 
 
 SMITH, Joseph, Mormon leader, born 
 in Sharon, Vt., December 23, 1805; died 
 in Carthage, 111., June 27, 1844. In 1823 
 he pretended to have had visions and 
 interviews with angels, by whom the 
 book of Mormon was revealed to him. 
 This volume was eventually published 
 at Palmyra, N. Y., in 1830. A Mormon 
 church was established on April 6th of 
 that year in Fayette, N. Y. The Mor- 
 mons later wandered to Illinois,. Sub- 
 sequently Smith was chosen mayor and 
 sole trustee of the Mormon church, with 
 unlimited powers; a military organiza- 
 tion of 1500 men was formed, called the 
 “Nauvoo Legion,” and Smith was ap- 
 pointed lieutenant-general. Mission- 
 aries sent to England brought large 
 accessions of members, and the erection 
 of a new temple attracted others. 
 Driven from Missouri on the ground of 
 forming polygamy. Smith as mayor of 
 Nauvoo, 111., and head of the Nauvoo 
 Legion, was accused of attempting to 
 found a military church. He was in- 
 dicted for perjury and adultery and was 
 murdered in Carthage jail on June 27, 
 1844. He was succeeded in the presi- 
 dency of the church by Brigham Young. 
 
 SMITH, Samuel Francis, American 
 clergyman and hymn writer, was born in 
 Boston in 1808. From 1842 to 1848 he 
 was editor of The Christian Review, 
 and of the publications of the American 
 Baptist Missionary Union. He wrote 
 “My Country, ’Tis of Thee,” “The 
 Morning Light Is Breaking,” and other 
 favorite hymns. He died in 1895. 
 
 SMITH, Sydney, English clergyman, 
 noted for his wit and humor, was born 
 at Woodford, Essex, in 1771; died in 
 1845 He was one of the founders in 
 1802 of the Edinburgh Review, being 
 also one of its most influential con- 
 tributors. In 1831, during the ministry 
 of Earl Grey, he became one of the 
 canons of St. Paul’s, London, where he 
 henceforth resided. A few years before 
 bis death a collected edition of his 
 
 writings was published under his own 
 supervision, including papers contrib- 
 uted to the Edinburgh Review, Sketches 
 of Moral Philosophy, etc. 
 
 SMITH, Thomas Southwood, M. D., 
 physician and sanitary reformer, was 
 born at Martock, Somersetshire, in 
 1778. In 1825 he was appointed physi- 
 cian to the London Fever Hospital. He 
 published in 1830 a Treatise on Fever, 
 the best work on the subject that has 
 ever been written. His reports led to 
 the passage of the Factory Act; to the 
 exclusion of women and children from 
 mines; to the Public Health Act, etc. 
 He died in 1861. 
 
 SMITH, William, the “father of Eng- 
 lish geology,” born at Churchill, in Ox- 
 fordshire, in 1769; died at Northampton 
 in 1839. He became convinced that each 
 stratum contained its own peculiar 
 fossils, and might be discriminated by 
 them, and in 1815 he was able to submit 
 a complete colored map of the strata of 
 England and Wales to the Society of 
 
 SmTH, Sir WUliam, LL.D., D.C.L., 
 English scholar, born in London in 1813, 
 died 1893. He edited the well-known 
 series of Classical, Biblical, and Ecclesi- 
 astical Dictionaries, and wrote or 
 edited many educational books. He 
 was for some time classical examiner in 
 London university. From 1867 he was 
 editor of the Quarterly Review. He 
 was knighted in 1892. 
 
 SMITH, William Henry, was born in 
 London in 1825'. From 1868 to 1885 he 
 represented Westminster, when, after 
 the Redistribution Bill, he was returned 
 for the Strand, for which division he 
 was member till his death in 1891. Mr. 
 Smith was financial secretary to the 
 treasury (1874-77), first lord of the 
 admiralty (1877-80), secretary for war 
 (1885). In 1886, on the resignation of 
 Lord Randolph Churchill, Mr. Smith 
 vacated the war office, and assumed the 
 leadership of the House of Commons as 
 first lord of the treasury. 
 
 SMITH, William Robertson, biblical 
 scholar, was born at Keig, Aberdeen- 
 shire, in 1846. From 1881 Professor 
 Smith was connected with the editor- 
 ship of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 
 and after the death of Professor Baynes 
 was editor-in-chief. He was a member 
 of the Old Testament revision com- 
 mittee, in 1879-80. He is the author, 
 among other works, of The Old Testa- 
 ment in the Jewish Church, The Proph- 
 ets of Israel and their Place in His- 
 tory to the Close of the 8th Century b.c.. 
 Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, 
 and Religion of the Semites. He died 
 in 1894. 
 
 SMITH, Admiral Sir William Sidney, 
 born in Westminster in 1765, died in 
 1841. He entered the navy at the age 
 of twelve, received his lieutenancy at 
 sixteen, and when nineteen was created 
 post-captain. He was created rear- 
 admiral of the blue in 1805, and in 
 1806 inflicted signal injuries on the 
 French off the coast of Naples. In 1807 
 he distinguished himself by the destruc- 
 tion of a Turkish squadron. He was 
 made vice-admiral in 1810, admiral in 
 1821, and in 1830 succeeded King 
 William IV. as lieutenant-general of 
 marines, 
 
 SMITHSON, James, philanthropist, 
 born in England about 1754; died in 
 Genoa, Italy, June 27, 1829. He was a 
 natural eon of the duke of Northumber- 
 land. In 1786 he was graduated at Ox- 
 ford. He spent much time in traveling 
 on the European continent, engaged in 
 scientific observations, carrying with 
 him a portable laboratory, and formed 
 a large collection of gems and minerals. 
 Mr. Smithson was a member of the 
 Royal Society of England, and of the 
 French Institute. He bequeathed his 
 property, about $600,000 for the pur- 
 pose of founding an institution at Wash- 
 ington to be called the Smithsonian 
 institution for the increase and diffusion 
 of knowledge among men. In 1846 this 
 institution was founded. (See following 
 
 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, a 
 
 scientific institute in Washington, or- 
 ganized by act of congress in 1846, to 
 carry into effect the provisions of the 
 will of James Smithson, the founder. 
 He died at Genoa in 1829, leaving his 
 property to his nephew, with the con- 
 dition that if the latter died without 
 issue the property was to go to the 
 United States to found an establish- 
 ment for the increase and diffusion of 
 knowledge. In 1835 the nephew died 
 childless, and in 1838 the sum of 515,169 
 dollars was paid to the treasury of the 
 United States. In 1846 the interest on 
 this sum (the principal itself must re- 
 main untouched) was applied to the 
 erection of a suitable building, with 
 apartments for the reception and ar- 
 rangement of objects af natural history, 
 including a geological and mineralogical 
 cabinet, a chemical laboratory, a library, 
 a gallery of art, and the necessary lec- 
 ture-rooms. The building is one of the 
 largest in Washington. A portion of the 
 funds of the institution is devoted to 
 scientific researches and the publication 
 of works too expensive for private en- 
 terprise. Three series of publications are 
 issued: Contributions to Knowledge, 
 Miscellaneous Collections, and Annual 
 Reports. The building contains the 
 National museum, which is, however, 
 wholly maintained by the government. 
 The institution is administered .by 
 regents, composed of the chief-justica 
 of the United States, three members of 
 the senate and three of the house of 
 representatives, with six other persons, 
 not members of congress. The president 
 vice-president, and members of the 
 cabinet for the time being have the 
 positions of governors or visitors of the 
 institution, the president being ex- 
 officio at the head. 
 
 SMOKE, the exhalation or visible 
 vapor that arises from a substance burn- 
 ing. In its more extended sense the 
 word smoke is applied to all the volatile 
 products of combustion, which consist 
 of gaseous exhalations charged with 
 minute portions of carbonaceous matter 
 or soot; but, as often used in reference 
 to what are called smoke-consuming 
 furnaces, the term is frequently em- 
 ployed to express merely the carbona- 
 ceous matter which is held in suspension 
 by the gases. There are many practical 
 difficulties in the way of consuming 
 smoke, but experience has shown that 
 none of them are insuperable. The prin- 
 
SMOKELESS POWDER 
 
 SNIPE 
 
 ciple involved is that of mixing air with 
 the combustible vapors and gases gene- 
 rated, by the action of heat on the fuel 
 so that by virtue of a due supply of 
 oxygen they may be made to burn with 
 flame, and become entirely converted 
 into incombustible and invisible vapors 
 and gases. 
 
 SMOKELESS POWDER, an explosive 
 substance that burns without making 
 much smoke, used chiefly for military 
 urposes. The use of smokeless powder 
 egan with the invention of poudre B. 
 in France in 1886. They are divided into 
 three classes, as follows: (1) Powders in 
 which guncotton, either the insoluble 
 or the soluble variety alone, is used, 
 which, by the aid of a solvent, has been 
 converted into a horny substance and 
 then is formed into flakes or cords; (2) 
 powders in which a mixture of nitro- 
 glycerin and either dinitro- or trinitro- 
 cellulose is transformed into a similar 
 horn-like substance, either with or with- 
 out the aid of a solvent; and (3) powders 
 that contain nitro-derivatives of the 
 aromatic hydro-carbons, either by them- 
 selves or in connection with nitro- 
 cellulose. 
 
 Some of the various smokeless pow- 
 ders are: Ballistite, cordite, Du Pont 
 powder, indurite, cibalite, poudre J., 
 poudre pyroxy4e, Troisdorf, Von For- 
 ster, WaProde, and Wetteren powders. 
 
 SMOLENSK', a government in Russia, 
 west of Moscow; area, 21,547 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 1,551,068. The climate, though 
 cold , is healthy, and the soil tolerably 
 fertile, producing good crops of rye, 
 hemp, and flax, hops and tobacco. The 
 pastures are excellent, and the forests 
 yield excellent timber. — Smolensk, the 
 capital, is situated on the Dnieper, 250 
 miles w.s.w. of Moscow. Pop. 46,889. 
 
 SMOL'LETT, Tobias George, novelist 
 and miscellaneous writer, was born near 
 Renton in Dumbartonshire in 1721 ; died 
 at Monte Nuovo, near Leghorn, 1771. 
 In 1748 he published his Adventures of 
 Roderick Random, a novel which 
 brought him both fame and fortune. 
 He went to Paris in 1750, and about this 
 time wrote his Adventures of Peregrine 
 Pickle, which appeared in 1751. In 
 1755 he brought out a new translation 
 of Don Quixote. Soon after this he was 
 induced to take the chief management 
 of the Tory organ, the Critical Review. 
 In 1757 he produced The Reprisal, a 
 comedy in two acts, which proved a 
 success. In 1758 appeared his History of 
 England, from Julius Caesar to the 
 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. In 
 1761, 1762, and 1765 appeared his Con- 
 tinuation of the History of England 
 down to 1765, since often reprinted as a 
 continuation of Hume’s History. In 
 1770 he wrote his Humphry Clinker, 
 which is regarded as the best of all his 
 works. The humor of Smollett is of the 
 broad full-flavored kind, not seldom 
 degenerating into burlesque; his char- 
 acters are well marked and varied; and 
 though his work is frequently coarse and 
 vulgar, it has had much influence on 
 English fiction. 
 
 SMUT, a disease, also called Dust- 
 brand, incidental to cultivated corn, 
 by which the farina of the grain, together 
 with its proper integuments, and even 
 part of tne husk, is converted into a 
 
 black, soot-like powder. It does not 
 affect the whole body of the crop. Some 
 attribute the smut to the richness of the 
 soil, and others consider it as a heredi- 
 tary disease transmitted by one gene- 
 ration to another through the seed. It is 
 produced by a minute fungus. The 
 safest mode for the farmer to pursue to 
 prevent smut, is never to sow grain 
 from a field in which the smut has pre- 
 vailed. 
 
 SMYRNA, an ancient city and seaport 
 of Asiatic Turkey, on the west coast of 
 Asia Minor, at the head of the gulf of 
 the same name. Smyrna has been for 
 centuries the most important place of 
 trade in Asia Minor. The chief imports 
 are cotton manufactures, woolen cloths, 
 colonial goods, iron, steel, and hardware 
 goods. The principal exports are dried 
 fruits (especially figs), cotton, silk, 
 goats’-hair, sheep and camels’ wool. 
 
 valonia, madder-root, yellow-berrieS, 
 sponges, and opium. The origin of 
 Smyrna is lost in antiquity. It laid 
 claim to the honor of being the birth- 
 place of Homer, and no doubt was a 
 Greek city as early as the date assigned 
 to the poet. It early received Christian- 
 ity, and was one of the “seven churches’’ 
 of Asia. In the 13th century only the 
 ruins of its former splendor were left; 
 but after the Turks became masters of 
 the country it revived. It has repeatedly 
 suffered from earthquake. Pop. esti- 
 mated at 200,000. 
 
 SMYRNA, Gulf of, formerly the Her- 
 msean gulf, an inlet of the .(Egean sea 
 on the coast of Asiatic Turkey, so called 
 from the town of Smyrna, which stands 
 at its head. It is 40 miles in length by 
 20 at its broadest part, and contains 
 several islands and affords good anchor- 
 age. 
 
 SNAIL, a slimy, slow-creeping, air- 
 breathing mollusc differing from the 
 slugs chiefly in having a spiral shell. 
 The head is furnished with four re- 
 tractile horns or tentacles; and on the 
 superior pair, at the extremity, the eyes 
 are placed. The sexes are united in the 
 same individual, but the union of two 
 such hermaphrodite individuals is neces- 
 sary for fertilization. The common gar- 
 den snail is the most familiar species of 
 the typical genus. The mischief done 
 by it to garden produce on which it feeds 
 is very extensive. Nearly equally well 
 known is the edible snail, largely found 
 in France, and cultivated there and else- 
 where for food purposes. 
 
 SNAKE, a name equivalent to serpent. 
 
 (See Serpents.) It is applied especially 
 to the common harmless ringed-snake. 
 
 SNAKE INDIANS. See Shoshones. 
 
 SNAI^ROOT, the popular name of 
 numerous American plants of different 
 species and genera, most of which are, 
 or formerly were, reputed to be effica- 
 cious as remedies for snake bites. 
 
 SNAKE-STONE, a popular name of 
 those fossils otherwise called Am- 
 monites. The name is also given to cer- 
 tain small rounded pieces of stone or 
 other hard substance, popularly believed 
 to be efficacious in curing snake bites. 
 
 SNAPPING-TURTLE, a species of 
 fresh water tortoise common to all parts 
 of the United States. It feeds on small 
 animals, is bold and fierce, and is so 
 named from its propensity to snap at 
 
 Snapping-turtle. 
 
 everything within its reach. Another 
 tortoise of similar habits, but larger 
 (sometimes weighing 100 lbs.), receives 
 the same name. 
 
 SNEEZING is a convulsive action of 
 the respiratory organs brought on com- 
 monly by irritation of the nostrils. It 
 is preceded by a deep inspiration, which 
 fills the lungs and then forces the air 
 violently through the nose. Sneezing 
 produced in the ordinary way is a 
 natural and healthy action, throwing 
 automatically from the delicate mem- 
 brane of the nostrils whatever irritable 
 or offensive material may chance to be 
 lodged there. When it becomes violent, 
 recourse must be had to soothing the 
 nasal membrane by the application of 
 warm milk and water, or decoction of 
 poppies. The custom of blessing persons 
 when they sneeze is very ancient and 
 very widely spread. 
 
 SNIPE, the common snipe is a beau- 
 tifully marked bird, about 10 or 11 
 inches long. It frequents marshy or 
 moist grounds. It feeds on worms, in- 
 sects, and small molluscs. It is remark- 
 
 able for the length of its bill, its peculiar 
 bleating cry, and the drumming-like 
 noise it makes in summer. The jack 
 snipe closely resembles the common 
 snipe in its general habits and appear- 
 ance. In North America, there are 
 several species of snipe, Wilson’s snipe, 
 
SNOW 
 
 SOCIALISM 
 
 being one of the chief. The name of sea 
 snipe is sometimes given to the dunlin, 
 while the name summer snipe is applied 
 to the common sandpiper. 
 
 SNOW, Snow-flakes are assemblages 
 of minute crystals of ice; they are 
 formed when the temperature in a 
 region of air containing a considerable 
 quantity of aqueous vapor is lowered 
 below the freezing-point. The particles 
 of moisture contained in the atmosphere 
 are then condensed and frozen, and 
 form flakes, which descend to the earth. 
 Each flake which falls is composed of a 
 number of minute crystals of ice, which 
 present countless modifications of the 
 hexagonal system. They have great 
 diversities of density, and display in- 
 numerable varieties of the most beauti- 
 ful forms. These crystals usually adhere 
 together to form an irregular cluster; 
 and consequently the incident rays of 
 light, which are refracted and reflected 
 so as to present individually the pris- 
 matic colors, are scattered after reflec- 
 tion in all directions, and combine to 
 give to the eye the color sensation of 
 white. When suflacient pressure is 
 
 Crystals of snow, altar Scoresby. 
 
 applied the slightly adhering crystals 
 are brought into true molecular con- 
 tact, when the snow, losing its white 
 color, assumes the form of ice. Snow 
 answers many valuable purposes in the 
 economy of nature. Accumulated upon 
 high regions it serves to feed, by its 
 gradual melting streams of running 
 water, which a sudden increase of water, 
 in the form of rain, would convert into 
 destructive torrents or standing pools; 
 and in many countries it tempers the 
 burning heats of summer by previously 
 cooling the breezes which pass over 
 them. In severer climates it serves as a 
 defense against the rigors of winter by 
 protecting vegetation from the frost, 
 and by affording a shelter to animals 
 which bury themselves under it. Even 
 in more temperate climates it is found 
 that vegetation suffers more from an 
 open winter than when the fields, during 
 that season, lie hidden beneath a snowy 
 covering. Snow purifies the air and 
 leaves it remarkably clear and pure. 
 It has a greater purifying effect than 
 rain and it is thought that the action 
 of the snow on the oxygen in the air 
 
 may form ozone; at any rate it intensi- 
 fies the vital qualities of the air, and 
 this is why snow swept air is so exhila- 
 rating and exercise in the snow is so 
 bracing. 
 
 SNOWDROP, a well-known garden 
 plant. It bears solitary drooping, and 
 elegant white flowers. 
 
 SNOWDROP TREE, a name of orna- 
 mental trees of the southern states with 
 flowers like snowdrops, belonging to the 
 stynrax family. 
 
 SNOW-LINE, the limit of perpetual 
 snow, or the line above which moun- 
 tains are covered with perpetual snow. 
 Since the temperature of the atmos- 
 phere continually diminishes as we 
 ascend from the lower into the higher 
 strata, there must be in every latitude 
 a certain limit of elevation at which the 
 temperature of the air is reduced to the 
 freezing-point. This limit is called the 
 snow-line, or line of perpetual congela- 
 tion, and the mountains which rise 
 above it are always covered with snow. 
 The snow-line varies according to lati- 
 tude, being highest near the equator 
 and lowest near the poles. Local cir- 
 cumstances, however, affect it, as the 
 configuration of the country, the quan- 
 tity of snow falling annually, the nature 
 of the prevalent winds, etc. From these 
 circumstances the snow-line is at dif- 
 ferent heights in the same latitude. 
 
 SNOW-PLOW, an implement for 
 clearing away the snow from roads, 
 railways, etc. There are two kinds: one 
 adapted to be hauled by horses on a 
 common highway ; the other to be placed 
 in front of a locomotive to clear the rails 
 of snow. A variety of the latter is 
 adapted to street railways. 
 
 SNOW-SHOE, a kind of flat shoe, 
 either made of wood alone, or consisting 
 of a light frame crossed and recrossed by 
 thongs, the broad surface of which pre- 
 
 vents the wearer from sinking in the 
 snow. Snow-shoes are usually from 3 
 to 4 feet in length, and from 1 to 1 J foot 
 broad across the middle. 
 
 SNUFF, a powdered preparation of 
 tobacco inhaled through the nose. It is 
 made by grinding, in mortars or mills, 
 the chopped leaves and stalks of to- 
 bacco in which fermentation has been 
 induced by moisture and warmth. The 
 tobacco is well dried previous to grind- 
 ing, and this is carried sometimes so far 
 as to give to the snuff the peculiar flavor 
 of the high-dried snuffs, such as the 
 Irish, Welsh, and Scotch. Some varie- 
 ties, as the rappees, are moist. The ad- 
 mixture of different flavoring agents 
 and delicate scents has given rise to 
 fanciful names for snuffs, which, the 
 flavor excepted, are identical. Dry 
 snuffs are often adulterated with quick- 
 lime, and the moist kinds with am- 
 
 monia, hellebore, pearl-ash, etc. See 
 Tobacco. 
 
 SOAP, a chemical compound of com- * , 
 mon domestic use for washing and 
 cleansing, and also used in medicine, 
 etc. It is a compound resulting from 
 the combination of certain constituents 
 derived from fats, oils, grease of various 
 kinds both animal and vegetable, with 
 certain salifiable bases, which in house- 
 hold soaps are potash and soda. Chemi- 
 cally speaking soap may be defined as a 
 salt, more especially one of the alkaline 
 salts of those acids which are present in 
 the common fats and oils, and soluble 
 soaps may be regarded as oleates, stear- 
 ates, and margarates of sodium and 
 potassium. There are many different 
 kinds of soaps, but those commonly em- 
 ployed may be divided into three 
 classes: 1. Fine white soaps, scented 
 soaps, etc.; 2. Coarse household soaps; 
 
 3. Soft soaps. White soaps are generally 
 combinations of olive-oil and carbonate 
 of soda. Perfumes are occasionally 
 added, or various coloring matters 
 stirred in while the soap is semifluid. 
 Common household soaps are made 
 chiefly of soda and tallow. _ Yellow soap 
 is composed of tallow, resin, and soda, 
 to which some palm-oil is occasionally 
 added. Mottled soap is made by simply 
 adding mineral and other colors during 
 the manufacture of ordinary hard soap. 
 Marine soap, which has the property of 
 dissolving as well in salt-water as in 
 fresh, is made of cocoa-nut oil, soda, 
 and water. Soft soaps are generally 
 made with potash instead of soda, and 
 whale, seal, or olive-oil, or the oils of 
 linseed, hemp-seed, rape-seed, etc., 
 with the addition of a little tallow. 
 Excellent soaps are made from palm-oil 
 and soda. Soap is soluble in pure water 
 and in alcohol; the latter solution jellies 
 when concentrated, and is known in 
 medicine under the name of opodel- 
 doc, and when evaporated to dryness 
 it forms what is called transparent 
 soap. Medicinal soap when pure, is pre- 
 pared from caustic soda, and either 
 olive or almond oil. It is chiefly em- 
 ployed to form pills of a gently aperient 
 antacid action. 
 
 SOBIES'KI, John. See John III. 
 (Sobieski). 
 
 SOCIALISM, the name applied to 
 various theories of social organization, 
 having for their common aim the aboli- 
 tion of that individual action on which 
 modern societies depend, and the sub- 
 stitution of a regulated system of co- 
 operative action. The word socialism, 
 which originated among the English 
 communists, and was assumed by them 
 to designate their own doctrine, is now 
 employed in a larger sense, not neces- 
 sarily implying communism or the en- 
 tire abolition of private property, but 
 applied to any system which requires 
 that the land and the intruments of 
 production shall be the property, not of 
 individuals, but of communities, or 
 associations, or of the government, with 
 the view to an equitable distribution of 
 the products. It is looked on by those 
 who believe in it as an evolutionary 
 phase of society, as indeed a natural de- 
 velopment — slavery gave way to feudal- 
 ism, feudalism to capitalism, and the ; 
 latter is bound to fall before the latest 
 
SOCIAL SCIENCE 
 
 SODA 
 
 stage, socialism. The earliest and most 
 concrete forms of socialist philosophy 
 are those promulgated by Robert Owen, 
 St. Simon, and Fourier. Later theorists 
 on the social question have taken wider, 
 and even wilder views, their theories 
 often ramifying into the more or less 
 vague and disruptive schemes of the 
 anarchists and nihilists. The literature 
 on the subject is very extensive, and has 
 had an important influence on modern 
 thought, and, indeed, upon constructive 
 legislation. Among the leading works 
 to be consulted are Karl Marx’s Capital ; 
 Fourier’s QEuvres Completes; Comte’s 
 Traits de Sociologie; Louis Blanc’s 
 L’Organization du Travail; Hyndman’s 
 Historical Basis of Socialism in Eng- 
 land; Bax’s Religion of Socialism'; etc. 
 
 SOCIAL SCIENCE, the science that 
 deals with the social conditions, the 
 relations, and institutions which are in- 
 volved in man’s existence and his well- 
 being as a member of an organized com- 
 munity. It concerns itself more espe- 
 cially with questions relating to public 
 health, education, labor, punishment of 
 crime, reformation of criminals, pauper- 
 ism, and the like. It thus deals with the 
 effect of existing social forces, and their 
 result on the general well-being of the 
 community, without directly discussing 
 or expounding the theories or examin- 
 ing the problems of sociology, of which 
 it may be considered as a branch. (See 
 Sociology.) 
 
 SOCIETY ISLANDS, an important 
 group of islands of the South Pacific, be- 
 tween lat. 16° 11' and 17° 53' s., and Ion. 
 148° and 155° w.; and between the Low 
 islands on the east and the Friendly 
 islands on the west. The group consists 
 of the principal island of Tahiti or 
 Otaheite — which is about 32 miles long, 
 and is divided into two peninsulas by 
 an isthmus about 3 miles broad; area, 
 412 sq. miles — and a number of com- 
 paratively small islands, Eimeo, Raiatea 
 Huahine, etc., all now belonging to 
 France. All the islands are elevated, 
 and more or less mountainous. Pop. 
 estimated at about 12,000. 
 
 SOCI'NUS, the Latinized name of two 
 celebrated theologians, uncle and neph- 
 ew, who have given their name to a 
 religious sect, the Socinians, whose 
 modified doctrines are now known as 
 Unitarianism. — Laelius Socinus (Lelio 
 Sozzini), born in 1525 at Siena, in 
 Tuscany, abandoned jurisprudence for 
 the study of the Scriptures. In 1546 he 
 was admitted a member of a secret so- 
 ciety at Vicenza, formed for the discus- 
 sion of religious questions, which arrived 
 at the conclusion that the doctrine of 
 the Trinity was untenable, and that 
 many of the dogmas of the Roman 
 Catholic church were repugnant to 
 reason. The nature of their delibera- 
 tions having become known the society 
 was broken up, several of its members 
 put to death, and others, among who 
 was Socinus, fled the country. He died 
 at Zurich in 1562. — Faustus Socinus 
 (Fausto Sozzini), a nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, born at Siena in 1539, was 
 obliged to leave that town in his twen- 
 tieth year on account of his heretical 
 notions. On the death of his uncle he 
 came into possession of the manuscripts 
 of the latter, by the study of which he 
 
 found his former opinions confirmed. 
 His death took place in 1604. See 
 Unitarians. 
 
 SOCIOLOGY, the science which in- 
 vestigates the laws of forces which 
 regulate human society in all its grades, 
 existing and historical, savage and 
 civilized; or the science which treats of 
 the general structure of society, the laws 
 of its development, and the progress of 
 actual civilization. Comte was the first 
 to treat the subject from a scientific 
 point of view. He was followed by 
 Quetelet, Spencer, Ward and others. 
 (See Social Science.) 
 
 SOCK, a low shoe or slipper, worn by 
 the Greeks, and also by the Roman 
 women, who had them highly orna- 
 mented. They were likewise worn by 
 comic actors, the buskin, or cothurnus, 
 being used in tragedy; hence sock and 
 buskin are used figuratively as equiva- 
 lent to comedy and tragedy. 
 
 SOC'RATES (-tez), an ancient Greek 
 philosopher, born at Athens in or about 
 469 B.c. Reserved as a common soldier 
 in the campaign of Potidsea (432-429 
 B.C.), fought at the battle of Delium 
 
 Socrates, from ancient bust. 
 
 (424), and in 422 he marched with Cleon 
 against Amphipolis. After the naval 
 battle of Arginusae (406) against the 
 Spartans, ten Athenian officers were 
 arraigned for neglecting the sacred duty 
 of burying the slain. The clamor for 
 their condemnation rose so high that the 
 court wished to proceed in violation of 
 all legal forms; but Socrates, the pre- 
 siding judge at the trial, refused to put 
 the question. Soon after he was sum- 
 moned by the tyrannical government 
 of the Thirty to proceed with four other 
 persons to Salamis to bring back an 
 Athenian citizen who had retired thither 
 to escape the rapacity of the new gov- 
 ernment. Socrates alone refused. After 
 this he declined to take any further 
 share in public affairs, giving as a reason 
 the warnings of an internal voice of 
 which he was wont to speak. Follow- 
 ing the promptings of this divine mentor 
 he trained himself to coarse fare, scanty 
 clothing, and indifference to heat or cold, 
 and brought into thorough subjection 
 his naturally Impetuous passions. But 
 though a sage he was wholly removed 
 from the gloom and constraint of 
 asceticism ; he indeed exemplified the 
 finest Athenian social culture, was a 
 witty as well as a serious disputant, and 
 did not refrain from festive enjoyment. 
 Socrates wrote nothing, and neither 
 sought to found a school nor a system of 
 philosophy. His plan was to mix with 
 
 men freely in any place of public resort, 
 when he questioned and suggested the 
 right path to real knowledge. Aristoph- 
 anes attacked him violently in his 
 Comedy of the Clouds as a sophist, an 
 enemy of religion, and a corrupter of 
 youth. But he had many distinguished 
 friends, such as Plato, Xenophon 
 Euclid of Megara, Antisthenes, Aristip- 
 pus, .^Eschines, and Alcibiades. In 399 
 B.c. a formal accusation was brought 
 against him charging him with not be- 
 lieving in the gods which the state wor- 
 shiped, with introducing new divinities 
 and with corrupting youth. His bold 
 defense is preserved by Plato, under the 
 title of the Apology of Socrates. He 
 dwelt on his mission to convict men of 
 their ignorance for their ultimate benefit ; 
 declared himself a public blessing to the 
 Athenians; assuring them if his life were 
 spared he would continue in the same 
 course; and regarded the approach of 
 death with utter indifference. He was 
 condemned to death by a majority of 
 his judges; refused help to escape, and 
 thirty days after his sentence drank the 
 hemlock cup with composure, and died 
 in his 70th year (b.c. 399). The account 
 of his last hours is given in full detail in 
 the Phaedo of Plato. 
 
 SODA, a term applied, in common 
 language, to two or more substances — 
 protoxide of sodium, hydroxide of so- 
 dium, and carbonate of sodium, being 
 known under the name of soda. In 
 scientific language, however, the name 
 is only given to the protoxide of sodium 
 the hydroxide being frequently called 
 caustic soda. The protoxide of sodium 
 is formed when sodium is burned in dry 
 air or oxygen. It is a white powder, 
 which attracts moisture and carbonic 
 acid from the air. When this protoxide 
 is dissolved in water there is formed the 
 true alkali or hydrate of sodium, called 
 also caustic alkali, which is a white 
 brittle mass of a fibrous texture, having 
 a specific gravity of 2.13. Caustic soda 
 has a most corrosive taste and action 
 upon animal substances; it dissolves 
 readily both in water and alcohol; in 
 the solid form it readily attracts water 
 and carbonic acid from the atmosphere, 
 the final product being an efflorescent 
 carbonate. It forms soaps when boiled 
 with tallow, oils, wax, rosin; dissolves 
 wool, hair, silk, horn, alumina, silica, 
 sulphur, and some metallic sulphides. 
 With acids soda forms salts which are 
 soluble in water, and many of which 
 crystallize. The carbonate of soda is the 
 soda of commerce in various states, 
 either crystallized in lumps or in a crude 
 powder called soda-ash. It is obtained 
 from the ash of plants growing near the 
 sea, from native sources, or by chemical 
 processes. The soda obtained from 
 plants contains from 3 to 30 per cent of 
 carbonate. It is imported from Spain 
 under the name of barilla, from France 
 as silicar or blanquette, and from Nor- 
 mandy and Brittany as varec. Native 
 soda comes tons chiefly from the mineral 
 waters of Karlsbad, Aix, Vichy, and the 
 geysers of Iceland; from the Caspian 
 and Black sea, from California and 
 Virginia. But the amount of soda de- 
 rived from these sources is as nothing 
 compared with that manufactured every 
 year by chemical processes. In these 
 
SODA-WATKR 
 
 1 
 
 the first process is the decomposition of 
 common salt (chloride of sodium) by 
 means of sulphuric acid; the second, the 
 conversion of the sulphate of sodium so 
 produced into crude carbonate of soda 
 by strongly heating with chalk and car- 
 bonaceous matter; third, the purifica- 
 tion of this crude carbonate, either into 
 a dry white soda-ash or into crystals; 
 and, fourth, the treatment of the by- 
 products — hydrochloric acid and cal- 
 cium sulphide. The chief uses of soda 
 are in the manufacture of glass and of 
 hard soap. The carbonate of soda is used 
 in washing, and is a powerful detergent. 
 It is also used in medicine. Sulphate of 
 soda is glauber-salts. 
 
 SODA-WATER, an effervescing drink 
 generally consisting of ordinary water 
 into which carbonic acid has been 
 forced under pressure. It rarely con- 
 tains soda in any form. It is useful 
 in cases of debility of the stomach, 
 accompanied with acidity. 
 
 SODIUM, the metal of which soda is 
 the oxide. It was discovered by Sir 
 Humphry Davy in the year 1807. 
 Previously the oxide of the metal, soda, 
 was looked on as an elementary body, 
 but Davy succeeded in breaking it up, 
 by the action of electricity, into oxygen 
 and a new metal. Gay-Lussac and 
 Th^nard soon afterward procured it in 
 greater quantity by decomposing soda 
 by means of iron; and Brunner showed 
 that it may be prepared with much 
 greater facility by distilling a mixture 
 of carbonate of soda with charcoal; it 
 is now prepared by the latter process in 
 considerable quantities. Sodium is a 
 silver-white metal, having a very high 
 luster. It melts at 204° Fahr., and 
 oxidizes rapidly in the air, though not 
 so rapidly as potassium. It decom- 
 poses water instantly, but does not 
 spontaneously take fire when thrown on 
 water, unless the water be somewhat 
 warm, or the progress of the globule of 
 sodium upon the surface of the water be 
 impeded. When heated in air or oxygen 
 it takes fire and burns with a very pure 
 and intense yellow flame. It is perhaps 
 more abundant in our globe than any 
 other metal, for it constitutes two- 
 fifths of all the sea-salt existing in sea- 
 water, in the water of springs, rivers, 
 and lakes, in almost all soils and in the 
 form of rock-salt. It is used as an agent 
 in the manufacture of aluminium and 
 magnesium, and as a reagent in chemi- 
 cal operations. Common salt is a com- 
 pound of chlorine with sodium. Sodium 
 also occurs as oxide of sodium or soda in 
 a good many minerals; and more espe- 
 cially in the form of carbonate, nitrate, 
 and borate of soda. Sodium is contained 
 in sea plants, and in land plants grow- 
 ing near the sea. It occurs also in most 
 animal fluids. The only important oxide 
 of sodium is the protoxide known as 
 soda. See Soda. 
 
 SODOM, the principal of the five 
 cities (Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Ze- 
 boim, and Zoar) described in the book 
 of Genesis and the cities of the plain 
 (i.e. of Jordan). They were overthrown 
 on account of the wickedness of the in- 
 habitants (Gen. xix.), with the excep- 
 tion of Zoar, which was spared at the 
 supplication of Lot. 
 
 SODOM, Apple of, a fruit mentioned 
 
 by early writers as growing on the 
 shores of the Dead sea, which was beau- 
 tiful to the eye, but when eaten filled the 
 mouth with ashes; supposed to have 
 been a gall produced on dwarf oaks by 
 an insect, or the fruit of a species of 
 Solanum. 
 
 SOFFIT, in architecture, any ceiling 
 divided into square compartments, or 
 
 « s, Sofats. 
 
 panels; also the lower surface of an 
 architrave, an arch, a balcony, a cor- 
 nice, etc. 
 
 SO'FIA, So'phia, the capital of the 
 principality of Bulgaria, situated in a 
 plain on the river Bogana, near the foot 
 of the north side of the Balkan moun- 
 tains, 310 miles w.n.w. of Constanti- 
 nople. Pop. 67,920. 
 
 SOIL, mould, or that compound 
 earthy substance which furnishes nutri- 
 ment to plants, or which is particularly 
 adapted to support and nourish them. 
 Wherever the surface of the earth is not 
 covered with water, or is not naked 
 rock, there is a layer of earth more or 
 less mixed with the remains of animal 
 and vegetable substances in a state of 
 decomposition, which is commonly 
 called the soil. In uncultivated grounds 
 soils generally occupy only a few inches 
 in depth on the surface; in cultivated 
 grounds their depth is generally the 
 same as that to which the implements 
 used in cultivation have penetrated. 
 The stratum which lies immediately 
 under the soil is called the subsoil, which 
 is comparatively without organized 
 matter. Soil is coipposed of certain 
 mixtures or combinations of the follow- 
 ing substances : the earths, silica, alum- 
 ina, lime, magnesia; the alkalies, potassa, 
 soda, and ammonia; oxide of iron and 
 small portions of other metallic oxides; 
 a considerable proportion' of moisture, 
 and several gases, as oxygen, hydrogen 
 carbonic acid. Besides these every soil 
 contains vegetable and animal matters, 
 either partially or wholly decomposed. 
 
 SOLANA'CE.®, a natural order of 
 monopetalous exogenous plants, com- 
 posed of herbs or shrubs, natives of most 
 parts of the world, and especially within 
 the tropics. They have alternate leaves, 
 terminal or axillary inflorescence, and 
 regular, or nearly regular monopetalous 
 flowers. 
 
 SOLAR CORONA. See Corona. 
 
 SOLAR DAY. See Day. 
 
 SOLAR ENGINE, an apparatus for 
 utilizing the heat of the sun as a motive 
 power, by causing it, through the 
 medium of a reflecting metallic mirror, 
 to heat the water in a small boiler and 
 convert it into steam. 
 
 SOLAR MICROSCOPE, an instru- 
 ment by means of which a magnified 
 image of a small transparent object is 
 projected on a screen, the light em- 
 
 SOLE 
 
 ployed being sunlight. It is really a 
 magic lantern, in which the micro- 
 scopic object is affixed to a clear glass 
 plate, and the light employed bright 
 sunlight reflected into the instrument. 
 
 SOLAR PROMINENCES, red flame- 
 like masses seen in the atmosphere of 
 the sun at a total solar eclipse. See Sun. 
 
 SOLAR SYSTEM, in astronomy, that 
 system of which the sun is the center. 
 To this system belong the planets, 
 planetoids, satellites, comets, and me- 
 teorites, which all directly or indirectly 
 revolve round the sun, the whole being 
 bound together by the mutual attrac- 
 tions of the several parts. See Astrono- 
 my, Planets, Sun, Moon, Gravitation, 
 etc. 
 
 SOLAR TIME, time as indicated by a 
 sun-dial. The successive hours so in- 
 dicated are not equal intervals of time. 
 See Day, Equation of Time. 
 
 SOLDERS, metallic cements consist- 
 ing of simple or mixed metals, by which 
 ordinarily metallic bodies are firmly 
 united with each other. It is a general 
 rule that the solder should always be 
 easier of fusion than the metal intended 
 to be soldered by it. The usual solders 
 are compound, and are divided into 
 hard and soft. The hard solders are 
 ductile, will bear hammering, and are 
 commonly prepared of the same metal 
 with that which is to be soldered, with 
 the addition of some other, by which a 
 greater degree of fusibility is obtained. 
 Under this head comes the hard solder 
 for gold, which is prepared from gold and 
 silver, or gold and copper, or gold, silver 
 and copper. The hard solder for silver 
 is prepared from equal parts of silver 
 and brass, but made easier of fusion by 
 the admixture of one-sixteenth of zinc. 
 The hard solder for brass is obtained 
 from brass mixed with a sixth, or an 
 eighth, or even one-half of zinc, which 
 may also be used for the hard solder of 
 copper. The soft solders melt easily, 
 but are partly brittle, and therefore 
 cannot be hammered. Of this kind are 
 the following mixtures: tin and lead in 
 equal parts; bismuth, tin, and lead in 
 equal parts; one or two parts of bismuth, 
 of tin and lead each one part. In solder- 
 ing, the surfaces to be united must be 
 made perfectly clean and free from 
 oxide. This is commonly effected by 
 scraping the surfaces ; and in order that 
 the formation of any oxide may be pre- 
 vented during the process, borax, sal 
 ammoniac, or rosin is used, either mixed 
 with the solder or applied to the sur- 
 faces. — Autogenous soldering is the 
 union of two pieces of metal without the 
 intervention of any solder, by fusing 
 them at the point of junction by jets 
 of flame from a gas blowing-pipe or by 
 other means. 
 
 SOLDIER. See Army, Conscription, 
 Enlistment, Militia, etc. 
 
 SOLDIER-BEETLE, a name given to 
 carnivorous coleopterous insects of the 
 genus Telephorus, from their reddish 
 color, or from their combativeness. 
 
 SOLE, a marine fish belonging to the 
 flat-fishes, of an oblong or py^d form. 
 These fish abound on the British coast, 
 and also on all the coasts of Europe, 
 except the most northern, where the 
 bottom is sandy. They furnish a whole- 
 some and delicious article of food. They 
 
SOLEURE 
 
 SOLSTICE 
 
 Bometimes ascend rivers, and seem to 
 thrive quite well in fresh water. The 
 
 Sole. 
 
 sole sometimes grows to the weight of 
 6 or 7 lbs. 
 
 SOLEURE (so-leur), a canton of 
 Switzerland, bounded on the north by 
 Basel-Land; west, south, and southeast 
 by Bern; and east by Aargau; area, 306 
 sq. miles. Pop. 100,838.— Soleure, the 
 capital, is situated on the south side of 
 the Jura chain, on both sides of the Aar. 
 
 Pop. 10,116. _ . r, w 
 
 SOL-FA SYSTEM. See Tonic Sol-fa 
 
 System . 
 
 SOLIDIFICATION, the passage of a 
 body into the solid state. A body, on 
 solidifying from the liquid state, gives 
 up a quantity of heat without exhibit- 
 ing a decrease of temperature. Two 
 laws are recognized in the solidifying of 
 bodies from a state of fusion (1) A sub- 
 stance begins to solidify at a tempera- 
 ture which is fixed if the pressure is 
 fixed; at ordinary atmospheric pressure 
 this temperature is the temperature or 
 point of fusion for the particular sub- 
 stance. (2). From the moment solidifica- 
 tion commences till it is completed the 
 temperature of the liquid portion is con- 
 stant. There are some substances, such 
 as glass and iron, which become plastic 
 before liquefying, and therefore possess 
 no definite point of fusion; and for such 
 substances the above laws do not hold. 
 Solidification is called crystallization 
 when crystals which may be seen are 
 formed. When water solidifies the re- 
 sulting ice is about yV larger than the 
 volume of water which produced it, and 
 on this account ice floats on the surface. 
 Cast-iron is larger, at the temperature 
 of the fusing-point, in the solid than in 
 the liquid state; scf also is bronze and 
 other metals which give good sharp cast- 
 ings. In many cases however, a sub- 
 stance contracts in the act of solidifying. 
 
 SOLIMAN' II. See Solyman II. 
 
 SOLMIZATION, in music, an exercise 
 for acquiring the true intonation of the 
 notes of the scale, first by singing them 
 in regular gradation upward and down- 
 ward, and then by skips over shorter or 
 longer intervals. To facilitate this vari- 
 ous expedients have been devised, the 
 most popular being the association of 
 the several sounds with certain syl- 
 lables, such as ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, said 
 to have been first used by Guido of 
 Arezzo in the 11th century — an ad- 
 ditional syllable, si, for the seventh of 
 the scale, being introduced at a much 
 later date. In the tonic sol-fa method 
 these syllables are thus modified — doh 
 ray, me, fah, soh, lah, te. See Tonic 
 Sol-fa. 
 
 SOLO, a tune, air, or strain to be 
 played by a single instrument or sung by 
 a single voice without or with an ac- 
 companiment, which should always be 
 strictly subordinate. 
 
 SOLOMON, son of David, king of 
 
 Israel, by Bathsheba, formerly the wife 
 of Uriah, was appointed by David to be 
 his successor in preference to his elder 
 brothers. By his remarkable judicial 
 decisions, and his completion of the 
 political institutions of David, Solomon 
 gained the respect and admiration of 
 his people ; while by the building of the 
 temple, which gave to the Hebrew wor- 
 ship a magnificence it had not hitherto 
 possessed, he bound the nation still 
 more strongly to his throne. The wealth 
 of Solomon, accumulated by a prudent 
 use of the treasures inherited from his 
 father; by successful commerce; by a 
 careful administration of the royal 
 revenues; and by an increase of taxes 
 enabled him to meet the expense of 
 erecting the temple, building palaces, 
 cities, and fortifications, and supporting 
 the extravagance of a luxurious court. 
 Fortune long seemed to favor this great 
 king; and Israel, in the fulness of Rs 
 prosperity, scarcely perceived that he 
 was continually becomingmore despotic. 
 Contrary to the laws of Moses, he ad- 
 mitted foreign women into his harem; 
 and from love of them he was weak 
 enough in his old age to permit the free, 
 practice of their idolatrous worship 
 and even to take part in it himself. The 
 forty years’ reign of Solomon is still 
 celebrated among the Jews, for its 
 splendor and its happy tranquility, as 
 one of the brightest periods of their 
 history. The writings attributed to 
 Solomon are the Book of Proverbs, 
 Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon, 
 with the apocryphal book the Wisdom 
 of Solomon; but modern criticism has 
 decided that only a portion of the Book 
 of Proverbs can be referred to Solomon. 
 
 SOLOMON ISLANDS, (1) a chain of 
 islands in the Western Pacific, east of 
 New Guinea, and between New Britain 
 and New Hebrides. (2) A group of small 
 islands with no permanent inhabitants, 
 in the Indian ocean, dependencies of 
 Mauritius. 
 
 SOLOMON’S SEAL, the common name 
 of plants, a genus of liliaceous but not 
 bulbous plants, with axillary cylindri- 
 
 cal six-cleft flowers, the stamens in- 
 serted in the top of the tube, and the 
 fruit a globuse three-celled berry. 
 
 SOLOMON’S SONG (called also the 
 Song of Songs, or Canticles), one of the 
 canonical books of the Old Testament. 
 From the earliest period this book has 
 been the subject of voluminous con- 
 troversies. It seems to have been a 
 recognized part of the Jewish canon in the 
 time of Jesus. Till the beginning of the 
 
 16th century the author of the book 
 was almost universally believed to be 
 Solomon. Modern critics, however, 
 attribute it to an author of northern 
 Israel, who wrote it about the middle 
 of the 10th century B.C., shortly after 
 the death of Solomon, in a spirit of pro- 
 test against the corrupt splendor of the 
 court of Zion. The unity of the poem is 
 sufficiently evidenced by the continuity 
 of names, characters, and subject, and is 
 taken for granted by the majority of 
 critics. The main subject of dispute has 
 been as to its interpretation. The vari- 
 ous theories in regard thereto are too 
 numerous to specify ; but they naturally 
 fall into two classes, the literal and 
 allegorical. The highest form of allegori- 
 cal significance contended for is the 
 mystical or spiritual interpretation, by 
 which the whole poem becomes a figura- 
 tive representation of the hopes and 
 aspirations, together with the trials and 
 difficulties, of a spiritual life. This in- 
 terpretation, whether applied individu- 
 ally or collectively to the church or 
 nation of Israel, was almost universally 
 received both by Jews and Christians 
 until recent times. The most favored 
 literal interpretation is that originally 
 given by Jacobi, that the poem repre- 
 sents the temptation and triumph of 
 virtuous love. The supporters of the 
 allegorical interpretation of the book 
 strongly urge the frequency with which 
 the marriage relation is employed, both 
 in the Old and New Testament, to rep- 
 resent the relation of Jehovah to Israel 
 in the old, and of Christ to the church in 
 the new dispensation. 
 
 SOLON, one of the seven wise men of 
 Greece, and great legislator of Athens, 
 born about b.c. 640. He was of good 
 family, and acquired a wide knowledge 
 of the world in commerce and travel. 
 One of his earliest public transactions 
 was in stirring the Athenians up to the 
 recovery of Salamis, after which he was 
 chosen chief archon (b.c. 594) and in- 
 vested with unlimited powers, the state 
 of parties in Athens being such as to 
 threaten a revolution. He established a 
 new constitution, divided the citizens 
 according to their wealth, and added to 
 the powers of the popular assembly. 
 He made many laws relating to trade, 
 commerce, etc. He either entirely abro- 
 gated all debts, or so reduced them that 
 './hey were not burdensome to the debtors ; 
 and abolished the law which gave a 
 creditor power to reduce hi.s debtor to 
 slavery. When he had completed his 
 laws he bound the Athenians by oath 
 not to make any changes in his code for 
 ten years. He then left the country, to 
 avoid being obliged to make any altera- 
 tions in them, and visited Egypt, Cyprus 
 and other places. Returning after an 
 absence of ten years, be found the state 
 torn by the old party hate; but all 
 parties agreed to submit their demands 
 to his decision. It soon became evident, 
 however, that Pisistratus would succeed 
 in seizing the sovereignty, and Solon 
 left Athens. Though Athens now fell 
 under the despotic rule of Pisistratus, 
 much of Solon’s legislation remained 
 effective. He is supposed to have died 
 in his eightieth year, about b.c. 558. 
 
 SOLSTICE, in astronomy, the point in 
 the ecliptic at the greatest distance from 
 
SOLUTION 
 
 SOOT 
 
 the equator, at which the sun appears to 
 stop or cease to recede from the equator, 
 either north in summer or south in win- 
 ter. There are twosolstices — the summer 
 solstice, the first degree of Cancer, where 
 the sun is about the 21st of June; and 
 the winter solstice, the first degree of 
 Capricorn, where the sun is about the 
 22d of December. The time at which the 
 sun is at either of these points also re- 
 ceives the same name. 
 
 SOLUTION, the transformation of 
 matter from either the solid or the 
 gaseous state to the liquid state by 
 means of a liquid called the solvent, or 
 sometimes the menstruum. When a 
 liquid adheres to a solid with sufficient 
 force to overcome its cohesion, the solid 
 is said to undergo solution, or to become 
 dissolved. Thus sugar or salt are brought 
 to a state of solution by water, camphor 
 or resin by spirit of wine, silver or lead 
 by mercury, and so on. Solution is 
 facilitated by increasing the extent of 
 surface in a solid, or by reducing it to 
 powder. Heat also, by diminishing co- 
 hesion, favors solution; but there are 
 exceptions to this rule, as in the case of 
 lime and its salts, water just above the 
 freezing-point dissolving nearly twice as 
 much lime as it does at the boiling-point. 
 If a solid body be introduced in succes- 
 sive small portions into a definite quan- 
 tity, of a liquid capable of dissolving it, 
 the first portions disappear most rapidly, 
 and each succeeding portion dissolves 
 less rapidly than its predecessor, until 
 solution altogether ceases. In such cases 
 the forces of adhesion and cohesion 
 balance each other, and the liquid is said 
 to have saturated. Various solids dis- 
 solve in the same liquid at very different 
 rates; thus baric sulphate may be said to 
 be insoluble in water; calcic sulphate re- 
 quires 700 parts of water for solution; 
 potassic sulphate, 16;magnesic sulphate 
 1.5. When water is saturated with one 
 salt it will dissolve other salts without 
 increase of bulk. It sometimes happens 
 that the addition of a second solid will 
 displace the first already in solution. 
 
 SOLYMAN', or SULEIMAN II., sur- 
 named the Magnificent, Sultan of Tur- 
 key, was the only son of Selim I., whom 
 he succeeded in 1520. Having put down 
 a revolt which occurred in Syria and 
 Egypt, and concluded an armistice with 
 Persia, he besieged and took Belgrade 
 in 1521. The next year he captured the 
 island of Rhodes, which had been in the 
 possession of the knights of St. John for 
 212 years. Turning his arms now against 
 Hungary, he gained the battle of Mohdcs 
 and captured Buda and Pest. In 1529 
 he advanced on Vienna, but was forced 
 to raise the siege with great loss. His 
 armies next gained considerable ter- 
 ritories from Persia. In 1541 he overran 
 a great part of Hungary, but an armis- 
 tice was concluded for five years in 1547 
 though war was renewed in 1551. In 
 1565 he attempted the capture of Malta 
 in vain. Next year he died at the siege 
 of Szigeth, in Hungary, in the seventy- 
 sixth year of his age. See Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 SOMAULI, or SOMALI LAND, a coun- 
 try of Eastern Africa, forming the “east- 
 ern horn” of the continent, bounded on 
 the north by the Gulf of Aden, and on 
 the east by the Indian ocean from Cape 
 
 Guardafui to the equator and the river 
 Jub. The Som&li are a fine race, mainly 
 Mohammedans though still in a bar- 
 barous state. The principal articles of 
 trade or produce are myrrh, ivory, 
 ostrich-feathers, hides and horns, coffee, 
 indigo, and gum-arabic. The ports of 
 Berbera and Zeilah with an adjacent 
 strip on the northern coast now belong 
 to Britain; a part is claimed by Italy. 
 
 SOMERSE'K a county of England, 
 bounded by Grloucestershire, Wiltshire. 
 Dorsetshire, and Devonshire; area, 
 1,049,812 acres, nearly nine-tenths of 
 which are now under cultivation. The 
 chief minerals worked are lead, iron, and 
 slate. The principal rivers are the Avon 
 and Parret. Wheat and cattle of ex- 
 cellent quality are raised. The manufac- 
 tures are mostly woolen and worsted 
 goods, gloves, silk, linen, crape, and lace. 
 Pop. 508,104. 
 
 SOMERS ISLANDS. See Bermudas 
 Islands. 
 
 SOMERVILLE, a city in Massa- 
 chusetts, 3 miles from Boston, of which 
 it may be regarded as a suburb. Pop. 
 1909. estimated at 75.000. 
 
 SOMME, a department of France, 
 bounded on the northwest by the Eng- 
 lish channel, with an area of 2379 sq. 
 miles. The capital is Amiens. Pop. 
 548,982. 
 
 SOMME, a river of France, which rises 
 in the department of Aisne, 7 miles 
 northeast of St. Quentin; flows south- 
 west into the department of the Somme, 
 and falls into the English channel about 
 15 miles beyond Abbeville; length, 150 
 miles. 
 
 SOMNAM'BULISM, a peculiar per- 
 version of the mental functions during 
 sleep, in which the subject acts auto- 
 matically. The organs of sense remain 
 torpid and the intellectual powers are 
 blunted. During this condition some 
 instinctive excitation may take place 
 and there may be the reproduction of 
 impulses, in consequence, of different 
 kinds. Walking in sleep is the most 
 palpable, but not the most marvellous 
 characteristic of this condition. The 
 person affected may perform many 
 voluntary actions implying to all ap- 
 pearance a certain degree of perception 
 of the presence of external objects. The 
 somnambulist gets out of bed, often 
 dresses himself, goes out of doors, and 
 walks frequently over very dangerous 
 places in safety. On awakening in the 
 morning he is either utterly unconscious 
 of having stirred during the night, or 
 remembers it as a mere dream. Some- 
 times the transactions of the somnam- 
 bulist are carried much further; he will 
 mount his horse and ride, or go to his 
 usual occupation. In some cases som- 
 nambulists are capable of holding con- 
 versation. Somnambulism occurs in the 
 sensitive and excitable, often in con- 
 junction with other nervous affections, 
 and is hereditary. Artificial somnam- 
 bulism is induced by hynoptism, and 
 the consciousness is for the time en- 
 tirely absorbed by one set of ideas. 
 
 SONATA, in music, a term originally 
 applied to any kind of composition for 
 instruments, in contradistinction to 
 vocal compositions, which were called 
 cantatas. The name was subsequently, 
 however, restricted to compositions for 
 
 solo instruments (generally the piano- 
 forte). Sonatas are of a certain form 
 consisting of several movements— at 
 first three, the allegro, adagio, and 
 rondo, to which afterward a fourth 
 
 was added, the minuetto or scherzo 
 
 which differ from each other in time and 
 sentiment, but are held together by 
 their general character. 
 
 SON'DRIO, a town in North Italy, 
 capital of the province of the same name. 
 Pop. 6990. — The province lies between 
 the Grisons and the Tyrol, with an area 
 of 1257 sq. miles. Pop. 120,516. 
 
 SONG, a little poem intended to be 
 sung; a lyric. The term is applied to 
 either a short poetical or musical com- 
 position, but most frequently to both in 
 union. As a poetical composition a song 
 may be defined as a short poem divided 
 into portions of returning measure, and 
 turning upon some single thought or 
 feeling. As a union of poetry and music, 
 it may be defined as a brief lyrical poem, 
 founded commonly upon agreeable sub- 
 jects, to which is added a melody for the 
 purpose of singing it. As denoting a 
 musical composition, it is generally con- 
 fined to an air for a single voice — airs 
 for more than one voice being, however, 
 sometimes called part-songs. 
 
 SONNET, a species of poetical com- 
 position consisting of fourteen rhjrmed 
 verses, ranged according to rule. It is of 
 Italian origin, and consists of two 
 stanzas of four verses each, called the 
 octave, and two of three each, called the 
 sestette. The octave of the proper sonnet 
 consists of two quatrains, the rhymes of 
 which are restricted to two — one for the 
 first, fourth, fifth, and eighth lines; the 
 other for the second, third, sixth, and 
 seventh. In the sestette, which is com- 
 monly made up of two tercets, the 
 rhymes may be two or three, variously 
 distributed. This is the Petrarchan or 
 Italian form, but the verses may also be 
 arranged in the Shakespearean form of 
 three quatrains of alternate rhymes 
 clinched by a couplet, or in the irregular 
 form practiced by Coleridge and others. 
 The sonnet generally consists of one 
 principal idea, pursued through the 
 various antitheses of the different 
 strophes. The lightness and richness 
 of the Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese 
 languages enable their poets to express 
 every feeling or fancy in the sonnet; but 
 in English it has been found most suit- 
 able to grave, dignified, and contempla- 
 tive subjects. Among the most success- 
 ful writers of English sonnets are Shake- 
 speare, Milton, Drummond, of Haw- 
 thornden, Bowles, Wordsworth, and 
 Rossetti, 
 
 SONO'RA, one of the states of Mexico, 
 lying on the Gulf of California, on which 
 it has several good ports. Guajunas is 
 the principal port, and has a splendid 
 harbor. The capital is Hermosillo. Pop. 
 220,553; area, 79,021 sq, miles. 
 
 SOO-CHOW-FOO, a town of China, 
 in the province of Kiangsoo, on a lake 
 in the line of the Imperial canal, 125 
 miles southeast of Nankin. It was 
 opened to foreign trade in 1895. Pop. 
 above 500,000. 
 
 SOOT, a black substance formed by 
 combustion, or disengaged from fuel in 
 the process of combustion, rising in fine 
 particles and adhering to the sides of the 
 
SOPHISTS 
 
 SOUL 
 
 chimney or pipe conveying the smoke. 
 The soot of coal and that of wood diiier 
 very materially in their composition, 
 the former containing more carbona- 
 ceous matter than the latter. Coal-soot 
 contains substances usually derived 
 from animal matter; also sulphate arid 
 hvdrochlorate of ammonia ; and has been 
 used for the preparation of the carbon- 
 ate It contains likewise an empyreu- 
 matic oil; but its chief basis is charcoal, 
 in a state in which it is capable of beino 
 rendered soluble by the action of oxygen 
 and moisture ; and hence, combined with 
 the action of the ammoniacal salts, it is 
 used as a manure, and acts very power- 
 fully as such. The soot of wood has 
 been minutely analyzed, and found to 
 consist of fifteen different substances, 
 of which ulmin, nitrogenous matter, 
 carbonate of lime, water, acetate and 
 sulphate of lime, acetate of potash, 
 carbonaceous matter insoluble in alka- 
 lies, are the principal. 
 
 SOPHISTS, the name of a school or 
 congeries of schools of philosophical 
 teachers or “thinkers,” who appeared in 
 Greece in the period immediately pre- 
 ceding and contemporary with Socrates 
 in the latter part of the 5th century b. c. 
 It was a period of political decline and 
 social corruption, and the sophists were 
 men who, although often able and some- 
 times well meaning, were not strong 
 enough to rise above the unwholesome 
 influences under which they were placed 
 Their philosophy (if it can be called so) 
 was one of criticism of those that had 
 gone before ; there was nothing creative 
 in it, nothing even formative. The ten- 
 dency of the teaching of the sophists 
 was mainly skeptical as regards previous 
 philosophical speculation; and while the 
 chief point of convergence of their teach- 
 ing was in an ethical direction, the 
 influence of their ethical teaching was 
 mostly mischievous. But the sophists 
 rendered considerable service to science 
 and literature, and even indirectly to 
 philosophy. . 
 
 SOPH'OCLES (-klez), the second in 
 order of time of the three great Greek 
 tragic dramatists, was born at Colonos, 
 a village in the immediate vicinity of 
 
 ingly held all but undisputed supremacy 
 until the appearance of Euripides, who 
 took the first prize in 441. In his old 
 age he suffered from family dissension. 
 His son, lophon, jealous of the favor 
 he showed to his grandson Sophocles, 
 and fearing he himself would suffer 
 from it in the disposition of his property, 
 summoned him before the judges, and 
 charged him with being incompetent to 
 manage his affairs. In reply So^ocles 
 read a part of the chorus of -his (Edipus 
 at Colonos, which he had just composed, 
 and at once proved that his faculties 
 were unimpaired. He died about the 
 age of ninety. One hundred and thirty 
 plays in all are ascribed to him, of which 
 seventeen are supposed to be spurious. 
 Eighty-one of his dramas, including trie 
 seven now extant, were brought out 
 after he had attained the age of AHy" 
 five. The chronological order of the 
 existing plays is given as Mlows; 
 Antigone, Electra, Trachinis^ Qildipus 
 Tyrannus, Ajax, Philoctetes, CEdi^s at 
 Colonos. Sophocles brought the Greek 
 drama to the highest point of perfection 
 of which that form of art is susceptible. 
 His subjects are human, while those of 
 .iEschylus are heroic, and in his manage- 
 ment he shows himself a perfect master 
 of human passions. The tendency of his 
 plays is ethical, and he subordinates the 
 display of passions to an end. He also 
 introduced scenic illustration and a 
 third actor. No tragic poet in ancient or 
 modern days has written with so much 
 elevation and purity of style. The versi- 
 fication of Sophocles stands alone in 
 dignity and elegance, and his iambics are 
 acknowledged to be the purest and most 
 regular. . , 
 
 SOPRA'NO, the highest register of 
 female voices. Its ordinary range is 
 from C below the treble staff to A 
 above it, though some sopranos may 
 go as high as E. The mezzo-soprano 
 register is from A to F, that is, a third 
 lower than the soprano. 
 
 SORGHUM, a genus of grasses, some 
 species of which are known by the 
 general name of millet. They are tall 
 
 Sophocles, from ancient bust. 
 
 Athens, in the second year of the 
 seventy-first olympiad, b.c. 495. Soph- 
 ocles first appeared as a dramatist in 
 b.c.468, when he took the first prize in 
 competition with ^Eschylus. ^schylus 
 retired to Sicily, and only returned to 
 enter again for a brief period into the 
 lists with Sophocles. Sophocles accord- 
 
 Sorghum. 
 
 grasses with succulent stems, and are 
 found in the tropical parts of Asia, 
 whence they have spread to other warm 
 regions. It is the largest of the small 
 cereal grains, and is called Guinea-corn 
 and Indian millet. Sorghum has been 
 introduced into the south of Europe, 
 where is it chiefly used for feeding cattle 
 and poultry, but it is also made into 
 cakes. In the United States they are 
 grown as forage plants in the western 
 states where they have become impor- 
 tant crops. 
 
 SO'RIA, a town of Northeastern Spam 
 capital of the province of that name, 
 on the Douro. Pop. 5869.— -The province 
 of Soria has an area of 3836 sq. miles, 
 and a pop. of 160,684. 
 
 SORREL-TREE. It inhabits the 
 range of the Alleghanies from Virginia 
 to Georgia. The leaves are 4 or 5 inches 
 long, oval-acuminate, finely tootned, 
 and strongly acid in taste. The flowers 
 are stnall, white, and disposed in long 
 one-sided racemes, clustered in an open 
 
 ^^SOUDAN', or SUDAN', is the Arab 
 name given to the vast extent of coun- 
 try in Central Africa which lies between 
 the Sahara on the n., Abyssinia and the 
 Red sea on the e., the countries draining 
 to the Congo basin on the s., and Sene- 
 gambia on the w. Its area is estimated 
 at 2,000,000 sq. miles., and its pop. at 
 from 7 or 8 to 30 millions. The inhabi- 
 tants comprise numerous nations of 
 different races, chiefly the Negro to- 
 gather with Arab colonists and traders. 
 The Western and Central Soudan are 
 divided into a number of more or less 
 independent states under British, French 
 or German influence, as Gando, 
 Sokoto, Bornu, Baghirmi, Wadai, etc. 
 The Eastern Soudan includes Darfur, 
 Kordofan, etc. Egyptian rule was first 
 extended to the Eastern Soudan in the 
 early part of the 19th century by Mo- 
 hammed Ali, under whom Ibrahim 
 Pasha carried it as far south as Kordofan 
 and Senaar. An Egyptian expedition 
 under Sir Samuel Baker in 1870 led to 
 the conquest of the equatorial regions 
 on the Nile farther south than the Sou- 
 dan proper, of which General Gordon 
 was appointed governor-general in 1874. 
 On the fall of Ismail Pasha of Egypt 
 Gordon was recalled, and hordes of 
 Turks, Circassians, and Bashi-Bazouks 
 were let loose to plunder the Soudanese. 
 Egyptian misrule then became intolerable 
 and in this crisis appeared Mohammed 
 Ahmed of Dongola, who gave himself 
 out to be the Mahdi, the long-expected 
 redeemer of Islam. Emin Pasha (Eduard 
 Schnitzer) was appointed governor of 
 the Equatorial Province on the Upper 
 Nile, north of the Albert Nyanza, by 
 Gordon in 1878, and he continued to 
 hold his ground here till 1889, when he 
 was relieved by Henry M. Stanley, and 
 conveyed with his followers to Zanzibar. 
 The Eastern Soudan was wrested from 
 the Mahdi’s successor in 1898, and is 
 now under Anglo-Egyptian rule. 
 
 SOUL, the rational and spiritual part 
 in man which distinguishes him from 
 the brutes, the indwelling spirit of mail, 
 which is both immaterial and immortal. 
 Soul is sometimes used as synon^ous 
 with mind, but generally it is used m a 
 wider sense as being a whole to which 
 pertain the faculties that constitute 
 mind. Soul and spirit are more nearly 
 synonymous, but each is used in con- 
 nections in which it would be improper 
 to use the other. Nearly all philosophies 
 agree in regarding the soul as that P^rt 
 of man which enables him to think and 
 reason, and which renders him a subject 
 of moral government; but they differ 
 when it comes to a question of origin 
 and detail. Many philosophers main- 
 tain the indestructibility as well as the 
 immateriality of the soul ; but a whole 
 
SOUL 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 host of others, both in ancient and 
 modern times, have assigned a material 
 basis to consciousness, and all that we 
 regard as belonging to the soul. Modern 
 materialists usually make the soul, or 
 what others regard as such, merely a 
 result of organism. 
 
 SOUL (se-ul), capital of Corea, about 
 27 miles from the sea, not far from the 
 right bank of the Han river, a tributary 
 of the Yellow sea. Pop. 150,000, or 
 with suburbs 300,000. 
 
 SOULT (solt), Nicolas Jean de Dieu, 
 Duke of Dalmatia and Marshal of 
 France, was born at Saint Amans la 
 Bastide, in the department of Tarn, in 
 1769. Raised from the ranks he became 
 successively lieutenant and captain in 
 his regiment. After successive promo- 
 tions he was named general of division 
 by Mass6na, to whose army he was 
 attached. In 1803 he had the command 
 of one of the three camps of the army 
 intended against England, that at St. 
 Omer. He was one of the marshals 
 created immediately after the forma- 
 tion of the empire in 1804. He acquired 
 new fame in the Prussian campaign; 
 and in 1807, after the battle of Fried- 
 land, took Konigsberg. From 1808-12 
 
 Marshal Soult. 
 
 he fought in Spain, but, overmatched 
 by Wellington, was unable to gain many 
 laurels. In 1813 he was recalled in con- 
 sequence of Napoleon’s disasters, to take 
 the command of the fourth corps of the 
 grand army, and commanded the in- 
 fantry of the guard at Ltitzen. On the 
 news of Wellington’s victory at Vittoria 
 he was sent back to reorganize the 
 French force in Spain, and did his ut- 
 most to oppose Wellington’s trium- 
 
 E hant career till Napoleon’s abdication. 
 
 oult gave In hie adhesion to Louis 
 XVIII., who appointed him commander 
 of the thirteenth military division; and 
 in 1814 made him minister of war. On 
 Napoleon’s return he joined his stand- 
 ard, and held the post of major-general 
 of the army in the campaign of Water- 
 loo. After the second restoration he 
 took up his residence at Diisseldorf, but 
 was permitted to return to France in 
 1819; and in 1827 was raised to the 
 peerage. After the July revolution of 
 1830, and on two subsequent occasions, 
 he held ministerial office, and in 1846, 
 on retiring from public life, was created 
 grand-marshal of France. He died in 
 1851. 
 
 SOUND. See Acoustics and Ear. 
 SOUNDING, the operation of trying 
 
 the depth of water and the quality of 
 the bottom, especially by means of a 
 plummet sunk from a ship. In naviga- 
 tion two plummets are used, one called 
 the hand lead, weighing about 8 or 9 
 lbs.; and the other, the deep-sea lead, 
 weighing from 25 to 30 lbs. The former 
 is used in shallow waters, and the latter 
 at a distance from shore. The nature of 
 the bottom is commonly ascertained by 
 using a piece of tallow stuck upon the 
 the base of the deep-sea lead, and thus 
 bringing up sand, shells, ooze, etc., which 
 adhere to it. The scientific investigation 
 of the ocean and its bottom has ren- 
 dered more perfect sounding apparatus 
 necessary, and has led to the invention 
 of various contrivances for this purpose, 
 among the most simple and common of 
 which is Brooke’s sounding apparatus. 
 Some of the deepest sea-soundings yet 
 obtained that can be relied on have 
 been obtained by H. M. S. Challenger. 
 See Ocean. 
 
 SOUP, a decoction of flesh in water, 
 properly seasoned with salt, spices, etc., 
 and flavored with vegetables and vari- 
 ous other ingredients. There are very 
 many kinds of soup, the introduction of 
 a different ingredient furnishing the 
 occasion for a distinctive name, but 
 they may all be divided into two classes 
 — clear soup and thick soup. Maigre 
 soup is a soup made without meat. 
 
 SOURABAYA (s6-ra-ba'ya), a seaport 
 of Java, capital of a province of the 
 same name, on the Strait of Madura. 
 Pop. 100,000. 
 
 SOURAKRATA, or SOLO, a town of 
 Java, capital of the province of the 
 same name, 140 miles w.s.w. of Soura- 
 baya. Pop. 50,000. 
 
 SOUSA (s66za), John Philip, Ameri- 
 can bandmaster and author, was born in 
 Washington, D. C., in 1854. From 1880- 
 1892 he was bandmaster of the United 
 States Marine Corps at Washington and 
 during this period made the organiza- 
 tion one of tne finest military bands in 
 America. In 1892, he formed the organi- 
 zation known as Sousa’s Band. His 
 compositions have been eminently suc- 
 cessful. His ability as a composer of 
 marches soon secured for him the popu- 
 lar title of the “March King.” His com- 
 positions include the following operas; 
 The Smugglers, D4sir6e, El Capitan, The 
 Bride Elect, The Charlatan. Marches: 
 The Washington Post, Manhattan 
 Beach, El Capitan, Bride Elect, 
 The Stars and Stripes Forever. He 
 has written several books which have 
 had great success, among them being 
 The Fifth String and Pipetown Sandy. 
 
 SOUTH, University of the, an insti- 
 tution of learning at Sewanee, Tenn., 
 founded in 1857 by the Protestant 
 Episcopal church of the south and 
 opened in 1868 with a grammar school 
 and an academic department. The 
 theological department was opened in 
 1878, a medical department in 1892, 
 law department in 1893. The academic 
 department embraces 15 schools, a 
 certificate and diploma being given in 
 each school. The degrees conferred are 
 B.A., M.A., M.S., and C.E. The work 
 is mostly prescribed. In theology the 
 degrees of B.D. and graduate in divinity 
 are given; in law, LL.B.; in medicine, 
 M.D. A school of pharmacy, with the 
 
 degree of graduate of pharmacy, and a I 
 training school for nurses are connected i 
 with the medical school } 
 
 SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC, See 
 T'rsirisv&^l 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA is a vast peninsula 11 
 of a roughly triangular form, with its. 
 apex pointing southward, extending in I • 
 length from lat. 12° 30' n. to Cape Horn 
 in lat. 55° 59' s. Its greatest length is 
 4800 miles; its greatest breadth 3230 
 miles; area, about 7,000,000 sq. miles. 
 Some of the general features and rela- , 
 tions of South America to North Ameri- I • 
 ca are already described under America, I ■ 
 but supplementary particulars are here 
 given. 
 
 South America is united to North 
 America by the Isthmus of Panamd. 
 
 The coast-lines of South America, par- 
 ticularly the west, are comparatively 
 little broken or interrupted by inden- j 
 
 tations, and in this respect resemble j 
 
 those of Africa. Toward the southern 
 extremity is a group of islands, forming i 
 
 the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego. i 
 
 They are penetrated in every direction i 
 
 by bays and narrow inlets, ending often 1 
 
 in glaciers. The mountainous and i 
 
 elevated tracts of the continent are i 
 
 chiefly limited to the borders of the 
 Pacific and Atlantic oceans; the inter- 
 vening space being occupied by a great 
 series of plains, reaching from one ex- 
 tremity of the continent to the other, 
 at an elevation generally less than 1000 
 feet above the level of the sea. There 
 are four chief mountain systems, the 
 most remarkable of which is the Andes, 
 that stretch along the whole of the west 
 coast from south to north for a distance 
 of 4500 miles. They are of inconsiderable 
 width comparatively, but attain great 
 elevations, ranking in this respect next 
 to the Himalaya mountains; the 
 highest known peak, Aconcagua, in 
 Chile, being 22,860 feet high. (See 
 Andes.) The second system is that of 
 Parima, also called the Highlands of 
 Guiana, in the northeast; culminating 
 oint, Maravaca, about 10,500 feet 
 igh. The third system is near the north 
 coast, and is known under the general 
 name of the Coast chain of Venezuela; 
 culminating point, the Silla de Caracas, 
 with an elevation of 8600 feet. The 
 fourth is that of Brazil in the southeast; 
 culminating point, Itatiaia, 10,040 feet 
 high. There are altogether upward of 
 thirty active volcanoes in South America. 
 They all belong to the Andes, and con- 
 sist of three separate and distinct series; 
 the series of Cnila, of Peru and Bolivia, 
 and of Quito. The loftiest is Gualateiri 
 in Peru, which reaches a height of 
 21,960 feet. The immense plains are 
 one of the remarkable features of South 
 America, sometimes stretching for hun- 
 dreds of miles without exhibiting the 
 slightest perceptible inequality. They 
 are variously designated, being known 
 as pampas in the south, as selvas in the 
 Amazon region, and as llanos in the 
 north. All the South American rivers 
 of any magnitude carry their waters to 
 the Atlantic. The principal rivers are 
 the Amazon, the Orinoco, and the Plata 
 (which see), the first being the greatest 
 as regards volume of water among the 
 rivers of the world. One of the most 
 singular features in the hydrology of "j. 
 
SOUTHAMPTON 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA 
 
 South America is the water connection 
 existing between the Orinoco and the 
 Siazon through the natural channel 
 of the river Cassiquan. As explained 
 under Brazil (which see) it would not be 
 difficult to establish mlai^ 
 tion by water from the Orinoco to the 
 Plata The lakes of any cons^erable 
 size are few; the largest, Lake Titicaca 
 in the Andes, covers an area of above 
 4000 sq miles. Naturally there are con- 
 sideraWe diversities of climate in the 
 different parts of the continent, but 
 only in comparatively few are the ex- 
 Ses of heat and cold very gmat, ami 
 on the whole South America is neither 
 very hot nor unhealthful, though so 
 of it is within the tropics. Over 
 great part of it the rams are adequate 
 and in many parts abundant ; but on 
 the west coast there are all regions 
 where rain seldom or never falls, ihe 
 most distinguisning features of the 
 vegetation of South America is Rs Pro- 
 digious forests, which cover about two- 
 thirds of the whole co’atment and yie^ 
 valuable timber, ornamental woods 
 and dyewoods, cinchona, india-rubber, 
 veitable ivory, etc. In the tropica 
 regions vegetation is on the grande t 
 3e graldeur also being combined 
 wRh griat beauty. Fruits abound, in- 
 cluding oranges, limes, J 
 
 mangoes, bananas, pomegranates, and 
 many others. Southward of the line 
 coffee, sugar-cane, corn, and oa^^® 
 among the chief products. The most 
 valuable vegetable products exported 
 are coffee, cotton, wheat, and cacao 
 Among plants specially belonging 
 South^ America are cacao, cinchona, 
 cocoa, and Paraguay tea. Aino^| 
 domesticated native animals of South 
 America are the llama and alpaca, both 
 used as beasts of burden, and yielding 
 a kind of hair which is export^ and 
 manufactured into tissues. Horses, 
 at first imported, and cattle now roa 
 wild over the southern plains. Large 
 numbers of sheep are also reared, and 
 wool, hides and skins, live 
 
 Argentine Republic, Brazil, Para,guay 
 and Uruguay, besides the colonies of 
 British, French, and Dutch Guiana and 
 the Falkland Islands (British). ihe 
 
 1 ■frkl rvxxra • 
 
 
 Area sq. m. 
 504,500 
 
 Pop. 
 
 3.879.000 
 
 1.400.000 
 2,324,000- 
 
 2.980.000 
 
 2.270.000 
 
 8.414.000 
 
 4.043.000 
 
 432.000 
 
 825.000 
 16,930,800 
 
 281.000 
 
 30.000 
 
 72.000 
 
 
 251,300 
 
 
 
 
 439,000 
 
 
 
 nhilft 
 
 
 Argentine Republic.. . 
 Paraguay 
 
 98,000 
 
 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 35,000 
 
 
 60,000 
 
 Falkland Islands 
 
 6,600 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 7,230,800 
 
 38,882,000 
 
 wool, UlUCD ..*-***~, -- 
 
 meat, etc., are now exported. 
 sUver, copper, nitre, 
 
 stones are also products of South 
 America The aborigines of South 
 America are undoubtedly of the s^e 
 race as those of North America, as there 
 exists a very striking general physical 
 resemblance between the native races 
 throughout the whole of the American 
 continent, from Cape Horn to Bering s 
 straits. (See America and Indians.) 
 They are almost all of a copper colo^ 
 with long black hair, deep-set black 
 eyes, aquiline nose, and often handsome 
 slender form. In South America these 
 red men are far more numerous than 
 in North America, and though many 
 are half-civilized, a greater nuniber are 
 in a state of barbarism. A considerable 
 portion of the population also consists of 
 persons of Spanish and Portuguese 
 blood, and along with these a far greater 
 number of mixed Indian and European 
 blood, civilized, and forming an im- 
 portant element in the various states 
 of the continent. To these are now being 
 added considerable numbers of Spanisti 
 , ; South America 
 
 and Italian immigrants. 
 comprises the republics of Colombia, 
 Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, 
 
 The first discoverer of the continent 
 of South America was Christopher 
 Columbus, who reached the "^outh of 
 the Orinoco in his third voyage (1498). 
 The adventurer who followed next was 
 Alonzo de Ojeda, a Spaniard who ex- 
 amined the coast of Venezuela Ojeda 
 was accompanied by Amerigo Vespucci, 
 a native of Florence, who, on his return 
 to Spain, published an account of his 
 voyage, and whose name gradually 
 came to be given to the ^ontinent. 
 Brazil was discoveed in 1500 by Jin 
 cent Yanez Pinzon, who explored the 
 mouths of the Amazon. Later in the 
 year Alvarez Cabral reached the coast 
 of Brazil farther south than the point 
 touched by Pinzon, and took pofessmn 
 of the country in the name of the king 
 of Portugal. In 1513 Vasco Nunez de 
 Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien, 
 and discovered the Pacific ocean. In 
 1531 Pizarro embarked at Panama with 
 a small force, and made himself master 
 of Peru. Almagro, a companicm of 
 Pizarro, pushed southward into Chue, 
 and in 1537 the country between Darien 
 and Peru was traversed by Vadillo, and 
 Quito was soon after taken possession of 
 by the Spaniards. In 1540 Gonzales, 
 the brother of Pizarro, crossed the 
 Andes and came upon the Amazon, 
 which Orellana, one of his ofidcers, de- 
 scended to the ocean. In the meantime 
 Juan de Solis had discovered the La 
 Plata in 1515, and Fernando Magellan 
 sailed along the southeast 
 through the strait that bears his n^e 
 into tie Pacific (1520). In 1526 Sebas- 
 tian Cabot ascended the Parand and 
 Paraguay, and established two or three 
 forts; and in 1536 the city of Buenos 
 Ayres was built. The discoveries of the 
 Spanish and Portugese gave the pos- 
 session of almost the whole of South 
 America to these nations — Portugal 
 holding Brazil, while Spain, held the 
 remainder. The colonial system of Spmn 
 was a highly vicious and OPP’’®®®'^® 
 one, and the colonies seized the first 
 opportunity to cast off their allegiance 
 to the mother country, early in 19th 
 century, when Spam was in difficulties 
 from Napoleon’s conquests. Ihe bpan- 
 iards attempted to bring them back to 
 their allegiance by force, and a series o 
 struggles took place between the colonial 
 and Spanish troops which lasted till 
 1824, when the independence of the 
 colonies was finally secured. 
 
 SOUTHAMPTON, a borough and sea- 
 port town of England, in the county of 
 
 Hants, on a peninsula at the mouth of 
 the Itchen, near the head of Southamp- 
 ton Water, 18 miles n.w. of Ports- 
 mouth, and 79 miles s.w. of London. 
 There is ample dock accommodation, 
 and Southampton is the most important 
 mail-packet station in the kingdom. 
 The manufactures are chiefly confined 
 to brewing, coach-building, iron-casung, 
 sugar-refining, and ship-building. op. 
 
 104 911 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA, a British colony 
 forming the central of the three sections 
 (running north and south), into w_hich 
 Australia is divided. Its length from 
 north to south is 1850 miles; its breadth 
 from east to west 650; its area 903,690 
 sq. miles. Pop. 500 000 
 
 SOUTH BEND, the chief town of bt. 
 Joseph county, state of Indiana, on the 
 St. Joseph river. It has iinportant inanu- 
 factures of wagons, buggies, agricultural 
 implements, furniture, doors and win- 
 dow-frames, sewing-machines, paper, 
 etc It possesses two Roman Latholic 
 colleges, the University of Notre Dame, 
 etc Pop. 43,100. 
 
 SOUTH BETHLEHEM', a town in 
 Northampton county. Pa., 56 ™aea 
 north by west of Philadelphia; on the 
 Lehigh river, opposite Bethlehem, and 
 on the Lehigh Valley and the Bhila- 
 delphia and Reading railroads, bouth 
 Bethlehem has large iron and steel 
 manufactures, the Pnncipal being t^ 
 large establishment of the Bethlehem 
 Iron company. Pop. 16,164. _ 
 
 SOUTH'BRIDGE, a town in Worces- 
 ter county. Mass., 20 miles south by 
 west of Worcester; on the Quinebaug 
 river, and on the New York, New 
 Haven and Hartford railroad. Pop. 
 1 1 043 
 
 SOUTH CAR'OLINA, one of the 
 
 original thirteen states of the Union, 
 bounded on the north by North Carolina 
 on the southeast by the Atlantic ocean. 
 
 Seal of Soutb Carolina. 
 
 and on the southwest by Georgia. Area 
 30 570 sq. miles, and thirty-sixth in size 
 among the states. South Carolina may 
 be about equally divided into high, 
 middling, and low land, the last named 
 rising from the sea coast, where it is. 
 very flat and level, and gradually in- 
 creasing in elevation toward the interior, 
 where it attains a mean of about -iOU 
 feet, continuing to the north line, where 
 after varying from 300 to 800 feet, it 
 reaches its highest elevation of 1000 
 feet. The land along and near the coast 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA COLLEGE 
 
 SOUTH DAKOTA 
 
 * 
 
 is low, marshy, and swampy, especially 
 ’ on the rivers’ banks, rolling and diversi- 
 fy fied toward the center, and undulating 
 f. near the mountain slope, but in places 
 abrupt. King’s mountain rising almost 
 ?. perpendicularly 500 feet. The land is 
 y irrigated and well drained by numerous 
 V rivers, the largest of which is the 
 t Santee. The climate is mild, and espe- 
 ' daily healthful in the uplands and pine 
 barrens, but unhealthful in the low 
 ',l swamp regions. Snow in measureable 
 amounts generally does not fall on more 
 ■> than two or three days in a year, except 
 ^ in the mountains, where there is a con- 
 ij siderable snowfall. The average annual 
 I rainfall is 47 inches, fairly evenly dis- 
 k tributed both as to localties and seasons, 
 t Hurricanes visit the coast occasionally, 
 and sometimes do considerable damage. 
 In 1886 the state suffered from a severe 
 ^ earthquake which caused great destruc- 
 tion at Charleston. The palmetto, live 
 'f oak, magnolia, long leaf pine, cypress', 
 f . oaks, hickories are common. The per- 
 t simmon, locust, and plane tree grow in 
 this state. The most valuable minerals 
 j' found are granite, gneiss, mica, slate, and 
 k rock phosphate. Gold and silver are 
 
 I 
 
 females Converse college, a non-sectari- 
 an institution at Spartanburg, is the 
 largest. The state has an agricultural 
 college at Clemson college, at which also 
 courses in civil, electrical, mechanical, 
 and textile engineering are given. The 
 negro population of South Carolina is 
 greatly in excess of the white and con- 
 sequently is one of the most serious 
 of the educational problems. That 
 considerable success has been attained 
 is shown by the decrease in illiteracy. 
 In 1562 Jean Ribault, acting for Ad- 
 miral Coligny, attempted to form a 
 colony of French Huguenots at Port 
 Royal. In 1670 three shiploads of 
 English settlers under William Sayle 
 landed near Port Royal. In 1680 the 
 settlement was removed to the present 
 site of Charleston. The colony was 
 divided into North and South Carolina 
 in 1710. The colony joined Ogle- 
 thorpe’s unsuccessful expedition against 
 the Spaniards in 1710. The colony 
 was prompt in its resistance to the 
 Stamp Act, and troops were quar- 
 tered in Charleston. Famous leaders of 
 irregular bands of patriots were Sumter 
 and Marion. Charleston was captured by 
 
 A rice-field in South Carolina. 
 
 r mined in small cjuantities and the iron 
 ores existing in large quantities are but 
 \ little worked. The most important 
 species in the fish industry of the state 
 are oysters, whiting, shad, and sea bass. 
 
 ■ South Carolina ranks first among 
 
 southern states and second in the Union 
 in the value of its cotton products. 
 ' Cotton seed oil and cake, planing mill 
 products, flouring and grist mill prod- 
 'f- ucts are among the other industries. 
 :: The railroads are mostly owned or con- 
 
 ^ trolled by three large systems — the 
 
 7 Southern, the Seaboard Air line and the 
 Atlantic coast line. A considerable 
 foreign trade, principally exports, passes 
 J; through the port of Charleston, which 
 : ranks tenth among the Atlantic coast 
 
 ^ ports. Corn, wheat, oats, rice, and hay 
 E, are the principal crops. Tobacco is 
 rown in small quantities. Dairy cows, 
 orses, mules and asses and swine are 
 raised. The state provides higher 
 education for both sexes at the South 
 Carolina college located at Columbia. 
 Of the nine colleges and seminaries for 
 
 the British in 1780, andhelduntil 1782. 
 The state adopted the Federal constitu- 
 tion May 23, 1788, Columbia was made 
 the capital in 1790, and a new constitu- 
 tion was adopted which gave the legis- 
 lature practically all power. On the 
 election of President Lincoln in 1860, 
 a convention was called on December 
 20th, which unanimously passed an 
 ordinance of secession. The attack on 
 Fort Sumter in April, 1861, precipitated 
 the civil war. The state furnished 60,000 
 soldiers to the confederate armies. 
 The state suffered greatly from Sher- 
 man’s march and during the war it was 
 the scene of active operation between 
 the federal and confederate armies. On 
 the refusal of the state to ratify the 
 fourteenth amendment, a military gov- 
 ernment was established. In 1868 an- 
 other constitution allowing negro suf- 
 frage was adopted and the state was re- 
 admitted June 25th. A severe earth- 
 quake destroyed property valued at 
 $5,000,000 August 31, 1886. In 1893 
 a great storm on the coast caused the 
 
 loss of more than 1000 lives. In 1901-02 
 the South Carolina Interstate and West 
 Indian exposition was held at Charles- 
 ton. In national elections the state 
 has been democratic, except in 1792.' 
 The largest cities are Charleston, 
 Columbia, Greenville. Population of 
 state about 1,490,000. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA COLLEGE, a 
 non-sectarian, coeducational college in 
 Columbia, S. C., chartered in 1801 and 
 opened in 1805. It was closed in 1863 
 and was reopened in 1866 as the Uni- 
 versity of South Carolina. It was 
 divided into two branches in 1878; one, 
 the South Carolina college, the other 
 Clafiin college, for negroes, at Orange- 
 burg. In 1894 women were admitted to 
 all courses. It has a system of accredited 
 schools, the certificate of which admits 
 students without examination. The 
 college has a department of law. 
 
 SOUTH DAKO'TA, a north central 
 state of the Union bounded on the 
 north by North Dakota, on the east by 
 Minnesota and Iowa, on the south by 
 Nebraska, and on the west by Wyoming 
 and Montana. The area is 77,650 sq. 
 miles, of which 76,850 are land surface, 
 and ranks twelfth in size among the 
 states. In general the face of the coun- 
 try is like that of North Dakota; but 
 west of the Missouri river the level and 
 rolling portions rise to numerous hills, 
 and buttes, and terminate in the rugged 
 elevated, mineralogically rich Black 
 Hills. The state is divided into the 
 Missouri, Big Sioux, James, and Central 
 Dakota valleys, and the Sioux reserva- 
 tion and Black Hills regions. The Mis- 
 souri river flows through the state from 
 about the center of the northern boun- 
 dary to the extreme southeastern corner 
 and forms the southern boundary for 
 about 200 miles. The Big Sioux valley 
 lies in the eastern and southeastern parts 
 of the state. South Dakota has a climate 
 with great extremes of temperature, 
 the mean annual temperature is 44.3° 
 F. The mean for January is 15° and for 
 July 72.2°, while the absolute extremes 
 may rise to more than 115° above or fall 
 to more than 40° below zero. But owing 
 to the dryness of the atmosphere, the 
 heat and cold are much more endurable 
 than more moderate temperatures and 
 renders the climate bracing and pleasant. 
 The soil in the greater part of the state 
 is of excellent quality, and when suf- 
 ficiently watered is rendered highly pro- 
 ductive. The state is as a whole a tree- 
 less prairie country. Forests are found 
 only in the Black Hills above an alti- 
 tude of 4000 feet, where there is a good 
 growth of pine. The mineral wealth of 
 the state lies chiefly in the area of the 
 Black Hills which is noted for the rich- 
 ness, abundance, and diversity of its 
 resources, there being deposits of copper, 
 gold, silver, argentiferous lead, iron 
 ores, manganese, nickel, tin, mica, and 
 some graphite. The clays contain beds 
 of gypsum, and beds of lignite as well 
 as reservoirs of natural gas. South 
 Dakota ranks among the first wheat 
 states in the Llnion. Corn, oats, barley, 
 hay, and forage and potatoes are the 
 other principal crops. The state has 
 excellent grazing facilities. The number 
 of cattle has increased over one hundred 
 per cent and there has also been a large 
 
■f 
 
 I SOUTH DAKOTA, UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 increase in the number of horses, sheep, 
 and swine. The railroads are confined 
 to the region east of the Missouri river 
 and to the mining region in the south- 
 west corner. The Chicago, Milwaukee 
 ^ and St. Paul, the Great Western, and 
 4 the Chicago and Northwestern have the 
 I greatest mileage. Much interest has been 
 t taken in the cause of education, during 
 i the entire time of South Dakota’s state- 
 i hood, and the advances made have been 
 } rapid indeed. There are normal institu- 
 tions in every county. The leading 
 ■< educational institution in the state is 
 j the University of South Dakota. Among 
 the more important colleges are Black 
 Hills college at Hot Springs, Dakota 
 university at Mitchell, and Pierre uni- 
 versity at East Pierre. The state main- 
 tains a School of Mines at Rapid City, 
 and the State Agricultural college at 
 Brookings. There are charitable insti- 
 tutions and libraries in most of the 
 
 Great seal of South Dakota. 
 
 larger cities. The first real and perma- 
 nent white settlement in Dakota was 
 probably established by French-Cana- 
 dians near Pembina about 1780. There 
 were fur-trading posts established as 
 early as 1808. By a treaty with the 
 Dakota Indians in 1851 a large part of 
 the country was opened to white settle- 
 ment. The territory was established 
 and organized in 1861. Yankton was the 
 capital until 1883, when Bismarck be- 
 came the seat of government. During 
 the congressional session in 1888-89 
 provision was made to admit it into the 
 Union as two states. North Dakota and 
 South Dakota. In national elections the 
 slate has been Republican, excepting in 
 1892, wKen it went Democratic. Pop. 
 about 490,000. 
 
 SOUTH DAKOTA, University of, a 
 coeducational state institution at Ver- 
 million, S. D., organized in 1882. The 
 university has established a loan fund 
 for the assistance of needy students. 
 Military science and tactics form part of 
 the course. The degrees conferred are 
 those of Bachelor of Arts, Law, Com- 
 merce, and Music. The institution car- 
 ries on the state geological survey. 
 
 SOUTHERN CROSS, a constellation 
 of the southern hemisphere, composed 
 of four stars, one of which is of the first, 
 and two of the second magnitude. They 
 form a figure not unlike a cross, espe- 
 cially when seen above the pole, and 
 are the best-known of the southern con- 
 stellations. 
 
 SOUTHEY (sou'thi), Robert, an Eng- 
 lish poet and miscellaneous writer, was 
 
 . . P. E 74 
 
 born in 1774. He left Oxford in 1794, 
 and having formed an acquaintance 
 with Coleridge, they were married on 
 the same day to two sisters in 1795. 
 Among his poetical productions may 
 be mentioned — Joan of Arc; Thalaba; 
 Madoc; The Curse of Kehama; Roderick, 
 the Last of the Goths; a Poet’s Pilgrim- 
 age to Waterloo; and a Vision of Judg- 
 ment. Several of his minor pieces show 
 to more advantage than hislargerpoems. 
 His prose works are remarkable for their 
 excellent style. Among others may be 
 mentioned his Life of Nelson, which is 
 almost a perfect model of its kind; Life 
 of Wesley, History of Brazil, The Book 
 of the Church, and the Doctor. He 
 died in 1843. 
 
 SOUTH OMAHA (6'ma-ha), a city in 
 Douglas county. Neb., adjoining Omaha ; 
 on the Missouri river, and on the Union 
 Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island and 
 Pacific, the Burlington and Missouri 
 river, and other railroads. South 
 Omaha was settled in 1882 and was in- 
 corporated in 1886. Its rapid growth 
 dates from the establishment in 1884 
 of the Union Stock Yards. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 SOUTH POLAR EXPEDITIONS, ex- 
 ploring expeditions in the Antarctic 
 regions. The first discovery of land in 
 the proximity of the Antarctic circle 
 was made accidentally by Dirk Cherrits, 
 a Dutch navigator, who, in endeavoring 
 to enter Magellan’s straits, was driven 
 southward to lat. 64°, where he dis- 
 covered the South Shetland islands. 
 Captain Cook is the first who is known 
 to have sailed within the Antarctic 
 circle. He reached the southernmost 
 point attained by him on 30th January, 
 1774, in 71° 10' s. and 107° w. In 1821 
 the Russian Bellinghausen discovered 
 Peter the Great and Alexander islands. 
 Enderby Land and Kemp Land were 
 discovered by Biseoe in 1831-33. The 
 first of these is the easternmost point of 
 a supposed continuous coast, and lies in 
 lat. about 67° 30'. Sabina Land and 
 Balleny islands were discovered in 
 nearly the same latitude by Balleny in 
 1839. In 1840 two important exploring 
 expeditions, one French, the other 
 American, reached the southern seas. 
 The French expedition, under Dumont 
 d’Urville, found traces of what they be- 
 lieved to be a continuous coast from 
 136° to 142° e., to which they gave the 
 name of Ad41ie Land. The American 
 expedition, under Wilkes, passed very 
 near the southern magnetic pole, the 
 position of which at the time he cal- 
 culated to be lat. 70° s.. Ion. 140° e., and 
 traced land from Ion. 154° 27' to 97° 30' 
 e., which Wilkes concluded to be con- 
 tinuous. An English expedition under 
 James Clark Ross in 1839 passed the 
 Antarctic circle about Ion. 178° e., and 
 in 172° 36' e. Ion. and 70° 41' s. lat. 
 found a continuous coast trending 
 south, with mountain peaks 9000 to 
 12,000 feeli^^in height. He gave the 
 country th^ name of South Victoria 
 Land. In 77° 32' s. lat., 167° e. Ion., he 
 discovered an active volcano. Mount 
 Erebus, 12,400 feet high. The farthest 
 south point reached by Ross was 78° 
 10'; in 1899 M. Borchgrevink reached 
 lat. 78° 50', and located the south 
 magnetic pole in lat. 73° 20' s. and Ion. 
 146° e. In 1901 several expeditions. 
 
 SOWING-MACHINES 
 
 including a British one on board the 
 Discovery, set out for the Antarctic 
 regions. The southern polar region is 
 much colder than the northern. The 
 only mammals found are seals and 
 cetaceans. No vegetation has been 
 found further south than Cockburn 
 island in the South Shetland group. 
 See Polar Expeditions. 
 
 SOUTH SEA BUBBLE, a disastrous 
 financial speculation which arose in 
 England in the beginning of the 18th 
 century. It originated with the directors 
 of a joint-stock company, which, in 
 consideration of certain exclusive priv- 
 ileges of trading to the South seas, 
 offered the government easier terms for 
 the advance or negotiation of loans than 
 could be obtained from the general 
 public. In 1720 the proposal of the 
 company to take over the entire na- 
 tional debt (at thistime about$155,000,- 
 000) in consideration of receiving an- 
 nually 5 per cent was accepted, and the 
 company promised in return for this 
 privilege (as it was regarded) a premium 
 in their own stock of $37,500,000. Pro- 
 fessing to possess extensive sources of 
 revenue the directors held out promises 
 to the public of paying as much as 60 
 per cent on their shares. It soon became 
 apparent that such magnificent promises 
 could never be fulfilled, and in a few 
 months’ time the collapse came which 
 ruined thousands. 
 
 SOUTH SEA ISLANDS. See Polynesia. 
 
 SOUTHWARK (south'ark), a division 
 of London south of the Thames, in 
 Surrey, a metropolitan pari, and mun. 
 borough, directly opposite the City of 
 London. For parliamentary purposes 
 it is divided into three divisions — West 
 Southwark, Rotherhithe, and Bermond- 
 sey, one member to each. Pop. pari, 
 bor., 214,085. 
 
 SOUVALKY, a town of Russian Po- 
 land, capital of the government of the 
 same name, with considerable trade, 
 some manufactures, and a population 
 of 66,533. 
 
 SOVEREIGN, the person in whom is 
 vested the highest governing power in a 
 
 SOVEREIGN, agoldcoin, the standard 
 of the English coinage. It exchanges for 
 $4.80 and has a standard weight of 
 123.274 grains, being of 22 carats fine- 
 ness, and coined at the rate of 1869 
 sovereigns from 40 lbs. troy of gold. 
 
 SOWING-MACHINES, machines for 
 sowing grain. Among the simplest and 
 earliest forms of sowing-machine is a 
 cylindrical vessel with small holes at 
 regular intervals round its circumference 
 for sowing round seed, such as turnip- 
 seed. The machine is placed on wheels, 
 and drawn over the land at a regulated 
 speed, when by its mere revolution the 
 seed is delivered with tolerable uniform- 
 ity. Another class of machines consists 
 of those having a fixed seed-box, the 
 delivery from which is regulated by'inter- 
 nal revolving machinery. The holes for 
 delivery are placed at regular intervals 
 near the bottom of one side of the seed- 
 box. One of the best modes of delivery is 
 regulated by cups attached to projecting 
 arms on a revolving disc. The cups dip 
 into the seed and lift successive portions, 
 which they deliver at the height of their 
 revolution into a funnel placed for its 
 
SPACE 
 
 SPAIN 
 
 removal to the ground. Another mode 
 of delivery is by an oscillating movement 
 given to a false bottom of the seed-box. 
 The real and the false bottom are both 
 provided with holes, and when the holes 
 correspond the seed falls. An objection 
 is made to these machines that they are 
 liable to cut the seed. In broadcast 
 machines no special apparatus is needed 
 for conveying the seed to the ground, 
 the intervals of the holes causing it to 
 fall evenly on the ground. In the ma- 
 chines called drills the funnel into which 
 the seed is dropped is designed to con- 
 vey it accurately into the row in which it 
 is to be sown, the rows being parallel to 
 the course of the machine. For this pur- 
 pose the funnel terminates in a heavy 
 coulter, which opens a channel of uni- 
 form depth for the deposit of the seed, 
 which is then covered by a harrow. By 
 further improvements drop drills and 
 dibbling machines have been contrived, 
 which not only deposit the seed in rows 
 but at regular intervals within the rows. 
 The regular delivery of manure is also 
 secured by similar machines. 
 
 SPACE, in philosophy, extension con- 
 sidered independently of anything which 
 it may contain, extension considered in 
 its own nature. Aristotle defines it as 
 the possibility of motion, and possessing 
 the quality, therefore, of being — poten- 
 tially, not actually — divisible ad in- 
 finitum. Space and Time are two of the 
 so-called innate ideas. According to one 
 school these ideas are intuitive to the 
 mind ; according to another they are the 
 result of experience. Locke maintained 
 that we acquire the idea of space by the 
 senses of sight and touch. Space and 
 Time, according to Kant, are the ulti- 
 mate forms of external and internal 
 sense, and these forms are contained a 
 priori in the human mind. Space is the 
 form of external sense by means of 
 which objects are given to us as existent 
 without us, and as existent also apart 
 from and beside one another. If we 
 abstract from all that belongs to_ the 
 matter of sensation (in any perception), 
 there remains behind only space, as the 
 universal form into which all the ma- 
 terials of the external sense dispose 
 themselves. Herbert Spencer, while 
 making no attempt to analyze the notion 
 of space, says; “It will be sufficient for 
 present purposes to say that we know 
 space as an ability to contain bodies. I 
 am aware that this is no definition 
 properly so called, seeing that as the 
 words ‘contain’ and ‘bodies’ both imply 
 ideas of space, the definition involves 
 the thing to be defined. But leaving out 
 as irrelevant all considerations of the 
 mode in which we come by our ideas of 
 space, and of bodies as occupying space, 
 it will I think be admitted that the 
 antithesis between bodies and an ability 
 to contain bodies truly represents the 
 contrast in our conceptions of the sen- 
 sible non-ego (matter) and the insensi- 
 ble non-ego (space).’’ 
 
 SPADIX, in botany, a form of the in- 
 florescence of plants, in which the 
 flowers are closely arranged round a 
 fleshy radius, and the whole surrounded 
 by a large leaf or bract called a spathe, 
 as in palms and arums. 
 
 SPAIN, a state in the southwest of 
 Europe, forming with Portugal the 
 
 great southwestern peninsula of Europe. 
 It is separated from France on the 
 northeast by the chain of the Pyrenees, 
 and is otherwise bounded by Portugal 
 and the Atlantic and Mediterranean. 
 In greatest breadth n. and s. it measures 
 540 miles; greatest length e. and w., 
 620 miles; total area, 196,000 sq. mil^^ 
 pop. 18,089,500. Besides the B^ewic- 
 and Canary Islands, Spain retaiii^ 6f il§f^ 
 colonial possessions a large 
 west coast of the Sahara ; an^‘^HeT^^<|' 
 of Fernando Po, with somV^ffiOT^f 
 West African possessions. Th^?^\mff 
 area is about 244,000 sq. miles;®rp6^ 
 about 144,000. Spain formerly ’’K mu- 
 prised the ancient kingdoms and prov- 
 inces of New and Old Castile, Leon, 
 Asturias, Galicia, Estremadura, An- 
 dalusia, Aragon, Murcia, Valencia, Cata- 
 lonia, Navarre, and the Basque prov- 
 inces. These since 1834, for ackninistra- 
 
 0 , Spathe. 6, Spadix. 
 
 tive purposes, have been divided into 
 forty-nine provinces, including the 
 Balearic and Canary islands. The capi- 
 tal is Madrid; next in population are 
 Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, and Malaga. 
 The coast-line is not much broken, but 
 sweeps round in gentle curves, present- 
 ing few remarkable headlands or inden- 
 tations. The interior is considerably 
 diversified, but its characteristic feature 
 is its central table-land, which has an 
 elevation of from 2200 to 2800 feet, and 
 a superficial extent of not less than 
 90,000 sq. miles. It is bounded on the n. 
 by the Asturian and Cantabrian moun- 
 tains; on the s. by the Sierra Morena; 
 and is crossed from east to west by the 
 rivers Douro, Tagus, and Guadiana. 
 Between these limits it is intersected by 
 two important ranges of mountains 
 running nearly e. and w., the northern 
 being the Guadarrama with its continua- 
 tions, separating the valleys of the 
 Douro and Tagus ; and the southern, the 
 Sierra de Toledo and its continuations 
 between the Tagus and the Guadiana. 
 South of the Sierra Morena is the valley 
 of the river Guadalquivir. Besides these 
 ranges there is the chain of the Pyrenees, 
 which, though partly belonging to 
 France, presents its boldest front to 
 Spain and has its loftiest summits 
 within it. The chief rivers enter the 
 Atlantic, but in the northeast is the 
 Ebro, a tributary of the Mediterranean. 
 The Douro, Tagus, and Guadiana belong 
 partly to Portugal. The lakes are few 
 and unimportant. The whole country 
 teems with mineral wealth, the minerals, 
 including in greater or less quantities 
 gold, silver, quicksilver, lead, copper, 
 iron, zinc, calamine, antimony, tin, coal, 
 etc. The climate varies much in different 
 localities. On the elevated table-land 
 
 it is both colder in winter and hotter in 
 summer than usual under the same 
 latitude. In the plains and on the coasts 
 the hot summer is followed by a cold 
 rainy season, terminating in April in 
 a beautiful spring. The mean tempera- 
 ture afr Malaga in summer is 77° F., in 
 Barcelona 77° and 50°; 
 '&fi3‘^t’'MaaH^)'?5° and 44.6°. The rain- 
 j^nfall'p^nhe- interior between 8 
 ^m3'^Jirli6Iies p^V^fihum. In some parts 
 ^ofl ihe'-sdUtn the^ilimate is almost tropi- 
 '§al?.^‘AB‘^t one-sixth of the acreage is 
 jfln&fer^^od; the more remarkable trees 
 iBqi^°the Spanish chestnut and several 
 ^varieties of oak, and in particular the 
 cork-oak. Fruits are extremely abun- 
 dant, and include, in addition to the 
 almond, date, fig, orange, citron, olive, 
 and pomegranate; and in the lower dis- 
 tricts of the south, the pine-apple and 
 banana. The more important farm 
 crops are wheat, rice, corn, barley, 
 and legumes. In the south cotton and 
 the sugar-cane are grown. Hemp and 
 flax, the mulberry for rearing silk-worms, 
 saffron, liquorice, are also to be men- 
 tioned. The only large animals in a wild 
 state are the wolf, common in all the 
 mountainous districts, and the bear and 
 chamois, found chiefly in the Pyrenees. 
 Domestic animals include the merino 
 sheep in great numbers, horses, mules, 
 asses, horned cattle, and pigs. The 
 manufactures of Spain are not as a 
 whole important, but considerable ad- 
 vances have been made in recent times. 
 The most important industries are the 
 manufactures of cotton, of woolens and 
 linens, of cutlery and metal goods, paper, 
 silk, leather, tobacco and cigars, besides 
 wine, flour, and oil. The chief articles 
 of export are wine, fruits (especially 
 oranges and raisins), cork, lead, copper 
 and copper ore, iron ore, oils, soap, and 
 agricultural produce (including cattle 
 and wool). The chief trade is with 
 France, next to which is Britain. The 
 country is imperfectly provided with 
 roads; the rivers are of little use for 
 navigation; and though railways have 
 a considerable aggregate length (about 
 6000 miles), much is still required. The 
 length of telegraphs is about 11,500 
 miles. The chief denomination of money 
 is the peseta, of which about 5 are 
 equivalent to $1.00. The present con- 
 stitution dates from 1876, and enacts 
 that the government be a constitutional 
 monarchy, the legislative power resting 
 “in the Cortes with the king,” the ex- 
 ecutive being vested, under the monarch, 
 in a council of nine ministers. The 
 Cortes consists of two independent 
 bodies — the senate and congress, the 
 former consisting of 360 members, one- 
 half of whom are elected by corporations 
 and similar bodies, the other half being 
 life senators nominated by the crown, 
 and “senators by their own right.” The 
 congress is formed by deputies in the 
 proportion of one to each 50,000 of the 
 population. The various provinces, dis- 
 tricts, and communes are governed by 
 their own municipal laws with local 
 administration. Each commune has 
 its affairs directed by an elected ajmn- 
 tamiento, and each province has its 
 diputacion provincial, or parliament, 
 whose members are elected by the 
 ayuntamiento. The army consists of 
 
SPAIN 
 
 SPAIN 
 
 (1) a permanent army, in which all above 
 the age of twenty are liable to serve for 
 three years; (2) an active reserve with 
 three years’ service; and (3) a sedentary 
 reserve, with service for other six years. 
 By the payment of 1300 exemption from 
 service may be obtained. For military 
 purposes the country, with the islands, is 
 divided into fourteen districts, and the 
 strength of the army (exclusive of the 
 reserve) is 130,000 in peace and 310,595 
 in war. The navy is manned by about 
 6000 men, besides about 9000 marines; 
 the vessels comprise four battle-ships, 
 three first-class protected cruisers, three 
 second-class, and a large number of 
 third-class and gunboats, etc. The 
 people of Spain are of very mixed origin, 
 the most ancient inhabitants, the Iber- 
 ians (now represented probably by the 
 Basques or Biscayans of the northeast), 
 being afterward mingled with Celts, 
 Phoenicians, and Carthaginians, Roman 
 colonists, Goths, Jews, and Arabs or 
 Moors. They are generally of medium 
 height and of spare habit, with black 
 hair, dark eyes, and sallow complexion. 
 Under the constitution the state binds 
 itself to maintain the Roman Catholic 
 religion, but a restricted liberty of wor- 
 ship is permitted to Protestants, of 
 whom, however, there are very few. 
 The most ancient known inhabitants 
 of Spain were the Iberians. To these 
 afterward were joined certain tribes 
 of Celts, and subsequently the two races 
 united. The Phoenicians made settle- 
 ments at a very early date, having 
 founded Cadiz about b.c. 1100; later 
 the Greeks founded several cities, and 
 then (b.c. 238), the history of Spain 
 may properly be said to begin with the 
 Carthaginian invasion. Hamilcar Barca 
 undertook, with considerable success, 
 to subjugate the tribes of the peninsula, 
 and in this effort he was followed by 
 Hasdrubal and Hannibal. War between 
 Rome and Carthage brought the Romans 
 to Spain, and (b.c. 205) •nded in their 
 driving out the Carthaginians. In 256 
 A.D. the country was invaded by the 
 Franks, and after their departure Spain 
 became peaceful until th* advent of the 
 Goths. A Visigothic kingdom was estab- 
 lished about 418 A.D. But after retain- 
 ing the mastery of the country for nearly 
 three centuries the Visigoths were in 
 their turn conquered (711 a.d.) by the 
 Saracens under Tarik, and the greater 
 part of Spain became a province of the 
 caliphs of Bagdad. For some years they 
 held it as a dependency of the province 
 of North Africa, but it was afterward 
 (717) governed by emirs appointed by 
 the caliphs of Damascus. Dissensions 
 ultimately arose between the central 
 power and the province, with the result 
 that an independent dynasty was estab- 
 lished by Abd al-Rahman at Cordova 
 (756 A.D.), which received additional 
 power and magnificence from Hisham 
 (788) and his son A1 Hakam (796). 
 Meanwhile several small kingdoms had 
 been formed in the mountainous dis- 
 tricts of the Pyrenees, probably by 
 iescendants of the Visigoths. The chief 
 of these were the kingdoms of Asturias, 
 Leon, Navarre, Aragon, and Castile. 
 These states were often at war with each 
 other, and in the struggle for supremacy 
 Castile and Aragon ultimately absorbed 
 
 all the others. By the marriage (1469) of 
 Isabella, the heir to the crown of Castile 
 with Ferdinand of Aragon, begins the 
 modern history of Spain. To strengthen 
 the central government and curtail the 
 power of the nobility the Santa Her- 
 mandad, or Holy Brotherhood, was 
 formed (1476) to act as the adminis- 
 trators of justice; the Inquisition was 
 instituted (1481) to promote religious 
 orthodoxy and unity; the Jews were ex- 
 pelled for heterodoxy; and the Moors 
 were completely subjugated by the con- 
 quest of Granada (1492) and afterward 
 expelled. In this same year Columbus 
 discovered the West Indies, and the 
 colonial power of Spain, thus begun, was 
 soon greatly extended. When Ferdinand 
 died in 1516 his daughter Joanna, who 
 had married Philip, son of Maximilian 
 I., succeeded to the kingdom of Aragon, 
 but her son, Charles I., became regent 
 and ultimately king of the whole of 
 Spain. He was also ruler of the Nether- 
 lands, which he inherited from his 
 father, and in 1519 he was proclaimed 
 Charles V. emperor of Germany. As the 
 champion of the Catholic church he 
 successively declared war with the 
 French, the German Protestants, and 
 the Turks. But as the expense of this 
 vast policy overtaxed his own kingdom 
 and was only partially met by the 
 wealth acquired by the conquest of 
 Mexico (1518) and Peru (1531), he 
 finally retired in despair, and was suc- 
 ceeded (1556) by his son, Philip II., who 
 failed to establish the Spanish influence 
 in France and sustained defeat from 
 England by the destruction of the In- 
 vincible Armada. He was succeeded 
 (1599) by Philip III., who, by expelling 
 all the Moriscos from his kingdom and 
 engaging in the Thirty Years’ war, im- 
 poverished the country. Further chs- 
 asters overtook Spain on the accession 
 of Philip IV. (1621). Under his son, 
 Charles II. (1665), a prince who was 
 feeble both in mind and body, the 
 country declined still more, and at his 
 death in 1700 without an heir there 
 began the war of the Spanish succession. 
 Aftwr a prolonged European war it was 
 agreed by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) 
 to acknowledge the Bourbon Philip V. 
 as king of Spain on condition that the 
 Nethenands and the Italian provinces 
 were given to Austria, while England 
 claimed Gibraltar and Minorca. Under 
 the administration of Cardinal Alberoni 
 Spain regained a large part of its power 
 in Europe. This revival was continued 
 under Ferdinand VI., who succeeded 
 to the throne m 1746; but it received its 
 greatest impulse from Charles III. 
 (1759), who developed the agricultural 
 and other resources of his country, and 
 broke the power of the Inquisition by 
 banishing the Jesuits (1767). The full 
 effect of these and other liberal measures 
 was arrested, however, by the accession 
 of Charles IV. (1788), whose policy, 
 directed by Godoy, first brought about 
 a rupture with the French republic, and 
 then a close alliance with France and a 
 war against the British, resulting in the 
 battle of Trafalgar (1805), when the 
 naval power of Spain was destroyed. 
 The result was an insurrection and the 
 abdication of the king (1808) in favor 
 of his son, Ferdinand VII. Napoleon! 
 
 caused the whole Bourbon family to be 
 set aside and gave the crown to Joseph, 
 his brother. War was declared and the 
 council entered into an alliance with 
 Great Britain. In several battles the 
 British army routed the French and 
 advanced into Spain; but it was not 
 until the spring of 1813 that Wellington 
 was able to clear the peninsula of French 
 soldiers and to fight his way through the 
 Pyrenees into France. In consequence 
 of this success the Bourbon prince, 
 Ferdinand VII., returned and was pro- 
 claimed king (1814). During the Napo- 
 leonic war the South American colonies 
 had asserted their independence, Florida 
 had been sold to the United States, and 
 the finances misused. In 1829 Ferdinand 
 abolished the Salic law by a “pragmatic 
 sanction,” and as the result of this his 
 daughter was proclaimed queen, on the 
 death of her father in 1833, under the 
 title of Isabella II. As this queen was 
 only three years old, her mother, Maria 
 Christina, undertook the regency; but 
 she was opposed by Don Carlos, a 
 brother of the late king, and a serious 
 civil war broke out. The Carlist party 
 achieved considerable success at first, 
 but the civil strife was ultimately 
 brought to an end by the triumph of 
 the royalists (1840) under Espartero 
 and O’Donnell. Notwithstanding this 
 the regent, who found it impossible to 
 control the various factions, retired into 
 France, and Espartero was recognized 
 as regent. By the influence of Louis 
 PhOippe, the French king, a marriage 
 was brought about in 1845 between 
 Isabella and her cousin, Don Francisco 
 d’Assiz. For some years after this event 
 the political history of Spain became a 
 medley of party intrigue and petty 
 political ana military revolution. In 
 1873 the cortes declared in favor of a 
 federal republic, and the presidency 
 was intrusted to Castelar; but the out- 
 break of a Carlist war in the Basque 
 provinces made this form of government 
 impossible. Accordingly as it had been 
 proved that a republican form of gov- 
 ernment was impossible, the throne was 
 offered (1874) to the son of the exiled 
 Isabella. In 1875 the young king, with 
 the title of Alfonzo XI., landed at 
 Barcelona, and successfully established 
 his government by a complete defeat 
 of the Carlist insurgents. The present 
 king is his son, Alfonso XII., who was 
 crowned in 1902. The chief event in 
 the recent history of Spain is the war 
 with the United States (1898), which 
 stripped her of her richest remaining 
 colonies: Cuba, Porto Rico and the Phil- 
 ippines. In 1906 Alfonso married the 
 English princess Victoria Ena, daughter 
 of Princess Beatrice. In June, 1907, an 
 heir to the throne was born. The Span- 
 ish language, which is also the language 
 of Mexico and a great part of South 
 America, belongs to the group known as 
 the Romance or Romanic languages. Its 
 formation was influenced by the length- 
 ened duration in Spain of Roman insti- 
 tutions, by the Teutonic element intro- 
 duced by the Visigoths, and by words 
 of Arabic origin added during the long 
 occupation of the country by the Moors. 
 The national literature of Spain dates 
 from the 12th century, ballads and 
 metrical romances being itsearliestprod* 
 
SPANGLES 
 
 SPA'RID^ 
 
 ucts. To this period the Poema del Cid 
 is usually ascribed, an epic in which are 
 narrated the adventures of Rodrigo 
 Diaz de Bivar, the national hero. Fol- 
 lowing this early historical and legend- 
 ary theme came the didactic verse of the 
 Benedictine monk Gonzalo Berceo 
 (1198-1268). The most remarkable 
 piece of writing of this age was Las 
 Siete Partidas (1265), a Castilian code 
 of laws published under the patronage 
 of Alfonso X. In the 16th century there 
 were published the Amadis de Gaula, 
 the first of the Spanish caballerias, or 
 "books of chivalry.” It was not, how- 
 ever, until the kingdoms of Castile and 
 Aragon were united under Ferdinand 
 and Isabella that Spanish literature 
 attained its chief distinction. The prin- 
 cipal writers were Juan Boscan Ahno- 
 gaver, Diego de Mendoza, Garcilaso de 
 la Vega, Fernando de Herrera, and 
 Hernando de Acuna. Characteristic of 
 this period was the vigorous develop- 
 ment of the novela, with a picaroon or 
 rogue for hero. The earliest of these 
 picaresque novels was Guzman de 
 Alfarache, by Mateo Aleman; Alonzo 
 Mozo, by Geronirao de Alcald; Gran 
 Tacafio, by Quevedo, and numerous 
 other romances. But these were all sur- 
 passed, and the chivalric extravagance 
 of this period burlesqued to extinction 
 by Don Quixote (first part 1605), the 
 masterpiece of Miguel Cervantes de 
 Saavedra. But this movement received 
 its full perfection and refinement in the 
 poetical and philosophical dramas of 
 Pedro Calderon de la Barca (1600-81). 
 Among the historical writings of this era 
 were the Historia de Espana, by Juan 
 de Mariana; Guerra de Granada, by 
 Diego de Mendoza; the Historia Verda- 
 dera de la Conquista de la Nueva 
 Espafia, by Bernal Diaz del Castillo; and 
 the Historia de las Indias, by Bartolom6 
 de las Casas. With the accession of the 
 Bourbons in the 18th century there was 
 introduced from France an element of 
 revival into Spanish literature which was 
 furthered by the Poetica of Ignacio de 
 Luzan, the Retorica of Gregorio de 
 Mayans, and the Teatro Critico of 
 Benito Feyjoo. This French element 
 had also its influence upon the poets of 
 the latter half of the 18th and beginning 
 of the 19th centuries, among whom were 
 Valdes, Cienfuegos, Iriarte, Gonzales, 
 Moratin, de la Rosa, etc.; while the 
 romance was revived in the Fray 
 Gerundio of Jos6 de Isla, who was also 
 the translator of Gil Bias. The romantic 
 movement of France had its Spanish 
 adherents, among whom, as the most 
 notable poets, are to be named Zorrilla, 
 Espronceda, Diaz, Escosura, and Pa- 
 checo; the chief classicists being Quin- 
 tana, Reinoso, Calderon, and Carvajal; 
 while as a satirist, Jos<5 de Lara (Figaro), 
 and as a dramatist Manuel Breton de 
 Herreros, are worthy of mention. More 
 recently the poets Campoamor, Arce, 
 Becquer, de Trueba, and Aguilera, and 
 the novelists Caballero, Valera, Galdos, 
 de Trueba, Gonzales, and Alarcon have 
 attained a certain distinction. 
 
 SPANGLES, metal ornaments, used 
 chiefly for theatrical dresses, and con- 
 sisting for the most part of thin circular 
 pieces of gilt or silvered tin. 
 
 SPANISH AMERICAN WAR, the war 
 
 between Spain and the United States in 
 1898. The struggle between the Cubans 
 and their home government for over a 
 century, the increase of bloodshed, 
 starvation and general devastation of 
 the island, the systematically disre- 
 garded rights of i^erican citizens by 
 the Spanish authorities, finally decided 
 the United States to interpose its 
 friendly offices. President Cleveland, in 
 December, 1896, in his annual message, 
 spoke of “higher obligations” than those 
 due to Spain, which would devolve upon 
 the United States if conditions should 
 grow worse in the island and if Spain’s 
 inability to deal successfully with the 
 insurrection should become manifest. 
 On the evening of February 15th the 
 battleship Maine wasblownupinHavana 
 harbor and 266 of the crew killed. Con- 
 gress immediately appropriated $50,- 
 000,000 for national defense. Public 
 opinion decided that the Spanish 
 officials in Cuba were responsible for 
 the disaster. On April 23d President 
 McKinley called for 125,000 volunteers 
 and ordered the North Atlantic squad- 
 ron to blockade Havana and other 
 Cuban ports. Formal declaration of 
 war by Spain on the 24th and by the 
 United States on the 25th inst. were 
 followed by the proclamations of neu- 
 trality by Great Britain and other 
 foreign powers. The first act of war was 
 the capture, April 22, of the merchant- 
 man Buena Ventura, by the gunboat 
 Nashville. On April 24 Dewey, with 
 orders to capture or destroy the Spanish 
 fleet in the Philippines, set sail from 
 Hong Kong. April 25, the Spanish forts 
 opened fire upon the American fleet off 
 Havana. April 27, the earthworks of 
 Matanzas were shelled; the Spanish 
 steamship Guido was taken and the 
 enemy’s fleet gathered in Manila bay 
 to meet Dewey. April 29, Cienfugos was 
 bombarded and Cervera’s fleet made its 
 first start for Cape Verde islands. May 
 1 came the victory of Dewey when he 
 destroyed the Spanish fleet of 11 war- 
 ships in Manila bay and subsequently 
 took possession of Cavite. May 19, the 
 Cape Verde fleet was reported at San- 
 tiago. June 3, Lieut. Hobson, with seven 
 volunteers, sank the Merrimac in the 
 entrance to the harbor of Santiago, one 
 of the most thrilling performances of 
 the war. June 21, Gen. Shatter’s troops 
 arrived off Santiago and landed at 
 Baquiri, June 23. July 1, the assault 
 upon Santiago began, when El Caney 
 and San Juan were taken with heavy 
 losses. July 3, Cervera’s Cape Verde 
 fleet was destroyed while making a dash 
 to escape from Santiago harbor. Com- 
 modore Schley was acting-admiral in 
 the absence of Admiral Sampson. July 
 14, Gen. Toral, commanding the Spanish 
 forces, surrendered Santiago and the 
 east side of Cuba. July 25, Gen. Miles 
 and the Porto Rico expedition began 
 landing on that island. July 26, Spain 
 formally sued for peace through the 
 French ambassador. July 28, the city 
 of Ponce surrendered to Gen. Miles, 
 the inhabitants welcoming the invaders 
 with shouts of joy. The president, July 
 29, named the conditions under which 
 peace would be discussed and which were 
 made public Aug. 2. These banished 
 Spain entirely from this hemisphere; 
 
 gave the United States an island in the 
 Ladrone group; also Luzon of the 
 Philippines and the latter to be a further 
 question in the later negotiations. 
 August 6 it was announced that Spain 
 accepted the terms proposed, and shortly 
 afterv/ard the peace protocol was signed 
 in Washington; the French ambassador 
 acting for Spain. Admiral Dewey and 
 General Merritt, August 13, made a 
 combined attack on Manila, the result 
 being its capture. 
 
 SPANISH AMERICAN WAR, 1898, 
 
 Chronology of, Maine, blown up, Feb- 
 ruary 15; Spain asked to leave Cuba, 
 April 19; diplomatic relations broken, 
 April 21 ; (5uban blockade declared, 
 April 22; war declared by Spain, April 
 24; war declared' by United States, 
 April 25; Dewey’s victory at Manila, 
 May 1 ; Hobson’s Merrimac exploit, 
 June 3; United States army corps land 
 in Cuba, June 21 ; battle at El Caney and 
 San Juan, July 1; Cervera’s fleet de- 
 stroyed, July 3; General Toral sur- 
 renders, July 14; Santiago de Cuba sur- 
 renders, July 17; campaign in Porto 
 Rico begins, July 25; peace protocol 
 signed, August 12; surrender of Manila, 
 August 13; peace treaty signed in Paris, 
 December 12; signed by the president 
 February 10, 1899; by the queen regent, 
 March 17. 
 
 SPANISH MAIN, the name formerly 
 given to the Atlantic ocean and coast 
 along the north part of South America, 
 from the Leeward islands to the Isthmus 
 of Darien. 
 
 SPANKER, a large fore-and-aft sail 
 set upon the mizzen-mast of a ship or 
 barque, the top extended by a gaff, the 
 
 «s. Spanker. 
 
 foot by a boom. It is also called the 
 mizzen. 
 
 SPAR, in mineralogy, a term em- 
 ployed to include a great number of 
 crystalized, earthy, and some metallic 
 substances, which easily break into 
 rhomboidal, cubical or laminated frag- 
 ments with polished surfaces, but with- 
 out regard to the ingredients of which 
 they are composed. Among miners the 
 term spar is frequently used alone to 
 express any bright crystalline substance. 
 
 SPAR-DECK, nautical, a term some- 
 what loosely applied, though properly 
 signifying a temporary deck, consisting 
 of spars supported on beams, laid in 
 any part of a vessel. It also means the 
 quarter-deck, gangwaj's, and forecastle 
 of a deep-waisted vessel, and is applied 
 to the upper entire deck of a double- 
 banked vessel without an open waist. 
 
 SPA'RIDiE, a family of acanthop- 
 terygious, teleostean fishes, of which the 
 
SPARKS 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVm 
 
 genus Sparus is the type. They some- 
 what resemble the perches in form, the 
 body being generally of an ovate form 
 and covered with large scales. The 
 Sparidffi are mostly inhabitants of warm 
 
 Sparada. 
 
 climates. They are edible, and some of 
 them highly esteemed. 
 
 SPARKS, Jared, born at Willington, 
 Connecticut, 1789; died 1866. He was 
 educated at Harvard, where he became 
 mathematical tutor, and he was sub- 
 sequently (1819-23) pastor of a Unitari- 
 an church at Baltimore. He was after- 
 ward editor of the North American Re- 
 view, and was appointed professor of 
 history (1839) and president (1849) of 
 Harvard. He is chiefly known in litera- 
 ture as the author of Life and Writings 
 of Washington (twelve vols., 1834-37) ; 
 Diplomatic Correspondence of the 
 American Revolution (twelve vols., 
 1829-30); Library of American Biog- 
 raphy (two series, 25 vols.); and Works 
 of Benjamin Franklin (ten vols., 
 1836-40). 
 
 SPARROW, a well-known bird of the 
 finch family, which inhabits the British 
 islands and other parts of Europe, and 
 has been introduced into North America 
 and Australia. Their amazing fecundity, 
 their strong attachment to their young, 
 their familiarity, not to say impudence, 
 and their voracity, are familiar to all. 
 They often do great injury in cornfields, 
 and gardens, but they also do great 
 service in destroying grubs, caterpillars 
 stc 
 
 SPARROW-HAWK, the common 
 name of several hawks. The male is 
 colored dark brown on the top of the 
 head, and on the upper aspect of the 
 body and wings. The under parts are 
 of a reddish-brown color, marked with 
 
 Sparrow-hawk. 
 
 narrow bands of darker tint. The female 
 bird is of a duller brown hue on the back 
 and head; and her plumage is diversified 
 by numerous white spots. It is a bold, 
 active bird, very destructive to pigeons, 
 small birds and chickens. 
 
 SPARTANBURG, a city and capital of 
 partanburg co.. S. C.- on the Port 
 oyal and W. Car. and the Southern 
 railways; 73 miles w.s.w. of Charlotte, 
 
 N. C., 95 miles n.w. of Columbia, the 
 state capital. It is in a gold and iron 
 mining and limestone-quarrying region. 
 Pop. 12,462. 
 
 SPASM, in medicine, an abnormal, 
 sudden, and more or less violent con- 
 traction of one or more muscles or 
 muscular fibers. Spasm is either clonic 
 or tonic. In clonic spasm the muscles 
 or muscular fibers contract and relax 
 alternately in very quick succession, 
 producing the appearance of agitation, 
 as in epilepsy. In tonic spasm the 
 muscles or muscular fibers contract in 
 a steady and uniform manner, and re- 
 main contracted for a comparatively 
 long time, as in tetanus. 
 
 SPAT'ULA, a flat sort of knife with a 
 thin flexible blade, used by druggists, 
 painters, etc., for spreading plasters, 
 working pigments, etc. In surgery, it is 
 a flat instrument, angular or straight, for 
 depressing the tongue and keeping it out 
 of the way in operations about the 
 throat or larynx. 
 
 SPATULARIA, or POLYODON, a 
 
 genus of fishes belonging to the sturgeon 
 tribe. They are remarkable forthe form 
 
 1 
 
 Spatularla, upper (1) and under (2) view. 
 
 of their snouts, which are enormously 
 long and leaf-like in form. The type of 
 the genus is the paddle-fish of the Mis- 
 sissippi. 
 
 SPAV'IN, a disease of horses, affecting 
 the hock-joint, or joint of the hind leg, 
 between the knee and the fetlock. It 
 occurs in two forms. In the first, which 
 is called bog or blood spavin, the joint 
 is distended by joint-oil (synovia). In 
 the other form there is a morbid deposi- 
 tion of body substance, such as to unite 
 separate bones. It causes lameness, 
 gradually growing worse until finally 
 the various bones become to a great 
 extent united and solidified by the 
 mass of fibrous bone which grows over 
 them. The disease is caused by strains. 
 
 SPAWN, the eggs or ova of fishes, 
 frogs, etc., frorh which, when fertilized 
 by the males, a new progeny arises that 
 continues the species. In the oviparous 
 fishes with distinct sexes the eggs are 
 impregnated externally, and arrive at 
 maturity without the aid of the mother. 
 The spawn being deposited by the fe- 
 male, the male then pours upon it the 
 impregnating fluid. In the ovovivipar- 
 ous fishes sexual intercourse takes place, 
 and the eggs are hatched in the uterus. 
 Fishes exhibit a great variety in regard 
 to the number of their eggs. In the 
 spawn of a cod-fish, for example, no 
 fewer than three and a half millions of 
 eggs have been found. In general, be- 
 fore spawning, fish forsake the deep 
 water and approach the shore, and 
 some fish leave the salt water and 
 ascend the rivers before spawning, and 
 then return again. 
 
 SPEARMINT, a European and North 
 American species of mint often culti- 
 vated for making sauce and in order to 
 obtain a flavoring essence from it. 
 
 SPECIAL LICENSE. See Marriage. 
 
 SPECIES, as ordinarily defined, is any 
 one group of animals or plants the mem- 
 bers of which generally bear a close re- 
 semblance to each other in the more 
 essential features of their organization, 
 which produce fertile progeny, and 
 which may, in the generality of cases, 
 produce individuals varying from the 
 general type of the group, the variation, 
 however, being in all cases of a limited 
 kind. Under this definition the various 
 species, “kinds” of animals and plants, 
 and their included varieties, used to be 
 comprehended, while naturalists re- 
 garded species as unchanging through- 
 out the longest succession of ages, ex- 
 cept within narrow and marked limits. 
 Thus Buffon defines a species as “a 
 constant succession of individuals simi- 
 lar to and capable of reproducing each 
 other;” and Cuvier as “a succession of 
 individuals which reproduces and per- 
 petuates itself.” Since the publication, 
 however, of Darwin’s Origin of Species 
 this conception has been greatly modi- 
 fied by the view that, as Haeckel defines 
 it, “the species is the whole succession 
 of organisms which exhibit the same 
 form in the same environment.” In this 
 conception no absolute standard of what 
 constitutes a species can be set up, nor 
 can the number of species, especially 
 among the transitional varieties of the 
 lowest forms of life, be determined. 
 In mineralogy, chemistry, and such 
 sciences as relate to inorganic substances, 
 species is regarded by some writers as 
 being determined by identity of physical 
 properties, as specific gravity, hardness, 
 etc.; and by others, as constituted by 
 chemical composition, the physical 
 properties going for nothing. In scien- 
 tific classification species unite to form 
 groups called genera, which are included 
 in orders, the orders forming classes, and 
 so on. — Species in logic is a group of 
 individuals agreeing in common at- 
 tributes and designated by a common 
 name; a conception subordinated to 
 another conception, called a genus or 
 generic conception, from which it differs 
 in containing or comprehending more 
 attributes, and extending to fewer in- 
 dividuals; thus “man” is a species under 
 “animal” as a genus, and “man” in its 
 turn may be regarded as a genus with 
 respect to European, Asiatic, and the 
 like. 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY is the relative 
 gravity or weight of any body or sub- 
 stance considered with regard to an 
 equal bulk of some other body which is 
 assumed as a standard of comparison. 
 The standardforthe specific gravities of 
 solids and liquids is pure distilled water 
 at the temperature of 62° Fahr., which 
 is reckoned unity. By comparing the 
 weights of equal bulks of other bodies 
 with this standard we obtain their 
 specific gravities. Thus the specific 
 gravity of cast-iron is 7.21 ; that is, any 
 particular mass of cast-iron will weigh 
 7.21 times as much as an equal bulk of 
 water. The practical rule is, weigh the 
 body in air, then in pure distilled water, 
 and the weight in air, divided by the 
 loss of weight in water will give the 
 specific gravity of the body. In desig- 
 nating the specific gravities of gases the 
 standard of unity is atmospheric air. 
 
SPECIFIC HEAT 
 
 SPECULUM 
 
 The specific f^ravity of various sub- 
 stances is as follows: 
 
 Liquids. 
 
 Timber. 
 
 Water .. . .100 
 
 Cork. 24 
 
 Sea-water. 103 
 
 Dead Sea 124 
 
 Alcohol 84 
 
 Turpectine 99 
 
 Wine 100 
 
 Urine 101 
 
 Cider 102 
 
 Beer 102 
 
 Woman’s milk 102 
 
 Cow's milk 103 
 
 Goat’s milk 104 
 
 Porter. 104 
 
 Poplar 38 
 
 Fir.... 65 
 
 Cedar 61 
 
 Pear 66 
 
 Walnut 67 
 
 Cherry 72 
 
 Maple 75 
 
 Ash. 84 
 
 Beech 85 
 
 Mahogany 106 
 
 Oak 117 
 
 Ebony. 133 
 
 Sundries. 
 
 Metals and Stones. 
 
 Indigo 77 
 
 Ice 92 
 
 Granite. 278 
 
 Diamond 353 
 
 Gunpowder 93 
 
 Butter 94 
 
 Clay 120 
 
 Coal 130 
 
 Opium.. 134 
 
 Honey. 145 
 
 Ivory. 183 
 
 Sulphur 203 
 
 Cast iron 721 
 
 Tin 729 
 
 Bar iron 779 
 
 Steel 783 
 
 Brass 840 
 
 Copper 895 
 
 Silver 1,047 
 
 Tjead 1.135 
 
 Mercury 1,357 
 
 Chalk 279 
 
 Glass 289 
 
 Gold 1.926 
 
 Platina 2,150 
 
 The weight of a cubic foot of dis- 
 tilled water at a temperature of 60° F. 
 is 1,000 ounces Avoirdupois, very 
 nearly, therefore the weight (in ounces. 
 Avoirdupois) of a cubic foot of any of 
 the substances in the above table is 
 found by multiplying the specific grav- 
 ities by 10, thus: one cubic foot of oak 
 weighs 1,170 ounces; one cubic foot of 
 marble 2,700 ounces, and so on. See 
 Hydrometer. 
 
 SPECIFIC HEAT, is a term applied 
 to the quantity of heat required to raise 
 equal weights of different substances 
 through equal intervals of temperature. 
 Water is taken as the standard sub- 
 stance in measuring quantities of heat. 
 The thermal capacity of unit mass of 
 cold water is unity; and the number 
 which denotes the thermal capacity of 
 a body expresses the mass of water 
 which has the same thermal capacity as 
 the body. Thus the thermal capacity of 
 unit mass of a substance is called its 
 specific heat, and is identical with the 
 ratio of the thermal capacity of any 
 mass of the substance to that of an 
 equal mass of water. The specific 
 heats of the metals and of many other 
 substances have been carefully deter- 
 mined, and are tabulated in all the 
 larger books on heat. 
 
 SPECTACLES, a well-known and in- 
 valuable optical instrument supposed 
 to have been invented by Roger Bacon 
 in the 13th century, and used to assist or 
 correct some defect in the organs of 
 vision. Spectacles consist generally of 
 two oval or circular lenses mounted in a 
 light metal frame which is made up of 
 the “bows,” “bridge,” and “sides.” 
 The lenses are usually bi-concave, bi- 
 convex, or concavo-convex, though 
 lenses forming segments of a cylinder 
 are used in some cases of astigmatism. 
 In long-sighted persons the defect of 
 the eye is counteracted by convex lenses, 
 in short-sighted persons by concave 
 lenses. (See Sight.) Divided spec- 
 tacles have each lens composed of two 
 
 semicircles of different foci nearly 
 united one above the other; one half for 
 looking at distant objects, and the other 
 for examining things near the eye. 
 -Another kind, called periscopic spec- 
 tacles, has been contrived in order to 
 allow considerable latitude of motion 
 to the eyes without fatigue. The lenses 
 employed in this case are either of a 
 meniscus or concavo-convex form, the 
 concave side being turned to the eye. 
 
 SPECTROSCOPE, the instrument em- 
 ployed in spectrum analysis. It usually 
 consists o'f the following parts: 1st, a 
 tube with a narrow slit at one end, and 
 a convex lens at the other, from which 
 parallel rays of light proceed when light 
 is made to pass through the slit, tne two 
 forming together what is called the 
 collimator. 2d. A prism of dense flint- 
 glass on which the rays fall after emerg- 
 ing from the collimator. 3d. An observ- 
 ing telescope so placed that the rays 
 traverse it after emerging from the 
 prism. The accompanying figure gives 
 
 Arrangement of parts In spectroscope. 
 
 a ground plan of the arrangement; s is 
 the slit, c the collimating lens, p the 
 prism, o the object-glass of the telescope, 
 and e the eye-piece. An image of the 
 slit will be formed at f by rays of given 
 refrangibility, others between f and v 
 by rays of greater refrangibility, and 
 others between f and r by rays of less 
 refrangibility, thus giving a complete 
 spectrum. 
 
 SPECTRUM, the oblong figure or 
 stripe formed on a wall or screen by a 
 beam of light, as of the sun, received 
 through a narrow slit and passed through 
 a prism, being thus decomposed or 
 separated into its constituent rays. (See 
 Light.) This stripe is colored through- 
 out its length, the colors shading in- 
 sensibly into one another from red at the 
 one end, through orange, yellow, green, 
 blue, indigo, to violet at the other. These 
 colors are due to the different con- 
 stituents of which solar light is made 
 up, and the stripe seen is formed by an 
 indefinite number of images of the slit 
 ranged in order and partially overlap- 
 
 ping. The analysis of decomposition of 
 the beam is due to the different refran- 
 gibilities of the component rays, the 
 violet being the most refrangible and 
 the red the least. Besides the colored 
 rays, the spectrum contains thermal 
 or heating rays, and chemical or actinic 
 rays which are not visible to the eye. 
 The heating effect of the solar spectrum 
 increases in going from the violet to the 
 red, and still continues to increase for 
 a certain distance beyond the visible 
 spectrum at the red end, while the 
 chemical action is very faint in the red, 
 strong in the blue and violet, and sensi- 
 
 ble to a considerable distance beyond 
 the violet end. The actinic rays beyond 
 the violet may be rendered visible by 
 throwing them upon a surface treated 
 with some fluorescent substance. A pure 
 spectrum of solar light is crossed at right 
 angles by numerous dark lines, called 
 Fraunhofer’s lines, each dark line being 
 invariable in position. The figure shows 
 the positions of the most conspicuous of 
 these fixed lines, and the letters above 
 them are the names by which they are 
 known, being those assigned to them 
 by the discoverer Fraunhofer. For the 
 proper understanding of the import of 
 these lines, five principles require to be 
 kept in view. First, an incandescent 
 solid or liquid body gives out a con- 
 tinuous spectrum. Second, an incan- 
 descent gaseous body gives out a dis- 
 continuous spectrum, consisting of 
 bright lines. Third, each element when 
 in the state of an incandescent gas gives 
 out lines peculiar to itself. Fourth, if 
 the light of an incandescent solid or 
 liquid passes through a gaseous body, 
 certain of its rays are absorbed, and 
 black lines in the spectrum indicate the 
 nature of the substance which absorbed 
 the ray. Fifth, each element, when 
 gaseous and incandescent, emits bright 
 rays identical in color and position on 
 the spectrum with those which it absorbs 
 from light transmitted through it. The 
 spectrum of sodium, for instance, shows 
 two bright lines which correspond in 
 position with the double black line at d 
 (the sodium line) shown in figure. Now, 
 applying these principles to the solar 
 spectrum, we find, from the nature and 
 position of the rays absorbed, that its 
 fight passes through hydrogen, potas- 
 sium, sodium, calcimn, barium, mag- 
 nesium, zinc, iron, chromium, cobalt, 
 nickel, copper, and manganese, all in a 
 state of gas, and constituting part of the 
 solar envelope, whence we conclude that 
 these bodies are present in the substance 
 of the sun itself, from which they have 
 been volatilized by heat. The moon 
 and planets have spectra like that of the 
 sun, because they shine by its reflected 
 light, while, on the other hand, each 
 fixed star has a spectrum peculiar to 
 itself. It has been already said that the 
 incandescent vapor of each ■ elementary 
 substance has a characteristic spectriun, 
 consisting of fixed lines, which never 
 changes. This furnishes the chemist 
 with a test of an exquisitely delicate 
 nature for the detection of the presence 
 of very minute quantities of elementary 
 bodies. Thus, by heating any substance 
 till it becomes gaseous and incandescent 
 and then taking its spectrum, he is able 
 by the lines to read off, as it were, from 
 the spectrum, the various elements 
 present in the vapor. Several new ele- 
 ments, as rubidium, caesium, indium, 
 and thallium, have thus been detected. 
 
 See Spectroscope. 
 
 SPECTRUM ANALYSIS, See Spec- 
 trum. 
 
 SPECULUM, in optics and astronomy , 
 a reflecting surface, such as is used in 
 reflecting telescopes, usually made of 
 an alloy of copper and tin, but fre- 
 quently now of giass. Those of glass are i 
 covered with a film of silver on the side 
 turned toward the object, and must not I . 
 be confounded with mirrors /irhrch are i . 
 
SPEECH 
 
 SPHINX 
 
 coated with tin-amalgam on the pos- 
 terior side. In surgery the name is given 
 to an instrument used for dilating any 
 passage, as the ear, or parts about the 
 uterus, with a reflecting body at the 
 end, upon which a light being thrown 
 the condition of the parts is shown. 
 
 SPEECH, spoken language; uttered 
 sounds intended to convey meaning, 
 and produced by the organs of voice, 
 namely, the larynx, and the mouth and 
 its parts, including the tongue and 
 teeth. In speech two great classes of 
 sounds are produced, these being usually 
 known as vowels and consonants. 
 Vowels are pronounced by sounds com- 
 ing primarily from the larynx and pass- 
 ing with comparative freedom through 
 the mouth cavity, though modified in 
 certain ways; while consonants are 
 formed by sounds caused by the greater 
 or less interruption of the current of air 
 from the larynx in the mouth. Vowels 
 can be uttered alone and independently 
 of consonants, and their sounds can be 
 prolonged at will; consonants have no 
 importance in speech as apart from 
 vowels, and are named consonants 
 from being used along with vowels. 
 Both vowel and consonant sounds are 
 very numerous if we investigate the 
 different languages of the world, but 
 any one language only has a fraction of 
 those that may be used. A single sound 
 may convey an idea of itself and thus 
 form a word, or several may be com- 
 bined to form a word, and if the word is 
 uttered by several distinct successive 
 changes in position of the vocal organs 
 it is a word of so many syllables. Words, 
 again, are combined to form sentences 
 or complete statements, and the ag- 
 gregate of words used by any people or 
 community in mutual intercourse forms 
 its language. 
 
 SPENCER, Herbert, English phil- 
 osopher, born at Derby 1820. In 1848 
 he became sub-editor of the Economist ; 
 published Social Statics, and Principles 
 of Psychology. About the year 1859 
 he projected his Scheme of Philosophy, 
 based on the principle of evolution in its 
 relation to life, mind, society, and morals 
 This large scheme has been completely 
 expounded in the following works : 
 First Principles, one vol.. Principles of 
 Biology, two vols.; Principles of Psy- 
 chology, two vols.; Principles of Sociol- 
 ogy, three vols.; and Principles of 
 Ethics, two vols. Portions of this great 
 work are known under separate titles, 
 as Data of Ethics, Ceremonial Institu- 
 tions, Pohtical Institutions, Ecclesiasti- 
 cal Institutions, etc. His other works 
 include Education, Essays, Scientific, 
 Political, and Speculative; Classifica- 
 tion of the Sciences, The Study of Soci- 
 ology, Man versus the State, The 
 Factors of Organic Evolution. He pub- 
 lished also an elaborate Descriptive 
 Sociology compiled by other writers, 
 Wt classified and arranged by himself. 
 He died in 1903. Spencer’s works have 
 been translated into various languages. 
 
 SPENSER, Edmund, English poet, 
 was born in London about 1553. In 1859 
 he was engaged in the composition of the 
 Faerie Queene, of which he had written 
 the first three books. These were pub- 
 lished in 1590, with a dedication to 
 Queen Elizabeth. In 1595 he published 
 
 various volumes such as Colin Clout’s 
 Come Home Again, and Astrophel and 
 The Mourning Muse of Thestylis; his 
 sonnets and Epithalamium in one vol- 
 ume; the fourth, fifth, and sixth books 
 of the Faerie Queene, together with a 
 new edition of the first three books. 
 As a poet, although his minor works 
 contain many beauties, Spenser will- be 
 judged chiefly from the Faerie Queene. 
 He died in 1599. 
 
 SPERMACE'TI, a fatty material ob- 
 tained chiefly from cavities in the skull 
 of the sperm whale. During the life 
 of the anunal the spermaceti is in a fluid 
 state, forming part of the oily liquid 
 which is found when the head of the 
 whale is opened. On exposure to the 
 air the spermaceti concretes, and de- 
 posits from the oil. Some of the larger 
 whales have been knownto yield twenty- 
 four barrels of spermaceti, and from 
 seventy to a hundred barrels of oil. 
 After being purified the spermaceti con- 
 cretes into a white, crystallized, brittle, 
 semitransparent unctuous substance 
 nearly inodorous and insipid. It is bland 
 and demulcent, with considerable nutri- 
 tive qualities when taken ii;.ternally. 
 It is chiefly employed externally as an 
 ingredient in ointments and cerates. It 
 is also largely used to form candles. 
 
 SPERMATOZO'A, the microscopic 
 ’animalcule-like bodies developed in the 
 semen of animals, each consisting of a 
 body and a vibratile filamentary tail 
 exhibiting active movements. Sper- 
 matozoa are essential to impregnation. 
 
 SPERM OIL, the oil of the spermaceti 
 whale, which is separated from the 
 spermaceti and the blubber. This kind 
 of oil is much purer than train oil, and 
 burns away without leaving any charcoal 
 on the wicks of lamps. In composition 
 it differs but slightly from common 
 whale oil. 
 
 SPERM WHALE, or CACHALOT, a 
 
 species of cetacea belonging to the sec- 
 tion of the whale order denominated 
 “toothed” whales, generally met with in 
 the Pacific, but occasionally also on the 
 
 coast of Greenland. The large blunt 
 head in an old male is sometimes 30 feet 
 long, and forms about a third of the total 
 length of the body; while the “blow- 
 holes” or S-shaped nostrils are situated 
 in the front part of the head. The weight 
 of an adult animal is estimated at about 
 200 tons, and in a male 66 feet long the 
 flipper measured 5 feet 3 inches, and the 
 two-lobed tail-fin had a breadth of 
 nearly 20 feet. The top of the back is 
 continued almost in a straight line from 
 the upper part of the head; the belly is 
 enormous, Wt the body thins off toward 
 the wide tail. The color is a blackish- 
 gray, which may exhibit greenish or 
 bluish hues on the upper parts. The * 
 
 teeth of the lower jaw average each 
 about 3 inches in length. This whale is 
 of considerable commercial value. See 
 Spermaceti. 
 
 SPHE'NOID BONE. See Skull. 
 
 SPHERE, in geometry, a solid body 
 contained under a single surface, which 
 in every part is equally distant from a 
 point called the center. It may be con- 
 ceived to be generated by the revolution 
 of a semicircle about its diameter, which 
 remains fixed, and which is hence called 
 the axis of the sphere. A section of a 
 sphere made by a plane passing through 
 its center is called a great circle of the 
 sphere ; and when the cutting plane does 
 not pass through the center the section 
 is called a small circle of the sphere. 
 A sphere is two-thirds of its circum- 
 scribing cylinder. Spheres are to one 
 another as the cubes of their diameters. 
 The surface of a sphere is equal to four 
 times the area of one of its great circles, 
 and the solidity is found by multiplying 
 the cube of the diameter by .5236 or 
 § of .7854; or by multiplying the area of 
 a great circle by § of the diameter. 
 
 SPHE'ROGRAPH, a nautical instru- 
 ment consisting of a stereographic pro- 
 jection of the sphereupon a disc of paste- 
 board, in which the meridians and 
 parallels of latitude are laid down to 
 single degrees. By the aid of this pro- 
 jection, and a ruler and index, the 
 angular position of a ship at any place, 
 and the distance sailed, may be readily 
 and accurately determined on the prin- 
 ciple of great circle saUing. 
 
 SPHINX, a fabulous monster which 
 figures both in the Grecian and Egyptian 
 mythologies. The sphinx of the Greeks 
 is represented with a body like that of a 
 lion, with wings, and with the breasts 
 and upper parts of a woman. Hera, says 
 the fable, provoked with the Thebans, 
 sent the sphinx to punish them. The 
 sphinx proposed a riddle and devoured 
 anyone who undertook but was unable 
 to interpret its meaning. In this enigma 
 the question proposed was. What animal 
 walked on four legs in the morning, two 
 at noon, and three in the evening. This 
 './as at last explained by CEdipus, who 
 said that man walked on his hands and 
 feet when young, or in the morning of 
 life; at the noon of life he walked erect; 
 and in the evening of his days he sup- 
 ported himself upon a stick. Whereupon 
 her riddle being read, the sphinx de- 
 
 Egyptian sphinx, from the Louvre museum. 
 
 stroyed herself. The sphinx was used 
 by the Greeks for artistic and decorative 
 purposes, and seems to have been in 
 some sense symbolic. The Egyptian 
 sphinx had a human head (male or fe- 
 
SPHINX MOTH 
 
 SPINi. 
 
 male) on the body of a lion (not winged), 
 and was always in a recumbent posture, 
 with the fore-paws stretched forward, 
 and a head-dress resembling an old- 
 fashioned wig. The features are like 
 those of the ancient Egpytians found 
 in the ancient ruins. The largest sphinx, 
 that near the group of pyramids at 
 Gizeh, is about 150 feet long and 63 feet 
 high; the body is monolithic, but the 
 paws, which are thrown out 50 feet in 
 front, are constructed of masonry. 
 There were also sphinx figures in Egypt 
 with rams’ heads and hawks’ heads. 
 The Egyptian sphinx was probably a 
 purely symbolic figure, having no his- 
 torical connection with the Greek fable, 
 and the Greeks may have applied the 
 term to the Egyptian statues merely on 
 account of an accidental external re- 
 semblance to their own figures of the 
 sphinx. 
 
 SPHINX MOTH, a species of moth be- 
 longing to the family Sphingidse, and 
 deriving its popular narne from a sup- 
 posed resemblance which its cater- 
 pillars present when they raise the fore 
 part of their bodies to the “sphinx” of 
 Egyptian celebrity. The sphinx moth 
 is found very sparingly throughout 
 England. 
 
 SPICES, the name given to all those 
 vegetable substances, having an aro- 
 matic odor and a hot and pungent flavor, 
 and used for seasoning food; such as 
 cinnamon, cassia, mace, nutmeg, all- 
 spice, pepper, cloves, ginger, vanilla. 
 
 SPIDER, the common name of insect- 
 like animals. The head and chest are 
 united to form one segment known as a 
 cephalothorax; no wings are developed, 
 and breathing is effected by means of 
 pulmonary or lung sacs. For the most 
 part they are oviparous. The abdomen 
 is furnished with from four to six cylin- 
 drical or conical mammillEe or processes, 
 with fleshy extremities, which are per- 
 forated with numberless small orifices 
 for the passage of silky filaments of 
 extreme tenuity, with which they form 
 webs, and which proceed from internal 
 reservoirs. The spider’s web is usually 
 intended to entangle their prey (chiefly 
 flies), but spiders also spin webs to make 
 their abodes, and for other purposes. 
 The legs number four pairs, and no 
 antennse are developed. Their mandibles 
 are terminated by a movable hook, 
 flexed inferiorly, underneath which, and 
 near its extremity, is a little opening 
 that allows a passage to a venomous fluid 
 contained in a gland of the preceding 
 joint. After wounding their prey with 
 their hooked mandibles they inject this 
 poison into the wound, which suddenly 
 destroys the victim. 
 
 SPIDER CRAB, the name given to 
 crabs from the rough general resem- 
 blance their bodies and long legs possess 
 to those of spiders. The common or 
 thornback spider crab, is a familiar 
 species, and is very commonly taken in 
 the crab pots of fishermen. The four- 
 horned spider crab has a triangular 
 body, possessing four horn-like pro- 
 cesses in front, the two central ones 
 forming the rostrum or beak. 
 
 SPIDER FLY, a dipterous insect of 
 the family Pupipara. There are many 
 species of these found parasitic on birds 
 and quadrupeds. 
 
 SPIDER MONKEY, a general name 
 applied to many species of platyrhine or 
 New World monkeys, but more espe- 
 cially to the members of the genus which 
 are distinguished by the great relative 
 length, slenderness, and flexibility of 
 their limbs, and by the prehensile power 
 of their tails. A familiar species is the 
 
 Spider monkey. 
 
 chameck, which occurs abundantly in 
 Brazil. The body is about 20 inches, the 
 tail 2 feet long, and the color is a general 
 black. The coaita, another typical 
 species, has an average length of 12 
 inches; the tail measures over 2 feet 
 long, and the fur is of a dark, glossy, 
 black hue. 
 
 SPIKENARD, a highly aromatic her- 
 baceous plant growing in the East Indies. 
 The root has a strong smell and a sharp 
 bitterish taste. This is the true spike- 
 nard of the ancients, and it has enjoyed 
 celebrity from the earliest period on 
 
 Spikenard. 
 
 account of the valuable extract or per- 
 fume obtained from its roots, which was 
 used in the ancient baths and at feasts. 
 It is highly esteemed in the East as a 
 perfume, and is used to scent oil and 
 unguents. 
 
 SPIKING, the operation of driving a 
 nail or spike into the touchhole of a 
 cannon so as to make it unserviceable. 
 When the spiking was intended to be 
 only temporary a spring spike was used, 
 which was afterward released by the 
 stroke of a hammer. In other cases a 
 new touchhole required to be drilled. 
 
 SPIN'AGE, SPIN'ACH, a genus of 
 plants. There is only one species, well- 
 known on account of its use in the 
 kitchen. It is eaten sometimes in salads, 
 but more frequently cooked in various 
 ways. It is wholesome and agreeable, 
 but contains little nutriment. 
 
 SPINAL CORD, the name given in 
 anatomy to the great cord or rod of 
 nervous matter which is inclosed within 
 the backbone or spine of vertebrates. 
 The spinal cord in man, which is from 
 15 to 18 inches long, has direct connec- 
 tion with the brain by means of the 
 medulla oblongata, and passes down 
 the back until it terminates in a fine 
 thread at the level of the first lumbar 
 vertebra. Lodged in the bony vertebrae 
 it varies in thickness throughout, and 
 like the brain is invested by membranes 
 called respectively pia mater and dura 
 mater. Situated between these two are 
 the delicate layers of the arachnoid 
 membrane, inclosing a space which con- 
 tains the cerebro-spinal fluid. Besides 
 these protective coverings there is also 
 a packing of fatty tissue which further 
 tends to diminish all shocks and jars. 
 The spinal nerves, to the number of 
 thirty-one on each side, pass out from 
 the cord at regular intervals, pierce the 
 dura mater, escape from the backbone, 
 and ramify thence through the soft parts 
 of the body. Eight pairs pass off in the 
 region of the neck called the cervical 
 nerves, twelve pairs are dorsal, five are 
 lumbar, and five sacral, while the last 
 pair comes off behind the coccyx. In its 
 structure the spinal chord consists of 
 gray and white matter. The gray mat- 
 ter, which is characterized by large cells, 
 is gathered inthecenterinto twocrescent 
 shaped masses connected at the central 
 part of the cord. The white matter, 
 consisting mainly of fibres, is outside 
 of and surrounds these gray crescents. 
 In its functions the spinal cord forms 
 a tract along which sensory impressions 
 may pass to the brain, and along which 
 motor impulses may travel to the 
 muscles. It is besides a great reflex 
 center. See Brain, Nerve, and Spine. 
 
 SPINE, the term applied to the back- 
 bone of a vertebrated animal, and so 
 called from the thorn-like processes of 
 the vertebrae. The human vertebral 
 column is composed, in the child, of 
 thirty-three separate pieces, but in the 
 adult the number is only twenty-six, 
 several pieces having become blended 
 together. These separate bones are 
 arranged one on the top of the other, 
 with a layer of gristle between each 
 which helps to unite them, while this 
 union is completed by partially movable 
 joints and strong fibrous lig^ents. 
 The first seven vertebrae, which are 
 called cervical, occupy the region of the 
 neck; twelve form the supports from 
 which spring the ribs, and constitute 
 the main portion of the back, being 
 accordingly called dorsal; five in “the 
 small of the back” are denominated 
 lumbar; five pieces follow which, in the 
 adult, unite to form the sacrum; and 
 four which unite to form the coccyx. 
 The vertebral column so arranged pre- 
 sents two forw’ard curves, the first in 
 the neck; the second at the lower part 
 of the back; and two corresponding 
 backward curves. The vertebr® differ 
 in form according as they belong to the 
 cervical, dorsal, or lumbar region, but 
 they have all certain characteristics in 
 common. Each possesses what is called 
 a body, an arch which incloses a ring, 
 and various projections and notches 
 ^ means of which the bones are articulated 
 
SPINE 
 
 SPIRIT LEVEL 
 
 When the vertebra are in position the 
 rings are all situated one above the 
 other, and so form a cavity or canal m 
 which lies the protected spinal cord 
 (which see). The disease to which this 
 bony structure is most liable is called 
 angular curvature of the spine. Be- 
 ginning with inflammation it goes on to 
 ulceration (caries), until one or more of 
 the vertebrae becomes soft and breaks 
 down. The result of this is that the 
 vertebral are crushed together, the back- 
 bone bent, and a projection or hump 
 gradually formed behind. The modern 
 method of treatment is to apply to the 
 patient’s body, from the hips to the 
 arm-pits, a continuous bandage of 
 plaster of Paris, which affords to the 
 back a close-fitting support. Lateral 
 curvature of the spine, unlike the former 
 
 1 Atlas, or vertebra supporting the head 
 2, Cervical vertebra. 3, Dorsal yertebr^ 4 
 Lumbar vertebra, o, Body, b. Ring, c, Obli 
 one or articuiar process, Transverse proc 
 ess. «, Spinous process. 
 
 is not so much due to disease of the 
 column as to a relaxed condition of the 
 body. It is most liable to attack young 
 rapidly-growing persons between the 
 ages of ten and fifteen. Treatment 
 by plaster-of-Paris bandage may be 
 necessary; but strengthening food 
 regular, moderate exercise, and cold 
 bathing may prove sufficient to effect a 
 cure. 
 
 SPINE, in botany, a sharp process 
 from the woody part of a plant. It 
 differs from a prickle, which proceeds 
 from the bark. A spine sometimes ter- 
 minates a branch, and sometimes is 
 axillary, growing at an angle formed 
 bjf the branch or leaf with the stem. 
 The wild apple and pear are armed with 
 spines; the rose, bramble, gooseberry, 
 etc., are armed wit.h prickles. 
 
 SPIN'ET, an old stringed instrument 
 with a keyboard for the fingers, some- 
 what similar to the harpsichord but 
 smaller in size, one of the precursors of 
 the piano. The strings, which were 
 placed at an angle with the keys, were 
 sounded by means of crow-quill plectra 
 sttsidiod 
 
 SPINNING is the art of twisting a 
 thread from wool, flax, cotton, or other 
 such material. From remote times this 
 process was accomplished by means of a 
 distaff round which the wool or other 
 fiber to be spun was coiled, and a spindle 
 or round stick tapering at each end and 
 with a notch for fixing the yarn or 
 thread at the upper end as the spinning 
 went on. The spindle was twirled round, 
 for the purpose of twisting the thread, 
 generally by a movement against the 
 
 right leg, and while the left hand of the 
 spinner guided and supplied the fiber, 
 the right hand fashioned it into a thread 
 between finger and thumb, dhe earliest 
 improvement on this method was to 
 fix the spindle horizontally in a frame 
 and cause it to revolve rapidly by means 
 of a band passed round a large wheel. 
 .\t a later period a treadle motion was 
 added, and the spinner’s hands were 
 left free (see Spinning-wheel); while a 
 further improvement was effected by 
 the introduction of a double spindle- 
 wheel, with twisting arms on the 
 spindles. This was the spinning im- 
 plement which obtained until the in- 
 vention about 1767, of the spinning 
 jenny. 
 
 SPINNING JENNY, the name given 
 to the first spinning-machine by means 
 of which a number of threads could be 
 spun at once. It was invented about 
 1767 by James Hargreaves, a Lanca- 
 shire weaver, and consisted of a num- 
 ber of spindles turned by a common 
 wheel or cylinder worked by hand. 
 
 SPINNING WHEEL, a machine for 
 spinning wool, cotton, or flax into 
 threads by the hand. It consists of a 
 wheel, band, and spindle, has a distaff 
 attached, and is driven by foot or by 
 hand, usually the fonner, a treadle being 
 employed. Before the introduction of 
 machinery for spinning there were two 
 kinds of spinning wheels in common use, 
 the large wheel for spinning wool and 
 cotton, and the small or Saxon wheel 
 for spinning flax. 
 
 SPINO'ZA, Baruch, or as he after 
 ward called himself, Benedict de Spinoza 
 was born in 1632, died in 1677. He 
 was trained in Talmudic and other 
 Hebrew lore, acquired a knowledge 
 of Latin, came under the influence 
 of the new philosophic teaching of 
 Descartes; ceased to attend the syna- 
 gogue, and was expelled from the 
 Israelitish community; fled from Am- 
 sterdam to the suburbs to escape 
 the enmity of the fanatical Jews; re- 
 moved from thence, after five years 
 seclusion, to Rynsburg, where he lived 
 until 1663; subsequently went to Voor- 
 burg; and ultimately (1671) settled in 
 The Hague, where he died. He pub- 
 lished anonymously in 1670 under the 
 title of Tractatus Theologico-Politicus 
 
 in Holland. Such, indeed, was the storm 
 which this treatise occasioned that the 
 author himself published nothing fur- 
 ther. After his death all his unpub- 
 lished writings were conveyed to Am- 
 sterdam, and there the Opera Posthuma 
 was published (1677). In the Ethics, 
 therein included, his system ot phil- 
 osophy was developed; each of its five 
 books being dignified by a series of 
 axioms and definitions after the method 
 of Euclid in his geometry. In all there 
 are twenty-seven definitions, twenty 
 axioms, and eight postulates; and the 
 central conception of the whole system 
 i.s, that God who is the inherent cause 
 of the universe, is one absolutely in- 
 finite substance, of which all the several 
 parts which we recognize are but finite 
 expressions; that man, being but a part 
 of this greater whole, has neither a 
 separate existence nor a self-determin- 
 ing will ; but that he can, by means of 
 knowledge and love, so far control his 
 passions as to enter into the joy which 
 springs from this idea of an all-embrac- 
 ing God. 
 
 SPIRAL VESSELS, in vegetable 
 anatomy, fine transparent menibranous 
 tubes, with one or more spiral fibers 
 coiled up in their interior. They are 
 generally present among the other ves- 
 sels of plants, and in trees are found 
 chiefly in the medullary sheath sur- 
 rounding the pith. The fiber may be 
 single or double, or it may be composed 
 of numerous threads. Their function is 
 
 and, because it put forth a strong plea 
 for liberty of speech in philosophy, it 
 was placed on the Index by the Cath- 
 olics, and condemned by the authorities 
 
 Spiral vessels of Rhubarb, with cell tissue on 
 each side— highly magnified. 
 
 supposed to be that of the conveyance 
 of air. They are easily discovered on 
 breaking asunder the leaves and stalks 
 of many plants, when the fibers may 
 be unrolled, and present themselves 
 as delicate filaments like the threads 
 of a cobweb. 
 
 SPIRIT, immaterial intelligence, in- 
 telligence conceived of as apart from 
 any physical or corporeal embodiment, 
 or an intelligent being so existing apart ; 
 also applied to the soul, to a disem- 
 bodied soul, a specter, etc. 
 
 SPIRIT, Spirits. See Alcohol. 
 
 SPIRIT LEVEL, an instrument em- 
 ployed for determining a line or plane 
 parallel to the horizon, and also the 
 relative heights of ground at two or 
 more stations. It consists of a tube of 
 class nearly filled with spirit of wine, 
 and hermetically sealed at both ends, 
 so that when held with its axis m a 
 horizontal position the bubble of air 
 which occupies the part not filled with 
 the liquid rises to the upper surface and 
 stands exactly in the middle of the tube. 
 The tube is placed within a brass or 
 ^ wooden case, which is laid on the surface 
 
r 
 
 SPIRITUALISM 
 
 SPONGE 
 
 to be tested, and the slightest deviation 
 from the horizontal is indicated by the 
 bubble rising toward the higher end of 
 the tube. 
 
 SPIRITUALISM, is the term used in 
 philosophy to indicate the opposite of 
 materialism, but is now also specifically 
 applied to the belief that communica- 
 tion can be held with departed spirits 
 by means of rappings or noises, writings, 
 visible manifestations, etc. The belief 
 in such manifestations has long ob- 
 tained, but in its limited and modern 
 form spiritualism dates from the year 
 1848. In this year a Mr. and Mrs. Fox, 
 who lived with their two daughters at 
 Hydeville, New York, were disturbed by 
 repeated and inexplicable rappings 
 throughout the house. At length it was 
 accidentally discovered by one of the 
 daughters that the unseen “rapper” 
 was so intelligent as to be able to reply 
 to various pertinent questions, and so 
 communicative as to declare that he was 
 the spirit of a murdered pedlar. When 
 this discovery was noised abroad a be- 
 lief that intercourse could be obtained 
 with the spirit-world became epidemic, 
 and numerous “spirit-circles” were 
 formed in various parts of America. 
 The manifestations thus said to be got 
 from the spirits were rappings, table- 
 turnings, musical sounds, writings, the 
 unseen raising of heavy bodies, etc. 
 Part of the peculiarity of these phe- 
 nomena was that they were always more 
 or less associated with the medium, who 
 was supposed to have an organization 
 sensitively fitted to communicate with 
 the spirit-world. In America the be- 
 lievers in spiritualism are very numerous 
 and have many newspapers, magazines, 
 and books to explain and enforce their 
 belief. The investigations of the Psy- 
 chical society, seem to show that there 
 are forces connected with hypnotism 
 and its kindred phenomena which may 
 explain the occult occurrences of spirit- 
 ualism on natural, though hitherto, little 
 known laws. The literature on the sub- 
 ject is extensive. 
 
 SPIROM'ETER, a contrivance for de- 
 termining the capacity of the human 
 lungs. The instrument most commonly 
 employed consists of an inverted cham- 
 ber submerged in a water-bath. The 
 breath is conducted by a flexible pipe 
 and internal tube, so as to collect in the 
 chamber, which rises in the water, and 
 is fitted with an index which marks the 
 cubic inches of air expired after a forced 
 inspiration. 
 
 SPIR'ULA, a genus of cuttlefishes or 
 cephalopods, comprising only three 
 known species, so named from their 
 very delicate shell being rolled into a 
 spiral form. The shells are very numer- 
 
 1, Spirula australis. 2, Its shell. 
 
 ous on the shores of New Zealand, but 
 the animal forming them is extremely 
 rare, being seldom found except in a 
 fragmentary state, 
 
 SPITZBER'GEN, a group of three 
 large and several small islands in the 
 Arctic ocean. Very little is known of 
 their interior, but the coasts have been 
 repeatedly explored, and present im- 
 mense glaciers and mountain chains, 
 some of which exceed 4000 feet in 
 height. The climate is intensely cold; 
 and vegetation is confined to a few 
 plants of rapid growth. For four months 
 in winter the sun is below the horizon, 
 and for an equal period in summer the 
 sun is always above the horizon. The 
 larger forms of animal life are foxes, 
 bears, and reindeer, while sea fowl are 
 numerous. The minerals are known to 
 include marble and good coal. 
 
 SPLEEN, The, in man, is the chief of 
 the ductless or blood glands, and its 
 action is supposed to affect the quality of 
 the blood. This gland, which in man is 
 situated in the belly to the left side of 
 the stomach, is an elongated, flattened 
 structure about 5 inches in length, 3 
 inches broad, and 7 ounces in weight. 
 Its supply of blood is received directly 
 from the aorta by means of the splenic 
 artery, and, after passing through the 
 organ, is carried off by the splenic vein 
 which joins the portal vein. It is com- 
 posed of a fibrous tissue divided into an 
 irregular net-work of spaces which con- 
 tain the spleen pulp. This pulp con- 
 sists of masses of round white corpuscles, 
 some larger and some smaller, which are 
 called the Malpighian bodies of the 
 spleen. Through each one of these 
 cellular masses there passes a branch 
 from the splenic artery, and in this way 
 the blood filters through the pulp as 
 though it were a sponge, and is then 
 collected by the veins. The function of 
 the spleen is not clearly known, but it is 
 supposed that the active cells of the 
 pulp either remove old red cells from, 
 or add new white cells to, the blood 
 current in its passage through the organ. 
 The ancients supposed the spleen to be 
 the seat of melancholy, anger, or vexa- 
 tion, and of evil humors generally. 
 
 SPLICING, the union or joining to- 
 gether of two ropes or parts of a rope by 
 a particular manner of interweaving 
 part of the untwisted strands. The long 
 splice occupies a great extent of rope, 
 but by the three joinings being fixed at 
 a distance from one another, the increase 
 
 Splices of ropes. 
 
 a. Short splice, b. Long splice, c, Eye splice. 
 
 of bulk is diminished, hence it is adapted 
 to run through the sheave-hole of a 
 block, etc. The short splice is used upon 
 ropes not intended to run through 
 blocks, and the eye splice forms a sort of 
 eye or circle at the end of a rope. 
 
 SPLINT, in surgery, a thin piece of 
 wood, or other substance, used to hold 
 or confine a broken bone when set, or to 
 maintain any part of the body in a fixed 
 position, A plaster-of-Paris splint is 
 
 made by charging a bandage of muslin 
 or other open material with plaster of 
 Paris, and washing over each layer with 
 water. The plaster hardens rapidly. 
 
 SPLINT BONE, one of the two small 
 bones extending from the knee to the 
 fetlock of a horse, behind the canon or 
 shank bone. 
 
 SPOF'FORD, Ainsworth Rand, Ameri- 
 can librarian, born at Gilmanton, N. H., 
 in 1825. From 1864 to 1899 he was 
 librarian in chief of the congressional 
 library, and became known for excep- 
 tional knowledge of books. He edited 
 with others a Library of Choice Litera- 
 ture (10 vols., 1881-88), and a Practical 
 Manual of Parliamentary Rules (1884). 
 He published The American Almanack 
 and Treasury of Facts, Statistical, Finan- 
 cial, and Political, and a work on the 
 collection and preservation of books and 
 founding of libraries. He died in 1908. 
 
 SPOFFORD, Harriet Elizabeth (Pres- 
 cott), an American novelist, born at 
 Calais, Me., in 1835. She first attracted 
 •attention in 1859 by a story of Parisian 
 life. In a Cellar, printed in the Atlantic 
 Monthly. Some of her later books are 
 New England Legends, Art Decoration 
 Applied to Furniture, Marquis of Cara- 
 bas. Poems, Scarlet Poppy and Other 
 Stories, In Titian’s Garden and Other 
 Poems. Four Days of God, etc. 
 
 SPOKANE, (spo-kan'), the county 
 seat of Spokane co.. Wash., 450 miles 
 east of Puget sound, on the Spokane 
 river and on the Northern Pacific rail- 
 way, the Great Northern railway, the 
 Oregon Railroad and Navigation com- 
 pany, and several local branch lines. 
 Fort Wright, a large United States army 
 post, is situated on the river just outside 
 the city. Spokane is the mining center 
 of the Pacific northwest for gold, silver, 
 copper, and lead. Pop. 42,761. 
 
 SPONGE, the name commonly given 
 to the animals of the class Porifera, a 
 class of organisms representing a dis- 
 tinct morphological type, intermediate 
 between the Protozoa and the Coelen- 
 terata. The typical members are com- 
 posed of two elements, an internal sup- 
 porting framework or skeleton, and a 
 soft gelatinous investing substance 
 called sarcode, or “flesh.” The frame- 
 work consists of horny, reticulated, elas- 
 tic fibers, which interlace in every direc- 
 tion, strengthened by calcareous, or, 
 more generally, by siliceous spicula. This 
 framework is the sponge of commerce. 
 The sponge flesh investing this frame- 
 work is composed of an aggregation of 
 organless, protoplasmic, and amcebiform 
 bodies, some ciliated and others capable 
 of emitting pseudopodia. A constant 
 circulation of water goes on in the living 
 sponge, and by this circulation the 
 animal is nourished. Reproduction 
 takes place both by gemmation and true 
 ova. In common usage the term sponge 
 is employed to designate the fibrous 
 framework of sponges as sold in our 
 shops. This framework is soft, light, 
 and porous, easily imbibing fluids, and 
 as readily giving them out again upon 
 compression. Sponges are usually pre- 
 pared before they come into the market, 
 by being beaten and soaked in dilute 
 muriatic acid, with a view to bleach 
 them and dissolve any adherent portions 
 of carbonate of lime, 
 
SPONTANEITY 
 
 SPRINGFIELD 
 
 SPONTANETTY, the doctrine that 
 there is a tendency, for the various 
 muscular movements called voluntary, 
 to begin without reference to any pur- 
 pose or end, being prompted simply by 
 the discharge of power from the brain, 
 and being entirely independent of the 
 stimulus of sensations. The great activ- 
 ity of young animals, as puppies and 
 kittens, after refreshment and repose, 
 is a good example of spontaneity. 
 
 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. See 
 Combustion (Spontaneous). 
 
 SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. See 
 Generation (Spontaneous). 
 
 SPOONBILL, the popular name of 
 birds belonging to the heron family from 
 the shape of the bill, which is somewhat 
 like a spoon, being curiously widened 
 out at the tip. They live in society in 
 wooded marshes, generally not far from 
 the mouths of rivers, and on the sea- 
 shore, The color is pure white, the 
 
 White spoonbill. 
 
 breast being yellow, with a naked patch 
 of skin on the throat ; the legs are black, 
 and the bill, which is about 8 inches in 
 length, is black, and yellow at the tip. 
 
 SPORADTC, applied to a disease 
 which occurs in single and scattered 
 cases as distinct from epidemic and 
 endemic, when many persons are 
 affected. 
 
 SPORIDTUM, in botany, a name 
 given to the spores of fungi and lichens 
 when they are contained in asci or little 
 sacs. Sporidia, like spores, may consist 
 of one or more cells, and these may be 
 
 a a. 
 
 Sporidia. 
 
 covered with a distinctly organized 
 cuticle, as in many truffles. In the figure 
 a shows asci and sporidia of a species of 
 Peziza, b sporidium. 
 
 SPRAIN, the violent straining or 
 twisting of the ligaments and tendons 
 which form the soft parts surrounding 
 a joint. The ordinary consequence of a 
 sprain is to produce some degree of 
 swelling and inflammation in the in- 
 jured part. The best treatment is to 
 give the limb perfect rest, by means of 
 splints or otherwise, and to foment the 
 part for an hour or two with warm water. 
 If the inflammation increases leeches 
 should be applied. When this has passed 
 
 the joints should be gently rubbed with 
 a liniment of soap and opium. The joint 
 often remains weak and faint for a length 
 of time, and too great caution cannot 
 be observed in bringing it again into use. 
 
 SPRAT, a small fish of the herring 
 family. At one time the sprat was 
 thought to be the young of the herring, 
 pilchard, or shad; but it can be easily 
 distinguished from the young of either 
 of these fishes by means of the sharply- 
 notched edge of the abdomen, the ven- 
 tral fins beginning beneath the first ray 
 of the dorsal fin, and by the want of 
 axillary scales to the ventral fins. 
 
 SPRING, one of the four seasons of 
 the year. For the northern hemisphere 
 the spring season commences when the 
 sun enters Aries, or about the 21st of 
 March, and ends at the time of the sum- 
 mer solstice, or about the 22d of June. 
 In common language, spring is usually 
 regained as commencing with March 
 and ending with May. In the southern 
 hemisphere the astronomical spring 
 begins September 23, and ends Decem- 
 ber 21. 
 
 SPRING, an outflow of water from the 
 earth, or a stream of water at the place 
 of its source. Springs have their origin 
 in the water which falls upon the earth 
 in the form of rain or snow, and sinks 
 through porous soils till it arrives at a 
 stratum impervious to water, where it 
 forms subterranean reservoirs at various 
 depths. When the pressure of the water 
 which fills the channels through which 
 it has descended is sufficient to over- 
 come the resistance of the superincum- 
 bent mass of earth, the water breaks 
 through the superficial strata and 
 gushes forth in a spring; or it may find 
 some natural channel or crevice by 
 ■^hich to issue. In descending and rising 
 through various mineral masses the 
 water of springs often becomes mipreg- 
 nated with gaseous, saline, earthy, or 
 metallic admixtures, as carbonic acid 
 gas, sulphuretted hydrogen gas, nitro- 
 gen, carbonate of lime, silica, carbonate 
 of iron, etc. When these substances are 
 present in considerable quantity the 
 springs become what are known as 
 mineral springs. Warm and hot springs 
 are common, especially in volcanic coun- 
 tries, where they are sometimes distin- 
 guished by violent ebullitions. (See 
 Geysers.) Some springs run for a time 
 and then stop altogether, and after a 
 time run again, and again stop; these 
 are called intermittent springs. Others 
 do not cease to flow, but only discharge 
 a much smaller quantity of water ror a 
 certain time, and then give out a greater 
 quantity; these are called variable 
 springs. 
 
 SPMNG, an elastic body, the elasticity 
 of which is made practically available. 
 Springs are made of various materials, 
 as a strip or wire of steel coiled spirally, 
 a steel rod or plate, strips of steel, suit- 
 ably joined together, a mass or strip of 
 india-rubber, etc., which, when bent or 
 forced from its natural state, has the 
 power of recovering it again in virtue of 
 its elasticity. Springs are used for vari- 
 ous purposes — diminishing concussion, 
 as in carriages; for motive power, acting 
 through the tendency of a metallic coil 
 to unwind itself, as in clocks and watches 
 or to communicate motion by sudden 
 
 release from a state of tension, as the 
 spring of a gun-lock, etc.; others are 
 employed to measure weight and other 
 force, as in the spring-balance, as regu- 
 lators to control the movement of wheel- 
 works, etc. 
 
 SPRING BALANCE, a contrivance for 
 determining the weight of any article by 
 observing the amount of deflection or 
 compression which it produces upon a 
 spiral steel spring properly adjusted and 
 fitted with an index working agaicet a 
 graduated scale. See Balance. 
 
 SPRINGBOK, Springboc, a species 
 of antelope nearly allied to the gazelle, 
 found in vast herds in South Africa, 
 and used as food by the colonists. It is a 
 very beautiful animal, of graceful form 
 and fine colors — fulvous brown on the 
 upper parts, pure white beneath, with 
 a broad band of deep vinous red where 
 
 Springbok. 
 
 the colors meet on the flanks. It is 
 larger than the roebuck, and its neck 
 and limbs much longer and more deli- 
 cate. The horns curve in a lyre-shape, 
 and are small in the female. It receives 
 its name from its singular habit of leap- 
 ing perpendicularly to the height of 
 
 SPRINGFIELD, a city, capital of 
 Hampden co., Massachusetts, situated 
 on the left bank of the Connecticut, here 
 navigable, about 98 miles west by south 
 from Boston. It contains many fine 
 churches and other buildings, and the 
 streets are wide and planted with shade 
 trees. Here is the United States armory, 
 in which large numbers of rifles are 
 manufactured, and there is also a gov- 
 ernment arsenal capable of storing 
 300,000 stand of arms. The water-power 
 furnished by Mill river has developed 
 various industries, such as iron-works, 
 machine-shops, paper, cotton, and other 
 mills, and railway-car manufacturing. 
 Pop. 1909, estimated at 82,000. 
 
 SPRINGFIELD, the capital of Illinois, 
 and seat of justice for Sangamon co.,96 
 miles n.n.e. of St. Louis. Its public 
 edifices include a state-house or capitol, 
 a large and imposing building in the 
 classic style with a dome 320 feet high; 
 a courthouse and post-office building, 
 and the national monument to Abraham 
 Lincoln, who is buried here, an obelisk 
 nearly 100 feet high. Among the manu- 
 facturing establishments are wooleo 
 
SPRINGFIELD 
 
 SQUILL 
 
 mills, rolling-mills, foundries, and there 
 are coal-mines in the neighborhood. 
 Pop. 1909. estimated at 68,000. 
 
 State-house, Springfield, 111. 
 
 SPRINGFIELD, a city, capital of 
 Clarke co., Ohio, on the east fork of Mad 
 river, 43 miles west by south of Colum- 
 bus. It has a courthouse and other 
 public buildings, numerous mills and 
 manufacturing establishments (espe- 
 cially for agricultural implements and 
 machines, including reapers and 
 mowers), and an extensive trade. Pop. 
 1909, estimated at 60,000. 
 
 SPRINGFIELD, the capital of Greene 
 co., Missouri, on the summit of the 
 Ozark mountains, in the midst of rich 
 lead and zinc mines. Pop. 25,217. 
 
 SPRINGTIDE, the tide which hap- 
 pens at or soon after the new and full 
 moon, which rises higher than common 
 tides. At these times the sun and moon 
 are in a straight line with the earth, and 
 their combined influence in raising the 
 waters of the ocean is the greatest, con- 
 sequently the tides thus produced are 
 the highest. See Tide. 
 
 SPRIT, a small boom, pole, or spar 
 which crosses the sail of a boat diago- 
 nally from the mast to the upper aft- 
 most corner, which it is used to extend 
 and elevate. Such a sail is called a sprit 
 sail. The same name was fonherly given 
 to a sail attached to a yard under the 
 bowsprit of large vessels. 
 
 SPRUCE, the name given to several 
 species of trees. The Norway spruce-fir 
 yields the valuable timber known under 
 the name of white or Christiania deal. 
 It is a native of great part of Northern 
 Europe and is a noble tree of conical 
 habit of growth, reaching sometimes the 
 height of 150 feet. The white spruce and 
 the black spruce-fir are natives of North 
 America. The latter attains the height 
 of 70 or 80 feet, with a diameter of from 
 15 to 20 inches. Its timber is of great 
 value on account of its strength, light- 
 ness, and elasticity, and is often em- 
 ployed for the yards of ships and the 
 sides of ladders. From the young shoots 
 is extracted the essence of spruce, a de- 
 coction used in making spruce beer. 
 The hemlock spruce-fir is a noble species, 
 rising to the height of 70 or 80 feet, and 
 measuring from 2 to 3 feet in diameter. 
 It grows abundantly over great paid of 
 Canada and part of the United States. 
 The wood is employed for laths, fences, 
 coarse indoor work, etc. The bark is 
 exceedingly valuable for tanning. Doug- 
 las’ spruce or fir, of Northwestern' 
 
 America, reaches a height of 100 to 180 
 feet in its native forests. 
 
 SPUR, an instrument having a rowel 
 or small wheel with sharp points, worn 
 on a horseman’s heel, and used for goad- 
 ing the horse. In early times it took the 
 simple form of a sharp-pointed goad, the 
 rowel first appearing in the end of the 
 
 Ancient spurs. 
 
 a, Frankish spur (10th cent.). 6, Brass spur 
 (timeof Henry IV.). c. Long-spiked rowel spur 
 (time of Edward IV.). d. Long-necked brass 
 spur (time of Henry VII. I . e. Steel spur (time 
 of Henry VIII.). 
 
 13th century. Spurs were especially the 
 badge of knighthood. Hence, to win 
 one’s spurs, was to become a knight, 
 and the prhase is now used to indicate 
 the achievements of distinction in one’s 
 profession. 
 
 SPURGEON (spur'jn). Rev. Charles 
 Haddon, was born at Kelvedon, Essex, 
 in 1834; accepted the pastorate of a 
 small Baptist congregation at Water- 
 beach while be was only eighteen; re- 
 moved from thence in 1853 to a chapel 
 in New Park Street, Southwark, which, 
 becoming too small for his audience, 
 required him to engage the Surrey music 
 hall, and ultimately to build, in 1861, 
 the well-known Metropolitan taber- 
 nacle. He died in 1892. He wrote 
 numerous volumes, of which the best- 
 known are The Saint and his Savior, 
 John Ploughman’s Talk, The Metropoli- 
 tan Tabernacle, Farm Sermons, Storm 
 Signals, and he edited the monthly 
 magazine Sword and Trowel. 
 
 SPY, a secret emissary sent into the 
 enemy’s camp or territory to inspect 
 their works, ascertain their strength and 
 their intentions, to watch their move- 
 ments, and report thereon to the proper 
 officer. By the laws of war among all 
 civilized nations a spy is subjected to 
 capital punishment. 
 
 SQUAD, a small body of troops as- 
 sembled for drill, inspection, or other 
 purposes. The awkward squad is com- 
 posed of those recruits who have not 
 received sufficient training to take part 
 in regimental drill. 
 
 SQUADRON, the principal division of 
 a regiment of cavalry. The actual 
 strength of a squadron varies with that 
 of the component troops, but it ranges 
 from 120 to 200 sabers. A squadron is 
 divided into tw6 troops, each of which 
 is commanded by its captain. Each 
 regiment of cavalry consists of three or 
 four squadrons. The term is applied also 
 to a division of a fleet, being a detach- 
 ment of ships of war employed on a 
 particular service or station, and under 
 the command of a commodore or junior 
 flag-officer. 
 
 SQUARE, in geometry, a quadrilateral 
 
 figure, both equilateral and equiangular, 
 or, in other words, a figure with four 
 equal sides and equal angles. In measur- 
 ing superficial areas it is only necessary 
 to multiply one side by itself to have 
 the area of the square, because each of 
 the sides may be considered as the basis 
 or as the perpendicular height. Thus a 
 square the sides of which measure 4 feet 
 is equal to 16 square feet, that is, sixteen 
 squares each 1 foot high and 1 foot long. 
 To square a figure (for example a poly- 
 gon) is to reduce the surface to a square 
 of equivalent area by mathematical 
 means. It has often been attempted to 
 square the circle, but this cannot be 
 done. In arithmetic and algebra the 
 square of a number is the number or 
 quantity produced by multiplying a 
 number or quantity by itself. Thus 64 
 is the square of 8, for 8X8= 64. 
 
 SQUARE, in military tactics, a body 
 of infantry formed into a rectangular 
 figure with several ranks or rows of men 
 facing on each side, with officers, colors, 
 etc., in the center. The front rank kneels, 
 the second and third stoop, and the re- 
 maining ranks (generally two) stand. 
 This formation is usually employed to 
 resist a cavalry charge. Hollow squares 
 are frequently formed with the faces 
 fronting inwards when orders and in- 
 structions, etc., are to be read, and the 
 like. 
 
 SQUARE-RIGGED, a term applied to 
 a vessel carrying Chiefly square sails, 
 that is, whose principal sails are ex- 
 tended by yards suspended by the 
 middle, and not by stays, gaffs, booms, 
 and lateen yards. Thus a ship and a 
 brig are square-rigged vessels. 
 
 SQUARE ROOT. See Root. 
 
 SQUARE-SAIL. See Square-rigged. 
 
 SQUASH, a plant cultivated ini^erica 
 as an article of food. The name is also 
 given to other ^ecies. See Gourd. 
 
 SQUASH-BUG, a name given in North 
 America to several hemipterous insects, 
 best known as destroyers of squash, 
 pumpkin, and other plants. 
 
 SQUATTER SOVEREIGNTY. See 
 Popular Sovereignty. 
 
 SQUATTER, a person that settles on 
 a piece of land, particularly on public 
 land, without a title. In Australia the 
 term is also applied to one who occupies 
 an unsettled tract of land as a sheep- 
 farm under lease from government at a 
 nominal rent. 
 
 SQUID, a popular name of certain 
 cuttlefishes belonging to the dibranch- 
 iate group of the class Cephalopoda, and 
 included in several genera, of which the 
 most familiar is that of the calamaries. 
 See Calamary. 
 
 Squill. 
 
 SQUILL, a pLant nearly allied to the 
 hyacinths, onions, etc. The term squill 
 
SQUINCH 
 
 STAFFORD 
 
 is more particularly applied to the 
 officinal squill or sea-onion, which has 
 a large acrid bulbous root like an onion. 
 It is a native of the sandy shores of the 
 Mediterranean. The bulb has been 
 known as a medicine from the earliest 
 ages, and is still used as a diuretic and 
 expectorant. In large doses it causes 
 vomiting, purging, and may even prove 
 fatally poisonous. 
 
 SQUINCH, Sconce, in architecture, a 
 small pendentive arch (or several com- 
 
 Squinch, Maxstoke Priory, Warwickshire. 
 
 bined) formed across an angle, as in a 
 square tower to support the side of a 
 superimposed octagon. 
 
 SQUINT, in architecture, an oblique 
 opening passing through the wall of 
 many old churches, usually constructed 
 for the purpose of enabling a person in 
 the transepts or aisles to see the eleva- 
 tion of the host at the high altar. Gen- 
 erally they are not above a yard high 
 and 2 feet wide, but sometimes they 
 form narrow arches 10 or 12 feet in 
 height, as at Minster-Lovell, Oxford- 
 shire. The name hagioscope is some- 
 times applied to them. 
 
 SQUINTING, or STRABISMUS, a de- 
 fect of the eyes owing to which they 
 cannot both be brought to bear upon 
 the same object at once. It is usuall5r 
 due to one of the lateral muscles of the 
 teye having a longer pull than the other. 
 It may also arise from paralysis of one 
 muscle caused by a blow. There are 
 several kinds of squint, the two chief 
 being inward or convergent and out- 
 ward or divergent, the axes of the eyes 
 in the one case tending to meet, in the 
 other to separate. For persons so 
 affected, and especially children, it is 
 well not to look too long at small ob- 
 jects or read in ill-lighted rooms, and 
 glasses to correct the sight should be 
 obtained. It is also a good thing to have 
 the sound eye (when there is but one 
 squinting eye) bandaged up for a short 
 time each day. When these measures 
 fail the muscle can be lengthened by 
 means of a simple surgical operation. 
 
 SQUIRREL, a small rodent mammal 
 of the family Sciuridse. This family 
 comprehends three groups — the true 
 squirrels, the ground-squirrels, and the 
 flying-squirrels. The true squirrels are 
 distinguished by their strongly com- 
 
 f )ressed inferior incisors and by their 
 ong bushy tail. They have four toes 
 before and five behind. The thumb of 
 the fore-foot is sometimes marked by a 
 tubercle. They have in all four grinders 
 variously tuberculated, and a very small 
 additional one above in front, which 
 very soon falls In color they are usually 
 
 of a rich ruddy brown on the upper 
 parts, merging into reddish or grayish- 
 white on the under parts of the body, 
 but the fur varies with the season and 
 climate so that in winter it may be of 
 a gray appearance. The head is large, 
 and the eyes projecting and lively. 
 Several species are enumerated, as the 
 common squirrel, which inhabits Europe 
 and tlie north of Asia; while the cat 
 scjuirrel, gray squirrel, black squirrel, 
 red squirrel, and the great-tailed squirrel 
 are American species. The common 
 squirrel and several other species are 
 remarkably nimble, running up trees 
 and leaping from branch to branch with 
 surprising agility. They subsist on nuts, 
 acorns, seeds, etc., of '^hich they lay 
 up a store for winter, some of them in 
 
 Squirrel. 
 
 diollow trees, others in the earth. Their 
 nest, which consists of woody fiber, 
 leaves, and moss, is usually situated in 
 a fork of a tree, and the young, of which 
 there are three or four, are born in June. 
 When engaged in eating they sit on their 
 haunches with their tail thrown upward 
 on the back, grasp the eatables with 
 their fore-paws, and gnaw with their 
 powerful teeth. The fur of some of the 
 American species is an article of com- 
 merce. See also Ground Squirrel and 
 Flying Squirrel. 
 
 SQUIRREL MONKEY, a monkey in- 
 habiting Brazil, resembling in general 
 appearance and size the familiar squirrel. 
 A well-known species is colored grayish 
 olive, and under surface being gray, the 
 ears white, and the tail tipped with 
 
 SRINAGAR, a city, the capital of the 
 state of Cashmere, in the Western Hima- 
 layas, situated in the valley of Cashmere, 
 on both banks of the Jehlum. Fop. 
 122,536. 
 
 STAB AT MATER, the first words, and 
 hence the name, of a mediaeval hymn 
 still sung in the ecclesiastical service 
 of the Roman Catholic church during 
 Holy Week, and at the festival of the 
 Seven Dolours of the Virgin Mary. 
 
 STACCATO, in music, disconnected; 
 separated; a direction to perform the 
 notes of a passage in a crisp, detached, 
 distinct, or pointed manner. It is gen- 
 erally indicated by dots or dashes placed 
 over the notes, the dash implying the 
 strongest or most marked degree of 
 staccato or crispness. A certain amount 
 of time is subtracted from the nominal 
 value of any note performed staccato. 
 
 STADIUM, a Greek measure of 125 
 paces, or 625 Roman feet, equal to 606 
 feet 9 inches English; consequently the 
 Greek stadium was somewhat less than 
 our furlong. It was the principal Greek 
 measure of length. This term was also 
 applied to the course for foot-races at 
 Olympia in Greece, which was exactly a 
 stadium in length. The name was also 
 given to all other places throughout 
 Greece wherever games were celebrated. 
 
 STAEL-HOLSTEIN, Anne Louise Ger- 
 maine Necker, Baroness de, the only 
 child of Necker, Swiss banker and min- 
 ister of finance to Louis XVI., was born 
 in 1766, died 1817. In 1786 she pub- 
 lished Sophia, a comedy, and two trage- 
 dies entitled Lady Jane Grey, and Mont- 
 morency; while in this same year she 
 married Baron de Stael-Holstein, Swed- 
 ish ambassador at the French court. 
 In 1788 she printed her Lettres 
 sur les Ecrits et le Caractere de J. J. 
 Rousseau. During the Reign of Terror 
 she fled to Coppet (1792), her father’s 
 estate in Switzerland, after vainly en- 
 deavoring to save her friends and the 
 royal fan)ily. In 1793 she sought refuge 
 in England, where she published Reflec- 
 tions on the Trial of the Queen, and 
 Reflections on the Peace. During the 
 Directory Madame de Stael-Holstein 
 returned to Paris, where she again be- 
 came an influence in politics, and pub- 
 lished her essay on the Passions. Sub- 
 sequently she was banished by Napoleon 
 on account of her bold advocacy of lib- 
 eral views, and her wanderings through 
 Europe are described in her Ten Years of 
 Exile. Her other writings comprise 
 De la Litt4rature Consid6r4e dans ses 
 Rapports avec les Institutions Sociales; 
 Delphine (1802); Corinne ou I’ltalie 
 (1807), a novel in which Italian life and 
 scenery are exhibited with thorough 
 knowledge, her most popular work. 
 
 STAFF, a body of officers whose 
 duties refer to an army or regiment as 
 a whole, and who are not attached to 
 particular subdivisions. In the United 
 States this body is divided into the 
 military staff and the administrative 
 staff. The former is charged with the 
 more purely military duties, and com- 
 prises the chiefs of staff, the adjutants- 
 general, the inspectors-general, the chief 
 of artillery, the chief of cavalry, the 
 chief of engineers, the chief signal officer 
 the provost-marshal-general, and the 
 aides-de-camp. The administrative staff 
 is charged with the service of adminis- 
 tration and supply, and comprises the 
 judge advocate, the commissary of mus- 
 ters, the chief ordnance officers, the chief 
 quarter-masters, the chief commissaries, 
 the chief paymasters, and the medical 
 directors and their respective assistants. 
 
 STAFF, in music, the five parallel lines 
 and their intennediate spaces, on which 
 the notes, sharps, flats, and other musi- 
 cal characters are placed. See Music. 
 
 STAFFORD, a municipal and parlia- 
 mentary borough of England, the county 
 town of Staffordshire, situated on the 
 river Sow, about 130 miles n. w. of 
 London. The principal industries are the 
 making of boots and shoes, brewing, and 
 tanning. Since 1885 Stafford sends one 
 member to parliament, instead of two, 
 as formerly. Pop. 20,894. — The county 
 is one of the central counties of England, 
 
STAG 
 
 S'fANt'ORD 
 
 and is bounded by Cheshire, Derby- 
 shire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire, and 
 Shropshire; greatest length from north 
 to south, 50 miles; central breadth, 35 
 miles; area, 748,433 acres, or 1170 square 
 miles; The chief industries are coal- 
 mining, iron-ore mining, smelting, and 
 manufacturing, and North Staffordshire 
 is the chief center in the kingdom for 
 the various earthenware manufactures. 
 Pop. 1,234,382. 
 
 STAG, or RED DEER, a large and 
 handsome deer which is a native of 
 Europe and Northern Asia, and in 
 Britain is now found wild only in the 
 Highlands of Scotland. In smnmer the 
 back and flanks of the stag are of a 
 reddish-brown color, while these parts 
 in winter are gray-brown. A full-sized 
 male stag with antlers well developed 
 stands about 4 feet high at the shoulder, 
 and has horns 3 feet in length, while the 
 female is smaller and has no horns. 
 They feed on grass, buds and young 
 shoots of trees, and in winter they roam 
 in herds. The pairing season occurs in 
 August, and the calf is dropped in May. 
 The male is known distinctively as the 
 hart (or stag), the female as the hind. 
 The stag is represented in North 
 America by the wapiti, which is even 
 larger. See Wapiti. 
 
 STAG BEETLE, the common stag 
 bettle is one of the largest of insects, and 
 is especially distinguished by the enor- 
 
 Stag beetle. 
 
 mous size of the horny and toothed 
 mandibles in the males. 
 
 STAGECOACH. See Coach. 
 
 STAGGERS is the vague and popular 
 name of certain diseases of horses and 
 sheep. In the horse mad or sleepy 
 staggers is due to inflammation of the 
 brain, while grass or stomach staggers 
 arises from acute indigestion, generally 
 the result of overfeeding on wet grass. 
 In sheep the staggers is caused by the 
 presence within the brain of the im- 
 mature embryo of a species of tape- 
 wonn which, in its mature state, is found 
 in the intestines of the dog. 
 
 STAINED GLASS is glass painted with 
 metallic oxides or chlorides, ground up 
 with proper fluxes and fused into its 
 surface at a moderate heat. See Glass- 
 painting. 
 
 STALACTITES, masses of calcareous 
 matter, usually in a conical or cylindri- 
 cal form, pendent from the roofs of cav- 
 erns, and produced by the filtration 
 of water containing particles of carbon- 
 ate of lime through fissures and pores 
 of rocks. Similar masses of small size 
 are frequently to be seen also depending 
 from stone bridges. The water being 
 evaporated leaves a deposit of lime be- 
 hind it, which, by the continued trick- 
 ling of the water, gradually increases in 
 size. Simultaneously with the formation 
 
 of the stalactite a similar but upward 
 growth, called a stalagmite, takes place 
 at the spot vertically below where the 
 successive drops of water fall and 
 evaporate. This sometimes forma con- 
 
 cave with stalactites and stalagmites. 
 
 tinuous sheets over the surface, some- 
 times rises into columns, which meet 
 and blend with the stalactites above. 
 
 STAMBOUL. See Constantinople. 
 
 STAMENS, in botany, the male organs 
 of fructification in plants, formed prin- 
 cipally of cellular tissue. They are 
 situated immediately within the petals, 
 and are each composed, in most cases, 
 of three parts, the filament, the anther, 
 and the pollen (contained in the anther), 
 of which the two latter are essential, 
 the other not. The stamens and pistils 
 constitute the sexual or reproductive 
 organs of plants. Generally they both 
 exist in the same flower, which is thus 
 said to be hermaphrodite or perfect. 
 The number of stamens varies in differ- 
 ent plants, from one to a hundred or 
 more. With respect to their directions 
 they are named erect, inflexed, reflexed, 
 spreading, ascending, declinate; and 
 their insertions with regard to the ovary 
 are said to be hypogynous, epigynous, 
 or perigynous. It was on the number of 
 stamens and their arrangements and 
 
 Inside of corolla showing 
 the stamens. 
 
 relations, that Linnaeus founded the 
 classes of his sexual system of plants. 
 See Botany, Anther, Pollen. 
 
 STAMFORD, a town in Fairfield co , 
 Connecticut, near the mouth of the Mill 
 river, 36 miles northeast of New York, 
 for the inhabitants of which it is a 
 favorite summer resort. It has woolen 
 and iron manufactures, and a small 
 coasting trade. Pop. 17,306. 
 
 STAMMERING, an affection of the 
 faculty of speech characterized by 
 irregular, imperfect, or spasmodic ac- 
 tions of the muscles concerned in articu- 
 lation. It manifests itself in a difficulty 
 in beginning the enunciation of words, 
 especially such as begin with an explo- 
 sive consonant, or in a spasmodic and 
 for a tune an incontrollable reiteration 
 
 of the same syllables after the word is 
 begun ; this latter defect being also called 
 stuttering. Stammering is always in- 
 creased by emotional disturbance, and is 
 much mitigated and often cured, by the 
 patient acquiring confidence in himself, 
 never attempting to speak in a hurry or 
 when the chest is empty of air, or by 
 reading measured sentences slowly and 
 with deliberation. 
 
 STAMP, a term specifically applied 
 to the public mark or seal made by a 
 government or its officers upon paper 
 or parchment whereon private deeds 
 or other illegal agreements are written, 
 and for which certain charges are made 
 for purposes of revenue. The name 
 is also applied to a small piece of 
 stamped paper issued by government, 
 to be attached to a paper, letter, or 
 document liable to duty. 
 
 STAMP ACT, an act regulating the 
 imposition of stamp duties; especially, 
 an act passed by the British parliament 
 in 1765, imposing a duty on all paper, 
 vellum, and parchment used in Ameri- 
 can colonies, and declaring all writing 
 on unstamped materials to be null and 
 void. This act roused a general opposi- 
 tion in the colonies, and was one cause 
 of the revolution. 
 
 STANDARD, a flag or carved sym- 
 bolical figure, etc., erected on a long 
 pole or staff, serving as a rallying-point 
 or the like. In a more strict sense the 
 term is applied to a flag which bears the 
 arms, device, or motto of the owner, 
 long in proportion to its depth, tapering 
 toward the fly, and, except when belong- 
 ing to princes of the blood-royal, slit at 
 the end. 
 
 STANDARD OF MONEY, in coinage, 
 the proportion of weight of fine metal 
 and alloy established by authority. The 
 standard of gold coins in the United 
 States is at present 25.8 grains to the 
 dollar. The standard of silver coins is 
 412.5 grains to the dollar. The fineness 
 to be 9 parts of gold or silver to 1 of 
 alloy. 
 
 STANDING STONES, are large rough, 
 erect monoliths found not only in all 
 parts of Europe, but also in some coun- 
 tries of the East and even in the New 
 World, and nowhere more common than 
 in Great Britain. They sometimes occur 
 singly, sometimes in groups. The prin- 
 cipal purposes of the single standing 
 stones appear to have been to serve as 
 boundary-marks, as memorials of battle, 
 and as sepulchral monuments. The 
 groups of standing stones that exist in 
 various parts of Great Britain, as well 
 as in some parts of the continent, were 
 thought by antiquaries to be connected 
 with the Druidical worship of the Celts, 
 but, for want of sufficient evidence, this 
 theory has been abandoned. 
 
 STANDISH, Miles, born in Lancashire 
 about 1584, died 1656. He claimed to be 
 the descendant of the Standish family of 
 Duxbury HaU, served as a captain in the 
 Netherlands, and joined the Puritans 
 when they sailed for New England in the 
 Mayflower (1620). He took an active 
 part in the early struggles of the colony, 
 and a tradition regarding his courtship 
 is celebrated in a well-known poem by 
 Longfellow. 
 
 STANFORD, Leland, American capi- 
 talist, was born at Watervliet, N. Y., in 
 
STANISLAUS AUGUSTUS 
 
 STAR-APPLE 
 
 f 1824. He removed to California in 1852, 
 t and engaged in mining and commercial 
 ^ ventures. He was a delegate to the 
 ^ Chicago convention that nominated 
 f' Abraham Lincoln. In 1861 he was elected 
 ' governor of California; also president 
 - of the Central Pacific; to the construc- 
 tion of which he gave his personal atten- 
 tion. In 1885 and 1891 he was elected 
 to the United States senate. In 1886 
 
 the New York Herald be joined the 
 Abyssinian expedition of 1867-68. He 
 afterward traveled in Spain, and it was 
 while there in 1869 that he was asked by 
 the proprietor of the New York Herald 
 “to go and find Livingstone.” He met 
 and relieved the traveler at Lake Tan- 
 ganyika in November of the same year 
 and returned to England. As correspond- 
 ent of the Daily Telegraph and the New 
 
 Standing stones of Stennis, Pomona, Orkney. 
 
 i he donated the sum of $20,000,000 to 
 ^ the State of California for the purpose 
 , of founding the Leland Stanford Junior 
 ' University in memory of his son. See 
 LelandStanford Junior University. He 
 died in 1893. 
 
 STANISLAUS AUGUSTUS, Stanislaus 
 II., the last king of Poland, son of Count 
 Stanislaus Poniatowski, was born at 
 Wolczyn in^ Lithuania 1732, died 1798. 
 He protested against the various parti- 
 tions of Poland, formally resigned his 
 sovereignty in 1795, and finally died in 
 St. Petersburg as a pensioner of the 
 Emperor Paul I. 
 
 STANISLAUS LESZCZYNSKI Gesh- 
 chin'ski), Stanislaus I., King of Poland, 
 afterward Duke of Lorraine and Bar, 
 was born at Lemberg in 1677, died 1766. 
 He was recommended to the Warsaw 
 assembly by Charles XII. of Sweden as a 
 candidate for the vacant throne of 
 Poland. He was accordingly elected and 
 crowned (1705), but after the disastrous 
 battle of Poltava (1709), when his patron 
 Charles XII. was defeated, he had to 
 flee from Poland. He found refuge in 
 France ultimately, where his daughter 
 Maria became wife to Louis XV. As- 
 sisted by the French king he sought to 
 establish his claim to the throne of 
 Poland in 1733, but, opposed by. the 
 united powers of Saxony and Eussia, 
 he had again to retire into France, where 
 he held possession of the duchies of 
 Lorraine and Bar until his death. 
 
 STANLEY, Sir Henry Morton, born 
 near Denbigh, in 1840, was placed in the 
 poorhouse of St. Asaph at the age of 
 . three; subsequently in 1855 shipped as 
 cabin boy to New Orleans. Stanley 
 enlisted in the confederate army, where 
 he was taken prisoner, but after his dis- 
 charge he volunteered into the United 
 States navy. At the close of the war he 
 went to .Turkey as a newspaper corre- 
 spondent, and as war correspondent for 
 
 York Herald he in 1874 undertook an 
 expedition into Africa, and for the first 
 time traced the Congo river from the 
 interior to its mouth (1877). For the 
 purpose of developing this vast region 
 he rtturned in 1879, and after planting 
 stations and establishing steam naviga- 
 tion this territory secured by Stanley was 
 named in 1885 the Congo Free State. 
 
 Henry Morton Stanley (Jan. 1886). 
 
 He is the author of How I Found Living- 
 stone, Through the Dark Continent, 
 The Congo, and the Founding of its 
 Free State, and In Darkest Africa. He 
 was made G.C.B. in 1899. Died 1904. 
 
 STANLEY FALLS. See Congo Free 
 State. 
 
 STANTON, Edwin M’Masters, an 
 American statesman, was born at 
 Steubenville, Ohio, 1814; died at Wash- 
 ington 1869. He acquired a large prac- 
 tice in the supreme court at Washing- 
 ton, and when Buchanan was elected 
 
 P resident (1857) he entered the cabinet. 
 
 hortly after the outbreak of hostilities 
 between the north and the south. Presi- 
 dent Lincoln appointed him head of the 
 war department (January, 1862), and 
 his acceptance of the office marked the 
 beginning of a vigorous military policy. 
 
 He selected General Grant for promo- 
 tion after the victory at Fort Donelson; 
 and it was he who, in 1863, placed Grant 
 in supreme command of the three armies 
 operating in the southwest. In all the 
 important movements of the war 
 Stanton was consulted by the president. 
 After the assassination of Lincoln he 
 had some controversy with his successor, 
 Andrew Johnson, who demanded his 
 resignation. This he refused, and was 
 upheld by the senate. In 1869 he was 
 appointed justice of the supreme court, 
 but he died a few days afterward. 
 
 STANTON, Elizabeth (Cady), Ameri- 
 can reformer and promoter of the 
 woman’s rights movement, was born at 
 Johnstown, N. Y., in 1815. She became 
 interested in the anti-slavery and other 
 reform movements, and through ac- 
 quaintance with Lucretia Mott was led 
 to sign the call for the first woman’s 
 rights convention, which was in July, 
 1848. This convention made the first 
 formal demand for the extension of the 
 suflFrage to women, and of the National 
 Women’s Suffrage association there 
 formed Mrs. Stanton became the first 
 president, retaining that office until 
 1893. In 1868 she was a candidate for 
 congress. She was a frequent contributor 
 to magazines, and was joint author of 
 A History of Woman’s Suffrage. Eighty 
 Years and More, an autobiography, was 
 published in 1895. She died in 1902. 
 
 STANZA, in poetry, a number of lines 
 or verses connected with each other, 
 and properly ending in a full point or 
 pause. A stanza presents in meter, 
 rhymes, and the number of its lines a 
 combination which repeats itself several 
 times in the course of the same poem. 
 
 STAPE'LIA, an extensive and curious 
 genus of plants or milkweeds. Most of 
 the species are natives of the Cape of 
 Good Hope. They are succulent plants, 
 without leaves, frequently covered over 
 with dark tubercles, giving them a very 
 
 Stapella variegata. 
 
 grotesque appearance. In most in- 
 stances the flowers give off a very un- 
 pleasant odor. They are, nevertheless, 
 cultivated on account of their singular 
 and beautiful flowers. 
 
 STAPHYLO'MA, a name given to dif- 
 ferent tumors of the anterior surface of 
 the globe of the eye. Called also 
 staphylosis. 
 
 STAR, Polar. See Pole-star. There is 
 a Swedish order qf knighthood so named. 
 It is' bestowed specially on those who 
 have distinguished themselves in a 
 civil capacity. Its motto is, “Nescit 
 occasum.” 
 
 STAR-APPLE, the popular name of 
 several species of plants whose fruit is 
 esculent. It is a native of the West 
 
STARBOARD 
 
 STARVATION 
 
 Indies. The fruit resembles a large 
 apple, which in the inside is divided into 
 ten cells, each containing a black seed, 
 
 Star-apple. 
 
 surrounded by a gelatinous pulp, which 
 is very palatable. 
 
 STARBOARD, the right side of a ship 
 when the eye is directed toward the 
 head, stem, or prow. See Port. 
 
 STARCH, a proximate principle of 
 plants, universally diffused in the vege- 
 table kingdom, and of very great im- 
 portance. It occurs in seeds, as in those 
 of wheat and other cereal grains, and 
 also in leguminous plants; in roots, as 
 in the tubers of the potato; in the stem 
 and pith of many plants, as in the sago 
 plant; in some barks, as in that of cin- 
 namon; and in pulpy fruits, such as the 
 apple. Finally, it is contained in the 
 expressed juice of most vegetables, such 
 as the carrot, in a state of suspension, 
 being deposited on standing. The starch 
 of commerce is chiefly extracted from 
 wheat flour and potatoes. When pure, 
 starch is a snow-white powder of a glist- 
 tening appearance, which makes a 
 crackling noise when pressed with the 
 finger. It is composed of transparent 
 rounded grains, the size of which varies 
 in different plants, those of the potato 
 being among the largest, and those of 
 wheat and rice the smallest. It is in- 
 soluble in cold water, alcohol, and ether, 
 but when heated with water it is con- 
 verted into a kind of solution, which, on 
 cooling, forms a stiff semi-opaque jelly. 
 If dried up this yields a translucent 
 mass, which softens and swells into a 
 jelly with water. It is employed for 
 stiffening linen and other cloth. When 
 roasted at a moderate heat in an oven 
 it is converted into a species of gum 
 employed by calico-printers; potato 
 starch answers best for this purpose. 
 Starch is convertible into sugar by boil- 
 ing with dilute sulphuric acid. Starch 
 forms the greatest portion of all farina- 
 ceous substances, particularly of wheat 
 flour, and it is the chief ingredient of 
 
 bread. , 
 
 STAR-CHAMBER, formerly an Eng- 
 lish court of civil and criminal jurisdic- 
 tion at Westminster. It consisted origin- 
 ally of a committee of the privy-council, 
 and was remodeled during the reign of 
 Henry VII., when it consisted of four 
 high officers of state, with power to add 
 to their number a bishop and a temporal 
 lord of the council, and two justices of 
 the courts of Westminster. It had juris- 
 diction of forgery, perjury, riots, main- 
 tenance, fraud, libel, and conspiracy, 
 and could inflict any punishment short 
 of death. Its process was summary and 
 
 often iniquitous (especially in the reigns 
 of James I. and Charles I.), and the 
 punishment it inflicted often arbitrary 
 and cruel. This court was abolished 
 (1640) by statute 16 Charles I. 
 
 STAR-FISHES, the star-fishes proper 
 are covered with a tough leathery skin 
 beset with prickles, and have the form of 
 a star, with five or more rays radiating 
 from a central disc. In the middle of the 
 under surface of the disc is situated the 
 mouth, opening into a digestive system 
 which sends prolongations into each 
 ray. If the prickly skin be removed it 
 will be seen to be supported by a series 
 of plates beautifully jointed together. 
 On the under surface of each ray the 
 plates exhibit a series of perforations, 
 through which, in the living state, the 
 ambulacra or tubular feet can be pro- 
 truded so as to effect locomotion. Star- 
 fishes are found in almost all tropical 
 and European seas, and some species 
 are found as far north as Greenland. 
 
 STARLING, called also Stare, a 
 bird belonging to a family of birds 
 widely distributed throughout the world, 
 and allied to the crows. The common 
 starling is between 8 and 9 inches in 
 length; the color is blackish, with blue, 
 purplish, or cupreous reflections, and 
 each feather is marked at the extremity 
 with a whitish triangular speck, giving 
 
 y' 
 
 Common European starling. 
 
 the bird a speckled appearance. Star- 
 lings live mostly upon insects, build in 
 old walls and hollow trees, and the eggs, 
 usually five, are of a pale bluish tint. 
 These birds are often kept in cages, and 
 may be taught to whistle some tunes, 
 and even to pronounce words and sen- 
 tences. 
 
 STAR OF BETHLEHEM, a bulbous- 
 rooted plant with white star-like flowers. 
 It is common in many parts of Europe, 
 and is much cultivated in gardens for 
 ornament. 
 
 STARS, those self-shining bodies seen 
 in the heavens at night, constituted like 
 the sun, situated at immense distances 
 from us, and doubtless like our sun, the 
 centers of systems similar to our own. 
 To superficial observation stars are dis- 
 tinguished from planets by remaining 
 apparently immovable with respect to 
 one another, and hence they were called 
 fixed stars, although their fixity has 
 been disproved in numerous cases, and 
 is no longer believed in regard to any. 
 In order th distinguish the stars one from 
 another the ancients divided the heav- 
 ens into different spaces containing 
 
 groups of stars called constellations. 
 (See constellation.) The stars are 
 divided, according to their brightness, 
 into stars of the first, second, third, etc., 
 magnitudes; but no magnitude, in the 
 proper sense of the word, has yet been 
 observed in any star. All the stars be- 
 yond the sixth or seventh magnitude 
 are called telescopic stars, as they can- 
 not be seen without the aid of the tele- 
 scope; and these are continued by 
 astronomers down to the sixteenth 
 magnitude. As to the absolute size of 
 the stars little is known; but the light 
 given out by Sirius is estimated at 63i 
 times that of the sun. The colors of the 
 stars vary considerably, red, yellow, 
 green, and blue being noticed. The stars 
 are very irregularly distributed over 
 the celestial sphere. In some regions 
 scarcely a star is to be seen, while in 
 others they seem crowded together, 
 especially in the Milky Way. In somei' 
 cases a certain number of stars evidently 
 belong to a system by themselves. Of 
 the stars visible to the naked eye at any 
 one time the number probably doesj 
 not exceed a few thousands, but in thei - 
 telescope their number is so great as toi - 
 defy all calculation. The distances of ' 
 the stars from the earth are very great. < 
 The shortest distance yet found, that of' , 
 a Centauri, a double star in the southern I: 
 hemisphere, has been calculated at 2C|< 
 billions of miles, so that the light taketi ■ 
 
 years to travel from it to our earth. ; 
 Many stars have been observed whose. i 
 light appears to undergo a regulai ) 
 periodic increase and diminution oC I 
 brightness, amounting, in some in- 
 stances, to a complete extinction and^ 
 revival. These are called variable andi. 
 periodic stars. It is found that someji 
 stars, formerly distinguished by theiij. 
 splendor have entirely disappeared 
 Such stars are called temporary stars |j 
 Many of the stars that usually appea- | 
 single are found, when observed witlp 
 telescopes of high magnifying power, t, i 
 be really composed of two, and some o 
 them three or more stars in close juxta; 
 position. These are termed double aac| 
 multiple stars. By means of spectrumt 
 analysis some valuable results regardint 
 the stars have latterly been obtained 
 in particular, many of the elementij 
 familiar to us have been detected it, 
 them, and the spectroscope has al8C| 
 proved that the star Arcturus is ap 
 preaching us and Sirius receding. Seij 
 Astronomy, Nebulae, and Meteor. 
 
 STARS AND BARS, the popular nanU' 
 applied to the flag adopted by the con 
 federate states of America early in 1861 
 
 ^^ItAr’ SPANGLED BANNER, The! 
 the national hymn of the United States; 
 written by Francis Scott Key on boani 
 the frigate Surprise during the bom 
 bardment of Fort McHenry, Md., b; 
 the British, in 1814. “The Star Spangled 
 Banner” was first sung in a tavern nea 
 the Holiday Street theater, Baltimore 
 by Ferdinand Durang. 
 
 STARVATION, or INANITION, is th 
 physical effect produced by the tota; 
 want of food and water. The symptom 
 of starvation in man are ; an increasin 
 loss of weight, severe pain in tb 
 stomach, loss of strength, sleeplessnesf 
 great thirst, in some cases stupor, an 
 
STATEN ISLAND 
 
 STEAM 
 
 in other cases nervous excitement with 
 convulsions. Meanwhile the face as- 
 sumes a haggard expression, the skin 
 is said to become covered with a brown 
 secretion, and at last death occurs in 
 about eight days. With a good supply of 
 water, however, life may be prolonged, 
 in the absence of solid food, for a period 
 of two or three weeks, and a moist at- 
 mosphere will even seem to favor the 
 prolongation of life. Certain diseases, 
 such as stricture or cancer of the open- 
 ing of the stomach, etc., may occasion 
 starvation, and it is to be noted that 
 gradual starvation may result from the 
 continued low percentage of nutritive 
 matter in the daily diet. See Fasting. 
 
 STATEN ISLAND, an island belonging 
 to New York state, constituting nearly 
 the whole of Richmond county, and 
 separated from Long Island by the 
 Narrows which form the entrance to 
 New York harbor, and from New Jersey 
 by Staten Island sound, about J mile 
 broad. Its length is 14 miles, and its 
 greatest breadth 8 miles. It contains 
 numerous villages, abounds in pleasant 
 scenery, and has constant communica- 
 tion with New York by steam ferry- 
 boats 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 STATES-GENERAL, thus called to 
 distinguish them from the provincial 
 states, the name given in France till 
 1789 to the assemblies of the deputies 
 of the three orders of the nation, the 
 clergy, the nobility, and the third estate. 
 This assembly had little legislative 
 power, its chief function being to register 
 the king’s decrees in matters of taxation. 
 
 STATE, Department of, one of the 
 nine executive departments of the 
 government of the United States, pre- 
 sided over by a secretary who is a mem- 
 ber of the cabinet and first in the line of 
 succession lo the presidency after the 
 vice-president. The department of state 
 is the organ of communication between 
 the government of the United States 
 and all foreign governments, as well as 
 with the governors of the individual 
 states. The secretary of state conducts 
 all such correspondence; has charge of 
 the negotiation of all treaties and con- 
 ventions; he preserves the originals of 
 all treaties, public documents and cor- 
 respondence with foreign governments 
 as well as of the laws of the United 
 States; he publishes all statutes and 
 resolutions of congress and proclama- 
 tions of the president; he is the custo- 
 dian of the great seal which is aflSxed 
 to all commissions of appointment re- 
 quiring the consent of the senate, proc- 
 lamations, warrants for extradition, 
 pardons, etc., emanating from the 
 president; he issues and keeps a record 
 of passports granted to American citi- 
 zens traveling abroad; issues warrants 
 for the extradition of criminals to be 
 delivered to foreign governments; pre- 
 sents foreign ministers to the president, 
 etc. He makes an annual report of the 
 conduct of foreign affairs for the year, 
 publishes the consular reports and the 
 “foreign relations” of the United States, 
 and performs such other duties relative 
 to the conduct of foreign affairs as the 
 president may direct. 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES, Popu- 
 lar Names of, Alabama, Cotton state; 
 Arkansas, Toothpick and Bear state; 
 
 P. P.— 75 
 
 California, Eureka and Golden state; 
 Colorado, Centennial state; Connecti- 
 cut, Land of Steady Habits, Freestone 
 state and Nutmeg state; Dakota, Sioux 
 state; Delaware, Uncle Sam’s Pocket 
 Handkerchief and Blue Hen state; 
 Florida, Everglade and Flowery state; 
 Georgia, Empire state of the South; 
 Idaho, Gem of the Mountains; Illinois, 
 Prairie and Sucker state; Indiana, 
 Hoosier state; Iowa, Hawkeye state; 
 Kansas, Jayhawker state; Kentucky, 
 Corn-cracker state; Louisiana, Creole 
 state; Maine, Timber and. Pine Tree 
 state; Maryland, Monumental state, 
 Massachusetts, Old Bay state; Michigan, 
 Wolverine and Peninsular state; Min- 
 nesota, Gopher and North Star state; 
 Mississippi, Eagle state; Missouri, Puke 
 state; Nebraska, Antelope state ;Nevada, 
 Sage state; New Hampshire, Old Gran- 
 ite state; New Jersey, Blue state and 
 New Spain; New Mexico, Vermin state; 
 New York, Empire state ; North Carolina 
 Rip Van Winkle, Old North and Tur- 
 pentine state ; Ohio, Buckeye state ; 
 Oregon, Pacific state; Pennsylvania, 
 Keystone, Iron and Oil state; Rhode 
 Island, Plantation state and Little 
 Rhody; South Carolina, Palmetto state; 
 Tennessee, Lion’s Den state; Texas, 
 Lone Star state; Utah, Mormon state; 
 Vermont, Green Mountain state; Vir- 
 ginia, Old Dominion; Wisconsin, Bad- 
 ger and Copper state. 
 
 STATICS, that branch of dynamics 
 which treats of the properties and rela- 
 tions of forces in equilibrium — equili- 
 brium meaning that the forces are in 
 perfect balance, so that the body upon 
 which they act is in a state of rest. 
 According to the classification still em- 
 ployed by many writers on the subject 
 the word statics is used in opposition to 
 dynamics, the former being the science 
 of equilibrium or rest, and the latter of 
 motion, both together constituting 
 mechanics. But among more recent 
 authors mechanics is used to express not 
 the theory of force and motion, but 
 rather its application to the arts. The 
 word dynamics is employed as express- 
 ing the science which treats of the laws 
 of force or power, thus corresponding 
 closely to the old use of the term me- 
 chanics; and this science is divided into 
 statics and kinetics, the first being the 
 science which treats of forces considered 
 as producing rest, and the second as 
 treating of forces considered as produc- 
 ing motion. See Dynamics. 
 
 STATIS'TICS, a collection of facts 
 relating to a part or the whole of a coun- 
 try or people, or of facts relating to 
 classes of individuals or interests in 
 different countries; especially, those 
 facts which illustrate the physical, 
 social, moral, intellectual, political, in- 
 dustrial, and economical condition or 
 changes of condition, and which admit 
 of numerical statement and of arrange- 
 ment in tables. The collection of statis- 
 tics may have the object merely of ascer- 
 taining numbers, as is often the case 
 with statistics collected for purely ad- 
 ministrative purposes; or it may be 
 undertaken with the view of learning 
 what happens on an average of a great 
 number of cases, as is the case of insur- 
 ance statistics; or its object may be to 
 detect the causes of phenomena that 
 
 appear in the consideration of a number 
 of individual cases — such phenomena, 
 for example, as the decline of a certain 
 trade, the prevalence of a certain dis- 
 ease, etc. In all civilized countries the 
 collection of statistics forms an import- 
 ant part of the administrative duties of 
 government, and in some eases it is in- 
 trusted to a special bureau. The first 
 country to possess an institution of this 
 nature was Belgium, its organizer being 
 the eminent statistican Lambert Que- 
 telet. 
 
 STATUE. See Sculpture. 
 
 STATUTE, a law proceeding from 
 the government of a state ; a written law. 
 Statutes are either public or private 
 (in the latter case affecting an individual 
 or a company); but the term is usually 
 restricted to public acts of a general and 
 permanent character. Statutes are said 
 to be declaratory of the law as it stood 
 before their passing; remedial, to cor- 
 rect defects in the common law; and 
 penal, imposing prohibitions and penal- 
 ties. The term statute is commonly ap- 
 plied to the acts of a legislative body 
 consisting of representatives. In mon- 
 archies not having representative bodies, 
 the laws of the sovereign are called 
 edicts, decrees, ordinances, rescripts, etc. 
 
 STAVRO'POL, a government of Rus- 
 sia in the Caucasus, and bordering on 
 the Caspian sea; area, 26,500 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 876,298. — Stavropol, the capital 
 of this district, is strongly fortified, and 
 has a large trade in horses, cattle, sheep, 
 etc. Pop. 41,621. 
 
 STAY, in ships, a l%rge, strong rope, 
 extending from the upper end of a mast 
 down to another mast, or to some part 
 of the vessel, with the object of lending 
 support to the mast to whose top it is 
 attached. Those leaning forward are 
 called fore-and-aft stays, and those lead- 
 ing down to the vessel’s sides and pulling 
 a little backward are called back stays. 
 A sail extended on a stay is a stay sail. 
 In large vessels there are a number of 
 these of a triangular shape. To stay is 
 to tack or bring the ship’s head up to 
 the wind for going about; to miss stays 
 is to fail in the attempt to go about. In 
 stays or hove in stays is the situation of 
 a vessel when she is in the act of going 
 about. 
 
 STEAD, William Thomas, English 
 journalist, was born at Embleton, 
 Northumberland in 1849. In 1880 he 
 was assistant editor of the Pall Mall 
 Gazette; editor from 1883 to 1889. 
 In 1890 founded the Review of Reviews. 
 By his exposure of legally permissible 
 outrages upon women and children in his 
 Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon in 
 1885 he was sentenced to a threemonths’ 
 term in Holloway gaol, but it was fol- 
 lowed by the enactment of the Criminal 
 Law Amendment Bill. His publications 
 include; The Truth About Russia, The 
 Pope and the New Era, If Christ Came 
 to Chicago, The Labor War in the 
 United States, Satan’s Invisible World, 
 A Study of Despairing Democracy, The 
 Americanization of the World. 
 STEALING. See LarcenJ^ 
 
 STEAM, is the vaporous substance 
 into which water is converted under 
 certain conditions of heat and pressure. 
 It may be said, indeed, that water gives 
 off vapor or steam at every temperature, 
 
steam-engine 
 
 STEAM-ENGINE 
 
 but the term is technically applied to 
 the elastic aeriform fluid generated by 
 heating water to the boiling point. 
 Steam, in its perfect state, is transpar- 
 ent, colorless, and invisible; but when it 
 has been deprived of part of its heat by 
 coming into contact with cold air, it 
 suddenly assumes a cloudy appearance, 
 and is condensed into water. When 
 water, in an open vessel, is heated to 
 the boiling point (212° F.) globules of 
 steam are formed at the bottom and rise 
 to the surface, where they pass off in 
 vapor. In this case all the heat which 
 enters into the water is solely employed 
 in converting it into steam of the tem- 
 perature of boij.ing water, while the 
 continued and increased application of 
 heat will only cause a more rapid forma- 
 tion of steam until the whole of the water 
 evaporates. When water, however, is 
 confined in a strong close vessel, both it 
 and the steam which it produces may 
 be brought to any temperature; and 
 as steam at boiling point occupies 1642 
 times the space of the water from which 
 it is generated, it follows that when 
 thus confined it must exercise an enor- 
 mous expansive force. Steam, as used 
 in the steam-engine, holds water in sus- 
 pension mechanically, and is cMled 
 saturated steam ; while the steam which 
 receives additional heat apart from 
 water is called superheated steam, and 
 approximates to the condition of a per- 
 fect gas. When the temperature of 
 saturated steam is considerably above 
 212° F., the steam formed under such 
 conditions is termed high-pressure steam 
 while at 212° F it is called low-pressure 
 steam, ^nd its pressure is equal to that 
 of one atmosphere, or 14.7 lbs. on the 
 square inch. Another element in the 
 constitution of steam is its density 
 which is expressed by the weight of 1 
 cubic foot of the steam. This density is 
 increased with an increase of the pres- 
 sur6 under whiicli the steam is generated, 
 for the particles of steam become more 
 closely packed together. Thus the 
 density of steam produced at 212 has 
 been found to be equal to .038 lb. or | 
 oz, per cubic foot, from which it follows 
 that the volume of 1 lb. of such steam 
 is equal to 26.36 cubic feet. Like the 
 pressure or expansive force of steam, 
 the density is invariably the same for a 
 given temperature. From the posses- 
 sion of the properties thus briefly stated, 
 steam constitutes an invaluable agent 
 for the production of mechanical force, 
 as shown in the various uses of the 
 steam-engine. It is also employed in 
 distributing the heat used for warming 
 buildings, in heating baths, evaporating 
 solutions, brewing, drying, dyeing, and 
 even for cookery. 
 
 STEAM-ENGINE, a mechanical con- 
 trivance, in which the force arising from 
 the elasticity and expansive action of 
 steam, or from its property of rapid 
 condensation, or from the combination 
 of these qualities, is made available as 
 a source of motive power in the arts and 
 manufactures, and in locomotion. The 
 expansive power of steam was known to 
 the ancients, and its earliest use in con- 
 nection with a mechanical contrivance 
 is noted by Hero of Alexandria (about 
 130 K.c.) in his Pneumatica. In this 
 treatise Hero describes an aeolipile or 
 
 hollow spherical vessel turning on an 
 axis, supplied with steam, and driven 
 by the reaction from the escaping jets 
 of steam. The principle that a mechani- 
 cal power is obtained by the pressure of 
 steam acting on the surface of water 
 placed in a closed vessel put to practical 
 use by Captain Thomas Savery (1698) 
 in a steam-engine which he constructed 
 for the purpose of raising water out of 
 mines; and with the elevation of water 
 by pressure he also combined the prin- 
 ciple of obtaining a vacuum by con- 
 densation. This principle, however, was 
 made more practically effective by Denis 
 Papin (1690), who constructed a steam- 
 engine in which a piston was forced 
 down through the vacuum made by 
 condensation. This first conception of 
 a piston working in a cylinder was 
 further developed by Newcomen (1705) 
 and his assistant Cawley. Various im- 
 provements in the steam-engine were 
 made by Smeaton and others, but its 
 greatest development was effected by 
 James Watt (1769). His improvements 
 consisted in condensing the steam, not 
 in the cylinder, but in a separate con- 
 denser, thus preventing the waste 
 occasioned previously by the chilling 
 
 Beam condensing steam-engine. 
 
 a, The steam-cylinder, h, The piston, c. The upper steam- 
 port or passage, d. The lower steam-port, ee. The parallel 
 motion, /f, The beam, o, The connecting-rod. /i, The crank. 
 ii The fly-wheel, kk. The eccentric and its rod for working 
 the steam-valve. I, The steam-valve and valve-casing, m, The 
 throttle-valve, n, The condenser, o, The injection-cock, p. The 
 air-pump. q. The hot-well, r. The snifting-valve for creating 
 a vacuum in the condenser previous to starting the engine, s, 
 The feed-pump for supplying the boilers. The cold-water 
 pump for supplying the condenser cistern, u, The governor. 
 
 and heating of the cylinder. Besides 
 this, he preserved the heat in the cylinder 
 by surrounding it with a layer of hot 
 steam inside of an external casing; and 
 with the same object he employed 
 steam, instead of air, to press down the 
 piston from above. Thus he obtained 
 the double-acting engine, which is so 
 named because both the up-stroke and 
 the down-stroke are produced by means 
 of steam. Further, he devised a crank 
 motion which converted the alternating 
 motion of the oscillating beam into a 
 continuous rotary motion; but as this 
 invention was pirated he patented the 
 “sun-and-planet” wheel as a substitute 
 for the crank, returning afterward to 
 the crank. To these improvements he 
 subsequently added a fly-wheel, in 
 order to equalize the motion so as to 
 drive the crank past the dead-points; 
 a governor, whose purpose was to regu- 
 late the quantity of steam passing into 
 the cylinder; an indicator, to measure 
 the pressure upon the piston; and a 
 slide-valve, moved automatically by an 
 
 eccentric, the object of which was to 
 regulate the action of the steam in the 
 cylinder. The steam-engine, as thus 
 developed by Watt, was in nearly all 
 essential points the same as the present- 
 day engine. Probably the only iniprove- 
 ment of primary importance which has 
 been made in the steam-engine since the 
 time of Watt, is the manner in which 
 steam is now used expansively. In the 
 compound engine the steam receives 
 the greater part of its expansion in a 
 second cylinder of much larger diameter 
 than the first, and by this means greater 
 steadiness of piston-stroke, economy of ^ 
 fuel, and increased driving power have i 
 been obtained. The use of expanded i 
 steam has been especially notable in the 
 marine engine, where it is now expanded 
 successively in three or even four 
 cylinders. The accompanying illustra- 
 tion represents a sectional elevation of 
 a beam condensing steam-engine, and 
 shows the principles embodied in Watt’s , 
 steam-engine. The pipe conveying the i 
 steam from the boiler opens into the i 
 part marked I, whicli incloses a movable < 
 valve by means of which the steam may 
 be alternately admitted into the cylin- i 
 der a by the upper port c and lower d; : 
 between these points the piston b works 
 steam-tight. The valve 1 is so contrived i 
 that while it allows steam to pass into i 
 the cylinder through one of the ports, I 
 it shall at the same time open a com- I 
 munication between the opposite side 
 of the piston and the condenser n, which 1 
 is a hollow vessel kept constantly im- 
 mersed in cold water, a portion of which | 
 is admitted into it by the injection- | 
 cock o; consequently, the steam thus • 
 admitted is instantly deprived of its 
 heat, and reconverted into its original i 
 form of water, thereby forming a i 
 vacuum. Thus it will be seen that, on ! 
 the communication being opened up ! 
 between the boiler and either side of i 
 the piston, the latter will ascend or de- S 
 scend in the cylinder unimpeded by the 
 resistance of the atmosphere against i 
 the other side, and with a force proper- ! 
 tional to the pressure of the steam ; and ' 
 as the motions of the steam-valve 1 are ; 
 regulated by the engine itself, the above 
 action is kept up continuously. The , 
 alternating rectilinear motion thus gen- i 
 erated within the cylinder is transnaitted 
 by means of a rod attached to the piston, 
 to a strong beam f f, movable upon a 
 central axis, a system of jointed rods I 
 e e, called the parallel motion, being in- , 
 terposed for the purpose 'Of neutralizing 
 the disturbing action which the circular 
 path of the beam would otherwise exert i 
 upon the piston. The reciprocating 
 motion of the beam is now, through the 
 intervention of the connecting-rod g 
 and. crank h, converted into a circular 
 or rotatory motion, which is rendered 
 continuous and uniform by the fly- 
 wheel i, to the axis of which the ma- 
 chinery to be impelled is connected.! 
 The air-pump p for withdrawing thei 
 vapor and water from the condenser,^ 
 the feed-pump s for supplying the| 
 boilers, and cold-water pump t for sup- , 
 plying the condenser cistern, are all 
 worked by rods from the beam; and the 
 governor u, for maintaining uniformity j 
 of motion, is driven by a band from the ' 
 crank-shaft. The above description j 
 
 I 
 
S'TEAM-GAUGfi 
 
 STEAM-HAMMER, 
 
 refers more immediately to that class of 
 steam-engines called low-pressure en- 
 gines. The various fonns of the steam- 
 engine have received a varied form of 
 classification. There are the general 
 divisions into condensing and non- 
 condensing engines, compound and non- 
 compound, and single, double, or direct 
 acting. Again there is the classification 
 connected with the position of the cylin- 
 der, as in the horizontal, vertical, and 
 inclined cylinder engines. Another 
 classification, and that which is adopted 
 here, is to divide steam-engines into the 
 uses to which they are applied. Station- 
 ary engines comprise all such engines 
 as are permanently fixed for the purpose 
 of driving the machinery in a factory, 
 pumping water, etc. For a long time 
 the favorite engine for these purposes 
 was of the beam condensing type adopted 
 and improved by Watt. But this has 
 now, for the most part, been super- 
 seded by an engine the cylinders and 
 connections of which are horizontal. In 
 the most modern type the cylinder is 
 fixed endwise to a base plate at one 
 extremity, the crank-shaft has its bear- 
 ings on the same base at the other ex- 
 tremity, and the piston-rod driven 
 horizontally is guided by means of a 
 crosshead, the ends of which slide be- 
 tween two parallel bars fixed on the 
 frame. The Corliss engine is a well- 
 known type of horizontal engine, its 
 characteristic feature being the system 
 of reciprocating valves by which the 
 steam is passed to and from the cylinder. 
 In some engines, especially such as are 
 used as wading engines, a pair of 
 coupled horizontal cylinders are now 
 used; and in the larger form of hori- 
 zontal engine two cylinders of high and 
 low pressure are placed either side by 
 side or one before the other. In cases 
 where the cylinders are vertical the other 
 general arrangements are much the 
 same as in the horizontal engine. In 
 portable engines the boiler and engine 
 go together, the boiler being undermost; 
 and the whole is supported upon four 
 wheels, by means of which it is moved 
 from place to place. The chimney is 
 turned down over the boiler when not 
 in use. A kind of engine known as semi- 
 portable consists of a boiler and engine 
 placed together, but without wheels. 
 The road-locomotive was first suggested 
 by William Symington in Scotland, and 
 developed for practical purposes about 
 1800 by Oliver Evans in Aimerica and 
 Trevethick in Wales. The chief char- 
 acteristics of this traction engine, as it is 
 called, is the great width of the wheels, 
 which are now supplied by some makers 
 with protected india-rubber tires to pre- 
 vent slipping. It can be made to run 
 backward and forward by means of 
 reversing gear, while its course is guided 
 by a steering wheel acting upon a 
 vertical shaft. The railway-locomotive 
 is a steam-engine and boiler placed upon 
 wheels and employed to transport a 
 train of cars upon a railway. It was not, 
 however, until 1829 that the modern 
 high-speed locomotive came into use. 
 The “Rocket” built by George Stephen- 
 son, in 1829, ran on four wheels, weighed 
 4 tons 5 cwts., and the tender, consist- 
 ing of a simple cask, 3 tons 4 cwts ; the 
 steam cylinders were 8 inches in diame- 
 
 ter with 16^ inches of stroke; the driv- 
 ing-wheels were 4 feet 8^ inches in 
 diameter; the total gross weight drawn 
 was about 17 tons; and the speed at- 
 tained was an average of 14 miles per 
 hour, with an occasional speed of 29 
 miles per hour. In this engine of the 
 “Rocket” there were brought together 
 the three primary elements which, hav- 
 ing been developed, make the efficiency 
 of the modern locomotive — viz., the 
 internal water-surrounded fire-box and 
 the multitubular flue in the boiler; the 
 blast-pipe, from which the waste steam 
 of the engine was exhausted up the 
 chimney; and the direct connection of 
 the two steam cylinders, one on each 
 side of the engine, with the driving- 
 wheels, on one axle. From this early 
 locomotive the two modern types, dif- 
 ferentiated by the position of the cylin- 
 der, have been developed. In the inside 
 cylinder locomotive the cylinder is 
 situated within the framing, under the 
 boiler, with the main driving-axle 
 cranked at two points to receive the 
 power from the two cylinders; while in 
 the outside cylinder locomotive the 
 cylinder is external to the framing and 
 connected, not to the axle, but to the 
 crank-pins fixed between the spokes of 
 the wheels in connection with the nave. 
 Another point of advance on the early 
 locomotive is in the number of the 
 wheels. These now vary from six to 
 twelve, and in some locomotives, where 
 heavy loads are drawn on inclines, a 
 greater tractive power is secured by 
 coupling three or even four wheels to- 
 gether upon one side. The principle of 
 the expansion of steam in high-pressure 
 and low-pressure cylinders has also been 
 adopted, in order to save fuel, in some 
 recent locomotives. The express pas- 
 senger engine of the modern type now 
 forms a striking contrast to the engine 
 of the “Rocket;” it weighs nearly .50 
 tons in working order, and with the 
 loaded tender, about 80 tons gross; its 
 cylinders are from 17 to 19 inches in 
 diameter, with a stroke of about 26 
 inches; the driving-wheels are from 7 
 to 8 feet in diameter; and the speed 
 attained, about 54 miles per hour. The 
 modern freight engine is capable of 
 drawing a train weighing 672 tons up 
 an incline of 1 in 178, this being equiva- 
 lent to a gross weight, including engine 
 and tender, of 1816 tons on a level. 
 The earliest form of marine engine seems 
 to have been devised by Patrick Miller 
 of Dalswinton, and constructed in Edin- 
 burgh (1788) by William Symington. 
 Its cylinders were 4 inches in diameter, 
 and it was able to drive a pleasure-boat 
 25 feet long, with two central paddle- 
 wheels, at a speed of 5 miles an hour. 
 Subsequently Symington constructed 
 (1801) an engine on Watt’s double- 
 acting principle, and with a stern-wheel, 
 which was used on a canal in Scotland, 
 in a steamboat called the Charlotte 
 Dundas. This engine was seen by Robert 
 Fulton, who employed (1807) an Eng- 
 lish firm to build a similar engine for a 
 steamer called the Clermont, which he 
 afterward successfuly employed upon 
 the Hudson river in America. In Great 
 Britain the first passenger steam vessel 
 was the Comet built (1812) at Port-Glas- 
 gow by John Wood to the order of Henry 
 
 Bell, who employed it to ply between 
 Glasgow and Greenock. The Comet, 
 which had side paddle-wheels and was 
 about 42 feet long and 11 feet wide, 
 was driven by a kind of inverted beam- 
 engine, with a single vertical cylinder, 
 developing four or five horse-power. 
 These early marine engines were con- 
 structed in a manner similar to Watt’s 
 land engine, but the position of the 
 beam so high above the deck was soon 
 recognized as a defect, especially in sea 
 going steamers. Instead, therefore, of 
 a beam placed above the cylinder and 
 piston, two beams or levers were placed 
 below, one on each side of the engine, 
 and the connecting-rod conveyed the 
 power to the crank upward instead of 
 downward. This design, however, was 
 soon afterward discarded in favor of an 
 arrangement by which the cylinder was 
 placed beneath and connected directly 
 with the crank. A further improvement 
 was secured by an oscillating cylinder, 
 which moved right and left with the 
 swing of the crank and enabled the 
 piston-rods to be connected directly 
 with the cranks. When the paddle- 
 wheel was superseded by the screw- 
 propeller a totally different type of 
 marine engine was required. In this case 
 the cylinder was inverted and placed 
 above the shaft of the screw near the 
 deck, and the connection with the 
 crank was formed by means of an ordi- 
 nary connecting-rod. In ships-of-war 
 a horizontal direct-acting engine was 
 adopted in order to keep the machinery 
 below the water-line and out of danger 
 from the enemy’s guns. This took vari- 
 ous forms, such as Penn’s trunk-engine, 
 where compactness was obtained by 
 securing the connecting-rod directly to 
 the piston and using the piston-rod as a 
 hollow trunk within which the connect- 
 ing-rod could oscillate freely; and the 
 engine designed by Maudsley, in which 
 two piston-rods proceed from each pis- 
 ton, and the connecting-rod is reversed 
 so as to embrace the crank on the screw- 
 shaft, near which the cylinder is placed. 
 Recently, however, there is a tendency 
 in war-ships to adopt the inverted 
 vertical direct-acting engine as used in 
 nearly all the large ocean steamers. 
 These engines were commonly con- 
 structed with a two-cylinder compound 
 arrangement, but this has been rapidly 
 superseded by a three-crank triple- 
 expansion engine first designed in 1874 
 by Mr. A. C. Kirk. This form of marine 
 steam-engine has been found to effect 
 a considerable saving in fuel, and the 
 principle of expanding the steam has 
 even been used in a four-cylinder quad- 
 ruple-expansion engine with success. 
 
 STEAM-GAUGE. See Gauge. 
 
 STEAM-HAMMER, a machine em- 
 ployed in making large iron and steel 
 forgings, and consisting usually of a 
 steam-cylinder and piston with a metal 
 striker placed vertically over an anvil. 
 In the hammer invented by James 
 Nasmyth about 1839, and patented in 
 1842, the first steam-hammer to come 
 into practical use, the cylinder is fixed, 
 and the hammer-head attached to the 
 lower end of the piston-rod delivers its 
 blows by the direct action of the steam 
 in the cylinder. In operation the steam 
 is introduced into the cylinder imme- 
 
STEAM navigation 
 
 STEEL 
 
 diately below the piston, and it raises 
 the hammer between the guides to the 
 required height. The steam being then 
 cut off, and the exhaust-valve opened, 
 the hammer descends with a velocity 
 augmented by the compression of the 
 air above the piston. As an improve- 
 ment steam pressure is now also applied 
 above the piston to increase the down- 
 ward stroke of the hammer. By means 
 of the valves and valve gearing the per- 
 son in charge of the machine has com- 
 plete control over the slightest move- 
 ment of the hammer. In Condie’s 
 steam-hammer the piston-rod is at- 
 tached to the top of the hammer frame, 
 
 Condie’s steam-hammer. 
 
 and the cylinder is movable; the ham- 
 mer head is attached to and falls with 
 the cylinder, which thereby adds an 
 additional weight to the blow. In the 
 duplex steam-hammer patented by 
 Ramsbottom the anvil is discarded, 
 and two hammer-heads of equal weight 
 deliver their blows upon the forging 
 horizontally. From the increased size 
 of gun forgings the steam-hammer has 
 now attained enormous proportions, one 
 erected by Krupp at Essen in 1888 being 
 150 tons. There is a probability, how- 
 ever, that steam will be superseded by 
 hydraulic or pneumatic power in the 
 largest hammers. 
 
 STEAM NAVIGATION, the naviga- 
 tion of ships in which steam is the sole 
 or main propelling power. As early as 
 1736 Jonathan Hulls in England 
 patented a method of propelling a vessel 
 by steam by means of a stern wheel. In 
 America James Rumsey and also John 
 Fitch succeeded in 1786 in constructing 
 each a vessel that was actually driven 
 by steam ; but the real precursor of the 
 paddle-wheel steamer was constructed 
 in 1788 by a Scottish landed proprietor, 
 Patrick Miller of Dalswinton, on Dal- 
 swinton Loch, Dumfriesshire. This 
 vessel, which was a double or twin boat, 
 measured 25 feet in length by 7 feet in 
 breadth, and was fitted with two paddle- 
 wheels, one before and the other behind 
 the engine. The mechanical part was 
 constructed in Edinburgh under the 
 superintendence of William Symington, 
 and the speed attained was about 5 
 miles an hour. The following year a 
 larger boat was built on the same prin- 
 oiple and successfully tried on the Forth 
 and Clyde canal. In 1801 Lord Dundas 
 employed Symington to construct a 
 
 steamboat for use upon the Forth and 
 Clyde canal. This vessel, which was 
 launched in 1802 and named the Char- 
 lotte Dundas, had one paddle-wheel 
 near the stern, and was driven by a 
 direct-acting horizontal engine with a 
 connecting-rod and crank. It was seen 
 by Robert Fulton, an American en- 
 gineer, who employed (1807) the' Eng- 
 lish firm of Boulton and Watt to con- 
 struct an engine upon the same prin- 
 ciple, and this he fitted into a steamer 
 called the Clermont, 130 feet long, 
 which plied successfully upon the 
 Hudson river. A number of steam- 
 vessels were soon after plying on Ameri- 
 can waters. In 1819 the Savannah made 
 the voyage to Liverpool from America 
 in twenty-six days, its capacity as a 
 sailing vessel being partly aided by 
 steam. It was not until 1838, however, 
 that regular steamboat communication 
 ^Yas established across the Atlantic. In 
 that year the Sirius steamed from Lon- 
 don to New York in seventeen days; 
 and a few months afterward the Great 
 Western made the voyage from Bristol 
 to New York in fifteen days. These 
 were all paddle-steamers, and that type 
 of vessel culminated in the Scotia (1861) 
 of the Cunard line, which made the 
 passage to New York in nine days. The 
 measurements of this vessel were: 
 length 366 feet, breadth 47 feet 6 inches; 
 cylinder diameter 100 inches with a 
 stroke of 12 feet, and the engines were 
 of the side-lever type. Meanwhile vari- 
 ous experiments were made with the 
 screw propeller (which see). The first 
 steamer in Great Britain fitted with a 
 screw was the Archimedes (1839), built 
 on the Thames; the first screw-ship in 
 the British navy was the Dwarf (1843) 
 and the first iron screw-steamer was the 
 Fire Queen (1845), built at Glasgow. 
 The modern type of ocean steamer is 
 built of steel, and is represented by such 
 vessels as the Kaiser 'Wilhelm der Grosse 
 and the Lusitania, which make the 
 voyage to America in less than five days. 
 These are twin-screw vessels over 750 
 feet long, 88 broad, and have a displace- 
 ment of 45,000 tons. See Ship. 
 
 STEAM-PLOUGH. See Plough. 
 
 STEAM SHOVEL, the steam shovel 
 was invented by an American named 
 Otis, in 1840. It consists of a frame 
 mounted on wheels to form a base to 
 which the working parts are attached. 
 The digging mechanism consists of a 
 crane hinged to a mast at the front of 
 the car and a dipper handle and dipper 
 carried by the crane. The operating 
 machinery consists of a main engine, 
 which hoists the dipper and swings the 
 crane, and of a thrusting mechanism 
 for forcing the dipper into the earth. 
 For digging blasted rock the front edge 
 or lip of the dipper has steel teeth. The 
 excavating capacity of steam shovels 
 varies from 2400 cubic yards of sand 
 to 600 cubic yards of loose rock per 
 ton hours, with a 2J cubic yard dipper. 
 
 STEAM-'WHISTLE, an arrangement 
 connected with the boiler of a steam- 
 engine for the purpose of making a loud 
 whistling sound. In the locomotive 
 steam-whistle a tube, fixed to the head 
 of the boiler and opening into its in- 
 terior, is commanded by a stop-cock, 
 the tube ends in a portion perforated 
 
 with holes and surrounded by a thin' 
 brass cup; and the tube and cup are so- 
 adjusted as to leave a narrow opening 
 all round. Above this opening a thin 
 brass cup is fixed in an inverted position 
 so as to present a sharp edge to the 
 orifice. When the stop-cock is opened 
 the steam rushes through this orifice ' 
 with great violence, and in coming in . 
 contact with the sharp edge of the cup it 
 produces a loud shrill sound. Steam- 
 whistles can be made to give off musical 
 tones by graduating the length of the 
 pipe or cup. ; 
 
 STEAM-'WINCH, a form of hoisting 
 apparatus in which rotatory motion is 
 inrparted to the winding axle of the 
 winch from the piston-rod of a steam- 
 engine, either directly or indirectly. 
 
 STEARIC ACID is one of the most 
 important and abundant of the fatty 
 acids. As stearine it exists, in com- , 
 bination with glycerine, in beef and 
 mutton fat, and in several vegetable fats. 
 Stearic acid, which is inodorous, taste- 
 less, insoluble in water but soluble in 
 alcohol, forms white scaly crystals, and 
 combines with alkalies, earths, and, 
 metallic oxides to form stearates. It 
 burns like wax, and is used in making 
 candles. 
 
 STEARINE, Stearin (ste'a-rin), the 
 chief ingredient of suet and tallow, 
 or the harder ingredient of animal 
 fats, oleine being the softer one. It is 
 obtained from mutton suet by repeated 
 solution in ether and crystallization. It 
 may also be ©btained by pressing tallow 
 between hot plates, and afterward dis- 
 solving in hot ether, which on cooling 
 deposits the stearine. It has a pearly j 
 luster, is soft to the touch, but not 
 greasy. It is insoluble in water, but ? 
 soluble in hot alcohol and ether. 'When 
 treated with superheated steam it is 
 separated into stearic acid and glycerine, 
 and when boiled with alkalies is saponi- 
 fied, that is, the stearic acid combines 
 with the alkali, forming soap, and gly- 
 cerine is separated. 'When melted it 
 resembles wax. 
 
 STEDMAN, Edmund Clarence, Ameri- 
 can poet, was born in 1833 at Hartford,. 
 Conn. His chief volumes of verse are:j 
 Poems, Lyrical and Idyllic, Hawthorne 
 and Other Poems, Lyrics and Idylls,] 
 and Poems Now First Collected. His 
 prose works include The Victorian Poets 
 and The Poets of America, and The 
 Nature and Elements of Poetry. These 
 volumes of critical writing he supple- 
 mented by A Victorian Anthology and 
 an American Anthology. He was also 
 editor, with Ellen M. Hutchinson, of A^ 
 Library of American Literature, and, 
 with George E. Woodberry of the Works 
 of Edgar Allan Poe. He died in 1908. 
 
 STE'ATITE, or SOAPSTONE, a sub- 
 species of rhomboidal mica. It is of two 
 kinds, the common and the pagodite or 
 lardstone. It is a compact stone, white, 
 green of all shades, gray, brown or, 
 marbled, and is soapy or unctuous to 
 the touch. It is used in the manufacture 
 of porcelain, in polishing marble, in 
 diminishing friction in machinery, and 
 as the basis of rouge and other cosmetic 
 powders. 
 
 STEEL, is the term applied to metallic 
 iron when combined with carbon; but as. 
 
STEEL ENGRAVING 
 
 STEIN 
 
 the proportion of carbon can be 
 graded continuously from wrought- 
 iron, which contains almost no carbon, 
 up to cast-iron, which may contain 
 as much as 10 per cent, the position 
 of steel lying between these is neces- 
 sarily indefinite. Besides the essential 
 elements of iron and carbon steel 
 may also contain small quantities of 
 siliconi phosphorus, manganese, and 
 sulphur. In steel used for ordinary pur- 
 poses the carbon amounts from about 
 0.5 to 1.5 per cent; the toughness, 
 tenacity, and hardness being increased 
 with the increase of the carbon, while 
 the elasticity decreases with the in- 
 crease of hardness. In a red-hot con- 
 dition steel can be welded almost as 
 easily as bar-iron. It is a bright grayish 
 white in color, the texture is granular, 
 and in specific gravity it varies from 
 7.62 to 7.81. In commerce it takes vari- 
 ous names: as when it is called blister- 
 steel from its surface acquiring that 
 character in the process of cementation, 
 shear-steel when blister-steel is rolled 
 or beaten into bars, and cast-steel when 
 
 it is melted or cast into ingots. Natural 
 or German steel is an inferior steel pro- 
 cured from cast-iron or obtained at once 
 from the ore. When it is produced from 
 cast-iron in the refining-house it is called 
 furnace steel, and when it has under- 
 gone the refining process only once it is 
 known as rough steel. The value of steel 
 depends greatly on the readiness with 
 which it can be tempered. It is found 
 that the higher the temperature to which 
 steel is raised and the more sudden the 
 cooling the greater is the hardness; 
 hence any degree of hardness can be 
 given to steel by applying the necessary 
 conditions of heat and cold. The color 
 of steel varies occording to the degree 
 of hardness to which it is tempered, and 
 these colors at one time served to guide 
 the workmen in tempering, but now a 
 thermometer, with a bath of mercury 
 or oil is used. In producing steel various 
 methods have been employed in order 
 
 to obtain (either by extraction or ad- 
 dition) a metal with the required amount 
 of carbon. Among these may be men- 
 tioned (1) The direct reduction of iron 
 ores. In this process the iron ore is mixed 
 with charcoal and heated until metallic 
 iron is produced, after which more char- 
 coal is added and the material further 
 heated until steel is produced. The dis- 
 advantage of this process is that it yields 
 an irregular mixture of steel and iron. 
 
 (2) The adding of carbon to malleable 
 iron. In this process, which is usually 
 called cementation, the bars of iron are 
 placed in fire-brick chambers between 
 layers of charcoal»and there subjected 
 to heat from a furnace underneath. 
 The fire is usually maintained for six 
 or eight days, and the degree of heat to 
 which it is raised depends upon the de- 
 gree of carbonization required. When 
 the bars, now become steel by the ad- 
 dition of carbon, are withdrawn they 
 are brittle and covered with blisters. 
 
 (3) The Bessemer process. In this 
 method, which was adopted by Mr. 
 Bessemer in 1856, the carbon is first 
 removed from the pig-iron by blowing 
 a stream of compressed air through the 
 metal when in a molten condition. 
 When this is accomplished the exact 
 amount of carbon required is afterward 
 added in the fonn of spiegeleisen, or 
 some other variety of iron rich in car- 
 bon. Briefly, the process is conducted as 
 follows: — The charge of molten pig-iron 
 is run from the furnace into the con- 
 verter. This latter is a vessel shaped 
 like a bottle with the neck slightly bent 
 sideways, formed of boiler-plate, and 
 lined internally with a compact kind of 
 sandstone called “ganister.” The con- 
 verter is then swung back into a vertical 
 position, and in doing this the air-blast 
 is automatically turned on. In a few 
 minutes the carbon is all blown out of 
 the metal, the blast is shut off, a quan- 
 tity of molten spiegeleisen is run in, and 
 then the whole contents of the converter 
 is poured out into the casting ladle. (4) 
 In the Heaton process the object de- 
 sired is to oxidize the sulphur and phos- 
 phorus found in cast-iron and remove 
 them in the slag. To produce this result 
 nitrate of soda is placed at the bottom 
 of an iron vessel and covered with a 
 perforated iron plate. When the molten 
 cast-iron is run in the iron plate becomes 
 melted, and the chemical action set up 
 by the nitrate of soda underneath de- 
 stroys the silicon and removes a large 
 part of the phosphorus. (5) In the 
 Siemens-Martin process it is sought to 
 decarbonize pig-iron by mixing it with 
 malleable iron. Thus the pig-iron is run 
 off into a furnace heated to a very high 
 temperature by gas from a Siemens’ 
 regenerative gas furnace. Then molten 
 wrought-iron in small quantities is 
 added until the decarbonization of the 
 pig-iron is complete. When this is ac- 
 complished a fresh quantity of pig-iron 
 is added to supply the exact amount 
 of carbon required. The whole mass is 
 then heated for a short time until ready 
 to be run off into ingot moulds. In the 
 more modern “Siemens” process a much 
 larger relative quantity of pig-iron is 
 employed, and although scrap-iron is 
 generally worked in the process can be 
 completed without it. (6) In the “basic” 
 
 process, known also as the Thomas- 
 Gilchrist process, it is sought to remove 
 the phosphorus from such highly phos- 
 phoretic ores as those found in the 
 Cleveland district. To effect this the 
 ordinary Bessemer converter is lined 
 with a mixture of magnesian lime, silica, 
 alumina, and oxide of iron, a quantity of 
 the latter being also added to the charge 
 when the blast is in progress. This 
 lining supplies a base, in combination 
 with which the phosphorus in the molten 
 metal becomes oxidized and converted 
 into phosphates. As a result of the many 
 improved methods of manufacture the 
 cost of steel has been considerably re- 
 duced, and it is now rapidly displacing 
 wrought-iron in almost all the uses to 
 which it was applied. Its employment 
 in the making of various kinds of in- 
 struments, edge-tools, springs, etc., is 
 well known, but it is now extensively 
 used in the manufacture of plates and 
 rails, and is rapidly superseding iron 
 in the building of ships and in the tall 
 buildings in the larger cities, called sky 
 scrapers, it has entirely replaced all 
 other materials. 
 
 STEEL ENGRAVING. See Engraving. 
 
 STEELTON, a town in Dauphin co.. 
 Pa., on the Susquehanna river, the 
 Pennsylvania canal, and the Penn, and 
 the Phila. and Reading railways; 3 
 miles e of Harrisburg, the state capital. 
 It contains the great plant of the 
 Pennsylvania Steel Company, compris- 
 ing blast furnaces, rail and blooming 
 mills, and bridge and construction 
 works. Pop. 14,186. 
 
 STEERING APPARATUS, the con- 
 trivance by which a vessel is steered, 
 usually composed of three parts, viz. : 
 the rudder, the tiller, and the wheel, 
 except in small vessels, where the wheel 
 is unnecessary. The rudder or helm is a 
 long and flat piece or frame suspended 
 edgewise down the hind part of a ship’s 
 stern-post, where it turns upon a kind 
 of hinge to the right or left, serving to 
 direct the course of a vessel, as the tail 
 of a fish guides the body. 'The tiller is 
 a bar of timber or iron, fixed horizon- 
 tally to the upper end of the rudder and 
 projecting within the vessel. The move- 
 ments of the tiller are effected in small 
 vessels by hand, assisted by a sort of 
 tackle called the tiller-rope. In larger 
 vessels there are properly speaking two 
 ropes, or more commonly chains, which 
 being wound about the axis or barrel 
 of a wheel, act upon the tiller with the 
 powers of a windlass. In the enormous 
 modern vessels a ponderous system of 
 braces and tackle became necessary to 
 assist the working of the wheel. This 
 was remedied by the introduction of 
 hydraulic or steam-steering apparatus, 
 which is a device interposed between 
 the tiller-wheel and the rudder-head. 
 There are numerous forms of apparatus, 
 and by many mechanical improvements 
 in steering machinery, manual labor 
 at the wheel is now reduced to a mini- 
 mum. 
 
 STEIN (stin), Heinrich Friedrich Karl, 
 Baron von, German statesman, born at 
 Nassau 1757, died 1831. He became 
 president of the provincial chambers 
 of Westphalia in 1796, and a minister 
 of state in 1804. For the severity of his 
 criticisms on the administration he was 
 
STEINBOCK 
 
 STERNE 
 
 dismissed (1807), but was recalled, 
 with power to introduce his reforms. 
 Accordingly he abolished serfage by 
 edict, made military service obligatory 
 on all classes, and rearranged the 
 financial administrative affairs. By 
 means of these reforms he laid the 
 basis of Prussia’ future greatness. He 
 afterward visited St. Petersburg, and 
 was instrumental in bringing about the 
 coalition which crushed Napoleon. 
 
 STEINBOCK (stin'bok), Steenbok 
 (stan'bok), a small antelope found in 
 South Africa. It is ashen gray on the 
 sides, white underneath, stands about 
 2 feet in height, and its flesh is much 
 esteemed. The male alone has short 
 horns. The name is also applied in 
 Europe to tbe ibex. 
 
 STEM, in botany, the axis of growth 
 of a plant above ground. The stem may 
 be either herbaceous or woody, solid or 
 hollow, jointed or unjointed, branched 
 or simple, upright or trailing, etc. In 
 some plants the stem is so short as to 
 seem to be wanting, the leaves and 
 flower-stalks appearing to spring from 
 the top of the root. There are also stems, 
 such as the rhizome and tuber, which, 
 being subterranean, have been mis- 
 taken for roots. See Botany. 
 
 STENOGRAPHY. See Shorthand. 
 
 STEPHEN, St., there are three saints 
 of this name in the calendar, viz.: (1) 
 The martyr whose death is recorded in 
 the Acts of the Apostles, chapters vi. 
 and vii., and whose festival is held on 
 December 26; (2) Stephen, a pope from 
 253 to 257 (his day is the 2d of August) ; 
 and (3) Stephen the king (Stephen I. of 
 Hungary), a popular saint in Hungary 
 and South Germany. 
 
 STEPHENS, Alexander H., American 
 statesman, was born near Crawfords- 
 ville, Ga., in 1812. In 1834 he was ad- 
 mitted to the bar; was elected to the 
 Georgia legislature in 1836 and to con- 
 gress in 1843, where he at once assumed 
 prominence, as a fearless advocate of 
 the Union. In 1850 he opposed the 
 secession movement. Mr. Stephens in 
 
 1860 made a great Union speech, and in 
 
 1861 became vice-president of the 
 southern confederacy — both times on 
 principle. In 1866 he delivered a strong 
 reconstruction speech and plea for the 
 new freedmen. From 1874 to 1882 he 
 was a member of congress; in the latter 
 year elected governor to Georgia. He 
 died in 1883. 
 
 STEPHENSON (ste'vn-sun), George, 
 engineer, was born at Wylam, near 
 Newcastle, in 1781, and died in 1848. 
 In his fourteenth year he became assist- 
 ant to his father, who was fireman at a 
 colliery, and in 1812 he was appointed 
 to manage the engine at Killingworth 
 colliery. Meanwhile he had been educat- 
 ing himself, chiefly in the science of 
 mechanics, with the result that he 
 obtained permission from Lord Ravens- 
 worth to construct a traveling engine 
 for the colliery tramway. This he ac- 
 complished in 1814, and next year he 
 introduced a great improvement in the 
 shape of the steam -blast. In 1822 he 
 succeeded in inducing the projectors of 
 the Stockton and Darlington railway 
 to adopt an improved locomotive. He 
 was then employed to construct the 
 Liverpool and Manchester railway, the 
 
 directors of which accepted his loco- 
 motive called the Rocket, which at the 
 trial trip in 1830 ran 29 miles in an hour. 
 He was afterward identified with numer- 
 ous railway, undertakings, and he was 
 also the inventor of a miner’s safety- 
 lamp. — Robert, his son, born in 1803, 
 died 1859. He was educated at New- 
 castle; apprenticed to a coal-viewer at 
 Killingworth, and attended the science 
 
 George Stephenson. 
 
 classes in Edinburgh university. After- 
 ward he assisted his father in the survey 
 of various railway lines; and was sub- 
 sequently employed in railway under- 
 takings both at home and abroad. His 
 most notable engineering achievements 
 were the construction of the high-level 
 bridge at Newcastle-on-Tyne, the rail- 
 way bridge at Berwick-on-Tweed, the 
 tubular bridge over the Menai straits, 
 and the Victoria tubular bridge over 
 the St. Lawrence in Canada. 
 
 STEPPES, a Russian name applied to 
 those extensive plains which, with the 
 occasional occurrence of low ranges of 
 hills, stretch from the Dnieper across the 
 southeast of European Russia, round 
 the shores of the Caspian and Aral seas, 
 between the Altai and Ural chains, and 
 occupy a considerable part of Siberia. 
 In spring they are covered with verdure, 
 but for most of the year they are dry 
 and barren 
 
 STERCULIA'CE.®, a natural order 
 of polypetalous exogens, allied to Mal- 
 vaceae. The plants of this order are trees 
 
 or shrubs, wuth alternate, stipulate, 
 simple, and often toothed leaves, with 
 a variable inflorescence. They are 
 natives of tropical and sub-tropical 
 regions. The most important member 
 
 of the order is the cacao-tree ; others are 
 the kola tree, the baobab, the durian, 
 and the silk-cotton tree. The species 
 here illustrated, a native of South and 
 Central America, yields edible seeds as 
 large as a pigeon’s egg. 
 
 STEREOSCOPE, an optical appara- 
 tus which enables us to look at one and 
 the same time upon two photographic 
 pictures nearly the same, but taken un- 
 der a small difference of angular view, 
 each eye looking upon one picture only; 
 and thus, as in ordinary vision, two 
 images are conveyed to the brain which 
 unite into one, the objects being thus 
 represented under a high degree of re- 
 lief. A reflecting form of stereoscope 
 was invented by Wheatstone in 1838. 
 Subsequently Brewster invented the 
 refracting stereoscope, based on the 
 refractive properties of the halves of 
 double-convex lenses. This is the one 
 now in general use. There are many 
 forms of it, but it is generally a kind of 
 small box furnished with two tubes 
 containing each the half of a lens 
 through which the eyes look upon the 
 two pictures at the back of the box. 
 When the tubes are adjusted to suit the 
 eye the observer takes the one picture 
 into the right eye and the other into 
 the left eye, but the perceptive faculty 
 apprehends only one image, and that 
 in bold substantial relief and intensity. 
 
 STEREOTYPING, the art of repro- 
 ducing a form of type in one solid plate. 
 The first stereotyping printing in our 
 country was done in 1775 by Benjamin 
 Mecom, nephew of Dr. Franklin, of 
 Philadelphia. He cast a number of 
 pages of the New Testament. In 1829 
 a Frenchman, named Gerroux, made 
 plates with the use of a long-fibered 
 paper. This was called the papier- 
 m^ch^ process, and as it was much 
 cheaper and more rapid it came into 
 general use. It is to the invention of 
 this process that we owe, indirectly, the 
 rapid newspaper printing presses of to- 
 day. After a form has been locked up, it is 
 sent to the foundry, where it is brushed 
 clean with a soft brush dipped in oil. 
 Several sheets of damp paper pasted to- 
 gether are then placed on top of the type 
 and beaten into it with a stiff brush. It 
 is then covered with a blanket and 
 placed in a steam-heated press, like 
 a letter-copying press. Here under 
 pressure, the paper is dried out until it 
 becomes hard. It is then removed from 
 the form, placed in a casting box and 
 the metal poured onto the paper matrix. 
 When the metal is cool it is taken out 
 and finished. In a newspaper office, 
 the casting box is circular in form and 
 corresponds with the diameter of the 
 cylinder of the press upon which the 
 stereotype, when finished, is fastened. 
 The work is done with such rapidity 
 that it is not uncommon to place a plate 
 upon the press in five minutes after the 
 form has been locked up. If the paper 
 matrix has not been torn it can be used 
 a number of times. Stereotypes have 
 been largely superseded bj' electrotypes, 
 which see. 
 
 STERNE, Laurence, an English 
 humorist, was born at Clonmel, Ireland, 
 in 1713; died in London in 1768. In 
 1759 appeared the two first volumes of 
 his longest work, The Life and Opiniph? 
 
STETHOSCOPE 
 
 STINT 
 
 of Tristram Shandy, which, by their 
 humor, whimsicality, and happy au- 
 dacity of tone and treatment, gained 
 instant popularity. His other writings 
 are A Sentimental Journey through 
 France and Italy (1768), and a number 
 of sermons, besides letters published 
 after his death. Though disfigured 
 by indecency Sterne’s Tristram Shandy 
 and Sentimental Journey, especially the 
 former, contain some of the finest humor 
 in English literature. 
 
 STETH'OSCOPE, an instrument used 
 by medical men for distinguishing 
 sounds within the thorax and other 
 cavities of the body. In its simplest 
 form it consists of a hollow wooden 
 cylinder with one extremity funnel- 
 shaped, the other with a comparatively 
 large circular ivory plate. In using it 
 the funnel-shaped extremity is placed 
 upon the body of the patient, and the 
 ivory plate to the ear of the listener, 
 this broad plate helping to exclude 
 foreign sounds. Flexible instruments of 
 rubber are also used, one of these having 
 two tubes attached to the piece which 
 receives the sounds, these being thus 
 conveyed to both ears simultaneously. 
 
 STETTIN', capital of Pomerania and 
 the chief seaport in Prussia, situated on 
 the Oder 17 miles from its entrance into 
 the Stettiner Haff, 30 miles from the 
 Baltic sea, and about 90' miles by rail 
 from Berlin. Pop. 210,680. 
 
 STEUBEN (stu'ben), Friedrich Wil- 
 helm von, Baron, Germ an- American 
 soldier, was born at Madgeburg, Prus- 
 sia in 1730. He fought in the Seven 
 Years’ war, at the close of which he was 
 appointed grand marshal of the Prince 
 of Hohenzollern-Hechingen. In 1777 he 
 came to America and immediately 
 offered his services as a volunteer to 
 congress. In May, 1778, he was op- 
 pointed instructor-general of the Con- 
 tinental army. He reorganized the army 
 introducing order and system, and 
 enormously increased the general effi- 
 ciency of the army Inl780hepr^areda 
 manual for the army entitled Regula- 
 tions for the Order and Discipline of the 
 Troops of the United States, which came 
 into general use. After the war he re- 
 ceived grants of land from several states, 
 and congress voted him a pension of 
 $2,400. He died in 1794. 
 
 STEUBENVILLE, a city in Ohio, on 
 the west bank of the Ohio river, 68 
 miles below Pittsburg. It has woolen 
 factories, blast-furnaces, rolling-mills, 
 machine-shops, breweries, and there are 
 rich mines of bituminous coal in the 
 neighborhood. Pop. 15,944 
 
 STEVENS, Edwin Augustus, Ameri- 
 can inventor, was born at Hoboken, 
 N. J., in 1795. He invented the “air- 
 tight fire room’’ and its application to 
 vessels, and devoted years to the study 
 of plans formulated with a view to per- 
 fect improvements in naval warfare. 
 The Naugatuck, one of the first ships 
 to attack the Merrimac, was presented 
 to the government by Mr. Stevens; the 
 Stevens battery he donated to New 
 Jersey, and directed in his will that a 
 fund of $1,000,000 should be set apart 
 for its completion. He also founded the 
 Stevens institute at Hoboken, and pro- 
 vided liberally for its support. His death 
 occurred in Paris, France, August, 1868. 
 
 STEWENS POINT, the county seat 
 of Portage county, Wis., 150 miles north- 
 west of Milwaukee, on the Wisconsin 
 river, and on the Wisconsin Central rail- 
 road. Pop. 11,575. 
 
 STEVENS, Thaddeus, American 
 statesman, was born at Danville, Vt., 
 in 1792. In 1814 he removed to Penn- 
 sylvania. In 1833 he became a member 
 of the state legislature. In 1836 he was 
 a delegate to the state constitutional 
 convention. In 1849 he was elected to 
 the United States congress. In 1859 he 
 was again elected to congress, and from 
 then until his death was the recognized 
 leader of the house of representatives. 
 He died in 1868. 
 
 STEVENSON, Adlai E., American 
 statesman, was born in 1835 in Christian 
 CO., Ky. In 1874 and 1878 he was 
 elected member of congress from Illinois 
 by the democratic party. In 1885 he 
 was appointed first assistant postmaster 
 general, and in 1892 was elected vice- 
 president of the United States. He was 
 nominated for vice-president in 1900 
 by the democrats, but was defeated. 
 
 STEVENSON, Robert Louis, was born 
 at Edinburgh in 1845; educated in the 
 university there; was called to the 
 Scottish bar, but devoted himself to 
 literature, and latterly took up his resi- 
 dence in Samoa, where he died in 1894. 
 His works include: An Inland Voyage, 
 Travels with a Donkey in the Cevennes, 
 Virginibus Puerisque, New Arabian 
 Knights, Treasure Island, Dr, Jekyll 
 and Mr. Hyde, Prince Otto, Kidnapped, 
 The Black Arrow, The Master of Bal- 
 lantrae, David Balfour, Catriona, Weir 
 of Hermiston (left incomplete), St. Ives, 
 The Merry Men and OtherTales, aChild’s 
 Garden of Verses, besides poems 
 
 STEWART, Alexander Turney, Irish- 
 American merchant, was born at 
 Lisburn, near Belfast, Ireland, in 1803. 
 In 1823 he emigrated to America, sett- 
 ling in New York City, and in 1825 he 
 established himself in the dry-goods 
 business. In 1848 he built the largest 
 dry-goods store in the world. At the 
 time of his death the business of A. T. 
 Stewart & Co. comprised branches and 
 agencies in the principal cities of Europe, 
 and several mills and Ifactories in the 
 United States. He died in 1876. 
 
 STICKING PLASTER. See Court- 
 Plaster. 
 
 STIGMA, in botany, the upper ex- 
 tremity of the style, and the part which 
 in impregnation receives the pollen. 
 
 a 
 
 Section of flower, s, Stigma. 
 
 It is composed of cellular tissue, has its 
 surface destitute of true epidermis, and 
 is usually moist. In many plants there 
 is only one stigma, while in others there 
 are two, three, five, or many, the num- 
 ber of stigmas being determined by that 
 of the styles. 
 
 STILL. See Distillation. 
 
 STILL'WATER, the county seat of 
 Washington co., Minn., 18 miles north- 
 
 east of St. Paul; on the St. Croix river 
 and lake, and on the Chicago, Milwau- 
 kee and St. Paul, the Chicago, St. 
 Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha, and the 
 Northern Pacific railroads. Pop. 14,715. 
 
 STILT-BIRD, Stilt-plover, a wading 
 bird, having remarkably long slender 
 legs, a feature from which it derives its 
 common name. The stilt-bird of Great 
 
 Stilt-plover. 
 
 Britain has a long straight bill, very 
 long wings for its size, and the legs, 
 which are of a red color, measure from 
 18 to 20 inches. 
 
 STIMULANTS, in medicine, agents 
 which produce a quickly diffused and 
 transient increase of vital engery in the 
 organism or some part of it. Stimulants 
 are of two classes: the one comprises 
 certain medicinal substances; the other 
 warmth, cold, electricity, galvanism 
 and mental agents such as music, joy, 
 hope, etc. In the first class ammonia, 
 alcohol, and sulphuric ether are com- 
 monly employed as stimulants. Stimu- 
 lants have also been divided into general 
 and topical, according as they affect the 
 whole system or a particular part. 
 
 STING, a sharp-pointed weapon or 
 instrument with which certain insects, 
 bees and wasps in particular, are armed 
 by nature for their defense. In most in- 
 stances this instrument is a tube, 
 through which a poisonous matter is dis- 
 charged, which inflames the flesh, and 
 in some instances proves fatal to life. 
 
 STING-RAY, a fish which is allied to 
 that of the rays proper. It is remarkable 
 for its long, flexible, whip-like tail, which 
 is armed with a projecting bony spine, 
 very sharp at the point, and furnished 
 along both edges with sharp cutting 
 teeth. One species is common on the 
 eastern coasts of North America. The'se 
 fishes sometimes inflict serious wounds 
 with their tail. 
 
 STINT, a grallatorial bird, a species of 
 
 American least stint. 
 
 sandpiper. Temminck’s stint is the 
 smallest species of the British sand- 
 
STIPULE 
 
 STOMACH 
 
 pipers, length inches. It inhabits the 
 edges of lakes and inland rivers, and is 
 said to breed in North Europe. 
 
 STIP'ULE, in botany, a small leaf- 
 like appendage to a leaf, commonly 
 situated at the base of the petiole in 
 pairs, one on each side, and either ad- 
 hering to it or standing separate. They 
 are usually of a more delicate texture 
 
 s «, Leaf witli stipules. 
 
 than the leaf, but vary in this respect 
 as well as in form and color They are 
 not found in all plants, but where they 
 occur they frequently characterize a 
 whole family, as in Leguminosae, Rosa- 
 ceae, Malvaceae, etc. 
 
 STIRLING, a royal and parliamentary 
 burgh of Scotland, capital of the county 
 of the same name, situated on a height 
 overlooking the winding course of the 
 river Forth, and 36 miles n.w. from 
 Edinburgh. Pop. 18,403. — The county 
 of Stirling consists of a main portion 
 and two detached areas included in 
 Perthshire and Clackmannanshire ; great- 
 est length about 46 miles; greatest 
 breadth about 20 miles; area, 286,338. 
 acres. Pop. 142,291. 
 
 STOAT. See Ermine. 
 
 STOCKADE', in fortification, a fence 
 or barrier constructed by planting up- 
 right in the ground trunks of trees or 
 
 Stockade. 
 
 rough piles of timber so as to inclose an 
 area which is to be defended. 
 
 STOCKHOLM, the capital of Sweden, 
 beautifully and picturesquely situated 
 between Lake Malar and the Baltic, 330 
 miles northeast of Copenhagen. The 
 chief public building is the royal palace, 
 a fine edifice in the Italian style, other 
 noteworthy edifices are the National 
 library. National museum, Academy of 
 Arts and Sciences, parliament-house, 
 etc. The educational institutions in- 
 clude a medical college, a technological 
 institute, navigation school, school of 
 design, etc. It is besides a place of con- 
 siderable trade, and has manufactures of 
 woolen, linen, cotton, silk, porcelain, 
 glass, tobacco, iron castings, etc. Stock- 
 holm was founded about 1260. Pop. 
 302,402. 
 
 STOCK-JOBBING, the practice of 
 dealmg in stocks or shares, especially 
 
 by persons who buy and sell on the 
 stock exchange on their own account 
 and not for clients, as do the stock- 
 brokers properly so-called. The trans- 
 actions carried out are often entirely 
 of a gambling nature, and the jobber 
 may neither have stock of his own to 
 buy nor to sell. This business is now 
 earned on to an amazing extent, and is 
 of this character: A. agrees to sell B. 
 $50,000 of bank stock, for instance, to 
 be transferred in twenty days, for 
 $60,500. Now if the price of bank stock 
 on the day appointed for transfer should 
 be only $118 per cent, he may then pur- 
 chase as much as will enable him to ful- 
 fil his bargain for $59,000, and thereby 
 gain $1500 by the transaction. Should 
 the price of bank stock, however, ad- 
 vance to $125 per cent, he will have to 
 pay $62,500 for the necessary amount 
 of stock and will thus lose $2,000 by 
 completing his agreement. In effect, 
 the stock is usually never transferred; 
 the difference between the price of the 
 stock on the day of delivery and the 
 price bargained for bemg simply paid to 
 one or other of the parties to the bar- 
 gain. See Bulls and Bears. 
 
 STOCKPORT, a pari., mun., arid 
 county borough of England, partly in 
 Cheshire and party in Lancashire, 5 
 miles southeast of Manchester, on the 
 Mersey. Pop. 92,832. 
 
 STOCKS, an apparatus formerly used 
 for the punishment of petty offenders, 
 as vagrants, trespassers, and the like. 
 
 Prisoners In the stocks. 
 
 It usually consisted of a frame of timber 
 with holes in which the ankles, and 
 sometimes both the ankles and wrists, 
 of the offenders were confined. 
 
 STOCKTON, Frank Richard, Ameri- 
 can author, born at Philadelphia, 1834; 
 attained much popularity by his short 
 stories, which are very numerous, 
 among the best known being the Rudder 
 Grange stories. The Lady or the Tiger? 
 The Ting-a-ling Stories, ete. He also 
 wrote several novels, and stories for 
 children. He died in 1902. 
 
 STODDARD, Richard Henry, Ameri- 
 can poet, critic, and journalist, was born 
 at Hingham, Mass., in 1825. Arnong h s 
 numerous publications are : the juvenii ; 
 Adventures in Fairyland, Songs of 
 Summer, The King’s Bell, a poem ; 
 Abraham Lincoln, a commemoration 
 ode; The Lion’s Cub and Other Poemi:, 
 and Under the Evening Lamp. Stod- 
 dard also edited several anthologies, 
 among them Melodies and Madrigals, 
 Poets and Poetry of America, and Fe- 
 male Poets of America. He died in 1903. 
 
 STOICS, a sect of philosophy . : which 
 flourished first in Greece and subse- 
 
 quently in Rome, so called from the 
 porch or Stoa, at Athens, where Zeno, 
 its founder, taught. It was about b.c! 
 308, fourteen years after the death of 
 Aristotle and thirty-nine years after the 
 death of Plato, that Zeno laid the 
 foundation of the new school. The 
 Stoics are proverbially known for the 
 austerity of theirethical doctrines, which, 
 indeed, quite overshadowed all the rest 
 of their philosophy. With Zeno and his 
 disciples the system appears to have 
 been an attempt to reconcile a theologi- 
 cal pantheism and a materialist psy- 
 chology with a logic which seeks the 
 foundations of knowledge in the repre- 
 sentations or perceptions of the senses, 
 and a morality which claims as its first 
 principle the absolute freedom of the 
 human will. Transferred to the Roman 
 world, this philosophy became a prac- 
 tical rule of life. To Epictetus and the 
 Stoics of the later empire the supreme 
 end of life, or the highest good, is virtue, 
 that is, a life conformed to nature, the 
 agreement of human conduct with the 
 all-controlling law of nature, or of the 
 human with the divine will; not contem- 
 plation, but action, is the supreme 
 problem for man; virtue is sufficient for 
 happiness, but happiness or pleasure 
 should never be made the end of human 
 endeavor. The great struggle of Stoical 
 morality is to subdue all emotion, which 
 in itself is contrary to nature, entirely 
 without utility, and productive only of 
 evil. The wise man alone attains to the 
 complete performance of his duty; he is 
 without passion, although not without 
 feeling; he is not indulgent, but just 
 toward himself and others; he alone is 
 free, having entirely subdued his pas- 
 sions, which are the great barrier to 
 liberty; he is king and lord, and is in- 
 ferior in inner worth to no other rational 
 being, not even to Zeus himself. 
 
 STOKE-UPON-TRENT, a market 
 town and parliamentary borough of 
 England, in Staffordshire. Its extensive 
 manufactures of china and earthenware 
 make it the center of the “Potteries” 
 district. Pop. 89,023. 
 
 STOLA, a garment worn by the Ro- 
 man women over the tunic. It came as 
 low as the ankles or feet, was fastened 
 round the body by a girdle, leaving 
 
 Roman matron attired in the stola. 
 
 broad folds above the breast, and had a 
 flounce sewed to the bottom. It was the 
 characteristic dress of the Roman 
 matrons, as the toga was of the men. 
 
 STOMACH, The, the principal organ 
 of digestic?' m animals, may be regarded 
 
STOMACH-PUMP 
 
 STORY 
 
 simply as an expanded portion of the 
 alimentary canal. The human stomach 
 is of an irregularly conical or pear- 
 shaped form; it is situated in the 
 epigastric region, lying almost trans- 
 versely across the upper and left por- 
 tion of the abdominal cavity, below the 
 liver and midriff and close to the front 
 wall of the abdomen. Its largest ex- 
 tremity is directed to the left, its smaller 
 to the right. Its upper opening, where 
 the oesophagus terminates, is called the 
 cardiac orifice, because of its closeness 
 to the heart; and the lower opening, 
 where the intestine begins, the pylorus, 
 the portion of the intestine which joins 
 it here being the duodenum. At the 
 entrance to the latter is a valve which 
 prevents the contents of the intestine 
 from regurgitating backward. The 
 stomach is composed of four coats or 
 layers, the outermost, or serous ^ayer, 
 forming part of the peritoneum or gen- 
 eral lining membrane of the abdomen. 
 Next is a muscular coat, then an inter- 
 mediate or cellular, and lastly, an inner 
 or mucous coat in which are the orifices 
 of the glands for the secretion of the 
 gastric juice. By its blood-vessels the 
 stomach is intimately connected with 
 the liver and spleen. Its nerves are very 
 numerous, and come from the eighth pair 
 and the sympathetic nerve. By these it 
 is brought into close relationship with 
 the heart, lungs, etc. The stomach owes 
 its digestive powers chiefly to the gastric 
 juice, an acid liquid containing a fer- 
 mentive principle called pepsin that 
 converts albuminous foods into pep- 
 tones capable of absorption. Digestion 
 is also aided by certain stomachic move- 
 ments by which the gastric juice is 
 mixed with the food. (See Digestion.) 
 The stomach is subject to various dis- 
 eases. Acute gastric catarrh, in which 
 the mucous membrane becomes con- 
 gested, may be constitutional; but more 
 probably it arises from errors in diet, 
 excess of alcohol, sudden changes of 
 temperature, etc. In chronic gastric 
 catarrh the congestion becomes per- 
 manent, and the symptoms are such as 
 appear in an aggravated fonn of dys- 
 pepsia. Ulceration of the stomach is a 
 disease of middle life, and seems to occur 
 most commonly among women. The 
 ulcer is at first limited to the inner coat 
 of the stomach, but if not healed it will 
 strike more deeply and probably pene- 
 trate the walls of the stomach. In a case 
 where the stomach adheres, at the seat 
 of the ulcer, to some other organ, actual 
 perforation may be prevented; in which 
 case peritonitis, which is speedily fatal, 
 is not likely to arise. The symptoms of 
 this disease are chiefly pain, vomiting, 
 especially vomiting of blood, and gen- 
 eral dyspeptic symptoms. Cancer of the 
 stomach is not uncommon, though it 
 seldom occurs before the age of forty. 
 Its symptoms are not easily to be de- 
 cided even by a skilful physician. In 
 mammals there are three kinds of 
 stomachs, simple, complex, and com- 
 pound. In the simple it consists of a 
 single cavity, as in man and the carni- 
 vora, etc. This is the most common 
 form. The complex has two or more 
 compartments communicating with each 
 other, with no marked difference of 
 structure, as in the kangaroo, squirrel. 
 
 porcupine, etc. The cetacea have from 
 five to seven such compartments. The 
 compound stomach is peculiar to the 
 ruminants (which see). In animals of 
 the lowest type there is no distinct 
 stomach cavity at all; and even in those 
 more highly organized it is often ex- 
 tremely simple. 
 
 STOMACH-PUMP, a small pump or 
 syringe used in medical practice, for the 
 purpose of emptying the stomach and 
 introducing cleansing or other liquids. 
 It resembles the common syringe, ex- 
 cept that it has two apertures near the 
 end, instead of one, in which the valves 
 open different ways, so as to constitute 
 a sucking and a forcing passage When 
 the object is to be extracted from the 
 stomach, the pump is worked while its 
 sucking orifice is in connection with a 
 flexible tube passed, into the stomach; 
 and the extracted matter escapes by the 
 forcing orifice. When it is desired, on the 
 contrary, to throw cleansing water or 
 other liquid into the stomach, the tube 
 is connected with the forcing orifice, by 
 which the action of the pump is reversed. 
 
 STONE, a hard concretion of some 
 species of earth, as lime, silex, clay, and 
 the like; also, the material obtained by 
 quarrying rocks. The principal com- 
 ponent parts of stones are silex, alumina, 
 zirconia, glucina, lime, and magnesia; 
 sometimes the oxides of iron, man- 
 ganese, nickel, chromium, and copper 
 are also found to enter into their com- 
 position. Stones are of various degrees 
 of hardness and weight; they are brittle 
 and fusible, but not malleable, ductile, 
 or soluble in water. Stones are of ex- 
 tensive use for a great variety of pur- 
 poses — for building, paving, grinding, 
 ornamental purposes, etc. The stones of 
 public buildings are liable to decay from 
 chemical decomposition and mechanical 
 disintegration. To prevent this decay 
 oils and cements have been frequently 
 used, but they have been found to dis- 
 color the stone and require frequent 
 renewal. A siliceous coating applied to 
 the stone seems to be the most effectual 
 remedy. Frederick Ransome has pat- 
 ented a process in which a solution 
 of silicate of soda is first put upon the 
 stone and afterward a solution of 
 chloride of calcium. This process has 
 been received with considerable favor. 
 
 STONE, a common measure of weight. 
 The English imperial standard stone is 
 14 lbs. avoirdupois, but other values 
 are in regular use, varying with the 
 article weighed; thus, the stone of 
 butcher’s meat or fish is 8 lbs., of cheese 
 16 lbs., of hemp 32 lbs., of glass 5 lbs. 
 
 STONE, or CALCULUS. See Calculus. 
 
 Stone-plover. 
 
 STONE-PLOVER, a large species of 
 plover. It appears in England at the 
 
 latter end of April, frequents open hilly 
 situations; makes no nest, but lays two 
 eggs on the bare ground, and emigrates 
 in small flocks about the end of Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 STONES, Precious. See Gems. 
 
 STONEWARE. See Pottery. 
 
 STORK, a name given to tall and 
 stately birds, the beak being moderately 
 cleft and destitute of a nasal furrow. 
 The common stork is pure white, with 
 the exception of the black quill feathers 
 of the wings, the scapularies, and greater 
 wing-coverts, and the red beak, legs, 
 and toes. It is about 3 feet 6 inches in 
 length, and when erect its head is about 
 4 feet from the ground. It is remarkable 
 for its affection toward its young. 
 
 STORM. See Meteorology, Cyclone, 
 Wind. 
 
 STORM-GLASS, a weather-glass con- 
 sisting of a tube containing a chemical 
 solution sensible to atmospheric changes. 
 In fine weather the substancesinsolution 
 are said to settle at the bottom of the 
 tube, leaving the liquid comparatively 
 clear; previous to a storm the substances 
 rise, and the liquid assumes a turbid 
 and flocculenj; appearance. 
 
 STORM-SIGNAL, a cone a-nd drum 
 used at seaports and coast-guard sta- 
 tions to indicate the approach of a storm. 
 The cone exhibited alone with its apex 
 down portends a south gale; with its 
 apex up a north gale. The cone with the 
 apex down and the drum over it por- 
 tends dangerous winds from the south; 
 with the apex up and the drum under 
 dangerous winds from the north. See 
 Weather and Storm Signals. 
 
 STORY, Joseph, LL.D., American 
 lawyer, born 1779, died 1845. In 1808 
 he entered congress, in 1810 became 
 speaker of the Massachusetts state legis- 
 lature, and soon after was appointed a 
 judge of the United States supreme 
 court. In 1829 he became professor of 
 law at Harvard, a position which he held 
 for the rest of his life. His law works 
 include a number of special treatises, 
 commentaries, and judgments, and a 
 collection of his miscellaneous writings 
 was published in 1852. 
 
 STORY, William Wetmore, American 
 sculptor, was born at Salem, Mass., in 
 1819. In 1848 he went to Italy, where 
 he made his home, residing principally 
 at Rome, and died at Vallombrosa. The 
 list of his works as a sculptor includes 
 monuments, statues, ideal figures, and 
 portrait busts. In the Metropolitan 
 museum. New A^ork City, are the statues 
 of Cleopatra and Semiramis; other 
 works by him include a statue of Ed- 
 ward Everett, a statue of George Pea- 
 body, erected in London, and the monu- 
 ment of Francis Scort Keys in the Golden 
 Gate Park, San Francisco. His pub- 
 lished works are The American Question, 
 Roba di Roma, Proportions of the 
 Human Figure, Graffiti d’ltalia, five 
 volumes of his poems, and the Life and 
 Letters of Joseph Story. He was United 
 States commissioner on fine arts to the 
 World’s Fair at Paris (1879), and re- 
 ceived decorations from France and 
 Italy. He died in 1895. — His son, Julian 
 Story, a portrait painter, received a gold 
 medal in Berlin in 1891, was elected a 
 member of the Society of American 
 Artists in 1892, and won a silver medal 
 
STOVE 
 
 STRAUSS 
 
 at tlie Paris exposition of 1900, and was 
 made a chevalier Legion d’Honneur. 
 Among his sitters were King Edward 
 VII. and Emma Eames, the singer whom 
 he married. * 
 
 STOVE, an apparatus of metal, brick, 
 or earthenware, which is heated within 
 by a fire, generally almost excluded from 
 sight. The heating medium may be 
 burning wood, coal, petroleum, or gas. 
 The simplest of all forms is the familiar 
 Dutch stove, a hollow cylinder of iron, 
 standing on the floor, close at top, 
 whence a small flue or chimney pro- 
 ceeds, with bottom bars on which the 
 coals, etc., rest. But as this form was 
 found objectionable from the metal be- 
 coming overheated and the air in the 
 apartment becoming unwholesomely 
 dry, many kinds of improved stoves 
 have now taken its place. 
 
 STOWE (sto), Mrs. Harriet Elizabeth, 
 (Beecher) was born at Litchfield, Con- 
 necticut, in 1812. She^ wrote several 
 tales and sketches, and contributed to 
 the National Era, a newspaper published 
 at Washington, the serial story of Uncle 
 Tom’s Cabin; issued this j^ale in book- 
 
 form in 1852, when it achieved an enor- 
 mous success both in the United States 
 and Europe. Among her other numer- 
 ous writings are: Sunny Memories of 
 Foreign Lands, Dred, a Tale of the Dis- 
 mal Swamp, The Minister’s Wooing, 
 and Lady Byron Vindicated. She died 
 in 1896. 
 
 STRABISMUS. See Squinting. 
 
 STRABO, Greek geographer, a native 
 of Amasia, in Pontus, was born about 
 54 B.C., and died about 21 a.d. His 
 earliest writings were his Historical 
 Memoirs and a Continuation of Polybius, 
 both of whom are now lost. His great 
 work, however, on geography, in seven- 
 teen books, has been preserved entire, 
 with the exception of the seventh book, 
 of which there is only an epitome. The 
 first two books are introductory, the 
 ne.xt ten treat of Europe, the four fol- 
 lowing of Asia, and the last of Africa. 
 
 STEADIVA'RI, Antonio (Stradivar- 
 ius), a celebrated violin-maker, who was 
 born in Cremona, Italy, about 1649; 
 died 1737. He was a pupil of Nicolo 
 Arnati, in whose employment he re- 
 mained until 1700, when he began mak- 
 ing on his own account. It was he who 
 settled the typical pattern of the Cre- 
 
 mona violin, and his instruments, for 
 tone and finish, have never yet been 
 excelled. 
 
 STRAFFORD, Thomas Wentworth, 
 Earl of, an English statesman, Avas born 
 in London in 1593. He sat in parlia- 
 ment for Yorkshire for a number of 
 years, and when Charles I. asserted that 
 the Commons enjoyed no rights but by 
 royal permission, he was strongly op- 
 posed by Sir Thomas Wentworth. 
 Archbishop Laud sent him, in 1832, to 
 Ireland as lord-deputy. Here he greatly 
 improved the state of the country, both 
 as regarded law, revenue, and trade ; but 
 to accomplish his ends he did not 
 scruple to use the strongest and most 
 arbitrary measures. For these services 
 he was created Earl of Strafford. When 
 the Long Parliament met the very first 
 movement of the party opposed to 
 arbitrary power was to impeach Straf- 
 ford of high treason. The king endeav- 
 ored to secure his safety, but yielded 
 to the advice of his counsellors, backed 
 by a letter from Strafford himself, who 
 urged him, for his own safety, to ratify 
 the bill. Staffor<^ was accordingly be- 
 headed on Tower Hill in May, 1641. 
 
 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, a British 
 crown colony, deriving its name from 
 the straits which separate the Malay 
 peninsula from Sumatra. It consists of 
 the island of Singapore (the seat of 
 government) ; the town and province 
 of Malacca; the island of Penang and 
 province of Wellesley; the islands and 
 territory of the Bindings; the Cocos or 
 Keeling Islands as a dependency; and it 
 has an administrative control of the 
 native states of Perak, Selangor, Sungei 
 Ujong, Negri Sembalan, Johore, and 
 Pahang; area, about 35,000 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 572,249; Feudatory states, 676,138. 
 See Singapore, Penang, Malacca, etc. 
 
 STRANGULATION, a sudden and 
 violent compression of the windpipe, 
 constriction being applied directly to 
 the neck, either around it (as in hang- 
 ing) or in the forepart, so as to prevent 
 the passage of air, and thereby suspend 
 respiration and life. If animation is only 
 suspended by strangulation, the methods 
 of restoring it are much the same as in 
 drowning. 
 
 STRAS'BURG, or STRASSBURG, a 
 
 town and fortress of Germany, in Alsace, 
 capital of the territory of Alsace-Lor- 
 raine, on the 111, about 2 miles west of 
 the Rhine, to which its glacis extends 
 250 miles east by south of Paris, and 
 about 370 miles southwest of Berlin. 
 By means of canals which unite the 111 
 with the Rhine, Rhone, and Marne, it 
 is brought into communication with the 
 Atlantic and the Mediterranean. The 
 chief building is the cathedral, a struc- 
 ture which presents the architectural 
 styles of the centuries from the 11th to 
 the 15th, in which it was built, but 
 whose main element is Gothic. The 
 other notable buildings are the church 
 of St. Thomas, the Teinple-Neuf or 
 Neukirche, the old episcopal palace, the 
 town-house, the new university build- 
 ing, opened in 1884, and the new im- 
 perial palace. The old episcopal palace 
 contains the university and town library 
 numbering 600,000 volumes. Pop. 
 150,268. 
 
 STRATEGY may be defined as the art 
 
 of moving troops so as to be enabled 
 either to dispense with a battle, or to 
 deliver one with the greatest advantage 
 and with the most decisive results. 
 Tactics is the art of handling troops 
 when in actual contact with the enemy. 
 
 STRATFORD-UPON-AVON, a munic- 
 ipal borough and market-toAvn of 
 England, in Warwickshire, 100 miles 
 by rail from London, famous as the 
 birthplace of Shakespeare. The chief 
 objects of interest are the house in 
 which Shakespeare was born, and the 
 parish church in which he was buried. 
 Shakespeare’s remains were interred in 
 the chancel, and against the north wall 
 are his monument and bust. There are 
 several other churches, a town-hall, 
 guild-hall, Shakespeare memorial the- 
 ater library, and picture-gallery. Pop. 
 8310. 
 
 STRATUM, in geology, a layer of any 
 deposited substance, as sand, clay, lime- 
 stone, etc., which has been originally 
 spread out over a certain surface by the 
 action of water, or in some cases by 
 Avind, especially such a layer when form- 
 ing one of a number superposed and 
 forming a mass of rock. When strata 
 do not lie horizontally but are inclined, 
 they are said to dip toAvard some point 
 
 Unconformable strata. 
 
 of the compass, and the angle they make 
 with the horizon is called the angle of 
 dip or inclination. When strata pro- 
 trude aboAm the surface, or appear un- 
 covered, they are said to crop out. They 
 are said to be conformable AA'hen their 
 planes are parallel, whatever their dip 
 may be; and unconformable when there 
 is a Avant of parallelism between the 
 strata. See Geology. 
 
 STRATUS. See Cloud. 
 
 STRAUS (strous), Oscar Solomon, 
 American diplomat, was born at Atter- 
 berg, in Rhenish Bavaria in 1850. He 
 came to the United States in 1854, and 
 liA’^ed in Georgia until the close of the 
 civil AA’ar. In 1887-89 he was minister 
 to Turkey, and AA'as reappointed by 
 President McKinley, remaining there 
 till 1900. On January, 14, 1902, he was 
 named a member of the Permanent 
 Court of Arbitration at The Hague to 
 fill the place left Amcant by the death of 
 ex-President Harrison. In 1907 he 
 entered the cabinet of President Roose- 
 A'elt as secretary of commerce. His 
 published works include: The Origin of 
 the Republican Form of Govermnent in 
 the United States, Roger Williams, the 
 Pioneer of Religious Liberty, The De- 
 velopment of Religious Liberty in the 
 United States, and Reform in the Con- 
 sular Service. 
 
 STRAUSS (strous), DaAnd Friedrich, 
 was born at Ludwigsburg, Wiirtemberg, 
 in 1808, and died 1874. He Avent to 
 
STRAUSS 
 
 STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS 
 
 Berlin in 1831 to study under Schleier- 
 macher and Hegel; returned to Tubin- 
 gen and lectured on logic and philosophy 
 and published in 1835 his famous Life 
 of Jesus, in which he attempted to prove 
 that the gospel narratives had a myth- 
 ical origin and growth. His subsequent 
 writings were: Christliche Glaubens- 
 lehre, Life of Schubert, Life of Christian 
 Marklin, Life of Ulrich von Hutten, 
 Leben Jesu fiir das Deutsche Volk (Life 
 of Jesus for the German People), Der 
 Christus des Glaubens und der Jesus 
 der Geschichte (The Christ of Faith and 
 the Jesus of History), and De ralte und 
 der neue Glaube (The Old and the New 
 Faith), in which he defines his final 
 attitude to Christianity, that being now 
 entirely hostile. His more important 
 works have been translated into English. 
 
 STRAUSS, Johann, German com- 
 poser, born 1625. He has written over 
 400 waltzes, many of them world- 
 famous, the best known being The 
 Beautiful Blue Danube Waltz, and is 
 the author of several successful oper- 
 ettas. He died in 1899. 
 
 STRAWBERRY, a well-known fruit 
 and plant. It is remarkable for the 
 manner in which the receptacle, com- 
 monly called the fruit, increases and 
 becomes succulent; but the true fruit is 
 the small seeds or achenes on the sur- 
 face of the receptacle. The species are 
 perennial plants throwing out runners 
 which take root and produce new plants ; 
 they are natives of temperate and cold 
 climates in Europe, America, and Asia. 
 Strawberries are much valued for 
 dessert, and for purposes of jam-making. 
 The strawberry thrives in any good 
 garden soil, and is propagated by seeds, 
 by division of the plant, and by runners. 
 
 STRAWBERRY-PEAR, a plant of the 
 cactus family, which grows in the West 
 
 Strawberry -pear. 
 
 India islands. Its fruit is sweetish, 
 slightly acid, pleasant, and cooling. 
 
 STRAWBERRY-TOMATO, the name 
 of a plant of the genus Physaiis, nat. 
 order Solanaceae, known also as winter- 
 cherry, cultivated for its fruit, which is 
 of a bright red color, of the size of a 
 small cherry, and makes a delicate 
 sweetmeat. 
 
 STRAW PLAIT, straw plaited or 
 braided into strips or tissues of some 
 size for making hats, bags, ornaments, 
 etc. In the manufacture of straw hats 
 the straw must be of a certain length 
 between the knots and must not be 
 brittle; and these qualities are found 
 
 most frequently in the wheat grown in 
 Tuscany, where the well-known Leghorn 
 hats are made. When the grain is still 
 green the straw is pulled up by the roots, 
 dried in the sun, bleached by means of 
 sulphureous fumes, split by a machine, 
 and then plaited into hats. 
 
 STREATOR, (stre'tor), a city in La 
 Salle CO., 111., 94 miles southwest of 
 Ghicago; on the Vermilion river, and on 
 the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, 
 the Chicago and Alton, the Wabash, 
 the Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa, and the 
 Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe rail- 
 roads. Pop. 16,800. 
 
 STREETS, Pavement of. See Pave- 
 ment. 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. The 
 
 strength of any material is the resistance 
 which it opposes to alteration of form 
 or to fracture by an application of force. 
 Materials are subject to many forms 
 of strains, and some are better qualified 
 to resist strains of a certain kind than 
 others. Stone, for example, is adrnir- 
 ably constituted for supporting im- 
 mense weights, but it would not offer 
 much resistance to a direct pull. 
 Wrought-iron is superior to cast-iron 
 in resisting a pull or tensile stress, but 
 the latter excels the former in its resist- 
 ance to a thrust or compressive stress. 
 A material is exposed to five distinct 
 strains; a tensile or stretching strain in 
 the direction of its fibers, as in the case 
 of ropes, tie-beams, etc.; a transverse 
 strain acting perpendicularly or ob- 
 liquely to its length, as in levers, joists, 
 etc.; a crushing strain by pressure, as 
 in the case of pillars, posts, etc.; a tor- 
 sional or twisting strain acting in a 
 perpendicular direction at the extremity 
 of a lever or otherwise, as in axles, crank- 
 shafts, etc.; and a shearing force ap- 
 plied laterally, as in the case of a shear- 
 ing-machine for cutting through iron 
 plates and bars. Wrought-iron and 
 steel offer the greatest resistance to 
 tensile strains; the strength of wood in 
 this direction varies according to its 
 seasoning and specific _ gravity. The 
 heavier the wood is, in general, the 
 stronger it is. The transverse strength of 
 beams is determined largely by their 
 elasticity. This property varies greatly 
 in different materials. Wood has a 
 greater elastic range of action than iron 
 or steel bars, and consequently sinks 
 or deflects to a greater degree under a 
 given weight. Any strain beyond the 
 elastic limit entails fracture. Increased 
 stiffness or transverse resistance of 
 beams is rapidly obtained with an in- 
 crease of depth of the beam. With the 
 exception of wood, materials offer a 
 greater resistance to a crushing force 
 than to a tensile strain. Cast-iron is 
 superior to wrought-iron in this respect, 
 and is consequently much employed in 
 the construction of girders and other 
 supports. Torsional stress tries the 
 solidity and tenacity of metals more 
 than any other kind of stress. But the 
 torsional strength of shafts increases 
 very rapidly as the diameter is enlarged. 
 The distribution of material in hollow 
 forms conduces to the greatest strength 
 and stiffness in combination with the 
 minimum consumption of material. A 
 familiar instance of the hollow construc- 
 tion is the stem of grasses, and especially 
 
 the bamboo, vdiile another example is 
 that of the hollow bones of animals. 
 
 STREPSIP'TERA, a small and very 
 peculiar and anomalous order of in- 
 sects. The females are wingless, and 
 live as parasites in the abdomens of bees, 
 wasps, and other insects. The males 
 have the front pair of wings in the form 
 of twisted filaments, the posterior pair 
 are fan-shaped and membranous. The 
 jaws are rudimentary. The heads of the 
 
 a, Stylops Dalii, male insect. 6, Do. magnified, 
 c, Anterior wings, d, Double antennae. 
 
 parasitic females protrude from be- 
 tween the abdominal joints of their 
 host. The strepsiptera are viviparous, 
 and the larvae are little caterpillars 
 which attach themselves to the bodies 
 of wasps and bees. The female larvae 
 never leave their hosts; the male larvae 
 undergo their metamorphosis within the 
 bodies of their hosts, from which in due 
 time they emerge as perfect winged 
 m dl0s 
 
 STREPSIRHI'NA, one of the three 
 chief divisions into which the order 
 Quadrumana or monkeys is sometimes 
 arranged, represented by such forms 
 as the aye-aye or cheiromys of Mada- 
 gascar, by the lemurs, loris, etc. See 
 Lemur, etc. 
 
 STRESS, in mechanics, a term some- 
 times used as equivalent to strain, at 
 other times used as the force producing 
 strain, the latter referring to the amount 
 of change produced. See strain. 
 
 STRICKLAND, Agnes, an English 
 authoress, born 1796 at Reydon Hall, 
 near Southwold, Suffolk. She wrote, 
 in conjunction with her sister Elizabeth, 
 Lives of the Queens of England (twelve 
 vols., 1840-48) ; Lives of the Queens of 
 Scotland (eight vols., 1850-59). She 
 also published Letters of Mary Queen of 
 Scots, with an Historical Introduction 
 and Notes; Lives of the Bachelor Kings 
 of England; Lives of the Tudor Prin- 
 cesses; poems, stories, etc. She died 
 in 1874. 
 
 STRICTURE, a contraction of a tube, 
 duct, or orifice; for instance, of any 
 part of the alimentary canal or of the 
 urinary passages. This disease usually 
 affects the urethra and is treated by 
 dieting and dilatation of the passage by 
 means of catheters 
 
 STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, when 
 employes cease to work to enforce a de- 
 mand upon an employer it is called a 
 strike. When the employer shuts down 
 his establishment to compel his men to 
 comply with a demand it is called a 
 lockout. The first recorded strike in the 
 United States is that of journeymen 
 bakers of New York in 1741. The first 
 of the great historic strikes occurred in 
 1877, when the employes of the Balti- 
 more & Ohio railroad at Martinsburg 
 refused to accept a reduction of 10 per 
 cent in wages. In this strike not only 
 
STROMBUS 
 
 STROPHE 
 
 the state militia, but the United States 
 troops, were called out to quell riots and 
 disturbances. Another great strike was 
 the one on the Pennsylvania railroad, 
 which broke out at Pittsburg on June 
 27, 1877. Still another notable strike 
 w'as that of the telegraphers, which 
 occurred in 1883. This took place to 
 secure the abolition of Sunday work 
 without extra pay, and the “equaliza- 
 tion of pay between the sexes for the 
 same work.” The strike lasted from 
 
 any recognition of the miners’ right to 
 interfere with their business. When the 
 price of coal became excessive because 
 of its scarcity. President Roosevelt per- 
 suaded both sides to agree to arbitration 
 by a board appointed by him. This 
 commission increased the wages of the 
 miners 10 per cent, denouncing boy- 
 cotting and blacklisting. It estimated 
 the loss due to the strike was: To mine 
 owners, $46,100,000; to employes, $25,- 
 000,000; to transportation companies, 
 
 CAUSE OR OBJECT 
 
 FOR INCREASE OF WaOES 
 lOAINST REDUCTION OF WAOES 
 FOR REDUCTION OF HOURS 
 FOR LABOR UNIONISM 
 SYMPATHETIC STRIKES 
 
 ALL OTHER CAUSES 
 TOTAL 
 
 PER CENT OF ESTABLISHMENTS IN WHICH STRIKES 
 SUCCEEDED. SUCCEEDED PARTLY. AND FAILED 
 » ao 30 y y y yywa 
 
 SUCCECOEO 
 
 
 FAILED 
 
 Results of strikes undertaken for five leading causes in twenty years. 
 
 July 19 to August 23, and was unsuc- 
 cessful, the loss to employes being about 
 $250,000, while they expended about 
 $62,000 assisting destitute operators. 
 The strikes on the Gould system in 1885 
 and 1886, and the Homestead strike in 
 1892 were important uprisings, the 
 latter being considered the bitterest 
 labor war ever waged in this country up 
 to that time. It was the first labor dis- 
 turbance in which Pinkerton detectives 
 played an important part. These men 
 were particularly objectionable to the 
 strikers who stoned them, resisted their 
 approach with firearms, and sprayed the 
 boats in which they came with pe- 
 troleum, intending to burn the detec- 
 tives out. The Chicago strike of 1894 
 grew out of a demand of some Pullman 
 employes for restoration of wages paid 
 the previous year, but the company 
 refused to pay the old wages on account 
 of a reduction in the volume of business. 
 Out of this little beginning grew a strike 
 the cost of which amounted to about 
 $700,000 in property destroyed and 
 hire of United States marshals. The 
 roads lost in earnings $5,000,000, and 
 the employes lost more than $350,000. 
 Workmen on railroads radiating from 
 Chicago lost nearly $1,400,000 in wages 
 and the loss to the country at large was 
 estimated at many millions of dollars. 
 Riots, intimidations, assaults, murder, 
 arson, and burglary were some of the 
 accompaniments of the great strike, 
 and it took 14,186 men, police and mili- 
 tary, to restore order. The largest strike 
 in America was that of the anthracite 
 coal miners, which began May 12, 1902, 
 involving 147,500 men. It was due to 
 the refusal of the presidents and direc- 
 tors of the coal operating railroads to 
 comply with the employes’ demands 
 for an increase of 20 per cent in wages 
 to miners paid by the ton. and a reduc- 
 tion of the hours of a days’ labor from 10 
 to 8 without decrease in wages. The 
 employers contended they could not 
 afford the demands and also opposed 
 
 $28,000,000; total, $99,100,000. Pro- 
 vision was made for arbitration. When 
 the agreement expired March 31, 1906, 
 the men again struck to enforce their 
 original demands, but after being out 
 six weeks agreed to continue the agree- 
 ment until 1909. For the twenty years’ 
 period ending with the last census year, 
 according to the United States labor 
 
 Partly 
 
 Successful. Successful Failed 
 
 Strikes 50.77 13.04 36.19 
 
 IwOCkoutS 50.79 6.28 42.93 
 
 '■■tUOCCCOCO tUCCICOCO WBTtT • I 1 rAIL£0 
 
 Results of strikes ordered by labor organiza- 
 tions and strikes not so ordered in 
 twenty years. 
 
 bureau, the strikes of the country have 
 cost the employe in loss of wages 
 $257,863,478; the unions in contribu- 
 tions to their fellows, $16,174,793; the 
 employers, $122,731,120. Each of the 
 6,105,693 employes lost $42 in wages, 
 irrespective of the contributions of the 
 
 sympathizing unions. In the lockouts 
 instituted by the employers a still 
 greater per capita loss came to the 
 employes. The individual cost to the 
 employe was $97, with $4,915 cost to 
 each establishment imposing the lock- 
 out. The strike loss to each establish- 
 ment under strike duress was only 
 $2,194 in the twenty years. The greatest 
 single year of loss to employes and em- 
 ployers was in 1894, when the sum 
 totals were respectively $37,145,532 
 and $18,982,129. Considering the strike 
 and the lockout as the force measures 
 of the two sides to labor troubles, it is 
 a toss up as to which is the more success- 
 fully carried to a finish. The percentage 
 of success and failure is shown in the 
 preceding tabulations: 
 
 These trades and industries involved 
 in greatest numbers are as follows. 
 
 Building trades 
 
 Strikes 
 
 ..4,440 
 
 Lockouts 
 
 95 
 
 Coal and coke workers . . . 
 
 ..2,515 
 
 45 
 
 Metals and metal goods. . . . 
 
 ..2,080 
 
 130 
 
 Clothing 
 
 ..1,638 
 
 100 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 .,1,509 
 
 124 
 
 Transportation 
 
 ..1,265 
 
 23 
 
 Stone quarrying and cutting.. 
 
 .. 856 
 
 43 
 
 Boots and Shoes 
 
 .. 862 
 
 59 
 
 Printing and publishing 
 
 .. 765 
 
 88 
 
 Machines and machinery 
 
 .. 453 
 
 25 
 
 A tabulation of the causes for strikes 
 in the order of their number is: 
 
 Increase of wages 33,731 
 
 Increased wages and reduced hours 13,201 
 
 Reduced hours 13,116 
 
 Against wage reduction 8,423 
 
 Sympathetic strikes 4,078 
 
 Against employment of non-union men,. 2,751 
 
 New rules and scales 2,742 
 
 Recognition of union 1,649 
 
 Increased wages and recognition of 
 
 unions 1.111 
 
 Enforcing union rules 1,068 
 
 For reinstatement of discharged em- 
 ployes 868 
 
 Adoption of union scale 928 
 
 Against task system 917 
 
 Against reduction of wages and over- 
 time 750 
 
 Increase of wages and Saturday half 
 
 holiday 729 
 
 It requires twice as much time to pre- 
 pare for a general strike as that general 
 strike will last. A strike lasts 23.8 days; 
 preparation for the strike of any mag- 
 nitude will require sixty days before it 
 is in effect. 
 
 STROMBUS, the name given by Lin- 
 naeus to a genus of gasteropodous shells, 
 now broken up into several genera. 
 The aperture is much dilated, the lip 
 expanding and produced into a groove. 
 
 Winged strombus. 
 
 In some of the shells of this genus there 
 are spines of great length arranged 
 round the circumference of the base, 
 being at first tubular, and afterward 
 solid, according to the period of growth. 
 
 STRO'PHE, the name of one of the 
 divisions of a Greek choral ode. cor- 
 responding to the antistrbphe. Th'? 
 
STRYCHNINE 
 
 SUBJECT 
 
 singing of the strophes on the stage was 
 accompanied with a motion or turn from 
 right to left; the singing of the anti- 
 strophe, with a contrary motion, from 
 the left to the right. 
 
 STRYCHNINE (strik'nTn'l , an alkaloid 
 existing in nux-vomica, St. Ignatius 
 beans, and in various other plants of the 
 genus of Strychnos. Strychnine may 
 be prepared from nux-vomica by treat- 
 ing with rectified spirit, acetate of lead, 
 etc., precipitating with ammonia, dis- 
 solving the precipitate with alcohol, 
 and crystallizing. Strychnine fonns 
 colorless four-sided prisms, which are 
 inodorous and intensely poisonous. One- 
 eighth of a grain of strychnine is suffi- 
 cient to kill a large dog: three-eights of a 
 grain produces violent tetanic spasms 
 in man, while half a grain has been 
 known to prove fatal. When taken in 
 small doses for a long period of time 
 the drug produces increased excitability 
 of the nerves. Strychnine resists putre- 
 faction, and may therefore be detected 
 in bodies which have been buried for a 
 long time. This alkaloid combines with 
 acids, forming a series of well-defined 
 salts; a series of strychnine derivatives 
 is also known, in which the hydrogen is 
 partly replaced by such groups as ethyl, 
 amyl, etc. 
 
 STRYCHNOS (strik'nos), a genus of 
 plants, composed of trees or shrubs 
 which do not yield a milky juice, and 
 have opposite, usually nerved leaves 
 and corymbose flowers; some of the 
 species are possessed of tendrils, and are 
 climbing plants. They are found princi- 
 pally in the tropical parts of Asia and 
 America. Among the species are nux- 
 vomica, poison-nut, or ratsbane, clear- 
 ing-nut, St. Ignatius’ bean, snakewood, 
 woorali or poison-plant of Guiana. 
 
 STUART, Gilbert, American portrait 
 painter, was born at Narragansett, R. I., 
 in 1755. After several trips to England 
 he established a studio in Philadelphia, 
 where the first Washington portrait 
 was painted in 1795. Stuart’s portraits 
 of Y-ashington are the most famous of 
 artist and sitter. Nearly forty replicas 
 of his various Washington portraits 
 have been traced. The list of his sitters 
 includes the first five presidents of the 
 United States, Edward Everett, John 
 Jay, Jacob Astor, Judge Story, W. E. 
 Channing, Josiah and Edmund Quincy, 
 O. H. Perry, Jerome and IVIme. Bona- 
 parte. During his residence in England 
 he painted King George III., also George 
 IV. while Prince of Wales, Louis XVI. 
 of France (at Paris), Mrs. Siddons, Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds, Benjamin West, and 
 a notable picture of “W. Grant Skating 
 in Saint James Park,” which made his 
 reputation in England. He died in 1828. 
 
 STUART, James Ewell Brown, con- 
 federate officer, born in Patrick co., Va., 
 in 1833. With the commission of second 
 lieutenant he entered the army and 
 fought Indians for three years. In 1861 
 he joined the confederate army with the 
 tank of colonel, and serv'ed throughout 
 the war, greatly distinguished himself. 
 He fought with Jackson and Lee, and 
 won some very important battles, gain- 
 ing the rank of general. With the ex- 
 ception of Sheridan, General Stuart was 
 without doubt the foremost cavalry 
 .leader in either army. The boldness and 
 
 rapidity of his movements were remark- 
 able. His death in 1864 resulted from a 
 wound received in the battle of Yellow 
 Tavern, Hanover co., Va. 
 
 STUCCO (stuk'ko), a fine plaster, 
 used as a coating for walls; and to give 
 them a finished surface. Stucco for in- 
 ternal decorative purposes is a compo- 
 sition of very fine -sand, pulverized 
 marble, and gypsum, mixed with water 
 till it is of a proper consistency. The 
 stucco employed for external purposes 
 is of a coarser kind, and variously pre- 
 pared, the different sorts being generally 
 distinguished by the name of cements. 
 Some of these take a surface and polish 
 almost equal to that of the finest mar- 
 ble. The third coat of three-coat plaster 
 is termed stucco, consisting of fine lime 
 and sand. There is a species called 
 bastard stucco, in which a small portion 
 of hair is used. 
 
 STUDDING-SAILS, formerly called 
 scudding-sails, fine-weather sails set out- 
 side the square sails. The top-mast and 
 top-gallant studding-sails are those 
 which are set outside the top-sails and 
 top-gallant-sails; they have yards at 
 the head, and are spread at the foot by 
 booms which slide out on the extremities 
 of the lower and top-sail yards, and 
 their heads or yards are hoisted up to 
 the top-sail and top-gallant-sail yard- 
 arms. See Sail. 
 
 STURGEON, the general form of the 
 sturgeon is elongated and rather slender, 
 the snout long and pointed ; the body is 
 covered with numerous bony plates 
 in longitudinal rows ; the exterior portion 
 of the head is also well mailed; the 
 mouth placed under the snout is small 
 and funnel-shaped, without teeth, and 
 provided with tentacle-like filaments or 
 barbules. The eyes and nostrils are on 
 the side of the head. On the back is a 
 single dorsal fin, and the tail is forked, 
 but is heterocercal or unequally lobed, 
 and is provided with a row of spines 
 along its upper margin. The sturgeons 
 are sea-fish, but ascend the larger rivers 
 of Europe in great abundance, and are 
 
 Sturgeon. 
 
 the objects of important fisheries. The 
 flesh of most of the species is , wholesome 
 and agreeable food; their roe is con- 
 verted into caviare, and their air-bladder 
 affords the finest isinglass. The common 
 sturgeon is found off the British coasts, 
 in the North sea, in the Mediterranean 
 and in most of the large rivers of Europe. 
 Its flesh is firm and well-flavored, some- 
 what resembling veal. The general body 
 color is yellow; its length is usually 5 
 or 6 to 8 feet, but it may reach 12 feet. 
 The food consists of molluscs, small 
 crustaceans and small fishes. The great 
 or white sturgeon, or beluga is found in 
 the Danube, the Volga, and other rivers 
 running into the Black and Caspian 
 seas. It frequently exceeds 12 and 15 
 
 feet in length, and weighs above 1200 
 pounds. The flesh is not much esteemed, 
 but the finest isinglass is made from its 
 air-bladder. There are several species 
 peculiar to North America. One of these, 
 the fresh-water sturgeon inhabits the 
 great lakes and connected streams. 
 
 STUTTERING, See Stammering. 
 
 STUTTGART, capital of the Kingdom 
 of Wiirtemberg, S. Germany, Beau- 
 tifully situated near the left bank of the 
 Neckar, and closely surrounded by vine- 
 yard slopes, 816 feet above the sea. 
 Stuttgart is the chief center in South 
 Germany for the book trade, connected 
 with which are paper-mills, type-found- 
 ries, printing-presses, and lithographic 
 establishments. Pop. 176,318. 
 
 STUYVESANT (sti've-sant), Peter, 
 born in Holland in 1602; in 1647 was 
 made director-general of the Dutch 
 colony of the New Netherlands, a posi- 
 tion he held until 1664, when the colony 
 fell into the hands of the English and 
 became known as New York. Stuyve- 
 sant went to Holland the next year, but 
 soon returned, and passed the rest of 
 his life at his farm called the Bouwerij, 
 from which the present Bowery in the 
 city of New York has its name. He died 
 in 1682. ■ 
 
 STYLE, in botany the prolongation 
 of the summit of the ovary which sup- 
 ports the stigma. Sometimes it is en- 
 tirely wanting, and then the stigma is 
 sessile, as in the poppy and tulip. 
 When the ovary is composed of a single 
 
 carpel, the style is also single, and the 
 number of styles varies according to the 
 nrmiber of carpels, though when the 
 carpels are numerous the styles may 
 be united. 
 
 STYLE, Old and New. See Calendar. 
 
 STYRTA, a duchy of Austria, bounded 
 by Upper and Lower Austria, Hungary, 
 Croatia, Carniola, Carinthia, and Salz- 
 burg; area, 8670 sq. miles. The whole 
 duchy, with the exception of the south- 
 ern part, is mountainous. The chief 
 sources of wealth are the forests and 
 minerals, dairy-farming, mining, and 
 manufactures. Gratz is the capital. 
 Pop. 1,356,058. 
 
 STYX, in Greek and Roman mythol- 
 ogy, the name of a river of the infernal 
 regions. Styx was also a rivulet in 
 Arcadia, whose water wa^ considered 
 poisonous. 
 
 SUABIA, or SWABIA, an ancient Ger- 
 man duchy. On the division of the king- 
 dom of the Franks in 843, Suabia, along 
 with Bavaria, became as it were the 
 nucleus of Germany, and its rulers con- 
 tinued for many centuries to hold a 
 prominent place in its history. The 
 name of Suabia is given to a division of 
 Bavaria; area, 3730 sq. miles; pop. 
 650,166. Augsburg is its capital. 
 
 1 SUBJECT. See Object. 
 
SUBLIMATE 
 
 SUBWAYS 
 
 SUBLIMATE, Corrosive. See Corro- 
 sive Sublimate. 
 
 SUBLIMATION, a process by which 
 solid substances are, by the aid of heat, 
 converted into vapor, which is again 
 condensed into the solid state by the 
 application of cold. Sublimation bears 
 the same relation to a solid that distilla- 
 tion does to a liquid. Both processes 
 purify the substances to which they are 
 severally applied, by separating them 
 from the fixed and grosser matters with 
 which they are connected. The vapor 
 of some substances which undergo the 
 process of sublimation condenses in the 
 form of a fine powder called flowers 
 such are the flowers of sulphur, flowers; 
 of benzoin, and others of the same kind. 
 
 attainment of her object. In all the 
 cases above mentioned we are moved 
 by a vivid feeling of some greater power 
 than our own, or some will more capable 
 of suffering, more vast in its strength, 
 than our feeble vacillating will. 
 
 SUBLIME PORTE. See Porte. 
 
 SUBMARINE BOAT, a boat that 
 travels completely or partly under the 
 surface of the water. There are two 
 types — the submerged and the submer- 
 gible. Submerged boats are nearly cy- 
 lindrical with pointed ends, the shape 
 being like a Whitehead torpedo. To 
 effect submergence water is admitted to 
 the ballast tanks or it is effected by 
 means of inclined rudders. Submergible 
 boats have two hulls, one inside the 
 
 Submarine torpedo boat. 
 
 Other sublimates require to be in a solid 
 and compact form, as camphor, hydro- 
 chlorate of ammonia, and all the sub- 
 limates of mercury. The substance 
 formed by the process of sublimation is 
 called a sublimate. 
 
 SUBLIME, The. This term is applied 
 both to that quality of objects which 
 produce a mingled feeling of pleasure 
 and awe and to the emotion itself. The 
 invariable condition of the sublime in 
 objects, either material or moral, is 
 vastness, power, or intensity. The in- 
 variable condition of the emotion of 
 sublimity — that which distinguishes this 
 emotion from every other emotion — is 
 a comprehension of this vastness or 
 power, with a simultaneous feeling of 
 our own comparative insignificance. 
 The antithesis to the emotion of sub- 
 limity is the emotion of contempt. In 
 every case of sublimity in material ob- 
 jects, whatever feelings may simultane- 
 ously concur, vastness will be found to 
 be an invariable condition — vastness 
 either of form or of power, as in the 
 violent dashing of a cataract, in the roar 
 of the ocean, in the violence of the 
 storm, in the majestic quiet of Mont 
 Blanc, preserving its calm amid all 
 the storms that play around it. In the 
 moral world the invariable condition of 
 sublimity is intensity. Mere intensity 
 is sufficient to produce the sublime. 
 Lear, who appeals to the heavens, “for 
 they are old like him,” is sublime from 
 the very intensity of his sufferings and 
 his passions. Lady Macbeth is sublime 
 from the intensity of her will, which 
 crushes every feminine feeling for the 
 
 other. To effect submergence water is 
 first admitted to the space between the 
 hulls, and this brings the boat to the 
 “awash” condition. Further submer- 
 gence is effected by permitting the ballast 
 tanks to fill. The record of attempts to 
 perfect submarine vessels begins with the 
 seventeenth century, since which time 
 the problem has well nigh constantly 
 enlisted inventive skill. Almost every 
 year since 1850 has witnessed some new 
 design or practical experiment. The 
 first real success was made by the Amer- 
 ican Engineer, David Bushnell, in 1775. 
 Robert Fulton built a boat (1795-1812) 
 in which on one occasion he was sub- 
 merged for five hours. In recent times 
 many national governments have ex- 
 perimented with various types of the 
 submarine. The United States has had 
 them under consideration for many 
 years. In 1892 an appropriation of 
 $200,000 was made to permit the navy 
 department to build and test a subma- 
 rine. The plans of I. P. Holland were 
 selected. The first Holland boat, the 
 beginning of the really successful sub- 
 marine was built in 1875. After severe 
 test the tenth type of the Holland boat 
 was ordered in 1900. This boat can 
 dive like a duck, and on the surface it 
 makes about 10 miles an hour. It car- 
 ries three torpedo tubes and uses the 
 largest size of Whitehead torpedoes. 
 In 1903 eight submarines were put in 
 commission. The results arrived at dur- 
 ing the Russian-Japanese war will 
 greatly influence the views held as to 
 the military value of submarine craft 
 and the methods of their construction. 
 
 SUBMARINE CABLE, a rope of wires 
 and insulating materials laid along the 
 bed of a sea or ocean through which 
 telegraphic messages are transmitted. 
 The conducting portion of such cables 
 consists of a number of pure copper 
 wires twisted into a strand which is 
 covered with alternate coatings of a 
 pitchy mixture and gutta-percha. This 
 core is then covered with Manila yarn 
 and twisted iron wires. The first at- 
 tempt to lay a submarine cable was 
 made in 1850 between Dover and Calais, 
 but the cable only lasted a few hours 
 owing to friction against the rocks 
 However, electric communication across 
 the channel was re-established not long 
 after. The first Atlantic cable, from 
 Ireland to Newfoundland, was success- 
 fully laid by the Great Eastern in 1866, 
 after unsuccessful attempts in 1857, 
 1858 and 1865. The work of laying the 
 first Pacific cable began in 1902. 
 Signals through the cables are generally 
 recorded by Thomson’s mirror galvanom- 
 eter and also by his siphon recorder, 
 which enables the transmission of mes- 
 sages to be carried on with great rapidity. 
 See Telegraph, Electric. 
 
 SUBORNATION OF PERJURY, the 
 crime of inducing a person to commit 
 perjury; punishable similarly to perjury. 
 See Perjury. 
 
 SUBPCE'NA, in law, is a VTit command- 
 ing a witness to appear in court. When 
 he is required to bring books or papers in 
 his possession, a clause is inserted to that 
 effect, and the writ is then called a sub- 
 poena duces tecum (“bring with you un- 
 der penalty”). A witness is allowed his 
 traveling expenses. 
 
 SUB'SIDY, a term now used to denote 
 the pecuniary assistance afforded, ac- 
 cording to treaty, by one government to 
 another, sometimes to secure its neutral- 
 ity, but more frequently in consideration 
 of its furnishing a certain number of 
 troops. Subsidy was formerly an aid or 
 tax granted to the crown for the urgent 
 occasions of the kingdom, and was levied 
 on every subject according to the value 
 of his lands or goods. 
 
 SUBSTANCE, in a philosophical sense, 
 is contradistinguished fromaccident,and 
 signifies that which exists independently 
 and unchangeably; while accident de- 
 notes the changeable phenomena in sub- 
 stance, whether these phenomena are 
 necessary or, casual, in which latter case 
 they are called accidents in a narrower 
 sense. Substance is, with respect to the 
 mind, a merely logical distinction from 
 its attributes. We can never im.agine 
 it, but we are compelled to assume it. 
 We cannot conceive substance shorn of 
 its attributes, because those attributes 
 are the sole staple of our conceptions; 
 but we must assume that substance is 
 something different from its attributes. 
 Substance is the unlcnown, unknowable 
 substratum on which rests all that we 
 experience of the external world. 
 
 SUBWAYS, tunnels cut or built for 
 various purposes beneath the streets of 
 large cities. Tunnels for sewer, gas and 
 water pipes, telegraph and telephone 
 wires increase the life and general serv- 
 iceability of pavements, prevent inter-, 
 ruption to traffic, facilitate inspect.on 
 and repair, and lessen the number of 
 troublesome and dangerous leaks from’ 
 
SUCCESSION WARS 
 
 SUFFOLK 
 
 water and gas mains. The concentration 
 of population in cities has made it neces- 
 sary to solve suitable and economic 
 means of transportation, etc. The first 
 city to feel the need of subways was 
 London. In 1853 a two track under- 
 ground road was begun. From the be- 
 ginning two lines, the Metropolitan 
 railway and the Metropolitan District 
 railway, were produced. The routes,- 
 however, were not properly selected, 
 and they were not successful. In 1886 
 the first practical tubular railroad was 
 started. It was designed to be operated 
 with cables but before its completion 
 electricity was substituted. The most 
 approved form of subway was intro- 
 duced at Budapest in 1893. It is con- 
 structed with a flat roof, consisting 
 of steel beams with arches turned be- 
 tween them, pennitting the whole 
 structure to be brought close to the sur- 
 face of the street, obviating the use of 
 mechanical means of taking the passen- 
 gers from platform to street level. In 
 the meanwhile lines had been projected 
 in New York and Boston, the first work 
 
 SUCKER, or SUCKING-FISH, a name 
 applied popularly to the Remora (which 
 
 SUCKLING, Sir John, a wit, courtier, 
 and dramatist, born in 1609, at Whitton, 
 in Middlesex. Being implicated in a plot 
 to rescue the Earl of Strafford from the 
 Tower he was obliged to flee to France, 
 where he is said to have committed 
 suicide about 1641. His writings con- 
 sist of letters, miscellaneous poems, 
 including ballads and songs, and several 
 plays, which were probably the first 
 plays produced with stage scenery on an 
 elaborate scale. 
 
 SUDERMANN (zoo'der-man), Her- 
 mann, German dramatist and novelist, 
 born at Matzicken, East Prussia, in 
 1857. He won European fame and 
 assured literary position by a drama 
 Die Ehre, and the novel Dame Care. 
 He followed these up with the novel 
 Regina; the stories Im Zwielicht, the 
 humorous novel lolanthes Hochzeit, 
 and his greatest drama, Magda, a fine 
 novel of moral psychology, Es war. Das 
 Gluck im Winkel and Johannes, a real- 
 
 
 
 Level Sew^ 
 
 Level Sewer 
 
 ^one 
 
 Pftssagetwy and dalle/y^ 
 fyr Blevtrical 
 
 trains} 
 
 'Utah Level Drain 
 Iron Pipe 
 
 “das Service 
 ■ . High Level Water Main 
 yWaitr Service 
 ^^Baseme rTt Floor 
 
 y^f^issageway ancf. , 
 ^ 6alle^ for^Electncal 
 ' 'Wires 
 
 '^^bwap For Flecfrlcal' Mains 
 
 Cross-section of the Chicago subway. 
 
 on subways being begun in the latter 
 city. The subway planned in Boston was 
 partly a two track and partly a four 
 track structure. The subway has been 
 connected with both the surface and 
 elevated systems. The work of building 
 the subway in New T'ork did not 
 begin until 1900. The general type 
 of this subway is of the flat roof shallow 
 form, bringing the rail and platform 
 level as close to the surface of the street 
 as possible. The topography of the city, 
 however, has compelled a departure 
 from this type in several instances so 
 that a portion of the road is deep tunnel 
 and the portion beneath the East river 
 and the approaches thereto of the tubu- 
 lar type. The cost of constructing sub- 
 ways is very great. The New A'ork sub- 
 way being the largest and most com- 
 plete as yet constructed, has cost 
 $47,000,000, being an average exclusive 
 of equipment of more^ than $2,000,000 
 per mile. 
 
 SUCCESSION WARS, wars which 
 have arisen from claims for the posses- 
 sion of the crown on the occasion of a 
 sovereign dying without undisputed 
 legal heirs. In modern European his- 
 tory the most important of these strug- 
 gles were those of the Spanish succession 
 (1700-13), and of the Austrian succes- 
 sion (1740-48). See Spain and Austria. 
 
 istic dramatic presentation of the story 
 of John the Baptist; The Joy of Living, 
 etc. 
 
 SUE (su), Marie - Joseph - Eugene, 
 French novelist, born at Paris in 1804. 
 On his father’s death in 1829 he in- 
 herited an immense fortune, and devoted 
 himself to literary composition. His 
 first work was a sea novel entitled Ker- 
 nock le Pirate, which was quickly fol- 
 lowed by Plick et Plock, Atar-Gull, 
 La Salamandre, and La Vigie de Koat- 
 ven. But his most famous works are 
 The Mysteries of Paris and The Wan- 
 dering Jew. His later novels are L’En- 
 fant Trouv6, Les Sept Pech4s Capitaux, 
 and Les Myst&res du Peuple. In 1850 he 
 was elected to the Constituent assembly, 
 and sat as an advanced radical. After the 
 coup de’6tat by Napoleon III. in 1851, 
 he left France and retired to Annecy, 
 where he died in 1857. 
 
 SUEABORG. See Sweaborg. 
 
 SUET, the fatty tissue situated about 
 the loins and kidneys of certain domestic 
 animals, especially the ox and sheep 
 and which is harder and less fusible than 
 the fat from other parts of the same 
 aniihals. Beef-suet is much used for 
 culinary purposes, and purified mutton- 
 suet forms an ingredient in ointments, 
 cerates, and plasters. 
 
 SU'EZ, a town of Egypt, situated at 
 
 the Red sea, terminus of the Suez canal, 
 76 miles e. of Cairo, with which it is con- 
 nected by rail. Pop. 10,919. 
 
 SUEZ CANAL, the great ship-canal 
 without locks connecting the Mediter- 
 ranean with the Red sea; running from 
 Port Said on the former to Suez on the 
 latter, a distance of nearly 100 miles. 
 According to Herodotus a large canal 
 from the Red sea to the Nile was con- 
 structed about 6000 b.c. This canal, 
 which seems never to have been of much 
 use, was finally blocked up about 767 
 A.D. Napoleon I. had conceived the idea 
 of making a ship-canal across the isthmus 
 of Suez. In 1854 the French engineer M. 
 Ferdinand de Lesseps obtained a con- 
 cession for that purpose, and in 1858 
 was able to form a company for carrying 
 on the work. Operations were begun on 
 the 25th April, 1859, and on the 17th 
 November, 1869, the canal was opened; 
 the total cost of construction was nearly 
 $80,000,000. There were 75 miles of 
 
 miles being through shallow lakes which 
 had to be deepened. A canal was also 
 constructed for bringing fresh water 
 from the Nile at a point near Cairo. This 
 canal reaches the salt-water canal at 
 Ismailia, and then runs almost parallel 
 to the ship-canal to Suez. It is almost 
 40 feet wide and 9 deep, and is used for 
 navigation as well as for domestic pur- 
 poses and irrigation. The land on both 
 sides of the ship-canal is to be retained 
 by the company for ninety-nine years. 
 In November 1875 the British govern- 
 ment bought from the Viceroy of Egypt 
 his interest in the canal, consisting of 
 176,602 shares, for the sum of $20,000,- 
 000. The distance between London and 
 Bombay by the old route round the Cape 
 is about 1 1 ,220 miles ; by the canal route, 
 6332. Steam-ships are allowed to sail 
 at a speed of five to six knots an hour 
 along the canal. 
 
 SUFFOLK (suf'ok; literally south- 
 folk), a maritime county of England, 
 bounded by the German ocean, Essex, 
 Norfolk, and Cambridgeshire. It has a 
 coast-line of about 50 miles, and an 
 area of 1500 sq. miles, or 944,060 acres. 
 Pop. 384,198. 
 
SUFFRAGAN 
 
 SUGAR-CANE 
 
 SUFFRAGAN. See Bishop. 
 
 SUFFRAGE, the right to vote for any 
 purpose, but more especially the right 
 of a person to vote in the election of his 
 political representative. Many writers 
 advocate the universal extension of 
 this right, but in most countries it is 
 limited by a household or other quali- 
 fication. It is generally held by leading 
 politicians that the extension of the 
 suffrage should proceed gradually with 
 the advance of education. 
 
 SUGAR, a name applied to various 
 compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen, all of which have a more or less 
 sweet taste, a neutral reaction to vege- 
 table colors, and are soluble in water. 
 The sugars are generally of vegetable 
 origin; they are mostly crystallizable, 
 and when in solution they rotate the 
 plane of a ray of polarized light. Among 
 all these compounds the sugar of the 
 sugar-cane and beet is distinguished par 
 excellence by the name sugar. It is sup- 
 posed that sugar was first cultivated in 
 India, but a knowledge of the sugar-cane 
 and its method of cultivation was 
 brought from Persia by the Arabs, and 
 given by them to Europe. The Span- 
 iards were the first to plant it in Maderia 
 (1490), from whence it spread to their 
 possessions in the West Indies and 
 South America ; while during the mid- 
 dle ages Venice was the emporium of 
 the trade in sugar. There is a record that 
 so early as 1319 it was shipped from the 
 latter port to London. It was, however, 
 chiefly used as medicine until the be- 
 ginning of the 19th century, when it 
 became a food staple in connection with 
 tea and coffee. Sugar is principally pre- 
 
 E ared from the sugar-cane and from 
 eet. (See Sugar-cane and Beet.) The 
 first operation in the manufacture of 
 sugar from sugar-cane consists in press- 
 ing the juice from the canes. For this 
 purpose the canes are passed under large 
 rollers, which extract about 70 to 90 
 per cent of the juice. The cane-juice is 
 now boiled in copper vessels; milk of 
 lime, sulphurous acid, or phosphoric 
 acid is added to neutralize the vegetable 
 acids (malic, etc.), and at length the 
 sugar crystallizes. The liquid portion 
 remaining is drained off and sold as 
 molasses. In obtaining the juice from 
 beet-root two methods have been 
 adopted. In one of these the roots are 
 placed in a cylinder, where they are 
 mashed to a pulp by rows of saw- 
 toothed blades driven with great rapid- 
 ity, after which the juice is pressed out 
 by means of a hydraulic .press; in the 
 other process the roots are placed in a 
 series of cylinders through which water 
 is forced until the saccharine matter in 
 the roots has all been obtained. By this 
 process as much as 90 per cent of the 
 juice is extracted. When this is accom- 
 plished the expressed juice is heated to 
 about 70° C., milk of lime is added, and 
 the temperature increased; the lime 
 separates the impurities in the form of 
 phosphates and albuminates of calcium, 
 etc., which cover the surface with a white 
 crust. When the boiling juice breaks 
 through the crust the liquid is run off 
 and cleared of the lime by carbonic acid. 
 The syrup is then twice filtered, and 
 allowed to crystallize. The sugar-cane 
 contains about 18 per cent, and the beet 
 
 11.2 per cent of sugar. The first process 
 of refinement is to dissolve the raw sugar 
 in water to which a little lime is added ; 
 this solution is heated by steam and 
 passed through filters, generally con- 
 sisting of deep vats, the bottoms of 
 which are perforated and covered with 
 a thick layer of animal charcoal. The 
 syrup is then collected underneath and 
 boiled down to induce crystallization. 
 The latter operation is conducted in 
 vacuum-pans connected with an air- 
 pipe, a condenser, and a pipe to admit 
 steam. The juice being in the pan, a 
 partial vacuum is produced by means of 
 the air-pump, and steam circulates 
 through a coiled pipe in the pan until 
 the liquid boils, while the vapor thereby 
 produced is removed and condensed. 
 The sugar-syrup is then run out and 
 allowed to crystalize in conical-shaped 
 vessels of clay or sheet-iron; papier- 
 m^lch4 is also used. In these vessels the 
 crystaline mass assumes its marketable 
 form, from which it derives the name 
 of loaf-sugar. After draining the sugar 
 in the moulds the juice is completely 
 removed by a centrifugal machine; the 
 sugar-loaf is then dried. From the 
 syrup which drains off an inferior sugar 
 is obtained, and the remaining un- 
 crystalized syrup is sold as molasses. 
 Sugar-candy is prepared by boiling 
 sugar-syrup with a little animal char- 
 coal, clearing with white of egg, boiling 
 down over an open fire, and crystalizing. 
 Sugar-candy is known in commerce as 
 refined-white, which forms large color- 
 less crystals, and is prepared from re- 
 fined cane-sugar; yellow-candy, forming 
 straw-colored crystals, prepared from 
 boiled sugar; and brown-candy, similar 
 in color to ordinary moist sugar, and 
 prepared from inferior cane-sugar. Sugar 
 candy is largely used for making liquors, 
 sweetening champagne, etc. Sugar is 
 also produced extensively in North 
 America from the rock or sugar maple, 
 in Asia from various species of palms, 
 and in various countries from species 
 of Guinea-corn or sorghum. The com- 
 mon sugars have the general name of 
 cane-sugar. Another form of sugar, 
 called grape-sugar is the type of sugars 
 called glucoses, and is manufactured 
 chiefly for the use of brewers and wine- 
 makers; it is also known as honey-sugar, 
 fruit-sugar, starch-sugar, etc. It occurs 
 in many natural fruits, such as the 
 peach, plum, current, apple, and grape, 
 in quantities varying from 1.5 per cent, 
 in the peach to 15 per cent in the grap)e. 
 It also forms the solid crystaline portion 
 of honey. Grape-sugar may be obtained 
 from grape-juice by heating it with 
 marble, filtering, clearing with ox-blood, 
 evaporating, and crystalizing. It is, 
 however, generally prepared by boiling 
 starch with dilute sulphuric acid; the 
 clear liquid is then run off from the 
 precipitate, evaporated by steam, fil- 
 tered through animal charcoal, and run 
 into the crystalizing vessels. Dextrose 
 or grape-sugar as well as cane-sugar 
 belongs to the class of fermentable 
 sugars. A certain number of other 
 sugars, as mannite or manna-sugar, 
 quercite or oak-sugar, etc., are non- 
 fermentable. Cane-sugar crystalizes in 
 large monoclinic prisms, which when 
 broken exhibit phosphorescence. At 
 
 160° it melts to a clear liquid, which 
 when cool and solidified is commonly 
 known as barley-sugar. The quantity 
 of cane-sugar in a solution which con- 
 tains no other substance may be esti- 
 mated by simply estimating the specific 
 gravity of the solution, but when other 
 bodies are present it must be ascertained 
 by other chemical processes or by means 
 of the saccharometer, which is an instru- 
 ment for determining the rotatory 
 power exercised by a solution of sugar 
 upon a ray of polarized light. Large 
 quantities of sugar from the cane are 
 
 E reduced in India, China, the United 
 tates, Java, Cuba, Demerara, Jamaica, 
 and other parts of the West Indies, 
 0tc 
 
 SUGAR BEET, a vegetable botani- 
 cally of the same species as the garden 
 beet, and important commercially as the 
 source of a very large part of the world’s 
 supply of sugar. The sugar beet thrives 
 upon a rich, loamy soil in a climate hav- 
 ing a temperature of about 70°. The 
 sugar content and yield are influenced 
 by many factors, and field experts are 
 employed to instruct the farmers how 
 to grow beets in the proper way. The 
 average cost of growing an acre of sugar 
 beets is about $30. The average yield is 
 about 12 tons, with an average sugar 
 content of 14.5 per cent., which repre- 
 sents a yield of about 3900 pounds of 
 sugar per acre. 
 
 SUGAR, BEET, the manufacture of 
 sugar from beet roots is a modern in- 
 dustry. Margraff in 1747 announced to 
 the Berlin Academy of Sciences the 
 analyses of several sugar-containing 
 plants and predicted that the sugar beet, 
 being the most saccharine of the plants 
 examined, would become the basis of a 
 great industry. The United States de- 
 partment of agriculture and various 
 experiment stations have assisted 
 greatly in the development of the beet- 
 sugar industry, the capital invested in 
 1907 being more than $30,000,000. 
 
 SUGAR-CANE, a plant from which 
 great part of the sugar of commerce is 
 obtained. It is nowhere found in a wild 
 state, but is probably a native of tropi- 
 cal Asia. It grows to the height of 7 or 
 8 feet or more, and has broad ribbed 
 
 leaves, and smooth shining stems. It is 
 now cultivated in all the warm parts of 1; 
 the globe, such as the West Indies, 
 Brazil, Java, etc., but varies in rapidity h 
 of growth according to the situation, jj 
 the season, or the weather. The sugar- j 
 
SUGAR, maple' 
 
 cane flowers only after the lapse of an 
 entire year, and a plantation lasts from 
 six to ten years. The juice of the cane is 
 so palatable and nutritive that during 
 the sugar harvest every creature which 
 partakes freely of it appears to derive 
 health and vigor from its use. For the 
 process of making sugar, as well as for 
 other infonnation regarding this prod- 
 uct, see the preceding article. 
 
 SUGAR, MAPLE, the manufacture of 
 maple sugar is carried on more or less 
 wherever snaar-maple trees are abund- 
 ant, especially in the Northern Atlantic 
 and Northern Central states, the leading 
 producers being Vermont and New 
 York. The busy period depends upon 
 the locality and upon the season, some- 
 times commencing in February and 
 sometimes lasting until the middle of 
 May, the best flow of sap being when 
 there is a diurnal alternation of thawing 
 and slight freezing. 
 
 SUGAR-MITE, a species of mite fre- 
 quently to be observed in raw sugar, 
 very similar in appearance to the itch- 
 mite. 
 
 SUGAR-OF-LEAD, the common name 
 for acetate of lead . See Lead. 
 
 SU'IDjE, the family of mammals of 
 which the hog is the type. This family 
 is characterized by having on each foot 
 two large principal toes, shod with stout 
 hoofs, and two short lateral toes which 
 
 Characters of suldse. 
 
 a, Skull of wild boar, b, Teeth of upper jaw. 
 c, Teeth of lower jaw. d, Foot, e, Bones of foot. 
 
 hardly touch the earth. The canine 
 teeth project from the mouth and curve 
 upward. The muzzle is terminated by a 
 truncated snout, fitted for turning up 
 the ground. The family includes the 
 wild boar, the wart-hog, and thepeccary. 
 
 SULLA, Lucius Cornelius, Roman 
 dictator, was bom in 138 b.c. He served, 
 with distinction under Marius in the 
 Jugurthine (107 b. c.) and Cimbrian 
 (104-102) wars, and in 93 was chosen 
 praetor. For his services in the Social 
 war (90-88) he was appointed consul 
 (b.c. 88), and the province of Asia, with 
 the conduct of the war against Mith- 
 ridates, fell to his lot. Sulla at the head 
 of his army drove Marius to Africa, and 
 then sailed for Greece at the beginning 
 of 87 B.c. He expelled the amiies of 
 Mithridates from Europe (86), crossed 
 into Asia (84), and was everywhere 
 victorious, gaining plenty of wealth for 
 himself and his soldiers, and forcing 
 Mithridates to conclude a peace. Sulla 
 now hastened to Italy, and landed at 
 Brundusium with 40,000 men, b.c. 83. 
 He gained four battles over the Roman 
 
 P. E — 76 
 
 forces in person, an,d defeated a Sam- 
 nite army under Telesinus. He entered 
 the city victorious in 82, and imme- 
 diately put to death between 6000 and 
 7000 prisoners of war in the circus. 
 Rome and all the provinces of Italy 
 were filled with the most revolting 
 scenes of cruelty. After satisfying his 
 vengeance by the murder or proscrip- 
 tion of thousands he caused himself to 
 be named dictator for an indefinite 
 period (b.c. 81). He now ruled without 
 restraint, repealed and made laws, 
 abolished the tribuneship, and settled 
 his veterans in various parts of Italy. 
 In 79 B.c. he laid down his dictatorship, 
 and retiring to Puteoli abandoned him- 
 self to all sorts of debauchery. He died 
 in 78 B.c. See Rome. 
 
 SULLIVAN, Sir Arthur Seymour, born 
 in London 1842. He has written orator- 
 ios (Prodigal Son, Light of the World), 
 anthems, songs, etc.; but his most 
 popular compositions are the burlesque 
 operettas which he has produced in con- 
 junction with W. S. Gilbert. Among the 
 most popular of these are H. M. S. Pina- 
 fore, Pirates of Penzance, Patience, 
 Mikado, and the Gondoliers. In 1886 
 he set to music an arrangement of Long- 
 fellow’s Golden Legend, which is one 
 of his finest compositions. He was 
 knighted in 1833. He died on Nov. 22, 
 1900. 
 
 SULLY, Maximilien de B^thune, Due 
 de. Marshal of France and first minister 
 of Henry IV., was born in 1560. In 
 1597 he was appointed controller of 
 finance, and by his excellent adminis- 
 tration largely reduced taxation, and 
 eventually paid off a state debt of 
 300,000,000 livres. In 1606 the territory 
 of Sully-sur-Loire was elected into a 
 duchy in his favor. After the murder 
 of Henry IV. (1611) he retired from 
 court and resigned most of his charges. 
 He was created a marshal by Richelieu 
 in 1634, and died in 1641. 
 
 SULPHATES, salts of sulphuric acid. 
 Sulphuric acid is dibasic, forming two 
 classes of sulphates, viz. neutral sul- 
 phates, in which the two hydrogen 
 atoms of the acid are replaced by metal, 
 and acid sulphates, in which one hydro- 
 gen atom only is so replaced. Of the 
 sulphates, some are found native; some 
 are very soluble, some sparingly soluble, 
 and some insoluble. The most important 
 sulphates are — sulphate of aluminium 
 and potassium, or alum; sulphate of 
 ammonium, employed for making car- 
 bonate of ammonia; sulphate of copper, 
 or blueVitriol,much used as an escharotic 
 in surgery, and also used in dyeing and 
 for preparing ^certain green pigments; 
 sulphate of iron, or green vitrol, used in 
 making ink, and very extensively in 
 dyeing and calico-printing; it is also 
 much used in medicine ; sulphate of cal- 
 cium, or gypsum; sulphate of mag- 
 nesium, or Epsom salts; sulphate of 
 manganese, used in calico-printing; 
 sulphate of mercury, used in the prep- 
 aration of corrosive sublimate and of 
 calomel; bisulphate of potash, much 
 used as a flux in mineral analysis; sul- 
 phate of sodium, or Glauber’s salts; 
 sulphate of quinine, much used in medi- 
 cine; sulphate of zinc, or white vitriol, 
 used in surgery, also in the preparation 
 of drying oils for varnishes, and in the 
 
 SULPHUR 
 
 reserve or resist pastes of the calico- 
 printer. Many double sulphates are 
 known. 
 
 SULPHUR, an elementary, non- 
 metallic, combustible substance which 
 has been known from the earliest ages; 
 chemical symbol, S. It frequently 
 occurrs in a pure state in beds of gypsum 
 or clay, but is generally associated with 
 sulphate of strontium. It also occurs 
 in chemical combination with oxygen 
 and various metals, forming sulphates 
 and sulphides. It is found in greatest 
 abundance and purity in the neighbor- 
 hood of volcanoes, modern or extinct, 
 as in Sicily; and as an article of com- 
 merce is chiefly imported from the 
 Mediterranean. It is also found in Ice- 
 land, California, and Mexico. That 
 which is manuafetured in Britain is 
 obtained by the roasting of iron pyrites; 
 the condensed mass of sulphur thus 
 obtained is broken into lumps and dis- 
 stilled. Native sulphur is usually sepa- 
 rated from the earthy matter by a process 
 of distillation, the sulphur vapors being 
 liquefied by a condenser. The product 
 obtained from native sulphur, or from 
 iron pyrites, is afterward refined by a 
 further process of distillation. Pure 
 sulphur is commonly met with in two 
 forms, that of a compact, brittle solid, 
 and a fine powder. It is nearly tasteless, 
 of a greenish-yellow color, and when 
 rubbed or melted emits a peculiar odor. 
 Its atomic weight is 32, and its specific 
 gravity 1.99. It is insoluble in water, 
 and not very readily soluble in alcohol, 
 but is taken up by spirits of turpentine, 
 by many oils, and by carbon disulphide. 
 It is a non-conductor of electricity. It is 
 readily melted and volatilized. It fuses 
 at 232° Fahr., and between 232° and 
 280° it possesses the greatest degree of 
 fluidity, and, when cast into cylindrical 
 moulds, forms the common roll-sulphur 
 of commerce. It possesses the peculiar 
 property of solidifying at a higher de- 
 gree, or when raised to 320°. From 480° 
 to its boiling point (790°) it again be- 
 comes fluid, and at 792° it rises in vapor, 
 which condenses in close vessels in the 
 form of a fine yellow powder, called 
 flowers of sulphur. Sulphur exists in 
 two distinct crystalline fonns, and also 
 as an amorphous variety ; these modifica- 
 tions are characterized by differences 
 in specific gravity, in solubility in vari- 
 ous liquids, and in many other points. 
 Sulphur combines with oxygen, hydro- 
 gen, chlorine, etc., forming various im- 
 portant compounds; it also unites with 
 the metals, forming sulphides. It is em- 
 ployed in the manufacture of gun- 
 powder, matches, vulcanite, and sul- 
 phurous and sulphuric acids. It is also 
 employed in medicine, and for various 
 other purposes. Sulphur chloride is pro- 
 duced by passing chlorine gas into a 
 retort containing melted sulphur. It 
 is used for vulcanizing caoutchouc. Sul- 
 phur forms two combinations with 
 oxygen, the dioxide and the trioxide. 
 The former is the sole product of the 
 combustion of sulphur; it is a colorless 
 gas, which may be liquefied and solidi- 
 fied by cold and pressure. This gas is 
 used in the- arts for bleaching silk, wool, 
 straw, parchment, and generally such 
 substances as are destroyed by the action 
 of chlorine. Sulphur trioxide is a white 
 
SULPHURIC ACID 
 
 SUMBAL 
 
 crystalline solid, produced by the oxida- 
 tion of the dioxide. Sodium thiosulphate 
 is produced by boiling sulphur with soda 
 lye, and passing sulphur dioxide into 
 the solution until it is completely de- 
 colorized. It is largely used in the arts 
 as an antichlor, and for fixing photo- 
 graphs. Carbon disulphide is a volatile 
 liquid, with a poisonous vapor, pro- 
 duced by the action of sulphur upon 
 carbon at high temperatures. It is used 
 for dissolving caoutchouc and gutta- 
 percha, for extracting essential oils, 
 spices, etc., from plants and seeds, and 
 bitumen from minerals, etc. 
 
 SULPHURIC ACID, or OIL OF VIT- 
 RIOL, a most important acid discovered 
 by Basil Valentine toward the close of 
 the 15th century. It was formerly pro- 
 cured by the distillation of dried sul- 
 phate of iron, called green vitriol, 
 whence the corrosive liquid which came 
 over in the distillation, having an oily 
 consistence, was called oil of vitriol. 
 The principal upon which it is now m anu- 
 factured was laid down by Roebuck in 
 1746, and consists in burning sulphur, 
 or more frequently iron pyrites, in 
 closed furnaces, and leading the fumes, 
 mixed with oxides of nitrogen, into 
 large leaden chambers, into which jets 
 of steam are continuously sent . The oxides 
 of nitrogen are produced by the action 
 of sulphuric acid upon nitre contained 
 in pots, which are placed between the 
 sulphur ovens and the chambers. The 
 sulphur dioxide takes away part of the 
 oxygen from the oxides of nitrogen, 
 which are again oxidized by the air in 
 the chambers. The sulphur trioxide 
 produced unites with the steam to form 
 sulphuric acid. The acid produced in 
 the chamber is condensed in leaden 
 vessels until it reaches a certain gravity 
 (about 1.72), when it is run into glass, 
 or sometimes platinum vessels, where 
 the condensation is continued until the 
 specific gravity has increased to 1.84. 
 The acid of gravity 1.72 constitutes the 
 brown acid of commerce; it is largely 
 used in the manufacture of superphos- 
 phate of lime and for other purposes. 
 Pure sulphuric acid is a dense, oily, 
 colorless fluid, exceedingly acid and 
 corrosive, decomposing all animal and 
 vegetable substances by the aid of heat. 
 It unites with alkaline substances, and 
 separates most of the other acids from 
 their combinations with the alkalies. 
 It has a very great affinity for water, 
 and unites with it in every proportion, 
 producing great heat; it attracts mois- 
 ture strongly from the atmosphere, be- 
 coming rapidly weaker if exposed. The 
 sulphuric acid of commerce is never 
 pure, but it may be purified by dis- 
 tillation. With bases sulphuric acid 
 forms salts callqd sulphates, some of 
 which are neutral and others acid. By 
 concentrating sulphuric acid as far as is 
 possible without decomposition, and 
 cooling the liquid so obtained, crystals 
 of the true acid are formod. The ordi- 
 nary acid is a hydrate of varying com- 
 position. A very strong form of sul- 
 phuric acid, known as Nordhausen acid, 
 is prepared by heating green vitriol in 
 closed vessels; it is a solution of sulphur 
 trioxide in sulphuric acid, or it may be 
 regarded as pyro-sulph uric acid . It has 
 a specific gravity varying from 1.86 to' 
 
 1.92, and is chiefly used in the arts for 
 dissolving indigo. Of all the acids the 
 sulphuric is the most extensively used 
 in the arts, and is in fact the primary 
 agent for obtaining almost all the others 
 by disengaging them from their saline 
 combinations. Its uses to the scientific 
 chemist are innumerable. In medicine 
 it is used in a diluted state as a refriger- 
 ant. 
 
 SULPHURIC ETHER (ethylic, vinic, 
 or ordinary ether) is a colorless trans- 
 parent liquid, of a pleasant smell and a 
 pungent taste, extremely exhilarating, 
 and producing a degree of intoxication 
 when its vapor is inhaled by the nostrils. 
 It is produced by distilling a mixture of 
 equal weights of sulphuric acid and 
 alcohol, and by various other means. 
 Its specific gravity is 0.720. It is ex- 
 tremely volatile and highly inflamma- 
 ble; and its vapor, mixed with oxygen or 
 atmospheric air, forms a very danger- 
 ous explosive mixture. It disssolves in 
 10 parts of water, and is miscible with 
 alcohol and the fatty and volatile oils 
 in all proportions. It is employed in 
 medicine as a stimulant, and antispas- 
 modic. Ether, by its spontaneous evapo- 
 ration, produces a great degree of cold, 
 and is used in the form of spray in 
 minor surgical operations for freezing 
 the part, and thus rendering it insensible 
 to pain. True sulphuric ether, known 
 also as sulphate of ethyl is an oily liquid 
 of burning taste and ethereal odor, re- 
 sembling that of peppermint. It is 
 almost incapable of being distilled with- 
 out decomposition, as at a temperature of 
 about 280° it resolves itself into alcohol, 
 sulphurous acid, and olefiant gas. 
 
 SULPHUROUS ACID. See Sulphur- 
 ous Oxide. 
 
 SULPHUROUS OXIDE, a gas formed 
 by the combustion of sulphur in air or 
 d ry oxygen. It is transparent and color- 
 less, of a disagreeable taste, a pungent 
 and suffocating odor, is fatal to life, 
 and very injurious to vegetation. At 
 45°, under the pressure of two atmos- 
 pheres, it becomes liquid, and also at 
 0° under the pressure of one atmosphere. 
 It extinguishes flame, but is not itself 
 inflammable. It has considerable bleach- 
 ing properties, so that the fumes of burn- 
 ing sulphur are often used to whiten 
 straw, and silk and cotton goods. The 
 gas is also called sulphur dioxide; when 
 led into water it forms sulphurous acid . 
 This acid readily takes up oxygen, pass- 
 ing into sulphuric acid ; it is dibasic, 
 forming salts called sulphites. 
 
 SULTAN, in Arabic, signifies "mighty 
 one, lord.” It is the ordinary title of 
 Mohammedan rulers. The ruler of Tur- 
 key assumes the title of Sultan-es- 
 selatin, “Sultan of sultans.” The title 
 sultan is also applied to the sultan’s 
 daughters, and his mother, if living, is 
 stylad Sultan Valid e. 
 
 SULTANPUR', a district of India, in 
 Oudh ; area, 1707 sq. miles. Chief river, 
 the Gumti. Pop. 957,912. — The town 
 Sultanpur, administrative head -quar- 
 ters of the district, contains the usual 
 public buildings, and has a population 
 of 9374. 
 
 SULU', or SOOLOO ISLANDS, a group 
 in the Indian archipelago, consisting of 
 more than 150 islands, which stretch 
 ' from the n.e. point of Borneo to the 
 
 Philippine Islands; total estimated area, 
 1600 sq. miles. Sulu, the chief island , is 
 lofty, and lies near the center of the 
 group. The islands are of volcanic 
 origin, and produce all kinds of tropical 
 plants and trees. They are well watered, 
 and enjoy an immunity from the hur- 
 ricanes which ravage the neighboring 
 islands. The inliabitants are of Malay 
 descent, and nearly all profess the Mo- 
 hammedan religion. There is a con- 
 siderable trade between Sulu and Singa- 
 pore in beche-de-mer, pearl shells, birds’- 
 nests, etc. The Sulu islands, with the 
 Philippines, now belong to the United 
 States of America. Pop. estimated at 
 200,000. 
 
 SUMACH (su'mak), a genus of shrubs 
 with pinnate leaves and small flowers. 
 They all have a lactescent acrid juice, 
 and most of them possess valuable 
 tanning properties. More than seventy 
 species are known. 
 
 SUMATRA, a great island in the 
 Indian seas immediately under the 
 equator, separated from the peninsula 
 of Malacca by the Straits of Malacca 
 and from Java by the Straits of Sunda. 
 Greatest length, about 1000 miles; 
 breadth, about 240 miles; area, about 
 150,000 sq. miles. Banca and other 
 islands adjoin the coast. There are 
 several volcanoes in the island. Copper, 
 tin, and iron are found in abundance, 
 and deposits of coal exist. Mangroves 
 grow near the coast, and at higher eleva- 
 tions myrtles, palms, figs, and oaks of 
 various species are met with. The 
 camphor-tree prevails in the north, and 
 among vegetable curiosities are the 
 upas-tree and the gigantic Rafflesia. 
 Pepper, rice, sugar, tobacco, indigo, 
 cotton, coffee, are cultivated for export, 
 and camphor, benzoin, catechu, gutta- 
 percha and caoutchouc, teak, ebony, 
 and sandr.l-wood are also exported . The 
 island is all nominally under the author- 
 ity of the Dutch, who have divided it 
 into eight administrative divisions. 
 Sumatra has a very mixed population, 
 consisting of Malays, Chinese, .Arabs, 
 and many native tribes. The tidal wave 
 accompanying the volcanic eruption of 
 Krakatoa in 1883 caused great destruc- 
 tion on the south coast of Sumatra. The 
 chief towns are Palembang and Padang. 
 The total population is estimated at 
 between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000. 
 
 Sumbul. 
 
 SUMBAL, or SUMBUL, an Eastern 
 name for the root of an umbeliferous 
 plant. It contains a strongly odorous 
 
SUMBAWA 
 
 SUN AND PLANET WHEELS 
 
 principle, like that of musk, and is re- 
 garded as an antispasm odic and stimu- 
 lating tonic. 
 
 SUMBA'WA, an island of the Indian 
 archipelago, lying south by west of 
 Celebes, between Lombok and Flores, 
 about 160 miles long from east to west, 
 with a breadth varying from 13 to 31 
 miles. The inhabitants are of Malay 
 race and Mohammedans. Pop. about 
 150,000. 
 
 SUMMER, the season of the year 
 which in the northern hemisphere gen- 
 erally may be said to comprise the 
 months of June, July, and August. The 
 astronomical summer lasts in the north- 
 ern hemisphere from the June solstice 
 to the September equinox, during which 
 time the sun being north of the equator, 
 shines more directly upon this part of 
 the earth and rises much sooner and 
 sets later, which renders this the hottest 
 period of the year. The period of great- 
 est heat generally takes place in August, 
 since the influence of the sun’s rays has 
 then been felt for a long time on the 
 earth, and the wind blowing from the 
 north becomes milder owing to a modera- 
 tion of the temperature in the polar 
 circle caused by the thawing of the ice. 
 In the southern hemisphere the summer 
 lasts from the December solstice to the 
 March equinox. See Seasons. 
 
 SUMMONS, in law, a writ addressed 
 to the defendant in a personal action, 
 admonishing him to appear in court. It 
 must contain the names of all the de- 
 fendants, the name and address of the 
 person taking it out, and the date of 
 issue; but it need not state the form or 
 cause of action. 
 
 SUMNER, Charles, an American jurist 
 and statesman, born at Boston, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1811. In 1836 he published 
 three volumes of Judge Story’s decisions, 
 subsequently known as Sumner’s Re- 
 ports, and edited a periodical called the 
 American Jurist. In 1851 he was elected 
 to the senate of the United States, and 
 distinguished himself by his strong 
 antipathy to slavery. In May, 1856, 
 after delivering a speech vigorously 
 attacking the slaveholders, he was 
 violently assaulted by P. S. Brooks, a 
 member representing a slaveholding 
 state (South Carolina). His injuries 
 compelled him to absent himslf from 
 public duties for nearly four years. 
 He was a supporter of Lincoln and 
 Hamlin, and in 1861 he became chair- 
 man of the senate committee on foreign 
 relations. He was an enemy to the policy 
 of President Johnson, and opposed the 
 home and foreign policy of President 
 Grant. After the latter’s re-election in 
 1872 Sumner seldom ai^peared in de- 
 bate. He died at Washington, March 
 11, 1874. 
 
 SUN, the central orb of the solar sys- 
 tem, that around which revolve the 
 earth and the other planets. The sun 
 appears to be a perfect sphere, with a 
 diameter of 866,900 miles ; its mean 
 density is about i, taking that of the 
 earth as 1 ; its mean distance from the 
 earth is taken as 93,000,000 miles. It 
 rotates on its own axis ; this axis of rota- 
 tion being inclined to the ecliptic at an 
 angle of 82° 40'; and its rotation period 
 is variously estimated at from twenty- 
 five to twenty-eight days. The mass of 
 
 the sun is about 750 times that of all the 
 other members of the solar system com- 
 bined, and the center of gravity of the 
 solar system lies somewhere in the sun, 
 whatever may be the relative positions 
 of the planets in their orbits. The sun 
 is now generally believed to be of gas- 
 eous constitution, covered with a sort of 
 luminous shell of cloud formed by the 
 precipitation of the vapors which are 
 cooled by external radiation. This 
 
 Group of sun-spots of June 6, 1864. 
 
 dazzling shell is termed the photosphere. 
 The spots are supposed to be cavities in 
 this cloud-layer, caused by the unequal 
 velocities of neighboring portions of the 
 solar atmosphere. Zollner, who con- 
 siders the body of the sun to be liquid, 
 sees in them slags or scoriae floating on a 
 molten surface, and surrounded by 
 clouds. It is estimated that the sun’s 
 radiation would melt a shell of ice cover- 
 ing its own surface to a depth of between 
 39 and 40 feet in one minute, but the 
 temperature of the surface has not yet 
 been ascertained. It is evident, how- 
 ever, that the temperature and radia- 
 tion have remained constant for a long 
 period. The photosphere is overlaid by 
 an atmosphere which is shown by the 
 spectroscope to contain nearly all the 
 materials which enter into the composi- 
 tion of the sun. And in the lines of the 
 spectrum of sunlight is found proof ef 
 the existence in the solar atmosphere of 
 the following substances : Iron, titanium, 
 calcium, manganese, nickel, cobalt, 
 chromium, barium, sodium, magnesium, 
 copper, hydrogen, zinc, sulphur, cerium, 
 strontium, and potassium. In 1706 
 Captain Stannyan observed a blood-red 
 streak just before the limb of the sun 
 appeared after a total eclipse, and such 
 appearances were subsequently ob- 
 served, being first scientifically de- 
 scribed in 1842 under the names of 
 flames, protuberances, or prominences. 
 In 1868 the spectroscope showed that 
 these appearances were due to enormous 
 masses of glowing hydrogen gas floating 
 
 above the sun, similarly to clouds in our 
 atmosphere. The region outside the 
 photosphere in which these colored 
 prominences are observed has been 
 called the chromosphere, which has an 
 average depth of from 3000 to 8000 
 miles. The incandescent h drogen 
 clouds stretch out beyond this to alti- 
 tudes of 20,000 to 100,000 miles, and 
 jets of chromospheric hydrogen have 
 been observed to reach a height of 200,- 
 000 miles in twenty minutes, and dis- 
 appear altogether within half an hour. 
 Outside the chromosphere, extending 
 very far out from the sun, is the corona, 
 an aurora of light observed during total 
 eclipses, and which is now the chief 
 object to be observed by eclipse expedi- 
 tions. This phenomenon has been 
 shown to be connected with the exist- 
 ence of what is called the “coronal at- 
 mosphere,’’ but the nature of this 
 atmosphere is as yet undetermined. 
 The amount of light sent forth by the 
 sun is not exactly measurable, but the 
 amount of heat has been pretty accu- 
 rately computed, and it is equivalent in 
 mechanical effect to the action of 7000 
 horse-power on every square foot of the 
 solar surface, or to the combustion on 
 every square foot of upward of 13i 
 cwts. of coal per hour. 
 
 SUN, Worship of the. Sun worship 
 probably prevailed in the earliest times 
 among all nations, and the chief deities 
 of the polytheisms of ancient India, 
 Egypt, Greece, Rome, Germany (Indra, 
 Amoun Ra, Zeus, Jupiter, Odin, etc.), 
 are, according to a popular theory, all 
 identified as sun gods. But by some 
 people the sun itself was worshiped as a 
 physical object associated with fire, as 
 among the followers of Zoroaster, the 
 ancient Celts, etc. Peru seems to have 
 had the most complete system of sun 
 worshio. 
 
 SUN AND PLANET WHEELS, an in- 
 genious contrivance adopted by Watt, 
 in the early history of the steam-engine, 
 for converting the reciprocating motion 
 of the beam into a rotatory motion. In 
 the annexed figure the sun wheel a is a 
 
 toothed wheel fixed fast to the axis of 
 the fly-wheel, and the planet wheel b is 
 a similar wheel bolted to the lower end 
 of the connecting-rod c ; it is retained in 
 its orbit by a link at the back of both 
 wheels. By the reciprocating motion of 
 the connecting-rod the wheel b is com- 
 
SUNDAY 
 
 SUPERIOR 
 
 pelled to circulate round the wheel a, 
 and in so doing carries the latter along 
 with it, communicating to the fly-wheel 
 a velocity double its own. 
 
 SUNDAY (that is, day of the sun, like 
 Monday, day of the moon), the first day 
 of the week, the Lord’s day. See Sab- 
 bath. 
 
 SUNDAY-SCHOOLS, schools held on 
 Sunday for the purpose of imparting 
 religious instruction to the young by 
 means of reading and repetition in the 
 Bible, catechism, hymns, etc. In 1527 
 Martin Luther established several Sun- 
 day-schools in Germany for the instruc- 
 tion of children and youths in reading 
 the Holy Scriptures, and in the latter 
 half of the same century Cardinal Bor- 
 romeo organized similar schools through- 
 out Milan. The modern Sunday-schools, 
 however, as an institution, were founded 
 in England by Robert Raikes, editor of 
 the Gloucester Journal, in 1781, who, in 
 order to prevent the profanation of the 
 Sabbath by the children of the poorer 
 classes, engaged several women to in- 
 struct such children as he should send 
 to them on Sundays in reading and the 
 catechism, paying each of them a shill- 
 ing for her day’s work. His example 
 was soon followed by other charitable 
 persons, and in 1785 a society was 
 formed for the encouragement of Sun- 
 day-schools by pecuniary aid, etc. 
 Gratuitous instruction became general 
 about 1800, and in 1803 the first 
 Sunday-school union was formed in 
 London. Similar unions were quickly 
 established in many large towns and in 
 some of the counties. The Scottish 
 Sabbath -schools (first established in 
 Edinburgh in 1787) arose from the Eng- 
 lish Sunday-schools, and so universal 
 has the establishment of Sunday-schools 
 now become in the British Isles that one 
 exists in connection with nearly every 
 church. In America the Jfirst Sunday- 
 schools were opened at New York in 
 1816, and have since multiplied rapidly 
 and overspread the whole county. By 
 1815 such schools had been introduced 
 into most European countries, but do 
 not appear to flourish so well among 
 foreign nations as in English-speaking 
 countries. The total number of school 
 teachers and scholars in the world ac- 
 cording to the report of the Eleventh 
 International Sunday School conven- 
 tion, held at Toronto, Canada, in 1905, 
 was exclusive of Roman Catholics and 
 non-Evangelical Protestant churches 
 262,131 schools, 2,426,888 teachers, 
 22,739,323 scholars. The number of 
 scholars in Roman Catholic schools in 
 the United States is estimated at 
 1,000,000. The Twelfth International 
 Sunday School convention will be held 
 at Louisville, Ky., in June, 1908. 
 
 SUNDERLAND, a seaport, mun., 
 county, and parliamentary borough of 
 England, at the mouth of the Wear, 
 county of Durham, 13 miles n.e. of 
 Durham, and 12 miles s.e. of Newcastle. 
 The staple trade interests of the place 
 are shipping, the coal trade, and ship- 
 building, and there are also large fac- 
 tories for the making of marine engines, 
 iron work, bottles, glass, earthenware, 
 rope, etc. Pop. 146,565. 
 
 SUN-DEW, plants growing in bogs 
 and marshes, having leaves clothed with 
 
 reddish hairs bearing glands which 
 exude drops of clear glutinous fluid, 
 glittering like dew-drops, whence the 
 name. A characteristic of these plants 
 is their habit of capturing insects by 
 their viscid secretion. Mr. Darwin, in his 
 Insectivorous Plants (1875), says that 
 the sun-dew derives its nitrogenous food 
 by absorption from the tissues of in- 
 sects entangled in the inflected tentacles 
 of its viscid leaves; while like other 
 plants it obtains and assimilates car- 
 bonic acid from the air. He further 
 shows that these leaves have the power 
 of digestion, and that they act on al- 
 buminous compounds in the same man- 
 ner as does the gastric juice of higher 
 animals, the digested matter being after- 
 ward absorbed. The digestive faculty 
 has also been traced in Venus’ fly-trap, 
 butterwort, the pitcher-plant, etc. 
 
 SUN-DIAL. See Dial. 
 
 SUN-FISH, a genus of fishes. These 
 fishes are short and almost circular in 
 form, their jaws are undivided, and they 
 have no swimming-bladder. The sun- 
 fish appears like the head of a large fish 
 separated from its body, and when 
 swimming it turns upon itself like a 
 wheel. It grows to a large size, often 
 
 attaining a diameter of 4 feet, and some- 
 times even that of 12 feet. The skin is 
 hard and leathery, but the flesh is soft, 
 white, and palatable. The liver is large, 
 and yields an oil highly valued among 
 sailors as a cure for rheumatism. The 
 sun-fish is found in all seas from the 
 antarctic to the arctic circle. 
 
 SUN-FLOWER, natural order of 
 plants, so called from the ideal resem- 
 blance of the yellow flowers to the sun 
 with his golden rays. The root is mostly 
 perennial; the stem herbaceous, up- 
 right, and often tall; the leaves op- 
 posite or alternate, undivided, often 
 rigid and scabrous; the flowers large 
 and terminal, usually disposed in a 
 corymb. The species are numerous, and 
 mostly inhabit North America. The 
 gigantic sun-flower common in gardens 
 is a native of Peru. The stem is from 6 
 to 15 feet in height; the flowers, some- 
 times 1 foot in diameter, are usually 
 turned toward the south. The seeds 
 form an excellent nourishment for 
 poultry and for cage birds; and an 
 edible oil has also been expressed from 
 them. 
 
 SUN-SPOT, a dark patch on the sun, 
 varying in size from a minute tele- 
 scopic object to vast areas visible to the 
 naked eye and thousands of miles in 
 diameter. Sun-spots have an interest- 
 ing history. Galileo was charged with 
 blasphemy because he called attention 
 to them, and Stanley Jevons, the British 
 economist, advanced the theory that 
 sun-spots and money-panics had some 
 relation to each other. Certain it is 
 that the well-known “cycle” of sun- 
 
 spots and “cycle” of panics have been, 
 in the past at least, coincident. The 
 regular period of sun-spots is about 
 eleven years, that is, every eleven years 
 the spots on the sun are abundant and 
 in the intermediate time they decrease 
 in number and even vanish. The same 
 has been true of panics. The great sun- 
 spot of March 5, 1873, was 100,000 
 miles across. In this terrific cavern 
 four planets each as large as our earth 
 could have been swallowed up. The 
 year 1906 was a maximum year for sun- 
 spots, but Jevons’s law seemed to have 
 failed, except in England, where, dur- 
 ing that year, the most painful industrial 
 depression was experienced. 
 
 The causes of these remarkable ap- 
 pearances on the sun’s surface are not 
 known, although it is pretty certain 
 that they are really compp,ratively 
 shallow depressions on the photosphere, 
 the darkness being due to the absorp- 
 tion of light occasioned by the lower 
 temperature within the depression. 
 Numerous spots appear to grow and 
 disappear, lasting from only a few 
 hours to many months. A great group 
 of smaller spots often coalesce and form 
 a great spot. That they have some con- 
 nection with the sun’s rotation on its 
 axis is shown by the relation of the spot 
 zone to the equator, being most numer- 
 ous in latitudes from 15 degrees to 20 de- 
 grees. It has been held that the aurora 
 borealis, or northern lights, are caused 
 by sun spots, and on several occasions 
 unusual disturbances of this kind in the 
 sun have been accompanied by startling 
 magnetic and electric storms on the 
 earth. 
 
 SUN-STROKE, any sudden and severe 
 injury to the health resulting from the 
 exposure of the head to a hot sun. The 
 most usual symptoms of sun-stroke are 
 the following: — Pains in the head, ac- 
 companied by fever; lethargy, or suffer- 
 ing which prevents sleep; congestion of 
 the brain or other nerve-centers, or an 
 inflammation of the brain sometimes 
 ensues, and often terminates fatally. 
 Sometimes the effects of the stroke can 
 be discerned only in impaired bodily 
 health or mental vigor dating from some 
 occasion on which the patient was ex- 
 posed to a violent sun. 
 
 SUPERFCETATION, a second concep- 
 tion after a prior one, and before the 
 birth of the first child, by which two 
 foetuses are growing at once in the same 
 womb. Several certified cases have 
 occurred in which women have given 
 birth to two children, the second child 
 being born at periods varying from 90 
 to 140 days later than the first. These 
 certainly appear to be cases of super- 
 fcetation. The possibility of superfceta- 
 tion in the hmuan female has been vigor- 
 ously opposed by some eminent phy- 
 sicians, and as vigorously defended by 
 others. Some believe that up to the 
 third month of gestation a second con- 
 ception may follow the first, and that 
 this will satisfactorily account for all 
 the cases of superfoetation on record. It 
 has also been argued that the human 
 uterus may be double in some cases, 
 and that in each of its cavities a foetus 
 may be contained. 
 
 SUPERIOR, a city, port of entry, and 
 capital of Douglas co., Wis., at the head 
 
STJPERIOR 
 
 SURGERY 
 
 of Lake Superior, on St. Louis, Superior, 
 and Allouez bays, and the Gt. North., 
 N. Pac., Chi., St. P., Minn, and Om., St. 
 P. and Duluth, Dul. and Winnipeg, and 
 the Dul., S. Shore and Atl. railways; 
 opposite Duluth, Minn. It has three 
 perfect landlocked harbors, all con- 
 nected, with total length of 13 miles and 
 width of from 1 to 3 miles. The manu- 
 factures are chiefly flour, lumber, lath, 
 shingles, iron, chairs, barrels, bags, 
 coke, and woolen goods. Superior was 
 a station of the Hudson Bay company, 
 over 200 years ago Pop. 35,415. 
 
 SUPERIOR, Lake, the largest ex- 
 pan.se of fresh water in the world, and 
 the most westerly and most elevated of 
 the North American chain of lakes. It 
 washes the shores of the state of Min- 
 nesota on the west, those of Wisconsin 
 and the northern peninsula of Michigan 
 on the south, and those of Canada in all 
 other directions. Its greatest length is 
 420 miles, greatest breadth ICO miles; 
 circuit about 1750 miles; area about 
 32,000 sq. miles (or the same as that of 
 Ireland). It is 630 feet above sea-level, 
 and varies in depth from 80_ to 200 
 fathoms. In shape it forms an irregular 
 crescent, dotted with numerous islands 
 toward its northern and southern sides. 
 The northern shore consists of cliffs 
 varying in height from 300 to 1500 feet, 
 but the southern shore is low and sandy, 
 although occasionally interrupted by 
 cliff's, among which are the fantastic 
 Pictured Rocks, 300 feet high, one of the 
 greatest natural curiosities of the United 
 States. The waters of the lake are re- 
 markable for their transparency, and 
 are well stocked with fish, principally 
 trout, white-fish, and sturgeon. The 
 lake receives more than 200 streams, 
 and about thirty are of considerable size. 
 The outlet is at the southeast by St. 
 Mary’s river. Fish and copper are the 
 chief exports, the latter existing in 
 valuable veins both on the shores and 
 islands of the lake. 
 
 SUPERIOR PLANETS. See Planets. 
 
 SUPERNATURALISM, a term used 
 chiefly in theology, in contradistinction 
 to rationalism. In its widest extent 
 supernaturalism is the doctrine that 
 religion and the knowledge of God re- 
 quire a revelation from God. It con- 
 siders the Christian religion an extra- 
 ordinary phenomenon, out of the circle 
 of natural events, and as communicating 
 truths above the comprehension of 
 human reason. Rationalism maintains 
 that the Christian religion must be 
 judged of, like other phenomena, by the 
 only means which we have to judge with, 
 namely reason. See Rationalism. 
 
 SUPPURATION. See Inflammation. 
 
 SURAT', a town of India, Bombay 
 presidency, capital of a district of same 
 name, on the left bank of the Tapti, 
 about 20 miles above its mouth in the 
 Gulf of Cambay. Pop. 119,306. 
 
 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED 
 STATES, The, is the head of the national 
 judiciary. The supreme court is author- 
 ized by the constitution. Section 1 of 
 Article III. provides that “the judicial 
 power of the United States shall be 
 vested in one supreme court, and in such 
 inferior courts as the congress may from 
 time to time ordain and establish.” The 
 supreme court is a constitutional court, 
 
 while the other courts are statutory. 
 The first act in organizing the supreme 
 court was passed at the first session of 
 the United States congress, approved by 
 Washington on September 24, 1789, and 
 directed that the court should consist of 
 a chief justice and five associate justices, 
 any four of whom should make a quorum. 
 It now consists of nine members. They 
 hold office for life. The act of Septem- 
 ber 24th not only made provision for 
 the supreme court, but created the in- 
 ferior courts of the United States and 
 organized its entire judicial system. 
 
 SURETY. See Guarantee. 
 
 SURF-DUCK, or SURF-SCOTER, a 
 species of duck, about the size of a 
 mallard frequently seen on the coasts 
 of Labrador, Hudson's bay, and other 
 parts of North America. 
 
 SURGEON-FISH. See Sea-surgeon. 
 
 SURGERY, the operative branch of 
 medicine, or that part of the medical art 
 which is concerned with the removal of 
 injured parts or organs, or with the heal- 
 ing of lesions by means of operations on 
 the parts affected, either by the hand 
 or with instruments. Surgery early be- 
 came separated, for practical ends, from 
 medicine, and by a natural expansion 
 came to embrace two parts, the science 
 pertaining to surgical operations, and 
 the art required for conducting them. 
 From this arose a mischievous distinc- 
 tion between medical and surgical cases. 
 We have , thus surgical and medical 
 anatomy, surgical and medical pathol- 
 ogy, and surgical and medical clinics. 
 But the progress of science has both 
 extended the domain of surgery, and 
 made the relation between it and medi- 
 cine more intimate. The origin of 
 surgery may almost be held to be coeval 
 with the human race. Herodotus says 
 that the medical art in Egypt was 
 divided into numerous branches repre- 
 senting each member of the body. The 
 Greeks made considerable progress in 
 surgery, and the Hippocratic collection 
 contains six surgical treatises in which 
 important operations are described as 
 conducted in a mode little behind the 
 modern practice. Medicine was first 
 cultivated at Rome by Greek slaves. 
 It afterward became a special science, 
 and among its professors who advanced 
 the art of surgery were Archagathus 
 (200 B.C.), surnamed the executioner, 
 from his frequent use of the knife; 
 Asclepiades, to whom is att*ibuted the 
 origin of laryngotomy; and Themison, 
 the first to use leeches. A greater name 
 than these is that of Celsus, called the 
 Latin Hippocrates, who flourished about 
 the beginning of the Christian era. He 
 mentions autoplastic operations and the 
 treatment of hernias, and his method of 
 amputation is still occasionally em- 
 ployed. Galen (died 200 a.d.) did much 
 for medicine but little for surgery. Paul 
 of ASgina, a practitioner of the 7th cen- 
 tury, may be looked upon as the last 
 representative of the Graco-Roman 
 school. The Arabs were initiated into 
 medicine and surgery by the translation 
 of the works of the Greeks. Among the 
 Asiatic Arabs the only devoted student 
 of surgery who has left any record of his 
 art is Abulcasis, who flourished at the 
 beginning of the 12th century. On the 
 I decline of the Roman empire, the medi- 
 
 cal art in Europe fell entirely into the 
 hands of the monks, and when, in 1163, 
 the Council of Tours prohibited the 
 clergy from performing any operation, 
 surgery became incorporated with the 
 trade of barber, and was reduced to the 
 simplest operations, chiefly that of 
 letting blood. The earliest revival of 
 science arose from the contact of Euro- 
 peans with the Eastern nations, par- 
 ticularly the Arabs, and before the close 
 of the 11th century Salerno, in Italy, 
 acquired celebrity for a school of medi- 
 cine in which all the teachers were lay- 
 men. This school acquired the right to 
 confer the degrees of master and doctor. 
 Among surgeons of reputation of the 
 Salernian school, may be mentioned 
 Roger of Parma, and his disciple Roland, 
 who made great use of cataplasms and 
 other emollients. Guy de Chauliac, the 
 first great surgeon of France, belongs 
 to the latter half of the 14th century. 
 Berengarios de Carpi held a chair at 
 Bologna from 1502 to 1507. He boasted 
 of having dissected more than 100 dead 
 bodies, and made important discoveries. 
 Vesalius, a Belgian physician, born 1514, 
 died 1564, is regarded as the father of 
 modern anatomy. He prepared the way 
 for Ambrose Par4, who did for surgery 
 what 'Vesalius had done for anatomy. 
 Par4 was surgeon in ordinary to Henry 
 II., Charles IX., and Henry III. His 
 works were translated into English, and 
 include a general treatise on surgery, 
 and a special treatise on wounds. Among 
 the great surgeons of the 16th century 
 were Paracelsus, who advocated a 
 thorough reform in surgery; Guillemeau, 
 whose special study was ophthalmia; 
 Pineau, a skilful surgeon and lithoto- 
 mist; Jacques D4marque, one of the 
 first authors who wrote on bandages; 
 and Fabricius of Hilden in Germany, the 
 author of a complete course of clinical 
 surgery, and the inventor of surgical 
 instruments for the extraction of foreign 
 bodies from the ear, urethra, etc., which 
 are still in use. In England Harvey, the 
 discoverer of the circulation of the 
 blood, lectured on surgery ; but a genuine 
 school of surgery was first founded by 
 Richard Wiseman, who has been called 
 the Par4 of England. His works were 
 published in two vols. in 1676. In Eng- 
 land the Company of Barber Surgeons, 
 incorporated by Edward IV. in 1461, 
 gave place to a separate corporation of 
 surgeons in 1745. In 1731 the Royal 
 Academy of Surgery was founded in 
 Paris, and soon produced a school of 
 surgeons so eminent as to take the 
 lead of their profession in Europe. The 
 rapid advance of scientific knowledge 
 in the 19th century has not been 
 without its influence on the art of 
 surgery. The 19th century will ever 
 be conspicuous in the annals of surgery 
 as that in which the inestimable boon 
 of anmsthetics was conferred upon man- 
 kind, by which not only has pain in 
 surgery been abolished, but the extent 
 of its operative department immensely 
 enlarged. Of no less importance has been 
 the discovery of the relation of micro- 
 organisms to putrefaction and to infec- 
 tious diseases, and the consequent in- 
 troduction of the antiseptic method of 
 treating wounds. A scarcely less notice- 
 1 able feature of this epoch has been the 
 
SURMULLET 
 
 SWALLOW 
 
 application of the rules of hygiene to the 
 construction and management of hos- 
 pitals, by which the general health of 
 the patients has been much benefited, 
 and the mortality reduced. The opera- 
 tive skill of the surgeon has kept pace 
 with the increased precision in physio- 
 logical knowledge, and surgical opera- 
 tions are now perfonned on many parts 
 of the body which not long ago would 
 have been deemed certain death to the 
 patient. Diseased conditions in the 
 cranium, the thoracic cavity, the ab- 
 domen, the joints, are all successfully 
 treated. Cancerous affections are boldly 
 treated by excision, while diseases of the 
 uterus are now treated with a boldness 
 and success which a few years ago 
 seemed impossible. 
 
 SUR'MULLET, a name of fishes allied 
 to the perches, and often called red 
 mullets. They have two dorsal fins with 
 a wide interval between them, the first 
 being spinous, and two long barbels 
 hanging from the lower jaw. The com- 
 mon red mullet of the Mediterranean is 
 about 12 inches long, esteemed very 
 delicious food, and was much prized by 
 the Romans. 
 
 SURNAMES. See Names, Personal. 
 
 SURPLICE, a white garment worn by 
 priests, deacons, and choristers in the 
 Church of England and the Roman 
 Catholic church over their other dress 
 during the performance of religious 
 services. It is a loose, flowing vestment 
 
 Surplice, brass of Prior Nelond, Cowfold, 
 Sussex. 
 
 of linen, reaching almost to the feet, 
 having sleeves broad and full, and differs 
 from the alb only in being fuller and 
 having no girdle nor embroidery at the 
 foot. 
 
 SURREY, a county of England, 
 bounded by the Thames, separating it 
 from Buckinghamshire and Middlesex; 
 by Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, and Berk- 
 shire; area, 485,129 acres, of which more 
 than half is under crops. Pop. 2,008,923. 
 
 SURVEYING, the art of measuring 
 the angular and linear distances of 
 objects on the surface of the earth, so as 
 to be able to delineate their several posi- 
 tions on paper, to ascertain the super- 
 ficial area, or space between them, and 
 to draw an accurate plan of any piece of 
 ground in more or less detail. It is a 
 branch of applied mathematics, and is of 
 two kinds, land surveying and marine 
 surveying, the former having generally 
 
 in view the measurement and delinea- 
 tion on paper of certain tracts of land, 
 and the latter the laying down of the 
 position of beacons, shoals, coasts, etc. 
 Those extensive operations of surveying 
 which have for their object the deter- 
 mination of the latitude and longtiude 
 of places, and the length of terrestrial 
 arcs in different latitudes, are frequently 
 called trigonometrical surveys, or geo- 
 detic operations, and the science itself 
 geodesy. In land-surveying various in- 
 struments are used, the most indispen- 
 sable of which are Gunter’s chain, for 
 taking the linear dimensions when the 
 area of the land is required; the theod- 
 olite, for measuring angles; and the sur- 
 veyor’s cross, or cross-staff, for raising 
 perpendiculars. See Geodesy, Trigonom- 
 etrical Survey, and Ordnance Survey. 
 
 SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST. See 
 Natural Selection. 
 
 SUSA, an ancient city of Persia. It 
 was a very extensive city, with a 
 strongly fortified citadel, containing 
 the palace and treasury of the Persian 
 kings, whose chief residence it was from 
 the time of Darius I. It is the Shushan 
 of the book of Daniel, where it is men- 
 tioned as situated on the banks of the 
 river Ulai or Eulseus. The plain of Susa 
 is covered with extensive mounds, in 
 which fragments of brick and pottery 
 with cuneiform inscriptions are found, 
 and important discoveries have been 
 made. 
 
 SUSPENSION, in music, the prolonga- 
 tion of a note in a chord, having the 
 effect of suspending for a moment cer- 
 
 Suspenslon (1) from above; (2) from below. 
 
 tain notes in the following chord; or the 
 delay of a dissonance in reaching the 
 chord into which it is to be resolved. 
 
 SUSPENSION-BRIDGE. See Bridge. 
 
 SUSQUEHAN'NA, a river of the 
 United States, formed by two branches 
 an eastern or northern branch, 250 
 miles long from Lake Otsego in New 
 York, and a western branch, 200 miles 
 from the western slope of the Alle- 
 ghanies, which unite at Northumber- 
 land in Pennsylvania. The united 
 stream flows south and southeast, and 
 after a course of 150 miles reaches the 
 head of Chesapeake bay at Port Deposit, 
 Maryland. It is a wide but shallow 
 stream, nowhere navigable to any ex- 
 tent, save in the spring. 
 
 SUSSEX, a southern maritime county 
 of England, bounded north by Surrey, 
 north and northeast by Kent, southeast 
 and south by the English Channel, and 
 west and northwest by Hants; area, 
 933,269 acres, of which more than two- 
 thirds is under crops. Pop. 605,052. 
 
 SUTHERLAND, a maritime county in 
 the north of Scotland, bounded north 
 and west by the Atlantic, south by 
 Ross and Cromarty, east by the North 
 sea and Caithness; area, 1,297,846 acres, 
 of which about one-thirtieth part is 
 under crops. Pop. 21,550. 
 
 SU'TRAS, in Sanskrit literature, the 
 name given to the numerous series of 
 religious aphorisms and rules, including 
 
 all the ritual, grammatical, metrical, 
 and philosophical works, and consisting 
 of brief sentences to be committed to 
 memory. These were usually written 
 on dried palm-leaves tied together by 
 a string. 
 
 SUTTEE' (Sanskrit, sati, an excellent 
 wife), a term applied by the English to 
 the self-immolation of Indian widows 
 on the funeral pile of their deceased 
 husbands. The origin of this practice is 
 of considerable antiquity, but it is not 
 enjoined by the laws of Manu, nor is it 
 based on the Vedas. It was abolished by 
 Lord Bentinck, governor-general of 
 India, in December, 1829, but cases are 
 still occasionally heard of. 
 
 SU'TURE, in anatomy, is the line of 
 union of two bones between which there 
 is no motion, as the bones of the skull. 
 
 SUZERAIN, in feudalism, a lord para- 
 mount; the king, for instance, in relation 
 to his immediate vassals, or these as 
 grantors in turn to sub-vassals. 
 
 SWALLOW, the general name for all 
 the insessorial birds distinguished by 
 their long and powerful wings, their 
 short broad beak, their wide gape, their 
 comparatively small and weak legs and 
 feet, and their habit of hawking on the 
 wing for insects, which constitute their 
 food. They are found all over the world 
 except in the coldest regions, and there ■ 
 are a number of species. The common 
 swallow has the nostrils concealed by a 
 membrane in front, and the outer 
 feathers of the tail much elongated. It 
 is about 8J inches in length. The top of 
 the head is colored of a reddish-chestnut 
 hue, the back and wings being steel-blue. 
 The tail and secondary feathers are 
 black, a dark-blue patch existing at the 
 upper part of the chest, while the throat 
 is a chestnut-brown. The beak, legs, 
 and toes are black, and the under parts 
 
 are white or grayish. The females 
 possess the chest-patch, and also the 
 forehead patch of red, of smaller size 
 than the males. The song is weak, and 
 is at best a mere twitter. The nest con- 
 sists of a cup-shaped structure of mud 
 or clay, sometimes built a few feet down 
 an unused chimney, often close under 
 the roof of some outhouse to which ready 
 access is obtained, and is lined inside 
 with soft grasses, feathers, and other 
 materials. Swallows bear a considerable 
 resemblance to swifts, and among the 
 swifts are several forms which are 
 popularly named “swallows.” Thus the 
 bird known in North America as the 
 chimney swallow is not a true swallow, 
 but a swift. The swallow that produces 
 the edible nest is also a swift. Of true 
 
SWAN' 
 
 SWEDEN 
 
 swallows, however, several are Ameri- 
 can, and among them the barn swallow, 
 very similar to the European chimney 
 swallow, the purple martin, and the cliff 
 swallow. The name of “sea swallow” is 
 given to the tern. See also Martin, Sand- 
 martin. 
 
 SWAN, a genus of swimming birds, 
 distinguished as a group by the bill 
 being of equal length with the head, 
 and broad throughout its length]- by the 
 cere being soft; by the front toes being 
 strongly webbed, while the hinder toe is 
 not webbed, and has no lobe or under- 
 skin. The nest is constructed of reeds 
 and grasses, and is generally situated 
 near the edge of the water on some 
 islet. The young when hatched are of a 
 light bluish-gray color. The food con- 
 
 European white swan. 
 
 sists of vegetable matters, smaller fishes, 
 worms, etc., and fish-spawn. They have 
 their representatives in North America 
 in the trumpeter swan, and the ameri- 
 canus. South America produces one very 
 distinct species, the beautiful black- 
 necked swan. The black swan of Aus- 
 tralia, like the white swan, is frequently 
 kept as an ornament in parks or pleasure 
 grounds. Its large size, and the grace- 
 fulness of its fonn and motions, render 
 the swan one of the most ornamental 
 of all the water-birds. 
 
 SWANSDOWN, a name for a fine, 
 soft, thick woolen cloth; or more com- 
 monly for a thick cotton cloth with a 
 soft nap on one side. 
 
 SWANSEA, a seaport town, and 
 municipal, pari., and county borough 
 of Wales. Copper-works were first es- 
 tablished in 1719, and Swansea has now 
 the principal copper-works in Great 
 Britain. Copper ore is imported from 
 Cornwall, Spain, Africa, America, and 
 all parts of the world, and in the im- 
 mediate neighborhood is an abundant 
 supply of coal for smelting. There are 
 also important tin-works, iron-works, 
 steel-works, zinc-works, alkali-works, 
 etc. Pop. of county bor. 94,514 of pari, 
 bor. 128,052. 
 
 SWAZILAND, a small native state in 
 South Africa, forming a dependency of 
 the Transvaal, on the southeast of which 
 it lies; area 8000 sq. miles. Pop. 64,000. 
 
 SWIEAT. See Perspiration. 
 
 SWEATING SYSTEM, the system by 
 which sub-contractors undertake to do 
 work in their own houses or small work- 
 shops, and employ others to do it, mak- 
 ing a profit for themselves by the dif- 
 ference betw'een the contract prices and 
 the wages they pay their assistants. The 
 
 object of the sub-contractor or sweater 
 being to secure as large a margin of 
 profit as possible, the tendency of the 
 system is to grind the workers down to 
 the lowest possible limit. 
 
 SWEDEN, a kingdom in the north of 
 Europe, bounded north and west by 
 Norway; southwest by the Skager- 
 Rack, Kattegat, and Sound; south by 
 the Baltic; east by the Baltic and the 
 Gulf of Bothnia; and northeast by the 
 Tornea and its affluent Muonio, separat- 
 ing it from Finland. It consists of the 
 three great divisions of Swealand or 
 Sweden Proper in the middle, Gotland 
 or Gottland in the south, and Norrland 
 in the north. For administrative pur- 
 poses it is divided into twenty-five Ians 
 or governments. The total area is 
 170,979 sq. miles; pop. 5,260,811. The 
 population of Sweden is mainly rural. 
 There are five towns with a population 
 of 30,000 upward, namely, Stockholm 
 (capital), Goteborg or Gottenburg, 
 Malmo, Norrkoping, and Gefie. Nearly 
 2,500,000 of the population are agri- 
 cultural ; about a quarter of a million are 
 cultivators of their owm land. The coast- 
 line, above 1400 miles in length, is 
 serrated rather than deeply indented. 
 The west coast is very rocky, but seldom 
 rises so high as 30 feet. A great number 
 of islets are scattered near the shores. 
 There are also two islands of some size; 
 Oeland near the southeast coast, and 
 Gothland further out in the Baltic. 
 The rivers and lakes are very numerous 
 and all belong to the basins of the Baltic 
 sea and the German ocean. Almost the 
 whole of the country is composed of 
 
 spring or autumn intervening betweer. 
 the heat of summer and the cold of 
 winter, which in the north lasts for nine, 
 and in the south for seven months. 
 But on the whole the climate is eminent- 
 ly favorable to health, and no country 
 furnishes more numerous instances of 
 longevity. Among the larger wild ani- 
 mals are the wolf, the bear, the elk, the 
 red and roe deer, the lynx, glutton, fox, 
 and even the beaver. Of the smaller 
 animals the most destructive is the 
 lemming. Among birds the most re- 
 markable are eagles, the eagle-owl, and 
 the capercailzie. The rivers and lakes 
 are well stocked with salmon and trout. 
 Timber is the chief export. Of the cereal 
 crops oats, barley, rye, and wheat are cul- 
 tivated. The potato is grown every- 
 where. The principal domestic animals 
 are cattle, sheep, horses, swine, and 
 rein-deer. The last, necessarily confined 
 to the north, are kept in large herds by 
 the Laplanders, and supply them at 
 once with food and clothing. The manu- 
 facturing _ industries include those con- 
 nected w).h iron, steel, wooden goods, 
 woolens, cottons, silks, refined sugar, 
 leather, paper, spirits, etc. The mer- 
 cantile marine has a burden of 550,350 
 tons. There are now over 6000 miles of 
 railway, and 5400 miles of telegraph 
 lines. The chief denomination of money 
 is the krona — 27c. The inhabitants of 
 Sweden, with the exception of the Lap- 
 landers and Finns, found only in the 
 north belong to the Scandinavian branch 
 of the Teutonic family, and are char- 
 acterized by a tall, robust stature, light 
 hair, blue eyes, and light complexions. 
 
 Scene In Sweden— The Skurusund near Stockholm. 
 
 gneiss, partially penetrated by granite. 
 The chief mineral is iron, which is pro- 
 duced in large quantities, of excellent 
 quality, admirably adapted for steel. 
 Zinc, copper, and silver, are also raised. 
 Coal is worked in the south, but is poor 
 in quality. Mining, and especially iron- 
 mining, is one of the most important of 
 Swedish industries. Roughly speaking 
 the mining region occupies the central 
 part of the country, with the forest 
 region to the north and the agricultural 
 region to the south. There is hardly any 
 
 The Lutheran faith is recognized as the 
 state religion, but recently there have 
 been extensive secessions from the 
 Established church. Other religions are 
 tolerated; but appointments in the 
 public service can be held by Lutherans 
 only. Elementary education is gratuit- 
 ous and compulsory, and almost every 
 person can read and write. There are 
 two universities, at Upsala and Lund 
 respectively. The crown is hereditary 
 in the male line. The king must be a 
 member of the Lutheran church, and 
 
SWEDENBORG 
 
 SWEDENBORGIANS 
 
 has to swear fidelity to the laws of the 
 land. His prerogatives consist of the 
 right to preside in the high court of 
 justice, to grant pardons, to conclude 
 treaties with foreign powers, to declare 
 war and peace, to nominate to all ap- 
 pointments civil and military, and to 
 veto absolutely any decree of the diet. 
 He also possesses legislative power in 
 matters of political administration, but 
 in all other matters that power is exer- 
 cised, in concert with the sovereign, by 
 the diet, in which is invested the right of 
 imposing taxes. About a third of the 
 revenue is derived from direct taxes and 
 from national property, including rail- 
 ways; the remainder from customs, 
 excise, and other indirect taxes. The 
 army comprises a grand total of 340,000 
 men, the majority raised by conscrip- 
 tion, by annual levy from among men 
 between the ages of 21 and 40. The 
 navy is intended for coast defense, and 
 numbers 13 armored turret ships, 3 
 torpedo boat destroyers, 5 torpedo gun- 
 boats, 34 torpedo boats; unarmored and 
 training vessels. The early history of 
 Sweden is obscure. Christianity was 
 introduced about the beginning of the 
 11th century. Sweden was more or 
 
 A Swedish interior. 
 
 less an appanage of the Danish crown 
 until the time of Gustavus Vasa, who 
 raised the peasants of Dalecarlia, de- 
 feated the Danes, was elected to the 
 throne in 1523, and received author- 
 ity to reorganize the church on the 
 basis of Lutheranism in 1527. His son, 
 Erik XIV., reigned only eight years, 
 when, having lost his reason, he was 
 deposed. He was succeeded by his 
 brother, John III., who endeavored to 
 restore the Catholic religion in Sweden; 
 in which, however, he failed. He died 
 in 1592, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Sigismund, who in 1587 had been elected 
 king of Poland. He was succeeded by his 
 uncle Charles IX., who died in 1611 
 and was succeeded by his son, the 
 celebrated Gustavus Adolphus. Sweden, 
 which, notwithstanding internal trou- 
 bles, had been advancing in political 
 importance since the time of Gustavus 
 Vasa, now became the leading power of 
 the North; and under Gustavus Adol- 
 phus, who espoused the cause of Pro- 
 testantism in the Thirty Years’ war, 
 took for the first time a leading part in 
 the affairs of Europe. Gusta^ms .Adol- 
 phus met his death at the battle of 
 
 Liitzen in 1632, and was succeeded by 
 his daughter Christina, who renounced 
 the crown in 1654 in favor of her cousin, 
 Charles Gustavus, son of the count 
 palatine. The short reign of Charles X. 
 was distinguished by some brilliant 
 military enterprises, which extended to 
 Poland, Prussia, Russia, and Denmark. 
 He died suddenly in 1660, leaving a son, 
 Charles XI., ordy four years of age. 
 The country was then for long under a 
 council of regency, and carried on a 
 protracted war with Denmark. Charles 
 assumed the government in 1680. He 
 died in 1697, and was succeeded by his 
 son, the celebrated Charles XII. Of 
 the warlike monarchs of Sweden he is 
 the one who has attained the highest 
 reputation for military genius. His 
 career of conquest ended in the dis- 
 astrous battle of Poltava, 8th July, 
 1709, which compelled Sweden to yield 
 the presidency among the northern 
 states to Russia, and he was killed at 
 the siege of Frederickshall, 30th No- 
 vember, 1718, while pushing the con- 
 quest of Norway. He was succeeded by 
 his second sister, Ulrica Eleonora, who 
 in 1720 associated with her in the gov- 
 ernment her husband Frederick I. 
 Sweden was now under the hands of an 
 oligarchy, the chief power in the state 
 being held by a secret council of 100 
 members; 50 of the order of nobles, 25 
 of the clergy, and 25 of the burghers. 
 This council was divided into two fac- 
 tions, called (after 1738) the Hats and 
 Caps, the former of which preferred to 
 sell themselves to France, the latter to 
 Russia. On the death of Frederick in 
 1751 Adolphus Frederick of Holstein- 
 Gottorp, by the influences of Russia, 
 was elected king. During his reign the 
 country was distracted by the rivalries 
 of the Hats and Caps, and the royal 
 power sank to a shadow. Adolphus died 
 in 1771, and was succeeded by his son 
 Gustavus III., whose reign was distin- 
 guished by a monarchical revolution. 
 He was assassinated in 1792. His son 
 Gustavus IV. was deposed, and his 
 family declared forever incapable of 
 succeeding to the crown, in 1809. His 
 uncle, the Duke of Sudermania, was 
 declared king with the title of Charles 
 XIII. In 1810 the states elected Jean 
 Baptiste Bernadotte, crown-prince. (See 
 Bernadotte.) In the final struggle with 
 Napoleon previous to 1814 Sweden 
 joined the allies, while Denmark took 
 the part of France. The Danes were 
 driven out of Holstein by Bernadotte, 
 and the Treaty of Kiel was concluded 
 between Sweden, Denmark, and Great 
 Britain, January 14, 1814. Sweden by 
 this treaty ceded to Denmark her last 
 German possessions in Pomerania, and 
 the Isle of Rugen, while Denmark was 
 compelled to cede Norway to Sweden 
 as a compensation for the loss of Fin- 
 land, gained by Rusisa. Sweden now 
 held the whole Scandinavian peninsula, 
 and had lost all her other European 
 possessions. Bernadotte succeeded to 
 the crown in 1818, under the title of 
 Charles XIV. He died in 1844, and was 
 succeeded by his son Oscar I., whose 
 reign was singularly peaceful and un- 
 eventful. He died 8th July, 1859, and 
 was succeeded by his son Charles Louis 
 Eugene, under the title of Charles XV., 
 
 whose reign was marked by constitu- 
 tional reforms. In 1866 the states, which 
 from time immemorial had met in 
 four chambers, representing the nobility, 
 clergy, citizens, and peasantry, were 
 reduced to the modern composition of 
 two chambers, an upper and a lower, 
 and the suffrage was extended in 1869. 
 Charles XV. died 18th September, 1872, 
 and was succeeded by his brother Oscar 
 II., who proved a wise and prudent 
 ruler, and under whom the country pros- 
 pered greatly in industry, commerce 
 and otherwise. The dissolution of the 
 Union of Norway and Sweden took place 
 in 1906. Oscar II. died in 1907 and was 
 succeeded by his son Gustaf V. 
 
 SWEDENBORG, Emanuel, the founder 
 of the New Jerusalem church, or sect 
 of Swedenborgians, was born at Stock- 
 holm in 1688. The period 1710 to 1714 
 he spent in scientific travels through 
 England, Holland, France, and Ger- 
 many. In 1716 he was appointed as- 
 sessor extraordinary in the Royal Cql- 
 lege of Mines by Charles XII. In 1719 
 Queen Ulrica raised the Swedberg 
 family to the rank of nobility, upon 
 which occasion the name was changed 
 to Swedenborg. He increased his stock 
 of knowledge by new travels in 1736-40 
 in Germany, Holland, France, Italy, 
 and England. He was first introduced 
 to an intercourse with the spiritual 
 world in detail, according to his own , 
 statement, in 1743 at London. The eyes 
 of his inward man, he says, were opened 
 to see heaven, hell, and the world of 
 spirits, in which he conversed, not only 
 with his deceased acquaintances, but 
 with the most distinguished men of 
 antiquity. His theological works, writ- 
 ten in Latin between the years 1747 
 and 1771, found but a limited number 
 of readers; and while he was an object 
 of the deepest veneration and wonder 
 to his few followers, his statements were 
 the more mysterious to the rest of the 
 world because he could not be suspected 
 of dishonesty, and exhibited profound 
 learning, keenness of intellect, and un- 
 feigned piety. His works are very 
 numerous, among the more important 
 of them being the Arcana Ccelestia, the 
 New Jerusalem, Angelic Wisdom, the 
 Apocalypse Explained, Heaven and , 
 Hell, etc. With uninterrupted health 
 he attained the age of eighty-four, and 
 died of apoplexy in London, March 29, 
 1772. 
 
 SWEDENBORGIANS, the followers 
 of Swedenborg, and particularly the 
 members of what is called the New 
 Jerusalem church, or New church. This 
 body adopts the doctrinal tenets and 
 method of Biblical interpretation laid 
 down in the writings of Emanual Swe- 
 denborg. The belief of the Sweden- 
 borgians is: that Jesus Christ is God, 
 in whom is a trinity not of persons but 
 essentials, answering to the soul, body, 
 and the operation of these in a man ; that 
 the Scriptures contain an internal or 
 spiritual meaning, which is the Word 
 existing in heaven; that the key to this 
 is the correspondence betw^een natural 
 and spiritual things, as between effects 
 and their causes; that man is saved by 
 shunning evils as sins and leading a life 
 according to the ten commandrnents; 
 that man is a spirit clothed with a i 
 
. 1 * 
 
 SWEET-BREAD 
 
 SWIMMING-BLADDER 
 
 1 
 
 natural body for life on earth, and then 
 when he puts it off at death he con- 
 tinues to live as before but in the spirit- 
 ual world, first in an intermediate state 
 between heaven and hell, but afterward, 
 when his character, whether good or evil 
 becomes harmonious throughout, among 
 his like either in heaven or hell; that 
 the Lord’s second coming and the last 
 judgment are spiritual events which 
 have already taken place. 
 
 SWEET-BREAD. See Pancreas. 
 
 SWEET-BRIAR, or SWEET-BRIER, 
 a species of rose, which grows wild, but 
 is often planted in hedges and gardens 
 on aceount of the sweet balsamic smell 
 of its small leaves and flowers. It is also 
 called the eglantine. 
 
 SWEET-FLAG, a plant, also called 
 Sweet-rush, found in marshy places 
 throughout the northern hemisphere. 
 The leaves are all radical, long, and 
 sword-shaped; the stem bears a lateral, 
 dense, greenish spike of flowers; the 
 root is long, cylindrical, and knotted. 
 The root has a strong aromatic odor, 
 and a warm, pungent, bitterish taste, 
 and has been employed in medicine 
 since the time of Hippocrates. It is also 
 used by confectioners as a candy, and 
 by perfumers in the preparation of 
 aromatic vinegar, hair-powder, etc. 
 
 SWEET-PEA, a garden plant culti- 
 vated on account of the beauty of its 
 flowers, which are sweet-scented, and in 
 color purple, rose, white, or variegated. 
 
 SWEET-POTATO, a plant now cul- 
 tivated in all the warmer parts of the 
 globe. It is the potato of Shakespeare 
 and contemporary writers, the common 
 potato being then scarcely known in 
 
 Europe. The consumption of the sweet- 
 potato is very large in many parts, in- 
 cluding the United States and the 
 warmer parts of America, the East 
 IixciiGs ©tc 
 
 SWEET-WILLIAM, a species of pink. 
 It grows wild in dry and sterile places 
 in middle and southern Europe. 
 
 SWELL, in music, a gradual increase 
 and decrease of sound; the cresendo and 
 diminuendo combined. Also an ar- 
 rangement in an organ (and in some 
 harmoniums) whereby the player can 
 increase or diminish the intensity of the 
 sound at will. In the organ it consists 
 of a series of pipes with a separate key- 
 board, and forming a separate depart- 
 ment (called the swell-organ). The loud- 
 ness or softness of the tone is regulated 
 by opening or shutting, by means of a 
 pedal, a set of slats like a Venetian blind, 
 which forms part of the frame in which 
 the pipes are inclosed. 
 
 Swift, though swifts are Uk? swal- 
 
 lows in many respects, their structure is 
 almost entirely different, and some 
 naturalists rather class them with the 
 humming birds, or the goat-suckers. 
 The swift has all four toes directed for- 
 ward; it is larger than the swallow; its 
 flight is more rapid and steady; and its 
 scream is very different from the twitter- 
 ing of the swallow. It has the greatest 
 powers of flight of any bird that visits 
 Britain. Its weight is most dispropor- 
 tionately small to its extent of wing, the 
 fonner being scarcely an ounce, the 
 latter 18 inches, the length of the body 
 being about 8 inches. Its color is a 
 
 somber or sooty black, a whitish patch 
 appearing beneath the chin. It builds 
 in holes in the roofs of houses, in towers, 
 or in hollow trees. It leaves Britain in 
 August, having arrived from Africa early 
 in May. A larger species, with the lower 
 parts dusky white, has its home in the 
 mountainous parts of Central and 
 Southern Europe. A common North 
 American swift is the so-called chimney 
 swallow, which builds its nest in chim- 
 neys. The swifts or swiftlets which in- 
 habit chiefly the islands of the Indian 
 ocean from the north of Madagascar east- 
 ward, construct the edible birds’-nests 
 which are used by Chinese epicures in 
 the making of soup. 
 
 SWIFT, Gustavus Franklin, an Ameri- 
 can merchant, born at Cape Cod, Mass., 
 in 1839. He engaged in meat-packing 
 in Chicago, and was the first to ship 
 meat long distances successfully. He 
 founded and was president of the cor- 
 poration of Swift and company, one of 
 the largest packing firms in the United 
 States, and was a prominent member 
 of many other similar concerns. He 
 died in 1903. 
 
 SWIFT, Jonathan, the greatest of 
 English satirists, was born in Dublin, 
 November 30, 1667. In 1701 he took his 
 doctor’s degree, and in 1704 he published 
 anonymously his famous Tale of a Tub, 
 to which was appended the Battle of the 
 Books. In 1708 appeared, among other 
 things, an attack upon astrology under 
 the title of Predictions for the Year 
 1708, by Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq., and 
 in 1709 a Project for the Advancement 
 of Religion, dedicated to Lady Berke- 
 ley, the only work to which he ever put 
 his name. A bishopric in England was 
 the object of his ambition; but the only 
 preferment he obtained from his minis- 
 terial friends was the Irish deanery of 
 St. Patrick’s, to which he was presented- 
 in 1713. His famous Gulliver’s Travels 
 appeared in 1726. \ He died in 174.5, 
 bequeathing the greatest part of his 
 fortune to an hospital for lunatics and I 
 
 idiots. As a writer he has, perhaps, 
 never been exceeded in grave irony. 
 He abounds in ludicrous ideas, which 
 often deviate, both in his poetry and 
 prose, into very unpardonable grossness. 
 
 SWIMMING, the act or art of sustain- 
 ing and propelling the body in water. 
 A large proportion of the animal tribes 
 are furnished with a greater or less 
 capacity for swimming either in water 
 or on its surface, but man is unqualified 
 for swimming without learning to do so 
 as an art. The art of swimming chiefly 
 consists in keeping the head, or at least 
 the mouth, above water, and using the 
 hands and feet as oars and helm. Want 
 of confidence is the greatest obstacle in 
 the way of most who begin to learn 
 swimming. The beginner cannot per- 
 suade himself that the water will sup- 
 port him, and with the feeling that some 
 muscular effort is necessary for the pur- 
 pose stiffens his back in such a way that 
 the water cannot buoy him up with the 
 head above water. If, instead of doing 
 this, he would give up the endeavor to 
 support himself by a muscular strain, 
 and trust to the water to support him 
 like a cushion, the art of swimming would 
 come to him almost as naturally as the 
 art of walking does to a child. When the 
 ability to swim in the ordinary way, 
 chest downward, is acquired, everything 
 is acquired. It is as unnecessary to give 
 special instructions for swimming on 
 the back, on the side, etc., as it is to 
 direct people who are able to walk how 
 to turn themselves or walk up or down 
 hill. In saving a person from drowning, 
 which can be done most effectually if he 
 has already lost consciousness, pull hmi 
 by the hair, or push him before you, if 
 far from shore; otherwise take him by 
 the arm. An excellent method of sup- 
 porting another in the water is to allow 
 the person supported to rest his hands on 
 your hips. This method can scarcely 
 be practiced in cases where persons 
 unable to swim are drowning; but it 
 may be of much avail in supporting a 
 brother swimmer w’ho is attacked with 
 weakness or cramp, and who has pres- 
 ence of mind to take advantage of the 
 support. 
 
 SWIMMING-BLADDER, AIR-BLAD- 
 DER, or SOUND (of fishes), the names 
 applied to a sac or bladder-like struc- 
 ture found in most, but not in all fishes, 
 the chief office of which appears to con- 
 sist in altering the specific gravity of 
 the fish, and thus enabling it to rise or 
 sink at will in the surrounding water. 
 It has a homology or structural corre- 
 spondence with the lungs of higher 
 forms than fishes; but it has no analogy 
 or functional correspondence with the 
 lungs or breathing organs, save in the 
 peculiar Lepidosirens or mud-fishes, in 
 which the air-bladder becomes cellu- 
 lar in structure, and otherwise assumes 
 a lung-like structure and function In 
 its simplest condition it exists as a 
 closed sac lying beneath the spine, and 
 containing air or gases of different 
 kinds. By the muscular compression 
 of its walls the density of the con- 
 tained gas is altered, and the specific 
 gravity of the fish affected accordingly, 
 so as to change its position in the water. 
 In most sea-fishes the gas which tli^ 
 swimming-bladder contains' is o-xygen, 
 
 1 
 
SWINBURNE 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 that in the air-sac of fresh-water fishes 
 being mostly nitrogen. Such fishes as 
 the flat-fishes, represented by the 
 flounders, soles, etc., have no swimming- 
 bladder developed, and it may be absent 
 in other fonns, such as sharks, rays, 
 lampreys, etc. 
 
 SWINBURNE, Algernon Charles, poet 
 and essayist, was born in London 1837. 
 His first productions. Queen Mother 
 and Rosamond, published in 1861, 
 attracted but little attention. They 
 were followed by two tragedies, Atalanta 
 in Calydon and Chastelard, and by 
 Poems and Ballads which excited con- 
 siderable criticism. Since that time 
 Swinburne has been prominently before 
 the public. Among his numerous later 
 works may be mentioned: A Song of 
 Italy, William Blake, a critical essay; 
 Songs before Sunrise, Bothwell, a 
 tragedy; Poems and Ballads (2d series), 
 Mary Stuart, a tragedy; Tristram of 
 Lyonesse, etc. A Century of Roundels, 
 Marino Faliero, a tragedy; Poems and 
 Ballads (3rd series), Astrophel and 
 other Poems; etc. He died in 1909. 
 
 SWINE. See Hog. 
 
 SWINE FEVER, or SWINE PLAGUE, 
 
 is known as hog cholera in America, 
 where it has caused enormous losses. 
 It is a specific contagious fever, gen- 
 erally very rapid in its course, death en- 
 suing in a very few days. To suppress 
 the disease, all affected pigs must be 
 killed, and if necessary those which 
 have been in contact with them, and the 
 carcasses and litter burned or deeply 
 buried. 
 
 SWING, David, American preacher, 
 born in 1830 in Cincinnati. In 1866 
 he was called to the Fourth Presby- 
 terian church in Chicago. In 1874 he 
 was tried for heresy and acquitted, but, 
 resigned his pastorate and withdrew 
 from the Presbyterian ministry. He 
 organized a new church, meeting at 
 first in a theater and later in the Central 
 Music Hall, where Dr. Swing continued 
 to preach to one of the largest congrega- 
 tions in Chicago until his death. He 
 died in 1894. 
 
 SWING-BRIDGE, called also swivel- 
 bridge and pivot-bridge, a bridge that 
 may be moved by swinging, so as to 
 afford a passage for ships on a river, 
 canal, at the mouth of docks, etc. In one 
 fonn the whole bridge is swung to one 
 side ; in another it rotates from its center 
 on a pier in the middle of the water-way, 
 so as to make a passage on each side of 
 it; while in a third it consists of two 
 sections, each of which, when opened, is 
 landed on its own side. 
 
 SWISS GUARDS, bodies of mercenary 
 Swiss troops which, since Switzerland 
 gained her independence in the* 15th 
 century, have been employed in many 
 European countries as body-guards, and 
 for duty about courts. The most fam- 
 ous are the French Swiss guards organ- 
 ized in 1616, and annihilated in the de- 
 fense of the Tuileries, August 10, 1792, 
 whose heroism is commemorated in 
 Thorwaldsen’s colossal Lion, carved in 
 the face of a rock at Lucerne. The French 
 Swiss guards were reorganized by Louis 
 XVIII. in 1815, and defeated and dis- 
 persed in the revolution of 1830. 
 
 SWITCHES. See Railways. 
 
 §WITHIN, St., bishop of Winchester 
 
 from 852 to 862, and patron saint of 
 Winchester cathedral from the 10th to 
 the 16th century. The popular knowl- 
 edge of this saint’s name is due to the 
 belief that if rain falls on the 15th of 
 July (which is popularly known as St. 
 Swithin’s Day) it will rain for six weeks 
 after Similar superstitions are con- 
 nected in various continental countries 
 with other saints’ days which occur in 
 summer. 
 
 SWITZERLAND, a federal republic 
 of Central Europe, bounded north by 
 Baden, from which it is separated for 
 the most part by the Rhine; northeast 
 by Wiirtemberg and Bavaria, from 
 which it is separated by the Lake of 
 Constance; east by the principality of 
 Lichtenstein and the Tyrol, from which 
 it is separated by the Rhine and the 
 Orisons Alps; south by Italy, from 
 which it is separated by the Alps and 
 the Lake of Geneva; and west and north- 
 west by France, from which it is sepa- 
 rated in part by the Jura mountains and 
 the River Doubs. Greatest length, 210 
 miles; greatest breadth, 126 miles. 
 Pop. 3,292,551. The largest towns are 
 Zurich, Basel, Geneva, and Bern, the 
 last being the federal capital. The char- 
 acteristic physical features of Switzer- 
 land are its lofty mountain ranges, 
 enormous glaciers, magnificent lakes, 
 and wild romantic valleys. The loftiest 
 mountain-chains belong to the Alps, 
 and are situated chiefly in the south. 
 The central nucleus is Mount St. Goth- 
 ard, which unites the principal water- 
 sheds of Europe. In like manner it 
 forms a kind of starting point for the 
 loftiest ranges of the Alps. Besides the 
 Alps, properly so called, the only range 
 deserving of notice is that of the Jura, 
 which is linked to the Alps by the small 
 range of the Jorat. The principal rivers 
 are the Rhine, the Rhone, the Aar, and 
 the Inn. The largest lakes, that of 
 Geneva in the southwest and of Con- 
 stance in the northeast, as well as that 
 of Maggiore on the south side of the 
 Alps, belong partly to other countries; 
 but within the limits of Switzerland, 
 and not far from its center, are Lake 
 Neuchatel, with Morat and Bienne in its 
 vicinity, Thun with its feeder Brienz, 
 Lucerne, or Vierwaldstatter-see, Sem- 
 pach, Baldegg, Zug, Zurich, and Wal- 
 lenstatter-see. All these internal lakes 
 belong to the basin of the Rhine. All 
 the loftiest alpine ranges have a nucleus 
 of granite, on which gneiss and mica- 
 slate recline generally at a high angle. 
 Coal-bearing strata are found in the 
 cantons of Valais, Vaud, Freiburg, Bern, 
 and Thurgau, and brown coal is obtained 
 in St. Gall and Zurich. Iron is worked 
 to advantage in several quarters, par- 
 ticularly among the strata connected 
 with the Jura limestone. Rock and 
 common salt are produced to some ex- 
 tent in the cantons of Vaud, Basel, and 
 Aargau. The only other minerals de- 
 serving of notice are alabaster and 
 marble, widely diffused; and asphalte, 
 in the Val-de-Travers in the canton of 
 Valais. Mineral springs occur in many 
 quarters. Owing to differences of eleva- 
 tion the climate is extremely variable 
 even in the same localities. Owing to 
 the same cause, few countries in Europe 
 even of larger extent can boast of a 
 
 more varied vegetation than Switzer- 
 land. In regard to vegetation it has been 
 divided into seven regions. The char- 
 acteristic product of the first is the vine, 
 which grows up to 1700 or 1800 feet 
 above the sea-level. The next is the 
 hilly or lower mountain region, rising to 
 the height of 2800 feet, and character- 
 ized by the luxuriance of its walnut 
 trees, with good crops of spelt and ex- 
 cellent meadows. The third or upper 
 mountain region, which has its limit at 
 4000 feet, produces forest timber, more 
 especially beech, and has good crops of 
 barley and oats, and excellent pastures. 
 Above this, and up to the height of 5500 
 feet, is the fourth or subalpine region, 
 distinguished by its pine forests and 
 maples; here no regular crops are grown; 
 The fifth or lower alpine region, ter- 
 minating at 6500 feet, is the proper 
 region of alpine pastures. In the sixth 
 or upper alpine region the vegatation 
 becomes more and more stunted, and 
 the variation of the seasons is lost. The 
 seventh or last region is that of per- 
 petual snow. The chief crops are wheat, 
 spelt, rye, oats, and potatoes. The wine 
 produced is mostly of inferior quality. 
 Considerable quantities of fruit are 
 grown. Among domestic animals the 
 
 Group of Swiss, District of Appenzell. 
 
 first place belongs to the horned cattle, 
 and the dairy products of Switzerland 
 are of special commercial importance, 
 great quantities of cheese and condensed 
 milk being exported. On the higher 
 grounds goats are very numerous. 
 Among wild animals are bears, wolves, 
 chamois, wild boars, stags, badgers, 
 foxes, har6s, otters, birds of prey of large 
 dimensions, and many varieties of 
 winged game. The lakes and rivers are 
 well supplied with fish. Of the popula- 
 tion about 40 per cent are dependent on 
 agriculture, and about 34 per cent on 
 manufacturing industry. Switzerland is 
 thus mainly an agricultural and manu- 
 facturing country The system of 
 peasant proprietorship prevails largely, 
 it being estimated that there are nearly 
 300,000 peasant proprietors. The prin- 
 cipal manufactures are cotton, silk, 
 embroidery, watches and jewelry, ma- 
 chinery and iron, tobacco and wool. 
 Geneva is the chief seat of the watch 
 industry, Basel of the silk industry, and 
 St. Gallen of embroidery. Switzerland 
 being an inland country, has direct 
 commercial intercourse only with the 
 surrounding states; but the trade with 
 other countries, especially Great Brit- 
 ain and the United States, is very im- 
 portant. There are now fully 2300 miles 
 of railway. There is a very complete 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 
SWITZERLAND 
 
 SWORD 
 
 system of telegraphs. The French 
 metric system of money, weights, and 
 measures has been generally adopted in 
 Switzerland. Both the Evangelical- 
 reformed church and the Roman Catholic 
 are national churches in Switzerland, 
 about 59 per cent of the inhabitants be- 
 longing to the former, and 41 per cent to 
 the latter. There is complete liberty of 
 conscience and creed, but the order of 
 the Jesuits and the societies affiliated 
 to it are not allowed within the con- 
 federation. In terms of the constitution 
 of 1874 primary education is secular 
 and compulsory throughout the con- 
 federation. For the higher education 
 there are five universities, Basel, Zurich, 
 Geneva, Berne, Lausanne, the first 
 founded in 1460, and the others since 
 1832. There are also academies or in- 
 complete universities at Fribourg and 
 NeucMtel ; a polytechnic school at 
 Zurich; and a military academy at 
 Thun. The cantons of Switzerland are 
 united together as a federal republic for 
 mutual defense, but retain their in- 
 dividual independence in regard to 
 all matters of internal administration. 
 The legislative power of the confedera- 
 tion belongs to a federal assembly, and 
 the executive power to a federal 
 council. The federal assembly is com- 
 posed of two divisions — the national 
 council, and the state council or 
 senate. The national council is elected 
 every three years by the cantons — one 
 member to each 20,000. Every lay 
 Swiss citizen is eligible. The senate con- 
 sists of forty-four members — two for 
 each canton. In addition to its legisla- 
 tive functions the federal assembly pos- 
 sesses the exclusive right of concluding 
 treaties of alliance with other countries, 
 declaring war and singing peace, sanc- 
 tioning the cantonal constitutions, and 
 taking measures regarding neutrality 
 and intervention. The army consists of 
 the Bundesauszug, or federal army, com- 
 prising all men able to bear arms from 
 the age of twenty to thirty-two ; and the 
 Landwehr, or militia, comprising all 
 men from the age of thirty-two to forty- 
 four. In 1907 the Bundesauszug had a 
 strength of 153,649, and the Landwehr 
 of 88,813, making a total of 242,642. 
 There is also, by a law of 1887, a Land- 
 sturm (of 283,643 men), in which every 
 citizen between the ages of seveiiteen 
 and fifty, not otherwise serving, is liable 
 to be called to serve. The Landsturm 
 is called out only in time of war. The 
 Swiss are a mixed people as to race and 
 language. German, French, Italian, and 
 a corrupt kind of Latin called Rha;tian 
 or Roumansch, are spoken in different 
 parts. The Swiss, however, have lived 
 so long in a state of confederation that, 
 apart from these peculiarities of origin 
 and language, they have acquired a 
 decided national character, and may 
 now be viewed as forming a single 
 people. The oldest inhabitants men- 
 tioned in written history are the Hel- 
 vetians, who, between 58 b.c. and 10 
 A.D., were subjugated by the Romans. 
 Before the fall of the Roman empire in 
 the West, Switzerland was occupied by 
 the German confederation of the Ale- 
 manni; by the Burgundians and the 
 Lombards; and by the j^ear 534, under 
 the successors of Clovis, it had become 
 
 a portion of the Frankish empire. Under 
 the successors of Charlemagne it was 
 divided between the Kingdom of France 
 and the German empire, but ultimately 
 the whole country fell to Germany. For 
 the most part, however, the dependence 
 of Switzerland on Germany was merely 
 nominal. The counts (originally local 
 governors) conducted themselves as 
 princes, assumed the name of their 
 castles, and compelled the free inhabi- 
 tants of their Gaus (districts) to ac- 
 knowledge them as their lords. At the 
 beginning of the 13th century the three 
 forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and 
 Unterwalden were subject to the counts 
 of Hapsburg, who, although they were 
 properly only imperial bailiffs (Vogte), 
 yet regarded themselves as sovereign 
 rulers. This claim the three cantons 
 constantly refused to admit, and event- 
 ually (1291) leagued themselves to- 
 gether to oppose the usurpations of the 
 house of Hapsburg. On January 1, 1308, 
 the Austrian governors were deposed 
 and expelled. A few years later the 
 three cantons were invaded by the 
 Hapsburgs; but the signal victory at 
 the pass of Morgarten on the 15th of 
 November, 1315, secured the inde- 
 pendence of the cantons. The three 
 united cantons were joined by the cities 
 of Lucerne (1332) and Zurich (1351), 
 the cantons of Glarus and Zug (1352), 
 and the city of Bern (1353). Austria, 
 which claimed jurisdiction over three of 
 the newly-added members, namely, the 
 city of Lucerne and the cantons of 
 Glarus and Zug, again invaded the terri- 
 tory of the confederation, but was com- 
 pletely defeated at Sempach in 1386, 
 and in 1388 at Niifels. The canton of 
 Appenzell joined the confederation in 
 1411, and Aargau was wrested from the 
 Austrians in 1415. The third war with 
 Austria terminated in 1460, in favor of 
 the confederation, which obtained Thur- 
 gau, Austria being thus deprived of all 
 its possessions in the regions over which 
 Switzerland now extends. They ad- 
 mitted Freiburg and Solothurn into the 
 confederation in 1481, and about the 
 same time they concluded defensive 
 alliances with several of the neighboring 
 states. The last war with Austria^broke 
 out in 1498. The Swiss had to undergo 
 a severe struggle, but, victors in six 
 sanguinary battles, they were, by the 
 Peace of Basel in 1499, practically sepa- 
 rated from the empire, a separation to 
 which formal and international sanction 
 was given in 1648. After this war they 
 had no longer any enemy to fear, and 
 their future wars were waged on behalf 
 of foreign powers. In 1501 Basel and 
 Schaff hausen, and in 1513 Appenzell 
 were admitted into full federation. The 
 number of the cantons was thus brought 
 up to thirteen, at which it remained till 
 1798. The town and the abbot of St. 
 Gall and the town of Bienne had seats 
 and votes in the diet without being in 
 full federation; and there were besides 
 six allies of the confederation not enjoy- 
 ing these privileges — the Grisons, Valais, 
 Geneva, Neufchl^tel, Miihlhausen, and the 
 bishopric of Basel. In 1516 France gave 
 up to Switzerland the whole of the 
 present canton of Ticino. In 1518 the 
 Reformation began to make its way into 
 Switzerland, chiefly through the efforts 
 
 of Zuinglius at Zurich. Zuinglius fell at 
 Kappel (1531), but his work was carried 
 on by Calvin at Geneva. The effect of 
 the Reformation for long was to divide 
 Switzerland into separate camps. The 
 last time the two great parties met in 
 arms was at Willmergen in 1712, when 
 victory declared itself for the Protes- 
 tants. In almost every department of 
 human knowledge the Swiss of the 18th 
 century, both at home and abroad, 
 acquired distinguished reputation. In 
 the last years of the century the ferment 
 of the French revolution spread to 
 Switzerland; and in 1798 the ancient 
 confederation was replaced by the 
 Helvetic Republic, which lasted four 
 years. In 1803 Napoleon I. organized a 
 new confederation, composed of nine- 
 teen cantons, by the addition of Aargau, 
 Grisons, St. Gall, Ticino, Thurgau, and 
 Pays de Vaud. In 1815, by the compact 
 of Zurich, Neufch4tel, Geneva, and 
 Valais were admitted into the con- 
 federacy, and the number of the cantons 
 was thus brought up to twenty-two. 
 This confederacy was acknowledged by 
 the congress of Vienna, which pro- 
 claimed the perpetual neutrality of 
 Switzerland, and the inviolability of its 
 soil. Again, in 1830 and in 1848, Swit- 
 zerland was affectedLy the revolutionary 
 movement in France, and a new federal 
 constitution was introduced in the latter 
 year. During the commotions of 1848 
 Neufch^tel set aside it^ monarchial form 
 of government and adopted a republican 
 one, and in 1857 it was put upon the 
 same footing with the other cantons. 
 Since that tinre the annals of Switzer- 
 land have little to record beyond the 
 fact of constant moral and material 
 progress. A revision of the federal con- 
 stitution was adopted after a protracted 
 agitation on the 19th of April, 1874, 
 giving to the federal authorities more 
 power in matters relating to law, the 
 army, the church, and education. 
 
 SWORD, a weapon used in hand-to- 
 
 ^Swords. 
 
 a. Rapier, 16th century; b, Italian sword, 
 wrought-bronze hilt; c, French hunting-sword, 
 18th century; d. Small sword, 18th century; 
 e, Knights’ sword, 15th century. 
 
 hand encounters consisting of a steel 
 blade and a hilt or handle for wielding 
 
SWORD-FISH 
 
 SYMPATHY 
 
 it. The blade may be either straight or 
 curved, one-edged, or two-edged, sharp 
 at the end for thrusting, or blunt. The 
 ancient Greek swords were of bronze, 
 and later of iron. The Romans in the 
 time of Polybius (b.c. 150) had short, 
 straight swords of finely-tempered steel. 
 The straight, long sword was used by 
 the Christians of the West in the middle 
 ages, while the Poles and^ all the tribes 
 of Slavonic origin employed, and still 
 prefer, the crooked sword or scimitar, 
 which was also used by the Saracens, 
 and is still the common one in the East. 
 The double-handed sword of the middle 
 ages was an unwieldly weapon, and 
 probably originated from the wearing 
 of plate armor. The sword is of much 
 less importance in warfare than formerly, 
 but European cavalry are still armed 
 with it. From the former importance of 
 the sword it came to be connected with 
 various matters of ceremonial. The 
 sword of state is one of the regalia, and 
 the “offering of the sword” one of the 
 ceremonies of coronation. Damascus, 
 Toledo, and Milan were anciently fam- 
 ous for their sword-blades. In England, 
 at the present day, the government seat 
 of the sword manufacture is Birming- 
 ham. See Broadsword, Cutlass, Rapier, 
 and Scimitar; also Cutlery and Fencing. 
 
 SWORD-FISH, a fish allied to the 
 mackerel and represented by the com- 
 mon sword-fish, the single known species. 
 It occurs in the Mediterranean sea and 
 Atlantic ocean, but may also be oc- 
 casionally found round the coasts of 
 Britain. It attains a length of from 
 12 to 15, or even 20 feet, the elongated 
 upper jaw, or sword, forming three- 
 tenths of its length. Its body is covered 
 
 with minute scales. Its color is a bluish- 
 black above, and silvery white on the 
 under parts. The ventral fins are want- 
 ing. It is fished for by the Neapolitan 
 and Sicilian fishermen with the harpoon. 
 Its flesh is very palatable and nutritious. 
 It attacks other fishes, and often inflicts 
 fatal wounds with its powerful weapon; 
 and there are frequent instances in 
 which the timbers of ships have been 
 found to be perforated through and 
 through by the sword-like jaw, which 
 has been left sticking in the wood. 
 
 SYCAMORE, a large and well-known 
 timber tree in the western parts of the 
 United States, a name for the occidental 
 plane or buttonwood. For the Syca- 
 more of Scripture see Sycomore. 
 
 SYCOMORE, a kind of fig-tree. It is 
 very common in Palestine, Arabia, and 
 Egypt, growing thick and to a great 
 height, and though the grain is coarse, 
 much used in building, and very durable. 
 Its wide-spreading branches afford a 
 grateful shade in those hot climates, and 
 its fruit, which is produced in clusters 
 
 upon the trunk and the old limbs, is 
 sweet and delicate. 
 
 SYDNEY, the capital of New South 
 Wales and the parent city of Australia, 
 is situated on the southern shore of Port 
 Jackson, the shore line being deeply 
 indented by capacious bays or inlets 
 which form harbors in themselvms, and 
 are lined with wharves, quays, and 
 warehouses. Among the most important 
 public buddings are the new govern- 
 ment offices, the town-hall, with a tower 
 200 feet high, and a very capacious 
 great hall; the post-office, an Italian 
 building with a tower 250 feet high; the 
 government house; the university, a 
 Gothic building vdth a frontage of 
 nearly 400 feet, situated in a fine park; 
 
 The symbols for the chief heavenlyl 
 bodies are as follows; 
 
 Sun O, Mercury Venus J, Earth { and 
 0, Moon (J, Mars Ceres?, Pallas'^, 
 Juno'^, Vesta Jupiter If, Saturn Tj* 1 
 Uranus Neptune*|*, Cometh, Star 
 The asteroids, except the four given above, 
 are represented by a circle with a number, 
 thus,^^. Lunar Phases. ^ Moon in 
 conjunction, or new; J) Moon in eastern 
 quadrature, or Jirst quarter; Q Moon in 
 opposition, or full; ([ Moon in western 
 qjiadrature, or last quarter. See peliptic.— 
 Chemical symbols are merely the first] 
 letters of the names of the chemical j 
 elements; or, when the names of two orj 
 
 Buckler 
 
 SYDNEY 
 
 AND 
 
 PORT JACKSON 
 
 NATURAL SCALE. 1 ,168.400. 
 ENGLISH MILES 
 
 ^ 1 J 
 
 1. Government House 
 
 2. University 
 
 3. Teivn Hail 
 
 4. General Post 
 
 the free public library; school of art; 
 public museum; grammar-school; St. 
 Andrew’s (Episcopal) cathedral; St. 
 Mary’s (R.C.) cathedral; the Jewish 
 synagogue; exchange; custom-house; 
 mint; parliament houses; hospitals, 
 asylums, and numerous other ecclesiasti- 
 cal, scholastic, and business buildings. 
 The principal exports are wool, tallow, 
 hides, preserved meat, tin, copper, etc.; 
 the imports, grain, tea, coffee, sugar, 
 wine and spirits, ironware and machin- 
 ery, cotton and woolen goods, wear- 
 ing apparel, furniture, etc. The dis- 
 covery of gold in the colony in 1851 
 gave an immense impetus to its progress. 
 Pop. 618,462. 
 
 SYLVESTER, Joshua, English poet, 
 born in 1563, was a member of the 
 company of merchant adventurers at 
 Stade, Holland. He is known chiefly 
 as the translator into English of the 
 Divine Weeks and Works of the French 
 poet Du Bartas. He died in 1618. 
 
 SYMBOL, a sign by which one knows 
 or infers a thing; an emblem. It is gen- 
 erally a definite visible figure intended 
 to represent or stand for something else, 
 as in the case of the common astronomi- 
 cal symbols, which are signs conven- 
 iently representing astronomical ob- 
 jects, phases of the moon, etc., and 
 astronomical terms. Some of these 
 symbols are so ancient that we can find 
 no satisfactory account of their origin. 
 
 more elements begin with the same S' 
 letter, two letters are used as the symbol, '■ 
 one of which is always the first letter of 1 , 
 the name of the element. Generally 
 speaking the letters comprising the 
 symbol are taken from the English 
 name of the element; but in some in- 
 stances, specially in the case of metals 
 which have been long known, the sym- 
 bols are derived from the Latin names, 
 as Fe (Lat. ferrum) for iron. See Chem- 
 istry. — Mathematical symbols are letters 
 and characters which represent quan- 
 tities or magnitudes, and point out their 
 relations, as, a", a„; a~, a.; a™, a; the 
 signs, +, -, X, <, >, etc. 
 
 SYMPATHETIC INKS, inks which re- 
 main invisible until acted upon by heat 
 or by some other reagent. See Ink. 
 
 SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM, 
 the name applied to a set of nerves in 
 vertebrate anhnals, fonning a nervous 
 system distinct from, and yet connected 
 with, the chief nerve-centers, or cerebro- 
 spinal nervous system. They are spe- 
 cially connected with the processes of 
 organic life, the movements of the heart 
 and of respiration, the work of the 
 stomach, etc., in digestion, the process 
 of secretion in glands, etc. See Nerve. 
 
 SYM'PATHY, in physiology, is that 
 quality of the animal organization by 
 which, through the increased or dimin- 
 ished activity of one organ, that of 
 
SYMPHONY 
 
 SYRACUSE 
 
 others 5s aiso increased or diminished. 
 The idea of an organized system — the 
 union of manj^' parts in one whole, in 
 which all t hese pal'ts correspond to each 
 other — includes the idea of a mutual 
 operation, of which sympathy is a part. 
 The sympathetic medium has been 
 sometimes supposed to be the nervous 
 system, sometimes the vascular or cel- 
 lular system; but sympatlry takes place 
 between such organs as have no dis- 
 coverable connection by nerves or ves- 
 sels. The phenomenon of sympathy 
 appears even in the healthy body; but 
 its effect is much more often observed 
 in diseases. Sympathy is birther used 
 to express the influence of the pathologi- 
 cal state of one individual upon another, 
 as in the contagion of hysteria or of 
 yawning. 
 
 SYM'PHONY, an elaborate musical 
 composition for a full orchestra, consist- 
 ing usually, like the sonata, of three or 
 four contrasted, yet inwardly related 
 movements. Haydn, Mozart, Mendel- 
 sshon, and Beethoven are the most suc- 
 cessful composers of this class of com- 
 positions. 
 
 SYMPTOMS, in medicine, the phe- 
 nomena of diseases, from which we in- 
 fer the existence and the nature of the 
 disease. Symptoms have their seat in 
 the functions which are affected by the 
 disease, and may be perceptible by the 
 patient alone (for example, pain and all 
 change of sensations), or by the phy- 
 sician also (for example, all diseased 
 movements). The nervous, the vascular, 
 and the cutaneous systems are affected 
 in most diseases, and thus afford symp- 
 toms. If the symptoms are percepti- 
 ble only to the patient they are called 
 subjective; if to the physician without 
 necessary reference to the patient, they 
 are objective. 
 
 SYNAGOGUE, the recognized place of 
 public worship among the Jews. Its 
 origin, it is supposed, belongs most 
 probably to the date of the Babylonish 
 captivity in the abeyance of temple 
 worship. The synagogues were so con- 
 structed that the worshippers, as they 
 entered and as they praj^ed, looked to- 
 ward Jerusalem. At the extreme east 
 end was the holy ark, containing copies 
 of the Pentateuch; in front of this was 
 the raised platform for the reader or 
 preacher. The men sat on one side of 
 tlie synagogue and the women on the 
 other, a partition 5 or 6 feet high divid- 
 ing them. The chief seats, after which 
 the scribes and Pharisees strove, were 
 situated near the east end. The consti- 
 tution of the synagogue was congrega- 
 tional, not priestly, and the office- 
 bearers were not hereditary, but were 
 chosen by the congregation. A college 
 of elders, presided over by one who was 
 the ruler of the synagogue, managed the 
 affairs of the synagogue, and possessed 
 the power of excommunication. The 
 officiating minister was the chief reader 
 of the prayers, the law, the prophets, 
 etc The servant of the synagogue, who 
 had the general charge of the building, 
 generally acted on week-days as school- 
 master to the young of the congregation. 
 The right of instruction was not strictly 
 confined to the regularlj''-appointed 
 teachers, but the ruler of the synagogue 
 might call upon anyone present to ad- I 
 
 dress the people, or even a stranger 
 miglit volunteer to speak. The modern 
 synagogue differs little from the ancient. 
 Instead of elders there is a committee 
 of management; and the women are now 
 provided with seats in a low latticed 
 gallery. — The Great Synagogue was an 
 assembly or council of 120 members, 
 said to liave been founded and presided 
 over by Ezra after the return from the 
 captivity. Their duties are supposed to 
 have been the remodelling of the religi- 
 ous life of the people, and the collecting 
 and redacting of the sacred books of 
 former times. 
 
 SYNCOPE (sin'ko-pe), the name given 
 to that form of death characterized by 
 failure and cessation of the heart’s 
 action as its primary feature. The 
 term is also applied to the state of faint- 
 ing produced by a diminution or inter- 
 ruption of the action of the heart, and of 
 respiration, accompanied with a sus- 
 pension of the action of the brain arid a 
 temporary loss of sensation, volition, 
 and other faculties. Fatal syncope is 
 usually the result of some nervous 
 “shock,” resulting from some severe 
 lesion of organs, or from a want of blood 
 or an altered and abnormal state of 
 blood pressure. Ordinarily syncope is 
 caused chiefly by weakness, mental 
 emotion, etc. The fainting patient 
 should be laid on a couch and the head 
 kept low; while great caution must be 
 observed in stimulating the action of 
 the heart. 
 
 SYNDIC, an officer intrusted with the 
 affairs of a city or other community; 
 also, a person appointed to act in some 
 particular affair in which he has a com- 
 mon interest with his constituents, as 
 when he is one among several creditors 
 of the same debtor. 
 
 SYN'DICATES, originally, councils or 
 bodies of syndics; afterward, associa- 
 tions of persons formed with the view of 
 promoting some particular enterprise, 
 discharging some trust, or the like ; now, 
 combinations of capitalists for the pur- 
 pose of controlling production and rais- 
 ing prices. Formerly, combinations of 
 capitalists simply aimed at an agree- 
 ment as to how much each should pro- 
 duce, and what common price should be 
 charged to the public, each producer 
 still retaining control over his own busi- 
 ness; but modern syndicates have abso- 
 lute control over the operations of all the 
 consenting parties, and aim at obtaining 
 entire control of the industries with 
 which they deal, so that both pi-oducer 
 and consumer shall be at their mercy. 
 Syndicates, in their modern form, origi- 
 nated in the United States, where they 
 have been introduced into all the leading 
 branches of trade, and are now in opera- 
 tion on a very extensive scale. From the 
 United States they were transplanted to 
 the continent of Europe, where they 
 found a congenial soil, especially in Ger- 
 many. Their introduction into Britain 
 is of more recent date, but they promise 
 to become as general there as else- 
 where. 
 
 SYNOD, an eccle^ nstical assembly 
 convened to consult on church affairs. 
 A synod may be diocesan, composed of 
 a bishop and the clergy of his diocese; 
 or provincial, of an archbishop and the 
 bishops and clergy of his province; or 
 
 national, of the whole clergy of a state 
 under a papal legate. The convocations 
 of the English clergy are provincial 
 synods. Synods in the Presbyterian 
 church are courts of review standing be- 
 tween the presbyteries and the general 
 assembly, and embracing a certain num- 
 ber of associated presbyteries, the clergy 
 and elders of which constitute the respec- 
 tive synods. 
 
 SYNOPTIC GOSPELS, a term applied 
 to the gospels of St. Matthew, St. Mark, 
 and St. Luke, which present a synopsis 
 or general view of the same series of 
 events. In St John’s gospel the events 
 narrated are different. See Gospel. 
 
 SYNTAX, that part of grammar which 
 treats of the manner of connecting words 
 into regular sentences, constructing sen- 
 tences by the due arrangement of words 
 or members in their mutual relations 
 according to established usage. In every 
 language there is some fundamental 
 principle which pervades and regulates 
 its whole construction, although it may 
 occasionallly admit of particular varia- 
 tions. In some languages the principle 
 of juxtaposition prevails, and little 
 diversity of arrangement is possible, as 
 is the case in English, in which inflec- 
 tions are so few. The relations of the sub- 
 ject, the action, and the object are in- 
 dicated by their respective position. In 
 other langauges — inflected languages 
 like Latin or Greek — these relations are 
 indicated by the changes in the forms 
 of the words, and the modes of arrange- 
 ment are various. Still, in the structure 
 and disposition of sentences and parts 
 of sentences the logical relations of the 
 thoughts must regulate the construc- 
 tion, even where it appears to be most 
 arbitrary. 
 
 SYNTHESIS. See Analysis. 
 
 SYPH'ILIS, a disease usually com- 
 municated by impure sexual connection. 
 It is a contagious and hereditary veneral 
 disease, characterized in its primary or 
 local stage by chancres or ulcers on the 
 genitals, succeeded by inguinal buboes. 
 The indications of a secondary or con- 
 stitutional affection are ulcers in the 
 throat, copper-colored eruptions on the 
 skin, pains in the bones, nerves, etc. 
 During the latter part of the 15th cen- 
 tury it assumed an epidemic form, and 
 spread throughout the whole of Europe. 
 Like other diseases, it gradually dimin- 
 ished in virulence, particularly after 
 Paracelsus had found in mercury a use- 
 ful remedy against it. 
 
 SYPHON. See Siphon. 
 
 SYR'ACUSE (now Siracusa), anciently 
 the chief city of Sicily, on the east coast 
 of the island, one of the most magnifi- 
 cent cities in the world, with 500,000 
 inhabitants, is now greatly redpeed, but 
 still has an excellent harbor, capable of 
 receiving vessels of the greatest burden. 
 The cathedral is the ancient templa of 
 Minerva, and there are remains of am- 
 pitheaters and other Roman works. 
 Syracuse was founded by a colony of 
 Corinthians under Archias, B.c. 734, 
 and, according to Thucydides, possessed 
 a greater population than Athens or 
 any other Grecian city. Syracuse is the 
 seat of an archbishop, and since 1865 
 has been the capital of a province of the 
 same name. It has some manufactures 
 of drugs, chemicals, and earthenware, 
 
TABERNACLfi 
 
 fiVliACU^fi 
 
 and a considerable commerce, prin- 
 cipally in wine. Pop. 21,157. 
 
 SYR'ACUSE, a city in Onondaga co.. 
 New Y'ork, 148 miles west of Albany. 
 It has spacious and well-built streets, 
 handsome churches, splendid hotels, 
 large and lofty warehouses, university, 
 and complete system of public schools, 
 etc. The salt industry, to which it owed 
 its early prosperity, is still the staple, 
 the springs yielding on an average from 
 seven to eight million bushels of salt a 
 year; but the other industries are 
 numerous and important (including 
 rolling-mills, furnaces, steel works, etc.), 
 and there is an extensive traffic by rail 
 and canal. Pop. 1909. about 130,000. 
 
 SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, a coeduca- 
 tional institution at Syracuse, N. Y.; 
 founded in the year 1848, but located at 
 Lima, N. Y., and known as Genesee 
 college until 1871, when it was removed 
 to Syracuse. The campus comprises 50 
 acres; the principal buildings are the 
 Hall of Languages, the Holden observ- 
 atory, the John Crouse Memorial col- 
 lege, containing the college of fine arts. 
 
 the library building, and the Y; M. C. 
 A. hall and gymnasium. The medical 
 college building is near the center of the 
 city. The college was removed from 
 Geneva in 1881. A college of law was 
 opened in 1895. 
 
 SYRTA, a country forming part of 
 Asiatic Turkey, and bounded on the 
 north by the Taurus range, on the north- 
 east by the Euphrates, on the east by 
 the Syrian desert, on the south and 
 southeast by Arabia, on the southwest 
 by Egypt, and on the west by the Medi- 
 
 terranean; area, estimated at about 
 70,000 square miles. The coast has 
 some low sandy tracts, but is in general, 
 though not deeply indented, lofty and 
 precipitous, rising, particularly in Mount 
 Carmel, to the height of 3000 feet. The 
 only good harbors are those of Beyrout 
 and Alexandretta (Scanderoon). In 
 Lebanon the mountains reach a height 
 of about 10,000 feet. Between the two 
 parallel ranges of Libanus and Anti- 
 Libanus is the valley of Coele-Syria, 
 whence the Orontes flows northward, 
 turning westward at Antioch, and falling 
 into the sea at the ancient Seleucia. 
 The principal river of South Syria 
 (Palestine, which see) is the Jordan. In 
 the course of the Jordan are the lakes 
 of Merom and Tiberias, and at its mouth 
 is the far larger lake, the Dead Sea. 
 Much of the soil, more especially in the 
 valleys of Lebanon, is very fertile; but 
 agriculture is not pursued with so much 
 zeal as in ancient times. Nevertheless, 
 the orchards of Damascus and the corn- 
 fields of Hauran are celebrated, and the 
 olive-tree and the vine are found in all 
 
 parts. The country is poor in minerals; 
 the native manufactures in silk, cotton, 
 and wool have been paralyzed by the 
 import trade from Europe; and the cara- 
 van trade has almost entirely ceased. 
 The inhabitants, roughly estimated at 
 about 1,500,000, consist chiefly of two 
 elements, the Aramaic and the Arabic 
 the latter including Bedouins and town 
 and peasant Arabs. Jews are found only 
 in the large towns, and have immigrated 
 back from Europe. The language gen- 
 erally spoken is Arabic, but with Aramaic 
 
 elements. The Mohammedans comprise j ; 
 about four-fifths of the population, and 
 the Christians one-fifth. Syria at anV 
 early period became part of the Assyrian^*: 
 empire, and afterward passed to the * 
 Persians, the Greeks and the Romans. 
 
 It formed part of the Byzantine empire,-! 
 but was taken by the Arabs in 636, by 
 the Seljuk Turks in 1078, by the Cru-,. 
 saders, whose kingdom of Jerusalem' 
 lasted till 1295, by the Mamelukes, who ' 
 united it with Egypt, and by the Otto- . 
 man Turks, who added it to their em- 
 pire in 1517. The most important events 
 in the modern history of Syria are its 
 conquest by Mehemet Ali of Egypt in 
 1833, and its restoration to Turkey in.^' 
 1840 by the intervention of the great 
 European powers; and the war between 
 the Drihses and Maronites which broke 
 out in 1860, peace being restored in 1861 - 
 only by the active efforts of a French 
 force sent out under sanction of Turkey ' 
 and the western powers. At present 
 Syria comprises three vilayets — Syria - 
 proper, Aleppo, and Beyrout, and the 
 mutessarifates of Zor (on the Euphrates) 
 Lebanon, and Jerusalem. Lebanon has 
 the special privilege of being under the 
 rule of a Christian Mutessarif. 
 
 SYRINGA. See Lilac. 
 
 SYRINGE, an instrument consisting 
 of a cylinder of metal or glass fitted with 
 an air-tight piston, which is moved up 
 and down by means of a handle. In its 
 simplest form it is destitute of valves, 
 one simple aperture at the extremity . 
 serving for the admission and ejection 
 of fluid; those provided with valves, 
 however, are available, on a small scale, 
 for all the purposes of an air-pump. 
 
 SYRUP, in medicine, a saturated, or 
 almost saturated solution of sugar in 
 water, either simple, flavored, or medi- 
 cated. In the sugar manufacture, a 
 syrup is a strong saccharine solution 
 which contains sugar in a condition 
 capable of being crystalized out, the 
 ultimate uncrystalizable fluid being 
 called treacle or molasses. 
 
 SZE-CHUEN, a large province in the 
 west of China; area, 166,800 sq. miles. 
 The surface is generally rugged and full 
 of defiles, especially in the west, where . 
 many peaks rise far above the snow- 
 line, but there is a plain of some extent 
 surrounding Ching-too-fo, the capital. 
 The principal river is the Y'ang-tse- 
 kiang. The soil is only moderately fer- 
 tile, but there is some metallic wealth. 
 Pop. 67,712,897. 
 
 SZEGEDIN (seg'e-din), a royal free ■ 
 city of Hungary. It is second only to 
 Budapest, and is a great center of com- 
 merce and agriculture. Pop. 100,552 
 
 Antioch in Syria. 
 
 T, the twentieth letter in the English 
 alphabet, a sharp mute consonant, rep- 
 resenting the sound produced by a quick 
 and strong emission of the breath after 
 the end of the tongue has been placed 
 against the roof of the mouth near the 
 roots of the upper teeth. By Grimm’s 
 law t in English corresponds to d in 
 Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, and to ss or 
 z in German. 
 
 T 
 
 TAB'ARD,a sort of tunic of the middle 
 ages, worn over the armor, and generally 
 embroidered with the arms of the wearer 
 or if worn by a herald, with those of his 
 lord or sovereign. It still forms a part 
 of the official dress of heralds. 
 
 TABAS'CO, a state of Mexico, be- 
 tween Y^ucatan peninsula and Vera 
 Cruz; area, 12,716 sq. miles. A large 
 portion of the state is still covered with 
 
 primeval forests. The inhabitants are 
 chiefly Indians. The capital is Sau- 
 Juan-Bautista. Pop., 158,107. 
 
 TABERNACLE, in Jewish antiquities, 
 the tent or sanctuary in which the sacred 
 utensils were kept during the wander- 
 ings of the Israelites in the desert. It 
 was in the shape of a parallel agram, 45 
 feet by 15. and 15 feet in height, with its 
 smaller ends placed east and west, and 
 
tabernacles 
 
 TAILOR-BIRD 
 
 having its entrance in the east. Its 
 framework consisted of forty-eight 
 gilded boards of shittim-wood, bound 
 together by golden rings and set into 
 silver sockets; and this framework was 
 covered with four carpets. The interior 
 was divided by a curtain into two com- 
 partments, the outer the “sanctuary” 
 
 E roper, and the innermost the holy of 
 olies. In the sanctuary was placed on 
 the north the table of show-bread, on the 
 south the golden candle-stick, and in the 
 middle, near the inner curtain, the altar 
 of incense. In the center of the holy of 
 holies stood the ark of the covenant. 
 The tabernacle was situated in a court 
 150 feet by 75, surrounded by costly 
 screens 7J feet high, and supported by 
 pillars of brass feet apart, to which 
 the curtains were attached by hooks 
 and fillets of silver. In the outer or 
 eastern half of the court stood the altar 
 of burnt-offering, and between it and 
 the tabernacle itself the laver, at which 
 the priests washed their hands and feet 
 before entering the sanctuary. It w'as 
 superseded by the temple at Jerusalem. 
 
 Tabard, Sir John Cornwall, Ampthill 
 church, Beds. 
 
 TABERNACLES, Feast of, the last of 
 the three great festivals of the Jews 
 which required the presence of all the 
 males in Jerusalem. Its object was to 
 commemorate the dwelling of the 
 Israelites in tents during their sojourn 
 in the wilderness, and it was also a feast 
 of thanksgiving for the harvest and 
 vintage. The time of the festival fell in 
 the autumn, when all the chief fruits 
 were gathered in, and hence it is often 
 called the feast of the ingathering. Its 
 duration was strictly only seven days, 
 but it was followed by a day of holy con- 
 vocation of peculiar solemnity. During 
 the seven days the people lived in booths 
 erected in the courts of hpuses, on the 
 roofs, and in the court of the temple. 
 It was the most joyous festival of the 
 year. 
 
 TABLE-LAND, or PLATEAU, a flat 
 or comparatively level tract of land 
 considerably elevated above the general 
 surface of a country. Being in effect 
 broad mountain masses, many of these 
 plateaux form the gathering-grounds 
 and sources of some of the noblest rivers, 
 while their elevation confers on them a 
 climate and a vegetable and animal life 
 distinct from that of the surrounding 
 lowlands. In Europe the chief table- 
 lands are that of Central Spain, the less- 
 defined upland in Swizterland, and the 
 
 lower plateaux of Bavaria and Bohemia. 
 In Asia are the most extensive table- 
 lands in the world; the sandy rainless 
 Desert of Gobi, nearly 400,000 sq. miles; 
 and the loftiest inhabited table-land in 
 the world, that of Tibet, with an eleva- 
 tion of from 11,000 to 15,000 feet. In 
 Africa are the plateaux of Abyssinia, 
 and the karoos or terrace plains of South 
 Africa. In America the great table- 
 lands are those of Mexico and the Andes. 
 
 TABOO', or TABU, a peculiar institu- 
 tion formerly prevalent among the 
 South Sea islanders, and used in both a 
 good and bad sense — as something 
 sacred or consecrated, and as something 
 accursed or unholy — both senses for- 
 bidding the touching or use of the thing 
 taboo. The idea of prohibition was 
 always prominent. The whole religious, 
 political, and social system of the primi- 
 tive Polynesians was enforced by the 
 taboo, the infringement of which in seri- 
 ous cases was death. 
 
 TABREEZ', or TABRIZ', a city of 
 Persia, capital of the province of Azer- 
 bijan, on the Aigi, 36 miles above its 
 entrance into Lake Urumia. Tabreez 
 has manufactures of silks, cottons, car- 
 pets, leather and leather goods, etc. 
 It is the great emporium for the trade of 
 Persia on the west, and has an extensive 
 commerce. It has frequently suffered 
 from earthquakes. Pop. 170,000. 
 
 TACAHOUT (tak'a-hut), the small 
 gall formed on the tamarisk-tree. It is 
 imported for the sake of its gallic acid, 
 and is used as a mordant in dyeing and 
 in tanning. 
 
 TACAMAHAC', the name given to a 
 bitter balsamic resin, the produce of 
 several kinds of trees belonging to Mex- 
 ico and the West Indies, the East Indies, 
 South America, and North America. 
 The balsam-poplar or tacamahac is one 
 of these. 
 
 TACITUS, Caius Cornelius, a Roman 
 historian, born probably about 54 a.d. 
 Under Titus he became quaestor or aedile ; 
 was praetor under Domitian (a.d. 88), 
 and consul under Nerva (a.d. 97). He 
 was several years absent from Rome on 
 provincial business, and probably then 
 made the acquaintance of the German 
 peoples. The time of his death is uncer- 
 tain; but it probably took place after 
 A.D. 117. We have four historical works 
 from his pen; his Annals, in sixteen 
 books (of which hooks seventh to tenth 
 inclusive are lost), which contain an 
 account of the principal events in 
 Roman history from the death of 
 Augustus (a.d. 14) to that of Nero (a.d. 
 68) ; his History (of which only four 
 books and a part of the fifth are extant), 
 which begins with the year 69 a.d., 
 when Galba wore the purple, and ends 
 with the accession of Vespasian (70) ; 
 his Germany, an account of the geog- 
 raphy, manners, etc., of the country; 
 and his Life of Agricola. The works of 
 Tacitus have been pronounced, by the 
 unanimous voice of his contemporaries 
 and of posterity, to be masterpieces in 
 their way. 
 
 TACK, in navigation, the course of a 
 ship in regard to the position of her sails 
 and the angle at which the wind strikes 
 them. Tacking is an operation by which 
 a ship is enabled to beat up against a 
 wind by a series of zigzags, the sails be- 
 
 ing turned obliquely to the wind first 
 on one side and then on the other. 
 
 TACO'MA, a town in the state of 
 Washington, on Commencement bay, 
 Puget sound, the western terminus of 
 the North Pacific railroad, with railway 
 works, salmon-canning, lumber trade, 
 etc. Pop. 1909, about 110,000. 
 
 TACONIC MOUNTAINS, a range of 
 mountains in the United States, con- 
 necting the Green mountains of Western 
 Massachusetts with the highlands of the 
 Hudson. The “Taconic System,” in 
 geology, was named from the character- 
 istic strata of this range, a metamor- 
 phic rock, believed to be older than the 
 Silurian system. 
 
 TAD'EMA. See Ahna-Tadema. 
 
 TADPOLE, the name given to the 
 larval or young state of frogs and other 
 amphibians. 
 
 TAFF'ETA, or TAFFETY, was origin- 
 ally the name applied to all kinds of 
 plain silks, but which has now become a 
 kind of generic name for plain silk, gros 
 de Naples, gros des Indes, shot silk, 
 glac4, and others. The tenn has also 
 been applied to mixed fabrics of silk and 
 wool. 
 
 TAFFRAIL, or TAFFEREL, a curved 
 wooden rail running from one quarter- 
 stanchion to the other of a ship’s stern, 
 and usually ornamented with some 
 device in sculpture. 
 
 TAFT, William Howard, an American 
 jurist and administrator, was born in 
 Cincinnati in 1857. He was a judge of 
 the superior court of Ohio, 1887-1890, 
 solicitor-general of the United States, 
 1890-92, and judge of the United States 
 circuit court 1892—1900, when he re- 
 signed to become chairman of the com- 
 mission appointed to establish civil 
 government in the Philippines. He was 
 appointed in 1901 the first civil governor 
 of the islands. In 1903 he became sec- 
 retary of war. In 1908 he was nomi- 
 nated for the presidency and was elect- 
 ed by an overwhelming majority. 
 
 TAGANROG, a seaport of Russia, in 
 the government of Ekaterinoslav, on a 
 low cape on the northern shore of the 
 Sea of Azof. The chief article of export 
 is corn. Pop. 56,047. 
 
 TAGLIONI (tal-yo'ne), Marie, ballet 
 dancer, born 1809, was trained by her 
 father, an Italian master of the ballet; 
 appeared at Vienna in 1822, at Paris in 
 1827, and at London, where she created 
 a great sensation, in 1838. She visited 
 all the capitals of Europe, and was ac- 
 knowledged the first ballet dancer of her 
 time. She died at Marseilles in 1884. 
 
 'TAGUS, the largest river of Spain and 
 Portugal. It has a total length of 540 
 miles, and is navigable for 115 miles. 
 
 TAHITI (ta-he'ti), the largest of the 
 Society islands, consisting of two penin- 
 sulas, connected by an isthmus 3 miles 
 broad, and submerged at high-water; 
 area, 412 sq. miles. It is hilly, volcanic, 
 beautiful, and highly fertile; and pro- 
 duces sugar, cocoa-nut, arrow-root, dye^ 
 woods, etc. The chief town is Papeete, 
 which has an excellent harbor. Pop 
 of the island, 10,639. See Society 
 islands. 
 
 TAILOR-BIRD, a bird so named from 
 its curious habits of weaving or sewing 
 together leaves in order to form a nest. 
 It belongs to the sub-family of true 
 
TAINE 
 
 Talleyrand-peric^ord 
 
 Warblers, and inhabits India and the 
 Eastern archipelago. 
 
 A Tahitian family. 
 
 TAINE (tan), Hippolyte Adolphe, 
 French writer, born at Vouziers (Ar- 
 dennes) in 1828. In 1854 his first work, 
 an Essay on Livy, was crowned by the 
 academy; in 1864 he was appointed pro- 
 fessor in the School of Fine Arts in Paris; 
 and in 1878 he was elected to a seat in 
 the academy. His History of English 
 Literature, one of the best and most 
 philosophical works on the subject, ap- 
 peared in 1864; his Philosophy of Art in 
 1865; his Notes on England in 1872; and 
 his Origins of Contemporary France in 
 1875-94, a work of great research and 
 value, in three sections, dealing respec- 
 tively with the Ancient Regime the 
 Revolution, and the Modern Rdgime. 
 He died in 1893. 
 
 TAIWAN (ti-wan'), capital of the 
 Japanese island Formosa, one of the 
 treaty ports, with considerable trade 
 in sugar and opium. Pop., including 
 Takow, which almost forms one city 
 with it, 235,000. 
 
 TALC, a magnesian mineral, consist- 
 ing of broad, flat, smooth laminte or 
 plates, unctuous to the touch, of a shin- 
 ing luster, translucent, and often trans- 
 parent when in very thin plates. There 
 are three pincipal varieties of talc, 
 common, earthy, and indurated. Talc 
 is a silicate of magnesium, with small 
 quantities of potash, alumina, oxide of 
 iron, and water. It is used in many 
 parts of India and China, as a substitute 
 for window-glass. A variety of talc 
 called French chalk (or steatite) is used 
 for tracing lines on wood, cloth, etc., 
 instead of chalk. See Potstone, Soap 
 stone. Steatite. 
 
 TALCA, a town of Chile, capital of the 
 province of Talca, on the Claro, is con- 
 nected by rail with Santiago, and has 
 manufactures of ponchos. Pop. 42,625. 
 The province has an area of 3664 sq. 
 miles, and pop. 128,961. 
 
 TALENT, the name of a weight and 
 denomination of money among the an- 
 cient Greeks, and also applied by Greek 
 writers to various standard weights and 
 denominations of money of different na- 
 
 tions; the weight and value differing in 
 the various nations and at various times. 
 The Attic talent as a weight contained 
 60 Attic mime or 6000 Attic draclimae, 
 equal to 56 lbs. 11 oz. troy- weight. As 
 a denomination of silver money it was 
 equal to $1,215. The great talent of the 
 Romans is computed to be equal to 
 $500, and the little talent to $375. A 
 Hebrew weight and denomination of 
 money, equivalent to 3000 shekels, 
 also receives this name. As a weight it 
 was equal to about 93J lbs. avoirdu- 
 pois; as a denomination of silver it has 
 been variously estimated at from $1700 
 to $2000. 
 
 TALIPOT PALM, the great fan-pahn, 
 a native of Ceylon. The cylindrical 
 trunk reaches a height of 60, 70, or 100 
 feet, and is covered with a tuft of fan- 
 like leaves, usually about 18 feet in 
 length and 14 in breadth. The leaves 
 are used for covering houses, for making 
 umbrellas and fans, and as a substitute 
 for paper. When the tree has attained 
 
 Talipot palm. 
 
 its full growth, the flower spike bursts 
 from its envelope or spathe with a loud 
 report. The flower spike is then as white 
 as ivory, and occasionally 30 feet long. 
 When its fruit is matured, the tree 
 generally dies. 
 
 TALISMAN, a figure cast or cut in 
 metal or stone, and made, with certain 
 superstitious ceremonies, at some par- 
 ticular moment of time, as when a cer- 
 tain star is at its culminating point, or 
 when certain planets are in conjunction. 
 The talisman thus prepared is supposed 
 to exercise extraordinary influences over 
 the bearer, particularly in averting dis- 
 ease. In a more extensive sense the 
 word is used, like amulet, to denote any 
 object of nature or art, the presence of 
 which checks the power of spirits or 
 demons, and defends the wearer from 
 their malice. Relics, consecrated 
 candles, rosaries, images of saints, etc., 
 were employed as talismans in the mid- 
 dle ages; and at that time the knowledge 
 of the virtues of talismans and amulets 
 formed an important part of medical 
 science 
 
 TALLEGALLA, or BRUSH TURKEY, 
 
 a remarkable genus of rasorial birds, 
 usually designated by the distinctive 
 name of “brush turkey.” It inhabits 
 
 Australia, where it is also known by the 
 names “wattled tallegalla” and “New 
 Holland vulture” — this latter name hav- 
 ing reference to the naked vulturine 
 head and neck. The male when full 
 grown is colored of a blackish-brown 
 above and below, with grayish tints on 
 the back. The head and neck are 
 covered with very small feathers of 
 blackish hue, while a large wattle, 
 colored bright or orange yellow, de- 
 pends from the front of the neck. These 
 birds are remarkable on account of the 
 huge, conical “egg-mound” which they 
 form, several of them jointly, for the 
 purpose of therein depositing their eggs, 
 which are hatched by the heat of the 
 decomposing mass of vegetable matter 
 piled up. The eggs are greatly sought 
 after on account of their delicious flavor. 
 
 TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD (tM-a- 
 rap-pa-re-gor), Charles Maurice de, 
 Prince of Benevento, French diplomat- 
 ist, was born at Paris in 1754, died there 
 in 1838. His high birth and great ability i 
 procured him rapid advancement, and 
 in 1788 he was consecrated bishop of 
 Autun. In 1790 he was elected president | 
 of the national assembly. In 1792 he i 
 was sent to London charged with diplo- 
 matic functions, and during his stay 
 there was proscribed for alleged royalist 
 intrigues. Forced to leave England by | 
 the provisions of the Alien Act, in 1794 | 
 
 he sailed for the United States, but re- 
 turned to France in 1796. The following 
 year he was appointed minister of for- 
 eign affairs; but being suspected of keep- 
 ing up an understanding with the agents 
 of liOuis XVIII. he was obliged to resign 
 in July, 1799. He now devoted himself 
 entirely to Bonaparte, whom he had \ 
 early recognized as the master spirit of 
 the time, and after Bonaparte’s return 
 
 Talleyrand. 
 
 from Egypt contributed greatly to the 
 events of the 18th Brumaire (10th No- 
 vember, 1799), when the directory fell 
 and the consulate began. He was then 
 reappointed minister of foreign affairs. 
 After the establishment of the empire 
 in 1804 he was appointed to the office of 
 grand-chamberlain, and in 1806 was 
 created Prince of Benevento. After the 
 Peace of Tilsit in 1807 a coolness took 
 
 E lace between him and Napoleon, and 
 ecame more and more marked. In 1808 
 he secretly joined a royalist committee. 
 In 1814 he procured Napoleon’s abdica- 
 tion. He took part in the congress of 
 Vienna, and in 1815, when the allies 
 
TALLIEN 
 
 TAMBOV 
 
 sgain entered Paris, he became presi- 
 <fent of the council with the portfolio of 
 foreign affairs; but as he objected to 
 sign the second Peace of Paris he gave 
 in his resignation. When the revolution 
 of July, 1830, broke out, he advised 
 Louis Philippe to place himself at its 
 ; ti^ad and to accept the throne. He 
 ' ciowned his career by the formation of 
 i the Quadruple Alliance. 
 
 ; TALLIEN (tM-i-an), Jean Lambert, 
 
 1 Trench revolutionist, was born at Paris 
 in 1769, and first made himself known 
 by publishing a revolutionary journal 
 i called Ami du Citoyen. He soon became 
 I one of the most popular men of the 
 I revolutionary party, and took part in 
 : most of the sanguinary proceedings 
 j which occurred during the ascendency of 
 Robespierre. After the fall of Danton 
 and his party he perceived that he should 
 become one of the next victims of 
 Robespierre if he did not strike the first 
 .blow, and it was mainly by his influence 
 that the latter with his friends was 
 brought to the guillotine. He subse- 
 quently became a member of the Council 
 of Five Hundred, but his influence 
 gradually declined. In after years he 
 was glad to accept the office of French 
 consul at Alicante. He died at Paris, in 
 poverty and obscurity, in 1820. 
 
 TALLOW, the harder and less fusible 
 fat of animals, especially cattle and 
 sheep, melted and separated from the 
 fibrous m atter mixed with them. Tallow 
 is firm, brittle, and has a peculiar heavy 
 odor. When pure it is white and nearly 
 I insipid; but the tallow of conimerce has 
 usually a yellowish tinge, which may be 
 removed by exposure to light and air. 
 Tallow is manufactured into candles and 
 soap, and is extensively used in the 
 dressing of leather, and in various proc- 
 esses of the arts. The British imports 
 ' of tallow are chiefly from Australia and 
 
 ■ the United States. Vegetable tallow is 
 contained in the seeds of various plants, 
 one of the best known of which is the 
 
 ; candle-berry. See also China Wax, and 
 next article. 
 
 TALLOW-TREE, one of the largest, 
 
 1 the most beautiful, and the most widely 
 ! diffused of the plants found in China. 
 
 I From a remote* period it has furnished 
 i the Chinese with the material out of 
 
 ■ which they make candles. The cap- 
 sules and seeds are crushed together and 
 boiled; the fatty matter is skimmed 
 as it rises, and condenses on cooling. The 
 tallow-tree has been introduced into the 
 United States, and is almost naturalized 
 in the maritime parts of Carolina. It has 
 also been acclimatized by the French in 
 Algeria. 
 
 TALLY, a piece of wood on which 
 notches or scores are cut, as the marks 
 of number. In purchasing and selling it 
 
 ■ was once customary for traders to have 
 two sticks, or one stick cleft into two 
 parts, and to mark with scores or notches 
 on each the number or quantity of goods 
 delivered, or what was due between 
 debtor and creditor, the seller or creditor 
 keeping one stick, and the purchaser or 
 debtor the other. Before the use of 
 writing, or before writing became gen- 
 eral, this or something like it was the 
 usual method of keeping accounts. In 
 the excheuqer of England tallies were 
 
 I used till late in the 18th century. 
 
 P. E.— 77 
 
 TALMAGE, Thomas DeWitt, clergy- 
 man, born in Bound Brook, N. J., in 
 1832. His first pastorate was at Belle- 
 ville, N. J., in the Presbyterian church. 
 In 1859 he went to Syracuse, N. Y., 
 and in 1862 became located in Phila- 
 delphia, Penn. There he remained seven 
 years, when he was called to the pas- 
 torate of the Central Presbyterian 
 church in Brooklyn, N. Y. He acquired 
 a national reputation for effective but 
 rather sensational pulpit oratory. His 
 congregation built him a church in 1870, 
 having a seating capacity of 3,400, 
 which was called the Brooklyn taber- 
 nacle. It was destroyed by fire in 1872 
 and in 1874 a new tabernacle was dedi- 
 cated with a seating capacity of 5,000. 
 This edifice was also burned in the early 
 spring of 1890, when the church organi- 
 zation ceased to exist. His wide influence 
 was largely increased by frequent lec- 
 turing tours, both in America and Eng- 
 land He was editor of The Christian at 
 Work, The Advance, Frank Leslie’s 
 Sunday Magazine, and The Christian 
 Herald. He died in 1902. 
 
 TALMUD, a Chaldaic word signifying 
 “doctrine,” and sometimes used to 
 designate the whole teaching of the 
 Jewish law, comprising all the w'ritings 
 included in what we call the Old Testa- 
 ment, as well as the oral law or Mishna, 
 with its supplement or commentary the 
 Gemara, but more frequently applied 
 only to the Mishna and Gemara. The 
 Gemara was originally an oral com- 
 mentary of the Mishna, as the Mishna 
 itself was originally an oral commentary 
 of the Mikra, or written law. It con- 
 sisted of the explanations and illustra- 
 tions which the teachers of the Mishna 
 were in the habit of giving in the course 
 of their lessons. These oral comments, 
 were handed down from age to age, 
 differing of course in different localities 
 and gradually increasing in quantity; 
 and they were at last committed to 
 writing in two forms, the one called the 
 Jerusalem and the other the Babylonian 
 Gemara, or, with the addition of the 
 Mishna, which is common to both, the 
 Jerusalem and the Babylonian Talmud. 
 The Jerusalem Talmud is the earlier and 
 by much the smaller of the two. The 
 language of both the Gemaras is a mixed 
 Hebrew, but that of the Babylonian 
 Gemara is much less pure than the other ; 
 in the narrative portions, designed as 
 popular illustrations of the other parts, 
 it comes near the Aramaic or vernacular 
 dialect of the Eastern Jews. The style 
 is in both cases extremely condensed 
 and difficult. The Mishna, with its cor- 
 responding Gemara, is divided into six 
 orders or principal divisions. The sub- 
 jects of these orders are agriculture, 
 festivals, women, damages, holy things, 
 and purifications. These orders are sub- 
 divided into sixty-three tracts, to which 
 the Babylonian Gemara adds five others, 
 thus containing sixty-eight tracts in all. 
 Other divisions of the Talmud are the 
 Halaka, the doctrinal and logical por- 
 tion; Ha"'ada, the rhetorical or imagina- 
 tive portion; and Cabala, the mystical 
 portion, including theosophy and magic. 
 Many translations of parts of the Tal- 
 mud have appeared. 
 
 TAM'ARACK. See Larch. 
 
 TAM'ARIN, the name of certain South 
 
 American monkeys. The tamarins are 
 active, restless, and irritable little crea- 
 tures, two of the smallest being the 
 silky tamarin and the little lion monkey 
 the latter of which, though only a few 
 inches in length, presents a wonderful 
 resemblance to the lion. 
 
 TAM'ARIND, a large and beautiful 
 tree of the East and West Indies. It 
 is cultivated chiefly for the sake of its 
 pods (tamarinds). The West Indian 
 tamarinds are put into casks, with 
 
 Tamarind. 
 
 layers of sugar between them, or with 
 boiling syrup poured over them, and are 
 called prepared tamarinds. The East 
 Indian tamarinds, which are most 
 -esteemed, are preserved without sugar. 
 They are dried in the sun, or artificially 
 with salt added. 
 
 TAMAULIPAS (tS,-mou-le'pas), a stats 
 of Mexico, on the Gulf of Mexico, north 
 of Vera Cruz; area, 28,659 sq. miles. 
 The capital is Ciudad Victoria. Pop. 
 218,948. 
 
 TAMBOURINE (tam-bu-ren'), a musi- 
 cal instrument of the drum species, 
 much used among the Spanish and 
 Italian peasants as well as elsewhere. It 
 consists of a piece of parchment stretched 
 
 Spanisti tambourine. 
 
 over the top of a broad hoop, which is 
 furnished with little bells. It is sounded 
 by sliding the fingers afong the parch- 
 ment, or by striking it with the back of 
 the hand or with the fist or the elbow. 
 
 TAMBOV^ a government of Russia, 
 south of Nijni-Novgorod and Vladimir, 
 between the basins of the Oka and the 
 Don; area, 25,676 sq. miles. It is one of 
 the largest, most fertile, and most 
 densely peopled provinces of Central 
 Russia. Pop. 2,607,881. — Tambov, the 
 capital, 263 miles southeast of Moscow, 
 
TAMERLANE 
 
 TANNING 
 
 has great trade in corn and cattle. Pop. 
 35,688. 
 
 TAMERLANE. See Timour. 
 
 TAMMANY RING, a political com- 
 bination of New York, which, about 
 1870, under William M. Tweed, secured 
 the control of the elections in that city 
 and the management of the municipal 
 revenues, which were extensively plun- 
 dered. The frauds, amounting to many 
 millions of dollars, were discovered in 
 1876. The name Tammany was given 
 from the meeting-place, Tammany hall, 
 New York, being originally the name of 
 a celebrated Indian chief. See Tweed, 
 W. M. 
 
 TAMPA, a port of Florida, Hillsboro 
 CO., on the Gulf coast; a rising business 
 center, the terminus of two railways, 
 and the point of departure of steamers 
 for Key West, Havana, and the ports 
 along the coast of Florida. Pop. 18,160. 
 
 TAMSUl, a seaport of the island of 
 Formosa, one of the treaty ports, with a 
 trade in tea. Pop. 95,000. 
 
 TAN'AGERS, passerine birds, or 
 finches, distinguished by the bill being 
 of triangular shape at its base and 
 arched toward its tip, and remarkable 
 for their bright colors. They are chiefly 
 found in the tropical parts of America. 
 
 TANEY (ta'nl), Roger Brooke, emi- 
 nent American jurist, chief justice of the 
 United States supreme court, was born 
 in Calvert co., Md., in 1777. In 1823 he 
 removed to Baltimore. In 1827 he was 
 elected attorney-general of the state 
 and was appointed attorney-general of 
 the United States in 1831. In 1836 he 
 succeeded John Marshall as chief justice 
 of the United States supreme court. He 
 wrote the opinion of the court in many 
 important cases, the most notable being 
 that of Dred Scott. A memoir of Taney’s 
 life, in part an autobiography, was pub- 
 lished in 1872 by Samuel Tyler. He died 
 in 1864. 
 
 TANCRED, son of the Marquis Odo 
 the Good and Emma the sister of Rob- 
 ert Guiscard, born in 1078, was one of 
 the most famous heroes of the first 
 Crusade. He distinguished himself at 
 the siege of Nicsea G097), at the battle 
 of Doryl®um (July, 1097), at the capture 
 of Jerusalem (July, 1099), and at Ascalon 
 (August 12), and was appointed by 
 Godfrey de Bouillon Prince of Galilee. 
 He died in 1112, in his thirty-fifth year, 
 of a wound received at Antioch. He is 
 represented by Tasso in the Jerusalem 
 Delivered as the flower and pattern of 
 chivalry. 
 
 TANGENT, in geometry, a straight 
 line which touches or meets a circle or 
 curve in one point, and which being 
 produced does not cut it; a straight line 
 drawn at right angles to the diameter of 
 a circle, from the extremity of it, as h 
 a in figure, which being continued at a, 
 would merely touch and not cut the 
 circle. In trigonometry the tangent of 
 an arc is a straight line touching the 
 circle of which the arc is a part, atone 
 extremity of the arc, and meeting the 
 diameter passing through the other 
 extremity. Thus a h is the tangent of 
 Lhe arc a b, and it is also said to be the 
 tangent of the angle a c b, of which a b is 
 the measure. The arc and its tangent 
 have always a .certain relation to each 
 other; and when the one is given in parts 
 
 of the radius, the other can always be 
 computed. For trigonometrical pur- 
 poses tangents for every arc from 0 de- 
 grees to 90 degrees, as well as sines, 
 cosines, etc., have been calculated with 
 reference to a radius of a certain length. 
 
 ’H 
 
 Tangent. 
 
 and these or their logarithms formed 
 into tables. In the higher geometry the 
 word tangent is not limited to straight 
 lines, but is also applied to curves in 
 contact with other curves, and also to 
 s\i 
 
 TANGIER (tan'jer), a seaport of 
 Morocco, on the Strait of Gibraltar. 
 In 1662 Tangier was annexed to the 
 English crown as part of the dowry of 
 the Infanta of Portugal, the wife of King 
 Charles II., but in 1864 it was aban- 
 doned, on account of the expense neces- 
 sary to keep it up. Pop. estimated at 
 20 , 000 . 
 
 TANGLE, the common name of two 
 species of sea-weed found on the shores 
 of Britain, Laminaria digitata and 
 Laminaria saccharina. 
 
 TANJORE, a city in Hindustan, in the 
 presidency of Madras, capital of the dis- 
 trict of the same name. Manufactures of 
 silk, muslin, and cotton are carried on to 
 a considerable extent. Pop. 57,605. — 
 The district of Tanjore has an area of 
 3654 sq. miles, and a population of 
 2 130 383 
 
 TANNHAUSER (tan'hoi-zer), orTAN- 
 HAUSER, in old German legend, a 
 knight who gains admission into a hill 
 called the Veunsberg, in the interior of 
 which Venus holds her court, and who 
 for a long time remains buried in sensual 
 pleasures, but at last listens to the voice 
 of the Virgin Mary, whom he hears call- 
 ing upon him to return. The goddess 
 allows him to depart, when he hastens 
 to Rome to seek from the pope (Pope 
 Urban) absolution for his sins. The 
 pope, however, when he knows the ex- 
 tent of the knight’s guilt, declares to 
 him that it is as impossible for him to 
 obtain pardon as it is for the wand 
 which he holds in his hand to bud and 
 bring forth green leaves. Despairing, 
 the knight retires from the presence of 
 the pontiff, and enters the Venusberg 
 once more. Meanwhile the pope’s wand 
 actually begins to sprout, and the pope, 
 taking this as a sign from God that there 
 was still an opportunity of salvation for 
 the knight, hastily sends messengers 
 into all lands to seek for him. But Tann- 
 hauser is never again seen. The Tann- 
 hauser legend has been treated poetically 
 by Tieck, and Richard Wagner has 
 adopted it (with modifications) as the 
 subject of one of his operas. 
 
 TANNIC ACID, or TANNIN, a peculiar 
 acid which exists in every part of all 
 species of oaks, especially in the bark, 
 but is found in greatest quantity in gall- 
 nuts. Tannic acid, when pure, is nearly 
 white, and not at all crystaline. It is 
 
 very soluble in water, and has a moct 
 astringent taste, without bitterness. 
 It derives its name from its property of 
 combining with the skins of animals and 
 converting them into leather, or tanning 
 them. It is the active principle in almost 
 all astringent vegetables, and is used in 
 medicine in preference to mineral astrin- 
 gents, because free from irritant and 
 poisonous action. The name is generally 
 applied to a mixture of several sub- 
 stances. 
 
 TANNING, the operation of convert- 
 ing the raw hides and skins of animals 
 into leather by effecting a chemical com- 
 bination between the gelatine of which 
 they principally consist and the astrin- 
 gent vegetable principle called tannic 
 acid or tannin. The object of the tan- 
 ning process is to produce such a chemi- 
 cal change in skins as may render them 
 unalterable by those agents which tend 
 to decompose them in their natural 
 state, and in connection with the sub- 
 sequent operations of currying or dress- 
 ing to bring them into a state of pli- 
 ability and impermeability to water 
 which may adapt them for the many 
 useful purposes to which leather is ap- 
 plied. The larger and heavier skins sub- 
 jected to the tanning process, as those 
 of buffaloes, bulls, oxen, and cows, are 
 technically called hides; while those of 
 smaller animals, as calves, sheep, and 
 goats, are called skins. In preparing the 
 hides and skins for tanning they are 
 subjected to certain operations already 
 described under Leather, after which 
 the tanning proper begins. The various 
 substances used for tanning are oak, fir, 
 mimosa, and hemlock bark, smnach, 
 myrobalans, divi-divi, valonia-nuts, 
 cutch, kino, gambir, and oak-galls — all 
 of which contain tannin. The impregna- 
 tion of the hides with this tannin maj 
 be effected either by placing them be- 
 tween layers of bark (oak bark being 
 the best) in a vat filled with water, or 
 steeping them in a liquor containing a 
 small at first, but steadily increasing 
 proportion of tannin throughout a series 
 of pits. This liquor usually consists of 
 water in which the ground or crushed 
 tanning material has been steeped. The 
 raw hide takes about a year to prepare 
 it for the best quality of leather. There 
 is also a process called tawing, which is 
 employed chiefly in the preparation of 
 the skins of sheep, lambs, goats, and 
 kids. In this process the skins are 
 steeped in a bath of alum, salt, and other 
 substances, and they are also sometimes 
 soaked in fish-oil. The more delicate 
 leathers are treated in this manner, 
 those especially which are used for wash 
 leathers, kid gloves, etc. After the 
 leather is tanned it is finished for use hy 
 the process of currying. Various im- 
 provements have been attempted to be 
 made in the art of tanning, such as the 
 preparation of the skins by means of 
 metallic solutions instead of by vegeta' 
 table tan-liquor; the forced absorption 
 of the tan by applying pressure between 
 cylinders; and the preparation of the 
 skins by a chemical agent, so as to in- 
 duce a quicker absorption of the tan. It 
 has been found, however, that the slow 
 process followed by the old tanners 
 produces leather far superior to that 
 produced by the new and more rapid 
 
TANSY 
 
 Tar 
 
 methods, though a fair leather for cer- 
 tain purposes may be produced in five 
 to ten weeks. 
 
 TANSY is a well-known plant. It is a 
 tall plant, with divided leaves and but- 
 ton-like heads of yellow flowers. Every 
 part of the plant is bitter, and it is con- 
 sidered as tonic and anthelmintic, tansy- 
 
 0, A disk-flower; b, A ray-flower; c, Anachene- 
 
 tea being an old popular medicine. It 
 is now cultivated in gardens mainly for 
 the young leaves, which are shredded 
 down and employed to flavor puddings, 
 cakes, etc. 
 
 TANTA, a town of Lower Egypt, situ- 
 ated on the railway about 50 miles n. of 
 Cairo. Tanta has three great annual 
 fairs, which are held in January, April, 
 and August, and at the latter 500,000 
 persons are said to congregate from the 
 surrounding countries. Pop. 60,000. 
 
 TANTALUS, in Greek mythology, a 
 son of Zeus, and king of Phrygia, Lydia, 
 Argos or Corinth, who was admitted to 
 the table of the gods, but who had for- 
 feited their favor either by betraying 
 their secrets, stealing ambrosia from 
 heaven, or presenting to them his mur- 
 dered son Pelops as food. His punish- 
 ment consisted in being placed in a lake 
 whose waters receded from his lips when 
 he attempted to drink, and of being 
 tempted by delicious fruit overhead 
 which withdrew when he attempted to 
 eat. Moreover, a huge rock forever 
 threatened to fall and crush him. 
 
 TANTALUS, a genus of wading birds 
 of the heron family. It is the wood-ibis 
 of America, which frequents extensive 
 swamps, where it feeds on serpents, 
 young alligators, frogs, and other rep- 
 tiles. The African tantalus was long re- 
 garded as the ancient Egyptian ibis, but 
 it is rare in E^pt, belonging chiefly to 
 Senegal, and is much larger than the 
 true ibis. 
 
 TA'PESTRY, a kind of woven hang- 
 ings of wool and silk, often enriched with 
 gold and silver, with worked designs, 
 representing figures of men, animals, 
 landscapes, etc., and formerly much used 
 for lining or covering the walls and fur- 
 niture of apartments, churches, etc. 
 Tapestry is made by a process inter- 
 mediate between weaving and em- 
 broidery, being worked in a web with 
 needles instead of a shuttle. Short 
 lengths of thread of the special colors 
 
 required for the design are worked in at 
 the necessary places and fastened at the 
 back of the texture. In Flanders, par- 
 ticularly at Arras (whence the term 
 arras, signifying the “tapestry”), during 
 the 15th and 16th centuries, the art was 
 practiced with uncommon skill. The 
 art of weaving tapestry was introduced 
 into England near the end of Henry 
 VIII. 's reign. , During the reign of James 
 I. a manufactory was established at 
 
 Mortlake, which continued till the be- 
 ginning of the 18th century. The term 
 tapestry is also applied to a variety of 
 woven fabrics having a multiplicity of 
 colors in their design, which, however, 
 have no other characteristic of true 
 tapestry. The name of tapestry carpet 
 is given to a showy and cheap two-ply 
 or ingrain-carpet, the warp or weft being 
 printed before weaving so as to produce 
 the figure in the cloth. 
 
 TAPE-WORMS, the name common to 
 certain internal parasites (Entozoa), 
 found in the mature state in the alimen- 
 tary canal of warm-blooded vertebrates. 
 Tape-worms are composed of a number 
 of flattened joints or segments, the an- 
 terior of which, or head (which is the true 
 animal), is furnished with a circlet of 
 hooks or suckers, which enable it to 
 maintain its hold on the mucous mem- 
 brane of the intestines of its host. The 
 other segments, called proglottides, are 
 simply generative organs budded off by 
 the head, the oldest being furthest re- 
 moved from it, and each containing 
 when mature male and female organs. 
 The tape-worm has neither mouth nor 
 digestive organs, nutrition being effected 
 by absorption through the skin. The 
 length of the animal varies from a few 
 inches to several yards. The ova do not 
 undergo development in the animal in 
 which the adult exists. They require to 
 be swallowed by some other warm- 
 blooded vertebrate, the ripe proglottides 
 being expelled from the bowel of the host 
 with all their contained ova fertilized. 
 The segments or proglottides decompose 
 and liberate the ova, which are covered 
 with a capsule. After being swallowed 
 the capsule bursts and an embryo, called 
 a proscolex, is liberated. This embryo, 
 by means of spines, perforates the tis- 
 
 sues of some contiguous organ, or of a 
 blood-vessel, in the latter case being 
 carried by the blood to some solid part 
 of the body, as the liver or brain, where 
 it surrounds itself with a cyst, and de- 
 velops a vesicle containing a fluid. It is 
 now called a scolex or hydatid, and 
 formerly was known as the cystic worm. 
 The scolex is incapable of further de- 
 velopment till swallowed and received a 
 second time into the alimentary canal 
 of a warm-blooded vertebrate. Here it 
 becomes the head of the true tape-worm, 
 from which proglottides are developed 
 posteriorly by gemmation, and we have 
 the adult animal with which the cycle 
 begins. In all cases the only conclusive 
 sign of tape-worm is the passage of one 
 or part of one in the fa?ces. One mode 
 of treatment for this disorder is, for an 
 adult, a tea-spoonful of the extract of 
 male-fern. A few hours thereafter a 
 strong dose of castor-oil should be taken. 
 
 TAPIO'CA, a farinaceous substance 
 prepared from cassava meal, which, 
 while moist or damp, has been heated 
 for the purpose of drying it on hot plates. 
 By this treatment the starch-grains 
 swell, many of them bust, and the whole 
 agglomerates in small irregular masses 
 or lumps. In boiling-water it swells up 
 and forms a viscous jelly-like mass. See 
 Cassava. 
 
 TAPIR, the name of ungulate or 
 hoofed animals. The nose resembles a 
 short fleshy proboscis; there are four 
 toes to the fore-feet, and three to the 
 hind ones. The common South Ameri- 
 can tapir is the size of a small ass, with 
 a brown skin, nearly naked. It inhabits 
 forests, lives much in the water, con- 
 ceals itself during the day, and feeds 
 on vegetable substances. There are 
 several other American species. The 
 T. malayanus or indicus is found in the 
 forests of Malacca and Sumatra. It is 
 
 Malay tapir. 
 
 larger than the American species, and is 
 a most conspicuous animal from the 
 white back, rump, and belly contrasting 
 so strongly with the deep sooty black 
 of the rest of the body as, at a little dis- 
 tance, to give it the aspect of being 
 muffled up in a white sheet. Fossil tapirs 
 are scattered throughout Europe, and 
 among them is a gigantic species, T. 
 giganteus, Cuvier, which in size must 
 have nearly equalled the elephant. 
 
 TAR, a thick, dark-colored, viscid 
 product obtained by the destructive 
 distillation of organic substances and 
 bituminous minerals, as wood, coal, 
 peat, shale, etc. Wood-tar, such as the 
 Archangel, Stockholm, and American 
 tars of commerce, is obtained by burn- 
 ing billets of wood slowly in a conical 
 cavity at the bottom of which is a cast- 
 iron pan into which the tar exudes. In 
 Britain wood-tar is chiefly obtained as a 
 
TARAl 
 
 TARSIUS 
 
 by-product in the destructive distilla- 
 tion of wood for the manufacture of 
 wood-vinegar (pyroligneous acid) and 
 wood-spirit (methyl alcohol). It has an 
 acid reaction, and contains various 
 liquid matters, of which the principal 
 are methyl-acetate, acetone, hydro- 
 carbons of the benzene series, and a 
 number of oxidized compounds, as 
 carbolic acid. Paraffin, anthracene, 
 naphthalene, chrysene, etc., are found 
 among its solid products. It possesses 
 valuable antiseptic properties, owing to 
 the creasote it contains, and is used ex- 
 tensively for coating and preserving 
 timber, iron, and cordage. Coal-tar, 
 which is largely obtained in gas manu- 
 facture, is also valuable inasmuch as it 
 is extensively employed in the produc- 
 tion of dyes, etc. See Coal-tar and 
 Aniline. 
 
 TARAl (ta-ri'; “moist land”), a moist 
 and jungly tract of Northern India, 
 running along the foot of the first range 
 of the Himalayas for several hundred 
 miles, with a breadth of from 2 to 15, 
 infested by wild beasts, and generally 
 unhealthy. Area, 938 sq. miles; pop. 
 206 993 
 
 TARAN'TO (anciently Tarentum), a 
 fortified seaport of S. Italy, in the 
 province of Lecce, on a rocky peninsula 
 at the northern extremity of the gulf of 
 same name. The manufactures include 
 linen, cotton, velvet, muslin, and gloves. 
 Taranto is now a station of the Italian 
 
 navy, with a naval arsenal, etc. The 
 ancient Tarentum was founded by the 
 Greeks in b.c. 708, and became a power- 
 ful city. It was captured by the Romans 
 B.c. 272, and remained a notable Roman 
 town until the downfall of the empire. 
 Pop. 26,670. 
 
 TARANTULA, a kind of spider, found 
 in some of the warmer parts of the south- 
 
 Tarantula. 
 
 western states, Mexico, and in Italy. 
 When full grown it is about the size of a 
 chestnut, and is of a brown color. Its 
 bite was at one time supposed to be 
 
 dangerous, and to cause a kind of danc- 
 ing disease; it is now known not to be 
 worse than the sting of a common wasp. 
 
 TARAPACA, a coast province of 
 Northern Chile, containing deposits of 
 niter and borax and silver mines; area, 
 19,300 sq. miles. Capital, Iquique. Pop. 
 89,751. 
 
 TARBELL, Ida Minerva, American 
 author, born in 1857 in Erie co.. Pa. 
 In 1894 she became an associate editor 
 of McClure’s Magazine. Her publica- 
 tions include: Short Life of Napoleon 
 Bonaparte, Life of Madame Roland, 
 Early Life of Abraham Lincoln (in 
 collaboration with J. McDavis), Life of 
 Abraham Lincoln, and History of the 
 Standard Oil Company. 
 
 TARE, the common name of different 
 species of leguminous plants, known 
 also by the name of vetch. There are 
 numerous species and varieties of tares 
 or vetches, but that which is found best 
 adapted for agricultural purposes is the 
 common tare, of which there are two 
 principal varieties, the summer and 
 winter tare. They afford excellent food 
 for horses and cattle, and hence are ex- 
 tensively cultivated throughout Europe. 
 
 TARGET, (1) a shield or buckler of a 
 small kind, such as those formerly in use 
 among the Highlanders, which were 
 circular in form, cut out of ox-hide, 
 mounted on strong wood, strengthened 
 by bosses, spikes, etc., and often covered 
 externally with a considerable amount 
 of ornametnal work. (2) The mark set 
 up to be aimed at in archery, musketry, 
 or artillery practice and the like. The 
 targets used in rifle practice are generally 
 square or oblong metal plates, and are 
 
 divided into three or more sections, 
 called bulls’ eye, inner (or center), and 
 outer, counting from the center of the 
 target to its edges; some targets have 
 an additional division (called a magpie), 
 situated between the outer and the 
 inner. It is the marksman’s aim to put 
 his shots as near the central point as 
 possible, as if he hits the bull’s eye there 
 are counted in his favor 5 points, the 
 center 4 points, the magpie 3 points, 
 and the outer 2 points, or some similar 
 proportions. 
 
 TARLATAN, a thin and fine fabric of 
 cotton, mostly used for ladies’ ball 
 dresses. It is cheap, but does not stand 
 washing. 
 
 TARN, a department of Southern 
 France, named from the river of same 
 name; area, 2218 sq. miles. The min- 
 erals include iron and coal, both of which 
 are partially worked. Woolens, linens, 
 hosiery, etc., are manufactured. The 
 capital is Alby. Pop. 358,757. 
 
 TAi^-ET-GARONNE, a department 
 of France, named after its two chief 
 rivers; area, 1436 sq. miles. This de- 
 partment belongs to the basin of the 
 Garonne, which traverses it south to 
 
 
 northwest, and receives within it the ^ 
 accumulated waters of the Tarn and ’ 
 Aveyron. The most important manu- 
 factures consist of common woolen cloth 
 and serge, linen goods, silk hosiery, - 
 cutlery, leather, etc. Montauban is the 
 capital. Pop. 214,046. 
 
 TARPAN, the wild horse of Tartary, 
 belonging to one of those races which 
 are by some authorities regarded as 
 original. They are not larger than an 
 ordinary mule. The color is invariably 
 tan or mouse, with black mane and tail. 
 
 Tar pan. 
 
 During the cold season their hair is long 
 and soft, but in summer it falls much 
 away. They are sometimes captured by 
 the Tartars, but are reduced with great 
 difficulty to subjection. 
 
 TARPON, or TARPUM, a herring- 
 shaped fish found on the southern coasts 
 of the United States and in the West 
 Indies. It reaches a length of 5 or 6 
 feet, and from a hundred to several 
 hundred pounds weight, and is of giant 
 strength. Though too coarse ordinarily 
 for food, it is a great attraction to 
 anglers. Its scales, which are of great 
 size, are now largely used in ornamental 
 work. 
 
 TARSIUS, a genus of quadrumanous 
 mammals of the lemur family inhabiting 
 the Eastern archipelago. In this genus 
 
 Tarsier. 
 
 the bones of the tarsus are very much 
 elongated, which give the feet and hands, 
 a disproportionate length. Tarsius' 
 spectrum, the tarsier, seems to be the^ 
 only species known. It is about the siz^ 
 
TARSUS 
 
 TAURIDA 
 
 of a squirrel, fawn-brown in color, with 
 large ears, large eyes, and a long tufted 
 tail. It is nocturnal in its habits, lives 
 among trees, and feeds upon lizards. 
 
 TARSUS, in anatomy, that part of the 
 foot which in man is popularly known 
 as the ankle, the front of which is called 
 the instep. It corresponds with the 
 wrist of tne upper limb or arm, and is 
 composed of seven bones In insects the 
 tarsus is the last segment of the leg. It is 
 divided into several joints, the last being 
 generally terminated by a claw, which 
 is sometimes single and sometimes 
 double In birds the tarsus is that part 
 of the leg (or properly the foot) which 
 extends from the toes to the first joint 
 above; the shank. 
 
 TARSUS, an ancient city of Asia 
 Minor, the capital of Cilicia, now in the 
 province of Adana, in Asiatic Turkey. 
 The Apostle Paul was born, and Julian 
 the Apostate was buried there. Pop. 
 8500. 
 
 TARTAN, a well-known species of 
 cloth, checkered or cross-barred with 
 threads of various colors. It was origin- 
 ally made of wool or silk, and constituted 
 the distinguishing badge of the Scottish 
 Highland clans, each clan having its own 
 peculiar pattern. An endless variety of 
 fancy tartans are now manufactured, 
 some of wool, others of silk, others of 
 wool and cotton, or of silk and cotton. 
 
 TARTAR, the substance called also 
 argal or argol, deposited from wines in- 
 completely fermented, and adhering to 
 the sides of the casks in the form of a 
 hard crust. When purified it forms 
 cream of tartar. What is called tartar 
 emetic is a double tartrate of potassium 
 and antimony, an important compound 
 used in medicine as an emetic, purga- 
 tive, diaphoretic, sedative, fubrifuge, 
 and counter-irritant. Tartar of the 
 teeth is an earthy-like substance which 
 occasionally concretes upon the teeth, 
 and is deposited from the saliva. It con- 
 sists of salivary mucus, animal matter, 
 and phosphate of lime. 
 
 TARTARIC ACID, the acid of tartar. 
 It exists in grape juice, in tamarinds, 
 and several other fruits ; but principally 
 in bitartrate of potassium, or cream of 
 tartar, from which it is usually obtained. 
 It crystalizes in large rhombic prisms, 
 transparent and colorless, and very 
 soluble in water. It is inodorous and 
 very sour to the taste. A high tempera- 
 ture decomposes it, giving rise to several 
 new products. The solution of tartaric 
 acid acts with facility upon those metals 
 which decompose water, as iron and 
 zinc. There are five modifications of 
 tartaric acid, characterized chiefly by 
 the differences in the action exerted by 
 them upon a ray of polarized light; such 
 as dextro- or ordinary tartaric acid, 
 Isevo-tartaric acid, para-tartaric or race- 
 mic acid, meso-tartaric acid, and meta- 
 tartaric acid. Tartaric acid is largely 
 employed as a discharge in calico-print- 
 ing, and for making soda-water powders 
 and baking powders. In medicine it is 
 Used in small doses as a refrigerant. 
 
 TARTARS. See Tatars. 
 
 TARTARY, a name formerly applied 
 to the wide band of country extending 
 through Central Asia from the seas of 
 Japan and Okhotsk in the east to the 
 Caspian on the west, and including 
 
 Manchooria, Mongolia, Turkestan, and 
 all the south part of Russian Asia. It 
 was used sometimes even to include a 
 large portion of Southeastern Russia. 
 In a restricted sense it is identical with 
 Turkestan. It received its name from 
 the Tartars or Tatars. See Tatars. 
 
 TASHKENT', or TASHKEND', a town 
 of Asiatic Russia, in the government of 
 Turkestan. The manufactures are silks, 
 cottons, iron goods, etc. The trade, 
 carried on chiefly by caravans, partly 
 by railway, is very extensive. Tashkent 
 was occupied by Russia in 1865, and a 
 Russian quarter has grown up. Pop. 
 about 156,414. 
 
 TASMA'NIA, formerly Van Diemen’s 
 Land, an island in the Southern ocean, 
 fully 100 miles south of Australia, from 
 which it is separated by Bass’s strait; 
 greatest length, 186 miles ; mean breadth 
 165 miles; area, 24,330 sq. miles, or in- 
 cluding islands, 26,215. Wheat, oats, 
 barley, potatoes, pease, beans, and hops 
 are largely cultivated, and the fruit in- 
 cludes grapes, cherries, plums, quinces, 
 mulberries, peaches, apricots, walnuts, 
 filberts, almonds, etc. Kangaroos and 
 other animals of the pouched kind are 
 numerous. There are two marsupial car- 
 nivorous animals called the Tasmanian 
 wolf and the Tasmanian devil, both of 
 
 which are destructive to sheep. An- 
 other marsupial carnivore is the dasyure 
 or native cat. The natural forests are 
 chiefly of the eucalyptus or gumtree, 
 pine, and acacia tribe. Among the 
 minerals are gold, silver, copper, iron, 
 tin, coal, freestone, limestone, and roof- 
 ing slate. Mount Bischoff tin mine is a 
 notably rich one. Tasmanian coal is now 
 used on the railways. The staple ex- 
 port from Tasmania is copper, and the 
 other articles include gold, silver, tin, 
 wool, timber, fruit, hops, hides, and 
 bark. Pop. 172,475. 
 
 TASMANNIA, a genus of plants, con- 
 sisting of one Tasmanian and two Aus- 
 tralian shrubs. The Tasmanian species 
 possesses aromatic qualities, particularly 
 in its bark. Its fruit is used by the 
 colonists for pepper. 
 
 TASSO, Torquato, an Italian epic 
 poet, was born at Sorrento 1544. At the 
 age of sixteen he produced the Rinaldo, 
 an epic poem in twelve cantos. The 
 reputation of this poem procured for 
 Torquato an invitation to the University 
 
 of Bologna, which he accepted. Here 
 he displayed an aptitude for philosophy, 
 and began to write his great poem of 
 Gierusalemme Liberata (Jerusalem De- 
 livered). In 1573 Tasso brought out the 
 Aminta, a pastoral, which was repre- 
 sented at the court. In 1575 he com- 
 pletedhis epic of Gierusalemme Liberata. 
 In 1595, he proceeded to Rome at the 
 request of the pope, who desired him to 
 be crowned with laurel in the capitol, 
 but the poet died while the preparations 
 for the ceremony were being made. 
 Tasso wrote numerous poems, but his 
 fame rests chiefly on his Rime, or lyrical 
 poems, his Aminta, and his Gierusa- 
 lemme Liberata. 
 
 TASTE, the sense by which we per- 
 cieve the relish or savor of a thing. The 
 organs of this special sense are the 
 papillae, or processes on the surface of 
 the tongue, and also certain parts 
 within the cavity of the mouth and the 
 throat, as the soft plate, the tonsils, and 
 the upper part of the pharynx. See 
 Tongue. 
 
 TATARS, or TARTARS, a vague term 
 with no ethnological significance usually 
 applied to certain roving tribes which 
 inhabited the steppes of Central Asia. 
 More specifically, however, Tatar or 
 Ta-ta appears to have been the name 
 of a tribe of Mongols who occupied about 
 the 9th century a district of Chinese 
 Tartary on the Upper Amur. The true 
 Tatars formed part of the horde of 
 Genghis Khan, when that conqueror 
 carried his arms from the country known 
 as Chinese Tartary to Europe, as well as 
 to the successive hordes of similar origin 
 who followed in their footsteps, and to 
 the districts from which they came, or in 
 which they settled; hence the names of 
 Chinese Tartary, Independent Tartary, 
 and European or Little Tartary, which 
 comprised most of the Russian govern- 
 ments of Orenburg, Astrakhan, Eka- 
 terinoslav, the Cossack provinces, and 
 the Crimea. 
 
 TATTOOING, a practice common to 
 several uncivilized nations, ancient and 
 modern, and to some extent employed 
 among civilized peoples. It consists in 
 pricking the skin in a design, and intro- 
 ducing into the wounds colored liquids, 
 gun-powder, or the like, so as to make it 
 indelible. This practice is very prevalent 
 among the South Sea islanders, among 
 whom are used instruments edged with 
 small teeth, somewhat resembling those 
 of a fine comb. Degrees of rank are 
 sometimes indicated by the greater or 
 less surface of tattooed skin. 
 
 TAUNTON, a town, capital of Bristol 
 CO., Massachusetts, about 33 miles south 
 of Boston. It is well built and contains 
 a great number of handsome edifices. 
 The manufactures consist of locomo- 
 tives, cotton machinery, Britannia ware, 
 nails, etc., and it has iron-works, cotton 
 and paper mills, print-works, foundries, 
 etc. Pop. 37,160. 
 
 TAU'RIDA, a government in the 
 south of Russia; area, 24,539 sq. miles. 
 It is watered by the Dnieper; the north- 
 ern peninsula consists almost entirely of 
 an extensive steppe, and the chief occu- 
 pation of the inhabitants, who consist of 
 Russians, is cattle-breeding and agri- 
 culture. Pop. 1,443,566. The capital is 
 Simferopol. 
 
TAURUS 
 
 TAYLOR 
 
 TAURUS, the Bull, one of the twelve 
 signs of the zodiac, which the sun enters 
 about the 20th April. Taurus is also the 
 second zodiacal constellation, contain- 
 ing 141 stars. Several of these are re- 
 markable, as Aldebaran, of the first 
 magnitude, in the eye; the Hyades, in 
 the face ; and the Pleiades in the neck. 
 
 TAUTOG, a fish found on the coast of 
 New England, and valued for food. See 
 Blackfish. 
 
 TAVOY, a district in the Tenasserim 
 division of Lower Burmah; area, 7150 
 sq. miles. Pop. 84,988. The chief town 
 is Tavoy, situated about 30 miles from 
 the mouth of the river of the same name. 
 Pop. 15,000. There is also an island of 
 Tavoy about 18 miles long and 2 broad, 
 and on the eastern side there is a well- 
 sheltered harbor called Port Owen. 
 
 TAX, a contribution levied by author- 
 ity from people to defray the expenses 
 of government or other public services. 
 A tax may be a charge made by the 
 national or state rulers on the incomes 
 or property of individuals, or on the 
 products consumed by them. A tax is 
 said to be direct when it is demanded 
 from the very persons who it is intended 
 or desired should pay it, as, for example, 
 a poll-tax, a land or property-tax, an 
 income-tax, taxes for keeping man- 
 servants, carriages, dogs, and the like. 
 It is said to be indirect when it is de- 
 manded from one person in the expec- 
 tation and intention that he shall in- 
 demnify himself at the expense of an- 
 other; as, for example, the taxes called 
 customs, which are imposed on certain 
 classes of imported goods, and those 
 called excise duties, which are imposed on 
 home manufactures or inland produc- 
 tion. Taxes are also rates or sums 
 imposed on individuals or their prop- 
 erty for municipal, county, or other 
 local purposes, such as police taxes, 
 taxes for the support of the poor (poor- 
 rates), taxes for the repair of the roads 
 and bridges, etc. In Great Britain and 
 elsewhere house taxes or taxes on rental 
 form the largest part of the local reve- 
 nues, municipal revenues being, indeed, 
 entirely raised from this source. Adam 
 Smith has laid down four principles of 
 taxation, which have been generally 
 accepted by political economists. These 
 are: (1) The subjects of every state 
 ought to contribute to the support of 
 the government as nearly as possible in 
 proportion to their respective abilities. 
 (2) The tax ought to be certain, not 
 arbitrary. (3) Every tax ought to be 
 levied at the time or in the manner most 
 convenient for the contributor. (4) 
 Every tax ought to be so contrived as 
 both to take out and keep out of the 
 pockets of the people as little as possible 
 over and above what it brings into the 
 public treasury of the state. See also 
 Income-tax, Customs, Excise, etc. 
 
 TAXIDERMY, the art of preparing 
 and preserving the skins of animals, and 
 also of stuffing and mounting. 
 
 TAXO'DIUM, a genus of deciduous 
 cypress, a common ornamental tree, is 
 a native of North America. The bark 
 exudes a resin which is used by the 
 negroes for dressing wounds, and the 
 roots, which are hollow inside, are used 
 for bee-hives. 
 
 TAY, the longest river in Scotland, 
 
 and the one that carries to the sea a 
 greater volume of water than any other 
 in the British islands. Its length is about 
 120 miles, its greatest breadth in the 
 estuary 3^ miles, and the area drained 
 2400 sq. miles. It is navigable as far as 
 Perth, but Dundee is the chief port. 
 The salmon fisheries are important. 
 
 TAYLOR, Bayard, American poet, 
 born at Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, 
 in 1825, died in 1878. He traveled ex- 
 tensively, giving his experiences in 
 Views Afoot in Europe, The Lands of 
 the Saracens, Visit to India, China, and 
 Japan, Crete and Russia, Byways of 
 Europe. He also published several 
 novels; various volumes of verse, such 
 
 as Rhymes of Travel, A Book of Ro- 
 mances, Lyrics, and Songs, Poems and 
 Ballads, Poems of the Orient, The 
 Masque of the Gods, and a translation 
 of Goethe’s Faust in the original meters. 
 He was for some time United States 
 secretary of legation at St. Petersburg, 
 and latterly he was United States am- 
 bassador at Berlin, where he died. 
 
 TAYLOR, Jeremy, one of the greatest 
 names in the Church of England, was 
 born in 1613 at Cambridge; died at Lis- 
 burne, Ireland, in 1667. He was entered, 
 in 1626, as a sizar in Caius college, where 
 he graduated Master of Arts; and in 
 1636 obtained by the patronage of 
 
 Archbishop Laud a fellowship of All 1 
 Souls college, Oxford. In 1638 he was | 
 presented by Bishop Juxon to the rec- ! 
 tory of Uppingham, in Rutlandshire, j 
 and in 1642 he was appointed chaplain I 
 in ordinary to Charles I. Afterward he I 
 removed to London, but in 1658 he 
 accepted an invitation from Lord Con- 
 way to reside at his seat in Ireland. 
 Here he remained until the Restoration, 
 
 whan he was elevated to the Irish see j 
 of Down and Connor, with the adminis- ^ 
 tration of that of Dromore. He was also 
 in the same year, made a privy-coun- H 
 cillor for Ireland, and chosen vice-chan- i 
 cellor of the University of Dublin. The j 
 greater part of his writings consist of ^ 
 sermons and devotional pieces, and upon ;i 
 the former rests his fame as a master of > 
 varied English prose. ' 
 
 TAYLOR, John, The successor of i 
 Brigham Young as president of the 
 Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day 
 Saints, was born in England in 1808. 
 
 In 1836 he joined the Mormon church 
 and was elected one of the twelve 
 apostles. In 1849 he was appointed to 
 the European mission; he published a 
 Mormon monthly in Paris and trans- . 
 lated the Book of Mormon into French ; 
 and German. In 1854, he was stationed 
 in New Y^ork as superintendent over the "i 
 Eastern churches and there published d 
 the Mormon. In 1858 he was indicted ( 
 for treason against the LTnited States fi 
 government. On October 6, 1880, he ^ 
 was elected president of the church. He !( 
 died in 1887. • 
 
 TAYLOR, Richard, a confederate 
 soldier, familarly known as “Dick” Tay- 
 lor, was born at New Orleans in 1826. He IJ 
 fought under Stonewall Jackson in the j 
 Shenandoah valley campaign, and in the j 
 Seven Days’ battle before Richmond, j 
 On April 8, 1864, he defeated General « 
 Banks at Sabine Cross roads. On May j 
 4, 1865, he surrendered to General j 
 Canby. He published Destruction and I 
 Reconstruction (1879). He died in 1879. j 
 TAYLOR, Tom, born at Sunderland ) 
 in 1817, died 1880. The most popular 
 of his plays are: New Men and Old i 
 Acres, Masks and Faces (in collabora- 
 tion with Charles Reade), Still Waters 
 Run Deep, The Overland Route, and 
 The Ticket of Leave Man. His historic ; 
 dramas include: The Fool’s Revenge, 
 Joan of Arc, ’Twixt Axe and Crown, 
 Lady Clancarty, Anne Boleyn, etc. He 
 also published biographies of B. R. 
 
TAYLOR 
 
 TE DEUM 
 
 Haydon (1853), C. R. Leslie (1859), and 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds (1865). 
 
 TAYLOR, Zachary, twelfth president 
 of the United States, born in Orange 
 county, Virginia, 1784; died 1850. He 
 entered the army in 1808, and rose to 
 the rank of major; took command of 
 the United States forces at the outbreak 
 of the Mexican war. His victory over 
 the Mexicans at Buena Vista, with only 
 6,500 men against an army of 21,000, 
 
 commanded by President Santa Anna, 
 created great enthusiasm, and “Old 
 Rough-and-Ready,” as he was called in 
 the army, was nominated in 1848 for 
 president of the United States, and 
 though opposed by General Cass, Martin 
 Van Buren and C. F. Adams, he was 
 triumphantly elected, and entered upon 
 the presidency in 1850. He only occu- 
 pied the post four months, and died on 
 July 9th, in that year. 
 
 TCHAD, CHAD, or TSAD, a large 
 fresh-water lake of Central Africa, in the 
 Soudan, having the territories of Bor- 
 nou, Kanem, and Bagirmi surrounding 
 it; length, about 150 miles; breadth, 
 about 100 miles; area, about 20,000 sq. 
 miles, with a variable expanse according 
 as it is the wet or dry season. 
 
 TCHERNIGOV, TCHERNIGOFF, or 
 TCHERNIGOW, a government of Little 
 Russia, situated on the left bank of the 
 Dnieper; area, 20,232 sq. miles. Agri- 
 culture and cattle-breeding are the chief 
 employments; corn, linseed, timber, 
 tobacco, and sugar are exported. Pop. 
 2,075,867. — Tchernigov, the capital, is 
 situated on the Desna, about 80 miles 
 n.n.e. of Kieff. Pop. 27,028. 
 
 TEA, a genus of plants comprising the 
 species which yields most of the tea of 
 commerce. By different modes of cul- 
 ture this species has diverged into two 
 distinct varieties, entitled Thea viridis 
 and Thea bohea. The former is a large 
 hardy evergreen plant with spreading 
 branches and thin leaves from 3 to 5 
 inches long; the latter is a smaller plant, 
 and differs from the other in several par- 
 ticulars. From both, according to the 
 
 process of manufacture, black and green 
 teas are procured. The tea plant is not 
 only cultivated over a great part of 
 China, but also in Japan, Tonquin, 
 Cochin-China, Assam and other parts of 
 India, and Ceylon. It has also been ex- 
 perimentally introduced into Carolina, 
 Brazil, and Australia. Its growth is 
 chiefly confined to hilly tracts; it is 
 raised from seed, and the rearing of it 
 requires great skill and attention. In 
 seven years the plant attains the height 
 of 6 feet, and the leaves are plucked off 
 carefully one by one four times a year. 
 In their green condition they are placed 
 in a hot pan over a small furnace, and 
 then rubbed lightly between the palms 
 of the hands, or on a table. This proc- 
 ess is repeated until the leaves become 
 small, crisp, and curled. The black teas 
 thus prepared include bohea, congou, 
 souchong, and pekoe; the green teas, 
 twankay, hyson-skin, young hyson, 
 hyson, imperial, and gunpowder. Green 
 tea gets less of the fire than black tea. 
 The broken leaves, stalks, and refuse of 
 the tea are compressed into solid bricks, 
 and in this form it is imported by the 
 Russians into the greater part of Central 
 Asia, where (besides being used as a 
 sort of coinage) it is sometimes stewed 
 with milk, salt, and butter. There is 
 considerable adulteration in the teas 
 sent from China to the European mar- 
 ket, and they are often artificially 
 colored with a mixture of Prussian blue, 
 or of gypsum and indigo carefully mixed. 
 The infusion of tea-leaves in hot water 
 yields a beverage which has little nutri- 
 tive value, but it increases respiratory 
 action, and seems to have a stimulative 
 and restorative action on the nervous 
 system. This is chiefly due to the essen- 
 tial oil and the theine (an alkaloid in its 
 nature identical with the caffeine in 
 coffee) which it contains, while the 
 tannin, which is also present, acts as an 
 astringent. If the water is boiling an 
 infusion of ten minutes is sufficient to 
 extract all the theine, and a longer 
 period only adds to the tannin in the 
 beverage, a result which is very hurtful 
 to digestion. From historical sources 
 we learn that tea was used in China as a 
 beverage in the 6th century, and two 
 centuries after its use had become com- 
 mon. In England we first find it men- 
 tioned about 1615 by an agent of the 
 East India company ; in 1660 Pepys says 
 in his diary, “I did send for a cup of tea, 
 a China drink, of which I never had 
 drunk before.” China until recent years, 
 held almost a monopoly in the produc- 
 tion of tea, but now India and Ceylon 
 have entered the market as important 
 competitors. Britain is the principal 
 tea-consuming country in the world, 
 coffee being less in favor there than in 
 many other countries, the United States 
 and Canada for example. The import 
 of tea to the United States is less than 
 half that of Britain. 
 
 TEAK, a tree of the natural order 
 VerbenacejE, a native of different parts 
 of India, as well as of Burmah and of the 
 islands from Ceylon to the Moluccas. It 
 grows to an immense size, and is re- 
 markable for its large leaves, which are 
 from 12 to 24 inches long, and from 6 
 to 18 broad The wood, though porous, 
 is strong and durable; it is easily sea- 
 
 soned and shrinks but little, and from 
 containing a resinous oil it resists the 
 action of water, and repels the attacks 
 of insects of all kinds. It is extensively 
 used in ship-building and for many other 
 purposes. 
 
 TEAL, the common name of the 
 smallest and most beautiful of the duck 
 family. Its length is about 14 inches. 
 The green-winged teal is very like the 
 
 Blue-winged teal. 
 
 common teal. The blue-winged teal is 
 somewhat larger than the common teal, 
 and is easily domesticated. Both are 
 North American. 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION is the form 
 of education received in specially 
 equipped schools, where manual skill, 
 and the practical application of science 
 and art to manufactures, are taught. 
 The recent demand for such instruction 
 has arisen chiefly because, by themodern 
 use of machinery and a highly-developed 
 division of labor, the old apprentice 
 system has broken down, and workmen 
 in recent years have ceased to learn the 
 complete practical details of their 
 
 tiS 
 
 TECHNOLOGY, that branch of knowl- 
 edge which deals with the various in- 
 dustrial arts; the science or systematic 
 knowledge of the industrial arts, as 
 spinning, weaving, dyeing, metallurgy, 
 brewing, and the like. 
 
 TE DEUM, a name (from the opening 
 phrase Te Deum Laudamus) of the well- 
 known Latin h3nnn usually ascribed to 
 St. Ambrose and St. Augustine, although 
 it cannot be traced farther back than the 
 end of the 5th century. It is used in the 
 ritual of the Roman Catholic and An- 
 glican churches, being part of the morn- 
 ing service in the latter (“We praise 
 thee, 0 God,” etc.) 
 
TEETH 
 
 TELEGRAPH 
 
 TEETH, the name given to certain 
 hard structures growing out of the jaws 
 of vertebrate animals, and serving as 
 the instruments of mastication. The 
 teeth of animals differ in shape, being 
 destined for different offices. In man 
 and the higher mammals two sets of 
 teeth are developed, the early, milk or 
 deciduous teeth, and the pei-manent set. 
 In fishes the teeth fall off and are re- 
 newed repeatedly in the course of their 
 lives. Teeth do not belong to the skele- 
 ton, but to the skin or exoskeletal parts 
 of the body, and are homologous with 
 hairs. In man the teeth are imbedded 
 in sockets in the upper and lower jaw- 
 bones. There are thirty-two in all, 
 sixteen in each jaw, and each consists of 
 the crown or visible part, and the fangs 
 or buried part. The four central teeth 
 of each jaw having chiseled-shaped 
 crowns with sharp edges are called in- 
 cisors; on each side of these four is the 
 pointed canine tooth (which in the upper 
 jaw are called the eye-tooth); on each 
 side of these are two bicuspid teeth 
 (praemolars) ; and behind these again are 
 the molar teeth, three on each side. (See 
 Dental Formula.) The last of the per- 
 manent teeth to appear are the farthest 
 back grinding teeth, w'hich, owing to 
 their arrival between the seventeenth 
 and tw'enty-fifth years, are called the 
 wisdom teeth. Each tooth has a central 
 cavity filled wdth a soft pulp contain- 
 ing blood-vessels and nerves; this cavity 
 is surrounded by dentine, a hard sub- 
 stance composed of phosphate and car- 
 bonate of lime; outside the fang is a 
 cement-like substance resembling bone; 
 while outside the crown is a hard enamel. 
 In young teeth the enamel is covered by 
 a delicate membrane called “the skin of 
 the teeth,” which in adult teeth is worn 
 off. Toothache is due to decay of the 
 substance of a tooth, dental caries as it 
 is called. When the enamel which covers 
 the tooth becomes flawed the underlying 
 dentine is exposed and soon breaks 
 dowm. When the decay, passing inward, 
 reaches the pulp which contains the 
 blood-vessels and nerves it causes in- 
 flammation, aching, and suppuration. 
 Any treatment of toothache, short of 
 extraction, is seldom satisfactory if the 
 pulp has been actually attacked; but 
 neuralgia is often mistaken for tooth- 
 ache. See Dentistry. 
 
 TEETOTALISM, See Temperance. 
 
 TEHERAN', capital of Persia, in Irak 
 Ajemi, toward the northeast of the 
 province, 66 miles south of the Caspian 
 sea, at the southern base of Mount 
 Elburz. Pop. (in winter), 210,000. 
 
 TEHUANTEPEC (ta-wan-te-pek'), a 
 town of Mexico, in the state of Oaxaca, 
 14 miles above the mouth of a river of 
 the same name, falling into the Pacific 
 ocean. On account of a dangerous bar 
 the river is little used for navigation. 
 Pop., mostly Indians, 24,438. The town 
 is near the south side of the Isthmus of 
 Tehuantepec, the narrowest part of 
 North America, having the Gulf of 
 Tehuantepec on the Pacific side, the 
 Bay of Campeachy on the Atlantic side ; 
 width, about 115 miles. There have been 
 various schemes for constructing a canal 
 or a ship railway across the isthmus, 
 the most recent of the latter sort being 
 that of an American engineer named 
 
 Eads. The idea was received with great 
 favor in the United States, and in 1887 
 a bill passed the senate authorizing the 
 incorporation of a company to carry out 
 the project. The total length of the line, 
 from the Atlantic to the port of Salina 
 Cruz on the Pacific, was estimated at 
 135 miles, and the cost of construction 
 at sixty million dollars. Capt. Eads, the 
 projector, died in 1887. See Ship Rail- 
 way. 
 
 TELAU'TOGRAPH, a new writing 
 telegraph, invented by Professor Elisha 
 Gray, based on a novel system of trans- 
 mission, whereby a facsimile reproduc- 
 tion of the handwriting of the sender of 
 a message is effected. 
 
 TELEGRAPH, a general name for any 
 instrument or apparatus for conveying 
 intelligence beyond the limits of distance 
 at which the voice is audible, the idea of 
 speed being also implied. Thus the name 
 used to be given to a semaphore or other 
 signalling apparatus. The word, how- 
 ever, is now usually restricted in its ap- 
 plication to the electric telegraph, which 
 fronT Its power of rapidly conveying 
 elaborate communications to the greatest 
 distances has thrown all others into the 
 shade. The electric telegraph, as com- 
 prising the entire system of apparatus 
 for transmitting intelligence by elec- 
 
 Single-needle instrument. 
 
 tricity, consists essentially (1) of a bat- 
 tery or other source of electric power; 
 (2) of a line-wire or conductor for con- 
 veying the electric current from one 
 station to another; (3) of the apparatus 
 for transmitting, interrupting, and if 
 necessary reversing the current at pleas- 
 ure ; and (4) of the indicator or signall- 
 ing instrument. The line-wires for over- 
 head lines are usually of iron, protected 
 from atmospheric influence by galvaniz- 
 ing or by being varnished with boiled 
 linseed-oil, a coating of tar, or other 
 means, and are supported upon posts, 
 to which they are attached by insulators . 
 (See Insulator.) In underground lines 
 the wires are insulated by a gutta-percha 
 or other non-conducting covering, and 
 inclosed in iron or lead pipes. The bat- 
 tery and line-wire are common to all 
 telegraphic systems; it is in the method 
 of producing the signals that the great 
 variation exists; but in all of them ad- 
 vantage has been taken of one or other 
 of the three following properties of the 
 current: (1) its power of producing the 
 deflection of a magnetic needle, as in the 
 galvanometer (which see); (2) its power 
 of temporarily magnetizing soft iron; 
 and (3) its power of producing chemical 
 decomposition. The electro-magnetic 
 instrument of Professor Morse, which, 
 
 however, in its perfected fonu cwflB 
 much to the genius of Morse’s associate® 
 Joseph Henry and Alfred Vail, is 
 application of the second of the aboveS 
 properties. By means of an electrcsl 
 magnet an armature which is attracted^ 
 when the magnet is temporarily mag- fi 
 netized, a lever moved by the armature— 
 and a style which moves wdth the leverM 
 this instrument impresses a message!# 
 in dots and dashes on a ribbon of mov-'A 
 ing paper, and by it forty words may b^ 
 sent in a minute. This “dot and dash”. « 
 system which was invented by Morsel 
 is now in extensive use. A modification^^ 
 of this instrument, called a sounder, inV? 
 which the lever makes audible sounds^ 
 by coming in contact wdth a brass rod,», 
 indicates the message by the length of^ 
 the strokes produced. This is shown in^' 
 the illustration, which shows the ar-^ 
 rangement, by which the hammer-headP^ 
 h is attracted, and the arm h p is brought A 
 into contact wdth the pin a. Upon th^ 
 cessation of the current the spring bring^ 
 down the arm upon the pin b. Frequent-iJ 
 ly the Morse is simultaneously a recorder ■' 
 and sounder. It being necessary that , 
 this instrument should produce sharp' 
 and distinct impressions, and the cur-^ 
 rent being weak for stages over 50 miles,*" 
 a relay, or subsidiary electro-magnetic 
 circuit, is added to it in the case of., 
 longer distances. The transmitting in>^ 
 strument is a lever, which, on being ‘ 
 pressed, permits the current from the 
 battery to flow into the line-wire during., 
 the time the contact is made. Both on. ' 
 account of its intrinsic meidts and for 
 the sake of uniformity the Morse is the.: 
 most extensively u.^ed system, being 
 that in use in America, and on the con- 
 tinent of Europe, and being also largely 
 employed in Britain. Hughes’ telegraph 
 appears to be the best printing telegraph 
 and is the instrument chiefly used by 
 
 the submarine telegraph companies.- 
 It works wdth one line of wire, and hac 
 about three times the speed of the 
 Morse system, with the advantage that 
 the message is printed in the ordinarj’" 
 Roman type. The machine is rather 
 complicated, but its principle can bef | 
 easily understood. A w'heel having typ» 
 engraved on its rim is made to ^evol^^«y 
 at a known rate ; a strip of paper, as iO: 
 the case of the Morse, is drawn off in ift 
 drum over a roller which lies under 
 rim of the revolving type-wheel; bjH 
 means of the current the roller wdth 
 paper is raised against the type-whee® 
 as the proper letter passes, and in tbi^r 
 
TELEGRAPH CABLE 
 
 TELEPHONE 
 
 way the despatch is printed. The 
 operator works on a key-board much 
 like that of a piano. Chemical tele- 
 graphs work on the principle that an 
 iron wire pressing against a paper pre- 
 pared with cyanide of potassium or other 
 substance will, while a current is passing 
 between the wire and the paper, pro- 
 duce a dark streak of Prussian blue or 
 other mark, and when the current is in- 
 terrupted the streak of pigment is in- 
 terrupted. Bonelli’s telegraph is worked 
 by means of five wires. The message is 
 set up in brass types in one line; the 
 letters are common block letters; five 
 styles, like the teeth of a comb, press 
 against the raised portions of the type, 
 and as the line of type is drawn through 
 each style sends a current along its wire 
 to a corresponding style pressing against 
 prepared paper at the distant station, 
 making a mark on the paper there cor- 
 responding to the raised portion of type 
 which sends the current. The chief 
 objection to Bonelli’s telegraph is the 
 five wires necessary between the sta- 
 tions. Autographic telegraphs are chemi- 
 cal telegraphs, and consist of a message 
 written with a pen dipped in some non- 
 conducting substance on a surface of 
 tin-foil or other conducting material 
 pasted on a cylinder which is made to 
 Tevolve at a certain rate; a style presses 
 against the surface, and is moved up or 
 down the cylinder at a certain rate so as ' 
 to describe a helical line; a current 
 passes between the cylinder and style 
 except when the non-conducting writing 
 comes between them; at the distant 
 station a similar cylinder covered with 
 paper prepared with cyanide of potas- 
 sium revolves at the same rate as the 
 first cylinder; and its style being con- 
 nected with the first style by means of 
 the telegraph wire makes a mark of 
 Prussian blue, which is a continuous 
 helix, except when the current is in- 
 terrupted at the first style. In this way 
 a copy of the message in the hand- 
 writing of the sender is produced at a 
 distant station. This is Bakewell’s 
 telegraph. Caselli’s telegraph is similar 
 in principle. Bain’s automatic telegraph 
 is Bonelli’s telegraph, wherein by adopt- 
 ing the Morse alphabet one wire is 
 sufficient ; and the type is simply a strip 
 of paper with dots and dashes punched 
 in it. As early as 1747 Bishop Watson 
 showed that signals might be sent 
 through a wire stretched across the 
 Thames by discharging a Leyden-jar 
 through it. Volta’s discovery of the 
 galvanic pile, and Oersted’s discovery 
 of electro-magnetism, by supplying 
 electricity of a kind more easily retained 
 on the conducting wires, afforded much 
 greater facilities for transmitting signals 
 to a distance. Ampere, in 1820, pro- 
 posed to utilize Oersted’s discovery by 
 employing twenty-four needles to be 
 deflected by currents sent through the 
 same number of wires; and Baron 
 Schilling exhibited in Russia, in 1832, a 
 telegraph model in which the signals 
 appear to have been given by the de- 
 flections of a single needle. Weber 
 and Gauss carried out this plan in 1833 
 by leading two wires from the obser- 
 vatory of Gottingen to the Physical 
 Cabinet, a distance of about 9000 feet. 
 The signal consisted in small deflections * 
 
 of a bar-magnet suspended horizontally 
 with a mirror attached, on the plan 
 since adopted in Thomson’s mirror 
 galvanometer. At their request the 
 subject was earnestly taken up by Pro- 
 fessor Steinheil of Munich, whose in- 
 ventions contributed more perhaps than 
 those of any other single individual to 
 render electric telegraphs commercially 
 practicable. He was the first to ascer- 
 tain that earth connections might be 
 made to supersede the use of a return 
 wire. He also invented a convenient 
 telegraphic alphabet, in which, as in 
 
 At fianehti. 
 
 /nitrp'tiatwm 
 
 AX AN Y XXME 
 
 AtPrtnUA 
 
 Wheatstone's automatic system. 
 
 most of the codes since employed, the 
 different letters of the alphabet are rep- 
 resented by different combinations of 
 two elementary signals. His currents 
 were magneto-electric, like those of 
 Weber and Gauss. The attraction of an 
 electro-magnet on a movable armature 
 furnishes the means of signalling which 
 is the foundation of Morse’s telegraphic 
 system, and which has been employed 
 by Wheatstone to ring a bell calling 
 attention before transmitting a message. 
 About the year 1837 electric telegraphs 
 were first established as commercial 
 speculations in three different countries. 
 Steinheil’s system was carried out at 
 Munich, Morse’s in America, and Wheat- 
 stone and Cooke’s in England. Among 
 recent improvements in electric teleg- 
 raphy are those by which a wire can be 
 used for more than one message at a 
 time. In 1872 a method of sending 
 simultaneously two messages in opposite 
 directions on the same wire was intro- 
 duced, and it was also discovered that 
 two messages could be sent in the same 
 direction (duplex telegraphy). The two 
 plans being combined formed quad- 
 ruplex telegraphy. In wireless teleg- 
 raphy electric waves transmitted through 
 space are utilized by means of delicate 
 instruments. See Wireless Telegraphy. 
 
 TELEGRAPH CABLE. See Sub- 
 marine Cable. 
 
 TELEMACHUS (te-lem'a-kus), a son 
 of Ulysses and Penelope, who is reputed 
 to have gone through many adventures 
 in search of his father after the close of 
 the Trojan war. He is the hero of a 
 French prose epic by Fenelon. (1699). 
 
 TELEOL'OGY, the science or doctrine 
 of final causes ; the doctrine which 
 asserts that all things which exist were 
 produced by an intelligent being for the 
 end which they fulfil. 
 
 TEL'EPHONE, an instrument for 
 transmitting’ the human voice or other 
 sounds by means of electricity and 
 telegraph wires. About the year 1860 
 the idea that sound-producing vibra- 
 tions could be transmitted through a 
 wire by means of electricity began to be 
 recognized by several men of science. 
 Reis of Frankfort invented an appara- 
 tus which could reproduce at a distant 
 station the pitch of a musical sound by 
 means of a discontinuous current along 
 a telegraph wire. A great step in ad- 
 
 vance was made in 1876, when Prof. 
 Graham Bell discovered an articulating 
 telephone which depends upon the prin- 
 ciple of the undulating current, and by 
 means of which the very quality of a 
 note, and therefore conversation itself, 
 could be reproduced at a distant station. 
 Several varieties of telephonic apparatus 
 are now in use for inter-communication 
 between distant places. The Bell tele- 
 phone in its common form is shown in 
 the accompanying cut. A strong ordi- 
 nary bar-magnet m has round one of its 
 ends a coil of fine silk-covered wire in 
 metalic communication with the two 
 terminals s s. One of the terminals 
 communicates through a telegraph wire 
 with one of the terminals of the coil of 
 a precisely similar instrument at the 
 other station, the remaining pair of 
 terminals being connected through the 
 earth, or through a return wire. Just in 
 front of the extremity of the magnet 
 there is a thin plate of iron p, and in 
 front of this again there is the mouth- 
 piece of a speaking-tube o. By this last 
 the sounds to be transmitted are col- 
 lected and concentrated, and falling on 
 the metal plate cause it to vibrate. 
 These vibrations in their turn excite 
 undulating electric currents which cor- 
 respond exactly with the vibrations; 
 that is, with the original sounds. The 
 
 Bell telephone. 
 
 electric currents being transmitted to 
 the receiving telephone cause corre- 
 sponding vibrations in the plate or disc 
 in it, and these reproduce to the ear the 
 original sounds. The telephone is now 
 an established institution throughout 
 Europe and America. Telephone ex- 
 changes exist in all the principal towns, 
 subscribers to which have their houses 
 or places of business in direct communi- 
 cation with each other. Long distance 
 lines are also rapidly joining city to 
 city, the longest as yet in existence be- 
 ing the lines between New York and 
 Chicago (1000 miles), and between 
 Boston and Milwaukee (1300 miles, 
 and New York and Denver (1954 miles). 
 In 1907 extremely interesting tests were 
 made by Count Arco, the Berlin electri- 
 cal expert, who demonstrated the pos- 
 sibility of talking by wireless teleg- 
 raphy. All the newest ships in the Ger- 
 man, English, and American navies are 
 now being fitted out with wireless tele- 
 phone instruments. Experiments con- 
 ducted by Capt. A. C. Knowles, U. S. A., 
 have made it possible, by using a one 
 wire circuit, the current passing through 
 the horse to the ground, for officers to 
 give commands while separated from 
 their troops, and also to converse with 
 one another without dismounting. See 
 Wireless Telegraphy. 
 
telescope 
 
 Tellurium 
 
 TELESCOPE, an optical instrument 
 essentially consisting of a set of lenses 
 fixed in a tube or a number of sliding 
 tubes, by which distant objects are 
 brought within the range of distinct, or 
 more distinct vision. The law of action 
 by which the telescope assists human 
 vision is twofold, and that under all the 
 varieties of its construction. A distant 
 object viewed by the unaided eye is 
 placed in the circumference of a large 
 circle, having the eye for its center, and 
 consequently the angle under which it is 
 seen is measured by the minute portion 
 of the circumference which it occupies. 
 Now, when the distance is great, it is 
 found that this angle is too small to 
 convey to the retina any sensible im- 
 pression — all the light proceeding from 
 the object is too weak to affect the optic 
 nerve. This limit to distinct vision 
 results from the small aperture or pupil 
 of the eye. The telescope substitutes its 
 large object lens or reflector for the 
 human eye, and consequently receives 
 a quantity of light proportioned to its 
 area or surface; hence a distant point, 
 inappreciable by the eye alone, is ren- 
 dered visible by the aid of the telescope. 
 The rays of light, after transmission or 
 reflection, converge to a point as they at 
 first proceeded from a point, and thus 
 an image of the object is formed which, 
 when viewed by the eye-piece or lens, 
 is more or less magnified. The telescope 
 therefore assists the eye in these two 
 ways; it gathers up additional light 
 and it magnifies the object; that is to 
 say, its image. The refracting telescope 
 is constructed of lenses alone, which, by 
 successive refractions, produce the de- 
 sired effect. This instrument was for- 
 merly very cumbersome and incon- 
 venient, inasmuch as its length had to 
 be increased considerably with every 
 accession of power; but the substitution 
 of achromatic for ordinary lenses has 
 rendered it more portable and conven- 
 ient. The reflecting telescope is com- 
 posed of specula or concave reflectors 
 (see Speculum) aided by a refracting eye- 
 piece. To this instrument we owe some 
 of the most wondrous discoveries in 
 astronomical science. The names of 
 Newton, Gregory, Herschel, and Lord 
 Rosse are connected with its history. 
 The following diagrams exhibit the 
 principles of construction and action in 
 both sorts of telescopes. In Fig. 1, which 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 illustrates the refracting telescope in its 
 simplest form, a and b are two lenses 
 of different focal lengths. Rays of light 
 from a distant object falling upon the 
 object-glass a are converged to a focus 
 at c. The eye-glass b, placed at its focal 
 distance from the point of convergence, 
 gathers up the diverging rays and car- 
 ries them parallel to the eye magnifying 
 the image formed at c. (See Optics.) 
 The magnifying power of the instrument 
 is as ac ; cb, or as the focal length of 
 one lens to that of the other. In this con- 
 struction the object is seen inverted or 
 turned upside down, and hence it is un- 
 
 suitable for terrestrial purposes. To 
 render the image erect, and thus show it 
 in its natural position, a more compli- 
 cated eye-piece, consisting of two ad- 
 ditional lenses, is necessary. Another 
 refracting telescope, consisting of two 
 lenses in its simplest form, is called the 
 Galilean telescope. It differs from the 
 former in having a concave lens for its 
 eye-glass, which lens is placed nearer 
 the object-glass than the focus of this 
 lens, producing an image which is not 
 inverted. This kind of telescope is the 
 
 
 V 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 one used in opera-glasses and field- 
 glasses. Fig. 2 shows the structure of 
 the reflecting telescope as constructed 
 by Dr. Gregory, a b is a large speculum 
 perforated in the center; upon this fall 
 the rays b, a and d, c, which are reflected 
 to convergence at e. A smaller speculum, 
 c, takes up the diverging rays and re- 
 flects them, slightly converging, through 
 the aperture o, where they are received 
 by a lens, and, after transmission, they 
 intersect at x, and proceed to the eye- 
 glass, whence they emerge parallel. 
 The magnifying power of this instru- 
 ment is great for its length, being as 
 
 X In the telescope invented by 
 
 e C X o 
 
 Sir Wm. Herschel there is no second 
 speculum, and no perforation in the 
 center of the larger one placed at the 
 bottom of the tube. The latter is fixed 
 
 The Lick telescope. Lick observatory, 
 Calitornia. 
 
 in an inclined position so that the image 
 formed by reflection falls near the lower 
 side of the tube at its open end or 
 mouth, where it is viewed directly by 
 an eye-piece, without greatly inter- 
 fering with the light. This arrangement 
 in the case of large reflectors, is imposed 
 by their great weight and difficult 
 
 management. Were it otherwise the 
 ordinary construction would be pre- 
 ferred, the inclination of the speculum 
 being a disadvantage. Chromatic aber- 
 ration, which arises from the different 
 refrangibilities of the different colored 
 rays, and leads to the formation, by a 
 lens, of a separate image of a bright 
 object for each colored ray, is remedied 
 by achromatizing the lens, that is, by 
 constructing it of two or more lenses of 
 different kinds of glass, so that the 
 colors, separated by one, shall be re- 
 united by the others. (See Achromatic.) 
 The most powerful refracting telescope 
 yet made is that in the Yerkes Observ- 
 atory, Wisconsin, which has an object- 
 glass 40 in. in diameter. The telescope 
 in the Lick observatory, California, has 
 an object glass three feet in diameter. 
 
 A large number of refracting telescopes 
 of 13 inches diameter have recently 
 been constructed with which to con- 
 duct the photographic survey of the 
 heavens, a camera being attached to the 
 eye-piece end of each. 
 
 TELFORD, Thomas, engineer, born 
 in 1757 in Eskdale, Dumfriesshire, 
 which in 1782 he left for London. The 
 greatest monument of his engineering 
 skill, was the Menai Suspension-bridge, 
 connecting Caernarvonshire with the 
 Island of Anglesea, opened in 1826. 
 The Conway bridge was also his, as well 
 as the Dean bridge, Edinburgh, and the 
 Broomielaw bridge, Glasgow. He died 
 in 1834, and was interred in Westmin- 
 ster Abbey. 
 
 Tell, William, a famous peasant 
 hero of Switzerland, reputed to have 
 done some daring and wonderful feats 
 in his resistance to the tyranny of the 
 Austrian governor Gessler, but now 
 proved to have been a mythical per- 
 sonage. In particular, having refused 
 to do homage to Gessler’s hat, set upon 
 a pole, he was seized and condemned to 
 death, but granted his life on condition 
 of shooting with an arrow an apple placed 
 on the head of his own son. This he did 
 successfully, admitting at the same time 
 that a second arrow he had was intended 
 for Gessler in case of failure. He was 
 therefore still kept a prisoner; but while 
 being conveyed over the Lake of Lu- 
 cerne he managed to leap ashore, and 
 soon after, having lain in w^ait for 
 Gessler, he shot the tyrant dead. These 
 stories professedly belong to the end 
 of the 14th or early part of the 15th 
 century, but contemporary historians 
 know nothing of them ; and similar 
 stories belong to the legends and ballads 
 of various peoples. 
 
 TEL'LER, Henry Moore, American 
 politician, was born at Granger. N. Y., 
 in 1830. In 1858 he removed to Illinois, 
 and in 1861 to Colorado. He was a 
 member of the L'nited States senate 
 from 1876 until he entered the cabinet 
 of President Arthur as secretary of the 
 interior in 1882. He left the republican 
 national convention in 1896 after it had 
 adopted a gold standard plank and sup- 
 ported W’. J. Bryan for the presidency. 
 
 In the same year he was returned to the 
 senate as an independent silver repub- 
 lican, and in 1903 was re-elected as the 
 regular democratic nominee. 
 
 TELLURIUM, a metal discovered in 
 1782, combined wdth gold and silver in i 
 
tembuland 
 
 tenacity 
 
 certain ores found in Hungary. The ores 
 are denominated native, graphic, yellow, 
 and black. The native tellurium is of a 
 color between tin and silver, and some- 
 times inclines to a steel-gray. The 
 graphic tellurium (or graphic gold) is 
 steel-gray; but sometimes white, yellow, 
 or lead-gray. These ores are found mas- 
 sive or crystalized. 
 
 TEM'BULAND, a district or depend- 
 ency of the Cape Colony. The minerals 
 include coal and copper. Pop. 180,415 
 (5179 Europeans). 
 
 TEMESVAR (tem'esh-var), a town of 
 Hungary, in the Temes Banat, in an ex- 
 tensive marshy plain on the Bega canal, 
 75 miles n.n.e. of Belgrade. The manu- 
 factures consist of woolens, silks, paper, 
 tobacco, etc. Pop. 49,977. 
 
 TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES, the first 
 association for the purpose of influen- 
 cing public opinion in order to check the 
 evil of intemperance appears to have 
 been formed in Massachusetts in 1813. 
 In 1826 a new impulse was given to the 
 movement by the establishment in 
 Boston on a more extensive plan of the 
 American Society for the Promotion of 
 Temperance. By 1831 more than 2200 
 societies, embracing 170,000 members, 
 were in correspondence with the parent 
 society. Reports of the movement in 
 America soon began to have an effect 
 on the other side of the Atlantic. In 
 1829 societies were formed in Scotland 
 and Ireland. In 1830 the first temper- 
 ance society in England was founded at 
 Bradford, and by the close of the year 
 there were in existence some thirty 
 associations, numbering about 10,000 
 members. Since then many advocates 
 of total abstinence have sought to en- 
 force their views by legislative meas- 
 ures, as long ago exemplified in the 
 celebrated Maine Liquor Law, for the 
 suppression of the manufacture and sale 
 of intoxicating beverages in the state of 
 Maine. See Prohibition Party. 
 
 TEMPERATURE may be expressed 
 as the state of a body with regard to 
 heat, or the state of a body considered 
 with reference to its power of communi- 
 cating heat to other bodies. It often 
 refers to the atmospheric heat of a 
 locality at a particular time. When we 
 speak of a body having a “high” or a 
 “low temperature” it is implied that the 
 condition of heat in the body may be 
 compared with some standard. The 
 means of such comparison is the ther- 
 mometer. See Thermometer. 
 
 TEMPERATURE OF ANIMALS. See 
 Animals. 
 
 TEMPERING, in metallurgy, the proc- 
 ess of giving to metals, principally iron 
 and steel, the requisite degree of hard- 
 ness or softness, especially the process 
 of giving to steel the necessary hard- 
 ness for cutting, stamping, and other 
 urposes. If heated and suddenly cooled 
 elow a certain degree it becomes as 
 soft as iron; if heated beyond that de- 
 gree, it becomes very hard and brittle. 
 The process essentially consists in 
 plunging the steel when red-hot into 
 cold water or other liquid to give an 
 excess of hardness, and then gradually 
 reheating it until the hardness is re- 
 duced or brought down to the required 
 degree. The excellence of all cutting 
 steel instruments depends on the degree 
 
 of temper given to them. Different de- 
 grees of temper are indicated by differ- 
 ent colors which the steel assumes. Thus 
 steel heated to 450°, and suddenly 
 cooled, assrmies a pale straw color, and 
 is employed for making razors and sur- 
 gical instruments. See Steel. 
 
 TEMPLARS, an order of knights 
 which had its origin in the Crusades. 
 Subsequently its object became the de- 
 fense of the Christian faith, and of the 
 holy sepulchre against the Saracens. 
 The knights took the vows of chastity, of 
 obedience, and of poverty, like regular 
 canons. The knights wore a white cloak 
 adorned with an eight-pointed red cross 
 (Maltese) on the left shoulder. The 
 grand-master, the chief of the order, 
 had the rank of a prince, and the order 
 acknowledged the pope alone as its pro- 
 tector. The Templars established them- 
 selves in England about 1185, taking up 
 tlieir head-quarters in Fleet street, 
 London, at the place still known as the 
 
 Templar. 
 
 Monument in Temple church, London. 
 
 Temple. Being compelled, in 1291, to 
 leave the Holy Land, they transferred 
 their chief seat to the island of Cyprus. 
 By this time the wealth and power of the 
 order had increased to such an extent, 
 and their arrogance and luxury in pro- 
 portion, that it was deemed necessary 
 to suppress it. The Templars were put 
 an end to on the charge that they had 
 ambitious designs on European thrones, 
 and that they held heretical views. 
 Philip IV. of France and Pope Clement 
 V. played into each other’s hands in the 
 work of suppression and spoliation. The 
 pope, at the Council of Vienne, in 
 Dauphiny, solemnly abolished the order 
 by a bull of March 2, 1312. See Free- 
 masonry. 
 
 TEMPLE, in architecture, an edifice 
 designed for the performance of pub- 
 lic worship. Magnificent temples were 
 erected in ancient Greece and Rome, 
 the Romans taking the Greek structures 
 for models. The Egyptian temples were 
 also remarkable structures. The most 
 remarkable temple in the world, how- 
 ever, was that built by Solomon on 
 Mount Moriah in Jerusalem. It was an 
 oblong stone building, 60 cubits in 
 length, 20 in width, and 30 in height. 
 On three sides were corridors, rising 
 above each other to the height of three 
 stories. The fourth or front side was 
 open, and was ornamented with a por- 
 tico, 10 cubits in width, supported by 
 
 two brazen pillars. The interior was 
 divided into the most holy place, which 
 contained the ark of the covenant, and 
 was separated by a curtain from the 
 sanctuary, in which were the golden 
 candlesticks, the table of the shew-bread 
 and the altar of incense. The temple 
 was surrounded by an inner court, which 
 contained the altar of burnt-offering. 
 Colonnades, with brazen gates, sepa- 
 rated this court of the priests from the 
 outer court, which was likewise sur- 
 rounded by a wall. This temple was de- 
 stroyed by the Assyrians, and after the 
 return from the Babylonish captivity a 
 second temple, but much ‘nferior in 
 splendor, was erected. Herod the Great 
 rebuilt it of a larger size, surrounding it 
 with four courts, rising above each other 
 like terraces, the lowest of which was 
 500 cubits square, and was surrounded 
 on three sides by a double, and on the 
 fourth by a triple row of columns. In 
 the middle of this inclosure stood the 
 temple, of white marble richly gilt, 100 
 cubits long and wide, and 60 cubits 
 high, with a porch 100 cubits wide. This 
 magnificent edifice was destroyed by the 
 Romans in a.d. 70. 
 
 TEMPLET, a pattern or mould used 
 by masons, machinists, smiths, ship- 
 wrights, etc. It usually consists of a 
 flat thin board, a piece of sheet-iron, or 
 the like, whose edge is dressed and 
 
 Templet for a 
 Baluster. 
 
 shaped to the required conformation, 
 and is laid against the object being 
 moulded, built, or turned so as to test 
 the conformity of the object thereto. 
 
 TEMPO (Italian for “time”), in music, 
 a word used to express the rate of move- 
 ment or degree of quickness with which 
 a piece of music is to be executed. The 
 degrees of time are indicated by certain 
 words such as lento (slow), adagio or 
 largo (leisurely), andante (walking pace), 
 allegro (gay or quick), presto (rapid), 
 prestissimo (very rapid), etc. 
 
 TENACITY, the measure of the resist- 
 ance of bodies to tearing or crushing. 
 Tenacity results from the attraction of 
 cohesion which exists between the par- 
 ticles of bodies, and the stronger this 
 attraction is in any body the greater is 
 the tenacity of the body. Tenacity is 
 consequently different in different ma- 
 terials, and in the same material it varies 
 with the state of the body in regard to 
 temperature and other circumstances. 
 The resistance offered to tearing is called 
 absolute tenacity, that offered to crush- 
 ing, retroactive tenacity. The tenacity 
 of wood is much greater in the direction 
 of the length of its fibers than in the 
 transverse direction. With regard to 
 metals the processes of forging and wire- 
 drawing increase their tenacity in the 
 longitudinal direction ; and mixed metals 
 
TENASSERIM 
 
 have, in general, greater tenacity than 
 those which are simple. 
 
 TENAS'SERIM, a maritime division 
 of Biu-mah, about 500 miles in length, 
 and from 40 to 80 in breadth, with an 
 area of 46,730 sq. miles. Pop. 978,073. 
 
 TENCH, a fish belonging to the carp 
 family. It inhabits most of the lakes of 
 the European continent, and in Britain 
 it is frecjuent in ornamental waters and 
 ponds. It attains a length of from 10 to 
 12 inches. The color is generally a 
 greenish-olive above, a light tint pre- 
 
 dominating below. It is very sluggish, 
 apparently inhabiting bottom-waters, 
 and feeding on refuse vegetable matter. 
 
 It is very tenacious of life, and may be 
 conveyed alive in damp weeds for long 
 distances. The flesh is somewhat coarse 
 and insipid. , 
 
 TENDON, the name given to the 
 “sinews” by means of which muscles 
 are inserted upon bones. They consist 
 of bundles of white fibrous inelastic and 
 very strong tissue disposed in bands, 
 and separated by areolar or connective 
 
 't’lSSllG 
 
 TENERIFFE', TENERIFFA, the 
 
 largest of the Canary islands, is of an 
 irregularly triangular form, and has an 
 area of about 780 sq. miles. It is of vol- 
 canic formation, composed principally of 
 enormous masses and cones of trachyte, 
 lava and basalt, which culminate in the 
 Peak of Teneriffe, 12,182 feet high. The 
 principal productions are corn, wheat, 
 potatoes, pulse, almonds, oranges, 
 guavas, apples, honey, wax, silk, cochi- 
 neal, and wine. Cochineal, tobacco, and 
 wine are the chief exports. Pop. 105,062. 
 
 TENRIERS (ten-ers'), David, the name 
 of two celebrated artists of the Flemish 
 school, father and son, both natives of 
 Antwerp, in which city the elder was 
 born in 1582. He may be considered the 
 founder of a style of painting which his 
 son afterward brought to perfection 
 His pictures are mostly small. He died 
 in 1649. — His son was born in 1610. He 
 specially excelled in outdoor scenes, 
 though many of his interiors are master- 
 pieces of color and composition. His 
 general subjects were fairs, markets, 
 merry-makings, guard-roorns, taverns, 
 etc. and his pictures, which number 
 over 700, are found in all the important 
 public and private galleries of Europe. 
 His etchings are also highly esteemed. 
 He died at Brussels in 1690. 
 
 TENNESSEE', one of the United 
 States of North America (admitted into 
 the Union in 1796), is bounded on the 
 north by Kentucky and Virginia, east 
 by North Carolina, south by Georgia, 
 Alabama, and Mississippi, and west by 
 Arkansas and Missouri; area, 42,050 sq 
 miles. Tennessee is popularly divided 
 into three sections. East Tennessee, an 
 
 extensive valley, and agriculturally one 
 of the most important sections of the 
 state, stretches from the eastern bound- 
 ary to the middle of the Cumberland 
 table-land, which has an average eleva- 
 tion of 2000 feet above the sea, and 
 abounds in coal, iron, and other min- 
 erals. Middle Tennessee extends from 
 the dividing line on the table-land to the 
 lower Tennessee river; and West Ten- 
 nessee, from the Tennessee river to the 
 Mississippi. The Unaka mountains, a 
 part of the Appalachian chain, run along 
 the eastern frontier, and have an aver- 
 age elevation of 5000 feet above the sea. 
 The Mississippi, with the Tennessee and 
 and Cumberland, drains three-fourths 
 of the state. The two latter are navi- 
 gable for a considerable distance, and 
 other rivers with numerous tributaries 
 supply valuable water power. The cli- 
 mate is very healthy, the mean tem- 
 perature of winter being 37.8°, and of 
 summer 74.4°. The largest and most 
 valuable crop is corn. Wheat and oats 
 are the only other important cereals. 
 Cotton is one of the leading crops. Hay 
 and forage, peas and sorghum cane are 
 noteworthy products, as are also Irish 
 and sweet potatoes. Peanuts are grown 
 in large quantities in the Tennessee 
 valley. The climate is favorable to fruit 
 culture, and there are oyer 14,000,000 
 fruit trees, more than half of which, 
 7,700,000 are apple trees. Watermelons 
 and various vegetables are extensively 
 raised. Tennessee stood first among 
 Southern states in 1900 in the value of 
 its lumber products. It is estimated that 
 the state contains 27,300 sq. miles of 
 wooded area. The rearing and fattening 
 of live stock are carried on under pecu- 
 
 Seal of Tennessee. 
 
 liar advantages, and immense numbers 
 of hogs grow up on the mast of the 
 forests, which cover a very large area. 
 The most valuable minerals found are 
 coal, iron (both worked to a consider- 
 able’ extent), copper, marble, limestone, 
 sandstone, granite, roofing slate, pot- 
 ters’ clay, and kaolin. Also among the 
 other minerals are gold (not found m 
 paying quantities), lead, zinc, baryta, 
 copperas, asbestos, etc. Petroleum, sul- 
 phur, chalybeate and salt springs are 
 plentiful. The leading manufactures are 
 iron and steel, cotton and woolen goods, 
 furniture, cars, leather, oils, wines, 
 spirits, etc. The state has the advantage 
 of water transportation afforded by the 
 Mississippi and Tennessee rivers. A 
 
 TENNESSEE 
 
 number of railroads cross the state, 
 most of them centering in Memphis. The 
 mileage increased from 1253 in 1860 to 
 1843 in 1880, 2767 in 1890, and 3712 miles: 
 in 1907. At the head of the educational 
 establishments stand the University of , 
 Tennessee, Nashville university, the' 
 Cumberland, Vanderbilt, and Fisk uni- 
 versities, the last for colored students., 
 
 De Soto reached the Mississippi at the 
 present site of Memphis about 1541. 
 
 La Salle, about 1682, built a fort at this 
 point, and called it Port Prud hoinme.; 
 The grant by Charles II. to the Lords 
 Proprietors of Carolina of the territory' 
 between latitudes 29° and 36° 30' in 
 1665 included this territory. The most 
 important effort of transmontane coloni- 
 zation by the British prior to 1760 was 
 the establishment of Fort Loudon on^the 
 Little Tennessee river in 1756 or 1757. 
 But in 1760 this post was captured by 
 the Cherokees and its garrison mas- 
 sacred; and the same fate befell a nmn-' 
 ber of colonists who had settled between 
 Fort Chissel (on New River, Virginia) 
 and Fort Loudon. Early in 1761 Colonel 
 Grant completely routed the Cherokees^; 
 and compelled their French and Spanish ' 
 allies to withdraw to Louisiana and 
 Georgia. 
 
 Eight years later the stream of emi- 
 gration began to set westward, mainly 
 by two routes, of which one led through 
 Cumberland Gap to the valley of the 
 Cumberland river, while the other 
 lowed the course of the Tennessee round * 
 the southern border of the Cumberland^ 
 plateau into the western Tenne^eel 
 valley. A body of emigrants from yir-lj 
 ginia settled on the banks of the river i 
 Holston, in what is now Hawkins 0000^' 
 and formed the nucleus of a rapidly m- 
 creasing colony, which was mainly 
 cruited from Virginia and North Caro- . 
 lina The act of government for the“Ter-. ; 
 ritory South of the Ohio” was passed in 
 April, 1790, and the seat of gover^ent:!, 
 was moved from Rogersville to Knox-^ . 
 ville. In the same year the first territo- 
 rial assembly met. In 1795 a constitu-,^ 
 tional convention was called, which met 
 in January, 1796. A constitution for the ; 
 “State of Tennessee” was adopted with-') 
 out submission to popular vote; the 
 first general assembly met March 28th, 
 and the state was admitted June 1, 1796. 
 The progress of the state was rapid, 
 almost entirely along agricultural lines 
 Turnpike roads were built in 1804, and 
 after 1823 roads and canals were pushed 
 forward. The first railroad was char- 
 tered in 1831, but the Memphis and 
 Charleston road was not built until 1857. 
 There was a strong Union party in the 
 state at the outbreak of the civil war, 
 and in February, 1861, the people re- 
 fused to hold a convention to consider 
 cecession, but with President Lincoln s 
 call for troops sentiment changed, and 
 through the influence of Governor Harris 
 the state declared itself by popular vote 
 out of the Union, June 8th. I he position 
 of Tennessee during the civil war 
 the same as that of the other mid^ 
 and southern states. While secess^t 
 was in agitation, it refused to secc^E 
 but when actual hostilities comnier— 
 it joined the southern confeder 
 Even then, however, west and mi . 
 Tennessee sympathized with the souf 
 
TENNESSEE 
 
 TERMITES 
 
 while eastern Tennessee sided with the 
 north. Each division sent very large 
 contingents to the army which it 
 favored. A large portion of the state 
 was, during the later years of the war, 
 in the occupation of the northern army, 
 and many great battles were fought on 
 its soil, notably those of Fort Donelson, 
 Murfreesborough (Stone river), Frank- 
 lin, and Nashville. Tennessee suffered 
 more from the exhaustion attendant on 
 the close of the war, and from the 
 rigorous government which accom- 
 panied the period of reconstruction, 
 than any other state except Virginia. 
 
 In the Presidential elections, with the 
 exception of 1 868when it voted for Grant 
 the state has been Democratic by large 
 majorities. From the state have come 
 many men of national reputation, in- 
 cluding three presidents, Jackson, Polk 
 and Johnson. The chief towns are 
 Nashville (the capital), Memphis, Chat- 
 tanooga, and Knoxville. Pop. 2,220,000. 
 
 TENNESSEE, a river of the United 
 States, formed by the union of two 
 streams in the eastern part of the state 
 of Tennessee, flows southwest, passes 
 through the northern part of Alabama, 
 then flows north through the western 
 part of Tennessee and Kentucky, and 
 enters the Ohio, of which it is the largest 
 tributary, about 10 miles below the con- 
 fluence of the Cumberland. Length, 
 about 1200 miles. It is navigable 259 
 miles for steamers to Florence, at the 
 foot of the Mussel-shoal rapids, which 
 are passed by a canal 36 miles long; and 
 above these there is navigation for boats 
 for 250 miles. 
 
 TENNESSEE, The. A formidable con- 
 federate ram crippled by the Hartford 
 of Admiral Faragut’s fleet, and taken 
 in Mobile harbor on August 5, 1864. 
 
 TENNESSEE, UNIVERSITY OF. A 
 coeducational state institution at Knox- 
 ville, Tenn., founded in 1794. The in- 
 stitution comprises the college of Agri- 
 culture and Mechanic Arts and the 
 university proper. The college has an 
 agricultural department, an engineering 
 department, a literary department, and 
 an industrial department for colored 
 students (Knoxville college). The uni- 
 versity consists of an acedemic depart- 
 ment with courses for the graduate de- 
 grees of M.A. and M.S. and professional 
 courses in engineering, law, medicine, 
 and dentistry, the medical and dental 
 departments being situated 'n Nashville. 
 The university has a liberal system of 
 accredited scholars whose certificates 
 are accepted in place of the entrance 
 examinations. 
 
 TENNESSEE CENTENNIAL EXPO- 
 SITION, an exposition held in Nashville, 
 Tenn., May 1 to October 30, 1897, to 
 celebrate the one hundredth anniver- 
 sary of the admission of the state into 
 the Union. The site covered about 20 
 acres. 
 
 TENNIS, a game in which a ball is 
 driven continually against a wall in a 
 specially constructed court, and caused 
 to rebound beyond a line at a certain 
 distance by several persons striking it 
 alternately with a racket, the object 
 being to keep the ball in motion as long 
 as possible without allowing it to fall to 
 the ground. The game was introduced 
 into England in the 13th century, and 
 
 continued to be very popular with the 
 nobility to the reign of Charles II. The 
 modern game of rackets is a descendant 
 of tennis. Lawn Tennis is a recent modi- 
 fication of the game. See Lawn Tennis. 
 
 TENNYSON, Alfred, Lord, was born 
 on 6th August, 1809. As early as 1827 
 he had published, in conjunction with 
 his brother Charles, Poems by Two 
 Brothers, but his literary career may 
 be said to date from 1830, when he pub- 
 lished a volume entitled Poems, chiefly 
 Lyrical. Its success was sufficient to en- 
 courage the poet to prepare a second 
 collection, which appeared in 1833, and 
 contained such poems as A Dream of 
 Fair Women, The Palace of Art, 
 CEnone, The Lady of Shalott, and others. 
 
 Lord Alfred Tennyson. 
 
 It was not till 1842 that he again ap- 
 pealed to the public with a selection of 
 his poems in two volumes, and it is from 
 this time that we find his work beginning 
 to receive wide recognition. The collec- 
 tion then issuedincludedMorte d’ Arthur, 
 Locksley Hall, The May Queen, and The 
 Two Voices, all of which, it was almost 
 at once acknowledged, entitled him to 
 rank very high. His reputation was 
 more than sustained by the works that 
 immediately followed. These were : 
 The Princess, a Medley; In Memoriam, 
 written in memory of his friend Arthur, 
 Hallam; and the Ode on the Death of 
 the Duke of Wellington. The latter was 
 his first great poem after receiving the 
 laureateship upon the death of Words- 
 worth. From that time hardly a year 
 passed without his adding some gem to 
 our language. In 1855 Oxford univer- 
 sity conferred on him the degree of 
 D.C.L., and in 1869 the fellows of 
 Trinity college, Cambridge, elected him 
 an honorary fellow. From 1875 onward 
 he gave various dramas to the public; 
 Queen Mary, Harold, The Cup, The 
 Falcon, The Promise of May, Beckett, 
 and the Foresters. Several of these were 
 put upon the stage. Tennyson was 
 raised to the peerage as Baron Tennyson 
 in 1884. He died 6th Oct., 1892. Few 
 writers have developed so rare a mas- 
 tery of English as a poetic instrument, 
 and his works are assured of a high rank 
 in the ultimate judgment of the litera- 
 ture of the 19th century. 
 
 TENOR, in music, is the more delicate 
 of the two adult male voices, and its 
 compass generally extends from C in 
 the bass to G or A in the treble. The 
 qualities of the tenor render it suitable 
 
 to the expression of tender and delicate 
 sentiments. In a vocal composition of 
 four parts the tenor forms the second 
 middle part, deeper than the alto, but 
 higher than the bass; but in the song of 
 four male voices the tenor, as the first 
 voice, leads the chief melody, and as the 
 second is the higher middle voice. The 
 clef of this voice is the C clef, placed 
 upon the fourth line of the staff. 
 
 TENT, a portable dwelling-house, 
 formed usually in the simplest manner, 
 of canvas, for instance, stretched with, 
 cords upon poles. The tent of private 
 soldiers in the British service are of a 
 conical form with circular basis, sup- 
 ported by a vertical pole in the center 10 
 feet high. The outside diameter of the 
 tent, which accommodates fifteen in- 
 fantry or twelve cavalry soldiers, is 17 
 feet 3 inches. The officers’ marquees as 
 well as the hospital and laboratory tents, 
 are oblong, and are supported by two 
 standards connected by a ridge pole 6 
 or 7 feet long. The soldiers’ tent in the 
 United States army are of the ridged 
 variety. 
 
 TENTACLE, in zoology, an elongated 
 appendage proceeding from the head or 
 cephalic extremity of many of the lower 
 animals, and used as an instrument of 
 exploration and prehension. Thus the 
 arms of the sea-anemone, the prehensile 
 processes of the cirripeds and annelids, 
 the cephalic feet of the cephalopods, the 
 barbs of fishes, are termed tentacles. 
 
 TENUIROS'TRES, one of the four 
 sections into which the order Insessores 
 of birds is divided. This group, repre- 
 sented by the humming-birds, creepers. 
 
 Heads of tenulrostres. 
 
 a, Sun-bird, b. Humming-bird, c, European 
 nuthatch. 
 
 sun-birds, hoopoes, etc., is characterized 
 by the generally elongated bill, which 
 usually tapers to a point. 
 
 TERCEIRA (ter-sa'i-ra), an island of 
 the Atlantic, one of the Azores; greatest 
 length, 20 miles; average breadth, 13 
 miles; area, 223 sq. miles. The soil 
 possesses great natural fertility, and 
 heavy crops of grain, pulse, etc., and 
 abundance of oranges, lemons, and 
 other fruits are produced. The capital 
 is Angra. Pop. 46,528. 
 
 TER'EBINTH, the common name for 
 various resinous exudations, both of a 
 fluid and solid nature, such as turpen- 
 tine, frankincense and Burgundy pitch, 
 Canada balsam, etc. The volatile oil 
 of various of these resins is called oil of 
 terebinth, or oil of turpentine. Tere- 
 binth is also a name for the turpentine- 
 
 TERE'SA, St. See Theresa. 
 
 TERMITES (ter'mits), a family of in- 
 sects, also known by the name of white 
 ants. They have little affinity with the 
 true ants, although they resemble them 
 
TERN 
 
 TERTULLIAN 
 
 in their mode of life. They are chiefly 
 confined to the tropics, and are found 
 very plentifully in Western Africa. 
 They unite in societies, building their 
 dwellings in the form of pyramids or 
 cones, 10 or 12 feet high. These dwell- 
 ings, which are so firmly cemented as 
 to be capable of bearing the weight of 
 three or four men, are divided off into 
 several apartments as magazines, cham- 
 bers, galleries, etc. Every colony of 
 termites consists of a king and queen 
 both of which are much larger than the 
 other members of the colony, and of 
 workers and soldiers without wings. 
 The king and queen are the parents of 
 the colony, and are constantly kept to- 
 gether, attended by a detachment of 
 workers, in a large chamber in the heart 
 of the hive, surrounded by stronger 
 walls than the other cells. The queen is 
 always gravid, the abdomen being 
 enormously distended with eggs, which, 
 as they are dropped, relays of workers 
 receive and convey in their mouths to 
 the minor cells throughout the hive. 
 At the beginning of the rainy season a 
 
 number of winged insects, both male 
 and female, are produced. These, when 
 mature, leave the hive and fly abroad, 
 afterward shedding their wings, and 
 becoming the kings and queens of future 
 colonies. The soldiers and workers, both 
 neuter, or of no fully developed sex, 
 and differing merely in the armature of 
 the head, are distinct animals from the 
 moment they leave the egg, the young 
 differing from the adult of the same class 
 only in size. The duties of the workers 
 are to build the habitations, make 
 covered roads, nurse the young, attend 
 on the king and queen, and secure the 
 exit of the mature winged insects, while 
 to the soldiers, whose mandibles are 
 powerfully developed for that purpose, 
 18 committed the defense of the com- 
 munity which duty they perform sys- 
 tematically and with desperate courage. 
 There are many species of termites, all 
 of which are fearfully destructive to 
 wood. 
 
 TERN, or SEA-SWALLOW, a genus 
 of birds, included in the gull family. 
 The terns are distinguished by the long, 
 slender, and straight bill, long and 
 pointed wings, and forked tail. The legs 
 are relatively shorter than in the gulls. 
 It is a very active bird, seeming to have 
 a ceaseless flight, and feeding upon small 
 fishes. Its average length is 15 inches. 
 The color is black on the head and neck, 
 and ashy gray on the upper parts gen- 
 erally. The under parts are white, the 
 legs, feet, and bill being red. 
 
 TERNSTR(EMIA'CE.-E, a natural 
 order of plants, consisting of trees or 
 shrubs; with alternate simple usually 
 coriaceous leaves without stipules. The 
 flowers are generally white, arranged in 
 axillary or terminal peduncles, articu- 
 lated at the base. This order is one of 
 great economical importance, as it in- 
 cludes the genus Thea, from which the 
 teas of commerce are obtained. The 
 favorite garden camellia also belongs 
 to it. The plants belonging to the order 
 are principally inhabitants of Asia and 
 America 
 
 TERRA COTTA (Italiaff, “baked 
 earth”), baked clay or burned earth, a 
 similar material to that from which 
 pottery is made, much used both in an- 
 cient and modern times for architectural 
 decorations, statues, figures, vases, 
 and the like. As now made it usually 
 consists of potters’ clay and fine pow- 
 dered silica. It is produced of many 
 different colors, the most pleasing being 
 a rich red and a warm cream color. 
 Large numbers of ancient statues, and 
 especially statuettes, of terra cotta have 
 been found in recent times, the most 
 charming being the production of the 
 city of Tanagra in Northern Greece 
 (Bceotia). 
 
 TERRA DEL FUEGO, See Tierra del 
 Fuego. 
 
 TERRA DI SIENNA, a brown fer- 
 ruginous ochre employed in painting, 
 and obtained from Italy. It is calcined 
 before being used as a pigment, and is 
 thus known as burned sienna. 
 
 TER'RAPIN, the popular name of 
 several species of fresh water or tide 
 water tortoises distinguished by a horny 
 beak, a shield covered with epidermic 
 plates, and feet partly webbed. They 
 are active in their habits, swimming 
 well and moving with greater agility on 
 land than the land-tortoises. They are 
 natives of tropical and warmer temper- 
 ate countries, many being natives of 
 North America. They feed on vegetables, 
 fish, reptiles, and other aquatic animals. 
 Their flesh is much esteemed. One 
 species, called the salt-water terrapin, 
 is abundant in the salt-water marshes 
 around Charlestown. The chicken tor- 
 toise, so named from its flavor, is also 
 an esteemed .American species. 
 
 TERRE-HAUTE (tar-6t; usually pro- 
 nounced ter-e-hot'), a town and im- 
 portant railway center in Vigo co., In- 
 diana, on the Wabash, and Wabash and 
 Erie canal. It is well built, and has 
 numerous churches and schools (the 
 state normal school. Rose Polytechnic 
 institute, etc.), fine courts of justice, 
 and an opera-house; extensive manu- 
 
 factures, and a considerable trade. There 
 are rich beds of coal and iron in the 
 vicinity. Pop. 43,175. 
 
 TERRY, Alfred Howe, American 
 soldier, was born at Hartford, Conn., in 
 1827. In 1862 he was made a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers. He was in a num- 
 ber of engagements but he is chiefly 
 remembered in connection with the 
 capture of Fort Fisher, which he ac- 
 complished in conjunction with Ad- 
 miral Porter. For his services he was 
 commissioned major-general of vol- 
 unteers, and brigadier-general and brevet 
 major-general in the regular army. In 
 1876 he commanded the main column 
 which drove Sitting Bull and his fol- 
 lowers into Canada after the massacre 
 on the Little Big Horn. He died in 1890. 
 
 TERRY, Ellen Alicia, English actress, 
 war born at Coventry, in 1848. She 
 first appeared as the boy Manilius in the 
 Winters Tale in 1856. In 1863 she ap- 
 peared at the Haymarket theater in 
 London, England. In 1878 she began 
 her long association with Henry Irving, 
 playing Ophelia to his Hamlet. Her 
 principal roles are, Portia in the Mer- 
 chant of Venice, Ruth Meadows in 
 Eugene Aram, Juliet, Viola, in Twelfth 
 Night, Marguerite in Faust, Madame 
 Sans Gene, and Clerise in Robespierre. 
 Her first visit to America with Irving 
 was made in 1883, when she made a 
 great success, repeated many times since. 
 
 TERRITORY, a term applied in the 
 United States to an area similar to a 
 state of the Union, but not having the 
 independent position of a state, being 
 directly under congress and having a 
 governor and other chief officials ap- 
 pointed by the president, with a legisla- 
 ture of certain limited powers. Terri- 
 tories are usually admitted as states on 
 attaining a sufficient population. In 
 1907 the territories were Arizona, New 
 Mexico, District of Columbia and Alaska 
 on the continent and Hawaii in the Pa- 
 cific. The new possessions are Porto 
 Rico in the West Indies and the Samoan 
 islands, Guam and the Philippine islands 
 in the Pacific. A government for Porto 
 Rico was established by the Fifty-sixth 
 Congress. The Philippines are under a 
 provisional civil government, Guam and 
 Tutuila under governors, and the Isth- 
 mian canal zone under a commission, 
 all y)pointed by the president. 
 
 TERROR, Reign of, the term usually 
 applied to the period of the French 
 revolutionary government from the 
 appointment of the revolutionary tribu- 
 nal and the committee of public safety 
 (6th April, 1793) to the fall of Robes- 
 pierre (27th July, 1794). See France 
 (History). 
 
 TERTIAN FEVER. See Ague. 
 
 TERTIARY FORMATION. See Geol- 
 ogy- 
 
 TERTULLIAN, in full Quintus Sep- 
 timius Florens Tertullianus, the earliest 
 Latin father of the church whose works 
 are extant. His most celebrated work is 
 the Apologia, a formal defense of Chris- 
 tianity addressed to the Roman magis- 
 trates. The works of Tertullian display 
 great learning, much imagination, and 
 a keen wit, but their style is bad They 
 are chiefly valuable for the iighl 'i'ov 
 throw on the doctrine and discipline of" 
 the church in the age in which he lued. 
 
TERUEL 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 TERUEL', a town of Spain, in the 
 province of the same name, on a hill 
 near the Guadalaviar, 72 miles n.w. of 
 Valencia, with which it carries on an 
 active trade. It is inclosed by walls, has 
 a Gothic cathedral, a bishop’s palace, 
 and a seminary. Pop. 8869. — The prov- 
 ince has an area of 5491 sq. miles, and a 
 pop. of 241,865. 
 
 TESLA, Nikola, electrician and in- 
 ventor, was born in 1858, in Herze- 
 govina. He studied engineering in Paris, 
 and was engineer of the Edison station 
 located there. For a time he was em- 
 ployed at Edison’s laboratory, near 
 Orange, N. J., but left to open a labora- 
 tory of his own. He has shown that 
 electric lamps and motors can be 
 operated on one wire without a circuit, 
 and invented the rotary field motor, the 
 multiphase system of which is used in the 
 50,000-horse-power plant built to trans- 
 mit the water power of Niagara Falls 
 to Buffalo and other places. He is con- 
 eidered one of the greatest living 
 geniuses in the field of electric research. 
 
 TESTAMENT. See Will. 
 
 TESTAMENT, Old and New. See 
 Bible. 
 
 TESTING, the process of examining 
 various substances by means of chemical 
 reagents, with the view of discovering 
 their composition. The term testing is 
 xisually confined to such examinations as 
 seek to determine what chemical ele- 
 ments or groups of elements are con- 
 
 Roman testudo, from Trajan’s pillar. 
 
 tained in any substance, without en- 
 quiring as to the quantity of these 
 elements. Testing is carried out either 
 by the application of chemical reactions 
 to solid substances, or by the applica- 
 tion of reagents in solution to a solution 
 of the substance under examination. 
 
 TESTUDO, among the ancient Ro- 
 mans a cover or screen which a body of 
 troops formed with their oblong shield 
 or targets, by holding them over their 
 heads when standing close to each other. 
 This cover somewhat resembled the 
 back of a tortoise, and served to shelter 
 the men from missiles thrown from 
 above. The name was also given to a 
 structure movable on wheels or rollers 
 for protecting sappers. 
 
 TET'ANUS, a spasmodic rigidity of 
 the whole body, such as frequently re- 
 sults from wounds, especially in warm 
 climates. If the lower jaw is drawn to 
 
 the upper with such force that they can- 
 not be separated the disorder is called 
 lock-jaw. Tetanus frequently termin- 
 nates fatally. 
 
 TE'TRARCH, a title which originally 
 signified the governor of the fourth part 
 of a country. By the Romans the title 
 was used to designate a tributary ruler 
 inferior in dignity to a king. 
 
 TEUTONIC PEOPLES, a term now ap- 
 plied (1) to the High Germans, including 
 the German inhabitants of Upper and 
 Middle Germany and those of Switzer- 
 land and Austria. (2) The Low Germans, 
 including the Frisians, the Plattdeutsch, 
 the Dutch, the Flemings, and the Eng- 
 lish descended from the Saxons, Angles 
 etc., who settled in Britain. (3) The 
 Scandinavians, including the Norweg- 
 ians, Swedes, Danes, and Icelanders. See 
 Philology, Indo-European Languages. 
 
 TEWFIK PASHA, Mahommed, Khe- 
 dive of Egypt, eldest son of Khedive 
 Ismail, was born in 1852, and succeeded 
 to the vice-royalty by decree of the 
 sultan, August 8, 1879, upon the forced 
 abdication of his father. He was the 
 sixth ruler of Egypt in the dynasty of 
 Mohammed Ali Pasha. He died in 1892. 
 
 TEXAS, one of the United States, 
 bounded by Mexico, New Mexico, Okla- 
 homa, Arkansas, Louisiana, and the Gulf 
 of Mexico ; length, east to west, 825 miles ; 
 breadth, 740 miles ; coast-line, 400 miles ; 
 it is the largest state in the Union, having 
 an area of 265,780 miles. Its area is larger 
 than the combined area of the Atlantic 
 states from Maine to Virginia, inclusive, 
 and nearly one-third greater than that 
 of the whole German empire. The sur- 
 face in the northwest is covered with 
 mountains, which, in proceeding south- 
 west, subside into hills and undulating 
 plateaus, succeeded, on approaching 
 theGulf of Mexico, by low alluvial plains. 
 These extend inland from 20 to 80 miles, 
 are furrowed with deep ravines, and 
 consist for the most part of rich prakie 
 or forest land. The hilly region behind 
 this is formed chiefly of sandstone and 
 limestone ridges, separated by valleys 
 of considerable fertility. In the moun- 
 tainous region many of the summits 
 are lofty, and covered with snow most 
 of the year. The general slope of the 
 country gives all the rivers a more or less 
 southerly direction. The Rio-Grande, 
 rising in New Mexico, forms the west and 
 southwest boundary of the state. The 
 Red river, which has its source in Mexico 
 forms the greater part of the northern 
 boundary. The other important rivers 
 are the Colorado, the Brazos, the San 
 Jacinto and Trinity, and the Sabine, 
 which, during the greater part of its 
 course, is the boundary between Texas 
 and Louisiana. A long chain of lagoons 
 stretches along the Gulf of Mexico. 
 Texas has a warm climate, but the great 
 range in latitude produces a considerable 
 range in climatic conditions. Although 
 warm, the climate is drier and less en- 
 ervating than that of the other Gulf 
 states. The alluvial bottom lands around 
 the lower river courses are the most fer- 
 tile portions of the state. The soil of the 
 coastal plain is generally sandy. In the 
 northwest there are heavy deposits of 
 red clay containing much potash, but 
 little nitrogenous matter. The soil on 
 the southern plateau is thin, but the 
 
 Llano Estc* ado is covered with a red 
 sandy loam. The principal forest area 
 is in the extreme eastern portion. The 
 pine is the prevailing tree in the coastal 
 plain, long-leaf pine in the lower and 
 short-leaf pine in the higher pine bar- 
 rens. The deciduous species predom- 
 inate toward the middle of the state, 
 including oaks, elm, maple, hickory, 
 sycamore, mulberry, sweet gum, ash, 
 and walnut. The Osage orange and the 
 palmetto are plentiful in the eastern 
 part, giving a tropical aspect to the 
 vegetation. In the river-bottoms the 
 characteristic species are 'cottonwood, 
 pecan, live oak, and cypress. Along 
 the western border of the Black 
 prairie two parallel belts of hardwood 
 forest, chiefly oak, and known as the 
 Cross Timbers, extend southward as far 
 as the Brazos river. Mining bids fair to 
 acquire large proportions. The value 
 of coal increased from $412,300 in 1891 
 to over $2,000,000 in 1907. The produc- 
 tion of petroleum practically began in 
 1897. The yield has increased very 
 rapidly. Gypsum is mined in the north- 
 western part. Cinnabar and salt are 
 mined and some granite, sandstone, and 
 
 Seal of Texas. 
 
 limestone are quarried. There are a 
 number of valuable mineral springs. 
 The two staple products are cotton and 
 corn, both of which are largely culti- 
 vated in the lower or coast region, where 
 the sugar-cane and tobacco also grow 
 luxuriantly. Wheat, rye, oats, and bar- 
 ley thrive best in the hilly regions ; and 
 both there and at lower levels fruits in 
 almost endless variety are abundant. 
 The pastures are often covered with the 
 richest natural grasses, and the rearing 
 of cattle is carried on to the greatest 
 advantage. Manufacture is still in its 
 infancy; but the coasting trade is of 
 some importance, and the railway sys- 
 tem very extensive. The Baptists are 
 numerically the strongest church, fol- 
 lowed closely by the Methodist, "rhese 
 two bodies together contain consider- 
 ably over two-thirds of the church 
 membership. The Disciples of Christ 
 (Christian), Presbyterians, and Epis- 
 copalians are the only other Protestant 
 sects numerically important. At the 
 head of the educational establishments 
 stand the State university, located at 
 Austin, with a medical branch at Gal- 
 veston, and the Agricultural and Me- 
 chanical college at Bryan. There are a 
 large number of denominational institu- 
 
TEXAS, UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 THALLIUM 
 
 tions. There are also a number of col- 
 leges for colored students. The first 
 settlement in Texas was made at Mata- 
 gorda by the French, who in 1690 were 
 expelled by the Spaniards. It after- 
 ward became one of the states of the 
 Mexican confederation. Several colonies 
 of American citizens, invited by the 
 Mexicans, settled in the eastern section, 
 and gradually increased in numbers. 
 Texas then revolted from the Mexican 
 government, and in 1836 declared itself 
 independent. Santa Anna attempted 
 to reduce it, but failed, being himself 
 beaten and taken prisoner at the battle 
 of San Jacinto by General Houston. 
 Texas now managed its own affairs as 
 an independent republic till in 1845 it 
 became one of the United States, and 
 thus gave rise to a war which proved 
 disastrous to Mexico. Texas seceded 
 from the Union (February 1, 1861). 
 Sam Houston was governor and threw 
 all his weight in opposition to secession, 
 but there was no staying the resolve 
 of the people. The state was fortunate 
 in that it was not the scene of much 
 active fighting. The Reconstruction 
 Acts of 1867 placed the state under tlie 
 military authority, with General Sheri- 
 dan in command. The carpetbaggers 
 followed and the new reconstruction 
 occupied the next three years. Texas 
 was readmitted to the Union March 30, 
 1870. In national elections the state 
 has been democratic by overwhelming 
 majorities. Austin is the capital, and 
 other chief towns are Galveston, San 
 Antonio, Houston, Dallas, Waco, etc. 
 Pop. 4. OnO, ('()(), iticludiiig about half a 
 million colored and some Indians. 
 
 TEXAS, UNIVERSITY OF, a coedu- 
 cational institution at Austin, Texas, 
 founded upon a grant of 1,000,000 acres 
 of land by the legislature in 1876. It 
 embraces the department of literature, 
 sciences, medicine and arts, offering the 
 degrees of B.A., B. Lit., B.S., M.A., and 
 M.S.; the department of engineering, 
 conferring the degrees of civil engi- 
 neer and engineer of mines; and the 
 department of law, conferring the de- 
 grees of LL.B. and LL.M. New depart- 
 ments in electricity and mechanical 
 engineering were established in 1903, 
 when it was decided to give no degree 
 for undergraudate work after 1906 ex- 
 cept that of B.A. 
 
 TEX'ARKAN'A, the name of two ad- 
 joining cites situated on each side of 
 the boundary between Arkansas and 
 Texas, 145 miles southwest of Little 
 Rock; on the Texas and Pacific, the 
 St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern, 
 the St. Louis Southwestern, the Kansas 
 City, Pittsburg and Gulf, and other 
 railroads. Pop. Texarkana in Texas, 
 6250; Texarkana in Arkansas, 5910. 
 
 TEZCU'CO, a town of Mexico, in the 
 department of Mexico, on the eastern 
 shore of the Lake of Tezcuco. In an- 
 cient times it was the second city in the 
 kingdom. Here are the remains of three 
 pyramids, each measuring 400 feet 
 along the base of their fronts. Pop. 
 15,626. 
 
 THACKERAY, William Makepeace, 
 Endish novelist and humorist, was born 
 at Calcutta in 1811, died Dec. 24, 1863. 
 Under the names of George Fitz-Boodle, 
 Esq., or of Michael Angelo Titmarsh, he 
 
 contributed to Frazer’s Magazine tales, 
 criticisms, verses, etc., which were 
 marked by great knowledge of the world, 
 keen irony, or playful humor. It was in 
 this magazine that The Great Hoggarty 
 Diamond, Yellowplush Papers, and 
 Barry Lyndon appeared. In 1840 he 
 published separately the Paris Sketch- 
 book, in 1841 the Second Funeral of 
 Napoleon and the Chronicle of the Drum 
 and in 1843 the Irish Sketchbook. None 
 of these writings, however, attained to 
 any great popularity. In 1841 Punch 
 was started, and his contributions to 
 that periodical, among others Jeames’s 
 Diary and the Snob Papers, were very 
 successful. In 1846-48 his novel of 
 Vanity Fair was published in monthly 
 parts, with illustrations by himself ; and 
 long before its completion its author 
 was unanimously placed in the first 
 rank of British novelists. His next novel 
 was the History of Pendennis, com- 
 pleted in 1850. In 1851 he delivered a 
 course of lectures in London on the 
 English Humorists of the 18th century, 
 which were repeated in Scotland and 
 America, and published in 1853. An- 
 other novel. The History of Henry Es- 
 mond appeared in 1852, and was follow- 
 lowed by the Newcomes (1855), The 
 Virginians (1859), a sort of sequel to 
 Esmond; Lovel the Widower, The Ad- 
 ventures of Philip, i,nd Denis Duval, 
 which was left unfinished at his death. 
 In 1855-56 he delivered a series of lec- 
 tures in the United States — The Four 
 Georges, and afterward in England and 
 Scotland. In 1859 he became editor of 
 the Cornhill Magazine, in which his later 
 novels and the remarkable Roundabout 
 Papers appeared, but he retired from 
 
 William Makepeace Thackeray. 
 
 that post in 1862. He wrote a good deal 
 of verse, half-humorous, half-pathetic, 
 and often wholly extravagant, but all 
 characterized by grace and spontaneity. 
 He undoubtedly ranks as the classical 
 English humorist and satirist of the 
 Victorian reign, and one of the greatest 
 novelists, essayists, and critics in the 
 literature. 
 
 THALBERG (tal-berh), Sigismund, a 
 celebrated pianist, was born in Geneva 
 in 1812, He died April 28, 1871. He 
 left a number of compositions, includ- 
 ing sonatas, studies, a concerto, sev- 
 eral nocturnes, and other small pieces. 
 
 THALER (ta'ler), a silver coin for- 
 merly in use in Germany, of the value 
 of about 75c. 
 
 THALES (tha'lez), a native of Miletus 
 in Ionia, or according to some, of 
 Phoenicia, the earliest philosopher of 
 
 Greece, and the founder of the Ionian 
 school, was born about 640 b.c. His II 
 reputation for learning and wisdom be- 
 came so great that he was reckoned 'I 
 among the seven wise men, and his say- I 
 ings were held in the highest esteem by • 
 the ancients. He died about b.c. 548. '■ 
 
 His philosophical doctrines were taught 
 orally, and preserved only by oral tra- ^ 
 dition, until some of the later Greek I 
 philosophers, particularly Aristotle, com- 
 mitted them to writing. He considered 
 water, or rather fluidity, the elemental 
 principle of all things. His philosophical 
 doctrines, are, however, but imperfectly V 
 understood. 
 
 THALI'A, one of the nine Muses. She 
 was the patron of comedy, and is usually 
 represented with the comic mask and 
 
 Thalia.— Prom an antique In the British 
 museum. 
 
 the shepherd’s crook in her hand. One 
 of the Graces was also called Thalia. 
 
 THALLIUM, a metal discovered by 
 Crookes in 1861, in a deposit from a sul- 
 phuric acid manufactory in the Hartz. 
 
 In its physical properties thallium re- 
 sembles lead, but is slightly heavier, 
 somewhat softer, and may be scratched 
 by the finger-nail. It fuses under a red 
 heat, and is soluble in the ordinary 
 mineral acids. In color it resembles 
 silver, but is less brilliantly white. Its 
 specific gravity varies from 11.8 to 11.9 
 according to the mechanical treatment 
 to which it has been subjected. The 
 tenacity of the metal is less than that of 
 lead; is it possessed of very considerable 
 malleability. Thallium and its salts 
 imparts an intense green color to a non- 
 luminous flame; when a flame so col- 
 ored is examined by the spectroscope 
 one very brilliant green band is noticed, 
 somewhat more refrangible than the ■ 
 sodium line D. (See Spectrum.) The 
 salts of thallium are exceedingly poison- ,, 
 OU8. Small quantities of thallivim ap- V 
 pear to be widely distributed in nature, 
 the metal frequently occurring in iron 
 and copper pyrites, in native sulphur, 
 
 
THALLUS 
 
 THEMISTOCLES 
 
 THALLUS, in botany, a solid mass of 
 cells, or cellular tissue without woody 
 fiber, consisting of one or more layers, 
 usually in the form of a flat stratum or 
 
 Lichen— Thallus. 
 
 expansion, or in the form of a lobe, leaf, 
 or frond, and forming the substance of 
 the thallogens. 
 
 THAMES (temz), the most important 
 river of Great Britain. At London bridge 
 the width of the river is 266 yards, at 
 Woolwich 490 yards, at Gravesend 800 
 yards, and 3 miles below, 1290 yards. 
 The basin of the Thames has an area of 
 5400 sq. miles, and belongs entirely to 
 the upper part of the Secondary and to 
 the Tertiary formations. The depth of 
 the river in the fair way above Green- 
 wich to London bridge is 12 to 13 feet, 
 while its tides have a mean range of 17 
 feet and an extreme rise of 22 feet. By 
 means of numerous canals immediate 
 access is given from its basin to those of 
 all the great rivers of England. 
 
 THANA, TANNA, chief town of a dis- 
 trict of the same name, Bombay pres’- 
 idency, 21 miles n.e. of Bombay city. It 
 is a favorite residence with the Bombay 
 officials. Pop. 14,456. — The district has 
 an area of 4243 sq. miles. Pop. 908,548, 
 of which 12 per cent are urban. 
 
 THANKSGIVING DAY, a day spe- 
 cially set apart for the giving of thinks. 
 Since 1864 the president has appointed 
 a day of Thanksgiving (usually the last 
 Thursday of November), and his proc- 
 lamation has generally been followed by 
 similar proclamations from the govern- 
 ors of several states. 
 
 THAR AND PARKAR, British dis- 
 trict in the east of Sind, Bombay pres- 
 idency. Area, 12,729 sq. miles; pop. 
 203,344. Scarcely a half of the area is 
 under cultivation. 
 
 THEA, the tea genus of plants. See 
 ^r©3. 
 
 THEATER, an edifice appropriated 
 to the representation of dramatic spec- 
 tacles. Among the Greeks and Romans 
 theaters were the chief public edifices 
 next to the temples, and in point of 
 magnitude they surpassed the most 
 spacious of the temples, having in some 
 instances accommodation for as many 
 as from 10,000 to 40,000 spectators. 
 The Greek and Roman theaters very 
 closely resembled each other in their 
 general form and principal parts. The 
 building was of a semicircular form, 
 resembling the half of an ampitheater, 
 and was not covered by a roof. In 
 Greece the semi-circular area was often 
 scooped out in the side of a hill, but 
 Roman theaters were built on the level. 
 The seats of the spectators were all con- 
 centric, being arranged in tiers up the 
 semi-circular slope. The stage or place 
 for the players was in front of the seats, 
 being a narrow platform along the 
 straight side of the theater. Behind this 
 rose a high wall resembling the fa5ade of 
 a building, this being intended to repre- 
 
 P. E.— 78 
 
 sent any building in front of which the 
 action was supposed to take place. This 
 was called in Greek skene (L. scena), the 
 stage being called proskenion (L. pros- 
 cenium). The semicircular space be- 
 tween the stage and the lowest seats of 
 the spectators was called orchestra, and 
 was appropriated by the Greeks to the 
 chorus and musicians, and by the Ro- 
 mans to the senators. Scenery, in the 
 modern sense of the word, was not em- 
 ployed except in a very rude form, but 
 the stage machinery seems in many 
 cases to have been elaborate ; and in par- 
 ticular there was a well-known machine 
 or contrivance of some sort from which 
 deities made their entrance as if from 
 the sky. A good example of an ancient 
 theater is that of Segesta in Sicily. 
 
 Theater of Segesta, Sicily— restored. 
 
 Modern theaters are all very much alike 
 in their internal construction. The house 
 is divided into two distinct portions, the 
 auditorium and the stage, the former 
 for the spectators, the latter for the 
 actors and scenery, which is often of the 
 most elaborate and realistic kind. The 
 floor of the auditorium is always sloped 
 down from the back of the house to the 
 stage; several tiers of galleries or bal- 
 conies run in a semicircular or horse- 
 shoe form round the house. On the 
 ground floor the front rows of seats are 
 generally reserved as dress or orchestral 
 stalls, and the back part is called the pit. 
 The seats in the galleries rise terrace- 
 wise from the front, so as to allow the 
 persons in the back rows to see on to the 
 stage over the heads of those before 
 them. Immediately in front of the stage 
 is a space occupied by the orchestra. 
 Part of the stage flooring is movable, 
 either as traps through which actors or 
 furniture ascend or descend, or in long 
 narrow pieces which are drawn off at 
 each side of the stage to allow the pas- 
 sage of the rising scenes. Adjoining the 
 stage are the dressing-rooms for the per- 
 formers, the green-room where they wait 
 when dressed, etc. 
 
 THEBES (thebz), an ancient capital 
 of Egypt, in Upper Egypt, on both sides 
 of the Nile, about 300 miles s.s.e. of 
 Cairo, now represented by the four 
 villages of Luxor, Karnak, Medinet 
 Habu, and Kurneh, as well as by mag- 
 nificent ruins, which extend about 9 
 miles along the river. When Thebes was 
 founded is not known; the period of its 
 greatest prosperity reaches from 1500 to 
 1000 B.c. The ruins comprisemagnificent 
 temples, rock-cut tombs, obelisks deco- 
 rated with beautiful sculptures, long 
 avenues of sphinxes, and colossal statues. 
 The largest of the temples is that at 
 Karnak, which is about 1^ mile in cir- 
 cumference. The great hall of the temple 
 (or “hall of columns;”) the most mag- 
 nificent in Egypt, measures 329 feet by 
 
 170, and the roof was originally sup- 
 ported by 134 gigantic columns, of 
 which 12 forming the central avenue are 
 62 feet high and 11 feet 6 inches in 
 diameter, the others, which are in rows 
 on either side, being fully 42 feet in 
 height and 28 in circumference. Within 
 the temple courts are several obelisks 
 of red granite; one — the largest obelisk 
 known — is 108 feet 10 inches high and 8 
 feet square. Above Karnak are the 
 village .-nd temple of Luxor, the latter 
 at one time connected with Karnak by 
 an avenue of sphinxes (some of which 
 still remain) about a mile long. The 
 Memnonium or temple of Rameses II., 
 and the temple and palace of Rameses 
 
 111., on the other or left bank of the 
 river, are objects of great interest, both 
 for the grandeur of their architecture 
 and the richness and variety of their 
 sculptures. Here are also the colossal 
 statues of Amenoph III., one of them 
 known as the vocal statue of Mem non. 
 In the interior of the mountains which 
 rise behind are found the tombs of the 
 kings of Thebes, excavated in the rock, 
 the most remarkable being that of Sethi 
 
 1., discovered by Belzoni, and contain- 
 ing fine sculptures and paintings. 
 
 THEBES, a city of ancient Greece, 
 the principal city of Boeotia, the birth- 
 place of Pindar, Epaminondas, and 
 Pelopidas, was situated about midway 
 between the Corinthian Gulf and the 
 Eubcean sea. Cadmus is said to have 
 founded it in 1500 b.c. The modern 
 Thebes or Thiva is an unimportant town 
 of some 4000 inhabitants. 
 
 THEISM, the belief or acknowledg- 
 ment of the existence of God, as opposed 
 to Atheism. See Deism. 
 
 THEMIS, goddess of law and justice 
 among the Greeks, was the daughter of 
 Ur&nus and Ge (Heaven and Earth); 
 according to some, of Helios, or the Sun. 
 
 THEMIS'TOCLES (-klez), an Athenian 
 commander, born 514 b.c. On the 
 second invasion of Greece by Xerxes, 
 Themistocles succeeded by bribery in 
 obtaining the command of the Athenian 
 
 fleet, and in the battle of Salamis which 
 followed (b.c. 480), the Persian fleet 
 was almost totally destroyed, and 
 Greece was saved. The chief glory of the 
 victory is due to Themistocles. Sub- 
 sequently he was accused of having en- 
 riched himself by unjust means, and of 
 being privy to designs for the betrayal 
 
THEOCRACY 
 
 THERMO-ELECTRICITY 
 
 of Greece to the Persians. Fearing the 
 vengeance of his countrymen, he, after 
 many vicissitudes, took refuge at the 
 Persian court. The Persian throne was 
 now (465 B.c.) occupied by Artaxerxes 
 LongimSus, to whom Themistocles pro- 
 cured access, and whose favor he gained 
 by his address and talents, so that he was 
 treated with the greatest distinction. 
 He died in 449, according to some ac- 
 counts by his own hand. 
 
 THEOC'RACY, is that government 
 of which the chief is, or is belitved to be, 
 God himself, the priests being the pro- 
 mulgators and expounders of the divine 
 commands. The most notable theocratic 
 government of all times is that estab- 
 lished by Moses among the Israelites. 
 
 THEOC'RITUS, a Greek poet, born 
 at Syracuse, who flourished about b.c. 
 280. We have under his name thirty 
 idyls, or pastoral poems, of which, how- 
 ever, several are probably by other 
 authors. Most of his idyls have a 
 dramatic form, and consist of the alter- 
 nate responses of musical shepherds. 
 His language is strong and harmonious. 
 
 THEOD'OLITE, a surveying instru- 
 inent for measuring horizontal and ver- 
 tical angles by means of a telescope, the 
 movements of which can be accurately 
 marked. This instrument is variously 
 constructed, but its main characteristics 
 continue unaltered in all forms. Its 
 chief features are the telescope, a grad- 
 uated vertical circle to which it is 
 attached, two concentric horizontal cir- 
 
 Theodollte. 
 
 cular plates which turn freely on each 
 other, and two spirit-levels on the upper 
 plate to secure exact horizontality, the 
 whole being on a tripod stand. The 
 lower plate contains the divisions of the 
 circle round its edge, and the upper or 
 vernier plate has two vernier divisions 
 diametrically opposite. The plates turn 
 on a double vertical axis. To measure 
 the angular distance horizontally be- 
 tween any two objects, the telescope is 
 turned round along with the vernier 
 circle until it is brought to bear exactly 
 upon one of the objects ; it is then turned 
 round until it is brought to bear on the 
 other object, and the arc which the ver- 
 nier has described on the graduated cir- 
 cle measures the angle required. By 
 means of the double vertical axis the 
 observation may be repeated any num- 
 ber of times in order to ensure accuracy. 
 The graduated vertical circle is for tak- 
 ing altitudes or vertical angles in a 
 similar way. The theodolite is a most 
 
 essential instrument in surveying and in 
 geodetical operations. 
 
 THEOLOGY is the science which 
 treats of the existence of God, his attri- 
 butes, and the Divine will regarding our 
 actions, present condition, and ultimate 
 destiny. In reference to the sources 
 whence it is derived theology is distin- 
 guished into natural or philosophical 
 theology, which relates to the knowledge 
 of God from his works by the light of 
 nature and reason; and supernatural 
 positive, or revealed theology, which sets 
 forth and systematizes the doctrines of 
 the Scriptures. With regard to the con- 
 tents of theology it is classified into 
 theoretical theology or dogmatics, and 
 practical theology or ethics. As compre- 
 hending the whole extent of religious 
 science, theology is divided into four 
 principal classes, historical, exegetical, 
 systematic, and practical theology. 
 Historical theology treats of the history 
 of Christian doctrines. Exegetical theol- 
 ogy embraces the interpretation of the 
 Scriptures and Biblical criticism. Sys- 
 tematic theology arranges methodically 
 the great truths of religion. Practical 
 theology consists of an exhibition, first, 
 of precepts and directions; and secondly, 
 of the motives from which we should 
 be expected to comply with these. 
 Apologetic and polemic theology belong 
 to several of the above-mentioned four 
 classes at once. The Scholastic theology 
 attempted to clear and discuss all ques- 
 tions by the aid of human reason alone 
 laying aside the study of the Scriptures, 
 adopting instead the arts of the dialec- 
 tician. 
 
 THEOPHRASTUS, a celebrated Peri- 
 patetic philosopher, was born at Lesbos 
 early in the 4th century, b.c., and 
 studied at Athens, in the school of 
 Plato, and afterward under Aristotle, 
 of whom he was the favorite pupil and 
 successor. On the departure of Aris- 
 totle from Athens after the judicial 
 murder of Socrates he became the head 
 of the Peripatetic school of philosophy, 
 and composed a multitude of books — 
 dialectic, moral, metaphysical, and phys- 
 ical. We possess two entire works of his 
 on botany, but only fragments of his 
 other works, such as those on Stones, 
 on the Winds, etc.; and his Characters 
 or sketches of types of character, by far 
 the most celebrated of all his produc- 
 tions. He died in 287 b.c. To his care 
 we are indebted for the preservation of 
 the writings of Aristotle, who, when 
 dying, intrusted theui to his keeping. 
 
 THEOS'OPHY, according to its ety- 
 mology the science of divine things. 
 But the name of theosophists has gen- 
 erally been appplied to persons who in 
 their inquiries respecting God have run 
 into mysticism, as Jacob Bohme, 
 Swedenborg, St. Martin, and others. 
 At the present day the term is applied to 
 the tenets of the Theosophical society, 
 founded in New York in 1875 by a Col. 
 Olcott, the objects of which are ; to form 
 the nucleus of a universal brotherhood 
 of humanity, to promote the study of 
 Eastern literature and science, and' 
 chiefly to investigate unexplained laws of 
 nature, and the psychical powers of man, 
 and generally the search after divine 
 knowledge — divine applying to the 
 divine nature of the abstract principle. 
 
 not to the quality of a personal God. 
 The theosophists assert that humanity 
 is possessed of certain powers over 
 nature, which the narrower study of 
 nature from the merely materialistic 
 stand-point has failed to develop. Lead- 
 ing names are Olcott, A. P. Sinnett, 
 Madame Blavatsky, and Mrs. Annie 
 Besant. Their so-called occult manifes- 
 tations are akin to those attributed to 
 spiritualism or telepathy, that is, com- 
 munication between minds at a distance 
 from each other. 
 
 THERAPEUTICS, that department 
 of medicine which treats of remedies in 
 the widest sense. 
 
 THERE'SA, St., a religious enthusiast, 
 born at Avila, in Spain, in 1515, who 
 took the veil among the Carmelites at 
 the age of twenty-four. Being dissatis- 
 fied at the relaxation of discipline in the 
 order to which she belonged she under- 
 took to restore the original severity of 
 the institute. The first convent of re- 
 formed Carmelite nuns was founded at 
 Avila in 1562, and was speedily followed 
 by a number of others. She died in 1582, 
 and was canonized by Pope Gregory XV. 
 in 1621. She was the author of several 
 works, and all of a devotional nature, 
 among them a very curious life of her- 
 self. 
 
 THERESIO'PEL, a royal free town in 
 Hungary, in the county of Bdcs, is more 
 properly a district than a town, as it 
 covers, with its numerous suburbs, an 
 area of more than 600 sq. miles. It has 
 manufactures of linen and woolen cloth, 
 dye-works, tanneries, soap-boiling 
 works, etc., and a trade in cattle, horses, 
 hides, and wool. Pop. 81,302. 
 
 THERMIDOR, the eleventh month 
 of the year in the calendar of the first 
 French republic. It commenced on the 
 19th of July, and ended on the 17th of 
 August. See Calendar. 
 
 THERI.IO-ELECTRICITY, electricity 
 produced at the junction of two metals, 
 or at a point where a molecular change 
 occurs in a bar of the same metal, when 
 the junction or point is heated above 
 or cooled below the general temperature 
 of the conductor. Thus when wires or 
 bars of metal of different kinds, as bis- 
 muth and antimony, are placed in close 
 contact, end to end, and disposed so as 
 to form a periphery or continuous cir- 
 
 Thermo-plle. 
 
 cuit, and heat then applied to the ends 
 or junctions of the bars, electric cur- 
 rents are produced. The principle of the 
 arrangement is shown in the accom- 
 panying figure, in which the bars marked 
 a are antimony, thosemarked b bismuth. 
 The junctions 1, 3, 5, 7 are to be at one 
 temperature, the junctions 2, 4, 6. 8 at 
 another, g is a delicate galvanometer, 
 
THERMOMETER 
 
 THIERRY 
 
 which measures the force of the current 
 produced. The thermo-electric battery, 
 or pile, an apparatus much used in deli- 
 cate experiments with radiant heat, 
 consists of a series of little bars of anti- 
 mony and bismuth (or any other two 
 metals of different heat-conducting 
 power), having their ends soldered to- 
 gether and arranged in a compact form; 
 the opposite ends of the pile being con- 
 nected with a galvanometer, which is 
 very sensibly affected by the electric 
 current induced in the system of bars 
 when exposed to the slightest variations 
 of temperature. To the combined ar- 
 rangement of pile and galvanometer the 
 name of thermo-multiplier is given. 
 Two metal bars of different heat-con- 
 ducting power having their ends sol- 
 dered together, and the combined bar 
 then usually bent into a more or 
 less horse-shoe or magnet form for the 
 purpose of bringing their free ends 
 within a conveniently short distance, 
 designated a thermo-electric pair, are 
 much used in thermo-electric experi- 
 ments. But as the electric current de- 
 veloped in a single pair is very weak, a 
 considerable number are usually com- 
 bined to form a thermo-electric pile or 
 battery. Bismuth and antimony are the 
 metals usually employed, the difference 
 in electro-motive force being greater 
 between them than between any other 
 two metals conveniently obtainable. 
 
 THERMOM'ETER, an instrument by 
 which the temperatures of bodies are 
 ascertained; founded on the property 
 which heat possesses of expanding all 
 bodies, the rate or quantity of expansion 
 being supposed proportional to the de- 
 gree of heat applied, and hence indicat- 
 
 hence the zero of the scale, or that part 
 marked 0°, is 32° below the freezing- 
 point, and the interval or space between 
 the freezing and boiling points consists 
 of 180°. The zero point is supposed to 
 have been fixed by Fahrenheit at the 
 point of greatest cold that he had ob- 
 served, probably by means of a freezing 
 mixture such as snow and salt. In 
 France and other parts of Europe, and 
 nowadays in all scientific investigations, 
 the Centigrade or Celsius scale is used. 
 In this the space between the freezing 
 and boiling points of water is divided 
 into 100 equal parts or degrees, the zero 
 being at freezing and the boiling-point 
 marked 100°. Reaumur’s thermometer, 
 in use in Germany, has the space be- 
 tween the freezing and boiling points 
 divided into 80 equal parts, the zero 
 being at freezing. For extreme degrees 
 of cold, thermometers filled with spirit 
 of wine must be employed, as no degree 
 of cold known is capable of freezing that 
 liquid, whereas mercury freezes at about 
 39° below zero on the Fahrenheit scale. 
 On the other hand, spirit of wine is not 
 adapted to high temperatures, as it is 
 soon converted into vapor, whereas 
 mercury does not boil till its temperature 
 is raised to 660° F. As the ordinary 
 thermometer gives the temperature 
 only at the time of observation, the 
 necessity for having an instrument 
 which would show the maximiun and 
 minimum temperatures within a given 
 period is easily apparent in all cases con- 
 nected with meteorology, and various 
 forms of instruments for this purpose 
 have been invented. A common form of 
 maximum thermometer consists of the 
 ordinary thermometer fitted with a 
 
 Centigrade. 
 
 Reaunwr 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 E) 
 
 Thermometer scales. 
 
 ing that degree. The thermometer con- 
 sists of a slender glass tube, with a small 
 bore, containing in general mercury or 
 alcohol, which expanding or contracting 
 by variations in the temperature of the 
 atmosphere, or on the instrument being 
 brought into contact with any other 
 body, or immersed in a liquid or gas 
 which is to be examined, the state of the 
 atmosphere, the body, liquid, or gas, 
 with regard to heat, is indicated by a 
 scale either applied to the tube or en- 
 graved on its exterior surface. The ordi- 
 nary thermometer consists of a small 
 tube, terminating in a ball containing 
 mercury, the air having been expelled 
 and the tube hermetically sealed. A 
 scale of temperatures is attached, in 
 which there are two points correspond- 
 ing to fixed and determinate tempera- 
 tures, one, namely, to the temperature 
 of freezing water, and the other to that 
 of boiling water. In the thermometer 
 commonly used in Britain and her 
 colonies, the United States, etc., known 
 as Fahrenheit’s thermometer, the former 
 point is marked 32° and the latter 212°; 
 
 pston which moves easily in the tube. 
 The instrument is placed horizontally, 
 and the piston is pushed along the bore 
 as the mercury advances, and is left at 
 the highest point by the retiring fluid. 
 This point is noted by the observer, who 
 then erects the thermometer, causing 
 the piston to sink to the mercury, the 
 instrument thus being in condition for 
 a fresh experiment. A similar action 
 takes place in the spirit of wine mini- 
 mum thermometer, the small movable 
 piston being, however, immersed in the 
 fluid and drawn back by the convex 
 surface of the contracting fluid, being 
 left at the point of greatest contraction. 
 The maximum and minimum instru- 
 ments combined form the self-register- 
 ing thermometer. 
 
 THERMO-PILE. See Thermo-elec- 
 tricity. 
 
 THERMOP'YL.®, a narrow defile in 
 Northern Greece, leading from Thessaly 
 southward, between Mount OEta and 
 the sea (th« Maliac gulf, now the Gulf of 
 Zeitouni), 25 miles north of Delphi, 
 celebrated for its defense by 300 Spartans 
 
 together with allies, under Leonidas, 
 against the Persian host under Xerxes, 
 in 480 B.c. 
 
 THESEUS (the'sus), a mythical king 
 of Athens and famous hero of antiquity, 
 son of .iEgeus by .(Ethra, the daughter 
 of Pittheus of Troezen, in Peloponnesus, 
 of whom many notable deeds are related, 
 as the slaying of the Minotaur and the 
 freeing of Athens from the tribute of 
 seven youths and seven maids annually 
 sent to Crete to be devoured by that 
 monster. As king of Athens he is re- 
 puted to have governed with mildness, 
 instituted new laws, and made the 
 government more democratic. 
 
 THESSALONIANS, Epistles to the, 
 two New Testament epistles written by 
 St. Paul to the church at Thessalonica, 
 in all probability during his long stay 
 at Corinth, and therefore not very long 
 after the foundation of the Thessalonian 
 church on St. Paul’s second missionary 
 journey. A note at the end of each of the 
 epistles in our Authorized Version states 
 that they were written from Athens, 
 but there can be little doubt that this is 
 erroneous, and that they were really 
 written at Corinth. They are the earliest 
 of Paul’s ■writings, and are characterized 
 by great simplicity of style as compared 
 with his other epistles. The genuineness 
 of the first epistle has hardly ever been 
 questioned, but according to the newer 
 criticism, that of the second epistle is 
 more than doubtful. 
 
 THES'SALY,the northeastern division 
 of Greece, mainly consisting of a rich 
 plain inclosed between mountains and 
 belonging almost entirely to one river 
 basin, that of the Peneios (Salambria), 
 which traverses it from west to east, 
 and finds an outlet into the .(Egean 
 through the vale of Tempe. In the 
 earliest times Thessaly proper is said to 
 have been inhabited by .^olic and other 
 tribes. Subsequently it was broken up 
 into separate confederacies, and seldom 
 exerted any important influence on the 
 affairs of Greece generally. Thessaly 
 was conquered by Philip of Macedon in 
 the 4th century b.c., became dependent 
 on Macedonia, and was finally incor- 
 porated with the Roman empire. After 
 the fall of the Byzantine empire it came, 
 with the rest of the imperial dominions, 
 into the hands of the Turks, and till 
 recently formed a part of the Ottoman 
 empire, although the majority of the 
 inhabitants are Greeks. The greater 
 portion of it was in 1881 incorporated 
 with the kingdom of Greece. Capital 
 Larissa. Pop. 294,093. 
 
 THETIS, a Greek divinity, a daugh- 
 ter of Nereus and Doris, therefore one of 
 the Nereids. By Peleus, to whom she 
 was married, she became the mother of 
 Achilles. 
 
 THIBET (ti-bef). See Tibet. 
 
 THIERRY (ti-er-ri), Jacques Nicolas 
 Augustin, French historian, born at 
 Blois in 1795, died in 1856. His cele- 
 brated work on the Norman conquest 
 of England was published at Paris in 
 1825, and attained great success both in 
 France and in England. Lettres sur 
 I’Histoire de la France appeared in 1827. 
 In 1834 he published, under the title of 
 Dix Ans d’Etudes, a series of admirable 
 essays, and about the same time ho was 
 summoned by Guizot, then minister of 
 
THIERS 
 
 THOMAS 
 
 public instruction, to Paris, and in- 
 trusted with the editing of the Recue il 
 des Monuments In^dits de I’Histoire du 
 Tiers Etat, for the collection of docu- 
 ments relative to the history of France. 
 In 1840 he published R4cits des Temps 
 M^rovingiens. 
 
 THIERS (ti-ar), Louis Adolphe, presi- 
 dent of the French republic, statesman 
 and historian, was born at Marseilles 
 1797, died 1877. During the terrible 
 crisis of 1870-71 Thiers came to the 
 front as the one sunreme man in France. 
 After the fall of Paris he was returned to 
 the national assembly, and on February 
 17, 1871, he was declared chief of the 
 executive power. The first duty imposed 
 upon him as such was to assist in draw- 
 ing up the treaty of peace, whereby 
 France lost Alsace and Lorraine and 
 agreed to pay an enormous indemnity; 
 his second was to suppress the com- 
 munist insurrection, which broke out 
 within three weeks of the signing of the 
 treaty. This done, his next task was to 
 free the soil as quickly as possible from 
 
 Louis Adolphe Thiers. 
 
 the invaders by the payment of the ran- 
 som, which also was effected in an in- 
 credibly short space of time. The 
 assembly in August, 1871, prolonged 
 his tenure of office and changed his title 
 to that of president. In November, 1872, 
 Thiers declared himself in favor of the 
 republic as a definite form of government 
 for France, and thus to some extent 
 brought about the crisis which resulted 
 in his being deprived of the presidency. 
 He accepted his deposition with dignity, 
 and went quietly into retirement. M. 
 Thiers’ chief works are : Histoire de la 
 Revolution Frangaise (6 vols., 1823-27), 
 and Histoire du Consulat et de I’Empire 
 (20 vols., 1845-62). The latter obtained 
 for him the academic prize of twenty 
 thousand francs. 
 
 THIRST, the sensations experienced 
 in animals from the want of fluid nutri- 
 ment. The sensations of thirst are 
 chiefly referred to the thorax and fauces, 
 but the condition is really one affecting 
 the entire body. The excessive pains 
 of thirst compared with those of hunger 
 are due to the fact that the deprivation 
 of liquids is a condition with which all 
 the tissues sympathize. Every solid and 
 every fluid of the body contains water, 
 and hence abstraction or diminution of 
 the watery constituents is followed by a 
 general depression of the whole system. 
 Thirst is a common symptom of febrile 
 and other diseases. 
 
 THIRTY YEARS’ WAR, a war in 
 Germany (1618-48), at first a religious 
 
 war between the Catholics and the Prot- 
 estants, and latterly (after 1635), a 
 political struggle between Austria on 
 the one side and France and Sweden on 
 the other. The great commanders in the 
 religious war were Wallenstein and 
 Tilly on the side of the Catholics, and 
 Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden on the 
 side of the Protestants. The war was 
 ended by the Peace of Westphalia. See 
 Germany. 
 
 THISBE. See Pyramus and Thisbe. 
 
 THISTLE, the common name of a 
 prickly plant. There are numerous 
 species. The common cotton-thistle at- 
 tains a height of from 4 to 6 feet. It is 
 often regarded as the Scotch thistle, 
 but it is doubtful whether the thistle 
 which constitutes the Scottish national 
 badge has any existing type, though the 
 stemless thistle is in many districts of 
 Scotland looked on as the true Scotch 
 thistle. Some species are cultivated in 
 gardens from the beauty of their flowers. 
 Thistles sow themselves readily by their 
 winged seeds. 
 
 THISTLE, Order of the, a Scottish 
 order of knighthood, sometimes called 
 the order of St. Andrew. It was insti- 
 tuted by James VII. (James II. of Eng- 
 land) in 1687, when eight knights were 
 nominated. It fell into' abeyance during 
 the reign of William and Mary, but was 
 revived by Queen Anne in 1703. The 
 insignia of the order consist of a gold 
 collar composed of thistles interlaced 
 with sprigs of rue ; the jewel, a figure of 
 St. Andrew in the middle of a star of 
 eight pointed rays, suspended from the 
 
 collar ; the star, of silver and eight-rayed, 
 four of the rays being pointed, while the 
 alternate rays are shaped like the tail- 
 feathers of a bird, with a thistle in the 
 center surrounded by the Latin motto 
 Nemo me impune lacessit; and the 
 badge, oval, with the motto surrounding 
 the figure of St. Andrew. The order con- 
 sists of the sovereign and sixteen knights 
 besides extra knights (princes), and a 
 dean, a secretary, the lyon-king-at- 
 arms, and the gentleman usher of the 
 green rod. 
 
 THOMAS, St., also called Didymus, 
 one of the twelve apostles, said to have 
 been a native of Antioch. The uarticu- 
 
 lars of his life are unknown, the chief 
 fact known regarding him being his 
 doubts as to the living reality of Christ 
 after the resurrection. He figures largely 
 in the apocryphal gospels, and tradition 
 has it that he acted as a Christian mis- 
 sionary in Ethiopia, Egypt, India, and 
 even America. 
 
 THOMAS, George Henry, American 
 general, was born in Virginia in 1816, 
 and at the age of twenty entered the 
 military academy at West Point, pass- 
 ing into the artillery as .sub-lieutenant 
 at the age of twenty-four. He took part 
 in the Mexican war (1846-47); was ap- 
 pointed professor at West Point in 1850; 
 recalled to active service in 1855, and 
 employed in Texas against the Indians. 
 When the war of secession broke out 
 Thomas had attained the rank of colonel 
 and being appointed brigadier-general 
 of volunteers in August, 1861, was some 
 months later sent into Kentucky, where, 
 in the following year, he defeated Zolli- 
 kofer. As major-general of volunteers 
 he took part in the battle of Murfrees- 
 borough, where he greatly distinguished 
 himself; while at the bloody battle of 
 Chickamauga, in September, 1863, he 
 saved the federal army from destruc- 
 tion by his stubborn resistance after the 
 defeat of the federal right. In the cam- 
 j)aign of 1865 he defeated Hood, and 
 compelled the confederates to raise the 
 siege of Nashville, for which he received 
 the thanks of congress, and was raised 
 to the rank of major-general in the regu- 
 lar army. He died in 1870. 
 
 THOMAS A KEMPIS, that is, Thomas 
 of Kempen, his birthplace, in the arch- 
 bishopric of Cologne, was born about 
 1380. At the age of twenty he retired to 
 an Augustine convent near Zwolle, in 
 Holland, where he took the vows, and 
 where, in 1471, he died superior of the 
 convent. He was a voluminous writer. 
 His works (the printed ones all in Latin) 
 consist of sermons, exhortations, ascetic 
 treatises, hymns, prayers, etc. His name 
 however, would hardly be remembered 
 were it not for its connection with the 
 celebrated devotional work called The 
 Imitation of Christ (De Imitatione 
 Christ!) , a work which has passed 
 through thousands of editions in the 
 original Latin and in translations. The 
 authorship of this book has long been a 
 disputed point. It is generally ascribed 
 to k Kempis, but often to Gerson, chan- 
 cellor of the University of Paris at the 
 end of the 14th and beginning of the 
 16th century. 
 
 THOMAS AQUINAS. See Aquinas. 
 
 THOMAS, Theodore, German-Ameri- 
 can orchestral conductor, was born in 
 Esens, East Friesland in 1835. He came 
 with his parents to America in 1845, and 
 played first violin in the first American 
 concert tour of Jenny Lind. In 1861 he 
 began the formation of his famous or- 
 chestra, and in 1864 gave his first sym- 
 phony concerts in New York. In 1866 
 he instituted his smnmer-night festivals. 
 From 1878 to 1890 he was the conductor 
 of the Brooklyn Philharmonic society, 
 and in 1890 he went to Chicago. The 
 orchestra which he built up in Chicago 
 became one of the recognized great 
 orchestras of the world. Orchestra hall, 
 Chicago, was erected by its citizens in 
 .honor of his memory. He died in 1905. 
 
THOMSON 
 
 THOU 
 
 THOMSON, Sir Charles Wyville, nat- 
 uralist, born in 1830 in Linlithgowshire; 
 died 1882 In the dredging expeditions 
 of the Lightning and Porcupine he took 
 part, afterward publishing in The 
 Depths of the Sea, the substance of his 
 discoveries in regard to the fauna of the 
 Atlantic. In 1872 he was appointed 
 scientific chief of the Challenger ex- 
 pedition, which was absent from Eng- 
 land 3J years, during which time 68,890 
 miles were surveyed. On his return he 
 was knighted^ and intrusted by the 
 government with the task of drawing 
 up a report on the natural history 
 specimens collected during the expedi- 
 tion. But he only lived to publish a 
 preliminary account of the expedition. 
 
 THOMSON, James, poet, was born in 
 1700, at Ednam, near Kelso, in Scot- 
 land. He went in 1725 to London, where 
 Winter, the first of his poems on the 
 seasons, was published in 1726. In 1727 
 he published his Summer, his Poem to 
 the Memory of Sir Isaac Newton, and 
 his Britannia, in 1728 his Spring, and in 
 1730 his Autumn. He brought on the 
 stage his tragedy of Sophonisba (1729). 
 He now (1738) produced his tragedy of 
 Agamemnon, and a third entitled Ed- 
 ward and Eleanora. In 1740 he com- 
 posed the masque of Alfred in conjunc- 
 tion with Mallet; but which of them 
 wrote the famous song. Rule, Britannia, 
 is not known. In 1745 his most success- 
 ful tragedy, Tancred and Sigismunda, 
 was brought out and warmly applauded. 
 The following year he produced his 
 Castle of Indolence, a work in the Spen- 
 serian stanza. For a few years he held 
 by deputy the comfortable post of sur- 
 veyor-general of the Leeward islands, 
 and he died in 1748. 
 
 THOMSON, James, poet, was born at 
 Port-Glasgow, Scotland, in 1834. In 
 1860 he became a contributor to the 
 National Reformer, in which was pub- 
 lished, under the signature “B. V.,” The 
 Dead Year, To our Ladies of Death, and 
 the poem by which he is best known. 
 The City of Dreadful Night. He died 
 in 1882. 
 
 THOMSON, Sir W., Lord Kelvin, one 
 of the greatest mathematicians and 
 physicists of the present day, was born 
 at Belfast in 1824. In 1846 he was ap- 
 pointed professor of natural philosophy 
 in the University of Glasgow, a post 
 which he held till 1899. The same year 
 he became editor of the Cambridge and 
 Dublin Mathematical Journal, to which 
 he contributed valuable papers on the 
 mathematical theory of electricity, 
 being also a distinguished contributor 
 to Liouville’s Journal de Math6matiques. 
 Among the most im.portant of his con- 
 tributions to electrical science are the 
 construction of several delicate instru- 
 ments for the measurement and study 
 of electricity. It was in connection with 
 submarine telegraphy that his name be- 
 came most generally known, his services 
 being rewarded, on the completion of the 
 Atlantic cable of 1866, with knighthood 
 and other honors. In 1892 he was created 
 a baron. He has greatly increased our 
 knowledge of magnetism and heat, and 
 has invented an improved form of 
 mariner’s compass now in extensive use. 
 His work in thermo-dynamics is of the 
 greatest value. He was the first to rec- 
 
 ognize the importance of the doctrine of 
 the conservation of energy. Lord Kel- 
 vin’s many scientific papers have been 
 published in book form, as follows; 
 Electrostatics and Magnetism, Mathe- 
 matical and Physical Papers, Popular 
 Lectures and addresses. He is the 
 author, in conjunction with Professor 
 P. T. Tait, of a Treatise on Natural 
 Philosophy. He was president of the 
 British association at Edinburgh in 
 1871, and of the Royal society in 1890 
 -95. Lord Kelvin visited America in 
 1884, 1897, and 1902. He died in 1907. 
 
 THOR, son of Odin by Jord (the 
 earth), the Jupiter of the Teutons, the 
 God of thunder. Thursday has its name 
 from him. See Northern Mythology. 
 
 THORACIC DUCT. See Lymph. 
 
 THORAX, the chest, or that cavity of 
 the human body formed by the spine, 
 ribs, and breast-bone, situated between 
 the neck and the abdomen, and which 
 contains the pleura, lungs, heart, etc. 
 The name is also applied to the corre- 
 sponding portions of other mammals, 
 to the less sharply defined cavity in the 
 lower vertebrates, as birds, fishes, etc., 
 and to the segments intervening between 
 
 Thorax In man. 
 
 Thoracic regions denoted by thick black 
 lines. 11, Right and left humeral. 23, do. sub- 
 clavian. 33, do. mammary. 44, do. axillary. 
 55, do. subaxlllary.66, do. scapular. 77, do. Inter- 
 scapular. 88, do. superior dorsal or subscapu- 
 lar.— Vlsceraorcontentsof thorax, the position 
 of which is Indicated by dotted lines, aa. Dia- 
 phragm; b, heart; c, lungs; d, liver; e, kid- 
 neys; /, stomach. 
 
 the head and abdomen in insects and 
 other Arthropoda. In serpents and 
 fishes the thorax is not completed below 
 by a breastbone. In insects three sec- 
 tions form the thorax, the pro-thorax 
 bearing the first pair of legs; the meso- 
 thorax, bearing the second pair of legs 
 and the first pair of wings ; and the meta- 
 thorax, bearing the third pair of legs 
 and the second pair of wings. 
 
 THOREAU, (tho'ro), Henry David, 
 American writer, born at Boston in 1817. 
 Besides contributing to the Dial and 
 other periodicals, he published A Week 
 on the Concord and Merrimac Rivers 
 (1849), and Walden, or Life in the 
 Woods (1854). After his death appeared 
 Excursions in Field and Forest, The 
 Maine Woods, Cape Cod, and A Yankee 
 in Canada. Thoreau was a friend of 
 Emerson, and imbibed much of his 
 spirit and method of thought. He died 
 in 1862. 
 
 THORIUM, the metal of which thoria 
 is the oxide, discovered by Berzelius. 
 It is in the form of a heavy metallic 
 powder, has an iron-gray tint, burns in 
 air or oxygen, when heated, with great 
 splendor, and is converted into thorina 
 or oxide of thorinum. It unites ener- 
 
 getically with chlorine, sulphur, and 
 phosphorus. Hydrochloric acid readily 
 dissolves it, with the evolution of hydro- 
 gen gas. The symbol of Thorium is Th, 
 and the atomic weight 116. 
 
 THORN. See Hawthorn. 
 
 THORWALDSEN (tor'vald-sen), Al- 
 bert Bartholomew, a celebrated sculp- 
 tor, born at Copenhagen, November 19, 
 1770. It was not until 1803, that he be- 
 came at all widely known. Then he re- 
 ceived a commission from Sir Thomas 
 Hope to execute in marble a statue of 
 Jason, which the sculptor had modeled. 
 His fortune was now made. Commis- 
 sions flowed in upon him, new creations 
 from his hand followed in quick succes- 
 sion, and his unsurpassed abilities as a 
 sculptor became everywhere recognized. 
 In 1819 he returned to Denmark, and 
 his journey through Germany and his 
 reception at Copenhagen resembled a 
 triumph. He died March 24, 1844. The 
 Thorwaldsen museum, opened in 1846, 
 contains about 300 of the works of the 
 sculptor. Thorwaldsen was eminently 
 successful in his subjects chosen from 
 Greek mythology, such as his Mars, 
 Mercury, Venus, etc. His religious 
 works, among which are a colossal group 
 of Christ and the Twelve Apostles, St. 
 John Preaching in the Wilderness, and 
 statues of the four great prophets, dis- 
 play almost superior grandeur of con- 
 ception. Chief among his other works 
 are his statues of Galileo and Copernicus, 
 and the colossal lion near Lucerne, in 
 memory of the Swiss guards who fell 
 in defense of the Tuileries. 
 
 THOU (to), Jacques Auguste de, a 
 French statesman and historian, born in 
 1553, died in 1617. Henry IV. employed 
 him in several important negotiations, 
 and in 1593 made him his principal li- 
 brarian. In 1595 he succeeded his uncle 
 as chief-justice, and during the regency 
 of Mary de’ Medici he was one of the 
 directors-general of finance. His great- 
 est literary labor was the composition in 
 Latin of a voluminous History of his 
 own Times (Historia sui Temporis), 
 
THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS 
 
 THULE 
 
 comprising the events from 1545 to 1607, 
 of which the first part was made public 
 in 1604. To this work, which is remark- 
 able for it.s impartiality, he subjoined in- 
 teresting Memoirs of Ins own Life. 
 
 THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS. See 
 Arabian Nights. 
 
 THOUSAND ISLANDS, a group of 
 small islands numbering about 1800 in 
 the St. Lawrence immediately below 
 Lake Ontario. They partly belong to 
 Canada and partly to the state of New 
 York, and have become a popular sum- 
 mer resort. 
 
 THRACE, or THRACIA, a name ap- 
 plied at an early period among the 
 Greeks to a region lying north of Mace- 
 donia. By the Romans this country was 
 regarded as divided into two parts by 
 the Haemus (or Balkan), the northern 
 of which was called Moesia and the 
 southern Thrace. Abdera, the birth- 
 place of Democritus and Protagoras; 
 Sestos, on the Hellespont, celebrated in 
 the story of Hero and Leander; and 
 Byzantium, on the peninsula on which 
 Constantinople now stands, were the 
 places the most worthy of note. 
 
 THRESHING-MACHINE, a machine 
 for separating grain from the straw, and 
 in which the moving power is that of 
 horses, oxen, wind, water, or steam. 
 The threshing-machine was invented in 
 Scotland in 1758 by Michael Stirling, 
 a farmer in Perthshire ; it was afterward 
 improved by Andrew Meilde, a mill- 
 wright in East Lothian, about the year 
 1776. Since that time it has undergone 
 various improvements. The principal 
 feature of the threshing-machine as at 
 present constructed, is the three rotary 
 drums or cylinders, which receive mo- 
 tion from a water-wheel, or from hope 
 or steam power. The first drurn which 
 comes into operation has projecting ribs 
 called beaters on its outer surface, 
 parallel to its axis. This drum receives 
 a very rapid motion on its axis. The 
 sheaves of corn are first spread out on a 
 slanting table, and are then drawn in 
 with the ears foremost between two 
 feeding rollers with parallel grooves. 
 The beaters of the drum act on the straw 
 as it passes through the rollers, and beat 
 out the grain. The threshed straw_ is 
 then carried forward to two successive 
 drums or shakers, which, being armed 
 with numerous spikes, lift up and shake 
 the straw so as to free it entirely from 
 the loose grain lodged in it. The grain 
 is made to pass through a grated floor, 
 and is generally conducted to a winnow- 
 ing-machine connected by gearing with 
 the threshing-machine itself, by which 
 means the grain is separated from the 
 chaff. Improved machines on the same 
 principle, many of them portable, are 
 extensively used in England and 
 America, those of the latter country 
 being in particular very light and effect- 
 ive. The portable steam threshing- 
 machine now common in England and 
 in many parts of Scotland has no feed- 
 ing-rollers, the corn being fed direct to 
 the first drum, which revolves at a very 
 high speed and separates the grain by 
 rubbing against a grating fitted around 
 the drum rather than by direct beating. 
 It gets through far more work than the 
 ordinary stationary mill. With a port- 
 able engine the machine can be moved ' 
 
 from field to field, and also from farm 
 to farm, thus being capable of perform- 
 ing the threshing-work of a wide district 
 for the whole season. 
 
 THREAD, a slender cord consisting 
 of two or more yarns, or simple spun 
 strands, firmly united together by twist- 
 ing. The twisting together of the differ- 
 ent strands or yarns to form a thread is 
 effected by a thread-frame or doubling 
 and twisting machine, which accom- 
 plishes the purpose by the action of 
 bobbins and flyers. Thread is used in 
 some species of weaving, but its princi- 
 pal use is for sewing. The manufacture 
 of sewing thread in the United Kingdom 
 both for home use and export is very ex- 
 tensive. As a general rule the thread 
 manufactured for home use, and for 
 export to the United States, is much 
 superior to that made for other markets, 
 which is of an inferior quality. The 
 thread made for home use is commonly 
 known as six-cord, and that for export 
 as three-cord thread. The chief seat of 
 the cotton thread manufacture in Scot- 
 land is Paisley, in England Manchester. 
 Linen thread is manufactured largely in 
 Ireland. 
 
 THREAD-WORMS, the name for 
 thread-like intestinal worms which occur 
 in great numbers in the rectum of chil- 
 dren particularly. 
 
 THREE-COLOR PROCESS, a photo- 
 mechanical process of reproducing in 
 color. The process consists in making 
 three photograph negatives of the same 
 subject through three different color 
 screens representing the three primary 
 colors, red, yellow, and blue. The accu- 
 racy of the finished picture depends, to 
 a great extent, upon the exactness of 
 the register. The process is largely 
 mechanical and the result is only approx- 
 imately correct, though increased care 
 is being taken in the manipulation and 
 better results are constantly obtained. 
 
 THRESHER-SHARK, also called the 
 Fox-shark, a genus of sharks containing 
 but one known species, with a short 
 conical snout, and less formidable jaws 
 than the white shark. The upper lobe 
 of the tail fin is very elongated, being 
 nearly equal in length to the rest of the 
 body, and is used as a weapon to strike 
 with. Tail included, the thresher attains 
 a length of 13 feet. It inhabits the 
 Atlantic and the Mediterranean, and is 
 sometimes met with on the coasts of 
 Britain. See Shark. 
 
 THROAT, the anterior part of the 
 neck of an animal, in which are the 
 cesophagus and windpipe, or the pas- 
 sages for the food and breath. See 
 Larynx, Oesophagus, Trachea, Diph- 
 theria, Croup, ete. 
 
 THRUSH, the name applied popu- 
 larly to several insessorial birds. The 
 true thrushes fonn a family of denti- 
 rostral passerine birds, including the 
 song-thrush or throstle, the missel- 
 thrush, the redwing, etc. They feed 
 upon berries, small molluscs, worms, 
 etc. Their iiabits are mostly solitary, but 
 several species are gregarious in winter. 
 They are celebrated on account of their 
 powers of song; and are widely diffused, 
 being found in all the quarters of the 
 globe. The song-thrush is especially 
 distin^ished by its sweet song. The 
 color is a brown of different shades on ' 
 
 the upper parts, the chin being white, M 
 and the belly and under tail-coverts a ■ 
 grayish-white. Its average length is 9 ^ 
 inches. The eggs, numbering five, are 4 
 blue, spotted with black. The nest is ^ 
 
 Red-winged thrush. 
 
 large and basin-shaped, composed of 
 roots, mosses, etc., smoothly plastered 
 inside with clay. The thrush family 
 also includes the fieldfare, redwing, and 
 ring-ouzel. 
 
 THRUSH, a disease common in in- 
 fants who are ill fed; The name is also 
 applied to an abscess in the feet of 
 horses and some other animals. 
 
 THUCYDIDES (tho-sid'i-dez), the 
 greatest of all the Greek historians, was 
 born in Attica about 471 b.c. He was 
 for a time a prominent commander 
 during the Peloponnesian war, which 
 forms the subject of his great work. 
 For many years he suffered exile (being 
 accused of remissness in duty); but 
 appears to have returned to Athens 
 the year following the termination of 
 the war, namely, in b.c. 403. He is said 
 to have met a violent death, probably 
 a year or two later, but at what exact 
 time and whether in Thrace or Athens, 
 is not known. His history consists of 
 eight books, the last of which differs 
 from the others in containing none of 
 the political speeches which form so 
 striking a feature of the rest, and is also 
 generally supposed to be inferior to 
 them in style. As a historian Thucy- 
 dides was painstaking and indefatigable 
 in collecting and sifting facts, brief and 
 terse in narrating them. Ilis style is full 
 of dignity and replete with condensed 
 meaning. He is unsurpassed in the power 
 of analysing character and action, of 
 tracing events to their causes, of appre- 
 ciating the motives of individual agents 
 and of combining in their just relations 
 all the threads of the tangled web of 
 history. 
 
 THUGS, the name applied to a secret . 
 and once widely-spread society among 
 the Hindus, whose occupation was to 
 waylay, assassinate, and rob all who 
 did not belong to their own caste. This 
 they did, not so much from cupidity as 
 from religious motive, such actions be- 
 ing deemed acceptable to their goddess 
 KMt. 
 
 THULE (tho'le), the name given by 
 the ancients to the most northern coun- 
 try with which they were acquainted. 
 According to Pytheas it was an island 
 six days’ voyage to the north of Britan- 
 nia, and accordingly it has often been 
 identified with Iceland. Some have 
 imagined it to be one of the Scotch 
 islands, others the coast of Norway -j 
 
THU MB -SCREW 
 
 TIBET 
 
 THUMB-SCREW, a former instru- 
 ment of torture for compressing the 
 thumbs. It was employed in various 
 
 Scotch thumb screw, time of Charles I. 
 
 countries, Scotland in particular. Called 
 also Thumbkins. 
 
 THUNDER. See liightning. 
 
 THUNDER-FISH, a species of fish of 
 the family Siluridae, found in the Nile, 
 which, like the torpedo, can give an 
 electric shock. 
 
 THURGAU (tur'gou), a canton in the 
 northeast of Switzerland, bounded 
 mainly by the Lake of Constance and 
 the cantons of Zurich and St. Gall; area, 
 381 sq. miles; capital, Frauenfeld. The 
 whole canton belongs to the basin of 
 the Rhine, to which its waters are con- 
 veyed chiefly by the Thur and its 
 affluents, and partly also by the Lake of 
 Constance, including the Untersee. 
 Pop. 113,110. 
 
 THURIBLE, a kind of censer of metal, 
 sometimes of gold or silver, but more 
 commonly of brass or fatten, in the 
 shape of a covered vase or cup, per- 
 
 Thurible. 
 
 forated so as to allow the fumes of burn- 
 ing incense to escape. It has chains at- 
 tached, by which it is held and swung 
 at high mass, vespers, and other solemn 
 offices of the Roman Catholic church. 
 
 THURINGERWALD (tii'ring-er-vMt), 
 or FOREST OF THURINGIA, a moun- 
 tain chain in the center of Germany, 
 stretching southeast to northwest for 
 about 60 miles. Its culminating points 
 are the Beerberg and the Schneekopf, 
 which have each a height of about 3220 
 feet. The mountains are well covered 
 with wood, chiefly pine. The minerals 
 include iron, copper, lead, cobalt, etc. 
 
 THURINGIA (tho-rin'ji-a), a region 
 of Central Germany situated between 
 the Harz mountains, the Saale, the 
 Thuringerwald, and the Werra, and 
 comprising great part of Saxe-Weimar, 
 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and other small 
 adjoining states. 
 
 THUR'MAN, Allen Granbery, Ameri- 
 can political leader, was born in Lynch- 
 burg, Va., in 1813, and in 1819 was taken 
 by his parents to Chillicothe, Ohio. 
 In 1845-47 he was a democratic mem- 
 
 ber of congress, then resumed his law 
 practice, and from 1851 to 1856 was on 
 the bench of the Ohio supreme court, 
 after December, 1854, as chief justice. 
 In 1867 he was the democratic candi- 
 date for governor of Ohio, but was de- 
 feated by Rutherford B. Hayes. From 
 1869 to 1881 he was a member of the 
 United States senate. In the forty- 
 sixth congress he was elected president 
 pro tempore of the senate. In 1881 he 
 was appointed by President Garfield a 
 member of the International monetary 
 conference at Paris. In 1888 he was 
 nominated by acclamation for Vice- 
 president on the Cleveland ticket, which 
 was defeated by Harrison and Morton. 
 He died in 1895. 
 
 THURSDAY (that is, “Thor’s day”), 
 the fifth day of the week, so called from 
 the old Teutonic god of thunder, Thor. 
 See Thor. 
 
 THWAITES, Reuben Gold, American 
 historical writer, was born in Dorches- 
 ter, Mass., in 1853. In 1866 he removed 
 to Wisconsin. From 1876 to 1886 he 
 was managing editor of The Wisconsin 
 State Journal, at Madison. In 1886 he 
 was elected secretary of the State His- 
 torical Society of Wisconsin, and editor 
 of the society’s Collections. He edited 
 the Wisconsin Historical Collections, 
 Chronicles of Border Warfare, and The 
 Jesuit Relations (73 vols.), his work on 
 the last being one of the most careful 
 and scholarly pieces of historical editing 
 ever done in America. He also pub- 
 lished: Historic Waterways, The Story 
 of Wisconsin, The Colonies, 1492-1750; 
 Stories of tlie Badger State, Daniel 
 Boone and P^re Marquette, and George 
 Rogers Clark. 
 
 THYESTES (thi-es'tez), in Greek my- 
 thology, son of Pelops and Hippodamia, 
 and grandson of Tantalus. Having se- 
 duced the wife of his brother Atreus, the 
 latter, in revenge, served up to him the 
 body of his own son at a feast. 
 
 THYME (tim), a small plant, a na- 
 tive of the south of Europe. It has a 
 strong aromatic odor, and yields an es- 
 sential oil which is used for flavoring 
 purposes. 
 
 THYMUS GLAND, a ductless tem- 
 porary organ situated in the middle line 
 of the body. After the end of the second 
 year of life it decreases in size, and al- 
 most or wholly disappears at puberty. 
 It is covered in front by the breast-bone, 
 lies on the front and sides of the wind- 
 pipe. Its functions are still undeter- 
 mined, 
 
 THYROID CARTILAGE. See Larynx. 
 
 THYROID GLAND, a ductless struc- 
 ture in man which covers the anterior 
 and inferior part of the larynx and the 
 first rings of the windpipe. It is of a 
 reddish color, and is more developed in 
 women than in men. It may become 
 abnormally enlarged, as in goitre. Its 
 use is not at all clear, but it probably 
 exerts some influence on the blood and 
 circulation, especially in childhood. 
 
 THYRSUS, among the Greeks, a wand 
 or spear wreathed with ivy leaves, and 
 with a pine-cone at the top, carried by 
 the followers of Bacchus as a symbol of 
 devotion. In ancient representations it 
 appears in various forms. 
 
 TIA'RA, originally the cap of the 
 Persian kings. The tiara of the pope is 
 
 a high cap, encircled by three coronets 
 with an orb and cross of gold at the top, 
 and on two sides of it a chain of precious 
 stones. Themitre alone was first adopted 
 by Damasus II. in 1048. It afterward 
 had a plain circlet of gold put around it. 
 It was surmounted by a coronet by 
 Boniface VIII. The second coronet was 
 added by Benedict XII., the third 
 coronet by L^rban V. 
 
 Various forms of thyrsus, from ancient vases. 
 
 TI'BER, a celebrated river of Italy, 
 which rises in the Apennines, in Tus- 
 cany, and, after a general southerly 
 course of about 240 miles, falls into the 
 Mediterranean by two mouths. It tra- 
 verses the city of Rome, here forming 
 the island anciently called Insula 
 Tiberina. About ninety miles of its 
 course are navigable for small vessels; 
 those of about 140 tons burden reach 
 Rome. 
 
 TIBE'RIAS. See Galilee, Sea of. 
 
 TIBERIUS, in full, Tiberius Claudius 
 Nero Caesar, a Roman emperor, born 
 B.c. 42, was the son of Tiberius Claudius, 
 of the ancient Claudian family, and of 
 Livia Drusilla, afterward the wife of the 
 emperor Augustus. Tiberius became 
 consul in his twenty-eighth year, and 
 was subsequently adopted by Augustus 
 as his heir. In a.d. 14 he succeeded to 
 the throne without opposition. Tacitus 
 records the events of the reign, includ- 
 ing the suspicious death of Germanicus, 
 the detestable administration of Sejanus, 
 the poisoning by that minister of 
 Drusus, the emperor’s son, and the in- 
 famous and dissolute retirement of 
 Tiberius (a.d. 27) to the Isle of Capreae, 
 in the Bay of Naples, never to return to 
 Rome. The death of Livia in a.d. 29 
 removed the only restraint upon his 
 actions, and the destruction of the 
 widow and family of Germanicus fol- 
 lowed. Sejanus, aspiring to the throne, 
 fell a victim to his ambition in the year 
 31 ; and many innocent persons were 
 destroyed owing to the suspicion and 
 cruelty of Tiberius, which now exceeded 
 all limits. He died in March, 37. 
 
 TIBET', or THIBET', a country 
 occupying the south portion of the great 
 plateau of Central Asia, lying between 
 ion. 73° and 101° e., and lat. 27° and 36° 
 n., and extending east and west from 
 Cashmere and the Karakorum range 
 to the frontiers of China; area about 
 700,000 sq. miles. Its plains average 
 above 10,000 feet in height, and many 
 of its mountains have twice that alti- 
 tude. In Tibet nearly all the great rivers 
 of South and East Asia take their rise 
 (Indus, Brahmaputra, Hoang-ho, Y'ang- 
 
TICINO 
 
 TlECK 
 
 tse-kiang, etc.), and there are numerous 
 salt and fresh-water lakes, situated from 
 13,800 to 15,000 feet above the sea- 
 level. The climate is characterized by 
 the excessive dryness of the atmosphere, 
 and the severity of the winter. Tibet 
 does a large trade with China, exchang- 
 ing gold-dust, incense, idols, and Euro- 
 pean and Indian goods, for tea, silks, 
 and other Chinese produce. The capital 
 is Lhassa. The form of government is a 
 hierarchy. The religion is Buddhism in a 
 form known as Lamaism, of which 
 Tibet is the principal seat. The lamas 
 or priests form a large proportion of the 
 population, and live in monasteries; 
 the two grandlamas being regarded as 
 the religious and political heads of the 
 state. Remains of an earlier creed exist 
 in the Boupo, a religion evolved from 
 Shamanism, but much influenced by 
 Buddhism, and frequently confounded 
 with the old school of the Buddhists. 
 The inhabitants are of an amiable dis- 
 position, but much averse to inter- 
 course with foreigners, few of whom 
 have been able to gain admittance to 
 the country. Their manners and mode 
 of life are rude. Polyandry is a com- 
 mon custom. The language is allied to 
 Chinese, and has been written and used 
 in literature for 1200 years. Tibet was 
 governed by its own princes till the 
 commencement of the 18th century, but 
 since 1720 it has been a dependency of 
 China. A Chinese functionary is always 
 stationed at the residence of the grand 
 lama, and a Chinese governor with a 
 military force is stationed in each of the 
 principal towns. Pop. about 5,000,000. 
 
 TICINO, a canton in the south of 
 Switzerland; area, 1088 sq. miles. The 
 northern and greater part of this canton 
 is an elevated and mountainous region, 
 the Spliigen, St. Bernardin, and Mount 
 St. Gothard forming its northern bound- 
 ary. Pop. 142,719. 
 
 TICKNOR, George, American histor- 
 ian, born at Boston in 1791, died there 
 in 1871. In 1849 he published a History 
 of Spanish Literature (three vols 8vo., 
 New York), corrected and enlarged 
 editions being subsequently published. 
 It was at once recognized by scholars as 
 a work of value, and has been trans- 
 lated into Spanish and German. After 
 some works of minor interest he pro- 
 duced in 1863 a Memoir of Prescott, 
 the historian, with whom he had main- 
 tained a close friendship. 
 
 TICKS, a family of parasitic animals, 
 possessing oval or rounded bodies, and 
 mouths, in the form of suckers, by which 
 they attach themselves to dogs, sheep, 
 oxen, and other mammals. Birds and 
 reptiles are also annoyed by the attacks 
 of certain species. 
 
 TIDES, the rising and falling of the 
 water of the sea, which occurs periodi- 
 cally, as observed at places on the coasts. 
 The tide appears as a general wave of 
 water, which gradually elevates itself 
 to a certain height, then as gradually 
 sinks till its surface is about as much 
 below the medium level as it was be- 
 fore above it. From that time the wave 
 again begins to rise ; and this recipro- 
 cating motion of the waters continues 
 constantly, with certain variations in 
 the height and in the times of attaining 
 the greatest degree of height and of 
 
 depression. The alternate rising and 
 falling of the tide-wave are observed 
 to take place generally twice in the 
 course of a lunar day, or of 24 hours 
 49 minutes of mean solar time, on most 
 of the shores of the ocean, and in the 
 greater part of the bays, firths, and 
 rivers which communicate freely with it. 
 The tides form what are called a flood 
 and an ebb, a high and low water. The 
 whole interval between high and low 
 water is often called a tide; the water 
 is said to flow and to ebb ; and the rising 
 is called the flood-tide and the fall- 
 ing the ebb-tide. The rise or fall of the 
 waters, in regard to elevation or de- 
 pression, is exceedingly different at 
 different places, and is also variable 
 everywhere. The interval between two 
 succeeding high-waters is also variable. 
 It is shortest about new and full moon. 
 
 diminishing the lunar tide, according as 
 the sun’s place in the heavens coincides 
 with the line of the moon’s attraction, 
 or the reverse. It is this difference which 
 produces what are known as spring 
 tides and neap tides. Spring tides occur 
 at new and full moon, and are the result 
 of the gravitating influence of both sun 
 and moon; neap tides occur when the 
 moon is in her quarters, and are not so 
 high as the spring tides, the lunar 
 influence being lessened by the sun’s 
 force acting in a direction at right angles 
 to it. The accompanying figures illus- 
 trate the theory of the tides, e being the 
 earth, m the moon, s the sun, w, Wj the 
 water raised up by attraction on the 
 opposite sides of the earth. Fig. 1 shows 
 spring tide at new moon, Fig. 2 spring 
 tide at full moon, the low tides being at 
 c and d. Fig. 3 illustrates the neap tides. 
 
 being then about 12 hours 19 minutes; 
 and about the time of the moon’s quad- 
 ratures it is 12 hours 30 minutes. But 
 these intervals are somewhat different 
 at different places. Tides are caused by 
 the attraction which the sun and moon 
 exert over the water of the earth. The 
 moon is the nearest of the heavenly 
 bodies to the earth, and the mobile 
 nature of water leads it to yield readily 
 to the attractive influence. Those parts 
 of the waters directly under the moon’s 
 vertical path in the heavens are drawn 
 out toward the moon. At the same 
 time the moon attracts the bulk of the 
 earth, and, as it were, pulls the earth 
 away from the water on the surface 
 furthest from it, so that here also the 
 water is raised, although not quite so 
 much as on the nearer side. The waters 
 being thus heaped up at the same time 
 on these two opposite parts of the earth, 
 and the waters situated half-way be- 
 tween them being thus necessarily de- 
 pressed, two high and two low tides 
 occur in the period of a little more than 
 one revolution of the earth on its axis. 
 The sun’s influence upon the tides is 
 evidenced in its either increasing or 
 
 a, a 2 being small tides caused by the sun 
 alone. The interference of coasts and 
 irregularities in the ocean beds cause the 
 great variations as to time and range 
 in the actual tides observed at different 
 places. In some places, as in the Ger- 
 man ocean at a point north of the Straits 
 of Dover, a high tide meets low water, 
 and thus maintains perpetual mean tide. 
 In the case cited high water transmitted 
 through the Straits of Dover encounters 
 low water transmitted round the north 
 of Scotland, and vice versa. The inter- 
 val of time at any place between noon 
 and the time of high water on the day 
 of full or new moon is called the estab- 
 lishment of the port. 
 
 TIECK (tek), Ludwig, German writer, 
 born at Berlin in 1773. At Jena in 1799- 
 1800 he entered on friendly relations 
 with the Schlegels, Novalis, Brentano, 
 and others, and through this association 
 arose what has been dominated as “the 
 Romantic School of Germany.” In 1817 
 he visited England, where he collected 
 material for his Shakespeare; and on his 
 return resided at Ziebingen till 1819, 
 when he removed to Dresden. From 
 this period his writings, as exemplified 
 
TIENTSIN 
 
 TILDEN 
 
 ^ in his Tales, bear the true stamp of 
 [ genius. These tales were ultimately 
 published complete in twelve volumes 
 ■ (Berlin, 1853), the principal being Dich- 
 terleben (A Poet’s Life — Shakespeare); 
 Der Tod des Poeten (The Poet’s Death — 
 Camoens); the Witches’ Sabbath, and 
 Aufriihr in den Cevennen (Revolt in the 
 Cevcnnes), an incomplete work. In 1826 
 he jmblished his Dramaturgische Bliitter 
 (two vols., Breslau). His study of Shake- 
 speare resulted in Shakespeare’s Vor- 
 schule (two vols., Leipzig, 1823-29); and 
 the continuation of the German trans- 
 lation of Shakespeare commenced by 
 Schlegel. His last story of importance 
 was Vittoria Accorombona (1840). He 
 died at Berlin on the 28th April, 1853. 
 
 TIENTSIN', a town in the north of 
 China, and the river-port of Pekin, with 
 which it communicates by the Pei-ho 
 river. This river is only navigable by 
 native craft, and large vessels have their 
 cargoes transhipped outside the mouth 
 of the Taku' roadstead. From October 
 to February the river is frozen, but in 
 tlie open season a large import trade is 
 carried on, chiefly in European goods 
 (Tientsin being one of the treaty ports). 
 The principal imports are cotton, sugar, 
 opium, paper, and tea; exports, dates, 
 cotton, camel’s wool, and coal. The 
 Taku forts were taken by the British 
 and French in 1860, and the capture of 
 Pekin followed. During the Boxer up- 
 rising in 1900 the foreign settlement 
 suffered from the besieging Boxers and 
 the city from the relieving forces of the 
 allies. Pop. 950,000. 
 
 TIER'RA (or Terra) DEL FUE'GO 
 (“Land of Fire’’), a large group of is- 
 lands at the southern extremity of 
 South America, separated from the 
 mainland by the Strait of Magellan. 
 It consists of one large island and numer- 
 ous smaller islands, with a total area 
 of about 32,000 sq. miles. The eastern 
 part of the group belongs to the Argen- 
 tine Republic, the western part to Chile. 
 These islands consist chiefly of moun- 
 tains covered with perpetual ice and 
 snow, or clothed with stunted forests, 
 mainly of evergreen-beech. Tierra del 
 Fuego was discovered by Magalhaens 
 in 1520, and named “Land of Fire’’ from 
 the numerous fires he saw on its coasts 
 during the night. Pop. about 2,100. 
 
 TIERS-ETAT (ti-ar-za-ta; “third es- 
 tate’’), the name given in the ancient 
 French monarchy to the third order of 
 the nation, which, together with the 
 nobility and clergy, formed the 4tats 
 gf-ncraux (states-general). It consisted 
 of the deputies of the bourgeoisie, that 
 is, the free inhabitants of the towns and 
 communes who did not belong to either 
 of the other two estates. In 1789 the 
 states-general, or rather the tiers-6tat 
 by itself, assumed the name of the Na- 
 tional assembly. 
 
 TIFLIS, capital of a government of 
 the same name and of Russian Caucasia, 
 is situated on the river Kur, 500 feet 
 above the level of the Black sea. Pop. 
 160,645. — The government has an area 
 of 15,000 sq. miles; is very mountainous; 
 produces cereals, fruits, etc., in the 
 valleys, and has immense forests of ex- 
 cellent timber. Pop. 1,040,943. 
 
 TIFFANY, Charles Louis, American 
 ,• merchant, was born at Killingly, Conn., 
 
 in 1812, and removed to New York City 
 in 1837, and ^barked in the jewelry 
 business. In 1850 he made a large for- 
 tune in buying diamonds when they had 
 fallen 50 per cent in value owing to 
 the general revolutionary movement 
 throughout Europe. During the civil 
 war Mr. Tiffany placed his store and 
 resources at the disposal of the govern- 
 ment and it became for a time one of the 
 principal depots of military supplies. Mr. 
 Tiffany was made a member of the 
 French Legion of Honor in 1878 and 
 received at various times decorations 
 from other foreign rulers. He was a 
 liberal patron of the fine arts, and did 
 much to encourage and promote the 
 study and knowledge of art in America. 
 He died in 1902. 
 
 TIF'FIN, the county-seat of Seneca 
 CO., Ohio, 40 miles southeast of Toledo- 
 on the Sandusky river, here spanned 
 by several bridges, and on the Balti- 
 more and Ohio, the Pennsylvania, and 
 the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and 
 St. Louis railroads. Pop. 13,400. 
 
 TIGER, a well-knowm carnivorous 
 animal, possessing in common with the 
 lion, leopard, etc., five toes on the front 
 feet and four on the hinder feet, all the 
 toes being furnished with strong re- 
 tractile claws. The tiger is about the 
 height of the lion, but the body is longer 
 and the head rounder. It is of a bright 
 fawn-color above, a pure white below, 
 irregularly crossed with black stripes. 
 The tiger attains its full development in 
 India, the name of “Bengal tiger’’ being 
 generally used as synonymous with those 
 
 Royal tiger. 
 
 specimens which appear as the typical 
 and most powerful representatives of 
 the species. The tiger also occurs in Java 
 and Sumatra. In habits it is far more 
 active and agile than the lion, and ex- 
 hibits a large amount of fierce cunning. 
 It generally selects the neighborhood of 
 water-courses as its habitat, and springs 
 upon the animals that approach to 
 drink. “Man-eaters” are tigers which 
 have acquired a special liking for human 
 prey. The natives destroy tigers by 
 traps, pits, poisoned arrows, and other 
 means. Tiger-hunting is a favorite 
 ‘Indian sport. 
 
 TIGER-BEETLE, a species of coleop- 
 terous insects w-hich are swift and active 
 in their movements, and prey upon 
 other insects. 
 
 TIGER-FLOWER, a Mexican bulbous 
 plant frequently cultivated in gardens 
 on account of the magnificence of its 
 flowers. The stem is about 1 foot in 
 height, with sword-shaped leaves. The 
 flowers are large, of a singular form, 
 and very evanescent. The petals are 
 of a fine orange-red toward the ex- 
 tremity; whitish or yellowish and beau- 
 tifully spotted at the base. 
 
 TIGER-LILY, a native of China, com- 
 mon in gardens, having scarlet flow-ers 
 turned downward, the perianth being 
 
 reflexed. It is remarkable for having 
 axillary buds on the stem. The bulbs are 
 eaten in China and Japan. 
 
 TIGER-MOTH, a genus of insects, 
 the caterpillars of which are well known 
 under the popular name of “woolly 
 bears.” The moth is colored red and 
 brown. The larvaj feed on dead-nettles. 
 
 TIGRIS, a river in Western Asia, 
 having its principal source in the Turk- 
 ish province of Diarbekir, on the south- 
 ern slope of the Anti-Taurus, a few 
 miles to the east of the Euphrates. It 
 flows generally southeast, passes Diar- 
 bekir, Mosul, and Bagdad, and joins 
 the Euphrates somewhat more than 100 
 miles from its embouchure in the Persian 
 gulf, after a course of 1100 miles, the 
 united stream being known as the Shatt- 
 el-Arab. Large rafts, supported by in- 
 flated skins, are much in use for the 
 transport of goods. Between the Tigris 
 and the Euphrates lies the celebrated 
 region Mesopotamia. 
 
 TILDEN, Samuel Jones, American 
 statesman, -was born at New Lebanon, 
 N. Y., in 1814. He became chairman of 
 the democratic state committee in 1866. 
 The Tweed “ring” in New York City 
 dreaded him, and in 1869 attempted to 
 remove him from his chairmanship. 
 Tilden then became the soul of the legal 
 attacks upon the ring and worked for 
 the removal of the corrupt judges who 
 were their tools. In 1874 he was elected 
 governor of the state by the democrats. 
 In 1876 the national democratic con- 
 vention nominated him for the presi- 
 dency, the republicans nominating gov- 
 ernor Hayes of Ohio. The result was 
 the disputed election of 1876-77, when 
 each party secured about the same num- 
 ber of electors outside of the three 
 southern states of Florida, South Caro- 
 lina, and Louisiana. In this emergency 
 Tilden consented to the appointment 
 of an extra-constitutional body, an 
 “electoral commission.” to decide dis- 
 puted cases, the decisions of which were 
 to hold good unless reversed by con- 
 current vote of the two houses. Tlie 
 commission decided all the cases in 
 
TILES 
 
 TIMOTHY 
 
 favor of the republican candidates, and 
 Tilden was defeated. He continued in 
 retirement until his death, which took 
 place at Greystone, N. Y., on August 
 4, 1886. 
 
 TILES, a term applied to a variety of 
 articles made either for ornament, such 
 as inlaid paving tiles (see Encaustic 
 Tiles and Mosaic), or for use, as in tile- 
 draining (see Draining) and roofing, 
 which last are made similarly to bricks, 
 and of similar clay. 
 
 TILLY, Johann Tserklaes, Count of, 
 one of the most celebrated generals of 
 the 17th century, born about 1559, in 
 Walloon Brabant. On the outbreak of 
 the Thirty Years’ war he led the army 
 destined to crush the Protestants in 
 Bohemia. He defeated them on the 
 White mountains (November, 1620), 
 and in 1622 conquered the Palatinate, 
 defeating several Protestant com- 
 manders. On the 27th August, 1626, 
 he defeated Christian IV. of Denmark 
 in Brunswick, and compelled him to 
 return to his own country. In 1630 
 Tilly s\icceeded Wallenstein as general- 
 issimo of the imperial troops. His most 
 celebrated exploit is the bloody sack 
 of Magdeburg, May 10, 1631. Gustavus 
 Adolphus met him at Breitenfeld, near 
 Leipzig, September 7, and Tilly was en- 
 tirely beaten, and was himself wounded. 
 In a subsequent engagement with the 
 Swedes on the Lech a cannon-ball shat- 
 tered his thigh, and caused his death in 
 1632. 
 
 TILL'MAN, Benjamin Ryan, Ameri- 
 can politician, was born in Edgefield 
 CO., S.C., inl847. He became the leader 
 of the farming element in the demo- 
 cratic party, received the support of 
 the Farmers’ Alliance, and in 1890, was 
 elected governor of the state. He was 
 reelected in 1892, and in 1895 was 
 elected United States senator being 
 reelected to that office for a second time 
 in 1901. He was active in both “free- 
 silver” campaigns, in 1896 and 1900, as 
 one of the most radical supporters of the 
 candidacy of W. J. Bryan. 
 
 TILT-HAMMER, a large and heavy 
 hammer worked by steam or water 
 power, and used in forgings. It has been 
 largely superseded by the steam-ham- 
 mer, but is still advantageously used 
 with light work. Cogs (as at c c in cut) 
 
 Tilt-hammer. 
 
 being brought to bear on the tail of the 
 hammer (a), its depression causes the 
 head (d) to be elevated, which, when the 
 tail is liberated, falls with considerable 
 force by its own weight. 
 
 TIMBER, a general term applied to 
 wood used for constructive purposes, 
 as that of the different kinds of fir and 
 pine, the oak, ash, elm, beech, sycamore, 
 chestnut, walnut, mahogany, teak, etc. 
 The sap in timber is the great cause of 
 its decay; hence, at whatever period 
 timber is felled, it requires to be thor- 
 
 1 oughly seasoned before being used in 
 building. The object of seasoning is 
 partly to evaporate the sap, and partly 
 to reduce the dimensions of the wood 
 so that it may be used without further 
 shrinking. Timber seasons best when 
 placed in dry situations, where the air 
 has a free circulation round it. Wood for 
 building becomes compact and durable 
 after two or three years’ seasoning. But 
 this mode of seasoning only removes a 
 portion of the aqueous and volatile 
 matter from the wood, the extractive 
 and soluble portion still remains, and is 
 liable to ferment on the reabsorption of 
 moisture. It is often extremely difficult 
 to preserve wood which is to be exposed 
 to the weather, or is to remain in a warm 
 and moist atmosphere. No entirely 
 satisfactory process has yet been dis- 
 covered for the preservation of tim- 
 ber and the prevention of dry-rot. 
 The most successful method consists in 
 extracting the sap, in excluding mois- 
 ture, and in impregnating the vessels 
 of the wood with antiseptic substances 
 such as creosote. The sap may be ex- 
 tracted by water seasoning, in which 
 the green timber is immersed in clear 
 water for about two weeks, being then 
 seasoned in the usual manner. It has 
 also been proposed to extract the sap by 
 means of an air-pump. The charring of 
 timber on the outside is commonly 
 supposed to increase its durability, but 
 experiments on this subject do not 
 agree. The exclusion of moisture by 
 covering the surface with a coating of 
 paint, varnish, tar, etc., is a well-known 
 preservative of wood exposed to the 
 weather. But painting is no preserva- 
 tive against the internal or dry rot. 
 Only wood thoroughly seasoned should 
 be painted. Resinous woods are more 
 durable than others, and the impreg- 
 nation of wood with tar, bitumen, and 
 other resinous substances undoubtedly 
 promotes its preservation. Wood im- 
 pregnated with drying oils becomes 
 harder and more capable of resisting 
 moisture. Common salt (chloride of 
 sodium) is a well-known preservative. 
 The immersion of seasoned timber in 
 sea-water is generally admitted to pro- 
 mote its durability. Chloride of zinc 
 and creosote are extensively used for 
 the preservation of wood. 
 
 TIMBREL, a kind of drum, tabor, or 
 tabret, which has been in use from the 
 highest antiquity, and is much the same 
 as the tambourine. 
 
 TIME, in music. See Music. 
 
 TIME, the general idea of successive 
 existence, or that in which events take 
 place, space being that in which things 
 are contained. Relative time is the 
 sensible measure of any portion of dura- 
 tion, often marked by some phenom- 
 enon, as the apparent revolution of the 
 celestial bodies, more especially of the 
 sun, or the rotation of the earth on its 
 axis. Time is divided into years, months, 
 weeks, days, hours, minutes, and sec- 
 onds; but of these portions the year 
 and days only are marked by celestial 
 phenomena. (See Day, Year.) The in- 
 struments employed for measuring time 
 are clocks, watches, chronometers, hour- 
 glasses, and dials; but the three first are 
 those chiefly used. 
 
 TIME STANDARD, primarily for the > 
 
 convenience of the railroads, a standard 
 of time was established by mutual 
 agreement in 1883, by which trains are 
 run and local time regulated. Accord- 
 ing to this system, the United States, 
 extending from 65° to 125° west longi- 
 tude, is divided into four time sections, 
 each of 15° of longitude, exactly equiv- 
 alent to one hour, commencing with 
 the 75th meridian. The first (eastern) 
 section includes all territory between 
 the Atlantic coast and an irregular line 
 drawn from Detroit to Charleston, S. C., 
 the latter being its most southern point. 
 The second (central) section includes 
 all the territory between the last-named 
 line and an irregular line from Bismarck, 
 N. D., to the mouth of the Rio Grande. 
 The third (mountain) section includes 
 all territory between the last-named 
 line and nearly the western borders of 
 Idaho, Utah, and Arziona. The fourth 
 (Pacific) section covers the rest of the 
 country to the Pacific coast. Standard 
 time is uniform inside each of these sec- 
 tions, and the time of each section differs 
 from that next to it by exactly one hour. 
 Thus at 12 noon in New York City 
 (eastern time), the time at Chicago 
 (central time) is 11 o’clock a.m.; at 
 Denver (mountain time), 10 o’clock a.m. 
 and at San Francisco (Pacific time), 9 
 o’clock a.m. Standard time is 16 min- 
 utes slower at Boston than true local 
 time, 4 minutes slower at New York, 
 8 minutes faster at Washington, 19 
 minutes faster at Charleston, 28 minutes 
 slower at Detroit, 18 minutes faster at 
 Kansas City, 10 minutes slower at Chi- 
 cago, 1 minute faster at St. Louis, 28 
 minutes faster at Salt Lake City, and 10 
 minutes faster at San Francisco. 
 
 TIMOR, the largest and most eastern 
 of the Lesser Sunda islands, in the 
 Asiatic archipelago, southeast of Celebes 
 is politically divided between Holland 
 and Portugal; area, 11,000 sq. miles. 
 The natives are partly Papuans, partly 
 Malays. The trade, chiefly in the hands 
 of Chinese, is carried on mostly through 
 Koepang. The exports are sandal-wood, 
 trepang, wax, horses, tortoise-shell, 
 birds’-nests, etc. Pop. about 500,000. 
 
 TIMOTHY, a disciple of St. Paul, was 
 born in Lycaonia, Asia Minor, probably 
 at Lystra, of a Gentile father and Jewish 
 mother. When St. Paul visited Lystra 
 on his second missionary journey, 
 Timothy became an active fellow- 
 worker with the apostle, and he accom- 
 panied him and Silas in the further 
 course of their mission. He went with 
 Paul to Philippi and Bercea, and re- 
 mained alone in the latter city, after- 
 ward rejoining the apostle at Athens, 
 from which city he was sent to Thes- 
 salonica. After remaining there some 
 time he again joined Paul at Corinth. 
 Five years later, he is found with his 
 master at Ephesus, whence he was sent 
 with Erastus into Macedonia and Achaia 
 to prepare the churches for Paul’s 
 meditated visit. Timothy met the 
 apostle again in Macedonia, and pre- 
 ceded him on his journey to Jerusalem. 
 He again appears at Rome with Paul 
 at the time when the epistles to the 
 Colossians, Philippians, and Philemon 
 were written. Timothy was on one 
 occasion left at Ephesus when Paul 
 Unto Macedonia (1 Tim. i. 3). Traditiou ^ 
 
TIMOTHY 
 
 TINTORETTO 
 
 makes him the first bishop of Ephesus. 
 He is said to have been martyred in the 
 reign of Domitian or Nerva. 
 
 TIMOTHY, Epistles to, two books of 
 the New Testament attributed to St. 
 Paul. These epistles, along with that to 
 Titus, arc called the pastoral epistles, 
 as to the genuineness of which there has 
 been considerable controversy. By the 
 early Christian fathers they were almost 
 universally accepted as genuine, and 
 their genuineness is also supported by 
 external testimony. They were, how- 
 ever, rejected by Marcion, Basilides, and 
 other Gnostic heretics. In modern 
 times both views have been ably advo- 
 cated. Their genuineness is chiefly 
 attacked on the grounds that their style 
 dilTers from that of the acknowledged 
 epistles of St. Paul, that the heresies 
 alluded to in the epistles betray a later 
 age, that the ecclesiastical polity of the 
 epistles is too complete to belong to the 
 time of the apostles, and that it is 
 difficult to find any part of the apostle’s 
 life to which they can be assigned. 
 Biblical critics generally meet the last 
 difficulty by assigning them to a period 
 after the close of the narrative in the 
 Acts, the second epistle to Timothy be- 
 ing written while St. Paul was under- 
 going a second iraprisomuent in Rome. 
 
 TIMOTHY-GRASS, a hard coarse 
 grass with cylindrical spikes from 2 to 6 
 inches long. It is used mixed with other 
 grasses for permanent pasture, and 
 grows best in tenacious soils. It is ex- 
 tensively cultivated throughout Great 
 Britain and also in North America. 
 Swine refuse it. 
 
 TIMUR, called also Timur Beg and 
 Timur Lank (that is, Timur the Lame), 
 and, by corruption, Tamerlane, a cele- 
 brated oriental conqueror of Mongol 
 or Tartar race, born in the territory of 
 Kesh, near Samarcand, in 1336. By 
 degrees he conquered Persia, and the 
 whole of Central Asia, and extended his 
 power from the great wall of China to 
 Mo.scow. He invaded India (1398), 
 which he conquered from the Indus to 
 the mouths of the Ganges, massacring, 
 it is said, on one occasion 100,000 
 prisoners. On his way from India to 
 i:ieet the forces of Bajazet, the Turkish 
 sultan, he subjugated Bagdad, plun- 
 dered Aleppo, burned down the greater 
 part of Damascus, and wrested Syria 
 from the Mamelukes, after which he 
 overran Asia Minor with an immense 
 anny. Bajazet’s army was completely 
 defeated on the plain of Ancyra (An- 
 gora) in 1402, and the sultan was taken 
 prisoner The conquests of the Tartar 
 now extended from the Irtish and Volga 
 to the Persian Gulf, and from the 
 Ganges to the Grecian archipelago. He 
 was making mighty preparations for an 
 invasion of China when death arrested 
 his progress at his camp at Otrar, be- 
 yond the Sir-Daria, in 1405, and his 
 empire immediately fell to pieces 
 
 TIN, a hard, white, ductile metal; 
 atomic weight 118. Tin appears to have 
 been known in the time of Moses; and 
 the Phoenicians traded largely in the tin 
 ores of Cornwall. The mountains between 
 Galicia and Portugal, and those separat- 
 ing Saxony and Bohemia, were also pro- 
 ductive of tin centuries ago, and still 
 continue unexhausted. Tin occurs in 
 
 the Malay peninsula, the island of 
 Banca, India, Mexico, Chile, Peru, the 
 United States, Australia, etc. There are 
 only two ores of tin; the native binox- 
 ide, called tin-stone, and the double 
 sulphide of tin and copper, called tin- 
 pyrites. The former is the only ore used 
 for obtaining metallic tin. It occurs in 
 various crystalized forms, in deep lodes 
 blended with several other metals, as 
 arsenic, copper, zinc, and tungsten, 
 when it is known as mine-tin; or, in dis- 
 seminated masses in alluvial soil, in 
 which state it is called stream-tin. Mine- 
 tin, when reduced to the metallic state, 
 yields block-tin while stream-tin yields 
 a purer sort called grain-tin. The ore is 
 first ground and washed, and then 
 roasted in a reverberatory furnace to 
 expel the sulphur and arsenic. Mixed 
 with limestone and fuel, it is again fused 
 in a furnace for about eight hours, the 
 earthy matters flowing off with the lime, 
 while the oxide of tin, reduced to a 
 metallic state, falls by its own weight to 
 the bottom, and is drawn off. The tin, 
 still impure, is again moderately heated, 
 when it melts and flows off into the re- 
 fining basins, leaving the greater part of 
 the foreign metals in a solid state. The 
 molten tin is stirred in order to disperse 
 the gases, and, when partially cool, it 
 separates in zones, the upper consisting 
 of nearly pure tin, 'while the under is so 
 impure that it must be melted again. 
 The upper layer is removed, cast into 
 blocks, and sold as block-tin, the purest 
 specimens being called refined-tin. Tin- 
 pyrites, the other ore of tin, contains 
 from 14 to 30 per cent of tin, and is 
 found at St. Agnes in Cornwall, in 
 Saxony, and in Bolivia. Pure tin has a 
 fine white color like silver. It has a 
 slightly disagreeable taste, and emits a 
 peculiar sound when rubbed. Its hard- 
 ness is between that of gold and lead, 
 and it is very malleable. Specific gravity 
 7.28. Melting point about 230° C. Tin is 
 very flexible, and when bent emits a 
 crackling sound, sometimes called the 
 cry of tin. It loses its luster when ex- 
 posed to the air, but undergoes no fur- 
 ther alteration. Tin will unite with 
 arsenic and with antimony, but does not 
 readily combine with iron. Combined 
 with copper it forms bronze, bell-metal, 
 and several other useful alloys. With 
 lead it forms pewter and solder of vari- 
 ous kinds. Tin-plate is formed by dip- 
 ping thin plates of iron into melted tin; 
 they are afterward cleaned with sand 
 and steeped for twenty-four hours in 
 water acidulated by bran or sulphuric 
 acid. Tin is principally employed in the 
 formation of alloys. Its oxides are used 
 in enamelling, and for polishing the 
 metals, and its solution in nitro-muriatic 
 acid is an important mordant in the art 
 of dyeing, rendering several colors, par- 
 ticularly scarlet, more brilliant and 
 permanent 
 
 TIN'AMOU, the name given to a genus 
 and family of birds occuring in South 
 America, and allied in some respects to 
 the ostrich and emeu. They somewhat 
 resemble a partridge, and vary in size 
 from that of a pheasant down to that of 
 a quail. The great tinamou is about 18 
 inches long, and inhabits the forests of 
 Guiana. 
 
 TIN'DALL, or TYNDALE, William, a 
 
 martyr to the Reformation, born about 
 1484 in Gloucestershire, and educated 
 at Oxford. He removed to London, 
 where he began his English version of 
 the New Testament, and subsequently 
 proceeded to Germany, visiting Luther 
 at Wittenberg. Having completed his 
 translation he got it partly printed in 
 quarto at Bologne; but he had to flee 
 from this town, and the complete work 
 was printed in octavo at Worms. The 
 greater part was sent to England, and 
 the prelates Warham and Tunstall col- 
 lected all copies they could seize or pur- 
 chase, and committed them to the 
 flames. The only fragment of the quarto 
 edition known to exist is preserved in 
 the British museum. Tindall also trans- 
 lated the Pentateuch, and subsequently 
 Jonah. In 1530 he took up his residence 
 at Antwerp. In 1535 he was thrown into 
 prison at Vilvorde near Brussels, and 
 being found guilty of heresy he was 
 strangled in 1536 and his body burned 
 at the stake. 
 
 TINDER, any substance artificially 
 rendered readily ignitible but not in- 
 flammable. Before the invention of 
 chemical matches it was the chief means 
 of procuring fire. The tinder, ignited by 
 a spark from a flint, was brought into 
 contact with matches dipped in sulphur. 
 Tinder may be made of half-burnt linen, 
 and of various other substances, such as 
 amadou, touchwood, or German tinder. 
 
 TIN-FOIL, pure tin, or an alloy of tin 
 and lead, beaten into leaves about njVffth 
 part of an inch thick. It is often used to 
 cover up articles that are not to be ex- 
 posed to atmospheric moisture. 
 
 TINNEVELLI, a town in the southeast 
 of India, in the presidency of Madras, 
 the largest town of the district of the 
 same name. Pop. 40,469. — The district, 
 which occupies the extreme south- 
 eastern corner of the Indian peninsula, 
 has an area of 5381 sq. miles, and pop. 
 1,916,095. 
 
 TIN-PLATE. See Tin. 
 
 TINTORETTO, the surname of a 
 Venetian historical painter, Giacomo 
 or Jacopo Robusti, born at Venice in 
 1518, died there in 1594. He painted 
 many works for his native city, among 
 which are a Last Judgment, the Israel- 
 ites Worshipping the Golden Calf, the 
 Miracle of St. 5lark (his masterpiece), 
 etc. His portrait, by himself, is in the 
 Louvre; and there are many of his paint- 
 ings in Germany, Spain, France, and 
 England. Equal in several respects to 
 Titian or Paul Veronese, he wants the 
 
TIPPERAH 
 
 TOAD 
 
 dignity of the former, and the grace and 
 richness of composition of the latter. 
 His manner of painting was bold, with 
 strong lights, opposed by deep shadows. 
 His execution was very unequal. 
 
 TIP'PERAH, a district of British 
 India, in the Chattagong division of 
 Bengal; area, 2491 sq. miles. Pop. 
 1,782,935. 
 
 TIPPERA'RY, an inland county in 
 Ireland, in the province of Munster, 
 bounded by King’s county. Queen’s 
 county, Kilkenny, Waterford, Cork, 
 Limerick, Clare, and Galway; area, 1659 
 sq. miles, or 1,061,731 acres, of which a 
 fourth is under tillage. The soil is ex- 
 tremely fertile ; the chief crops are oats, 
 potatoes, and wheat. Pop 159,754. — 
 Tipperary, the county town, situated on 
 the river Arra, 98 miles s.w. of Dublin. 
 Pop. 6281. 
 
 TISSUES, (1) in animal anatomy, the 
 texture or grouping of anatomieal ele- 
 ments of which the systems of organs are 
 composed. Thus in special histology we 
 speak of muscular tissue, or flesh; 
 osseous tissue, or bone; adipose tissue, 
 or fat; eartilaginous tissue, or gristle; 
 pigmentary tissue, or coloring matter 
 seen in the skin, etc.; areolar, cellular, 
 or connective tissue, widely distributed 
 
 Vegetable tissue. 
 
 1, Prosenchyma or woody tissue. 2, Horizon- 
 tal section ot prosenchymatous tissue. 3, Do. 
 do. of a single cell, showing the successive lay- 
 ers of deposit in the interior which give hard- 
 ness and firmness to the wood ot plants. 4, Cy- 
 lindrical parenchyma. 5, Round or elliptical 
 parenchymatous tissue. 6, Spongiform or 
 stellate tissue. 
 
 in every part of the body, and serving 
 to bind together and consolidate other 
 parts and tissues. (2) In vegetable 
 anatomy, the minute elementary struc- 
 tures of which the organs of plants are 
 composed. Plant tissues are composed 
 of elementary membrane and elemen- 
 tary fibre, and the principal forms under 
 which they exhibit themselves consti- 
 tute cellular tissue, fibrous tissue, and 
 vascular tissue. 
 
 TITANIUM, a metal discovered in 
 1791. It is found combined with oxygen 
 in several minerals, and occurs espe- 
 cially in iron ores, which hence receive 
 the name of titaniferous iron ores. 
 Titanium is a dark green, heavy, amor- 
 phous powder, and some authorities 
 doubt its metallic character. The ores 
 of this metal include menachanite, from 
 Menachan in Cornwall, where it was 
 originally found; iserine, from the river 
 Iser in Silesia; sphene, rutile, brookite, 
 etc. 
 
 TITANS, in Greek mythology, the sons 
 and daughters of Urftnus (Heaven) and 
 Ge (Earth). They were twelve in num- 
 ber, six sons and six daughters. They 
 rose against UrSnus and deposed him, 
 
 raising Cronus, one of their number, to 
 the throne. They were afterward over- 
 come by Zeus, and thrown into Tartarus, 
 
 TITHES, the tenth part of the increase 
 yearly arising from the profits of lands, 
 the stock upon lands, and the industry 
 of the occupants, allotted to the clergy 
 for their maintenance. The custom of 
 giving and paying tithes is very ancient, 
 and was legally enjoined by Moses 
 (Lev. xxvii., Deut. xiv., and elsewhere). 
 In 578 Charlemagne established the pay- 
 ment of tithes in those parts of the 
 Roman empire under his sway, dividing 
 them into four parts; one to maintain 
 the edifice of the church, the second to 
 support the poor, the third the bishop, 
 and the fourth the parochial clergy. 
 Similar laws were afterward enacted in 
 various states of Western Europe. Their 
 pa3mient was first enjoined in England 
 by a constitutional decree of a synod 
 held in 786. Offa, king of Mercia, in 794 
 made a law giving the tithes of all his 
 kingdom to the church, and similar laws 
 were enacted by Athelstan and Canute. 
 The first mention of tithes in statute law 
 is in 1285. 
 
 TITIAN (tish'-i-an), or TIZIANO VE- 
 CELLIO (tit-si-a'no ve-chel'li-o), one of 
 the most distinguished of the great 
 Italian painters, and head of the Vene- 
 tian school, was born at Pieve de Cadore, 
 in the Carnic Alps, in 1477. In 1512 he 
 completed the unfinished pictures of 
 Giovanni Bellini in the Sala del Gran 
 Consiglio at Venice, and the senate were 
 so pleased that they gave him an im- 
 portant office. To this period are 
 attributed his pictures of the Tribute 
 Money and Sacred and Profane Love. 
 In 1514 he painted a portrait of Aristo 
 at Ferrara, and after his return to 
 Venice, he painted an Assumption of 
 the Virgin (1516), considered one of the 
 finest pictures in the world; it is now in 
 the Academy of the Fine Arts in Venice. 
 About 1528 he produced his magnificent 
 picture. The Death of St. Peter the 
 Martyr. Many of his master-pieces, such 
 as The Sleeping Venus, Christ in the 
 Garden, St. Margaret and the Dragon, 
 
 Titian 
 
 are to be found in Spain where they 
 were painted during his sojourn there. 
 In 1537 he painted an Annunciation, 
 and in 1541 he produced The Descent 
 of the Holy Ghost on the Apostles, The 
 Sacrifice of Abraham, and David and 
 Goliath. In 1543 he painted his picture 
 of The Virgin and San Tiziano. He died 
 of the plague in 1576, aged ninety-nine. 
 Titian excelled as much in landscape as 
 in figure-painting, was equally great in 
 
 sacred and profane subjects, in ideal jB 
 heads and in portraits, in frescoes and 9 
 in oils; and though others may have Jj 
 surpassed him in single points, none J 
 equalled him in general mastery. As a S 
 colorist he is almost unrivaled, and his ^ 
 pictures often reach the perfection of *1 
 sensuous beauty. g 
 
 TITLE-DEEDS, in law, are the docu- J 
 mentary evidences of ownership of real * 
 property. Z 
 
 TITMOUSE, TIT, or TOMTIT, the 5 
 name given to a number of dentirostral • 
 insessorial birds inhabiting most parts 
 of the world. They are very active little 
 birds, continually flitting from branch to ? 
 branch, devouring seeds and insects 
 and not sparing even small birds when ’i 
 they happen to find them sick and are * 
 able to put an end to them. Their notes ^ 
 are shrill and wild. They build in the 
 hollows of trees, in walls, etc. The great ■ •' 
 
 Blue titmouse, male and female. 
 
 titmouse is between five and six inches 
 long, and inhabits Britain and Europe 
 generally. Other British species are the 
 blue titmouse, the long-tailed tit, the 
 coal-tit, and the marsh-tit. The crested 
 titmouse and the bearded titmouse are 
 comparatively rare in England, but 
 common on the continent. Several 
 species are North American, some of 
 them known as chickadee. 
 
 TITUS, or in full, TITUS FLAVIUS 
 SABINUS VESPASIANUS, a Roman em- 
 peror, born A.D. 40, was the eldest son 
 of the Emperor Vespasian. He became 
 sole emperor in 79, and showed himself 
 as an enlightened and munificent ruler, 
 distinguished by benevolence and phil- 
 anthropy. He died on the 13th Sep- 
 tember, 81, after a reign of a little over 
 two years and two months. His brother 
 Domitian was strongly suspected of 
 having poisoned him. 
 
 TITUS, a disciple and assistant of the 
 apostle Paul, and the person to whom . 
 one of the canonical epistles of the New 
 Testament is addressed. He was a gen- 
 tile by origin, and probably a native of 
 Antioch. He labored with Paul in Asia 
 Minor, Macedonia, and Crete, and is said 
 to have been the first Christian bishop 
 of Crete. 
 
 TITUS, Epistle to, one of the three 
 pastoral epistles of the New Testament 
 (the remaining two being those ad- 
 dressed to Timothy), believed to have 
 been written by St. Paul after his first 
 imprisonment at Rome. The topics 
 handled are the same which we find in 
 the other two kindred epistles. See 
 Timothy, Epistles to 
 
 TOAD, the name applied to various ' 
 genera of tailless amphibians. Toad.s 
 have a thick bulky body, covered with ' 
 warts or papillae. They have no teeth, 
 and the ton^e is fixed to the front of the 
 
TOBACCO 
 
 TOGA 
 
 mouth, but the posterior extremity is 
 free and protrusible. The hind feet are 
 but slightly webbed. They leap badly, 
 and generally avoid the water, except 
 in the breeding season. Their food con- 
 sists of insects and worms. Toads have 
 a most unprepossessing aspect and out- 
 ward appearance. The toad is easily 
 tamed, and exhibits a considerable 
 amount of intelligence as a pet. It lies 
 torpid in some hole during winter. In- 
 sects are caught by a sudden protrusion 
 •f the tongue, which is provided with a 
 
 Common American toad. 
 
 viscous secretion. There are some ten 
 species of toads in North America. The 
 toad is extremely tenacious of life, but 
 experiments have conclusively shown 
 that there is no truth in the oft-repeated 
 stories of the creature being able to sup- 
 port life when inclosed in solid rock for 
 immense periods of time. Dr. Buckland 
 has shown that when excluded from air 
 and food, frogs and toads, in virtue of 
 their slow circulation and cold-blooded 
 habits, might survive about a year or 
 eighteen months at most. 
 
 TOBACCO, a very important plant, 
 belonging to the natural order Atro- 
 paceae, or nightshade order. The in- 
 troduction of the use of tobacco forms 
 a singular chapter in the history of man- 
 kind. According to some authorities 
 smoking was practiced by the Chinese at 
 a very early date. At the time of the dis- 
 covery of America, tobacco was in fre- 
 quent use among the Indians, and the 
 practice of smoking, which had with 
 them a religious character, was com- 
 mon to almost all the tribes. The name 
 tobacco was either derived from the term 
 used in Hayti to designate the pipe, or 
 from Tabaca in St. Domingo, whence it 
 was introduced into Spain and Portugal 
 in 1559 by a Spaniard. It soon found its 
 way to Paris and Rome, and was first 
 used in the shape of snuff. Smoking is 
 generally supposed to have been intro- 
 duced into England by Sir Walter 
 Raleigh, but Camden says the practice 
 was introduced by Drake and his com- 
 panions on their return from Virginia 
 in 1 585. It was strongly opposed by both 
 priests and rulers. Pope Urban VIII. 
 and Innocent IX. issued bulls excom- 
 municating such as used snuff in church, 
 and in Turkey smoking was made a 
 capital offense. In the canton of Bern 
 the prohibition of the use of tobacco was 
 put among the ten commandments, im- 
 mediately after that forbidding adultery. 
 The Counterblast or denunciation writ- 
 ten by James I. of England is a matter 
 of history. All prohibitions, however, 
 regal or priestly, were of no avail, and 
 tobacco is now the most extensively 
 
 used luxury on the face of the earth. 
 The most commonly cultivated to- 
 bacco plant is glutinous, and covered 
 with a very short down; the stem up- 
 right, 4 or 5 feet high, and branching; 
 the leaves are lanceolate, from 6 to IS 
 inches long; the flowers are terminal and 
 rose-colored. A less esteemed species is 
 distinguished by a short yellowish- 
 green corolla. All the tobacco plants are 
 natives of America, and this continent 
 has continued the principal producer, 
 the chief tobacco-growing country being 
 the United States, and the chief local- 
 ities being Virginia and Kentucky. It 
 was first cultivated in Holland early in 
 the 17th century, and soon extended to 
 other countries, including Austria, Ger- 
 many, Russia, the Balkan peninsula, 
 Asiatic Turkey, France, British India, 
 Cuba, Brazil, the Philippine Islands, 
 Japan, and Australia. Tobacco owes 
 its principal properties to the presence 
 of a most poisonous alkaloid named 
 nicotine. In the cultivation of tobacco 
 the object is to render the leaves as large 
 and as numerous as possible. When the 
 leaves become brittle the plants are cut 
 close to the ground, and afterward car- 
 ried to the drying-shed, where they are 
 
 hung up in lines to sweat and dry. 
 When perfectly dry the leaves are 
 stripped from the stalks and made into 
 small bundles, which are subsequently 
 stowed in casks for exportation. In the 
 manufacture of tobacco the leaves are 
 first thoroughly cleansed with salt and 
 water. The midrib of the leaf is then 
 removed; the leaves are again sorted, 
 and the large ones set apart for making 
 cigars. The leaves may either be cut 
 finely for use in pipes, as in the case with 
 shag tobacco, or they are moistened 
 and pressed into cakes, which are desig- 
 nated cavendish; or they are pressed 
 into sticks, as negrohead; or again the 
 leaves may be spun in the form of a rope 
 of greater or less thickness; the smallest 
 twist is called pigtail. The midribs, 
 separated in the first process of manu- 
 facture, are preserved to be converted 
 into snuff. Cigars and cheroots are 
 favorite forms of manufactured to- 
 bacco. As the best leaf is grown in Cuba, 
 so also are the best cigars made there. 
 The leaf used for the manufacture of 
 Manilla cheroots is grown chiefly on the 
 island of Luzon. The United States ex- 
 ports tobacco annually to the value of 
 more than $30,000,000. The total crop 
 
 in the United States is estimated at 
 about 660,000,000 lbs. annually, the 
 value of which is about $55,000,000. 
 
 TOBACCO-PIPE. See Pipe (Tobacco). 
 
 TOBIT, Book of, one of the Old Testa- 
 ment aprocryphal books, rejected by 
 the Jews and Protestants, but included 
 in the Roman Catholic canon. It con- 
 tains an account of some remarkable 
 events in the life of Tobit, a Jew of the 
 tribe of Naphtali, carried captive to 
 Nineveh, and his son Tobias. 
 
 TOBOL, a river of Siberia, which rises 
 in the west slope of the Ural mountains, 
 in the government of Orenburg, and 
 joins the Irtish at the town of Tobolsk, 
 after a course of about 550 miles. 
 
 TOBOLSK', capital of the govern- 
 ment of Tobolsk, Western Siberia, on 
 the Tobol where it joins the Irtish. It 
 has a cathedral, arsenal, barracks, 
 prison for Siberian exiles, a theater, etc. 
 Pop. 20,130. — The government com- 
 prises the northwestern part of Siberia, 
 and has an area of 564,825 sq. miles, and 
 a pop. of 1,283,000. 
 
 TOCQUEVILLE (tok-vel), Alexis 
 Charles Henri Clerel de, French writer, 
 born in 1805, died 1859. Being com- 
 missioned by the govermnent to pro- 
 ceed to the United States to report upon 
 the penitentiary system, the results of 
 his inquiry were published in 1833 under 
 the title Du Systeme P4nitentiaire aux 
 Etats-Unis et de son Application en 
 France. His most celebrated work, 
 however, was La D^mocratie en Am6- 
 rique (Democracy in America, two vols. 
 Paris, 1834), which was translated into 
 the principal European languages. In 
 1849 he accepted the portfolio of foreign 
 affairs, but soon resigned it. After the 
 coup d’etat of 1851 he lived retired from 
 public affairs. He wrote also L’Ancien 
 Regime et la Revolution ; Histoire Phil- 
 osophique du Regne de Louis XV., etc. 
 
 TODDY, the name given by the Eng- 
 lish to the sweet juices which are ex- 
 tracted from the different species of the 
 palm tribe, including the cocoa-nut tree. 
 When newly drawn from the tree it is a 
 sweet, cool, refreshing beverage, but 
 when it has been allowed about ten or 
 twelve hours to ferment it becomes 
 highly intoxicating. The name toddy is 
 also given to a mixture of whisky, hot 
 water, and sugar. 
 
 Roman senator wearing the toga. 
 
 TOGA, the principal outer garment of 
 wool worn by Roman citizens. It covered 
 the whole of the body except the right 
 arm, and it was originally worn by both 
 
TOGOI.AND 
 
 TONE 
 
 sexes until the matrons adopted the 
 stola. The toga virilis, or manly gown, 
 was assumed by Roman youths when 
 they attained the age of fourteen. The 
 variety in the color, the fineness of the 
 wool, and the ornaments attached to it 
 indicated the rank of the citizen; gen- 
 erally it was white. Under the emperors 
 the toga went out of fashion. 
 
 TOGOLAND, a German protectorate 
 on the Slave coast, Guinea, acquired in 
 1885. It has a coast-line of 32 miles, 
 and stretches about 200 miles inland. 
 Pop. 300,000. 
 
 Tokens, pieces of money current by 
 sufferance, and not coined by authority; 
 or coins only nominally of their pro- 
 fessed value. In England tokens first 
 came into use in the reign of Henry VIII. 
 owing to the want of authorized coins 
 of lower value than a penny. Stamped 
 tokens of lead, tin, and even leather 
 were issued by vintners, grocers, and 
 other tradesmen during the time of 
 Elizabeth, and were extensively cir- 
 culated, being readily exchanged for 
 authorized money at the shops where 
 they were issued. A currency of this 
 kind (mostly of copper) was much used 
 in Britain during the close of the 18th 
 century. 
 
 TOKIO, formerly called Yeddo, the 
 capital of Japan, and chief residence of 
 the mikado, is situated on a bay of the 
 same name, on the s.e. coast of Hondo, 
 the largest of the Japanese islands, and 
 is connected by rail with Yokohama and 
 Kanagawa. The bulk of the houses are 
 of wood, but there are many new build- 
 ings of brick and stone, and an imperial 
 palace has recently been erected near 
 the center, as also public offices, etc. 
 The greater part of the town is flat, and 
 
 intersected by numerous canals crossed 
 by bridges. The streets are generally 
 narrow and irregular. Gas has been in- 
 troduced, and the sanitary arrangements 
 have been improved. Education is well 
 organized, and there are nearly 700 
 private and elementary schools. Tokio 
 contains the imperial university, and it 
 may be considered the center of the 
 political, commercial, and literary ac- 
 tivity of Japan. Pop. 1,440,121. 
 
 TOLE'DO, a city of Spain, in New 
 
 Castile, capital of a province of the same 
 name, on a rocky eminence washed by 
 the Tagus, and 1820 feet above the sea, 
 55 miles southwest of Madrid. It is the 
 see of an archbishop, who is primate of 
 Spain. Toledo contains a ruined alcazar, 
 or palace and fortress, dating from 1551, 
 and a Gothic cathedral, one of the 
 grandest in the world, completed in 
 1492 in the style of the 13th century; 
 also other interesting buildings. The 
 Toledo sword-blades, renowned for 
 many centuries, are manufactured in a 
 large building (a government establish- 
 ment) on the Tagus, about a mile from 
 the town. Pop. 20,251. Province; area, 
 5620 sq. miles. Pop. 370,012. 
 
 TOLEDO, a flourishing city of Lucas 
 CO., Ohio, at the western extremity 
 of Lake Erie, 65 miles s.s.w. of Detroit. 
 Toledo is the terminus of the Miami and 
 Erie, and the Wabash and Erie canals, 
 and the center of several extensive rail- 
 way lines. Exports include flour, grain, 
 cattle, beef, pork, hides, wool, tobacco, 
 and timber. There are large wagon- 
 v.'orks, machine-shops, foundries, flour- 
 mills, and manufactories of tobacco, 
 flax, cotton, and chandlery. Pop. 1909, 
 estimated at 193, • I'O. 
 
 TOLERATION. See Religious Liberty. 
 
 TOLTMA, a state of the Republic of 
 Colombia, intersected by the upper 
 course of the Magdalena, and embraced 
 between the two chief chains of the Cor- 
 dillera; area, 18,000 sq. miles. It pro- 
 duces cacao, sugar, corn, and tobacco, 
 and is rich in gold and silver. The vol- 
 cano of Tolima has a height of 17,660 
 feet. Pop. 306,000. Capital, Ibague. 
 
 TOLL, a tax paid, or duty imposed, 
 for some liberty or privilege or other 
 reasonable consideration; such as (a) 
 the payment claimed by the owners 
 of a port for goods landed or shipped 
 there; (b) the sum charged by the 
 owners of a market or fair for goods 
 brought to be sold there; (c) a fixed 
 charge made by those intrusted with the 
 maintenance of roads, streets, bridges, 
 etc., for the passage of persons, goods, 
 and cattle. See Roads. 
 
 TOLSTOI, Count Leo Nikolaievitch, 
 celebrated Russian novelist, born in 
 1828. In 1851 he accompanied his 
 brother to the Caucasus and entered 
 the army, and during the Crimean war 
 took part in the defense of Sebastopol. 
 At the close of the war he retired to his 
 estates and devoted himself to literary 
 composition and schemes for the educa- 
 tion and social improvement of the 
 peasantry. Latterly he has entirely 
 given himself up to working out the 
 higher problems of life experimentally — 
 working along with the peasantry in a 
 sort of communistic life. Among his 
 earliest writings of moment are his vivid 
 sketches from Sebastopol. His three 
 great novels are the Cossacks, War and 
 Peace, and Anna Karenina. His later 
 writings are all mostly directed toward 
 an explanation of his peculiar social and 
 mystic religious ideas. Among them are 
 Confessions, My Religion, The SearcJi 
 for Happiness, Two Generations, Ir- 
 fancy and Youth, Death, Great Prob- 
 lems of History, What is My Life? The 
 Kreutzer Sonata, etc. 
 
 TOLTEKS. See Mexico. 
 
 TOMAHAWK, the light battle-axe of 
 
 the North American Indians. The head 
 was originally of stone attached to the 
 shaft by thongs, etc., but steel heads 
 were latterly supplied by American and 
 
 Tomahawks of the North American Indians. 
 
 European traders. The Indians can 
 throw the tomahawk to a considerable 
 distance, unerringly striking the object 
 aimed at with the edge of the hatchet. 
 
 TOMATO, or LOVE-APPLE, a plant 
 belonging to the natural orderSolanaceae. 
 It is a native of South America, but has 
 been introduced into most other warm 
 or temperate countries. It is cultivated 
 
 Tomato. 
 
 for the sake of its fruit, which is fleshy, 
 usually scarlet or orange, irregularly 
 shaped, and is largely used in sauces, 
 stews, and soups, as well as eaten by it- 
 self. The plant is a tender, herbaceous 
 annual, with yellow flowers. 
 
 TOMB, any sepulchral structure, 
 usually a chamber or vault formed 
 wholly or partly in the earth, with walls 
 and a roof, for the reception of the dead. 
 See Sarcophagus, Burial, and Funeral 
 Rites. 
 
 TOMSK, a town of Western Siberia, 
 capital of the government of Tomsk, on 
 the right bank of the Tom, on the great 
 road to China. Pop. 52,430. — The gov- 
 ernment of Tomsk has an area of 329,040 
 sq. miles, and a pop. of 1,929,092. It is 
 watered by the Obi and its tributaries, 
 and is wild and desolate in the north, but 
 furnishes excellent pasture in the south. 
 
 TON, a denomination of weight equiv- 
 alent to 20 hundredweights (contracted 
 ewt.), or 2240 lbs. In America goods are 
 sometimes weighed by the short ton, 
 of 2000 lbs., the hundredweight being 
 reckoned at 100 lbs. ; but it is decided by 
 act of congress that, unless otherwise 
 specified, a ton weight is to be under- 
 stood as 2240 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 TONE, in music, the sound produced 
 by the vibration of a string or other 
 sonorous body ; a musical sound. Nearly 
 every musical sound is composite, that is 
 consists of several simultaneous tones 
 naving different rates of vibration ac- 
 co’ ding to fixed Jaws, which depend on 
 the nature of the sonorous body and the 
 mode of producing its vibrations. The 
 simultaneously sounding components 
 are called partial tones; that one having 
 
TONGUE 
 
 TOPAZ 
 
 the lowest rate of vibration and the 
 loudest sound is termed the prime, 
 principal, or fundamental tone; the 
 other partial tones are called harmonics 
 or overtones. See Music, Gregorian 
 Tones, Harmonics, Acoustics. 
 
 TONGUE, the organ found in the 
 mouth of most vertebrate animals, 
 which exercises the sense of taste, and 
 also assists in speech and in taking food. 
 The name tongue is also given to very 
 different structures in Invertebrata. 
 In man the tongue is attached by its 
 base or root to the hyoid bone ; its other 
 extremity being free. The upper surface 
 is convex with a fibrous middle septum, 
 called the raph6. The front two-thirds 
 of the tongue are rough, and bear the 
 papillse,' in which the sense of taste 
 resides. The posterior third is smooth, 
 and exhibits the openings of numerous 
 mucous glands. The substance of the 
 tongue consists of numerous muscles. 
 The papilliE, which cause the character- 
 istic roughness of the tongue, are of 
 three kinds, circum vallate, fungiform, 
 and filiform. Thelargestorcircumvallate 
 papillae number from eight to ten, and 
 occupy the posterior part of the upper 
 surface. They vary from ^'^th to 
 inch in diameter. The fungiform papillae 
 are scattered irregularly, the filiform 
 over the front. In structure the papillae 
 are like those of the skin (which see), 
 and contain capillary vessels and nerv- 
 ous filaments. Numerous follicles and 
 mucous or lingual glands exist on the 
 tongue, the functions of these latter 
 being the secretion of mucus. The 
 nervous supply is distributed in the 
 form of three main nerves to each half 
 of the organ. The gustatory nerves and 
 the glossopharyngeal branches are the 
 nerves providing the tongue with com- 
 mon sensation, and also with the sense 
 of taste; while the hypoglossal nerve 
 invests the muscles of the tongue with 
 the necessary stimulus. The conditions 
 necessary for the exercise of the sense of 
 taste are, firstly, the solution of the 
 matters to be tasted; secondly, the 
 presence of a special gustatory nerve; 
 and thirdly, that the surface of the ton- 
 gue itself be moist. The top and edges 
 of the tongue are more sensitive to taste 
 than the middle portion. The sense of 
 touch is very acute in the tongue. 
 
 TONIC, or KEY-NOTE, in music, the 
 first or fundamental note of any scale, 
 the principal sound on which all regular 
 melodies depend, and in which they or 
 their accompanying basses naturally 
 terminate. 
 
 TONIC, in medicine, any remedy 
 which improves the tone or vigor of the 
 fibers of the stomach and bowels, or of 
 the muscular fibers generally. Tonics 
 may be said to be of two kinds, medical 
 and non-medical. Medical tonics act 
 chiefly in two ways: (1) indirectly, by 
 first influencing the stomach and in- 
 creasing its digestive powers ; such being 
 the effect of the vegetable bitters, the 
 most important of which are calumba, 
 chamomile, cinchona bark, gentian, 
 taraxacum, etc. (2) IDirectly, by passing 
 into and exerting their influence through 
 the blood; such being the case with the 
 various preparations of iron, certain 
 mineral acids, and salts. The non- 
 * medical tonics are open-air exercise, I 
 
 friction, cold in its various forms and 
 applications, as the shower-bath, sea- 
 bathing, etc. 
 
 TONKA (or Tonga) BEAN, the fruit 
 of a shrubby plant of Guiana. The fruit 
 is an oblong dry fibrous drupe, contain- 
 
 ing a single seed. The odor of the kernel 
 is extremely agreeable. It is used in per- 
 fumery. Called also Tonkin-bean, Ton- 
 quin-bean. 
 
 TONNAGE, a word originally signify- 
 ing the numoer of tons weight which a 
 ship might carry with safety, but now 
 used to denote the gauge of the vessel’s 
 dimensions, and the standard for tolls, 
 dues, etc. It is generally assumed that 
 40 cubic feet shall constitute a ton, and 
 the tonnage of a ship is considered to be 
 the multiple of this ton which most 
 closely corresponds with the internal 
 capacity of the vessel. Formerly the 
 rule was to multiply the length of the 
 ship by the breadth, assume the depth 
 to be the same as the width, multiply 
 by this assumed depth, and divide the 
 product by 94, the quotient being the 
 tons burden. But this mode was found 
 to be both misleading and dangerous; 
 for as harbor and light dues, towage, etc. 
 were charged according to tonnage, 
 shipowners had their vessels built so 
 deep and narrow that they were often 
 unseaworthy. An improved system was 
 introduced in 1835 and made com- 
 pulsory by the British Merchant Ship- 
 ping Act of 1854. The elaborate instruc- 
 tions of this statute take into account 
 not only the depth of the vessel, but also 
 make allowance for the varying curva- 
 ture of the hull. The depth from the 
 deck to the bottom of the hold is taken 
 at different places, and the breadth is 
 measured at different elevations in the 
 depth. If the vessel is a steamer an 
 allowance is made for the space occupied 
 by the engine-room, boilers, coal-bunks, 
 etc. In vessels with a break or poop in 
 the upper deck, the tonnage of this poop 
 space must be ascertained and added to 
 the ordinary tonnage. In the United 
 States the measurement is similar. 
 
 TONQUIN (tong-king'), the most 
 northern province of Anam in Asia ; 
 area, 35,000 sq. miles. The chief river 
 is the Song-ka. The principal agricul- 
 tural products are rice, cotton, spices, 
 and sugar; and the province is rich in 
 timber and minerals. The climate is 
 unhealthy. By treaty dated June, 1884, 
 Tonquin was ceded to France. Pop. 
 9,000,000. 
 
 TONSILLI'TIS, See Quinsy. 
 
 TONSILS, in anatomy, two oblong 
 suboval bodies situated on each side of 
 the throat or fauces. Their minute 
 structure resembles that of the closed 
 sacs or follicles of Peyer in the intestine, 
 and their function is not yet under- 
 stood. See Palate. 
 
 TONSURE, the name given to the bare 
 place on the heads of the Roman Cath- 
 olic and Greek priests, formed by shav- 
 ing or cutting away the hair and keeping 
 it so. The custom of cutting away the 
 hair in token of the dedication of a 
 person to the service of God is men- 
 tioned as early as the 4th century. 
 Shaving the hair precedes consecration; 
 it is performed by the bishop. The ton- 
 sure admits the subject intc holy orders, 
 and the extent of the tonsure increases 
 with the rank held. 
 
 TONTINE, a kind of life annuity, so 
 called from their inventor Tonti, an 
 Italian of the 17th century. A tontine 
 is an annuity shared by subscribers to 
 a loan, with the benefit of survivorship, 
 the annuity being increased as the sub- 
 scribers die, until at last the whole goes 
 to the last survivor, or to the last two or 
 three, according to the terms on which 
 the money is advanced. By means of 
 tontines many government loans were 
 formerly raised in England. 
 
 TOOMBS, Robert, American states- 
 man, was born at Washington, Ga., in 
 1810. After several years in the Georgia 
 legislature he was elected to congress in 
 1844 and held his seat for four terms 
 until 1853, when he was elected to the 
 United States senate, and in 1859 
 reelected. It was chiefly his influence, in 
 opposition to the more conservative 
 views of his life-long friend, Alexander 
 H. Stephens, that led Georgia to pass 
 its ordinance of secession. On the elec- 
 tion of Davis, Toombs accepted the 
 office of secretary of state, but resigned 
 after a short time and accepted a com- 
 mission as brigadier-general. He served 
 in the second battle of Bull Run and at 
 Sharpsburg, and later was made briga- 
 dier-general of the Georgia militia. He 
 was a bitter opponent of’the “Recon- 
 struction” measures, and never took the 
 oath of allegiance. He is mainly re- 
 membered as one of the most typical 
 and vigorous of the so-called Southern 
 “fire-eaters.” He died in 1885. 
 
 TOOTH. See Teeth. 
 
 TOOTHACHE, a well-known affection 
 of the teeth, arising from various causes. 
 Inflammation of the fangs of the teeth 
 is a common cause. If the inflammation 
 is not reduced matter forms, and the 
 result is a gum-boil. Caries is a frequent 
 cause of toothache, the outer part of the 
 tooth rotting away and exposing the 
 nerve. Neuralgia toothache is a purely 
 nervous variety and may occur either 
 in sound or carious teeth. As a pre- 
 ventive against toothache the teeth 
 should be kept scrupulously clean, and 
 when they show symptoms of decay the 
 services of a skilful dentist should be had 
 recourse to. The decay of a tooth is very 
 often arrested by stopping or filling up 
 the cavity. 
 
 TOPAZ, a mineral, ranked by mineral- 
 ogists among gems, characterized by 
 having the luster vitreous, transparent 
 to translucent; the color yellow, white, 
 
TOPE 
 
 rORSO 
 
 green, blue; fracture subconclioidal, 
 uneven; specific gravity, 3.499. It is 
 harder than quartz. It is a silicate of 
 aluminium, in which the oxygen is 
 partly replaced by fluorine. It occurs 
 massive and in crystals. The primary 
 form of its crystal is a right rhombic 
 prism. Topazes occur generally in 
 igenous and metamorphic rocks, and 
 in many parts of the world, as Cornwall, 
 Scotland, Saxony, Siberia, Brazil, etc. 
 The finest varieties are obtained from 
 Brazil and the Ural mountains. Those 
 from Brazil have deep yellow tints; 
 those from Siberia have a bluish tinge; 
 the Saxon topazes are of a pale wine- 
 yellow, and those found in the Scotch 
 Highlands are of a sky-blue color. The 
 purest from Brazil, when cut in facets, 
 closely resemble the diamond in luster 
 and brilliance. 
 
 TOPE, a popular name for a species of 
 Buddhist monument intended usually 
 to mark some important event. The 
 oldest monuments of this kind are 
 
 Great tope at Sanchi, Central India. 
 
 spherical or elliptical cupolas, resting 
 on a circular or rectilinear base, with an 
 umbrella-shaped structure on the apex. 
 
 TOPE'KA, the capital of Shawnee 
 county and of the state of Kansas, on the 
 Kansas river, 68 miles west of Kansas 
 City and on the Santa Fe, Rock Island, 
 Union Pacific and Missouri Pacific 
 railroads. It has wide well-built 
 
 State Capitol, Topeka, Kan. 
 
 streets, and contains a handsome state- 
 house, court-house, several high-class 
 educational institutions, etc. There are 
 flour-mills, iron-foundries, a rolling- 
 mill, machine-shops, brick-kilns, brew- 
 eries, etc. Bituminous coal is found in 
 the neighborhood. Pop. 51,600. 
 
 TOPHET. See Gehenna. 
 
 TORNA'DO, a violent cyclonic storm ; 
 more especially applied to those whirl- 
 wind hurricanes prevalent in the West 
 Indies, and on the west coast of Africa 
 about the time of the equinoxes, and in 
 
 the Indian ocean about the changes of 
 the monsoons. Tornadoes are usually 
 accompanied with severe thunder, light- 
 ning, and torrents of rain; but they are 
 of short duration and limited in area. 
 
 TORONTO, one of the chief cities of 
 the Dominion of Canada, capital of the 
 province of Ontario, situated in the 
 county of York, on a small bay on the 
 northwest coast of Lake Ontario, 315 
 miles w.s.w. of Montreal. Toronto has 
 iron-foundries and engineering works, 
 agricultural implement works, brewer- 
 ies, carriage-works, tanneries, soap 
 works, boot and shoe factories, piano 
 and organ factories, stove foundries, 
 etc. It was founded in 1794 and was 
 originally named York. Pop. 325.400. 
 
 TORPE'DO, the name of fishes allied 
 to the rays, noted for their power of 
 giving electrical shocks by means of 
 specially-developed electrical organs. 
 The electrical organs consist of two 
 masses placed on each side of the head, 
 and composed of numerous vertical 
 gelatinous columns separated by mem- 
 braneous septa, and richly furnished 
 with nervous filaments. The production 
 of electricity by these fishes is readily 
 enough explicable on the ground of the 
 conversion of an equivalent of nerve 
 force into electric force by the electric 
 organ; just as, under other circum- 
 stances, nerve force is converted into 
 motion through the muscles. The power 
 of the discharge varies with the health 
 and size of the fish. The torpedoes occur 
 in typical perfection chiefly in the Medi- 
 terranean sea, and in the Indian and 
 Pacific oceans. A large specimen may 
 measure 4 feet long, and weigh from 60 
 to 70 pounds. 
 
 TORPEDO, a name for two distinct 
 classes of submarine destructive agents, 
 namely, torpedoes proper, which are 
 movable, and are propelled against an 
 enemy’s ship; and submarine mines, 
 which lie stationary in the water. Of 
 the first class, called offensive torpedoes, 
 there are three principal types; (a) the 
 “locomotive,” of which the Whitehead 
 is the best-known form; (b) the “tow- 
 ing” torpedo of Captain Harvey; and 
 (c) the “spar” or “outrigger” torpedo. 
 The Whitehead, or fish torpedo, may 
 be described as being a cigar-shaped 
 vessel, varying from 14 to 19 feet in 
 length, and from 14 to 16 inches in 
 diameter. It is made of specially pre- 
 pared steel, and is divided into three 
 compartments; the head contains the 
 gun-cotton which forms its charge and 
 the fuse for exploding it when it 
 comes in contact with a vessel. The 
 central part contains the engines by 
 which it is propelled, and v/hich are 
 
 Whiteliead torpedo. 
 
 worked by compressed air, a sufficient 
 supply of which for driving the tor- 
 pedo the required distance is stored 
 in the third, or tail compartment. The 
 propeller is a three-bladed screw, which 
 
 can move the largest sized torpedoeaH 
 at a speed of 24 knots for the dis^| 
 tance of 220 yards, the distance of^| 
 1000 yards being i-eached at a slower^! 
 rate of progress. By means of a hori-^B 
 zontal balance rudder it can be mad^H 
 to sink and to remain during its run at^| 
 any required distance below the suiface^B 
 of the water, so that it may be dis-^B 
 charged from the deck of a ship or from^M 
 a tube opening into the sea below theS 
 water-line. At close quarters this is a^B 
 very destructive weapon against iron-^B 
 clad vessels, striking them beneath M 
 their armor. The Harvey torpedo is^| 
 constructed to be pulled through the® 
 water something in the fashion of a^B 
 ship’s log. It has been, however, super^^B 
 seded by the Brennan and other formOTB 
 of manoeuvred torpedo. The spar or'® 
 outrigger torpedo consists simply of afl 
 metal case containing the explosive S 
 substance (gunpowder, gun-cotton, dy- 3 
 namite, etc.), and fitted with a fuse con- ^ 
 structed so that it can be fired at pleas- | 
 ure, or exploded by contact with a 
 ship’s side. It is screwed on to a long 
 spar, which is usually fixed in the bow 
 of a swift boat or steam-launch, which 
 endeavors to reach and push the tor- 
 pedo against the hostile vessel. Station- 
 ary torpedoes or submarine mines, such 
 as one placed in channels or coasts to 
 prevent the approach of the enemy’s 
 vessels, usually consist of a strong metal ^ 
 case containing an effective explosive, 
 such as gun-cotton, etc., and having, a 
 fuse or cap which will explode the 
 charge on the slightest contact; or the 
 explosion may be effected by means 
 of electricity, the operator firing it at 
 will from the shore. 
 
 TORPEDO-BOAT, a vessel specially 
 intended to make use of torpedoes in 
 warfare by exploding them against 
 another vessel. The torpedo-boat is 
 usually a small, swift steamer, lying low ■ 
 in the water, and meant to approach 
 the enemy either by surprise or under 
 cover of darkness. Such vessels are 
 chiefly intended for the protection of 
 coasts against hostile vessels. They 
 vary greatly in size, the smaller being 
 only of from -12 to 15 tons. Some of 
 them have a speed of 27 knots or more. 
 Another class of torpedo craft are the 
 torpedo-boat destroyers, or “torpedo- 
 catchers,” very fast vessels, heavily 
 armed with quick-firing guns, and with 
 good sea-going qualities. See Sub- 
 marine Boat. 
 
 TORRICELLI (tor-ri-cheTle), Evan- 
 gelista, Italian physicist, born in 1608, 
 died in 1647. Torricelli’s name is im- 
 portant in the history of science as the 
 discoverer of the law on which the 
 barometer depends. See Barometer. 
 
 TORSION BALANCE, an instrument 
 employed to measure the intensities of 
 very small forces. It consists of a fine 
 wire, silk thread, or the like, suspended 
 from a fixed point, and having a horizon- 
 tal needle attached, the force bcrng 
 measured by the resistance to twisting 
 which the filament exhibits \yhcn the 
 force (that of attraction, for instance) 
 acts on the needle. 
 
 TORSO, an art term signifying ■ 
 trunk of a statue of which the head and 
 the extremities are wanting. The teso 
 of Hercules, in the Belvidere at Rome, 
 
 
 
 
TORT 
 
 TOULON-SUR-MER 
 
 is considered by connoisseurs one of the 
 finest -works of art remaining from 
 antiquity. . . 
 
 TORT, in la-w, denotes injustice or 
 injury. * Actions upon torts or -wrongs 
 are all personal actions for trespasses, 
 nuisances, assaults, defamatory "words, 
 and the like. 
 
 TORTOISE (tor'tis), the name ap- 
 plied to various genera qf reptiles in- 
 cluded -with the turtles and their allies. 
 The distinctive features of the tortoises 
 consist in the modification of the skele- 
 ton and of the skin-structure or scales 
 to form the -well-known bony box in 
 which their bodies are inclosed, the 
 upper portion of which is the carapace, 
 the lower the plastron. The land- 
 tortoises have short stunted limbs 
 adapted for terrestrial progression-, the 
 short toes are bound together by the 
 skin, and have well-developed nails. 
 The carapace is strongly convex, and is 
 covered by horny epidermic plates. The 
 horny jaws are adapted for cutting, or 
 may be divided into serrated processes. 
 The head, limbs, and tail can be com- 
 pletely retracted within the carapace. 
 Though capable of swimming, the tor- 
 toises proper are really terrestrial 
 animals, and are strictly vegetable 
 feeders. The most familiar example is 
 the common Greek or European tortoise 
 which occurs chiefly on the eastern 
 borders of the Mediterranean. These 
 animals sometimes live to a great age 
 (over 100 years according to some), and 
 hybernate through the colder season of 
 
 Common or Greek tortoise. 
 
 the year. They attain a length of 12 
 inches. A much larger species is the 
 great Indian tortoise, which attains a 
 length of over 3 feet and a weight of 200 
 lbs. Its flesh is reckoned food of ex- 
 cellent quality, as are also its eggs. The 
 box tortoise of India and Madagascar 
 is remarkable for the curious develop- 
 ment of the front part of the plastron, 
 which shuts over the anterior aperture 
 of the shell like a lid when the animal 
 retracts itself. In the box tortoise of 
 North America the hinder part of the 
 plastron forms a lid. It is included 
 among the Emydm or terrapins. Other 
 genera include the alligator terrapin of 
 America, also called the “snapping 
 turtle.” The mud of soft tortoises occur 
 in Asia, Africa, and North America. 
 They have soft fleshy lips, and no horny 
 plates are developed in the skin. Very 
 frequently also the ribs are not so 
 modified as to form a hard carapace, 
 
 ’ as in other chelonia. See also Turtle. 
 
 \ TORTOISE-SHELL, a name popu- 
 I larly applied to the shell or rather the 
 scutes or scales of the tortoise and other 
 ' allied chelonians, especially to those of 
 I the hawk’s-bill turtle, a species which 
 i inhabits tropical seas. The horny scales 
 I or plates which form the covering of this 
 
 i P. E.— 79 
 
 animal are extensively used in the manu- 
 facture of combs, snuff-boxes, etc., and 
 in inlaying and other ornamental work. 
 It becomes very plastic when heated, 
 and when cold retains with sharpness 
 any form it may be molded to in its 
 heated state. Pieces can also be welded 
 together under the pressure of hot irons. 
 It is now largely imitated by horn and 
 cheap artificial compounds. 
 
 TORTU'GAS, or DRY TORTUGAS, a 
 group of ten small low barren islands 
 belonging to Florida, United States, 
 about 40 miles w. of the most western 
 of the Florida Keys. On Loggerhead 
 Key there is a lighthouse 150 feet high. 
 
 TORTURE, the arbitrary and espe- 
 cially excessive infliction of pain ju- 
 dicially, whether to extort confession or 
 to aggravate punishment. Torture has 
 been common in all the nations of 
 modern Europe, and it was also prac- 
 ticed by the ancient Romans. The 
 practice was first adopted by the church 
 in the early n iddle ages, and when the 
 old superstitious means of discovering 
 guilt (as in ordeal by fire and water) lost 
 their efficacy torture became general in 
 Europe. Though never recognized by 
 the common law of England, it was 
 employed there as late as the reign of 
 Charles I., and in Scotland torture was 
 not wholly abandoned till very near 
 the close of the 17th century. Every 
 reader is familiar with the horrid tor- 
 tures inflicted on those accused of witch- 
 craft, and on many of the covenanters, 
 by means of thumbkins, the boot, etc., 
 in order to discover alleged hiding-places 
 and the like. In the German states tor- 
 ture continued to be practiced under 
 certain restrictions till the close of the 
 18th century. The chief instrument of 
 torture was the rack (which see). 
 
 TOTEM, a rude picture of some 
 natural object, as of a bird or beast, 
 used by the American Indians as a sym- 
 bol and designation of a family or tribe. 
 
 Totem posts. 
 
 A similar practice has been found to pre- 
 vail among other savage peoples, and 
 some theorists have given it a very wide 
 extension on purely conjectural grounds. 
 
 TOUCAN, a genus of scansorial or 
 climbing birds. These birds inhabit the 
 
 tropical regions of South America and 
 are distinguished by a large keeled bill. 
 The bill is about 8 inches long, and its 
 substance is hallowed out into air-cells, 
 thus being comparatively light. The 
 
 toucans feed on fruits, seeds, insects, 
 etc. The prevailing colors among the 
 toucans are yellow, black, and red. The 
 bill is frequently very brilliantly colored. 
 
 TOUCH, the sense of feeling and the 
 most widely diffused of the senses. It 
 resides in the skin (see Skin), and is exer- 
 cised through certain structures situated 
 in the papillae of the true skin and con- 
 nected with terminal filaments of sen- 
 sory nerves. These structures have some 
 variety of form, and are called tactile 
 cells, tactile corpuscles, compound tac- 
 tile corpuscles. Pacinian corpuscles, etc. 
 All the kinds are to be regarded as ter- 
 minal organs of the sensory nerves, act- 
 ing as the media by which impressions 
 made on the skin are communicated to 
 the nerve fibers. Although the sense of 
 touch is diffused over the whole body, it 
 is much more exquisite in some parts 
 than in others. Experiment shows the 
 tip of the tongue to be the most sensitive 
 surface, the points of the fingers come 
 next, while the red part of the lips 
 follows in order. The neck, middle of 
 the back, and the middle of the arm and 
 thigh are the least acute surfaces. 
 
 TOUCH-PAPER, paper steeped in 
 saltpeter, which burns slowly, and is 
 used as a match for firing gunpowder, 
 
 TOUCHSTONE, a variety of extremely 
 compact siliceous schist, used for ascer- 
 taining the purity of gold and silver. 
 Known also as black jasper and basan- 
 ite. It was called Lydian stone, or lapis 
 Lydia, by the ancients, because found in 
 Lydia in Asia Minor. A series of needles 
 (called touch-needles) of which the com- 
 position is known are used for cor^ari- 
 son with the article to be tested. When 
 the color of the streak produced by 
 both the needle and the trinket on the 
 stone is the same the quantity of alloy 
 they contain is supposed to be similar. 
 
 TOULON-SUR-MER (to-lon-sur-m ar) , 
 a seaport, and after Brest the most im- 
 portant naval station of France, in the 
 department of the Var, situated on a 
 bay of the Mediterranean, 42 miles 
 e.s.e. of Marseilles. It is defended by 
 numerous forts and redoubts, and strong 
 forts and outworks occupy all the 
 heights surrounding the town. Toulon 
 has a cathedral originally Romanesque 
 of the 11th century, a good town-hall, 
 theater, etc., besides the arsenal and 
 other marine establishments, which are 
 
TOULOUSE 
 
 TOWN 
 
 on a most extensive scale. The chief 
 harbors and docks are separated from 
 the roadstead by moles, which are hol- 
 low and bomb-proof, and lined by bat- 
 
 teries, and the storehouses, ship-yards, 
 workshops, etc., are most complete. 
 Pop. 101,172. 
 
 TOULOUSE (to-lbz), a town of South- 
 ern France, capital of the department 
 of Haute-Garonne, on the Garonne 
 (which is navigable and crossed by 
 three bridges), 160 miles s.e. of Bor- 
 deaux. Among remarkable public build- 
 ings are the cathedral, the church of St. 
 Sernin, the Hotel de Ville, and the 
 Palais de Justice. Toulouse has uni- 
 versity faculties, a Roman Catholic 
 university, a lyceum, and other educa- 
 tional institutions, public library of 
 60,000 vols., etc. It is the chief en- 
 trepot of the district for agricultural 
 produce and general trade, and is an im- 
 portant inudstrial center. Pop. 149,791 
 
 TOURAC'O, a name of insessorial 
 birds, natives of Africa, and allied to the 
 Scansores, or climbing birds. Their pre- 
 
 vailing color is green, varied in some 
 species with purple on the wings and 
 tail. They feed chiefly on soft fruits. 
 
 TOURAINE (to-ran), an ancient prov- 
 ince of France, bounded north by Maine, 
 east by OrRanais and Berry, south by 
 Berry and Poitou, and west by Anjou 
 and Poitou. It now forms the depart- 
 ment of Indre-et-Loire. 
 
 TOURCOING (t6r-kwan), a town of 
 France, department of Nord, 9 miles 
 n.n.e. of Lille, a well-built thriving 
 manufacturing town, the staple manu- 
 factures being woolen, cotton, linen, 
 and silk stuffs, besides dye-works, soap- 
 works, sugar-refineries, machine w'orks, 
 etc. Pop. 78,468. 
 
 TOURGUENIEFF (tor-gen'yef), Ivan 
 Sergeyevitch, a celebrated Russian nov- 
 elist, born at Orel 1818, died near Paris, 
 
 1882. His first important publication 
 was translated into English under the 
 title of Russian Life in the Interior, 
 or the Experiences of a Sportsman. 
 A powerful politico-social novel. Fathers 
 and Sons, was published in 1861, and 
 met with much adverse criticism in 
 Russia. His other works include Smoke, 
 Spring Floods, Virgin Soil, etc., all of 
 which have been translated into Eng- 
 lish. Tourguenieff has been ranked with 
 the greatest masters of fiction. 
 
 TOURMALINE (tor'ma-lin), a mineral 
 occurring crystallized in three-sided or 
 six-sided prisms, terminated by three- 
 sided pyramids, the primary form being 
 a rhomboid. It scratches glass easily, 
 has a specific gravity of 3, and consists 
 principally of a compound silicate and 
 borate of alumina and magnesia. Tour- 
 maline occurs most commonly in igne- 
 ous and metamorphic rocks, especially 
 in granite, gneiss, and mica-slate. Some 
 varieties are transparent, some trans- 
 lucent, some opaque. Some are colorless, 
 and others green, brown, red, blue, and 
 black. Red tourmaline is known as 
 rubellite, blue tourmaline as indicolite, 
 and black tourmaline as schorl. The 
 transparent varieties include various 
 well-known jewelry stones, as the 
 Brazilian sapphire, the Brazilian emer- 
 ald, etc. Prisms of tourmaline are much 
 used in polarizing apparatus, and it pos- 
 sesses powerful electric properties. 
 
 TOURNAMENT, or TOURNEY, a 
 common sport of the middle ages, in 
 which parties of mounted knights en- 
 countered each other with lances and 
 swords in order to display their skill in 
 arms. Tournaments reached their full 
 perfection in France in the 9th and 10th 
 centuries, where they first received the 
 form under which they are known to us. 
 They were introduced into England 
 soon after the conquest of the Normans. 
 Jousts were single combats between two 
 knights, and at a tournament there 
 would often be a number of jousts as 
 well as combats between parties of 
 knights. The place of combat was the 
 lists, a large open place surrounded by 
 ropes or a railing. Galleries were erected 
 for the spectators, among whom were 
 seated the ladies, the supreme judges 
 of tournaments. A knight taking part 
 in a tournament generally carried some 
 device emblematic of a lady’s favor. 
 Tournaments gradually went out with 
 the decline of chivalry, and were little 
 practiced after the 16th century. 
 
 TOURNIQUET, an appliance em- 
 ployed in the practice of surgery to stop 
 bleeding, its use being only intended to 
 be temporary. Some kinds of ligature 
 twisted tight with a stick forms a simple 
 tourniquet. 
 
 TOURS (tor), a town of France, capi- 
 tal of the department of Indre-et-Loire, 
 on the left bank of the Loire, 145 miles 
 by rail southwest of Paris. The prin- 
 cipal edifice is the cathedral (Tours 
 being an archbishopric), flanked by two 
 towers, 205 feet high, a fine building 
 begun in the 12th, completed in the 16th 
 century. It became famous for its silk 
 manufactures, and had a population of 
 80,000, when the revocation of the edict 
 of Nantes deprived it of nearly half its 
 inhabitants, a blow from which it has 
 ‘ never recovered. In 1870 Tours was the 
 
 seat of the government of national d? 
 fense. Pop. 64,448. .'J 
 
 TOURVILLE, De, Anne Hilarion de 
 Colentin, Count, a distinguished French 
 admiral, born at Tourville, La Manche 
 1642; died at Paris 1701. He defeate 
 a Dutch ana English leet off Beachy 
 Head in July, 1690. In 1692 he was 
 ordered to attack a far superior Dutch 
 English fleet off La Hogue, and was deA 
 feated. He was created a marshal im 
 1693, and in 1694 destroyed a Dutch 
 and English trading fleet off Cape St. 
 Vincent. 
 
 TOUSSAINT-LOUVERTURE (to-san- 
 lo-ver-tiir), a distinguished negro, born a 
 slave in the Island of Hayti in 1743., 
 After the insurrection of 1791 Toussaint 
 served in the army of the blacks, and 
 latterly rose to be their leader. After a 
 severe struggle with insurrectionary 
 movements he assumed supreme civil 
 authority, and in 1801 was completely 
 master of the island. Napoleon did not 
 choose to see him independent, although 
 professedly loyal to France, and sent a 
 powerful expedition to subdue Tous- 
 saint, who was forced to surrender. 
 After a vigorous resistance he was seized 
 and sent to France, where he died in 
 prison, 27th April, 1803. 
 
 TOWER OF LONDON, a celebrated 
 ancient fortress in London, consisting 
 of a collection of buildings of various 
 ages on a somewhat elevated po.sition 
 on the north bank of the Thames, DUt- 
 side the old city walls. It covers about 
 13 acres, and is surrounded by a battle- 
 mented wall flanked with massive 
 towers and encircled by a moat. There 
 is also an inner line of circumvallation 
 broken by towers, and interspersed with 
 other buildings. In the center is the 
 White’ Tower, the keep of the old for- 
 tress, around which are grouped the 
 chapel, the jewel-house, barracks and 
 
 t; 
 
 i 
 
 si 
 
 The Tower of London. 
 
 other buildings. The Tower was a first-^ 
 class mediaeval fortress, and served atlj 
 once as a palace, a prison, and a place of* 
 defense The White Tower was builti 
 by Gundulf, bishop of llochester, for'..* 
 William I. in 1078. It was successively^ 
 strengthened by various English sover-l 
 eigns. The regalia, consisting of thea 
 royal crowns, sceptres, etc., are now%_ 
 kept and exhibited in the jewel-house. 
 The armory contains a fine collection * I 
 of armor and weapons. In the part called ^ 
 the Bloody Tower the two young princes,' i 
 sons of Edward IV., were murdered. 
 The Tower is now chiefly used as an ' 
 arsenal, and has a small military gar-jmi " 
 risen of the yeomen of the guard. Itis^ 
 governed by a constable and deputy- ■ 
 constable. The governorship is still a | 
 post of distinction. Ij 
 
 TOWN. See Qty. I 
 
TOWNSEND 
 
 TRADES-UNIONS 
 
 TOWNS'END, Edward Waterman, 
 American novelist, was born in Cleve- 
 land, Ohio, in 1855. His novels of New 
 York life with the picturesque slang of 
 the streets have been very successful. 
 Among them are; Chimmie Fadden and 
 Major Max; Chimmie Fadden Explains, 
 Major Max Expounds. A Daughter of 
 the Tenements and Days Like These are 
 novels, also of New York life. Later 
 books are Chimmie Fadden and Mr. 
 Pard, and Lees and Leaven. 
 
 TOWNSEND, George Alfred, Ameri- 
 can journalist, was born in Georgetown, 
 Del., in 1841. He was successively con- 
 nected with the Philadelphia Inquirer 
 and Press, the New York Herald and 
 World, and the Chicago Tribune. He 
 first gained distinction as a war corre- 
 spond^ent. Among his books the most 
 noteworthy are: Campaigns of a Non- 
 Combatant, Poems, Washington Out- 
 side and Inside, Tales of the Chesapeake, 
 The Entailed Hat, and a drama. Presi- 
 dent Cromwell. Much of his newspaper 
 correspondence was over the signature 
 Gath. 
 
 TOWNSHIP, in England, a division 
 of a parish which has a constable, and 
 may have overseers of the poor belong- 
 ing to itself. In the United States a 
 township is a subdivision of a county, 
 without reference to its population. 
 They are generally squares of 36 sq. 
 miles area. 
 
 TOXICOLOGY, the science of poisons 
 and antidotes. See Poison. 
 
 TRACHEA (tra'ke-a), or WINDPIPE, 
 in anatomy, the name given to the tube 
 extending from the larynx (which see) 
 down into the chest to a point opposite 
 the third dorsal vertebra, where the 
 tube divides into two chief divisions or 
 bronchi (which see), one of which sup- 
 plies each lung with the air necessary 
 for respiration or breathing. The 
 trachea in man is of cylindrical form, 
 about inches long, and from | to 1 
 inch in diameter, and is composed 
 of from sixteen to twenty rings or 
 
 Trachea— Section through part of 
 face and neck. 
 
 zones of gristly or cartilaginous nature, 
 separated and connected by fibrous 
 tissue. Each cartilage forms an imper- 
 fect ring, being unclosed behind, and 
 having the gristly edges merely joined 
 by fibrous membrane. The windpipe is 
 lined by delicate mucous membrane 
 which is covered by epithelial cells 
 provided with delicate vibratile pro- 
 cesses or cilia. All mammals, reptilia 
 and birds possess a trachea, but some 
 amphibia want this organ; the lungs 
 in such cases springing directly from 
 the larynx. The cut shows the trachea 
 a a, the epiglottis b, the larynx c, and 
 the cesophagus d. 
 
 TRACHEOTOMY, LARYNGOTOMY, 
 or BRONCHOTOMYj an operation in 
 which an opening is made into the 
 trachea or larynx, as in cases of suffoca- 
 tion. 
 
 TRACING-PAPER, transparent paper 
 which enables a drawing or print to be 
 clearly seen through it when laid on the 
 drawing, so that a pen or pencil may be 
 used in tracing the outlines of the 
 original. It is prepared from smooth 
 unsized white paper rendered trans- 
 parent by a varnish made of oil of tur- 
 pentine with an equal part Canada 
 balsam, nut-oil, or other oleo-resin. 
 
 TRACTION-ENGINE. See under 
 Steam-engine. 
 
 TRADE, Boards of, are associations 
 of merchants, bankers, brokers, and 
 manufacturers, organized in the leading 
 cities of the United States and Europe, 
 to develop and promote the financial, 
 commercial and productive interests 
 of communities and nations ; movements 
 in behalf of associations of this charac- 
 ter were started in America as early as 
 1768, when the Chamber of Commerce of 
 New York City was established. The 
 purpose of these local oi'ganizations is 
 to consider questions of local importance 
 connected with trade, commerce, trans- 
 portation, etc., and to secure the estab- 
 lishment and promotion of undertakings 
 of a local character. These local organi- 
 zations may be divided into trading 
 and deliberative bodies, the Merchants 
 Exchange of St. Louis and Board of 
 Trade of Chicago being of the former 
 class, and the Chamber of Commerce of 
 New York City of the latter. In 1868 
 a meeting of delegates from 30 of the 
 largest cities met at Philadelphia, and 
 perfected an organization “to promote 
 the efficiency and extend the usefulness 
 of the various Chambers of Commerce, 
 Boards of Trade, and other chartered 
 bodies, organized for commercial pur- 
 poses in the United States, in order to 
 secure unity and harmony of action in 
 reference to commercial usages, cus- 
 toms, and laws; and especially in order 
 to secure the proper consideration of 
 questions pertaining to the financial 
 commercial, and industrial interests of 
 the country at large.” Since that date 
 conventions have been held annually, 
 with steadly increasing benefits to the 
 cause the association was created to 
 fotser and encourage. Supplementary 
 to boards of trade and chambers of 
 commerce, organizations have been 
 recently created for similar purposes 
 in connection with some especial depart- 
 ment of commercial endeavor, such as 
 corn and produce exchanges, etc. These 
 exert a substantial influence in their 
 several fields of usefulness, and are 
 steadily growing in number and im- 
 portance. 
 
 TRADE-MARK, a peculiar mark used 
 by a manufacturer to distinguish his 
 own productions from those of other 
 persons. Such marks can now be regis- 
 tered and protected in all the more im- 
 portant countries, and between these 
 also there is a general reciprocity as to 
 protection. Regarding trade-marks 
 many nice questions may arise, and 
 it is not easy to define what constitutes 
 a valid trade-mark. A mere descriptive 
 title or a geographical name will not 
 
 constitute a proper trade-mark; what 
 it is best to select is some invented word 
 or words, or a word or words having no 
 reference to the character or quality 
 (though suggestive of excellence), some 
 distinctive device, figure, emblem, or 
 design, or a written signature or copy of 
 such. Any mark or name calculated to 
 mislead as to the real nature or origin of 
 the goods will be vitiated. 
 
 TRADES-UNIONS, a trade society is 
 defined in the report of the Social 
 Science committee on the subject ap- 
 pointed at Bradford, in 1859, “as a com- 
 bination of workmen to enable each to 
 secure the conditions most favorable 
 for labor;” and although trades-unions, 
 as they are generally called, almost 
 always have other objects in view in 
 addition to that specified in the defini- 
 tion, that object is their distinguishing 
 one. Combinations of this sort in Great 
 Britain are considerably more than three 
 centuries old, for there is a statute of 
 the year 1548 expressly directed against 
 them. Trades-unions generally endeavor 
 to regulate the prices and the hours 
 of labor, and in many cases the num- 
 ber of men engaged by an employer, 
 the number of apprentices which may 
 be bound in proportion to the journey- 
 men employed by a master, and the like. 
 As accessories these unions may collect 
 funds for benefit societies, and under- 
 take the insurance of tools, libraries, and 
 reading-rooms; but their fund, to which 
 every member must regularly contribute 
 a stated sum, is principally reserved for 
 enabling the men to resist, by strikes 
 and otherwise, such action on the part 
 of the employers as would tend to lower 
 the rate of wages or lengthen the hours 
 of labor. That trades-unions enable the 
 men to benefit by the state of trade 
 more than they otherwise would have 
 done would appear from the fact that 
 the worst-paid trades are those without 
 unions. Trades-unions are also said to 
 have furthered the safety of the laborer 
 by producing beneficial modifications 
 of the conditions in which he works. 
 Some hostility against trades-unions 
 has been produced by the outrages of a 
 more or less serious nature of which 
 some of the unions, or members of them, 
 have been guilty, such outrages being 
 directed against the property of em- 
 ployers, or against the persons and tools 
 of non-union men. The intimidation of 
 non-unionists who venture to take work 
 where the men are out on strike is also a 
 common practice. In Britain special 
 legislation has been introduced to cope 
 with these outrages. The trades-unions 
 now represented at the annual congress 
 number considerably over one million. 
 In the United States the federal statute 
 providing for the incorporation of 
 trades-unions, says: “In the meaning 
 of this act shall signify any association 
 of working people having two or more 
 branches in the states or territories of 
 the United States for the purpose of 
 aiding its members to become more 
 skilful and efficient workers, the pro- 
 motion of their general intelligence, the 
 elevation of their character, the regula- 
 tion of their wages and their hours and 
 conditions of labor, the protection of 
 their individual rights in the prosecu- 
 tion of their trade or trades, the raising 
 
TRADE-WIND 
 
 trammel 
 
 of funds for the benefit of the sick, dis- 
 abled, or unemployed members, or the 
 families of deceased members, or for such 
 other object or objects for which work- 
 ing people may lawfully combine, hav- 
 ing in view their mutual protection or 
 benefit.” There is no record of a trade 
 union before 1803, the year in which the 
 New York Society of Journeymen Ship- 
 wrights was incorporated. In 1806 a 
 union of the House Carpenters of the 
 City of New York and of the Journey- 
 men Tailors was organized. The New 
 York Typographical Society had been 
 in active existence for some time prior 
 to 1817. In 1822 the Charitable Society 
 of Shipwrights and Calkers of Boston 
 and Charlestown was formed. During 
 this period trade unionism was making 
 progress. By 1840 local unions had been 
 organized among the masons, marble- 
 cutters, shoemakers, saddlers, hatters, 
 tailors, printers, bricklayers, roofers, 
 painters, carpenters, and shipworkers. 
 In 1850 the International Typographical 
 union was organized. The National 
 Association of Hat Finishers of the 
 United States of America was founded in 
 
 1854, the National Protective Associa- 
 tion (the Locomotive Engineers) in 
 
 1855, the Sons of Vulcan and the Na- 
 tional Spinners’ association in 1858. 
 Among the larger organizations may be 
 named the National Labor union (1866), 
 the Knights of Labor (1869), the Inter- 
 national Association of Workingmen 
 (1864), the Industrial Brotherhood 
 (1873), the American Federation of 
 Labor (1881), the National Building 
 Trades Council (1897), and the Ameri- 
 can Labor Union (1898). By far the 
 most important of these is the American 
 Federation of Labor with a member- 
 ship in 1907 of about 2,000,000. 
 
 TRADE- WIND, one of those per- 
 petual or constant winds which occur 
 in all open seas on both sides of the 
 equator, and to the distance of about 
 30° north and south of it. On the north 
 of the equator their direction is from 
 the northeast (varying at times a point 
 or two of the compass either way) ; on 
 the south of the equator they proceed 
 from the southeast. The origin of the 
 trade-winds is this: — The great heat of 
 the torrid zone rarefies and makes 
 lighter the air of that region, and in 
 consequence of this rarefaction the air 
 rises and ascends into the higher regions 
 of the atmosphere. To supply its place 
 colder air from the northern and south- 
 ern regions rushes towards the equator, 
 which, also becoming rarefied, ascends 
 in its turn. The heated air which thus 
 ascends into tlie upper regions of the 
 atmosphere being there condensed flows 
 northward and southward to supply the 
 deficiency caused by the under-currents 
 blowing toward the equator. The, so 
 under-currents coming from the north 
 and south are, in consequence of the 
 earth’s rotation on its axis, defiectod 
 from their course as they approach the 
 equatorial region, and thus become 
 northeast and southeast winds, consti- 
 tuting the trade-winds. The belt be- 
 tween the two trade-winds is charac- 
 terized by calms, frequently interrupted, 
 however, by violent storms. Trade- 
 winds are constant only over the open 1 
 ocean, and the larger the expanse of ' 
 
 ocean over which they blow (as in the 
 Pacific) the more steady they are. In 
 some places the trade-winds become 
 periodical, blowing one half of the year 
 in one direction and the other half in 
 the opposite direction. See Monsoon. 
 
 TRADITION, in its general applica- 
 tion, is any knowledge handed down 
 from one generation to another by oral 
 communication. It plays a very im- 
 portant part in the Jewish and Roman 
 Catholic churches. In theology, the 
 term is specifically applied to that body 
 of doctrine and discipline, or any article 
 thereof, supposed to have been put forth 
 by Christ or his apostles, and not com- 
 mitted to writing, but still held by many 
 as an article of faith. 
 
 TRAG'ACANTH, a variety of gum 
 familiarly termed gum-dragon or gum- 
 tragacanth. It is the produce of several 
 species of leguminous plants, natives of 
 the mountainous regions of Western 
 Asia. In commerce tragacanth occurs 
 
 Tr.agacanth. 
 
 in small twisted thread-like pieces, or in 
 flattened cakes, in color whitish or yel- 
 lowish, devoid of taste or smell. It is 
 demulcent, and is used in coughs and 
 catarrhs, and to make lozenges and 
 pills. It is employed also in calico- 
 printing. 
 
 TRAGEDY, a dramatic poem, rep- 
 resenting an important event or a 
 series of events in the life of some per- 
 son or persons, in which the diction is 
 elevated and the catastrophe melan- 
 choly. Tragedy originated among the 
 Greeks in the worship of the god Diony- 
 sus or Bacchus. 
 
 TRAG'OPAN, a name of certain beau- 
 tiful birds of the genus Ceriornis, and of 
 the family Phasianidae, closely allied to 
 
 Crimson tragopan. 
 
 the common fowl. The most common 
 species, is a native of the Himalayas. 
 The plumage is spotted, and two fleshy 
 1 protuberances hang from behind the 
 ' eyes. When the bird is excited it can 
 
 erect these protuberances until they H 
 look like a pair of horns. A large wattle M 
 hangs at either side of the lower m andible. M 
 TRAIN, George Francis, American fl 
 author, was born in Boston, Mass., in fl 
 1829. His publications include: An H 
 American Merchant in Europe, AsiajH 
 and Australia; Young America Abroad, 
 Irish Independency, and Championship 
 of Women. He also published an auto-^H 
 biography entitled My Life in ManyjH 
 States and in Foreign Lands. He died M 
 in 1904. m 
 
 TRAINING COLLEGES. See Normal ® 
 Schools. flH 
 
 TRAJAN, in full, Marcus Ulpius Tra-JH 
 janus, Roman emperor, born in Spain^® 
 52 A.D., was the son of Trajanus, a dis-l:B 
 tinguished Roman commander under jp 
 Vespasian. He served against the Par-« 
 thians and on the Rhine, where he 9 
 acquired so high a character that NervaB 
 adopted him and created him Caesar in 
 97. Nerva died in 98, and Trajan, who .M 
 was then in Gennany, peaceably sue- ga 
 ceeded to the throne. He made peace IJj 
 with the German tribes, and proceeded 
 to iirtroduce enlightened measures of 
 reform into the public service. One of > 
 his greatest military achievements was 
 his defeat of the Dacians, and the reduc- « 
 tion of Dacia to a Roman province. It 
 is supposed that it was in com.memora- i ,;' 
 tion of this war that he erected at Rome f 
 the column which still remains under j-y, 
 his name. In 103 he wrote the famous j '’ 
 epistle to Pliny, governor of Pontus and t?, 
 
 brought before him; and on no account f ; 
 to listen to anonymous charges. ForCt 
 some years Trajan occupied himself 
 with the work of administration, but in ' k 
 114 he set out on an expedition against, ': 
 the Parthians which resulted in the. ; 
 reduction of Armenia to a RomanP, 
 province. He died in Cilicia in 117 A..D.,“ f 
 after having nominated Hadrian as hisjy 
 successor. / 
 
 TRAMMEL, an instrument for draw- r 
 ing ovals, used by joiners and other.^M 
 
 artificers. One part consists of a cross! 
 with two grooves at right angles; thej 
 
TKA'ltftATS 
 
 TRANSVAAL 
 
 [ other is a beam -com pass carrying two 
 L pins which slide in those grooves, and 
 s also the describing pencil, 
 t TRAMWAYS, a kind of street railway 
 f introduced within recent times into 
 s many of the chief cities of the world. 
 
 The commonest kind of street tramway 
 't is that in which grooved rails are used, 
 the surface of which is nearly on a level 
 [' with the street. Horse-power is one 
 j means used for propelling street cars, on 
 other lines steam-engines are used for 
 'f the purpose, while in some again the cars 
 I are drawn by underground cables, 
 f Latterly electricity has become ex- 
 ceedingly common as the means of 
 
 • propulsion, and has various advantages 
 over other methods. Street tramways 
 
 i were first constructed at New York. The 
 
 ' first in England were opened at Birken- 
 ; head in 1860, and they have since been 
 ■ introduced into nearly all the principal 
 
 • towns. The United States have over 
 i, 20,000 miles of electric street railways, 
 
 ; the most striking increase in recent 
 s years being in interurban railways, 
 
 many of which have invaded the steam 
 railroad field and are now operating 
 i* sleeping, parlor and freight cars. 
 
 TRANCE, a condition resembling 
 ' sleep, in which consciousness and many 
 ^ of the vital functions are suspended, and 
 ,, during which the action of the heart is 
 ' ' diminished and the breathing reduced. 
 ( The subjects of trance are usually 
 y, hysterical, and in some cases it is in- 
 t duced by exhausting disease or emo- 
 f tional disturbance. In this condition 
 the face is pale, the limbs relaxed, the 
 f mental functions are in abeyance, no 
 effort at rousing will produce a return 
 ^ to consciousness, and this state may 
 ^ last from a period of several hours to 
 many weeks or months. When the 
 y trance lasts for a lengthy period food is 
 taken in a mechanical way at intervals 
 by the sleeper. Most cases recover. The 
 H term is also applied to a sort of ecstatic 
 
 • state in which some persons are said to 
 fall, and in which, while unconscious of 
 what is passing around them, they have 
 remarkable dreams or visions. 
 
 TRlANSBAIKALIA, a Siberian prov- 
 ince, e. of Lake Baikal; area, 240,780 
 ■ sq. miles. It has an elevated, well- 
 watered surface, and climate dry and 
 extreme both in srunmer and winter. 
 Agriculture and trade limited; gold 
 found to some extent. Pop. 664,071. 
 
 . TRANSCASPIAN REGION, a territory 
 to the e. of the Caspian recently an- 
 nexed by Russia. It has an area of 
 
 220,000 sq^. miles, mostly uninhabited 
 I ' desert, and is traversed by the Trans- 
 ! . Caspian railway, connecting Samarkand 
 I with the Caspian. Pop. 372,193. 
 
 TRANSCENDEN'TAL, a term applied 
 in the system of philosophy founded by 
 Kant to all those principles of knowledge 
 which are original and primary, and 
 which are determined h, priori, such as 
 space and time. They involve necessary 
 and strictly universal truths, and so 
 transcend all truth derived from ex- 
 perience, which must always be con- 
 tingent and particular. The term trans- 
 cendentalism is now generally used in 
 a sense not very different from mysti- 
 cism, or for that which is vague and 
 illusive in philosophy. In mathematics 
 the tonn is applied to quantities that 
 
 cannot be expressed in ordinary alge- 
 braic terms. 
 
 TRANSEPT, in architecture, the 
 transverse portion of a church which is 
 built in the form of a cross; that part 
 between the nave and choir which pro- 
 jects externally on each side, and forms 
 the short arm of the cross in the general 
 plan. See Cathedral. 
 
 TRANSFUSION, the transmission of 
 blood from the veins of one living animal 
 to those of another, or from those of a 
 man or one of the lower animals into a 
 man, with the view of restoring the 
 vigor of exhausted subjects. This opera- 
 tion is a very old one, but seems to have 
 generally ended in failure until about 
 1824, the chief cause of failure probably 
 being the want of due precaution to ex- 
 clude the air during the process. It is 
 now occasionally resorted to as a last 
 resource in cases of great loss of blood 
 by hsemorrhage, especially in connection 
 with labor. 
 
 TRANSIT, in astronomy, (a) the pas- 
 sage of a heavenly body across the 
 meridian of any place, a phenomenon 
 which is usually noted by a transit in- 
 strmnent. The determination of the 
 exact times of the transits of the 
 heavenly bodies across the meridian of 
 the place of observation enables the 
 astronomer to ascertain the differences 
 of right ascensions, and the relative 
 situations of the fixed stars, and the 
 motions of the sun, planets, and cornets, 
 in respect of the celestial meridians, 
 (b) The passage of one heavenly body 
 
 Transit of Mercury. 
 
 a. Mercury. The dotted line shows the path. 
 
 over the disc of a larger one; but the 
 term is chiefly restricted to the passage 
 of the inferior planets. Mercury and 
 Venus, over the sun’s disc. The transits 
 of Venus are of great importance in as- 
 tronomy, as they afford the best means 
 of determining the sun’s paralax, and 
 consequently the dimensions of the 
 planetary system. These transits are of 
 rare occurrence, four taking place in 243 
 years, at intervals reckoning from the 
 transit of 1874, in the order of 8, 122, 8, 
 and 105 years, which gives the transit 
 years 1882 (December 6), 2004, 2012, 
 2117. The transits of Mercury occur 
 more frequently, but they are of far 
 less astronomical interest, as they cannot 
 be used for the same purpose, the planet 
 being too distant from us. 
 
 TRANSIT INSTRUMENT, an import- 
 ant astronomical instrument adapted 
 for observing the exact time of the 
 passage of heavenly bodies across the 
 meridian. (See Transit.) It consists 
 essentially of a telescope fixed at right 
 angles to a horizontal axis, which latter 
 has its ends directed exactly to the east 
 and west points of the horizon, bo that 
 
 the line of collimation or optical axia 
 of the telescope may move in the plane 
 of the meridian. The instrument is 
 susceptible of certain nice adjustments, 
 so that the axis can be made perfectly 
 horizontal, and at right angles to the 
 plane of the meridian, in which plane 
 the telescope must move. It is generally 
 used in connection with the mural circle. 
 
 TRANSKEI, a general name given to 
 a region of Southeast Africa north of 
 the Kei river and southwest of Natal, 
 and comprising several territories an- 
 nexed at various times to the Cape 
 Colony. These are grouped into the four 
 divisions of Griqualand East, Tembu- 
 land, Transkei, and Pondoland. Pop. 
 
 560.000 natives, 10,000 whites. 
 
 TRANSMIGRATION OF THE SOUL, 
 
 or METEMPSYCHOISIS, the passage 
 which, according to the belief of many 
 races and tribes at all times, the soul 
 after the death of the body makes 
 through the bodies of the lower animals 
 or other human bodies, or, it may be, 
 through plants or inanimate objects. 
 In the teaching of the Brahmanic Hin- 
 dus it has its foundation in the belief 
 of the connection of all living beings, 
 and of the gradual purification of the 
 spiritual part of man and its return to 
 the common source and origin of all 
 things — God. The Buddhists accept a 
 similar doctrine, but with them the 
 ultimate goal of the soul is not absorp- 
 tion by the Deity, but annihilation. Nir- 
 vana. Transmigration also formed part 
 of the teaching of the Egyptian priests. 
 The doctrine probably passed from 
 Egypt into Greece, where it was never 
 generally current, but was confined to 
 the mysteries and some philosophic 
 systems. It occupied an important place 
 in the system of Pythagoras, and is 
 supported by Plato and Plotinus. Among 
 the Romans Cicero alludes to this doc- 
 trine, and Csesar informs us that it was 
 believed in by the Gauls, who, he says, 
 in this faith were able to despise death. 
 The doctrine is also found in the Talmud 
 but only a minority of the Jewish rabbis 
 appear to have adopted it. Various 
 heretical Christian sects have held this 
 doctrine, and it was also professed by 
 the Arabs before Mohammed. 
 
 TRANSPORT, a ship employed by 
 government for carrying soldiers, war- 
 like stores, or provisions from one place 
 to another. 
 
 TRANSUBSTANTIATION. See Lord’s 
 Supper. 
 
 TRANSVAAL, a British territory in 
 South Africa, originally colonized by 
 part of the Boers who left Cape Colony 
 m 1836 for Natal, and quitted that 
 colony on its annexation by Britain in 
 1845. It lies north of the Vaal river and 
 south of the Limpopo, and is bounded 
 by Rhodesia, Bechuanaland, Orange 
 River Colony, Natal, Zululand, and 
 Portuguese East Africa. Area, about 
 
 120.000 sq. miles; pop. 1,250,000. Pre- 
 toria is the seat of goveriunent; the 
 largest town is Johannesburg. The 
 country is elevated, forming high pla- 
 teaux, and in some parts is quite rugged, 
 mountains rising in the east to 8700 
 feet. In the south is the famous elevated 
 tracks known as the Witwatersrand. 
 The rivers are chiefly tributaries of 
 the Limpopo. The climate is generally 
 
TRANSYLVANIA 
 
 TREAD-MILL 
 
 salubrious. Minerals are abundant, es- 
 pecially gold, which is mined in many 
 places, the chief being in the Witwaters- 
 rand, of which Johannesburg is the 
 center. Coal is abundant, and is also 
 worked. The country is more pastoral 
 than agricultural. In 1877 the Transvaal 
 was annexed by Britain, the country 
 being far from flourishing, and a certain 
 number of the people being in favor of 
 this step. In 1880 the Boers took up 
 arms against the British, defeated a 
 body of troops at Majuba Hill, and as the 
 result recovered their independence. 
 By a convention made in 1884, the 
 relation of the state to the British crown 
 was modified, and from that date till 
 1900 it was known as the South African 
 Republic. Latterly the area had been 
 extended at the expense of the Zulus, 
 and in 1894 Britain recognized Swazi- 
 land as a dependency of the Transvaal. 
 A great increase of the population took 
 place along with the extension of gold- 
 mining, from about 1886, and various 
 railways were constructed. For some 
 years before 1895, much discontent pre- 
 vailed among the “uitlanders” or aliens, 
 whites not admitted to citizenship; and 
 at the end of 1895 this led to an abortive 
 revolution at Johannesburg. Simultane- 
 ously Dr. Jameson with an armed force 
 belonging to the British South Africa 
 Company, entered the Transvaal and 
 rode toward Johannesburg, but was at- 
 tacked and defeated by a body of Boers. 
 In October, 1899, war broke out with 
 Britain, the Transvaal being joined by 
 the Orange Free State in commencing 
 hostilities. After nearly eleven months’ 
 fighting and the occupation of the chief 
 towns, the country was annexed by 
 proclamation in 1900. Before the two 
 Boer republics could be crushed Britain 
 had placed some 200,000 men in the 
 field under the supreme command of 
 Lord Roberts. The president was then 
 J. Paul Kruger, who had held the office 
 continuously since 1883. The legislative 
 power was exercised by two chambers, 
 a first and a second Volksraad ("popu- 
 lar council”), each with twenty-four 
 members. The former was in possession 
 of all political power. The uitlanders 
 had no voice in the government of the 
 country though much of the taxation 
 fell upon them. The annual output of 
 gold is valued at about 1135,000,000. 
 See Boers, Natal. 
 
 TRANSYLVANIA, a grand-principal- 
 ity belonging to the crown of Hungary 
 forming the southeastern portion of the 
 Austrian empire; area, 21,213 sq. miles. 
 The surface is mountainous, the Car- 
 pathian chain covering its southern and 
 eastern frontier, and sending out numer- 
 ous ramifications into the interior. The 
 chief rivers are the Aluta or Alt, the 
 Maros, and the Szamos, all flowing 
 directly or indirectly into the Danube. 
 The forests are extensive and valuable; 
 the vine flourishes everywhere, and the 
 crops include corn, wheat, rye, hemp, 
 flax, tobacco. The minerals are import- 
 ant, and include gold, silver, copper, 
 lead, coal, salt, and iron. The chief 
 towns are Hermannstadt, Kronstadt, 
 Bistritz, and Szamos-Ujvar. Education 
 is in a very backward state. The popula- 
 tion (2,084,048) is very mixed, including 
 Roumanians, Magyars, Germans, Gyp- 
 
 sies, Jews, Bulgarians, and others. The 
 country now forms an integral portion 
 of Hungary. 
 
 TRAP, a term rather loosely and 
 vaguely applied by the earlier geologists 
 to some or all of the multifarious igneous 
 rocks that belong to the palaeozoic and 
 secondary epochs, as distinct from 
 granite on the one hand, and the recent 
 volcanic rocks on the other. Trap- 
 rocks often assume a terraced appear- 
 ance, whence their name from trappa, 
 the Swedish for a stair. Their compo- 
 sition may be described as consisting 
 chiefly of felspar and horneblende. Trap- 
 rocks of crystalline structure are dis- 
 tinguished as greenstones, basalts, clink- 
 stones, compact felspar, and felspar 
 porphyries; while the softer and more 
 earthy varieties are known as clay- 
 stones, claystone porphyries, a'myg- 
 daloids, trap-tuffs, and wackes. Basalt 
 is the most compact, the hardest, and 
 the heaviest of the trap-rocks. The hill 
 scenery of trappean districts is often 
 picturesque. 
 
 TRA'PANI, a fortified seaport town in 
 Sicily, capital of the province of the 
 same name, 47 miles w.s.w. of Palermo, 
 on a peninsula shaped like a sickle, and 
 hence its ancient name, from the Greek 
 drepane, a sickle. There is a good trade, 
 and the fisheries are extensive. At a 
 short distance e.n.e. of the town is Mount 
 San Giuliano, the ancient Eryx. Pop. 
 60,257. 
 
 TRAP-DOOR SPIDER, a name given 
 to certain spiders that have the habit of 
 constructing tubular dwellings in the 
 ground, sometimes a foot or more in 
 depth, and an inch or so in diameter, 
 closed by a sort of hinged door. They 
 belong to several genera, and are found 
 in Southern Europe, Western North 
 America, and elsewhere. The dwelling 
 
 Trap door spider and nest 
 
 is lined with the silky substance spun 
 by the insect, and the hinge of the door 
 is formed of the same, the door itself 
 being constructed sometimes of earthy 
 particles connected by threads, some- 
 times of leaves, etc. Some species con- 
 struct nests that have a main tube and 
 one or more branches, the latter having 
 a door where they join the main tube. 
 
 TRAP'EZOID, or TRAPE'ZIUM, a 
 quadrilateral figure of unequal sides, 
 
 YI7 
 
 Trapezoid. 
 
 and consequently unequal angles. A 
 trapezoid is usually said to have two 
 
 sides parallel, but some geometer* de^ 
 fine the trapezium as having this char- 
 
 TRAPPE, La, Trappists. See La 
 Trappe. 
 
 TRAVANCORE,a native Indian state,^ 
 subsidiary to the presidency of Madras; 
 occupying the extreme southwest of the' 
 peninsula; area, 6730 sq. miles. The 
 principal agricultural products are rice,’ 
 pepper, areca-nuts, cocoa, coffee, to- 
 bacco, and oil plants. Some sugar and 
 salt are manufactured. Pop. 2,557,736.1 
 
 TRAVELER’S TREE, an arborescent 
 plant, native of Madagascar, having the 
 appearance of a palm, and forming the 
 only species of the genus to which it be- 
 longs. Its trunk terminates in a bundle" 
 of leaves, each of which is borne by a 
 petiole often 10 feet in length, and has a 
 blade about 6 feet long and 2 \ to 3 feet 
 broad. The seeds yield a flour, which is 
 eaten by the natives, and the petioles 
 a limpid and wholesome water, which 
 often renders the tree a great resource 
 for travelers; hence its name. 
 
 TRAV'ERSE CITY, the county-seat 
 of Grand Traverse co., Mich., 60 miles 
 northeast of Manistee; at the mouth 
 of the Boardman river, on Grand Trav- 
 erse bay, an inlet of Lake Michigan; 
 and on the Pere Marquette, the Grand 
 Rapids and Indiana, and the Manistee 
 and Northeastern railroads. Pop. 11,216. 
 
 TRAWLING, a mode of fishing in 
 which a net in the form of a large bag, 
 with a strong framework keeping the 
 mouth properly distended, is dragged 
 along the bottom of the sea. It is the 
 mode chiefly adopted in deep-sea fish- 
 ing, but it is not allowed within three 
 miles of the shore. Cod, whiting, and, 
 other white-fish are taken by it in large 
 
 Trawl-net attached to fishing-boat. 
 
 numbers, and some kinds of flat-fish, as t 
 soles, can scarcely be taken in any other i 
 way. Trawling can be practiced only , 
 on a smooth bottom, as a rough bottom - 
 would destroy the net. Trawling is some- ‘ 
 times objected to as destroying fish- 
 spawn and unmature fish, and so in-l 
 juring the fishing-grounds. See Net. 
 
 TRAZ-OS-MONTES (“Beyond the 1 
 Mountains”), a northeast frontier prov-J 
 ince of Portugal; area, 4260 sq. miles.* 
 The province is fertile in parts, and thel 
 wine-growing district of Alto Douro isl 
 the native country of port. The chief! 
 towns are Villa Real and Braganza. J 
 Pop. 396,676. 
 
 TREACLE. See Sugar. 
 
 TREAD-MILL, an instrument o^ 
 punishment of modern origin, consistj 
 ing of a large wheel, about 20 or 25 fe«^ 
 
f 
 
 TREASON 
 
 TREPANG 
 
 > wide, with steps on its external surface, 
 
 ' upon which criminals are placed. Their 
 weight sets the wheel in motion, and 
 they maintain themselves in an upright 
 posture by means of a horizontal bar 
 fixed above them, of which they keep 
 hold. The power thus obtained may be 
 applied to the same purpose as water- 
 power, steam, etc. The tread-mill has 
 recontly been abandoned in most peni- 
 tentiaries. It was introduced into the 
 prisons of Great Britain about 1820. 
 
 TREASON, High, treason is that crime 
 which is directly committed against the 
 supreme authority of the state, and is 
 considered to be the greatest crime that 
 can be committed. 
 
 TREASURY, Department of the, the 
 executive department controlling the 
 national finances of the United States, 
 was established by act of congress in 
 September, 1789. It is presided over 
 by a secretary appointed by the presi- 
 dent, who is a member of the cabinet, 
 and second among the cabinet officers 
 in the line of succession to the presi- 
 dency. The department employs some 
 5000 persons at Washington with 
 numerous bureaus, branches, and offices 
 throughout the country. The only 
 qualification for the oflSce of secretary 
 of the treasury is the negative one that 
 he shall not be interested in foreign 
 commerce. ' He is required to prepare 
 plans for the revenue and public credit; 
 to superintend the collection of the 
 revenues, etc., etc., and to perform all 
 such duties relative to the finances as 
 shall be required by law. The develop- 
 ment of the department has been ex- 
 tended to the management of the na- 
 tional debt, the supervision of the 
 national banks, the internal revenue 
 system, the legal-tender currency, the 
 merchant marine, the lighthouse system, 
 the life-saving and marine hospital serv- 
 ices, the coast survey, etc. 
 
 TREATY, an agreement, league, or 
 contract between two or more nations 
 or sovereigns formally signed by com- 
 missioners properly authorized, and 
 ratified by the several sovereigns, or the 
 supreme power of each state. Treaties 
 are of various kinds, as treatises for 
 regulating commercial intercourse, 
 treaties of alliance, offensive and de- 
 fensive, treaties of peace, etc. In most 
 monarchies the power of making and 
 ratifying treaties is vested in the sover- 
 eign; in republics it is vested in the chief 
 magistrate, senate, or executive council ; 
 in the United States of America it is 
 1 vested in the president by and with the 
 ! consent of the senate. Treaties may be 
 concluded and signed by diplomatic 
 . agents, but the.se, of course, must be 
 furnished wdth full powers by the sover- 
 , eign authority of their states 
 
 TREBIZOND', a seaport in Asiatic 
 Turkey, capital of a pashalic of the 
 ! same name, on the Black sea. Pop. 
 1 estimated at 50,000. 
 
 I TREBLE, in music, the highest vocal 
 or instrumental part in a concerted 
 piece, such as is sung by women or boys, 
 or played by instruments of acute tone, 
 
 I as the violin, flute, oboe, clarinet, etc., 
 or on the higher keys of the piano, organ, 
 etc.; so called because it was origin- 
 ally a third part added to the ancient 
 canto formo and the counterpoint. 
 
 TREE, a perennial plant having a 
 woody trunk of varying size, from which 
 spring a number of branches, having a 
 structure similar to the trunk. Trees 
 are thus distinguished from shrubs, 
 Avhich have perennial stems but have no 
 trunk properly so called ; and from herbs, 
 whose stems live only a single year. It 
 is difficult, however, to fix the exact 
 limit between trees and shrubs. Trees 
 are both endogenous and exogenous, by 
 far the greater number both of individ- 
 uals and of varieties belonging to the 
 latter class. Those of which the whole 
 foliage falls off periodically, leaving 
 them bare in winter, are called decidu- 
 ous; those of which the foliage falls only 
 partially, a fresh crop of leaves being 
 always supplied before the mature 
 leaves are exhausted, are called ever- 
 green. Trees are the longest lived organ- 
 isms of the vegetable kingdom, and 
 attain a great and indefinite age, far 
 exceeding that of animals. The maxi- 
 mum age of different trees is as follows : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Palm 250 
 
 Elm 355 
 
 Cypress 388 
 
 Ivy 448 
 
 Maple 510 
 
 Larch 576 
 
 Lemon 646 
 
 Plane 720 
 
 Cedar 800 
 
 Chestnut 860 
 
 Walnut.. 900 
 
 Lime 1,070 
 
 Spruce 1,206 
 
 Oak. 1,600 
 
 Olive 2,000 
 
 Yew 2,880 
 
 Baobab 5,100 
 
 Dragon 5,900 
 
 Eucalyptus, or Australian gum-tree, 
 sometimes grows twenty-four feet in 
 three months; bamboo, two feet in 
 twenty-four hours. See Arboriculture, 
 Botany, Timber, etc. 
 
 TREE-CRAB, a crab of the genus in- 
 cluded among the land-crabs. It breaks 
 open the shell of the cocoa-nut, etc., 
 by repeated blows of its great claws, in 
 order to feed upon the soft pulp of the 
 nut. Tree-crabs can live for long 
 periods out of water, but deposit their 
 eggs in the sea. 
 
 TREE-FERNS, the name given to 
 several species of ferns which attain to 
 the size of trees. They are found in 
 tropical countries. A handsome species 
 contains in its trunk a mucilaginous 
 pulp comparable to sago, which is used 
 extensively for food in Polynesia and 
 New Zealand. 
 
 TREE-FROG, a name of frogs differ- 
 ing from proper frogs in the extremities 
 of their toes, each of which is expanded 
 into a rounded viscous pellet that 
 enables the animals to adhere to the 
 surface of bodies and to climb trees, 
 where they remain during the summer 
 feeding upon insects. 
 
 TREE-TOAD. See Tree-Frog. 
 
 TREFOIL, a distinctive title applied 
 to plants of various kinds on account of 
 a peculiarity of the form of the leaf, 
 which consists of three leaflets; ex- 
 amples, buck bean, clover and medick. 
 The same term is also applied to an 
 ornamental foliation in Gothic architec- 
 
 ture, used in the heads of window lights, 
 tracery, paneling, etc. 
 
 American tree-toad. 
 
 TREM'OLITE, a mineral, a variety of 
 hornblende. It is a silicate of calcium 
 and magnesiums, is white or colorless, 
 and usually occurs in long, prismatic 
 crystals. 
 
 TRENT, Council of, a celebrated 
 oecumenical council of the Roman 
 Catholic church, convened to settle 
 various controversies that were agitating 
 the church during the Reformation 
 period, and for the reform of abuses. 
 It met during the pontificate of Paul 
 III. at Trent in 1545, but the wars in 
 Germany caused its transference to 
 Bologna in 1546, when it dispersed. 
 Pope Julius III. again convoked it at 
 Trent in 1551, but it dispersed a year 
 later on the approach of the Lutherans. 
 Eight years afterward it was again 
 called together by Pius IV., and it 
 finished its labors in 1563. This council 
 definitely settled the doctrines of the 
 Roman Catholic church. Its decrees are 
 embodied in what is known as the Creed 
 of Pius IV. 
 
 TRENTON, the capital of New Jersey, 
 on the Delaware at the head of tide- 
 water and steamboat navigation, 50 
 miles southwest of New York. It is laid 
 out with great regularity, and has 
 
 State Capitol, Trenton, N. J. 
 
 a state-house, court-house, governor’s 
 house, state-prison, etc. There are 
 numerous manufacturing establish- 
 ments (earthenware, iron and steel, etc.), 
 and the trade is extensive. Pop. 100,000. 
 
 TREPANG, the sea-slug, a marine 
 animal popularly known as “sea- 
 cucumbers,” or beches-de-mer. It is 
 found chiefly about coral reefs in the 
 Eastern seas, and is a rather repulsive 
 looking animal, somewhat resembling 
 the land slug in shape, and varying in 
 length from 6 to 24 inches. Sun-dried 
 
TREPANNING 
 
 J 
 
 trepangs are in special request in China 
 for making soups. The fishery is carried 
 on in numerous localities in the Indian 
 
 Trepang, 
 
 ocean, the Eastern archipelago, and on 
 the shores of Australia. 
 
 TREPANNING, the operation of cut- 
 ting a circular opening into the skull 
 by means of a surgical instrument called 
 a trepan or trephine. This consists of a 
 handle, to which is fixed a small hollow 
 steel cylinder, of about J to 1 inch in 
 diameter, having teeth cut on its lower 
 edge so as to form a circular saw. Tre- 
 panning is especially resorted to for the 
 purpose of relieving the brain from pres- 
 sure, as in fracture of the skull or in 
 cerebral abscess. 
 
 TRES'COT, William Henry, American 
 diplomatist, was born at Charleston, 
 S. C., in 1822. In 1852 he became secre- 
 tary of the United States legation in 
 London, and was assistant secretary of 
 state from June, 1860, until the secession 
 of South Carolina. Among bis published 
 works are: Diplomacy of the Revolu- 
 tion, An American View of the Eastern 
 Question, and Diplomatic History of 
 the Administrations of Washington and 
 Adams. He died in 1898. 
 
 TRESPASS, in law, a term which is 
 applied generally to any offense against 
 the person or property of another, but is 
 more especially applied to a peaceful 
 but unlawful entry upon the property of 
 another, the remedy for which is by an 
 action of damages. Any injuries com- 
 mitted against land or buildings are in 
 the most ordinary sense of the word 
 trespasses, as entering another’s house 
 without permission, walking over the 
 ground of another, or suffering any 
 cattle to stray upon it, or any act or 
 practice which damages the property, 
 or interferes with the owner’s or 
 occupier’s rights of possession. A 
 creditor or customer can be ordered 
 away by a householder or shopkeeper, 
 and even the civil courts have no power 
 to give a right of entry to officers in- 
 trusted with the execution of legal proc- 
 esses, though such oflBcers may main- 
 tain possession if once they gain en- 
 trsnc© 
 
 TREVEL'YAN,Sir George Otto, Bart., 
 the only son of Sir Charles E. Trevelyan, 
 and nephew of Lord Macaulay, born in 
 1838. He is author of the Life and Let- 
 ters of Lord Macaulay (2 vols. 1876), The 
 Early History of Charles James Fox, etc. 
 
 TREVES, a town in the province of 
 Rheinland, Prussia, on the right bank 
 of the Moselle. It is considered the oldest 
 city in Germany, and contains many 
 Roman remains. The chief buildings are 
 the cathedral, built at various times 
 from the 6th century downward, and 
 containing the Holy Coat (see Holy Coat 
 of Treves) ; Church of our Lady, an 
 elegant Gothic structure; and the old 
 archiepiscopal palace, now used as a 
 barracks. Pop. 39,993. 
 
 TRIAL. See Jury and Procedure, 
 Civil. 
 
 TRIANGLE, in geometry, a figure 
 bounded by tnree lines and containing 
 
 three angles. The three angles of a plane 
 triangle are equal to two right angles or 
 180°, and its area is equal to half that 
 of a rectangle or parallelogram of the 
 same base and altitude. The triangle is 
 the most important figure in geometry, 
 and may be considered the element of all 
 other figures. If the three lines or sides 
 of a triangle are all straight, it is a plane 
 or rectilinear triangle, as in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 
 4. If all the three sides are equal, it is an 
 equilateral triangle, as in Fig. 2. If two 
 of the sides only are equal, it is an isos- 
 cels triangle. Fig. 3. If all the three sides 
 are unequal, it is a scalene triangle. Fig. 
 4. If one of the angles is a right angle. 
 
 Triangles. 
 
 the triangle is right-angled, as Fig. 1, 
 having the right angle at a. If one of the 
 angles is obtuse, the triangle is called 
 obtuse-angled, as Fig. 4, having the 
 obtuse angle b. If all the angles are 
 acute, the triangle is acute-angled, as 
 Figs. 2, 3. If the three lines of a triangle 
 are all curves, the triangle is said to be 
 curvilinear, as Fig. 5. If one or two of the 
 sides are straight and others are other 
 curve, the triangle is said to be mixtili- 
 near. Fig. 6. If the sides are all arcs of 
 great circles of the sphere, or arcs of the 
 same circle, the triangle is said to be 
 spherical. 
 
 TRI'BUNE, in Roman antiquity, 
 originally an officer connected with a 
 tribe, or who represented a tribe for cer- 
 tain purposes; especially, an officer or 
 magistrate chosen by the people to 
 protect them from the oppression of the 
 patricians or nobles, and to defend their 
 liberties against any attempts that 
 might be made upon them by the senate 
 and consuls. These magistrates were at 
 first two, but their number was in- 
 creased to five and ultimately to ten. 
 This last number appears to have re- 
 mained unaltered down to the end of the 
 empire. There were also military trib- 
 unes, officers of the army, each of 
 whom commanded a division or legion, 
 and also other officers called tribunes, 
 as, tribunes of the treasury, of the horse, 
 etc. See Rome (History). 
 
 trichina (tri-kl'na), a minute ne- 
 matoid worm, the larva of which was 
 discovered in 1835 in the tissue of the 
 voluntary muscles of man, giving rise to 
 a disease since known as trichiniasis or 
 trichinosis. The worm is common also 
 to several other mammals, and espe- 
 cially to the pig, and it is generally from 
 it that man receives the disease. When 
 a portion of flesh, say of the pig, con- 
 taining larvse is taken into the stomach 
 the larvae in a few days becomes de- 
 veloped into procreative adult worms, 
 having in the meantime passed into the 
 intestines, The male worm is about -sT'oth 
 
 TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY 
 
 of an inch long, the female about a half 
 more. The female produces embryos in 
 extraordinary numbers, which gain 
 entrance into the muscles by penetrating 
 the mucous coat of the intestine and 
 entering the capillaries, whence they 
 are carried to their habitat by the cir- 
 culation. There they disorganize the ; | 
 surrounding tissue, setting up at the I 
 same time morbid action in the system, 
 manifested by swelling of the face, body, 
 and limbs, fever, pains, etc., and result- 
 ing sometimes in death. In the muscles 
 they become quiescent, are encased in a 
 cyst covered with calcareous matter, 
 and may give no more trouble. Thor- 
 ough cooking kills the trichinse and 
 thus prevents infection. 
 
 TRICHINOP'OLY, a town of British 
 India, capital of district of same name, 
 in the presidency of Madras, on the 
 right bank of the Cavery. Pop. 104,721. 
 
 TRICOLOR, the French national flag, 
 or one formed after the model of it. 
 The French tricolor is blue, white, and 
 red in equal vertical sections, the blue 
 being next the flag-staff. 
 
 TRIDEN'TINE COUNCIL, the Coun- 
 cil of Trent. See Trent. 
 
 TRIEST', a seaport town in Austria, 
 214 miles southwest of Vienna, on a 
 gulf of same name, at the northeastern 
 extremity of the Adriatic. The chief 
 buildings are an ancient cathedral in 
 the Byzantine style, and the exchange 
 block of buildings, which is a handsome 
 edifice. Triest is the chief Austrian port, 
 and the most important trading place 
 in the Adriatic, and has now very ex- 
 tensive harbor accommodation. Pop. 
 178,672. 
 
 TRIFORIUM, in Gothic churches, a 
 gallery or open space between the arches 
 of the nave and the roof of the aisles 
 below the clere-story lighted by win- 
 dows opening into the interior of the 
 building. 
 
 TRI'GLYPHS, in architecture, are 
 ornaments in the frieze of the Doric 
 order, repeated at equal intervals. Each 
 triglyph consists of a square block, on 
 
 Frieze of Roman Doric Order. 
 tits Triglyphs. mm, Metopes- 
 
 which are cut two perpendicular chan- 
 nels of triangular section, and one half 
 channel on either side of these. 
 
 TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, the 
 survey of a country which is carried on 
 from a single measured base-line, by 
 trigonometrical computation made from 
 observed angular distances. The most 
 minute accuracy and the most perfect in- 
 struments are required in all the practi- 
 cal parts of such operations; and it be- 
 comes necessary to have regard to the 
 curvature of the earth’s surface, the 
 effects of temperature, refraction, alti- 
 
TRIGONOMETRY 
 
 TRIPTYCH 
 
 tude above the level of the sea, and a 
 multitude of circumstances which are 
 not taken into account in ordinary sur- 
 veying. In conducting a trigonometrical 
 survey of a country, signals, such as 
 spires, towers, poles erected on elevated 
 situations or other objects, are assumed 
 at as great a distance as will admit of dis- 
 tinct and accurate observationsbymeans 
 of telescopes of considerable power at- 
 tached to the instruments used in meas- 
 uring the angles. In this way, starting 
 from a measured baseline, the country 
 will be divided into a series of connected 
 triangles called primary triangles; and 
 any side of any one of these being known 
 the remaining sides of all of them may 
 be computed by trigonometry. By 
 means exactly similar, each of these 
 triangles is resolved into a number of 
 others called secondary triangles; and 
 thus the positions of towns, villages, and 
 other objects -are determined. The 
 length of the base or line measured, 
 which is an arc of a great circle, must be 
 determined with extreme accuracy, as 
 an error in measuring it would affect 
 the entire survey. 
 
 TRIGONOMETRY, the science of the 
 measurement of triangles. Trigonom- 
 etry is of two kinds, plane and spherical 
 the former treating of triangles de- 
 scribed on a plane, and the latter of 
 those described on the surface of a 
 sphere. In every triangle there are six 
 things which may be considered, viz. : 
 the three sides and the three angles, and 
 the main object of the theoretical part 
 of trigonometry is to deduce rules by 
 which, when some of these are given, 
 the others may be found by com- 
 putation.' In plane trigonometry any 
 three of the six parts of a triartgle being 
 given (except the three angles), the 
 other parts may be determined; but in 
 spherical trigonometry, this exception 
 has no place, for any three of the six 
 parts being given, the rest may thence 
 be determined, the sides being meas- 
 ured or estimated by degrees, minutes, 
 etc., as well as the angles. Both plane 
 and spherical trigonometry is divided 
 into right-angled and oblique-angled. 
 Solutions of triangles are worked by 
 means of tables of the values of the 
 trigonometrical functions, and the pro- 
 cesses are much facilitated by the use of 
 logarithms. See Logarithm. 
 
 TRI'LOBITES, an extinct and widely- 
 distributed family of palaeozoic Crus- 
 tacea, nearly allied to the Phyllopoda. 
 Trilobites are especially characteristic 
 
 Trllobites. 
 
 1, Paradoxides bohemicus. 2 , Phacopslatifrons. 
 
 of the Cambrian and Silurian strata; a 
 number of genera appear in the Devon- 
 ian, a few in the Carboniferous, none 
 higher. They are named from the fact 
 that the body is divided into three lobes, 
 
 which run parallel to its axis. They feed 
 on small water animals, and vast num- 
 bers inhabited the shallow water near 
 coasts. When attacked they could roll 
 themsevles into a ball. Up till recent 
 times no antennae or limbs belonging to 
 these animals were known, but latterly a 
 certain number have been found. The 
 eye-lenses are frequently beautifully 
 preserved so as to be perceptible by the 
 naked eye. In one species each eye has 
 400 facets, and in another 6000. The 
 species vary greatly in size, some being 
 no larger than a pin’s head. 
 
 TRI'LOGY, a series of three dramas, 
 each of them in a certain sense complete 
 in itself, yet bearing a mutual relation 
 to each other, and forming but parts of 
 one historical and poetical picture. . The 
 term belongs more particularly to the 
 Greek drama, where three tragedies, 
 connected in subject, together with a 
 humorous piece, were performed in im- 
 mediate succession. 
 
 TRINIDAD', one of the British West 
 India islands, and, excepting Jamaica, 
 largest and most valuable. It is the 
 most southerly of the Windward group, 
 lies immediately off the northeast coast 
 of Venezuela, and is about 55 miles long 
 by 40 miles broad; area, 1755 sq. miles. 
 The chief products are sugar, cocoa, 
 molasses, rum, cocoa-nuts, pitch, tim- 
 ber, and fruits. The climate is healthy, 
 and though hot is well suited to Amer- 
 icans. The chief exports are sugar, 
 rum, cocoa, molasses, and pitch. The 
 capital. Port of Spain, on the northwest 
 side of the island, is one of the finest 
 towns in the West Indies. Pop. 260,815. 
 
 TRINITY, a theological name given 
 to the Deity as expressive of the Chris- 
 tian doctrine of the Triune nature of 
 God, the union of the Father, the Son, 
 and the Holy Spirit as Three Persons 
 and One God. The doctrine of the 
 Trinity is nowhere expressly taught in 
 the Old Testament, but in the New 
 Testament it is clearly taught, though 
 the word Trinity does not occur. The 
 definition of the Trinity adopted by the 
 Catholic church, and generally accepted 
 by orthodox Christians, is that there are 
 in the Godhead three persons, one in 
 substance, co-eternal, equal in power, 
 the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. The 
 Eastern church holds that the Holy 
 Ghost proceeds from the Father; the 
 Western, throughout all its divisions, 
 adopting the amendedform of theNicene 
 Creed, holds that he proceeds from the 
 Father and the Son. The three creeds 
 commonly called the Apostles’, the 
 Athanasian, and the Nicene, all contain 
 the points of agreement between the 
 two divisions of the church, while on 
 the point of difference the Athanasian 
 and the commonly known form of the 
 Nicene express the faith of the Western 
 church. The term persons is not used in 
 Scripture of the Trinity, but something 
 analogous to the conception of person- 
 ality seems to be implied in the apos- 
 tolic arguments of the epistles. 
 
 TRINITY SUNDAY, the Sunday after 
 Whitsunday. It was definitely estab- 
 lished as a church festival by Pope John 
 XXII. in 1334. All the principal feasts 
 occur in the half-year between Advent 
 Sunday and Trinity, and all the Sun- 
 
 days from Trinity to Advent are called 
 Sundays after Trinity. 
 
 TRIPLE ALLIANCE. Four treaties in 
 European politics are known by this 
 name. The first was formed in 1668 by 
 Great Britain, Sweden, and the Nether- 
 lands against Louis XIV.; the second 
 in 1717 by Great Britain, France, and 
 Holland against Spain, then governed 
 by Cardinal Alberoni ; the third by Great 
 Britain, Russia, and Austria against 
 France (1795); the fourth by Germany, 
 Austria-Hungary, and Italy, in the in- 
 terests of peace (1887). 
 
 TRIPLET, in music, a combination of 
 three notes to be played in the time of 
 two. They are joined by a slur and dis- 
 tinguished by having the figure 3 above 
 them. 
 
 TRIPOD, anciently a bronze altar con- 
 sisting of a caldron raised on a threa- 
 legged stand of bronze. Such was the 
 altar of Apollo at Delphi. Tripods of 
 
 Antique tripod. 
 
 fine workmanship and of precious metals 
 were placed in later times as votive gifts 
 in the temples, especially that of Apollo. 
 
 TRIP'OLI, a country in the north of 
 Africa, forming a portion of the Turkish 
 empire since 1835, is bounded on the 
 north by the Mediterranean, west by 
 Tunis, south by Fezzan and the Libyan 
 Desert, and east by the Libyan Desert 
 and Barca; area, about 106,000 sq. 
 miles, and with Fezzan and Barca, 
 which are included in the Turkish 
 vilayet, about 344,000 sq. miles. The 
 population, which in the outlying dis- 
 tricts consists of Berbers and Bedouins 
 and in the town chiefly Moors, is esti- 
 mated at 1,150,000. — Tripoli, the capi- 
 tal, stands on a tongue of land project- 
 ing into the sea. Pop. about 30,000. 
 
 TRIPTYCH (trip'tik), a picture, carv- 
 ing, or other representation in three 
 compartments side by side; most fre- 
 
 Triptych— Painting by Allegretto Nuccl, 1465. 
 
 quently such as is used for an altar- 
 piece. The central picture is usually 
 complete in itself. The subsidiary 
 
TRIREME 
 
 troubadour 
 
 designs on either side are smaller, and 
 frequently correspond in size and shape 
 to one half of the principal picture. 
 
 TRI'REME, a galley or vessel with 
 three benches or ranks of oars on a side, 
 a common class of warship among the 
 ancient Greeks, Romans, Carthaginians, 
 etc. The trireme was also provided with 
 a large square sail, which could be raised 
 during a fair wind to relieve the rowers, 
 but was never employed in action. 
 
 TRITONS, in Greek mythology, the 
 name of certain sea-gods. They are 
 variously described, but their body is 
 always a compound of the human figure 
 
 Triton with Nereid— Prom an antique sculp- 
 ture in the Vatican. 
 
 above with that of a fish below. They 
 carry a trumpet composed of a shell, 
 which they blow at the command of 
 Poseidon to soothe the waves. 
 
 TRI'UMPH, in Roman antiquity, a 
 magnificent procession in honor of a 
 victorious general, and the highest 
 military honor which he could obtain. 
 It was granted by the senate only to one 
 who had held the office of dictator, of 
 consul, or of prtetor, and after a decisive 
 victory or the complete subjugation of a 
 province. In a Roman triumph the 
 general to whom this honor was awarded 
 entered the city of Rome in a chariot 
 \ drawn, by four horses, crowned with 
 ; laurel, and having a scepter in one hand 
 ^ and a branch of laurel in the other. He 
 * was preceded by the senate and the 
 magistrates, musicians, the spoils, the 
 captives in fetters, etc., and followed 
 by his army on foot, in marching order. 
 The procession advanced in this order 
 along the Via Sacra to the capitol, where 
 a bull was sacrificed to Jupiter, and the 
 laurel wreath deposited in the lap of the 
 god. Banquets and other entertain- 
 ments concluded the solemnity. A 
 naval triumph differed in no respect 
 from an ordinary triumph, except that 
 it was upon a smaller scale, and was 
 characterized by the beaks of ships and 
 other nautical trophies. 
 
 TRIUM'VIR, one of three men united 
 in office. The triumvirs of Rome were 
 either ordinary magistrates or officials, 
 or else extraordinary commissioners who 
 were frequently appointed to jointly 
 execute any public office. But the men 
 best known in Roman history as trium- 
 virs were rather usurpers of power than 
 properly constituted authorities. The 
 term triumvirate is particularly applied 
 in Roman history to two famous coali- 
 tions, the first in 59 b.c. between Caesar, 
 Pompey, and Crassus; the second in 43 
 B.c. between Antony, Octavian, and 
 Lepidus. See Rome (History). 
 
 TROAD. See Troy. 
 
 TROCHEE, in prosody, a foot of two 
 syllables, the first long and the second 
 short, as Lat. fama, or Eng. nation. 
 
 •TROCHILIDiE. See Humming-bird. 
 
 TROCHU (tro-shii), Louis Jules, 
 French general, born in 1815, died in 
 1896; edudated at St. Cyr; engaged in 
 the Algerian, Crimean, and Italian cam- 
 paigns; published a pamphlet entitled 
 L’Armde Frangaise en 1867, and showed 
 the weakness of the French army, by 
 which he forfeited the favor of Napoleon. 
 At the outbreak of the Franco-German 
 war (1870), however, he was made gov- 
 ernor of Paris, and when the republic 
 was proclaimed he was intrusted with 
 the defense of the city, a position which 
 he held until the capitulation. 
 
 TROG'LODYTE, a cave-dweller; one 
 dwelling in a cave or underground habi- 
 tation. The ancient Greeks gave the 
 name to various races of savages in- 
 habiting caves, especially to the cave- 
 dwellers on the coast of the Red sea and 
 along the banks of the Upper Nile in 
 Nubia and Abyssinia, the whole of this 
 district being known by the name 
 Troglodytike. Archaeological investiga- 
 tions show that cave-dwellers every- 
 where probably preceded house-builders. 
 
 TROLLOPE, Anthony, English novel- 
 ist, was born in London 1815, died 1882. 
 His first success was The Warden, fol- 
 lowed by Barchester Towers, Dr. Thorne, 
 The Bertrams, Framley Parsonage, The 
 Last Chronicles of Barset, Phineas Finn, 
 The Way We Live Now, etc. He also 
 published accounts of his travels, be- 
 sides a Life of Cicero, a sketch of Thack- 
 eray’s Life, and his own Autobiography. 
 
 TROLLS, in Northern mythology, a 
 name of certain supernatural beings, in 
 old Icelandic literature represented as a 
 kind of giants, but in modern Scan- 
 dinavia regarded as of dimunitive size, 
 and represented as a kind of mischie- 
 vous imps or goblins. 
 
 TROMBONE, a deep-toned brass in- 
 strument of the trumpet kind, consisting 
 of three tubes; the first, to which the 
 mouthpiece is attached, and the third, 
 which terminates in a bell-shaped 
 orifice, are placed side by side; the 
 middle tube is doubled, and slides into 
 
 1, Valve trombone. 2, Slide trombone. 
 
 the other two like the tube of a tele- 
 scope. By the manipulation of the slide 
 the tube of air is altered in length, and 
 the pitch accordingly varied. The 
 trombone is of three kinds, the alto, the 
 tenor, and the bass; and some instru- 
 ments are fitted with pistons when they 
 are known as valve trombones. 
 
 TROMP, Martin Harpertzoon, the son 
 of a Dutch naval officer, was born at 
 Briel in 1597, He went to sea with his 
 father in 1607 ; received the appointment 
 of lieutenant-admiral; gained a decisive 
 victory over the Spanish and Portuguese 
 fleet near Dunkirk in 1639; encountered 
 
 Blake and Monk in 1653, and in the 
 same year he again encountered Monk 
 and was killed in the battle. 
 
 TROOPIAL, the name common to a 
 group of passerine birds, akin to the 
 orioles and starlings. They mostly in- 
 habit the southern United States, but 
 several of them appear as birds of pa.s- 
 sage in the northern states in early 
 spring. The cow-troopial, cow-bird, or 
 cow-bunting, the blue-bird, and the 
 bobolink or rice-bunting, belong to this 
 group. See these articles. 
 
 TROPIC-BIRD, the common name of 
 the natatorial or swimming birds belong- 
 ing to the pelican family, peculiar to 
 tropical regions. They are distinguished 
 
 Tropic-bird. 
 
 by two very long, slender tail-feathers. 
 They are wonderfully powerful on the 
 wing, being able to pass whole days in 
 the air without needing to settle. 
 
 TROPICS, in astronomy, two circles 
 on the celestial sphere, whose distances 
 from the equator are each equal to the 
 obliquity of the ecliptic, or 23^° nearly. 
 The northern one touches the ecliptic 
 at the sign Cancer, and is thence called 
 the tropic of Cancer, the southern one 
 being for a similar reason called the 
 tropic of Capricorn. The sun’s annual 
 path in the heavens is bounded by these 
 two circles, and they are called tropics, 
 because when the sun, in his journey 
 northward or southward, reaches either 
 of them, he, as it were, turns back, and 
 travels in an opposite direction in re- 
 gard to north and south. Geographically 
 the tropics are two parallels of latitude, 
 each at the same distance from the 
 terrestrial equator as the celestial 
 tropics are from the celestial equator. 
 The one north of the equator is called 
 the tropic of Cancer, and that south of 
 the equator^ the tropic of Capricorn 
 Over these circles the sun is vertical 
 when farthest north or farthest south, 
 that is, at the solstices, and they include 
 between them that portion of the globe 
 called the torrid zone, a zone 47° wide, 
 having the equator for its central line. 
 
 TROU'BADOUR, a name given to a 
 class of early poets who first appeared 
 in Provence, in France They flourished 
 from the 11th to the latter part of the 
 13th century, their principal residence 
 being the south of France, but they also 
 lived in Catalonia, Arragon, and North 
 Italy. The most renowned among the 
 troubadours were knights who culti- 
 vated music and poetry as an honorable 
 accomplishment; but their art declined 
 in its later days, when it was chiefly 
 cultivated by minstrels of a lower class. 
 
TROUS-DE-LOUP 
 
 TRUSTEE 
 
 TROUS-DE-LOUP (tr6-de-l6), a mili- 
 tary term for trap-holes or pits dug in 
 the ground in the form of inverted cones 
 
 Trous-iie-loup. 
 
 or pyramids, in order to serve as ob- 
 stacles to the advance of an enemy each 
 pit having a pointed stake in the middle. 
 
 TROUT, the common name of various 
 species of salmon, as the bull-trout, the 
 salmon-trout, the common trout, and 
 the great gray or lake trout. The com- 
 mon trout abounds in all the rivers and 
 lakes of Northern Europe, and is found 
 even in the smallest streams. The brook- 
 trout of America and the common 
 American lake-trout are among several 
 species of lake-trout in America, among 
 the finest and largest of which is the 
 Mackinaw trout. The great gray or lake 
 trout of Britain weighs sometimes 30 
 lbs., while the North American lake- 
 trout may reach 60 lbs. 
 
 TROY,' or ILIUM, an ancient city in 
 the Troad, a territory in the northwest 
 of Asia Minor, south of the western ex- 
 tremity of the Hellespont rendered 
 famous by Homer’s epic of the Iliad. 
 The ancient and legendary city, accord- 
 ing to the Homeric story, reached its 
 highest splendor when Priam was king; 
 but the abduction of Helen, wife of 
 Menelaus, king of Sparta, by Paris, one 
 of Priam’s sons, brought about its de- 
 struction. To revenge this outrage all 
 the Greek chiefs afterward famous in 
 history banded themselves against the 
 Trojans and their allies, and went 
 against Troy with a great fleet. The 
 first nine years of the war were spent by 
 the Greeks in driving the Trojans and 
 their allies within the walls of the capi- 
 tal. The tenth year brought about a 
 quarrel between Achilles, the bravest 
 of the Greeks, and Agamemnon, the 
 Greek commander-in-chief, which proved 
 for a time disastrous to their party, 
 and which forms the subject of the 
 Iliad. In the end the city was taken 
 by means of a large hollow wooden 
 horse, in which a number of the bravest 
 of the Greek heroes concealed them- 
 selves, while the rest retired to their 
 ships. Thinking that the Greeks had 
 given up the siege, the Trojans in- 
 cautiously drew the horse within the 
 cit}’', and gave themselves up to revelry. 
 The Greeks within the horse issued from 
 their concealment, and being joined by 
 their companions without the walls, 
 Troy was taken and utterly destroyed. 
 This is said to have occurred about 
 1184 B.c. 
 
 TROY, the capital of Rensselaer co., 
 New York, on the left bank of the Hud- 
 son river. It has a fine court-house, a 
 lyceum, a celebrated female institute, 
 a public library, a government arsenal, 
 etc. It has paper, saw, cotton, and flour 
 mills; manufactures of leather, woolen 
 cloth, cordage, earthenware; and ships 
 large quantities of lumber, flour, grain, 
 beef, pork, wool, etc. Pop. 1909, 76,000. 
 
 TROY WEIGHT, a weight chiefly used 
 in weighing gold, silver, and articles of 
 jewelry. The pound troy contains 12 
 ounces; each ounce is divided into 20 
 pennyweights, and each pennyweight 
 into 24 grains. Hence the pound con- 
 tains 5760 grains, and the ounce 480 
 grains. As the avoirdupois pound (the 
 weight in general commercial use) com- 
 tains 7000 grains, and the ounce 437^ 
 grains, the troy pound is to the avoir- 
 dupois as 144 to 175, and the troy ounce 
 to the avoirdupois as 192 to 175. 
 
 TRUFFLE, a genus of fungi growing 
 underground. The common truffle is of 
 a fleshy fungous structure and roundish 
 figure, without any visible root; of a 
 dark color, approaching to black, and 
 studded over with tubercles, and varies 
 in size from that of a large plum to that 
 of a large potato. It is much sought 
 after as an ingredient in certain high- 
 seasoned dishes. There being no ap- 
 pearance above-ground to indicate the 
 existence of the truffle, dogs are trained 
 to And this fungus by the scent and 
 scratch it up. 
 
 TRUMBULL, John, American histori- 
 cal and portrait painter, was born at 
 Lebanon, Conn., in 1756. In 1784 he 
 went to Paris, where he painted his first 
 historical picture, “The Signing of the 
 Declaration of Independence,” which, 
 with the “Surrender of Burgoyne,” 
 “Surrender of Cornwallis,” “Resigna- 
 tion of Washington at Annapolis,” hang 
 in the capitol at Washington. Among 
 his principal works are the “Battle of 
 Bunker Hill,” “Death of Montgomery,” 
 “Battle of Princeton,” “Battle of Tren- 
 ton,” and portraits of Washington, 
 Hamilton, the Duke of Wellington, and 
 others. In 1794 he was secretary of 
 legation in England; and from 1816 to 
 1825 was president of the Academy of 
 Fine Arts, New York, in which city he 
 died November 10, 1843. 
 
 TRUMBULL, Jonathan, an American 
 patriot and political leader, was born at 
 Lebanon, Conn., in 1710. From 1769 to 
 1783 he was governor of Connecticut, 
 was the only one of the colonial govern- 
 ors who gave his unqualified support 
 of the patriot party. According to a 
 long accepted tradition he was called by 
 Washington “Brother Jonathan,” a 
 phrase which later came into general 
 use to personify the United States. He 
 died in 1785. 
 
 TRUMBULL, Lyman, American ju- 
 rist, was born at Colchester, Conn., in 
 1813. He moved to Illinois in 1837. 
 In 1841 he became secretary of state, 
 and in 1848 was elevated to the supreme 
 bench of the state. He was elected to 
 congress as a Democrat in 1854, and 
 while serving as representative was 
 chosen United states senator for the 
 term commencing March 4, 1855. In 
 1861 he was reelected to the .senate, 
 where he took an active part in securing 
 the passage of the constitutional amend- 
 ment providing for the abolition of 
 slavery, and was one of the republicans 
 who voted against the impeachment of 
 Andrew Johnson. Since that occurrence 
 he had acted with the democratic party, 
 having been the democratic nominee for 
 governor of Rlinois in 1880. He died in 
 1896. 
 
 TRUMPET, a wind-instrument of 
 
 music of the highest antiquity, having 
 a clear ringing and penetrating tone. 
 In its modern form it consists of a metal 
 tube (usually brass, sometimes silver), 
 about 8 feet long, doubled up in the 
 form of a parabola, becoming conoid 
 
 Cavalry trumpet. 
 
 in the last fold, and expanding into a 
 bell-shaped end, the other end being 
 fitted with a mouthpiece by which the 
 instrument is sounded. By means of 
 crooks and slides the length of the tube 
 
 Orchestral trumpet. 
 
 can be increased, and the pitch corre- 
 spondingly lowered. Trumpets are also 
 sometimes fitted with pistons, valves, 
 or keys, by which the intermediate 
 tones and semitones can be produced. 
 
 TRUMPETER, a genus of grallatorial 
 or wading birds, found in South Amer- 
 ica, and so named from their hollow cry. 
 The most familiar species is the golder- 
 breasted trumpeter, a bird of the size 
 of a pheasant, which is readily tamed, 
 and becomes a favorite imnate of the 
 house. 
 
 TRUMPETS, Feast of, a feast among 
 the Jews, held on the first and second 
 days of the month Tisri, which was the 
 commencement of the Jewish civil year. 
 It derived its name from the blowing of 
 trumpets in the temple with more than 
 usual solemnity. 
 
 TRUNK-HOSE, a kind of short wide 
 breeches gathered in above the knees, 
 or immediately under them, and dis- 
 tinguished according to their peculiar 
 
 Trunk-hose. 
 
 1. Charles IX. of Prance, 15.')0-1574. 
 
 2, Robert Carr, Earl of Somerset, died 1645. 
 
 cut as French, Gallic, or Venetian. 
 This garment prevailed during the 
 time of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and 
 James I. 
 
 TRUSTEE', in law, a person to whom 
 property is legally committed in trust 
 for the benefit of some other party or 
 
TSETSE-FLY 
 
 TULIP-TREE 
 
 parties, or for some special purpose. The 
 person for whom or in whose favor the 
 trustee holds the estate, or any interest 
 therein, is called the cestui que trust. 
 No one is compelled to undertake a 
 trust, but if he once accepts he cannot 
 renounce it unless the trust-deed con- 
 tains a provision enabling him to do so, 
 or a competent court grants him a dis- 
 charge, or by the consent of all those 
 beneficially interested in the estate. 
 Trustees are liable for the consequences 
 of any breach of trust however innocent, 
 and the estate of a trustee deceased, 
 who has misapplied the trust fund, is 
 liable for the deficiency; but generally 
 speaking, the law only requires of a 
 trustee the same amount of care and 
 prudence he would be expected to dis- 
 play in managing his own affairs. Where 
 there are several trustees, each is liable 
 for his own acts and receipts only, unless 
 where there has been common agreement 
 and organization. As their office is con- 
 sidered purely honorary, trustees are not 
 entitled to any allowance for their 
 trouble in connection with the trust. 
 They may not invest the trust-funds 
 on personal security, or in stock of a 
 private company, unless specially au- 
 thorized to do so by the trust-deed; but 
 they are permitted to invest in govern- 
 ment stocks, debenture, preference, or 
 guaranteed stock of railways, stock of 
 municipal corporations, and generally 
 on satisfactory real security. 
 
 TSETSE-FLY, a South African two- 
 winged insect akin to the gad-fly, whose 
 bite is often fatal to horses, dogs, and 
 cows, but is innoxious to man and wild 
 beasts. It is a little larger than the 
 common house-fly, and the symptoms 
 of its bite are that the eyes and the nose 
 begin to run. the coat stares as if the 
 
 Tsetse, four times natural size. 
 
 animal were cold, a swelling appears 
 under the jaw and sometimes at the 
 navel, and if the animal does not die at 
 once, emaciation commences, accom- 
 panied with a peculiar flaccidity of the 
 muscles, and this continues unchecked 
 until, perhaps months afterward, purg- 
 ing comes on, and the animal perishes 
 in a state of extreme exhaustion. 
 
 TUBER, in botany, an underground 
 fleshy stem or appendage to the root, 
 being usually an oblong or roundish 
 body, of annual duration, composed 
 chiefly of cellular tissue with a great 
 cjuantity of amylaceous matter, in- 
 
 tended for the development of the stems 
 or branches which are to spring from it, 
 and of which the rudiments, in the form 
 
 of buds, are irregularly distributed over 
 its surface. Examples are seen in the 
 potato, the Jerusalem artichoke, and 
 arrow-root. 
 
 TUBERCULOS'IS, the term applied 
 to a general disease due to the formation 
 of tubercles in various organs of the 
 body. The prevalence of tuberculosis in 
 cattle, and the possibility of tuberculosis 
 cattle communicating the disease to 
 human beings through the medium of 
 the meat of slaughtered animals sold for 
 food, have recently occasioned profound 
 anxiety and much discussion. See 
 Consumption. 
 
 TUBEROSE, a plant originally 
 brought from the East, cultivated both 
 for its perfume and for its beautiful 
 white flowers. It has a bulbous root, 
 and an upright branchless stem grow- 
 ing to the height of 3 or 4 feet. 
 
 TUBULAR BRIDGE. See Bridge. 
 
 TUCKAHOE', a singular vegetable 
 found in the southern seaboard states 
 of the United States, growing under- 
 ground, like the European truffle. It is 
 also called Indian bread and Indian loaf. 
 It is referred to a genus of spurious 
 fungi, but in all probability it is a pecu- 
 liar condition of some root, though of 
 what plant has not been properly ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 TUCUMAN', or San Miguel de Tucu- 
 man, a town of the Argentine republic, 
 capital of the province of same name. 
 Pop. about 34,300. The province is 
 fertile, and has a fine climate; area, 
 13,500. Pop. 249,433. 
 
 TUDOR, the family name of an Eng- 
 lish royal line founded by Owen Tudor 
 of Wales, who married the widowed 
 queen of Henry V. The first of the Tudor 
 sovereigns was Henry VII.; the last, 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 TUDOR STYLE, in architecture, a 
 name frequently applied to the latest 
 Gothic style in England, being the last 
 phase of the perpendicular, and some- 
 times known as Florid Gothic. The 
 
 C eriod of this style is from 1400 to 1537 ; 
 
 ut the term is sometimes extended so as 
 to include the Elizabethan period also, 
 which brings it down to 1603. It is the 
 result of a combination of the Italian 
 style with the Gothic. It is characterized 
 by a flat arch, shallow mouldings, and 
 a profusion of panelling on the walls. 
 
 TUESDAY, the third day of our week, 
 so called from the Anglo-Saxon god of 
 war, Tiu. 
 
 TUILERIES (twel-rez; from Fr. tuile, 
 a tile, because the spot on which it was 
 built was formerly used for the manu- 
 facture of tiles), the residence of the 
 French monarchs, on the right bank of 
 the Seine, in Paris. Catharine de’ 
 Medici, wife of Henry II., began the 
 
 building (1564); Henry IV. extended it, 
 and founded the old gallery (1600); and 
 Louis XIV. enlarged it (1654), and com- 
 pleted that gallery. The side toward the 
 Louvre consisted of five pavilions and 
 four ranges of buildings; the other side 
 had only three pavilions. During the 
 revolution of 1830 the palace was 
 sacked. Itwas restored by Louis Philippe 
 to its former splendor, but in 1848 it 
 was again pillaged. The Tuileries then 
 became ajhospital for wounded, a picture- 
 gallery, and the home of Louis Napo- 
 leon in 1851. On the 23d May, 1871, 
 it was almost totally destroyed by fire 
 (the work of the communists), and the 
 remaining portions were removed in the 
 year 1883. 
 
 Tudor architecture ; Hengrave hall, » 
 
 Suffolk, 1538. 2 
 
 TULA, a government of Central Rus- -I 
 sia; area, 11,954 sq. miles. Pop. 1,409,- f 
 
 432. — Tula, the capital, is situated on A 
 
 the Upa, 107 miles south of Moscow. It 
 is the residence both. of a civil and a 
 military governor, the see of a bishop, ' 
 and has extensive manufactures of fire- i 
 arms, as also cutlery, ornamental steel- >; 
 work, platina snuff-boxes, silks, hats, 
 soap, candles, cordage, and leather. 
 
 Pop. 111,048. f 
 
 TULIP, a genus of plants. The species '* 
 are bulbous herbaceous plants, and are ^ 
 extensively cultivated in gardens. About j 
 forty species have been described, of 
 which the most noted is the common 
 garden tulip, a native of the Levant. 'A 
 Upward of 1000 varieties of this plant 
 have been enumerated. The sweet- , 
 
 scented tulip is much prized for its 
 fragrance. About the middle of the 17th 
 century an extraordinary tulip mania 
 prevailed in Holland. Enormous sums y 
 were given for bulbs, the ownership of 
 a bulb being often divided into shares, 
 in which men speculated as they do in _ ! 
 ordinary stocks or shares. - 
 
 TULIP-TREE, an American tree bear- 
 ing flowers resembling the tulip. It is j ■ 
 one of the most magnificent of the forest 
 trees in the temperate parts of North i 
 America. Throughout the states it is v 
 generally known by the name of poplar, (K 
 white wood, or canoe-wood. The wood is ? 
 light, compact, and fine-grained, and is •M 
 employed for various useful purposes ^ 
 The bark, especially of the roots, has 
 an aromatic smell and bitter taste, and ^ 
 has been used in medicine as a tonic and S 
 febrifuge. 
 
TUMOR 
 
 TURBINE 
 
 I TUMOR, in surgery, in its widest 1 
 • sense, a morbid enlargement or swelling 
 ^ of any part of the body or of any kind ; 
 
 more strictly, however, it implies a 
 ' permanent swelling occasioned by a 
 ' new growth, and not a mere enlarge- 
 ment of a natural part, which is called 
 ! hypertrophy. Tumors may be divided 
 into two well-defined classes: (a) Simple, 
 benign, or innocent tumors, the sub- 
 stance of which has anatomical resem- 
 blance to some tissues of the body; 
 they gradually increase in size, and 
 generally only produce inconvenience 
 from the great bulk they sometimes 
 attain; a complete cure may be effected 
 by simple excision, (b) Malignant tu- 
 mors, which bear no resemblance in 
 substance to normal tissue ; they are ex- 
 ceedingly liable to ulceration, they in- 
 vade all the textures of the part in which 
 they occur, affecting the mass of the 
 blood, and terminate fatally; when 
 excised they are apt to recur not only 
 in the immediate neighborhood of the 
 '' previous site, but also in remote parts 
 of the body. This recurrence in remote 
 parts is due to transference of some of 
 i the elements of the tumor by means of 
 lymphatic or blood vessels. Hence if a 
 malignant tumor is to be excised it must 
 be done early to avoid such secondary 
 infection if possible. Innocent tumors 
 are often named from the tissues in 
 i which they occur, as adipose, or fatty 
 . tumors, fibrous tumors, cartilaginous 
 ' tumors, bony tumors, and the like. 
 ^ Of the malignant class cancer is a well- 
 f known example. See Cancer. 
 
 ^ TUNGSTEN, a metal discovered in 
 1781 ; atomic weight 184. It has a grayish 
 white color and considerable luster. It 
 is brittle, nearly as hard as steel, and 
 less fusible than manganese. The ores 
 i' of this metal are the native tungstate 
 
 5 of lime and the tungstate of iron and 
 manganese, which latter is also known 
 
 t by the name of wolfram. 
 
 TUNIC, an ancient form of garment in 
 
 6 constant use among the Greeks. Among 
 ^ the Romans the tunic was an under 
 F garment worn by both sexes (under the 
 
 I i toga and the palla), and was fastened by 
 a girdle or belt about the waist. The 
 term is also used ecclesiastically to de- 
 note a dress worn by the sub-deacon, 
 made originally of linen, reaching to 
 the feet, and then of an inferior silk, and 
 narrower than the dalmatic of the dea- 
 con, with shorter and tighter sleeves. 
 
 TUNIS, a country of North Africa, 
 now a French protectorate, is bounded 
 on the north and northeast by the Medi- 
 terranean, on the southeast by Tripoli, 
 and on the west and southwest by 
 Algeria; area, estimated at 42,000 sq. 
 miles. TThe manufactures consist chiefly 
 of woolen fabrics, soap, dyed skins, and 
 ordinary and morocco leather. The in- 
 habitants consist of a mixture of Moors 
 and Arabs, along with Berbers, here 
 called Kroumirs, occupying the elevated 
 tract north of the valley of Mejerdah. 
 Almost the only building of importance 
 is the palace of the bey in the Moorish 
 fc' style; the bazaars are also interesting, 
 B and under French direction a cathedral 
 B and other buildings, have been erected, 
 B and schools, etc., established. Tunis has 
 I been recently connected directly with 
 B the Mediterranean by a deep channel 
 
 cut through the lagoon. Pop. about 
 170,000. 
 
 TUNNEL, a subterranean passage cut 
 through a hill, a rock, or any eminence, 
 or under a river, a town, etc., to carry 
 a canal, a road, or a railway in an ad- 
 vantageous course. In the construction 
 of canals and railways tunnels are fre- 
 quently had recourse to in order to 
 preserve the desired level and for various 
 
 St. Gothard tunnel. Section showing con- 
 struction in soft strata. 
 
 other local causes. Tunnels when not 
 pierced through solid rock have usually 
 an arched roof and are lined with brick- 
 work or masonry. The sectional form 
 of the passage is various. Among the 
 greatest works of this kind are the 
 tunnels of St. Gothard, Mont Cenis, the 
 Arlberg, and the Simplon. In Britain 
 the Severn and Mersey tunnels are 
 noteworthy, while in America the Hoo- 
 
 St. Gothard tunnel. Section near entrance on 
 Italian side. 
 
 sac tunnel; that through the Cascade 
 range in Washington and that under 
 the St. Clair river connecting Detroit, 
 Mich., and Windsor, Ont., are the most 
 important. In recent years tunnels 
 have been constructed to carry rapid 
 transit railways under city streets and 
 under rivers to connect cities such as 
 those opened in 1908 between New 
 York and Brooklyn and New York and 
 Jersey City. See Subways. 
 
 TUNNY, a fish closely allied to the 
 mackerel. These fish live in shoals in 
 almost all the seas of the warmer and 
 temperate parts of the earth. They are 
 taken in immense quantities on the 
 MediterraneaiTcoasts, where the fishing 
 is chiefly carried on. The flesh is delicate 
 and somewhat resembles veal. The 
 common tunny attains a length of from 
 4 feet to even 20 feet, and sometimes 
 exceeds half a ton in weight. Its color is 
 a dark blue on the upper parts, and 
 silvery white below. The American 
 tunny is found on the American coast 
 from New York to Nova Scotia. 
 
 TUPPER, Martin Farquhar, born in 
 London 1810, died 1889. He published 
 a number of novels and plays, but his 
 
 fame rests upon his Proverbial Phil- 
 osophy, a work in a kind of blank verse 
 which has gone through numerous 
 editions. 
 
 TURBAN, a form of head-dress worn 
 by the Orientals. It varies in form in 
 different nations, and different classes 
 of the same nation. It consists of two 
 parts; a cap without a brim, fitted to the 
 head; and a sash, scarf, or shawl, usually 
 of cotton or linen, wound about the cap, 
 and sometimes hanging down the neck. 
 
 TURBINE, a kind of horizontal water- 
 wheel, made to revolve by the escape 
 of water through orifices, under the 
 influence of pressure derived from a fall. 
 Turbines are now made after a vast 
 variety of patterns. The oldest and 
 simplest is the Scotch turbine, or 
 Barker’s mill. In another common form 
 
 Section of turbine. 
 
 the water passes vertically down through 
 the wheel between the fixed screw blades 
 which give it a spiral motion, and then 
 strike similar blades attached to a 
 movable spindle, but placed in the op- 
 posite direction, so that the impact of 
 the water communicates a rotary mo- 
 tion to the blades and spindles. Or the 
 water may be passed from the center 
 horizontally outward through fixed 
 curved blades, so as to give it a tan- 
 gential motion, and thereby cause it to 
 act on the blades of the wheel which re- 
 volves outside. In the annexed cut the 
 water is introduced into a close cast- 
 iron vessel a by the pipe b, connecting it 
 with the reservoir. Here, by virtue of 
 its pressure, it tends to escape by any 
 aperture which may be presented; but 
 the only apertures consist of those be- 
 tween a series of curved float-boards 
 ff, fixed to a horizontal plate g, mounted 
 upon a central axis h, which passes 
 upward through a tube connecting the 
 upper and lower covers, c and d, of the 
 vessel a. Another series of curved plates 
 ee, is fixed to the upper surface of the 
 disc d, to give a determinate direction 
 to the water below before flowing out at 
 the float-boards, and the curves of these 
 various parts are so adjusted as to ren- 
 der the reactive force of the water avail- 
 able to the utmost extent in producing 
 a circular motion, and thus carrying 
 round the disc and the axis h with 
 which the machinery to be impelled is 
 connected. The steam turbine is a form 
 of motor in which the moving force of 
 expanding steam acts upon a wheel 
 
TURBOT 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 
 provided with vanes so as to cause 
 rotation. In the ordinai’y method of 
 using steam it is admitted into a closed 
 cylinder where it acts upon a movable 
 piston; in the steam turbine the power 
 is developed by particles of steam ex- 
 panding from one pressure to another. 
 
 TURBOT, a well-known and highly 
 esteemed fish. Next to the halibut, the 
 turbot is the largest found on the British 
 coast, and is the most highly esteemed 
 for the table. It is of a short and broad 
 form, brown on the upper side, which is 
 
 usually the left side, and attains a large 
 size, sometimes weighing from 70 to 90 
 lbs. The American or spotted turbot, 
 common on the coasts of New England 
 and New York, attains a weight of 20 
 lbs. 
 
 TURENNE, Henri de la Tour d’ 
 Auvergne, Vicomte de. Marshal of 
 France, born in 1611 at Sedan. He en- 
 tered the service of France in 1630, 
 served with distinction in Germany and 
 North Italy, and in 1643 received the 
 command of the army of the Rhine in 
 the Thirty Years’ war, and was made a 
 marshal. His successes in this post, as 
 in the battle of Nordlingen (1645), 
 greatly contributed to the close of the 
 war. During the disturbances of the 
 Fronde the victories of Turenne led 
 to the termination of the civil war. In 
 the war against Spain he also distin- 
 guished himself, and after its close in 
 1659 he was named marshal-general of 
 France. When war was renewed with 
 Spain in 1667 he conquered Flanders in 
 three months. In the Dutch war of 1672 
 Turenne had the chief command. He 
 first marched against the elector of 
 Brandenburg, and having driven him 
 back as far as the Elbe forced him to 
 sign the Treaty of Vossem in 1673; 
 while in the brilliant campaign of 1674- 
 75 he destroyed two Austrian armies 
 by the battles of Miihlhausen and 
 Turkheim, and conquered and devas- 
 tated the Palatinate. In 1675 he was 
 killed while making preparations to 
 engage Montecuculi. 
 
 TURGOT (tur-go), Anne Robert Jac- 
 ques, was born at Paris in 1727, and 
 died 1781 . Shortly after the accession of 
 Louis XVI. in 1774 Turgot was ap- 
 pointed comptroller-general of France, 
 and in order to reform the political and 
 financial condition of the country, he 
 moderated the duties on articles of the 
 first necessity, freed commerce from 
 many fetters, and encouraged industry 
 by enlarging the rights of individuals, 
 and abolishing the exclusive privileges 
 of companies and corporations. Such, 
 however, was the opposition of the 
 
 clergy and nobility to his reforms that 
 he was dismissed from office in 1776, 
 and retired into private life. 
 
 TURGUENEFF. See Tourguenieff . 
 
 TURIN', a city of North Italy, capital 
 of province of same name, at the con- 
 fluence of the Dora Riparia with the Po, 
 and between those two rivers. The 
 manufactures consist, besides the staple 
 of silk, chiefly of woolens, cottons, linen 
 paper, ironmongery, earthenware, and 
 porcelain. Turin was anciently the 
 capital of a tribe called the Taurini, 
 and under the Roman empire was called 
 Augusta Taurinorum. It was long the 
 capital of Savoy, then of the Sardinian 
 kingdom, and from 1861 to 1865 of 
 United Italy. Pop. 335,639. 
 
 TURKESTAN, a wide region of Cen- 
 tral Asia, roughly divided into two por- 
 tions, Eastern Turkestan and Western 
 Turkestan. Eastern or Chinese Turkes- 
 tan is inclosed on three sides by lofty 
 mountain ranges (Thian-Shan, Kara- 
 korum, Kuen-Iain), and on the east has 
 the desert of Gobi. The products in- 
 clude cereals, root-crops, and cotton in 
 large quantities, partly manufactured 
 in the country. Carpets and felt cloths, 
 along with silk, which the country pro- 
 duces abundantly, are exported to 
 India, Kashmere, and Tibet; while 
 opium, tea, linens and woolens are im- 
 ported. The chief towns are Kashgar 
 and V'arkand, and the population is es- 
 timated at 580,000 — Western Turkestan 
 comprises the southern portion of Rus- 
 sian Central Asia, from Eastern Tur- 
 kestan to the Caspian, and includes the 
 khanates of Khiva and Bokhara. Corn, 
 millet, rice, and cotton are cultivated in 
 many places, and trade has greatly in- 
 creased since the Russian occupation. 
 The population may amount to 6,000,- 
 000. A portion of this territory forms 
 the Russian general-government of Tur- 
 kestan; area, 410,000 sq. miles; pop. 
 
 3.700.000. 
 
 TURKEY, a Mohammedan state of 
 Southeastern Europe and Western Asia, 
 under the rule of a sultan. In Europe it 
 occupies a considerable portion of the 
 Balkan peninsula, and in this portion is 
 situated the capital, Constantinople, 
 but the larger part of Turkey is in Asia. 
 The immediate possessions of Turkey 
 in Europe, or those directly under the 
 sultan’s rule, extend from Montenegro, 
 Bosnia, Servia, and Eastern Roumelia 
 on the north to the jEgean Sea and 
 Greece on the south, and from the Black 
 sea to the Adriatic, the Straits of Otranto 
 and the Ionic sea. The Treaty of Berlin 
 in 1878 greatly reduced the area under 
 direct Turkish rule, besides confirming 
 the independence and extending the 
 limits of several of the fonnerly tribu- 
 tary states. There are still nominally 
 under Turkey the tributary principality 
 of Bulgaria, to which has been united 
 Eastern Roumelia; and the semi- 
 detached provinces of Bosnia, Herzego- 
 vina, and Novibazar, administered by 
 Austria-Hungary. The immediate pos- 
 sessions in Europe have an area of 
 63,850 sq miles, pop. 5,711,000; in Asia, 
 729,170 sq. miles, pop. 16,823,500; in 
 .•\frica (Tripoli), 398,873 sq. miles, pop. 
 
 1.000. 000. Total, 1,191,893 sq. miles; 
 pop. 23,534.500. A number of islands 
 in the ..Egean, the largest being Crete or 
 
 I Candia, belong to Turkey. Egypt also is 
 nominally part of the Turkish domin- 
 ions. European Turkey is traversed in 
 different directions by numerous moun- 
 tain chains, but the main systems are 
 the Balkan range, stretching from west 
 to east between Bulgaria and Eastern 
 Roumelia to Cape Emineh on the Black 
 sea; Rhodope, south of the Balkans; 
 the Shardagh and Gramm os on the west, 
 continued northwestward under various 
 names into Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
 The most important river basin is that 
 which drains into the Archipelago or 
 jEgean sea, which receives the Vardar, 
 the Struma, the Mista or Karasu, and 
 the Maritza. The Adriatic and Ionian 
 seas receive from Turkey no rivers 
 worthy of notice, and the Sea of Mar- 
 mora receives only a few mountain tor- 
 rents. There are several plains remark- 
 able for their fertility and beauty. The 
 (dimate is not so mild as its latitude 
 might seem to indicate, the winter being 
 severe ; but the summer heat is excessive. 
 For the production of the ordinary 
 cereals no part of the world is more ad- 
 mirably adapted. The principal grains 
 are corn, wheat, and barley, while rice, 
 millet, and buckwheat are produced, as 
 also flax, hemp, sesame, and madder. 
 The cultivation of tobacco and cotton is 
 very general. Among fruits the figs are 
 highly esteemed; the cultivation of the 
 olive is carried on along the coasts of the 
 Archipelago and the Adriatic ; wine is an 
 important product in many districts; 
 and much attention is paid in some 
 parts to the growing of roses (for otto or 
 attar) There are few manufactures 
 except in Constantinople, Adrianople, 
 and Salonica, and these are of little 
 importance. Turkey in Asia comprises 
 the peninsula of Asia Minor, the country 
 intersected by the Euphrates and the 
 Tigris, the mountainous region of 
 Armenia between their upper courses 
 and the Black sea, the ancient lands 
 of Syria and Palestine, and the coast 
 strips of Arabia along the Red sea and 
 Persian gulf. Omitting Arabia, the 
 country consists mainly of (1) a high 
 plateau traversed by the mountains of 
 Taurus and Anti-Taurus, and stretch- 
 ing from the Archipelago to the borders 
 of Persia; (2) a plateau of less elevation 
 and extent (Syria and Palestine) trav- 
 ersed by the double range of Lebanon; 
 and (3) the extensive plain of Mesopo- 
 tamia on the Lower Tigris and Eu- 
 phrates. (See Asia Minor, Armenia, 
 Kurdistan, Mesopotamia, Syria, and 
 Palestine.) The islands Chios, Lesbos, 
 Rhodes, etc., belong to Turkey in Asia, 
 while the island of Samos is a tributary 
 principality, and Cyprus is held b}' 
 Britain. The chief towns in Asiatic 
 Turkey are Smyrna, Damascus, Bagdad, 
 .\leppo, and Beyrout. The chief ex- 
 ports are raisins, figs, and dates, silk, 
 cottony wool, and mohair, opium, coffee, 
 wheat, wine, valonia, olive-oil, and to- 
 bacco; while the imports are cotton, 
 woolen, and silk goods, metals, iron, 
 steel, glass wares, etc. The inhabitants 
 of the Ottoman empire are of very 
 diverse races. First in order are the 
 Osmanli Turks, who, as the dominant 
 race, are diffused over the country. 
 They are proprietors of the greater part 
 of the soil, fill all the civil and military 
 
TURKEY 
 
 TURNSTON'E 
 
 I' offices, live generally in towns employed 
 i; in various trades, and are seldom agri- 
 K culturists. The Greeks form the bulk of 
 the population over great part of the 
 ^gean coasts and islands, and consti- 
 tute to a very considerable extent the 
 mercantile and trading community of 
 Turkey. Arnauts, or Albanians, are 
 found in the west throughout Albania; 
 the northwest is occupied by Servians; 
 and Bulgarians inhabit the district 
 south of the Danube and east of Servia 
 and Albania. In Asiatic Turkey the 
 Turks are an important element, but 
 there are also numbers of Armenians, 
 Arabs, Kurds, Jews, Greeks, Circassians, 
 etc. The Turkish language belongs to 
 the Turanian family of languages, and is 
 allied to the Hungarian and the Finnish. 
 The goverment of Turkey was despotic 
 until 1908 when the movement known 
 as Young Turkey extorted a Con- 
 stitution and a Parliament from Abdul 
 Hamid. The Cabinet now rules. 
 The Monarch, usually designated the 
 Sultan, is regarded by the Turks 
 as the caliph or head of Islam. His 
 edicts bear the name of llatti-sherif, 
 and his government is often designat- 
 ed as the Sublime Porte- The public 
 officers who conduct the administration 
 under the sultan are divided into three 
 classes. The first class is that of 
 law and religion, and at their head 
 is the Sheik-ul-Islam, who governs 
 a judicial and ecclesiastical body call- 
 ed the Ulemas, The second class 
 consists of the “officials of the pen.” 
 or the members of administration, 
 and at , their head is the grand vizier 
 or Sadrazam. The third class includes 
 the “officials ”of the Sword,” at their 
 head being the Seraskier or minister 
 of war, and the Capudan Pasha or 
 minister of marine. The army on a 
 war footing is said to number about 
 
 700.000, and it is believed that when the 
 new system recently begun is complete, 
 Turkey will have an army and reserve of 
 
 1.000. 000 men. The navy numbers only 
 a very few vessels of much fighting 
 power, others being old and small. The 
 financial condition of Turkey is thor- 
 oughly unsound. From 1854 the state 
 had contracted a series of foreign loans, 
 the total nominal capital of which 
 amounted to about $1,140,000,000 in 
 1877. In 1875 the government an- 
 nounced that they would pay half the 
 interest on the debt, but in 1876 they 
 
 - declared themselves unable to pay any- 
 , thing. In 1881 an arrangement was 
 effected by delegates of the bondholders 
 who met at Constantinople... The Turk- 
 ish government then agreed to hand 
 over the excise and other revenue to a 
 commission representing the bond- 
 holders, so that interest to the extent 
 of 1 per cent has been paid since 1882. 
 Other debts have since been incurred, 
 and the total is now $900,000,000, be- 
 sides internal and floating debt. The 
 established religion is Mohammedanism, 
 } but Christianity under the Greek form 
 is professed by a large majority of the 
 Greeks and Bulgarians, while part of the 
 Albanians are Roman Catholics. The 
 ^ educational system in accordance with 
 the law of 1869, provides for the erec- 
 V tion of elementary schools in every com- 
 '|Lmune, and of secondary schools in the 
 
 larger towns, while at Constantinople 
 in 1870 a university was opened. There 
 are besides law, military, and medical 
 schools in that city. History. — See Ot- 
 toman Empire. 
 
 TURKEY, a large gallinaceous bird, 
 well known as an inmate of our poultry- 
 yards. It is a native of North America, 
 and was introduced into Europe in the 
 16th century. Wild turkeys abound in 
 some of the forests of America, where 
 they feed on berries, fruits, insects, 
 reptiles, etc., their plumage being a 
 golden bronze, shot with violet and 
 green, and banded with black. On ac- 
 
 Wlld turkey of the United States. 
 
 count of its size and the excellence of its 
 flesh and eggs, the turkey is one of the 
 most valued kinds of poultry. There is 
 another species, the Honduras or West 
 Indian turkey, which derives its specific 
 name from the presence of bright eye- 
 like spots on the tail-coverts. It is not 
 so large as the common turkey, but its 
 plumage is more brilliant. 
 
 TURKEY-BUZZARD, or TURKEY- 
 VULTURE, a rapacious bird belonging 
 to the vulture family, so named from its 
 bearing a distant resemblance to a tur- 
 key. It is about 2^ feet long, and with 
 wings extended about 6 feet in breadth, 
 general color black or brownish. It in- 
 habits a vast range of territory in the 
 warmer parts of America. 
 
 Turkomans, a nomadic Tartar 
 people occupying a territory stretching 
 between the Caspian sea and the Sea of 
 Aral, the khanates of Khiva and Bok- 
 hara, Afghanistan, and Persia. They 
 do not form a single nation, but are 
 divided into numerous tribes or clans. 
 
 TURKS, a widely spread race, sup- 
 posed to nave had its original seat in 
 Turkestan, but now extending from 
 European Turkey through Asia to the 
 shores of the Northern ocean. Besides 
 the Ottoman Turks or Osmanli of 
 Turkey, the Turkomans, Kirghiz, Us- 
 becks, Yakuts, etc., all belong to the 
 Turkish race. 
 
 TURMERIC, the dried tubers or 
 rhizomes of ginger. It is largely em- 
 ployed in India and China as an im- 
 portant ingredient in curry powder. 
 Unsized white paper, steeped in an 
 alcoholic solution of turmeric, when 
 dried, is employed as a test to detect 
 alkalies, which change its color from 
 yellow to reddish-brown. Turmeric 
 yields a yellow colcrr, which has great 
 brightness but little durability. It is 
 also used medicinally in the East as a 
 carminative. 
 
 TURNER, Joseph Mallord William, 
 
 R. A., great English landscape-painter, 
 was born in London 1775, died 1851. 
 He was elected in 1799 an associate of 
 the Royal Academy. In the two follow- 
 ing years he exhibited fourteen pictures, 
 and in 1802 was elected an academician. 
 In 1807 he was elected professor of per- 
 spective in the Royal academy, and the 
 following year appeared his Liber 
 Studiorum or Book of Studies, which 
 Charles Turner, Mr. Lupton, and others 
 engraved. Other works by him which 
 were engraved are his illustrations of 
 Lord Byron’s and Sir Walter Scott’s 
 poems; Roger’s Italy and Poems; The 
 Rivers of England ; the Rivers of France, 
 and Scenery of the Southern Coast. 
 The reputation of Turner, among land- 
 scape painters stands alone, solitary, 
 colossal; no man has displayed at the 
 same time such great powers of general- 
 izing and concentrating the beauties of 
 nature. For half a century Turner pro- 
 duced a succession of great works, from 
 1790 to 1840. By his will he bequeathed 
 all his pictures and sketches to the 
 nation, on condition of a suitable build- 
 ing being erected within ten years for 
 their reception. They have been placed 
 in the Turner gallery, occupying two 
 rooms in the National gallery. 
 
 TURNIP, the common name of a 
 cruciferous, biennial plant, much culti- 
 vated on account of its esculent root, 
 and of the same genus as the cabbage 
 cauliflower, and broccoli. The root is 
 generally used as a culinary vegetable 
 in all temperate climates, and is culti- 
 vated on a large scale for feeding stock, 
 the root being invaluable for this pur- 
 pose. In the field culture of the larger- 
 rooted varieties the most advantageous 
 mode is by drills. The roots of the turnip 
 have often a tendency to divide and 
 become hard and worthless — a condi- 
 tion known as finger-and-toe, or dacty- 
 lorhiza. The plant thrives best on a rich 
 and free soil and in moist cloudy weather. 
 There are several varieties, all appar- 
 ently the result of cultivation. 
 
 TURNIP-FLY, Turnip-flea, a small 
 insect, very destructive to young tur- 
 nips. It may be recognized by two yel- 
 
 Striped turnip-fly. aa. Natural size. 66, Mag- 
 nified. c, Larva, natural size. 
 
 low stripes on its wing-cases. The larvae 
 of this fly, popularly known as niggers, 
 are very destructive to the leaves of 
 the turnip. 
 
 TURNSTONE, a grallatorial bird of 
 
 Turnstone. 
 
 the plover family. The length of the 
 bird is about 9 inches. It takes its name 
 
TURN-TABLE 
 
 TWELFTH-DAY 
 
 from its practice of turning up small 
 stones in search of the marine worms, 
 minute crustaceans, etc., on which it 
 feeds. It appears in most parts of the 
 globe. 
 
 TURN-TABLE, in railways, a circular 
 platform of iron and wood, supported 
 on rollers, and tArning upon a center 
 without much friction, even when loaded 
 with a considerable weight. It is used 
 for removing single carriages from one 
 line of rails to another, and also for 
 reversing engines on the same line of 
 rails. 
 
 TUR'PENTINE, an oleo-resinous sub- 
 stance flowing naturally or by incision 
 from several species of trees, as from 
 the pine, larch, fir, pistacia, etc. Com- 
 mon turpentine is obtained from the 
 the Scotch fir, and some other species 
 of pines. Venice turpentine is yielded 
 by the larch, Strasburg turpentine by 
 the silver fir; Bordeaux turpentine by 
 the maritime pine ; Canadian turpentine, 
 or Canada balsam by the balm of Gilead 
 fir. All the turpentines dissolve in pure 
 alcohol, and by distillation yield oils, 
 which are termed spirits of turpentine. 
 Oil or spirits of turpentine is used in 
 medicine externally as an excellent 
 rubefacient and counter-irritant, and 
 internally as a vermifuge, stimulant, 
 and diuretic. It is also much used in the 
 arts for dissolving resins and oils in 
 making varnishes, and is familiarly 
 called turps. 
 
 TURQUOISE (tur'kis), a greenish- 
 blue opaque precious stone, consisting 
 essentially of a phosphate of alumina, 
 containing a little oxide of iron and 
 oxide of copper. The true or oriental 
 turquoise, a favorite ornamental stone 
 in rings and other articles of jewelry, is 
 only found in a mountain region of 
 Persia. 
 
 TURRET, in architecture, a kind of 
 small tower. Turrets are chiefly of two 
 kinds, such as rise immediately from 
 the ground, as stairca.se turrets, and 
 such as are formed on the upper part of 
 a building by being carried up higher 
 
 ■f rt o too t*Oct 
 
 TURRET-SHIP. See Ironclad Vessels. 
 
 TURTLE, the name given to the ma- 
 rine members of the order Chelonia, being 
 reptiles which differ but little from tor- 
 toises, the name turMe or tortoise being 
 in some cases applied indifferently. 
 
 Green turtle. 
 
 They are found in all the seas of warm 
 climates, and feed mostly on marine 
 plants. The most important species is 
 the green turtle which is from 6 to 7 feet 
 long, and weighs from 700 to 800 pounds. 
 Its flesh is highly esteemed as a table 
 
 Doric, that it is generally regarded as 9 
 being only a variety of the latter. 
 
 TUS'CANY, formerly a grand-duchy, B 
 now a department of Italy; area, 92899 
 sq. miles; pop. 2,548,154. The chain of 9 
 the Northern Apennines forms a con- 9 
 siderable portion of its northern boun- 9 
 dary, the sea being its boundary on the 9 
 west. The principal river is the Arno. 9 
 Cereals cover a large area, and vine- 9 
 yards, olive-yards, and orchards are 
 numerous. The manufacture of silk is i, 
 considerable. The marble of Tuscany, 
 especially that of Siena is well known. 
 
 TVER, a town, Russia, capital of the 
 government of the same name, situated . 
 in a plain on the Volga, 96 miles north- ' 
 west of Moscow. It consists of the ’ 
 Kremlin or fortress, surrounded by an 
 earthen wall, and the town proper. The 
 manufactures are numerous and varied. ' 
 Pop. 53,477. — The government of Tver 
 has an area of 25,225 sq. miles, and a 
 population of 1,681,790. Rye, barley, ! 
 hemp, and flax are largely cultivated, ‘ 
 and the forests are extensive. , 
 
 TWAIN, Mark. See Clemens. 
 
 TWEED, a river of Scotland, which 
 rises in the south part of Peeblesshire; 
 it fonns the boundary line between Eng- ! 
 land and Scotland for 16 miles, runs 
 through England for a short distance, 
 and then enters the North sea at Ber- 
 wick; total length, 97 miles. 
 
 TWEED, William Marcy, American / 
 politician, was born in New York City ‘ 
 in 1823. He entered politics early becom- 
 ing an alderman of New York City, and 
 taking a seat in congress in 1853. Sub- ^ 
 sequently he was a school commissioner; , 
 became a member of the board of super- 
 visors of New York county, and was 
 president of the board for four successive 1 
 terms. From 1867 to 1871 he was a i 
 state senator. A member of the Tam- 
 many society for many yeals, he was 
 grand sachem in 1869-71. When com- ' 
 missioner of public works he organized i 
 the combination known as the “Tam- , 
 many Ring,” or the “Tweed Ring.” 
 The “ring,” elected its candidate for ' 
 mayor in 1865, and its candidate for ^ 
 governor in 1868. Legislators and judges 
 were bribed, and bills were passed and ' 
 decisions rendered in favor of the mem- j 
 bers of the “ring.” Fraudulent bills ' 
 were audited, and their sum divided , 
 among the thieves, etc. A vigorous in- 
 vestigation and prosecution was un- ^ 
 dertaken under the lead of Samuel J. 
 Tilden. In 1873 Tweed was convicted, ; 
 and sentenced to twelve years’ con- ; 
 finement in the penitentiary, and to 
 pay a fine of #12,300.18. He was re- 
 leased in 1875 by a decision of the 
 court of appeals, on a legal techni- 
 cality. He was immediately rearrested 
 but being pennitted to go out to drive 
 with an officer, he made his escape, and 
 fled to Spain. He was returned in 
 November, 1876, and again incarcerated 
 in Ludlow Street jail until April 12, 
 1878, when he died. ‘ 
 
 Tuscan order. 
 
 tecture. It admits of no ornaments, and 
 the columns are never fluted. Otherwise 
 it differs so little, however, from the 
 
 TWELFTH-DAY, the twelfth day 
 after Christmas, upon which is held the 
 festival of Epiphany. On the evening of 
 this day, called Twelfth-night, various 
 social rites and ceremonies are observed 
 in different countries. One of these is the 
 baking of a twelfth-cake, into which & 
 bean is introduced. When the cake ia 
 
 luxury. It is a native of the tropical 
 parts of the Atlantic as well as of the 
 Indian ocean, being especially abundant 
 near Ascension island. The logger-head 
 turtle yields an oil, which is used for 
 
 Hawk’s-bill or tortoise-shell turtle. 
 
 lamps and for dressing leather. The 
 hawk’s-bill turtle is remarkable for the 
 beautiful imbricated horny plates cover- 
 ing the carapace, and constituting the 
 tortoise-shell of commerce. 
 
 TURTLE-DOVE, a small variety of 
 pigeon, about 11 inches in length, color 
 pale brown marked with a darker hue 
 above, a purple tinge pervading the 
 
 Turtle-dove. 
 
 feathers of the breast. They are in gen- 
 eral smaller and more slender than the 
 domesticated pigeons, and their cooing 
 is plaintive and tender. 
 
 TUSCAN ORDER OF ARCHITEC- 
 TURE, one of the five orders of archi- 
 
 \ .3 
 
 1 . - 
 
TWILIGHT 
 
 TYPECASTING MACHINES 
 
 divided at the feast the person who re- 
 ceives the piece containing the bean is 
 made king for the occasion. 
 
 TWILIGHT, daylight which con- 
 tinues after sunset, occasioned by the 
 reflection of sunlight from the higher 
 parts of the atmosphere which are still 
 illuminated after the sun has become 
 invisible from ordinary heights. It is 
 supposed to last till the sun is about 
 18° below the horizon, but is much in- 
 fluenced by the state of the atmosphere 
 as to clouds, etc. In low latitudes 
 (that is, near the equator), there is little 
 twilight. 
 
 TWILL, a textile fabric, in which the 
 weft threads do not pass over and under 
 the warp-threads in regular succession, 
 as in common plain weaving, but pass 
 over one and under two, over one and 
 under three, or over one and under eight 
 or ten, according to the kind of twill. 
 
 TYLER, John, tenth president of the 
 United States, born 1790, died 1862. 
 He entered congress as a republican in 
 1816, and in 1840 was vice-president 
 under the presidency of General Harri- 
 son. On Harrison’s death in 1841 he be- 
 came president, and came into collision 
 with his party on the National Bank bill 
 and other questions. The annexation of 
 Texas was the chief event of his term of 
 office, at the end of which he retired 
 into private life. On the outbreak of 
 the secession war he espoused the cause 
 of the south, and was a member of the 
 confederate congress. 
 
 TYM'PANUM, (1) a cavity of an irreg- 
 ular shape situated in the ear. (See 
 Ear.) (2) In architecture, the triangular 
 space in a pediment included between 
 the cornices of the inclined sides and the 
 
 Tympanum of the south portal of the Abbey 
 Church of St. Denis, France. 
 
 horizontal cornice; also, any similar 
 space, as above a window, or the space 
 included between the lintel of a door 
 and the arch above it. The tympanum 
 is often ornamented with carving or 
 sculpture 
 
 TYNDALL, John, physicist, born in 
 1820 at Leighlin Bridge, Carlow, Ire- 
 land; was elected to the chair of natural 
 philosophy in the Royal institution in 
 1853; visited Switzerland in 1856 along 
 with Huxley, and made repeated inves- 
 tigations in that country subsequently; 
 lectured throughout the United States 
 in 1872^ presided over the British asso- 
 ciation in 1874 at Belfast. He died in 
 1893. His chief works are : The Glaciers 
 of the Alps, Mountaineering in 1861, 
 Heat Considered as a Mode of Motion, 
 On Radiation, Sound, Faraday as a 
 Discoverer, Light, The Forms of Water 
 in Clouds, Rivers, Ice, and Glaciers, 
 Fragments of Science, Floating Matter 
 
 P. E,— 80 
 
 in the Air in Relation to Putrefaction 
 and Infection. 
 
 TYPE. Types from which books and 
 newspapers are printed are cast by 
 machinery from an alloy of lead, tin, 
 and antimony, the lead being the chief 
 constituent of the type-metal. Anti- 
 mony is added to supply the necessary 
 hardness, while the tin serves to fuse 
 the lead and antimony, to toughen 
 the alloy, and to prevent oxidization. 
 Some founders add a small proportion 
 
 Sizes of type made on the point system 
 (reduced one-third). 
 
 of copper to give still greater tenacity, 
 while others add a copper face to the 
 letter. 
 
 To produce a font or series of type, 
 six mechanical operations are neces- 
 sary — i.e., (1) punch cutting, or the 
 designing and engraving the model 
 characters from which the types are 
 made; (2) fitting up, or adjusting the 
 matrices; (3) making the matrices; (4) 
 making the molds in which the types 
 are cast ; (5) casting the types ; (6) finish- 
 ing. Formerly all types were cast by 
 hand, a slow and laborious process. A 
 skilled workman at best could produce 
 from 2000 to 3000 types a day. Since 
 1838 types have been cast by machinery. 
 
 The “face” of a type is the letter or 
 character from which the printed im- 
 pression is made. The word “face” also 
 is used to distinguish one style of type 
 from another. The “beard” or “neck” 
 is the slope between the outer edge of 
 the face and the shoulder. The “shoul- 
 der” is the flat top of the body which 
 upholds the neck and face of the type. 
 The “counter” is the depression be- 
 tween the lines of the face. The “stem” 
 is the thick line of the letter. The 
 “serif” is the short cross-line put as a 
 finish at the ends of unconnected lines. 
 The “hair line” is the thin line of the 
 face. 
 
 Types necessarily are of varied sizes 
 and designs. Up to within recent years 
 there was little attempt to secure uni- 
 formity in sizes. The types of some 
 
 founders would not “justify” or “line” 
 with the types of others. But the sys- 
 tem of classification of sizes had been 
 reduced to a general scheme, the sizes 
 being designated as follows: Brilliant, 
 diamond, pearl, agate, nonpareil, min-’ 
 ion, brevier, bourgeois, long primer, 
 small pica, pica, English, great primer, 
 double small pica, double pica, double 
 English, double great primer, double 
 paragon, canon. 
 
 Since 1886 practically all type cast by 
 American foundries has been cast on 
 the “point” system, and eventually the 
 system will be adopted by foreign mak- 
 ers of type. Before that year the stand- 
 ard of size varied, and there was endless 
 confusion and loss of time and money. 
 To obviate this confusion the American 
 type-foundries in 1886 adopted the 
 “pica” as the basis of a new system of 
 measurements. The pica was divided 
 into twelve equal parts, and, accepting 
 one of these twelve parts as its unit, a 
 base was made for the determination of 
 the size of every body of type. This 
 twelfth part of a pica was called a 
 “point.” All type bodies were cast on 
 multiples of this point, and called by 
 numerical names. Thus pica became 
 “12-point”; double pica, “24-point,” 
 etc. Nonpareil, or half of pica, became 
 “6-point”; agate, “5-point”; brevier, 
 “8-point,” etc. The point system was 
 also adopted to all leads, rules, and 
 spaces used in the printing of books. 
 
 Under the American system of points 
 the bodies of type are clearly described 
 by numerical names. The faces and 
 styles have to be described by names, 
 many of them fanciful and few of them 
 actually descriptive. There are, how- 
 ever, a number of recognized standard 
 styles of type, as follows: 
 
 Scripts are imitations of different 
 styles of handwriting. 
 
 Italic is a simplified style of script, 
 the letters being disconnected. 
 
 Black letter is a degenerate form of 
 roman, in which angles are substituted 
 for curves. 
 
 Gothics, the simplest and rudest of all 
 styles, are cast without serifs. 
 
 Italian is a roman in which the posi- 
 tion of hair line and thick stroke have 
 been transposed. 
 
 Antique is a roman in which the lines 
 of all the characters are nearly uniform 
 as to thickness. 
 
 Roman is the type universally used 
 in books and newspapers. 
 
 Old style is the roman type of earlier 
 decades. The hair lines are firmer, al- 
 though shorter than in the modern cut 
 faces; the serifs at the font are shorter, 
 and it is not angled. Old style is used 
 in book work, seldom in newspapers. 
 
 TYPECASTING MACHINES. Types 
 from which books and newspapers are 
 printed are cast by machines, of which 
 a number are in general use. Up to 
 1838, however, all type was cast by 
 hand, a slow and laborious process. A 
 skilled workman could turn out from 
 2000 to 3000 types a day, many of 
 them so imperfect that they had to be 
 rejected. In 1838 David Bruce, Jr., of 
 New York, invented a practical t 5 rpe- 
 casting machine which was used for 
 forty years almost without a rival. Yet 
 it never was regarded as a perfect ma- 
 
TYPESETTING MACHINES 
 
 TYRE 
 
 cliine. It did not cast a finished type. 
 Exact type had to be finished and 
 dressed by hand. In 1888 Henry Barth 
 produced a machine which practically 
 superseded the Bruce machine, for it 
 cast and finished type at the rate of 
 1000 an hour. The Barth machine was 
 adopted by the leading type-foundries 
 of the United States and England. In 
 1905 the Sennett Automatic Caster was 
 invented and placed on the market by 
 Sylvester Sennett, of Chicago. It is a 
 marvelous machine, simple in its parts, 
 and casts 7500 types an hour, ready for 
 the printer’s use. A machine known as 
 a “sort caster,” adapted for supplying 
 smaller offices with “sorts” as needed, 
 was invented in 1899 by Frank Brown, 
 G. A. Boyden, and John E. Hanrahan, 
 of Boston. 
 
 TYPESETTING MACHINES, the per- 
 fection of the typesetting machine has 
 revolutionized the printing of news- 
 papers and books. Since 1885 American 
 inventors have supplied the world with 
 typesetting machinery. Every style 
 of machine in commercial operation in 
 any part of the world is of American 
 invention. The Linotype, Monotype, 
 Monoline, Typograph and Simplex ma- 
 chines are in general use in all quarters 
 of the globe. Machines of European in- 
 vention are in limited use only in their 
 owil countries. The typesetting ma- 
 chines in general use in the United 
 States are the Linotype and the Mono- 
 type — the former being the favorite in 
 newspaper offices and the latter being 
 better adapted for book and tabular 
 work. The Linotype, as its name im- 
 plies, casts an entire line while the 
 Monotype casts each letter separately. 
 The Monoline, another slug casting 
 machine, conflicts with the Linotype 
 patents and therefore is barred from 
 the United States. It is in daily use in 
 Canada and Germany. The Graphotype, 
 invented by George A. Goodson of Min- 
 neapolis, Minn., is a type caster worked 
 by electrically controlled devices, its 
 product being similar to that of the 
 Monotype. The Linotype is the product 
 of the genius of Ottmar Mergenthaler. 
 After working for seven years in trying 
 to make a practical machine for setting 
 up individual type Mergenthaler in 1884 
 conceived the idea of assembling a line 
 of dies or female matrices and casting 
 them into molten metal to form a slug 
 which would itself be a complete line of 
 type. He succeeded and in 1885 built 
 the first Linotype. The first JL^inotype, 
 however, would not be recognized in the 
 Linotype of to-day. The matrix chan- 
 nels were upright tubes, an air blast was 
 required to blow the matrices into an 
 assembler and electricity was employed 
 in its operation. These objectionable 
 features were eliminated in a new Lino- 
 type put on the market in 1890, known 
 as the square base Linotype. Mergen- 
 thaler did not live to reap the fruits of 
 his genius, dying in 1899. The latest 
 Linotype peimits any size of type from 
 5 to 14 point to be composed in any 
 length of line from 5 to 30 ems pica. Fif- 
 teen different languages are now set on 
 the Linotype in as many different coun- 
 tries. The Lanston Monotype Machine 
 cast* separately each letter, point, and 
 sign, including the spaces. The machine 
 
 comprises a keyboard and a type-casting 
 machine. The keyboard punches a 
 series of holes made by the operator 
 striking the keys on the keyboard in a 
 moving strip of paper, which is un- 
 wound from one spool to another, pass- 
 ing under a series of punches in its 
 journey. The result of the keyboard 
 operation is, therefore, a roll of per- 
 forated paper. This paper when fed to 
 the casting machine, initiates and con- 
 trols all the operations which produce 
 the cast type set in column width ready 
 to take printed proofs from. 
 
 TYPEWRITER, a machine intended 
 to be used as a substitute for the pen, 
 and by which the letters are produced 
 by the impression of inked types. The 
 essential elements in such machines are 
 a movement to bring the type into 
 position, an inking device, an impression 
 movement, and means for letter and line 
 spacing. A successful form of the ma- 
 chine has a series of letter keys arranged 
 in rows, to be worked by the fingers of 
 both hands, a letter being imprinted 
 on the paper (which moves auto- 
 matically) each time a key is struck. 
 In recent years several typewriters have 
 been brought before the public, such as 
 the Remington, Hammond, Smith- 
 Premier, Bar-Lock, Oliver, etc., and 
 improvements are made from time to 
 time. Typewriters for printing in books 
 have also proved very successful. The 
 growth of the use of the typewriter 
 has been rapid. It was placed on the 
 market in the early seventies and was 
 soon appreciated. The twelfth census 
 contains an account of the comparative 
 speed of typesetting and hand labor. 
 “In this instance the unit required was 
 the copying of 1000 words of statute 
 law; this was accomplished by the type- 
 writer in 19.5 minutes, or at the rate of 
 51 words per minute while a copyist 
 with a pen required 1 hour and 14.8 
 minutes, or about four times as long. 
 Typewriters are now an essential part 
 of the equipment of business offices and 
 are used extensively in railroad, tele- 
 graph and newspaper offices. The enor- 
 mous growth of the industry is shown 
 by the fact that the number of factories 
 engaged in making them has increased 
 60 per cent, the capital invested 500 
 per cent, and the value of the product 
 over 100 per cent since 1890. 
 
 TYPHOID FEVER, called also enteric 
 fever and gastric fever, a disease some- 
 what resembling typhus, but essentially 
 different. It is characterized by serious 
 disorder of the bowels, and is not infec- 
 tious in the sense that it can be com- 
 municated from one person to another 
 by breath or by the skin, as in scarlet 
 fever and small-pox. The poison seems 
 to consist of living organisms or disease 
 germs which exist in the discharges from 
 typhoid fever patients, may gain ad- 
 mission to the water of wells, and hence 
 to the human stomach, perhaps by the 
 water being used to wash milk dishes. 
 When these germs gain access to the 
 alimentary canal of a person whose 
 general health is impaired, the disease 
 is usually set up. It is uncertain what 
 time may elapse between the introduc- 
 tion of the poison and the appearance 
 of the disease, but the period is us- 
 ually about three weeks. The symp- 
 
 toms of the disease are languor, chills, ■ 
 violent headache, thirst, and pains in 
 the limbs. Soon diarrhoea sets in, ac- J 
 companied by a distended and tender 
 state of the abdomen. The temperature 
 rises, the skin loses its moisture, the • 
 kidneys cease to act freely, and the 
 tongue becomes dry and brown. Then 
 a rose-colored rash appears over the 
 chest and abdomen, which may soon 
 disappear, only, however, to be followed 
 by a new crop of spots. At this stage 
 delirium and other serious symptoms 
 arise, and as the disease advances 
 ulceration or perforation of the bowels ] 
 may take place. While the S 3 rmptoms ! 
 here described are those of a typical case, . 
 there are numerous instances where the 
 patient may have no marked looseness ' 
 of the bowels, no spots on the skin, and 
 no delirium. In the treatment of the 
 disease the most important thing is the : 
 dieting. Only soft liquid foods are allow- J 
 able, such as milk, in abundance, boiled ; 
 milk and bread, corn-flour, etc. Loose- • 
 ness of the bowels, if excessive, should ; 
 be checked by catechu and chalk mix- 
 ture, with the addition of laudanum, ' 
 if necessary, to a grown-up person. The • 
 disease, even in a mild form, is sufficient- J 
 ly serious, and it often proves fatal. ' 
 
 TYPHOON', a violent hurricane, espe- i 
 cially one of those which rage on the ] 
 
 coasts of China and Japan and the 1 
 
 neighboring archipelago, occurring from 1 
 May to November, being most frequent I 
 and disastrous in July, August, and 1 
 September. j 
 
 TYPHUS FEVER, known also as ] 
 hospital fever, jail fever, etc., is essen- : 
 tially a fever of the poor, ill -fed, and ^ 
 badly-housed inhabitants of large cities. ^ 
 It is infectious, and the infection seems I 
 to be carried in the breath of the patient. \ 
 For this reason free ventilation is the i 
 least favorable condition for the spread « 
 of typhus. Before the symptoms show j 
 themselves a period of from five to 
 twelve days may pass after the person is 
 infected. Then there is generally a 
 shivering, followed by a hot, dry skin, 
 a suffused condition of the eyes, a small 
 pupil, thirst, a dull, stupid expression, 
 great prostration, and costive bowels. ] 
 About the seventh day a rash of irregu- i 
 lar spots and of a dusky hue appears ' 
 over the chest and back, but sometimes 
 this is entirely absent As the disease i 
 advances the patient’s strength becomes i 
 exhausted, the urinary secretion is 
 scanty, if not entirely suppressed, de- 
 lirium sets in, and the disease is often 1 
 complicated by bronchitis, pneumonia, 
 or pleurisy. About the fourteenth day, 
 in favorable cases, the turn of the fever j 
 is shown by the patient falling into a . 
 sound sleep, from which he wakes with 
 the fever gone. In unfavorable cases 
 the prostration increases, the feverish- ■ 
 ness is heightened, convulsions may 1 
 occur, and at length the patient sinks 
 into unconsciousness. The treatment j 
 consists in keeping the patient in a well- j 
 ventilated room, and preventing ex- ^ 
 haustion by a light and wholesome diet. j 
 Milk, beef-tea, nourishing soups without 1 
 vegetables, should be given to the pa- - 
 tient in small quantities at short inter- 3 
 vals. ^ 
 
 TYPOGRAPHY. See Printing. C 
 
 TYRE, one of the most celebrated 1 
 
TYROL 
 
 UMBRELLA 
 
 cities of ancient Phcenicia, and with its 
 elder sister, Sidon, long a great trading 
 mart. It was built partly on an island 
 and partly on the mainland; and the 
 insular fortifications formed its chief 
 strength when besieged and taken by 
 Alexander the Great in b.c. 332. A mole 
 or causeway then constructed to the 
 island was the origin of the isthmus 
 which now connects it with the main- 
 land. Tyre was famous in the 10th 
 century b.c. under Hiram the friend of 
 
 Solomon, was besieged in vain by the 
 Assyrians in 725-720 b.c., and by 
 Nebuchadnezzar 585-572 b.c., and re- 
 mained an important place till it came 
 into the hands of the Turks. The modern 
 Tyre or Sur is an insignificant place of 
 5000 inhabitants. 
 
 TYROL' or TIROL', a province of 
 Austria (including Tyrol proper and 
 Vorarlberg), is bounded north by Ba- 
 varia and Lake Constance, west by 
 Switzerland, east by Salzburg and 
 
 u 
 
 Illyria, south, east, and west by Venetia 
 and Lombardy; area, 11,325 sq. miles. 
 In magnificence of scenery Tyrol is only 
 inferior to Switzerland, of which it is a 
 continuation. The capital is Innsbruck. 
 Pop. 850,062. 
 
 TYRONE, a county of Ireland, in the 
 province of Ulster; bounded by Lon- 
 donderry, Donegal, Armagh, Monaghan, 
 and Fermanagh; area, 778,943 acres. 
 Pod. 150,468. 
 
 U, the twenty-first letter and the 
 fifth vowel in the English alphabet. Its 
 true primary sound was that which it 
 still retains, that of oo in cool, tool, 
 good, wood, etc., answering to the French 
 ou in tour, the sound being sometimes 
 short, sometimes long. 
 
 UDAIPUR, or OODEYPORE, a town 
 in the northwest of India, capital of a 
 native state of the same name in 
 Rajputana, Pop. 45,976. — The state 
 (called also Meywar), area 12,670 sq. 
 miles, came under the protection of 
 Britain in 1817, and the rajah ranks 
 highest in dignity among the Rajput 
 chiefs. Pop. 1,728,049. 
 
 UNDINE (6'di-na), a walled town of 
 North Italy, capital of a province of 
 same name and see of an archbishop, 
 60 miles northeast of Venice. Pop. 
 37,933; of prov. 594,334. 
 
 UFA, a government of Russia, sepa- 
 rated in 1865 from Orenburg; area, 
 47,112 sq. miles. Pop. 2,220,497. — Ufa, 
 the capital, stands on the Bielaya, at 
 the confluence of the Ufa, 735 miles east 
 by north of Moscow. It is the see of a 
 bishop, and has considerable manu- 
 factures and trade. Pop. 49,961. 
 
 UGAN'DA, a country of British East 
 Africa, to the n. w. of the Victoria 
 Nyanza. It is a rich agricultural coun- 
 try with a mild and uniform climate, and 
 the inhabitants are of a comparatively 
 high type. It was first visited by Speke 
 and Grant in 1860, and is the seat of 
 several mission stations. The population 
 is estimated at 5,000,000. 
 
 UHLANS (6'lanz), a species of light 
 cavalry in the annies of the Austrians, 
 Russians, and Germans. 
 
 UINTAH (or Uinta) MOUNTAINS, a 
 range of lofty mountains in Utah, 
 United States, which extend e. from 
 the Wahsatch range, and occupy a 
 large area. Some of the peaks reach an 
 altitude of over 13,000 feet. 
 
 U'KASE, a Russian edict or order, 
 legislative or administrative, emanating 
 from the government. Ukases have the 
 force of laws till they are annulled by 
 subsequent decisions. 
 
 UKRAINE, an extensive country 
 formerly on the frontier between Poland 
 and Russia, now forming the Russian 
 governments of Kief, Chernigof, Podolsk, 
 Kharkof and Poltava. 
 
 ULCER, a sore in any of the soft parts 
 of the body, either open to the surface 
 or to some natural cavity, and attended 
 with a secretion of pus or some kind of 
 discharge. Ulcers are of various kinds, 
 as scorbutic, cancerous, scrofulous, etc. 
 
 ULSTER, the most northerly of the 
 
 four provinces of Ireland, comprehend- 
 ing the counties of Antrim, Armagh, 
 Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, 
 Londonderry, Monaghan, and Tyrone. 
 Area, 5,483,201 acres, or 8568 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 1,581,351. 
 
 ULTRAMARINE', a beautiful and 
 durable sky-blue pigment, a color 
 formed of the mineral called lapis lazuli. 
 This substance is much valued by 
 painters, on account of the beauty and 
 permanence of its color, both for oil 
 and water painting. Artificial ultra- 
 marine is prepared by heating sulphide 
 of sodium with a mixture of silicic acid 
 and alumina. 
 
 UTRAMON'TANISM, the views of 
 that party in the Church of Rome, who 
 place an absolute authority in matters 
 of faith and discipline in the hands of 
 the pope, in opposition to the views of 
 the party who would place the national 
 churches, such as the Galilean, in partial 
 independence of the Roman curia, and 
 make the pope subordinate to the stat- 
 utes of an oecumenical council. Accord- 
 ing to ultramontanism the pope is 
 superior to general councils, independ- 
 ent of their decrees, and considered to 
 be the source of all jurisdiction in the 
 church. The Vatican council of 1870 
 virtually established the views of ultra- 
 montanism as dogmas of the church. 
 
 ULYSSES (u-lis'sSz), king of the is- 
 land of Ithaca, was one of the Greek 
 heroes who engaged in the war against 
 Troy. In returning to his own country 
 after the siege he visited the country of 
 the Lotophagi in North Africa, the 
 Cyclopes in Sicily (see Polyphemus), the 
 island of ^olus king of the winds, 
 reached the island jEsea, where Circe 
 changed (temporarily) his companions 
 into pigs, visited the infernal regions, 
 where he consulted the soothsayer 
 Tiresias how to return to his country; 
 passed in safety the coast of the Sirens, 
 and the dangers of Scylla and Charybdis ; 
 remained for seven years with the nymph 
 Calypso after losing all his men; and at 
 last, after an absence of twenty years 
 returned to Ithaca. Here he found his 
 palace occupied and his substance 
 wasted by suitors for the hand of his 
 wife Penelope, but with the aid of his 
 son Telemachus he put them to death. 
 He lived about sixteen years after his 
 return. These adventures of Ulysses are 
 the subject of Homer’s Odyssey. 
 
 UMBEL, in botany, a variety of in- 
 florescence which consists of a number 
 of pedicels or flower-stalks, nearly equal 
 in length, springing from a common 
 center, with the blossoms on their sum- 
 
 mits forming a level or rounded surface. 
 When a number of such umbels are 
 aggregated together in the same way 
 
 we have a compound umbel, the smaller 
 umbels being called partial umbels. 
 
 UMBELLIF'ER^, an extensive and 
 important natural order of plants, the 
 flowers of which are almost always in 
 regular compound umbels. The plants 
 of this order are natives chiefly of the 
 northern parts of the northern hemis- 
 phere, and nearly all herbs with fistular 
 furrowed stems and divided leaves; 
 the fruit consists of two indehiscent 
 ridged carpels united by a commissure. 
 Some are very poisonous, as hemlock, 
 and certain others; others are esculent, 
 as celery, carrots, and parsnips; many 
 yield aromatics, as caraway, coriander, 
 dill, anise; a few secrete a feetid gum- 
 resin, much used in medicine, as asa- 
 fetida, galbanum, opopanax, and saga- 
 penum. 
 
 UMBER, a well-known mineral pig- 
 ment, of an olive-brown color in its raw 
 state, but much redder when burnt. 
 It occurs either naturally in veins and 
 beds, or is prepared artificia'lv from 
 various admixtures. The commercial 
 varieties are known as Turkey umber, 
 raw and burnt, and English umber, 
 the latter being an artificial ochrey 
 admixture. 
 
 UMBRA, in astronomy, a term ap- 
 plied to the total shadow of the earth or 
 moon in an eclipse, or to the dark cone 
 projected from a planet or satellite on 
 the side opposite to the sun. See Penum- 
 bra, Eclipse. 
 
 UMBRELLA, a portable shade, screen, 
 or canopy which opens and folds, car- 
 ried in the hand for sheltering the person. 
 The umbrella had its origin in the East 
 in very remote times, where it was (and 
 still is) regarded as an emblem of royalty 
 or a mark of distinction; but as a de- 
 
UMBRELLA BIRD 
 
 UNITARIANS 
 
 fense from rain it was not used in Eng- 
 land till early in the 18th century. 
 
 UMBRELLA-BIRD, a South Ameri- 
 can bird allied to the crows, remarkable 
 for the crest of blue-black feathers rising 
 from the head and curving toward the 
 
 Umbrella-bird. 
 
 end of the beak, which it nearly reaches. 
 Another long tuft of feathers hang down 
 from the breast. 
 
 UMBRIA, a division of Italy, on the 
 Adriatic, which derives its appellation 
 from the Umbrians, by whom it was 
 inhabited in ancient times. It now forms 
 the province of Perugia. The Umbrians 
 were an ancient Italic people speaking 
 a language akin to the Latin. 
 
 UNCONFORMABLE, in geology, a 
 term applied to strata whose planes do 
 
 Uncontormable strata. 
 
 not lie parallel with those of the sub- 
 jacent or superjacent strata but have a 
 different line of direction or inclination. 
 
 UNCTION, Extreme. See Extreme 
 Unction. 
 
 UNDERSHOT-WHEEL, a form of 
 water-wheel having a number of float- 
 boards disposed on its circumference, 
 and turned round by the moving force 
 of a stream of water acting on the float- 
 boards at its lowest part. In this wheel 
 the water acts entirely byits momentum. 
 
 UN'DINE, a water-spirit of the female 
 sex, resembling in character the sylphs 
 or spirits of the air, and corresponding 
 somewhat to the naiads of classical 
 mythology. According to Paracelsus, 
 when an undine married a mortal and 
 bore a child she received a soul. One 
 of these spirits is the heroine of a cele- 
 brated romance by De la Motte Fouqu6. 
 
 UN'DULATORY THEORY, in physics, 
 the theory which regards light as a mode 
 of motion generated by molecular vibra- 
 tions in the luminous source, and propa- 
 gated by undulations in the subtle me- 
 
 dium known as the ether, presumed to 
 pervade all space and to occupy the in- 
 tervals which separate the molecules or 
 atoms of bodies. When these undula- 
 tions reach and act on the nerves of our 
 retina they produce in us the sensation 
 of light. The only other theory of light 
 which can be opposed to this, and which 
 is variously called the corpuscular, 
 emission, or material theory, supposes 
 light to consist of material particles, 
 emitted from the source, and projected 
 in straight lines in all directions with a 
 velocity which continues uniform at all 
 distances, and is the same for all in- 
 tensities. The undulatory theory, is 
 however, now generally adopted by 
 physicists. 
 
 UNGULA'TA, the ungulate or hoofed 
 quadrupeds, fanning the largest and 
 most important order of the mammalia. 
 This order is subdivided into (a) the 
 section Perissodactyla, or odd-toed 
 ungulates, which includes the rhinoceros, 
 the tapirs, the horse and all its allies; 
 and (b) the Artiodactyla, or even-toed, 
 which comprises the hippopotamus, the 
 pigs, and the whole group of ruminants, 
 including oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes, 
 camels, deer, etc.. In the former section 
 the hind feet are odd-toed (one or three 
 toes) in all the members, and the fore- 
 feet in all except the tapirs; in the latter 
 section the toes are always even in num- 
 ber, either two or four. 
 
 UNICORN, a fabulous animal repre- 
 sented as with one horn growing from its 
 forehead. Such an animal is frequently 
 mentioned by Greek and Roman writers, 
 who generally described it as a native 
 of India, of the size and form of a horse, 
 the body being white, and a straight 
 horn growing from its forehead. The 
 reem of the Hebrews, of which unicorn 
 is a mistranslation (Deut, xxxiii. 17, and 
 elsewhere), was probably a urus. It was 
 a two-horned animal. The unicorn is 
 one of the supporters of the royal arms 
 of Great Britain, in that posture termed 
 salient. It was taken from the arms of 
 Scotland, which had two unicorns as 
 supporters. 
 
 UNICORN-ROOT, a popular name of 
 the plant a native of North America, 
 which furnishes one of the most intense 
 bitters known, used as a tonic and 
 stomachic. 
 
 UNIT, in arithmetic, the least whole 
 number, or one, represented by the 
 figure 1. Every other number is an 
 assemblage of units. This definition is 
 applicable to fractions as well as to whole 
 numbers. In mathematics and physics 
 a unit is any known determinate quan- 
 tity by the constant repetition of which 
 any other quality of the same kind is 
 measured. It is not itself one, but is a 
 length, or a surface, or a solid, or a 
 weight, or a time, as the case may be, 
 while 1 is only a numerical symbol. — 
 Specific gravity unit; for solids or 
 liquids, 1 cubic foot of distilled water 
 at 62° Fahr. = 1 ; of air and gases, 1 
 cubic foot of atmospheric air at 62° 
 Fahr. = 1. The unit of heat, or thermal 
 unit, the quantity of heat corresponding 
 to a rise of 1° Fahr. in the temperature 
 of 1 lb. of pure water at about 39° Fahr. ; 
 in France, the heat required to raise a 
 gramme of pure water at about 3.94° 
 C., 1° C. — In electricity the unit of 
 
 quantity is that quantity of electricity 
 which, with an electro-motive force of 
 one volt, will flow through a resistance 
 of 1,000,000 ohms in one second, called 
 a farad; unit of current, a current of one 
 farad per second. Unit of work, that 
 which will produce a velocity of one 
 meter (39.37) inches per second in a 
 mass weighing one gramme (15.432 
 grains) after acting upon it a second of 
 time. A dynamic unit is one expressing 
 the quantity of a force or the amount of 
 work done. One such unit is the foot- 
 pound (which see). The system of units 
 recommended by a committee of the 
 British association for scientific calcu- 
 lations, and known as the C. G. S. 
 system, adopts the centimeter as the 
 unit of length, the gramme as the unit 
 of mass, and the second as the unit of 
 time, these words being represented 
 respectively by the above letters. (See 
 Dynamics.) In this system the unit of 
 area is the square centimeter, the unit 
 of volume is the cubic centimeter, and 
 the unit of velocity is a velocity of a 
 centimeter per second. The unit of 
 momentum is the momentum of a 
 gramme moving with a velocity of a 
 centimeter per second. 
 
 UNITARIANS, a religious sect or con- 
 geries of sects, distinguished by the 
 denial of the received doctrine of the 
 Trinity. The Unitarians may be divided 
 into classes: (1) The conservative or 
 orthodox Unitarians, who accept the 
 general articles of the Christian creed 
 (with the exception of the Trinity), such 
 as miracles, the resurrection of Christ, 
 and the plenary inspiration of Scripture, 
 (2) The liberal or progressive Unitarians, 
 whose creed is purely rationalistic. They 
 consider Christ as a mere man, inspired 
 as other great men are, though in a 
 greater degree ; they reject the doctrines 
 of original sin, eternal punishments, 
 the belief in miracles, and generally the 
 whole supernatural element in Chris- 
 tianity. They deny the necessity of an 
 atonement, considering Christ’s death 
 but as a martyrdom in defense of truth. 
 This latter class forms the majority. 
 Unitarian views have been held more or 
 less in all ages of the church, but they 
 came more prominently forward during 
 the Reformation period, especially in 
 connection with the teaching of the 
 elder and younger Socinus, Laelius and 
 Faustus, uncle and nephew. At this 
 time Unitarian doctrines led to perse- 
 cution. The sect was first tolerated in 
 Poland and Transylvania. In the former ; 
 country it flourished under the leader- 
 ship of the younger Socinus, in the latter ■ 
 under that of his friend Blandatra. The ■ 
 Polish toleration was finally withdrawn 
 in 1658, when the Unitarians were ban- 
 ished under pain of death. They dis- 
 persed in Germany and England. Uni- 
 tarianism in the meantime made secret 
 progress among various Protestant } 
 bodies professing orthodox creeds. In 
 England, where Unitarians were burned 
 as well as on the continent, full tolera- 
 tion was not granted till 1813. On the 
 continent of Europe Unitarianism pro- - 
 grossed in proportion to the progress of j 
 Rationalism. In America Unitarianism i 
 first sprung up in New England, from 
 which it spread rapidly. The Univer- 
 salist sect is also of non-Trinitarian 
 
 1 
 
UNITED BRETHREN 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 belief. There are about 300 Unitarian 
 congregations in Britain and 459 in 
 America, and Unitarian theology has 
 tinged more or or less almost every 
 section of the reformed Christian church. 
 
 UNITED BRETHREN. See Moravian 
 Brethren. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM. See Britain. 
 
 UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, 
 
 the name adopted by that Scottish 
 church which was formed by the union 
 of the Secession church and the Relief 
 church in May, 1847. This church ad- 
 hered to the theological doctrines taught 
 in the Westminster Confession of Faith 
 and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms. 
 The system of church government 
 differed from that of the Established and 
 Free churches only in having no inter- 
 mediate court between the presbyteries 
 and the supreme court, the latter of 
 which was called a General Synod, and 
 sat once a year. The distinguishing 
 feature of the U nited Presbyterian church 
 was that it was a voluntary church, 
 which set itself against all state estab- 
 lishment of religion and all public and 
 national endowments for the main- 
 tenance of Christianity. In October, 
 1900, it joined with the Free churcli to 
 form the United Free church of Scot- 
 land. 
 
 UNITED PROVINCES. See Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMER- 
 ICA, a federal republic, occupying the 
 whole of the central portion of that con- 
 tinent between lat. 24° and 49° n., and 
 Ion. 67° and 125° w.; stretching from 
 east to west between the Atlantic and 
 North Pacific oceans, and from north 
 
 Obverse. 
 
 Reverse. 
 
 Great seal of the XT. S. 
 
 to south between Canada and the Gulf 
 and Republic of Mexico ; greatest length, 
 east to west, 2800 miles; greatest 
 breadth, 1600 miles; area, 3,024,880 sq. 
 miles. The territory of Alaska also be- 
 longs to the United States, and Hawaii, 
 the Philippines, Porto Rico, etc., have 
 been recently acquired. The republic is 
 composed of 46 states, 4 territories, and 
 
 1 district, besides the reserved Indian 
 territory and Alaska. The first census 
 was taken of the thirteen original states 
 in 1790, when the population numbered 
 3,929,214. The various areas and popu- 
 lations are given in the following table: 
 
 States and Terri- 
 tories 
 
 Area in 
 Sq. Miles 
 
 Population 
 
 1890 
 
 Estimated 
 Pop. 1908 by 
 the Govern- 
 or of each 
 State 
 
 Slates 
 
 Alabama 
 
 .Cf- 
 
 52,250 
 
 1,513,017 
 
 2,2.50,000 
 
 Arkansas.. 
 
 53,8.50 
 
 1,128,179 
 
 1,750,000 
 
 California 
 
 158,360 
 
 1,208,130 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut. . 
 
 103,925 
 
 4,990 
 
 412,198 
 
 746,258 
 
 800,000 
 
 1,010,000 
 
 Delaware 
 
 2,050 
 
 168,493 
 
 190,000 
 
 Florida 
 
 58,680 
 
 391,422 
 
 650,000 
 
 Georgia 
 
 59,475 
 
 1,837,353 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 Idaho 
 
 84,800 
 
 84,385 
 
 300,000 
 
 Illinois 
 
 56,650 
 
 3,826,351 
 
 5,590,000 
 
 Indiana 
 
 36,350 
 
 2,192,404 
 
 2,678,493 
 
 Iowa 
 
 56,025 
 
 1,911,896 
 
 2,216.068 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 82,080 
 
 1,427,096 
 
 1 ,680,000 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 40,400 
 
 1,858,635 
 
 2,435,000 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 48,720 
 
 1,118,517 
 
 1,700,000 
 
 Maine 
 
 33,040 
 
 661,086 
 
 731,760 
 
 Maryland 
 
 12,210 
 
 1,042,390 
 
 1,441,602 
 
 Massachusetts.. .. 
 Michigan 
 
 8,315 
 
 58,915 
 
 2,238,943 
 
 2,093,889 
 
 3,173,487 
 
 2,655,463 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 83,365 
 
 1,301,826 
 
 2,200,000 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 48,810 
 
 1,289,600 
 
 1,750,000 
 
 Missouri 
 
 69,415 
 
 2,679,184 
 
 3,885,989 
 
 Montana 
 
 146,080 
 
 132,159 
 
 275,000 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 7(5,855 
 
 1,058,910 
 
 1,225,000 
 
 Nevada 
 
 110,700 
 
 45,761 
 
 65,000 
 
 New Hampshire . . 
 New Jersey. 
 
 9,305 
 
 7,815 
 
 376,530 
 
 1,444,933 
 
 443,700 
 
 2,294,413 
 
 New York 
 
 49,170 
 
 5,997,853 
 
 8,476,437 
 
 North Carolina. .. 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 Ohio 
 
 52,250 
 
 70,195 
 
 41,060 
 
 1,617,947 
 
 182,719 
 
 3,672,316 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 475,000 
 
 4,557,000 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 39,030 
 
 61,834 
 
 1,408,732 
 
 Oregon 
 
 96,030 
 
 313,767 
 
 550,000 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina. .. 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 4,5,215 
 
 1,2,50 
 
 30,570 
 
 77,6,50 
 
 42,0.50 
 
 5,2.58,014 
 
 345,506 
 
 1,151,149 
 
 328,808 
 
 1,767,518 
 
 6.900.000 
 502,302 
 
 1,474,735 
 
 490,000 
 
 2.220.000 
 
 Texas 
 
 265,780 
 
 2,235,523 
 
 3,600,000 
 
 Utah 
 
 84,970 
 
 207,905 
 
 350,000 
 
 Vermont 
 
 9,5(55 
 
 333,423 
 
 310,000 
 
 Virginia 
 
 42,4.50 
 
 1 ,655,980 
 
 2,042,388 
 
 Virginia. West . .. 
 Washington 
 
 24,780 
 
 69,180 
 
 762,794 
 
 .349,390 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 900,000 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 56,040 
 
 1,686.880 
 
 2,275.000 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 97,890 
 
 60,705 
 
 117,500 
 
 Territories 
 
 Arizona. . 
 
 113,020 
 
 59,620 
 
 89,990 
 
 1.53,593 
 
 230,392 
 
 185.000 
 
 154.001 
 
 303.000 
 
 330.000 
 
 
 6.677 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Dist. of Columbia 
 
 122,580 
 
 70 
 
 States and Ter- ) 
 
 rltories j 
 
 Indian Territory. 
 Indians 
 
 3,000,157 
 
 31,400 
 
 62,712,240 
 
 186,490 
 
 141,709 
 
 88,787,058 
 
 450,000 
 
 134,158 
 
 Territ. of Alaska. 
 
 531,400 
 
 31,795 
 
 125,000 
 
 Total 
 
 3,562,9.57 
 
 63,072,234 
 
 89,496,216 
 
 
 Up to 1889 the Dakotas formed the 
 territory of Dakota. In 1890 Oklahoma 
 was constituted a territory, being de- 
 tached from the Indian territory. The 
 colored people in 1907 numbered 8,840,- 
 789. The Indians in all amount approxi- 
 mately to 250,000. The capital is Wash- 
 ington, the largest city is New York, 
 the other large cities being Chicago, 
 Philadelphia, Boston, St. Louis, Balti- 
 more, Cleveland, Buffalo, San Francisco, 
 Cincinnati, Pittsburg, etc. The follow- 
 ing table shows the population of cities 
 having over 100,000 inhabitants in 
 1900, for the census years 1860, 1890, 
 1900, and the estimated population in 
 1908 as furnished by the mayors 
 of the different cities. The United 
 States have a coast-line which measures 
 12,609 miles, of which 6861 are on the 
 Atlantic, 2281 on the Pacific, and 3467 
 on the Mexican gulf. The most impor- 
 
 City 
 
 1908 
 
 1900 
 
 1890 
 
 1860 
 
 New York 
 
 4,285,435 
 
 3,437,202 
 
 1,515,301 
 
 813,669 
 
 Chicago 
 
 2,483,641 
 
 1,698,575 
 
 1,099,820 
 
 109,260 
 
 Philadelphia. . 
 
 1,491,161 
 
 1,293,697 
 
 1,046.964 
 
 565,529 
 
 Brooklyn 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 838,547 
 
 279,122 
 
 Saint Louis. .. 
 
 750,000 
 
 575,238 
 
 451,770 
 
 160,773 
 
 Boston 
 
 607,340 
 
 560,892 
 
 448,4^ 
 
 177,840 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 567,000 
 
 508,957 
 
 434,439 
 
 212,418 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 525,000 
 
 381,768 
 
 261,353 
 
 43,417 
 
 Buffalo. 
 
 400,000 
 
 352,387 
 
 265,664 
 
 81,129 
 
 San Francisco 
 
 475,000 
 
 342,782 
 
 298,^ 
 
 56,802 
 
 Cincinnati .... 
 
 400,000 
 
 325,902 
 
 296,908 
 
 161,044 
 
 Pittsburg 
 
 350,000 
 
 321,616 
 
 238,617 
 
 49,221 
 
 New Orleans.. 
 
 400,000 
 
 287,104 
 
 242,039 
 
 168,675 
 
 Detroit. 
 
 425,600 
 
 285,704 
 
 205,876 
 
 45,619 
 
 Milwaukee. . .. 
 
 355,000 
 
 385,315 
 
 204,468 
 
 45,246 
 
 Washington .. 
 
 332,000 
 
 278,718 
 
 230,392 
 
 61.122 
 
 Newark 
 
 300,000 
 
 246,070 
 
 181,830 
 
 71,941 
 
 Jersey City.. .. 
 
 245,000 
 
 206,433 
 
 163,003 
 
 29,226 
 
 Louisyille. 
 
 260,000 
 
 204,731 
 
 161,129 
 
 68,033 
 
 Minneapolis .. 
 
 300,000 
 
 202,718 
 
 164,738 
 
 2,564 
 
 Proyide’nce.... 
 
 208,000 
 
 175,597 
 
 132,146 
 
 50,666 
 
 Indianapolis. . 
 
 236,000 
 
 169,164 
 
 105,436 
 
 18,611 
 
 Kansas City .. 
 
 350,000 
 
 163,752 
 
 132,716 
 
 4,418 
 
 Saint Paul 
 
 225,000 
 
 163,065 
 
 133,156 
 
 10,401 
 
 Rochester 
 
 195,000 
 
 162,608 
 
 133,896 
 
 48,204 
 
 Denyer 
 
 200,000 
 
 133,859 
 
 106,713 
 
 4,749 
 
 Toledo 
 
 189,000 
 
 131,822 
 
 81,434 
 
 13,768 
 
 Allegheny 
 
 138,000 
 
 129,896 
 
 105,287 
 
 28,702 
 
 Columbus 
 
 179,370 
 
 125,560 
 
 86,150 
 
 18,.554 
 
 Worcester 
 
 138,000 
 
 118,421 
 
 84,655 
 
 24,960 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 New Haven . . . 
 
 125,000 
 
 108,374 
 
 88,143 
 
 28,119 
 
 150,000 
 
 108,027 
 
 81,298 
 
 39,267 
 
 Paterson 
 
 130,000 
 
 105,171 
 
 78,347 
 
 19,586 
 
 Fall River .... 
 
 115,000 
 
 104,863 
 
 74,398 
 
 14,026 
 
 Saint Joseph. . 
 
 120,000 
 
 102,979 
 
 52,324 
 
 8,932 
 
 Omaha 
 
 142,500 
 
 102,555 
 
 140,452 
 
 1,883 
 
 Los Angeles.. 
 
 280,000 
 
 102,479 
 
 50,395 
 
 4,385 
 
 Memphis. 
 
 175.000 
 
 102,330 
 
 64,495 
 
 22.623 
 
 Scranton. 
 
 130,000 
 
 103,026 
 
 75,215 
 
 9,223 
 
 Portland. 
 
 161,205 
 
 90,426 
 
 45,585 
 
 
 Reading 
 
 110,000 
 
 78,961 
 
 56,661 
 
 
 Richmond 
 
 112,000 
 
 85.050 
 
 81,388 
 
 
 Seattle 
 
 250,000 
 
 80,671 
 
 42,839 
 
 
 St. Joseph, Mo. 
 
 130,000 
 
 102,979 
 
 52,324 
 
 
 Albany 
 
 100,000 
 
 91,104 
 
 94,923 
 
 
 Atlanta 
 
 150,000 
 
 89,873 
 
 65.533 
 
 
 Dallas. 
 
 280,000 
 
 42,638 
 
 38,067 
 
 
 Dayton 
 
 115,000 
 
 85,333 
 
 61,220 
 
 
 Grand Rapids 
 
 117,000 
 
 87,563 
 
 60,278 
 
 
 Hartford 
 
 106,000 
 
 79,850 
 
 53,230 
 
 
 Lowell 
 
 100,000 
 
 94.969 
 
 77,696 
 
 
 Nashville 
 
 125,000 
 
 80,865 
 
 70,168 
 
 
 *The City of Brooklyn was consolidated with 
 New York City in 1898. 
 
 tant indentations on the Atlantic are 
 Massachusetts bay; Long Island sound, 
 and in connection with it the Bay of 
 New York; Delaware bay; Chesapeake 
 bay; Albemarle and Pamlico sounds; 
 and the Gulf of Mexico. The Pacific sea- 
 board is deficient in bays, but possesses 
 in that of San Francisco, on the coast of 
 California, one of the largest natural 
 harbors in the world. There are few 
 islands either on the Atlantic or Pacific 
 coasts, the only one of any importance 
 being Long Island. The country is 
 traversed by two great mountain- 
 systems. The loftiest and largest of 
 these is what as a whole may be called 
 the Cordilleras, which enters from Mex- 
 ico, stretches northward, and is con- 
 tinued into the Dominion of Canada. 
 It has in its broadest parts a breadth of 
 1000 miles, and includes the ranges 
 known as the Rocky mountains. Sierra 
 Nevada, Cascade range, the Coast 
 ranges, the Blue mountains, and various 
 lofty plateaus. The great feature of this 
 system is the Rocky mountains (which 
 see). The other mountain-system is the 
 Appalachian, which stretches parallel 
 to the Atlantic coast almost from the 
 Gulf of Mexico to the St. Lawrence. It 
 consists of a long plateau with various 
 groups and ranges of hills, among which 
 are the White mountains in New Hamp- 
 shire, the Green mountains of Vermont, 
 the Adirondacks of northern New York, 
 the Catskills of southeastern New York, 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 the Alleghanies of Pennsylvania, etc. 
 The great plain lying between these two 
 mountain-systems belongs almost en- 
 tirely to the basin of the Mississippi- 
 Missouri, which enters the Gulf of 
 Mexico. This, the chief river of the 
 country and the longest in the world, is 
 of immense importance as a highway of 
 internal trade. Its principal tributaries 
 are the Ohio, Arkansas, Red river, and 
 Illinois. Various other rivers enter the 
 Mexican gulf, including the Rio Grande 
 del Norte, which separates the States 
 from Mexico. The country west of the 
 Rocky mountains, belonging to the basin 
 of the Pacific, is drained by the Colum- 
 bia, which falls into the Pacific between 
 Oregon and Washington; the Sacra- 
 mento, which discharges into the Bay 
 of San Francisco; and the Colorado, 
 which falls into the Gulf of California. 
 Between the Alleghanies and the At- 
 lantic the principal rivers are the Con- 
 necticut, which falls into Long Island 
 sound ; the Hudson, which contributes to 
 form the harbor of New York; the Dela- 
 ware, which falls into the bay of that 
 name, and is navigable to Philadelphia; 
 the Potomac ; which falls into Chesa- 
 peake bay, and is navigable to Wash- 
 ington; and the Savannah, which enters 
 Savannah bay. Besides Lake Cham- 
 plain, which divides the states of Ver- 
 mont and New York, and the Great 
 Salt Lake in Utah, there are the great 
 lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, 
 and Ontario lying between the United 
 States and Canada, and belonging partly 
 to both. The geology of the United 
 States divides itself roughly into two 
 large geographical areas. One of these 
 areas extends from the Atlantic to the 
 base of the Rocky mountains, and this is 
 occupied to a large extent by a great 
 basin of Palaeozoic formations, includ- 
 ing the Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, 
 and Carboniferous divisions. In the 
 other great geological area, which ex- 
 tends from the base of the Rocky moun- 
 tains to the Pacific, the Eozoic and 
 Palaezoic formations which predominate 
 are overlaid by rocks of the Secondary 
 and Tertiary periods. As many of the 
 deposits are carboniferous, coal is found 
 in a large proportion of the states, but 
 is chiefly worked in Pennsylvania; the 
 total yield for the states being 413,838,- 
 679 tons in 1906. (See table). About 
 one-fifth belongs to the anthracite 
 variety. Iron ore, like coal, is widely 
 distributed, being at present mined in 
 no fewer than twenty-seven states. The 
 total amount of pig-iron produced in 
 1906 was 25,712,106 tons, and of steel 
 23,738,587. The United States is the 
 chief gold and silver producing country 
 in the world, its mines being chiefly 
 situated in Colorado, California, and 
 Nevada. IDuring 1906 the total produc- 
 tion of gold was valued at $94,373,800, 
 and the value of the silver obtained 
 amounted to $38,256,400. Among the 
 other chief metals are copper, the output 
 of which in 1906 was 416,226 tons, lead, 
 zinc, and mercury. Petroleum forms an 
 important mineral resource of the states 
 of Pennsylvania, New York and Illinois. 
 
 (See page opposite for table giving 
 the production of ores, minerals, second- 
 ary minerals and chemicals for the year 
 1906.) 
 
 The following table gives the coal 
 production by states for the year 1906: 
 
 States 
 
 Tons 
 
 Value at Mine 
 
 Total 
 
 Per 
 
 Ton 
 
 Bituminous 
 
 
 
 
 Alabama 
 
 12,851,775 
 
 $17,349,896 
 
 $1.35 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 1,875,569 
 
 3,438,240 
 
 1.30 
 
 California 
 
 80,000 
 
 232,000 
 
 2.90 
 
 Colorado 
 
 10,308,421 
 
 13,916,368 
 
 1.35 
 
 Georgia, N. Carol. 
 
 363.463 
 
 407,247 
 
 1.12 
 
 Illinois 
 
 38,317,581 
 
 39,467,108 
 
 1.03 
 
 Indiana 
 
 11,422,000 
 
 11,878,880 
 
 1 04 
 
 Indian Territory. . 
 
 2,980,600 
 
 5,663,140 
 
 1 90 
 
 Iowa 
 
 7,017,485 
 
 10,877,102 
 
 1,55 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 6,010,858 
 
 8,935,195 
 
 1 49 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 9,740,420 
 
 10,714,462 
 
 1.10 
 
 Maryland 
 
 5,014,995 
 
 6,773,243 
 
 1,35 
 
 Michigan 
 
 1,370,860 
 
 3,193,376 
 
 1.60 
 
 Missouri 
 
 3,860,000 
 
 6,176,000 
 
 1.60 
 
 Montana 
 
 1,787,934 
 
 3,186,620 
 
 1.78 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 1,973,658 
 
 2,960,487 
 
 1.50 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 300,998 
 
 937,894 
 
 1.45 
 
 Ohio 
 
 27,213,495 
 
 39,934,845 
 
 1.10 
 
 Oregon 
 
 79,731 
 
 212,338 
 
 3,66 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 129„532,991 
 
 145,076,950 
 
 1.12 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 6,210,000 
 
 7,141.500 
 
 1.15 
 
 Texas 
 
 1,290,600 
 
 2,064,960 
 
 1.60 
 
 Utah 
 
 1,839,219 
 
 2,943,750 
 
 1.60 
 
 Virginia 
 
 4,546,040 
 
 8,-501,095 
 
 1.87 
 
 Washington 
 
 3,293,098 
 
 6,421,541 
 
 1.95 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 46,452.000 
 
 44,129,400 
 
 .95 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 5,805.322 
 
 10,159,314 
 
 1.75 
 
 Alaska, Nevada,. 
 
 90,000 
 
 360,000 
 
 4.00 
 
 Total bituminous 
 
 341,639,113 
 
 $400,550,951 
 
 $1.17 
 
 Anthracite 
 
 
 
 
 Colorado 
 
 50,000 
 
 $155,000 
 
 $3.10 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 20,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 3.50 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 73,139,566 
 
 166,083,003 
 
 3.30 
 
 Total anthracite.. 
 
 72,309,566 
 
 $166,307,002 
 
 $2.30 
 
 Total \ Sh. Tons.. 
 
 413,838,679 
 
 $566,857,953 
 
 $1.37 
 
 Coal (Met. Tons. 
 
 375,397,204 
 
 
 1.51 
 
 Salt springs abound in various locali- 
 ties, and salt is produced in great quan- 
 tities in New York, Virginia, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Ohio, and Kentucky. Extensive 
 beds of gypsum are found in New York, 
 Maine, Virginia, and other states, and 
 marble, fine granite, sandstone, por- 
 phyry, etc., are abundant. A country 
 like the United States, stretching over 
 such a vast latitude and having such 
 wide areas of mountain and plain, must 
 necessarily present a great variety of 
 climate. Thus the annual rainfall ranges 
 from 123 inches in Washington state to 
 6 inches in Colorado; while the mean 
 annual temperature, which is 69° in 
 Florida, is 41° in Wyoming. Along the 
 Atlantic seaboard westerly winds pre- 
 vail, while on the Californian coast the 
 winds are almost steadily southwest or 
 northwest. The climate, taken as a 
 whole, is favorable to the growth of 
 forest vegetation, and thickly-wooded 
 regions extend along the Atlantic coast 
 from Maine to Florida; on the Pacific 
 coast, and the Cordilleran ranges; and 
 in the Mississippi basin. In these areas 
 the more important hardwood trees 
 are the sugar-maple and soft-maple, 
 oak (in several varieties), white ash, 
 chestnut, birch, hickory, walnut, elm, 
 beech, tulip-tree, fir, yellow pine, red- 
 wood, and cedar. There is also great 
 variety and abundance of fruits, both 
 of the temperature and tropical climates. 
 Among wild animals are the bison or 
 buffalo, now almost extinct in a wild 
 state, the moose or American elk, the 
 prong-horned antelope, the big-horned 
 or Rocky mountain sheep, the wapiti or 
 American stag, the peccary, the cougar 
 or puma, the black and the grizzly bear, 
 the jaguar, the prairie wolf, the racoon. 
 
 the oppossum, and beaver. Among the t 
 birds are swans, wild turkeys, wild 
 geese, wild ducks, eagles, vultures, i 
 the mocking-bird, humming-birds, etc. 
 Among reptiles are the rattlesnake and 
 other snakes, turtles, and tortoises, 
 alligators, etc. It is estimated that the 
 arable land of the United States exceeds 
 a million and a quarter sq. miles. The ' 
 total acreage of farms is nearly 900,- •' 
 000,000 acres. The total value of the 
 agricultural and horticultural crops in . 
 1907 was $3,500,000,000 not including 
 live stock, the toal value of which was 
 over $3,000,000,000. 
 
 (See pages 1272 and 1273 for tables ~ 
 giving the production of cereal crops ^ 
 by states and farm products of the 
 United States for the year 1906.) ' 
 
 Immigration into the United States 
 for the period 1900-1907: 
 
 1900 448,-572 
 
 1901 487,918 
 
 1902 648,743 
 
 1903 857,046 
 
 1904 812,870 
 
 1905 i 1,027,421 
 
 1906. 1,100,735 
 
 1907 1,285,349 
 
 Total. 6.668,634 
 
 1820tol899 19,316.593 
 
 1789 to 1820 est 250,000 
 
 26,234,237 
 
 The reported occupations of immi- 
 grants arriving during the fiscal year 
 1907 were as follows: Laborers, 291,141 ; 
 servants, 121,587; farm laborers, 323,- 
 854; tailors, 30,644; merchants and 
 dealers, 14,470; carpenters, 20,656; 
 
 IMMIGRATION BY COUNTRIES IN FISCAL YEAR! 
 1906 AND 1907. 
 
 Countries 
 
 1906 
 
 1907 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 265,138 
 
 338.452 
 
 6,396 
 
 11. .3.59 
 7.243 
 
 Belgium 
 
 5,099 
 
 Bulgaria, Servia and 
 Montenegro 
 
 4,666 
 
 Denmark 
 
 7,741 
 
 9,386 
 
 37,564 
 
 Prance, including Corsica. 
 German Empire 
 
 9,731 
 
 37,807 
 
 Greece 
 
 19,489 
 
 36,580 
 
 Italy, including Sicily and 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 273,120 
 
 '4,946 
 
 285,731 
 
 6,637 
 
 Norway 
 
 21,730 
 
 22,133 
 
 Portugal, inc. Cape Verde 
 and Azore Islands 
 
 8.517 
 
 9,608 
 
 Roumania 
 
 4,476 
 
 4,384 
 
 Russian Empire, and 
 Finland 
 
 215,665 
 
 258,943 
 
 Spain including Canary 
 and Balearic Islands 
 
 1,921 
 
 23,310 
 
 5.784 
 
 20,.589. 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 3,846 
 
 3.748 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 9.510 
 
 20,767 
 
 England .*. 
 
 49,491 
 
 56,637 
 
 Ireland 
 
 34,995 
 
 34,.530 
 
 Scotland 
 
 15,866 
 
 19.740 
 
 Wales 
 
 1,841 
 
 2.660 
 
 Other Europe 
 
 48 
 
 107 
 
 Total Europe 
 
 1,018.365 
 
 1,199,.566 
 
 China 
 
 1,.544 
 
 961 
 
 Japan 
 
 13,8a5 
 
 30,226 
 
 India 
 
 216 
 
 898 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 6,354 
 
 8,053 
 
 Other 'Asia 
 
 351 
 
 386 
 
 Total Asia 
 
 22,300 
 
 40.524 
 
 Africa 
 
 712 
 
 TJsi 
 
 Australia, Tasmania, and 
 New Zealand 
 
 1,682 
 
 1,941 
 
 Pacific Isis., not specified . 
 
 British North America 
 
 Central America 
 
 51 
 
 5,063 
 
 1,140 
 
 42 
 
 19,918 
 
 935 
 
 Mexico 
 
 1.997 
 
 1,406 
 
 Soutli America 
 
 2.7,57 
 
 2.779 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 13,656 
 
 16,689 
 
 Other Countries 
 
 33,012 
 
 22 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 1,100,735 
 
 1,285,349 
 
 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 shoemakers, 13,059; clerks, 11,980; 
 mariners, 7270; miners, 11,452. The 
 number of professional immigrants (in- 
 cluding 822 actors, 2433 engineers, 
 1114 musicians, and 1673 teachers) was 
 12,600; of skilled laborers, 190,315; mis- 
 cellaneous (including unskilled), 777,725, 
 no occupation (including children), 
 304,709. 
 
 Owing to the great difficulty in ob- 
 taining accurate statements of the im- 
 migrants from the contiguous countries 
 of Canada and Mexico, no statistics of 
 immigration into the United States of 
 citizens of those countries are gathered 
 by the Bureau of Immigration. The 
 constant ebb and flow of persons enter- 
 ing and leaving the United States from 
 and to Mexico and Canada, at the numer- 
 ous points where such movements can 
 be conveniently made, renders accurate 
 statements on this subject extremely 
 difficult, and the Bureau of Immigration 
 in its annual report for 1902 states that 
 “the immigrants do not include arrivals 
 from the neighboring countries of 
 Mexico and Canada except such as come 
 from abroad through ports in these 
 countries for the avowed purpose of 
 entering the United States.” The facts, 
 however, that the census of 1900 shows 
 the presence of 1,183,225 persons in the 
 United States born in Canada and 
 103,445 persons born in Mexico proves 
 that the number of arrivals from those 
 countries, proper to be considered as 
 immigrants, must be large. 
 
 The average farm is 146 acres. 
 Among cultivated crops the most im- 
 portant are wheat, the great staple of the 
 western and middle states; corn, most 
 productive in the middle states; to- 
 bacco, a staple in Virginia, Kentucky, 
 Maryland, and Tennessee; cotton, a 
 staple in Texas, Alabama, Mississippi, 
 Georgia, and the Carolinas; barley, oats, 
 rye, sugar, hemp, flax, potatoes, and hay. 
 
 The following table shows the tobac- 
 co production by states for the year 
 1905: 
 
 States 
 
 Product, 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Acre- 
 
 age, 
 
 Acres, 
 
 Farm 
 
 Value 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 28,975,420 
 
 275,874 
 
 $16,028,279 
 
 North Carolina. .. 
 
 83,156,160 
 
 136,770 
 
 7,317,742 
 
 Virginia 
 
 79,951,725 
 
 118,447 
 
 6,076,331 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 53,832,780 
 
 39,294 
 
 6,383,278 
 
 Ohio 
 
 50,344,650 
 
 59,229 
 
 4,228,951 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 31,873,536 
 
 41,502 
 
 2,390,515 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 23,011,500 
 
 13,340 
 
 3,911,955 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 20,993,880 
 
 15,324 
 
 2,267,339 
 
 Maryiand 
 
 19,592,950 
 
 30,143 
 
 1,175,577 
 
 South Carolina. .. 
 
 9,254,464 
 
 12,574 
 
 805,138 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 8,302,800 
 
 4,488 
 
 1,403,173 
 
 New York. 
 
 7,061,348 
 
 6,151 
 
 741,442 
 
 Indiana 
 
 5,113,836 
 
 6,244 
 
 306,830 
 
 Florida. 
 
 . 3,192,600 
 
 5,321 
 
 674,668 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 3,163,950 
 
 4,005 
 
 268,936 
 
 Other States 
 
 5.211,920 
 
 7,406 
 
 638,714 
 
 Total U. S 
 
 633,033.719 
 
 776,112 
 
 $53,519,068 
 
 In the same year the production of other 
 states than those above reported was, in 
 pounds: New Hampshire, 212,500; Vermont, 
 315,150; Georgia, 1,068,900; Missouri, 1,295,370; 
 Alabama, 234,450; Mississippi, 66,650; Louisi- 
 ana, 31,500; Texas, 234,500; Arkansas, 734,300; 
 Illinois, 1,018,800. 
 
 The most remarkable development of 
 any phase of American agriculture is in 
 fruit culture. This industry has almost 
 doubled in magnitude. The number of 
 orchard trees has increased from 193,- 
 
 THE FOLLOWING TABLE GIVES THE PRODUCTION OP ORES, MINERALS, 
 SECONDARY MINERALS AND CHEMICALS FOR THE YEAR 1906. 
 
 Products 
 
 Measures 
 
 1906 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 Antimony ore 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 295 
 
 $44,250 
 
 Asbestos 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 1,695 
 
 20,565 
 
 Asphaltum (u) 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 116,653 
 
 1,066,019 
 
 Barytes 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 63,486 
 
 252,719 
 
 Bauxite 
 
 L. T. 
 
 78,331 
 
 352.490 
 
 Chrome ore 
 
 L. T. 
 
 180 
 
 1,800 
 
 Coal, anthracite 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 72,209,566 
 
 166,307,002 
 
 Coal, bituminous 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 341,629.113 
 
 400,550,951 
 
 Diatomaceous earth 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 
 
 Emery 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 2,i47 
 
 22,78C 
 
 Feldspar (u) 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 72,656 
 
 401,531 
 
 Flint (u) 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 66,697 
 
 243.012 
 
 Fluorspar 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 34,683 
 
 201,481 
 
 Fuller’s earth 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 28,000 
 
 237,950 
 
 Garnet 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 5,404 
 
 179,548 
 
 Graphite, amorphous 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 16,853 
 
 102,175 
 
 Graphite, crystalline 
 
 Lb. 
 
 4,894,483 
 
 170,866 
 
 Gypsum (u) 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 1,540,585 
 
 3,837,975 
 
 Iron ore 
 
 L. T. 
 
 49,237,129 
 
 107.091,574 
 
 Limestone flux 
 
 L. T. 
 
 15,486,139 
 
 7,339,125 
 
 Magnetite (u) 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 7,805 
 
 23,415 
 
 Manganese ore 
 
 L. T. 
 
 (u) 141,681 
 
 306,993 
 
 Mica, sheet (u) 
 
 Lb. 
 
 1,423,100 
 
 252,248 
 
 Mica, scrap (u) 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 1,489 
 
 22,742 
 
 Monazite (u) 
 
 Lb. 
 
 486,175 
 
 152,312 
 
 Petroleum, crude 
 
 Bbl. (i) 
 
 131,771.505 
 
 80,277,279 
 
 Phosphate rock 
 
 L. T. 
 
 2,052,742 
 
 12,342,741 
 
 Pumice 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 12,200 
 
 16,750 
 
 Pyrites 
 
 L. T. 
 
 225.045 
 
 767,866 
 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 
 
 Salt (m) 
 
 Bbl. (fc) 
 
 28,172,380 
 
 6,658,350 
 
 Sand, glass 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 1,089,430 
 
 1.208,788 
 
 Slate, rooflng 
 
 Squares (/) 
 
 1,214,742 
 
 5.668,346 
 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 L. T. 
 
 285,000 
 
 6,056,250 
 
 Talc, common 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 58,972 
 
 874,356 
 
 Talc, fibrous 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 64.200 
 
 541,600 
 
 Tungsten ore 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 1,096 
 
 442,784 
 
 
 
 
 268,070 
 
 Zinc ore 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 905.175 
 
 17.250,420 
 
 
 
 
 8821.555,123 
 
 
 
 
 SECONDARY MINERALS AND CHEMICALS. 
 
 Alimdum 
 
 Lb. 
 
 4,331,233 
 
 $303,186 
 
 Ammonium sulphate 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 75,000 
 
 4,674,750 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 Lb. 
 
 1,663,000 
 
 83,150 
 
 Borax .* 
 
 Sh. T 
 
 58,173 
 
 1,182,410 
 
 Bromine 
 
 Lb. 
 
 1,229,000 
 
 184,350 
 
 Carborundum 
 
 Lb. 
 
 6,225,280 
 
 622,528 
 
 Cement, nat. hyd. (u) 
 
 Bbl. (g) 
 
 3,935,151 
 
 2,362,140 
 
 Cement. Portland ( u) 
 
 Bbl. (h) 
 
 46,610,822 
 
 51,240,652 
 
 Cement, slag (u) 
 
 Bbl. (h) 
 
 . 481,224 
 
 412,912 
 
 Coke 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 32,690,362 
 
 86,887,392 
 
 Copper sulphate (c) 
 
 Lb. 
 
 50,925,932 
 
 3.157,408 
 
 Copperas 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 22,839 
 
 228,390 
 
 Crushed steel 
 
 Lb. 
 
 837.000 
 
 58,590 
 
 Graphite, artificial 
 
 Lb. 
 
 4,868,000 
 
 312,764 
 
 Lead, white 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 123,640 
 
 15.234,297 
 
 Lead, sublimed white 
 
 Sd. T. 
 
 7,988 
 
 798,880 
 
 Lead, red 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 13,693 
 
 1,874,448 
 
 Lead, orange mineral 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 2,927 
 
 421,488 
 
 Litharge 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 13,816 
 
 1,890,050 
 
 Mineral wool 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 6,357 
 
 55,550 
 
 Zinc oxide (m) 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 77,800 
 
 6,257,361 
 
 
 
 
 $178,242,696 
 
 
 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Copper 
 
 Ferromanganese (g) 
 
 Gold (fine) 
 
 Iron (pig) 
 
 Lead 
 
 Nickel (s) 
 
 Platinum 
 
 Quicksilver 
 
 Silver (fine) 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Lb. 
 
 L. T. 
 Troy oz. 
 
 L. T. 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 Sh. T. 
 Troy oz. 
 Flasks, (o) 
 Troy oz. 
 
 Sh. T. 
 
 14,350,000 
 
 5,856,000 
 
 917.620.000 
 
 300,500 
 
 4,648.385 
 
 25,006,691 
 
 345,529 
 
 7,150 
 
 1,439 
 
 28,293 
 
 66.183,500 
 
 225,494 
 
 $5,166,000 
 
 1,272,509 
 
 180,000,339 
 
 24,040,000 
 
 96,101,400 
 
 453,871,441 
 
 39,093,151 
 
 6,360,640 
 
 45,189 
 
 1,157,184 
 
 37,525,521 
 
 27,961,256 
 
 Total metals 
 
 
 
 $872,514,630 
 
 Total ores and minerals 
 
 
 
 821,655,123 
 
 Secondary products 
 
 
 
 178,242,696 
 
 Grand total enumerated 
 
 
 
 $1,872,312,449 
 
 (c) Includes sulphate made from metallic copper, (d) includes manganiferous iron ore. (e) 
 Estimated, (f) One “sq^uare” covers 100 square feet, (g) Barrels of 265 lbs. (h) Barrels of 380 
 lbs. (i) Barrels of 42 gallons, (fc) Includes salt used in manufacture of alkali; the barrel of salt 
 weighs 280 lbs. (m) Includes a small quantity made from spelter, (o) Flasks of 75 lbs. 
 (q) Includes spiegeleisen, though the value is given as for ferromanganese, (s) Includes nickel 
 from Canadian ores smelted in the United States, (t) Barrels of 330 lbs. (u) Figures reported 
 by the United States Geographical survey, (w) Excludes Lake Superior manganiferous iron 
 ‘ ore which is included in iron ore proper. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 452,588 to 387,164,694 (not including 
 Bub-tropical varieties). Most varieties 
 of temperate zone fruits are grown in 
 every state. The use of refrigerator cars 
 has made it possible to transport fruits 
 long distances, and thus all parts of the 
 country have the advantage of the 
 general market. However, climatic 
 differences tend to localize. From the 
 following table it will be seen that the 
 apple has a decided primacy among 
 American fruits; 
 
 Fruits 
 
 Apples 
 
 Peaches and nectarines 
 
 Pears. 
 
 Plums and prunes 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Total 
 
 Trees 
 
 211,794,764 
 
 104,919,428 
 
 19,716,184 
 
 32,780,892 
 
 12,943,287 
 
 5,010,139 
 
 387,164,694 
 
 The cotton crop of the United States 
 in 1906-7 was as follows: 
 
 States 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Texas. 
 
 Arkansas. 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 All Others 
 
 Total Crop 
 
 1906-07 
 
 Bales 
 
 The culture of the vine has made great 
 progress, chiefly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, 
 Indiana, North Carolina, Missouri, and 
 especially California. The forest area 
 (exclusive of Alaska) is estimated at 
 about 500,000,000 acres, about seven- 
 tenths being on the Atlantic side, one- 
 tenth on the Pacific, one-tenth on the 
 Rocky Mountains and one-tenth in the 
 interior of the Western States. Three- 
 fourths of the timber cut annually is 
 pine, and the remainder oak and 
 other hard woods. Horses are largely 
 bred, and mules and asses in the south- 
 ern states. The total number and value 
 of the domestic animals in the United 
 States is as follows : 
 
 THE FOLLOWING TABLE GIVES THE PRODUCTION OP THE PRINCIPAL CEREAL 
 CROPS BY STATES FOR THE YEAR 1906. 
 
 States and Territories 
 
 Oats 
 
 Bdshels 
 
 Corn 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Maine 
 
 4,038,849 
 
 456,950 
 
 199,342 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 424,212 
 
 2,862,726 
 
 983,775 
 
 2,005,430 
 
 Vermont. .’ 
 
 30,952 
 
 Jlassachusetts 
 
 214,472 
 
 46,997 
 
 341,179 
 
 40,233,784 
 
 1,778,520 
 
 331,364 
 
 2,223,800 
 
 22,685,000 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 
 New York 
 
 9,350,180 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 1,662,819 
 
 10,082,289 
 
 2,033,002 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 31,816,496 
 
 57,960,239 
 
 29,073,188 
 
 Delaware 
 
 95,991 
 
 5,894,160 
 
 1,947,920 
 
 Maryland 
 
 808,584 
 
 22,007,825 
 
 12,902,416 
 
 V'irginia 
 
 2,858,634 
 
 45,188.523 
 
 9,306,825 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 2,101,200 
 
 22,725,000 
 
 4,879,861 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 3,169,724 
 
 41,796,846 
 
 5,297,028 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 3,538,292 
 
 23,611,233 
 
 2,960,041 
 
 Georgia 
 
 3,362,291 
 
 52,066,596 
 
 3,161,070 
 
 Florida 
 
 394,240 
 
 48,280,000 
 
 6,875,000 
 
 141,645,000 
 
 Oliio 
 
 43,202,100 
 
 
 50,196,000 
 
 183,893,767 
 
 48,080,925 
 
 Illinois 
 
 107,763,500 
 
 347,169,585 
 
 38,535,900 
 
 Michigan 
 
 43,747,500 
 
 54,575,000 
 
 13,644,960 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 91,630,000 
 
 60,106,732 
 
 4,690,816 
 
 Minnesota ■ 
 
 72,011,160 
 
 50,149,277 
 
 55,801,591 
 
 Iowa 
 
 140,777,000 
 
 373,275,000 
 
 9,212,218 
 
 Missouri 
 
 14,685,503 
 
 228,522,500 
 
 31,734,900 
 
 North Dokota 
 
 40,485,608 
 
 4,170,000 
 
 77,896,000 
 
 South Dokata 
 
 46,410,000 
 
 62,812,500 
 
 41,955,400 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 72,275,000 
 
 249,782,500 
 
 52,288,692 
 
 Kansas 
 
 24,780,000 
 
 195,075,000 
 
 81,830,611 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 4.430,354 
 
 105,437,376 
 
 11,542,598 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 3,151,320 
 
 86,428,912 
 
 10,892,725 
 
 
 3,167,879 
 
 47,849,392 
 
 1,085,029 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 1,626,732 
 
 40,789,207 
 
 17,610 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 486,227 
 
 31,822,512 
 
 26,217,633 
 
 155,804,782 
 
 Texas 
 
 14,126,186 
 
 Indian Territory 
 
 7,446,571 
 
 68,493,264 
 
 2,890,188 
 
 
 12,040,000 
 
 65,737,326 
 
 18,663.862 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 3,783,706 
 
 52,802,569 
 
 1,915,250 
 
 Montana 
 
 8,501,846 
 
 93,132 
 
 3,297.336 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 1,979,068 
 
 68,256 
 
 871,102 
 
 Colorado 
 
 5,962,394 
 
 424,507 
 
 3,157,136 
 
 1,182,203 
 
 8,266,538 
 
 1,120,650 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Arizona 
 
 31,442 
 
 220,129 
 
 391,658 
 
 Utah 
 
 2,053,900 
 
 356,032 
 
 4,888,626 
 
 Nevada 
 
 252,898 
 
 4,390,065 
 
 
 869,526 
 
 8,231,631 
 
 Idaho 
 
 148,037 
 
 Washington 
 
 7,463,534 
 
 288,389 
 
 25,075,258 
 
 Oregon 
 
 9,621,508 
 
 499,091 
 
 14,215.597 
 
 California 
 
 5,156,298 
 
 1,994,814 
 
 26,883,662 
 
 Total bushels 
 
 964,904,522 
 
 2,927,416,091 
 
 735.260,970 
 
 Total acres 
 
 30,958,768 
 
 96,737,581 
 
 47.305,829 
 
 Value 
 
 $306,292,978 
 
 $1,166,626,479 
 
 $490,332,760 
 
 Yield per acre 
 
 31.2 
 
 30.3 
 
 15.5 
 
 Farm price 
 
 31.7 
 
 39.9 
 
 66.7 
 
 Island, Connecticut, and New York; the 
 woolen manufacture chiefly in Massa- 
 chusetts, New York, Connecticut, Penn- 
 sylvania, New Hampshire, Rhode Island 
 Vermont and Ohio; and the most im- 
 portant centers of the iron industry 
 are Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, 
 New York, Baltimore, and St. Louis. 
 Besides these, all ordinary manufac- 
 
 Domestic Animals 
 
 Total 
 
 On Farms and Ranges 
 
 Not on Farms or 
 Ranges 
 
 Number 1 Value 
 
 Number 
 
 Value 
 
 Number 
 
 Est. Value 
 
 All Domestic Animals. . 
 
 $3,193,856,459 
 
 
 $2,979,197,586 
 
 
 $214,658,873 
 
 Neat cattle, cows, bulls, &c. 
 
 Horses and colts 
 
 Mules 
 
 Asses and burros 
 
 Sheep and lambs 
 
 Swine 
 
 Goats 
 
 69,335,832 $1,516,307,270 
 
 21,203,901 1,050,526,967 
 
 3,438,523 207,274,557 
 
 110,012 6,776,583 
 
 61,735,014 170,881,743 
 
 64,686,1.55' 238,686,872 
 
 1,948,952 3,402,467 
 
 67,719,410 
 
 18,367,020 
 
 3,264,615 
 
 94,1® 
 
 61,503,713 
 
 62,868,041 
 
 1,870,599 
 
 $1,475,204,633 
 
 896,513,217 
 
 196,223,053 
 
 5,811,184 
 
 170,203,119 
 
 231,978,031 
 
 3,2®,349 
 
 1,616,432 
 
 2,936,881 
 
 173,908 
 
 15,847 
 
 231,301 
 
 1,818,114 
 
 78,853 
 
 $41,101,637 
 154,013,750 
 11,053,504 
 9®, 399 
 678,634 
 6,708,841 
 137,118 
 
 Horned cattle and sheep are raised 
 in great numbers, hog-rearing forms an 
 important industry, and immense quan- 
 tities of cheese and butter are made. 
 The staple manufactures are cottons, 
 woolens, iron and steel and articles in iron 
 and steel, other important occupations 
 being those connected with clothing and 
 boots and shoes, furniture, lumbering, 
 flour-milling, meat-packing, etc. The 
 cotton manufacture is carried on chiefly 
 in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Rhode 
 
 tures are making very rapid progress. 
 The foreign trade is very large, the im- 
 ports in 1907 being valued at $1,591,- 
 878,298, the exports at $1,988,989,337. 
 The most important single export is 
 raw cotton, the value annually being 
 about $500,000,000. The other chief 
 exports consist principally of agricul- 
 tural and dairy products, including 
 wheat, flour, corn, butter, cheese; and 
 animal food, in the form of pickled pork, 
 bacon, hams, beef, canned fish, ana live 
 
 cattle. Other important exports are 
 mineral oil, tobacco, sugar, fruits, tar, 
 pitch, rosin, and turpentine ; tallow and 
 hides, lard, hops, oil-cake, clover seed, 
 copper and copper ore, skins and furs. 
 The more important manufactured 
 exports are cotton goods, cotton twist, 
 iron and articles in iron, articles in wood, 
 leather, boots, and shoes, agricultural 
 implements, cutlery, etc. The value 
 of bread-stuffs exported in 1907 was 
 $168,222,482; raw cotton, $481,277,797: 
 provisions, $202,392,508; manufactured 
 and unmanufactured iron and steel, 
 $181,530,871; tobacco, leaf and manu- 
 factured, $39,113,011; petroleum, $78,- 
 228,819; wood and wooden manufac- 
 tures, $83,349,575. The total exports to 
 Great Britain in 1907 amounted to 
 $607,783,255. The fisheries, in addition 
 to dried fish and oysters, furnish ex- 
 ports of whale and other fish oil, sper- 
 maceti, whalebone, etc. There is also a 
 large export of gold in the forms both of 
 coin and bullion. Among the principal 
 articles of import are sugar, valued at 
 $92,806,253; coffee, $78,231,902; wool 
 and woolen manufactures, $63,855,265; 
 raw silk and silk manufactures, $110,- 
 045,150; cotton goods, $73,704,636; 
 chemicals, dyes, etc., $82,997,914; hides 
 and skins, $83,206,545; fruit, including 
 nuts, $35,807,527. The value of the 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 THE FOLLOWING TABLE GIVES THE FARM PRODUCTIONS OF THE UNITED 
 STATES FOR THE YEAR 1906. 
 
 Crop 
 
 Animals 
 
 Apples 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Beans, Castor 
 
 Beans. Dry 
 
 Bees 
 
 Broom Corn 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cereals (b) (1) 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Chicory 
 
 Cider 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Cotton Seed 
 
 Flaxseed 
 
 Flowers. Plants 
 
 Forest Products. . . 
 
 Fruits, small 
 
 Fruits, sub-tropical 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Hay 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Honey (e) 
 
 Hops 
 
 Milk (1) 
 
 Molasses 
 
 Nursery products.. . 
 
 Nuts (!) 
 
 Onions 
 
 Orchard products... 
 Peaches and Nect.. 
 
 Peanuts 
 
 Pears 
 
 Peas, dry 
 
 Plums and Primes. . 
 
 Potatoes, Irish 
 
 Potatoes, sweet 
 
 Rice [cleaned] 
 
 Seeds, Clover 
 
 Seeds. Flax 
 
 Seeds, Grass 
 
 Sugar. Beet 
 
 Sugar, Cane 
 
 Sugar, Maple 
 
 Syrup, Cane 
 
 Syrup. Maple 
 
 Syrup. Sorghum. . . . 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Vegetables, Mis 
 
 Wool 
 
 Year 
 
 Unit of 
 Measure 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value 
 
 1907 
 
 Number 
 
 204,131.992 
 
 $4,423,697,853 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 175,397,60C 
 
 (a) 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 2,642,128 
 
 (a) 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 143,388 
 
 134,084 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 5.064,49C 
 
 7.633,636 
 
 Census 
 
 Swarms 
 
 4,109,62( 
 
 10,186,513 
 
 Census 
 
 Pounds. . . . 
 
 90.947.37( 
 
 3,688,414 
 
 1905 
 
 Pounds 
 
 531,478,141 
 
 113,189,452 
 
 1906 
 
 Bush 
 
 4.854,514,837 
 
 (h) 2,065,886,900 
 
 1905 
 
 Pounds 
 
 317,144,872 
 
 28,611,760 
 
 Census 
 
 Pounds 
 
 21,495,870 
 
 73.627 
 
 Census 
 
 Barrels 
 
 1,754.927 
 
 (a) 
 
 1906 
 
 Pounds. . . . 
 
 6,351,107.861 
 
 640,311,538 
 
 1905 
 
 Tons 
 
 5,060,205 
 
 (c) 75,564,041 
 
 1906 
 
 Bush 
 
 25,576,146 
 
 (h) 25,899,165 
 
 Census 
 
 
 
 18.758.864 
 
 
 
 
 109.864.774 
 
 Census 
 
 
 
 25,029,757 
 
 Census 
 
 
 
 8,227,838 
 
 Census 
 
 Central 
 
 13,009,841 
 
 (d) 14,090,234 
 
 1906 
 
 Tons 
 
 57,145,950 
 
 (h) 592,539,671 
 
 Census 
 
 Pounds 
 
 11,750,630 
 
 646.338 
 
 Census 
 
 Pounds 
 
 62,862.885 
 
 6.656,611 
 
 Census 
 
 Pounds 
 
 49,200,704 
 
 4,081,929 
 
 Census 
 
 
 7,265.804,304 
 
 
 Census 
 
 Gallons 
 
 6,312,809 
 
 788,990 
 
 Census 
 
 
 
 10,123,873 
 
 
 
 
 1.949.931 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 11,790,974 
 
 6,637.413 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 212.365,600 
 
 (g) 83,750,961 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 15,432,603 
 
 (a) 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 11,964,109 
 
 7,270.515 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 6,626,417 
 
 (a) 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 9,440,210 
 
 7,908,966 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 8,764,032 
 
 (a) 
 
 1906 
 
 Bush 
 
 308,038.382 
 
 (h) 157,547,392 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 42.517,412 
 
 19,869,840 
 
 1906 
 
 Pounds 
 
 495.966.800 
 
 (j) 12,955.748 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 1,349,209 
 
 6,395,578 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 19,979.492 
 
 19,624,901 
 
 Census 
 
 Bush 
 
 3,515.869 
 
 2.808,839 
 
 1906 
 
 Pounds 
 
 967,223,040 
 
 (k) 23,895,781 
 
 1906 
 
 Pounds 
 
 514.320,000 
 
 (k) 28.804.608 
 
 Census 
 
 Pounds 
 
 11,928,770 
 
 1,074,260 
 
 Census 
 
 Gallons. . . . 
 
 12,293,032 
 
 4,293.475 
 
 Census 
 
 Gallons 
 
 2,056,611 
 
 1,662,451 
 
 Census 
 
 Gallons 
 
 16.972,783 
 
 6,288,083 
 
 1906 
 
 Pounds 
 
 862,428,530 
 
 (h) 68,232,647 
 
 Census 
 
 
 
 113.644,398 
 
 1906 
 
 Pounds 
 
 298,915,130 
 
 129,410.942 
 
 (a) Included in orchard products, (b) Not including rice, (c) Based on average price paid 
 by crushers, (d) Including value of raisins, wine. etc. (e) Including wax. (f) Not including 
 peanuts, (g) Including value of cider, vinegar, etc. (h) December 1, 1906. (i) $472,276,783. 
 
 was the aggregate value of milk, butter and cheese by the census of 1900. (j) Value of product 
 
 in 190,5. (k) Value of product in 1905, based on the export value of refined. (1) Estimated 
 
 1907 corn crop 2,553,732,000 bushels. 
 
 The census of 1900 gave the following farm statistics for the United States: Farms, total 
 number, 5,739,657 ; value of farm property, $20,514,001,838; land and improvements, $13,114,- 
 492,056; buildings, $3,660,198,191; implements and machinery, $761,261,550; live stock, 
 $3,078,050,041; expenditures in 1899 for labor, $365,305,921; for fertilizers. $54,783,757; 
 number of farms operated by owners. 3.713,371; by cash tenants. 752.920; by share tenants, 
 1,273,366; by white persons, 4,970,129; by negroes. 746.717. Value of farm products in 1907, 
 estimated by commissioner of agriculture, $7,412,000,000. 
 
 consists of two members from each state 
 elected by its own legislature for six 
 years, one-third of the whole body being 
 renewable biennially. The house of 
 representatives consists of members 
 chosen for two years by the people of 
 the several states, in numbers propor- 
 tioned to their population as ascer- 
 tained by the decennial census. At 
 present it is composed of 386 members, 
 or one member for 194,182 inhabitants. 
 In addition to the representatives from 
 the states, the hous e adm its a “delegate” 
 from each organized Territory, who has 
 the right to speak on subjects in which 
 his territory is interested, but is not 
 entitled to vote. The salary of a senator, 
 representative, or delegate is $7,500 
 with traveling expenses. Congress meets 
 at least once a year, on the first Mon- 
 day of December, and its leading 
 powers are to levy taxes, duties, im- 
 posts, excises; to pay the debts and pro- 
 vide for the common defense and gen- 
 eral welfare of the Union, to regulate 
 commerce with foreign nations and 
 among the several states, to coin money, 
 declare war, raise and maintain an army 
 and navy, etc. It is forbidden to the 
 federal government, among other things, 
 to tax exports, to grant any title of 
 nobility, or to give commercial prefer- 
 ence to the ports of one state over those 
 of another. The executive is vested in a 
 president chosen for four years, but 
 eligible for re-election. The electors 
 who vote for the president are chosen 
 by each state, in such manner as its 
 legislature may provide, and are in this 
 capacity known as the electoral college. 
 The president and vice-president are 
 chosen by the majority of this college, 
 and in the case of an equality of votes 
 the president is chosen by the house of 
 representatives, and the vice-president 
 by the sentate. The president, who 
 must be a native-born citizen, and who 
 receives a salary of $50,000 yearly, has 
 the power, in concurrence with two- 
 thirds of the senate, to make treaties, 
 appoint civil and military officers, levy 
 war, conclude peace, etc. He has even a 
 veto on the laws passed by congress, at 
 least until they have received the assent 
 of two-thirds of both houses. The vice- 
 
 total imports from Great Britain in 
 1907 was $246,112,047. The internation- 
 al commerce of the United States is at 
 present mainly carried in foreign bot- 
 toms, while previous to the year 1860 
 from 75 to 80 per cent was carried by 
 vessels belonging to the United States. 
 Of American vessels engaged in the 
 foreign trade the aggregate tonnage in 
 1907 was 861,466; in the coasting trade, 
 6,010,601 tons. Including lake boats, 
 etc., the total burden of American ship- 
 ping is 6,938,794 tons. The internal 
 commerce is largely facilitated by rivers, 
 lakes, and canals. In 1907, 225,000 miles 
 of railway, 265,000 miles of telegraph 
 line, and 4,778,282 miles of telephone 
 wire were in operation. The weights and 
 measures are the same as those of Great 
 Britain; but the old Winchester wine 
 gallon, equal to .833 of an imperial gal- 
 lon, the ale gallon equal to 1.01695 
 imperial gallon, and the Winchester 
 bushel, equal to .9692 of an inaperial 
 bushel, are used instead of the imperial 
 standards, and a cental of IQO Ids. is 
 
 used instead of the cwt. Accounts are 
 kept in dollars, cents or hundredths and 
 mills or thousandths of a dollar. The 
 currency is partly in paper and partly 
 in specie. Gold is coined in double 
 eagles = 20 dollars, eagles = 10 dollars, 
 half -eagles, quarter -eagles, and dol- 
 lars. Silver is coined in dollars, half- 
 dollars, quarters, dimes, or 10 cents, 
 half - dimes. The only copper coins 
 are cents. The government of the 
 United States is a federal republic based 
 on the constitution of 1787, drawn up 
 by delegates from the thirteen original 
 states, and subsequently amended. The 
 constitution and modes of administra- 
 tion of the individual states bear a close 
 resemblance to each other. Each state 
 maintains its independence, and by 
 means of a state legislature and execu- 
 tive (vested in a governor) has complete 
 management of its own affairs. The 
 combined states have one supreme legis- 
 lature, which takes the name of con- 
 gress, and consists of a senate and a 
 house of representatives. The senate 
 
 president, who has a salary of $12,000 
 presides in the senate, and in case of 
 death or permanent disability suc- 
 ceeds the president. The business of the 
 executive is administered by the secre- 
 tary of state, secretary of war, secretary 
 of the navy, secretary of the treasury, 
 postmaster-general, secretary of the 
 interior, attorney-general, and secretary 
 of agriculture, secretary of commerce 
 and labor, each of whom has an annual 
 salary of $12,000 and holds office 
 during the pleasure of the president. 
 The judicial powers of the Union are 
 vested in a supreme court, presided 
 over by a chief justice and eight asso- 
 ciate judges, which each state appoints 
 its own local judges. The powers to 
 enact municipal laws, that is, all laws 
 which concern each state directly and 
 immediately, are among the reserved 
 rights of the state; but they cannot 
 make treaties, coin money, impose 
 duties, emit bills of credit, make agree- 
 ments, with each other or with a foreign 
 power, nor pass any bill impairing th? 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 obligation of contracts. The general 
 government derives its revenues chiefly 
 from duties on imports and taxes on 
 spirits, tobacco, banks, etc. In 1860 the 
 public debt was only $63,452,773.55; 
 but during the civil war (1861-65) it 
 increased to $2,773,263,173.69. In 
 1906 it was $2,429,370,043. The public 
 revenue in 1906 amounted to $694,621,- 
 000, the expenditure to $460,323,000. 
 The largest items of expenditure are 
 pensions, the civil service, army and 
 navy. It is enacted by congress that 
 there shall be no more than 100,000 
 enlisted men at one time, the term of 
 service being three years. The army in 
 active service as now organized under 
 the act of congress of February 2, 1901, 
 comprises 15 regiments of cavalry, 750 
 officers and 13,020 enlisted men; an 
 artillery corps, 30 batteries of field 
 artillery and 126 companies of coast 
 artillery, 651 officers and 18,166 en- 
 listed men; 30 regiments of infantry, 
 1500 officers and 25,649 enlisted men; 3 
 battalions of engineers, 1294 enlisted 
 men, commanded by officers detailed 
 from the corps of engineers; staff corps, 
 military, academy, Indian scouts, re- 
 cruits, etc., 4387 enlisted men ; also a pro- 
 visional force consisting of one regiment 
 in Porto Rico, 31 officers and 554 native 
 enlisted men, and 50 companies of native 
 scouts in the Philippines, 116 officers 
 and about 5000 enlisted men. The total 
 number of commissioned officers, staff 
 and line, on the active list, is 3869, and 
 the total enlisted strength staff and line is 
 62,516 , exclusive of the provisional force 
 and the hospital corps. Each state has a 
 militia, of which the aggregate nominal 
 strength is about 6^ millions. The navy 
 comprises 28 first-class battle-ships, 22 
 coast defense ships, 50 cruisers, 42 gun- 
 boats, 57 torpedo craft, etc. In 1907 the 
 war department expenditure was set 
 down at $101,671,881 ; that of the navy 
 at $97,606,595. There is, throughout 
 the country, no uniform system of edu- 
 cation, the organization and manage- 
 ment of the “common” or state-sup- 
 ported public schools being left to each 
 state, while considerable control is also 
 given to the local authority. These com- 
 mon schools, which in rural neighbor- 
 hoods are called district schools, are 
 usually public eletiientary schools, but 
 in some states they include the higher 
 grades. To maintain these common 
 schools the government makes no direct 
 appropriation of moneys, this being 
 supplied by each state through the state 
 legislature directly, from local taxation, 
 or from the sale of public domains set 
 apart as a permanent school fund. At- 
 tendance on elementary schools is com- 
 pulsory in many states, but not in all. 
 In 1904-05 there was an average daily 
 attendance of 11,481,531 pupils (out of 
 16,468,300 enrolled) in common schools 
 and 350,099 in high schools. The higher 
 education is provided in numerous 
 colleges and universities. In addition 
 there are special colleges for theology, 
 law, medicine, the higher education of 
 women, etc. The constitution of the 
 states grants perfect equality to all 
 creeds, and nearly all the sects and relig- 
 ious denominations existing in Europe 
 are represented. In 1906 there were in 
 all 182,731 churches belonging to the 
 
 various Protestant bodies, and 11,814 
 Roman Catholic churches; 140,215 Prot- 
 estant ministers, and 14,104 Roman 
 Catholic clergy. The Roman Catholics 
 were returned at 12,651,944 in 1906, 
 the numbers of other bodies being 
 given as follows: Methodists, 6,429,815; 
 Baptists, 4,974,047; Presbyterians, 
 1,723,871 ; Lutherans, 1,841,346; Protes- 
 tant Episcopal, 827,127; Congregation- 
 al, 687,042; Reformed church, 405, 
 022; United Brethren, 274,012; total 
 Protestants about 20,000,000 mem- 
 bers or communicants. There are 300,- 
 000 Mormons and 143,000 Jews. The 
 first English colonies within the limits 
 of the Union were settled by two char- 
 tered companies, called the Plymouth 
 company and the London company. By 
 the latter an expedition was sent out in 
 1607, and a settlement was made at 
 Jamestown, in the present state of Vir- 
 ginia, while the Plymouth company 
 established a colony on Massachusetts 
 bay. Other settlers continuing to arrive 
 a colonial assembly was for the first 
 time convened in 1619. At this time the 
 foundation of the colonies of New Eng- 
 land was laid by the “pilgrim fathers,” a 
 body of Puritans numbering 100 who 
 sailed from England in the Mayflower, 
 and landed in 1620 in Massachusetts 
 bay, where they established themselves. 
 Then another colony was founded in 
 1628 at Salem, and in 1630 still another 
 was established in Boston. Rhode Island 
 was first settled at Providence in 1636 
 by Roger Williams, who had been driven 
 from Massachusetts for his religious 
 and political opinions. The states of 
 Maryland and Virginia were colonized 
 chiefly by English Roman Catholics and 
 royalist refugees, while the central states 
 were, to a great extent, settled by Dutch 
 and Swedes. But it is impossible to 
 enter into details of the origin and 
 progress of the different states now 
 composing the Union. The most re- 
 markable events of the colonial period 
 were those connected with the wars 
 which Great Britain and her colonies 
 were obliged to wage with France, and 
 which terminated in the cession of 
 Canada, etc., to Great Britain in 1763 
 by the Peace of Paris at the close of the 
 Seven Years’ war. No sooner was this 
 peace concluded than the British parlia- 
 ment resolved to increase the revenue 
 by a general stamp-duty through all the 
 American colonies. Accordingly, the 
 Stamp Act of 1765 was passed; but this, 
 after opposition, was repealed next year, 
 Britain stilt claiming, however, its right 
 to tax. In accordance with this claim 
 a duty, in 1767, was imposed upon tea, 
 paper, glass, etc.; but the colonial op- 
 position was such that three years later 
 the duties were all repealed except the 
 one upon tea. To such a pass had the 
 opposition now come that in 1773, when 
 British ships loaded with tea attempted 
 to effect a landing in the port of Boston, 
 a number of the inhabitants, disguised 
 as Indians, seized them and threw the 
 cargoes into the sea. In punishment of 
 this, parliament passed the Boston Port 
 Bill, which declared that port closed to 
 all commerce, and transferred the seat 
 of colonial government to Salem. From 
 this time it became evident that a con- 
 flict was inevitable, and in 1775 hos- 
 
 tilities actually commenced when a 
 small British force, sent from Boston to 
 destroy the military stores at Concord, 
 was attacked by the colonists near 
 Lexington, and forced to retreat. Be- 
 fore the end of April the British gover- 
 nor and army were besieged in Boston 
 by a revolutionary force of 20,000 men; 
 the northern fortresses of Ticonderoga 
 and Crown Point were seized; and a con- 
 tinental congress which assembled at 
 Philadelphia took measures to equip an 
 army and navy, with George Washing- 
 ton as commander-in-chief. On June 17 
 the British attacked the intrenched 
 position of the colonists on Bunker Hill, 
 which commanded Boston harbor, and 
 captured it, but in the following year 
 they retreated to Halifax. This action 
 induced the colonists to continue their 
 resistance, and it was declared by the 
 thirteen states assembled in congress 
 that “the united colonies are, and ought 
 to be, free and independent states; that 
 their political connection with Great 
 Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved.” 
 This resolution was embodied in a dec- 
 laration of independence, drawn up by 
 Jefferson and adopted 4th July, 1776. 
 The British government now sent an 
 anny against the colonists under the 
 command of Sir William Howe, and in 
 a battle on Long Island (August, 1776) 
 Washington was defeated with heavy 
 loss. He retreated beyond the Delaware, 
 and in order to defend Philadelphia, 
 then the capital, was obliged to give 
 battle on the Brandywine, where he was 
 again defeated. Fortune, however, 
 favored the Americans in the north, 
 where General Gates at Stillwater de- 
 feated General Burgoyne. This event 
 induced the French to enter the struggle 
 in the spring of 1778, and subsequently 
 Spain and Holland aided the Americans. 
 At last the surrender of Lord Cornwallis 
 with his army at Yorktown (1781) to a 
 combined French and American force 
 under Roohambeau and Washington, 
 virtually terminated the war. On Sep- 
 tember 3, 1783, Great Britain formally 
 recognized the independence of the 
 United States by a treaty of peace 
 signed at Paris, and in order still fur- 
 ther to establish their position the states 
 met at Philadelphia in 1787, and after 
 four months’ deliberation framed a con- 
 stitution. This constitution, which re- 
 mains the basis of the government, 
 came into operation in March, 1789, 
 and George Washington was elected the 
 first president. The congress oppointed 
 by the thirteen states then proceeded to 
 impose duties, establish a federal judi- 
 ciary, organize the executive adminis- 
 tration, fund the debt of the United 
 States, and establish a national bank. 
 In 1793 Washington was unanimously 
 re-elected president, but in 1797 he 
 refused to be elected for a third term. 
 During his administration the states of 
 Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee 
 were admitted into the Union. John 
 Adams was elected second president, 
 and it was while he held office that 
 France made war upon the republic, 
 the fighting taking place chiefly at sea. 
 In 1800 the seat of government was 
 transferred from New York, which had 
 at first been declared the capital, to 
 Washington, while in 1802 Ohio and 
 
UNITED states: 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 Louisiana were added to the Union. 
 Great Britain still claimed the allegiance 
 of American naturalized subjects, and 
 the right to search American vessels for 
 British seamen. In 1807 the British 
 frigate Leopard overhauled the United 
 States frigate Chesapeake, near the en- 
 trance to Chesapeake bay, compelled her 
 to surrender, and took off four of her 
 men. Reparation was asked in vain; 
 some time later all trade with France 
 and England was prohibited by act of 
 congress, and in June, 1812, war was 
 declared against Britain. In the differ- 
 ent engagements which took place by 
 sea and land the success was varied, 
 and in 1814 peace was arranged. After 
 this the chief historical events were the 
 wars against the southern Indian tribes 
 and the acquisition of Florida from the 
 Spanish in 1819; the annexation of 
 Texas, which led to a war with Mexico 
 in 1845 (see Mexican war); and the ac- 
 quisition of New Mexico and Upper 
 California, which were ceded to the 
 United States on payment of the 
 sum of $15,000,000 to Mexico. The 
 period about 1857 was notable for the 
 free-soil movement and the increasing 
 difficulty of dealing with slavery. Texas 
 had been introduced into the Union as 
 a slave-holding state, and the endeavor 
 to act similarly with regard to the ter- 
 ritory of Kansas led to rioting. The 
 question was still further complicated 
 by disputes respecting the territory of 
 Nebraska, and the insurrection (1859) 
 at Harper’s Ferry, led by John Brown, 
 brought the question of the abolition of 
 slavery to a crisis. The presidential 
 election of 1860 turned to a great extent 
 upon this question, and when, Abraham 
 Lincoln, the republican candidate, was 
 elected the slave-holding states con- 
 sidered themselves defeated, and South 
 Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, 
 Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas formally 
 seceded from the Union. These states 
 formed themselves into a southern con- 
 federation (4th February, 1861), with 
 Jefferson Davis as president, and they 
 were subsequently joined, after hos- 
 tilities had begun, by Virginia, North 
 Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas. The 
 custom-houses, arsenals, and United 
 States buildings generally were seized 
 and occupied by the confederates in 
 their own states, and every preparation 
 made to organize a separate govern- 
 ment. War was inevitable, and the first 
 blow was struck on April 12, 1861, the 
 confederates proceeding to bombard 
 Fort Siunter, which was forced to sur- 
 render. President Lincoln then called 
 out by proclamation 75,000 volunteers, 
 and the first battle on a large scale took 
 place at Bull Run, south of Washington, 
 where the federal forces were com- 
 pletely defeated. During the remainder 
 of 1861 frequent collision took place 
 between the rival forces at different 
 points, almost always to the disadvan- 
 tage of the north. In the spring of 1862 
 General Grant captured Fort Donnelson, 
 on the Cumberland river, and along 
 with General Sherman obtained a vic- 
 tory over the confederates at Pittsburg 
 Landing, in Tennessee. In April the 
 federal fleet, under Admiral Farragut, 
 ran past the forts at the entrance of 
 the Mississippi, and seized New Orleans, 
 
 which was occupied by the supporting 
 land forces. An attempt was then made 
 by General McClellan to invest Rich- 
 mond, the capital of the confederacy, 
 but this was prevented by the confed- 
 erate generals Lee and “Stonewall” 
 Jackson, who drove back the federals 
 on the James river, where they estab- 
 lished themselves. General Lee then 
 assumed the offensive and moved with 
 his whole army upon Washington, but 
 he was intercepted on the banks of the 
 Antietam by McClellan, and, after an 
 obstinate fight, compelled to recross the 
 Potomac. Soon afterward McClellan was 
 superseded by Burnside, and in Decem- 
 ber another advance to Richmond was 
 commenced. This General Lee had 
 anticipated, and intrenched himself 
 behind the town of Fredericksburg, a 
 position from which the federals vainly 
 endeavored to dislodge him. Thus the 
 year 1862 closed with no great gain on 
 either side. In the following April Gen- 
 eral Hooker, superseding Burnside in 
 the command of the army of the Poto- 
 mac, commenced another movement 
 toward Richmond, but was defeated by 
 “Stonewall” Jackson at Chancellorsville, 
 where, by mischance, the latter was 
 killed in the darkness by his own men. 
 Following up this gain General Lee 
 transferred his army to the valley of the 
 Shenandoah, entered Maryland, and 
 crossed into Pennsylvania. At Gettys- 
 burg he was obliged to turn upon the 
 pursuing federal forces under Meade, 
 and after three days’ desperate fighting 
 and the loss of 15,000 men Lee was 
 forced to retreat into Virginia. On the 
 Mississippi the fortune of war was also 
 in favor of the federals. Aided by the 
 fleet, which had dashed past Port 
 Hudson and seized Natchez, General 
 Grant had assumed the offensive and 
 captured Vicksburg, while at the end of 
 this year (1863) he inflicted severe de- 
 feat upon Bragg at Chattanooga. In 
 1864 General Grant, as the result of his 
 successes, was appointed commander- 
 in-chief of all the armies, and at once he 
 set himself to reorganize the federal 
 forces. He took command of the army 
 of the Potomac himself, with which he 
 proposed to meet Lee, while he dis- 
 patched Sherman to operate against 
 J. E. Johnston. In May, Grant moved 
 his main force across the Rapidan and 
 immediately attacked Lee in The Wild- 
 erness, where severe fighting lasted for 
 six consecutive days. Unable to rout 
 the confederates. Grant endeavored by 
 a flank movement to cut them off from 
 Richmond, but Lee anticipated the 
 attempt and foiled it. Thus baffled. 
 Grant by a circuit crossed the James 
 river, joined Butler, and attacked Peters- 
 burg, but was repelled, and obliged to 
 begin a regular siege during the winter. 
 Meantime Sherman with a large federal 
 force, had defeated Hood (who super- 
 seded Johnston as commander in 
 Georgia), had occupied Atlanta, crossed, 
 the country by forced marches, seized 
 Savannah, and by February, 1865, was 
 able to occupy Charleston and Wilming- 
 ton. During this brilliant movement 
 the forces under Lee and Grant had 
 faced each other in the lines round 
 Richmond, but in April, 1865, a general 
 advance was made by the federals. Lee 
 
 defended Petersburg and Richmond 
 with great skill and obstinacy, but after 
 three days’ sanguinary conflict the con- 
 federate lines were broken, and Rich- 
 mond lay at the mercy of the Northern 
 armies. Lee retreated north of the 
 Appomattox, but was closely followed 
 by Grant, who captured the general and 
 his whole army. The remaining con- 
 federate armies in the field soon after- 
 ward surrendered, and the four years’ 
 war ended in favor of the federal govern- 
 ment. In the course of the war the aboli- 
 tion of slavery had been proclaimed by 
 President Lincoln, and he had just en- 
 tered (April 1865) upon his second term 
 of the presidentship when he was assas- 
 sinated in Ford’s theater at Washington 
 by J. Wilkes Booth. 
 
 As the states returned to their allegi- 
 ance to the Union they were after a time 
 readmitted to their state and national 
 privileges. The election of General Grant 
 to the presidency in 1869 served, in some 
 measure, to consolidate matters. An 
 amendment to the national constitution 
 was proclaimed in March 1870, and pro- 
 vided that no difference of race, color, 
 education, or religion shall debar any 
 person from the rights of citizenship in 
 any of the states. This question of equal 
 rights gave rise in 1874 to considerable 
 rioting in the southern states between 
 the negro and the white population, and 
 is still beset with dangers. During the 
 Grant administration the Indians of the 
 northwest frontier were successfully 
 suppressed, and a bill for the resump- 
 tion of cash payments on January 1, 
 1879, passed Congress (December, 1874). 
 Among other events were the admission 
 of Colorado (1876) to the Union; the 
 great international exhibition at Phila- 
 delphia, to celebrate the centenary of 
 American Independence (1876); the 
 opening of the Pacific railway from 
 Omaha to San Francisco (1869); a dis- 
 pute with Spain respecting the imprison- 
 ment of an American citizen in Cuba 
 (1870-72) ; the great labor strike at New 
 York (June, 1872) ; the massacre of 
 General Custer and troops by the In- 
 dians (June 25, 1876); the celebration 
 of the foundation of the American re- 
 public (July 4, 1876) ; and the settlement 
 of the dispute with Great Britain respect- 
 ing extradition (December, 1876). The 
 election for president at the close of 
 1876 resulted in the return of Ruther- 
 ford B. Hayes (1877-81), republican, 
 the principal events in his term of office 
 being the dispute as to the validity of 
 the presidential election; the great rail- 
 way strike ; riots and bloodshed in West 
 Virginia (July, 1877), suppressed by 
 General Sheridan; the progress of 
 measures for the pacification of the 
 south; the veto of the Bland “Silver 
 Bill” by the president (February 16, 
 1878), after it had received the sanction 
 of congress, and the resumption of cash 
 payments (January 1, 1879), gold for 
 the first time since the war being at par 
 (December 18, 1878). General J. A. 
 Garfield (1881), republican, succeeded as 
 president, but held office but for a short 
 period, dying from the effects of a bullet 
 fired by Guiteau, a Chicago lawyer 
 (July 2, 1881). General Chester A. 
 Arthur (1881-85), the vice-president, 
 became president, and was succeeded 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 by Grover Cleveland (1885-89), the 
 democrats, for the first time since the 
 presidency of Buchanan, being suc- 
 cessful in placing their nominee in office. 
 President Cleveland’s term of office was 
 characterized by the adoption of meas- 
 ures for the reorganization of the civil 
 service, and other reforms. Among the 
 events of this presidency were the re- 
 jection, by the republicans, of the 
 Fisheries Treaty, arranged with the 
 United States government by Mr. 
 Joseph Chamberlain on behalf of Great 
 Britain, after having received the sanc- 
 tion of the president; the passage by 
 congress of a bill prohibiting Chinese 
 immigration for twenty years} the great 
 blizzard which devastated New York 
 (March 12, 1888); the collapse of the 
 great railway strike organized by the 
 Knights of Labor; the defeat of the 
 Mills Tariff bill, introduced to reduce 
 import duties, and the withdrawal of 
 Lord Sackville, the British ambassador, 
 in consequence of the “Murchison” 
 letter. General Sheridan, commander- 
 in-chief of the United States army, died 
 July, 1888. In the election (November, 
 1888), the republicans replaced Cleve- 
 land by their candidate. General Har- 
 rison (1889), who appointed Mr. J. G 
 Blaine as secretary of state. North and 
 South Dakota, Montana, and Washing- 
 ton territory were admitted to the 
 Union. The same year the United States 
 government accepted Prince Bismarck’s 
 proposal to join the Berlin conference 
 on the Samoan question (the treaty was 
 ratified February, 1890); the Oklahoma 
 territory was thrown open for settle- 
 ment; the centennial of the Union was 
 celebrated on May JJay; the agents of 
 the Clan-na-Gael, who had assassinated 
 Dr. Cronin of Chicago, were tried. Great 
 floods at Johnstown, Pa., caused much 
 destruction and distress (May), and 
 later (November), New York state, 
 Pennsylvania, and neighboring states 
 were devastated by floods. A great Pan- 
 American congress assembled (Novem- 
 ber) at Philadelphia, under the presi- 
 dency of Mr. Blaine, and ( December 6) 
 Jefferson Davis, ex-president of the con- 
 federate states, died at New Orleans. 
 1890 was chiefly remarkable for the 
 passage of the Silver bill, authorizing 
 the secretary of the treasury to purchase 
 for coining 4,500,000 oz. of silver 
 monthly, and to issue certificates to be 
 used as legal tender for all debts; the 
 passage ofjthe McKinley Tariff bill, which 
 greatly augmented the import duties, 
 the bill coming into operation October 
 6; the ratification of a new Extradition 
 Treaty with Great Britain; the passage 
 of a bill for increasing the United States 
 navy, and the defeat of the republican 
 party by large majorities at the general 
 elections (November). The attitude of 
 Mr. Reed, speaker of the house of rep- 
 resentatives, toward the democratic 
 members caused considerable friction in 
 that party. Wyoming and Idaho were 
 this year admitted to the Union. The 
 principal events of 1891 were the con- 
 tinuation of the Fisheries dispute; the 
 passage of the Copyright bill ; the lynch- 
 ing of the Italian prisoners connected 
 with the Mafia by the citizens of 
 New Orleans (March), and the recall of 
 the Italian ambassador; the refusal of 
 
 the Chinese court to receive the United 
 States representative, as a protest 
 against the Chinese Immigration bill ; 
 the tour of the president through the 
 south and west of the states; and the 
 agreement between the United States 
 and Great Britain, signed atWashington. 
 In 1892 the Fisheries Dispute was agreed 
 to be referred to arbitration; compen- 
 sation to the families of the Italians 
 lynched at New Orleans was granted by 
 the United States government; more 
 stringent measures adopted for the ex- 
 clusion of the Chinese, and the presi- 
 dential contest commenced. The politi- 
 cal change in 1893 in the Washington 
 administration by the inauguration of 
 Mr. Cleveland as president on March 4 
 did not cause as much excitement as did 
 Mr. Cleveland’s first accession. Presi- 
 dent Cleveland called an extra session 
 of congress to convene August 7, to 
 consider the financial crisis June 30; 
 when the extra session begun currency 
 was selling at a premium in New York 
 City. The house of representatives voted 
 to repeal the silver-purchasing clause of 
 the Sherman act, rejecting all free 
 coinage amendments, August 28, and 
 on September 20 the bill to repeal the 
 Federal Election law was reported in 
 the house. The senate passed the Silver 
 Repeal bill October 30. During the 
 year American eyes were turned fre- 
 quently toward Hawaii, where Queen 
 Liliuokalani was dethroned by revolu- 
 tionists on January 16; Minister Stevens 
 landed United States marines at Hono- 
 lulu, raised the United States flag, and 
 established a protectorate February 1 ; 
 this protectorate ended April 13, when 
 the United States forces were withdrawn 
 by order of Commissioner Blount. 
 Other noteworthy American incidents 
 of 1893 were: The World’s Fair at 
 Chicago was opened by President Cleve- 
 land May 1 and continued until October 
 30; the New York Central railroad’s 
 engine “999” raised the speed limit to 
 112J miles per hour; Princess Eulalie, 
 representative of the Spanish govern- 
 ment, was received with honors in New 
 York May 18; the body of Jefferson 
 Davis was reinterred at Richmond, 
 Va.; Lieutenant Peary’s expedition left 
 New York for the Arctic regions July 2; 
 1,000 lives were lost by a cyclone in 
 Savannah and Charleston August 28; 
 President Cleveland opened the Pan- 
 American congress in Washington Sep- 
 tember 5; the Parliament of Religions 
 began its sessions at Chicago September 
 11; the Cherokee strip was opened for 
 public settlement September 16; a dis- 
 astrous cyclone raged on the Gulf coast 
 of Louisiana, about 2,000 persons, 
 mostly whites, being killed, and much 
 property destroyed; the United States 
 supreme court decided the Great Lakes 
 to be high seas November 21. The 
 principal events of interest in 1894 in- 
 included the passing of the Wilson Tariff 
 and Income Tax bills by the house of 
 representatives; the passing of the Bland 
 Coinage bill by the United States senate, 
 44 to 31 ; the Greater New York bill 
 was signed by the governor, making it 
 the second largest city on earth, Feb- 
 ruary 28; President Cleveland signed 
 the Enabling act, making Utah a state, 
 July 17; the Hawaiian republic was 
 
 
 officially recognized by the United 
 States government August 9; the new 
 tariff law became a law without Presi- 
 dent Cleveland’s signature August 27; 
 a new treaty between the United States 
 and Japan was proclaimed December 9. 
 President Cleveland, on January 28, 
 1895, sent a message to congress on the 
 financial affairs of the government, and 
 asked authority to issue gold bonds; 
 on February 8 he informed congress of 
 arrangements made with the bankers’ 
 syndicate to take an issue of $62,400,000 
 government bonds. On May 20, the i 
 supreme court of the United States, by ; 
 a vote of 5 to 4, declared the whole ! 
 Income tax law null and void. The 
 Cotton States and International ex- 
 position at Atlanta was opened. The 
 National park,^on the site of the Chicka- 
 mauga battle ground, Tennessee, was 
 dedicated by a great gathering of Union 
 and confederate veterans September 19. 
 
 In 1896 McKinley won a signal victory, 
 receiving 601,854 popular votes over I 
 Bryan and 286,452 over all. The final ' 
 year of President Cleveland’s adminis- 
 tration was marked by his announce- 
 ment of the members of the Venezuelan j 
 Boundary commission January 1 ; a call ] 
 by Secretary Carlisle, January 6, for bids I 
 for $100,000,000 bonds as a popular i 
 loan; the president’s proclamation of ] 
 warning to Cuban filibusters July 30; j 
 the reception of Li Hung Chang, the j 
 Chinese statesman, by president Cleve- 
 land August 29. In 1897 McKinley was 
 inaugurated. Previous to that, a treaty 
 of arbitration between the United States 
 and Great Britain was signed at Wash- 
 ington by Secretary Olney and Am- 
 bassador Pauncefote January 11. The 
 Tennessee Centennial exposition was 
 formally opened May 1. The Congress 
 of the Universal Postal Union opened 
 at Washington, D. C., May 2. The 
 Venezuela Boundary treaty between 
 Great Britain and Venezuela was 
 ratified at Washington June 14. A 
 treaty of annexation to the United 
 States was unanimously ratified by the 
 Hawaiian senate September 14. Secre- 
 tary of State Sherman and Lord Salis- 
 bury, British Foreign Minister, held 
 correspondence over the Bering sea seal 
 question October 4-12. A treaty to pro- 
 tect the seals in Bering sea was signed 
 at Washington by representatives of the 
 United States, Russia and Japan. 
 President McKinley signed the treaty j| 
 adopted by the Universal Postal Con- b 
 gress November 16. The destruction of E 
 the battleship Maine, in the harbor of f 
 Havana, February 15, 1898, would have f. 
 precipitated a crisis had it not been for 'j 
 the fact that the question was immedi- 1: 
 ately raised as to whether the ship had 
 be.en destroyed by an external or in- i 
 ternal explosion. The disaster caused I' 
 intense excitement, and it was decided 
 to investigate the facts, and await , 
 material proof before forming a judg- 
 ment as to the cause, the responsibility, r 
 and, if the facts warranted, the remedy '| 
 due. A naval court of inquiry was i 
 organized. The court held its sittings on jl 
 board the lighthouse tender Mangrove ji 
 anchored near the wreck. Aided by a li 
 strong force of wreckers and divers, the ]i 
 court proceeded to make a thorough in. |j 
 vestigation. The finding of the court of | 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 1 inquiry was reached, on the 21st of 
 : March, and, having been approved on 
 
 [ the day following by the commander- 
 in-chief of the United States naval force 
 on the north Atlantic station, was trans- 
 ( mitted to President McKinley. This 
 report was submitted to congress by the 
 president, with the statement that he 
 did not doubt but that the sense of 
 I justice of the Spanish nation would dic- 
 tate a course of action suggested by 
 I honor and the friendly relations of the 
 V two governments. On March 8 the house 
 of representatives passed a bill appro- 
 priating $50,000,000 for national de- 
 . fense, after four hours of debate, by the 
 I, unanimous vote of 311 members. The 
 
 ( following day the senate passed the same 
 bill by a unanimous vote and without 
 
 \ debate. On March 9 the ptesident signed 
 i the bill, and measures of preparation for 
 !' war received a great stimulus. On April 
 ! 15, the Twenty-fifth infantry. United 
 ( States of America, went into camp at 
 li Chickamauga Park. The following day 
 the army officials called for bids for the 
 t transportation of troops to southern 
 ^ points. United States troops from many 
 j garrisons, on April 19, moved to tu® 
 point of mobilization on the Gulf and at 
 I Chickamauga Park. On April 2(h the 
 i president sent an ultimatum to Spain 
 1 demanding that her land and naval 
 1 forces withdraw from Cuba, and also re- 
 ( quired an answerbefore noon of April 23. 
 
 ! The Spanish minister at Washington re- 
 ' quested and received his passports. 
 
 : Before Minister Woodford could deliver 
 , the ultimatum of the United States to 
 Spain on the day following, he was 
 notified by the Spanish government that 
 ; diplomatic relations with the United 
 j States were at an end. On April 22, the 
 ' Spanish merchantman Buenaventura 
 ' was captured by the United States gun- 
 boat Nashville off Key West. Spain 
 j issued a declaration of war on April 24. 
 On the day preceding, the blockading of 
 Havana and neighboring ports actually 
 began, and President McKinley issued 
 his first call for 125,000 volunteers. The 
 regular, army was already moving from 
 every post in the country to mobiliza- 
 ' tion points. Commodore Dewey at 
 1 Hongkong was ordered to capture or 
 ' destroy the Spanish naval forces in the 
 Philippine Islands. May 1, Commodore 
 Dewey, steamed into Manila harbor, and 
 after an incredibly short engagement 
 sunk or destroyed the entire Spanish 
 , fleet. On the following day Commodore 
 Dewey cut the cable connecting Manila 
 with Hongkong, and destroyed the 
 1 fortifications at the entrance of Manila 
 Bay, taking possession of the naval 
 station at Cavite. May 1 2, Admiral Samp- 
 son bombarded San Juan, Porto Rico, 
 Cervera left the Cape Verde Islands, 
 where he had congregated the best ships 
 of the Spanish navy, and sailed west- 
 ward. May 13, Schley’s flying squadron 
 went to sea to search for the Spanish 
 fleet. It was located a few days later at 
 Curacoa, Venezuela, where it touched 
 for coal and repairs. On May 18, Cer- 
 vera’s fleet reached Santiago and entered 
 the harbor. Investment of the harbor by 
 the North Atlantic and the flying 
 squadrons was immediately be^n; also 
 bombardment of the outer fortifications 
 of the place, which were supposed to be 
 
 very strong. On June 1, the fleets of 
 Sampson and Schley were combi^d. 
 Admiral Sampson cornmanding. While 
 the navy was locating Cervera and 
 penning him in, the army was landing 
 supplies on Cuban soil. Next came prep- 
 arations for hurrying forward into 
 Cuba an army of invasion. May 25, 
 President McKinley called for 75,000 
 more troops. The same day the war de- 
 partment sent 6,000 troops from San 
 Francisco to Manila to reinforce Dewey. 
 General Shafter and his men commenced 
 fighting two days after touching Cuban 
 soil. On June 24 they took Juragua. At 
 the same time the United States “Rough 
 Riders” (dismounted), under Colonel 
 Wood and Lieutenant-Colonel Theodore 
 Roosevelt, engaged a force of Spani^ds 
 near Siboney and suffered severely. The 
 Tenth United States cavalry, under 
 General Young, was also in this battle. 
 On July 3, General Shafter notified the 
 Spanish generals in Santiago that if sur- 
 render were not immediate he would 
 bombard the city. While General Shat- 
 ter was waiting for a reply to his notice 
 of bombardment, Admiral Cervera, at- 
 tempted on the morning of July 3 to 
 escape from the harbor of Santiago, ihe 
 American ships got under headway at 
 once, and bore down upon the enemy, 
 forcing the Spanish ships to hug the 
 shore, and in an incredibly short time 
 in a running fight the whole of Cervera s 
 fleet was destroyed. Owing to advices 
 from Washington, Shafter did not bom- 
 bard Santiago as he had threatened, but 
 besieged the city. July 10, Spanish 
 batteries opened on his forces, but were 
 soon silenced. General Toral, the 
 Spanish general commanding at Santia- 
 go, decided, July 14, to surrender, and 
 three days later he gave up the city and 
 the entire eastern portion of Cuba, to- 
 gether with 25,000 soldiers. With the 
 surrender of Santiago the war was 
 thought by all to be practically at an 
 end, but active preparations were con- 
 tinued to take possession of Porto Rico. 
 General Miles was placed in command of 
 an army of invasion, which landed July 
 20, at Port Guianca. The Spaniards there 
 resisted, but were repulsed, and the 
 army advanced. The port of Ponce was 
 occupied without difficulty, and then 
 the city of Ponce and Juana Diaz. The 
 advance upon San Juan was gradual, 
 the Spanish resistance was very light, 
 while the inhabitants welcomed the in- 
 vading army with enthusiasm. Porto 
 Rico was evacuated by the Spanish 
 soldiers in October, and Major-General 
 John R. Brook was appointed military 
 governor. The members of the old cabi- 
 net of the islands took the oath of 
 allegiance to the Uniten States, and were 
 continued in office. In December Gen- 
 eral Brook became military governor of 
 Cuba, and General Guy V. Henry suc- 
 seeded him in Porto Rico. Affairs in the 
 Philippines assumed a serious nature 
 soon after the capture of Manila, August 
 13, 1898. The Filipinos organized a 
 provisional government with Emilio 
 Aguinaldo at the head. This leader had 
 been brought in an American ship from 
 Hongkong to organize the native forces 
 to assist the United States against the 
 Spanish. In a few months’ operations 
 the native troops captured many 
 
 Spanish outposts and took many prison- 
 ers. At the close of the war the exis- 
 tence of the Filipino republic was made 
 known, and its officers demanded recog- 
 nition by the United States government, 
 and upon being refused, showed con- 
 siderable animosity during the winter of 
 1898-99. In February, 1899, a battle 
 occurred between the Filipinos about 
 Manila and the American troops sta- 
 tioned between them and the city to pre- 
 vent their entrance into Manila. Thus 
 was begun a conflict which, lasted 
 throughout 1899, 1900, and until March, 
 1901, when Aguinaldo was captured by 
 General Funston. (See Spanish-Ameri- 
 can War). The other events of interest 
 were: the United States and Canadian 
 Joint High commission met at Quebec 
 August 23; a commercial treaty with 
 France was signed at Washington May 
 30; the Trans - Mississippi and Inter- 
 national exposition opened at OmaM, 
 Neb., June joint resolution for the 
 annexation of Hawaii passed the house of 
 representatives June 15, and the senate 
 June 17; President KcKinley and his 
 cabinet attended the Peace Jubilee at 
 Atlanta, and visited Montgomery, 
 Savannah and other southern cities, re- 
 ceiving great ovations, December 13-19. 
 
 The calm of peace settled upon the 
 United States, except in the Philippines, 
 in 1899. The American flag was raised 
 at Guam February 1. The president 
 signed the peace treaty with Spam 
 February 10. A reciprocity treaty with 
 France was signed July 24. The Na- 
 tional Export exposition opened at 
 Philadelphia September 14. England 
 and the United States agreed on a 
 temporary arrangement of the Alaska 
 boundary dispute October 12. The 
 Samoan partition treaty was signed at 
 Washington December 2, England hav- 
 ing relinquished its territorial rights 
 November 8, and hostilities between 
 naval claimants for the throne haying 
 been pending since January 1. American 
 and British naval forces were attacked 
 at Apia, Samoa, by Mataafa’s followers 
 April 1, and one British and two Ameri- 
 can officers were killed. The Philippine 
 war of 1899 began on February 4, when 
 the Filipinos, under Aguinaldo, attacked 
 the American defenses at Manila; the 
 next day the Americans assumed the 
 offensive, and in the several days’ 
 fighting which ensued lost 57 killed and 
 215 wounded, the Filipinos losing 500 
 killed, 1,000 wounded and 500 captured. 
 The battle of Caloocan was fought 
 February 10. In all the engagements, 
 which followed to the end of the year in 
 a warfare largely desultory, the Ameri- 
 cans were almost uniformly successful, 
 the enemy retreating after making a 
 more or less determined stand. The 
 Philippine commission, appointed by 
 the president, and composed of Presi- 
 dent Schurman, of Cornell university; 
 Prof. Dean Worcester, Charles Denby, 
 late minister to China; Admiral Dewey 
 and General Otis sat in Manila from 
 March 20 until September. On April 4 
 the commission issued a proclamation 
 to the people of the Philippines an- 
 nouncing a broad but firm American 
 policy in the islands. On November 2 
 the commission submitted its pre- 
 liminary report to the president at 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED states 
 
 Washington. The army of occupation 
 having been reinforced by 30,000 men, 
 military operations on a much larger 
 scale than before were begun with the 
 advance of the dry season. In 1900 
 Secretary Hay announced the success 
 of the “open door” policy in China; the 
 senate ratified the Samoan treaty Jan- 
 uary 16; the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, 
 amending the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 
 was signed at Washington February 5; 
 President McKinley signed the Gold 
 Standard Currency bill March 14; a tor- 
 nado at Galveston, Tex., destroyed 
 7000 lives and $30,000,000 in property 
 September 8, and about $1,000,000 was 
 subscribed throughout the states for 
 relief; a great strike prevailed in the 
 anthracite coal regions of Pennsylvania 
 September 13-October 13, and was 
 ended by mutual concessions ; the repub- 
 lican national convention at Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., nominated William McKinley, 
 of Ohio, for president, and Theodore 
 Roosevelt, of New York, for vice-presi- 
 dent, both by acclamation. The demo- 
 cratic national convention at Kansas 
 City, Mo., nominated William J. Bryan 
 for president by acclamation. On the 
 first ballot Adlai E. Stevenson for vice- 
 president, his leading opponent being 
 David B. Hill, who received 200 votes out 
 of 936 cast, Stevenson getting 559i 
 ballots. The silver republican national 
 convention at Kansas City, Mo., July 6, 
 the people’s party (fusion) at Sioux 
 Falls, S. Dak., May 10, and the anti- 
 imperialist league at Indianapolis, Ind., 
 August 16, indorsed Bryan, and the 
 national democratic party (gold democ- 
 racy) refused to indorse him, and voted 
 in convention at Indianapolis to oppose 
 him July 25. The money issue was par- 
 amount in the campaign, and on No- 
 "vember 6, in the general election, Mc- 
 Kinley and Roosevelt had a popular 
 plurality of 849,435 over Bryan, a 
 popular majority of 457,027 over all, 
 and an electoral majority of 137. The 
 total popular vote was 13,961,566. 
 In 1901 President McKinley, while hold- 
 ing a reception, on September 6, at the 
 Pan-American exposition, Buffalo, was 
 shot by Leon Czolgosz. Vice-President 
 Theodore Roosevelt took the oath of 
 office as president immediately after 
 McKinley’s death. The Army Reor- 
 ganization bill was signed by President 
 McKinley February 2; territorial legis- 
 lature of Hawaii began its session 
 February 20; Aguinaldo, the Filipino 
 insurrectionary chief, was captured by 
 General Funston in the Province of 
 Isabella, laizon, March 23; on the same 
 (date the United States paid Spain for the 
 islands of Cagayan and Sibutu ; President 
 McKinley received the Cuban commis- 
 sioners April 26; the Pan-American ex- 
 position was formally opened at Buffalo, 
 N. Y., May 1 ; it was closed November 4; 
 <!ivil government was established at 
 Manila, in the Philippines, May 3; Jack- 
 sonville, Fla., suffered a $10,000,000 
 fire May 3; the Isthmian Canal Treaty 
 between the United States and Great 
 Britain was signed by Secretary Hay 
 and Lord Pauncefote November 8; the 
 South Carolina and West Indian Ex- 
 position at Charleston, S. C., was opened 
 with religious ceremonies December 1.1 
 in 1902 President Roosevelt sent to ' 
 
 congress tbe report of tbe Isthmian 
 Canal commission, recommending the 
 purchase of the Panama Canal com- 
 any rights for $40,000,000. On July 4 
 e issued orders establishingbivil govern- 
 ment in the Philippines and granting 
 amnesty for political prisoners. A great 
 strike of anthracite coal workers in the 
 Pennsylvania region begun May 12. 
 Lieutenant Peary, American Arctic ex- 
 plorer, arrived at Sydney, C. B., having 
 penetrated as far north as 84° 17' north- 
 west of Cape Hecla; the reciprocity 
 treaty between the United States and 
 Newfoundland was signed November 8. 
 The Venezuelan government appealed, 
 through the United States, for arbitra- 
 tion of European claims December 15. 
 The Panama Canal treaty between the 
 United States and Colombia was signed 
 January 22, 1903; the United States and 
 Great Britain signed a treaty providing 
 for a mixed commission to settle the 
 Alaskan boundary dispute January 24; 
 Great Britain, Germany and Italy signed 
 February 13, protocols providing for the 
 settlement of the Venezuelan controver- 
 sy at Washington, and protocols for the 
 settlement of the French, Mexican and 
 Dutch claims against Venezuela were 
 signed at Washington February 26-28; 
 the president signed the bill creating the 
 department of commerce and labor 
 February 14; the Cuban senate ratified 
 the reciprocity treaty with the United 
 States March 11, and it was ratified at 
 Washington, with amendments March 
 19; President Roosevelt started on an 
 extensive western trip April 1 ; the 
 United States court of appeals decided 
 the Northern Securities company merger 
 illegal April 9 ; the United States supreme 
 court sustained the clause in the Ala- 
 bama constitution disfranchising the 
 negroes April 27; the dedication of the 
 Louisiana Purchase exposition build- 
 ings at St. Louis took place with im- 
 posing ceremonies April 30; the Euro- 
 pean Squadron of the United States 
 arrived at Kiel and was received by the 
 German Emperor June 23-26; Cuba 
 ceded to the United States two naval 
 stations, and government of the Isle of 
 Pines was settled July 2; the Pacific 
 cable was completed, and on July 4 
 President Roosevelt sent the first mes- 
 sage over to Governor Taft, of the 
 Philippines; the President sent another 
 message around the world by cable in 
 twelve minutes; Chicago celebrated the 
 hundredth anniversary of the first 
 settlement September 26-October 1 ; a 
 commercial treaty between the United 
 States and China was signed October 8; 
 the Alaskan Boundry Tribunal in 
 London decided in favor of the United 
 States on all points except the Portland 
 canal October 17; the republic of 
 Panama was proclaimed November 3, 
 and the United States recognized the 
 independence of Panama November 6; 
 congress met in extraordinary session 
 to consider the Cuban reciprocity treaty 
 November 9; the Cuban naval station at 
 Guantanamo was transferred to the 
 United States November 11; the House 
 of representatives passed the Cuban 
 Reciprocity bill November 19. The 
 republican national convention met at 
 Chicago, June 23, 1904, and nominated 
 Theodore Roosevelt, of New York, for 
 
 firesident, and Charles W. Fairbanks, of 
 Indiana, for vice-president. The demo- 
 cratic national convention at St. Louis 
 nominated Alton B. Parker, of New I 
 York, for president, and Henry G. i 
 Davis, of West Virginia, for vice-presi- I 
 dent. Roosevelt had a “walk over,” 
 receiving 2,541,635 popular votes to . 
 Parker’s 1,729,809. The United States i 
 supreme court decided that Porto I 
 Ricans are not aliens, January 4; the | 
 commercial treaty between the United , 
 States and China was ratified at Wash- . 
 ington. President Roosevelt issuing a ] 
 proclamation to that effect January 13; | 
 William H. Taft became secretary of | 
 war, Elihu Root retiring, February 1; 
 fire in Baltimore’s business district de- , 
 stroyed $70,000,000 worth of property; I 
 senate ratified the Panama canal treaty 1 
 by a vote of 66 to 14 February 23; l 
 one of the tunnels under the Hudson, . 
 between New Jersey and New York, • 
 was completed March 11; the United |i 
 States supreme court decided that the j 
 Northern Securities company was a | 
 trust, and therefore, illegal, March 14; 
 the United States senate, in executive 
 session, ratified the treaty with Cuba, 
 embodying the Platt amendment, March 
 22; the contract for the transfer of the 
 Panama Canal property to the United 
 States was signed at Paris April 22; 
 the Louisiana Purchase exposition was 
 opened at St. Louis April 30; the excur- 
 sion steamer General Slocum, having on 
 board a Sunday-school picnic, was burned 
 in the East river and more than 1000 
 persons, mainly women and children, 
 were lost June 15; the thirteenth Inter- 
 national Peace conference opened at 
 Boston October 3; the president directed 
 Secretary Taft to go to Panama to re- 
 assure the people of the pacific inten- 
 tions of the United States October 19: 
 the president invited the signator}' 
 powers to a second peace conference at 
 The Hague October 20; the New York 
 subway w'as opened from city hall to 
 145th street October 27; Secretary of 
 State Hay and the French ambassador 
 signed an arbitration treaty at Wash- 
 ington, D. C., November 1; an arbitra- 
 tion treaty was signed at Washington 
 between Germany and the United States | 
 November 15; all differences between i 
 the United States and Panama were i 
 settled by an agreement between Secre- : 
 tary Taft and President Anaador De- i 
 cember 2. In 1905 through the efforts i 
 of President Roosevelt, Russia and I 
 Japan agreed to a peace parley in June. 
 
 On January 28 Santo Domingo agreed ' 
 that the United States should preserve j 
 order and assume charge of finances in j 
 the Dominican republic, while guaran- i 
 teeing territorial integrity. Theodore I 
 Roosevelt and Charles W. Fairbanks i 
 were inaugurated on March 4 as presi- ^ 
 dent and vice-president of the United 1 
 States for the term 1905-1909; the United i 
 States supreme court declared the beef j 
 trust illegal January 30; the investiga- j 
 tion into the affairs of life insurance ( 
 companies in New York began, the ; 
 Equitable being the first company in- 
 vestigated; the body of John Paul Jones ' 
 was discovered in Paris by Gen. Horace 
 Porter April 14; it was brought with i 
 honors to the United States and was i 
 interred in a temporary tomb at .\nnap- 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 oUb, Md., July 24 ; the Lewis and Clarke 
 Centennial exposition was opened at 
 Portland, Ore., May 28; Charles J. 
 Bonaparte succeeded Paul Morton as 
 secretary of the navy July 1; Elihu 
 Root was appointed to succeed the late 
 John Hay as secretary of state July 6; 
 Peary sailed from New York for the 
 North Pole July 16; Prince Louis of 
 Battenburg arrived at Annapolis with 
 the British cruiser squadron on a visit 
 to American waters November 1. 
 In 1906 the United States supreme 
 court decided that witnesses in anti- 
 trust proceedings cannot be excused 
 from testifying against their corporation 
 March 12; earthquakes and fire destroy- 
 ed a large part of San Francisco, Cal., 
 causing a loss of $400,000,000, April 
 18-19; the remains of John Paul Jones 
 were reinterred at Annapolis April 24 ; 
 the Benjamin Franklin Bi-Centenary 
 was celebrated at Philadelphia April 27 ; 
 public schools, with half a million pupils, 
 were opened in the Philippines June 11 ; 
 the president signed the Oklahoma and 
 Arizona statehood bills June 16; the 
 United States senate approved of the 
 lock canal for Panama June 21 ; an in- 
 surrectionary movement in Cuba was 
 begun August 20, and President Palma 
 appealed to the United States for inter- 
 vention in the island September 8; on 
 September 13 American marines were 
 landed at Havana, but were withdrawn ; 
 on September 28 President Palma, of 
 Cuba, resigned; on the following day 
 Secretary Taft proclaimed United States 
 intervention in Cuba and himself as 
 provisional governor; on October 12 
 Mr. Taft was succeeded in this office by 
 Charles E. Magoon; William J. Bryan 
 arrived in New York city from a long 
 trip abroad and was given a popular 
 reception August 30; a great naval 
 demonstration off Oyster Bay was re- 
 viewed by the president September 8; 
 Gen. James F. Smith was installed as 
 governor of the Philippine islands Sep- 
 tember 20; the sugar trust was indicted 
 at New York for accepting railroad re- 
 bates October 2; contractors were in- 
 vited to submit proposals for the com- 
 pletion of the Panama canal September 
 10; the Japanese were excluded from 
 the regular public schools of San Fran- 
 cisco October 15; President Roosevelt 
 departed on a visit to the Isthmus of 
 Panama November 8, reaching the city 
 of Panama November 15, this being the 
 first time a president of the United 
 States passed beyond the jurisdiction of 
 its flag. The president landed in Porto 
 Rico November 21, and returned thence 
 to Washington, where he arrived No- 
 vember 26. In 1907 the pure food law 
 went into effect January 1 . Ambassador 
 Bryce presented his credentials at the 
 White House February 25. Major Gon- 
 thals was appointed chief engineer of 
 the Panama canal February 26. The 
 United States supreme court decided 
 that the Isle of Pines is not American 
 territory, April 8. The Jamestown Ter- 
 centenary exposition was formally 
 opened by President Roosevelt April 26. 
 President Roosevelt signed a treaty 
 with San Domingo June 24. United 
 States fiscal year closed with a surplus 
 of $87,000,000 June 30. The north tube 
 of the Belmont tunnel from 42d street, 
 
 New York, to Long Island City was open- 
 ed August 7. Oklahoma ratified the new 
 constitution and elected a Democratic 
 state ticket and legislature September 
 17. The Phillippine assembly was open- 
 ed October 16. First wireless dispatch 
 over the Atlantic ocean for commercial 
 purposes October 17. Financial strin- 
 gency all over the country. Wm. H. 
 Taft and .Tames Schoolcraft Sherman 
 were elected as president and vice 
 president. Opened the Central Ameri- 
 can Peace conference November 17. 
 American battleship fleet departed for 
 the Pacific coast Dec. 16, 1908 visiting 
 Hawaii, Australia, the Phillipines, 
 Japan, China and Gibraltar, arriving in 
 Hampton Roads in February. 1909, 
 without a mishap. 
 
 The first literary work of any con- 
 sequence produced in the TJnited States 
 was a translation of Ovid’s Meta- 
 morphoses by George Sandys, written 
 in Virginia (1620) and published in Lon- 
 don (1626), and the first published 
 book was a Puritan edition of the 
 Psalms (Cambridge, Uni tedStates, 1640). 
 The most notable of the earlier writers 
 were the theologians, such as Increase 
 and Cotton Mather, Roger Williams, 
 and above all Jonathan Edwards. The 
 succeeding or revolutionary era was 
 chiefly remarkable for its political writ- 
 ers, among whom were John Adams, 
 Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, 
 John Jay, James Madison, and Benja- 
 min Franklin. Philology was repre- 
 sented at this time by Lindley Murray, 
 and the compiler of the famous dic- 
 tionary Noah Webster. The list of poets 
 includes Philip Freneau, John Trumbell 
 and Joel Barlow. The first well-known 
 novelist was Chas. Brockden Brown. 
 
 It was not, however, till the nineteenth 
 century that the United States produced 
 the higher form of pure literature. The 
 poets of this epoch were William Cullen 
 Bryant, Rich. H. Dana, J. G. Percival, 
 Fitz-Greene Halleck, and Mrs. Sigour- 
 ney, the song-writers, F. S. Key, Sam. 
 Woodworth, John H. Payne (author of 
 Home, Sweet Home), and Stephen C. 
 Foster. The later and in part more fa- 
 mous names are J. G. Whittier, H. W. 
 Longfellow, E. A. Poe, James R. Lowell, 
 R. W. Emerson, Walt Whitman, Eu- 
 gene Field, and James Whitcomb Riley; 
 less well known throughout the world 
 with many strong followings in varied 
 classes are R. H. Stoddard, E. C. 
 Stedman, Joaquin Miller, Will Carleton, 
 Ella Wheeler Wilcox, Bliss Carmen, 
 Clinton Scollard and William Vaughn 
 Moody. The famous novelists of the 
 past are James Fenimore Cooper and 
 Harriet Beecher Stowe, the works of 
 these two having been translated into 
 all the modern languages; Washing- 
 ton Irving, Nathaniel Hawthorne and 
 Bret Harte; nearly as well known are 
 Henry James, F. R. Stockton, Louisa 
 M. Alcott, and G. W. Cable; among 
 the better known names of the pres- 
 ent generation are Margaret Deland, 
 Edith Wharton, Robert Barr, and R. 
 W. Chambers, while the works of Mary 
 Hartwell Catherwood, Frances Hodgson 
 Burnett, Winston Churchill, F. Marion 
 Crawford, Booth Tarkin^on, Mary 
 Johnston, Irving Bacheller, and Maurice 
 Thompson won enormous popularity. 
 
 Of the poets Edgar Allen Poe is as well 
 known for his fiction; Holmes, Long- 
 fellow, and Whittier are also authors 
 of novels. Of American humorists 
 the best known are Charies F. Browne 
 (Artemus Ward), Samuel L. Clemens 
 (Mark Twain), C.H. Clark (Max Adeler), 
 H. W. Shaw (Josh Billings), E. W. Nye 
 (Bill Nye), F. P. Dunne (Mr. Dooley), 
 and George Ade. Among leading Ameri- 
 can historians are George Bancroft, 
 W. H. Prescott, J. L. Motley, J. B. 
 Macmaster, and Woodrow Wilson, 
 whose work represented much original 
 research while a school of “popular” 
 historical writing was developed by 
 J. C. Ridpath and others. At the head 
 of the essayists stand Ralph Waldo 
 Emerson, with Henry D. Thoreau, O.W. 
 Holmes, and G. W. Curtis; other essay- 
 ists of note were N. P. Willis, T. B. 
 Aldrich, J. T. Fields, and J. G. Holland, 
 while Charles Dudley Warner, Brander 
 Matthews, and Agnes Repplier in a 
 later generation did much to maintain 
 the h’gh standard. 
 
 UNITED STATES, TERRITORIAL 
 EXPANSION OF THE, There have been 
 thirteen additions to the original terri- 
 tory of the Union, including Alaska, 
 the Hawaiian, Philippine, and Samoan 
 islands and Guam, in the Pacific, and 
 Porto Rico and Pine islands, in the 
 West Indies, and the Panama canal 
 zone; and the total area of the United 
 States, including the noncontiguous 
 territory, is now fully five times that of 
 the original thirteen colonies. The ad- 
 ditions to the territory of the United 
 States subsequent to the peace treaty 
 with Great Britain of 1783 are shown 
 by the following table, prepared by the 
 United States general land office : 
 
 ADDITIONS TO THE TERRITORY OP THE 
 UNITED STATES PROM 1800 TO 1901. 
 
 Territorial Division 
 
 Year 
 
 Area 
 Added, 
 S. Miles 
 
 Purch ’80 
 
 Price, 
 
 Dollars 
 
 Louisiana purchase . , 
 
 Plorida 
 
 Texas 
 
 1803 
 
 1819 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 1848 
 1850 
 1853 
 1867 
 
 1897 
 
 1898 
 1898 
 
 1898 
 
 1899 
 1899 
 1901 
 
 875,025 
 
 70,107 
 
 389,795 
 
 288,689 
 
 523,803 
 
 t 
 
 36,211 
 
 599,446 
 
 6,740 
 
 3,600 
 
 883 
 
 175 
 
 143,000 
 
 73 
 
 68 
 
 ,15.000,000 
 
 5.499,768 
 
 Oregon territory 
 
 Mexican cession 
 
 Purchase from Texas 
 
 Gadsden purchase 
 
 Alaska 
 
 Hawaiian Islands 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 *18,250,000 
 
 10 ,000,000 
 
 10 ,000,000 
 
 7,200,000’ 
 
 Pine Islands (W. I.) 
 Guam 
 
 
 
 Philippine Islands . . . 
 
 Samoan Islands 
 
 Additional Phil’pines 
 
 Total 
 
 30.000,000' 
 
 100,000 
 
 
 2,937,613 
 
 87,009,768 
 
 
 
 ♦Of which $3,250,000 was in payment of claims 
 of American citizens against Mexico. fArea 
 purchased from Texas amounting to 123,784 
 square miles is not included In the column of 
 area added, because it became a part of the area 
 of the United States with the admission of 
 Texas. 
 
 Article 2 of the treaty between 
 the United States and the Republic 
 of Panama, ratified by the United 
 States senate February 23, 1904, treaty 
 in effect February 26, 1904, provided 
 for the cession, in perpetuity, bj 
 Panama, of a strip of territory adjacent 
 to the canal, as follows : “The Republic 
 of Panama grants to the United States 
 in perpetuity the use, occupation, and 
 ' control of the zone of land and land un- 
 
tJNIVALVE 
 
 UPAS 
 
 der water for the construction, main- 
 tenance, operation, sanitation, and pro- 
 tection of said canal of the width of ten 
 miles, extending to the distance of five 
 miles on each side of the center line of 
 the route of the canal to be constructed; 
 the said zone beginning in the Carib- 
 bean sea, three marine miles from mean 
 low-water mark, and extending to and 
 across the Isthmus of Panama into the 
 Pacific ocean to a distance of three 
 marine miles from mean low-water 
 mark, with the proviso that the cities 
 of Panama and Colon and the harbors 
 adjacent to said cities, which are in- 
 cluded within the boundaries of the 
 zone above described, shall not be in- 
 cluded within this grant. The Republic 
 of Panama further grants to the United 
 States in perpetuity the use, occupation, 
 and control of anyotherlands and waters 
 outside of the zone above described, 
 which may be necessary and convenient 
 for the construction, maintenance, opera- 
 tion, sanitation, and protection of the 
 said canal or of any auxiliary canals or 
 other work necessary and convenient 
 for the construction, maintenance, opera- 
 tion, sanitation, and protection of the 
 said enterprise. The Republic of 
 Panama further grants to the United 
 States in perpetuity the use, occupa- 
 tion and control of all 'slands within 
 the limits of the zone above described, 
 and in addition thereto the group of 
 small islands in th^; Bay of Panama 
 named Perico, Nacs, Culebra, and 
 Flamingo.” 
 
 UNIVALVE, a mollusc, with a shell 
 composed of a single piece. The uni- 
 valves include most of the Gasteropoda, 
 as land-snails, sea-snails, whelks, lim- 
 pets, etc. The majority of univalve 
 
 A 
 
 Univalve shell. 
 
 A, Apex. B, Base, c, Aperture, d, Anterior canal, e, Pos* 
 terior canal, r, Inner lip, pillar lip, columellar lip or labium. 
 G. Outer lip or labrum. dfeo, Peristome or margin of aperture, 
 w, Whorls or volutions, s, Sutures, or lines of separation, v, 
 Varix— The last whorl of the shell, usually much larger than the 
 rest, is called the “ body whorl/' the rest of the volutions con* 
 Ftitute the “spire." 
 
 shells are cone-shaped and spiral. In 
 the simplest form the conical shape is 
 retained without any alteration, as in 
 the limpet. In most cases, however, the 
 cone is elongated, sometimes forming 
 a simple tube, as in Dentalium, but 
 usually coiled up into a spiral. 
 
 UNIVERSALISTS, those who hold the 
 doctrine that all men will be saved, in 
 opposition to the doctrine of eternal 
 punishment. A sect of this name was 
 founded about 1750. They believe in 
 the ultimate salvation of all men and 
 created spirits, and direct their criticism 
 against an eternal hell, and in some cases 
 even against any suffering after death. 
 The name ITniversalists is sometimes 
 applied to the Arminians in consequence 
 
 of the universality wliich they aocribe 
 to the operation of divine grace and 
 their opposition to the doctrine of par- 
 ticular election. 
 
 UNIVERSITY. See articles following 
 that of the different states. 
 
 UNIVERSITY, a corporate body or 
 corporation established for the purposes 
 of instruction in all or some of the most 
 important branches of literature and 
 science, and having the power of con- 
 ferring certain honorary dignities, as 
 arts, medicine, law, and theology. In 
 most cases the corporations constituting 
 universities include a body of teachers 
 or professors for giving instruction to 
 students; but this is not absolutely 
 essential to a university, and London 
 university, for instance, was long merely 
 an examining body. In the middle ages, 
 when the term began to be used in refer- 
 ence to seminaries of learning, it denoted 
 either the whole body of teachers and 
 learners, or the whole body of learners, 
 with corporate rights and under by- 
 laws of their own, divided either accord- 
 ing to the faculty to which they were 
 attached, or according to the country to 
 which they belonged (hence the “na- 
 tions” into which the students were 
 classed, and which still exist in some 
 universities). At a later period the 
 expression universitas literarum (the 
 whole of literature or learning) was used 
 to indicate that all the most important 
 branches of knowledge were to be taught 
 in these establisliments. Some, forming 
 their notion of a university from the 
 universities of Oxford and Cambridge, 
 suppose that it necessarily means a col- 
 lection and union of colleges, that it is a 
 great corporation embodying in one 
 certain smaller and subordinate colle- 
 giate bodies; but this is not correct, 
 for many universities exist in which 
 there are no colleges. This is the case 
 with most of the German universities, 
 and in the Scottish universities there 
 are no foundations which bear any re- 
 semblance to the English colleges. 
 Oxford and Cambridge differ from most 
 universities also in the fact that, though 
 they possess a body of professors, little 
 of the teaching falls to be done by these. 
 The oldest of the European universities 
 were these of Bologna and Paris, and 
 these formed the models on which most 
 of the other early universities were estab- 
 lished, a papal bull being generally re- 
 garded as necessary to this. The United 
 States possesses the largest number of 
 institutions bearing the name of uni- 
 versities, but a large proportion are sec- 
 tarian, and many represent only a single 
 faculty. For the chief universities see 
 under separate heads, and refer to the 
 articles following the different states. 
 
 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION, a move- 
 ment to extend the means of higher 
 education to persons of all classes and 
 of both sexes engaged in the regular 
 occupations of life. Any community 
 may avail itself of the privileges by 
 forming a local committee, who provide 
 the necessary funds and fix fees, etc. 
 The mode of instruction consists of 
 courses of lectures by specialist gradu- 
 ates of the universities, each lecture 
 being preceded or followed by a class, 
 in which the students are orally ex- 
 amined by the lecturer, who also cor- 
 
 rects written papers done at home. Ah 
 examination is held at the end of each 
 course and certificates awarded. Home 
 reading circles under the direction of 
 leaders are one outcome of the move- 
 ment. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF NASHVILLE, THE, 
 
 began its life in 1785, eleven years be- 
 fore Tennessee became one of the states 
 of the Union, and only five years after 
 the first settlement was made upon the 
 site of Nashville, under a charter from 
 the legislature of North Carolina to 
 Davidson academy. In 1806 the legis- 
 lature of Tennessee changed the name 
 of the institution to Cumberland col- 
 lege, which it kept until 1825; it then 
 became the University of Nashville. 
 In 1874the university offered most of its 
 buildings and grounds for the establish- 
 ment of Peabody Normal college, which 
 has since become Peabody college for 
 teachers, and which has about 12,000 
 alumni, men and women, a majority of 
 whom have followed the teaching pro- 
 fession. The university has in addition 
 an endowed primary department called 
 the Montgomery Bell academy, with 
 3000 alumni. The university in all of 
 its departments has on an average of 
 1300 or 1400 students. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF THE SOUTH, THE, 
 Sewanee, Tennessee; an institution of 
 higher learning, including with its 
 academic department the following pro- 
 fessional schools; civil engineering, the- 
 ology, law, medicine, pharmacy, a train- 
 ing school for nurses and a grammar 
 school. Confers the following degrees 
 in course : B.A., M.A., C.E., LL.B., B.D., 
 G.D., M.D., Ph.G. The government of 
 the university is vested in a board of 
 trustees, consisting of eighteen bishops 
 of the Episcopal church, one of whom 
 is elected chancellor, a like number of 
 clerical and twice that number of lay 
 trustees, representing the following 
 ecclesiastical divisions: Ashville; Ala- 
 bama; North, East, and South Carolina'; 
 Georgia; Florida; Mississippi ; Louisiana; 
 Dallas, Texas and West Texas; Ar- 
 kansas; Southern Florida; Kentucky; 
 Lexington; Missouri, and Tennessee. 
 The administration is vested in a %dce- 
 chancellor and a hebdomadal board. 
 The university was organized and re- 
 ceived its charter from the state of 
 Tennessee in 1857. The civil war re- 
 tarded its progress and it was finally 
 opened in 1868. The graduate alumni 
 number about 1000. The faculties num- 
 ber about fifty and the annual student 
 attendance is between five and six hun- 
 dred. 
 
 UNLEAVENED BREAD, was that 
 form of bread used (Lev. ii. and iv.) in 
 the Jewish temple service, and which, 
 by the Mosaic law, the people were re- 
 quired to eat during the seven days of 
 the Passover (Ex. xii. 15). It was the 
 simplest form of bread, and was made 
 without fermentation. 
 
 UPAS, a tree common in the forests of 
 Java, and of some of the neighboring 
 islands, and found also in tropical 
 Africa. Many exaggerated stories were 
 formerly current concerning the deadly 
 properties of this plant, its exhalations 
 being said to be fatal to both animal and 
 vegetable life at several ndles distance' 
 from the tree itself. The truth is, that 
 
UPUPA 
 
 UTAH 
 
 the upas is a tree which yields a poison- 
 ous secretion and nothing more. 
 
 Upas tree. 
 
 UP'UPA. See Hoopoe. 
 
 UR.®'MIA, a diseased condition of 
 the body arising from the presence of 
 urea in the blood, in consequence of the 
 urine not being properly secreted, as in 
 Bright’s disease or other ailments, thus 
 leaving in the blood elements that should 
 be carried off. 
 
 URAL, a river of Russia, which rises 
 in the Ural mountains, forms part of 
 the boundary between Europe and Asia, 
 and enters the Caspian after a course of 
 about 1000 miles. 
 
 URAL MOUNTAINS, a series of moun- 
 tains and plateaus stretching nearly 
 north and south between Europe and 
 Asia, from the shores of the Arctic 
 ocean for a distance of about 1900 miles; 
 highest summit, 5513 feet. The Ural 
 mountains are celebrated for the mines 
 of gold, platinum, copper, coal, and iron 
 which they contain, and in the south 
 are many broad valleys of remarkable 
 fertility. 
 
 URANIA, in Greek mythology, the 
 muse of astronomy. She is generally 
 
 Urania, antique statue in the Vatican. 
 
 represented holding in her left hand a 
 celestial globe to which she points with 
 a little staff. 
 
 URANIUM, a rare metal, whose 
 chemical symbol is U, atomic weight 
 240, specific gravity 18.4. The chief 
 source of uranium is pitchblende. Me- 
 tallic uranium is obtained in the form of 
 a black powder, or sometimes aggre- 
 gated in small plates, having a silvery 
 luster and a certain degree of malleabil- 
 ity. It forms several oxides, which are 
 used in painting on porcelain, yielding 
 a fine orange color in the enamelling 
 fire, and a black color in that in which 
 the porcelain itself is baked. 
 
 P. E.— 81 
 
 U'RANUS, in Greek mythology, the 
 son of Gaea, the earth, and by her the 
 father of the Titans, Cyclopes, etc. He 
 hated his children, and confined them in 
 Tartarus, but on the instigation of Gaea, 
 Kronos, the youngest of the Titans, 
 overthrew and dethroned him. 
 
 U'RANUS, in astronomy, one of the 
 primary planets, and the seventh from 
 the sun, discovered by Sir William 
 Herschel in 1781. It was first called 
 Georgium Sidus in honor of George III., 
 and afterward Herschel, in honor of the 
 discoverer. To the naked eye it appears 
 like a star of the sixth magnitude. Its 
 mean distance from the sun is about 
 1754 millions of miles, and the length of 
 the year 30,686.82 days, or about 84 of 
 our years. Its mean diameter is esti- 
 mated at about 33,000 miles. Its volume 
 exceeds the earth’s about 74 times, but 
 as its mean density is only 0.17 (the 
 earth’s being 1) its mass is only about 
 12J times more. The length of its day 
 is supposed to be between 9 and 10 
 hours. It is now generally admitted 
 that this planet has four satellites, which 
 differ from the other planets, primary 
 and secondary (with the exception of 
 Neptune’s satellite), in the direction of 
 their motion, this being from east to 
 west, and they move in planes nearly 
 perpendicular to the ecliptic. 
 
 URE'TER, the excretory duct or tube 
 which conveys the urine from each 
 kidney to the bladder. In man it is 
 about the size of a goose-quill; and its 
 length is from 16 to 18 inches. 
 
 URETH'RA. in anatomy, the canal 
 leading from the bladder to the external 
 urinary opening, and serving for the 
 excretion of the urine. In the male it is a 
 complicated structure varying in length 
 from 8 to 9 inches, and in the female it is 
 a narrow membranous canal about 1^ 
 inch in length. 
 
 URIC ACID, an acid which occurs in 
 small quantity in the healthy urine of 
 man and quadrupeds, and in much 
 larger quantity in the urine of birds. 
 Uric acid constitutes the principal pro- 
 portion of the urinary calculi and the 
 concretions causing the complaint known 
 as the gravel. 
 
 URINE, an animal fluid or liquor 
 secreted by the kidneys, whence it is 
 conveyed into the bladder by the ureters 
 and through the urethra discharged. In 
 its natural state it is acid, transparent, 
 of a pale amber or straw color, a brackish 
 taste, a peculiar odor, and of a specific 
 gravity varying from 1.012 to 1.030. 
 The character of the urine, however, is 
 apt to be altered by the state of health, 
 the season of the year, age, food, and a 
 variety of other causes. A knowledge 
 of the urine in health, and of the varia- 
 tions to which it is subject in disease, 
 is of the utmost importance to the medi- 
 cal practitioner. One of its morbid con- 
 stituents is diabetic sugar. See Diabetes. 
 
 URSA MAJOR AND URSA MINOR. 
 See Bear, Great and Little. 
 
 UR'SULA, St., a virgin martyr, ac- 
 cording to the legend a daughter of a 
 prince in Britain put to death at Cologne 
 by a horde of Huns, some say in 384, 
 others in 453, together with 11,000 
 virgins who accompanied her. Accord- 
 ing to another reading the number of 
 her companions was only eleven. 
 
 UR'SULINES, or NUNS OF ST. 
 URSULA, a sisterhood founded by St. 
 Angela Merici at Brescia, in 1537. They 
 devote themselves to the succor of 
 poverty and sickness and the education 
 of female children. They had many 
 houses in France during the 17th cen- 
 tury. The Canadian Ursulines date from 
 1639; the Irish from 1771. There are 
 now four houses in Ireland and four in 
 England. In the United States there 
 are twenty-four establishments with 
 thousands of pupils. 
 
 URSUS. See Bear. 
 
 U'RUBU, the native name of an 
 American vulture (black vulture or 
 zopilote), very nearly allied to the tur- 
 key-buzzard, which it closely resembles. 
 This voracious bird is common in the 
 villages and towns of the southern states 
 acting as a scavenger. 
 
 URUGUAY (u-ru-gwi), a river of 
 South America, which rises in Brazil, 
 in the province of Santa Catarina, 
 flows first westward, then gradually 
 turns south, and finally enters the 
 estuary of La Plata opposite Buenos 
 Ayres; length, about 800 miles. 
 
 URUGUAY, or BANDA ORIENTAL 
 DEL URUGUAY, a republic of South 
 America, bounded on the north and 
 northeast by Brazil, on the east by the 
 Atlantic, on the south by the Rio de la 
 Plata, and on the west by the Uruguay, 
 separating it from the Argentine repub- 
 lic; area estimated at 72,150 sq. miles. 
 The Surface forms a vast undulating 
 plain, generally flat, but broken in the 
 interior by several ridges of moderate 
 elevation. The principal river is the 
 Negro, which divides the state into two 
 nearly equal portions, and on the south- 
 east frontier is the large lake of Merim. 
 The climate is mild and healthy, the 
 general range of the thermometer being 
 from 32° to 90° F. The extensive plains 
 are admirably adapted for agriculture, 
 which has made rapid progress in recent 
 ye^rs, wheat, corn, etc., being culti- 
 vated; but the rearing of sheep and 
 cattle is still the principal industry. 
 The chief exports are hides, tallow, pre- 
 served meat, sheepskins, bones, wool 
 and cereals, while the chief imports are 
 cotton goods, woolens, coal, and iron. 
 Montevideo is the capital and chief port. 
 There is a small army and navy. Rail- 
 ways have a length of about 1000 miles. 
 Primary education is by law compul- 
 sory; there are normal, secondary, and 
 higher institutions, and a university at 
 Montevideo. The Roman Catholic is 
 the state religion, but all faiths are 
 tolerated. The country is divided into 
 nineteen provinces, and by the constitu- 
 tion of 1830 it is governed by a presi- 
 dent, a senate, and a house of repre- 
 sentatives. Uruguay at one time formed 
 part of the Spanish viceroyalty of 
 Buenos Ayres, and the language of the 
 country is Spanish. Pop. 1,000,000. 
 
 USUFRUCT, in law, the temporary use 
 and enjoyment of lands or tenements 
 or the right of receiving the fruits and 
 profits of lands or other things without 
 having the right to alienate or change 
 the property. 
 
 USURY, See Interest. 
 
 UTAH (u'ta), one of the western 
 United States, bounded by Idaho. 
 Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, and 
 
UTAH 
 
 UTOPIA 
 
 Nevada. It ranks eighth in size among 
 the states having an area, 84,970 sq. 
 miles. The Wahsatch mountains di- 
 vide Utah into two unequal portions; 
 a hilly country on the east, drained by 
 the Colorado, with its head streams the 
 Green and Grand rivers, and numerous 
 tributaries, and a high and generally 
 sterile table-land on the west, the drain- 
 age of which falls into the different lakes. 
 Of these the largest are the Great Salt 
 Lake and Utah Lake, both in the north- 
 west. Some peaks of the Wahsatch 
 mountains are 10,000 to 13,000 feet 
 above sea-level, while the average ele- 
 vation of the valleys is 5000 feet. The 
 climate is of the continental type, with 
 sudden changes and great extremes in 
 5;ummer and vdnter, although the valleys 
 being well sheltered, have generally a 
 mild and pleasant climate. The rainfall 
 throughout the state is insufficient for 
 the needs of agriculture, and irrigation is 
 everywhere necessary. The average pre- 
 cipitation for the state is 12 inches. The 
 soil ofThe valleys, contains the elements 
 of fertility, which render it very produc- 
 tive when irrigated. To the southwest 
 of the Great Salt Lake lies the wide, 
 arid plain known as the Great Salt Lake, 
 or Great American, desert. Valuable 
 deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, iron. 
 
 coal, and other minerals exist, and the 
 production of the mines is increasing. 
 Agriculture is the chief occupation. It 
 is dependent almost wholly upon irriga- 
 tion, and Utah was the first state to dem- 
 onstrate the possibilities of the irriga- 
 tion system. The western half of the 
 state belongs to the Great Basin, and 
 nearly 90 per cent of the irrigated land 
 is within this basin. Almost the entire 
 water supply is drawn from streams. 
 Wells afford a very small amount. Hay 
 is the crop most extensively grown and 
 also the most valuable crop, alfalfa be- 
 ing the principal variety. Wheat and 
 oats are the most widely grown cereals. 
 Much attention is given to vegetables, 
 particularly potatoes and sugar-beets. 
 Sufficient pasturage to support a con- 
 siderable grazing industry is found in 
 the eastern half and the valleys of the 
 central region. A steady increase in the 
 number of dairy cows and other cattle, 
 1 orses and sheep has been maintained 
 since 1850. The Union Pacific was the 
 first railway to enter Utah, and since its 
 advent in 1869 the development of the 
 state has been very rapid. The total rail- 
 \\ay mileage in 1876 was 500; in 1894, 
 
 1347; and in 1907, 1835. The most im- 
 portant railway lines are the Rio Grande 
 Western and the Oregan Short Line, ex- 
 tending north and south through the 
 central part of the state, and the Union 
 Pacific, passing through the northern 
 portion. There are no navigable streams. 
 Utah is the center of Mormonism. About 
 three-fourths of its population is allied 
 with the Mormon church. In recent 
 years many other denominations have 
 entered the state, of which the Catholics 
 and Methodists are numerically the 
 strongest. The leading educational in- 
 stitutions are the University of Utah, at 
 Salt Lake City; Brigham Young College, 
 at Logan ; and the Agricultural College of 
 Utah, also at Logan. A state normal 
 college is maintained in connection with 
 the State University, and there is a 
 branch normal school at Cedar City. 
 The first white explorers of Utah were 
 Spaniards, sent by Coronado, who 
 reached the Colorado river in 1540. The 
 real history of Utah begins when the 
 Mormons determined in 1846 to move 
 west. The United States did not ob- 
 tain possession of the territory until 
 1848, and did not immediately provide 
 for its government. At first the Mor- 
 mon church was the ruler, but with 
 the coming of non-Mormons in 1849 
 the state of Deseret was organized, 
 a constitution adopted, and a dele- 
 gate sent to the United States congress 
 asking admission. Congress refused 
 to admit the state, but organized the 
 Territory of Utah (September 9, 1850), 
 and Brigham Young was appointed 
 governor. The Edmunds bill in 1882 
 disfranchised all polygamists, and abol- 
 ished most of the offices in the ter- 
 ritory. Control was given to a com- 
 mission of five men. A more stringent 
 act was passed in 1887, the corporation 
 of the Mormon church, and the Per- 
 petual Emigration Fund were abolished, 
 and their property escheated. In 1890, 
 President Woodruff of the Mormon 
 church issued a manifesto declaring that 
 the church no longer countenanced 
 polygamy. This was followed in 1891 by 
 the formation of political parties, on 
 national lines, and in 1893 amnesty was 
 declared to all offenders who could show 
 that they had not broken the law since 
 1890. Congress passed an enabling act 
 for statehood in 1894, a constitution 
 was formed on March 6, 1895, was 
 adopted in November, and the state was 
 admitted January 4, 1896. The consti- 
 tution forbids polgyamy find allows 
 woman’s suffrage. The state has voted 
 in but three presidential elections. The 
 silver question was the sole issue in 1896, 
 and the vote was cast for the democratic 
 silver candidate. In I'JOO Republican 
 electors were chosen, and by an in- 
 creased majority in 1901 and 1908. 
 
 The capital is Salt Lake City; other 
 cities are Ogden, Provo, and Logan. 
 Pop. 1909, 950,000. 
 
 UTAH, University of, a state institu- 
 tion of learning for both sexes at Salt 
 Lake City, Utah, founded in 1850 as the 
 university of the state of Deseret. A new 
 charter was secured in 1894, when the 
 present corporate title was assumed. 
 The departments are the school of arts 
 and sciences; the state school of mines, 
 established by the state legislature in I 
 
 1901; the state normal school ; and a pre- 
 paratory department. Students are ad- 
 mitted on examination or on certificate 
 from accredited schools. 
 
 UTAH LAKE, a fresh-water lake in 
 Utah territory, 30 miles s. of Salt Lake 
 City. It is 25 miles in length n. to s., 
 with an extreme width of 13 miles. Its 
 waters are drained into Great Salt Lake 
 by means of the river Jordan. Several 
 Morman towns are on its eastern shores. 
 
 UTAHS, or UTES, a tribe of American 
 Indians of the Shoshone family, living 
 in New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, and 
 Nevada. They practice hunting and 
 fishing, but rarely engage in agriculture. 
 They have now sold most of their lands 
 to the United States government, re- 
 taining a large reservation in the south- 
 west corner of Colorado. 
 
 U'TERUS, or WOMB, an organ of 
 females, situated between the bladder 
 and rectum, in which the embryo is con- 
 tained until it arrives at maturity, when 
 it is finally born or expelled. In the 
 virgin female it is somewhat pear- 
 shaped, and measures about 3 inches 
 long, 2 inches broad, 1 inch thick, and 
 weighs about 1 J oz. It is divided into a 
 fundus or base, a body, and a cervix or 
 neck. It opens into the vagina by a 
 transverse aperture. The organ is re- i 
 tained in its place by certain ligaments i’ 
 derived from the peritoneum. Its inter- •; 
 nal cavity is small, and at each superior 
 angle at the fundus a Fallopian tube I 
 or oviduct enters. These tubes convey t 
 the ova or eggs from the ovary to the | 
 uterus. In structure the uterus is com- i 
 posed of an outer serous coat, a middle 9 
 muscular coat, and an inner mucous ^ 
 lining. The arteries of the uterus are f 
 derived from the internal iliac and the k 
 aorta; the veins are large, and are ealled I 
 sinuses in the impregnated state. The I 
 nerves spring from the inferior hypogas- 1 
 trie and spermatic plexuses, and from | 
 the third and fourth sacral nerves. The i 
 womb is liable to many diseases, of f 
 which the most frequent and important 4 
 are inflammatory affections and tumors. I 
 It is also liable to become displaced in " 
 various ways, from laxity of its hga- | 
 ments and other causes. ; 
 
 U'TICA, an ancient city of North ; 
 Africa, on the river Bagrada, near its i 
 entrance into the Mediterranean. After 1 
 the destruction of Carthage, Utica be> ■ 
 came the capital of the Roman province. ' 
 It was destroyed by the Arabs in the « 
 latter part of the 7th century. 
 
 U'TICA, a city in New York, situated 
 on the right bank of the Mohawk, 95 
 miles west by north of Albany. It has ^ 
 cotton factories, boot and shoe factories, 
 flour, grist, and saw mills, tanneries, 
 foundries, machine-shops, etc.; and an 
 extensive trade, greatlyfacilitated bythe 
 Erie and the Chenango canals, and by 
 several railways. Pop. 1909, 72,000. 
 
 UTILITARIANISM, the general name 
 given to those schools of morals which i 
 define virtue as consisting in utility. The 
 name is more specially applied to the 
 school founded by Jeremy Bentham, of 
 which the most recent exponent is John 
 Stuart Mill, but there are many other 
 developments of the same principle both ' 
 in ancient and modern schools of morals. ! 
 See Ethics. i 
 
 UTOPIA, a name invented by Si:: | 
 
UTRECHT 
 
 VALERIAN 
 
 Thomas More, from the Greek ou topos 
 (no place), and applied by him to an 
 imaginary island, which he represents as 
 discovered by a companion of Amerigo 
 Vespucci. As described in his work 
 called Utopia, written in Latin and 
 published in 1516, the Utopians had 
 attained great perfection in laws, poli- 
 tics, etc. 
 
 UTRECHT, (6'treht), an important 
 town of Holland, capital of a province 
 of the same name, 23 miles southeast 
 of Amsterdam. Utrecht is the central 
 point of the Dutch railv/ay system, and 
 carries on an extensive trade in grain 
 and cattle, and in the manufactures of 
 the place, which include Utrecht velvet, 
 carpets, floor-cloth, cottons, linens, 
 chemicals, etc. Utrecht is the oldest 
 town in Holland. Pop. 104,194. — The 
 province of Utrecht has an area of 532 
 sq. miles, with a pop. of 215,958. It is 
 
 V, the twenty-second letter of the 
 English alphabet, a labial, formed by 
 the junction of the upper teeth with the 
 lower lip, and a gentle expiration. It 
 resembles the letter f, but is sonant and 
 not like it surd or hard. 
 
 VAAL RIVER, a river of South Africa, 
 rises in the Quathlamba mountains, 
 separates the Transvaal and Orange 
 River colony and enters the Orange 
 river: length 500 miles. 
 
 VACCINATION, inoculation with the 
 cowpox — a disease akin to, but much 
 less severe than smallpox — in order to 
 prevent a person from catching the 
 latter, or at least to make the attack 
 much less severe. The practice of vac- 
 cination was introduced by Jenner, and 
 it soon came into common use instead of 
 inoculation. (See Jenner and Inocula- 
 tion.) The usual method in vaccination 
 is to make a few scratches across one 
 another, with a clean lancet point, upon 
 the upper part of the arm. The matter 
 from the cowpox, or from the vaccina- 
 tion pustule produced on another per- 
 son, is then rubbed on the skin where 
 the scratches have been made. If the 
 vaccination proves successful a small 
 inflamed pustule appears about the 
 third day, and increases dn size until 
 . the tenth day. On the eighth day the 
 constitutional effects manifest them- 
 selves by slight pain in the part, head- 
 ache, shivering, loss of appetite, etc. 
 These subside spontaneously in one or 
 two days. Afterward the fluid in the 
 pustules dries up, and a scab forms 
 which disappears about the twentieth 
 day, leaving a slight scar in the skin. 
 Repeated vaccination with intervals of 
 several years have been recommended 
 by medical authorities. In the United 
 States the vaccination of all children, 
 excepting those in an unhealthy or 
 otherwise unfit condition, is compul- 
 sory. In England since 1898 any parent 
 who satisfies two justices or a stipen- 
 diary magistrate that he really be- 
 1 lieves that vaccination would be in- 
 I jurious to his child may be exempted 
 \ from penalties. 
 
 VAC'UUM, empty space, or space de- 
 I void of all matter or body. Whether 
 
 generally flat, is well watered by the 
 Rhine, Vecht, Amstel, etc., and is better 
 suited for dairy-farming and stock- 
 rearing than for corn-growing. 
 
 UTRECHT, Peace of, a series of sepa- 
 rate treaties agreed upon at Utrecht by 
 the powers which had been engaged 
 in the war of the Spanish succession. 
 On April 11, 1713, the States-general, 
 Prussia, Portugal, and Savoy, signed 
 separate treaties with France. The em- 
 peror refused to accede to the peace, 
 and his differences with France were 
 subsequently adjusted by the treaties 
 of Rastadt and Baden in 1714. By the 
 treaty with England, France, among 
 other things, recognized the Hanoverian 
 succession, engaged never to unite the 
 crowns of France and Spain, and ceded 
 to Britain Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, 
 St. Kitt’s, and Hudson’s bay and straits. 
 Gibraltar and Minorca were also ceded 
 
 V 
 
 there is such a thing as an absolute 
 vacuum in nature is a question which 
 has been much controverted. The 
 existence of a vacuum was maintained 
 by the Pythagoreans, Epicureans, and 
 Atomists; but it was denied by the 
 Peripatetics, who asserted that “nature 
 abhors a vacuum.” The modern theory, 
 which seems to be warranted by ex- 
 perience, is that an absolute vacuum 
 cannot exist, the subtle mediupi known 
 as ether being believed to be everywhere 
 present. In a less strict sense a vacuum 
 (more or less perfect) is said to be pro- 
 duced when air is more or less com- 
 pletely removed from an inclosed space, 
 such as the receiver of an air-pump, a 
 portion of a barometric tube, etc. In 
 the receiver of the air-pump the vacuum 
 can only be partial, as the exhaustion is 
 limited by the remaining air not having 
 sufficient elasticity to raise the valves. 
 The Torricellian vacuum, that is, the 
 space above the mercury in a carefully 
 manipulated barometer tube, is more 
 nearly perfect in this respect, but even 
 this space is to some extent filled with 
 the vapor of mercury. If, however, an 
 air-pump reeeiver, filled with pure 
 carbonic acid gas (so as to expel the air), 
 be exhausted, a small vessel containing 
 moist caustic potash, and another con- 
 taining concentrated sulphuric acid, 
 having been previously introduced, the 
 remaining carbonic acid is taken up and 
 a vacuum produced so nearly absolute 
 that the electric spark fails to pass 
 through it. 
 
 VACUUM-BRAKE. See Brake. 
 
 VALAIS (va-la), a southern canton of 
 Switzerland, abutting on France and 
 Italy; area, 2026 sq. miles. It is sur- 
 rounded on all sides by sections of the 
 Alps, with ridges 13,000 to 15,000 feet 
 high, and magnificent glaciers. Rich 
 pastures support numerous cattle, the 
 chief source of subsistence of the in- 
 habitants; and in the lower valley of the 
 Rhone there is much arable land, the 
 finer fruits are grown, and silk-worms 
 reared. Pop. 114,980. 
 
 VALENCIA, a city of Spain, capital 
 of the province of the same name, on the 
 Guadilaviar, 2 miles from the Mediter- 
 
 on behalf of Spain. Holland retained 
 the Spanish Netherlands until a barrier 
 treaty was arranged with Austria. Louis 
 XIV. recognized the title of the King 
 of Prussia, who received a part of Span- 
 ish Guelderland, and the sovereignty of 
 Neufchatel in Switzerland, while re- 
 nouncing the principality of Orange. 
 Savoy and Nice were restored to the 
 Duke of Savoy, who was recognized as 
 presumptive heir to the Spanish mon- 
 archy, and received the title of king. 
 Philip V. was not recognized till the con- 
 clusion of these treaties, but France 
 treated for Spain, and formal treaties 
 corresponding with those with France 
 were afterward signed with that power. 
 
 UZ, in the Old Testament, a region 
 probably lying to the east or southeast 
 of Palestine, known as the scene of the 
 story of Job. 
 
 ranean. The chief manufactures are silk, 
 linen, hemp, glass, cigars, paper, and 
 soap. Valencia was founded by Junius 
 Brutus, 140 B.c. Pop. 204,768. The old 
 province of Valencia is now broken up 
 into the three provinces of Valencia, 
 Alicante, and Castellon de la Plana. It 
 is one of the most fertile and pleasant 
 regions of Spain. 
 
 VALENS, Flavius, Roman emperor 
 of the East, born in Pannonia in 328, 
 and declared emperor of the East by his 
 brother Valentinian I., who had already 
 been elected emperor. The chief event 
 of his reign was the war with the Goths 
 under Athanaric, which lasted during 
 the whole of Valens’ reign. Irritated by 
 the treatment they received at the hands 
 of the imperial officials, they soon took 
 up arms, and in 378 defeated Valens 
 and destroyed the greater part of his 
 army. Valens was never seen or heard 
 of afterward. 
 
 VALENTIA, or VALENCIA, a small 
 fertile island off the southwest coast of 
 Ireland, belonging to county Kerry, 
 about 5 miles long by 2 miles broad. It 
 has slate and flag quarries, and produc- 
 tive fisheries. The British Atlantic tele- 
 graph cables to Newfoundland start 
 from Valentia, and there is here a light- 
 house. 
 
 VALENTINE, St., a saint of the Ro- 
 man calendar, said to have been mar- 
 tyred in 306 A.D. The custom of choos- 
 ing valentines on his day (14th Feb- 
 ruary) has been accidentally associated 
 with his name. On the eve of St. Valen- 
 tine’s day young people of both sexes 
 used to meet, and each of them drew one 
 by lot from a number of names of the 
 opposite sex, which were put into a 
 common receptacle. Each gentleman 
 thus got a lady for his valentine, and be- 
 came the valentine of a lady. The gen- 
 tlemen remained bound to the service 
 of their valentines for a year. A similar 
 custom prevailed in the Roman Luper- 
 calia, to which the modern custom has, 
 with probability, been traced. The day 
 is now celebrated by sending sentimen- 
 tal or ludicrous missives specially pre- 
 pared for the purpose. 
 
 VALERIAN, a plant, a native of 
 
valerianus 
 
 VAMPIRE 
 
 Europe, which grows abundantly by 
 the sides of rivers, and in ditches and 
 moist woods. The root has a very strong 
 smell, which is dependent on a volatile 
 oU. It is used in medicine, in the form of 
 
 Valerian. 
 
 infusion, decoction, or tincture, as a 
 nervous stimulant and antispasmodic. 
 Cats and rats are very fond of valerian 
 Red valerian, is occasionally found wild 
 in Britain, and is cultivated in gardens, 
 as well as many other species, on ac- 
 count of its elegant flowers. The valerian 
 order consists of monopetalous exogens, 
 annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubs, 
 inhabiting temperate climates. 
 
 VALERIA'NUS, Publius Licimus, Ro- 
 man emperor from 253 to 260. He was 
 taken prisoner by the Persians in 260, 
 and his after fate is unknown. 
 
 VALET'TA, a strongly fortified sea- 
 port, capital of Malta, on the n.e. coast 
 of the island, situated on an elevated 
 neck of land, with a large and com- 
 modious harbor on each side.' The 
 cathedral, built in 1580, contains the 
 
 here spent much of their time in drink- 
 ing and feasting. The name is applied 
 figuratively to any edifice which is the 
 final resting-place of many of the heroes 
 or great men of a nation, and specifically 
 to an edifice built by Ludwig I. of 
 Bavaria, a few miles from Ratisbon. 
 See Walhalla. 
 
 VALKYRTAS, in Northern mythology 
 the “choosers of the slain,” or fatal 
 sisters of Odin, represented as awful 
 and beautiful maidens, who, mounted 
 on swift horses and holding drawn 
 swords in their hands, presided over the 
 field of battle, selecting those destined 
 to death and conducting them to Val- 
 halla, where they ministered at their 
 feasts, serving them with mead and 
 ale in skulls. 
 
 VALLADOLID (vM-yfi-do-lid'), a city 
 of Spain, capital of the province of the 
 same name, 98 miles northwest of 
 Madrid. It has a cathedral, many 
 churches and suppressed convents, 
 three hospitals, and a university. The 
 manufactures consist of silks, cotton 
 and woolen goods, hats, jewelry, paper, 
 etc. Pop. 68,746.— The province has 
 an area of 3042 sq. miles, and a popula- 
 tion of 276,366. It is well watered by 
 the Douro and its tributaries, and is 
 verv fertile. 
 
 VALLANDIGHAM (vM-l&n'dI-gam), 
 Clement Laird, American politician, 
 was born at New Lisbon, Ohio, in 1820. 
 He was elected to the Ohio legislature 
 in 1845; edited the Dayton Western 
 Empire in 1847-49; and from 1857 until 
 1863 was a member of the national 
 house of representatives. He violently 
 attacked the Lincoln administration 
 both in and out of congress. After his 
 
 convention of 1864. In 1871 while act 
 ing as counsel in a murder trial he 
 attempted to illustrate how the shooting 
 occurred and was killed by the accidental 
 discharge of the pistol. 
 
 VALPARAISO (vM-pa-ri's6), the prin- 
 cipal port of Chile, capital of the prov;, 
 ince of Valparaiso, situated on a large 
 bay of the Pacific, 90 miles w.n.w. of 
 Santiago. The bay is open to the north,' 
 but well sheltered from winds in other 
 directions, and is capable of accommo-' 
 dating a very large number of vessels. 
 The custom-house is the only public 
 building worthy of note. Valparaiso is 
 the great commercial emporium of Chile 
 
 Bird’s-eye view of Valetta. 
 
 tombs of the knights of Malta or of St. 
 John, and in a chapel are the keys of 
 Jerusalem, Acre, and Rhodes. Other 
 notable buildings are the governor’s 
 residence, formerly the palace of the 
 grand-masters; the library, museum, 
 university,, and the military hospital. 
 The dockyard is capable of admitting 
 the largest men-of-war. The mail 
 steamers for Alexandria, Constanti- 
 nople, etc., call here, and it is the chief 
 station of the British fleet in the Medi- 
 terranean. Pop. 90,000. See Malta 
 VALHALLA, in Northern mythology, 
 the palace of immortality, inhabited by 
 the souls of heroes slain in battle, who 
 
 term in congress expired, he continued 
 to make incendiary speeches against 
 the government. As a result he was ar- 
 restedinMay, 1863, by order of General 
 Ambrose E. Burnside ; was tried by court 
 martial; and was sentenced to be im- 
 prisoned in Fort Warren. President 
 Lincoln, however, changed the sentence 
 to deportation into the confederate 
 lines. Thence Vallandigham made his 
 way to the Bermudas, and thence to 
 Canada. In the same year he was 
 nominated by his party for the governor- 
 ship of Ohio, but was defeated by the 
 overwhelming majority of 100,000 votes. 
 He took an active part in the democratic 
 
 and is in railway communication ■with 
 Santiago, the capital. The chief imports 
 into Valparaiso are manufactured goods/ 
 sugar, wine, tobacco, and cigars. The 
 exports consist mainly of wheat, barley,' 
 wool, etc., and of mining produce; 
 The imports of Valparaiso constitute 
 nearly the whole of the imports of Chile, 
 while the exports form a large portion 
 of the total exports. An earthquake and 
 fire in 1906 caused great loss of life and 
 property. Pop. 143,022.— The province 
 has an area of 1637 sq. miles, and a 
 pop. 220,756. t 
 
 VALVE, a kind of movable lid or cover 
 adapted to the orifice of some tube or 
 passage, and so formed as to open com- 
 munication in one direction and to close 
 it in the other, used to regulate the ad-j 
 mission or escape of a fluid, such as 
 water, gas, or steam. Some valves are 
 self-acting, that is, they are so coiitrived 
 as to open in the required direction by 
 the pressure of the fluid upon their sur; 
 face, and immediately to shut and pre-^ 
 vent the return of the fluid when the 
 direction of its pressure changes. Others 
 are actuated by independent external 
 agency. Examples of the former kmdf. 
 are presented in the valves of pumps* 
 and in the safety-valves of steam boilers, 
 and of the latter in the slide-valves^ 
 appended to the cylinder of a steam--, 
 engine for the purpose of regulating the^ 
 admission and escape of the steam. Ih^ 
 construction of valves admits of a^ 
 almost endless variety. See Safety^ 
 valve, Pump, etc. _ , 
 
 VAMPIRE, a superstition of Eptern 
 origin existing among the Slavomc and 
 other races on the Lo-wer Danube. A 
 vampire is a ghost still possessing s 
 human body, which leaves the grave 
 during the night and sucks the blood ot 
 li’ving persons, particularly of tlm young 
 and healthy. Dead wizards, heretics, 
 and such like outcasts become vampires, 
 as does also any one killed by a vas^ 
 pire. On the discovery of a vampire s 
 grave the corpse must be disinterred, 
 thrust through with a white-thorn stake, 
 and burned. 
 
 
 
 it) . ‘ 
 
 * ■ 
 
VAMPIRE-BAT 
 
 VANDVCK 
 
 VAMPIRE-BAT, a name for certain 
 bats inhabiting South America. The 
 name was given from the blood-sucking 
 habits attributed to these bats, but how 
 many of them really attack animals and 
 suck blood from them is not quite clear. 
 One species at least, known as the vam- 
 pire-bat, of large size and having for- 
 midable teeth, seems to be conclusively 
 acquitted of the charge, its regular food 
 being fruits and insects. It has large 
 leathery ears, an erect spear-like ap- 
 pendage on the tip of the nose, wings 
 when extended measuring 28 .inches. 
 
 False vampire, one of the vampyri. 
 
 Several bats, however, have been proved 
 to be blood-suckers, the best-known 
 being a species only about 4 inches long 
 and 15 or 16 in expanse of wing. It has 
 large prominent upper incisors of pecu- 
 liar shape, and upper canines somewhat 
 similar, and the stomach and intestines 
 are evidently specially adapted for a 
 diet of blood. This species of bat seems 
 to be generally distributed throughout 
 the warmer parts of South America 
 from Chile to Guiana. The blood-suck- 
 ing propensities of these bats are by no 
 means so dangerous as formerly and 
 popularly described; but there is little 
 doubt that they do attack horses and 
 cattle, and sometimes even man in his 
 sleep. 
 
 VAN BUREN, Martin, eighth presi- 
 dent of the United States, born at 
 Kinderhook, New York, 1782; died 1862. 
 He early studied law, and in 1812 was 
 elected to the state senate. He was 
 attorney-general from 1815 to 1819, 
 and in 1821 was elected United States 
 
 Martin Van Buren. 
 
 senator. In 1828 he became governor 
 of New York, and in the following year 
 President Jackson appointed him sec- 
 retary of state. In November, 1832, 
 he was elected vice-president, and in 
 1836 became president of the United 
 States. The difficulties which his ad- 
 ministration had to face were chiefly 
 
 connected with the deposit of state 
 funds in private banks, and his method 
 of dealing with these brought about 
 his defeat at the next election in 1840. 
 He was again nominated by the demo- 
 crats in the elections of 1844 and 1848 
 but was unsuccessful on both occasions. 
 He wrote a treatise entitled An Inquiry 
 into the Origin and Course of Political 
 Parties in the United States (1867). 
 
 VANCOUVER, George, English navi- 
 gator, born about 1758, died 1798. He 
 accompanied Cook on his second and 
 third voyages (1772-74 and 1776-79); 
 was made first lieutenant in 1780; and 
 served in the West Indies until 1789. 
 In 1790 he was put in command of a 
 small squadron sent to take over Nootka 
 from the Spaniards, and was also 
 charged to ascertain if there was a north- 
 west passage. He sailed inthe Discovery, 
 April 1, 1791, spent some time at the 
 Cape, and afterward made for Australia 
 and New Zealand, the coast of which he 
 surveyed. He then went north and re- 
 ceived formal surrender of Nootka, and 
 spent the three summers of 1792-94 in 
 surveying the coast as far north as 
 Cook’s Inlet, wintering at the Sandwich 
 islands. On his return voyage he visited 
 the chief Spanish settlements on the 
 west coast of South America, and 
 reached England in 1795, where a nar- 
 rative of his voyage was published in 
 1798. Vancouver island was named 
 after him. 
 
 VANCOUVER ISLAND, an island in 
 the Pacific, off the west coast of British 
 Columbia, of which province of Canada 
 it forms part; length, from 250 to 300 
 miles; breadth, from 10 to 70 miles; 
 area, about 15,000 sq. miles. It is gen- 
 erally mountainous, and heavily tim- 
 bered. The climate is temperate, and 
 the soil, in the south and east, fertile 
 and favorable to agriculture and fruit- 
 growing. Large quantities of salmon 
 are exported, and there is an extensive 
 
 trade in fur, the skins exported being 
 chiefly those of the minx, marten, sable, 
 fox, bear, beaver, otter, seal, and deer. 
 There are numerous good harbors along 
 the coasts, the chief of which is Es- 
 quimault. As this island lies opposite 
 the terminus of the Canadian Pacific 
 railway it has recently acquired great 
 importance. The chief town of the 
 island, and the capital of British Colum- 
 bia, is Victoria in the extreme southeast. 
 Pop. of the island about 50,000. 
 
 Vandals, a German nation or con- 
 federation, probably allied to the Goths, 
 who occupied at an early period the 
 country on the south of the Baltic, be- 
 
 tween the Oder and the Vistula. At a 
 later period they appear to have de- 
 scended into Silesia, and subsequently 
 occupied Pannonia, Moravia, and Dacia. 
 In 406, in conjunction with a German 
 host, they ravaged Gaul, and thence 
 found their way into Spain. After de- 
 feating an allied army of Goths and 
 Romans, they seized Seville and Car- 
 thagena, and, led by Genseric, crossed 
 to Africa. Here they vanquished the 
 Roman governor (429), and founded a 
 kingdom, which absorbed the greater 
 part of the Roman possessions. Gen- 
 seric immediately began to revive the 
 maritime glories of Carthage, and ex- 
 tended his conquests to Sicily, Sardinia, 
 and Corsica. He also invaded Italy and 
 sacked Rome in 455. Genseric concluded 
 a long reign in peace in 477. The king- 
 dom of the Vandals was continued undei 
 his descendants — Hunneric, his son, 
 who immediately succeeded him ; Gun- 
 damund, 484; Thrasiimund, 496; Hil- 
 deric, 523; Gelimer, 530. It was over- 
 thrown in 534 by Belisarius, the general 
 of the eastern Emperor Justinian. 
 
 VANDERBILT, Cornelius, American 
 capitalist, born 1794, died 1877, amassed 
 immense wealth in connection with 
 shipping and railroads, a share of which 
 he left to his eldest son William Henry, 
 born 1821, died 1885, who was sup- 
 posed at his death to be the wealthiest 
 man in the world. The Vanderbilt uni- 
 versity (Methodist Episcopal) at Nash- 
 ville, Tennessee, was founded by Cor- 
 nelius Vanderbilt, who presented it with 
 $ 1 , 000 , 000 . 
 
 VANDERBILT, Cornelius, American 
 financier and capitalist, was born at 
 New Dorp, Staten Island, in 1843. In 
 1865 he entered the service of the New 
 York and Harlem railroad, of which he 
 was treasurer from 1867 to 1877. In 
 1877 he became first vice-president of 
 the New A^ork Central railroad. In 1878 
 be became treasurer of the Michigan 
 Central railroad and vice-president and 
 treasurer of the Canadian Southern. 
 Subsequently he was president of both 
 roads, besides being president of the 
 New A^ork and Harlem, and after 1886 
 chairman of the board of directors of the 
 New A^ork Central railroad. He died in 
 1899. 
 
 VANDERBILT, William Henry, Amer- 
 ican capitalist and financier, was born 
 in New Brunswick, N. J., in 1821. He 
 became vice-president of the New A’'ork 
 and Harlem railroad in 1864; vice-presi- 
 dent of the New York Central and Hud- 
 son river in 1865. He succeeded his 
 father in 1877 as president of the latter 
 road, and under his management the 
 control was completed of the Michigan 
 Central, Lake Shore and Michigan 
 Southern, Canada wSouthern, and Chi- 
 cago and Northwestern systems. Sub- 
 sequently the “Nickel Plate” and West 
 Shore roads were acquired. He died 
 in 1885. 
 
 VAN DIEMEN’S LAND. See- Tas- 
 mania. 
 
 VANDYCK (van-dik'). Sir Anthony, 
 except perhaps Titian the greatest of all 
 portrait-painters, was born at Antwerp 
 on the 22d of March, 1599. Having 
 acquired a great reputation as a portrait 
 painter he was invited to England by 
 Charles I., who bestowed upon him the 
 
VANDYKE BROWN 
 
 VASSAR COLLEGE 
 
 honor of knighthood. The painter by 
 unceasing diligence, executed, besides 
 a multitude of portraits, several myth- 
 
 Sir Anthony Vandyck. 
 
 ological and historical paintings. He 
 died in 1641, and was buried at St. 
 Paul’s. 
 
 VANDYKE BROWN, a pigment ob- 
 tained from a kind of peat or bog-earth, 
 of a fine, deep, semi-transparent brown 
 color; so called from its being supposed 
 to be the brown used by Vandyck in his 
 pictures. 
 
 VAN EYCK. See Eyck. 
 
 VANILLA, a flavoring agent used in 
 confectionery, and in the preparation 
 of liquors, procured from the fruit of 
 orchidaceous plants of tropical America, 
 remarkable on account of their climbing 
 
 habit, and now cultivated in various 
 tropical countries, including Ceylon and 
 India. It has a fragrant odor, and is also 
 used in medicine as a stimulant and 
 promoter of digestion. 
 
 VAN RENSSELAER (v&n r6n'se-ler), 
 Stephen, American political leader 
 known as the “Patroon,” was born in 
 New York in 1764. He was lieutenant- 
 governor of New York from 1795 to 
 1801; presided over the state constitu- 
 tional convention of 1801 ; and was again 
 in the assembly in 1808-10. He took an 
 active interest in the construction of the 
 Erie canal and was one of its strongest 
 promoters. In 1824 he established at 
 Troy a scientific school which, two years 
 later, was incorporated as the Rensselaer 
 Polytechnic institute. From 1823 to 
 1829 he was a member of congress. He 
 died in 1839. 
 
 VAPOR, in physics, a term applied 
 to designate the gaseous form which a 
 solid or liquid substance assumes when 
 heated. Vapor is, therefore, essentially 
 
 a gas, and seeing that all known gases 
 have now been proved to be liquefiable, 
 no physical difference can be said really 
 to exist between an ordinary gas, such 
 as oxygen, and a vapor, such as steam. 
 In common language, however, a dif- 
 ference is usually recognized; a gas is 
 a substance which at ordinary tempera- 
 tures and pressures exists in a state of 
 vapor, while a vapor is produced by the 
 application of heat to a substance which 
 normally exists in a solid or liquid form. 
 The difference has been otherwise ex- 
 plained to be one not so much of kind as 
 of degree ; steam in the boiler of a steam- 
 engine being said to be in a state of 
 vapor, while superheated steam is said 
 to be a gas. Aqueous vapor formed on 
 the surface of the land and water is 
 always present in suspension in the 
 atmosphere, and when it meets with a 
 reduction of temperature it condenses 
 into water in the form of rain or dew. 
 
 VAR, a department in the southeast 
 of France, bordering upon the Mediter- 
 ranean, and covered in the interior with 
 ramifications of the Alps; area, 2349 sq. 
 miles. Pop. 325,490. 
 
 VARICOSE VEINS, veins in a dis- 
 eased state, which become dilated and 
 uneven, and form hard knotty swellings 
 in the situation of their valves. The 
 disease is a common affection of the 
 lower limbs, where sometimes the varix 
 bursts and haemorrhage takes place. It 
 also occurs in the veins of the scrotum 
 and lower rectum, producing in the 
 latter case bleeding piles. Varicose veins 
 are caused by local obstruction of the 
 circulation of the blood, and are com- 
 mon in pregnancy, while stout people, 
 and those who stand most of the day at 
 work, are apt to suffer from them. The 
 treatment consists in the application of 
 proper bandages, and rest to the limb 
 supported in an elevated position. 
 
 VAR'UNA, in Hindu mythology, the 
 god of water, the cause of rain, lord of 
 rivers and the sea, the Hindu Neptune 
 or Poseidon indeed. His name corre- 
 
 Varuna, the Indian God of Waters. 
 
 spends with Greek Our3,nus (Uranus), 
 and meant originally the sky or heavens. 
 He is represented as a white man, four- 
 armed, riding on a sea animal, generally 
 with a noose in one of his hands and a 
 club in the other. 
 
 VASA, Gustavus. See Gustavus I. 
 
 VASCULAR TISSUE, in plants, con- 
 sists of elongated ducts or cells, which 
 may have closed extremities, so that 
 fluids pass from one cell to another 
 through the partition walls, or these 
 partitions may be partly obliterated, 
 thus forming a continuous tube. See 
 Botany. 
 
 VASE, a name applied to certain ves- 
 
 sels of an ornamental character. Vases 
 were made in ancient times of all ma- 
 terials, but those which have come down 
 to us in greatest numbers are the so- 
 called Etruscan vases, made of terra 
 cotta, and adorned with painted figures. 
 Such vases have been found in most 
 Greek cities as well as in Etruria, and 
 all are really the productions of Greek 
 art. The Greek vases of the oldest style 
 mostly come from Corinth and the 
 islands of Thera and Melos ; and those of 
 the late rich style have been almost ex' 
 clusively discovered in Lower Italy 
 (Apulia and Lucania), and were prob- 
 ably manufactured there, chiefly in the 
 4th and 3d centuries b.c. Vases were 
 used for all purposes, but one peculiar 
 and very common application of them 
 
 Chinese, Japanese and Indian Vases. 
 
 was to adorn sepulchers. Chased metal 
 vases were in use in ancient times both 
 among the Greeks and Romans, and 
 many of the more valuable and beautiful 
 kinds of stone were also used for mak- 
 ing vases. Murrine vases were highly 
 esteemed at Rome. Another favorite 
 kind of vases at Rome was that called 
 cameo vases, made of two layers of 
 glass, the outer of which was opaque, 
 and was cut down so as to leave figures 
 standing out upon the lower layer as a 
 ground. The celebrated Portland vase is 
 an example of this kind. At a later 
 period glass vases surrounded with 
 delicate filagree work were introduced. 
 Italy, France, and Germany in the 16th 
 and 17th centuries produced many 
 vases which are the perfection of artistic 
 form and execution, and since the 15th 
 century many master-pieces of the glass 
 art in the form of vases have issued from 
 the Venetian manufactories. From 
 India, China, and Japan also have been 
 obtained vases of various materials, 
 especially of porcelain, vying in elegance 
 of form and beauty of ornamentation 
 with those produced in Europe. 
 
 VASSAL. See Feudal System. 
 
 VASSAR COLLEGE, a university at 
 Poughkeepsie, New York, founded by 
 Matthew Vassar in 1861 for the higher ' 
 education of women. It is a fine brick I 
 edifice, 500 feet long by 200 wide, and I 
 was erected at a cost of about $200,000 | 
 being opened in September, 1865. It 
 confers the degrees of B. A. and M. 
 
VATICAN 
 
 VEINS 
 
 and the course of studies resembles 
 those of other first-class colleges. 
 
 VAT'ICAN, the most extensive palace 
 of modern Rome, the residence of the 
 pope, built upon the Vatican Hill, from 
 which it has received its name, on the 
 opposite side of the river from the bulk 
 of the city, immediately to the north of 
 the cathedral of St. Peter’s. It is a long 
 rectangular edifice lying north and 
 south, with an irregular cluster of build- 
 ings at either end. The present building 
 was begun by Pope Eugenius III. (1145- 
 53), and has been enlarged and embel- 
 lished by many subsequent popes down 
 to the last one (Leo XIII.). It now pos- 
 sesses twenty courts, and, it is said, 
 11,000 rooms of one sort or another 
 Immense treasures are stored up in it. 
 Here are celebrated collections of pic- 
 tures of many of the great masters, and 
 museums in which all periods of the arts 
 are represented by many of their most 
 perfect productions. Among its noblest 
 art treasures are the frescoes on the ceil- 
 ing of the Sistine chapel, painted by 
 Michael Angelo, and consisting of scenes 
 and figures connected with sacred 
 history; and the frescoes painted by 
 Raphael on the ceilings and walls of 
 certain apartments known as Raphael’s 
 stanze, the subjects being biblical, alle- 
 gorical, etc. Since the return of the 
 popes from Avignon, the Vatican has 
 been their principal residence, and here 
 the conclaves always meet for the elec- 
 tion of new popes. The Vatican library 
 was first constituted by Pope Nicholas 
 V. (1447-55), and was added to and 
 enlarged by Leo X., Pius IV., Pius V., 
 and other popes. The most impor- 
 tant part of the library is the manuscript 
 collection, whick is said to contain 
 about 25,600 MSS. The number of 
 printed volumes has been estimated at 
 from 150,000 to 220,000, including 2500 
 15th-century editions, and a great num- 
 ber of bibliographical rarities. 
 
 VATICAN COUNCIL, the Ecumenical 
 Council of the Church of Rome, which 
 met in the Vatican in 1870, and declared 
 the personal infallibility of the pope 
 when speaking ex cathedra to be a 
 dogma of the church. 
 
 VAUCLUSE (vo-kltiz), a department 
 in the southeast of France; area, 1370 
 sq. miles. It is rugged and mountainous 
 in the east, but more than one-half of 
 the whole surface is arable, and vine- 
 yards occupy about one-sixth of this 
 portion. The mulberry (for the rearing 
 of silk-worms) and olive are extensively 
 cultivated. Avignon is the capital. Pop. 
 235,457. 
 
 VAUD, or PAYS-DE-VAUD, a western 
 canton of Switzerland; area, 1244 sq. 
 miles. It has three mountain systems — 
 the Alps in the southeast, the Jura in 
 the west, and the Jorat in the south ; and 
 partly embraces the lakes of Geneva 
 and Neufch5,tel, belonging both to the 
 basins of the Rhine and the Rhone. The 
 capital is Lausanne. Pop. 279,152. 
 
 VAULT, in architecture, a continued 
 arch, or an arched roof, so constructed 
 that the stones, bricks, or other material 
 of which it is composed, sustain and 
 keep each other in their places. Vaults 
 are of various kinds, cylindrical, ellipti- 
 cal, single, double, cross, diagonal. 
 Gothic, etc. 
 
 VEDAS, the oldest of the Shastras or 
 sacred writings of the Brahmans, and 
 the oldest compositions in the Sanskrit 
 language. Their date is unknown. Sir 
 W. Jones fixes it at 1500 b.c., and Ritter 
 at 1400 to 1600 b.c. They are four in 
 number, called respectively the Rig, 
 Yajur, Sama, and Atharva Veda. All 
 the Vedas are believed to be inspired, 
 and are held by the Brahmans in the 
 highest respect. The religious system 
 of the Vedas is at bottom monotheistic. 
 It derives a polytheistic appearance 
 from the mention of the deity by various 
 names according to the difference of his 
 manifestations and attributes (Surya, 
 Mitra, etc., the sun; Soma, the moon; 
 Agni, fire; Indra, the firmament, etc.); 
 but the unity of the supreme being is 
 expressly asserted in more than one 
 passage. Each of the Vedas is divided 
 into three parts; the first called the 
 Sanhita, a collection of h5mins and 
 prayers called mantras or ganas; the 
 second, Brahmana, which relates chiefly 
 to ritual; and the third, the Jnana or 
 Upanishads, which is the philosophical 
 portion of the work. The Upanishads 
 are sometimes called collectively the 
 Vedanta. The Rig-veda is the oldest of 
 the Vedas, and the Atharva-veda the 
 latest. Some scholars question whether 
 the latter should be regarded as a Veda. 
 Varying greatly in age, the Vedas rep- 
 resent many stages of thought and wor- 
 ship, the earliest being the simplest, the 
 laterfollowing andreflecting the develop- 
 ment of the Brahmanical system, with 
 all its superstitions and rites. 
 
 Double vault.— Section of dome of St. Peter’s, 
 Rome. 
 
 1, Gothic groined vault. 
 
 3, Spherical or domical vault. 
 
 VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY, the de- 
 partment of organic chemistry which 
 investigates the chemieal compounds 
 found in vegetables. These compounds 
 are chiefly made up of carbon, hydrogen, 
 oxygen, and nitrogen, but potash, soda, 
 lime, and other substances are occa- 
 sionally present in small and variable 
 
 quantities. Sugar, starch, gum, and 
 other distinct compounds existing al- 
 ready formed in plants, and capable of 
 separation without suffering decompo- 
 sition, are called proximate or imme- 
 diate principles of vegetables. Proximate 
 analysis is the separation of a particular 
 principle from others with which it is 
 mixed. Ultimate analysis consists in the 
 reduction of the proximate principles 
 to their simplest parts. The more im- 
 portant classes of compounds to be ob- 
 tained from vegetables are acids, alkalis 
 or alkaloids, oils, and resins. Coloring 
 matter, tannin, albumen, gluten, yeast, 
 and other substances are also obtained. 
 Of the acids the chief are acetic acid or 
 vinegar, oxalic, tartaric, and benzoic 
 acids. The alkaloids are organic bases 
 which produce remarkable toxicological 
 effects. During the germination of 
 seeds there is a conversion of starchy 
 matter in the sugar. The nutrition of 
 plants may be regarded as depending 
 upon solar energy organic and mineral 
 constituents, and water. See Botany. 
 
 VEGETABLE IVORY, the name which 
 is applied to the kernels of the nuts pro- 
 duced by a palm growing in South Amer- 
 ica. It is very hard and compact, has the 
 appearance of ivory, and may be turned 
 in the lathe, being used for buttons, 
 umbrella handles, etc. The stem of the 
 palm is extremely short, but the leaves 
 rise to the height of 30 or 40 feet. 
 
 VEGETARIANISM, the theory and 
 practice of living solely on vegetables. 
 The doctrines and practice of vege- 
 tarianism are as old as the time of 
 Pythagoras, and have for ages been 
 strictly observed by many of the Hindus 
 and of late years the practice of sub- 
 sisting solely upon vegetable food — or 
 at least of rejecting flesh food — has been 
 brought prominently before the public. 
 
 VEIN, in mining, a crack or fissure in 
 a rock, filled up by substances different 
 from the rock, and which may either be 
 metallic or non-metallic. Veins are 
 sometimes many yards wide, having a 
 length of many miles, and they ramify 
 into innumerable smaller parts, often 
 as slender as threads. Metallic veins 
 are chiefly found in the primary, and 
 lower and middle secondary rocks. 
 
 VEINS, a system of membranous ca- 
 nals or tubes distriubted throughout 
 the bodies of animals for the purpose of 
 returning the impure blood to the heart 
 and lungs, after it has been conveyed to 
 the .various parts by the arteries. They 
 are not elastic and have no pulsation 
 (thus differing from the arteries), the 
 motion of the blood in them being 
 mainly secured by pressure of the mov- 
 ing parts between which they are em- 
 bedded, the backward flow of the blood 
 being prevented where necessary by a 
 series of valves which permit a current 
 only toward the heart. The veins at 
 their farthest extremities form capil- 
 laries which collect from the tissues the 
 blood brought by the arterial capillaries. 
 These minute branches unite to form 
 veins, which similarly unite in turn, 
 forming gradually larger branches and 
 trunks as they approach the heart. 
 The yenous blood from the head, neck, 
 and upper limbs is all returned to the 
 heart by one great vein, the vena cava 
 superior, while that from the lower limbs 
 
VELASQUEZ 
 
 VENEZUELA 
 
 and belly is returned by the vena cava 
 inferior. The portal vein (vena portee) 
 receives the venous blood from the in- 
 testines and conveys it through the liver 
 to the vena cava inferior. From each 
 lung to the heart come two pulmonary 
 veins carrying back the blood that has 
 been purified in the lungs, after being 
 carried to them by the pulmonary 
 artery. See Heart. 
 
 VELASQUEZ (ve-l&s'keth), or in full 
 Don Diego Rodriguez de Silva y Velas- 
 quez (or Velazquez), an eminent Spanish 
 historical and portrait painter, was born 
 at Seville in 1599. He was appointed 
 principal painter to Philip IV. in 1623. 
 In 1629 he went to Italy, where he 
 closely studied the works of Michael 
 Angelo, Raphael, and Titian. On his 
 return to Spain in 1631 he was received 
 with great distinction, and in 1658 the 
 king raised him to the dignity of a noble. 
 He died in 1660. Among his best works 
 are the Aguador, or Water-carrier; the 
 Orlando Muerto; a Nativity, or Adora- 
 tion of the Shepherds; the Brothers of 
 Joseph; Moses taken from the Nile; por- 
 traits of Philip IV. and of Elizabeth his 
 queen. Pope Innocent X., and other 
 dignitaries; and many pictures from 
 history and from common life. 
 
 VELLUM. See Parclunent. 
 
 VELOCITY, the rate at which a body 
 changes its position in space. Velocity 
 is popularly expressed as so many miles 
 per hour, or as so many feet per second. 
 The velocity of a body is uniform when 
 it passes through equal spaces in equal 
 times, variable when the spaces passed 
 through in equal times are unequal, 
 accelerated when it passes through a 
 greater space in equal successive por- 
 tions of time, as is the case of falling 
 bodies under the action of gravity, and 
 retarded when a less space is passed 
 through in each successive portion of 
 time. Angular velocity is such a velocity 
 as that of the spoke of a wheel, being 
 measured as a number of angles of a 
 specified extent (as right angles) divided 
 by a measure of time in specified units. 
 See Fall of Bodies, Dynamics, Projec- 
 tiles, Motion, etc. 
 
 VELOCITY OF WIND. See Beaufort 
 Scale. 
 
 VELVET, a rich silk stuff, covered on 
 the outside with a close, short, fine, soft 
 shag or nap. In this fabric the warp is 
 passed over wires so as to make a row of 
 loops which project from the backing, 
 and are thus left, by withdrawing the 
 wire, for an uncut or pile velvet, but are 
 cut with a sharp tool to make a cut 
 velvet. Florence and Genoa have been 
 long noted for the manufacture of vel- 
 vet, but Lyons, in France, is now its 
 principal seat. Cotton and woolen 
 fabrics woven in this manner are called 
 velveteen and plush respectively. 
 
 VENDEE (van-da), a western mari- 
 time department of France; area, 2595 
 sq. miles. The surface is much diversi- 
 fied, and is watered in the north by 
 tributaries of the Loire, and in the south 
 by the Lay and tributaries of the Char- 
 ente. The principal crops are grain, 
 flax, and hemp; and a white wine is also 
 produced. Capital, La Roche-sur-Y^on. 
 Pop. 439,637. 
 
 VENDEMIAIRE (van-da-mi-ar; that 
 is, “vintage month”), the first month in 
 
 the French revolutionary calendar, from 
 22d September to 21st October. See 
 Calendar. 
 
 VENDETTA, a blood-feud; the prac- 
 tice of the nearest of kin executing ven- 
 geance on the murder of a relative. In 
 Corsica the vendetta is regarded as a 
 duty incumbent on the relatives of the 
 murdered man, and, failing to reach the 
 real murderer, they take vengeance on 
 his relatives. The practice exists, al- 
 though to a more limited extent, in 
 Sicily, Sardinia, and Calabria, as well as 
 among the Druses, Circassians, Arabs, 
 
 VENDOME, Louis, Duke of, the cele- 
 brated general of Louis XIV., was born 
 in 1654. After having distinguished 
 himself in Italy, Tyrol, and Belgium, 
 the Duke of Burgundy was placed over 
 him ; and the disagreement of the two 
 commanders caused the defeat of the 
 French at Oudenarde (July 11, 1708). 
 Vendome was recalled. Soon after being 
 placed in command in Spain he gained 
 several distinguished successes, but died 
 in 1712. 
 
 VENEER, a thin layer of choice hard 
 wood, such as mahogany, rosewood, 
 maple, etc., glued to the surface of wood 
 of a commoner sort, such as fir or pine, 
 so as to give the whole the appearance 
 of being made of the more valuable 
 material. It is mostly used for furniture, 
 and owing to recent improvements in 
 sawing machinery, layers as thin as 
 paper can be obtained. 
 
 VENESECTION. See Phlebotomy. 
 
 VENETIAN ARCHITECTURE, Vene- 
 tian Gothic, that style of Italian archi- 
 tecture employed by the Venetian arch- 
 itects from the 15th to the early part 
 of the 17th century. The principal 
 characteristics are: each story is pro- 
 vided with its own tier of columns or 
 pilasters, with their entablature, and sep- 
 arated from the other stories by con- 
 
 Veuetian architecture. 
 
 An angle of the Ducal Palace. 
 
 spicuous friezes or belts, often in the 
 form of balustrades broken by pedestals 
 and ornamented by figures; arched win- 
 dows ornamented with columns, the 
 spardrils being filled with figures; orna- 
 mental parapets are common; and the 
 whole has a rich and varied effect. This 
 style of architecture is characterized by 
 Fergusson as “Gothic treated with an 
 Eastern feeling, and enriched with many 
 details borrowed from Eastern styles.” 
 
 VENETIAN SCHOOL, in painting, 
 that school which counts among its 
 masters Titian, Paul Veronese, Gior- 
 gione, Tintoretto, and many other 
 illustrious names. 
 
 VENEZUELA (ven-es-wa'li), a north- 
 ern republic of South America, bounded 
 by the Caribbean sea, the Atlantic, 
 British Guiana, Brazil, and the United 
 States of Colombia; area, 566,159 sq. 
 miles. The Andes enter Venezuela from 
 the west in two branches; the western 
 branch has a moderate elevation, rarely 
 exceeding 4000 feet, but the eastern 
 branch, which is about 300 miles long by 
 60 miles broad, has an average altitude 
 of 12,000 feet, culminating in Sierra- 
 Nevada-de-Merida with summits attain- 
 ing 15,000 feet. There are other branches 
 running northeast and parallel to the 
 north coast, and in the south, on the 
 frontiers of Guiana, are the mountains 
 of Parima. From these mountains to 
 the coast chain at Cardcas, and from the 
 Andes to the mouth of the Orinoco, ex- 
 tend vast plains (or llanos) with an area 
 of 300,000 sq. miles. The chief rivers 
 are the Orinoco and its affluents; the 
 principal lakes are Maracayko and 
 TaCarigua. The climate is equatorial 
 in character, and the seasons are dis- 
 tinguished into the wet and the dry. 
 It is not unhealthy on the whole. The 
 greater part of Venezuela is liable to 
 earthquakes. The valleys and table- 
 lands of the coast mountains are the 
 chief seats of cultivation. The region of 
 palms extends from the sea-level to the 
 height of 3300 feet; mingled with the 
 palms are cacti, mimosae, the pine-apple, 
 the milk-tree, mahogany, and trees 
 yielding caoutchouc, sarsaparilla, co- 
 paiba, and other drugs. Above 2000 
 feet are the forests of cinchona or 
 Peruvian-bark tree, the vanilla, plan- 
 tain, etc. All the grains of temperate 
 regions attain perfection at an elevation 
 of 8000 feet. Cultivated plants include 
 the cacao, cocoa-nut, tobacco, corn, 
 (two crops yearly), cotton, coffee, sugar, 
 and indigo. Among the minerals are 
 gold, silver, tin, and copper; good coal 
 is found in the coast districts; asphalt 
 and petroleum abound round Lake 
 Maracaybo. The gold mines are now 
 being worked by English and other 
 capital. The wild animals include the 
 jaguar (now rare), puma, tapir, ounce, 
 monkeys, serpents, alligators, the mana- 
 tee, etc. The population is of Spanish, 
 Indian, and Negro origin, either of pure 
 or mixed blood. More than half of the 
 population are mestizoes, mulattoes, 
 and other mixed breeds. The chief ex- 
 ports are coffee, cocoa, hides, and skins, 
 cattle, dye-woods, gold, and copper 
 ores. The imports are chiefly manufac- 
 tured goods, machinery, etc. Venezuela 
 is divided into states and territories, 
 each state having its own legislature and 
 executive, its own budget, etc. The 
 legislature for the whole republic con- 
 sists in a congress of two houses, at the 
 head of the executive being a president. 
 The republic was formed in 1S31 by 
 secession from Colombia. It has suffered 
 greatly from intestine dissensions, and 
 has also had boundary disputes with its 
 neighbors. The British Guiana frontier 
 was determined by the award of a court 
 of arbitration in 1899. The capital is 
 
VEmCE 
 
 VERB 
 
 Caracas. The chief ports are La Guayra, 
 Puerto-Cabello, Maracaybo, and Ciudad 
 Bolivar. Pop. 2,323,527. 
 
 VEN'ICE, a city and seaport of North- 
 ern Italy, capital of the province of the 
 same name, on a number of islets in a 
 shallow lagoon in the northwest of the 
 Adriatic, 23 miles east of Padua by rail. 
 The islets are very low, and the houses 
 are mostly supported on piles. A rail- 
 way viaduct near 2J miles long con- 
 nects the town with the mainland. The 
 city is divided into two parts by the 
 Canalazzo or Grand canal, spanned by 
 an elegant bridge, the Rialto, and 
 several lesser bridges. The numerous 
 branch canals are crossed by about 380 
 bridges, which rise rapidly toward the 
 center to afford passage to the gondola 
 and other boats. The city is also inter- 
 sected by calli or narrow lanes for pedes- 
 trians; but the canals are really the 
 streets of Venice, and it possesses neither 
 horses nor wheeled carriages. Near the 
 center of the city there is one street 
 about 18 feet wide, the Merceria, but the 
 great center of business and amusement 
 is the Piazza, or Square of St. Mark, 
 
 and the piazetta adjoining it. The 
 Piazza is about 570 feet long by 200 
 broad, contains some of the more re- 
 markable public buildings, and is lined 
 with handsome shops and cafds. The 
 piazetta faces the sea. The Palace of the 
 Doges, reconstructed by Marino Falieri 
 in 1354, abuts on the piazetta. The 
 Ponte-dei-Sospiri (Bridge of Sighs) con- 
 nects the palace with the public prisons 
 on the opposite side of a narrow canal. 
 The church of St. Mark, now the cathe- 
 dral (erected 976-1071), is surmounted 
 by five domes. The principal front is 
 adorned with 500 columns of precious 
 marble. Above the doorway are the four 
 celebrated bronze horses brought from 
 Constantinople by the Doge Dandolo 
 in 1204. The chief manufactures are 
 woolen cloth, cloth of gold and silver, 
 velvet, lace, ornamental, and colored 
 glass, mosaic, jewelry, castings, etc. 
 The trade is extensive; the imports 
 include colonial goods, dye-woods, coal, 
 iron, oil, etc.; exports timber, rice, 
 linen, glass, coral, etc. Venice is sup- 
 posed to have been founded in the 5th 
 century by inhabitants of the surround- 
 ing districts, who took refuge from the 
 cruelty of Attila on the islets at the 
 mouth of the Brenta. In 1866 the city 
 and province was ceded to Napoleon 
 
 III., under whose auspices they were 
 united by a plebiscite to the Kingdom of 
 Italy. Pop. 151,841. 
 
 VENICE, Gulf of. See Adriatic Sea. 
 
 VENOMOUS ANIMALS, animals capa- 
 ble of inflicting poisonous wounds by 
 means of special organs or contrivances. 
 They include spiders, bees, wasps, hor- 
 nets, scorpions, certain serpents, etc. 
 In all cases the venomous matter must 
 be introduced directly into the circula- 
 tion to produce its effects. 
 
 VENTILATION. See Warming and 
 Ventilation. 
 
 VENTRICLE. See Heart. 
 
 VENTRIL'OQUISM, the art of speak- 
 ing in such a way as to cause a hearer to 
 believe that the sound comes, not from 
 the person speaking, but from a different 
 source. The name originated from the 
 erroneous supposition that the sounds 
 uttered were formed in the belly, where- 
 as practice alone is necessary to carry 
 this act of illusion to a high degree of 
 perfection. The sounds are formed by 
 the ordinary vocal organs — the larynx, 
 the palate, the tongue, the lips, etc. 
 The art of the ventriloquist consists 
 merely in this: After drawing a long 
 breath he breathes it out slowly and 
 gradually, dexterously modifying and 
 diminishing the sound of the voice; be- 
 sides this he moves his lips as little as 
 possible, and by various contrivances 
 diverts the attention of his auditors. 
 This art was known to the ancient 
 Greeks. 
 
 VE'NUS, the Roman name of the 
 goddess of love, called by the Greeks 
 Aphrodite. In the IRad she is described 
 as the daughter of Zeus and Dione; but 
 Hesiod represents her as the offspring of 
 Uranus, born among the foam of the sea. 
 She surpassed all other goddesses in 
 beauty, and hence received the apple 
 
 Venus, antique statue in the British Museum. 
 
 which was to be awarded to the most 
 beautiful by Paris. She was the wife of 
 Hephsestos (Vulcan), but also bestowed 
 her love on the gods Ares (Mars), Diony- 
 sos (Bacchus), Hermes (Mercury), and 
 Poseidon (Neptune), and the mortals 
 Anchises and Adonis. The myrtle, rose, 
 popPY) apple, and other fruits were 
 sacred to her, as were also the dove, 
 sparrow, swan, swallow, ram, hare, and 
 tortoise. The chief places of her worship 
 in Greece were the islands of Cyprus 
 and Cythera. In Rome several temples 
 were erected to her under different 
 
 names. In the best days of art this 
 goddess was always represented draped, 
 in later times nude. The scene of her 
 arising from the sea was sculptured by 
 Phidias on the base of the statue of 
 Zeus at Olympia, and one of the most 
 famous pictures of Apelles represented 
 the same subject. The Venus of Capua 
 and the Venus of Milo represent her 
 as Venus Victrix, with one foot on a 
 helmet and raising a shield. The Venus 
 de’ Medici is supposed to be a free copy 
 of a statue of her by Praxiteles, which 
 was celebrated above all her other 
 statues in ancient times. Among mod- 
 ern statues of Venus, one of the most 
 famous is that by Canova, which repre- 
 sents her as issuing from the bath. 
 
 VENUS, one of the inferior planets, 
 having its orbit between Mercury and 
 the earth, and the most brilliant of all 
 the planetary bodies. From her alter- 
 nate appearance in the morning and 
 evening she was called by the ancients 
 Lucifer and Hesperus, the morning and 
 evening star. The mean distance of 
 Venus from the sun is about 66,134,000 
 miles, her diameter 7510 miles, and her 
 period of revolution round the sun about 
 224.7 mean solar days. Her volume is 
 equal to about of the earth, but 
 
 her density being slightly greater her 
 mass is actually equal to about i^^ths 
 of the earth. The period of rotation 
 round her axis is the same as that of 
 revolution round the sun. The axis of 
 rotation is inclined to the ecliptic at 
 about 75°. According to her various 
 positions relatively to the sun and earth 
 she exhibits phases like the moon. Like 
 Mercury, Venus transits the face of the 
 sun, but at longer intervals. The tran- 
 sits of Venus are of much more impor- 
 tance than those of Mercury, because, 
 being nearer to us when in transit, her 
 position on the sun is measurably differ- 
 ent for observers placed on different 
 parts of the earth. See Transit. 
 
 VERA-CRUZ (va'ra-kros), the chief 
 seaport of Mexico, situated in the state 
 of the same name. The harbor, though 
 improved, is still unsatisfactory, but 
 there is a large trade. The town has 
 broad and regular streets, and some 
 good buildings, and is defended by the 
 fortress of San-Juan-de-Ulloa on an 
 island in front of the harbor. The situa- 
 tion of the town is exceedingly un- 
 healthy. It was founded by Cortez in 
 1520. Pop. 24,000. — The state stretches 
 along the s.w. part of the Gulf of Mexico ; 
 area, 26,225 sq. miles. The products em- 
 brace all kinds of grain crops, tobacco, 
 sugar, cotton, fruits, dye-woods, and 
 timUer. Cattle, horses, and sheep are 
 numerous. Pop. 960,570. 
 
 VERB, in grammar, that part of 
 speech whose essential function is to 
 predicate or assert something in regard 
 to something else (the subject or thing 
 spoken of); as, the boy runs, the man 
 lifts the stone, fishes swim, he suffers 
 much. Verbs usually have the power of 
 indicating time and mode by means of 
 tenses and moods, these varying in the 
 different languages, as does also the 
 conjugation or system of verbal in- 
 flections and forms as a whole. They 
 have been divided into active and neuter 
 verbs, according as they predicate action 
 or state. Active verbs are divided into 
 
VERBENA 
 
 VERMONT 
 
 intransitive and transitive, according 
 as the action is confined to the actor or 
 passes from him to an object. Intran- 
 sitive verbs often take an objective of 
 their own nature; as, he runs a race; 
 he sleeps the sleep of death. When a 
 verb may be used either transitively or 
 intransitively, as, he walks the horse, 
 he walks to church, the verb in the 
 former use is said to be causative. Many 
 causative verbs are distinguished from 
 their corresponding intransitives, by a 
 change of form, as sit, set; lie, lay; fall, 
 fell. Passive verbs affirm suffering or 
 endurance of what another does. Hence, 
 only verbs which take an object after 
 them can have a passive voice, because it 
 can be said of objects only that they 
 suffer or endure the action directed on 
 or toward them by the subject of the 
 active verb. Passive verbs are thus the 
 correlatives or complements of active 
 verbs. 
 
 VERBE'NA, a genus of plants, the 
 type of the natural order Verbenacese. 
 Most of the species are American; about 
 seventy are enumerated. Several spe- 
 
 Verbenas— Garden varieties. 
 
 cies are cultivated for the great beauty 
 of their flowers, being fine border plants. 
 The verbena of the perfumers is the 
 lemon-grass, from which the “oil ofver- 
 bena” is extracted. 
 
 VERBENA'CE.®, a natural order of 
 plants, consisting of trees, shrubs, and 
 herbaceous plants common in the 
 tropics of both hemispheres. They have 
 generally opposite or whorled simple 
 or compound leaves without stipules; 
 flowers in opposite corjrabs, or spiked 
 alternately, sometimes in dense heads, 
 seldom axillary or solitary. The ver- 
 bena and teak are examples. 
 
 VERDE, Cape. See Cape Verde. 
 
 VERDI, Giuseppe, an Italian operatic 
 composer, born in 1813. His first pro- 
 duction was Oberto, Conte di San Boni- 
 fazio (1839), and in 1842 he brought out 
 with great success at the La Scala, Milan, 
 his Nabuco, followed by I Lombardi 
 (1843), Ernani (1844), Rigoletto (1851), 
 II Trovatore (1853), La Traviata (1853), 
 Un Ballo in Maschera (1859), Aida 
 (1871), Otello (1886), and Falstaff (1893). 
 Verdi has a fine dramatic gift, and his 
 melodies are showy and taking. He was 
 an Italian senator. He died in 1901. 
 
 VERDICT. See Jury. 
 
 VER'DIGRIS, a poisonous substance, 
 prepared by exposing copper to the air 
 in contact with acetic acid, and used as 
 a pigment, as a mordant, in medicine, 
 etc 
 
 VERESHTCHAGIN, Wasiliy, a Rus- 
 sian historical painter, born in 1842, 
 and educated at the naval school in St. 
 
 Petersburg. In 1864 he entered the 
 Ecole des Beaux Arts at Paris, where 
 Gerome was his master. He joined the 
 Caucasian expedition under General 
 Kaufmann in 1867, and in 1869 went 
 to Siberia. In 1874 he went to India 
 with the Prince of Wales, and afterward 
 settled in Paris. He took part in the 
 Russo-Turkish war, and was wounded 
 at Plevna. Since that time he has visited 
 all the chief cities of Europe exhibiting 
 his pictures. They are of immense size, 
 extremely realistic, and treat chiefly of 
 the horrors of war. He has lately taken 
 up religious subjects, and his Family of 
 Jesus and The Resurrection attracted 
 some attention. He died in 1904. 
 
 VERGIL. See Virgil. 
 
 VERMICELLI, (-chel'le). See Maca- 
 roni. 
 
 VERMIL'ION, the name given to a 
 pigment of a beautifully scarlet color, 
 obtained from crystallized mercuric 
 sulphide. It is extensively employed in 
 painting, in making red sealing-wax, 
 and other purposes. 
 
 VERMONT, one of the United States, 
 bounded by Canada, New York, Massa- 
 chusetts, and by the Connecticut river; 
 area, 9565 sq. miles. It ranks thirty- 
 ninth in size among the states. The sur- 
 face is traversed from south to north by 
 the Green mountains, which culminate 
 in Mansfield mountain in the n.w., 4280 
 feet high. The drainage is shared be- 
 tween Lake Champlain in the west, and 
 the Connecticut and its affluents. The 
 surface is generally fertile, grain growing 
 in the valleys, while the higher lands 
 furnish excellent pasture. The climate 
 is healthy; and the temperature ranges 
 from 20° below zero in winter up to 90° 
 in summer. The soil is stony and of 
 poor quality, though in the valleys, in 
 the western lowlands, there is much land 
 that is suitable for cultivation. There 
 are large forests of pine and hemlock, 
 with spruce and fir on the higher slopes. 
 On the lower lands there are also forests 
 of deciduous trees, the sugar maple 
 being one of the most common trees. 
 The principal mineral wealth of Ver- 
 mont is in its rocks, which furnish a 
 great variety of marble, from white to 
 almost pure black. Granite, slate, and 
 soap-stone are abundant. The quartz- 
 mica-schists furnish excellent whet- 
 stones. Important veins of asbestos 
 are bedded in the serpentine rocks in 
 the north central part of the state. 
 Among metallic ores iron and copper 
 are abundant, lead, manganese, gold, 
 and silver are also found in small 
 quantities. Agriculture has always been 
 the leading industry in the state. With 
 the adoption of intensive methods of 
 cultivation the soil is made to produce 
 abundantly, the production of corn per 
 acre being greater than that of any 
 other state. Vermont produces more 
 maple sugar than any other state in the 
 Union, and two-fifths that of the entire 
 country. Cattle-raising has become the 
 predominant industry in Vermont agri- 
 culture. The horses of Vermont were 
 among the first to win fame on the race- 
 courses of the country, and include the 
 Morgan, Messenger, and Black Hawk 
 stocks. Sheep are also given considerable 
 attention. The important industries are 
 
 those which depend upon the forests for 
 their raw materials. The increase in 
 dairying has been accompanied by a 
 rapid development of the factory pro- 
 duction of butter and condensed milk. 
 The stone resources of the state has 
 afforded a basis for the manufacture of 
 monuments and tombstones. The more 
 important of the other industries are 
 the manufacture of flour and grist-mill 
 products, foundry and machine-shop 
 products, woolen goods and hosiery, and 
 knit goods. Burlington is the largest 
 manufacturing center. The Central of 
 Vermont, the Boston and Maine, and 
 the Grand Trunk are the chief railroads 
 
 of the state. There is a considerable in- 
 ternal and transit trade, but the foreign 
 trade is limited, being chiefly carried on 
 through New York and Massachusetts. 
 The early inhabitants were largely of the 
 English “Non-Conformist” or “Inde- 
 pendent" type, who became known as 
 Congregationalists, and they have con- 
 tinued the strongest religious sect in the 
 state. Later the Methodists became 
 important. Still later the influx of 
 foreigners brought a strong Catholic 
 element. Of higher institutions the 
 state supports normal schools at Ran- 
 dolph, Johnson, and Castleton, and a 
 state university, including agricultural 
 and medical departments, at Burling- 
 ton. The Congregationalists maintain 
 a college at Middlebury. Vermont, first 
 became known to Europeans in 1609, 
 when Champlain explored the lake since 
 known by his name. During the next 
 century the lake and its borders were a 
 thoroughfare for various military ex- 
 peditions in the Indian and colonial 
 wars, and several points along the lake 
 were occupied, mainly as military posts, 
 by both French and English; but the 
 first permanent settlement was made 
 in 1724 at Fort Dummer in the limits, 
 of Brattleboro. Vermont was admitted 
 as the fourteenth state in March, 1791. 
 In May, 1775, the “Green Mountain 
 boys” under Ethan Allan and Seth 
 Warner had captured Ticonderoga and 
 Crown Point. The battle of Bennington 
 in August, 1777, was won by the com- 
 bined forces of Vermont and New Hamp- 
 shire. During the whole struggle the 
 state, though unrecognized, contributed 
 its full share of men and means. In the 
 war of 1812-14 Vermont is credited with 
 5236 soldiers in regular service, exclu- 
 sive of 2500 volunteers who were under 
 arms at Plattsburgh in September, 
 
VERNE 
 
 VESTMENTS 
 
 1814. In the civil war of 1861-65 the 
 state furnished more than its due quota 
 of troops, 33,288 men from a total popu- 
 lation (1860) of 315,098. The Fenian 
 operations against Canada, in 1866 and 
 1870, had their base in St. Albans. The 
 state adopted a prohibitory amendment 
 to the constitution in 1852, but aban- 
 doned the policy of prohibition in 1902, 
 when the voters of the state declared for 
 high license. This measure, amounting 
 to local option regulation, became law 
 in 1903. In 1792, 1796, and 1800, the 
 state was carried for federalist electors, 
 but was democratic-republican there- 
 after to 1824. In that year, and again 
 in 1828, the Adams republicans were 
 successful. In 1832 the vote was cast 
 for the anti-Masonic candidate. After 
 that time it was steadfastly whig to 
 1852, and has been republican, by large 
 majoritiee, ever since. Montpelier is the 
 capital, but Burlington is the largest 
 town. Pop. 350,000. 
 
 VERNE (vern), Jules, a popular 
 French romancer, born at Nantes in 
 1828. He studied law for some time, 
 but afterward began writing short 
 pieces for the stage. In 1863 he pub- 
 lished Five Weeks in a Balloon, and the 
 vein of the marvelous, tinged with a 
 quasi-scientific truthfulness, has since 
 been worked by him with great success. 
 His more popular works are: Twenty 
 Thousand Leagues under the Sea, From 
 the Earth to the Moon, Across Africa in 
 a Balloon, A Journey to the Center of 
 the Earth, Around the World in Eighty 
 Days, Giant Raft, etc. Most of his 
 works have been translated into English 
 and German. He died in 1905. 
 
 VERO'NA, a city of Northern Italy, 
 capital of the province of same name, 
 beautifully situated on both sides of the 
 rapid Adige, a fortress of the first class, 
 walled, and entered by five beautiful 
 gates. Verona has a Roman amphi- 
 theater, supposed to have been built 
 about the 2d or 3d century of our era, 
 the interior of which is nearly perfect; 
 an imposing cathedral in the Gothic 
 style dating from the 14th century, and 
 many other magnificent churches rich 
 in paintings and other art treasures. 
 Other notable edifices are the Palazzo del 
 Consiglio, adorned with statues of cele- 
 brated natives of the town; and the 
 Gothic tombs of the Della Scala family 
 (Scaligeri), who ruled Verona from 1262 
 to 1389. Modern public buildings include 
 theaters, a museum, a library, hospitals, 
 literary institutions, etc. The town has 
 manufactures of silk, woolens, hats, etc., 
 and a considerable trade. Pop. 74,261. 
 
 VERONESE (va-ro-na'ze), Paul, the 
 popular name of Paolo Cagliari, an 
 eminent Italian artist, born at Verona, 
 in 1528. He was a contemporary of 
 Titian and Tintoretto. He died at 
 Venice April 19, 1588. Among his 
 masterpieces are: The Calling of St. 
 Andrew to the Apostleship, The Rape 
 of Europa, The Family of Darius 
 at the Feet of Alexander, Adoration of 
 the Magi, Consecration of St. Nicholas 
 and St. Helena, The Vision of the Inven- 
 tion of the Cross; the last five mentioned 
 are in the National gallery. 
 
 VERSAILLES (ver-salz')) a town of 
 France, capital of the department of 
 Seine-et-Oise, in a plain, 11 miles s.w. 
 
 of Paris. It is regarded as one of the 
 handsomest towns in Europe, having 
 been built under the auspices of the 
 sovereigns of France, particularly Louis 
 XIV., who made it the seat of his court, 
 and erected the palace. This is a large 
 and imposing building with an extensive 
 park and gardens, fine fountains, etc. 
 Louis Philippe converted the palace 
 into a national museum, and it contains 
 an immense collection of statues and 
 paintings representing personages and 
 events connected with the French 
 monarchy from Clovis downward. In 
 October, 1870, the Germans established 
 their headquarters at Versailles; and 
 from March, 1871, till 1879, it was the 
 seat of the French government. Pop. 
 54,081. 
 
 VERSE, a measured and cadenced 
 form of speech or composition, usually 
 adopted in poetry. It seems to be the 
 natural language of passion, yet it has 
 unquestionably been improved and de- 
 veloped by art. The use of rhymed ca- 
 dences is a comparatively modern in- 
 vention. (See Rh3mae.) Grammarians 
 have elaborately classified the varieties 
 of verse, and analytically distinguished 
 the possible divisions of words into bars 
 of accented and unaccented syllables. 
 (See Rhythm.) The term is also applied 
 to a line of poetry consisting of a certain 
 number of metrical feet disposed accord- 
 ing to the rules of the species of poetry 
 which the author intends to compose. 
 Verses are of various kinds, as hex- 
 ameter, pentameter, etc. Blank verse is 
 verse in which the lines do not end in 
 rhymes. (See Blank Verse.) Heroic 
 verse is rhymed verse in which the lines 
 consist of ten syllables, five of them 
 being accented, and constituting five 
 iambic feet. 
 
 VERST, a Russian measure of length, 
 equal to 3500 English feet, or very 
 nearly two-thirds of a mile. 
 
 VERTEBRA. See Spine. 
 
 VERTEBRATA, the name given to 
 the highest sub-kingdom of animals, 
 consisting of those animals which in 
 early life usually possess a backbone, 
 but which invariably possess a notochord 
 which have never more than four 
 limbs disposed in pairs; which pos- 
 sess jaws as parts of the head; and 
 which have the great nerve-centers con- 
 tained within a special case formed by 
 the skull and spinal column. In all 
 Vertebrata save the lancelet a distinct 
 heart is developed. The Vertebrata in- 
 clude the classes Pisces (fishes), Am- 
 phibia (frogs, etc.), Reptilia (reptiles), 
 Aves (birds), and Mammalia (quad- 
 rupeds and man). They have also been 
 classified into Ichthyopsida, including 
 Pisces and Amphibia ; Sauropsida, com- 
 prising Reptilia and Aves; and Mam- 
 malia. 
 
 VERTI'GO (or ver'ti-go), an attack of 
 giddiness or swimming of the head in 
 which objects appear to move in various 
 directions though stationary, and the 
 person affected finds it difficult to main- 
 tain an erect posture. It is a common 
 symptom of an irregular (excessive or 
 defective) supply of blood to the brain 
 and of nervous and general debility; but 
 it frequently arises from some disturb- 
 ance of the digestive organs. 
 
 VESA'LIUS, Andreas, the father of 
 
 modern anatomy, born at Brussels 1514, 
 died at Zante 1564. He was physician 
 to the Emperor Charles V. and to Philip 
 II. His chief work, De Corporis Humani 
 Fabrica, opened a new era in the science 
 of medicine. 
 
 VESPA'SIAN, Titus Flavius, Emperor 
 of Rome, was born near Reate, in 
 the country of the Sabines, in a.d. 9. 
 After serving with distinction in Ger- 
 many and in Britain as commander of a 
 legion, he was made consul. He after- 
 ward became proconsul of Africa, and 
 on the rebellion of the Jews he was sent 
 with an army into Judaea (a.d. 66). He 
 reduced nearly all Galilee, and was pre- 
 paring to attack Jerusalem, when he 
 received news of Nero’s death (a.d. 68). 
 Then followed the emperors Galba, 
 Otho, and Vitellius, and in a.d. 69 Ves- 
 pasian was himself elected emperor by 
 
 the army, and arrived in Rome about 
 the middle of the year 70, leaving the 
 siege of Jerusalem to his son Titus. He 
 immediately reformed the discipline of 
 the army, purified the senaterial and 
 equestrian orders, and improved the 
 administration of justice. He favored 
 arts, letters, and learned men, par- 
 ticularly Quintilian, Pliny, and Jose- 
 phus. He rebuilt a part of the city, 
 restored the capital, and erected the 
 gigantic amphitheatre, the ruins of 
 which are still celebrated under the 
 name of the Coliseum. Vespasian died 
 in June, a.d. 79. 
 
 VESPERS, the evening service in Ro- 
 man Catholic and other churches, or 
 the time of evening service, being the 
 last of the canonical hours except .com- 
 pline. 
 
 VESPUCCI, Amerigo. See Amerigo 
 Vespucci. 
 
 VESTA, a Roman divinity, the god- 
 dess of the hearth. She was worshiped 
 along with the Penates, at every family 
 meal, when the household assembled 
 round the hearth, which was in the 
 center of the room. Her public sanc- 
 tuary was in the Forum, and the sacred 
 fire was kept constantly burning in it 
 by the vestals, her priestesses. The ves- 
 tals are said to have been established by 
 Numa. There were at first four, and 
 afterward six of them. They were 
 taken from six to ten years of age. They 
 were bound to virginity for thirty years, 
 the term of their service, after which 
 they were allowed to marry. Their per- 
 sons were inviolable, and they were 
 treated with great honor, and had im- 
 portant public privileges. The punish- 
 ment of a vestal who was guilty of un- 
 chastity was burying alive. 
 
 VESTA, in astronomy. See Asteroids. 
 
 VESTMENTS, Sacred, the official gar- 
 ments worn by ministers of religion. 
 
VESTRY 
 
 VICE-PRESIDEN'T 
 
 The term is also applied to the altar- 
 cloths. Among Catholics and High 
 Churchmen, who believe that Chris- 
 tianity has retained a special priesthood 
 and ritual, much importance is attached 
 to vestments. See Ritualism; also 
 Chasuble, Stole, etc. 
 
 VESTRY, a room adjoining a church 
 where the vestments of the clergy are 
 kept. Hence the place of meeting of 
 those having the charge of parochial 
 affairs, and collectively the persons 
 themselves to whom these affairs are 
 intrusted. In England the minister, 
 churchwardens, and chief men of a 
 parish generally constitute a vestry, and 
 the minister, whether rector, vicar, or 
 perpetual curate, is ex-oflicio chairman. 
 The powers of the vestry include the 
 expenditure of the church funds, the 
 repairing or alteration of churches or 
 chapels, and the appointment of cer- 
 tain parish officers. In certain large and 
 populous parishes select vestries are an- 
 nually chosen from the chief or most 
 respectable parishioners to represent 
 and transact the business of the parish. 
 In London the vestries are highly im- 
 portant bodies. In the United States 
 the vestry is a highly developed body 
 with wide powers. The rector is ex 
 officio a member of the vestry, and is 
 entitled to preside, if present, at all its 
 meetings. The function of the vestry 
 is to represent the congregation in law, 
 to have charge and care of its property 
 and to collect and disburse its revenues. 
 
 VESUVIUS, a historic volcano, sit- 
 uated 10 miles east southeast of Naples, 
 and chiefly noted for having buried with 
 its ashes the ancient cities of Hercu- 
 laneum and Pompeii. Previous to the 
 eruption of 1906 it rose in the center of 
 a plain 2300 feet above the sea, in a 
 pyramidal cone of about 1900 feet; total 
 height, over 4200 feet. Previous to an 
 eruption about 1838 the top was an un- 
 even plane, but was then converted into 
 a hollow cup sloping to a depth of 500 
 feet. A precipitous rocky ridge, 1400 
 feet high, called Monte Somma, lies to 
 the north of the cone, from which it is 
 separated by a deep valley called the 
 Atrio del Cavallo. At the western ex- 
 tremity of this valley an observatory 
 
 Map showing new crater of Vesuvius. The 
 black shading is the pathway 
 of the lava. 
 
 has been established. The lower belt of 
 the sloping plain is about 2 miles broad; 
 it is laid out in vineyards and well cul- 
 tivated. Above this belt the plain is 
 rugged and covered with scorite. Monte 
 Somma i.s supposed to have formerly 
 formed a complete cone of larger dimen- 
 sions than the last one, being sub- 
 sequently altered by A’olcanic forces in ' 
 
 the same manner as 800 feet of the pres- 
 ent cone was carried away by an erup- 
 tion in 1822. The volcano began 
 in March, 1906, to give evidence of 
 an unusual disturbance, and during the 
 next few weeks there followed a con- 
 tinuous eruption which threatened 
 Naples, with its 500,000 population, and 
 caused the death of nearly 1000 persons. 
 An entirely new crater was established, 
 changing the whole topography of the 
 mountain and making this most recent 
 eruption one of the most important in 
 the history of the volcano. 
 
 After several days of earthquake the 
 lava burst from the new crater and ran 
 down the slope to Boscotrecase, which 
 it completely destroyed. The streams 
 were several hundred feet wide and 
 covered the ground to the depth of 10 to 
 40 feet, fresh rivers of melted rock pour- 
 ing over the earlier ones as they hard- 
 ened by cooling. The ashes so filled the 
 air as to cause partial darkness, and the 
 people had to protect themselves by 
 goggles and cloths from blindness and 
 suffocation. The ground was covered 
 with a gray mantle of fine ashes as far 
 as Naples and the east coast. The weight 
 of the cinders which fell upon the Monte 
 Olivete market in Naples broke down the 
 roof, crushing over 200 people. Vesuvius 
 rises in the center of a plain 2300 feet 
 above the sea. The old cone, previous to 
 the recent eruption, was 1900 feet high, 
 with a total height of 4200 feet, and 2000 
 feet in diameter. The first recorded 
 symptoms of disturbance were those of a. 
 D. 63. Desultory quakes followed until 
 A.D. 79, when Herculaneum and Pompeii 
 were buried. Another eruption took place 
 in 1036. Since numerous outbreaks have 
 been recorded, the most disastrous being 
 that of 1631 when 18,000 lives were lost. 
 Violent outbreaks also took place in 
 1759, 1767, 1794, 1822, 1855, 1858, 1861, 
 1865, 1867, 1872, 1878, 1879, and 1885. 
 
 VET'ERINARY ART, the art which 
 deals with the nature, causes, and treat- 
 ment of the disorders of domestic ani- 
 mals. The first veterinary school was 
 instituted in 1762 at Lyons ; in 1766 that 
 at Alfort near Paris was opened. A 
 similar institution was established at 
 London in 1791, and in the year follow- 
 ing one in Berlin. In Edinburgh instruc- 
 tion in veterinary medicine began to be 
 given by Mr. Dick in 1819, and in veter- 
 inary surgery in 1823. In America 
 veterinary chairs have been added to 
 some of the universities, but most of the 
 schools are private institutions. 
 
 VETO (Latin “I forbid”), the power 
 which one branch of the legislature of a 
 state has to negative the resolutions of 
 another branch ; or the right of the 
 executive branch of government, such as 
 king, president, or governor, to reject 
 the bills, measures, or resolutions pro- 
 posed by other branches. In Britain 
 the power of the crown is confined to a 
 veto, a right of rejecting and not resolv- 
 ing, and even this right is rarely exer- 
 cised, the last occasion being in 1707. 
 In the United States the president may 
 veto all measures passed by congress, 
 but after that right has been exercised 
 the rejected bill may become law by 
 being passed by two-thirds of each ot 
 the houses of congress. 
 
 VIADUCT, a structure of wood, iron. 
 
 stone and brickwork for conveying a 
 roadway across a valley or low level. In 
 recent years, the term viaduct has come 
 to mean more specifically a metal struc- 
 ture composed of a number of compara- 
 tively short spans carried by tower-like 
 piers of steel framework. These piers 
 usually consist of four column-like legs 
 spread wide apart at the bottom and 
 converging toward the top, which are 
 braced togeter in all directions. See 
 Bridge. 
 
 VIAT'KA, a town of Russia, capital 
 of the government of same name, on the 
 Viatka, 500 miles e.n.e. of Moscow. It 
 has a cathedral, some manufactures, and 
 a large trade. Pop. 24,258.- — The gov- 
 ernment has an area of 59,172 sq. miles, 
 and a pop. of 3,028,788. 
 
 VIBORG (ve'bSrg), a government 
 occupying the southeastern part of Fin- 
 land, Russia. Area 13,525 square miles. 
 The coast region along the Gulf of Fin- 
 land and Lake Ladoga is low and ex- 
 ceedingly indented. The interior is 
 rocky and mountainous and interspersed 
 with marshes and lakes. The cliief 
 rivers are Kymenne and the Wuoxen. 
 Viborg has extensive deposits of build- 
 ing stone, copper, lead, and iron. Rye, 
 oats, and barley are grown. The forests 
 occupy a large part of the area and are 
 an important source of income. The 
 manufacturing industries are highly de- 
 veloped. The commerce is mainly with 
 Russia. Pop. 400,000, chiefly Finns. 
 Viborg is the capital. Pop. 33,000. 
 
 VIBUR'NUM, a genus of plants, in- 
 cluding the gelder-rose and laurustine, 
 and the wayfaring tree, a native of 
 Europe and the west of Asia. The young 
 shoots are used in Germany for basket- 
 making; the wood is sometimes employ- 
 ed in turning and cabinet-making; the 
 berries are used for making ink, and the 
 bark of the root for making bird-lime. 
 
 VICE-ADMIRAL. See Admiral. 
 
 VICE-CONSUL. See Consul. 
 
 VICENZA (vi-chen'tsa), a town of 
 North Italy, capital of a province of the 
 same name, 49 miles west of Venice. 
 The most remarkable edifices are the 
 Duomo or cathedral; the Palazzo della 
 Ragione (town-hall), an ancient Gothic 
 building, with fine connected buildings 
 by Palladio; the museum, one of Pal- 
 ladio’s finest buildings; the Palazzo- 
 Prefetizzio, and the theater, both by 
 Palladio; the lyceum, churches, and 
 hospitals. The manufactures are silk, 
 woolen, and linen tissues, leather earth- 
 enware, hats, etc. Pop. 44,261. — The 
 province has an area of 940 sq. miles 
 and a pop. of 446,521. 
 
 VICE-PRESIDENT, the second officer 
 of the government of the Llnited States 
 in rank and chosen for the same term 
 and in the same manner as the president. 
 He performs no executive functions 
 whatever, his only duty being to preside 
 over the deliberations of the senate 
 except when it is sitting as a court of 
 impeachment for the trial of the presi- 
 dent, when the chief justice presides. 
 He has a casting vote in the senate in 
 case of a tie, and he presides at the joint 
 meeting of the two houses when tl':e 
 electoral votes are counted. The chief 
 importance of the office consists in th.e 
 fact that the vice-president is made by 
 the constitution the successor of the 
 
VICHY 
 
 VICTORIA I 
 
 president in case of the latter’s removal 
 from office or of his death, resignation, 
 or inability to discharge the powers and 
 duties of the office. The qualifications 
 required of the vice-president are the 
 same as those of the president. His 
 salary is $12,000 per year. 
 
 VICHY (ve-she), a town of France, in 
 the department of the Allier, in a valley 
 of the river of that name, 32 miles s.s.e. 
 of Moulins. The Vichy waters are in 
 much request for disorders of the stom- 
 ach and bowels, and of the urinary 
 organs, in gout, rheumatism, etc. Much 
 of the water is sent out in bottles. Pop. 
 8486. 
 
 VICKSBURG, a town in Warren 
 CO., Mississippi, on the Mississippi, 400 
 miles above New Orleans. It is a port 
 of entry, and has an extensive trade 
 in cotton. Vicksburg was strongly forti- 
 fied by the confederates in the civil 
 war, and the Unionist forces were re- 
 pulsed here on several occasions, but 
 after a long siege General Pemberton 
 surrendered the place to General Grant, 
 July 4, 1863. Pop. 15,373. 
 
 VICTOREMMANUEL (Vittorio Eman- 
 uele) II., the eldest son of Charles Albert, 
 king of Sardinia, was born at Turin, 
 March 14, 1820, and he married on 
 April 12, 1842, Archduchess Adelaide 
 of Austria. His aptitude for a military 
 career became evident when he com- 
 manded the Savoy brigades against 
 Austria (1848-49), and distinguished 
 himself in the battle of Goito by his 
 reckless valor. After the battle of Novara 
 (March 23, 1849) his father abdicated, 
 and Victor Emmanuel ascended the 
 throne of Sardinia. He had then to 
 negotiate with Austria under most un- 
 favorable circumstances, but he steadily 
 
 Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 refused to give up the principle of rep- 
 resentative government in the Sardinian 
 constitution, and this gained for him 
 the name of honest king and the good- 
 will of the Italian people. This latter 
 was only gained, however, after much 
 calumny and misunderstanding, but the 
 young king pursued from the first a 
 policy which led to the national unity 
 of Italy. Under the advice of his cele- 
 brated minister Cavour, he regulated the 
 finances, reorganized the army, and 
 secularized the church property, for 
 which he w'as excommumcated by the 
 pope. He took part in the Crimean war, 
 and in 1859, assisted by France, re- 
 newed the contest with Austria, taking 
 part in the battles of Magenta (4th 
 June) and Solferino (24th June). By 
 
 the Treaty of Villafranca and the Peace 
 of Zurich which followed these successes, 
 Lombardy was added to his dominions, 
 but he had to cede Savoy and Nice to 
 France. Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, 
 now became united to Sardinia, and 
 Garibaldi’s successes in Sicily and 
 Naples brought the whole of Southern 
 Italy over to Victor Emmanuel. On 
 March 17, 1861, he assumed the title of 
 King of Italy, and early in 1865 Florence 
 became the royal residence. By the 
 Peace of Vienna (1866) Austria ceded 
 Venetia, and on the withdrawal of the 
 French garrison from Rome in 1870 the 
 city annexed itself to Italy. The king 
 entered Rome on July 2, 1871, and took 
 up his residence in the Quirinal. He 
 died 9th June, 1878, and was succeeded 
 by his son Humbert. 
 
 VICTORIA, a British colony in the 
 southeast of Australia, bounded n. by 
 New South Wales, s.e. by the Pacific, s. 
 by Bass strait and the Southern ocean, 
 and w. by South Australia ; area, 87,884 
 sq. miles. It has about 600 geographical 
 miles of sea-coast, with considerable 
 bays and indentations, especially about 
 the middle, where Port Phillip Bay, with 
 an area of 875 sq. miles and an entrance 
 barely 2 miles wide, affords shelter 
 sufficient for the largest fleet. Victoria 
 is the principal gold-producing colony 
 of Australia. Tin, antimony, copper, 
 and coal are also among the minerals 
 worked. Agriculture has greatly ex- 
 tended of late years, wheat and oats 
 being the two cereals cliiefly cultivated. 
 The great staple of the colony, however, 
 is wool. The government is invested in a 
 governor appointed by the crown, aided 
 by an executive ministry consisting of 
 twelve members, and a parhament con- 
 sisting of a legislative council of forty- 
 eight members elected for fourteen 
 provinces, and a legislative assembly of 
 ninety-five members for eighty-four 
 districts. The colony possesses a small 
 permanent military force, besides militia 
 and volunteers, and there is a small 
 fleet of war-vessels. Since 1901 Victoria 
 has formed a state of the Australian 
 commonwealth. There were in 1907, 
 3425 miles of railway open (all belonging 
 to the govermnent), and upward of 
 16,000 miles of telegraph wire with 843 
 telegraph stations. Education is com- 
 pulsory between the ages of six and 
 thirteen. Besides the Melbourne uni- 
 versity there are several colleges con- 
 nected with various religious denomina- 
 tions. Pop. 1,201,506. 
 
 VICTORIA, capital of British Colum- 
 bia, in Vancouver island, on the north 
 side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. 
 There are government buildings, town 
 hall, cathedral, etc., and some good 
 streets. The harbor for large vessels is 
 at Esquimault, 3 miles distant, where 
 there is a station of the British navy. 
 Pop. 20,816. 
 
 VICTORIA CROSS, a British military 
 decoration, instituted at the close of the 
 Crimean war in 1856. It is granted to 
 soldiers and sailors of any rank for a 
 single act of valor in presence of the 
 enemy. It was instituted in imitation 
 of the French cross of the Legion of 
 Honor. It is a bronze Maltese cross, 
 with a royal crown in the center, sur- 
 mounted by a lion, and the words “For 
 
 Valour” indented on a scroll below the 
 crown. The ribbon is red for the army. 
 
 and blue for the navy. A pension of 
 $50 a year accompanies the decoration, 
 when gained by anyone under the rank 
 of commissioned officer, with an ad- 
 ditional clasp and $25 if gained a second 
 time. 
 
 VICTORIA I. (Alexandrina), Queen of 
 Great Britain and Ireland and Empress 
 of India, only child of Edward, duke of 
 Kent, and of his wife Princess Victoria 
 Mary Louisa, daughter of the Duke of 
 Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, widow of the 
 Prince of Leiningen, and sister of King 
 Leopold of Belgimn, was born at Ken- 
 sington Palace, May 24, 1819. Her father 
 died January 23, 1820, and she became 
 heiress-presumptive to the crown on the 
 accession of William IV. in 1830. The 
 latter dying without issue (June 20, 
 1837)1 she ascended the throne of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, that of Hanover 
 falling by the Salic law to her uncle, the 
 
 Queen Victoria. 
 
 Duke of Cumberland. She was crowned 
 in Westminster Abbey, June 28, 1838, 
 and on February 10, 1840, married her 
 cousin. Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg- 
 Gotha. Prince Albert died on 14th De- 
 cember, 1861, a blow which so affected 
 the queen that she made but few ap- 
 pearances in public for years. In 1876 
 she assumed the title of Emprees of 
 India. The jubilee of her reign was cele- 
 brated in 1887 and the “diamond 
 jubilee” in 1897. She wrote Leaves from 
 the Journal of Our Life in the High- 
 lands (1868), and More Leaves (1884). 
 She died at Osborne House, Isle of 
 Wight, on 22nd January, 1901, and wa.s 
 succeeded by her eldest son Edward 
 
VICTORIA NYAXZA 
 
 VILLEINS 
 
 •N 
 
 V' 
 
 VII. Her remains were placed beside 
 those of Prince Albert in the mausoleum 
 at Frogmore. 
 
 VICTORIA NYANZA, a lake of East 
 Africa, about 400 miles inland from the 
 Indian ocean, crossed near its north end 
 by the equator, about 3800 feet above 
 the sea; area, 29,000 sq. miles. It com- 
 municates with the Albert Nyanza by 
 means of the Victoria Nile, and is the 
 principal feeder of the White Nile. It 
 contains many islands, some of them of 
 considerable size. It was discovered by 
 Captain Speke in 1858. Its northern 
 shores belong to British East Africa and 
 its southern to German East Africa. 
 
 VIENNA, capital of the Austro- 
 Hungarian empire, is situated in a plain 
 on the right bank of the Danube, and is 
 intersected by a narrow arm of the river 
 into which fall the Wein and other small 
 streams. The old town is still the court 
 and fashionable quarter of the city, and 
 is encircled by the Ringstrasse, a hand- 
 some boulevard, 55 yards wide. Vienna 
 is on the whole a handsome, well-built 
 town, with fine squares and straight and 
 spacious streets. Of the churches the 
 most remarkable is the Domkirche, or 
 cathedral, of St. Stephen, a cruciform 
 Gothic structure, with a main tower 
 453 feet high. The interior is adorned 
 with numerous statues and monuments, 
 and the tower contains a bell of 18 tons 
 weight. The modern palaces of the 
 archdukes and others of the nobility, are 
 
 many of them, handsome buildings. 
 Deserving of special mention are the 
 houses of parliament, the magnificent 
 Gothic town-house (1872-83), the courts 
 of justice, the museums of art and of 
 natural history, and the exchange. The 
 university was founded in 1237, and 
 reorganized by Maria Theresa. The im- 
 perial library contains 440,000 volumes 
 and 20,000 MSS. The imperial museum 
 of natural history is one of the finest in 
 Europe. The treasury, among other 
 imperial treasures, contains the regalia 
 of Charlemagne. Vienna is the first 
 manufaeturing town in the empire, and 
 its manufactures include cotton and silk 
 goods, leather, porcelain, arms, hard- 
 ware, and many other articles. There 
 is also a large inland trade. It is now 
 the center of a great railway system, 
 and the center of the shipping trade 
 
 between eastern and western Europe. 
 Pop. 1,662,269. 
 
 VIENNA, Congress of. This congress 
 was assembled on November 1, 1814, 
 to reorganize the political system of 
 Europe after the first overthrow of 
 Napoleon. The principal powers rep- 
 resented in it were Austria, Russia, 
 Prussia, England, and France. Spain, 
 Portugal, Sweden, and other minor 
 powers were also consulted on matters 
 more nearly concerning them. The lead- 
 ing territorial adjustments effected by 
 the congress were the following : Austria 
 recovered Lombardy and Venetia, while 
 Tuscany and Modena were conferred on 
 collateral branches of the imperial house. 
 The king of Sardinia recovered Pied- 
 mont and Savoy, with the addition of 
 Genoa. Murat retained Naples, but the 
 Bourbons were soon reinstated. Hol- 
 land and Belgium were erected into a 
 kingdom for the Prince of Orange, Will- 
 iam I. Hanover, with the title of king, 
 returned to the king of England, and 
 Great Britain retained Malta, Heligo- 
 land, and several conquered colonies. 
 A federative constitution, with a diet 
 at Frankfort, was established for Ger- 
 many. Prussia received the duchy of 
 Posen, the Rhine province, and a part, 
 of Saxony. Russia received the greater 
 part of the grand-duchy of Warsaw, 
 Cracow becoming a free state protected 
 by Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Sweden 
 retained Norway, and Denmark was in- 
 
 demnified with Lauenburg. The con- 
 gress was suddenly broken up by Napo- 
 leon’s escape from Elba (February, 
 1815); but its acts were signed by the 
 powers interested on 9th June, 1815. 
 
 VIENNE (ve-enn), a western depart- 
 ment of France; area, 2690 sq. miles. 
 Iron is abundant, and there are excel- 
 lent quarries of marble, granite, mill- 
 stones, whetstones, lithographic stones, 
 and limestone. The manufactures con- 
 sist of woolens, lace, cutlery^ paper, 
 pig-iron, etc. The capital is Poitiers. 
 Pop. 342,785. — Haute-Vienne is a hilly 
 department adjoining Vienna on the 
 southeast; area, 2130 sq. miles. The 
 principal crops are buckwheat, rye, 
 beans, and peas; and horses, mules, and 
 swine of a superior breed are reared. 
 Minerals include iron, copper, tin, lead, 
 coal, antimony, and kaolin. Porcelain, 
 
 woolen and other tissues, paper, and 
 leather are the chief manufactures. 
 Limoges is the capital. Pop. 363,182. 
 
 VIGIL, an ecclesiastical term applied 
 at first to the evening, and afterward to 
 the whole day, preceding a great festi- 
 val. This name originated from the 
 circumstance that the early Christians 
 spent a part of the night preceding such 
 festivals in prayers, to prepare them- 
 selves for the coming celebration. 
 
 VIKTNG (from the Icelandic vik, a 
 bay or fiord, and the termination ing, 
 implying one who belongs to or is de- 
 scended from: literally one who lurked 
 in bays and issued thence to plunder), a 
 rover or sea-robber belonging to one 
 of the bands of Northmen who scoured 
 the European' seas during the 8th, 9th, 
 and 10th centuries. This word has been 
 frequently confounded with sea-king, 
 a term which is applied to a man of 
 royal race, who took by right the title 
 of king when he assumed the command 
 of men, although only of a ship’s crew; 
 whereas the former term is applicable 
 to any member of the rover bands. See 
 Northmen. 
 
 VILLARD, Henry, American financier 
 was born in Spire, Bavaria, in 1835. He 
 came to the United States in 1853. He 
 married a daughter of William Lloyd 
 Garrison in 1866, and for two years 
 afterward was European correspondent 
 of the New York Tribune. In 1875 Mr. 
 Villard became president of both the 
 Oregon and California railroad, and the 
 Oregon Steamship company. In 1879 
 he organized the Oregon railway and 
 navigation company. He was elected 
 president Tof the Northern Pacific rail- 
 way in 1881, and from 1889 to 1893 was 
 chairman of its board of directors. He 
 died in 1900. 
 
 VILLARS (vil-ar), Claude Louis Hec- 
 tor, Due de, one of the greatest generals 
 of the age of Louis XIV., was the son of 
 the Marquis de Villars, and was born 
 at Moulins in 1653. He early distin- 
 guished himself under Turenne, Cond6, 
 and Luxembourg, and was created 
 marechal de camp in 1690, and lieu- 
 tenant-general in 1693. He defeated 
 Prince Louis of Baden at Friedlingen, 
 14th October, 1702, for which he re- 
 ceived the marshal’s baton; and de- 
 feated the Prince of Baden at Hoch- 
 stadt, 21st September, 1703. His success 
 in dealing with the insurrection of the 
 Camisards obtained for him the title of 
 duke (1705). Having been sent to de- 
 fend the frontier against Marlborough, 
 he forced the formidable lines of Sroll- 
 hofen, near Strasburg, and penetrated 
 far into Germany (1705-1707). In 1709 
 he replaced Vendome in Flanders, and 
 fought the battle of Malplaquet against 
 Marlborough and Eugene, in which he 
 was seriously wounded. In 1712 he 
 defeated the allies at Denain, took 
 Marchiennes, and relieved Landrecy. 
 After the Peace of Utrecht he opposed 
 Eugene with uninterrupted success, and 
 negotiated with him the Peace of Ras-, 
 tadt, 7th March, 1714. On the renewal 
 of the war with Austria in 1733 he was 
 sent to Italy at the head of an army, with 
 the title of marshal-general of France. 
 After a successful campaign, he died at 
 Turin, 1734. 
 
 VILLEINS, a species of feudal serfs 
 
 Street In Vienna. 
 
 J 
 
VILLERS 
 
 VIOLIN 
 
 who were allowed to hold portions of 
 land at the will of their lord, on con- 
 dition of performing menial and non- 
 military services. It frequently hap- 
 pened that lands held in vilenage de- 
 scended in uninterrupted succession 
 from father to son, until at length the 
 occupiers or villeins became entitled, 
 by prescription or custom, to hold their 
 lands so long as they perfonned the re- 
 quired services. • And although the vil- 
 leins themselves acquired freedom, or 
 their land came into the possession of 
 freemen, the villein services were still 
 the condition of the tenure, according to 
 the custom of the manor. These customs 
 were preserved and evidenced by the 
 rolls of the several courts-baron, in 
 which they were entered, or kept on foot 
 by the constant immemorial usage of 
 the several manors in which the lands 
 lay. And as such tenants had nothing to 
 show for their estates but the entries 
 into those rolls, or copies of them authen- 
 ticated by the steward, they at last came 
 to be called tenants by copy of court- 
 roll, and their tenure a copy-hold. 
 
 VILLERS. See Buckingham 
 
 VILNA, or WILNA, a town of Russia, 
 'capital of the government of the same 
 name, on the Villa. Pop. 154,532. — The 
 government, which lies in the Baltic, 
 has an area of 16,406 sq. miles and a 
 population of 1,591,207. The surface is 
 generally flat, and the government pro- 
 duces good crops of grain, hemp, and 
 flax. Manufactures and trade are 
 limited. 
 
 VINCENNES (vln-sSnz'), the county- 
 seat of Knox CO., Ind., 117 miles south- 
 west of Indianapolis; on the Wabash 
 river, and on the Cleveland, Cincin- 
 nati, Chicago and St. Louis, the Balti- 
 more and Ohio Southwestern, the 
 Evansville and Terre Haute, and the 
 Indianapolis and Vincennes railroad. 
 Pop. 12,249. 
 
 VINCENT, St., one of the British West 
 India islands. See St. Vincent. 
 
 VINCI (vin'che), Leonardo da, one of 
 the greatest Italian painters, also dis- 
 distinguished as a sculptor, architect, 
 and civil and military engineer, a scien- 
 tific inventor, and a man of universal 
 genius, was born at the village of Vinci, 
 near Florence, in 1452. Two of his earlier 
 productions are still extant : The Adora- 
 tion of the Magi, in the gallery of the 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
 Cffizi at Florence, and The Virgin of the 
 Rocks in the British National gallery. 
 His great painting of the Lord’s Supper 
 was finished in 1499. The original has 
 been wholly defaced, but judging from 
 copies and engravings, this work is 
 
 universally regarded as one of the great- 
 est ever produced. One of the best 
 copies is that in the Royal academy, 
 London, by his pupil Marco d’Oggionno. 
 After the occupation of Milan by Louis 
 XII. (1499) he retired to Florence, where 
 he painted his celebrated portrait of 
 Mona Lisa del Giocondo, known as 
 La Gioconda, in the Louvre. In 1502 he 
 was appointed chief engineer and archi- 
 tect of the pope’s army, and visited 
 many of the fortified posts in the papal 
 dominions. In 1507 he returned to 
 Milan, and painted a Madonna and 
 Child in the palace of the Melzi at 
 Vaprio. In 1512 he painted two por- 
 traits of Duke Maximilian, son of 
 Ludovico, and in 1516 accompanied 
 Francis I. to France. He died at Cloux, 
 near Amboise, 2d May, 1519. 
 
 VINE, a well-known climbing shrub 
 with woody stems, simple or compound 
 leaves, peduncles sometimes changed 
 into tendrils, small green flowers, and 
 round berries. The species are found in 
 both the Gld and New Worlds, especially 
 in Asia. The best known and most 
 useful of the order is the grapevine, 
 cultivated from time immemorial, of 
 which there are numerous varieties, 
 distinguished by possessing lobed sin- 
 uately-toothed, naked or downy leaves. 
 It is a native of Central Asia, and its 
 cultivation extends from near 55° north 
 latitude to the equator, but in south 
 latitudes it only extends to about 40°. 
 It is rarely grown at a greater altitude 
 than 3000 feet. About 1771 a European 
 vine was introduced on the Pacific 
 slope, and the culture has increased to 
 great dimensions, especially in Califor- 
 nia. In other parts of the United States, 
 however, the native American varieties 
 are chiefly cultivated. The vine grows 
 in every sort of soil, but that which is 
 light and gravelly is best suited for the 
 production of fine wines. It is a long- 
 lived plant, indeed, in suitable climates 
 the period of its existence is not known. 
 It is propagated from seeds, layers, cut- 
 tings, grafting, and by inoculation, the 
 first method being used for obtaining 
 new varieties. Some vines produce dark- 
 colored berries (black or red so called), 
 others white. The Burgundy may be 
 considered the most general vineyard 
 grape of France, and the best wines in 
 Italy and Spain are also made from 
 grapes of this description. The sweet 
 wines are made from sweet-berried 
 grapes allowed to remain on the plants 
 till overripe. Most varieties of the vine 
 bear only once in the season, some of tener, 
 especially in warm climates. Grapes 
 are extensively used in the dry state 
 under the name of raisins, chiefly im- 
 ported from Spain and the Levant. The 
 dried currants of commerce are the 
 produce of the small seedless Corinthian 
 grape which is cultivated in Greece and 
 in many of the Greek islands. The vine 
 is mentioned in the most ancient his- 
 torical records, and the grape has been 
 in use for the making of wine for more 
 than 4000 years. The Phoenicians in- 
 troduced the vine into Europe. Vine- 
 yards are mentioned in Domesday book 
 as existing in England, but in the reign 
 of Henry II. the cultivation of the vine 
 began to be neglected. Artificial heat 
 was not applied to the production of 
 
 grapes before the beginning of the 18th 
 century. For the manufacture of wines 
 see Wine. 
 
 VINEGAR, the name given to dilute 
 and impure acetic acid, obtained by the 
 vinous fermentation. In wine countries 
 it is obtained from the acetous fermen- 
 tation of inferior wines, but in Britain 
 and elsewhere it is usually procured 
 from an infusion of malt which has pre- 
 viously undergone the vinous fermenta- 
 tion. Vinegar may also be obtained from 
 strong beer, by the fermentation of 
 various fruits, or of a solution of sugar 
 mixed with yeast; in short, all liquids 
 which are capable of the vinous fermen- 
 tation may be made to produce vinegar. 
 Vinegars yield by distillation a purer 
 and somewhat weaker acetic acid, called 
 distilled vinegar. Wood vinegar is an 
 impure acetic acid obtained by the dis- 
 tillation of wood. Common and distilled 
 vinegar are used in pharmacy for pre- 
 paring many remedies, and externally 
 in medicine, in the form of lotions. The 
 use of vinegar as a condiment is uni- 
 versal. It is likewise the antiseptic in- 
 gredient in pickles. 
 
 VIOL, a class of ancient musical in- 
 struments which may be regarded as the 
 precursors of the modern violins. They 
 were fretted instruments with three to 
 six strings, and were played on with a 
 bow. There were three instruments 
 differing in pitch in a set, the treble, 
 tenor, and bass viols, and in concerts 
 they were commonly played in pairs: 
 two treble, two tenor, and two bass. 
 The bass viol, or viol de gamba, was the 
 last to fall into disuse, which it did about 
 the close of 18th century. 
 
 VIOLA. See Violin and Violet. 
 
 VIOLET (ViSla), the popular name 
 given to the species of the natural order 
 Viloacese, which are favorite flowers in 
 all northern and temperate climates 
 and many of them among the first to 
 make their appearance in the spring. 
 The corolla is composed of five unequal 
 petals; the roots are mostly perennial; 
 the leaves are alternate and stipulated; 
 and the flowers are pendunculate. 
 More than a hundred specimens are 
 known. The greatest favorites are com- 
 mon sweet violet, heart’s-ease ; the 
 former being especially esteemed for its 
 fragrance. The well-known pansies so 
 common as garden flowers are but 
 varieties produced by cultivations. 
 
 VIOLET, one of the colors. See Color. 
 Spectrum, etc. 
 
 VIOLET- WOOD. See King-wood. 
 
 VIOLIN, a musical instrument, con- 
 sisting of four cat-gut strings, the lowest 
 of which is covered with silvered copper 
 wire, stretched by means of a bridge 
 over a hollow wooden body, and played 
 with a bow. It is considered the most 
 perfect of musical instruments, on 
 account of its capabilities of fine tone 
 and expression, and of producing all the 
 tones in any scale in perfect tune. It 
 forms with its cognates, the viola, 
 violoncello or bass violin, and double- 
 bass, the main element of all orchestras. 
 The principal parts of the violin are the 
 scroll or head, in which are placed the 
 pins for tuning the strings; the neck, 
 which connects the scroll with the body, 
 and to which is attached the finger- 
 board, upon which the strings are 
 
VIOLONCELLO 
 
 VIRGINIA 
 
 stopped by the fingers of the left hand 
 as it nolds the neck in playing; the belly, 
 over which the strings are stretched, and 
 which has two f-shaped sound holes, 
 one on each side ; the back or under side ; 
 the sides or ribs, uniting the back and 
 belly; the tail -piece, to which the strings 
 are fastened; and the bridge. The back, 
 neck, and sides are generally of syca- 
 more, the belly of deal, the finger-board 
 and tail-piece of ebony. Almost all the 
 different pieces are fastened together 
 with glue. The four strings of the violin 
 are tuned at intervals of fifths, G, on 
 the upper space of the bass staff, D, A, 
 E, reckoning upward. Every inter- 
 mediate semitone in its ordinary com- 
 pass of octaves may be produced by 
 stopping the strings with the fingers, 
 and the compass may be almost in- 
 definitely extended upward by the 
 harmonics produced by touching the 
 strings lightly. The viola, or tenor 
 violin, has four strings tuned C (in the 
 second space of the bass staff), D, A, G, 
 reckoning upward, and is an octave 
 higher than the violoncello, and a fifth 
 lower than the violin. The violin can, 
 to a limited extent, be made to produce 
 harmony by sounding two or three 
 strings together. The finest violins are 
 by old makers, which cannot be imi- 
 tated, and the precise cause of their 
 superiority has never been satisfactorily 
 explained. The Cremona violins stand 
 in the first rank, the celebrated mak- 
 ers being the Stradivari (Straduarius), 
 Amati, and Guarneri (Guarnerius) ; of 
 German makers the most celebrated are 
 Stainer or Steiner and IQotz ; Vuillaume 
 of the French, and Forest of the English. 
 
 VIOLONCELLO, a powerful and ex- 
 pressive bow instrument of the violin 
 kind, held by the performer between the 
 knees, and filling a place between the 
 violin and double-bass. It has four 
 strings, the two lowest covered with 
 silver wire. It is tuned in fifths, C (on 
 the second ledger-line below the bass 
 staff), G, D, A, reckoning upward, and 
 is an octave lower than the viola or tenor 
 violin. Its ordinary compass from C on 
 the second ledger-line below extends 
 to A on the second space of the treble, 
 but; poloists frequently play an octave 
 higher. 
 
 VIPER, a name applied to various 
 venomous serpents, characterized by 
 having no teeth in the upper jaw save 
 the two hollow poison-fangs. The com- 
 mon viper or adder is generally of a 
 
 Head and tail of common viper. 
 
 brownish-yellow color, with zig-zag 
 markings and black triangular spots. 
 Its bite is, as a rule, not fatal, but may 
 induce pain, sickness, and fever. The 
 food consists of frogs, mice, birds, eggs, 
 etc. The viper is viviparous — retaining 
 its eggs within the body till the young 
 are hatched. 
 
 VIRCHOW (fer'ho), Rudolf, German 
 pathologist and anthropologist, born 
 
 1821, studied medicine at Berlin, and 
 early became famous as a lecturer on 
 pathological anatomy at Berlin uni- 
 versity. In 1849 he accepted a chair at 
 Wurzburg, where he remained seven 
 years, returning to Berlin in the autumn 
 of 1856 as professor in the university 
 and director of the pathological institute 
 attached to it. He has rendered im- 
 mense service to medical science by his 
 discoveries in regard to inflammation, 
 ulcerations, tuberculosis, and numerous 
 other morbid processes of the human 
 body, and has had great influeiice on the 
 whole of modern medicine, including 
 hospital reform and sanitary science. 
 
 Rudolf Virchow. 
 
 From 1862 he was one of Bismarck’s 
 most powerful opponents in the Prus- 
 sian parliament and the Reichstag, and 
 has been a member of important com- 
 missions, etc. In 1856 he was elected an 
 honorary member of the Royal Society 
 of Medicine, London. He was one of the 
 founders of the Gennan Anthropological 
 society, and has been an enthusiastic 
 worker in this field, accumulating facts 
 (partly in company with Schliemann) in 
 Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Egypt and 
 Nubia, etc. He has been a voluminous 
 writer, and among his important works 
 are: Cellular Pathology, Handbuch der 
 Speziellen Pathologie und Therapie, 
 Uber den Hungertyphus, Die Aufgabe 
 den Naturwissenschaften in dem neuen 
 nationalen Leben Deutschlands, Die 
 Freiheit der Wissenschaft im Modernen 
 Staat, and many others. He died in 
 September, 1902. 
 
 VIRGIL, full name, Publius Virgilius 
 (or Vergilius) Maro, the most distin- 
 guished epic, didactic, and pastoral poet 
 of ancient Rome, was born at Andes 
 (probably Pietola), a little village near 
 Mantua, 15th October, 70 b.c. His 
 Eclogues, a series of bucolic or pastoral 
 poems, were written about 41-39 b.c. 
 His Georgies, a poem on agriculture, 
 was completed in b.c. 31. The .®neid, 
 an epic in twelve books on the fortunes 
 of iEneas, was probably begun about 
 B.c. 29. It occupied the author many 
 years, and never received his finishing 
 touches. In b.c. 20 Virgil appears to 
 have engaged on a tour in Greece. But 
 Augustus, having arrived at Athens on 
 his return from the East, Virgil deter- 
 mined to accompany him home. At 
 Megara, however, he fell sick, and he 
 died at Brundusium, b.c. 19. 
 
 VIRGINAL, an obsolute keyed musi- 
 cal instrument with one string, jack a~ d 
 quill to each note. It differed from the 
 spinet only in being square instead of 
 
 triangular, and was the precursor of the 
 harpsichord, now superseded by the 
 pianoforte. 
 
 Virginal. 
 
 VIRGINIA. See Appius Claudius. 
 
 VIRGINIA, one of the original of |^i 
 the United States of North America, 3* 
 bounded by West Virginia, Maryland, 
 the Atlantic, North Carolina, Tennessee, 
 and Kentucky; area, 42,450 sq. miles, v'3 
 It ranks thirty-eight in size among the f j 
 states. The western portion of the state ,yi2i 
 is traversed from s.s.w. to n.n.e. by the jHl 
 great range of the Alleghanies, with 
 ramifications known by various local O 
 names, and intersected by extensive i'jt: 
 and fertile valleys. The surface of the i^i 
 state may be -divided into three sections; | /I 
 the seaboard or tide-water district, the 
 soil of which is of excellent quality, y’l! 
 yielding large crops; the district to the fy 
 
 Reverse. 
 
 The seal of Virginia. 
 
 eastern chain of the Alleghanies, which 
 is less fertile ; and the mountain district, 
 which has many rich and fertile valleys. 
 The Valley of Virginia in this district has 
 been called the garden of .America. The 
 width of the mountainous district is 
 from 80 to 100 miles. The highest point 
 is White Top, about 6000 feet above sea- 
 level. The sea-board or tide-water dis- 
 trict is generally level, not exceeding 60 
 feet above the tide in its highest parts. 
 Virginia is rich in minerals, including 
 coal, iron, copper, lead, manganese, 
 zinc, gold, gypsum, rock-salt, etc.; the 
 most valuable of those worked being 
 
 ^ - 
 
 \ 
 
 t 
 
 K 
 
 V 
 
 i 
 
 fi 
 
 ji 
 
VIRGINIA 
 
 VISHNU 
 
 coal and iron. The chief rivers are the 
 Potomac, the Rappahannock, the York, 
 and the James, which flow into Chesa- 
 peake bay. The Roanoke passes into 
 North Carolina. East of the Blue Ridge 
 the climate is mild or temperately warm, 
 with a mean temperature of 37° for 
 January and 77° for July. The rainfall is 
 sufficient throughout the state, and 
 favorably distributed for agriculture. 
 It is greatest in the central portion near 
 Richmond, where the average is 48 
 inches. The soils of Virginia are in 
 general light and sandy, except in the 
 bottom lands and in the marsh regions, 
 where a deep layer of vegetable mold 
 has accumulated. The forests are still of 
 considerable extent, and consist of yel- 
 low pine and cedar, with cypress in 
 the swamps and some oak, hickory, 
 locust, and persimmon. In the western 
 uplands there are large forests of de- 
 ciduous trees, with white pine on the 
 mountains, and with the general char- 
 acters of the Appalachian floral region. 
 Virginia ranks close to Massachusetts, 
 New York, New Jersey, and Maryland 
 in the importance of sea fisheries. 
 Oysters constitute two-thirds of the 
 total product. Among other varieties 
 are shad, menhaden, clams, and ale- 
 wives. The staple products of Virginia 
 are tobacco, Indian corn, wheat, and 
 oats. Cattle and sheep are numerous, 
 and dairy produce is exported. The 
 largest exports are tobacco and flour. 
 Elementary and intermediate education 
 is free to all ; advanced instruction is free 
 to a certain number; and the higher 
 instruction of the University of Virginia 
 is free to all male natives over eighteen 
 years of age who possess a certain stand- 
 ard of culture. Among the other in- 
 stitutions are the college of William and 
 Mary, Washington and Lee university, 
 and Richmond college. The chief cities 
 of the state are Ricmnond (the capital), 
 Norfolk, Petersburg, Lynchburg, Alex- 
 andria, and Portsmouth. Virginia was 
 first settled at Jamestown in 1607 and 
 1609 by chartered London companies. 
 It was made a royal colony in 1624, and 
 continued a loyal royal province till the 
 revolution. Negro slavery was intro- 
 duced in 1619, and for a considerable 
 period after that date felons or convicts 
 were sent over from England in large 
 numbers, and sold for a term of years 
 for work on the plantations. Virginia 
 has perhaps, the most interesting history 
 of any state in the Union. The first 
 lasting settlement in America was made 
 at Jamestown in 1607 by the English. 
 At this place, also, was held the first 
 representative assembly in America. 
 In the early history of Virginia are 
 found the names of Captain John Smith 
 and Pocahontas. This state took the 
 lead in the protest against the Stamp 
 Act and the encroachments of Great 
 Britain, and in the revolutionary period 
 furnished such noted sons as Washing- 
 ton, Jefferson, Henry, the Lees, and 
 Madison. The surrender of Cornwallis at 
 Yorktown put an end to the war. In 
 the war of 1812, Virginia bore a con- 
 spicuous part, as also in that of 1846- 
 47 with Mexico. The civil war was more 
 disastrous in its consequences to Vir- 
 ginia than to any other state of the 
 Union, and on its soil the last battle was 
 
 •P. E.--8'2 
 
 fought and the final surrender was made. 
 Seven of the first twenty-one presidents 
 of the United States were natives of 
 Virginia. The popular name is the Old 
 Dominion. From the beginning the 
 state has been democratic in national 
 politics. The hold was never broken 
 until 1860, when the vote was cast for 
 the Constitutional Union candidate, 
 John Bell. Since its re-admission the 
 vote has been steadily cast for the 
 democratic national candidates, with 
 the exception of 1872, when the repub- 
 lican candidate, Grant, was preferred 
 to his opponent, Greeley, an old aboli- 
 tionist. Pop. 2,100,000. 
 
 VIRGINIA, University of, an unde- 
 nominational institution of higher learn- 
 ing at Charlottesville, Va., four miles 
 from Monticello, the home of Thomas 
 Jefferson, its founder. It was chartered 
 in 1819 and opened in 1825. The courses 
 of instruction are comprised in five de- 
 partments: academic, engineering, law, 
 medicine, and agriculture, comprising 
 in all 22 schools, of which each affords 
 an independent course under professors 
 who are responsible only to the board 
 of visitors, appointed by the governor. 
 The courses are purely elective. The 
 degrees of bachelor of arts, law, and 
 science, master of arts, doctor of phi- 
 losophy, medicine, and law, civil, me- 
 chanical, mining, and electrical en- 
 gineer are conferred only upon ex- 
 amination after residence. 
 
 VIRGINIA AGRICULTURAL AND 
 MECHANICAL COLLEGE AND POLY- 
 TECHNIC INSTITUTE, an institution 
 founded in 1871 on the land grant of 
 1862. It offers courses in agriculture, 
 horticulture, applied chemistry, general 
 science, civil, mechanical, and electrical 
 engineering, and shorter courses in prac- 
 tical agriculture and practical mechanics. 
 The sciences hold the foremost place in 
 the curriculum, but every course in- 
 cludes a certain element of general cul- 
 ture. The courses are so arranged as to 
 give the student an approximately equal 
 amount of class work and of laboratory, 
 shop, or field practice. The degrees con- 
 ferred are bachelor and master of science 
 and civil, mechanical, and electrical 
 engineer. Military drill is required of 
 the students. 
 
 VIRGINLAN CREEPER, a climbing 
 plant, native to North America, used 
 as an ornamental covering for walls, 
 etc., and sometimes called American 
 Ivy. Its leaves turn a bright red in the 
 autumn. 
 
 VIRGINIAN DEER. See Cariacou. 
 
 VIRGINIAN QUAIL. See Quail. 
 
 VIRGIN ISLANDS, a group of small 
 islands in the West Indies, belonging to 
 Denmark and Britain, and situated east 
 of Porto Rico. The chief exports are 
 sugar, molasses, nun, cotton, and salt. 
 The chief British islands are Tortola, 
 Anegada, and Virgin Gorda; the Danish 
 are St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, St. John, 
 Culebra, Crab Island, etc. The group 
 was discovered by Coliunbus in 1494. 
 
 VIRGIN MARY. See Mary. 
 
 VIRGIN’S BOWER. See Clematis. 
 
 VIRUS, the term used in medicine to 
 denote a palpable morbid product causa- 
 tive of a contagious disease. The term 
 virus is used of any one of the infective 
 agents which cause respectively typhus 
 
 fever, relapsing fever, scarlet fever, 
 smallpox or measles. Virus is also used 
 as a synonym of lymph, in speaking of 
 vaccine material. We also speak of the 
 virus of syphilis, glanders, hydrophobia, 
 etc., meaning the morbific fluid which 
 contains the germs of these diseases and 
 is capable of propagating them if in- 
 oculated into the hiunan body. In this 
 way a culture of any bacteria may 
 loosely be called a virus. The active 
 principle of a virus has the tendency 
 to reproduce itself after a period of 
 variable length, called the period of in- 
 cubation, which elapses between the 
 time of exposure and inoculation and 
 the day when symptoms of the disease 
 are first noted. In measles the period of 
 incubation is about ten days, though it 
 may be protracted to thirty days; the 
 virus being carried in blood from an ex- 
 anthematous patch or the secretion 
 from the eyes or nostrils, and later from 
 the scales that separate from the skin. 
 In smallpox the period of incubation is 
 about twelve days, though it varies from 
 five days to three weeks. 
 
 VISCACHA (vis-kii'cha), a rodent ani- 
 mal of South America, allied to the 
 chinchilla, about 2 feet long and stoutly 
 built, with a short tail, inhabiting the 
 pampas of the Argentine Republic, and 
 living in burrows like the prairie-dog of 
 North America. 
 
 VISCOUNT (vi'kount), a title of no- 
 bility next in rank to that of earl, and 
 immediately above that of baron. It 
 is the most recently established English 
 title, having been first conferred by let- 
 ters patent on John, Lord Beaumont, 
 by Henry VI. in 1440. The title is fre- 
 quently attached to an earldom as a 
 second title, and is held by the eldest son 
 during the lifetime of the father. 
 
 VISHNU, the second god of the Hindu 
 triad (the others being Brahma and 
 Siva), and by his special worshipers 
 considered to be the greatest. In the 
 early Vedas he appeared as a manifesta- 
 tion of the sun, -and he was not regarded 
 as the most exalted deity, this rank being 
 accorded to him by the later writers of 
 the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and 
 
 Vishnu on his man-bird garuda. 
 
 more especially of the Puranas. The 
 Brahmanic myths relating to Vishnu 
 are characterized by the idea that when- 
 ever a great physical or moral disorder 
 affected the world, Vishnu descended in 
 a small portion of his essence to set it 
 right. Such descents are called avatars, 
 or incarnations, and arc generally given 
 I as ten, nine of which are already past. 
 
VISIBLE SPEECH 
 
 VOLCANOES 
 
 the tenth being yet to come. He is 
 generally represented as having four 
 arms, each hand holding some particular 
 object, and as riding on a being half 
 man and half bird. 
 
 VISIBLE SPEECH, a term applied by 
 Prof. A. Melville Bell, its inventor, to a 
 system of alphabetical characters de- 
 signed to represent every possible articu- 
 late utterance of the organs of speech. 
 The system is based on an exhaustive 
 classification of the possible actions of 
 the speech organs, each organ and every 
 mode of action having its appropriate 
 symbol. It is said that this invention is 
 of great utility in the teaching of the 
 deaf and dumb to speak, and in enabling 
 learners of foreign languages to acquire 
 their pronunciation from books. 
 
 VISIGOTHS. See Goths. 
 
 VISION. See Eye, Optics, Sight. 
 
 VISTULA (viksel), a river which 
 rises in the Carpathians, traverses 
 Galicia, Poland, and Prussia, and after a 
 course of about 650 miles empties by 
 several mouths into the Gulf of Danzig. 
 It flows past the towns of Cracow, War- 
 saw, Dromberg, and Danzig, and is 
 navigable from the first-mentioned place. 
 
 VITACE^. See Vine. 
 
 VITEL'LINE, a substance consisting 
 of casein and albumen, forming the 
 nutritive part of the yolk of birds’ eggs. 
 
 VITEBSK', or VITEBSK, a town in 
 Russia, capital of the government of the 
 same name on the Diina, 315 miles s. of 
 St. Petersburg. Its manufactures are 
 woolen and linen cloth, leather, and 
 mead. Pop. 57,079. — The government 
 has an area of 17,433 sq. miles. The sur- 
 face is generally flat, and much occupied 
 by woods and morasses. Pop. 1,201,224. 
 
 VITRIOL, BLUE. See Copper. 
 
 VITRIOL, Green, the same as cop- 
 peras or sulphate of iron. See Copperas. 
 
 VITRIOL, Oil of, the common name 
 for strong sulphuric acid. 
 
 VITTORIA. See Vitoria. 
 
 VITUS’S DANCE, St., a spasmodic or 
 convulsive disease, allied to rheumatism, 
 and due to an irritable condition of the 
 spinal cord, in which the muscles of the 
 extremities and other parts are thrown 
 into various involuntary motions, and 
 perform in an irregular manner those 
 motions which are dictated by the will. 
 The disease attacks both sexes, but 
 chiefly the female, and is specially a 
 disease of childhood, occurring in those 
 who are of a weak constitution or im- 
 properly nourished. It generally ap- 
 pears from the eighth to the fourteenth 
 year. In serious cases the spasmodic 
 movements are violent and incessant, 
 and speech and swallowing are inter- 
 ferred with. 
 
 VIVER'RID.®, a family of mammals 
 containing the civits and allied tribes. 
 
 VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS, animals 
 which bring forth their young alive. 
 See Reproduction. 
 
 VIVISECTION, the practice of operat- 
 ing with the knife upon living animals 
 for the purpose of ascertaining some 
 fact in physiology or pathology which 
 cannot be otherwise investigated. It is 
 also practiced in order to illustrate pre- 
 viously known facts, and to enable 
 students to acquire operative dexterity. 
 Though the term vivisection strictly is 
 applicable to cutting operations only, it 
 
 is generally employed for all scientific 
 experiments performed on living ani- 
 mals, whether they consist of cutting 
 operations, the compression of parts by 
 ligatures, the administration of poisons, 
 the inoculation of disease, the subjec- 
 tion to special conditions of food, tem- 
 perature, or respiration, or to the action 
 of drugs and medicines. 
 
 VIZIER, a title given to high political 
 officers in the Turkish empire and other 
 Mohammedan states. In Turkey the 
 title is given to the heads of the various 
 ministerial departments into which the 
 divan or ministerial council is divided. 
 The president of the divan or prime 
 minister is known as grand vizier. 
 
 VLADIMIR (vlad-e'mer), one of the 
 oldest towns in Russia, capital of a 
 government of the same name, 105 miles 
 n.e. of Moscow. It has a cathedral, a 
 theological seminary, considerablemanu- 
 factures, and a trade in fruit. During the 
 13th century it rivaled Moscow in im- 
 portance, but began to decay in the 
 following century. Pop. 16,422. — The 
 government has an area of 18,794 sq. 
 miles, and a population of 1,339,327. 
 
 VLADIVOSTOCK, a Russian seaport 
 in Eastern Siberia, Sea of Japan, a ter- 
 minus of the great Siberian railway. 
 It was founded in 1861, and is a station 
 of the Russian Pacific fleet. Vast sums 
 have been spent on wharves, ship-yards, 
 and arsenals, but the trade is small. 
 Pop. 29,000. 
 
 VOCAL CORDS OR CHORDS. See 
 
 Voice and Larynx. 
 
 VOICE, the name given to the result 
 of the production of sound in nearly all 
 the higher vertebrate animals. “Speech” 
 (which see) is a modification of “voice.” 
 In man the voice is produced by the 
 inferior laryngeal ligaments or true vocal 
 cords (see Larynx) as they are termed. 
 The vocal cords consist of two elastic 
 folds of mucous membrane, so attached 
 to the cartilages of the larynx and to 
 muscles, that they may be stretched or 
 relaxed and otherwise altered so as to 
 modify the sounds produced by their 
 vibration. The higher the note produced 
 the greater is the tension of the cords; 
 and the range of voice therefore depends 
 upon the amount of tension which the 
 cords can undergo. Regarding the com- 
 pass and application of the voice in 
 speaking and singing physiologists have 
 noted three kinds of sequence. In ordi- 
 nary speaking a monotonous sequence is 
 observed, the notes having nearly all 
 the same pitch, and the variety of the 
 sounds being due rather to articulation 
 in the mouth than to definite move- 
 ments of the glottis and vocal cords. A 
 passage from high to low notes, without 
 intervals, forme the second kind of 
 sequence; or the same sequence is ob- 
 served in the passage from low to high 
 notes. Such a sequence is exemplified in 
 crying and howling both in man and in 
 lower animals. The true musical se- 
 quence forms the third, in which the 
 successive sounds have vibrations cor- 
 responding in relative proportions to the 
 notes of the musical scale. The male 
 voice admits of division into tenor and 
 bass, and the female into soprano and 
 contralto. The lowest female note is an 
 octave or so higher than the lowest note 
 of the male voice, and the female’s 
 
 highest note is about an octave above 
 that of the male. The compass of both 
 voices taken together is about four 
 octaves, the chief difference residing in 
 the pitch and also in the quality or 
 timbre. The difference of pitch between 
 the male and female voice is due to the 
 length of the vocal cords, while the 
 difference in timbre appears to result 
 from differences in the nature and ex 
 tent of the walls and cavity of the 
 larynx, throat, and mouth. Chest notes 
 differ from falsetto notes in that the 
 former are natural notes produced by 
 the natural voice, while the latter are 
 produced by a stopping action on the 
 cords. Finally it may be noted that the 
 actual strength of the voice depends on 
 the degree of vibration of the vocal 
 cords, and also in a minor degree on the 
 resonance of the larynx, lungs, and 
 chest generally. 
 
 VOLAPUK (vo'la-puk), the name 
 given to a universal language invented 
 by Johann Martin Schleyer, of Con 
 stance, after twenty years labor. The 
 name means “world-speech,” being 
 based on English world and speak, and a 
 number of the vocables are modified 
 English words. In structure the Ian 
 guage is simple and extremely regular 
 and the orthography is entirely pho 
 netic, the words being pronounced as 
 they are written, and vice versa. The 
 study of Volapiik has made some prog 
 ress; there are a number of periodicals 
 written in it, and many associations 
 devoted to its dissemination. 
 
 VOLATILE OILS. See Oils. 
 
 VOLCANOES, in a popular sense 
 conical hills or mountains composed of 
 material (volcanic ashes and lava) 
 brought up by igneous forces from the 
 interior of the earth through a pipe or 
 vent. At the top there is a cup-shaped 
 hollow called the crater. A volcanic 
 eruption generally commences with the 
 discharge of immense quantities of 
 gases. This is followed by the ejection 
 of ashes and hot fragments of rock. 
 Lastly there is a flood of molten rock or 
 lava. Volcanoes which show such out- 
 bursts more or less frequently are called 
 active volcanoes; those which are known 
 
 Section of an active volcano. 
 
 to have been active in historic times, 
 but have long been quiescent, are called 
 dormant or sleeping volcanoes; and 
 those which present all the phenomena 
 of volcanoes, but which have shown no 
 activity in historic times, are called 
 extinct or dead volcanoes. The mud 
 volcanoes of the Crimea and elsewhere; 
 the fissures from which steam issues ; the 
 holes from which sulphurous fumes pro- 
 ceed of Italy, etc.; the geysers and hot 
 springs of Iceland, New Zealand, the 
 Yellowstone park, etc., are signs of 
 
VOLE 
 
 VOLTAIRE 
 
 ! 
 
 , 
 
 ' 
 
 
 weak or decreasing volcanic activity in 
 the special districts in which they occur. 
 Volcanoes may occur as isolated conical 
 mountains, such as Vesuvius, Etna, or 
 the Peak of Tenerifle. They also form 
 various groups or systems of mountains. 
 One remarkable fact in the distribution 
 of volcanoes is their proximity to the 
 sea, for out of 323 active volcanoes, all, 
 excepting two or three in Central Asia 
 and about the same number in America, 
 are within a short distance of the ocean. 
 An almost uninterrupted line of vol- 
 canoes stretches from the 46th degree of 
 8. latitude in Chile to the north of 
 Mexico, including Tunguragua, Coto- 
 paxi, Antisana, Pichincha, Orizaba, Po- 
 pocatepetl, Jorullo, etc. Another con- 
 tinuous line of volcanic action com- 
 mences in the north of Alaska, passes 
 through the Aleutian Isles over to 
 Kamtchatka in northeast Asia, then pro- 
 ceeds southward without interruption 
 through a space of between 60° and 70° 
 of latitude to the Moluccas. It includes 
 the Kurile, Japanese, and Philippine 
 islands, traverses Java, Sumatra, Borneo, 
 Celebes, New Guinea, and extends to 
 various parts of the Polynesian archi- 
 pelago and New Zealand. A volcano in 
 the island of Krakatoa, in the Straits of 
 Sunda, burst into most violent activity 
 on the 26th August, 1-883. In the Old 
 World the volcanic region extends from 
 the Caspian sea to the Azores, embrac- 
 ing the greater part of the Mediterranean 
 and its most prominent peninsulas. Here 
 volcanic action is most prominently 
 visible in Vesuvius, Etna, and the Lipari 
 islands. Among disconnected volcanic 
 groups may be mentioned Iceland (Mt. 
 Hecla, in particular), the Sandwich 
 islands, and the islands of Bourbon, 
 Madagascar, and Mauritius. Submarine 
 volcanoes show a frequent existence, 
 but such phenomena are for the most 
 
 C art inaccessible. Various theories have 
 een proposed to account for the im- 
 mediate cause of volcanic action. It is 
 now generally accepted that it is pro- 
 duced by internal heat at a certain depth 
 beneath the surface of the earth, and the 
 evolution of a great body of elastic 
 vapor, expanding and seeking to escape 
 where the least amount of resistance is 
 presented, and manifesting itself in the 
 explosions that accompany an eruption, 
 or in the upheaval of rocks and the pro- 
 duction of earthquakes. 
 
 VOLE, a genus of rodents closely 
 allied to the rats and mice, and included 
 in that family. Some are terrestrial. 
 
 Common vole. 
 
 others aquatic. The common vole of 
 Britain, the meadow-mouse, or short- 
 
 tailed field-mouse, is injurious to young 
 plantations and pastures, sometimes 
 appearing in immense multitudes. It is 
 reddish-brown above and gray below. 
 The water-vole or water-rat is much 
 larger, and swims well though its feet 
 are not webbed. It is of a pale or chest- 
 nut brown, tinted with gray. There are 
 many species of voles in the Old and 
 New World. 
 
 VOLGA, a river in Russia, the longest 
 in Europe; rising in a small lake in the 
 east of the Valdai hills, and falling into 
 the Caspian sea by about seventy 
 mouths, near Astrakhan, after a total 
 estimated course of 2400 miles. Its basin 
 is estimated at from 500,000 to 700,000 
 sq. miles. It flows generally southeast 
 past Tver, Yaroslav, Kostroma, and 
 Nijni-Novgorod to Kasan, thence south 
 
 ff/reBugra 
 
 past Simbirsk and Saratov, and pro- 
 ceeds southeast from Sarepta to the 
 Caspian. Its chief tributaries are the 
 Kama on the left bank and the Oka on 
 the right. It is navigable by barges from 
 its source, and communicates with the 
 Black, Baltic, and Polar seas by a series 
 of canals. Its banks are fertile and well- 
 wooded, and its waters abound in fish, 
 particularly sturgeon, carp, and pike of 
 extraordinary size. 
 
 VOLHYN'IA, a government in south- 
 west Russia; area, 27,723 sq. miles. 
 The soil is fertile, producing all kinds of 
 grain, particularly wheat; and fine 
 breeds of cattle and horses are reared. 
 The hills in the south are rich in iron. 
 There are also considerable manufac- 
 tures. The capital is Jitomir. Pop. 
 2,997,902. 
 
 VOLITION. See Will. 
 
 VOLOG'DA, a government in north- 
 east Russia; area, 155,033 sq. miles. Its 
 forests furnish quantities of timber and 
 charcoal. Pop. 1,172,253. — The capital 
 is Vologda, on a river of same name, 35 
 miles e.s.e. of St. Petersburg. Pop. 
 17,391. 
 
 VOLTA, Alessandro, Italian natural 
 philosopher, born at Como in 1745, and 
 died there in 1827. Two treatises, pub- 
 lished in 1769 and 1771, in which he 
 gave a description of a new electrical 
 machine, laid the foundation of his 
 fame. He was successively professor of 
 physics at the gymnasium in Como and 
 in the University of Pavia, where he 
 invented the electrophorus and electro- 
 scope. He also devised several other 
 electrical appliances, and in 1800 the 
 voltaic pile. In 1782 he made a tour 
 through France, Germany, England, 
 
 and Holland. In 1801 Napoleon invited 
 him to France, where a medal was struck 
 in his honor. In 1810 he was created a 
 senator of Italy, with the title of count; 
 and in 1815 was made director of the 
 philosophical faculty of Padua. 
 
 VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY, galvanic 
 electricity, galvanism. See Galvanic 
 Battery and Galvanism. 
 
 VOLTAIC PILE, Volta’s arrangement 
 for producing a current of electricity, 
 consisting of a pile of alternate discs of 
 two dissimilar metals, as copper and 
 
 Voltaic pile, p. Positive, n, Negative end. 
 
 zinc, zinc and silver, zinc and platinum, 
 separated by pieces of flannel or paste- 
 board moistened with salt water or with 
 water acidulated with sulphuric acid. 
 
 ■VOLTAIRE, Frangois Marie Arouet 
 de, French writer, born at Paris, No- 
 vember 21, 1694; died there May 30, 
 1778. In 1718 a tragedy named Gidipe 
 was brought out by him, and was a great 
 success. It is said that this play was 
 finished, and that two cantos of his epic 
 the Henriade were written in the Bastille 
 where he was confined from May, 1717, 
 to April, 1718, for writing certain satiri- 
 cal verses on the regent. In 1726 he was 
 again imprisoned in the Bastille for 
 sending a challenge to the Chevalier 
 Rohan, by whom he had been grossly 
 insulted. He was liberated within a 
 month, and went to England on the in- 
 vitation of Lord Bolingbroke. Here he 
 resided till 1729 in friendship with the 
 leading deists, and acquired some knowl- 
 edge of English literature. His Henriade 
 was completed and published by sub- 
 scription in England. From 1734 to 
 1749 he resided with the Marchioness de 
 Ch&telet at Cirey, in Lorraine. She died 
 in 1749, and Voltaire then accepted the 
 oft repeated invitations of Frederick the 
 Great to come and live at his court at 
 Potsdam. From 1754 he lived in Switz- 
 erland, or close to its borders. In 
 1760 or 1761 he fixed his residence 
 with his niece, Madame Denis, at 
 Ferney, where he received a constant 
 succession of distinguished visitors, and 
 maintained a correspondence which in- 
 cluded in its range most of the crowned 
 heads of Europe. In February, 1778, he 
 went to Paris, where he was received 
 with enthusiasm by all classes. But 
 the excitement of the occasion hastened 
 his death. His works embrace almost 
 every branch of literature; poetry, the 
 drama, romance, history, philosophy, 
 
VOLTAMETER 
 
 VOWEL 
 
 and even science. Hatred of fanaticism 
 and superstition was his chief charac- 
 teristic, and nearly all his works are 
 strongly animated by a spirit of hostility 
 to the priests and the religion they rep- 
 resented. He upheld theism, however, 
 with as much zeal as he denounced 
 Christianity and priestcraft. Voltaire’s 
 literary fame chiefly rests! on his philo- 
 sophical novels: Zadig, Candida, L’ln- 
 g4nu, etc.; his histories: Si^cle de Louis 
 XIV., Histoire de Charles XII.; his 
 correspondence; and more than all, per- 
 haps, on his poetical epistles, satires, 
 and occasional light poems, which all 
 exhibit wit, gaiety, vivacity, and grace. 
 
 VOLTAM'ETER, an instrument in 
 which a current of electricity is made to 
 pass through slightly acidulated water, 
 and as the water is thus decomposed, 
 oxygen and hydrogen being liberated, 
 the quantity of electric current passing 
 through in a given time may be ascer- 
 tained in terms of the quantity of water 
 decomposed. 
 
 VOLUNTEERS, citizens who of their 
 own accord offer the state their services 
 in a military capacity without the stipu- 
 lation of a substantial reward. 
 
 VOLUNTEERS OF AMERICA, The, 
 this organization is a philanthropic, 
 social, and religious movement. It was 
 inaugurated in March, 1896, and incor- 
 porated November 6, 1896, by Gen. and 
 Mrs. Ballington Booth, in response to a 
 number of requests on the part of 
 American citizens. It is organized in 
 military style, having as its model the 
 United States army, but in conjunction 
 with military discipline and methods 
 of work it possesses a thoroughly demo- 
 cratic form of government, having a con- 
 stitution and its by-laws being framed 
 by a grand field council that meets 
 annually and is thoroughly represen- 
 tative. The volunteers have represen- 
 tatives and branches of their benevolent 
 work in almost all the principal cities of 
 the United States. Its field is divided 
 into regiments or sections, which come 
 under the control and oversight of 
 thirty principal staff oflacers, its chief 
 centers being New York, Philadelphia, 
 Boston, Pittsburgh, Denver, Chicago, 
 and San Francisco. In addition to the 
 Volunteer reading rooms, thousands of 
 copies of Christian literature are circu- 
 lated in state prisons, jails, hospitals, 
 soldiers’ homes, and children’s homes. 
 In connection with the Volunteers, there 
 are also sewing classes; hospital nurses; 
 temporary financial relief departments; 
 boys’ fresh-air camps; Thanksgiving 
 and Christmas dinners, and many other 
 worthy undertakings. 
 
 VOLUTE', in architecture, a kind of 
 spiral scroll used in the Ionic, Corinthian 
 
 Volutes of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals. 
 a a, Volutes. 6, Helix. 
 
 and Composite capitals, of which it is a 
 principal ornament. The number of ! 
 
 volutes in the Ionic order is four. In the 
 Corinthian and Composite orders they 
 are more numerous, in the former being 
 accompanied with smaller ones, called 
 helices. See Composite Order, Corinthian 
 Order, Ionic Order. 
 
 VOMER, in anatomy, one of the bones 
 of the skull, forming in man part of the 
 sepatum or division between the cavities 
 of the nostrils. In fishes it is a feature 
 of importance for classification pur- 
 poses. 
 
 VOOR'HEES, Daniel Wolsey, Ameri- 
 can politician, was born in Butler co., 
 Ohio, in 1827. He became early inter- 
 ested in politics, and gained a wide 
 reputation as a democratic campaign 
 speaker. He was United States district 
 attorney for Indiana from 1858 to 1861, 
 and was a member of congress from 1861 
 to 1867 and again from 1869 to 1875. 
 In 1877 he was appointed United States 
 senator to fill the unexpired term of 
 Oliver P. Morton, and was regularly 
 elected in 1879, 1885, and 1891. He 
 died in 1897. 
 
 VORARLBERG, a western district of 
 Austria-Hungary, officially included in 
 the Tyrol. Area, 1005 sq. miles; pop. 
 107,373. 
 
 VORONEJ, a town of Russia, capital 
 of the government of the same name, 
 on the Voronej, 290 miles s.s.e. of Mos- 
 cow. It has manufactures of woolen and 
 linen cloth, soap, and vitriol, tanneries, 
 and a considerable trade. Pop. 84,146. 
 The government has an area of 25,440 
 sq. miles, and a pop. of 2,546,255. It is 
 intersected by the Don, which receives 
 the whole of the drainage, partly through 
 its tributaries the Voronej and Khoper. 
 The soil is generally fertile, and large 
 crops of grain are raised. 
 
 VORTEX, the form produced when 
 any portion of a fluid is set rotating 
 rouna an axis. Familiar examples are 
 seen in eddies, whirlpools, waterspouts, 
 whirlwinds, and on a larger scale in 
 cyclones and storms generally. Descartes 
 supposed certain vortices to exist in the 
 fluid or ether of space endowed with a 
 rapid rotatory motion about an axis, and 
 filling all space, and by these he ac- 
 counted for the motions of the universe. 
 
 VORTEX RING, in physics, a vortical 
 molecular filament or column returning 
 into itself so as to form a ring composed 
 of a number of small rotating circles 
 placed side by side, like beads on a 
 string, as the singular smoke-rings 
 which are sometimes produced when a 
 cannon is fired, or when a smoker skil- 
 fully emits a puff of tobacco smoke. 
 Recent investigations of the motion of 
 vortices have suggested the possibility 
 of founding on them a new form of the 
 atomic theory. 
 
 VORTICELLA, or “BELL-ANIMAL- 
 CULE,” a genus of stalked infusoria, 
 having a fixed stem capable of being 
 coiled into a spiral form, and vibratile 
 organs called cilia fringing the bell- 
 shaped disc or head, which are con- 
 stantly in rapid motion and attract 
 particles of food. The species are very 
 numerous in fresh water, and are gen- 
 erally microscopic. 
 
 VOSGES, an eastern frontier depart- 
 ment of France; area, 2268 sq. miles. 
 It is bounded on the east by the Vosges 
 mountains, which send out ramifications 
 
 over the greater part of its surface, ’] 
 while in the south it is traversed by the { 
 chain of the Faucilles. Grain, hemp, i 
 flax, and potatoes are extensively grown, ' 
 and the department is famous for its 1 
 kirsch-wasser. The principal rivers are 
 the Meuse, Mouzon, Madon, Moselle, : 
 Saone, and Meurthe; all unnavigable : 
 within the department. The minerals 
 are valuable. The manufactures are 
 various. Epinal is the capital. Pop. 
 413,707. 
 
 VOTER, the qualifications required of i 
 voters in political elections varies some- I 
 what in the different states. Certain 
 qualifications are required in all states, 
 which may be summarized as follows: 
 
 (1) Citizenship; (2) residence for a cer- , 
 tain time in the state, county, and ; 
 election district ; (3) that the voter shall j 
 have attained his majority (21 yeans); ; 
 (4) that the voter shall be of sound 
 mind ; (5) that he shall not be a convicted j 
 felon under sentence. Registration is .. 
 also required in many states and some 
 have established either property or ~ 
 educational qualifications. A few states \ 
 permit women to vote. 
 
 VOTING MACHINE, a mechanical ■ 
 device which automatically records and ■, 
 counts votes. Besides preventing re- ’ 
 peating and other fraud, an ideal voting i 
 machine has the additional advantages J 
 over the paper ballot system of greater i 
 secrecy, simplicity, rapidity, and cheap- ft 
 ness. The Standard voting machine is I 
 about 4 feet square and 10 inches deep, 
 and is supported by legs. The top is a $ 
 little over 6 ieet from the floor. A semi- j 
 circular bar projects from the upper S 
 corners, on which is hung a curtain which * 
 forms a booth. An operating lever ex- m 
 tends from the center of the top of the 9 
 machine, the outer end of which is 9 
 attached to the curtain. When the A 
 voter advances to vote he throws the * 
 lever by a dependent handle to the |f 
 opposite side of the machine, thus carry- I! 
 ing the curtain behind him and inclosing S 
 himself in a booth. The voter first ■ 
 selects his party ticket, and by pulling J 
 the straight ticket knob over the party 
 emblem down to the right, moves all « 
 the pointers for that ticket. If he desires 
 to split his ticket, he can move the i 
 pointer back from over the name that 
 does not suit him, and in the same ■} 
 ofiBce line move the pointer over the 
 name he wishes to vote for. He now . 
 registers his vote by throwing the cur- ^ 
 tain open by means of the operating ; 
 lever with wtdeh he closed it, thus cast- ' 
 ing and counting his vote in perfect W 
 secrecy. 
 
 VOWEL, a simple articulated sound, .» 
 which is produced merely by voice pro- W 
 ceeding from the larynx, modified by a s 
 greater or less elevation or depression, jP 
 
VULCAN 
 
 WAFER 
 
 expansion or contraction of the ton^e, 
 and contraction or expansion of the lips. 
 The vowel sounds of the English alpha- 
 bet are? imperfectly represented by five 
 letters, a, e, i, o, u (and sometimes w 
 ancl y). Vowels are distinguished from 
 consonants in that they result from an 
 open position of the vocal organs, while 
 consonants are the result of an opening 
 or shutting action of the organs; thus 
 the former can be pronounced by them- 
 selves, while consonants recjuire to be 
 sounded with the aid of a vowel. 
 
 VULCAN, in Roman mythology, the 
 god who presided over fire and the work- 
 ing of metals, and patronized handi- 
 craftsmen of every kind. By some 
 
 writers he is said to have been born 
 lame, but by others his lameness is 
 attributed to his having been thrown 
 from Olympus. He was completely 
 identified with the Greek Hephaestus. 
 
 VUL'CANITE, a kind of vulcanized 
 caoutchouc, differing from ordinary 
 vulcanized caoutchouc in containing a 
 larger proportion of sulphur — from 30 
 to 60 per cent — and in being made at a 
 higher temperature. It is of a brownish- 
 black color, is hard and tough, cuts 
 easily, and takes a good polish, on which 
 account it is largely used for making 
 into combs, brooches, bracelets, and 
 many other ornaments. As it is espe- 
 cially distinguished by the large quan- 
 tity of eieetricity which it evolves when 
 rubbed, it is much used in the construc- 
 
 W, the twenty-third letter of the 
 English alphabet, representing a con- 
 sonantal sound formed by opening the 
 mouth with a contraction of the lips, 
 such as is performed in the rapid pas- 
 sage from the vowel sound u (oo) to that 
 of i (ee). The character is formed, as its 
 name indicates, by doubling the u or v. 
 At the end of words or syllables it is 
 either silent, as in low, or it modifies the 
 preeeding vowel, as in new, how, having 
 then the power of a vowel. 
 
 WABASH (wa'bash), a river of the 
 United States, which rises in the n.w. 
 of Ohio, winds across Indiana, forms 
 the boundary between Indiana and 
 Illinois, and falls into the Ohio after a 
 course of 550 miles. It is navigable for 
 steamboats to Lafayette, and connects 
 Lake Erie with the Ohio by the Wabash 
 and Erie canal. 
 
 tion of electric machines. See Vulcaniza- 
 tion. 
 
 VULCANIZATION, a method of treat- 
 ing caoutchouc or india-rubber with 
 sulphur to effect certain changes in its 
 properties, and yield a soft (vulcanized 
 india-rubber) or a hard (vulcanite) prod- 
 uct. Other ingredients, as litharge, 
 white-lead, whiting, etc., are added to 
 the sulphur to give color, softness, etc. 
 The substance thus formed possesses 
 the following properties: it remains 
 elastic at all temperatures; it eannot be 
 dissolved by the ordinary solvents, 
 neither is it affected by heat within a 
 considerable range of temperature; 
 finally, it acquires extraordinary powers 
 of resisting compression, with a great 
 increase of strength and elasticity. See 
 Vulcanite and India-rubber. 
 
 VULGAR FRACTIONS. See Fractions. 
 
 VULGATE, the Latin translation of 
 the Bible, which has, in the Roman 
 Catholic church, official authority, and 
 which the Council of Trent, in their 
 fourth session, in May 27, 1546, de- 
 clared “shall be held as authentic in all 
 public lectures, disputations, sermons, 
 and expositions; and that no one shall 
 presume to reject it, under any pretense 
 whatsoever.” In the early period of the 
 church a Latin translation of the Scrip- 
 tures existed, called Itala, the Old 
 Testament made after the Septaugint. 
 This translation was far from accurate, 
 and about 383 St. Jerome produced a 
 revised version of the New Testament, 
 while between 385-405 a.d. he made a 
 new translation of the Old Testament 
 from the Hebrew. These translations 
 were combined to form the ' Vulgate 
 (versio vulgata, common or usual ver- 
 sion). The text of the Vulgate now in 
 use is that published by Clement VIII. 
 in 1592 (as improved in 1593 and again 
 in 1598). 
 
 VULTURE, the common name for the 
 raptorial birds belonging to the family 
 Vulturidae, characterized by having the 
 head and part of the neck destitute of 
 feathers, and a rather elongated beak, 
 of which the upper mandible is curved 
 at the end. The strength of their talons 
 does not correspond with their size, 
 and they make more use of their beak 
 
 w 
 
 WACO, a town in M’Lennan co., 
 Texas. It is situated on the Brazos river ; 
 and as the center of a large and fertile 
 ranching and wheat growing district, it 
 commands a large and increasing trade 
 in cattle, wheat, and other agricultural 
 products. Pop. 22,866. 
 
 WADA'I, or WADAY', an extensive 
 and powerful negro state in the Central 
 Soudan, between Kanem and Bagirmi 
 in the w. and Darfur in the e., with a 
 population estimated at about 5,000,000. 
 It consists principally of an elevated 
 plateau, very fertile in some parts, pro- 
 ducing abundantly corn, millet, indigo, 
 cotton, etc. Ivory and slaves are also 
 largely dealt in. The inhabitants are 
 warlike, and their sultan exercises trib- 
 utary rights over several neighboring 
 settlements. 
 
 WADE, Benjamin Franklin, American 
 
 than of their claws. In general they are 
 of a cowardly nature, living chiefly on 
 dead carcasses and offal. Unlike other 
 birds of prey the female is smaller than 
 the male. Their geographical distribu- 
 tion is confined chiefly to warm coun- 
 tries, where they act as scavengers to 
 purify the earth from the putrid car- 
 casses with which it would otherwise be 
 
 Egyptian vulture. 
 
 encumbered. The griffon vulture in- 
 habits the mountainous parts of the 
 south of Europe, as does also the cinere- 
 ous or brown vulture. The former 
 measures nearly 4 feet from tip of beak 
 to end of tail. The bearded vulture in- 
 habits the Alps, Asia, and Africa. The 
 Egyptian vulture visits south Europe. 
 The American vultures differ from those 
 of the Old World technically rather than 
 in appearance or habits. They include 
 the huge condor, king, and California 
 vultures, and several other species, 
 among them the smaller carrion-crow 
 of the tropics, and the more familiar 
 turkey-buzzard. This bird is about 30 
 inches in length, with an alar spread of 
 about 75 inches; in color dingy brown; 
 the tail is long, the wing is bent at a 
 salient angle, 'Mnd the tips of the longest 
 quills spread apart and bend upward. 
 No birds are better flyers or more expert 
 and enduring in soaring. The eggs are 
 one or two in number, roundish, about 
 2J inches in longest diameter, and 
 yellowish white blotched with brown 
 and purplish tints. 
 
 political leader, was born near West 
 Springfield, Mass., in 1800. He removed 
 to Ohio in 1 821 . He was elected prosecu- 
 ting attorney of Ashtabula county in 
 1835, and state senator in 1837 and 
 1841; and was chosen presiding judge 
 of the third judicial district of the state 
 in 1847. From 1851 until 1869 he was a 
 member of the United States senate. 
 He was elected president of the senate 
 in 1867, and was sent in 1871 as one of 
 the commission to Santo Domingo to 
 report in regard to its annexation to the 
 United States. He died in 1878. 
 
 WAFER, a thin circular cake of un- 
 leavened bread, generally stamped with 
 the Christian monogram, the cross, or 
 other sacred symbol, used in the Roman 
 church in the adniinistration of the 
 Eucharist. — Also a small disc of dried 
 paste usually made of flour and water. 
 
WAGNER 
 
 WALLACE 
 
 gum, and coloring matter, used for seal- 
 ing letters, etc. 
 
 WAGNER (vah'ner), Wilhelm Rich- 
 ard, one of the most celebrated of 
 modern composers, born at Leipzig 1813, 
 died at Venice 1883. He received his 
 education at Leipzig and Dresden. From 
 1834 he filled various musical engage- 
 ments at Madgeburg, Riga, and Konigs- 
 berg. In 1839-41 he went to Paris and 
 London, and composed his operas 
 Rienzi and the Flying Dutchman. The 
 brilliant success of these operas secured 
 him the conductorship at the Royal 
 Opera of Dresden in 1843. He joined 
 the insurrectionary movement of 1848- 
 49, and was compelled to exile himself. 
 Until his return to Germany in 1864 he 
 spent most of his time in Switzerland, 
 Italy, Paris, and London. His Tann- 
 hauser and Lohengrin appeared in 1845 
 and 1850 respectively. The late King of 
 
 Bavaria, Louis II., became an enthusias- 
 tic and liberal patron of Wagner, and the 
 theater at Baireuth, especially built for 
 Wagner, was chiefly supported from 
 the king’s purse. Here his famous tetral- 
 ogy Der Ring des Nibelungen, consisting 
 of Das Rheingold, Die Walkiire, Sieg- 
 fried, and Gotterdammerung, was first 
 performed in 1876 before an unusually 
 brilliant and appreciative audience. 
 About a year before his death he pro- 
 duced his last creation, Parsifal. In 
 1870 he had married, as second wife, 
 Cosima von Biilow, a daughter of the 
 Abb6 Liszt Wagner labored to reform 
 dramatic music according to the ideas of 
 Gluck and Weber, and gave his creations 
 a national character by selecting his 
 subjects from old German heroic legends. 
 His theory (not in itself specially 
 original) was that in a perfect musical 
 drama the three arts, poetry, music, and 
 dramatic representation should be 
 welded together into one well-balanced 
 whole. This theory he demonstrated 
 with consummate ability and unsur- 
 passed magnificence. His particular 
 views on music are embodied in a well- 
 known work entitled Oper und Drama. 
 
 WAGTAIL, a name of birds included 
 in the family of the warblers, and so 
 tenned from their habit of jerking their 
 long tails when running or perching. 
 They inhabit meadow-lands and pas- 
 tures, frequent water-pools and streams, 
 are agile runners, and have a rapid flight. 
 The food consists of insects. Their nests, 
 built on the ground, contain from four 
 to six eggs. These birds belong to both 
 Old and New Worlds, and migrate south- 
 ward in winter. 
 
 WAINWRIGHT, Richard, American 
 naval officer, was born in Washington, 
 D. C., in 1849, became a lieutenant in 
 1873, commanded the coast-survey 
 vessel Arago for a time, and was pro- 
 moted to the rank of lieutenant-com- 
 mander in 1894. He was executive 
 officer of the battleship Maine, when 
 that vessel was destroyed in Havana 
 harbor. In the Spanish-American war 
 he commanded the converted yacht 
 Gloucester, taking a distinguished part 
 in the naval battle of Santiago. In 
 March, 1899, he was promoted to the 
 rank of commander, and in March, 1900, 
 became superintendent of the United 
 States Naval academy. 
 
 Quaketail, or pied wagtail. 
 
 WAITE, Morrison Remick, American 
 jurist, was born at Lyme, Conn., in 1816. 
 In 1849 he was elected to the Ohio 
 legislature as a Whig. In 1871 he was 
 appointed with Caleb Cushing and Will- 
 iam M Evarts to represent the United 
 States before the tribunal for the arbi- 
 tration of the Alabama and other claims 
 at Geneva, Switzerland. In 1873 he was 
 president of the Ohio Constitutional 
 convention. In January, 1874, he was 
 appointed by President Grant chief 
 justice of the United States. This posi- 
 tion he held until his death in 1888. 
 
 WAKE, a term corresponding origin- 
 ally to vigil, and applied tp a festival 
 held on the anniversary of the day on 
 which the parish church was consecrated 
 and dedicated to a saint. A lyke or lich 
 wake (Anglo-Saxon, lie, a corpse) is the 
 watching of a dead body by night by 
 the relatives and friends of the deceased. 
 The practice, once general, is now con- 
 fined to the lower Irish classes, and 
 frequently accompanied by scenes much 
 out of keeping with the sad occasion. 
 
 WALDECK AND PYRMONT, a small 
 principality of west Germany, under 
 Prussian administration, consisting of 
 the two separate territories of Waldeck 
 and Pyrmont; total area, 466 sq. miles; 
 pop. 56,575. 
 
 JWALDECK-ROUSSEAU (vM'dek' 
 roo'so'), Pierre Marie Ernest, French 
 statesman, born at Nantes in 1846. In 
 1879 he was elected deputy for Rennes; 
 was minister of the interior in Gam- 
 betta’s grand ministfere of 1881, and in 
 the cabinet of Jules Ferry of 1883-85. 
 In 1894 he was elected to the senate 
 for the department of the Loire, and in 
 the following January he was supported 
 by the right for the presidency of France 
 against MM. Faure and Brisson. In the 
 general election of 1902 he won a great 
 victory for republican principles. Feel- 
 ing his task completed, he resigned in 
 June, 1902, with the prestige of having 
 held office longer than other premier 
 since the establishment of the third 
 republic. 
 
 WALES, a principality in the souths 
 west of the island of Great Britain^ 
 which since Edward I. gives the title 
 of Prince of Wales to the heir-apparent 
 of the British crown; area, 7363 sq. 
 miles; pop. 1,720,609. It is rich in 
 minerals, particularly coal, iron, copper, 
 and even gold, and to these Wales owes 
 its chief wealth. The coal trade is most 
 extensive, and Cardiff is the largest coal 
 port in the world. Iron, steel, and copper 
 works are also on a large scale. Besides 
 the mineral industries, there are con- 
 siderable woolen manufactures, espe- 
 cially of flannel, coarse cloth, and 
 hosiery. The inhabitants are almost 
 purely Celtic in race, being the de- 
 scendants of the early Britons, who were 
 able to maintain themselves here when 
 the rest of the country was overrun by 
 the Germanic invaders. 
 
 WALHALLA, a magnificent Doric 
 temple, on the Danube, near Ratisbon; 
 built between 1830-42, as a national 
 pantheon, consecrated to celebrated 
 Germans of all walks of life. The idea 
 of the erection is derived from the Wal- 
 halla, or Valhalla, the ancient paradisa 
 of Odin and the Scandinavian deities. 
 See Valhalla. 
 
 WALKER, Robert James, American 
 political leader, was born at Northum- 
 berland, Pa., in 1801. In 1826 he re- 
 moved to Mississippi and in 1835 was 
 elected United States senator as a demo- 
 crat, and at once became known as one 
 of the foremost anti-slavery advocates 
 in his party. From 1845 to 1849 he was 
 secretary of the treasury. The tariff bill 
 of 1846 was adopted almost as it came 
 from his hands. In 1853 he declined 
 the post of commissioner to China, and 
 in 1857, against his will, was appointed 
 governor of Kansas territory. He died 
 in 1869. 
 
 WALLABY, a name common to 
 several rather small-sized kangaroos. 
 
 WALLACE, Alfred Russell, naturalist, 
 born at Usk, Monmouthshire, in 1823. 
 He spent many years in traveling, espe- 
 cially in South America and the Asiatic 
 islands, and the valuable material col- 
 lected in these scientific explorations he 
 embodied in Travels on the Amazon and 
 Rio Negro, The Malay Archipelago, 
 Tropical Nature, The Geographical Dis- 
 tribution of Animals, etc. His observa- 
 tion of animal life early led him on to 
 the track of natural selection, and before 
 Darwin gave his famous work to the 
 world he had published his Speculation* 
 on the Origin of Species. His share in es- 
 tablishing the theory has been acknowl- 
 edged by Darwin. Dut while Darwin, in 
 his later editions of the Origin of Species, 
 somewhat modified his original conclu- 
 sions, Wallace, in his recent work, 
 Darwinism, an Exposition of the Theory 
 of Natural Selection, with some of its 
 Applications (1889), strongly insists 
 upon the complete controlling power of 
 these primary laws and conditions. 
 He is a member of various scientific 
 bodies, and the Royal Society of Lon--, 
 don awarded him the royal medal in 
 1868, and the Geographical Society of 
 Paris the gold medal in 1870. 
 
 WALLACE, Lewis, American soldier 
 and novelist, known as Lew Wallace, 
 was born in Brookville, Ind., in 1827. 
 He served in the Mexican war, and then 
 
WALLAClil 
 
 WALPOLE 
 
 practiced law until the civil war. He 
 served as colonel of a regiment of In- 
 diana volunteers in West Virginia in 
 
 1861, and on September 3, 1861, was 
 promoted to the rank of brigadier- 
 general of volunteers. He was governor 
 of New Mexico (1878-81) and United 
 States minister to Turkey (1881-85). 
 Among his novels are; The Fair God 
 and The Prince of India. Ben Hur, a 
 story of Palestine and Rome in the 
 time of Christ, achieved an unpre- 
 cedented success and was dramatized 
 (1900) Wallace was also the author of 
 The Boyhood of Christ. He died in 1905. 
 
 WALLACE, Sir William, the hero of 
 Scottish independence, was probably 
 born about 1270. For the most detailed 
 particulars we possess about this fa- 
 mous Scottish character we are almost 
 entirely dependent on Blind Harry 
 (Harry the Minstrel) ; but the narratives 
 cannot bear the scrutiny of the critical 
 historian. Wallace is described as a man 
 of herculean proportions and strength, 
 and it is certain that he possessed in a 
 high degree the qualifications of a com- 
 mander. The turning-point in his career 
 took place by the slaughter of Haselrig 
 in revenge for the murder of his wife, 
 and in pursuance of his vow of eternal 
 vengeance against the invaders of his 
 country. Henceforth he continued in 
 open resistance to the English, and 
 having collected a considerable force 
 was besieging the castle of Dundee when 
 he heard that Surrey and Cressingham 
 were advancing upon Stirling with a 
 large army. He met them in the vicinity 
 of that town, and, thanks to his in- 
 genious military tactics, gained a com- 
 plete victory (1297). After this Wallace 
 appears with the title of Guardian of 
 the Kingdom, which was temporarily 
 cleared of the English, and is found con- 
 ducting a series of organized raids into 
 England. In 1298 Edward I. entered 
 Scotland with an army estimated at 
 nearly 90,000 men. Wallace retired 
 before him, wasting the country, but 
 was at length overtaken at Falkirk, 
 compelled to fight, and after a gallant 
 resistance his army was routed. Wal- 
 
 lace was conveyed to London, and after 
 a mock trial found guilty of treason and 
 rebellion, and executed on the 23d 
 August, 1305. 
 
 Wallace, wniiam Vincent, musical 
 composer, was born of Scotch parents, 
 at Waterford 1814, died in France 1865. 
 In 1845 he went to London, and de- 
 voted himself to composition. His first 
 opera, Maritana, was produced at 
 Drury Lane, 1846, and secured him at 
 once a reputation. 
 
 WALLENSTEIN (vM'en-stIn), Al- 
 brecht Wenzel Eusebius, von, Duke of 
 Friedland, a famous leader in the Thirty 
 Years’ war, was born on the paternal 
 estate of Hermanic in Bohemia 1583, 
 assassinated at Eger 1634. When the 
 Thirty Years’ war broke out in Bohemia 
 (1618) he joined the imperial forces 
 against his native country. His estates, 
 valued at 30 million florins, he was 
 allowed to form into the territory of 
 Friedland, and in 1624 he was created 
 Duke of Friedland. He raised a large 
 army to assist the emperor against the 
 Lower Saxon League; he defeated Count 
 Mansfield at Dessau (.\pril, 1626), and 
 compelled Bethlen Gabor to conclude 
 a truce; he conquered Silesia, and 
 bought from the emperor, partly with 
 military services, partly with plunder, 
 the duchy of Sagan, and other extensive 
 estates. He encountered the King of 
 Sweden at Lutzen, 16th November, 
 1632, and was defeated and Gustavus 
 killed. Wallenstein had unsuccessfully 
 treated on his own account with the 
 Swedish king, and he now secretly re- 
 opened negotiations with France and 
 the German princes, occasionally taking 
 the field to display his military power. 
 The court at Vienna was well aware of 
 his crafty diplomacy, but the emperor 
 was not strong enough to remove him, 
 and he had recourse to assassination. 
 This was accomplished for him at Eger, 
 where Wallenstein had retreated for 
 safety, by Colonel Gordon, commandant 
 of the fortress, and his fellow officers 
 Butler, Leslie, and Devereux. Wallen- 
 stein is the subject, and gives the title 
 to one of Schiller’s best dramatic poems. 
 
 WALLA WALLA, the capital of Walla 
 Walla CO., Wash.; on the Walla Walla 
 river, and the Wash, and Col. River and 
 the Oregon Railway and Nav. Co.’s 
 railways; 75 miles w.s.w. of Lewiston, 
 Id., and 160 miles e. by n. of The Dalles, 
 Ore. It is in an agricull/ural, fruit-grow- 
 ing, and stock-raising region, and is the 
 trade center of that part of the state of 
 northern Idaho, and of northeastern 
 Oregon. Among the public buildings 
 are those comprising the United States 
 military post. Port Walla Walla, the 
 state penitentiary, and the United 
 States penitentiary. Pop. 12,119. 
 
 WALLFLOWER. They are biennal 
 or perennial herbs or undershrubs. 
 Many of them exhale a delicious odor, 
 and are great favorites in gardens. 
 The best known is the common wall- 
 flower, which, in its wild state, grows 
 on old walls and stony places. In the 
 cultivated plant the flowers are of more 
 varied and brilliant colors, and attain 
 a much larger size than in the wild 
 plant, the flowers of which are always 
 yellow. A number of distinct varieties 
 have been recorded, and double and 
 
 semi-double varieties are common in 
 gardens. 
 
 WALNUT, the common name of 
 trees and their fruit of the genus Juglam:;, 
 natural order Juglandacese. The beet 
 known species, the common walnut- 
 tree, is a native of several Eastern 
 countries. It is a large handsome tree 
 with strong spreading branches. The 
 timber of the walnut is of great value, 
 is very durable, takes a fine polish, and 
 is a beautiful furniture wood. It is also 
 employed for turning and fancy articles, 
 and especially for gun-stocks, being 
 light and at the same time hard and 
 fine grained. The ripe fruit is one of the 
 best of nuts, and forms a favorite item 
 of desert. They yield by expression a 
 
 Walnut. 
 
 bland fixed oil, which, under the names 
 of walnut-oil and nut-oil, is much used 
 by painters, and in the countries in 
 which it is produced is a common article 
 of diet. In copper-plate printing it is 
 employed to produce a fine impression, 
 either in black or colors. By boiling the 
 husks when beginning to decay, and the 
 bark of the roots, a substantial dark- 
 brown color is obtained, which is used 
 by dyers for woolens, and also by cabi- 
 net-makers to stain other species of 
 wood in imitation of walnut. The fruit, 
 in a green state, before the shell hardens, 
 is much used for pickling. The black 
 walnut is found in most parts of the 
 United States of America, and in favor- 
 able situatihns the trunk often attains 
 the diameter of 6 and 7 feet. It yields a 
 wood preferable to the European walnut, 
 but the nuts are inferior. The butternut 
 is another noteworthy variety. 
 
 WALPOLE, Sir Robert, Earl of Or- 
 ford, a great whig statesman, was born 
 in 1676, and died in 1745. In 1702 he 
 was elected for King’s Lynn, became an 
 active member of the Whig party, and 
 soon distinguished himself by his busi- 
 ness capacity, and by his easy, plausible, 
 and dispassionate debates. He was 
 secretary of war and leader in the 
 commons in 1708, paymaster of the 
 forces in 1714 and 1720, and first lord 
 of the treasury and chancellor of the 
 exchequer in 1715, and again in 1721. 
 From the latter date until 1742 he held 
 without interruption the highest office 
 in the .state. During his long adminis- 
 tration the Hanoverian succession, to 
 which he was zealously attached, be- 
 came firmly established, a result to 
 which his prudence and political sagacity 
 
WALRUS 
 
 WAR 
 
 largely contributed. He promoted by 
 an enlightened policy the commercial 
 prosperity of the nation, and relieved 
 
 Sir Eobert Walpole. 
 
 the weight of taxation by many im- 
 provements in the tariff. In 1724 he 
 was made a Knight of the Bath, in 1726 
 a Knight of the Garter, and on 9th 
 February, 1742, two days before his 
 resignation, he was created Earl of 
 Orford. 
 
 WALRUS , a marine carnivorous mam- 
 mal, belonging, with its allies the seals, 
 to the pinnigrade section of the order 
 Carnivora. The walrus, which is also 
 known as the morse, sea-horse, and sea- 
 cow, has a general resemblance to the 
 seals, but is especially remarkable from 
 the upper canine teeth being enormously 
 developed in the adults, constituting 
 two large pointed tusks directed down- 
 ward and slightly outward, and measur- 
 ing usually 12 to 15 inches in width. 
 
 Walrus. 
 
 sometimes even 2 feet and more. There 
 are no external ears. The animal ex- 
 ceeds the largest ox in size, attaining 
 a length of 20 feet. It is monogamous, 
 and seldom produces more than one 
 young at a birth; gregarious but shy, 
 and very fierce when attacked. It in- 
 habits the high northern latitudes, 
 where it is hunted by whalers for its 
 blubber, which yields excellent oil; 
 for its skin, which is made into a durable 
 leather; and for its tusks. Their favorite 
 food consists of crustaceans. 
 
 WALSALL', a pari., county, and 
 municipal borough of England, in the 
 county of Stafford, 8 miles n.n.w. of 
 Birmingham. Pop. 86,440. 
 
 WALTHAM, a town in Massachusetts, 
 9 miles west of Boston. The Charles 
 river supplies abundant waterpower to 
 its factories of watches, watch-tools, 
 and cottons. Pop. 27,576. 
 
 WALTHAMSTOW, a town and pari, 
 div. of Essex, on the n.e. of London. 
 Pop. of town, 95,125. 
 
 WALTON, Izaak, the author of the 
 famous Complete Angler, was born at 
 Stafford 1593, died at Winchester 1683. 
 
 His first edition of the Complete Angler 
 appeared in 1653. It is to his exquisite 
 delineations of rural scenery, his genuine 
 love for the Creator and his works, the 
 ease and unaffected humor of the dia- 
 logue, and the delightful simplicity and 
 purity of his style, that the Complete 
 Angler owes its charm. 
 
 WALTZ, a dance of Bohemian origin, 
 executed with a rapid wheeling motion, 
 the gentleman having his arm round his 
 partner’s waist. The music is written 
 in triple time in crotchets or quavers, 
 and consists of eight or sixteen bar 
 phrases. Several of these phrases are now 
 usually united to prevent monotony. 
 The valse a deux temps is a form of 
 waltz in which two steps are made to 
 each bar of three beats. Classical 
 waltzes are compositions in waltz form 
 not intended for dance tunes. 
 
 WANDERING JEW. See Jew, The 
 Wandering. 
 
 WANDEROO, a monkey inhabiting 
 Ceylon and the East Indies. The length 
 is about 3 feet to the tip of the tail, 
 which is tufted, and much resembles 
 that of the lion; the color of the fur is 
 
 Wanderoo. 
 
 deep-black; the callosities on the hinder 
 quarters are bright pink; a well-de- 
 veloped mass of black hair covers the 
 head, and a great grayish beard rolls 
 down the face and round the chin. 
 
 WAP'ITI, a species of deer, the North 
 American stag, which more nearly re- 
 
 Wapiti, or American elk. 
 
 sembles the European red-deer in color, 
 shape, and form than it does any other 
 
 of the cervine race, though it is larger ] 
 and of a stronger make, its antlers also ; 
 being larger. It is found in Canada and 
 the northern parts of the United States 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Its 
 flesh is not much prized, being coarse 
 and dry, but its hide is made into ex- 
 cellent leather. 
 
 WAR, a contest between nations or 
 states (international war), or between 
 parties in the same state (civil war), 
 carried on by force of arms, usually 
 arising in the first case from disputes 
 about territorial possessions and fron- 
 tiers, unjust dealings with the subjects 
 of one state by another, questions of 
 race and sentiment, jealousy or military 
 prestige, or mere lust of conquest, rarely 
 nowadays from the whim of a despot; 
 in the second case, from the claims of 
 rival contenders for supreme power in 
 the state, or for the establishment of 
 some important point connected with 
 civil or religious liberty. In all cases the 
 aim of each contending party is to over- 
 throw or weaken the enemy by the de- 
 feat or dispersion of his army or navy, 
 the occupation of important parts of 
 his country, such as the capital or prin- 
 cipal administrative and commercial 
 centers, or the ruin of his commerce, 
 thus cutting off his sources of recupera- 
 tion in men, money, and material. 
 International or public war is always 
 understood to be authorized by the 
 monarch or sovereign power of the 
 nations; when it is carried into the ter- 
 ritories of a hitherto friendly power it is 
 called an aggressive or offensive war, 
 and when carried on to resist such ag- 
 gression it is called defensive. Previous 
 to the outbreak of hostilities between i 
 states, the power taking the initiatory 
 step issues a declaration of war, which 
 now usually takes the form of an ex- 
 planatory manifesto addressed to neu- 
 tral governments. During the progress 
 of the struggle certain laws, usages, or 
 rights of war have come to be generally 
 recognized; such laws permitting the 
 destruction or capture of armed enemies, 
 the destruction of property likely to be 
 serviceable to them, the stoppage of all 
 their channels of traffic, and the appro- 
 priation of everything in an enemy’s*- 
 country necessary for the support and 
 subsistence of the invading army. On 
 the other hand though an enemy may J 
 be starved into surrender, wounding, • 
 except in battle, mutilation, and all ‘ 
 cruel and wanton devastation, are con- ' 
 trary to the usages of war, as are also 1 
 bombarding an unprotected town, the * 
 use of poison in any way, and torture to 
 extort information from an enemy 
 and generally the tendency in all laws I 
 and usages of war is becoming gradually i 
 more favorable to the cause of humanity | 
 at large. See also International La'w. j 
 WAR, Department of, an executive! 
 department of the United States gov-1 
 ernment, created by act of congress of 1 
 .\ugust 7, 1789. It has at its head a”! 
 secretary appointed by the president.! 
 He ranks third among the cabinetg 
 members in the line of succession to thel 
 presidency and receives a salary of 1 
 SI 2, 000 per year. He has charge of alll 
 matters relating to military affairs, sul;-l 
 jeet to the direction of the president. I 
 the distribution of stores, the signal 1 
 
AVARBLERS 
 
 WARMING AND VENTILATION 
 
 service, the survey and improvement of 
 harbors, and the administration of the 
 insular possessions. The business of the 
 war department is distributed among 
 a number of subdivisions or bureaus, 
 each of which is under the supervision 
 of a chief and under the general super- 
 vision of the chief of stafiF. 
 
 WARBLERS, the name applied to a 
 family of dentirostral insessorial birds, 
 generally small, sprightly, very shy, and 
 
 Yellow warbler or summer yellow- bird, male. 
 
 remarkable for the clearness, sweetness, 
 and flexibility of their song. Insects 
 form their food, and most of them are 
 migratory. 
 
 WAR COLLEGE, United StatesArmy, 
 an organization having for its object the 
 direction and coordination of the instruc- 
 tion in the various service schools, the 
 extension of the opportunities for in- 
 vestigation and study in the army and 
 militia of the United States, and the 
 collection and dissemination of military 
 information. The college, which is 
 located at AVashington, is under the 
 immediate direction of the secretary of 
 war and the general staff of the army. 
 The Naval War college is located at 
 Newport, R. I. See Naval Schools of 
 Instruction. 
 
 WARD, Artemus. See Browne, C. F. 
 
 WARD, Elizabeth Stuart . (Phelps), 
 American author, was born in Andover, 
 Mass., in 1844. Among her works the 
 most popular are; The Gates Ajar, Be- 
 yond the Gales, The Gates Between, 
 and Within the Gates. 
 
 WARD, Frederick Townsend, Ameri- 
 can military adventurer, was born at 
 Salem, Mass., in 1831. He became a 
 sailor, fought with the French in the 
 Crimea, and was with AValker in Nicara- 
 gua, and went to China during the 
 Taiping rebellion. Ward offered his 
 services to the Chinese authorities, and 
 for a reward of $200,000 recaptured 
 Sungkiang and garrisoned it. He began 
 drilling natives with foreign adven- 
 turers as officers, increased his follow- 
 ing to nearly 4000, the nucleus of the 
 force later known under Gordon as 
 “the ever-victorious army.” This force 
 was of great assistance to the British 
 and French admirals in protecting 
 Shanghai, and maintaining a neutral 
 belt of 30 miles around the city. During 
 a skirmish near Ningpo AVard was 
 killed; he was burled at Sungkiang, 
 where a shrine was erected to his mem- 
 ory in 1875. 
 
 WARD, John Quincy Adams, Ameri- 
 can sculptor, was born at Urbana, Cham- 
 
 paign CO., Ohio, in 1830. In 1857-59 
 he resided in Washington, D. C., where 
 he executed the busts of Alexander 
 Stephens, Joshua R. Giddings, John P 
 Hale, Hannibal Hamlin, and others. 
 Among his memorial statues are the 
 colossal George Washington on the 
 steps of the treasury building. New York, 
 General Thomas in Washington, Israel 
 Putnam, Hartford, Conn., and the 
 Beecher monument, city hall, Brooklyn. 
 He was one of the founders and the first 
 president of the National Sculpture 
 society. He was also prominent in the 
 affairs of the National Academy of 
 Design, of which he was president in 
 1874. 
 
 WARD, Lester Frank, American 
 geologist and paleontologist, well known 
 as a sociologist and philosophical writer, 
 was born at Joliet, 111., in 1841. In 1883 
 he published Dynamic Sociology. As a 
 contribution to sociology it was recog- 
 nized as a powerful and original work. 
 His other works are : The Psychic Fac- 
 tors of Civilization, Outlines of Sociology 
 and Pure Sociology. In 1903 he was 
 president of the Institut Internationale 
 de Sociologie of Paris. Among his con- 
 tributions to geology and paleontology 
 are; The Flora of Washington, Sketch 
 of Paleontological Botany, Synopsis of 
 the Flora of the Laramie Group, Types 
 of the Laramie Flora, and Geographical 
 Distribution of Fossil Plants. 
 
 WARD, Mrs. Mary Augusta, novelist, 
 granddaughter of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, 
 born 1851, married 1872 Thomas 
 Humphry AVard. Her chief works are 
 Robert Elsmere (1888), a novel of re- 
 ligious doubts and perplexities; The 
 History of David Grieve, Marcella, Sir 
 George Tressady, Eleanor, Lady Rose’s 
 Daughter, etc. 
 
 AVaRM-BLOODED animals. See 
 
 Anim al. 
 
 WARMING AND VENTILATION. The 
 
 condition of the atmosphere of our 
 houses and apartments is of such im- 
 portance to health and vigor of mind 
 that warming and ventilation, tw’o 
 closely allied subjects, are receiving 
 more and more attention as sanitary 
 science advances. Their neglect has 
 been the cause, and is still responsible, 
 for an incalculable amount of human 
 disease and suffering. The body, to 
 remain in health, requires a certain de- 
 gree of heat; so that, if the surrounding 
 atmosphere is too low in temperature, 
 artificial means must be employed to 
 raise it. The temperature which is found 
 the most agreeable for the air of apart- 
 ments, in which the occupants are not 
 engaged in bodily exercise, is from 63° 
 to 65° F. The charcoal brazier is a very 
 ancient method of warming an apart- 
 ment. The Greeks and other nations 
 commonly used it, and they sought to 
 correct the deleterious nature of the 
 fumes by burning costly odorous gums, 
 spices, and woods; but the carbonic acid 
 given off by the combustion of charcoal 
 is very injurious to health. The ordinary 
 open coal-fire is, if not the most economi- 
 cal, at least the most agreeable means 
 of heating apartments, but the waste 
 of heat is very considerable. This waste 
 early led to the introduction of closed 
 stoves, first in earthenware and then in 
 metal. These closed stoves, of which 
 
 there are innumerable varieties in form 
 and construction are particularly 
 favored in America and the European 
 continent. For public buildings, ware- 
 houses, conservatories, etc., the most 
 extensively employed system of heating 
 is that of large hot-water pipes. The 
 circulation of water is brought about on 
 the principle of the expansion of water 
 by heat, and its greater lightness in con- 
 sequence. Whatever be the height of 
 the water above, the water when heated 
 in the lower part of a boiler will rise to 
 the surface, making room for other and 
 colder particles to be heated in their 
 turn; hence if a pipe full of water rise 
 from the top of a boiler to any required 
 height, and then return by gentle bends 
 to the boiler at the lower part, heated 
 water will rise and occupy the upright 
 pipe, and the colder water will descend 
 into the boiler to take its place. Thus 
 a continuous circulation may be main- 
 tained through pipes in a building, the 
 heated water rising up, passing on, and 
 returning cooled to the lower part of the 
 boiler, causing a satisfactory tempera- 
 ture to be everywhere felt. The greater 
 the elevation to which the heated water 
 ascends, and the higher the initial tem- 
 perature of the water, the greater is the 
 motive power for circulation. There are 
 also several systems of heating by pass- 
 ing steam or hot air through pipes. 
 Ventilation is the means of renewing the 
 atmosphere, and of maintaining its 
 purity by e.xpelling foul air and admit- 
 ling fresh without draughts. Of the 
 products w'hich vitiate the air carbonic 
 acid is the most important. Air which 
 has been utilized by living beings is 
 always charged with carbonic acid, and 
 also with a varying amount of watery 
 vapor, the quantity of which is increased 
 as the air is warmed; and smaller quan- 
 tities of ammonia, and organic matter 
 especially bacteria, still further assist in 
 rendering the atmosphere not only 
 unfit but dangerous for respiration. 
 Authorities on hygiene somewhat vary 
 as to the amount of air necessary for 
 healthy living rooms, but it is generally 
 admitted that not less than 1000 cubic 
 feet of fresh air per healthy person 
 should be supplied every hour, and from 
 3000 to 4000 cubic feet to rooms oc- 
 cupied by invalids. Mechanical ventila- 
 tion is generally effected by means of 
 gratings in the ceilings or cornices in 
 communication with flues leading into 
 the open air, and a variety of arrange- 
 ments have been invented to prevent 
 down-draughts. Public and other large 
 buildings are commonly ventilated in 
 the roof, though sometimes bj'^ gratings 
 in or near the floor, but this latter 
 method is objectionable on account of 
 draught. Automatic ventilation is, of 
 course, irregular, owing to changes in 
 wind and temperature, which increase 
 or reduce, or even revert the motive 
 power. In places where large numbers 
 of people congregate and a uniform re- 
 newal of air is required, it is therefore 
 necessary to resort to machinery. Many 
 systems are in operation, varying with 
 the nature of the building to be ven- 
 tilated. Air flues, shafts, or pipes are 
 usually the medium through which air 
 passes in and out; and this passage is 
 generally regulated by pumps or fan.s 
 
WARNER 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 moved by steam or gas engines. The 
 proper ventilation of mines forms a 
 problem for the mining engineer. See 
 Mining, and Sanitary Science. 
 
 WARNER, Charles Dudley, American 
 writer, born at Plainfield, Mass., in 1829, 
 graduated at Hamilton college in 1851 j 
 studied law and practiced in Chicago ; 
 became connected with the newspaper 
 press; traveled in Europe; and in 1884 
 became joint-editor of Harper’s Maga- 
 zine. His works include: My Summer in 
 a Garden, Saunterings, Backlog Studies, 
 My Winter on the Nile, In the Levant, 
 Washington Irving, etc. He died in 
 1900. 
 
 WARNER, Susan, American writer, 
 born 1819, died 1885. In 1851 she pub- 
 lished under the pseudonym of Eliza- 
 beth Wetherell, a novel entitled The 
 Wide, Wide World, which soon attained 
 extraordinary popularity on both sides 
 of the Atlantic. Queechy, which ap- 
 peared in 1852, was almost equally 
 popular. 
 
 WARP. See Weaving. 
 
 WARRANT, an instrument or docu- 
 ment authorizing certain acts which 
 without it would be illegal. Common 
 forms of judicial warrants are: the 
 warrant of arrest, usually issued by a 
 justice of the peace for the apprehension 
 of those accused or suspected of crimes; 
 the warrant of commitment, a written 
 authority committing a person to 
 prison ; the distress warrant, a warrant 
 issued for raising a sum of money upon 
 the goods of a party specified in the 
 warrant; the search warrant, an author- 
 ity, generally granted to police-officers, 
 to search private premises. 
 
 WARRINGTON, a mun., pari., and 
 county borough of England, in Lanca- 
 shire, with a small portion in Cheshire. 
 Pop. 64,241. 
 
 WAR'SAW, a city of Russia, capital 
 of Russian Poland, or the Vistula prov- 
 ince, as that country is now officially 
 designated. Warsaw is famous for its 
 huge churches, numerous and magnifi- 
 cent palaces and monuments, remnants 
 of former Polish grandeur; for its edu- 
 cational institutions; and for its many 
 and extensive gardens, parks, and 
 suburban drives. It was formerly also 
 exceptionally rich in literature and art 
 treasures; most of these have been con- 
 fiscated and transferred to St. Peters- 
 burg. Leather, boots and shoes, woolen 
 and linen stuff’s, plated ware, machinery, 
 chemicals, spirits and beer, are some of 
 the most important industrial products. 
 It is the residence of the governor- 
 general of the province, of the com- 
 mander of the Warsaw military district, 
 and of the Roman and Greek Catholic 
 archbishops. Pop. 638,209, of which 
 many are Jews and Germans. 
 
 WAR-SHIP, See Navy. 
 
 WART, a small, dry, hard tumor mak- 
 ing its appearance most frequently on 
 the hands, sometimes on the face, and 
 rarely on other parts of the body, and 
 occurring usually on children. Warts 
 may be described as collections of ab- 
 normally lengthened papillre of the 
 skin, closely adherent and ensheathed 
 in a thick covering of hard dry cuticle. 
 In most cases they disappear of them- 
 selves, or they may be removed by nitric 
 acid, glacial acetic acid, etc. 
 
 WART-HOG, a name common to cer- 
 tain members of the hog family, distin- 
 guished from the true swine by their 
 dentition, which in some respects re- 
 sembles that of the elephants. The head 
 is very large; immense tusks project 
 
 Head of wart-hog. 
 
 from the mouth outward and upward, 
 and the cheeks are furnished with flesh- 
 like excrescences resembling warts. 
 They feed on the roots of plants, which 
 they dig up with their tusks. The 
 African wart-hog or haruja of Abyssinia, 
 and the vlacke-vark of the Dutch settlers 
 of the Cape are familiar species. 
 
 WARWICK (wo'rik), a parliamentary 
 borough of England, on a rocky hill on 
 the right bank of the Avon, the county 
 town of Warwickshire. The principal 
 object of interest is Warwick castle, the 
 most magnificent of the ancient feudal 
 mansions of the English nobility. The 
 town unites with Leamington in sending 
 one member to parliament. Pop. 
 11,903. — The county has an area of 
 885 sq. miles, or 566,548 acres. Coal 
 (output over a million tons per annum) 
 and several kinds of building stone are 
 abundant. Warwickshire is also famous 
 for its manufactures, and includes the 
 two great manufacturing towns of Bir- 
 mingham and Coventry. Pop. 897,678. 
 
 WARWICK, Richard Neville, Earl 
 of, “the kingmaker,” a great English 
 nobleman, born 1428, killed 1471. He 
 was the son of an earl of Salisbury, and 
 became Earl of Warwick by marrying 
 the heiress of the title and estates. Tak- 
 ing the Yorkist side in the Wars of the 
 Roses, he was the main instrument in 
 placing Edward IV. on the throne in 
 1461 in place of Henry VI., and became 
 the most powerful nobleman in the 
 kingdom. Quarreling with Edward on 
 account of the latter’s marriage, he 
 went over to Henry’s side, and was able 
 to place him again on the throne, but 
 was defeated and slain at the battle of 
 Barnet. 
 
 WASHBURN, Cadwallader Colden, 
 American soldier and capitalist, was 
 born at Livermore, Maine, in 1818. 
 He made fortunate investments in 
 timber lands and became one of the 
 pioneers in the flour-milling industry. 
 In 1854 he was elected to congress from 
 Wisconsin by the anti-slavery element, 
 and was twice reelected, serving until 
 
 1861. He raised the second regiment of 
 Wisconsin cavalry and was mustered 
 into the federal service in February, 
 
 1862. In November, 1862, he was pro- 
 moted to be major-general and was 
 given a division in the Army of the 
 Tennessee. He was again a member of 
 congress from 1867 to 1871, and in 
 1872-74 was governor of 'Wisconsin. 
 He gave largely to education, built an 
 observatory at the University of Wis- 
 consin, and founded an orphan asylum 
 at Minneapolis. He died in 1882. 
 
 WASH'BURNE, Elihu Benjamin, ' 
 
 American diplomat, was born at Liver- j 
 more, Maine, in 1816. He removed in 
 1841 to Galena, 111. He was a delegate i 
 to the whig national convention of 1844, 
 and from 1853 until 1869 was a member 
 of congress. When Grant became presi- ^ 
 dent, he made Washburne his secretary ■ 
 of state, but he resigned to become 
 minister to France. During the Franco- j 
 Prussian war he was the only foreign *! 
 representative who remained at his j 
 post. In 1877 he returned to the United >1 
 States and settled at Chicago. He pub- } 
 lished Recollections of a Minister to 
 France, 1869-77. He died in 1887. ‘ 
 
 'WASHINGTON, the capital of the 
 United States, in the District of Colum- ; 
 bia, at the confluence of the Anacostia ^ 
 with the Potomac, here navigable by 
 ships of the largest class; 200 miles 
 southwest of New York. 'The site was >j 
 selected in 1790 by Washington himself, ^ 
 and the plan of the city was drawn up on 
 a most magnificent scale. The streets ^ 
 (70-120 feet wide) cross each other at 
 right angles, and are intersected diagon- J 
 ally by avenues (120-180 feet wide), 
 which bear the names of states in the | 
 Union. A large portion of these spacious 
 thoroughfares are planted with elms and 
 poplars, well paved, and well kept. r 
 Numerous open spaces, large and small, ' 
 some of them beautifully laid out, are 
 distributed throughout the vast area 
 occupied by the town. First among the , 
 numerous public buildings ranks the “ 
 Capitol, the finest structure in the states, . 
 on a hill above the Potomac, in the 
 midst of a highly ornamental park of 
 50 acres. It consists of a central build- 
 ing of freestone, two wings (each with a 
 dome) of white marble, and a lofty 
 central dome of iron, surmounted by a 
 statue of Liberty (total height, 307J 
 feet). The Rotunda, in the center of the 
 main building, is a magnificent hall, 
 adorned with bas-reliefs and paintings, 
 and a colossal statue of Washington. 
 
 The entire structure covers 3J acres, 
 and cost over 12J million dollars. It 
 accommodates the two houses of con- ^ 
 gress, the United States supreme court, 
 and until recently also held the exten- 
 sive congress library (now transferred to 
 a separate building). The edifices pro- 
 vided for the various state departments, 
 such as the treasury, the state, war, and 
 navy departments, the interior depart- 
 ment, post-office, etc., are also on a 
 splendid scale. In the midst of these 
 palatial offices stands the more modest 
 yet elegant White House, the residence 
 of the United States president. In ad- ' i 
 dition may be specially mentioned the j 
 Episcopal Trinity church, the patent- | 
 office, the city-hall, the observatory, the 
 Smithsonian institution, the Columbian ■; 
 
 college, the arsenal, the navy-yard j 
 
 (42 acres), and the Washington obelisk, i 
 built of white marble and blue gneiss, 
 
 555i feet high, with a base 104 feet j 
 square. The city is protected by numer- j 
 ous forts and batteries, the harbor de- j 
 fenses especially being of a formidable 
 description. Pop. 1909, 340,000. 
 
 WASH'INGTON, occupies the north- 
 western corner of the United States, 
 and is bounded on the north by British 
 Columbia, on the east b}' Idaho, on the 
 south by Oregon, and on the west by 
 the Pacific ocean. It ranks sixteenth in 
 
WASHINGTON 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 size among the states. The state is 
 divided by the Cascade mountains into 
 two unequal sections, which have very 
 different climatic and physical char- 
 acteristics and commercial and business 
 interests. The Columbia river, which 
 forms almost the entire boundary be- 
 tween Washington and Oregon, trav- 
 erses the state from east to west, and 
 with its tributaries drains almost the 
 whole state. I'he tide-water basin at 
 the mouth of the Columbia and Che- 
 halis valley, farther north are the most 
 important indentions of the coast south 
 of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. This 
 body of water, together with the ex- 
 tensive inland sea known as Puget 
 sound, affords some of the best harbors 
 in the world, and is of great commercial 
 
 Seal of Washington. 
 
 importance. The soils are fertile in most 
 parts of the state. On the eastern spurs 
 and slopes of the Cascades there are 
 forests of pine. Western Washington has 
 magnificent forests. They consist of 
 gigantic coniferous trees such as the 
 Douglas spruce, giant cedar, and West- 
 ern hemlock. Washington is the most 
 important coal-mining state on the 
 Pacific coast. Gold and silver are mined 
 in fluctuating quantities. Considerable 
 quantities of limestone and some sand- 
 stone, granite, and marble are quarried. 
 In 1850 fish were shipped from Wash- 
 ington, and since that date the growth 
 in the industry has been rapid. The 
 total amount invested in the industry 
 is over 17,000,000. Salmon is the largest 
 single product. The canning and pack- 
 ing of fish ranks third among the in- 
 dustries of the state. Alfalfa, clover, and 
 other grasses and vegetables and fruit 
 are the chief crops. Wheat constitutes 
 over half of the total crop area of the 
 state. The soil is exceedingly fertile and 
 a high per acreage yield is obtained. 
 Barley and oats are the only other 
 cereals of importance. Hay and forage 
 rank second in area and value. Potatoes 
 are a favorite crop, and sugar-beet 
 culture has developed in Spokane 
 county. The southeastern counties lead 
 in fruit-raising. The alluvium soil at 
 the mouths of the tributary streams to 
 the Walla Walla are peculiarly adapted 
 to the cultivation of orchard fruits. 
 Extensive areas are too arid for culti- 
 vation afford pasturing facilities. All 
 kinds of domestic animals are rapidly 
 increasing in numbers. Manufacturing 
 has developed since 1885, when railroad 
 connection was made with the older 
 
 parts of the country. A great unpetus 
 was given to the industry through the 
 discoveries of gold in Alaska in 1897. 
 The most important branch of industry 
 is the Sawing of lumber. Next in im- 
 portance is the manufacture of flour 
 and grist mill products. An Oriental 
 market is developing for the products 
 of this industry. Seattle is the largest 
 manufacturing center, followed by Ta- 
 coma and Spokane. Washington pos- 
 sesses the best commercial facilities of 
 any of the Pacific states. The principal 
 outlet to the sea is Puget sound, which, 
 by reason of its position and the numer- 
 ous bays and inlets with which its 
 shores are indented, is especially well 
 adapted to commercial purposes. Water 
 communication with the interior is by 
 the Columbia and Snake rivers and their 
 branches. The Columbia is navigable 
 for large steamers as far as Vancouver. 
 The principal railroad lines are the 
 Northern Pacific and the Great North- 
 ern. They both traverse the state from 
 east to west as far a Seattle, where the 
 Northern Pacific turns south, extend- 
 ing to Portland, Oregon, and the Great 
 Northern turns north to the Canadian 
 border. The Canadian Pacific operates 
 trains over the Seattle and International 
 railway, and thus brings the commercial 
 centers of the state into touch with a 
 third continental system. The popula- 
 tion is confined mainly to the Puget 
 sound region and the southeastern part 
 of the state. The leading religious 
 denominations in point of numbers 
 are the Roman Catholics, Methodists, 
 Disciples of Christ, Presbyterian, Bap- 
 tists, and Congregationalists. The prin- 
 cipal institutions of learning in the 
 state are the University of Washington 
 at Seattle; Gonzaga college, at Spokane; 
 Whitman college, at Walla Walla; and 
 the Washington Agricultural college and 
 School of Science, at Pullman. The first 
 event in history relating to Washington 
 was the discovery, in 1592, of the Strait 
 of Juan de Fuca by an old Greek pilot 
 of that name in the service of Spain. 
 In 1810 two expeditions were sent out 
 by John Jacob Astor for the purpose 
 of establishing a fur-trading empire on 
 the Columbia and its tributary lands 
 and streams. In 1813 the fortunes of 
 war compelled the transfer of the Astor 
 Fur company to the Northwest Fur 
 company. Henceforward for many 
 years the history of the state is the his- 
 tory of the operations of the great North- 
 west and Hudson Bay companies. Wash- 
 ington was first organized as a territory 
 in 1853, with an area much greater than 
 that of the present state. It was reduced 
 to its present limits in 1863, and was 
 admitted to the Union in 1889. In 
 national politics the state voted for 
 republican electors in 1892, and for a 
 fusion ticket of democrats and populists 
 in 1896, but returned to the republican 
 column in 1900, 1904 and 1908. Within 
 the last few years the development of 
 the state has been phenomenal. Pop. 
 1,250,000. 
 
 WASHINGTON, University of, a co- 
 educational, state institution at Seattle, 
 Wash., founded in 1861. In 1906 the 
 university had an attendance of 631 in 
 the College of Liberal Arts, College of 
 Engineering, the Schools of Mines, 
 
 Pharmacy, and Law, and the Graduate 
 School. In the same year it had a 
 faculty of 37, a library of 20,000 volumes 
 and 15,000 pamphlets. The university 
 grounds cover 355 acres within the city 
 limits. 
 
 WASHINGTON, the county seat of 
 Daviess co., Ind., 85 miles southwest 
 of Indianapolis, on the Evansville and 
 Terre Haute and the Baltimore and Ohio 
 Southwestern railroads. It is the com- 
 mercial center of a farming and stock- 
 raising region, especially noted for its 
 deposits of coal, kaolin, and fire clay. 
 Pop. 10,219. 
 
 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL 
 COLLEGE AND SCHOOL OF SCIENCE, 
 
 a coeducational state institution at Pull- 
 man, Wash., established in 1890 on the 
 national land grant act. It offers par- 
 tially elective courses in the departments 
 of mathematics and civil engineering, 
 chemistry, botany and zoology, agri- 
 culture, horticulture, English, economic 
 science and history, mechanical engineer- 
 ing, modern languages, mining engineer- 
 ing, and military science and tactics, 
 with supplementary courses in physics, 
 geology, and mineralogy, Latin, and 
 education. In addition, special instruc- 
 tion is provided in the schools of agri- 
 culture, dairying, pharmacy, veterinary 
 science, and business, the school for 
 artisans, and the preparatory school. 
 Provision is also made for graduate in- 
 struction. 
 
 WASHINGTON, Booker Taliaferro, 
 an American negro educator, was born 
 near Hale’s Ford, Franklin co., Va., 
 in 1858. In 1881 he was appointed to 
 establish a colored normal school at 
 Tuskegee, Ala., the state legislature 
 having granted an annual appropriation 
 of $2000 to be used for the salaries of 
 instructors. He opened the school with 
 30 scholars, and himself as the only 
 teacher. Subsequently he transferred 
 the school to its present site on a plan- 
 tation about one mile from Tuskegee. 
 His efforts to better the condition of 
 this institution led to his appearance at 
 important public assemblages, and his 
 addresses on these occasions soon made 
 him known as a remarkably fluent and 
 effective speaker. His most notable 
 address was that given at the opening 
 of the Atlanta (Ga.) Cotton States and 
 International exposition in 1895. In 
 1900 he organzied the National Negro 
 Business League at Boston, Mass. His 
 publications include: The Future of the 
 American Negro, Up from Slavery, and 
 Character-Building. 
 
 WASHINGTON, George, the hero of 
 American independence, and “the father 
 of his country” as he is popularly called, 
 was born in Westmoreland county, 
 Virginia, on the 22d February, 1732; 
 died at Mount Vernon, 14th December, 
 1799. He was the great-grandson of 
 John Washington, an Englishman, who 
 emigrated in 1657; and the son of 
 Augustine Washington, a substantial 
 farmer, being the eldest of a second 
 family. His education was limited to 
 the elementary subjects, but he acquired 
 a fair knowledge of mathematics and 
 surveying, chiefly by self-study, and 
 when his widowed mother prevailed 
 upon him to abandon the idea of enter- 
 ing the British navy, he adopted sur- 
 
WASHINGTON MONUMENT 
 
 WATER 
 
 veying as a profession. His military 
 career commenced at the age of nine- 
 teen, when he was appointed adjutant- 
 general of Virginia militia; and before 
 long he showed in operations against the 
 French that he united in an eminent 
 degree the qualities belonging to a suc- 
 cessful commander, though in 1754, 
 when in command of his regiment, he 
 had to capitulate to a superior French 
 force. In 1755 he accompanied General 
 
 George Washington. 
 
 Braddock as a volunteer, and was almost 
 the only officer who returned safe from 
 the disastrous expedition. In 1758 he 
 took an important part in the expedition 
 that captured Fort Du Quesne, where 
 Pittsburg now stands. In the meantime 
 extensive estates and plantations at 
 Mount Vernon had come into his pos- 
 session through the death of his half- 
 brother. To these possessions he added 
 largely by marrying in 1759 Mrs. Martha 
 Custis, a wealthy young widow. He 
 also sat for some years in the Virginia 
 assembly. Shortly after the outbreak of 
 the war of independence Washington 
 was elected commander-in-chief of the 
 American forces, 5th June, 1775, in 
 which capacity his career belongs to the 
 general history of his country-. (See 
 United States, History.) It is sufficient 
 to say that the struggle was carried on 
 by him under extraordinary disadvan- 
 tages, including unfriendliness on the 
 part of officers, and virulent attacks on 
 the part of others. When peace was 
 signed in 1783 Washington retired to 
 Mount Vernon, and refused all recom- 
 pense for his invaluable services beyond 
 his personal expenses. In 1787 he was a 
 member of and presided over the con- 
 vention which met to revise the articles 
 of union between the states, the result 
 being the constitution which is still in 
 force, and which was adopted in 1788. 
 Washington was elected the first presi- 
 dent of the republic, and inaugurated 
 30th April, 1789, and he was again 
 elected in 1793. During both terms he 
 performed the onerous duties of his 
 office with marked ability, and the ad- 
 vances in prosperity made b}' the young 
 republic were extraordinary. At the 
 close of his second term of office he re- 
 
 signed (1797), but when a misunder- 
 standing with France threatened further 
 trouble congress appointed him lieu- 
 tenant-general of the forces (1798). 
 He died from an attack of acute laryn- 
 gitis. Washington had a mind far above 
 party strife, and was mourned by men of 
 all parties. He had no family. Mount 
 Vernon, on the Potomac about 15 miles 
 from Washington, became national 
 property in 1858. His remains are de- 
 posited in a vault in the grounds. 
 
 WASHINGTON MONUMENT, a huge 
 obelisk erected in the city of Washing- 
 ton, having a total height of 555 feet 
 5} inches. It is the highest masonry 
 structure in the world. The cornerstone 
 was laid in 1848 and work on the monu- 
 ment continued slowly until 1877, when 
 it ceased, but was resumed in 1878, and 
 finished in 1884. The Washington 
 National Monument society originated 
 the plan and controlled the work of con- 
 struction until 1877, when its property 
 was conveyed to the United States. 
 Maryland marble is the material out of 
 which the monument was constructed. 
 The foundation covers an area of 16,000 
 feet, and weighs 36,912 gross tons. The 
 shaft is 55 feet 1.5 inches square at the 
 bottom, 34 feet 5.5 inches square at the 
 top, weighs 43,633 gross tons, and is 
 500 feet 51 inches high ; the apex, 
 weighing 300 tons, is 55 feet high, its 
 summit being nearly 600 feet above the 
 tide-water of the Potomac. The apex is 
 capped by an aluminum point. It has 
 262 marble pieces, of seven-inch thick- 
 ness. The original designs were by 
 Robert Mills. An elevator and an iron 
 stairway of 900 steps within the monu- 
 ment afford access to the bash of the 
 apex. 
 
 WASH'ITA, a river of the United 
 States, in Arkansas and Louisiana, an 
 affluent of the Red river; length, 600 
 miles; valuable for navigation. 
 
 WASP, the common name applied to 
 insects of various genera. Those best 
 known belong to the genus Vespa, and 
 live in societies, composed of females, 
 males, and neuters or workers.^ The 
 females and neuters are armed with an 
 extremely powerful and venomous sting. 
 Their nests, some of them very ingenious 
 both as regards material and construc- 
 tion, are made in holes underground, or 
 attached to the branches of trees, to 
 walls, etc. The cells are of a hexagonal 
 form, arranged in tiers with the mouth 
 downward, or opening sideways, in 
 which the larvae and pupae are contained. 
 Wasps are very voracious, eating other 
 insects, sugar, meat, fruit, honey, etc. 
 
 WATCH, a well-known pocket in- 
 strument for measuring time, invented 
 at Niirnberg in the end of the 15th cen- 
 tury. The wheels in watches are urged 
 on by the force of a spiral spring, gen- 
 erally of steel, contained in a cylindrical 
 barrel or box, to which one end of a 
 chain is fixed, the chain also 'making 
 several turns round the barrel outside; 
 the other end of the chain is fixed to the 
 bottom of a cone with a spiral groove 
 cut on it, known as the fusee. On the 
 bottom of the fusee the first or great 
 wheel is put. The barrel-arbor is so 
 fixed in the frame that it cannot turn 
 when the fusee is winding up. The inner 
 end of the spring hooks on to the barrel- 
 
 arbor, the outer to the inside of the 
 barrel. If the fusee is turned round in 
 the proper direction it will take on the 
 chain, and consequently take it off from 
 the barrel. This coils up the spring; 
 and if the fusee and great wheel are left 
 to themselves, the force exerted bj^ the 
 spring in the barrel to unroll itself will 
 make the barrel turn in a contrary 
 direction to that by which it was bent 
 up. This force communicating itself 
 to the wheels will set them in motion. 
 Their time of continuing in motion will 
 depend on the number of turns of the 
 spiral groove on the fusee, the number 
 of teeth in the first or great wheel, and 
 on the number of leaves in the pinion 
 upon which the great wheel acts, etc. 
 The necessity of keeping the watch from 
 “running down,” and of making the 
 wheels move with uniform motion, gave 
 rise to the use of the balance-wheel and 
 hair-spring (taking the place of the 
 pendulum of a clock) and the variously 
 and ingeniously designed mechanism, 
 the escapement (which see). On the 
 perfection of the escapement the time- 
 keeping qualities of a watch largely 
 depend. Of the many varieties invented 
 and perfected, watches are now almost 
 exclusively provided with either the 
 horizontal, the lever, or the chronometer 
 or detached escapement. (See Chro- 
 nometer.) In all but the best class 
 English watches the fusee has been 
 abandoned in favor of the going-barrel. 
 The latter offers better facilities for 
 keyless work, and keyless watches are 
 manufactured in increasing quantities. 
 The going-barrel watch can also be pro- 
 duced at a cheaper rate, and for ordinary 
 purposes is amply reliable. The main- 
 spring in this elass of watch is very long, 
 but only a few coils are brought into 
 action. The great wheel is attached to 
 the going-barrel itself, thus the spring 
 force is directly transmitted to the 
 escapement. The invention of the spiral 
 hair-spring by Dr. Hook (about 1658), 
 the scientific application of its properties 
 since, and the intelligent use of com- 
 pensation (which see) in the balance, 
 have combined to give to the best 
 chronometers of to-day a uniformity of 
 rate which it is probably inpossible to 
 excel. A number of watches for special 
 performances are also constructed. Such 
 are the calendar watch, the repeater, 
 the chronograph (which see), etc. Large 
 quantities of the cheaper class of watches 
 are now made by machinery in Switzer- 
 land, France, Germany, England, and 
 the United States. They are generally 
 produced on the interchangeable sys- 
 tem, that is, if any part of a watch has 
 become unfit for service, it can be 
 cheaply replaced by an exact duplicate ; 
 the labor of the watch-repairer thus 
 becoming easy and expeditious. 
 
 WATCH, a certain part of the officers 
 and crew of a vessel who together work 
 her for an allotted time, the time being 
 also called a w'atch. The time called a 
 watch is four hours, the reckoning be- ■ 
 ginning at noon or midnight. Between 
 4 and 8 p.m. the time is divided into two , 
 short or dog-watches, in order to pre-^ 
 vent the constant recurrence of the same* 
 portion of the crew keeping the watch ^ 
 during the same hours. 
 
 WATER, a universally-diffused liquid, 
 
Water-bed 
 
 WATER LILY 
 
 It was classed among the elements until 
 the close of the 18th century, when 
 Lavoisier, profiting by the experiments 
 of Cavendish, proved it to be a com- 
 pound of hydrogen and oxygen, in the 
 proportion of two volumes of the former 
 gas to one volume of the latter; or by 
 weight 2 parts of hydrogen to 16 parts 
 of oxygen; Pure water is a colorless, 
 tasteless, inodorous liquid; a powerful 
 refractor of light; a bad conductor of 
 heat and electricity; it is very slightly 
 compressible, its absolute diminution 
 for a pressure of one atmosphere being 
 only about 51.3 millionths of its bulk. 
 Although water is colorless in small 
 cjuantities, it is blue like the atmosphere 
 when viewed in mass. It takes a solid 
 form, that of ice or snow, at 32° F. 
 (0° C.), and all lower temperatures; 
 and it takes the form of vapor or steam 
 at 212° F. (100° C.) under a pressure of 
 29.9 ins. of mercury, and retains that 
 form at all higher temperatures. Under 
 ordinary conditions water possesses the 
 liquid form only at temperatures lying 
 between 32° and 212°. It is, however, 
 ossible to cool water very considerably 
 elow 32° F. and yet maintain it in the 
 liquid form. Water may also be heated, 
 under pressure, many degrees above 
 212° F. without passing into the state 
 of steam. The specific gravity of water 
 is 1 at 39°.2 F., being the unit to which 
 the specific gravities of all solids and 
 liquids are referred, as a convenient 
 standard, on account of the facility with 
 which it is obtained in a pure state ; one 
 cubic inch of water at 62° F. and 29.9 
 inches barometrical pressure, weighs 
 252.458 grains. Distilled water is 815 
 times heavier than atmospheric air. 
 Water is at its greatest density at 39°. 2 
 F. (= 4° C.), and in this respect it pre- 
 sents a singular exception to the general 
 law of expansion by heat. If water at 
 39°.2 F. be cooled, it expands as it cools 
 till reduced to 32°, when it solidifies; 
 and if water at 39°. 2 F. be heated, it 
 expands as the temperature increases in 
 accordance with the general law. In a 
 chemical point of view water exhibits 
 in itself neither acid nor basic properties ; 
 but it combines with both acids and 
 bases forming hydrates; it also com- 
 bines with neutral salts. Water also 
 enters, as a liquid, into a peculiar kind 
 of combination with the greater number 
 of all known substances. Of all liquids 
 water is the most powerful and general 
 solvent, and on this important property 
 its use depends. Without water not only 
 the operations of the chemist but the 
 processes of animal and vegetable life 
 would come to a stand. In consequence 
 of the great solvent power of water it is 
 never found pure in nature. Even in 
 rain-water, which is the purest, there 
 are always traces of carbonic acid, am- 
 monia, and sea-salt. Where the rain- 
 water has filtered through rocks and 
 soils, and reappears as spring or river 
 water, it is always more or less charged 
 with salts derived from the earth, such 
 as sea-salt, gypsum, and chalk. When 
 the proportion of these is small the 
 w.ater is called soft, when larger it is 
 called hard water. The former dissolves 
 soap better, and is therefore preferred 
 for washing ; the latter is often pleasanter 
 to drink. Some springs contain a con- 
 
 •siderable quantity of foreign ingredients, 
 which impart to the water particular 
 properties. They are known under the 
 general term mineral waters, and accord- 
 ing to the predominating constituent 
 held in solution are divided into car- 
 bonated waters (alkaline, magnesian, 
 calcareous, and chalybeate), sulphatic 
 waters (containing chiefly sulphates), 
 chlorinated waters (containing chiefly 
 chlorides), and sulphuretted waters 
 (containing large quantities of sulphides 
 or of sulphuretted hydrogen). The only 
 way to obtain perfectly pure water is to 
 distil it, but matter simply held in sus- 
 pension may be got rid of by suitable 
 filtration. The great reservoirs of water 
 on the globe are the oceans, seas, and 
 lakes, which cover more than three- 
 fifths of its surface, and from which it 
 is raised by evaporation, and, uniting 
 with the air in the state of vapor, is 
 wafted over the earth ready to be pre- 
 cipitated in the form of rain, snow, or 
 hail. Water, like air, is absolutely neces- 
 sary to life, and healthy human life 
 requires that it should be free from con- 
 tamination, hence an ample and pure 
 water-supply is considered as one of the 
 first laws of sanitation. 
 
 WATER-BED, a bed consisting of an 
 india-rubber mattress filled with water, 
 and generally used by persons confined 
 to bed. Its pliability prevents pressure 
 on the body of the patient, and thus 
 avoids bed-sores. Water-beds have been 
 largely superseded by the more con- 
 venient and healthier air-beds. 
 
 WATER-BEETLE, the name given to 
 various species of beetles, having legs 
 adapted for swimming, the two hinder 
 pairs being flattened and fringed wdth 
 hair. 
 
 WATERBURY, a city in New Haven 
 CO., Connecticut, in a valley on the 
 Naugatuck river, 77 miles northeast of 
 New York. It is an important railway 
 junction and manufacturing town. Brass 
 and brass goods are the staple products. 
 Waterbury machine-made watches and 
 clocks are known throughout the world. 
 Electro-plate is also made. Pop. 49,859. 
 
 WATER-COLORS, in painting, colors 
 carefully ground up with water and 
 isinglass or other mucilage instead of oil. 
 Water-colors are often prepared in the 
 form of small cakes dried hard, which 
 can be rubbed on a moistened palette 
 when wanted. Moist water-colors in a 
 semi-fluid state are also used; they are 
 generally kept in metal tubes, which pre- 
 serve them from drying up. 
 
 WATER-CRESS, a cruciferous plant 
 distributed throughout Europe, Western 
 Asia, North Africa, and choking some 
 rivers of New Zealand, where the stem 
 grows as thick as the wrist. It grows on 
 the margin of clear streams, or even 
 partly immersed in the water. It has 
 antiscorbutic properties, and is cul- 
 tivated near many large towns to be 
 used as salad, or otherwise. 
 
 WATERFORD, a city, parliamentary 
 borough, and seaport in the southeast 
 of Ireland, capital of the county of same 
 name, 97 miles s.s.w. of Dublin, on the 
 right bank of the Suir, which soon after 
 joins the Barrow, the combined stream 
 reaching the sea by the fine estuary 
 known as Waterford harbor. Pop. 
 26,743. — The county belongs to the 
 
 province of Munster. The area is 461,552 
 acres, or 721 sq. miles, of which about 
 a sixth is under tillage. Pop. 87,030. 
 
 WATER-GAS, a gas prepared by pass- 
 ing steam through incandescent carbon. 
 It is used for heating and welding pur- 
 poses in metallurgy, and also for illumi- 
 nation, especially in the United States. 
 Numerous deaths from poisoning have 
 resulted from its use, however, this being 
 largely due to its want of smell. Burnt 
 in the usual way it gives a blue flame, 
 but by suspending a comb of thin 
 magnesium rods in the flame the fila- 
 ments are quickly heated to a white 
 heat, producing a bright glow light of 
 high illuminating power, but which is 
 said to be neither unpleasant to the eye 
 nor prejudicial to the sight. 
 
 WATER-GLASS, a substance which, 
 when solid, resembles glass, but is 
 slowly soluble in boiling water, although 
 it remains unaffected by ordinary at- 
 mospheric changes. It consists of the 
 soluble silicates of potash or soda, or a 
 mixture of both. It is prepared either 
 by breaking down and calcining flint 
 nodules, the fragments or particles of 
 which are then added to a solution of 
 caustic potash or soda, whereupon the 
 whole is exposed for a time to intense 
 heat, or by fusing the constitutents to- 
 gether in a solid state, and afterward 
 reducing them to a viscid condition. 
 Among the purposes to which water- 
 glass is applied are painting on glass, 
 coating stone, wood, and other materials 
 to render them waterproof, glazing scen- 
 ery and paintings, fixing wall-paintings, 
 
 WATER LILY, a small group of 
 herbaceous and aquatic plants, natives 
 of all temperate and warm climates. 
 The sepals are three to five, petals three 
 to many, stamens six to many, and 
 ovaries three to many, free, or united 
 into a compound pistil. The stems are 
 creeping and submerged and the leaves 
 mostly peltate, long-petioled, and float- 
 ing. Fourteen species are North Ameri- 
 can. The white water lily is common in 
 the Eastern United States. The lotus, 
 water chinquapin, or yellow nelumbo 
 occurs in the waters of the Mississippi 
 valley. It is curious on account of its 
 large top-shaped receptacle, in the cavi- 
 ties of whose upper surface the pistils are 
 imbedded. The common yellow water 
 lily, or spatter-dock has smaller, yel- 
 low flowers with fewer petals. It is 
 
Waterloo 
 
 Watt 
 
 widely distributed in the United States. 
 The Victoria lily, the largest of all, oc- 
 curs in the waters of the Aniazon region 
 
 of South America. Its peltate leaves are 
 6 to 10 feet in diameter with an upturned 
 margin 2 inches in height. Its flowers 
 
 Lotus lily, one-fllth natural size. 
 
 are from 10 to 15 inches in diameter, 
 pinkish and fragrant. The starchy seeds 
 are eaten by the natives. It is now 
 
 Victoria water-lily, ^th natural size. 
 
 grown in the parks and public gardens 
 of many cities of the United States, and 
 flowers in the open air as far north as 
 Washington. 
 
 WATERLOO, the capital of Black 
 Hawk CO., la.; on the Cedar river, and 
 the Burl., Ced. Rap. and N., the Chi. 
 Gt. W., and the 111. Cent, railways; 93 
 
 miles w. of Dubuque, 297 miles w. of 
 Chicago. It is in an agricultural region, 
 and contains flour-mills, foundries, car- 
 riage-factories, agricultural-implement 
 works, and sash, door, and blind fac- 
 tories. Pop. 14,906. 
 
 WATERMELON, an annual vine, 
 native of tropical Africa, and exten- 
 sively cultivated in warm climates, 
 particularly in Southern Russia and in 
 the United States. The refreshing red, 
 greenish, or yellow pulp of its ripe fruit 
 contains about 93 per cent water and 2 
 per cent sugar. A very large number of 
 varietieSj especially red-fleshed ones, 
 are in cultivation. The w'hite-fleshed 
 rather solid n used largely in pre- 
 serving is gen ily known as a “citron” 
 or “preserving nelon.” The watermelon 
 is sensitive to frost and is easily stunted 
 in growth by cold. It thrives best in a 
 rid,, warm, sandy loam well supplied 
 with humus. 
 
 WATER-PITCHER, the popular name 
 of plants, the leaves of which somewhat 
 resemble pitchers or trumpets in general 
 form. 
 
 WATERPROOF CLOTH, cloth ren- 
 dered impervious to water. There are 
 numerous processes for waterproof 
 fabrics of all kinds. The earliest patent, 
 that of Macintosh (1823), consisted in 
 covering cloth with a paste obtained by 
 dissolving caoutchouc in benzol or coal 
 naphtha. In the treatment of cotton and 
 linen cloth a small proportion of sul- 
 phur is generally added. A thin layer 
 of this rubber solution is spread on the 
 fabric by special machinery, after which 
 the cloth is doubled, pressed, and fin- 
 ished in calenders, the waterproof layer 
 being thus in the center of the finished 
 material. Textiles thus manipulated 
 become also impervious to air, and from 
 a hygienic point of view unsuitable for 
 prolonged personal wear. This led to the 
 introduction of other solutions and 
 methods of application intended to pro- 
 duce fabrics, which, while resisting 
 rain, do not altogether obstruct ventila- 
 tion. Consecutive dipping of cloths in 
 soap and alum solutions, or in gelatine 
 and gall solutions, or in a solution of 
 acetate of lead and then in a solution of 
 alumina, has been resorted to with more 
 or less success. The new substance called 
 algin, obtained from sea-weed, has been 
 strongly recommended for the same 
 purpose. Another recent patent pro- 
 cess consists in treating the fibers in the 
 solution instead of the manufactured 
 textile, and the fabric thus produced, 
 while rain-resisting, offers the same 
 ventilation as ordinary materials. 
 
 WATER-RAT. See Vole. 
 
 WATER-SPOUT, a remarkable me- 
 teorological phenomenon frequently ob- 
 served at sea, and exactly analogous to 
 the whirlwinds experienced on land. 
 It occurs when opposite winds of differ- 
 ent temperatures meet in the upper 
 atmosphere, whereby a great amount of 
 vapor is condensed into a thick black 
 cloud, to which a vortical motion is 
 given. This vortical motion causes it to 
 take the form of a vast funnel, which, 
 descending near the surface of the sea, 
 draws up the water in its vortex, which 
 joins in its whirlingmotion. The whole 
 column, which after the junction extends 
 from the sea to the clouds, assumes a 
 
 magnificent appearance, being of a light 
 color near its axis, but dark along the 
 sides. When acted on by the wind the 
 column assumes a position oblique tb 
 the horizon, but in calm weather it main- 
 tains its vertical position, while at the 
 
 Water-spout. 
 
 same time it is carried along the surface 
 of the sea. Sometimes the upper and 
 lower parts move with different veloci- 
 ties, causing the parts to separate from 
 each other, often with a loud report. 
 The whole of the vapor is at length 
 absorbed in the air, or it descends to 
 the sea in a heavy shower of rain. Sud- 
 den gusts of wind, from all points of 
 the compass, are very common in the 
 vicinity of water-spouts. What are 
 sometimes called water-spouts on land, 
 or cloud-bursts, are merely heavy falls 
 of rain of a very local character that 
 occur generally during thunder-storms. 
 
 WATERTOWN, the capital of Jeffer- 
 son CO., New York, on Black river, 
 about 10 miles above its entrance into 
 Lake Ontario. The river is crossed by 
 several bridges, and its rapids afford 
 abundant water-power. Pop. 25,696. 
 
 WATERTOWN, a city in Jefferson 
 CO., Wisconsin, on the Rock river and 
 on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul 
 and Chicago & Northwestern Railroads. 
 It is a busy manufacturing and commer- 
 cial town, Pop. 10,100. 
 
 WATER-VOLE. See Vole. 
 
 WATER-WHEEL, a wheel moved by 
 water, as the overshot wheel, the under- 
 shot wheel, the breast-wheel, and the 
 turbine. See these terms. 
 
 WATSON, John Crittenden, American 
 naval officer, was born in Frankfort, 
 Ky., in 1842. He became a master in 
 the navy in 1861, and served throughout 
 the civil war. In 1887 he became a 
 captain and a commodore ten years 
 later, and in the Spanish-American war 
 commanded the blockadi«g squadron on 
 the North Cuban coast from May to 
 June, 1898, when he was made com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Eastern squad- 
 ron. He was commandant of the Mare 
 Island navy yard from October, 1898. 
 to May, 1899, was promoted to the rank 
 of rear-admiral in March, 1899, was 
 commander-in-chief of the naval forces 
 on the Asiatic station from June, 1899, 
 to April, 1900, and in October, 1900, 
 became president of the naval examin- 
 ing board and in 1902, president of the 
 naval examining and retiring boards. 
 
 WATT, James, the celebrated im- 
 prover of the steam-engine, was born 
 at Greenock, January 19, 1736; and 
 died at his seat of Heathfield, Stafford- 
 shire, August 25, 1819. In 1774 he acted 
 as a civil engineer — ^made several sur- 
 veys for canals and harbors, and some 
 of his plans were afterward carried into 
 
Watteau 
 
 WAYNE 
 
 execution. It was during this period 
 that he conceived and gave shape to his 
 improvements on the steam-engine, 
 which have rendered his name famous. 
 
 James Watt. 
 
 To give his inventions practical form 
 he associated himself in 1774 with 
 Mathew Boulton, the firm of Boulton 
 and Watt having their works at Soho, 
 Birmingham. He retired from business 
 in 1800. 
 
 WATTEAU (vat-o), Jean Antoine, a 
 French painter, born at Valenciennes, 
 1684; died at Nogent-sur-Marne, 1721. 
 For many years he struggled in ob- 
 scurity, but his talent once recognized, 
 he rapidly became popular and pros- 
 perous. In 1717 he was received at the 
 academy, and enrolled as a painter of 
 pleasure parties, balls, masquerades, 
 etc., subjects in which he excelled. 
 Lightness, elegance, and brilliancy form 
 the chief attractions of his style. 
 
 WAT'TERSON, Henry, American 
 journalist, was born in Washington, 
 D. C., in 1840. He entered journalism 
 in Washington as editorial writer for 
 the States, served in the confederate 
 army in 1861-62, and in 1862-63 edited 
 in Chattanooga the Rebel, the official 
 newspaper of the state of Tennessee. 
 In 1867 he became editor-in-chief of the 
 Louisville Journal and later he estab- 
 lished the Courier-Journal, of which he 
 became the editor. In 1876-77 he repre- 
 sented the Louisville district in congress. 
 Delegate-at-large from Kentucky to six 
 democratic national conventions, presid- 
 ing over that of 1876 and chairman of 
 platform committee in the others. In 
 1896 he declared himself a gold demo- 
 crat. Among his works are History of 
 the Spanish-American War, Abraham 
 Lincoln, etc. 
 
 WATERVILLE, a city in Kennebec 
 Bounty, Me. ; on the Kennebec river, and 
 the Maine Cent, railroad; 18 miles n. by 
 e. of Augusta, 80 miles n.e. of Portland 
 Pop. 11,115. 
 
 WATERTOWN (wa'ter-toun), a town 
 including several villages, in Middlesex 
 CO., Mass., seven miles west of Boston, 
 on the Charles river, and on the Boston 
 and Maine railroad. Pop. 11,500. 
 
 WATTLE-BIRD, an Australian bird 
 belonging to the honey-eaters, and so 
 named from the large reddish wattles 
 on its neck. It is about the size of a 
 magpie, and is of bold, active habits. 
 
 WATTS, George Frederick, R.A., Eng- 
 lish artist, born 1817. He first exhibited 
 at the Royal academy in 1837. Among 
 
 his more important pictures are; Life’s 
 Illusion (1849), The Window Seat and 
 Sir Galahad (1862), Ariadne (1863), 
 Esau (1865), Love and Death (1877), 
 Time, Death, and Judgment (1878), 
 Happy Warrior (1884), Hope (1886), 
 Judgment of Paris (1887), The Angel of 
 Death (1888), and Fata Morgana (1889). 
 He is one of the most subtle and power- 
 ful of portrait-painters, among his suc- 
 cessful work in this line being Tenny- 
 son, Millais, Sir F. Leighton, Cardinal 
 Manning, Browning, etc. He is perhaps 
 the greatest idealist in contemporary 
 British art. He becanm R.A. in 1868, 
 and retired in 1896. He has presented 
 some of his pictures to the nation. He 
 died in 1903. 
 
 Wattle-bird. 
 
 WAUKEGAN (wa-ke'gan), the county 
 seat of Lake co.. 111., 35 miles north of 
 Chicago, on Lake Michigan, and on the 
 Chicago and Northwestern railroad. 
 Pop. 11,226. 
 
 WAUKESHA (wa'ke-sha), the county 
 seat of Waukesha co., Wis. 17 miles 
 west of Milwaukee, on the Little Fox 
 river, and on the Chicago, Milwaukee 
 and St. Paul, the Chicago and North- 
 western, and the Wisconsin Central rail- 
 roads. Pop. 10,100. 
 
 WAUSAU (wa'sa), the county seat of 
 Marathon co. Wis., 200 miles north- 
 west of Milwaukee, on the Wisconsin 
 river, and on the Chicago, Milwaukee 
 and St. Paul and the Chicago and North- 
 western railroads. Pop. 14,324. 
 
 WAVES, in physics, disturbances of 
 matter in such a way that energy is 
 transmitted through great distances, 
 sometimes, but not always, accompanied 
 with a slight permanent displacement of 
 the particles of the conveying medium. 
 When a disturbance is produced at a 
 point in air, waves proceed from that 
 point as concentric spheres and carry 
 sound to the ear of a listener. Light is 
 supposed to be propagated by the wave 
 motion of the ether in a manner some- 
 what analogous to the propagation of 
 sound in air. When waves are produced 
 by the disturbance of a small quantity 
 of liquid, as when a pebble is thrown 
 into a pool, they appear to advance 
 from the disturbed point in widening 
 concentric circles, the height of the 
 wave decreasing gradually as it recedes 
 from the center; but there is no pro- 
 gressive motion of the liquid itself, as is 
 shown by any body floating on its sur- 
 
 face. The whole seems to roll onward, 
 but, in reality, each particle of water 
 only oscillates with a vertical ascent 
 and descent. Where the depth of the 
 liquid is invariable over its extent, or 
 sufficient to allow the oscillations to 
 proceed unimpeded, no progressive 
 motion takes place, each ridge or column 
 being kept in its place by the pressure of 
 the adjacent columns. Should, however, 
 free oscillation be prevented, as by the 
 shelving of the shore, the columns in 
 the deep water are not balanced by those 
 in the shallower parts, and they thus 
 acquire a progressive motion toward 
 the latter, or take the form of breakers, 
 hence the waves always roll in a direc- 
 tion toward the shore, no matter from 
 what point the wind may blow. The 
 height of the wave depends in a great 
 measure on the depth of the water in 
 which it is produced. The waves of the 
 ocean have been known to reach a 
 height of 43 feet, from trough to crest. 
 The horizontal pressure of a strong 
 Atlantic wave has been recorded as high 
 as 3 tons to the square foot. Undulatory 
 movements also take place in solids; 
 such are earthquake waves. 
 
 WAX, an unctuous-feeling substance 
 partaking of the nature of fixed oil. 
 It is secreted by bees, and is also an 
 abundant vegetable production, enter- 
 ing into the composition of the pollen 
 of flowers, covering the envelope of the 
 plum and of other fruits, and, in many 
 instances, forming a kind of varnish to 
 the surface of leaves. Common wax is 
 always more or less colored, and has a 
 distinct, peculiar odor, of both of which 
 qualities it may be deprived by ex- 
 posure in thin slices to air, light, and 
 moisture, or more speedily by the action 
 of chlorine. At ordinary temperature 
 wax is solid and somewhat brittle; but 
 it may be easily cut with a knife. Its 
 specific gravity is 0.96. At 155° Fahr. 
 it melts, and it softens at 86°, becoming 
 so plastic that it may be molded by the 
 hand into any form. Wax is insoluble 
 in water, and is only dissolved in small 
 quantities by alcohol or ether. The 
 principal applications of wax are to 
 make candles and medicinal cerates; 
 to give a polish to furniture or floors; 
 to form a lute or cement, for which it is 
 used by chemists; and to serve as a 
 vehicle for colors. Sealing wax is not 
 properly awax. See Candleberry, China 
 Wax, Wax-palm. 
 
 WAX-PALM, a species of palm yield- 
 ing a substance consisting of two-thirds 
 resin and one-third wax, which is found 
 on its trunk in the form of a varnish. 
 It is a native of the Andes, towering in 
 majestic beauty on mountains which 
 rise many thousand feet above the level 
 of the sea, and sometimes attaining the 
 height of 160 feet. 
 
 WAX-WING, an insessorial bird be- 
 longing to the dentirostral section of the 
 order. It derives its name from the 
 appendages attached to the secondary 
 and tertiary quill-feathers of the wings, 
 which have the appearance of red seal- 
 ing-wax. 
 
 WAYNE, Anthony, soldier, born in 
 Pennsylvania in 1745; died in Erie, 
 Penn., in 1796. After the battle of 
 Three Rivers, where he was wounded, 
 he was placed in charge of Fort Ticon- 
 
WEASEL 
 
 WEAVING 
 
 deroga, and on February 21st was com- 
 missioned brigadier-general. He fought 
 at the battles of Brandywine, German- 
 town, and Monmouth, captured the 
 fort of Stony Point on the Hudson 
 river, and successfully attacked Fort 
 Lee, near New York City. Later Wayne 
 was active in the investment and cap- 
 ture of Yorktown. The brevet of major- 
 general was conferred on him October 
 10, 1783. At the close of the war he 
 went to Georgia, and was elected to 
 congress, serving from October 24, 
 1791, to March 21, 1792. In April of 
 the last named year he was promoted 
 general-in-chief of the United States 
 army. In August, 1794, with 1,000 
 men, he marched against the Ohio 
 Indians and signally defeated thern, 
 and while descending Lake Erie on his 
 way from Detroit he died from an at- 
 tack of the gout. 
 
 WEASEL, a digitigrade carnivorous 
 animal, a native of almost all the tem- 
 perate and cold parts of the northern 
 hemisphere. It measures about 2^ inches 
 in height, about 1 \ in length, with a tail 
 about 2J inches long. The body is ex- 
 tremely slender, the head small and 
 flattened, the neck long, the legs short. 
 It feeds on mice, rats, moles, and small 
 birds, and is often useful as a destroyer 
 of vermin in ricks, barns, and granaries. 
 The polecat, ferret, ermine, and sable 
 are akin. 
 
 WEATHER. See Meteorology. 
 
 WEAVER-BIRD, a name given to 
 birds of various genera, belonging to the 
 Fringillidse or finches. They are so 
 called from the remarkable structure of 
 their nests, which are woven in a very 
 wonderful manner of various vegetable 
 substances. Some species build their 
 nests separate and singly, and hang 
 
 them from slender branches of trees and 
 shrubs; but others build in companies, 
 numerous nests suspended from the 
 branches of a tree being under one roof, 
 though each one forms a separate com- 
 Mrtment and has a separate entrance. 
 They are natives of the warmer parts of 
 Asia, of Africa, and of Australia. 
 
 WEATHER AND STORM SIGNALS, 
 flags, semaphores, lanterns, steam whis- 
 tles, and other devices exhibited or 
 sounded to inform mariners and others 
 of storms or weather conditions. The 
 
 system of observations began in 1870 
 and storm signals were first displayed in 
 the autumn of 1871. The flags adopted 
 for this purpose are five in number, and 
 of the forms and colors indicated below : 
 
 Nn 3 No 4 
 
 Fair Rain Local Rain Tf*m- Cold 
 
 Weather, or Snow. or Snow perature. Wave. 
 
 When number 4 is placed above 
 number 1, 2, or 3, it indicates warmer; 
 when below, colder; when not displayed, 
 the temperature is expected to remain 
 about stationary. During the late 
 spring and early fall the cold-wave 
 flag is also used to indicate anticipated 
 frosts. 
 
 Storm warnings. 
 
 Hurricane 
 
 warning. 
 
 NE Winds SE Winds NW Winds SW Winds 
 
 Whistle signals. — A warning blast 
 of fr.om fifteen to twenty seconds dura- 
 tion is sounded to attract attention. 
 After this warning the longer blasts 
 (of from four to six seconds duration) 
 refer to weather, and shorter blasts (of 
 from one to three seconds duration) 
 refer to temperature; those for weather 
 are sounded first. 
 
 Blasts. Indicate 
 
 One long Fair weather. 
 
 Two long Rain or snow. 
 
 Three long Local rain or snow. 
 
 One short Lower temperature. 
 
 Two short Higher temperature. 
 
 Three short Cold wave. 
 
 By repeating each combination a few 
 times, with intervals of ten seconds, 
 liability to error in reading the signals 
 may be avoided. 
 
 Storm Warnings. — A red flag with a 
 black center indicates that a storm of 
 marked violence is expected. The 
 pennants displayed with the flags indi- 
 cate the direction of the wind; red, 
 easterly (from northeast to south) ; 
 white, westerly (from southwest to 
 north). The pennant above the flag 
 indicates that the wind is expected to 
 blow from the northerly quadrants; 
 below, from the southerly quadrants. 
 By night a red light indicates easterly 
 winds, and a white light above a red 
 light westerly winds. 
 
 Hurricane Warnings. — Two red flags 
 with black centers, displayed one above 
 the other, indicate the expected ap- 
 proach of a tropical hurricane, and also 
 one of those extremely severe and dan- 
 gerous storms which occasionally move 
 across the lakes and Northern Atlantic 
 
 WEATHER BUREAU, a govern- 
 mental organization for the purpose of 
 maintaining regular meteorological ob- 
 servations, compiling statistics of the 
 climate, predicting weather and storms, 
 river floods, frosts, rain, and such other 
 atmospheric phenomena as affect the 
 welfare of mankind. The United States 
 weather bureau was reorganized under 
 the department of agriculture, July 1, 
 1891. The bureau receives daily two 
 
 regular sets of weather telegrams at 8 
 a.m. and 8 p.m. on which are based the 
 morning and evening weather charts 
 and the forecasts for the next thirty-six 
 hours. These forecasts are immediately 
 telegraphed throughout the country and 
 to vessels about to sail. The forecasts of 
 heavy storms, cold waves, and injurious 
 frosts and specially hot weather are 
 verified almost without exception; the 
 forecasts of rain are the least successful 
 of any. Forecasts are communicated to 
 vessels passing by, off the coast by wire- 
 less telegraphy. The condition of rivers, 
 especially in times of flood, is telegraphed 
 to all those interested. In the special 
 interest of the crops and agriculture, 
 a weather crop bulletin was published 
 in 1887. During the summer season it 
 gives full details of the temperature, 
 and rainfall as compared with normal 
 conditions, and shows the influence 
 of the weather on the development of 
 the future crop. In the winter season 
 a monthly bulletin shows the quan- 
 tity of snowfall, the ice in the rivers, 
 the opening and closing of navigation, 
 the condition of winter wheat, and 
 the injury done to crops by cold 
 waves, frosts, or floods. In the interests 
 of the lake navigation, a monthly lake 
 chart is published, showing every feature 
 in regard to the weather or the con- 
 dition of the lakes than can interest 
 navigators. 
 
 WEAVER, James Baird, American 
 politician, was born at Dayton, Ohio, 
 in 1833. He removed to Iowa in 1856. 
 During the civil war he enlisted in the 
 Second Iowa Volunteers, eventually be- 
 came colonel of the regiment, and in 
 1865 was bre vetted brigadier-general 
 of volunteers. He was active in the 
 organization of the national Greenback 
 party, was elected to represent that 
 party in congress in 1878, and in 1880 
 was its candidate for the presidency, 
 receiving a popular vote of 308,578. 
 In 1892 he was the candidate of the 
 people’s party for the presidency, re- 
 ceiving 22 electoral votes, and a popular 
 vote of 1,041,028. He published A Call 
 to Action. 
 
 WEAVING, the art of interlacing 
 yarn threads or other filaments by 
 means of a loom, so as to form a web 
 of cloth or other woven fabric. In this 
 process two sets of threads are employed 
 which traverse the web at right angles 
 to each other. The first set extends from 
 end to end of the web in parallel lines, 
 and is commonly called the warp; while 
 the other set of threads crosses and 
 interlaces with the warp from side to 
 side of the web, and is generally called 
 the weft or woof. In all forms of weav- 
 ing the warp threads are first set up in 
 the loom, and then the weft threads are 
 worked into the warp, to and fro, by 
 means of a shuttle. It was by this funda- 
 mental process of interlacing two sets] 
 of thread in looms of simple mechanism 
 that the mummy cloths of Egypt, the| 
 fine damasks and tapestries of the! 
 Greeks and Romans, the Indian muslins, 
 the shawls of Cashmere, and the famed i 
 textile fabrics of Italy and the Nether-1 
 lands were produced. Until compara-l 
 tively modern times all weaving was! 
 effected by means of the hand-loom .J 
 This loom, in its latest form, consists] 
 
 
WEBB CITY 
 
 WEBSTER 
 
 of a frame of four upright posts braced 
 together by cross-beams, the center 
 beam at the back being the warp beam, 
 the beam in front being that upon which 
 the web is wound, while just below this, 
 in front, is the breast-beam for the sup- 
 port of the weaver at his work. At the 
 top of the loom is an apparatus by 
 which the beddles are lifted or lowered 
 by means of treadles under the foot of 
 the weaver. These heddles consist of 
 two frames, from which depend cords 
 attached by a loop or eye to each thread 
 in the warp. As these threads are at- 
 tached to the frames, alternately, it 
 follows that when one heddle is raised 
 every second thread in the warp is also 
 raised, while the remaining threads are 
 depressed ; and this is called shedding the 
 warp. When the warp threads are thus 
 parted there is left a small opening or 
 shed between the threads, and it is 
 through this opening that the weaver 
 drives his shuttle from side to side. The 
 shuttle, which is hollow in the middle, 
 contains the weft-thread wound round 
 a bobbin or pirn, and as the shuttle is 
 shot across the web this weft-thread un- 
 winds itself. When the thread is thus 
 introduced it is necessarj’' to bring it to 
 its place in the fabric. This is accom- 
 plished by means of the lay or batten, 
 which is suspended from the top of the 
 loom, and works to and fro like a pen- 
 dulum by an attachment of vertical 
 rods at each side called the swords. 
 Attached to the lay is what is called the 
 reed, which is a sort of comb having a 
 tooth raised between every two threads 
 of the warp, and so by driving up the 
 lay after a weft-thread has been intro- 
 duced the weaver strikes home that 
 thread to its place in the cloth. A great 
 improvement was made upon the hand- 
 loom when John Kay about 1740 in- 
 vented the fly-shuttle, as it was called. 
 This enabled the weaver to drive the 
 shuttle both ways with the right hand 
 by means of a cord attached to a box or 
 trough placed at each end of the shuttle- 
 race, which impelled the shuttle to and 
 fro at each jerk of the cord. But the 
 most important improvement was made 
 on the hand-loom by Joseph Jacquard 
 of Lyons, who, in 1801, invented an ap- 
 paratus by which the most intricate 
 patterns could be woven as readily as 
 plain cloth. This is accomplished by an 
 ingenious arrangement of hooks and 
 wires, by means of which the warp- 
 threads are lifted in any order and to 
 any extent necessary to make the 
 shedding required by the pattern. The 
 order in which these hooks and wires are 
 successively lifted and lowered is de- 
 termined by means of a series of paste- 
 board cards punctured with holes, the 
 holes corresponding to a certain pattern 
 and the cards passing successively over 
 a cylinder or drum. The hooked wires 
 pass through these holes and lift the 
 warp-threads in an order which secures 
 that the arranged pattern is woven into 
 the fabric. When the pattern is exten- 
 sive the machine may be provided with 
 as many as 1000 hooks and wires. An- 
 other development was made in the art 
 of weaving by the invention of the 
 power-loom by the Rev. E. Cartwright 
 in 1784. In the power-loom, which has 
 been gradually improved and adapted 
 
 P. E— 83 
 
 to steam-power, the principal motions 
 of the old method of weaving, such as 
 shedding the warp threads, throwing 
 the shuttle, and beating up the thread 
 are still retained. The frame of the 
 power-loom is of cast-iron, and motion 
 is communicated to the loom by means 
 of a shaft, the stroke of the lay being 
 made by cranks attached to the driving 
 shaft, while the shuttle is thrown by 
 means of a lever attachment at the cen- 
 ter of the loom. Although the principle 
 of the loom is the same in all kinds of 
 weaving, yet there are numberless modi- 
 fications for the production of special 
 fabrics. The lappet loom is one suitable 
 for weaving either plain or gauze cloths, 
 and also for putting in representations 
 of flowers, birds, or the like. Cross 
 weaving is a term applied to that pro- 
 cess in which, as in gauze weaving, the 
 warp-threads, instead of lying constantly 
 parallel, cross over or twist around one 
 another, thus forming a plexus or inter- 
 lacing independent of that produced 
 by the weft. Double weaving consists 
 in weaving two webs simultaneously 
 one above the other, and interweaving 
 the two at intervals so as to form a 
 double cloth. Kidderminster or Scotch 
 carpeting is the chief example of this 
 process. Pile weaving is the process by 
 which fabrics like that of velvets, 
 velveteens, corduroy, and Turkey car- 
 pets are produced. In the weaving of 
 these fabrics, besides the ordinary warp 
 and weft, there is what is called the 
 pile-warp, the threads of which are left 
 standing in loops above the general 
 surface till cut, and the cutting of 
 which constitutes the pile. 
 
 WEBB CITY, a city in Jasper co.. 
 Mo.; on the Kan. City, Ft. Scott and 
 Mem., the Mo. Pac. and the St. L. and 
 San Fran, railways ; 9 miles s. by w. of 
 Carthage, the county seat. It is a lead 
 and zinc mining center, and is sur- 
 rounded by an agricultural and fruit- 
 growing region. Pop. 10,872. 
 
 WEBER (va'ber), Karl Maria Fried- 
 rich Ernst, Baron von, German musical 
 composer, vras born at Eutin in Hol- 
 stein in 1786. In 1800 he wrote the 
 opera of the Waldmadchen (Wood- 
 maiden), and had it performed at 
 Chemnitz and Freiberg in Saxony. In 
 1803 he visited Vienna, where he became 
 acquainted with Haydn and the Abb6 
 Vogler, from whom he received great 
 help in his studies. The latter procured 
 him a musical directorship in Breslau, 
 on which he entered in 1804. Two years 
 later he exchanged this post for a 
 similar one at Carlsruhe, and he was 
 subsequently (1813-16) director of the 
 opera at Prague. At the close of 1816 he 
 settled at Dresden, where he was founder 
 and director of the German opera. In 
 1 820 he went to Berlin to bring out Der 
 Freischiitz, the most celebrated of his 
 compositions. It was performed in Lon- 
 don and Paris two years later. In 1822 
 Euryanthe was produced on commission 
 for Vienna, and was brought out there in 
 August, 1823. In 1826 Weber visited 
 London to superintend the production 
 of Oberon, which he had composed for 
 Covent Garden theater. It was enthu- 
 siastically received. The composer, how- 
 ever, was seriously out of health, and 
 died in London, June 5, 1826. 
 
 WEBSTER, Daniel, a celebrated 
 American statesman, born in 1782, at 
 Salisbury in New Hampshire, studied 
 for four years at Dartmouth college, 
 and having adopted the legal profession, 
 was admitted as a practitioner in the 
 court of common pleas for Suffolk 
 county. In 1813 he was returned to 
 congress by the federal party in New 
 Hampshire, and from that period to the 
 close of his life took a prominent part in 
 public affairs, being especially distin- 
 guished as an orator. No public speaker 
 could surpass him in producing an im- 
 pression on an audience. He became a 
 
 
 senator in 1828, and in 1836 (and again 
 in 1848) was an unsuccessful candidate 
 for the presidentship. In 1841, under 
 the presidency of General Harrison, he 
 was appointed secretary of state, and 
 he had an important part in the ar- 
 rangement of the Ashburton Treaty of 
 1842. He was opposed to the admission 
 of Texas as a slave state and to the 
 Mexican war, but supported Clay’s 
 “compromise” of 1850. In 1850 he 
 succeeded General Taylor as secretary 
 of state for foreign affairs under Presi- 
 dent Fillmore. This office he continued 
 to occupy till his death, which took place 
 at his estate of Marshfield, Massa- 
 chusetts in 1852. A collection of his 
 speeches, state papers, and correspond- 
 ence was published at Boston the year 
 before his death. 
 
 WEBSTER, Noah, LL.D., lexicog- 
 rapher, born at West Hartford, Con- 
 necticut, in 1758, and educated at Yale 
 college. He chose the law as a profession, 
 but relinquished it for teaching (1782). 
 About the same time he began the com- 
 pilation of books of school instruction, 
 and published his Grammatical Insti- 
 tute of the English Language, in three 
 parts. Part 1 (Webster’s Spelling Book) 
 containing A New and Accurate Stand- 
 ard of Pronunciation; Part 2, A Plain 
 and Comprehensive Grammar; Part 3, 
 An American Selection of Lessons in 
 Reading and Speaking. All these works 
 had an enormous sale. His literary 
 activity was henceforth very great, the 
 works issued by him. during the next few 
 years including important legal and 
 linguistic studies. In 1789 he settled at 
 Hartford to practice law, but removed 
 in 1793 to New York, where for some 
 time he devoted himself to jouriialis.n. 
 
WEDDING ANXIVERSARIES 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
 
 In 1806 he published an 8vo English 
 dictionary, which led the way for his 
 great work, the American Dictionary 
 of the English Language. In preparing 
 this work he visited England, and he 
 
 finished the dictionary during an eight 
 months’ residence in Cambridge. In 
 June, 1825, he returned to America. 
 The first edition of his dictionary was 
 published in 1828 (2 vols. 4to); it was 
 followed by a second in 1841; since 
 which time several enlarged and im- 
 proved editions have appeared. He died 
 in 1843. 
 
 WEDDING ANNIVERSARIES, the 
 
 names given to the several anniversaries 
 of a marriage are said to be of quite 
 ancient origin, and arose from the gift 
 which was regarded as the most suitable 
 offering from the husband to the wife. 
 The names commonly given to such 
 anniversaries are for the first, paper; 
 second, straw; third, candy; fourth, 
 leather; fifth, wooden; seventh, floral; 
 tenth, tin; twelfth, linen; fifteenth, 
 crystal; twentieth, china; twenty-fifth, 
 silver; thirtieth, pearl; thirty-fifth, coral 
 fortieth, emerald; forty-fifth, ruby; 
 fifteith, gold; seventy-fifth, diamond. 
 The diamond wedding, however, is 
 often celebrated at sixty years of mar- 
 ried life. The others that are most fre- 
 quently celebrated are the paper, wood- 
 en, tin, crystal, silver, and golden. 
 
 WEDGE, a piece of wood or metal, 
 thick at one end, and sloping to a thin 
 edge at the other, used in splitting wood, 
 rocks, etc. In geometrical terms it is a 
 body contained under two triangular 
 and three rectangular surfaces. It is one 
 of the mechanical powers, and besides 
 being used for splitting purposes, is em- 
 ployed for producing great pressure, 
 and for raising immense weights. All 
 that is known with certainty respecting 
 the theory of the wedge is that its me- 
 chanical power is increased by diminish- 
 ing the angle of penetration. All cutting 
 and penetrating instruments may be 
 considered as wedges. 
 
 WEDGWOOD, Josiah, a celebrated 
 ])otter, born at Burslem, in Stafford- 
 shire, in 1730. He turned his attention 
 to white stoneware, and to the cream 
 colored ware for which he became 
 famous; and he succeeded in producing 
 a ware so hard and durable as to render 
 
 works of art produced in it almost in- 
 destructible. His reproduction of the 
 Portland Vase is famous. He also exe- 
 cuted paintings on pottery without the 
 artificial gloss so detrimental to the 
 effect of superior work. His improve- 
 ments in pottery created the great 
 trade of the Staffordshire Potteries. He 
 died in 1795. 
 
 WEDGWOOD- WARE, a superior kind 
 of semi-vitrified pottery, without much 
 superficial glaze, and capable of taking 
 on the most brilliant and delicate colors 
 produced by fused metallic oxides and 
 ochers; so named after the inventor. It 
 is much used for ornanrental ware, as 
 vases, etc., and, owing to its hardness 
 and property of resisting the action of 
 all corrosive substances, for mortars in 
 the laboratory. 
 
 WEDNESDAY, the name of the fourth 
 day of the week (in Latin, dies Mercurii, 
 day of Mercury), derived from the old 
 Scandinavian deity Odin or Woden. 
 
 WEED, Thurlow, American journalist 
 and political leader, was born at Cairo, 
 Greene co. , N. Y., in 1797. He became 
 editor of the Rochester daily Telegraph 
 in 1822, of which three years later ne 
 also became the proprietor. He was for 
 several years a member of the state 
 legislature. In 1830 Weed removed to 
 Albany and established the Albany 
 Evening Journal. For a brief period 
 after the war he served on the editorial 
 staff of the New York Times, and from 
 1867-78 was editor of the Commercial 
 Advertiser. In 1866 he published Let- 
 ters from Europe and the West Indies. 
 He died in New York City, November 
 22, 1882. 
 
 WEEK, a period of seven days, one of 
 the common divisions of time, the origin 
 of which is doubtful. Among the nations 
 who adopted the week as a division of 
 time, the Chinese, Hindus, Egyptians, 
 Chaldseans, Jews, Persians, and Peru- 
 vians have been mentioned, but in some 
 cases the antiquity of the practice is 
 doubtful, and in others the name has 
 been applied to other cycles than that 
 of seven days. The nations with whom 
 the weekly cycle has been traced are the 
 Egyptians and the Hebrews. With the 
 former we only know of its existence, 
 but with the latter it had a much more 
 important character. The use of the 
 week was introduced into the Roman 
 empire about the 1st or 2d century of 
 the Christian era from Egypt, and had 
 been recognized independently of Chris- 
 tianity before the^Emperor Constantine 
 confirmed it by enjoining the observance 
 of the Christian Sabbath. With the 
 Mohammedans the week has also a 
 religious character, Friday being ob- 
 served by them as a Sabbath. 
 
 WEEK, Days of the. Sunday (Saxon), 
 Sunnandaed, day of the sun; Monday 
 (German), Montag, day of the moon; 
 Tuesday (Anglo-Saxon), Tiwesdaeg, from 
 Tiw, the god of war ; Wednesday (Anglo- 
 Saxon), Wodnesdaeg, from Odin, the 
 god of storms; Thursday (Danish), Thor, 
 the god of thundeiv Friday (Saxon), 
 Frigedseg, day of Freya, goddess of 
 marriage; Saturday, the day of Saturn, 
 the god of time. The names of the seven 
 days of the week originated with the 
 Egyptian astronomers. They gave them 
 the names of the sun, moon, and five 
 
 planets, viz.: Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, 
 Venus, and Saturn. 
 
 WEEPING-ASH, a variety of ash 
 differing from the common ash only in 
 its branches arching downward instead 
 of upward. 
 
 WEEPING-BIRCH, a variety of the 
 birch-tree, with drooping branches. 
 
 WEEPING-WILLOW, a species of 
 willow, whose branches grow very long 
 and slender, and hang down nearly in a 
 perpendicular direction. 
 
 WEEVER, a name of several fishes, 
 included by many authorities among 
 the perches. Two species, viz.: the 
 dragon-weever, sea-cat, or sting-bull, 
 about 10 or 12 inches long, and the lesser 
 weever, called also the adder-pike, or 
 sting-fish, which attains a length of 5 
 inches. They inflict wounds with the 
 spines of their first dorsal fin, which are 
 much dreaded. Their flesh is esteemed. 
 
 WEEVIL, the name applied to beetles 
 distinguished by the prolongation of the 
 head, so as to form a sort of snout or 
 
 Corn-weevil. 
 
 a, Insect natural size. 6. Insect magnified, c, Larva, d. 
 
 (both magnified). 
 
 proboscis. Many of the weevils are dan- 
 gerous enemies to the agriculturalist, 
 destroying grain, fruit, flowers, leaves, 
 and stems. 
 
 WEFT. See Weaving. 
 
 WEIGHING MACHINE. See Balance. 
 
 WEIGHT, the measure of the force by 
 which any body, or a given portion of 
 any substance, gravitates or is attracted 
 to the earth ; in a more popular sense, the 
 quantity of matter in a body as esti- 
 mated by the balance, or expressed 
 numerically with reference to some 
 standard unit. In determining weight 
 in cases where very great precision is de- 
 sired, due account must be taken of tem- 
 perature, elevation, and latitude. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, the 
 standards used in accurately weighing 
 and measuring quantities, of special 
 importance in buying and selling, 
 scientific operations, etc. The origin of 
 the English measures is the grain of corn. 
 Thirty-two grains of wheat, well dried, 
 and gathered from the middle of the 
 ear, were to make what was called 
 one pennyweight; 20 pennyweights 
 were called one ounce; and 20 ounces, 
 one pound. Subsequently, it was 
 thought better to divide the penny- 
 weight into 24 equal parts, to be called 
 grains. William the Conqueror intro- 
 duced into England what was called 
 troy weight. The English were dis- 
 satisfied with this weight, because the 
 pound did not weigh so much as the 
 pound at that time in use in England; 
 consequently a mean weight was estab- 
 lished, making the pound equal to 16 
 ounces. But the troy pound was not 
 entirely displaced by the pound avoirdu- 
 pois ; on the contrary it was retained in 
 medical practice, and for the weighing 
 of gold, silver, jewels, and such liquors 
 ‘as were sold by weight. There are 7000 < 
 grains in one pound avoirdupois, and 
 
WELLINGTON 
 
 WEIGHTS OF PRODUCE 
 
 5760 grains in one pound troy; hence 
 the troy pound is to the avoirdupois 
 pound as 14 to 17, or as 1 to 1.215. The 
 troy pound was retained as the British 
 standard by an act passed in 1824; and 
 in order that the standard pound, in 
 case of damage or destruction, might be 
 restored, by reference to a natural 
 standard, it was ascertained that a cubic 
 inch of distilled water, at a temperature 
 of 62° Fahr., weighed, in air, 252.458 
 grains; and it was directed that the 
 standard pound should be restored by 
 the making of a new standard troy 
 pound, weighing 5760 such grains. In 
 Britain the unit of lineal measure is 
 the yard, all other denominations being 
 either multiples or aliquot parts of the 
 yard. The length of the imperial standard 
 yard, according to the act of parliament 
 passed in 1824, was the straight line or 
 distance between the centers of the two 
 points in the gold studs in the brass 
 rod in the custody of the clerk of the 
 House of Commons, entitled standard 
 yard, 1760. By the same act, the brass 
 rod, when used, must be at the temper- 
 ature of 62° of Fahrenheit’s thermome- 
 ter. It was enacted at this time that if 
 this standard should be lost or destroyed 
 the length of the yard should be deter- 
 mined by reference to the length of a 
 pendulum vibrating seconds of mean 
 time in a vacuum in the latitude of 
 London, at sea-level. When the stand- 
 ard yard was actually destroyed, how- 
 ever, by the fire which consumed the 
 two Houses of Parliament in 1834, the 
 commissioners appointed to restore the 
 standard decided that it was better to 
 do so by means of authentic copies of the 
 old standard that were in existence. 
 This was accordingly done and five 
 new official copies were made, one of 
 which to be regarded as the national 
 standard, is preserved at the exchequer 
 in a stone coffin in a window-seat of a 
 groined room. The national standard 
 yard is thus the distance between two 
 fine transverse lines on a square rod of 
 gun-metal 38 inches long. In France 
 the mfetre is the standard or unit of 
 linear measure; the are, or 100 square 
 metres, the unit of surface measure; 
 and the st4re, or cube of a m^tre, the 
 unit of solid measure. The system of 
 measure, called the decimal or metric 
 system, based upon these standards, is 
 now largely adopted. For all sorts of 
 liquids, corn, and dry goods, the British 
 standard measure is declared by the act 
 of 1824 to be the imperial gallon, which 
 should contain 10 lbs. avoirdupois 
 weight of distilled water weighed in air 
 at the temperature of 62° Fahr., the 
 barometer being at 30 inches. The 
 official measurement of this quantity of 
 water measured under the specified con- 
 ditions gave as the result 277.274 cubic 
 inches, which, though since ascertained 
 to' be slightly in excess of the true 
 measurement (277.123 cubic inches), is 
 still the legal capacity of the gallon. In 
 the United States the weights and 
 measures are identical with those of 
 Britain. Prior to 1824 there existed a 
 bewildering irregularity in the weights 
 and measures used in Britain; but since 
 then they have been in great measure 
 regulated by statute, and'entire uniform- 
 ity has been introduced. By the statutes 
 
 the imperial standard yard, pound, and 
 gallon are fixed, and all local measures 
 of capacity abolished. The legal stone is 
 fixed at 14 lbs. avoirdupois. All articles 
 sold by weight must be sold by avoir- 
 dupois, except gold, silver, platinum, 
 and precious stones, which, as noted 
 above, are still to be sold by troy weight. 
 An act of 1889 fixes fines for being in 
 possession of false weighing or measur- 
 ing instruments (but such fines were 
 also in force previously) ; enforces the 
 official stamping of such measures, and 
 empowers the board of trade to create 
 new standards for measuring electricity, 
 temperature, pressure, etc. See Avoirdu- 
 pois, Troy Weight, Decimal System, etc. 
 
 WEIGHTS OF PRODUCE, MINI- 
 MUM. The following are minimum 
 weights of certain articles of produce 
 according to the laws of the United 
 States : 
 
 Per Bushel. 
 
 Wheat 60 lbs. 
 
 Corn, in the ear 70 “ 
 
 Corn, shelled 56 “ 
 
 Rye 56 “ 
 
 Buckwheat 48 “ 
 
 Barley 48 “ 
 
 Oats 32 “ 
 
 Peas 60 “ 
 
 White beans 60 “ 
 
 Castor beans 46 “ 
 
 White potatoes 60 “ 
 
 Sweet potatoes 55 “ 
 
 Onions 57 “ 
 
 Turnips ' 55 “ 
 
 Dried peaches 33 “ 
 
 Dried apples 26 “ 
 
 Clover seed 60 “ 
 
 Flaxseed 56 “ 
 
 Jlillet seed 50 “ 
 
 Hungarian grass seed 50 “ 
 
 Timothy seed 45 “ 
 
 Blue grass seed 44 “ 
 
 Hemp seed 44 “ 
 
 Salt (see note below). 
 
 Corn meal 48 “ 
 
 Ground peas 24 “ 
 
 Malt 34 “ 
 
 Bran 20 “ 
 
 Salt. — Weight per bushel as adopted 
 by different states ranges from 50 to 80 
 pounds. Coarse salt in Pennsylvania 
 reckoned at 80 pounds, and in Illinois 
 at 50 pounds per bushel. Fine salt in 
 Pennsylvania is reckoned at 62 pounds, 
 in Kentucky and Illinois at 55 pounds 
 per bushel. 
 
 WEI-HAI-WEI, seaport of China, 
 Shantung peninsula, leased to Britain 
 in 1898. 
 
 WEIMAR (vi'mar), the capital of the 
 Grand-duchy of Saxe- Weimar. Weimar 
 is closely associated with the names of 
 Schiller, Goethe, Herder, and Wieland, 
 the first three of whom are buried here, 
 and statues to all the four adorn the 
 town. The houses of Goethe, Schiller, 
 Cranach, and Herder, are objects of 
 much interest. Pop. 28,329. 
 
 WEIMAR, SAXE. See Saxe-Weimar. 
 
 WEIR, Harrison, English artist, was 
 born at Lewes, Sussex, in 1824. His 
 first exhibited picture was in oU, en- 
 titled The Dean Shot. In 1847 he was 
 elected a member of the new Society of 
 Painters in Water Colors. He is chiefly 
 noted for his pictures of country life, 
 animals, fruits, flowers, and landscapes. 
 As an illustrator of books and periodicals 
 
 he is well known. He is the author of 
 The Poetry of Nature ; Everyday Life in 
 the Country; Animal Stories; Old and 
 New; and Our Cats. He died in 1906. 
 
 WEISMANN (vis'man), August, Ger- 
 man zoologist, was born January 17, 
 
 1834, at Frankfort-on-the-Main. Weis- 
 mann’s epoch-making work on the 
 embryology of the flies appeared in 
 1864. These investigations were suc- 
 ceeded by his studies on the formation 
 of the egg and the embryology of the 
 little crustaceans Daphnidae, and the 
 origin of the sexual cells of the Hydro- 
 medusae. His researches on the seasonal 
 dimorphism of butterflies, and the 
 origin of the markings of caterpillars, 
 as embodied in his “Studies on the 
 Theory of Descent” were most fruitful. 
 Among his works are: Essays upon He- 
 redity and Kindred Biological Problems; 
 The Germ-Plasm, A Theory of Hered- 
 ity; The All Sufficiency of Natural Se- 
 lection; The Effect of External Influ- 
 ences upon Development; New Experi- 
 ments on the Seasonal Dimorphism of 
 Lepidoptera. 
 
 WELDING is the union produced 
 between the surfaces of pieces of malle- 
 able metal when heated almost to 
 fusion and hammered. When two bars 
 of metal are properly welded the place 
 of junction is as strong, relatively to its 
 thickness, as any other part of the bar. 
 Practically, iron is the only metal 
 welded. 
 
 WELLESLEY (welz'li), Richard Col- 
 ley, Viscount and Marquis, and Earl of 
 Mornington, was born at Dublin in 
 1760. On his majority he took hw seat 
 as Earl of Mornington in the Irish 
 House of Peers, and three years after 
 was returned to the British House of 
 Commons as member for Beeralstop. 
 Thus, by a curious anomaly, he was at 
 once a peer and a commoner. He dis- 
 tinguished himself in 1789 in the debates 
 on the regency question. In this dis- 
 cussion, his defense of the royal pre- 
 rogative, made known to George III. 
 after his recovery, pleased him so much 
 that the earl at the next general elec- 
 tion was returned for Windsor, and 
 made a member both of the Irish and the 
 English privy-council. These were only 
 preliminaries to the higher appointment 
 of governor-general of India, which 
 was conferred upon him in 1797, along 
 with a British peerage under the title of 
 Baron Wellesley. His administration 
 forms an era in the history of the British 
 Indian empire. He returned to England 
 in 1805, and in 1809 became foreign 
 secretary under Mr. Perceval. In 1812 
 he resigned his place, chiefly because 
 he was in favor of Catholic emancipa- 
 tion. He did not return to office till 
 1822, when he became lord-lieutenant 
 of Ireland. This post he retained till 
 1827. In the Grey ministry he again 
 (1833) became lord-lieutenant of Ireland 
 but finally retired from public life in 
 
 1835. He died in 1842. 
 
 WELLINGTON, the capital of New 
 
 Zealand, is situated on Port Nicholson, 
 an inlet of Cook’s strait, on the south- 
 west extremity of the provincial district 
 of Wellington, North Island. Pop. 
 49,344. — The provincial district of Wel- 
 lington has an area of 11,250 sq. miles. 
 Pop. 141,236. 
 
WELLINGTON 
 
 WESLEY 
 
 WELLINGTON, Arthur Wellesley, 
 Duke of, born in 1769. In 1787 he re- 
 ceived a commission as ensign in the 
 73d Foot, and after a rapid series of 
 changes and promotions, attained by 
 purchase in 1793 the command as lieu- 
 tenant-colonel of the 33d regiment. 
 His regiment landed at Calcutta in 
 February, 1797, at a critical moment 
 for the British power in India. War had 
 just been declared against Tippoo Saib, 
 and an army of 80,000, of which Colonel 
 Wellesley’s regiment formed part, 
 marched against him. An engagemerit 
 took place at Mallavelly (Mysore) on the 
 27th, in which Wellesley, who com- 
 manded the left wing, turned the right 
 of the enemy. Early in 1805, his health 
 failing, Wellesley obtained leave to re- 
 turn home, and arrived in England in 
 September. He had before leaving 
 Madras received his appointment as 
 Knight Commander of the Bath. He 
 was elected M.P. for Rye in 1806, and 
 in April, 1807, was appointed secretary 
 of state for Ireland. In 1809 Wellesley 
 was appointed to take the chief com- 
 mand in the Peninsula, which had been 
 overrun by the French. The famous 
 passage of the Douro, and the defeat of 
 Soult which followed, fittingly opened 
 this masterly campaign. For the victory 
 at Talavera (July 28), the first of a long 
 list that subsequently took place in the 
 peninsula, the government raised the 
 commander-in-chief to the peerage as 
 Viscount Wellington. On August 12, 
 1812, Wellington entered Madrid. For 
 his brilliant conduct of the campaign 
 thus far he received the thanks of 
 parliament, was raised to the dignity 
 of marquis, and a sum of $500,000 was 
 voted to purchase him an estate. Next 
 followed the battle of Vittoria (June 21, 
 1813), for which decisive victory Well- 
 ington was given the baton of field- 
 marshal; then battles in the Pyrenees, 
 the capture of San Sebastian, and the 
 crossing of the Bidassoa into France. 
 In 1814 the battle of Orthez was gained, 
 and in the same year the battle of 
 Toulouse, in which Soult’s best troops 
 were routed, and the hopes of France 
 in the peninsula utterly annihilated. 
 The way was now open for the British 
 troops to the heart of France. In six 
 weeks, with scarcely 100,000 men, 
 Wellington had marched 600 miles, 
 gained two decisive battles, invested 
 two fortresses, and driven 120,000 
 veteran troops from Spain. Napoleon 
 abdicated on April 12, and a few days 
 later the war was brought to a close by 
 the signing of conventions with Soult 
 and Berthier. In May the triumphant 
 general was created Marquis of Douro 
 and Duke of Wellington, with an annuity 
 of $50,000, commuted afterward for 
 $2,000,000. With the return of peace 
 he resumed the career of politics. He 
 accepted the post of master-general of 
 the ordnance with a seat in the cabinet 
 of Lord Liverpool in January, 1819. 
 In 1822 he represented Great Britain 
 in the congress of Vienna. In 1826 he 
 was appointed high-constable of the 
 Tower. On 22d January, 1827, he suc- 
 ceeded the Duke of York as commander- 
 in-chief of the forces. On 8th January, 
 1828, he accepted the premiership, 
 resigning the command of the forces 
 
 to Lord Hill. In January, 1829, he was 
 appointed governor of Dover castle and 
 lord warden of the Cinque ports. In 
 1 830 repeatedmotions for parliamentary 
 reform were defeated, but the growing 
 discontent throughout the country on 
 this subject and a defeat in parliament 
 caused the resignation of the govern- 
 ment in November. ' His opposition to 
 reform made the duke so unpopular that 
 he was assaulted by the mob on 18th 
 June, 1832, and his life endangered. 
 He accepted office under Sir Robert 
 Peel in 1834-41, and again in 1846, when 
 he helped to carry the repeal of the corn- 
 laws, which till then he had opposed. 
 In 1842 he resumed the command of the 
 forces on the death of Lord Hill. He 
 died at Walmer castle, 14th September, 
 1852. 
 
 WELL'MAN, Walter, American jour- 
 nalist and explorer, was born in Mentor, 
 Ohio, in 1858. In 1869 he founded the 
 Cincinnati Evening Post, and after 
 1884 he was the Washington correspon- 
 dent successively of the Chicago Herald 
 and the Chicago Times-Herald. In 
 1894 he led an expedition to the Arctic 
 regions and reached a point on the 
 eighty-first degree of latitude, north- 
 east of Spitzbergen. In 1898-99 he 
 made another expedition to the Arctic 
 regions, spending the winter of 1898-99 
 there, and reaching latitude 82° Well- 
 man reported the discovery of some 
 twenty new lands or islands. 
 
 WELLS, Horace, American dentist, 
 was born in Hartford, Vt., in 1815. He 
 conceived the idea that an anaesthetic 
 might be used in dentistry to prevent 
 pain, and had thought of the employ- 
 ment of nitrous oxide gas as early as 
 1840. In 1847 he published A History 
 of the Discovery of the Application of 
 Nitrous Oxide Gas, Ether, and Other 
 Vapors to Surgical Operations. His 
 constant experiments upon himself 
 with chloroform produced mental aliena- 
 tion, and in 1848 he committed suicide. 
 
 WEN, an encysted tumor occurring 
 on the scalp or other parts of the body. 
 They are formed by the accumulation 
 of sebum in a hair follicle, or in the 
 recesses of the sebaceous gland of the 
 hair sac, causing distension of the sac. 
 An encysted tumor, in its commence- 
 ment, is always exceedingly small, and 
 perfectly indolent; and it is often many 
 years before it attains any great size. 
 The best mode of treatment is complete 
 removal of the whole swelling by dis- 
 secting it out. 
 
 WENER, the largest lake of Sweden, 
 and after those of Ladoga and Onega 
 the largest in Europe, situated in the 
 southwest of the kingdom. It is 147 feet 
 above sea-level, and of very irregular 
 shape. Its greatest length, northeast to 
 southwest, is about 100 miles; and its 
 breadth may average about 30 miles; 
 area, 2306 sq. miles. Its chief feeder is 
 the Klar. By a canal it communicates 
 with Lake Wetter, but its only proper 
 outlet is at its southwestern extremity, 
 where its sup^rffuous waters are received 
 by the river Gotha. In winter it is 
 frozen for several months, and crossed 
 by sledges. It abounds with fish. 
 
 WENTWORTH, Sir Thomas, Earl of 
 Strafford. See Strafford. 
 
 WEREWOLF, a man-wolf, a man 
 
 transformed into a wolf according to a 
 superstition prevalent in ancient and 
 mediaeval times. It was generally 
 thought that such beings had the form 
 of a man by day, and that of a wolf by 
 night. 
 
 WERNER (ver'ner), Abraham Gottlob, 
 a German mineralogist, born 1750, died 
 1817. Werner was the first to separate 
 geology from mineralogy, and to place 
 the former on the basis of observation 
 and experience. The great geological 
 theory with which his name is con- 
 nected is that which attributes the phe- 
 nomena exhibited by the crust of the 
 earth to the action of water, and is 
 known as the Wernerian or Neptunian 
 theory, in distinction to the Huttonian 
 or Plutonic, in which fire plays the chief 
 part. 
 
 WESER (va'zer), a river of Germany, 
 formed by the junction of the Fulda and 
 Werra at Miinden, flows generally in a 
 northwest direction, and, after a very 
 circuitous course, traverses the city of 
 Bremen, and then falls by a wide mouth, 
 very much encumbered with sand- 
 banks, into the German ocean. Its 
 length, including the Werra, is about 
 430 miles. The navigation for vessels of 
 large size ceases about 10 miles below 
 Bremen. See Bremen. 
 
 WESLEY, John, the founder of 
 Wesleyan Methodism, was born at 
 Epworth, Lincolnshire June 17, 1703. 
 He took his degree of B.A. in 1724, was 
 ordained deacon in 1725, became a fel- 
 low of Lincoln college, and lecturer and 
 moderator in classics in 1726; and took 
 priest’s orders in 1728. He now gathered 
 together a number of pupils and com- 
 panions who met regularly for religious 
 purposes, and by so doing acquired the 
 name of Methodists. Among these com- 
 
 John Wesley. 
 
 panions were Hervey, Whitefield, and 
 Law, the author of the Serious Call to 
 the Unconverted. In 1735 Wesley 
 accepted an invitation from General 
 Oglethorpe to go out to America to 
 preach to the colonists of Georgia. 
 After a stay of two years he returned to 
 England (February, 1738). Early in the 
 following year (1739) he began open-air 
 preaching, in which he was closely 
 associated with Whitefield, from whom, 
 however, he soon separated. Having 
 now the sole control of the religious body 
 
WESLEYAN METHODISTS 
 
 WESTON 
 
 which adhered to him, he devoted his 
 entire life without intermission to the 
 work of its organization, in which he 
 showed much practical skill and ad- 
 mirable method. His labors as an itin- 
 erant preacher were incessant. He 
 would ride from 40 to 60 miles in a day. 
 He read or wrote during his journeys, 
 and frequently preached four or five 
 times a day. He died in 1791. 
 
 WESLEYAN METHODISTS. See Meth- 
 odists. 
 
 WESSEX, that is. West Saxons, one of 
 the most important of the Anglo-Saxon 
 kingdoms in England during the 6th, 
 7th, and 8th centuries, and the early 
 part of the 9th, and that in which the 
 other kingdoms were ultimately merged 
 in the reign of Egbert in 827. It included 
 the counties of Devon, Dorset, Somer- 
 set, Wilts, Hants, Berks, and a part of 
 Cornwall. 
 
 WEST, Benjamin, painter, born at 
 Springfield, Pennsylvania, in 1738; 
 died in London in 1820. In July, 1760, 
 he visited Italy, and settling in Rome 
 painted Cimon and Iphigenia, and 
 Angelica and Medora. He visited Eng- 
 land in 1763, and was so well patronized 
 that he determined to make it his future 
 residence. He painted Hector and An- 
 dromache, The Return of the Prodigal 
 Son, and a historical painting of Agrip- 
 pina. He painted a series of historical 
 works for Windsor castle, and for the 
 oratory there a series on the progresc of 
 revealed religion. On the death of 
 Reynolds, in 1792, he was elected presi- 
 dent of the Royal acedemy. He after- 
 ward painted a number of religious and 
 historical pictures of large size, among 
 them being Christ Healing the Sick (in 
 the National gallery), the Crucifixion, 
 Ascension, and Death on the Pale Horse. 
 The Death of General Wolfe at Quebec 
 and The Battle of La Hogue are ac- 
 counted the best of his historical pieces. 
 
 WEST BAY CITY, a city in Bay co., 
 Mich., on the Saginaw river, opposite 
 Bay City, and on the Michigan Central, 
 the Detroit and Mackinac, and the 
 Grand Trunk railroads, connected with 
 Bay City by four bridges. Pop. 15,119. 
 
 WEST CHESTER, the county seat of 
 Chester co.. Pa., 25 miles west of Phil- 
 adelphia, on the Pennsylvania and the 
 Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washing- 
 ton railroads. It is in a productive 
 farming section, known for its grain in- 
 terests, and having extensive nurseries. 
 Pop. 10,942. 
 
 WESTERN AUSTRALIA, a British 
 colony which includes all that portion 
 of the continent situated westward of 
 129° e. Ion. The territory measures 
 1490 miles from n. to s., and 850 miles 
 from e. to w. The total estimated area 
 is 978,299 sq. miles, thus making it the 
 largest of the Australian colonies. The 
 really occupied portion, apart from 
 scattered settlements round the coast 
 is almost entirely in the southwest, and 
 is about 600 miles in length and 150 
 miles in average breadth. Western 
 Australia was first settled in 1829 as 
 the Swan river settlement and for many 
 ears the population was very small; 
 ut in the year 1906 it had risen to 
 over 200,000. 
 
 WEST HOBOKEN, a town in Hudson 
 co., N. J.; 160 feet above tide-watery 
 
 li miles W. of Hoboken ferry on the 
 Hudson river, directly opposite New 
 York. It is principally engaged in the 
 manufacture of silk goods. Pop. 26,172. 
 
 WEST INDIES, also called the Antil- 
 les, the extensive archipelago which lies 
 between North and South America, 
 stretching from Florida to the shores 
 of Venezuela. It is divided into the 
 Bahamas, the group stretching from 
 near the coast of Florida in a south- 
 easterly direction; the Greater Antilles, 
 comprising the four largest islands of the 
 group, Cuba, Hayti, Porto Rico, and 
 Jamaica; and the Lesser Antilles, stretch- 
 ing like a great bow, with its convexity 
 toward the east, from Porto Rico to 
 Trinidad, near the coast of Venezuela. 
 Almost the whole archipelago lies within 
 the torrid zone. The total area does not 
 exceed 95,000 sq. miles, of which the 
 Greater Antilles occupy nearly 83,000 
 sq. miles. The climate is extremely hot, 
 and the islands abound in tropical pro- 
 ductions, as sugar, cotton, coffee, to- 
 bacco, corn, etc. ; oranges, lemons, limes, 
 pomegranates, citrons, pineapples, etc.; 
 manioc, yams, potatoes, etc. Except 
 Hayti (which is independent) and a few 
 islands off the coast of South America, 
 the West Indian islands are in the pos- 
 session of European powers. The chief 
 British possessions are; Jamaica, Barba- 
 does, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Trinidad, 
 Tobago, Antigua, St. Kitt’s, Dominica, 
 Virgin islands, and the Bahamas. — 
 Dutch: St. Eustatius, Saba, St. Martin 
 (partly French), Bbnaire or Buen Ayre, 
 Curasao, and Oruba or Aruba. — French : 
 Martinique, Deseada, Guadeloupe, Ma- 
 rie Galante, St. Martin (partly Dutch), 
 St. Bartholomew, Les Saintes. — United 
 States: Porto Rico. — Danish: Santa 
 Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. John. Cuba 
 is independent under the suzerainty of 
 the United States. 
 
 WESTINGHOUSE, George, American 
 inventor and engineer, was born at 
 Center Bridge, Schoharie co., N. Y., in 
 1846. Invented at 15 a rotary engine. 
 In 1864 he became assistant engineer in 
 the United States navy. His next in- 
 vention was a railway frog. In 1868 he 
 invented the air brake which soon was 
 used universally in the United States. 
 Soon after he became interested in 
 electricity and acquired patents for 
 alternating current machinery. A large 
 plant was erected at Pittsburg to manu- 
 facture air brakes, electrical, and other 
 machines, and at these works the great 
 power plants at Niagara Falls were 
 constructed. Large factories and works 
 have also been established in Europe. 
 His invention of the air-brake and of 
 automatic railway signals have been 
 largely instrumental in the possibility 
 and safety of modern high speed rail- 
 roading. He has been decorated with 
 the French Legion of Honor, the Royal 
 Crown of Italy, and the Order of 
 Leopold. 
 
 V^STMACOTT, Sir Richard, sculp- 
 tor, born in London in 1775. Many of 
 the monuments in St. Paul’s are from 
 his chisel. He designed also the Achilles 
 in Hyde Park, the statue of Lord 
 Erskine in Lincoln’s Inn Old Hall, that 
 of Nelson in the Liverpool exchange, 
 besides statues of Addison, Pitt, etc. 
 He was elected an associate of the Royal 
 
 Academy in 1805,’a full member in 1816, 
 and in 1827 succeeded Flaxman as lec- 
 turer on sculpture. In 1837 the dignity 
 of knighthood was conferred on him. 
 He died in 1856. 
 
 WESTMEATH, a county in Ireland, 
 in the province of Leinster, with an area 
 of 434,000 acres. Pop. 61,527. 
 
 WESTMINSTER, a city, pari, and 
 mun. bor. of Middlesex, England, in 
 what is now the county of London. 
 Within the city area are Westminster 
 Hall, Abbey, and School, Kensington 
 Palace, the Houses of Parliament, the 
 Whitehall banqueting house, etc. West- 
 minster had a royal residence as early 
 as the time of Edward the Confessor. 
 Pop. 182,977. 
 
 WESTMINSTER ABBEY, the corona- 
 tion church of the sovereigns of England, 
 and one of the chief ornaments of Lon- 
 don, is a magnificent Gothic pile, situated 
 near the Thames, and adjoining the 
 Houses of Parliament. In 1065 a church 
 was built here in the Norman style by 
 Edward the Confessor. Part of this 
 structure still remains in the pyx-house 
 and the south side of the cloisters; but 
 the main building, as it now stands, was 
 begun in 1220 by Henry III. (who built 
 the choir and transepts), and was prac- 
 tically completed by Edward I. Various 
 additions, however, were made (in- 
 cluding the nave and aisles, the west 
 front, and the Jerusalem Chamber) 
 down to the time of Henry VII., who 
 built the chapel which bears his name, 
 while the upper parts of the two western 
 towers were designed by Sir C. Wren. 
 The extreme length of the church, in- 
 cluding Henry VII. ’s chapel, is 531 
 feet; breadth of transepts, 203 feet; 
 height of the roof, 102 feet; height of 
 towers, 225 feet. The coronation cere- 
 mony takes place in the choir, where the 
 coronation stone brought by Edward I. 
 from Scotland is situated beside the 
 coronation-chairs of the English sover- 
 eigns. Westminster Abbey is distin- 
 guished as the burial-place of numerous 
 English kings from Edward the Con- 
 fessor to George II. ; the north transept 
 is occupied chiefly by monuments to 
 warriors and statesmen; while in the 
 south transept is situated the “Poet’s 
 Corner,” the burial and memorial place 
 of most of England’s great writers from 
 Chaucer to Browning and. Tennyson. 
 See London. 
 
 WESTMORELAND, a county in Eng- 
 land, bounded by Cumberland, Lan- 
 cashire, Morecambe bay, Yorkshire, and 
 Durham ; area, 500,906 acres, or 783 sq. 
 miles. Much of the celebrated lake- 
 scenery of England is within the limits 
 or on the borders of this county, the 
 chief lakes being Ulleswater, Grasmere, 
 Rydal Water, and Windermere. The 
 principal rivers are the Eden, Lune, 
 and Kent. The minerals include graphite 
 roofing-slate, marble, and small quan- 
 tities of coal, lead, and copper. The 
 arable land is mostly confined to the 
 valleys, while the greater part of the 
 remaining surface is in natural pasture, 
 or under wood. Appleby is the chief 
 town. Pop. 64,305. 
 
 WES'TON, Edward, American elec- 
 trician, born in 1850 in London, Enf'- 
 land, but in 1870 came to the T^niltd 
 States, He improved the process of 
 
WESTPHALIA 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA 
 
 nickel-plating, made investigations in 
 electricity, and in 1875 established at 
 Newark, N. J., the first factory in the 
 United States exclusively for the manu- 
 facture of dynamo-electric machines. 
 His inventions included | improved 
 meters for electric measurements. 
 
 WESTPHALIA, the name given at 
 different periods to (1) one of the circles 
 of the old German empire, (2) one of 
 Napoleon’s kingdoms G 807-1 3), con- 
 ferred upon his brother Jerome ; and (3) 
 now to a province of Prussia. The latter 
 is bounded by Rhenish Prussia, Hol- 
 land, Hanover, Brunswick, Hesse, and 
 Nassau. Its area is 7771 sq. miles. Be- 
 sides iron and coal in abundance the 
 minerals include copper, lead, zinc, and 
 salt; and the manufactures are varied 
 and important. Munster is the capital. 
 Pop. 2,700,250. 
 
 WESTPHALIA, Peace of, the name 
 given to the peace concluded in 1648 at 
 Munster and Osnabriick, by which an 
 end was put to the Thirty Years’ war 
 (which see). By this peace the sover- 
 eignty of the members of the empire was 
 acknowledged. The concessions that 
 had been made to the Protestants since 
 the religious peace in 1555 were con- 
 firmed. The elector-palatine had the 
 palatinate of the Rhine and the elec- 
 torate restored to him ; Alsace was ceded 
 to France; Sweden received Western 
 Pomerania, Bremen, Verden, Wismar, 
 and a sum equal to $3,750,000 ;Branden- 
 burg, Mecklenburg, Hanover, and Bruns- 
 wick were compensated by the seculari- 
 zation of numerous ecclesiastical foun- 
 dations. The independence of the United 
 Provinces was recognized by Spain, and 
 that of Switzerland by the empire. 
 
 WEST POINT, Orange co., N. Y., on 
 the Hudson river, 52 miles north of New 
 York. It is situated on a series of high 
 bluffs overlooking the river, which takes 
 a sharp bend at this point, and from the 
 time of the revolutionary war has been an 
 important military post. In 1794 the 
 United States military academy was 
 located here by act of congress, the act 
 authorizing the enrollment of a corps 
 of artillerists to garrison the forts, and 
 providing for the attachment of thirty- 
 two cadets to the force. Four years later 
 the corps was enlarged, instructors ap- 
 pointed, and the cadets given definite 
 rank in the army. Formerly they were 
 enlisted for five years, but the term is 
 now extended to eight. The command- 
 ant and officers detailed at the post serve 
 only four years, while the professors 
 with the rank of lieutenant colonel or 
 colonel, after ten years’ service, are 
 appointed for life. The cadets are 
 divided into battalions of four infaqtry 
 companies, each commanded by an 
 officer of the regular army and under 
 him by cadet officers. Each congressional 
 district and territory and the District 
 of Columbia is entitled to have one 
 cadet at the academy, the cadet to be 
 named by the representative in congress 
 from the district. There are also ten 
 appointments at large made by the 
 president. Admission is gained by pass- 
 ing a satisfactory examination. The 
 number of cadets is about three hun- 
 dred. The pay of each cadet is $540 per 
 year, out of which all of his expenses 
 are paid. Upon graduating a cadet re- 
 
 ceives an appointment as second lieu- 
 tenant in the United States army. 
 
 WEST TROY, a town of Albany co.. 
 New York, on the right bank of the 
 Hudson, opposite the town of Troy, and 
 connected by an iron bridge. Pop. 
 14,140. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA, a south Atlantic 
 state of the United States, bounded on 
 the northeast by Pennsylvania and 
 Maryland, on the southeast and south 
 by Virginia, on the southwest by Ken- 
 tucky, and on the northwest by Ohio, 
 being separated from the latter state 
 by the Ohio river. Area 24,780 sq. 
 miles. It ranks thirty-seventh in size 
 among the states. The surface is un- 
 even and in the east mountainous. The 
 main range of the Alleghanies' crosses 
 the northeastern section, and farther 
 south forms the state boundary toward 
 Virginia. The state is drained by a num- 
 ber of rivers flowing from the mountain 
 belt northwestward to the main river on 
 
 Reverse. 
 
 Seal of West Virginia. 
 
 the boundary. The largest of these 
 jivers are the Big Sandy, the Guyan- 
 dotte. Great Kanawha, Little Kanawha, 
 and Monongahela. The climate is agree- 
 able and healthful, with freedom from 
 violent extremes of heat or cold. The 
 rainfall ranges from 33 inches in the 
 northeast to 45 inches in the south. 
 In the northeast the soils are sandy and 
 of little fertility; many of the moun- 
 tains are covered with a fertile clayey 
 soil, and the Ohio valley has a soil 
 formed chiefly from limestone, which 
 gives it great fertility. There are in the 
 southeast and south dense forests of 
 deciduous trees; black, red, white, and 
 chestnut oak, hickory, chestnut, locust, 
 maple, and tuplip-trees. There are also 
 extensive forests of black spruce, w'hite 
 pine, and hemlock and birch on the 
 mountains. 
 
 West Virginia includes 16,000 sq. miles 
 of the! Alleghany coal measures, chiefly 
 bituminous. There are immense de- 
 posits of petroleum and rich reservoirs 
 of natural gas. Iron ore is found, and 
 among non-metallic minerals the most 
 
 important are salt, sandstone, limestone, 
 and clay. There are also a large number 
 of valuable minerals springs, especially 
 sulphur. The soil in the western part of 
 the state consists of rich clay and sand 
 loams, well suited to general farming. 
 The flat hills to the eastward are better 
 adapted to grazing. Wheat, corn, buck- 
 wheat, oats, and rye are the chief cereals. 
 Tobacco and sorghum cane are the other 
 important crops. Apples constitute 70 
 per cent of the fruit crop. Cattle, horses, 
 and sheep are the principal stock raised. 
 The iron and steel industry ranks first 
 among the manufactures. In the manu- 
 facture of coke the state ranks second. 
 The availability of natural gas has led to 
 a thriving glass-manufacturing industry. 
 Pottery, terra cotta, fire clay products, 
 flour and grist milling, tanning and 
 leather are the other principal indus- 
 tries. West Virginia has excellent trans- 
 portation facilities. The navigable 
 streams include the Ohio, Monongahela, 
 Great and Little Kanawha, and the 
 Big Sandy. The bulk of the state’s 
 foreign trade is carried on by way of 
 the Ohio, which offers means of water 
 communication with the gulf. There are 
 three trunk lines traversing the state 
 from east to west — the Chesapeake and 
 Ohio, the Baltimore and Ohio, and the 
 Norfolk and Western. The population 
 by decades has been as follows: 1870, 
 442,014; 1881, 618,457; 1890, 762,794; 
 1900, 958,800. Estimated population in 
 1908 by the governor of the state 
 1,200,000. Among the institutions of 
 higher education are: The University 
 of West Virginia, at Morgantown; 
 Bethany college, at Bethany ; and Morris 
 Harvey college, at Barboursville. For a 
 number of years after the settlement of 
 the eastern part of Virginia the western 
 section was entirely unknown. In 1669 
 La Salle floated down the Ohio river 
 and landed at several places within the 
 state. Governor Spotswood of Virginia 
 made an expedition into the present 
 state in 1716. The establishment of 
 West Virginia as a state was consum- 
 mated on June 20, 1863. Its creation 
 and admission were due to conditions 
 which existed prior to the civil war of 
 1861-5, to popular sentiment which 
 those conditions developed when the 
 war was precipitated, and to the exi- 
 gencies of the war itself. The western 
 part of Virginia was sparsely peopled, 
 its great forests undeveloped, its vast 
 mineral resources only partially realized, 
 and its slave interests comparatively 
 small. The eastern section contained tl;e 
 larger population, owned the great bulk 
 of slave property, and exercised con- 
 trolling power over state affairs. The 
 Alleghanies, dividing the two sections, 
 in the absence of transverse railroad 
 facilities, naturally sent the citizens of 
 one side with the flow of their navigable 
 waters to western and southern markets, 
 while those of the other, moved by 
 similar natural causes, turned to the 
 seaboard for their commercial and busi- 
 ness intercourse. The basis of taxation, 
 the basis of representation, and the 
 relation of the slave interests to these 
 with the measure and distribution of 
 public funds for works of internal im- 
 provement and other questions of local 
 concern, constituted elements of con- 
 
WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 WHEATON 
 
 tinual controversy, and served to de- 
 tract largely from the homogeneity of 
 the population. When Virginia passed 
 the ordinance of secession there was 
 much dissatisfaction. Representatives 
 from forty counties declared their in- 
 dependence of Virginia, and took meas- 
 ures for the establishment of a provi- 
 sional government. During the war 
 32,068 men were furnished to the federal 
 army. Slavery was entirely abolished 
 in advance of the adoption of the thir- 
 teenth amendment. The vote of the 
 state was cast for republican electors 
 previous to 1870. From 1872 to 1892 
 democratic candidates were uniformly 
 successful. In 1896, 1900, 1904 and 1908, 
 the state went Reiuiblican. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY, a 
 coeducational state institution of higher 
 learning at Morgantown, West Va., 
 founded in 1868. It absorbed the West 
 Virginia Agricultural college (founded 
 1867), the Monongahela academy 
 (founded 1814), and the Woodburn 
 Seminary. It now comprises colleges 
 of art and sciences, engineering and 
 mechanical arts, agriculture, and law, 
 schools of music, military science and 
 tactics, and commerce, and preparatory 
 schools at Morgantown, Montgomery, 
 and Keyser. Its principal sources of 
 support are the land grhnt of 1862, the 
 Morrill and Hatch funds, and biennial 
 state appr^riations. 
 
 WEXFORD, a maritime' county in 
 Ireland, in the province of Leinster, 
 bounded by Wicklow, St. George’s 
 Channel, the estuary of the Suir and 
 Barrow, Waterford Harbor, Kilkenny, 
 and Carlow; area, 575,700 acres. Pop. 
 103,860. — Wexford, the county town, 
 is a seaport on the river Slaney, where it 
 enters Wexford harbor. Pop. 11,154. 
 
 WHALE, the common name given to 
 the larger mammals of the order Cetacea. 
 They are characterized by having fin- 
 like anterior limbs, the posterior limbs 
 being absent, but having their place 
 supplied by a large horizontal caudal fin 
 or tail. The whalebone whales are dis- 
 tinguished by the absence of teeth, by 
 the presence of baleen or whalebone in 
 
 Greenland whale. 
 
 the mouth. The typical representative 
 of this family is the common or Green- 
 land whale, so valuable on account of 
 the oil and whalebone which it furnishes. 
 It is principally found in the Arctic seas, 
 but it is also found in considerable num- 
 bers in many other parts of the world. 
 Its length is usually about 60 feet, and 
 its greatest circumference from 30 to 40 
 feet. Allied to the Greenland whale is 
 the rorqual. It often measures about 
 100 feet in length, and from 30 to 35 
 feet in circumference. The sperm whale 
 
 or cachalot averages from 50 to 70 feet 
 in length. Some species of the Delphini- 
 dae or dolphin family are also known as 
 whales. 'Whale fishing for the sake of the 
 oil and whalebone has been an important 
 industry since the 12th century. It was 
 for long prosecuted with great energy by 
 the Dutch, English, French, and Ameri- 
 cans, but of recent times it has greatly 
 decreased, chiefly on account of the 
 scarcity of whales. The instruments 
 used in the capture of the whale are the 
 harpoon and the lance. The harpoon is 
 an iron weapon about 3 feet in length, 
 terminating in an arrow-shaped head. 
 This is attached to a line, and is thrown 
 at the whale by hand, so as to transfix 
 it, or is discharged from a small swivel 
 cannon placed in a boat. The lance is a 
 spear of iron about 6 feet in length, 
 terminating in a thin, sharp steel head. 
 These, with the necessary lines, boats, 
 etc., are all the apparatus required for 
 capturing the whale. When captured 
 the animal is cut up, the blubber boiled 
 and the oil extracted, and the whalebone 
 dried. 
 
 WHALEBACK STEAMERS, vessels in 
 which the hull has a form roughly re- 
 sembling the back of a whale. The de- 
 signer was Alexander McDougall, a sea- 
 captain of Duluth, Minn., who brought 
 them out about 1890. They have proved 
 to be very moderate in their demand for 
 power. The section of the vessel is oval, 
 the decks as well as the bilges are 
 rounded, and driven by steam-power 
 solely, and are both easy to propel and 
 quiet in motion. The seas are taken over 
 them without obstruction, and pro- 
 
 WHALEBONE, or BALEEN, a well- 
 known elastic horny substance which 
 hangs down in thin parallel plates from 
 the sides of the upper jaw of whales. 
 These plates vary in size from a few 
 inches to 12 feet in length; the breadth 
 of the largest at the thick end, where 
 they are attached to the jaw, is about 
 a foot, and the average thickness is from 
 four to five-tenths of an inch. From its 
 flexibility, strength, elasticity, and 
 lightness, whalebone is employed for 
 many special purposes, but it is now 
 rather an expensive material. In com- 
 merce the plates of baleen are often 
 called whale-fins. 
 
 WHEAT, the most important species 
 of grain cultivated in the United States 
 and Europe, and a very important crop 
 in India, Australia, etc. It grows 
 readily in almost every climate; but its 
 natural home seems to be a temperate 
 climate, and the soils best adapted for 
 its culture are rich clays and heavy 
 loams. Of cultivated wheats there are 
 many varieties, the differences, however, 
 being mostly due to soil, climate, and 
 mode of cultivation. Three primary 
 varieties may be mentioned: (a) winter 
 or unbearded wheat; (b) summer or 
 bearded wheat; (c) spelt or German 
 wheat, which is of much less value than 
 the others, but grows on poorer soils 
 and more elevated localities. White 
 wheat and red wheat are names applied 
 according to the color of the grain, the 
 red sorts being generally hardier than 
 the white, but of inferior quality, and 
 the yield is less. Winter wheat is sown 
 in the autumn, with the view of being 
 
 A whaleback steamer, the Christopher Columhtis. 
 
 duce no effect upon the movement of 
 the ship. Whaleback steamers have 
 been used mainly as grain-carriers, but 
 the Christopher Columbus was em- 
 ployed throughout the period of the 
 World’s Columbian exposition, in Chi- 
 cago in 1894, to carry passengers be- 
 tween the city and the exposition- 
 grounds, and proved a great success. 
 She now plys as a passenger-steamer 
 between Chicago and Milwaukee, carry- 
 ing as many as 3000 passengers. This 
 ship is 362 feet over all, 42 feet beam, 
 and 24 feet deep, driven by triple-ex- 
 pansion engines of 2,600 horse-power. 
 Her average speed is nearly 20 miles 
 an hour. 
 
 harvested the following year; summer 
 wheat is sown in the spring of the year 
 in which it is reaped. 
 
 WHEATOIU Loyd, American soldier, 
 was born in Fairfield, Calhoun county, 
 Mich., in 1838. He entered the federal 
 army as a first sergeant in the Eighth 
 Illinois Infantry and became a captain 
 in March, 1862, a major in August, 
 1863, and a lieutenant-colonel in No- 
 vember, 1864, in the volunteer service. 
 He took part in Custer’s expedition 
 to the Black Hills. In May, 1898, 
 during the Spanish-American war, he 
 was made a brigadier-general of vol- 
 unteers, and commanded for a short 
 time the first division of the Seventh 
 
WHEATSTONE 
 
 WHISKY 
 
 Army Corps in Cuba. He was sent to 
 the Philippines early in 1899; in 1900 
 became commander of Northern Luzon. 
 He was made major-general in the 
 regular army in 1901, and in July, 1902, 
 was retired from the service. 
 
 WHEATSTONE, Sir Charles, scientific 
 investigator and discoverer, born at 
 Gloucester in 1802, died at Paris in 1875. 
 In 1823 he attracted the attention of 
 men of science by the publication in 
 Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy of a 
 aper entitled New Experiments on 
 ound. This was followed by a number 
 of other papers, some of them describ- 
 ing inventions of his own, all of which 
 are remarkable for their ingenuity. In 
 1836 he exhibited at King’s college 
 experiments showing the velocity of 
 electricity, which suggested to hun the 
 idea of applying his apparatus to tele- 
 graphing, and in 1837, in conjunction 
 with W. F. Cooke, he took out the first 
 patent for the electric telegraph. He 
 was a fellow of the Royal Society from 
 the year 1836, and in 1868 he received 
 the honor of knighthood. 
 
 WHEEL, an instrument of torture 
 formerly employed in France and Ger- 
 many, on which the criminal was placed 
 with his face upward, and his legs and 
 arms extended along the spokes. On 
 the wheel being moved round the exe- 
 cutioner broke the wretch’s limbs by 
 
 Wheel and axle. 
 
 successive blows with a hammer or »ron 
 bar, and after a more or less protracted 
 interval put an end to the sufferings 
 of his victim by two or three severe 
 blows, called coups de grace (mercy 
 strokes), on the chest or stomach or by 
 strangling him. In Germany its use 
 lingered down till the beginning of the 
 19th century. 
 
 WHEEL AND AXLE, one of the me- 
 chanical powers, which consists of a 
 wheel round the circumference of which 
 a string may be wound, having a small 
 weight attached to its free end, and an 
 axle whose circumference, being smaller 
 than that of the wheel, will sustain a 
 heavier weight at the end of a string 
 which is wound upon it in the opposite 
 direction to that of the string on the 
 wheel. The wheel and axle is merely a 
 case of the lever, c in the figures being 
 the fulcrum, while a c and b c, the 
 radius of the wheel and axle respectively 
 are the longer and shorter arms of the 
 lever. Hence the small weight in ounces 
 or other measure of weight multiplied 
 by the radius of the wheel is equal to the 
 balancing weight on the axle multiplied 
 by the radius of the axle. In a great 
 many cases a crank takes the place of 
 the wheel, the circle described by the 
 handle corresponding to the circum- 
 ference of the wheel. The common 
 winch, the windlass, the capstan, and 
 the tread-mill are so many applications 
 of the wheel and axle; and the same 
 
 principle may be adapted to a train of 
 wheel-work wherein motion is regulated 
 and power acquired. 
 
 WHEELING, a city and port in West 
 Virginia, capital of Ohio county, on the 
 east or left bank of the Ohio river, 92 
 miles below Pittsburg. It is the most 
 important place on the river between 
 Pittsburg and Cincinnati, and in respect 
 to trade, manufactures, and population 
 the most considerable town of the state. 
 Coal is largely worked in the neighbor- 
 hood ; there are iron-foundries andforges, 
 nail, glass, and paper works; cotton, 
 silk, and steam-engine manufactories 
 and a brisk traffic by river and railroad. 
 Pop. 49,642. 
 
 WHEELER, Benjamin Ide, American 
 educator, was born at Randolph, Mass., 
 in 1854. In 1886 he became professor 
 of comparative philology in Cornell 
 university, and two years later professor 
 of Greek. In 1899 he became president 
 of the University of California. Among 
 his published works are : Der griechische 
 Nominalaccent, Analogy, and the Scope 
 of Its Application in Language, Intro- 
 duction to the Study of the History of 
 Language, in collaboration with H. A. 
 Strong and W. S. Logeman, Principles 
 of Language Growth, The Organization 
 of Higher Education in the United 
 States, and Life of Alexander the Great. 
 
 WHEELER, Joseph, American sol- 
 dier, born in Augusta, Ga., in 1836. 
 He entered the confederate service in 
 
 1861 as colonel of an Alabama regiment 
 of infantry, to serve in the west. He 
 was present at the battle of Shiloh, and 
 the same year led the cavalry in the 
 army under Gen. Braxton Bragg. In 
 
 1862 he was made brigadier-general, and 
 January 19, 1863, was promoted to be 
 major-general. He commanded the 
 cavalry at the battle of Chickamauga, 
 defeated Stoneman in July, 1864, cap- 
 turing that officer, with many prisoners 
 and all his artillery, and the same year 
 defended Savannah, Ga., and Aiken, 
 S. C. On February 28, 1865, he was 
 promoted to be lieutenant-general, and 
 continued in charge of the cavalry under 
 Gen. Joseph E. Johnston until the end 
 of the war. Later he was sent to con- 
 gress, and in January, 1888, became a 
 regent of the Smithsonian institution. 
 In 1880 he was elected to congress as 
 a democrat and was a member con- 
 tinuously until 1899. In May, 1898, he 
 was appointed by President McKinley 
 a major-general of volunteers. He com- 
 manded the troops in the engagement 
 of Las Guasimas, and was senior field 
 officer in the battle of San Juan Hill and 
 commanded a brigade in the Philippine 
 islands; was commissioned a brigadier- 
 general in the regular army in 1901 and 
 retired in September, 1901. He pub- 
 lished The Santiago Campaign 1898. 
 He died in 1906. 
 
 WHEELER, William Almon, vice- 
 president of the United States, from 
 1877 to 1881, was born at Malone, N. Y., 
 1819. He was admitted to the bar in 
 1843, served several terms in the state 
 legislature, and as president of the state 
 constitutional convention of 1867, and 
 was a member of the house of represen- 
 tatives from 1861 to 1877. He was 
 nominated for the vice-presidency in 
 1876 by the republicans, and was seated, 
 
 after a contest before the electoral com- 
 mission. He died in 1887. 
 
 WHERRY, a light, shallow boat, 
 seated for passengers, and plying on 
 rivers. 
 
 WHEY. See Milk. 
 
 WHIP-POOR-WILL, the popular 
 name of an American bird allied to the 
 European goat-sucker or night-jar, and 
 so called from its cry. It is very com- 
 mon in the eastern parts of the United 
 
 Whip-poor-will. 
 
 States; is about 10 inches long, and 
 feeds on flying moths and other insects. 
 Its note is heard in the evening, or early 
 in the morning. During the day these 
 birds retire into the darkest woods. 
 
 WHIRLPOOL, a circular eddy or cur- 
 rent in a river or the sea produced by 
 the configuration of the channel, by 
 meeting currents, by winds meeting 
 tides, etc,, as those of Charybdis, the 
 Maelstrom, and Corryvreckan. 
 
 WHIRL WIG, WHIRL WIG-BEETLE, 
 a beetle which abounds in fresh water 
 and may be seen circling round on its 
 surface with great rapidity. Its eyes 
 are divided by a narrow band, so that, 
 although it has only two, it is made to 
 look as if it had four. 
 
 WHIRLWIND, a violent wind mov- 
 ing in a spiral form, as if moving round 
 an axis, this axis having at the same 
 time a progressive motion. Whirlwinds 
 are produced chiefly by the meeting of 
 currents of air which run in different 
 directions. When they occur on land 
 they give a whirling motion to dust, 
 sand, etc., and sometimes even to bodies 
 of great weight and bulk, carrying them 
 either upward or downward, and scatter- 
 ing them about in all directions. At 
 sea they often give rise to water-spouts. 
 They are most frequent and violent in 
 tropical countries. 
 
 WHISKY, the name applied to an 
 ardent spirit distilled generally from 
 barley, but sometimes from wheat, rye, 
 sugar, molasses, etc. There are two 
 chief varieties of whisky — viz. malt- 
 whisky and rye-whisky. The former 
 variety is of finer quality, and made 
 chiefly from malted barley or bere, and 
 sometimes, though rarely, from rye. 
 The latter is made from various sub- 
 stances, as sugar, molasses, potatoes, 
 but principally from unmalted grain, as 
 Indian corn, barley, oats, etc., dried and 
 ground up. The grain most largely used 
 is Indian corn. Grain-whisky requires 
 the same process of fermentation and 
 distillation as malt-whisky, but is 
 cheaper, from its greater yield, and be- 
 cause it saves the expensive process of 
 malting. Though coarser, it is stronger. 
 
WHIST 
 
 WHITE MOUNTAINS 
 
 but if kept long enough is equally good. 
 See Distillation. 
 
 WHIST, a well-known game at cards. 
 The game is played with the full pack 
 of fifty-two cards by four persons, two 
 being partners against the other two, 
 each player receiving thirteen cards- 
 dealt out one by one in rotation. The 
 last card dealt is turned face up, and is 
 called the trump card; it gives a special 
 power to the suit to which it belongs. 
 The cards rank as follows: ace (highest), 
 king, queen, knave, and the others 
 according to their number of pips. Play 
 is commenced by the person on the left 
 hand of the dealer laying down a card 
 face up on the table, the other players 
 following in succession with cards of the 
 same suit if they have them. When all 
 have played the player who has laid the 
 highest card takes the four cards laid 
 down, which constitute a trick. The 
 winner of the trick then leads, as the 
 first of a new trick, the winner of which 
 becomes the leader, and so on. When 
 a player cannot play a card of the sarne 
 suit, he may play one of the trump suit, 
 and take the trick, or lay one of a differ- 
 ent suit, which gives him no chance of 
 winning the trick. When the hand is 
 played out the score is taken as follows: 
 the partners who conjointly gain the 
 majority of tricks score one point for 
 every trick, taken above six. The ace, 
 king, queen, and knave of the trump 
 suit are called honors, and count one 
 each for the side who holds them ; if one 
 side hold three honors, they count two 
 by honors, as the opposite side can have 
 but one ; if one side hold all the honors, 
 four by honors is counted; should the 
 honors be equally divided neither side 
 counts, the honors being then said to 
 cancel each other. In long whist, hn 
 obsolescent form of the game, ten of 
 these points made a game. In short 
 whist, the game now generally played, 
 the munber has been reduced to five, 
 and in this form it is common to count 
 by tricks alone. A rubber consists of 
 a series of three games, and is won by 
 the side that secures two of them. 
 Should one party gain two games in 
 succession, the third of the rubber is not 
 played. 
 
 WHISTLER, James Abbott McNeill, 
 painter, was born in Lowell, Mass., in 
 1834 ; was educated at the United States 
 Military academy, studied drawing and 
 painting in Paris, France, and in 1863 
 settled in London, England. He held 
 original views concerning his art, and 
 has made interesting experiments with 
 color, in quest of novel effects. Mr. 
 Whistler was also celebrated as an etcher 
 and was the author of etchings and paint- 
 ings of established reputation and worth. 
 His Little W’^hite Girl achieved a signal 
 success. His Little French Series, rep- 
 resenting Parisian views, some of a 
 genre character, established his reputa- 
 tion, and the wonderful Thames Series 
 placed him in the first rank. His later 
 subjects were taken from Holland, 
 France, and other localities which he 
 visited, but the best known are the First 
 Venice Series and the Second Venice 
 Series. They are the culmination of his 
 etching, and place him in the same rank 
 with Rembrandt, the world’s greatest 
 etcher, whom he even excels in selection 
 
 and subtlety of execution. His portraits 
 of Carlyle, Rose Whistler, Lady Archi- 
 bald Campbell, Theodore Duret, Comte 
 de Montesquieu, Sarasite, the violinist, 
 are masterful. In 1887 he was elected 
 president of the Royal Society of British 
 Artists. At the close of 1889, when he 
 received the Cross of the Legion of Honor 
 (Officer, 1891). He was made honorary 
 member of the academies of Munich, 
 Dresden, Rome, etc., Knight of the Ba- 
 varian Order of Saint Michael, and in 
 1900 he received the gold medal at the 
 Paris exposition. He died in 1903. 
 
 WHITE, Andrew D., college president 
 and diplomat, was born in Homer, N. 
 Y., 1832. In 1858 he became professor 
 of history and English literature at the 
 University of Michigan. In 1863 he 
 was elected to the New York state 
 senate. At the expiration of his term in 
 the senate, he was elected first president 
 of Cornell university, a position which 
 he held until 1885, when he resigned on 
 account of ill health. In 1867 and 1868 
 he visited Europe to make a study of 
 foreign school organization. In 1871 
 he was a member of the United States 
 commission on San Domingo. And from 
 1879 to 1881 he was minister to Ger- 
 many, and from 1892-4 to Russia, and 
 from 1897 to 1902 ambassador to Ger- 
 many. In 1888 he was elected regent 
 of the Smithsonian institution in the 
 place of Asa Gray, and in 1899 member 
 of the peace commission at The Hague. 
 He is the author of many valuable 
 scientific works. * 
 
 WHITE, Edward Douglas, associate 
 justice of the supreme court of the 
 United States, was born in Louisiana, 
 in 1845. He was educated at Mt. St. 
 Mary’s college, Emmetsburg, at the 
 Jesuit college of New Orleans, and the 
 Georgetown university. He served in 
 the confederate army and afterward 
 practiced law. In 1874 he was elected 
 state senator of Louisiana, and was 
 appointed associate justice of the su- 
 preme court of Louisiana in 1878, and 
 elected to the United States senate in 
 1891. In 1894, while serving as senator, 
 he was appointed associate justice of 
 the supreme court of the United States. 
 
 WHITE, Richard Grant, American 
 author, was born in New York City in 
 1825. His literary tendencies drew him 
 from law, and his musical, dramatic, 
 and art criticisms gave him prominence. 
 He occupied a place among the most 
 learned Shakespearian scholars. He 
 died in 1885. 
 
 WHITE, Hugh Lawson, American 
 statesman, was born in Iredell county, 
 N. C.,in 1773. He servedin the Cherokee 
 war as a private. In 1825 he succeeded 
 Gen. Andrew Jackson in the United 
 States senate. He stood as a candidate 
 for the presidency in 1836 and received 
 the electoral votes of Georgia and Ten- 
 nessee. He died in 1840. 
 
 WHITE, John Blake, American pain- 
 ter, was born at Eutaw Springs, S. C., 
 in 1781. His best known painting was 
 the Unfurling of the United States Flag 
 in the City of Mexico. Other paintings 
 by him include the “Battle of New 
 Orleans,” “General Marion inviting 
 the British Offieer to Dinner,” etc., etc. 
 He was repeatedly elected to the South 
 Carolina legislature. He died in 1859. 
 
 WHITE-BAY, a tree that grows in 
 wet ground in the United States. The 
 bark and seed-cones are used as tonics. 
 
 WHITE-BEAR. See Bear. 
 
 WHITEBOYS, an illegal association 
 formed in Ireland about 1760. The 
 association consisted of starving day- 
 laborers, evicted farmers, and others in 
 a like condition, who used to assemble at 
 nights to destroy the property of harsh 
 landlords or their agents, the Protestant 
 clergy, the tithe collectors, or any others 
 that had made themselves obnoxious in 
 the locality. In many cases they did not 
 confine their acts of aggression merely 
 to plunder and destruction, but even 
 went the length of murder. 
 
 WHITEFIELD, George, founder of 
 the Calvinistic Methodists, was born 
 in 1714 at Gloucester. At the age of 
 eighteen he became acquainted with 
 the Wesleys, and joined the small 
 society which procured them the name 
 of Methodists. In 1738 he went to the 
 American settlement of Georgia, where 
 his ministrations gave great satisfaction 
 to the eolonists. In the following year 
 he returned to England to procure sub- 
 scriptions for building an orphan-house 
 in the settlement. Having taken priest’s 
 orders, he repaired to London, where 
 the churches in which he preached 
 proved incapable of holding the crowds 
 who assembled to hear him. He now 
 adopted preaching in the open air. 
 After visiting many parts of England, 
 Scotland, and Wales he again returned 
 to America, and remained there nearly 
 four years. Soon after his return he 
 was introduced to the Countess of 
 Huntingdon, who made him one of her 
 chaplains. On his seventh visit to 
 America, he died at Newburyport, Mass., 
 1770. 
 
 WHITEHALL, a locality in Westmin- 
 ster, where are the admiralty office and 
 that of the commander-in-chief (the 
 Horse Guards), etc. On the bank of the 
 Thames was a palace called Whitehall, 
 built before the middle of the 13th cen- 
 tury. In 1530 it became the residence 
 of the court, but in 1695 was destroyed 
 by fire, excepting the Banqueting Hall, 
 added by James I., from a design of 
 Inigo Jones, in 1619. Charles I was 
 executed in front of Whitehall and 
 Cromwell died there. 
 
 WHITE HOUSE, the official residence 
 of the president of the United States, in 
 Washington, is a two-story white free- 
 stone edifice, painted white, 170 by 86 
 feet. It contains the private apartments 
 of the president on the second floor 
 and reception rooms on the first floor. 
 Among the latter are the famous East 
 room, 80 by 40 feet, used for public re- 
 ceptions; the Blue room, used for 
 diplomatic and social functions; and 
 the Red and Green rooms. The original 
 exeeutive mansion was begun in 1792 
 and first occupied by President Adams 
 in 1800. It was burned by the British 
 in 1814, and rebuilt in 1818. The White 
 House is surrounded by an attractive 
 park, in which during the summer music 
 is provided by the Marine band. 
 
 WHITE LEAD. See Ceruse. 
 
 WHITE MOUNTAINS, a group in the 
 northeast of the United States, in New 
 Hampshire, belonging to the .\lle- 
 ghanies. They have fine scenery and 
 
WHITE-OAK 
 
 WHORTLEBERRY 
 
 are a favorite summer resort. The cul- 
 minating point is Mount Washington, 
 6288 feet. 
 
 WHITE-OAK, a species of oak, a 
 native of the United States of America 
 and of parts of Canada. 
 
 WHITE-PINE, one of the most valu- 
 able and interesting species of pines, 
 common to Canada and the northern 
 parts of the United States. See Pine. 
 
 WHITE RIVER, (1) a river of Arkan- 
 sas, with a course of 800 miles. It joins 
 the Mississippi above the influx of the 
 Arkansas river, and has several im- 
 portant affluents. Together with its 
 tributaries it affords 500 miles of boat 
 navigation. (2) A river in Indiana, 
 formed by the confluence of the East 
 and West Forks, emptying into the 
 Wabash near Mount Carmel. 
 
 WHITE SEA, a large gulf of the Arctic 
 ocean, penetrating into Northern Russia 
 to the distance of between 300 and 400 
 miles. It has an area of about 47,000 
 sq. miles, with a coast-line of 1000 miles. 
 It is navigable only from the middle of 
 May to the end of September, being 
 frozen over the rest of the year. Two 
 canals, uniting the Dwina with the 
 Volga and the Dnieper, connect the 
 White sea with the Caspian and Black 
 sea. 
 
 WHITE VITRIOL, sulphate of zinc. 
 See Zinc. 
 
 WHITEWASH, a composition of lime 
 and water, or of whiting, size, and water, 
 used for whitening walls, ceilings, etc. 
 
 WHITING, a well-known fish belong- 
 ing to the cod tribe. It abounds on all 
 the British coasts, and in the seas of 
 Northern Europe generally, and ex- 
 ceeds all the other fishes of its tribe in 
 its delicacy and lightness as an article 
 of food. It does not usually exceed IJ 
 lbs. in weight. 
 
 WHITING, a name for chalk, cleared 
 of its grosser impurities, and employed 
 as a whitewash and as a polishing powder 
 for brass, silver, etc. 
 
 WHITLOW, in surgery, is an inflam- 
 mation affecting the skin, tendons, or 
 one or more of the bones of the fingers, 
 and generally terminating in an abscess. 
 There is a similar disorder which attacks 
 the toes. Whitlows differ very much in 
 their degree of violence and in their 
 depth and extent. The usual exciting 
 causes of whitlows are various external 
 injuries, as pricks, contusions, etc. The 
 lodgment of a thorn or splinter in the 
 part is another frequent cause. They 
 are much more common in young, 
 healthy persons than in others, and in 
 many cases occur without any assign- 
 able cause. 
 
 WHITMAN, Marcus, American pion- 
 eer, was born atRushville,N.Y., in 1802. 
 In 1836 with three other missionaries, 
 he started westward. The party took 
 the first wagon across the Rocky moun- 
 tains, reached the Columbia river on 
 May 21st, and located near the site of 
 the present Walla Walla, Wash. On 
 November 29, 1847, the Cayuse Indians 
 attacked the station, murdered Whit- 
 man, his wife, and twelve other persons, 
 and took the other resident s p risoners. 
 It has been claimed that Whitman’s 
 visit to the East in 1842-3 prevented 
 the cession to England of the American 
 claim to Oregon. I 
 
 WHITMAN, Walt, an American poet 
 born in Long Island, in the state of New 
 York, in 1819. In his early days he 
 worked at the carpentry trade and at 
 printing. Subsequently he became a 
 school teacher, and wrote for the press. 
 During the civil war Whitman devoted 
 himself to the care of the wounded in the 
 hospitals of Virginia and Washington, 
 and at the end of the war came out with 
 his constitution irretrievably broken. 
 He subsequently entered the govern- 
 ment service in the capital, remaining 
 there till 1874. He then removed to 
 Camden, N. J., where he died in 1892. 
 In 1887 his English admirers raised a 
 subscription in his behalf. His poems 
 are like nothing else in the language, 
 rough, rude, chaotic even, but strongly in- 
 dividual. The best known are : Leaves 
 of Grass, Drum Taps, and Democratic 
 Vistas. Specimen Days and Collect, 
 and November Boughs, contain his 
 prose writings, old and new; though it is 
 difficult in the case of Whitman to dis- 
 tinguish prose from poetry in the ordi- 
 nary senses of the terms. 
 
 WHITNEY, Eli, American inventor, 
 born at Westborough, Mass., in 1765, 
 and educated at Yale college, where he 
 graduated in 1792. Going then to Georgia 
 as a teacher, he there invented a ma- 
 chine for separating the cotton from the 
 seed. Returning to the north he started 
 business in conjunction with a man 
 named Miller as a manufacturer of 
 cotton gins. But the profits of the busi- 
 ness, together with 50,000 dollars voted 
 to him by the state of South Carolina, 
 were swallowed up in his lawsuits in 
 defense of his rights. He subsequently 
 went into the manufacture of firearms, 
 for which he received a government 
 contract, and so made a fortune. He 
 
 the Study of Language, Oriental and 
 Linguistic Studies, Life and Growth of 
 Language, Sanskrit Grammar, German 
 Grammar, etc. He was chief editor of 
 the Century Dictionary. He died in 
 1894. 
 
 WHITSUNTIDE. See Pentecost. 
 
 WHITTIER, John Greenleaf, Ameri- 
 can poet, was born of Quaker parents 
 in 1807 at Haverhill, Mass., and edu- 
 cated at the academy of his native place. 
 In his younger days he worked on his 
 father’s farm and learned the shoe- 
 making trade, but early began to write 
 for the press, and in 1831 published his 
 first work. Legends of New England, in 
 prose and verse. He carried on the farm 
 himself for five years, and in 1835-36 
 he was a member of the legislature of 
 
 died in 1825. 
 
 WHITNEY, Josiah Dwight, American 
 geologist, was born at Northampton, 
 Mass., in 1819. Through his studies in 
 the mining regions of the United States 
 he became the foremost authority of 
 his day on economic geology. The best 
 known of his writings are The Mineral 
 Wealth of the United States, The Geo- 
 logical Survey of California, Reports on 
 the Geology of the Lake Superior Land 
 Region and of Ohio. He died in 1896. 
 
 WHITNEY, William Collins, American 
 politician, was born at Conway, Mass., 
 in 1841. From 1875 to 1882 he was 
 corporation counsel to New York. He 
 was active in the state campaign of 
 1882 which resulted in the election of 
 Grover Cleveland as governor. He was 
 appointed by President Cleveland in 
 1885 secretary of the navy. In 1892 he 
 successfully managed the Cleveland 
 presidential campaign. He died in 1904. 
 
 WHITNEY, William Dwight, a dis- 
 tinguished American philologist, born 
 in 1827 at Northampton, Mass., studied 
 at Williams’ college, Williamstown, and 
 at Yale college, giving special attention 
 to Sanskrit. He also studied Sanskrit in 
 Germany from 1850 to 1853, returning 
 in the latter year to America. The first- 
 fruits of his studies in Sanskrit was an 
 edition of the Atharva-Veda. He had 
 previously been made professor of Sans- 
 krit and of comparative philology at 
 Yale college. Among his independent 
 works may be mentioned. Language and * 
 
 Massachusetts. After having edited 
 several other papers he went to Phila- 
 delphia to edit the Pennsylvania Free- 
 man, an anti-slavery paper, the office 
 of which was burned by the mob in 1839. 
 In the following year he returned to his 
 native state, settling at Amesbury, 
 where (or at Danvers, Mass.) he after- 
 ward chiefly resided. Among the 
 numerous volumes of poetry which he 
 from time to time gave to the world the 
 following may be mentioned: Moll 
 Pitcher, Lays of My Home, Miscellane- 
 ous Poems, The Voices of Freedom, 
 Songs of Labor, The Chapel of the Her- 
 mits, Home Ballads and Poems, Snow 
 Bound, In War-time, National Lyrics, 
 Ballads of New England, Miriam, Mabel 
 Martin, Hazel Blossoms, The King’s 
 Missive, Poems of Nature, St. Gregory’s 
 Guest, etc. Whittier’s poems are distin- 
 guished by their freshness, their quiet 
 power, and intense feeling. He died in 
 1892. 
 
 WHOOPING-COUGH, See Hooping- 
 cough. 
 
 WHORL, in botany, a ring of organs 
 all on the same plane. 
 
 WHORTLEBERRY, a genus of 
 shrubby plants, with alternate leaves, 
 pink or red bell-like flowers, and berries 
 of a dark purple, bluish, or red color. 
 The common whortleberry, bilberry, or 
 blaeberry is a hardy plant, which grows 
 in forests, heaths, and on elevated moun- 
 
WICHITA 
 
 WILDE 
 
 tains. Whortleberries in North America 
 are generally known as huckleberries. 
 
 WICH'ITA, a city in Kansas, situated 
 on the east bank of the Arkansas river. 
 It is the most important railway center 
 in the state, being the junction of seven 
 different lines. Wichita has sprung into 
 existence since 1870. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 WICKLIFFE, Wycliffe, etc., John, 
 was born about 1320 at Hipswell, near 
 Richmond, in Yorkshire. He was 
 educated at Oxford; was elected master 
 of Balliol college, and in 1361 was ap- 
 pointed rector of Fylingham, or Filling- 
 ham, in Lincolnshire. He afterward be- 
 came doctor of theology and teacher of 
 divinity in the university; and for sorne 
 time held the living of Ludgershall, in 
 Buckinghamshire. Disputes existed at 
 this period between Edward III. and 
 the papal court relative to the homage 
 and tribute exacted from King John, 
 and the English parliament had resolved 
 to support the sovereign in his refusal 
 to submit to the vassage. Wickliffe 
 came forward on behalf of the patriotic 
 view and wrote several tracts, which pro- 
 cured him the patronage of John of 
 Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. In some of 
 his utterances he is said to have styled 
 the pope Antichrist, charging him with 
 simony, covetousness, ambition, and 
 .tyranny. His opinions began to spread. 
 
 John Wickliffe. 
 
 and the church grew alarmed. In May 
 following the pope addressed three bulls 
 to the king, the primate, and the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford, commanding them to 
 take proceedings against Wickliffe, 
 who in answer to the prelate’s summons 
 appeared in the chapel of Lambeth. 
 Proceedings were, however, stopped by 
 order of the queen-mother, and Wick- 
 lifife was dismissed with simply an in- 
 junction to refrain from preaching the 
 obnoxious doctrines. In 1381 he pub- 
 licly challenged the doctrine of tran- 
 substantiation, and his heresies were 
 condemned by the theologians of Ox- 
 ford, as well as by a provincial council 
 called by Archbishop Courtenay and 
 held at the Blackfriars, London, in 1382. 
 Wickliffe was proclaimed a heretic, his 
 works were condemned to be burned, 
 and some of his followers were im- 
 prisoned; but he was allowed to retire 
 unmolested to his rectory of Lutter- 
 worth. A stroke of paralysis terminated 
 his life on the 31st of December, 1384. 
 About thirty years after his death his 
 doctrines were condemned by the Coun- 
 
 cil of Constance, and in 1428 his remains 
 were dug up, burned, and the ashes 
 cast into the Swift. The influence of his 
 doctrines spread widely on the con- 
 tinent, and may easily be traced in the 
 history of the Reformation. Wickliffe 
 was the author of an enormous number 
 of writings in Latin and English, and he 
 ranks undoubtedly as the father of 
 English prose. Many of his writings 
 still remain in MS., and it was not until 
 1850 that the whole of his Bible ap- 
 peared. 
 
 WICKLOW, a maritime county of 
 Ireland, in the province of Leinster, 
 bounded by the county of Dublin, St. 
 George’s channel, Wexford, Carlow, and 
 Kildare; greatest length, 40 miles; 
 breadth, 33 miles; area, 500,178. Its 
 chief towns are Bray, Arklow, Wicklow, 
 and Baltinglass. Pop. 60,679. 
 
 WIDGEON, or WIGEON, a species of 
 natatorial bird allied to the Anatidae or 
 ducks. The American widgeon is most 
 abundant in Carolina, and is often called 
 bald-pate, from the white on the top of 
 the head. 
 
 WIESBADEN (ves'ba-den), a town in 
 Prussia, province of Hesse-Nassau, 
 finely situated at the foot of Mt. Taunus, 
 in the valley of the Salzbach, about 2 
 miles from the Rhine. It is noted for its 
 hot medicinal saline springs (the tem- 
 perature of the Kochbrunnen being 156° 
 F.), and it attracts annually upward of 
 60,000 visitors. The chief buildings are 
 the Kursaal, a new town-house, an old 
 and a new palace, library, museum, 
 English church, and other churches, 
 theater, etc. Pop. 86,086. 
 
 WIFE. See Husband and Wife. 
 
 WIG, an artificial covering of hair for 
 the head, used generally to conceal bald- 
 ness, but formerly worn as a fashionable 
 means of decoration. Formally curled 
 wigs are still worn professionally by 
 judges and lawyers in Breat Gritain, 
 and wigs are commonly used in making 
 up for the stage. 
 
 WIG'AN, a municipal, pari., and 
 county borough, Lancashire, England, 
 on the Douglas, 21 miles northeast of 
 Liverpool. Wigan stands in the center 
 of an extensive coal-field, and its manu- 
 factures consist chiefly of calicoes, fus- 
 tians, and other cotton goods, linens, 
 checks, cotton twist, etc., besides iron- 
 foundries, iron-forges, iron-rolling mills, 
 chemical works, and corn and paper 
 mills. Pop. 60,770. 
 
 WIGFALL, Lewis T., American law- 
 yer and soldier, was born in South 
 Carolina in 1816. He was a member of 
 the Texas state legislature, at intervals, 
 from 1849 to 1860, and was during the 
 latter year elected United States sena- 
 tor. He entered the confederate army 
 as an aide-de-camp to Gen. P. G. T. 
 Beauregard, and received the surrender 
 of Fort Sumter from Major Anderson in 
 person. He was promoted to be briga- 
 dier-general, and subsequently rep- 
 resented Texas in the confederate con- 
 gress. After the war he visited Europe, 
 and in 1873 resumed the practice of law 
 at Baltimore. He died in 1874. 
 
 WIGGIN, Kate Douglas, American, 
 author, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
 in 1857. Among her published stories, 
 are; The Story of Patsy, A Cathedral 
 Courtship, Penelope’s Progress, Penel- 
 
 ope’s Experience in Ireland, Diary of a 
 Goose Girl, The Birds’ Christmas Carol. 
 
 WIGHT, Isle of, an island off the 
 south coast of England, in the county of 
 Hants, separated from the mainland by 
 Spithead and the Solent; 23 miles in 
 length, 13 miles broad; area, 93,341 
 acres. The main slope of the island is to 
 the north, as is shown by the course of 
 its chief streams, the Medina, Yar, and 
 Eastern Yar. The chief towns are New- 
 port (the capital), Ryde, Cowes, Vent- 
 nor, Bembridge, Freshwater, Yarmouth 
 and the fashionable health-resorts of 
 Sandown and Shanklin. Near Cowes is 
 Osborne House, a favorite residence of 
 the late Queen Victoria. Carisbrook* 
 castle is an interesting ruin. Pop. 82,387. 
 
 WILCOX, Ella (Wheeler), an Ameri- 
 can journalist and poet, was born in 
 1855. She was at an early age a frequent 
 contributor to journals. Among her 
 collections of verse may be named: 
 Maurine, Poems of Passion and Poems 
 of Pleasure. An Erring Woman’s Love. 
 Among her prose writings are: Mai 
 Moul6e, a novel; Men, Women, and 
 Emotions: A Double Life, Sweet Dan- 
 gers. She also published a children’s 
 book. The Beautiful Land of Nod. Her 
 books of poems are very popular and 
 enjoy a very large sale. 
 
 WIGWAM, an Indian cabin or hut, so 
 called in North .'America. These huts are 
 generally of a conical shape, formed of 
 
 Wigwams of Nortk American Indians. 
 
 bark or mats laid over stakes planted 
 in the ground and converging at top, 
 where is an opening for the escape of the 
 smoke. 
 
 WILBERFORCE, William, English 
 philanthropist, born at Hull 1759, died 
 1833. After completing his education 
 at St. John’s college, Cambridge, he was, 
 in 1780, elected member of parliament 
 for his native town; and in 1784 he was 
 returned by the county of York. In 1791 
 he moved for leave to bring in a bill to 
 prevent further importation of African 
 negroes into the British colonies. Year 
 after year he pressed this measure, but 
 was always defeated till 1807, when it 
 was passed during the short administra- 
 tion of Fox. He then devoted his 
 energies to bring about the total aboli- 
 tion of slavery, and three days before 
 his death he was informed that the 
 House of Commons had passed a bill 
 which extinguished slavery in the 
 British colonies. 
 
 WILD-DUCK. See Duck. 
 
 WILDE, Oscar, Irish poet, born at 
 Dublin in 1856. He studied first at 
 Trinity college, Dublin, and finally at 
 Magdalen college, Oxford, graduating 
 at the latter institution in 1878. About 
 
WILKES 
 
 WILLIAM III 
 
 this time he affected to have become an 
 apostle of aestheticism, and was an 
 object of considerable interest by reason 
 of his dress and manners. He visited 
 Greece in 1879, and in 1881 lectured in 
 the United States. From 1893 to 1895 
 he won considerable success as a writer 
 of comedies remarkable for their spark- 
 ling epigrammatic cleverness — Lady 
 Windermere’s Fan and The Importance 
 of Being Earnest among them ; also 
 Salome, a drama in the mediaeval style. 
 The most widely read of his books was 
 The Picture of Dorian Gray, a novel. 
 The end of his life was sad. Convicted 
 in 1895 of a grave offense against 
 morality, he was imprisoned for two 
 years, during which he wrote one of his 
 strongest poems, A Ballad of Reading 
 Gaol. After his release he went to Paris, 
 where he arranged for the publication of 
 his greatest work, De Profundis. He 
 died November 30, 1900. 
 
 WILKES, Charles, American naval 
 officer, born in New York City April 3, 
 1798. He entered the United States navy 
 in 1818, as midshipman, and was pro- 
 moted lieutenant in 1826. At the out- 
 break of the rebellion he was engaged 
 in the West India waters, searching for 
 the confederate cruiser Sumter, when 
 he encountered the British steamer 
 Trent, engaged in conveying two con- 
 federate commissioners. Mason and 
 Slidell, to England and France. He 
 demanded the two officials, and bore 
 them as prisoners of war to Boston 
 harbor. His action nearly involved 
 Great Britain and the United States in 
 war. Wilkes was, however, promoted to 
 be commodore. Later, and until the 
 close of the war, he was attached to the 
 West Indian squadron, and was retired 
 July 25, 1866, with the rank of rear- 
 admiral. He died in 1877. 
 
 WILKESBARRE (wilks'ba-re), capi- 
 tal of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, 
 on the north branch of the Susquehanna, 
 about 100 miles northwest of Phila- 
 delphia. It is the center of a rich an- 
 thracite coal-field, and has manufactures 
 of machinery, locomotives, cars, mining 
 engines and tools, iron castings, ropes, 
 brewery products, etc. Pop. 61,416. 
 
 WILKIE, Sir David, one of the most 
 famous painters of the British school, 
 was son of the minister of Cults, near 
 Cupar, Fifeshire, born there 1783, died 
 at sea off Gibraltar 1841, while returning 
 from a visit to Palestine. He was 
 elected an associate of the Academy in 
 1809, and in 1811 became an academi- 
 cian. In 1825, owing to ill-health, he 
 made an extended tour through Italy, 
 Germany, and Spain. In the latter 
 country his style as a painter underwent 
 a marked change when he came under 
 the influence of Velasquez and Murillo. 
 Returning after three years to England, 
 he was appointed (1830) painter in 
 ordinary to the king, and was knighted 
 in 1836. His pictures, such as the Blind 
 Fiddler, Rent Day, Cottars’ Saturday 
 Night, Blind Man’s Buff, Chelsea Pen- 
 sioners reading the Gazette of Water- 
 loo, John Knox preaching before the 
 I;ords of the Congregation, The En- 
 trance of George IV. into Holyrood, The 
 Spanish Council of War, The Maid of Sar- 
 agossa, Napoleon and Pius VII., and The 
 Queen’s First Council, are well known. 
 
 WILKINSBURG, a town in Allegheny 
 CO., Pa., on the Penn, railroad; 7 miles 
 e. of Pittsburg. It is closely identified 
 with the business interests of Pittsburg. 
 Pop. 13,602. 
 
 which the human mind finds expression, 
 the other two being thought (or intel- 
 lect) and feeling (or emotion). It is the 
 faculty by which a choice is made be- 
 tween two courses of action, as distinct 
 from the exercise of this power, which is 
 more fitly described as volition. This 
 faculty of the will, in the maturity of 
 its complex power, is usually conceived 
 as having been educated by a process of 
 sensation; pleasure and pain giving rise 
 to the motives by which the active de- 
 termining energy is set in motion. Yet 
 the exact relation between will and 
 motive, the question whether the motive 
 governs the will or the will determines 
 the motive, has never been authori- 
 tatively settled. Thus the “freedom” of 
 the will has, until now, been maintained 
 as a metaphysical and theological belief 
 in opposition to the doctrine of “neces- 
 sity.” Aristotle in his Ethics incidentally 
 asserted the freedom of the will; with 
 this the Stoics and Epicureans agreed; 
 as did also Justin Martyr, Origen, and 
 St. Augustine; while its later adherents 
 were Reid, Stewart, Kant, and Hamil- 
 ton. On the contrary, among the early 
 Christians, the Gnostics denied the 
 freedom of the human will; so also did 
 Spinoza; while the more modern ad- 
 vocates of the doctrine of “necessity” 
 were Hobbes, Hume, Jonathan Ed- 
 wards, and John S. Mill. 
 
 WILL, or TESTAMENT, in law, the 
 legal declaration of a man’s intentions 
 as to what he wills to be performed after 
 his death in relation to his property. 
 In England, as also in the British 
 colonies and the United States, no will, 
 whether of real or personal estate, is to 
 be valid unless it be in writing, and 
 signed at the foot or end by the testator, 
 or by some person in his presence, and 
 by his direction. Such signature must 
 be made and the document acknowledg- 
 edged as his will by the testator in the 
 presence of two or more witnesses pres- 
 ent at the same time, and such w’itnesses 
 must attest and subscribe the will in the 
 presence of the testator. Any alteration 
 or obliteration must also be duly signed 
 by the testator and the witnesses. A 
 will may be revoked by cancelling or 
 obliteration, tearing, or burning; or by 
 
 a new will expressly revoking the former, 
 or containing provisions inconsistent 
 with it. 
 
 WILLARD, Francis Elizabeth, Amer- 
 ican reformer, was born at Church- 
 ville, N. Y., in 1839. In 1874 she was 
 corresponding secretary of the National 
 Women’s Christian Temperance Union, 
 and later was president of the W. C. T. 
 U. of Illinois; president of the N. W. C. 
 T. U. 1879-97. She was one of the 
 founders of the prohibition party- 
 editor of the Chicago Post in 1879, ana 
 later of The Union Signal. In 1883 she 
 organized the World’s Women’s Chris- 
 tian Temperance Union, and was made 
 its president at the first convention at 
 Boston, in 1891. Her works included 
 Women and Temperance, Nineteen 
 Beautiful Years, Women in the Pulpit, 
 and Glimpses of Fifty Years. She died 
 in 1898. 
 
 WILLET, a bird of the snipe family 
 found in America. It is a fine game bird, 
 and its flesh and eggs are prized for food. 
 Called also stone curlew. 
 
 WILLIAM I.,surnamedthe Conqueror, 
 King of England, and Duke of Nor- 
 mandy, born 1027, was the natural son 
 of Robert, duke of Normandy, by 
 Arlotta, the daughter of a tanner of 
 Falaise. His father having no legitimate 
 son, William became the heir at his 
 death, and ruled Normandy with great 
 vigor and ability. The opportunity of 
 gaining a wider dominion presented it- 
 self on the death of his second cousin 
 Edward the Confessor, king of England, 
 whose crown he claimed. To enforce 
 this claim he invaded England, and the 
 victory of Hastings, in which his rival 
 Harold was killed, ensured his success 
 (1066). He established the administra- 
 tion of law and justice on a firm basis 
 throughout England, conferred numer- 
 ous grants of land on his own followers, 
 and introduced the feudal constitution 
 of Normandy in regard to tenure and 
 services. He expelled numbers of the 
 English church dignitaries and replaced 
 them by Normans. Toward the end of 
 his reign he instituted that general sur- 
 vey of the landed property of the king- 
 dom, the record of which still exists 
 under the title of Domesday Book. In 
 1087 he went to war with France, whose 
 king had encouraged a rebellion of 
 Norman nobles. He entered the French 
 territory, and committed great ravages, 
 but, by a fall from his horse at Mantes, 
 received an injury which caused his 
 death at the abbey of St. Gervais, near 
 Rouen (1087). 
 
 WILLIAM II., surnamed Rufus, from 
 his red hair, third son of the preceding, 
 was born in Normandy in 1056, and 
 crowned at Westminster in 1087 on the 
 death of his father. A characteristic 
 incident in William’s reign was his con- 
 tention with Anselm, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, regarding church property 
 and the sovereignty of the pope. In 
 1100 he met his death while hunting in 
 the New Forest, by an arrow shot 
 accidentally or otherwise from the bow 
 of a French gentleman named Walter 
 Tyrrel. 
 
 WILLIAM III., Stadtholder of Hol- 
 land and King of England, son of Wil- 
 liam II. of Nassau, prince of Oransre, and 
 Henrietta Mary Stuart, daughter of 
 
WILLIAM IV 
 
 WILMINGTON 
 
 Charles I. of England, was born at the 
 Hague on the 4th of November, 1650. 
 During his early life all power was in the 
 hands of the grand pentionary John De 
 Witt, but when France and England 
 in 1672 declared war against the Nether- 
 lands, there was a popular revolt, in 
 which Cornelius and John De Witt were 
 murdered, while William was declared 
 captain-general, grand - admiral, and 
 stadtholder of the United Provinces. 
 In the campaign which followed he 
 opened the sluices in the dykes and 
 inundated the country round Amster- 
 dam, thus causing the French to retire, 
 while peace was soon made with Eng- 
 land. In 1677 he was married, and the 
 Peace of Nijmegen followed in 1678. As 
 his wife was heir presumptive to the 
 English throne he had kept close watch 
 upon the policy of his father-in-law 
 James II., and in 1688 he issued a decla- 
 ration recapitulating the unconstitu- 
 tional acts of the English king, and prom- 
 
 WilUa;m III. 
 
 ising to secure a free parliament to the 
 people. Being invited over to England 
 by some of the leading men he arrived 
 suddenly at Torbay, November 5, 1688, 
 with a fleet of 500 sail, and with 14,000 
 troops. Upon landing a great part of the 
 nobility declared in his favor, and in 
 December James fled with his family to 
 France, after which William made his 
 entry into London. The throne was now 
 declared vacant, the Declaration of 
 Rights was passed, and on February 13, 
 1689, Mary was proclaimed queen and 
 William king. Scotland soon afterward 
 followed England’s example (with a 
 partial resistance under Dundee); but in 
 Ireland, whither Louis XIV. sent James 
 with an army, the majority of the 
 Catholics maintained the cause of the 
 deposed king, until they were defeated 
 at the Boyne (1690) and at Aughrim 
 (1691). In the war with France William 
 was less successful ; but although he was 
 defeated at Steinkirk (1692) and Neer- 
 winden (1693) Louis was finally com- 
 pelled to acknowledge him king of 
 England at the Peace of Ryswick in 
 1697. In 1701 James II. died, and Louis 
 XIV. acknowledged his son as king of 
 England. England, Holland, and the 
 empire had already combined against 
 Louis, and the war of the Spanish suc- 
 cession was just on the point of com- 
 mencing when William died, 8th March, 
 1702, from the effects of a fall from his 
 
 horse, his wife having already died 
 childless in 1694. 
 
 WILLIAM IV., King of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, and third son of George 
 III., born 1765, died 1837. He served in 
 the navy, rising successively to all the 
 grades of naval command, till in 1801 he 
 was made admiral of the fleet. In 1789 
 he had received the title of Duke of 
 Clarence, and in June, 1830, he suc- 
 ceeded his brother George IV. to the 
 throne. 
 
 WILLIAM I., first German emperor, 
 and seventh king of Prussia, second son 
 of Frederick 'William HI., born 22d 
 March, 1797, died 9th March, 1888. 
 At an early age he began the study of 
 military affairs; took part in the cam- 
 paign of 1813-14 under Bliicher; mar- 
 ried in 1829 Princess Augusta of Saxe- 
 Weimar; became heir-presumptive to 
 the throne of Prussia on his father’s 
 death in 1840; was commander of the 
 forces which suppressed the revolution- 
 ary movement (1849) in Baden; created 
 regent in 1858, and on the death of the 
 king, his brother, in 1861 he succeeded 
 to the throne of Prussia. During his 
 reign Prussia defeated Deiunark (1846), 
 annexing the duchies of Schleswig- 
 Holstein; quarreled with Austria, and 
 engaged in a campaign which ended in 
 the victory of Sadowa (1866); and went 
 with the rest qf Germany to war with 
 France in 1870 (see Germany and 
 France). In this war the operations of 
 the Prussian generals were under the 
 personal supervision of the king. It was 
 at Versailles, during the siege of Paris 
 (January 18, 1871) that he was pro- 
 claimed German emperor. 
 
 WILLIAM II., King of Prussia and 
 German emperor, eldest son of Freder- 
 ick III. and Victoria, princess royal of 
 England, was born January 27, 1859; 
 educated at Cassel and Bonn, married 
 Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein- 
 Augustenburg in 1881, and succeeded 
 his father, 15th June, 1888. Since his 
 accession he has shown a great deal of 
 energy in various directions, such as 
 in military affairs and social questions, 
 and his independent spirit brought 
 about the retiral of Bismarck in 1890. 
 
 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE, 
 the second oldest college in the Unitea 
 States, was founded in 1693. The in- 
 stitution received a penny a pound on 
 exports of tobacco and various other 
 privileges, including the profits from 
 the office of surveyor-general of Vir- 
 ginia. The college attained rapid pros- 
 perity, but it suffered heavily in the 
 revolution. During the civil war it was 
 occupied by the federal troops and much 
 of its property was destroyed. In 1893 
 congress granted an indemnity of 
 $64,000 for its losses. The college offers 
 two courses — the collegiate, leading to 
 the degrees of B.A. and M.A., and the 
 normal. The college has a distinguished 
 list of graduates, among them Presi- 
 dents Jefferson, Monroe, Tyler, and 
 Harrison, Chief Justice John Marshall, 
 and Gen. Winfield Scott. The Phi Beta 
 Kappa fraternity was established at 
 William and Mary in 1776. 
 
 WILLIAM THE LION. See Scotland 
 (History). 
 
 WILLIAM THE SILENT, Count of 
 Nassau and Prince of Orange, eldest son ' 
 
 of William, count of Nassau, was born 
 in 1533. It was by his political prudence 
 that the five northern provinces joined 
 in the Union of Utrecht (1579), and thus 
 laid the foundations of the republic of 
 the United Netherlands. To check this 
 growing power Philip set a price of 
 25,000 gold crowns upon the head of the 
 prince, with the result that his life was 
 attempted in 1582 at Antwerp, and he 
 was ultimately assassinated at Delft in 
 1584 by a fanatic named Balthasar 
 Gerard. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Roger, a puritan divine 
 and founder of the colony of Rhode 
 Island, North America, was born of 
 Welsh or Cornish parents about 1599, 
 died 1684. He emigrated in 1631 to 
 New England. Here he became pastor 
 of a church at Salem, until his extreme 
 views regarding the jurisdiction of the 
 civil magistrate caused him to be ban- 
 ished from the colony of Massachusetts. 
 Upon this he repaired with a few com- 
 panions to Rhode Island and founded a 
 settlement, whiph he called Providence. 
 He was twice in England in connection 
 with a charter for the colony, and there 
 made the acquaintance of Milton and 
 other prominent puritans. He also pub- 
 lished A Key into the Language of the 
 Indians of America, The Bloudy Tenent 
 of Persecution for the Cause of Con- 
 science, The Bloudy Tenent yet more 
 Bloudy, and George Foxe digged out of 
 his Burrowes. 
 
 WILLIAMSPORT, a town in Lycom- 
 ing county, Pennsylvania, on the west 
 branch of the Susquehanna. It is a 
 favorite summer residence, and the cen- 
 ter of a large Imnber trade. Pop. 39,161. 
 
 WILLIMAN'TIC, a town in Windham 
 county, Connecticut, an important rail- 
 road and industrial center. Pop. 10,415. 
 
 WILLIS, Nathaniel Parker, an Aineri- 
 can author, born at Portland, Maine, 
 1807; died 1867. His numerous pub- 
 lished writings include; Pencilings by 
 the Way, Inklings of Adventure, Loiter- 
 ings of Travel, People I have Met, 
 Famous Persons and Places, Outdoors 
 at Idlewild, The Convalescent, his 
 Rambles and Adventures. 
 
 WILLOW, the common name of dif- 
 ferent species of plants. The species of 
 willows are numerous, about 160 having 
 been described. They are all either trees 
 or bushes, and grow naturally in a moist 
 soil. On account of the flexible nature 
 of their shoots, and the toughness of 
 their woody fiber, willows have always 
 been used as materials for baskets, 
 hoops, crates, etc. The wood is soft, 
 and is used for wooden shoes, pegs, and 
 the like ; it is also much employed in the 
 manufacture of charcoal, and the bark 
 of all the species contains the tanning 
 principle. The weeping willow is a native 
 of China, and is a fine ornamental tree. 
 The willow has for long been considered 
 as symbolical of mourning. 
 
 ■l^LLOW-WREN, one of the most 
 abundant of the warblers, with a pleas- 
 ing song. The general color is dull, 
 olive-green above, the chin, throat, and 
 breast yellowish-white, and the belly 
 pure white. 
 
 WILMINGTON, a city in Delaware, 
 28 miles southwest of Philadelphia, near 
 the Delaware between Brandywine and 
 Christiana creeks. It is regularly built. 
 
WILMINGTON 
 
 WIND 
 
 and has a university, a city-hall, an 
 opera-house, an hospital, cotton and 
 woolen factories, iron-foundries, rolling- 
 mills, potteries, tanneries, breweries, 
 and an extensive trade. Pop. 91,510. 
 
 WILMINGTON, a port in North 
 Carolina, on the Cape Fear river, 160 
 miles n.e. of Charleston. It is the largest 
 town in the state, has turpentine dis- 
 
 tilleries, machine-shops, etc., and ex- 
 ports large quantities of cotton and 
 lumber. Pop. 22,056. 
 
 WILMOT, David, American political 
 leader and jurist, was born in Bethany, 
 Pa. He became prominent as a demo- 
 cratic politician, and from 1845 to 1851 
 was a member of the national house of 
 representatives. Although a democrat 
 he was opposed to the extension of 
 slavery and in 1843 he moved his famous 
 amendment, known as the Wilmot 
 Proviso. He served in the United States 
 senate 1861-63; and held the office of 
 judge of the United States court of 
 claims until his death in 1868. 
 
 WILMOT PROVISO, the war between 
 Mexico and the United States termi- 
 nated in the acquisition of a vast terri- 
 tory by the latter. Mr. Wilmot, of 
 Pennsylvania, in 1846, offered in con- 
 gress what became historic as the “Wil- 
 mot Proviso,” that “no part of the terri- 
 tory thus acquired should be open to the 
 introduction of slavery.” This proviso 
 brought heated discussion of the slave 
 question, and civil war and a dissolution 
 of the Union were threatened. The 
 proviso failed of passage. 
 
 WILSON, Alexander, the American 
 ornithologist, born at Paisley 1766, died 
 at Philadelphia 1813. He emigrated to 
 America in 1794, where he became a 
 schoolmaster; assisted in editing the 
 American edition of Rees’s Cyclopaedia ; 
 learned drawing, and ultimately deter- 
 mined to write and illustrate a work on 
 American birds, being long interested 
 in the subject of ornithology. The 
 result of his labor was the American 
 Ornithology (seven vols., 1808-13), a 
 work which was left unfinished by 
 Wilson, but was completed by his friend 
 Ord, while a continuation was subse- 
 
 quently published by Lucien Buona- 
 parte. A bronze statue of Wilson by 
 Mossman has been erected in Paisley. 
 
 WILSON, Francis, American actor, 
 was born in Philadelphia in 1854. He 
 began his career in a minstrel show. 
 In 1879 he appeared in M’liss with Annie 
 Pixley. After several years in regular 
 comedy, he took up comic opera. In 
 1889, he made his appearance as a star 
 in The Oolah. Among his later pieces 
 have been : The Lion Tamer, The Devil’s 
 Deputy, The Little Corporal, and the 
 Toreador. 
 
 WILSON, Henry, statesman, was 
 born in Farmington, N. H., in 1812. 
 In 1840, as the “Natick cobbler,” he 
 addressed political meetings, in that 
 year being elected to the Massachusetts 
 legislature. In 1855 he was chosen 
 United States senator. His speeches 
 bear the impress of clear-sighted states- 
 manship. Mr. Wilson was an ardent 
 antislavery man. In 1872 he was elected 
 vice-president. He died in 1875. 
 
 WILSON, James, American cabinet 
 officer, was born in Ayrshire, Scotland, 
 in 1835. He came with his parents to 
 the United States in 1852. He was a 
 member of the Iowa state assembly for 
 three terms. From 1873 to ’77 and from 
 1883 to ’85 he was a member of congress. 
 In 1870-74 he was regent of the State 
 University of Iowa, and from 1890-97 
 he was a director of the agricultural 
 experiment station. In 1897 he became 
 secretary, of agriculture in McKinley’s 
 cabinet and was reappointed in 1904 
 by President Roosevelt. 
 
 WILSON, John, better known in 
 literature as “Christopher North,” was 
 born in Paisley 1785, died 1854. He 
 formed an acquaintance with Words- 
 worth, Southey, and Coleridge; con- 
 tributed to Coleridge’s Friend, and pub- 
 lished a poem called The Isle of Palms 
 (1812). Another poem, The City of the 
 Plague, appeared in 1816. Besides his 
 nrimerous magazine articles, the most 
 characteristic of which were some of the 
 Noctes Ambrosianse and those published 
 subsequently as the Recreations of 
 Christopher North, he wrote three tales; 
 The Lights and Shadows of Scottish 
 Life, The Trials of Margaret Lindsay, 
 The Foresters, and An Essay on the 
 Genius and Character of Burns. 
 
 WILSON, Woodrow, American edu- 
 cator and historian, was born at Staun- 
 ton, Va., in 1856. In 1883-85 he studied 
 jurisprudence, history, and political 
 science at the newly opened Johns 
 Hopkins university, from which in 1885 
 he received the degree of Ph. D. In 1890 
 he became professor of jurisprudence 
 and politics at Princeton. Upon the 
 resignation of President Patton in June, 
 1902 Wilson was elected president of 
 Princeton university by the unanimous 
 vote of the trustees. In addition to 
 Congressional Government and maga- 
 zine articles and published addresses, 
 his writings include; The State: Ele- 
 ments of Historical and Practical 
 Politics; An Old Master, and Other 
 Political Essays ; Division and Reunion, 
 1829-1889; George Washington; and A 
 History of the American People. 
 
 WILTS, or WILTSHIRE, a south- 
 western county of England, bounded 
 by the counties of Gloucester, Somerset, 
 
 Dorset, Hants, and Berks; area, 866,670 
 acres. Pop. 273,845. 
 
 WIMBLEDON, a town of England, 
 county of Surrey, 7 miles southwest of 
 London, at the northeast extremity of 
 Wimbledon common. Up to 1889 it was 
 well known in connection with the 
 shooting competitions of the National 
 Rifle association. Pop. 41,604. 
 
 WINCEY, a strong and durable cloth, 
 plain or twilled, composed of a cotton 
 warp and a wollen weft. Heavy winceys 
 have been much worn as skirtings and 
 petticoats. 
 
 WINCH, a kind of hoisting machine 
 or windlass, in which an axis is turned 
 by means of a crank-handle, and a rope 
 or chain is thus wound round it so as to 
 raise a weight. 
 
 WINCHELL, Alexander, American 
 geologist, was born in North East, 
 Duchess county, N, Y., in 1824. In 1854 
 he became professor of physics and civil 
 engineering in the University of Michi- 
 gan, and in the following year was trans- 
 ferred to the chair of geology, zoology, 
 and botany, which he held until 1873, 
 filling a similar professorship in the 
 University of Kentucky from 1866 until 
 1869. He was director of the geological 
 survey of Michigan from 1859 until 1871, 
 with an intermission during the war. 
 He was subsequently professor of geol- 
 ogy, zoology, and botany in both the 
 Syracuse and Vanderbilt universities, 
 but in 1878, owing to his belief in the 
 existence of a preadamite race, and his 
 defense of the doctrine of evolution, 
 he was forced out of Vanderbilt by the 
 abolition of his lectureship. In 1879 he 
 accepted the chair of geology and pale- 
 ontology in the University of Michigan. 
 The degree of LL.D. was conferred on 
 him by Wesleyan in 1867. His name has 
 been assigned to fourteen new species. 
 He died February 19, 1891. 
 
 WINCHELL, Newton, Horace Ameri- 
 can geologist, was born at North East, 
 Duchess CO., N. Y., in 1839. In 1866 he 
 became assistant state geologist. Three 
 years later he was called to the chair 
 of mineralogy and geology in Minne- 
 sota university, and at the same^time 
 accepted the position of state geolo- 
 gist. He was president of the Academy 
 of Sciences of Minnesota, a member of 
 the Assay Commission of the United 
 States, and editor of the Ameritan Ge- 
 ologist. 
 
 WIND, a current in the atmosphere, 
 as coming from a particular point. The 
 principal cause of currents of air is the 
 disturbance of the equilibrium of the 
 atmosphere by the unequal distribution 
 of heat. When one part of the earth’s 
 surface is more heated than another, the 
 heat is communicated to the air above 
 that part, in consequence of which the 
 air expands, becomes lighter, and rises 
 up, while colder air rushes in to supply 
 its place, and thus produces wind. It 
 is thus that the sea-breeze is produced 
 every afternoon at places near the coast, 
 especially in intertropical countries, 
 the ground having been heated by the 
 sun’s rays to a higher temperature than 
 the sea; while about twelve hours later, 
 the reverse effect — a land-breeze — 
 occurs, the ground having fallen at night 
 to a lower temperature than the sea. 
 As the heat of the sun is greatest in the 
 
WIND-INSTRUMENT 
 
 WINE 
 
 equatorial regions, the general tendency 
 there is for the heavier columns of air 
 to displace the lighter, and for the air 
 at the earth’s surface to move from the 
 poles toward the equator. The only 
 supply for the air thus constantly ab- 
 stracted from the higher latitudes must 
 be produced by a counter-current in the 
 upper regions of the atmosphere, carry- 
 ing back the air from the equator toward 
 the poles. Besides the unequal distribu- 
 tion of heat already mentioned, there 
 are various other causes which give rise 
 to currents of air in the atmosphere, 
 such as the condensation of the aqueous 
 vapors which are constantly rising from 
 the surfaces of rivers and seas, and the 
 agency of electricity. Winds have been 
 divided into fixed or constant, as the 
 trade-winds; periodical, as the mon- 
 soons; and variable winds. (See Trade- 
 winds, Monsoon.) There are also local 
 winds, which receive particular names; 
 as, the etesian wind, the sirocco, the 
 simoom, the harmattan, the mistral, 
 typhoon, etc. The velocity and force of 
 the wind vary considerably, as shown 
 by the anemometer. Thus a light wind 
 traveling at the rate of 5 miles an hour 
 exercises a pressure of 2 oz. on the square 
 foot; a light breeze of 10 miles an hour 
 has a pressure of 8 oz.; a good steady 
 breeze of 20 miles, 2 lbs.; a storm of 60 
 miles, 18 lbs.; a violent hurricane of 100 
 miles, 50 lbs., a pressure which sweeps 
 everything before it. 
 
 WIND-INSTRUMENT, an instrurnent 
 of music, played by means of artificially 
 reduced currents of wind, as the organ, 
 armonium, etc., or by the hiunan 
 breath, as the flute, horn, etc. See In- 
 strument and Instrumental Music. 
 
 WINDLASS, a modification of the 
 wheel and axle used for raising weights. 
 The simple form of the windlass used in 
 ships, for raising the anchors, consists 
 of a strong beam of wood placed hori- 
 zontally, and supported at its ends by 
 iron spindles, which turn in collars or 
 bushes inserted in what are termed the 
 
 Ship’s windlass. 
 
 windlass bitts. This large axle is pierced 
 with holes directed toward its center, in 
 which long levers or hand-spikes are 
 inserted for turning it round when the 
 anchor is to be weighed or any purchase 
 is required. It is furnished with pawls to 
 prevent it from turning backward when 
 the pressure on the handspikes is in- 
 termitted. 
 
 WIND-MILL, a mill which receives its 
 motion from ttie impact of wind upon 
 sails, and which is used for grinding 
 corn, pumping water, etc. In structure 
 the wind-mill is a conical or pyramidal 
 tower, and from the position of the sails 
 in relation to the wind-shaft it is de- 
 scribed as either vertical or horizontal. 
 In the former, a section of which is here 
 given, the wind is made to act upon sails 
 
 or vanes a a attached by means of rec- 
 tangular frames to the axle or wind 
 shaR of the mill. This axle is placed 
 nearly horizontal, so that the sails by 
 the pressure of the wind revolve in a 
 nearly vertical plane, thus giving a ro- 
 tatory motion to the driving wheel e 
 fixed in the wind-shaft. The movement 
 thus produced is transferred by means 
 of bevel-wheels to the main shaft f, 
 which is connected with the specific 
 machinery of the mill. As the sails to be 
 effective must always face the wind, 
 this is accomplished in modern mills 
 by a self-adjusting cap b, moved by a 
 fan or flyer c attached to the projecting 
 
 framework at the back of the cap. By 
 means of a pinion on its axis, motion is 
 given to the inclined shaft and to the 
 wheel d on the vertical spindle of the 
 pinion a; this latter pinion engages the 
 cogs on the outside of the fixed rim of 
 the cap, and by these means the sails 
 are kept constantly to the wind, when 
 the wind causes the fan c to revolve. 
 In the horizontal wind-mill, which is 
 considered inferior to the other, the 
 wind-shaft is vertical, so that the sails 
 revolve in a horizontal plane. In most 
 of the wind-mills used m America the 
 sails consist of narrow boards arranged 
 in a circular framework at a constant 
 angle to catch. the wind. The steam- 
 engine has almost totally displaced 
 wind-mills in. Britain, but they are still 
 largely used in Holland. 
 
 WlNDOM, William, American states- 
 man, was born at Waterford, Ohio, in 
 1829. He was educated in Ohio, studied 
 law, and was admitted to the bar in 
 1850 at Mount Vernon. In 1855 he 
 removed to Minnesota, and four years 
 later he was elected to congress, serving 
 in the lower house for ten years. He 
 was elected United States senator in 
 1870, re-elected in 1871, and again in 
 1877, and in 1889 was made secretary of 
 the treasury, which position he held 
 until his death. He died in 1891. 
 
 WINDOW, an opening in the wall of a 
 building to admit light and air into the 
 interior. In dwelling-houses in ancient 
 times the windows were narrow slits, 
 and it was not until about the end of the 
 12th century that glass was used to any 
 great extent in private houses in Eng- 
 land. Windows, properly so-called, 
 were almost unknown in the religious 
 edifices of the. Egyptians, Greeks, and 
 Romans, the light being admitted at the 
 roof, but they constitute an essential 
 and distinguishing feature of the Gothic 
 style. In inodern houses windows are 
 
 made capable of being opened and shut 
 by means of casements or sashes. In 
 Britain a winow-tax was imposed in 
 1695, and in 1851, when the tax was 
 abolished, each house having more than 
 seven windows was taxed. 
 
 WINDPIPE. See Trachea. 
 
 WINDSOR, or NEW WINDSOR, a 
 municipal and parliamentary borough 
 of England, county of Berks, beautifully 
 situated on the Thames, 22 miles w. 
 from London. Pop. 21,477. _ Windsor 
 owes its chief importance to its castle, 
 which stands east of the town on a 
 height overlooking the river Thames, 
 and is the principal royal residence in 
 the kingdom. It was begun, or at least 
 enlarged, by Henry I., and has been al- 
 tered and added to by almost every sov- 
 ereign since. The castle stands in the 
 Home Park or “Little Park,” which is 4 
 miles in circumference, and this again is 
 connected with the Great Park, which is 
 18 miles in circuit, and contains an 
 avenue of trees 3 miles in length. The 
 chief features of interest in the castle 
 are the old state apartments; St. 
 Geode’s Chapel, where the Knights of 
 the Garter are installed, and the vaults 
 of which contain the remains of Henry 
 VI., Edward IV., Henry VIII., Charles 
 I., George III., George IV., and William 
 IV.; the Round Tower or ancient keep; 
 and the present state apartments. In 
 the Home Park is Frogmore, with the 
 mausoleum of the Prince Consort and 
 Queen Victoria ; and in the Great Park is 
 a large artificial lake called Virginia 
 
 WniDWARD ISLANDS, one of the 
 divisions of the Lesser Antilles in the 
 West Indies, so called in opposition to 
 another division of the same, called the 
 Leeward Islands. The term is vaguely 
 used, but generally includes Martinique, 
 St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada, Bar- 
 badoes, and Tobago. 
 
 WINE is the term specifically applied 
 to the fermented juice of the grape or 
 fruit of the vine, though it may also be 
 applied to the fermented juice of any 
 fruit. (See Vine.) Wines are distin- 
 guished practically by their color, hard- 
 ness or softness on the palate, their 
 flavor, and their being stiU or effervesc- 
 ing. The differences in the quality of 
 wines depend partly upon differences 
 in the vines, but more on the differences 
 of the soils in which they are planted, 
 in the exposure of the vineyards, in the 
 treatment of the grapes, and the mode 
 of manufacturing the wines. When the 
 grapes are fully ripe, they generally 
 yield the most perfect wine as to strength 
 and flavor. The juice is expressed from 
 the grapes by means of presses of all 
 varieties of construction, from the simple 
 lever and wedge press to the machine 
 with hydraulic power. It is usual to 
 separate the juice as it is expressed into 
 first, second, and third “runs,” the first 
 pressing being the best quality, and the 
 amount of all the juice is usually about 
 70 per cent of the weight of the grapes. 
 The juice of the grape when newly ex- 
 pressed, and before it has begun to fer- 
 ment, is of a sweet taste, and is called 
 must. The fermenting process requires 
 much time and attention, and if it be 
 arrested while part of the sugar is un- 
 changed a fruity wine is the result. If 
 
WINE-MEASURE 
 
 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY 
 
 the process, however, is completed, and 
 all the sugar converted into alcohol, a 
 dry wine is obtained. When an effer- 
 vescing wine, like champagne, is de- 
 sired the fermenting liquid is bottled, 
 and the process of fermentation com- 
 pleted in the bottle, where the carbonic 
 acid gas remains to give it a sparkling 
 effervescent quality. When the wine is 
 red in color it shows that the skins of the 
 grape have remained in the vat during 
 fermentation, while in white wines the 
 skins have been removed before that 
 process is begun. The leading character 
 of wine must be referred to the alcohol 
 which it contains, and upon which its 
 intoxicating powers principally depend. 
 The amount of alcohol in the stronger 
 ports and sherries is from 16 to 25 per 
 cent; in hock, claret, and other light 
 wines from 7 to 12 per cent. Wine con- 
 taining more than 13 per cent of alcohol 
 may be assumed to be fortified with 
 brandy or other spirit. The most cele- 
 brated ancient wines were those of 
 Lesbos and Chios among the Greeks, 
 and the Falernian and Cecuban among 
 the Romans. The principal modern 
 wines are Port, Sherry, Claret, Cham- 
 pagne, Madeira, Hock, Marsala, etc. 
 The varieties of wine produced are 
 almost endless, and differ in every con- 
 stituent according to the locality, sea- 
 son, and age. The principal wine-pro- 
 ducing countries are France, Germany, 
 Spain, Portugal, Italy, Sicily, Greece, 
 Cape Colony, Australia, and the United 
 s 
 
 WINE-MEASURE, an old English 
 measure by which wines and other spirits 
 were sold. In this measure the gallon 
 contained 231 cubic inches, and was to 
 the imperial standard gallon as 5 to 6 
 nearly. 
 
 WINGED BULL, an architectural 
 decoration of frequent occurrence in 
 ancient Assyrian temples, where winged 
 
 Assyrian winged human-lieaded bull. 
 
 human-headed bulls and lions of colossal 
 size usually guarded the portals. They 
 were evidently typical of the union of 
 the greatest intellectual and physical 
 powers. 
 
 WINGED LION, the symbol of the 
 evangelist St. Mark, which was adopted 
 as the heraldic device of the Venetian 
 Republic. A celebrated bronze figure 
 of the winged lion of St. Mark surmount- 
 ing a magnificent red granite column, 
 formed out of a single block, stands in 
 the Piazzetta of St. Mark at Venice. 
 
 WINNIPEG, capital of the province of 
 Manitoba, Canada, at the confluence of 
 the Red river and Assiniboine, 40 miles 
 s. of Lake Winnipeg. In 1870 this city 
 w;is only a village, its sudden expansion 
 
 being due in great measure to its cen- 
 tral position on the Canadian Pacific 
 railway. It is connected by railway with 
 the United States, and several other 
 lines radiate from it. It has a city-hall, 
 parliament-house, governor’s residence, 
 court-house, university (well endowed 
 and having four colleges affiliated to it), 
 and is well supplied with water, gas, 
 and electricity. On the west side of the 
 Red river is the suburb of St. Boniface. 
 Pop. 42,340. 
 
 WINO'NA, a city in Minnesota, beau- 
 tifully situated on the west bank of the 
 Mississippi. It is a flourishing place and 
 an important center of trade and man- 
 ufactures. Pop. 21,416. 
 
 WIN'STON, the county-seat of For- 
 syth county, N. C., 30 miles west of 
 Greenboro; on the Southern and the 
 Norfolk and Western railroads. It is 
 adjacent to Salem, the two forming 
 practically one community, know as 
 Winston-Salem. Pop. Winston, 11,160; 
 Salem, 3946. 
 
 WINTER, the coldest season of the 
 year, in the northern hemisphere com- 
 prising the months of December, Jan- 
 uary, and February. The astronomical 
 winter begins on the shortest day (De- 
 cember 22) and ends with the vernal 
 equinox (March 21). 
 
 WINTERGREEN, a name of several 
 
 C lants, one of them being the partridge- 
 erry. The name is also given to a genus 
 of perennial plants having short stems, 
 broad evergreen leaves, and usually 
 racemose white or pink flowers. It pos- 
 sesses astringent properties and was 
 formerly used in medicine. 
 
 WINTER-MOTH, a moth, the larvae 
 of which are exceedingly injurious to 
 apple, pear, cherry, and plum trees. 
 The moths appear in their perfect state 
 in the beginning of winter. 
 
 WINTER’S-BARK, a plant of South 
 America. It is an evergreen shrub, the 
 bark of which has an agreeable, pungent, 
 aromatic taste, and tonic properties. 
 WINTER SOLSTICE. See Solstice. 
 WIRE, any metallic substance drawn 
 to an even thread or slender rod of uni- 
 form diameter by being passed between 
 grooved rollers or drawn through holes 
 in a plate of steel, etc. Wire is usually 
 cylindrical, but it is also made in various 
 other forms. The metals most com- 
 monly drawn into wire are gold, silver, 
 copper, and iron; but the finest wire is 
 made from platinum. Wiredrawing is 
 the name for the process of making wire. 
 The metal to be drawn is first hammered 
 into a bar, and then passed successively 
 through a series of holes in a hardened 
 steel plate, successively diminishing in 
 diameter. Extremely fine gold and 
 platinum wires for the spider-lines of 
 telescope micrometers are made, some 
 of these having a diameter of only 
 of an inch. The applications of 
 wire are very numerous and interesting. 
 Ropes of wire are extensively used for 
 winding purposes in mines, and generally 
 for all similar purposes. They are much 
 used for the standing rigging of ships, 
 for telegraph purposes, etc. The con- 
 ducting part of submarine telegraph 
 cables is simply a wire-rope of copper 
 wires, with an outside protection of iron 
 wires (See Rope). Wire-gauze for blinds, 
 etc., is woven in the same manner as 
 
 ordinary textile fabrics. Fences, book- 
 sewing, strings for musical instruments, 
 pins and needles, etc., are among the in- 
 numerable modern uses to which wire 
 is adapted. 
 
 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. The 
 
 first practical working apparatus for 
 the transmission of telegraphic mes- 
 sages without the use of wires was con- 
 structed by Gugliemo Marconi, an Ital- 
 
 ian electrical scientist. Its first public 
 exhibition was at Toynbee hall, in Lon- 
 don, on December 12, 1896. The first 
 transmitter, then exhibited, was capable 
 of sending a message for a distance of 
 scarcely one mile. Since that date the 
 science of wireless telegraphy has made 
 such wonderfully rapid strides that 
 messages are sent across the Atlantic 
 ocean, and the system is a part of the 
 commercial and industrial development 
 of every civilized nation. 
 
 There are many wireless telegraph 
 systems in use by the governments of 
 the world. To Gugliemo Marconi be- 
 longs the honor of demonstrating the 
 practicability of the science and its 
 adaptation to the needs of the peoples. 
 
 The scientific principle which has 
 enabled Marconi and his compeers to 
 send telegraphic messages through space 
 without the use of wires was known for 
 a number of years before it was applied 
 to practical use. In 1842 Professor Morse 
 sent signals across the Susquehanna 
 river without metallic connections of 
 any sort by means of wires stretched 
 along the banks. Science knew, for in- 
 stance, that electricity, like heat, could 
 be transmitted from one place to an- 
 other by two entirely different processes. 
 To illustrate; If one end of a wire be 
 placed in a bed of live coals the other 
 end soon becomes too hot to be held in 
 the hand. The heat waves are carried 
 along the wire, the wire itself serving as 
 a conductor. But if the uncovered hand 
 be placed a foot away from the live coals 
 the heat, as in the case of the wire, soon 
 becomes unbearable. The waves of 
 heat are transmitted with only the air 
 as a conductor. Now, for a bed of live 
 coals, substitute a device for the gen- 
 eration of electricity. If the electricity 
 is loosed upon a wire, the wire acts as a 
 conductor and transmits the electric 
 current to any required distance. It 
 
WISCONSIN 
 
 WISCONSIN 
 
 is this principle which is adapted to the 
 ordinary telegraph, telephone, or elec- 
 tric railway. 
 
 In 1886, however. Professor Hertz 
 discovered that electricity could be 
 made to radiate in the air, just as heat 
 does. His discovery was the forerunner 
 of the discovery of the possibility of 
 wireless telegraphy. All that was neces- 
 sary was to devise instruments for start- 
 ing and stopping the electric waves, or, 
 to be more exact, for making these 
 waves longer or shorter, as might be 
 desired, in order that the instrument 
 which detected them could record them. 
 
 Marconi was not the first to devise 
 these instruments, but he was the first 
 to turn them to practical account. He 
 only used, improved, and perfected the 
 instruments devised by others. He was 
 the first to send an intelligible wireless 
 message in the Morse code; but several 
 electrical scientists contributed to his 
 success. Dr. Hertz, for instance, had 
 discovered the principle of the electric 
 waves. Dr. Edouard Branly devised the 
 coherer — a glass tube filled with iron 
 filings and attached to positive and 
 negative wires — thus supplying an in- 
 strument for receiving the electric 
 waves. Dr. O. J. Lodge devised the 
 tapper, on the principle of the electric 
 door bell, the hammer striking the wires 
 attached to the Branly coherer, thus 
 starting the electric oscillations and 
 producing the electric waves. By 
 means of the tapper. Dr. Lodge was able 
 to regulate the length of the waves, 
 making them correspond to the dots 
 and dashes of the Morse telegraphic 
 code. But Dr. Lodge was absorbed in 
 the subject only from a purely scientific 
 standpoint. Although he intimated 
 that by the Branly coherer and the 
 Lodge tapper signals might be trans- 
 mitted through the air for a distance of 
 half a mile, he made no effort to carry 
 his experiments to a practical conclu- 
 sion. Professor Popoff, the Russian 
 scientist, made the next discovery. He 
 attached a vertical wire to the Branly 
 coherer to intercept the waves. He, 
 too, used his discovery only for mete- 
 orological experiment and made no 
 effort to adapt it to practical science. 
 In 1901 Marconi sent a signal from St. 
 John, N. F., to the Irish coast. In 1902 
 while on his way to the United States 
 he received signals on board ship at a 
 distance of 2099 miles. In 1903 a mes- 
 sage from President Roosevelt was sent 
 to King Edward from Cape Cod, Mass., 
 direct to Poldhu, a distance of 3000 
 miles. In 1907 the ocean-going vessels 
 plying between New York and Liver- 
 pool were constantly in touch with the 
 land, the signals being picked up from 
 one shore before being lost on the other. 
 The war ships of all nations are now 
 equipped with one or the other of the 
 various systems and the signal service 
 now warns vessels within 300 miles of 
 the coast of approaching storms. 
 
 An achievement of wireless telegra- 
 phy that filled the civilized world with 
 awe took place Jan. 23, 1909, when the 
 big White Star liner Republic was dis- 
 abled off Nantucket, Mass. The cap- 
 tain of the great vessel found his ship 
 and his passengers in deadly peril. 
 The engine room was full of water. No 
 P. E.— 84 
 
 craft was in sight. Land was 26 miles 
 away. Wireless telegraphy, the once- 
 doubted invention of the wizard Mar- 
 coni, was the captain’s only hope. He 
 rushed to the operator. Frantically 
 the man at the instrument sent up intq 
 the air the signal for help. He had nd 
 guidance but the hope that some where 
 in the mysterious sky above him the 
 desperate appeal would be caught by 
 air waves and wafted to another ship, 
 or to some wireless magician on land. 
 The hope was not in vain. The mes- 
 sage reached two other big liners and 
 two revenue cutters. “In distress and 
 sinking,” it said, and gave the name of 
 the ship, and the latitude and longi- 
 tude. The Republic w as saved ! 
 
 WISCON'SIN, one of the United States 
 of North America, bounded north by 
 Lake Superior, northeast by Michigan, 
 east by Lake Michigan, south by Illinois, 
 and west by Iowa and Minnesota, the 
 Mississippi river separating it from these 
 states; area, 56,040 sq. miles. It ranks 
 twenty-first in size among the states. It 
 consists of an undulating plateau, vary- 
 ing from 600 to 1500 feet above sea- 
 level. Besides Michigan and Superior 
 there are numerous small lakes; the 
 chief rivers, which drain into the Mis- 
 sissippi, are the St. Croix, Chippewa, and 
 Wisconsin. In winter the weather is 
 severe, but on the whole the climate is 
 dry and healthy. The annual rain fall 
 is 31 inches. Agriculture is the chief in- 
 dustry, and the principal products are 
 wheat, Indian-corn, and oats, besides 
 rye, barley, potatoes, hops, and maple 
 sugar. Cattle and horses are exten- 
 sively reared, and agricultural and dairy 
 produce are largely exported, as also 
 lumber. The soils of the state are varied. 
 Those of the drift-bearing region are 
 derived from the deterogeneous mixture 
 
 Seal of Wisconsin. 
 
 of pre-glacial soils and glacial grindings, 
 and constitute for the greater part 
 loamy clays and sandy loams of a high 
 degree of fertility and permanence. 
 In the southwest a considerable portion 
 of the soils are derived from the decom- 
 position of the underlying limestone, and 
 are highly fertile and easily tilled. In the 
 central portion there is a considerable 
 area underlaid by the Potsdam sand- 
 stone, from which sandy soils, of rel- 
 atively low fertility, have been derived. 
 j.ue prevalent trees of this region are 
 the oaks, poplars, hickories, and their 
 usual associates. Along the eastern 
 border of the state, except at the very 
 south, is an extensive tract of heavy 
 
 timber, in which maple, elm, ash, and 
 their usual associates predominate. 
 Toward the north the pines, hemlocks, 
 and spruces come in. The north part of 
 the state was originally covered by an 
 almost unbroken forest, composed of 
 groves of pine, of hard wood, and of a 
 promiscuous mixture of species embrac- 
 ing both conifers and deciduous trees. 
 This constitutes the great lumber region 
 of Wisconsin. The whitefish and lake- 
 trout fishing industries of Lake Michi- 
 gan and Lake Superior are extensive, 
 and the inland lakes and streams abound 
 in bass, pike, pickerel, sturgeon, and 
 brook-trout. A state fisheries commis- 
 sion annually stocks the waters with 
 brook-trout, whitefish, and pike. The 
 manufactures in the cities are chiefly 
 furniture, agricultural implements, car- 
 riages, saddlery, woolen goods, etc. There 
 are extensive iron-mines, besides lead 
 and zinc deposits and granite and lime- 
 stone quarries. The Chicago, Milwaukee, 
 
 & St. Paul, the Chicago Northwestern, 
 the Wisconsin Central, the Chicago, St. 
 Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha, St. Paul 
 & Sault Ste. Marie, the Green Bay & 
 Western, and the Chicago, Burlington 
 & Northern are the principal railroads. 
 Elementary education is compulsory 
 between the ages of seven and fifteen 
 (for 12 weeks each year); there are a 
 number of universities and colleges, the 
 Wisconsin university, Madison, being 
 liberally subsidized by the state. The 
 state is noted for its exceptionally large 
 number of animal mounds, the work of 
 the “mound-builders.” Wisconsin was 
 the meeting ground ,of the Algon- 
 quin and Dakota Indian tribes. Its 
 water system connecting the Great 
 Lakes and the Mississippi made it the 
 keystone of the French possessions in 
 Canada and Louisiana. In 1665 Father 
 Claude Allouez founded a Jesuit mission 
 at La Pointe, and in 1669 the mission of 
 St. Francis Xavier on the shores of 
 Green bay. Louis Joliet, leaving Quebec 
 under orders to discover the South sea, 
 in 1673, took with him Father Marquette ' 
 from Mackinaw, and reached the Missis- J 
 sippi by the diagonal waterway of 
 Fox and Wisconsin rivers. In 1674 M^^^ 
 quette made a canoe trip from Green ' 
 bay to the site of what is now Chicago, 
 along the shores of Lake Michigan. Wis- 
 consin formed a part of the old North- 
 west territory from 1787 to 1800, of In- 
 diana territory from 1800 to 1805, 'of 
 Michigan territory from 1805 to 1809, of 
 Illinois territory from 1809 to 1818, and 
 in the latter year was again placed 
 under the jurisdiction of Michigan ter- 
 ritory. In 1836, on the admission of 
 Michigan into the Union, Wisconsin — 
 including then the present states of 
 Iowa and Minnesota and parts of the 
 Dakotas — was erected into a territory. 
 
 The legislature met at Madison for the 
 first time in 1838. Wisconsin was for- 
 mally admitted to the Union May 29, 
 1848. The anti-slavery sentiment in the 
 state was strong and the state furnished 
 a total of 91,379 men, more than the 
 required quota, the ratio being 1 man 
 to every 9 of its inhabitants. The first 
 republican governor was elected in 1856, 
 when Coles Bashford was chosen after 
 a bitter contest. Since that time the 
 state has been republican in every 
 
WISCONSIN 
 
 WOLFE 
 
 presidential election except that of 1892. 
 Milwaukee is the chief town, Madison 
 is the capital. Pop. 2,476,819. 
 
 WISCONSIN, University of, situated 
 at Madison, was founded in 1838, organ- 
 ized in 1848, and opened for instruction 
 in 1851. The institution is co-educa- 
 tional in ali its departments. The College 
 of Letters and Science is the center of 
 the institution, about which the tech- 
 nical work has grown up. The other 
 colleges are those of law, agriculture, 
 and engineering. The College of En- 
 gineering includes courses in civil en- 
 gineering, sanitary engineering, me- 
 chanical engineering, electrical engineer- 
 ing, and general engineering. The uni- 
 versity confers the baccalaureate degree 
 in arts, science, law, and philosophy; 
 the master’s degree in arts and science ; 
 the doctor’s degree in philosophy; and 
 the degrees of civil, mechanical, and 
 electrical engineer. 
 
 WISDOM, Book of, called by the 
 Septuagint the Wisdom of Solomon, one 
 of the apocryphal books of the Old 
 Testament. It was considered canonical 
 by some of the fathers of the church, 
 who ascribed its authorship to Solomon; 
 but it is now generally held to be apocry- 
 phal, most theologians agreeing that 
 its author must have been a Jew of 
 Alexandria of the 1st or 2d century b.c. 
 
 WINSLOW, John Ancrum, American 
 naval officer, was born at Wilmington, 
 N. C., in 1811. He was engaged in the 
 Mexican war, was present at the capture 
 of Vera Cruz. On July 16, 1862, he was 
 placed in command of the United States 
 steamer Kearsage, specially commis- 
 sioned to pursue the confederate steamer 
 Alabama. Captain Winslow followed 
 his adversary to Sherbourg, and in June, 
 1864, blockaded her in that harbor. The 
 armament of the two vessels was about 
 equal. After an exchange of broadsides 
 for about an hour, the Alabama made 
 for the shore in a crippled condition; she 
 soon was found to be sinking, and sur- 
 rendered. Captain Winslow was pro- 
 moted commodore for this important 
 victory in 1866, and in 1867 commanded 
 i^Ahe Gulf squadron, was chief of the 
 qBacific squadron from 1870 to 1872, 
 \ and on March 2, 1870, was promoted to 
 be rear-admiral. He died in 1873. 
 
 WISE, Isaac Mayer, American rabbi 
 and educator, was born at Steingrub, 
 Bohemia, in 1819. In 1846 he came to 
 the United States and from 1854 until 
 his death he was rabbi of the Congrega- 
 tibn Bene Yeshurnn, Cincinnati. He 
 was the editor of the Israelite, afterward 
 The American Israelite, and the Chicago 
 Israelite, both of which he established. 
 In 1889 he organized the central con- 
 ference of American rabbis and became 
 its president. His works include History 
 of the Isrealitish Nation, Origin of 
 Christianity, Judaism, Its Doctrines 
 and Duties, etc., etc. He died in 1900. 
 
 WISE, Henry Alexander, American 
 statesman, was born in Drummond- 
 town, Va., 1806. In 1833 he was elected 
 to congress as a Jackson democrat, and 
 was twice reelected. In May, 1844, he 
 was united States minister to Brazil, 
 remaining there until October, 1847. 
 In 1855 Mr. Wise was elected governor 
 of Virginia. One of the last acts of his 
 administration was signing the death- 
 
 warrant of John Brown, who was exe- 
 cuted December 2, 1859. When Vir- 
 ginia seceded he became brigadier- 
 general of the confederate army. After 
 the war he resumed the practice of law. 
 He died in 1876. 
 
 WISE, John S., was born at Rio 
 Janeiro, Brazil, in 1846. He served 
 through the war in the confederate army, 
 being wounded at New Market. After 
 the fall of the confederacy, he studied 
 law, and upon his admission to the bar, 
 in 1867, opened an office in Richmond. 
 He was a Readjuster member of congress 
 for one term from 1882, and in 1885 was 
 defeated for governor of the state by 
 Fitzhugh Lee. He is the author of 
 Doomed, The End of An Era, and The 
 Lion’s Skin. 
 
 WISTA'RIA, a genus of plants. The 
 species are deciduous, twining, and 
 climbing shrubs, natives of China and 
 North America. When in flower, they 
 form one of the handsomest ornaments 
 of the garden. 
 
 WISTER, Owen, American author, 
 was born in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1860. 
 His stories deal largely with Western 
 life and character; his greatest success 
 was The Virginian, published in 1902. 
 Among his other works are: Lin Mc- 
 Lean, Jimmy John Boss and other 
 stories, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Ben- 
 jamin Franklin. His latest work. Lady 
 Baltimore, published in 1906, has met 
 with general commendation. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT, a supernatural power 
 which persons were formerly supposed 
 to obtain by entering into compact with 
 the devil, who engaged that they should 
 want for nothing, and be able to assume 
 whatever shape they pleased, to visit 
 and torment their enemies, and accom- 
 plish their infernal purposes. As soon 
 as the bargain was concluded, the devil 
 was said to deliver to the witch an imp 
 or familiar spirit, to be ready at call, 
 and to do whatever it was directed. 
 By the aid of this imp and the devil 
 together, the witch, who was almost 
 always an old woman, was enabled to 
 transport herself through the air on a 
 broomstick, and to transform herself 
 into various shapes, particularly those 
 of cats and hares ; to inflict diseases on 
 whomsoever she pleased, and to punish 
 her enemies in a variety of ways. The 
 belief in witchcraft is very ancient. 
 It was a common belief in Europe till the 
 16th century, ard maintained its ground 
 with tolerable firmness till the middle 
 of the 17th century. Indeed it is not 
 altogether extinct even at the present 
 day. Numbers of reputed witches were 
 condemned to be burned, so that in 
 England alone it is computed that no 
 fewer than 30,000 of them suffered at 
 the stake. The last victim was executed 
 in 1722 in Scotland, and in the United 
 kingdom prosecution for witchcraft was 
 abolished in 1736 by act of parliament. 
 In America the last executions took place 
 in 1692, and in France executions for 
 witchcraft were prohibited by an edict 
 of Louis XIV. as early as 1670. 
 
 WITCH-HAZEL. See Wych-hazel. 
 
 WITH'ERITE, a mineral, a carbonate 
 of baryta, used in making plate-glass, 
 etc. 
 
 WITNESS, in law, (a) one who signs 
 ' his name as evidence of the genuineness 
 
 of another signature; (b) a person who 
 gives testimony or evidence under oath 
 or affirmation in a judicial proceeding. 
 See Evidence. 
 
 WITT, DE. See De Witt, 
 
 WOBURN, a town in Middlesex co.,. 
 Massachusetts, 10 miles n.w. of Boston. 
 Its principal industry is in the manu- 
 facture of leather. Pop. 14,499. 
 
 WODAN, Woden, the Anglo-Saxon 
 form of the name of the deity called by 
 the Norse Odin. Wednesday derives its 
 name from him, and his name is also 
 seen in several place-names, as Wed- 
 nesbury, etc. See Odin. 
 
 WOLCOTT, Roger, American political 
 leader, was born in Boston, Mass., in 
 1847. From 1877 to 1879 he was a mem- 
 ber of the Boston Common council, from 
 1882 to 1885 a member of the state 
 house of representatives, and was then 
 again a member of the common council 
 from 1887 to 1889. In 1892 he was 
 elected lieutenant-governor of the state. 
 He was reelected in 1893, 1894, and 
 
 1895. Before the termination of his 
 fourth term he became by the sudden 
 death of Governor Greenhalge, in May, 
 
 1896, acting governor. In the following 
 November he was chosen governor by 
 the largest majority ever given to any 
 candidate for that office in the history 
 of the state, and was reelected in 1897 
 and 1898. He died in 1901. 
 
 WOLF, a quadruped belonging to the 
 digitigrade carnivora, and very closely 
 related to the dog. The common Euro- 
 pean wolf is yellowish or fulvous gray;, 
 the hair is harsh and strong, the ears 
 erect and pointed the tail straight, or 
 nearly so, and there is a blackish band or 
 streak on the forelegs about the carpus. 
 The height at the shoulder is from 27 to 
 29 inches. The wolf is swift of foot, 
 crafty, and rapacious; a destructive 
 enemy to the sheep-cote and farm-yard;. 
 
 Common wolf. 
 
 it associates in packs to hunt the larger 
 quadrupeds, such as the deer, the elk, 
 etc. When hard pressed with hunger 
 these packs have been known to attack 
 isolated travelers, and even to enter 
 villages and carry off children. In gen- 
 eral, however, wolves are cowardly and 
 stealthy. The wolf of North America is 
 generally considered to be the same 
 species as the European wolf, though 
 individuals vary much in color and 
 otherwise. The little prairie-wolf or 
 coyote abounding on the vast plains of 
 Missouri and Mexico, is a burrowing 
 animal. The Tasmanian wolf is a mar- 
 supial. 
 
 WOLFE, Rev. Charles, author of the 
 Ode on the Burial of Sir John Moore, was 
 born in Dublin 1791, died 1823. He was- 
 also the author of several other poems. 
 
WOLFE 
 
 WOMEN’S CLUBS 
 
 WOLFE, James, an English general, 
 ■was born at Westerham, Kent, in 1727. 
 After distinguished service against the 
 French in America he was intrusted 
 (1759) with an army of 8000 men with 
 which to assault Quebec. During the 
 night this small force scaled the Heights 
 
 Gen. 'Wolfe. 
 
 of Abraham, which commanded the 
 town, and in the battle which took place 
 next day the British were victorious; 
 but General Wolfe was wounded in the 
 engagement, and died in the moment of 
 victory, his opponent Montcalm being 
 also mortally wounded. 
 
 WOLFFIAN BODIES (after Wolff, the 
 discoverer), in physiology, a term ap- 
 plied to certain bodies in the vertebrate 
 embryo, preceding the two kidneys, 
 whose functions they perform. As the 
 foetus advances they gradually dis- 
 appear, their place being supplied by the 
 true kidneys, except in fishes, in which 
 they are permanent. 
 
 WOLF-FISH. See Sea-wolf. 
 
 WOLFRAM, a native tungstate of iron 
 and manganese. Its color is generally 
 a brownish or grayish black. It occurs 
 massive and crystalized, and in con- 
 centric lamellar concretions, and is the 
 ore from which the metal tungsten is 
 usually obtained. 
 
 WOLLASTON, William Hyde, a dis- 
 tinguished chemist, born in London 
 1776, died 1828. He was the inventor of 
 the goniometer, an instrument for 
 measuring the angles of cyrstals, and 
 the discoverer of palladium and rhodium 
 and the malleability of platinum. 
 
 WOLSELEY (wulz'li). Sir Garnet 
 Joseph, Viscount Wolseley, British 
 general, was born near Dublin in 1833; 
 entered the army as ensign in 1852; took 
 p>art in the second Burmese war; served 
 in the Crimea, was wounded at the seige 
 of Sebastopol; engaged in the siege and 
 capture of Lucknow during the Indian 
 mutiny of 1857-58; and was employed 
 in 1860 in the Chinese war. He was de- 
 spatched to Canada in 1861, and again 
 in 1867, having received command of 
 the Red river expedition, which he 
 carried to a successful issue. When the 
 Mahdi subdued the Soudan, and held 
 General Gordon prisoner in Khartoum, 
 Wolseley was despatched in 1884 with a 
 relief expedition. He concentrated his 
 forces at Korti, and sent a coliunn across 
 the desert to Khartoum, but the place 
 had fallen. In 1885 he was created a 
 viscount, in 1890-95 was commander-in- 
 chief in Ireland, in 1894 made field- 
 marshall; commander-in-chief of the 
 army, 1895-1900. He is author of Nar- 
 rative of the War with China, the Sol- 
 dier’s Pocket Book, Life of the Duke of 
 Marlborough. 
 
 WOLSEY (wul'zi), Thomas, Cardinal, 
 
 was born at Ipswich in 1471. When 
 Henry VIII. became king the advance- 
 ment of Wolsey was rapid. Succes- 
 sively he was appointed Canon of Wind- 
 sor, Dean of York, Bishop of Lincoln, 
 Archbishop of York, and his nomination 
 as cardinal in 1515 and pope’s legate in 
 1518 completed his ecclesiastical digni- 
 ties. In 1M5 he was also appointed lord 
 chancellor of the kingdom. This rapid 
 preferment by the king was largely the 
 result of a remarkable series of diplo- 
 matic victories, in which Wolsey had 
 been the means of enabling Henry to 
 hold the balance between Francis I. 
 and the Emperor Charles V. In his am- 
 bitious career the cardinal made many 
 enemies, who were held in check so long 
 as he retained the 'favor of his royal 
 master. This favor Wolsey lost when he 
 failed to obtain from Pope Clement a 
 decision granting the king’s divorce 
 from Catharine of Aragon. Thenceforth 
 the enemies of the fallen prelate harried 
 him unmercifully. He was banished 
 from court, stripped of his dignities, 
 found guilty of a praemunire, and sen- 
 tenced to imprisonment. Finally, after 
 a brief respite, during which he was 
 restored to some of his offices, and had 
 returned to his see of York, he was 
 arrested at Cawood castle on a charge 
 of high treason, and on his way to 
 London as a prisoner he died in 1530 of 
 dysentery at Leicester Abbey. 
 
 WOLSTONECRAFT, Mary (Godwin), 
 English miscellaneous writer, was born 
 at Hoxton, near London, April 27, 1759. 
 In 1797, she married William Godwin, 
 and became the mother of Mary, the 
 future Mrs. Shelley. She died Septem- 
 Ijer 10, 1797. Mrs. Godwin was one 
 of the ‘advanced women’ of her time. 
 Her most notable work is Vindication 
 of the Rights of Women. She attacked 
 Rousseau’s ideal woman, the heroine of 
 novels and boarding-schools. She ad- 
 vocated the establishment of govern- 
 ment day schools, and maintained the 
 right of women to enter the professions 
 and politics. In short, her thesis was 
 the equality of the sexes. Among her 
 other works are: Thoughts on the 
 Education of Daughters; Vindication of 
 the Rights of Men, a letter to Burke; 
 Letters and Miscellaneous Pieces. 
 
 WOLVERHAMPTON, a municipal, 
 county, and pari, borough of England, 
 county of Stafford, 13 miles n.w. of Bir- 
 mingham. The chief industries are the 
 smelting of iron ore, and its conversion 
 into all forms of iron-ware, and manu- 
 factures in brass, tin, steel, papier- 
 m5,ch4, galvanized iron, and chemicals. 
 Pop. 192,750. 
 
 WOMAN’S CHRISTIAN TEMPER- 
 ANCE UNION, the National W. C. T. U 
 was organized in Cleveland, Ohio, in 
 1874, and is the sober second thought of 
 the great woman’s crusade. It is now 
 regularly organized in every state of the 
 Union. There are about 10,000 local 
 unions, with a membership and follow- 
 ing, including the children’s societies, of 
 about half a million. The W. C. T. U. 
 has forty distinct departments of work, 
 presided over by as many women ex- 
 perts, in the National society, and in 
 nearly every state. All the states in the 
 republic have laws requiring the study 
 of scientific temperance in the public 
 
 schools, and all these laws were secured 
 by the W. C. T. U.; also the laws for- 
 bidding the sale of tobacco to minors. 
 The first police matrons and most in- 
 dustrial homes for girls were secured 
 through the efforts of this society, as 
 were the refuges for erring women. 
 Laws raising the age of consent and 
 providing for better protection for 
 women and girls have been enacted by 
 many legislatures through the influence 
 of the Union. The World’s W. C. T. U. 
 was founded through the influence of 
 Francis E. Willard in 1883, and already 
 has auxiliaries in more than fifty coun- 
 tries and provinces The white ribbon 
 is the badge of all the W. C. T.,U. mem- 
 bers, and is now a familiar emblem in 
 every civilized country. 
 
 WOMAN’S SUFFRAGE, a movement 
 for the social and political enfranchise- 
 ment of women which first took prac- 
 tical shape in 1848 at Senaca Falls, N. Y. 
 in which Elizabeth Cady Stanton, 
 Lucretia Mott, Martha C. Wright and 
 Mary A. McClintock were prime movers. 
 In 1869 the National Woman’s Suffrage 
 association, with Susan B. Anthony and 
 Elizabeth Cady Stanton as leaders, was 
 organized. In November, 1890, the 
 American Woman’s Suffrage association 
 was organized with Lucy Stone, and 
 Julia Ward Howe as leaders. The two 
 associations were in the same year united 
 into the National American Woman’s 
 Suffrage association. In 1892 Mrs. Stone 
 and Mrs. Stanton were made honorary 
 presidents; Miss Anthony remained as 
 the active president until 1900, when 
 she was succeeded by Mrs. Carrie Chap- 
 man Catt. Women have secured full 
 suffrage in Wyoming (1869), Colorado 
 (1893), Utah (1870-1887 as territory; 
 1895), and Idaho (1896); municipal suf- 
 frage in Kansas (1887); school suffrage 
 varying in extent, in 25 states; suffrage 
 on questions of tax levies in Louisiana 
 (1898); and on bond issues in Iowa 
 (1894). Amendments have been sub- 
 mitted and campaigns fought in Kansas 
 (1869, 1894), Michigan (1874), Nebraska 
 (1882), Oregon (1884, 1900), Rhode 
 Island (1886), Washington (1889, 1898) 
 South Dakota (1890, 1898), and Califor- 
 nia (1896). Women in England, Scot- 
 land, and Ireland can now vote in all 
 except parliamentary elections. Prop- 
 erty laws were modified in 1882 and 
 1893. Women have full suffrage in New 
 Zealand, the Isle of Man, Pitcairn Island,. 
 South Australia, and West Australia.. 
 Under the new federal constitution of 
 Australia women may vote. In Canada, 
 Cape Colony, and Tasmama women 
 have municipal suffrage. An inter- 
 national council of women for the ad- 
 vocacy of women’s rights met at Wash- 
 ington in 1888 and similar councils have 
 since been held. 
 
 WOMB. See Uterus. 
 
 WOMBAT, a marsupial animal, a 
 native of Australia and Tasmania. It is 
 about 3 feet in length, and has coarse, 
 almost bristly fur, of a general gray tint, 
 mottled with black and white. It bur- 
 rows, feeds on roots, and its flesh is said 
 in fatness and fl avo r to resemble pork. 
 
 WOMEN’S CLUBS, the first organiza- 
 tions of women such as the Female 
 Society for the Relief and Employment 
 of the Poor, church societies, female 
 
WOMEN MARRIED, RIGHTS OP 
 
 Bible societies,"; Daughters of Temper- 
 ance, the Sanitary Commission, the 
 Woman s Loyal League, the Freed- 
 men s Bureau, which came into existence 
 during the civil war, etc., showed women 
 what they could do. In 1868 Mrs. 
 Croly founded the Sorosis. This gave the 
 impose for other clubs. The Woman’s 
 ^ of Brooklyn was organized in 1869- 
 70. Ihe Association for the Advance- 
 organized in N^w 
 York in 1873, decided to stimulate the 
 
 1 *^ 0 ° ri ^ convention in 
 
 1890 the General Federation of Women’s 
 Clubs was formed. The Federation be- 
 gan with 63 clubs in seventeen states. 
 Ihere are now Federations in all the 
 
 99 ^( 1*000 “®“bership of about 
 
 225,000. The Woman’s Cycle, which 
 was started in September, 1889, pub- 
 lished a directory of clubs. Biennial 
 mee^angs of the federation are held in 
 all the large cities. 
 
 sum of money belonging to his wife, the 
 law presumes he receives it for her use 
 and he must account for it, or expend it 
 on her account by her authority or direc- 
 tion, or that she gave it to him as a gift 
 If he receives interest or income ind 
 spends it with her knowledge and with- 
 out objection, a gift will be presumed 
 
 WOOD 
 
 iama| The Channings; St. Martin's 
 Eve; A Life s Secret; Roland Yorke- 
 Dene Hollow; and the Johnnie Ludlow 
 Stories, reprinted from the Argosv 
 of which she was long editor. 
 
 WOOD, Rev. John George, naturalist, 
 born in London 1827, died suddenly at 
 Coventry 1889. He was an enthusiast 
 
 from acquiescence. Money received bv I He was an enthusiast 
 
 a husband from his wife and exnpndpH natural history, and published a large 
 
 by him, under her direction, on his land on zoology and kindred 
 
 in ..U. _ ^ •'''JO. on ms land, subjects which had great popularity 
 
 Wombat. 
 
 WOMEN MARRIED, RIGHTS OF. 
 
 Any and all property which a woman 
 owns at her marriage, together with the 
 rents, issues, and profits thereof, and 
 the property that comes to her by de- 
 scent’ devise, bequest, gift or grant, or 
 which she acquires by her trade, business 
 labor, or services performed on her 
 separate account, shall, notwithstand- 
 ing her marriage, remain her sole and 
 separate property, and may be used, 
 collected, and invested by her in her 
 own name, and shall not be subject to 
 the interference or control of her hus- 
 band, or be Uable for his debts, unless 
 for such debts as may have been con- 
 tracted for the support of herself or 
 children by her as his agent. A married 
 woman may likewise bargian, sell 
 assign, transfer and convey such prop- 
 erty, and enter into contracts regarding 
 
 T.hp» .CQTTntl j 1 1° * ® 
 
 • • . vii iiio X<1 x1l1. 
 
 m improving the home of the family 
 IS a gift, and cannot be recovered by the 
 wife or reclaimed, or an account de- 
 manded. An appropriation by a wife, 
 herself, of her separate property to the 
 use and benefit of her husband, in the 
 absence of an agreement to repay, or 
 any circumstances from which such an 
 agreenaent can be inferred, will not 
 create the relation of debtor and creditor 
 nor render the husband liable to account 
 Ihough no words of gift be spoken a 
 gift by a wife to her husband may be 
 shown by the very nature of the tran- 
 action, or appear from the attending cir- 
 cumstances. A wife who causelessly 
 deserts her husband is not entitled to the 
 aid of a court of equity in getting pos- 
 session of such chattels as she has con- 
 tributed to the furnishing and adorn- 
 ment of her husband’s house. Her legal 
 title remains, and she could convey her 
 interest to a third party by sale, and 
 said party would have a good title 
 w-r husband should prove a gift" 
 
 Wife s property is not liable to a lien of 
 a sub-contractor for materials furnished 
 K -I husband for the erection of a 
 building thereon, where it is not shown 
 that the wife was notified of the in- 
 tention to furnish the materials, or 
 settlement made with the contractor 
 and given to the wife, her agent or 
 trustee The common law of the United 
 otates has some curious provisions re- 
 garding the rights of married women, 
 though in all the states there are statu- 
 tory provisions essentially modifying 
 this law. As it now stands the husband 
 IS responsible for necessaries supplied 
 to the wife even should he not fail to 
 suply them himself, and is held liable 
 if he turn her from his house, or other- 
 wise separates himself from her without 
 good cause , He is not held liable if the 
 wife deserts hmi, or if he turns her away 
 for good cause. If she leaves him through 
 good cause, then he is liable. If a man 
 lives with a woman as his wife, and so 
 represents her, even though this repre- 
 sentation is made to one who knows she 
 
 ^ong the best known of them are^ 
 Common Objects of the Sea-shore, 
 Common Objects of the Country, Homes 
 without Hands, Insects at Home, 
 Natimal History of Man, and an ad- 
 rnirable illustrated Natural History of 
 Animals. 
 
 See Honeysuckle. 
 
 Charcoal. 
 
 WpOD-CHUCK, the popular name of 
 a rodent mammal, a species of the mar- 
 mot tribe, the ground-hog, common in 
 the United States and Canada. It is of a 
 heavy form, from 15 to 18 inches long, 
 blackish or grizzled above and chestnut- 
 red below. It forms burrows in which it 
 winter in a dormant state. 
 
 WOODCOCK, a bird of the same genus 
 as the snipe. It is widely distributed, 
 being found in all parts of Europe, the 
 north of Asia, and as far east as Japan. 
 It IS a game bird of Britain, where it is 
 known chiefly as a winter visitant, but 
 
 
 American ■woodcock. 
 
 1 regaraing 
 
 busineTs^ wit ^thePlik^^^^^^ '''ho knows‘she 
 
 rnot'nrt"- ™ his wde^''^ 
 
 1 not ri! they ^ WONDERS OF THE WORLD, Seven. 
 
 do not render him or his prope’rty in any 
 way liable therefor. Shemay sue and be 
 sued in all matters having relation to 
 ner sole and separate property in the 
 same manner as if she were sole owner. 
 In the following cases a married wo- 
 man s contract may be enforced against 
 her and her separate estate; 1. When 
 the contract is created in or respecting 
 the carrying on of the trade or business 
 of the wife. 2. When it relates to or is 
 niade for the benefit of her sole or sepa- 
 rate estate. 3. When the intention to 
 charge the separate estate is expressed 
 in the contriict creating the liability 
 »Vnen a husband receiv’es ‘ 
 
 See Seven Wonders. 
 
 ■ ® city of China, prov- 
 
 ince of Hu-P^, on the Yang-tse-kiang 
 opposite the city of Hankow. The latter 
 IS in effect but a suburb of Woo-Chang 
 another portion on the n. bank of the 
 river being Hang-Yang-Foo. It is the 
 great emporium for the tea exported by 
 
 Pop- 1,000,000. 
 
 WOOD. See Timber. 
 
 Ellen, or Price, English 
 novelist, better known as Mrs. Henry 
 "ood’ born at Worcester 1820, died 
 Among lier many novels mav be 
 noted East Lynne, which has had an 
 
 principal ‘enormous success both as a book and a 
 
 also breeds in certain districts. The 
 bird is about 13 inches in length, the 
 female being soniewhat larger than the 
 male. Its food is chiefly worms. The 
 American woodcock is a smaller bird, 
 but very similar in plumage and habits! 
 
 WOOD, Fernando, American politi- 
 cian, was born in Philadelphia in 1812. 
 He removed to New York in 1820 and 
 was elected to congress in 1841. In 1854. 
 he was elected mayor of New A'ork, and 
 during his administration brought about 
 reforms that so impressed citizens with 
 the value of his services, that he was 
 reelected almost unanimously. In 1860 
 he was once more elected mayor and 
 during this term he was subject to wide 
 criticism and ridicule by suggesting the 
 secession of New York at the outbreak 
 of the civil war, and in 1863 was re- 
 turned to congress, where he remained 
 until 1865; he was reelected in 1867 and 
 served until 1877. He died in 1881. 
 
 WOOD, Leonard, American soldier, 
 was born in Winchester county, Vt., 
 in 1860. In 1886 he was appointed first 
 lieutenant and assistant surgeon in the 
 regular array. Upon the outbreak of 
 the Spanish-American war Wood and 
 
 
WOOD ENGRAVING 
 
 WORCESTER 
 
 Theodore Roosevelt organized the regi- 
 ment of “Rough Riders” and Wood 
 was made Colonel and Roosevelt lieuten- 
 ant-colonel. In 1898 he was made a 
 brigadier-general of volunteers and in 
 1901 brigadier-general in the regular 
 army. He was put in charge of Santiago 
 after its surrender. In 1899 he was 
 appointed governor-general of Cuba. 
 In 1903 he was placed in command of 
 a division of the army of the Philippines 
 and was made major-general. 
 
 WOOD ENGRAVING. See Engraving. 
 
 WOOD-OIL, a balsamic substance 
 (an oleoresin) obtained from several 
 species of trees growing in Pegu, Assam, 
 and some of the islands of the Indian 
 archipelago. It is used medicinally, as 
 a varnish, in lithographic ink, etc. 
 
 WOODPECKER, a name for the birds 
 belonging to the order Scansores or 
 climbers. They are characterized by 
 their long, straight, angular beak, 
 adapted for splitting the bark of trees; 
 by their slender tongue, with its spines 
 at the tip curved backward to enable 
 them to extract insects from crevices; 
 and by their stiff tail, which acts as a 
 prop to support them while climbing. 
 The noise they make in tapping the 
 bark of a tree to discover where an in- 
 sect is lodged can be heard at a con- 
 siderable distance. In America the most 
 characteristic species are the ivory- 
 billed woodpecker, gold-winged wood- 
 pecker, and the California woodpeeker. 
 
 WOOD-PIGEON. See Ring-dove. 
 
 WOODMEN OF AMERICA, Modern, 
 a fraternal and insurance order founded 
 at Lyons, Iowa, in 1883, and chartered 
 under the laws of Illinois in 1884. Divi- 
 sions or branches are known as camps. 
 It has camps in Illinois, Minnesota, 
 Nebraska, Wisconsin, Michigan, Kansas, 
 North Dakota, South Dakota, Missouri, 
 Indiana and Ohio. The membership is 
 about 850,000. 
 
 WOO-HOO, or WUHU, a treaty-port 
 of China, on the Yang-tze-kiang, about 
 50 miles above Nanking, opened to 
 trade in 1877, Pop. 79,000. 
 
 WOOL, that soft species of hair which 
 grows on sheep and some other animals, 
 as the alpaca, some species of goats, 
 etc., which in fineness sometimes ap- 
 proaches to fur. Wool is divided into two 
 classes — short or carding wool, seldom 
 reaching over a length of 3 or 4 inches, 
 and long or combing wool, varying in 
 length from 4 to 8 inches, each class 
 being subdivided into a variety of sorts, 
 according to their fineness and sound- 
 ness of the staple. Wools which unite a 
 high degree of fineness and softness 
 with considerable length of staple, bear 
 a high price. English-bred sheep pro- 
 duce a good, strong, combing wool, 
 that of the Scotch breeds being some- 
 what harsher and coarser. The finest 
 carding wools were formerly exclusively 
 obtained from Spain, the native country 
 of the merino sheep, and at a later period 
 extensively from Germany, where that 
 breed had been successfully introduced 
 and cultivated. The chief wool-produc- 
 ing countries of the world are : Argen- 
 tina, Uruguay and other South -American 
 countries; Australia and New Zealand; 
 the United States; Russia, Great Britain 
 and Ireland, France, Spain; South 
 Africa and India, The wool clip of the 
 
 United States is 300,000,000 pounds 
 annually, the product of 50,000,000 
 sheep. The principal wool-producing 
 states are Montana, New Mexico, Ohio, 
 Texas, Wyoming, Colorado, Oregon, 
 Idaho, California, Utah, Michigan and 
 
 WOOLEN MANUFACTURE, the use 
 of wool as an article of clothing dates 
 from the earliest times, and no doubt it 
 was made into cloth earlier than either 
 flax or cotton. Among the ancient Jews 
 wool was the staple material of clothing; 
 and the woolen fabrics of ancirnt Greece 
 and Rome attained special excellence. 
 In time the Roman manufactures were 
 carried to the countries in which Roman 
 colonies had been established. In Eng- 
 land the making of woolen cloth seems 
 to have been introduced by the Romans, 
 but it did not rise into importance as a 
 national employment until much later. 
 The woolen cloths of England were for 
 a considerable time confined to the 
 coarser fabrics of domestic manufacture, 
 finer cloths being imported from the 
 continent, particularly from Brabant. 
 At various times also the trade was 
 hampered by many illiberal laws for its 
 regulation, for prohibiting exportation, 
 etc. In making woolen cloth the 
 essential processes, as carried on in 
 modern factories, are: — (1) the stapling 
 of the raw wool. In this process the 
 stapler or sorter works at a table covered 
 with wire netting, through which the 
 dirt falls while the various qualities of 
 wool are being separated. The wool is 
 then ready to be put through the (2) 
 scouring machine, where it passes on an 
 endless apron into an oblong vat, which 
 contains a steaming soapj'- solution. 
 Here it is carried forward gently by 
 means of rakes until it is thoroughly 
 soaked and cleansed. After this it is 
 taken to the (3) drying framework of 
 wire netting, under which are situated 
 steam-heated pipes. A fan-blast drives 
 the heated air upward through the wet 
 wool, which lies on the wire netting, 
 until it is all equally dried. When neces- 
 sary this is the point in the process 
 when it is “dyed in the wool.” It is 
 then ready for the (4) willeying or teas- 
 ing machine, which consists of a revolv- 
 ing drum furnished with hooked teeth, 
 close above which are set cylinders with 
 hooked teeth moving in a contrary 
 direction. The wool is fed in upon the 
 drum, which whirls with great speed; 
 and between the two sets of teeth work- 
 ing in opposite directions it is disen- 
 tangled, torn, and cast out in fine, free 
 fibers. With some classes of wool it is 
 also necessary, at this stage, to remove 
 suds and burrs by steeping them in a 
 solution of sulphuric acid, or passing 
 them through a burring machine, by 
 which the burrs are extracted. The 
 wool is now dry and brittle; and before 
 submitting it to the process (5) of card- 
 ing, it is sprinkled with oil and well 
 beaten with staves in order to give it 
 suppleness. This process of carding is 
 accomplished by a series of three delicate 
 and complex machines called a scribbler, 
 an intermediate, and a finisher. These 
 machines have various intricate cylin- 
 ders and rollers, studded with teeth and 
 working in opposite directions, over 
 which the wool is passed until it is torn, 
 
 interblended, and finally delivered from 
 the finisher in a continuous flat lap. It is 
 then cut into strips and passed (6) to the 
 condensing machine, which rubs the 
 strip into a soft, loose cord or sliver 
 technically called a “slubbing.” The 
 wool is now ready for (7) spinning into 
 yarn, and this is accomplished in a 
 wool-spinning mule, which draws and 
 twists the sliver into the required thin- 
 ness, the process being essentially the 
 same as in cotton-spinning. (See Cotton- 
 spinning.) The wool, which has thus 
 been brought into the form of yarn, is 
 now fit for (8) weaving into woolen cloth. . 
 (See Weaving.) When it is taken out of 
 the loom the cloth is washed, to free it 
 from oil and other impurities, and also 
 beaten while it lies in the water by 
 wooden hammers moved by machinery, 
 while it is again dyed if found necessary. 
 After it has been scoured in water 
 mixed with fullers’ earth, the cloth 
 undergoes a process of (9) teasling and 
 shearing (see Teasel), in which the pile 
 or nap is first raised, and then cut to the 
 proper length by machines. When this 
 is done it is (10) steamed and pressed 
 between polished iron plates in a hy- 
 draulic press. In the manufacture of 
 worsted yarn the long-staple wool fibers 
 are brought as far as possible into a 
 parallel condition by processes called 
 gilling and combing. The wool, in a 
 damp condition, is passed through a 
 series of “gill boxes,” in which steel gills 
 or combs separate and straighten the 
 fibers until, from the last box, it issues 
 in a long sliver. In this condition it is 
 run through a delicate combing ma- 
 chine. From the combing machine it is 
 delivered in the condition of a fine sliver 
 technically called top, and after being 
 further attenuated by a process of rov- 
 ing the thread is spun into yarn on what 
 is called a throstle-frame. 
 
 WOOLWICH (wuTich), a metropoli- 
 tan municipal and parliamentary bor- 
 ough of England, on the Thames, 8 
 miles below London bridge. It stretches 
 about 3 miles along the river, and owes 
 its importance to the great arsenal, 
 which has a circumference of 4 miles, 
 and consists of gun and carriage fac- 
 tories, laboratory, barracks, ordnance 
 departments, etc. Pop. 117,157. 
 
 WOONSOCKET, a town in Providence 
 county, Rhode Island, about 40 miles 
 s.w. of Boston. Its manufacturing 
 establisliments include cotton and woolen 
 factories, machine-shops, rubber-works, 
 iron-foundries, etc. Pop. 33,104. 
 
 WORCESTER (wus'ter), capital of 
 Worcestershire, and one of the most 
 ancient cities in England, on the eastern 
 bank of the Severn, 114 miles n.w. of 
 London. Pop. 46,623. The county is 
 bounded n. by Shropshire and Stafford- 
 shire, e. by Warwickshire, s. by Glou- 
 cestershire, and w. by Herefordshire; 
 area, 472,453 acres, about half of which 
 is in permanent pasture. The carpets 
 of Kidderminster are famous, as arc 
 also the gloves and porcelain of Wor- 
 cester. Pop. 488,401. 
 
 WORCESTER, a town in Massa- 
 chusetts, about 40 miles west of Boston. 
 It is situated in a fertile agricultural 
 district, and is considered one of the 
 finest towns in New England. It has 
 manufactures of iron goods of variowa 
 
WORCESTER 
 
 WREN 
 
 kinds, including machinery, tools, etc.; 
 also of woolens, carpets, boots and 
 shoes, leather, paper, musical instru- 
 ments, etc. Pop. 1909, 143,000. 
 
 WORCESTER, Edward Somer-set, 
 Marquis of, one of the earliest inventors 
 of a steam-engine, was born about IGOl, 
 and died 1667. 
 
 WORCESTER, Joseph Emerson, phil- 
 ologist, born in Bedford, N. H., August 
 24, 1784. As a boy he worked on a 
 farm, and in 1811 was graduated at 
 Yale. In 1830 he visited Europe, and 
 in 1847 received the degree of LL.D. 
 from Brown, which was duplicated by 
 Dartmouth in 1856. Doctor Worcester 
 delivered lectures, edited a variety of 
 gazetteers, geographies, histories, and 
 almanacs, and finally made a life work of 
 his Dictionary of the English lianguage, 
 the first illustrated Dictionary in Eng- 
 lish. An enlarged edition appeared in 
 1881. He died in 1865. 
 
 WORDSWORTH, William, English 
 poet, was born at Cockermouth, Cum- 
 berland, 7th April, 1770, and died 23d 
 April, 1850. He crossed to France in 
 November, 1791, and exhibited vehe- 
 ment sympathy with the revolution, 
 remaining in France for nearly a year. 
 After his return, disregarding all en- 
 treaties to enter upon a professional 
 career, he published his Evening Walk 
 and Descriptive Sketches (1793). With 
 the consecrated helpfulness of his sister 
 Dorothy he contrived to keep house for 
 eight years, while he gave himself to 
 poetic effort as his high “office upon 
 earth.” For the first two years they 
 lived at Racedown in Dorset, where the 
 
 
 poet among other experiments began 
 ids tragedy of The Borderers. In this 
 retreat they were visited (1797) by 
 Coleridge, who had already recognized 
 an original poetic genius in the author 
 of Descriptive Sketches. Coleridge was 
 at this time living at Nether Stowey, in 
 Somerset, and during this visit he in- 
 duced the Wordsworths to go into resi- 
 dence at Alfoxden, in his immediate 
 neighborhood. Here the two poets held 
 daily intercourse, and after a twelve- 
 month they published Lyrical Ballads 
 (1798) in literary copartnership. Words- 
 worth’s great philosophic poem, which, 
 in his own phrase, was to be the Gothic 
 
 cathedral of his labor, received only a 
 fragmentary accomplisliment in The 
 Prelude, The Excursion, and The 
 Recluse. Yet enough was achieved in his 
 smaller poems to justify his own con- 
 ception of hunself as a “dedicated 
 spirit,” and to set him apart among the 
 greatest of England’s poets. 
 
 WORKHOUSE, a house in which 
 paupers are maintained at the public 
 expense, those who are able-bodied 
 being compelled to work. Under the 
 old poor-laws of England, there was a 
 workhouse in each parish, partaking 
 of the character of a bridewell, where 
 indigent, vagrant, and idle people were 
 set to work, and supplied with food and 
 clothing, or what is termed indoor relief. 
 These workhouses were described as, 
 generally speaking, nurseries of idle- 
 ness, ignorance, and vice; but a new 
 system was introduced in 1834, parishes 
 being now united for the better manage- 
 ment of workhouses, which gave rise 
 to the poor-law unions, with their 
 workhouses. In these establishments 
 the pauper imnates are employed 
 according to their capacity and ability. 
 Religious and secular instruction is 
 supplied, while habits of industry, 
 cleanliness, and order are enforced. 
 
 WORLD’S COLUMBIAN EXPOSI- 
 TION, an international exposition held 
 in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the four 
 hundredth anniversary of the landing of 
 Columbus. The funds for the exposition 
 consisted of $10,000,000 raised by the 
 city of Chicago, a loan of $2,500,000 from 
 congress, debenture bonds for $5,000,000 
 issued by the exposition authorities, 
 together with miscellaneous contribu- 
 tions from various sources of about 
 $3,000,000, making a total fund of about 
 $20,000,000. Jackson park in the south- 
 eastern part of Chicago, on the shore of 
 Lake Michigan, covering an area of 666 
 acres, was chosen as the site, where 150 
 different buildings were erected. The 
 principal buildings were constructed of 
 composition called staff, consisting of 
 a mixture of plaster of Paris, with a 
 little cement, glycerin, and dextrin, in 
 water, which at a short distance gave 
 the effect of marble. This appearance 
 led to the name of White City, by which 
 the exposition subsequently became 
 generally known. The amusement 
 features were in the Midway Plaisa'nce, 
 a strip of land west of Jackson park, and 
 of these most worthy of note was the 
 huge Ferris Wheel, 264 feet high. The 
 total attendance at the exposition was 
 27,539,041, of which 21,479,661 were 
 paid. The largest attendance was on 
 Chicago day, October 9th, when there 
 were 761,942 paid admissions. There 
 were 65,422 exhibitors representing over 
 250,000 separate exhibits. At the close 
 of the exposition the total receipts from 
 all sources were $33,290,065, while the 
 total disbursements were $31,117,353. 
 
 WORMS, a term loosely applied to 
 many small longish creeping animals, 
 entirely wanting feet or having but very 
 short ones, including such various forms 
 as the earthworm, the larvae or grubs of 
 certain insects, intestinal parasites, as 
 the tape-worm, thread-worm, etc. In 
 zoological classifications it is used as 
 equivalent to Vermes or to Annelida. 
 In medicine it is applied to the parasitic 
 
 animals which exist chiefly in the in- 
 testines, and to the disease due to the 
 presence of such parasites. Several 
 kinds of worms may infest the himian 
 body, but the worms with which chil- 
 dren are so commonly annoyed are the 
 small worms known as thread-worms. 
 Vermifuges or anthelmintics are names 
 given to medicines that cure worms, 
 such as extract of male-fern root for tape 
 worms, santonin for thread-worms. See 
 Wormwood, Tape-worm. 
 
 WORMS, a town in Germany, in the 
 Grand-duchy of Hesse, on the Rhine, 
 25 miles s. of Mainz, and 20 miles n.w. 
 of Heidelberg. The chief buildings of 
 interest are the Romanesque cathedral 
 (12th century), a magnificent structure 
 with four round towers and two large 
 domes; the Liebfrauenkirche and church 
 of St. Martin; the town-house; and the 
 monument to Luther, consisting of a 
 colossal statue on a raised platform sur- 
 rounded by figures of precursors of or 
 persons directly connected with the 
 Reformation. At Worms was held the 
 famous diet in 1521, at which Luther 
 defended his doctrines before the em- 
 peror Charles and an august assemblage. 
 Pop. 40,705. 
 
 WORM-SEED, a seed which has the 
 property of expelling wonns from the 
 intestinal tube or other open cavities of 
 the body. It is brought from the Levant, 
 and is the produce of a species of plant 
 which is a native of Tartary and Persia. 
 
 WORMWOOD, a well-known plant, 
 celebrated for its intensely bitter tonic 
 and stimulating qualities, which have 
 caused it to be an ingredient in various 
 medicinal preparations, and even in the 
 preparation of liquors. It is also useful 
 in destroying worms in children. 
 
 WORSTED, a variety of woolen yarn 
 or thread, spun from long-staple wool 
 which has been combed, and which in the 
 spinning is twisted harder than ordinary. 
 It is knit or woven into stockings, car- 
 pets, etc. The name is derived from 
 Worsted, a village in Norfolk where it 
 is supposed to have been first manu- 
 factured. 
 
 WORT. See Brewing. 
 
 WOUND, in surgical phrase, a solu- 
 tion of Continuity in any of the soft parts 
 of the body occasioned by external 
 violence, and attended with a greater or 
 less amount of bleeding. Wounds have 
 been classified as follows : (a) Cuts, 
 
 incisions, or incised wounds, which are 
 produced by sharp-edged instruments, 
 (b) Stabs or punctured wounds, made 
 by the thrusts of pointed weapons, (c) 
 Contused wounds, produced by the 
 violent application of hard, blunt, 
 obtuse bodies to the soft parts, (d) 
 Lacerated wounds, in which there is 
 tearing or laceration, as by some rough 
 instrument, (e) All those common in- 
 juries called gunshot wounds, (f) Poi- 
 soned wounds, those complicated with 
 the introduction of some poison or 
 venom into the part. 
 
 WRECK, in law, is defined as such 
 articles of value as are cast upon land 
 by the sea, includes jetsam, flotsam ligan, 
 and derelict. 
 
 WREN, a name given to certain birds 
 closely allied to the warblers, distin- 
 guished by their small size, slender 
 beak, short, rounded wings, mottled 
 
 i 
 
WREN 
 
 WURTEMBERG 
 
 plummage, and the habit of holding the 
 tail erect. The American house-wren 
 is a very familiar bird, and a general 
 favorite in America. 
 
 WREN, Sir Christopher, English 
 architect, born in 1631, died in 1723. 
 He had been appointed by Charles II, 
 to restore old St. Paul’s, but after the 
 great fire (1666) it became necessary to 
 rebuild the cathedral. The cathedral was 
 h^un in 1675, and the architect saw 
 thfflast stone laid by his son thirty-five 
 years afterward. Among the other 
 notable buildings which Wren designed 
 are: the modern part of the palace at 
 Hampton court, the library of Trinity 
 college, Cambridge, the hospitals of 
 Chelsea and Greenwich, the churches of 
 St. Stephen’s, Walbrook; St. Mary-le- 
 bow; St. Michael, Cornhill; St. Bride, 
 Fleet street; as also the campanile of 
 Christ church, Oxford. In 1680 he was 
 chosen president of tile Royal society, 
 appointed in 1708 surveyor of the royal 
 works, and from 1685 to 1700 repre- 
 sented various boroughs in parliament. 
 Over the north doorway of St. Paul’s is 
 a memorial tablet on which are the well- 
 known words : Si monumentum requiris, 
 circum spice. 
 
 WRENCH, an instrument consisting 
 essentially of a bar of metal having 
 jaws adapted to catch upon the head 
 of a bolt or a nut to turn it; a screw- 
 
 3, An^jle-wrench. 4, Tube-wrench. 
 
 5, Monkey-wrench for hexagon&l and square nute. 
 
 key. Some wrenches have a variety of 
 jaws to suit different sizes and shapes of 
 nuts and bolts, and others, as the 
 monkey-wrench, having an adjustable 
 inner jaw. 
 
 WRIGHT, Carroll Davidson, Ameri- 
 can economist, was born in Dumbarton, 
 N. H., in 1840. He was elected to the 
 Massachusetts senate in 1873, was chief 
 of Labor statistics of Massachusetts 
 from 1873 to 1888 and superintended 
 the United States censuses of 1875 and 
 1885. From 1885-92 he was United 
 States commissioner of labor. He was 
 appointed by President Roosevelt in 
 
 1902 one of the commissioners to arbi- 
 trate the strike of the anthracite coal 
 mines. In 1902 he accepted the presi- 
 dency of Clark university. He was one 
 of the original trustees of the Carnegie 
 institute. His writings include a large 
 number of essays and The Industrial 
 Evolution of the United States and 
 Outlines of Practical Sociology. 
 
 WRIGHT, Luke E., American lawyer 
 and administrator, was born in Mem- 
 phis, Tenn., in 1847. In 1900 he was 
 appointed by President McKinley a 
 member of the Philippine commission. 
 In 1901 on the establishment of civil 
 government in the islands he became 
 vice-governor and acting governor dur- 
 ing Governor Taft’s absence in the 
 United States and Europe in 1902. In 
 
 1903 he became governor of the Philip- 
 pines. 
 
 WRIST. See Hand. 
 
 WRIT, in law, a precept under seal in 
 the nanrie of the sovereign, a judge, or 
 other person having jurisdiction, and 
 directed to some public officer or private 
 person, commanding him to do a certain 
 act therein specified. Writs in English 
 law were fonnerly very multifarious, 
 but a great number have been abolished. 
 
 WRITER’S CRAMP, a spasmodic 
 affection in which the patient loses com- 
 plete control over the muscles of the 
 thumb and the fore and middle finger, 
 so that all attempts to write regularly, 
 and in the severer cases even legibly, 
 are unsuccessful. The various methods 
 of treatment for this trouble (such as 
 surgical operations, the application of 
 electricity, etc.) have not produced very 
 satisfactory results. Called also Scriv- 
 ener’s Palsy. 
 
 WRITING, one of the oldest arts, is 
 usually divided into ideographic writing, 
 in which signs represent ideas, and into 
 phonetic writing, in which signs repre- 
 sent sounds. Ideographic writing, in its 
 earliest form, is supposed to have been 
 an attempt to convey ideas by copying 
 objects direct from nature, and this 
 form of it has thus acquired the name of 
 picture writing. After this came sym- 
 bolical writing, in which abbreviated 
 pictures were used as arbitrary sym- 
 bols, first of things, and still later of 
 sounds and words. This indicates the 
 transition into phonetic writing, in 
 which the signs may either represent 
 a whole syllable (syllabic writing), or 
 only a single sound, in which case they 
 are called alphabetic. These signs differ 
 in form and use in the various alphabets. 
 Thus the Chinese signs are read in 
 columns from top to bottom, the Mexi- 
 can picture writing from bottom to top, 
 the Hebrew writing from right to left, 
 and Latin, Greek, and all European 
 languages as well as Sanskrit from left 
 to right. (See Alphabet.) In the Chinese 
 system of writing there is no alphabet, 
 the characters being syllabic and strictly 
 ideographic. Writing was introduced to 
 the western nations by the Phoenicians, 
 and the Phoenician system was based 
 on the Egyptian. The cuneiform writ- 
 ing, another ancient system, invented 
 by the Accadian inhabitants of Chaldea, 
 was also adapted to several languages, 
 as the Assyrian, the Persian, etc., in a 
 variety of ways, ideographic, syllabic, 
 and alphabetic (see Cuneiform Writing). 
 Also of independent origin is the Chinese 
 system. The Egyptians had three dis- 
 tinct kinds of writing, the hieroglyphic, 
 the hieratic, and the enchorial or de- 
 motic (see Hieroglyphic), and it was 
 from the second that the Phoenician and 
 other Semitic systems of writing was 
 derived. The leading Semitic forms are 
 the Samaritan or ancient Hebrew, the 
 Chaldee or East Aramaic, the Syriac or 
 West Aramaic, the Kufic or early 
 Arabic, and the Neshki or modern 
 Arabic. At what tima writing was in- 
 troduced into ancient Greece is not 
 known with certainty, but probably 
 between the 10th and the 7th century 
 B.c. From Greece it passed to Sicily and 
 Italy, and thence it was spread as Chris- 
 tianity spread. Like the Semites the 
 Greeks originally wrote from right to 
 * left. In mediaeval manuscripts a variety 
 
 of styles were adopted in different 
 epochs and countries. Capitals were not 
 then used as now to distinguish promi- 
 nent words, but whole manuscripts were 
 written in large or small capitals. 
 Uncial letters, which prevailed from the 
 7th to the 10th centuries, were rounded 
 capitals with few hair-strokes. Gothic 
 characters, which were merely fanciful 
 deviations from the Roman types, be- 
 came common in inscriptions from the 
 13th to the 15th centuries, and were em- 
 ployed in church books from the time 
 of St. Louis. In England a variety of 
 styles called Saxon prevailed in the early 
 middle ages. A mixed style was formed 
 of a combination of Roman, Lombardic 
 and Saxon characters; the Norman style 
 came in with William the Conqueror; 
 and the English court hand, an adapta- 
 tion of Saxon, prevailed from the 16th 
 century to the reign of George II. There 
 have been various attempts made to in- 
 troduce systems of phonetic writing, 
 in which each sound should be repre- 
 sented by one invariable sign. Systems 
 of shorthand writing are generally 
 phonetic. See Shorthand. 
 
 WRYNECK, a bird allied to and re- 
 sembling the woodpeckers. It is re- 
 markable for its long tongue, its power 
 
 Common wryneck. 
 
 of protruding and retracting it, and the 
 writhing snake-like motion which it can 
 impart to its neck without moving the 
 rest of the body. It feeds chiefly on 
 ius6c^s 
 
 WURTEMBERG (vur'tem-berh), or 
 WURTTEMBERG, a kingdom of the 
 German empire, between Bavaria, 
 Baden, Hohenzollern, and the Lake of 
 Constance, which separates it from 
 Switzerland; area, 7531 sq. miles; pop. 
 2,169,434. In the west the Schwarz- 
 wald, or Black Forest forms part of the 
 boundary, and the Alb or Rauhe Alp, 
 forming part of the Franconian Jura, 
 covers an extensive tract. The country 
 belongs in large part to the basin of the 
 Rhine, being drained northward into 
 that river by the Neckar, while the 
 Danube flows across the southern dis- 
 tricts. In the lower and more favorable 
 districts the fig and melon ripen in the 
 open air, and the vine, cultivated on an 
 extensive scale, produces several first- 
 class wines; corn, wheat, hops, to- 
 bacco, and fruit, which is employed in 
 cider making, are largely cultivated. 
 About a third of the country is under 
 forests, which consist chiefly of oaks, 
 beech^, and pine. Of minerals, by far 
 the most valuable are iron and salt, both 
 of which are worked by the government; 
 the others are limestone, gypsum, ala- 
 baster, slate, millstones, and potters’- 
 
WURZBURG 
 
 WYOMING 
 
 clay. The manufactures consist chiefly 
 of cotton, woolen, and linen goods, paper, 
 wooden clocks, toys, musical instru- 
 ments, and chemical products. The 
 government is an hereditary constitu- 
 tional monarchy, the executive power 
 being lodged in the sovereign, and the 
 legislative jointly in the sovereign and a 
 parliament, composed of an upper and 
 a lower chamber. The latter, which is 
 elected every six years, is composed of 
 ninety-three members. In the Bundes- 
 rath Wiirtemberg is represented by four 
 members, and in the Reichstag by 
 seventeen. Education is generally 
 diffused, and the center of the educa- 
 tional system is the University of 
 Tubingen. Besides Stuttgart (the capi- 
 cal), the chief towns are Ulm, Heilbronn, 
 and Esslingen. It became a member of 
 the German empire on its foundation 
 in 1871. 
 
 WURZBURG (vurts'burh), a town in 
 the northwest of Bavaria, on the Main, 
 60 miles s.e. of Frankfort. The most 
 important edifices are the Romanesque 
 cathedral, erected in the 10th century; 
 the university, with various new build- 
 ings; the Julius hospital and school of 
 medicine, and the royal palace. The 
 university library has 200,000 volumes, 
 and in other respects the university, 
 especially in the medical faculty, is well 
 equipped. The manufactures are varied 
 in character. Pop. 75,497. 
 
 WY'ANDOTS (in Canada called Hu- 
 rons), an Indian tribe in North America 
 belonging to the Iroquois family. In 
 the beginning of the 17th century they 
 were settled on the eastern shore of Lake 
 Huron, but in a tribal war (1636) they 
 were nearly exterminated by the Iro- 
 quois. The tribe then suffered various 
 vicissitudes. In 1812 a number of their 
 warriors fought on the side of the British. 
 Latterly a small number got a reserva- 
 tion in the Indian territory, but they 
 are now very few in numbers. 
 
 WYANDOTTE CAVE, situated 5 
 miles n. of Leavenworth, Indiana, has 
 been explored for over 20 miles, and 
 rivals the Mammoth Cave in the size 
 of some of its chambers and in its 
 stalagmites and stalactites. 
 
 WYATT, Sir Thomas, the first writer 
 of sonnets in the English lan^age, born 
 in 1503, died 1542. His poetical works, 
 which include elegies, odes, and a 
 metrical translation of the Psalms, were 
 ublished in 1557, along with those of 
 is friend the Earl of Surrey. 
 
 WYCHERLEY, William, an English 
 dramatist, born about 1640 at Clive, 
 near Shrewsbury; died 1715. His early 
 years were spent in France, afterward 
 he was educated at Oxford, and entered 
 himself at the Temple; while in 1670 he 
 became known as a fashionable man 
 about town and the author of Love in a 
 Wood. This comedy was followed by 
 the Gentleman Dancing Master, the 
 Country Wife, and the Plain Dealer. 
 Wycherley is the typical dramatist of 
 the Restoration group, in which all the 
 
 brilliancy and dissoluteness of that school 
 are very prominent. 
 
 WYCH-HAZEL, the common name of 
 small trees, with alternate leaves on 
 short petioles, and yellow flowers dis- 
 posed in clusters in the axils of the 
 leaves, and surrounded by a three- 
 leaved involucrxim. They are natives of 
 North America, Persia, or China, and 
 are very different from the true hazel. 
 The Virginian wych-hazel is medicinally 
 important. 
 
 WYCLIFFE. See Wickliff. 
 
 WYOMING, one of the northwestern 
 states of the Union, is bounded on the 
 n. by Montana, on the e. by South 
 Dakota and Nebraska, on the s. by 
 Colorado and Utah, and on the w. by 
 Utah, Idaho, and Montana. Area, 
 97,890 sq. miles. It ranks sixth in size 
 among the states. The state is traversed 
 by the main axis of the Rocky moun- 
 tains, and the greater part of it is a 
 mountainous region. Yellowstone Na- 
 tional park, 3600 sq. miles in area, oc- 
 cupies the northwestern corner, and is 
 mainly within the limits of this state. 
 The southwestern portion of the state 
 slopes toward the Pacific ocean, and 
 forms a part of the Green river valley. 
 The eastern part of the state is drained 
 by tributaries of the Missouri, the west- 
 
 Seal of Wyoming. 
 
 ern by the Snake or Shoshone river, 
 which ultimately joins the Columbia, 
 and in the southwest is the Green river, 
 which eventually discharges its waters 
 into the Colorado. The climate is dry 
 and sunny and as a rule very pleasant 
 and healthful. The winters, though very 
 cold, are not exceedingly severe, as the 
 snowfall is light, and the dry air makes 
 the cold easily endurable. The average 
 annual precipitation for the state is 13 
 inches, and the soil is generally a light 
 sandy loam, becoming darker and richer 
 in the river valleys. In the arid Red 
 desert region the soil over large areas 
 is strongly impregnated with saline 
 matter and poor in humus. The coal 
 resources of the state are enormous and 
 give promise of playing an important 
 part in the future development of the 
 state. The state has also deposits of 
 gold and silver, copper, iron, soda, some 
 
 tin and an abundance of limestone. The 
 numerous oil fields have begun to be 
 developed. In the central part of the 
 state a lubricating oil of superior quality 
 is produced. Over one half of the area 
 of the state is adapted to grazing. 
 Wyoming raises more sheep than any 
 other state, the breed is of superior 
 quality and the yield of fleece is very 
 large. Cattle-raising is also very im- 
 portant. The state produces a hardy 
 stock of horses. About 90 per cent of 
 the acreage devoted to crops is given to 
 hay and forage. The climate is too 
 severe for corn, but oats and wheat grow 
 abundantly. Potatoes are a favorite 
 crop. The hardier fruits and vegetables 
 are successfully raised. The total 
 wooded area of the state is estimated 
 at 12,500 sq. miles, two-thirds of which, 
 however, are in the Yellowstone Na- 
 tional park and the United States re- 
 serves. The manufactures are limited 
 to products for home consumption. 
 The State university, chartered in 1886, 
 is located at Laramie, and is the leading 
 educational institution in the state. 
 There are numerous public schools of all 
 grades and many valuable libraries; 
 also hospitals and charitable institutions. 
 A fur-trading post established at what is 
 now Fort Laramie, in 1834, is believed 
 to have been the first white settlement 
 in Wyoming. The state comprises 
 portions of the territory acquired by the 
 Louisiana purchase of 1803, and of that 
 obtained by the treaty with Mexico in 
 1848. In 1867 the discovery of gold led 
 to the founding of South Pass City, and 
 the same year Cheyenne was laid out by 
 the Union Pacific Railroad company. 
 The surrounding country, which was 
 without government of any sort, was 
 formed into Laramie county. Dak., and 
 a vigilance committee kept order. The 
 territorial government was organized 
 in 1869, and the same year woman’s 
 suffrage was adopted and has been 
 maintained to the present time. The 
 state was admitted to the Union July 
 10, 1890, as the constitution adopted 
 in November, 1889, had been approved 
 by congress. In national politics the 
 state voted first in 1892 for the repub- 
 lican candidates. The free-silver agita- 
 tion in 1896 carried it into the demo- 
 cratic column, but in 1900, 1904 and 
 1908 republican electors were cliosen. 
 The largest cities are Cheyenne, the 
 capital, with a population of 16,841, 
 and Laramie, 9865. The population of 
 the state is 125, ('00. 
 
 WYOMING, University of, a coeduca- 
 tional state institution at Laramie, 
 Wyo., founded in 1887 on the federal 
 land grants. Its departments include 
 colleges of liberal arts, agriculture, and 
 mechanical engineering, a school of 
 commerce, a school of mines, and nor- 
 mal, graduate, and preparatory depart- 
 ments. It confers the bachelor’s degree 
 in arts, sciences, and pedagogy, and 
 gives the master’s degree for advanced 
 work. 
 
X 
 
 X-RAYS 
 
 X. the twenty-fourth letter of the 
 English alphabet. Except when used 
 at the beginning of a word, x in English 
 is a double consonant, and has usually 
 the sound of ks, as in wax, lax, axis, etc. ; 
 but when terminating a syllable, espe- 
 cially an initial syllable, if the syllable 
 following it is open or accented, it 
 often takes the sound of gz, as in exist, 
 exhaust, exalt, example, etc. _ At the 
 beginning of a word it has precisely the 
 sound of z. 
 
 XANTHIPPE. See Socrates. 
 
 XAVIER, St. Francis (zav'i-er), sur- 
 named the apostle of the Indies, was 
 born in 1506 at the castle of Xavier in 
 Navarre. He fell under the personal 
 influence of Ignatius Loyola, and be- 
 came one of the first members of 
 Loyola’s Society of Jesus. Having been 
 appointed papal nuncio in the Indies, in 
 1542 he reached Goa, where, and in other 
 parts of India, notably in Travancore, 
 he prosecuted with success his mission- 
 ary labors. After proselytizing at 
 Ceylon, at Malacca, and in the Moluccas, 
 he visited Japan, where he established 
 a promising mission. In 1552 he 
 started for China in the hope of con- 
 verting it to Roman Catholic Chris- 
 tianity, but died in 1552, when at no 
 great distance from Canton. He was 
 canonized in 1621. 
 
 XEBEC, a three-masted vessel, for- 
 merly much used by the Algerine corsairs, 
 and still to a small extent employed in 
 
 Xebec of Barbary. 
 
 Mediterranean commerce. It differs 
 from the felucca chiefly in having sev- 
 eral square sails, as well as lateen sails, 
 while the latter has only lateen sails. 
 
 XENOC'RATES, of Chalcedon, Greek 
 philosopher, a disciple of Plato, born 
 396 B.C., and from 339 until his death, 
 314 B.C., head of the famous Academy 
 
 XENOPH'ANES, of Colophon, Greek 
 philosopher, born probably about 330 
 B.C., for some time settled at Elea and 
 regarded as the founder of the Eleatic 
 school of philosophy. 
 
 XEN'OPHON, the Greek historian and 
 essayist, born at Athens about 430 
 B.c. ; became early a disciple of Socrates. 
 In 401 B.C., partly from curiosity, and 
 in no mihtary capacity, he joined the 
 Greek mercenaries attached to the 
 force led by Cyrus the Younger against 
 his brother Artaxerxes II. After the 
 defeat and death of Cyrus on the 
 
 X 
 
 field of Cunaxa, the chief Greek officers 
 were treacherously assassinated by the 
 victorious satrap. Xenophon now came 
 to the front, and mainly conducted 
 the famous retreat of the 10,000 through 
 wild and mountainous regions, often 
 harassed by the guerrilla attacks of 
 barbarous tribes, until after a five 
 months’ march they reached Trebizond 
 on the Black Sea, February 400 b.c. 
 The expedition and its sequel form the 
 subject of his best-known work, the 
 Anabasis. Xenophon fought on the 
 side of the Lacedsemonians in the subse- 
 quent war between Sparta and Persia, 
 and rose from poverty to competence 
 through the ransom which he received 
 from a wealthy Persian nobleman whom 
 he had captured. With Agesilaus, un- 
 der whom he had already servea, he 
 fought at Coroneia (394 b .c.) against his 
 own countrymen, and was on this ac- 
 count formally banished from Athens. 
 For more than twenty years he seems to 
 have lived the life of a country gentle- 
 man at Scyllus in Elis, where he is 
 supposed to have written most of his 
 works. After the defeat of the Spartans 
 at Leuctra (371 b.c.), Xenophon was 
 driven from Elis, and is said to have 
 retired to Corinth. He was certainly 
 alive in 357 b.c. Xenophon’s principal 
 works, besides the Anabasis, are his 
 Cyropsedia, a political and educational 
 romance based on the history of C 3 TUS 
 the Great; the Hellenica, a history of 
 Greece where Thucydides leaves oflt, 
 from 411 to 362 b.c.; and the Memora- 
 bilia, recollections of Socrates. 
 
 XERES. See Jerez. 
 
 XERXES. I., King of Persia, famous 
 for his unsuccessful attempt to conquer 
 Greece, was the son of Darius and of 
 Atossa, daughter of Cyrus. He began 
 to rei^ 485 B.c., and continued his 
 father’s preparations for another Persian 
 invasion of Greece. The army which he 
 collected must on the soberest estimate 
 have exceeded a million of men, 
 with a fleet of 1200 sail. Xerxes crossed 
 the Hellespont (480 b.c.), and met with 
 no resistance until he reached the Pass 
 of Thermopylae. After Leonidas had 
 fallen there with his Spartans, Xerxes 
 pressed forward and burned Athens, 
 which had been forsaken by almost 
 all its inhabitants. He watched from 
 She mainland the naval battle of Salamis 
 September, 480 b.c.), and fledignomin- 
 iously after the overwhelming defeat of 
 his fleet. Xerxes was assassinated 465 
 b.c. He_^ has been supposed to be the 
 Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther. 
 
 XIMENES (hi-ma'nes), Francisco, 
 Spanish cardinal, born in 1437, dUed in 
 1517. In 1492 he was appointed con- 
 fessor to Queen Isabella of Castile, and 
 in 1495 Archbishop of Toledo, dis- 
 tin^ishing himself as a reformer of 
 ecclesiastical and monastic abuses. In 
 1507 he was made a cardinal, and in 
 1509 he accompanied an expedition, 
 fitted out at his own expense, which 
 captured the Moorish city of Oran. 
 In 1516 King Ferdinand died, leaving 
 Ximenes regent during his grandson 
 Charles’s absence in the Netherlands. 
 
 In 1517 Charles returned to Spain, 
 
 and, prompted by jealousy of the power 
 of Ximenes, dismissed him. Ximenes 
 died almost immediately afterward. 
 He founded and endowed the Univer- 
 sity of Alcala de Henares, and is said 
 to have expended half a million of 
 ducats on the famous Complutensian 
 Polyglot. 
 
 X-RAYS, certain mysterious rays 
 which emanate from a glass globe 
 from which the air has been exhausted, 
 and through which an electric charge 
 is taking place. The rays were dis- 
 covered in 1895 by Dr. Roentgen of 
 Wurzburg. 
 
 The most striking feature of X-raya 
 at first sight is the fact that they 
 penetrate with great ease certain sub- 
 stances which are opaque to light, and, 
 on the other hand, are absorbed by 
 certain substances which are very trans- 
 parent to light. Thus the X-rays are 
 absorbed largely by glass, but are 
 transmitted most freely by aluminum, 
 by wood, by human flesh, etc. It is 
 owing to these facts that photographs 
 may be obtained of many objects 
 hidden from view, by allowing X-rays 
 to cast a shadow picture of them on a 
 photographic plate. In this manner 
 photographs of the bones of the body, of 
 metal objects contained in wooden 
 boxes, etc., may easily be obtained. 
 
 When a careful study is made of the 
 at^l^ption produced in X-rays by 
 vai: JUS substances, it is found that there 
 is a close connection between the 
 intensity of absorption and the density 
 of tHe absorbing body; and it is a 
 gene^’al law that the greater the density 
 of th^ body the greater is its absorptive 
 powtT. This fact is of the utmost 
 importance in the interpretation of 
 photographs of portions of the human 
 body and of other objects taken by 
 the X-rays ; the intensity on the photo- 
 graphic plate is in reality a measure 
 of the density of the absorbing sub- 
 stance whose photograph is taken. 
 
 X-rays are observed to affect a 
 photographic plate in the same manner 
 as ordinary light, and this fact is made 
 use of in nearly all applications of 
 these rays. It was found also — in fact, 
 it was the fundamental observation of 
 Roentgen — that X-rays excite the fluor- 
 escent action of certain substances, 
 so that when excited by the rays they 
 emit light. A careful study has been 
 made of various substances which are 
 affected in this way, and certain of 
 them are used in making so-called 
 fluorescent screens, which may be used 
 to receive the shadows cast by an X-ray 
 tube instead of receiving them on a 
 photographic plate. 
 
 Roentgen himself observed that if the 
 X-rays were allowed to enter the eye 
 of an observer who is situated in a room 
 entirely dark, the retina of the eye 
 received a stimulus and light was per- 
 ceived. It is extremely probable that 
 this is due to the fluorescent action of 
 the X-rays on certain portions of the 
 eye. It was observed, a few months 
 after the discovery of the X-rays, 
 that if the radiation is too intense its 
 action on the skin of an observer might 
 
produce most serious changes and 
 cause what are known as “X-ray burns.” 
 X-ray pictures of parts of the body as 
 
 seen when photographed are due to the 
 power of absorption of different sub- 
 stances of different amounts of the rays 
 
 k-*! 
 
 Y, the twenty-fifth letter of the 
 English alphabet, was taken from the 
 Latin, the Latin having borrowed it 
 from the Greek T or upsilon. In 
 modern English it is both a consonant 
 and a vowel. At the beginning of 
 syllables and followed by a vowel it is 
 a consonant; in the middle of syllables 
 and at the end of words it is a vowel. 
 
 YACHT (y5t), a light and elegantly 
 fitted up vessel, propelled by either 
 steam or sail, used for pleasure or racing. 
 There are two distinct species of yacht 
 — the mere racer, with enormous spars 
 and sails and deeply-ballasted hull, with 
 fine lines, but sacrificing everything to 
 speed; and the elegant, commodius, 
 well-proportioned traveling yacht, often 
 with steam-propelling machinery, fit for 
 a voyage round the world. A type of 
 yacht much used in America is that 
 with a center-board or sort of movable 
 keel. The practice of yachting as well 
 as the word yacht was derived from the 
 Dutch. The word yacht is found in use 
 in English in Elizabeth’s time, and 
 James I had a yacht built for his son 
 Henry early in the 17th century, but it 
 was not till long after that yachting be- 
 came a favorite pastime with the rich. 
 The pleasure ship is as old as Homer 
 or older. One of the Ptolemys (300 
 B.c.) had nearly 1000 pleasure ships, 
 some of which were 300 feet long. 
 Modem yachts and yachting dates 
 from 1588 in Britain with the building 
 
 Y 
 
 of the Rat at Cowes, in the Isle of 
 Wight. The first recorded yacht race 
 took place on the Thames in October, 
 1661. Yacht racing took on new life 
 about 1843 when Queen Victoria began 
 to encourage it by offering valuable 
 cups for prizes. In 1844 the New York 
 Yacht Club was organized and in 1851 
 it sent to England a specially built 
 yacht, the America, to take part in the 
 yacht races as Cowes. The prize was 
 a silver cup valued at $500, offered to 
 all nations by the Royal Yacht Squad- 
 ron, for a race around the Isle of 
 Wight. The America won this cup 
 against all nations and brought it 
 back. In 1857 the owner of the America 
 presented the cup to the New York 
 Yacht Club to stand for all time as 
 the symbol of the world’s supremacy 
 in yacht racing. The cup was thence- 
 forward called “the America’s cup.” 
 To get it back British yachtsmen are 
 required to challenge the New Ycrk 
 Yacht Club (or the United States, 
 through that organization), and must 
 send the challenger to American waters 
 for the race. See Shamrock i, II, III. 
 
 The introduction of compound engines, 
 with their economy of space and fuel, 
 marks the real beginning of steam 
 yachting, and since that time steam 
 yachts have had a wonderful develop- 
 ment. 
 
 The limit in this class was reached in 
 the Arrow, built in 1900. She is 139.33 
 
 in chemical composition, molecular 
 grouping and thickness. When pro- 
 ficient the observer may recognize the 
 presence and extent of tuberculosis, 
 pneumonia, pleurisy, empyema, etc., 
 and from the shortened excusion of the 
 diaphragm the presence of bronchitis 
 may be inferred. Much can be judged 
 concerning the heart, and if displaced, 
 by fluid or gas in the pleural cavities, 
 pneumonia, pleurisy, tuberculosis, ane- 
 urism or tumor, or if it is attached or 
 unusually placed or malformed, the con- 
 dition may be ascertained by the X-ray 
 examination. Aneurisms can be clearly 
 defined when no other method is of 
 service. All new growths as well as en- 
 larged glands within the thorax may 
 be diagnosed. Valuable information 
 concerning the oesophagus, stomach, and 
 other abdominal organs and viscera, the 
 pelvic cavity, measurements of the 
 uterus and extra-uterine pregnancy 
 may be diagnosed. The X-ray is serv- 
 iceable in the treatment of lupus, 
 eczema, syphilitic lesions, naevus, sy- 
 cosis, favus, acne, and psoriasis. In 
 many cases of new growths, such as 
 cancer, it has produced amelioration 
 and actual cure. The Roentgen rays are 
 used in surgery to detect the position or 
 presence of foreign bodies, such as 
 bullets, and to recognize fractures, and 
 in cases of fracture it remains preemi- 
 nent, both to confirm diagnosis and to 
 decide if a fracture has been properly 
 reduced, after it has been put into a 
 retaining apparatus. The X-ray has 
 added greatly to our knowledge of the 
 human skeleton, especially of the joints. 
 
 feet long and displaces 66 tons, with a 
 record of 40 knots. She is fitted with 
 quadruple-expansion engines that take 
 steam at a pressure of 400 pounds from 
 water-tube boilers. 
 
 YAK, a fine large species of ox, with 
 cylindric horns, curving outward, long, 
 pendent, silky hair fringing its sides, 
 a bushy mane of fine hair, and long, 
 silky, horse-hke tail; inhabiting, both 
 
 Yak. 
 
 in the wild and the domesticated state, 
 Tibet and the higher plateaus of the 
 Himalayas; called grunniens (grunting) 
 from its very peculiar voice, which 
 sounds much like the grunt of a pig. 
 It is the ordinary domestic animal of the 
 inhabitants of those regions, supplying 
 milk, food, and raiment, as well as 
 being used as a beast of burden and to 
 draw the plough. The tail of the yak 
 is in great request for various ornamental 
 purposes, and forms an important article 
 of commerce. 
 
YAKUTSK 
 
 yeast 
 
 YAKUTSK', a province of Eastern 
 Siberia, includes nearly the whole of the 
 basin of the Lena, between which river 
 and its tributary, the Vitim, rich gold 
 mines are worked. Area, 1,517,127 sq. 
 miles. Pop. 243,450. 
 
 YALE UNIVERSITY, one of the oldest 
 and largest of American universities, 
 originally a collegiate school established 
 at Saybrook, Connecticut, in 1701. It 
 was removed in 1716 to New Haven, 
 and soon after its name was changed to 
 Yale college, after Elihu Yale (1649- 
 1751), a native who had amassed a for- 
 tune in India, and was an early bene- 
 factor of the institution. It has four 
 faculties or departments; philosophy, 
 theology, law, ajid medicine, in all of 
 which its governing body grants de- 
 grees. 'The first of these includes, be- 
 sides the original academical or arts 
 department of Yale college, a scientific 
 and engineering school, a school of fine 
 arts, and also post-graduate courses. 
 The aggregate number of volumes in all 
 the libraries of the university is over 
 500,000, of which 1000 were presented 
 in 1730 by Bishop Berkeley. Its build- 
 ings are now very extensive, and its 
 funds have greatly increased by private 
 munificence. The teaching staff num- 
 bers nearly 400, and the total number 
 of students is over 3,000. 
 
 YAM, a large esculent tuber or root 
 produced by various plants growing in 
 the warmer regions of both hemispheres. 
 Yams, when roasted or boiled, form a 
 wholesome, palatable, and nutritious 
 food, and are extensively cultivated in 
 many tropical and sub-tropical coun- 
 tries. The Chinese or Japanese yam con- 
 tains more nitrogenous and therefore 
 nutritive matter, but less starch, than 
 potatoes. It is hardy in Great Britain 
 and thrives in the United States, but 
 its cultivation is impeded by the great 
 depth to which its roots descend. The 
 tubers of the West Indian yam, one of 
 the species most widely diffused, some- 
 times attain a weight of 50 lbs. 
 
 YAMA, a Hindu god, the judge of the 
 dead, whose good and bad actions are 
 read to him out of a record, and who 
 according to their merits and demerits 
 are sent to the celestial or to the infernal 
 regions. Hindus offer to him daily 
 oblations of water. 
 
 YANG-TZE-KIANG, one of the two 
 great rivers of China, is formed by two 
 streams rising in Eastern Tibet, in lat. 
 26° 30' n.. Ion. 102° e., and after flowing 
 east and then south enters the Chinese 
 province of Yunnan. Pursuing a very 
 tortuous course, much of it through 
 most fertile and densely-populated 
 regions, it reaches the great city of 
 Nanking, 200 miles from the sea, where 
 it widens gradually into the vast estuary 
 which connects it with the Yellow sea. 
 Its whole course, under various names, 
 is 2900 miles, and the area of its basin is 
 computed to be 548,000 sq. miles. It 
 is connected by the Grand canal with 
 the Hoang-ho or Yellow river, and is 
 navigable for vessels of considerable 
 draught for 1200 miles from its mouth. 
 By the treaty of Tien-tsin the Lower 
 Yang-tze was opened to European trade ; 
 and 700 miles from its mouth is the 
 treaty-port of Hangkow, the great com- 
 merical port of Mid-China. The highest 
 
 port on the river at present reached by 
 steamers is the treaty-port Ichang, 
 1000 miles from its mouth. 
 
 YANKEE, a cant name for Americans 
 belonging to the New England states. 
 During the American revolution the 
 name was applied by the British to all 
 the insurgents; and during the civil war 
 it was the common designation of the 
 federal soldiers by the confederates. 
 In Britain the term is sometimes im- 
 properly applied generally to natives 
 of the United States. The most common 
 explanation of the term seems also the 
 most plausible, namely, that it is a cor- 
 rupt pronunciation of English or of 
 French Anglais formerly current among 
 the American Indians. 
 
 YANKEE-DOODLE, a famous air, 
 now regarded as American and national. 
 In reality the air is an old English one, 
 called Nankey Doodle, and had some 
 derisive reference to Cromwell. The 
 really national tune of the whole United 
 States, however, is “Hail, Columbia.” 
 
 YARD, a British and American stand- 
 ard measure of length, equal to 3 feet 
 or 36 inches, the foot in general being 
 made practically the unit. As a cloth 
 measure the yard is divided into 4 
 quarters = 16 nails. A square yard con- 
 tains 9 square feet, and a cubic yard 27 
 cubic feet. See Weights and Measures. 
 
 YARD, in ships, a long cylindrical 
 piece of timber, having a rounded taper 
 toward each end, slung crosswise to a 
 mast. All yards are either square or 
 lateen, the former being suspended 
 across the masts at right angles for 
 spreading square sails, the latter ob- 
 liquely. Yards have sheave-holes near 
 their extremities for the sheets reeving 
 through. Either end of a yard, or rather 
 that part of it which is outside the 
 sheeve-hole, is called the yard-arm. 
 
 YARKAND', the chief town of the 
 principal oasis of Chinese Turkestan, is 
 situated on the river Yarkand. The 
 inhabitants, chiefly Persians, are keen 
 traders. Pop. about 60,000. — The river 
 rises in the Karakorum mountains, and 
 helps to form the river Tarim, which 
 enters Lob Nor. 
 
 YARMOUTH, or, as it is more strictly 
 called. Great Yarmouth, an English 
 seaport, important fishing-station, water- 
 ing-place, and municipal, pari., and 
 county borough, in the county of Nor- 
 folk, 20 miles east of Norwich. It is the 
 great seat of the English herring and 
 mackerel fishery, and also furnishes 
 large quantities of white-fish. The curing 
 of herring as “Yarmouth bloaters” is an 
 important industry. The coast is dan- 
 gerous, but Yarmouth roads, between 
 the shore and a range of sandbanks, 
 offers a safe anchorage. Pop. 51,250. 
 
 YARN, any textile fiber prepared for 
 weaving into cloth. See Thread. 
 
 YARRELL, William, an eminent 
 naturalist, was born in London 1784, 
 died 1856. His two works, the History 
 of British Fishes and the History of 
 British Birds are standard authorities. 
 
 YATES, Richard, war governor of 
 Blinois, was born in Warsaw, Ky., in 
 1818. He was thirteen years of ago when 
 his family moved to Illinois. He gradu- 
 ated at Blinois college, Jacksonville, 
 studied law, and practiced in Spring- 
 field. Elected to the state legislature in 
 
 1842, he was sent to congress in 1850, 
 being the youngest member of that body. 
 He was elected governor in 1860, and 
 again in 1862. He was an outspoken 
 opponent of slavery, and was very active 
 in raising volunteers. It was in Gov. 
 Yates’s office that Ulysses S. Grant re- 
 ceived his first distinct recognition as a 
 soldier. Gov. Yates was elected United 
 States senator and served one term, 
 from 1865 to 1871. He died in 1873. 
 His son, Richard, Jr., was elected gover- 
 nor of Illinois in 1900. 
 
 YATAGHAN, a sort of dagger-like 
 saber with double-curved blade, about 
 2 feet long, the handle without a cross- 
 guard, much worn in Mohammedan 
 countries. 
 
 YAWL, a small ship’s boat, usually 
 rowed by four or six oars; a jolly-boat; 
 also a sailing boat similar to a cutter, 
 but having a small sail at the stern. 
 
 YAWNING, an involuntary opening of 
 the mouth, generally produced by 
 weariness, tedium, or an inclination to 
 sleep, sometimes by hunger, etc. When 
 yawning is troublesome, long, deep 
 respiration, or drawing in the air at long 
 intervals, relieves it. 
 
 YAWS, a disease occurring in America, 
 Africa, and the West Indies, and almost 
 entirely confined to the African races. 
 It is characterized by cutaneous tumors, 
 numerous and successive, gradually in- 
 creasing from specks to the size of a rasp- 
 berry, one at length growing larger than 
 the rest; core a fungous excrescence; 
 fever slight, and probably irritative 
 merely. It is contagious, and cannot be 
 communicated except by the actual 
 contact of yaw matter to some abraded 
 surface, or by innoculation, which is 
 sometimes affected by flies. 
 
 YAZOO RIVER, a river of the United 
 States, 290 miles long, navigable 
 throughout its course, which is entirely 
 in the state of Mississippi, joining the 
 Mississippi river 12 miles above Vicks- 
 burg. 
 
 YEAR, the period of time during 
 which the earth makes one complete 
 revolution in its orbit, or the period 
 which elapses between the sun’s leaving 
 either equinoctial point, or either tropic, 
 and his return to the same. This is the 
 tropical or solar year, and the year in 
 the strict and proper sense of the word. 
 This period comprehends what are called 
 the twelve calendar months, and is 
 usually calculated to commence on 1st 
 January and to end on 31st December. 
 It is not quite uniform, but its mean 
 length is about 365 days, 5 hours, 48 
 minutes, and 51.6 seconds. In popular 
 usage, however, the year consists of 
 365 days, and every fourth year of 366. 
 — Lunar year, a period consisting of 12 
 lunar months. The lunar astronomical 
 year consists of 12 lunar synodical 
 months, or 354 days, 8 hours, 48 min- 
 utes, 36 seconds. The common lunar 
 year consists of 12 lunar civil months, 
 or 354 days. The embolismic or inter- 
 calary lunar year consists of 13 lunar 
 civil mopths, and contains 384 days. — 
 
 YEAST, the yellowish substance, hav- 
 ing an acid reaction, produced during 
 the vinous fermentation of saccharine 
 fluids, rising to the surface, when the 
 temperature of the fluid is high, in ti e 
 form of a frothy, flocculent, viscid 
 
YEDDO 
 
 YENISEISK 
 
 matter (surface yeast), and falling to the 
 bottom (sediment yeast) when the tem- 
 perature is low. The ordinary yeast of 
 beer consists of an immense number of 
 minute cells, which constitute a plant 
 called the yeast-plant, which multiplies 
 by budding off other cells, or sometimes 
 by spores. Little is known regarding 
 the genesis of the yeast-plant. Pasteur’s 
 researches seem to show that the yeast 
 which forms in grape juice is derived 
 chiefly from certain germs abounding 
 about harvest-time on the grapes, and 
 diffused throughout the atmosphere of 
 breweries and wine-cellars, etc. Yeast 
 is not only generally essential to the 
 production of wine from grape and 
 other fruit juices, and to the manufac- 
 ture of beer, but it is also an agent in 
 producing the fermentation whereby 
 bread is rendered light, porous, and 
 spongy. 
 
 YEDDO. SeeTokio. 
 
 YELLOW, one of the prismatic colors; 
 the color of that part of the solar spect- 
 rum situated between the orange and 
 the green ; a bright golden color, the type 
 of which may be found in the field 
 buttercup, which is a pure yellow. 
 United with blue it yields green; with 
 red it produces orange. See Color and 
 Spectrum . 
 
 YELLOW-BIRD, a small singing bird 
 common in the United States. The 
 smnmer dress of the male is of a lemon 
 yellow, with the wings, tail, and fore 
 part of the head black. When caged the 
 song of this bird greatly resembles that 
 of the canary. 
 
 YELLOW-FEVER, popularly known 
 as Yellow Jack, a malignant febrile dis- 
 ease, indigenous chiefly to the West 
 Indies, northern coasts of South Ameri- 
 ca, the borders of the Gulf of Mexico, 
 and the Southern United States. It is 
 attended with yellowness of the skin, 
 of some shade between lemon-yellow 
 and the deepest orange-yellow. The 
 symptoms may appear within one or 
 two days after the poison has entered 
 the person’s body, or may not occur for 
 six or ten. The attack is sudden, be- 
 ginning with shivering, headache, pain 
 in the back and limbs, with fever. It is 
 most fatal from May to August; is very 
 contagious, but a sufferer from one 
 attack is nearly safe from a second. It 
 has occasionally appeared in Europe, 
 but does not spread ; cold weather kills it. 
 
 YELLOW-HAMMER, yellow-hammer, 
 a passerine bird called also yellow- 
 bunting. The head, cheeks, front of the 
 neck, belly, and lower tail-coverts are 
 of a bright yellow; the upper surface is 
 partly yellow, but chiefly brown, the 
 feathers on the top of the back being 
 blackish in the middle, and the tail 
 feathers are also blackish. The yellow- 
 hammer is a resident in Britain, and 
 generally throughout Europe. 
 
 YELLOW-PINE, a North American 
 tree, Pinus mitis or variabilis. The wood 
 is universally employed in the countries 
 where it grows for domestic purposes, 
 and is also extensively exported to 
 Britain, and elsewhere. 
 
 YELLOW RIVER. See Hoang-ho. 
 
 YELLOWS, an inflammation of the 
 liver, or a kind of jaundice which affects 
 horses, cattle, and sheep, causing yellow- 
 ness of the eyes. 
 
 YELLOW SEA, an arm of the Pacific 
 ocean, on the northeast coast of China; 
 length, about 620 miles ; greatest breadth 
 about 400 miles. It is very shallow, and 
 obtains its name from the lemon-yellow 
 color of its water near the land, caused 
 by mud suspended in the water from 
 the inflow of the rivers Hoang-ho and 
 Yang-tse-kiang. 
 
 Yellow hammer. 
 
 YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, 
 
 a region mainly in Wyoming, United 
 States, which in 1872 was withdrawn 
 from settlement by the United States 
 government to became a park or tract 
 for the recreation of the people. Its 
 area is 3312 sq. miles; its length north 
 and south 61 miles, and its breadth 53. 
 It is accessible by a branch of the North- 
 ern Pacific railway. Its surface is mainly 
 an undulating plain, diversified, how- 
 ever, by great mountain ranges, one of 
 which, the Absaroka, a range separating 
 the waters of the Yellowstone river 
 from those of the Big Horn, contains 
 
 Firehole basin is the most magnificent 
 natural fountain in the world. The 
 Yellowstone lake, one of many, is a 
 magnificent sheet of water, with an area 
 of 150 sq. miles. A large part of the 
 park is covered with forests. Stringent 
 legislation protects the game, with the 
 result that elk, deer, antelope, bear, and 
 bison have taken refuge in it. 
 
 YELLOWSTONE RIVER, a river of 
 the United States, which rises in the 
 Rocky mountains, about lat. 44° n. 
 and Ion. 110° w. After a course of about 
 25 miles it passes through the lake of the 
 same name, and runs northward through 
 the Yellowstone National park. Soon 
 after issuing from the lake the river 
 makes at intervals a series of falls (the 
 last being 300 feet high), and traverses 
 canons, one of which, the Great Canon, 
 is 30 miles in length, its steep sides being 
 colored in bright hues and shaped in 
 great variety of fantastic forms. Run- 
 ning in a northeasterly direction the 
 river ultimately joins the Missouri about 
 lat. 48° n., after a course of some 1100 
 miles. Steamers can ascend it for 300 
 miles to the mouth of the Big Horn, 
 which is its largest affluent. 
 
 YELLOW-THROAT, a small North 
 American singing bird. 
 
 YEMEN, a division of Arabia, occupy- 
 ing the southwest angle of the peninsula, 
 and known as Arabia Felix. Estimated 
 area, 70,000 sq. miles; estimated popu- 
 lation, about 600,000. The chief poten- 
 tate is the Imdm of Sana, a tributary of 
 Turkey. 
 
 YEN, Japanese money of account, 
 equivalent to 98c. 
 
 YENIKA'LE, Strait of, connecting the 
 Black sea with the Sea of Azof, is about 
 20 miles long, and in some parts only 2 
 miles broad and 2 fathoms deep. 
 
 YENISEI (yen'i-si), a great river of 
 Asia, rises in Mongolia, flows northward 
 through Siberia, and after a course of 
 
 The great geyser basin of the upper Yellowstone. 
 
 some of the grandest scenery in the 
 United States. The whole region ex- 
 hibits an endless variety of wild volcanic 
 scenery — hot springs, mud volcanoes, 
 geysers, canons, waterfalls, etc. The 
 geysers are more remarkable than those 
 of Iceland, and the Grand Geyser in 
 
 about 2,500 miles enters the bay of the 
 same name in the Arctic ocean. 
 
 YENISEISK, a vast province of East- 
 ern Siberia, extending from the Chinese 
 frontier to the Arctic ocean; area, 
 992,870 sq. miles. It contains rich 
 auriferous deposits. Pop. 559,902. — 
 
YERKES 
 
 YOUNG 
 
 The capital, of the same name, is the 
 chief entrepot for the gold mines of the 
 province and the Siberian fur-trade. 
 Pop. 7050. 
 
 YER'KES, Charles Tyson, American 
 capitalist, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
 in 1837. From 1861 to 1886 he was in 
 the banking business, making a specialty 
 of dealing in bonds. In 1886 he secured 
 virtual control of the street and elevated 
 railway systems of Chicago. In 1892-93 
 he was an influential member of the 
 board of directors of the World’s Fair 
 in Chicago. In 1892 he endowed the 
 famous Yerkes observatory, which was 
 completed in 1896. He took an active 
 part in the construction and extension 
 of the new London (Eng.) underground 
 railway system. He died in 1905. 
 
 YERKES OBSERVATORY, the astro- 
 nomical observatory of the University 
 of Chicago, located at William Bay, Wis. 
 It is named after its founder, Charles 
 Tyson Yerkes, who supplied the funds 
 for buildings and instruments. This in- 
 stitution contains the largest refracting 
 telescope in existence. It is of 40 inches 
 diameter. It is used principally for the 
 observation of close or faint double 
 stars, the planets and satellites, and 
 spectroscopic work. 
 
 YESSO, YEZO, or JESSO, the most 
 northerly of the larger Japan islands, 
 has an area of about 35,000 sq. miles, 
 and a pop. of 610,155, including a num- 
 ber of Ainos, a docile aboriginal race. 
 The island is mountainous and volcanic, 
 and is rich in minerals, including coal, 
 gold and silver. Matsmai and Hakodadi 
 are the chief towns. 
 
 YEW, an evergreen tree of the genus 
 Taxus, indigenous in most parts of 
 Europe. It is a handsome tree, growing 
 to a height of from 30 to 40 feet, with 
 numerous spreading branches, forming 
 a dense head of foliage. Its trunk is 
 thick, and has been known to attain a 
 circumference of 56 feet. Its fruit is a 
 red bei ry with green seeds. It used to be 
 frequently planted in church yards, and 
 its tough elastic wood was extensively 
 used in the manufacture of bows. In 
 
 Yew. 
 
 our own days, on account of the dur- 
 ability of the timber, and of its hard, 
 compact, close grain, it is much used by 
 cabinet-makers and turners. There are 
 several varieties of it, the Irish yew, 
 which has a more upright growth than 
 the common yew, being esteemed the 
 finest. The American yew is a low pros- 
 trate shrub, never forming an erect 
 trunk. It is found in Canada, and the 
 more northern of the United States, 
 
 ' and is commonly called ground-hemlock. 
 
 YEZD, a city of Persia, province of 
 Faristan, in an oasis in a sandy plain 
 190 miles southeast of Ispahan. It is 
 noted for its velvet and other silk manu- 
 factures, and contains about 4000 fire- 
 worshipers. Pop. about 50,000. 
 
 YOKOHA'MA is the most important 
 of the Japanese ports opened by treaty 
 to foreigners, from its proximity to 
 Tokio, the capital of the empire, with 
 which it is connected by a railway 18 
 miles in length. The foreign settlement 
 consists of well-constructed streets with 
 business establishments. The harbor, a 
 part of the bay of Tokio, is good and 
 commodious, and is much frequented by 
 Japanese and other steamers. Pop. 
 187,200. 
 
 YONGE (yong), Charlotte Mary, Eng- 
 lish authoress, born at Otterborne, 
 Hants, 1823. Her writings are very 
 numerous, and include the well-known 
 stories The Heir of Redclyffe, The Little 
 Duke, Dynevor Terrace, The Daisy 
 Chain, etc. She has published a work on 
 Christian Names, A Life of Bishop 
 Patteson, and numerous historical works 
 for the young, including her Cameos 
 from English History. She died in 1901. 
 
 YONKERS, a town in New York state, 
 on the east bank of the Hudson, 16 miles 
 by railway north of New York City, 
 many of the merchants of which own 
 handsome residences in it. There are 
 manufactures of felt hats, silk, reapers 
 and mowers, carpets, pencils, etc. 
 Pop. 1909 estimated at 73,000. 
 
 YONNE, a department of Central 
 France, traversed by the river Yonne, 
 which is navigable throughout it. The 
 granite mountains in the southeast 
 attain a height of 2000 feet. The soil is 
 very fertile, producing large wheat crops, 
 and the vines yield the finest red wines 
 of Lower Burgundy, and the finest of 
 white wines, the well-known Chablis. 
 Auxerre is the capital. Area, 183,475 
 acres. Pop. 316,047. 
 
 YORK, the largest county of England, 
 is bounded on the north by the Tees, 
 separating it from Durham, east by the 
 North sea, south by Lincoln, Notting- 
 ham, Derby, and Chester, and west by 
 Chester, Lancaster, and Westmoreland; 
 area, 3,882,848 acres or nearly 6067 sq. 
 miles. Total pop. 3,585,122. In the 
 North is the capital of the whole 
 county, York; Scarborough, a favorite 
 watering-place; and Whitby, famous 
 for its jet. In the East the area under 
 cultivation greatly exceeds that laid 
 down in permanent pasture. Its indus- 
 trial activity is centered in the great sea- 
 port of Hull. In the West the propor- 
 tion of land laid down in permanent 
 pasture is larger than in any other, being 
 two-thirds of that under cultivation. 
 Leeds produces every variety of woolen 
 goods; Bradford, mixed worsted fabrics 
 and yarns; Dewsbury, Batley, and ad- 
 joining districts, shoddy; Huddersfield, 
 plain goods, with fancy trouserings and 
 coatings; and Halifax, worsted and 
 carpets. Barnsley is famous for its 
 linen manufactures, of which Leeds also 
 is a seat, as well as of that of leather. 
 Next to the woolen and other textile in- 
 dustries comes the manufacture of iron 
 and steel machinery, and implements of 
 every description. Leeds is one of the 
 principal seats of all kinds of mechani- 
 
 cal engineering, and SheflSeld of iron- 
 work and cutlery. 
 
 YORK, a cathedral city and arch- 
 bishop’s see, a municipal, county, and 
 pari, borough, and capital of Yorkshire, 
 188 miles north of London by rail, is 
 situated at the confluence of the F oss and 
 the Ouse. The great object of attraction 
 is the minster or cathedral, the finest 
 in England, which dates from the 7th 
 century, but did not begin to assume its 
 present form till the 12th century, and 
 was not completed till 1472. It is built 
 in the form of a Latin cross with choir, 
 aisles, transepts, a central tower and 
 two western towers; extreme length, 
 524 feet; breadth, 250; height of central 
 tower, 213 feet. Pop. 77,793. 
 
 YORK, capital of York county, Penn- 
 sylvania, has historical interest attached 
 to it from the fact that for nearly a year 
 (1777-78) it was the place of meeting of 
 the continental congress. It possesses 
 foundries, manufactories of agricultural 
 implements, etc. Pop. 39,048. 
 
 YORK, House of, an English royal 
 house, the rival of that of Lancaster. 
 The House of York was united to the 
 House of Lancaster when Henry VII. 
 married the eldest daughter of Edward 
 IV. The emblem of the Yorkists was a 
 white rose. 
 
 YORKTOWN, capital of York county, 
 Virginia, United States, on the right 
 bank of York river, nearly 10 miles 
 from its mouth, was the scene of the sur- 
 render of Lord Cornwallis to GeMferal 
 Washington, October 19, 1781. In the 
 civil war it was fortified by the con- 
 federates, who, having been besieged by 
 General M’Clellan, evacuated it May 4, 
 1862. Pop. about 1000. 
 
 YO-SEMITE (sem'i-te), VALLEY, one 
 of the greatest natural wonders of North 
 America, is in Mariposa county, Cali- 
 fornia, about 140 miles southeast of San 
 Francisco and midway between the 
 eastern and western bases of the Sierra 
 Nevada. It is a narrow valley at' an 
 elevation of 4000 feet above the sea 
 and is itself nearly level, about 6 miles 
 in length, and varying in width from 
 i mile to a mile. On each side rise 
 enormous domes and almost vertical 
 cliffs of granite, one of them called the 
 Half Dome being 4737 feet higher than 
 the river Merced at its base, wnile the 
 more important waterfalls are the 
 Yosemite and the Bridal Veil. This 
 valley has been added by congress to 
 the state of California, on condition that 
 it shall be kept as a public park or free 
 domain “inalienable for all time.’’ 
 
 YOUNG, Brigham, president of the 
 Mormon church, was born in 1801 in the 
 state of Vermont, United States. In 
 1831 he became a Mormon, and an ac- 
 tive preacher of the Mormon doctrine. 
 He was one of the twelve founders of 
 Nauvoo, and after the murder of the 
 prophet, Joseph Smith, and the flight 
 of the Mormons from Nauvoo, Young 
 became their leader, was elected their 
 president on their settling in Utah, and 
 when this was made a territory he was 
 appointed its governor by President 
 Polk. In 1852 he announced that 
 polygamy had been commanded in a 
 special revelation to Joseph Smith, and 
 it was accepted generally by the Mor- 
 mons of Utah. Young was a man of 
 
YOUNG 
 
 YUNNAN 
 
 great practical ability. Utah flourished 
 under his rule, and he long withstood 
 successfully the efforts of the United 
 States government to establish its 
 authority there. He died in 1877. 
 
 YOUNG, Edward, English poet, was 
 the son of a dean of Salisbury, and born 
 in 1681. His first great literary success 
 was his production of a series of satires, 
 issued collectively in 1728 as The Love 
 of Fame, the Universal Passion. Be- 
 tween 1742 and 1744 appeared the work 
 bj’^ which chiefly he is remembered, the 
 gloomy but striking Night Thoughts. 
 He died in 1765. 
 
 YOUNG, James, an eminent practical 
 chemist, was born at Glasgow in 1811, 
 and died in 1883. Receiving appoint- 
 ments in chemical works at St. Helen’s 
 and Manchester, he discovered a method 
 of distilling oil from shale, through 
 which he became the founder of the 
 mineral oil industry of Scotland, besides 
 leading to the development of the petro- 
 leum industry in America and elsewhere. 
 
 YOUNG, Thomas, M. D., scientist, 
 born of a Quaker family at Milverton in 
 Somersetshire, in 1773. In 1802 he be- 
 came the colleague of Davy as professor 
 of natural philosophy at the Royal in- 
 stitution, having previously made the 
 discovery of the interference of light, 
 the result of researches which, completed 
 by Fresnel, secured the triumph of the 
 undulatory theory. In 1807 appeared 
 his admirable Lectures on Natural 
 Philosophy. Young preceded Cham- 
 pollion in the discovery of the alphabetic 
 character of certain of the Egyptian 
 hieroglyphs. He died in 1829. 
 
 YOUNG, Samuel Baldwin Marks, 
 American soldier, was born in Pitts- 
 burg, Pa., in 1840. He served through- 
 out the civil war, attained the rank of 
 colonel in December, 1864, and in April, 
 1865, was breve tted brigadier-general of 
 volunteers. He attained the rank of 
 colonel of the Third Cavalry in 1897, 
 and in 1898 was made a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers for service in the 
 Spanish-American war. He served 
 under General Shatter in the early part 
 of the Santiago campaign, was promoted 
 to the rank of major-general of volun- 
 teers in 1898, and for a time commanded 
 the Second Army Corps. From_ July, 
 1899, to March, 1901, he served in the 
 Pnilippines, was military go^'ernor of 
 Northwestern Luzon and commander 
 of the first district of the department 
 of Northern Luzon. In 1903, on the 
 retirement of General Miles, he was 
 promoted to the rank of lieutenant- 
 general. When the new general staff 
 system went into effect in 1903 he be- 
 came chief of staff of the army. 
 
 YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSO- 
 CIATIONS, among the first of these was 
 that founded in London in 1844 by Sir 
 George Williams. Its object was the 
 holaing of religious meetings in business 
 houses in the center of London. The 
 movement extended, and became one 
 not only for the religious but for the 
 general culture and social well-being of 
 young men engaged in business. The 
 
 young men’s Christian associations, all 
 of which are self-governing while form- 
 ing an organized union, are now nearly 
 8000 in number, with a total member- 
 ship of about one million, the centers 
 being scattered over the world. In the 
 United Kingdom there are about 100,- 
 000 members. In the United States 
 there are nearly 2000 associations with 
 a membership of about 450,000. 
 
 YOUNG WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN 
 ASSOCIATION, THE WORLD’S, the 
 World’s Young Women’s Christian As- 
 sociation was formed in 1894. Eleven 
 National associations are now affiliated; 
 Great Britain, United States, Canada, 
 Germany, Italy, France, Norway, Swe- 
 den, India, Denmark, and Hungary. 
 The executive committee is composed 
 of a resident membership in London 
 and two representatives from America 
 and other countries. The second World’s 
 conference was held in Geneva, Switzer- 
 land July, 1902. The American com- 
 mittee was formed in 1886. There are 
 now associations aflBliated with the 
 American committee in 552 colleges 
 and 104 cities, with 24 state organiza- 
 tions. Membership of local associations 
 connected with the American com- 
 mittee, 100,252. 
 
 YOUNGSTOWN, town in Mahoning 
 county, Ohio, on the Mahoning river 
 66 miles southeast of Cleveland, in the 
 vicinity of iron ore and coal beds; has 
 rolling-mills, blast-furnaces, and manu- 
 factures of machinery, etc. Pop. 52,340. 
 
 YPSILANTI, a distinguished Greek 
 family claiming to be descended from 
 the Comneni. Demetrius, born in 1793, 
 entered the Russian service, and joining 
 the Greeks in their war of independence 
 distinguished himself so highly as to be 
 made commander-in-chief of the Greek 
 army after the liberation of Greece from 
 the Ottoman yoke. He died in 1832. 
 
 YPSILANTI, a city in Washtenaw co., 
 Mich., 29 miles west by south of Detroit, 
 on the Huron river, and on the Michi- 
 gan Central and the Lake Shore and 
 Michigan Southern railroads. It is also 
 connected by electric lines with Ann 
 Arbor and Detroit. Population 10,000. 
 
 YTTRIA (it'ri-a), the protoxide of 
 yttrium, a white powder, insoluble in 
 water, but soluble in some acids. When 
 ignited it glows with a pure white 
 light. 
 
 YTTRIUM (it'ri-um), an earth metal, 
 one of the elements, the basis of yttria; 
 symbol Y, atomic weight 93. Its texture 
 is scaly, and its color grayish-black. 
 
 YUCATAN', a peninsula forming the 
 southeastern extremity of Mexico. Be- 
 fore its conquest by the Spaniards it was 
 the seat of a flourishing civilization. It 
 is now for the most part a sparsely cul- 
 tivated region, whose forests yield ex- 
 cellent timber, cabinet-woods and dye- 
 woods, and which has recently been pro- 
 ductive of great quantities of sisal or 
 so-called Y'ucatan hemp. Five-sixths of 
 the inhabitants are Indians, preserving 
 the speech of their ancestors, whom the 
 Spaniards dispossessed. In 1861 the 
 peninsula, which since 1824 had formed 
 
 one state in the Mexican confederation, 
 was divided into two: Yucatan, area 
 29,560 sq. miles, pop. 302,500, capital 
 Merida; and Cam peachy, area 25,830 sq. 
 miles, pop. 90,500, capital Campeachy. 
 
 YUCCA, a genus of American plants. 
 The species are handsome plants, with 
 white flowers, extremely elegant, but 
 destitute of odor. 
 
 YUKON GOLD FIELDS, See Klon- 
 dike. 
 
 YUKON RIVER, a river of Alaska, is 
 formed by the junction of the Lewis and 
 Felly at Port Selkirk, and flows west- 
 ward across the territory of Alaska into 
 Bering sea. Its length is some 2000 
 miles, being one of the largest rivers in 
 North America. In its lower course it is 
 more than 20 miles wide, and through- 
 out it is navigable, at least for small 
 boats. But the deposits of mud and silt 
 where it finally reaches the sea have 
 formed a great delta which renders its 
 lower course unfit for navigation, and 
 prevents vessels at sea from approaching 
 within 60 miles of its many mouths. 
 During three months of the year its 
 waters swarm with salmon, some 80 to 
 120 lbs., and 5 to 6 feet long. These fish 
 ascend the river for 1200 to 1500 miles. 
 The water from this river flows with 
 such force and volume that the water 
 is fresh ten miles out from the mouth. 
 
 YULE, the old English and Scandi- 
 navian name for Christmas, still to some 
 extent in use, as in the term yule-log. 
 
 YUNNAN', the most southwesterly 
 province of China, is bounded on the 
 south by Annam, Siam, and Burmah, 
 and on the west by Burmah. It is ex- 
 tremely rich in minerals, especially iron 
 and copper, containing also many 
 varieties of precious stones. At least a 
 third of the cultivated land is said to be 
 under the poppy. By the convention of 
 Chef 00 in 1876 the establishment of 
 commercial relations between British 
 subjects and Yunnan was conceded by 
 the Chinese government. Estimated 
 area, 122,500 sq miles; estimated pop. 
 12,000,000. — Yunnan, the capital, is 
 situated in- the southeast, and is a busy 
 and prosperous town, with large copper 
 factories, and manufactures of silks and 
 carpets. Pop. 200,000. 
 
z 
 
 ZEDEKIAH 
 
 z 
 
 Z, the last letter of the English alpha- 
 bet, is a sibilant consonant, and is 
 merely a vocal or sonant S, having pre- 
 cisely the same sound that s has in wise, 
 ease, please, etc. (See S.) The words in 
 modern English which begin with z are 
 all derived from other languages, 
 mostly from the Greek. When not initial 
 however, we often find it representing 
 an older s in genunie English words, 
 as in blaze, freeze, gaze, graze, etc. 
 
 ZACATE'CAS, state of Mexico, be- 
 longing to the central table-land, and 
 bounded by the states of Aguas- 
 Calientes, Jalisco, Durango, Cohahuila, 
 Nuevo-Leon, and San Luis Potosi. It 
 is very rich in gold and silver, which are 
 extensively mined. Area, 25,227 sq. 
 miles. Pop. 422,506. — Zacatecas, the 
 capital, 340 miles northwest of Mexico, 
 is the center of one of the oldest and 
 most productive silver-mining districts 
 in the republic. Pop. 46,000. 
 
 ZAMBE'SI, the most important river 
 in Southeastern Africa, and the largest 
 flowing into the Indian ocean, has its 
 source in several streams uniting in the 
 far interior. It flows first southeast and 
 then northeast, then curves again to the 
 southeast, and reaches the Indian 
 ocean by several mouths in the Mozam- 
 bique channel opposite Madagascar. 
 The delta of the Zambesi covers an area 
 of about 25,000 sq. miles, and com- 
 mences about 90 miles from the coast, 
 a little below the confluence of the main 
 stream with the Shir6. The course of 
 the whole river is about 1600 miles, 
 and it drains an area of 600,000 sq. 
 miles. Its course as a whole is through 
 fertile valleys and. wooded plains; but 
 the navigation is interrupted by rapids 
 and cataracts, among the latter being 
 the Victoria falls, which are among the 
 grandest in the world. The navigation 
 of the Zambesi is now free to vessels of 
 all nations. 
 
 ZA'MIA, a genus of plants found in 
 tropical America, at the Cape of Good 
 Hope, and in Australia, and partly re- 
 semble palms, partly tree-ferns. Kaffir- 
 bread is a common name for the genus 
 in South Africa, where the central part 
 of the stem pith is formed into cakes, 
 baked, and eaten by the natives. 
 
 ZANESVILLE, the county town of 
 Muskingum county, Ohio, situated on 
 the Muskingum river, 37 miles south of 
 Cleveland; has rolling-mills, machine- 
 shops, cotton and woolen factories, 
 glass-works, etc. Pop. 28,000. 
 
 ZANG'WILL, Israel, a British novelist 
 and man of letters, was born in London, 
 England in 1864. He traveled on lectur- 
 ing tours in Ireland, Holland, Palestine, 
 and the United States. Among his pub- 
 lications are : Children of the Ghetto, 
 Ghetto Tragedies, The King of Schnor- 
 rers, grotesques and fantasies, including 
 “A Rose of the Ghettoj” Dreamers 
 of the Ghetto, containing admirable 
 sketches of great Jewish thinkers, as 
 Spinoza and Lassalle; They that Walk 
 in Darkness, and The Mantle of Elijah. 
 Dramatized by the author in 1899, The 
 Children of the Ghetto had a popular 
 reception in New York and London. 
 The Big Bow Mystery, Merely Mary 
 
 Ann, The Grey Wig. He also wrote a 
 considerable amount of verse. 
 
 ZANZIBAR', a sultanate of East 
 Africa, which formerly comprised the 
 whole coast between Magdishu (Maga- 
 doxo), about lat. 2° n., and Cape 
 Delgado, lat. 10° 42' s., with the four 
 islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, Lamu, and 
 Mafia. The continental part of the sul- 
 tanate has recently become part of 
 British East Africa and German East 
 Africa; while the island and town of 
 Zanzibar, and the island of Pemba, are 
 entirely under British protection. The 
 island (area, 600 sq. miles) is very fertile 
 and well cultivated, being especially 
 suited for the cultivation of cloves, 
 sugar, coffee, cocoa, and various spices, 
 of which there is a considerable export. 
 The population (200,000) is extremely 
 heterogeneous, including Europeans, 
 Arabs, half-caste Portuguese from the 
 Malabar coast of India, and the Suahilis 
 from the mainland. — Zanzibar, the chief 
 town (100,000 inhabitants), on' the west 
 side of the island, is the center of trade 
 for the eastern seaboard of Africa, and 
 of missionary and exploring work for 
 the interior. At the instance of the 
 British government the slave-trade has 
 been abolished and slavery brought to 
 an end. 
 
 ZEALAND, or SEELAND, the largest 
 of the Danish islands, separated from 
 Sweden by the Sound and. from Funen 
 by the Great Belt; length, 81 miles, 
 breadth, 65. It produces large crops of 
 corn, and has excellent pasture. It 
 contains the capital of Denmark, 
 Copenhagen. It is the most westerly 
 province of Holland, has the greater 
 part of its surface below the sea-level, 
 and protected by dikes. The soil is 
 fertile, producing rich crops of wheat, 
 flax, and hemp, and much dairy produce 
 is exported. The capital is Middleburg. 
 Area, 689 sq. miles; pop. 198,567. 
 
 ZEBRA, a quadruped of Southern 
 Africa, nearly as large as a horse, white, 
 striped with numerous brownish-black 
 bands on the head,, trunk, and legs, 
 except on the belly and inside of the 
 thighs. The zebra is extremely difficult 
 
 Zebra. 
 
 to approach, from its watchful habits 
 and great swiftness of foot. Only in a 
 few instances has it been domesticated. 
 The name has been sometimes applied, 
 to the now extinct quagga and the 
 dauw or Burchell’s zebra ; but they differ 
 from the zebra in having no stripes on 
 
 the lower limbs, while those on the body 
 are not so black as the true zebra’s. 
 The zebra is said to be nearly extinct. 
 
 ZEBU, a ruminant of the ox tribe, 
 called also Brahman bull. This quad- 
 ruped differs from the cotamon ox in 
 having one, or more rarely two, humps 
 of fat on the shoulders, and in having 
 eighteen caudal vertebrse instead of 
 twenty-one. It is found extensively in 
 India, and also in China, Japan, and 
 Africa. Zebus are used as beasts of 
 draught and burden, and occasionally 
 for riding. Their flesh is eaten as an 
 article of food, especially the hump, 
 which is esteemed a great delicacy. 
 
 ZEBU. See Cebu. 
 
 Zebu. 
 
 ZEB'ULUN, was the tenth son of 
 Jacob, and gave his name to one of the 
 twelve tribes of Israel, and to a region 
 of Palestine. At the first census the 
 tribe numbered 57,400, and 60,500 at the 
 second. The territory of the tribe lay 
 in the fertile hilly country to the north 
 of the plain of Jezreel, and included 
 
 sZtircth 
 
 ZECHARI'AH, or ZACHARIAH, the 
 
 eleventh of the minor prophets, is sup- 
 posed to have been born in Babylon, 
 and to have been in the first detachment 
 of the exiles who returned to Jerusalem 
 under Zerubbabel and Joshua. He 
 began to prophesy in the second year 
 of Darius Hystaspes, and with his senior 
 contemporary, the prophet Haggai, 
 contributed powerfully by his appeals to 
 the rebuilding of the temple (Ezra 
 vi . 1 4) . Chapters i .-viii . of the prophecies 
 of Zachariah are generally admitted 
 to be his composition. But the two 
 other sections of the book into which 
 critics and commentators have divided 
 it, chapters ix.-xi. and xii.-xiii., have 
 been ascribed by many to a pre-exilic 
 author, partly because both what is said 
 and is not said in them is regarded as 
 irreconcilable with a post-exilic one. 
 
 ZEDEKI'AH, the last king of Judah 
 of the line of David. 'When he was 
 twenty-one years of age Nebuchad- 
 nezzar appointed him to succeed his 
 nephew Jehoiachim (whom he carried to 
 Babylon) as king of Judah. He took an 
 oath of allegiance to Nebuchadnezzar, 
 which he afterward broke by entering 
 into an alliance with Egypt. His con- 
 duct in so doing was denounced by the 
 prophet Jeremiah, who, as well as 
 Ezekiel, then in Chaldaea, predicted the 
 
ZEDOARY 
 
 ZINC ETCHING 
 
 approaching fall of Jerusalem, which 
 was besieged by Nebuchadnezzar and 
 taken, b.c. 588. Zedekiah, whose sons 
 were killed in his presence, had his eyes 
 put out, and was carried to Babylon, 
 where probably he died. 
 
 ZED'OARY, a plant distinguished, 
 like ginger, for the stimulating and 
 aromatic properties of the root. It is a 
 native of India and China. The roots 
 of several other species are sold under 
 the same name. 
 
 ZENA'NA, the name given to the 
 portion of a house reserved exclusively 
 for the females belonging to a family of 
 good caste in India. 
 
 ZEND, an ancient Iranian language, in 
 which are composed the sacred writings 
 of the Zoroastriaus. It is a member of 
 the Aryan family of languages, and very 
 closely allied to Sanskrit. 
 
 ZEND-AVESTA, the collective name 
 for the sacred writings of the Guebers or 
 Parsees, ascribed to Zoroaster, and 
 reverenced as a bible, prayer-book, and 
 sole rule of faith and practice. It con- 
 sists of several divisions, of which the 
 oldest is written in the prunitive Zend 
 language. This partly consists of 
 g&th4s or songs, some of which may 
 contain the actual words of Zoroaster, 
 and are valuable as containing the doc- 
 trines he taught. An English transla- 
 tion of the Zend-Avesta has been pub- 
 lished. 
 
 ZENITH, the vertical point of the 
 heavens at any place, that is, the point 
 right above a spectator’s head, and from 
 which a line drawn perpendicular to the 
 plane of the horizon would, if produced, 
 pass through the earth’s center, suppos- 
 ing the earth a perfect sphere. Each 
 point on the surface of the earth has 
 therefore its corresponding zenith. The 
 opposite pole of the celestial horizon is 
 termed the nadir. (See Nadir.) The 
 zenith distance of a heavenly body is 
 the arc intercepted between the body 
 and the zenith, being the same as the 
 co-altitude of the body. 
 
 ZENO, was emperor of the East from 
 474 to 491 A.D. One of the chief events 
 of his reign, which was full of vicissi- 
 tudes, was the permission given by him 
 to Theodoric to dethrone Odoacer, 
 which led to the establishment of the 
 Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy. 
 
 ZENO, of Citium, in Cyprus, where he 
 was born, founder of the Stoic school 
 of philosophy, flourished in the first half 
 of the 3d century b.c. Settling in 
 Athens he attached himself to various 
 philosophical sects in succession, until 
 he instituted a doctrine of his own. 
 He taught in the Stoa, a porch adorned 
 with the pictures of Polygnotus, whence 
 his followers were called Stoics, and 
 were sometimes designated “disciples 
 of the porch.’’ His writings are all lost. 
 In his ethical system the nature of moral 
 obligation was recognized as uncon- 
 ditional, virtue as the only good, and 
 vice, not pain, as the only evil. De- 
 veloped by his successors. Stoicism be- 
 came the creed of the noblest of the 
 Romans until Christianity was generally 
 accepted. (See Stoics.) The date of his 
 death is uncertain. 
 
 ZENO'BIA, Queen of Palmyra, was 
 the wife of its king Odenathus, and 
 accompanied him both in war and in the 
 
 chase. Gallienus, in return for his serv- 
 ices, acknowledged Odenathus as em- 
 peror, and when her husband was mur- 
 dered, 267 .\.D., she assumed the sover- 
 eignty, conquered Egypt, and called 
 herself Queen of the East. Her am- 
 bition provoked the emperor Aurelian 
 to make war on her, and after a stub- 
 born resistance she fell into his pow’er 
 (273 A.D.), and was made to grace his 
 triumph. She was allowed to pass the 
 remainder of her life as a Roman matron. 
 Zenobia was a woman of great courage, 
 beauty, and linguistic accomplishments, 
 and her studies were directed by 
 Longinus. 
 
 ZEOLITE (ze'5-llt), a generic name 
 of a number of minerals which fuse under 
 the blowpipe. They are hydrated double 
 silicates, of which the principal bases 
 are aluminium and calcium. 
 
 ZEPHYR, Zephyrus (zef'er, zef'i-rus), 
 the west wind; and poetically, any soft, 
 mild, gentle breeze. The poets personify 
 Zephyrus, and make him the most mild 
 and gentle of all the sylvan deities. 
 
 ZERE'BA, Zareeba, a word which 
 came into notice in 1884 during 
 British military operations in the 
 Soudan, to denote an inclosure, the sides 
 of which are protected by prickly brush- 
 wood from a sudden surprise of the 
 enemy; a fenced encampment. 
 
 ZERO, in physics, any convenient 
 point with reference to which quan- 
 titatively estimable phenomena of the 
 same kind are compared; such as the 
 point of a graduated instrument at 
 which its scale commences; the neutral 
 point between any ascending and de- 
 scending scale or series, generally repre- 
 sented by the mark 0. In thermom- 
 eters the zero of the centigrade and 
 Reaumur scales is the freezing-point 
 of water; in Fahrenheit’s scale, 32° be- 
 low the freezing-point of water. (See 
 Thermometer.) Absolute zero is -273° 
 C., or 273° C. below the freezing point of 
 water, at which temperature any given 
 body is supposed to contain no heat. 
 
 ZETLAND. See Shetland. 
 
 ZEUGLODON (zu'glo-don), an extinct 
 genus of marine mammals, regarded by 
 Huxley as intermediate between the true 
 cetaceans and the carnivorous seals. 
 They belong to the Eocene and Miocene, 
 one species of the Middle Eocene of the 
 United States attained a length of 70 
 feet. 
 
 ZEUS (zus), in mythology, the su- 
 preme divinity among the Greeks; the 
 ruler of the other gods; generally treated 
 as the equivalent of the Roman Jupiter. 
 He was the son of Cronos and Rhea, 
 brother of Poseidon (Neptune) and 
 Hera (Juno), the latter of whom was 
 also his wife. He expelled his father and 
 the dynasty of the Titans, successfully 
 opposed the attacks of the giants and 
 the conspiracies of the other gods, and 
 became chief power in heaven and earth. 
 See Jupiter. 
 
 ZEUSS (tsois), Johann Kaspar, born 
 1806, died 1856, a native of Bavaria, 
 may be said to have founded Celtic 
 philology with the publication in 1853 
 of his great work the Grammatica 
 Celtica. In his later years he was a pro- 
 fessor at the Bamberg Lyceum. 
 
 ZIBET, Zibeth (zib'et), an animal of 
 the same genus as the civet-cat. It is 
 
 found in Eastern Asia, and in some of 
 the larger islands of the Indian archi- 
 pelago. It secretes an odiferous sub- 
 stance which resembles that of the civet. 
 It is often tamed by the natives of the 
 countries where it is found, and it in- 
 habits their houses like a domestic cat. 
 
 ZILLEH, a town of northeastern Asia 
 Minor, 39 miles southwest of Tokat; 
 with some manufactures, and an annual 
 fair attended by from 40,000 to 50,000 
 persons. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 ZINC, a metal, frequently called 
 spelter in commerce; atomic weight 65. 
 It has a strong metallic luster and a 
 bluish-white color. Its texture is lamel- 
 lated and crystalline, and its specific 
 gravity about 7. It is hard, being acted 
 on by the file with difficulty, and its 
 toughness is such as to require con- 
 siderable force to break it when the 
 mass is large. At low or high degrees of 
 heat it is brittle, but between 250° and 
 300° F. it is both malleable and ductile, 
 and may be rolled or hammered into 
 sheets of considerable thinness and 
 drawn into wire. Its malleability is con- 
 siderably diminished by the impurities 
 which the zinc of commerce contains. 
 It fuses at 773° F., and when slowly 
 cooled crystallizes in four or six-sided 
 prisms.* Zinc undergoes little change by 
 the action of air and moisture. When 
 fused in open vessels it absorbs oxygen, 
 and forms the white oxide called flowers 
 of zinc. Heated strongly in air it takes 
 fire and burns with a beautiful white 
 light, forming oxide of zinc. Zinc is found 
 in considerable abundance in Britain, 
 Austria, Germany, Belgium, Italy, etc. 
 It does not occur in the native state, 
 but is obtained from its ores, which are 
 chiefly the sulphide, or zinc-blende, and 
 the carbonate, or calamine. It has been 
 reported native in small quantities in 
 northeastern Alabama but this discov- 
 ery needs further confirmation. The 
 oxide of zinc is a fine white powder, insol- 
 uble in water, but very soluble in acids, 
 which it neutralizes, being a powerful 
 base of the same class as magnesia. It 
 combines also with some of the alkalies. 
 Several of the salts of zinc are em- 
 ployed in medicine and the arts; as the 
 sulphate, which is used in calico printing, 
 and in medicine as an astringent, a 
 caustic, an emetic, and a tonic; the 
 oxide and the carbonate, used as pig- 
 ments, etc. Sheet-zinc is largely em- 
 ployed for lining water cisterns, baths, 
 etc., for making spouts, pipes, for cover- 
 ing roofs, and several other architec- 
 tural purposes. Plates of this metal are 
 used as generators of electricity in 
 voltaic batteries, etc. ; they are also em- 
 ployed in the production of pictures, 
 etc., in the style of woodcuts. (See 
 Zincography.) Zinc is much employed 
 in the manufacture of brass (see Brass) 
 and other alloys, and in preparing gal- 
 vanized iron. 
 
 ZINC-BLENDE, native sulphide of 
 zinc, consisting essentially of sulphur 
 and zinc, but often containing a con- 
 siderable proportion of iron. 
 
 ZINC E’TCHING, a process for making 
 printing plates on which the lines or 
 dots composing the picture are raised in 
 relief, the blank spaces corresponding to 
 the white paper between them being 
 sunken so as not to receive ink or touch 
 
ZINC-WHITE 
 
 ZOLA 
 
 the paper which is impressed against the 
 lines in the printing press. The subject 
 to be reproduced may be a pen drawing 
 or crayon, or a print from a wood cut, 
 steel engraving, etching on copper, or 
 lithograph. It is necessary that the 
 picture or print shall be in black upon 
 white and that the surface represented 
 shall be in distinct lines or dots. The 
 copy is placed upon a flat board before 
 a photographic camera and a negative 
 made. This negative shows the light 
 and shade of the copy reversed, and, 
 when dry, is coated first with a solution 
 of rubber to make it insoluble in the 
 succeeding treatment, and when this is 
 set, is again coated with a thick pellicle 
 of plain collodion to give it body and 
 strength. It is then, when dry, cut 
 around on the edges and laid in a tray of 
 acidulated water. After a few moments 
 the film loosens from the glass and by 
 careful handling is peeled from its sup- 
 port and laid face down upon another 
 late of glass. It is thus reversed to 
 ring the print upon metal in the proper 
 position to give direct impression when 
 printed. A plate of zinc, usually about 
 one sixteenth of an inch in thickness and 
 about two inches larger in each di- 
 mension than the negative or group 
 of negatives, is carefully polished to a 
 brilliant luster and is coated with a so- 
 lution of albumen, water, and bichro- 
 mate of ammonia. The last named is the 
 sensitizing agent and when the plate is 
 dried it is easily affected by light, hence 
 the operation is performed in a room 
 where only a small amount of light is ad- 
 mitted through yellow glass. The 
 negative is placed in a heavy printing 
 frame, the sensitized metal plate laid 
 upon it, and then brought in perfect 
 contact by means of heavy screws or 
 strong levers attached to the back of the 
 frame. The printing requires from three 
 to ten minutes by the electric light or 
 two to four minutes in sunlight. When 
 the metal plate is removed from the 
 frame the image is only faintly visible. 
 The albumen has become insoluble in the 
 lines of the picture, but is easily washed 
 away between them. In order to give 
 the image strength to withstand etch- 
 ing, the plate when removed from the 
 plate holder is rolled up thinly with a 
 greasy ink and a leather roller. It is 
 then laid in a tray of water and after a 
 few moments is developed by rubbing 
 gently with a tuft of cotton. The coat- 
 ing of ink disappears and the picture 
 shows in clear lines of black ink upon 
 the bright metal. It is then dried and 
 dusted over with a fine resinous powder 
 and again cleaned under water, dried 
 and warmed enough to cause the resin 
 to melt. It is then etched in a weak 
 solution of nitric acid until the lines 
 show a slight relief. After drying the 
 
 E late is dusted with powdered dragon’s 
 lood and bruned in, and the process 
 repeated successively from each end 
 and side of the plate, thus protecting all 
 the exposed sides of the lines. It is then 
 ready for another etching. This round 
 of operations is repeated from three to 
 six times, or until the plate is etched to 
 a depth of one-half its thickness in the 
 open spaces. It is then given to the 
 blocker, who with a routing machine, 
 routs out the larger open spaces between 
 
 P. E.— 85 
 
 the lines to a considerable further depth, 
 saws off the waste zinc from the margins, 
 nails it upon a base of wood or soft 
 metal, trims the edges square and 
 shaves the back down until the block is 
 exactly type high. The block is then 
 taken by the finisher, who removes any 
 roughnesses or defects in the lines, leav- 
 ing it ready for the printing press. 
 
 ZINC-WHITE, oxide of zinc, a pig- 
 ment now largely substituted for white- 
 lead as being less liable to blacken on 
 exposure ; but it has not an equal cover- 
 ing power. 
 
 ZINGIS KHAN. See Genghis Khan. 
 
 ZINZENDORF (tsin'tsen-dorf), Nich- 
 olas Ludwig, Count von, founder of the 
 community of Moravian Brethren, or 
 Herrnhuters, was born at Dresden in 
 1700. He worked assiduously in co- 
 operation with congenial friends at 
 creating a revival of religion in the 
 Lutheran church. Having given an 
 asylum on his estate to some persecuted 
 religionists from Moravia, and built for 
 them the village of Herrnhut, he settled 
 among them, and by degrees established 
 there a common worship, and a mis- 
 sionary and industrial organization 
 based on the family, not on the monastic 
 system. This association became known 
 throughout the world as the Moravian 
 Brethren. To the extension of its in- 
 fluence Zinzendorf devoted his fortune 
 and his energies, visiting in the course 
 of his journeys England and America. 
 He died in 1760. 
 
 ZINZIBERA'CE.ffi, a natural order of 
 plants, of which the genus Zinziber 
 (ginger) is the tpye. The species are all 
 tropical plants, or nearly so, the greater 
 number inhabiting various parts of the 
 East Indies. They are generally of great 
 beauty through the development of their 
 floral envelopes and the rich colors of 
 their bracts; but they are chiefly valued 
 for the sake of the aromatic and stimu- 
 lating properties of the rhizome or root 
 found in ginger, galangal, zedoary, 
 cardamoms, etc. 
 
 ZION, a mount or eminence in Jerusa- 
 lem, the royal residence of David and 
 his successors. See Jerusalem. 
 
 ZIRCON, a mineral, silicate of zircon- 
 ium, originally found in Ceylon, and 
 forming one of the gems, being met with 
 either colorless or colored — red, brown- 
 ish, green, etc. Hyacinth and jargon 
 are varieties. 
 
 ZIRCONIAjthe oxide of zircon, a hard, 
 white solid, “sticks” of which are some- 
 times used in the oxyhydrogen flame 
 instead of lime. 
 
 ZIRCONIUM, the metal contained in 
 zircon and certain other rare minerals ; 
 symbol, Zr; atomic weight 90. It ap- 
 pears to form a link between aluminium 
 and silicon. 
 
 ZITHER, ZITHERN (tsit'fer, tsit'ern), 
 a stringed musical instrument consist- 
 ing of a sounding-box pierced with a 
 large circular sound-hole near the mid- 
 dle, the strings, to the number of thirty- 
 one in the more perfect forms of the in- 
 strument, being made of steel, brass, 
 catgut, and silk covered with fine silver 
 or copper wire, and tuned by pegs at 
 one end. Five of the strings are stretched 
 over a fretted keyboard, and are used 
 for playing the melody, the fingers of 
 the left hand stopping the strings on the 
 
 frets, the right-hand thumb armed with 
 a metal ring, striking the strings. These 
 strings, which are tuned in fifths, have 
 a chromatic range from C in the second 
 space. on the bass staff to D on the sixth 
 
 Zither. 
 
 ledger-line above the treble. All the 
 remaining strings, called the accom- 
 panying strings, are struck by the first 
 three fingers of the right hand, and being 
 unstopped produce only the single tone 
 to which they are tuned. The instru- 
 ment while being played rests on a table 
 with the key-board side nearest the 
 performer. 
 
 ZOAN, the Tanis of the Greeks and 
 Romans, an ancient Egyptian city, on 
 the right bank of what was the Tanitic 
 bank of the Nile, now only a canal. It 
 was probably the residence of the 
 Pharaoh of the Exodus, and conse- 
 quently the scene of the “marvelous 
 things” that were done “in the field of 
 Zoan” (Ps. Ixxxviii. 12). The temple 
 was one of the grandest in Egypt. Its 
 ruins, buried under mounds, have been 
 explored, and one of the chief curiosities 
 found in them is the Canopus stone, 
 with a trilingual inscription, like that 
 on the Rosetta stone, hieroglyphic, de- 
 motic, and Greek, recording a decree of 
 Egyptian princes assembled at Canopus 
 B.c. 254. 
 
 ZO'DIAC, an imaginary, belt or zone 
 in the heavens, extending about 9° on 
 each side of the ecliptic. It is divided 
 into twelve equal parts called signs. 
 It was marked out by the ancients as 
 distinct from the rest of the heavens 
 because the apparent places of the sun, 
 moon, and the planets known to them 
 were always within it. This, however, 
 is not true of all the planets. See 
 Ecliptic. 
 
 ZODI'ACAL LIGHT, in astronomy, a 
 luminous tract of an elongated trian- 
 gular figure, lying nearly on the ecliptic, 
 its base being on the horizon, and its 
 apex at varying altitudes, seen at cer- 
 tain seasons of the year either in the west 
 after sunset or in the east before sunrise. 
 It appears with greatest brilliance within 
 the tropics, where it sometimes rivals 
 the Milky Way. The most plausible 
 hypothesis respecting it is that it con- 
 sists of a continuous disc, probably of 
 meteors revolving round the sun. 
 
 ZOLA, Emile, French novelist, born 
 in 1840, the son of an Italian engineer, 
 died in 1902. After working for Paris 
 publishers and writing for the press he 
 attempted fiction. He first became gen- 
 erally known by commencing, in 1871 
 the famous series of novels entitled Les 
 Rougon Macquart Histoire Naturelle 
 d’une Famille sous le Second Empire. 
 They were based on a theory that it is 
 the duty of the modern novelist to de- 
 pict human life, in all grades of society, 
 exactly as it is, omitting and softening 
 
ZOLLVEREIN 
 
 nothing, however repulsive and disgust- 
 ing. L’Assommoir, portraying the evil 
 consequences of drunkenness, was dram- 
 atized by Charles Reade as “Drink,” 
 and became popular. Among Zola’s other 
 novels are Nana, Germinal, L’OEuvre, 
 La Terre, La Bete Humaine, La D4ba,cle, 
 Dr. Pascal, Lourdes, Rome, Paris, Labor, 
 Money, Fruitfulness. 
 
 ZOLLVEREIN (tsol'ver-in), the Ger- 
 man customs union, the precursor of 
 the present German empire, founded in 
 1827, and afterward greatly extended 
 through the efforts of the government 
 of Prussia." Its principal object was the 
 establislunent of a uniform rate of cus- 
 toms duties throughout the various 
 states joining the union. The territories 
 of the Zollverein now coincide with 
 those of the German empire, and include 
 also Luxembourg. 
 
 ZONE, (1) in geography, one of the 
 five great divisions of the earth, bounded 
 by circles parallel to the equator, and 
 named according to the temperature 
 prevailing in each. The zones are: the 
 torrid zone, extending from tropic to 
 tropic, or 23J° north and 23J° south of 
 the equator; two temperate zones, 
 situated between the tropics and polar 
 circles, or extending from the parallel of 
 23^° to that of 66 north and south. 
 
 Zones ot the earth. 
 
 and therefore called the north temperate 
 and south temperate zone respectively; 
 and two frigid zones, situated between 
 the polar circles and the north and south 
 poles. (See Climate.) (2) In natural his- 
 tory, the name is given to any well- 
 defined belt within which certain forms 
 of plant or animal life are confined; as 
 the different belts of vegetation which 
 occur as we ascend mountains. 
 
 ZO'OID, in biology, an animal organ- 
 ism, not independently developed from 
 a fertilized ovum, but derived from a 
 preceding individual by the process 
 either of fission or gemmation. 
 
 ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, a public 
 garden in which a collection of animals 
 is kept. The gardens of the Zoological 
 society. Regent’s park, London, (famil- 
 iarly termed “the Zoo”), founded in 
 1828, are probably the finest of the kind 
 in the world. They belong to the Zoo- 
 logical society of London, which was 
 founded in 1826, among its promoters 
 being Sir Humphrey Davy and Sir 
 Stamford Raffles. Of the other chief 
 zoological gardens, the Jardin des 
 Plantes in Paris is the oldest, having 
 been founded in 1794. In the United 
 States there are Zoo’s in all the large 
 cities located generally in one of the 
 arks. Those in Central park. New 
 'ork, and Lincoln park, Chicago, are 
 noteworthy. 
 
 ZOOLOGICAL STATIONS, stations or 
 centers which have of late years been 
 established in various parts of the world 
 for the study of zoology. The Stazione 
 Zoologica, at Naples, founded mainly 
 by Dohrn in 1872, is of an international 
 character. Other institutions of the 
 same kind on a smaller scale have been 
 established in various parts of France, 
 Russia, America, and Scotland. 
 
 ZOOLOGY, that science which treats 
 of the natural history of animals, or 
 their structure, physiology, classifica- 
 tion, habits, and distribution. The term 
 “natural history” has been 'frequently 
 used as synonymous with zoology; but 
 such a term is obviously of wider signi- 
 fication, and should be used to indicate 
 the whole group of the natural sciences. 
 Zoology is a branch of biological science, 
 constituting, in fact, with its neighbor 
 branch botany, the science of biology. 
 Its study comprehends such branches 
 as the morphology of animals, or the 
 science of form or structure, which again 
 includes comparative anatomj^ by 
 which we investigate external and in- 
 ternal appearances, the positions and 
 relations of organs and parts; the de- 
 velopment of animals, which treats of 
 the various stages leading from the em- 
 bryonic to the mature state; the phys- 
 iology of animals, which includes the 
 study of the functions of nutrition, re- 
 production, and of the nervous system ; 
 classification or taxonomy, which as- 
 signs to the various individuals their 
 proper place in the scale of life. A new 
 department has been gdded in recent 
 times, sometimes called etiology, which 
 investigates the origin and descent of 
 animals, or treats of the evolutionary 
 aspect of zoological science. Various 
 systems of classification have been 
 framed by zoologists. Linnaeus divided 
 the animal kingdom into six classes, 
 viz.: Mammalia, Birds, Fishes, Am- 
 phibia, Insects, and Worms (Vermes). 
 Cuvier proposed a more scientific ar- 
 rangement. He divided the animal 
 kingdom into four sub-kingdoms, viz.: 
 Vertebrata, Mollusca, Articulata, and 
 Radiata. Modern classifications have 
 been based chiefly on morphological 
 characters, with the addition of the 
 study of cellular empryology, and the 
 facts of heredity and adaptation. They 
 have been very largely influenced by 
 the theory of evolution, which has in- 
 duced many naturalists to arrange 
 animal forms as nearly as possible on 
 the lines of descent from which they are 
 believed to have originated. Among 
 those who have modified the classifica- 
 tion of Cuvier may be noted Lamarck, 
 Ehrenberg, Owen, Milne-Edwards, Von 
 Siebold, Leuckart, Agassiz, Huxley, 
 Haeckel, Muller, Dohrn, Ray Lankester, 
 and others. Professor Huxley recog- 
 nizes the following sub-kingdoms: Ver- 
 tebrata, Mollusca, Molluscoida, Annu- 
 losa, Annuloida, Coelenterata, Infusoria, 
 and Protozoa. Haeckel’s classification 
 gives the broad divisions — Vertebrata, 
 Arthropods, Echinoderraata, Mollusca, 
 Vermes, Zoophyta, and Protozoa. 
 
 ZOOSPORE (z6'os-p6r), a spore occur- 
 ring in cryptogamic plants, which, hav- 
 ing cilia or long filiform moving proc- 
 esses projecting from its surface, moves 
 spontaneously for a short time after 
 
 ZUG 
 
 being discharged from the spore-case 
 of the parent plant. 
 
 Zoospores. 
 
 ZOROAS’TER, one of the great re- 
 ligious teachers of the East, the founder 
 of what was for centuries the national 
 religion of Persia, and is still adhered to 
 by the Parsees. He has been represented 
 by eminent authorities as purely mythi- 
 cal, but it seems more reasonable to be- 
 lieve that he was a real and historical 
 personage. ■ If this view be accepted, 
 he was probably a native of the east of 
 Iran, but there is great uncertainty as 
 to the time in which he appeared as a 
 religious teacher. He is supposed by 
 some to have been a contemporary of 
 Moses, by others his date is assigned to 
 the 10th century before Christ. His 
 doctrines are to be found in the Parsee 
 scriptures called the Zend-Avesta (which 
 see), and the G3,thds, which is the oldest 
 part of that work, are declared to con- 
 tain his authentic utterances. The fun- 
 damental idea of his doctrine was the 
 existence, since the beginning, of a spirit 
 of good, Ahuro Mazdao (Ormuzd), and 
 a spirit of evil, Angro Mainyush (Ahri- 
 man). These two are in perpetual con- 
 flict, and the soul of man is the great 
 object of the war. Ormuzd created man 
 free, so that if he allows himself to fall 
 under the sway of Ahriman he is held 
 to be justly punishable. When he dies 
 his good and evil deeds will be weighed 
 against each other, and accordingly as 
 the balance is struck will be sent to 
 heaven or to hell. If they are exactly 
 equal, the soul passes into an interme- 
 diate state, and remains there until the 
 day of judgment. Ormuzd is to triumph 
 ultimately, and then there will be one 
 undivided kingdom of God in heaven 
 and on earth. The religion of Zoroaster, 
 when it became that of Iran, was ex- 
 pounded by a widely-spread priesthood, 
 and these provided for it a ritual and 
 ceremonial. Minutely elaborated laws 
 for the purification of soul and body 
 were laid down. They included a pro- 
 hibition of the burning or the burying 
 of the dead bodies of believers, which, 
 by the Parsees in Bombay and else- 
 where, are still left to be devoured by 
 vultures. See Fire-worshippers, Parsees. 
 
 ZOUAVES (zwiivz), originally mer- 
 cenaries belonging to a Kabyle tribe. 
 The Zouaves in the pay of the Dey of 
 Algiers were, when Algeria became a 
 French possession, incorporated with 
 the French army there, preserving their 
 Arab dress. Ultimately the native ele- 
 ment was eliminated, and the Zouaves 
 became merely French soldiers in the 
 picturesque Arab costume. As such 
 they distinguished themselves in the 
 Crimea and the Franco-Italian war of 
 1859. 
 
 ZUG (tsoh), a central and the smallest 
 undivided canton of Switzerland, 
 bounded by Zurich, Schwyz, Lucerne, 
 and Aargau. Area, 923 sq. miles; pop. 
 25,045. — Zug, the capital, stands on the 
 north shore of the lake, is 1 2 miles north- 
 east of Lucerne, with which and with 
 
ZYMOTIC diseases 
 
 ZUIDER-ZEE' 
 
 . Zurich it is connected by railway. Pop. 
 
 ■ 6160. — Lake of Zug, or Zuger'see, chiefly 
 in the canton of Zug, 9 miles long north 
 to south, and in breadth from S miles to 
 1 mile. The shores are low in aU direc- 
 tions except the south and southeast. 
 In the former direction the Rigi with 
 Mount Pilatus towering behind it, and 
 in the latter the Rossberg, rise in lofty 
 precipices, presenting scenery of a grand 
 description. At the foot of the Ross- 
 berg the lake is 1200 feet deep. The 
 fishing, principally pike and carp, is 
 productive. 
 
 ZUIDER- (or Zuyder) ZEE, a gulf of 
 the North sea, on the coast of Holland; 
 80 miles long, 40 miles greatest breadth. 
 It was formerly a lake, but was united 
 with the German ocean by inundations 
 in the 12th and 13th centuries. The 
 islands Texel, Vlieland, Terschelling, 
 Ameland, etc., separate it from the 
 North sea, with which it communicates 
 by various channels, the principal being 
 Hellsdeur (Hell-gate), between the Hol- 
 der and Texel. It is very shallow, and to 
 avoid the difficulties of its navigation to 
 Amsterdam the North Holland canal 
 was constructed. There is a proposal 
 to inclose certain areas of it by means of 
 dams or dikes, and by pumping and 
 drainage to add mueh reclaimed land 
 to the country. 
 
 ZU'LULAND, a South African terri- 
 tory northeast of Natal, and under its 
 government. Inland it is bounded 
 chiefly by Natal, the Tugela being the 
 southern boundary; on the north it has 
 Tongaland, on the east the Indian 
 ocean. The Zulus are a warlike Kaffir 
 tribe, and for a time were formidable 
 to the colonists of Natal, possessing an 
 organized army of considerable numbers. 
 In 1879, under their king Cetewayo, 
 they came into conflict with the British. 
 At first the war was unfortunate for the 
 Briti.sh, but in July, 1879, a general en- 
 gagement took place at Ulundi, where 
 the power of the Zulus was crushed. 
 Etshowe is the seat of the resident 
 British commissioner, who is under the 
 governor of Natal. The holding of land 
 
 by Europeans is not permitted, except 
 for missionary, trading, or mining pur- 
 poses. The minerals of the country in- 
 clude gold and coal. Area, about 10,000 
 sq. miles; estimated population, about 
 200,000. 
 
 ZURICH (tsii'rih), a town of Switzer- 
 land, capital of the canton of the same 
 name, is beautifully situated at the 
 northern end of the Lake of Zurich, on 
 both sides of the Limmat, and having on 
 the west the Sihl, which joins it im- 
 mediately below. It has a university 
 and a polytechnic school, both occupy- 
 ing handsome buildings, a Romanesque 
 cathedral of the llth-13th centuries, 
 town-hall, public library, etc. Its most 
 considerable industry is that of silk, 
 but its cotton-spinning and manufac- 
 ture of locomotives and machinery are 
 also important. Its inhabitants are 
 mainly , German speaking Protestants. 
 Pop. 152,942. It is one of the northern 
 cantons and extends from the lake of the 
 same name to the Rhine, to which its 
 waters are carried by the Thur, Toss, 
 Glatt, and Limmat. There are extensive 
 manufactures of silk and cotton goods. 
 Area, 655 sq. miles. Pop. 430,336. 
 
 ZURICH, Treaty of, signed there 10th 
 November, 1859, by the plenipotentia- 
 ries of France and Austria, embodied the 
 conditions of the preliminaries of peace 
 agreed to at Villafranea, on the part of 
 Napoleon III. and the Emperor of 
 Austria, Francis Joseph, and closed the 
 Franco-Italian war by Austria’s aban- 
 donment of her right to Lombardy. 
 
 ZUYDER-ZEE. See Zuider-Zee. 
 
 ZWICKAU (tsvik'ou), a town of 
 Saxony, 60 miles w.s.w. of Dresden. 
 Zwickau has manufactures of linen and 
 cotton goods, dyes, and chemical prod- 
 ucts, etc. Pop. 55,829. 
 
 ZWINGLI, or ZUINGLIUS, ULRICH, 
 the Swiss reformer, was born in the 
 canton of St. Gall. His first overt revolt 
 against the Roman Catholic system was 
 when b^e was a priest at Einsiedeln 
 (1516), which a supposed miracle-work- 
 ing image of the Virgin had made a 
 favorite resort of pilgrims. He denounced 
 
 the superstition of pilgrimages so effect- 
 ively that his sermons were talked of in 
 Rome, and it is said futile offers of pro- 
 motion were made to bribe him into 
 silence. In 1518 he was appointed 
 preacher in the cathedral of Zurich, 
 where he denounced and baffled a 
 vendor of indulgences. Then followed 
 other denunciations of Roman Catholic 
 practices and doctrines, until Zurich, 
 the authorities of which supported 
 Zwingli, and the people of which ad- 
 hered to him, became thoroughly Prot- 
 estant, and adopted a reformed theol- 
 ogy, worship, and discipline,, Zwingli 
 went further than Luther, whose doc- 
 trine of consubstantiation led to what 
 proved on the whole a resultless con- 
 ference on the subject between him and 
 Luther and Melanchthon at Marburg in 
 1528. In 1531 the Forest Cantons, 
 which adhered to the Roman Catholic 
 faith, made war upon Zurich, whose 
 troops Zwingli accompanied as chaplain. 
 While in the thick of an engagement at 
 Kappel, near Zurich, he was mortally 
 wounded, October 11, 1531. 
 
 ZWOLLE (zwol'l6), a town of Hol- 
 land, capital of the province of Over- 
 ijssel. Zwolle communicates with the 
 sea by means of the Willemsvaart canal. 
 Among its industries are ship-building, 
 cotton-manufacture, tanning, rope-mak- 
 ing, etc. Three miles from the town is 
 the monastery of the Agnetenberg, 
 where Thomas k Kempis spent most of 
 his life. Pop. 30,848. 
 
 ZYMOTIC DISEASES, a name applied 
 to epidemic and endemic, contagious 
 diseases, because they are supposed to 
 be produced by some morbific principle 
 acting on the system like a ferment. 
 This morbific principle or poison gets 
 into the blood in minute particles or 
 germs, which there increase and multiply 
 the disease lasting until the poison has 
 become worked out, or has been de- 
 stroyed. The chief of these diseases are 
 measles, scarlet-fever, small-pox, ty- 
 phus, typhoid, diphtheria, hooping- 
 cough, croup, and erysipelas. 
 
IS given special protection for the 
 
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